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Harmsworth's 

UNIVERSAL 

ENCYCLOPEDIA 


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Harmsworth's 
UNIVERSAL 

ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Written  by  the  Leading  Authorities 
in  Every  Branch  of  Knowledge  and 

edited  by 

J.  A.  Hammerton 

Special  Edition  in  Twelve  Volumes 
Containing  23,500  Illustrations 

VOLUME  5 

pages  2689—3360 


DRILL-FROUDE 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  BOOK  CO.  LTD 
17,  New  Bridge  St.  London,  E.G.  i 


HARMSWORTH'S 

UNIVERSAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


VOLUME  5 


Drill  OR  DRILLING  (Ger.  Drillich, 
Lat.  trilix,  triple-threaded).  Strong 
linen  or  cotton  fabric  used  to  make 
suits  for  wear  in  the  tropics.  Khaki 
cotton  drill  is  worn  by  troops  on 
service  in  hot  climates.  The  pat- 
tern is  a  twill,  often  of  a  round, 
screw-like  diagonal,  and  the  tightly 
twisted  warp  yarn  is  predominant 
upon  the  surface.  Cotton  drills  are 
employed  for  pocketing  and  fre- 
quently for  corset  making,  and 
other  purposes  for  which  strong 
stuff  is  required. 

Drin.  Kiver  of  the  Balkans. 
It  is  formed  by  the  union,  at 
Kula  Liamu,  of  the  White  Drin, 
rising  in  the  Albanian  Mts.,  and 
the  Black  Drin,  issuing  from  Lake 
Ochrida,  and  flows  into  the  Adriatic 
below  Alessio,  after  a  course  of 
110  m.  Anciently  it  was  known  as 
the  Drilo  or  Drilon.  During  the 
Great  War  the  gorges  of  the  two 
streams  and  of  the  main  river  were 
traversed  by  the  Serbians  in  their 
retreat  to  the  sea  in  1915. 

Drina.  River  of  S.E.  Europe, 
forming  part  of  the  boundary  be- 
tween Serbia  and  Bosnia.  It  rises 
among  the  mountains  of  E.  Monte- 
negro in  several  headstreams,  the 
chief  of  which  is  the  Tara,  and 
flows  N.,  N.W.,  and  then  N.E.  to 
effect  a  junction  with  the  Save,  58 
m.  W.  of  Belgrade.  The  principal 
of  its  many  affluents  is  the  Lim. 
Its  length  is  160  m. 

Drina,  BATTLE  OF  THE.  Fought 
in  Sept.,  1914,  between  the  Aus- 
trians  and  the  Serbians.  It  began 
Sept.  8  and  9,  1914,  with  the  Aus- 
trian crossing  of  the  river  in  their 
second  invasion  of  Serbia.  The 
attack  developed  more  strongly  in 
the  S.  of  the  region  bordering  the 
Drina  than  in  the  N.,  where  the 
Serbians  were  in  force  and  threw 
back  the  invaders. 

The  critical  fighting  took  place 
among  the  mountains  S.  of  the 
Jadar.  At  the  outset  the  Ser- 
bians, under  pressure  of  much 
superior  forces,  were  pushed  from 
some  of  their  positions  on  the 
Guchevo,  Boranja,  aad  Jagodnia 
ranges.  By  Sept.  11  the  Austrians 
held  Shabatz,  while  the  Sokolska 
Planina  as  far  as  Petska  was  in 
their  hands.  On  Sept.  14  the 
Serbians,  who  had  been  reinforced 
from  the  N.,  attacked  the  Guchevo 
heights  and  carried  Kulishte,  but, 
fearing  envelopment,  retired  from 
it.  Three  days  later  they  renewed 


the  engagement,  and  drove  the 
Austrians  from  it  to  the  Drina. 
Southward,  on  Sept.  16,  the  Ser- 
Jjians  stormed  the  summits  of  the 
'Sokolska,  and  drove  the  enemy 
in  disorder  to  the  river.  There- 
after the  struggle  centred  on  the 
commanding  position  of  Matchko 
Kamen  or  the  Cat's  Leg,  which 
was  taken  and  retaken  eight  times. 
Finally  both  sides,  being  exhausted, 
settled  down  to  trench  warfare,  and, 
the  battle  of  the  Drina  died  away, 
the  advantage  resting  with  the  Ser- 
bians. See  Serbia,  Conquest  of. 

Drink.  Drama  adapted  by 
Charles  Reade  from  Zola's  L'As- 
sommoir,  and  produced  June  2, 
1879,  at  The  Princess's,  where  it 
had  a  run  of  222  performances. 
Charles  Warner  (q.v.)  achieved  his 
greatest  success  in  the  part  of  the 
drunken  workman,  Coupeau. 

Drink  Traffic.  Name  given 
to  the  trade  of  making  and  selling 
intoxicating  liquors.  Owing  to  the 
evils  caused  by  excessive  drinking 
this  trade  is  subject  throughout  the 
civilized  worid  to  special  control  by 
the  state.  See  Liquor  Control ; 
Local  Option  ;  Prohibition  ;  Tem- 
perance Movement. 

Drinkwater,  JOHN  (b.  1882). 
British  poet  and  critic.  He  was 
born  June  1,  1882,  the  son  of  an 
actor,  and  edu- 
cated at  Ox- 
ford  High 
School.  He  was 
for  a  time  a 
clerk  in  an  in- 
surance office, 
and  published 
his  first  volume 
of  verse  i  n 
1908.  One  of 
the  founders  of 
the  Pilgrim 
Players,  he  became  manager  of  the 
Repertory  Theatre,  Birmingham. 
His  published  work  includes  an 
essay  on  the  Lyric,  1916  ;  studies 
of  William  Morris,  1912,  and  of 
Swinburne,  1913;  two  plays  in  verse, 
Cophetua,  1911,  and  Rebellion, 
1914,and  several  volumes  of  poetry. 
His  play,  Abraham  Lincoln,  pro- 
duced at  Birmingham  in  1918,  had 
a  long  run  at  The  Lyric,  Hammer- 
smith, in  1919.  Later  plays  were 
Oliver  Cromwell  and  Mary  Stuart. 
Dripstone.  In  architecture, 
the  projecting  tablet  or  moulding 
placed  on  the  crown  of  an  arch,  win- 
dow, or  doorway.  See  Moulding. 


John  Drinkwater, 
British  poet 

Hoppt 


Driscoll,  JIM  (1880-1925).  Pro- 
fessional boxer.  Born  at  Cardiff, 
Dec.  15,  1880,  he  has  more  than  60 
victories  to  his  credit.  He  secured 
the  feather-weight  championship  in 
1910,  and  became  the  winner  out- 
right of  the  Lonsdale  belt  for  that 
weight.  His  two  defeats  were  by 
Harry  Mansfield  in  1904  and  by 
Freddy  Welsh  (q.v.),  to  whom  he 
lost  on  a  foul  in  the  tenth  round, 
at  Cardiff,  Dec.  20,  1910.  Driscoll 
announced  his  retirement  from 
boxing  after  his  drawn  battle 
with  Owen  Moran,  Jan.  27,  1913. 
He  died  Jan.  30,  1925. 

Driver.  Longest  club  in  a 
golfer's  outfit,  with  a  wooden  head 
and  almost  straight  face,  used  for 
tee  shots.  The  beginner  should 
learn  to  drive  with  a  brassie,  and 
when  he  can  use  this  club  success- 
fully, should  procure  a  driver  with 
a  similar  lie  and  of  equal  length 
to  the  brassie.  Only  when  the  ball 
"  sits  up  "  well  is  it  possible  to  use 
the  driver  through  the  green. 
See  Golf. 

Driver,  SAMUEL  ROLLES  (1846- 
1914).  British  Biblical  scholar. 
Born  at  Southampton,  Oct.  2, 1846, 
he  was  edu- 
cated at  Win- 
chester and 
New  College, 
Oxford,  where 
he  took  high 
honours.  He 
was  a  fellow  of 
New  College, 
1870-73 ;  tutor 
1875-83;  a 
member  of  the 
O.T.  Revision  «"•«*"» 
company,  1876-84 ;  and  Regius 
professor  of  Hebrew  and  canon  of 
Christ  Church,  Oxford,  from  1883 
until  his  death,  Feb.  26,  1914. 

One  of  the  greatest  Hebraic 
scholars  of  his  time,  Driver  colla- 
borated with  F.  Brown  and  C.  A. 
Briggs  in  editing  A  Hebrew  and 
English  Lexicon  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, 1906  (based  on  E.Robinson's 
translation  of  the  work  of  F.  H.  W. 
Gesenius).  His  Introduction  to 
the  Literature  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, 1891,  aroused  much  con- 
troversy, but  with  his  other  writ- 
ings is  now  generally  held  to 
reconcile  what  is  known  as  the 
higher  criticism  of  the  O.T.  with 
a  sincere  belief  in  its  inspiration 
and  religious  authority.  His  other 
works  include  A  Treatise  on  the 

A    4 


DRIVING 


2690 


DROGHEDA   BAY 


Use  of  the  Tenses  in  Hebrew,  1874 ; 
a  revised  translation  of  Jeremiah, 
1906  ;  commentaries  on  various 
books  of  the  O.T.  ;  The  Parallel 
Psalter,  1898  ;  and  Modern  Re- 
search as  Illustrating  the  Bible, 
1909. 

Driving.  Controlling  and  guid- 
ing a  horse  or  horses  harnessed  to 
any  vehicle.  The  British  have 
always  excelled  as  whips,  as  is 
shown  by  the  records  of  the 
Brighton  road  in  the  times  of  the 
Regency  and  of  the  coaching 
period  of  the  18th  and  early  19th 
centuries.  But  in  modern  times 
mechanically  propelled  are  rapidly 
displacing  horse-drawn  vehicles, 
and  skilful  driving  has  become 
rather  a  pastime  than  a  necessity. 

In  driving  a  single  horse  the 
reins  should  be  taken  in  the  left 
hand,  the  left  or  near  side  rein 
being  held  between  the  forefinger 
and  thumb,  and  the  off-side  or 
right-hand  one  between  the  second 
and  third  fingers.  The  arm  should 
be  held  at  almost  a  right  angle 
across  the  body,  with  the  hand 
about  6  ins.  in  front  of  the  bottom 


Driving.    How  reins  should  be  held 

when    driving    a   four  -  in  -  band  ; 

above,  hand  grip  for  single  reins 

buttons  of  the  waistcoat ;  this 
will  enable  the  right  hand  to  be 
easily  used  when  it  becomes  neces- 
sary to  employ  both  hands.  In 
driving  a  pair  the  reins  are  held  in 
the  same  manner,  but  since  there 
are  two  horses  to  control  instead 
of  one  the  task  is  more  difficult 
as  they  may  not  pull  equally. 
It  is  impossible  to  give  in  words 
an  adequate  description  of  the 
manipulation  of  the  reins  in 
driving  tandem  or  four-in-hand; 
instruction  and  practical  illustra- 
tion should  be  sought  from  an 
expert.  Tandem,  the  driving  of 
two  horses,  one  in  front  of  the 
other,  attached  to  a  dogcart,  was 
once  greatly  favoured,  but  is  now 
seldom  seen  except  at  horse  shows. 
The  term  "  hands,"  of  which  the 
novice  will  hear  much  discussion, 
implies  the  exact  weight  or  pres- 


sure put  upon  a  horse's  mouth  in 
guiding  him  and  the  give  and  take 
of  the  driver's  hand  or  hands  to 
the  pull  of  the  horse.  This  is  more 
often  a  gift  than  an  acquirement. 

In  Great  Britain  there  are  havd 
and  fast  rules  of  the  road  to  be  ob- 
served when  driving.  The  ieft- 
hand  side  of  the  road  is  always  ad- 
hered to  and  retained  when  passing 
another  vehicle  coming  in  the  op- 
posite direction.  When  overtaking 
anything  going  in  the  same  direc- 
tion, it  is  necessary  to  draw  to- 
wards the  middle  of  thu  road  and 
pass  on  the  right  side.  See  Horse ; 
Riding. 

Bibliography.  Hints  on  Driving, 
C.  S.  Ward,  1870  :  Driving,  8th  Duke 
of  Beaufort,  4th  ed.  1894  (in  Bad- 
minton Lib.) ;  Driving,  F.  M.  Ware, 
1904  ;  The  Law  of  the  Road,  J.  W. 
Thatcher  and  D.  H.  J.  Hartley,  1909. 

Driving  Band.  Metal  strips 
placed  round  shells.  Made  of  soft 
metal,  usually  copper  or  cupro- 
nickel,  they  are  secured  round  the 
bodies  of  shells  to  fill  up  the 
grooves  of  the  rifling  in  the  barrel, 
thus  giving  the  shell  a  rotary 
motion  and  preventing  the  gases 
from  the  propellant  charge  escap- 
ing past  the  projectile.  In  the 
early  types  of  shell,  of  cylindrical 
shape,  for  use  in  breech-loading 
rifled  guns,  it  was  usual  to  provide 
a  complete  lead  jacket  to  serve  this 
purpose,  this  being  superseded  by 
a  wide  lead  band  at  the  centre  of 
the  shell.  At  the  present  time 
copper  is  the  metal  most  used, 
and  generally  one  narrow  band 
near  the  base  of  the  shell  is  suffi- 
cient, except  for  very  powerful  guns. 
The  bands  are  fitted  in  grooves 
turned  in  the  body  of  the  shell,  the 
base  of  the  groove  being  either 
roughened  or  provided  with  wavy 
prominences  and  the  band  secured 
being  shrunk  on. 

In  general  the  driving  band  is 
fitted  as  close  to  the  base  of  the 
shell  as  is  consistent  with  the 
ability  of  the  steel  to  resist  the 
base  of  the  shell  being  pulled  off. 
See  Shell  ;  Windage. 


Drocourt.  Village  of  France,  in 
the  dept.  of  Pas-de-Calais.  It  is 
6  m.  S.E.  of  Lens,  and  was  the 
N.  end  of  the  German  Wotan, 
or  switch,  line  which  ran  S.  to 
Queant,  forming  part  of  the  Hin- 
denburg  Line.  The  Drocourt- 
Queant  line  was  stormed  by  the 
Canadians  on  Sept.  2,  1918,  in  the 
fifth  battle  of  Arras  (q.v.).  The 
village  was  captured  Sept.  27.  A 
memorial  is  to  be  erected  by  the 
Canadian  Government  at  Dury, 
midway  between  Drocourt  and 
Queant,  to  commemorate  this  feat. 
Dury  was  captured  from  the  Ger- 
mans on  Sept.  2. 

Droeshout,  MARTIN  ( fl.  1620- 
51).  English  engraver.  Probably 
of  Dutch  extraction,  he  came  to 
reside  in  England  some  time  pre- 
vious to  1623,  in  which  year  was 
published  his  frontispiece  portrait 
of  Shakespeare  in  the  first  folio 
edition  of  the  Comedies,  Histories, 
and  Tragedies.  Among  other  por- 
traits engraved  by  him  were  those 
of  John  Foxe,  the  martyrologist, 
and  John  Donne,  dean  of  S.  Paul's. 

Drogheda.  Mun.  bor.,  seaport, 
and  market  town  of  co.  Louth,  Ire- 
land. It  stands  on  the  Boyne,  4  m. 


Drogheda  Bay,  on  the  E.  coast  of 
Ireland 


Drogheda.   S.  Lawrence  Gate,  on  the 

N.  side  of  the  town  ;  it  is  believed  to 

date  from  the  12th  century 

from  Drogheda  Bay,  and  32  m.  N. 
of  Dublin  by  the  G.N.I. R.  It  has 
a  good  harbour  and  a  brisk  trade  in 
cattle,  sheep,  and  agricultural  pro- 
duce ;  linens,  cottons,  beer,  soap, 
etc.,  are  manufactured.  Market 
day,  Sat.  Pop.  12,501.  In  1649 
Cromwell  entered  the  town  and 
massacred  its  defenders,  and  it  was 
surrendered  by  James  II  in  1690. 
Pron.  Droh -he-da. 

Drogheda  Bay.  Bay  on  the 
E.  coast  of  Ireland  adjacent  to 
the  counties  of  Louth,  Meath,  and 
Dublin.  From  Clogher  Head  in  the 
N.  to  the  Skerries  in  the  S.  the  dis- 
tance is  25  m.  The  estuary  of  the 
river  Boyne  forms  a  deep  indenta- 
tion useful  for  coastwise  shipping. 


DROGHEDA 


2691 


DROPPED  WRIST 


Drogheda,  EABL  OF.  Irish  title 
borne  since  1661  by  the  family  of 
Moore.  The  family  traces  its  de- 
scent to  two  brothers,  Edward  and 
Thomas,  who  settled  in  Ireland  in 
the  time  of  Elizabeth.  Edward  ob- 
tained some  former  monastic  lands 
in  co.  Louth,  and  his  descendant, 
Garrett,  was  made  a  baron  and  a 
viscount  by  James  I.  President  of 
Munster  and  an  Irish  M.P.,  he  had 
previously  served  Elizabeth  against 
the  rebels.  His  son  Henry,  2nd  Vis- 
count Moore,  married  a  daughter  of 
Viscount  Loftus,  whose  son  Henry 
inherited  from  the  Moores  estates 
in  Kildare. 

In  1661  Henry  Moore  was  created 
earl  of  Drogheda,  perhaps  as  a 
reward  for  his  father's  loyalty  to 
Charles  I,  and  from  him  the  present 
earl  is  descended.  Charles,  the  6th 
earl  (1730-1821),  entered  the  army 
and  rose  to  be  a  field-marshal  and 
master-general  of  the  ordnance.  In 
1791  he  was  made  marquess  of 
Drogheda,  and  in  1801  a  baron  of 
the  United  Kingdom.  When  his 
grandson,  the  3rd  marquess,  died 
in  1892,  the  marquessate  became 
extinct,  but  the  earldom  passed 
to  a  cousin,  a  descendant  of  the 
5th  earl.  In  1908  Henry  Charles 
Ponsonby  Moore  (b.  1884)  became 
the  10th  earl.  His  seat  is  Moore 
Abbey,  co.  Kildare,  wherein  his 
estates  mainly  lie  ;  his  eldest  son 
is  known  as  Viscount  Moore. 
Pron.  Dro-heda. 

Drohobycz.  Town  in  the  Gali- 
cian  portion  of  Poland,  17m.  W.  of 
Stryj.  It  has  a  fine  Gothic  church 
and  is  a  rly.  junction  for  lines  to 
the  neighbouring  oil  wells  at  Bory- 
slaw.  Pop.20,000;  36p.c.are  Poles, 
33  p.c.  Germans,  and  the  rest 
Ruthenes.  Nearly  half  the  inhabit- 
ants are  Jews. 

Droitwich.  Mun.  bor.  and  mar- 
ket town  of  Worcestershire,  Eng- 
land. It  stands  on  the  Solwarpe, 
5|  m.  N.E.  of  Worcester  and  126  m. 
N.W.  of  London,  and  is  served 
by  the  G.W.  and  Mid.  Rlys.,  while 
a  canal  connects  it  with  the  Severn. 
It  is  a  market  for  agricultural 
produce,  but  the  chief  industry  is 
the  production  of  rock  salt.  It  is 
chiefly  known,  however,  as  a  water- 
ing-place. Its  brine  springs  have 
radio  -  active  properties  and  are 
efficacious  for  rheumatism,  neuritis, 
gout,  etc.  There  are  fine  baths, 
hotels,  etc.,  for  visitors,  and  a 
ptiblic  park.  Droitwich  has  two 
old  churches,  S.  Andrew's  and 
S.  Peter's.  In  the  older  part  of  the 
town  the  ground  has  subsided  a 
good  deal  owing  to  the  pumping 
out  of  the  brine.  It  became  a 
corporate  town  in  1554,  and  is 
now  governed  by  a  mayor  and 
corporation.  Market  day,  Fri. 
Pop.  4,146. 


Droitwich,    Worcestershire.      Interior 
swimming  bath 

Drome.  Department  of  France. 
It  lies  in  the  S.E.  of  the  country 
and  has  an  area  of  2,532  sq.  m.  It 
is  a  mountainous  region,  especially 
in  the  Alpine  E.  The  Rhone  forms 
its  western  boundary,  while  the 
Isere,  the  Drome,  and  other  tribu- 
taries also  drain  it.  Agriculture  is 
the  chief  industry.  Wheat  is  grown 
in  the  valleys,  especially  in  the  fer- 
tile district  of  Valloire.  Vines  are 
widely  cultivated,  and  olives,  figs, 
and  mulberries  are  important  crops. 
Silkworms  are  largely  produced. 
Many  cattle  are  reared  on  the  ex- 
tensive uplands.  Valence  is  the 
capital  and  other  towns  are  Die, 
Nyons,  Crest,  Romans,  and  Monte- 
limar.  It  is  divided  into  four  arron- 
dissements,  and  before  1790  was 
part  of  the  provinces  of  Dauphine 
and  Provence.  Pop.  290,894. 

Dromedary.  In  zoology,  the 
one-humped  camel  (Camelus  dro- 
medarius)  of  Arabia  and  N.  Africa. 
In  common  speech  the  term  is  used 
for  riding  camels  as  distinguished 
from  the  heavier  baggage  animals. 
The  late  Latin  name  dromedarius 
(classical  form  dramas)  comes  from 
Gr.  dramas,  running.  See  Camel. 

Dromio.  Name  of  two  comic 
characters,  twin  brothers,  in  Shake- 
speare' s  The  Comedy  of  Errors  ( q.  v. ). 

Dromore.  Urban  dist.  and  mkt. 
town  of  co.  Down,  Ireland.  It 
stands  on  the  Lagan,  17£  m.  S.W. 
of  Belfast,  by  the  G.N.I.R.  An 
ancient  town,  Dromore  was  for- 
merly the  seat  of  a  bishopric,  which 
was  united  to  Down  and  Connor  in 
1842.  Both  town  and  cathedral 
were  destroyed  during  the  insurrec- 
tion of  1641  ;  the  present  church  con- 
tains the  tomb  of  Bishop  Jeremy 
Taylor,  its  builder.  There  are  castle 
ruins  and  a  large  Danish  encamp- 
ment. Linen  is  manufactured  in 
the  town.  Market  day,  Monday. 
Pop.  2,364. 

Drone.  Name  given  to  the  male 
of  the  honey  bee.  It  is  intermediate 
in  size  between  the  queen  bee  and  the 
workers,  and  is  stingless.  It  does 
not  work,  and  its  only  function  is 
to  fertilise  the  queen.  At  the  be- 


large  brine 


ginning  of  autumn, 
all  the  drones  in 
the  hive  are  killed 
or  driven  out  to 
starve  by  the 
workers.  See  Bee. 

Drone.  In  music 
the  pipe  or  pipes, 
in  instruments   of 
the  bagpipe  class, 
on  which  the  sus- 
tained andunalter- 
ing  bass  tones  are 
produced.    The 
melody    pipe    is 
called  the  Chanter. 
See     Bagpipe; 
Chanter. 
Drontheim.  Alternative  spelling 
of  the  name  of  the  Norwegian  city 
of  Trondhjem  (q.v.). 

Drood,  EDWIN.  Character  from 
whom  Charles  Dickens's  last  and 
unfinished  novel,  The  Mystery  of 
Edwin  Drood,  1870,  takes  its  name. 
He  is  betrothed  in  infancy  to  Rosa 
Bud,  quarrels  with  Neville  Land- 
less, and  after  a  reconciliation 
mysteriously  disappears. 

In  1907  an  attempt  was  made 
to  prove  that  Dickens  founded  the 
story  on  personal  recollections  of 
T.  C.  Druce,  owner  of  the  Baker 
Street  Bazaar.  Several  attempts 
have  been  made  to  trace  the  pro- 
bable course  of  the  novel,  notably 
by  J.  C.  Waters,  1905,  and  W. 
Robertson  Nicoll,  1912.  Of  drama- 
tised versions  one  by  J.  Comyns 
Carr  was  produced  at  Cardiff,  Nov. 
21,  1907,  and  at  His  Majesty's 
Theatre,  London,  Jan.  4,  1908.Q, 
Dropmore.  Hamlet  of  Buck- 
inghamshire, England,  It  is  4  m. 
N.E.  of  Maidenhead,  and  2^ m.  from 
the  station  at  Bourne  End  on  the 
G.  W.R.  It  is  famous  for  the  mansion 
and  grounds  here.  The  gardens, 
among  the  most  extensive  and 
remarkable  in  England,  include  an 
Italian  garden  and  a  Pinetum.  They 
were  laid  out  by  the  prime  minister, 
Lord  Grenville,  1801-5.  In  1920  the 
estate  belonged  to  J.  B.  Fortescue. 
Pop.  350.  The  Dropmore  Papers, 
published  by  the  Hist.  MSS.  Comrn., 
contain  political  correspondence  of 
the  time  of  Grenville. 

Dropped  Wrist.  Condition  in 
which  the  extensors  of  the  hand, 
i.e.  the  muscles  which  bend  the 
hand  backwards,  are  paralysed, 
and  when  the  arm  is  raised  the 
hand  hangs  loosely  and  helplessly 
downwards.  It  may  be  due  to  in- 
jury or  disease  of  the  nerves  supply- 
ing these  muscles,  and  is  not  in- 
frequently a  symptom  of  chronic 
lead  poisoning.  The  course  of 
treatment  depends  upon  the  cause, 
the  outlook  for  recovery  or  im- 
provement being  better  when  it  is 
due  to  injury  than  when  resulting 
from  disease. 


DROPSY 


2692 


DROUGHT 


Dropsy  (Gr.  hydrops,  from 
by  dor,  water).  Accumulation  of 
fluid — the  watery  part  of  the  blood 
— in  the  tissues  and  cavities  of  the 
body.  Dropsy  arises  in  conditions 
which  impede  the  normal  circula- 
tion of  the  blood  and  increase  the 
pressure  in  the  vessels,  causing  fluid 
to  transude  through  their  walls. 
The  commonest  conditions  giving 
rise  to  general  dropsy  are  disease  of 
the  heart,  kidneysfand  liver.  Loca- 
lised dropsy,  or  oedema,  may  result 
from  local  weakness  of  the  vessels, 
as  in  varicose  veins,  a,nd  from  in- 
flammation. 

Dropsy  is  generally  first  notice- 
able in  puffiness  of  the  eyelids,  and 
in  swelling  of  the  ankles.  If  the 
swollen  tissues  be  pressed  with  the 
tip  of  the  finger,  a  small  depression 
is  produced  which  persists  for  a 
brief  interval.  In  more  advanced 
cases  fluid  collects  in  the  abdo- 
minal cavity,  producing  the  con- 
dition known  as  ascites  (q.v.),  which 
sometimes  leads  to  great  distension 
of  the  abdomen.  Accumulation  of 
fluid  in  the  lungs  causes  a  "  water- 
logging" of  the  organs  which  may 
bring  about  difficulty  in  breathing, 
and  cough. 

Treatment  must  be  directed 
towards  the  cause  of  the  condition, 
but  frequently  great  relief  is 
afforded  by  measures  which  drain 
the  body  "of  fluids,  such  as  the 
administration  of  diuretics  to 
stimulate  the  flow  of  urine,  and 
purgatives,  which  cause  copious 
watery  evacuations.  In  severe 
cases  of  accumulation  of  fluid  in 
the  abdomen  or  pleural  cavities, 
tapping  may  be  adopted. 

Drop  wort  (Spiraea  filipendula). 
Perennial  herb  of  the  natural 
order  Rosaceae.  A  native  of  Eu- 
rope, N.  Africa,  and  N.  Asia,  it  is  a 
flant  of  downs  and  dry  pastures, 
b  has  an  erect,  grooved  stem,  2  ft. 
or  3  ft.  high.  The  leaves  are  chiefly 
from  the  rootstock,  broken  into 
many  pairs  of  deeply-toothed 
leaflets.  The  small,  but  numerous, 
white  flowers  are  rosy  on  the  out- 
side, and  borne  in  panicles. 

Droseraceae  (Gr.  droseros, 
dewy).  Natural  order  of  perennial 
herbs,  of  wide  distribution  in 
marshy  places.  It  consists  of  six 
genera  and  over  100  species.  The 
flowers  consist  of  four  to  eight 
sepals,  a  similar  number  of  petals, 
4-20  stamens  and  1-5  styles.  They 
are  all  insectivorous,  catching  their 
prey  by  various  means  and  digest- 
ing the  bodies,  upon  which  they 
mainly  subsist.  All  have  poor 
roots — in  one  species  none  at  all. 
See  Sundew  ;  also  illus.  p.  1219. 

Droshky .  Russian  w  ord  mean- 
ing a  little  wagon.  A  droshky  is 
a  light  carriage  on  four  wheels 
and  without  a  covering.  The  first 


droshkies  were 
formed  of  a  board 
placed  across  two 
pairs  of  wheels, 
enabling  the  pas- 
sengers to  sit  side- 
ways, as  in  an  Iri<h 
jaunting  car. 

Dressing  Oven. 
Furnace  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  rtd 
lead.  In  that  pro- 
cess pig  lead  is 
melted  in  a  low- 
arched  furnace, 
that  has  a  bed  formed  of  firebricks 
supported  on  a  cast-iron  base  and 
provided  with  openings  for  intro- 
ducing the  fuel  and  the  metal.  The 
molten  metal  is  rabbled  about  in 
this  furnace  and  thus  exposed  to 
air  until  it  is  converted  into  oxide 
or  litharge.  The  temperature  is  not 
allowed  to  rise  sufficiently  high  to 
melt  the  litharge.  What  in  effect 
is  done  is,  to  use  the  works'  term, 
to  convert  the  lead  into  a  dross. 
See  Lead. 

D r  o s t e-H ill  sh o  ff ,  ANNETTE 
ELISABETH,  BARONESS  VON  (1797- 
1848).  German  poet.  Born  at 
Hiilshoff,  near  Munster,  Jan.  10, 
1797,  she  came  under  the  influence 
of  her  cousin,  afterwards  arch- 
bishop of  Cologne.  Her  principal 
works  are  Poems,  1838:  and  the 


Dropwort.      Perennial    herb,    which 
grows  on  downs  and  dry  pasture  land 

Spiritual  Year,  1851.  She  died  at 
Meersburg,  on  Lake  Constance, 
May  24,  1848. 

Drouais,  FRANCOIS  HUBERT 
(1727-75).  French  portrait  painter. 
Born  at  Paris,  Dec.  14,  172J,  he 
studied  under  his  father,  Hubert 
Drouais,  a  miniature  painter,  Van 
Loo,  Boucher,  and  Natoire.  He  be- 
came an  academician  in  1758  ;  and 
a  little  later  painter  to  the  court. 
Notable  portraits  by  him  are  those 
of  the  Pompadour  (at  Orleans) 
and  the  Comte  d'Artois  (in  the 
Louvre).  He  died  in  Paris, 
Oct.  21,  1775. 

His  son,  Jean  Germain  (1763- 
88),  also  a  painter,  born  at  Paris, 
Nov.  25,  1763,  studied  with  bis 


Droshky.    Light  vehicle  which  plies  for  hire  on  the 
streets  in  Russia 


father  and  with  J.  L.  David  (q.v. ). 
In  1784  he  won  the  prix  de  Rome 
with  his  Woman  of  Canaan  at  the 
Feet  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  in  1785 
accompanied  David  to  Italy.  He 
died  at  Rome,  Feb.  13,  1788. 

Drouet,  JEAN  BAPTISTE,  COMTE 
D'ERLON  (1765-1844).  French  sol- 
dier. Born  at  Reims,  July  29, 
1765,  he  en 
tered  the  army 
as  a  private  in 
1782,  and  had 
risen  to  the 
rank  of  briga- 
dier -  general 
by  1799.  He 
plaved  a  pro- 
mineotpartat 
J ena  and  in 
the  closing  stages  of  the  Peninsular 
War.  Imprisoned  hi  the  citadel  of 
Lille  for  alleged  complicity  in  an 
an  ti- Bourbon  conspiracy,  when 
Napoleon  returned  from  Elba  in 
1815  he  escaped  and  seized  and  held 
the  citadel  for  his  old  master. 
After  the  Waterloo  campaign,  in 
which  he  took  part,  Drouet  went 
into  exile,  but  returned  to  Paris 
in  1825.  In  1834  35  he  was 
governor  of  Algeria,  and  in  1843 
was  made  a  marshal.  •  He  died  at 
Paris,  Jan.  25,  1844. 

Drought.  Spell  of  dry  weather 
sufficiently  long  to  cause  serious 
deficiency  in  the  supply  of  water. 
Countries  which  normally  receive 
the  greater  part  of  their  rainfall  at 
one  season  often  suffer  from 
droughts  during  the  dry  season. 
Thus  the  countries  bordering  the 
Mediterranean  Sea,  and  those  in 
similar  latitudes  on  the  W.  of  con- 
tinents, whether  N.  or  S.  of  the 
equator,  e.g.  California  in  N.  Amer- 
ica and  Central  Chile  in  S.  America, 
have  most  rain  in  winter,  while  the 
summers  are  droughty.  Conversely, 
countries  having  a  monsoon  tvpe 
of  climate,  e.g.  India,  have  wet 
summers  and  droughty  winters. 

Vast  areas  where  prolonged 
droughts  are  experienced  at  all 
seasons,  i.e.  arid  desert  lands,  are 
chiefly  found  on  the  W.  of  conti- 
nents in  the  latitudes  of  the  Trade 
Winds.  The  type  of  pressure  distri- 
bution largely  determines  rainfall 


DROUYN   DE   LHUYS 


2693 


DROYSEN 


Dtouyn  de  Lhuys, 
French  statesman 


or  drought.  Low  pressure  cyclones 
generally  mean  rain,  but  the  high 
pressure  of  anti-cyclones  usually 
gives  dry  weather,  so  that  pro- 
longed periods  of  anti-cyclonic 
weather  cause  drought.  See  Cli- 
mate ;  Flood ;  Weather. 

Drouyn  de  Lhuys,  EDOUARD 
(1305-81).  French  .statesman. 
Born  in  Paris,  Nov.  19,  1805,  he 
entered  the 
diplomatic  ser- 
vice and  was 
employed  i  n 
the  embassies 
at  Madrid  and 
The  Hague.  In 
1840  he  be- 
came chief  of 
the  commer- 
c  i  a  1  depart- 
ment in  the 
ministry  of 
foreign  affairs,  but,  going  into 
opposition,  he  lost  his  place.  By 
Louis  Napoleon  he  was  appointed 
minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  1848, 
and  from  1849-51  he  was  ambassa- 
dor in  London,  returning  to  Paris 
in  1851  to  be  foreign  minister.  He 
resigned  office  in  1855,  but  held  the 
portfolio  again  from  1863-66.  On 
the  downfall  of  Napoleon  III  in 
1871  he  took  refuge  in  Jersey.  He 
died  in  Paris,  March  1,  1881. 

Drover.  Variant  form  of  driver, 
restricted  to  drivers  of  sheep  or 
cattle.  Before  the  invention  of 
railways  a  large  class  of  men  en- 
gaged in  this  occupation,  making 
long  journeys  on  foot  with  the 
cattle  in  their  charge.  See  Cattle. 
Drowning.  Death  from  as- 
phyxia owing  to  submersion  of  the 
mouth  and  nostrils  beneath  water 
or  other  fluid.  Sometimes,  how- 
ever, shock  or  syncope,  caused  by 
the  sudden  immersion  hi  cold 
water  and  the  state  of  terror  expe- 
rienced by  the  individual,  com- 
bines with  asphyxia  in  causing 
death.  The  number  and  causes 
of  death  from  drowning  in  Eng- 
land and  Wales  in  1918  are  shown 
as  follows  : 


Accident 
and 
Negligence 

Suicide 

Murder 

Males      .  . 
Females  .  . 

Total  .  . 

1,704 
402 

339 
349 

7 
13 

2,106 

688 

20 

POST-MORTEM  APPEARANCES.  The 
face  is  usually  ashy  pale,  but  in 
some  cases  is  slightly  livid,  with 
rosy  patches  about  the  cheeks.  A 
characteristic  sign  is  the  presence 
of  fine  froth,  sometimes  tinged  with 
blood,  about  the  mouth  and  nos- 
trils. Rigor  mortis  comes  on  early. 
The  condition  known  as  cadaveric 
spasm,  a  form  of  rigidity  occurring 
at  the  moment  of  death,  is  some- 
times observed,  and  articles  grasped 


during  the  death  -  struggle,  such 
as  reeds  or  plants,  may  be  found 
firmly  clenched  in  the  hands.  This 
is  a  valuable  indication  in  distin- 
guishing cases  of  drowning  from 
cases  in  which  the  body  was  thrown 
into  water  after  death.'  Internally 
the  air-passages  are  found  to  con- 
tain a  clear  or  blood-stained  froth, 
and  perhaps  mud  or  portions  of 
water-plants.  The  lungs  are  volu- 
minous and  distended,  and  when 
cut  into  exude  a  frothy,  blood- 
'  stained  fluid.  Minute  haemorr- 
hages may  be  observed  beneath  the 
pleura,  and  the  right  side  of  the 
heart  may  be  engorged  with  venous 
blood,  the  left  being  comparatively 
empty.  The  presence  of  water  in 
the  stomach,  particularly  if  it  con- 
tains pond- weed,  etc.,  is  virtually 
a  conclusive  sign  of  death  from 
drowning,  since  experiments  have 
shown  that  water  very  rarely 
enters  the  stomach  of  a  body  im- 
mersed after  death. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  RESCUERS.  Great 
care  and  presence  of  mind  are  re- 
quired when  endeavouring  to  rescue 
a  person  who  cannot  swim,  since 
the  rescuer  may  be  clutched  and 
his  movements  impeded,  while  he 
runs  the  risk  of  being  drowned 
himself.  When  the  drowning  person 
is  struggling,  the  rescuer  should 
leave  him  for  a  few  seconds  until 
he  becomes  quiet ;  then  seize  him 
by  the  hair,  turn  him  on  his  back, 
and  swim  on  the  back  towards  the 
shore,  or  support  him  face  up- 
wards in  this  way  until  a  boat 
arrives.  Should  the  rescuer  be 
clutched  the  best  plan  is  for  him 
to  take  a  full  breath  and  allow  him- 
self to  be  drawn  under,  when  the 
drowning  person  will  almost  always 
release  his  grip.  If  he  does  not 
let  go,  the  rescuer  must  try  to 
break  away  by  forcing  his  knees 
against  the  chest  of  the  drowning 
person. 

TREATMENT  AFTERRESCUE.  When 
a  person  is  recovered  from  water 
hi  an  apparently  lifeless  condition, 
artificial  respiration  should  be  re- 
sorted to  as  soon  as  the  sufferer 
is  in  the  boat  or  has  been  brought 
to  the  shore.  The  most  con- 
venient method  of  performing  arti- 
ficial respiration  is  that  recom- 
mended by  Schafer  (see  Figs.  3,  4, 
p.  656).  The  finger  is  introduced 
into  the  mouth  in  order  to  clear 
out  any  mud  or  froth,  and  the 
patient  is  then  placed  face  down- 
wards, the  head  being  turned  to- 
ward the  side.  The  attendant 
kneels  either  by  the  side  of  or 
astride  the  patient,  and,  spreading 
his  hands  over  the  lower  part  of  the 
back  and  sides  of  the  chest,  gradu- 
ally throws  his  weight  forward  so 
as  to  exert  a  firm,  steady  pressure 
upon  the  thorax.  He  then  swings 


backwards,  so  as  to  relax  the  pres- 
sure and  allow  the  lungs  to  expand. 
This  backward  and  forward  move- 
ment should  take  about  five 
seconds,  and  should  be  repeated 
at  the  rate  of  about  twelve  times 
a  minute. 

While  artificial  respiration  is 
being  performed  further  restora- 
tive measures  should  be  applied. 
The  wet  clothing  should  be  drawn 
off,  the  body  wiped  dry  and 
covered  with  hot  blankets,  and  hot 
bottles  may  be  placed  to  the  feet, 
care  being  taken  that  these  are  not 
so  hot  as  to  burn  the  skin.  Fric- 
tion of  the  limbs  from  below  up- 
wards is  useful.  Ammonia  may  be 
cautiously  held  to  the  nostrils,  and 
a  hypodermic  injection  of  strych- 
nine may  be  given.  When  breath- 
ing is  established  a  hot  bath  is 
a  useful  means  of  restoring  the 
bodily  heat.  See  First  Aid;  con- 
sult also  Forensic  Medicine  and 
Toxicology,  J.  D.  Mann,  5th  ed. 
revised,  1914.  w.  A.  Brend,  M.D. 

Droylsden.  Urb.  dist.  and 
small  town  of  Lancashire,  Eng- 
land. It  stands  on  the  Rochdale 
Canal,  5  m.  E.  of  Manchester  by 
the  L.  &  N.W.R.  There  are  cotton 
and  print  factories,  and  dye  and 
chemical  works.  Pop.  13,259. 

Droysen ,  JOHANN  GTJSTA  v  ( 1 808- 
84).     German  historian.     Born  at 
Treptow,  Pomerania,  July  6,  1808, 
^^^^^^^^^^^_   and    educated 
I   at  Stettin  and   ! 
I   Berlin,    from  ! 
i    1840-51  Droy-  I 
I   sen    was    pro- 
fessor    of    his- 
tory    at    Kiel, 

from  1851~59 

at    Jena,    and 
from    1859-84 
J.  G.  Droysen,         at      Berlin. 
German  historian       Droysen's  r6h 

as  an  historian  was  to  glorify  Prussia 
and  her  rulers,  which  he  did  espe- 
cially in  his  monumental  History  of 
Prussian  Policy,  14  vols.,  1855-86. 
The  central  idea  of  this  work  is  that 
Germany's   destiny   was   to    place 
herself  under  the  rule  of  the  Hohen- 
zollerns.     It  takes  the  story  down   | 
to  1756,  and  bears   marks  of    in-   | 
finite  labour. 

Droysen  wrote,  as  an  historian, 
in  favour  of  Prussia's  claim  to  the 
duchies  of  Slesvig  and  Holstein, 
and  as  a  politician  he  took  part  in 
the  Frankfort  parliament  of  1848. 
He  wrote  in  early  life  a  valuable 
History  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
1833:  a  History  of  Hellenism 
1836-43  ;  and  a  life  of  the  Prus- 
sian soldier  Yorck  von  Wartenburg, 
1851-52.  He  died  in  Berlin,  June 
19,  1884.  His  son  Gustav  was  the 
editor  of  the  well-known  Historical 
Atlas,  1885,  and  wrote  several  his- 
torical works. 


2694 


Dru,  AIGUILLE  DU.  Rocky 
needle  or  peak  in  the  Mont  Blanc 
chain,  near  the  Aiguille  Verte.  The 
Grand  Dru  or  Pointe  Este  (alt. 
12,320  ft.)  was  first  ascended  by 
Dent  and  Hartley  in  1878 ;  the 
Petit  Dru  or  Pointe  Charlet  (alt. 
12,244  ft.)  by  Charlet-Straton  in 
1879.  See  Alps. 

Drug.  Medicinal  substance 
obtained  from  the  vegetable  and 
mineral  kingdoms.  The  term  also 
includes  the  substances  as  pre- 
pared for  use  in  the  treatment  of 
disease,  but  these  are  better  dis- 
tinguished as  pharmaceutical  pre- 
parations. Sometimes  the  word  is 
employed  to  indicate  narcotic  sub- 
stances, such  as  opium  and  cocaine. 

London  is  the  world's  chief  port 
for  drugs,  hundreds  of  which  arrive 
in  the  crude  state  from  all  parts 
of  the  world.  They  are  stored  in 
special  warehouses  at  the  docks, 
and  the  importers  hold  drug 
auction  sales  about  twice  a  month 
at  the  Commercial  Sales  Rooms, 
Mincing  Lane,  the  purchasers 
generally  being  wholesale  drug- 
gists or  exporters.  Cinchona  bark 
is  brought  to  Amsterdam,  because 
the  Dutch  colonies  are  now  its 
chief  producers.  Liverpool  is  the 
port  for  American  drugs.  In  the 
case  of  wholesale  druggists  the 
drug,  as  imported,  generally  has 
to  be  sorted  over — "  garbled,"  as 
it  is  known  in  the  trade — to 
separate  the  various  grades.  For 
example,  pieces  of  rhubarb  root  of 
fine  appearance  are  reserved  for 
selling  retail  to  the  public,  but 
broken  pieces  are  equally  well 
suited  for  reducing  to  powder,  or 
for  pharmaceutical  preparations. 
Some  drugs,  such  as  aconite,  bella- 
donna, digitalis,  henbane,  lavender, 
peppermint,  etc.,  are  grown  in 
Great  Britain.  Others  require 
warm  or  moist  climates  for  their 
successful  cultivation. 

DRUG  HABITS.  Continuous  tak- 
ing of  certain  drugs  produces  in 
some  persons  an  irresistible  craving 
for  them,  despite  their  injurious 
effect  upon  both  mind  and  body. 
The  commonest  instances  are  ad- 
diction to  alcohol  and  smoking. 
The  less  frequent  drug-habits — 
such  as  the  taking  of  opium  or 
cocaine — may  originate  in  taking 
the  drug  in  the  first  instance  under 
medical  orders,  its  use  being  con- 
tinued because  of  pleasurable  sen- 
sations produced. 

Many  victims  display  a  progres- 
sive deterioration  of  their  moral 
faculties,  and  when  fully  in  the  grip 
of  the  habit  will  lie  freely  and  resort 
to  any  tricks  to  satisfy  their  crav- 
ing. Another  characteristic  feature 
is  the  marked  degree  of  tolerance 
acquired  after  taking  a  drug  for  a 
considerable  time,  the  victim  of  a 


Dru.     View  of  the  Aiguille  du  Dru, 
near  Chamonix 

drug  habit  sometimes  taking  daily 
an  amount  of  poison  which  would 
be  fatal  in  an  ordinary  person. 

In  most  cases  the  habit  of  taking 
opium  is  initiated  by  taking  the 
drug  to  relieve  pain,  and  is  more 
frequent  in  women  than  in  men. 
Morphia  may  be  injected  hypoder- 
mically,  laudanum  drunk,  or  solid 
opium  eaten ;  opium  smoking  is 
more  common  in  the  East  than  in 
Europe.  Those  who  are  addicted 
to  this  habit  become  pale  or  sallow, 
and  suffer  from  nausea,  vomiting, 
loss  of  appetite,  sleeplessness,  and 
emaciation.  Periods  of  severe 
mental  depression  follow  the  tem- 
porary exaltation  at  first  produced 
by  a  dose.  The  temper  becomes 
irritable,  and  the  moral  faculties 
degenerate,  the  sufferer  becoming 
untruthful  and  utterly  unreliable. 

Delusions  and  hallucinations  may 
occur.  Remarkable  tolerance  for 
opium  may  be  established.  De 
Quincey  (q.v. )  states  that  at  one 
period  he  was  taking  320  grains  of 
opium  a  day,  the  full  Pharmaco- 
poeial  dose  being  two  grains. 
When  the  habit  is  definitely  estab- 
lished, it  needs  strong  will-power 
to  overcome  it.  The  patient 
should  enter  a  home  or  institution 
where  he  will  be  unable  to  obtain 
the  drug.  When  the  habit  has  not 
been  of  long  duration,  it  may  be 
possible  to  stop  the  drug  at  once, 
or  reduce  it  very  rapidly,  but  in 
long-standing  cases  the  symptoms 
induced  by  abrupt  withdrawal  may 
be  severe,  and  it  is  generally  advis- 
able to  reduce  the  drug  gradually. 

The  habitual  taking  of  chloral 
hydrate  is  nearly  always  started 
by  its  use  to  prevent  sleeplessness. 
The  symptoms  of  chronic  poisoning 
which  gradually  develop  are  dys- 


DRUGGIST 

pepsia,  eruptions  on  the  skin, 
weakness  of  the  heart  and  respira- 
tion, and  impairment  of  mental 
power.  The  acquirement  of  toler- 
ance is  not  so  marked  as  with 
opium,  and  a  slightly  greater  dose 
than  usual  may  be  fatal. 

Cocaine  is  sometimes  taken  as  a 
constituent  of  a  snuff  by  persons 
suffering  from  nasal  catarrh,  and 
in  this  way  the  habit  is  initiated. 
Both  the  mental  and  bodily  facul- 
ties become  affected  in  course  of 
time. 

The  taking  of  Cannabis  Indica 
frequently  becomes  a  habit  in 
Egypt,  India,  and  other  Eastern 
countries,  where  it  is  taken  in  the 
form  of  hashish,  bhang,  or  ganga. 
It  produces  symptoms  resembling 
those  of  mild  intoxication,  followed 
by  sleep  which  is  often  accompanied 
by  pleasant  dreams. 

To  check  the  serious  growth  of 
the  drug  habit  an  act  of  parliament 
was  passed  in  1923  which  particu- 
larly aimed  at  the  suppression  of 
illicit  traffic  in  cocaine  and  other 
dangerous  drugs. 

Drug.  District,  subdivision,  and 
town  of  Central  Provinces,  India, 
in  the  Chhatisgarh  division.  Area, 
3,807  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  775,688,  five- 
sixths  Hindus.  Of  the  total  area 
about  one-quarter  is  under  cultiva- 
tion, rice  and  wheat  being  among 
the  chief  crops.  The  town  has 
small  metal  and  weaving  industries. 
Pop.  7,048,  four-fifths  Hindus. 

Drugget  (Fr.  droguet,  dim.  of 
drogue,  poor  material).  Coarse 
woollen  stuff,  woven  or  felted, 
sometimes  printed  with  a  pattern. 
It  is  chiefly  used  as  a  protection  or 
substitute  for  carpets.  The  name  is 
also  applied  to  a  stout  fabric  of 
linen  warp  and  worsted  weft  for 
rough  aprons,  etc.  In  early  times 
drugget  was  much  used  for  cloth- 
ing, being  sometimes  partly  of  silk. 

Druggist.  One  of  the  titles 
reserved  by  the  Pharmacy  Act, 
1868,  for  persons  who  keep  open 
shop  for  the  sale  of  poisons  and  are 
registered  under  the  Act.  The  list 
of  poisons  which  can  only  be  sold 
retail  by  registered  persons  is  given 
in  the  schedule  of  the  Poisons  and 
Pharmacy  Act,  1908,  this  list  re- 
placing the  schedule  given  in  the 
Act  of  1868.  The  sale  of  poisons 
wholesale,  i.e.  to  retailers  only, 
requires  the  article  to  be  labelled 
"  poison."  The  title  wholesale  drug- 
gist is  not  a  protected  one.  In 
Ireland  the  title  druggist  as  regards 
retail  vendors  of  poisons  is  regu- 
lated by  the  Pharmacy  Act  (Ire- 
land), 1875,  Amendment  Act, 
1890.  Druggists  deal  generally  in 
f  medicinal  substances  and  chemicals 
required  in  the  arts  ;  in  Great  Bri- 
tain they  dispense  prescriptions,  but 
are  not  qualified  to  do  so  in  Ireland. 


DRUID 


2695 


Druid.  Priest  among  the  Celtic 
peoples,  especially  those  of  Britain 
and  Gaul.  The  Druids  were  among 
the  bitterest  opponents  of  the  Ro- 
man invaders,  and  in  Britain  were 
virtually  exterminated  during  the 
Roman"  domination.  The  earliest 
detailed  account  of  them  is  given 
by  Caesar  in  his  Gallic  War,  and  his 
account  is  probably  equally  applic- 
able to  the  Druids  of  Britain,  which 
was  the  headquarters  of  Druidism. 
They  are  described  as  priests  and 
law-givers,  among  whom  all  nobles 
and  men  of  dignity  were  found. 

The  chief  of  them  was  elected, 
and  no  hereditary  positions  were 
recognized.  They  were  learned  in 
the  natural  sciences  and  astrology, 
while  some  of  the  classic  writers 
describe  them  as  sorcerers  and 
masters  of  medical  knowledge 
(Pliny) ;  and  as  soothsayers  and 
bards  (Strabo).  Their  worship  was 
carried  on  in  groves,  the  oak  being 
their  sacred  tree,  and  the  oak- 
grown  mistletoe  played  a  particular 
part  in  their  rites.  It  was  cut  with 
a  golden  weapon  by  a  Druid  clothed 
in  white,  was  received  from  the 
tree  on  a  spotless  cloth  by  another 
Druid,  and  borne  away  by  white 
oxen.  Dmidic  worship  entailed 
human  sacrifices  at  special  festi- 
vals ;  the  victims  being  impaled, 
shot  with  arrows,  or  burned  in 
wicker  cages ;  the  Druids  exercis- 
ing their  peculiar  art  of  divination 
from  the  movements  of  their  dying 
victims,  as  well  as  from  the  flight 
of  birds,  etc.  > 

The  last  stand  of  the  Druids  in 
Britain  was  made  at  Mona,  or 
Anglesey,  when  the  Romans  are 
said  to  have  exterminated  them 
and  destroyed  their  sacred  groves 
(Tacitus).  After  being  extermin- 
ated in  Britain,  Druids  are  mainly 
heard  of  in  Ireland,  where  tradition 
associates  them  with  witchcraft 
and  sorcery. 

Bibliography.  Irish  Druids  and  Old 
Irish  Religions,  J.  Bonwick,  1894: 
Origin  arid  Growth  of  Religion  as 
Illustrated  by  Celtic  Heathendom, 
J.  Rhys,  3rd  ed-  1898;  Social  His- 
tory of  Ancient  Ireland,  P.  W.  Joyce, 
1903;  Les  Druids  et  lea  Dieux 
Celtiques,  M.  H.  d'Arbois  de  Jubain- 
ville,  190G. 


Arminius,  prince  of  the  Cherusci,  triumphant  after  a  victory  over 
the  Romans,  brings  back  silver  booty  to  his  Druid  priests 

After  the  painting  by  Hermann  Prell 

Druid  Circle.    Name  in  popular         Drum.  Instrument  of  percussion, 
usage     for     a     prehistoric     stone     consisting  of  a  hollow  body  over 
circle.     One,  vested  in  the  National 
Trust,  is  near  Keswick,  Cumber- 
land.    Regarded  by  18th  century 
antiquarians  as  sites  for  Druidic 
worship,    the    exposed    sepulchral 
dolmens   often   found  with   them 
were   called   Druid   altars.      Now 


which  a  membrane  is  stretched. 
In  primitive  form  the  body  was  a 
gourd,  shell,  or  earthenware  vessel, 
struck  often  by  the  finger  tips. 

To-day  the  drums  in  use  are  of 
two  main  kinds  :  ( 1 )  Drums  of 
cauldron  shape,  made  of  metal, 


recognized  to  be  pre-Druidic,  their     with  single  head  of  vellum,  used 


subsequent  adaptation  for  religious 
rites  by  the  British  priesthood  of 


in   the   orchestra,   and   known   as 
kettledrums  (or  Timpani).     These 


Caesar's  day  lacks  definite  proof,     are  struck  vertically  by  pairs  of 


See  Stonehenge  ;  Stone  Circles. 

Druids,  ANCIENT  ORDER  OF. 
Friendly  society  established  on 
masonic  principles  and  with  ma- 
sonic rites,  and  so  called  from  an 
imagined  imitation  of  the  ancient 
Druids.  The  order  was  founded  in 
London  in  1781,  and  spread 
throughout  England  in  indepen- 


padded  sticks,  and  produce  notes 
of  definite  musical  pitch.  They 
were  formerly  used  in  pairs  tuned 
to  the  tonic  and  dominant  of  the 
key  of  the  music,  but  often  three 
or  more  kettledrums  are  used  in 
modem  music,  and  they  are  given 
melodic  as  well  as  rhythmic  pass- 
ages. A  pair  of  small  kettledrums 


dent  but  allied  lodges.  These  lodges     is  used  in  cavalry  bands. 

were   later  organized  into  groves         (2)  Drums  of  "cylindrical  shape, 

and    presided    over    by    a    Great     made  usually  of  wood  with  two 


Arch  Druid.  The  order  was  intro- 
duced into  the  U.S.A.  in  1883, 
where  it  spread  rapidly. 


vellum  heads.  The  pitch  of  these 
drums  is  indefinite.  The  smallest 
size,  the  shallow  side  drum  with 


Druid  Circle.    The  circle  near  Keswick,  Cumberland,  about  100  ft.  in  diameter.    It  was  vested  in  the  National  Trust  in  1913 


2696 


DRUMLIN 


Drum.  Examples  of  military  and  orchestral  instruments.  1.  Guards1  bass  drum. 
2.  Orchestral  side-drum.  3.  Military  side-drum.  4.  Guards'  pattern  side-drum. 
5.  Cavalry  kettledrums.  6.  Sticks  for  side-drum.  7.  Sticks  for  bass  drum 

By  courtesy  of  Hatelces  &  Son 


metal  sides,  is  played  with  hard 
wooden  sticks,  as  is  also  the  deeper 
military  side-drum  of  wood.  The 
largest  is  the  bass  drum,  struck 
horizontally  by  heavy  padded 
sticks.  Of  intermediate  size  is  the 
tenor  drum,  used  in  bands  of  pipers. 
See  Bagpipe ;  Cymbal, 

Drum.  In  engineering,  a  cy- 
linder, usually  of  cast  iron  or  cast 
steel,  mounted  on  a  shaft  and 
geared  up  to  an  engine,  motor,  or 
hand  lever.  A  hoisting  or  hauling 
rope  or  chain  is  secured  to  the  drum 
or  may  be  given  several  turns 
round  it.  When  the  machinery  is 
set  in  motion  the  drum,  revolving, 
winds  the  rope  around  itself,  pay- 
ing out  an  equal  length  when  the 
rope  merely  passes  round  it  with- 
out being  secured  to  it. 

Drumclog.  Hamlet  of  Lanark- 
shire, Scotland.  It  is  6  m.  S.W.  of 
Strathaven,  near  the  border  of 
Ayrshire,  and  was  the  scene  of  a 
victory  of  the  Covenanters  over 
the  king's  troops  under  Claverhouse 
(Viscount  Dundee),  on  Sunday, 
June  1,  1679.  A  granite  obelisk 
marks  the  site  of  the  battle.  Drum- 
clog  figures  in  Scott's  OldMortality. 
See  Covenanters. 

Drum-Fire.  Expression  for  a 
rapid  bombardment  said  by  the 
German  Staff  account  of  the 
battles  of  Champagne  to  have  been 
first  used  on  the  Champagne  front 
in  Feb.,  1915.  It  is,  however,  much 
older,  and  occurs  in  Tolstoi's  de- 
scription of  the  Allies'  bombard- 
ment of  Sevastopol  in  Aug.,  1855. 

Drum  Language.  Method  of 
communication  by  drum -signals, 
employed  by  primitive  peoples.  It 
has  a  possible  range  of  10m.  Across 


Central  Africa,  from  the  Nile  to 
Cameroons,  it  is  in  daily  use  for  the 
exchange  of  news. 

Drumlanrig  Castle.  Seat  of 
the  duke  of  Buccleuch  in  Dum- 
friesshire, Scotland.  It  stands  on 
the  Nith,  17  m.  N.W.  of  Dumfries. 
It  was  built  (1679-89)  by  the  1st 
duke  of  Queensberry,  and  suffered 
damage  at  the  hands  of  Prince 
Charles  Edward  in  1745.  In  the 
grounds  are  the  remains  of  Tibber's 
Castle,  destroyed  by  Robert  Bruce 
in  1311. 

Drumlin.  Arched,  oval-shaped 
hills  composed  of  till  or  boulder- 
clay  usually  containing  rock  frag- 
ments. They  often  attain  a  length 
exceeding  a  mile  and  a  height  of 


from  100  ft.  to  200  ft.,  and  as  they 
were  formed  below  great  ice  sheets, 
they  are  common  in  glaciated 
regions,  e.g.  central  Ireland,  the 
Scottish  lowlands,  and  the  New 
England  States  (U.S.A.1). 


Drumclog.  The  battle  on  Drumclog  Moor,  Lanarkshire,  in  which  the  Covenanters 
defeated  Graham  of  Claverhoose,  June  1, 1679 

Painting  by  Sir  George  Harvey,  &S.A. 


DRUM     MAJOR 


2697 


DRUNKENNESS 


Henry  Drummond, 
Scottish  theologian 


Drum  Major.  Originally  the 
principal  drummer  in  a  corps  of 
infantry  who  "  beat  the  best  drum, 
had  command  over  the  other  drums 
and  taught  them  their  duty."  He 
is  called  the  serjeant  drummer. 
The  ranks  of  drum  major,  trumpet 
major,  and  pipe  major  were  abol- 
ished in  1881.  See  illus.,  p.  968. 

Drummond,  HENRY  (1786- 
1860).  British  banker  and  politi- 
cian, one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Irvingite  or  Catholic  Apostolic 
Church.  He  was  educated  at  Har- 
row and  Christ  Church,  Oxford, 
became  a  partner  in  his  father's 
bank,  in  1810  was  elected  M.P.  for 
Plympton  Earls,  and  from  1847  till 
his  death  sat  for  W.  Surrey.  He 
founded  the  chair  of  political  econ- 
omy at  Oxford,  1825.  He  died  at 
Albury,  Surrey,  Feb.  20, 1860. 

Drummond,  HENRY  (1851- 
1897).  Scottish  theological  writer 
and  scientist.  Bora  at  Glenelen, 

.„. mmm Stirling,    Aug. 

1    17,  1851,  of  an 
*   evangelical 
family,  he  was 
educated      a  t 
Crieff;  at  Edin- 
burgh,    where 
he    studied 
>logy  under 
iikie,  and  at 
Tubingen.    He 
was  trained  for 
Lafayette  the  ministry  at 

New  College,  Edinburgh,  but  did 
not  adopt  the  title  of  minister. 
From  1873-75  he  worked  with 
D.  L.  Moody  and  I.  D.  Sankey, 
was  appointed  in  1877  lecturer  on, 
and  in  1884  professor  of,  natural 
science  at  the  Free  Church  College, 
Glasgow.  He  held  this  appoint- 
ment until  his  death,  at  Tunbridge 
Wells,  March  11,  1897. 

In  the  intervals  of  extensive 
travel  he  devoted  himself  to  mis- 
sion work,  particularly  among 
young  men,  and  to  the  organization 
of  the  Boys'  Brigade.  His  attempts 
to  reconcile  science  and  theology, 
as  expressed  in  his  Natural  Law 
in  the  Spiritual  World,  1883,  and 
The  Lowell  Lectures  on  the  Ascent 
of  Man,  1894,  are  now  regarded  as 
heterodox,  but  with  his  Tropical 
Africa,  18S8,  and  other  works, 
these  books  enjoyed  a  large  circu- 
lation in  Europe  and  the  U.S.A. 
See  Life,  George  A.  Smith,  1899. 

Drummond,  JAMES  (1835- 
1918).  British  theologian.  He  was 
born  at  Dublin  and  was  educated 
at  Trinity  College.  In  1860  he 
became  colleague  to  the  Rev.  W. 
Gaskell,  husband  of  the  authoress 
of  Cranford,  at  Cross  Street  Chapel, 
Manchester,  and  in  1869  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  Biblical  and 
Historical  Theology  at  Manchester 
New  College,  London.  He  became 


principal  in  1885  in  suceession 
to  Dr.  James  Martineau,  and  held 
this  position  until  1906.  In  1889 
the  college  was  removed  to  Oxford. 
He  was  the  author  of  many  theo- 
logical and  expository  works.  He 
also  wrote  the  Life  and  Letters  of 
James  Martineau,  1902,  to  which 
his  colleague,  C.  B.  Upton,  con- 
tributed the  section  on  Martineau' s 
Philosophy.  Drummond  died  at 
Oxford,  June  13,  1918. 
.  Drummond,  SIR  JAMES  ERIC 
(b.  1876).  British  diplomatist.  He 
was  born  Aug.  17,  1876,  a  younger 
•  son  of  the 
14th  earl  of 
Perth,  edu- 
cated at  Eton, 
and  entered 
the  Foreign 
Office  in  1900, 
in  1906  being 
appointed 
private  secre- 
Sir  J.  Eric  Drummond,  tar  y  to  the 
British  diplomatist  under  .  secre. 

tary.  In  1912  he  became  private 
secretary  to  H.  H.  Asquith,  then 
prime  minister;  but  in  1915  he 
returned  to  the  Foreign  Office. 
Knighted  in  1916,  he  became  in 
1919  the  first  secretary-general  to 
the  League  of  Nations. 

Drummond,  THOMAS  (1797- 
1840).  British  engineer  and  ad- 
ministrator. Born  in  Edinburgh, 
Oct.  10,  1797,  he  was  educated  at 
the  Edinburgh  High  School  and  at 
the  Royal  Military  Academy,  Wool- 
wich, and  in  1815  entered  the  Royal 
Engineers.  Having  obtained  a  post 
on  the  trigonometrical  survey  of 
Great  Britain  in  1820,  he  invented 
the  "  Drummond  Light,"  a  lime- 
light contrivance  for  long -distance 
surveying,  and  also  an  improved 
form  of  heliostat.  From  1835^0 
he  was  under- secretary  for  Ireland. 
He  died  at  Dublin"  April  15, 
1840.  See  Life  and  Letters,  R.  B. 
O'Brien,  1889. 

Drummond,  WILLIAM  (1585- 
1649).  Scottish  poet.  He  was  born 
at  Hawthornden,  near  Edinburgh, 
Dec.  13,  1585,  the  son  of  Sir  John 
Drummond,  and  descendant  of  the 
mother  of  James  I  of  Scotland. 
Educated  in  Edinburgh  and  France, 
he  studied  for  the  law,  but  on  his 
father's  death  in  1610  settled  down 
at  Hawthornden  to  the  companion- 
ship of  his  books,  the  pursuit  of 
his  hobby  of  mechanical  invention, 
and  his  writings.  His  best  work  is 
in  his  sonnets,  in  which  he  followed 
closely  Italian  models.  He  inven- 
ted the  metre  adopted  by  Milton 
for  his  Hymn  to  the  Nativity.  He 
was  one  of  the  first  Scottish  poets 
to  write  in  pure  English.  The 
best  example  of  his  prose  is 
A  Cypress  Grove,  1623,  a  medita- 
tion on  death. 


William  Drummond, 
oi  Hawthornden 


Scholar  and  Platonist,  he  was  a 
sincere  royalist.  The  outstanding 
incident  of  his  life  is  the  visit  Ben 
Jonson  paid  to  him  in  the  winter  of 
1618-19,  his  Notes  on  which,  pub- 
lished in  1842, 
have  been  the 
cause  of  much 
controversy. 
He  died  Dec.  4, 
1649.  In  1893 
a  memorial  to 
him  w  as  erected 
a  t  Lasswade, 
where  he  was 
buried.  See 
Life,  David 

After  Jansen  MaSSOU,    1873; 

Poetical  Works  and  A  Cypress 
Grove,ed.L.E.Kastner,2vols.,1913. 

Drummond  Castle.  Scottish 
seat  of  the  earl  of  Ancaster.  The 
ancient  home  of  the  family  of  Drum- 
mond, it  is  in  Strathearn,  Perth- 
shire, 2  m.  S.  of  Crieff.  Parts  of 
it  date  from  the  15th  century. 

Drummond's  Bank.  London 
bank.  It  was  established  in  1717 
by  a  Scotsman,  Andrew  Drum- 
mond, who  had  settled  in  London 
as  a  goldsmith.  It  remained  in 
the  hands  of  the  family  until  1924, 
and  from  1804  was  known  as 
Drummond  &  Co.  It  was  absorbed 
in  the  Royal  Bank  of  Scotland  in 
Jan.,  1924. 

Drummoyne.  Picturesque  and 
rising  suburb  of  Sydney,  New  South 
Wales.  It  is  on  the  Parramatta 
river,  3£  m.  from  Sydney  (q.v.). 
Pop.  8,678. 

Drunkard's  Cloak,  THE.  In- 
strument used  in  some  parts  of  Eng- 
land during  the  16th  century  for 
the  punishment  of  drunkards.  It 
consisted  of  a  tub  with  holes  in  the 
sides  for  the  arms  to  pass  through, 
and  was  fitted  on  to  the  offender, 
who  then  had  to  walk  through  the 
streets  as  an  object  of  public  scorn. 

Drunkenness.  State  of  intoxi- 
cation which  in  certain  cases  is  an 
offence  against  the  law.  In  Eng- 
lish law,  it  is  no  excuse  for  crime. 
At  the  same  time,  when  it  is  a 
question  of  quo  animo,  or  with  what 
intention  a  man  did  an  act,  he  may 
escape  because  he  may  have  been 
so  drunk  as  to  be  incapable  of 
forming  any  intention  at  all.  Thus, 
a  case  of  homicide  may  be  man- 
slaughter if  committed  by  a  man  so 
drunk  as  not  to  know  what  he  is 
doing,  though  the  blow  may  be 
struck  or  the  shot  fired  with  ap- 
parent deliberation.  If  a  man  takes 
drink  to  nerve  himself  to  commit  a 
crime,  he  cannot  escape  the  conse- 
quences by  showing  that  he  was 
so  drunk  as  to  have  lost  all  inten- 
tion. It  is  an  offence  to  be  drunk 
in  a  -public  place  or  a  licensed 
house,  or  to  be  drunk  and  dis- 
orderly. An  habitual  drunkard 


DRURY 


DRUSES 


Alfred  Drury, 
British  artist 

Academy    was 
Silenus,    1885; 


may  be  ordered  to  be  confined  in 
an  inebriates'  home  by  sentence  of 
the  magistrate.  A  person  may 
voluntarily  offer  to  go  into  such  a 
home :  and  may  then  be  com- 
pulsorily  detained  there.  A  con- 
tract made  by  a  drunken  man  is 
voidable  by  him  when  he  becomes 
sober  ;  but  only  if  the  other  party 
knew  hewasdrunkwhen  he  made  it. 
See  Liquor  Control :  Prohibition  ; 
Temperance  Movement. 

Drury,  ALFRED.  British  artist 
and  sculptor.  Born  in  London,  he 
studied  at  the  Oxford  School  of  Art, 
at  S.  Kensing- 
ton, and  under 
Dalou.  He  was 
firot  attracted 
to  sculpture  by 
the  clay  models 
o  f  Chantrey 's 
works  in  the 
Oxford  Univer- 
s  i  t  y  galleries. 
His  first  contri- 
bution to  the 
the  Triumph  of 
and  in  1896  his 
bronze  S.  Agnes  was  bought  for 
the  Chantrey  collection.  He  was 
elected  A.R.A.  in  1900,  and  R.A. 
in  1913.  His  other  works  include 
The  Age  of  Innocence,  1897; 
The  Prophetess  of  Fate,  1900; 
King  Edward  VII,  1903;  and 
statues  and  decorative  work  at 
Leeds.  His  technique  is  best  shown 
in  ideal  portraits  of  children. 

Drury  Lane.  Thoroughfare  and 
district  in  London,  W.C.,  largely 
rebuilt  in  recent  years.  Extending 
from  the  modern  crescent  of  Aid- 
wych  (q.v.)  to  Broad  Street,  S. 
Giles's,  and  High  Holborn,  the 
lane  was  originally  known  as  the 
Via  de  Aldwych,  after  a  Danish 
settlement  in  S.  Clement's,  which 
it  linked  with  the  hospital  of  S. 
Giles's  monastery.  Its  present 
name  derives  from  Drury  Place,  a 
mansion  built  in  the  loth  century 
by  a  member  of  the  Drury  family. 
In  this  mansion  Essex  and  his  fol- 
lowers planned  the  abortive  rising 
of  1600.  Rebuilt  by  William,  earl 
of  Craven,  supposed  husband  of 
Elizabeth,  the  widowed  queen  of 
Bohemia  and  daughter  of  James  I, 
the  mansion  was  renamed  Craven 
House,  and  on  its  site  in  1 805  Philip 
Astley  built  the  Olympia  Pavilion, 
later  the  Olympic  Theatre.  ^ . 

On  the  W.  side  of  Drury  Lane, 
in  Russell  Street,  is  Drury  Larie 
Theatre,  with  entrances  in  Russell 
Street  and  Catherine  Street,  and 
near  by  is  the  disused  burial  ground 
of  S.  Martin's,  associated  with 
Tom-All- Alone' s  of  Dickens's  novel. 
Bleak  House.  Near  Holborn,  on  the 
E.,  is  the  Winter  Garden  Theatre, 
formerly  The  Mogul,  and  fvfterwards 
the  Middlesex  music  hall.  A  serv- 


ing  man  of  the  ancient  inn  near 
here,  The  White  Hart,  gave  first 
warning  of  the  outbreak  of  the 
plague  which  started  in  the  vicinitv 
in  1665.  In  the  adjacent  coaf- 
yard  was  born  Nell  Gywnn,  who 
later  lived  at  a  house  in  Drury 
Court,  pulled  down  in  1891.  Drury 
Lane  was  also  the  birthplace  o'f 
Anne  Clarges,  afterwards  duchess 
of  Albemarle.  On  the  E.  side,  S. 
of  Great  Queen  Street,  was  Cockpit 
Alley,  later  Pit  Place.  A  cockpit 
was  here,  as  were  the  Cockpit  and 
Phoenix  theatres. 

Once  lined  with  hedgerows  and 
houses  of  the  nobility,  Drury  Lane 
became  in  the  18th  century  a  place 
of  ill  repute,  its  mazy  courts  and 
dark  abodes  the  theme  of  satiric 
reference  by  Gay,  Steele,  Pope,  and 
others,  while  it  was  the  scene  of 
Hogarth's  Harlot's  Progress,  Lewk- 
nor's  Lane,  renamed  Charles  Street, 
N.  of  Parker  Street,  being  especi- 
ally notorious.  Of  notable  residents 
were  the  poet  Donne,  who  found 
hospitality  in  Drury  House  ;  Wil- 
liam Alexander,  earl  of  Stirling  ; 
Elliston,  when  lessee  of  the  Olym- 
pic ;  Thomas  Campbell,  in  Vinegar 
Yard  ;  Charles  and  Mary  Lamb,  in 
Russell  Court ;  and  the  actresses 
Anne  Braceeirdle,  whom  Lord 


don  playhouse.  •  The  first  theatre 
on  the  site  of  the  present  building 
was  erected  in  IGtil,  and  opened 
April  8,  1663,  by  the  King's  Ser- 
vants— one  of  Charles  II's  two  com- 
panies of  players — under  Thomas 
Killigrew,  with  Beaumont  and 
Fletcher's  play,  The  Humorous 
Lieutenant.  This  theatre  was  burnt 
down  in  1672.  Sir  Christopher 
Wren  designed  its  successor,  which 
was  replaced  in  1794  by  a  much 
larger  edifice,  also  destnwed  by 
fire  in  1809. 

Benjamin  Wyatt  was  the  archi- 
tect of  the  4th  and  present  theatre, 
opened  Oct.  12,  1812.  It  was 
on  its  boards  that  Edmund  Kean 
achieved  his  first  great  triumph  on 
Jan.  26,  1814,  and  there  he  ap- 
peared for  the  last  time,  March  12, 
1833.  Drury  Lane  won  new  pres- 
tige from  Macready's  brief  manage- 
ment during  1842-43.  It  was  here 
that  he  produced  Browning's  The 
Blot  on  the  'Scutcheon.  Under  the 
management  of  Augustus  Harris, 
and  afterwards  of  Arthur  Collins, 
the  huge  building  was  associated 
with  immensely  popular  panto- 
mimes and  spectacular  melo- 
dramas, and  here  in  1917  Sir 
Thomas  Beecham  began  a  series  of 
seasons  of  grand  opera.  The 
theatre  was  reconstructed  and  re- 
organized in  1921-22  and  was 
opened  on  April  20,  1922,  with 
Decameron  Nights,  a  spectacular 
musical  play. 

Druse  (Ger.,  decayed  ore).  Cav- 
ity in  an  igneous  rock  or  ore-vein 
which  is  lined  or  studded  with  mi- 
nute crystals.  The  Cornish  miners 
call  it  a  vug.  This  drusy  condition 
may  also  appear  on  the  surface  of 
natural  crystals.  Beautiful  crystals 
of  quartz,  beryl,  topaz,  tourmaline, 
garnet,  and  other  minerals  are  fre- 
quently derived  from  granite  druses. 
When  globular  nodules  are  hollow 
and  drusy-lined  they  are  called 
geodes  (earth-like). 

Druses.  Syrian  people  in- 
habiting the  W  slope  of  Lebanon, 
anti-Lebanon  and  Hermon,  and 
Hauran  (Druz).  Occupying  some 


Mohun  attempt- 
ed to  abduct 
from  her  dwell- 
ing here,  and 
Hannah  Prit- 
chard.  See  Lon- 
don; consult  also 
Old  Time  Ald- 
wych and  Kings  - 
way,  C.  Gordon, 
1903;  illus.  of 
Craven  House,  in 
Londiniana,  vol. 
iv,  PI  W.  Bray- 
Icy,  1829. 

Drury  Lane 
Theatre.     Lon- 


Drury    Lane    Theatre.       Main    entrance    in    Catherine 
Street.    Above,  frontage  of  the  old  theatre  in  1776 


DRUSILLA 


Druses.     Women  of  the  Syrian  peop.e  from  the  Lebanon 
district,  wearing  their  characteristic  costume 

100  towns  and  villages  and  scat- 
tered elsewhere  amongst  other 
races,  their  total  number  is  esti- 
mated to  be  from  100,000-200,000. 
They  are  probably  an  admixture 
of  different  stocks,  with  a  prepon- 
derating Arab  element,  the  lan- 
guage spoken  by  them  being 
Arabic.  Others  regard  them  as 
Iranians.  They  are  under  sheikhs 
or  village  headmen,  themselves 
subordinate  to  ameers,  both,  to- 
gether with  the  landed  proprietors, 
forming  a  kind  of  supreme  council. 
The  vine,  olive,  and  tobacco  plant 
are  cult  ivated,and  silkworms  reared. 

Their  religion  is  a  curious  mix- 
ture of  Mahomedanism,  Judaism, 
and  Christianity,  but  they  pride 
themselves  on  being  Muwahiddin, 
believers  in  one  god.  This  one 
god  is  said  to  have  manifested 
himself  ten  times  in  the  flesh,  the 
last  time  in  the  person  of  Hakim, 
the  Fatimite  caliph  of  Egypt 
(996-1021),  who  is  expected"  to 
reappear  as  the  Messiah.  From 
his  disciple  and  supporter  Darazi, 
the  name  Druses  is  supposed  to  be 
derived.  The  people  are  divided 
into  Akils  (learned),  who  alone 
possess  knowledge  of  the  sacred 
books  and  mysteries  ;  and  Jahils 
(ignorant).  They  believe  in  the 
transmigration  of  souls,  the  soul 
passing  from  one  body  to  another 
until  it  finally  becomes  perfect. 

Forced  to  submit  to  Murad  III 
in  1588,  under  their  chief  Fakr- 


2699 

in  1840.  The 
adoption  of  Ma- 
ronite  Christi- 
anity by  another 
Beshir  led  to  civil 
war.  Druses  and 
Maronites  were 
put  under  a 
separate  kaima- 
kan  or  governor, 
but  after  the 
Damascus  mas- 
sacre of  Chris- 
tians in  1860,  the 
Lebanon  district 
was  placed  under 
a  Christian  gov- 
ernor. Turkish 
misrule  led  to 
fresh  disturb- 
ances in  1895- 
96,  which,  as  the 
Turks  made  some 
concessions,  were 
followed  by  a 
period  of  com- 
parative quiet. 
See  La  Nation 

Druse,  H.  Guys,  1863;  Arab  and 

Druze  at  Home,  W.  Ewing,  1907  ; 

The  Druses,  E.  Sell,  1910.     Pron. 

Droozez. 
DrusiUa,  LiviA(d.A.D.  29).  Wife 

of  the  Roman  emperor  Augustus. 

She   was   previously   the   wife   of 

Tiberius     Claudius     Nero,     whom 


ed-din  in  the  early  17th  century 
the  Druses  enjoyed  their  greatest 
prosperity.  Beshir  (c.  1786)  kept 
himself  in  power  by  offering  his 
services  to  various  rebels,  being 
finally  obliged  to  quit  the  country 
when  the  Porte  reconquered  Syria 


Augustus  compelled  to  divorce  her. 
Her  elder  son  by  the  first  marriage 
became  the  Roman  emperor  Tibe- 
rius, while  her  second  son,  with 
whom  she  was  pregnant  at  the 
time  of  the  divorce,  was  Drusus. 
She  is  not  to  be  confounded  with 
Drusilla,  wife  of  Felix,  procurator 
of  Judaea  before  whom  S.  Paul 
preached  ;  nor  with  the  daughter 
of  Germanicus. 

Drusus,  MARCUS  LIVIUS.  Col- 
league of  Gaius  Gracchus  in  the 
tribuneship,  122  B.C.  Won  over  by 
the  senate,  he  vetoed  the  bills 
brought  forward  by  Gracchus  and 
brought  forward  others  making  far 
greater  concessions,  in  order  to 
secure  popular  favour.  His  son,  of 
the  same  name,  tribune  in  91,  made 
various  proposals  dealing  with  the 
distribution  of  public  lands  and 
rearrangement  of  the  jury-courts. 
Having  aroused  suspicion  by  sug- 
gesting that  the  franchise  should 
be  extended  to  the  Italians,  he  was 
assassinated. 

Drusus,  NEED  CLAUDIUS  (38-9 
B.C.).  Roman  soldier.  Son  of 
Livia  Drusilla  by  her  first  husband, 
Tiberius  Claudius  Nero.  Her  second 
husband,  the  emperor  Augustus, 
conceived  a  great  liking  for  Drusus, 
who  became  one  of  his  most  dis- 
tinguished generals,  and  conducted 
a  campaign  in  Germany  which  ex- 
tended the  Roman  dominion  to 
the  Elbe.  He  was  the  father  of 


Nero  Claudius  Drusus, 
Roman  soldier 

From  a  bust  in  British 
Museum 


DRYBURGH      ABBEY 

Nt  h  e  emperor 
*Claudius.  This 
Drusus  was 
called  Senior, 
to  distinguish 
him  from  his 
nephew,  the 
son  of  Ti- 
berius,  who 
was  poisoned 
at  the  instance 
of  S  e  j  a n u s 
(q.v.). 

Dryads  (Gr.  drys,  oak).  In 
Greek  mythology,  nymphs  asso- 
ciated with  trees.  A  dryad  was  sup- 
posed to  live  only  as  long  as  the 
particular  tree  with  which  she  was 
associated.  See  Nymph. 

Dryas  (Dryas  oclopekiJa).  Peren- 
nial dwarf  shrub  of  the  natural 
order  Rosaceae.  It  is  a  native  of 
Europe,  Asia,  and  N.  America.  The 
short  stem  is  embedded  in  the  soil, 
and  the  numerous  spreading  and 
closely  packed  branches  lie  along 
the  surface,  bearing  many  tufts  of 
oblong,  toothed,  evergreen  leaves. 
The  white  flowers  are  1  \  in.  across, 
and  the  fruits  are  provided  with 
long,  feathery  awns. 

Dry  burgh  Abbey.  Monastic 
ruin  in  Berwickshire,  Scotland,  on 
the  Tweed,  4£  m.  S.E.  of  Mel- 
rose.  Generally  stated  to  have 
been  founded  in  1150,  it  suffered 
at  the  hands  of  Edward  II  in  1322, 
was  partially  destroyed  by  Richard 
II  in  1385,  and  almost  totally 
demolished  by  the  earl  of  Hertford 
in  1544.  After  the  Reformation 
the  property,  no  longer  put  to 
religious  uses,  passed  to  the  earl 
of  Mar.  The  existing  remains  in- 
clude the  chapter  house,  parts  of 
the  large  and  beautiful  church,  and 
traces  of  the  monastic  buildings.  Sir 
Walter  Scott  and  several  of  his 
relatives  are  buried  in  S.  Mary's 
aisle.  In  1918  it  was  presented  to 
the  nation  by  Lord  Glenconner. 


Dryburgh  Abbey.     S.  Mary's  aisle, 

containing  the  tomb  of  Sir  Walter 

Scott 


DRY    CELL 


27OO 


DRYING     MACHINE 


Dry  Cell.  In  electricity,  a  type 
of  cell  in  which  the  solution  is  con- 
verted practically  into  a  solid  by 
the  addition  of  chemicals  of  gela- 
tinous materials  which  vary  accord- 
ing to  the  type  of  cell.  The  advan- 
tages of  dry  batteries  are  port- 
ability and  'cleanliness.  See  Cell, 
Voltaic. 

Dryden,  JOHN  (1631-1700). 
English  poet.  Born  at  Aldwinkle, 
Northamptonshire,  Aug.  9,  1631, 
he  was  educated  at  Westminster 
and  Trinity  CoUege,  Cambridge. 
Being  possessed  of  a  competence 
from  his  father's  estate,  he  decided 
upon  a  literary  career,  and,  to 
satisfy  popular  taste,  he  began  to 
write  plays,  continuing  to  do  so, 
chiefly  for  financial  reasons,  all  the 
rest  of  his  life.  He  wrote  twenty- 
two  in  all,  but  he  had  no  real 
gift  for  dramatic  composition,  and 
apart  from  certain  isolated  pass- 
ages, Dryden's  plays  add  nothing 
to  his  reputation.  The  best  known 
are  perhaps  The  Indian  Emperor, 
1665  ;  The  Conquest  of  Granada, 
1670  ;  and  Marriage  a  la  Mode, 
1672.  The  plays  are  tainted  with 
the  licentiousness  which  charac- 
terises the  Restoration  drama. 

Dryden's  career  in  poetry  proper 
began  in  1659,  when  he  published 
some  verses  on  the  death  of 
Cromwell.  A  subsequent  effort  in 
1660,  Astraea  Redux,  a  poem  on 
the  restoration  of  the  monarchy, 
has  laid  Dryden  open  to  the 
charge  of  trimming,  but  panegyric 
prompted  by  the  passing  of  a 
great  man  is  not  necessarily  in- 
consistent with  an  expression  of 
welcome  towards  a  new  order  of 
things  after  the  gloomy  years  of 
Puritan  rule.  A  much  finer  effort  is 
the  Annus  Mirabilis,  1667,  a  poem 
oh  the  wonderful  year  of  1666  which 
saw  the  end  of  the  Great  Plague  of 
London,  the  Great  Fire,  and  the 
Dutch  War.  A  long  period  of 
writing  for  the  stage  ensued, 
and  it  was  not  until  1681  and 
1682  that  Dryden  published  his 
three  great  satires  Absalom  and 
Achitophel,  The  Medal,  and  Mac- 
Flecknoe.  The  first  is  an  attack 
upon  Lord  Shaftesbury.  He  is 
Achitophel  counselling  the  young 
duke  of  Monmouth,  who  is  Absa- 
lom, to  rebellion  against  his  father. 
When  Shaftesbury  was  tried  for 
high  treason  and  acquitted,  his 
friends  had  a  medal  struck  to 
celebrate  the  occasion.  This  pro- 
voked from  Dryden  the  second 
satirical  poem,  considerably  in- 
ferior to  the  first.  ""  The  rival 
partisans  engaged  the  minor  poet 
Shadwell  to  reply  in  kind.  Shad- 
well's  effort  was  so  vulgar  and 
scurrilous  that  it  provoked  yet  a 
third  poem  from  Dryden  entitled 
MacFlecknoe — from  the  name  of 


an  obscure  Irish  bard — a  master- 
piece of  subtle  satire,  which  com- 
pletely overwhelmed  the  unfortu- 
nate Shadwell. 

Dryden's  next  poems,  Religio 
Laici,  1682,  and  The  Hind  and  the 
Panther,  1687,  show  him  in  quite  a 
new  light.  The  first  appears  to 
have  been  written  in  defence  of 
the  Church  of  England,  while  the 
second  is  in  defence  of  the  Church 
of  Rome,  to  which  he  had  in  the 
meantime  become  a  convert.  The 
"  milk-white  hind  immortal  and 
unchanged  "  is  the  latter,  while  the 
spotted  panther  is  the  former. 
During  the  closing  period  of 
Dryden's  life  appeared  his  two 
noble  odes,  the  Ode  for  S.  Cecilia's 
Day,  1687,  and  Alexander's  Feast, 
1697  ;  several  verse  translations  of 
classical  poets,  and  a  number  of 
miscellaneous  writings,  including  a 
paraphrase  of  some  of  Chaucer's 
Canterbury  Tales. 


After  Kneller 

Up  to  the  revolution  of  1688 
Dryden  had  enjoyed  some  degree 
of  prosperity,  having  been  made 
Poet  Laureate  in  succession  to 
Davenant,  and  receiving  several 
other  government  appointments. 
Quite  early  in  life  he  had  married 
Lady  Elizabeth  Howard,  daughter 
of  the  duke  of  Berkshire.  The 
advent  of  William  III  deprived 
him  of  his  laureateship  and  other 
offices.  He  died  May  1,  1700,  and 
was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

There  are  echoes  of  the  Eliza- 
bethans in  the  poetry  of  Dryden, 
but  he  belongs  essentially  to  the 
classical  school  of  poetry,  which  in 
the  matter  of  form,  at  any  rate, 
was  brought  to  its  highest  point  of 


perfection  by  Pope  in  the  next 
century.  Less  polished  than  Pope, 
Dryden  has  much  more  vigour  in 
his  poetry.  The  same  quality  of 
vigour  is  shown  in  the  admirable 
prose  of  the  prefaces  to  his  plays. 
See  English  Literature. 

John  McBain 

Bibliography.  Works,  ed.  with 
Life,  Walter  Scott,  1808,  revised  by 
G.  Saintsbury,  1882-93;  Poetical 
Works,  ed.  with  Memoir,  W.  D. 
Christie,  1870  (Globe  ed.) ;  Johnson's 
Lives  of  the  Most  Eminent  English 
Poets,  ed.  P.  Cunningham,  1854  ; 
Johnson's  Life  of  Dryden,  ed.  A.  J. 
F.  Collins,  1914  ;  Among  My  Books, 
J.  R.  Lowell,  repr.  1912. 

Dry  Farming.  Special  method 
of  growing  crops.  In  regions  where 
the  annual  rainfall  is  under  20  ins., 
such  as  large  tracts  of  Africa, 
Australia,  and  North  America, 
they  cannot  be  successfully  grown 
on  ordinary  lines.  To  deal  with 
such  cases  dry  farming  has  been 
introduced.  The  essential  feature 
is  summer-tillage  every  other  year, 
or  once  in  three  years,  so  as  to 
store  up  moisture  in  the  soil  for 
the  use  of  the  crops  that  follow. 
Disk-harrowing,  followed  by  deep 
ploughing  and  again  by  pressing 
with  fluted  rollers,  removes  all 
moisture-stealing  weeds  and  pro- 
duces a  finely  divided  surface  layer 
of  "mulch,"  which  checks  evapora- 
tion and  conserves  the  water  in 
the  soil.  Most  cereals  do  well, 
but  barley,  being  shallow-rooted, 
is  not  to  be  recommended.  See 
Agriculture  ;  Crops. 

Drygalski.  Islet  in  Davis  Sea, 
Antarctica.  Off  the  coast  of  Queen 
Mary  Land,  it  is  about  9  m.  in 
diameter.  It  was  discovered  and 
named  by  Sir  Douglas  Mawson,  of 
the  Australasian  Antarctic  Expe- 
dition, Jan.  21,  1914. 

Dry  gill  Shales.  Group  of  sedi- 
mentary rocks  on  Caldbeck  Fell, 
Cumberland.  Like  the  Dufton 
shales  on  the  W.  Pennine  slope  in 
Westmorland,  they  represent  iso- 
lated residual  outcrops  of  strata 
deposited  in  late  Ordovician  time, 
when  the  Sleddale  group  of  Conis- 
ton  limestones  was  being  laid  down 
farther  S.  over  the  Lake  district. 

Drying  Machine.  Apparatus 
for  removing  moisture  from  tex- 
tile materials.  Excess  moisture  is 
removed  from  loose  textile  mate- 
rials by  centrifugal  dryers,  and  also 
by  squeezing  rollers  and  afterwards 
passing  the  material  through  hot- 
air  chambers  upon  conveyers.  Cloth 
may  be  semi-dried  by  suction  in 
passing  over  a  cylinder,  aiid  fur- 
ther dried  by  transit  over  steam- 
heated  cylinders.  Drying  cylinders 
for  textile  fabrics  are  arranged  hori- 
zontally or  vertically  at  will,  and 
the  speed  of  driving  is  adjusted  to 
suit  requirements.  See  Woollen. 


DRY    POINT 


27O1 


DUALISM 


Dry  Point.  Process  of  etching. 
It  is  closely  akin  to  line  engraving, 
in  the  preliminary  stages  of  which 
it  was  often  used,  especially  in  out- 
lining the  general  disposition  of  a 
subject.  The  tool  is  a  steel  rod 
tapering  at  one  or  both  ends  to  a 
strong,  fine,  sharp  point.  With  this 
the  etcher  draws  with  a  firm  hand, 
the  point  scratching  a  line  of  ex- 
quisite sensitiveness  on  the  copper 
plate,  and  raising,  as  it  goes  along, 
a  very  distinct  burr  on  the  sides  of 
the  furrow,  which  lends  particular 
value  to  early  prints  from  the  plate. 
Dryptosaur  (Gr.  dryptein,  to 
tear  ;  sauros,  lizard).  Extinct  N. 
American  reptile  of  the  genus 
Dryptosaurus,  alternatively  called 
Laelaps.  It  was  a  carnivorous, 
beast-footed  dinosaur,  living  in 
Montana  in  Upper  Cretaceous 
times,  and  allied  to  the  English 
megalosaur.  It  was  20  ft.  long, 
rapacious  and  sharp-toothed;  it 
used  the  hind  limbs  and  tail  in 
kangaroo  fashion.  See  Dinosaur. 

Dry  Rot.  Diseased  condition  of 
timber  due  to  the  ravages  of  cer- 
tain species  of  fungi,  especially 
Merulius  lachrymans.  This  fungus 
rapidly  consumes  the  woody  cells 
and  fibres,  the  affected  parts  crum- 
bling to  a  brownish  powder  upon 
exposure  to  a  dry  atmosphere.  A 
certain  degree  of  moisture  is  essen- 
tial to  the  growth  of  the  fungus,  and 
is  visible  where  it  spreads  its  lace- 
like  film  over  wood  confined  within 
a  damp  and  stagnant  atmosphere. 
The  popular  term  serves  to  distin- 
guish this  condition  from  wet  rot,  a 
kind  of  putrefaction  occurring  in 
wood  exposed  to  the  weather. 

A  single  plant  of  Merulius 
lachrymans  puts  forth  millions  of 
reproductive  spores,  which,  being 
of  microscopic  size,  may  be  borne 
about  by  the  air,  or  conveyed  im- 
perceptibly from  infected  to  sound 
timber  by  a  saw  ;  or  the  disease 
may  be  propagated  by  the  disper- 
sion of  infected  sawdust,  or  by  the 
creeping  of  the  fungus  from  one 
piece  of  timber  to  another,  even 
when  the  pieces  are  separated  by 
some  material  from  which  the 
fungus  can  derive  no  sustenance, 
but  which  it  will  use  as  a  bridge, 
such  as  brick  or  stone.  The  com- 
mon idea  that  the  fungus  eats 
away  the  interior  of  beams  which 
outwardly  appear  sound  is  pro- 
bably erroneous.  Thus,  in  the  old 
roof  of  Westminster  Hall  some  of 
the  beams  and  rafters  were  hol- 
lowed to  mere  shells,  but  it  was 
found  that  the  damage  was  due 
to  a  boring  beetle.  Dry  rot,  it  is 
believed,  cannot  develop  (though 
it  may  long  remain  latent)  in  wood 
to  which  air-currents  have  free 
access,  and  from  which  moisture 
is  excluded. 


Conformably  to  this  assumption, 
architects  and  builders  are  legally 
required  to  provide  effective  venti- 
lation and  otherwise  prevent  damp- 
ness by  inserting  damp  -  proof 
courses,  concreting  foundations, 
and  forming  dry  areas  (see  Brick- 
work; Building).  Steeping  the 
wood  in  corrosive  sublimate  has 
been  recommended  as  an  addi- 
tional precaution  against  dry  rot. 
The  dry  rot  of  oak-built  ships  is 
usually  due  to  another  species  of 
fungus,  Poria  hybrida. 

Drysaltery.  Term  applied  to 
the  business  of  a  drysalter  or  the 
articles  sold  by  him.  These  consist 
of  heavy  chemicals  (borax,  salt, 
soda,  sulphur,  etc.),  dye-stuffs 
(alkanet,  indigo,  etc.),  gums 
(arabic,  shellac,  kauri,  resin),  oils 
(paraffin,  linseed  oil,  boiled  oil,  tur- 
pentine), and  crude  drugs  (linseed, 
senna,  Epsom  salt,  Glauber's  salt, 
etc.).  Drysalters  also  sell  pickles, 
preserved  meat,  and  sauces. 

D.S.C.       Abbrev.    for    Distin- 
guished Service  Cross  (q.v.)   (for- 
merly Conspicuous  Service  Cross). 
D.Sc.     Abbreviation  for  Doctor 
of  Science. 

D.S.M.  Abbrev.  for  Distin- 
guished Service  Medal  (q.v). 

D.S.O.  Abbreviation  for  com- 
panion of  the  Distinguished  Service 
Order  (q.v.). 

Dual.  Grammatical  form  origi- 
nally used  in  some  languages  to 
express  the  idea  of  things  naturally 
thought  of  in  pairs,  as  the  eyes  and 
feet.  It  was  then  extended  to  other 
objects  associated  in  twos  (two 
men,  two  books).  It  is  found  in 
Sanskrit,  ancient  Greek,  Arabic, 
and  Hebrew,  and  traces  of  it  occur 
in  Anglo-Saxon. 

Duala.  Town  and  district  of 
Cameroons,  W.  Africa,  The  town 
is  situated  on  the  Cameroons  river 
about  18m.  from  the  sea,  and  is  the 
chief  seaport  of  Cameroons.  Duala 
proper,  i.e.  the  port  and  European 
quarters,  occupies  the  site  of  the 
former  Bell  Town.  Akwa  is  a  large 
native  centre  and  Dido  the  residen- 
tial quarter  for  the  native  clerks 
and  workmen  employed  at  the  port. 
These  three  towns,  known  collec- 
tively as  Duala,  represented  the 
headquarters  of  the  three  native 
chiefs  at  the  time  of  the  German 
occupation  in  1884. 

Duala  occupies  a  position  of 
great  importance  with  respect  to 
maritime  trade  in  W.  Africa.  The 
Northern  Riy.  runs  from  Bona- 
beri,  opposite  Duala,  northward, 
and  will  eventually  be  prolonged  to 
a  poiat  on  the  Shari  river,  probably 
Fort  Lamy.  The  Midland  Riy. 
leaves  Duala  in  a  southerly  direc- 
tion and  runs  to  the  Njong  river, 
whence  it  will  be  continued  to 
Wesso,  on  the  navigable  Sanga 


tributary  of  the  Congo,  in  the  one 
direction,  and  to  Bangui,  on  the 
Ubangi  river,  in  the  other.  Duala 
will  thus  become  the  main  outlet 
for  French  Equatorial  Africa  and 
the  Lake  Chad  region.  There  is  an 
extensive  trade  in  palm  oil  and 
palm  kernels,  cocoa,  and  rubber. 
Duala  is  now  in  the  French  sphere. 
It  was  captured  by  a  combined 
British  and  French  force  on  Sept. 
27,  1914.  Pop.  of  district,  77,000, 
and  of  town  22,000.  See  Cameroons, 
Conquest  of;  also  illus.  p.  1612. 

Dual  Control.  Any  system  of 
controls  for  engine  and  aeroplane, 
whereby  either  the  pilot  or  pas- 
senger can  operate  them.  It  is 
principally  employed  in  the  instruc- 
tion of  pupils.  Two  sets  of  rudder 
and  control  levers  are  installed,  and 
these  are  interconnected  so  that 
the  instructor  can  correct  the  faults 
of  the  pupil.  See  Airmanship. 

Dual  Ignition.  Arrangement 
by  which  two  forms  of  ignition 
apparatus  are  fitted  to  an  engine. 
One  system  is  by  accumulator  and 
coil  for  starting  purposes,  and  by 
magneto  for  the  subsequent  opera- 
tion. The  term  is  sometimes  applied 
to  the  system  of  fitting  two  spark- 
ing plugs  to  the  engine  cylinder  in 
order  to  produce  two  sparks  simul- 
taneously and  thus  facilitate  the 
ignition  of  the  explosive  mixture. 

Dualism  (Lat.  dualis,  contain- 
ing two).  The  assumption  of  two 
principles,  as  opposed  to  monism, 
the  assumption  of  one.  It  may 
be  applied  to  man  (anthropologi- 
cal), to  God  (theological),  to  the 
world  and  existence  (cosmological, 
metaphysical).  Anthropological 
dualism  regards  man's  body  and 
soul  as  two  distinct  existences ; 
theological  dualism  assumes  two 
first  principles,  a  good  and  a 
bad,  eternally  in  conflict ;  cosmo- 
logical dualism  lays  down  two 
original  substances  or  entities, 
mind  and  matter,  thinking  sub- 
stance and  extended  substance,  of 
which  everything  is  composed. 

In  the  ancient  philosophies  dual- 
ism appeared  as  the  opposition  of 
matter  and  form,  later  as  a  contest 
between  objectivity  and  subjec- 
tivity, the  last  attempt  to  reconcile 
them  being  that  of  neo-Platonism. 
Descartes  was  the  first  of  modern 
philosophers  to  substitute  for  this 
the  dualism  of  mind  and  matter, 
and  from  his  time  the  question  how 
their  relation  to  each  other  as  mani- 
fested in  experience  is  to  be  inter- 
preted has  engaged  the  attention 
of  thinkers  without  any  satisfac- 
tory or  generally  accepted  explana- 
tion being  reached.  The  reaction 
against  idealism,  which  amounted 
to  an  abolition  of  dualism,  has  led 
to  the  reassertion  of  the  latter  by 
some  philosophical  writers. 


DUAL  MONARCHY 


2702 


DUBLIN 


Dual  Monarchy.  Name  given 
to  the  empire  of  Austria- Hungary. 
Formed  in  1867  by  the  union  of 
Austria  and  Hungary,  for  half 
a  century  the  two  countries  were 
joined  under  the  same  ruler,  em- 
peror of  Austria  and  king  of  Hun- 
gary. As  a  result  of  the  Great 
War  they  became  separate  re- 
publics. See  Austria-Hungary: 
Czecho-Slovakia. 

Duars.  Submontane  tract  of 
N.  India.  The  land  at  the  foot  of 
the  Himalayas  is  known  as  the 
tarai  or  terai ;  it  is  largely  jungle 
forest,  inhabited  by  wild  beasts, 
and  has  heavy  monsoon  rains. 
Portions  of  the  luxurious  vegeta- 
tion have  been  cleared  for  tea 
plantations,  paddy  fields,  and  jute 
and  tobacco  crops.  The  width  of 
the  duars  is  about  25m.,  and  the 
total  area  3,500  sq.  m.  Pop. 
120,000. 

Dubail,  AUGUSTIN  YVON  ED- 
MOND  (b.  1851).  French  soldier. 
Born  at  Belfort,  April  15,  1851,  he 
became  a  lieu- 
tenant of  in- 
fantry in  the 
French  army 
in  1870,  and 
served  in  the 
Franco  -  P  r  u  s- 
sian  War.  For 
ten  years  he 
was  chief  of 
staff  of  the  Al- 
gerian Division 
and  colonel  of  the  1st  Zouave  Regi- 
ment in  Algeria.  On  his  return  to 
France,  after  holding  various  ap- 
pointments, he  became  chief  of 
staff  of  the  French  army,  com- 
mander of  the  9th  Army  Corps, 
and  a  member  of  the  superior 
council  of  war.  On  the  outbreak  of 
the  Great  War  Dubail  was  given  the 
command  of  the  French  First  Army 
operating  in  Alsace  and  Lorraine, 
successfully  defended  Nancy,  and 
afterwards  held  up  the  Germans  on 
the  Heights  of  the  Meuse.  In  April, 
1916,  he  was  appointed  military 
governor  of  Paris,  and  held  that 
position  till  June,  1918. 

Dubawnt.  River  and  lake  of 
the  N.W.  Territories,  Canada. 
The  river  rises  from  Wholdaia 
Lake,  almost  on  the  border  of  Sas- 
katchewan, and  flows  almost  due 
N.N.E.  to  Dubawnt  Lake.  Issu- 
ing from  this,  it  bends  round  to  the 
N.  again  and  then  turns  E.  until 
It  falls  into  Chesterfield  Inlet,  in 
Hudson  Bay.  Its  length  is  about 
580  m;.  The  lake  is  really  an  ex- 
tension of  the  river  and  is  about 
1 ,650  sq.  m.  in  extent.  Other  lakes 
on  the  course  are  Aberdeen  and 
Baker.  The  river's  main  tributary 
is  the  Thelon,  which  joins  it  as  it 
turns  E.  It  was  discovered  in  1 770. 
The  Dubawnt  Basin  foims  part  of 


Augustin  Dubail, 
•  French  soldier 


the  Barren  Grounds,  almost  treeless 
and  frequently  frostbound,  even 
during  certain  summers: 

Dubbin.  Dressing  applied  to 
leather  to  soften  it  and  render  it 
waterproof.  It  is  composed  of 
Russian  tallow  softened  with  cod- 
liver  oil  and  is  especially  employed 
for  waterproofing  heavy  boots. 

Dubbo.  Town  of  New  South 
Wales.  It  stands  on  the  Mac- 
quarie  river,  278  m.  by  rly.  N.W. 
of  Sydney,  and  is  the  trade  centre 
of  a  vast  pastoral  and  coal  and 
copper  mining  area.  Pop.  5,389 

Dubica.  Town  of  Yugo-Slavia. 
It  is  situated  on  both  banks  of  the 
Una,  one  portion  being  in  Croatia 
and  the  other  in  Bosnia.  The 


Dublin    Map  oi  this  maritime  county 
of  Ireland,  in  the  province  of  Leinste; 

Croatian  town  is  served  by  the 
main  line  of  rly.  from  Zagreb  to 
Belgrade.  Pop.  Croatian  portion, 


7,330,  almost  equally  divided 
between  Roman  Catholic  Croats 
and  Greek  Orthodox  Serbs  ;  Bos- 
nian portion,  3,500,  three-quarters 
Mahomedans. 

Dubissa.  River  of  Russia.  It 
joins  the  Niemen  W.  of  Kovno, 
in  the  govt.  of  that  name.  It  came 
into  prominence  in  1915  during  the 
fighting  between  the  Russians  and 
Germans  when  the  latter  at- 
tempted to  overrun  the  Baltic 
provinces.  After  heavy  fighting 
(May-July)  along  the  river  line, 
on  July  20  the  Germans  broke 
through  the  Russian  positions. 
See  Courland. 

Dublin,  Eastern    maritime 

county  of  Ireland,  in  the  prov..  of 
Leinster,  with  about  72  m.  of 
coast-line  including  indentations. 
Dublin  Bay  is  the  largest  inlet,  the 
Liffey,  which  debouches  into  it,  the 
chief  river,  and  Howth  Head  the 
most  prominent  cape.  Lam  bay 
and  several  smaller  islands  near  the 
coast  are  included  in  the  county. 
Mountains  occur  in  the  S.  (Kippure, 
2,473  ft. ),  but  the  surface  is  gener- 
ally a  gently  undulating  plain, 
almost  entirely  under  cultivation, 
wheat,  oats,  barley,  and  potatoes 
being  the  chief  crops  raised  :  the  N. 
and  W.  parts  contain  much  pasture 
land.  Mineral  products  include 
lead  and  copper  ores,  and  granite ; 
fishing  is  a  thriving  industry,  and 
the  leading  manufactures  are 
whisky,  beer,  and  hosiery.  The 
G.S.  and  W.,  M.G.W.,  G.N.I.,  L. 
&  N.W.,  and  the  D.  &  S.E.  Rlys. 
afford  communication.  Dublin 
(county  town)  and  Kingstown  are 
the  most  important  towns.  Former- 
ly it  returned  4  members  to  Parlia- 
ment. Its  area  is  342  sq.  m.  Pop. 
exclusive  of  Dublin  city,  172,394. 


DUBLIN:  CAPITAL  OF  IRISH  FREE  STATE 

Arthur  W.  Garbutt,  of  The  Irish  Times 

In  addition  to  the  following  article  there  are  articles  on  all  the  Irish 

cities  and  towns  ;  also  on  the  Liffey ;  Phoenix  Park,  etc.     See  also, 

for  the  events  of  1916-20,  Ireland:  History ;  Sinn  Fein 


The   city   of   Dublin   is   a   sea- 
port, county,  and  parl.  borough  in 
the  prov.  of  Leinster.  It  is  situated 
on  Dublin  Bay,  at 
the  mouth  of  the 
Liffey,  61  m.   W. 
of  Holyhead.  En- 
closed by  the  Cir- 
cular Road,  9  m. 
in  circuit,  the  city 
is  divided  into  two 
nearly  equal  parts 
Dublin  city        _N.   and   S.— by 
the  Liffey,  which 
is  spanned  by  12  bridges. 

Dublin  may  be  the  Eblana  of 
Ptolemy.  The  name  means  Flack 
Pool  (Dubh-Linn),  suggested  by  the 
pool  at  the  confluence  of  the  tribu- 


tary Poddle  with  the  Liffey,  which 
otherwise  spread  over  marshy 
land.  A  track  made  of  hurdles 
across  the  marshes  gave  the  place 
its  older  name  of  Ath  Cliath.  The 
Poddle  is  now  a  sewer  under  Dub- 
lin's oldest  streets,  but  the  place  of 
its  outflow  to  the  Liffey  was  the  site 
of  the  oldest  elements  of  the  city, 
and  the  Custom  House  stood  there 
till  the  close  of  the  18th  century. 
In  this  area  arc  Christchurch  Cathe- 
dral, founded  in  1038  and  estab- 
lished as  a  cathedral  in  1541,  and 
S.  Patrick's  Cathedral,  founded  in 
1190  and  restored  in  1865  at  the 
expense  of  Sir  B.  L.  Guinness.  Both 
are  in  the  hands  of  the  Protest- 
ants ;  the  Roman  Catholics,  though 


• 


Dublin.     1.  Bank  of  Ireland,  the  Houses  of  Parliament,  until  the  Union  of  1800.     a.  Viceregal  Lodge,  JPhoenix  Park. 

formerly   the  residence    of  the   Viceroy.      3.    Four   Courts,    King's   Inn   Quay,   before   the   bombardment   of   1932 

4.  S.  Patrick's  Cathedral  from  the  N.E.     5.  Custom  House,  before  destruction  by  fire,  1921.     6.  College  Green  •  left  the 

Bank  of  Ireland  ;  facing,  Trinity  College.    7.  SackvUle  Street,  looking  towards  the  Nelson  Pillar 


numerically    the    larger    element, 
have  so  far  only  a  pro-cathedral. 

Near  S.  Patrick's  cathedral,  which 
includes  memorials  of  Stella  and  of 
Dean  Swift,  who  was  born  in  Hoey's 
Court,  is  a  district  formerly  inha- 
bited by  a  colony  of  weavers  and 
their  descendants,  who  carried  on 
a  once  important  industry.  Of 


provements  have  been  effected  in 
recent  years.  The  Dublin  Port 
and  Docks  Board,  created  in 
1898,  exercises  control  over  the 
port.  The  Grand  Canal  Docks  lie 
on  the  S.  side  of  the  river.  The 
handsome  Custom  House,  de- 
stroyed by  fire  by  Sinn  Feiners  in 
1921,  was  on  one  of  the  northern 

present  industrial  importance  are     quays.   Westwards  from  O'Connell 
5 Bridge 


the  breweries  and  distilleries 
notably  Guinness's  —  in  this  S.W. 
quarter  of  the  city.  From  the  cen- 
tre at  College  Green,  going  S.  by 
Grafton  Street  —  the  Bond  Street  of 
Dublin  —  Stephen's  Green,  a  well 
laid-out  public  park,  is  reached,  and 
beyond  it  are  the  suburbs  of  Rath- 
mines,  Rathgar,  Ranelagh,  and 
Donnybrook.  Northwards  from 
College  Green,  another  radial  cuts 
the  Liffey  at  O'Connell  Bridge, 
and  is  continued  along  a  broad 
thoroughfare  well  known  as  Sack- 
ville  or  O'Connell  Street,  which 
is  being  handsomely  restored  after 
the  destruction  caused  in  the 
insurrection  of  1916.  Eastwards, 
on  both  sides  of  the  Liffey,  run  the 
lines  of  quays  ;  there  are  also  docks 
and  ship  building  yards  of  rapidly 
increasing  importance. 

The  harbour  is  protected  by  two 
large  breakwaters,  and  great  im- 


are the  Four  Courts  Build- 


ings, much  damaged  in  1922  ;  and 
further  up  the  Liffey,  on  its  N. 
bank,  is  the  main  gate  of  Phoenix 
Park,  in  which  are  situated  the 
viceregal  lodge,  the  lodge  formerly 
occupied  by  the  chief  secretary,  for- 
mer headquarters  of  the  R.I.C.,  an 
infirmary,  the  zoological  gardens, 
and  a  fine  polo-ground.  The  park, 
1,750  acres  in  extent,  was  the  scene 
in  1882  of  the  assassination  of 
Cavendish  and  Burke. 

The  shipment  of  live  stock  is  one 
of  the  chief  activities  of  Dublin 
port.  Other  industries  not  already 
mentioned  are  biscuit-making  and 
the  preparation  of  artificial  man- 
ures and  fertilisers.  With  govern- 
ment departments,  the  judicature, 
the  two  chief  universities,  and 
national  organizations  of  all  kinds 
centred  in  Dublin,  the  civil  service 
and  professional  element  is  at  least 


as  important  as  the  commercial 
In  May  1924  the  Dublin  corpor- 
ation was  dissolved  by  the  Irish 
Free  State  ministry  for  local  gov- 
ernment, and  its  powers  transferred 
to  three  commissioners ;  its  duties 
were  not  being  effectually  dis- 
charged. The  municipal  council 
consisted  of  80  members,  one  alder- 
man and  three  councillors  to  each 
of  20  wards.  The  corporation  had, 
however,  to  deal  with  the  old,  over- 
crowded city  area,  expensive  to 
administer  without  assistance  from 
the  newer  and  more  easily  admin- 
istered suburbs,  which  have  pro 
f  erred  to  remain  independent, 
though  their  inhabitants,  for  the 
most  part,  make  their  living  in  the 
city.  The  valuation  on  March  1. 
1919,  was  £1,136,519.  The  elec 
tricity  supply  is  municipal,  but  not 
the  gas;  the  corporation  controlled 
an  excellent  water  supply  for 
Dublin  and  its  dependent  areas, 
but  the  tramway  service  is  an  in 
dependent  enterprise. 

Dublin  has  many  educational  and 
artistic  institutions.  The  chief  of 
these  are  Dublin  University  or 
Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  the 
National  University,  virtually  a 
Roman  Catholic  university.  The 
former  has  a  well-known  medical 


DUBLIN 


2704 


DUBLIN 


school,  and  there  are  also  the  Royal 
College  of  Physicians  and  the  Royal 
College  of  Surgeons  of  Ireland,  both 
examining  and  to  some  extent 
teaching  bodies.  The  National  Gal- 
lery of  Art  and  National  Portrait 
Gallery  has  acquired  a  fairly  good 
collection,  considering  the  lateness 
of  its  start.  To  the  energy  and  bril- 
liant ventures  of  the  late  Sir  Hugh 
Lane  was  due  the  assembly  of  a 
unique  modern  art  collection  as  a 
municipal  gallery,  which  contains 
a  number  of  representative  works 
by  modern  and  contemporary  art- 
ists, British,  Irish,  and  foreign. 

Dublin  has  long  taken  a  lively 
interest  in  music  and  the  drama,  as 
befitted  the  birthplace  of  Balfe  and 
Sheridan  and  the  scene  of  the 
first  production  of  The  Messiah 
under  Handel's  personal  direction. 
Its  Abbey  Theatre  (q.v.)  was  the 
home  of  a  significant  modern  move- 
ment in  drama,  and  is  still  conduc- 
ted on  repertory  lines.  The  Royal 
Irish  Academy  of  Music  maintains  a 
high  standard  of  musical  teaching 
Dublin  Horse  Show 

The  Royal  Dublin  Society,  which 
has  a  noble  home  in  the  former 
town  house  of  the  dukes  of  Lein- 
ster,  includes  music  among  its 
varied  subjects ;  other  subjects 
are  scientific  research,  the  improve- 
ment of  Irish  horse-  and  stock- 
breeding  and  agriculture  in  Ireland 
generally.  It  holds  the  annual 
Dublin  Horse  Show,  famous  for  the 
display  of  hunters  and  for  the  bril- 
liant social  season  associated  with 
it  in  August.  The  Royal  Irish 
Academy,  which  has  a  commo- 
dious Academy  House  next  to  the 
Mansion  House,  while  generally 
promoting  the  humanities,  speci- 
ally favours  archaeological  and 
antiquarian  studies.  There  are  four 
morning  and  three  evening  daily 
papers,  and  numerous  periodicals. 
An  Irish  Republican  parliament, 
consisting  of  Sinn  Fein  members 
who  were  elected  by  Irish  con- 
stituencies at  the  general  election 
of  Nov.,  1918,  but  did  not  attend 
the  Imperial  parliament  at  West- 
minster, held  several  sessions  at 
the  Mansion  House  in  1919-20. 

Rly.  facilities  are  adequate,  the 
city  being  served  by  several  lines, 
and  communication  with  the  Shan- 
non is  effected  by  the  Royal  and 
Grand  canals.  A  regular  steam- 
boat service  is  maintained  with  the 
principal  ports  of  Great  Britain. 
The  annual  value  of  exports 
amounts  to  £3,000,000,  and  the  im- 
ports to  £150,000.  The  celebrated 
Dublin  horse  and  cattle  shows  are 
held  at  Ball's  Bridge.  Market  days, 
Tues., Wed.,  and  Fri.  Pop.  304,802. 

HISTORY.  Dublin  begins  its 
history  as  a  Scandinavian  settle- 
ment, a  base,  often  hardly  main- 


Dublin.    Flan  of  the  capital  of  the  Irish  Free  State,  showing  the  situation 
of  the  Castle  and  other  principal  buildings 


tained  against  the  assaults  of  the 
native  Irish  and  their  allies,  for  the 
Norse  rovers.  A  dist.  of  old  Dublin 
is  still  called  Oxmantown,  from 
Ostmen-town,  the  invaders  being 
called  Ostmen.  Between  the  Norse 
settlers  and  foragers  and  various 
Irish  chieftains  and  tribes  a  bitter 
and  alternating  conflict  was  waged 
for  centuries,  and  the  battle  of 
Clontarf,  fought  on  the  N.  side  of 
the  city  in  1014,  was  the  bloodiest 
of  a  long  series  of  encounters.  In 
1170  the  Anglo-Norman  adven- 
turers under  Strongbow  came,  and 
for  long  thereafter  Dublin  was  the 
capital  of  the  English  Pale.  Henry 
II  granted  the  city  to  his  "  subjects 
of  Bristol "  in  1173,  500  of  whom 
were  massacred  at  Cullens  Wood 
on  Easter  (Black)  Monday,  1209. 
Dublin  suffered  greatly  during  the 
Civil  War,  and  in  1647  was  sur- 
rendered by  the  duke  of  Ormonde, 
who  two  years  later  was  defeated 
at  the  battle  of  Rathmines.  James 
II  held  a  parliament  here  in  1689. 
The  chief  events  of  more  recent 
timeswere  the  rebellions  of  1798and 
1803,  the  Sinn  Fein  revolt  of  1916, 
and  the  battle  of  July,  1922. 
The  Irish  Parliament 

The  title  of  lord  mayor  was  given 
to  the  city's  chief  magistrate  by 
Charles  II  in  1665.  In  1729  the 
building  of  the  houses  of  parlia- 
ment for  the  Irish  parliament  was 
commenced,  and  the  period  of  the 
Irish  parliament  was  a  brilliant  one 
for  Dublin.  It  ended  in  1800  with 
the  Act  of  Union.  There  was  a 
serious  rising  in  Dublin  at  Easter, 
1916,  and  further  trouble  there 
during  the  disorders  of  1919-22. 

Bibliography.  The  Book  of  Trinity 
College,  Dublin  (Belfast),  1892; 
Thorn's  Business  Directory  of  Dub- 
lin and  Suburbs,  1906,  etc.  ;  The 


Story  of  Dublin,  D.  A.  Chart,  1907  ; 
Dublin,  S.  A.  O.  Fitzpatrick,  1907  ; 
Disturbed  Dublin :  story  of  the 
general  strike,  1913-14,  A.  Wright, 
1914. 

Dublin  BAY.  Inlet  of  the  Irish 
Sea.  It  penetrates  the  E.  coast  of 
Ireland  as  far  as  Dublin,  a  depth 
of  about  10  m.,  and  from  its  en- 
trance at  Howth  peninsula  on  the 
N.  to  Kingstown  on  the  S.  is  6  m. 
Owing  to  its  difficult  navigation 
numerous  lighthouses  have  been 
erected  along  its  shores.  The  Liffey 
is  the  principal  river  discharging 
into  the  bay.  TheHill  of  Howth  at 
its  N.  end  (562  ft. )  and  Killiney  Hill 
at  its  S.  (480  ft. )  form  conspicuous 
landmarks  at  the  entrance.  Its 
depth  varies  from  2£  to  10  fathoms. 
Dublin  AND  SOUTH-EASTERN 
RAILWAY.  Irish  rly.  from  Dublin 
to  Waterford.  It  has  a  total  mile- 
age of  218,  and  its  headquarters 
and  works  are  in  Dublin,  where  it 
owns  Westland  Row  station.  The 
line  was  opened  in  1856,  and  took 
over  an  older  one,  the  Dublin  and 
Kingstown.  Until  1907  it  was 
known  as  the  Dublin,  Wicklow, 
and  Wexford  Rly.  It  has  a  capital 
of  £2,500,000  and  owns  two  hotels. 
Dublin  FUSILIERS,  ROYAL.  For- 
mer regiment  of  the  British  army. 
It  originated  in  the  early  days  of  the 
British  rule  in 
India.  In  1662 
a  regiment  was 
raised  in  Eng- 
land for  the  de- 
fence of  Bom- 
bay, and  was 
soon  taken  into 
Royal  Dublin  the  service  of 
Fusiliers  badge  the  East  India 
Company.  In  1748  another  was 
formed  to  serve  at  Madras,  and 
the  two  were  known  as  the 


DUBLIN 


2705 


DUBOIS 


Bombay  and  Madras  Fusiliers. 
They  fought  at  Plassey,  Wande- 
wash,  Seringapatam,  Nundydroog, 
and  elsewhere,  went  to  Aden 
and  Burma,  and  took  part  in 
Mahratta  and  Sikh  campaigns. 
In  the  Indian  Mutiny  they  marched 
under  Havelock  to  the  relief  of 
Lucknow,  and  when  the  East  India 
Company  ceased  to  exist  became 
regiments  of  the  British  army,  the 
102nd  and  103rd.  In  1881  the  two 
were  united  as  the  Royal  Dublin 
Fusiliers. 

The  regiment  rendered  con- 
spicuous service  in  the  S.  African 
War.  In  the  Great  War  the  2nd 
batt.  was  in  the  Mons  retreat,  and 
the  1st  shared  in  the  landing  in 
Gallipoli,  April  25,  1915.  The  6th 
and  7th  Dublin  Fusiliers,  part  of 
the  29th  brigade  of  a  new  Irish 
division  raised  by  Kitchener,  took 
part  in  the  later  Gallipoli  operation  s. 
The  8th  and  9th  fought  in  the  battle 
of  the  Somme,  and  the  10th  helped 
the  naval  men  in  the  attack  along 
the  Ancre,  Nov.,  1916.  It  was  dis- 
banded in  1922. 

Dublin  SOCIETY,  ROYAL.  Irish 
learned  society.  It  was  founded 
in  1684  as  the  Dublin  Philosophical 
Society,  on  the  model  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  London,  Sir  William 
Petty  being  the  first  president.  It 
obtained  a  botanic  garden,  a  mu- 
seum, and  a  laboratory,  but  came 
to  an  end  in  1687.  In  1693  it  was 
rcfounded,  and  Trinity  College 
became  its  home.  This  society, 
too,  failed  to  last,  and  in  1731  was 
succeeded  by  the  Dublin  Society 
for  improving  husbandry,  manu- 
factures, and  other  useful  arts.  In 
1750  this  was  incorporated  as  the 
Royal  Dublin  Society,  and,  aided 
by  grants  of  public  money,  did  much 
for  Irish  industries  and  art.  It  has 
published  its  Transactions  and  Pro- 
ceedings, and  issues  a  journal.  The 
headquarters  are  at  Leinster  House, 
Kildare  Street,  Dublin. 

Dublin  UNIVERSITY.  Irish  uni- 
versity, consisting  of  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Dublin.  Founded  in  1591, 
it  has  always  been  the  educa- 
tional headquarters  of  Protestant 
Ireland,  and  its  religious  tests 
were  only  abolished  in  1873. 
It  is  governed  by  a  chancellor, 
senate,  and  council ;  the  executive 
head  is  the  provost.  There  are 
senior  fellows,  junior  fellows,  and 
scholars,  and  its  courses  resemble 
those  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge, 
with  which  Trinity  is  closely  con- 
nected. ^  Undergraduates,  as  a 
general  rule,  must  reside  for  a  cer- 
tain period  in  college,  or  in  the 
vicinity.  The  normal  course  is  four 
years  :  those  therein  being  known 
as  junior  freshmen,  senior  fresh- 
men, junior  sophisters,  and  senior 
sopbisters.  The  buildings,  which 


are  entered  from  College  Green,  are 
very  extensive.  Parliament  Square 
contains  the  chapel,  dining-hall, 
and  examination  hall,  while  in 
Library  Square  is  the  library  with  a 
priceless  collection  of  manuscripts. 

Among  the  modern  buildings  are 
the  museum,  and  those  for  the 
medical  school.  Around  is  the  col- 
lege park,  while  at  Dunsink  is  the 
university  observatory.  The  col- 
lege has  also  various  museums 
and  laboratories,  as  well  as  botanic 
gardens.  Women  have  been  eligi  bl  e 
fop  the  degrees  since  1903,  and 
for  them  there  is  residential  ac- 
commodation in  Trinity  Hall. 
Goldsmith,  Burke,  and  Berkeley, 
as  well  as  the  great  Irish  orators 
and  statesmen,  were  here.  In 
the  19th  century  may  be  men- 
tioned Lecky,  Dowden,  Mahaffy, 
and  Bury.  There  is  also  in 
Dublin  another  university,  the 
National  University  of  Ireland,  a 
Roman  Catholic  institution. 

Dubno.  Town  of  Ukrainia,  in 
the  govt.  of  Volhynia.  It  stands  on 
the  Ikva,  32  m.  W.  of  Ostrog.  The 
inhabitants,  chiefly  Jews,  are  en- 
gaged in  tanning,  brick-making, 
and  tobacco  manufacture.  At  the 
two  yearly  fairs  much  trade  is  done 
in  grain,  cattle,  wool,  and  tobacco. 
In  the  Middle  Ages,  Dubno  as- 
semblies of  the  Polish  nobility 
were  held  there.  Pop.  14,000. 

Dubno,  BATTLES  OF.  Fought 
between  the  Russians  and  Austro- 
Germans,  1915-16.  The  first  phase 
was  the  campaign  of  Aug. -Sept., 

1915,  leading  up  to  the  capture  of 
Dubno  by  the  Austrians.  After  the 
fall  of  Kovno  and  Brest-Litovsk 
in  1915,  Gen.  E  vert's  line  formed 
a   large   salient    on   the    Russian 
front,  and  Hindenburg  designed  to 
concentrate  an  immense  force  to 
envelop  the  Russian  armies. 

The  great  blow  for  Dubno  was 
launched  towards  the  end  of  Aug. 
along  the  front  from  the  Dniester 
to  the  S.  fringe  of  the  Pripet,  with 
the  result  that  Dubno,  Brody,  and 
Lustk,  and  the  line  of  the  Strypa 
river,  fell  to  the  Austrians.  The 
Russians'  counter-attacks  in  Sept. 
and  Oct.  proved  unsuccessful,  and 
Dubno  remained  in  Austrian  hands. 

The  second  battle,   June-July, 

1916,  culminated  in  the  recapture 
of  Dubno  by  the  Russians.     The 
Russians,   under  Brusiloff ,   began  ' 
their  great  offensive  against  the 
Austro-Germans  on  the  S.  part  of 
the  E.  front  on  June  4,  1916,  at- 
tacking on  the  whole  front  from 
the  Pripet  to  the  Pruth,  but  mak- 
ing progress  mainly  in  Volhynia 
and  in  the  Bukowina. 

The  Austrians,  with  consider- 
able German  supports,  made  a 
determined  effort  to  prevent  the 
Russians  from  crossing  the  Ikva, 


but  after  a  swaying  battle  lasting 
four  days  the  Russians  captured 
Dubno  on  June  9. 

Dubois.  Borough  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, U.S.A.,  in  Clearfield  co.  It 
is  78  m.  direct  and  129  m.  by  rly. 
N.E.  of  Pittsburg,  and  is  served 
by  the  Pennsylvania  and  other 
rlys.  A  busy  trading  centre  for 
coal  worked  in  the  locality,  it  has 
ironworks,  blast  furnaces,  railway 
repair  shops,  and  glass  factories. 
Settled  in  1873,  it  was  incorporated 
in  1881.  Pop.  14,010. 

Dubois,  CLEMENT  FRANCOIS 
THEODORE  (1837-1924).  French 
composer  BornatRosnay,Marne, 
Aug.  24,  1837,  he  studied  music 
at  the  Paris  Conservatoire,  where 
he  became  a  professor  in  1871,  and 
was  its  director  from  1896-1905. 
He  was  organist  of  the  Madeleine, 
1875-96.  Dubois's  comDOsitions  in. 
elude  operas  and  oratorios.  Ho 
died  June  11,  1924. 

Dubois,      GUILLAUME     (1656- 
1723).        French    statesman    and 
cardinal.  Born  at  Brive,  Limousin, 
Sept.  6,  1656, 
he    was     edu- 
cated  by    the 
monks   in    his 
native     town, 
and       entered 
their  order.  He 
completed    his 
education      at 
Paris,      where 
a   friend,    An- 
toine      Faure, 
secured    for 
him    the    post    of    tutor    to    the 
prince,  who    became    the    regent, 
Philip  of  Orleans.    Dubois  showed 
a  taste  for  political  intrigue,  and   | 
after    1715,   when  Philip   became 
regent,  was  his  chief  counsellor. 

The  great  work  of  the  priest 
was  to  reverse  the  traditional 
policy  of  Louis  XIV.  He  was 
strongly  hostile  to  Spain,  and 
brought  about  an  alliance  between 
France  and  Great  Britain  and 
Holland.  Dubois  secured  the 
archbishopric  of  Cambrai,  and 
was  made  a  cardinal  in  1721.  He 
remained  chief  minister  when 
Louis  XV  came  of  age,  but  almost 
at  once  died  at  Versailles,  Aug.  10, 
1723.  See  Memoirs  of  Cardinal 
Dubois,  P.  Lacroix,  Eng.  trans.  E. 
Dowson,  1899. 

Dubois,  PAUL  (1829-1905). 
French  sculptor  and  painter.  Born 
at  Nogent-sur-Seine,  July  18, 1829, 
he  studied  under  Toussaint  and 
at  the  Beaux  Arts.  From  1880 
he  exhibited  regularly  in  both  the 
sculpture  and  the  painting  sections 
of  the  Salon,  excelling  in  por- 
traiture, and  became  keeper  of  the 
Luxembourg  and  director  of  the 
Beaux  Arts.  He  died  in  Paris, 
May  23,  1905. 

n    4 


Guillanme  Dubois, 
French  statesman 


Pierre  J.  Dubois, 
French  soldier 

Manuel 


Dubois,  PIERRE  JOSEPH  Louis 
ALFRED  (b.  1852).  French  soldier. 
Born  at  Sedan,  Nov.  21,  1852,  he 
joined  the 
French  army 
as  a  lieutenant 
of  the  24th 
Dragoon  regi- 
ment in  Oct.,v 
1874.  He  saw 
active  service 
in  Algeria  and 
Tunisia(1882), 
and  again  in 
Algeria,  1885- 
86.  Promoted 
brigadier-general  in  March,  1905,  he 
was  made  director  of  cavalry  under 
the  minister  of  war  in  the  following 
Aug.  In  April,  1913,  he  was  ap- 
pointed commander  of  the  9th  Army 
Corps,  and  when  the  Great  War 
broke  out  this  corps,  forming  part 
of  the  Second  Army,  under  Castel- 
nau,  was  heavily  engaged  in  the 
region  of  Nancy,  Aug.-Sept ,  1914. 
Later  the  corps  formed  part  of 
the  army  of  Belgium,  incessantly 
fighting  from  Oct.  21  to  Nov.  13, 
1914.  Dubois  was  made  G.C-M.G. 
in  Dec.,  1914.  He  was  put  at  the 
head  of  the  French  Sixth  Army 
in  1915,  and  in  1916  was  in  com- 
mand at  Verdun.  He  was  placed 
in  the  reserve  in  1917,  after  holding 
various  commands. 

Dubovka.  Town  of  Russia  in 
the  govt.  of  Saratov  It  stands  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Volga,  32  m. 
N.N.E.  of  Tsaritsyn.  There  are 
tanneries  and  mustard  factories, 
and  considerable  trade  is  done  in 
salt.  Dubovka,  formerly  the  re- 
sidence of  the  hetman  of  the  Volga 
Cossacks,  has  lost  its  importance 
since  the  construction  of  the  Volga- 
Don  Rly.  Pop.  17,000.  ' 

Dubuque.  City  of  Iowa,  U.S.A., 
the  co.  seat  of  Dubuque  co.  It 
stands  on  the  Mississippi  river, 
168  m.  W.N.W.  of  Chicago,  and  is 
served  by  the  Chicago  Great  Wes- 
tern and  other  rlys.  An  important 
river  port  and  rly.  centre,  it  com- 
municates with  the  E.  bank  of  the 
river  by  three  bridges.  Its  build- 
ings include  the  Government  office, 
the  free  library,  several  hospitals, 
and  a  number  of  colleges  and 
schools,  the  chief  being  S.  Joseph's 
College,  Wartburg  Seminary,  and 
the  state  institute  of  science  and 
arts.  Situated  in  an  important 
coal,  zinc,  and  iron  mining  dis- 
trict, it  has  rly.  workshops,  flour 
and  lumber  mills,  foundries,  pork- 
packing  establishments,  and  boot 
and  shoe  factories.  First  settled  in 
1788  by  J.  Dubuque,  in  whose 
memory  a  monument  has  been 
erected,  Dubuque  was  founded  in 
1833  and  incorporated  in  1837,  its 
city  charter  being  granted  three 
years  later.  Pop.  40,100 


Ducange,  CHARLES  DU  FRESNE, 
SIEUR  (1010-88).  French  scholar. 
Born  at  Amiens,  Dec.  18, 1610,  and 
educated  by  the  Jesuits,  Ducange 
became  a  lawyer.  He  passed  most 
of  his  life  in  study  in  Amiens  and 
Paris,  where  he  died  Oct.  23, 
1688.  He  edited  the  works  of 
several  French  and  Byzantine 
historians,  Joinville  among  them, 
but  his  great  work  is  his  Latin 
glossary,  1678,  which  is  really  a 
compendious  dictionary  of  medie- 
val Latin.  It  has  been  frequently 
revised  and  enlarged,  notably  by 
the  Benedictines,  1733-36,  and  the 
last  edition  was  published  at  Niort, 
1883-87.  Ducange  compiled  a 
Greek  Glossary  on  similar  lines 
published  in  1688. 

Ducat.  Name  of  a  coin, generally 
of  gold,  which  circulated  widely  on 
the  Continent  in  medieval  times  ; 
value,  9s.  4d.  It  was  first  coined 
in  silver,  by  Roger  II  of  Sicily, 
1140.  The  gold  ducat  of  Florence, 
coined  in  1252,  was  followed  by 
that  of  Venice,  1283.  The  name 
is  derived  from  the  word  ducatus 
on  Roger's  money,  referring  to  his 
duchy  of  Apulia.  From  Italy  the 
coin  and  the  name  went  to  Hun- 
gary, Bohemia,  Austria,  and  Ger- 
many. Its  use  ultimately  spread 
to  Russia,  Spain;  Denmark,  and 
Holland  ;  to  Hanover,  as  late  as 
George  Ill's  reign,  and  in  1887  to 
England,  as  the  name  of  a  trial 
decimal  gold  coin,  worth  100  pence. 
See  Sequin. 

Duccio  di  Buoninsegna  (c. 
1260-1340).  Sienese  painter.  The 
only  extant  work  indisputably  by 
this  painter  is  the  altar-piece  for 
the  high  altar  at  Siena  cathedral, 
now  in  the  cathedral  museum,  re- 
presenting the  Virgin  and  Child 
surrounded  by  angels  and  saints. 
Duccio  was  the  first  Sienese  painter 
to  abandon  the  Byzantine  tradition. 

Ducie,  EARL  OF.  British  title 
borne  since  1837  by  the  family  of 
Moreton.  The  family  is  descended 
from  Henry  Ducie  of  London.  His 
son,  Sir  Robert  Ducie,  lord  mayor 
of  London,  left  a  large  fortune 
which  came  eventually  to  his 
grand-daughter  Elizabeth,  the  wife 
of  Edward  Moreton.  Their  son 
Matthew  was,  in  1720,  made  Lord 
Ducie,  baron  of  Moreton.  This 
title  died  out  in  1770,  but  in  1763 
another  barony  of  Ducie  had  been 
created,  which  passed  to  Thomas 
Reynolds,  a  nephew  of  Lord  Ducie. 
He  took  the  name  of  Moreton,  and 
his  grandson  Thomas  was  made  an 
earl  in  1837.  Henry  John,  the  3rd 
earl  (1827-1921),  succeeded  to  the 
title  in  1853.  His  brother  Berkeley 
Basil  (1834-1924)  was  the  4th  earl. 
The  family  estates  are  mainly  in 
Gloucestershire.  The  earl's  eldest 
son  is  known  as  Lord  Moreton. 


DUCK 

Duck  (Mid.  E.  dukanf  Ger. 
lauchen,  to  dive).  Name  of  the 
largest  group  of  birds  of  the  order 
Anseres  (of  the  family  Anatidae), 
which  includes  swans,  geese,  and 
ducks.  There  are  over  40  genera 
of  ducks  and  nearly  200  species. 
They  are  distinguished  by  short 
legs,  webbed  feet,  and  a  depressed 
and  expanded  beak.  All  the  species 
are  more  or  less  aquatic,  and  most 
are  powerful  flyers.  They  are 
mainly  herbivorous,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  merganser,  which  lives 
on  fish,  but  frogs  and  worms  are 
also  readily  eaten.  The  plumage 
is  dense  and  compact,  so  that  the 
water  readily  runs  off  it,  a  property 
augmented  by  the  free  use  of  the  oil 
gland.  As  a  rule,  the  male,  or  drake, 
has  more  showy  plumage  than  the 
female,  for  which  the  term  duck  is 
commonly  reserved.  All  the  species 
lay  uniformly  coloured  eggs,  and 
the  young  are  able  to  swim^shortly 
after  being  hatched. 

Ducks  are  found  all  over  the 
world,  but  are  most  numerous  in 
the  northern  regions.  They  asso- 
ciate in  flocks,  and  the  majority 
migrate  further  N.  for  the  nesting 
season.  On  the  wing  the  flock 
always  assumes  a  wedge-shaped 
lormation,  which  probably  helps  to 
overcome  the  resistance  of  the  air. 

The  numerous  breeds  of  domes- 
ticated ducks  are  believed  to  have 
descended  from  the  mallard,  or  wild 
duck,  which  breeds  quite  freely  in 
captivity.  All  domesticated  ducks 
interbreed  with  the  wild  duck,  and 
their  offspring  is  fertile,  which  goes 
to  prove  that  the  species  is  iden- 
tical. The  polygamous  habits  of  the 
domesticated  duck,  the  wild  duck 
being  monogamous,  are  probably 
merely  the  result  of  living  under 
non-natural  conditions.  Domesti- 
cated ducks  may  be  classed  as  orna- 
mental, and  those  intended  for  the 
table.  The  ornamental  varieties 
are  mainly  different  species  of 
British  and  foreign  wild  ducks 
maintained  in  a  half-tame  state 
on  lakes  and  in  parks. 

Less  than  a  dozen  European 
breeds  can  be  regarded  as  of  prac- 
tical utility  for  the  table  or  for 
supplying  eggs.  Of  these  the 
Aylesbury  is  by  far  the  most  es- 
teemed and  most  commonly  bred 
variety  in  Great  Britain.  Its 
plumage  is  pure  white,  and  it 
carries  its  boat-shaped  body  almost 
level  with  the  ground.  As  it 
matures  rapidly  and  attains  a 
weight  of  from  8  Ib.  to  10  lb.,  it  is 
much  in  demand  for  table  pur- 
poses. The  Rouen,  for  which 
France  is  famous,  is  simply  a  cul- 
tivated mallard.  In  plumage 
almost  identical  with  the  wild  bird, 
it  often  attains  a  weight  of  11  lb  , 
and  its  flesh  is  much  superior  to 


DUCK 


2707 


DUCK-SHOOTING 


that  of  any  other  native  breed. 
But  it  is  not  altogether  in  favour 
outside  France,  for  it  matures  so 
slowly  that  it  often  costs  more  in 
food  than  it  fetches  in  the  market. 
The  Pekin  duck,  which  came 
originallv  from  China,  may  be  re- 


Ib.    Swedish  and  Flemish 
are      also      bred      to     a 


Duck  Bill.    Oviparous  mammal  of 
Australasia 

cognized  by  its  yellowish-white 
plumage  and  its  very  upright 
carriage  when  walking,  the  legs 
being  set  very  far  back.  A  large 
specimen  will  weigh  as  much  as 
9  lb.,  but  it  is  as  an  egg-layer  that 
the  breed  is  valued.  The  Indian 
runner  is  also  a  prolific  layer  of 
small  eggs,  which  are  often  prof- 
fered for  sale  as  those  of  the  hen, 
but  otherwise  it  is  not  a  useful 
breed,  as  it  seldom  weighs  more 


than  4 

ducks 

limited  extent  in 

Britain,     and 

possess  good  table 

qualities. 

The  demand 
for  ducklings  far 
exceeds  that  for 
older  birds,  which 
are  apt  to  be 
oily  and  strong  in 
flavqur,  and  the 
breeder  should, 
therefore,  aim  at 
mating  the  birds 
early,  Oct.  being 
the  best  time. 
As  ducks  are  not 
good  sitters,  the 
eggs  are  usually 
taken  to  be  hatched  under  a  hen 
or  in  the  incubator.  See  Poultry 
Farming. 

Duck  (Dutch  dock,  linen  cloth). 
Untwilled  fabric,  lighter  and  finer 
than  canvas,  used  for  clothing, 
sails,  wagon  covers,  bags,  etc.  It 
is  usually  made  of  linen,  sometimes 
of  cotton.  The  word  also  denotes 
the  creamy  tint  of  linen  yarn 
during  bleaching. 


Duck  Bill,  DUCK-BILLED  PLATY- 
PUS OR  DUCKMOLE.       Small  web- 


Duck.     1.  Mallard  or  wild  duck,  which  breeds  freely  in  captivity.     2.  Rouen 
duck,  much  favoured  in  France.        Its  plumage  is  similar  to  that  of  the 
mild  variety.      3.  White  Aylesbury  ducks,  the  most  esteemed  and  most  com- 
monly bred  variety  in  Great  Britain  (from  a  drawing  by  Harrison  Weir) 


Ducking  StooL  Example  in  the  Priory  Church,  Leominster 


tooted  and  oviparous  mammal 
(Ornithorhynchus  anatinus),  with  a 
snout  like  the  bill  of  a  duck.  It 
is  about  18  ins.  in  length.  No  ears 
are  visible  above  the  fur,  though 
the  hearing  is  acute ;  the  nostrils 
are  placed  near  the  tip  of  the  bill. 
The  hind  feet  of  the  male  are 
armed  with  hollow  spurs,  com- 
municating with  poison  glands, 
and  probably  used  for  fighting  in 
the  nuptial  season.  The  duck  bill 
has  no  teeth,  but  is  provided  with 
two  pairs  of  horny  plates  on  each 
jaw.  It  is  peculiar  to  Australasia. 
See  Ornithorhynchus. 

Ducking  Stool.  Instrument 
formerly  in  use  in  Great  Britain 
and  in  certain  parts  of  the  U.S.A. 
for  the  punishment  of  scolds.  It 
consisted  of  a  chair  fastened  to  the 
end  of  a  beam  which,  projecting 
over  a  pond  or  river,  worked  on  a 
pivot  from  a  post  at  the  water's 
edge.  The  victim,  usually  a  woman, 
was  tied  in  the  chair,  and  ducked 
by  lowering  the  beam.  The  last 
record  of  its  infliction  was  at  Leo- 
minster,  1809. 

Duck-Shooting.  Sport  mostly 
practised  on  the  E.  shores,  inlets, 
estuaries,  and  broads  of  Great 
Britain.  It  may  roughly  -  be 
divided  into  ( 1 )  shooting  with  stan- 
chion guns  fixed  in  single  or  double 
handled  punts;  (2)  from  a  punt  with 
an  ordinary  gun  while  the  birds  are 
in  flight;  (3)  and  following  on  foot 
by  open  streams  or  drains. 

The  British  wild  ducks  prin- 
cipally met  with  are  the  maUard, 
shoveller,  gadwall,  pochard,  teal, 
and  widgeon.  These  generally  feed 
on  fresh  waters,  and  are  therefore 
more  valuable  for  eating  purposes  ; 
scaup,  eider,  and  the  long-tailed 
ducks  seldom  leave  the  sea,  and  are 
useless  as  food.  Wild  ducks  are 
very  difficult  to  approach,  and 
when  using  a  punt  it  is  necessary 
to  lie  flat  along  the  bottom  directly 
birds  are  sighted,  and  to  remain 
in  that  position  until  after  the  shot. 


1 1 1  H 


Duckweed.     A  thick- 
leaved  variety,  Lemna 
gibba 


DUCKWEED 

It  is  the  practice  in  some  coun- 
tries to  mask  the  bows  of  the  boat 
with  green  leaves  and  branches ; 
and  in  some  instances  decoy  birds 
(q.v.)  are  used  to  induce  the  wild 
ducks  to  come  near.  See  First  Les- 
sons in  the  Art  of  Wildfowling, 
1896;  Bird-  ra««aMR^E^ra 
Life  of  the 
Borders,  2nd 
ed.  1907,  A. 
Chapman. 

Duckweed 
(Lemna).  Ge- 
nus of  minute, 
scale-like  flow- 
ering plants  of 
the  natural 
order  Lemna- 
ceae.  They  are 
annual  aquatic  plants,  floating  on 
the  surface  of  ponds  and  ditches, 
and  consisting  of  a  green  disk,  with 
or  without  a  simple  root  or  roots. 
They  sometimes  produce  elemen- 
tary flowers  in  the  clefts  of  the 
margin,  but  rarely  seeds,  and  are 
propagated  by  budding  and  by 
bulbils  which  hibernate  in  the  mud. 
Duckworth,  SIR  DYCE  (b.  1840). 
British  physician.  Born  Nov.  24, 
1840,  and  educated  at  Liverpool, 
he  afterwards 
studied  medi- 
cine at  Edin- 
burgh Univer- 
sity  and  S 
Bartholomew's 
Hospital.  After 
a  short  time 
(1864-65)  as 
assistant  sur- 
geon in  the 
navy,  he  set- 
tled down  to  a 


Sir  Dyee  Duckworth, 
Britis 


h  physician 

Elliott  Jk  try 

consulting  practice  in  London.  He 
was  made  consulting  physician  to 
Edward  VII,  when  prince  of  Wales, 
treasurer  and  then  senior  censor 
of  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians, 
and  consulting  physician  to  S. 
Bartholomew's  and  the  Seamen's 
Hospitals.  From  1904-10  he  was 
medical  referee  to  the  Treasury.  In 
1886  Duckworth  was  knighted, 
and  in  1909  was  made  a  baronet. 

Duckworth,  SIR  JOHN  THOMAS 
(1748-1817).  British  sailor.  Born 
at  Leatherhead,  Feb.  28,  1748,  he 
entered  the  navy  when  11  years  old, 
and  was  present  at  Quiberon  Bay. 
He  then  served  in  N.  America  and 
the  W.  Indies,  and  was  promoted 
commander  in  1780.  Returning  to 
England  in  1793,  he  was  appointed 
to  the  Orion,  in  which  he  greatly 
distinguished  himself  at  Ushant, 
June  1,  1794. 

Knighted  in  1801,  in  1803  he  was 
commander-in-chief  of  Jamaica, 
was  promoted  vice-admiral  1804, 
and  defeated  the  French  off  San 
Domingo  in  1806,  for  which  he 
received  a  j  cnsion  of  £1,000  a  year. 


Sir  J.  T.  Duckworth, 
British  sailor 

From  an  engraving 


2708 

The  following  year  he  was  sent  to 
Constantinople  to  dictate  certain 
conditions  to  the  Porte.  With  the 
assistance  o  f 
the  French, 
the  Turks  had 
strengthened 
the  fortifica- 
tions  of  the 
Dardanelles, 
but  Duck- 
worth forced 
the  straits, 
destroyed  a 
squadron  o  f 
Turkish  fri- 
gates, and  finally  anchored  8  m. 
from  Constantinople,  where  he  was 
held  up  by  wind  and  current,  and, 
his  force  being  insufficient,  he  was 
obliged  to  retreat.  He  was  governor 
of  Newfoundland  from  1810-13, 
and  was  made  a  baronet  in  1813. 
He  was  appointed  commander-in- 
chief  of  Plymouth  in  Jan.,  1817, 
and  died  Aug.  31  of  the  same  year. 

Duckworth,  WYNTRID  LAUR- 
ENCE HENRY  (b.  1870).  British  an- 
thropologist and  anatomist.  Born 
at  Liverpool,  June  5,  1870,  and 
educated  at  Birkenhead  School, 
Dinan,  and  Cambridge,  he  studied 
medicine  in  Paris  and  London,  and 
anthropology  in  Paris.  In  1898  he 
became  university  lecturer  in 
physical  anthropology  at  Cam- 
bridge. He  published  Morphology 
and  Anthropology,  1904 ;  Pre- 
historic Man,  1912,  etc. 

Duclaux,  MADAME  (b.  1857). 
British  poet  and  essayist.  Born  at 
Leamington,  Feb.  27,  1857,  daugh- 
ter of  G.  T.  Robinson,  she  is  also 
known  under  her  maiden  name  of 
Agnes  Mary  Frances  Robinson,  as 
Madame  Darmesteter — her  first 
husband  was  James  Darmesteter 
(q.v.) — and  as  Madame  Duclaux. 
She  married  Emile  Duclaux,  direc- 
tor of  the  Pasteur  Institute,  Paris, 
in  1901.  Her  first  volume,  A  Hand- 
ful of  Honeysuckle,  appeared  in 
1878.  Her  Collected  Poems,  dis- 
playing much  lyrical  charm,  ap- 
peared in  1901 ;  in  addition  may  be 
noted  studies  of  Emily  Bronte, 
Margaret  of  Angouleme,  Mme.  de 
Sevigne,  Renan,  Twentieth  Cen- 
tury French  Writers,  1914,  and  A 
Short  History  of  France,  1918. 
•  Du  Cros,  WILLIAM  HARVEY 
(1846-1918).  British  business  man. 
Born  June  19,  1846,  he  belonged  to 
a  Huguenot  family  that  had  mi- 
grated to  Dublin  from  Montpellier 
in  1702.  He  was  educated  for  the 
medical  profession  in  Dublin,  but 
soon  turned  his  attention  to  the 
pneumatic  tire  industry,  and  later 
became  largely  interested  in  the 
motor  industry.  From  1906-8 
he  was  Unionist  M.P.  for  Hastings. 
He  died  Dec.  21, 1918.  Of  his  sons, 
Arthur  Philip  was  M.P.  for  Hast- 


DUDENEY 

ings,  1908-18,  and  then  for  the 
Clapham  division  of  Wandsworth. 
In  1916  he  was  made  a  baronet. 
A  younger  son,  Alfred,  was  M.P. 
for  Bow  and  Bromley  in  1910. 

Ducrow,  ANDREW  (1793-1842). 
Equestrian  performer  and  mimic. 
Born  in  Southwark,  Oct.  10,  1793, 
the  son  of  a  celebrated  strong  man, 
he  was  early  trained  to  equestrian 
and  other  circus  feats.  In  1808  he 
was  chief  equestrian  and  rope- 
dancer  at  Astley's  ;  and  in  1813 
gained  fame  as  a  pantomimist  in 
the  part  of  Florio  the  dumb  boy, 
in  The  Forest  of  Bondy.  After 
touring  the  Continent,  he  returned 
to  Astley's,  which  he  eventually 
took  over.  On  June  8,  1841,  the 
building  was  totally  destroyed  by 
fire.  His  mind  gave  way  under  the 
shock,  and  he  died  Jan.  27,  1842. 

Ductility.  In  metallurgy,  the 
general  property  of  metals  which 
permits  them  to  be  drawn  into  rods 
or  wire.  It  is  closely  related  to  the 
property  of  malleability,  but  it  is 
not  quite  the  same  ;  though,  as  it 
happens,  gold  and  silver  are  at 
once  the  two  most  malleable  and 
most  ductile  of  all  the  metals.  The 
relative  measure  of  the  ductility 
of  a  metal  is  determined  by  the 
fineness  of  the  wire  down  to  which 
it  can  be  drawn;  thus  gold  will 
draw  finer  than  platinum.  The 
metals  rank  as  follows  in  order  of 
ductility:  1,  gold;  2,  silver;  3, 
platinum  ;  4,  iron  ;  5,  nickel ;  6, 
copper  ;  7,  zinc  ;  8,  tin  ;  9,  lead. 
The  ductility  of  iron  is  greatly  in- 
creased when  the  iron  is  converted 
into  steel ;  and  similarly  many  of 
the  copper  alloys — bronze,  phos- 
phor bronze,  Delta  metal,  and 
others,  have  greater  ductility  than 
copper.  See  Metallurgy. 

Dudeney,  MRS.  HENRY  (b. 
1866).  British  novelist.  Eldest 
daughter  of  Frederick  Whiffin,  she 
was  born  Oct. 
21,  1866,  and 
educated  a  t 
Hurstpier- 
point,  Sussex. 
In  1884  she 
was  married  to 
Henry  Ernest 
Dudeney,  au- 
thor of  The 
Canterbury 
P  u  z  z  1  e  s, 
Amusements 
in  Mathematics,  etc.  Her  novels 
include  A  Man  with  a  Maid,  1897  ; 
The  Maternity  of  Harriott  Wicken, 
1899;  Folly  Corner,  1899  ;  Spindle 
and  Plough,  1901  ;  The  Story  of 
Susan,  1903;  The  Wise  Woods, 
1905  ;  The  Orchard  Thief,  1907  ; 
Married  when  Suited,  1911  ;  Set 
to  Partners,  1913 ;  The  Secret  Son, 
1915  ;  Travellers'  Samples,  1916  ; 
The  Head  of  the  Family,  1917. 


Mrs.  Henry  Dudeney, 

British  novelist 

But  tell 


DUDLEY 


2709 


DUEL 


Dudley.   County  and  mun.  bor. 
of  Worcestershire.     In  a  detached 
portion  of  the  county,  it  is  8  m. 
N.W.   of    Bir- 
mingham   and 
121  from    Lon- 
don,   and    is 
served    by    the 
L.  &  N.W.  and 
G.  W.  Rlys. ;  also 
by    a    canal. 
Electric      tram- 
Dudley  arms        w  a  y  s        r  u  n 

through  the  town  and  to  adjoining 
places.  Dudley  is  in  the  heart  of 
the  Black  Country;  there  are  coal 
and  iron  mines  all  around,  with 
which  the  chief  industries  are  con- 
nected— ironworks,  brass  foundries, 
engineering  works,  and  the  like. 
Cycles  and  beer  are  also  made  and 
stone  is  quarried. 

The  buildings  of  the  town  in- 
clude the  parish  church,  a  town 
hall,  school  of  art,  and  grammar 


Dudley,  Worcestershire. 

Valentine 


school.  There  is  a  hospital, 
founded  by  Joseph  Guest,  a  tech- 
nical school,  and  a  geological 
museum.  There  are  the  ruins  of 
the  castle  around  which  the  town 
grew,  the  grounds  being  now  a  pub- 
lic park.  Adjacent  to  Dudley,  but 
in  Staffordshire,  are  Brierley  Hill 
and  Kingswinford,  while  Nether- 
ton  is  another  industrial  suburb. 
Dudley  existed  before  the  Norman 
conquest,  and  was  a  borough  in 
medieval  times,  being  represented 
in  Parliament  in  1295.  Its  present 
incorporation,  however,  only  dates 
from  1865.  It  is  governed  by  a 
mayor  and  council,  and  sends  one 
member  to  Parliament.  Market 
day,  Sat.  Pop.  51,079. 

Dudley,  EARL  OF.  English  title 
held  by  the  family  of  Ward  since 
1860.  In  much  earlier  times  there 
was  a  baron  of  Dudley,  who  lived 
in  Dudley  Castle.  The  first  baron, 
who  lived  in  the  14th  century, 
was  named  Sutton,  but  his  de- 
scendants took  the  name  of  Dud- 
ley from  their  residence.  Among 
them  were  Elizabeth's  favourite, 
Robert  Dudley,  earl  of  Leicester, 
and  other  noted  men  of  Tudor 


times.  The  barony  remained  in  the 
family  until  its  ninth  holder  died 
without  sons  in  1643.  It  passed 
then  to  his  granddaughter,  the 
wife  of  a  wealthy  goldsmith,  Hum- 
ble Ward,  and  in  this  way  the  two 
families  became  connected.  Ward's 
son  Edward  succeeded,  but  in  1767 
the  barony  fell  into  abeyance. 

Meanwhile,  another  branch  of 
the  Wards  was  becoming  promi- 
nent, and  John  Ward,  another 
descendant  of  Humble,  who  had 
inherited  the  barony  of  Ward,  was 
made  Viscount  Dudley  in  1763. 
His  grandson,  John  William  Ward, 
4th  viscount  (1771-1833),  was 
foreign  secretary  in  1827-28,  and 
a  prominent  figure  in  his  day.  In 
1827  he  was  made  earl  of  Dudley, 
but  the  title  became  extinct  on  his 
death  in  1 833.  Another  descendant 
of  Humble  Ward,  William  Ward 
(1817-85),  inherited  much  of  his 
great  wealth,  and  in  1860  was  made 
--;  earl  of  Dudley. 
;  His  son,  William 
i  Humble,  2nd  earl 
!  (b.  May  25,  1867), 
was  lord -lieutenant 
of  Ireland  from 
1902  to  1906,  and 
governor-general  of 
Australia  from 
1908  to  1911.  The 
countess  of  Dudley 
was  drowned  while 
bathing  in  Ireland, 
June  26, 1920.  The 
wealth  of  the 
Wards  is  due  to  the 
possession  of  rich 
coalfields  round 
Dudley.  The  earl's  eldest  son  is 
known  as  Viscount  Ednam,  and 
his  chief  seat,  until  its  sale  in  1920, 
was  Witley  Court,  Worcestershire. 
Dudley,  DUD  (1599-1684).  Eng- 
lish ironmaster.  Natural  son  of 
the  fifth  Baron  Dudley,  he  was 
educated  at  Balliol  College,  Ox- 
ford. In  1619  he  was  placed  in 
charge  of  his  father's  ironworks  at 
Pensnet,  Worcestershire,  where  he 
experimented  with  coal  as  furnace 
fuel.  In  spite  of  successful  de- 
monstrations, in  1651  he  was 
forced  to  abandon  his  attempts- 
During  the  Civil  War  he  was 
colonel  in  the  king's  army,  and 
general  of  ordnance  to  Prince 
Maurice.  In  1665  he  published 
his  work  Metallum  Martis  or  Iron 
Made  with  Pit-Coale,  etc.,  but  was 
careful  not  to  describe  his  process. 
He  died  at  Worcester,  Oct.  25, 1684. 
Dudley,  EDMUND  (d.  1510). 
English  lawyer.  He  studied  at 
Oxford  and  Gray's  Inn,  and  early 
gained  the  favour  of  Henry  VII. 
While  still  very  young  he  was 
made  a  privy  councillor,  and  in 
1504  became  Speaker  of  the  House 
of  Commons.  Working  with 


The  town  hall 


another  lawyer,  Richard  Empson, 
he  enriched  himself  and  the  king 
by  a  system  of  extortion  based 
mainly  on  antiquated  penal  sta- 
tutes. The  day  after  Henry  VIII's 
accession,  Dudley  and  his  col- 
league were  arrested.  They  were 
found  guilty  of  constructive  trea- 
son, and  were  executed  on  Tower 
Hill,  Aug.  18,  1510. 

Dudley,  SIR  HENRY  BATE  (1745- 
1824).  British  journalist.  Born  at 
Fenny  Compton,  Warwickshire, 
Aug.  25,  1745,  he  was  the  son  of  a 
clergyman,  Rev.  Henry  Bate.  Edu- 
cated at  Queen's  College,  Oxford, 
he  entered  the  Church  of  England 
and  became,  in  succession  to  his 
father,  rector  of  North  Fam  bridge, 
Essex.  However,  he  took  his  duties 
very  lightly,  and  it  is  as  a  journalist 
and  society  figure  that  he  is  known. 
He  was  editor  of  The  Morning  Post 
from  1772  to  1780  and  afterwards 
founded  The  Morning  Chronicle. 
His  writings  were  often  violent, 
while  his  behaviour  was  eccentric  : 
always  ready  for  a  duel,  he  was 
called  the  fighting  parson,  and  he 
spent  at  least  one  term  in  prison. 
In  1784  he  took  the  name  of  Dud- 
ley on  succeeding  to  some  money, 
and  in  1813  he  was  made  a  baronet. 
At  one  time  he  lived  in  Ireland, 
where  he  had  livings  and  was  chan- 
cellor of  the  diocese  of  Ferns.  He 
died  at  Cheltenham,  Feb.  1,  1824. 
The  friend  of  Garrick  and  of  other 
notables  of  the  time,  Dudley  wrote 
several  comic  operas.  See  Noble 
Dames  and  Notable  Men  of  the 
Georgian  Era..  J.  Fyvie,  1910. 

Dudley  port.  Village  of  Staf- 
fordshire, England.  It  forms  a 
ward  of  the  urban  district  of  Tip- 
ton  and  has  a  station  on  the  L.  & 
N.W.R.  See  Tipton. 

Dudweiler.  Town  of  Germany, 
in  the  Prussian  Rhine  province. 
It  stands  on  the  Sulzbach,  40  m. 
from  Metz,  near  a  coalfield,  and  its 
manufactures  include  machinery 
and  other  kinds  of  iron  goods, 
bricks,  and  pottery.  Pop.  21,932. 

Duel  (Lat.  duellum,  old  form  of 
bellum,  battle,  from  duo,  two). 
Single  combat  engaged  in  by  ar- 
rangement after  challenge,  and 
carried  through  on  a  recognized 
method  of  procedure,  to  settle  a 
private  quarrel  or  vindicate  per- 
sonal honour. 

Historically  the  duel  derives 
directly  from  the  old  legal  method 
of  settling  disputes  by  ordeal  by 
battle.  The  legal  sanction  given 
to  decisions  so  arrived  at  com- 
mended the  method  to  the  popular 
mind,  and  the  issue  of  a  duel  came 
to  be  accepted  as  a  definitive  settle- 
ment of  a  dispute  between  individ- 
uals over  matters  with  regard  to 
which  they  deemed  it  either  unde- 
sirable or  useless  to  appeal  to  law. 


DUET 


Duel. 


Sword  and  Dagger  Fight,  a  masterly  representation  of  a  sixteenth 
century  duel,  from  the  painting  by  John  Pettie,  B.A. 


France  is  the  country  of  origin  of 
the  modern  duel.  It  was  forbidden 
in  civil  matters  as  early  as  1305, 
but  without  effect,  and  in  the  next 
two  centuries  duelling  was  gener- 
ally prevalent  Francis  I  sent  a 
challenge  to  Charles  V  of  Germany, 
and  although  it  was  not  accepted, 
this  royal  example  was  enough  to 
sanction  a  fashion  peculiarly  con- 
genial to  the  national  tempera- 
ment. It  grew  under  Charles  IX 
and  became  almost  a  mania  under 
his  successors,  the  third  and  fourth 
Henrys  and  Louis  XIII,  despite 
more  than  one  ordinance  and  edict 
threatening  penalty  of  death  to 
principals  and  seconds  alike.  Ros- 
tand's picture  of  Cyrano  de  Ber- 
gerac  and  his  brother  cadets  is  no 
caricature  of  the  young  gallants  of 
that  day  who  mistook  swashbuck- 
ling tor  chivalry,  and  who  doffed 
cloak  and  drew  rapier  on  any  pre- 
text or  none.  These  hot-heads 
found  a  quarrel  everywhere,  and 
soon  were  not  content  with  one 
second  apiece,  while  the  second  for 
his  part  ceased  to  be  content  with 
looking  on  to  see  fair  play.  In  the 
reign  of  Louis  XIV  the  dukes  of 
Nemours  and  Beaufort  fought  a 
duel  in  which  four  friends  joined 
in  on  each  side.  Three  of  the  ten 
were  killed,  including  Nemours,  and 
all  the  other  seven  were  wounded. 
The  duel  had  almost  grown  into  a 
battle.  As  in  Italy,  as  pictured  by 
Shakespeare  in  Romeo  and  Juliet, 
again  no  exaggerated  caricature, 
so  in  France  duelling  became  an 
intolerable  evil. 

Despite  the  spectacular  encounter 
mentioned,  Louis  XIV  has  the  credit 
of  doing  much  to  suppress  the  prac- 
tice, by  establishing  a  supreme  court 
of  honour,  and  still  more  by  insist- 
ing on  the  punishment  of  all  who 
disregarded  the  edict  against  it.  As 
a  practice,  chiefly  indulged  in  by 


the  aristocracy,  the  Revolutionists 
ignored  it  in  their  legislation,  and 
during  the  first  Republic  and  the 
first  Empire  it  almost  died  out.  It 
was  revived,  however,  with  the  Re- 
storation, and  remains  a  custom 
in  France,  resorted  to  for  the  most 
part  by  ebullient  editors  and  poli- 
ticians, and  not  often  a  bloody  busi- 
ness, although  as  late  as  1900  M. 
Marlier,  a  municipal  councillor,  was 
killed  by  M.  Ferrette,  a  deputy,  in 
Paris.  A  bill  to  stop  duelling  was 
submitted  to  the  French  Chamber 
in  1920. 

In  England  duelling  dates  back 
as  a  custom  to  the  beginning  of  the 
17th  century,  in  the  latter  part  of 
which,  after  the  Restoration,  it 
experienced  a  great  revival.  Beau 
Fielding  went  out  with  Sir  Henry 
Colt,  the  member  for  Westminster, 
in  Feb.,  1696,  and  wounded  the 
baronet,  who,  however,  succeeded 
in  disarming  his  opponent.  Lord 
Byron  killed  Mr.  Chaworth  in  1765, 
and  the  duke  of  York  met  Colonel 
Lennox  in  1789.  Mr.  Christie  killed 
Scott,  editor  of  The  London  Maga- 
zine, Feb.  16,  1821,  and  on  March 
21,  1829,  the  duke  of  Wellington 
had  a  bloodless  encounter  with  the 
earl  of  Winchelsea.  On  July  3, 1843. 
Colonel  Fawcett  died  of  wounds  re- 
ceived two  days  before  in  a  duel 
with  his  brother-in-law,  Lieut. 
Munro.  The  case  led  to  action  by 
the  Prince  Consort  with  regard  to 
the  military  etiquette  of  duelling, 
in  obedience  to  which  alone  Munro 
had  gone  out.  In  the  event  it  was 
ordained  in  the  articles  of  war  that 
any  officer  who  participated  in  a 
duel,  whether  as  principal  or  as 
accessory,  or  who  did  not  do  his 
best  to  prevent  a  duel,  should  be 
cashiered,  and  the  regulation  is 
still  in  force. 

In  the  German  army,  up  to  the 
revolution  of  1918  at  least,  officers 


^ DUFF 

were  required  to  submit  disputes 
to  a  council  of  honour  which  ar- 
ranged the  matter  if  possible,  and, 
if  not.  supervised  the  conditions  of 
the  encounter.  The  German  stu- 
dents' duels  are  a  more  or  less  harm- 
less form  of  university  amusement. 
By  English  law  duelling  is  an 
offence  amounting  to  murder  or 
manslaughter  in  the  event  of  a 
death,  and  Major  Campbell  was 
hanged,  in  1808,  for  having  killed 
Captain  Boyd  in  the  previous  June. 
In  1813,  again,  when  Lieut.  Blun- 
dell  was  killed  in  a  duel,  his  oppo- 
nent, Mr.  Maguire,  and  both  the 
seconds  engaged,  were  convicted  of 
murder  and  sentenced  to  death. 
In  the  event  they  were  pardoned, 
but  cashiered.  On  Oct.  19,  1852, 
when  E.  Barthelemy  shot  M.  Cour- 
net,  an  ex-officer  of  the  French 
navy,  at  Crown  Farm,  between 
Windsor  and  Egham,  both  princi- 
pals and  seconds  were  refugees. 
Barthelemy,  notwithstanding  fero- 
cious professions  of  Republicanism, 
was  always  suspected  by  other 
French  refugees  of  being  in  the  pay 
of  the  French  police,  and  the  cause 
of  the  duel  was  political. 

Duet  (Ital.  duetto).  Composition 
for  two  single  voices  or  instru- 
ments, occasionally  a  double  theme 
for  a  single  instrument.  In  in- 
strumental music  the  expression 
is  used  generally  for  a  work  for 
two  similar  instruments,  e.g.  two 
flutes.  When  written  for  different 
instruments,  e.g.  violin  and  flute, 
the  more  correct  term  is  duo. 

Dufaure,  JULES  ARMAND  STAN- 
ISLAS (1798-1881).  French  advo- 
cate and  politician.  Born  at  Sau- 
jon,  he  was  minister  of  the  in- 
terior for  a  short  period  in  1848, 
and  again  in  1849.  After  a  long 
period  of  office  he  was  minister  of 
justice,  1871-73,  and  again  from 
1875-76.  From  March  9  to  Dec.  2, 
1876,  he  was  premier  at  a  period 
of  particular  difficulty,  when  feel- 
ing ran  high  between  the  parties 
of  Church  and  State.  Both  the 
president,  Marshal  MacMahon,  and 
the  senate  were  opposed  to  the 
premier's  policy,  and  he  resigned, 
only  to  return  to  office  once  more 
as  premier  on  Sept.  14,  1877,  until 
Feb.  1,  1879.  He  died  at  Paris. 
June  28,  1881. 

Duff,  ALEXANDER  (1806-78). 
Scottish  missionary.  Born  in  Perth- 
shire, April  26, 
1806,  he  was 
educated  a  t 
S  t.  Andrews, 
n  1829  he 
went  as  a 
missionary 
to  India,  the 
first  sent  by 


Alexander  Duff. 


the  Church  of 


Scottish  missionary     Scotlfind,    and 


at  once  began  the  task  of 
associating  educational  with  evan- 
gelistic work.  He  was  instru- 
mental in  setting  up  many  schools 
and  colleges.  He  had  much  to  do 
with  founding  Calcutta  University, 
and  for  a  time  he  editedThe  Calcutta 
Review.  At  the  disruption  of  1 843 
Duff  followed  the  leaders  of  the 
Free  Church,  and  in  1851  he  was 
its  moderator,  as  he  was  again  in 
1873.  In  his  later  years  he  was 
professor  of  missions  at  New  Col- 
lege, Edinburgh,  and  travelled  all 
over  the  world  in  the  interests  of 
his  work.  He  wrote  The  Indian 
Mutiny,  1858.  Duff,  who  is  com- 
memorated by  Duff  Hall,  Calcutta, 
died  Feb.  12,  1878.  See  Life,  G. 
Smith,  1879. 

Duff,  SIK  ALEXANDER  LUDOVIC 
(b.  1862).  British  sailor.  Born 
Feb.  20,  1862,  he  entered  the  navy. 
Promoted  lieutenant  of  the  royal 
yacht  in  1884,  he  was  naval  as- 
sistant to  the  3rd  sea  lord  from 
1905-8,  and  was  appointed  A.D.C. 
to  the  king  on  Aug.  21,  1911.  The 
same  year  he  became  director  of 
naval  mobilisation,  Admiralty  War 
Staff,  which  office  he  was  holding 
on  the  outbreak  of  the  Great  War. 
Promoted  rear-admiral  in  1913,  he 
commanded  the  4th  battle  squad- 
ron, 1914-17,  being  mentioned  in 
dispatches  and  given  the  C.B.  for 
his  action  in  the  battle  of  Jutland. 
From  1917-19  he  was  assistant 
chief  of  the  naval  staff,  was  pro- 
moted vice-admiral  in  1918,  and 
made  commander-in-chief  of  the 
China  squadron  in  1919. 

Duff,    SIR    BEAUCHAMP    (1855- 
1918).    British  soldier.    Born  Feb. 
17.   1855,  the  son  of  Garden  W. 
Duff,    of    Hatton    Castle,    Aber- 
deenshire,  and  educated  at  Glenal- 
mond,  he  passed  through  Woolwich, 
and  in  1874  entered  the  artillery. 
Having  served  in  1878-80  against 
1    the    Afghans, 
I    he  transferred 
|    to  the  Indian 
army.  In  1895 
Duffwasmade 
military  secre- 
tary    to     the 
commander- 
i  n-c h  i  e f    in 
India,  and  in 
1899    was    in 

S.  Africa,  first 
wiou&Fn,  with     gir    G 

White  in  Ladysmith  and  then  on 
the  staff  of  Lord  Roberts. 

Having  returned  to  India,  he  com- 
manded a  brigade,  and  was  made 
a  major-general.  From  1903-6  he 
was  adjutant-general  in  India,  from 
1906-9  chief  of  the  staff  there, 
being  knighted  in  1906,  and  in  1913 
became  commander-in-chief.  He 
was  in  India  when  the  Great  War 
broke  out,  and  his  share  in  or- 


Sir  Beauchamp  Duff, 
British  soldier 


Sir  M.  Grant  Duff, 
British  author 


271  1 

ganizing  the  expedition  to  Meso- 
potamia was  severely  censured  by 
the  commission  of  inquiry.  This 
undoubtedly  hastened  his  death, 
which  took  place  Jan.  20,  1918. 

=     Duff,  SlR  MOUNTSTUART  ELPHIN- 

STONE  GRANT  (1829-1906).     Brit- 
ish  author  and  politician.      Born 
Feb.  21,  1829.    ^^^r___rs^ 
atEden,Aber-    | 
deenshire,    he    | 
was  educated 
at  Edinburgh 
and  Balliol 
College,     Ox- 
ford, and  was 
called  to  the 
bar  at    the 
Inner  Temple, 
1854.  M.P.  for 

the       Elgin  Elliott  &  Fry 

Burghs,  1857-81,  he  was  under- 
secretary of  state  for  India,  1868- 
74,  and  for  the  colonies,  1 880.  From 
1881-86  he  was  governor  of  Madras. 
He  wrote  many  books,  chiefly  bio- 
graphical and  political,  but  will  be 
best  remembered  for  his  series  of 
Notes  from  a  Diary.  Other  works 
include  :  Studies  in  European  Poli- 
tics, 1866;  A  Political  Survey,  1868 ; 
Notes  of  an  Indian  Journey,  1876; 
Sir  Henry  Maine,  a  brief  memoir, 
1892;  Ernest  Renan,  1893;  and  a 
biographical  notice  of  Baron  de 
Tabley  in  that  writer's  Flora  of 
Cheshire,  1899.  He  died  at  Chel- 
sea, Jan.  ]2,  1906. 

Dufferin  and  Ava,  FREDERICK 
TEMPLE  HAMILTON-TEMPLE  BLACK- 
WOOD,  IST  MARQUESS  OF  (1826- 
1902).  British  diplomatist  and  ad- 
ministrator. Born  at  Florence, 
June  21, 1826,  son  of  the  4th  Baron 
Dufferin  and  Helen  Selina,  grand- 
daughter of  Richard  Brinsley  Sheri- 
dan, he  was  educated  at  Eton  and 
Christ  Church,  Oxford.  He  suc- 
ceeded in  1841  to  his  father's  title, 
an  Irish  one,  and  in  1850  was  made 
a  British  peer  as  Baron  Clandeboye. 
He  went  as  special  commissioner  to 
Syria  in  1860  to  inquire  into  the 
religious  massacres,  was  appointed 
under- secretary  for  India  in  1864 
for  war  in  1866,  and  was  created 
an  earl  in  1871. 
Governor  - 
general  of 
Canada,  1872- 
78,  and  vicerov 
of  India,  1884- 
88,  he  became 
ambassador  at 
Rome  in  1888. 
and  in  Paris  in 


1891.    In  1888  he  was  created  mar- 
quess of  Dufferin  and  Ava. 

After  an  exceptionally  brilliant 
career,  Lord  Dufferin's  later  years 


were  clouded  by  his  unfortunate 
action  in  1897  in  accepting  the 
chairmanship  of  the  London  and 
Globe  Finance  Corporation,  of 
which  Whitaker  Wright  (q.v.)  was 
managing  director,  without  ade- 
quate inquiry  into  its  affairs,  over 
which  he  had  no  control,  but  for 
the  disastrous  collapse  of  which  he 
had  to  share  the  blame.  This  and 
the  death  of  his  eldest  son,  the  earl 
of  Ava,  who  was  killed  in  South 
Africa  in  1900,  led  to  a  breakdown 
in  health,  and  he  died  at  Cland'e- 
boye,  Feb.  12,  1902.  See  his 
Speeches  in  India,  1890  ;"  Life,  Sir 
A.  C.  Lyall,  1905.  He  was  succeeded 
by  his  second  son,  Lord  Terence 
Temple-Blackwood  (1866-1918),on 
whose  death  the  title  passed  to  his 
third  son,  Lord  Frederick  Black- 
wood  (b.  1875). 

Dufferin,  LADY  (1807-67).  Irish 
song  writer.  Eldest  daughter  of 
Tom  Sheridan,  and  grand-daughter 
of  Richard 
Brinsley  Shei 
dan,  she  mar- 
ried in  1825 
Commander 
Price  Black- 
wood. who  suc- 
ceeded his 
father  in  1839 
as  Baron  Duf- 
ferin (d.  1841). 
She  then  de- 
voted herself  to 
the  education 
of  her  son,  the  future  marquess  of 
Dufferin  (q.v. ).  In  1862  she  married 
the  earl  of  Gifford,then  on  his  death- 
bed. She  died  at  Highgate,  June  1 3, 
1867.  Her  best  known  poem  is  The 
Irish  Emigrant,  1845.  See  Songs, 
Poems,  Verses,  with  Memoir  of  the 
Sheridan  Family,  ed.  by  her  son. 
1894. 

Duffy,  SIR  CHARLES  GAVAN 
(1816-1903).  Irish  nationalist  and 
colonial  statesman.  Born  at  Mona- 

r— - - .-,   ghan,  April  12, 

I  1816,  in  1842, 
i  with  John 
Dillon  and 
Thomas  Davis, 
he  founded 
The  Nation, 
the  organ  o  f 
the  Young  Ire- 
land  party. 
M.P.  for  New 
Ross  from 
1852-55,  he 
Einott  &  Fry  afterwards  emi- 
grated to  Australia.  He  became  a 
member  of  the  Victoria  House  of 
Assembly,  1856,  was  twice  minister 
of  land  and  works,  and  in  1871 
prime  minister  of  Victoria.  Knighted 
in  1873,  he  died  at  Nice,  Feb.  9, 
1 903.  Besides  political  writings  he 
published  the  popular  anthology, 
Ballad  Poetry  of  Ireland,  ]  846. 
! 


••HMB 

Lady  Dufferin, 
Irish  song  writer 
By 


urtesy  of  John 
Hurray 


From  a  portrait  i 
Bodleian  Library 


DUGDALE 

Dugdale,  Sra  WILLIAM  (1605- 
86).  English  antiquary.  Born  at 
Shustoke,  Warwickshire,  Sept.  12, 
1605,  he  came 
to  London  in 
1635  to  collect 
materials  for  his 
Antiquities  of 
Warwickshire 
(1656).  His 
royalist  lean- 
ings led  to  his 
receiving  sev- 
eral  heraldic 
appointments, 

the  which    he    Util- 
foj,      varf. 

ous  county  "  visitations."  He  was 
made  Garter  king-of-arins  and 
knighted  in  1677.  He  published  a 
History  of  S.  Paul's  Cathedral, 
1658  ;  collaborated  in  a  history  of 
religious  foundations,  Monasticon 
Anglicanum,  1655-73  ;  compiled  a 
History  of  Embanking  and  Drain- 
ing of  Fens  and  Marshes,  1662  ; 
and  The  Baronage  of  England, 
1675-76.  He  died  Feb.  10,  1686. 
See  Life,  Diary,  and  Correspond- 
ence, ed.  W.  Hamper,  1827  ;  Athe- 
naeum, Nov.  3,  1888,  in  which  por- 
tions of  his  diary  were  first  printed. 

Dugong  (Halicare).  Genus  of 
herbivorous  aquatic  mammals, 
known  as  sea-cows.  They  are  found 
in  the  Red  Sea  and  around  the  E. 
Indies  and  Australasia.  From  8  to 
12  ft.  long,  they  resemble  a 
miniature  whale. 

Dug-out.  Primitive  form  of  boat 
or  canoe.  In  forest  regions  riverain 
tribes  familiar  with  floating  logs, 
probably  soon  developed  a  method 
of  hollowing  out  a  tree  trunk  by 
means  of  fire  or  an  adze.  See  illus. 
pp.  1211,  1653  and  2207. 

Dug-out.  Term  used  in  the 
Great  War  for  an  underground 
shelter  for  troops.  Dug-outs  were 
constructed  in  or  near  the  fire 


2712 

trenches  to  provide  rest  accommo- 
dation for  the  officers  and  men  by 
day  and  night,and  as  comparatively 
safe  cover  from  bombardments.  See 
Trench. 

Duguay-Trouin,  RENE  (1673- 
1736).  French  sailor.  Born  at 
St.  Malo,  June  10,  1673,  in  early 
youth  he  gave  up  clerical  studies 
and  took  to  the  sea,  where  he 
distinguished  himself  in  the  war 
against  England  and  Holland.  He 
obtained  a  commission  in  the 
French  navy  in  1697  and  fought 
with  distinction  in  the  War  of  the 
Spanish  Succession,  capturing  Rio 
de  Janeiro  in  1711.  He  died  at 
Paris,  Sept.  27,  1736. 
.  Duhamel,  JEAN  PIERRE  FRAN- 
COIS GUILLOT  (1730-1816).  French 
metallurgist.  Born  near  Coutances, 
he  was  officially  appointed  to  visit 


Dag  -  out.      Bomb-proof    dug  -  out 

roofed  with  sandbags,  concrete,  and 

timber 


Dugong,  or  sea-cow,  a  large  aquatic 
mammal 

the  mines  of  Forez  and  two  years 
later  the  Harz.  By  his  discoveries 
and  inventions  he  greatly  improved 
steel  manufacture  in  France.  From 
1781-1811  he  held  the  professorship 
of  mining  and  metallurgy  at  the 
French  school  of  mining.  In  1795 
he  was  appointed  inspector-general 
of  mines.  He  died  Feb.  19, 1816. 

Dui  OE  DUE.  Fortified  post  and 
penal  settlement  on  the  W.  coast  of 
the  island  of  Sakhalin.  It  was 
founded  in  1857  on  the  site  of 
some  coal  mines  worked  by  convict 
labour.  The  vicinity  produces  fire- 
proof clay  for  brick-making. 

Duiker  Bok.  Small  S.  African 
antelope  of  the  genus  Cephalophus. 
There  are  nearly  40  species,  vary- 
ing in  size  from  the  dimensions  of 
a  hare  to  those  of  a  small  donkey. 
They  have  short  straight  horns, 
usually  with  a  crest  of  hair  between 
them,  and  are  of  light  and  graceful 
form.  Pron.  Dlker. 

Duisburg.  Town  of  Germany, 
in  the  Rhine  prov.  It  stands 
between  the  Rhine  and  the  Ruhr 
rivers,  15  m.  N.  of  Dusseldorf,  and 
owes  its  great  growth  in  the  19th 
century  to  the  collieries.  Its 
industries  include  founding,  engin- 
eering, shipbuilding,  and  the  manu- 
facture of  cotton  goods,  soap,  etc. 

Duisburg,  once  a  Roman  station, 
was  included  for  some  centuries  in 
the  duchy  of  Cleves,  and  with  it  be- 


DUKE 

came  part  of  Brandenburg  in  1614. 
During  the  troubles  of  1919-20 
there  were  several  risings  in  the 
town.  Pop.  229,483. 

Dujailah.  Fortified  Turkish 
position  on  the  S.  bank  of  the 
Tigris.  It  was  the  key  to  the  Es- 
Sinn  position,  which  barred  the 
way  of  the  British  Kut  relief  force, 
1916.  Unsuccessfully  attacked  on 
March  8,  it  was  carried  by  the 
British,  May  19.  See  Es-Sinn ; 
Kut ;  Mesopotamia,  Conquest  of. 

Dujana.  Native  state  of  India, 
in  the  Punjab.  Its  founder  was 
Abdul  Samand  Khan,  a  Pathan 
soldier  of  fortune,  who  was 
employed  under  Lord  Lake,  Opium 
and  grain  are  the  chief  products. 
Chief  town,  Dujana,  37  m.  W.  of 
Delhi.  Area,  100  sq.  m.  Pop.  25,485, 
four-fifths  Hindus. 

Du  Jardin,  KAREL  (c.  1625-78). 
Dutch  landscape  painter.  Born 
probably  at  Amsterdam,  he  studied 
under  Nicolaas  Berchem  and  at 
Rome.  On  his  return  to  Holland 
he  met  with  great  success,  but  he 
preferred  to  make  Italy  his  home, 
and  died  in  Venice.  His  landscapes 
are  Italian  rather  than  Dutch  in 
feeling.  The  National  Gallery, 
London,  possesses  a  representative 
example  of  his  work.  He  died 
Nov.  20,  1678. 

Duke  (Lat.  dux,  leader).  Title 
of  nobility.  The  word  was  first 
applied  to  military  commanders  in 
the  early  Ro- 
man empire. 
Later,  as  in 
the  Frankish 
empire, 
duke  was  a 
civil  and 
military  offi- 
cial. There  Dnke  The  ducal  coronet 
were  also  ter- 
ritorial dukes,  who  ruled  over 
large  districts,  e.g.  Saxony.  Gradu- 
ally all  the  dukes  became  terri- 
torial. In  Great  Britain  duke  is  the 
highest  title  of  nobility.  The  first 
English  duke  was  Edward  the 
Black  Prince,  created  duke  of  Corn- 
wall in  1337.  The  first  Scottish 
duke  was  David,  son  of  King  Robert 
III,  who  was  made  duke  of  Rothe- 
say  in  1398.  See  Peerage. 

Duke,  HENRY  EDWARD,  BARON 
MERRIVALE  (b.  1855).  British  law- 
yer.  Asa 
journalist  he 
was  for  a  time 
in  the  press 
gallery  of  the 
House  of  Com- 
mons. Called  to 
the  bar  in  1885, 
he  soon  ac- 
quired a  large 

practice  on  the     Sir  Henry  K  Duk6f 
western  cir-        British  lawyer 

CUit.        In  1900  Elliott  &  Fry 


DUKE     OF     ALBANY 


2713 


DUKERIES 


he  entered  Parliament  as  Unionist 
M.P.  for  Plymouth,  lost  his  seat  in 
1906,  but  in  1910  was  returned  for 
Exeter.  In  1915  he  was  made 
attorney-general  to  the  prince  of 
Wales,  and  early  in  the  Great  War 
he  acted  as  chairman  of  two  royal 
commissions  appointed  in  con- 
nexion therewith.  In  May,  1916, 
Duke  occupied  the  chief-secretary- 
ship of  Ireland,  vacated  by  Birrell 
after  the  outbreak  of  rebellion  in 
Dublin,  and  retained  the  post 
until  1918,  when  he  was  appointed 
a  judge  of  the  court  of  appeal,  and 
knighted.  In  Oct.,  1919,  he  suc- 
ceeded Lord  Sterndale  as  president 
of  the  Probate,  Divorce,  and  Ad- 
miralty Division,  and  in  1925  was 
created  a  peer,  taking  the  title  of 
Lord  Merrivale 

Duke  of  Albany.  British  armed 
boarding  steamer.  She  belonged 
to  the  L.  &  Y.  and  L.  &  N.  W.  rly. 
companies,  and  had  a  tonnage  of 
1,997.  She  was  torpedoed  by  aGer- 
man  submarine,  Aug.  24,  1916. 

Duke  of  Cornwall's  Light  In- 
fantry. English  regiment.  Origi- 
nally of  two  battalions,the  old32nd, 
and  the  old  46th 
Foot,  it  was 
raised  in  1702 
and  served  as  Ma- 
rines in  the  de- 
fence of  Gibraltar, 
1704-5.  It  took 
part  in  the  battles 
°f  Dettingen  and 
Fontenoy,  the 
conquest  of  Canada  (1760),  the 
capture  of  Copenhagen  (1807),  the 
Peninsular  War,  the  Waterloo 
Campaign,  the  second  Sikh  War, 
and  the  Crimean  War.  A  great 
episode  in  the  regiment's  record 
was  its  defence  of  Lucknow  during 
the  Indian  Mutiny.  Later  it  took 
part  in  the  Egyptian  Campaign 
(1882),  the  Nile  Expedition  (1884), 
and  the  Burma  and  Tirah  expedi- 
tions. In  the  S.  African  War  the 
regiment  was  commanded  by  Sir 
Horace  Smith-Dorrien.  The  nick- 
names, Red  Feathers  and  Murray's 
Bucks,  are  popularly  associated 
with  the  regiment.  The  former 
dates  from  the  American  War, 
when  the  old  46th,  after  surprising 
the  Americans  at  Brandywine, 
stained  the  feathers  of  their  head- 
gear red  in  order  that  they  might 
be  more  easily  identified  by  the 
enemy.  The  latter  commemorate? 
a  colonel  of  the  regiment. 

In  the  Great  War  the  first  batta-  ' 
lion  went  to  France  in  1914,  and 
was  brigaded  with  Sir  Charles  Fer- 
gusson's  Fifth  Division,  especially 
distinguishing  itself  on  the  Aisne 
and  at  Ypres.  The  second  battalion 
was  in  China  at  the  outbreak  of 
war,  but  was  sent  to  France  and 
rendered  fine  service  at  St.  Eloi  and 


LI. 


Neuve  Chapelle  (1915).  The  regi- 
ment was  commended  by  Sir 
Douglas  Haig  for  gallant  fighting  at 
Guillemont  and  Ginchy  in  the 
battle  of  the  Somme  (1916).  To 
commemorate  its  part  in  the  war  it 
was  decided  to  erect  a  statue  of 
Cornish  tin  at  Bodmin,  represent- 


)  Duke  of  York's  School.  For- 
merly  known  as  the  Royal  Military 
Asylum,  this  school,  for  the  sons 
of  British  soldiers,  founded  at 
Chelsea,  London,  by  Frederick, 
duke  of  York,  in  1801-3,  was 
transferred  to  Dover  in  1909.  A 
similar  establishment  in  Dublin  is 


ing  a  soldier  in  fighting  kit  going    called  the  Royal  Hibernian  School. 
"  over  the  top,"  with  at  the  base    At  Dover  and  Dublin  about  920 
shields,    one    for    each    battalion, 
briefly  recording  their  respective 
war  services.   The  regimental  depot 
is  at  Bodmin. 
Duke  of  Edinburgh.  Ship  of  a 


of  British  cruisers  built  in 
1906.  They  are  two  in  number,  the 


Duke  of  Edinburgh.    British  cruiser,  sister  ship  of  the 
Black  Prince,  built  in  1906 

Cribb,  Sovthsra 

Duke  of  Edinburgh  and  the  Black 
Prince.   The  Duke  of  Edinburgh  is 
480  ft.  long,  73£  ft.  in  beam,  has  a 
normal  displacement  of  13,550  tons, 
and    has    engines  of   23,000    h.p. 
giving  a  speed  of  23  knots.     Her 
main  armament  is  six  9'2-in.  guns, 
four     6-in.     guns,     with     strong 
batteries  of  lighter  weapons,  and 
three  torpedo  tubes.     She  has  an 
armoured  belt  tapering  from  6  ins. 
to  3  ins.  in   thickness,  with  7-in. 
plating  on  barbettes  and  a  pro- 
tective deck.    The  Duke    of  Edin- 
burgh  assisted   Indian   troops   in 
capturing  Turkish  forts  at  the  S. 
end  of  the  Red  Sea,  Nov.  15,  1914. 
Of  this  class  the  Black  Prince  was 
lost    in    the    battle   of    Jutland, 
1916,  as  the  result  of  an  explosion 
while     attacking 
i  n     Arbuthnot's 
squadron.      She 
displaced    13,550 
tons  and  carried 
six    9'2-in.   guns. 
See  Cruiser. 

Duke  of  York 
Islands.  Group 
of  islands  for- 
merly part  of  the 
Bismarck  Archi- 
pelago(g.t;.).  They 
were  captured  by 
a  n  Australian 
force  from  the 
Germans,  Sept., 
1914. 


boys  are  maintained  and  educated 
between  the  ages  of  9  and  14.  The 
Queen  Victoria  School  for  the  sons 
of  Scottish  soldiers  and  sailors  at 
Dunblane  maintains  275  boys.   To 
commemorate  the  old  boys  of  the 
Duke   of    York's   Royal    Military 
School  who  fell  in 
the   Great    War  a 
library  and  reading 
room  are  to    be 
built   at   G  us  ton 
(Dover). 

Duke  of  York's 
Theatre.  London 
theatre,  in  St. 
Martin's  Lane, 
W.C.,  designed  by 
Walter  Emden  and 
originally  known  as 
the  Trafalgar 
Square  Theatre. 
In  it  Ibsen's  The 
Master  Builder  was 
produced  in  1893. 
It  was  reopened 
and  renamed  the  Duke  of  York's  in 
1895,  and  was  associated  with  many 
of  Sir  James  Barrie's  plays. 

Dukeries.  District  in  the  N.W. 
of  Nottinghamshire.  It  covers  an 
area  about  100  sq.  m.  and  stretches 
from  just  N.  of  Mansfield  to 
Worksop.  It  is  usually  entered 
from  Edwinstone,  where  the  G.C. 
Rly.  crosses  the  district.  Oiler- 
ton  is  another  centre.  Including 
the  remains  of  Sherwood  Forest,  it 
has  some  fine  woodland  scenery. 

Coal  mines  have  been  opened 
in  the  southern  part  of  the  dis- 
trict. The  name  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  in  the  18th  century  four 
dukes  resided  here.  At  Welbeck 
Abbey  was  the  duke  of  Port- 
land :  at  Clumber  the  duke  of 


„,  Nottinghamshire.      The  Duke's  Drive,  show- 
ing some  of  the  trees  for  which  this  district  is  famous 


DUKE     TOWN 


2714 


DULWICH 


Newcastle  ;  at  Thoresby,  now  the 
seat  of  Earl  Manvers,  the  duke  of 
Kingston  ;  and  at  Worksop  Manor 
the  duke  of  Norfolk. 

Duke  Town.  Former  name  of 
Old  Calabar,  situated  on  the  Cala- 
bar river,  Nigeria.  See  Calabar. 

Dukhonin,  GENERAL.  Russian 
soldier.  During  the  early  part  of 
the  Great  War  he  held  important 
staff  appointments.  His  ability 
was  recognized  by  his  appointment 
as  chief  of  staff  of  the  Northern 
Army  early  in  1917.  He  was  made 
commander-in-chief  by  Kerensky 
early  in  Oct.  of  that  year,  in  succes- 
sion to  Korniloff  ,  and  tried  to  stem 
the  increasing  disorganization  of 
the  armies.  After  the  Lenin  coup 
d'etat,  Nov.  7,  he  was  superseded 
because  he  refused  to  negotiate  an 
armistice  with  the  Germans.  Re- 
maining loyal  to  Russia,  he  con- 
tinued to  act  as  commander-in- 
chief  at  the  front  after  the  flight  of 
Kerensky.  On  Dec.  3,  1917,  he  was 
captured  at  Mohilev  by  a  naval 
guard,  and  after  being  insulted  was 
stabbed  and  killed.  See  Kerensky  ; 
Korniloff. 

Dukinfield.  Mun.  bor.  of  Che- 
shire, England.  It  stands  on  the 
Tame,  and  is  mostly  within  the 
parl.  bor.  of  Staly  bridge,  6  m.  E.  of 
Manchester  by  the  G.C.  and  L.  & 
N.W.  Rlys.  The 
principal  build-  \ 
ings  are  the  town  : 
hall,  free  library,  j 
technical  school. 
There  are  church-  \ 
es,  schools,  a  pub- 
lic park  and  re- 
creation grounds. 
The  borough 
unites  with  Staly- 
bridge,  Hyde,  and 
Moseley  in  a  joint 
system  of  electric 
tramways  and 
lighting. 


Dulce.  Gulf  or  inlet  of  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  between  Costa  Rica 
and  Panama.  At  its  entrance  are 
the  points  of  Matapalo  on  the  N. 
and  Burica  on  the  S. 

Dulciana  (Lat.  dulcis,  sweet). 
Organ  stop.  The  pipes  in  it  are 
open  and  of  small  scale,  possessing 
a  delicate  tone.  Its  invention  is 
ascribed  to  Snetzler  (18th  cen- 
tury). They  are  usually  of  8  ft. 
pitch,  but  are  sometimes  16  ft.  or 
even  4  ft.  See  Organ. 

Dulcigno  (anc.  Olcinium ;  Turk. 
Olgun).  Harbour  of  Montenegro,  on 
the  Adriatic.  Though  deep  and 
commodious,  it  is  difficult  of  access. 
The  town  is  built  on  Cape  Kadilie,  a 
rocky  promontory,  and  trades  with 
Italy  in  olives  and  oil.  Formerly 
Byzantine,  it  was  in  turn  Serbian 
and  Venetian,  and  became  Turkish 
in  1571.  During  the  Great  War  it 
was  captured  by  the  Austrians  in 
Jan.,  1916,  and  occupied  by  the 
Italians  in  Nov.,  1918.  Pop.  5,000. 

Dulcimer  (Lat.  dulcis,  sweet ;  Gr. 
melos,  song).  Musical  instrument, 
from  which  the  pianoforte  has  been 
evolved.  It  consists  of  a  trapeze  - 
shaped  sounding-board,  over  which 
metal  strings  are  stretched.  These 
are  struck  by  two  hammers  with 
flexible  stems,  and  heads  of  which 
one  side  is  -hard  and  the  other 


Dulcimer,  covering  3  octaves.     There  are  4  strings  to 
each  note,  and  the  instrument  contains  21  bridges 

By  courtesy  of  Barnes  &  Mull  inn 

The  chief  industries  are    padded.     The  dulcimer,  or  cimba- 


cotton  manufacture,  calico-print- 
ing, iron-working,  engineering,  and 
coal-mining.  A  bridge  across  the 
Tame  connects  Cheshire  with  Lan- 
cashire. Market  day,  Mon.  Pop. 
19,422. 

Dukla  Pass  .  Pass  over  the  Car- 
pathian Mts.  between  Galicia  and 
Hungary.  It  is  named  after  Dukla, 
a  town  of  Galicia,  1  7  m.  S.E.  of  Jaslo. 
See  Carpathians,  Fighting  in  the. 

Dulac,  EDMUND  (b.  1882). 
Franco-British  artist.  Born  at  Tou- 
louse, he  settled  in  Great  Britain  in 
1905.  In  1907  an  exhibition  of  his 
drawings  at  the  Leicester  Galleries 
caused  a  sensation  ;  and  his  illus- 
trations to  fairy  tales  and  other 
classics  enjoy  a  wide  popularity. 
His  Book  for  the  French  Red  Cross 
(1915)  is  specially  menorable  An 
exhibition  of  his  caricatures  was 
given  in  London  in  1920. 


lom,  is  an  important  feature  in 
Magyar  bands. 

Dulcin,  DULCITOL  OK  MELAM- 
PYRITE.  Sweet-tasting  substance 
obtained  from  Madagascar  manna, 
Melampyrum  nemorosum,  and  other 
plants.  From  Madagascar  manna 
it  is  obtained  by  treatment  with 
boiling  water  ;  from  Melampyrum 
nemorosum  by  boiling  the  plant, 
dried  when  flowering,  with  water, 
adding  milk  of  lime  to  the  decoc- 
tion until  it  is  just  alkaline,  again 
boiling,  and  then  decomposing  the 
filtered  liquid  with  hydrochloric 
acid.  The  dulcin  then  separates 
out  and  is  purified  by  recrystalli- 
sation.  It  is  produced  artificially  by 
the  action  of  sodium  amalgam  on 
lactose  and  galactose. 

Dulcinea  del  Toboso.  In  Don 
Quixote,  the  imaginary  lady  to 
whom  the  Don  consecrates  himself 


— an  idealisation  of  a  farm  girl, 
Aldonza  Lorenzo.  She  is  shown  to 
him  by  Sancho  Panza  as  a  country 
wench  riding  an  ass,  and  he  is  per- 
suaded that  she  is  the  victim  of  en- 
chantment. See  Cervantes  ;  Don 
Quixote. 

Dulse  (Rhodymenia  palmata  and 
Dilsea  edulis).  Two  fleshy,  purple 
seaweeds  of  the  natural  order  Rho- 


Dulse.    Leaves  of  Rhodymenia  palmata, 
an  edible  seaweed 

dophyceae,  growing  on  rocks  in 
shallow  water.  The  name  belongs 
more  especially  to  the  first  men- 
tioned, which  is  used  as  food  by  the 
Scottish  Highlanders  and  the  Irish, 
who  call  it  dillisk,  not  only  as  an 
ingredient  in  stews,  but  when  dried 
as  a  substitute  for  chewing  tobacco. 

Duluth.  City  of  Minnesota, 
U.S.A.,  the  co.  seat  of  St.  Louis  co. 
At  the  W.  end  of  Lake  Superior, 
152  m.  N.E.  of  St.  Paul,  it  is  served 
by  the  Chicago  and  Milwaukee  and 
other  rlys.,  and  is  the  terminus  of 
three  of' the  lines.  It  has  one  of  the 
best  natural  harbours  in  the  world, 
formed  by  Minnesota  Point,  a 
narrow  tongue  of  land  which  parts 
it  from  the  lake.  The  waterway  of 
the  Great  Lakes  and  the  ample  rly. 
facilities  make  Duluth  one  of  the 
leading  commercial  ports  in  the 
country.  Its  industrial  establish- 
ments include  steel  and  iron  works, 
blast  furnaces,  flour  and  saw  mills, 
and  match  factories.  Settled  in 
1853,  it  was  incorporated  as  a  city 
in  1870  and  has  grown  rapidly 
since.  Pop.  97,077. 

Dulverton.  Market  town  and 
parish  of  Somerset,  England.  It 
stands  on  the  Barle  and  near  the  S. 
edge  of  Exmoor,  20  m.  W.  of  Taun- 
ton.  It  has  a  station  on  the  G.W. 
Rly.  In  the  midst  of  lovely  scenery, 
it  is  a  fishing  and  hunting  centre. 
Near  is  Pixton  Park.  Dulverton  is 
referred  to  in  Blackmore's  Lorna 
Doone  Pop.  1,526. 

Dulwich.  London  residential 
suburb.  It  lies  S.E.  of  the  <5ity, 
between  Denmark  Hill,  Herne  Hill, 
and  West  Norwood  on  the  W.,  and 
Peckham  Rye,  Nunhead,  Forest 
Hill,  and  Upper  Sydenham  on  the 
E.  The  oldest  part,  which  retains 


DULW1CH     COLLEGE 


271  5 


DUMA 


much  of  its  rural  charm,  is  known 
as  the  Village,  and  contains  the 
buildings,  much  restored,  of  the 
college  founded  by  Edward  Alleyn, 
the  chapel  of  which  has  served  as 
the  parish  church  and  as  a  chapel 
of  ease,  the  rest  of  the  quadrangle 
being  offices  and  almshouses.  Dul- 
wich  Park,  12  acres,  was  presented 
to  the  public  by  the  college  trustees 
in  1890.  Dulwich  Picture  Gallery 
is  notable  for  its  perfect  quiet,  as 
well  as  for  its  artistic  treasures. 

On  a  site  occupied  by  the  Grove 
Hotel  stood  the  Green  Man,  a  noted 
hostelry  in  the  18th  century,  in  the 
grounds  of  which  was  a  well  pro- 
ducing the  once  famous  spa- water  : 


Dulwich  College.     The  modern  buildings  < 
.     situated  in  College  Road,  Dulwie 


ck  in  the  Italian  style, 
ened  in  1870 


Dulwich.     Toll  gate  in  the  rural  part  of  this  residential 
London  suburb 


and  here,  later,  was  Dr.  Glennie's 
Academy,  which  had  Byron  for  a 
pupil.  Anciently  known  as  Dil- 
wyshe,  Dulwich  was  a  manor  be- 
longing to  the  abbey  of  Bermond- 
sey,  presented  after  the  dissolution 
to  Thomas  Calton,  from  whom  it 
was  purchased  by  Edward  Alleyn. 
S.  Stephen's  Church,  College  Road, 
designed  by  Sir  Charles  Barry,  was 
built  in  1869,  in  the  Early  English 
style  ;  S.  John's,  a  Gothic  struc- 
ture, in  E.  Dulwich,  dates  from 
1865.  Dulwich  is  served  by  the 
S.E.  &  C.  and  L.B.  &  S.C.  Rlys., 
and  by  electric  trams  from  Black- 
friars.  See  Alleyn,  Edward ;  con- 
sult also  Norwood  and  Dulwich, 
Past  and  Present,  A.M.  Galer,  1890. 

Dulwich  College  OR  THE  COL- 
LEGE OF  GOD'S  GIFT.  English  public 
school  at  Dulwich,  founded  and 
endowed  by  Edward  Alleyn,  the 
actor,  in  1619.  The  property, 
which  is  land  in  S.  London  about 
3^  m.  in  length  by  1  \  m.  in  breadth, 
increased  enormously  in  value,  and 
in  1857  a  new  scheme  was  ap- 
proved by  Parliament  and  carried 
out.  This  provided  for  two  schools, 
an  upper  school,  Dulwich  College 
proper,  and  a  lower  school,  known 
as  Alley n's  School. 

The  college  contains  four  sides, 
classical,  modern,  science,  and  en- 
gineering. It  has  ample  buildings, 
laboratories,  workshops,  etc.,  and 


extensive  playing  fields.  The  new 
buildings  of  red  brick  in  the  Italian 
style  were  from  the  designs  of  Sir 
Charles  Barry.  They  are  in  College 
Road,  and  were  opened  in  1870. 
The  boys  number 
about  700,  most 
of  them  day  boys 
from  the  resi- 
dential suburbs  of 
S.  London,  but 
there  are  four 
boarding  houses. 
There  are  a  num- 
ber of  scholar- 
ships to  the  school, 
and  from  it  to  the 
universities.  Over 
3,000  Old  Alleyn- 
ians  served  in 
the  Great  War, 
of  whom  441  were 
killed.  The  decora- 
tions won  include 
76  D.S.O.'s,  and 


five     V.C.'s, 
175  M.C.'s. 

Dulwich  Gallery.  Collection 
of  pictures  housed  in  a  building 
near  old  Dulwich  College.  Noel 


Joseph  Desenfans  (d.  1807),  a 
London  dealer,  left  his  pictures, 
originally  collected  for  King  Stanis- 
laus of  Poland,  to  his  friend,  Sir 
Peter  F.  Bourgeois,  R.A.  (1756- 
1811),  who  in  turn  bequeathed 
them  to  Dulwich  College.  Madame 
Desenfans  commissioned  Sir  John 
Soare  to  design  a  building,  which 
was  opened  in  1814.  The  collection 
of  about  450  pictures  is  exception- 
ally rich  in  examples  of  the  Dutch 
school;  but  it  is  noted  for  Wat- 
teau's  Bal  Champetre,  Reynolds's 
Mrs.  Siddons  as  the  Tragic  Muse 
(whether  original  or  replica  is  a 
moot  point),  and  Gainsborough's 
Mrs.  Sheridan  and  Mrs.  Tickell. 
There  are  also  characteristic  works 
by  Rembrandt,  Adrian  van  Ostade, 
Albert  Cuyp,  Gustave  Dore,  Murillo, 
Velasquez,  and  other  masters. 

Duma.  Representative  state 
council  of  the  former  Russian  Em- 
pire. It  formed,  with  the  half- 
elected  and  half-nominated  coun- 
cil of  the  empire,  or  second  cham- 
ber, the  Russian  legislature.  The 
Duma,  created  Aug.  6,  1905,  num- 
bered 442  members,  elected  in- 
directly for  five  years,  the  elective 
assemblies  of  towns  or  districts 
sending  delegates  to  a  general 
electoral  assembly,  which  chose 
the  members  of  the  Duma.  These 
received  a  guinea  a  day  for  ex- 
penses during  the  session,  and  the 
cost  of  the  journey  to  and  from 
St.  Petersburg  once  a  year. 


JMI  'BSH   nfiS;? 


Duma.     A    sitting    shortly  before  the   final  dissolution  in    1917.     Above, 
President  Rodzianko  in  the  chair  beneath  a  portrait  of  Tsar  Nicholas  H 


DUMAGUETE 


2716 


DUMAS 


The  Duma  could  not  touch  "the    guages.  To  many  English-speaking 


fundamental  laws  of  the  Imperial 
Administration,"  but  within  its 
sphere  were  the  making  of  new 
laws,  the  modification  of  existing 
laws,  the  national  budgets,  the 
construction  of  state  rlys.,  and 
any  matters  submitted  to  it  by 
Imperial  Decree.  The  chamber 
could  be  summoned  or  dissolved  by 
the  ukase  of  the  emperor.  *  No 
measie  was  submitted  to  the  tsar 


readers  the  most  familiar  of  his 
other  works  are  The  Three  Mus- 
keteers, Twenty  Years  After, 
Memoirs  of  a  Physician,  The 
Queen's  Necklace,  Taking  the 
Bastille,  Chicot  the  Jester,  The 
Black  Tulip,  and  other  romances. 
Many  are  unfamiliar  with  what  is 
beyond  question  Dumas'  master- 
piece, Le  Vicomte  de  Bragelonne 
(26  vols.,  1848-50),  prodigious  in 


UmOOIVU      Wc*0    OU.WJ-LU.Ui^-'^*     v\  w  yj      ^                    ^ 

for  hi3  sanction  until  it  had  been  extent,  and  scarcely  rivalled  in 
passed  by  both  the  Duma  and  the  literature  as  a  piece  of  pure,  spark- 
Council  of  the  Empire.  The  course  ling,  and  unflagging  narrative. 
of  its  brief  history  was  stormy.  He  has  set  his  name  to  a  thou- 
The  military  revolution  of  Nov.  7,  sand  or  twelve  hundred  volumes ; 
1917,  transferred  the  government  of  dramas,  romances,  books  of  travel, 
Russia  to  Commissioners  set  up  by  historical  scraps,  compilations  on 
Lenin,  and  the  Duma  ceased  to  art,  crime,  and  cookery.  Clearly 
exist.  See  Russia,  D.  Mackenzie  there  was  a  good  deal  of  hocus- 
Wallace,  rev.  ed.  1912.  pocus,  of  literary  legerdemain,  and 
Dumaguete.  Town  of  the  worse,  in  the  career  of  this  amazing 
Philippine  Islands,  capital  of  the  man.  The  air  was  charged  with 
prov.  of  Negros  Oriental.  It  stands  stories  of  Dumas'  "  ghosts," 


on  Negros  Island  at  the  entrance  to 
Tanon  Strait,  90  m.  (direct)  S.E. 
of  Bacolod.  Its  chief  trade  is  con- 
nected with  turtles  and  cotton. 
Pop.  15,000. 

Dumangas.  Town  of  the  Philip- 
pine Islands,  in  the  prov.  of  Iloilo. 
It  stands  on  Dumangas  river,  near 
the  S.E.  coast  of  Panay  Island,  and 
has  tobacco  and  linen  industries. 
Pop.  12,400. 

Dumanjug.  Town  of  the  Philip- 
pine Islands,  on  Cebu  Island.  It 
stands  at  the  mouth  of  the  Duman- 
jug river,  38  m.  S.W.  of  Cebii  town, 
and  carries  on  a  brisk  trade  in 
maize  and  other  produce  of  the 
district.  Pop.  22,000. 

Dumas,  ALEXANDRE  (1802-70). 
French  novelist  and  dramatist, 
whose  full  name  was  Alexandre 
Dumas-Davy  de  la  Pailleterie. 
He  was  born  at  Villers-Cotterets, 
July  24,  1802,  his  father  being  the 
illegitimate  son  of  a  French  noble, 
the  Marquis  Alexandre  Davy  de 
la  Pailleterie,  who  had  settled  in 


tants,  and  collaborators  —  Maquet 


and  others.  It  may  be  said  (1) 
that  Dumas,  who  could  keep  half- 
a-dozen  plots  going  at  once,  and 


San  Domingo,  and  of  a  negress  was  burdened  with  few  scruples  as 
ml  to  their  origin  and  evolution,  seems 
to  have  taken  help  from  all  quar- 
ters ;  (2)  that,  whatever  tasks  he 
may  have  assigned  to  his  jackals, 
his  own  brain  during  many  years 
was  probably  equal  to  the  creation 
of  what  is  best  in  the  wonderful 
romances  ;  and  (3)  that  not  one  of 
these  associates  or  auxiliaries,  un- 
assisted by  the  master,  proved  his 


named  Marie-Cessette  Dumas.  The 
father  became  a  general  in  the 
French  republican  army. 

About  1822  Dumas  went  to 
Paris.  His  first  success  was  with  a 
play,  Henri  III  et  sa  cour,  1829; 
and  competent  French  critics  cit- 
ng  this  piece,  together  with  Chris- 
tine, Charles  VII,  La  Tour  de 
tfesle,  and  Mademoiselle  de  Belle- 


tsle,  claim  for  him  an  even  higher    rival  in  any  field. 


place  as  a  dramatist   than   as    a 
teller  of  tales. 

But  to  the  majority  of  readers 
throughout  the  world  Dumas  is 
;he  author  of  that  fantastic 
and  unwearying  romance,  The 
Count  of  Monte  Cristo,  1844-45, 
which  translations  have  almost 
made  a  classic  in  numerous  Ian- 


The  day  came  when  the  power 
of  the  great  man  waned.  This 
was  the  day  of  the  shifts,  schemes, 
devices  to  which  none  but  a  Dumas 
would  or  could  have  risen  or  de- 
scended. He  put  his  name  to  any 
MS.  that  was  brought  to  him, 
started  impossible  newspapers,  lent 
himself  to  the  wiles  of  advertising 


Paris    tradesmen.      He     died    at 
Dieppe,  Dec.  5,  1870. 

Bibliography.  Dumas'  Memoirs 
Eng.  trans.  E.  M.  Waller,  1907  ; 
Life  and  Adventures  of  Alexandre 
Dumas,  P.  H.  Fitzgerald,  1873 
Memories  and  Portraits,  R.  L. 
Stevenson,  1887  ;  Alexandre  Dumas 
Pere,  H.  Parigot  (in  French),  1902 
Parisian  Portraits,  F.  Grierson,1911 
Dumas ,  ALEXANDKE,  FILS  ( 1 824- 
95).  French  novelist,  dramatist, 
and  academician.  Born  July  27, 
1824,  he 
the  natural  son 
of  the  famous 
romancer, 
whose  dramatic 
genius  he  in- 
herited, but 
with  whom 
otherwise  he 
4n  had  little  in 

*«  &*">*"*«  *  common.  When 
only  twenty -four  he  made  a  sen- 
sation with  a  novel  of  passion, 
La  Dame  aux  Camelias.  After 
this  he  wrote  other  novels  (e.g. 
Diane  de  Lys,  1851,  L' Affaire  Cle- 
menceau,  1866);  but  the  success 
of  the  dramatised  versions  of  La 
Dame  and  Diane  turned 
energies  to  the  stage,  and  it  is  as  a 
playwright  rather  than  as  a  novelist 
that  he  keeps  his  distinctive  place. 
Dumas  was  firmly  convinced  of 
the  utility  of  the  stage  for  the  dis- 
cussion of  ethical  questions  and  as 
an  agent  of  social  reform,  and 
his  plays,  notably  La  Question 
d' Argent,  Le  Fils  Naturel,  Le  Pere 
Prodigue,  L'Ami  des  Femmes,  Les 
Idees  de  Mme.  Aubray,  Une  Visite 
de  Noces,  are  problem  plays. 
While  as  plays  they  suffer  at  times 
from  overstress  of  didactic  pur- 
pose, Dumas'  keen  sense  of  the 
stage  generally  saved  him  from 
sinking  into  the  mere  preacher, 
while  his  incisive  wit  and  brilliant 
style  further  contributed  to  his 
popular  success.  He  died  at  Paris, 
Nov.  27,  1895.  See  Monograph, 
J.  Claretie,  1882,  and  Nouveaux 
Essais  de  Psychologic  Contem- 
poraine,  P.  C.  J.  Bourget,  1886. 

Dumas,  JEAN  BAPTISTE  ANDK£ 
(1800-84).  French  chemist.  He  was 
born  at  Alais,  in  the  dept.  of  Gard, 
July  14,  1800, 
where  he  was 
apprenticed  to 
a  pharmacist. 
In  1823  he  was 
appointed  as- 
sistant  to 
Thenard  at  the 
Ecole  Poly- 
technique, 

Paris,  and  *•  B-  A.  Dumas, 
shortly  after-  French  chenust 
wards  succeeded  Robiquet  as 
professor  of  chemistry  at  the 
Athenaeum. 


DU      MAURIER 


2717 


DUMBARTONSHIRE 


Walery 


Here  he  investigated  experi- 
mentally the  atomic  theory  enun- 
ciated a  few  years  previously  by 
Dalton.  Then  he  began  a  study  of 
the  compound  ethers,  which  was 
followed  by  investigations  con- 
cerning other  organic  compounds. 
He  established  the  fact  that  the  or- 
ganic acids  form  homologous  series, 
i.e.  series  which  differ  from  each 
other  in  chemical  composition  by 
multiples  of  carbon  and  hydrogen. 
He  subsequently  devoted  more  at- 
tention to  physiological  subjects, 
such  as  the  phenomena  of  nutrition, 
the  formation  of  sugar  in  the  organ- 
ism, and  the  composition  of  blood. 
In  1869  he  lectured  on  Faraday  at 
the  Royal  Institution,  London.  He 
died  at  Cannes,  April  11,  1884. 

Du  Maurier,  GEORGE  Louis 
PALMELLA  BTTSSON  (1834-96). 
British  artist  and  author.  Born  at 
Paris,  March  6, 
1834,  he  stud- 
ied chemistry 
at  University 
College,  Lon- 
don, s  u  b  s  e- 
quently  setting 
up  as  an  ana- 
lytical chemist. 
In  1856  he  be- 
c  a  m  e  J 
an  art  GT"*~>- 
student, 

first  in  Paris  and  then  in  Antwerp. 
In  1865  he  joined  the  staff  of 
Punch,  then  under  Mark  Lemon's 
editorship,  and  began  his  famous 
series  of  social  satires.  In  1881  the 
Royal  Society  of  Painters  in  Water 
Colours  elected  him  a  member. 
His  sight  failing  rapidly  towards 
the  close  of  his  life,  he  took  to 
novel-writing,  and  produced  Peter 
Ibbetson,  1892  ;  Trilby,  1894 
(serially  in  Harper's  Magazine) ; 
and  The  Martian,  published  post- 
humously. Trilby,  largely  a  remi- 
niscence of  Du  Maurier's  student 
days  in  Paris,  enjoyed  an  extra- 
ordinary success.  These  and  other 
volumes,  illustrated  by  him,  in- 
cluded Thackeray's  Esmond  (Lib. 
ed.),  1869;  and  F.  C.  Philips'  As 
in  a  Looking-glass,  1889.  He  died 
at  Hampstead,  Oct.  8,  1896.  See 
Memoir  of  Thomas  Armstrong, 
L.  M.  Lamont,  1912  ;  George  Du 
Maurier :  a  review  of  his  art  and 
personality,  T.  M.  Wood,  1913. 

His  elder  son,  Guy  Louis  Busson 
Du  Maurier  (1865-1915),  entered 
the  army  from  Sandhurst  in  1885. 
He  served  through  the  S.  African 
War,  when  he  gained  the  D.S.O., 
and  was  killed  in  France,  March 
11,  1915.  He  was  the  author  of 
a  successful  play,  An  Englishman's 
Home,  produced  in  London,  1909. 

Du  Maurier,  Sm  GERALD  (b. 
1873).  British  actor.  Son  of 
Georae  Du  Maurier,  he  was  born  in 


London,  March 
26,  1873,  and 
educated  at 
Harrow.  He 
first  went  on 
the  stage  at 
the  Garrick 
Theatre,  Lon- 

don,  1894,  and 

Sir  G.  Da  Maurter,    in  1910  became 


Cal.  Rlys.  The 
town  proper  is  on 
the  left  side  of 
the  Leven,  but 
across  it  is  the 
suburb  of  Bridg- 
end.  The  chief 
industry  is  ship- 
building,  but 
Dumbarton  arms  there  are  aiso 

the  manager  at  engineering  works,  brass  foundries, 
Wyndham's  and  establishments  for  making 
Theatre.  The  original  Captain  Hook  ropes  and  sails. 
in  Peter  Pan,  he  was  knighted,  1922.  The  chief  buildings  include  the 
Dumba,  KONSTANTTN.  Austro-  castle,  standing  on  a  bold  rock 
Hungarian  diplomatist.  In  1913  240  ft.  high ;  the  burgh  hall,  the 
he  went  as  ambassador  in  Wash-  county  hall,  the  Denny  memorial, 

the  public  library,  the  academy, 
hospital,  etc.  Both  a  Celtic  and 
a  Roman  settlement,  Dumbarton 
was  known  as  Alcluith,  hill  of  the 
Clyde,  and  was  the  capital  of 
Strathclyde.  Market  day,  Tues. 


British  actor 

Hwjh  Cecil 


ington,  U.S.A., 
where  he  came 
into  promin- 
ence  in  the 
early  part  of 
the  Great  War. 
He  was  con- 
cerned in  plots 
to  defeat  the 
Allied  cause, 


Papen,  Boy-Ed,  and  others,  engin- 
eered a  vast  conspiracy  with  the 
object  of  disorganising  the  output 
of  munitions  for  the  Allies  in  Ameri- 
can factories.  He  planned  strikes 
and  explosions,  and  in  other  ways 
abused  his  position.  [He  threatened 
Austro-Hungarians  working  in  the 


Pop.  (1921)  17,428. 

Dumbartonshire.  Western 
county  of  Scotland.  It  is  almost 
entirely  surrounded  by  water — E. 
by  Loch  Lomond, 
W  by  Loch  Long, 
and  S.  by  the 
Clyde  estuary,  a 
small  detached 
part  of  it  lying 
between  Stirling 
and  Lanark.  The 


Dumbartonshire 
arms 


surface  is  moun- 
tainous in  the  W. 

production  of  war  material  that  (highest  point  Ben  Vorlich,  3,092 
they  would  be  punished  if  they  ft.),  and  generally  hilly  elsewhere, 
continued  to  work.  Documents,  except  in  the  S.  where  the  soil  is 
including  a  letter  from  Dumba  to  well  cultivated.  The  mountain, 
Baron  Burian,  the  Austrian  foreign  glen  and  loch  scenery  is  magnifi- 
minister,  suggesting  certain  mea-  cent.  The  chief  rivers,  after  the 
sures  for  handicapping  the  output  Clyde,  are  the  Leven  and  Kelvin, 
of  munitions,  were  found  on  J.  E.  J.  Roseneath  Castle,  on  Roseneath 
Archibald.  President  Wilson  de-  peninsula,  is  a  seat  of  the  duke  of 
manded  Dumba's  recall,  which  Argyll.  Cattle  and  sheep  rearing, 
was  agreed  to  by  Austria-Hungary,  engineering  and  shipbuilding  are 
and  the  latter,  granted  a  safe  con-  thriving  industries,  cotton  goods, 
duct  by  the  British  government,  glass,  and  sewing  machines  are 
sailed  from  the  U.S.A.,  Oct.  5, 1915.  manufactured,  and  along  the  Vale 
Dumbarton.  Royal,  mun.  and  of  Leven  are  many  bleachfields  and 
parl.  burgh,  also  a  seaport  and  the  dye  works.  Coal,  iron  and  slate  are 
county  town  of  Dumbartonshire,  the  principal  mineral  products.  The 
Scotland.  It  stands  where  the  river  N.B.  and  Cal.  rlys.  and  the  Forth 
Leven  falls  into  the  Clyde,  15 
from  Glasgow.  It  is  on  the  N. 

Dumbarton 
(county  town). 
Clydebank,  and 
Kirkintilloch  are 
the  largest  towns  ; 
Helensburgh  and 
Kilcreggan  are 
health  resorts. 
One  member  is 
returned  to  Parlia- 
ment. Formerly 
Dumbartonshire 
was  part  of  the  old 
Scottish  territory 
of  Lennox.  Areca, 

Dumbarton.   The  Rock  ol  Dumbarton-  showing  the        *?L??\  ~  »AaP°P 
castle  where  Wallace  was  imprisoned  (1921)   150,868. 


m.    and     Clyde 
.  &    county. 


Canal      serve      the 


DUMB-BELt 


2718 


DUM-DUM 


of  Midlothian.  (2)  His  son,  John 
(or  Jock),  of  slow  ideas  and  con- 
fused utterance,  who  woos  Jeanie 
Deans,  but  finally  marries  the 
Laird  of  Lickpelf's  daughter, 
while  Jeanie  is  united  to  Reuben 
Butler. 

Dumbness.  Inability  to  articu- 
late. It  may  be  acquired,  but  in  the 
vast  majority  of  cases  it  is  congeni- 
tal. Acquired  dumbness,  although 


Dumbartonshire. 


Map  of  this  western  county  of  Scotland ;  a  small  detached 
part  lies  between  Stirling  and  Lanark 


LITERARY  ASSOCIATIONS.  Tobias 
Smollett  was  born  near  Renton, 
where  a  60  ft.  column  was  erected 
to  his  memory.  David  Gray,  the 
poet,  was  born  at  Merkland,  Kirk- 
intilloch,  and  died  there  at  the 
early  age  of  23.  He  is  buried  in 
Kirkintilloch  churchyard.  Many 
associations  linger  about  Loch  Lo- 
mond, which  is  partly  in  this  co., 
notably  with  Scott's  Rob  Roy. 

Duznb-Bell.  Short  iron  or 
wooden  bar  with  a  knob  at  each 
end,  used  as  an  aid  to  health  and  by 
athletes  as  part  of  their  training. 
They  are  grasped,  one  in  each  hand, 
and  a  series  of  exercises  are  then 
gone  through.  It  is  claimed  that 
their  use  brings  every  muscle  of  the 
body  into  play.  Iron  dumb-bells, 
which  are  most  in  use,  weigh  from 
4  Ib.  to  6  Ib.  each,  but  heavier  ones 
are  occasionally  employed.  They 
are  sometimes  covered  with  leather. 
The  first  dumb-bells  consisted  oi 
sticks  loaded  with  lead  at  the  ends, 
and  were  so  called  because  these 
ends  were  shaped  like  bells.  Dumb- 
bells are  said  to  have  been  first  used 
in  the  time  of  Elizabeth. 

Dumb  Cane  (Dieff'enbachia 
seguina).  Evergreen  perennial 
plant  of  the  natural  order  Araceae, 
native  of  the  West  Indies.  It  has 
a  fleshy,  cane-like  stem,  about  6  ft. 
high,  and  oblong,  deep  green 
leaves  spotted  with  white.  The 
juice  is  acrid  and  poisonous.  Old- 
time  planters  are  said  to  have 
punished  refractory  slaves  by  com- 
pelling them  to  bite  the  stem, 
which  rendered  them  speechless 
for  several  days,  owing  to  swelling 
of  the  mouth  parts. 

Duxnbiedikes,  THE  LAIRD  OF. 
(1 )  The  grasping  landlord  of  David 
Deans,  in  Scott's  novel,  The  Heart 


occasionally  a  symptom  of  mental 
disease  or  of  an  apoplectic  stroke,  is 
more  often  a  manifestation  of  hys- 
teria. The  Great  War  produced 
many  examples,  although  severe 
stammering  was  much  more  fre- 
quent. Acquired  dumbness  may 
also  be  due  to  tumours,  organic 
disease  of  the  sound-producing  ap- 
paratus, such  as  of  the  vocal  chords, 
or  complete  paralysis  of  the  chords 
following  diphtheria.  In  the  hys- 
terical form  the  patient  can  cough 


loudly ;  in  the  other  varieties  cough  - 
ing  is  impossible  or  very  feeble. 
General  treatment  will  relieve  the 
hysterical  variety.  At  times  a  sud- 
den fright  or  the  application  to  the 
neck  of  a  strong  current  of  elec- 
tricity is  immediately  successful. 
Recovery  is  usual  from  dumbness 
following  diphtheria,  but  tumours 
require  removal  by  operation.  If 
the  whole  larynx  has  to  be  removed, 
speech  can  be  regained  by  wearing 
an  artificial  larynx. 

Congenital  dumbness  may  be 
due  to  mental  weakness,  but  much 
more  frequently  to  deafness,  con- 
genital or  acquired  in  infancy. 
The  child  cannot  speak  because  it 
has  not  the  use  of  its  ears  to  guide 
its  speech.  Even  partial  deafness 
occurring  in  childhood  may  cause 
dumbness.  It  is  important  to  as- 
certain whether  the  deafness  is  very 
marked  or  comparatively  slight. 
Any  middle  ear  disease  or  adenoids 
should  be  dealt  with  to  improve 
the  hearing  up  to  its  maximum. 
See  Deaf  and  Dumb. 

Dum-DuxnoRDAMDAMA  (Hind., 
raised  mound).  Town  of  India.  It 
is  in  the  Barrackpore  sub-division 
of  the  district  of  the  twenty-four 
Parganas,  Bengal,  1  m.  N.E.  of  Cal- 
cutta. The  town  comprises  two 
municipalities,  N.  and  S.  Dum- 
Dum,  the  former  containing  the 
cantonment,  once  the  headquar- 
ters of  the  Bengal  Artillery.  There 
is  a  government  ammunition  fac- 
tory at  Dum-Dum. 


7  8 

Dumb-Bell.  Diagram  oi  eight  typical  exercises.  1.  The  start  with  the  bells 
on  the  shoulders.  2.  Position  with  feet  apart  and  bells  above  the  head  before 
bending  down  as  in  3,  w  thout  bending  the  arms  or  legs  until  the  bells 
swing  between  the  latter.  The  arms  are  raised  above  the  head  again  and  then 
lowered  right  and  left  until  level  with  the  shoulders  (see  fig.  2).  4.  This  posi- 
tion shows  drop  on  the  right  knee,  with  left  knee  bent.  5.  Movement  to  exer- 
cise the  thigh  and  calf  muscles.  6.  Exercise  for  muscles  of  arms  and  chest. 
7.  The  lunge  movement.  8.  Employment  of  arm  and  chest  muscles 


DUM-DUM   BULLET 


DUMFRIESSHIRE 


Dum-Dum  Bullet.  Popular 
term  for  all  projectiles  of  small 
calibre  which  expand  or  flatten 
easily  in  the 
human  body, 
such  as  a  bul- 
let with  a 
hard  enve- 
lope which 
does  not  en- 
tirely cover 
the  core,  or 
is  pierced 


Dum-Dum  Bullet.    Above:  the  pro- 
jectile, and  sectional  view  showing 
cavity  in  the  nose.      Below :   the 
bullet  after  impact 

with  incisions.  This  class  of  bullet 
was  invented  to  meet  a  demand  for 
a  projectile  that  would  stoptherush 
of  savages  on  whom  the  small-bore 
i12e- bullet  of  the  ordinary  type 
makes  little  impression.  Contro- 
versy centred  upon  an  invention  ol 
Captain  Bertie  Clay,  of  the  ammu- 
nition factory  at  Dum-Dum,  near 
Calcutta,  and  so  the  name  has 
stuck  to  bullets,  such  as  the  official 
mark  IV,  which  mushroomed  on 
impact.  This  bullet  actually  shot 
better  for  having  a  cavity  in  the 
nose,  but  at  Bisley,  in  1899,  it  was 
pronounced  to  be  dangerous  to  the 
firer,  as  the  lead  core  separated 
from  the  envelope,  and  in  the  Boer 
War  a  return  was  made  to  mark  II. 
the  original  cordite  cartridge.  See 
Bullet;  Explosives. 

Dumfries.  Royal,  parl.,  and 
mun.  burgh,  river  port,  and  co. 
town  of  Dumfriesshire,  Scotland. 
-7  It  stands  on  the 
7  Nith,  82  m.  S.E 
of  Glasgow,  on 
the  G.  &  S.W.R.. 
and  is  connected 
with  Maxwell- 
town,  its  suburb 
by  three  bridges. 

A  flourishing 
Onmtaes  arms     industrial     town° 

Dumfries  manufactures  tweeds, 
hosiery,  hats,  and  clogs,  and  has 
ironworks  and  tanneries.  Among 
prominent  buildings  are  the  new 
town  hall,  Crichton  institute  for 
the  insane,  and  the  county  build- 
ings. Robert  Burns  was  buried  in 
S.  Michael's  churchyard,  and  his  re- 
mains were  transferred  to  a  mauso- 
leum erected  in  the  churchyard  to 
his  memory  in  1815  ;  there  is  a 
marble  statue  of  the  poet  (1882)  in 
front  of  Greyfriars  Church,  the 
scene  of  the  murder  of  Comyn,  by 
Robert  the  Bruce,  in  1307.  Market 
day,  Wed.  Pop.  (1921)  15,778. 


Dumfriesshire.     Map  of  the  south-western  border  county  of  Scotland,  which 
has  a  coast-hue  of  21  miles  along  the  Solway  Firth 


W 


Dumfriesshire.  Border  county 
of  Scotland,  with  coast-line  of  about 
21  m.  along  Solway  Firth.  Hills 

. ,    (highest  summit, 

White  Coomb, 
2,695  ft.)  line  the 
N.,  W.,  and  E. 
boundaries, 
whence  the  sur- 
face declines  to 
Lochar  Moss,  a 
marshy  expanse 
in  the  S.,  now 
largely  r  e- 
claimed.  The  county  includes  three 
sections — Nithsdale,  Annandale, 


Dumfriesshire 
arms 


i 


Dumfries.    Greyfriars  Church,  built 
in  1867,  with  Burns  statue  in  front 


and  Eskdale;  these  dales  contain 
fine  holms  for  pasture  besides 
arable  land.  The  rivers  are  well 
stocked  with  salmon  and  trout. 
Lochs  Skene  and  Urr  and  the 
cluster  round  Lochmaben  are  the 
chief  lakes;  the  first  gives  rise  to 
the  Grey  Mare's  Tail  waterfall. 
Lead  ore  underlies  the  Lowther 
Hills  in  theN.,  and  sandstone,  lime- 
stone, and  coal  are  worked.  Agri- 
culture is  not  extensively  followed, 
but  cattle  and  sheep  are  reared  in 
good  numbers  on  the  abundant 
pastures.  Mofiat  is  visited  for  its 
mineral  springs.  The  Cal.,  G.S.  & 
W.,  and  N.B.  rlys.  supply  communi- 
cation. Dumfries ( co.  town), Annan, 
Langholm,  Lockerbie,  and  Moffat 
are  the  largest  towns.  Gretna  Green 
(q.v.)  is  on  the  S.  border.  One 
member  is  returned  to  Parliament. 
Area,  1,100  sq.  m.  Pop.  75,365. 

LITERARY  ASSOCIATIONS.  Dum- 
friesshire claims  many  associations 
with  Scottish  and  English  literature 
from  the  time  of  Hector  Boece  or 
Boethius,  the  16th  century  histor- 
ian, who,  like  Ben  Jonson,  belonged 
to  an  Annandale  family.  James 
Crichton,  the  Admirable  Crichton, 
was  born  at  Eliock  House,  San- 
quhar,  while  Robert  Flint  (1838- 
1910)  belonged  also  to  Annandale. 
W.  J.  Mickle,  poet  and  translator  of 
Camoens,  was  born  at  Langholm, 
and  Allan  Cunningham  was  bom  at 
Keir.  The  richest  poetic  memories 
of  the  county  are  associated  with 
Burns,  who  passed  the  last  eight 
years  of  his  life  at  Ellisland,  Dun- 
score,  and  Dumfries,  where  he  died 
and  is  buried.  The  soldier  author, 
Sir  J.  Malcolm,  was  born  at  Burn- 
foot,  Westerkirk.  Edward  Irving 
was  born  at  Annan.  The  greatest 
man  of  letters  who  was  a  native  of 
the  county  was  Thomas  Carlyle. 


DUMONT 


2720 


DUNAJETZ 


Dumont,FRANgois(1751-1831). 
French  miniature  painter.  Born  at 
Luneville,  he  studied  under  Gir- 
ardet,  and  became  an  academician 
in  1788.  Most  of  his  miniatures  are 
portraits,  and  include  those  of  the 
dauphin  (Louis  XVIII)  and  Ma- 
dame  Vigee  Le  Brun,  both  in  the 
Wallace  Collection.  He  also  painted 
historical  pieces  in  miniature. 

Dumont,  PIERRE  ETIENNE  Louis 
(1759-1829).  French  writer.  Born 
at  Geneva,  July  18,  1759,  he  went 
to  St.  Petersburg  in  1783,  to  take 
charge  of  the  French  Protestant 
church.  In  1785  he  came  to  Eng- 
land, where  he  became  tutor  in  the 
family  of  Lord  Shelburne  (later 
marquess  of  Lansdowne).  He  was 
in  Paris  during  the  early  part  of  the 
French  Revolution,  and  became 
very  friendly  with  Mirabeau.  In 
1791  he  returned  to  England,  and 
became  intimate  with  Jeremy 
Bentham,  much  of  whose  work  he 
translated  into  French.  In  1814 
he  returned  to  Geneva.  He  died  at 
Milan,  Sept.  30,  1829,  leaving  in 
MS.  his  Souvenirs  sur  Mirabeau, 
1832  (Eng.  trans,  by  Lady  Sey- 
mour, as  The  Great  Frenchman 
and  the  Little  Genevese,  1904). 

Duxnouriez,  CHARLES  FRANCOIS 
(1739-1823).    French  soldier.    He 
was  born  at  Cambrai,  Jan.  25, 1739. 
At  the  age  of  18 
he  entered  the 
French    army, 
and  fought   in 
the       Seven 
Years'     War. 
Having    been 
sent  on  a  mis- 
sion to  Poland 
and    Sweden, 
Chas.  F.  Dumouriez,    he  fell  into  dis- 
French  soldier         grace  .  was  re_ 

called,  and  imprisoned  for  some 
months  in  the  Bastille.  When  the 
Revolution  broke  out,  he  took  the 
popular  side,  and  became  minister 
of  foreign  affairs.  He  resigned 
office  to  take  command  of  the  army 
of  the  north  against  the  duke  of 
Brunswick,  whom  he  defeated  at 
Valmy,  Sept.  20,  1792,  and  in  the 
same  year  he  won  another  victory 
atJemappes.  In  1793  he  was  badly 
beaten  by  the  Austrians  at  Neer- 
winden.  Accused  of  conspiring  for 
the  restoration  of  the  monarchy,  he 
took  refuge  with  the  Austrians,  and 
for  some  years  wandered  about  Eu- 
rope with  a  price  on  his  head.  He 
finally  settled  in  England,  where 
he  died  near  Henley-on-Thames, 
March  14,  1823.  See  Dumouriez 
and  the  Defence  of  England  against 
Napoleon,  J.  H.  Rose  and  A.  M. 
Broadley,  1909. 

Dumping.  Originally,  the  act 
of  throwing  down  a  large  quantity 
of  material  in  a  heap,  as  in  shooting 
rubbish.  In  economics  the  term  is 


applied  to  a  practice  adopted  by 
some  countries,  e.g.  Germany,  of 
producing  goods  in  vast  quantities 
with  the  assistance  of  bounties  or 
tariffs,  and  then  exporting  them  to 
other  countries;  thus  flooding  the 
market  and  underselling  the  manu- 
facturers there  with  the  object  of 
killing  their  industry  and  securing 
•  control  of  the  market.  Tariff  re- 
formers urge  the  imposition  of 
tariff  on  imports  on  the  ground 
that  it  would  prevent  dumping.  On 
the  other  hand  some  manufacturers 
uphold  the  practice  of  dumping  on 
the  ground  that  it  enables  them  to 
maintain  that  volume  of  output 
which  is  most  economical  to  pro- 
duce and  thus  most  profitable  in 
the  long  run.  An  act  to  prevent 
dumping  in  the  United  Kingdom, 
known  as  the  Safeguarding  of 
Industries  Act,  was  passed  by 
Parliament  in  1921.  See  Political 
Economy;  Tariff  Reform. 

Dumraon.  Town  of  India.  It 
is  in  Shahabad  district,  in  the 
Patha  division  of  Bihar  and  Orissa, 
and  contains  the  palace  of  the 
maharaja,  whose  estate,  Dumraon 
Raj,  covers  an  area  of  758  sq. 
miles.  Pop.  15,042;  five-sixths 
Hindus. 

Dun.  Celtic  word  meaning  hill 
or  fort.  The  dun  was  either  a  cir- 
cular row  of  large  stones  on  the 
top  of  a  hill,  or  a  regular  building, 
known  as  a  "  Danish  "  fort,  with  a 
double  wall.  It  is  a  common  prefix 
in  towns  of  the  British  islands,  some- 
times altered  to  dum-,  don-.  e.g. 
Dundalk,  Dumbarton,  Doncaster. 

Diina.  Alternative  spelling  of 
the  Russian  river  better  known  as 
the  Dvina  (q.v.). 

Dunaburg.  Alternative  spelling 
of  the  Russian  town,  better  known 
as  Dvinsk  (q.v.). 

Dunafoldvar.  Town  of  Hun- 
gary. It  stands  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Danube  (Duna)  about  50  m. 
S.  of  Budapest.  It  is  on  a  branch 
rly.  which  keeps  fairly  close  to  the 
river  and  terminates  at  Pacs,  some 
16  m.  farther  S.  It  is  one  of  the 
small  towns  which  have  grown  up 
on  the  relatively  high  right  bank 
of  the  river  where  they  are  secure 
from  the  floods.  Pop.  12,100, 
mainly  Magyar  Roman  Catholics. 

Dunajetz,  BATTLES  OF  THE. 
Fought  between  the  Austro-Ger- 
mans  and  the  Russians,  April  and 
May,  1915.  During  the  Russian 
offensive  of  April,  1915,  in  the  Car- 
pathians, Hindenburg  assembled 
large  forces  in  and  around  Cra- 
cow. His  purpose  was  to  make  a 
fresh  movement  E.  in  Galicia,  in 
combination  with  the  Austro- Ger- 
man armies  already  in  and  about 
the  passes,  the  total  strength  being 
at  least  2,000,000  men,  with  some 
4,000  guns  of  all  calibres.  The 


nominal  commander  was  the  Arch- 
duke Frederick,  but  the  real  head 
was  Mackensen. 

The  Russian  armies  in  Galicia, 
with  Ivanoff  in  chief  command, 
were  much  inferior  in  numbers, 
especially  in  guns  and  material. 
From  the  Vistula  S.  to  near  Bart- 
feld,  and  thence  E.  to  the  Dukla 
Pass,  stood  the  3rd  Russian  Army, 
under  Radko  Dmitrieff.  From 
the  Dukla  to  the  Pruth  the  Carpa- 
thian front  was  held  by  Brusiloff 
with  the  8th  and  9th  Russian  Ar- 
mies, while  N.  of  the  Pruth  were 
two  corps  of  Russian  cavalry.  The 
total  of  the  Russian  forces  was  14 
corps  as  against  the  Austro -Ger- 
man total  of  24.  On  the  line  of  the 
Dunajetz-Biala,  Dmitrieff  had  five 
corps,  and  when  the  enemy  attack 
began  in  force  there  Mackensen 
disposed  of  12  corps  in  this  sector, 
with  superior  strength  in  artillery 
and  munitions. 

The  first  assault  took  place  in  the 
Gorlice  district,  however,  with 
which  coordinated  assaults  were 
delivered  by  Hindenburg  in  Cour- 
land  and  on  the  Rava,  the  Pilitza, 
and  the  Nida  between  the  Lower 
and  the  Upper  Vistula,  in  order  to 
pin  down  the  Russian  forces  N. 
of  Galicia.  On  April  28  Macken- 
sen's  right  wing,  moving  from 
Novo  Sandec  (Sacz)  through  Gry- 
bov  on  Ropa,  was  in  position  on 
Dmitrieff's  left,  on  the  Biala,  while 
higher  up,  on  the  Dunajetz,  the 
Austro -Germans  were  beginning  to 
bombard  his  right. 

As  the  attack  from  Ropa  on 
Gorlice  developed  the  Russians 
withdrew  slightly  N.E.,  and  on 
May  1-2  their  whole  line  from 
Ciezkovice  to  Malastov,  8  m.  S. 
of  Gorlice,  was  subjected  to  an 
unprecedented  artillery  fire,  which 
virtually  wiped  out  the  first  lines  of 
Russian  trenches.  Prussian  troops 
broke  through  Dmitrieff's  front  at 
Ciezkovice  and  Staszkovka,  the 
Russians  falling  back  towards  01- 
piny  and  Biecz.  The  result  of 
the  struggle  in  the  Gorlice  district 
was  that  the  Russian  defence  was 
broken  on  a  front  of  10  m. 

In  the  N.,  on  the  Dunajetz  the 
Austrians,  under  the  Archduke 
Joseph  Ferdinand,  tried  to  break 
through  in  the  direction  of  Tarnov 
under  heavy  artillery  cover,  but 
failed  on  May  2-3  to  get  across 
until  the  Russians  there  withdrew 
in  consonance  with  Dmitrieff's 
general  retreat  E. 

Desperate  fighting  took  place  on 
May  3^4  between  the  Biala  and  the 
Wisloka,  the  Russians  being  driven 
back  by  superior  numbers.  To  the 
S.  a  Hungarian  assault  rendered 
Jaslo  untenable  on  May  4.  S.  of 
Jaslo  Bavarians  and  Austrians 
were  on  the  same  day  close  to  the 


DUNBAR 


2721 


DUNBAR 


Dukla  at  Zmigrod  and  Krempna,  ment  making.  There  are  ruins  of 
and  the  Russians  retreated  with  the  old  castle,  captured  by  Edward 
difficulty  thence  and  from  the  I  in  1296  and  successfully  defended 
Bartfeld  district.  On  May  7  Mack-  against  the  English  in  1338  by 

Black  Agnes,  the  countess  of 
Dunbar.  The  battle  of  Dunbar,  in 
which  Cromwell  defeated  the 


ensen  forced  a  crossing  of  the  Wis- 
loka  at  Jaslo  with  his  own  indi- 
vidual command,  which  had  most 
of  his  heavy  artillery,  and  which 
came  to  be  known  as  his  "phalanx." 


Covenanters,  took  place  close  to 
the  town  in  1650.     These  historic 


The  Russians  then  fell  back  to  the  events  indicate  the  strategic  posi- 
Wistok,  but  on  May  8  were  forced  tion  of  the  town  on  the  east  coast 
from  it  at  Frystak  and  Rymanov.  route  now  followed  by  the  rly.  to 
They  made  a  stand  at  Dembitsa, 
and  to  cover  the  retreat  of  the 


. 
Market    day,    Tues. 


Russian  left  from  the  Dukla  and 


Edinburgh- 
Pop.  4,830. 

Dunbar,  BATTLE  OF.  Fought 
the  Lupkov  passes  Ivanofi  sent  out  Sept.  3,  1650,  between  the  English 
strong  forces  from  Sanok,  which  and  the  Scots.  Cromwell,  seeking 
temporarily  checked  the  Austro-  to  crush  finally  the  cause  of 
German  advance  in  the  S.  But  by  Charles  II,  had  invaded  Scotland. 
May  11  the  retreat  of  the  Russians  With  16,000  men  he  approached 
was  general  to  the  San,  after  hard-  Edinburgh  only  to  find  the  Scots 

under  David  Leslie  in  a  strong 
defensive  position.  Anxious  to 
keep  in  touch  with  his  supplies  on 


fought  delaying  actions  on  the 
three  preceding  days  on  a  line 
across  Mid-Galicia  from  the  Vis- 
tula to  the  Uzsok  Pass.  During 

Mackensen's  advance  he  captured  Dunbar.  Then  a  second  time  he 
upwards  of  100,000  Russians,  but  advanced  to  Edinburgh,  but  again 
he  did  not  succeed  in  destroying  the  the  Scots  were  in  a  strong  position, 
Russian  armies.  See.  San,  Battles  and  again  he  retired  to  Dunbar. 


board  ship,  Cromwell  fell  back  to 


of  the.  Robert  Machray 

Dunaverty.  Promontory  and 
bay  of  Argyllshire,  Scotland.  It  is 
5  m.  N.  of  the  Mull  of  Kintyre.  On 


This  tune  Cromwell  was  followed 
by  the  Scots.  He  encamped  on 
Sept.  1.  on  the  low  ground  near 
the  town  and  the  coast,  while 


the  promontory  there  formerly  Leslie  on  the  hills  sent  a  force  to 
stood  a  castle,  belonging  to  the  bar  the  road  to  England.  Sickness 
Lord  of  the  Isles,  which  was  several  was  rife  among  the  English  troops, 


times  besieged. 
Dun  bar.        Royal 


and    mun. 


who     numbered     barely     11,000 
effectives  as  against  20,000  Scots, 


burgh  and  seaport'of  Haddington-     and    their   position    was    perilous 
shire,  Scotland.     It  stands  at  the     when  the  Scots,  urged  on  by  the 

t __^    mouth     of     the     ministers  who  were  with  the  army, 

Firth  of  Forth,  left  their  position  of  vantage  in 
29  m.  E.N.E.  of  order  to  attack. 
Edinburgh  on  The  Scots  at  first  stood  with 
the  N.B.R.  A  their  backs  to  England,  and  be- 
popular  health  tween  them  and  the  English  was 
resort,  Dunbar  a  stream  called  the  Broxburn. 
has  a  good  golf  Cromwell  opened  the  engagement 
,  course  and  a  before  daybreak  on  Sept  3.  by 

uunbar  arms  racecourse  near,  sending  some  of  his  horse  and 
Of  its  two  harbours  the  Victoria  foot  across  the  stream.  The  Scots 
Harbour  ( W. )  is  a  refuge  for  ships  were  not  yet  ready,  so  the  Eng- 
in  distress.  The  herring  fisheries  are  lish  had  time  to  take  up  a  position 

with  the  sea  behind  them  and  the 
hills  in  front.  The  infantry  under 
Monk  advanced, 
1  as  did  the  horse- 
men on  either  side 
of  them  ;  but  the 
Scots,  now  fully 
ready,  met  their 
assault  firmly. 
For  a  time  there 
was  no  advan- 
tage,  but  at 
length  Cromwell 
led  up  his  re- 
serves. This  was 
decisive.  The 
Scottish  right 
broke,  and  the 
infantry  in  the 

Dunbar.     Ruins  of  the  Scottish  castle  founded  in  856,        centre   was     ako 
*    and  long  held  as  a  defence  against  the  English  routed,   and    the 


important,  and  other  industries  in- 
clude rope  and  agricultural  imple- 


English  horsemen  came  round  their 
flank.  The  sun  was  only  just  rising 
when  Cromwell  called  out  "  Let 
God  arise,  let  His  enemies  be  scat- 
tered." The  Scots  were  followed  as 
they  fled,  and  altogether  3,000  of 
them  were  killed.  About  10,000 
more,  with  their  arms,  artillery,  and 
baggage,  were  taken.  The  English 
losses  were  slight. 

Dunbar,  EARL  OF.  Scottish  title 
now  extinct.  Its  origin  is  obscure, 
but  it  was  certainly  in  existence 
in  the  12th  century  when  Waltheof 
de  Dunbar,  who  married  a  daughter 
of  William  the  Lion,  called  himself 
earl  of  Dunbar.  He  was  descended 
from  a  family  that  had  lands  in 
the  Lothians  and  a  connexion  with 
Northumbria. 

Succeeding  earls,  mostly  named 
Patrick,  were  persons  of  import- 
ance in  Scotland.  One  was  made 
regent  in  1255,  another  was  one 
of  the  claimants  for  the  crown 
in  1 291 .  This  latter  was  called  also 
earl  of  March,  presumably  because 
he  had  lands  on  the  marches,  and 
henceforward  the  earldom  was 
known  as  that  of  March  or  Dunbar. 
A  14th  century  earl  was  in  all  the 
fighting  between  England  and 
Scotland,  being  sometimes  on  one 
side  and  sometimes  on  the  other. 
His  wife  was  the  renowned  Black 
Agnes,  who  in  1338  defended 
Dunbar  castle  against  the  English. 
A  great  nephew,  George,  succeeded 
to  the  honours,  and  his  son  George 
was  deprived  of  his  lands  and 
titles  in  1435.  In  1605  James  I 
made  Sir  George  Home  earl  of 
Dunbar  and  March.  He  was  the 
lord  who,  by  first  hanging  a  gang 
of  outlaws  and  then  trying  them, 
gave  rise  to  the  phrase  Jeddart 
justice.  He  died  in  1611,  and  the 
title  soon  became  extinct.  See 
March,  Earl  of. 

Dunbar,  WILLIAM  (c.  1460- 
1513).  Scottish  poet.  He  is  be- 
lieved to  have  been  born  in  East 
Lothian  and  educated  at  St. 
Andrews.  Becoming  a  member  of 
the  Franciscan  order,  he  travelled 
as  an  itinerant  friar  through  Scot- 
land, England,  and  part  of  N. 
France.  About  1490  he  entered 
the  diplomatic  service,  which  took 
him  to  Germany,  Italy,  and  Spain. 
In  1505  he  received  a  pension  from 
King  James  IV  as  Court  Laureate, 
but  was  unsuccessful  in  his  efforts 
to  obtain  a  benefice.  The  king's 
marriage  with  Margaret,  daughter 
of  Henry  VII,  occasioned  Dunbar's 
most  famous  poem,  The  Thistle  and 
the  Rose  (1503).  Dunbar  is  not 
heard  of  after  the  battle  of  Flodden, 
and  it  is  most  probable  that  he  fell 
on  the  field. 

His  poems  also  disappeared 
about  this  time,  to  be  discovered 
some  200  years  afterwards  by 

0     4 


DUNBLANE 

Allan  Ramsay  in  a  country  house. 
His  poetical  genius,  influenced  by 
Chaucer,  was  many-sided ;  the 
rich  allegorical  poem  The  Thistle 
and  the  Rose  is  far  removed  from 
the  grim  humour  of  The  Dance  of 
the  Seven  Deadly  Sins,  or  the 
serious  pieces,  such  as  The  Passion 
of  Christ.  See  Poems,  ed.  J.  Small 
(for  the  Scottish  Text  Society). 
1884-93. 

Dunblane.  Town  and  police 
burgh  of  Perthshire,  Scotland.  It 
stands  on  Allan  Water,  5  m.  N.N.  W. 
of  Stirling  on  the 
C.R.  It  has  a 
hydropathic  es- 
tablishment and 
a  mineral  |pa. 
Once  the  seat  of  a 
bishopric,  its  ca- 
thedral is  one  of 
the  few  which  es- 
Dunblanearm*  Caped  destruction 
at  the  Reformation  ;  restored  in 
1893,  it  is  now  the  parish  church. 
Robert  Leighton,  bishop  1661-70, 
is  commemorated  by  the  Leigh- 
tonian  library,  Bishop's  Walk  and 
Bishop's  Well.  The  Queen  Vic- 
toria Military  School  (opened 
1908)  is  1  m.  N.  of  the  town,  and 
the  battlefield  of  Sheriff  muir  (1715) 
is  2  m.  to  the  E.  Many  of  the 
people  work  in  the  woollen  mills. 
Market  day,  Thurs.  Pop.  4,591. 

Duncan  (d.  1040).  King  of  the 
Scots.  He  succeeded  his  grand- 
father Malcolm  II  as  king  in  1034. 
Little  is  known  of  him  except  that 
he  was  slain  by  Macbeth,  thane 
of  Cawdor,  Cawdor  Castle  being  the 
traditional  scene  of  the  crime. 
Shakespeare's  version  of  the  tra- 
gedy is  based  on  legend. 

Duncan,   ADAM   DUNCAN,   VIS- 
COUNT (1731-1804).    British  sailor. 
Born  at  Lundie,  Forfar,  July  1, 1731, 
he  entered  the 
navy    in    1746. 
He  was  present 
at  the  actions  of 
the    Basque 
Roads     (1757), 
Goree      (1758), 
and   the  block- 
ade    of     Brest 
(1759).       After 
Viscount  Duncan,    his     return     to 
British  sailor          Great  Britain 
After  noppncr         (1761  )he  sawno 
further  service  until  1778,  when  he 
was  appointed  to  the  Suffolk.     In 
1782  he  became  first  lord  of  the 
Admiralty,  and  in  the  Blenheim 
took  part  in  the  relief  of  Gibraltar. 
In  1795,  promoted  admiral,  he 
hoisted  his  flag  on  the  Venerable 
as  commander-in-chief  in  the  North 
Sea.    On  Oct.  11, 1797,  he  obtained 
a  decisive  victory  over  the  Dutch 
fleet  off  the  village  of  Camperdown. 
For  this  he  was  created  Viscount 
Duncan  of  Camperdown.     He  died 


2722 


Dunblane.     The  town  seen  from  the  north-west,  with 

a  view  of  the  13th  century  cathedral 
suddenly  Aug.  4, 
1804.  -See  Camper- 
down,  Battle  of; 
Camperdown,  Earl 
of ;  consult  also 
Life,  3rd  Earl  of 
Ca  m  p  e  rdown. 
1898. 

Duncan, 
GEORGE  (b.  1883). 
British  golfer. 
Duncan  was 
seventh  in  the 
Open  Champion- 
ship in  1907,  and 
played  for  Scot- 
land against  Eng- 
land in  1906, 1907, 
1909,  and  1910. 
He  won  the  Belgian  Open  Cham- 
pionship in  1912,  and  the  follow- 
ing year  was  French  champion. 

He   won  the 

Open   Cham- 
pionship at 

Deal   in   July, 

1920.  Duncan, 

who     became 

professional  at 

Hanger    Hill 

golf  club,  wrote 

George  Duncan,         Golf    for    Wo- 
British  golfer          men,  1914. 

Arthur  Bawe,  D  U  n  C  a  n, 

ISADORA  (  b.  1880).  American 
dancer.  One  of  the  most  interesting 
figures  in  the  history  of  dancing, 
she  was  born  at  San  Francisco, 
and  made  her  first  appearance  in 
Chicago  in  1899  without  much  suc- 
cess. In  Europe,  however,  she 
attained  great  popularity,  appear- 
ing in  Paris,  Berlin,  Vienna,  St. 
Petersburg,  and  London.  Her  ideal 
of  dancing  derived  from  nature 
through  Greek  art  created  a  great 
impression.  Isadora  Duncan  lived 
for  some  years  in  Paris,  and  founded 
there,  and  at  Griinewald,  near 
Berlin,  a  dancing  school  where 
children  received  free  board  and 
education. 

Duncan,  THOMAS  (1807-45). 
Scottish  painter.  Bom  at  Kin- 
claven,  Perthshire,  May  24, 1807,  he 
began  to  study  art  under  Sir  William 


DUNC.KER 

Allan  at  the  Tnis- 
t  e  e  s'  Acadenry, 
Edinburgh.  H  e 
was  made  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Royal 
Scottish  Academy 
in  1830,  and  suc- 
ceeded Allan  as 
master  of  the 
Trustees'  A  c  a  d  - 
emy.  In  1843  he 
was  elected  A.  R.  A. 
His  large  and 
spirited  painting  of 
Prince  Charles 
Edward  and  his 
Highlanders  en- 
tering Edinburgh 


Duncansby  Head,  Caithness.       View  of  the  cape 
two  of  the  Stack  rocks 

Valentine 

after  the  Battle  of  Prestonpans  is 
one  of  his  best  works.  He  died  Jvt 
Edinburgh,  May  2o,  1845. 

Duncansby   Head.       Promon- 
tory  of   Caithness,    Scotland,   the 
N.E.   extremity  (210  ft.   high)  of 
the  mainland.      Off  the  head  are 
the    Stacks, 
three    small  F 
rocks,      and 
about   2   m.   to 
the  W.  is  John o' 
Groat's  House. 

Dun  cia  d, 
THE.  Satiric 
poem  by  Alex- 
ander Pope, 
first  published 
anon  ymously, 
May  28,  1728. 

The  poet,  who  had  been  vulgarly 
abused  by  hack-writers  of  the  time, 
unmercifully  retaliated  on  them  in 
this  poem. 

Duncker,  MAXIMILIAN  WOLF- 
GANG (1811-86).  German  historical 
writer.  He  was  born  in  Berlin,  Oct. 
15,  1811,  and  became  professor 
of  history  at  Halle  in  1842,  and  sat 
as  a  Liberal  in  the  Prussian  legis- 
lature from  1849-52.  Appointed 
professor  at  Tubingen,  1857,  he 
resigned  the  post  to  enter  the 
ministry  of  state  in  Berlin  in  1859. 
He  was  director  of  the  Prussian 
state  archives  from  1867-74.  He 
died  July  21, 1886.  His  chief  works 


Thomas  Duncan, 
Scottish  painter 

Self-portrait 


DUNCOMBE 

are  Origines  Qermanicae,  1840; 
Geschichte  des  Alterthums,  1852- 
57,  Eng.  trans,  in  two  portions  as 
History  of  Antiquity,  by  E.  Abbott, 
1877-82,  and  History  of  Greece,  by 
S.  F.  Alleyne  and  E.  Abbott, 
1883-86. 

Duncombe,  THOMAS  SLINGSBY 
(1796-1861).  British  politician. 
Educated  at  Harrow,  he  served 
for  a  short 
period  in  the 
army.  He  en- 
tered  Parlia- 
ment in  1826 
as  member  for 
Hertford,  and 
afterwards  sat 
for  Finsbury. 
He  presented 
Thomas  S.  Duncombe,  the  Chartist 
British  politician  petitiontoPar 
liament  in  1842,  and,  actively  in- 
terested in  European  revolutionary 
movements,  is  said  to  have  assisted 
Louis  Napoleon's  escape  from  Ham 
in  1846.  He  died  Nov.  13,  1861. 

Dundalk.  Urban  dist.  and  co. 
town  of  Louth,  Ireland.  It  stands 
on  Castletown  river,  near  Dundalk 
bay,  54  m.  N.  of  Dublin  on  the 
G.N.I,  and  L.  &  N.W.  Rlys.  An 
important  rly.  centre,  the  G.N.I.R. 
has  its  locomotive  works  here,  and 
distilling,  shipbuilding,  tanning, 
and  iron-founding  are  active  in- 
dustries ;  agricultural  and  dairy 
produce  are  exported.  Market  day, 
Mon  Pop.  15,330.  Here  in  1315 
Edward  Bruce  proclaimed  himself 
king,  and  was  killed  in  battle  in 
the  neighbourhood  in  1318.  The 
town  surrendered  to  Cromwell  in 
1649  and  to  Schomberg  in  1689. 

Dundalk  Bay.  Inlet  of  the 
Irish  Sea.  It  penetrates  the  E. 
coast  of  Ireland,  co.  Louth,  about 
6  m.,  and  at  its  entrance  between 
Cooley  Point  on  the  N.  and  Dunany 
Point  on  the  S.  its  width  is  7  m.  It 
receives  the  waters  of  the  rivers 
Dee,  Glyde,  Fane,  and  Castletown, 
and  other  smaller  streams.  The 
bay  affords  excellent  anchorage 


2723 

in  a  depth  of  from  4  to  6  fathoms. 
Several  fishing  villages  stand  on 
its  shores. 

Dundee.  City,  parl.,  royal,  and 
co.  burgh,  and  seaport  of  Forfar- 
shire,  Scotland.  It  stands  on  the 
N.  shore  of  the  Firth  of  Tay,  59£ 
m.  by  rly.  N.N.E.  of  Edinburgh,  on 
the  Cal.  and  N.B.  Rlys.,  and  is  the 
third  largest  town  in  Scotland.  The 
Tay  Bridge,  opened  in  1887  in 
place  of  an  earlier  structure  de- 
stroyed in  1879,  is  3,593  yds.  long 
(see  plate  facing  p.  1374).  Promin- 
ent buildings  include  the  town  hall 


DUNDEE 

central  reading  room  and  sculpture 
gallery  and  five  branch  libraries 
gituated  in  the  various  districts. 

The  Town 
Churches  — three 
beneath  one  roof 
— are  the  most 
notable  of  many 
churches.  Educa- 
tional institu- 
tions are  repre- 
sented by  the 
University  Col-  Dundee  arms 
lege,  founded  in  1880  by  Miss  Bax- 


ter and  Dr.  J. 


Dundalk.     Front  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Cathedral ;  its 

design  is   based   on   that   of    King's   College  Chapel, 

Cambridge 


B.  Baxter,  opened 
in  1893,  and 
incorporated  with 
the  university  of 
St.  Andrews  in 
1897  ;  the  tech- 
nical institute, 
founded  and  en- 
dowed by  Sir  D. 
Baxter  and 
opened  in  1888  ; 
the  high  school 
with  museum; 
and  the  Morgan 
Academy. 

Dundee  has  a 
commodious  bar- 
fa  o  u  r  extending 
for  2  m.  along  the 
river,  with  a  dock 


Dundee.  1.  General  view  o!  the  city  from  the  docks. 
2.  Ruins  of  Mains  Castle,  once  the  residence  of  Claver 
house.  3.  Town  Churches:  the  churches  of  S.  Mary, 
s.  Paul,  and  S.  Plement  under  one  roof,  and  the  12th 
century  steeple 

Valentine 


(1734),  royal  ex- 
change (1853-56), 
custom  house 
(1843),  and  new 
City  Hall  (1914- 
20).  The  Albert 
Institute,  which 
commemorates  the 
Prince  Consort, 
contains  the  art 
gallery,  free  lend- 
ing library,  mu- 
seum, and  refer- 
ence and  commer- 
cial  libraries. 
There  are  also  a 


area  of  38  acres.    The  annual  trade 
of  the  port  is  about  £7,000,000. 

Dundee  is  the  chief  British  port 
for  the  seal  and  whale  fishery. 
The  city,  moreover,  is  the  centre  of 
the  Scottish  linen  industry,  while  its 
jute,  hemp,  and  flax  manufactories 
are  among  the  most  extensive  in 
the  world.  Other  industries  include 
engineering,  shipbuilding,  dyeing, 
and  fruit  preserving,  Dundee  being 
noted  for  its  marmalade.  The 
largest  public  parks  are  Baxter 
Park,  37  acres;  Balgay  Hill,  36 
acres ;  Lochee  Park,  25  acres ; 
and  Cairo  Park,  178  acres. 
Dundee  Law,  the  hill  at  the  back 
of  the  town,  is  a  well -remembered 
landmark.  Two  members  are  re- 
turned to  Parliament.  Market  days, 
Tues.  and  Fri.  Estimated  pop. 
of  mun.  bor.  (including  Broughty 
Ferrv),  189,000. 


DUNDEE 


2724 


DUNDRUM   BAY 


Dundee,    Scotland.      Plan  of  the   city,  showing  chief 
public  buildings  and  docks 

Dundee  (Lat.  Taodunum,  hill  or 
fort  on  the  Tay)  was  besieged  by 
Wallace  in  1297  and  sacked  by  the 
marquess  of  Montrose  in  1645.  In 
1651  Gen.Monk  burned  the  town  and 
massacred  a  large  number  of  the 
inhabitants.  It  was  among  the  first 
Scottish  towns  to  adopt  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Reformation,  and  here 
Wishart  preached  during  the  plague 
of  1544.  See  illus.  facing  p.  1374. 

Dundee,  JOHN  GRAHAM  OF 
CLAVERHOUSE,  VISCOUNT  (c.  1649- 
89).  Scottish  soldier.  The  eldest 


solely  with  the 
town  of  Dundee. 
See  Covenanters; 
consult  also  Lives, 
C.  Sanford 
Terry,  1905;  M. 
Barrington,  1911. 
Dundonald, 
EARL  OF.  Scottish 
title  borne  since 
1669  by  the  family 
of  Cochrane.  In 
1647  Sir  W.  Coch- 
rane,  a  supporter 
of  Charles  I,  was 
made  a  baron,  and 
in  1669  earl  of 
Dundonald.  His 
grandson  John 
became  the  2nd 
earl,  which  title 
passed  to  other 
descendants.  Wil- 
liam, the  7th  earl, 
was  killed  at  the 


Graham  of  Claver- 

house,      Viscount 

Dundee 


son  of  Sir  Wil- 
liam Graham, 
he  belonged  to 
the  f.a  m  i  1  y 
that  had  ac- 
quired the  es- 
tate of  Claver- 
house,  near 
Dundee.  He 
was  educated 
at  St.  Andrews 
University 
and  served  in 
France  and 


After  Lely 

Holland,  distinguishing  himself  in 
1674  at  the  battle  of  Seneff,  where 
he  is  said  to  have  saved  the  life  of 
the  prince  of  Orange.  He  was  sent  as 
a  cavalry  leader  to  Scotland,  1 678, 
with  orders  to  enforce  conformity 
to  the  established  church,  and  by 
his  relentless  repression  of  the 
Covenanters  earned  the  name  of 
"  Bluidy  Clavers."  In  1688  he  was 
created  Viscount  Dundee  by  James 
II.  He  was  an  ardent  supporter  of 
the  Stuart  cause,  and  was  mortally 
wounded  at  the  battle  of  Killi- 
crankie,  July  17,  1689.  The  title 
became  extinct  when  his  son  died 
in  the  same  year.  The  use  of 
"  Bonnie  Dundee  "  as  an  epithet  for 
Graham  dates  from  Sir  Walter 
Scott's  song,  the  original  old  ballad 
of  that  name  being  concerned 


siege  oi  Louisburg  in  1758. 
Thomas,  the  8th  earl,  followed. 
Archibald,  the  9th  earl,  was  a  noted 
scientist,  while  his  son  Thomas,  the 
10th  earl,  was  the  famous  admiral. 
In  1885  his  grandson  Douglas  (b. 
1852)  became  the  12th  earl.  A  sol- 
dier, he  saw  service  in  various  cam- 
paigns in  Egypt  and  the  Sudan,  and 
in  1899-1902  went  through  the  S. 
African  War.  In  1902-4  he  com- 
manded the  Canadian  militia,  re- 
turning home  after  a  speech  which 
the  authorities  regarded  as  indis- 
creet. His  seat  is  Gwyrch  Castle, 
Abergele,  N.  Wales,  and  his  eldest 
son  is  known  as  Lord  Cochrane. 
Dundonald  is  the  name  of  a  large 
parish  in  Ayrshire,  which  contains 
the  ruins  of  a  castle,  long  the  resi- 
dence of  the  Cochranes. 

Dundonald,  THOMAS  COCHRANE, 
10TH  EARL  OF  (1775-1 860).  British 
admiral.  He  was  born  at  Annsfield, 
Lanark,  Dec.  14,  1775,  the  eldest 
son  of  the  9th  earl.  In  1793  he  en- 
tered the  navy,  and  in  1801  he  cap- 
tured a  Spanish  frigate.  In  1 806  he 
became  M.P.  for  Horiiton  and  in 
1807  for  Westminster,  and  as  a 
Radical  became  known  by  his  de- 
nunciation of  abuses  in  the  navy. 

In  1809 
Dundonald 
took  part  in 
the  attack  on 
the  French 
squadron  in 
the  Basque 
Roads.  He 
contended 
that  he  had 
not  been  pro- 
perly  sup- 

From  an  engraving        ported      by 

Gambier,  the  admiral  in  command. 
A  court-martial  was  held,  by  which 
Gambier  was  acquitted  and  Coch- 
rane consequently  discredited. 


In  1814  he  was  unjustifiably 
arrested  with  others  in  connexion 
with  a  false  rumour  affecting  the 
funds,  and  was  sentenced  to  a  year's 
imprisonment  and  a  fine  of  £1,000. 
He  was  struck  off  the  navy  list,  ex- 
pelled from  the  House  of  Commons, 
and  ignominiously  removed  from 
the  Order  of  the  Bath.  The  amount 
of  his  fine  was  raised  by  popular 
subscriptions. 

In  1817  Cochrane  accepted  the 
command  of  the  Chilean  navy  and, 
1819-23,  carried  out  a  series  of 
daring  and  brilliant  exploits.  In 
1823-25  he  commanded  the  Brazi- 
lian, and,  1827-28,  the  Greek  navy. 
In  1831  he  became  10th  earl 
of  Dundonald  and  in  1832  was 
granted  a  "  free  pardon "  for  a 
crime  which  he  had  not  committed, 
and  restored  to  his  rank  in  the 
navy.  In  1847  he  was  reinstated  in 
the  Order  of  the  Bath.  He  was  an 
early  advocate  of  the  use  of  steam 
in  the  navy,  and  was  the  author 
of  the  famous  secret  war  plan,  by 
which  he  claimed  that  he  could 
destroy  any  fleet  or  fortress  in  the 
world.  He  died  at  Kensington, 
Oct.  31,  1860,  and  was  buried  in 
Westminster  Abbey.  The  eldest 
son,  Thomas  Barnes  (1814-85)  then 
became  the  llth  earl. 

Bibliography.  Dundonald's  Nar- 
rative of  Services  in  the  Liberation 
of  Chili,  Peru,  Brazil,  1859,  and 
Autobiography  of  a  Seaman,  1860  ; 
Life,  by  his  son  and  H.  R.  Fox 
Bourne,  1869  ;  Dundonald,  J.  W. 
Fortescue,  1895  ;  The  Trial  of  Coch- 
rane before  Ellenborough,  J.  B. 
Atlay,  1897. 

Dundreary,  LORD.  Character  in 
Tom  Taylor's  comedy  of  Our 
American 
Cousin,  first 
produced  in 
New  York, 
1858.  Origi- 
nally designed 
as  a  subsidiary 
part,  it  was  so 
developed  by 
its  creator,  E. 
A.  So  them, 
that  it  became 
the  chief  char- 
acter. Dun- 
dreary is  a 
good  -  natured 
but  foolish 
man  of  fashion, 
conspicuous 
for  his  side- 
whiskers. 

Dundrum 
Bay.  Inlet  of 
co.  Down,  Ire- 
land. It  ex- 
tends from  St.  John's  Point  to 
Dullish  Cove,  a  distance  of  9  m. 
Dundrum  Harbour  is  on  the  N. 
of  the  bay.  On  St.  John's  Point 
is  a  lighthouse. 


Lord  Dundreary, 
as  impersonated 
by  E.  A.  Sothern 


DUNE 


2725 


DUNFERMLINE 


Dune  (Ir.  dun,  hill).  Hill  formed 
of  sand.  Where  the  prevailing 
winds  are  relatively  steady,  dunes 
may  gradually  advance,  owing  to 
the"  particles  of  sand  being  driven 
by  the  wind  up  the  dune  and  over 
the  crest  to  the  leeside.  Sand  dunea 
occur  in  deserts,  where  they  often 
present  a  monotonous  succession  of 
crests  and  troughs,  and  along  sandy 
coasts,  e.g.  Belgium,  Holland,  Ger- 
many, and  Denmark.  In  deserts, 
any  obstacle,  such  as  a  cactus  or  a 
large  stone,  is  sufficient  to  start  the 
building  of  a  dune,  although  desert 
dunes  may  be  formed  without  such 
aid.  The  typical  isolated  desert 
dune  is  crescent-shaped,  its  horns 
pointing  in  the  direction  of  the  pre- 
vailing wind,  while  the  windward 
is  steeper  than  the  leeward  slope. 

Dunedin.  Chief  city  in  South 
Island,  New  Zealand.  It  stands 
on  Otago  Harbour,  8  m.  S.W.  of 
Port  Chalmers.  It  has  good  sea 
communication  with  other  N.Z. 
ports,  Sydney  and  Melbourne,  and 
is  the  chief  rly.  junction  on  the 
main  E.  Coast  line.  The  town  is 
surrounded  by  a  forest  preserve 
called  the  Town  Belt.  The  most 
important  manufacturing  centre 
of  the  Dominion,  its  chief  industries 
are  woollen  manufactures  (Mos- 
giel  and  Roslyn),  refrigerating 
works,  bootmaking,  foundries,  and 
rolling  mills.  A  great  educational 
centre,  most  of  the  churches  have 
their  residential  colleges  at  its  uni- 
versity (opened  1871),  which  pos- 
sesses medical  and  dental  schools 
and  a  school  of  mines.  It  is  the 
seat  of  'Anglican  and  Roman 
Catholic  bishops.  Its  museum, 
containing  remains  of  the  moa  and 
other  rare  N.Z.  birds,  and  art 
gallery  are  important  buildings. 
Pop.  55.256:  with  suburbs,  68.716. 


Dunedin.     Flan  of  the  city  and  docks  of  the  principal 
port  of  South  Island,  New  Zealand 


Fouuded  in  1848  by  members  of  the 
Free  Church  of  Scotland,  its  com- 
mercial prosperity  dates  from  the 
discovery  of  gold  in  Otago  in  1861. 
Dunedin,  ANDREW  GRAHAM 
MURRAY,  IST  BARON  (b.  1849). 
British  lawyer  and  politician. 
Born  Nov.  21,  1849,  he  was  the 
only  son  of  T.  G.  Murray  of 
Stenton,  Perthshire,  crown-agent 
for  Scotland.  Educated  at  Harrow 
and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
he  became  an  advocate  in  1874 
and  a  Q.C.  in  1891.  In  the  same 
year  chosen  M.P.  for  Buteshire, 
he  entered  the  Unionist  ministry 
as  solicitor-general  for  Scotland. 
In  1895  he  was  again  appointed  to 
that  position,  and  in  1896  was 
promoted  to  be  lord  advocate. 
From  1903-5  he  was  secretary  for 
Scotland  and  a  cabinet  minister. 


Dunedin,  New  Zealand.     General  view  from  Roslyn,  with  Boys1  High  School 

in  foreground.     Inset:  The  Octagon,  showing  town  hall  and  memorial  to  the 

Rev.  Thomas  Burns 


In  1905  Murray 
left  Parliament  to 
become  president 
of  the  court  of 
"Cession,  and  was 
'made  a  peer  as 
Baron  Dunedin. 
In  1913  he  was 
appointed  a  lord 
of  appeal. 
Dunes,  BATTLE 

OF  THE.       Fought 

on  the  d  u  n  es 
outside  Dunkirk 
between  the 
French  and  the 
Spaniards,  both 
supported  by 
English  contin- 
gents, June  4, 
1658.  To  relieve 
Dunkirk,  then 
besieged  by  the 
French,  the  Span- 
iards sent  an  army 
under  Don  John 
of  Austria,  one  of  its  leaders  being 
the  great  Conde.  With  it  were 
five  English,  Scottish,  and  Irish 
regiments  under  James,  duke  of 
York.  To  aid  France  Cromwell  had 
sent  six  regiments  of  his  Ironsides. 

The  French  were  arranged  in 
the  conventional  order  of  battle, 
cavalry  on  the  wings  and  infantry 
in  the  centre,  the  English  being  on 
the  left  centre.  The  Spaniards  had 
a  line  of  infantry  in  front  with  the 
horsemen  in  column  behind.  On 
their  left  was  the  canal  to  Bruges, 
and  the  French  stood  with  their 
backs  to  Dunkirk.  The  battle 
began  with  the  advance  of  the 
English  foot  against  the  Spaniards' 
strongest  position,  a  sand  hill  held 
by  veterans.  In  spite  of  heavy 
losses  they  reached  the  hill  and 
drove  back  the  Spaniards.  A  few 
of  the  royalist  English  horsemen 
tried  to  save  the  day,  but  supports 
arrived  for  the  Ironsides,  and  soon 
this  wing  of  the  Spanish  army  was 
completely  broken.  On  the  other 
wing,  the  Spaniards  and  their  allies 
offered  a  poor  resistance.  The 
victory  led  to  the  fall  of  Dunkirk. 
Dunfermline.  Royal  and  muni- 
cipal burgh  of  Fifeshire,  Scotland. 
It  stands  on  the  Firth  of  Forth, 
17  m.  N.W.  of 
Edinburgh,  and 
is  on  the  N.B.R. 
Since  1911  the 
burgh  has  been 
extended  to 
include  the  new 
naval  base  at 

Dunfermline  arms  Ro?yth-  **  W*S 
a  favourite  resi- 
dence of  the  Scottish  Icings,  and 
the  Benedictine  abbey,  founded 
by  Malcolm  Canmore  in  1072,  was 
their  burial  place  from  the  llth  to 
the  14th  century.  The  abbey  was 


DUNGANNON 


2726 


DUNKIRK 


Dunfermline.      The  New  Abbey  Church,  built  in  1821 

on  the  site  of  the  old  abbey,  of   which  a  tower  and 

some  remains  are  seen  on  the  right 
partly  demolished  by  Edward  1, 
and  except  for  the  nave,  which 
did  duty  as  the  parish  church  till 
1821,  was  destroyed  by  the  Re- 
formers in  1560.  In  Pittencrieff 
Glen,  which,  with  the  estate  and  an 
endowment  yielding  £25,000  per 
annum,  were  presented  to  the  burgh 
in  1903  by  Andrew  Carnegie,  a 
native,  are  the  ruins  of  Malcolm 
Canmore's  castle  and  palace.  The 
garden  city  between  Dunfermline 
and  Rosyth  is  a  famous  example  of 
town  planning.  The  town  is 
celebrated  for  its  table-linen,  and  is 
also  engaged  in  ironfounding,  dis- 
tilling, bleaching,  and  dyeing.  Mar- 
ket day,  Tues.  Pop.  '  39,886. 

Dung'annon.  Urban  dist.  and 
market  town  of  co.  Tyrone,  Ireland. 
It  is  40  m.  W.  of  Belfast  on 
the  G.N.I.R.  It  was  the  ancient 
residence  of  the  O'Neills,  titular 
kings  of  Ulster,  who  founded 
castles  and  an  abbey  of  which  no 
traces  remain.  There  is  a  grain 
trade  and  linen  and  muslin  manu- 
factures. It  returned  two  members 
to  the  Irish  Parliament,  and  from 
1601  to  1885  was  represented  by 
one  in  the  Parliament  in  London. 
Market  day,  Thurs.  Pop.  3,830. 

Dungaree.  Name  given  to  a 
coarse  Indian  calico.  From  it 
comes  the  word  dungarees,  applied 
to  trousers  of  this  material. 


It  exports  agricul- 
tural produce  and 
has  woollen  mills. 
Its     fisheries    are 
important.   There 
are    two    R.C. 
churches,   a   Pro- 
testant      church, 
two  convents  and 
a  monastery,  and 
remains  of  a  7th 
century   Augus- 
tinian  abbey,  of  a 
castle     built     by 
King   John,   and, 
at   Abbeyside,    of 
the  castle  of  the 
McGraths.      Mar- 
ket days,  Tues.  and  Sat.  Pop.  4,977. 
Dung  Beetle  OR  DOB  BEETLE 
(Geotrupes  stercorarius).     Common 
British   beetle   belonging    to    the 
family  Scarabeidae.    It  feeds  upon 
dung,  in  which  it  deposits  its  eggs 
as   a   feeding   site   for  the  future 
larvae, 


Dung  Beetle,  Geo- 
trupes stercorarius 

Low  promontory 


Dungarpur.  Native  state  of 
Central  India,  in  Rajputana.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  Udaipur. 
The  surface  is  wild  and  rugged  in 
the  N.  and  E.,  the  remaining  por- 
tions being  made  up  of  jungle 
forest,  stony  tracts,  and  a  little 
arable  land.  The  chief  rivers  are 
the  Mahi  and  Som.  Products  are 
stone  and  timber.  The  ruler  is  a 
maharawal,  entitled  to  a  salute 
of  15  guns.  The  chief  towns  are 
Dungarpur  (the  capital),  Sagwara, 
and  Gailiakot.  Area,  952  sq.  m. 
Pop.  159,192,  Hindus  and  Animists. 

Dungarvan.  Urban  dist.  and 
market  town  of  Waterford,  Ireland. 
It  stands  at  the  mouth  of  the  Colli- 
gan  on  Dungarvan  Bay,  28£  m.  S.  W. 
of  Waterford  by  the  G.S.  &  W.R. 


thus 

doing  useful 
work  as  a  scav- 
enger. Metallic 
black  in  colour, 
and  an  inch 
long,  it  is  often 
seen  flying 
about  at  dusk 
in  summer, 
when  it  makes 
a  rather  loud 
droning  sound. 

Dungeness.  x 

on  the  S.  coast  of  Kent,  England. 
It  has  a  lighthouse,  coastguard 
station,  Lloyds'  signalling  station, 
and  small  fort.  The  scene  of  many 
wrecks,  it  was  off  here  that  Tromp 
defeated  Blake  in  1652  during  the 
first  Dutch  war. 

Dungeness.  Town  and  port  of 
entry  of  Queensland,  Australia.  It 
stands  on  Hinchinbrook  Channel, 
935  m.  N.  of  Brisbane,  and  is  the 
port  for  the  traffic,  chiefly  sugar 
exporting,  on  the  Herbert  river. 
Pop.  (district),  7,000. 

Dungeon.  Name  for  a  prison, 
especially  a  prison  in  a  castle.  It 
is  derived  from  the  Norman  word 
donjon,  meaning  a  keep,  in  which 
part  of  the  castle  the  prisons 
usually  were.  See  Castle  ;  Prison. 

Dungog.  Town  in  Durham  eo., 
New  South  Wales,  Australia.  It  is 
situated  on  the  Williams  river, 
which  flows  between  Durham  and 
Gloucester  counties,  in  a  dairying 
and  maize  district.  There  is  a  coach 
service  to  Sydney,  156  m.  distant. 
Pop.  1,712. 

Dunite.  Massive  granular  crys. 
talliiie  rock,  a  species  of  peridotite. 
It  consists  almost  wholly  of  opaque 
olivine,  with  some  chromic  iron, 
and  is  named  from  Dun  Mt.,  near 
Nelson,  New  Zealand,  which  is 
surmounted  by  this  rock.  It  occurs 


also  in  Andalusia,  Scotland,  and 
Kentucky. 

Dunkeld.  Market  town  of 
Perthshire,  Scotland.  It  stands 
on  the  Tay,  here  spanned  by  a 
7-arched  bridge,  15 \  m.  N.W.  of 
Perth  by  the  Highland  Rly.  The 
chief  object  of  interest  is  the 
ruined  cathedral,  presented  to  the 
nation  in  1918  by  the  duke  of 
Atholl.  This  was  built  in  the  llth 
or  12th  century,  but  was  partially 
destroyed  at  the  Reformation. 
The  ruins  include  a  beautiful  nave, 
a  chapter  house,  and  a  tower,  as  well 
as  the  choir,  which  has  beenrestored 
to  serve  as  the  parish  church.  Near 
is  Dunkeld  House,  a  residence  of 
the  duke  of  Atholl.  The  town  has 
a  modern  town  hall,  and  in  the 
market  square  is  a  fountain  com- 
memorating a  duke  of  Atholl.  A 
mile  away,  across  the  Tay,  is 
Birnam.  'Pop.  600. 

Dunkers  OR  TUNKERS  (Ger., 
dippers).  Sect  of  Baptists  founded 
in  Germany  by  Andrew  Mack,  in 
1708.  About  1720  they  fled  under 
persecution  to  America,  where 
their  leader,  Conrad  Peysel,  founded 
a  settlement  at  Ephrata,  about  50 
m.  from  Philadelphia.  Men  and 
women  dwelt  apart,  marriage  was 
forbidden,  and  strict  vegetarianism 
practised.  Divided  into  three  sects, 
the  Dunkers  have  numerous  inde- 
pendent congregations  in  the  U.S.  A. 
Dunkery  Beacon.  Hill  on  Ex- 
moor,  Somersetshire,  England. 
About  5  m.  S.  of  Porlock,  it  is  1,707 
ft.  high,  the  highest  point  on  the 
moor.  It  is  12  m.  in  circumference, 
its  slopes  are  covered  with  trees, 
and  on  the  summit  is  a  large  cairn. 
The  lighting  of  the  beacon  on  Dun- 
kery is  described  in  Lorna  Doone. 
Dunkirk  OR  DUNKERQUE.  Sea- 
port of  France.  It  stands  on  the 
Strait  of  Dover,  near  the  Belgian 
boundary,  in  the 
dept.  of  Nord, 
40  m.  N.W.  of 
Lille.  The  flat 
district  around  it 
is  called  the  Wat- 
teringues.  It  is 
still  rather  a 
Flemish  than  a 
French  town. 
One  of  the  chief 
ports  of  the  coun- 
try, it  has  an 
outer  and  an  in- 
Dunkirkarms  ner  harbour,  large 
floating  basins,  dry  docks,  quays, 
and  ample  accommodation  of  all 
kinds  for  shipping.  Normally  the 
port  exports  the  coal  of  Belgium  and 
north-eastern  France,  the  manu- 
factures of  the  industrial  region 
therein,  and  the  agricultural  pro- 
duce of  other  adjacent  areas.  Wool 
is  a  main  import.  Shipbuilding  is 
carried  on,  while  other  industries 


DUNKIRK 


2727 


DUNMOW 


Dunkirk.   West  front  of  the  church 
of  S.  Eloi 

include  the  manufacture  of  machi- 
nery, soap,  and  the  shipping  acces- 
sories. There  are  oil  refineries, 
saw  mills,  and  flour  mills.  Steamers 
regularly  ply  between  here  and 
London,  Hull,  and  other  ports 

The  old  buildings  include  the 
church  of  S.  Eloi,  with  a  modern 
facade  and  a  detached  belfry,  and 
the  pilgrim  chapel  of  Notre  Dame 
des  Dunes.  The  church  of  S. 
Jean-Baptiste  dates  from  the  15th 
century.  On  the  Place  Jean  Bart 
is  a  statue  of  the  seaman  of  that 
name.  Outside  the  old  town  are 
S.  Pol-sur-Mer  and  Rosendael. 
Malo-les-Bains  is  a  watering-place. 

Dunkirk,  meaning  the  church  in 
the  Dunes,  was  at  first  two  small 
settlements  around  chapels  named 
after  S.  Eloi  and  S.  Gilles.  It  was 
taken  and  retaken  by  France  and 
Spain,  it  having  passed  to  the 
latter  country  with  the  other  lands 
of  the  duke  of  Burgundy.  From 
1658-62  it  was  in  English  hands. 
In  1713,  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht, 
its  fortifications  were  pulled  down, 
but  later  in  the  18th  century  it 
again  took  its  place  as  ?  seaport 
and  a  fortress.  It  was  besieged 
by  the  English  in  1793.  During 
the  Great  War  Dunkirk  was  heavily 
bombed  by  air,  and  bombarded 
from  sea  and  land.  Pop.  38,925. 

Dunkirk.  City  of  New  York, 
U.S.A.,  in  Chautauqua  co.  A  port 
of  entry  on  Lake  Erie,  it  is  40  m. 
S.W.  of  Buffalo,  on  the  Lake  Shore 
and  Michigan  Southern  and  other 
rlys.  Industrial  establishments  in- 
clude locomotive  and  gas-engine 
works,  and  agricultural  implement 
and  shirt  factories.  Settled  in 
1 809,  it  was  chartered  as  a  city  in 
1880.  Pop.  2L310. 

Dunlin  OR  Ox  BIRD  (Tringa 
alpina).  Species  of  shore  bird 
belonging  to  the  Sandpiper  group. 
It  breeds  rather  rarely  in  Great 


Britain,  and  is  usually  seen  about 
estuaries.  It  is  about  8  ins.  long, 
and  greyish  coloured  in  winter,  but 
in  the  breeding  season  the  male  is 
clad  in  chestnut  and  black. 

Dunlop,  JOHN  BOYD  (1839- 
1921).  Irish  inventor.  After  train- 
ing, he  began  to  practise  as  a  veterin- 
ary surgeon  at  Belfast.  About  1888 
the  idea  of  an  inflated  tire  occurred 
to  him.  This  Dunlop  tire  was 
placed  on  the  market  by  the  Pneu- 
matic Tyre  and  Booth's  Cycle 
Agency.  A  patent  was  taken  out 

for  the  wire   p, , 

edge     attach-   i 
ment   by  the 
Dunlop  Rubber  \ 
Co.  This  expired  ! 
in  1904.  He  died 
Oct.  23, 1921.  See 
Cycling;  Tire. 

Dunmore. 
Borough  of 
P  e  n  n  s  ylvania, 
U.  S.  A.,  i  n 
Lackawanna  co. 
Adjoining 
Scranton  on  the 
N.E.,  it  is  served 
by  the  Erie  and 
other  rlys.  In 
an  anthra  cite 
coal  district,  it 

has  rly.  workshops,  and  manufac- 
tures silk  and  bricks.  Settled  in 
1835,  it  was  incorporated  as  a 
borough  in  1862.  Pop.  19,750. 

Dunmore,  EARL  or.     Scottish 
title  borne  by  the  family  of  Murray 
since  1686.  The 
first    earl    was 
Lord    Charles 
Murray,     a 
younger  son  of 
the     marquess 
of      Atholl, 
made    baron, 


who  succeeded  in  1907,  gained  dis- 
tinction as  a  soldier.  He  won  the 
V.C.  in  1897,  and  in  the  S.  African 
War  commanded  a  battalion  of 
yeomanry.  He  served  also  in  the 
Great  War.  The  earl's  eldest  son  is 
known  as  Viscount  Fincastle.  The 
family  seat  is  in  the  Isle  of  Harris, 
and  the  extensive  estates  are 
mainly  in  the  Highlands  and  islands. 
Dunmore,  JOHN  MUHRAY,  4TH 
EARL  OF  (1732-1809).  British  ad- 
ministrator. Son  of  William,  the 
3rd  earl,  he  succeeded  to  the  title  in 


Dunkirk. 


The  old  part  of  the  docks,  seen  from  the  Tour 
de  Leughenaer 


viscount,  and 
earl  in  1686. 
William,  the 
3rd  earl,  shared 


8th  Earl  of  Dunmore, 
British  soldier 

Elliott  A  Fry 

in  the  rebellion  of  1745,  but  was 
pardoned,  and  his  grandson,  the 
5th  earl,  was  in  1831  made  a  peer  of 
the  U.K.  Alexander,  the  8th  earl. 


Great  Dunmow. 


1756  and  was  a  Scottish  represen- 
tative peer  from  1761-69.  In  1770 
he  went  to  America  as  governor  of 
New  York  and  in  1771  Virginia  was 
placed  also  under  his  authority.  In 
1774  he  became  involved  in  a 
struggle  with  the  Indians,  often 
called  Dunmore's  War,  and  a  little 
later  he  carried  on  a  civil  war  with 
the  Virginians.  He  returned  to 
England  in  1776  and  from  1787-96 
was  governor  of  the  Bahama 
Islands.  He  died  in  May,  1809. 

Dunmow,  GREAT.  Parish  and 
market  town  of  Essex,  England. 
It  stands  on  the  Chelmer,  8  m.  W. 
of  Braintree  by  the  G.E.R.  Roman 
remains  have  been  unearthed  here. 
Market  day,  Tues.  Pop.  2,792. 

Dunmow,  LITTLE.  Parish  and 
village  of  Essex,  England.  It 
stands  on  the  Chelmer,  If  m.  S.E. 
of  Great  Dunmow. 
It  is  celebrated 
for  the  custom 
of  presenting  a 
flitch  of  bacon  to 
any  married 
couple  who  can 
give  satisfactory 
proof  that  they 
have  not  re- 
pented of  their 
m  arriage  for  a 
year  and  a  day 
after  its  celebra- 
tion. The  cus- 
tom has  been 
revived  in  recent 
Main  street  of  the  Essex  market  town  years.  Pop.  320. 


DUNN 


2728 


DUNRAVEN 


Dunn,  JAMES  NICOL  (1856- 
1919).  British  journalist.  Born  in 
Kincardineshire,  Oct.  12,  1856,  he 
was  educated  at  Aberdeen.  He  was 
intended  for  the  law,  but  joined  the 
staff  of  The  Dundee  Advertiser,  and 
later  that  of  The  Scotsman.  He  was 
in  turn  managing  editor  of  The 
Scots  Observer  and  The  National 
Observer,  under  W.  E.  Henley, 
1888-93  ;  news  editor  of  The  Pall 
Mall  Gazette,  1894 ;  and  editor  of 
Black  and  White  and  The  Ludgate 
Monthly,  1895-97.  In  1897  he  be- 
came editor  of  The  Morning  Post, 
and  in  1905  of  The  Manchester 
Courier.  In  1911  he  was  made 
editor  of  The  Star,  Johannesburg, 
and  in  1914  London  editor  of  The 
Glasgow  Evening  News.  He  was 
president  of  the  Institute  of  Jour- 
nalists in  1904.  He  died  at  Den- 
mark Hill,  June  30,  1919.  Of  his 
three  sons,  two  fought  throughout 
the  Great  War,  and  the  other 
became  Renter's  chief  of  staff  in 
S.  Africa. 

Dunnage.  Pieces  of  wood  laid 
at  the  bottom  of  a  ship's  hold  to 
keep  the  cargo  from  touching  the 
deck  beneath.  The  object  is  to 
protect  the  cargo  from  damage 
by  any  water  that  may  find  its  way 
into  the  hold. 

Dunne.  Automatically  stable 
aeroplane,  designed  by  J.  W. 
Dunne.  The  wings  are  V-shaped, 
and  each  wing  has  a  variable  cam- 
ber and  angle  from  shoulder  to  tip. 
See  Aeroplane. 

Dunne,  FINLEY  PETER  (b.  1867). 
American  humorist.  Born  at  Chi- 
cago, from  1891  to  1900  he  at- 
tracted notice  by  contributing  to 
the  Times-Herald,  of  Chicago,  a 
series  of  sketches  in  which,  speak- 
ing as  Martin  Dooley,  an  Irish- 
American  publican,  he  commented 
on  social  and  political  topics  in 
genially,  sometimes  pungently, 
humorous  fashion.  His  works  in- 
clude Mr.  Dooley's  Philosophy, 
1900 ;  Opinions,  1901  ;  Observa- 
tions, 1902;  Dissertations,  1906; 
Mr.  Dooley  Says,  1910;  and  On 
Making  a  Will,  1920. 

Dunnite.  Filling  for  high  ex- 
plosive shell.  Its  essential  ingre- 
dient was  picric  acid,  adopted  by 
the  ordnance  authorities  of  the 
U.S.A.  before  the  Great  War.  It 
has  been  superseded  by  ijrinitnx 
toluene  and  amatol.  c 

Dunnottar.  Town  arid  parish 
of  Kincardineshire,  Scotland.  It 
stands  on  Carron  Water,  1  m.  S.W. 
of  Stonehaven.  At  Dunnottar  in 
1793  Walter  Scott  met  Robert 
Paterson,  the  stonemason  original 
of  Old  Mortality.  Pop.  2,255. 

Dunnottar  Castle.  Ruined 
stronghold  about  2  m.  S.E.  of 
Stonehaven,  Kincardineshire,  Scot- 
land. It  is  situated  130  ft.  above 


the  sea,  and  dates 
from  the  7th  cen- 
tury. In  one 
of  its  dungeons, 
known  as  Scot- 
land's Black  Hole 
or  Whigs'  Vault, 
in  1685,  during 
the  Covenanters' 
rebellion,  167  men, 
women,  and  chil- 
dren were  incarce- 
rated. Cromwell 
laid  siege  to  the 
castle  when  he 
invaded  Scotland, 
but  did  not  take 
it  until  the  Scottish 
crown  jewels, 
placed  in  it  for  safe  keeping,  had 
been  secretly]  removed  to  KinnefE 
Church.  The  castle  was  dismantled 
in  1720. 

Dunois,  JEAN,  COMTE  DE  (1402- 
68).  French  soldier  and  popular 
hero.  Bom  at  Paris,  Nov.  23, 1402, 
a  natural  son  of  Louis,  duke  of 
Orleans,  and  brother  of  Charles  VI, 
he  was  known  as  the  Bastard  of  Or- 
leans. Originally  intended  for  the 


Dunoon. 


Ruins  of  the  old  castle  and  the  statue  of 
Burns's  Highland  Mary 


watering-places  on  the  W.  coast. 
It  includes  Kirn  and  Hunter's  Quay, 
and  with  these  the  town  has  a 
frontage  of  three  miles  on  the  firth. 
There  is  a  statue  to  Mary  Camp- 
bell, the  Highland  Mary  loved  by 
Burns,  who  was  born  here.  Pop. 
9,859. 

Dunraven,  EARL  OF.    Irish  title 
borne  since  1822  by  the  family  of 
Wyndham-Quin.  Valentine R.Quin, 
„   an    Irish  land- 
owner and  a  sup- 
porter    of    the 
Union  of  1800,  was 

I  '  jJjtfiMlikilii^^-  m  made  a  baronet  in 

HB  1781,  a   baron    in 
^|H  I  1800,    a    viscount 

BP^JgjgM  I  1822  eiri  oMDu™ 

I  raven  and  Mount- 
K^aliflfll  •  earl.      His    son 

Windham  Henry 
had  already  taken 
the  additional 
name  of  Wynd- 
ham  on  inheriting 
valuable  property 
in  Glamorganshire 
through  his  wife, 

Church,  he  became  a  soldier,  and    a  daughter  of  Thomas  Wyndham 

first  came  into  prominence  by  de-    of  Dunraven  Castle  in  that  county. 

feating  the  English  and  raising  the    On   this   account   the   elder  Quin 

siege  of  Montargis  in  1427.      His 

next  exploit  was  the  defence  of 

Orleans,  which  he  held  until  suc- 
coured by  Joan  of  Arc,  with  whom 

Dunois  now  set  himself  to  the  task 

of  clearing  the  country  of  the  Eng- 
lish.   The  task  was  not  interrupted 

by  the  capture  and  death  of  the 

Maid  of  Orleans.     The  taking  of 

Chartres  in  1432  enabled  Dunois  to 

\xpel  the  English  from  Paris  ;  by 

1 450  he  had  driven  them  from  Nor- 
mandy ;     and   by    1455    Guienne 

was  once  more  French.      He  died 

at  St.  Germain-en-Laye,  Nov.  24, 

1468. 
Dunoon.        Town    and    police 

burgh  of  Argyllshire,  Scotland.     It 

stands   on   the   W.    shore   of    the 

Firth  of  Clyde,  8  m.  W.  of  Greenock. 

Formerly   a  small  fishing  village, 


Dunnottar  Castle.      Ruins  of  the  ancient  stronghold 
seen  from  the  north 


it  is  now  one  of  the  most  popular 


took  the  title  of  Dunraven  on  being 
made  an  earl. 

Edwin,  the  3rd  earl  (1812-71), 
who  was  M.P.  for  Glamorganshire 
1837-51,  was  made  Baron  Kenry, 
a  British  title,  in  1866.    A  remark- 
able  man,   he  was   archaeologist, 
astro  nomer, 
and    author, 
and    was    in- 
terested    in 
spirit  ualism. 
He    became    a 
Roman  Catho- 
lic, and  Mont- 
alembert     was 
one    of    his 
friends.      In 
1871    his    son 

Windham  Thomas  (b.  1841)  be- 
came the  4th  earl.  In  1885-86 
and  1 886-87  he  was  under-secretary 


4th  Earl  of  Dunraven 

Russell 


DUNROBIN   CASTLE 


2729 


DUNS   SCOTUS 


for  the  colonies.  He  was  in  early 
life  a  war  correspondent  in  Abys- 
sinia, in  Paris  1870,  and  in  1900  he 
went  to  S.  Africa.  He  was  at  one 
time  chairman  of  the  Irish  Reform 
Association  and  chairman  of  the 
Irish  land  conference,  1 902-3.  The 
earl's  seats  are  Adare  Manor, 
Limerick,  and  Dunraven  Castle, 
Glamorganshire. 

Dunrobin  Castle.  Seat  of  the 
duke  of  Sutherland,  Sutherland- 
shire,  Scotland.  Beautifully  situ- 
ated on  Dornoch  Firth,  it  is  one 
of  the  oldest  inhabited  mansions  in 
Great  Britain,  the  earliest  portion 
dating  from  the  13th  century.  The 
main  building,  however,  is  modern. 
In  the  well-wooded  grounds  are  two 
"  brochs  "  or  circular  towers,  and 
a  museum  of  antiquities.  Dunrobin 
Glen  has  a  picturesque  waterfall. 

Duns.  Police  burgh,  county  and 
market  town  of  Berwickshire,  Scot- 
land. 55  m.  S.E.  of  Edinburgh  by 
the  N.B.R.  The  original  town  of 
Duns  or  Dunse  was  situated  on 
Duns  Law  (713  ft.),  which  has 
traces  of  the  encampment  set  up 
by  the  Covenanters  in  1639.  Linen 
is  manufactured.  Market  day,Tues. 
Pop.  3,042. 

Dunsany,  BARON.  Irish  title 
borne  since  1439  by  the  family  of 
Plunkett.  The  first  baron  was  Sir 
Christopher  Plunkett,  a  landowner 
in  co.  Meath,  from  whom  the  title 
passed  to  his  son  and  other  suc- 
cessors. Randal,  the  llth  baron, 
was  outlawed  for  adhering  to 
James  II,  but  this  disability  was 
removed,  and  his  successors  in- 
herited his  title  and  estates. 
Dunsany  is  in  Meath,  7  m.  from 
Trim.  Its  old  castle,  which  became 
the  property  of  Sir  Christopher 
Plunkett,  has  been  replaced  by  a 
modern  building  in  the  Gothic  style. 

Dunsany,  EDWARD  JOHN  MORE  - 
TON  DRAX  PLUNKETT,  ISTH  BARON 
(b.  1878).  British  author.  Born 
July  24, 1878, 
he  was  edu- 
cated at  Eton 
and  Sand- 
hurst, and 
held  a  com- 
mission in  the 
C  o  1  d  s  t  r  earn 
Guards.  He 
served  during 
the  S.  African 
War,  and  also 
in  the  Great 
War.  His  travels  in  the  Far  East 
helped  to  give  colour  to  some  of  his 
imaginative  writings.  His  works 
include  Time  and  the  Gods,  1906  ; 
The  Sword  of  Welleran,  1908  ;  The 
Book  of  Wonder,  1912  ;  Fifty-one 
Tales,  1915;  Unhappy  Far-pff 
Things,  1919;  Tales  of  Three 
Hemispheres,  1920  ,  and  several 
plays,  including  The  Glittering 


Dunrobin  Castle,  Sutherlandshire.    View  of  the  castle 

from  the  south-west,  showing  the  13th  century  walls 

and  turrets 


taught  me,  Co- 
logne holds  me). 
The  writings  of 
Duns  Scotus  tes- 
tify to  his  fami- 
liarity with  the 
works  of  Por- 
phyry, Boethius, 
Aristotle,  Plato, 
and  the  Arabian 
and  Jewish 
schoolmen.  They 
concern  p  h  i  1  o- 
sophic  grammar, 
logic,  metaphy- 
sics, and  theology. 
His  c  o  m  m  e  n- 
taries  on  the  Sen- 
tentiae  of  Peter 


Gate,  1909  ;  The  Gods  of  the  Moun- 
tain, 1911 ;  A  Night  at  an  Inn,  1916. 

Dunsinane.  Peak  of  the  Sidlaw 
Hills,  Scotland,  8£  m.  N.E.  of 
Perth.  On  it  are  traces  of  an 
ancient  fort  known  as  Macbeth' s 
Castle.  Shakespeare  has  immor- 
talised the  defeat  here  of  Macbeth 
by  Siward,  earl  of  Northumbria, 
in  1054.  See  Macbeth. 

Dunsink.  Hill  and  village  of  co. 
Dublin,  Ireland.  It  is  4  m.  N.  W.  of 
the  city  of  Dublin.  On  the  hill  (alt. 
210  ft.)  is  Trinity  College  observa- 
tory, founded  in  1785. 

Duns  Scotus  (c.  1265-1308). 
Medieval  schoolman.  Little  but 
legend  exists  as  to  his  personal  his- 
tory. Often  referred  to  as  a  native 
of  Duns,  in  Berwickshire,  as  in  the 
case  of  Johannes  Scotus  Erigena 
(q.v.),  his  birthplace  is  variously 
assigned  to  England,  Scotland,  and 
Ireland.  He  appears  to  have  been 
professor  of  theology  at  Merton 
College,  Oxford,  to  have  joined  the 
Franciscans,  and  about  1304  to 
have  gone  to  Paris,  where,  in  con- 
tention with  the  Dominican  up- 
holders of  the  teaching  of  Thomas 
Aquinas,  his  dialectical  skill  won 
for  him  the  name  of  Doctor  Subtilis 
(the  Subtle  Doctor),  and  where  he 
popularised  the  theory  of  the  Im- 
maculate Conception  of  the  Virgin 
Mary,  since  1854  a  dogma  of  the 

Roman    Catholic _„.„ , 

Church.  Sent  to 
contend  against 
the  Beg  hards 
and  Dominicans 
at  Cologne,  he 
died  there,  Nov. 
8,  1308.  His 
tomb,  in  the  Min- 
orite Church  of 
S.  Pantaleone,  is 
inscribed  :  Scotia 
me  genuit,  Anglia 
me  suscepit,  Gal- 
lia  me  docuit,  Co- 
Ionia  me  tenet 
(Scotland  bore 
me,  England 
adopted  me,  Gaul 


Lombard  are  the  more  often  re- 
ferred to.  The  edition  of  his 
works  publ.  at  Lyons  in  12  vols., 
1639,  by  Luke  Wadding,  an  Irish 
Franciscan,  is  incomplete ;  another 
ed.  appeared  in  Paris,  1891-95. 

While  his  teaching  appears  to 
be  no  longer  binding  on  Francis- 
cans, his  views  have  influenced 
modern  theology  and  philosophy. 
To  him  theology  was  a  practical 
science,  faith  an  act  of  will,  and 
will  the  controller  of  the  intellect. 
Though  intentionally  orthodox,  his 
philosophy  has  its  effects  in  modern 
materialism.  An  exponent  of  the 
inductive  principle,  he  anticipated 
Bacon  and  Newton.  In  logic  a 
quodlibetarian,  one  who,  stating 
the  pros  and  cons  of  an  argument, 
leaves  his  hearers  to  draw  their 
own  conclusions,  he  influenced  the 
modern  doctrine  of  conceptualism. 

From  Duns  Scotus  and  Thomas 
Aquinas  arose  respectively  the 
schools  of  Scotists  and  Thomists, 
opposed  especially  in  regard  to 
the  Immaculate  Conception,  and 
generally  as  to  free  will,  grace,  and 
kindred  topics.  The  Scotist  views 
were  later  adopted  by  the  Jesuits. 
The  term  dunce,  originally  a  Duns 
man,  was  applied  as  a  term  of  con- 
tempt by  Thomists  to  Scotists.  See 
Aquinas ;  Concept ;  Nominalism ; 
Realism :  Scholasticism. 


Dunstable.    Parish  church  of  S.  Peter  and  S.  Paul,  part 
of  the  priory  founded  in  1131.    See  p.  2730 


DUNSTABLE 


273O 


DUPANLOUP 


Dunstable  arms 


Dunstable.  Mun.  bor.  and  mar- 
ket town  of  Bedfordshire,  England. 
ft  stands  at  the  entrance  of  one  of 
the  gaps  of  the 
Chiltern  Hills,  37 
m.  N.  W.  of  London 
by  the  L.  &  N.W. 
and  G.N.  Rlys. 
The  parish  church 
of  S.  Peter  is  a  part 
of  the  Augustinian 

Siory  founded  by 
enry  I  in  1131. 
Here  Cranmer  held  in  1533  the 
court  which  dissolved  the  mar- 
riage of  Catherine  of  Aragon.  Dun- 
stable  is  situated  at  the  crossing 
point  of  Watling  and  Icknield 
Streets  and  is  thought  to  have 
been  a  Roman  station.  The  gram- 
mar school,  founded  in  1715,  was 
rebuilt  in  1888.  Straw-plaiting  and 
printing  are  among  the  industries. 
Market  day,  Wed.  Pop.  8,057. 

DunstaShage.  Ruined  castle 
of  Argyllshire,  Scotland.  It  stands 
at  the  entrance  to  Loch  Etive,  3£ 
m.  N.E.  of  Oban,  and  dates  from 
the  13th  century.  The  traditional 
seat  of  the  kings  of  Dalriada,  it  was 
wrested  from  the  MacDougalls  by 
Robert  Bruce  in  1308,  and  was 
garrisoned  for  the  crown  during 
the  risings  of  1715  and  1745.  It 
figures  in  Scott's  Lord  of  the  Isles, 
and  was  for  a  time  the  prison  of 
Flora  Macdonald.  The  Stone  of 
Destiny,  which  now  forms  part  of 
the  coronation  chair  at  Westmin- 
ster Abbey,  reposed  here  before  its 
transference  to  Scone. 

Duns  tall.  Ward  within  the 
borough  of  Wolverhamptoii,  Staf- 
fordshire. It  has  a  station  on  the 
G.W.R.  See  Wolverhampton. 

Dunstan  (d.  988).  English 
saint.  The  son  of  a  West  Saxon 
noble,  he  was  born  at  Glastonbury. 
where  he  was  educated,  and  became 
abbot  about  945.  The  chief  adviser 
of  King  Eadred,  he  was  banished 
by  his  successor,  Edwy,  but  recalled 
by  Edgar,  who  appointed  him 
bishop  of  Worcester  in  957,  bishop 
of  London  in  959,  and  archbishop 
of  Canterbury  in  961.  From  then 
until  979  he  was  the  most  powerful 
man  in  the  country.  He  died 
May  19,  988.  Dunstan  is  credited 
with  skill  as  a  metal-worker. 

Dunster.  Market  town  of 
Somersetshire,  England.  Situated 
23  m.  N.W.  of 
Taunton  by 
theG.W.ll.,it 
is  a  quaint  old 
town,  con- 
taining many 
interesting 
buildings. 
DunsterCastle 

dates  from  tlle 
12th  century, 
and  the  Yarn 


Market,  a  wooden  structure,  from 
the  beginning  of  the  17th  century. 
Market  day,  Friday.  Pop.  1,380. 

Dunsterville,  LIONEL  CHARLES 
(b.  1865).  British  soldier.  Born 
Nov.  9,  1865,  he  was  educated  at 
Westward  Ho  College,  where  he 
had  as  a  schoolfellow  Rudvard 


are  the  ivy-clad  ruins  of  a  13th  cen- 
tury Franciscan  priory.     Pop.  1 56. 
Duo  (Ital. ).  Music  for  two  voices 
or  instruments.     See  Duet. 

Duodecimal     (Lat.     duodecim, 
twelve).      System  of  notation  in 
which    twelve    is  the    base.     The 
base  of  the  ordinary  scale  of  nota- 
t"i  o  n    is     ten. 
1    Duodecimal 
arithmetic   is 
sometimes  used 
for  computations 
involving      feet 
and  inches...    See 
Notation. 


Dunstaffnage,  Argyllshire.     Ruins  of  the  13th  century 
castle  on  the  shore  of  Loch  Etive 


He  was  placed    in   charge  of   the 


Duodecimo 

(Lat.  duodccimus, 
twelf  th  ^Designa- 
tion originally 
applied  to  a  book 
each  sheet  of 
which  was  folded 
so  as  to  make 

Kipling,  who  made  him  the  hero  of  12  leaves.  Commonly  it  will  mea- 
Stalky  &  Co.  Dunsterville  entered  sure  7  ins.  by  4J  ins.  The  word  is 
the  R.  Sussex  Regt.  in  1884,  after  abbreviated  12mo.  or  12°.  See 
which  he  joined  the  Indian  army.  Paper,  Sizes  of. 
He  served  in  the  Waziristan  ex-  Dupanloup,FELixANTOiNEPHi- 
pedition,  1894-95,  on  the  N.W.  LIBERT  (1802-78).  French  bishop, 
frontier,  1897-98;  and  in  China,  Born  near  Chambery,  Jan.  3,  1802, 
1900.  In  the  early  part  of  the  Great  he  was  ordained  priest  in  1825. 
War  he  held  various  appointments 
in  India,  then 
went  to  Mesopo- 
tamia, where  in 
1918  he  com- 
manded the  ex- 
pedition to  Baku 
(q.v.}.  He  became 
a  major-general  in 
June,  1918.  See 
his  The  Adven- 
tures of  Dunster- 
force,  1920;  With 
the  Persian  Ex- 
pedition, M.  H. 
Donohoe,  1919. 

D  un  s  t  o  n . 
Eccles.  district 
and  village  of 
Durham,  Eng- 
land. It  stands 

Little  Seminary  at  Paris  in  1837, 
and  founded  the  Academy  of  S. 
Hyacinthe.  He  energetically  advo- 
cated freedom  of  education,  and  in 
1849  became  bishop  of  Orleans. 
He  became  the  leader  of  the 


Dunvegan,  Isle  of  Skye.    The  old  castle,  seat  of  the 
Macleods,  seen  from  the  shore 

Valentine 


L.  C.  Dunsterville, 
British  soldier 


on  the  Tyne,  2  m.  S.W.  of  Gates - 
head  by  the  N.E.R.  Pop.  9,209. 

Dunvegan.  Sea-loch  on  the 
N.W.  coast  of  the  Isle  of  Skye, 
Scotland,  penetrating  inland  for 
7£  m.,  with  a  breadth  of  2J  m.  On 
the  E.  shore  is  Dunvegan  Castle, 
long  the  seat  of  the  Macleods. 

Dunwich.  Coast  parish  and  vil- 
lage of  Suffolk,  England.  It  stands 
on  the  North  Sea,  4£  m.  S.W.  of 
Southwold.  The  chief  town  and 
harbour  and  at  one  time  the  only 
see  of  East  Anglia,  Dunwich  has 
suffered  severely  from  sea  en- 
croachments, which  at  various 
periods  swept  away  the  palaces  and 
houses  and  blocked  up  the  harbour. 
The  last  remains  of  the  ruined 
church  of  All  Saints  fell  in  1920. 
Near  by,  on  the  edge  of  the  cliff, 


Gallican  party 
against  the  Ul- 
tramontanes, 
and  strongly 
opposed  the 
definition  of 
the  infalli- 
bility of  the 
|  pope,  though 
i  he  submitted 
to  the  decree 
when  it  was 

Promulgated, 
e   was    con- 
&  spicuous      by 


DUPIN 


2731 


DUPUY 


his  self-denying  labours  during  the 
siege  of  Paris.  He  died  Oct.  11, 
1878.  He  was  the  author  of  several 
works  on  ecclesiastical  and  educa- 
tional subjects,  including  La  Paci- 
fication Religieuse,  1845 ;  De 
I'Education,  1850-62;  La  Souve- 
rainete  pontificale,  1860;  Histoire 
de  Jesus-Christ,  1869.  See  Life,  F 
Lagrange.  Eng.  trans.  Lady  Her 
bert,  1885. 

Dupin,  ANDRE  MARIE  JEAN 
JACQUES  (1783-1865).  French 
jurist  and  statesman.  Born  at 
Varzy  (Nievre),  Feb.  1,  1783,  he  is 
usually  called  the  elder,  to  dis- 
tinguish him  from  his  two  brothers, 
also  eminent  lawyers.  In  1815,  as 
member  of  the  Chamber  of  Repre- 
sentatives, he  opposed  the  pro- 
clamation of  the  young  king  of 
Rome  as  emperor.  Elected  to  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1826,  he 
assisted  in  the  revolution  of  1830, 
and  was  made  procureur -general. 
In  1832  he  was  elected  president  of 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  and  in 
1848  Dupin  led  the  young  count  of 
Paris  into  the  Chamber  and  pro- 
posed him  for  king.  He  eventually 
took  office  under  the  second  empire, 
declaring  that  he  "belonged  to 
France,  not  to  parties."  He  wrote 
several  legal  works,  his  Libertes  de 
1'Eglise  gallicane,  1824,  being  con- 
demned by  the  Congregation  of  the 
Index  at  Rome.  He  died  in  Paris, 
Nov.  10,  1865. 

Dupleix,  JOSEPH  FRANCOis(1697 
-1763).  French  administrator. 
Born  at  Landrecies,  Jan.  1,  1697, 
he  was  the  son  of  a  merchant.  As 
a  youth  he  went  on  voyages  to 
India,  where,  about  1720,  he  set- 
tled. He  was  associated  with  the 
French  East  India  Co.,  trading 
also  successfully  on  his  own 
account.  In  1730  he  was  made 
governor  of  Chandernagore,  and 
in  1741  became  governor  of  Pon- 
dicherry,  and  the  chief  official 
in  French  India. 

The  career  of  Dupleix  in  India 

is  that  of  a  great  plan  thwarted. 

-  T    He    saw    the 


£    • 

chance  of  set' 

^m  ' 

ting  up  there, 

jjjjk      *$ 

by  the  aid  of 

**p      ^r  ' 

the      natives 

J-^BHHi 

and  their  con- 

••*- ':-  i*/'  ' 

stant       rival- 

ries,   a    great 

French      em- 

Ms£y&iL   : 

pire,    and    he 

gfg 

devoted    con- 
siderable abil- 
ities   to    that 

end,        the 

scheme    in- 

• 

cluding     the 

S®9^^SHHWW 

expulsion      of 

J->----™™.IZl^^^ 

the    English. 

Dupleix.     From  the 
statue  in  Landrecies 

In    1744    war 

broke  out  be- 

Joseph 
Dupleix,    French 
administrator 

After  Sergent 


tween  Britain  and  France,  and 
he  took  vigorous  action.  Repu- 
diating terms  arranged  by  his  col- 
league, La  Bourdonnais,  he  kept- 
Madras,  but  failed  in  an  attempt 
on  Fort  St.  David.  Then  came  the 
peace  of  1748. 
Turning  his  at- 
tention to  the 
Carnatic,  Du- 
pleix managed 
to  depose  one 
ruler,  and  set 
up  another, 
and  within  a 
year  his  candi- 
da  t  e  s  a  p- 
peared  m  a  s- 
ters,  not  only 
of  the  Car- 
natic, but  also  of  the  Deccan. 

The  appearance  of  Clive  changed 
the  position  entirely,  the  defence 
of  Arcot  being  the  turn  of  the  tide. 
Unsupported  by  the  officials  in 
France,  Dupleix  struggled  on  gal- 
lantly for  a  time,  but  in  1754  he 
was  recalled  to  France.  He  lived 
in  obscurity  and  poverty  until  his 
death,  Nov.  10,  1763.  See  Clive  : 
India  ;  consult  also  Dupleix,  G.  B. 
Malleson,  1890 ;  Life,  J.  Biddulph, 
1910 ;  Dupleix  and  Clive,  H. 
Dodwell,  1920. 

Dupont,  PIERRE  (1821-70). 
French  poet.  Born  at  Lyons,  April 
23,  1821,  he  settled  in  Paris,  and 
became  a  con- 
tributor  of 
verse  to  pe- 
riodicals. His 
Deux  Anges, 
1842,  was 
crowned  by 
the  Academy. 
But  his  popu- 
larity, wide 
though  tran- 
sitory, was 
gained  by  his  songs,  many  of  them 
political,  of  which  he  wrote  both 
words  and  music.  He  died  at 
St.  Etienne,  July  25,  1870.  See 
Causeries  du  Lundi,  April  21,  1851. 
C.  A.  Sainte  Beuve,  Eng.  trans. 
E.  J.  Trechmann,  vol.  vi,  1909. 

Duppel.  Village  of  Slesvig-Hol- 
stein.  It  stands  on  the  mainland, 
opposite  Sonderburg,  on  the  island 
of  Alsen.  In  1848  and  1864  the 
Danes  held  it  against  the  Germans. 
In  the  war  of  1848-49  the  Danes 
succeeded  in  keeping  back  their 
foes.  In  March,  1864,  however, 
the  Prussians  laid  regular  siege, 
the  final  assault  being  delivered  on 
April  18.  It  was  successful,  and 
many  Danes  were  taken  prisoners. 
Dupplin  Moor.  Spot  on  the 
Earn,  the  site  of  a  battle  fought 
Aug.  12,  1332.  A  party  of  Scottish 
nobles,  among  whom  was  Edward 
Baliol,  deprived  of  their  estates, 
took  refuge  in  England.  To  re- 


Charles  A.  Bupuy, 
French  politician 


cover  their  possessions  they  sailed 
from  Ravenspur  to  Kinghorn.  The 
Scots,  under  the  earl  of  Mar,  met 
them  on  Dupplin  Moor,  but  their 
archers  did  such  deadly  work  that 
the  Scots  fell  back  in  disorder.  The 
battle  resulted  in  Baliol's  tem- 
porary restoration, 

Dupre,JuLES(1812-S9).  French 
painter.  Born  at  Nantes,  April  5, 
1812,  he  was  the  son  of  a  potter, 
who  taught  him  to  decorate  his 
wares,  but  he  was  otherwise  self- 
taught.  His  first  landscape,  a 
forest  scene,  was  shown  at  the 
Salon  of  1831,  and  he  then  began 
a  lifelong  connexion  with  the  Ro- 
mantic group.  His  technique  is  im- 
perfect, but  he  ranks  high  among 
the  Barbizon  school.  He  died  at 
L'Isle-Adam,  Oct.  6,  1889. 

Dupuy,  CHARLES  ALEXANDRE 
(1851-1923).  French  politician.  B. 
at  Puy,  Nov.  5,  1851,  he  began  his 
career  as  a 
teacher,  and  in 
1885  turned  his 
attention  t  o 
politics.  In 
April,  1893,  he 
became  pre- 
mier in  succes- 
sion to  Ribot. 
The  general 
election  in 
Aug.  gave  him 
a  large  majority,  but  in  Nov.  he 
resigned  owing  to  a  difference  with 
President  Carnot,  and  became  pre- 
sident of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies. 
In  May,  1894,  Dupuy  returned  to 
power  with  a  cabinet  including 
Poincare,  Delcasse,  and  Hanotaux. 
In  June  Carnot  was  assassinated, 
and  Casimir-Perier  became  pre- 
sident. The  Dupuy  government 
remained  in  office,  but  before  the 

S;ar  was  ended  came  the  arrest  of 
reyfus,  and  in  Jan.,  1895,  the 
president's  resignation  was  soon 
followed  by  that  of  Dupuy,  after 
an  adverse  vote  in  the  Chamber. 
He  was  premier  a  third  time,  1898- 
99,  and  became  a  senator  in  1900. 
He  was  minister  of  agriculture,  of 
commerce,  1899-1902,  and  of  la- 
bour, 1912-14.  Hedied  July23, 1923. 
Dupuy,  JEAN  (1844-1919). 
French  journalist  and  politician. 
Born  at  Saint-Palais,  Gironde,  Oct. 
1844,  he  en- 
tered journal- 
ism, and  from 
1888  was  direc- 
tor of  Le  Petit 
Parisien.  He 
was  minister  of 
agri  culture, 
1899-1902,  of 
commerce, 

Jean  Dupuy,          1909-11,  and  of 
French  journalist      public      works, 
1912-13.     He  died  at  the  close  of 
Dec.,  1919. 


DUPUYTREN'S      CONTRACTION 


2732 


DURAZZO 


Dupuytren's        Contraction. 

Condition  resulting  from  chronic 
inflammation  of  the  palmar  fascia, 
or  dense  fibrous  tissues  in  the  palm 
of  the  hand,  leading  to  permanent 
flexion  or  bending  of  the  fingers 
into  the  palm.  It  is  most  often 
seen  in  elderly  individuals,  and 
is  sometimes  associated  with  gout 
or  rheumatism.  Continuous  pres- 
sure on  the  palm  as  in  using  an 
awl  has  been  suggested  as  a  cause. 
Surgical  measures  are  the  only 
form  of  effective  treatment.  The 
condition  is  named  after  Baron 
Guillaume  Dupuytren  (1777-1835), 
a  French  surgeon.  ' 

Duquesne.  Borough  of  Penn- 
sylvania, U.S.A.,  in  Allegheny  co. 
On  the  Monongahela  river,  it  is 
12  m.  S.E.  of  Pittsburg  by  the 
Pennsylvania  Ely.  It  manufactures 
steel.  Settled  in  1885,  it  was  incor- 
porated in  1891.  Pop.  18,575. 

Duquesne,  ABRAHAM,  MARQUIS 
(1610-88).  French  sailor.  Born  at 
Dieppe,  the  son  of  a  naval  officer, 
he  entered  the 
merchant  s  e  r- 
vice,  in  which  he 
saw  much  fight- 
ing in  the  war 
with  Spain  and 
won  a  high  repu- 
tation. Peace 
having  been 
signed  with 
Spain,  he  ob- 
tained a  high 
Swedish  navy, 


Marquis  Duquesne, 
French  sailor 


position    in    the 

which  he  led  to  victory  against  the 
Danes  near  Gothenburg.  Again  in 
France,  he  won  glory  in  1680  by 
compelling  the  surrender  of  Bor- 
deaux. His  greatest  successes  were 
his  two  defeats  of  the  Dutch  fleet 
in  1676— off  Stromboli  and  in  the 
Gulf  of  Catania,  where  do  Ruyter 
lost  his  life.  Duquesne  died  on 
Feb.  2,  1688. 

Dura  Mater  (Lat.,  hard  mother). 
Dense  fibrous  membrane  which 
surrounds  the  brain  and  spinal 
cord.  It  is  the  outermost  of  the 
meninges  or  three  coverings  of  the 
brain.  See  Brain. 

Durance.  River  of  France.  It 
is  formed  by  the  union  of  three 
streams  that  rise  in  the  Alps  and 
unite  near  Briangon.  It  then  flows 
in  a  S.W.  direction  through  the  de- 
partments of  Hautes  Alpes  and 
Basses  Alpes,  afterwards  forming 
the  boundary  between  Vaucluse 
and  Bouches-du-Rhone.  It  joins 
the  Rhone  near  Avignon,  its  length 
being  220  m.  The  Durance  is  used 
to  supply  Marseilles  with  water.  A 
canal  extends  from  the  river  at 
Pertius  to  the  city,  97  m.  away. 

Durand,  ASHER  BROWN  (1796- 
1886).^  American  painter  and  en- 
graven -  He  was  born  of  French 
parentage  at  S.  Orange,  New  Jer- 


sey, Aug.  21,  1796.  Having  studied 
art,  he  worked  in  painting  por- 
traits, history,  genre,  and  land- 
scape with  fair  success,  and  en- 
graved TrumbulPs  picture  The 
Declaration  of  Independence.  He 
is  known  as  the  founder  of  the 
American  National  Academy.  He 
died  Sept.  17,  1886. 

Durand,  SIR  HENRY  MARION 
(1812-71).  British  soldier.  Born 
on  Nov.  6,  1812,  he  was  commis- 
sioned in  the  Bengal  engineers, 
and  went  to  India  in  1830.  He 
distinguished  himself  at  the  cap- 
ture of  Ghazni  in  the  Cabul  expedi- 
tion, 1839,  becoming  secretary  to 
the  governor-general,  Lord  Ellen- 
borough,  1841-44.  Later  he  held 
several  minor  political  posts,  and, 
on  the  outbreak  of  the  Mutiny  in 
1857  was  agent  to  the  court  of 
Holkar  at  Indore.  With  only  a  few 
troops  Durand  maintained  a  foot- 
hold in  Central  India.  Member  of  the 
council  of  India,  1859-61,  he  was  on 
the  governor-general's  council, 
1865-70,  becoming  major-general  in 
1867.  He  died  Jan.  1, 1871,  shortly 
after  his  appointment  as  lieutenant- 
governor  of  the  Punjab. 

Durand,  SIR  HENRY  MORTIMER 
(1850-1924).  British  administrator 
The  second  son  of  Sir  Henry 
Marion  Durand, 
he  was  born 
Feb.  14,  1850. 
Educated  at 
Blackheath  and 
Tonbridge,  he 
was  called  to  the 
bar  at  Lincoln's 
Inn,  1872,  and 

in  the  following 

year  joined  the  SirMortimerDurand, 
Bengal  Civil  British  administrator 
Service.  In  1879  EUiotl  &  Frv 
he  served  as  secretary  to  Lord 
Roberts  during  the  Kabul  cam- 
paign. From  1880-85  he  was 
under-secretary  in  the  foreign  de- 
partment of  the  government  of 
India  ;  from  1885-94  foreign  secre- 
tary in  India.  From  1894-1900  he 
was  British  minister  at  Teheran  ; 
1900-3  ambassador  and  consul- 
general  at  Madrid;  and  1903-6 


ambassador  at  Washington.  His 
numerous  publications  include 
Lives  of  Sir  Henry  Durand,  1883, 
and  Sir  George  White,  V.C.,  1915 
He  died  June  8.  1924. 

Durango.  State  of  N.W.  Mex- 
ico. It  lies  S.  of  the  state  of  Chi- 
huahua, and  is  mainly  mountain- 
ous, paralleling  the  Sierra  Madre, 
which  penetrates  the  W.  portion. 
Agriculture  is  carried  on  where 
possible,  and  wheat,  vegetables, 
cotton,  and  sugar  are  produced. 
The  staple  industry  is  mining,  and 
silver,  gold,  copper,  iron,  and  other 
minerals  are  worked,  especially  sil- 
ver. Durango  is  the  capital.  Area, 
38,000  sq.  m.  Pop.  509,585. 

Durango.  City  of  Mexico,  the 
capital  of  Durango  state.  Origin- 
ally called  Guadiana,  and  some- 
times known  as  Ciudad  de  Vic- 
toria, it  stands  in  the  Guadiana 
valley,  570  m.  N.W.  of  Mexico  city. 
The  seat  of  a  bishopric,  it  has  a  fine 
cathedral,  a  government  palace,  a 
public  library,  a  college,  and  other 
buildings.  A  flourishing  mining 
and  commercial  centre,  its  indus- 
trial establishments  include  cotton, 
woollen,  sugar  and  flour  mills,  and 
foundries.  Pop.  34,085. 

Durani.  Name  bestowed  by 
Ahmad  Shah  upon  his  native  Ab- 
dali  clan  when  establishing  an  em- 
pire in  E.  Afghanistan  in  1747.  It 
has  since  become  the  tribal  name 
of  the  dominant  Afghans.  His 
attempted  national  fusion  by  asso- 
ciating Afridi,  Mohmand,  Orakzai, 
Yusafzai,  and  others  under  the 
appellation  of  Bar  Durani  failed. 
See  Afghan. 

Durazno.  Dept.  in  Central  Uru- 
guay, S.  America.  It  lies  between 
the  rivers  Yi  and  Negro.  The 
surface  is  diversified  and  the  soil 
fertile  ;  many  cattle,  sheep,  and 
horses  are  reared.  The  capital  is 
San  Pedro  del  Durazno,  which  is 
connected  by  rly.  with  Montevideo, 
Paysandu,  and  Brazil.  Area,  5,525 
sq.  m.  Pop.  54,930. 

Durazzo.  Town  of  Albania,  the 
ancient  Dyrrhachium.  It  stands 
on  the  Adriatic,  60  m.  S.  of  Scutari, 
and  is  now  an  inconsiderable  place, 


Durazzo,  Albania.     View  Irom  the  sea  showing  the  landing  place  and,  in  the 
centre,  the  palace 


DURBAN 


2733 


DURER 


but  extensive  ruins  attest  its 
former  greatness.  Founded  621 
B.C.  by  Corinthian  and  Corcyrean 
colonists  under  the  name  of  Epi- 
damnos,  it  was  renamed  Dyrrha- 
chium  by  the  Romans,  who  made 
it  the  port  opposite  Brundisium  on 
the  W.  side  of  the  Adriatic,  and 
later  constructed  from  it  the  high- 
way across  the  Balkans  to  Byzan- 
tium. In  1501  it  passed  to  the 
Turks,  who  held  it  until  1913. 
It  is  a  port  whose  trade  in  oil,  tim- 
ber, and  fruit  is  capable  of  much 
development.  Pop.  5,000.  > 

Durban.  Commercial  capital  of 
Natal,  S.  Africa.  It  is  situated  on 
the  S.  shore  of  a  land-locked  bay. 

Laid  out  by  the 

Dutch  in  1834, 
it  was  occupied 
by  the  British 
under  Sir  Ben- 
jamin D' Urban 
in  1842.  There 
are  a  fine  town 
hall  (opened  in 


the  more  famous 
are  the  Bonn 
D  u  rchmusterung, 
which  enumerates 
324,189  stars 
(Argelander),  and 
the  Cape  Durch- 
musterung  (Schon- 
feld  and  Gill), 
comprising 
454,875  stars.  See 
Stars. 

Dtiren.     Town 
of     Germany,    in 


Durban  arms 


1910),  public  gardens  and  parks, 
racecourse,  public  library,  and 
museum.  It  is  connected  by  rly.  with 
Pietermaritzburg  and  the  Trans- 
vaal. It  is  the  headquarters  of  a 
whaling  industry  established  in 
1908.  Distance  from  Southampton, 
6,790  m.  via  Cape  Town ;  8,501  m. 
via  Suez.  Pop.  (whites),  48,475. 


Durban. 


Town  Hall  of  the  capital  of  Natal.     Above, 
view  of  the  bay  from  the  promenade 


the  Rhine  prov.  It  stands  on  the 
river  Roer,  20  m.  E.  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle.  Its  industries  are  chiefly 
textile  manufactures,  including 


school  of  Michael 
Wohlgemuth.  In 
1490  he  set  out  on 
a  tour  abroad.  He 
was  at  Colmar  in 
1492,  where  he 
made  the  acquain- 
tance of  Martin 
Schongauer's  three 
brothers,  at  Basel 
in  1492-94,  and  at 
Strasbourg  in  1494. 
In  May,  1494,  he 
returned  to  Nu- 
remberg, to  find 
that  a,  marriage 
had  been  arranged 
for  him  with  the  daughter  of  Hans 
Frey.  The  marriage  was  celebrated 
on  July  7,  1494.  The  story  told  by 
Pirkheimer,Durer's  intimate  friend, 
as  to  the  greedy,  idle,  and  passion- 
ately jealous  disposition  of  his 
wife  Agnes  is  neither  borne  out  nor 
contradicted  by  Diirer's  silence  in 
regard  to  his  married  life. 

In  the  winter  of  1494-95  Durer 
made  his  first  journey  to  Venice, 
which  appears  to  have  been  un- 
fruitful. His  second  visit  was 
undertaken  late  in  1505,  at  the 
invitation  of  the  Nuremberg  mer- 
chants established  in  the  city,  who 


Durban.     Plan  of  the  commercial 


South  Africa 


Durbar  (Pers.  dar,  door ;  bar, 
admittance,  court).  Term  used  in 
India  for  the  court,  council,  or 
council  chamber  of  a  native  ruler, 
for  an  official  reception  or  audience, 
or  for  a  great  state  ceremony. 
Specially  magnificent  durbars  were 
held  at  Delhi  on  the  proclamation 
of  Queen  Victoria  as  empress  of 
India  in  1877  and  of  Edward  VII 
and  George  V  as  emperor  in  1903 
and  1911  respectively. 

Durchmusterung  (Ger.,  ex- 
amination). Name  for  the  modern 
telescopic  star  catalogues.  Among 


cloth,  carpets,  etc.,  but  paper  and 
iron  goods  are  also  made.  It  has 
been  a  chartered  town  since  about 
1300  and  was  of  importance  much 
earlier.  It  was  part  of  the  duchy 
of  Jiilich,  and  became  Prussian  in 
1815.  Pop.  32,511. 

Durer,  ALBERT  OB  ALBBECHT 
(1471-1528).  German  painter  and 
engraver.  He  was  born  at  Nurem- 
berg, May  20,  1471,  the  third  of 
eighteen  children  of  a  goldsmith, 
Albert  the  Elder.  He  was  brought 
up  to  the  goldsmith's  business,  but 
in  1486  was  allowed  to  enter  the 


From  a  ielf -portrait  in  the  Pinakolhek, 
Munich 


DURESS 


2734 


DURHAM 


Durbar.     Central  pavilion  and  throne  dais  where  George  V  was  proclaimed   Emperor  of  India  at  the  Delhi  Durb 
Dec.  12,  1911.      Within  the  amphitheatre  troops  were  marshalled  in  geometrical  formation 

desired  him  to   take  part  in  the     Great    Passion    and    The    Little' 
decoration    of    their    bourse,    the     Passion.       His    famous    woodcuts 


Fondaco  de'  Tedeschi.  During  his 
sojourn,  which  lasted  till  the  be- 
ginning of  1507,  he  was  cordially 
received  by  the  nobles,  philoso- 
phers, and  poets  ;  less  cordially  by 
the  painters,  of  whom  one  only, 
Giovanni  Bellini,  gave  him  the 
hand  of  friendship.  He  began  in 
Venice  The  Feast  of  the  Rosary. 
On  his  return  to  Nuremberg  in 
1507,  he  produced  the  folio  whig 
paintings  at  short  intervals  :  single 
figures  of  Adam  and  Eve,  1507  ; 
The  Massacre  of  Ten  Thousand 
Christians,  1 508  ;  The  Virgin  of  the 
Iris  and  The  Adoration  of  the 
Trinity,  1514.  Between  1512-19 
he  was  in  the  service  of  the  emperor 
Maximilian.  In  1520-21  Diirer 
made  a  journey  to  the  Netherlands, 
probably  to  obtain  the  continu- 
ance by"  Charles  V  of  the  pension 
granted  him  by  Maximilian.  On 
his  return  to  his  home,  he  devoted 
himself  to  unceasing  labour  until 
his  death  on  April  6, 1528.  He  was 
buried  in  the  graveyard  of  S.  John, 
Nuremberg,  and  his  house  there  is 
now  a  Diirer  museum. 

His  friend  Melanchthon  said  of 
the  artist  that  his  least  merit  was 
his  artistic  genius ;  and  the  friends 
he  attracted  to  himself,  Luther, 
Melanchthon,  and  the  rest,  suggest 
the  attractiveness  of  his  personality 
and  the  extent  of  his  culture.  On 
the  whole,  Diirer  was  less  a  painter 
than  a  designer  :  his  colour  is  more 
truthful  to  the  model  than  original 
or  beautiful.  But  in  power  of  de- 
sign, in  nobleness  of  imagination, 
in  his  application  of  scientific 
theory  to  practice,  in  the  intro- 
spective quality  of  his  portraits, 
he  has  few,  if  any,  equals.  As  a 
copper-plate  engraver  he  is  su- 
preme ;  one  can  only  cite  the  Arms 
of  Death,  1503 ;  the  Adam  and 
Eve,  1504  ;  The  Great  Horse  and 
The  Little  Horse,  1505  ;  the  Knight, 
Death  and  the  Devil,  1513;  St. 
Jerome  in  his  Chamber,  1514  ;  and 
the  series  of  The  Passion,  not  to  be 
confused  with  the  woodcuts  of  The 


include  the  series  of  The  Apoca- 
lypse, 1497  ;  the  20  scenes  of  the 
Life  of  the  Virgin,  1511  ;  and  a 
number  illustrating  the  writings  of 
Maximilian  I.  Diirer  also  published 
Four  Books  on  Human  Proportion, 
1528.  SeeiEus.  pp.  1261, 1872, 1993. 

Biblioyraphy.  Life,  W.  B.  ScoU, 
1869  ;  Albrecht  Diirer,  his  Life  and 
Works,  M.  Thausing,  Eng.  trans,  ed. 
F.  A.  Eaton,  1882;  Literary  Re- 
mains of  A.  D.,  W.  M.  Conway, 
1889  ;  Versuch  einer  Diirer  Biblio- 
graphie,  H.  W.  Singer,  1903  ;  Die 
Kunst  Albrecht  Diirers,  H.  Wolfflin, 
1905  ;  Albrecht  Diirer,  Life  and  a 
selection  of  his  works,  F.  Ntichter. 
Ens.  trans.  L.  D.  Williams,  1911. 

Duress  (Lat.  duritia,  hardness). 
Term  used  in  English  law.  It  means 
compulsion  by  means  of  threats  or 
imprisonment.  The  court  will  not 
allow  anyone  to  retain  the  advant- 
age of  any  gift  or  contract  obtained 
by  duress. 

D'Urfey,  THOMAS  (1653-1723). 
English  dramatist  and  song  writer. 
Born  at  Exeter  of  Huguenot  an- 
cestry, he  soon  began  to  write.  His 
works  include  both  tragedies  and 
comedies,  but  the  latter,  which  in- 


clude The  Fond  Husband,  1676  ; 
Squire  Oldsapp,  1679 ;  and  Sir  Bur- 
naby  Whig,  1681,  were  the  most 
popular.  Like  other  dramatists  of 
his  time  he  was  attacked  by  Jeremy 
Collier  in  his  Short  View  of  the  Im- 
moraJity  of  the  English  Stage.  He 
was  also  a  prolific  writer  of  songs, 
of  which  two  series  were  published, 
entitled  New  Collection  of  Songs 
and  Poems,  1683  ;  and  Wit  and 
Mirth,  or  Pills  to  Purge  Melancholy, 
1719-20.  A  man  of  amicable 
character,  he  won  the  favour  suc- 
cessively of  Charles  I,  James  II, 
William  and  Mary,  and  Anne,  but 
latterly  his  vogue  as  a  dramatist 
declined,  and  he  died  in  poverty, 
Feb.  26,  1723.  See  A  Study  of  the 
Plays  of  Thomas  D'Urfey,  R.  S. 
Forsythe,  1916-17. 

Durham.  County  palatine  and 
N.E.  county  of  England.  With 
about  33  m.  of  coast  line,  its  area  is 
1,013  sq.  m.  Branches  of  the  Pen- 
nine Chain,  the  highest  summit  of 
which  is  Burnhope  Seat,  2,452  ft., 
enclose  a  series  of  fertile  valleys  in 
the  W.,  whence  the  surface  slopes 
away  to  the  E.  Immense  coal- 
measures  occupy  the  centre,  the 
annual  production  of  coal  being 


Albert  Ddrer. 


Examples  of  the  artist's  engraving.  Left,  the  Arms  of  Death, 
1503.      Right,  the  Great  Horse.  1505 


DURHAM 


Durham.     Map  of  the  coal-mining  county  of  north-eastern  England,  notable 
also  for  its  shipbuilding,  ironworks,  and  manufacturing  industries 

nearly  38,000,000  tons.  The  Wear, 
Tyne,  and  Tees,  all  navigable  in 
part,  are  the  chief  rivers,  and  in 
their  vicinity  and  the  valley  dis- 
tricts the  soil  is  arable  and  well 
cultivated.  In  addition  to  coal, 
large  quantities  of  lead,  iron,  lime- 
stone, millstone,  granite,  salt,  etc., 
are  obtained. 

Durham  is  noted  for  horses  and 
shorthorn  cattle,  and  sheep -rearing 
is  carried  on.  Its  manufactures 
are  important,  and  shipbuilding, 
sail-making,  and  the  production 
of  chemicals,  glass,  woollens  and 
earthenware  are  leading  branches  ; 
there  are  also  numerous  blast  fur- 
naces, iron  works,  and  machine 
shops.  The  N.E.  is  the  only  rly. 
serving  the  county. 

Durham  is  the  county  town,  and 
besides  the  large  shipping  ports  of 
Sunder  land, 


mouth  •  Richard  de  Bury,  author 
of  Philobiblon,  and  bishop  of  Dur- 
ham, died  at  Auckland  and  was 
buried  in  Durham  Cathedral.  At 
Stanhope,  in  Weardale,  Joseph 
Butler,  its  rector,  wrote  The  Ana- 
logy of  Religion.  Joseph  Ritson, 
the  antiquarian  writer,  was  born 
at  Stockton,  and  P:iizabeth  Barrett 
Browning  at  Coxhoe  Hall,  near 
Durham.  Scott's  Rokeby  has  much 
about  Barnard  Castle  and  the 
upper  Tees  valley. 

Bibliography.  The  County  Pala- 
tine of  Durham  :  a  Study  in  Con- 
stitutional History,  G.  T.  Lapsley, 
1900  ;  Victoria  Hist,  of  the  County 
of  Durham,  ed.  W.  Page,  1905-7  ; 
Hist,  and  Antiquities  of  the  County 
Palatine  of  Durham,  R.  Surtees 
(1816-40),  repr.  1908,  etc.  ;  Me- 
morials of  Old  Durham,  ed.  H.  R. 
Leighton,  1910  ;  Durham,  J.  E. 
Hodgkin,  1913. 

Durham.  City,  mun.  borough, 
and  county  town  of  Durham, 
England.  It  stands  on  the  Wear, 
287  m.  from  London,  and  has  a 


S  t  o  c  k  t  o  n-o  n- 
Tees,  Jarrow,  the 
Hartlepools,  and 
South  Shields, 
the  largest  towns 
are  Gateshead 
and  Darlington. 
Ten  members  are 
returned  to  Par- 
liament. Pop. 
1,478,506.  Dur- 
ham formed  part 
of  the  kingdom 
of  Noi  thumbria. 
The  regal  au- 
thority of  the 
Durham  was  finally 


Durham.      Sanc- 
tuary knocker  at 
the  cathedral 

bishops    of 
withdrawn  in  1836. 

LITERARY  ASSOCIATIONS.  These 
start  with  the  Benedictine  monas- 
tery at  Jarrow,  founded  by  Bene- 
dict Biscop,  but  its  greatest  name 
is  that  of  the  Venerable  Bede 
(q.v.),  who  was  born  near  Wear- 


Durham.     The  cathedral,  seen  from  across  the  River  Wear.     The  lancet  and 

perpendicular  work  of  the  two  western  towers,  and  that  of  the  central  tower, 

is  imposed  upon  the  original  Norman  architecture,  among  the  finest  of  its 

period  in  England 

Photochrom 


DURHAM 


2736 


DURHAM 


station  on  the  N.E.  Ely.  The 
older  part  of  the  city  is  on  and 
about  a  hill  round  which  the 
river  bends;  the  newer  parts  are 
on  the  other  side  of  this. 

The  glory  of  Durham  is  the  cathe- 
dral, and  near  it,  on  the  river  penin- 
sula, is  the  castle.  The  present 
cathedral,  which  replaced  an  older 
one,  was  begun  in  the  1 1th  century, 
and  much  of  it  is  Norman;  this 
includes  the  nave  and  the  restored 
chapter  house.  The  Galilee  chapel 
(q.v. )  is  a  notable  feature,  as  are  the 
central  tower  and  the  chapel  of  the 
nine  altars.  There  are  a  valuable 
library  and  some 
relics  of  S.  Cuth- 
bert.  The  cloisters 
and  other  parts 
of  the  monastic 
buildings  still 
exist.  The  first 
castle  was  built 
by  William  the 
Conqueror,  but 
little  of  this  re- 
mains. Much  of  the  present  build- 
ing, which  is  the  headquarters  of 
the  university,  is  old,  and  some 
portions  are  highly  interesting. 

Other  objects  of  interest  in  the 
city  are  some  of  the  churches  and 
the  bridges  across  the  Wear,  espe- 
cially Framwellgate,  of  the  14th 
century.  El  vet  Bridge,  leading  to 
the  suburb  of  Elvet,  is  also  old,  and 
on  it  are  still  a  few  houses.  The 
churches  include  S.  Margaret's,  S. 
Oswald's,  S.  Mary  le  Bow,  S.  Mary 
the  Less,  and  S.  Giles.  The  town 
hall  dates  from  the  16th  century. 
The  grammar  school  is  an  old 
foundation ;  its  present  house  dates 
from  1844.  At  Ushaw  is  the  Roman 
Catholic  college  of  S.  Cuthbert. 

The  city  lives  largely  on  the  busi- 
ness brought  by  the  presence  of  a 
cathedral,  a  university,  and  the 
county  headquarters.  It  has  some 
other  industries,  including  the 
manufacture  of  iron,  and  there  are 
many  coal  mines  in  the  neighbour- 
hood. It  has  been  a  chartered 
town  since  1179,  and  is  governed 
by  a  mayor  and  corporation.  It 
was  represented  in  Parliament 
by  two  members  from  1673  to 
1885.  The  number  was  reduced 
to  one  in  1885,  and  in  1918  the 
representation  was  merged  in  that 
of  the  county. 

The  city  owes  its  origin  to  the 
monks  of  Lindisfarne,  who,  looking  * 
for  a  place  of  safety,  considered 
this  to  be  such,  and  settled  here  in 
995  with  the  bones  of  S.  Cuthbert, 
A  church  was  built  which  became 
a  cathedral,  the  bishopric  being 
removed  hither  from  Lindisfarne. 
Market  day,  Sat.  Pop.  17,329. 

Durham,  UNIVERSITY  OF. 
Founded  in  1832,  its  constitution 
was  modified  in  1908,  when  it  was 


Durham 
University  arms 


divided  into  two 
parts,  one  at 
Durham  and  the 
other  at  New- 
castle. Origin- 
ally it  was  a 
Church  of  Eng- 
land society,  and 
the  Durham 
division  still  re- 
mains so,  its  col- 


leges being  mainly  occupied  with 
preparing  candidates  for  the  Angli- 
can ministry.  These  are  University 
College,  and  three  halls — Bishop 
Hatfield's,  S.  John's,  and  S.  Chad's 
— and  the  dean  and  chapter  of  Dur- 
ham are  the  governors.  There  is 
also  a  hostel  for  women  students, 
and  women  are  admitted  to  all  the 
courses  and  degrees  except  the 
theological.  The  Newcastle  divi- 
sion consists  of  Armstrong  College 
and  the  College  of  Medicine.  The 
former,  until  1904  called  Durham 
University  College,  was  founded  in 
1874  ;  the  latter  dates  from  1832, 
and  was  united  with  the  university 
in  1852. 

The  university  has  seven  facul- 
ties— arts,  letters,  theology,  law, 
medicine,  science,  and  commerce. 
Science  and  commerce  are  taught 
exclusively  at  Armstrong  College, 
which  also  grants  diplomas  in  en- 
gineering, naval  architecture,  agri- 
culture, and  mining.  It  has  land  at 
Chop  well  for  instruction  in  forestry, 
and  two  stations,  Code  Park  and 
Offerton  Hall,  for  agricultural  re- 
search, as  well  as  a  marine  bio- 
logical station  at  Cullercoats.  At 
Durham  residence  is  necessary  in 
order  to  qualify  for  a  degree,  but 
not  at  Newcastle.  Before  the  Great 
War  the  university  had  about  200 
students  at  Durham  and  about 
1,700,  day  and  evening,  at  New- 
castle. Codrington  College,  Bar- 
bados, is  affiliated  with  Durham. 

Durham.  City  of  North  Caro- 
lina, U.S.A.,  the  co.  seat  of  Dur- 
ham co.  It  is  26  m.  N.W.  of  Ra- 
leigh on  the  Southern  and  other 
rlys.  The  seat  of  Trinity  College, 
founded  1851,  it  has  schools  of  art 
and  music,  a  public  library,  and 
hospitals.  A  busy  centre  of  the 
tobacco  industry,  it  contains  also 
foundries,  cotton  mills,  and  a  fer- 
tiliser factory.  Incorporated  in 
1869,  it  became  a  city  30  years 
later.  Pop.  26,160. 

Durham,  EARL  OF.  British  title 
borne  since  1833  by  the  family  of 
Lambton.  The  Lambtons  had 
lands  in  Durham  as  early  as  the 
12th  century,  but  they  remained 
commoners  until  the  time  of  John 
George  Lambton,  who,  having 
made  a  reputation  as  a  statesman 
and  administrator,  was  made 
Baron  Durham  in  1828,  and  Vis- 
count Lambton  and  earl  of  Dur- 


After  Lawrence 


ham  in  1833.   His  grandson,  John 
George  (b.  1855),  who  became  the 
3rd  earl  in  1879,  is  a  K.G.  and  a 
patron   of   the    turf.        His   twin 
brother,  F.   W.  Lambton,  was  a 
Liberal  M.P.  from  1880-85,  and  a 
Unionist  M.P.  from  1900  to  1910  ; 
another  brother,  Hedworth,  who 
distinguished  himself  at  the  siege 
of  Ladysmith,  took  under  a  will 
the  name  of  Meux  (q.v.  ).  The  earl's 
seat  is  Lambton  Castle,  Durham. 
Durham,  JOHN  GEORGE  LAMB- 
TON,    IST  EARL  OF  (1792-1840). 
British  statesman.    Born  April  12, 
•  ______  _  .......  „_.,.       1792,  he   was 

'_^M^  1  the  son  of 
William  H. 
Lambton  of 
Lambton 
Castle,  Dur- 
h  a  m,  to 
whose  estate 
he  succeeded 
when  only  a 
child.  From 
Eton  he  en- 
tered  the 
army,  but  for- 

till 

sook  that  ser- 
vice for  politics,  becoming  an  M.P. 
for  the  county  of  Durham  in  1813. 
Prominent  among  the  Whigs,  to 
which  party  his  family  had  been 
long  attached,  he  advocated  parlia- 
mentary reform  and  other  changes. 
His  enthusiasm  as  a  reformer  earned 
for  him  the  name  of  Radical  Jack. 

In  1828  Lambton  was  made  a 
peer,  and  in  1830  he  entered  Grey's 
Cabinet  as  lord  privy  seal.  He  had 
a  large  share  in  drafting  the  Reform 
Bill  of  1832  and  in  the  negotiations 
that  preceded  its  passage  into  law. 
In  1833,  differing  from  several  of 
his  colleagues,  especially  Brougham, 
he  left  office,  but  still  held  a 
very  strong  position  in  the  country. 
For  two  years  he  was  ambassador 
at  St.  Petersburg  (1835-37),  and 
then  went  as  governor-general  to 
Canada,  after  the  rebellion  of  1837. 
It  is  with  his  work  there  that  his 
name  is  chiefly  associated.  He 
was  armed  with  unusual  powers, 
which  he  exercised  freely,  but  the 
result  was  hardly  satisfactory. 
Brougham  attacked  him  for  send- 
ing eight  rebels  to  Bermuda,  and 
Parliament  decided  that  the  step 
was  illegal.  Unsupported  by  the 
cabinet,  Durham  had  no  course  but 
to  resign.  He  defended  himself  in 
a  public  proclamation,  and  re- 
turned to  England. 

Durham  then  prepared  his 
famous  Report  on  the  Affairs  of 
British  North  America  (1839),  de- 
scribed as  "  one  of  the  greatest  state 
papers  in  the  English  language," 
and  certainly  one  of  the  most  in- 
fluential. Therein  he  advised  the 
union  of  the  two  Canadas,  re- 
sponsible government,  the  building 


DURHAM      LIGHT      INFANTRY 


2737 


DlJSSELDORF 


of  an  intercolonial  rly.  and  other 
liberal  measures  afterwards  ap- 
proved and  carried  out.  He  died 
at  Cowes,  July  28,  1840.  In  1833 
he  had  been  made  an  earl,  and  his 
successor  was  his  son,  George.  See 
Life  and  Letters,  S.  J.  Reid,  1906. 
Durham  Light  Infantry.  Brit- 
ish regiment,  of  which  the  two 
battalions  were  formerly  the  68th 
and  106th 
regiments  of 
light  infantry. 
The  former 
was  raised  in 
1756  as  a  2nd 
battalion  of 
the  23rd  regi- 
ment, becom- 
Durham  Light  Inf an- ing  in  1758 
try  Regiment  badge  a  separate 
corps  numbered  the  68th.  Organ- 
ized as  a  light  infantry  regiment  in 
1808,  it  was  called  the  1st  battalion 
Durham  Light  Infantry  in  1881. 
The  battalion  fought  in  the  West 
Indies  in  1761,  and  was  granted 
the  motto  "  Faithful "  for  its 
services  against  the  natives  in 
St.  Vincent.  It  took  part  in  the  ill- 
fated  Walcheren  expedition  (1809), 
in  the  Spanish  campaign  of  1 811,  in 
which  it  earned  distinction  at 
Salamanca  and  Vittoria,  and  in  the 
Crimean  War  it  fought,  at  Alma  and 
Inkerman. 

The  2nd  battalion,  raised  in 
1826,  served  in  the  Mahratta  War, 
1844,  and  the  Persian  War  (1856). 
Other  important  services  include 
the  Maori  campaign,  the  Egyptian 
War,  1885,  and  the  South  African 
War  (Colenso,  Spion  Kop,  Pieter's 
Hill).  During  the  Great  War  the 
1st  battalion  remained  in  India 
in  1914,  and  the  2nd  arrived 
hi  France  while  the  battle  of 
the  Aisne  was  in  progress,  Sept., 

1914.  The  8th  Durhams  formed 
part    of    a    division    of    northern 
Territorials,  and  were  present  at 
the  second  battle  of  Ypres,  April, 

1915.  Some  Durhams  waged  an- 
other desperate  fight  around  the 
Butte  of  Warlencourt  in  Oct.,  1916, 
where  a  memorial  has  been  erected 
to   their    honour;    and   Durhams 
formed   part  of   the   force   which 
made  a  gallant  stand  to  save  Mer- 
ville  in  April,  1918.     The  depot  i* 
at  Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

Durian  (Durio  zibethinus) 
Large  evergreen  tree  of  the  natural 
order  Malvaceae.  It  is  a  native  of 
Malaya  and  the  Indian  Archipelago. 
The  prickly  fruit,  as  large  as  a 
man's  head,  is  greatly  esteemed  by 
the  Malays  and  Chinese,  but  for 
Europeans  it  is  an  acquired  taste. 
At  the  right  point  of  ripeness  it  is 
a  sort  of  vegetable  custard,  and 
equal  to  the  finest  of  nectarines 
and  pears.  But  it  has  an  indescrib- 
able odour  which  fills  many  with 


disgust,  though  its  flavour  is  most 
tempting  to  the  palate. 

Durra.  Name  for  the  seeds  of 
Indian  millet  (q.v. )  or  Guinea  corn. 
Dursley.  Parish  and  market 
town  of  Gloucestershire,  England. 
It  is  15  m.  S.S.W.  of  Gloucester  by 
the  Mid.  Rly.,  at  the  foot  of  the 
scarp  of  the  Cotswolds.  Cycles  are 
manufactured  and  bath-stone  is 
quarried.  Pop.  2,601. 

Duruy,  JEAN  VICTOR  (181 1-94). 
French  historian  and  academician. 
Born  in  Paris,  Sept.  11,  1811,  he 
became  successively  master  at  the 
Ecole  Norm  ale  and  professor  at  the 
Ecole  Poly  technique.  In  1863-69 
he  was  minister  of  public  instruc- 
tion. His  works  include  histories  of 
France  and  Greece  and  a  monu- 
mental Histoire  des  Remains, 
7  vols.,  1879-85.  He  died  Nov.  25, 
1894.  See  Life  (in  French),  E. 
Lavisse,  1895. 

D'Urville  Sea.  Portion  of  the 
Antarctic  Ocean.  It  lies  off  Ad61ie 
Land,  on  the  Antarctic  Circle  of 
Mertz  Glacier,  and  contains  Com- 
monwealth Bay.  It  was  named 
after  the  French  explorer,  Dumont 
d'Urville  (1790-1842),  by  the 
Mawson  Antarctic  Expedition, 
1911-14. 

Dury.  Village  of  France.  It  is 
on  the  Arras-Cambrai  road  in  dept. 
of  Pas-de-Calais,  about  midway 
between  Drocourt  and  Qu6ant. 
The  village  and  hill  commanding 
the  Arras-Cambrai  road  were  cap- 
tured by  Canadians,  Sept.  2,  1918. 
There  is  another  village  of  this 
name  about  If  m.  S.  of  Amiens,  in 
the  dept.  of  Somme.  See  Arras, 
Fifth  Battle  of. 

Duse,  ELEONORA  (1859-1924). 
Italian  actress,  born  near  Venice, 
Oct.  3. 1 859.  Her  parents  belonged 
to  a  travelling 
company. 
From  the  age 
1  of  four,  when 
I  she  appeared 
1  in  Les  Mise"r- 
I  ables ,  she 
I  played  in  vari- 
*"  ous  juvenile 
parts.  Her  first 
success  came 
at  Turin,  1 879, 
and  in  1882 
she  was  a  lead- 
ing player  in 
Rossi's  c  o  m- 
pany,  winning 
Leonora  Duse,  at  Florence 
Italian  actress  further  success 
as  Frou-Frou.  As  Marguerite  Gau- 
tier  in  La  Dame  aux  Camelias  at 
Rome,  1883,  she  was  recognized  as 
one  of  the  greatest  living  actresses, 
a  reputation  confirmed  by  her  sub- 
sequent performances  at  Vienna 
and  Berlin,  London,  and  New 
York.  Her  finest  impersonations 


included  Magda,  La  Tosca,  San- 
tuzza  in  Cavalleria  Rusticana, 
Mirandolina  in  La  Locandiera, 
Paula  in  The  Second  Mrs.  Tan- 
queray,  Nora  in  A  Doll's  House, 
and  heroines  in  D'Annunzio's 
dramas.  She  died  April  21.  1924 
Dusius.  Demon  among  the  an- 
cient Gauls  mentioned  by  S.  Augus- 
tine. It  was  suggested  by  John 
Brand  ( 1744-1806),  in  his  Observa- 
tions on  Popular  Antiquities,  that 
the  exclamation,  Deuce,  commonly 
accepted  as  signifying  the  devil,  is 
really  derived  from  the  name  of 
this  Dusius.  See  Demonology. 

Dussek,  JOHANN  LADISLATJS 
(1761-1812).  Bohemian  pianist 
and  composer.  Born  at  Czaslau, 
Feb.  9,  1761,  the  son  of  a  musician, 
he  studied  music  at  Iglau  and 
Prague  and  gained  a  great  repu- 
tation as  pianist,  composer,  and 
teacher.  He  was  successively  or- 
ganist at  Mechlin,  Bergen-op-Zoom, 
and  Amsterdam.  After  1786  he 
was  a  fashionable  pianist  and 
teacher  in  Paris,  and  from  1790  to 
1800  in  London,  which  he  left  to 
avoid  his  creditors.  He  was  after- 
wards in  the  suite  of  a  Prussian 
prince  and  later  in  that  of  Talley- 
rand. He  died  March  20,1812.  The 
playing  of  Dussek  was  distin- 
guished by  its  beauty  of  tone,  and 
he  was  a  prolific  composer  of  piano 
music.  Pron.  Dooshek. 

Diisseldorf .  City  and  district  of 
Germany,  in  the  Rhine  prov.     It 
stands  in  the  centre  of  a  plain,  at  the 
confluence  of  the 
Rhine  and  Diis- 
selbach,    at    the 
junction   of  sev- 
eral rlys.,  24  m. 
by  rly.  N.W.  of 
Cologne.  A  prom- 
enade     between 
the    fine    Rhine 
bridge  (1896-98) 
and  the  harbour 
1902.      The 


Diisseldorf  arms 


was  completed  in 
narrow,  irregular  streets  of  the  old 
town,  which  is  separated  from  the 
new  by  the  broad  AUeestrasse, 
with  statues  of  Wilhelm  I,  Bis- 
marck, and  Moltke,  contrast  with 
the  open  and  picturesque  aspect  of 
the  new,  with  its  broad  and  tree- 
lined  avenues  and  squares.  The 
old  electoral  palace,  once  the  home 
of  the  Academy  of  Art,  was  almost 
destroyed  by  fire  hi  1872.  The 
Gothic-Renaissance  Rathaus,  1570 
-7  3,  was  extended  ua  1 885.  In  front 
of  it  is  Grupello's  bronze  eques- 
trian statue  of  the  elector  Johann 
Wilhelm,  erected  1711.  Notable 
among  the  37  churches,  two-thirds 
of  which  are  Roman  Catholic,  are 
S.  Lambert,  14th  century  Gothic  ; 
S.  Andrew,  1629,  once  the  church  of 
the  court  and  of  the  Jesuits  ;  and 
S.  Roche.  The  Hofgarten,  1769, 

D     4 


2738 


DUSUN 


Diisseldorf. 


The  town  seen  from  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  where  it  is 
spanned  by  the  bridge  built  in  1896-98 


extended  1804-13,  whose  Castle 
Court  was  immortalised  by  Heine, 
is  one  of  several  delightful  pleasure 
grounds;  another  is  the  Kaiser 
Wilhelm  Park. 

There  are  many  educational  in- 
stitutions, industrial  and  historical 
museums,  a  public  library,  a  munici- 
pal theatre,  palace  of  justice,  post 
office,  banks,  hospitals,  and  a  ceme- 
tery. The  Academy  of  Art,  a 
famous  school  of  genre  painters, 
founded  by  the  elector  Charles 
Theodore,  1767,  is  housed  in  a 
Renaissance  building,  1879,  with 
lecture  hall.  The  greater  part  of 
the  collection  of  old  masters  in 
the  origina1  picture  gallery,  founded 
by  the  elector  Johann  Wilhelm, 
was  removed  to  Munich  in  1805. 
The  Diisseldorf  art  school  flourished 
1820-40  under  Peter  Cornelius  and 
W.  Schadow.  The  Kunsthalle  or 
municipal  art  gallery,  1881,  en- 
larged 1902,  with  frescoed  stair- 
case, is  devoted  to  modern  work. 
Of  recent  years  Diisseldorf  has  de- 
veloped large  iron,  textile,  brewing, 
distilling,  printing,  dyeing,  and 
other  industries,  and  has  become 
an  important  banking  centre.  Gas, 
waterworks,  tramways,  and  electric 
plant  belong  to  the  municipality. 
"*  First  mentioned  in  1159,  Diissel- 
dorf  received  municipal  rights  in 
1288.  Early  in  the  16th  century  it 
was  the  residence  of  the  dukes  of 
Berg,  and  from  1609-1716  that  of 
the  princes  palatine.  In  1795  it 
became  French  and  in  1815  was 
annexed  to  Prussia.  It  was  in  the 
neutral  zone  after  the  Great  War. 
In  the  town  were  born  the  painters 
Cornelius  and  Schadow,  the  philo- 
sopher Friedrich  H.  Jacobi,  and 
the  poet  Heine.  Pop.  360,000. 

Dust.  Fine  dry  particles  of 
matter.  Dust  is  of  great  import- 
ance, a  fact  which,  however,  has 
only  been  fully  recognized  within 
recent  years.  Without  the  presence 
of  dust  in  the  atmosphere,  for  ex- 
ample, there  would  be  no  cloud 
formations.  John  Aitken  showed 
(1880)  that  the  particles  of  dust 
in  the  atmosphere  act  as  centres  of 


condensation  for  the  formation  of 
rain  drops.  Without  dust  the 
atmosphere  would  reach  a  higher 
state  of  saturation  than  now  holds, 
resulting  in  the  condensation  of 
watei*on  buildings,  trees,  etc.,  and 
on  the  clothing,  as  in  mists. 

Atmospheric  dust  particles  are 
so  small  that  the  microscope  has 
failed  to  distinguish  many  of  them, 
and  Aitken  invented  an  instru- 
ment, known  as  the  dust  counter, 
for  estimating  the  amount  of  dust 
in  a  given  volume  of  air.  Large  cities 
show  a  heavy  amount  compared 
with  country  districts,  while  the 
air  of  mountain  districts  is  freest 
from  dust,  particularly  the  High- 
lands of  Scotland.  But  on  Ben 
Nevis  over  14,000  particles  of  dust 
per  cubic  centimetre  have  been 
recorded,  and  over  a  quarter  of  a 
million  in  big  cities. 

Volcanic  dust  is  composed  of 
minute  mineral  fragments  ejected 
during  volcanic  eruptions.  Some- 
times called  ash,  it  comprises  the 
pulverised  forms  both  of  lava  and 
of  sedimentary  rock  dislodged  from 
vent- walls.  The  distance  from  the 
originating  centre  at  which  any 
particle  settles  on  land  or  sea  is 
determined  by  the  relation  of  its 
mass  and  maximum  elevation  to 
the  force  and  duration  of  the  wind. 

Dust  from  the  great  Iceland 
eruption  of  1783  destroyed  the 
crops  in  Caithness,  Scotland.  After 
the  eruption  of  Soufriere,  St.  Vin- 
cent, in  1812,  3,000,000  tons  of 
"  May  dust  "  fell  100  m.  away  on 
Barbados.  The  Tomboro  eruption 
in  Sumbawa,  1815,  distributed  50 
cubic  m.  of  material — 185  times 
the  mass  of  Vesuvius — over 
1,000,000  sq.  m.  The  most  impal- 
pable particles  may  float  in  the 
upper  air  for  long  periods,  being 
indeed  a  predominant  source  of 
atmospheric  dust  everywhere.  At 
Krakatoa,  Malay  archipelago,  Aug. 
26-27,1883,  the  dust-column,  rising 
to  30  m.,  caused  darkness  for  150 
m.  around.  Some  of  it  completed 
the  circuit  of  the  earth  in  15  days, 
and  remained  floating  at  high  ele- 


vations for  three  years  in  a  belt 
between  60°  N.  and  10°  S.,  pro- 
ducing remarkable  sunsets  seen  in 
all  parts  of  the  world. 

Vast  areas  in  Nebraska  and  Kan- 
sas, U.S.A.,  are  covered  with  an- 
cient volcanic  dust  up  to  30  ft. 
thick.  When  such  deposits,  formed 
in  geological  time,  are  subsequent!}* 
consolidated,  they  are  called  tuffs. 
Submarine  eruptions  are  attended 
by  similar  phenomena,  producing 
volcanic  muds. 

The  inhaling  of  dust  is  respon- 
sible for  chronic  disease  of  the  lungs 
and  air  passages,  increasing  suscep- 
tibility to  tuberculosis.  Those 
most  frequently  affected  are  miners, 
quarrymen,  earthenware  and  pot- 
tery manufacturers,  cutlers,  file 
makers,  etc.  The  evil  is  reduced  to 
a  minimum  by  efficient  ventilation, 
the  use  of  hoods  which  prevent  the 
dust  from  rising  to  the  worker, 
or  outlet  shafts  which  draw  it  away 
as  formed.  In  some  processes  it  is 
possible  to  keep  the  dust  down  by 
sprinkling  with  water. 

Dust-Storin.  Wind-current  of 
great  velocity,  laden  with  minute 
solid  particles.  The  distance  to 
which  dust  derived  from  the  desic- 
cated surface  of  exposed  soil  is 
transported  is  determined  by  the 
force  and  duration  of  the  wind 
The  local  air-eddies  which  raise 
"  March  dust  "  are  dust-storms  in 
miniature.  They  especially  char- 
acterise the  dry  desert-winds  of 
wide,  arid  regions.  The  result  of 
dust-laden  wind-drift  long  con- 
tinued is  seen  in  such  deposits  as 
the  clayey  loess,  sometimes  2,000 
ft.  thick,  of  N.  China. 

In  central  Asia  the  noonday  sun 
is  often  obscured  by  fine,  yellow 
loess-dust.  On  April  2,  1892,  a 
dust-cloud,  mostly  of  loess  felspar, 
covered  2,000  m.,  and  was  driven 
400  m.  out  into  the  China  Sea.  The 
Sahara  is  another  potent  breeding 
ground  of  dust-storms,  called  in 
Egypt  the  khamsin,  hi  the  Mediter- 
ranean the  sirocco,  in  Madeira 
the  leste,  in  Guinea  the  harmattan, 
in  W.  Asia  the  simoom.  It  causes 
dry,  red  fogs  off  the  W.  African 
coast ;  when  rain  falls  through 
them,  so-called  blood-rain  results. 
A  storm  of  March  9-12, 1901,  trans- 
ported 1,800,000  tons  of  fine 
Saharan  dust  across  Europe  to- 
wards Russia. 

Dusun.  Primitive  people  of 
Indonesian  stock  living  in  N. 
Borneo.  Estimated  (1911)  at 
88,000,  they  form  an  important 
part  of  the  Murut  group.  They 
have  absorbed  an  immigrant 
Chinese  strain,  and  adopted  buffalo 
drawn  ploughs  and  systematic  irri- 
gation. Tall,  slender,  long-headed, 
they  are  darker  than  the  land  Dyak 
of  the  Klemantan  group. 


DUTCH  ART 


2739 


DUTCH  ART 


DUTCH  ART:  SURVEY  AND  APPRECIATION 

C.  Lewis  Hind,  Author  of  Lives  of  Rembrandt,  Velasquez,  etc. 

The  art  of  most  of  the  countries  of  the  world  is  described  under  the 

country,  e.g.  France ;  Germany ;    Italy ;  but  this  is  an  exception. 

Further  information  is  given  in  the  biographies  of  the  great  masters, 

Hals  and  others.      See  also  Art ;  Greece:  Art ;  Rome:  Art,  etc. 


In  the  15th  and  16th  centuries  a 
few  great  painters  arose  in  the 
Netherlands,  who  are  ranked  to-day 
with  some  of  the  best  Italian 
masters.  The  pre-eminence  of  such 
early  Netherlandish  artists  as  Dirk 
Bouts,  Gerard  of  Haarlem,  and 
"  Peasant  "  Brueghel  is  unques- 
tioned ;  but  it  is  not  easy  to  say 
which  of  these  masters  are  Hol- 
landers and  which  are  Flemings. 
The  modern  kingdom  of  Holland, 
as  a  monarchical  state,  dates  from 
1814,  and  by  then  the  flowering 
time  of  Dutch  art  was  over. 

The  great  period  began  with  the 
17th  century,  and  extended  through 
it,  masters  following  one  another 
in  bewildering  profusion.  Not  all 
were  great  painters,  but  the  ma- 
|  jority  were  extremely  competent 
craftsmen,  and  were  quite  content 
to  practise  their  art  modestly,  and 
for  small  remuneration.  No  Dutch 
painter  fraternised  with  princes,  as 
Titian,  Raphael,  and  Leonardo  did. 
Hobbema,  whose  A  venue  at  Middle- 
harnis  is  in  the  National  Gallery, 
London,  was  the  last  of  the  Dutch 
17th  century  masters,  and,  like 
many  of  the  others,  he  died  a 
pauper. 

The  18th  century  did  not  pro- 
duce one  Dutch  painter  of  emi- 
nence ;  but  in  the  19th  the  genius 
of  Holland  again  flowered  forth. 
In  Jacob  Maris  (1837-99)  land- 
scape painti  ig  reached  a  height  of 
sensitiveness  and  beauty  that  has 
never  been  excelled.  Holland  has 
rightly  been  called  Landscape  Land, 
and  no  one  has  interpreted  the 
pearly  light  and  moist  atmosphere 
better  than  Jacob  Maris. 

The  Star  of  Fians  Hals 

In  the  history  of  art  certain 
nations  have  taken  the  lead  in  turn. 
|  Italy  was  the  pioneer,  and  her  great 
masters  are  still  unapproachable  ; 
but  when  the  star  of  Frans  Hals, 
the  first  great  light  of  that  wonder- 
ful 17th  century  in  Holland,  rose, 
Italian  art  had  quite  spent  itself. 
Raphael  had  been  dead  60  years 
when  Frans  Hals  was  born  in  1580. 

Dutch  art  derived  nothing  from 
Italy.  The  materials  of  painting 
were  similar,  but  the  outlook  was 
entirely  different.  In  Italy  art  was 
the  handmaid  of  the  church  and 
of  the  wealthy  noble.  In  Holland 
art  served  the  people,  and  min- 
istered to  the  pride  of  the  bour- 
geois in  his  country,  his  houses  and 
possessions.  Art  was  a  family 
affair.  The  homely  Dutchman 
painted  his  home,  was  quite  in- 


different to  ideal  subjects ;  he 
never  attempted  mythological, 
heroic,  or  religious  themes.  Dirk 
Bouts,  Gerard  of  Haarlem,  and 
Gerard  David  in  the  15th  century 
had  painted  religious  pictures  ;  but 
in  the  17th  hardly  a  Dutch  painter 
ever  thought  of  choosing  a  religious 
subject.  Rembrandt  was  the  excep- 
tion, but  his  pictures  dealing  with 
sacred  themes  were  spiritual  rather 
than  religious.  Such  masterpieces  as 
S.  Matthew  Inspired  by  an  Angel, 
and  The  Pilgrims  at  Emmaus,  were 
painted  from  his  heart.  They 
taught  no  dogma.  They  were  the 
personal  expression  of  his  spiritual 
emotion,  not,  as  in  Italy,  a  state- 
ment commissioned  by  the  Church. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  his  etch- 
ings and  drawings  of  religious 
subjects. 

Dutch  National  Spirit 
Holland  produced  an  everyday 
homely  art,  which  attained,  at  its 
best,  such  exquisite  craftsmanship 
that,  in  their  particular  metier 
these  Dutch  pictures  are  un- 
rivalled. There  was  good  reason 
for  this  love  of  country,  and  the 
Dutchman's  desire  to  laud  it  in 
pictures.  This  unpretentious 
patriotism  began  when  the  dis- 
astrous war  with  Spain  ended  with 
the  truce  of  1609,  and  the  dogged, 
strenuous  citizens  had  time  and 
opportunity  to  realize  their  aspira- 
tions after  a  national  life.  As 
their  churches  were  plain  and  un- 
adorned, they  lavished  their  pas- 
sion for  beautiful  things  upon  their 
homes,  which  was  followed  by  a 
desire  to  have  pictures  of  those 
prosperous  interiors  ;  so  arose  the 
genre  or  home  picture.  With  the 
demand  came  the  supply  from  such 
masters  as  Vermeer  of  Delft,  Ter- 
burg,  de  Hoogh,  Metsu,  Jan  Steen,, 
and  numerous  lesser  masters. 
These  home  pictures  ranged  from 
such  exquisite  performances, where- 
in light  is  the  principal  subject  of 
the  picture,  as  Vermeer' s  Young 
Lady  at  a  Spinet,  and  de  Hoogh' s 
Courtyard  of  a  Dutch  House,  to 
the  village  inn  scenes  of  Jan  Steen 
and  Brouwer,  coarse  according  to 
our  standards.  But  Jan  Steen 
(1626-79)  could  also  paint  beau- 
tiful and  restrained  interiors,  as 
in  his  Grace  before  Meat  in  the 
National  Gallery,  London,  and  his 
Sick  Girl  at  Amsterdam. 

The  burghers  in  their  fine  clothes 
also  desired  portraits  of  them- 
selves, and  of  their  wives  und 
children.  The  Civic  Guards  and 


Companies  of  Archers  were  equally 
eager  to  be  commemorated ;  so 
arose  the  doelen  pictures,  groups  of 
men  banqueting,  or  in  conclave, 
which  may  be  seen  in  profusion  in 
the  Ryks  Museum  at  Amsterdam. 
Rembrandt  was  among  those  who 
were  commissioned  to  paint  doelen 
pictures,  and  they  were  the  initial 
cause  of  his  financial  disaster.  His 
patrons  wanted  likenesses  of  them- 
selves. He  gave  them  a  work  of 
art.  So  disputes  arose,  then  the  cold 
shoulder,  and  Rembrandt,  with- 
drawing more  and  more  into  himself, 
became  Rembrandt  the  great  artist. 
There  was  the  beautiful,  placid 
country  which  the  Dutchman  had 
wrested  with  such  labour  from  the 
sea,  and  from  the  heel  of  the  con- 
queror. That  also  had  to  be  por- 
trayed ;  hence  arose  the  school  of 
Dutch  landscape  painters  of  which 
the  chief  masters  were  Jacob  Ruis- 
dael,  Cuyp,  and  Hobbema. 

Among  this  galaxy  of  17th 
century  painters  four  stand  out 
pre-eminent — Rembrandt  (1607- 
69),  the  greatest  artist  in  paint 
the  world  has  known  ;  Frans  Hals 
(1580-1666),  whose  portraits  and 
doelen  pictures  have  a  vivacity  and 
mastery  of  technique  which  places 
him  in  a  class  by  himself  ;  Jacob 
Ruisdael  (1625-82),  the  most  pro- 
found of  Dutch  landscape  paint- 
ers ;  and  Vermeer  of  Delft  (1632- 
75),  who,  as  a  painter  of  the  subtle- 
ties of  light  in  portraiture,  genre, 
and  landscape,  ranks  among  the 
greatest  craftsmen  of  the  world. 

Frans  Hals,  the  first  purely 
Dutch  painter  of  eminence,  is  not 
adequately  represented  in  the  Na- 
tional Gallery  of  London ;  a  jour- 
ney to  Haarlem  is  necessary  to  see 
him  in  his  full  power.  His  last 
works,  painted  when  he  was  an  old 
man,  have  a  depth  of  vision  and  a 
fluency  of  technique  that  are  more 
astonishing  each  time  they  are  seen. 

Atmosphere  and  Landscape 
The  name  of  Hercules  Segers  has 
lately  come  into  prominence,  due 
mainly  to  the  researches  of  Dr. 
Bode,  of  Berlin.  He  was  a  leader  in 
landscape  painting  ;  he  originated 
the  "  bird's-eye  view,"  and  Rem- 
brandt, who  missed  nothing,  learnt 
from  Segers,  and  acquired  his  pic- 
tures. Van  Goyen  was  an  early 
tone  painter.  Timidly  but  tenaci- 
ously he  introduced  atmosphere 
into  landscape.  Ter burg  (1617-81) 
is  represented  in  the  National 
Gallery,  London,  by  his  beautiful 
Guitar  Lesson,  and  by  his  wonder- 
ful little  representation  of  The 
Peace  of  Munster.  Cuyp  (1620-91) 
has  won  the  heart  of  the  world  by 
the  golden  glow  of  his  landscapes. 
The  skies  of  J.  Van  de  Capelle  (c. 
1624-79)  (see  the  pair  of  Capelles 
in  the  National  Gallery,  London) 


DUTCH  ART 


2740 


DUTCH  ART 


Dutch  Art.    The  Laughing  Cavalier,  one  cf  the 
Hals  (1580-1666) 

Wallace  Collection 


known  works  of  Frans 


are  the  despair  of  many  modern 
artists.  Paul  Potter  (1625-54)  is 
famous  for  one  of  his  lesser  impor- 
tant pictures,  The  Bull.  Jacob 
Ruisdael  shows  such  a  magisterial 
feeling  in  his  work  that  one  can 
look  at  almost  any  one  of  his  land- 
scapes and  say  "a  masterpiece." 
The  same  can  be  said  of  Vermeer 
of  Delft.  Two  of  his  pictures  may 
be  mentioned — the  portrait  of  an 
Artist  at  Work,  supposed  to  be 
himself,  in  the  Czernin  collection  at 
Vienna,  and  his  View  of  Delft  in  the 
Hague  Museum.  With  Hobbema 
(1638-1709)  we  reach  the  end  of 
the  17th  century  galaxy  of  stars  in 
the  Dutch  firmament. 

In  the  18th  century  Dutch  art 
merely  glimmers.  We  are  grateful 
for  the  flowers  and  fruits  of  Van 
Huysman  and  Van  Os.  The  epi- 
taph of  Paul  La  Fargue,  and  of 
18th  century  Holland,  is  written 
in  a  sentence :  "  Paul  La  Fargue 
copied  the  older  Dutchmen." 

In  the  19th  century  a  new  life 
sprang  from  the  soil  with  Bos  boom 
(1817-91),  and  with  Jongkind, 
who  has  been  aptly  described  as 


the  link  between  Romanticism  and 
Impressionism.  J.  H.  Weisen- 
bruch,  true  to  the  traditions  of 
Landscape  Land,  painted  the 
moist  air  and  the  veiled  sunlight 
with  the  lightest  of  hands.  The 


sad  and  weary  art  of  Israels  (1824- 
1911)  is  sometimes  significant ;  but 
he  fumbled  overmuch.  Mesdag 
(1831-1915)  was  greater  as  a  con- 
noisseur and  influence  than  as  a 
painter.  Mauve  had  a  frank,  fresh, 
and  delicate  talent ;  but  the  three 
chief  figures  in  modern  Dutch  art 
are  the  brothers  Maris — Jacob 
(1837-99),  Matthew  (1839-1917), 
and  William  (1843-1910).  For 
pearly  light,  and  fresh  colour,  the 
landscapes  of  Jacob  Maris  have 
never  been  excelled,  and  Matthew 
Maris  is  one  of  the  very  few  mod- 
ern artists  who  deserve  the  title 
of  mystical  painter.  Bloomers, 
Breitner,  and  Bauer  have  all  won 
European  reputation  ;  but  their 
reputation  pales  beside  that  of 
Vincent  van  Gogh,  who  died  in 
1906.  During  the  last  decade  Van 
Gogh  has  been  more  discussed, 
with  approbation  and  disapproba- 
tion, than  any  other  painter.  He 
and  the  Frenchmen,  Cezanne  and 
Gauguin,  have  been  docketed  as 
leaders  of  the  Post-Impressionist 
movement,  and  certainly  the  work 
of  Van  Gogh  has  been  a  great  in- 
fluence among  the  young  painters 
of  the  20th  century.  Lastly,  men- 
tion must  be  made  of  Louis  Rae- 
maekers  (b.  1869),  whose  war  car- 
toons, in  fertility  of  invention  and 
in  range  of  satire,  have  been  the 
chief  pictorial  commentary  on  the 
Great  War.  There  must  be  great 
vitality  and  an  astonishing  power 
to  meet  new  conditions  in  a  coun- 
try which,  in  the  17th  century,  can 
produce  a  Vermeer  of  Delft  and  a 
Pieter  de  Hoogh,  and  in  the  20th 
a  Vincent  van  Gogh  and  a  Louis 
Raemaekers. 

Bibliography.  Frans  Hals,  G.  S- 
Davies,  1904  ;  The  National  Gallery, 
G.  Geffroy,  1904;  The  Complete 
Work  of  Rembrandt,  W.  von  Bode 
and  C.  H.  de  Groot,  Eng.  trans.  F. 


Dutch  Art.     One  of  Rembrandt's  masterpieces,  The  Syndics  of  the  Guild  of 
Clothmakers,  painted  1662 

Ryki  Museum,  Amsterdam 


DUTCH     AUCTION 


2741 


DUTCH     CHURCH 


Simmonds,  1897-1906  ;  Vermeer  de 
Delft,  G.  Van^ype,  1808  (in  French)  ; 
Great  Masters  of  Dutch  and  Flemish 
Painting,  W.  von  Bode,  Eng.  trans. 
M.  L.  Clarke,  1909  ;  Hist,  of  Paint- 
ing, Haldane  Macfall,  vol.  v,  1911. 

Dutch  Auction.  Auction  at 
which  the  property  is  offered  at  a 
price  higher  than  the  seller  will 
accept.  The  price  is  lowered  until  a 
purchaser  bids,  when  the  lot  is  at 
once  knocked  down,  or  sold,  to  him 
at  the  sum  last  mentioned  by  the 
salesman.  See  Auctioneering. 

Dutch  Church,  THE.  Name 
given  to  the  predominant  Protes- 
tant Church  in  Holland.  Holland 
was  the  first  country  in  Europe  to 
accept  the  principle  of  toleration 
for  all  forms  of  religion,  and  to  sub- 
sidise out  of  the  state  funds  all 
religious  denominations  willing  to 
accept  its  bounty.  At  the  time  of 
the  Reformation,  Protestantism 
assumed  the  form  of  what  is  known 
to-day  as  The  Reformed  Church. 
From  1648  to  1795  it  was  recognized 
as  the  state  church  of  Holland. 

After  the  Revolution  all  churches 
received  equal  recognition,  but  the 
Reformed  Church  never  lost  its 
prestige  and  is  still  recognized  as 


Dutch  Art.     The  Anxious  Family,  by  Josef  Israels  (1824-1911),  a  good  example 
of  the  domestic  spirit  in  the  modern  Dutch  school  of  painting 

From  a  private  collection 


the  Confession  of  Faith  of  the  Synod 
of  Dort,  1619. 

The    Dutch  Church   has   about 


Dutch  Art.    The  Port  of  Amsterdam,  by  Jacob  Maris  (1837-99).  The  picture's 
soft,  warm  colouring  is  characteristic  of  his  work 

National  Collection,  The  Hague 


the  predominant  Protestant  church 
of  Holland.  The  constitution  of  the 
Dutch  Church  is  based  on  the  Pres- 
byterian model.  Each  local  con- 
gregation is  governed  by  a  consis- 
tory composed  of  deacons  and 
elders.  .The  local  churches  are 
grouped  into  148  circuits  and  44 
classes  or  presbyteries.  From  these 
10  provincial  synods  are  formed, 
and  in  addition  there  is  a  general 
synod  representing  the  whole 
country  composed  of  19  members, 
which  acts  as  a  final  court  of 
appeal.  The  theology  of  the 
Dutch  Church  has  always  been 
Calvinistic,  and  its  credal  basis  is 


two  million  members  in  Holland 
itself,  and  its  influence  in  the  Dutch 
colonies  and  in  South  Africa  is  very 
extensive.  At  different  periods  in 
its  history  there  have  been  schis- 
matic movements  formed  to  em- 
phasise some  principle  of  theology 
or  Church  government  which  had 
seemed  to  fall  into  neglect.  Thus 
the  Christian  Reformed  Church 
was  started  in  the  third  decade  of 
the  19th  century  to  protest  against 
the  growing  laxity  in  the  treatment 
of  the  creed. 

DUTCH  REFORMED  CHUEOH. 
Name  given  to  the  particular  form  of 
the  Dutch  Church  which  has  taken 


root  in  America.  The  earliest  Dutch 
settlers  in  America  carried  with 
them  the  religious  principles  of  the 
Reformed  Church  which  had  been 
founded  in  Holland  after  the  Refor- 
mation, and  a  church  was  organized 
in  1628,  gradually  strengthened  by 
the  stream  of  immigrants. 

The  church  was  at  first  supplied 
with  ministers  from  Holland,  and 
was  regarded  as  forming  part  of  the 
Presbytery  of  Amsterdam.  In  the 
following  century,  however,  the 
American  Church  sought  and  with 
some  difficulty  obtained  its  inde- 
pendence and  its  right  to  educate 
and  ordain  its  own  ministry.  Some 
secessions  took  place  as  the  result 
of  the  new  policy,  but  the  breach 
was  subsequently  healed,  and  in 
1812  a  constitution  was  adopted 
which  still  remains  in  force.  In 
its  polity  the  American  Church 
adopted  the  Presbyterian  mode  of 
Church  government  used  in  the 
mother  church  in  Holland  (with 
some  minor  modifications),  with  its 
consistory  for  the  local  church,  its 
pres  by tery  or  classis  for  the  district, 
and  its  synod  for  the  province.  The 
doctrinal  basis  of  the  church  is 
strongly  conservative  and  Calvin- 
istic, being  based  on  no  less  than  five 
creeds  :  the  Apostles',  the  Nicene, 
the  Quicunque  Vult,  the  Belgic  Con- 
fession (1561),  and  the  canons  of 
Dort  (1618-19).  The  Heidelberg 
Catechism  (1560)  is  used  as  a 
manual  of  doctrine,  and  acceptance 
of  its  statement  is  required  of  all 
seeking  for  Church  membership. 
The  Dutch  Reformed  Church  has 
about  800  churches,  chiefly  in  the 
states  of  New  York  and  New  Jersey, 
and  about  125,000  members. 


DUTCH     LIQUID 


2742 


DVINA 


Dutch  Liquid  OR  ETHYLENE  BI- 
CHLORIDE (C,H4C12),  Thin  oily 
liquid  with  a  sweetish  taste  and 
pleasant  smell.  Discovered  in  1795 
by  four  Dutch  chemists,  it  is  pre- 
pared by  passing  ethylene  into  a 
warm  mixture  of  manganese  di- 
oxide, salt,  water,  and  sulphuric 
acid  until  the  black  colour  of  the 
manganese  has  disappeared,  and 
then  distilling  off  the  ethylene  di- 
chloride.  It  can  be  made  from  coal- 
gas,  is  obtained  as  a  by-product  in 
the  manufacture  of  chloral,  and  is 
used  as  an  anaesthetic. 

Dutch  Metal.  Alloy  of  copper 
and  zinc,  and  therefore  technically 
a  brass.  The  proportion  of  the 
copper  may  range  from  77*75  to 
84 '5  p.c.  The  colour  varies  from  a 
pleasing  pale  yellow  to  a  dark 
yellow,  according  to  the  propor- 
tions used.  It  is  a  very  ductile 
metal  and  much  used  in  the  pre- 
paration of  Dutch  gold  leaf,  which 
is  made  by  rolling  down  small  cast 
bars  to  ribbon,  beating  under  a 
steam  hammer  to  a  certain  thin- 
ness, annealing,  pickling  in  dilute 
sulphuric  acid,  boiling  in  solution 
of  argol,  washing  and  drying,  and 
then  beating  with  hand  hammers, 
as  in  the  manufacture  of  gold  leaf 
proper.  Dutch  leaf  is  largely  used 
for  gilding  purposes,  being  much 
cheaper  than  gold  ;  while  its  colour 
may  be  preserved  for  a  long  time 
by  painting  with  transparent 
lacquer.  The  colour  is  sometimes 
changed  to  red,  violet,  or  green, 
or  other  shade  by  adding  to  the 
lacquer  a  small  quantity  of  pure 
aniline  dye.  See  Alloy  ;  Brass. 

Dutch  New  Guinea.  Posses- 
sion of  Holland,  included  in  the 
Dutch  East  Indies.  See  New  Guinea. 

putt,  MICHAEL  (1824-73).  Ben- 
gali poet  and  dramatist,  properly 
Madhu  Sudan  Datta.  Born  at 
Sagandari  village,  Jessore  district, 
Bengal,  he  was  sent  to  the  Hindu 
College,  Calcutta,  at  the  age  of 
13.  Six  years  later,  objecting  to  a 
marriage  that  was  being  arranged 
for  him,  he  ran  away,  forsook  his 
caste,  and  became  a  Christian.  He 
then  completed  his  education  with 
four  years  at  the  Bishop's  College. 
His  first  book,  The  Captive  Ladie 
(1849),  in  English  verse,  though 
containing  much  that  was  remark- 
able in  one  writing  in  a  foreign 
tongue,  was  less  notable  than  his 
subsequent  poetry  written  in  Ben- 
gali. >  His  Sermista  (1858)  and 
Ratnavali  (1859)  are  the  first  ex- 
amples of  classical  and  regular 
drama  in  Bengali.  Of  both  of 
these  he  made  English  translations. 

His  other  poems  include  two  great 
epics  in  blank  verse,  Tillottama 
(1860)  and  Meghanad  badh  Kavya 
(1861),  the  latter  being  described  by 
a  compatriot  critic  (R.  C.  Dutt)  as 


the  greatest  literary  production  of 
its  century.  His  name  has  become 
a  household  word  among  the  people 
of  Bengal,  and  he  is  by  common  con- 
sent regarded  as  the  chief  master  in 
modern  Bengali  literature.  He 
travelled  in  Europe,  1 862-67,  and 
died  June  29,  1873.  See  The 
Literature  of  Bengal,  R.  C.  Dutt, 
2nd  ed.  1895. 

Dutt,  ROMESH  CHUNDER  (1848- 
1909).  Indian  statesman  and 
author.  Born  in  Calcutta,  Aug. 
13,  1848,  and  educated  at  the 
Presidency  College,  Calcutta,  and 
University  College,  London,  he  was 
called  to  the  bar  at  the  Middle 
Temple,  1871.  A  member  of  the 
Indian  Civil  Service,  1871-97,  he 
held  office  as  a  divisional  com- 
missioner, 1894  and  1895;  and  was 
a  fellow  of  Calcutta  university.  He 
became  revenue  minister,  ]  904-7, 
and  prime  minister.  1909,  of 
Baroda.  Made  a  C.I.E.  in  1892  for 
his  administrative  and  literary 
work,  he  was  author  of  a  History 
of  Civilization  in  Ancient  India, 
1889-90;  condensations  in  English 
verse  of  the  Mahabharata  (1899) 
and  Ramayana  (1900) ;  books  on 
the  economic  history  of  India  ;  and 
a  number  of  historical  and  social 
novels  in  Bengali.  He  died  Nov. 
30,  1909.  See  Life  and  Work,  J. 
N.  Gupta,  1911. 

Duval,  CLAUDE  (1643-70).  High- 
wayman, born  at  Domfront,  in 
Normandy.  He  came  to  England 
at  the  Restoration  in  the  train  of 
the  duke  of  Richmond,  took  to  the 
road,  and  became  notorious  for  his 
daring  robberies  and  for  his 
gallantry.  He  was  captured  while 
drunk  in  a  London  tavern  and 
executed  at  Tyburn.  He  was 
buried  in  Covent  Garden  Church. 
Duval  is  the  subject  of  a  well- 
known  picture  by  W.  P.  Frith. 

Duveen ,  SIR  JOSEPH  JOEL  ( 1 843- 
1908).  Anglo-Dutch  art  dealer.Born 
in  Holland  of  Dutch  parentage,  he 
started  as  an  antique  dealer  in  Hull 
in  1865.  In  1877,  with  his  brother 
Henry,  he  founded  in  New  York 
the  art-dealing  firm  bearing  their 
name.  Opening  in  London  in 
1879,  the  firm  quickly  became 
noted  for  its  discrimination  and 
ability,  among  its  famous  purchases 
being  the  Kahn  collection  of  old 
masters  for  nearly  £2,000,000. 
Duveen  presented  the  Turner  wing 
to  the  Tate  Gallery  (opened  1910), 
and  many  works  of  art  to  the 
national  collections,  and  was 
knighted  in  1908.  He  died  at 
Hyeres,  Nov.  9,  1908. 

Duveyrier,  HENRI  (1840-92). 
French  explorer  and  geographer. 
Born  in  Paris,  Feb.  28,  1840,  he 
travelled  in  the  desert  hinterland 
of  Algeria  and  Tunis,  reaching  as 
far  S.  as  El-Golea  and  Ghadames 


(1859-61).  This  exploration  work 
secured  his  appointment,  in  1867, 
as  secretary  of  the  Societe  de 
Geographic.  In  1874  he  resumed 
his  exploration  of  French  N.  Africa. 
His  published  works  include  Ex- 
ploration du  Sahara :  les  Touareg 
du  Nord,  1864  ;  La  Tunisie,  1881  ; 
Le  Transsaharien,  1889-90;  Sa- 
hara algerien  et  tunisien,  1905. 
He  died  April  25,  1892. 

Dux  (Lat.,  leader).  Word  some- 
times used,  especially  in  Scotland, 
for  the  head  boy  of  a  school. 

Dux.  Town  of  C/echo-Slovakia, 
in  Bohemia.  It  stands  at  the  S. 
base  of  the  Erzgebirge,  18m.  N.W. 
of  Leitmeritz.  Sugar,  earthenware, 
glass,  and  porcelain  are  manufac- 
tured, and  there  are  large  coalmines 
in  the  neighbourhood.  Its  castle 
has  a  fine  collection  of  armour, 
pictures,  and  books.  Pop.  12,100. 

Duxite.  Safety  explosive.  It  is 
typical  of  a  class  in  which  gelignite 
has  been  modified  by  the  addition 
of  salts  which  contain  a  considerable 
quantity  of  water  of  crystallisation 
and  produce  water  on  disintegra- 
tion, thus  lowering  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  explosion  flame.  Duxite 
consists  of  nitroglycerine  32  p.c., 
gelatinised  with  nitrocellulose,  1 
p.c.,  sodium  nitrate,  28  p.c.,  wood 
meal,  10  p.c.,  and  ammonium  oxa- 
late,  29  p.c.  The  latter  compound 
is  the  salt  employed  to  reduce  the 
flame  temperature,  and  the  explo- 
sive passes  the  severe  Rotherham 
test  for  safety  explosives  for  use 
in  coal  mines  with  a  charge  of 
12  ozs.  See  Gelignite. 

D.V.  Abbrev.  for  Deo  volente, 
God  willing. 

Dvina, NORTHERN.  River  of  N.E. 
Russia,  in  the  govt.  of  Vologda.  It 
is  formed  by  the  union  of  the  Suk- 
hona  and  Yug.  Flowing  N.W.  by 
Archangel,  chiefly  through  level, 
marshy  districts,  it  discharges  itself 
into  the  White  Sea  by  five  mouths.  It 
is  navigable  in  summer  throughoiit 
its  entire  length  of  360  m.,  but  the 
shoals  at  the  mouth  are  a  nuisance 
to  traffic.  Fish  abound,  especially 
a  peculiar  kind  of  cod  (navaga). 

Dvina,  WESTERN,  OR  DUNA. 
River  of  W.  Russia.  It  rises  in  the 
lakes  and  marshes  of  the  Valdai 
plateau  in  the  govt.  of  Tver. 
Running  S.W.  and  then  N.W.,  it 
falls  into  the  Gulf  of  Riga,  9  m. 
below  Riga.  As  it  forms  a  con- 
nexion with  the  Baltic  and  Black 
Seas  through  the  Beresina  canal, 
it  is  used  for  timber  transport, 
partly  floated  and  partly  by  boat. 
Dvina,  BATTLES  OP  THE.  Fought 
between  Russians  and  Germans, 
1915-16.  The  first  battle  took 
place  Aug.-Sept.,  1915.  The  Ger- 
man armies  arrayed  against  the 
Dvina,  one  beyond  the  Vindava  W. 
of  Riga,  under  Lauenstein,  and  a 


DVINSK 


2743 


DVINSK 


second,  under  Below,  S.  of  Fried- 
richstadt,  belonged  to  the  army 
group  commanded  in  person  by 
Hindenburg.  Mitau  had  been  taken 
on  Aug.  1,  and  a  day  or  two  later 
forces  advancing  from  Shavle  were 
at  Posvol,  30  m.  almost  due  S.  of 
Friedrichstadt,  and  other  troops 
marching  from  Ponievicz  were  at 
Subotch,  about  50  m."W.  of  Dvinsk. 
On  Aug.  5  the  Germans  were  only 
10  m.  from  Riga,  and  preparations 
for  evacuating  the  city  were  being 
made.  A  naval  attack  on  the  port 
was  definitely  repulsed  by  Aug.  21, 
and  all  attempts  on  the  land  side 
failed,  but  the  Germans,  after 
heavy  fighting,  moved  forward 
towards  Jacobstadt  and  Dvinsk. 
They  were  driven  back  in  the 
second  week  of  August,  but  were 
advancing  again  on  the  24th  and 
the  following  day. 

Straggle  for  Friedrichstadt 
About  Aug.  28  Below  began  a 
great  assault  on  the  line  of  the 
Dvina,  with  Friedrichstadt  as  his 
chief  objective.  This  town,  on  the 
S.  side  of  the  river,  offers  the  only 
practicable  crossing  between  Jacob- 
stadt  and  Riga  ;  on  the  other  side 
of  the  Dvina  ran  the  railway  from 
Riga  through  Kreutzberg  to  Dvinsk 
and  Vilna;  from  Kreutzberg 
passed  a  railway  through  Fried- 
richstadt to  Mitau,  and  of  this  the 
Germans  gained  possession.  On 
Axig.  29  the  Russians  repulsed  a 
determined  assault  on  the  Fried- 
richstadt  bridgehead,  which  had 
carried  some  of  the  enemy  across 
the  Dvina.  During  the  night  of 
Aug.  30  Below's  troops  renewed 
their  desperate  attempt  to  capture 
the  bridgehead,  but  their  repeated 
attacks  broke  down. 

On  Sept.  2  German  cavalry 
stormed  the  bridgehead  near  Lenne- 
waden,  N.W.  of  Friedrichstadt,  and 
next  day  the  Russians  were  found 
to  have  withdrawn  from  the  Fried- 
richstadt bridgehead.  All  through 
Sept.  1  and  2  Below,  strongly  rein- 
forced, had  pounded  the  Russian 
defences  with  his  heavy  guns,  and 
under  this  pressure  the  Russians 
retired  across  the  river.  S.  of  Fried- 
richstadt the  Germans  advanced 
towards  Jacobstadt,  stubborn  ac- 
tions talcing  place  between  that 
town  and  the  Lautse.  On  Sept.  11 
a  Russian  offensive  from  Jacob- 
stadt drove  the  Germans  back  in 
this  district.  On  the  same  day  their 
main  attack  shifted  S.E.  in  a  move 
across  the  Sventa  which  reached 
Utsiauy  on  Sept.  12  and  Svient- 
siany,  on  the  Dvinsk- Vilna  railway, 
on  Sept.  13,  the  Russians  with- 
drawing to  Podbrodzie,  the  pur- 
pose of  the  Germans  being  to  par- 
ticipate in  the  operations  against 
Vilna.  Meanwhile  the  first  battle 
of  the  Dvina  had  died  down. 


The  second  battle  was  fought 
during  Jan.-Aug.,  1916.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  year  the  Russian 
line  was  practically  that  estab- 
lished at  the  end  of  Sept.,  1915, 
after  the  Russian  retreat  from 
Warsaw.  Beginning  at  the  coast 
near  Riga,  it  ran  along  the  left  bank 
of  the  Dvina,  which  it  crossed  in 
one  place  and  passed  close  to 
Dvinsk,  still  held  by  the  Russians. 
Then,  leaving  the  river  course,  it  ran 
S.  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Molo- 
detchno,  also  held  by  the  Russians, 
then  S.  to  Pinsk.  On  this  northern 
sector,  from  the  Baltic  to  Friedrich- 
stadt, Hindenburg  was  in  command 
on  the  German  side,  and,  from  Feb., 
Kuropatkin,  on  the  Russian.  In 
March  and  April  there  was  some 
intermittent  fighting. 

Hindenburg's  Attack 
On  May  1 1  Hindenburg  launched 
an  ambitious  but  abortive  offensive 
against  the  Russian  positions  at 
Selburg  on  the  Mitau- Jacobstadt 
railway.  He  resumed  his  efforts  on 
the  next  day.  and  fighting  took 
place  on  the  outskirts  of  the  village 
of  Yepukn.  Another  attack  was 
launched  at  the  beginning  of  June 
against  the  sector  to  the  S.  of  the 
station  of  Neu  Zelburg,  N.W.  of 
Jacobstadt.  Henceforth  Galicia 
became  the  critical  area  of  the 
Eastern  front,  and  with  the  repulse 
of  a  Russian  attack  in  the  Dvina 
sector  at  the  end  of  August  the 
second  battle  died  down. 

Dvinsk  (DAUGAVPILS).  Town 
and  fortress  in  Latvia,  in  the  govt 
of  Vitebsk.  It  stands  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Dvina,  at  the  junction 
of  the  Petrograd- Warsaw  and  Riga- 
Smolensk  rlys.  There  is  a  consider- 
able trade  in  grain,  flax,  and 
timber.  Founded  in  1278  by  Liv- 
onian  knights,  the  town  was  de- 
stroyed by  the  Russians  in  1577, 
and  rebuilt  by  Stephen  Bathory, 
king  of  Poland,  in  1582.  In  1 772  it 
was  added  to  Russia,  remaining 
part  thereof  until  the  collapse  of  the 
Russian  empire  in  1918.  During  the 
Great  War,  after  much  fighting  for 
its  possession,  it  was  occupied  by  the 
Germans  Feb.  18,1917.  Pop.  1 1 0,000. 
Dvinsk,  BATTLES  FOB.  Fought 
between  the  Russians  and  Germans 
1915-16.  During  Sept.,  1915,  Hin- 
denburg's attack  on  the  line  of  the 
Dvina  had  given  him  Friedrich- 
stadt, on  the  S.  side  of  the  river, 
but  had  failed  to  carry  him  across 
to  the  opposite  bank.  "  Fighting  in 
the  immediate  neighbourhood  of 
Dvinsk  had  resolved  itself  into 
trench  warfare  ;  behind  their  line 
the  Germans,  however,  were  mass- 
ing heavy  guns,  and  Sept.  24  saw 
the  beginning  of  a  determined  effort 
to  capture  the  town,  which,  as  the 
centre  of  railways  and  roads,  was 
strategically  important.  Dvinsk 


was  protected  by  fortified  lines  1( 
m.  to  12  m.  S.,  in  a  region  of  lake 
and  marshes,  which  were  formid 
able  obstacles  to  an  assaultinj 
army.  The  chief  of  these  lakes  wen 
Lake  Sventen  and  Lake  Medum 
on  the  S.W.,  and  Lake  Drisviat\ 
and  Lake  Rytchy  on  the  S.  and  S.E 
Between  Sventen  and  the  Dvim 
ran  the  railway  from  Shavle  b 
Ponievicz  to  Dvinsk,  and  N.  of  th 
railway  passed  the  highway  from 
Illukst ;  between  Medum  and  Dris 
viaty  were  the  highway,  passing  N 
through  Novo  Alexandrovsk,  am 
the  railway  from  Vilna  to  the  town. 
Along  these  railways  and  road 
the  attack  was  unimpeded  b; 
natural  obstacles,  but  while  Hin 
denburg  in  his  offensive  of  Sept 
24-25  made  use  of  these  approach  e. 
he  assaulted  on  the  whole  fron 
from  the  Dvina  to  Drisviaty.  He 
had  some  success  near  Illukst  am 
along  the  Novo-Alexaudrovsk  road 
where  his  infantry  pushed  on  to 
within  8  m.  of  Dvinsk.  Elsewhere 
he  was  checked  and  even  thrown 
back,  as  at  the  village  of  Drisviaty 
which  was  recaptured  from  him  on 
Sept.  25.  As  a  whole  the  attack 
failed,  and  resulted  in  very  heavy 


The  Autumn  Campaigns 
Then  followed  a  lull  till  about 
Oct.  3.  when  Hindenburg  made  his 
second  great  effort,   his  strength 
having   been   vastly  increased  in 
men  and  guns.    By  this  time  the 
cavalry  thrust  to  Sventsiany  and 
E.  of  Vilna  had  been  completely 
held  up,  and  thus  the  possibility  of 
a  drive  on  Dvinsk  from  the  E., 
which  otherwise  might  have  ma- 
terialised, had  vanished.    Hinden- 
burg now  mainly  confined  his  at- 
tention to  attacking  in  masses  on 
the  W.   and  S.W.,  while  his  big 
guns     bombarded     the     Russian 
trenches  in  the  S.E.      Making  & 
strong  push  near  Illukst,  he  took 
the  Schlossberg  ridge  and  Illukst 
itself,  but  was  held  up  in  front  of 
the  Illukst  river  near  the  Dvina. 
S.  of  the  Ponievicz  railway  there 
was  a  sanguinary  struggle  about 
Garbounovka  and  Pashalina,  the 
former  finally  remaining  with  the 
Russians,  on  Oct.  10.     Along  the 
Novo-Alexandrovsk       road       the 
enemy  progressed  to  the  village  of 
Medum,  but  was  unable  to  advance 
nearer  Dvinsk.    Thia  second  attack 
was  also  a  failure  as  a  whole. 
Russian  Counter- Offensive 
The  third  attack,  which  began  on 
Oct.  25,  made  some  progress  from 
Illukst   after   furious   encounters, 
and  broke  through  at  Garbounovka, 
but  was  countered  and  led  to  no 
further  result.       On  Oct.   31   the 
Russians    assumed    the    offensive 
between  Lakes  Sventen  and  the 
neighbouring  Lake  Ilsen,   and  in 


DVORAK 


2744 


DWARF 


ten  days  of  very  heavy  fighting 
completely  defeated  the  Germans. 
Towards  the  close  of  Nov.  the 
Russians  recaptured  part  of  Illukst, 
and  Dvinsk  was  perfectly  safe. 

The  second  battle  for  Dvinsk 
lasted  throughout  the  first  half  of 
1916.  The  result  of  the  Germans' 
campaign  against  the  Russians  in 
1915  was  an  important  gain  of  ter- 
ritory in  Poland,  but  their  ultimate 
object — the  destruction  of  the 
Russian  armies — was  as  far  off  as 
ever.  To  capture  Dvinsk  became  a 
pressing  need  if  headway  was  to  be 
made  in  that  direction.  The  1915 
campaign  left  the  line  on  the 
Russian  front  practically  one,  run- 
ning due  N.  and  S.  from  Dvinsk 
to  the  point  where  the  frontiers  of 
Rumania,  Galicia,  and  Bessarabia 
meet,  on  the  rivers  Dniester  and 
Pruth.  N.  of  Dvinsk  the  line  fol- 
lowed the  river  Dvina  N.W.  to  the 
Baltic  near  Riga.  N.  of  the  Pripet 
marshes,  the  northern  Russian 
army  was  commanded  by  Kuro- 
patkin,  the  centre  group  of  armies 
by  Evert,  and  the  southern  by 
Brusiloff.  The  German  north- 
ern armies  were  commanded  by 
Hindenburg. 

Voii  Below 's  Army  Order 

The  Germans  opened  the  second 
battle  for  Dvinsk  on  Jan.  19.  They 
selected  the  district  of  Tennenfeld 
for  their  opening  artillery  attack, 
which  was  later  followed  by  two 
infantry  attacks  easily  repulsed  by 
the  Russians.  On  Feb.  13,  the 
Dvinsk  sector  was  again  the  scene 
of  great  activity,  the  enemy  artillery 
fire  being  most  intense  near  Illukst. 
They  also  attempted  to  surround 
Garbounovka,  9  m.  N.W. of  Dvinsk, 
which  the  Russians  had  just  taken 
from  them,  but  this  attack  was 
defeated  by  the  Russians'  cross- 
fire. Soon  after  this  Von  Below 
issued  his  notorious  Army  Order, 
summarising  the  situation  and  fore- 
casting his  operations. 

On  Feb.  28,  the  Russians,  near 
Garbounovka  and  N.  of  the  Ponie- 
vicz  rly.,  succeeded  in  driving 
back  the  Germans  and  making  a 
small  advance.  The  Germans  also 
assumed  the  offensive,  and  be- 
tween Lakes  Ilsen  and  Medum- 
skoi,  W.  of  Dvinsk,  and  S.  of  the 
latter,  made  massed  attacks.  A 
notable  tactical  phase  of  the  battle 
was  the  rupture  by  the  Russians  of 
the  German  line  at  Jacobstadt,  on 
the  Dvina,  between  Riga  and 
Dvinsk,  on  March  23.  As  a  reply 
to  this  threat  the  Germans  made 
aggressive  attempts  in  the  Dvinsk 
theatre,  but  without  effecting  any 
result.  Two  days  later  the  Russians  • 
again  attacked.  Both  sides  were 
now  making  desperate  efforts,  as 
the  course  of  events  was  largely 
determined  by  the  weather  con- 


ditions and  the  approach  of  the 
spring  floods.  This  factor  deter- 
mined the  Russian  attack  of  March 
25,  when  a  slight  advance  was  made 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Dvina  at 
Dvinsk.  April  was  taken  up  with 
fierce  but  indecisive  fighting. 

On  June  26  Hindenburg  made 
another  costly  and  fruitless  attack 
on  the  Dvinsk  positions.  Brusil- 
off's  Galician  offensive  had  by  this 
time  proved  highly  successful,  and 
the  energies  of  both  sides  were  con- 
fined to  merely  defensive  opera- 
tions. The  Dvinsk  battle  flared 
up  at  the  beginning  of  Oct.,  when 
a  heavy  German  attack  by  ar- 
tillery was  repulsed.  A  Russian 
gas  attack  on  the  German  trenches 
towards  the  end  of  Nov.  rounded 
off  the  second  battle  for  Dvinsk. 
The  fierce  fighting  of  1915-16  left 
the  town  in  Russian  possession, 
though  there  were  signs  that  the 
break-up  of  the  Russian  armies 
was  rapidly  approaching.  What 
the  German  armies  could  not 
accomplish,  German  propaganda 
readily  effected. 

Dvorak,  ANTONIN  (1841-1904). 
Bohemian  composer.  Born  at 
Miihlhausen,  Sept.  8,  1841,  the  son 
of  an  i  n  n- 
keeper,  he  ob- 
taine  d  his 
musical  train-  _ 
ing  at  Prague,  i 
In  1862  he 
joined  the  or-  m 
chestra  of  the 
National  The- 
atre, and  began 
to  devote  him-  Antonin  Dvorak, 
self  to  com-  Bohemian  composer 
position.  Through  the  influence 
of  Brahms,  he  was  invited  to  write 
a  set  of  Slavonic  dances,  which 
made  him  famous.  From  1892-95 
he  was  principal  of  the  National 
Conservatoire  of  Music  at  New 
York,  but  returned  to  Bohemia, 
where  he  died,  May  1,  1904.  His 
works  include  a  Stabat  Mater,  a 
cantata,  The  Spectre's  Bride, 
several  brilliant  symphonies  and 
overtures,  and  fine  examples  of 
chamber  music.  He  was  essentially 
a  national  composer,  as  his  strongly 
marked  rhymes  and  striking  har- 
monies attest.  Pron.  Dvorzhak. 
See  Studies  in  Modern  Music,  W. 
H.  Hadow,  series  ii,  1895. 

Dvur  Kralove  (KONIGINHOF). 
Town  and  district  of  Czecho-Slo- 
vakia,  in  Bohemia.  The  town  is  an 
important  textile  centre,  and  is  105 
m.  by  rly.  E.  of  Prague.  The  Aus- 
trians  defeated  the  Prussians  here 
June  29,  1866.  In  the  neighbour- 
hood the  Elbe  valley  is  very  fertile. 
Most  of  the  inhabitants  are  Roman 
Catholics,  four-fifths  are  Czechs, 
the  rest  Germans.  Pop.,  town, 
11,000  ;  district,  30,000. 


Dwarf.     Samson,  a  South  American 

dwarf,  standing  on  the  table  while 

his  manager  explains  a  contract 

Dwarf.  Abnormally  short  hu- 
man being.  The  Asiatic  negrito 
and  African  negrillo  races,  with  a 
maximum  stature  of  4  ft.  11  in.,  are 
usually  called  pygmies.  The  con- 
ventional maximum  of  spectacular 
dwarfism  in  the  white  and  yellow 
races  is  4  ft.  Notable  court  dwarfs 
were  Queen  Mary  I's  John  Jervis, 
24  ins.,  and  Queen  Henrietta 
Maria's  Jeffery  Hudson,  18  ins.  at 
30,  and  45  ins.  at  death.  Examples 
exhibited  in  London  during  the 
1 9th  century  included  the  Polish 
count  Boruwlaski,  39  ins.  ;  the 
American,  Charles  Stratton  (Gen- 
eral Tom  Thumb),  31  ins., who  mar- 
ried Lavinia  Warren,  32  ins.  ;  the 
Fairy  Queen,  16  ins.  ;  the  Mexican 
Midget,  Lucia  Zarate,  and  the 
French  princesse  Topaze,  each 
20  ins.  in  height. 

Dwarf  races  are  primitive  peo- 
ples whose  average  adult  male 
stature  is  below  4  ft.  11  ins.  There 
are  two  main  groups  :  Asiatic  negri- 
tos,  comprising  Aeta,  Andamanese, 
Semang,  Tapiro,  and  others  ;  Af- 
rican negrillos,  including  Akka, 
Batwa,  Bambute,  and  allied  tribes. 

Some  writers  hold  that  this 
stock,  with  dwarf  stature  as  its 
normal  characteristic  in  all  ages, 
was  the  parent  stock  of  all  man- 
kind. This  view  is  unsupported  by 
early  skeletal  remains,  which  show 
diminutive  size  in  only  a  few  scat- 
tered examples  in  palaeolithic 
Europe,  besides  some  neolithic  sta 
tions  near  Schaffhausen  and  else- 
where. Others  consider  these  infan- 
tile peoples  as  dwarfed  by  their  ad- 
verse environment.  This  in  its  turn 
fails  to  account  for  the  constancy 
of  the  pygmy  type,  which  has  not 
varied  since  early  dynastic  Egypt. 
Even  when  settled  husbandry 
introduces  improved  conditions, 
stature  increases  only  after  racial 
admixture. 


DWARKA 


2745 


DWYKA     SERIES 


The  most  satisfactory  theory  of 
pygmy  origins  regards  these  peo- 
ples as  representing  the  early  di- 
vergence from  the  main  human 
stock  of  a  tropical  hunting  type 
which  has  conserved  its  physical 
characters  and  primitive  culture  in 
racial  isolation.  This  explains  the 
absence  of  dwarf  races  from  tropi- 
cal America  as  well  as  from  cold 
latitudes.  The  arctic  Eskimo,  the 
E.  Siberians,  and  the  European 
Lapps,  together  with  the  austral 
Yahgans  of  Tierra  del  Fuego,  the 
Cape  Bushmen,  and  the  Ceylon 
Veddas,  are  short  rather  than 
dwarfish,  being  well  above  the  pyg- 
my stature,  and  alien  to  the  pygmy 
culture.  See  Giant ;  Man ;  Negrito  ; 
Pygmy. 

Dwarka.  Municipality  of  India. 
It  stands  on  the  N.W.  promontory 
of  Kathiawar  peninsula,  belonging 
to  Baroda  state.  It  contains  the 
temple  of  Dwarkanath  (Krishna), 
and  is  one  of  the  holy  places  of 
India,  the  resort  of  Hindu  pilgrims. 
Pop.  6,548,  nearly  all  Hindus. 

Dwelling.  Habitation  of  man- 
kind for  repose,  shelter,  and  do- 
mestic life  Dwallings  may  be 
natural  or  artificial,  temporary  or 
habitual,  portable  or  fixed.  That 
primeval  man  dwelt  in  tropical 
forest  trees  is  a  conjecture  sup- 
ported by  anthropoid  usage.  Ar- 
boreal structures  still  characterise 
some  primitive  peoples,  as  among 
the  Khas,  Mois,  and  in  the  Solo- 
mon islands.  When  he  migrated  to 
the  limestone  lands  of  temperate 
Eurasia  palaeolithic  man  utilised 
the  rock-shelter  and  the  cave- 
dwelling.  This  type  of  habitation 
also  survives. 

The  rudest  effort  of  art  upon  the 
ground  level  is  the  wind-screen, 
sometimes  primarily  to  protect  the 
fire.  Hence  emerged  the  hut, 
formed  by  binding  the  tips  of  sap- 
lings, and  often  skin -covered  in 
cold  weather.  Devised  in  the 
palaeolithic  age,  it  still  exists  in 
primitive  forms  among  the  African 
pygmies,  Bhils,  Botocudos,  Fue- 
gians,  and  Veddas.  The  natural 
hollow,  and  its  simulation  by  an 
artificial  pit,  gave  rise  to  the  bee- 
hive roof  and  the  lean-to  or  pent- 
roof,  resting  on  the  ground.  Their 
conical  or  gabled  surfaces  were 
covered  with  thatch,  turf,  earth, 
or  skins  ;  rudimentary  forms  are 
still  known — Ainu,  Chukchis,  and 
the  Eskimo  snow-house  (igloo). 

Thus  arose  the  two  simplest  of 
structural  types,  the  round  and  the 
oblong.  "  The  former  prevailed  in 
neolithic  and  early-metallic  Europe. 
The  Swiss  lake-dwellers  plastered 
their  timbered  huts  with  clay  ;  this 
wattle-and-daub  construction  — 
sometimes  as  a  secondary  deriva- 
tive from  the  plain  thatch — still 


endures.  The  dome-shaped  or  coni- 
cal hut,  developed  in  local  forms  in 
aboriginal  America,  prevails  over 
wide  regions  in  negro  Africa.  It 
may  have  a  bamboo  palisade,  a 
loose-stone  wall,  or  a  defensive 
stockade.  When  used  by  nomad 
peoples  it  became  the  round  Kirghiz 
yurt  or  the  American  tipi. 

The  introduction  of  metal  tools 
and  carpentry  replaced  pit-digging 
by  the  erection  of  posts,  walled 
with  unhewn  or  hewn  timber,  mat- 
ting, stone,  or  clay.  Sun-dried 
bricks,  developed  early  along  the 
Nile  and  the  Euphrates,  still  sur- 
vive in  Mexico  and  the  Sudan.  The 
pent  became  the  elevated  roof, 
whose  construction  displays  much 
diverse  ingenuity,  from  the  Bantu 
thatch,  which  may  be  double,  as  in 
Uganda,  to  the  interlaced  palm- 
leaves  of  Polynesia  and  the  elegant 
timber  carving  of  Japan.  The  neo- 
lithic lake-dwellers  introduced  pile- 
foundations  in  shallow  waters,  a 
practice  still  extant  in  Borneo  and 
New  Guinea.  This  cultural  ad- 
vance found  its  full  development 
in  the  hewn  masonry  of  Egypt, 
whose  influence,  passing  into  the 
Aegean,  affected  the  architectural 
achievements  of  the  Graeco-Roman 
and  the  Indo-Aryan  world,  spread- 
ing thence  across  the  Pacific  to  the 
ancient  American  civilizations. 

The  early-Aryan  rectangular 
house  led  to  the  formation  of 
streets,  and  in  the  eastern  branch 
to  the  quadrangular  enclosure,  at 
first  a  cattle-pen,  afterwards  the 
courtyard  characteristic  of  the 
civilized  Orient.  The  roof -angle  is 
determined  by  the  problem  of  rain 
and  snow,  as  in  the  steep  Scandina- 
vian gable.  The  flat  roof  character- 
ises Semitic  life  in  sunny  lands. 
Many-storeyed  dwellings  are  de- 
veloped in  every  continent.  House- 
partition  for  sex-segregation  is 
traceable  to  a  remote  antiquity. 
With  many  primitive  peoples  the 
social  organization  involves  separ- 
ate dwellings  for  unmarried  girls 
and  unmarried  men.  Communal 
houses  for  family  or  tribal  groups 
are  exemplified  by  the  long-houses 
of  the  Iroquois  and  the  Melanesian 
peoples.  See  Bee  Hive  Structure  ; 
Cave,  Cliff,  and  Lake  Dwellings ; 
Igloo ;  Kraal  ;  Wigwam. 

Bibliography.  History  of  Man- 
kind, F.  Ratzel,  Eng.  trans.  A.  J. 
Butler,  1896-8  ;  The  Races  of  Man, 
J.  Deniker,  1900  ;  Handbook  to  the 
Ethnographical  Collections  in  the 
British  Museum,  T.  A.  Joyce  and 
O.  M.  Dalton,  1910. 

Dwight,  JOHN  (fl.  1671-98). 
English  potter.  He  is  believed  to 
have  been  born  in  Oxfordshire,  and 
to  have  been  a  member  of  Christ 
Church,  Oxford.  In  1671  and  1684 
patents  were  granted  him  by 


Charles  II  for  the  manufacture  of 
porcelain,  the  secret  of  which  he 
claimed  to  have  re-discovered;  but 
he  can  only  be  credited  with  the  in- 
vention of  an  improved  process  of 
stoneware.  He  employed  Italian 
workmen  at  the  Fulham  pottery 
works  which  he  founded;  and,  in 
addition  to  utilitarian  stoneware,  he 
produced  many  fine  statuettes  and 
busts,  including  those  of  James  II 
and  Prince  Rupert. 

Dwight,  TIMOIHY  (1752-1817). 
American  Congregational ist  and 
poet.  Born  at  Northampton,  Mas- 
s  a  e  h  u  s  e  1 1  P, 
May  14,  1752, 
and  a  grand- 
son of  Jona- 
than Edwards, 
he  was  edu- 
cated at  Yale 
College.  An 
army  chaplain 
during  th e 
Civil  War  after 
being  a  minis- 
ter at  Greenfield,  Connecticut,!  782- 
1795,  he  was  president  of  Yale 
from  1795  until  his  death  at  New 
Haven,  Jan.  1 1, 1817.  His  Theology 
Explained  and  Defended,  1818,  a 
course  of  173  sermons,  has  passed 
through  more  than  100  editions. 
He  wrote  the  patriotic  song, 
Columbia,  and  an  epic,  The  Con- 
quest of  Canaan,  and  was  author 
of  an  Essay  on  Light, 

First  of  the  great  American  col- 
lege presidents,  the  number  of 
students  at  Yale  almost  trebling 
during  his  presidency,  Timothy 
Dwight  was  an  advocate  of  co-edu- 
cation and  of  the  higher  education 
of  women.  (See  Three  Men  of  Letters, 
M.C.  Tyler,  1895.)  His  grandson, 
Timothy  (1828-1916),  was  professor 
of  New  Testament  Greek  and  Exege- 
sis, Yale  divinity  school,  1858-86; 
president  of  Yale,  which  during  his 
term  of  office  assumed  the  status 
of  a  university,  1886-99;  and  a 
member  of  the  American  com- 
mittee for  the  revision  of  the  Eng- 
lish Bible,  1872-85.  He  con- 
tributed to  the  New  Englander  a 
series  of  articles  on  The  True  Ideal 
of  an  American  Unhersity,  1870- 
71 :  and  was  the  author  of  Memories 
of  Yale  Life  and  Men,  1903. 

Dwyka  Series.  Shales  and  con- 
glomerates beneath  the  Ecca  for- 
mation in  the  S.  African  Karroo 
system.  They  extend  for  800  m. 
from  the  Transvaal  through  the 
Orange  Free  State  prov.  and  Natal 
into  the  Cape  prov.,  with  a  maxi- 
mum thickness  of  2,300  ft.  The 
lower  Dwyka  shales,  of  Permo-car- 
boniferous  date,  were  overlaid  by 
deposits  in  and  around  the  vast 
Karroo  lake,  into  which  icebergs 
broken  from  the  faces  of  glaciers 


DYAK 


2746 


DYERS'   COMPANY 


dropped  huee  striated  boulders  of 
granite,  jasper,  and  other  rocks. 
The  resultant  conglomerate  re- 
sembles English  boulder-clay,  but 
so  greatly  hardened  as  to  be  quar- 
ried at  Umgeni  for  road-metai. 
This  conglomerate  was  overlaid 
by  the  fine-grained  upper  Dwyka 
shales,  whose  fossil  reptiles  and 
plants  correlate  them  with  the  In- 
dian Gondwana  system.  This  series 
is  named  after  the  Dwyka  river. 

Dyak  OK  DAYAK.    Popular  name 
for     the     Indonesian     non-Malay 
peoples  in  Borneo.   The  land  Dyak 
embrace  some  settled  agricultural 
tribes  in  the 
Klema  n  t  a  n 
I    group.   They 
1    useSft.blow- 
-1    guns,  sumpi- 
j    tan,  with  en- 
I    venomed 
I    darts,    and 


Dyak.  Woman 
in  native  cos- 
tume. Above, 
man  in  gala  dress 


practise  c  r  e  m  a- 
tion.  The  rounder- 
headed  pro  to- 
Malayan  sea  Dyak, 
preferably  called 
Iban,  are  the  most 
tattooed  Bornean 
tribe  and  were 
the  most  inveter- 
ate head-hunters. 
See  Borneo. 

Dyas(Gr.,  the  number  two).  Al- 
ternative name  for  the  uppermost 
system  of  palaeozoic  rocks,  called 
by  R.  Murchison  the  Permian.  It 
was  introduced  by  J.  Harcou.  on 
the  analogy  of  the  Trias  which  lies 
above  it,  because  it  is  represented 
in  Germany  by  two  well-marked 
stages,  the  red  sandstone  (Roth- 
liegende)  and  the  minestone^(Zech- 
stein).  See  Permian.  > 

Dyce,  ALEXANDER  (1798-1869). 
Shakespearean  editor  and  literary 
and  dramatic  critic.  Born  at  Edin- 
burgh, June  30,  1798,  he  was  edu- 
cated at  the  High  School  and 
Exeter  College,  Oxford,  subse- 
quently taking  orders.  In  1825  he 
gave  up  clerical  work  and  devoted 
himself  to  editing  the  old  dramat- 
ists. He  brought  out  George  Peele, 
1828;  John  Webster,  1830;  and 
Robert  Greene,  1831.  In  1833  he 


Alexander  Dyce, 


William  Dyce, 
Scottish  painter 

he  produced  a 


completed  Gifford's  edition  of  Shir- 
ley, and  edited  Thomas  Middle- 
ton  in  1840,  and  John  Skelton  in 
1843.  He  brought  out  the  Works 
of  Beaumont  and  Fletcher  in  11 
vols.,  1843-46; 
issued  an  edi- 
tion of  Mar- 
lowe in  1850  ; 
and  in  1857 
appeared  his 
valuable  edi- 
tion of  Shake- 
speare, which 
he  was  en- 
gaged in  re- 
Shakespearean  editor  vjsing  when  he 

died  in  London,  May  15,1869. 

Dyce,  WILLIAM  (1806-64).  Scot- 
tish painter.  He  was  born  at  Aber- 
deen, Sept.  19,  1806,  and  educated 
at  the  Maris- 
c  h  a  1  College. 
In  1830  he  set- 
tled at  Edin- 
burgh as  a 
portrait-paint- 
er. In  1835 
he  was  elected 
Associate  of 
the  Scottish 
Academy.  Suc- 
cessful in  the 
Westminster 
Hall  competition, 
fresco,  The  Baptism  of  S.  Ethel- 
bert,  the  first  to  be  completed  in 
the  existing  Houses  of  Parlia- 
ment, 1845;  and  in  1848  became 
R.A.  He  died  at  Streatham, 
Feb.  14,  1864.  See  illus.  p  753. 

Dyer,  STB  EDWARD  (c.  1540- 
1607).  English  courtier  and  poet. 
Born  at  Sharpham  Park,  Somerset- 
shire, son  of  Sir  Thomas  Dyer,  he 
was  educated  at  Oxford,  and  after 
Continental  travel  was  introduced 
at  court  in  1566.  A  close  friend  of 
the  Sidneys,  and  a  member  of  the 
literary  coterie  known  as  the  Areo- 
pagus, he  enjoyed  a  high  reputa- 
tion as  a  man  of  character  and  a 
poet.  He  was  sent  by  Elizabeth  on 
a  diplomatic  mission  to  the  Low 
Countries  in  1584,  acted  as  one  of 
the  pall  bearers  at  Sir  Philip 
Sidney's  funeral  in  1586,  went  on 
a  diplomatic  mission  to  Denmark 
in  1589,  and  acted  as  commissioner 
for  the  attachment  of  forfeited 
lands.  Knighted  and  made  chan- 
cellor of  the  order  of  the  Garter  in 
1596,  he  retired  after  the  accession 
of  James  I.  He  died  in  1607,  and 
was  buried  in  S.  Saviour's,  South- 
wark.  As  a  poet,  he  is  best  re- 
membered as  author  of  the  ballad, 
My  Mind  to  Me  a  Kingdom  is,  pub- 
lished (without  author's  name)  in 
William  Byrd's  Medius :  Psalms, 
Sonnets,  and  Songs  of  Sadness  and 
Piety,  1588.  See  Works,  ed.  with 
memorial  introduction  A.  B.  Gro- 
sart,  1872  (Fuller  Worthies'  Lib.). 


Dyer,  JOHN  (1700-57).  British 
poet.  A  Welshman  by  birth,  after 
studying  art  for  a  short  time  he 
became  a  clergyman.  His  chief 
merit  is  in  the  appreciation  xor 
nature  shown  in  his  poems  Grongar 
Hill  and  The  Country  Walk,  both 
published  in  Savage's  Miscellany, 
1726.  The  Ruins  of  Rome  ap- 
peared in  1740.  He  died  l)ee.  15, 
1757.  See  Poems,  ed.  with  bio- 
graphical introd.  E.  Thomas,  1903. 
Dyer,  REGINALD  EDWARD  HARRY 
(b.  1864).  British  soldier.  Born 
Oct.  9,  1864,  he  was  educated  at 
Middleton  College,  co.  Cork,  and 
entered  the  R.W.  Surrey  Regt.  in 
Aug.,  1885.  Proceeding  to  India, 
where  he  passed  through  the  staff 
college,  he  joined  the  Indian  army, 
reaching  the  rank  of  colonel  in 
June,  1910.  Dyer  became  a  briga- 
dier-general in  1916,  and  was 
created  C.B.  in  1917.  In  1919  he 
commanded  the  45th  infantiy 
(Jullunder)  brigade,  and  to  cope 
with  disorders  at  Amritsar,  he 
arrived  there  on  April  11. 

On  April  13  he  ordered  his  troops 
to  fire  on  the  mob  of  5, 000  assembled 
at  the  Jallianwallah  Bagh,  when 
about  379  natives  were  killed  and 
J,200  wounded.  A  committee 
appointed  in  Oct.,  1919,  to  in- 
vestigate the  disturbances,  issued 
its  report  in 
May,  1920,  in 
which  Gen. 
Dyer  was 
severely  cen- 
sured. Having 
been  super- 
seded in  India, 
his  case  was 
considered  by 
the  Army 
Council  in 
June,  1920,  by  whom  the  report 
of  the  committee  was  approved, 
and  he  retired  in  July.  There  was 
a  good  deal  of  sympathy  expressed 
for  Dyer  by  those  who  thought 
his  prompt  action  had  averted  a 
serious  rising,  and  through  The 
Morning  Post  over  £21,000  was 
raised  for  him.  See  Amritsar, 
N.V. ;  India. 

Dyers'  Company ",  THE.  London 
city  livery  company.  Incorporated 
1471,  it  was  originally  one  of  the 
12  chief  com- 
panies. With  the 
Vintners  it  has 
the  right  of  keep- 
ing swans  on  the 
Thames,  and  it 
administers  a 
number  of  chari- 
ties. The  hall  in 
Dowgate  Hill, 
B.C.,  erected 
1857,  is  one  of  four,  the  first  of 
which,  on  the  site  of  Dj'ers'  Hall 
Wharf,  was  burnt  in  1666. 


Dyers'  Company 
arms 


DYERS'      GREENWEED  2747 

Dyers'  Greenweed  OR  WOAD-    extends  into  N.  and  W.  Asia.   The 
WAXEN  (Genista  tinctoria).    Dwarf    bright  yellow    flowers    are    small, 
shrub  of  the  natural  order  Legu-    and  are  succeeded  by  smooth,  flat 
minosae.     A  native  of  Europe,  it    pods,  an  inch  long,  containing  about 

five  seeds.      It  yields  a  yellow  dye, 
which  was  largely  used  by  dyers  in 
connexion  with  natural  indigo. 

Dyers'  Oak  (Quercus  velutina). 
Large   tree   of    the   natural   order 
Amentaoeae.        A    native    of    N. 
America,  it  is    ^ 
known  as  quer-    '  • 
citron  and  yel- 
low-barked 
oak,  the  rough, 

brown     bark  jjS||  / 

being    orange- 
coloured  in-    i 
ternally.  It  has 
variously      di-     \ 
vided  large    j 
leaves    and    t ...... 

small    he  mi-      Dyers' Oak,  leaf  and 
spherical  acorn 

acorns.  The  bark  is  extensively  used 
in  tanning  and  dyeing. 

DYES   AND   DYEING  :    A    KEY    INDUSTRY 

Mark  Meredith,  Editor  of  The  Indian  Textile  Journal 

This  article  classifies  the  various  kinds  of  dyes  and  describes  the 

materials  of  which  they  are  made.      See  the  articles  on  materials 

which  are  dyed,  e.g.  Cotton.     See  also  Perkin  and  other  chemists 


Dyers'  Greenweed,  Sowers  and 
fodage 


Dyes  or  dyestuffs  are  sub- 
stances used  for  dyeing  the  various 
textile  fibres,  as  wool,  silk,  cotton, 
artificial  silk  ;  also  for  dyeing 
leather,  paper,  etc.,  and  for  colour- 
ing oils,  varnishes,  foodstuffs. 

Chemically,  dyestuffs  are  of  very 
diverse  character,  and  with  a  few 
exceptions  (mineral  dyes- tuffs)  are 
composed  of  carbon  and  hydrogen, 
associated  with  one  or  more  of 
o'.  her  elements,  as  oxygen,  nitrogen, 
sulphur,  chlorine,  bromine,  iodine, 
and  sometimes  with  the  metals 
sodium,  potassium,  or  calcium. 

Mineral  dyestuffs  comprise  Prus- 
sian blue,  iron  buff,  chrome  yellow, 
chrome  orange,  manganese  bronze, 
and  metallic  oxide  khaki.  They 
are  chiefly  used  for  cotton,  but 
have  lost  their  former  importance. 
They  are  produced  by  depositing 
coloured  salts  of  metals  within  the 
fibre,  i.e.  cotton  cloth  is  impreg- 
nated with  a  soluble  salt  of  a 
metal,  squeezed,  and  then  treated 
with  another  solution  so  that  an 
insoluble  metallic  compound  is 
formed  and  firmly  fixed  on  the 
fibre.  The  mineral  dyestuffs  are 
very  fast  to  light  and  washing, 
except  that  Prussian  blue  is  turned 
brown  by  alkalis.  Metallic  oxide 
khaki,  produced  from  salts  of  iron 
and  chromium,  was  largely  used 
during  the  Great  War. 

NATURAL  DYESTUFFS.  Dyestuffs 
may  be  divided  into  (1)  natural 
and  (2)  artificial.  The  first  class 
comprises  the  vegetable  dyentuffs, 
logwood,  etc.,  also  cochineal  and  lac 


dye,  the  two  latter  being  produced 
from  an  insect.  The  f am  ous  Ty rian 
purple  of  history  came  from  certain 
molluscs. 

The  most  important  natural  dye- 
stuffs  are  natural  indigo,  logwood, 
fustic,  cochineal,  Persian  berries, 
orchil,  cudbear,  and  cutch.  Of 
lesser  importance  are  barwood, 
Brazilwood,  camwood,  Sanders- 
wood,  and  weld.  In  1914  only  the 
members  of  the  first  group  were 
used  to  any  great  extent,  and  the 
consumption  of  these  (especially 
natural  indigo)  was  gradually  de- 
clining. 

During  the  Great  War  all 
natural  dyestuffs  again  became 
more  prominent,  owing  to  the 
great  shortage  of  artificial  colours, 
and  in  1920  the  demand  for  log- 
wood and  orchil  was  greater  than 
the  supply.  Mention  should  be 
made  here  of  "  madder,"  formerly 
much  used  for  madder  reds,  but 
the  colouring  principle  of  this 
vegetable  dyestuff,  alizarin,  is  now 
produced  artificially,  and  the 
natural  product  is  only  used  in 
very  small  quantities  for  use  in 
indigo  vats.  The  chief  sources  of 
the  natural  dyestuffs  are  the  W. 
Indian  Islands,  India,  S.  America, 
and  S.  Europe. 

Natural  Dyestuffs 

With  the  exception  of  indigo  and 
orchil,  the  natural  dyestuffs  are 
those  which,  applied  alone  to 
the  textile  fibres,  possess  little 
affinity  for  them,  and  are  only  of 
use  when  combined  with  metals, 


DYES 

previously  applied  to  the  fibres  in 
the  form  of  salts.  They  are,  more-  j 
over,  polygenetic  in  character, 
i.e.  they  produce  different  shades 
according  to  the  metallic  salt 
(chrome,  aluminium,  tin,  or  iron) 
previously  applied  to  the  fibre, 
this  latter  operation  being  techni- 
cally called  "  mordanting."  Hence 
the  natural  dyestuffs  are  called 
mordant  colours,  in  distinction  to 
the  classes  in  the  artificial  dye- 
stuffs,  such  as  acid,  basic  salt,  etc. 
Indigo  and  Logwood 

Natural  indigo  is  marketed  in 
lumps,  varying  in  strength,  and 
must  be  ground  before  use  in  the 
indigo  vat.  It  belongs  to  the  series 
of  vat  colours,  and  is  one  of  the 
oldest  dyestuffs.  Logwood  is  used 
in  the  form  of  rasped  wood,  log- 
wood extract,  and  haematein 
crystals.  Haematein  crystals  con- 
tain the  actual  colouring  principle 
haematein,  and  are  the  most  con- 
centrated form  of  dyestuff.  Log- 
wood is  used  in  conjunction  with 
fustic,  chiefly  for  blacks  on  wool 
and  silk,  and  is  noted  for  its  fine 
bloomy  shade,  which  is  difficult  to 
reproduce  with  artificial  colours. 
Cochineal  dyed  on  a  tin  and  alu- 
minium mordant  was  formerly 
used  for  scarlet.  Cutch  is  mostly 
employed  on  cotton,  giving  very 
fast  browns. 

ARTIFICIAL  DYESTUFFS.  These  are 
commonly  called  coal  tar  dyes.  The 
first  artificial  dyestuff  was  dis- 
covered by  Perkin  in  1856  and 
called  mauve.  Since  that  date 
some  thousands  of  dyestuffs  have 
been  put  on  the  market  by  different 
makers,  but  these  do  not  all  repre- 
sent individual  colours,  as  the  same 
dyestuff  occurs  under  many  dif- 
ferent names,  and  many  also  are 
mixtures. 

Dyestuffs  from  Coal  Tar 

The  artificial  dyestuffs  comprise 
a  very  large  number  of  organic 
compounds,  varying  in  compo- 
sition from  a  simple  derivative, 
such  as  picric  acid,  to  a  very  com- 
plicated one,  as  indanthrene  dark 
blue.  Chemically,  they  are  divided 
into  about  15  classes,  the  dye- 
stuffs  in  each  conforming  to  a  defi- 
nite structure ;  but  dyestuffs  from 
different  classes  may  behave  alike 
from  a  dyeing  point  of  view,  and 
taking  the  latter  as  a  basis  for 
differentiation,  the  following  classes 
of  dyestuffs  are  obtained  :  (1)  acid, 
(2)  basic,  (3)  direct  cotton  or  salt 
colours,  (4)  mordant,  (5)  sulphide, 
(6)  vat,  (7)  insoluble  colours  or 
colours  formed  on  the  fibre. 

As  the  name  indicates,  the  dye- 
stuffs  of  this  group  are  derived  from 
coal  tar.  From  this  are  obtained 
by  various  processes  of  distillation 
and  purification  such  important 
substances  as  benzene,  toluene, 


DYES 

phenol,  naphthalene,  and  anthra- 
cene. These  are  all  (except  phe- 
nol) hydrocarbons,  i.e.  compounds 
of  carbon  and  hydrogen.  Phenol 
contains  oxygen  as  well,  and  is 
commonly  called  carbolic  acid. 
These  substances  are  the  primary 
raw  materials  for  the  production  of 
all  artificial  dyestuSs. 

Before  the  actual  formation  of 
a  dyestuff  can  take  place,  the 
substances  mentioned  must  be 
converted  into  what  are  called  in- 
termediate products,  and  some- 
times more  than  one  intermediate 
takes  part  in  the  formation  of  a 
dyestuff.  The  formation  of  an  in- 
termediate or  its  practical  manu- 
facture is  often  more  difficult  than 
the  actual  production  of  the 
final  dye  product,  it  being  fre- 
quently essential  that  the  inter- 
mediate should  be  pure,  otherwise 
the  resulting  shade  of  the  actual 
dyestuff  is  impaired.  Sometimes 
these  intermediates  are  coloured 
and  give  coloured  solutions,  but 
do  not  possess  the  property  of 
dyeing.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that 
for  the  actual  manufacture  of 
dyestuffs,  the  production  of  large 
quantities  of  pure  intermediates  is 
of  primary  importance.  The  for- 
mation of  intermediates  from  the 
primary  raw  materials  is  carried 
out  by  the  action  of  various  agents, 
such  as  sulphuric  acid  (oleum), 
nitric  acid,  chlorine,  bromine,  etc., 
and  these  processes  are  called  sul- 
phonation,  nitration,  chlorination, 
reduction,  etc. 

DYESTUFFS  FROM  BENZENE 
Starting  from  benzene  (C6H6)  by 
nitration  we  obtain  nitrobenzene  ; 
by  reduction,  under  various  con- 
ditions, this  passes  into  aniline 
and  benzidine.  From  aniline  are 
obtained,  among  others,  most  im- 
portant basic  dyestuffs  ;  from 
benzidine  by  certain  other  pro- 
cesses, cotton  colours  of  the  direct 
type  are  produced.  The  first  cot- 
ton colour  dyeing  cotton  directly 
was  obtained  from  benzidine.  By 
introducing  chlorine  as  well  as 
nitric  acid  into  benzene,  a  com- 
pound is  obtained  which  forms  the 
raw  material  for  the  preparation 
of  the  important  sulphide  blacks. 
Diagrammatically,  the  processes 
may  be  represented  thus  : 

Benzene 

I 


obcnz 


Nitrobenzene 
I 


Aniline 
Basic  Dyes 


Dinitro 
Cblorobenzena 

Sulphide 
Blacks 


Benzidine 
Cotton  Dyes 

DYESTUFFS  FROM  TOLUENE. 
From  toluene  by  nitration  is 
obtained  nitro-toluene  (further 
nitration  produces  T.N.T.  trini- 
trotoluene, the  well-known  explo- 
sive). Nitrotoluene  on  further 


reduction  gives  the  taluidines  and 
tolidine,  both  important  inter- 
mediates for  direct  cotton  colours. 
From  toluene  also  by  further  re- 
actions benzaldehyde  is  obtained, 
and  this  is  one  of  the  intermediates 
for  both  acid  and  basic  colours. 


T.N.T.— Nitrotoluene  Benzaldehyde 

I 

Tolidine  Toluidine 

|  | 

Cotton  Dyes      Acid  and  Basic 
Dyes 

DYESTUFFS  FROM  PHENOL. 
Phenol  on  nitration  gives  nitro- 
phenols  which,  further  nitrated, 
give  picric  acid,  and  also  by  com- 
plicated reactions  yield  dianisi- 
dine,  the  intermediate  also  valu- 
able for  cotton  dyes.  Phenol,  how- 
ever, by  other  suitable  treatments, 
furnishes  salicylic  acid,  which  is  an 
important  constituent  of  certain 
mordant  colours,  as  diamond  black 
and  also  certain  cotton  dvestuffs. 


Dianisidinc     Picric  acid 
I 


Cotton  dyes 


DYESTUFFS  FROM  NAPHTHALENE. 
Naphthalene  is  a  most  important 
primary  product,  and  from  it,  by 
processes  of  nitration,  reductions, 
sulphonation,  fusion  with  alkalis, 
are  obtained  nitronaphthalene, 
naphthylamines,  naphthols  and 
sulphonic  acids  of  these  deriva- 
tives. The  latter  possess  besides 
the  groups  at  first  introduced,  sul- 
phonic acid  groups,  which  are  im- 
portant constituents,  and  not  only 
make  the  resulting  dyestuffs  more 
soluble  but  give  them  an  acid 
character.  These  intermediates 
yield  acid  dyes,  cotton  dyes  and 
mordant  dyes. 

Naphthalene 


Nitro  Naphthalene  Naphthalene 

|  Sulphonic  acids 

Naphthalemine  and  | 

its  Sulphonic  acids  Naphthols  and  their 

|  Sulphonic  acids 
Acid,  direct  cotton,  and 
Mordant  dye  stuffs 

Besides  the  above  dyestuffs, 
naphthalene  forms  a  source  of 
manufacture  of  synthetic  indigo. 
By  a  series  of  chemical  changes, 
naphthalene  is  converted  into  the 
intermediate  phthalic  acid,  from 
which  are  obtained  dyestuffs  of 
most  brilliant  shades  such  as 
rhodamine. 

DYESTUFFS  FROM  ANTHRACENE. 
Anthracene  furnishes  the  starting 
point  for  a  large  number  of  most 
important  wool  and  cotton  colours, 
these  being  especially  important 
on  account  of  their  very  good 
fastness  to  light,  wear,  etc.  The 


Alizarin  and      Acid  dyestuffs     Vat  colours 
other  Mordant 
dyrstuffs 

ACID  DYESTUFFS.  These  are 
largely  used  for  wool  and  silk 
dyeing.  Among  them  are  colours 
which  are  fugitive  to  light,  also 
others  which  are  extremely  fast  to 
light.  Their  fastness  to  other 
agents,  washing,  etc.,  also  varies 
considerably.  They  are  employed 
for  woollen  and  worsted  piece 
goods,  especially  for  ladies'  wear. 

BASIC  DYESTUFFS.  To  this  class 
of  colours  belong  the  most  brilliant 
of  artificial  dyestuffs,  which,  how- 
ever, as  a  class  are  very  fugitive  to 
light.  They  also  possess  the  ob- 
jectionable property  of  rubbing 
off  on  to  adjacent  white  material. 
They  find  their  chief  employment 
in  calico  printing,  also  for  cotton 
dyeing  for  which  the  cotton  has 
to  be  previously  mordanted  with 
tannic  acid  and  tartar  emetic. 
They  can  also  be  dyed  on  wool. 

Salt  dyestuffs  are  so  named 
because  they  are  used  for  dyeing 
cotton  from  a  bath  containing 
common  salt.  Used  in  enormous 
quantities  (especially  blacks)  for 
this  purpose,  this  group  contains 
colours  of  every  shade,  which 
possess  properties  of  very  varying 
degrees  of  fastness.  Some  are 
very  important  for  union  dyeing, 
as  they  dye  wool  equally  well  from 
a  salt  bath. 

Mordant  dyestuffs  form  a  class 
of  extreme  importance,  especially 
for  wool  dyeing.  Used  where  great 
fastness  is  required,  especially  to 
the  operation  of  milling,  they  prob- 
ably find  their  greatest  application 
in  loose  wool  dyeing,  but  are  also 
employed  on  pieces,  especially  for 
men's  wear.  On  cotton,  alizarin 
is  used  for  the  Turkey  red  process. 

SULPHIDE  DYESTUFFS.  These 
colours  are  only  of  importance  for 
cotton  dyeing,  although  they  can 


DYES 

most  striking  is  alizarin,  produced 
artificially  at  the  same  time  by 
Perkin  and  the  German  chemists 
Grabe  and  Liebermann.  Anthra- 
cene by  oxidation  gives  anthra- 
quinone  which  on  sulphonation 
and  then  a  subsequent  fusion  of 
the  product  with  caustic  alkalis  j 
yields  the  most  important  dyestuff, 
alizarin.  Besides  alizarin,  other  ! 
mordant  colours  are  obtained  : 
from  anthraquinone,  also  very  im- 
portant acid  colours  such  as  ali- 
zarin saphirol.  Again,  from  an- 
thraquinone the  latest  series  of  vat 
colours  are  evolved.  These  vat 
colours  are  solely  used  for  cotton 
dyeing,  the  vat  colours  dyeing  wool 
being  derived  from  indigo. 

Anthracene 
Anthraquinone 


DYKE 


2749 


DYNAMICS 


be  applied  to  wool.  They  are  used 
in  large  quantities,  especially  sul- 
phide blacks.  At  present  a  good 
range  of  sulphide  dyestuffs  is  not 
available,  a  bright  red  being  absent. 
These  colours  are  not  soluble  in 
water,  and  have  to  be  dissolved  with 
the  aid  of  sodium  sulphide.  On  cot- 
ton they  produce  shades  of  extreme 
fastness  to  washing,vary  in  fastness 
to  light,  but  are  poor  to  bleaching. 

VAT  DYESTUFFS.  This  is  now  an 
important  class  of  colours,  al- 
though indigo  was  the  only  one 
known  up  to  comparatively  recent 
times.  They  are  all  insoluble  in 
water,  and  are  made  soluble  by  a 
process  of  reduction,  whereby  they 
become  soluble  in  an  alkaline  bath. 
Only  indigo  and  its  derivatives  are 
used  for  wool  dyeing  on  account 
of  the  strongly  alkaline  bath  re- 
quired for  the  other  classes  (Indan- 
threnes,  Algoles,  etc.).  All  are  used 
for  cotton  dyeing,  and  the  class 
contains  some  of  the  fastest  colours 
existing.  They  are  used  for  cur- 
tains, etc.,  where  great  fastness  to 
light  is  required. 

INSOLUBLE  COLOURS.  To  this 
group  belong  aniline  black,  Para 
red,  etc.  Aniline  black  is  formed 
on  the  cotton  fibre  by  the  oxida- 
tion of  aniline,  previously  applied 
to  the  fibre  in  the  form  of  a  soluble 
salt.  It  is  a  very  fast  black,  and 
recognized  as  a  standard  for  cotton 
goods,  but  it  has  been  replaced  to  a 
considerable  extent  by  sulphide 
blacks,  which  are  easier  of  applica- 
tion. Para  red  is  obtained  by  actu- 
ally forming  an  insoluble  colour 
on  the  fibre  by  the  successive  com- 
bination of  its  components. 

Before  1914,  90  p.c.  of  the  total 
quantity  of  artificial  dyestuffs  was 
produced  in  Germany.  After 
1918,  however,  large  factories  were 
erected  in  Great  Britain,  America, 
and  France. 

Bibliography.  Dictionary  of  Dyes, 
Mordants  and  other  Compounds, 
C.  Rawson  and  others,  1901 ;  A 
Treatise  on  Colour  Manufacture,  G. 
Zerr  and  R.  Riibencamp,  Eng.  trans. 
C.  Mayer,  1908  ;  A  Manual  of 
Dyeing,  E.  Knecht  and  others,  2nd 
ed.  1910. 

Dyke  OR  DIKE.  Defensive  earth- 
work or  its  adjacent  ditch,  especi- 
ally in  early  Britain.  Dykes  may  te 
promontory  forts,  or  protective 
works  as  used  in  Holland,  and  in 
Great  Britain  as  fenland  causeways. 
Some  were  made  or  re -used  for  na- 
tional or  tribal  boundaries.  Red 
Earl's  Ditch,  along  the  Malvern 
Hills,  was  feudal.  The  greatest, 
Wansdyke,  80  m.  long,  from  the 
Severn  to  Inkpen  Beacon,  Berks, 
was  pre-Roman.  Black  Dyke,  from 
Richmond,  Yorks,  across  the  Ro- 
man Wall  to  Peel  Fell,  Northum- 
berland, continues  as  the  Catrail 
for  48  m.  to  Galashiels,  Selkirk- 


shire. Roman  Dyke,  Rushmore, 
Wilts,  was  Romano-British.  There 
are  25  in  Dorset,  and,  perhaps,  50 
elsewhere,  some  being  of  Common- 
wealth date.  (See  Devil's  Dyke  ; 
Orim's  Dyke. ) 

In  geology,  dykes  are  wall-like 
masses  of  rock  formed  in  vertical  or 
highly  inclined  fissures  in  older  for- 
mations. The  name  arose  from 
their  resemblance,  when  the  softer 
enveloping  rocks  have  been  wea- 
thered away,  to  the  structures  made 
by  man  ;  in  W.  Scotland  they  are 
actually  utilised  as  enclosures. 

The  most  typical  dykes  com- 
prise basalts  and  similar  rocks  in- 
truded by  igneous  action.  They 
often  form  ribs  spreading  radially 
from  volcanic  craters.  When  the 
molten  lava  has  receded  from  the 
inner  part  before  cooling,  hollow 
dykes  result.  A  vast  system,  cover- 
ing 40,000  sq.  m.  from  Orkney  to 
Yorkshire,  comprises  dykes  vary- 
ing from  a  few  inches  to  70  ft.  in 
breadth,  and  up  to  100  m.  long, 
notable  examples  being  the  Cleve- 
land and  Acklington  dykes.  The 
long  line  of  fissure -eruptions  occur- 
ring in  Iceland  in  1783  formed  a 
new  subterranean  dyke  20  m.  long. 

Sedimentary  dykes  have  been 
formed  in  all  geological  ages,  such 
as  the  pre-Cambrian  sandstone 
dykes  at  Ben  Slioch,  Ross -shire,  and 
those  of  limestone  near  San  Fran- 
cisco. These  are  sometimes  due  to 
the  filling-up  of  fissures  caused  by 
submarine  earthquakes. 

Dykes,  JAMES  OSWALD  (1835- 
1912).  British  theologian.  Born 
at  Port  Glasgow,  Aug.  14,  1835, 
and  educated  at 
Dumfries  Acad- 
emy,  Edin- 
burgh Univer- 
sity, and  New 
College,  Heidel- 
berg, and  Er- 
langen,  he  was 
ordained  at  East 
Kilbride,  1859. 
Colleague  of  Dr.  James  Oswald  Dykes, 
Candlish  (q.v.),  British  theologian 
at  Free  S.  W 

George's,  Edinburgh,  1861-64,  he 
resigned  through  ill-health.  After 
spending  three  years  in  Melbourne, 
Australia,  he  was  minister  of  Regent 
Square  Presbyterian  Church,  Lon- 
don, 1869-88  :  and  principal,  1888 
-1907,  of  the  English  Presbyterian 
College,  Queen  Square,  London, 
afterwards  removed  to  Cambridge, 
and  known  as  Westminster  College. 
His  works  include  The  Beatitudes 
of  the  Kingdom,  1872  ;  The  Gospel 
According  to  S.  Paul ;  studies  in 
the  first  8  chapters  of  his  Epistle 
to  the  Romans,  1888;  and  The 
Divine  Worker  in  Creation  and  Pro- 
vidence, 1909.  He  died  Jan.  1,1912. 

Dykes,  JOHN  BACCHUS  (1823- 
76).  British  musician  and  church- 


man. Born  at  Hull,  Mar.  10,  1823, 
he  studied  music  at  Cambridge  and 
became  a  clergyman.  In  1849  he 
was  appointed  precentor  of  Dur- 
ham Cathedral  and  vicar  of  S. 
Oswald's,  Durham.  He  was  one  of 
the  editors  of  Hymns  Ancient  and 
Modern,  and  composed  a  large 
amount  of  church  music,  including 
many  hymn  tunes  ;  some  of  these 
— Nearer  my  God  to  Thee,  and 
Jesu,  Lover  of  my  Soul — have 
attained  immense  popularity.  He 
died  Jan.  22,  1876.  See  Life  and 
Letters,  ed.  J.  T.  Fowler,  1897. 

Dykh-Tau.  One  of  the  heights 
of  the  Caucasus  (17,000  ft.)  in  the 
highest  part  of  the  range. 

Dymoke.  English  family  in 
which  the  ancient  office  of  king's 
champion  is  hereditary.  The  origin 
of  the  Dymokes  is  variously  traced 
to  the  village  of  Dymoke,  in  Glou- 
cestershire, and  to  a  place  of  that 
name  on  the  Welsh  border.  Sir 
John  Dymoke  (d.  1381)  was  cham- 
pion at  the  coronation  of  Richard 
II,  the  earliest  recorded  perform- 
ance of  the  ceremony,  and  based 
his  right  on  his  ownership  by  grand 
serjeanty  of  the  manor  of  Scri- 
velsby,  in  Lincolnshire.  Henry 
Dymoke  (d.  1865)  was  champion 
at  George  IV's  coronation,  after 
which  the  ceremony  was  dis- 
continued, though  the  office  re- 
mained. In  the  reign  of  George  V 
the  champion  was  Frank  Seaman 
Dymoke.  See  Champion. 

Dynamical  Equivalent  of 
Heat.  Whenever  work  is  con- 
verted into  heat,  or  vice  versa, 
there  is  an  unchanging  relation 
between  the  work  done  and  the 
heat  produced  or  lost.  The  quan- 
tity of  work  exerted  to  produce  the 
unit  quantity  of  heat  energy  is 
called  the  dynamical  equivalent  of 
heat.  The  first  to  determine  this 
equivalent  was  Joule,  whose  first 
method  consisted  in  measuring  the 
heat  developed  when  a  known 
amount  of  work  was  done  in  stir- 
ring water.  It  has  been  found  that 
the  energy  converted  into  sufficient 
heat  to  raise  the  temperature  of  one 
gramme  of  water  one  degree  (from 
14'5°  to  15'5°)  is  4-182  centigrade 
times  10,000,000  ergs,  where  the  erg 
is  the  unit  of  work.  See  Heat; 
Thermodynamics. 

Dynamics  (Gr.  dynamis, power). 
Branch  of  the  science  of  mechanics 
which  investigates  the  action  of 
fores.  It  therefore  includes  the 
investigation  of  the  conditions  of 
bodies  which  are  in  a  state  of 
equilibrium  owing  to  the  forces 
acting  upon  them,  although  this 
special  branch  of  the  science  is 
often  referred  to  as  "  statics." 
The  investigations  depend  ulti- 
mately on  the  Newtonian  Laws 
of  Motion.  The  various  depart- 


DYNAMITE 


2750 


DYNAMO 


ments  embrace  the  dynamics  and 
statics  of  a  particle  which  is  acted 
upon  by  forces  in  one  plane  or 
in  more  than  one  plane  ;  the  plane 
dynamics  of  a  rigid  body ;  the 
three  dimensional  statics  or  dyna- 
mics of  a  rigid  body,  with  which  is 
associated  the  theory  of  screws; 
and  by  an  extension  within 
modern  limits  of  the  meaning 
of  the  term  dynamics,  those 
problems  of  analytical  dynamics 
which  investigate  the  action  of 
forces  on  systems  of  particles,  or 
the  "  problem  of  three  bodies," 
which  refers  to  the  mutual  at- 
tractions of  three  bodies  in 
space,  e.g.  the  Earth,  Sun,  and 
Jupiter,  a  problem  which  can  only 
be  solved  in  special  cases.  See 
Motion. 

Dynamite.  Name  applied  to  a 
variety  of  high  explosives  of  which 
the  essential  feature  is  a  high  con- 
tent of  nitroglycerine,  absorbed 
in  an  active  or  inert  porous  base. 
Dynamite  was  invented  by  Nobel  in 
1866,  when,  owing  to  many  disas- 
trous explosions  nitroglycerine  was 
prohibited  in  various  countries.  He 
found  that  it  could  be  rendered 
comparatively  safe  by  absorption 
in  kieselguhr  (q.v.),  which  is  cap- 
able of  retaining  up  to  three  times 
its  weight  of  nitroglycerine.  This 
mixture  is  still  known  as  No.  1  dyn- 
amite, whilst  No.  2  and  No.  3, 
which  are  more  rarely  used,  con- 
tain 35  p.c.  and  25  p.c.  of  nitro- 
glycerine respectively.  About  1  p.c. 
of  magnesium  carbonate  or  chalk  is 
usually  added  to  neutralise  the 
acid  evolved  by  nitroglycerine  on 
storage. 

The  calcined  kieselguhr  is 
weighed  out  into  a  rubber  bag, 
after  it  has  been  thoroughly  mixed 
with  the  carbonate  and  sieved,  the 
nitroglycerine  being  added  in  small 
portions,  while  the  mass  is  kneaded 
by  hand  to  form  a  paste,  the  opera- 
tion lasting  about  30  minutes.  The 
dynamite  is  formed  into  cartridges 
by  pressing  it  into  parchment 
paper  tubes  by  a  wooden  plunger 
working  through  a  funnel.  All 
these  operations  are  dangerous  and 
only  small  quantities  of  explosive 
are  dealt  with  in  light  buildings 
protected  by  mounds. 

In  America  kieselguhr  has  been 
largely  displaced  as  the  absorbent 
by  "  active  "  bases,  generally  con- 
sisting of  a  mixture  of  wood  meal, 
flour,  or  similar  carbohydrate  and 
sodium  or  potassium  nitrate.  A 
whole  series  of  dynamites  is  made 
with  nitroglycerine  contents  rising 
by  5  p.c.  from  15  p.c.  to  69  p.c., 
but  this  range  of  dynamites  has 
never  been  popular  in  Europe, 
although  a  variety  of  explosives  of 
the  same  type  are  employed  for 
various  purposes. 


-  Dynamite  is  a  powerful  high  ex- 
plosive of  considerable  brisance, 
while  its  plasticity  is  a  great  ad- 
vantage in  filling  boreholes  and 
applying  it  to  solid  objects  for 
demolition  purposes.  It  is  safe  to 
handle  and  transport,  but  is  too 
sensitive  to  shock  for  employment 
in  shell,  and  since  it  is  detonated  by 
the  impact  of  a  rifle  bullet  it  is  not 
a  safe  military  store.  If  ignited  in 
small  quantities  it  burns  fiercely 
but  does  not  explode.  Black  pow- 
der will  cause  it  to  explode,  but 
complete  detonation  can  only  be 
effected  by  initiation  with  a  de- 
tonator. 

Dynamite  has  two  marked  dis- 
advantages, one  being  that  expo- 
sure to  moisture  displaces  the 
nitroglycerine,  causing  exudation 
and  dangerous  sensitivity,  and 
secondly,  it  freezes  about  10°  C. 
when,  whilst  it  is  more  insensitive  to 
detonation,  causing  misfires,  it  is 
more  sensitive  to  shock  andfriction. 
Frozen  dynamite  must  be  carefully 


thawed  in  a  special  oven.  Exuda- 
tion is  guarded  against  by  the  use 
of  special  wrappers,  and  freezing 
may  be  prevented  by  using  nitro- 
glycerine containing  substances 
which  lower  its  freezing  point  and 
storing  the  dynamite  in  heated 
magazines.  Dynamite  is  chiefly 
used  for  blasting  operations  where 
a  powerful  shattering  effect  is 
required.  See  Explosives  ;  Nitro- 
glycerine ;  Safety  explosives. 

Dynammon.  Safety  explosive 
manufactured  by  the  Austrian 
government.  Two  varieties  are 
made,  Wetter-dynammon,  com- 
posed of  ammonium  nitrate  94  p.c., 
charcoal  4  p.c.,  potassium  nitrate 
2  p.c.  ;  and  dynammon,  composed 
of  ammonium  nitrate  87 '5  p.c., 
charcoal  12*5  p.c.  The  former  is 
the  more  suitable  for  use  in  coal 
mines  where  coal  dust  or  explosive 
gas  may  be  present.  They  are  pre- 
pared by  milling  the  dried  ingre- 
dients together  in  mills  such  as  are 
used  for  gunpowder. 


DYNAMO:      A    GENERATOR    OF    ELECTRIC 

POWER         J.  L.  Pritchard,  Editor  of  The  Aeronautical  Journal 

In  this  article  is  given  in  brief  outline  the  principle  of  the  dynamo 

from  Faraday'' s  initial  discovery.    Further  information  on  the  subject 

will  be  found  under  the  articles  A  Iternating  Current ;    A  Iternator  ; 

Armature:  Commutator;   Electricity;   Magnetism 

Oersted  in  1819  discovered  that 
a  wire  conveying  an  electric  cur- 
rent is  surrounded  by  a  magnetic 
field,  a  magnetic  needle  tending  to 
set  itself  at  right  angles  to  the  wire 
carrying  the  current.  Following 
this  Michael  Faraday  experimented 
to  find  out  if  the  converse  were 
true,  i.e.  if  a  magnetic  field  could 
induce  an  electric  current,  and 
eventually  in  1831  he  succeeded  in 
making  this  all-important  dis- 
covery the  forerunner  of  the 
modern  dynamo. 

Faraday  discovered  that  if  a 
magnet  were  passed  through  a  coil 
of  wire  a  current  of  electricity  was 
induced  in  the  wire  while  the  mag- 
net was  moving.  The  same  effect 
was  produced  if  the  magnet  were 
kept  still  and  the  wire  moved.  If 
the  magnet  be  horseshoe  in  shape 
the  magnetic  field  is  concentrated, 
and  if  a  ring  of  copper  wire  be 
passed  between  the  poles,  cutting 
the  lines  of  force  of  the  magnetic 
field  at  an  angle,  an  electric  current 
passes  along  the  wire. 

This  is  the  essential  principle  of 
the  dynamo  or  electric  generator, 
and  from  this  simple  fact  has  been 
built  up  the  complicated  modern 
dynamo.  Fig.  1  shows  Faraday's 
famous  experiment. 

Since  the  strength  of  the  mag- 
netic field  is  not  constant  at  all 
points  of  the  magnet,  it  follows 
that  as  the  coil  of  wire  moves 
across  it  the  strength  of  the  in- 


duced  electric  current  varies. 
Moreover  it  is  found  that  decreas- 
ing the  number  of  lines  of  force 
passing  through,  the  conductor  pro- 
duces an  induced  current  in  one 
direction,  while  increasing  the 
number  of 
lines  through 
the  conductor 
produces  an 
induced  cur- 
rent in  a  con- 
trary  direc- 
tion. In  other 
words,  cur- 
rent? alter- 
nate  along  the 
wire  as  it 
passes  across 
the  magnetic 
field. 

The  strength 
of  the  induced 
current, 
E.M.F.oreleo- 


Dynamo.  Fig.  1. 
Faraday's  experi- 
ment. N  S  is  a  mag- 
net which  is  moved 
into  the  hollow  coil 
of  wire,  W,  causing 
a  current  along  the 
wires  w,  w' 


tromotive  force,  is  proportional 
to  the  strength  of  the  field,  or 
rather  to  the  number  oi  lines  of 
force  cut  by  the  ring  in  a  eiven 
time,  and  the  direction  of"  the 
current  is  at  right  angles  to  the 
lines  of  force  and  to  the  direction 
in  which  th.>  ring  is  moved.  If 
the  plane  of  the  moving  ring  is 
parallel  to  the  lines  of  force, 
equal  and  opposite  currents  would 
be  induced  and  would  neutralise  one 
another.  By  a  device  known  as 
the  commutator  the  alternating 


DYNAMO 


2751 


DYNAMO 


current  induced  in  the  coil  can  be 
changed  into  a  direct  or  contin- 
uous current  travelling  always  in 
one  direction.  Fig.  2  shows  the  es- 
sential principle  of  a  commutator. 
The  ends  of  the  coil  are  joined  to 
two  halves  of  a  split  tube,  which  is 
fastened  to  a  spindle  on  which  the 


Dynamo.  Fig.  2.  Diagram  show- 
ing essential  principle  of  a  com- 
mutator. N  and  S  are  the  opposite 
poles  of  a  magnet  between  which 
the  wire  coil  is  made  to  revolve 

coil  revolves,  in  such  a  way  that 
the  two  halves  are  insulated  from 
one  another.  Two  metallic  plates, 
or  brushes,  are  arranged  so  that 
the  induced  currents  pass  through 
them  to  the  external  circuit  from 
the  segments  of  the  coil.  The 
segments  change  brushes  as  the 
coil  takes  up  the  position  where 
the  induced  current  is  zero. 

The  intensity  of  the  current  is 
increased  if  a  flat  coil  of  many 
turns  of  wire  be  substituted  for 
the  simple  coil,  but  even  then  a 
cycle  occurs  only  once  per  revo- 
lution ^To  increase  the  number 
of  cycles  and  so  make  the  current 
more  constant,  a  large  number  of 
coils  are  used,  arranged  at  angles 
to  one  another  in  external  grooves 
cut  upon  the  surface  of  a  drum  of 
soft  iron  plates,  which  has  the 
effect  of  concentrating  the  lines 
of  magnetic  forces  into  the  path 
of  the  coils.  An  intense  magnetic 
field  is  obtained  by  using  electric 
magnets,  excited  by  a  current 
through  the  coils  encircling  them, 
in  place  of  the  permanent  magnets 
employed  in  the  early  machines. 
These  two  chief  parts  of  a  dynamo 
are  the  Armature  and  Field  Mag- 
net System  or  Field. 

In  direct  current  machines  the 
armature  is  the  revolving  part,  but 
in  alternating  current  machines  it 
is  usually  found  expedient  to 
employ  stationary  armatures  and 
revolving  field-magnets. 

DIRECT  CURRENT  DYNAMOS. 
The  armature  of  a  direct  current 
dynamo  consists  of  a  number  of 
very  thin  circular  sheets  or  lam- 
inations of  charcoal  iron  pressed 
together  on  a  shaft  or  spindle  so  as 
to  form  a  cylinder  or  drum.  Each 
disk  is  insulated  from  its  neighbour, 
in  order  to  reduce  the  so-called 
Foucault  currents  which  would 
cause  a  solid  mass  of  iron  to  heat 
excessively.  The  soft  iron  core  of 
an  armature,  whether  revolving  or 
fixed,  concentrates  the  magnetic 
field.  The  surface  of  the  drum  has 


Dynamo.  Fig.  2a. 
Diagram  of  a  split- 
ring  commutator 


longitudinal  slots  (Fig.  3)  in  which 
the  conductors  or  windings  are 
embedded.  The  three  openings 
surrounding  the  central  hole  com- 
municate with  air  ducts  for  the 
purpose  of  ventilating  and  cooling 
the  armature.  Very  large  arma- 
tures have  a  hollow  or  ring  core. 
The  ring  is  carried  on  radial  spokes 
from  a  hub  keyed  on  to  the  shaft, 
the  arrangement  being  termed  a 
spider.  At  one  end  of  the  armature 
is  the  commutator,  composed  of 
a  number  of 
segmental  cop- 
per bars  insu- 
lated from  each 
other,  and  from 
the  shaft.  A 
complete  drum 
armature 
shown  in  Fig.  4, 
the  commutator 
being  the  smal- 
ler of  the  two 
cylinders. 

There  are  a  number  of  ways  of 
winding  the  wires  on  the  armatures, 
and  the  most  easily  grasped  prin- 
ciple is  that  of  the  ring  winding 
of  the  Gramme  and  other  early 
machines,  as 
shown  dia  - 
grammatically 
in  Fig.  5. 

A  d j  acen  t 
j  coils  are  con- 
j  nected  to  the 
|  commutator 
bars  in  the 
manner  shown , 
which,  by  re- 
versing the 
connexion  o  f 
the  outer  cir- 
cuit when  the 
E.M.F.  in  the  coil  is  reversed, 
causes  the  current  to  flow  in  one 
direction.  If,  instead  of  being 
connected  to  the  commutator  bars 
the  beginning  and  the  end  of  the 
complete  spiral  were  joined  to  a 
separate  collecting  ring,  the  cur- 
rent would  not  be  rectified,  but 
delivered  as  alternating  current. 


Dynamo.  Fig.  3. 
Diagram  showing 
longitudinal  slots 
in  which  the  con- 
ductors of  an  ar- 
mature are  em- 


Dynamo. 


Fig.  4.     Complete  drum 
armature 


Nearly  all  modern  drum  armatures 
are  wound  upon  what  are  known  as 
the  lap  and  the  wave  principles,  the 
first  being  adapted  to  large  currents 
of  low  voltage  and  the  second  to 
small  currents  of  high  voltage. 

In  lap  winding  each  winding 
forms  a  loop,  lapping  over  other 
loops,  and  each  end  is  joined  to 
a  commutator  segment.  Wave 


Dynamo.  Fig.  5. 
Ring  winding  on 
an  armature, 
shown  diagram- 
matical^. N  and 
S,  north  and  south 
poles  of  the  mag- 
net 


winding  follows  a  zigzag  line  round 
the  core,  the  successive  coils  being 
connected  in  series. 

The  term  brush  used  here  is 
derived  from  the  bundle  of  copper 
wires,  thin  sheets  or  gauze  formerly 
employed  ;  but 
carbon  is  now 
used  except  for 
the  collection  of 
currents  o'f  very 
low  tension. 
Contact  with 
the  c  o  m  m  u  - 
tator  is  main- 
tained by  the 
pressure  of  a 
light  spring 

The  field 
magnet  system 
of  a  dynamo,  originally  in  the  form 
of  a  hardened  steel  permanent 
horseshoe  magnet,  or  assemblage 
of  magnets,  as  in  Fig.  6,  usually 
consists  of  two,  four  or  more  cores, 
contained  within  a  circular  yoke. 
For  many  years  the  horseshoe  form 
was  retained,  but  in  this  the  loss  of 
strayed  magnetism  is  greater.  It 
was  early  discovered  that  the  re- 
sidual magnetism  present  in  soft 
iron  was  sufficient  to  provide  for 
the  generation  of  an  initial  current 
by  which  the  magnetism  could  be 
"  built  up  ;  "  the  final  result  being 
a  field  far  more  powerful  than 
could  be  obtained  from  permanent 
magnets.  Soft  wrought  iron  and 
special  kinds  of  soft  steel  have  a 
higher  "  permeability  "  or  mag- 
netic conductivity  than  cast-iron, 
and  the  magnet  cores  are  therefore 
of  this  material,  except  in  the  case 
of  very  small  machines.  In  quite 
small  machines  the  low  residual 
magnetism  of  wrought  iron  leads 
to  excitation  difficulties,  besides 
which  the  cast-iron  construction 
is  cheaper. 

Magneto  machines  are  still  used 
for  special  purposes  where  instant 
generation  of  small  currents  is 
required. 

The  direction  of  the  winding  of 
the  magnet  coils  is  such  that  the 
cores  become  N.  and  S.  poles  al- 
ternately, and  the  winding  may  be 
in  "  series,"  "  shunt,"  or  a  combi- 
nation of  both  ("compound") 
with  the  external  circuit. 

In  series  winding  (see  Fig.  7) 
the  whole  of  the  current  passes 
through  the 
magnet  coils, 
which  in  this 
case  consist  of  a 
small  number  of 
turns  of  thick 
wire.  In  other 
words,  the  arma- 
ture, field  coils, 
and  the  external 


of  magneto         series.     A  series 


DYNAMO 


2752 


DYNAMO 


machine  generates,  within  limits, 
a  current  of  constant  quantity: 
increase  of  output  being  repre- 
sented by  a  rise  in  voltage.  Series 
machines  were  formerly  much  used 
for  series  arc  lighting.  With 
"  shunt "  (Fig.  8)  winding  only  a 
fraction  of  the  current  delivered  to 
the  circuit  passes  through  the  field 


Dynamo.     Fig.  7. 
Series  winding 


Dynamo.      Fig. 
Shunt  winding 


coils,  which  contain  many  turns  of 
fine  wire. 

In  the  compound- wound  dynamo 
(Fig.  9)  the  series  winding  compen- 
sates for  the  loss  of  voltage  in  the 
armature  due  to  increased  output, 
and  a  compound  machine  may  be 
made  self-regulating  for  varying 
loads.  By  "  over-compounding," 
that  is,  increasing  the  proportion 
of  the  series  winding,  it  is  possible 
to  provide  for  an  increase  of  voltage 
with  increase  of  load.  In  this  way  a 
loss  of  pressure  in  distributing 
mains,  owing  to  the  extra  work  put 
upon  them,  may  be  made  good. 
Compound  dynamos  or  generators 
are  employed  for  direct  electric 
lighting  and  for  power  and  trac- 
tion services. 

Figure  10  represents  a  modern 
direct-current  dynamo.  Small 
pole-pieces  between  the  main  pole- 
pieces  will  be  noticed  ;  these  are 
known  as  "  interpoles,"  or  "  corn- 
mutating  "  poles.  They  are  excited 
by  a  few  turns  of  series  winding, 
and  their  function  is  to  reduce  the 
effect  of  armature  reaction,  and 
so  prevent  sparking  between  the 
brushes  and  the  commutator  when 
a  change  of  load  takes  place.  A 
change  of  load  causes  a  change  of 
flux,  and  this  formerly  necessitated 
an  adjustment  of  the  position  or 
"  lead  "  of  the  brushes  which  re- 
quired constant  watchfulness*. 

ALTERNATING  CURRENT  DYNA- 
MOS. In  the  early  days  of  electrical 
engineering,  motors,  arc  lamps  and 
other  appliances  had  not  been 
developed  for  alternating-current, 
therefore  all  dynamos  were  pro- 
vided with  commutators,  which 
changed  the  alternating  into  direct, 
currents.  One  special  kind  of  ma- 
chine— the  "uni -polar"  or  "homo- 
polar  " — actually  generates  a  di- 
rect current,  but  although  it  has 
occupied  the  attention  of  inventors 
for  many  years  past,  it  is  still  it 
the  experimental  stage.  Improve-  ' 


ments  in  static  transformers  (which 
can  only  be  employed  with  alter- 
nating currents)  and  a  recognition 
of  the  value  of  high  voltage  for 
long-distance  transmission  of  elec- 
trical energy,  directed  attention  to 
the  "  alternator." 

Direct  current  dynamos  are  not 
adapted  to  the  production  of  high 
voltage  cur- 
rents, owing, 
mainly,  to  the 
practical  diffi- 
culty in  col- 
lecting such 
currents  from 
the  commuta- 
tors,and  partly 
to  thedifficulty 

Dynamo.  Fig.  9.  J?  insulating 
Compound  winding  the  coils  on  the 
revolving  arm- 
ature. With  alternators  these  diffi- 
culties can  be  overcome  and  ma- 
chines have  been  constructed  to 
supply  current  at  15,000  volts.  A 
lower  pressure — from  12,000  to 
13,000  volts — is,  however,  generally 
regarded  as  the  advisable  limit. 

If  a  higher  voltage  is  required, 
the  usual  practice  is  to  raise  it  by 
means  of  a  transformer.  The  high 
voltage  generally  associated  with 
the  alternators  has  led  to  a  funda- 
mental change  in  their  design,  viz. 
the  moving  of  the  magnetic^field  in 


Dynamo.     Fig.  10.    Modern  direct- 
current  dynamo 

relation  to  the  armature  wires,  in- 
stead of  the  armature  in  relation 
to  the  field.  The  field-magnets  are, 
except  in  the  case  of  small  machines 
of  low  voltage,  included  in  the 
revolving  parts  (see  Fig.  11), 
whilst  the  armature  (Fig.  12)  forms 
the  stationary  part.  Fig.  13  shows 
the  machine'  assembled  with  the 
field-magnets  inside  the  armature. 


Dynamo.     Fig.  11.     Field  magnet 
oi  alternator 


Dynamo.      Fig.  12.      Armature  of 
alternator 

In  this  way  the  current  from  the 
armature  can  be  led  off  without  the 
interposition  of  any  moving  col- 
lector, while  the  insulation  is  not 
cramped  or  subjected  to  mechani- 
cal stress.  The  current  necessary 
to  excite  the  field  magnets  is  of 
low  voltage,  and  is  led  to  them  by 
carbon  brushes  bearing  upon  two 
"  slip "  rings  revolving  with  the 
field-magnet  system.  In  another 
kind  of  machine  (the  "  Inductor  " 
Alternator)  both  field  magnets  and 
armature  are  stationary,  but  have 
an  annular  space  between  them. 
The  annular  space  is  traversed  by 
bare  poles  ("inductors"),  attach- 
ed to  a  revolving  spider.  The 
poles  complete  the  magnetic  cir- 
cuit between  the  field-magnets  and 
the  armature  coils  as  they  pass 
between  them,  and,  in  doing  so, 
cause  the  necessary  variation  in 
magnetic  flux.  To  avoid  confusion, 
the  revolving  portion  of  an  alter- 
nator is  called  the  "  rotor  "  and  the 
stationary  part  the  "  stator  "- 
names  which  do  not  necessarily 
distinguish  between  armature  and 
field -magnets.  It  has  been  pointed 
out  that  to  increase  the  number  of 
alternations  per  revolution,  a  large 
number  of  coils  are  employed.  One 
complete  impulse  outwards  and 
then  back  is  produced  by  the 
revolution  of  two  pole-pieces  past 
a  conductor  (or  vice  versa),  so  that 
the  number  of  alternations  per 
second  ("periodicity"  or  "fre- 
quency " )  is  governed  by  the  speed 
of  revolution  and  the  number  of 
pairs  of  polos. 

Formerly  machines  giving  as 
many  as  100  or  more  cycles  per 
second  were  employed  ;  to-day  the 
frequency  varies  from  25  to  60 
cycles,  but,  except  for  special  pur- 
poses, the  present  tendency  is  in 
favour  of  50  cycles.  If  the  e'xoiting 
current  be  direct  (non-alternat- 
ing), the  generator  is  said  to  he  of 
the  "  synchronous  "  type,  since  at 
a  given  speed  the  frequency  will 
always  be  the  same,  depending, 
as  before  mentioned,  upon  the 
number  of  poles  and  angular 


DYNAMO-METAMORPHISM 


DYSART 


velocity.  This  does  not  hoJd  good 
of  the  "  induction  "  alternator  in 
which  the  frequency  depends  upon 
the  characteristics  of  an  external 
(polyphase)  alternating  current 
producing  the  field.  So  far,  alter- 
nators have  only  been  considered 
in  respect  of  what  is  known  as  a 
"  single-phase  "  circuit.  If  a  second 
set  of  armature  coils  be  inter- 
posed in  the  spaces  between  the 
original  set  (doubling  the  arma- 
ture, in  fact)  two  distinct  alternat- 
ing currents  will  be  generated,  the 


I 


Dynamo.    Fis    13     1, 000  k.w.  \7est- 

ingbpuse  3-pbase  alternator,  showing 

field  magnets  inside  armature 

one  following  the  other  at  a  quarter 
of  a  period.  For  this  reason  this  is 
sometimes  called  the  "  quarter- 
phase  "  system.  If  the  principle 
be  extended  to  three  similar,  but 
separate  sets  of  coils,  three  equal 
alternating  currents,  one-third  of  a 
phase  apart,  will  be  obtained  (see 
Fig.  14).  The  use  of  "  polyphase  " 
currents  secures  a  greater  output 
for  given  weight  of  generator  and 
al?o  requires  less  copper  in  trans- 
mission lines  and  is  far  more  suit- 
able tor  motor  circuits.  See 
Distributor. 

Dynamo  -Met  amor  phism  (Or. 
mela.  implying  change ;  morphe, 
form).  Alteration  of  rock-struc- 
ture by  the  lateral  pressures  in- 
duced by  movements  in  the  earth's 
crust.  The  term  was  introduced 
by  A.  Harker  to  denote  the  effects 
of  high  pressure  and  low  tempera- 
ture, therm o-metamorphism  being 
used  to  denote  the  effects  of  low 
pressure  and  high  temperature. 
The  alternative  terms,  regional  and 
contact  metamorphism,  are  roughly 
synonymous  with  dynamic  and 
thermal  „  metamorphism  respec- 
tively. 

The  changes  produced  are  phy- 
sical and  mineralogical.  and  usually 
render  rooks  more  highly  crystal- 
line. Homogeneous  rocks  under 
pressure  develop  cleavage-planes, 
foliation  and  schistose  structure. 
Thus  clays,  shales,  or  fine-grained 
volcanic  dust  may  become  roofing- 
slates,  coarse-grained  rocks  may 
become  gneisses.  Heterogeneous 
rocks,  if  brittle  and  yielding  strata 
are  intermingled,  develop  folding 
and  faulting.  Mineralogical 


Uyuamo.     L'ig.  14.      Armature   of 
3-phase  alternator,  6,600  voits 

changes  include  re -crystallisation 
into  a  mosaic  of  smaller  crystals 
and  the  formation  of  mica.  Sea 
Crystallography. 

Dynamometer  (Gr.  dynamis, 
power  ;  metron,  a  measure).  De- 
vice for  measuring  force  or  power. 

Though  the  term  dynamometer 
has  been  extensively  used  for  many 
different  kinds  of  measuring  in- 
struments, it  is  more  commonly 
applied  to  instruments  used  for 
measuring  the  h.p.  of  engines. 
They  may  be  divided  into  three 
classes:  (1 )  those  for  measuring  the 
pull  of  anything  ;  (2)  those  for 
measuring  the  push  or  thrust ;  and 
(3)  those  for  measuring  twisting 
power  or  torsion. 

The  first  type  measures  such 
forces  as  those  exerted  by  railway 
locomotives,  traction  engines,  etc., 
and  consist  essentially  of  a  power- 
ful spring  balance  through  which 
the  power  is  applied.  The  second 
type  measures  such  forces  as  the 
t  h  r  u  s  t  of  an  _ 
aeroplane  pro- 
peller  or 
ste  am  s  hip 
screw,  and  the  IHf 
third  the  force 
exerted  by  a 
revolving 
shaft,  and  I 
both  the  latter  \  iLw^ 
may  consist  ; 
of  recording  !  Twifa 
springs  or 
brake  attach- 
ments. 

When     a 
brake  is  used 
it    absorbs 
power  and  the 
dynamometer 
is  called  an 
absorption  dy- 
namometer. 
Transmis- 
sion   dyna-    Dynamometex.  Com- 
mometers    mon   type  of  brake 
measure    the         dynamometer 
horse-power  of  machines  without 
any  absorption  of  power,  save  that 
due  to  friction,  and  the  majority 
consist  of  recording  spring  devices. 


The  illustration  shows  a  cou«non 
type  of  brake  dynamometer.  To 
one  end  of  a  rope," encircling  the  fly- 
wheel of  the  engine,  is  attached  a 
weight,  and  the  other  end  is  fast- 
ened to  a  spring.  The  motion  of  the 
wheel  tends  to  lift  the  weight,  and 
this  tendency  is  measured  on  the 
spring  and  from  it,  and  the  known 
revolutions  per  minute  of  the  fly- 
wheel, the  horse-power  being 
exerted  may  readily  be  calculated. 

Dynamotor.  Combined  form  of 
motor  and  dynamo.  It  consists  of 
one  field  magnet  and  two  arma- 
tures, or  one  armature  with  two 
windings,  one  receiving  current  as  a 
motor  and  the  other  generating 
current  as  a  djmanio. 

Dyne  (Or.  dynamis,  power).  Unit 
of  force  which,  applied  to  a  mass  of 
one  gramme,  produces  an  accelera- 
tion of  one  centimetre  per  second 
every  second.  This  force  is  very 
nearly  equal  to  the  force  with 
which  the  earth  attracts  a  weight 
of  one  milligramme.  The  erg,  the 
unit  of  work,  is  done  when  a  body 
acted  on  by  a  force  of  one  dyne 
moves  through  a  centimetre  in  the 
direction  of  the  force.  Approxi- 
mately an  erg  of  work  is  done 
when  a  milligramme  is  raised 
through  one  centimetre.  10,000,000 
ergs  equal  one  joule. 

Dynobel.  British  safety  ex- 
plosive of  the  perchlorate  type.  It 
consists  of  nitroglycerine,  32 '5  p.c., 
partially  gelatinised  with  nitro- 
cellulose, 0'7  p.c.,  potassium  per- 
chlorate, 27  p.c.,  wood  meal,  10'3 
p.c.,  and  ammonium  oxalate.  29 '5 
p.c.  The  dry  salts  and  part  of  the 
wood  meal  are  placed  together  in  a 
pan  and  mixed  by  hand ;  the 
partially  gelatinised  nitroglycerine 
is  then  added,  the  container  being 
wiped  out  with  the  rest  of  the 
wood  meal,  and  the  whole  roughly 
mixed  by  hand  and  then  incor- 
porated in  a  machine  of  the  type 
employed  for  blasting  gelatine  or 
cordite  at  a  temperature  of  about 
30°  C.  for  an  hour. 

Dysart  (Lat.  desertitm,  solitude). 
Royal  and  tnun.  burgh  and  seaport 
of  Fifeshire,  Scotland.  It  stands 
on  the  Firth  of  Forth,  28  m.  N.E. 
of  Edinburgh  by  the  N.B.  Rly.  It 
derives  its  name  from  a  cave' near 
Dvsart  House  reputed  to  have 
been  the  cell  of  S.  Serf.  It  has  a 
good  harbour,  and  engages  in 
linen  manufacture,  shipbuilding, 
and  the  export  of  coal.  Pop.  of 
mun.  bor.  4,197. 

Dysart,  EARL  OP.  Scottish  title 
borne  since  ]  643  by  the  families  of 
Murray  and  Tollemache.  Sir  Lionel 
Tollemache,  a  member  of  a  family 
long  settled  in  Cheshire,  was  made 
a  baronet  in  1611.  His  grandson, 
Lionel,  married  Elizabeth,  daugh- 
ter of  William  Murray,  who,  in 


DYSENTERY 

1643,  had  been  made  Lord  Hunt- 
ingtower  and  earl  of  Dysart. 
Murray  had  no  sons,  and  his  daugh- 
ter succeeded  to  the  earldom,  ob- 
taining from  Charles  II,  in  1670, 
the  right  to  name  her  own  heir. 
She  became  later  the  wife  of  the 
duke  of  Lauderdale,  but  had  no 
children  by  her  second  marriage. 

Her  son  Lionel  became  the  3rd 
earl,  and  the  title  continued  with  his 
descendants  until  the  6th  earl  died 
in  1821,  when  it  passed  again  to  a 
female,  his  sister  Louisa  Manners. 
She  became  countess  of  Dysart, 
and  her  grandson  became  the  8th 
earl  in  1840.  In  1878,  William  John 
Manners  Tollemache  became  the 
9th  earl.  The  earl's  seats  are  Buck- 
minster  Park,  Grantham,  and  Ham 
House,  Petersham,  and  his  eldest 
son  is  known  as  Viscount  Hunting- 
tower. 

Dysentery  (Gr.  dys,  implying 
badness  ;  entera,  intestines).  Medi- 
cal term  applied  somewhat  loosely 
to  several  distinct  affections. 
These  resemble  each  other  in 
having  irritation  of  the  bowel  as  a 
prominent  symptom,  often  asso- 
ciated with  diarrhoea  and  blood  in 
the  motions. 

Amoebic  dysentery  is  caused  by  a 
minute  organism  (amoeba)  which 
enters  the  body  with  food  or  drink- 
ing water.  The  disease  is  wide- 
spread throughout  the  tropics,  and 
is  also  met  with  in  the  U.S.A., 
Germany,  Russia,  and  Italy.  In  the 
acute  form  the  onset  is  abrupt, 
with  pain,  diarrhoea,  and  passage 
of  blood.  The  patient  rapidly  loses 
flesh,  and  death  may  occur  in  a 
week  or  ten  days  from  exhaustion 
and  enfeeblement  of  the  heart. 
The  chronic  form  may  follow  an 
acute  attack,  or  may  develop  in- 
sidiously. The  condition  may  per- 
sist for  years,  with  alternating 
periods  of  constipation  and  diar- 
rhoea. Ultimately  emaciation  may 
be  very  marked.  Abscess  of  the 
liver  is  a  frequent  and  serious  com- 
plication ;  gangrene  of  the  bowel 
and  peritonitis  sometimes  occur. 
The  treatment  consists  in  keeping 
the  patient  in  bed,  with  skilled 
nursing  and  very  careful  dieting. 
Ipecacuanha,  or  its  active  prin- 
ciple emetine,  has  proved  of  great 
value.  Intestinal  irrigation  may 
be  useful,  and  in  some  cases  sur- 
gical methods  afford  the  only  hope 
of  saving  life. 

Bacillary  dysentery  is  caused  by 
infection  with  a  bacillus  of  which 
there  appear  to  be  several  forms. 
This  variety  of  dysentery  occurs 
all  over  the  world,  though  it  is 
more  frequent  in  hot  than  in 
temperate  climates.  The  disease 
is  very  infectious,  the  bacilli  being 
conveyed  into  the  system  by  food 
and  drinking  water.  Flies  take  an 


2754 

active  part  in  its  spread.  In  the 
acute  form  the  symptoms  are  pain, 
rapid  rise  of  temperature,  and 
diarrhoea  with  passage  of  blood. 
Death  may  occur  within  a  few  days. 
In  cases  which  improve,  the  patient 
is  convalescent  in  two  or  three 
weeks.  After  an  acute  attack, 
chronic  dysentery  may  persist  for 
vears,  with  intermissions  of  varying 
length. 

Dysidrosis  (Gr.  dys;  hidros, 
sweat),  POMPHOLYX  (Gr.,  bubble, 
vesicle)  OB  CHELRO-POMPHOLYX. 
Acute  eruption  of  vesicles  on  the 
skin  of  the  hands  and  feet  with 
excessive  sweating.  It  sometimes 
follows  local  irritation,  as  in 
medical  men  after  the  use  of  anti- 
septic solutions.  Burning  and  ex- 
treme itching  are  the  most  marked 
symptoms.  The  condition  is  worse 
in  spring  and  summer  and  often 
tends  to  recur  at  the  same  period 
of  the  year.  Scratching  may  lead 
to  secondary  infection  and  severe 
eruptions.  Treatment  consists  in 
building  up  the  general  health, 
while  local  applications  of  zinc 
ointment,  salicylic  acid,  and  other 
drugs  are  useful.  Exposure  to  X 
rays  has  proved  beneficial  in  in- 
tractable cases. 

Dyson,  SIR  FRANK  WATSON  (b. 
1868).  British  astronomer.  The 
son  of  a  Baptist  minister,  he  was 
born  at  Ash  by, 
Jan.  8,  1868, 
and  went  from 
Bradford 
Grammar 
School  to 
Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  of 
which  society 
he  became  a 
fellow.  In  1894 
he  entered  the 
Royal  Observa- 
tory, Greenwich,  as  chief  assistant. 
Five  years  later  he  became  secre- 
tary of  the  Royal  Astronomical 
Society,  and  in  1901  F.R.S.  In 
1905  Dyson  was  made  astronomer- 
royal  for  Scotland,  and  in  1910  was 
transferred  to  the  corresponding 
position  in  England  In  1915  he 
was  knighted. 

Dyson,  WILL  (b.  1883).  British 
cartoonist.  Born  at  Ballarat,  Aus- 
tralia, and  educated  at  Melbourne, 
he  first  attract- 
e  d  attention 
with  his  car- 
toons for  The 
Daily  Herald. 
As  a  pictorial 
satirist  of  un- 
usual imagina- 
tive and  dra- 
matic power, 
he  championed 
not  only  th» 
rights  of  La- 


Sir  Frank  Dyson. 
British  astronomer 

Russell 


DYTISCUS 

hour,  but  also  the  larger  cause  of 
political  freedom.  His  cartoons 
of  the  Great  War  were  specially 
incisive. 

Dyspepsia  OR  INDIGESTION  (Gr. 
dy* ;  pesse.in,  peptein,  to  cook, 
digest).  Acute  dyspepsia  or  acute 
gastric  catarrh  is  most  frequently 
due  to  errors  in  diet.  It  may  be 
caused  by  eating  too  large  an 
amount  of  food  or  unsuitable  food, 
such  as  unripe  fruit,  or  food  which 
has  begun  to  decompose.  Alcoholic 
excess  is  another  cause,  and  acute 
dyspepsia  is  sometimes  an  early 
symptom  of  many  of  the  infectious 
fevers.  The  symptoms  are  pain  in 
the  stomach,  nausea,  vomiting, 
bringing  up  of  wind,  headache,  and 
depression.  Sometimes,  particu- 
larly with  children,  there  may  be  a 
rise  of  temperature.  Diarrhoea  or 
constipation  may  follow.  The 
tongue  is  furred.  Treatment  con- 
sists in  withholding  food  for  the 
first  24  hours,  and  subsequently 
giving  a  light  and  easily  digested 
diet.  In  children,  a  dose  of  cantor 
oil  is  often  helpful,  and  for  adults 
a  dose  of  calomel,  followed  next 
morning  by  a  saline  purge. 

Chronic 'dyspepsia  results  from 
chronic  gastritis,  which  may  follow 
the  long-continued  habit  of  taking 
unsuitable  food,  or  excess  of 
alcohol,  or  may  be  a  symptom  of 
many  diseases,  such  as  gout, 
diabetes,  Bright's  disease,  tubercu- 
losis, anaemia,  and  cancer  of  the 
stomach.  The  symptoms  are  a  sense 
of  fullness  or  distress  after  eating, 
with  pain  apparently  in  the  regicn 
of  the  heart,  known  as  heartburn, 
nausea,  sometimes  vomiting,  flatu- 
lence, headache,  depression,  and 
usually  constipation,  though  some- 
times diarrhoea.  In  simple  chronic 
dyspepsia  the  treatment  consists 
in  taking  a  light  and  easily  digested 
diet.  Meals  should  be  eaten  slowly 
and  well  masticated.  Pepsin,  pan- 
creatin,  and  other  digestive  fer- 
ments may  be  administered.  Bitter 
tonics,  such  as  quassia  and  gentian, 
are  often  useful. 

Where  the  dyspepsia  is  a  symp- 
tom of  a  general  disease,  that  con- 
dition also  must  receive  the  appro- 
priate treatment.  Some  persons 
suffer  from  chronic  dyspepsia  for 
which  there  is  no  apparent  cause, 
and  in  whom  all  the  organs  appear 
to  be  healthy.  See  Diet ;  Food. 

Dytiscus  (Gr.  dyies,  diver). 
Generic  name  for  the  larger  car- 
nivorous water  beetles  common  in 
ponds  throughout  Great  Britain. 
They  swim  with  considerable  speed, 
but 'have  to  come  to  the  surface 
to  obtain  a  fresh  supply  of  air, 
which  is  stored  under  the  wing- 
cases  for  breathing  when  under 
water.  These  beetles  prey  on  tad- 
poles and  the  fry  of  fish.  See  Beetle, 


E  Fifth  and  most  trequently 
0  used  letter,  and  the  second 
vowel  of  the  English  and 
Latin  alphabets.  Its  chief  sounds 
are  those  heard  in  me,  the  Italian  i, 
and  in  men,  really  the  short  sound 
corresponding  to  a  in  mane.  In 
words  like  there,  here,  her,  the  pro- 
nunciation is  influenced  by  r.  In 
clerk,  Serjeant,  e  has  the  sound  of  a. 
As  a  rule,  e  final  is  itself  mute,  but 
its  usual  effect  is  to  lengthen  the 
preceding  vowel;  e.g.  mat,  mate, 
butgive,live.  When c and g precede, 
their  pronunciation  is  generally 
modified,  e.g.  fence,  certain,  gender. 

The  combinations  of  e  with  other 
vowels  represent  various  sounds  : 
ea  usually  ee,  as  in  meat,  but  at 
times  as  in  bread,  head,  great,  pear, 
heart ;  eau  in  French  words  is  a 
long  o,  as  in  portmanteau,  but  in 
beauty  as  iu  (y>i).  Ei  is  a  long  a  or 
ee,  as  in  ivcight,  deceit,  but  has  a 
short  i -sound  in  foreign,  sovereign, 
sometimes  long  as  in  height,  neither 
(also  neether).  Eo  is  a  long  ee,  as 
in  people,  but  yeoman  is  an  excep- 
tion ;  in  words  like  gudgeon,  sur- 
geon, the  sound  is  almost  that  of 
short  u  or  o.  Eu,  ew  have  the 
sound  of  iu  (yu),  as  in  deuce,  new, 
but  of  o  in  sew.  In  ey  when  accen- 
ted, the  sound  is  that  of  a  long  a,  as 
in  purvey,  but  when  unaccented,  as 
in  valley,  the  sound  approaches 
that  of  short  i.  Key,  like  its  homo- 
nym quay,  is  pronounced  kee.  See 
Alphabet ;  Phonetics. 

E.  In  music,  the  third  note  of 
the  natural  scale  of  C.  E  is  two 
whole  tones  higher  than  C.  See 
Key  Signature  ;  Pitch. 

E.  Class  of  British  submarine. 
Begun  in  1911,  the  E  submarines 
were  the  latest  in  commission 


when  the  Great  War  broke  out, 
and  were  nuni  bered  1  to  23.  Their 
dimensions  varied,  but  the  usual 
armament  was  4  to  5  torpedo 
tubes,  two  3 -in.  guns  •  their  sur- 
face speed  was  calculated  as  16 
knots,  and  submerged  speed  as 
10  knots.  See  Submarine. 

E  3.  British  submarine.  She 
was  commanded  by  Lieut. -Com- 
mander G.  F.  Cholmondeley,  and 
was  sunk  in  the  North  Sea  Oct.  18, 
1914.  She  was  the  first  British  sub- 
marine destroyed  by  enemy  action 
during  the  Great  War. 

Ell.  British  submarine.  Com- 
manded by  Lieut. -Commander 
Martin  E.  Nasmith,  she  took  part 
in  operations  in  the  Heligoland 
Bight  in  1914.  On  May  26, 1915, 
she  forced  her  way  into  the  Sea  of 
Marmora,  torpedoed  a  store-ship 
off  Constantinople,  and  sunk  other 
enemy  craft,  including  a  transport. 
For  his  share  in  these  exploits 
Nasmith  was  awarded  the  V.C. 

E  14.  British  submarine.  She 
was  sunk  by  gunfire  off  Kum  Kale, 
Dardanelles,  on  Jan.  28, 1918;  seven 


of  her  crew  were  made  prisoners, 
and  her  commander,  Lt.-Comdr. 
G.  S.  White,  was  posthumously 
awarded  the  V.C.  E  14  was  one  of 
the  submarines  that  in  April-May, 
1915,  dived  under  minefields  into 
the  Sea  of  Marmora,  and  destroyed 
Turkish  armed  ships.  Her  comman- 
der, E.  C.  Boyle,  received  the  V.C. 

E  15.  British  submarine.  On 
April  17,  1915,  she  grounded  on 
Kephez  Point  while  trying  to  get 
through  the  Dardanelles.  Ten  of 
her  crew  were  lost,  and  three  officers 
and  21  men  taken  prisoner  by  the 
Turks.  Two  picket  boats  from  Brit- 
ish warships  on  the  night  of  April 
18  blew  up  the  submarine  to  pre- 
vent her  falling  into  enemy  hands. 

E  22.  British  submarine.  She 
was  sunk  by  German  warships  in 
the  North  Sea,  April  25, 1916.  Two 
of  the  submarine's  crew  were 
rescued  and  made  prisoner. 

E.  &  O.E.  Abbrev.  for  the  com- 
mercial term  errors  and  omissions 
excepted.  It  is  commonly  used 
when  sending  an  account  to  a 
customer  or  client. 


E  Class  submarine. 


One  of  the  type  in  the  British  Navy  built  1911-14 

Cribb,  Sowlhsea 


EA 

Ea.  God  of  Babylonian  myth- 
ology. He  is  said  to  have  arisen  out 
of  the  Persian  Gulf,  bringing  with 
him  the  elements  of  culture.  He 
was  the  god  of  wisdom  and  of 
life,  the  trees  of  which  grew  under 
his  protection  in  the  Babylonian 
Paradise,  which  was  watered  by 
the  rivers  Euphrates  and  Tigris, 
created  by  him  at  the  beginning 
of  time.  He  was  also  known  as  the 
potter  who  moulded  gods  and  men. 
Eade,  SIR  PETER  (1825-1915). 
British  physician.  He  was  born  at 
Acle,  Norfolk,  Jan.  19,  1825,  and 
educated  a  t 
Yarmouth 
Grammar 
School  and 
King's  College, 
London.  H  e 
graduated 
M.D.  at  Lon- 
don University , 
1 850,  and  prac- 
tised in  Nor- 
wich for  fifty 
years.  He  was  president  of  the 
British  Medical  Association,  1874; 
sheriff  of  Norfolk,  1880-81;  and 
twice  mayor  of  Norwich.  He  was 
the  author  of  Notes  on  Diphtheria, 
1883;  and  Influenza,  1891;  and 
part  author  of  a  report  on  the  cattle 
plague  in  Norfolk,  1865.  He  also 
wrote  on  the  topography  of  Nor- 
wich. He  was  knightedlSSo,  and 
died  Aug.  12,  1915.  See  Autobio- 
graphy, ed.  S.  H.  Long,  1916. 

Eadie,  DENNIS  (b.  1875).  British 
actor.  Born  at  Glasgow,  Jan.  14. 
1875,  in  1899  he  toured  with  the 
St.  James's 
Repertoire 
Company, 
making  his 
first  appear- 
ance in  London 
under  George 
Alexander  at 
the  St.  James's 
Theatre,  Feb. 
7,  1900,  in  The 
Prisoner  of 
Z  e  n  d  a.  He 


Sir  Peter  Eade, 
British  physician 


o 

ll 


Dennis  Eadie, 
British  actor 

Hugh  Cecil 

entered  into  management  of  the 
Royalty  with    J.  E.  Vedrenne   in 

1911,  in    the    same    year    taking 
the   part   of   Patent   in   the    com- 
mand  performance   of   Money   at 
Drury  Lane,   May   17.       As  John 
Rhead  he  made  a  success  in  Mile- 
stones,   which    was    produced    in 

1912.  On  June  27,  1913,  he  ap- 
peared as  Martin  in   the   all-star 
performance  of  London  Assurance, 
at  the  St.  James's.     In   1915  he 
played  in  The  Man  Who  Stayed 
at  Home.     In  1920  he  played  in 
The  Romantic  Young  Lady  at  the 
Royalty. 

Eadmer  OR  EDMER'd.  c.  1124). 
English  historian.  Brought  up  a 
monk  at  Canterbury,  he  became 


the  intimate  companion  of  Arch- 
bishop Anselm.  Elected  to  the 
archbishopric  of  St.  Andrews,  Scot- 
land, 1120,  he  refused  to  be  conse- 
crated except  by  the  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  and  on  the  Scottish 
king  denying  the  jurisdiction  of 
Canterbury,  Eadmer  remained  in 
England,  and  eventually  renounced 
his  claims  to  the  see.  He  wrote 
a  life  of  S.  Anselm  and  Historia 
Novorum — the  latter  an  English 
history  from  1066-1122.  Both 
works  were  edited  by  M.  Rule,  for 
the  Rolls  Series,  in  1884. 

Eads,  JAMES  BUCHANAN  (1820- 
87).  American  inventor.  Born 
May  23, 1820,  at  Lawrenceburg,  In- 
diana, he  began  life  as  a  clerk  at  St. 
Louis,  when  quite  a  boy.  Employ- 
ment on  a  steamer  on  the  Missis- 
sippi led  him  to  the  study  of  navi- 
gation, and  in  a  few  years  he 
became  a  recognized  authority  on 
river  engineering.  In  1861,  just 
after  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War. 


EAGLE 

he  was  entrusted  by  the  Federal 
government  with  the  work  of  build- 
ing a  fleet  of  warships  for  river 
service,  a  task  quickly  carried 
through.  He  was  responsible  for 
building  the  bridge  across  the  Mis- 
sissippi at  St.  Louis,  and  later  for 
deepening  and  otherwise  improving 
the  entrance  to  that  river ;  this  was 
his  greatest  work.  He  died  in  the 
Bahamas,  March  8,  1887,  being 
then  engaged  on  planning  a  canal 
across  the  isthmus  of  Tehuantepec. 
See  Life,  L.  How,  1900. 

Eagle  (Fr.  oigle,  Lat.  aquila). 
Group  of  large  birds  of  prey,  in- 
cluding some  fourteen  genera  and 
a  large  number  of  species.  The 
true  eagles  belong  to  the  hawk 
family,  of  which  they  are  the 
largest  members.  All  have  strong, 
curved  beaks  with  sharp  cutting 
edges,  and  the  head  has  usually  a 
flattened  and  rather  snakelike  look. 
The  plumage  is  generally  dark,  and 
the  wines  are  long  and  powerful. 


Eagle.     Typical  examples  of  this  large  bird  of  prey.     1.  White-tailed  sea 
eagle,  found  in  the  Hebrides.    2.  Imperial  eagle,  a  native  of  Asia  and  S.  Europe. 
3.   Golden  eagle,  found  in  certain  districts  of  the  British  Isles.      4.  Spotted 
eagle,  occasionally  found  in  the  British  Isles  in  winter 


2757 


EAGLE 


All  are  exclusively  carnivorous, 
and  most  of  them  eat  carrion.  They 
are  found  throughout  Europe, 
Africa,  Asia,  and  North  America. 

The  most  familiar  member  of  the 
genus  Aquila  is  the  golden  eagle 
(A.  chrysaetus),  which  is  not  un- 
common in  Scotland  and  in  the 
wilder  parts  of  Ireland.  The  golden 
eagles  seen  in  England  have  always 
turned  out  to  be  white-tailed 
species.  The  bird  is  about  a  yard 
in  length,  with  dark  brown  plumage 
showing  a  tawny  tinge  at  the  neck. 
It  lives  mainly  on  hares,  rabbits,  and 
game  birds,  and  will  occasionally 
attack  a  lamb  or  young  fawn.  Its 
nest,  made  of  sticks  and  often  of  a 
huge  size,  is  usually  built  on  a  ledge 
of  an  inaccessible  cliff.  The  white- 
tailed  sea  eagle  (Halietus  albicilla) 
is  found  in  the  Hebrides.  The 
spotted  eagle  (A.  maculata)  is  a  rare 
winter  visitant.  See  illus.  p.  990. 

Eagle.  Symbol  in  heraldry.  It 
was  employed  by  several  nations 
before  the  beginning  of  heraldic 
science,  notably  by  the  Hittites, 
Persians,  and  Egyptians.  In 
heraldry  it  is  almost  universally 
displayed  full  front,  with  expanded 
wings,  but  is  shown  in  a  great 
variety  of  positions,  as  close  (wing 
closed),  rising  (wings  elevated  or 
displayed ),  volant  or  flying,  truss- 
ing or  preying  (devouring  quarry), 
and  double-headed,  in  which  form 
it  was  adopted  by  the  Russian  and 
Austrian  empires. 

From  a  Roman  standard-symbol 
it  became  the  emblem  of  the  rulers 
of  the  Eastern  Empire,  from  whom 
Charlemagne  adopted  it  after  hi& 
coronation  at  Rome  in  A.D.  800, 
thus  making  it  the  badge  of  the 
medieval  empire.  From  this  early 
form  was'  evolved  the  later  Ger- 
man imperial  eagle,  which,  origin- 
ally one-headed,  is  represented  on 
the  coins  of  the  emperor  Louis  the 
Bavarian  as  double-headed,  to 
typify  the  union  of  the  royal  and 
imperial  dignities.  This  continued 


Eagle.    The  bird  as  displayed  on  military  standards.    1.  Of  the  armies  of  Ancient 
Rome.     2.  Of  those  of  Napoleon  I  and  Napoleon  HI 


to  be  the  basis  of  the  arms  of  the 
Holy  Roman  Empire  till  its  close  in 
1806.  The  Austrian  Empire  pre- 
served the  double-headed  eagle. 
The  Russian  tsars  assumed  the 
double-headed  form  in  1472  under 
Ivan  III.  to  signify  their  succession 
from  the  Greek  emperors.  The 
modern  German  Empire  adopted 
the  single- headed  eagle  on  its 
formation  in  1871. 

The  origin  of  the  assumption  of 
the  eagle  as  a  national  emblem  by 
the  United  States  of  America  is  ob- 
scure, but  there  is  good  reason  to 
believe  that  it  was  adopted  from 
Indian  usage.  Its  images,  carved 
in  wood,  or  its  stuffed  skin,  sur- 
mounted the  council  lodges  of  the 
Creek  Indians,  its  feathers  com- 
posed their  war  flag;  and  it  was 
worshipped  by  the  Natchez,  Alan- 
zas,  and  other  tribes.  The  American 
eagle  carries  in  its  talons  a  bundle 
of  arrows  and  an  olive  branch, 
bears  on  the  breast  a  shield  crossed 
by  six  red  vertical  bars,  and  from 
its  beak  issues  a  band  with  the 
motto  E  plunbus  unum.  The  eagle 
was  adopted  by  the  Mexican  Re- 
public because  of  an  Aztec  legend 
that  when  the  site  of  Mexico  City 


Representations  of  this  bird  on  the  flags  and  standards  of  various 
nations.     1.  Taken  from  an  Egyptian  coin  of  the  time  of   the  Ptolemies.     2. 
Ancient  Rome       3.  Holy  Roman  Empire.     4.  Austria      5    German  Empire. 
6.  Russian  Empire.     1.  U.S.A.     8.  Mexico. 


was  discovered  an  eagle  with  a  ser- 
pent in  its  talons  was  seen  perching 
on  a  cactus  plant.  The  alerion  is  an 
heraldic  form  of  the  eagle,  without 
beak  or  legs". 

Eagle.  Name  given  to  military 
standards  employed  in  ancient 
Rome  and  in  France  under  Napo- 
leon I  and  Napoleon  III.  In  Rome 
the  eagle  was  traditionally  believed 
to  have  brought  the  symbols  of 
earthly  power  to  King  Tarquinius 
Priscus,  and  was  first  adopted  as  a 
military  emblem  in  the  second  con- 
sulship of  Marius  (104  B.C.).  when 
the  older  tribal  standards  were  laid 
aside  and  the  eagle,  as  the  bird  of 
Jupiter,  was  alone  retained.  It  was 
at  first  made  of  wood,  but  later  was 
cast  in  silver  and  bronze,  with  ex- 
panded wings,  the  model  being  of 
no  very  great  size.  Under  the  later 
emperors  it  was  carried  by  the 
various  legions,  which  were  some- 
times spoken  of  as  eagles.  Under 
the  eagle  the  head  of  the  reigning 
emperor  was  frequently  shown. 

The  Napoleonic  eagle,  which  was 
served  out  to  regiments  and  vessels 
of  war,  was  represented  as  gilded 
and  crowned  and  perched  on  a 
thunderbolt.  It  was  first  issued  on 
Dec.  3,  1804,  the  day  after  Napo- 
leon's coronation,  and  the  officers 
who  received  it  took  oath  to  "  sacri- 
fice their  lives  in  defence  "  of  the 
standard.  Twelve  Napoleonic 
eagles  are  preserved  at  the  Chelsea 
Hospital,  London,  but  the  only 
naval  eagle  known  is  in  the 
museum  at  Madrid.  On  the  restora- 
tion of  the  Bourbons,  the  eagles  in 
use  were  destroyed,  but  when  Na- 
poleon returned  from  Elba  new 
eagles  were  issued.  After  Waterloo 
another  destruction  of  eagles  was 
ordered,  and  only  one  of  those 
which  had  not  been  captured  by 
the  British— that  of  the  Old  Guard 
— was  saved,  remaining  in  posses- 
sion of  the  officer  who  secreted  it. 
The  older  Napoleonic  eagles  bore 
only  the  number  of  the  regiment, 


EAGLE 


EALINQ 


but  those  made  in  1815  bore  the 
legend  L'Empereur  des  Francais, 
and  the  names  of  the  four  principal 
engagements  in  which  the  regiment 
had  taken  part.  The  practice  of 
carrying  eagles  in  French  regiments 
was  restored  by  Napoleon  III  in 
1852,  but  was  once  more  abolished 
by  the  Republic  in  1870. 

Eagle.  Gold  coin  of  the  U.S.A. 
value  ten  dollars,  about  £2  Is.  6d. 
Double-,  half-,  and  quarter-eagles 
are  coined.  It  bears  a  representa- 
tion of  the  U.S.A.  crest,  an  eagle, 
whence  the  name. 

Eagle.  Floating  aerodrome  of 
the  British  navy.  She  was  built  in 
England  for  Chile  under  the  name 
of  Almirante  Cochrane,  but  the 
Admiralty  acquired  her  and  turned 
her  into  a  floating  aerodrome. 
Launched  in  191 8,  she  is  625  ft.  long, 
displaces  30,000  tons,  and  her  hull 
above  water  resembles  a  huge 
hangar  with  a  flat  roof  upon  which 
aircraft  can  take  off  and  alight. 

The  first  British  naval  ship  of 
this  name  dates  back  to  1650.  In 
1776,  when  the  thirdEagle  was  lying 
off  Governor's  Island,  near  New 
York,  a  member  of  the  American 
navy  undertook  to  blow  her  up  by 
means  of  a  submarine-boat.  He 
approached  the  Eagle,  but  his  tor- 
pedo exploded  before  it  could 
reach  the  vessel. 

Eagle.  American  warship,  the 
first  of  a  class  of  60  submarine 
chasers  built  by  Henry  Ford  at 
Detroit.  They  are  200  ft.  long, 
25  ft.  in  beam,  have  a  draught  of 
1 8  f t. ,  and  displace  500  tons.  They 
have  oil  engines  of  2,260  h.p., 
giving  a  speed  of  18  knots.  They 
carry  two  4-inch  guns  and  a  depth 
charge  projector.  These  craft  were 
not  completed  early  enough  for  use 
in  the  Great  War,  but  the  American 
authorities  had  previously  built  a 
large  number  of  wooden  submarine 
chasers  of  17  knots  speed  and  110  ft. 
long,  armed  with  3-inch  guns  and 
depth  charge  throwers,  over  30  of 
which  operated  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean. Their  base  was  at  Corfu. 

Eaglehawk.  Mun.  bor.  of  Vic- 
toria,  Australia,  in  Bendigo  co.  It 
is  5  m.  by  rly.  N.W.  of  Bendigo, 
and  lies  in  a  rich  gold-mining  dis- 
trict. Pop.  6,998. 

Eagle  Hut,  THE.  American 
Y.M.C.A.  centre,  in  Aldwych,  Lon- 
don. Opened  on  Sept.  3,  1917,  it 
continued  as  a  "  home  from  home  " 
for  American  troops  in  the  metro- 
polis until  Aug.  25,  1919,  when  it 
was  taken  over  by  the  Metropolitan 
Police  Force  as  a  training  centre 
for  police  recruits.  It  was  later  de- 
molished when  this  site  was  built 
on.  During  the  two  years  it  was 
open,  two  million  meals  were 
served  in  the  hut,  the  daily  average 
being  3,000.  Entertainments  of 


varied  character  were  provided, 
and  sight-seeing  trips  organized. 
The  Eagle  Hut  had  a  staff  of 
about  800  voluntary  workers, 
chiefly  women.  The  hut  was  open 
dav  and  night,  and  was  equipped 
with  410  beds.  See  Y.M.C.A. 

Eagle  Owl  (Bubo).  One  of  the 
largest  members  of  the  owl  family. 
Occasionally  found  in  Great  Bri- 
•  '"im^a^Mm  tain,  it  is  over 

wv  I  2  ft.  long,  with 
hands  omely 
mottled  brown 
plumage  and 
very  conspicu- 
ous ear-tufts. 
It  is  nocturnal 
in  habit,  is 
m  bold  and  sav- 
i  age,  and  preys 
upon  game 
birds,  rabbits, 
and  young 
fawns.  See 
Owl. 

Eagle  Pass. 
Eagle  Owl,  a  nocturnal  Town        of 
bird  ol  prey  Texas,  U.S.A. 

Situated  in  Maverick  co.,  it  is 
about  165  m.  S.  W.  of  San  Antonio, 
and  is  an  important  stock-breeding 
centre  with  considerable  trade  in 
coal.  Pop.  3,200. 

Eagles'  Nest.  Hill  in  co.  Kerry, 
Ireland.  Overlooking  the  Upper 
Lake,  about  6  m.  S.  W.  of  Killarney, 
it  rises  conically  to  a  height  of 
1,100  ft.  Its  bare,  precipitous 
summit  formerly  sheltered  eagles. 
From  the  lake  beneath  a  remark- 
able echo  can  be  heard. 

Eakins,  THOMAS  (1844-1916). 
American  painter.  Born  July  25, 
1844,  Eakins  studied  at  Penn- 
sylvania and  Paris,  painted  many 
studies  of  American  life  and  sports, 
and  was  professor  of  painting  at 
Pennsylvania  Academy.  He  died 
on  June  25,  1916. 

Ealing.  Parl.  and  rnun.  bor., 
Middlesex,  England.  It  is  5f  m. 
W.  of  Paddington  by  the  G.W.  and 
Met.  Dist.  Rlys.,  there  being  stations 
at  Ealing  Common,  Ealing  Broad- 
way, and  West  Ealing.  Until  the 
middle  of  the  19th  century  it  was  a 
village  on  the  road  from  London  to 


Ealing. 


The  municipal  buildings, 
opened  in  1887 


Slough  and  Windsor,  and  was  fre- 
quented by  highwaymen. 

With  the  advent  of  the  rly., 
about  1840,  Ealing's  modern  pro- 
gress began,  and 
in  70  years  it 
was  covered 
with  shops  and 
houses,  and  ex- 
tended into  W. 
and  S.  Ealing. 
Corporate  exist- 
ence began  in 
1863,  and  since 

1901  it  has  been  a  borough.  Its 
chief  buildings  are  the  Victoria 
Hall  and  the  adjacent  town  hall. 
Its  open  spaces  include  Ealing  Com- 
mon and  W«il pole  Park.  .Perivale, 
a  pretty  rural  part  of  Ealing,  has 
a  tiny  church,  probably  800 
years  old.  The  corporation  owns 
the  electric  lighting  works.  The 
chief  churches  are  S.  Mary's,  the 
parish  church,  and  Christ  Church. 
In  1920  a  movement  was  started 
to  unite  Ealing  with  Chiswick, 
Brentford,  Hanwell,  and  Greenford 
into  one  county  borough.  One 
member  is  returned  to  Parliament. 
Pop.  (1921)  67,753. 


Eagle.     Type  of  swift  oil-driven  submarine  chaser  designed  for  the  U.S.  navy 


EAR 


2759 


THE  EAR:    ITS  ORGANISM  &   FUNCTIONS 

T.  S.  A.  Orr,  M.D.,  Aural  Surgeon,  Westminster  Dispensary 

The  Ear,  Deafness,  and  Deaf  and  Dumb,  with  shorter  entries,  e.g. 
Cochlea,  form  a  group  of  related  articles,  another  such  group  being 
those  on  the  Eye,  Blindness,  etc.  See  also  Anatomy  ;  Man ;  Surgery 


The  ear  is  the  organ  of  hearing, 
more  strictly  the  end  organ  of  the 
eighth  cranial  nerve.  It  has  two 
functions:  it  collects  and  concen- 
trates the  vibrations  of  air  known 
as  sound  waves  and  transmits  them 
to  the  nerve  in  order  that  they  may 
be  perceived  and  interpreted  in  the 
brain;  and  it  harbours  the  chief 
organ  of  balance  or  equilibration. 

The  ear  is  divided  into  three 
parts :  ( 1 )  The  outer  ear  composed 
of  (a)  the  auricle,  or  pinna,  applied 
to  the  side  of  the  head,  concave  on 
its  outer  aspect,  and  leading  into 
(6)  the  external  auditory  meatus,  a 
narrow  tube  passing  inwards  to  the 
drum  of  the  ear.  The  outer  ear  is 
composed  chiefly  of  a  framework  of 
cartilage  covered  by  skin.  The  skin 
contains  hair  only  in  the  male,  but 
in  both  sexes  it  has  sweat  glands. 
Wax  in  the  ear,  due  to  dried  sweat 
accumulating  in  the  meatus,  often 
causes  sudden  and  severe  deafness 
and  can  be  seen  as  a  dark  plug  well 
down  the  meatus.  In  man  the  pin- 
na is  small  and  of  little  importance. 

(2)  The  middle  ear  is  a  small  cav- 
ity in  the  side  of  the  skull  separated 
from  the  outer  ear  by  the  ear  drum. 
It  has  a  chain  of  minute  bones,  the 
hammer,  anvil,  and  stirrup  bones, 
which  run  across  it  and  carry  sound 
waves  from  the  drum  to  the  oval 
window,  a  small  hole,  closed  by  a 
membrane  and  leading    into    the 
inner  ear 

Relation  of  Throat  and  Ear 
The  cavity  in  addition  transmits 
the  nerve  of  expression,  the  facial, 
and  an  important  nerve  of  taste, 
the  chorda  tympani.  It  has  in 
front  a  tube  that  connects  it  with 
the  throat,  the  Eustachian  tube, 
and  behind  and  above  it  communi- 
cates with  the  air  cells  in  the  mas- 
toid  process,  the  projection  of  bone 
seen  behind  the  auricle.  Inflam- 
matory processes  starting  in  the 
throat  may,  therefore,  pass  up 
through  the  middle  ear  to  the  mas- 
toid  process.  As  this  is  in  very  close 
relationship  to  the  brain,  the  dan- 
ger of  all  middle  ear  inflammation 
is  apparent.  In  health  the  Eus- 
tachian tube  allows  air  to  pass  into 
the  middle  ear  in  order  that  the 
pressure  of  air  inside  the  drum  may 
equalise  the  atmosphere  pressure. 

(3)  The  inner  ear  is  a  cavity  em- 
bedded in  the  skull  deeper  than  the 
middle  ear,  and  communicates  with 
it  through  the  oval  window,  a  mem- 
brane like  the  drum  of  the  ear  in- 
tervening.    It  is  filled  with  fluid, 
called    perilymph,    submerged    in 
which   are  two  hollow  structures 


composed  of  membrane — the  coch- 
lea and  the  semicircular  canals. 
These  again  are  filled  with  fluid, 
called  endolymph.  The  cochlea  is  a 
spiral  tube,  and  has  been  compared 
to  a  snail-shell.  The  nerve  of  hear- 
ing terminates  in  it,  in  a  multitude 
of  minute  hairs,  which  float  in  the 
endolymph.  Sound  waves  are  car- 
ried through  the  outer  and  middle 
ear  and  put  the  membrane  closing 
the  oval  window  in  motion,  which  is 
communicated  to  the  fluid  filling 
the  inner  ear.  The  movement  in  this 
fluid  is  communicated  through  the 
membrane  composing  the  cochlea 
to  the  fluid  contained  therein,  in 
which  the  termination  of  the  nerve 
of  hearing  floats,  the  stimulus  thus 
given  to  the  nerve  being  perceived 
in  the  brain  as  sound. 


^ EAR 

The  semicircular  canals  are  three 
tubes,  at  right  angles  to  one  an- 
other, semicircular  in  shape,  and 
joined  together.  Like  the  cochlea 
they  are  filled  with  fluid,  having 
fine  hair-like  nerve  terminals  float- 
ing in  it.  Any  movement  of  this 
fluid  stimulates  the  nerve.  The  fluid 
is  set  in  motion  by  any  change  in 
the  position  of  the  body.  The  stimu- 
lus so  produced  is  carried  to  the 
brain  and  enables  it  to  judge  of  our 
position  in  space  and  automatically 
to  adjust  our  muscles  accordingly. 

FUNCTIONS  OF  THE  EAR.  The 
cochlea  is  the  only  part  of  the  inner 
ear  concerned  in  hearing.  It  is  ab- 
sent in  fishes  ;  first  appears  in  am- 
phibia and  reptiles,  increases  in 
birds  and  attains  its  maximum  per- 
fection in  mammals.  The  semicir- 
cular canals,  on  the  other  hand,  are 
entirely  concerned  in  the  balance 
of  the  body.  They  can  be  extir- 
pated in  birds  and  mammals  with- 
out causing  any  perceptible  depre- 
ciation of  hearing ;  destruction  of 


Ear. 


Sectional  diagram  showing  the  construction  and  delicate  mechanism 
of  the  ear 


EARBY 


2760 


EARL  MARSHAL 


the  cochlea,  on  the  contrary,  pro- 
duces deafness. 

Sensations  of  sound  are  dis- 
tinguished by  three  characters — 
loudness,  pitch,  and  quality.  Loud- 
ness  depends  on  the  extent  of  move- 
ment of  the  sound  waves.  The  dog 
is  able  readily  to  detect  sounds 
inaudible  to  man,  his  master.  The 
ear  in  this  animal  and  in  many 
other  mammals  is  large,  its  pinna 
has  a  considerable  degree  of  mobi- 
lity, its  meatus  can  be  narrowed  or 
widened  at  will,  and  the  area  in  the 
brain  set  apart  for  hearing  is  exten- 
sive. The  pitch  of  a  sound  depends 
on  the  number  of  vibrations  occur 
ring  per  second.  It  is  possible  to  de- 
tect a  sound  whose  pitch  is  so  low 
as  to  be  produced  by  16  vibrations 
per  second ;  or  so  high  as  to  be 
produced  by  30,000.  There  is  rea- 
son to  believe  that  some  animals 
can  hear  sounds  of  a  higher  pitch, 
but  the  sensory  cells  along  each 
side  of  the  fish,  which  correspond 
with  the  mammalian  ear,  are  only 
capable  of  perceiving  vibrations  of 
very  low  frequency — 6  per  second. 
The  quality  of  a  sound  depends  on 
the  manner  in  which  the  vibrations 
succeed  one  another.  If  these  are 
irregular  a  noise  is  produced,  if  re- 
gular and  orderly,  a  musical  note. 

Equilibration  is  the  second  func- 
tion of  the  ear.  An  individual  nor- 
mally balances  himself  by  the  sense 
of  sight,  his  muscles,  and  the  semi- 
circular canals  in  the  inner  ear. 
When  flying  through  the  air  the 
aviator's  eyes  may  be  useless,  as 
when  in  a  cloud  or  in  darkness. 
With  them  he  may  not  know  whe- 
ther he  is  upside  down  or  downside 
up.  In  an  unstable  and  rapidly- 
moving  machine  his  muscle  sense  is 
of  little  avail.  It  is  pre-eminently 
on  his  ear  mechanism  that  he  relies 
to  maintain  his  equilibrium,  the 
semicircular  canals  alone  giving 
him  the  accuracy  necessary  to 
guide  so  delicate  a  mechanism  as 
the  flying  machine.  The  bird  is 
continually  in  the  position  of  the 
aviator,  and  in  this  animal  the 
canals  are  remarkably  well  deve- 
loped. The  movement  of  the  en- 
dolymph  inside  them  stimulates 
the  delicate  hair-like  endings  of  the 
nerves  which  float  therein.  As  the 
canals  are  arranged  like  three  ad- 
jacent sides  of  a  cube,  the  fluid  in 
them  moves  in  a  different  way  with 
each  position  in  space.  The  un- 
usual agitation  in  this  fluid — pro- 
duced in  one  who  is  unaccustomed 
to  flying  or  sailing — gives  rise  to 
disagreeable  sensations,  well-known 
as  air-sickness  or  sea-sickness. 

There  is  a  close   connexion   be- 

|   tween  the  semicircular  canals  and 

the  eyes.  Stimulation  of  the  former 

produces  quick  jerking  movements 

in  the  latter,  known  as  nystagmus. 


This  peculiar  movement  of  the  eyes 
may  be  seen  in  a  railway  passenger 
looking  at  the  passing  scenery.  It 
also  occurs  in  some  nervous  dis- 
eases and  is  frequent  in  coalminers, 
when  the  individual  affected  is 
stationary,  but  is  asked  to  look  far 
over  to  one  or  other  side.  When  the 
physician  wishes  to  investigate 
the  condition  of  the  semicircular 
canals  in  disease,  or  in  men  who 
wish  to  become  airmen,  he  brings 
on  nystagmus  by  rapidly  rotating 
theindividual  to  be  tested,  for  about 
twenty  seconds  in  a  revolving 
chair.  The  fluid  in  the  canals  is  set 
in  motion  and  it  continues  to  move 
after  the  body  has  stopped.  The 
nerves  in  the  canal  are  strongly 
stimulated,  and  owing  to  their  con- 
nexions with  the  eye  nystagmus  is 
produced.  It  should  last  nearly 
half-a-minute.  If  it  is  absent,  if  it 
does  not  last  so  long,  or  if  it  is  un- 
duly prolonged,  the  canals  are  at 
fault,  and  the  capability  of  the  body 
to  balance  itself  is  not  satisfactory. 
Ear  by.  Urban  dist.  of  West 
Riding,  Yorkshire,  England.  It 
is  6  m.  S.W.  of  Skipton,  on  the 
Midland  Railway.  Pop.  6,032. 

Earl.  Title  in  the  British 
peerage,  ranking  third.  The 
French  equivalent  is  comte,  and 
the  German  is 
Graf.  The  wife 
of  an  earl  is 
called  a  count- 
ess, a  reminder 
of  the  days 
when  earl  and 
count  were  syn- 
eldest  son  bears 
his  father's  second  title ;  the  other 
sons  are  known  as  the  Hon.,  the 
daughters  as  Lady  So-and-So. 
Including  Scottish  and  Irish  there 
are  over  200  of  them  in  the  peerage. 
Earl  is  the  oldest  title  of  nobility. 
Under  the  form  eorl  it  first  ap- 
peared in  England  in  Anglo-Saxon 
times,  being  used  for  those  of  noble 
blood  as  distinguished  from  the 
ceo.rls.  In  the  1 1th  century,  Canute 
set  rulers  over  parts  of  the  country. 
He  named  them  jarls,  a  Danish 
word,  but  this  became  earl  in  Eng- 
land. This  idea  remained,  and  after 
the  Conquest  most  of  the  counties 
had  an  earl  as  the  head  of  their  ad- 
ministration, he  being  entitled  to  the 
third  part  of  its  revenues.  These 
earls  were  sometimes  called  after 
their  residence,  but  gradually  it 
became  general  to  call  them  after 
their  county.  The  office  was  not 
at  first  an  hereditary  one.  but  some 
earls  managed  to  make  it  so.  They 
corresponded  to  the  counts  in 
France  and  other  parts  of  Europe. 
Gradually  the  title  became  a 
mark  of  rank  rather  than  a  mark  of 
office.  Earls  who  had  no  connexion 
with  the  rule  of  a  county  began  to 


onymous. 


be  created  in  the  time  of  Edward 
III,  and  following  the  first  crea- 
tions of  the  higher  ranks  of  duke 
and  marquis,  they  took  their 
present  place  in  the  peerage,  the 
title  carrying  with  it  the  right  to 
a  seat  in  Parliament.  The  premier 
sari  of  England  is  the  earl  of 
Arundel,  a  title  held  by  the  duke 
of  Norfolk.  Of  those  who  have  no 
higher  title,  the  earls  of  Shrews- 
bury (1442),  Derby  (1485),  and 
Huntingdon  (1529)  are  the  senior. 
The  Prince  of  Wales  holds  the  earl- 
do  in  of  Chester  and  the  Scottish 
one  of  Carrick.  In  Scotland  the 
earl  of  Crawford  is  the  senior  earl, 
dating  from  1089.  See  Peerage. 

Earle,  JOHN  (c.  1601-65).  Eng- 
lish divine.  Born  at  York,  he  was 
educated  at  Merton  College,  Oxford. 
He  was  made  rector  of  Bishopston, 
Wilts,  tutor  to  Charles,  prince  of 
Wales,  and  chancellor  of  Salisbury. 
In  1643  he  became  dean  of  West- 
minster, in  1662  bishop  of  Worces- 
ter, and  in  1663  bishop  of  Salisbury. 
He  was  the  author  of  Microcosmo- 
graphy,  or,  A  Piece  of  the  World 
discovered  in  Essays  and  Charac- 
ters, 1628,  a  work  valuable  for  its 
reflection  of  contemporary  life,  and 
for  its  pointed  humorous  style  and 
insight  into  human  nature.  Earle 
died  at  Oxford,  Nov.  17,  1665, 
and  was  buried  in  the  chapel  of 
Merton  College. 

Earle,  JOHN  (1824-1903).  Bri- 
tish philologist.  He  was  born  Jan. 
29,  1824,  near  Kingsbridge,  Devon, 
and  was  edu- 
cated at  Mag- 
dalen Hall,  Ox- 
ford. From 
1849-54  he  was 
professor  of 
Anglo-Saxon  in 
the  university 
of  Oxford,  and 
again  from  1876 
until  his  death,  John  Earle, 

Jan.    31,   1903.      British  philologist 
Ordained    in        **•*«***•** 
1857,  he  was  for  many   years    a 
clergyman  at  Bath  and  prebendary 
in  Wells  Cathedral.  His  best-known 
work  is  his  Philology  of  the  English 
Tongue,  1871,  his  most  important 
an  edition  of  Tv°  of  the  Saxon 
Chronicles,  1865.  ; 

Earl  Marshal.  In  England  the 
eighth  great  office  of  state.  He  is 
head  of  the  Heralds'  College  and 
has  various  ceremonial  duties. 
Since  1672  the  office  has  been 
hereditary  in  the  family  of  Howard, 
duke  of  Norfolk.  On  the  death  of 
the  15th  duke,  1917,  his  brother, 
Lord  Edmund  Talbot,  was  ap- 
pointed deputy  earl  marshal,  the 
16th  duke  being  a  minor.  Until 
1386  the  title  was  marshal.  With 
the  lord  high  constable  he  was  judge 
of  the  court  of  chivalry.  The  office 


Larl  Marshal  of 
England.  The 
15th  duke  of 
Norfolk  in  the 
robes  of  office 


EARL'S     COURT 

M  of  earl  mari- 
schal  (formerly 
great  mari- 
schal)  of  Scot- 
1  a  n  d  was 
hereditary  i  n 
the  Keith 
family  until  the 
attainder  of 
George,  the 
10th  earl  mari- 
schal,  in  1716, 
when  it  was 
abolished. 
Earl's  Court. 
District  of  Lon- 
don in  the  met. 
bor.of  Kensing- 
ton. To  modern 
Londoners 
Earl's  Court  is  synonymous  with 
exhibitions,  which,  from  that  of 
the  Fisheries  Exhibition,  in  1884, 
down  to  1914,  delighted  millions 
of  patrons.  The  Great  Wheel  was 
removed  in  1906.  The  exhibition 
grounds  were  taken  over  on  Oct.  15, 
1914,  as  a  clearing  station  for 
war  refugees,  and  a  permanent 
residence  for  a  certain  number. 
Schools  and  workshops  were  estab- 
lished, and  nearly  100,000  refugees, 
including  Belgians,  coloured  men 
born  under  the  British  flag,  Serbs, 
and  Italians,  were  given  shelter 
until  1919.  Later  it  was  used  as  a 
centre  of  the  Disposal  Board. 

Earlsfield.  Eccles.  and  resi- 
dential dist.  of  London.  Within 
the  met.  bor.  of  Wandsworth,  it  is 
2  in.  S.W.  of  Clapham  Junction 
by  the  L.  &  S.W.R.  Pop.  18,286. 
See  Wandsworth. 

Earlston.  Parish  and  small 
market  town  of  Berwickshire, 
Scotland,  formerly  Ercildoune. 
It  stands  on  Leader  Water,  72  m. 
S.E.  of  Edinburgh  by  the  N.B.R., 
and  is  a  noted  angling  resort. 
There  are  traces  of  the  old  tower 
of  Thomas  the  Rhymer  (d.  1299), 
whose  remains  lie  in  the  church- 
yard. The  industries  include 
dyeing  and  the  manufacture  of 
tweeds  and  ginghams.  Cattle  and 
horse  fairs  are  held.  Market  day, 
Mon.  Pop.  1,749. 

Early,  JUBAL  ANDERSON  (1816- 
94).  American  soldier.  Born  at 
Franklin,  Virginia,  Nov.  3,  1816, 
and  educated  at  West  Point,  he 
practised  as  a  lawyer,  1838-52. 
Though  a  supporter  of  the  main- 
tenance of  the  union  he  threw  in 
his  lot  with  the  Confederates  on 
the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War. 
At  the  first  battle  of  Bull  Run 
he  commanded  a  brigade,  and  at 
Fredericksburg  and  Gettysburg  a 
division.  A  succession  of  defeats 
by  Sheridan  and  Custer,  in  1864, 
led  to  his  being  relieved  of  his 
command  in  1865,  yet  competent 
authorities  regard  him  as  the  best 


2761 

Confederate  general  after  Lee  and 
Jackson.  He  was  the  author  of  A 
Memoir  of  the  Last  Year  of  the 
War  for  Independence,  1867.  and 
other  military  and  historical  writ- 
ings. He  died  at  Lynch  burg,  Vir- 
ginia. March  2.  1894. 

Early  Closing.  Movement 
among  shopkeepers  and  others  to 
secure  shorter  working  hours  on 
week  days.  In  1886  the  Shop  Hours 
Regulation  Act  limited  the  work- 
ing hours  for  young  persons  under 
18  employed  in  shops  to  74  hours 
a  week,  while  the  Shop  Hours 
(Amendment)  Act  of  1893  con- 
tained provision  for  the  appoint- 
ment of  inspectors. 

In  1904  another  Shop  Hours 
Act  introduced  the  principle  of 
closing  by  local  option  by  a  two- 
thirds  majority.  The  shop-as- 
sistants' charter,  however,  is  the 
Shops  Act  of  1912,  which  consoli- 
dated previous  legislation  and 
gave  a  compulsory  half-holiday  on 
one  day  of  the  week. 

During  the  Great  War  the  need 
for  economy  of  coal  and  the  light- 
ing restrictions  led,  in  1916,  to  the 
issue  of  a  compulsory  closing  order 
for  shops  at  8  p.m.  on  four  nights 
of  the  week,  and  9  p.m.  on 
Saturday  ;  these  hours  were  very 
generally  shortened  still  further  in 
some  localities.  This  order  re- 
mained in  force  until  Aug.,  1920. 
In  1920  a  private  bill  to  bring 
about  compulsory  closing  (with 
few  exceptions)  at  7  p.m.  and  8 
p.m.  on  Saturday  reached  the  re- 
port stage,  but  the  third  reading 
was  prevented  by  lack  of  time. 
Considerable  opposition  to  this 
and  earlier  bills  was  due  to  the 
fears  of  small  traders  in  compe- 
tition with  large  firms. 

The  organization  mainly  re- 
sponsible for  the  movement  is  the 
Early  Closing  Association,  founded 
in  1842.  Its  offices  are  at  34-40, 
Ludgate  Hill,  London,  E.G. 

Early  English.  Style  of  archi- 
tecture originating  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  II,  and  prevalent  through- 
out the  13th  century.  The  term  is 
also  used  for  a  period  of  literature 
covering  about  the  same  years  as 
the  architectural  one  (see  English 
Literature). 

Architecturally  it  has  been  called 
the  "  lancet  "  style  or  period,  from 
the  resemblance  of  the  slender 
pointed  arch,  its  leading  charac- 
teristic, to  a  surgeon's  lancet.  Nor- 
man work  had  retained  the  round 
arch  of  Romanesque  pattern  ;  and 
Early  English  inaugurated  the  new 
era  of  Gothic  architecture  by  sub- 
stituting the  pointed  for  the  round. 
In  essence,  Early  English  indicates 
a  revolt  against  the  slightly  un- 
couth forms  of  the  Romanesque 
style  in  England,  and  a  striving 


EARN 

after  more  elegant  forms  of  con- 
struction and  ornament.  Vaulted 
roofs  in  stone  take  the  place  of  the 
old  flat  timber  roofs.  Windows  are 
lengthened  and  crowned  by  the 
lancet  arch  ;  piers  are  formed  of 
clustered  columns,  each  having  its 
own  cap,  but  united  under  one 
capital  from  which  spring  the  tre- 
forled  pointed  arches  of  the  vault ; 
mouldings  are  deeply  undercut, 
often  with  dog-tooth  ornament ; 
the  entire  design  becomes  more 
elegant  and  flexible. 

The  choir  of  Lincoln  Cathedral 
(12th-13th  century)  is  one  of 
the  earliest  and  most  beautiful 
extant  examples  of  Early  English 
architecture.  The  choir  and  Lady 
Chapel  of  Southwark  Cathedral, 
still  preserved,  were  built  in  1207  ; 
the  stone- webbed  vault  of  this  fine 
Early  English  church  is  an  ex- 
ample of  the  style  at  its  best.  In 
other  English  cathedrals  portions 
of  Early  English  work  are  still  pre- 
served, notably  at  York  Minster, 
Westminster  Abbey,  Salisbury, 
Durham,  and  Ely.  The  plan  of 
churches  built  in  this  period  shows 
the  absence  of  the  semicircular 
apse  which  was  characteristic  of 
Norman  and  Romanesque  struc- 
tures, and  the  substitution  of  a 
square  east  end ;  and  the  tran- 
septs generally  divide  the  length 
into  two  almost  equal  parts.  It  is 
noticeable  that  the  Early  English 
style  was  coincident  with  a  move- 
ment within  the  Church  towards 
simplicity  and  reticence.  The  Re- 
formed Orders,  especially  the  Cis- 
tercians, were  largely  responsible 
for  an  architectural  development 
which,  beginning  with  a  lightness 
and  beauty  unknown  to  the  Nor- 
man period,  was  to  attain,  in  the 
Decorated  and  Perpendicular  styles 
which  followed  it,  an  ever-increas- 
ing magnificence.  See  Architecture; 
Gothic  Architecture:  also  illus. 
p.  531. 

Earmark.  Term  used  in  Eng- 
lish law  to  signify  a  sum  set  apart 
for  a  particular  purpose.  For  ex- 
ample, when  executors  have  to  pay 
a  legacy  to  a  person,  say  at  21,  and 
they  set  aside  and  invest  for  that 
purpose  some  particular  fund  apart 
from  the  general  investment  of  the 
estate,  it  is  said  to  be  earmarked 
for  the  legacy,  and  cannot  be 
applied  to  anything  else.  The  term 
originated  in  the  practice  of  mark- 
ing beasts  by  cuts  in  the  ear,  for 
identification  purposes. 

Earn.  Loch  of  Perthshire,  Scot- 
land, about  11  m.  W,  of  Crieff. 
Lying  317  ft.  above  sea  level,  it  is 
6£  m.  long  and  f  m.  wide,  with  a 
maximum  depth  of  287  ft.  Trout 
are  plentiful.  The  lake  occupies  a 
rock  basin  scooped  out  by  the  ice 
sheet  which  crossed  Perthshire 


r 


EARN 


2762 


Earn.   View  of  the  loch  looking  eastward  from  Locbearnhead 


during  the  Ice  Age.  Scott's  Legend 
of  Montrose  introduces  Ardvorlich 
House,  on  its  shore,  as  Darnlin- 
varach. 

Earn.  River  of  Perthshire,  Scot- 
land. It  issues  from  Loch  Earn  and 
flows  E.  for  46  m.  across  Strathmore 
to  the  Tay,  which  it  enters  2  m. 
N.E.  of  Abernethy.  Salmon,  trout, 
and  other  fish  abound.  It  is  subject 
to  floods,  but  small  vessels,  not 
exceeding  50  tons,  can  approach 
Bridge  of  Earn. 

Earnest.  Name  given  to  a  sum 
of  money  paid  on  account  in  order 
to  show  the  good  faith  of  the  buyer. 
Such  payments  are  recognized  in 
English  law,  and  also  in  other 
codes,  the  fact  that  such  has  been 
made  being  taken  as  proof  that  a 
contract  has  been  entered  into. 
Strictly  speaking,  earnest  is  not  part 


payment,  although  it  has  some 
similarity  with  the  arrha  of  Roman 
law  which  was  such.  Sec  Contract. 
Earring.  Object  attached  to  the 
ear,  usually  by  passing  it  or  a  sub- 
sidiary ring  or  hook  through  the 
lobe.  Its  purpose  may  be  amuletic, 
ceremonial,  or  ornamental.  Un- 
traceable  in  the  prehistoric  stone 
age,  earrings  appear  early  in  the 
metal  age  in  the  form  of  plain 
bronze  and  gold  bands  or  wires, 
sometimes  twisted,  sometimes  with 
one  end  clubbed.  In  the  Swiss  lake- 
dwellings,  which  have  yielded  hun- 
dreds of  specimens,  occurs  a  double- 
coil  design  which  survives  among 
the  Sumatra  Battas.  In  ancient 
Egypt  the  simple  hoop  developed 
complex  forms,  with  animal  head 
terminals  and  gems,  partly  under 
foreign  influence. 


Earring.  1.  Ancient  Egyptian,  mounted  with  beads.  2.  Gold  with  jacinth  drops, 
on  cither  side  pierced  earrings  with  emeruld  matrix  drops,  all  three  Roman. 
3.  Ancient  Greek  gold  earring  set  with  jewels  and  enamels,  c.  400  B.C. 
(centre)  :  small  Roman  earrings  of  gold.  4.  Enamelled  Byzantine,  set  with 
prnrls.  5.  KHh  century  Italian,  pearl  set  in  gold.  6.  Left,  turquoise,  c.  1840  ; 
right,  modern  Italian  set  with  seed  pearls;  above,  turquoise,  r.  1840.  7.  16th 
rent,  Italian,  shaped  like  a  ship  in  full  sail;  on  either  side,  16th  cent.  Venetian 
pearl  pendants  for  earrings.  8.  Modern  Indian,  set  with  diamonds  and  emeralds. 
9.  Phoenician  earring  Iroin  Tharros.  10.  Modern  Italian,  gold  set  with  seed  pearls 

.    from  Chats  on  Old  Jewellery,  by  JUac/ver  fercival  ;  and  Jewellery,  by  Cyril  Ucionport 
By  courtesy  oj  T.  fither  Unwin  and  Methven  A  Co. 


Except  in  Babylonia  and  Assyria 
these  ornaments  were  usually  con- 
fined to  women.  Many  O.T,  refer- 
ences to  such  rings  properly  con- 
cern nose-ornaments  ;  that  men- 
tioned in  Isaiah  3  was  an  amulet 
The  development  of  design  is  ob- 
servable in  Mycenae,  Troy,  Etruria, 
and  S.  Russia,  through  the  winged 
sirens  of  Greece  and  the  pearls  and 
other  jingling  jewels  of  imperial 
Rome  to  the  massive  pendants  of 
the  Byzantine  age. 

Dormant  during  the  Middle  Ages, 
the  use  of  earrings  revived  after  the 
Renaissance.  Mediterranean  mari- 
ners introduced  the  single  plain 
gold  hoop  to  the  seafaring  world, 
where  it  is  still  in  favour.  In 
modern  India  rings  may  have  a 


Earth.  Diagram  to  show  the 
relative  sizes  of  the  earth  and  its 
satellite,  the  moon.  The  white 
band  below  indicates  the  distance 
between  them  on  a  scale  where  the 
width  of  the  band  equals  the  earth's 
radius 

hundred  pendant  pearls,  with  sup- 
porting chains  over  the  top  of  the 
ear,  or  the  ear  may  have  12-13 
borings,  each  with  a  separate  orna- 
ment. Garo  women  sometimes 
wear  60  brass  rings  in  each  ear. 
Silver  is  preferred  by  Syrian  wo- 
men ;  other  materials  are  the  iron 
wire  of  the  Dinka,  shell  of  the  Hot- 
tentots, cuttlefish  bone  of  Formosa, 
and  tortoiseshell  of  the  Solomon 
Islands.  See  Mutilation  Customs. 

Earsdon.  Parish  and  urban 
dist.  of  Northumberland,  England. 
It  is  4  m.  N.\V.  of  North  Shields, 
and  the  inhabitants  are  employed 
in  the  local  collieries.  Pop.  10,568. 

Earth.  Name  given  to  the  planet 
on  which  we  live.  It  is  also  used 
for  the  soil  and  other  constituents 
of  the  earth's  crust.  The  solar 
system  comprises  the  sun,  planets, 
satellites,  comets,  asteroids,  mete- 
orites, and  the  rings  of  Saturn. 
The  earth  is  a  planet  with  the  moon 


EARTH 


2763 


EARTH 


Earth.     Three  views  of  the  earth  showing  the  three  mountain  ridges  which  meet  in  the  plateau  oi  Antarctica.     These 
ridges  indicate  the  shape  which  is  being  assumed  by  the  earth's  crust  as  the  earth  itself  cools  and  contracts 


as  its  satellite.   Many  solar  systems 
form  the  universe. 

The  earth's  rotation,  or  spin, 
upon  its  axis  through  the  poles  is 
the  cause  of  the  rhythmic  succession 
of  day  and  night  and  the  steady 

*  \  ^l 

Saturn 


the  path  of  the  pendulum  and  was     regions  are  tilted  now  away  and 
not  underneath  it  again  until  a  day     later  towards  the  light.    The  angle 


had  passed.  The  floor  tunied  round 
the  pendulum  in  a  day  because  the 
earth  rotated. 

The  axis  of  rotation  through  the 


'fury^ 

3                           8 

e                                              '7 

>2                                                                  27 

PR 

u 
jrs 

2 

m 

if 

Earth.    In  th.s  diagram  the  distances,  in  millions  of  miles,  of  the  earth  and  the 
other  planets  from  the  sun  are  indicated  along  the  bottom  line 


of  tilt  23£°  determines  the  arctic 
and  antarctic  circles  (90  —  23£  = 
66J),  which  are  the  edges  of  the 
areas  which  have  no  sunrise  at  their 
midwinter  and  no  sunset  at  their 
midsummer. 

At  midsummer,  in  England  and 
similar  latitudes,  the  sun  is  47° 
(twice  23|)  higher  in  the  sky  than 
at  midwinter.  At  the  equinoxes 
the  sun  rises  due  east  and  sets  due 
west,  and  day  lasts  for  12  hours;  in 
England  in  the  summer  the  sun 
rises  north  of  east  and  sets  north  of 
west,  and  day  varies  from  12  to  18 
hours ;  in  winter  the  sun  rises  south 


pulsation  of  the  oceanic  tides.  The 
direction  of  rotation  from  west  to 
east  causes  the  sun  to  rise  in  the 
east,  and  the  cyclonic  planetary 
winds  to  swirl  in  different  direc- 
tions, anti-clockwise  in  the  north- 
ern and  clockwise  in  the  southern 
hemisphere. 

The  fact  that  the  earth  rotates  is 
demonstrated  by  Foucault's  pen- 
dulum. Foucault  in  1851  sus- 
pended a  pendulum  from  the  dome 
of  the  Pantheon  in  Paris  and 
started  it  swinging  above  a  mark  on 
the  floor.  A  pendulum  always 
swings  in  the  same  path.  The  mark 
along  the  floor  moved  away  from 


Mercury  Venus  Earth  Uars 


O      Q 


Earth.     Diagram  showing  the  relative  sizes  ol  the  earth  and  the  other  seven 
planets.    The  earth  is  one  of  the  four  smaller  planets.     Note  the  relatively 
immense  sizes  and  distances  of  the  four  major  planets 

tilts    through    an    angle    of 


poles  tilts  through  an  angle 
23J°  from  the  vertical  towards  the 
line  joining  the  centres  of  the  earth 
and  the  sun.  Sunlight  reaches  the 
earth  in  rays  parallel  to  the  line  of 
centres ;  consequently  the  polar 


LAND     HEMISPHERE  WATER  HEMISPHERE 

Earth.  The  world  in  hemispheres.  The  land  hemisphere  has  its  centre 
approximately  at  London.  The  Arctic  basin  is  antipodal  to  the  Antarctic 
continent ;  Africa  is  antipodal  to  the  gr*at  basin  of  the  Pacific.  The  water 
hemisphere  includes  Argentina,  Australasia,  the  East  Indies,  and  the  south- 
east corner  of  Asia 


of  east,  sets  south  of  west,  and 
day  varies  from  6  to  12  hours.  The 
tilt  of  the  earth's  axis  is  therefore 
responsible  for  the  seasons,  and  for 
the  fact  that  variation  in  mean 
monthly  temperature  through  the 
year  follows  the  same  rhythmic 
curve  for  all  places  on  the  earth, 
differing  only  in  amplitude  from 
place  to  place.  Like  the  other 
planets  the  earth  has  a  spherical 
shape,  rotates  upon  an  axis  in- 
clined to  the  plane  through  which 
it  revolves  round  the  sun  in  an 
elliptical  orbit,  and  receives  light 
and  heat  from  the  sun. 

Owing  to  its  rotation  the  earth 
is  not  a  perfect  sphere,  but  has  a 
bulging  belt  round  the  equator  and 
a  flattening  at  the  poles,  so  that  it 
is  an  oblate  spheroid.  This  bulge 
is  a  reminder  of  the  way  in  which 
at  an  early  stage  in  its  career  the 
earth,  then  much  larger  in  diame- 
ter, had  a  greater  bulge  which  even- 
tually broke  away  from  the  earth  in 
fragments,  which  later  coalesced  to 


EARTH 


2764 


EARTH-HOUSE 


form  the  moon.  This  process  re- 
peated on  a  small  scale  the  method 
by  which  the  earth  itself  was 
formed  from  the  sun.  The  earth's 
diameter  is  7,900  m.,  less  than  a 
hundredth  part  of  that  of  the  sun. 
The  eartb  is  the  third  planet  in 
order  from  the  sun,  Mercury,  the 
nearest  and  smallest  planet,  being 
36  million  miles  while  the  earth  is 
92  J  million  miles  from  the  sun,  and 
Neptune,  the  most  distant,  is  2,775 
million  miles  from  it.  The  earth 
rotates  once  in  23  hrs.  56  mins.,  the 
sun  in  25  days,  and  Jupiter  in  9 
hrs.  55  mins.  While  the  revolution 
of  the  earth  round  the  sun  occupies 
a  year,  Mercury  only  takes  88  days 
and  Neptune  takes  165  years. 
The  Moon  and  the  Earth 

The  whole  solar  system  is  held 
together  by  the  influence  of  gravity. 
While  the  sun  is  very  hot  and  the 
moon  quite  cold,  the  earth  still 
retains  within  it  a  certain  amount 
of  heat  which  tends  to  be  dissi- 
pated through  space.  The  moon 
is  without  an  atmosphere,  but  the 
earth  and  Mars  have  a  gaseous 
envelope  surrounding  them,  the 
troposphere.  The  moon  causes 
eclipses  of  the  sun,  the  wave  move- 
ments of  terrestrial  waters  called 
the  tides,  and  reflects  a  small 
quantity  of  solar  light  and  heat  to 
the  earth,  but  the  main  external 
source  of  supply  of  energy  to  the 
earth  is  the  sun.  The  earth,  how- 
ever, only  receives  a  very  small 
portion  of  the  total  radiant  energy, 
light,  heat,  electricity,  etc.,  which 
streams  continuously  into  space 
from  the  sun. 

The  earth  is  a  rigid  body,  ap- 
proximately twice  as  rigid  as  steel, 
in  that  it  resists  compression,  yet 
although  the  interior  is  not  fluid,  it 
is  fluidl  ble  and  will  flow  when  op- 
portunity offers,  as  in  lava  streams. 
Hydrosphere  and  Lithosphere 

The  earth  is  a  cooling  body,  and 
therefore  is  very  slowly  becoming 
smaller.  The  geometrical  solid 
which  combines  a  maximum  of 
surface  area  with  a  minimum  of 
volume  is  a  tetrahedron,  which  has 
four  corners,  four  faces,  and  six 
edges.  Because  the  earth's  crust 
is  attached  to  a  shrinking  interior 
the  crust  crinkles  into  folded  moun- 
tains which  have  adopted  the 
tetrahedral  outline.  One  corner  is 
Antarctica,  the  opposite  face  is  the 
Arctic  Ocean.  Three  edges,  the 
Andes,  the  African  mts.,  and  the 
ridges  of  Malaysia  and  Austra- 
lasia, point  towards  the  Antarctic 
Corner.  The  remaining  three  edges 
are  formed  by  the  mountain  ridges 
which  run  east  and  west  in  the 
northern  hemisphere. 

The  hydrosphere,  or  water 
covering  of  the  earth,  consequently 
tends  to  form  four  basins  ;  the  best 


marked  of  these  is  the  Arctic  Ocean. 
Of  the  total  surface  of  196|-  mil- 
lion sq.  m.,  141 J  million  sq.  m.  are 
water,  most  of  which  is  found  in  the 
Water  Hemisphere,  which  has  its 
pole  close  to  Antipodes  Island  and 
includes  Australasia,  Antarctica, 
and  small  portions  of  South  Amer- 
ica and  S.E.  Asia.  The  maximum 
depth  of  the  hydrosphere  does  not 
reach  6  m.  The  hydrosphere  is  the 
source  of  the  water  which  in  the 
form  of  rain,  ice,  and  flowing 
streams  tends  to  wear  down  the 
surface  of  the  lithosphere  or  solid 
earth  to  a  uniform  slope  which 
would  leave  only  the '  tetrahedral 
edges  as  mountain  ridges  ;  this 
process  is  most  marked  all  round 
the  Arctic  Ocean  in  the  great 
plains  of  Canada  and  Russia.  Al- 
though it  is  probable  that  the  bulk 
of  the  lithosphere  is  of  the  same 
composition,  the  known  diversity 
in  the  composition  of  the  outside 
crust  is  responsible  for  the  minor 
variations  of  ridge  and  valley  which 
are  infinitesimal  in  relation  to  the 
earth's  bulk  (1,000  ft.  compared 
with  8,000  miles,  i.e.  roughly 
1  :  40,000). 

Flux  of  Atmospheric  Conditions 

The  earth  is  the  home  of  man. 
In  common  with  the  forms  of  life 
which  provide  his  sustenance  man 
exists  on  the  earth  because  of  the 
atmosphere.  His  yearly  and  daily 
round  is  regulated  by  the  motion 
of  the  earth.  The  annual  revo- 
lution, with  the  consequent  varia- 
tion in  the  earth's  tilt  relative  to  the 
sun,  causes  the  seasons  and  the  well- 
marked  differences  between  the 
tropical  and  polar  belts.  In  rela- 
tion to  these  differences  the  tetra- 
hedral conformation  produces  varia- 
tions in  atmospheric  circulation 
which  govern  the  several  climatic 
differences  which  cause  the  weather 
to  vary  from  place  to  place. 

The  net  result  of  these  differen- 
tial conditions  is  the  production  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  tetra- 
hedral ridges  of  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere of  areas  where  the  atmo- 
spheric conditions  are  in  a  state 
of  continuous  flux.  It  has  been 
demonstrated  that  man  reaches 
and  retains  his  highest  develop- 
ment in  response  to  such  a  kaleido- 
scopic environment.  It  is  not  an 
accident  that  modern  civilization 
in  its  highest  expression  is  found  on 
the  edge  of  the  Alpine  ridge,  where 
the  northern  slope  abuts  on  the 
junction  of  the  Arctic  and  Atlantic 
basins.  See  Planet.  B.  c.  wants 

Earth.  Term  used  in  several 
senses  besides  that  of  the  name  of 
a  member  of  the  solar  system.  Two 
only  need  be  noted  here,  one  in  con- 
nexion with  electrical  and  magnetic 
phenomena,  and  the  other  with  the 
so-called  rare  earths. 


The  chief  rare  earths  are  cerium, 
terbium,  and  ytterbium,  occurring 
in  small  quantities  in  Scandinavia, 
the  Urals,  America,  and  Australia, 
and  yielding  radium,  the  discovery 
of  which  has  revolutionised  the 
theories  of  the  constitution  of 
matter. 

In  1600  Gilbert  showed  that  the 
earth  was  a  magnet  ;  the  magnetic 
poles  corresponding  approximately 
to  the  geographical  poles.  The 
cause  of  this  magnetisation  of  the 
earth  is  unknown,  but  it  has  been 
observed  to  vary  in  strength  with 
the  appearance  of  spots  on  the  sun. 
That  there  is  an  intimate  connexion 
between  solar  phenomena  and  mag- 
netic storms  on  the  earth  has  long 
been  known.  These  magnetic 
storms  are  of  such  strength  as  to 
interfere  with  and  often  prevent 
the  transmission  of  telegraphic 
messages.  They  are  notably  severe 
at  times  of  brilliant  displays  of  the 
aurora  borealis.  See  Magnetism  ; 
Telegraph  and  Telegraphy. 

Earth  Colours.  Pigments  uni- 
versally employed  before  the  intro- 
duction of  oils.  The  cave  men  used 
red,  yellow,  black,  and  white  for 
their  crude  but  spirited  drawings 
of  animals,  and  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians and  Greeks  resorted  to  similar 
though  somewhat  more  numerous 
pigments.  Honey  or  one  of  the 
gums  was  probably  the  binding 
medium.  The  earth  colours  in- 
clude the  ochres,  umbers,  sienna 
brown,  and  terre  verte. 

Earth  Density.  This  has  been 
determined  experimentally  by 
several  physicists,  beginning  with 
Cavendish.  The  mean  density  as 
calculated  most  recently  by  C.  V. 
Boys  is  5 '5268 ;  or  rather  more  than 
five  and  a  half  times  that  of  water. 
See  Cavendish  Experiment. 

Earthenware.  Name  given  to 
all  pottery  that  is  not  translucent. 
It  includes  Faience,  Delft,  Stone- 
ware, and  such  modern  makes  as 
Granite  ware,  Silicon,  Semi-porce- 
lain, and  so  forth.  It  may  be 
glazed  or  unglazed,  the  terra- 
cotta of  the  Greeks,  flooring  tiles 
and  building  blocks,  or  the  Majolica 
and  Enamelled  wares  all  coming 
under  the  general  term.  Its  origin 
is  lost  in  antiquity,  dating  back 
before  the  age  of  metal  working  to 
a  primitive  culture  when  plaited 
baskets  were  encased  in  clay  for 
cooking  food.  See  Pottery;  also 
illus.  pp.  139  and  2083. 

Earth-House.  Primitive  under- 
ground structure  of  the  early  metal- 
lic age,  especially  in  Scotland.  Nor- 
mally it  is  a  round  or  rectangular 
chamber  of  unhewn  masonry,  with 
a  beehive  roof,  beneath  an  artificial 
mound.  Frequently  one  or  more 
chambers  are  approached  by  stone- 


EARTHLY      PARADISE 


2765 


EARTHQUAKE 


lined,  stone-paved  corridors,  often 
planned  with  a  sharp  bend,  as  at 
Tealing,  Forfarshire,  where  it  is 
80  ft.  long,  5  ft.  8  ins.  high,  with 
cup-markings.  On  the  moor  of 
Clova,  Aberdeenshire,  about  50  of 
these  so-called  Picts'  Houses  lie 
within  two  sq.  m.  At  Skerrebrae, 
Orkney,  several  groups  of  cham- 
bers— one  21  ft.  by  11  ft. — were 
reached  from  a  common  corridor. 
At  Cairn  Conan,  Arbroath,  the 
underground  chamber  lay  near 
surface  foundations,  pointing  to  its 
probable  use  for  refuge  and  storage 
in  connexion  with  surface  dwellings. 
The  cultural  range  of  the  asso- 
ciated remains — querns,  spindle- 
whorls,  horn  and  bronze  imple- 
ments, rough  pottery,  Samian  ware 
—  resembles  that  of  the  Broch. 
Similar  structures  occur  in  Ireland 
and  Cornwall.  See  Underground 
Dwellings. 

Earthly  Paradise,  THE.  Poem 
or  cycle  of  narrative  poems  by 
William  Morris,  published  in  four 
parts  from  1868-70.  The  stories, 
chosen  from  classical  and  medieval 
sources,  are  supposed  to  be  told  by 
a  miscellaneous  group  of  14th  cen- 
tury story-tellers,  banded  together 
in  search  of  that  earthly  paradise 
which  gives  its  name  to  the  whole. 
The  first  poem  in  the  series,  The 
Life  and  Death  of  Jason,  was  pub- 
lished as  a  separate  volume,  1867. 

Earth  Movement.  Ever  since 
the  outer  rocky  layer,  or  crust,  was 
formed  on  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
it  has  been  crumpled,  folded,  and 
otherwise  disturbed.  Areas  have 
been  elevated  or  depressed  within 
historic  times,  as  may  be  seen 
along  the  sea  coasts.  Thus,  at  the 
Temple  of  Serapis  at  Pozzuoli,  near 
Naples,  a  pavement  now  below 
present  beach-level,  with  several 
neighbouring  pillars,  still  upright, 
which  bear  marks  of  boring  by 
shell-fish  that  never  live  above  high- 
water  mark,  indicates  both  move- 
ments. At  more  remote  periods, 
sea-beaches  have  been  raised  many 
feet  above  present  beach-level ;  on 
the  other  hand,  depression  of  land 
has  caused  areas  of  thick  vegeta- 
tion to  be  turned  into  submerged 
forests. 

Simple  movements  of  elevation 
have  raised  great  land-masses  to 
form  plateaux.  When  the  strain  on 
the  strata  becomes  too  great,  frac- 
tures take  place,  the  lines  where 
they  break  being  known  as  faults. 
In  this  way  large  areas  are  some- 
times let  down  to  a  level  lower  than 
the  surrounding  country,  and  rift 
valleys  have  been  formed.  The 
valley  of  the  Jordan  is  an  example. 
The  Dead  Sea,  the  Red  Sea,  Nyasa 
and  Tanganyika,  and  other  lakes 
in  E.  Africa,  lie  in  such  areas. 
Earth  stresses  producing  horizontal 


movements  result  in  crumpling  and 
folding  of  strata,  and,  on  a  large 
scale,  in  the  formation  of  mountain 
chains.  The  Alps  are  folding  mts. 
Rock-beds  may  be  arched,  forming 
anticlines,  or  depressed  into 
troughs,  forming  synclines  ;  com- 
plications in  bending  may  result  in 
compound  flexure  or  fan-structure. 
See  Earthquake ;  Fault. 

Earth-Nut  Cake.  Artificial 
feeding  stuff.  It  is  prepared  from 
the  underground  fruit  of  the  legu- 
minous plant  variously  known  as 
earth-nut,  ground-nut,  monkey- 
nut,  or  pea-nut  (Arachis  hypogaea), 
after  the  oil  has  been  extracted. 
In  the  decorticated  form,  which  is 
better  known  than  the  undecorti- 
cated,  the  husk  has  been  removed, 
and  it  is  then  a  good  substitute  for 
decorticated  cotton-cake.  Per- 
centage composition  :  Water,  10 '43; 
oil,  8-17;  albuminoids,  48'32 ; 
digestible  carbohydrates,  22 '99 ; 
fibre,  4-67  :  ash,  5'42. 

Earth  Pillar.  Pillars  of  clay 
capped  by  stones.  In  an  area  con- 
sisting of  clav  or  soft  rock  contain- 


Eartb  Pillar.  Example  of  this  curious 
nature  formation  at  Euseigne, 
Switzerland.  It  is  caused  by  large 
stones,  acting  like  umbrellas,  protect- 
ing the  rock  beneath,  after  the  softer 
material  nas  been  washed  away  by  rain 

ing  large  stones  the  softer  materials 
will  be  readily  washed  away  by  the 
rains,  but  the  stones,  acting  like 
umbrellas,  will  protect  the  clay  or 
soft  rock  immediately  beneath 
them.  In  this  way  pedestals 
capped  by  stones  are  formed.  See 
Geology  ;  Rock. 

Earth  Plate.  Metal  plate,  fre- 
quently of  copper.  Buried  in  the 
ground,  to  it  the  end  of  an  electric 
conductor  is  secured.  In  telegraphy 
an  earth  plate  is  employed  at  each 
end  of  a  conductor.  See  Circuit. 

Earthquake.  The  crust  of  the 
earth,  the  outside  layer  of  solid 
rock,  is  not  always  still ;  it  is  sub- 
ject to  strain  and  stress  due  to  the 


cooling  of  the  earth,  to  its  revolu- 
tion, and  to  the  attractive  force 
of  the  other  heavenly  bodies.  The 
crust  not  being  homogeneous, 
these  strains  produce  varied  re- 
sults in  different  areas.  Large 
sections  of  the  crust  have  sunk 
below  the  general  level  of  the 
neighbouring  portions;  thus,  for 
example,  the  basin  of  the  western 
Mediterranean  is  a  depression 
caused  by  sinking  of  this  nature 
during  remote  geological  eras.  The 
edges  of  such  depressions  are  lines 
of  weakness  in  the  crust,  and  are 
usually  marked  by  the  existence  of 
extinct  or  active  volcanoes.  In  the 
western  Mediterranean  area  are  the 
volcanoes  Strom  bo li,  Etna,  and 
Vesuvius,  as  well  as  the  extinct 
volcanoes  of  Central  France. 

These  lines  of  structural  weak- 
ness in  the  outer  crust  of  the  earth 
sometimes  give  opportunity  for 
earthquakes,  which  occur  when  a 
hidden  segment  of  the  crust  breaks 
away  from  its  original  location. 
The  shock  produced  by  the  sudden 
fracture  sets  up  vibrations  in  the 
solid  matter  of  the  earth's  crust, 
and  these  vibrations,  waves  or 
tremblings,  travel  long  distances 
and  produce  movements  in  build- 
ings, bridges,  rly.  lines,  etc.  Near 
the  volcanoes  in  Italy  there  have 
been  two  great  recent  earthquakes : 
the  Neapolitan  earthquake  of 
1857,  in  which  more  than  12,000 
lives  were  lost,  and  that  of  Messina 
in  1908,  which  cost  77,000  lives. 
In  Sept.,  1920,  earthquake  shocks 
occurred  in  N.  and  Central  Italy, 
causing  hundreds  of  deaths  and 
much  damage.  The  modern  study 
of  earthquakes,  the  science  of 
seismology,  dates  from  1857.  . 

Earthquakes  usually  arise  at  no 
great  depth  below  the  land  surface, 
and  the  stability  of  the  "  outer 
skin  "  of  the  earth  depends  partly 
upon  its  angle  of  slope.  Earth- 
quakes are  not  to  be  expected 
where  there  are  extensive  plains, 
but  wherever  the  slope  of  the  land 
is  very  steep  the  rocks  tend  to  slip 
and  give  rise  to  earthquake  shocks. 
The  coast  lands  of  the  Pacific  are 
usually  tilted  very  sharply  ;  deep 
water  is  close  to  the  sea  shore 
and  high  mts.  rise  close  to  the 
coast;  consequently,  Japan  is  a 
land  of  earthquakes,  which  also 
occur  in  New  Zealand  near  Wel- 
lington, while  San  Francisco  was 
devastated  by  the  earthquake  and 
subsequent  fire  of  1906.  For  a 
similar  reason  there  have  been 
severe  shocks  near  the  base  of  the 
Himalayas,  e.g.  at  Shillong,  Assam, 
in  1897.  The  highest  mts.  of  the 
world  are  located  roughly  along 
two  lines — in  America  from  N.  to 
S.  close  to  the  Pacific  shores,  in  the 
Old  World  in  a  west-east  direction 


EARTHQUAKE 


2766 


EARTHQUAKE 


Earthquake.  Examples  ot  damage  wrougiu  D>  modern  eartuquaKes.  1.  ta^v.ue  01  Messina  Cathedral  before  tbe  earth* 
quake  ol  1908.  Z.  As  it  appeared  afterwards.  3.  Capitals  of  columns  displaced  at  Leland  Stanford  Jr.  University,  Cal  iornia, 
1906.  C.  CatnedraJ  destroyed  in  Guatemala  City,  1918.  5.  Wrecked  railway  bridge  ^ear  Gifu,  Hondo,  Japan.  6.  Ruined 
street  in  Giiu.  7.  Intenor  of  tbe  church  of  Calcmaja.  near  Pisa,  destroyed  in  Sept.,  192C.  8.  Street  rent  asunder  in  San 
Francesco  1906.  9.  Collapsed  tower  at  Santa  Rosa,  California,  1906 


from  Italy  to  Burma  Count  de 
Montessus  de  Ballore  tabulated  the 
records  of  over  170,000  earth- 
quakes, and  found  that  all  but 
5  p.c.  occurred  near  these  two 
mountainous  axes. 

Seismology  owes  much  to  Japan- 
ese interest ;  during  seven  years, 
1885-92,  over  8,000  shocks  were 
recorded  in  Japan,  most  of  them 
happily  of  small  dimensions ;  yet 
in  1891  a  severe  shock  left  exposed 
a  new  escarpment  which  extended 
50  m.  and  attained  a  height  of  20  ft. 
The  San  Francisco  earthquake 
was  marked  by  a  vertical  displace- 
ment which  in  places  amounted  to 
10  ft.  and  which  extended  for  over 
250m.  Usually  the  shock  lasts  for  a 
little  longer  than  a  minute ;  the  am- 
plitude of  the  vibration  diminishes 
with  distance  from  the  origin. 


The  seismograph,  or  earthquake 
recorder,  is  a  solid  pillar  set  up 
solidly  in  the  ground  at  a  distance 
from  all  chance  causes  of  surface 
vibrations  in  the  earth,  and  so 
arranged  that  every  vibration  in 
the  earth's  crust  is  communicated 
through  the  pillar  to  a  recording 
pen.  From  the  automatic  records 
of  three  stations  the  seismologist 
determines  the  time,  character,  and 
place  of  origin  of  the  earthquake. 

In  Britain  occasional  earth- 
quakes cause  little  damage  beyond 
the  breakage  of  ornaments  thrown 
from  their  shelves  and  of  pictures 
detached  from  their  hooks  ;  but  in 
areas  liable  to  these  disturbances 
the  landscape  may  be  permanently 
altered  by  the  formation  of  scarps 
and  landslips,  rly.  lines  and  fences 
may  be  broken  and  displaced  side 


ways,  buildings  may  become  heaps 
of  rubble.  Great  waves  may  be 
generated  in  the  ocean. 

In  earthquake  areas  great  atten- 
tion must  be  paid  to  the  stability 
of  buildings  ;  they  should  be  low 
upon  a  broad  foundation,  so  that 
the  swaying  roof  does  not  move 
far  beyond  the  outside  limits  of 
the  foundations.  It  used  to  be 
thought  that  the  typically  light 
bamboo  house  of  the  Japanese  was 
developed  in  consequence  of  the 
frequency  of  earthquakes,  but  the 
thick,  heavy,  solid  roofs  of  these 
houses  show  that  the  lightness  of 
the  walls  is  not  due  to  tear  ot 
earthquakes.  If  Japanese  domestic 
architecture  owes  any'  of  its 
characteristic  features  to  the  fre- 
quent earth-waves,  it  is  in  the  shape 
and  lowness  of  the  buildings 


EARTH-SHINE 


EARTHWORM 


Earth-shine.  Illumination  of 
the  moon  by  reflected  light  from 
the  earth.  It  can  be  observed 
with  greater  or  less  distinctness, 
according  to  locality  and  atmo- 
spheric conditions,  when  the  por- 
tion of  the  moon  illuminated  by 
the  sun  appears  only  as  a  slender 
crescent.  The  earth-shine  on  the 
new  moon  was  successfully  photo- 
graphed in  Feb.,  1895,  at  the  Lick 
Observatory  by  Prof.  Barnard, 
who  thus  described  it :  *'  The  earth- 
lit  globe  stands  out  beautifully 
round,  encircled  by  the  slender 
crescent.  All  the  seas  are  conspicu- 
ously visible,  as  are  also  the  other 
prominent  features,  especially  the 
region  about  Tycho.  Aristarchus 
and  Copernicus  appear  as  bright 
specks."  Huniboldt  endorses  an 
observation  that  the  light  reflected 
thus  on  the  moon  changes  in  colour 
according  to  the  region  of  the 
earth  which  reflects  it.  See  Moon. 

Earth-star  (Geaster).  Genus 
of  fungi,  of  the  natural  order 
Gastromycetes.  They  are  distin- 


Earth-star.    Specimen  of  the  fungus 
showing  its  pointed  segments 

guished  from  the  puff-balls  (Lyco- 
perdon)  by  the  two  outermost 
layers  splitting  from  the  apex  into 
several  pointed  segments  which 
expand  and  give  the  plant  its 
stellate  form.  The  numerous 
species  grow  upon  the  ground. 

Earthwork.  Ancient  strong- 
hold defended  by  earthen  mounds. 
There  are  several  thousands  in 
England  and  Wales.  Promontory 
forts,  utilising  natural  defences, 
are  either  coastal  or  inland.  They 
developed  into  cliff  castles.  Hill- 
forts  are  characteristic  of  neolithic 
Britain.  Plateau  forts  are  on 
flatter  ground.  When  round  or 
oval  they  are  pre-Roman,  but  often 
were  used  successively  by  neo- 
lithic, Celtic,  Roman,  Saxon,  and 
Norman  occupants.  There  is  a 
good  earthen  hill-fort  on  Midhill 
Head,  Midlothian,  but  Scottish 
strongholds  are  mostly  of  stone. 
See  Caesar's  Camp ;  Dyke ;  Rath. 

Earthwork.  In  engineering,  the 
excavation  and  disposal  of  ma- 
terials which  can  be  loosened  with- 


out blasting.  Railway  engineers, 
when  running  their  surveys,  en- 
deavour to  fix  formation  levels 
which  will  balance  excavation  and 
embankment,  preventing  useless 


Earthwork.  Diagram  illustrating  angle 
of  repose 

dumping  and  too  much  borrowing 
from  outside  areas. 

The  cubic  contents  of  a  cutting 
or  embankment  relatively  to  its 
average  depth  is  governed  by  the 
angle  of  repose  of  the  material 
under  the  conditions  to  which  it 
will  be  exposed  when  the  work  is 
completed.  If  dry  sand  is  poured 
on  to  a  horizontal  surface  A  B  (see 
diagram),  it  forms  a  conical  pile, 
the  slopes  of  which  make  an  angle 
of  about  35°  with  A  B.  As  long  as 
the  heap  remains  dry,  the  angle  is 
unchanged,  and  the  heap  is  stable. 
Therefore  angle  C  A  B  (=  angle 
C  B  A)  is  the  natural  angle  of  re- 
pose. Addition  of  water  reduces  the 
friction  between  the  particles,  and 
the  heap  spreads  out  until  a 
condition  of  equilibrium  is  re- 
established, the  angle  of  repose 
being  reduced  to  22°-26°. 

The  angles  of  repose  of  other 
substances  are  approximately : 
damp  clay,  45°  ;  wet  clay,  16°  ; 
earth  deposited  in  layers  and 
rammed,  60°-70°  ;  damp  earth 
piled  in  bulk,  45°  ;  dry  earth,  30°  ; 
wet  earth,  16°-18°  ;  gravel,  45°- 
50°.  Assuming  that  proper  provi- 
sion is  made  for  drainage,  a  slope 
in  which  A  D  :  C  D  :  :  If  :  1  is 
safe  for  average  earthwork  in  both 
cutting  and  embankment.  To 
allow  for  the  effect  of  heavy  rain, 
it  may  be  prudent  to  make  the 
slope  more  gentle  than  this,  as 
extra  work  done  in  the  first  in- 
stance is  less  expensive.  The 
shoulders  and  toes  of  embank- 
ments should  be  rounded  off,  and 
the  slopes  covered  with  grass, 
which  protects  the  earth  against 
the  loosening  influence  of  rain. 
Ditches  and  Drainage 

If  there  be  any  likelihood  of  water 
flowing  down  into  a  cut  from  higher 
ground,  a  ditch  is  dug  near  the 
edge  to  intercept  the  water  and 
carry  it  to  a  point  where  it  can 
pass  away  without  doing  damage. 
In  clay  it  is  often  necessary  to 
cut  Y-shaped  ditches  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  slope  and  fill  them  in 
with  lump  chalk,  clinkers,  etc.  The 
arms  of  a  Y  catch  the  water, 
which  flows  down  the  leg  into 
permanent  drains  along  the  foot. 


A  cutting  is  usually  excavated 
in  successive  'lifts  or  layers,  each 
opened  out  by  deep  trenches  tra- 
versing the  whole  length  of  the 
cutting.  The  faces  of  the  trenches 
are  attacked  by  men  working  about 
5  ft.  apart,  and  extended  laterally 
till  they  meet  the  slopes  or  one 
another.  For  very  large  cuttings 
a  system  of  terracing  is  sometimes 
adopted,  and  work  proceeds  on  a 
number  of  longitudinal  benches 
on  both  sides  at  different  levels, 
each  provided  with  its  own  tem- 
porary way.  A  cut  is  made  near 
the  centre  line,  and  widened  out  to 
three  or  four  times  its  original 
width,  after  which  a  second  cut 
is  sunk  under  the  first.  While  this 
is  being  extended,  the  limits  of 
the  cut  above  also  are  receding. 
The  process  is  repeated  till  forma- 
tion level  is  reached.  The  same 
system  of  benches  is  useful  on  side- 
long ground,  i.e.  where  a  notch  has 
to  be  cut  along  the  face  of  a  hill. 
Economic  Removal  of  Spoil 

Mechanical  excavators  are  em- 
ployed wherever  the  scale  of  work 
justifies  their  use.  With  hand- 
work, 14-60  cubic  yds.  per  man 
per  day  can  be  loosened  by  picks ; 
and  10-30  cubic  yds.  shovelled, 
according  to  the  nature  of  the 
ground.  Removal  of  the  spoil  is 
effected  most  economically  by 
barrows  over  distances  up  to 
500  ft.,  by  two-wheeled  carts, 
500  ft.-l,700  ft.;  by  four-wheeled 
carts,  1,700  ft. -3,500  ft.  ;  and  by 
wagons  on  rails  for  longer  hauls. 

Railway  embankments  are  gener- 
ally formed  by  tipping  over  the  end, 
and  allowing  the  debris  to  find  its 
own  angle.  Settlement  of  the 
material  by  consolidation  must  be 
allowed  for  to  the  extent  of  T^ 
to  y  of  the  height  of  the  pile. 
If  the  earth  be  spread  in  layers, 
subsequent  shrinkage  is  small.  To 
open  the  road  quickly  it  may  prove 
economical  to  run  a  temporary 
trestle  across  a  fill  and  dump  earth 
from  it  to  both  sides.  The  stringers 
are  removed  as  the  earth  reaches 
them ;  the  uprights  and  cross- 
bracings  are  left  in  position  and 
help  to  give  solidity. 

If  the  maximum  density  be 
required,  as  for  the  embankments 
of  reservoirs  and  behind  retaining 
walls,  earth  is  spread  in  layers  a 
few  inches  thick,  and  well  rammed. 
See  Embankment ;  Engineering. 

Earthworm.  Segmented  worm 
living  in  the  soiL  Their  rounded 
shape  and  the  short  bristles  with 
which  the  segments  are  provided 
enable  the  worms  to  push  their  way 
through  the  soil  and  to  form  bur- 
rows. They  eat  their  way  also,  and 
derive  their  food  largely  from  the 
vegetable  matter  contained  in  the 
soil  swallowed.  When  this  has 


EARWIG 


2768 


EAST 


Earthworm.     The  common  species, 
a  valuable  agent  in  lertilisation 

been  extracted,  the  soil,  after  being 
reduced  to  fine  powder  in  the  in- 
testine, is  discharged  at  the  mouth 
of  the  burrow  in  the  familiar  worm- 
castings. 

In  his  Formation  of  Vegetable 
Mould  through  the  Action  of 
Worms,  1881,  Darwin  estimates 
that  in  an  acre  of  average  garden 
land  there  are  about  53,000  earth- 
worms, and  that  every  year  about 
ten  tons  of  soil  pass  through  their 
bodies,  with  the  result  that  they 
spread  fresh  soil  on  the  surface  at 
an  average  rate  of  an  inch  in  five 
years.  In  this  way  they  are  con- 
tinually turning  over  the  soil,  and 
their  burrows  give  access  to  light 
and  moisture.  The  destruction  of 
earthworms  is  therefore  an  econo- 
mic mistake. 

Although  without  eyes,  earth- 
worms dislike  light  and  only 
emerge  from  their  burrows  after 
dark,  unless  flooded  out  by  storms. 
Even  when  they  have  emerged, 
they  usually  keep  their  tail  in  the 
hole  ready  for  instant  withdrawal  if 
alarmed.  They  are  in  the  habit  of 
plugging  the  mouth  of  the  burrow 
with  leaves  or  small  stones  ;  and 
vegetable  matter  is  drawn  in 
for  future  consumption.  They  can 
certainly  smell  and  taste,  and  it  is 
probable  that  they  can  appreciate 
the  vibrations  caused  by  sound. 

Earthworms  are  hermaphrodite, 
and  impregnation  is  mutual  in  the 
union  of  the  sexes.  The  eggs  are  de- 
posited in  a  kind  of  horny  cocoon, 
which  is  formed  by  a  secretion 
round  the  swollen  ring  which  may 
be  noticed  on  the  body  of  an  adult 
and  is  often  mistaken  for  the  scar 
of  an  old  injury.  When  a  worm 
is  cut  in  two  by  a  spade,  the  two 
halves  often  survive  and  reproduce 
the  missing  parts. 

Earwig.  Family  (Forficulidae) 
of  orthopterous  (straight-winged) 
insects,  which  vary  considerably 
from  other  members  of  the  order. 
The  fore  wings  are  modified  into 
elytra,  and  the  hind  wings — which 
are  rarely  used — are  folded  like  a 
fan.  They  are  readily  recognized  by 
the  pincer-like  appendages  on  the 


abdomen.  The  female  sits  on  her 
eggs  and  watches  over  her  young 
for  some  time.  It  is  generally  sup- 
posed that  these  insects  are  sarden 
pests  and  feed  on  plants  and  fruit : 
but  this  is  very  doubtful.  Recent 
observers  maintain  that  they  are 
largely  carnivorous.  See  Insects. 

Easel.  Upright  wooden  frame 
of  varying  size  and  strength  with  a 
rest  for  the  artist's  canvas  or 
board.  The  rest  may  be  adjusted  to 
any  convenient  height  by  means  of 
a  stop-slide  at  the  back.  The  word 
easel  (Dutch  ezel,  Ger.  Esel)  comes 
ultimately  from  Lat.  asellus,  little 
ass  (dim.  of  asinus),  meaning  that 
which  carries  or  supports.  See 
Painting. 

Easel  Picture.  Term  applied  in 
art  criticism  to  works  small  enough 
to  be  painted  on  the  easel.  The 
name  might  be  given  to  all  cabinet 
and  panel  pictures,  and  most  ex- 
amples of  genre  and  landscape,  but 
not  to  distinctly  large  canvases, 
even  though  painted  at  the  easel. 

Easement.  Term  used  in  Eng- 
lish law  for  what  is  called  servitude 
in  Scots  law  and  in  other  legal  sys- 
tems. There  must  be  two  pieces  of 
land  (tenements),  and  the  owner  of 
the  one,  called  the  dominant  tene- 
ment, has  a  right  over  the  other, 
servient  tenement.  Thus,  the 
owners  of  Whiteacre  (dominant) 
have  a  right  to  use  a  footpath 
which  runs  across  Blackacre  (servi- 
ent ) ;  this  is  called  a  right  of  way. 
Other  common  easements  are  right 
of  light,  or  the  right  to  prevent  ob- 
struction to  windows  ;  drainage  ; 
support  for  buildings — e.g.  where 
one  house  leans  on  another. 


If  the  dominant  and  servient 
tenements  come  into  the  same 
ownership,  the  easement  vanishes, 
and  if  the  ownership  is  again  divi- 

ded     a     fresh 

grant  of  ease- 
ment i  s  re- 
quired. Ease- 
ments are  ac- 
q  u  i  red  by 
grant  from  the 
servient  owner 
to  the  domin- 
ant owner: 
but  a  grant 
will  be  implied 
in  some  cases, 
where  a  grant 
of  land  is 
made  which 
would  be  use- 
less without 
aneasement — 
e.g.  if  A  grants  to  B  a  field  in  the 
middle  of  A's  land,  and  there  is  no 
public  road  to  the  field,  there  is  an 
implied  grant  of  a  right  of  way  over 
A's  land.  Easements  are  also  ac- 
quired by  long  user.  See  Prescript' on. 
East.  One  of  the  cardinal  points. 
When  the  observer  faces  north  the 
east  is  on  the  right  hand.  At  an 
equinox  the  sun  rises  due  E.  and 
sets  due  W. 

As  a  noun  East  is  used  for  Asia 
and  the  eastern  part  of  the  world 
generally.  That  part  which  lies, 
roughly,  east  of  Germany  is  known 
in  Britain  as  the  Near  East,  the 
Middle  East,  and  the  Far  East- 
China  and  Japan.  Churches  are 
usually  built  so  that  the  worship- 
pers face  the  east,  and  at  the  east 
end  the  altar  is  always  placed. 


Easel.     Example  of  a 
siucho  easel 


Earwig.  Stages  of  life  history.  1.  Female  earwig  rearranging  her  eggs  in 
the  soil.  2.  Assisting  the  hatching-out  process.  3.  The  young  earwigs,  silvery 
at  first,  emerge  after  15  days.  4.  The  family  now  increased  to  48.  5.  As 
they  grow,  the  young  earwigs  moult  to  silvery  white  again.  6.  Starting  life  at 
a  month  old.  7.  Earwig,  natural  size.  Figs.  1  to  6  are  enlarged  two  diameters 


EAST 


2769 


EAST    AFRICA 


Rsri 


Sir  Alfred  East, 
British  painter 

Elliott  &  Fry 


East,  SIR  ALFRED  (1849-1913). 
British  painter  and  etcher.  Born  at 
Kettering,  Dec.  15, 1849,  he  studied 
at  the  Glasgow 
School  of  Art 
and  at  Paris 
§  under  Tony 
F 1  e  u  r  y  and 
Bouguereau. 
aj  He  became  a 
V  V  iPl^^J  'andscape 

1^'^iffsMi  pa*nter  °-  pr°" 
v  AwHHHI  nounced  in- 
dividuality, 
though  with 
a  strong  sym- 
pathy with  Corot.  He  was  elected 
A.R.A.  in  1899  and  R.A.  in  1913; 
was  chosen  president  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  British  Artists  in  1906, 
and  was  knighted  in  1910.  Few 
landscape  painters  are  so  well  re- 
presented in  municipal  art  galleries. 
Evening  in  the  Cotswolds  is  at  Hull, 
Autumn  in  the  Ouse  Valley  at  Old- 
ham,  The  Silent  Somme  and  Au- 
tumn at  Manchester,  Gibraltar 
from  Algeciras  at  Liverpool,  Hayle 
from  Lelant  at  Birmingham,  The 
Golden  Valley  at  Leeds,  An  Idyll  of 
Spring  at  Preston,  Autumn  in  the 
Valley  of  the  Seine  at  Leicester, 
and  Autumn  in  England  at  Bris- 
bane, while  to  Kettering  he  left  a 
collection  of  his  works  which  was 
opened  in  1913.  He  is  also  repre- 
sented at  Pittsburg  and  Chicago, 
Budapest,  Venice,  Milan,  and  the 
Luxembourg.  He  wrote  The  Art 
of  Landscape  Painting  in  Oil 
Colour,  1906;  and  the  posthum- 
ously published  Brush  and  Pencil 
Notes  in  Landscape,  1914.  He 
died  in  London,  Sept.  28,  1913. 

East  Africa.  General  term  ap- 
plied to  that  part  of  the  African 
continent  which  includes  British 
East  Africa,  i.e.  Kenya  Colony, 
Uganda  Protectorate,  and  the  Zan- 
zibar Protectorate,  Tanganyika 
Territory,  and  Portuguese  East 
Africa.  See  Kenya  Colony ;  Uganda 
Protectorate ;  Zanzibar  Protecto- 
rate ;  Tanganyika  Territory ;  East 
Africa,  Portuguese. 

East  Africa,  CONQUEST  OF. 
British  operation  during  the  Great 
War.  The  campaign  falls  into 
two  parts,  desultory  and  inde- 
cisive operations  throughout  1914 
and  1915,  and  the  conquest  of  the 
German  colony  by  the  British  and 
their  allies  in  1916  and  1917.  In 
the  former  period  the  British  were 
in  the  main  on  the  defensive. 

On  Aug.  13,  1914,  a  British' 
cruiser  bombarded  Dar-es-Salaam, 
destroyed  the  wireless  station,  and 
by  sinking  the  floating  dock  and  a 
ship  made  the  port  temporarily 
useless.  On  land  there  were  attacks 
by  both  sides  on  the  frontier  posts, 
especially  on  the  Uganda  side  of 
the  colony ;  there  was  also  some 


fighting  on  the  lakes  and  on  the 
Rhodesian  border.  On  Nov.  4 
the  British,  reinforced  by  a  white 
battalion,  the  1st  Loyal  Lanca- 
shires,  attacked  Tanga.  They  took 
it,  but  their  losses  were  very 
heavy  and  they  were  compelled 
to  retreat  to  their  ships,  which 
carried  them  back  to  British  soil. 
Longido  was  another  failure. 

On  Jan.  2,  1915,  the  British 
occupied  Jassin,  a  German  port. 
On  Jan.  19  the  Germans  returned 
to  it  with  2,000  men,  and  the 
garrison  surrendered.  Following 
this  the  British  retired  from 
German  soil,  but  soon  they  cleared 
the  Germans  from  the  Victoria 
Nyanza,  took  the  island  of  Mafia, 
and  on  Feb.  28  declared  the  coast 
of  the  colony  to  be  in  a  state  of 
blockade.  On  June  23  they  cap- 
tured Bukoba  on  the  Victoria 
Nyanza,  and  on  July  11  destroyed 
the  Konigsberg,  which  had  run  up 
the  Rufiji  river.  The  main  task, 
however,  was  still  almost  un- 
attempted,  and  although  the 
Germans  were  cut  off  from  the 
outside  world,  their  position  was 
by  no  means  hopeless.  Their 
colony,  which  was  intact,  was 
defended  by  a  strong  force,  well- 
trained  and  well  led,  and  this  was 
continually  raiding  British  posts, 
especially  those  on  the  Uganda 
rly.  Throughout  it  was  under  von 
Lettow-Vorbeck. 

In  the  autumn  of  1915,  the 
serious  nature  of  the  task  being 
by  then  realized,  Sir  H.  Smith- 
Dorrien  was  sent  out  to  take  the 
chief  command,  till  then  in  the 
hands  of  Brig. -Gen.  J.  M.  Tighe. 
His  health,  however,  was  unequal 
to  the  task,  and  General  Smuts 
took  his  place.  On  Feb.  19,  1916, 
he  arrived  at 
Mombasa,  and 
from  that  event 
the  conquest 
really  dates. 
Troops  for  the 
campaign  had 
been  raised  in  S. 
Africa,  and  he 
had  soon  some- 
thing  over 
30,000  men 
under  him.  In 
addition,  the 
Belgians  were 
preparing  to 
march  on  to  the 
German  soil. 

From  Mom- 
basa, the  Bri- 
tish base,  the 
best  way  into 
the  German 
colony  was 
through  the 
gap  of  Kilima- 
Njaro,  the  alter- 


native  being  an  attack,  as  at  Tanga, 
from  the  coast.  Smuts  decided  on 
the  former,  and  in  March  his  force 
succeeded  in  forcing  the  defences 
of  the  gap.  One  divinon  attacked 
in  front,  while  the  other  made  a 
detour.  There  were  several  en- 
counters, but  the  plan  worked 
well  and  soon  the  Germans  were 
retreating  rapidly ;  their  main 
body  got  clear,  but  only  by  the 
narrowest  margin  of  time.  Smuts 
moved  his  headquarters  to  Moschi 
and  prepared  for  another  sweep. 

The  new  operations  began  in 
April,  three  divisions  being  em- 
ployed, while  other  forces,  Belgian 
and  British,  began  to  enter  the 
colony  from  the  W.  One  division 
marched  into  the  interior,  took 
Kondoa  Irangi,  where  it  was  at- 
tacked by  3,000  Germans  on  May 
10,  and  made  the  Germans  anxious 
for  the  safety  of  their  main  line 
of  rly.  The  main  force  operated 
nearer  the  coast.  In  the  valley 
of  the  Pangani  river  the  German 
askaris,  aided  by  the  thick  bush, 
fought  well,  but  they  could  not 
prevent  the  occupation  of  Wil- 
helmstal,  Handeni,  and  other  posts. 
The  rly.  to  Tanga  was  also  seized, 
and  minor  actions,  one  or  two 
naval,  made  the  hold  of  the  British 
on  the  N.W.  part  of  the  colony 
secure.  Across  it  and  around  the 
Victoria  Nyanza  small  but  useful 
successes  were  also  recorded. 

By  this  time  the  main  enemy 
force  was  concentrated  in  the 
Ngura  Hills ;  consequently  this 
was  the  next  objective.  The  2nd 
division  meanwhile  had  reached 
one  of  the  main  objects  of  the 
campaign,  the  line  of  rly.  running 
from  Dar-es-Salaam  right  across 
the  land,  and  in  July  about  100  m. 


East  Africa.     Map  to  illustrate  the  campaign  which 
ended  in  the  conquest  of  the  German  colony 


EAST     AFRICA 


2770 


EAST     ANGLIA 


of  this  was  British.  Important 
operations  were  the  British  occu- 
pations of  Tanga  (July  7),  Mwanza 
('July  12),  and  Dodoma  (July  30). 
All  around  forces  were  closing  in 
on  the  Germans,  whose  one  line  of 
retreat  was  to  the  S.  Early  in  Aug. 
Smuts  set  his  main  force  moving 
again,  It  attacked  in  several 
places,  "and  one  after  another  the 
defended  positions  were  taken. 
By  the  18th  the  British  force  was 
at  Dakawa,  where  the  Wami  is 
crossed.  The  2nd  division  came 
along  the  rly.  from  the  W.  and 
the  result  was  the  German  retreat 
on  Mrogoro.  An  attempt  was  made 
to  surround  and  destroy  the  foe 
there,  but  it  failed,  and  again 
pursuer  and  pursued  pressed  S. 

The  Germans,  who  were  by  no 
means  routed,  put  up  a  succession 
of  fights,  and  once,  at  Kirsaki,  they 
had  the  better  of  the  exchanges. 
However,  they  could  not  stop  the 
advance,  which  won  an  additional 
advantage  by  the  surrender  on 
Sept.  4  of  Dar-es-Salaam.  The 
other  ports  were  quickly  occupied, 
and  the  enemy  was  by  the  end  of 
Sept.  confined  to  the  district  be- 
tween the  Rufiji  and  Portuguese 
territory,  where  another  foe  was 
preparing  to  receive  him. 

The  1917  campaign  opened  well. 
The  British  reached  Kilambawe 
on  Jan.  5  and  surrounded  a  German 
force  on  Jan.  24.  One  of  the  great 
tasks  of  this  campaign  was  the 
crossing  of  the  Rufiji  river.  This 
was  accomplished  on  June  5,  1917, 
and  the  area  at  the  disposal  of  the 
enemy  was  again  steadily  con- 
tracted. The  Germans  were  in  two 
main  bodies,  while  smaller  detach- 
ments were  occasionally  trouble- 
some. They  fought  hard,  especially 
in  the  Kilwa  district,  but  on  Nov. 
28  one  of  the  main  bodies  sur- 
rendered. The  other,  under  von 
Lettow-Vorbeck,  crossed  about  the 
same  time  into  Portuguese  terri- 
tory and  the  colony  was  cleared. 

The  concluding  operations, 
which  were  conducted  by  General 
van  der  Venter,  included  a  British 
success  near  Manunga,  May  5, 
1918,  the  occupation  of  Malema, 
June  13,  and  the  surrender  of  von 
Lettow's  forces,  Nov.  14.  The 
British  casualties  approached 
20,000,  and  the  loss  in  animals  was 
enormous.  See  Tanganyika;  consult 
Three  Years  of  War  in  East  Africa, 
A.  Buchanan,  1919;  My  Remin- 
iscences of  East  Africa,  von  Let- 
tow-Vorbeck, 1920. 

East  Africa,  PORTUGUESE;  OR 
MOZAMBIQUE.  Portuguese  colony, 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  Tanganyika 
Territory,  on  the  W.  by  Lake 
Nyasa,  the  Nyasaland  Protecto- 
rate, Rhodesia  and  the  Transvaal, 
on  the  S.  by  the  Zululand  portion 


of  Natal,  and  on 
the  E.  by  the  In- 
dian Ocean.  The 
colony  stretches 
along  the  coast 
from  Cape  Del- 
gada  to  the  Ro- 
vuma.  From  the 
coastal  swamps 
the  land  rises 
gradually  to  for- 
ested hills  and  the 
African  plateau. 
Area,  428,132 
s  q.  m.  Pop. 
3,120,000.  * 

The  colony 
comprises  t  e  r  r  i- 
tories  directly  ad- 
ministered by  the 
State,  and  others 
under  the  control 
of  the  Mozam- 
bique and  Nyasa 
Companies.  The 
first  are  divided 
into  six  districts 
— Louren9o  Mar- 
ques, Gaza,  In- 
hambane,  Quili- 
mane,  Tete,  and 
Mozambique. 
The  Mozambique 
Company  is  res- 
ponsible for  an 
immense  block  of 
territory  in  the 

centre   of    the    colony,   including 
the   Manica  and   Sofala   districts, 


EAST  AFRICA 

(PORTUGUESE) 

sh  Miles 


whilst  the  Nyasa  Company  admin- 
isters the  northern  territory  be- 
tween the  river  Rovuma,  Lake 
Nyasa,  and  the  river  Lurio. 

The  whole  country  is  extremely 
rich  in  tropical  products  and  min- 
eral wealth,  and  is  capable  of 
great  economic  development.  The 
chief  products  are  sugar,  nuts, 
copra,  rubber,  vegetable  oils,  wax, 
and  ivory.  There  are  two  impor- 
tant rlys.  from  Lourenco  Marques 
to  the  "Transvaal,  and  from  Beira 
to  Buluwayo  in  Rhodesia.  Rail- 
ways are  under  construction  from 
Beira,  Quilimane,  and  Mozambique 
to  the  Nyasa  districts,  and  from 
Porto  Amelia  to  Lake  Nyasa.  The 
principal  commercial  centres  are 
Ibo,  an  ancient  trading  port  N.  of 
the  fine  natural  harbour  of  Pemba 
Bay;  Porto  Amelia,  on  Pemba 
Bay ;  Mozambique,  the  original 
capital  of  the  colony  ;  Quilimane, 
an  undeveloped  but  well-situated 
port  ;  Chinde,  situated  on  the  only 
navigable  outlet  of  the  Zambezi 
river  and  the  principal  port  for  the 
Nyasaland  Protectorate ;  Beira, 
the  chief  port  and  capital  of  the 
Mozambique  Company's  territory  ; 
Sofala,  an  ancient  and  decayed 
harbour  ;  Inhambane,  a  small  port 
of  local  importance  ;  and  Lourenyo 
Marques,  the  chief  port  and  capi- 


East  Africa.  Map  of  the  large  and  productive  Portuguese 
colony,  also  known  as  Mozambique 

tal    of    the    colony,   situated    on 
Delagoa  Bay. 

Mozambique  was  visited  in  1498 
and  1502  by  Vasco  da  Gama,  and  in 
1505  by  Albuquerque,  who  estab- 
lished it  as  a  Portuguese  province. 
During  the  height  of  the  Portu- 
guese power  considerable  progress 
was  made  in  the  exploration  of  the 
territory.  In  the  18th  and  early 
part  of  the  19th  centuries  it 
became  a  stronghold  of  the  slave 
trade.  In  1875  and  in  1885-91  dis- 
putes arose  with  Great  Britain  re- 
garding the  precise  boundaries  of 
the  Portuguese  territories  around 
Delagoa  Bay  and  in  Mashonaland, 
Matabeleland,  and  Manicaland, 
which  were  settled  by  arbitration 
on  July  24, 1875,  and  by  the  Anglo- 
Portuguese  Convention  of  1891. 


Bibliography.  The  Portuguese  in 
S.  Africa,  G.  M.  Theal,  1896;  Re- 
cords of  South-Eastern  Africa,  ed. 
G.  M.  Theal,  1898-1903;  Portu- 

fuese  Nyassaland,  W.  B.  Worsfold, 
899 ;  Mozambique :  its  agricul- 
tural development,  R.  N.  Lyne, 
1913  ;  Three  Years'  Sport  in 
Mozambique,  G.  Vasse,  Eng.  trans. 
R.  and  H.  M.  Lydekker,  1909; 
Zambezia,  R.  C.  F.  Maugham,  1910. 
East  Anglia.  One  of  the  king- 
doms into  which  England  was 
divided  from  the  6th  to  the  9th 
century.  It  embraced  the  present 
counties  of  Norfolk  and  Suffolk, 
and  the  name  suggests  that  its 


EASTBOURNE 

founders  were  Angles.  The  first 
East  Anglian  king  about  whom 
anything  definite  is  known  is  Raed- 
wald,  who  died  about  620.  His 
successors  were  in  turn  the  vassals 
of  Northumbria,  Mercia,  and  Wes- 
sex,  until  the  Danes  invaded  their 
land  and  killed  their  King  Edmund 
in  870.  In  the  10th  centuiy  also 
there  were  East  Anglian  kings,  but 
they  were  only  underlings  of  the 
English  kings,  as  were  the  earls 
who  ruled  the  land  subsequently. 
To-day  East  Anglia  is  used  loosely 
to  describe  the  district  between 
the  Wash  and  the  Nore. 

Eastbourne.  County  borough 
and  watering-place  of  Sussex,  Eng- 
land. It  stands  on  the  English 
Channel,  with 
Beachy  Head  on 
the  W.  and  is 
66  in.  S.S.E.  of 
London  by  the 
L.B.  &  S.C.  Rly. 
The  many  at- 
tractions include 
a  fine  parade, 
nearly  three  m. 


Eastbourne  arms 


long,  running  right  along  the  sea 
front,  with  its  gardens,  known  as 
the  Meads.  There  are  a  pier  and 
pavilion,  golf  links,  and  provision 
for  tennis,  croquet,  and  other 
sports,  as  well  as  baths,  while  the 
South  Downs,  with  their  old-world 
villages,  provide  pleasant  oppor- 
tunities for  walking.  The  open 
spaces  include  Devonshire,  Gild- 
ridge  and  Hampden  Parks,  while 
there  are  some  fine  hotels  and  am- 
ple accommodation  for  visitors. 
Much  of  the* ground  belongs  to  the 
duke  of  Devonshire,  who  has  a  resi- 
dence, Compton  Place,  here.  The 
chief  buildings  are  the  fine  block 
built  for  municipal  purposes,  and  the 
Princess  Alice  Memorial  Hospital. 

The  chief  church  is  S.  Mary's,  the 
old  parish  church  of  the  village  of 
East  Bourne,  which  is  about  a 
mile  inland.  The  other  churches 
are  modern,  but  some  of  them  are 
fine  buildings.  The  Lamb  Inn  is 
interesting,  and  there  is  a  redoubt 
and  a  martello  tower.  There  are 
many  schools,  the  chief  being 
Eastbourne  College.  Eastbourne, 
which  only  became  a  borough  in 
1883,  is  governed  by  a  mayor  and 
corporation,  and  gives  its  name  to 
a  division  sending  one  member  to 
Parliament.  Early  in  the  19th 
century  it  consisted  only  of  three 
hamlets,  but  the  discovery  of  its 
advantages  as  a  seaside  resort 
quickly  brought  fame  and  size  to  it. 
Pop.  (1921)  62,030. 

East  cheap.  London  street  ex- 
tending from  Gracechurch  Street 
and  Fish  Street  Hill  to  Great  Tower 
Street-,  E.G.  Owing  its  name  to  a 
butchers'  market  held  here  as  early 
as  the  time  of  King  John,  and 


2771 

later  removed  to  Leadenhall,  the 
thoroughfare  has  varied  in  both 
length  and  name,  but  was  known 
as  Eastcheap  from  about  the  time 
of  Henry  III  to  the  16th  century. 
About  1831  theW.  end  disappeared, 
as  did  the  church  of  S.  Michael's, 
Crooked  Lane,  in  the  new  London 
Bridge  improvements,  and  the  E. 


EASTER 

Catholic  and  Anglican  churches 
expect  their  members  to  receive 
holy  communion  at  Easter,  and 
have  special  services  for  Sunday, 
Monday,  and  Tuesday.  Many 
special  ceremonies  also  pertain  to 
the  celebration  of  Easter  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church.  British 
Nonconformists,  who  in  the  17th 


end  became  known  as  Eastcheap     century   formally    repudiated   the 


and  Little  Tower  Street.  When  the 
street  was  widened  in  1884  the  old 
name  was  restored  for  the  whole  of 
it.  The  site  of  the  Boar's  Head 
Tavern,  Eastcheap,  mentioned  by 
Shakespeare,  is  marked  approxi- 
mately by  the  statue  of  William  IV 
at  the  junction  of  King  William 
Street  and  Gracechurch  Street. 

Easter.  English  name  for  the 
eccles.  festival  commemorative  of 
the  Resurrection  of  Jesus  Christ. 


Eastbourne.     The  beach  and  sea  front,  showing  the 
Meads,  and  looking  towards  Beach  y  Head 


The  feast,  the  most  important  in 
the  Christian  year,  known  as 
Ostern  in  Germany,  in  other  coun- 
tries is  called  by  modifications  of 
the  Greek  and  Latin  Pascha.  which 
derives  from  the  Aramaic  Pischa 
and  Hebrew  Pesach= Passover, 
the  name  of  the  Jewish  festival 
which  coincided  with  the  Cruci- 
fixion. Thus  we  have  in  Welsh 
Pasg,  Italian  Pasqua,  Spanish 
Pascus,  and  French  Pdques.  While 
applied  especially  to  Easter  as 
being  the  feast  of  feasts,  the  word 
Pasch  is  extended  to  other  occa- 
sions. The  sacrifice  of  Christ, 
typified  by  the  paschal  lamb  slain 
at  the  Passover,  was  celebrated  as 
well  as  His  Resurrection  ;  there 
was  a  Pasch  of  the  Cross  as  well  as 
a  Pasch  of  the  Resurrection. 
Celebrated  generally  in  Christen- 


keeping  of  this  festival,  now 
commonly  observe  it.  A  number 
of  pagan  customs  associated  with 
the  vernal  equinox  survived  at 
Easter  until  the  Middle  Ages,  and 
others  were  adapted  by  the 
Christian  Church.  In  regard  to  the 
giving  of  Easter  or  pasch  eggs, 
the  idea  that  the  egg  symbolises 
resurrection  is  of  a  comparatively 
modern  origin.  Eggs,  having  been 
forbidden  as  food  during  Lent, 
were  restored  at 
Easter. 

The  secular  im- 
portance of  Easter 
is  that  it  governs 
law,  university, 
and  school  terms 
and  business  ar- 
rangements gener- 
ally. Since  the 
8th  century  i  n 
Western  Christen- 
dom, Easter  Day 
has  been  cele- 
brated on  the  first 
Sunday  after  the 
first  full  moon,  or 
after  the  14th  day 
of  the  moon, follow- 
Thus  it  cannot  fall 
before  March  22  nor  after  April  25. 
The  14th  of  the  calendar  moon,  or 
eccles.  full  moon,  which  regulates 
the  date  of  Easter,  falls,  however, 
usually  on  the  15th  or  16th  of  the 
real  moon.  Reviving  an  ancient 
and  oft-repeated  proposal,  Lord 
Desborough,  at  a  conference  of  the 
associated  chambers  of  commerce 
in  1920,  moved,  on  behalf  of  the 
London  chamber,  a  resolution  in 
favour  of  a  fixed  date  for  Easter. 

Both  the  origin  of  the  word 
Easter  and  the  time  of  its  observ- 
ance have  been  subjects  of  con- 
troversy. Following  the  Venerable 
Bede,  the  derivation  of  Easter  from 
Eastre  or  Eostre,  the  name  of  a 
Teutonic  goddess  of  spring,  has 
been  commonly  accepted.  The 
dispute  in  the  early  Church  as  to  the 


ing  March  21. 


clom  since  the  2nd  century,  though     date  of  Easter  was   between  the 

Christians  of  Asia  Minor,  who  were 
called  Quartodecimans  because 
they  kept  the  Resurrection  on  the 
third  day  after  the  14th  of  the 
Jewish  month  Nisan,  on  whatever 
day  of  the  week  it  fell ;  and  the 
Western  Church,  which  maintained 
that  Easter  should  always  be  held 
on  the  Lord's  Day  following  the 
14th.  The  latter  prevailed,  and  the 


for  varying  periods,  Easter  is 
movable  feast,  and  its  occurrence 
governs  the  dates  of  the  preceding 
Lent  and  the  festivals  following  it. 
It  was  long  observed  as  a  special 
time  for  baptism,  for  the  recon- 
ciliation of  penitents  and  the 
release  of  prisoners^  for  the  distri- 
bution of  alms  and  for  offerings  to 
the  clergy.,  Both  the  Roman 


EASTER      ISLAND 


2772 


EASTERN      PROVINCE 


Council  of  Nicaea,  325,  fixed  the 
Sunday  for  universal  observance. 
But  for  many  centuries  the  diffi- 
culty of  adjusting  the  Julian 
calendar  to  the  Jewish  system,  and 
of  finding  the  true  date  of  Easter, 
was  acute.  As  the  reform  of  the 
calendar  in  1582  was  not  accepted 
in  the  East,  the  Eastern  Churches 
still  keep  Easter  on  a  different  date 
from  that  in  the  West.  See 
Calendar ;  Metonic  Cycle ;  Pass- 
over. 

Bibliography.  Companion  to  the 
Almanac,  A.  De  Morgan,  1845 ; 
Church  of  Our  Fathers,  D.  Rock, 
new  ed.  1903-4  ;  The  Ecclesiastical 
Calendar,  S.  Butcher,  1877  ;  Church 
Year  and  Kalendar,  J.  Dowden, 
1910  ;  The  Golden  Bough,  J.  G. 
Frazer,  3rd  ed.  1907-15. 

Easter  Island  OR  RAPANUI. 
Lonely  volcanic  islet  of  the  S. 
Pacific.  It  is  2,300  m.  W.  of  Chile, 
to  whom  it  belongs.  Area  about 
50 sq.  m. ;  alt.  1 ,970  ft.;  lat.  27°  7'  S.; 
long.  109°  20'  W.  It  was  discovered 
on  Easter  Day,  1722,  by  the  Dutch 
admiral,  Roggeveen,  although  its 
discovery  is  claimed  for  Davis,  the 
buccaneer,  in  1686.  The  few  in- 
habitants are  of  Polynesian  de- 
scent; Cook,  visiting  it  in  1774, 
reported  them  as  having  the  lobes 
of  their  ears  extended  almost  to 
their  shoulders.  But  its  chief 
interest  lies  in  some  500  ancient 
statues  or  torsos,  stone  huts  and 
sculptural  rocks,  with  pictographs 
(undeciphered)  and  Megalithic  re- 
mains. Most  of  the  carved  faces 
are  very  high,  one  measuring  37  ft. 
Examples  of  these  sculptures  are 
to  be  seen  at  the  British  Museum. 
Attempts  at  deciphering  some 
incised  wooden  tablets,  called  hylo- 
glyphs,  have  not  been  altogether 
successful.  The  island  is  now  a 
Chilean  convict  station.  Pop. 
about]  00.  During  the  Great  War 
it  came  into  notice  in  connexion 
with  the  commerce  -  destroying 
raids  of  the  .German  auxiliary 


cruiser,  Prinz  Eitel  Friedrich,  which 
towed  some  of  her  captures  to  the 
island  and  there  sunk  them.  The 
crews  of  certain  ships  taken  by  the 
cruiser  were  left  on  the  island, 
Dec.,  1914-Jan.,  1915.  SeeTe  Pito 
Te  Henua  or  Easter  Island,  W.  J. 
Thomson,  1891  (for  Smithsonian 
Inst.);  The  Mystery  of  Easter 
Island,  Katherine  Routledge,  1919. 

Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam. 
Province  of  India  from  1905  to 
1912.  On  Oct.  16,  1905,  Eastern 
Bengal  and  Assam  was  constituted 
from  the  territories  formerly  ad- 
ministered by  the  Chief  Commis- 
sioner of  Assam,  together  with  the 
Bengal  divisions  of  Dacca  and 
Chittagong,  and  the  districts  of 
Jalpaiguri,  Dinajpur,  Rangpur, 
Malda,  Bogra,  Rajshahi,  and  Pab- 
na.  It  had  a  total  area  of  111,569 
sq.  m.,  including  the  native  states 
of  Hill  Tippera  and  Manipur,  and 
a  pop.  of  30,961,459  (census  of 
1901).  The  capital  was  Dacca. 
This  partition  was  revoked  in 
1911,  when  George  V  announced 
at  the  Delhi  durbar  the  recon- 
struction of  Bengal  with  the  pre- 
sidency of  Bengal,  the  lieutenant- 
governorship  of  Bihar  and  Orissa, 
and  the  chief  commissioner-ship  of 
Assam.  The  new  division  of  terri- 
tory came  into  force  April  1,  1912. 

Eastern  Cadet.  Name  given  to 
certain  British  officials.  They  are 
sent  out  to  the  British  possessions 
in  the  East,  Ceylon,  Straits  Settle- 
ments, Federated  Malay  States,  and 
Hong-Kong,  to  manage  the  civil 
affairs  of  those  countries,  much  as 
the  Indian  civil  service  manages 
those  of  India.  The  service  is  en- 
tered by  competitive  examination, 
the  same  as  that  for  first-class 
clerkship  in  the  home  civil  service 
and  the  Indian  civil  service.  The 
examination  is  usually  held  every 
August.  Candidates  must  be  Brit- 
ish subjects,  between  22  and  24 
years  of  age.  See  Civil  Service. 


•_;  Eastern  Church.  Term  for  the 
"Greek,  as  distinguished  from  the 
Latin  or  Western  Church.  It  is 
applied  specifically  to  the  Greek 
Catholic  or  Eastern  Orthodox 
(Russian)  Church,  and  generally  to 
the  churches  of  E.  Europe,  Asia, 
and  Africa,  including  the  Nestorian 
or  East  Syrian,  Armenian,  Jaco- 
bite or  West  Syrian,  Coptic 
(Egypt),  Abyssinian,  Malabar  (In- 
dia), and  Maronite  (Lebanon) 
Churches.  The  Eastern  Church 
flourished  in  the  East  Roman 
Empire,  claims  a  greater  anti- 
quity than  the  Western  Church, 
and  was  divided  into  the  patri- 
archates of  Constantinople,  Alex- 
andria, Antioch,  Jerusalem,  and, 
after  the  separation  of  East 
and  West,  Moscow.  See  Greek 
Church. 

Eastern  Province.  Name  given 
to  several  provinces,  owing  to  their 
geographical  position  : .  ( 1 )  Pro- 
vince of  the  Belgian  Congo,  com- 
prising the  districts  of  Upper  Nele, 
Lower  Nele,  Ituri,  Stanleyville, 
Aruwimi,  Lowa,  Kivu,  and  Manie- 
ma.  Each  district  is  under  a  com- 
missioner and  the  prov.  is  governed 
by  a  vice-governor.  The  capital  is 
Stanleyville.  (2)  Province  of  the 
Uganda  Protectorate,  comprising 
the  districts  of  Busoga,  Bukedi, 
Teso,  Lango,  Karamoja,  and 
Lobor.  The  prov.  is  under  direct 
administration,  with  the  exception 
of  the  districts  of  Karamoja  and 
Lobor.  Included  in  the  area  of  this 
prov.  are  the  lakes  of  Kioga,  Kirk- 
patrick,  and  Mpologoma.  The 
highest  point  is  Mt.  Elgon,  which 
lies  on  the  S.E.  boundary;  it  has 
an  alt.  of  14,152  ft.  There  is  a 
forest  on  Mt.  Elgon  containing 
valuable  timber,  the  area  of  this 
being  estimated  at  50  sq.  m.  (3) 
Province  of  Ceylon.  It  has  an 
area  of  3,848  sq.  m.  and  a  pop.  of 
183,317.  A  large  lagoon  runs 
parallel  to  part  of  its  coast-line. 


Easter  Island.  Views  of  some  of  the  prehistoric  remains.  1.  Typical  head  showing  long  ear  and  pouting  lips.    2.  Bird-men 

carvings  on  rocks  of  Orongo.     3.  Statues  on  the  slope  of  Rano  Earaku.     4.  Hill  of  Rano  Raraku,  with  prostrate  images 

in  the  foreground :  above  are  the  quarries.     5.  Image  on  Rano  Raraku  excavated  to  show  the  hands 


EASTERN      QUESTION 


2773 


EASTERN     QUESTION 


THE    EASTERN    QUESTION 

Arthur  Jones,  M. A.,  Lecturer  in  History,  Birkbeck  College,  London 

The  origin  and  nature  of  this  perplexing  problem  is  here  described. 

Related  information  will  be  found  in  such  articles  as  Beaconsfield ; 

Bulgaria ;  Constantinople  ;  Turkey.     See  also  Europe :  History 

The  Eastern  Question  deals  with     the  Danube  under  an  international 

and   freed   Moldavia 


the  disintegration  of  the  Ottoman 
or  Turkish  Empire  in  the  Balkans 
and  Mediterranean  basin.  That 
empire  was  acquired  during  the 
period  extending  from  the  fall  of 
Constantinople  in  1453  to  the 
death  of  Solomon  the  Magnificent 
in  1566.  Despite  the  follies  of  de- 
generate sultans,  Turkey  survived 
the  17th  century  intact,  excepting 
that  Austria  gained  Transylvania, 
Slavonia,  and  Croatia,  1698,  and 
Turkish  Hungary,  1718. 

The  treaty  of  Kutschuk  Kai- 
nardji,  1774,  whereby  the  Russians 
forced  the  Turks  to  tolerate 
Christianity  in  Moldavia  and 
Wallachia  (modern  Rumania), 
inaugurates  a  new  phase  in  the 
Eastern  Question  in  which  the 
tsars  project  the  subjugation  of 
entire  European  Turkey.  They 
coveted  the  Mediterranean  ports 
and  the  Levantine  commerce.  As 
heads  of  the  Orthodox  Church 
they  would  emancipate  an  Ortho- 
dox majority  in  the  Balkans  from 
the  domination  of  a  Moslem 
minority.  As  monarchs  of  a  Sla- 
vonic empire,  their  nascent  Pan- 
Slavonic  sentiment  fostered  a  desire 
to  embrace  the  Slavs  of  the  Bal- 
kans within  their  political  in- 
fluence. Catherine  II  clinched  the 
matter  by  inscribing  in  1774,  over 
the  entrance  to  the  Crimea,  "The 
way  to  Constantinople." 

The  period  1821-78,  from  the 
war  of  Greek  Independence  to 
the  congress  of  Berlin,  sufficed  for 
the  establishment  of  autonomous 
Balkan  states.  The  former  ended 
in  the  establishment  of  an  attenu- 
ated Greek  kingdom  in  1832, 
while  by  the  Russo-Turkish  treaty 
of  Adrianople,  1829,  the  Danube 
and  Dardanelles  were  opened 
freely  to  navigation ;  Moslems  were 
banished  from  Moldavia  and  Wal- 
lachia, whose  hospodars  ruled  for 
life  with  sovereign  powers  inde- 
pendent of  the  Porte;  Serbia  be- 
came autonomous  but  tributary, 
and  in  1830  elected  its  own  prince. 
Mehemet  Ali  revolted,  and  in  1840 
received  the  pashalik  of  Egypt, 
practically  as  an  hereditary  do- 
minion. The  quarrel  over  the 
Holy  Places  in  1850  led  Czar 
Nicholas  I  boldly  to  propose  a 
partition  of  the  "  sick  man's " 
possessions,  the  Balkan  states  to 
have  autonomy  under  Russia, 
England  to  compensate  herself  in 
Egypt,  Cyprus,  and  Crete.  In- 
stead, came  the  Crimean  War. 

The  peace  of  Paris,  1856,  placed 


commission, 
and  Wallachia  (now  increased  by  a 
strip  of  Bessarabia)  from  Russian 
influence.  Despite  European  diplo- 
macy, these  two  principalities 
united  quietly,  1866,  to  form  the 
kingdom  of  Rumania.  Christian 
Turkey  was  in  a  condition  of 
latent  insurrection,  which  became 
active  in  the  revolt  of  Bosnia 
and  Herzegovina  hi  1875  and 
Bulgaria,  in  which  Serbia  and 
Montenegro  participated.  Tur- 
key's ferocious  retaliation  pro- 
duced "  the  Bulgarian  atrocities  " 
and  the  victorious  intervention  of 
Russia.  The  congress  of  Berlin, 
1878,  transferred  the  Dobruja  to 
Rumania  in  exchange  for  Bessar- 
abia, and  founded  the  independent 
principality  of  Bulgaria,  shorn, 
however,  of  Rumelia  and  without 
Nish  and  Mitrovitza,  claimed  by 


Bulgaria  but  allotted  to  Serbia. 
Montenegro  obtained  the  ports  of 
Antivari  and  Dulcigno.  Austria 
was  entrusted  by  the  Powers  with 
the  guardianship  of  Bosnia  and 
Herzegovina  and  the  sanjak  of 
Novi  Bazar. 

Russia  was  the  driving  force 
that  emancipated  the  Balkans,  but 
from  the  beginning  she  found  that 
it  was  not,  as  she  conceived,  a  Rus- 
sian domestic  question,  but  one 
involving  the  interests  and  ac- 
tivities of  all  Europe.  Britain 
dreaded  that  a  powerfully  aggres- 
sive Russia  predominant  in  Tur- 
key would  destroy  her  Levantine 
trade  and  menace  Indian  com- 
munications, a  dread  intensified 
by  the  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal 
in  1869.  Liberal  opinion  cham- 
pioned the  national  aspirations  of 
the  Balkans;  Conservatives  re- 
garded Turkey  as  a  buffer  against 
Russia  to  be  preserved  at  all  costs. 

Austria  after  1866,  expelled  from 
Germany,  and  by  the  Zollverein  cut 
off  from  the  ports  of  the  Baltic 
and  North  Sea,  wanted  to  assimi- 
late the  Balkans.  Russian  influence 


EASTERN  QUESTION 

English  Miles 


s  State  1878 
dependent!908 


MONTENE6ROV 

ADRIATIC 

Dura 


Boundary  of  Turkey  after 
\fienno  tf 


the  Congress  of 

Treaty  of  Berlin  IB  78 

Treaty  of  Bucharest  1913 

Territory  ceded  by  Russia, 
Treaty  of  Paris  ISSS.but  restored 
by  Treaty  of  Berlin  1878  Wl 


BALKAN  STATES  1920 
Rumania    EZIBular 


Eastern  Question.     Map  of  the  Balkan  States,  showing  the  territorial  changes 
between  1815  and  1920,  and,  in  addition,  Turkey's  1923  boundary 


EAST      HAM 


2774 


EAST     INDIA     COMPANY 


there  she  abhorred  as  incompatible 
with  her  own  ambitions. 

Ever  since  the  time  of  Francis  I 
(d,  1547)  France  had  maintained 
an  entente  with  Turkey,  thus 
checking  Austria  and  helping 
French  power  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean. The  19th  century  saw 
her  aspiring  to  possess  Algeria, 
Morocco,  and  Tunis,  and  especially 
Egypt,  and  investing  huge  sums  in 
Turkish  enterprises.  Both  cash 
and  policy  depended  upon  the  pre- 
servation of  Turkish  integrity. 

Between  1859  and  1870  Italy  ex- 
pelled the  Austrians.  Fearing  Aus- 
trian vengeance,  she  wished  to 
strengthen  her  frontier  by  acquir- 
ing the  Trentino  and  the  Isonzo. 
To  check  Austria  in  the  Balkans, 
to  protect  her  exposed  eastern 
seaboard,  and  to  enhance  her 
maritime  supremacy,  she  dreamed 
of  regaining  the  ancient  Venetian 
dominion  in  Istria  and  the  Dal- 
matic coast,  and  establishing  her- 
self in  the  Albanian  ports  of 
Durazzo  and  Valona,  her  policy 
challenging  Albanian  sentiment 
and  Greek  ambition. 

On  every  occasion  the  annihila- 
tion of  European  Turkey  was  pre- 
vented at  the  last  moment  by  the 
mutually  destructive  aims  of  the 
Christian  powers.  They  delayed 
the  evolution  of  the  Balkan  states, 
tried  to  make  them  helots  of  Euro- 
pean diplomacy,  deprived  them  of 
legitimate  territory,  and  left  them 
with  burning  grievances.  So  the 
end  of  the  19th  century  witnessed 
a  new  phase — the  Balkan  states 
repudiating  European  patronage 
and  adopting  an  aggressive  policy. 
In  1881  Greece  received  Thessaly 
and  part  of  Epirus,  and  Rumania 
became  a  kingdom.  Milan  of  Ser- 
bia became  king  in  1882.  Rumelia 
joined  Bulgaria,  1885,  under  Alex- 
ander of  Battenberg,  and  subse- 
quently under  Ferdinand  of  Coburg, 
1887,  although  recognition  was 
withheld  by  the  Powers  until  1896. 
The  Greco-Turkish  war  of  1897  ob- 
tained autonomy  for  Crete  in  1898. 
Ferdinand  Proclaimed  Tdar 

Then  followed  a  general  at- 
tack upon  Mediterranean  Turkey. 
France  allowed  Britain  sole  sway 
in  Egypt,  1904.  Serbia  signalised 
her  independent  attitude  by  mur- 
dering the  Austrophil  Alexander 
Obrenovitch,  and  enthroning  Peter 
Karageorgevich,  1903.  The  Bal- 
kan states  began  to  draw  together, 
the  first  sign  being  the  Serbo-Bul- 
garian  customs  union  (1905-6). 
Austria  stimulated  the  movement 
by  taking  advantage  of  Russian 
preoccupation  in  Manchuria  to 
annex  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina, 
1908,  although  by  abandoning 
the  sanjak  of  Novi  Bazar,  1909, 
she  offered  the  apple  of  discord  to 


Serbia,  Greece,  and  Bulgaria.  Bul- 
garia repudiated  Turkish  suzer- 
ainty, and  Ferdinand  proclaimed 
himself  tsar,  1909. 

The  moment  was  favourable.  A 
military  convention  between  Ser- 
bia and  Montenegro  (1908)  ex- 
panded into  the  Balkan  League, 
1912,  of  Serbia,  Bulgaria,  Greece, 
and  Montenegro,  which  drove 
Turkey  behind  the  Chatalja  lines. 
But  woe  to  the  conquerors  !  The 
treaty  of  London,  May  30,  1913, 
proved  nothing,  except  that  the 
historical,  ethnological,  and  geo- 
graphical claims  of  the  Balkan 
states  were  so  mutually  confound- 
ing that  it  was  humanly  impos- 
sible to  satisfy  those  claims  and 
delimit  permanent  frontiers.  Bul- 
garia, prompted  by  Austria,  treach- 
erously attacked  Greece  and  Serbia. 

Her  defeat,  the  Turkish  reoccu- 
pation  of  Adrianople,  and  the  inter- 
vention of  Rumania  forced  her 
into  the  treaty  of  Bukarest  (Aug. 
10,  1913)  and  a  treaty  with  Tur- 
key (Sept.  29, 1913).  At  Bulgaria's 
expense  Rumania  took  a  further 
strip  of  the  Dobruja ;  Bulgaria 
expanded  westwards  by  absorbing 
territory  as  far  as  Strumitsa,  and 
southwards  the  seaboard  from 
Kavalla  to  Enos,  with  the  port  of 
Dedeagatch  and  the  Thracian 
hinterland ;  Greece  took  Epirus, 
Southern  Macedonia  almost  to 
Monastir,  and  within  a  great  curve 
thence  to  Kavalla,  including  Sal- 
onica,  and  lastly  all  the  islands  of 
the  Aegean  save  Imbros,  Tenedos, 
and  the  Sporades ;  Serbia  had  Cen- 
tral Macedonia  with  such  disputed 
towns  as  Monastir,  Uskub,  andNish, 
and  also  the  sanjak  of  Novi  Bazar. 
The  Great  War  and  After 

The  new  situation  was  pregnant 
with  trouble ;  with  the  Balkan 
entente  dissipated ;  Bulgaria  dis- 
graced, resentful,  coveting  Central 
Macedonia  and  the  Thracian  har- 
bours, and  driven  into  intrigue 
with  Austria  and  Turkey  ;  Greece 
coveting  Bulgaria  and  Turkish 
Thrace,  Albania,  and  Crete ;  Serbia 
without  a  harbour  and  severed  from 
the  Slavs  of  Bosnia,  Herzegovina, 
Croatia,  and  Carniola  ;  Montenegro 
lamenting  Scutari ;  Italy  intent 
upon  Istria  ;  Russia  determined  to 
revenge  Austrian  treachery  and 
regain  her  Balkan  footing ;  while 
Germany,  with  her  dream  of  a 
German  Middle  East,  a  corridor  to 
Constantinople,  a  Berlin  to  Bagdad 
rly.,  and  her  economic  exploita- 
tion of  the  Near  East,  encouraged 
mischief.  The  Eastern  question, 
together  with  the  Serajevo  murders 
of  June  28,  1914,  produced  the 
Great  War. 

The  peace  of  Versailles,  1919, 
brought  no  peace  to  the  Near  East, 
nor  is  the  Turk  banished  from  Con- 


stantinople and  Europe.  A  French 
mandate  for  Syria  was  opposed  by 
the  Arab  Emir  Feisul,  who  was  de- 
posed from  his  kingdom  of  Damas- 
cus. Greece,  firmly  established  in 
Crete,  and  mandatory  for  the  west- 
ern coast  of  Asia  Minor,  including 
Smyrna,  1919,  was  in  1920  fighting 
irreconcilable  Turks  under  Mus- 
tapha  Kernel.  Granted  Bulgarian 
Thrace  from  Kavalla  to  Enos,  1919, 
the  Greeks  claimed  Turkish  Thrace, 
1920,  and  occupied  Adrianople 
(July  25,  1920).  Serbia,  with  Bos- 
nia, Herzegovina,  Croatia,  and 
Carniola,  formed  a  "Serb-Croat- 
Slovene  state,"  1919,  and  with 
Montenegro,  a  Yugo-Slav  Con- 
federation, 1920.  Bulgaria,  ex- 
eluded  from  the  Mediterranean, 
has  a  valueless  coast-line  on  the 
Black  Sea,  and  has  lost  large 
populations  to  Greece  and  Serbia. 
Austria  and  Russia  are  defunct  as 
Balkan  powers,  Constantinople  is 
the  centre  of  an  international  zone 
including  the  Bosporus,  the  Sea 
of  Marmora,  and  the  Dardanelles. 
Rumania,  besides  the  Bukowina  and 
a  huge  slice  of  Hungarian  Transyl- 
vania, occupies  Russian  Bessarabia. 

Bibliography.  The  Balkans.  W. 
Miller,  repr.  1899:  Modern  Europe, 
W.  A.  Phillips,  1901,  etc.;  Turkey  and 
its  People,  E.  Pears,  1911;  History 
of  Serbia,  H.  VV.  V.  Temperley, 
1917;  Rise  of  Nationality  in  the 
Balkans,  R.  W.  Seton  Watson,  1917. 

East  Ham.  Mun.  bor.  of  Essex, 
England.  It  is  a  populous  district, 
with  stations  on  the  London,  Til- 
bury, and  Southend  and  G.E. 
Rlys.,  6  m.  E.  of  London.  The 
residents  are  mainly  of  the  in- 
dustrial class,  and  work  at  the 
docks  or  in  the  many  factories  and 
workshops  of  the  borough  ;  the  in- 
dustries include  engineering  works 
and  the  making  of  chemicals,  soap, 
etc.  There  is  an  old  church,  the 
parish  church  of  S.  Mary  Magdalene. 
The  borough,  which  is  outside  the 
county  of  London,  is  governed  by 
a  mayor  and  corporation,  having 
been  made  a  municipality  in 
1904.  It  sends  two  members  to 
Parliament.  Pop.  156,500. 

East  India  Company.  Name 
of  a  trading  corporation,  authorised 
by  government  to  trade  in  the  E. 
Indies.  The  Dutch  company,  1 602- 
1798,  the  French  company,  1664- 
1794,  and  the  Danish  company, 
1729-1801,  followed  the  setting  up 
of  the  English  company,  which  sur- 
vived them  all.  On  Dec.  31,  1GOO, 
a  charter  was  granted  by  Queen 
Elizabeth  to  "  The  company  of 
Merchants  of  London  trading  to 
the  East  Indies."  The  estab- 
lishment of  three  factories  or  trad- 
ing-stations was  sanctioned :  at 
Surat,  on  the  W.  Coast,  by  the  Mo- 
gul Jehan  Gir  in  1612 ;  at  Fort  St. 
George,  afterwards  Madras,  on  the 


EAST      INDIAMAN 


2775 


EASTLAKE 


S.E.  coast,  by  another  native 
prince  in  1639  ;  at  Hooghli,  on  the 
Ganges  delta,  50  years  later  moved 
a  little  lower  down  the  river  to 
Calcutta,  by  Shah  Jehan  in  1640.  v 

In  1661  the  Portuguese  gave" 
Bombay  to  Charles  II  as  part  of  the 
dower  of  his  bride  ;  he  conveyed 
it  to  the  company,  and  it  took  the 
place  of  Surat  as  the  western  em- 
porium. The  three  factories  at  Bom- 
bay, Madras,  and  Calcutta  became 
the  nuclei  of  the  three  presidencies. 

The  company  was  exclusively  a 
trading  concern.  It  had  much  diffi- 
culty in  suppressing  the  embarrass- 
ing rivalry  of  independent  traders 
called  "  Interlopers,"  who  ignored 
its  exclusive  charter.  In  the  reign  of 
William  III  a  rival  company  was 
actually  sanctioned  and  started, 
but  in  1701  the  two  were  amalga- 
mated as  the  Honourable  East 
India  Company.  In  1746  Dupleix, 
the  governor  of  the  rival  French 
company,  attempted  to  oust  the 
British  and  establish  a  French  poli- 
tical ascendancy  with  the  native 
princes.  He  was  frustrated  by 
Clive,  with  the  general  result  that  in 
1765  the  trading  company  had  be- 
come the  official  administrators  of 
the  great  province  of  Bengal,  while 
sundry  of  the  great  princes  were 
virtually  their  dependents. 

The  home  government  now  be- 
came alive  to  a  responsibility  for 
the  dominions  acquired  by  the  com- 
pany ;  the  unsuccessful  experiment 
of  Lord  North's  Regulating  Act 
was  followed  by  Pitt's  India  Act 
in  1784,  which  instituted  the  dual 
control  shared  between  the  com- 
pany itself  and  a  board  of  con- 
trol appointed  by  a  committee  re- 
sponsible to  Parliament.  After  the 
Mutiny  of  1857  the  government 
of  India  was  transferred  to  the 
crown,  and  the  East  India  Com- 
pany was  abolished  by  the  India 
Act  of  1858.  See  India. 

Bibliography.    Annals  of  the  East 


India  Company,  1600-1708,  John 
Bruce,  1810  ;  The  Dawn  of  British 
Trade  in  the  East  Indies  as  re- 
corded in  the  Court  Minutes  of  the 
East  India  Company,  1599-1603, 
ed.  H.  Stevens  and  G.  Birdwood, 
1886  ;  Letters  received  by  the  East 
India  Company  from  its  Servants 
in  the  East,  ed.  F.  C.  Danvers  and 
W.  Foster,  1896,  etc.  ;  A  History 
of  British  India,  W.  W.  Hunter, 
1899-1900  ;  The  Trade  of  the  East 
India  Company  from  1709-1813, 
F.  P.  Robinson,  1912  ;  The  Trade  Re- 
lations Between  England  and  India, 
1600-1896,  C.  J.  Hamilton,  1919. 

East  Indiaman.  Name  applied 
to  the  large  sailing  vessels  employed 
in  the  East  Indies  trade.  They  were 
often  armed  for  self-defence. 

East  India  United  Service 
Club.  London  club  founded  in  1849 
for  those  connected  with  the  ser- 
vices, military  and  civil,  in  India. 
Its  premises  are  at  16,  St.  James's 
Square,  London,  S.W. 

East  Indies.  Popular  name 
loosely  applied  to  India,  Indo- 
China,  the  Malay  Peninsula,  the 
islands  of  the  Malay  Archipelago, 
Sumatra,  Java,  Borneo,  New 
Guinea,  the  Philippines,  etc.  All 
are  described  under  their  respective 
headings. 

The  Dutch  East  Indies  are  pos- 
sessions belonging  to  Holland.  They 
lie  between  6°  N.  and  11°  S.  lati- 
tude, and  between  95°  and  141°  E. 
longitude.  They  include  the  islands 
of  Sumatra,  Java,  Madura,  Celebes, 
Billiton,  Banca,  Bali,  Lombok,  the 
Sunda  Islands,  the  Molucca  Islands, 
part  of  Timor  archipelago,  Riau- 
Lingga  archipelago,  and  large  por- 
tions of  Borneo  and  New  Guinea. 
The  land  area  is  approximately 
735,000  sq.  m.,  and  the  pop. 
48,000,000,  with  81,000  Europeans. 
From  1602-1798  these  possessions 
were  governed  by  the  Dutch  East 
India  Company,  but  are  now  ad- 
ministered by  a  governor-general, 
assisted  by  a  council  of  five. 


East  Kent 
Regiment  badge 


East  Indies.     Map  of  the  East  Indian  islands,  the  land  bridges  between  Asia 
and  Australia 


East  Kent  Regiment,  THE.  Re- 
giment of  the  British  army.  For- 
merly the  3rd  Foot,  this  regiment 
had  its  origin  in 
the  train-bands 
of  the  city  of 
London.  Eliza- 
beth sent  a  force 
of  them  to  help 
the  Dutch, 
which  was 
known  as  the 
Holland  r  e  g  i- 
ment.  It  was  after  its  return 
to  England  that  the  regiment 
first  received  the  designation  of 
the  Buffs,  from  the  colour  of  its 
facings.  It  became  a  regiment  of 
the  British  army  in  1665.  The 
East  Rents  .fought  in  Flanders  in 
1692,  and  took  part  in  Marl- 
borough's  campaigns,  and  in  some 
of  the  battles  of  the  Peninsular  War. 
Later  the  regiment  was  engaged  in 
the  Crimea,  and  in  China,  1 860. 

The  regiment  had  a  splendid 
record  in  the  Great  War.  Of  its  two 
regular  battalions,  the  1st  reached 
France  in  Sept.,  1914,  joining  Pul- 
teney's  third  corps.  The  2nd,  from 
India,  joined  the  army  in  the  field 
the  following  winter.  A  reserve 
(militia)  battalion  reached  France 
in  1914.  There  were  in  all  ten  bat- 
talions, eight  of  which  saw  continu- 
ous active  service.  The  regimental 
depot  is  at  Canterbury. 

Eastlake,  SIR  CHARLES  LOCK 
(1793-1865).  British  painter  and 
writer  on  art.  Born  in  Plymouth, 
Nov.  17,  1793, 
he  was  taught 
drawing  by 
SamProut  and 
history  paint- 
ing by  Benja- 
min Hay  don, 
later  attend- 
ing the  schools 
of  the  Royal 
Academy.  In  . 

1827    he    was    /^  /  L 
elected  A.  R.  A. 
and    in    1829       '""*•*•'•" 
R.A.,  and  in  1842  librarian  to  the 
Academy. 

He  was  keeper  of  the  National 
Gallery  from  1843-47,  and  in 
1850  was  chosen  president  of  the 
Academy,  and  knighted.  He  was 
appointed  the  first  director  of  the 
National  Gallery  in  1855.  The  Es- 
cape of  Francesco  Carrara,  1834  ; 
Christ  Weeping  over  Jerusalem  (his 
masterpiece),  1841  ;  and  Sisters, 
1842,  are  in  the  Tate  Gallery, 
London.  His  Materials  for  the 
History  of  Oil  Painting,  1847,  once 
enjoyed  considerable  vogue.  He 
died  at  Pisa,  Dec.  24,  1865.  See 
Memoir  by  Lady  Eastlake,  1870 ; 
Pictures  by  Sir  C.  Eastlake,  with 
biographical  and  critical  sketch, 
W.  C.  Monkhouse,  1875. 


EAST     LANCASHIRE     REGIMENT 


2776 


EASTMAN 


East  Lancashire   Regiment. 

Formerly  the  30th  and  59th  Foot 
and  one  of  several  regiments  raised 
in  1702  for  ser- 
vice as  marines 
on  board  ship. 
They  took  part 
in  the  capture 
?of  Gibraltar  in 
1704  and  in  the 
subsequent  na- 
val action  off 
East  Lancashire  Malaga.  In  1727 
Regiment  badge  _28  they  helped 
to  defend  Gibraltar,  and  in  1806 
were  in  Sir  David  Baird's  force 
which  seized  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  In  the  Peninsular  War  the 
East  Lancashires  fought  at  Co- 
runna,  Badajoz,  Salamanca,  and 
Vittoria ;  they  were  at  Waterloo 
and  took  part  in  the  Mahratta  War 
(1817-19).  In  1825  the  regiment 
distinguished  itself  at  the  capture 
of  Bhurtpore,  as  it  did  later  at 
Inkerman ;  it  shared  in  the  storm- 
ing of  Canton  (1857),  the  second 
Afghan  War,  and  the  Chitral  ex- 
pedition. It  did  excellent  service 
in  the  South  African  War. 

During  the  Great  War  the  1st 
battalion  beat  back  a  strong  Ger- 
man attack  in  the  first  battle  of 
Ypres,  1914,  and  the  2nd  partici- 
pated in  the  British  attack  on  the 
Aubers  Ridge,  1915.  The  llth  dis- 
tinguished itself  at  the  battle  of 
the  Somme,  1916,  and  men  of  the 
East  Lancashires  took  part  in  the 
third  battle  of  Ypres,  1917.  Two 
battalions  formed  part  of  the  East 
Lancashire  Territorials  mobilised 
in  Aug.,  1914,  as  the  42nd  division. 
The  latter  fought  in  Gallipoli  and 
in  the  early  stages  of  the  Sinai 
desert  campaign,  and  proceeded 
to  France  in  March,  1917.  The 
regimental  depot  is  at  Preston. 

Eastleigh.  Urb.  dist.  (East- 
leigh  and  Bishopstoke)  of  Hamp- 
shire, England.  It  is  5J  m.  N.E.  of 
Southampton  on  the  L.  &  S.W.R., 
which  has  works  here  for  the 
manufacture  of  rolling  stock.  A 
great  aerodrome  situated  between 
Eastleigh  and  Swaythling  on  the 
main  L.  &  S.W.R.  was  begun  some 
time  before  the  armistice,  Nov., 
1918,  but  was  never  used  by  the 
R.A.F.  It  was  taken  over  by  the 
American  naval  air  service,  but  it 
was  never  put  to  any  real  use  as  a 
flying  station.  The  civil  aviation 
department  controlled  it  for  a 
time,  but  it  was  later  allowed  to 
remain  derelict.  Pop.  15,247. 

East  Liverpool.  City  of  Ohio, 
U.S.A.,  in  Columbiana  co.  It 
stands  on  the  Ohio  river,  44  m. 
W.N.W.  of  Pittsburg  by  the  Penn- 
sylvania Rly.  The  staple  industry 
is  porcelain  manufacture,  the  city 
being  the  chief  pottery  centre  of 
the  country.  Yellow  ware  was  first 


made  here  in  1839,  white  ware 
being  introduced  in  1872.  Bricks, 
steel,  and  machinery  are  also 
manufactured.  Settled  in  1796, 
East  Liverpool  was  incorporated 
in  1834.  Pop.  22,940. 

East  London.  City  and  seaport 
of  Cape  Province,  S.  Africa.  It 
stands  at  the  mouth  of  the  Buffalo 
river,  mainly  on  the  E.  side,  887 
m.  by  rly.  from  Cape  Town.  It  has  a 
spacious  harbour,  and  by  dredging 


East  Lynne.  i  Novel  by  Mrs. 
Henry  Wood  (q.v.),  published  in 
1861.  It  achieved  an  enormous 
contemporary  success,  was  trans- 
lated into  all  European  and  some 
Oriental  languages,  and  is  still  very 
widely  read,  while  several  dramatic 
versions  have  enjoyed  almost  equal 
popularity.  The  chief  interest  of 
the  book — an  interest  which  is  in- 
tensified in  the  plays  founded  upon 
it — lies  in  the  situation  which 


East  London.   Plan  of  the  S.  African  seaport  and  watering-place,  at  the  mouth 
i  of  the  Buffalo  river 


operations  the  great  obstacle  to 
its  development,  the  bar  at  the  river 
mouth,  has  been  in  large  part  over- 
come. There  are  ample  wharves 
and  other  shipping  accommoda- 
tion. The  city  is  a  rly.  terminus. 
Apart  from  the  shipping  the 
chief  industries  are  connected  with 
the  trade  of  a  large  district.  It  has 
also  some  fishing.  The  chief  build- 
ings are  the  city  hall  and  the  public 


develops  when  the  erring  Lady 
Isabel  returns  to  her  home  and 
children  disguised  as  a  nurse. 
East  Lynne  has  little  literary 
merit,  but  the  plot  is  well  con- 
structed and  the  reader's  interest 
continuously  sustained. 

Eastman,  GEORGE  (b.'~  1854). 
American  inventor.  He  was  born 
at  Waterville,  N.Y.,  July  12,  1854, 
and  educated  at  'Rochester,  N.Y. 


offices.   The  city  is  lit  by  electricity  He  experimented  .in  the  making  of 

and  has  a  service  of  electric  tram-  dry  plates,  and  in  1880  began  to 

ways.     It  is  also  a  watering-place,  manufacture  them;  four  years  later 

with  good  facilities  for  sea- bathing,  he    produced    the    first    efficient 

and  there  is  ample  accommodation  roll-film,  and  in  1888  perfected  his 

for  visitors,  including  a  space  pre-  first  Kodak  camera.      Two  years 

pared  for  tents.     Pop.  20,867.  later  he  patented  the  first  machine 


East  London,  South  Africa.     View  of  the  town  and  the  Buffalo  river 


EASTON 


2777 


EATON  HALL 


for  making  rolls  of  transparent  film. 
As  head  of  the  various  Kodak  com- 
panies he  amassed  great  wealth.  He 
endowed  the  Rochester  Mechanics' 
Institute  and  the  laboratories  of 
the  university  of  Rochester,  and  in 
1912  gave  £100,000  towards  the 
endowment  of  that  university. 

Easton.  City  of  Pennsylvania, 
U.S.A.,  the  co.  seat  of  Northamp- 
ton co.  It  stands  at  the  union  of 
the  Lehigh  and  Delaware  rivers, 

76  m.  W.S.W.  of  New  York  on  the 
Pennsylvania  and  other  rlys.   Near 
the  coalfield,  it  is  a  busy  rly.  and 
industrial   centre,   with   manufac- 
tures   of   silk,    textiles,    woollens, 
pumps,  drills,  stoves,  and  organs. 
The    seat    of    Lafayette    College, 
founded  1832,  it  has  a  number  of 
schools     and     a     public     library. 
Several  treaties  with  the  Indians 
were  concluded  here  between  1756 
and  1761.     Founded  1750,  it  was 
incorporated  in  1789,  and  became 
a  city  in  1887.    Pop.  32,000. 

Easton' s  Syrup.  Syrup  of  iron 
phosphate  with  quinine  and  strych- 
nine. Each  fluid  dram  contains 
^V  of  a  grain  of  strychnine.  It  is 
used  as  a  tonic  in  cases  of  anaemia 
and  general  debility  in  doses  of  £  to 
1  fluid  dram.  It  is  also  prepared 
in  the  form  of  sugar-coated  tablets. 
East  River.  Channel  com- 
municating between  Long  and 
Manhattan  Islands,  U.S.A.  On  the 
N.  it  is  connected  by  the  Harlem 
river  with  the  Hudson  river.  Its 
length  is  15  m.  and  its  breadth 
varies  from  £  m.  to  between  3  m. 
and  4  m.  Four  great  suspension 
bridges  and  numerous  ferries  con- 
nect New  York  proper  with  its 
Long  Island  suburbs.  See  illus. 
facing  p.  1374. 

East  Surrey  Regiment.  Raised 
in  1702,  this  regiment  served  until 
1713  as  marines  at  Gibraltar  and 
elsewhere.    It 
then    became 
the  31st  Foot, 
and  fought  at 
Dettingen, 
where  George 
II    gave    the 
men     their 
nickname     of 
East  Surrey  Regi-      the     "  Young 
ment  badge  Buffs."      In 

1756  a  second  battalion  was 
raised ;  this  was  numbered  the 
70th,  and  the  two  were  united  as 
the  East  Surreys  in  1881.  The  regi- 
ment fought  in  America  in  1776- 

77  and  in  the  W.  Indies  in  1793- 
96.     It  rendered  excellent  service 
in  the  Peninsular  War,  especially 
at  Talavera  and  Albuera.    In  1842 
it  marched  to  Kabul  and  spent 
nearly  two  years   fighting  in  Af- 
ghanistan ;   in    1845-46   it   served 
against  the  Sikhs,  and  later  in  the 
Crimean    War,    the    China    War 


(1860),  the  New  Zealand  War 
(1863),  and  the  Egyptian  War 
(1884-85).  Under  Buller  in  the  S. 
African  War  the  regiment  fought 
hard  to  relieve  Ladysmith. 

In  the  Great  War  the  1st  bat- 
talion fought  with  the  5th  division 
in  1914,  and  distinguished  itself  at 
Mons,  Le  Cateau,  at  the  battle  of 
the  Marne,  and  at  La  Bassee.  It 
also  did  fine  service  at  Hill  60. 
The  East  Surreys  were  notable  for 
the  charge  they  made  on  the  open- 
ing day  of  the  battle  of  the  Somme, 
July  1,1916.  The  9th  battalion  lost 
heavily  in  the  preliminary  assault 
on  Guillemont,  Aug.  16,  1916,  and 
parties  of  the  13th  distinguished 
themselves  at  the  first  battle  of 
Cambrai,  Nov.,  1917.  Men  of  the 
East  Surreys  were  heavily  engaged 
in  the  third  battle  of  Ypres,  1917, 
and  participated  in  most  of  the 
battles  of  1918.  The  regimental 
depot  is  at  Kingston-on-Thames. 

Eastward  Position.  Term  ap- 
plied to  several  observances  of  the 
Christian  Church,  especially  to  the 
position  taken  up  by  the  officiating 
priest  at  the  celebration  of  the 
Holy  Eucharist  and  the  practice  of 
turning  to  the  E.  at  the  recitation 
of  the  creeds.  The  position  of  the 
priest  has  been  the  subject  of  much 
controversy  in  the  Anglican  Church, 
consequent  on  the  conflict  between 
the  rubric  of  1552  and  the  replac- 
ing of  the  altar  in  1660. 

In  the  primitive  Church  converts 
at  baptism  turned  to  the  W.  when 
renouncing  the  devil  and  to  the  E. 
when  confessing  their  faith  in 
Christ.  Thus  Augustine  says, 
"  When  we  rise  for  prayer  we  turn 
towards  the  East."  Chancels  of 
churches  are  usually  in  the  E.,  so 
that  worshippers,  when  turning 
towards  the  altar,  face  the  E. 
Similarly  arose  the  custom  of  bury- 
ing Christians  with  the  feet  to- 
wards the  E.  and  the  face  upward, 
so  that  at  the  Resurrection  they 
might  be  ready  to  meet  Christ  and 
be  in  a  posture  of  prayer  as  soon  as 
raised.  Pagans  commonly  wor- 
shipped with  their  faces  towards 
the  rising  sun,  and  the  Christian 
adoption  of  the  custom  gave  rise 
to  the  charge  that  they  were  sun- 
worshippers  (Tertullian).  The 
Jews  in  exile  turned  towards 
Jerusalem  when  they  prayed  (Dan. 
6)  and  Mahomedans  face  Mecca. 
See  Oxford  Movement. 

Eastwood.  Urban  dist.  of 
Nottinghamshire,  England.  It  is 
9  m.  N.W.  of  Nottingham  by  the 
G.N.R.  Collieries  provide  the  chief 
employment.  Here  took  place  the 
meeting  of  colliery  owners  which 
marked  the  first  step  in  rly.  con- 
struction from  which  the  M.R.  was 
developed.  Market  days,  Fri.  and 
Sat.  Pop.  4,692. 


Eastwood.  Parish  of  Renfrew- 
shire, Scotland.  It  contains  the 
towns  of  Pollokshaws  and  Thorn- 
liebank,  and  part  of  Shawlands, 
forming  an  outlying  suburb  of 
Glasgow.  Pop.  24,515. 

East  Yorkshire  Regiment. 
Formerly  the  15th  Foot,  this  regi- 
ment was  raised  in  1685  at  the  time 
of  Monmouth's 
rebellion.  After 
serving  in  Flan- 
ders (1694-97), 
it  was  engaged 
in  Marlbor- 
o  u  g  h x  s  cam- 
paigns, and  was 

East    Yorkshire     °ne  ,of  ^"f: 

Regiment  badge     ments  that  led 
the    attack    at 

Blenheim.  In  1758-59  it  served 
under  Wolfe  in  the  captures  of 
Louisburg  and  Quebec.  The  East 
Yorkshires  did  good  work  in  seiz- 
ing the  West  Indian  Islands  from 
the  French  both  before  and  after 
they  served  against  the  American 
Colonists.  They  fought  in  the 
Afghan  War  of  1879-80,  and  one 
battalion  was  in  the  8th  Division 
during  the  South  African  War. 

In  the  Great  War  the  first  batta- 
lion won  distinction  in  the  battle  of 
the  Aisne,  1914.  The  East  York- 
shires were  very  hard  hit  by  the 
German  gas  attack  at  Frezenberg, 
May,  1915;  the  12th  and  13th  bat- 
talions showed  remarkable  skill  and 
courage  on  the  An  ere,  Nov.,  1916. 
Men  of  this  regiment  fought  at  the 
third  battle  of  Ypres,  1917,  and 
in  the  subsequent  campaigns  on 
the  western  front.  The  regimental 
depot  is  at  Beverley. 

Eating  House.  Obsolete  term 
for  what  is  now  generally  known 
as  a  restaurant.  It  has  passed,  with 
cook-house,  coffee-house,  and  din- 
ing-house,  out  of  ordinary  usage, 
and  is  now  only  used  colloquially, 
or  applied  to  the  humbler  places 
of  refreshment.  See  Coffee  House. 

Eaton,  SIR  JOHN  CRAIG  (1876- 
1922).  Canadian  merchant.  He 
was  born  at  Toronto,  April  28, 
1876,  and  was  educated  at  Toronto 
public  schools  and  Upper  Canada 
College.  He  became  president  of 
the  great  trading  firm  of  Timothy- 
Eaton  Co.,  of  Toronto  and  Winni- 
peg, founded  by  his  father.  Knight- 
ed in  1915,  he  died  March  30,  1922. 

Eaton  Hall.  Seat  of  the  duke 
of  Westminster,  Cheshire,  Eng- 
land. It  stands  on  the  river  Dee, 
4£  m.  S.  of  Chester.  A  magnificent 
Gothic  structure,  built  1867-80, 
the  fourth  on  the  same  site,  it 
stands  in  a  well-timbered  de- 
mesne of  400  acres.  The  interior 
is  richly  decorated,  and  besides 
examples  of  Rubens,  West,  and 
Millais,  the  pictures  include  a  fine 
collection  of  portraits  of  famous 


EATON     SQUARE 


2778 


EBERS 


|| 


Eaton  Hail.     View  from  the  gardens  of  the  Cheshire 
seat  of  the  Duke  of 


racehorses  owned  at  various  times 
by  members  of  the  family.  The 
western  portion  of  the  Eaton 
estate  was  sold  for  £330,000  in  1919. 

Eaton  Square.  Largest  square 
in  Belgravia  (q.v.),  London,  S.W. 
Covering  about  5  acres,  it  has  six 
gardens,  is  named  from  the  duke 
of  Westminster's  Cheshire  seat, 
Eaton  Hall  (q.v.),  and  was  built 
1827-53.  At  the  E.  end  is  the 
church  of  S.  Peter,  1824-26,  re- 
stored 1872,  where  many  fashion- 
able marriages  have  taken  place. 
No.  71  was,  for  a  time,  the  official 
residence  of  the  Speaker  of  the 
House  of  Commons. 

Eau  Claire.  City  of  Wisconsin, 
U.S.A.,  the  co.  seat  of  Eau  Claire 
co.  At  the  confluence  of  the  Eau 
Claire  and  Chippewa  rivers,  88  m. 
E.  of  St.  Paul,  it  is  served  by  the 
Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul, 
and  other  rlys.  Its  buildings  in- 
clude a  Carnegie  library,  the 
county  court,  schools,  and  a  sana- 
torium, and  it  has  several  parks. 
A  busy  lumber  centre,  it  contains 
foundries,  iron  and  steel  works, 
paper  mills,  and  canneries.  Settled 
in  1846,  it  was  granted  a  city 
charter  in  1872.  Pop.  18,875. 

Eaucourt  L'Abbaye.  Village 
of  France,  in  the  dept.  of  Somme. 
It  lies  slightly  S.  of  the  Albert- 
Bapaume  road,  about  1  m.  S.  of  Le 
Sars.  Captured  by  the  British 
Oct.  1,  1916,  it  was  retaken  by  the 
Germans  in  March,  1918,  and  re- 
covered by  the  Allies  in  Aug.,  1918. 
See  Somme,  Battles  of  the. 

Eau-de-Cologne.  Perfume  said 
to  have  been  invented  by  an  Italian 
chemist,  Johann  Maria  Farina,  who 
settled  in  Cologne  in  1709.  It  is 
believed  that  the  original  recipe 
has  never  been  discovered,  though 
many  chemists  in  Cologne,  using 
the  name  of  Farina,  claim  to  be  the 
sole  owners  of  it.  The  perfume  is 
prepared  from  alcoholic  vegetable 
extracts,  essential  oils,  and  recti- 
fied spirits.  The  usual  recipe  pre- 
scribes twelve  drops  of  each  of  the 
essential  oils,  bergamot,  citron, 


neroli,  orange,  and 
rosemary,  with  one 
dram  of  Malabar 
cardamoms  and 
a  gallon  of  recti- 
fied spirits,'  which 
are  distilled  to- 
gether. E  a  u  -  d  e- 
Cologne  is  largely 
made  in  Great 
Britain,  where  the 
oils  are  mixed  with 
a  highly  purified 
spirit,  and  distilla- 
tion is  unnecessary. 

Eau-de  -  Javel. 

Bleaching  liquid 
first  made  in  1789 
Chemical  Works, 


at    the    Javel 

Paris.  It  was  the  first  practical 
means  of  utilising  the  bleaching 
properties  of  chlorine.  Eau-dc- 
Javel,  prepared  by  passing  chlorine 
gas  into  a  solution  of  potash,  was 
also  employed  as  a  disinfectant. 
Shortly  afterwards  CharlesTennant, 
of  Glasgow,  prepared  bleaching 
powder  by  passing  chlorine  gas 
over  quicklime,  and  Labarraque,  a 
French  chemist,  made  a  better 
bleaching  liquid,  eau  -  de  -  Labar- 
raque, which  is  a  solution  of  sodium 
hypochlorite  made  from  sodium  car- 
bonate and  calcium  hypochlorite. 

Eau-de-vie  ( water  of  life ).  Old 
French  name  for  brandy.  The 
product  of  a  distilled  wine  was  so 
called  in  the  13th  and  14th  cen- 
turies, and  the  name  is  still  used. 
The  eaux-de-vie  de  marc  are  dis- 
tilled from  wine  lees  or  from  the 
residue  in  the  stills  after  the  best 
brandy  has  been  made.  See 
Brandy;  Fire-Water. 

Eaux-Bonnes.  Watering-place 
of  France.  In  the  dept.  of  Basses- 
Pyrenees,  it  is  28  m.  S.  of  Pau.  It 
stands  2,460  ft.  high,  just  where 
two  streams,  coming  down  from 
the  Pyrenees — the  Sourde  and  the 
Valentin — meet,  and  is  named  on 
account  of  its  waters.  These  have 
been  known  since  the  14th  century, 
and  are  good  for  lung  and  other 
bodily  troubles.  Winter  sports 
are  held  and  the  place  has  several 
hotels.  Pop.  622. 

Eaux-Chaudes.  Watering-place 
of  France.  In  the  dept.  of  Basses  - 
Pyrenees,  it  is  5  m.  from  Eaux- 
Bonnes,  standing  where  a  stream, 
the  Gave  d'Ossau,  comes  down 
from  the  Pyrenees,  its  valley  being 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  in  the 
neighbourhood.  The  town  has  hot 
springs — hence  its  name — which, 
being  sulphurous,  are  good  for 
rheumatism,  affections  of  the  re- 
spiratory organs,  etc. 

Ebbsfleet.  Coast  hamlet  of 
Kent,  England.  It  stands  on  Peg- 
well  Bay,  3£  m.  S.W.  of  Ramsgate, 
and  is  the  traditional  landing  point 


of  Hengist  and  Horsa  in  449-450, 
and  also  the  place  at  which  S. 
Augustine  and  his  forty  monks 
disembarked  in  597. 

Ebbw  Vale.  Urban  dist.  of  Mon- 
mouthshire, England.  It  stands 
on  the  Ebbwfawr,  a  headstream  of 
the  Ebbw  river,  21  m.  N.W.  of 
Newport,  on  the  G.W.,  L.  &  N.W., 
and  Rhymney  Rlys.  In  a  busy 
colliery  district,  it  has  large  iron- 
works, iron  and  steel  being  here 
manufactured  on  a  large  scale  and 
the  coal  exported.  Christ  Church, 
a  modern  building  in  the  Early 
English  style,  is  the  chief  building. 
Market  day,  Sat.  Pop.  30,541. 
Pron.  Ebboo. 

Eben,MAX  VON.  German  soldier. 
He  commanded  the  2nd  Baden 
dragoon  regiment  previous  to  the 
Great  War.  In  Sept.,  1914,  he  was 
appointed  to  command  the  10th  re- 
serve army  corps,  and  in  1916  had 
command  of  the  Bavarian  regiment 
on  the  Russian  front.  He  had 
charge  of  an  army  in  the  German 
thrust  for  Paris,  July,  15,  1918. 
See  Marne,  Second  Battle  of  the. 

Ebenaceae.  Natural  order  of 
trees  and  shrubs :  the  ebony 
family.  They  have  alternate,  un- 
divided leaves,  and  regular  flowers, 
succeeded  by  berries.  They  are 
chiefly  natives  of  tropical  countries. 
The  timber  is  hard  and  dark- 
coloured.  See  Ebony. 

Ebenezer  (Hebr.,  stone  of  help). 
Name  of  an  unidentified  spot 
where  the  Hebrews  were  defeated 
by  the  Philistines  (1  Sam.  7) ;  also 
that  of  a  stone  set  up  by  Samuel 
near  Mizpah  in  memory  of  an 
Israelitish  victory  over  the  Phil- 
istines (1  Sam.  4).  It  is  used  as  a 
Christian  name. 

Eberhard  (1445-96).  Duke  of 
Wiirttemberg.  Born  Dec.  11, 1445, 
a  member  of  the  ruling  family 
of  Wiirttemberg.  he  became  count 
of  one  part  of  it  in  1457.  In 
1482  he  secured  the  rest  of  the 
country,  and  in  1495  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  a  duke.  By  uniting 
Wiirttemberg  and  by  obtaining 
support  for  certain  changes,  both 
from  the  emperor  without  and  from 
his  own  nobles  within,  he  is  re- 
garded as  the  founder  of  the  coun- 
try. One  who  shared  in  the  intel- 
lectual awakening  of  his  time,  he 
founded  the  university  of  Tubingen 
and  encouraged  scholars.  His  wife, 
Barbara,  one  of  the  Gonzaga 
family,  shared  his  tastes.  Eberhard, 
who  was  known  as  the  Bearded 
(im  Bart),  died  Feb.  25,  1496,  at 
Tubingen,  where  he  is  buried. 

Ebers,  GEOKG  MORITZ  (1837- 
98).  German  Egyptologist  and 
novelist.  Born  March  1,  1837,  at 
Berlin,  he  studied  at  Gottingen  and 
Berlin,  and  early  specialised  in 
Egyptology..  To  popularise  his 


EBERSWALDE 

favourite  study  through  the  medium 
of  fiction,  he  wrote  An  Egyptian 
Princess,  1864,  Eng.  trans.  1870-71. 
In  1865  he  be- 
came lecturer 
and  later  pro- 
fessor  in 
Egyptology  at 
Jena. 

After  his 
first  travels  in 
Egypt,  Ebers 
wrote  Egypt 
and  the  Book  Georg  Ebers, 
of  Moses,  1868.  German  Egyptologist 
He  was  appointed  professor  of 
Egyptology  at  Leipzig,  1870,  a 
post  which  he  resigned  in  1889 
He  revisited  Egypt  in  1872-73, 
and  discovered  at  Thebes  one 
of  the  finest  examples  of  ancient 
papyri — Papyrus  Ebers,  now  in  the 
Leipzig  Museum.  This  is  a  medi- 
cal treatise  from  Sais  of  the  16th 
century  B.C.,  and  includes  a  long 
.chapter  on  the  eye,  an  extra- 
ordinary coincidence,  since  nearly 
ten  years  before  Ebers  had  written 
in  An  Egyptian  Princess  of  such  a 
MS.  and  its  fortunes.  In  addition 
to  many  novels  based  on  Egyptian 
history,  he  wrote  historical  novels 
descriptive  of  South  Germany  and 
the  Netherlands  in  the  16th  cen- 
tury. He  died  at  Tutzing,  Aug.  7, 
1898.  See  Autobiography,  Eng. 
trans.  M.  J.  Safford,  1893. 

Eberswalde.  Town  of  Prussia. 
It  is  28  m.  N.E.  of  Berlin,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  rly.  and 
also  by  canal.  The  chief  buildings 
are  churches  and  schools,  one  of  the 
former  being  a  14th  century  build- 
ing, while  the  latter  include  a 
school  of  forestry.  It  has  several 
industries,  including  the  making 
of  paper,  bricks,  nails,  and  brass 
founding.  Pop.  26,100. 

Ebert,  FUIEDRICH  (1870-1925). 
German  statesman  Born  at 
Heidelberg,  and  educated  at  an 
elementary 
school,  he  was 
apprenticed  to 
a  saddler  of 
that  town.  In 
1892  he  be- 
came editor  of 
the  socialist 
organ,  Bremer 
Burger  ze  i- 
tung,  and  in 
1894  married 

LouiseK 
who,  he  said, 
proved  his  best  counsellor  through- 
out his  career.  In  the  Revolution 
of  1918  he  succeeded  Prince  Max  of 
Baden  as  chancellor  on  Nov.  9,  and 
then  became  provisional  president 
of  Germany.  He  maintained  his 
position  through  the  stormy  days 
of  Jan.,  1919,  and  at  the  opening 
of  the  new  National  Assembly  at 


2779 

Weimar,  Feb.  6,  1919,  he  made  a 
long  protest  against  the  armistice 
terms,  and  urged  the  union  of 
German-Austria  with  Germany. 
On  Feb.  11  Ebert  was  elected  first 
socialist  president  of  the  German 
republic.  He  died  Feb.  28,  1925 
See  Germany. 

Ebionites  (Hebr.  ebyon,  poor). 
Name  given  to  certain  Judaising 
sects  in  the  Christian  Church  in 
the  second  century.  Denying  the 
divinity  of  Christ,  they  regarded 
Christianity  as  merely  a  reformed 
type  of  the  Jewish  religion,  and 
Christ  as  only  a  natural  man  of  ex- 
ceptional spiritual  attainments  ac- 
quired by  a  strict  observance  of  the 
law  of  Moses.  References  in  the 
writings  of  Irenaeus  and  other 
Fathers  state  that  the  Ebionites  ob- 
served all  the  details  of  the  Mosaic 
Law,  recognized  only  the  Gospel  of 
S.  Matthew,  and  rejected  S.  Paul 
as  an  apostate.  At  a  later  period 
the  Ebionites  largely  held  the 
Gnostic  heresy  of  the  dualistic 
origin  of  the  universe. 

Eblis  OK  IBLIS.  A  Mahomedan 
name  for  Satan  or  the  prince  of 
darkness.  In  the  Koran  it  is  stated 
that  God,  having  made  Adam, 
called  upon  the  angels  to  bow 
down  and  worship  him ;  all  did 
so  except  Eblis,  who  refused,  and 
became  the  declared  enemy  of  the 
newly  created  race  of  men.  Eblis 
is  also  described  as  chief  of  the  genii. 

Ebner-Eschenbach,  BARONESS 
MARIE  VON  (1830-1916).  Austrian 
dramatist,  novelist,  and  poet. 
She  was  born  Sept.  13,  1830,  in 
Moravia,  the  daughter  of  Count 
Dubsky,  and  married  an  Austrian 
officer,  Moritz  von  Ebner-Eschen- 
bach, who  afterwards  became  field  - 
marshal.  She  published  several 
plays,  including  Maria  Stuart  in 
Schottland  (1860),  and  then  turned 
to  fiction.  Her  first  tale,  Die  Prin- 
zessin  von  Banalien,  appeared  in 
1872;  and  Zwei  Komtessen  (1885) 
became  widely  popular.  Parabeln, 
Marchen  und  Gedichte  appeared  in 
1892.  The  author  takes  a  lead- 
ing  place  among  modern  German 
women  writers. 

Eboli  (anc.  Eburum).  Town  of 
Italy,  in  the  prov.  of  Salerno.  It 
occupies  an  elevated  position,  alt. 
470  ft.,  overlooking  the  Sele  river, 
16  m.  by  rly.  S.E.  of  Salerno.  It 
contains  an  old  chateau  of  the 
prince  of  Angri,  a  church  with  14th 
century  paintings,  and  a  few  re- 
mains of  Eburum,  the  old  Lucanian 
city.  Pop.  12,741. 

Ebonite  OR  VULCANITE.  Hard 
vulcanised  rubber  made  by  mix- 
ing pure  rubber  with  about  one- 
third  of  its  weight  of  sulphur,  and 
heating  for  a  number  of  hours  in 
temperature  rising  to  300°  F. 
Ebonite  is  largely  used  as  a  sub- 


EBURACUM 

stitute  for  bone,  ivory,  and  horn» 
for  making  small  ornamental 
articles,  as  combs,  knife  handles, 
buttons,  etc.  It  can  be  moulded, 
cut,  carved,  and  polished  to  a  high 
degree  of  perfection.  See  Rubber. 
Ebony  (Diospyros).  Trees  of 
the  natural  order  Ebenaceae,  whose 
heart-wood  is  the  ebony  of  com- 
merce. Several  species  furnish  the 
timber,  the  difference  being  de- 
noted by  the  place  of  origin. 
'Mauritius  ebony  is  the  produce  of 
D.  ebenum ;  Coromandel  ebony 


Ebony.  Fruit  and  leaf  of  Persimmon 

(Diospyros  Virginiana),  one  of  the 

Ebonies 

of  D.  melanoxylon ;  and  the 
bastard  ebony  of  Ceylon  is  ob- 
tained from  D.  ebenaster.  Cala- 
mander-wood,  a  variegated  ebony, 
is  the  timber  of  D.  hirsuta  from 
India  and  Ceylon.  Some  of  the 
species  have  edible  fruits.  See 
Date-plum :  Persimmon. 

Ebor.  Abbreviation  of  Ebora- 
cum,  the  Latin  name  for  York. 
It  is  still  used  as  a  signature  by  the 
archbishop  of  York,  e.g.  Cosmo 
Ebor.  See  York. 

Ebro  (anc.  Iberus).  River  of 
N.E.  Spain.  Rising  in  the  Canta- 
brian  Mts.,  in  the  prov.  of  San- 
tander,  it  flows  S.E.  to  the  Medi- 
terranean. Its  length  is  about  460 
m.,  and  it  drains  some  35,000  sq.  m. 
Its  chief  affluents  are  the  Jalon, 
Huerva,  Guadalope,  Aragon,  Gal- 
lego,  and  Segre.  Running  through 
narrow  valleys,  its  channel  is  ob- 
structed by  shoals  and  rapids.  Ships 
can  proceed  only  as  far  as  Tortosa 
(16  m.). 

Eburacum  OR  EBORACUM.  Ro- 
man town  on  the  site  of  which  the 
city  of  York,  England,  now  stands. 
Erected  by  the  Ninth  legion  on  an 
earlier  Caer  Evrauc  about  A.D.  75, 
the  fort  of  52  acres — still  traceable 
in  the  lower  courses  of  the  mult- 
angular tower — was  garrisoned  by 


E.G. 

the  Sixth  legion.  A  municipal 
colonia  flourished  on  the  opposite 
bank  of  the  Ouse.  Here  in  120 
Hadrian  held  court,  here  also  died 
Severus  in  21 1,  and  Constantius 
Chlorus  in  306.  Pron  Eburacum. 
See  York, 

E.G.  Abbrev.  for  East  Central 
postal  district,  London. 

Eca  de  Queiroz,  Jos*  MAMA 
(1845-1900).  Portuguese  author. 
Born  at  Povoa  do  Varzim,  N.  of 
Oporto,  and  educated  at  Coimbra 
university,  he 
began  life  as  a 
journalist,  and 
in  1871  was  on 
the  staff  of  the 
critical  journal 
As  Farpas. 
Three  years 
later  he  pub- 
lished a  novel 
which  a  t  - 
J.  M.  Eca  de  Queiroz,  tracted  a  good 
Portuguese  author  deal  of  atten- 
tion, O  Crime  do  Padre  Amaro. 
While  continuing  his  work  as  author 
he  was  Portuguese  consul  succes- 
sively at  Havana,  Newcastle,  Bris- 
tol, and  Paris.  His  later  stories 
included  0  Primo  Bazilio,  1877 
(Eng.  trans.  Dragon's  Teeth,  1889) 
and  A  Reliquia,  1886.  The 
posthumous  collection  of  Contos, 
1902,  contained  the  famous  stories, 
O  Defunto  and  O  suave  milagre, 
respectively  translated  into  English 
as  Our  Lady  of  the  Pillar  and 
The  Sweet  Miracle. 

E carte  (Fr.,  discarded).  A  card 
game  for  two  players  which  had  a 
great  vogue  in  France  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  19th  century.  The 
six  down  to  the  two  inclusive  of 
each  suit  having  been  removed 
from  the  pack,  the  players  cut  for 
deal,  and  the  pack  is  shuffled  by 
the  dealer,  and  cut  by  his  opponent. 
The  dealer  then  gives  five  cards  to 
the  other  player  and  to  himself  : 
either  three  and  two  or  two  and 
three  alternately.  The  eleventh 
card  is  turned  up  for  trumps,  the 
remainder  of  the  pack  forming  the 
stock.  Should  the  eleventh  card 
be  a  king  the  dealer  scores  one 
point;  otherwise  the  turn-up  has 
no  scoring  value. 

The  players  then  look  at  their 
hands,  and  should  the  non-dealer 
(the  leader)  be  satisfied  with  his 
cards,  he  may  at  once  proceed  to 
play  them.  But  if  he  considers  it 
would  be  advantageous  to  change 
any  or  all  of  them,  he  says,  '"  I 
propose  "  or  "  Cards."  The  dealer 
then  has  the  option  of  changing 
his  cards  also,  and  on  deciding  to 
do  so  says,  "  I  accept  "  or  "  How 
many  ?  "  Should  he  be  satisfied 
with  his  cards,  he  may  refuse,  and 
exclaim  "  I  refuse  "  or  "  Play." 
If  either  player  refuse  to  change 


278O 

cards,  then  both  must  play  their 
original  hands  Otherwise  the 
discarding  of  cards  for  others  in 
the  stock  may  proceed  so  long  as 
both  are  agreeable.  The  plpyers 
being  satisfied  with  their  hands,- 
the  play  begins.  If  either  holds  the 
king  of  trumps  he  must  declare  it 
before  playing  his  first  card,  and 
is  entitled  to  mark  one  point. 

The  object  of  the  game  is  to 
make  tricks  ;  the  highest  card  of 
a  suit  wins,  though  a  trump 
naturally  scores  over  that  of 
another  suit.  A  player  must 
always  take  a  trick  if  able  to  do  so. 
The  cards  rank  in  this  order  :  King, 
queen,  knave  ace,  ten  down  to 
seven.  The  winner  of  a  trick 
always  leads  to  the  next.  The 
score  is  made  as  follows  :  Turning 
up  or  holding  the  king  of  trumps 
counts  1  ;  winning  three  tricks 
out  of  five  is  called  the  point  and 
also  counts  1  ;  winning  all  five 
tricks  is  termed  the  vole  and 
counts  2.  If  either  player  fail  to 
make  three  tricks  after  having  de- 
clined cards,  his  adversary  scores  2. 
A  game  consists  of  5  points.  See 
The  Standard  Hoyle,  1887  ;  Fos- 
ter's Complete  Hoyle,  1897. 

Ecbatana.  Capital  of  Media. 
The  Hebrew  form  Achmetha  (Ezra 
6)  survives  in  the  modern  Hama- 
dan.  Situate  5,930  ft.  above  sea- 
level,  near  M-t.  Elwend,  it  was  the 
summer  residence  of  the  old  Persian 
and  Parthian  kings.  Its  identifica- 
tion with  the  seven -storey  ed  fort- 
ress described  by  Herodotus  as 
built  by  Deioces  (700  B.C.)  is  in 
doubt.  The  so-called  Syrian  Ecba- 
tana was  at  Hamath. 

Ecca  Shales.  Strata  found  in 
the  S-  of  Cape  Colony.  They  often 
show  sun-cracks  and  ripple-marks, 
formed  soon  after  they  were  laid 
down,  in  Permian  times.  Minor 
beds  of  sandstone  occur,  and  fossil 
plants  belonging  to  the  Glossopteris 
Flora  are  found  in  the  series. 

Ecce  Homo  (Lat.,  Behold  the 
Man).  Short  title  of  a  survey  of  the 
life  and  work  of  Jesus  Christ  by 
Sir  J.  R.  Seeley.  It  was  published 
anonymously  in  1866,  and  caused  a 
storm  of  criticism.  It  attempted  to 
present  Christ  as  an  exclusively  hu- 
man personality,  the  founder  of  a 
new  system  of  society. 

Eccentric  (Gr.  ekkentros,  out  ot 
the  centre).  In  engineering  a  metal 
disk  mounted  eccentrically  on  a 
shaft,  to  give  reciprocating  move- 
ment to  a  valve  or  pump  or  lever. 
The  edge  of  the  eccentric  is  grooved 
and  encircled  by  an  eccentric  strap, 
one  half  of  which  is  secured  rigidly 
to  the  front  end  of  a  connecting 
rod.  In  effect  an  eccentric  is  a  cam: 
or  it  may  be  regarded  as  a  crank 
having  a  pin  larger  than  the  shaft. 
See  Steam  Engine. 


ECCLESIASTES 

Ecchymosis  (Gr.  ek,  out  of ; 
chymos,  juice).  Outpouring  of  the 
blood  into  the  tissues  beneath  the 
skin.  See  Bruise. 

Ecclefechan.  Village  of  Dum- 
triesshire,  Scotland.  It  is  6  m.  S.E. 
of  Lockerbie  by  the  C.R.,  and  has 
been  identified  as  the  original  of 
Entepiiihl  in  Sartor  Resartus  Tt 
was  the  birthplace  and  burial  place 
of  Carlyle  (q.v.).  Near  by  are 
the  Roman  camps  of  Birrens  and 
Birrenswark.  Pop.  670.  See  illus. 
p.  1709. 

Eccles.  Mun.  bor.  of  Lanca- 
shire, England.  It  stands  on  the 
Irwell,  4  m.  W.  of  Manchester,  of 
which  it  is  an  industrial  suburb, 
and  is  served  by  the  L.  &  N.W.R. 
Locally  famous  for  its  Eccles  cakes, 
the  town  is  actively  engaged  in  the 
cotton  and  other  textile  industries. 
Pop.  41,944  See  Manchester. 

Ecclesfield.  Parish  of  W.R. 
Yorkshire,  England.  It  is  5  m.  N. 
of  Sheffield,  on  the  Mid.  and  G.C 
Rys.  The  church  of  S.  Mary,  a  Per- 
pendicular edifice  formerly  desig- 
nated the  Minster  of  the  Moors, 
contains  some  fine  oak  carving. 
There  are  large  cutlery  and  tool 
works,  paper  mills,  iron  works,  and 
collieries.  Pop.  22,404. 

Ecclesia  (Gr.  ekkalein,  to  call 
forth).  In  ancient  Athens,  the  as- 
sembly of  the  whole  body  of  free 
citizens.  The  meetings  were  held  in 
the  Pnyx  and  latterly  in  the 
theatre  ;  on  special  occasions  they 
were  held  in  the  agora.  In  theory 
the  ecclesia  was  the  supreme  power 
in  the  state,  and  any  citizen  had  the 
right  to  speak  ;  but  in  practice  its 
power  was  virtually  confined  to  the 
business  which  had  been  prepared 
for  it  by  the  boule,  or  council  of  500. 
Voting  was  by  show  of  hands,  and 
on  special  occasions  by  ballot.  In 
addition  to  some  40  regular  meet- 
ings a  year,  the  ecclesia  could  also 
be  convoked  for  special  business  by 
a  chief  magistrate.  The  Greek 
name  ecclesia  (Fr.  eglise)  came  to 
be  applied  in  Christian  times  both 
to  the  assembly  of  Christians  and 
to  the  place  of  assembly.  See 
Cathedral;  Church. 

Ecclesiastes.  Title  adopted, 
through  the  Vulgate,  from  the  Sep- 
tuagint,  for  the  O.T.  book  which  in 
Hebrew  bears  the  title  Koheleth. 
The  meaning  of  the  Hebrew  term  is 
disputed,  but  may  be  "  one  who 


Eccentric.  Metal  disk  on  a  shaft 
fixed  out  of  centre.  A  and  B  show 
two  positions  of  this  moving  shaft 


ECCLESIASTICAL    COMMISSION 


2781 


ECCLESIASTICAL    LAW 


speaks  in  an  assembly "  (hence 
Jerome's  rendering  concionator  and 
the  English  translation  "  the 
Preacher  ").  In  i,  1,  12  the  writer 
seems  to  be  identified  with  King 
Solomon,  to  whom  tradition  as- 
cribed the  authorship.  But  the 
language  of  the  book,  which  con- 
tains Persian  and  possibly  Greek 
words,  and  represents  a  transitional 
stage  in  the  development  of  Mish- 
nic  Hebrew,  is  that  of  an  age  much 
later  than  Solomon's.  The  book 
cannot,  however,  be  later  than  Ec- 
clesiasticus  (c.  200  B.C.),  which  pre- 
supposes its  existence.  It  presents 
a  strange  mingling  of  despair  and 
pessimism  ("  Vanity  of  vanities, 
all  is  vanity  ")  with  an  irresistible 
sense  of  the  goodness  of  God.  Thus 
the  writer's  utterances  often  seem 
contradictory. 

The  true  explanation  seems  to 
be  that  the  book  is  a  series  of  re- 
flections representing  two  or  more 
moods,  or  in  other  words  is  the 
record  of  the  negative  and  positive 
phases  in  a  soul's  struggle  for  light. 
Hence,  probably  under  Greek  in- 
fluence, a  philosophic  materialism 
and  epicureanism  ;  under  the  in- 
fluence of  national  subjection,  a 
general  despondency ;  and  yet, 
under  the  influence  of  an  innate 
religious  trend,  an  unquenchable 
faith  in  a  divine  dispensation.  The 
materialistic  element  will  account 
for  the  hesitation  with  which  the 
book  was  admitted  into  the  He- 
brew Canon.  The  writer  in  one 
mood  sees  little  profit  or  progress 
in  life  ;  the  same  happenings  recur 
perpetually  (c/.  Nietzsche's  philo- 
sophy). The  best  course  in  life 
seems  to  be  to  eat  and  drink  and 
enjoy  things  as  much  as  possible. 
But  in  another  and  wiser  mood  it 
is  realized  that  true  happiness  is 
dependent  upon  fear  of  God  and 
obedience  to  His  commandments 
(xii,  13).  See  Proverbs,  Ecciesias- 
tes  and  Song  of  Songs,  ed.  G.  Currie 
Martin,  1908  (in  the  Century  Bible). 

E  cclesias  tical  Commission . 
Body  constituted  in  1836  to  man- 
age the  extensive  estates  of  the 
Church  of  England.  Under  its  di- 
rection the  large  incomes  of  certain 
bishops  and  other  dignitaries  were 
gradually  reduced  to  a  more  uni- 
form scale,  and  the  surplus  was  de- 
voted to  the  endowment  of  poor 
parishes. 

The  commissioners  are  the  two 
archbishops,  the  English  diocesan 
bishops,  5  cabinet  ministers,  4 
judges,  and  12  others,  but  in  reality 
the  work  is  directed  by  the  three 
principal  commissioners,  one  of 
whom  is  usually  a  member  of  the 
House  of  Commons.  In  certain 
cases,  in  1836,  the  dean  and 
chapter  refused  to  hand  over  the 
cathedral  estates  to  the  commis- 


sioners, and  several  such  incomes 
were  reduced  owing  to  agricultural 
depression.  Those  which  took  the 
other  course  receive  a  fixed  income 
whatever  the  rent-roll  of  the  sur- 
rendered estates  may  be.  The 
Commission  deals  with  an  annual 
income  of  nearly  £2,000,000,  and 
after  paying  the  various  stipends 
it  usually  sets  aside  some  £400,000 
a  year  for  increasing  the  endow- 
ment of  poor  livings  and  pro- 
viding something  for  new  ones. 
The  offices  are  in  Millbank,  West- 
minster, S.W.  See  The  Ecclesias- 
tical Commission :  sketch  of  its 
history  and  work,  L.  T.  Dibdin 
and  S"  E.  Downing,  1919. 

Ecclesiastical  Courts.  Courts 
of  law  that  deal  with  offences 
against  ecclesiastical  law,  i.e.  cases 
affecting  benefices  and  the  like. 
Such  are  in  their  nature  confined  to 
an  established  church,  or  to  one 
that,  although  no  longer  a  state 
church,  was  so  formerly,  and  re- 
tains part  of  its  old  organization. 
The  courts  held  by  the  pope  and  by 
the  various  prelates  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  are  ecclesiastical 
courts.  (See  Curia.) 

In  England  clerics  are  now  for 
practical  purposes  on  the  same 
footing  before  the  law  as  laymen. 
Formerly  this  was  not  so,  and  the 
church  courts  dealt  with  all  kinds 
of  offences  committed  by  clergy- 
men as  well  as  with  all  cases  affect- 
ing marriage  (divorce,  etc.),  and 
wills — two  subjects  which  the 
church  regarded  as  peculiarly  its 
own.  The  process  of  reducing  the 
powers  of  the  ecclesiastical  courts 


was  a  gradual  one,  but  by  about 
1860,  the  date  of  the  Ecclesiastical 
Courts  Jurisdiction  Act,  they  may 
be  said  to  have  been  confined  to 
their  present  duties,  dealing  only 
with  cases  affecting  church  disci- 
pline, and  no  longer  with  any  that 
are  offences  against  the  state.  In 
1855  their  jurisdiction  in  cases  of 
defamation  was  taken  away,  and 
in  1857  they  lost  that  affecting  wills 
and  matrimony. 

The  existing  ecclesiastical  courts 
in  England  are  the  court  of  arches, 
presided  over  by  the  dean  of  arches, 
which  is  the  chief  court  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Canterbury ;  and  the  chan- 
cery court,  which  fulfils  the  same 
purpose  for  the  province  of  York. 
Each  diocesan  bishop  has  his  court, 
called  the  consistory  court,  over 
which  the  chancellor  of  the  diocese 
presides.  The  archdeacons  have 
courts,  which,  however,  have  little 
to  do.  Each  archbishop  has  an 
almost  obsolete  court  of  audience. 
There  is  also  the  court  of  the 
vicar-general,  which  deals  with 
ecclesiastical  offences  committed 
by  bishops,  and  a  court  for  mar- 
riage licences. 

The  court  of  arches  hears  ap- 
peals from  the  consistory  courts, 
and  from  it  there  is  an  appeal  to  the 
judicial  committee  of  the  privy 
council.  Until  1833  these  appeals 
were  to  the  court  of  delegates  of 
appeals,  which  dated  from  the  time 
of  the  Reformation.  The  law  ad- 
ministered in  the  church  courts 
was  mainly  canon  law.  See  Canon 
Law  ;  Church  of  England  ;  Eccle- 
siastical Law. 


ECCLESIASTICAL   LAW  IN  ENGLAND 

Harold    Hardy,    Barrister-at-Law,   Author  of  The  Benefices  Act,  etc. 

This  article  deals  with  Ecclesiastical  Law,  the  main  branch  of  which 

is  that  under  which  the  Church  of  England  lives  and  works.   A  nother 

aspect  of  the  same  subject  is  dealt  with  under  Canon  Law.    S.ee  also 

Church  of  England 


Ecclesiastical  law  may  include 
all  laws  affecting  any  church  or 
religious  society  ;  or,  it  may  be  re- 
stricted to  the  law  which  regulates 
a  particular  church  controlled  by 
the  state,  as,  for  instance,  the  estab- 
lished church  of  Scotland.  In  this 
article,  however,  ecclesiastical  law 
means  the  law  relating  to  the 
Church  of  England  as  administered 
in  the  courts  of  the  country,  in- 
cluding the  common  law  based 
upon  custom,  the  canon  law,  and 
statute  law. 

Ecclesiastical  law  relates  to  the 
officers,  who  are  the  archbishops, 
bishops  and  clergy,  and  the  laity, 
who  are  persons  not  in  Holy  Orders; 
the  government  and  discipline ;  the 
faith,  form  of  worship,  rites  and 
ceremonies;  the  fabric  of  the  church, 
vicarage  house  and  buildings,  and 
other  forms  of  church  property. 


Ecclesiastical  law  is  adminis- 
tered in  the  civil  courts,  and  in  the 
ecclesiastical  courts  which  have 
both  civil  and  criminal  jurisdiction. 
It  includes  part  of  what  is  called 
the  common  law  of  England,  based 
on  custom  ;  it  also  comprises  a 
considerable  body  of  statute  law; 
while  the  canon  law  is  binding 
upon  the  officers  of  the  church  and 
to  some  extent  upon  the  laity. 
The  chief  officers  of  the  church  are 
the  two  archbishops,  who  exercise 
jurisdiction  in  their  respective  pro- 
vinces of  Canterbury  and  York. 
Each  province  is  divided  into  dio- 
ceses, presided  over  by  a  bishop, 
who  has  an  ecclesiastical  court 
where  cases,  generally  relating  to 
church  property,  are  tried  before 
his  law  officer,  the  chancellor. 

Archbishops  and  bishops  are 
appointed  by  the  crown,  and  are 


ECCLESIASTICAL     LAW 


2782 


ECCLESIASTICAL     LAW 


consecrated.  An  archbishop  is  en- 
throned, whereas  a  bishop  is  in- 
stalled. A  bishop  is  in  legal  docu- 
ments often  styled  the  ordinary, 
because  he  is  the  judge  in  ecclesias- 
tical cases,  having  ordinary  juris- 
diction in  his  own  right,  and  not  by 
way  of  delegation  or  as  deputy.  In 
England  the  bishops  of  London, 
Durham,  and  Winchester  have 
seats  in  the  House  of  Lords,  to- 
gether with  twenty-one  other 
bishops,  who  are  summoned  in 
order  of  seniority. 

The  other  orders  of  the  clergy 
are  priests  and  deacons,  who  are 
ordained  by  a  bishop  and  receive  a 
certificate  called  letters  of  orders. 
Only  a  priest  can  have  a  cure  of 
souls,  which  is  committed  to  the 
incumbent  of  the  parish.  The  ap- 
pointment of  the  incumbent,  who 
is  called  the  vicar  or  rector  as  the 
case  may  be,  is  by  the  presentation 
of  the  patron  of  the  living  ;  fol- 
lowed by  institution,  by  which  the 
bishop  entrusts  him  with  the 
spiritual  care  of  the  parish  ;  and  in- 
duction, which  invests  him  with  the 
emoluments  of  the  benefice.  After 
institution,  the  incumbent  can  offi- 
ciate in  any  consecrated  building  in 
(  the  parish,  and  no  other  clergyman 
!  may  do  so  without  his  consent,  ex- 
cept under  certain  statutory  provi- 
sions. An  incumbent  is  like  a  tenant 
for  life  in  respect  of  the  property 
belonging  to  the  benefice. 

Bights  of  Incumbents 
He  may  cut  timber  for  repairs, 
grant  leases  of,  or  sell,  the  glebe 
under  certain  conditions.  He  is 
liable  for  dilapidations  of  the 
vicarage  house  and  buildings.  He 
has  possession  and  a  limited  owner- 
ship of  .the  church  and  churchyard, 
but  in  many  parishes  a  lay  rector 
has  certain  proprietary  rights  in 
the  chancel.  He  is  entitled  to  the 
custody  of 'the  keys  of  the  church, 
the  registers  of  baptisms,  marriages 
and  burials,  and  has  a  general  con- 
trol over  the  organist  and  choir,  the 
sexton  and  the  bellringers.  He  ap- 
points the  curate,  and  by  custom 
chooses  one  of  the  churchwardens, 
the  other  being  elected  by  the  par- 
ishioners at  the  Easter  vestry.  As  a 
rule  no  one  can  be  ordained  priest 
until  he  has  served  as  a  deacon  for 
the  period  of  a  year.  The  functions 
of  a  deacon  are,  generally  speaking, 
the  same  as  those  of  a  priest,  but  he 
cannot  have  a  cure  of  souls,  nor 
may  he  consecrate  or  administer 
the  Holy  Communion.  He  may 
conduct  morning  and  evening 
prayer,  the  services  of  baptism  and 
of  burial,  and  assist  at  the  service 
of  Holy  Communion.  He  may  also 
preach.  And,  if  required,  he  may 
solemnise  a  marriage,  though  it  is 
more  regular  for  a  priest  to  do  so. 
No  one  can  be  ordained  deacon 


under  the  age  of  twenty-three,  un- 
less he  has  special  permission  from 
the  archbishop  of  Canterbury. 

The  vestry  is  the  council  of  the 
parish  that  deals  with  ecclesiastical 
matters.  The  right  to  attend  and 
vote  at  a  vestry  meeting  belongs 
to  every  parishioner  of  either  sex 
whose  name  is  registered  in  the 
rate  book.  The  incumbent,  or  the 
clergyman  acting  for  the  incum- 
bent, is  the  chairman  of  a  vestry 
meeting,  and  he  has  a  casting  vote, 
if  the  votes  are  equal.  The  church- 
wardens are  appointed  annually  at 
a  meeting  of  the  vestry,  generally 
in  Easter  week. 

Duties  of  Churchwardens 

In  an  ancient  parishj  churchwar- 
dens must  be  resident  in  the  parish- 
In  the  statutory  parishes,  the 
churchwardens  are  required  to  be 
"fit  and  proper  persons,"  and  must 
be  members  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land. The  general  duties  of  the 
churchwardens  are  the  custody  and 
care  of  the  church  property  in  the 
parish.  Collections  made  in  church 
"  for  church  purposes  "  are  under 
their  control,  but  the  offertories  at 
Holy  Communion  are  to  be  disposed 
of  "to  such  pious  and  charitable 
uses  as  the  minister  and  church- 
wardens shall  think  fit  "  ;  in  case  of 
disagreement,  the  bishop  decides. 
They  must  provide  the  necessaries 
for  divine  service,  maintain  order 
daring  its  performance,  and  see 
that  the  church  and  churchyard 
are  kept  in  a  proper  condition. 
The  churchwardens  have  a  right  to 
arrange  in  what  seats  the  congrega- 
tion shall  sit.  They  have  no  right 
of  access  to  the  church,  chancel,  or 
belfry  without  the  consent  of  the 
incumbent,  but  if  permission  is 
refused  on  fitting  occasions  their 
remedy  is  by  way  of  application  or 
complaint  to  the  bishop.  It  is  the 
duty  of  the  churchwardens  to  use 
all  reasonable  means  for  providing 
the  necessary  funds  for  church 
expenses  with  the  assistance  of 
the  incumbent.  After  churchwar- 
dens are  appointed  at  the  Easter 
vestry,  they  appear  at  the  next 
visitation  of  the  bishop  or  arch- 
deacon and  are  formally  admitted 
to  the  office. 

Parish  clerks  and  sextons  in  an- 
cient parishes  are  appointed  ac- 
cording to  custom  for  life,  but  may 
be  removed  from  office  for  serious 
misconduct. 

In  some  parishes  the  parish  clerk 
also  performs  the  duties  of  sexton, 
digging  the  graves  and  ringing  the 
bell.  In  statutory  parishes,  created 
under  the  Church  Building  Acts,  the 
clerk  is  appointed  annually  ;  but  in 
parishes  under  the  New  Parishes 
Acts  he  is  appointed  for  an  inde- 
finite period  by  the  incumbent,  who 
can  dismiss  him,  with  the  consent  of 


the  bishop,  for  misconduct.  A 
clergyman  may  be  appointed  parish 
clerk,  but  he  must  be  licensed  by 
the  bishop  in  the  same  way  as  a 
stipendiary  curate,  and  the  licence 
may  be  revoked  subject  to  the 
right  of  appeal.  Parish  clerks  and 
sextons  are  usually  paid  a  small 
salary,  and  they  are  entitled  to 
fees  on  marriages  and  burials. 

The  endowments  for  the  mainten- 
ance of  the  clergy  are  derived  princi- 
pally from  voluntary  gifts  made  for 
the  purpose  in  ancient  as  well  as  in 
statutory  parishes.  They  consist 
chiefly  of  tithes,  glebe  lands,  and 
funded  property.  A  large  portion 
of  these  are  administered  by  the 
Ecclesiastical  Commissioners  (q.v. ), 
who  pay  the  income  of  the  clergy 
out  of  the  funds  at  their  disposal. 
In  many  parishes  the  collections  on 
Easter  Day  are  given  to  the  incum- 
bent. There  are  also  fees  payable 
to  the  clergy  on  marriages  and 
burials.  The  fees  on  baptism  have 
been  abolished.  In  every  parish  a 
register  must  be  provided  in  which 
all  baptisms  are  to  be  recorded  by 
the  incumbent  or  officiating  mini- 
ster, and  a  copy  of  the  entries  must 
be  sent  each  year  to  the  registrar  of 
the  diocese  by  the  churchwardens. 
The  entry  is  evidence  in  law  as  to 
the  names  and  condition  of  the 
parents,  but  not  as  to  age. 
Ecclesiastical  Courts 

There  are  ecclesiastical  courts  in 
the  various  dioceses  in  England  and 
Wales  in  which  the  judge  is  called 
the  chancellor.  These  courts  have 
both  civil  and  criminal  jurisdiction 
over  ecclesiastical  matters  within 
the  diocese.  In  civil  sirts  petitions 
are  presented  for  a  faculty  or  licence 
to  make  alterations  in  the  church 
or  churchyard,  and  a  citation  is 
posted  at  the  door  of  the  church 
which  gives  notice  of  the  pro- 
posed alterations  to  the  parishioners 
so  that  they  may  have  an  oppor- 
tunity of  bringing  any  objection 
they  may  have  before  the  court. 
The  criminal  jurisdiction  is  exer- 
cised when  an  offence  against  the 
ecclesiastical  law  has  been  com- 
mitted. 

Bibliography.  Ecclesiastical  Law. 
Richard  Burn,  9th  ed.  R.  Philli- 
more,  1842;  The  Ecclesiastical  Law 
of  the  Church  of  England,  R.  J. 
Phillimore,  2nd  ed.  W.  G.  F.  Philli- 
more  and  C.  F.  Jemmett,  1895; 
Practical  Guide  to  the  Duties  of 
Churchwardens;  C.  G.  Prideaux, 
16th  ed.  F.  C.  Mackarness,  1895; 
The  Book  of  Church  Law,  J.  H. 
Blunt,  9th  ed.  W.  G.  F.  Phillimore 
and  G.  Edwardes  Jones,  1901  ;  The 
Legal  Position  of  the  Clergy,  P.  V. 
Smith,  1905  ;  Church  Law,  B.  White- 
head  3rd  ed.  1911 ;  A  Summary  of 
the  Law  aud  Practice  in  Ecclesias- 
tical Courts,  T.  Eustace  Smith,  6th 
ed.  1911. 


ECCLESIASTICAL     TITLES     ACT 


2783 


ECHINOIDEA 


Ecclesiastical  Titles  Act.    Act 

passed  by  the  British  Parliament 
in  1851.  It  was  a  reply  to  the 
brief  of  Pope  Pius  IX  which  re- 
stored the  Roman  Catholic  hier- 
archy in  England,  making  West- 
minster an  archbishopric  and  select- 
ing various  towns,  not  occupied  by 
Anglican  bishops,  as  new  seats  for 
the  episcopate.  ',  In  response  to 
Protestant  political  agitation  Lord 
John  Russell  introduced  the  bill, 
which  was  passed  into  law.  The 
Act  was  from  the  first  a  dead  letter, 
and  was  repealed  in  1871. 

Ecclesiasticus.  Name  in  the 
Vulgate  of  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant of  the  O.T.  Apocrypha,  which 
in  the  Greek  version  is  called  the 
"  Wisdom  of  Jesus,  son  of  Sirach." 
The  book  was  called  Ecclesiasticus 
("belonging  to  the  Church")  be- 
cause, though  not  canonical,  it  was 
considered  suitable  for  use  in  the 
public  worship  of  the  Western 
Church.  By  the  decree  of  the 
Council  of  Trent  it  was  declared  a 
canonical  book  of  the  O.T.  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church. 

It  was  originally  written  in  He- 
brew, between  about  190  and  170 
B.C.,  by  Jesus  the  son  of  Sirach,  and 
was  translated  into  Greek  soon 
after  130  B.C.  by  a  grandson  of  the 
same  name.  The  Hebrew  text  was 
lost  until  1896,  when  Mrs.  Agnes 
Lewis  discovered  a  fragment  in 
Palestine.  Subsequently  other 
fragments  came  to  light,  and  now 
the  greater  part  of  the  work  may 
be  read  in  Hebrew.  The  book  be- 
longs to  a  class  of  Hebrew  litera- 
ture known  as  Wisdom  Literature. 
The  author  gathers  up  ethical  pro- 
verbs, precepts,  and  wise  sayings 
concerning  a  great  variety  of  mat- 
ters in  the  conduct  of  life.  See 
Apocrypha, 

Ecclesiazusae.  Comedy  of  Ari- 
stophanes, produced  392  B.C.  It 
represents  the  women  of  Athens  as 
controllers  of  public  affairs  and 
founders  of  a  socialistic  state  in 
which  property  and  husbands  were 
held  in  common,  as  in  Plato's  re- 
public. The  title  means  Women  in 
the  ecclesia  (general  assembly). 

Ecclesiology  "(Gr.  ekklesia, 
church,  assembly ;  logos,  dis- 
course). Science  treating  of  the  or- 
ganization and  development  of 
Christianity  and  of  ecclesiastical 
architecture  and  decoration,  espec- 
ially in  regard  to  their  liturgical  sig- 
nificance. See  Christianity;  Church. 

Echegaray  y  Eizaguirre,  Jos£ 
(1832-1916).  Spanish  dramatist, 
poet,  and  politician.  He  was  born 
at  Madrid,  and  educated  at  its  uni- 
versity. Before  entering  politics, 
1868,  he  was  a  teacher  of  mathe- 
matics. He  held  office  in  the 
Radical-Monarchist  government  of 
1872-73,  as  minister  of  education, 


and  in  1874  and  1905-6  was  mini- 
ster of  finance.  Hiss  versatility  was 
extraordinary,  and  he  was  a  direc- 
tor of  commercial  companies,  as 
well  as  a  philosopher  and  poet.  In 
1904  he  won  the  Nobel  Prize  for 
literature.  His  dramas,  numbering 
over  eighty,  have  been  translated 
into  most  European  languages.  He 
is  regarded  as 
the  founder  of 
the  new  school 
of  Spanish  dra- 
matists. His 
plays  include 
Mariana,  1893, 
adapted  in 
English,  1897, 
at  the  Court, 
and  revived, 
with  Mrs. 
Patrick  Camp- 
bell in  the  title-rdle,  at  the  Royalty, 
1901 ;  El  Gran  Galeoto,  1881,  pro- 
duced in  London,  1889,  under  the 
title  of  Calumny.  He  died  Sept. 
16,  1916. 

Echelon  (Fr.,  round  of  a  ladder). 
Military  term.  Troops  are  said  to 
be  in  echelon  formation  when  the 
units  are  all  facing  in  the  same  di- 
rection, are  in  parallel  rows  with 
intervals  between  their  flanks,  and 
units  to  the  rear  are  on  the  flank  of 
those  in  front  of  them.  Battle-ships 
are  in  echelon  when  advancing  in 
V  formation,  the  apex  leading. 

Echidna  (Gr.-Lat.,  viper).  Spiny 
ant-eater  of  Australia  and  New 
Guinea,  of  which  there  are  two 
species,  the  five-toed  and  the  three- 


Jose  Echegaray  y 

Eizaguirre, 
Spanish  dramatist 


mammal 


toed.  They  are  egg-laying  (Mono- 
tremata).  The  back  of  the  head  and 
body  is  covered  with  short  spines, 
like  porcupine  quills,  and  the  head 
is  provided  with  a  slender  beak.  In 
the  breeding  season  the  female  lays 
a  single  egg,  which  is  incubated  in 
a  pouch  on  the  underside  of  the 
body.  The  echidna  and  the  orni- 
thorhynchus  are  the  only  mammals 
that  have  a  cloaca  (q.v.). 

Echinoderma  (Gr.  echinos, 
hedgehog ;  derma,  skin).  Phyla 
or  sub-kingdom  of  invertebrate 
marine  animals.  They  comprise 
the  feather-stars  (Crinoidea),  star- 
fishes (Asteroidea),  brittle-stars 
(Ophiuroidea),  sea-urchins  (Echi- 
noidea),  and  sea-cucumbers  (Holo- 
thurioidea)  ;  certain  other  orders 
are  represented  only  by  fossils. 
They  are  organized  on  a  five- 


parted  symmetrical  plan,  though 
this  is  not  at  once  evident  in  some 
of  the  sea-cucumbers.  The  skeleton 
consists  of  a  soft  integument  in 
which  is  deposited  carbonate  of 
lime  in  the  form  of  plates,  bars,  or 
spicules.  Although  there  is  no  dis- 
tinct head,  there  is  a  mouth  on  the 
underside,  except  in  the  sea-cu- 
cumbers, where  it  is  placed  at  one 
of  the  two  extremities.  The  ali- 
mentary canal  is  separated  from 
the  general  body  cavity. 

The  nervous  system,  which  is  not 
of  a  high  grade,  has  its  principal 
seat  in  a  five -angled  ring  around 
the  gullet,  from  which  branches 
radiate  in  all  directions.  What 
was  formerly  considered  to  be  a 
heart  is  now  known  to  be  the  centre 
of  the  generative  system.  There  is 
no  heart ;  but  there  is  a  system  by 
which  the  products  of  digestion  are 
circulated.  The  most  remarkable 
feature  of  echinoderm  organization 
is  the  series  of  water-vessels 
known  as  the  ambulacral  system, 
from  its  function  of  supply  ing  hy- 
draulic power  for  locomotion. 

The  outer  surface  of  the  echino- 
derms  varies  in  the  several  orders. 
In  the  sand-stars  and  brittle-stars 
it  consists  of  overlapping  plates 
which  allow  the  rays  to  be  thrown 
into  horizontal  curves.  In  the 
common  star-fish  and  its  near  allies 
it  is  studded  with  hard  bosses  and 
short  spines ;  and  in  the  sea- 
urchins  it  is  armed  with  long  or 
short  spines  which  move  on  ball- 
and-socket  joints.  There  are  also 
sense  organs  of  varying  character 
in  the  different  groups.  The  star- 
fishes have  rudimentary  eyes  at 
the  tips  of  the  rays. 

The  echinoderma  are  of  the 
widest  distribution,  being  found  in 
all  the  seas,  at  all  depths.  They  are 
a  very  ancient  group,  for  their 
fossil  remains  are  found  in  the 
rocks  as  far  back  as  the  Ordovician 
period. 

Echinoidea  (Gr.  echinos,  hedge- 
hog ;  eidos,  form).  Order  of  echino- 
derma containing  the  sea-urchins. 
They  include  regular  urchins,  of 
which  the  somewhat  spherical  com- 
mon sea-urchin  (Echimts  e-sculentus) 
of  Bri  tain' s  rocky  coasts  is  a  familiar 
example;  the  oval  heart-urchins 
(Spatangus)  of  the  sandy  shores; 
and  the  depressed  cake -urchins 
(Clypeaster)  which  are  not  repre- 
sented in  British  waters. 

The  common  sea-urchin  has  be- 
neath its  coat  of  about  4,000  brist- 
ling spines  a  thin  stony  box  com- 
posed of  nearly  600  five-sided 
plates,  placed  edge  to  edge. 
Through  the  minute  perforations 
issue  the  delicate  sucker  tubes. 
Certain  plates  bear  polished  bosses 
upon  which  the  spines  turn  in  any 
direction.  Each  tapering  spine  has 


ECHO 


2784 


ECKERMANN 


a  polished  cup  at  its  base  to  receive 
the  boss,  and  the  two  are  held  to- 
gether by  muscular  tissue.  Among 
the  spines  will  be  found  stalked 
and  sessile  organs  resembling  the 
bills  of  birds,  which  have  the 
power  of  snapping.  Around  the 
Mediterranean  the  sea-urchin  is 
esteemed  as  food ;  hence  its  name 
esculentus. 

The  heart-urchins,  which  burrow 
in  muddy  sand,  are  clothed  with 
silky  bristles,  all  pointing  back- 
wards. The  scoop-like  mouth  is  at 
the  broad  end  and  without  teeth. 

Echo.  Reflection  of  the  air 
waves  by  which  sound  is  propa- 
gated. See  Sound  ;  Wave  Theory. 

Echo.  In  Greek  mythology,  a 
mountain  nymph.  At  one  time 
the  companion  of  Hera,  having 
displeased  the  goddess,  she  was 
punished  by  being  rendered  in- 
capable of  speaking  except  when 
spoken  to.  Subsequently  Echo 
fell  in  love  with  the  beautiful  Nar- 
cissus, but,  her  love  not  being  re- 
turned, she  pined  away  and  was 
changed  into  a  stone  which  retained 
the  echo  or  answering  voice. 

Echo,  THE.  London  independent 
Radical  evening  halfpenny  news- 
paper, started  by  Cassell  &  Co., 
Dec.  8,  1868,  with  Arthur  Arnold 
as  editor.  Sold  in  1874  to  Baron 
Grant,  who  made  it  a  Conservative 
organ,  it  passed  into  the  hands  of 
John  Passmore  Edwards,  who  re- 
stored its  former  political  character 
and  made  it  a  first-class  property. 
In  1884  Andrew  Carnegie  became 
part  proprietor,  but  Mr.  Edwards 
soon  reacquired  the  paper,  and  it 
remained  under  his  control  until 
1 897.  It  ceased  publication  in  1 905. 
Another  evening  Echo  appeared 
from  The  Daily  Chronicle  office  in 
the  spring  of  1915,  and  after  run- 
ning for  six  weeks  was  amalga- 
mated with  The  Star  (q.v.). 

Echo  Mountain  Observatory. 
Observatory,  3,500  ft.  high,  on 
Echo  Mountain  in  the  Sierra 
Madre  Mts.,  California.  It  has  a 
16-in.  equatorial  telescope.  The 
observatory  was  founded  at  the 
end  of  the  19th  century  by  Thad- 
deus  S.  C.  Lowe,  an  American 
scientist  and  inventor,  who  did 
much  pioneer  work  in  aeronautics 
and  the  investigation  of  the  upper 
atmosphere,  and  invented  the  first 
apparatus  in  the  U.S.A.  for  making 
artificial  ice.  A  cable  rly.  runs  up 
Echo  Mountain  to  the  observatory, 
and  on  the  adjacent  Mt.  Wilson  is 
the  famous  observatory  of  the  Car- 
negie institution.  See  Observatory ; 
also  illus.  p.  715. 

Echo  Organ.  Small  organ  of 
delicate  tone,  either  placed  at  a 
distance  from  the  main  organ  or 
enclosed  in  a  box,  or  both,  in 
order  to  produce  distant  effects. 


The  idea  dates  back  at  least  to  the 
Restoration,  but  the  introduction 
of  electric  mechanism  has  greatly 


fruit ;  the  vine  is  largely  culti- 
vated, and  a  fine  wine  is  made. 
From  its  climate  Ecija  is  popularly 

extended   its   possibilities.      Good     called  the  Frying-pan  of  Andalusia, 
examples  are  the  celestial  organ  at     Pop.  23,217. 
Westminster  Abbey  and  the  altar 
organ  at  S.  Paul's  Cathedral,  Lon- 
don.    See  Organ. 

Echternach.  Town  of  Luxem- 
burg. It  stands  on  the  Sure,  near 
the  frontier  of  Prussia,  and  is  fam- 
ous for  its  annual  festival  and  its 


association  with  S.  Willibrord.    In 
the  church,  a  Romanesque  building 


Eck,  JOHANN  MAIER  VON  (1486- 
1543).  German  theologian.  Born 
at  Eck,  in  Swabia,  Nov.  13,  1486, 
his  father's  name  being  Maier,  he 
took  the  name  Eckius  from  his 
birthplace.  Having  studied  at 
Heidelberg,  Tubingen,  and  else- 
where, he  was  ordained  priest  in 
1508.  Two  years  later  he  became 


of  the  llth  century,  restored  in  the     professor    of    theology    at    Ingol- 


19th,  are  the  remains  of  the  saint. 
There  was  a  rich  Benedictine  abbey 
here  until  1801.  The  festival,  which 
dates  from  1300  or  earlier,  is  held 
every  Whit  Tuesday.  It  is  at- 
tended by  pilgrims  and  invalids,  as 
well  as  high  ecclesiastics,  who  are 
accompanied  by  a  singing  and 
dancing  crowd  as  they  go  in  pro- 
cession to  the  church.  Echternach 
has  a  town  hall  and  some  small  in- 
dustries. Pop.  4,300. 

Echuca  (formerly  Hopwood's 
Ferry).  Town  of  Victoria,  Aus- 
tralia. It  stands  on  the  Murray 
river,  156  m.  by  rly.  N.  of  Mel- 
bourne. It  is  the  chief  river  port 
on  the  Murray  at  its  junction 
with  the  Campaspe.  A  bridge  (rail- 


stadt  University,  with  which  he 
was  associated  for  the  rest  of  his 
life.  He  was  the  ablest  opponent 
of  the  Reformation  in  Germany. 
In  June-July,  1519,  he  debated 
„  publicly  at 

I  Leipzig    with 
H  Luther     and 

II  Carlstadt,    and 
J!  in  the  following 
S|  year    wrote    a 
1  treatise  on  the 

Primacy    of 
Peter,  and  went 
to  Rome.     He 
returned    with 
the  papal   bull 
excommunicating  Luther  (q.v.).  Eck 
organized  the  Catholic  Federation, 


Jobann  von  Eck, 
German  theologian 


way  and  roadway)  1,905  ft.  in  and  took  a  prominent  part  in  sue 
length  spans  the  river  here,  con-  cessive  conferences  and  diets  at 
necting  with  Moama  in  New  South  Ratisbon,  1524;  Baden,  1526; 
Wales.  Echuca  is  the  outlet  for  Augsburg,  1530 ;  and  Worms, 
the  wine,  wool,  and  timber  of  1540.  His  German  version  of  the 
this  district.  A  private  line  45  m.  Bible  was  published  in  1537.  He 

died  at  Ingolstadt, 
Feb.  13,  1543. 

Eckermann, 
JOHANN      PETER 
(1792-1854).    Ger- 
man  writer.       He 
was     born     at 
Winsen,    Hanover, 
Sept.     21,     1792. 
After    early   hard- 
ships he  served  in 
the  war  of  1813-14, 
and   later    studied 
at  Gottingen.       In 
1822    he    sent 
Goethe  the  MS.  of 
his    Beitrage    zur 
Poesie,   and    this 
resulted   in  his   going  to  Weimar, 
where    he    acted    as   secretary    to 
Goethe,  and  assisted   in  the   pre- 
paration of  the  final  edition  of  his 
writings.       He 


Ecija,    Spain. 


The    principal    square,     with    the 
municipal  building 

long  to  Deniliquin,  on  the  Edward 
river,  taps  part  of  the  N.S.W. 
Riverina  trade.  Pop.  4,137. 

Ecija  (anc.  Astigi).  Town  of 
Spain,  in  the  prov.  of  Seville.  It 
stands  on  the  Genii,  here  crossed 
by  an  old  bridge,  34  m.  by  rly. 
S.W.  of  Cordoba.  Ecija,  once  a 
Roman  colony  (Julia  Augusta 
Firma)  and  a  Moorish  town,  retains 
many  traces  of  ancient  civiliza-  Conversatio 
tion.  It  is  now  occupied  in  the  with  Goethe, 
manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes, 
and  cotton,  wool,  silk,  and  linen 
fabrics.  The  surrounding  fertile 


is  best  remem- 
bered by  his 
Gesprache  mit 
Goethe  (1836- 
48),  Eng.  trans. 


John  Oxenf  ord, 
1850.  He  died 
at  Weimar, 


plain  produces  corn,  cotton,  and     Dec.  3,  1854. 


J.  P.  Eckermann, 
German  author 


ECKHARDT 


2785 


ECLIPSE 


Eckhardt,  JULIUS  VON  (1836- 
1908).  Russo-German  diplomatist 
and  author..  ,  Born  at  Wolmar  in 
Livonia,  he  was  educated  at  St. 
Petersburg  and  Berlin  univer- 
sities. He  founded  with  Barens 
the  Rigasche  Zeitung,  a  periodical 
advocating  German  expansion  in 
the  Russian  Baltic  provinces.  He 
resided  in  Germany  from  1867, 
and  was  connected  with  the 
journal  Grenzboten,  1867-70.  A 
noted  Pan-Germanist,  he  was  ap- 
pointed privy  councillor  of  Prus- 
sia in  1884,  and  became  German 
consul  at  Tunis,  Marseilles,  Stock- 
holm, Basel,  and  Zurich.  His 
works  included  The  Baltic  Pro- 
vinces of  Russia  (2nd  ed.  1871), 
and  Berlin- Vienna-Rome,  in  which 
he  advocated  German  expansion 
by  means  of  a  customs  union  of 
Central  European  powers. 

Eckhart,  JOHANNES  (c.  1260- 
1327).  German  mystic  and  theo- 
logian. Born  at  Hochheim,  near 
Gotha,  he  became  a  Dominican 
friar,  and  in  1298  was  prior  of 
Erfurt  and  provincial  of  Thur- 
ingia.  In  1300  he  was  lecturer  in 
Paris,  and  in  1307  he  was  vicar- 
general  of  Bohemia  and  pro- 
vincial of  Saxony.  He  was  sub- 
sequently lecturer  at  Paris,  Stras- 
bourg, and  Frankfort,  and  from 
1320  until  his  death  was  professor 
at  Cologne.  Certain  expressions 
used  by  Eckhart  were  condemned 
as  heretical,  and  he  was  suspected 
of  pantheism.  But  he  made  com- 
plete repudiation  of  error  and 
submission  to  Rome. 

Eckhart,  who  is  known  as  the 
Master,  was  the  founder  of  Ger- 
man mysticism.  His  writings  do 
not  present  a  definite  system  of 
philosophy,  and  his  teaching  is 
mainly  concerned  with  the  Divine 
essence  in  all  things,  the  relation 
of  the  human  soul  to  God,  and  the 
attainment  of  God  by  casting  off 
all  that  hinders  knowledge  of  God. 
No  complete  Eng.  trans,  of  his 
works  exists.  For  the  German  see 
Deutsche  Mystiker  des  14  Jahrhun- 
derts,  ed.  F.  Pfeiffer,  2nd.  ed.  1907. 

Eckington.  Parish  and  town 
of  Derbyshire,  England.  It  stands 
on  the  Rother,  6£  m.  S.E.  of  Shef- 
field by  the  G.C.R.  Agricultural 
implements  are  manufactured,  and 
there  are  coal  mines  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood. Market  day,  Friday. 
Pop.  12,164. 

Eckmiihl,  BATTLE  OF.  Victory 
of  Napoleon  over  the  Austrians, 
April  22,  1809.  In  an  attempt  to 
reopen  his  communications,  which 
had  been  broken  by  the  French, 
the  archduke  Charles  emerged 
from  Ratisbon  to  give  battle.  His 
troops  were  routed  by  Davout  and 
Oudinoj,  and  the  whole  Austrian 
army  was  demoralised  and  forced 


across  the  Danube.  For  his  part 
in  the  day's  success  Davout  was 
created  prince  of  Eckmiihl. 

Eclecticism  (Gr.  eklektikos, 
picking  out).  In  philosophy,  a 
method  which,  while  not  excluding 
independent  thought,  selects  and 
works  up  into  a  whole  what  is 
acceptable  in  other  philosophical 
systems. 

The  most  important  Greek  repre- 
sentative of  this  practice,  which 
first  made  its  appearance  in  the 
Stoic  school,  was  Antiochus  of 
Ascalon  (1st  century  B.C.),  the 
head  of  the  so-called  Fifth  Acad- 
emy, whose  teaching  led  to  the 
adoption  of  eclecticism  by  the 
Academy  in  place  of  scepticism  as 
its  ruling  principle.  Among  the 
Romans,  Cicero,  who  attended  his 
lectures  at  Athens,  although  by  no 
means  an  original  thinker,  skil- 
fully selected  and  combined  Scep- 
tic, Stoic,  and  Peripatetic  doc- 
trines. Among  modern  eclectics 
Leibniz  and  Victor  Cousin  may  be 
specially  mentioned. 

Eclipse  (Gr.  ekleipsis,  failing). 
In  astronomy,  the  passing  of  one 
celestial  body  between  another  and 
the  observer.  The  term  is  usually 
restricted  to  the  eclipses  of  the  sun 
and  moon  and  those  of  the  satellites 
of  planets  by  their  primary. 

It  is  clear  that  if  the  earth,  the 
sun,  and  the  moon  moved  in  the 
same  plane,  there  would  be  an 
eclipse  each  time  the  three  were  in 
a  straight  line.  Since,  however,  the 
moon  moves  in  an  orbit  inclined  at 
an  angle  of  5°  8'  to  the  plane  of  the 
sun's  path,  the  ecliptic  (q.v. ),  there 
can  only  be  an  eclipse  when  the 
three  bodies  are  in  an  approximate 
straight  line  at  the  moment  the 
moon  is  crossing  the  plane  of  the 
ecliptic.  The  points  where  the 
moon  crosses  the  ecliptic  are  called 
the  nodes, and  when  new  moon  hap- 
pens at  one  of  these  nodes  there  will 
be  an  eclipse  of  the  sun.  When  full 
moon  occurs  at  one  of  the  nodes 
the  earth  is  between  the  moon  and 
the  sun,  and  there 
will  be  an  eclipse 
of  the  moon  by 
the  earth's 
shadow. 

The  eclipse  ol 
the  moon  by  the 
shadow  of  the 
earth  will  be 
more  or  less 
visible  to  the 
whole  side  of  the 
earth  turned 
away  from  the 
sun.  The  moon 
casts  only  a  re- 
stricted shadow 
on  the  earth,  and 
therefore  the  sun 
will  appear  in 


eclipse  only  in  the  path  of  this 
moving  shadow. 

Owing  to  the  refraction  of  the 
sun's  rays  the  moon  is  hardly  ever 
quite  swallowed  up  in  blackness. 
The  eclipses,  however,  of  1642, 
1761,  1816,  and  Oct.  4,  1864,  were 
notable  for  the  complete  disap- 
pearance of  the  moon. 

A  total  lunar  eclipse  may  last 
about  1  hour  45  minutes.  If  the 
moon  is  not  exactly  at  the  node  at 
its  eclipse,  a  partial  eclipse  may  re- 
sult, the  lower  or  the  upper  limb  of 
the  moon  being  obscured  by  the 
umbra,  or  darker  portion  of  the 
earth's  shadow. 

In  a  total  eclipse  of  the  sun  by 
the  moon  the  diameter  of  the 
moon's  shadow  cast  on  the  earth 
averages  only  about  150  miles  and 
sweeps  across  the  earth  from  W. 
to  E.  with  great  rapidity.  The 
eclipse  can  only  be  visible  in  places 
swept  by  the  shadow,  and  the 
longest  time  the  total  eclipse  of  the 
sun  by  the  moon  can  be  visible  at 
any  place  is  a  little  more  than 
seven  minutes. 

Partial  eclipses  occur  when  the 
new  moon  is  not  quite  at  the  node  ; 
annular  or  disk-like  eclipses  are  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  moon  is  some- 
times too  far  from  the  earth  to  hide 
the  sun  entirely  from  the  view  of  an 
observer  on  the  earth.  The  length  of 
the  cone  of  the  moon's  shadow 
varies  with  the  moon's  distance 
from  the  sun  between  230,000  and 
238,000  miles.  The  moon  is  some- 
times as  near  as  221,614  miles  to 
the  earth,  and  sometimes  252,972 
miles  away,  so  causing  the  variation 
both  in  the  appearance  and  the 
length  of  time  of  solar  eclipses. 

The  maximum  possible  number 
of  eclipses  of  the  sun  and  the  moon 
in  any  one  year  is  seven,  while  the 
usual  number  is  four.  In  1920 
there  were  four,  two  of  the  sun  and 
two  of  the  moon.  Although  there  is 
no  connexion  between  one  eclipse 
of  the  sun  or  moon  and  the  one 
immediately  following,  there  is  a 


Eclipse.     Diagram  showing  the  phases  of  an  eclipse  of 

the  moon  by  the  shadow  of  the  earth.     Above,  eclipse  of 

the  sun  by  the  moon.      When  the  moon  is  too  neat  the 

sun  there  is  an  annular  eclipse 


ECLIPSE 


2786 


ECONOMIC      MAN 


cycle,  known  as  the  saros,  of  a  little 
over  18  years  of  eclipses,  and  it  was 
due  to  a  knowledge  of  this  fact  that 
the  ancients  were  able  to  predict 
eclipses  of  the  moon,  though  since 
eclipses  of  the  sun  are  very  rare  at 
any  given  place  on  the  earth's  sur- 
face, the  similar  sun  cycle  was 
overlooked. 

Eclipses  of  the  sun  have  been 
fruitful  in  discovery.  The  eclipse  of 
1868  resulted  in  the  discovery  of 
helium  m  the  sun,  27  years  before  it 
was  found  to  be  a  constituent  of  one 
of  the  rare  earths,  cleveite,  while 
the  eclipse  of  May  29,  1919,  pro- 
vided an  opportunity  to  prove  Ein- 
stein's generalised  theory  of  rela- 
tivity by  showing  that  light  was 
attracted  by  the  sun  and  deflected 
from  a  straight  path. 

In  addition  to  the  eclipses  of  the 
sun  and  moon,  the  eclipses  of  the 
satellites  of  Jupiter  by  their  prim- 
ary are  of  importance  in  astronomy. 
It  was  due  to  the  studying  of  these 
eclipses,  exactly  analogous  to  the 
eclipses  of  the  moon  by  the  earth, 
that  it  was  found  light  did  not 
travel  instantaneously.  Closer  ap- 
proximations to  the  velocity  of 
light  and  refinements  in  modern 
telescopes  have  enabled  astrono- 
mers to  use  the  eclipses  of  Jupiter's 
satellites  to  obtain  the  distance  of 
the  earth  from  the  sun,  the  astro- 
nomical unit.  See  Ecliptic ;  Jupi- 
ter; Moon;  Occupation;  Sun. 

Eclipse.  English  racehorse,  re- 
garded as  the  greatest  that  has 
ever  lived.  Foaled  April  1,  1764, 
he  was  named  because  on  that  day 
there  was  an  eclipse  of  the  sun.  He 
ran  in  his  first  race  May  3,  1769, 
and  from  then  until  Oct.,  1770,  ran 
in  18  races,  never  being  beaten.  He 
was  bred  by  the  duke  of  Cumber- 
land, but  at  the  time  of  his  suc- 
cesses was  the  property  of  D. 
O'Kelly.  After  1770  he  was  used 
for  stud  purposes,  and  from  him 
a  large  number  of  racehorses  are 
descended.  The  horse's  skeleton  is 
in  the  Royal  Veterinary  College, 
Camden  Town. 

Eclipse  Stakes.  Race  for  horses 
of  3  years  and  upwards  run  at  San- 
down  Park  over  a  distance  of  1 J  m. 
It  was  inaugurated  in  1884  and 
formed  the  first  of  the  £10,000 
races.  Danny  Maher  rode  the 
winner  of  this  event  on  five  occa- 
sions. One  of  the  most  popular  wins 
was  that  of  Orme,  after  recovering 
from  his  supposed  poisoning,  in 
1892.  The  race  was  abandoned 
during  1915-18.  See  Horse  Racing. 

Ecliptic  (Gr.  ekleiptikos,  relating 
to  an  eclipse).  Track  in  the  heavens 
along  which  the  sun  appears  to  per- 
form its  annual  march.  The  sun's 
motion  in  this  connexion  is  only 
apparent ;  it  is  the  motion  of  the 
earth  about  the  sun  which  pro- 


duces the  appearance  of  the  sun's 
itinerary.  The  plane  of  the  ecliptic 
is  the  plane  of  the  sun's  apparent, 
and  of  the  earth's  real,  motion.  The 
obliquity  of  the  ecliptic  is  the  angle 
(Q)  the  ecliptic  makes  with  the  ce- 
lestial equator.  This  can  be  deter- 
mined by  marking  the  apparent 
heights  of  the  sun  in  the  sky  at  the 
moments  of  its  passing  the  meridian 
on  June  21  and  Dec.  21,  and  halv- 
ing the  difference  in  angular  alti- 
tude. In  London  this  is  about  23£ 
degrees.  The  plane  of  the  ecliptic 
is  subject  to  variation,  termed  the 
secular  variation  of  the  obliquity  of 
the  ecliptic.  See  Sun. 

Eclogite  (Gr.  eklogos,  picked 
out).  Crystalline,  foliated  rock, 
composed  chiefly  of  omphacite  and 
red  garnet,  wilh  quartz,  horn- 
blende, etc.,  as  minor  constituents. 
When  fractured,  it  presents  a  beau- 
tiful appearance,  the  red  garnets 
sparkling  in  a  light  green  matrix. 
Most  frequently  occurring  as  ir- 
regular masses  in  schist,  it  is  found 
in  Bavaria,  Saxony,  Silesia,  Pen- 
nine Alps,  and  Scotland. 

Eclogue  (Gr.  ekloge,  selection). 
Pastoral  poem  relating  the  lives 
and  loves  of  shepherds.  Properly, 
almost  identical  with  the  idyll, 
the  term  is  generally  restricted  to 
pastoral  poems  in  dialogue  form, 
such  as  the  Bucolics  of  Virgil. 
Spenser  set  the  fashion  anew  with 
his  Shepheards  Calender,  and  the 
form  was  much  employed  in  the 
artificial  poetry  of  the  17th  and 
18th  centuries.  The  name  has  some- 
times been  used  for  dialogue  poems 
other  than  pastoral,  as  in  Phineas 
Fletcher's  Piscatory  Eclogues 
(1633)  and  John  Davidson's  Fleet 
Street  Eclogues  (1893-96). 

Ecnomus.  Headland  on  the  S. 
coast  of  Sicily,  between  Girgenti 
and  Licata.  Off  here  in  256  B.C.  the 
Romans  under  Regulus  utterly  de- 
feated the  Carthaginian  fleet. 

Ecole  des  Femmes,  L'  (The 
School  for  Wives ).  Five-act  comedy 
by  Moliere,  first  produced  at  the 
Palais-Royal,  Paris,  Dec.  26,  1662. 
The  scene  is  in  Paris.  A  selfish 
middle-aged  bachelor,  Arnolphe, 
brings  up  a  young  girl,  Agnes,  to 
make  her  his  wtfe,  keeping  her 
ignorant  of  the  world  ;  but  fails  to 
prevent  her  from  falling  in  love 
with  Horace,  a  son  of  his  old 
friend  Oronte.  Unaware  of  Ar- 
nolphe's  relation  to  Agnes,  Horace 
reveals  to  Arnolphe  his  love  story. 
The  lovers  do  not  meet  before  the 
audience  until  the  last  act.  Moliere 
acted  the  part  of  Arnolphe. 

tcole  des  Maris,  L»  (The 
School  for  Husbands).  Three-act 
comedy  by  Moliere,  first  produced 
at  the  Palais-Royal,  Paris,  June  24, 
1661.  The  theme  of  two  brothers, 
Ariste  and  Sganarelle,  in  charge  of 


two  wards,  sisters,  whom  they 
desire  to  marry,  was  suggested  by 
The  Adelphi  of  Terence.  Ariste  is 
generous  as  Sganarelle  is  mean  and 
masterful.  Moliere  acted  the  part 
of  the  latter.  The  scene  of  the  play 
is  kid  in  the  French  capital. 

Ecology  (Gr.  oikos,  house  ;  logos, 
discourse).  Science  dealing  with 
the  relations  of  individual  plants 
to  their  habitats.  In  this  connexion 
are  recognized  vegetation  -  units 
or  plant  -  communities,  such  as 
wood,  moor,  heath,  implying  par- 
ticular kinds  of  soil  as  well  as 
the  plants  associated  with  it,  and 
plant  associations,  dealing  with 
the  characteristic  vegetation  of 
each  unit. 

In  each  of  these  associations 
one  species  usually  dominates  the 
others,  and  according  to  the  situa- 
tion and  soil  of  the  unit,  many 
subordinate  species  will  be  associ- 
ated with  it  which  will  interact 
upon  each  other  by  competition, 
cooperation,  etc.  The  ecological 
botanist  maps  his  distinct  into 
areas,  showing  in  each  the  domin- 
ant species  and  the  subordinate 
species  associated  with  it,  the  adap- 
tations of  the  plants  to  their  habi- 
tat, the  influence  of  man  in  culti- 
vating or  draining  land,  the  effects 
of  the  presence  of  herbivorous 
mammals  in  pasturing,  of  birds  in 
dispersion  of  fruits  and  seeds,  of 
insects  in  pollination  and  defolia- 
tion, etc.  Thus  ecology  tries  to 
explain  why  certain  plants  are 
successful  in  the  struggle  for 
existence,  which  plants  are  social 
in  their  habits,  and  which  are 
solitary,  and  so  forth.  See  Botany  ; 
Cytology. 

Economic  Man.  Term  used  to 
describe  man  as  discussed  in  the 
works  of  Ricardo,  John  Stuart 
Mill,  and  other  political  economists. 
He  is  a  person  who  is  actuated 
solely  by  material  interests,  who 
judges  every  transaction  by  the 
loss  or  gain  afforded  to  him.  Later 
writers  have  emphasised  the  fact 
that  man  is  not  actuated  solely  by 
material  considerations,  and  have 
disputed  his  existence. 

In  the  mass  and  in  the  long 
run  men  tend  to  act  along  certain 
well-defined  lines,  e.g.  they  tend 
to  cease  production  which  does  not 
pay.  Hence  it  is  useful  to  conceive 
an  average  man  whose  family  is  of 
average  size,  whose  needs  are  satis- 
fied in  an  average  way,  whose  work 
yields  an  average  return,  and  so  on. 
Such  an  imaginary  economic  man 
provides  a  ready  standard  of  com- 
parison. Just  as  the  mathema- 
tician needs  the  perfect  circle 
which  does  not  really  exist,  so  the 
political  economist  postulates  an 
economic  man  for  the  study  of  his 
science.  See  Political  Economy. 


ECONOMICS 


2787 


Economics  (Gr.  oikos.  house ; 
nomos,  law).  Originally  the  art  of 
managing  a  household.  This  use 
survives  in  the  phrase  domestic 
economy,  but  there  are  also 
economics  of  other  kinds.  The 
most  useful  definition  of  the  word 
is  as  a  synonym  for  what  is  known 
as  political  economy,  i.e.  the  study 
of  the  production  and  distribution 
of  wealth.  Economics  is  sometimes 
regarded,  however,  as  having  a 
somewhat  wider  meaning  than 
political  economy,  including  cer- 
tain matters  which  were  outside 
the  scope  of  the  older  science  ;  the 
physical  welfare  of  the  worker,  for 
instance.  Political  economy  is  used 
for  the  main  article  in  this  work. 
See  Political  Economy. 

Economics  and  Political 
Science,  LONDON  SCHOOL  OF. 
School  for  the  study  of  economics 
founded  in  London  in  1895.  It  is 
a  school  of  the  university  of 
London,  and  its  courses  are 
specially  adapted  for  those  who 
devote  their  time  to  research  work, 
and  also  for  those  studying  for 
degrees  in  economics.  The  sub- 
jects upon  which  professors  and 
lecturers  are  provided  include 
accounting,  commerce,  geography, 
sociology,  statistics,  and  transport, 
as  well  as  political  economy,  his- 
tory, and  law.  The  school  occupies 
the  Passmore  Edwards  Hall  in 
Clare  Market,  London,  W.C.,  but 
the  foundation  stone  of  new  build- 
ings was  laid  in  1920  by  King 
George.  Its  principals  have  been 
Sir  H.  J.  Mackinder,  Hon.  W.  P. 
Reeves,  and  Sir  W.  H.  Beveridge. 

Economiser.  Apparatus  for 
heating  the  feed-water  of  steam 
boilers,  and  so  reducing  the  con- 
sumption of  fuel.  The  heating 
agent  is  either  waste  furnace  gas 
or  steam.  The  Green  economise!', 
the  type  most  commonly  employed 
with  Lancashire  and  other  large 
cylindrical  land  boilers,  consists  of 
a  number  of  vertical  pipes,  about 
4J  ins.  in  diameter,  arranged  in  a 
brick  chamber  interposed  between 
the  boiler  and  its  chimney.  An- 
nular scrapers  are  moved  me- 
chanically up  and  down  the  outside 
of  the  pipes  to  keep  them  free  from 
soot.  Other  forms  of  tubular  feed- 
heaters  are  fitted  in  the  uptakes  of 
water-tube  boilers,  and  in  the  fore 
part  of  large  locomotive  boilers. 
On  ships  exhaust  steam  or  high- 
pressure  steam  is  utilised  to  warm 
separate  heaters,  or  the  heater  is 
combined  with  the  condenser/ 
The  saving  of  fuel  effected  by  an 
economiser  may  be  from  about  10 
p.c.  to  about  15  p.u  See  Boiler  ; 
Condenser. 

Economist,  THE.  London 
weekly  paper  devoted  to  political 
economy.  It  was  founded  in  1843 


by  James  Wilson,  who  edited  it 
until  1859,  Herbert  Spencer  being 
sub-editor,  1848-53.  From  1859- 
77  the  paper  was  edited  by  Walter 
Bagehot,  and  1907-16  by  Francis 
W.  Hirst.  It  has  always  discussed 
financial  questions  from  a  social 
and  economic  standpoint,  and  in 
its  early  days  was  a  staunch  advo- 
cate of  free  trade  and  the  repeal 
of  the  Corn  Laws. 

Ecorche  (Fr.).  Animal  stripped 
of  its  skin  in  order  that  the  dispo- 
sition and  character  of  the  muscles 
may  be  studied.  In  figure  work 
the  life  class  or  study  from  nature 
supplies  the  bulk  of  the  draughts- 
man's needs,  but  a  species  of 
ecorche  is  supplied  by  the  coloured 
plates  of  the  muscular  system  used 
in  some  text-books  of  anatomy. 

E.G.  Powder.  One  of  the 
oldest  British  smokeless  powders 
for  use  in  sporting  guns.  Invented 
in  1882  at  the  works  of  the  Ex- 
plosives Company,  hence  E.G.,  at 
Stowmarket,  it  consisted  essen- 
tially of  nitrated  cotton  mixed  with 
nitrates,  the  mass  being  granu- 
lated. A  separate  company  was 
formed  to  manufacture  it  at  new 
works  erected  at  Dartford,  Kent, 
where  it  is  still  made.  At  present 
E.G.  powder  is  a  33-grain  powder, 
i.e.  33  grains  of  the  smokeless 
powder  is  equivalent  to  the  old 
standard  charge  of  82  grains  of 
gunpowder.  E.G.  powder  is  com- 
posed of  nitrocellulose,  79 '0  p.o.  ; 
wood  meal,  3'8 ;  camphor,  4*1  ; 
barium  nitrate,  7 '5 ;  potassium 
nitrate,  4 '5  ;  volatile  matter,  I'l. 

Ecrasite  (Fr.  ecraser,  to  crush). 
High  explosive  employed  in  Aus- 
tria for  charging  shell  and  other 
projectiles.  It  actually  consists 
of  ammonium  cressylate,  prepared 
by  boiling  trinitrocresol  with  a  solu- 
tion of  ammonium  carbonate,  or 
by  neutralising  a  solution  of  trini- 
trocresol with  ammonia,  the  result- 
ing product  occurring  as  pale  red- 
dish yellow  needles  easily  soluble 
in  water.  It  melts  at  about  100°  C., 
and  is  comparatively  insensitive  to 
friction  and  shock.  Projectiles  may 
be  filled  either  by  ramming  and 
pressing  the  powdered  explosive 
into  them,  by  forming  it  into  cart- 
ridges which  are  inserted  complete 
through  a  removable  base  plate, 
or  by  pouring  in  the  melted  com- 
pound. It  is  detonated  by  means 
of  a  fulminate  detonator  and  gaine 
containing  powdered  ecrasite. 

Ecrins,  BARRE  DES.  Mt.  of  S.E. 
France.  It  is  the  highest  summit 
of  the  Pelvoux  group  of  the  Cottian 
Alps,  which  lie  between  the  depts. 
of  Hautes-Alpes  and  Isere.  Alt. 
13,460  ft. 

Ecstasy  (Gr.  ecstasis,  displace- 
ment, trance).  Name  given  to 
various  states  of  consciousness,  in 


which,  the  mind  being  concen- 
trated on  a  definite  object,  the 
senses  are  temporarily  inactive, 
and  external  sensations  inopera- 
tive. It  has  been  experienced  at 
various  times  by  many  Christian 
mystics,  notably  by  S.  Teresa,  and 
valued  as  a  supernatural  pheno- 
menon. According  to  their  own 
testimony  the  mystics  have  re- 
ceived, in  ecstatic  condition,  special 
manifestation  of  the  will  of  God. 
The  term  is  also  sometimes  applied 
to  the  abnormal  mental  conditions 
of  catalepsy,  the  hypnotic  trance, 
somnambulism,  and  to  the  trances 
of  spirit  mediums.  The  chief  points 
distinguishing  these  states  from 
ecstasy  are  the  absence  of  con- 
sciousness and  of  all  memory  of 
what  has  taken  place  during  the 
trance.  See  Dreams. 

Ectoderm  (Gr.  ectos,  outside; 
derma,  skin).  Term  applied  to  the 
outer  layer  of  the  embryo,  from 
which  the  skin  and  nervous  sys- 
tem of  a  vertebrate  animal  origi- 
nate. It  is  also  used  for  the  outer 
layer  of  cells  in  the  Coelentera. 
See  Embryology. 

Ectopic  Gestation  OR  EXTRA- 
UTERINE  PREGNANCY  (Gr.  ectopos, 
out  of  place).  Condition  in  which 
the  fertilised  ovum,  or  egg  cell, 
instead  of  developing  within  the 
uterus,  becomes  implanted  in  the 
Fallopian  tube  which  leads  to  the 
uterus,  or  escapes  into  the  body 
cavity  and  there  begins  to  de- 
velop. The  cause  is  unknown.  It 
is  rare  in  young  women,  and  is  most 
often  seen  in  women  who  have 
been  married  for  a  number  of  years 
without  having  had  a  child,  and 
in  cases  where  a  long  time  has 
elapsed  since  the  last  pregnancy. 

The  symptoms  are  not  very 
definite,  but  some  of  the  signs  of 
pregnancy  may  be  present.  Often, 
however,  the  first  indication  is  a 
sudden  attack  of  acute  pain  with 
collapse,  and  signs  of  internal 
haemorrhage,  due  to  rupture  of 
the  sac  of  the  developing  embryo. 
In  most  cases  operative  treatment 
provides  the  best  hope  of  saving 
life.  See  Pregnancy. 

Ectozoa(Gr.  ectos,  outside ;  zoon, 
animal).  Term  applied  to  parasites 
which  live  on  the  exterior  of  their 
hosts,  in  contrast  with  the  entozoa, 
which  live  in  the  internal  organs. 
Lice  and  ticks  are  examples  of  the 
ectozoa,  tape  worms  and  flukes 
of  the  entozoa. 

Ecu  (Fr.,  shield  ;  Lat.  scutum}. 
Obsolete  French  silver  coin.  First 
struck  by  Louis  IX,  its  value  was 
three  livres.  Charles  VI  issued,  in 
1384,  a  piece  known  as  ecu  de  la 
couronne,  the  ecu  being  called  in 
England  a  crown.  There  was  also 
minted  a  double  silver  ecu  of  six 
livres,  worth  about  5s.  See  Crown. 


ECUADOR 


2788 


ECUADOR 


ECUADOR:      ITS     RISE    AND     PROGRESS 

F.  A.  Kirkpatrick,  Author  of  South  America  and  the  War 

As  in  the  case  of  other  countries,  this  article  describes  the  physical 

nature    of  the   land    before  passing   to   its    history,   constitution, 

literature,    etc.      See   South   America,   and    the    articles    on    the 

Chimborazo ;  Cordilleras,  and  other  features 

Republic  of  S.   America,   lying     productive  valleys  of  the  moderate 
between  Colombia  on  the  N.  and     heights  ;    the  cool  regions  of  the 


Peru  on  the  S. 


Ecuador  arms 


It  is  so  named  be- 
cause the  equa- 
torial line  runs 
through  the 
country.  Its 
western  shores, 
500  m.  in  extent, 
are  washed  by  the 
Pacific  Ocean. 
The  Colombian 
boundary  was 


settled  by  treaty  in  1917,  but  the 
Peruvian  frontier  has  not  yet  been 
fixed.  The  republic  embraces  the 
provinces  of  Azuay,  Bolivar,  Canar, 
Carchi,  Chimborazo,  Esmeraldas, 
Guayas,  Imbabura,  Leon,  Loja, 
Manabi,  Oro,  Pichincha,  Los  Rios, 
Tungurahua,  the  territory  of 
Oriente,  and  the  Galapagos  archi- 
pelago. Its  area  is  approximately 
116,000  sq.  m.,  and  its  pop.  about 
2,000,000. 

The  dominant  geographical  fea- 
ture is  the  gigantic  mountain  sys- 
tem which  traverses  the  land  from 
N.  to  S.  Two  towering  mountain 
ramparts,  the  Eastern  and  Western 
Cordilleras,  run  parallel  to  one 
another,  enclosing  between  them  a 
broad  elevated  valley,  from  20  m. 
to  50  m.  wide,  and  8,000  ft.  to 
10,000  ft.  above  sea  level.  This 
trough  is  walled  on  cither  side  by 
the  famous  "  avenue  of  volcanoes," 
above  a  score  of  peaks  in  a  double 
line,  most  of  them  rising  far  above 
the  snow  line,  sometimes  facing 
one  another  in  pairs  at  heights 
of  from  16,000  to  19,000  ft.  No 
fewer  than  20  of  these  summits 
can  be  counted  from  Quito,  the 
capital,  which  stands  on  the  cen- 
tral plateau  at  a  height  of  8,400  ft. 
The  volcano  of  Pichincha  (about 
15,910  ft. )  is  notable  for  its  perilous 
proximity  to  the  capital ;  but 
most  conspicuous  among  these 
mountains  is  the  perfectly  sym- 
metrical and  dazzling  cone  of 
Cotopaxi  (19,600  ft.).  Higher  yet 
soars  the  imposing  snow-clad  mass 
of  Chimborazo  (20,500  ft.).  And 
above  the  snows,  volcanic  craters 
emit  their  clouds  and  ashes. 
Several  of  them  are  dormant,  but 
eruptions  have  been  frequent  since 
the  coming  of  the  Spaniards,  and 
the  whole  region  is  subject  to  earth- 
quake shocks  and  tremors.  This 
vast  mountainous  region  presents 
an  endless  variety  of  altitude  and 
climate :  the  torrid,  forest-clad 
plains  bordering  the  lower  spurs  : 
the  warm,  temperate,  pleasant,  and 


lofty  plateau ;  and,  higher  yet, 
the  paramos,  or  icy,  wind-swept 
plains  and  slopes  approaching  the 
limit  of  perpetual  snow. 

Although  the  mountains  pre- 
dominate, the  greater  part  of 
Ecuador  lies  in  the  forest-clad 
plains  which  stretch  to  E.  and  W. 
from  the  foot  of  the  two  Cordil- 
leras. In  fact,  Ecuador  has  three 
distinct  zones :  first,  the  coastal 


Through  the  towering  wall  of  the 
Western  Cordillera,  lofty  passes 
lead  to  the  Andine  plateau.  From 
this  plateau  steep  and  difficult 
mountain  passes  lead  eastwards,  up 
between  the  peaks  of  the  Eastern 
Cordillera,  and  then  down  along 
twisted  and  precipitous  river 
valleys  to  the  montana,  where 
scanty  tribes  of  savage  Indians 
support  life  by  hunting  with  the 
blow-pipe  and  with  poisoned  ar- 
rows. This  is  the  most  inaccessible 
and  least  developed  part  of  the 
republic. 

This  region  resembles  in  its 
character  the  forests  of  Brazil ;  its 
woods  and  waters  are  haunted  by  a 
multitudinous  variety  of  reptiles, 
saurians,  fishes,  birds,  and  insects. 


plain ;  then  the  Andine  mountain  Trees,  lianas,  flowering  shrubs,  and 
•system ;  and  then  the  montana, 
the  densely  wooded  region  stretch- 
ing into  the  interior  from  the  base 
of  the  Eastern  Cordillera,  and  inter- 
sected by  the  multitudinous  upper 
waters  of  Amazonian  affluents. 

The  most  valuable  and  produc- 
tive part  of  the  country  is  the  broad 
coastal  plain,  richly  tropical  and 
humid  in  character.  This  plain, 
watered  by  innumerable  streams 
and  originally  covered  by  dense 
forests,  supports  the  extensive 
plantations  of  cacao,  which  supply 


rich  orchids  grow  in  countless 
varieties.  Tha  mammals  include 
jaguars,  puma£>  tapirs,  sloths, 
bears,  deer,  and  armadilloes. 

The  volcanic  group  of  the  Gal- 
apagos Islands  lies  on  the  Equator, 
600'  m.  from  the  W.  coast  of  S. 
America.  Named  from  the  gigantic 
tortoise  (galapago)  found  on  the 
islands,  they  are  remarkable  for 
the  fact  that  about  half  the  in- 
digenous plants,  all  the  reptiles, 
and  nearly  all  the  birds  are  peculiar 
to  this  archipelago.  In  the  17th 


Ecuador.     Map  of  the  South  American  republic  which  lies  between  Colombia 

on  the  north  and  Peru  on  the  south.      Its  western  shores  are  washed  by 

the  Pacific  Ocean 


the  chief  part  of  Ecuador's  exports, 
besides  plantations  of  bananas  and 
other  tropical  products.  Numerous 
streams,  particularly  those  con- 
nected with  the  port  of  Guayaquil, 
provide  access  to  the  cacao  plan- 
tations. The  forest  is  valuable  for 
its  thickets  of  bamboo,  and  for  the 
various  products  yielded  by  many 
kinds  of  palms,  besides  the  palm- 
like  plant  whose  fibre  is  woven  into 
Panama  hats. 


and  18th  centuries  the  islands, 
at  that  time  uninhabited,  were 
the  resort  of  buccaneers  and  pi- 
rates. The  government  now  main- 
tains a  penal  settlement  on  the 
largest  island,  about  60  in.  in 
length,  and  there  are  a  few  other 
inhabitants. 

PEOPLE,  LANGUAGE,  ETC.  The 
population  is  of  mixed  origin, 
descended  partly  from  Spanish 
settlers,  partly  from  indigenous 


2789 


ECZEMA 


Indians,  and  partly — though  in  a 
less  degree — from  negro  slaves 
imported  in  former  days.  Most 
of  the  people  are  pure  Indians, 
simple  and  ignorant,  who  per- 
form all  the  manual  labour,  and 
bear  with  a  kind  of  customary 
apathetic  submission  the  domina- 
tion of  the  ruling  class.  These 
Indian  peasants  and  labourers  are 
virtually  devoid  of  any  sense  of 
nationality  or  citizenship,  and  are 
indifferent  to  forms  or  methods  of 
government,  although  they  have 
been  swept  into  contending  armies, 
in  numerous  civil  wars,  by  caudillon 
on  either  side.  Some  scanty  tribes 
still  subsist  in  primitive  and  savage 
independence  in  the  eastern  mon- 
taria ;  and  others  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  coastal  plain  enjoy 
virtual  independence  under  their 
cacique,  who  is  recognized  by  the 
Ecuadorian  government.  Thedomi- 
nant  class,  which  forms  a  society  of 
typically  8.  American  culture,  is 
largelyof  mixed  blood.  The  official 
language,  and  the  tongue  in  general 
use,  is  Spanish. 

CONSTITUTION,  RELIGION,  ETC. 
The  president  is  chosen  by  direct 
popular  election  for  four  years. 
The  32  senators  and  48  deputies 
are  elected  upon  a  limited  franchise 
which  is  withheld  from  illiterates, 
an  arrangement  which  secures  as- 
cendancy to  the  oligarchy  of  white, 
'  or  quasi-white,  blood.  The  Roman 
Catholic  faith  is  generally  professed, 
but  is  not  officially  established  ; 
all  religions  are  tolerated.  Primary 
education  is  free,  and,  in  theory, 
compulsory.  There  is  a  small 
standing  army,  but  no  compulsory 
military  service.  The  coinage  is 
now  upon  a  gold  basis ;  the  unit  is 
the  sucre,  and  the  10-sucre  gold 
piece  is  equal  to  the  sovereign 

ECONOMIC  CONDITIONS,  INDUS- 
TRY, ETC.  A  large  part  of  the 
world's  supply  of  cacao  comes  from 
Ecuador,  where  cacao  far  outweighs 
all  other  products  put  together. 
The  weaving  of  Panama  hats  is  a 
considerable  industry.  Apart  from 
this  there  is  little  in  the  way 
of  manufacturing  industry.  The 
chief  exports  are  cacao,  tagua  or 
vegetable  ivory,  Panama  hats, 
coffee,  hides,  and  rubber.  Some 
gold  is  produced  in  the  Andes,  but 
mining  is  not,  as  yet,  a  developed 
industry.  The  considerable  de- 
posits of  petroleum  are  for  the 
most  part  still  undeveloped.  Guay- 
aquil, the  chief  port  and  the  largest 
town  in  the  republic,  is  linked  with 
Quito,  the  capita],  by  a  mountain 
rly.,  300  m.  long,  which  traverses 
one  of  the  passes  of  the  Western 
Cordillera.  There  are  also  a  few 
short  lines  connecting  important 
points.  The  various  streams  which 
unite  to  form  the  river  Guayas 


provide  access  from  Guayaquil  to 
«a  large  part  of  the  cacao-  bearing 
region  of  the  southern  coastal  strip. 
The  lower  reaches  are  navigated  by 
river  steamers,  the  upper  waters  by 
canoes  and  rafts.  But  over  the 
greater  part  of  the  country  the  only 
roads  are  bridle-paths,  and  mules 
are  the  only  means  of  transport. 

HISTORY.  Before  the  European 
discovery  of  America,  the  moun- 
tain plateau  was  the  seat  of  a  mon- 
archical native  civilization,  inferior 
to  that  of  the  Incas,  but  notable  for 
its  organization  and  marked  by 
considerable  skill  in  the  arts  of 
building,  stone-carving,  weaving, 
pottery,  and  the  working  of  gold 
and  silver.  Towards  the  end  of  the 
loth  century  the  Inca  monarch, 
Huayna  Capac,  defeated  the  king 
of  Quito,  and  added  his  dominions 
to  the  Inca  empire.  By  the  daugh- 
ter of  the  conquered  chief,  the  Inca 
conqueror  had  a  son  Atahualpa, 
who,  upon  his  father's  death.,  be- 
came the  Inca  ruler  of  Quito.  He 
then  claimed  the  throne  of  the  Inca 
empire,  and  dethroned  his  brother, 
the  legitimate  heir.  He  himself  lost 
his  kingdom  and  his  life  at  the 
hands  of  Pizarro,  the  Spanish  inva- 
der, in  1533.  The  conquest  of  Peru 
by  the  Spaniard  was  naturally  fol- 
lowed by  the  occupation  of  Quito. 
The  kingdom  of  Quito,  which  in- 
cluded a  considerable  territory  now 
belonging  to  the  republic  of  Colom- 
bia, constituted  thenceforth  a  pre- 
sidency or  government,  subordi- 
nate to  the  Spanish  viceroy  of 
Peru.  But  in  the  18th  century  the 
presidency  of  Quito  was  made  sub- 
ordinate to  the  newly  established 
viceroyalty  of  Santa  Fe  de  Bogota. 

In  1808  a  revolutionary  or  re- 
publican movement  broke  out  in 
Quito  ;  but,  after  four  years  of  con- 
fused tumult,  Spanish  authority 
was  re-established,  and  subsisted 
until  the  decisive  victory  of  the 
republican  commander  Sucre  in  the 
battle  of  Pichincha  in  1822.  Quito 
was  now  incorporated  into  the  ex- 
tensive republic  or  federation  of 
Colombia  under  the  authority  of 
Bolivar.  But  in  1830  that  rather 
artificial  political  system  was 
broken  up  into  the  three  separate 
republics  of  Venezuela,  New  Gran- 
ada (now  Colombia),  and  Ecuador. 

There  followed  a  stormy  period 
of  personal  rivalries,  despotisms, 
factions,  civil  wars,  and  frontier 
wars  with  Colombia.  From  1859 
to  1875  the  country  was  ruled  by 
Garcia  Moreno,  an  ultra-clerical 
conservative,  who  attempted  to  set 
up  a  kind  of  Catholic  theocracy,  to 
be  guided  by  the  authority  of  the 
pope.  His  dictatorship,  although 
more  stable  than  previous  govern- 
ments, was  by  no  means  peaceful  ; 
and  his  assassination  in  1875 


opened  a  fresh  era  of  disorder  and 
conflict  ;  nor  can  it  be  said  that  the 
promulgation  of  a  new  constitution 
in  1906  brought  peace  to  the  re- 
public. However,  Ecuador  has  had 
some  share  in  that  movement  of 
economic  progress  which  has  trans- 
formed S.  America  generally  during 
the  past  generation.  In  the  Great 
War,  Ecuador  severed  political 
relations  with  Germany,  and  was 
a  signatory  of  the  Peace  Treaty. 

Bibliography.  Travels  in  the 
Wilds  of  Ecuador,  A.  Simson,  1886  ; 
South  America,  A.  H.  Keane,  2nd 
ed.  1909  (in  Stanford's  Compen- 
dium) ;  Travels  amongst  the  Great 
Andes  of  the  Equator,  E.  Whymper, 
repr.  1911  ;  A  History  of  South 
America,  C.  E.  Akers,  2nd  ed.  1912  ; 
Latin-America  :  its  rise  and  pro- 
gress, F.  Garcia-Calderon,  Eng. 
trans.  B.  Miall,  1913  ;  Ecuador, 
C.  R.  Enock,  1914. 

SScurie.  Town  of  France,  in  the 
dept.  of  Pas-de-Calais.  It  is  3  m. 
N.E.  of  Arras  and  was  the  scene  of 
fierce  fighting  between  the  French 
and  Germans,  Jan.-June,  1915. 
See  Arras,  Second  Battle  of  ;  Artois, 
Battle  of. 

Eczema  (Gr.  ek,  out;  zein,  to 
boil).  Inflammatory  disease  of  the 
skin.  Certain  persons  exhibit  a 
marked  predisposition  to  eczema, 
the  exact  cause  of  which  is  un- 
known. The  immediate  exciting 
cause  may  be  debilitating  illness, 
gout,  Bright's  disease,  diabetes, 
constipation,  dyspepsia,  overwork, 
anxiety,  and  exposure  to  damp  and 
cold  winds.  Infants  and  aged  per- 
sons show  especial  susceptibility  to 
it.  A  similar  condition  is  produced 
by  the  action  of  certain  irritants  on 
the  skin,  e.g.  turpentine,  but  this 
affection  is  better  termed  dermatitis. 

The  essential  characteristics  of 
eczema  are  :  redness  of  the  skin, 
formation  of  small  blisters  or 
vesicles,  watery  discharge,  forma- 
tion of  crusts  and  scales,  and  usually 
extreme  itching.  Various  types  are 
recognized  :  erythematous  eczema, 
in  which  bright  red  patches  appear 
on  the  skin  papular  eczema, 
characterised  by  the  formation  of 
small  red  papules  or  pimples  about 
the  size  of  a  pin's  head  ;  vesicular 
eczema,  marked  by  the  appearance 
of  crops  of  vesicles  and  watery  dis- 
charge ;  and  pustular  eczema,  in 
which  pustules  containing  matter 
are  formed,  and  on  rupturing  give 
rise  to  yellowish-brown  scabs. 

In  all  cases  attention  should  be 
paid  to  the  general  health.  The  diet 
should  be  simple,  alcohol  should  be 
avoided,  rest  of  the  affected  part,  if 
a  limb,  is  important,  and  severe 
cases  should  be  confined  to  bed. 
The  irritated  areas  should  be 
washed  as  little  as  possible  and 
soap  should  not  be  used.  Local 
treatment  with  ointments.powders, 


EDALJI      CASE 


2790 


lotions,  etc.,  varies  with  the  type  of 
the  condition  and  the  stage  it  has 
reached.  Pron.  ek-zem-a. 

Edalji  Case.  Beginning  in  Feb., 
1903,  and  continued  at  intervals 
until  the  end  of  June,  a  succes- 
sion of  cattle- maiming  outrages 
took  place  in  the  parish  of  Great 
Wyrley,  Staffordshire.  At  the  same 
time  anonymous  letters,  purport- 
ing to  come  from  the  perpetrators, 
were  sent  broadcast  throughout  the 
district.  It  was  mainly  on  the  evi- 
dence of  these  that  George  Edalji, 
a  young  Birmingham  solicitor,  was 
arrested  on  Aug.  18, 1903.  In  Oct., 
1903,  he  was  tried  at  Stafford, 
found  guilty,  and  sentenced  to  seven 
years'  penal  servitude. 

A  number  of  persons,  including 
Sir  Arthur  Conan  Doyle,  R.  D.  Yel- 
verton,  and  Edalji's  father,  the 
vicar  of  Great  Wyrley,  were  tireless 
in  their  efforts  to  draw  public  at- 
tention to  what  they  were  con- 
vinced was  a  grave  miscarriage  of 
justice.  In  1907  a  commission  of 
inquiry  was  appointed,  and  on 
May  17  the  Home  Secretary  ad- 
vised his  Majesty  to  grant  Edalji  a 
free  pardon,  but  without  monetary 
compensation. 

Edam.  Town  of  the  Nether- 
lands, in  the  prov.  of  N.  Holland. 
It  stands  on  the  Zuider  Zee,  12  m. 
N.E.  of  Amsterdam.  The  name  is 
derived  from  a  dam  built  on  the 
little  stream  Ye.  Edam  possesses 
some  old  brick  houses,  and  a  fine 
church,  S.  Nicholas,  dating  from 
the  14th  century  and  restored. 
1602-26.  It  is  noted  for  its  dairy 
produce,  and  in  particular  for  the 
round  red-rinded  cheese  which 
bears  its  name.  Pop.  6,623. 

Edar  OR  IDAB.  Native  state  of 
Gujerat,  India,  in  Bombay  pre- 
sidency. It  is  bounded  N.  by 
Udaipur,  E.  by  Dungarpur,  and  S. 
and  W.  by  Bombay  and  Baroda. 
Area  4,966  sq.  m.  Pop.  250,000. 
The  soil  is  generally  fertile,  but 
there  are  barren  and  stony  tracts 
near  the  hills.  The  principal  pro- 
ducts are  mangoes,  sugar  cane, 
oil  seeds,  and  various  kinds  of 
grain.  Its  ruler  is  a  maharaja 
entitled  to  a  salute  of  15  guns. 
Edar,  the  chief  town,  is  64  m. 
N.E.  of  Ahmedabad.  Pop.  6,000. 

Edda.  Two  collections  of  Ice- 
landic literature,  known  respec- 
tively as  the  Elder,  or  poetical, 
of  Saemund,  and  the  Younger,  or 
prose,  of  Snorri.  The  former  were 
discovered  by  Brynjulf  Sveinsson, 
an  Icelandic  bishop,  in  1643. 
He  attributed  them  to  Seamund 
Sigfusson  (1055-1132),  but  an 
earlier  date  is  generally  assigned  by 
critics.  The  Prose  Edda  was  com. 
piled  by  Snorri  Sturlason  (1178- 
1241 ),  and  is  generally  ascribed  to 
the  12th  century. 


Eddington,  ABTHUR  STANLEY 
(b.  1882).  British  astronomer. 
Born  at  Kendal,  Dec.  28,  1882,  he 
was  educated  at  Owens  College, 
Manchester,  and  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge.  In  1904  he  was  senior 
wrangler,  and  became  fellow  of 
Trinity,  1907.  Eddington  then  de- 
voted himself  wholly  to  astronomy 
and  was  made  chief  assistant  at  the 
Royal  Observatory,  Greenwich. 
There  he  remained  until  1913,  when 
he  was  appointed  Plumian  professor 
of  astronomy  at  Cambridge,  next 
year  becoming  director  of  the  uni- 
versity observatory.  He  wrote 
Stellar  Movements  and  the  Struc- 
ture of  the  Universe,  1914  ;  Space, 
Time  and  Gravitation,  1920.  He 
contributes  the  article  on  Stars  to 
this  Encyclopedia.  See  photo,  p.  xxi. 

Eddoes.  Tuberous  stems  of 
several  species  of  colocasia,  cala- 
dium,  etc.,  of  the  natural  order 
Araceae.  Though  acrid  in  a  raw 
state,  they  are  used  as  food  when 
cooked.  Colocasia  antiquorum,  an 
E.  Indian  species,  is  largely  culti- 
vated for  food,  even  in  S.  Europe, 
under  the  name  of  taro  (q.v.). 

Eddy.  Swirl  in  water  caused  by 
the  meeting  of  two  currents  or  by 
some  submerged  obstacle.  A  whirl- 
pool (q.v. )  is  simply  a  large  eddy. 

Eddy,  MARY  BAKER  (1821-1910). 
Founder  of  the  religion  named 
Christian  Science  and  the  Church 
of  Christ  Scien- 
tist. Born  at 
Bow,  New 
Hampshire, 
July  16,  1821, 
she  received  a 
liberal  educa- 
tion, her  father 
being  a  large 
landowner. 
She  was  mar- 
ried three  times, 
first  to  Major  George  W.  Glover,  a 
contractor  and  builder,  in  Charles- 
ton, S.C.,  who  died  less  than  a  year 
after  his  marriage.  Her  second 
husband  was  D.  S.  Patterson,  a 
dentist  of  Franklin,  N.H.,  who  she 
divorced  for  desertion  and  in- 
fidelity in  1873.  Her  third  husband 
was  Asa  Gilbert  Eddy,  who  died 
1875.  She  published  Science  and 
Health  with  Key  to  the  Scriptures, 
the  only  textbook  of  Christian 
Science.  Her  other  writings  include 
Miscellaneous  Writings  ;  Unity  of 
Good  ;  No  and  Yes  ;  Rudimental 
Divine  Science  ;  Church  Manual ; 
Pulpit  and  Press ;  Messages  to 
The  Mother  Church  ;  The  First 
Church  of  Christ ;  Scientist  and 
Miscellany  ;  Christ  and  Christmas  ; 
Christian  Science  versus  Panthe- 
ism ;  and  Poems.  Mrs.  Eddy  died 
at  Newton,  Mass.,  Dec.  3,  1910. 
See  Christian  Science  ;  consult  also 
Life,  Sybil  Wilbur,  1908. 


Eddystone.  Lighthouse  on  the 
Eddystone  Rocks,  a  dangerous 
reef,  14  m.  S.W.  of  Plymouth. 


Mary  Baker  Eddy. 
Christian  Scientist 


SERVICE  ROOM 


LOW  LIGHT  ROOM 


CRANE  &  STORE 
ROOM 


BED  ROOM 


LIVING  ROOM 


WINCH  ROOM 


WATER  TANKS 


WATER 


Eddystone    Lighthouse.      Diagram 

showing    sectional    elevation    and 

plan  of  base 

There  have  been  four  of  them. 
The  first,  a  wooden  structure, 
120  ft.  high,  by  Winstanley,  was 
destroyed  by  a  hurricane  in  Nov.. 
1703,  three  years  after  its  comple- 
tion. The  second  lighthouse,  92  ft. 
high,  was  erected  by  John  Rudyerd 
in  1709,  and  was  burned  down  in 
1755.  The  third,  a  granite  building 
by  Smeaton,  95  ft.  high,  was  com- 
pleted in  1759.  It  was  the  first 
in  which  the  stones  were  dovetail 
jointed,  and  remained  a  model  for 
other  designs  till  1877,  when  it  was 
found  necessary  to  dismantle  it,  as 
the  rock  foundation  had  become 
insecure  ;  the  upper  sections  were 
transferred  to  Plymouth  Hoe.  The 
present  tower,  completed  in  1882, 
is  located  40  yards  from  the  pre- 
vious one.;  Built  of  granite,  with 
dovetailed  'stones,  it  is  168  ft. 
above  low  water,  and  is  built  in 
circular  sections.  The  lantern 
shows  a  group  flashing  light  of  two 
flashes  every  thirty  seconds,  and 
has  a  range  of  nearly  18m. 

Ede.  Town  of  S.  Nigeria,  W. 
Africa,  hi  Yoruba  country.  It  is 
173  m.  by  rly.  N.E.  of  Lagos,  and 
lies  at  an  alt.  of  850  ft.  Pop.  26,577. 


EDEA 


2791 


EDENHALL 


house  built  by  Sir  James  Douglass 
in  1882.  To  the  left  are  the  re- 
mains of  Smeaton's  tower  of  1759 

Edea.  Town  of  Cameroons,  W. 
Africa.  It  stands  on  the  Sanaga 
river  and  is  a  station  on  the  line 
running  inland  from  Duala,  being 
about  50  m.  from  that  port.  The 
capital  of  the  district  of  the  same 
name,  it  is  a  centre  for  collecting 
palm  oil  and  palm  kernels.  During 
the  campaign  in  Cameroons  a 
British  and  French  force  took  the 
town,  Oct.  26,  1914,  the  Germans 
making  a  futile  effort  to  retake  it 
in  Dec.,  1914,  and  in  Jan.,  1915. 
Pop.  of  district,  97,000.  See  Came- 
roons, Conquest  of. 

Edelfelt,  ALBERT  GUSTAF  ARTS- 
TIDE  (1854-1905).  Finnish  painter. 
Born  at  Helsingfors,  July  21,  1854. 
he  was  trained  at  Antwerp  Acad- 
emy and  at  the  Ecole  des  Beaux 
Arts  under  J.  L.  Gerorne.  He 
painted  landscapes,  portraits,  and 
compositions  with  equal  skill.  In- 
vited by  Tsar  Alexander  III  to  paint 
the  portraits  of  his  children,  he 
produced,  while  in  Russia,  several 
works  in  landscape  and  genre.  He 
died  at  Bo'-ga,  Aug.  18,  1905. 
Hifc  finest  and  most  characteristic 
works  are  Divine  Service  in  the 
Skaergaad,  at  the  Luxembourg  ; 
Pasteur  in  his  Laboratory,  at 
the  Sorbonne  :  Laundry ;  Jesus 
appearing  to  Mary  Magdalen,  and 
Women  in  the  Churchyard,  both 
at  Helsingfors. 

Edelinck,  GERARD  (1640-1707). 
Flemish  engraver.  Born  at  Antwerp 
Oct.  20.  1640,  he  was  the  pupil  of 
Gaspard  Hu- 
be  r  t i  and 
Cornells  Galle. 
Visiting  Paris 
in  1665,  on 
the  invitation 
of  Colbert,  he 
practised  there 
for  the  rest  of 
his  life,  and  is 
more  properly 

Gerard  Edelinck,       classed    with 
Blemish  engraver      the    French 

After  Ri gaud  S  C  h  O  O  1.        He 


obtained  ample  patronage  from 
Louis  XIV,  was  received  in  the 
Academy  in  1677,  and  died  in  Paris 
April  2,  1707.  He  became  one  of 
the  most  brilliant  line  engravers  of 
the  17th  century.  In  portraiture 
Edelinck  was  no  less  accomplished, 
his  portraits  of  John  Dryden  and 
Philippe  de  Champaigne  being  of 
particular  excellence. 

Edelweiss  (Leontopodium  al- 
pinum).  Perennial  herb  of  the  nat- 
ural order  Compositae.  A  native  of 
the  mountains  of  S.  Europe,  and 
Himalaya,  it  is  thickly  coated  with 
long  woolly  hairs,  which  give  it  a 
white  appearance,  accentuated  in 
the  bracts  which  surround  the 
cluster  of  terminal  yellowish  flower- 
heads.  The  leaves  are  lance- 
shaped,  and  the  plant  is  about  6 


Edelweiss.     Specimen  of  the  plant, 
photographed  on  a  mountain  side 

ins.  high.  It  occurs  locally  in  the 
Alps,  but  the  idea  that  it  is  ex- 
ceedingly rare  and  can  only  be 
gathered  in  circumstances  of  great 
danger  is  erroneous.  The  name  is 
German,  meaning  "  noble  white." 

Eden.  English  river  rising  on 
the  borders  of  Westmorland  and 
Yorkshire,  and  flowing  N.W.  past 
Kirkby  Stephen  and  Appleby  into 
Cumberland,  and  then  past  Carlisle 
to  the  Solway  Firth,  which  it 
enters  at  Rockcliff.  Its  length  is 
65  m.,  and  it  contains  salmon. 

Eden.  River  of  Fifeshire,  Scot- 
land. It  is  formed  by  the  conflu- 
ence of  two  small  burns,  the  Beattie 
and  the  Carmore,  at  the  Kinross  - 
shire  border,  and  flows  E.N.E. 
through  the  Howe  of  Fife  and  past 
Cupar  to  the  North  Sea,  which  it 
enters  by  a  muddy  estuary  6  m.  in 
length  ;  total  length  30  m.  There 
is  good  salmon  fishing. 

Eden.  British  destroyer.  She 
displaced  550  tons,  and  had  four 
12-pdr.  guns,  two  18-in.  torpedo 
tubes,  and  a  speed  of  25  knots. 
She  was  sunk  in  the  English  Chan- 
nel as  the  result  of  a  collision  on 
the  night  of  June  16,  1916.  About 
40  officers  and  men  were  lost. 


Eden,  GARDEN  OF.  In  the  ear- 
liest Biblical  account  (the  Jah- 
wistic)  of  Creation  (Gen.  ii,  8-25) 
Yahweh  Elohim  plants  a  garden 
eastward  (from  the  Palestinian 
standpoint)  in  Eden  (Gen.  ii,  8)  for 
man  to  dwell  in.  In  the  Septuagint 
the  word  for  garden,  Heb.  gan,  is  re- 
presented by  paradeisos,  a  loan- 
word (Hebraised  parties)  from  the 
Zend  pairi-daeza,  "  enclosure  "  ; 
hence  arises  the  term  Paradise  as  a 
description  of  Eden  and  of  the 
Christian  Heaven.  The  garden  of 
Eden  seems  to  have  been  thought 
of  as  a  park  or  pleasure-ground ,  in 
Gen.  iii,  8,  Yahweh  Elohim  is  de- 
scribed as  walking  in  the  garden  in 
the  cool  of  the  evening  (cf.  Isa.  Ii,  3  ; 
Ezek.  xxviii,13,xxxi,8).  The  name 
Eden  has  been  derived  from  the 
Babylonian  edinu,  plain  or  steppe, 
but  a  more  likely  derivation  is  from 
the  Hebrew  eden,  delight. 

The  location  of  Eden  is  difficult 
to  determine.  Sayce  identifies  the 
garden  with  the  sacred  garden  of  the 
Babylonian  deity  Ea  at  Eridu,  the 
river  which  watered  it  (Gen.  ii,  10) 
being  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  the  four 
branches  (w.  1 1-14)  being  the  Palla- 
kopas,  the  Choaspes,  the  Tigris,  and 
the  Euphrates.  E.  Naville  (Archaeo- 
logy of  the  O.T.,  1913),  comparing 
Gen.  xiii,  10,  ".like  the  garden  of 
the  Lord,  like  the  land  of  Egypt  as 
thou  goest  unto  Zoar,"  and  identi- 
fying Zoar  with  the  Egyptian  Zar 
(mod.  Kantarah),  thinks  that  the 
narrator  located  the  garden  in 
Egypt  in  the  western  part  of  the 
Delta  between  the  Tanitic  and 
Pelusiac  branches ;  Fall  of  the  Nile. 
See  Creation  Legends;  Fall. 

Edenbridge.  Market  town  of 
Kent,  England.  It  stands  on  the 
Eden,  25£  m.  S.S.E.  of  London  by 
the  S.E.  &  C.  and  L.B.  &  S.C.  Rlys. 
It  is  an  agricultural  centre.  Market 
day,  Wed.  Pop.  2,993. 

Edenhall.  Parish  and  village  of 
Cumberland,  England.  It  stands 
on  the  Eden,  3  m.  N.E.  of  Penrith. 


Edenhall.  Drinking  gooiet  and 
case  known  as  the  Luck  of  Eden 
Hall 

i  drawing  by  C.  O.  Barprr 


EDENKOBEN 

At  Eden  Hall,  the  seat  of  the 
Musgraves,  there  is  an  ancient 
enamelled  drinking  goblet,  known 
as  the  Luck  of  Eden  Hall,  which, 
according  to  tradition,  was  taken 
from  the  king  of  a  fairy  band  feast- 
ing near  S.  Cuthbert's  Well  in  the 
grounds,  who,  when  departing, 
exclaimed  : 

If  e'er  this  cup  shall  break  or  fall, 
Farewell  the  luck  of  Eden  Hall. 

In  Longfellow's  translation  of 
Uhland's  ballad,  the  glass  is  repre- 
sented as  having  been  destroyed. 
The  mansion  and  estates  were 
announced  for  sale  hi  1920. 
Pop.  256. 

Edenkoben.  Town  of  Bavaria, 
Germany.  In  the  Bavarian  Palatin- 
ate, it  is  6  m.  N.  of  Landau.  The 
chief  buildings  are  churches  and 
schools.  There  are  several  manu- 
facturing industries,  while  the 
town  trades  in  wine.  There  is  a  sul- 
phur spring.  Near  by  is  the  villa 
of  Ludwigshohe.  Pop.  5,400. 

Edentata  (Lat.  edentatus,  tooth- 
less). Order  of  mammals  without 
front  teeth,  and  in  some  cases 
without  cheek  teeth  also.  They 
comprise  the  sloths,  ant-eaters, 
and  armadilloes,  all  of  which  are 
S.  American.  The  pangolins  and 
the  aard-vark  are  sometimes  also 
included  hi  the  order.  Where 
cheek  teeth  are  present  in  the 
edentates,  they  are  of  very  simple 
structure,  have  no  enamel,  are 
without  roots,  and  continue  to 
grow  throughout  life.  All  the 
genera  are  land  animals,  and  while 
the  sloths  and  some  ant-eaters  live 
in  the  trees,  the  armadilloes  are 
burrowing  animals.  They  are 
insectivorous,  except  the  sloths, 
which  are  vegetable  feeders. 

The  living  representatives  of 
this  order  are  insignificant  in 
number  and  degenerate  in  struc- 
ture compared  with  those  found  in 
a  fossil  state.  Fossil  skeletons  are 
found  in  the  Pampa  formation  of 
S.  America.  See  Mammals. 

Edessa.  An  ancient  city  of 
Osroene  in  the  north-west  of  Meso- 
potamia, on  the  river  Scirtos 
(Daisan).  Founded  by  Seleucus  I 
and  called  Antiocheia  Kallirhoe  by 
Antiochus  IV,  after  the  downfall 
of  the  Seleucid  empire  it  became 
the  capital  of  an  independent 
kingdom  from  137  B.C.  to  A.D.  216, 
under  rulers  called  by  the  title 
Abgar  (q.v. ).  It  then  became  a 
Roman  military  colony,  under  the 
name  of  Colonia  Marcia  Edessen- 
orum.  After  the  division  of  the 
Roman  Empire  into  East  and 
West,  Edessa  became  an  important 
centre  of  Christianity.  During  the 
reign  of  Justin  I  it  was  destroyed 
by  an  earthquake  and  rebuilt  as 
Justinopolis  in  525.  It  is  the 
modern  Urfa  (q.v.). 


S.  F.  Edge, 
British  motorist 

Elliotl&  Fry 


2792 

Edfu  OR  ATBO.  Town  in  Egypt 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Nile,  485  m. 
S.S.E.  of  Cairo.  It  is  celebrated 
for  its  beautiful  and  almost  perfect 
temple  dedicated  to  Horus,  one  of 
the  finest  Ptolemaic  buildings  in 
Egypt ;  now  that  the  temple  of 
Philae  is  submerged  this  is  the 
best  example  still  to  be  seen.  Edfu 
is  the  Greek  Apollinopolis  Magna. 
Pop.  12,594.** 

Edgar  OR  EADGAB  (944-75)- 
King  of  the  English.  The  younger 
son  of  King  Edmund,  he  became 
king  as  the  result  of  a  rising 
against  his  brother  Edwy.  The 
brothers  were  not  apparently 
hostile  to  each  other,  but  one  party 
wanted  Edgar  for  king  and  the 
witan  decided  that  he  should  rule 
the  land  north  of  the  Thames. 
In  959  Edwy  died  and  Edgar 
became  king  of  the  whole  country. 
His  coronation,  which  did  not  take 
place  until  May.  973,  is  important 
in  the  history  of  that  ceremony. 

It  was  after  this  that  the  king 
sailed  to  Chester,  and  on  the  Dee 
was  rowed  by  six  or  eight  vassal 
kings.  At  this  time  he  assumed  a 
certain  vague  overlordship,  his 
authority  extending  to  Ireland, 
and  called  himself  imperator.  He 
fought  against  the  Welsh,  but  his 
reign  rightly  earned  for  him  the 
title  of  the  peaceful.  He  formed  a 
fleet  for  service  against  the  pirates, 
and  showed  zeal  in  putting  down 
crime.  Edgar  died  July  8,  975,  and 
was  buried  at  Glastonbury.  Two 
of  his  sons,  Edward,  called  the 
Martyr,  and  Ethelred  the  Unready, 
succeeded  in  turn  to  the  throne. 

Edgar  Atheling   (d.  c.   1130). 
English  prince.    The  son  of  Edward 
the  Exile  and  grandson  of  Edmund 
Ironside,  he  was  born  in  Hungary, 
but   was  brought   to    England   in 
infancy.     After  Harold's  death  in 
1066  he  was  proclaimed  king  by  the 
northern   earls,  and  in   1068   and 
1069  was  involved  in  unsuccessful 
rebellions  in  the  N.  of  England.   Re 
conciled  to  William  the  Conqueror 
in  1074,  he  lived  at  his  court  hi 
Normandy  for  twelve  years.  In  1097 
he   deposed   the   Scottish  usurper 
Donald  Bane  and 
seated     his     own 
nephew  Edgar  on 
the   throne.       He   • 
went  on  crusade  in 
1099  and  in  1106 
was  taken  prisonei 
at    the    battle    of 
Tinchebrai     while 
fighting  for  Robert 
of     Normandy 
against    Henry  I. 
He  was  released, 
but  the  rest  of  his 
life  was  spent   in 

obscurity.    He        Edgehill.    The  Warwickshire  ridge  on  which  the  battle 
died  about  1130.  was  fought,  Oct.  23, 1642 


EDGEHILL 

Edge,  SELWYN  FRANCIS  (b. 
1868).  British  motorist.  Born  in 
Sydney,  N.S.W.,  he  was  brought 
to  England  in  infancy.  Having 
taken  up  cycling,  he  became  the 
best  100-mile  cyclist  of  his  time, 
riding  at  Herne  Hill  track  in 
5  hrs.  6  mins.,  and  covering  the 
distance  from 
London  to  York 
in  12  h.  50  m. 
One  of  the 
pioneers  of  the 
motor  industry 
in  Britain,  he 
founded  the 
Motor  Power 
Company  in 
1899,  and  later 
joined  other 
leading  firms, 

including  that  of  Napier,  by  which 
name  the  cars  of  S.  F.  Edge,  Ltd., 
were  known.  He  won  the  Gordon- 
Bennett  International  Paris-  Vienna 
race  in  1902  See  Cycling;  Motoring. 

Edgehill,  BATTLE  OF.  First 
battle  of  the  Civil  War,  fought  be- 
tween Charles  I  and  the  parlia- 
mentarians, Oct.  23,  1642.  The 
hill  is  a  ridge  in  Warwickshire,  on 
the  borders  of  Oxfordshire.  The 
king  was  marching  from  Shrews- 
bury to  London,  and  the  parlia- 
mentarians, under  Essex,  moved 
across  to  intercept  him.  On  the 
morning  of  the  23rd  Essex  marched 
out  of  Kineton  to  find  the  royalists 
drawn  up  on  Edgehill,  about  3  m. 
away.  His  artillery  had  not  yet 
arrived,  so  he  left  the  initiative  to 
his  enemies,  who  opened  the  fight. 

Each  army  was  drawn  up  with 
the  infantry  in  the  centre  and 
cavalry  on  the  wings.  On  both 
wings  the  royalist  horse,  under 
Prince  Rupert  and  Wilmot  respec- 
tively, drove  the  parliamentarians 
before  them  and  followed  them  for 
miles.  In  the  centre,  however,  the 
parliamentarians  stood  firm  and 
the  horsemen  charged  the  royalist 
centre.  Only  the  return  of  Rupert's 
following  and  the  oncoming  night 
saved  Charles  from  utter  defeat. 
Charles  had  about  14,000  men ; 
Essex  about  10,000. 


EDGEWORTH 

Edgeworth,  MARIA  (1767-1  849). 
British  novelist.  Born  at  Black 
Bourton,  Oxfordshire,  Jan.  1,  1767, 
she  was  one  of  the  many  children 
of  Richard  Lovell  Edgeworth, 
whom  she  accompanied  to  Ireland 
in  1773.  She  spent  most  of  her 
life  on  her  father's  estate  at 
Edgeworthstown,  obtaining  her 
knowledge  of  the  Irish  peasantry 
from  dealing  with  his  tenants  and 
her  familiarity  with  fashionable  life 
from  associa- 
tion with  his 
neighbours, 
Lady  M  o  i  r  a 
and  Lord  Long- 
ford. Practical 
E  ducation, 
2  vols.  (1798), 
was  written  in 
collabor  a  t  i  o  n 
with  her  father, 


and  it  was  largely  on  his  account 
that  she  rejected  a  proposal  of  mar- 
riage made  to  her  by  Count  Edel- 
crantz,  a  Swede,  at  Paris,  in  1802. 
Visits  to  London  and  the  Con- 
tinent between  1803  and  1844 
brought  her  into  touch  with  the 
best  literary  and  fashionable 
society  of  her  time,  and  in  1823  she 
visited  Scott  at  Abbotsford,  a 
visit  returned  by  him  at  Edge- 
worthstown two  years  later.  Scott's 
admiration  of  her  literary  ability 
is  recorded  in  Waverley,  where  he 
declared  that  her  presentation  of 
Irish  life  and  character  had  in- 
duced him  to  attempt  a  like  service 
to  his  people  in  The  Waverley 
Novels.  In  addition  to  the  three 
novels  of  Irish  life  on  which  her 
fame  is  based  —  Castle  Rackrent, 
1800  ;  The  Absentee,  1812  (in  Tales 
of  Fashionable  Life,  vols.  v  and 
vi)  ;  and  Ormond,  181  7  —  she  wrote 
the  Parent's  Assistant,  1796,  en- 
larged ed.  1800;  Moral  Tales  for 
Young  People,  1801,  and  completed 
her  father's  Memoirs,  1820.  The 
amiable  and  practical  qualities 
displayed  in  her  life  distinguish 
Maria  Edgeworth's  books,  which 
despite  their  didacticism  still  make 
a  strong  human  appeal.  She  died 
May  22,  1849. 

Bibliography.  Life,  H.  Zimmern, 
1883  ;  Life  and  Letters,  ed.  A.  J.  C. 
Hare,  1894  ;  The  Edgeworths  :  a 
Study  of  Later  18th  Century  Edu- 
cation, A.  Paterson,  1896  ;  Life,  E. 
Lawless,  1904  (in  Eng.  Men  of  Let- 
ters) ;  Maria  Edgeworth  and  Her 
Circle  in  the  Days  of  Buonaparte  and 
Bourbon,  C.  Hill,  1909. 

Edgeworth,  RICHARD  LOVELL 
(1744-1817).  British  author.  Born 
at  Bath,  May  31,  1744,  he  belonged 
to  the  English  family  that  made 
their  home  at  Edgeworthstown, 
Ireland.  Educated  at  schools  in 


2793 

Drogheda  and  Longford,  he  went 
to  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  then 
to  Oxford.  Of  independent  means, 
Edgeworth  was  able  to  devote  his 
time  to  study,  friendship,  travel, 
and  experiment.  He  was  respon- 
sible for  several  inventions,  was  one 
of  the  early  believers  in  the  possi- 
bility of  electricity,  and  had  theories 
on  education.  He  helped  to  found 
the  Royal  Irish  Academy.  From 
1772  until  his  death,  June  13, 1817, 
most  of  his  time  was  spent  in  Ire- 
land, looking  after  his  estates  and 
writing,  while  for  a  short  time  he 
sat  in  the  Irish  Parliament.  His 
works  include  Practical  Education, 
1798,  and  Memoirs,  parts  of  both 
being  written  by  his  daughter  Maria. 
Edgeworth  de  Firmont,  HENRY 
ESSEX  (1745-1807).  Last  con- 
fessor to  Louis  XVI  of  France. 
The  son  of  an  Irish  clergyman,  he 
was  educated  in  France  for  the 
priesthood,  and  at  ordination  took 
the  name  of  de  Firmont  from  the 
Edgeworth  family  estate  of  Fir- 
mount,  in  Ireland.  He  settled  in 
Paris,  and  in  1791  became  confessor 
to  Princess  Elizabeth,  and  in  1793 
to  her  brother,  Louis  XVI,  whom 
he  courageously  attended  to  the 
scaffold.  After  several  narrow 
escapes  the  Abbe  Edgeworth,  as  he 
was  commonly  known,  arrived  in 
England,  1796,  and  subsequently 
became  chaplain  to  Louis  XVIII. 
He  died  at  Mitau,  May  22,  1807. 
See  The  Abbe  Edgeworth  and  his 
friends,  V.  M.  Montagu,  1913. 

Edging  Plants.  Edging  garden 
beds  and  borders  with  tiles,  shells, 
wood,  or  bricks  is  now  out  of  date. 
The  only  dead  edging  permissible 
is  one  of  rough  sandstone,  carefully 
sunk  into  the  ground  almost  to  the 
level  of  the  path, 
in  order  that 
creeping  plants 
may  hide  it.  The 
best  permanent 
living  edging  is 
box,  but  this  is 
of  slow  growth, 
though  whsn  once 
established,  and 
annually  clipped, 
it  will  flourish  for 
generations.  The 
most  satisfactory 
quick -result  edg- 
ing is  Virginian 
stock  or  dwarf 
nasturtiums, 
while  more  pre- 
tentious subjects, 
and  those  which  possess  longer 
lasting  properties,  are  some  of  the 
saxifrages,  stonecrops,  pansies, 
dwarf  veronicas,  and  white  pinks. 
It  is  a  good  plan  while  permanent 
edgings  are  establishing  themselves 
to°plant  such  quick-growing  an- 
nuals as  Virginian  stock  or  dwarf 


EDGWARE 

nasturtiums  as  temporary  stop- 
gaps. Culture  and  treatment  are 
the  same  as  for  the  rest  of  the  in- 
habitants of  the  bed  or  border. 
Dwarf  edible  peas  were  occasion- 
ally planted  as  war-time  economi- 
cal edging  plants,  with  good  results 
both  from  an  ornamental  and  pro- 
fitable point  of  view.  ^ 

Edgren,  ANN  CHARLOTTE  LEF- 
FLER,  DUCHESS  OF  CAJANELLO 
(1849-92).  Swedish  novelist  and 
dramatist.  The  daughter  of  Prof. 
Leffler,  a  mathematician,  she  was 
born  near  Stockholm,  Oct.  1,  1849, 
and  married  G.  Edgren  in  1872. 
Her  earlier  tales  were  issued  under 
the  pen-name  of  Carlot,  but  in 
1882  she  began  a  series  of  novels 
and  plays  under  her  own  name, 
and  many  of  these,  with  their 
modern  note,  enjoyed  considerable 
success.  One  of  the  plays,  Sanna 
Kvinnor,  1883,  was  translated  into 
English  by  H.  L.  Braekstad  as  True 
Women,  1890.  In  1890  she  mar- 
ried the  Italian  mathematician, 
the  duke  of  Cajanello,  and  died  at 
Naples,  Oct.  21,  1892.  . 

Edgware.  Small  town  of 
Middlesex,  England.  It  is  8£  m. 
from  the  Marble  Arch,  on  the  high 
road  to  St.  Albans.  Formerly 
called  Eggesware  and  Edgworth, 
and  once  the  first  village  of  note 
on  the  Watling  Street,  its  manor 
has  been  since  1443  the  property 
of  All  Souls  College,  Oxford.  The 
W.  side  is  in  the  parish  of  Little 
Stanmore.  The  parish  church  of 
S.  Margaret,  rebuilt  1765  and 
1845,  has  a  square  stone  tower,  and 
is  said  to  have  been  part  of  a 
monastery  ;  near  it  was  a  house  of 
refreshment  for  the  monks  of  St. 
Albans  as  they  travelled  to  and 


Edgware. 


Parish  Church  of  S.  Margaret,  viewed  from 
the  east 


from  London.  Of  the  old  inns 
The  Chandos  Arms  has  a  fireplace 
from  the  mansion  of  Canons  (q.v. ). 
At  Edgware  was  the  forge  of 
William  Powell,  whose  work  on 
the  anvil  is  said  to  have  suggested 
to  Handel  the  melody  of  The 
Harmonious  Blacksmith.  Piper's 


EDIBLE     BIRDS'     NESTS 


2794 


EDINBURGH 


Green  preserved  the  tradition  that 
a  former  lord  of  the  manor  pro- 
vided a  minstrel  for  the  amuse- 
ment of  the  tenants  in  his  service. 
Brockley  Hill,  1  m.  farther  N.,  is 
supposed  to  be  the  site  of  the 
Roman  station  Sulloniacae.  Edg- 
ware  has  stations  on  the  G.N.R. 
and  on  the  extension  of  the 
Hampstead  tube  rly.  Pop.  1,233. 
Edible  Birds'  Nests.  Nests  ot 
certain  species  of  swift  (Collocalia), 
found  in  Australia  and  the  East 
Indies.  They  are  composed  chiefly 
of  the  saliva  of  the  birds  and  are  at- 
tached to  the  walls  of  caverns.  The 
Chinese  value  them  as  a  delicacy 


and  convert  them  into  a  kind  of 

glutinous,  butalmost  tasteless,  soup. 
Edict  (Lat.  edictum).  Promul- 
gation, on  his  entry  upon  office,  by 
a  Roman  magistrate,  especially  a 
praetor,  of  the  principles  upon 
which  he  intended  to  administer 
the  law  during  his  term.  The 
result  of  this  practice  was  that  side 
by  side  with  the  civil  law  there 
grew  up  a  great  body  of  magisterial 
law  which  ultimately  became  the 
most  valuable  part  of  Roman 
jurisprudence.  The  word  was  also 
used  later,  especially  in  France, 
for  certain  laws,  e.g.  the  edict  of 
Nantes.  See  Praetor;  Roman  Law. 


EDINBURGH:  THE  CITY  AND  ITS  HISTORY 

Bight  Hon.  Sir  Herbert  E.  Maxwell,  Bart. 

To  Sir  H.  Maxwell's  account  of  the  history  of  Edinburgh  there  has 
been  prefixed  a  description  of  the  city  as  it  is  to-day.    Special  features, 
e.g.  Arthur's  Seat;    Canongate ;   Grey  friars ;  Holyrood,  are  dealt 
with  separately. 

The  capital  of  Scotland  and  of 
the  county  of  Midlothian  stands  on 


See  also  Scotland 

it   are  S.   Margaret's 


chapel,  the  banqueting  hall,  the 
arsenal,  the  armoury,  and  the  old 
prison  called  the  Argyll  Tower. 
Holyrood  H  ouse  consists  of  a  palace 

a  and   remains   of  an    abbejr ;    the 

the  rateable     picture  gallery  is  the  chief  apart- 
value  is  estimat-     ment.     Between   the    castle    and 
about     Holyrood   are  Lawnmarket   High 
The     Street  and  Canongate  High  Street, 
the  lofty  tenements  of  which,  called 
"  lands."  give  an  idea  of  what  old 
those  around  it,     Edinburgh  was  like.     The  Parlia- 
of  which  Arthur's     ment  House,  with  its  magnificent 
Seat  is  the  most  notable,  give  it  a     hall,  now  contains  the  Law  Courts, 


the  S.  side  of  the  Firth  of  Forth,  390 
m.  N.N.W.  of 
London.  The 
pop.  is  420,281, 


ed    at 
£3,000,000 
hills  on  which  it 
is    situated    and 


most  picturesque  appearance,  and 
this,  increased  by  the  nature  and 


and  around  it  are  modern  additions 
erected  for  legal  business.     These 


grouping   of    its    buildings,    have     include  the  Advocates'  and  Signet 

Libraries,     whereof     the     former 
shares   with  the  British   Museum 


won  for  it  the  title  of  the  Modern 
Athens.     Its  historic  and  literary 


associations  added  to  this  entitle  and  the  Bodleian  Library  of  Ox- 
ford the  privilege  of  receiving  a 
copy  of  every  book  published  in 
the  United  Kingdom.  There  still 

and  Cal.  Rlys.,  both  of  which  lines     remain  the  Water  Gate  and  some 


it    to    be    numbered    among    the 
famous  cities  of  the  world. 
Edinburgh  is  a  station  on  theN.B. 


have  here  fine  stations,  hotels,  etc. 
As  the  capital  of  the  country  it  has 
many  public  offices,  and  here  reside 
a  large  number  of  civil  servants, 


other  vestiges  of  the  city's  walls 
and  boundaries. 

The  City  Churches 
Of  the  many  churches,  the  chief 


lawyers,  etc.    It  is  a  great  centre  is  that  of  S.  Giles,  rich  in  memorials 

for  insurance  and  banking  business,  of  various  kinds,   with  its    most 

while  it  has  many  warehouses  for  recent   addition,   the   magnificent 

its  distributing  trade.   Its  chief  in-  chapel    of    the    Knights    of    the 

dustries  are  printing  and  brewing,  Thistle.    Others  are  S.  Mary's  and 

but   there   are   many   others,   in-  S.  John's,  two  episcopalian  ones, 

eluding  distilling  as  well  as  paper-  the  former   being   the  cathedral ; 

making,  and    others  auxiliary  to  and  S.  George's,  S.  Cuthbert's,  and 

printing.     By  means  of  Leith,  its  S.Andrew's,  belonging  to  the  estab- 

port,  it  is  connected  by  sea  with  lished  church.     Free  S.  George's 

the  great  ports  of  England   and  is  the  most   famous  of  those  be- 

the    world.       Several     important  longing  to  the  United  Free  Church. 


publishing  firms  have  their  head- 
quarters here. 


The  Canongate  and  Tron  churches 
are  somewhat  older.      Grey  friars 


The  oldest  part  of  Edinburgh,  churchyard  is  an  historic  spot, 
affectionately  known  as  Auld  as  are  the  Grassmarket,  the  Cow- 
Reekie,  lies  between  the  castle  and  gate,  and  the  Tolbooth  in  the 
Holyrood.  The  former,  originally  Canongate. 

a  fortress  on  a  rock  and  still  re-         In  the  modern  city  the  most  in- 

taining  its  military  character,  has  teresting   thoroughfare  is  Princes 

been  associated  with  many  stirring  Street,  overlooked  from  the  E.  by 


Calton  Hill,  with  its  public  build- 
ings and  monuments,which  include 
the  unfinished  national  memorial, 
the  prison,  a  cemetery,  and  the  city 
observatory.  There  is  a  new  prison 
at  Saughton.  There  are  many 
other  notable  buildings,  including 
some  careful  restorations.  Among 
these  are  the  Mercat  Cross  in  the 
High  Street,restored  by  Gladstone ; 
John  Knox's  house  near  it ;  Moray 
House  ;  the  White  Horse  Close  in 
the  Canongate ;  Riddle's  Close,  and 
the  17th  century  house  restored 
by  Lord  Rosebery,  in  the  Lawn- 
market.  More  modern  are  the 
county  buildings,  the  public  library, 
and  the  sheriff  court  buildings. 
There  are  a  number  of  statues  and 
memorials. 

Edinburgh  is  famed  for  its  edu- 
cational advantages.  The  univer- 
sity, specially  equipped  for  training 
in  medicine  and  surgery,  occupies 
the  site  of  Kirk  o'  Field.  The 
Heriot-Watt  College,  George  Wat- 
son's College,  Fettes  College,  and 
the  Royal  High  School  are  widely 
known.  There  are  also  several 
theological  colleges,  while  here  are 
the  headquarters  of  the  Scottish 
colleges  of  surgeons  and  physicians. 
The  chief  paper  is  The  Scotsman. 
Edinburgh  and  Leitb 

Edinburgh  is  governed  by  a 
council,  presided  over  by  the  lord 
provost.  It  sends  five  members  to 
Parliament.  There  is  a  good  supply 
of  water,  gas,  and  electricity,  while 
the  city  has  an  excellent  system  of 
tramways,  which  also  connect  it 
with  Leith  and  other  adjacent 
places.  The  city  boundaries  have 
been  enlarged  several  times,  and 
they  now  include  Granton,  Liber- 
ton,  Portobello,  and  Duddingston, 
and  the  various  hills  around  them. 
In  1920  an  Act  was  passed  for  the 
inclusion  of  the  port  of  Leith  in 
the  municipality  of  Edinburgh. 

In  primitive  times,  when  what  is 
now  Scotland  was  peopled  by  tribes 
chronically  at  war  with  each  other, 
but  combining  on  occasions  against 
some  powerful  invader,  isolated 
crags  or  mounts  were  highly  es- 
teemed for  defensive  purposes. 
Among  numerous  sites  of  that 
character  in  northern  Britain,  none 
stands  out  more  conspicuous  than 
the  Castle  Rock  of  Edinburgh, 
which  would  no  doubt  be  seized  by 
the  early  colonists  of  Lothian  and 
fortified  by  the  usual  rampart  of 
stone  and  palisade.  Within  the  en- 
closure they  planted  their  wattled 
huts,  and  subsisted  by  the  chase  ; 
for  according  to  Strabo  (25  B.C.), 
and  Dion  Cassius  (c.  A.D.  150-235), 
the  natives  of  Northern  Britain 
were  ignorant  or  independent  of 
agriculture  when  the  Roman  le- 
gions arrived  there.  * 

Of  Edinburgh  as  a  town,  nothing 


i.  John  Kuox's  house,  Canougate.  2.  A  Dygoue  :aud- 
mark :  Head  ot  the  West  Bow  in  the  Lawnmarket. 
3.  West  iront  ot  S.  Giles's  Cathedral.  4.  Princes  Street, 
showing  the  Scott  monument.  5.  Chapel  of  the  Order 

EDINBURGH    OLD    AND    NEW:    PLACES    OF    NOTE  IN    SCOTLAND'S    HISTORIC    CAPITAL 


ot  inc  Hustle.  0.  J.  Margaret's  Onapei,  in  the  Castle, 
with  Mons  Meg,  the  famous  gun  dated  1486.  7-  The 
Castle  from  the  Grassmarket.  8.  Edinburgh  as  seen 
from  the  air  (photo.  Aircraft  Manufacturing  Co.,  Ltd.) 


EDINBURGH 


2796 


EDINBURGH 


Edinburgh. 


Map  of  the  environs  of  the  Scottish  capital,  including  part  of  the 
Pentland  Hills 


appears,  even  in  tradition,  until 
after  the  conquest  of  Lothian  by 
Eadwine,  Saxon  king  of  Deira 
(Yorkshire)  and  Northurabria,  in 
the  7th  century.  It  appears  from 
King  David's  foundation  charter 
of  Holy  rood  in  1 128,  and  Simeon  of 
Durham's  chronicle  written  in  the 
same  century,  that  King  Eadwine 
was  thus  early  regarded  as  the 
eponymus,  for  in  both  of  these  writ- 
ings the  place  is  called  Edwines- 
burch.  The  Gaelic  branch  of  the 
Celts  called  it  Dunedin ;  among  the 
Welsh  population  of  Strathclyde  it 
was  known  as  Dineiddyn  orMynyd- 
agneid.  the  latter  name  appearing 
to  signify  the  mount  of  the  Painted 
People  or  Picts.  According  to  the 
Pictish  Chronicle  the  Saxons  held 
Oppidum  Eden  till  they  surren- 
dered it  *&  Indulf ,  son  of  Constantin 
king  of  Scots  (954-962)  ;  but  all  is 
misty  and  vague  until  Malcolm  III 
was  persuaded  by  Queen  Margaret 
to  remove  his  seat  of  government 
from  Dunfermline  to  Edinburgh, 
about  1060. 

In  1128  David  I  founded  the 
abbey  of  Holyrood,  and  em- 
powered the  convent  to  form  the 
burgh  of  Canongate,  which  re 
tained  its  separate  jurisdiction 
until  1856,  when  it  was  united  to 
the  corporation  of  Edinburgh.  The 
date  of  the  erection  of  Edinburgh 
into  a  royal  burgh  is  unknown. 
Doubtless  it  had  already  received 
a  charter  before  David  I  (1124-53) 
made  it  his  principal  residence,  but 
many  years  had  to  run  before  it 
was  recognized  as  the  capital  of 
Scotland.  The  strategic  import- 
ance of  Edinburgh  having  been 


enhanced  by  the  loss  of  Berwick 
in  1296  and  Roxburgh  in  1368, 
it  became  recognized  as  the  most 
important  town  in  Scotland,  and 
increased  steadily  in  population 
and  commerce. 

City  and  castle  were  taken  by 
Edward  III  of  England  in  1335, 
but  were  recovered  to  the  Scots  by 
a  clever  stratagem  in  1341.  To  the 
parliament  summoned  in  1357  for 
the  special  purpose  of  raising 
100,000  marks  for  the  ransom  of 
David  II,  Edinburgh  returned 
three  burgesses,  and  appeared  for 
the  first  time  in  precedence  over 
all  other  burghs.  It  was  sacked 


and  burnt  by  Richard  II  in  1385 
and  besieged  by  Henry  IV  in  1400, 
but  the  castle  held  out  until  Henry 
had  to  raise  the  siege  in  order  to 
deal  with  Glendower's  rebellion. 

From  this  period  onward  Edin- 
burgh, in  common  with  the  whole 
of  Scotland,  suffered  from  the  arbi- 
trary power  of  the  great  barons, 
who  made  full  use  for  selfish  ends 
of  the  opportunities  afforded  by 
the  imprisonment  in  England  of 
David  II  and  James  I,  and  by  the 
frequency  with  which  the  succes- 
sion to  the  throne  devolved  on  an 
infant,  the  average  age  of  seven 
successive  sovereigns  from  1406- 
1567  on  their  accession  being  but 
six  years.  Thus  the  4th  earl  of 
Douglas,  keeper  of  Edinburgh 
Castle,  and  a  number  of  other 
nobles  and  officials,  not  only  re- 
fused to  pay  the  duties  leviable 
upon  wool  and  hides  which  they 
exported,  but  did  not  scruple  to 
appropriate  money  which  the 
customs  officer  had  collected.  In 
consequence,  the  gross  customs  of 
the  city,  which  amounted  to  £2,047 
in  1416,  had  fallen  to  £1,098  5s.  4d. 
in  1418,  though  the  volume  of 
trade  was  considerably  greater. 
Bitter  complaints  of  oppression 
were  continually  made  to  the 
government ;  Livingstone,  guard- 
ian of  the  boy  king  James  II,  and 
Chancellor  Crichton  made  these 
serve  as  excuse  for  ridding  them- 
selves of  a  dangerous  rival,  the 
6th  earl  of  Douglas,  a  lad  of  17, 
whom,  with  his  brother  David, 
they  lured  to  a  banquet  in  Edin- 
burgh Castle  and  had  them  both 
butchered  in  the  king's  presence. 

In  1448  the  Town  Council,  taking 
advantage  of  the  respite  of  English 
invasion  during  the  wars  of  the 


Edinburgh     Plan  of  the  central  part  of  the  city.     The  valley  spanned 
North  Bridge  separates  the  Old  Town  on  the  S.  from  the  New  Town  on 


EDINBURGH 


2797 


EDINBURGH 


Roses,  set  to  work  to  strengthen 
the  defences  of  their  city.  The 
king's  garden  on  the  N.  side,  now 
occupied  by  the  Waverley  rly. 
station  and  lines,  was  inundated 
by  a  dam  thrown  across  the  E.  end, 
thereby  forming  the  North  Loch, 
whence  a  wall  was  built  round  the 
E.  and  S.  sides  of  the  city  to  the 
Castle  Rock  near  the  West  Bow. 

During  the  reign  of  James  IV 
(1488-1513)  the  revival  of  learning 
first  made  itself  felt  in  Edinburgh. 
The  guild  of  chirurgeon  barbers 
received  a  royal  charter  in  1505, 
to  develop  under  a  fresh  charter  in 
1684  into  the  Royal  College  of 
Surgeons  of  Edinburgh,  Tn  1507 
the  first  printing  press  in  Scotland 
was  established  in  Edinburgh. 
But  a  new  era  of  bloodshed  was 
inaugurated  on  Flodden  Field  in 
1513,  where  James  IV  was  killed 
with  the  flower  of  Scottish  nobility 
and  gentry.  In  1544  the  earl  of 
Hertford  sacked  and  burnt  Edin- 
burgh, wrecked  Holyrood  Abbey, 
drove  away  the  monks,  and  gutted 
ths  palace,  but  was  repulsed  in 
attacking  the  castle.  He  returned 
in  1547  under  his  new  name  of 
Protector  Somerset,  and  completed 
the  destruction  of  Holyrood. 
The  Scottish  Reformation 

In  the  16th  century  Edinburgh 
became  the  vortex  of  the  Scot- 
tish Reformation.  Parliament  en- 
acted the  establishment  of  the 
Protestant  religion  in  1560,  pro- 
scribing the  Mass  under  penalty 
of  death.  Queen  Mary,  returning  as 
a  young  widow  to  the  capital  which 
she  had  left  as  a  child  of  six  years, 
found  the  churches  stripped  of 
all  adornment,  the  altars  wrecked, 
the  clergy,  secular  and  regular,  of 
her  own  faith  banished,  while  from 
the  pulpits  Knox,  Bruce,  and  other 
zealots  hurled  vehement  denuncia- 
tion against  the  Scarlet  Woman. 
Knox  laid  the  foundation  of  that 
system  of  national  education  to 
which  Edinburgh  owes  so  much  of 
her  distinction  as  a  seat  of  learning 
and  letters  ;  but,  dying  in  1572, 
he  did  not  live  to  see  the  founda- 
tion of  the  university  in  1583. 

Queen  Mary's  personal  reign 
covered  no  more  than  six  stormy 
years,  perhaps  the  darkest  and 
bloodiest  in  the  whole  history  of 
Edinburgh.  Conspicuous  among 
the  crimes  perpetrated  were  the 
slaughter  in  Mary's  presence  of  her 
favourite,  David  Rizzio,  in  1566, 
and  the  murder  of  Darnley  in  1567. 

The  city,  which  is  believed  to 
have  contained  at  the  time  some 
30,000  inhabitants,  suffered  con- 
siderably in  trade  when  James  VI 
succeeded  to  the  throne  of  England 
and  removed  his  court  to  London. 
He  promised  to  revisit  Edinburgh 
every  third  year,  but  fourteen 


years  went  by  before  he  returned 
for  the  first  and  last  time.  Charles  I 
was  crowned  in  Holyrood  in  1633, 
eight  years  after  his  accession — 
the  only  coronation  ever  per- 
formed in  the  Scottish  capital, 
except  that  of  James  II  in  1437. 
In  1637  the  city  was  thrown  into 
ferment  when  Charles  sent  Laud's 
liturgy  to  Edinburgh,  with  a  com- 
mand that  it  was  to  be  used  in  all 
the  churches.  Edinburgh  had  been 
staunchly  loyal  hitherto ;  but  this 
gave  immediate  birth  to  the 
National  Covenant  which  was 
signed  in  Greyfriars  Churchyard, 
Feb.  28,  1638.  The  obnoxious 
liturgy  was  withdrawn,  Sept.  17, 
but  things  had  gone  too  far  ;  the 
Covenanters  were  under  arms,  and 
in  1639  Sir  Alexander  Leslie,  one 
of  Gustavus  Adolphus's  veterans, 
stormed  and  captured  Edinburgh 
Castle.  After  the  pacification  of 
Berwick,  it  was  handed  back  in 
1640  to  Sir  Patrick  Ruthven,  who 
also  had  served  long  under  Gus- 
tavus Adolphus,  for  the  king  ;  but 
when  war  broke  out  afresh  in  June, 
it  was  captured  once  more  by  the 
Covenanters  under  Leslie. 

In  1642,  when  King  Charles  took 
the  field  against  his  Parliament, 
the  people  of  Edinburgh  were  fer- 
vid Covenanters  ;  but  the  Scottish 
privy  council  declared  for  the  king 
by  eleven  votes  to  nine.  On  Aug. 
2,  1643,  the  general  assembly  pro- 
mulgated the  Solemn  League  and 
Covenant,  which  sought  to  impose 
Presbyterianism  by  compulsion 
on  both  England  and  Scotland. 
Charles  I  having  been  executed 
Jan.  30,  1649,  the  Scottish  Estates 
caused  his  son  to  be  proclaimed 
king  at  the  Mercat  Cross  of  Edin- 
burgh on  Feb.  5,  but  the  Covenan- 
ters would  have  none  of  him. 
Covenanters  and  Anti-Jacobites 

The  duke  of  Hamilton,  the  earl 
of  Huntly,  and  the  marquess  of 
Montrose  were  executed  in  succes- 
sion in  Edinburgh.  Cromwell  in- 
vaded Scotland,  July  22,  1650, 
utterly  defeated  Leslie's  Covenan- 
ters at  Dunbar  on  Sept.  3,  took 
possession  of  Edinburgh  and  pro- 
claimed the  Commonwealth.  Ten 
years  later,  at  the  Restoration, 
"  the  Maiden,"  an  instrument 
similar  to  the  guillotine,  was  set  to 
work  at  the  Mercat  Cross. 

In  1688  the  Edinburgh  popu- 
lace was  vehemently  anti- Jacobite. 
King  James  VII  and  II  had  es- 
caped to  France,  but  the  mob  over- 
powered the  guard  in  Holyrood 
Palace ;  wrecked  the  abbey  church, 
which  had  been  redecorated  as  the 
Chapel  Royal,  and,  bursting  open 
the  royal  burial  place,  scattered 
the  bones  of  Scottish  kings  and 
queens.  The  duke  of  Gordon  still 
held  the  castle  for  the  king,  and 


his  historic  parting  with  Dundee, 
when  that  intrepid  soldier  rode 
from  the  Nether  Bow  to  his  death 
at  Killiecrankie,  forms  the  subject 
of  Scott's  lyric  Bonnie  Dundee. 

The  city  was  riotously  convulsed 
during  the  proceedings  in  the 
Scottish  Parliament  over  the  legis- 
lative union  with  England  in  1707. 
It  was  little  affected  by  the 
Jacobite  rising  of  1715,  but  in 
1745  Prince  Charles  Edward,  after 
defeating  Sir  John  Cope  at  Pres- 
tonpans,  took  possession  of  Edin- 
burgh, proclaimed  his  father  king 
James  VIII  at  the  Mercat  Cross, 
and  held  a  brilliant  court  at  Holy- 
rood  for  more  than  two  months. 
Intellectual  Edinburgh 

Notwithstanding  the  loss  of 
custom  and  prestige  caused  by  the 
departure  of  James  I  and  his  court 
in  1603,  the  misery  and  bloodshed 
entailed  by  the  civil  wars  and  re- 
ligious persecution  of  the  17th 
century,  and  the  further  loss  con- 
sequent on  the  union  of  Parlia- 
ments in  1707,  Edinburgh  con- 
tinued to  advance  both  materially 
and  intellectually.  Allan  Ramsay 
the  Elder,  1686-1758,  who  began 
life  as  a  wig-maker,  must  be 
honoured  as  chief  pioneer  in  the 
revival  of  literature,  for  he  founded 
the  literary  coterie  called  the 
Select  Society,  reconstructed  in 
1755  as  the  Society  for  Encouraging 
Art,  Science,  and  Industry.  The 
torch  which  he  kindled  was  passed 
from  hand  to  hand  by  such  writers 
as  James  Hamilton  of  Bangour, 
Thomson  of  The  Seasons,  David 
Hume  the  historian,  John  Home 
the  tragedian,  Dalrymple  Lord 
Hailes,  Home  Lord  Kames,  Bur- 
nett Lord  Monboddo,  "  Jupiter  " 
Carlyle,  Adam  Smith,  political 
economist,  and  Henry  Mackenzie, 
the  "  Man  of  Feeling,"  who  intro- 
duced Burns  to  Edinburgh  society 
in  1787.  These  created  a  literary 
atmosphere  which  lingers  in  the 
Scottish  capital  to  this  day,  having 
received  fresh  vigour  from  Jeffrey, 
Brougham,  Lockhart,  "  Christo- 
pher North,"  and,  most  illustrious 
of  all,  Walter  Scott. 

Of  social  gaiety  in  Edinburgh 
there  was  no  lack  in  the  18th  cen- 
tury. Scotland  had  entered  at  the 
Union  of  1707  on  a  period  of  pros- 
perous industry  which  had  been 
impossible  during  the  war  with 
England  and  the  civil  wars  of  the 
17th  century.  The  revival  of  agri- 
culture set  country  gentlemen  at 
work  reclaiming  waste  lands ; 
their  increasing  revenues  enabled 
them  to  bring  their  families  to 
town  for  the  season  to  lodge  in 
"  lands  "  (flats,  as  they  would  be 
called  now),  erected  high  over  the 
malodorous,  crowded  '-  wynds " 
and  courts  opening  out  of  the  High 


EDINBURGH 

Street.  The  Old  Town,  indeed, 
had  become  congested  in  a  degree 
incompatible  with  common  de- 
cency and  sanitation.  The  narrow 
limits  of  the  ridge  whereon  the 
city  was  built  made  lateral  expan- 
sion impossible,  unless  the  North 
Loch  were  drained  away  and  a 
New  Town  laid  out  on  the  far  side 
thereof.  Plans  were  prepared  by 
the  architect  James  Craig,  and  the 
foundations  of  the  first  house  in 
the  New  Town  were  laid  on  Oct. 
26,  1767.  The  result  has  been  the 
creation  of  one  of  the  most  striking 
urban  landscapes  that  can  be  found 
in  any  country.  The  picturesque 
features  of  the  Old  Town  have, 
indeed,  been  greatly  impaired  by 
the  removal  of  at  least  two-third's 
of  the  ancient  "  lands,"  as  the 
lofty  houses  piled  high  on  the 
ridge  were  called  ;  but  enough  re- 
mains to  offer  striking  contrast  to 
the  spacious  streets  and  commo- 
dious architecture  of  the  New 
Town.  The  scene  would  have  been 
even  more  impressive  had  the 
North  Loch  been  purified  and  re- 
tained as  an  ornamental  sheet  of 
water,  instead  of  being  drained 
away  and  its  bed  occupied  by 
the  North  British  Railway  But 
enough  is  left  to  justify  the  pride 
with  which  her  citizens  speak  and 
think  of  Edinburgh  as  the  Modern 
Athens,  the  Castle  Rock  being  no 
mean  counterpart  to  the  Acropolis, 
while  the  Calton  Hill  reflects  the 
contour  and  relative  position  of 
Lycabettus. 

Bibliography.  Cassell's  Old  and 
New  Edinburgh,  James  Grant, 
1880-83  ;  Edinburgh  Past  and  Pres- 
ent, J.  B.  Gillies,  1886  ;  Royal  Edin- 
burgh :  Her  saints,  kings,  prophets, 
and  poets,  M.  O.  Oliphant,  1890  ; 
Memorials  of  Edinburgh  in  the 
Olden  Time,  D.  Wilson,  2nd  ed. 
1891  ;  The  Story  of  Edinburgh, 
W.  H.  O.  Smeaton,  1905  ;  Tradi- 
tions of  Edinburgh,  Robert  Cham- 
bers, repr.  1912  ;  In  Praise  of  Edin- 
burgh, R.  Masson,  1912;  The  Heart 
of  Edinburgh,  J.  Geddie,  1913; 
Edinburgh :  a  Historical  Studv, 
H.  E.  Maxwell,  1916. 

Edinburgh,     ALFRED     ERNEST 
ALBERT,    DUKE    OP    (1844-1900). 
The  second  son  of  Qneen  Victoria, 
he    was    born 
at  Windsor 
Castle,  Aug.  6, 
1844.   He  was 
educated   for 
the  navy,  and 
in    1893     was 
made  admiral 
of  the  fleet.  In 
1862    he    was 
Alfred  Ernest,          elected  king  of 
Duke  ot  Edinburgh      Greece,   but 
for     political 

reasons  he  refused  the  crown.  He 
was  created  duke  of  Edinburgh  in 
1885,  and  in  1893  became  reigning 


2798 

duke  of  S°xe-Coburg  and  Gotha, 
surrendering  his  privileges  as  an 
English  peer,  but  retaining  his  rank 
of  admiral.  In  1874  he  married 
Marie  Alexandrovna,  only  daugh- 
ter of  Alexander  II  of  Russia,  who 
died  Oct.  25,  1920.  He  died  July 
30,  1900,  and  was  succeeded  as  duke 
of  Saxe-Coburg  by  his  nephew, 
Leopold  Charles,  duke  of  Albany 
(q.v.),  as  his  only  son  had  died, 
Feb.  6,  1899.  The  duke  was  a 
skilled  musician,  especially  on  the 
violin. 

Edinburgh,  UNIVERSITY  OF. 
Founded  in  1583,  this  obtained  in 
1621  the  same  privileges  as  the  three 
other  Scottish  universities,  which 
were  confirmed  at  the  time  of  the 
Union  (1707).  Alterations  in  its 
constitution  were  made  in  1858  and 
1 889.  Edinburgh  has  six  faculties, 
arts,  science,  divinity,  law,  medi- 
cine, and  music,  and  its  professor- 
ships usually  attract  distinguished 
scholars.  Except  in  divinity  women 
are  admitted  to  its  courses  and 
degrees  equally  with  men.  Its 
medical  school  is  specially  efficient ; 
Edinburgh  also  pays  much  atten- 
tion to  agricultural  education,  and 
has  courses  for  the  training  of 
teachers  and  army  officers.  In 
1919-20  Edinburgh  had  4,300 
students. 

The  university  is  ruled  by  a 
university  court,  a  university  coun- 
cil, and  the  senate,  while  the  city 
council  has  some  share  in  its 
government.  Its  head  is  the  chan- 
cellor, but  the  actual  direction  is 
in  the  hands  of  the  principal.  The 
lord  rector,  another  honorary  offi- 
cial, is  elected  by  the  students 
every  three  years.  It  unites  with 
the  other  Scottish  universities  to 
send  three  members  to  Parliament. 

The  present  buildings,  begun  in 
1789,  occupy  the  site  of  Kirk  o' 
Field.  Prominent  among  them  are 
the  hall  and  the  library,  which 
contains  a  most  valuable  collection 
of  books  and  MSS.  In  Teviot  Row 
are  the  extensive  buildings  of  the 
medical  school.  The  university  has 
numerous  and  well-equipped  labor- 
atories and  museums,  and  offers 
many  scholarships  to  intending 
students.  In  1919  a  site  of  115 
acres  for  science  laboratories  was 
acquired  on  the  southern  out- 
skirts of  the  city,  between  Mayfield 
and  the  Blackford  Hill.  On  July  6, 
1920,  King  George  laid  the  foun- 
dation stone  of  the  new  buildings. 

Edinburgh  ACADEMY.  Scot- 
tish public  school.  It  was  founded 
by  royal  charter  in  1824,  and  the 
buildings  near  Stockbridge  stand  in 
grounds  covering  three  acres.  They 
include  a  school  hall,  gymnasium, 
rifle  range,  library,  and  fives 
courts,  as  well  as  class-rooms, 
laboratories,  etc.  There  is  a  pre- 


ED1SON 

paratory  school.  The  total  number 
of  boys  is  about  650.  Most  of  them 
are  day  boys,  but  there  are  three 
houses  for  boarders.  The  head- 
master is  known  as  the  rector,  and 
the  school  is  governed  by  a  board 
of  directors.  ,  The  Edinburgh 
Academicals,  composed  of  old  boys 
of  this  school,  is  one  of  the  most 
famous  of  Scottish  football  clubs. 

Edinburgh  REVIEW,  THE.  First 
of  the  great  critical  quarterlies,  but 
the  second  of  the  same  name.  Its 
predecessor  was  brought  out  in 
1755,  under  Adam  Smith,  Alex- 
ander Wedderburn,  and  others, 
and  only  ran  to  two  numbers. 
The  famous  blue-and-buff  Whig 
organ  was  projected  by  Syd- 
ney Smith,  who  edited  the  initial 
number  published  at  Edinburgh 
in  Oct.,  1802.  Francis  Jeffrey  was 
editor,  1803-29,  Macvey  Napier, 
1829-47,  William  Empson,  1847- 
52,  Sir  George  Cornewall  Lewis, 
1852-55,  Henry  Reeve,  1855-95, 
Arthur  Elliot,  1895-1912,  and  since 
1912  Harold  Cox.  Francis  Jeffrey's 
literary  criticisms  provoked  Byron's 
English  Bards  and  Scotch  Re- 
viewers. Lord  Macaulay's  Essays 
first  appeared  in  the  Edinburgh  ; 
other  contributors  were  Lord 
Brougham,  Lord  Houghton,  Lord 
John  Russell,  Robert  Lowe,  and 
John  Stuart  Mill. 

Edinburghshire.  Name  of  the 
county  more  correctly  known  as 
Midlothian  (q.v.). 

Edison,  THOMAS  ALVA  (b.  1847). 
American  physicist  and  inventor. 
He  was  born  at  Milan,  Erie  co., 
Ohio,  Feb.  11,  1847,  of  mixed 
Dutch  and  Scottish  descent.  At 
the  age  of  twelve  he  began  life  as  a 
newsboy  on  the  railway,  and  before 
long  distinguished  himself  by  set- 


EDITH     CAVELL 


2799 


EDMUND 


ting  up  and  printing  on  the  train  a 
little  news  sheet,  The  Grand  Trunk 
Herald.  He  learnt  the  elements 
of  telegraph  operating,  and  shortly 
after  began  to  invent  a  remarkable 
series  of  improvements  on  the  then 
crude  methods  of  electrical  trans- 
mission which  revolutionised  tele- 
graphy throughout  the  world.  The 
automatic  repeater,  the  quadruplex 
and  printing  telegraph,  and  the  sex- 
tuplex  method  of  transmission  fol- 
lowed in  rapid  succession. 

While  still  a  young  man  he  set 
up  an  establishment  largely  de- 
voted to  experimental  work  in  all 
branches  of  science.  Here  he 
brought  to  perfection  the  phono- 
graph, the  forerunner  of  the 
modern  gramophone,  the  kineto- 
scope,  out  of  which  developed  the 
cinematograph,  and  many  other 
inventions  which  were  practically 
fundamental.  More  than  900 
patents  have  been  granted  to  him 
for  his  inventions,  and  he  has  been 
honoured  by  innumerable  scientific 
bodies  and  universities.  During 
the  Great  War  he  designed  benzol 
and  carbonic-acid-producing  plants 
on  a  large  scale. 

The  range  of  Edison's  inventions 
is  such  that  he  has  left  his  mark  on 
nearly  every  branch  of  science. 
Many  of  them,  as  the  kineto- 
scope  and  phonograph,  have  re- 
sulted in  the  creation  of  entirely 
new  industries  and  methods  of 
thought  and  news  distribution, 
while  his  improvements  in  tele- 
graphic methods  of  communica- 
tion may  be  compared  with  those 
of  wireless  due  to  Marconi.  See 
Cinematography ;  Phonograph  ; 
Telegraph ;  consult  also  Lives, 
E.  C.  Kenyon,  1896  ;  -F.  A.  Jones, 
1907;  F.  L.  Dyer  and  T.  C. 
Martin,  1910. 

Edith  Cavell.  Mt.  of  Canada. 
A  peak  of  the  Rocky  Mts.,  it  is  situ- 
ated i  n  Al  berta,  close  to  the  border  of 
British  Columbia,  14m.  S.  of  Jasper 
on  the  G.T.P.  Rly  It  is  about 
11,000  ft.  high,  and  was  named 
after  Nurse  Edith  Cavell  (q.v.). 

Editor  (Lat.  edere,  to  produce). 
One  who  controls  the  production 
and  contents  of  a  newspaper,  book, 
or  magazine.  On  daily  newspapers 
his  personality  and  political  and 
business  acumen  and  knowledge 
of  men  and  affairs  are  more  vital 
than  literary  facility,  the  necessity 
of  his  close  attention  to  detail 
being  obviated  by  subdivision  of 
labour. '  In  book  and  magazine 
production  he  needs  special  quali- 
fications according  tp  the  nature  of 
the  work  on  which  he  is  engaged. 
In  all  cases  practical  knowledge  of 
the  various  processes  connected 
with  printing,  illustration,  etc., 
is  essential.  See  Journalism ; 
Newspaper.  • 


Edmonton.  Urban  district  of 
Middlesex,  England.  It  stands 
near  the  New  and  Lea  rivers,  2  m. 
N.  of  Tottenham  by  the  G.E.R. 
and  2  m.  8.  of  Enfield.  It 
has  some  timber  trade  on  the  Lea, 
and  the  place  is  associated  with 

Cowper  and  Keats.     Charles  and    East  Anglia  in  855.    Captured~by 
Mary  Lamb  lie  buried  in  the  parish    the  Danes  on  their  invasion  in  870 


Edmund  OREADMUND  (841-70). 
Saint  and  king  of  East  Anglia. 
Late  legends  describe  him  as  the 
son  of  Alkmund,  king  of  the 
Saxons,  and  state  that  he  was  born 
at  Nuremberg  and  adopted  by 
Off  a,  whom  he  succeeded  as  king  of 


churchyard.  The  National  Aircraft 
Engine  Factory  built  here  during 
the  Great  War  on  a  site  of  14  acres, 
at  a  cost  of  £133,000,  was  pur- 
chased by  a  motor  firm  in  1919. 
One  member  is  returned  to  Parlia- 
ment. Pop.  64,797. 

Edmonton.  Capital  of  Alberta, 
Canada.  It  stands  on  a  high  table- 
land overlooking  the  N.  bank  of 
the  North  Saskatchewan  river.  793 


and  refusing  to  give  up  Christian- 
ity, he  was  beheaded  at  Hoxne, 
Suffolk.  His  body  was  removed 
in  the  9th  century  to  Bury  (now 
known  as  Bury  St.  Edmunds), 
where  the  famous  shrine  was  erected. 
He  was  held  in  great  veneration  as 
a  saint,  many  English  churches 
are  dedicated  to  him,  and  his 
festival  is  kept  on  Nov.  20.  See 
Life,  J.  B.  Mackinlay,  1893. 

Edmund  (c. 
I  922-46).  King  of 
the  English.  The 
son  of  Edward  the 
Elder  and  grand- 
son of  Alfred  the 
I  Great,  he  suc- 
ceeded his  half- 
brother  Atheist  an 
in  940.  He  fought 
against  the  Danes 
in  the  north,  the 
result  being  a  di- 
vision of  the  king- 
dom. This  did  not 
last  long,  as  Ed- 
mund crushed  the 
Danes  in  Mercia. 


Edmonton,  Canada.     View  oi  Alberta  University,  founded  in  1906  ;  above, 
the  Parliament  buildings  of  the  province  of  Alberta 

m.  W.  of  Winnipeg.  Served  by  the  and  was  again  ruler  of  the  whole 
Canadian  Pacific,  Grand  Trunk  land.  He  subdued  Cumbria  in 
Pacific,  and  Canadian  Northern  945  and  bestowed  it  on  Malcolm, 
Rlys.,  the  city  has  grown  rapidly  king  of  Scotland,  on  condition 
in  recent  years.  Edmonton's  that  he  should  be  his  "  fellow- 
public  buildings  are  substantially  worker  by  sea  and  land."  He 
built  and  the  churches  have  some  was  mortally  stabbed  by  an  but- 
architectural  merit ;  the  suburbs  law  at  Pucklechurch,  Gloucester- 
are  extensive.  There  are  large  shire.  May  26,  946,  and  was  buried 
meat-packing  plants,  saw-mills,  etc.  at  Glastonbury.  Edmund's  mili- 
The  Hudson's  Bay  Co.  established  tary  victories  and  reforms  in  church 
a  post  early  in  the  19th  century,  and  state  gained  him  the  name  of 
and  it  is  largely  to  the  fur  trade  the  Deed-doer  and  the  Magnificent, 
that  the  city  owes  its  prosperity.  His  two  sons,  Edwy  and  Edgar, 
Pop.  61,045.  See  Alberta.  became  kings  after  him. 


EDMUND 


28OO 


EDUCATION 


Edmund  (c.  1175-1240).  Saint 
and  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
known  as  Edmund  Rich.  Born  at 
Abingdon,  after  studying  and  lec- 
turing at  Oxford  and  Paris  he  be- 
came in  1 222  treasurer  of  Salisbury. 
He  preached  the  Crusade  in  Eng- 
land, 1227,  and  on  the  nomination 
of  Gregory  IX  was  elected  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  1233,  Ed- 
mund vainly  endeavoured  to  per- 
suade Henry  III  to  get  rid  of  his 
foreign  favourites,  and  was  equally 
unsuccessful  in  establishing  discip- 
line amongst  the  monks  at  Canter- 
bury, and  in  his  protest  against  the 
provision  of  English  benefices  for 
Italian  clergy.  Finally  in  1240  Ed- 
mund withdrew  to  France,  where  he 
died  at  Soissy.  He  is  buried  at  Pon- 
tigny,  and  was  canonised  1247.  His 
festival  is  kept  in  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic Church  on  Nov.  16,  the  day  of 
his  death,  and  a  college  is  dedicated 
to  him  at  Ware.  See  Lives,  F.  de 
Para  vicini,  1898,  and  B.  Ward,  1903. 

Edmund  Ironside  (c.  981-1016). 
King  of  the  English.  A  younger 
son  of  King  Ethelred  the  Unready, 
he  appeared  in  public  life  about 
1015.  He  was  ruling  Mercia,  evi- 
dently as  an  under-king,  when 
Canute  invaded  the  land,  and  raised 
an  army  for  its  defence.  Beaten, 
he  was  forced  into  Northumbria, 
and  the  war  was  raging  when  Ethel- 
red  died.  Edmund  was  chosen 
king  in  London  and  Canute  at 
Southampton,  and  the  war  between 
them  was  continued  more  fiercely 
than  before.  In  Somerset  the  Eng- 
lish king  was  victorious,  and  after 
a  protracted  battle  at  Sherston,  in 
Wiltshire,  he  was  left  master  of 
Wessex.  He  then  fought  battles  to 
relieve  London  from  the  atten- 
tions of  Canute,  but  then  followed 
the  terrible  defeat  at  Assandun. 
After  this  the  two  kings  met  and 
decided  upon  a  division  of  the 
kingdom,  but  Edmund  had  not 
reaped  the  benefit  of  this  when  he 
died  in  London,  Nov.  30,  1016.  He 
was  buried  at  Glastenbury,  and 
left  two  sons,  Edmund  and  Ed- 
ward. Edmund  won  his  name  by 
the  personal  bravery  which  he  con- 
sistently displayed,  and  his  fighting 
record  of  a  single  yeaih 

Edmunds,  GEORGE  FRANKLIN 
(1828-1919).  American  politician. 
Born  at  Richmond,  Vermont,  Feb. 
1,  1828,  he  became  a  barrister  in 
1849.  From  1854-59  he  was 
member  of  the  Vermont  house  of 
representatives  and  Speaker  of  the 
lower  house,  1856-59.  Member  of 
the  state  senate,  1861-62,  he  acted 
as  president,  and  from  1866-91  he 
was  member  for  Vermont  in  the 
U.S.  Senate,  and  leader  on  the 
Republican  side.  In  1882  he  was 
author  of  the  Anti- Poly  gamy  Act, 
known  as  the  Edmunds  Act,  and 


in  1890  of  the  Anti-Trust  Law. 
After  retiring  from  the  U.S.  Sen- 
ate, 1891,  he  resumed  practice 
and  gained  a  leading  position  as  a 
constitutional  lawyer.  He  died 
Feb.  27,  1919. 

Edom.  District  situated  to  the 
S.  of  Palestine.  It  stretched  from 
the  Dead  Sea  to  the  Gulf  of 
Akabah,  covering  an  area  of  about 
100  m.  by  20  m.  The  name  Edom 
(red)  is  probably  derived  from  the 
prevalent  red  sandstone  of  the  dis- 
trict. Its  first  recorded  inhabitants 
were  a  cave-dwelling  race  known  as 
the  Horites,  who  were  conquered 
by  Esau  and  his  sons.  During  the 
Exodus,  the  inhabitants  of  Edom 
refused  to  allow  the  Israelites  pas- 
sage, and  hence  arose  a  feud  which 
lasted  till  the  end  of  the  second 
century  B.C.  Both  David  and  Solo- 
mon defeated  them,but  in  the  reign 
of  Jehoram  they  threw  off  the  yoke. 
Amaziah  and  Uzziah  again  sub- 
dued them,  but  after  the  fall  of 
Judah  they  again  became  free  till 
the  days  of  the  Maccabees,  when 
they  were  finally  crushed  and  forci- 
bly proselytised  by  John  Hyrcanus. 
The  Edomites  were  polytheistic  in 
religion,  and  marriages  between 
their  women  and  the  Hebrews  were 
a  frequent  source  of  trouble.  The 
Herods  were  of  Edomite  origin. 
See  Palestine. 

Edremid.  Variant  spelling  of 
the  port  of  Asia  Minor  better 
known  as  Adramyti  (q.v.). 


EDUCATION:    ITS    MEANING    AND    AIMS 

John  Adams,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  Professor  of  Education,  London  University 

In  addition  to  this  introductory  article,  the  subject  is  considered  under 
School ;     University  ;     Co-education  ;     Froebel    System  ;  Kinder- 
garten, etc.      See  also  the  articles  on  the  universities  of  the  British 
Empire  and  on  the  leading  colleges  and  public  schools 


The  uncertainty  about  the  pre- 
cise meaning  of  the  term  education 
is  strikingly  illustrated  by  the  titles 
of  four  books  :  The  Meaning  of 
Education,  N.  M.  Butler,  1898  ; 
What  is  Education  ?  Stanley 
Leathes,  1913  ;  What  do  we  Mean 
by  Education  ?  J.  Welton,  1915  ; 
What  is  Education  ?  E.  C.  Moore, 
1915.  For  practical  purposes,  how- 
ever, it  may  be  taken  as  generally 
agreed  that  education  means  what- 
ever is  done  deliberately  by  one 
generation  to  pass  on  to  its  suc- 
cessors all  that  it  has  gained  in 
the  way  of  knowledge  about  how 
to  make  the  most  of  life.  The 
element  of  deliberate  purpose  is 
usually  included  in  attempts  to 
define  education  more  or  less 
scientifically. 

In  a  general  sense,  men  and 
women  are  being  educated  all  their 
life,  from  the  cradle  to  the  grave. 
In  Latin  educare  means  really  the 
bringing  up  of  children.The  French 
elever,  the  German  erziehen,  and  the 


Edridge- Green,  FREDERICK 
WILLIAM  (b.  1863).  British  oph- 
thalmic surgeon  and  writer.  Edu- 
cated at  S.  Bartholomew's  Hospi- 
tal, Durham,  and  Cambridge,  he 
devoted  himself  to  original  research 
on  vision  and  colour  perception, 
and  invented  the  colour  perception 
spectrometer  and  lantern  which  are 
used  for  official  eyesight  tests  in  the 
navy.  He  was  Hunterian  professor  j 
of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons, 
and  was  appointed  adviser  on  eye- 
sight to  the  Board  of  Trade.  His 
principal  works  are  Colour  Blind- 
ness and  Colour  Perception,  1891 ; 
Memory  and  its  Cultivation,  1897; 
and  The  Hunterian  Lectures  on 
Colour  Vision  and  Colour  Blind- 
ness, 1911. 

Edrisi    Mohammed    OR   IBN 
MOHAMMED     EL    EDRISI    (1100). 
Arabian  geographer.  A  descendant 
of  Mahomet,  he  was  born  at  Ceuta,    ; 
Morocco.     Educated  at  Cordova,   | 
he  early  became  a  traveller,  jour- 
neying  in   Spain,    Barbary,   Asia   ; 
Minor,  Greece,  and  Italy  before  he   j 
settled  down  in  Sicily.    At  the  de- 
sire of  Roger  II  of  Sicily  he  made  a 
silver  globe,  upon  which  he  mapped 
the  world,  and  wrote  in  explana- 
tion A  Description  of  the  World, 
sometimes  known  as  The  Book  of 
Roger.      This   was  completed    in 
1154,  and  is  the  chief  geographical 
work  of  the  Middle  Ages.    There 
is  an  imperfect  French  translation 
(1836-40)  by  A.  Jaubert. 


American  colloquial  term  "  raise," 
have  this  underlying  meaning. 

Education  as  such  has  to  do 
with  the  proper  upbringing  of 
children,  the  training  of  their 
mental  and  physical  powers,  the 
formation,  moulding,  and  direction 
of  their  character.  But  since  the 
instrument  used  in  our  schools  to 
accomplish  this  purpose  is  know- 
ledge, there  has  arisen  a  not  un- 
natural impression  that  education 
consists  in  the  imparting  of  know- 
ledge. Schools  have  come  to  be 
regarded  as  information-shops, 
and  teachers  have  taken  rank  as 
knowledge-mongers. 

In  the  public  schools  of  England 
this  prominent  position  has  not 
been  assigned  to  knowledge  ;    in- 
deed, the  tendency  has  been  rather 
in    the    opposite    direction ;     too 
little  attention  has  been  paid  to   j 
actual  instruction.     Critics  main-   ; 
tain  that  in  the  public  schools  in 
the  past  the  pupils  have  been  aotu-    ' 
ally  discouraged  from  taking  or  I 


EDUCATION 


2801 


EDUCATION 


showing  any  interest  in  things  in- 
tellectual. On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
generally  admitted  that  nowhere 
has  the  training  of  character  been 
more  successfully  carried  on  than 
in  these  schools.  This  was  well 
recognized  even  before  the  Great 
War.  The  avowed  aim  of  the 
English  public  schoolmaster  is  to 
turn  out  gentlemen,  and  the  instru- 
ment hitherto  used  in  the  process 
has  not  been  so  much  knowledge  as 
games.  An  excessive  use  was  per- 
haps made  of  this  instrument,  but 
the  schoolmaster  succeeded  in  ac- 
complishing his  aim.  It  is  thought, 
however,  that  the  schoolmaster 
could  combine  the  excellences  of 
his  method  of  character  training 
with  a  much  greater  amount  of 
actual  instruction  in  more  or  less 
useful  subjects.  The  introduc- 
tion of  this  term  useful  raises  a 
problem. 

Education  and  Utility 

Universities  and  secondary 
schools  have  been  long  dominated 
by  the  concept  of  what  is  called 
a  liberal  education,  by  which  is 
meant  an  education  suitable  for  a 
free  man  :  an  education  that  will 
make  him  as  nearly  as  possible  a 
perfect  human  being  as,  SV/R,  apart 
from  any  consideration  of  work  or 
vocation.  Thus  one  of  the  essential 
qualities  of  a  liberal  education  is 
freedom  from  any  taint  of  the  use- 
ful in  the  ordinary  meaning  of  that 
term.  The  pupil  shall  develop  fully 
and  freely  all  his  qualities  as  a 
human  being,  irrespective  of  any 
use  to  which  these  qualities  may  be 
put.  Some  have  gone  the  length  of 
advocating  the  cult  of  the  useless 
as  something  in  itself  desirable,  but 
the  more  usual  attitude  is  that  the 
truly  educated  man  is  one  who  has 
been  trained  in  subjects  that  are 
not  required  in  earning  a  living, 
and  that  are  not  to  be  put  to  any 
use  leading  to  material  advantage. 

Along  with  this  more  or  less 
avowed  cult  of  the  useless,  there 
grew  up  a  theory  that  did  some- 
thing to  salve  the  conscience  of 
practical  English  people.  It  was 
admitted  that,  as  artisans  and 
other  humble  folk  had  to  be  speci- 
fically prepared  for  the  particular 
line  of  work  that  was  to  be  their 
portion,  so  it  was  desirable  that 
even  those  who  would  be  called 
upon  to  sit  in  the  seats  of  the 
mighty  should  get  some  sort  of 
training  that  would  have  the 
direct  result  of  fitting  them  to  dis- 
charge their  duties  efficiently. 
Princes  have  quite  a  specific  train- 
ing, and  certain  other  high  digni- 
taries have  an  equally  satisfactory 
preparation  for  their  lif e  work.  The 
lure  of  the  liberal  arts  was,  how- 
ever, very  strong,  and  the  fortunate 
free  men  of  the  world  were  willing 


that  the  education  of  their  children 
should  be  marked  off  from  that  of 
the  unfree  and  artisan  class. 

A  justification  of  this  purely 
general  and  unspecific  training  was 
found  in  the  theory  that  the  subject 
studied  did  not  in  itself  matter; 
that  the  training  acquired  in  the 
process  of  mastering  it  did.  The 
mind  could  be  trained  apart  alto- 
gether from  the  nature  of  the 
material  upon  which  it  was  exer- 
cised. The  student  of  classics  and 
mathematics  learned  not  only  to  be 
a  mathematician  and  a  classical 
scholar,  but  to  be  a  well-trained 
man  in  general.  His  mind  was 
trained  as  mind,  and  was  ready  to 
be  applied  to  any  subject. 

This  is  the  much  debated  doc- 
trine of  formal  training,  accord- 
ing to  which  a  man  who  has  been 
trained  in  any  subject  can  carry 
over  the  results  of  that  training  to 
any  other  subject ;  so  that,  for  ex- 
ample, a  man  who  has  been  trained 
in  physics  and  mathematics  may 
at  once  turn  his  training  to  account 
in  governing  a  district  in  India. 

Culture  and  Vocation 
The  cultural  ideal  stands  at  the 
one  extreme,  the  vocational  at  the 
other.  Those  who  believe  in  specific 
education  hold  that  pupils  should 
be  prepared  definitely  for  the  parti- 
cular line  of  life  they  are  to  follow. 
Naturally  certain  difficulties  arise 
at  once.  To  begin  with,  it  is  im- 
possible to  tell  at  an  early  age  what 
the  vocation  of  a  particular  pupil 
is  to  be.  In  olden  times,  when  a 
man  was  practically  born  into  a 
particular  vocation,  all  went  well. 
But  in  these  days  of  wide  oppor- 
tunity the  pupil  must  be  left  un- 
fettered as  long  as  possible  so  that 
his  bent  and  capacities  may  be 
discovered.  Indeed,  one  of  the 
main  problems  of  education  in  the 
future  will  be  this  determination  of 
the  possibilities  of  each  individual 
pupil.  The  educator  will  be  called 
upon,  not  merely  to  train  for  a 
particular  kind  of  work,  but  to  dis- 
cover what  the  kind  of  work  ought 
to  be  in  each  case.  This  will  imply 
division  of  labour,  and  there  will  be 
cooperation  between  those  who  test 
capacitv  and  those  who  develop  it. 
Everything  is  therefore  in  favour 
of  a  gradual  narrowing  of  the  curri- 
culum as  the  pupils  advance  in 
school,  determined  by  the  develop- 
ment of  capacity  and  bent. 

Vocational  education  must  not 
be  understood  to  apply  only  to  the 
preparation  of  artisans.  On  account 
of  confusion  under  this  head  the 
Workers'  Educational  Association 
is  suspicious  of  vocational  educa- 
tion, for  it  fears  that  the  employing 
classes  are  anxious  to  get  workmen 
broken  in  to  their  life's  occupation 
as  soon  as  possible,  and  thus  to 


turn  them  into  specially  efficient 
cogs  in  the  industrial  machine. 
There  are,  however,  other  than 
economic  reasons  for  postponing 
as  long  as  possible  the  decision  of 
a  pupil's  ultimate  vocation.  A 
large  part  of  the  preliminary 
stage  of  education  must  be  the 
same  for  all.  Reading,  writing, 
elementary  arithmetic,  and  rudi- 
mentary drawing  are  of  this  kind, 
and  have  to  be  learned  by  all,  irre- 
spective of  the  use  to  which  they 
have  afterwards  to  be  put.  Certain 
other  subjects  are  of  value  to  all,  no 
matter  what  their  social  position 
afterwards  may  be.  Geography, 
history,  literature,  music,  art,  and 
general  science  belong  to  this 
group.  By  the  time  these  subjects 
have  been  studied  for  some  years 
the  teachers  will  be  able  to  deter- 
mine the  ability  and  the  bent  of  the 
different  pupils,  and  to  advise  them 
with  regard  to  their  further  studies. 

Every  child  is  assumed  to  have  a 
right  to  claim  from  the  state  an 
education  suitable  to  his  capacity, 
and  without  reference  to  his  social 
rank.  Has  the  state  a  correspond- 
ing right  to  educate  its  citizens :  is 
the  right  to  claim  an  education 
paralleled  by  a  right  to  impose 
one  ?  The  remark  comes  down  to 
us  from  classical  times  that  states- 
manship is  "  architectonic  to 
education,"  in  simpler  language, 
that  the  educator  has  to  take  his 
orders  from  the  statesman,  because 
the  statesman  uses  the  human 
material  prepared  by  the  educator. 
In  actual  practice  this  principle  ia 
now  generally  recognized.  No 
doubt  in  the  past  the  influence  of 
the  state  in  education  was  largely 
negative  ;  certain  sections  of  the 
community  were  denied  the  privi- 
leges of  education,  and  the  segrega- 
tion of  ranks  was  so  secured. 
Education  and  Politics 

But  in  modern  times  the  state 
exercises  the  right  of  modifying 
the  education  of  its  citizens  to 
suit  its  own  ends.  Germany  is 
the  conspicuous  example  of  this 
attitude.  In  1806,  after  Jena, 
Prussia  was  deprived  by  Napoleon 
of  every  chance  of  self-government 
— except  in  education.  But  the 
Prussians  under  the  leadership  of 
Fichte,  von  Humboldt,  and  others, 
deliberately  set  about  regenerating 
their  nation  by  means  of  education. 
As  a  result,  Bismarck  was  able  to 
say  that  it  was  the  schoolmaster 
who  conquered  at  Sadowa  and 
afterwards  at  Gravelotte.  Though 
used  for  a  bad  purpose,  German 
education  was  no  less  powerful  in 
moulding  national  character  and 
opinion  from  1871  to  1914.  Japan 
offers  an  equally  striking,  but  more 
pleasing,  example  of  the  power  of 
national  education  when  deliber- 


EDUCATION 


2802 


EDUCATION 


ately  applied  to  political  ends.  The 
rulers  there  determined  to  western- 
ise the  country,  and  by  intelligent 
and  purposeful  manipulation  of  the 
educational  system  accomplished 
their  end  in  a  single  generation. 

As  was  to  be  expected  from  the 
English  spirit,  education  has  not 
developed  in  this  way  in  Great 
Britain.  Many  attempts  have  been 
made  to  dominate  education  for 
sectional  ends,  mainly  religious, 
but  the  spirit  of  compromise  won  at 
last,  and  the  existence  of  the  con- 
science clause  which  provides  that 
no  pupil  shall  be  taught  religious 
doctrines  to  which  his  parents 
object,  or  suffer  because  he  is 
withdrawn  from  such  instruction, 
is  a  clear  proof  that  even  ecclesias- 
!  tical  zeal  has  not  been  able  to  ob- 
'  tain  complete  control  of  the 
i  schools. 

Schools  and  Propaganda 
It  would  be  impossible  to  use 
the  English  schools  after  the 
German  fashion  for  purposes  of 
propaganda  hi  the  interests  of  a 
ruling  class.  Hitherto  the  main 
demand  for  propagandist  oppor- 
tunities has  come  from  honest 
enthusiasts  who  have  some  social 
panacea,  and  know  that  an  entry 
into  the  schools  is  the  best  way 
possible  of  bringing  influence  to 
bear  in  favour  of  their  nostrums. 
Prohibitionists,  esperantists,  advo- 
cates of  the  metric  system,  anti- 
vaccinators,  anti  -  vivisectionists, 
and  other  particular  theorists  have 
sought  to  gain  admission  to  the 
schools.  No  doubt  with  increasing 
intercommunication  between  the 
home  and  the  school  there  will  in 
the  future  be  a  wider  use  of  educa- 
tional organization  for  purposes  of 
social  and  ethical  propaganda, 
but  no  propaganda  will  be  toler- 
ated that  does  not  command  very 
wide  popular  support. 

Many  people,  however,  regard 
with  uneasiness  the  growing  cen- 
tralisation of  the  educational 
administration  of  England.  The 
intense  individualism  of  the  Eng- 
lishman makes  him  inclined  to 
resent  any  interference  with  what 
he  regards  as  peculiarly  his  own, 
and  under  this  head  his  children 
hold  a  prominent  place.  The 
nation,  however,  has  got  beyond 
the  stage  at  which  one  is  inclined 
to  claim  that,  with  regard  to  the 
education  of  one's  children,  one 
ought  to  be  allowed  "to  do  what 
one  will  with  one's  own."  It  has 
learnt  that  for  the  best  working  of 
national  education  there  must  be  a 
certain  amount  of  central  control. 
But  English  people  seem  to  want 
this  control  kept  within  narrow 
limits.  They  have  watched  with 
uneasiness  the  history  of  state 
interference  in  education. 


Since  the  first  government  grant 
in  1833  the  state  has  been  gradu- 
ally gathering  under  its  control 
th3  educational  system.  At  first 
it  confined  its  authority  to  the 
elementary  schools,  but  by  the 
power  of  the  purse  it  has  been  able 
to  bring  the  secondary  schools 
more  and  more  under  its  control, 
and  now  by  an  extension  of  the 
grant  system  the  universities 
themselves  are  coming  within  the 
range  of  state  authority.  There  has 
not,  however,  been  any  attempt  to 
influence  unduly  the  schools,  the 
colleges,  or  the  universities  of  the 
country.  Indeed,  the  Board  of  Edu- 
cation is  showing  itself  particularly 
anxious  that  the  local  authorities 
should  share  the  burden  of  ad- 
ministration, and  recent  changes 
in  the  distribution  of  financial 
burdens  between  central  and  local 
authorities  make  it  much  easier  for 
central  and  local  authorities  to 
work  harmoniously  together. 

In  England  the  educational  ex- 
pert and  the  educational  adminis- 
trator have  in  the  past  been 
brought  far  too  little  together.  The 
Education  Act  of  1918  marks  an 
important  advance  in  this  matter. 
For  the  first  time  there  was  a  minis- 
ter of  education  who  was  really  in 
intelligent  sympathy  with  educa- 
tional principles  and  methods,  and 
the  Act  benefits  accordingly.  It 
has  the  great  merit  of  making  pro- 
vision for  the  adolescent  period,  the 
period  of  most  importance  in  the 
development  of  the  individual, 
but  a  period  that  had  not  been 
specially  considered  in  previous 
educational  legislation.  In  this 
and  in  other  points  the  Act  recog- 
nizes fully  the  need  to  take  account 
of  the  results  of  those  who  are 
engaged  in  educational  research. 
Progress  of  Scientific  Method 

Hitherto  education  has  been  car- 
ried on  on  a  basis  of  generalised 
opinion  rather  than  of  established 
principles.  Not  merely  administra- 
tors but  professional  teachers  them- 
selves have  been  content  to  accept 
traditional  opinions  and  methods. 
There  has  been  no  satisfactory 
means  of  comparing  the  advan- 
tages of  the  different  educational 
schemes  suggested  from  time  to 
time.  In  short,  there  has  been  no 
science  of  education.  Whether  such 
a  science  can  ever  be  developed 
is  a  point  in  dispute. 

Although  it  can  never  become 
an  exact  science,  education  is  be- 
coming more  scientific  in  its 
methods.  It  is  perhaps  impos- 
sible ever  to  establish  a  real 
objective  standard  in  education 
that  might  do  something  like  what 
the  thermometer  or  the  barometer 
does  for  other  sciences  ;  but  we  are 
on  the  way  towards  it.  Statistical 


and  experimental  methods  are  being 
widely  developed  in  education,  and 
educational  results  now  published 
are  no  longer  mere  subjects  of  logi- 
cal debate,  but  are  at  once  tested  by 
repeating  the  experiments  or  obser- 
vations on  which  they  are  based. 

In  this  sifting  process  much  help 
may  be  looked  for  from  the  scien- 
tific methods  used  by  Prof.  Karl 
Pearson,  Prof.  Spearman,  and 
others.  Although  the  results  of 
these  mathematical  investigations 
may  be  over-valued,  there  can  be 
no  doubt  that  they  provide  an  in- 
strument that  will  be  of  the  first 
importance  in  making  real  educa- 
tional progress  possible. 

Development  of  Child-Study 
A  contrast  to  this  over-exactness 
of  mathematical  formulae  is  pro- 
vided by  what  is  called  child-study  ; 
with  the  result  that  we  have  a  very 
happy  combination  of  the  abstract 
and  the  concrete.  Such  investiga- 
tions as  Prof.  Binet  carried  on  to 
determine  scales  of  intelligence  are 
examples  of  child-study  scientifi- 
cally conducted.  The  correlation  of 
bodily  with  mental  age  is  a  helpful 
concept,  and  promises  to  be  of 
great  value.  It  provides  what  is 
practically  an  objective  standard 
in  determining  the  normal,  the  sub- 
normal, and  the  supernormal  child. 
The  nature  of  the  defective  child  is 
becoming  much  clearer,  thanks  to 
the  tests  developed  from  the  Binet 
scheme.  The  treatment  of  super- 
normal children  is  only  now  re- 
ceiving serious  attention  from  edu- 
cational authorities,  and  a  pro- 
found modification  of  class  organi- 
zation is  likely  to  follow.  At  this 
point  the  social  changes  coming 
into  educational  organization  call 
for  mention.  The  correlation  of 
scientific  testing  of  individual  pupils 
with  the  social  school  organization 
implicit  in  such  a  scheme  as  is 
worked  out  at  Gary,  in  Indiana, 
cannot  but  lead  to  fundamental 
changes.  We  are  indeed  on  the 
brink  of  a  real,  but  not  a  sudden, 
revolution  in  education. 

Biblogravhy.  Essays  on  Educa- 
tional Reformers,  R.  H.  Quick, 
1868  ;  Teaching  and  Organisation, 
ed.  P.  A.  Barnett,  1897  ;  Common 
Sense  in  Education,  P.  A.  Barnett, 
1899  ;  Education  :  intellectual, 
moral,  and  physical,  Herbert  Spen- 
cer, repr.  1903  ;  The  Educative  Pro- 
cess, W.  C.  Bagley,  1905  ;  A  Text- 
book in  the  History  of  Education, 
P.  Monroe,  1905  ;  Sonnenschein's 
Cyclopaedia  of  Education,  ed.  A.  E. 
Fietoher,  revised  M.  E.  John,  1 906  ; 
The  School  and  Society,  J.  Dewey, 
1910  ;  Cyclopedia  of  Education,  ed. 
P.  Monroe,  1911-13  ;  The  Evolution 
of  Educational  Theory,  John  Adams, 
1912;  A  Text  Book  in  the  Principles 
of  Education,.  E.  N.  Henderson, 
1911 ;  Principles  of  Education,  F.  E. 


EDUCATION 


2803 


EDWARD 


Bolton,  1911  ;  Educational  Pro- 
blems, G.  S.  Hall,  1911  ;  What  is 
Education  ?  S.  M.  Leathes,  1913  ; 
From  Locke  to  Montessori,  William 
Boyd,  1914;  Principles  of  Secondary 
Education,  ed.  P.  Monroe,  1914; 
What  do  we  Mean  by  Education  ? 
J.  Welton,  1915;  Schools  of  To- 
morrow, J.  Dewey,  1915;  What  is 
Education?  E.  C.  Moore,  1916; 
The  New  Teaching,  ed.  John  Adams, 
1918  ;  Experimental  Education,  R. 
R.  Rusk,  1919;  The  Measurement 
of  Intelligence,  L.  M.  Terman,  1919  ; 
Short  History  of  Education,  J.  W. 
Adamson,  1 9 1 9 ;  Education  :  its  Data 
and  First  Principles.T.  P.  Nunn,  1 920. 

Education,  BOARD  OF.  Body  es- 
tablished ih  1899  to  supervise  pub- 
lic education  in  England  and  Wales. 
Its  head,  the  president,  is  a  party 
politician,  usually  a  member  of  the 
Cabinet,  and  receives  a  salary  of 
£2,000  a  year.  He  is  assisted  by  a 
parliamentary  secretary  and  a  per- 
manent secretary,  under  whom  are 
a  large  staff  of  inspectors  and  other 
officials,  and  also  by  a  consultative 
committee.  The  chief  departments 
of  the  Board  are  concerned  with 
elementary  education,  secondary 
education,  technical  education,  and 
training  colleges.  The  Board  looks 
after  the  Science  Museum  at  South 
Kensington  and  the  Geological  Sur- 
vey and  Museum. 

Before  the  establishment  of  this 
Board  education  in  England  and 
Wales  was  controlled  by  a  com- 
mittee of  the  privy  council,  first 
appointed  for  this  purpose  in  1 839. 
The  lord  president  of  the  council 
was  the  head  of  this,  but  the  real 
minister  of  education  was  the  vice- 
president,  also  a  politician.  In  Scot- 
land education  is  looked  after  by  an 
education  department  under  the 
general  control  of  the  secretary  for 
Scotland  ;  in  Ireland  the  work  is 
done  by  the  national  education 
board  as  regards  elementary,  and 
the  intermediate  education  board 
as  regards  secondary  education.  In 
Canada,  Australia,  and  also  in  the 
various  states  and  provinces  there- 
in, there  is  a  department  of  educa- 
tion presided  over  by  a  minister,  as 
there  is  in  many  foreign  countries. 

Education  Acts.  Series  of  Acts 
dealing  with  education  in  England 
and  Wales  from  1 870  onwards.'  The 
principal  of  these  were  the  Elemen- 
tary Education  Act  of  1870,  which 
instituted  a  state  system  of  compul- 
sory education,  side  by  side  with 
the  voluntary  schools,  and  initiated 
the  Ions;  controversy  on  the  subject 
of  religious  instruction  :  the  Act  of 
1891,  which  reduced  or  abolished 
school  fees  :  the  Act  ot  1902,  by 
which  an  education  rate  was  levied 
in  respect  of  all  schools,  both  state 
and  voluntary  :  and  the  Act  of 
1918,  which  dealt  comprehensively 
with  the  whole  question  of  educa- 


tion, raising  the  school  age,  and  pro- 
viding free  and  compulsory  instruc- 
tion for  young  persons  up  to  the 
age  of  18  by  means  of  continuation 
schools.  See  Continuation  Schools ; 
Education ;  Evening  Schools. 

Edward,  LAKE,  formerly  Albert 
Edward  Nyanza.  Lake  of  East 
Central  Africa,  150  m.  W.  of  the 
Victoria  Nyanza.  Lying  at  an  alt. 
of  3,000  ft.  above  sea  level,  it  is  con- 
nected on  the  N.E.  by  a  tortuous 
channel  with  Lake  George.  The 
latter  was  discovered  by  H.  M. 
Stanley  in  1875,  who  believed  it  to 
form  part  of  the  Albert  Nyanza  ; 
but,  while  tracing  the  source  of  the 
Semliki  river  in  1889,  he  dis- 
covered the  lake  he  named  Albert 
Edward  Nyanza.  and  also  the  chan- 
nel connecting  it  with  Lake  George. 
The  length  of  Edward  Lake  is  44  m. 
and  the  breadth  33  m. 

Edward.  Masculine  Christian 
name.  Of  Teutonic  origin,  it  means 
able  to  guard.  It  was  very  popu- 
lar among  the  Anglo-Saxons,  being 
borne  by  Edward  the  Elder,  Ed- 
ward the  Confessor,  and  other 
kings,  and  has  since  been  one  of  the 
most  used  of  English  names.  The 
Anglo-Saxon  Edward  is  sometimes 
spelled  Eadward,  a  form  which 
gives  the  best  idea  of  the  diphthong 
with  which  it  began  in  that  tongue. 
Eduard,  Edouard,  and  Edoardo  are 
the  German,  French,  and  Italian 
forms.  Edward  is  the  form  used 
throughout  this  Encyclopedia. 

Edward,  CALLED  THE  ELDER 
(d.  924).  King  of  the  English.  The 
son  of  Alfred  the  Great,  he  fought 
against  the  Danes  and  was  called 
king  before  his  father's  death.  In 
Nov.,  901,  the  witan  chose  him  as 
Alfred's  successor.  His  succession 
was  disputed  by  his  cousin  Ethel- 
wald,  who  rebelled  and  was  slain 
in  battle  in  905.  By  91 8  Edward 
brought  the  Danes  into  subjection  ; 
in  919,  on  the  death  of  his  sister 
Ethelfleda,  he  absorbed  Mercia;  and 
in  921  he  subdued  the  Welsh.  He 
ruled  as  far  north  as  the  H  umber, 
and  his  overlordship  was  acknow- 
ledged by  all  the  other  kings.  The 
"  unconquered  king,"  as  Florence 
of  Worcester  calls  him,  died  at 
Farndon,  Northamptonshire,  and 
was  buried  at  Winchester.  He  left 
a  large  family,  including  his  suc- 
cessor Athelstan,  and  daughters 
who  married  Hugh,  count  of  Paris, 
and  the  emperor  Otto  the  Great. 

Edward,  CALLED  THE  MARTYR 
(c.  963-978).  King  of  the  English. 
The  son  of  Edgar,  his  right  to  the 
succession  was  disputed  on  Edgar's 
death  in  975  by  his  stepmother 
Elfrida,  who  put  forward  her  son 
Ethelred  (the  Unready ).  Edward 
was  supported  by  Archbishop 
Dunstan,  and  was  crowned.  On 
Mar.  18, 978,  he  was  assassinated  by 


Elfrida's  orders,  while  being  offered 
a  drinking-cup,  and  was  hastily 
buried  at  Wareham.  In  980  his 
body  was  transferred  to  Shaftes- 
bury,  and  his  tomb  became  a  place 
of  pilgrimage.  He  was  long  rever- 
enced as  saint  and  martyr,  his 
festival  being  kept  on  March  18. 

Edward,  CALLED  THE  CONFESSOR 
(c.  1005-66).  King  of  the  English. 
The  son  of  Ethelred  the  Unready 


Great  Seal  of  Edward  the  Confessor 

and  Emma,  daughter  of  Richard, 
duke  of  the  Normans,  he  was  born 
at  Islip,  Oxfordshire.  He  was 
taken  to  Normandy  by  his  parents 
when  Sweyn  became  king  in  1013. 
Invited  to  England  in  1041  by  his 
half-brother,  Hardicanute,  when 
the  latter  died  in  the  following  year 
Edward  was  chosen  king,  and 
placed  on  the  throne  largely  by  the 
help  of  Earl  Godwin,  whose  daugh- 
ter Edith  he  married  in  1045. 

His  reign  was  peaceful,  though 
marked  by  struggles  for  power  be- 
tween the  English  and  the  Nor- 
mans, the  latter  being  befriended 
by  the  king.  Edward's  chief  in- 
terest was  religion,  and  he  devoted 
a  large  part  of  his  revenues  to  the 
erection  of  Westminster  Abbey.  It 
was  consecrated  at  the  end  of  1 065, 
and  Edward  died  Jan.  5,  1066.  He 
was  canonised  in  1161,  and  his 
festival  is  kept  on  Oct.  13.  See 
Lives  of  Edward  the  Confessor,  ed. 
H.  R.  Luard,  Rolls  Series,  1858. 

Edward  I  ( 1 239-1 307 ).  King  of 
England.  The  eldest  son  of  Henry 
III,  he  was  born  at  Westminster, 
June  17,  1239. 
In  the  differ- 
ences between 
the  crown  and 
the  baronage, 
Edward  sided 
with  his  father, 
and  was  taken  ; 
prisoner  after  I 
the  battle  of  I 
Lewes,  1264. 
He  escaped, 
however,  and 
directed  the  royalist  victory  over 
Simon  de  Montfort  at  Evesham  in 
1265.  He  succeeded  to  the  throne 
__J 


Edward  I, 
King  of  England, 

12/2-130; 


EDWARD      I! 


EDWARD     VI 


in  1272.  During  his  reign,  Edward 
conquered  Wales,  and  endeavoured 
to  form  a  united  kingdom  embrac- 
ing the  whole  island  by  asserting  his 
sovereignty  over  Scotland,  which 
regularly  rebelled  whenever  the 
king  was  seriously  engaged  else- 
where. Edward  was  at  the  head 
of  an  invading  army  when  he  died, 
July  7, 1307,  at  Burgh-on-Sands. 

Edward  ranks  as  one  of  the 
greatest  kings  of  England.  He 
systematised  the  English  laws,  and 
gave  the  English  parliamentary 
system  its  definite  form  by  sum- 
moning to  the  Model  parliament  of 
1295  not  only  the  higher  clergy  and 
baronage,  but  knights  and  burghers. 
His  tomb  in  Westminster  Abbey 
bears  the  inscription,  Malleus  Sco- 
torum,  "the  Hammer  of  the  Scots,'1 
and  his  motto,  Pactum  serva,  Keep 
troth.  Edward's  first  wife  was 
Eleanor,  daughter  of  the  king  of 
Castile,  and  his  second  wife  was 
Margaret,  daughter  of  Philip  of 
France.  See  Edward  I,  T.  F.  Tout, 
1893;  alsoillus.  p.  2240. 

Edward  II  (1284-1327).  King 
of  England.  Son  of  Edward  I,  he 
was  born  at  Carnarvon,  April  25, 
1284.  In  1301  he  was  created 
prince  of  Wales  at  Lincoln  and  he 
acted  as  regent  when  his  father 
was  away  ; 
however,  he 
early  revealed 
the  indolence 
and  levity 
that  finally 
destroyed 
him.  In  1306 
he  was  given 
the  province 
of  G  a  sc  ony, 
and  in  1307 
he  became 
king.  He  abandoned  the  war 
against  Scotland,  and  was  married 
to  Isabella  of  France. 

Edward  was  already  under  the 
influence  of  Piers  Gaveston.  The 
barons  took  up  arms  with  Edward's 
cousin,  earl  Thomas  of  Lancaster, 
at  their  head,  and  they  forced 
upon  the  king  the  banishment  of 
Gaveston.  A  reconciliation,  brief 
and  insincere,  followed.  In  1314 
the  Scotch  war  was  renewed  and 
Edward  suffered  defeat  at  Ban- 
nockburn.  This  was  Lancaster's 
opportunity,  and  for  a  time  the  king 
was  a  cipher,  but  he  found  fresh 
favourites  in  the  Despencers,  and 
a  combination  of  circumstances 
brought  about  the  defeat  and  death 
of  earl  Thomas  in  1322.  Edward 
and  the  Despencers  were  then 
supreme  until  1326.  Isabella,  alien- 
ated from  her  husband,  crossed 
from  France  with  some  followers. 
Caught  in  Wales,  he  was  formally 
deposed,  and  on  Sept.  21,  1327,  he 
was  murdered  at  Berkeley  Castle. 


Edward  II, 

King  of  England, 

1307-27 


Edward  III, 

King  of  England, 

1327-77 


See  Place  and  Reign  of  Edward  II 
in  English  History,  T.  F.  Tout, 
1914;  also  illus.  pp!  1077  and  1713. 

Edward  III  (131 2-77).  King  of 
England.  Born  Nov.  13,  1312, 
he  was  raised 
to  the  throne 
by  the  depo- 
sition of  his 
father,  Ed- 
ward II  (Jan., 
1327).  The 
government 
was  in  the 
hands  of  the 
queen  -  mother 
Isabella  and 
Roger  Morti- 
mer till  the  young  king,  who  married 
Philippa  of  Hainault,  1328,  over- 
threw them  by  a,  coup  d'etat  in  1330. 

At  first  Edward  warred  against 
the  Scots,  but  his  ambitions  were 
soon  turned  to  France,  and  in 
1338  began  the  Hundred  Years' 
War.  In  the  course  of  it  he  secured 
the  English  supremacy  of  the  nar- 
row seas  by  the  naval  victory  of 
Sluys,  June  24,  1340,  established 
the  prestige  of  the  English  soldiery 
and  the  military  supremacy  of  the 
English  archers  by  the  startling 
victory  of  Crecy,  Aug.  26,  1346; 
and  in  1347  captured  Calais.  A 
victory  was  won  by  his  son  Edward 
the  Black  Prince  at  Poitiers,  Sept. 
19,  1356,  and  Edward  was  con- 
firmed in  the  independent  sove- 
reignty of  Aquitaine  by  the  treaty 
of  Bretigny  in  1360.  He  died, 
prematurely  senile,  June  21,  1377. 
His  family  included  the  dukes  of 
Clarence,  York  and  Lancaster, 
whose  descendants  fought  for  the 
crown  during  the  Wars  of  the 
Roses.  He  was  the  first  king  who 
conspicuously  directed  policy  to 
commercial  expansion,  the  security 
of  the  trade  with  Flanders  being 
one  of  the  objects  of  his  French 
wars.  See  Lives,  W.  Longman, 
1869;  W.  Warburton,  2nd  ed. 
1876;  J.  Mackinnon,  1900. 

Edward  IV  (1442-83).  King  of 
England.  The  eldest  son  of  Richard 
duke  of  York,  and  Cicely  Neville, 
he  was  born  at 
Rouen,  April 
28,  1442.  In 
Dec.,  1460,  he 
became  the 
leader  of  the 
Yorkists  and 
their  candidate 
for  the  crown.  « 
Acting  with  I 
great  energy, 
he  crushed  the 
L  a  n  c  a  strians 
at  Mortimer's 
Cross,  and  in 
London  was  hailed  as  king.  He 
then  seated  himself  on  the  throne 
at  Westminster  on  March  4,  1461. 


After  a  victory  at  Towton  Edward 
was  able  to  hold  his  own,  although 
not  absolutely  secure.  In  1469,  how- 
ever, came  a  change.  He  had  made 
many  enemies  by  the  favour  he 
showed  to  his  wife's  kinsfolk,  the 
Woodvilles,  and  when  Warwick 
and  Clarence,  the  king's  brother, 
joined  his  foes,  his  position  was 
precarious.  He  prepared  to  meet 
thorn  in  the  field,  but  the  desertion 
of  6,000  men  was  fatal  to  his  cause, 
and  in  great  haste  he  left  Lynn  for 
the  Netherlands.  Returning  with 
an  army,  he  won  battles  at  Barnet 
and  Towkesbury.  In  1475  he  con 
ducted  a  short  war  with  France 
and  he  had  some  trouble  with 
Scotland,  but  in  general  he  kept 
the  land  at  peace.  He  died  April 
9,  1483.  See  Life,  L.  Stratford, 
1910;  also  illus.  p.  1802. 

Edward  V  (1470-83).  King  of 
England.  He  was  born  in  the 
Sanctuary,  Westminster,  Nov.  3, 
1470,  a  son  of 
Edward  IV  and 
Elizabeth 
W  o  o  d  v  i  1 1  e. 
When  he  suc- 
ceeded to  the 
throne,  April  9, 
1483,  his  uncle, 
the  duke  of 
Gloucester, 
was  his  • 


guar- 
dian. 

Gloucester,  however,  imprisoned 
the  boy  king  and  his  brother  in  the 
Tower,  and  had  himself  crowned  as 
Richard  III,  July  6,  1483.  Accord- 
ing to  Sir  Thomas  More,  endorsing 
contemporary  belief,  Edward  and 
his  brother  were  murdered  very 
shortly  after.  See  Richard  III. 

Edward  VI  (1537-53).  King  of 
England.  He  was  born  at  Hamp- 
ton Court,  Oct.  12,  1537,  the  son 
of  Henry  VIII 
and  his  third 
wife,  JaneSey- 
m  o  u  r,  and 
succeeded  t  o 
the  throne, 
Jan.  28,  1547. 
His  uncle,  the 
duke  of  Som- 
erset, was  pro- 
tector and  the 
real  ruler  for 
the  first  half  of 
the  reign,  and  on  Somerset's  fall 
and  execution,  to  which  the  young 
king  calmly  assented,  his  rival, 
the  earl  of  Warwick,  later  duke  of 
Northumberland,  held  the  chief 
power.  The  young  king  favoured 
Northumberland's  plan  for  securing 
the  succession  of  his  daughter,  Lady 
Jane  Grey.  Edward  died  at  Gseeri- 
wich,  July  6,  1553.  See  King 
Edward  VI :  an  appreciation,  C.  R. 
Markham,  1907. 


Btf 


EDWARD     VI! 


2805 


EDWARD     VII 


EDWARD    VII  :     KING    AND    PEACEMAKER 

J.  G.  J.  Penclerel-Brodhurst,  Author,  The  Life  and  Times  of  Edward  VII 

As  in  the  case  of  other  kings  of  England,  an  article  is  devoted  to  the 

life  and  work  of  this  monarch.     For  the  history  of  his  time  see 

Europe  ;  France ;  United  Kingdom,  etc.     See  also  Victoria 


Albert  Edward,  the  second  child 
and  eldest  son  of  Queen  Victoria 
and  Prince  Albert  of  Saxe-Coburg, 
was  born  at  Buckingham  Palace, 
Nov.  9,  1841.  He  was  educated 
upon  pedantic  and  rigid  lines,  which 
made  his  boyhood  a  weariness  and 
his  adolescence  a  struggle  for 
emancipation.  His  day  was  care- 
fully mapped  out ;  every  hour  had 
its  allotted  subject,  and  light  read- 
ing was  frowned  upon  ;  he  was 
kept  in  on  every  side  by  governors 
and  tutors,  and  allowed  to  asso- 
ciate intimately  only  with  youths 
of  his  own  age.  carefully  chosen  for 
their  high  qualities.  This  method 
excluded  much  of  the  human  side 
of  life,  and  left  little  room  for  the 
escape  of  the  high  animal  spirits 
which  Edward  VII  possessed  almost 
to  the  last.  He  studied  science 
at  Edinburgh,  and  went  up  succes- 
sively to  Christ  Church,  Oxford, 
and  Trinity,  Cambridge,  but  took 
no  degrees.  The  wisest  part  of  his 
education  consisted  of  travel,  and 
the  Prince  Consort  exhibited  ad- 
mirable foresight  when,  in  1860, 
he  arranged  a  long  tour  for  his  son 
in  Canada  and  the  U.S.A.  At  the 
end  of  1861  Prince  Albert  died, 
and  immediately  afterwards  hie 
son  paid  a  visit  to  the  Holy  Land. 

In  1863  he  married  Princess 
Alexandra,  daughter  of  Prince 
Christian  of  Gliicksburg,  who 
shortly  afterwards  became  king 
of  Denmark.  Good-looking,  good- 
humoured,  frank  and  open,  with 
an  untiring  zest  for  life,  of  cosmo 
politan  tastes,  yet  an  Englishman 
to  the  core,  his  marriage  greatly 
increased  the  popularity  which  he 
had  always  enjoyed.  For  very 
many  years  he  performed  with 
tact  and  assiduity  the  representa- 
tive functions  which  Queen  Vic- 
toria felt  herself  unable  to  face. 
The  more  tedious  duties  of  royal 
personages  in  a  democratic  mon- 
archy are  hardly  a  training  for 
statesmanship,  but  they  bring  a 
prince  into  contact  with  the  people, 
and  provide  him  with  the  means 
of  becoming  acquainted  with  every 
corner  of  his  country  and  with 
many  social  grades. 

King  Edward  made  the  best  ot 
such  opportunities.  He  had  an  in- 
exhaustible interest  in  men.  They 
were  the  books  from  which  he 
learned,  and  as  time  went  on  his 
knowledge  of  social  and  political 
movements  became  extensive.  He 
knew  all  the  distinguished  men  in 
Europe,  and  gradually  developed 
a  keen  and  sane  interest  in  affairs, 


and  especially  in  foreign  politics. 
Yet  his  political  knowledge  was 
acquired  externally  and  by  inter- 
course with  politicians.  Not  until 
he  was  turned  fifty  was  Queen 
Victoria's  assent  obtained  to  his 
receiving  copies  of  important  dis- 
patches. Foreign  politics  fasci- 
nated him,  and  from  middle  life 
to  the  close  of  his  short  but  bril- 
liant reign  he  was  profoundly  in- 
terested in  the  external  relations 
of  the  Empire. 

Side  by  side  with  this  absorbing 
interest  he  developed  keen  sym- 
pathy with  social  reform.  He  was 
a  member  of  a  royal  commission 
on  the  housing  of  the  poor  ;  to 
him  the  London  hospitals  owe  in 
large  measure  the  present  living 
interest  in  their  work.  His  solici- 
tude for  the  alleviation  of  pain 


and  sickness  was  to  some  extent 
the  outcome  of  his  own  grave 
illness  from  typhoid  in  1871,  when 
he  was  saved  from  death  only  by 
the  most  skilful  nursing  and  a 
robust  constitution.  It  was  the 
social  and  charitable  side  of  free- 
masonry which  made  him  an  en- 
thusiast for  "  the  Craft,"  and 
brought  him  to  the  English  grand 
mastership. 

As  heir  to  the  throne  the  prince 
necessarily  sat  upon  the  cross- 
benches  of  the  House  of  Lords. 
Both  as  prince  of  Wales  and  as 
king  he  was  a  great  traveller,  and 
in  1875  he  paid  a  memorable  visit 
to  India  which  laid  the  founda- 
tions of  the  more  modern  rela- 
tions of  that  empire  with  the 
mother-country.  Yet,  despite  the 
popularity  won  by  his  unfailing 
tact,  inherent  dignity,  and  careful 
attention  to  the  duties  which  fell 
upon  him,  or  which  he  made  for 
himself,  he  was  not  exempt  from 
criticism.  There  were  those  to 
whom  his  love  of  the  turf — he 


Frnm  the  portrait  6y  BaroJd  Speed. 
By  permission  of  the  Fine  Arts  Publishing  C 


EDWARD     VII 


2806 


EDWARD     VII 


Edward  VII.     1.  Aged  eleven,  from  a  painting  by  Winterhalter.     2.  A  photograph  at  the  age  of  21.    3.  Edward  and 
Alexandra  on  the  eve  of  their  wedding,  from  a  drawing.     4.  King  Edward  in  his  study.     5.  As  Admiral  of  the  Fleet. 
6.  As  Field-marshal 


won  the  Derby  thrice — was  an 
offence,  and  others  who  blamed 
him  for  what  appeared  to  be  an 
undue  tendency  to  select  his 
friends  from  among  those  who 
shunned  the  sterner  walks  of  life. 
These  feelings  were  expressed  by 
the  country  generally  when,  in 
1891,  a  famous  lawsuit  followed 
a  scandal  at  cards  on  an  occasion 
when  the  prince  of  Wales  was 
banker.  Little  more  than  six 
months  later — in  January,  1892 — 
the  prince's  eldest  son,  the  duke 
of  Clarence,  who  had  just  been 
betrothed  to  his  cousin,  Princess 
Victoria  Mary  of  Teck,  died,  and 
all  was  forgotten  in  sympathy 
with  so  tragic  a  grief.  This  sorrow 
did  much  to  draw  prince  and  people 
more  closely  together,  and  when, 
on  January  22,  190),  he  ascended 
the  throne,  affectionate  regard  was 
merged  in  ready  and  loyal  homage. 


7.  In  his  coronation  robes 

\otos:  4  and  5.  Russell;  6,  Lafayette ;  7.  Downey 

Edward  became  king  in  his 
sixtieth  year.  With  much  intuition, 
a  quick  and  flexible  mind  readily 
open  to  new  impressions,  and  a  clear 
appreciation  of  the  functions  of  a 
limited  monarch,  he  associated 
much  of  the  tenacity  of  his  family 
with  an  extraordinary  knowledge 
of  men  and  affairs  and  unfailing 
industry. 

King    Edward's    aptitude    for 


that  his  diplomacy  averted  war 
between  Sweden  and  Norway  in 
1905  when  the  two  countries  dis- 
solved partnership,  and  the  con- 
solidation of  a  good  understanding 
with  Russia  owed  much  to  his  per- 
sonal efforts.  It  has  been  hotly 
denied  that  he  had  any  influence 
whatever  in  bringing  about  the 
entente  with  France.  It  is  neverthe- 
less idle  to  suppose  that  his  friend- 


kingcraft  now  began  to  enjoy  the     ship  with  French  presidents  and 


scope  it  had  hitherto  lacked,  and 
in  the  spring  of  1903  he  paid  a  series 
of  visits  devoted  to  strengthening 
the  bonds  of  friendship  between 
Great  Britain,  France,  Italy,  and 
Portugal.  Three  visits  with  a  simi- 
lar object  were  paid  to  Ireland, 
and  later  he  went  twice  to  Ger- 
many, where  the  ex -Kaiser  bore 
public  testimony  to  his  uncle's 
"  unremitting  endeavours"  in  the 
cause  of  peace.  It  is  an  open  secret 


politicians,  and  his  own  frank 
delight  in  France  and  appreciation 
of  the  French  character,  can  have 
counted  for  nothing. 

King  Edward's  death  came  in 
the  midst  of  the  heavy  political 
anxieties  attendant  upon  the 
sharp  conflict  between  the  two 
houses  which  issued  Jn  the  Parlia- 
ment Act.  He  fell  quickly  before 
an  attack  of  bronchitis,  and  died 
May  6, 1910;  he  had  reigned  for  a 


EDWARD 

little  more  than  nine  years.  He 
had  five  children  who  survived 
infancy :  the  duke  of  Clarence, 
who  predeceased  him,  King  George 
V,  the  princess  royal,  princess  Vic- 
toria, and  the  queen  of  Norway. 

Bibliography.  Life,  5  vols.,  J. 
P.  Brodhurst,  1905-11  ;  Edward 
the  Peacemaker,  W.  H.  Wilkins, 
1910-11  ;  King  Edward  VII  as  a 
Sportsman,  A.  E.  T.  Watson,  1911  ; 
King  Edward  in  his  True  Colours. 
E.  Legge,  1912;  More  About  King 
Edward,  E.  Legge,  1913;  The 
Influence  of  King  Edward,  Viscount 
Esher,  1915. 

Edward  (b.  1894).  Prince  of 
Wales.  The  eldest  son  of  King 
George  V  and  Queen  Mary,  he  was 
born  at  White  Lodge,  Richmond, 
June  23,  1894-  and  christened,  on 
July  16,  Edward  Albert  Christian 
George  Andrew  Patrick  David. 

In  1907  the  prince  entered  the 
Royal  Naval  College,  Osborne,  for 
two  years'  training,  going  next  to 
Dartmouth.  He  was  created  prince 


28O7 


EDWARD 


of  Wales,  June  23,  1910.  His  in- 
vestiture as  prince  of  Wales,  at 
Carnarvon,  was  notable  because 
he  was  the  first  of  nineteen  princes 
of  Wales  to  be  invested  in  Wales 
itself.  As  midshipman  he  sailed  on 
H.M.S.  Hindustan,  where  he  proved 
himself  a  thoroughly  hard  worker. 
The  prince's  first  public  ceremony 
was  at  the  presentation  of  a  silver 
oar  to  Dartmouth,  in  March,  1911  : 
he  was  invested  Knight  of  the 
Order  of  the  Garter,  June  10, 
1911,  and  a  few  days  afterwards 
took  a  leading  part  in  the  coro- 
nation of  his  parents.  In  1912, 
being  eighteen,  he  celebrated  his 
majority.  In  1913  he  entered  Mag- 
dalen College,  Oxford,  after  a  visit 
to  Paris,  where  he  received  the 
Legion  of  Honour. 

When  the  Great  War  broke  out 
in  August,  1914,  he  made  an  appeal 
for  the  national  fund  to  allay  dis- 
tress, and  millions  of  pounds  were 
subscribed.  He  was  gazetted,  Nov. 
17,  1914,  as  aide-de-camp  to  the 
commander-in-chief  of  the  Expe- 
ditionary Forces,  and  went  to 
France.  He  was  attached  in  turn 
to  army  corps,  divisional  and  bri- 
gade headquarters,  and  was  fre- 
quently under  fire.  He  carried  the 
dispatch  concerning  the  battle  of 
Neuve  Chapelle  on  his  brief  leave 
m  April,  1915. 

His  21st  birthday  passed  with- 
out public  celebration,  by  his  wish, 
but  a  separate  establishment  was 
provided  for  him  in  St.  James's 
Palace.  He  served  in  Egypt  in 
1916,  as  captain  on  the  general 
staff,  and  visited  the  Italian  front 
at  a  time  of  crisis.  During  short 


Edward.  Prince  ot  Wales.  Scene  after  the  investiture  at  Carnarvon  Castle, 
July  13, 1911.  The  Prince  is  standing  between  King  George  and  Queen  Alary 
on  a  platform  at  the  top  of  specially  constructed  steps  at  the  gate  where, 
according  to  tradition,  the  first  infant  prince  of  Wales  was  presented  by 
Edward  I  to  the  Welsh  chiefs.  Inset  :  His  Royal  Highness  as  Colonel  oi 
the  Welsh  Guards  (photo  Vandyk) 


leave,  the  prince  took  his  seat  in 
the  House  of  Lords,  Feb.,  1918, 
being  promoted  major  in  the  same 
month.  After  the  armistice  he 
undertook  many  public  duties ; 
and  took  up  the  freedom  of  the 
City  of  London,  May,  1919.  He 
toured  through  Canada  and  the 
U.S.A.,  August-December,  1919, 
visited  Fiji,  New  Zealand,  and 
Australia  in  1920,  and  made  a  tour 
of  the  Indian  Empire  in  1921-22. 
Possessed  of  a  simple  directness  of 
speech,  combined  with  geniality 
and  tact,  the  prince  discharged  his 
varied  duties  with  success. 

David    Williamson 

Edward  (1330-76),  known  as 
the  Black  Prince.  Eldest  son  of 
Edward  III  of  England,  he  was 
born  at  Woodstock.  June  15,  1330  ; 
in  1333  was  made  earl  of  Ches- 
ter, four  years  later  duke  of  Corn- 
wall, and  in  1343  prince  of  Wales. 
In  1345  he  accompanied  his  father 
on  the  French  campaign  and  dis- 


tinguished himself  at  the  battle  of 
Crecy.  Two  years  later  he  was  at 
the  capture  of  Calais,  and  in  1350 
he  was  in  the  sea  fight  off  Win- 
chelsea  against  the  Spaniards.  In 
1355  Edward  was  sent  to  Gascony, 
when  he  led  the  English  armies  in 
a  series  of  raids  over  the  French 
territory.  In  the  following  year  a 
similar  expedition  culminated  in 
the  battle  of  Poitiers  (q.o.). 

In  1357  he  returned  to  England 
and  in  1361  married  his  cousin 
Joan,  known  as  the  Fair  Maid  of 
Kent.  In  1362  his  father  granted 
him  Gascony  and  Aquitaine.  He 
took  part  in  a  disastrous  expedi 
tion  for  replacing  Peter  of  Castile 
on  the  throne,  but  soon  many  dis- 
aflected  lords  of  his  territories  rose 
against  him,  and  many  of  his 
towns  surrendered  to  them  When, 
after  a  month's  siege,  he  re-took 
Limoges,  he  ordered  a  general 
massacre  of  its  inhabitants.  In 
1371  Edward  returned,  in  broken 


EDWARD 


2808 


health,  to  England.  He  supported 
the  bishops  against  the  evil  ad- 
ministration of  Lancaster.  He  died 
at  Westminster  on  July  8,  1376, 
and  was  buried  in  Canterbury 
Cathedral.  He  was  not  called  the 
Black  Prince  until  long  after  his 
death,  the  name  being  probably 
given  him  because  he  wore  black 
armour.  His  son  was  Richard  II. 
See  Lives,  G.  P.  R.  James,  2nd  ed. 
1839;  R.  P.  Dunn-Pattison,  1910. 

Edward,  THOMAS  (1814-86)- 
Scottish  naturalist.  He  was  born 
Dec.  25,  1814,  at.Gosport,  where 
his  father,  a  private  soldier,  was  on 
service.  He  was  taken  by  his 
parents  to  Banff  at  an  early  ago, 
and  remained  there  for  the  rest  of 
his  life.  From  childhood  he  dis- 
played a  great  love  for  natural 
history.  A  poor  shoemaker,  he  for 
many  years  spent  the  whole  of  his 
nights  out  of  doors.  He  discovered 
between  twenty  and  thirty  species 
new  to  science,  in  addition  to  add- 
ing to  the  British  fauna  a  vast 
number  of  species  hitherto  un- 
known in  these  islands.  In  1866 
he  was  elected  an  associate  of  the 
Linnean  Society,  and  a  civil  list 
pension  was  awarded  to  him.  He 
died  April  27, 1886.  See  Life  of  a 
Scotch  Naturalist,  S.  Smiles,  1876. 

Edwardes,  GEORGE  (1852-1 91 5). 
British  theatrical  manager.  He  was 
born  Oct.  8,  1852,  of  Irish  parents, 
and  started  his  career  as  business 
manager  at  the  Gaiety  Theatre, 
Dublin,  'i  In  1875  he  became 
business  manager  for  D'  Oyly  Carte 
at  the  Opera  Comique,  London,  and 
went  with  him  to  the  Savoy.  He 
joined  John  Hollingshead  as  joint 
manager  at  The  Gaiety,  London, 
Dec.,  1885,  and  in  1886  became  the 
manager  of  that  theatre,  which  he 
directed  for  nearly  thirty  years,  pro- 
ducing a  long  series  of  successful 
musical  plays.  He  died  Oct.  4, 1915. 

Edwardes,  SIR  HERBERT  BEN- 
JAMIN (1819-68).  British  soldier 
and  Indian  administrator.  He 
was  born  at  Frodesley,  Shropshire, 
Nov.  12, 1819,  and  became  a  cadet 
in  the  East  India  Company  in  1840. 
In  1845-46  he  was  aide-de-camp  to 
Sir  Hugh  Gough  in  the  Punjab 
campaign.  As  first  assistant  to 
Sir  Henry  Lawrence,  the  resident 
at  Lahore,  he  administered  Bannu, 
and  his  courage  and  resourceful- 
ness were  conspicuously  seen  in 
his  defeat  of  the  diwan  of  Multan, 
1848.  Edwardes  rendered  signal 
service  during  the  Mutiny  by 
securing  the  neutrality  of  Afghan- 
istan. Knighted  in  1860,  he  re- 
turned to  England  in  1865,  and  died 
Dec.  23,  1868.  See  Memorials  of 
Life  and  Letters,  E.  Edwardes,  1886. 

Edwardesabad.  Alternative 
name  given  to  the  town  of  Bannu 
(q.v.},  N.W.  Frontier  Prov.,  India, 


Edward  Medal.  Medal  in- 
stituted in  1907  by  Edward  VII  to 
reward  heroic  acts  in  civil  life,  es- 


Edward  Medal,  instituted  as  a  reward 
for  heroic  deeds  in  civil  life  (reduced) 

pecially  in  mines  and  quarries.  It 
consists  of  two  classes,  the  Edward 
medal,  and  the  Edward  medal  in 
silver.  Bars  are  awarded  for  further 
conspicuous  acts  of  bravery.  The 
medal  bears  a  portrait  of  King 
Edward.  The  ribbon,  which  is 
worn  in  a  bow  by  women,  is  dark 
blue  with  narrow  yellow  edge. 

Edwards,  ALFRED  GEORGE 
(b.  1848).  British  prelate,  the 
first  Anglican  archbishop  of  Wales. 
Born  Nov.  2, 
1848,  he  was 
educated  at 
Jesus  College, 
Oxford,  and, 
having  been 
ordained,  be- 
came in  1875 
headmaster  of 
Llandovery 
College.  In 
1885  he  was 
made  vicar  and 
rural  dean  of  Carmarthen,  and 
in  1889  was  consecrated  bishop  of 
St.  Asaph.  In  April,  1920,  Dr. 
Edwards  was  elected  the  first  arch- 
bishop of  the  new  province  of 
Wales.  See  Wales,  Church  of. 

Edwards,  AMELIA  BLANDFORD 
(1831-92).  British  novelist  and 
Egyptologist.  She  was  born  in 
London ,  June  7, 
1831,  and  for 
many  years 
wrote  stories 
for  Household 
Words  and  All 
the  Year 
Round,  besides 
contributing 
articles  to  The 
Saturday  Re- 
view and  The 
Morning  Post. 


Alfred  G.  Edwards, 
Archbishop  of  Wales 

Russell 


J 

Amelia  B.  Edwards, 
British  novelist 


Barbara's  History, 
1864,  was  translated  into  German, 
Italian,  and  French;  and  Lord 
Brackenbury,  1880,  ran  into  15 
editions.  In  1882  she  founded  the 
Egypt  Exploration  Fund,  and  the 
rest  of  her  life  was  devoted  to  that 
object.  She  endowed  the  first  Chair 
of  Egyptology  at  London  Uni- 
versity. She  died  April  15,  1892. 

Edwards,  JOHN  PASSMORE 
(1823-1911).  British  journalist 
and  philanthropist.  Born  at  Black- 


water,  Cornwall,  on  March  24, 
1823,  the  son  of  a  carpenter,  he 
trained  himself  to  be  a  journalist. 

coming    to    -u^,^         

London    in    1 
1846.    He  was    f    Jf 
proprietor  and 
director  of  the 
London  even- 
i  n  g      jourm 
The    Ech( 
1876-96,    an 
sat  as  Liben 

,  rmsT.  t^~  J*  P&ssniore  Edw&rds. 
bury,  1880-85.  British  philanthropist 
Active  in  muou&frv 

political     and 

social  reform,  he  is  chiefly  re- 
membered for  his  benefactions  to 
hospitals,  libraries,  art  galleries, 
and  other  public  institutions,  of 
which  he  founded  more  than  70  of 
various  kinds.  He  died  April  22, 
1911.  £ee  Echo;  Passmore  Ed- 
wards Settlement;  consult  also 
the  autobiographical  A  Few  Foot- 
prints, 2nd  ed.  1906. 

Edwards,  JONATHAN  (1703-58). 
American  divine  and  metaphy- 
sician. He  was  born  Oct.  5,  1703, 
at  East  Wind- 
sor, Connecti- 
cut, and  in 
1727  became 
minister  at 
Northampton, 
Massachusetts . 
H  i  s  extreme 
and  logical 
Calvinism  was 
e  x  p  ounded 
with  unusual 
power,  but  his  insistence  on  church 
discipline  broughtdismissal  from  the 
pulpit.  From  1750-58  he  resided  at 
Stockbridge  as  a  missionary  to  the 
River  Indians,  and  a  few  weeks 
before  his  death,  March  22,  1758, 
he  was  appointed  president  of 
Princeton  College,  New  Jersey. 
Edwards  was  the  author  of  many 
hooks,  of  which  the  most  important 
was  A  careful  and  strict  Enquiry 
into  ....  Freedom  of  Will,  1754. 
Works,  ed.  with  Memoir,  S.  E. 
Dwight,  10  vols.,  1830.  See  Cal- 
vinism ;  consult  also  Life,  A.  V.  G. 
Allen,  1889. 

Edwin  OR  E  AD  WINE  (c.  585- 
633).  King  of  Northumbria.  The 
son  of  Ella,  king  of  Deira,  he  was 
driven  from  Deira  after  his  father's 
death  by  the  king  of  Bernicia,  and 
took  refuge  with  Raedwald,  king 
of  E.  Anglia,  who  defeated  and 
slew  the  Bernician  king  in  617. 
Edwin  then  annexed  Bernicia  and 
became  king  of  Northumbria.  In 
625  he  married  Ethelberg,  sister  of 
the  king  of  Kent,  and  in  627  was 
baptized  by  Paulinus  and  his  king- 
dom became  Christian.  Edwin's 
overlordship  extended  over  all 
Anglo-Saxon  Britain  except  Kent, 


Jonathan  Edwards, 
American  divine 


EDWIN    AND      ANGELINA 


28O9 


EEL 


and  his  rule  was  notable  for  its  jus- 
tice and  peace.  On  Oct.  12,  633,  Ed- 
win was  defeated  and  slain  at  Hat- 
field,  Yorkshire,  in  a  battle  against 
a  coalition  of  heathens  under  Penda 
of  Mercia  and  Cadwallon  of  North 
Wales.  Edinburgh,  which  he  forti- 
fied, is  named  after  him,  and  he 
was  long  venerated  as  a  saint. 

Edwin  and  Angelina.  Simple 
ballad,  sometimes  called  The 
Hermit,  by  Oliver  Goldsmith.  It 
was  privately  printed  for  the  coun- 
tess of  Northumberland  in  1765 
and  first  published  in  The  Vicar  of 
Wakefield  (1706),  where  it  is  intro- 
duced by  way  of  contrast  with 
the  false  taste  and  meretricious 
exuberance  of  language  in  the 
poetiy  of  the  time.  It  tells  of 
the  coming  together  of  separated 
lovers ;  Angelina,  disguised  as  a 
youth,  seeks  guidance  from  a  her- 
mit, only  to  find  that  he  is  her 
lost  Edwin.  From  this  sentimental 
ballad  the  names  have  come  to  be 
applied,  rather  derisively,  to  any 
loving  young  couple. 

Eeckhout,  GERBRAND  VAN  DEN 
(1621-74).  Dutch  painter.  Born  at 
Amsterdam,  Aug.  19,  1621,  he  was 
the  favourite  pupil  and  later  the 
friend  of  Rembrandt.  He  painted 
genre,  portraits,  and  scriptural  sub- 
jects, but  his  cabinet  pictures  are 
superior  to  those  executed  on  a 
larger  scale.  Among  his  best  works 
are  The  Raising  of  Jairus's 
Daughter  (Berlin),  Tobit  and  the 
Angel  (Brunswick),  The  Presenta- 
tion of  Jesus  in  the  Temple 
(Dresden ),  Soldiers  Gambling,  Jesus 
Among  the  Doctors  (Munich), 
Merrymaking  in  the  Guard -house, 
and  the  portraits  of  Oliver  Dapper, 
the  geographer,  and  Rembrandt. 
He  also  executed  a  number  of 
etchings.  Eeckhout  died  at  Am- 
sterdam, Sept.  29, 1674. 

Eecloo.  Town  of  Belgium,  in 
the  prov.  of  E.  Flanders.  It  stands 
on  the  Lieve,  11^  m.  N.W.  of 
Ghent.  A  rly.  junction,  it  is  con- 
nected also  with  neighbouring 
towns  by  tramways.  It  carries  on 
a  large  trade  in  grain,  and  its  manu- 
factures include  lace,  woollen,  and 
linen  goods.  Pop.  13,536. 

Eel  (Anguillae).  Group  of  fishes 
with  elongated  snake-like  bodies 
and  no  visible  scales.  They  are 
found  in  both  sea  and  fresh  waters 
in  most  parts  of  the  tropical  and 
temperate  regions  of  the  world. 
The  common  European  eel  (A. 
vulgar  is)  is  a  familiar  example  of 
the  class. 

The  life  history  of  the  eel,  long  a 
complete  mystery,  was  worked  out 
by  the  Italian  zoologist,  Battista 
Grassi  (b.  1855).  It  is  now  known 
that  the  broad-nosed  and  sharp- 
nosed  eels  are  not  two  varieties, 
but  that  the  former  is  the  male  and 


the  latter  the  fe- 
male. The  male 
is  rarely  found 
except  at  the 
mouths  of  rivers 
and  in  brackish 
water,  but  the 
female  is  common 
in  most  rivers  and 
ponds.  In  au- 
tumn the  mature 
eels  migrate  down 
the  rivers  to  the 
sea,  and  those  in 
ponds  will  often 
go  overland  for 
considerable  dis- 
tances at  night  to 
reach  the  rivers. 

Eels  spawn  in 
the  sea  during 
winter,  apparent- 
ly in  deep  water 
some  hundreds  of 
miles  from  land. 
The  eggs  hatch 
out  as  little  fish 
known  as  Lepto- 
cephali  or  glass 
fishes,  so  entirely 
unlike  their  par- 
ents that  they 
were  formerly 
thought  to  be  a 
distinct  species. 
They  are  flat,  rib- 
bon-like  creatures 
about  3  ins.  long, 

curiously  deep  in    body,   scaleless 
and  transparent,  with  small  heads. 

These  Leptocephali  do  not  ap- 
pear to  feed  in  the  sea,  and  they 
gradually  shrink  both  in  length 
and  depth,  and  become  round  in 
body,  when  they  are  known  as 
glass  eels.  In  this  state  they  make 
their  way  up  the  rivers  in  such 
countless  millions  that  the  water 
is  often  black  with  them.  In 
ponds  eels  often  live  for  several 
years  before  descending  to  the  sea 
to  spawn,  where  it  is  supposed  they 
die  after  depositing  their  eggs. 

Eels  are  largely  used  as  food  by 
most  European  nations,  and  the 
British  supply  comes  largely  from 
Holland  and  Denmark.  In  Feb.. 
1919,  the  Fresh  Water  Fish  Com- 
mittee urged  that  steps  should  be 
taken  for  the  cultivation  of  eels  in 


•1*3 

The    electric    eel,    a   large 
South    American    fish    which    can 
impart  a  powerful  electric  shock 


Eel.  Stages  in  the  metamorphosis  oi  the  common  eel 
from  the  full-grown  larval  eel  (Leptocephalus),  which  is 
3  ins.  long,  thin,  and  transparent.  In  each  successive 
stage  the  eel  gets  rounder,  until  it  finally  assumes  the 
serpent  form.  The  metamorphosis  takes  a  year  to  com- 
plete, and  during  this  time  the  eel  does  not  feed 

Great  Britain  on  a  large  scale. 
Before  the  Great  War  the  Germans 
had  established  a  large  elver- 
catching  depot  on  the  Severn, 
whence  many  millions  were  ex- 
ported to  Germany  for  cultivation 
there  between  1908  and  1911.  The 
committee  recommended  that  an 
experimental  eel -cultivating  estab- 
lishment should  be  inaugurated 
under  government  auspices,  and 
that  use  be  made  of  the  German 
depot,  which  the  ministry  of 
agriculture  and  fisheries  was  en- 
deavouring to  acquire  in  1920. 
See  illus.  p  2205 

Eel,  ELECTRIC  (Gymnotus  elec- 
tricus).  Large  eel-like  fish  found  in 
the  rivers  of  Brazil  and  Guiana. 
Though  resembling  an  eel  in 
general  appearance,  it  is  widely 
removed  from  it  in  internal  struc- 
ture. It  attains  a  length  of  6  ft., 
and  is  notable  for  the  powerful 
electric  shock  that  it  can  give.  The 
electricity  is  generated  by  four 
organs  lying  in  pairs  under  the 
skin,  but  their  precise  mode  of 
action  is  not  fully  understood.  The 
animal  uses  this  power  for  killing 
or  stunning  the  fish  on  which  it 
feeds,  as  well  as  in  self-defence. 
The  force  of  the  shock  varies 
greatly,  but  is  sometimes  suffi- 
ciently strong  to  overpower  a  horse. 
See  Electric  Fish 


EEL-GRASS 

Eel-grass  ( Valisneria  spiralis). 
Perennial  aquatic  herb  of  the 
natural  order  Hydrocharidaoeae 
It  is  a  native 
of  warm  and 
temperate  re- 
gions, includ- 
ing S.  Europe. 
The  short  stem 
is  immersed  in 
the  mud  of 
rivers  and 
lakes,  and  from 
itarisesatuftof  Eel-grass.  Plants 
thin  grass-like  of  the  aqaatic  herb 
leaves  a  yaid  long,  but  only  i  in. 
wide.  The  female  flower  has  a  very 
long  spiral  stalk  which  enables  it 
to  lie  upon  the  surface  of  the  water. 
The  male  flowers  (produced  by 
separate  plants)  have  very  short 
stalks  which  break  away  from 
their  attachment,  so  that  they  float 
to  the  surface,  where  they  pollinate 
the  females.  This  accomplished, 
the  female,  by  the  spiral  contrac- 
tion of  its  stalk,  is  withdrawn  to 
the  bottom,  where  it  develops  into 
a  cvlindrical  berry. 

Eel  Pie  Island.  Islet  in  the 
Thames  opposite  York  House, 
Twickenham.  Also  called  Twicken- 
ham Eyot,  it  has  long  been  noted 
as  a  favourite  resort  of  anglers  and 
boating  parties.  The  inn  on  the 
islet  occupies  the  place  of  Eel  Pie 
House,  pulled  down  in  1830. 

Eel  Pout  (Lota  vulgaris).  Popu- 
lar name  for  the  burbot.  It  is  a 
fresh-water  fish,  common  in  Euro- 
pean and  American  rivers,  but  found 
in  Great  Britain  chiefly  in  the  Cam 
andtheOuse.  Itisaboutayardlong, 
and  somewhat  eel-like  in  shape. 

Effendi.  Turkish  title  of  re- 
spect. *  It  is  applied  in  the  East  to 
government  officials,  men  of  learn- 
ing, and  others.  It  is  a  corruption 
of  the  Greek  authentes  (mod.  pron. 
afthendes),  a  lord. 

Effervescence  (Lat.  efferves- 
cere,  to  boil  up).  Name  applied 
to  the  phenomenon  of  the  rapid 
escape  of  gas  from  a  liquid.  It 
is  usually  the  result  of  chemical 
action.  A  familiar  example  is  seen 
in  the  mixing  of  a  seidlitz  powder 
with  water.  When  soda  water  is 
withdrawn  from  a  syphon  the 
evolution  of  carbon  dioxide  is  du- 
to  physical  causes. 

Efficiency  (Lat.  efficientia,  a 
carrying  out)  Term  meaning  in 
general  the  quality  of  producing 
some  desired  result.  Apart  from 
its  use  in  engineering,  it  is  in- 
creasingly used  in  industrialism  and 
economics,  considerable  attention 
being  paid  by  doctors  and  others 
to  the  efficiency  of  the  worker. 

In  engineering,  efficiency  is  the 
ratio  of  the  amount  of  energy 
given  out  from  a  conducting,  con- 
verting, or  transmitting  device  to 


2810 

the  energy  received  by  it.  In  all 
cases  the  efficiency  is  less  than 
unity,  as  some  of  the  energy  is 
dissipated  or  used  up  unprofitably. 
The  efficiency  of  a  joint  is  the 
ratio  of  the  strength  of  the  joint 
to  a  similar  section  of  unjointed 
material.  In  aeronautics,  where 
the  main  spars  are  spliced,  the 
efficiency  of  the  splice  is  its 
strength  relative  to  that  of  the 
unspliced  wood  of  similar  section. 
The  heat-absorbing  efficiency  of 
a  boiler  is  represented  by  the  per- 
centage of  the  heat  units  of  the 
burnt  fuel  which  is  found  in  the 
water  and  steam.  The  efficiency  in 
very  good  boilers  may  be  as  high 
as  80  p.c.  The  heat-converting 
efficiency  of  a  steam  engine  is  its 
capacity  for  converting  units  of 
heat  energy  into  units  of  me- 
chanical work  on  the  basis  of  one 
thermal  unit  being  equivalent  to 
778  foot-pounds  of  work.  So  much 
heat  is  wasted  by  conduction,  con- 
densation, etc.,  that  the  efficiency, 
even  in  the  best  engines,  does  not 
exceed  15  p.c.  to  18  p.c.  The  brake 
or  effective  h.p.  of  an  engine  is  less 
than  the  indicated  h.p.,  owing  to 
loss  in  overcoming  friction.  Simi- 
larly, the  converting  efficiency  of 
a  dynamo  or  electric  motor  re- 
spectively is  its  capacity  for  trans- 
forming mechanical  into  electrical, 
or  electrical  into  mechanical  energy. 
The  difference  between  energy 
units  received  and  delivered  de- 
cides the  transmitting  efficiency  of 
lines  of  shafting,  belt  drives,  etc. 


EFFIGY 

A  good  example  of  the  cumula- 
tive effect  of  losses  due  to  effi- 
ciencies being  less  than  unity  is 
afforded  by  the  propelling  appa- 
ratus of  a  ship.  Assuming  a 
boiler  efficiency  of  75  p.c.,  an 
engine  heat-efficiency  of  15  p.c.,  a 
transmitting  efficiency  of  90  p.c., 
and  a  propeller  efficiency  of  60  p.c. 
— all  well  above  the  average — out 
of  100  units  of  heat-energy  de- 
veloped by  the  burning  of  boiler  fuel 
only  (100X  TV<y  X  ^  X  &%  X  T«°ff) 
=6'075  p.c.  are  con  verted  into  use- 
ful work.  See  Boiler; ;  Steam  Engine. 

Effigy  (Lat.  effigies,  image,  like- 
ness ).  Monumental  effigies  on  tomb- 
lids  in  Christian  churches  from  the 
13th  century  onwards  abound  in 
England  and  W.  Europe.  Originally 
carvings  in  low  relief,  which  gave 
rise  to  monumental  brasses,  they 
developed  into  figures  in  the  round, 
usually  recumbent.  Ancestral  effi- 
gies, kept  in  great  houses  in  ancient 
Egypt  and  Rome,  suggested  to 
medieval  Europe  the  funeral  effigies 
placed  upon  the  biers  of  royal  and 
other  personages. 

In  primitive  culture  effigies  are 
important  adjuncts  of  sympathetic 
magic.  There  are  palaeolithic 
cave-portraits  of  food-animals, 
speared  symbolically  to  ensure 
success  in  hunting.  The  piercing 
or  melting  of  waxen  images  to 
induce  sickness  or  death,  practised 
in  early  Egypt,  Babylonia,  Vedic 
India,  Greece,  and  Rome,  prevailed 
throughout  13th -17th  century 
Christendom.  See  Numismatics. 


Effigy. 
mi  DS  tor 


Two  examples  in  wax.    Left:   Effigy  of  Queen  Elizabeth  in  West- 
Abbey.    Right  (by  courtesy  of  Messrs.  Tussaitd):   Effigy  of  Queen 
Marie  Antoinette,  originally  shown  at  Versailles 


EFFINGHAM 


28  1  1 


EGER 


Effingham,  EARL  OF.  British 
title  borne  by  the  family  of  Howard 
from  1731  to  1816,  and  again  since 
1837.  The  family  is  descended  from 
Lord  William  Howard,  a  son  of  the 
2nd  duke  of  Norfolk.  He  served 
Henry  VIII  and  his  three  children 
in  various  confidential  capacities, 
and  was  in  1553  made  Baron 
Howard  of  Effingham,  in  Surrey. 
His  son  Charles  commanded  the 
English  fleet  against  the  Spanish 
armada  and  was  made  earl  of 
Nottingham  in  1596.  The  earls  of 
Nottingham  held  the  barony  of 
Howard  of  Effingham  until  their  ex- 
tinction in  IGsl,  when  it  passed  to 
Francis,  whose  son  Francis,  the  7th 
baron,  was  created  earl  of  Effing- 
ham in  1731.  In  1816  the  earldom 
became  extinct,  and  the  barony 
devolved  upon  a  kinsman,  Kenneth 
A.  Howard,  created  earl  of  Effing- 
ham in  1837.  The  titles  are  held 
by  his  descendants.  The  estates  are 
in  Yorkshire  and  Oxfordshire. 

Efflorescence  (Lat.  efflorescere, 
to  bloom ).  Term  applied  in  chemis- 
try to  the  changes  which  some  crys- 
tals undergo  when  exposed  to  air. 
The  surface  of  the  crystals  becomes 
covered  with  a  fine  powder,  fanci- 
fully known  as  flowers.  The  change 
is  due  to  the  giving  up  of  water 
owing  to  the  higher  vapour  pres- 
sure of  the  crystal  compared  with 
that  of  the  surrounding  atmo- 
sphere. A  familiar  example  is 
seen  in  washing  soda,  which ,  at  first 
transparent,  after  exposure  be- 
comes opaque  on  the  surface.  The 
change  is  due  to  a  reduction  in  the 
quantity  of  water  of  crystallisation 
normally  present  in  the  crystals. 
The  word  is  also  used  in  botany 
for  the  process  of  flowering.  See 
Chemistry  ;  Crystallisation. 

Effusion  (Lat.  fffundere,  to  pour 
out).  Escape  of  a  gas  under  pres-. 
sure  from  the  vessel  in  which  it  is 
enclosed,  through  a  small  opening. 
This  escape  will  follow  precise  laws 
expressed  by  Graham  as  follows  : 
"  The  velocity  with  which  a  gas 
effuses  varies  directly  as  the  square 
root  of  the  difference  of  pressure  on 
the  two  sides  of  the  opening  (in  the 
vessel  and  outside  it)  and  inversely 
as  the  square  root  of  the  density 
of  the  gas." 

Efik.  Negro  tribe  in  the  Calabar 
coastland,  S.  Nigeria.  They  pre- 
dominate between  the  Cross  and 
Ikpan  rivers,  and  having  long 
acted  as  middlemen  between  the 
white  traders  and  the  interior 
peoples,  they  are  largely  Christian- 
ised and  Europeanised,  many  being 
in  Government  service.  Their 
speech  is  semi- Bantu. 

Egan,  PIERCE  (1772-1849).  Brit- 
ish sporting  author.  He  spent 
his  life  reporting  races,  prize-fights, 
cock-fights,  cricket  matches,  trials, 


After  Sharpies 


and  executions. 
He  achieved 
great  popularity 
as  the  author  of 
a  series  of 
sketches  d  e  - 
scribing  Lon- 
don amuse- 
ments  in  Re- 

Pierce  Egai  Sency      times 

British  autbM  and  entitled 
Life  in  Lon- 
don: or  the 
Day  and  Night  Scenes  of  Jerry 
Hawthorn,  Esq.,  and  his  elegant 
friend,  Corinthian  Tom,  accom- 
panied by  Bob  Logic,  the  Oxonian, 
in  their  Rambles  and  Sprees 
through  the  Metropolis,  issued  in 
monthly  parts  from  1821  and  illus- 
trated by  I.  R.  and  G.  Cruikshank. 
Of  his  numerous  other  writings 
Pierce  Egan's  Book  of  Sports  and 
Mirror  of  Life,  1 832,  was  the  best. 
Egan  died  in  London,  Aug.  3, 1849. 

Egba  OR  EGBALAND.  Province 
of  Southern  Nigeria.  It  is  situated 
N.  of  Lagos,  and  is  surrounded  by 
Ibadan,  Ikorodu,  Badagri,  and 
Meko.  Its  area  is  about  1 ,869  sq.  m. 
Pop.  264,814  natives  and  80  Euro- 
peans. The  native  population  con- 
sists of  four  local  tribes  known  as 
the  Egba-Alake,  Egba-Oke-Ona, 
Egba-Agura,  and  the  Owus.  The 
country  is  undulating.  The  S.  is 
largely  forest,  especially  from  Oba 
to  Igaun,  but  is  well  watered,  very 
productive,  and  has  large  portions 
under  cultivation.  The  N.W.  por- 
tion is  hilly  and  not  well  watered. 
Cotton  is  grown.  The  principal 
means  of  communication,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  roads,  are  the  Ogun 
river,  about  150  m.  long  and  navi- 
gable for  canoes,  and  the  main 
Iddo-Kano  railway,  which  runs 
through  the  country.  The  capital 
is  Abeokuta. 

In  1857  the  British  Government 
established  friendly  relations  with 
the  Egbas,  and  in  1892  a  treaty  of 
protection  was  arranged  and  a 
council  of  the  Egba  nation  formed 
with  the  Alake  of  Abeokuta  as  pre- 
sident. The  Alake  is  the  senior  of 
the  four  kings  and  visited  England 
in  1904.  The  country  remained 
an  independent  native  kingdom 
within  Nigeria,  with  a  British  resi- 
dent, until  1914,  when  it  was  placed 
under  the  direct  government  of  the 
protectorate  of  Nigeria. 

Egbert  (d.  839).  King  of  Wes- 
sex.  The  son  of  Ealhmund,  a  king 
of  Kent,  he  was  driven  into  exile  to 
the  court  of  Charlemagne  and  re- 
turned to  England  as  king  of  the 
West  Saxons  in  802.  He  then  sub- 
dued West  Wales  or  Cornwall,  de- 
feated the  king  of  Mercia  at  Elian- 
dune,  annexed  Kent,  and  in  829  be- 
came overlord  of  all  the  English 
kings.  He  was  defeated  by  Scandi- 


navian pirates 
in  836,  but  in 
838  routed  a 
f  ormid  able 
army  of  North- 
men and  West 
Welsh  at 
Hi  n  g  s  t  o  n 
Down,  in 

Cornwall.     He       Egbert,  King  ol 
died  in  839  and  Wessex 

was    Succeeded          From  an  old  print 

by  his  son  Ethelwulf .  See  The  Mak- 
ing of  England,  J.  R.  Green,  1881. 

Egede,  HANS  (1686-1758).  Scan- 
dinavian missionary  in  Greenland. 
Born  in  Norway,  and  educated 
at  Copenhagen  University,  he  was 
a  Lutheran  minister  at  Vaagen 
from  1706-17.  Four  years  later  he 
went  with  his  wife  and  family  to 
Greenland,  where  he  worked  among 
the  Eskimos  for  fifteen  years  and 
converted  many  to  Christianity.  In 
1736  he  returned  to  Copenhagen, 
but  continued  to  superintend  the 
missions  in  Greenland  until  his 
death,  Nov.  5,  1758.  He  wrote  ac- 
counts of  his  work,  and  A  Descrip- 
tion of  Greenland  (1729  41),  Eng. 
trans.  1 745.  See  The  Story  of  Hans 
Egede,  Jans  Olaf,  Eng.  ed.  1864. 

Egedes  Land.  That  portion  of 
E.  Greenland  lying  N.W.  of  Den- 
mark Strait  and  N.E.  of  King 
Christian  IX  Land.  It  is  named 
after  Hans  Egede. 

Eger.  River  of  Bohemia.  It 
rises  in  the  Erzgebirge  in  Saxony, 
but  most  of  its  course  is  in  Bo- 
hemia. It  flows  almost  due  E.  until 
it  fa  Us  into  the  Elbe  near  Leitmeritz. 
It  drains  the  S.  side  of  the  Erzge- 
birge, Eger  and  Karlsbad  stand  on 
it,  ard  its  length  is  about  140  m. 

E£  er.  Town  of  Bohemia,  Czccho- 
Slovi  kia.  It  stands  on  the  ght 
bank  of  the  Eger,  92  m.  W.  of 
Prague,  beneath  me  Jbichteigebirge. 
Its  chief  object  of  interest  is  the 
ruined  castle  on  a  rock  above  the 
town  built  by  the  emperor  Fred- 
erick I  in  the  12th  century.  The 
main  buildings  are  the  old  Gothic 
church  of  S.  Nicholas,  restored  in 
the  1 9th  century,  and  a  museum ; 
the  latter  was  formerly  the  bur- 
gomaster's house,  in  which  Wal- 
lenstein  was  murdered  in  1634. 
There  is  an  old  town  hall,  while 
other  objects  of  interest  are  the 
Schillerhaus,  where  the  poet  lived 
for  a  time,  the  merchants'  hall,  and 
the  market  place.  The  town  has 
manufactures  of  textiles,  ma- 
chinery, etc.  The  inhabitants  are 
mainly  Germans,  although  the 
town  has  been  part  of  Bohemia 
sir.ce  1350.  Before  then  it  was  in 
Germany  or  in  Austria,  and  was 
the  capital  of  a  district  called 
Egerland.  Its  Czech  name  is  Cheb. 
Pop.  26,619. 


EGER 

Eger  OR  EBLAU.  City  of  Hun- 
gary. It  stands  in  a  beautiful  and 
mountainous  region,  70  m.  N.E.  of 
Budapest.  Its  chief  industry  is  the 
making  of  red  wine,  the  vines  being 
largely  grown  on  the  hills  around ; 
but  it  is  more  famous  for  its 
churches.  The  cathedral,  a  hand- 
some building  in  the  Italian  style, 
was  erected  in  the  19th  century  ; 
the  church  of  the  Brothers  of 
Mercy  and  the  minaret  of  an  old 
mosque  are  also  noteworthy. 
Other  buildings  include  the  palace 
of  the  archbishop,  the  town  hall, 
and  the  observatory.  The  town 
grew  up  around  the  bishopric 
founded  about  1010.  It  was  taken 
by  the  Turks  in  1596,  and  they 
kept  it  until  1687.  The  city  was 
made  the  seat  of  an  archbishop 
in  1814.  Pop.  28,052. 

Egerdir.  Lake  of  Asia  Minor. 
Lying  between  the  Sultan  Dagh 
and  the  Taurus  Mts.,  it  is  27  m. 
long  and  from  3m.  to  10  m. 
wide.  On  it  stands  the  town  of 
the  same  name.  Pop.  6,000. 

Egeria.  In  classical  legend,  a 
nymph  beloved  of  Numa  Pom- 
pilius,  king  of  Rome,  who  set  great 
store  by  her  advice  and  prophecies. 
On  the  death  of  Numa  her  grief 
was  so  great  that  she  dissolved  in 
tears,  and  was  turned  into  a  fountain 
by  Diana.  The  name  is  given  in 
modern  times  to  a  lady  who  stimu- 
lates and  inspires  a  man's  intellec- 
tual activity.  Pron.  Ee-jeri-a. 

Eger  ton,  SIR  RALEIGH  GILBERT 
(b.  1860).  British  soldier.  Son  of 
Sir  Robert  E.  Egerton,  he  was  born 
Sept.  25,  1860,  and  joined  the 
Leicestershire  Regt.  in  1879.  Later 
he  entered  the  Indian  army,  reach- 
ing the  rank  of  colonel  in  1907.  He 
was  A.A.G.  of  the  Indian  army, 
1900-3.  His  war  services  include  the 
Hazara  and  Waristan  expeditions, 
the  Chitral  campaign  and  that  in 
Dongola.  During  the  Great  War 
he  served  in  Mesopotamia,  especi- 
ally distinguishing  himself  as  a 
corps  commander  under  Marshall, 
1917-18.  He  was  knighted  in  1916 
and  made  lieut. -general  in  1917. 
See  Mesopotamia,  Conquest  of. 

Egerton  Prize.  Award  given 
annually  by  the  Admiralty  to  the 
naval  officer  who,  when  qualifying 
for  gunnery  lieutenant,  passes  the 
best  examination  in  practical  gun- 
nery. The  prize  was  founded  in 
1901  in  memory  of  Commander  F. 
G.  Egerton,  R.N.,  killed  in  Lady- 
smith,  Nov.  2,  1899. 

Egg.  Reproductive  cell  formed 
in  the  body  of  the  female  animal, 
which,  when  fertilised  by  union 
with  the  spermatozoon  of  the  male, 
produces  a  new  individual.  Except 
in  the  lowest  forms  of  life,  when 
propagation  takes  place  by  fission 
or  budding,  every  animal  begins 


2812 

its  life  history  as  an  egg.  In  the 
viviparous  animals,  as  in  nearly  all 
mammals,  the  development  of  the 
egg  takes  place  in  the  body  of  the 
mother ;  in  the  oviparous  it  is 
extruded  and  development  pro- 
ceeds apart  from  union  with  the 
mother.  (See  Embryology.) 

Only  such  eggs  as  are  "  laid  "  by 
the  female  and  hatched  externally 
to  her  body  are  here  considered. 
This  phenomenon  occurs  in  all  the 
phyla  or  sub-kingdoms  of  the 
animal  world  except  certain  of  the 
lowest  and  most  primitive.  In  the 
mollusca,  which  include  the  snails 
and  the  shell-fish,  eggs  vary  con- 
siderably in  form  and  size.  In  the 
largest  of  the  British  snails  (Helix 
pomatia)  the  egg  is  enclosed  in  a 
chalky  shell,  and  is  as  large  as  a 
moderate-sized  pea  ;  while  one  of 
the  snails  of  Barbados  (Stropho- 
cheilug  oblongus)  lays  a  white  egg 
as  large  as  that  of  a  pigeon. 

Some  insects,  as  the  moths  and 
butterflies,  lay  an  enormous  num- 
ber of  eggs  ;  but  the  most  prolific 
animals  of  all  are  the  fishes.  The 
ling  produces  more  than  500,000 
eggs  to  each  pound  of  her  weight ; 
sturgeon  is  credited  with  about 
7,000,000  eggs. 

Nearly  all  reptiles  lay  eggs. 
Those  of  the  crocodiles  and  tor- 
toises have  hard,  limy  shells,  but 
most  are  enclosed  in  membranous 
capsules.  Those  of  the  amphibians, 
like  the  frogs  and  newts,  are  de- 
posited in  gelatinous  masses. 
Speaking  generally,  eggs  laid  in  the 
water  or  in  wet  places  are  without 
hard  external  coverings. 

All  birds  deposit  eggs,  varying 
immensely  in  size  and  colour.  In 
size  they  range  from  that  of  the 
ostrich,  which  equals  about  twelve 
hen's  eggs,  to  the  tiny  productions 
of  the  humming-birds.  The  colour- 
ing of  birds'  eggs  is  of  a  protective 
nature,  and  is  usually  adapted  to 
the  surroundings.  The  eggs  of  razor- 
bills and  guillemots,  which  lay  on 
exposed  edges  of  rocks,  are  of  taper- 
ing shape,  so  that  when  disturbed 
by  wind  or  by  a  passing  bird  they 
simply  turn  round.  Among  the 
mammals,  eggs  are  laid  only  by  the 
ornithorhynchus  and  the  echidna. 
See  Biology  ;  Cell. 

Egg,  AUGUSTUS  LEOPOLD  (1816- 
63).  British  artist.  Born  in  London, 
May  2,  1816,  he  studied  under 
Henry  Sass  and  at  the  R.A.  school, 
exhibited  for  the  first  time  in  1838, 
became  an  A.  R.A.  in  1848,  and  R.A. 
in  1860.  A  subject  painter,  his  best 
work  includes  Queen  Elizabeth 
Discovers  She  is  No  Longer  Young, 
1848  ;  Peter  the  Great  Sees  Cath- 
erine for  the  First  Time,  1850  :  and 
The  Night  Before  Naseby,  1859. 
He  died  at  Algiers,  March  26, 
1863.  See  illus.  8,  p.  2569. 


EGG      GRENADE 

Egga.  Town  of  N.  Nigeria.  It 
stands  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Niger,  a  few  miles  above  Baro,  the 
terminus  of  the  Baro-Kano  rly.  It 
is  the  commercial  outlet  of  the 
Gando  country.  Pop.  about  10,000. 

Eggar  Moth.  Group  of  fairly 
large  moths.  There  are  four  British 
eggar  moths,  belonging  to  three 


Eggar   Moth.      Example    of   small 
eggar  moth,  Eriogaster  lanestris 

distinct  genera.  Three  of  them 
are  reddish-brown  in  colour  and 
the  other  is  grey  ;  the  expanse  of 
the  wings  varies  from  1  in.  to  3  ins. 
Egg  Grenade.  Simple  type  of 
time  fuse  hand  grenade  largely 
used  by  British  forces  during  the 


Egg  Grenade.      Sectional  diagram 

showing  principle  of  the  grenade. 

For  explanation  see  text 

early  part  of  the  Great  War.  It 
consists  of  an  egg-shaped  cast-iron 
body,  A,  closed  by  a  screw  plug,  B, 
which  carries  the  detonator  holder, 
C,  and  the  grenade  is  filled  with 
explosive,  D.  The  fuse  consists  of  a 
wooden  plug,  E,  carrying  a  short 
length  of  safety  fuse,  F,  to  the 
lower  end  of  which  is  crimped  the 
detonator,  G.  In  the  upper  end  of 
the  wooden  plug  is  a  large  bead  of 
friction  composition,  H,  the  other 
end  of  the  fuse  touching  this  com- 
position. A  piece  of  waterproof 
paper,  P,  is  secured  over  the  end 
of  the  plug  to  protect  the  com- 
position. The  explosive  used  is 
ammonal  or  a  similar  ammonium 
nitrate  explosive.  See  Ammunition ; 
Explosives ;  Grenade ;  Mills  Bomb. 


i.  Lapwing.  2.  Blackbird.  3.  Green  woodpecker.  23.  Kestrel.  24.  Carrion  crow.  25.  Jackdaw.  26.  Sparrow- 
4.  Song-thrush.  5.  Golden  plover.  6.  Partridge.  7.  Gold-  hawk.  27.  Chiff-chaff.  28.  Great  tit.  29.  Bullfinch, 
finch.  8.  Lesser  redpole.  9.  Common  wren.  10.  Pied  30.  Pheasant.  31.  Hedge-sparrow.  32.  Blue  tit.  33.  Black- 
wagtail,  ii.  Red-backed  shrike.  12.  Whitethroat.  cap.  34.  Barn  owl.  35.  Jay.  36.  Common  bunting.  37.  Reed 
13.  Marsh  warbler.  14.  Whinchat.  15.  Swallow.  warbler.  38.  Golden  eagle.  39.  Chaffinch.  40.  Yellow- 
16.  Magpie.  17.  Nightingale.  18.  Spotted  flycatcher.  hammer.  41.  Missel  thrush.  42.  Raven.  43.  Skylark. 
19.  Red  grouse.  20.  Robin.  21.  Tree  pipit.  22.  Rook.  44.  Stonechat.  45.  Nightjar.  46.  Kingfisher.  47.  Starling. 
48.  Linnet.  49.  Cuckoo.  50.  Peregrine  falcon 


EGGS    OF    FIFTY   BIRDS    THAT   FREQUENT   THE    BRITISH    ISLES 

Specially  drawn  for  HarmsworWs  Universal  Encyclopedia  by  J.  F.  Campbell 


To  face  page  2*1: 


EGGISHORN 


2813 


EGLINTON  TOURNAMENT 


Eggishorn.  Mountain  of  the 
Bernese  Oberland,  Switzerland,  in 
the  canton  of  Valais.  It  is  the 
loftiest  peak  of  the  ridge  separating 
the  Aletsch  Glacier  from  the  Rh6ne 
Valley.  Alt.  9,625  ft.  On  its  S.E. 
slope  is  the  Jungfrau- Eggishorn 
Hotel,  at  an  alt.  of '7,195  ft. 

Egg-plant  (Solanum  melon- 
gena).  Herb  of  the  natural  order 
Solanaceae.  The  leaves  are  oval, 
lobed,  and  woolly  beneath  ;  the 
flowers  are  similar  to  those  of  the  to- 
mato, white,  yellow,  or  purple.  The 
fruit,  a  berry  as  large  as  a  goose- 


r 


Egg-plant.  Specimen  ot  the  edible  herb, 
showing  leaves,  flower,  and  berries 

egg,  is  white  or  purple.  The  herb 
is  edible,  and  largely  grown  for 
food.  It  is  also  called  brinjal,  Jews' 
apple,  and  rind  apple. 

Egg  Society.  Cooperative  syn- 
dicate for  collecting  the  eggs  of 
small  producers,  grading  and  mar- 
keting them.  Some  counties  have 
as  many  as  nine  or  ten  egg  societies, 
•and  one  society  will  collect  and  dis- 
pose of  10,000  eggs  in  a  singleseason. 

Egg  Testing.  Eggs  are  tested 
by  holding  them  to  a  light,  special 
lamps  being  sold  for  this  pur- 
pose. A  perfectly  fresh  egg  is  quite 
clear  and  uniform.  An  egg  that  has 
been,  kept  some  time  has  a  space  at 
one  end  owing  to  evaporation 
through  the  shell,  and  sometimes 
air  bubbles  are  scattered  about  the 
interior.  When  the  egg  is  bad  the 
interior  shows  dark  spots  and  the 
yolk  is  often  seen  clinging  to  the 
side  of  the  shell.  In  large  egg  stores 
eggs  pass  on  an  endless  chain  over 
a  brilliant  light  and  the  examiner 
removes  those  that  are  not  fresh. 

Eg  ham.  Urban  dist.  and  parish 
of  Surrey,  England.  It  stands  on 
the  Thames,  21  m.  W.S.W.  of 
London  by  the  L.  &  S.W.R.  Here 
are  the  Royal  Holloway  College, 
which  provides  advanced  education 
for  250  women,  and  Holloway 
Sanatorium,  a  large  private  asylum 
for  the  mentally  deficient,  opened 
in  1885.  Pop.  12,551. 

Egin  OR  EKIM.  Town  of  Ar- 
menia, in  the  vilayet  of  Mamuret- 
ul-Aziz.  It  stands  on  the  right 


bank  of  the  Kara  Su  or  Western 
Euphrates,  140  m.  S.W.  of  Trebi- 
zond,  and  was  the  scene  of  mas- 
sacres of  Armenians  in  1895.  Dur- 
ing the  Great  War  it  was  occupied 
by  the  Russians  in  1915,  and  aban- 
doned by  order  of  the  Bolshevist 
government  during  the  winter  of 
1917-18.  Pop.  8,000. 

Eglantine.  Name  applied  by 
the  earlier  poets,  notably  Chaucer, 
Spenser,  and  Shakespeare,  to  the 
sweet  briar  (Rosa  eglanteria).  In 
Milton  it  probably  refers  to  the 
honeysuckle  (Lonicera  pericly- 
menum),  still  called  eglantine  in 
parts  of  Yorkshire.  See  Sweet 
Briar. 

Eglinton.    Village  of  Ayrshire, 
Scotland,  in    the    parish  of    Kil- 
winning.        It    is 
chiefly  notable  for   p~ 
its   castle,  a  seat   ; 
of  the  earl  of  Eg-    | 
linton.      This  is  a 
modern     building 
dating  from  1798. 
but   modelled    on 
the   baronial  cas- 
tles   with    towers 
and  a  keep.     The 
village  is  on  a  coal- 
field, and  near  are 
large    ironworks 
and  coal  mines. 

Eglinton,  EARL 
or.  Scottish  title 
held  by  the  family 
of  Montgomerie 
since  1508.  Sir 
Alexander  Mont- 
gomerie was  made  a  lord  of  the 
Scottish  parliament  about  1445, 
and  his  grandson  Hugh,  the  3rd 
lord,  was  made  earl  of  Eglinton  in 
1508.  Hugh,  the  3rd  earl,  was  a 
supporter  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots. 


and  when  the  5th  earl  died  the 
family  in  the  male  line  became  ex- 
tinct. The  titles  and  estate  then 
passed  by  special  settlement  to 
Alexander  Seton,  a  grandson  of  the 
3rd  earl,  who  became  the  6th  earl, 
taking  the  name  of  Montgomerie. 

Archibald,  the  llth  earl  (1726- 
96),  served  in  America  against  the 
French.  His  successor,  Hugh,  be- 
came earl  in  1796,  and  was  made  a 
peer  of  the  United  Kingdom  in  1 806. 
He  was  responsible  for  building 
Eglinton  Castle.  His  grandson  and 
successor,  Archibald,  the  13th  earl 
(1812-61),  a  Tory  politician,  was 
the  organizer  of  the  famous 
Eglinton  Tournament.  In  1859  he 
was  made  earl  of  Winton,  a  title 
held  by  his  ancestors,  the  Setons. 


Eglinton.     The  castle,  built  in  1798,  seat  of  the  Earl 
of  Eglinton,  and  scene  of  the  famous  tournament 

Valentine 


The  earl's  eldest  son  is  known  as 
Lord  Montgomerie. 

Eglinton  Tournament,  THE. 
Revival  of  the  medieval  tourna- 
ment by  the  13th  earl  of  Eglinton. 
It  was  held  at  Eglinton  Castle,  Aug. 


linton  Tournament.  The  Lord  of  the  Tournament,  the  Earl  of  Eglinton.  being 
presented  to  the  Queen  of  Beauty,  Lady  Seymour 

From  a,  contemporary  print 


EGMONT 


EGRI      PALANKA 


23,  1839.  The  week's  pageant  was 
entirely  spoiled  by  rain.  Arrayed 
in  complete  suits  of  armour  and 
representing  characters  in  chivalry, 
some  15  knights  tilted  in  ancient 
fashion,  breaking  their  spears  in 
the  jousts  and  finally  paying  their 
devoirs  to  the  queen  of  beauty. 
Lady  Seymour,  afterwards  duches? 
of  Somerset. 

Egmont.  Cone  of  an  extinct 
volcano,  North  Island,  Ne\v 
Zealand.  It  rises  from  theTaranaki 
plain  to  a  height  of  8,2(50  ft.  It  is 
perpetually  covered  with  snow,  and 
is  a  well-known  landmark  for  sailors. 

Egmont,  EARL  OF.  Irish  title 
borne  since  1733  by  the  family  of 
Perceval.  In  1661  Sir  John  Per- 
ceval was  made  a  baronet,  and  the 
baronetcy  passed  in  turn  to  several 
descendants,  being  inherited  in 
1691  by  another  Sir  John  (1683- 
1748).  He  was  an  M.P.,  and  the 
first  president  of  Georgia,  which 
colony  he  helped  to  found.  He  was 
made  baron,  viscount,  and  earl. 

John,  the  2nd  earl  (1711-70), 
was  a  prominent  politician  in  the 
time  of  George  II.  From  1761 
to  1766  he  was  first  lord  of  the 
Admiralty.  In  1762  he  was  made 
a  British  peer  as  Baron  Lovel 
and  Holland,  and  with  that  title 
the  present  earl  sits  in  the  House 
of  Lords.  Spencer  Perceval,  the 
prime  minister,  was  his  son.  For 
long  the  earls  lived  at  Cowdray 
Park,  Midhurst,  but  early  in  the 
20th  century  it  was  sold  to  Sir 
Weetman  Pearson,  later  Viscount 
Cowdray,  and  the  earl's  seat  is 
now  Avon  Castle,  Ringwood,  Hants. 
The  title  is  taken  from  a  little  place 
in  co.  Cork,  near  where,  at  Burton 
House,  the  earlier  Percevals  lived. 

Egmont,  LAMORAL,  COUNT  OF 
(1522-68).  Flemish  statesman. 
He  was  born  at  La  Hamaide  Castle, 
Hainault,  Nov.  18,  1522,  and  in 
1541  was  with  Charles  V  on  his 
expedition  to  Algiers,  and  in  subse- 
quent campaigns  against  France. 
In  1545  he  married  a  sister  of  the 
elector  palatine  and  later  was  ap- 


Egremont,  Chesmre.     line  promenade,  looking 
the  tower  at  New  Brighton 


Egmont.      The  snow-capped  cone  of  the  extinct  vol- 
cano of  North  Island,  New  Zealand 


pointed  governor  of  Flanders.  In 
spite  of  his  proved  loyalty  to  the 
Spanish  government  he  fell  under 
suspicion,  and  was  beheaded  at 
Brussels,  June  5,  1568.  His  life 
forms  the  subject  of  Goethe's  well- 
known  tragedy  (1788).  In  1865 
a  monument  to  his  memory  was 
erected  in  Brussels.  See  Rise  of 
the  Dutch  Republic,  J.  L.  Motley, 
vols.  i-ii,  new  ed.  (World's  Clas- 
sics), 1906. 

Ego  (Lat.,  I).  In  philosophical 
terminology,  the  thinking  subject 
as  distinguished  from  that  which 
does  not  belong  to  it — from  the 
object,  the  non-ego  (not-I).  It  is 
the  constant  factor  of  the  data  of 
experience,  identical  and  perman- 
ent in  all  living,  conscious  beings. 
In  spite  of  the  constant  change  in 
the  physical  individual,  the  ego 
continues  the  same.  Thus,  if  I 
am  writing  at  one  moment  and 
reading  at  another,  the  I  is  the 
same  in  both  cases. 

Egoism  (Lat.  ego,  I).    In  phil- 
osophy, the  theory  that  only    '  I  " 
exist,  and  that  everything  else  is 
only  an  idea  of  this  "  I.'"     This  is 
now  more  commonly  called  solip- 
sism    (solus,    alone  ;      ipse,    self). 
Egoism   is   more  generally   under- 
stood as  the  theory  of  self-interest, 
which  leads  a  person  to  act  with  a 
view   to   securing   pleasure  or  ad- 
vantage for  himself 
1    without   any   con- 
sideration   for 
I    others.       Egotism, 
as     distinct     from 
egoism,  is  thinking 
or  telling  too  much 
about  oneself. 

Egoist,  T  H  E. 
Novel  by  George 
Meredith  (q.v.), 
published  in  1879. 
If  not  great  as  a 
-rory  it  is  yet  one 
of  Meredith's  great- 
est prose  works. 
In  the  central 
character,  Sir  Wil- 
loughby  Patterne. 


is  presented  a  re- 
morseless delinea- 
tion of  egoism 
fostered  by  circum- 
stance. 

"•"'  Egremont.  A 
town  and  ecclesias- 
tical district  of 
Cheshire,  a  resi- 
dential suburb  of 
Liverpool  and 
Birkenhead.  It 
stands  on  the  S. 
side  of  the  Mer- 
sey, 2  m.  N.W.  of 
Birkenhead,  and, 
with  Seacombe, 
has  a  station  on 
the  '  Wirral  Rly. 
Tramways  and  a  promenade  con- 
nect it  with  New  Brighton,  while 
steamers  go  regularly  from  here  to 
Liverpool.  Pop.  15,961. 

Egremont.  Urban  dist.  and 
market  town  of  Cumberland,  Eng- 
land. It  stands  on  the  Ehen,  5  m. 
S.E  of  Whitehaven  and  close  to  the 
Irish  Sea.  An  ancient  town,  Egre- 
mont was  a  parl.  bor.  in  the  reign 
of  Edward  I,  and  has  ruins  of  a 
12th  century  castle.  Iron  ore  is 
mined  and  limestone  quarried. 
Market  day,  Sat.  Pop.'  6,305. 

Egremont,  EARL  OF.  British 
title  borne  by  the  family  of  Wynd- 
ham  from  1750  to  1845.  It  was 
first  a  subsidi- 
ary title  of  the 
7th  duke  of 
Somerset,  Al- 
gernon Sey- 
mour, for 
whom  it  was 
created  in 
1749.  From 
him  it  passed, 
in  1750,  by 
.special  a  r  - 
.  Phniip,.  a.A.  rangement  to 
his  nephew,  Sir 
Charles  Wyndham,Bart.  (1710-63), 
who  was  secretary  of  state  from  1 761 
-63.  The  3rd  earl,  George  O'  Brien 
Wyndham  (1751-1837),  made  Pet- 
worth,  his  Sussex  residence,  noted 
for  hospitality.  When  he  died  he 
left  his  estates  to  his  natural  son, 
George  Wyndham.  who  wa-;  made 
Baron  Leconneld  in  1859.  The  title, 
however,  passed  to  a  nephew,  and 
became  extinct  on  his  death  in  1 845. 
Egret.  Name  applied  to  several 
species  of  small  white  herons,  of 
which  the  little  eirret  is  one  of  the 
best  known  examples.  It  occurs 
very  rarely  in  Great  Britain,  but 
is  common  in  S.  Europe  and  in 
many  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa 
5'ee  Aigrette 

Egri  Palanka.  Town  of  Yugo- 
slavia. It  U  situated  on  the  hiuh 
road  from  Uskub  to  the  Bulgarian 
frontier.  It  is  a  trade  centre  of 
strategic  importance  Pop.  5.000 


EGYPT 


2815 


EGYPT 


EGYPT:     IN   ANCIENT  AND   MODERN  TIMES 

Prof.  W.  M.  FLINDERS  PETBIE,   P.R.S.,  and  S.  A.  MOSELEY,  Author  of  With  Kitchener  in  Cairo 

This  article  is  divided  into  two  main  parts,  one  dealing  with  the  Egypt  of  old,  and  the  other  with  the  modern 
country.  The  former  describes  its  wonderful  civilization ;  the  latter  includes  its  history  until  its  grant  of 
independence  in  1920.  There  are  also  articles  on  the  Pyramids,  on  Dendera,  Karnak,  and  other  famous 
places,  and  on  the  various  rulers.  For  modern  Egypt  see  the  biographies  of  Cromer,  Kitchener,  Mehemet  Ali, 
and  others.  See  also  Suez  Canal;  Turkey  ;  Alexandria;  Cairo 


Egypt.    Arms  in 
lurkish  period 


Egypt,  owing  to  its  unique 
climate,  the  amount  of  sunshine 
being  more  than  tropical,  is  one  of 
the  most  impor- 
tant lands  in  the 
history  of  man. 
Its  productive 
power  is  un- 
rivalled, while 
the  usual  N.  wind 
makes  it  cooler 
than  any  country 
of  that  latitude, 
except  ocean  coasts.  These  condi- 
tions, with  a  very  healthy  climate, 
made  it  particularly  fitting  for  the 
growth  of  an  early  civilization. 
The  advantage  of  having  excellent 
building  stones  along  the  whole 
valley,  with  easy  water  transport, 
and  the  necessary  lack  of  agricul- 
tural work  during  the  inundation 
for  a  third  of  the  year,  were  the 
most  favourable  conditions  for  a 
great  architecture.  The  extreme 
dryness  of  the  country  has  further 
led  to  the  wonderful  preservation 
of  even  the  frailest  materials.  It  is 
thus  possible  to  take  a  longer  con- 
tinuous view  of  human  changes 
than  in  any  other  land.  The  only 
hindrance  is  that,  the  Nile  bed  and 
water  level  of  the  country  having 
risen  about  5  ins.  in  every  century, 
the  early  dwellings  of  man  in  the 
plain  are  now  20  ft.  under  water. 
Earliest  Human  Work  in  Egypt 
The  Nile  Valley  began  its  his- 
tory as  a  fault  in  the  Eocene  lime- 
stone which  covers  the  surface  for 
400  m.  from  the  sea.  This  was 
much  raised  on  the  E.  side,  up  to- 
wards the  Red  Sea  mts.,  while  on 
the  W.  side  the  surface  dips  down 
in  the  Fayum  to  more  than  100  ft. 
below  sea  level,  and  also  in  the 
oases.  The  fault  in  the  strata,  due 
to  this  strain,  naturally  received 
the  drainage  of  the  plateau,  and  so 
gouged  out  the  Nile  Valley.  The 
continuous  changes  in  the  history 
of  the  country  that  can  be  observed 
begin  with  the  first  interglacial 
period,  when  there  is  evidence  of 
a  fall  of  sea  level  about  300  ft. 
below  the  present,  compared  with 
200  ft.  in  Europe.  Next  came,  in 
the  second  glacial  period,  a  rise  of 
the  sea  to  650  ft.  above  the  pre- 
sent level,  compared  with  900  ft. 
in  Europe.  Of  these  two  ages  no 
human  remains  have  been  found 
in  Egypt. 

The  earliest  human  work  in 
Egypt  is  of  the  second  interglacial 
age,  that  of  the  grand  Chellean 


flint  work  of  Europe,  fully  equalled 
in  Egypt.  This  would  be  placed  by 
some  authorities  at  250,000  years 
ago.  The  sea  had  retreated  in 
Europe  to  600  ft.  below  the  present 
level,  making  land  continuous  from 
Africa  to  far  W.  of  Ireland.  The 
climate  was  warm  and  dry,  and 
mankind  took  a  step  forward  in 
the  artistic  perception,  shown  by 
the  imperishable  flint  remains. 
A  Rainless  Land 

To  this  succeeded  the  third 
glacial  period,  long  ages  of  cold 
and  high  sea  level,  cutting  Europe 
into  scattered  islands.  The  misery 
of  this  age  is  seen  by  the  decay  of 
the  only  art  we  can  trace — flint 
working.  In  Egypt  the  sea  level 
rose  to  800  ft.  over  the  present, 
like  the  rise  of  700  ft.  in  Europe. 
The  Nile  Valley  and  its  tributaries 
were  silted  up  with  rolled  gravel 
and  sand,  which  still  remain  in 
some  places  cut  through  by  later 
clearances ;  and  rolled  beds  of 
gravel  are  found  at  the  top  of  high 
cliffs.  After  this,  when  the  sea  re- 
treated and  the  Sahara  dried  up, 
there  was  no  more  moist  wind  to 
form  rain,  and  Egypt  became  the 
rainless  land  we  now  know.  Of  the 
later  stages  of  the  stone  age  in 
Europe,  known  by  the  artistic 
products  of  cave  man,  there  are 
the  equivalents  in  Egypt  on  the 
surface.  Flints  of  Mousterian, 
Aurignacian,  and  Solutrian  types 
are  found  in  sites  on  the  desert ; 
and  the  Magdelenian  types  are 
those  of  the  prehistoric  civilization 
which  can  be  traced  generation  by 
generation  into  historic  times. 

IST  PREHISTORIC  CIVILIZATION. 
The  earliest  step  of  the  unbroken 
line  of  civilization  is  found  in 
burials  in  shallow  circular  pits  in 
the  ground.  The  body  is  doubled 
up,  with  the  knees  near  the  chest, 
and  the  hands  before  the  face, 
lying  on  the  left  side,  head 
south.  This  is  the  regular  atti- 
tude down  to  the  historic  period. 
The  earliest  burials  have  no  woven 
cloth,  the  bodies  being  wrapped  in 
goat  skins  ;  usually  a  single  cup  of 
pottery  lies  near  the  face,  rarely 
some  steatite  beads  are  found, 
while  a  copper  pin  shows  that 
metal  was  already  known,  though 
very  likely  only  native  copper  ham- 
mered. Such  is  the  beginning  of 
the  great  civilization  of  Egypt, 
which  we  can  follow  through  seven 
ages  of  decay  and  revival,  without 
a  break,  down  to  our  own  days. 


The  next  change  was  the  intro- 
duction of  more  pottery  in  the 
graves,  and  the  decoration  of  it 
with  patterns  of  white  lines  on  the 
red  polished  surface.  The  colour- 
ing materials  and  the  patterns  are 
exactly  like  those  of  the  highland 
Algerian  pottery  of  the  present 
day ;  and,  as  the  skulls  of  the 
prehistoric  Egyptians  are  almost 
exactly  of  the  same  size  as  those  of 
the  prehistoric  Algerians,  it  seems 
that  these  earliest  civilized  Egyp- 
tians were  all  one  with  the  N. 
African  people.  Stone  vases, 
usually  of  basalt,  were  also  made, 
entirely  formed  bv  handwork, 
without  turning.  Slate  palettes 
became  usual  for  grinding  the 
malachite  which  was  painted 
round  the  eyes  as  a  preservative. 
The  palettes  were  made  in  the 
forms  of  the  elephant,  stag,  turtle, 
bird,  fish,  etc.  Ivory  combs  to 
fasten  the  hair  were  usual,  with 
figures  of  animals  standing  upon 
them.  Flint  working  was  highly 
developed,  equal  to  the  best  Euro- 
pean, and  only  exceeded  by  some 
in  the  next  age.  The  whole  civiliza- 
tion seems  to  have  been  much  on 
the  level  of  the  Maori,  or  the  best 
Pacific  island  stage. 

Beginning  of  Written  History 

The  method  by  which  the  pre- 
historic age  is  reduced  to  its  order 
of  growth  may  be  briefly  stated.  If 
we  have  a  full  record  of  all  the 
varieties  of  pottery  and  other  ob- 
jects, found  in  a  thousand,  or  more, 
groups  in  graves,  then  it  will  be 
seen  that  some  forms  are  obviously 
derived  by  degradation  from  others. 
A  rough  classing  by  such  means 
can  be  extended  by  statistics 
of  the  percentage  of  forms  like 
those  already  classed ;  this  is 
similar  to  the  percentage  of  recent 
shells  in  various  Tertiary  strata. 
By  many  other  modes  of  sorting 
and  comparison,  the  various  groups 
can  at  last  be  put  hi  their  most 
probable  order,  which  will  be  that 
of  keeping  all  resemblances  as 
close  together  as  possible  in  the 
series.  Such  a  series,  extending 
over  all  the  prehistoric  civilization, 
is  divided  into  numbered  stages, 
from  30  to  78,  at  which  point  the 
first  dynasty  begins  the  written 
history.  The  order  of  the  prehis- 
toric time  is  therefore  stated,  not 
by  years  but  by  sequence  dates 
from  S.D.  30  to  S.D.  78  ;  roughly 
these  stages  seem  to  have  been  at 
least  a  generation  each. 


EGYPT 

2ND  PREHISTORIC  CIVILIZATION. 
The  1st  period,  as  we  have  said, 
begins  with  S.D.  30,  a  number 
assigned  to  leave  room  for  any 
earlier  discoveries.  By  S.D.  36 
considerable  changes  begin  ;  new 
types  of  pottery  rapidly  appear, 
and  others  die  out  between  38  and 
43.  The  older  stone  forms  cease  at 
S.D.  40,  the  newer  forms  begin  at 
39.  New  materials  come  in,  silver 
at  38,  lazuli  at  39,  haematite  at  40. 
In  every  direction  a  new  style  be- 
gins. In  the  pottery  the  character- 
istic is  a  class  of  light  brown  hard 
ware,  decorated  with  painting  in 
red  lines,  and  evidently  copied 
from  stone  forms,  in  place  of  the 
basket  patterns  of  the  older  pot- 
tery. The  links  of  various  kinds 
are  with  the  E.  rather  than  the 
W.,  and  it  seems  likely  that  the 
capital  was  Heliopolis,  which  was 
a  prehistoric  centre  of  worship. 

The  climax  of  this  civiliza- 
tion was  about  S.D.  55.  Much 
more  metal  was  used;  the  flint 
flaking  reached  a  perfection  of  skill 
not  known  anywhere  before  or 
since ;  the  hardest  stones  were 
perfectly  cut  for  vases  ;  gold, 
amethyst,  turquoise,  obsidian,  and 
porphyry,  all  came  into  use ; 
the  invention  of  glazing— applied 
to  stone — started  then.  The  spread 
of  commerce  is  shown  by  the  figures 
of  large  ships  upon  the  pottery. 
The  1st  Historic  Civilization 

In  later  prehistoric  bodies  there 
is  seen,  in  some  forms,  a  consider- 
able change  toward  the  historic 
types.  Probably  for  some  cen- 
turies before  tba  1st  dynasty  a 
fresh  race  had  been  permeating  the 
country.  At  last  a  body  of  about 
a  tenth  of  the  number  of  the  male 
population  entered  Egypt  as  con- 
querors. They  seem  to  have  started 
in  Upper  Egypt,  and  it  is  pro- 
bable that  they  came  across  the 
desert  road  from  the  Red  Sea  to 
Koptos.  They  were  of  a  higher 
civilization  than  the  natives,  bring- 
ing with  them  the  elements  of 
writing,  and  a  great  artistic  skill, 
as  well  as  more  organization.  They 
held  Upper  Egypt  at  first,  centre- 
ing at  Hierakonpolis  (40  m.  S.  of 
Thebes),  and  later  at  Abydos  (40 
m.  N.  of  Thebes).  Thence  they 
conquered  down  to  near  the 
Fayum,  where  they  centred  about 
S.D.  77-78.  Memphis  became  the 
capital  in  S.D.  79  under  Menes  and 
his  successors  of  the  1st  dynasty. 

At  this  point  we  touch  the  con- 
tinuous written  history  of  the  coun- 
try. About  the  close  of  the  IVth 
dynasty  the  Egyptians  set  up  an 
engraved  chronicle,  known  as  the 
Palermo  stone,  stating  the  main 
event  of  every  year,  and  the 
height  of  the  Nile,  from  the  begin- 
ning of  the  1st  dynasty.  Later 


2816 

there  were  papyri  containing  com- 
plete lists  of  the  kings,  with  the 
reign  of  each  stated  in  years, 
months  and  days,  and  summaries. 
Parts  of  such  a  papyrus  of  the 
XVIth  dynasty  remain,  known  as 
the  Turin  papyrus.  There  are 
monumental  lists  of  kings  at 
Abydos,  set  up  in  the  XlXtb 
dynasty,but  only  of  the  best  known 
periods.  Lastly,  there  are  the 
transcripts  of  a  Greek  version  of  the 
history  compiled  by  Manetho, 
which,  with  many  minor  corrup- 
tions, gives  a  consecutive  record 
of  the  whole  of  the  dynasties.  All 
these  records  agree  in  their  general 
account,  they  agree  with  the  total 
reckoning  quoted  by  Herodotus, 
they  agree  with  the  various  ex- 
ternal checks — astronomical  and 
others — that  can  be  discovered. 
This  account  is  therefore  accepted 
here  ;  but  many  writers  prefer  to 
abandon  the  authorities,  and  con- 
struct fanciful  systems  of  shorter 
length,  bringing  down  the  1st 
dynasty  from  5500  B.C.  of  the 
Egyptian  record  to  about  3000 
B.C.  ;  all  dates  before  1587  B.C.  are 
also  reduced. 

The  1st  dynasty  (about  5600- 
5300  B.C.)  was  the  highest  point  of 
the  Third  civilization.  Much  of 
the  old  arts  continued  ;  the  hard 
stone  vases,  the  rich  burials,  the 
style  of  pottery,  all  show  con- 
tinuity. Yet  there  was  an  immense 
change  :  writing  became  usual ;  a 
large  official  class  had  arisen  to 
administer  the  country,  each 
office,  with  its  seal,  down  to  the 
gatherer  of  lotus  seed ;  jewelry 
shows  skilful  work ;  building  both 
in  wood  and  in  brick  was  much 
increased ;  ivory  carving  was  ex- 
cellent for  its  natural  character 
and  freedom  of  expression;  the 
use  of  copper  was  much  extended ; 
andglazing  became  a  decorative  art 
for  building.  The  Ilnd  dynasty  was 
only  a  gradual  decay,  but  the  Illrd 
shows  a  fresh  influence  which  led 
up  to  the  greatest  age  of  all. 
Glories  of  the  IVth  Dynasty 

The  IVth  dynasty  (about  4800 
to  4500  B.C.)  established  the  Fourth 
civilization.  The  Egyptians  here 
reached  the  highest  mastery  of  art, 
of  grandeur,  and  of  conception. 
Never  has  the  immensity  or  the 
accuracy  of  the  great  pyramid  of 
Khufu  (Cheops)  been  equalled  in 
later  ages  ;  never  has  there  been  a 
greater  expression  of  character  and 
dignity  than  in  the  portrait  sculp  * 
tuie ;  never  has  any  people  created 
a  greater  mass  of  artistic  detail  for 
their  tombs,  and  presumably  also 
for  their  dwellings  now  lost  to 
sight.  The  personal  character 
shown  in  the  portraiture  is  most 
attractive  ;  the  firmness  with  kind- 
liness, the  dignity  unspoiled  by 


EGYPT 

mere  pride,  the  vigour,  insight, 
determination :  all  this  agrees  with 
the  ideal  character  set  out  in  the 
maxims  of  that  age  :  "  If  thou  art 
found  good  in  the  time  of  pros- 
perity, when  adversity  comes  thou 
wilt  be  able  to  endure  "  ;  "  Let  thy 
heart  be  overflowing,  but  let  thy 
mouth  be  restrained  "  ;  '  "  The 
cautious  man  succeeds,  the  accu- 
rate man  is  praised  "  ;  "I  am  one 
that  smooths  difficulties  ;  I  am  one 
prudent  in  preventing  and  easing 
grief,  quieting  ths  mourner  with 
pleasant  speech  "  ;  "  Make  not 
terror  among  men."  During  the 
Vth  and  Vlth  dynasties  Egypt 
retained  its  great  civilization, 
diminished  in  some  respects, 
with  wider  diffusion  but  less  care 
and  splendour.  By  the  Vllth  dyn- 
asty, about  4000  B.C.,  foreigners 
were  pressing  into  the  country. 
The  old  art  lingered  on  in  an 
absurdly  degraded  form  during 
four  centuries. 

The  Coming  of  the  Syrians 

The  Xllth  dynasty  (about  3600- 
3400  B.C.),  established  the  Fifth 
civilization.  By  the  middle  of  the 
Xlth  dynasty  the  ponces  of  Thebes 
began  to  spread  i*L<?ir  power,  large 
tombs  were  again  excavated,  and 
monuments  carved.  The  Xllth 
dynasty  reunited  all  the  country, 
and  pushed  up  into  Nubia,  civilizing 
and  consolidating  that  region  at 
least  as  far  as  the  third  cataract 
(lat.  20°).  The  most  magnificent 
king  of  this  age  was  Amenemhat 
III,  whose  sepulchre  was  a  tank, 
cut  and  polished  in  a  block  of  glass- 
hard  sandstone,  22  ft.  long  inside, 
and  weighing  100  tons.  He  re- 
claimed a  large  part  of  the  Fayum 
which  had  been  till  then  a  swamp. 
The  whole  character  of  the  age  has 
less  originality  and  freshness  than 
before,  more  regularity  and  exact 
detail,  and  a  more  formal  treat- 
ment of  every  subject.  The  Syrians 
were  beginning  to  press  into  the 
country,  and  in  the  decadent 
dynasties,  the  XHIth  and  XlVth, 
some  even  rose  to  be  kings.  These 
were  the  forerunners  of  the  great 
Hyksos  conquest  about  2600  B.C. 

The  XVIIIth-XXth  dynasties 
(1587-1102  B.C.)  established  the 
Sixth  civilization.  The  XVIIth 
dynasty  was  a  Nubian  family 
which  headed  the  southern  Egyp- 
tians against  the  Hyksos,  who  were 
finally  expelled  from  Egypt  by 
Aahmes,  the  founder  of  the  XVIIIth 

rasty.  This  revival  centred  speci- 
at  Thebes,  which  became  the 
largest  city  of  the  time,  and  has 
left  a  great  mass  of  temples  and 
painted  tombs.  The  most  import- 
ant aspect  of  this  age  was  the 
foreign  intercourse,  by  conquest 
in  Syria  and  by  trade  with  Baby- 
lonia, Crete,  and  Greece. 


EGYPT 


281  7 


EGYPT 


By  about  1530  B.C.  Tehutmes  I 
had  conquered  all  Syria  out  to  the 
Euphrates  near  Aleppo.  All  this 
was  retained  until  the  wars  of 
Tehutmes  III,  about  1460,  and 
almost  as  much  until  the  crumbling 
of  the  foreign  hold  under  Akhena- 
ten  about  1370  B.C.  In  the  XlXth 
dynasty  Sety  I  recovered  Syria 
entirely,  about  1320  B.C.  ;  and 
Rameses  II,  though  pressed  by  the 
Hittites,  kept  the  greater  part  of 
that  land  till  about  1250.  After 
that,  Egypt  barely  held  a  little  of 
the  S.  of  Palestine.  On  the  W. 
Egypt  did  not  extend  any  political 
influence,  and  the  connexion  was 
only  by  trade,  which  is  mainly  seen 
by  objects  of  Amenhotep  III,  about 
1400  B.C.,  at  Mycenae  and  other 
centres,  and  by  great  quantities  of 
Greek  vases  imported  into  Egypt, 
especially  about  1370  B.C.  When 
Egypt  became  weakened,  there 
were  great  coalitions  of  the  Al- 
gerian and  western  peoples  against 
it  in  1229  B.C.  in  the  reign  of  Mer- 
neptah,  and  again  in  1197  in  that 
of  Rameses  III.  This  was  followed 
by  a  coalition  of  Syrians  and 
western  peoples  in  1194,  who  were 
overthrown  in  a  great  naval  battle. 
Semitising  of  Languages  and  Art 

The  frequent  wars  in  Syria  led 
to  the  bringing  of  great  numbers  of 
Syrian  men  and  women  into  Egypt, 
and  so  to  the  semitising  of  Egyp- 
tian language  and  art.  A  greater 
change  took  place  in  100  years 
than  had  arisen  in  1,000  years 
before.  The  fashion  of  the  time  was 
for  a  light  and  piquant  style,  as 
seen  in  Crete ;  and  the  sober 
matter-of-fact  Egyptian  responded 
to  it,  with  fatal  results  to  his  own 
character.  Graceful  and  pleasing 
as  many  of  the  tomb  scenes  are, 
they  have  none  of  the  solidity  of 
the  old  tomb  sculptures  or  paint- 
ings on  hard  rock  ;  a  mere  coat  of 
plaster  or  mud  over  a  very  rough 
chamber,  all  askew  and  irregular, 
was  sufficient  grounding  for  the 
perishable  colour  washes,  which 
would  be  ruined  by  a  touch  of 
water  ;  the  older  work  was  so  firm 
that  it  could  be  scrubbed  without 
removing  the  colour. 

The  XXIst  dynasty  (1102-952 
B.C.)  was  an  age  of  poverty  and 
weakness.  The  land  was  amicably 
divided  between  a  succession  of 
priest -kings  at  Thebes,  and  the 
kings  at  Tanis  in  the  Delta.  The 
main  interest  lies  in  the  desperate 
attempts  to  save  the  mummies  of 
the  kings  of  the  XVIIth-XXth 
dynasties  from  destruction  by 
robbers.  After  many  had  been 
attacked,  and  most  had  been 
examined  and  shifted  about  for 
safety,  the  priest-kings  at  last 
made  one  great  cache  at  Deir  el 
Bahri,  which  was  left  unopened 


because  it  was  known  that  no  gold 
remained  with  the  bodies.  Thus  it 
was  left  until  our  times,  and  we  can 
now  see  most  of  the  celebrated 
kings  of  this  age  face  to  face  in  the 
Cairo  Museum. 

The  XXIInd  and  XXIIIrd  dy- 
nasties (952-721  B.C.)  revived  the 
power  of  Egypt  somewhat.  They 
were  due  to  the  energy  of  a  Mesopo- 
tamian  adventurer,  Sheshenq  or 
Shishak,  and  his  family,who  settled 
at  Bubastis.  But  there  was  no 
revival  in  the  life  of  the  country,  the 
products  were  only  a  continued 
degradation  of  the  style  of  the 
XlXth  dynasty. 

The  Ethiopian  invasion  about 
727  B.C.  found  Egypt  split  up 
among  eighteen  or  more  little  states, 
but  it  seems  to  have  put  fresh  life 
into  the  country,  and  a  real  revival 
of  work  can  be  seen.  The  Ethio- 
pian kings  who  ruled  till  664  B.C. 
were  vigorous  and  able  men,  and 
they  had  a  good  system  of  ap- 
pointing the  crown-prince  as  viceroy 
of  Egypt,  so  that  there  was  ener- 
getic management  under  expe- 
rienced control. 

The  XXVIth-XXXth  dynasties 
(664-342  B.C.  ),  founded  the  Seventh 
civilization.  .  They  were  under 
Ethiopian  influence  and  then 
largely  controlled  by  Greek  action, 
and  under  Persian  rule.  There  was 
some  revival  of  energy  abroad. 
Necho  in  609  raided  all  Syria  to  the 
Euphrates  and  held  it  more  or  less 
for  four  years,  when  the  new  power 
of  Babylon  defeated  him,  and  he 
retired  to  Egypt.  The  Persians 
held  the  country  from  525  to  401 
B.C.,  and  then  the  native  Egyptians 
in  the  Delta  revived  for  a  couple  of 
generations,  forming  the  XXIXth 
and  XXXth  dynasties,  399-342  B.C. 
Ten  years  of  miserable  destruc- 
tion under  the  degenerate  Persian 
ushered  in  the  golden  age  of  Alex- 
ander's conquest. 

The  Rule  of  the  Ptolemies 

The  transition  from  Alexander  and 
his  heir  to  the  rule  of  the  old  general 
Ptolemy  Soter  (theSaviour)  was  very 
gradual.  Ptolemy,  it  may  be  said, 
ruled  from  the  death  of  Alexander 
in  323.  The  earlier  of  the  family 
were  very  able  men,  wary,  strong 
and  enlightened,  backed  by  power- 
ful queens  of  their  own  family. 
Egypt  had  not  been  so  peaceful 
and  prosperous  for  some  centuries 
as  it  was  from  300  to  200  B.C.  Even 
under  the  effete  rule  of  the  later 
Ptolemies,  the  country  was  one  of 
the  most  learned  and  richest  in  the 
world.  This  dynasty  possessed 
Cyprus  and  Gyrene  for  a  long  time, 
and  parts  of  Syria  and  the  S.  of  Asia 
Minor  in  the  intervals  of  the  peren- 
nial squabbles  with  the  Antiochi. 

THE  ROMAN  AGE  (30  B.C.  to  A.D. 
640).  The  end  of  Egyptian  inde- 


pendence was  the  death-stroke  to 
the  country.  From  being  one  of  the 
richest  lands,  it  became  the  milch - 
cow  of  the  emperor  of  Rome,  the 
private  property  of  the  Crown.  It 
was  steadily  drained  of  all  wealth, 
taxed  in  corn  to  feed  Rome,  taxed 
in  money,  and  after  three  or  four 
centuries  even  the  shabbiest  copper 
coin  ceased  to  be  struck,  and  the 
people  were  reduced  to  barter.  Occa- 
sional massacres  were  about  the  only 
events  that  marked  the  Roman  rule. 
The  Arab  Rule  (A.D.  640-1517; 

This  was  the  Eighth  Civilization. 
The  Roman  government  collapsed 
before  a  few  thousand  wild  Arab 
horsemen.  Yet  such  was  the 
vitality  of  the  country,  that  under 
the  alien  but  just  rule  of  the  Arab, 
within  two  centuries  the  land  tax 
alone  produced  six  or  seven  million 
sterling — far  the  largest  revenue  of 
any  country  of  that  age.  There 
can  be  no  comparison  between  the 
advantages  of  Roman  and  of  Arab 
rule.  Yet  that,  like  all  other  power, 
decayed,  and  the  Mamluk  dynas- 
ties, for  some  centuries  before  the 
Turkish  conquest,  were  a  ceaseless 
turmoil  of  fighting  and  plundering. 
This  unrest  was  renewed  when 
Turkish  power  waned,  and  only  the 
strong  hand  of  Mehemet  Ali  re- 
covered the  advantages  of  a  united 
government. 

THE  PEOPLE.  Egypt,  in  spite  of 
its  isolated  position,  has  been  sub- 
ject to  continued  mixtures  of  race. 
Starting  with  an  Algerian  stock, 
there  have  been  four  or  five  inflows 
from  the  E.,  two  more  from  the  W., 
a  large  Greek  population  in  the 
Delta,  and  continual  mixtures  of 
Southerners  from  slave  labour. 
Yet  the  national  type  of  character 
has  remained  much  the  same, 
and  the  skull  measurements  after 
each  mixture  return  in  a  few 
centuries  to  the  older  size.  Agri- 
culture has  always  been  the  main 
industry  of  the  country,  the  regular 
inundation  and  strong  sunshine 
making  it  very  profitable.  Cattle 
are  not  kept  in  large  numbers,  as  all 
the  fertile  land  is  inundated  for  a 
third  of  the  year,  and  there  is  no  per- 
manent pasture.  The  usual  feeding 
of  cattle  is  by  tethering  in  green 
crops,  or  by  hand  in  the  summer. 

The  ancient  organization,  which 
may  still  be  seen  in  the  remote 
country,  is  for  each  district  to  be  the 
property  of  a  great  man — anciently 
an  hereditary  noble.  The  police  and 
guards  of  his  district  were  his  per- 
sonal servants.  On  his  estate  he 
kept  workmen  for  all  current  pur- 
poses; in  his  great  house  lived  all 
the  artificers  that  were  needed  for 
manufactures ;  weavers,  carpen- 
ters, smiths,  jewellers,  boat  builders 
all  belonged  to  the  establishment, 
and  worked  as  directed.  Trade  was 


EGYPT 

mostly  in  petty  market  wares,  and 
in  raw  material  not  produced  on 
the  estate.  The  government  was 
on  the  same  model.  The  royal  court 
was  only  the  greatest  of  the  nobles' 
estates,  and  the  ordinary  govern- 
ment was  carried  on  by  the  officers 
of  the  king's  household,  who  only 
interfered  when  needful  with  the 
local  administration  of  the  nobles. 
It  was  something  like  the  British 
control  over  the  native  states 
of  India.  When  a  noble  wanted 
great  blocks  of  stone,  or  anything 
only  produced  on  the  royal  estates, 
he  applied,  and  was  granted  the 
present  of  the  material.  The  tribute 
sent  from  different  nobles  to  the 
court  was  trifling,  merely  pin- 
money  for  personal  use,  showing 
that  all  cost  of  government  was 
borne  locally  by  the  nobles.  The 
system  gave  great  social  stability 
to  the  country,  everything  went  on 
as  usual,  whether  the  king  was 
strong  or  weak.  The  only  purpose 
of  the  kingdom  was  to  prevent 
local  fighting  and  to  unify  the  land 
for  defence. 

The  official  class  was  probably 
always  corrupt ;  the  management 
of  cases  and  witnesses  under 
Rameses  X  reads  like  modern 
police  work.  Where  a  capable  noble 
can  be  found,  the  purely  local  ad- 
ministration is  more  likely  to  be 
just  than  where  a  centralized  pro- 
fessional police  are  in  authority. 

The  army  was  originally  on  a 
small  scale,  probably  the  king's 
people  from  his  estates.  By  the 
Xllth  dynasty  the  scribe  of  re- 
cruits is  found,  and  in  the  great 
military  age  of  the  Xlllth— 
XXth  dynasties  the  recruiting 
was  severe  in  Egypt. 

Native  Troops  and  Auxiliaries 

The  army  was  divided  into  four 
brigades,  named  after  the  great 
gods  of  different  regions  ;  the  army 
of  Amen  from  the  Thebaid,  that 
of  Ptah  from  middle  Egypt,  that 
of  Ra  from  the  upper  Delta,  and 
that  of  Sutekh  from  the  E.  and 
lower  Delta.  Besides  the  native 
troops,  there  were  many  auxiliaries 
— Libyan  and  negro  archers  in 
early  times,  Sardinian  and  other 
Mediterranean  folk  later.  The 
Greek  accounts  of  the  army  form- 
ing a  regular  caste  with  hereditary 
lands,  was  probably  a  continua- 
tion of  the  Rameside  system.  The 
Ptolemies  further  settled  Greek 
troops,  largely  in  the  basin  of  the 
Fayum,  which  they  reclaimed  by 
reducing  the  inflow  of  the  Nile. 

The  position  of  women  was 
always  high  until  the  Arab  con- 
quest. Property  was  essentially 
held  by  women.  A  man  might  even 
have  to  declare  at  marriage  that 
all  his  earnings  passed  to  his  wife. 
Down  to  Coptic  times  a  wife's 


consent  was  necessary  for  a  valid 
sale  in  an  open  market ;  even 
though  a  mere  formula,  it  proves 
original  intention.  The  wife 
always  appears  side  by  side  with 
her  husband  on  monuments,  and 
parentage  was  almost  always 
reckoned  one  or  two  generations 
farther  back  on  the  female  than 
on  the  male  side.  Apparently  the 
inheritance  to  the  kingdom  de- 
pended entirely  on  the  female  line, 
and  whoever  was  king  in  fact  had 
in  law  to  marry  the  heiress. 
Polygamy  was  unusual  but  not 

Erohibited  ;  in  one  case  of  a  child- 
;ss  wife  the  husband  took  six 
others.  There  is  no  ceremony  of 
marriage  preserved,  and  as  in 
Christian  Egypt  it  was  a  legal 
contract,  rather  than  religious,  it 
was  doubtless  so  before  then.  In 
the  Christian  contract  there  was  a 
divorce  clause,  stating  that  either 
party  could  cause  divorce  by 
proclaiming  it  in  the  congregation. 
The  husband's  gift  was  only  12s. 
and  the  divorce  penalty  seven 
times  that  sum.  In  the  XXVIth 
dynasty  the  penalty  was  only  the 
returning  of  half  the  marriage 
portion. 

Simplicity  of  Native  Costumes 
Dress  was  simple,  befitting  the 
climate.  In  prehistoric  ages  the 
men  wore  a  girdle,  the  women  a 
short  linen  petticoat  like  the 
Dyaks,  or  later  the  Malay  sarong. 
The  dynastic  men  wore  a  waist - 
cloth  or  kilt,  like  that  enjoined 
by  Mahomet,  from  the  navel  to 
the  knees  ;  the  women  wore  a  long, 
white  wrapper,  from  below  the 
breast  to  the  ankles,  held  up  by 
shoulder-straps.  These  remained 
the  dress  represented  in  art  till 
the  XlXth  dynasty  ;  but  in  reality, 
as  early  as  the  Vth  dynasty  women 
wore  tight,  high  dresses  with  very 
tight  sleeves,  like  the  modern 
galabiyeh.  At  the  same  period, 
pleated  linen  drawn  into  folds  was 
also  used.  In  the  late  XVIIIth 
dynasty  and  onward,  very  full 
pleated  linen  dresses  were  used  for 
men  and  women.  For  the  winter,  a 
thick,  quilted  robe  was  worn,  as 
shown  on  an  aged  king  of  the 
1st  dynasty ;  thick,  stiff,  long 
wrappers  were  usual  for  viziers 
and  high  officers  in  the  Xllth 
dynasty.  In  Greek  times,  thick 
outer  wraps,  often  with  fringes, 
were  usual.  Stuff  with  very  long, 
loose  threads  all  over  it,  like  a 
shaggy  fur,  was  woven  in  the 
XXIst  dynasty.  The  weaving  of 
coloured  patterns  began  in  the 
XVIIIth  dynasty,  but  was  ex- 
tremely rare.  The  common  use  of 
colour  patterns  on  clothing  is 
entirely  of  the  Roman  period,  and 
most  used  in  the  Christian  age,  as 
satirised  by  Jerome. 


EGYPT 

EDUCATION.  The  Egyptian  was 
always  business-like,  and  kept 
tallies  of  all  goods,  from  the  1st 
dynasty  onward.  .  A  tally  of  the 
XVIIIth  dynasty  gives  the  ensign 
of  the  Nile  boats  and  the  number 
of  blocks  of  stone  which  each 
carried.  From  these  tallies 
elaborate  accounts  were  drawn  up, 
listing  every  goat  or  pigeon  on  an 
estate,  or  putting  down  as  gifts 
to  the  gods  every  item  of  106,792 
loaves  of  one  kind  or  1,975,800 
nosegays.  Every  noble  had  a  staff 
of  scribes  on  his  estates  to  keep  all 
the  bailiff's  accounts,  and  they 
are  very  often  shown  in  the  tomb 
sculptures.  By  far  the  greater  part 
of  the  documents  that  are  pre- 
served of  all  periods  are  the 
accounts.  This  proves  that  there 
was  a  large  class  of  men  all 
through  the  country  who  could 
write,  though  probably  the  peasant 
or  petty  trader  was  not  as  well 
educated  as  in  Babylonia. 

Education  was  probably  in 
general  from  father  to  son,  but  in 
the  XVIIIth  dynasty  schools  were 
attended  in  the  towns.  A  rough 
and  practical  geometry  was  used 
by  the  scribes,  for  the  areas  of 
fields  and  the  contents  of  conical 
granaries.  There  was  certainly 
also  a  much  more  skilled  geometry 
and  astronomy  by  the  pyramid 
builders,  who  were  capable  of 
setting  out  a  building  true  to  1  in 
10,000  and  positions  by  the  stars 
to  1  in  1,000.  In  the  XVIIIth 
dynasty  the  clepsydra  or  water 
clock  was  made  as  a  wide  conical 
vessel,  to  compensate  for  the 
quicker  flow  of  water  at  greater 
pressure,  and  was  graduated  for 
each  month  to  compensate  for  the 
changes  of  temperature.  In  the 
same  age  botany  was  studied,  and 
Tehutmes  III  sculptured  a  chamber 
with  the  foreign  plants  of  his 
Syrian  wars,  having  separate  figures 
of  fruit  and  seed  like  a  botanical 
work.  The  Egyptian  always  had  a 
keen  eye  for  differences  of  race,  and 
showed  on  monuments  the  types 
of  all  the  peoples  that  he  visited. 

Egyptian  Literature 
The  literature  begins  in  the 
pyramid  period  with  maxims  and 
wonder- tales  of  magicians,  parallel 
to  medieval  tales  of  miracles.  In 
the  Xllth  dynasty  tales  of  foreign 
adventure  were  in  fashion,  suc- 
ceeded in  the  XVIIIth  dynasty  by 
tales  of  character.  The  growth 
was  therefore  much  the  same  as  in 
the  last  few  centuries  in  Europe. 
There  were  also  serious  works 
which  showed  the  deeper  thoughts 
of  the  time.  In  the  Xlth  dynasty 
they  wrote  : 

Since  the  time  of  the  ancestors — 
The  gods  who  were  aforetime — 
Who  rest  in  their  pyramids    .    .    . 
Their  place  is  no  more    .    .    . 


EGYPT 

None  cometh  from  thence    .     .     . 
That  he  may  tell  how  they  fare     .     . 
Until  we  depart 

To  the  place  whither  they  have  gone. 
Encourage  thy  heart  to  forget  it 
Making  it  pleasant  for  thee  to  follow 

thy  desire     .     .     . 
Until  that  day  of  lamentation  cometh 

unto  thee     .     .     . 
There  is  also  the  song  of  the  man 
who  is  weary  of  the  world  : 
Death  is  before  me  to-day, 
Like  the  recovery  of  a  sick  man, 
Like  going  forth  into  a  garden  after 

sickness. 

Death  is  before  me  to-day, 
Like  the  odour  of  myrrh, 
Like  sitting  under  the  sail  on  a  windy 

day. 

Death  is  before  me  to-day, 
As  a  man  longs  to  see  his  house 
When  he  has  spent  years  in  captivity. 

The  Gods  of  the  Egyptians 
The  earliest  belief  about  gods 
eo  far  as  is  known,  is  tribal 
monotheism,  of  which  traces  re- 
main in  the  early  historical  writ- 
ings. Each  tribe  in  the  Nile  valley 
seems  to  have  had  a  separate 
divinity.  As  the  tribes  amalga- 
mated in  prehistoric  ages,  they 
joined  in  worshipping  two  gods, 
as  husband  and  wife,  or  father  and 
son,  or  three  gods  as  a  triad. 
Later,  in  historic  times,  when  the 
relationships  were  already  settled, 
fresh  gods  were  brought  in  by  com- 
pounding names,  as  Ptah-Sokar- 
Osiris,  belonging  to  three  different 
sources  of  population.  This  pro- 
cess was  not  complete  till  the 
XVIIIth  dynasty. 

Four  great  classes  of  gods  can 
be  distinguished,  the  animal  gods 
of  the  earliest  population,  the 
Osiride  gods  in  human  form  of 
western  origin,  the  Solar  gods  of 
eastern  introduction,  and  the 
abstract  gods,  as  the  Father  god, 
Mother  goddess,  Creator  god, 
goddess  of  Truth,  etc.  All  these 
classes  had  been  mixed  in  Egypt 
before  the  historic  times.  The 
belief  in  passing  over  a  water  of 
death  was  as  old  as  before  the  first 
prehistoric  civilization,  as  the 
king  is  said  to  do  so  on  a  float  of 
reeds,  whereas  boats  were  usual  in 
the  second  age.  The  myths  of 
hunting  and  killing  the  gods  and 
feasting  on  their  cooked  limbs  is 
older  than  the  Osiris  worship,  as  he 
is  expressly  said  to  have  led  the 
Egyptians  from  cannibalism  and 
violence.  From  various  such  in- 
dications it  is  possible  to  restore 
several  stages  in  the  growth  of 
beliefs  long  before  the  date  of 
records  that  we  have.  Certainly 
there  was  a  firmly  accepted  belief 
in  a  ritual  for  the  dead,  as  from 
the  earliest  graves  known  until 
historic  times  the  position  is  al- 
ways the  same,  and  the  funeral 
offerings  do  not  alter  but  only  in- 
crease as  time  goes  on.  There  must 
have  been  a  generally  accepted 
ritual  for  the  position  of  most  of 


2820 

the  offerings,  which  proves  settled 
and  continuous  beliefs. 

In  historic  times  the  principal 
gods  were  ,the  baboon  and 
the  ibis  of  Hermopolis,  lions  in 
some  Delta  towns,  cats  at  Bubastis, 
bulls  at  Memphis,  Heliopolis, 
Kanobos  (Canopus),  Hermonthis, 
rams  at  Mendes  and  Thebes,  cro- 
codiles in  the  Fayum,  hawks  at 
Hierakonpolis  and  Koptos,  ser- 
pents at  Buto,  and  several  kinds  of 
fish.  The  principal  animal-headed 
gods  were  Khnumu  the  creator  and 
Hershefi,  both  ram-headed,  Bast 
of  Bubastis,  Anubis  jackal-headed, 
Thoth  ibis-headed,  and  Horus 
hawk-headed.  The  purely  human 
gods  were  Osiris,  Isis,  Nebhat, 
Horus ;  Amen,  Mut  and  Khonsu 


EGYPT 

open  along  the  front.  The  next 
stage  is  to  have  a  store  chamber  at 
the  back,  then  a  way  to  the  roof  ; 
after  that  more  chambers  and  then 
a  roof  chamber  forming  an  upper 
storey.  This  was  no  doubt  the 
growth  of  the  superior  house  also, 
and  as  the  temple  was  the  house 
of  the  god,  it  is  the  plan  of 
the  temple.  In  the  latest  of  the 
temples  the  old  verandah  remains 
as  the  vestibule  hall  open  in  front, 
the  courtyard  is  the  temple  court, 
the  store  chambers  come  behind 
the  hall.  The  peristyle  court  is  an 
expansion  of  the  verandah  around 
the  front  court.  The  hypostyle 
hall,  farther  in,  is  the  usual  inner 
hall  of  the  dwelling  house.  It  has 
also  been  proved  that  the  course 


Egypt.     Bird's-eye  view  of  the  ancient  fortress  of  Semneh,  as  restored 
Charles  Chipiez 

From  A  History  of  Art  in  Ancient  Egypt,  0.  Perrolt  and  C.  Chipiez,  by  courtesy  of 
Chapman  <fc  Hall,  Ltd. 


the  triad  of  Thebes,  and  Neit  of  the 
Delta.  The  cosmic  gods  are  Ra 
the  sun,  also  called  Aten,  Anher 
the  sky,  Sopdu  the  zodiacal  light, 
Nut  heaven,  Geb  earth,  Shu 
space,  Hapi  the  Nile.  The  abstract 
gods  were  Ptah  the  Creator,  Min 
the  Father,  Hathor  the  Mother, 
Maat  Truth,  Safekht  of  writing, 
Nefertum  of  vegetation. 

One  great  break  in  the  religion 
must  be  mentioned,  the  entire 
dominance  of  a  scientific  worship  of 
the  radiant  energy  of  the  sun,  called 
the  Aten  or  "lord,"  to  the  exclusion 
of  all  other  gods.  This  hardly 
survived  the  life  of  its  founder, 
Akhenaten  (1383-1365  B.C.). 
'••  Art  and  Architecture 

The  simplest  beginnings  of  archi- 
tecture are  seen  in  the  models  of 
the  peasants'  huts  that  were  placed 
on  the  graves  for  the  spirits.  The 
essential  is  a  verandah  with  an 
enclosed  court  before  it,  perhaps 
developed  from  the  Bedawi  tent, 


of  daily  worship  of  the  priest  was 
directly  copied  from  the  domestic 
service  to  a  noble. 

The  great  growth  of  the  temples 
was  generally  due  to  successive 
additions  by  different  kings,  as  in 
London  the  building  of  West- 
minster Abbey  extended  over  four 
or  five  centuries,  although  on  a 
single  plan.  Beside  the  house 
temple,  just  noticed,  there  were 
shrine  temples,  copied  from  the 
hut  shelters  put  over  the  sacred 
ark  of  a  god  ;  these  were  open  front 
and  back,  so  that  a  procession 
could  pass  through  them  to  *ake 
up  the  ark  or  deposit  it. 

The  earlier  temples  are  very 
simple  and  plain,  but  of  massive 
structure.  The  earliest  columns 
of  the  pyramid  age  and  the  Xllth 
dynasty  are  monoliths  of  red 
granite  from  16-20  ft.  high.  The 
hardness  of  the  granite  enabled 
the  spacing  to  be  made  wide  and 
airy.  When  soft  sandstone  was 


Palmiform  capital  of  the  Ptole- 
maic   period,     from    the    great 
temple   of  Isis,  at   Philae' 


Bell-shaped    capital     from     the 

Hypostyle     Hall,     at     Karnak; 

diameter  at  widest.  22  ft. 


Caulicole  capital  from   Philae,  a 
style  which  suggested  the  Corin- 
thian  capital  to  the  Greeks 


Inscription  from  the   tomb  of  Merab  at   Gizeh.     Between  the   two   figures  of  Merab,  who,  on  the  left,  is  accompanied 

by  his  mother,  are  seen  subjects  carrying  baskets  of  wine,  food,  etc.     The  two  bottom  rows  show  the  chief  butcher 

followed  by  his  assistants  bearing  a  goose  and  a  calf  and  cutting  up  an  ox 

EGYPTIAN   ART:     RICH    ORNAMENT   AND    COLOURED    INSCRIPTIONS    OF    AN   ANCIENT    CIVILIZATION 

To  face  page  2820 


Piers,  with  capitals,  belonging  to  the  XVIIIth  dynasty, 
1700-1600  B.C.  The  left  pier,  17  ft.  6  ins.  high,  shows 
Amen  on  a  throre  receiving  an  offering  of  lotus 
flowers  from  Amenhotep  II,  whose  names  and  titles  are 
inscribed  above.  On  the  right  pier,  13  ft.  i  J  ins.  high, 


is  seen  Amenhotep  III  and  the  goddess  Hathor  (Isis), 
who  bears  on  her  head  the  solar  disk  resting  between 
two  horns  and  the  Uraeus,  or  serpent  emblem.  Both 
figures  carry  the  ankh  or  key  of  life.  Above  are  the 
names  and  titles  of  the  goddess  and  the  king 


EGYPTIAN    ART:      PICTURED    PILLARS    OF    NEARLY    4.000    YEARS    AGO 


EGYPT 

used  in  the  XVlIIth  dynasty,  and 
later,  the  larger  temples  became 
choked  by  the  bulky  columns  re- 
quired, as  at  the  Great  Hall  of 
Karnak.  The  decoration  of  the 
temple  with  scenes  of  offering  was 
not  for  ornament,  but  in  order  that 
the  representation  should  magic- 
ally be  equivalent  to  the  perpetual 
performance  of  the  successive  acts 
of  divine  worship.  The  sculpture 
in  the  temples  followed  the  general 
course  of  the  art. 

The  complete  temples  remaining 
are,  of  the  IVth  dynasty,  the 
granite  temple  at  Gizeh  ;  of  the 
XVIIIth,  of  Hatshepsut  at  Deir  el 
Bahri,  Tehutmes  III  at  Medinet 
Habu,  Tehutmes  I  to  Ptolemies 
at  Karnak,  Amenhotep  III  at 
Luxor  and  El  Kab ;  of  the  XlXth, 
of  Sety  I  at  Abydos,  Qurneh,  ano 
Redesieh,  of  Rameses  II  at 
Ramesseum,  various  Nubian  and 
Abu  Simbel,  of  Rameses  III  at 
Medinet  Habu,  Ptolemaic  at  Edfu 
and  Dendereh,  Roman  at  Esneh. 
Three  series  of  royal  tombs  are 
known — the  underground  brick 
and  timber  chambers  of. the  1st 
and  Ilnd  dynasty  at  Abydos,  the 
pyramids  of  the  Illrd— Xllth 
dynasty  at  Gizeh  and  scattered  for 
40  m.  S.,  the  rock-cut  chambers  of 
the  XVIIIth-XXth  dynasty  in  the 
tombs  of  the  kings  at  Thebes  ;  no 
later  king's  tomb  is  known. 

More  recent  excavations,  con- 
tined  chiefly  to  the  Valley  of  the 
Kings  in  the  Thebes  district,  were 
conducted  by  the  5th  Lord  Car- 
narvon and  Howard  Carter  (q.v.). 
The  latter  on  Nov.  5th,  1922,  in 
almost  the  last  unexplored  pieces 
of  ground,  made  the  sensational 
discovery  of  the  tomb  of  King 


282  1 


EGYPT 


Egypt. 


Ancient  riverside  villa,  as  restored  by  Charles  Chipiez 

By  courtesy  of  Chapman  &  Hall,  ltd. 


Tutankhamen  (q.v.).  and  he  super- 
intended the  removal  of  the  trea- 
sures found  therein. 

The  mummies  of  the  kings  are 
preserved  from  these  Theban 
tombs,  but  no  others.  Great  ceme- 
teries of  private  tombs  with  sculp- 
ture and  painting  are  at  Gizeh  and 
Sakkarah  for  the  pyramid  age,  at 


Egypt.      Reconstruction  of  a  wooden  building,  made  from  imitations  o! 
assembled  wooden  construction  found  in  tombs 

By  courtesy  of  Chapman  Jb  Ball,  Ltd. 


Bem-Hasan  tor  the  Xlith  dynasty, 
and  at  Thebes  for  the  XVIIIth- 
XXth  dynasties.  Forts  of  massive 
brick  enclosures,  with  panelled 
pattern  outside,  are  of  the  Ilnd 
dynasty  at  Abydos,  and  of  the 
Xllth  dynasty  in  Nubia.  Temples 
were  often  fortified  with  immense 
walls,  as  that  80  ft.  thick  at  Tanis. 
The  only  complete  plan  of  a  town 
is  of  the  Xllth  dynasty  ;  it  has 
many  large  mansions  of  60  rooms 
and  rows  of  streets  of  workmen's 
houses,  all  laid  out  in  a  regular 
plan.  The  houses  and  the  earlier 
temples  were  built  of  mud  brick, 
which  was  covered  with  lime- 
wash  or  stucco,  on  which  fresco 
painting  was  placed  in  the  better 
houses ;  the  early  brick  temples 
were  sometimes  lined  with  glazed 
tiling  of  large  size. 

Statuary  is  known  from  the  1st 
dynasty  onward.  It  begins  in  lime- 
stone and  ivory,  with  an  entirely 
naturalistic  style,  full  of  character 
and  life,  and  superior  to  later  work 
in  its  truth  and  absence  of  con- 
vention. A  copper  statue  is  re- 
corded in  the  Ilnd  dynasty,  and  a 
large  copper  statue  has  been  found 
of  the  VI th  dynasty.  Diorite  and 
other  hard  rocks  were  also  sculp- 
tured. In  the  Xllth  dynasty  the 
style  was  more  finished  and  deli- 
cate, but  less  living.  The  XVIIIth 
dynasty  had  more  vivacity,  L 


but 


EGYPT 


2822 


Egypt.    Agriculture  as  depicted  on  ancient  monuments.    Left,  four  men  hoaing,  from  Beni-Hasan  ;  right,  a  ploughing 

scene,  from  the  necropolis  at  Memphis 

By  courtesy  of  Chapman  &  Hall,  Ltd. 


generally  less  able  work ;  hard 
rocks  were  mostly  used,  and  many 
colossal  statues  were  carved,  rang- 
ing to  900  and  even  1,200  tons 
weight.  Though  work  declined  in 
the  XlXth  dynasty  and  onward, 
there  was  a  revival  in  the  XXVth 
and  a  modification  by  Greek  in- 
fluence after  that ;  but  there  is  no 
sculpture  of  merit  after  Alexander. 

Metal  work — mostly  in  copper — 
was  skilfully  wrought.  Large 
vessels  were  made  by  hammer 
work,  often  figured  in  the  tomb 
sculptures  ;  a  narrow-necked  flask 
of  copper  is  only  l-40th  in.  thick. 
The  casting,  a  thin  form  of  copper 
in  place  of  a  wax  model,  was 
carried  on  from  the  Ilnd  dynasty  ; 
for  figures  a  core  was  made  of  ash 
and  clay,  a  thin  coat  of  wax  was 
put  over  it  and  finely  tooled,  an 
outer  mould  was  placed  around 
that,  the  wax  melted  out,  and 
copper  or  bronze  run  in.  The  metal 
is  often  not  more  than  l-50th  in. 
thick.  A  ring  handle  playing  loose 
in  its  ring  attachment  were  cast 
all  in  one.  Spinning  thin  metal 
bowls  in  a  lathe  was  perfectly  done 
in  the  XlXth  dynasty. 

Jewelry  was  delicately  made 
as  early  as  the  prehistoric,  when 
minute  beads  of  gold,  and  thin 
gold  worked  over  a  core  of  lime- 
stone, are  found.  In  the  1st 
dynasty  gold  was  perfectly  sol- 
dered, and  in  the  Xllth  dynasty 
there  was  the  most  delicate  work 
of  soldering  cloisons  of  gold  on  an 
open-work  basis,  and  inlaying  with 
hundreds  of  minutely  cut  pieces  of 
coloured  stones — turquoise,  lazuli, 
and  cornelian.  No  later  jewelry 


exceeded  this  in  beauty  and  deli- 
cacy, though  the  same  style  was 
maintained  till  Greek  times.  Granu- 
lated work  was  finely  made  in  the 
Xllth  dynasty  ;  minute  globules 
of  gold  in  close  rows  were  soldered 
on  curved  surfaces  in  regular  pat- 


historic  age,  1st  and  Xllth  dynas' 
ties,  from  some  unknown  source. 
The  great  output  of  it  in  Egypt 
was  after  the  Syrian  craftsmen 
were  brought  in  during  the 
XVIIIth  dynasty.  Then  there 
was  an  immense  output  of  coloured 


terns  with  perfect  precision.  In  the    glass  vases,  beads,  and  other  work. 
XVIIIth  dynasty  there  was  less    ' 
delicacy,  and  the  favourite  process 
was  the  inlaying  of  one  metal  in 
another  to  form  figures  and  scenes. 


Egypt.     Harvest  scene,  as  shown  on  a  tomb  at  Gizeh 
In  the  XXVth-XXXth  dynasties     Arab     invas: 


This  was  revived  in  the  Ptolemaic 
and  Roman  times  as  minute  in- 
lay  or  mosaic  work  of  the  greatest 
delicacy.  Blown  glass  vessels  were 

_     not  known    till 

late  in  the  Greek 
or  Roman 
period.  Alex- 
andria  was  the 
main  home  of 
fine  glass  work 
in  classical 
times,  until 
superseded  by 


this  inlaying  of  gold  thread  in 
bronze  was  carried  out  so  as  to 
clothe  statues  completely  with 
designs  copied  from  embroidery. 

Glazing  was  known  from  the 
beginning  of  the  prehistoric  civiliz- 
ation, and  used  to  cover  both 
faience  and  stone.  Vases  with  two- 
colour  glazing  were  made  in  the 
1st  dynasty,  and  tiles  of  many 
colours  in  the  Illrd  dynasty.  The 
great  development  of  glazing  in 
many  colours  was  in  the  XVIIIth, 
for  tiles,  inlay  of  walls,  vases,  dress 
ornaments,  and  cheap  jewelry. 
Innumerable  statuettes  were  made 
of  glazed  ware,  often  with  minute 
detail  of  features,  especially  in  the 
XXVIth  dynasty.  Glass  was 
brought  in  rarely  in  the  second  pre- 


Venice  after  the 
Painted    glass 

lamps  were  the  form  of  this  craft 
which  was  maintained  by  the 
Arabs.  The  fine  work  of  furni- 
ture, gilding,  stucco,  weaving,  and 
other  kinds  cannot  be  well  de- 
scribed here  ;  but  the  Egyptian 
was  for  thousands  of  years  the 
most  skilful  craftsman  of  the 
world. 

W.    M.    Flinders    Petrie 

Bibliography.  The  Manners  and 
Customs  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians, 
J.  G.  Wilkinson,  rev.  ed.  S.  Birch, 
1878  ;  History  of  Egypt,  vols.  i-iii, 
W.  M.  Flinders  Petrie..  1894,  etc.  ; 
Primitive  Art  in  Egypt,  Jean  Capart, 
Eng.  trans.  A.  S.  Griffith,  1905; 
Ancient  Records  of  Egypt :  historical 
documents  from  the  earliest  times  to 
the  Persian  Conquest,  collected  and 
edited  with  Eng.  trans,  by  J.  H. 


Egypt.     Everyday  scenes  depicted  in  inscriptions.     1.  Milking,  from  a  tomb  at  Sakkarah.     2.  Corn-grinding,  figure 
from  Boulak.     3.  Scribe  registering  the  weighing  of  merchandise  from  Sakkarah 

By  courlesy  of  Chapman  &  Hall,  Ltd. 


EGYPT 

Breasted,  5  vols.  1906-7  ;  The  Arts 
and  Crafts  of  Ancient  Egypt, 
W.  M.  F.  Petrie,  1909  ;  A  History  of 
Egypt  from  the  Earliest  Times  to 
the  Persian  Conquest,  J.  H, 
Breasted,  2nd  ed.,  1909  ;  Guide  to 
the  Antiquities  of  Upper  Egypt  from 
Abydos  to  the  Sudan  Frontier, 
A.  "E.  P.  B.  Weigall,  1910 ;  The 
Dawn  of  Civilisation  :  Egypt  and 
Chaldaea,  G.  Maspero,  Eng.  trans. 
5th  ed.  repr.  1910  ;  The  Struggle  of 
the  Nations  :  Egypt,  Syria  and 
Assyria,  G.  Maspero,  Eng.  trans., 
M.  L.  McClure,  2nd  ed.  1910; 
The  Passing  of  the  Empires,  S50 
B.C.-330  B.C.,  G.  Maspero,  Eng.  trans. 
1900;  Egypt  and  Israel,  W.  M.  F. 
Petrie,  1911;  The  Revolutions  of 
Civilisation,  W.  M.  F.  Pefcrie,  1911; 
Development  of  Religion  and 
Thought  in  Ancient  Egypt,  J.  H. 
Breasted,  1912  ;  Manual  of  Egyptian 
Archaeology,  G.  Maspero,  6th  Eng. 
ed.  A.  S.  Johns,  1914;  Elementary 
Egyptian  Grammar,  M.  A.  Murray, 
3rd  ed.  1914.  ' 

MODERN  EGYPT.  The  main 
physical  features  of  Egypt  are  the 
Nile  and  the  desert.  Egypt  is 
bounded  N.  by  the  Mediterranean, 
S.  by  the  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan, 
E.  by  the  Red  Sea,  and  W.  by 
Tripoli  aud  the  Libyan  desert.  The 
area  of  the  country  is  roughly 
350,000  sq.  m.,  of  which  all  but  a 
fifteenth  is  desert.  A  division  is 
made  between  Lower,  Middle,  and 


2823 

hills.  The  valley  lands  in  this 
region  are  well  cultivated. 

The  chief  towns  are  Cairo,  the 
capital ;  Alexandria,  the  chief  sea- 
port ;  and  Port  Said.  The  coast- 
line is  over  600  m.  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  about  1,200  m.  on  the 
Red  Sea.  Part  of  it  is  rocky,  but 
nowhere  do  the  cliffs  exceed  a 
height  of  1,000  ft. 

The  Nile  enters  Egypt  proper  at 
Haifa,  just  N.  of  the  second  catar- 
act, flowing  through  a  narrow 
valley  as  far  as  25°  north. 

The  delta  extends  some  100  m. 
S.  to  N.,  and  155  m.  on  the  shore 
of  the  Mediterranean  between 


EGYPT 


Egypt. 


Ancient  representation  of  a  table  game,  from 
an  inscription  at  Beni-Hasan 

Upper  Egypt.  Lower  Egypt  is  the 
northern  part — the  delta  of  the 
Nile;  Middle  Egypt  is  the  land 
between  Cairo  and  Assuan,  and 
Upper  Egypt  is  the  southern  part — 
the  middle  Nile  valley.  The  fertile 
portions  of  the  country  are  mostly 
around  the  delta,  the  Nile  valley 
and  the  oases.  With  the  continual 
improvement  in  drainage  and  irri- 
gation the  cultivable  area  is  yearly 
increasing. 

The  majority  of  the  population 
of  12,750,918  are  fellaheen  (agricul- 


Egypt.  Artists  at  work  on  a  statue, 
from  an  inscription  at  Thebes 

Alexandria  on  the  W.  and  Port 
Said  on  the  E.  The  surrounding 
land,  southwards,  is  watered  by  a 
network  of  canals  and  the  two 
branches  of  the  Nile,  Damietta  and 
Rosetta.  The  lakes 
of  the  delta,  Ma- 
riut,  Edku,  Burlus 
and  Menzala  are  all 
shallow,  the  water 
being  salt  or  brack- 
ish. Lake  Menzala 
(780  sq.  m.)  is  the 
largest. 

The  desert  plat- 
eaux extend  on 
either  side  of  the 
Nile  valley  from 
the  S.  borders  of 


Egypt  to  the  delta  in  the  N.  The  E. 
area,  the  Arabian  desert,  between 
the  Nile  and  the  Red  sea,  varies 
between  90  m.  and  350  m.  in  width. 
To  the  W.  the  Sahara  extends  un- 
broken for  many  hundreds  of  miles. 
The  great  oases,  Siwa,  Baharia, 
Farafra,  Dakhla  and  Kharga,  in 
the  western  desert,  receive  water 
from  a  sandstone  bed  about  400  ft. 
below  the  surface. 

The  flora  of  Egypt  is  scanty,  the 
country  being  barren  of  woods  or 
forests.  The  growth  of  most  im- 


turists),  and  depend  upon  the  re-     portance    is    the    date    palm,    of 
r,^-.-,~nna  /%*  4-v.^  AT;I,»     i?,v.Ti-,f'c,  r^tm-r.     which  there  are  some  30  varieties 


sources  of  the  Nile.  Egypt's  river 
has  conquered  the  desert  and  by 
its  annual  overflowing  has  deposit- 
ed much  sediment,  which  it  carries 
from  the  Abyssinian  mountains 
through  the  Atbara  and  Blue 
Nile,  converting  sandy  land  into 
cultivable  areas.  In  Upper  Egypt 


all  over  the  country.  Other  trees 
are  the  orange,  clove,  lemon,  mul- 
berry and  pomegranate.  Syca- 
more, tamarisk  and  milk  trees  are 
in  evidence.  Grapes  are  largely 
found  in  the  Farafra.  Egypt 
also  grows  limes,  bananas,  melons, 


the  Nile  valley  is  narrower  andf  the     prickly  pears  or  Indian  figs,  and 
desert  on  either  side  is  bounded  by     olives. 


Egypt.     Sculptor  at  work,  from  an 
inscription  at  Thebes 

Of  animals,  the  camel,  ass,  sheep 
and  buffalo  are  most  used.  The 
horse  is  not  so  much  in  evidence. 
Among  the  wild  animals  of  Egypt 
are  the  hyena  and  gazelle,  while 
the  hare,  fox,  and  jackal  are  often 
found  in  the  desert,  and  the  lynx, 
ibex,  and  bats  in  the  desert  in  the 
Nile  valley.  Reptiles  include  the 
horned  viper,  the  echis,  and  the 
hooded  snake.  Lizards  are  numer- 
ous ;  so  are  spiders,  beetles,  fleas, 
mosquitoes,  and  scorpions  ;  locusts 
are  not  so  common.  Fish  are 
plentiful.  Over  300  species  of 
birds  are  found. 

Egypt  is  virtually  a  rainless 
country.  The  annual  rainfall  in 
Alexandria,  and  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean coast  of  Egypt,  does  not 
exceed  8  ins.  Southwards  rain  is 
very  irregular.  The  mean  tem- 
perature at  Port  Said  and  Alex- 
andria varies  between  57°  F.  in 
January  and  81°  F.  in  July.  At 
Cairo  it  is  53°  F.  in  January,  and 
84°  F.  in  July.  The  temperature 
is  high  by  day  and  falls  quickly 
at  night. 

PEOPLE  AND  LANGUAGE.  The 
population  of  the  country  is 
12,750,918,  showing  a  remarkable 
increase  since  the  beginning  of  the 
Turkish  occupation,  when  an  es- 
timate gave  it  as  less  than 
2,500,000.  Of  the  present  popula- 
tion 11,658,148  are  Mahometans. 

The  most  interesting  type  is  the 
fellah  or  peasant ;  the  most  pic- 
turesque, the  Beduin.  The  fellah 
has  been  often  described  as  the 
backbone  of  the  country.  Tall, 
thin,  and  wiry,  he  reveals  by  his 
sad  and  weary  aspect  the  tale  of 
the  last  centuries.  To  the  nomad 
Arab  the  term  fellah  signifies 
humility  and  even  contempt.  The 
fellah  leads  a  life  of  extreme  sim- 
plicity ;  a  galabieh,  or  blue  cotton 
frock,  and  a  turban  compriss  his 
wardrobe;  his  fare  consists  of 
millet  bread  and  raw  vegetables. 


Egypt.    Ancient  divinities  represented  in  Egyptian  sculpture.     1.  Horus,  hawk-headed  god  of  day.     2.  Thoth,  god  of 
wisdom.      3.  Ftah,  the  creator,  chief  god  of  Memphis.       4.  Osiris,  god  of  the  underworld.      5.  Bast,  goddess  of  Bubastis 

By  courtesy  of  Chapman  &  Hall,  Ltd. 


The  Beduin  presents  a  brighter 
picture.  These  "  people  of  the 
tent "  are  shepherds  and  herds- 
men of  sturdy  but  somewhat  un- 
dersized stature,  with  coarse, 
thick,  black  hair,  and  well- 
chiselled  features.  The  Nubians, 
or  Berberins,  dwell  in  Upper 
Egypt,  and  are  of  mixed  negro  and 
Arab  blood.  The  majority  are 
peasants.  The  Copt  is  the  native 
Christian  of  Egypt,  and  is  usually 
of  a  studious  or  commercial  type. 
According  to  the  latest  census  the 
Coptic  Orthodox  Church  numbers 
854,778  followers. 


The  women  of  Egypt  have  been 
described  as  models  of  beauty  in 
body  and  limbs  between  the  ages 
of  fourteen  and  twenty,  but  few 
retain  either  good  looks  or  fine 
physique  beyond  the  age  of  forty. 
Many  women  of  the  upper  classes 
are  rapidly  becoming  European- 
ised  in  both  dress  and  habits.  The 
maidens  of  Egypt  marry  at  an 
early  age,  generally  between  ten 
and  sixteen.  Divorce  is  of  a  facile 
order.  If  the  husband  repeats  the 
words  "  Thou  art  divorced  "  three 
times  the  divorce  is  &fait  accompli. 

Arabic  is  the  universal  language 


of  Egypt.  Turkish  is  rarely  spoken, 
and  until  recently  French  was  used 
by  the  better  educated  Egyptians. 
The  English  language,  however,  is 
coming  into  greater  use.  The  liter- 
ary record  is  scattered,  since 
Arabic  is  also  the  language  em- 
ployed by  other  Eastern  countries. 
After  the  fall  of  Bagdad,  Cairo 
sprang  into  prominence  as  the 
chief  literary  centre  of  the  Islamic 
world,  and  to  the  present  day  it 
retains  this  distinction  through  its 
university  of  Al  Azhar. 

HISTORY.       The    Turkish    con- 
quest of  Egypt  in   1517  effected 


Egypt.     Ancient  deities.     1.  Sekhet,  goddess  of  war.      2.  Touaris,   or  Opet,   goddess  of  childbirth. 

Ammon,  the  sun  god  worshipped  at  Thebes.     4.  Hathor,  goddess  of  love,  mirth,  and  social  joy 

BV  courtesy  of  Chapman  <t  Hall,  Lid. 


Amen,  or 


EGYPT 


2825 


little  change  in  the  administration 
of  the  country.  The  apathy  of  its 
Turkish  rulers  led  to  a  long  period 
of  unrest,  which  culminated  in 
1609  in  a  mutiny  among  the  Tur- 
kish army  of  occupation.  The  re- 
bellion, however,  was  curbed  in 
Feb.,  1610,  by  the  governor, 
Mahomed  Pasha.  Risings  among 
the  Egyptians  and  the  Turkish 
soldiers,  plagues,  pestilence,  and 
famine  mark  subsequent  years. 
Disease  in  the  spring  of  1619  car- 
ried off  635,000  persons,  and  simi- 
lar ravages  in  1643  completely 
wiped  out  230  villages. 

This  rather  doleful  and  some- 
what obscure  period  of  Egyptian 
history  offered  little  opportunity 
for  a  great  man,  although  in  the 
next  century  Ali  Bey  appears  to 
have  succeeded  in  introducing  a 
measure  of  order  and  reform.  By 
stern  methods  he  suppressed  the 
notorious  outlawry  of  the  Beduin 
in  Lower  Egypt.  In  1768  Ali  de- 
clared the  independence  of  Egypt, 
and  was  afterwards  given  the  title 
of  sultan.  Turkey,  however,  de- 
feated Ali  in  1773,  and  much  the 
same  dismal  state  of  things  that 
existed  during  the  previous  Tur- 
kish  occupation  was  re-established. 
A  new  epoch,  however,  opetied 
with  the  short-lived  conquest  of 
Egypt  by  Napoleon.  Insurrection 
broke  out  and  after  war  with  Tur- 
key, in  which  the  British  inter- 
vened by  landing  a  force  in  1801, 
Napoleon  evacuated  the  country. 
Turkey  now  concentrated  her  at- 
tention against  the  Mamelukes, 
and  by  treachery  and  massacre 
overcame  this  troublesome  but 
brave  band.  The  chief  personage 
of  this,  the  darkest  period  of 
Egyptian  history,  was  Mehemet 
Ali,  who  in  so  far  as  massacres 
were  concerned  showed  no  disposi- 
tion to  depart  from  the  rule  of  his 
predecessors,  but  nevertheless  pro- 
moted several  sound  projects. 
European  Intervention 

The  financial  chaos  which  char- 
acterised Egypt  during  this  period 
reached  a  climax  in  1876,  when  the 
khedive  suspended  payment  of  his 
treasury  bills.  The  debt  of  Egypt 
was  now  £91,000,000.  Corruption 
and  maladministration  generally 
were  rife,  and  ultimately  France, 
Italy,  and  Austria  each  nominated 
representatives  on  the  commission 
of  public  debt  which  had  been 
promulgated  by  khedival  decree. 
Great  Britain  was  unwilling  to  in- 
terfere, although  she  was  invited 
by  the  khedive  to  nominate  a 
British  Commissioner,  and  even- 
tually this  position  was  offered  to 
Lord  Cromer,  then  Sir  Evelyn 
Baring.  Financial  affairs  after  this 
European  intervention  improved. 
But  a  political  storm  was  brewing. 


Egypt.     The    Sheikh-el-Beled. 
Wooden   figure   from   Boulak 

By  courtesy  of  Chapman  &  Hall,  HA. 

In  1879  Nubar  Pasha,  minister 
of  public  works,  and  Sir  C.  Rivers 
Wilson,  the  minister  of  finance, 
were  assaulted  by  a  crowd  of 
Egyptian  officers.  Ahmed  Arabi, 
an  Egyptian  of  humble  origin  who 
had  risen  to  be  colonel  of  the  4th 
regiment,  led  a  successful  revolt  of 
the  army,  and  compelled  the 
khedive  to  change  his  ministers. 
The  country  at  this  time  had  come 
virtually  under  the  direction  of 


Arabi's  party,  and  disturbances 
rendered  foreign  intervention  ne- 
cessary. Arabi's  challenge  by  rais- 
ing batteries  at  Alexandria  with 
the  intention  of  using  them  against 
the  British  fleet  was  followed  by 
the  bombardment  of  these  bat- 
teries by  the  British.  At  Tel-el- 
Kebir  Arabi's  army  was  defeated 
and  eventually  surrendered.  Even 
now  the  British  government  de- 
clined to  remain  in  Egypt ;  its  de- 
clared object  was  to  establish  order 
and  stability. 

Trouble  in  the  Sudan 

One  of  the  difficulties  of  the 
British  reformers  was  the  trouble 
in  the  Sudan.  In  1883  the  Egyp- 
tian army,  under  the  command  of 
General  Hicks,  which  had  been 
sent  by  the  British  Government  to 
restore  order  in  the  more  distant 
regions  of  the  Sudan,  was  annihi- 
lated in  Kordofan.  The  British 
government,  reluctant  to  asso- 
ciate itself  with  any  military  en- 
terprise in  that  direction,  decided 
to  abandon  the  Sudan  and  with- 
draw all  the  garrisons.  In  the 
meantime,  however,  Mahomed 
Ahmed,  a  religious  fanatic  known 
as  the  Mahdi,  had  risen  to  power. 
General  Gordon,  who  was  sent  to 
report  on  the  military  situation 
and  on  the  means  necessary  in 
order  to  accomplish  the  evacua- 
tion, arrived  at  Khartum  and  was 
killed  by  the  Mahdi's  troops  in 
1885.  A  relief  expedition  was 
sent  but  arrived  too  late.  Sir 
Herbert  Kitchener,  sirdar  of  the 
Egyptian  army,  recaptured  Khar- 
tum on  Sept.  2,  1898. 

The  more  settled  state  in  the 
Sudan  helped  directly  in  the  pro- 
gress of  Egypt,  and  a  variety  of 
reforms  were  instituted ;  harsh 


;ypt.      Ancient  sculptured    figures  of  pyramid   times   from  the  Boulak 

useum.     Left,  Ra-Hotep,  an  Egyptian  prince  :  right,  the  princess  Nofn, 

or  Nefert,  limestone  figure 

By  courtesy  of  Chapman  &  Hall,  Ltd. 


:GYPT 


2826 


Egypt. 


Restoration  of  the  gate  of  the  temple  o!  Khonsu  at  Karaak.  part  of 
Thebes,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Nile 


taxes  were  abolished,  and  the 
problems  of  drainage  and  irrigation 
were  being  solved.  The  contract 
for  the  construction  of  the  Nile 
reservoirs  was  signed  in  1898 ; 
post-office  savings'  banks  were  in- 
troduced in  1900 ;  navigation  dues 
on  the  Nile  were  abolished,  and  the 
Anglo  -  French  Convention  was 
signed  in  1904. 

In  1907  Lord  Cromer's  work 
in  Egypt  came  to  a  close,  the 
country  then  experiencing  an  era  of 
peace  and  prosperity  unprece- 
dented in  its  history.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Sir  Eldon  Gorst,  but 
after  a  short  regime,  during  which 
time  a  group  of  political  agitators 
took  advantage  of  the  friendly 
attitude  of  the  new  British  agent, 
Sir  Eldon  broke  down  in  health, 
and  in  1911  Viscount  Kitchener 
of  Khartum  was  appointed.  Lord 
Kitchener' s  efforts  were  directed  to  - 
wards  increasing  the  water  supply 
of  Egypt  by  means  of  barrages  and 
reservoirs  ;  he  also  built  roads,  and 
succeeded  in  pacifying  various  re- 
ligious and  political  factions.  He 
devoted  much  attention  to  the  in- 
terest of  the  fellah,  and  established 
cotton  markets  throughout  the 
country  which  provided  means  of 
insuring  the  ignorant  peasant 
against  dishonest  traders  ;  another 
measure  of  interest  to  the  small- 


holder was  the  Five  Feddans  Law, 
which  prohibited  the  agricultural 
holdings  of  farmers  who  did  not 
own  more  than  five  acres  of  land 
from  being  seized  for  debt. 

The  relationship  between  Lord 
Kitchener  and  the  khedive  was 
always  strained,  for  it  was  known 
the  khedive  Abbas  was  not  .amic- 
ably inclined  towards  the  British. 
In  Dec.,  1914,  Abbas  II  was  de- 
posed and  Prince  Hussein,  his 
uncle,  succeeded  him  with  the  title 
of  sultan  of  Egypt ;  at  the  same 
time  Great  Britain  declared  the 
Turkish  suzerainty  at  an  end,  and 
a  British  protectorate  was  de- 
clared. Hussein  died  Oct.  9,  1917, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  youngest 
brother,  Prince  Ahmed  Fuad. 
Egypt  daring  the  Great  War 

During  1914—16  Egypt  was  on 
the  whole  prosperous  and  quiet, 
although  when  Turkey  entered  the 
war  the  country  was  overrun  by 
spies  and  secret  agents  in  the  pay 
of  Germany. 

Martial  law  was  proclaimed,  as 
a  measure  of  precaution,  but  the 
British  were  able  to  use  the  Egyp- 
tian army  freely  for  policing  the 
frontiers  of  the  Sudan,  and  in  the 
reconquest  of  Darfur.  Egypt 
rendered  great  assistance  by  its 
labour  corps,  camel  transport,  and 
other  services.  The  entry  of  the 


EGYPT 

Egyptian  Expeditionary  Force  into 
Palestine  in  1916  removed  all 
danger  of  hostile  invasion. 

In  1919  a  group  of  national- 
ists advocated  a  degree  of  complete 
autonomy  which  would  leave  Great 
Britain  only  the  right  of  super- 
vision with  regard  to  public  debt 
and  facilities  for  shipping  on  the 
Suez  Canal.  They  elected  a  com- 
mittee which  carried  on  an  unceas- 
irg  agitation  throughout  the  coun- 
try. They  asked  to  be  allowed  to 
send  a  deputation  to  London,  but 
the  British  government  replied 
that,  while  sympathising  with  the 
idea  of  giving  Egypt  an  ever-in- 
creasing share  in  the  government 
of  the  country,  they  could  not 
abandon  their  responsibility  for 
good  order  and  good  government, 
and  refused  to  allow  the  national- 
ist leaders  to  proceed  to  London  to 
put  forward  their  demands.  Early 
in  March  four  prominent  national- 
ists were  deported  to  Malta  for 
conducting  an  anti-British  agita- 
tion, among  whom  was  Said  Zaghlul 
Pasha,  leader  of  the  nationalists  in 
the  legislative  assembly. 

Disturbances  in  1919 

About  this  time  Hussein  Rushdi 
Pasha,  who  had  been  prime  minis- 
ter since  April,  1914,  resigned,  and 
serious  events  followed  quickly.  The 
Egyptian  nationalists  demanded 
the  immediate  release  of  their 
leaders.  Grave  riots  and  disturb- 
ances broke  out,  and  Lord  Allenby 
was  appointed  special  high  com- 
missioner for  Egypt  and  the  Sudan. 

The  unrest  was  general  from 
Assiut  in  Upper  Egypt  down  to 
Alexandria,  and  students  were 
prominent  among  the  rioters. 

On  March  14,  1919,  the  mob 
rushed  the  station  at  Galiub  (N.  of 
Cairo),  attacked  trains  and  British 
officers,  and  murdered  soldiers, 
while  disturbances  also  broke  out 
at  Zagazig.  In  Cairo  and  Alexan- 
dria collisions  took  place  between 
the  rioters  and  patrols.  At  Cairo  a 
patrol  fired  on  the  mob,  killing  and 
wounding  several,  and  on  March  1 5 
a  British  officer  was  murdered  at 
Minia  in  Middle  Egypt. 

On  March  17  serious  disturbances 
took  place  at  Damanhour.  while  at 
Alexandria  a  procession  of  work- 
men and  students  came  into  colli- 
sion with  the  troops.  Between  Bir- 
ket  el  Saab  and  Cairo  several  sta- 
tions were  destroyed.  A  leading 
event  hi  this  month  was  Gen.  Bui- 
fin's  warning  to  the  notables, whom 
he  summoned  to  a  meeting,  of  the 
serious  consequences  of  the  prevail- 
ing grave  outrages,  and  his  warning 
to  the  inhabitants  of  the  Fayum 
and  Upper  Egypt  that  if  further 
shootings  of  British  soldiers  by 
Beduins  occurred  repressive  mea- 
sures would  immediately  follow 


EGYPT 

All  through  April  the  unrest  con- 
tinued. On  the  9th  a  new  ministry 
under  Hussein  Rushdi  Pasha  was 
formed,  while  about  the  same  time 
the  four  arrested  nationalists  were 
released  on  Allenby's  order,  and  an 
inquiry  into  the  causes  of  the  dis- 
turbances instituted.  Up  to  July  21 
the  casualties  in  the  various  riots 
were  800  killed  and  1,500  wounded. 

The  autumn  of  1919  saw  a  re- 
crudescence of  rioting.  On  Oct.  25 
a  serious  outbreak  occurred  in  the 
native  maritime  quarters  of  Alex- 
andria, when  troops  had  to  fire  on 
the  rioters.  In  both  Cairo  and 
Alexandria  outbreaks  occurred  on 
Nov.  15.  In  Dec.  excitement  was 
caused  by  the  El  Azhar  incident. 
British  soldiers,  irritated  by  being 
stoned  by  students  from  within 
the  El  Azhar  University,  Cairo, 
followed  their  assailants  inside. 
The  authorities  of  the  university 
regarded  this  as  a  grave  insult 
and  protested  strongly  to  Allenby, 
who  replied  there  had  been  no  in- 
tention to  pollute  the  sanctity  of 
the  mosque,  and  expressed  regret 
for  the  incident.  During  this  time 
it  had  been  found  impossible  to 
form  a  stable  ministry,  one  after 
another  having  resigned  in  despair. 

Realizing  that  reforms  were 
imperative,  the  British  Govern- 
ment at  the  end  of  1919  sent  out 
a  mission  under  the  colonial 
secretary,  Viscount  Milner,  to  in- 
quire into  the  matter.  This 
reached  Alexandria  in  Dec.  and 
was  in  the  country  about  six 
months.  On  its  return  certain 

groposals^were    laid    before    the 
abinet,     while     the     nationalist 


2827 

leader,  Said  Zaghlul,  arrived  in 
London  in  June,  1920,  to  discuss 
the  question  of  the  future  of 
Egypt  with  Lord  Milner  and  his 
colleagues. 

In  Oct.,  1920,  although  the  result 
of  the  negotiations  between  the 
Egyptian  nationalist  delegation  in 
London  and  Lord  Milner's  com- 
mission had  not  been  officially 
announced,  an  outline  of  the  agree- 
ment was  published  in  the  press. 
It  was  stated  that  the  new  consti- 
tutional reforms  would  go  a  long 
way  towards  meeting  the  griev- 
ances of  the  people  of  Egypt. 
These  negotiations  were  continued 
early  in  1922  and  the  British 
government  on  Feb.  28th,  1922, 
declared  Egypt  an  independent 
state.  The  Sultan  Ahmed  Fuad 
Pasha  was  proclaimed  king  as 
Fuad  I  on  Mar.  16th,  and  his  first 
cabinet  took  office  with  Sarwat 
Pasha  as  premier. 

Egyptian  Independence 

The  fundamental  points  in  the 
agreement  were :  Great  Britain 
was  to  recognize  the  independence 
of  Egypt,  and  guarantee  its  integ- 
rity against  outside  aggression,  in 
return  for  which  Egypt  was  to 
recognize  Great  Britain's  privileged 
position  in  the  valley  of  the  Nile  ; 
Great  Britain  was  to  maintain  a 
garrison  only  in  the  canal  zone  ; 
Egypt  was  to  have  control  of  her 
foreign  affairs,  provided  she  did 
not  make  treaties  at  variance  with 
British  policy  ;  the  capitulations 
were  to  be  done  away  with  and  the 
veto  on  legislation  affecting  foreign- 
ers to  be  vested  in  the  high  com- 
missioner :  two  British  officers  were 


EGYPT 

to  look  after  the  public  debt  com- 
mission and  legislation  affecting 
foreigners.  The  final  agreement 
was  to  be  submitted  for  confirma- 
tion to  the  British  parliament  and 
the  Egyptian  national  assembly 
It  amounted  to  a  grant  of  inde- 
pendence to  Egypt,  subject  to 
British  control  over  its  foreign 
policy,  with  provisions  for  safe- 
guarding British  and  other  interests 
in  the  country's  debt  and  in  the 
Suez  Canal. 

CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 
Before  1913  the  affairs  of  Egypt 
were  controlled  by  two  public 
bodies  known  as  the  legislative 
council  and  the  general  assembly. 
These  bodies  dated  from  1882 
and  were  in  the  main  consultative 
only,  legislation  being  in  the  hands 
of  the  khedive  and  his  ministers. 
In  1913  important  constitutional 
changes  were  introduced.  The 
council  and  assembly  were  re- 
placed by  a  new  body  called  the 
legislative  assembly.  This  con- 
sisted of  66  members  elected  by  the 
people,  but  by  an  indirect  vote, 
the  ministers  and  17  nominated 
members.  Early  in  1923  a  new 
constitution  providing  for  a  re- 
formed electoral  system,  including 
cabinet  responsibility  to  Parlia- 
ment, was  drawn  up.  It  was  signed 
by  King  Fuad  on  April  19th,  1923. 
It  substituted  a  democratic  for  an 
autocratic  government  and  abol- 
ished the  legislative  assembly 
in  favour  of  two  chambers  of 
parliament. 

JUSTICE  AND  EDUCATION.  One 
of  the  main  foundations  of  justice  in 
Eoypt  is  the  capitulations.  They 


Egypt.   Restoration  of  the  great  temple  of  Amen-Ra  or  Ammon  at  Karnak,  Thebes,  viewed  from  within  and  showing  the 
vast  pyramidal  towers  which  served  defensive  purposes 


EGYPT 


2828 


EGYPT 


were  introduced  in  order  to  protect 
foreign  merchants  and  encourage 
commerce,  but  involved  a  multipli- 
city of  judicial  systems.  Two  re- 
ferred to  Egyptians,  one  to  foreign- 
ers only,  and  another  to  foreigners 
and  natives.  Moreover,  the  capitu- 
lations offered  relief  to  criminals  of 
all  shades,  since  foreigners  were 
free  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
native  courts.  The  judicial  system 
has  been  universally  denounced, 
and  has  undergone  constant  and 
considerable  modifications.  The 
native  courts  have  both  native  and 
foreign  judges.  The  courts  of  sum- 
mary jurisdiction  are  presided  over 
by  one  judge,  and  there  are  central 
tribunals  with  three  judges.  There 
is  a  court  of  appeal  at  Cairo.  Crimi- 
nal prosecutions  are  entrusted  to  a 
procureur -general,  whose  represen- 
tatives are  attached  to  each  tribu- 
nal. There  are  special  children's 
courts.  The  police  service  is  under 
the  administration  of  the  ministry 
of  the  interior. 

Native  Education 

Under  the  ministry  of  public 
instruction,  education  in  Egypt 
has  made  strides  within  recent 
years.  The  natives  are  educated 
in  kuttabs,  schools  attached  to 
mosques.  Some  of  these  native 
schools  are  under  the  ministry. 
Here,  in  addition  to  instruction  in 
the  Koran,  the  pupils  are  given  an 
elementary  secular  education. 
There  are  over  1,000  of  these 
kuttabs  attended  by  more  than 
25,000  pupils.  There  is  also  a 
grant-in-aid  system.  Such  grant 
is  made  to  other  schools  where 
no  other  language  but  Arabic  is 
taught,  and  where  a  good  standard 
of  education  is  maintained.  The 
number  of  scholars  in  these  schools 
rose  from  7,536  in  1898,  at  which 
date  the  grant-in-aid  system  began, 
to  218,184  in  1919.  There  are 
also  secondary  schools  and  colleges 
where  training  for  the  various  pro- 
fessions is  given,  these  including  law, 
medicine,  engineering,  accountancy, 
agriculture,  etc. 

INDUSTRY.  The  Egyptian  is  an 
agriculturist.  Ancient  Egypt  was 
the  granary  of  the  Roman  world, 
and  exported  great  quantities  of 
corn.  With  the  coming  of  the 
Turks  a  different  order  of  things 
was  created,  and  a  long  period  of 
depression  and  misery  followed. 
The  revival  of  Egyptian  industry 
began  with  the  elimination  of  the 
Turk  by  the  British.  Vast  schemes 
of  irrigation  and  drainage  were 
being  developed  when  the  Great 
War  broke  out.  With  the  improve- 
ment of  the  Assuan  dam  in  1913  a 
further  considerable  area  of  the 
Nile  valley  came  under  cultiva- 
tion, with  the  result  that  the  total 
cultivable  area  of  Egypt  proper 


was  reckoned  in  1918  at  7,820,801 
feddans,  or  a  little  over  8,000,000 
acres.  This  makes  an  interesting 
comparison  with  the  figures  given 
at  the  time  of  the  French  occupa- 
tion in  1798,  when  it  was  found 
that  the  cultivable  area  totalled 
3,520,000  acres. 

Egypt,  as  the  first  sultan  of 
Egypt  said,  has  three  assets — the 
Nile,  the  Egyptian  sun,  and  the 
fellah.  Very  full  use  is  made  of 
both  the  sun  and  the  Nile  by  the 
fellah.  The  sun  shines  all  through 
the  year,  and  the  Nile  is  stored  up 
so  as  to  be  available  in  any  season. 
In  addition,  the  fellah  is  extremely 
hard-working,  and  it  is  towards 
helping  him  in  making  the  fullest 
use  of  the  Nile  that  British  brains 
and  science  have  been  directed. 
In  the  past  the  fellah  had  to  wait 
upon  the  flood-tides.  Nowadays, 
instead  of  obtaining  water  for  his 
land  for  only  a  portion  of  the  year, 
he  obtains  a  regular  and  sufficient 
supply  all  the  year  round.  In  other 
words,  the  whole  system  of  irriga- 
tion is  being  gradually  directed 
towards  perennial  irrigation — thus 
assuring  two  and  often  three  crops 
every  year. 

Where  perennial  irrigation  is 
impossible,  the  basin  system  has 
been  adopted,  whereby  water  is 
stored  in  August  and  is  kept  in 
reserve  till  October,  when  it  begins 
to  be  used.  The  basin  system  is 
the  oldest  system  of  irrigation 
known  to  Egypt.  Only  one  crop 
a  year  can  be  grown  from  it. 

Another  system  is  used  on  the 
high  lands  near  the  Nile.  These 
lands  cannot  be  reached  through 
canals,  so  a  system  of  pumping  the 
water  is  utilised.  The  British  use 
of  steam-pumps  has  been  largely 
developed,  several  thousands  being 
in  use.  The  water-wheel,  worked 
by  buffaloes,  or  the  water-lift 
(shaduf),  worked  by  hand,  is  still 
in  favour  with  the  conservative 
fellahs.  Over  100,000  of  these 
water-wheels  and  water-lifts  are  in 
use.  There  are  three  agricultural 
seasons.  Cotton,  sugar,  rice,  and, 
in  a  lesser  degree,  millet  and 
vegetables,  are  grown  in  summer ; 
wheat,  barley,  flax,  and  vegetables 
in  winter.  Maize,  millet,  and  flood 
rice  are  grown  between  August  and 
November — the  Nili  period. 
Cotton  Production 

Egypt  has  also  a  future  in  other 
directions.  Such  industries  as  oil 
and  tobacco  are  being  developed. 
There  are  gold-mines  in  the 
eastern  desert. 

The  present  prosperity  of  the 
country,  however,  is  due  mainly 
to  cotton,  which  represents  over 
three-quarters  of  the  total  value  of 
Egyptian  exports.  It  is  estimated 
that  the  present  total  output  of 


this  commodity  is  7,500,000  kan- 
tars.  Considerable  trade  is  done 
with  Manchester,  and  altogether 
Great  Britain  purchases  more  than 
half  of  Egypt's  total  production. 
The  progress  of  Egyptian  trade 
can  be  seen  by  the  increase  in 
her  exports  from  £19,000,000  in 
1882  to  £59,495,417  in  1919.  Her 
raw  cotton  export  in  1918  alone 
was  £38,034,467.  Egypt  exports 
chiefly  raw  cotton,  cotton  seed, 
sugar,  beans,  cigarettes,  onions, 
rice,  and  gum-arabic — which  come 
from  the  Sudan.  Other  exports  are 
eggs,  hides  and  skins,  wool,  quails, 
lentils,  wheat,  and  dates.  Sugar  is 
another  highly  important  com- 
modity. Egypt's  imports  are  con- 
fined to  such  manufactured  articles 
as  cotton  goods  and  other  textiles, 
coal,  iron  and  steel,  timber, 
tobacco  from  Turkey  and  Greece, 
machinery,  flour,  alcoholic  liquors, 
petroleum,  fruit,  coffee,  and  live 
animals. 

Trade  Routes 

The  lines  of  commercial  com- 
munication to  Egypt  are,  by  virtue 
of  the  country's  geographical  posi- 
tion, the  most  important  in  the 
world.  Besides  being  a  distribut- 
ing centre  for  the  Levant,  it  holds 
a  commanding  position  on  the 
trade  routes  from  Europe  to  the 
East.  By  the  completion  of  the 
Suez  Canal  in  1869,  a  direct  sea 
route  was  opened  up  between  the 
Mediterranean  and  the  Red  Sea. 
Considerable  use  is  made  of  the 
ports  of  Alexandria  and  Port  Said 
by  foreign  steamship  companies — 
among  which  the  Germans  were 
pre-eminent.  Passenger  traffic  is 
at  its  height  in  the  winter  when 
there  is  an  influx  of  tourists  seek- 
ing pleasure  or  health.  The  rly. 
system  forms  the  northern  section 
of  the  Cape  to  Cairo  scheme ;  the 
main  line  follows  the  Nile  to 
Shellal,  S.  of  Assuan.  See  N  V 

Bibliography.  England       mid 

Egypt,  E.  Dicey,  1881  ;  The  Nile 
Quest,  H.  H.  Johnston,  1903  ;  Eng- 
land  in  Egypt,  Lord  Milner,  llth  ed. 
1904 ;  The  Egyptian  Sudan  :  its 
History  and  Monuments,  E.  A.  T. 
W.  Budge,  1907  ;  Modern  Egypt, 
Lord  Cronier,  1908  ;  The  Making  of 
Modern  Egypt,  Auckland  Colvin, 
repr.  1909  ;  Baedeker's  Egypt  and 
the  Sudan,  7th  ed.  1914  ;  Egypt 
in  Transition,  Sidney  Low,  1914; 
Egypt  of  the  Egyptians,  W.  L. 
Balls,  1915  ;  History  of  Events  in 
Egypt  from  1798-1914,  A.  E.  P.  B. 
Weigall,  1915  ;  Macmillarx's  Guide 
to  Egypt  and  the  Sudan,  7th  ed. 
1916  ;  With  Kitchener  in  Cairo, 
S.  A.  Moseley,  1917  ;  Through 
Egypt  in  War  Time,  M.  S.  Briggs, 
1918  ;  Modern  Sons  of  Pharaoh  : 
study  of  the  Manners  and  Customs 
of  the  Copts  of  Egypt,  S.  H.  Leeder, 
1918  ;  The  Egyptian  Problem, 
Valentine  Chirol,  1920. 


EGYPT 

Egypt,  NATIONAL  BANK  OF 
Egyptian  bank  established  in  1898. 
Its  head  offices  are  at  Cairo,  and 
there  are  branches  at  Alexandria 
and  elsewhere  in  Egypt ;  also  at 
Khartum  and  other  places  in  the 
Sudan.  It  has  the  exclusive  right 
of  issuing  notes  in  Egypt.  The 
capital  is  £3,000,000,  and  the 
London  offices  are  at  6  and  7,  King 
William  Street,  E.G. 

Egypt  Exploration  Society. 
Society  founded  in  London,  1882, 
for  exploring  ancient  sites  in  Egypt. 
The  society  has  excavated  Pithom, 
Tanis,  Naucratis,  Tahpanhes,  Bu- 
bastis,  Dendera,  and  other  sites, 
besides  its  exhaustive  operations 
at  Deir-el-Bahri  and  Abydos. 
The  archaeological  survey  branch, 
founded  1890,  has  reproduced  wall- 
paintings  and  reliefs  in  rock-cut 
tombs  at  Beni  Hasan,  el-Bersheh 
and  el-Amarna,  in  mastabas  at  Sak- 
kara,  and  elsewhere.  The  Graeco- 
Roman  branch,  founded  1897, 
publishes  texts  and  translations  of 
papyri.  From  Oxyrhynchus  1,600 
were  so  dealt  with  by  1916,  besides 
the  Tebtunis  and  Hibeh  finds.  The 
offices  are  37,  Great  Russell  St., 
London,  W.C.  See  Archaeology  ; 
Egypt ;  Egyptology. 

Egyptian  Blue.  Colouring 
matter  used  by  the  Romans  in  the 
early  centuries  of  the  Christian  era. 
It  is  seen  in  several  early  frescoes 
in  the  Vatican  and  at  Pompeii. 
Fouque,  a  French  chemist,  showed 
that  it  consists  of  a  double  silicate 
of  calcium  and  copper,  and  on  ac- 
count of  its  permanence  urged  that 
its  manufacture  should  be  resumed. 

Egyptian  Hall.  London  place 
of  amusement,  1812-1904.  Situa- 
ted at  171,  Piccadilly,  W.,  between 
St.  James's  Street  and  Duke  Street, 
it  was  built  in  1812  by  G.  F.  Robin- 
son, for  the  natural  history  collec- 
tions of  William  Bullock,  F.S.A., 
dispersed  in  1819.  Here  were  ex- 
hibited the  Living  Skeleton  (Claude 
Amboise  Seurat),  in  1825,  and  the 
Siamese  Twins,  in  1829.  B.  R. 
Haydon,  in  1846,  complained  that 
while  in  one  week  "  Tom  Thumb  " 
(C.  S.  Stratton)  attracted  12,000 
people,  his  own  picture  exhibition 
drew  133£— the  £  being  a  little  girl. 
Later  the  hall  was  a  centre  for  such 
entertainments  as  those  of  Albert 
Smith,  Artemus  Ward,  and  ''  Mrs. 
Brown."  From  May,  1873,  until 
Christmas,  1904,  when  he  removed 
to  St.  George's  Hall,  in  Langham 
Place,  J.  N.  Maskelyne  made  it 
"  England's  Home  of  Mystery." 
For  many  years  the  exhibitions  of 
the  Dudley  Gallery  Art  Society 
were  held  here.  The  figures  of 
Isis  and  Osiris  at  the  entrance  were 
by  Gahagan.  The  name  is  pre- 
served in  the  block  of  business  pre- 
mises known  as  Egyptian  House. 


2829 


Study  of  the  an- 
tiquities  of 
Egypt.  It  is  con- 
cerned not  only 
with  the  material 
remains,  but  also 
with  religion,  his- 
tory, language, 
art  and  social  life, 
although  the  re- 
mains  are  the 
main  sources  of 
knowledge. 

Excavation  of 
the  buried  trea- 
sures of  Egypt 
was  begun  in  the 
18th  century,  but 

was  carried  on  in  a  very  desultory  tions.  Once  a  Roman  station,  the 
fashion  and  mainly  for  the  purposes  town  was  part  of  the  electorate  of 
of  curiosity  and  gain.  However,  as  Treves,  to  whose  electors  its  earlier 
gradually  their  richness  and  extent  fortifications  were  due.  Owing  to 
were  revealed,  a  highly  specialised  its  strategic  situation  it  was  often 
branch  of  study  came  into  existence,  attacked  "and  sometimes  taken  by 
Archaeologists  accompanied  Napo- 
leon on  his  expedition  to  Egypt  in 
ds  the  fi 


Ehrenbreitstein.  The 
from  the 


te  Coblenz,  seen 
bine 


1798,  and  soon  after  this 


first 


the  French.  It  became  part  of 
Prussia  at  the  settlement  of  1815 
and  was  made  into  a  modern  for- 


experts  in  Egyptology  appeared,  of    tress  after  1870.     Pop.  5,500. 
whom  Champollion  was,  perhaps,        Ehrlich,  PAUL  (b.  1854).    Ger- 
the  greatest.    Another  was  Lepsius,    man  physiologist.    Born  at  Streh- 


who  had  charge  of  an  important 
expedition  sent  by  the  Prussian 
government  to  excavate  in  Egypt 
in  1842-45,  about  which  period 
the  word  Egyptology  came  into 
use.  In  1858,  to  protect  their 
treasures  from  acquisitive  foreign- 
ers, and  from  Arab  spoliation,  the 
authorities  in  Egypt  set  up,  under 
Mariette,  a  special  department  to 
which  a  museum  was  attached,  the 
work  of  which  has  grown  greatly  in 
recent  years. 


len, 


Silesia,  March  14,  1854,  his 
prolonged  ex- 
perimental re- 
searches 
brought  him 
world-wide  re- 
nown, and  in 
1908  he  shared 
with  Metchni- 
koff  the  Nobel 
prize  for  physi- 
ology and  medi- 


Paul  Ehrlich, 


German  physiologist  cine.      in  1899 


The  modern  scientific  treatment  he  became  director  of  the  Speyer 
of  Egyptian  antiquities  dates  from  Institute  of  experimental  thera- 
about  1880,  and  is  associated  peutics  at  Frankfort,  which  he 
specially  with  Gaston  Maspero  and  made  famous  by  his  laboratory 

work  in  connexion  with  cancer. 
The  founder  of  chimotherapy, 
Ehrlich  also  laboured  to  discover 
a  safe  and  effective  cure  for  syphilis, 
being  latterly  assisted  by  a  Japan - 


Flinders  Petrie.  To  provide  funds 
for  this  work,  an  Egypt  Explora- 
tion Fund  was  started  in  Great 
Britain  ;  15  years  later  an  inde- 
pendent Egyptian  Research  Ac- 


count was  established,  and  out  of  ese   doctor  named   Hata.      When 

the  latter  a  British  School  of  Arch-  Hata    joined    him     Ehrlich    had 

aeology  arose  in  1896.    France  has  already  tried  418  combinations  of 

a  similar  society,  and  work  has  also  arsenic,  and  it  was  not  until  606 

been  done  by  various  universities  experiments  had  been  made  that 

and  other  learned  societies.    Egyp-  any    real    success    was    in    sight, 

tology  is  now  a  recognized  subject  Even  this  formula  was  admittedly 

of  study,  in  which  several  univer-  imperfect  and  dangerous  in  prac- 

sities,  among  them  Oxford,  Liver-  tice,  and  further  experiments  were 


pool  and  London,  provide  instruc 

tion.     See  Archaeology ;    Egypt. 

Ehrenbreitstein.  Town  of  Ger 


necessary.      But    it    was    Ehrlich 
who  did  most  of  the  spade  work. 
Eibar.    Manufacturing  town  of 


many.  It  stands  on  the  right  bank  Spain,  in  the  prov.  of  Guipuzcoa 
of  the  Rhine,  opposite  Coblenz,  It  is  39  m.  by  rly.  W.  of  San  Sebas- 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  tian,  makes  guns,  swords,  etc.,  and 
bridges.  Its  industries  include  a  is  noted  for  its  damascened  arm-s 
trade  in  jvvdne.  Until  1918  it  was  and  other  metal  ware.  Pop.  9,659. 

Eichendorff,  JOSEPH,  FKEIHERR 
VON  (1788-1857).  German  poet  and 


one    of    Germany's    strongest   for- 
a    rock    overlooking    the 


Rhine  and  the  Moselle  being  the    novelist.      He  was  born  at  Lubo 
centre  of  the  system  of  foi'tifica-     witz,  March  10,  1788,  near  Ratibor. 


EICHHORN 


2830 


EIFEL 


H.  von  Eichhprn, 
German  soldier 


Silesia,  a  member  of  a  noble  Catho- 
lic family.  He  published  his  first 
romanticnovel,  Ahnung  und  Gegen- 
wart,  in  1815,  but  is  better  re- 
membered as  a  poet,  his  simple 
nature  lyrics  having  taken  their 
place  in  German  popular  song.  He 
served  against  France,  1813-15, 
and  from  1820-44  occupied  various 
public  appointments,  and  in  his 
later  years  was  distinguished  as  a 
Catholic  publicist.  He  died  at 
Neisse,  Nov.  20,  1857. 

Eichhorn,  HERMANN  VON  (1848- 
1918).  German  soldier.  Born  at 
Breslau,  Feb.  13,  1848,  he  entered 
the  Prussian 
army  as  a  lieu- 
tenant of  the 
Guard  in  1866, 
served  in  the 
Franco-Ger- 
man War, 
1870-71,  and 
reached  the 
rank  of  general 
in  1912.  On  the 
outbreak  of  the 
Great  War  he  was  one  of  the  com- 
manders under  Hindenburg  on  the 
E.  front,  and  operated  in  E. 
Prussia  and  towards  the  Niemen. 
In  command  of  the  German  10th 
army,  he  took  Kovno  in  Aug., 
1915,  and  Vilna  a  month  later, 
being  made  a  field-marshal  for 
these  successes.  In  1918  he  led  the 
German  forces  in  the  Ukraine,  and 
for  some  time  was  military  dictator 
of  that  country.  His  arbitrary  rule 
made  him  unpopular,  and  he  was 
murdered  at  Kiev,  July  31,  1918. 

Eichhorn,  JOHANN  GOTTFRIED 
(1752-1827).  German  scholar.  He 
was  born  at  Dorenzimmern,  Oct.  16, 
1752,  and  in  1775  was  appointed 
professor  of  Oriental  languages  at 
Jena,  and  in  1788  at  Gottingen, 
where  he  lectured  for  the  rest  of  his 
life.  He  was  the  first  scholar  to 
suggest  that  the  synoptic  gospels 
have  one  common  source,  and  was 
a  pioneer  of  the  rationalist  criticism 
of  the  Bible.  He  died  at  Gottingen, 
June  27,  1827. 

Eichhorn,  KARL  FRIEDRICH 
(1781-1854).  German  jurist.  Born 
at  Jena,  Nov.  20,  1781,  son  of 
Johann  Gottfried  Eichhorn,  he 
studied  at  Gottingen  and  lectured 
on  law  at  Frankfurt-on-the-Oder, 
and  obtained  a  professorship  at 
Berlin.  He  fought  against  France 
in  1813,  and  after  1815  was  pro- 
fessor at  Gottingen  and  at  Berlin. 
In  his  later  years  he  held  high 
positions  in  the  public  service.  He 
died  at  Cologne,  July  4,  1854. 
Eichhorn  is  perhaps  the  greatest 
authority  on  the  laws  and  institu- 
tions of  the  Germans.  Besides  his 
great  Deutsche  Staats-  und  Rechts- 
geschicbte  (1808-23)  he  wrote  on 
private  and  ecclesiastical  law. 


Eichstatt.  City  of  Bavaria, 
Germany.  It  stands  on  the  Alt- 
miihl,  15m.  N.W.  of  Ingolstadt. 
Its  industries  include  the  making  of 
boots  and  beer,  but  it  is  chiefly 
famous  for  its  old  buildings  and 
its  episcopal  associations,  for  its 
bishops  were  princes  of  the  empire 
until  their  lands  were  secularised 
in  1802.  The  cathedral,  which  is 
dedicated  to  S.  Wilibald  and  con- 


Eidograph.  Diagram  of  the  instru- 
ment. The  arms  bearing  tracer  and 
pencil  respectively  move  parallel  in 
all  directions,  the  connecting  beam 
resting  on  a  fulcrum 

tains  the  tomb  of  that  saint,  is 
largely  Gothic,  but  the  towers  are 
Romanesque.  Of  the  other  churches 
the  most  notable  is  S-  Walpurgis, 
dating  from  the  17th  century  and 
visited  by  pilgrims  on  S.  Walpurgis' 
Day(Mayl).  There  is  a  palace  where 
the  bishops  and  later  the  dukes  of 
Leuchtenberg  lived  ;  this  is  now 
used  as  a  law  court,  while  another 
palace  is  used  as  a  library  and 
museum.  Above  the  town  is  the 
Wilibaldsburg,  once  also  a  residence 
of  the  bishops,  but  now  a  museum. 
From  1817  to  1855  Eichstatt  was 
part  of  the  duchy  of  Leuchtenberg, 
but  it  was  Bavarian  from  1802-17, 
and  again  from  1855.  Pop.  7,900. 

Eider.  River  of  Slesvig-Hol- 
stein.  It  rises  near  Kiel,  and  flows 
N.W.  and  W.  across  the  peninsula 
to  Tonning,  where  it  forms  a  bay. 
Its  length  is  about  115  m.  Before 
the  opening  of  the  Kiel  Canal  it 
was  important  for  navigation. 
Vessels  could  go  along  it  as  far  as 
Rendsburg,  whence  a  canal  took 
them  to  Kiel,  thus  uniting  the 
Baltic  and  North  Seas.  This  canal 
developed  into  the  Kiel  Canal. 

Eider  Duck  (Somateria}.  Genus 
of  wild  duck.  Including  several 
species,  it  is  famed  for  the  soft  down 
which  it  uses  for  lining  its  nest. 
Eiders  have  comparatively  short 
beaks  ;  the  males  have  black  and 
white  plumage  with  green  mark- 
ings on  the  head,  while  the  females 


have  mottled  brown  plumage. 
The  common  eider  (S.  mollissima) 
is  resident  in  Great  Britain  through- 
out the  year,  but  breeds  only  on 
the  Fame  Islands.  The  king  eider 
(S-  spectabilis)  and  Steller's  eider 
(Polysticta  stelleri)  are  rare  visitants 
to  Britain. 

All  the  eiders  are  divers,  and  feed 
upon  shell-fish  and  small  crusta- 
ceans. They  keep  to  the  rocky 
shores  and  nest  on  the  ground.  It 
needs  about  six  nests  to  yield  a 
pound  of  the  famous  down. 

Eidograph  (Gr.  eidos,  form ; 
grapJiein,  to  write).  Instrument 
for  copying  drawings,  designs,  etc. , 
reduced  or  enlarged,  within  limits, 
to  any  desired  proportion.  Some- 
what on  the  lines  of  a  pantograph, 
it  comprises  a  slotted  beam  adapted 
to  slide  in  a  socket,  having  its 
axis  in  the  centre  line  of  the  slot. 
Underneath  each  end  of  the  beam 
is  a  wheel ;  the  wheels  are  of  the 
same  diameter  and  geared  together 
by  a  chain.  Sliding  in  a  guide  in 
each  wheel  is  an  arm,  one  of  which 
carries  a  tracer  and  the  other  a 
pencil,  or  the  equivalent,  for  copy- 
ing. The  gearing  together  of  the 
two  wheels  ensures  that  the  arms 
will  remain  parallel  for  all  positions 
of  the  instrument.  The  size  of  the 
copy  is  determined  by  the  position 
of  the  beam  in  the  socket. 

Eifel.  Mt.  range  of  the  Rhine 
province,  Germany,  forming  an  ex- 
tension of  the  E.  Ardennes.  Of 


Eider    Duck.       Male,     black    and 
white  ;  female,  mottled  brown 


Eiiel.     Castle  of  Eltz.  in  tte  Eilel 
range,  burnt  down  Sept.,  1920  ( 

low  altitude  (highest  peak  2,500 
ft.),  they  trend  E.  by  S.  between 
the  Nette  and  the  Ahr  rivers 
towards  the  Rhine  and  the  Mo- 
selle. The  E.  section  is  known  as 
the  Hohe  Eifel,  the  W.  section 
as  Schnee  Eifel,  while  the  S.  part 
is  called  Vorder  Eifel.  NearCochem, 
on  the  steep  wooded  banks  of  the 
river  Eltz,  stood  the  castle  of  Eltz, 
a  beautiful  medieval  building  of 
wood  and  plaster,  burnt  down  in 
Sept.,  1920. 


EIFEL1AN 


283  1 


EILEITHYASPOLIS 


Eifelian.  Name  given  to  a 
stage  of  stratified  rocks  of  Middle 
Devonian  age.  It  consists  of  flag- 
stones, shales,  and  beds  of  lime- 
stone attaining  a  thickness  of  500 
ft.  in  the  Dinant  district  (Belgium), 
and  contains  numerous  fossil  re- 
mains of  corals  and  brachiopods. 
One  series  of  shales  (the  Calccola 
shales)  ia  named  after  a  peculiar 
form  of  coral.  It  is  well  developed  in 
the  Eifel  district,  whence  the  name, 
in  the  Rhine  valley,  the  Hunsriick, 
the  Taunus,  and  in  Bohemia. 

Eiffel.      ALEXANDRE     GUSTAVE 
(1832-1923).        French     engineer. 
Born  at  Dijon,  Dec.  15,  1832,  he 
^w^^QH^rai  studied  at  the 
I   Ecole  Centrale, 
ami     executed 
|    his  first  notable 
If    work,  the  bridge 
jjy     |    over    the   Gar 
|    onne    at    Bor- 
deaux, in  1858. 
Inl865hefoun- 
ded   ironworks 
Gustave  Eiffel.         at      Levallois- 
French  engineer        perret,     Seine. 
His       outstanding        engineering 
achievements    include    the    bridge 
over  the  Douro  at  Oporto,  1876;  the 
Garabit  viaduct,  Cantal,  1882;  the 
great  Eiffel  Tower,  Paris,  1887-89; 
the  movable  dome  of  the  Nice  Ob 
servatory  ;   and  the  framework  for 
Bartholdi's     colossal     statue     of 
Liberty    in    New    York    harbour. 
He  was  one  of  the  first  engineers 
to  employ  compressed-air  caissons 
m  bridge  building,   and  invented 
movable  section  bridges.     Mis  in- 
vestigations of  air  resistance  were 
of  service  in  the  development  of 


aeronautical  engineering.    He  died 
at  Paris.  Dec.  28,  1923. 

Eiffel  Tower.  Building  in  Paris. 
It  was  designed  and  erected  by  Gus- 
tave Eiffel,  for  the  Paris  Exhibition 
of  1889.  It  is  984  ft.  high,  and  is 
built  of  iron  throughout,  7,300  tons 
of  that  metal  being  used  in  its  con- 
struction. The  shape  is  that  of  a 
curved  pyramid.  Electric  lifts  run 
to  the  top.  The  tower  is  an  impor- 
tant wireless  telegraphy  station 
and  meteorological  centre. 


Eiffel  Tower,  Paris,  seen  from  the 
Champ  de  Mars 


Eiger.     Mountain   of  the  Bernese 

Oberland,    adjoining    the    Monea, 

which  is  seen  on  the  right 

Eiger.  Mountain  of  Switzer- 
land, in  the  Bernese  Oberland  (q.v. ), 
adjoining  the  Monch  ;  alt.  13,042 
ft.  It  was  first  ascended  by  Charles 
Barrington,  1858. 

Eigg  OR  EGG.  Island  of  the  Heb- 
rides, Inverness- shire,  Scotland. 
Facing  the  entrance  to  the  Sound 
of  Sleat,  it  is  G£  m.  long  and  4  m. 
broad.  In  the  S.W.  is  the  Scuir  of 
Eigg,  a  porphyritic  peak  1,289  ft. 
high.  The  rocks  have  been  de- 
scribed by  Hugh  Miller  in  his 
Cruise  of  the  Betsy.  Pop.  181. 

Eight.  In  rowing,  a  name  ap- 
plied collectively  to  the  members  of 
a  racing  crew,  when  such  consists 
of  eight  men,  in  addition  to  the 
cox.  For  the  Oxford  and  Cambridge 
and  other  important  boat  races  it 
became  usual  to  have  crews  of 
eight,  and  so  the  word  came  to  be 
used  in  this  sense.  See  Rowing; 
also  illus.  p.  1211. 

Eight,  PIECE  OF.  Name  given  to 
the  old  Spanish  silver  coin,  the 
piastre.  It  was  so  called  because  it 
was  divided  into  eight  silver  reals, 
circulated  in  Spain  and  Spanish 
America  during  the  17th  and  18th 
centuries,  and  was  commonly  met 
with  through  W.  Europe.  Its  value 
was  about  four  shillings. 

Eight-Hour  Day.  Term  used 
popularly  for  a  working  day  of  this 
length.  Since  about  1832  this  has 


been  the  ideal  of  many  reformers 
and  numerous  workers  have  se- 
cured it,  either  by  legislation  or 
by  negotiation.  In  Australia  it  is 
very  general,  while  it  has  been  in- 
troduced in  the  U.S.A.  and  else- 
where. In  1908  the  miners  in  the 
United  Kingdom  secured  it,  and  in 
1919  it  was  granted  to  the  railway- 
men.  See  Labour. 

Eighty  Club.  British  political 
club.  It  was  founded  in  1880  to 
celebrate  the  victory  gained  by  the 
Liberals  at  the  general  election  of 
that  year,  its  main  object  being  to 
unite  the  younger  members  of  the 
Liberal  party  and  to  encourage 
them  in  active  political  work.  A 
president,  usually  a  leader  of  the 
Liberal  party,  is  elected  annually. 
Lady  members  were  admitted  in 
1920.  The  club's  headquarters  are 
at  3,  Hare  Court,  Temple,  London ; 
it  has  no  club  house. 

Eikon  (Gr.,  image).  Holy  image 
or  sacred  picture  used  in  the  wor- 
ship of  the  Greek  Church,  more 
usually  spelled  Ikon  or  Icon  (q.v.). 

Eikon  Basilike  (Gr.,  royal  like- 
ness). Book  purporting  to  be 
written  by  Charles  I,  and  published 
immediately  after  his  execution, 
although  most  of  the  early  editions 
bear  the  date  1648  Its  sub-title  is 
The  Pourtraicture  of  His  Sacred 
Majestie  in  His  Solitudes  and 
Sufferings.  It  professes  to  give  the 
king's  views  of  the  events  of  his 
reign,  and  a  number  of  his  prayers. 
Milton,  in  Eikonoklastes,  replied  in 
detail  to  the  work  and  first  hinted 
at  "doubts  as  to  its  authorship. 
Historians  take  sides  respectively 
for  Charles  and  for  John  Gauden, 
later  Bishop  of  Worcester,  who 
claimed  to  have  written  it.  See 
editions  by  C.  M.  Phillimore,  1879; 
and  E.  Almack,  1904 ;  consult  also 
Bibliography  of  the  King's  Book, 
E.  Almack,  1896 

Eil.  Sea-loch  between  Argyll- 
shire and  Inverness-shire,  Scotland. 
Forming  a  W.  extension  of  Loch 
Linnhe  ;  it  is  8  m.  long  and  has  a 
mean  breadth  of  £  m.  See  illus. 
p.  1065. 

Eildon  Hills.  Range  of  hills  in 
Roxburghshire,  Scotland.  Situated 
S.  of  Melrose,  they  rise  into  three 
peaks,  the  highest  of  which  is  1,385 
ft.  On  the  slopes  are  a  supposed 
Druidical  tumulus  and  remnants  of 
a  Roman  encampment.  According 
to  popular  tradition,  the  single  till 
was  split  into  three  by  the  "  won- 
drous wizard,"  Michael  Scott  of 
Balwearie. 

Eileithyaspolis  OR  EILEITHYIA. 
City  of  ancient  Egypt.  It  has  been 
identified  with  the  present  El  Kab, 
on  the  E.  bank  of  Nile,  44  m.  above 
Luxor.  The  goddess  of  the  town, 
Nekhbet,  was  regarded  by  the 
Greeks  as  identical  with  Eileithyia, 


2832 


EISENACH 


the  goddess  of  childbirth,  hence  the 
Greek  version  of  the  Egyptian 
name  (Nekhab)  of  the  city.  The 
ruins  are  extensive. 

Eilenburg.  Town  of  Prussian 
Saxony,  Germany.  It  stands  on  an 
island  in  the  Mulde,  15  m.  N.E.  of 
Leipzig,  and  is  a  rly.  junction.  It  is 
a  centre  of  the  textile  industry,  and 
has  also  a  trade  in  cattle,  while  other 
manufactures  include  chemicalsand 
agricultural  machinery.  The  castle, 
after  which  it  is  named,  dates  from 
the  10th  century,  but  the  town, 
known  earlier  as  Millenamstoll,  is 
older.  It  was  part  of  Meissen  and 
then  of  Saxony,  in  which  it  re- 
mained until  given  to  Prussia  in 
1815.  Pop.  17,400. 

Eixneo.  One  of  the  Society 
Islands,  in  the  Pacific  Ocean.  It 
lies  to  the  N.W.  of  Tahiti,  in  lat. 
17°  32'  S.  and  long.  150°  2'  W,  and 
is  a  French  possession.  It  is  9  m. 
long  and  5  m.  broad  ;  area,  51  sq. 
m.  The  London  Missionary  Society 
have  a  station  and  a  college  on  the 
island.  In  1903  a  tidal  wave  de- 
vastated the  island  and  many 
people  perished. 

Einem,  ROTHMAIER  KARL  VON 
(b.  1853).  German  soldier.  Born  at 
Harzberg  in  the  Harz,  Jan.  1, 
1853,  he  entered 
the  Prussian 
army  as  a  lieu- 
tenant of  caval- 
ry in  1870.  He 
was  chief  of  the 
staff  of  the  7th 
Army  Corps  in 
1898,  and  •  in 
1903  became  a 
lieut.-general, 
and  in  the 
latter  year  Prussian  minister  of 
war.  In  1907  he  was  general  of 
cavalry  and  two  years  later  com- 
manded the  7th  army  corps.  In 
the  second  battle  of  the  Marne, 
July,  1918,  he  commanded  the 
third  German  army  which  unsuc- 
cessfully attacked  the  French, 
under  Gouraud,  E.  of  Reims. 

Einhard  OR  EGINHARD  (c.  770- 
840).  Frankish  historian.  Born  in 
East  Franconia,  he  was  educated 
at  the  monastery  of  Fulda  and  at 
the  court  of  Charlemagne,  where  he 
was  a  pupil  of  Alcuin.  He  was 
made  secretary  and  superintendent 
of  public  buildings  by  Charlemagne 
and  was  responsible  for  the  royal 
palaces  at  Ingelheim  and  Aix-la- 
Chapelle.  He  continued  to  enjoy 
favour  under  Louis,  Charlemagne's 
successor,  who  entrusted  him  with 
the  education  of  his  son  Lothair, 
and  in  815  bestowed  on  him 
the  domains  of  Michelstadt  and 
Muhlheim.  In  827,  unable  to 
compose  the  quarrels  between  the 
emperor  Louis  and  his  sons, 
Einhard  retired  from  court  to 


Karl  von  Einem, 
German  soldier 


Muhlheim,    where    he    founded   a  the  university  of  Zurich,  and  in 

monastery.     His  wife  was  Emma,  1911   he   left  Zurich   for  Prague, 

the  sister  of  the  bishop  of  Worms,  where  he  was  professor  of  physics 

and  not  a  daughter  of  Charlemagne,  in    the    German    section    of    the 

as  the  later  legends  represent.    His  university. 

chief  works  are  his  Epistolae,  and  In  1912  Einstein  was  recalled  to 
his  Life  of  Charlemagne,  one  of  the  Zurich  as  professor  of  the  poly- 
best  biographies  of  the  Middle  technic,  and  in  1914  he  went  to  Ber- 
Ages,  and  the  source  of  most  of  lin  as  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
our  information  about  the  great  Science.  In  1915  he  caused  a  verit- 
emperor.  His  authorship  of  the  able  sensation  in  the  scientific  world 
Annales  Regum  Francorum  is  by  his  explanation  of  gravitational 
disputed.  attraction,  based  on  the  wider  or 
Einsiedeln.  Town  of  Switzer-  "general"  form  of  his  theory  of 
land,  in  the  canton  of  Schwyz.  It  relativity,  and  accompanied  by  an 
stands  on  the  Alpbach,  2,908  ft.  explanation  of  the  anomalous 
above  the  sea,  25  m.  by  rly.  S.E.  of  motion  of  the  planet  Mercury. 
Zurich.  One  of  the  most  famous  He  then  made  a  remarkable 
pilgrim  resorts  of  the  world,  it  prediction  as  to  the  bending  of 
owes  its  importance  to  the  great  light  rays  from  the  stars  which 
Benedictine  monastery,  containing  passed  close  to  the  sun  ;  the  verify  - 
a  miraculous  black  wooden  image  ing  of  this  prediction  by  the  British 
of  the  Virgin.  The  abbey  was  solar  eclipse  expeditions  in  1919 
founded  in  934,  but  rebuilt  in  the  made  Einstein  world-famous.  Some 
18th  century  ;  the  French  sacked  scientists  place  Einstein  on  New- 
the  place  in  1798,  but  the  treasury  ton's  level.  See  Relativity;  con- 
and  library,  with  50,000  vols.  and  suit  also  The  Special  and  the 
valuable  MSS.,  still  contain  many  General  Theory:  a  Popular  Ac- 
precious  objects,  portraits,  etc.  count,  A.  Einstein,  1920. 
Thronged  in  the  Middle  Ages,  it  Eisenach.  Town  of  Germany, 
still  attracts  many  thousands  of  in  the  federal  state  of  Thuringia. 


pilgrims  annually.     Pop.  9,000. 

Einstein,  ALBERT  (b.  1879). 
German  physicist.  He  was  born  at 
Ulm,  in  Germany,  in  March,  1879, 
of  Jewish  par- 
en  t  a  g  e.  His 
school  days 
were  passed  at 
Munich,  which 
he  left  at  the 
age  of  16  in 
order  to  pursue 
his  studies  at 

the   Zurich 

Albert  Einstein, 
German  physicist 


higher    techni- 
cal    school 


It  stands  at  the  union  of  the  Nesse 
and  the  Horsel,  32  m.  by  rly.  W.  of 
Erfurt.  The  chief  secular  buildings 
are  the  town  hall,  the  palace  on 
the  market  place,  until  1918  the 
residence  of  the  duke  of  Saxe- 
Weimar-Eisenach,  and  a  small 
castle  called  the  Klemda.  The 
chief  churches  are  the  Gothic 
Market  Church  and  the  Roman- 
esque S.  Nicholas.  The  house 
where  Luther  stayed  still  stands, 
and  there  are  the  Thuringian 
museum  of  antiquities,  also  Bach 
and  Wagner  museums. 

The  town  has  a  school  of  forestry 


(1896-1900).  In  1901  Einstein  was  and  other  schools,  as  well  as  a 
naturalised  as  a  Swiss,  and  ac-  theatre.  Before  the  Great  War  it 
cepted  a  post  in  the  patent  office  at  had  an  English  church.  The  chief 
Berne.  While  holding  this  position  industries  are  spinning,  the  build- 
he  published  many  scientific  papers  ing  of  wagons,  and  the  making  of 
dealing  with  such  subjects  as  the  pottery,  cigars,  beer,  etc.  Near  the 
Brownian  movement,  the  "quan-  Thuringian  Forest,  the  town  is  visit- 
turn  "  theory  of  energy,  and,  what  ed  by  tourists.  One  attraction  is  the 
attracted  the 
greatest  atten-  r 
tion,  the  theory 
of  relativity.  It 
was  in  1905  that 
Einstein  formu- 
lated his  own 
theory  of  rela- 
tivity in  its  nar- 
rower or  "  spe- 
cial "  form,  and 
this  formulation 
at  once  raised 
him  to  a  high 
place  among 
European  scien  - 
tists.  In  1909  he 

was     appointed       2isenacn.   Entrance  to  the  Wartburg,  founded  in  1067  and 
professor    at1       until  1440  the  residence  of  the  landgrave  of  Thuringia 


E1SENBERG 


2833 


EJIBOO 


Wartburg  (q.v.),  just  outside,  and  a 
ruined  castle  stands  on  an  adjacent 
rock.  The  town  was  founded  by  a 
landgrave  of  Thuringia,  and  after 
being  part  of  Thuringia  passed  to 
Saxony.  It  was  the  capital  of  one 
of  the  little  principalities  into 
which  Saxony  was  divided  for  a 
number  of  years,  until  in  1741  it 
was  finally  united  "with  Saxe- 
Weimar,  of  which  it  became  the 
second  capital.  Pop.  38,362. 

Eisenberg.  Town  of  Germany, 
in  Saxe-Altenburg.  It  is  24  m.  S.  W. 
of  Altenburg,  and  is  on  the  rly. 
to  Leipzig.  The  buildings  include 
a  castle,  churches,  schools,  etc.,  and 
there  are  several  manufactures. 
Pop.  10,750. 

Eisenstadt.  Town  of  Hungary, 
hi  the  prov.  of  Odenburg,  known 
also  as  Kismarton.  It  is  25  m.  S.E. 
of  Vienna,  at  the  base  of  the 
Leitha  Mts.  It  is  famous  for  its 
magnificent  palace,  long  the  resi- 
dence of  the  Esterhazy  family. 
Built  in  1683,  and  enlarged  in  1805, 
this  has  a  fine  library  and  beauti- 
ful gardens.  The  town  has  also  a 
Franciscan  monastery,  with  a 
church  in  which  the  Esterhazy s 
are  buried.  Haydn  was  conductor 
of  the  palace  orchestra  from  1760 
to  1790,  and  he  is  buried  in  a 
church  near  that  of  Maria-Einsie- 
del,  a  popular  pilgrim  resort. 

Eisfeld.  Town  of  Saxe-Meinin- 
gen,  Germany.  It  stands  on  the 
Werra,  23  m.  from  Meiningen,  and 
is  known  for  its  association  with 
Luther.  The  town  church,  a  16th 
century  building,  contains  a  statue 
of  the  reformer,  and  near  is  the 
grave  of  his  friend,  Justus  Jonas, 
who  was  its  minister.  Pop.  4,100. 

Eisleben.  Town  of  Germany 
in  the  Prussian  prov.  of  Saxony. 
It  is  20  m.  W.N.  W.  of  Halle,  and  is 
famous  for  its  association  with 
Luther,  who  was  born  and  died 
there.  The  chief  churches  are  those 
of  S.  Andrew  and  SS.  Peter  and 
Paul.  The  memorials  of  Luther 
include  the  house  hi  which  ho 
died,  now  a  museum,  a  school 
which  he  founded,  and  a  bronze 
statue.  Eisleben  has  a  school  of 
mining,  and  is  the  trading  centre 
for  the  silver  and  copper  mines 
of  the  neighbourhood.  Eisleben  is 
divided  into  an  old  and  a  new 
town.  It  was  long  on  the  lands  of 
the  counts  of  Mansfeld.  In  1710 
it  passed  to  Saxony,  and  in 
1815  became  part  of  Prussia.  Pop. 
24,629. 

Eisner,  KUBT  (1867-1919). 
Name  adopted  by  Salomon  Kosnow- 
sky,  a  German  socialist  writer  and 
politician.  He  was  born  in  Berlin, 
May  14,  1867,  of  Galician- Jewish 
origin.  Joining  the  socialists  he 
became  associate  editor  of  their 
organ,  Vorwarts. , "'.  When  the 


Great  War  broke  out  he  joined  his  of  an  old  English  action  to  recover 
party  in  supporting  it,  but  before  possession  of  land.  Originally  it 
the  end  he  was  could  only  be  brought  by  a  lease- 
one  of  the  South  holder  and  not  by  a  freeholder  ;  but 
German  leaders  by  the  fiction  of  John  Doe  judges 
who  opposed  allowed  it  to  be  made  use  of  by 
freeholders,  who  preferred  it  to  the 
cumbersome  remedies  of  a  writ  of 
right,  or  a  writ  of  Novel  Disseisin. 
By  the  Common  Land  Procedure 
Act,  1852,  John  Doe  was  abolished, 
and  now  an  action  for  the  posses- 
and  minister  of  sion  of  land  may  be  brought  by 
foreign  affairs,  anyone  entitled  to  such  possession. 
See  Land  Laws. 

Ejector.  Appliance  for  operat- 
ing a  vacuum  brake  by  exhausting 
or  ejecting  air  from  the  brake 
cylinders.  It  consists  of  a  pipe 
within  an  outer  casing  with  an  an- 
nular space  between  the  two. 
When  steam  is  admitted  to  the 
pipe,  hi  the  act  of  escaping  at  the 
outer  end  it  draws  the  air  from  the 
annular  space  which  is  connected 

most  difficult  climbs  in  the  High    by  piping  to  the  brake  cylinders. 
Tatra,  but  theview  from  the  summit    Valves  are  provided  for  controlling 


the  Kaiser.  On 
the  outbreak  of 
the  revolution 
he  himself  took 
the  position  of 
prime  minister 

Kurt  Eisner, 

German  socialist 
and  later  that  of  first  president  of 
the  Bavarian  republic.  He  sought 
to  separate  Bavaria  from  the  other 
German  states,  and  to  make  sepa- 
rate peace  arrangements  with  the 
Allies,  but  unavailingly,  and  was 
assassinated  in  Munich,  Feb.  21, 
1919.  His  collected  writings,  2  vols., 
appeared  in  1920. 

Eistaler  Spitze.  Peak  in  Czecho- 
slovakia, 8,630  ft.    It  is  one  of  the 


over  the  wide  plain  of  Galicia  to  the 
N.,  and  the  Hungarian  lowlands  to 
the  S.,  well  repays  the  climber. 

Eisteddfod  (Welsh,  session). 
Welsh  national  bardic  festival. 
According  to  tradition,  under  the 
name  of  the  Gorsedd  or  Druidic 
congress,  it  was  celebrated  before 
the  Roman  invasion  of  Britain, 
and  was  the  repository  of  the 
laws,  science  and  poetry  of  the 
country.  Authentic  records  go  no 
farther  back  than  the  12th  century. 
The  Eisteddfod  flourished  under 
the  Tudors ;  on  one  occasion,  in  the 
time  of  Elizabeth,  the  assembly 
being  summoned  by  royal  com- 
mission. In  the  Cromwellian  period 
it  fell  into  abeyance,  but  a  notable 
revival  was  witnessed  in  the  19th 
century.  For  some  time  it  has  been 
held  annually,  in  the  north  or  south 
of  the  principality  alternately. 
Noteworthy  features  of  the  occasion 
are  the  crowning  of  the  chief  bard 
and  the  award  of  prizes  for  choral, 
vocal,  and  lyrical  compositions  and 
their  rendering,  and  for  excellence 

i  n       handicrafts,  

etc.       In   Aug.,     f 
1920,  the  Eistedd- 
fod    was    held     j 
at   Barry,   when    j 
expression     was     j 
given  to  the  desire     i 
that    the   festival 
should    concern     ' 
itself    less    with     ,        : 
ancient     bardism 
and  local  matters, 
and    be    made 
more    representa- 
tive   of    national 
progress. 

Ejectment 
(Lat.  ejectare,  to 
cast  out).  Name 


provided  for  controlling 
the  amount  of  steam  and  air  ad- 
mitted. The  ejector  is  fitted  in  the 
driver's  cab,  and  is  controlled  by 
the  engine-driver,  but  valves  are 
provided  in  guards'  vans  so  that  a 
guard  may  apply  the  brakes  in- 
dependently. The  ejector  of  a 
gun  is  a  mechanical  device  which 
throws  o\it  the  used  cartridges 
after  each  round. 

An  ejector  pump  is  one  used 
principally  for  the  drainage  of  flat 
districts  and  works  by  means  of 
compressed  air  supplied  from  a 
central  station.  The  pressure  of  the 
air  forces  the  drainage  through  a 
system  of  valves,  until  it  reaches 
its  discharging  point.  These  ejec- 
tors save  the  necessity  for  large 
central  power  pumping  stations, 
and  for  complicated  deep-laid 
drainage  systems.  As  a  rule  each 
is  suited  to  control  a  small  dis- 
trict. See  Injector  ;  Pump  ;  Steam 
Engine. 

Ejiboo  OR  EJIGBO.  Town  of 
Nigeria  in  Yoruba.  It  is  150  m.  N. 
of  Lagos. 


Eisteddfod.    Ceremony  in  the  Gorsedd  circle,  in  front 
of  the  ruins  of  Aberystwyth  Castle,  Aug.  1916 

K    4 


EKA-10DOFORM 


2834 


ELAGABALUS 


Eka-iodoform.  Name  applied 
to  a  sterile  iodoform  produced  by 
mixing  with  iodoform  a  small  pro- 
portion of  paraform. 

"  Eka,"  the  Sanskrit  word  for 
one,  was  used  by  Mendeleeff  as  a 
prefix  for  the  hypothetical  ele- 
ments which  filled  the  blanks  in 
his  arrangement  of  the  elements 
according  to  the  periodic  system. 

Ekaterina  (Port  Catherine). 
Harbour  of  Russia,  in  the  govt.  of 
Archangel.  It  stands  on  the  Mur- 
man  coast  of  Kola  Bay,  85  m.  E. 
of  Lake  Enara.  The  harbour  is 
ice-free  all  the  year  round.  The 
naval  port  of  Alexandrovsk  close 
by  was  founded  in  1899. 

Ekaterinburg.  Town  in  Rus- 
sia, in  the  govt.  of  Perm.  It  stands 
on  the  Isset,  175  m.  E.  of  Perm, 
and  is  an  important  station  on  the 
Trans-Siberian  Rly.  It  is  the  centre 
of  the  Ural  metallurgical  works, 
the  assaying  laboratory  for  all  the 
gold  of  the  district.  There  are  iron, 
marble,  porphyry,  tallow  and  soap 
works,  and  factories  for  polishing 
ornamental  stones.  Ekaterinburg 
was  founded  in  1723  by  Peter  the 
Great,  and  named  after  his  wife. 
There  are  two  cathedrals,  both  built 
in  the  18th  century.  Here,  on 
July  16,  1918,  Tsar  Nicholas  II 
and  his  family  were  murdered  by 
Bolshevists.  Pop.  70,000. 

Ekaterinodar.  Capital  of  the 
Kuban  republic  in  the  Caucasus. 
It  stands  on  the  river  Kuban  and 
a  branch  of  the  Rostov- Vladi- 
kavkaz rly.  It  was  founded  by 
Catherine  II  in  1792,  and  carries 
on  an  important  cattle  trade.  It 
became  prominent  in  the  Bolshevist 
advance  against  Gen.  Denikin's 
forces  in  the  spring  of  1920.  Pop. 
107,360. 

Ekateriuoslav.  Government  of 
Ukrainia.  It  is  bounded  on  the  S. 
by  Taurida,  on  the  N.  by  Poltava 
and  Kharkov,  on  the  W.  by  Kher- 
son, on  the  E.  by  the  Don  Cossack 
territory,  and  on  the  S.E.  by  the 
Sea  of  Azov.  Three-quarters  of  the 
population  are  Little  Russians,  the 
remainder  being  very  mixed.  The 
area  is  24,477  sq.  m.  The  soil  is  the 
"  black  earth  "  and  generally  fer- 
tile. The  chief  occupations  are  agri- 
culture, cattle-breeding,  bee-keep- 
ing, and  fishing.  The  minerals  are 
salt,  bog- iron,  coal,  and  sandstone, 
and  the  industries  include  the  manu- 
facture of  rails,  machines,  tobacco, 
and  bricks.  There  are  iron-foun- 
dries, breweries,  tallow  boileries, 
and  spirit  distilleries.  The  chief  ex 
ports  are  grain,  cattle,  horses,  wool, 
tallow,  leather,  and  hides.  Pop. 
3,537.300.  Pron.  Yekaterinoslaf 

Ekaterinoslav  (Russ.,  Cather- 
ine's glory).  Town  of  Ukrainia, 
chief  town  of  the  govfc.  of  Ekater- 
inoslav. It  stands  on  the  Dnieper 


near  the  beginning  of  the  rapids, 
250  m.  N.E.  of  Odessa.  There  are 
cast-iron,  railway  line,  and  tobacco 
factories.  Ekaterinoslav,  which  is 
the  chief  emporium  for  the  trade 
with  Odessa,  was  built  in  1786  by 
Potemkin  as  a  summer  residence  for 
Catherine  II  on  the  site  of  an  old 


Ekaterinburg,  Russia.      Barricaded  building  in  which 

Tsar  Nicholas  II  and  his  family  were  imprisoned  and 

murdered  by  Bolshevists 


Polish  fortress.  The  town  was  cap- 
tured by  the  Germans  in  April, 
1918.  Pop.  220,100. 

Ekhmim,  AKHMIM,  AKHMYM,  OR 
EKHMYM.  Town  of  Egypt.  It  stands 
on  the  Nile  70  m.  S.  of  Assiut.  For 
more  than  2,000  years  it  has  been 
the  chief  centre  for  the  manufacture 
of  the  cotton  shawls  used  by  the 
natives.  Here  are  the  remains  of 
the  temple  of  Pan  (the  Egyptian 
Amsu  or  Min)  and  other  ruins,  and 
an  extensive  Egyptian  and  Roman 
cemetery.  In  Early  Christian  times 
Ekhmim  was  an  important  Chris- 
tian centre.  In  the  neighbourhood, 
near  the  village  of  Hawawish,  have 
been  found  valuable  papyri,  in- 
cluding the  "  Gospel  of  Saint 
Peter."  Pop.  23,800. 

Ekron.  Ancient  town  of  the 
Philistines.  It  is  the  modern  Akir, 
a  small  village  situated  23  m.  N.W. 
of  Jerusalem. 

Elaeagnaceae  (Gr.  elaia,  olive; 
hagnos,  pure).  Small  natural  order 
of  shrubs  and  trees,  natives  of  the 
N.  temperate  and  tropical  zones. 
They  are  more  or  less  covered  with 
silvery  or  brown  scales.  They  have 
entire  leaves,  and  small  white  or 
yellow  flowers.  The  fruit  is  mem- 
branous, and  enclosed  in  the  tube 
of  the  calyx.  The  two  best  known 
species  are  the  Oleaster  (Elaeagnus) 
and  Sea  Buckthorn  (Hippophae). 

Elaeocarpus  (Gr.  elaia,  olive  ; 
karpos,  fruit).  Genus  of  evergreen 
shrubs  and  trees  of  the  natural 
order  Tiliaceae.  Natives  of  the  East 
Indies  and  Australia,  they  have 
alternate,  lance-shaped  or  oblong 
leaves,  and  small,  white,  fragrant 
flowers  in  sprays.  The  cherry-like 
fruit  has  a  rough-shelled  seed. 

Elaeococca  (Gr.  elaia,  olive; 
fcokkos,  seed).  Genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Euphorbiaceae. 
They  are  natives  of  China  and 
Japan.  The  seeds  by  pressure  yield 
valuable  oil,  and  those  from  E.  ver- 
rucosa,  a  Japanese  plant,  are  used 
for  burning  in  lamps ;  from  a 


Chinese  species,  E.  vernicia,  is  ob- 
tained an  oil  useful  for  mixing  paints. 
Elaeolite  (Gr.  elaia,  olive  ;  lithos, 
stone).  Dark-coloured  variety  of 
the  mineral  nepheline,  chemically  a 
silicate  of  alumina,  soda,  and  pot- 
ash. It  shows  no  definite  crystal 
form,  has  greasy  lustre  and  rough 
cleavages,  and 
occurs  in  many 
volcanic  rocks, 
e.g.  the  lavas  of 
Monte  Somma  and 
Vesuvius,  and  in 
zircon-syenite  o  f 
Brevig  (Norway). 
See  Nepheline. 
Elagabalus  OK 

H  E  L I O  G  A  BALTJS. 

Roman  emperor 
A.D.  218-222.  The 
son  of  Sextus  Varius  Marcellus  and 
Julia  Soaemias  he  was  originally 
called  Varius  Avitus  Bassianus.  He 
was  born  and  brought  up  at  Emesa 
in  Syria,  where  at  the  age  of  13  he 
was  made  priest  of  Elagabalus,  the 
Syrian  sun-god,  and  assumed  his 
name.  By  pretending  that  he  was 
the  natural  son  of  Caracalla,  his 
grandmother,  Julia  Maesa,  per- 
suaded the  legions  in  Syria  to  pro- 


Elagabalus,  one   of   the   worst 
the  Roman  Emperors 

From  a  bust  in  the  Capitol.  Rome 

claim  him  emperor,  under  the  name 
of  Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus. 

Abandoning  the  reins  of  govern- 
ment to  his  mother  and  grand- 
mother, he  devoted  the  first  year 
of  his  reign  at  Rome  to  the  in- 
troduction of  the  worship  of  the 
sun-god,  represented  by  a  large 
conical  black  stone  which  he  had 
brought  with  him  from  the  East. 
A  sexual  pervert,  his  short  reign 
was  a  continuous  orgy  of  vice.  An 
attempt  to  murder  his  cousin 
Alexander,  whom  the  senate  had 
induced  him  to  adopt  as  his 
successor,  was  frustrated  by  the 
praetorian  guards,  who  took  Alex- 
ander under  their  protection  and 
afterwards  murdered  Elagabalus. 
Pron.  Ela-gabb-alus. 


ELAINE ^^ 

Elaine.  (1)  Character  in  La 
Morte  d'Arthur.  She  was  the 
daughter  of  King  Pelles  and  mar- 
ried Sir  Lancelot.  Their  son  was 
the  blameless  knight  Sir  Galahad, 
who  achieved  the  Holy  Grail.  (2) 
Daughter  of  Sir  Bernard  of  Astolat 
and  known  as  the  Maid  of  Astolat. 
Her  story  appears  in  Tennyson's 
Idylls  of  the  King  (q.v. ). 

Elam.  Biblical  name  for"  a  low- 
land and  mountain  region  in  S.W. 
Persia,  N.  of  the  Persian  Gulf. 
Partly  known  also  as  Elymais,  it 
comprised  the  lowlands  E.  of  the 
Tigris,  with  the  highlands  lying 
N.  and  E.  Wars  were  frequent 
between  the  Assyrians  and  the 
Elamites,  and  Ashurbanipal  con- 
quered the  latter  in  644  B.C.  Susa, 
the  Biblical  Shushan,  in  Persia, 
became  the  capital  of  the  country, 
which  was  watered  by  the  Kerkha 
(Choaspes).  Its  neolithic  popula- 
tion, perhaps  anterior  to  but  allied 
with  the  Sumerian,  developed  their 
agglutinative  speech,  picture-writ- 
ing and  industrial  art  under  local 
impulses.  At  one  time  dominating 
Babylonia,  it  afterwards  became 
subject,  allied  or  independent,  and 
experienced  both  Semitic  and 
Iranian  infiltration.  Its  vigorous 
native  art  excelled  especially  in 
metal-casting  and  jewelry.  See 
Babylonia  ;  Mesopotamia  ;  Susa. 

Elamites.  People  of  ancient 
Elam.  The  ethnic  relationships  of 
the  Elamites  await  further  research. 
Although  the  early  human  remains 
are  scanty,  a  shortish,  long-headed, 
black-haired,  glabrous  stock,  allied 
to  the  Mediterranean  brown  race, 
apparently  occupied  this  region. 
Semitic  intermixture  gave  them  a 
ruling  class,  afterwards  affected  by 
Aryan  elements,  resulting  in  the 
racial  strains  discernible  in  the 
early  Persian  domination.  The 
Elamites  of  Acts  ii  descended  from 
Jewish  settlers  in  Shushan  after  the 
exile,  having  no  ethnic  affinity  with 
the  native  people,  whose  characters 
are  now  submerged  under  the  Beni 
Lam  Arabs  of  the  modern  Persian 
province  of  Arabistan.  » 

Elan.  River  of 
S.  Wales.  It  rises 
on  the  E.  boundary 
of  Cardiganshire, 
and  flows  S.E. 
through  the  W.  por- 
tion of  Radnorshire 
to  Brecknockshire, 
where  it  turns  N.E. 
to  form  the  boun- 
dary of  these  coun- 
ties and  enters  the 
Wye  after  a  course 
of  15m.  The  water- 
sheds of  the  Elan 
and  Claerwen,  its 
tributary,  have  been 
acquired  by  Bir- 


2835 


HBBBnBBBHnni 
Elaine,   the  beautiful  daughter  of 
King  Pelles,  in  the  Arthurian  tales, 
as  depicted  by  Mouat  Loudon 

By  permission  of  the  artist 

mingham,  and  three  reservoirs 
have  been  constructed  on  the  Elan, 
whence  the  water  is  carried  to  the 
city  by  an  aqueduct  74  m.  long. 

Eland.  Genus  of  large  ante- 
lopes, found  only  in  Africa.  They 
are  the  largest  of  all  the  antelopes, 
a  fine  bull  standing  nearly  6  ft. 
high  at  the  withers.  In  colour,  they 
vary  from  light  fawn  to  grey,  and 
the  bulls  usually  have  a  thick  tuft 
of  dark  hair  on  the  forehead.  Both 
sexes  bear  horns,  about  2  ft.  in 
length,  and  more  or  less  twisted. 
They  are  found  in  most  parts  of  E. 
Africa,  but  appear  to  be  extinct  in 
the  South.  They  frequent  wooded 
districts,  and  go  in  herds  of  fifty  or 
more.  Attempts  have  been  made 
to  acclimatise  them  in  Great 
Britain,  where  they  do  well  in 
parks,  but  they  mature  so  slowly 
that  they  cost  more  in  food  than 
they  are  worth. 

Elandslaagte.  Village  in  Natal, 
known  for  an  engagement  in  the 
early  part  of  the  S.  African  War. 
It  is  on  the  hills,  16  m.  N.E.  of 
Ladysmith,  3,614  ft.  above  sea 


ous  antelopes 
rica 


^ ELASTICITY 

level.  On  Oct.  21,  1899,  General 
French,  with  a  small  force  moved 
out  of  Ladysraith  to  attack  the 
Boer  positions  in  the  hills.  He  had 
with  him  only  a  few  hundred  men, 
but  as  the  artillery  duel  was  open- 
ing he  realized  that  he  was  out- 
numbered and  telephoned  back  for 
reinforcements.  British  battalions, 
Gordon  Highlanders  and  Devons, 
were  soon  on  the  scene,  also  some 
Lancers  and  other  cavalry,  and 
the  attack  was  pressed,  the  British 
advancing  in  open  order  up  the 
hills.  The  Boer  artillery  was 
weaker  than  the  British,  and  with 
a  few  casualties  their  position  was 
taken.  Some  Boers  resisted,  but 
the  majority  rode  away,  while 
about  200  were  made  prisoners. 
The  British  lost  41  killed  and  220 
wounded  ;  the  Boers  about  250. 

Elasmobranchs  (Gr.  elasmos, 
metal  plate ;  branchia,  gills).  Sub- 
class of  fishes,  which  includes 
sharks  and  rays.  They  are  char- 
acterised by  the  possession  of  carti- 
laginous or  gristly  skeletons,  though 
sometimes  the  bones  are  partly 
calcified.  The  scales  are  few  and 
distant,  often  of  a  bony  character, 
and  somewhat  resemble  the  teeth 
in  structure.  The  external  gill 
openings  are  not  protected  by 
plates ;  the  mouth  is  usually  placed 
on  the  under  side  ;  there  is  no 
swim-bladder ;  and  the  two  tail  fins 
are  of  unequal  length.  Of  their  four 
orders,  three  are  now  extinct; 
only  the  sharks  and  rays  survive. 
They  are  marine  in  habit,  though 
some  occasionally  ascend  rivers. 

Elastic.  Term  more  particularly 
used  for  a  special  fabric  Containing 
strands  of  rubber,  usually  made 
in  the  form  of  tapes,  cords,  and 
bands.  The  word  is  derived  from 
an  assumed  Gr.  form,  elastikos, 
from  elaunein,  to  drive,  set  in 
motion.  See  Elasticity  ;  Rubber. 

Elasticity.  Property  of  matter 
in  virtue  of  which  it  resists  change 
in  shape  or  bulk,  and  tends,  after 
distortion,  to  recover  its  original 
shape  or  bulk  when  allowed  to  do 
so.  Fluids  have  no  fixed  shape, 
and  therefore  no  power  to  resist 
change  of  shape  ;  they  have  no 
"  elasticity  of  form  "  ;  but  they 
resist  compression  and  have  "  elas- 
ticity of  bulk."  Solids  possess 
both  kinds  of  elasticity.  __ 

An  external  force  producing 
distortion  in  a  body  is  known  as  a 
"  stress  "  and  the  distortion  itself 
is  called  a  "  strain."  The  mathe- 
matical theory  of  elasticity  deals 
with  the  various  kinds  of  strain 
which  a  body  may  suffer,  and  the 
stresses  corresponding  thereto.  If 
the  strains  are  small,  the  general 
principle  of  the  relation  between 
stress  and  strain  is  "  Hooke's 
Law  " — the  stress  is  proportional 


ELATER      BEETLE 

to  the  strain  it  produces.  It  is 
generally  assumed  that  the  strain  is 
small,  as  the  elasticity  of  a  s-olid  has 
a  definite  limit  (the  "elastic  limit" ), 
and  when  the  strain  exceeds  this 
limit  it  produces  a  permanent 
deformation  or  actual  fracture. 

A  simple  example  of  Hooke's 
Law  is  afforded  by  a  steel  wire 
stretched  under  the  tension  of  a 
weight  suspended  from  it.  Hence 
the  weight  is  the  stress,  the  longi- 
tudinal extension  of  the  wire  the 
strain,  and  it  is  found  that  for 
comparatively  small  strains  the 
extension  is  proportional  to  the 
weight.  Moreover,  if  wires  of  the 
same  material,  but  of  different 
lengths  and  thicknesses,  are  com- 
pared, the  ratio  of  stress  to  strain 
is  still  constant,  if  each  is  measured 
on  a  suitable  scale.  It  is  found  that 
for  any  given  material,  such  as  steel, 
the  ratio  of  stress  to  strain  is  con- 
stant, and  this  constant  number  is 
called  "Young's  modulus"  for  the 
material.  For  steel  wire  it  is 
about  13,000  tons  to  the  square 
inch,  and  from  this  value  it  is  easy 
to  calculate  by  simple  proportion 
the  longitudinal  extension  of  a 
steel  wire  of  any  given  length  and 
cross- section,  when  stretched  by 
a  known  weight. 

In  this  case  the  wire  suffers  a 
change  in  volume  as  well  as  in 
form  ;  the  longitudinal  expansion 
is  accompanied  by  a  slight  lateral 
contraction,  but  the  volume  of 
the  wire  is  on  the  whole  increased. 
A  strain  in  which  there  is  pure 
change  of  form  with  no  change  of 
volume  is  known  as  a  "  simple 
shear  "  ;  it  may  be  illustrated  by 
twisting  a  wire.  Here,  again,  for 
small  twists  the  ratio  of  the  "  shear- 
ing stress "  to  the  "  shearing 
strain  "  is  constant,  this  constant 
being  known  as  the  "  rigidity." 
When  a  solid  or  a  liquid  is  com- 
pressed, the  ratio  of  the  compress- 
ing force  per  unit  of  surface  area 
(stress)  to  the  proportionate  dimi- 
nution hi  volume  (strain)  gives 
another  constant,  the  "  volume 
elasticity,"  or  "  bulk  modulus." 

The  theory  of  elasticity  is  of 
great  importance  to  the  engineer 
who  has  to  deal  in  every  kind 
of  structure  and  machine  with 
material  in  a  state  of  stress,  and 
consequently  to 

""    ~*jjy£~~         -1]  some  extent  in 
•"\H^B_  1  a    state    of 

/JHJL          ^strain.     See 
/•     flY-,     j  Ma  terials, 
sHif)  i  Strength  of. 

I  Elater  Bee* 

i  tie  (Gr.  elater, 
driver).  Group 
-^  of  beetles,  also 

*<;?"?•  called     click 

oeeue  /uAAfiAa         rpuft 

the     genus  beetles.        Ine 

Elater  destructive 


2836 

wire-worm  is  the  larva  of  one  of 
these  beetles;  and  the  fire-fly  of 
the  W.  Indies  belongs  to  the  same 
group.  See  Beetle;  Click  Beetle. 
Elatinaceae.  Natural  order  of 
herbs  and  small  shrubs,  distributed 
generally  over  the  globe.  They  are 


Elatinaceae.  1.  Flowering  branch, 
magnified.  2.  Diagram  of  a  dimer- 
ous flower.  3.  A  flower,  more  mag- 
nified. 4.  A  magnified  stamen, 
outside  and  inside  view.  5.  Pistil, 
magnified.  6.  Pistil,  vertical  section, 
snowing  placentae.  7.  Magnified 
seed.  8.  Transverse  section  of  seed 

mostly  small  annuals,  growing  in 
marshes,  with  opposite  or  whorled 
leaves.  The  minute  flowers  have 
two  to  five  sepals  and  a  like  num- 
ber of  petals,  and  the  fruit  is  a 
membranous  capsule,  containing 
many  seeds.  Some  of  the  plants  are 
acrid,  being  known  as  waterpeppers. 
Elba  (Gr.  Aithalia,  Lat.  Ilva). 
Island  of  the  Mediterranean,  be- 
longing to  Italy  and  included  in 
the  prov.  of  Leghorn.  It  lies  6  m. 
S.W.  of  Piombino,  the  nearest 


ELBE 

Marina  are  among  the  chief  villages. 
In  453  B.C.  Elba  was  laid  waste  by 
the  Syracusans.  Pop.  30,450. 

Elbasan.  Town  of  Albania. 
On  the  Skumbi,  about  65  m.  W. 
of  Monastir,  it  is  one  of  the  few 
important  towns  of  the  country, 
and  is  the  seat  of  a  Greek  bishop. 
It  has  hot  sulphur  springs.  During 
the  Great  War  it  was  the  head- 
quarters for  a  short  time  of  a  gov- 
ernment formed  by  Essad  Pasha, 
the  Albanian  notable  who  sided 
with  the  Allies.  After  their  con- 
quest of  Montenegro  and  N. 
Albania,  the  Austrians  occupied  it 
in  1916,  but  it  was  recovered  by 
the  Allies  in  Oct,  1918.  Pop.13,000. 

Elbe  (anc.  Albis).  River  of 
North -Central  Europe.  It  rises  in  a 
number  of  streams  which  unite  at 
the  foot  of  the  Schneekoppe,  a  lofty 
summit  of  the  Giant  Mts.  (Riesen- 
gebirge),  which  extend  along  the 
N.E.  boundary  of  Bohemia.  From 
this  mountain,  at  an  alt.  of  4,500  ft., 
it  flows  S.  and  W.  to  Melnik,  the 
head  of  navigation,  21  m.  N.  of 
Prague.  It  penetrates  the  Mittel- 
gebirge  and  the  Erzgebirge,  waters 
Saxony,  and  pursues  a  N.W.  trend 
to  fall  into  the  North  Sea,  near  Cux- 
haven,  through  an  estuary  of  70  m. 
between  Holstein  and  Hanover. 

At  its  mouth  it  is  nearly  14  m.  in 
width,  its  length  is  725  m.,  and  its 
drainage  area  about  57,000  sq.  m. 
It  is  navigable  by  small  steamers 
for  more  than  500  m.,  as  far  as  its 
junction  with  the  Moldau  at  Melnik. 
The  tide  is  perceptible  as  far  as 
Geesthacht,  about  110  m.  from 
its  mouth.  Besides  the  Moldau, 
the  chief  of  its  many  tributaries  are 


Elba.    Fortress  and  lighthouse  of  Porto  F  err  a  jo,  the  capital 


point  on  the  mainland,  and  is  19  m. 
long  by  6  m.  broad,  with  an  area 
of  about  90  sq.  m.  It  is  wholly 
mountainous,  rising  to  3,350  ft.  in 
Monte  Capanne,  with  fertile  valleys. 
The  produce  of  the  island  includes 
iron,  which  has  been  worked  from 
antiquity,  salt,  granite,  marble, 
chalk,  and  wine.  Many  of  its  fisher- 
folk  are  engaged  in  the  tunny  and 
sardine  fisheries. 

The  capital  is  Porto  Ferrajo  (9.1;. ) 
on  the  N.  coast,  the  residence  of 
Napoleon  while  in  exile,  May  5, 
1814,  to  Feb.  26,  1815.  He  had 
also  a  villa  a  few  miles  S.W.  of  the 
town  and  a  country  house  on  Monte 
Capanne.  Porto  Longone  and  Bio 


the  Havel,  Saale,  Eger,  and  Mulde. 
The  Elbe  is  linked  up  by  a  series 
of  canals  with  the  Oder,  the  Spree, 
and  the  Trave,  the  latter,  opened  in 
1900,  connecting  Liibeck  with 
Lauenburg.  Hamburg,  Magdeburg, 
Meissen,  Aussig,  Dresden,  Torgau, 
and  Wittenberg  are  important  cities 
on  its  banks. 

There  is  an  enormous  traffic 
along  the  Elbe,  principally  by 
barges,  which  are  assisted  by  an 
ingeniously  contrived  towing  chain. 
Immense  quantities  of  timber  are 
floated  downstream  from  the 
forests  of  Bohemia.  Plenty  of  fish 
are  to  be  obtained,  including  stur- 
geon, salmon,  pike,  and  shad. 


ELBERFELD 

Elberfeld.  Town  of  Germany, 
in  the  Rhine  Province.  It  stands  on 
the  Wupper,  16m.  N.E.  of  Diissel- 
dorf,  and  with  Barmen,  which  it 
adjoins  on  the  E.,  may  be  described 
as  the  Manchester  of  Germany. 
Municipalised  in  1610,  its  indus- 
trial prosperity  began  about  1750. 
Textiles  of  all  kinds,  chemicals, 
hardware,  paper,  and  beer  are  made ; 
there  are  leather,  rubber,  bleaching 
and  dyeing  industries.  Railways 
connect  the  town  with  all  parts  of 
the  Continent,  and  intercommuni- 
cation is  facilitated  by  numerous 
bridges  across  the  Wupper,  an  over- 
head electric  rly.  (Schwebebahn)  sus- 
pended above  the  Wupper,  and  an 
efficient  tramway  system.  Of  the 
churches  the  Reformed,  Lutheran 
and  adjacent  Bergischer  Dom  of 
Altenberg  are  notable;  the  public 
buildings  include  the  new  Rathaus, 
law  courts,  state  hall,  almshouse, 
museum,  hospital,  and  head  offices 
of  the  Bergisch-Markisch  Rly. 

There  are  two  large  theatres, 
many  educational  establishments, 
botanical  gardens,  zoological  gar- 
dens, and  hotels ;  the  more  modern 
part  contains  many  fine  private 
residences,  and  the  picturesquely 
wooded  surrounding  hills  and  val- 
leys are  dotted  with  garden-restaur- 
ants. Miingsten,  which  has  the 
highest  steel  rly.  bridge  in  Germany, 
built  1893-97  at  a  cost  of  £125,000, 
central  arch  560  ft.  in  span,  height 
350  ft.,  total  length  1,657  ft.  ;  and 
Burg,  with  its  schloss,  founded 
about  1140  and  restored  1890-94, 
are  favourite  holiday  resorts.  Elber- 
feld, which  is  notable  for  the  poor 
relief  system  to  which  it  gives  its 
name,  passed  with  the  grand  duchy 
of  Berg  to  Prussia  in  1815,  and  has 
a  history  dating  from  the  12th  cen- 
tury. Pop.  170,195. 

Elberfeld  System.  System  of 
poor  relief  which  originated  in  the 
town  of  Elberfeld,  Germany,  early 
in  the  19th  century,  and  was  re- 
organized by  Daniel  von  Heydt  in 
1852.  It  is  carried  out  by  unpaid 
officials  who  carefully  investigate 
each  case  calling  for  relief.  The 
town  is  divided  into  precincts,  each 
with  an  almoner,  who  is  empowered 
to  administer  immediate  relief  in 
cases  of  emergency,  and  a  visitor. 
Almoners  and  visitors  meet  under 
a  district  overseer  at  regular  in- 
tervals to  consider  cases  and  vote 
relief ;  and  their  proceedings  are 
reported  to  a  central  body,  also 
unpaid,  which  includes  the  mayor, 
four  councillors,  and  four  citizens. 
Monetary  relief  is  granted  accord- 
ing to  a  schedule  ;  sometimes  relief 
is  given  in  kind,  as  in  the  provision 
ot  tools,  etc.  .  and  the  system  aims 
especially  at  avoiding  pauperisa- 
tion by  enabling  those  who  receive 
relief  to  achieve  a  position  in  which 


2837 


ELBOW 


Elberfeld,  Germany.     General  view  of  the  industrial  quarter   of  the  town, 
looking    E.  from  the  Kiesberg 


they  can  repay  in  money  or  kind  the 
help  given  to  them.  The  system  has 
spread  to  other  parts  of  Germany. 
See  Pauperism. 

Elbert.  Granite  mt.  of  Colorado, 
U.S.A.  It  is  in  the  Sawatch  group 
of  the  Rockies,  the  highest  peak  of 
the  group,  and  has  an  alt.  of 
14,421  ft. 

Elbertian.  Devonian  rocks  oc- 
curring in  Colorado.  They  consist 
of  thin  limestone,  sandstone,  and 
calcareous  shale,  and  contain  frag- 
mentary remains  of  fossil  fish.  Their 
thickness  is  from  25  ft  to  100  ft. 

Elbeuf.  Town  of  France.  It 
stands  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Seine, 
in  the  dept.  of  Seine-Inferieure, 
12  m.  S.S.W  of  Rouen.  Across  the 
river  is  the  suburb  of  S.  Aubin.  The 
chief  buildings  are  the  churches  of 
S.  Jean  and  S.  Etienne,  two  Re- 
naissance buildings,  and  the  town 
hall.  There  is  a  museum,  and 
several  technical  and  other  schools. 
The  main  industry  is  the  making  of 
woollen  goods.  Elbeuf  gives  its 
name  to  a  forest  around  the  town, 
and  at  one  time  there  was  a  duke 
of  Elbeuf.  Pop.  18,290. 

Elbing.  Town  and  seaport  oi 
Prussia,  in  the  prov.  of  West 
Prussia.  It  stands  on  the  Elbing, 
about  5  m.  from  its  mouth  in  the 
Frisches  Haff.  It  is  50  m.  by  rly. 
E.S.E.  of  Danzig,  and  is  also  con- 
nected with  the  Vistula  by  a  canal. 
Although  an  old  place,  Elbing  is  in 
most  respects  a  modern  industrial 
town.  S.  Mary' s  Church  dates  from 
the  13th  century;  another,  Corpus 
Christi,  is  nearly  as  old.  It  has  an 
old  school ,  the  town  hall,  library, 
and  most  of  the  other  buildings  are 
modern.  The  chief  industries  are 
shipbuilding,  iron-working,  and 
the  manufacture  of  machinery, 
while  there  are  some  textile  manu- 
factures and  a  trade  in  grain.  The 
town  has  a  service  of  electric 
tramways,  and  steamers  ply  to 
various  ports.  Until  1918  much 
work  for  the  German  navy  was 
done  here.  The  town  originated 
round  a  castle  built  by  the  Teutonic 
Knights;  it  became  a  member  of 
the  Hanseatic  League,  and  was 
included  in  Poland  in  1772 ;  at  the 


Partition  of   that   country  a  little 
iter  it  became   part   of   Prussia. 
Pop.  58,500. 

Elbow.  Joint  formed  by  articu- 
lation of  the  lower  end  of  the  hu- 
merus,  or  upper  arm  bone,  with  the 
radius  and  ulna,  the  two  bones  of 
the  forearm.  The  articulation  be- 
tween the  ulna  and  the  humerus 
forms  what  is  termed  a  hinge-joint, 
a  deep  notch  in  the  ulna,  the 
greater  sigmoid  cavity,  gliding 
backwards  and  forwards  over  the 
trochlear  surface  of  the  humerus. 
The  disk-shaped  head  of  the  radius 
contains  a  depression  which  articu- 
lates with  a  prominence  on  the  hu- 
merus termed  the  capitellum;  the 
edge  of  the  disk  articulates  with 
the  small  sigmoid  cavity  of  the 
ulna.  These  articulations  permit 
the  rotation  of  the  forearm.  The 
tip  of  the  elbow  is  formed  by  a 
process  of  bone  called  the  olecranon; 
the  bony  prominences,  which  can 


Elbow.    Diagram  showing  the  three 
bones  forming  the  joint ;  above,  re- 
lations of  the  bones  and  muscles 


ELBURZ 

be  felt  on  the  inside  and  outside 
of  the  elbow  when  the  arm  is  held 
with  the  palm  of  the  hand  facing 
forwards  (supination),  are  the  in- 
ternal and  external  condyles  of  the 
humerus. 

INJURIES  TO  THE  ELBOW.  These 
may  involve  both  radius  and  ulna 
together,  or  only  one  bone.  The 
most  frequent  dislocation  of  the 
two  bones  together  is  backwards, 
and  may  be  associated  with  frac- 
ture of  the  olecranon,  or  the  coro- 
noid  process,  a  prominence  which 
forms  the  lower  part  of  the  greater 
sigmoid  notch.  This  condition  is 
accompanied  by  pain,  swelling,  and 
changes  in  the  relative  positions 
of  the  bony  joints  to  each  other, 
the  forearm  being  kept  partially 
bent  and  the  hand  held  midway  be- 
tween supination  and  pronation, 
i.e.  between  complete  external  and 
internal  rotation.  The  dislocation 
can  usually  be  reduced  without 
much  difficulty. 

Dislocations  of  both  bones  for- 
wards or  sideways  are  much  less 
frequent.  When  a  single  bone  is 
dislocated,  it  is  most  frequently 
the  radius,  since  the  articulation 
between  it  and  the  humerus  is  less 
firm  and  close  than  that  between 
the  ulna  and  the  humerus.  In  for- 
ward dislocation  of  the  radius  the 
head  of  the  bone  rests  against  the 
front  of  the  lower  end  of  the  hu- 
merus, which  prevents  the  patient 
from  completely  bending  his  elbow. 
Reduction  can  be  effected  by  pull- 
ing the  forearm  forwards  while  it 
is  bent  at  a  right  angle,  and  at  the 
same  time  pressing  the  head  of  the 
bone  back  into  its  place. 

Sprain  of  the  elbow,  or  "  pulled 
elbow,"  is  an  accident  not  infre- 
quent in  young  children,  in  which 
the  head  of  the  radius  slips  down, 
and  one  of  the  ligaments  becomes 
nipped  between  the  radius  and 
humerus.  It  is  easily  replaced  by 
bending  the  limb  and  then  extend- 
ing it.  Fractures  of  the  bones  form- 
ing the  elbow-joint  frequently  com- 
plicate dislocation.  The  humerus 
may  be  broken  across  just  above 
the  condyles,  or  either  condyle  may 
be  fractured. 

DISEASES  OF  THE  ELBOW.  Tuber- 
culosis of  the  elbow  is  more  fre- 
quent in  children  than  in  adults. 
The  joint  becomes  swollen  and 
painful,  and  chronic  abscesses  form 
which  may  extend  to  the  surface 
and  break  through  the  skin,  thus 
giving  rise  to  a  sinus.  Treatment 
consists  in  keeping  the  limb  at 
rest  and  building  up  the  general 
constitution.  Sometimes  surgical 
measures  are  appropriate.  Arthritis 
of  the  elbow  joint  may  be  the  result 
of  septic  or  gonorrhoeal  infection, 
chronic  rheumatism,  or  gout.  Sy- 
novitis,  which  may  be  acute  or 


2833 

chronic,  is  inflammation  of  the 
synovial  membrane  which  lines  the 
joint.  Inflammation  and  enlarge- 
ment of  the  bursa,  which  lies  over 
the  olecranon  process,  gives  rise 
to  the  condition  known  as  "  miner's 
elbow."  See  Anatomy ;  Arm ;  also 
illus.  p.  2600. 

Elburz  OR  ELBRUZ.  Highest 
mountain  of  the  Caucasus.  It  is  a 
little  to  the  N.  of  the  main  chain, 
near  the  border  of  the  Kuban  and 
Terek  provinces.  It  consists  of 
two  extinct  volcanic  peaks,  18,526 
ft.  and  18,460  ft.  respectively.  El- 
burz was  first  ascended  in  1829. 
According  to  tradition,  it  was  the 
first  resting-place  of  the  Ark.  See 
Caucasia. 

Elburz.  Mountain  range  skirt- 
ing the  S.  shore  of  the  Caspian. 
It  extends  for  a  length  of  600  m., 
and  to  a  width  in  places  of  200  m., 
through  N.W.  Persia.  On  its  N. 
slopes  are  fertile  valleys,  and  at 
various  points  naphtha  and  petrol 
are  found  in  considerable  quanti- 
ties. The  highest  peak  is  the  vol- 
cano, Mt.  Demavend  (q.v. ). 

Elche.  Town  of  Spain,  in  the 
prov.  of  Alicante.  It  stands  on  the 
Vinalapo,  13  m.  by  rly.  S.W.  of 
Alicante.  Of  Moorish  appearance, 
with  flat-topped  houses,  open 
squares,  and  narrow  streets,  the 
town  is  nearly  surrounded  by  a 
plantation  of  date  palms,  the  fruit 
being  exported  as  "  Barbary  "  dates. 
It  has  an  ancient  castle  of  the 
duke  of  Arcos,  a  bishop's  palace, 
and  a  handsome  church  (Santa 
Maria),  with  a  beautiful  blue-tiled 
dome.  An  important  rly.  junction, 
it  carries  on  a  trade  in  fruit,  and 
exports  grass  mats,  wine,  hemp, 
leather,  flour,  oil,  and  soap.  Santa 
Pola,  its  port,  lies  2  m.  S.E.  At 
the  feast  of  the  Assumption,  a 
14th  century  musical  play  is  per- 
formed. Pop.  30,713.  Pron.  El-chay. 

Elchingen.  Village  of  Germany, 
in  Bavaria.  It  stands  on  the 
Danube,  8  m.  N.E.  of  Ulm,  and  is 
famous  for  the  battle  fought  here 
between  the  French  and  the 
Austrians,  Oct.  14,  1805.  This  was 
part  of  the  campaign  that  ended  in 
the  capitulation  of  the  Austrians  at 
Ulm  and  their  defeat  at  Austerlitz. 
The  two  armies  met  at  the  bridge 
which  here  crosses  the  Danube, 
and  which  was  then  in  ruins.  The 
French,  however,  quickly  remade 
it,  and  the  army  got  across.  The 
Austrians  under  Mack  were  already 
demoralised,  and  only  one  part  of 
the  army  stood  to  fight,  and  this 
was  hampered  by  difficulties  of 
every  kind.  The  chief  feature  was 
the  surrender  of  a  large  number 
of  Austrians.  Ney  was  made 
duke  of  Elchingen  as  a  reward  for 
his  distinguished  services  here.  See 
Ulm,  Campaign  of. 


ELDER      BRETHREN 


Elder  (Sambucus).  Hardy  shrub- 
by trees,  natives  of  Britain,  of 
the  natural  order  Caprifoliaceae. 


Elder.   A  large  specimen  of  tbe  tree 
in  bloom 

Their  height  is  about  ten  ft.  ;  the 
flowers  are  white  and  variegated. 
They  may  be  grown  in  any  ordinary 
soil  in  open  shrubberies.  There 
are  a  few  varieties  of  S.  European 
origin,  but  they  are  rarely  seen  to 
advantage  in  British  shrubberies. 
They  are  propagated  by  cuttings  in 
autumn  or  spring.  8.  nigra  is  the 
familiar  native  elder,  the  berries 
of  which  are  used  for  the  manu- 
facture of  home-made  wine.  A 
liquid  distilled  from  the  flowers, 
elder-flower  water,  is  largely  used 
for  flavouring  confectionery.  Owing 
to  its  lightness,  balls  made  from  the 
pith  are  largely  used  in  electrical 
experiments. 

Elder.  Word  used  in  a  civil  and 
an  eccles.  sense  for  an  overseer. 
Of  frequent  occurrence  in  the  Bible, 
in  the  O.T.  it  is  applied  to  the 
heads  or  representatives  of  tribes 
and  families,  especially  of  the 
Israelites,  as  the  word  sheikh  is 
among  the  Arabs.  In  the  N.T.  it 
is  used  to  define  officers  of  the 
Church  who  originally  may  have 
been  identical  with  the  bishops. 
Certain  office-bearers  in  the  Pres- 
byterian and  other  churches  are 
called  elders.  The  word  alderman 
(q.v.)  is  a  familiar  English  equiva- 
lent of  the  word.  See  Bishop ; 
Kirk  Session  ;  Presbyter. 

Elder  Brethren  of  the  Trinity 
House.  Members  of  the  corpora- 
tion of  Trinity  House,  Tower  Hill, 
London,  E.G.,  sometimes  known  as 
Trinity  Masters.  They  consist  of 
members  of  the  royal  family, 
prominent  statesmen,  retired  naval 
officers  of  high  rank,  and  comman- 
ders in  the  mercantile  marine. 
Ten  of  these  are  acting  members, 
who,  when  required,  assist  the 
judges  of  the  admiralty  division 
as  nautical  assessors  in  shipping 
cases.  See  Trinity  House. 


ELDER  DEMPSTER  CO. 


2839 


ELEANOR 


Elder  Dempster  Co.  British 
steamship  line.  It  was  founded  in 
1868  by  Alexander  Elder  and  John 


Elder  Dempster  Co.  flags. 
African  Steamship  Co.  Risht,  British 


Left, 

iritish 

"and"  African  Steam  Navigation  Co. 


Dempster,  and  greatly  developed 
after  1879  by  Sir  Alfred  Jones. 
The  Beaver  Line,  one  of  its  under- 
takings, was  sold  in  1903  to  the 
Canadian  Pacific  Railway,  but  the 
services  to  S  Africa,  W.  Africa,  and 
the  W.  Indies  were  retained.  The 
firm  was  reorganized  as  a  registered 
company  in  1910,  the  control  being 
acquired  by  Lord  Pirrie  and  Sir 
Owen  Philipps.  At  present  it  man- 
ages the  British  and  African  Steam 
Navigation  Co.,  the  African  Steam- 
ship Co.,  the  Elder  Line,  and  the 
Imperial  Direct  Line.  Liverpool, 
London,  and  Rotterdam  are  the 
chief  ports  from  which  the  ships 
go  to  Africa.  The  head  offices  are 
at  Colonial  House,  Water  Street, 
Liverpool,  and  the  London  office 
at  4,  St.  Mary  Axe,  E.C. 

An  offshoot,  the  Elders  and 
Fyffes  line,  was  started  in  1902  by 
Sir  Alfred  Jones  to  bring  bananas 
and  other  fruit  from  the  W.  Indies. 
Elder  Statesmen.  In  Japan  an 
informal  body  of  statesmen  who, 
having  retired  from  the  public 
service,  are  called  upon  by  the 
emperor  for  advice  and  council  on 
occasions  of  national  emergency  or 
difficulty.  The  word  is  sometimes 
used  in  a  general  sense  for  men  of 
similar  character  in  Great  Britain. 
Eldon,  JOHN  SCOTT,  IST  EARL  OF 
(1751-1838).  British  lawyer.  Born 
at  Newcastle-on-Tyne,  June  4, 
1751,  his 
father  was  a 
coal  merchant 
in  that  town. 
He  was  edu- 
cated at  the 
Gramma  r 
School,  New- 
castle, and  at 
Q  ni versity 
College,  Ox- 
ford, where  he 
gained  a  fel- 
lowship and 
was  for  a  time 
a  tutor.  He  did 
not,  as  at  first  intended,  enter  the 
Church,  but  in  1776  was  called 
to  the  bar  and  soon  began  to  prac- 
tise in  London.  Success  was  not 
immediate,  but  it  came,  and  in 
1782  he  became  a  K.C. 

In   1782    Scott  entered   parlia- 


After  Lawrence 


ment  as  M.P.  for  Weobley.  He 
forced  himself  into  notice  by  fre- 
quent speeches,  and  in  1788  Pitt 
made  him  solicitor-general.  In 
1793  he  was  promoted  attorney- 
general,  and  in  1799,  having  in  the 
meantime  conducted  the  prosecu- 
tion of  Home  Tooke,  and  others 
holding  republican  ideas,  he  was 
made  chief  justice  of  the  court  of 
common  pleas,  and  a  peer,  as  Baron 
Eldon.  In  1801  he  became  lord 
chancellor,  leaving  office  on  Pitt's 
death  in  1806. 

In  1807  Eldon  returned  to  the 
post  of  chancellor,  which  he  was 
destined  to  fill  for  20  years,  holding 
the  office  for  a  longer  period  than 
any  other  chancellor.  During  that 
time  he  was  the  most  powerful 
man  in  Lord  Liverpool's  reaction- 
ary cabinet.  He  left  office  in  1827 
and  died  Jan.  13,  1838. 

Eldon  married  Miss  Surtees,  the 
daughter  of  a  banker,  having  run 
away  with  her  in  1772.  His 
two  sons  died  before  him,  and  his 
titles — he  had  been  made  an  earl  in 
1821 — passed  to  his  grandson  John 
(1805-54).  The  title  is  still  held  by 
his  descendants,  the  earl's  eldest  son 
being  known  as  Viscount  Encombe. 
Eldon' s  elder  brother,  William 
Scott,  was  also  a  distinguished 
lawyer ;  hi  1821  he  was  made  Baron 
Stowell.  See  Life,  H.  Twiss,  1844 ; 
Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors,  Lord 
Campbell,  3rd  ed.,  1848. 

El  Dorado  (Span.,  The  Gilded 
One ).  Name  successively  applied 
to  a  gilded  man,  a  golden  city 
known  as  Manoa  or  Omoa,  and  a 
region  abounding  in  gold  and 
precious  stones,  reputed  to  exist 
in  S.  America.  The  El  Dorado 
legend  apparently  originated  in  a 
custom  said  to  have  been  observed 
by  an  Indian  tribe  dwelling  on  the 
table-land  of  Bogota  at  the  instal- 
lation of  a  new  chief.  His  naked 
body,  after  being  smeared  with 
balsam,  was  covered  with  gold- 
dust,  and  he  plunged  into  the 
sacred  lake  of  Guatavita,  whilst 
the  assembly  cast  gold  and  precious 
stones  into  the  water. 

The  Spaniards  in  America  put 
such  faith  in  the  El  Dorado  legend 
that  the  governors  of  Guiana  were 
styled  also  governors  of  El  Dorado. 
They  organized  many  fruitless  ex- 
peditions in  search  of  this  legen- 
dary city,  Manoa,  the  earliest  being 
led  by  a  German  governor  of 
Guiana,  Ambrose  Dalfinger,  in 
1529.  In  1595  Sir  Walter  Raleigh 
claimed  to  have  located  Manoa  on 
an  island  hi  Lake  Parima,  but 
this  lake  was  proved  by  the  19th 
century  German  traveller,  von 
Humboldt,  to  be  non-existent. 
The  name  El  Dorado  came  to  be 
applied  to  any  place  reputed  to 
abound  in  easily  acquired  wealth. 


Eleanor  of  Aqui- 

taine,   Queen    of 

Henry  II 


Eleanor  (c.  1122-1204).  Queen 
of  Henry  II  of  England.  The 
daughter  of  William,  duke  of  Aqui- 
taine,  her  first 
husband  was 
Louis  VII  of 
France,  to  whom 
she  was  married 
in  1137.  Her 
dowry  was  the 
great  duchy  of 
Aquitaine.  In  a 
short  time 
Eleanor  and 
Louis  were  on 
bad  terms,  and 
in  1152  the  marriage  was  dissolved. 
In  the  same  year  she  married  Henry 
of  Anjou,  who  became  king  of 
England  in  1154.  She  was  the 
mother  by  Henry  of  the  turbulent 
princes  who  disturbed  his  reign. 
Indulgent  to  them,  the  queen  was 
concerned  in  the  revolt  of  1 173.  Al- 
though of  a  great  age,  she  moved 
about  in  France  trying  to  help  John 
in  his  fight  against  Richard.  She 
died  April  1,  1204.  See  Queens  of 
England,  A.  Strickland,  vol.  i,  1840. 
Eleanor  (d.  1291).  Queen  of 
Henry  III  of  England.  The  daugh- 
ter of  the  count  of  Provence,  she 
was  brought 
up  amid  the 
poets  and  trou- 
badours there, 
and  was  more 
a  c  c  o  mplished 
than  most 
ladies  of  her 
time.  In  1236 
she  was  mar- 
ried to  Henry 
at  Canterbury. 
Throughouther 
residence  in  England  she  was  most 
unpopular.  The  charges  against 
her  resolve  themselves  into  a  love 
of  foreign  relatives  and  avarice.  In 
1276  she  entered  a  religious  house 
at  Amesbury,  Wiltshire,  where  she 
died,  June  25, 1291.  Her  two  sons 
were  Edward  I  and  Edmund,  earl 
of  Lancaster.  See  Queens  of  Eng- 
land, Agnes  Strickland,  vol.  i,  1840. 
Eleanor  (d.  1290).  Queen  of 
Edward  I  of  England.  The  daugh- 
ter of  Ferdinand  III,  king  of  Cas- 
tile, she  was  married  to  Edward  in 
Oct.,  1254.  She  fled  to  France 
in  1264  when  her  husband  was 
worsted  by  the  barons,  and  was 
hi  Palestine  with  him  in  1270. 
She  died  at  Harby  in  Nottingham- 
shire, Nov.  28,  1290,and  was  buried 
at  Westminster.  The  king  erected 
crosses  at  the  places  at  which  her 
body  rested  on  the  journey — 
Lincoln,  Grantharn,  Stamford, 
Geddington,  Northampton,  Stony 
Stratford,  Woburn,  Dunstable,  S. 
Albans,  Waltham,  Westcheap,  and 
Charing.  See  Queens  of  England, 
Agnes  Strickland,  vol.  i,  1840- 


Eleanor  of  Prov- 
ence,  Queen  of 
Henry  III 


ELEATIC     SCHOOL 

Eleatic   School.     One  of  the 

chief  pre-Socratic  Greek  philoso- 
phical schools.  It  was  founded  by 
Xenophanes  of  Colophon  at  Elea  in 
Lucania  in  lower  Italy ;  its  other 
chief  representatives  were  Par- 
menides  and  Zeno  (both  of  Elea), 
and  Melissus  of  Samos.  The  kernel 
of  their  doctrine  was  the  unity  and 
unalterableness  of  Being  (that 
which  really  had  a  right  to  the 
name  of  existence),  the  unreality 
of  Becoming  (material  changes),  of 
Plurality,  and  of  sensual  percep- 
tions. The  real  nature  of  things 
cannot  be  perceived  by  means  of 
the  senses,  but  is  only  attainable 
by  thought.  All  that  is  given  us  by 
the  senses  is  mere  appearance. 
Since  the  senses  show  us  only 
plurality  and  the  manifold,  and 
since  the  separate  parts  of  the 
world,  such  as  it  presents  itself  to 
our  senses,  both  differ  in  them- 
selves and  are  subject  to  constant 
change  and  movement,  they  as- 
serted that  Being  was  only  one, 
unchangeable,  and  immovable. 
Only  Being  is  ;  non-Being  is  not ; 
there  is  no  Becoming.  Starting 
from  the  assumption  that  the  idea 
of  real  Being  excludes  anything 
contradictory,  the  Eleatics  argued 
that  Plurality,  and  above  all  Move- 
ment, could  neither  be  Being  itself 
nor  found  in  connexion  with  Being. 

Election  (Lat.  electio,  choice). 
Term  used  in  several  senses,  legal, 
theological,  and  political.  In  Eng- 
lish law  a  man  has  sometimes  to 
choose  which  of  two  courses  he 
will  take.  Thus,  if  A.  B.  sells  me 
first  quality  oats  and  delivers 
second  quality,  I  can  either  reject 
them  altogether  or  keep  them  and 
pay  for  them,  counter-claiming  for 
breach  of  warranty  of  quality.  But 
I  cannot  keep  the  oats  and  decline 
to  pay.  If  I  do  not  forthwith  reject 
them  I  have  elected  to  keep  them. 
Again,  circumstances  sometimes 
arise  where  one  has  to  choose,  or 
elect,  whether  one  will  retain  the 
benefit  of  a  gift  inter  vivoa  (among 
the  living),  as,  for  instance,  under  a 
marriage  settlement  or  a  deed  of 
appointment ;  or  give  it  up  and 
take  a  proffered  benefit  under  a 
will.  Election  implies  knowledge  ; 
that  is,  a  man  can  only  elect  where 
he  knows  his  rights. 

Election.  Term  used  in  theology 
for  the  doctrine  that  God  from 
eternity  has  chosen  certain  persons 
for  eternal  life.  In  the  O.T.  the 
term  elect  is  applied  to  the  Israel- 
ites, as  the  chosen  people  of  God. 
In  the  N.T.  the  members  of  the 
Christian  Church  are  called  the 
elect  in  1  Peter  2,  and  in  S.  Paul's 
epistles  to  Thessalonians,  Colos- 
sians,  and  Timothy.  The  Calvin- 
istio  view  that  God  has  elected 
certain  persons  to  be  saved  and 


2840 

others  lost,  and  this  solely  by  His 
own  Will  and  irrespective  of  any 
merit  or  demerit  in  the  individuals, 
was  never  held  previous  to  the 
Reformation.  The  usual  view  was 
to  identify  the  elect  with  the  bap- 
tized, in  the  sense  that  they  had 
been  chosen  and  called  to  a  Chris- 
tian profession  ;  but  to  recognize 
the  possibility  of  falling  away  from 
such  a  profession.  Only  those  who 
persevered  in  Christian  living  to 
the  end  could  be  regarded  as  the 
people  whom  God  had  foreknown 
and  chosen  from  the  beginning  as 
His  faithful  followers.  The  Church 
catholic  has  never  maintained  that 
the  election  of  the  faithful  implied 
the  condemnation  of  those  denied 
the  opportunity  of  election. 

Election.  In  politics,  and  to 
some  extent  in  business,  the 
choosing  of  representatives.  The 
methods  of  election  vary,  but,  gen- 
erally speaking,  a  bare  majority  of 
votes  is  sufficient  to  secure  elec- 
tion, although  this  may  be  either  a 
majority  of  the  votes  cast,  or  a 
majority  of  those  entitled  to  vote. 

The  first  elections  were  decided 
by  the  casting  of  lots,  a  method  in 
force  among  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  but  modern  ideas  are 
averse  to  this.  Election  by  the 
votes  of  the  electors  began  with  the 
growth  of  the  idea  of  representa- 
tion. In  the  12th  century,  and  per- 
haps earlier,  the  reeve  and  four  men 
represented  the  village  communi- 
ties of  England  on  various  occa- 
sions, and  in  some  rough  manner 
these  four  men  were  elected  by 
those  for  whom  they  spoke.  The 
system  grew  with  the  growth  of 
parliamentary  institutions ;  knights 
of  the  shire,  and  burgesses  for  the 
boroughs,  were  elected,  as  well  as 
other  officials.  Until  quite  modern 
times  the  method  was  rough ;  those 
present  just  held  up  their  hands,  or 
shouted,  much  as  they  do  at  a  pub- 
lic meeting  to-day,  and  the  sheriff 
declared  certain  men  elected. 

There  isproof  that  the  sheriffs  ab- 
used their  power,  declaring  the  elec- 
tion of  persons  not  rightly  chosen, 
and  checks  upon  them  were  intro  • 
duced.  For  parliamentary  elections 
there  came  in  the  method  of  open 
voting  on  the  hustings,  and  then  the 
present  system,  which  is  almost  en- 
tirely the  creation  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury. It  includes  voting  by  ballot, 
a  careful  enumeration  of  the  votes 
cast,  and,  if  necessary,  a  scrutiny 
and  recount ;  indeed,  every  pos- 
sible device  to  secure  that  the 
wishes  of  the  voters  prevail. 

Elections  are  divided  into  general 
and  bye.  A  general  election  is  when 
at  a  stated  time  all  the  members 
retire,  as  on  the  dissolution  of 
parliament;  and  a  bye -election  is 
when  an  election  is  necessary 


•  ELECTION 

through  a  death  or  resignation.  In 
elections  for  many  local  bodies,  e.g. 
town  councils  in  England,  it  is  cus- 
tomary for  one-third  of  the  mem- 
bers to  retire  every  year,  so  there  is 
never  a  general  election.  County 
councils,  however,  have  a  general 
election  every  third  year. 

A  fundamental  division  is  be- 
tween direct  and  indirect  elections. 
In  the  former  the  voters  them- 
selves choose  their  representatives, 
each  voter  having  as  many  votes  as 
there  are  members  to  be  elected. 
Elections  to  the  House  of  Commons 
are  the  best  known  of  this  kind.  In- 
direct elections  are  when  the  elec- 
tors choose  certain  men  who,  in 
their  turn,  elect  the  actual  repre- 
sentative. The  most  notable  exist- 
ing instance  of  this  kind  is  the 
election  of  the  American  president, 

of  electors.  The  Venetian  republic 
had  an  elaborate  system  of  in- 
direct election  when  choosing  a 
doge.  The  election  of  aldermen  in 
English  boroughs  and  county  coun- 
cils is  a  somewhat  different  kind  of 
indirect  election.  They  are  chosen 
by  the  directly  elected  councillors, 
but  the  latter  are  not  returned 
solely,  or  even  mainly,  for  this  pur- 
pose. In  some  countries  members 
of  the  Senate  or  second  chamber 
are  chosen  by  indirect  election. 

Elections  at  the  best  are  but  a 
crude  test  of  the  people's  will,  so 
vast  are  the  numbers  engaged,  and 
so  great  the  possibili ties  of  manipu- 
lation. It  has  actually  happened 
more  than  once  that  a  minority  of 
electors  have  returned  a  majority 
of  the  members  to  the  British 
House  of  Commons.  To  make  this 
impossible,  and  also  to  secure  the 
representation  of  minorities,  vari- 
ous proposals,  proportional  repre- 
sentation and  the  alternative  vote, 
for  instance,  have  been  put  forward. 

At  elections  of  company  direc- 
tors a  show  of  hands  is  usually 
sufficient,  but,  under  certain  con- 
ditions, those  dissatisfied  with  the 
decision  can  demand  a  poll.  In 
elections  of  this  kind,  unlike  politi- 
cal ones,  the  shareholders  have 
votes  in  proportion  to  their  interest 
in  the  company.  A  further  device 
prevails  at  elections  of  members  to 
clubs  and  societies.  There  a  small 
number  of  members  can  keep  out  a 
candidate  by  voting  against  him  : 
this  is  called  blackballing,  from  the 
practice  of  using  black  balls  for  this 
purpose.  Election  is  the  term 
used  for  the  choice  of  fellows  or 
scholars  at  the  colleges  of  Oxford 
and  Cambridge.  Professors  are  also 
elected  in  most  cases  ;  those  ap- 
pointed to  choose  them  being  called 
electors.  See  Alternative  Vote  ; 
Company  Law ;  Politics ;  Pro- 
portional Representation  ;  Vote. 


ELECTORAL     COMMISSION 


2841 


ELECTRIC     CHARGE 


Electoral  Commission.  Name 
given  to  the  body  of  men  created 
by  an  act  of  Congress  in  the  U.S.A., 
Jan.  29,  1877,  to  settle  certain  dis- 
puted questions  in  connexion  with 
the  electoral  votes  of  four  states  in 
the  presidential  election  of  1876. 
It  was  the  only  disputed  election 
in  American  history.  It  was  de- 
cided to  create  a  commission  to 
determine  which  of  two  or  more 
conflicting  certificates  received 
from  any  state  of  the  votes  cast  by 
the  electoral  college  of  such  state 
for  president  and  vice-president  in 
the  1876  election  was  the  certificate 
provided  for  in  the  constitution. 
The  judgement  in  each  case  was  that 
the  certificate  of  the  votes  cast  for 
Rutherford  B.  Hayes  and  William 
A.  Wheeler,  the  republican  candi- 
dates for  president  and  vice-presi- 
dent respectively,  was  the  certifi- 
cate containing  the  lawful  electoral 
vote  of  the  said  state.  The  other 
certificates  were  declared  void. 
The  electoral  votes  were  then 
counted,  and  Hayes  and  Wheeler 
were  declared  duly  elected. 

Electorate  (Lat.  eligere,  to 
select).  Name  given  to  the  whole 
body  of  electors  or  voters  in  a  con- 
stituency or  country.  See  Election. 

Electors.  In  general,  persons 
who  have  the  right  of  voting  at 
elections.  In  a  special  sense,  how- 
ever, the  name  was  applied  to  the 
German  princes  who  in  the  Holy 
Roman  Empire  voted  at  the  elec- 
tion of  the  king. 

Like  many  other  early  peoples, 
the  Germans  elected  their  kings; 
but,  unlike  them,  they  retained 
this  practice — at  least,  in  theory — 
until  modern  times.  These  elec- 
tions may  be  said  to  have  begun 
with  the  choice  of  Conrad  I  as  king 
in  911,  but  it  was  often  merely  a 
form,  the  eldest  son  of  the  late  king 
being  confirmed  as  ruler,  as  was 
Otto  the  Great.  The  electors  were 
powerful  when  there  was  no  obvious 
successor  to  the  throne,  two  or 
more  candidates  claiming  it,  as  in 
1198,  and  more  so  after  the  death 
of  Frederick  II  in  1250.  At  first 
all  the  princes  took  part,  or  were 
entitled  to  take  part,  in  the  elec- 
tions, but  soon  many  of  them 
ceased  to  attend.  In  1257  the 
number  taking  part  was  seven. 
This  number  became  fixed,  was 
recognized  by  the  pope,  and  at 
Aix-la-Chapelle  statues  of  the 
seven  were  erected. 

Trouble  then  arose  as  to  who 
were  the  favoured  seven.  Certain 
princes,  e.g.  the  archbishop  of 
Mainz  and  the  elector  palatine  of 
the  Rhine,  were  acknowledged  to 
be  electors,  but  in  other  cases  there 
were  difficulties,  especially  when 
two  men  divided  a  duchy  between 
them.  The  matter  was  settled  in 


the  Golden  Bull  issued  by  Charles 
IV  in  1356,  which  fixed  the  number 
at  seven,  who  were  named.  Three 
were  archbishops — Mainz,  Cologne, 
and  Treves — and  the  other  four 
were  the  elector  palatine,  the  duke 
of  Saxony,  the  margrave  of  Bran- 
denburg, and  the  king  of  Bohemia. 
Each  held  an  office  at  the  em- 
peror's court.  The  clerics  were 
archchancellors  for  his  three  king- 
doms, Germany,  Italy,  and  Bur- 
gundy ;  the  elector  palatine  was 
his  steward,  Saxony  his  marshal, 
Brandenburg  his  chamberlain,  and 
Bohemia  his  cupbearer.  The  arch- 
bishop of  Mainz  was  president  of 
the  electoral  college,  and  on  the 
death  of  a  king  summoned  the 
electors  to  Frankfort. 

The  power  of  the  seven  electors 
was  greatly  increased  by  the 
Golden  Bull.  They  were  made 
almost  sovereign  rulers,  with  privi- 
leges not  enjoyed  by  the  other 
princes  of  Germany.  They  formed 
a  college,  one  of  the  three  sections 
of  the  imperial  diet.  The  com- 
position of  the  college  remained 
unchanged  until  1623,  when  the 
elector  palatine  lost  his  vote,  which 
was  given  to  the  duke  of  Bavaria. 
In  1648  he  was  restored  as  an 
eighth  elector.  A  ninth  electorate 
was  created  in  1708  for  the  ruler 
of  Hanover,  and  this  was  held  by 
George  I  and  other  English  kings. 
To  keep  up  old  theory  these  new 
electors  also  held  offices,  the  elector 
palatine  being  treasurer  and  Han- 
over standard-bearer.  In  1778  the 
ruling  family  of  Bavaria  became 
extinct,  and  the  elector  palatine 
secured  their  lands,  thus  uniting 
two  votes.  In  1806,  with  the  dis- 
solution of  the  empire,  the  electors 
ceased  to  exist.  See  Empire ;  Ger- 
many ;  Golden  Bull. 

Electra.  In  Greek  mythology, 
daughter  of  Agamemnon  and  Cly- 
taemnestra.  She  incited  her  brother 
Orestes,  when  he  grew  up  to  man- 
hood, to  murder  his  mother,  Cly- 
taemnestra,  in  revenge  for  the 
latter' s  murder  of  his  father  on  his 
return  from  Troy.  The  tragic  life 
of  Electra  forms  the  subject  of 
tragedies  by  Sophocles  and  by 
Euripides.  See  Agamemnon  ;  Cly- 
taemnestra  ;  Orestes. 

Electric  (Gr.  elektrvn,  amber). 
Term  referring  to  anything  with 
which  electricity  is  associated.  In 
addition  to  the  articles  in  this  En- 
cyclopedia which  appear  under 
compounds  and  variants  of  the 
word,  e.g.  Electricity ;  Electro- 
statics ;  Electro-metallurgy,  etc., 
there  are  numerous  other  articles 
on  electrical  matters,  but  for 
greater  convenience  these  are 
placed  under  the  main  word.  The 
advantage  of  this  system  is  that  it 
enables  the  electrical  aspect  of  a 


given  subject  to  be  placed  with  the 
non-electrical  branch  of  the  same 
subject.  Thus  Electric  Clock  is  a 
section  of  the  article  Clock  and 
Electric  Bells  of  the  article  Bells. 
The  chief  of  these  articles  are : 
Arc  Fuse  Radiator 

Battery          Generator       Railways 
Bells  Heater  Resistance 

Cable  Lamp  Sign 

Clock  Lift  Symbol 

Coil  Lighting         Telegraphy 

Condenser      Locomotive    Testing 
Conductor     Machines        Traction 
Current          Meter  Unit 

Fire  Alarm    Motor  Welding 

Furnace         Potential         Wiring 

Electrical  Engineers,  INSTI- 
TUTION OF.  British  organization 
founded  as  The  Society  of  Tele- 
graph  Engineers  in  1871.  Its  name 
was  afterwards  changed  to  The  So- 
ciety of  Telegraph  Engineers  and 
Electricians,  and  finally,  in  1889, 
to  its  present  designation.  It  was 
incorporated  under  the  Board  of 
Trade  in  1883.  The  institution  has 
local  centres  in  Great  Britain  and 
at  Calcutta,  Cape  Town,  and  Hong 
Kong.  Its  London  address  is  1, 
Albemarle  Street,  W. 

Electric  Charge.  Term  used 
for  certain  states  of  electrification 
of  a  body.  When  two  substances 
are  pressed  hard  or  rubbed  together 
and  then  drawn  apart  they  are 
found  to  have  developed  properties 
which  they  did  not  apparently  pos- 
sess before,  the  most  striking  being 
the  power  of  attracting  each  other 
and  light  particles  of  other  sub- 
stances. They  have  developed  or 
acquired  an  electric  charge  and  are 
said  to  be  electrified. 

All  bodies  seem  able  to  develop  or 
acquire  such  a  charge  more  or  less, 
but  if  different  substances  so 
charged  be  examined  the  remark- 
able fact  emerges  that,  while  the 
charges  have  certain  properties  in 
common  and  act  in  accordance 
with  the  same  laws,  there  are  two 
different  kinds,  one  kind  being  de- 
veloped by  certain  classes  of  sub- 
stances and  the  other  by  other 
classes,  with  this  qualification,  that 
either  kind  may  be  developed  on 
some  substances  according  to  the 
material  with  which  they  are 
rubbed.  The  two  kinds  of  charge 
are  represented  by  that  developed 
on  a  glass  rod  when  rubbed  with 
silk,  and  by  that  produced  on  a 
stick  of  resin  when  rubbed  with  fur 
or  wool ;  the  former  has  received 
the  name  of  positive  electricity  and 
the  latter  that  of  negative  elec- 
tricity. Another  remarkable  char- 
acteristic of  these  charges  is  that 
one  is  never  developed  by  itself  but 
both  are  always  produced  at  the 
same  time,  one  kind  being  found  on 
one  of  the  bodies  rubbed  and  the 
other  kind  on  the  other  body. 

No  adequate  explanation  has  yet 
been  found  for  these  phenomena. 


ELECTRIC     DISCHARGE 


2842 


ELECTRICITY 


Neither  the  development  nor  the 
dissipation  of  an  electric  charge 
makes  any  measurable  difference 
to  the  weight  of  the  body.  The  phe- 
nomena are  doubtless  bound  up 
with  the  elemental  constitution  of 
matter,  and  as  our  knowledge  of 
that  constitution  increases  the  ex- 
planation of  the  electric  charge  and 
its  double  character  will  duly  ap- 
pear. See  Electron. 

Electric  Discharge.  Act  of 
neutralisation  of  an  electrical 
charge.  Electricity  which  resides 
chiefly  on  the  surface  of  bodies  may 
disappear  in  any  one  of  several 
ways.  It  may  be  carried  away  con- 
tinuously through  a  wire  or  metal 
rod,  and  is  then  said  to  disappear 
by  conductive  discharge ;  it  may 
disappear  suddenly  as  in  a  spark  or 
a  flash  of  lightning,  which  is  said  to 
be  a  disruptive  discharge ;  or  it 
may  go  gradually  by  being  com- 
municated to  particles  of  air  in  its 
neighbourhood,  which  then  fly  off 
by  repulsion,  when  it  is  said  to  dis- 
appear by  convective  discharge. 
Convective  discharge  may  take 
place  in  a  liquid  as  well  as  in  air. 

The  electricity  which  disappears 
in  any  of  these  ways  reappears  in 
some  other  form  of  energy.  Thus 
the  energy  which  goes  out  in  a  con- 
ductive discharge  may  present  it- 
self in  the  light  of  an  electric  lamp 
or  in  some  chemical  action  ;  that 
of  a  disruptive  discharge  presents 
itself  in  the  form  of  sound  or  light 
or  heat,  or  all  three,  or  in  some 
mechanical  effects,  as  when  a  sheet 
of  glass  is  shattered  or  pierced  by 
the  discharge  ;  that  of  a  convec- 
tive discharge  may  be  found  in  the 
movements  of  the  particles  of  air 
which  may  be  set  flying  in  all  direc- 
tions with  increased  temperature. 

The  discharge  in  a  resisting 
medium,  as  in  air,  is  always  ac- 
companied by  the  development  of 
heat ;  an  electric  spark  will  light 
a  gas  jet ;  the  discharge  in  certain 
forms  of  electric  furnaces  will  melt 
the  most  refractory  metals.  The 
discharge  is  now  applied  in  indus- 
try in  the  manufacture  of  nitrates 
and  nitric  acid  from  the  air,  and  in 
detonating  high  explosives  as  in 
shells  and  mining  cartridges.  Very 
beautiful  luminous  effects  are  pro- 
duced by  the  discharge  through 
vacuum  tubes,  that  is  in  rarefied 
air  or  gas  ;  while  the  physical  effects 
produced  in  the  gas  or  air  are  very 
remarkable,  the  molecules  of  the 
gas  being  broken  up  and  the  atoms 
interchanged,  thus  producing  what 
is  called  ionisation.  The  Rtfntgen 
or  X-rays  (q.v. )  are  indirectly  pro- 
duced by  such  electric  discharges. 
Electric  Fish.  Genus  of  fishes 
possessing  the  power  of  adminis- 
tering an  electric  shock.  There  are 
three  known  fishes  which  possess 


such  a  power,  these  being,  in  the 
order  of  their  electrical  strength, 
the  electric  eel  (q.v.),  the  African 
catfish,  and  the  torpedo,  a  species 
of  ray  fish. 

The  electrical  catfish  (Malap- 
terurus  ekctricus)  is  found  hi  all  the 
larger  rivers  of  Africa,  the  finest 
and  most  powerful  occurring  in  the 
Nile.  It  frequents  the  darker  and 
more  sluggish  portions  of  the 
streams,  where  it  kills  or  stuns 
other  fish  which  it  eats.  It  is  found 
up  to  four  feet  in  length.  In  some 
catfish  the  electrical  power  seems 
present  all  over  the  body,  in  others 
just  under  the  skin  at  each  side. 

The  torpedo  or  electrical  ray  is 
the  most  numerous  of  these  fish.  A 
considerable  number  of  species  oc- 
cur in  the  warmer  seas  of  the  world, 
and  at  least  two  are  found  near  the 
southern  shores  of  the  United 
States.  The  best  known  is  the 
Torpedo  marmorata  of  the  southern 
shores  of  Europe  and  of  the  Medi- 
terranean ;  large  specimens  may 
weigh  as  much  as  80  Ib.  The  elec- 
tricforce  resides  in  the  powerful  tail. 

The  muscles  and  the  nerves 
which  are  concerned  in  the  exercise 
of  the  electrical  power  of  these  fish 


are  known ;  the  direction  in  which 
the  current  of  electricity  flows 
through  the  body  of  the  fish  in  each 
case  is  also  known,  this  direction 
being  from  tail  to  head  in  the  elec- 
tric eel,  from  head  to  tail  in  the  cat- 
fish, and  from  underneath  up  in  the 
rays ;  but  the  source  of  the  power 
and  how  the  organisms  become 
charged  with  it  is  not  known.  Its 
exercise  evidently  calls  for  much 
nervous  force,  as  after  a  particu- 
larly powerful  shock  or  a  series  of 
shocks  has  been  given  the  fish  is 
exhausted,  and  must  have  rest. 

Electrician.  In  the  general 
sense,  one  who  is  skilled  in  the 
science  of  electricity,  or  who  is  en- 
gaged in  the  art  of  applying  elec- 
tricity to  practical  ends,  that  is  to 
say,  a  worker  in  electricity.  Hence 
it  covers  in  the  broadest  view  the 
university  professor,  the  student, 
the  man  who  "  wires  "  a  house  or 
tests  a  faulty  telephone  line,  and 
the  telegraph,  the  "  wireless,"  and, 
equally,  the  telephone  operator. 
One  who  designs  or  constructs 
electrical  works  or  industrial  elec- 
trical machinery,  or  who  operates 
such, is  called  anelectrical  engineer. 
See  Engineering. 


ELECTRICITY:  GENERAL  INTRODUCTION 

James  Rice,  M.A.,  Lecturer  in  Physics,  Liverpool  University 

This  article  forms  an  introduction  to  the  group  of  articles  on  electrical 

subjects  which  follows  it,  and  also  to  others  scattered  throughout  the 

work.     It  is  followed  by  articles  dealing  with  special  forms  of 

electricity,  e.g.  Atmospheric,  Medicinal,  etc. 


The  scientific  study  of  electricity 
began  in  the  16th  century.  The 
ancient  Greeks  were  acquainted 
with  some  isolated  facts  concern- 
ing the  electrification  of  a  few  sub- 
stances by  friction,  the  epithet 
"  electric  "  being,  in  fact,  coined 
from  the  Greek  word  elektron,  the 
name  for  amber,  which  was  one  of 
these  substances.  This  term, 
among  others,  was  introduced  by 
William  Gilbert,  of  Colchester,  who 
made  the  first  detailed  study  of 
the  property  of  attracting  light 
materials,  which  bodies  acquire 
after  being  rubbed  with  textiles 
such  as  silk  or  flannel. 

Gilbert,  who  might  be  called  the 
father  of  electricity,  published  in 
1600  his  great  work  On  the  Magnet, 
Magnetic  Bodies  and  the  Great 
Magnet  the  Earth,  paving  the  way 
for  the  systematic  and  scientific 
experiments  on  electrical  pheno- 
mena which  culminated  with  those 
of  Faraday.  Until  Gilbert  pub- 
lished his  results  nothing  was 
known  about  electricity,  save  that 
certain  substances  as  amber,  jet, 
etc.,  attracted  light  objects  such 
as  leaves,  feathers,  etc. 

The  researches  of  Boyle,  New- 
ton, and  Gray  in  England,  of  Von 
Guericke  in  Germany,  and  Du  Fay 


in  France,  had,  by  the  first  half  of 
the  18th  century,  established  the 
fact  that  all  materials  could  ac- 
quire this  property,  i.e.  be  elec- 
trified, by  friction.  In  the  case  of 
some  substances  such  as  very  dry 
glass,  sulphur,  wax,  ebonite,  and 
mica,  the  property  is  confined  to 
the  portion  of  the  surface  which 
has  been  rubbed  ;  but  in  general 
it  tends  to  be  diffused  over  the  sur- 
face, no  matter  where  friction  has 
been  applied.  This  power  of  "  con- 
duction "  is  manifested  most 
notably  in  the  case  of  the  metals, 
but  is  also  possessed  by  most  of  the 
materials  which  constitute  the 
earth's  crust,  also  by  animal  tissue 
and  any  damp  surface.  It  is  for 
this  reason  that  such  materials 
cannot  retain  the  electrification 
unless  suspended  or  supported  by 
insulating  strings  or  rods  of  silk, 
sulphur,  glass,  etc.,  and  thus  the 
earliest  experimenters,  notably  Gil- 
bert, were  misled  into  the  belief 
that  these  were  "  non-electric." 

Du  Fay  (and  also  Kinnersley 
and  Franklin  in  America)  dis- 
covered the  dual  quality  of  electri- 
fication, and  ultimately  Franklin's 
terminology  was  adopted,  which  re- 
ferred to  bodies  as  "positively"  or 
"negatively"  electrified,  according 


ELECTRICITY 


2843 


ELECTRICITY 


Electricity.      A  demonstration  of  electrical  experiments  made  before  Queen  Elizabeth  by  William  Gilbert  of  Colchester 
(1540-1603),  an  English  pioneer  in  electrical  discovery 

After  the  painting  by  A.  Aeland  Hunt 


as  they  exerted  a  force  of  re- 
pulsion on  a  glass  rod  which  had 
been  rubbed  with  silk  or  on  a 
stick  of  resin  which  had  been 
rubbed  with  flannel.  Quite  early 
in  the  eighteenth  century  electric 
machines  capable  of  producing 
fairly  intense  effects,  such  as  spark 
and  physiological  shock,  were  de- 
signed. They  took  the  form  of  balls, 
cylinders,  or  disks  of  sulphur  or 
glass  rotated  by  hand  and  rubbed 
by  the  dry  palm  of  the  operator  or 
by  a  pad  of  silk,  flannel,  or  rubber, 
coated  with  a  metal  ama'gam. 

Electricity's  Dual  Nature 
It  was  Du  Fay  who  apparently 
was  the  first  to  make  the  postulate 
that  electrification  is  the  result  of 
an  inequality  in  the  amounts  of 
two  "  electric  fluids  "  or  "  electri- 
cities "  which  a  body  possesses,  an 
excess  of  positive  fluid  producing 

Eositive  electrification  (similarly 
sr  negative),  equality  of  amount 
resulting  in  neutrality  or  absence  of 
"  charge."  Franklin,  in  America, 
maintained  a  one-fluid  theory, 
neutrality  corresponding  to  the 
possession  of  a  normal  amount  of 
the  fluid  on  the  part  of  the  body, 
while  positive  and  negative  effects 
are  the  result  of  excess  over  or  de- 
fect under  this  amount.  As  a  mat- 
ter of  fact,  while  the  main  results 
of  the  science  can  be  expressed 
readily  in  terms  of  either  theory, 
recent  research  on  the  structure 
of  the  atom  rather  emphasises  the 
dual  nature  of  electricity. 
Much  more  important  than 


either  of  these  speculations  was  the 
discovery  of  induction  and  the 
development  of  condensers.  Modern 
text-books  make  a  point  of  present- 
ing the  concept  of  potential  to  the 
student's  mind  at  an  early  stage. 
There  is  no  doubt  in  any  teacher's 
mind  of  the  difficulty  experienced 
in  acquiring  correct  ideas  concern- 
ing this  concept,  probably  due  to 
the  fact  that,  as  human  beings,  we 
possess  no  sense  corresponding  to 
that  by  which  we  appreciate  tem- 
perature (the  analogous  concept 
in  the  science  of  Heat)  ;  and  so 
great  use  is  made  of  analogies  in 
such  presentation.  For  example, 
the  notion  of  pressure  is  appealed  to, 
and  the  flow  of  electricity  from  one 
conductor  to  another  at  a  different 
"  potential"  is  likened  to  the  flow  of 
gas  along  a  tube  from  one  flask  to 
another  at  different  pressures. 

The  Leyden  Jar 

All  these  analogies,  however, 
break  down  in  one  important  par- 
ticular. The  mere  juxtaposition  of 
a  flask  of  gas  at  great  pressure  does 
not  affect  the  pressure  of  gas  in  a 
neighbouring  receptacle.  But  the 
presence  of  an  electrified  body  has 
a  very  marked  influence  on  the 
potentials  of  all  neighbouring  in- 
sulated conductors.  The  first  dis- 
covery of  this  fact  is  due  to  Von 
Guericke  in  the  17th  century;  but 
its  application  to  the  manufacture 
of  condensers,  i.e.  conductors  which 
can  retain  a  relatively  enormous 
charge  at  a  moderate  potential, 
did  not  begin  until  the  middle 


of  the  eighteenth,  when  the  so- 
called  Ley  den  jar  was  accidentally 
discovered  by  Musschenbroek  and 
Cunaeus  while  endeavouring,  by 
means  of  a  chain  depending  from  a 
machine,  to  electrify  water  con- 
tained in  a  bottle  which  rested  on 
the  observer's  hand. 

Development  of  Electrokinetics 

This  discovery  was  the  starting 
point  for  the  development  of  the 
condensers,  which  play  such  an 
important  part  in  the  induction 
coils,  telegraphic,  telephonic,  and 
wireless  apparatus  of  to-day,  and 
also  of  the  influence  or  induction 
machines  of  the  Voss  type,  which 
have  completely  displaced  the  old 
frictional  machines.  The  middle 
of  the  18th  century  also  witnessed 
Franklin's  famous  investigations 
on  atmospheric  electricity,  his 
identification  of  lighting  with  the 
electric  spark,  and  the  subsequent 
discovery  that  even  in  fine  weather 
there  is  a  progressive  difference  of 
potential  between  the  air  and  the 
earth's  surface  with  increase  of 
altitude.  In  the  18th  century  were 
laid  the  foundations  of  the  mathe- 
matical theory,  due  to  the  dis- 
covery of  the  inverse  square  law  of 
force  between  electrified  bodies  by 
Coulomb,  in  France,  and  indepen- 
dently by  Cavendish  in  England. 

At  the  very  beginning  of  the 
19th  century  came  the  extremely 
important  researches  of  Volta  at 
Pavia,  leading  to  the  development 
of  electrokinetics.  His  prime  dis- 
covery was  that  two  plates  of 


ELECTRICITY 

different  metals  when  immersed  in 
a  solution  of  a  salt  or  acid  remain 
at  slightly  different  potentials  even 
when  connected  with  a  conducting 
wire,  and  so  on  any  theory  of  the 
material  nature  of  electricity,  there 
must  be  a  flow  of  electricity  along 
the  wire.  Further,  that  by  connect- 
ing any  number  of  such  "  voltaic 
cells"  in  series  there  is  theoreti- 
cally no  limit  to  the  difference  of 
potential  which  can  be  established 
between  the  terminal  plates  of  the 
battery  (excepting,  of  course,  a 
breakdown  in  the  insulating  power 
of  the  air).  During  the  early  years 
of  the  century  various  batteries  of 
a  more  constant  strength  were  de- 
vised by  Daniell,  Grove,  Smee,  and 
others,  and  employed  in  the  study 
of  electro-chemical  decomposition 
of  solutions,  the  earliest  attempts 
in  this  direction  being  made  by 
Carlisle,  Nicholson,  and  Davy  in 
England,  and  Hitter  in  Germany. 
These  researches  were  continued 
later  by  Faraday  with  signal  suc- 
cess, and  in  1835  modern  physical 
and  electro-chemistry  may  be  said 
to  have  come  into  being  with  the 
enunciation  of  Faraday's  well- 
known  laws  of  electrolysis. 
Science  of  Electro-Magnetism 

In  another  direction  Volta's  work 
was  to  lead  to  still  greater  results. 
In  1819  Oersted  of  Copenhagen  dis- 
covered the  existence  of  a  "  cir- 
cuital "  magnetic  field  round  a  wire 
joining  the  terminal  plates  of  a 
battery.  The  science  of  electro- 
magnetism  originated  in  that  ex- 
periment. Within  a  few  years 
Ampere  had  extended  Oersted's  ex- 
perimental work  and  had  published 
a  mathematical  theory  of  it,  after- 
wards amplified  by  Weber.  Gal- 
vanometers of  various  types  were 
invented  by  Nobili,  Pouillet,  Thom- 
son, and  D' Arsonval.  But  no  inves- 
tigations rank  higher  than  those  of 
G.  S.  Ohm,  who  between  1825  and 
1830  published  the  results  of  his 
work  on  the  connexion  between 
current  strength  in  a  conducting 
wire  and  electromotive  force. 

It  is  a  rather  deplorable  fact 
that  the  very  thorough  and  com- 
plete experimental  work  which 
Ohm  carried  out  in  support  of  his 
famous  law  is  absent  from  nearly 
all  current  text-books.  In  fact, 
even  in  his  own  day,  many  physi- 
cists were  entirely  ignorant  of  his 
experiments  and  believed  that  he 
had  only  given  a  theoretic  deduction 
of  the  law.  The  introduction  of  the 
concept  of  "  resistance  "  into  elec- 
trical science  produced  consider- 
able reactions  both  in  theory  and 
experiment,  and  by  1843  Wheat- 
stone,  then  holding  the  chair  ot 
physics  at  King's  College,  London, 
had  perfected  his  well-known 
method  for  determining  resistance. 


2844 

Michael  Faraday's  work  on  elec- 
trolysis has  already  been  men- 
tioned. But  his  work  on  electro- 
magnetism  was  destined  to  play  a 
more  revolutionary  part  in  science. 
By  1831  he  had  discovered  the  exis- 
tence of  electromagnetic  induction, 
i.e.  the  creation  of  electric  currents 
in  a  conductor  by  the  variation  of  a 
surrounding  magnetic  field.  Later, 
continuing  some  investigations  of 
Jenkin,  he  discovered  the  phenome- 
non of  self-induction.  It  should  be 
stated  that  similar  results  were  ob- 
tained independently  and  almost 
simultaneously  by  Joseph  Henry 
at  Albany,  New  York.  Modern 
dynamo-electric  machinery  origin- 
ated in  these  famous  experiments. 
Faraday  and  Clark  Maxwell 

In  another  direction  Faraday 
revolutionised  electric  theory.  He 
destroyed  the  old  "  action  at  a 
distance  "  view  of  electric  force  by 
his  discovery  of  the  effect  of  the 
surrounding  medium  on  the  force 
between  two  charged  bodies — the 
"  specific  inductive  capacity "  of 
the  medium,  as  it  is  called.  This 
discovery  led  Faraday  to  postu- 
late transmission  of  electric  force 
through  the  "  polarised  "  particles 
of  the  medium,  a  view  which  was 
eagerly  accepted  by  J.  Clark 
Maxwell  and  developed  by  him 
with  great  mathematical  power  in 
his  famous  work  on  the  subject.  In 
Maxwell's  hands  the  theory  pre- 
dicted the  transmission  of  electric 
waves  through  space,  a  result 
beautifully  confirmed -in  1888  by 
Hertz,  which  has  had  such  mar- 
vellous fruition  in  wireless  tele- 
graphy and  telephony. 

Space  only  permits  us  to  men- 
tion that  the  work  of  the  twentieth 
century  has  had  its  own  distinctive 
impress.  Beginning  with  the  experi- 
ments of  J.  J.  Thomson  on  electric 
discharge  in  vacuum  tubes  and  of 
Curie,  Rutherford,  and  Soddy  on 
radioactive  materials,  it  is  unlock- 
ing the  secret  of  the  atom  and  find- 
ing confirmation  of  Du  Fay's  old 
notion  of  the  two  "  fluids,"  in  the 
"  electron "  and  the  "  positive 
nucleus,"  the  planet  and  sun  of  the 
"  solar  system  "  which  is  accepted 
by  all  physicists  nowadays  as  a 
working  model  of  atomic  structure. 

James  Rice 

ELECTKICITY  IN  MEDICINE.  It 
is  not  surprising,  having  regard  to 
some  of  its  remarkable  manifes- 
tations, that  the  idea  should  have 
presented  itself  to  many  minds 
that  electricity  is  a  "  vital  "  force. 
It  has  been  long  recognized  that  it 
is  a  force  that  kills  ;  and  the  con- 
peption  that  it  should  be  able  to 
cure,  more  or  less,  the  physical  ail- 
ments of  man  is  not  unnatural.  Un- 
fortunately a  good  deal  of  charlat- 
anism has  been  associated  with  the 


ELECTRICITY 

idea  of  the  curative  powers  of  elec- 
tricity, not  only  in  Great  Britain, 
but  perhaps  still  more  on  the  con- 
tinent of  Europe  and  in  America. 
The  so-called  electric  or  magnetic 
"  belts  "  in  connexion  with  which 
the  public  is  frequently  informed 
that  "  electricity  is  life,"  may  be 
dismissed  quite  briefly.  As  a 
matter  of  fact  magnetism  alone  has 
no  physiological  action  whatever. 
Any  curative  effects  which  such  ap- 
pliances may  appear  to  produce  are 


Electricity  in  medicine.    Patient  with 
hand  and  foot  in  electrical  bath  under- 
going treatment  for  heart  disease 

due  to  the  warmth  which  they  com- 
municate to  the  body  of  a  patient 
by  their  substance  only,  and  to  the 
faith  which  they  inspire  in  his  mind, 
and  not  at  all  to  any  electrical  power 
which  they  possess. 

For  the  first  demonstration  of  the 
physiological  effects  of  electricity 
we  have  to  go  back  to  1678,  when 
Swammerdam  showed  to  the  Grand 
Duke  of  Tuscany  that  a  piece  of  the 
muscle  of  a  frog's  leg  hanging  by  a 
thread  of  nerve  bound  with  silver 
wire  would  instantly  contract  if 
both  nerve  and  wire  were  simul- 
taneously touched  by  a  piece  of 
copper.  Galvani  and  Volta,  not 
knowing  of  Swammerdam's  demon- 
stration, made  their  classical  ex- 
periments on  dead  frogs  and  their 
legs  more  than  a  century  later,  and 
first  excited  general  scientific  in- 
terest in  the  physiological  effects 
of  electricity.  Since  then  many 
experiments"  have  been  made  on 
newly  killed  animals,  always  with 
the  result  that  muscular  move- 
ments were  produced. 

In  practice  electricity  is  used  hi 
the  three  forms,  static,  galvanic, 
or  continuous,  and  alternating,  or 
what  is  sometimes  termed  faradic. 
For  the  production  of  the  first  the 
Wimshurst  influence  machine  may 
be  used.  This  form  is  employed  to 


ELECTRICITY 


Electricity.     A  powerful  electro-mag- 
net used  by  an  oculist  to  extract  a  steel 
splinter  from  a  workman's  eye 

regulate  and  modify  functional  pro- 
cesses such  as  nutrition,  secretion, 
circulation,  and  sleep ;  and  in  some 
inflammatory  conditions,  paralysis, 
skin  affections,  consumption,  and 
cancer.  For  the  production  of 
the  "  faradic  "  form  an  induction 
coil  is  used,  the  current  from  the 
secondary  coil  being  applied  to  the 
body  by  means  of  electrodes,  as 
when  the  galvanic  form  is  employed. 
Faradic  electricity  is  used  in  spinal 
and  some  other  forms  of  paralysis, 
in  gout,  rheumatism,  muscular 
rheumatism,  and  cramp,  eczema, 
constipation  due  to  indigestion, 
hypochondria,  neurasthenia,  and 
hysteria.  When  applied  to  the  abdo- 
men or  spine  a  flat,  oval  electrode 
is  used  ;  when  it  is  desired  to  pick 
out  a  particular  muscle  a  small 
needle-shaped  electrode  is  em- 
ployed ;  while  the  current  is  also 
applied  directly  in  the  stomach  by 
means  of  a  small  bean-shaped 
electrode  at  the  end  of  a  wire 
covered  with  india-rubber,  which 
is  introduced  into  the  stomach  and 
withdrawn  when  the  necessary  dose 
has  been  given. 

Use  of  Electrodes 

Drugs  are  introduced  into  the 
system  through  the  skin  by  the  aid  of 
special  electrodes  carrying  at  their 
extremities  a  little  roll  of  blotting 
or  absorbent  paper  which  is  satur- 
ated with  the  drug  to  be  introduced ; 
the  paper  is  attached  to  the  cathode 
or  negative  end  of  the  circuit  and 
is  applied  to  the  skin  where  it  is 
desired  to  introduce  the  drug,  the 
other  end  of  the  circuit  being 
applied  to  some  other  portion  of  the 
skin.  In  this  way  the  drug  is  grad- 
ually introduced  into  the  tissues 
just  where  it  is  required,  and  may 
have  more  active  effect  than  if 
taken  through  the  mouth  or  ad- 


2845 

ministered  in  the  ordinary  hypo- 
dermic fashion.  In  general  debility 
and  in  convalescence  after  illness 
electricity  may  greatly  aid  re- 
covery by  improving  nutrition,  and 
by  its  general  tonic  effect.  Used 
in  health  under  proper  control  its 
tendency  is  to  increase  muscular 
power. 

Electricity  is  used  also  in  medi- 
cine to  illuminate  the  interior  of 
certain  parts  of  the  body  by  the 
direct  introduction  of  minute 
electric  lamps  and  particularly  for 
the  examination  of  the  throat  and 
the  eye  ;  and  as  a  cauteriser  for  the 
destruction  of  superfluous  hairs, 
warts,  and  other  abnormal  growths ; 
while  powerful  electro-magnets  are 
employed  to  pull  particles  of  iron 
out  of  the  eye.  The  X-rays,  while 
not  strictly  electrical,  are  indirectly 
so,  being  a  secondary  product  of 
electric  action,  and  constitute  pro- 
bably the  most  valuable  of  all  the 
contributions  made  by  electricity 
to  medical  science. 

ATMOSPHERIC  ELECTRICITY.  The 
atmosphere,  for  a  certain  distance 
above  the  earth,  has  been  proved 
to  be  almost  continuously  charged 
with  electricity.  Normally  the  elec- 
tricity of  the  air  is  positive  and  that 
of  the  surface  of  the  earth  negative, 
and  if  we  take  the  average  of  fine 
weather  as  determined  by  a  series 
of  careful  examinations  carried  out 
at  Kew  many  years  ago,  as  repre- 
sented by  +  4  as  the  potential,  it 
would  appear  that  in  this  country 
the  potential  rarely  falls  to  1, 
though  now  and  again  it  may  drop 
for  a  moment  to  as  low  as  O'l. 
It  is  strong  during  E.  and  N.E. 
winds  ;  in  wet  weather  with  sudden 
heavy  showers  it  may  be  as  much 
as  30  either  positive  or  negative ; 
during  snow  the  strength  is  about 
the  same  as  in  wet  weather,  but  it 
is  nearly  always  positive.  With  high 
wind  ,and  snow  or  severe  frost  it 
may  go  to  +  100  or  even  higher. 
In  thunder-storms  it  will  often  be 
over  100  either  positive  or  negative, 
though  at  such  times  it  may  reach 
—  200,  there  being  usually  a  pre- 
ponderance of  negative  electricity 
in  thunder-storms.  It  may  change 
instantly  from  positive  to  negative 
or  negative  to  positive  with  a  flash 
of  lightning,  and  with  only  less 
rapidity  with  a  sudden  shower  of 
rain.  Even  in  fair  weather  the 
changes  may  be  rapid,  while  in 
storms  the  oscillations  may  be  so 
frequent  and  violent  as  to  keep  the 
indicating  instruments  in  continual 
agitation.  In  all  regions  there 
appear  to  be  at  least  one  period  of 
high  intensity  and  one  of  low  every 
twenty -four  hours,  and  in  some  two 
such  maxima  and  minima  periods. 
,  Apart  from  the  normal  electric 
condition  of  the  atmosphere  and  the 


ELECTRICITY 

obvious  manifestation  afforded  by 
thunder-storms,  the  Aurora  offers 
another  evidence  of  profound  elec- 
trical disturbance  in  the  earth's 
atmosphere.  It  cannot,  however, 
be  said  that  our  knowledge  of  the 
cause  or  causes  of  atmospheric  elec- 
tricity is  as  yet  either  exact  or 
complete. 

Theories  of  Atmospheric  Electricity 
Many  plausible  theories  have 
been  put  forward  to  account  for  the 
phenomena  :  evaporation  of  water 
from  the  surface  of  the  earth,  the 
friction  of  the  particles  of  air  in  the 
wind,  or  of  particles  of  water  in  the 
air,  the  heat  currents  in  the  atmo- 
sphere, the  volumes  of  steam 
emitted  by  volcanoes  and  geysers, 
have  all  been  suggested  as  causes 
and  rejected  as  inadequate  explana- 
tions. The  fact  that  the  ultra- 
violet rays  of  the  solar  spectrum 
will  discharge  a  negatively  electri- 
fied body  as  if  they  were  them- 
selves positive,  has  suggested  that 
radiation  from  the  sun  may  give 
a  positive  charge  of  electricity  to 
the  atmosphere  which  in  turn 
would  induce  negative  at  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth. 

A  theory  propounded  by  Sir  J. 
J.  Thomson  appears  to  offer  a 
satisfactory  explanation  of  some 
of  the  immediate  phenomena  of 
atmospheric  electricity.  This  as- 
sumes that  when  the  vapour  of 
water  in  the  atmosphere  first 
condenses  it  does  so  by  preference 
on  particles  of  dust  that  are  nega- 
tively electrified,  and  that  in  con- 
sequence the  first  formed  parts  of 
fog  or  cloud  are  heavier  than  those 
formed  later,  and,  falling  first  to 
the  ground,  carry  with  them  the 
negative  electricity.  The  theory, 
however,  does  not  go  very  far.  It 
is  possible  that  all  the  suggested 
causes  to  which  reference  has  been 
made  contribute  more  or  less  to 
the  electricity  of  the  earth's  atmo- 
sphere, but  there  is  little  doubt 
that  we  must  look  to  radiation 
from  the  sun  as  the  chief  source. 

Electron  Theory 

Arrhenius,  the  Swedish  scien- 
tist, has  suggested  that  the  sun  is 
continuously  bombarding  space 
with  electrons  (q.v.),  that  the  great 
mass  of  those  approaching  the 
earth  are  gathered  up  by  the 
magnetic  forces  which  are  concen- 
trated about  the  earth's  poles, 
where,  owing  to  the  rarefied  atmo- 
sphere in  those  regions,  they 
become  manifest  in  aurora,  pre- 
cisely as  in  a  vacuum  tube  when  a 
discharge  of  electricity  takes  place 
therein.  Accepting  this  highly 
probable  theory,  it  is  easy  to  sup- 
pose that  not  all  the  electrons  are 
carried  to  the  poles,  that  some 
penetrate  other  portions  of  the 
earth's  atmosphere.  And,  in  any 


ELECTRIC    LIGHTING    ACTS 


2846 


ELECTRIC    POWER 


case,  air  currents  may  well  suffice 
to  distribute  electricity  from  the 
polar  regions  through  the  rest  of 
the  atmosphere.  A.  J.  Liver  sedge 
Electric  Lighting  Acts.  Acts 
of  Parliament  regulating  the  sup- 
ply of  electric  lighting.  When  it 
became  evident  that  electricity 
might  become  a  rival  of  gas  as  a 
source  of  private  and  public  light, 
it  became  desirable  to  put  its  gene- 
ration and  supply  for  such  pur- 
poses under  more  or  less  legislative 
control,  on  similar  lines  to  that 
governing  gas  and  water.  The  first 
Act  was  passed  in  1882,  and  was 
extremely  severe  in  its  conditions, 


one  clause  providing  that  a  local 
authority  could  take  over  an  under- 
taking supplying  its  people  after 
21  years  upon  paying  the  owners 
of  the  undertaking  the  net  value 
of  the  works,  land,  etc.,  at  the 
time.  This  clause  undoubtedly 
delayed  the  development  of  elec- 
trical services  in  Great  Britain 
to  a  serious  extent.  Another  Act 
passed  in  1888  modified  the  for- 
mer, while  a  third  passed  in  1909 
still  further  encouraged  enterprise, 
and  has  led  to  considerable 
development  in  works  for  the 
supply  of  electricity  "in  bulk." 
See  Lighting,  Electric. 


ELECTRIC  POWER  AND   ITS   USES 

A.  J.  Liverseclge,  Associate  Member,  Institute  of  Civil  Engineers 

The  extent  to  which  Electric  Power  is  used  may  be  deduced  from  this 
article;  also  the  various  uses  to  which  it  is  put.  See  Dynamo; 
Energy;  Fuel;  Railways  ;  and  the  various  articles  on  electrical  subjects 

The    dynamo    may    be    classed     loss  of  energy.    The  advantage  of 

electricity  lies  in  the  extraordinary 
facility    with    which    it    may    be 


with     the     printing     press,     the 
steam-engine,     and     the     paper- 


making   machine,   as    among  the  transmitted    over    long    distances 

great  epoch-making  inventions  of  and    then    reconverted    into    any 

mankind.   It  has  already  revolu-  form  of  industrial  energy  required, 

tionised   industry,    and   it   would  It  is  this  property  which  has  led 

not  be  easy  to  set  a  limit  to  the  to  the  utilisation  all  over  the  world 

ultimate  developments  in  the  eco-  of  elevated    bodies    of    water   as 


nomic  and  social  life  of  the  world 
to  which  it  may  give  rise.     The 


sources     of     mechanical     energy. 

Water  from  these  elevated  sources 

steam-engine  concentrated  indus-     is  led  in  pipes  down  to  some  con- 
try  in  regions  where  coal  abounds  ;     venient  point,   at   anything  from 
electricity    is    diffusing    it    over 
regions  where,  but  for  its  remark- 


able  power,  manufactures   would 
be  impossible. 
At  one  time  the  power-mechani- 


100  to  3,000  ft.  below,  and  there 
drives  hydraulic  motors  which,  in 
turn,  drive  electricity-generating 
machines.  Such  hydro-electric 
power  stations  are  now  in  opera- 


cal  energy  required  for  industry  tion  in  Great  Britain  (on  a  very 

had  to  be  generated  where  it  was  small  scale),  in  Scandinavia,France, 

needed.     To-day,  however,  it  may  Switzerland,  Spain,  Italy,  Germany 

be  generated  at  one   centre   and  (small),    Czecho  -  Slovakia,    India, 

utilised  over  an  area  of  thousands  Tasmania,  New  Zealand,  S.  Africa, 

of  square  miles.    Formerly  anyone  most  of  the  countries  of  S.  America, 

who  wanted  power  on  any  con-  and  on  an  immense  scale  in  the 

siderable  scale  had  to  generate  it  United  States  and  Canada.     The 

himself,  and  a  large  portion  of  his  greatest  power  stations  are  those, 

American    and    Canadian,    which 


capital  would  be  sunk  in  the  power- 
generating  plant.  To-day  power 
has  become  a  common  commodity 
to  be  bought  and  sold,  in  all  es- 
sentials precisely  like  any  other 
commodity.  And  this  development 
has  been  brought  about,  like  many 
other  industrial  and  social  changes, 
by  improved  means  of  transport  electric  power 
which  electricity  has  provided.  with  one  or  two 


utilise  the  Falls  of  Niagara  ;  the 
total  power  now  available  at  those 
stations  being  about  500,000  kilo- 
watt (666,000  h.p.). 

British  Electric  Power  Stations 
Coal,  however,  is  probably  still 
the    chief    immediate    source    of 
and    in    Britain 


trifling  exceptions. 

The  profound  significance  of  this  the  sole  source.      In  the  United 
revolution  is  perhaps  not  yet  fully  Kingdom  there  are  now  276  elec- 
appreciated.   It  may  mean  the  dis-  trio  power  stations,  of  which  190 
'   placement  of  many  of  the  great  are   municipal   undertakings,    the 
1  industrial  centres  of  the  world.  remainder  being  companies.     The 
Electricity     does     not     create  largest  of  these  is  that  of  Man- 
power ;     it  is  itself  a  product  of  cheater,  which  in   1919  delivered 
mechanical    or    chemical    energy,  184,675,000   units   at  an  average 
and  not  an  original  source.     The  price  of  l'15d.  per  unit.    Sheffield 
dynamo  takes  in  power  from  some  supplied  161,839,000  units  at  an 
other  agent,  and  gives  it  out  again  average  of  '99d.  per  unit ;     Glas- 
in  the  form  of  mechanical  energy,  gow,  144,930,000  units  at  1*4 Id.  ; 
chemical    action,    heat    or    light ;  and  Birmingham,   140.908,000  at 
the  conversion  always  means  some  l'6d.   per  unit.      The  total   units 


supplied  by  all  these  undertak- 
ings in  that  year  amounted  to 
2,840,000,000,  of  which  about 
600,000,000  were  used  on  tram- 
ways. The  lowest  average  price 
at  which  the  electricity  was  sup- 
plied by  these  undertakings,  ac- 
cording to  public  returns,  was 
*85d.  per  unit,  at  which  rate  Stock- 
port  supplied  23,000,000  units  in 
the  year  ended  Dec.  31,  1919.  The 
supply  of  electric  power  by  these 
undertakings  is  under  the  control 
of  the  Board  of  Trade,  and  the 
highest  rate  permitted  to  be 
charged  is  8d.  per  unit ;  average 
prices  of  from  6d.  to  7d.  per  unit 
were,  in  1919,  charged  in  a  con- 
siderable number  of  instances. 
Problem  of  Economic  Transmission 
Just  before  1920,  two  Govern- 
ment committees  investigated  the 
whole  question  of  the  provision 
and  supply  of  electric  power  in 
Great  Britain,  one  having  been 
specially  concerned  with  the  pos- 
sibilities in  connexion  with  water- 
power  as  the  immediate  source  of 
the  energy,  the  other  with  the 
possibilities  in  connexion  with  coal, 
upon  which  it  is  recognized  that  the 
country  must  still  chiefly  depend. 
The  direction  in  which  improvement 
is  to  be  sought  lies  in  concentrating 
the  development  of  the  electric 
energy  in  large  stations  situated 
in  the  great  coal-producing  cen- 
tres, and  transmitting  the  energy 
so  developed  to  the  power  consum- 
ing districts.  In  this  way  it  is 
believed  great  economies  could  be 
effected  in  the  cost  of  developing 
electric  power  as  compared  with 
the  present  costs  in  the  many 
power  stations  scattered  over  the 
country.  Such  a  concentration 
would  permit  the  use  of  large  in- 
dividual generating  units  with  a 
considerable  economy  in  the  first 
cost  of  plant.  Until  recently  the 
largest  units  used  in  Great  Britain 
were  the  6,000  kilowatt  turbo- 
generators (8,000  h.p.)  at  the  Lots 
Road  Power  Station.  London, 
which  supply  current  to  most  of  the 
London  electric  underground  rail- 
ways. Units  of  10,000  kilowatt 
and  7,500  kilowatt  are,  however, 
now  running.  A  Parsons  turbo- 
generator of  25,000  kilowatt  ca- 
pacity was  recently  installed  in  the 
central  power  station  of  Chicago, 
U.S.A. 

Electric  power  is  now  being 
rapidly  extended  to  rlys.,  for 
which  service  it  has  many  advan- 
tages over  steam,  more  particu- 
larly for  suburban  lines  with  their 
numerous  stations  ;  to  the  smelt- 
ing and  refining  of  metals,  and 
to  many  chemical  manufacturing 
processes.  Among  these  latter 
may  be  mentioned  particularly  the 
production  of  aluminium  which  is 


Three   375-k.w.  alte 


gas   engines.      a.    4oo-k,v.    generator  driven* V^S       fTulht  ^^^^j.^^S^i^^r^ 


.  turbo-generator  in  use  at      driven  by  water-power  turbines 
ELECTRIC   POWER   AND   LIGHT   MACHINES 


ELECTRIC    POWER 


2848 


ELECTRIC    POWER 


now  obtained  solely  by  the  aid  of 
hydro-electric  power ;  and  the 
manufacture  of  artificial  fertilisers 
by  the  fixation  of  the  nitrogen  of  the 
atmosphere,  which  is  now  being 
carried  out  on  a  considerable  scale 
in  Scandinavia,  the  product  as  pre- 
pared for  agricultural  use  being 
known  as  nitrolime. 

The  useful  properties  of  elec- 
tricity together  with  the  increasing 
cost  of  coal  are  now  compelling 
attention  to  the  possibility  of  using 
other  and  new  sources  from  which 
to  obtain  the  energy.  Natural  oil 
offers  no  appreciable  advantages 
over  coal  in  this  connexion,  though 
low  classes  of  oil  are  now  being 
used  in  Diesel  engines  (q.v.)  for  the 
development  of  electricity.  It  has 
been  predicted  that  we  shall  one 
day  cultivate  oil-yielding  plants 
specially  for  the  purpose  of  provid- 
ing fuel  to  be  used  in  such  classes  of 
engines  for  the  development  of  elec- 
tric power.  It  is  possible  that  the 
tides,  especially  where  they  run  to 
considerable  heights,  may  one  day 
be  utilised  ;  and  in  tropical  and 
subtropical  regions,  the  direct  rays 
of  the  sun.  Edison  has  studied  the 
possibility  of  constructing  a  voltaic 
cell  in  which  the  latent  energy  of 
coal,  much  the  larger  part  of  which 
is  now  wasted  in  the  most  economi- 
cal systems  of  power  development, 
would  be  directly  converted  into 
electric  power.  Sir  Oliver  Lodge 
looks  ultimately  to  the  liberation  of 
atomic  energy  ;  while  Sir  Charles 
Parsons,  reviving  an  old  project, 
would  obtain  energy  from  the  in- 
ternal heat  of  the  earth. 

Utilisation  of  Natural  Steam 

Meanwhile  the  most  remarkable 
electric  power  development  system 
in  the  world  is  to  be  found  in  Italy, 
where  the  internal  fires  are  actually 
being  utilised.  The  soffioni  of 
Tuscany  are  well  known  and  have 
long  been  a  principal  source  of 
borax.  They  are  openings  in  the 
crust  of  the  earth  through  which, 
from  time  immemorial,  volumes  of 
steam  have  poured  day  and  night. 
Prince  Gironti-Conti,  on  whose 
estate  soffioni  occur,  has  now  tapped 
some  of  this  natural  steam  before  it 
comes  to  the  surface  by  driving 
pipes  into  the  ground,  and  is 
using  it  as  the  heating  agent  in 
special  steam  boilers  for  thedevelop- 
ment  of  electric  power  by  turbo- 
generators. 

TRANSMISSION  AND  DISTRIBU- 
TION. Since  the  earliest  days  of  the 
present  industrial  era,  even  before 
the  inventions  of  James  Watt  gave 
so  great  a  stimulus  to  industrial  de- 
velopment, the  transmission  of 
power,  mechanical  energy  particu- 
larly, has  always  been  a  branch  of 
applied  engineering  of  the  highest 
importance.  Until  the  modern  de- 


velopments in  electricity,  transmis- 
sion was  effected  chiefly  by  shaft- 
ing and  gearing,  belts  and  ropes, 
and  in  some  cases  by  wire  cables 
running  over  pulleys.  All  these 
systems,  even  the  latter,  were  ex- 
tremely limited  in  their  scope. 
Here  and  there  the  attempt  has 
been  made  to  transmit  power  over 
considerable  distances  by  means  of 
steam,  water,  or  air  carried  in  pipes 
underground.  None  of  these  agents, 
however,  can  compare  with  elec- 
tricity in  regard  to  the  facility  with 
which  convertible  energy  can  be 
transmitted  over  long  distances. 
Telegraphic  Power  Transmission 
Electric  transmission  may  be 
considered  under  three  heads, 
factory,  local,  and  long  distance. 
The  principles  involved  are  the 
same  in  all  ;  the  differences  lie 
chiefly  in  the  scale  on  which  those 
principles  are  applied.  The 
medium  mostly  employed  to-day 
for  transmission,  and  for  distribu- 
tion, is  copper  wire,  though  alu- 
minium is  now  being  used  to  some 
extent,  and  may  ultimately  dis- 
place copper  ;  weight  for  weight  it 
is  a  much  better  conductor,  and 
therefore  at  equal  cost  and  equal 
durability  would  be  the  more  eco- 
nomical medium.  For  telegraphic 
power  transmission,  galvanised  iron 
wire  is  mostly  used,  being  permis- 
sible because  of  the  relatively  small 
amounts  of  current  which  need  to 
be  transmitted.  In  all  cases  of 
electric  transmission  a  medium  for 
the  return  of  the  current  to  the 
source  of  generation  is  required — 
the  circuit  must  be  complete.  This 
medium  may  be  provided  by  a 
separate  wire,  by  the  rails  of  a 
tramway  or  railway,  or  by  a  system 
of  separate  rails  or  T  bars,  or  by 
the  earth,  which  is  a  universal 
conductor  and  equaliser. 

Transmission  and  distribution,  in 
the  case  of  factories  where  the  elec- 
tricity is  generated  on  the  pre- 
mises, present  no  difficulties.  The 
current  is  usually  continuous  or 
direct  and  the  voltage  compara- 
tively low,  200  to  250  volts,  and 
rarely  over  500.  In  large  estab- 
lishments with  many  buildings  and 
much  machinery  a  separate  system 
for  lighting,  and  heating,  may  be 
installed  ;  otherwise  the  lighting 
distribution  will  be  taken  off  the 
same  mains  which  supply  the 
electric  motors  for  driving  the 
machinery.  The  mains  or  con- 
ductors will  be  encased  so  as  to 
avoid  risk  of  personal  contact  or 
short  circuiting,  exposure  to 
moisture,  accidental  injury,  as  by 
the  driving  in  of  a  nail,  or  any  con- 
ditions likely  to  cause  personal 
injury  or  fire. 

A  question  that  may  call  for 
careful  consideration  will  be  as  to 


whether  the  machines  shall  be  ar- 
ranged to  be  operated  in  series  or  in 
parallel,  that  is  to  say  whether  the 
current  shall  pass  through  one 
machine  to  the  next,  or  each  take 
its  own  supply  independently  from 
the  main.  Arc  lamps  are  largely 
operated  in  series ;  and  some 
economy  in  cost  of  installation 
may  be  secured  by  adopting  that 
system,  but  as  the  system  involves 
the  addition  to  each  machine  or 
lamp  of  a  shunt  device  which  will 
automatically  cut  out  a  lamp  or 
machine  from  the  circuit  if  it 
goes  wrong,  and  pass  the  current 
round  it  on  to  the  next,  and  as, 
further,  it  is  practically  inapplicable 
to  incandescent  or  glow  lamps,  the 
balance  of  advantage  lies  with  the 
system  of  working  in  parallel, 
under  which  the  failure  of  one  lamp 
or  machine  does  not  necessitate 
any  disturbance  of  the  remainder. 
Local  transmission  and  distri- 
bution represents  a  much  larger, 
more  complex,  and  difficult  prob- 
lem. The  work  is  in  the  hands 
either  of  a  municipal  authority  or 
of  a  public  company ;  in  either 
case  it  may  assume  a  four-fold 
aspect — the  provision  of  light  and 
heat  to  domestic  and  business 
users,  public  lighting,  the  provision 
of  power  to  workshops,  and  lastly 
power  for  electric  traction.  The 
supply  of  private  light  and  heat 
will  usually  be  the  first  considera- 
tion, and  two  antagonistic  factors 
will  present  themselves.  The  or- 
dinary domestic  incandescent  or 
glow  lamp  cannot  take  current  at 
more  than  200  volts  ;  large  numbers 
still  in  use  must  be  supplied  with 
current  at  a  much  lower  pressure. 
Cost  of  Installation 

On  the  other  hand,  the  conductors 
for  transmission  and  the  distribut- 
ing lines,  whether  of  copper  or  of 
aluminium,  are  costly,  and  the  only 
way  by  which  the  cost  of  instal- 
lation can  be  kept  within  reason- 
able limits  is  to  generate  the  cur- 
rent, and  put  it  into  the  main  at  as 
high  a  pressure  as  may  be  permis- 
sible. As  in  the  case  of  steam  the 
higher  the  pressure  the  larger  the 
amount  that  may  be  passed  through 
a  given  size  of  pipe ;  so  with  electric- 
ity the  higher  the  pressure — volt- 
age— the  smaller  may  be  the  size  of 
the  mains  for  the  transmission  of  a 
given  quantity.  Thus  the  conditions 
at  one  end  require  a  low  voltage  ; 
at  the  other  end  a  high  voltage  ; 
and  a  compromise  will  have  to  be 
adopted  having  regard  to  all  the 
conditions  of  the  district  to  be 
served. 

Voltages  as  low  as  1 00  are  in  use 
in  the  stations  of  Great  Britain,  but 
the  newer  installations  will  usually 
be  arranged  for  voltages  between 
250  and  550.  Hence  the  current  put 


i.  750-k.w.  motor  generator  raising  23o-voit  current 
to  460  volts.  2.  Manchester  Corporation's  35,ooo-h.p. 
turbo-alternator.  3.  Underground  standard  type  sub- 


station   transformer. 
powerful  rain  pumps. 


4.    io-h.p.    motor    operating 
5.  Series  of  3-phase  motors, 


i,5oo  r.p.m.,  driving  cotton  mill  machinery.   6.  Totally 
enclosed    motor,    showing   one   end   cover   removed. 

7.  6oo-h.p.  motor  driving  hauling  gear  at  a  colliery. 

8.  Motor  driving  belt  transmission  gear  "for  a  French 
process  knitting  yarn  drawing  machine 


ELECTRIC   POWER:     TYPES    OF   ELECTRIC   MOTORS 


L     4 


ELECTRIC     WAVE 


2850 


ELECTRO- BALLISTICS 


into  the  conductors  for  transmis- 
sion may  have  to  be  "  stepped 
down  "  at  convenient  points,  and 
here  the  character  of  the  current, 
as  well  as  the  strength,  will  have 
to  be  determined,  that  is  whether 
continuous  or  direct,  or  alternating. 
Direct  or  continuous  current,  which 
has  the  advantage  of  simplicity, 
cannot  be  stepped  down  directly 
without  the  use  of  rotating  ma- 
chinery. In  large  systems  this  may 
be  accomplished  by  the  aid  of  sub- 
stations to  which  high-tension  cur- 
rent is  transmitted  from  the  central 
station,  to  be  there  let  down  by 
mechanical  transformers  to  suit  the 
local  needs.  Alternating  current, 
on  the  other  hand,  may  be  stepped 
down  by  the  use  of  static  trans- 
formers, which  are  automatic  and 
require  nothing  more  than  a  street 
box  for  their  installation. 

The  Hopkinson  System 
An  ingenious  method  of  meeting 
the  requirements  where  direct  cur- 
rent is  employed  was  devised 
by  Dr.  John  Hopkinson,  and  is. 
known  as  the  three-wire  system  of 
distribution.  This  is  illustrated 
in  the  appended  diagram.  A  and  B 
are  two  dynamos  coupled  in  series, 
that  is,  the  current  from  A  passes 
through  B.  CD  are  two  mains  or 
conductors  constituting  a  primary 


Electric  Power.    System  of  trans- 
mission devised  by  Dr.  John  Hop- 
kinson.   See  text 

circuit.  If  the  voltage  of  each 
dynamo  is  100,  the  current  put 
into  the  main  C  will  be  at  200  volts  : 
that  is,  the  potential  difference  be- 
tween C  and  D.  But  the  current 
from  A  dynamo  is  going  into  the 
third  wire  E  at  100  volts,  and  the 
potential  difference  between  E  and 
D  will  therefore  only,  bo  100,  which 
will  also  be  the  difference  between 
E  and  C ;  and  consequently  any 
lamps  between  E  and  D  or  E  and 
C  will  be  receiving  current  only  at 
that  voltage.  A  further  sub- 
division by  means  of  additional 
wires  is  sometimes  arranged. 

Except  for  tramlines,  where  the 
current  is  mostly  carried  by  the 
familiar  overhead  lines,  local  trans- 
mission and  distribution  is  carried 
almost  universally  in  Great  Bri- 
tain by  conductors  placed  under- 
ground. The  conductors  may  be 
simply  wire  or  cables  thoroughly 
insulated  and  protected  against 
damp  or  mechanical  injury,  and 
laid  in  the  ground  under  the  foot- 
path. In  more  elaborate  schemes, 


groups   of  conduits   composed   of 
earthenware  pipes  are  prepared. 

The  pipes  a,re  carefully  cemented 
together  to  exclude  water,  and  a 
number  are  left  empty  for  future 
use.  At  suitable  points  the  con- 
duits are  interrupted  and  provision 
is  made  by  which  access  can  be  got 
down  to  them.  The  cables  are 
pulled  through  these  conduits  from 
point  to  point,  and  in  order  that 
they  may  stand  the  severe  usage 
to  which  they  are  subjected  in 
being  drawn  through  the  conduits, 
they  are  encased  in  lead. 

Apart  from  the  main  transmis- 
sion conductors,  there  will  usually 
be  laid  supplementary  conductors 
known  as  feeders.  These  convey 
current  to  some  more  or  less  distant 
point  of  a  main  conductor,  and 
compensate  for  whatever  may 
have  been  taken  from  the  main  up 
to  that  point  by  distributors.  In 
large  systems  where  extended 
areas  are  to  be  served,  and  a  great 
variety  of  demands  have  to  be 
satisfied,  the  transmission  and  dis- 
tributing network  may  become 
very  complex.  To  meet  such  cases, 
alternating  current  at  high  tension, 
ranging  from  1,000  to  6,000  volts, 
is  being  employed  at  several 
stations  in  this  country.  At  one 
London  station  the  current,  alter- 
nating, is  generated  and  trans- 
mitted to  sub-stations  at  10,000 
volts ;  at  the  sub-stations  it  is 
stepped  down  by  motor  generators 
(see  Motor,  Electric)  to  400  volts 
continuous  current,  which  is  sup- 
plied to  users  for  power  at  that  ten- 
sion, and,  by  means  of  the  three- 
wire  system,  to  users  of  light  at 
200  volts. 

Long  Distance  Transmission 

For  long  distance  transmission 
alternating  current  is  almost  in- 
variably employed,  because  of  the 
facility'  with  which  it  can  be 
lowered  by  the  aid  of  stationary 
transformers  ;  while  the  current  is 
usually  three-phase  on  account  of 
the  economy  of  copper  required  for 
transmission.  The  most  remark- 
able transmission  system  in  the 
world  to-day  is  in  the  state  of 
California,  U.S.A.,  where  current 
generated  by  water  power  at 
Big  Creek  is  transmitted  to  Los 
Angeles,  a  distance  of  240  m. 
From  the  great  stations  of  Niagara, 
current  is  transmitted  locally  at 
2,250  volts,  but  is  sent  into  Buffalo 
16  miles  away  at  11,000  volts.  A 
remarkable  system  is  in  operation 
in  the  south  of  France,  where  con- 
tinuous current  is  used  at  58,000 
volts.  See  Current,  Electric ; 
Dynamo;  Volt. 

Electric  Wave.  In  an  insu- 
lated conductor  carrying  a  charge 
of  electricity,  the  charge  will  be  dis- 
tributed hi  a  regular  manner  over 


its  surface,  and  if  another  con- 
ductor be  brought  near  it  the  dis. 
tribution  of  the  charge  will  be  al 
tered,  say  negative  at  the  one  end, 
positive  at  the  other.  If  now  the 
second  conductor  be  suddenly  re- 
moved the  original  charge  will  re- 
turn to  its  former  distribution,  but 
not  at  once.  Before  the  original 
condition  is  reached  the  charge  will 
oscillate  along  the  conductor,  posi- 
tive and  negative  each  rushing 
from  one  end  to  the  other  and  then 
back  again. 

These  oscillations  are  extremely 
rapid  and  quickly  die  away. 
This  movement  suggests  that  of 
a  wave,  but  it  is  not  strictly  of 
that  character.  But  if  two  con- 
ductors be  discharged  by  a  spark 
there  will  again  be  oscillations  set 
up  between  the  terminals  of  the 
conductors,  with  this  difference — 
the  charge  thus  liberated  sets  up 
disturbances  in  the  surrounding 
medium  which  are  in  the  nature  of 
true  waves  and  go  on  travelling 
through  space.  These  waves  have 
been  found  to  -possess  all  the 
optical  properties  of  the  waves  of 
light,  and  can  be  reflected,  re- 
fracted, and  polarised.  These  facts 
were  demonstrated  in  1888  by 
Heinrich  R.  Hertz,  who  succeeded 
in  producing  electro  -  magnetic 
waves  by  means  of  "  oscillators  " 
in  such  a  way  as  to  permit  him  to 
trace  their  propagation  throiigh 
space,  which  he  found  went  on  at 
the  same  velocity  as  that  of  light. 
See  Light ;  Wireless. 

Electro  -  Ballistics .  Deter- 
mination of  the  velocity  of  projec- 
tiles fired  from  guns  by  electrical 
methods,  the  success  of  which  de- 
pends upon  the  fact  that  the  time 
taken  for  an  electric  current  to 
travel  along  a  wire  over  any  such 
distances  as  those  covered  by  the 
range  of  even  the  most  powerful 
guns,  is  inappreciable. 

The  appliances  used  consist  of 
frames  of  light'  wire  mesh  elec- 
trically connected  with  a  chrono- 
graph. One  such  frame  is  placed 
near  the  muzzle  of  the  gun  that  is  to 
be  tested,  as  close  up  as  may  be 
so  long  as  it  is  far  enough  away  to 
be  unaffected  by  the  blast  of  the 
discharge.  The  frame  is  placed  in 
the  line  of  flight  of  the  projectile  ; 
the  resistance  offered  by  the  wire 
mesh  to  the  projectile  is  negligible. 
A  similar  frame  is  placed  at  a 
measured  distance  from  the  gun 
also  in  the  line  of  flight ;  or  a  series 
may  be  placed  at  measured  inter- 
vals. When  the  gun  is  fired  the 
projectile  crashes  through  the  wire 
mesh,  the  electrical  arrangements 
come  instantly  into  action  and  the 
exact  moment  is  indicated  by  the 
chronograph.  It  is  only  necessary 
to  compare  the  times  recorded  by 


str 


IP"1"" 


la^mf 

ty— 


j.  Overhead  transmission  in  English  Potteries  district. 
Inset,  British  colliery ;  coal  is  still  the  chief  source  of 
British  electrical  power.  2.  Carrying  electricity  at  50,000 
volts  through  the  lorests  of  N.  Zealand.  3.  Steam  elec- 
tric power  house  in  South  America.  4.  Boiler  house  of  a 
Bntisn  power  station.  5.  Transmission  lines  at  80,000 


volts,  oeionging  to  the  Victoria  Fails  Co.  6.  Carrying 
electric  power  across  a  span  of  1,175  ft.  at  100,000  volts, 
over  the  Thana,  India.  7.  Transmission  lines  and  masts 
in  India.  8.  Japanese  hydro-electric  power  station. 
9.  Transmission  lines  at  Victoria  Falls,  see  Fig.  5.  10. 
Electric  transmission  at  10,000  volts  in  Cornwall. 


ELECTRIC   POWER   AND   TRANSMISSION   IN   VARIOUS   PARTS   OF    THE  WORLD 


ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY 


2852 


ELECTRO-CULTURE 


the  two  or  more  instruments  in 
order  to  determine  the  time  of 
flight  and  the  velocity.  By  analo- 
gous arrangements  fitted  in  the 
barrel  of  the  gun  itself  the  velocity 
of  the  projectile  from  the  instant 
when  it  begins  to  move  in  the 
barrel  till  it  leaves  the  muzzle  are 
determined.  See  Artillery;  Gunnery. 
Electro-Chemistry.  "The  de- 
termination of  chemical  reactions, 
that  is  to  say,  the  splitting  up  of 
bodies  into  their  elements  or  into 
other  compounds  and  the  forma- 
tion of  new  bodies,  by  the  aid 
of  electricity.  Like  most  other 
branches  of  science,  it  has  two  sides, 
the  purely  scientific  or  theoretical, 
and  the  applied.  That  an  intimate 
relation  existed  between  the  two 
branches  of  physics,  chemistry  and 
electricity,  was  suspected  by  the 
early  electricians ;  its  existence 
was  demonstrated  when  the  two 
Dutch  scientists,  Deimann  and 
Paets  van't  Troostwyk,  at  Haar- 
lem in  1789,  first  decomposed 
water  into  its  elements  by  the  aid 
of  electric  sparks  between  the  ends 
of  two  wires  in  a  glass  tube,  though 


may  after  all  only  be  a  particular  and  causing  the  process  to  be  com- 
form  of  electricity.  It  has  been  pleted  in  a  much  shorter  time, 
shown  that  when  copper  deposits  For  purifying  sewage,  ageing  wines, 


they  did  not  succeed  at  the  time  in 
collecting  the  separated  gases,  i.e. 
oxygen  and  hydrogen. 

The  discoveries  of  Volta  and  the 
classical  experiments  of  Sir  Hum- 
phry Davy  placed  the  new  science 
on  a  firm  basis,  though  it  was  not 
till  1834  that  the  true  laws  of 
electro-chemical  action  were  ex- 
plained by  Faraday.  Helmholtz, 
in  1847,  suggested  that  the  heat  of 
chemical  reaction  in  a  voltaic  or 
galvanic  cell  could  be  entirely 
transformed  into  electrical  energy, 
a  proposition  that  was  further  de- 
veloped by  Thomson  (Lord  Kelvin) 
in  1851  Since  then  further  re- 
searches by  many  eminent  scien- 
tists, particularly  Van't  Hoff,  Arr- 
henius  and  Sir  J.  J.  Thomson,  have 
only  confirmed  the  profoundly  in- 
timate nature  of  the  relationship 
between  chemistry  and  electricity. 

The  chemist  has  long  had  hiss 
conceptions  of  the  molecule  and 
the  atom  and  of  the  constitution 
of  matter  ;  but  the  electrician  has 
now  suggested  that  what  has 
hitherto  been  described  as  matter 


itself  out  of  a  solution  of  copper 
sulphate  on  a  piece  of  iron  wire 
introduced  into  the  solution,  the 
action  is  really  electrical ;  and  the 
question  is  suggested  whether 
what  has  hitherto  been  called 
"  chemical  affinity  "  is  not  a  form 
of  electrical  action.  By  either  of 
these  two  forms  of  energy  we  are 
able  to  develop  heat  and  light ;  and 
each  is  able  to  accomplish  ends 
which,  to  our  present  knowledge, 
the  other  is  not  able  to  achieve ; 
and  it  is  certain  that  if  we  ever  ob- 
tain any  definite  conception  of  the 
constitution  of  matter  and  the 
real  nature  of  the  atom,  it  will  be 
reached  by  the  aid  of  electro- 
chemistry. 

On  the  practical  or  industrial 
side  electro-chemistry  has  given  us 
the  art  of  electro-plating  and  of 
electro -deposition    generally,    em- 
bracing the  electrical  refining  and 
smelting  of  metals  ;   many  metals, 
such   as  sodium,   potassium,   alu- 
minium, magnesium,  which  could 
not  otherwise 
^**^££,~~''  ke  Pr°duced  on  an 
industrial  scale; 
the  electrolytic  pro- 
duction  of   caustic 
EL        soda    and    potash, 
chlorine    and 
bleaching  powder ; 
y  of  cyanamide   and 
I  other     ammonia 
compounds,    nitric 
^S^        acid,  and  artificial 
•|^^||^  fertilisers    such    as 
^  "  nitrolime."    Nor 


and  preparing  ozone,  electricity  is 
coming  more  and  more  into  daily 
commercial  use. 

Electro- Culture.  Study  of 
effects  of  electricity  on  plants. 
Currents  of  certain  low  strengths 
appear  to  be  beneficial  to  plants ; 
strong  currents  soon  cause  their 
collapse ;  while  currents  of  inter- 
mediate strengths  apparently  set 
up  no  particular  reaction.  The  idea 
of  utilising  an  electric  current, 
either  through  the  ground  or  in 
the  atmosphere,  to  stimulate  the 
growth  of  plants  or  increase  their 
yield,  was  preceded  by  the  idea 
of  stimulating  the  growth  by  elec- 
trifying the  seeds  themselves 
before  planting.  The  Abbe  Nollet, 
the  French  philosopher,  about 
1760,  Berthollet,  and  Specnew 
experimented  in  this  direction,  ap- 
parently demonstrating  that  elec- 
trified seeds  generally  germinated 
earlier  and  gave  higher  yields,  and 
that  a  larger  proportion  of  the 
seeds  germinated. 

There  are  three  directions  hi 
which  electricity  has  been  applied 
to  growing  plants  ;  by  the  setting 
up  of  electric  currents  in  the  soil, 
by  electrically  exciting  the  atmo- 
sphere, and  by  providing  artificial 
light.  The  question  as  to  which  is 
the  better  of  the  two  first  systems 
is  not  yet  determined.  Careful 
experiments  carried  out  under 
the  direction  of  the  Agricultural 
Department  of  the  U.S.A.  have 
shown  that  currents  set  up  by 
zinc  and  copper  plates  placed  in 
the  soil  near  the  plants  and  con- 
nected by  wires  have  much  in- 
creased the  yields  of  tomatoes, 
peas,  beets,  turnips,  carrots,  par- 
snips, and  lettuce;  but  upon  the 
whole  the  American  experiments 
suggest  that  an  electrification  of 
the  atmosphere  produces  still 
better  results.  Electric  light,  if 
shielded  properly  so  as  to  cut  out 
the  ultra-violet  rays,  gives  much 


is  its  scope  con- 
fined  to  the 
production  of 
inorganic  c  o  m- 
pounds ;  chloro- 
form, chloral, 
and  iodoform  are 
now  being  manu- 
factured by  its 
aid,  as  well  as 
certain  dyes.  It 
is  being  utilised 
to  faciState  the 
processes  of  tan- 
ning, a  current  of 
electricity  being 
passed  through 
the  tanning  pits 


Electro-Culture.  Scenes  at  Fro!.  D.  Berthelot's  ex- 
perimental station  at  Meudon,  near  Paris.  1.  Plant  for 
supplying  the  electric  current.  2.  Inspecting  progress. 
3.  French  beans  grown,  left,  by  electro-culture  :  right, 
under  natural  conditions 


ELECTROCUTION 

quicker  and  increased  yields  ;  let- 
tuce benefiting  in  so  remarkable 
a  way  that  the  system  has  been 
adopted  commercially  in  the  States 
for  the  production  of  forced  lettuce 
for  supplies  when  the  ordinary  pro- 
duct is  not  available.  Alternating 
current  would  appear  to  be  better 
than  direct  or  continuous  when 
used  to  electrify  the  atmosphere. 

In  Great  Britain  important  ex- 
periments have  been  carried  on 
for  some  years,  particularly  in  the 
S.  of  Scotland,  and  have  given 
very  remarkable  results.  The 
method  chiefly  employed  has  been 
to  electrify  the  atmosphere  imme- 
diately above  the  plants  by  means 
of  a  network,  or  rows,  of  wire 
stretched  from  poles  at  a  height  of 
about  7  ft.,  through  which  a  cur- 
rent of  electricity  was  passed  at  a 
tension  of  not  less  than  50  volts. 
The  current  is  not  continuously 
applied,  but  is  given  for  an  hour 
or  two  at  a  time  at  regular  inter- 
vals. In  1916  one  acre  in  a  field  of 
nine  acres  under  oats  was  so 
treated,  with  the  result  that  the 
electrified  acre  gave  a  yield  of  20 
bushels  of  grain,  say  840  lb.,  over 
the  average  yield  of  the  rest  of  the 
field  ;  while  the  yield  of  straw  was 
increased  by  over  80  p.c. 

Hence  it  would  appear  that  the 
possibilities  in  connexion  with 
electro-culture  are  very  great ; 
but  so  far  it  has  not  been  shown 
that  the  process  is  likely  to  be 
commercially  successful  when  car- 
ried out  on  a  large  scale.  The  cost 
of  the  current  is  considerable,  and 
the  cost  of  installing  and  maintain- 
ing the  plant  is  high.  In  countries, 
however,  where,  owing  to  abun- 
dant water  power,  electricity  can 
be  produced  very  cheaply,  as  in 
Scandinavia,  Switzerland,  the  S.  of 
France,  Italy,  Tasmania,  the  nor- 
thern and  western  states  of  America 
and  Canada,  and  probably  India, 
it  is  possible  that  electro -culture 
could  be  successfully  practised  over 
considerable  areas.  See  Agricul- 
ture; Crops. 

Electrocution.  American  term 
for  death  from  electrical  shock.  It 
is  an  attempt  to  combine  the  old 
term  execution  with  the  word 
electricity,  but  it  is  expressive  and 
has  now  taken  its  place  in  the 
English  language.  Electrocution  of 
criminals  was  proposed  with  a  view 
to  avoiding  the  more  revolting  and 
objectionable  features  which  are 
necessarily  associated  with  any  me- 
thod  of  hanging,  and  still  more  with 
decapitation,  and  was  first  adopted 
by  the  state  of  New  York  in  1890, 
the  first  criminal  to  be  electrocuted 
being  William  Kemmler,  who  suf- 
fered this  penalty,  Aug.  6  of  that 
year.  The  method  has  since  been 
adopted  by  other  states  of  America. 


2853 

In  carrying  out  the  sentence  the 
condemned  criminal  is  seated  in  a 
special  insulated  chair,  to  which 
he  is  firmly  strapped.  A  cap  is 
placed  on  his  head  covering  his 
eyes,  and  containing  a  metal  plate 
which  forms  an  electrode  of  the 
electric  circuit.  The  criminal's 
head  is  shaved  sufficiently  to  per- 
mit a  firm  and  close  contact  to  be 
made  ;  the  other  electrode,  another 
metal  plate,  is  strapped  to  the  leg  ; 
the  current  thus  passes  through 
the  whole  body,  and  while  three 
shocks  are  usually  given,  there 
appears  to  be  no  doubt  that  on  the 
passing  of  the  first  shock,  which  is 
only  of  two  or  three  seconds  dura- 
tion, death  is  instantaneous  and 
quite  painless.  The  strength  of 
the  current  used  varies  from  1,800 
volts  down  to  200  volts.  See 
Capital  Punishment. 

Electrode.  Term  applied  to 
the  terminals  of  an  electric  cell. 
Faraday  distinguished  the  one  by 
which  the  current  enters  the  cell 
as  the  anode,  and  the  one  by  which 
it  leaves  the  cathode.  In  an 
electro-plating  bath,  the  articles 
being  plated  constitute  one  of  the 
electrodes  of  the  bath.  The  term 
is  also  applied  to  the  two  carbons 
of  an  electric  arc  lamp  and  the 
terminals  of  an  electric  furnace, 
where  one  may  be  a  rod  of  carbon, 
and  the  other  the  metal  container 
of  the  furnace  cell. 

Electro-deposition.  This  sub- 
ject is  considered  under  three 
heads  :  electro -plating  or  electro- 
gilding,  in  which  one  metal  is  per- 
manently deposited  on  another, 
either  for  protection  against  wear 
or  corrosive  action,  to  give  a 
cheaper  metal  the  appearance  and 
some  of  the  properties  of  a  more 
valuable  one,  or  for  ornamenta- 
tion ;  secondly,  electro-typing,  in 
which  a  metal  is  deposited  on  a 
surface  from  which  it  is  afterwards 
removed ;  and  thirdly,  electro- 
metallurgy, where  metals  are  re- 
fined by  causing  a  pure  element  to 
be  deposited  on  a  metallic  surface 
while  foreign  elements  are  rejected 
in  an  electrolytic  bath.  The  physi- 
cal action  on  which  all  these  pro- 
cesses depend  is  described  under 
electrolysis,  while  the  processes 
themselves  are  dealt  with  under 
their  respective  headings. 

Electrodynamics.  Term  used 
for  the  study  of  the  laws  of 
electricity  in  motion.  It  first  came 
into  prominence  through  A.  M. 
Ampere's  treatise  and  investiga- 
tions in  1820,  when  he  laid  down 
the  fundamental  laws  which  govern 
the  science.  He  announced  that 
parallel  conductors  containing  elec- 
tric currents  flowing  in  the  same 
direction  attract  one  another,  and 
repel  when  the  current  is  flowing  in 


ELECTROLYSIS 

opposite  directions.  See  Current, 
Electric. 

Electrokinetics.  Term  applied 
to  that  branch  of  the  science  of 
electricity  which  treats  of  elec- 
tricity in  motion  or  current 
electricity,  as  distinguished  from 
electrical  charges  merely,  which 
are  the  sphere  of  electrostatics. 
It  is  a  modern  form  of  the  older 
term  electrodynamics.  . 

Electrolier.  Name  for  a  pen- 
dant or  type  of  hanging  fitting 
for  use  with  electric  lamps.  See 
Lighting,  Electric. 

Electrolysis.  Decomposition  of 
liquids  by  electric  current.  The 
liquid  which  undergoes  such  action 
is  described  as  an  electrolyte.  In 
the  case  of  water  it  may  be  entirely 
decomposed  into  its  two  elements, 
oxygen  and  hydrogen,  the  gases 
being  liberated  at  opposite  sides  or 
ends  of  the  apparatus — a  cell — in 
which  the  operation  is  carried  out. 
In  the  case  of  solutions — such,  e.g., 
as  sulphate  of  copper  in  acidulated 
water — the  decomposition  may  be 
only  partial,  while  under  suitable 
conditions,  though  decomposition 
goes  on.  the  state  of  saturation 


Electrolysis.    Diagrammatic  view  of 

cell  for  decomposition  of  liquids  by 

electric  current.   See  text 

of  the  solution  will  be  maintained 
constant. 

The  elements  necessary  for  the 
exhibition  of  this  phenomenon  are 
shown  in  the  accompanying  dia- 
gram, in  which  A  is  the  container, 
which  must  either  be  of  a  material 
which  is  non-conducting  electric- 
ally or  be  insulated  so  that  the 
current  of  electricity  will  not  pass 
through  it,  while  B,  B1  are  two  con- 
ductors immersed  in  the  liquid, 
each  being  provided  with  an  ar- 
rangement by  which  it  may  be 
connected  to  a  source  of  electricity. 
The  combination  constitutes  a  cell. 
The  current  enters  the  cell  at  B, 
which  thus  becomes  the  positive 
pole  or  anode  of  the  element,  and, 
after  traversing  the  bath,  escapes 
at  B1,  which  is  thus  the  negative 
pole  or  cathode,  these  poles  being 
distinguished  by  +  and — symbols. 

If  the  conductors  be  two  strips 
of  platinum  and  the  liquid  water, 
then,  when  the  current  passes, 
oxygen  is  liberated  at  the  surface 
of  the  anode  and  hydrogen  at  the 
surface  of  the  cathode.  The  two 
gases  may  be  easily  collected  by  an 


ELECTROLYTE 


2854 


ELECTRO-METALLURGY 


arrangement  indicated  in  the  dia- 
gram, which  represents  the  original 
voltameter.  A  and  B  are  inverted 
glass  test  tubes,  each  having  intro- 
duced into  it  at  the  bottom  one  of 
the  electrodes.  The  tubes  are  first 
filled  with  the  electrolyte— the 
water,  which  is  usually  slightly 
acidulated  to  facilitate  the  action 
— and  when  the  current  passes,  the 
gases  which  are  released  at  the 
surfaces  of  the  electrodes  rise  to 
the  top  of  the  tubes  and  displace 
the  liquid.  Two  notable  points  are 
to  be  observed  here :  the  gases 
collect  separately,  and  no  action 
whatever  is  apparent  in  the  body 
of  the  bath  between  the  two  tubes. 
But,  obviously,  when  oxygen  in 
the  one  tube  is  set  free,  hydrogen 
must  be  liberated  at  the  same  in- 
stant;  the  latter  does  not,  how- 
ever, collect  side  by  side  with  the 
oxygen  in  the  tube  where  it  is 
separated,  but  by  some  invisible 
action  passes  out  of  that  tube 
across  the  bath  and  appears  in  the 
other  tube.  Similarly,  there  must 
be  a  migration  of  the  oxygen  from 
the  hydrogen  collecting  tube  back 
to  the  oxygen  tube.  Thus  one  of 
the  elements  separated  travels 
with  the  electric  current  and  the 
other  against  it ;  to  the  former 
Faraday  gave  the  name  cation, 
meaning  that  which  goes  down, 
and  to  the  latter  the  term  anion, 
or  that  which  goes  up.  No  theory 
yet  propounded  fully  explains  the 
phenomenon  indicated. 

The  phenomenon  of  electrolysis 
is  not  only  profoundly  interesting 
from  the  purely  scientific  point 
of  view,  but  it  has  received  in- 
dustrial applications  of  the  first 
importance.  Electro-metallurgy 
depends  largely  upon  it,  and 
electro-chemistry  wholly.  The 
phenomenon  may  not,  however,  be 
always  beneficial.  In  industrial 
practice  the  electric  current  is 
generated  and  caused  to  flow 
through  the  cells  by  means  of  a 
dynamo  ;  but  a  current  may  be 
induced  in  the  cell  itself,  as  in  the 
ordinary  voltaic  or  galvanic  bat- 
teries, by  the  employment  of  two 
dissimilar  metals  immersed  in  a 
suitable  electrolyte.  A  current 
may  even  be  set  up  between  two 
metals  of  the  same  kind,  provided 
there  be  a  slight  difference  in  their 
molecular  or  chemical  structure. 
Such  a  current  may  be  very  slight, 
but  still  sufficient  to  set  up  elec- 
trolysis if  other  conditions  are 
favourable.  Hence,  in  the  case  of 
machinery  or  metal  structures 
immersed  in  water,  or  hi  solutions, 
we  may  have  all  the  conditions 
necessary  to  set  up  electrolytic 
action  and  decomposition.  See 
Cell;  Electro-Chemistry;  Electro- 
Metallurgy;  Voltameter. 


Electrolysis.    A  and  B  arc  inverted 

test-tubes    collecting    the    oxygen 

and  hydrogen  set  free  from  water 

by  electrolytic  action 

Electrolyte.  Term  given  by 
Faraday  to  a  substance  capable  of 
being  electrolysed.  It  is  thus  the 
term  by  which  the  bath  of  an 
electrolytic  cell  is  known  ;  it  may 
be  either  a  solution  such  as  a 
dilute  acid,  or  of  a  metallic  salt 
such  as  sulphate  of  copper,  or  it 
may  be  a  mass  of  molten  metallic 
compound.  See  Electrolysis. 

Electro-Magnetism.  Term 
used  for  the  branch  of  science 
which  deals  with  the  connexion 
between  electrical  and  magnetic 
phenomena.  In  1819  Hans  Chris- 
tian Oersted  (q.v.)  discovered  that 
a  wire  conveying  an  electric  current 
is  surrounded  by  a  magnetic  field, 
and  that  a  freely  moving  magnetic 
needle  sets  itself  at  right  angles  to 
the  wire  carrying  the  current. 
Oersted's  discovery  was  followed 
by  the  researches  of  D.  F.  J.  Arago 
and  A.  M.  Ampere  and  others,  but 
it  remained  to  Michael  Faraday 
(q.v.)  to  show  how  to  obtain  elec- 
tricity from  magnetism,  and  there- 
by lay  the  foundations  of  the 
modern  dynamo  and  the  extensive 
electrical  industry  of  the  present 
day.  See  Dynamo  ;  Electricity  ; 
Magnetism. 

Electro-Metallurgy.  The  most 
important  advance  in  metallurgy 
since  the  development  of  the  Bes- 
semer and  Thomas-Gilchrist  pro- 
cesses is  represented  by  the  appli- 
cation of  electricity  to  the  extrac- 
tion of  metals  from  their  ores,  and 
to  metal  refining.  In  its  broad 
sense  the  term  electro-metallurgy 
covers  the  entire  field  of  the 
electrical  treatment  of  metalliferous 
ores  and  the  working  of  metals 
by  electricity,  and  thus  includes 
electro  -plating,  the  use  of  the  elec- 
tric furnace,  and  electric  welding, 
all  of  which  subjects  are  treated 
under  their  respective  headings. 

Electro-metallurgy  is  an  entirely 
modern  art  which  sprang  into  life 
after  the  discovery  by  Volta  of  the 
galvanic  cell  in  the  first  year  of 
the  19th  century.  Three  different 
types  of  processes  occur  in  this 
branch  of  metallurgy ;  first,  those 


in  which  the  action  is  purely  elec- 
trolytic, i.e.  does  not  depend  on 
any  heating  effect  of  the  electric 
current ;  secondly,  those  in  which 
electrolytic  action  and  heating  are 
combined ;  and  thirdly,  those  in 
which  the  effect  desired  is  brought 
about  solely  by  the  heat  developed 
by  the  electric  current. 

The  first  class  of  these  processes 
is  well  represented  by  the  electro- 
lytic refining  of  copper,  by  which 
the  larger  portion  of  the  metallic 
copper  of  the  world  is  now  pro- 
duced, nearly  the  whole  of  the 
production  of  the  U.S.A.  being  so 
treated.  The  principle  of  the  pro- 
cess has  been  explained  in  the 
article  electrolysis  ;  in  practice  the 
material  operated  upon  is  either 
"  blister "  copper  or  converter 


Electro-Metallurgy.    Diagrammatic 
view  of  copper-refining  vat.  See  text 

copper  (see  Copper).  Both  contain 
considerable  impurities,  including 
gold  or  silver,  and  usually  some  of 
each,  and  the  treatment  may  be 
either  chiefly  a  pure  refining  opera- 
tion or  a  process  for  the  recovery 
of  the  precious  metals,  which  are 
frequently  present  in  sufficient 
quantities  to  pay  for  the  cost  of 
the  entire  treatment. 

The  operation  is  carried  out  in 
large  wooden  vats"  as  indicated  in 
the  accompanying  illustration,  - 
where  A  represents  a  plate  of  the 
crude  copper  to  be  refined  (the 
anode),  and  B,  a  very  thin  plate  of 
the  purest  copper  available,  usu- 
ally electrotype  copper  (the  cath- 
ode). The  bath  in  which  the  plates 
are  suspended  (the  electrolyte)  is 
a  solution  of  copper  sulphate  in 
water  acidulated  with  sulphuric 
acid,  the  whole  forming  an  electro- 
lytic cell.  The  electric  current  from 
a  dynamo  enters  the  cell  at  +, 
passes  through  the  plate  A,  across 
the  bath,  up  the  plate  B,  and  out 
at  — .  The  current  decomposes  the 
solution,  throwing  out  the  copper 
which  is  deposited  in  a  practically 
pure  condition  on  the  cathode,  the 
thin  copper  plate.  At  the  same 
time  the  plate  of  crude  copper 
begins  to  be  broken  down ;  the 
copper  goes  into  solution  taking 
the  place  of  that  removed  from  the 
solution  and  deposited  on  the 
cathode  ;  any  iron  and  zinc  present 
in  the  crude  metal  will  also  be  dis- 
solved; but  the  gold,  silver,  and  fre- 
quently other  metals  present,  while 


ELECTROMETER 

set  free  by  the  action,  will  not  be  dis- 
solved, but  will  settle  to  the  bottom 
of  the  vat  in  the  form  of  slime. 

The  action  goes  on  so  long  as 
there  is  any  copper  left  at  the  anode 
and  the  current  is  continued,  or 
until  the  bath  becomes  "  sick " 
with  the  dissolved  impurities, 
when  the  current  is  cut  off,  the 
bath  allowed  to  settle  so  that  all 
the  gold  and  silver  may  go  down, 
the  liquid  carefully  decanted,  and 
the  slimes  removed  for  separate 
treatment  for  the  recovery  of  the 
precious  metals.  The  cathode  will 
have  grown  in  thickness  by  the 
deposition  of  pure  copper,  and  is 
removed  for  further  treatment 
because,  while  it  contains  only 
minute  traces  of  foreign  sub- 
stances— perhaps  4  or  5  parts  in 
10,000  parts  of  the  metal— its 
physical  condition  is  too  spongy  to 
allow  it  to  be  sent  directly  into  the 
market  It  is,  therefore,  melted 
and  cast  into  ingots,  and  appears 
in  commerce  in  that  form  as  elec- 
trolytic copper.  The  solution, 
loaded  as  it  is  with  impurities,  is 
usually  thrown  away. 

The  refining  process  is  slow  ;  it 
cannot  be  hastened  beyond  a 
certain  limit  without  detriment  to 
the  quality  of  the  finished  metal ; 
the  crude  copper  plates  may  weigh 
anything  from  200  Ibs.  to  600  Ibs. 
each,  and  the  entire  operation  may 
require  several  weeks'  time.  A 
large  refinery  (there  are  now  estab- 
lishments turning  out  50,000  tons 
of  refined  copper  a  year)  contains 
a  considerable  number  of  cells 
which  are  formed  into  batteries, 
the  cells  in  each  being  connected 
in  series.  In  addition  to  the  simple 
type  of  cell  shown  in  the  diagram, 
a  more  complex  form  is  also  used, 
in  which  a  number  of  plates  are 
suspended  side  by  side,  the  crude 
and  the  pure  plates  alternating. 
The  process  is  of  great  importance 
not  only  because  it  is  a  highly  con- 
venient method  of  obtaining  cop- 
per, and  economical  especially 
where  cheap  water  power  is  avail- 
able for  the  development  of  elec- 
tricity, but  because  of  the  remark- 
able purity  which  may  be  given  to 
the  finished  metal,  which  makes  it 
peculiarly  suitable  for  electrical 
work. 

"  Base  bullion,"  i.e,  gold  or 
silver  collected  in  a  mass  of  lead, 
is  also  refined  by  this  process.  The 
bullion  is  cast  into  thin  plates, 
which  are  enclosed  in  muslin  bags 
and  made  the  anodes  of  a  cell ;  the 
cathode  is  a  thin  sheet  of  pure  lead, 
and  the  bath  is  a  solution  of  lead 
sulphate  in  sodium  acetate.  The 
lead  of  the  bullion  passes  into  so- 
lution, and  then  deposits  on  the 
lead  cathode,  leaving  the  gold  and  . 
silver,  and  perhaps  other  metals, 


2855 


ELECTROMETER 


in  the  muslin  bag  in  a  form  ready  Various  forms  of  electrometers 
for  subsequent  treatment.  The  have  been  proposed.  Interesting 
process  in  this  instance  may  be  designs  are  associated  with  the 
regarded  as  a  lead  refining  opera- 
Zinc  is  also  refined  on  similar 


tion. 
lines. 

The  Elmore  process  (q.v-.)  is  a 
particular  apph'cation  of  this  prin- 
ciple of  electro-metallurgy.  The  re- 
covery of  gold  from  a  cyanide  solu- 
tion in  the  Siemens'  modification 
of  the  McArthur-Forrest  process 
is  another  example  of  this  type 
of  electro-metallurgical  operations, 
only  in  this  instance  it  is  a  case 
of  the  extraction  of  a  metal  from 
its  ores,  and  not  of  refining.  It 
has  been  proposed  to  apply  this 
system  to  the  extraction  of  other 
metals,  particularly  copper,  from 
its  ores,  and  while  this  has  not  been 
done  on  any  considerable  scale, 
the  trend  of  metallurgical  science 
is  strongly  in  that  direction,  and 
there  can  be  little  doubt  that  this 
development  will  come  in  due 
course,  particularly  in  regions 
where  cheap  water  power,  as  in 
Tasmania,  is  available  contiguous 
to  the  source  of  the  ores.  Mount 
Lyell  mine  already  uses  the  electro- 
lytic process  in  the  treatment  of 
its  crude  copper  from  the  Bessemer 
converter. 

For    the    two    other    types   of 
electro-metallurgical  processes,  i.e. 
those  in  which  heat  is  an  active 
agent  either  by  itself  or  in  combi- 
nation with   elec- 
trolytic   action, 
what  is  essentially 
a  furnace,  and  not 
merely  a    cell    or 
battery  of  cells,  is 
required.  See  Alu- 
minium ;  Furnace. 

Electrometer. 
lustrum  e  n  t  for 
measuring  electri- 
city. It  is  to  be 
distinguished  from 
indicators,  such  as 
ampere  meters 
(ammeters)  and 
the  volt  meter, 
and  also  from 
electric  meters, 
although  all  these 


names  of  Dellmann  and  Peltier, 
but  the  first  really  effective  in- 
struments were  introduced  by  Lord 
Kelvin,  when  Sir  William  Thom- 
son. The  instruments  almost  uni- 
versally in  use  to-day  are  in  all 
essentials  of  Kelvin' s  design.  These 
are  mostly  two,  the  first  being  what 
Kelvin  called  the  attracted-disk 
or  trap-door  electrometer,  and  the 
other  the  well-known  quadrant 
electrometer. 

The  former  consists  essentially 
of  a  Leyden  jar  (q.v.)  containing 
special  provision  for  keeping  its 
interior  dry,  in  which  are  placed 
two  parallel  disks  of  metal,  one 
fixed  at  the  bottom  of  the  jar 
and  the  other  adjustable  and  sus- 
pended over  the  former  in  such  a 
way  that  it  can  be  moved  closer  to 
or  farther  away  from  the  fixed 
disk  as  required.  The  fixed  disk  has 
near  its  centre  a  hole  covered  with 
a  thin  piece  of  aluminium  constitu- 
ting the  trap-door  and  the  indi- 
cator of  the  instrument.  The  trap- 
door is  attached  to  a  fine  platinum 
wire,  and  prolonged  so  as  to  have 
the  form  of  a  lever,  the  arrange- 
ment being  such  that  it  may  be 


Electrometer.    Kelvin's  quadrant  electrometer,  showing 

instrument  as  a  whole  and  enlarged  views  of  quadrants 

and  needle.    For  full  explanation  see  text 


instruments  are  used  to  measure 
electricity.  These  latter  instru- 
ments, however,  are  the  more  per- 
manent, practical  instruments  of 
industrial  electricity  power  de- 
velopment and  commercial  supply. 
The  electrometer,  while  it  is  con- 
tinually being  used  for  practical 
purposes  and  for  certain  determina- 
tions is  indispensable,  is  more  an  in- 
strument of  research  and  of  special 
and '  delicate  tests  and  indications. 
Its  purpose  is  to  measure  difference 
of  potential,  that  is  to  say,  electric 
pressure ;  it  may  be  said  to  be  a 
highly  developed  electroscope. 


attracted  by  the  adjustable  disk 
above  it  when  the  electrical  con- 
nexion is  made.  The  potential 
difference  is  determined  by  the 
distance  apart  of  the  two  disks 
when  the  trap-door  is  in  a  deter- 
mined position  and  the  current 
passing.  This  distance  is  read  on 
minutely  divided  scales  forming 
parts  of  the  instrument. 

Kelvin's  quadrant  electrometer 
is  shown  in  its  essential  features  in 
the  views  appended,  showing  one 
form  of  the  instrument  as  a  whole, 
and  enlarged  views  of  the  quadrants 
and  the  enclosed  needle.  The  body 


ELECTRON 

of  the  instrument  is  again,  in  effect, 
a  Leyden  jar  A,  the  lower  portion  of 
which  is  filled  with  sulphuric  acid, 
which  serves  four  purposes — it  acts 
as  the  inner  coating  of  the  jar, 
keeps  the  interior  dry,  and  provides 
means  by  which  the  movement  of 
the  needle  may  be  steadied,  and  by 
which  the  magnetism  of  the  needle 
is  permanently  maintained.  The 
outside  of  the  jar  is  coated  with 
foil  in  the  usual  way  and  the  foil 
connected  with  the  earth. 

The  jar  is  a  powerful  condenser 
of  electricity,  and  exists  to  pro- 
vide what  may  be  called  an  electric 
atmosphere  so  powerful  and  steady 
that  it  will  be  unaffected  by  any 
electricity  that  may  enter  the  in- 
strument during  any  test.  B,  C,  are 
two  of  the  quadrants,  the  other  two 
being  removed  in  the  upper  left- 
hand  Fig.  so  that  the  needle  may  be 
seen.  They  are  secured  to  the  frame 
of  the  instrument.  The  quad- 
rants and  the  needle  are  shown 
on  an  enlarged  scale  in  the  Fig. 
They  are  small  brass  boxes  with 
two  open  sides  and  are  four  in 
number.  Opposite  quadrants  are 
joined  by  a  wire,  thus  making  them 
one  electrically.  The  "  needle " 
is  a  thin  vane  of  aluminium — the 
lightest  suitable  material — with 
rounded  ends  as  shown,  anything 
in  the  way  of  a  point  which  might 
tend  to  discharge  the  electricity  of 
the  vane  being  avoided.  The 
needle  is  attached  to  a  stiff  platinum 
wire  which  is  suspended  by  a  silk 
fibre  secured  at  the  top  of  the  in- 
strument so  that  it  hangs  verti- 
cally with  the  needle  floating 
horizontally  as  shown.  The  wire 
continues  below  the  needle  and 
ends  in  a  vertical  vane  dipping  in 
the  sulphuric  acid  which  serves  to 
steady  or  "  damp  "  the  movement 
of  the  needle.  M  is  a  small  concave 
mirror  attached  to  the  wire,  so 
that  it  revolves  with  the  needle. 

One  pair  of  quadrants  is  connected 
with  the  terminal,  T,  and  the  other 
pair  with  T1 ;  these  are  the  chief 
electrodes,  and  are  connected  to 
the  two  bodies,  the  potential  differ- 
ence of  which  is  to  be  determined, 
one  of  the  bodies  being  usually  the 
earth.  P  is  the  charging  electrode 
by  which  the  jar  is  charged.  When 
the  circuit  is  completed  the  needle 
will  turn  horizontally  in  one  direc- 
tion or  another,  according  as  to 
which  pair  of  quadrants  carries  the 
higher  potential  A  ray  of  light  fall- 
ing on  the  mirror  will  be  reflected 
through  a  narrow  slit  on  to  a  scale 
some  few  feet  away  as  the  mirror 
turns  in  sympathy  with  the  needle, 
the  intensity  of  the  potential  being 
shown  by  the  degrees  over  which 
the  reflected  ray  travels  on  the 
scale.  Various  modified  forms  of 
this  beautiful  instrument  are  now 


2856 

in  use.  The  torsion  balance  is 
also  a  form  of  electrometer.  See 
Electroscope  ;  Meter,  Electric. 

Electron.  Name  given  by 
Johnstone  Stoney  in  1891  to  the 
"  atom  "  of  electricity,  that  is  to 
say  the  smallest  quantity  that  can 
exist  by  itself  or  can  be  trans- 
ferred from  one  atom  of  matter 
to  another.  Electricity  is  supposed 
to  consist  of  enormous  quantities 
of  such  atomic  particles  aU  of  equal 
dimensions.  The  electron  is  nega- 
tive ;  and  a  charge  of  negative 
electricity  on  a  body  means  that 
there  is  no  accumulation  there  of 
electrons.  An  electron  may  exist 
by  itself  or  in  association  with 
atoms  or  molecules  of  matter  ;  but 
if  there  are  such  things  as  atoms  of 
positive  electricity  they  are  always 
combined  with  atoms  of  matter. 

The  origin  of  the  conception  of 
the  electron  may  be  traced  to  a  lec- 
ture delivered  by  Von  Helmholtz  in 
London  in  1881  on  the  electrical 
theories  of  Faraday ;  but  it  was 
more  immediately  developed  upon 
the  discovery  of  the  cathode  rays  of 
the  late  Sir  William  Crookes.  The 
phenomena  of  these  rays,  as  shown 
in  a  vacuum  tube  (q.v.)  in  which  a 
discharge  of  electricity  is  taking 
place,  can  be  best  explained  by 
supposing  that,  from  the  cathode  of 
the  tube,  flights  of  electric  particles 
or  corpuscles  proceed  at  tremendous 
velocities,  all  being  negatively  elec- 
trified with  equal  charges.  These 
particles  are  electrons.  The  single 
charge  of  a  negative  ion  in  elec- 
trolysis is  believed  to  be  identical 
with  the  electron  of  the  cathode 
rays.  The  electron  has  infinitely 
little  weight  and  dimensions. 

The  diameter  of  a  molecule  of 
hydrogen  is  perhaps  1 /42,000,000th 
part  of  an  inch,  but  it  is  140,000 
times  as  big  as  an  electron  ;  while 
the  weight  of  an  atom  of  hydrogen, 
the  lightest  substance  of  which  we 
have  any  actual  knowledge,  is  from 
1,800  to'2,800  times  that  of  an  elec- 
tron. It  will  be  seen  that  the  elec- 
tron is  a  philosophic  conception ; 
its  value  and  interest  lie  in  its  use- 
fulness in  explaining  the  pheno- 
mena of  electricity  and  matter.  See 
Electricity  ;  Ion  ;  Radio-activity. 

Electrophone.  Term  first  ap- 
plied by  a  French  scientist,  M.  C. 
Ader,  to  a  high  tension  electric 
sound-transmitting  instrument  of 
his  design,  intended  to  be  used  for 
the  purpose  of  enabling  conversa- 
tion to  be  carried  on  through  a  sub- 
marine electric  cable.  It  is  now  ap- 
plied to  the  apparatus  used  in  con- 
nexion with  an  ordinary  telephone 
service  for  the  purpose  of  enabling 
one  to  listen  to  a  concert  or  thea- 
trical performance  or  to  a  public 
speech  which  is  being  carried 
on  or  delivered  at  a  considerable 


ELECTROPHORUS 

distance  away.  By  its  aid  a  tele- 
phone subscriber,  in  London,  for 
example,  who  is  connected  also 
with  the  Electrophone  Exchange, 
may  sit  in  his  drawing-room  in  the 
evening  and  listen  to  any  one  of  a 
number  of  theatrical  performances 
going  on  at  the  theatres,  and  be 
switched  off  from  one  and  put  on 
to  another  as  he  may  desire.  The 
transmitters  are  usually  fitted  in 
sets  of  four  near  the  footlights  of 
the  stage  or  platform,  or  in  front  of 
the  speaker  at  a  public  meeting. 

Electrophorus.  The  simplest 
device  which  has  been  introduced 
for  the  development  of  electricity. 
It  was  invented  by  the  Italian 
scientist  Alessandro  Volta  in  1775, 
the  general  arrangement  being 
shown  in  the  accompanying  illus- 
tration. It  consists  of  a  metal  dish 
about  a  foot  in  diameter,  called  the 
sole-plate;  a  layer  of  some  good 
non-conducting  substance,  glass, 
indiarubber,  ebonite,  or  pitch  may 
be  used,  but  the  usual  material  is 
resin ;  a  metal  disk,  called  the 
cover,  rather  smaller  than  the  sole- 
plate  ;  and  a  glass  rod  attached 
to  the  disk  and  serving  the  purpose 
of  a  handle  by  which  it  may  be 
lifted. 

In  using  the  apparatus  the 
parts  are  usually  first  warmed  to 
ensure  that  they  are  dry,  and  the 
resin  base  is  then  struck  or  rubbed 
with  a  piece  of  cat's-skin  or  other 
fur,  or  a  piece  of  dry  woollen  cloth, 
and  is  thus  electrically  "  excited," 
the  charge  of  electricity  developed 
upon  it  being  negative.  The  metal 
upper  plate  is  then  placed  on  the 
resin  base  ;  it  does  not,  however, 
receive  from  the  resin  any  direct 
charge  of  electricity,  but  by  induc- 
tion develops  a  charge  of  positive 
electricity  on  the  surface  of  the 
disk  where  it  is  in  contact  with  the 
resin  and  a  charge  of  negative  elec- 
tricity on  the  upper  surface  of  the 
disk,  as  shown 
in  the  sectional 
illustration.  If 
now  the  upper 
surface  of  the 
disk  be  touched 
by  the  finger 
and  thus  put 
into  electrical 
contact  with 
the  earth,  or 
"earthed,"  to 
use  the  techni- 
cal expression, 
the  negative 
charge  of  the 
disk  will  pass 
to  earth  leav- 
ing the  disk 
positively  elec- 
trified through- 
out,andifngow 
planation  see  text  1 1  f  t  e  d  a w  ay 


ELECTRO-PLATING 


2857 


ELECTRO-PLATING 


from  the  resin  it  will  give  a  spark 
if  the  knuckle  or  any  conductor  be 
brought  near  it. 

The  sole-plate  performs  an  im- 
portant function  by  the  mutual  in- 
duction which  takes  place  between 
it  and  the  upper  plate  or  cover. 
When  the  latter  develops  its  posi- 
tive charge  on  being  put  in  contact 
with  the  earth,  the  sole-plate  re- 
ceives a  corresponding  negative 
charge  from  the  earth,  and  in  this 
way  the  original  positive  charge  of 
the  cover  due  to  the  negative 
charge  of  the  resin  base  may  be- 
come an  appreciable  amount.  The 
electrophorus  may  be  worked  al- 
most indefinitely,  i.e.  every  time 
the  cover  is  put  back  on  the  base 
and  its  surface  touched  with  the 
finger  the  action  takes  place  and  a 
spark  may  be  obtained  when  the 
cover  is  lifted. 

An  arrangement  has  been  de- 
vised by  which  the  connecting  of 
the  cover  with  the  earth  is  per- 
formed automatically.  In  this  form 
of  the  instrument  the  cover  is 
fitted  with  a  strip  of  tinfoil  which 
makes  contact  with  the  sole-plate 
when  the  cover  is  laid  on  the  resin, 
so  amounting  to  the  same  thing  as 
connecting  the  cover  with  the 
earth  through  the  finger.  Nothing 
is  created  by  the  action  of  the  elec- 
trophorus, although  something 
appears  to  be.  The  initial  charge  of 
electricity  is  due  to  the  mechanical 
energy  expended  in  rubbing  the 
resin,  supplemented  by  the  me- 
chanical energy  expended  in  lifting 
the  cover.  The  influence  electrical 
machine  may  be  regarded  as  a 
mechanical  electrophorus  acting  on 
the  same  principle. 

Electro-plating.  The  deposi- 
tion of  a  metal  on  another  sub- 
stance, usually  another  metal,  by 
electro-chemical  action,  either  for 
the  purpose  of  protecting  the 
latter  metal  from  corrosion,  as 
when  iron  is  electro-plated  with 
copper,  or  for  the  purpose  of  giving 
to  a  comparatively  cheap  metal  the 
appearance  and  some  of  the  pro- 
perties of  one  more  costly,  as  when 
a  teapot  of  Britannia  metal  is 
plated  with  silver.  The  art  is  based 
upon  the  discoveries  or  inventions 
of  Volta  and  Galvani  in  connexion 
with  electro-chemical  action  at  the 
end  of  the  18th  century.  The  first 
application  of  those  discoveries  to 
plating  appears  to  have  been  made 
by  Jacobi,  at  St.  Petersburg,  who, 
in  1838,  published  a  description  of 
his  process  of  reproducing  line  en- 
gravings on  copper  by  galvanic 
action.  A  similar  application  was 
made  about  the  same  time  in  Great 
Britain  by  .Thomas  Spencer,  of 
Liverpool,  by  whom  shortly  after- 
wards the  first  electro-plating  busi- 
ness was  started. 


The  scientific  principle  upon 
which  the  art  is  immediately  based 
is  described  in  the  article  on  elec- 
trolysis. The  operation  can  be 
carried  out  on  a  domestic  scale  with 
small  and  simple  apparatus  ;  but 
when  carried  out  on  a  commercial 
scale  a  large  vat  or  bath  is  used, 
constructed  usually  of  stout  wood 
lined  with  lead  or  slate,  though 
sometimes  asphalt  or  cement  is 
used,  or  the  vat  may  be  built  of 
enamelled  iron.  It  is  usually  rect- 
angular in  shape,  and  is  fitted  with 
a  flange  round  the  top,  to  which 
are  attached  two  rectangles  made 
of  brass  tubing,  one  being  a  little 
larger  all  round  and  fixed  a  little 
higher  than  the  other,  as  shown  in 
the  illustration.  The  rectangles, 
and  the  vat  itself,  are  insulated 
both  from  one  another  and  from 
the  earth. 

The  outer  ring  is  used  to  take  the 
current  into  the  vat,  and  is  there- 
fore known  as  the  anode  ring  ;  the 
current  passes  out  through  the 
other  rectangle,  the  cathode  ring. 
The  bath  is  filled  with  a  solution 
which  varies  according  to  the  na- 
ture of  the  work  to  be  done.  The 
electric  current  is  furnished  either 
by  a  dynamo  or  by  an  electric 
battery.  The  articles  to  be  plated, 
when  of  convenient  size,  are  sus- 
pended in  the  solution  by  means  of 
wires  from  crossbars  resting  on  the 
cathode  ring  ;  while  plates  of  the 
metal  which  is  to  be  deposited  on 
the  articles  are  suspended  from 
similar  bars  resting  on  the  outer 
or  anode  ring.  The  arrangement 
enables  a  considerable  number  of 
articles  to  be  placed  in  one  vat 
together  with  an  appropriate  num- 
ber of  anode  plates,  which  may  be 
disposed  along  the  brass  rectangle 
as  most  convenient. 

A  simple  example  will  serve  to 
illustrate  the  entire  process,  what- 
ever the  metal  that  is  to  be  de- 
posited. Let  it  be  supposed  that 
a  teapot  of  pewter  or  other  alloy  is 
to  be  plated  with 
silver.  The  teapot  is 
first  made  as  nearly 
as  possible  chemi- 
cally clean, 
which  is  done 


Electro-plating.  Bath  showing  how  articles 
are  electro-plated  with  silver 


by  first  boiling  it  in  an  alkaline  solu- 
tion to  remove  grease,  washing 
freely  in  water,  dipping  in  a  nitric 
acid  solution,  washing  again,  after 
which  it  is  "  quickened  "" by  dip- 
ping in  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  mer- 
cury in  order  to  deposit  a  film  of 
mercury  on  the  metal,  which  assists 
the  deposition  of  the  silver.  The 
wire  to  suspend  the  teapot  in  the 
bath  is  attached  immediately  after 
the  dipping  in  the  mercury  solu- 
tion in  order  that  the  teapot  need 
not  be  again  touched  with  the 
hands.  The  teapot  is  suspended  in 
the  vat  from  one  of  the  crossbars 
of  the  cathode  ring,  as  shown  in  the 
figure.  The  solution  is  prepared 
from  cyanide  of  potassium  and 
cyanide  of  silver  precipitated  from 
nitrate  of  silver,  in  water.  It  con- 
tains 1  oz.  of  silver  to  the  gallon. 

The  anode  plate  is  of  commerci- 
ally pure  silver  ;  it  is,  of  course,  con- 
nected with  the  positive  terminal 
of  the  dynamo  or  battery.  When 
the  current  passes,  the  silver  in  the 
bath  is  thrown  out  of  solution 
and  deposited  on  the  teapot,  while 
at  the  same  time  an  equal  amount 
of  silver  is  dissolved  off  the  anode 
plate,  and,  entering  into  solution 
in  the  bath,  takes  the  place  of  that 
deposited  on  the  teapot.  The  pro- 
cess goes  on  so  long  as  the  current  is 
maintained,  until  the  anode  is  en- 
tirely dissolved  or  until  as  much 
silver  has  been  deposited  on  the  tea- 
pot as  is  desired,  when  it  is  stopped. 
The  time  occupied  ranges  from 
two  hours  to  twelve  or  even 
longer,  according  to  the  work  to 
be  done  and  the  thickness  of  the 
deposition  or  plating  required.  The 
amount  actually  deposited  on  such 
an  article  as  a  teapot  is  about  1£  oz. 
per  square  foot  of  surface  covered, 
the  thickness  of  ordinary  writing- 
paper.  The  teapot,  as  it  leaves  the 
bath,  has  a  fine  granular-looking 
surface  of  chalky  whiteness.  The 
smooth,  bright  finish  of  the  shops 
is  given  by  polishing  with  wire 
brushes  kept 
moist  by  stale 
beer,  after  a 
thorough  wash- 
ing in  plain 
water,  dipping  in 
boiling  water, 
and  drying  in 
not  sawdust. 

While  silver  is 
the    chief   metal 
used   in  electro- 
plating, others 
commonly    e  m- 
ployed      are 
copper,  nickel,   and    gold. 
Gold-plate   is    usually  silver 
electro-plated     with     gold. 
During  recent  years  the  prac- 
tice of  plating  iron  with  cop- 
per has    greatly    developed; 


ELECTROSCOPE 

while  the  use  of  nickel- 
plated  articles  both  of 
ornament  and  utility  is 
rapidly  extending.  The 
process  Is  precisely  the 
same  as  that  which  has 
just  been  described  in  the  case 
of  the  teapot ;  the  only  differences 
being  in  the  solutions  and  in 
the  anode  plates  employed,  which 
must  be  prepared  according  to  the 
metal  to  be  deposited.  In  some 
cases  a  preliminary  plating  is 
given  to  promote  the  deposition 
and  adhesion  of  the  final  plating 
metal.  Thus,  when  iron  or  steel 
articles  are  to  be  nickel-plated  they 
are  first  given  a  coating  of  copper. 
Such  nickel-plated  articles  are  now 
largely  used  for  military  weapons, 
household  utensils,  and  parts  of 
bicycles,  motor-cycles,  and  motor- 
cars. Other  metals  occasionally 
deposited  include  tin,  on  iron  cast- 
ings ;  and  iron,  on  engraved  copper 
plates  or  on  electrotypes  to  give  a, 
harder  surface  so  as  to  permit  a 
greater  number  of  impressions  to 
be  taken.  See  Electrolysis. 

Electroscope.  Term  given  to  an 
instrument  universally  employed 
in  the  study  of  electricity  for  the 
purpose  of  determining  whether  a 
body  is  electrified  or  not,  and  if  so, 
the  character  of  the  electrification, 
whether  positive  or  negative.  In  its 
simplest  form  it  consists  of  two 
small  balls  of  pith  suspended  by  silk 
threads  from  the  arm  of  a  metal 
stand,  as  shown  below.  An 
almost  equally  simple  form  is  repre- 
sented by  the  balanced  needle,  simi- 
lar to  the  needle  of  a  mariner's 
compass,  devised  by  Dr.  Gilbert 
of  Colchester 
in  1600. 

The  usual 
modernform 


Electroscope.     Simple  pith  ball 
electroscope 

electroscope  consists  of  a  glass  bell 
jar  commonly  fitted  with  a  brass 
ring  round  the  bottom  or  fitted  to  a 
wooden  base  so  as  to  be  easily  re- 
movable. The  jar  has  a  stopper  of 
ebonite  in  which  is  fitted  a  stout 
brass  wire  with  a  removable  plate 
or  ball  at  the  top,  and  from  the 
bottom  of  which  two  strips  of  gold 
or  aluminium  leaf  depend.  Oppo- 
site each  strip  and  within  reach  of 
its  end  is  a  strip  of  tin  foil  attached 
to  the  interior  surface  of  the  jar. 
To  ensure  the  dryness  of  the  in- 
terior of  the  jar  when  very  delicate 
determinations  are  to  be  made,  a 
shallow  dish  containing  sulphuric 


2858 

acid  may  be  placed  within.   A  glass 
rod  electrically  excited  by  having 
been    rubbed,     if    brought 
near  the    instrument,    will 
cause    the    leaves    to 
repel  one  another;  in 
favourable   conditions 
so     sensitive     is    the 
instrument     that 
the     leaves     will 
begin     to     move 
apart    while   the 
glass  rod  is  several 
feet  away.  What 
happens    is   that 
the  electricity  on 
the   rod  attracts 
the  opposite  kind 
into  the  plate  or 
knob  of  the  elec- 
troscope and  re- 


Electroscope. 
Modern  form  of 
gold    leaf    elec- 
troscope 


pels  the  same  kind  into  the  leaves, 
which  fly  apart  in  accordance  with 
the  well-known  law  that  like  elec- 
tricities repel  and  unlike  attract. 

In  determining  the  particular 
kind  of  electricity  on  an  object,  the 
electroscope  is  first  charged  by 
touching  the  knob  or  plate  with  a 
glass  rod  that  has  been  rubbed  with 
silk,  which  causes  the  leaves  to 
diverge  under  the  influence  of  posi- 
tive electricity.  If  then  the  body 
whose  character  is  to  be  determined 
be  brought  near  the  plate  and  the 
leaves  diverge  still  further,  the  body 
is  electrified  positively ;  if  the 
leaves  close,  it  has  a  negative 
charge.  The  strips  of  foil  on  the 
sides  of  the  jar  are  used  to  prevent 
the  leaves  from  being  damaged  by 
the  violence  with  which  they  are 
repelled  or  from  adhering  to  the 
sides  of  the  jar.  The  instant  they 
touch  the  strips  of  foil  they  lose 
their  charge  to  the  earth,  and  fall 
back  into  their  normal  positions. 
In  Volta's  condensing  electro- 
scope the  normal  plate  of  an 
electroscope  is  enlarged  and 
a  second  is  prepared  to  rest 
upon  it  as  shown  ;  the  under 
surface  of  the  latter  is  well 
varnished  to  insulate  it  from  the 
lower;  the  upper  surface  of  the 
latter  may  also  be  varnished.  The 
two  plates  make  a  condenser.  In 
using  the  instrument  one  or  other 
of  the  plates  is  charged  by  means 
of  the  body  to  be  tested  while  the 


I 


Electroscope.     Balanced  needle  type 
invented  by  Dr.  Gilbert  of  Colchester 

other  is  connected  to  earth  ;  they 
thus  receive  charges  of  opposite 
kind.  If  now  the  upper  plate  be 
raised  the  charges  become  intensi- 
fied in  accordance  with  the  prin- 
ciple of  the  electric  condenser, 
the  one  becoming  more  strongly 


ELECTROTYPING 

negative  and  the  other  more 
strongly  positive,  with  the  result 
that  an  extremely  weak  charge  will 
be  detected  by  the  divergence  of 
the  leaves. 

By  means  of  this  instrument 
Volta  demonstrated  that  the  con- 
tact of  dissimilar  metals  in  air  gave 
rise  to  opposite  kinds  of  electrifica- 
tion. The  electroscope  has  rendered 
valuable  service  in  the  study  of 
radio-activity  and  of  the  character- 
istics and  properties  of  atoms. 

Electrostatics.  Term  applied 
to  that  branch  of  the  science  of 
electricity  which  is  concerned  with 
electricity  at  rest  or  with  electric 
charges,  and  is  particularly  occu- 
pied with  the  measurement  of  such 
charges.  The  science  deals  alike 
with  the  most  elementary  facts  of 
electricity,  such  as  the  phenomena 
exhibited  by  a  rubbed  glass  rod, 
and  with  the  profound  problems 
associated  with  the  electrical  rela- 
tions of  atomic  particles. 

Electrostatic  machines  are  ma- 
chines for  the  conversion  of  me- 
chanical work  into  electric  energy 
and  are  of  two  kinds,  frictional 
and  influence  machines.  Rams- 
den's  plate  electrical  machine  be- 
longs to  the  former  class,  and 
Wimshurst's  well  -  known  appa- 
ratus to  the  latter. 

Electrotyping.  Particular  form 
of  electro -deposition.  It  differs 
from  electro-plating  in  that  the 
metal  deposited  does  not  become 
an  intrinsic  portion  of  the  article  on 
which  it  is  laid,  but  is  removed 


Electroscope.      Volta's  condensing 
electroscope 

from  the  latter  after  it  has  been  de- 
posited ;  its  object  is  not  to  encase 
or  permanently  cover  one  metal 
with  another,  but  to  make  a  copy 
of  a  surface.  It  is  largely  used 
for  making  reproductions  of  coins 
and  medals  and  other  works  of  art, 
and  for  preparing  "  electrotypes  " 
for  printing,  both  from  typed 
matter  set  up  in  the  usual  way  and 
from  engraved  surfaces  in  wood  or 
metal.  Electrotype  is  the  term 
given  to  the  product  of  the  process. 
If  a  reproduction  of  a  medal  is 
required,  and  the  original  is  not  too 


ELECTRUM 

valuable  to  be  risked  in  the  deposit- 
ing solution,  it  may  be  used  as  the 
cathode  of  the  operation.  It  is  pre- 
pared by  having  a  wire  twisted 
round  its  edge  leaving  sufficient 
length  for  attaching  to  the  ter- 
minal of  the  electric  battery  or 
machine.  The  face  which  is  not  to 
be  copied  is  embedded  in  gutta- 
percha  ;  the  face  to  be  reproduced 
is  slightly  greased  with  olive 
oil  by  means  of  a  fine  hair  brush, 
to  prevent  a  too  powerful  ad- 
hesion of  the  deposited  metal, 
after  which  the  medal  is  ready  for 
the  bath. 

The  solution  is  prepared  according 
to  the  metal  to  be  deposited,  usu- 
ally copper  ;  after  from  twelve  to 
twenty-four  hours  the  deposit  will 
have  acquired  the  necessary  thick- 
ness, probably  about  O'OIS  in.,  and 
the  medal  will  be  removed  from  the 
bath,  when  the  electrotype  may 
be  detached.  If  now  a  mould  be 
taken  of  this  electrotype,  and  then 
another  electrotype  taken  off  that 
mould,  the  second  electrotype  will 
be  a  duplicate  of  the  face  of  the 
original  medal.  In  a  similar  way  a 
duplicate  of  the  other  face  of  the 
medal  may  be  obtained,  when  the 
two  halves  may  be  trimmed  and 
soldered  together,  making  a  com- 
plete reproduction  of  the  original, 
which  may  then  be  electro-plated, 
if  required,  with  any  appropriate 
metal.  In  this  way  the  copies  of 
rare  or  historic  coins  and  medals  in 
museums  have  been  made. 

If  the  original  coin  or  medal  is 
too  precious  to  be  risked  in  the 
electrotype  bath  a  plaster  cast  will 
be  prepared,  or,  better,  a  mould  in 
gutta-percha  by  the  aid  of  pressure, 
which  is  indeed  precisely  the  pro- 
cess followed  in  the  preparation  of 
an  electrotype  from  a  forme  of  type. 
The  type  is  first  thoroughly  cleaned, 
dried,  and  blackleaded,  one  object 
of  the  latter  being  to  prevent  too 
firm  adhesion  of  the  deposited 
metal.  A  shallow  tray  is  filled  with 
a  molten  mixture  of  beeswax,  tur- 
pentine, and  plumbago,  and  the 
surface,  when  set,  blackleaded.  The 
forme  of  type  is  then  forced  into  this 
mixture  by  pressure  and  a  mould 
thus  produced.  This  mould  is 
coated  all  over  with  plumbago,  and 
has  a  copper  wire  embedded  in  it 
all  round  the  impression  which  is 
to  be  reproduced  in  order  to  in- 
crease the  conductivity  of  the 
mould  when  in  the  bath,  the  wire 
being  connected  with  the  terminal 
of  the  vat,  in  which  the  mould  be- 
comes the  cathode. 

The  anode  is  a  plate  of  copper1 
and  the  solution  is  copper  sulphate. 
A  powerful  current  is  used  to  give 
a  rapid  deposition  and  secure  the 
necessary  thickness  in  the  shortest 
possible  time.  When  the  electro- 


2859 

type  is  finished  in  the  bath  it  is 
removed  and  separated  from  the 
wax  bed  by  melting  the  latter  in 
hot  water,  after  which  it  is  laid  face 
down  on  an  iron  plate,  heated,  sur- 
rounded by  a  frame  of  iron  bars, 
and  "  backing  "  metal  poured  over 
it  to  a  depth  of  from  J  to  f  in.  It  is 
then  trued  up  on  a  steel  plate  by 
hammering  till  perfectly  flat, 
trimmed,  and  mounted  on  a 
wooden  block  to  make  it  "  type 
high";  or  if  it  is  to  be  used  on  a 
rotary  printing  machine  it  is  bent 
by  rollers  to  the  required  curva- 
ture. If  many  impressions  are  to  be 
taken  the  electrotype  so  prepared 
may  be  "  steel  faced  "  by  having  a 
deposit  of  iron  given  to  it  by  a 
separate  operation  in  the  electro- 
lytic bath.  While  still  important, 
improvements  in  the  art  of  stereo- 
typing have  deprived  the  electro- 
type of  some  of  the  value  which  at 
one  time  it  possessed.  See,  Elec- 
trolysis ;  Printing. 


ELECTRUM 

Electrum.  Term  at  various 
times  applied  to  different  materials. 
In  ancient  days  it  was  given  to 
amber,  in  the  Middle  Ages  to  com- 
mon brass,  in  modern  times  to  an 
alloy  of  copper  8  parts,  nickel  4, 
and  zinc  3'5  (sometimes  the  nickel 
is  6  parts),  a  beautiful  artificial 
silver  with  a  bluish  tint  much  used 
for  the  manufacture  of  drawing 
and  other  instruments  ;  also  to  an 
alloy  of  copper,  zinc,  and  tin,  and 
to  native  minerals  containing  gold 
and  silver,  the  latter  running  from 
20  p.c.  to  50  p.c.  An  alloy  of  gold 
and  silver  (15  p.c.  to  35  p.c.  silver) 
known  by  this  term,  of  a  pale  yel- 
low colour,  hence  the  association  of 
the  term  with  amber,  was  much 
used  by  the  early  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans for  ornaments  and  coins ; 
the  earliest  coins  known  were 
made  of  it ;  while  rods  having  651 
parts  gold  and  334  silver  in  1,000 
were  used  as  money  in  Asia  Minor. 
See  Metallurgy. 


E-ectrotyping.    1.  Smoothing  out  the  wax.    2.  Wax  mould  in  position.     3.  Wax 

impression  from  block.    4.  Copper  shell  on  mould  when  taken  from  the  battery. 

5.  Peeling  copper  shell  from  mould.    6.  Pouring  in  backing  of  molten  lead 


ELEGY 

Elegy  (Gr.  elegos).  _.  Originally 
a  threnody  or  lament  written  in 
elegiac  metre,  each  couplet  in 
which  consisted  of  a  hexameter 
and  a  pentameter.  The  theme  of 
such  songs  varied,  the  term  being 
employed  for  the  form  rather  than 
the  spirit.  In  modern  literature  the 
elegy  has  mostly  been  associated 
with  the  spirit  rather  than  the 
form,  and  has  come  to  be  under- 
stood as  a  short  mourning,  or  me- 
morial song,  usually  a  tribute  to  an 
individual, but  sometimes  of  a  more 
generally  mournful  character,  as  in 
the  case  of  Gray's  Elegy  Written 
in  a  Country  Churchyard,  1751. 

Earlier  poets  used  the  term  with 
wider  significance,  as  when  Donne 
described  a  series  of  his  amatory 
poems  as  Elegies  and  labelled  his 
memorial  poems  specifically  Fune- 
ral Elegies.  Although  there  were 
earlier  memorial  poems  of  distinc- 
tion, such  as  the  beautiful  anony- 
mous The  Pearl  (14th  century) 
and  Chaucer's  Book  of  the  Duch- 
ess (c.  1369),  these  can  hardly  be 
strictly  described  as  elegies  owing 
to  their  length  and  treatment. 
Some  of  the  more  notable  elegies 
in  English  are  Spenser's  Daphnaida, 
1591  (on  Lady  Douglas),  and  As- 
trophel,1595  (on  Sir  Philip  Sidney); 
Milton's  Lycidas,  1638  (on  Edward 
King);  Shelley's  Adonais,  1821 
(on  John  Keats) ;  Tennyson's  Ode 
on  the  Death  of  the  Duke  of  Wel- 
lington, 1852  (his  In  Memoriam  is 
rather  a  series  of  elegiac  poems 
than  an  elegy) ;  Matthew  Arnold's 
Thyrsis,  1867  (on  Arthur  Hugh 
Clough);  Swinburne's  Ave  Atque 
Vale,  1867 ;  and  William  Watson's 
Lachrymae  Musarum,  1892  (on 
Tennyson).  See  Poetry  ;  consult 
also  English  Elegies,  ed.  J.  C.  Bai- 
ley, 1900. 

Element  (Lat.  elementum,  first 
principle).  In  chemistry,  a  simple 
substance  which  as  yet  has  not 
been  decomposed  further  by  any 
method  of  ultimate  analysis.  The 
earliest  elements,  as  stated  by 
Aristotle,  were  not  actual  sub- 
stances, but  rather  properties  or 
conditions  of  matter.  Aristotle 
called  earth,  water,  air,  and  fire 
elements,  and  the  alchemists  added 
others,  such  as  salt,  sulphur,  and 
mercury.  Boyle  first  defined  an 
element  in  its  present  sense,  and 
Lavoisier  compiled  the  first  list  of 
23  substances  which  could  not  be 
resolved  into  simpler  forms.  The 
number  is  now  83,  and  there  are 
possibly  others,  not  included,  as 
the  evidence  of  their  elementary 
nature  is  not  conclusive. 

The  whole  mass  of  the  globe — 
earth,  water,  and  air — and  the 
planets  is  made  up  of  these  ele- 
ments and  compounds  formed  of 
them.  The  earth's  crust,  for 


2860 

example,  consists  to  the  extent  of 
about  50  p.c.  of  combined  oxygen, 
and  of  silicon,  the  next  most 
plentiful  element,  to  the  extent  of 
about  30  p.c.  Some  elements,  on 
the  contrary,  such  as  radium,  are 
very  rare,  but  the  evidence  of 
their  elementary  character  has 
been  satisfactorily  established. 
New  elements  are  discovered 
chiefly  by  examining  newly  found 
minerals,  the  spectroscope  being 
employed  for  the  purpose. 

The  composition  of  the  sun  and 
stars  is  also  determined  by  the  spec- 
troscope. In  recent  years  groups  of 
elements  were  discovered  by  Sir 
William  Crookes  in  the  rare  earths, 
by  Sir  William  Ramsay  in  the 
atmosphere,  and  by  other  workers 
as  the  result  of  the  discovery  of 
radium  by  Pierre  Curie.  The 
alchemists  strove  to  transmute 
baser  metals  into  gold,  but,  so  far 
as  is  known,  never  succeeded  in 
doing  so.  Sir  William  Ramsay, 
however,  advanced  evidence  in 
regard  to  the  radio-active  group  of 
elements  to  show  that  transmuta- 
tion or  disintegration  actually 
takes  place.  It  is  not  unreasonable 
to  suppose  that  these  examples  of 
transmutation  in  comparatively 
short  periods  may  by  analogy  be 
supposed  to  be  taking  place  in 
other  elements  now  regarded  as 
stable.  See  Chemical  Signs ;  Earth. 

Elemental  Spirits  OR  ANGELS 
OF  THE  ELEMENTS.  Spirits  supposed 
to  rule  over  the  four  elements  of 
fire,  water,  air,  and  earth.  The 
Jewish  Kabbalists  and  the  Gnos- 
tics of  early  Christian  days  largely 
developed  this  idea  and  introduced 
a  host  of  minor  angels  or  spirits 
who  had  charge  of  departments  of 
the  four  great  elements,  such  as 
wind,  rain,  etc.  Hence  arose  an 
elaborate  system  of  angelology  not 
unlike  demonology,  but  generally 
beneficial  or  at  least  harmless  in 
its  influence.  In  the  Middle  Ages, 
the  spirits  of  fire  were  known  as 
Salamanders  ;  those  of  water  as 
Nixies  or  Undines ;  those  of  air  as 
Sylphs ;  those  of  earth  as  Gnomes. 
The  name  Salamander  survives  as 
that  of  a  batrachian  reptile  sup- 
posed to  be  capable  of  living  in  fire. 

Elemi.  Resinous  exudation 
from  a  plant  the  botanical  source 
of  which  is  still  undetermined. 
Probably  the  plant  is  Canarium 
commune.  The  resin  is  imported 
from  Manila  and  is  of  a  pale  yellow 
colour  resembling  stiff  honey  in 
consistence.  It  has  an  odour 
which  reminds  one  of  fennel.  Elemi 
was  formerly  used  in  medicine  as  a 
stimulating  application  to  wounds. 

Elephant  (Gr.-Lat.  elephas). 
Family  of  large,  hoofed  mammals, 
surpassing  in  size  all  existing  ani- 
mals except  the  whales.  Only  two 


ELEPHANT 

species  now  survive,  the  African 
and  the  Asiatic,  though  several 
others  are  known  in  the  fossil  state. 
The  feature  which  distinguishes  the 
elephant  from  all  other  mammals  is 
the  development  of  the  nose  into  a 
long  flexible  trunk,  used  by  the 
animal  in  conveying  food  to  the 
mouth,  and  also  for  drawing  up 
water  which  is  afterwards  squirted 
down  the  throat. 

In  respect  of  dentition  the  ele- 
phant is  unique  among  animals. 
The  incisors,  which  areQaly  found 
in  the  upper  jaw  and  are  two  in 
number,  are  developed  in  the  male, 
sometimes  in  the  female  also,  into  a 
pair  of  long  curved  tusks.  These 
tusks  are  quite  different  from  those 
of  the  boar  and  other  animals, 
which  are  simply  large  canine  teeth. 
The  elephant  has  no  canines.  Only 
two  cheek  teeth  or  molars,  on  each 
side  of  both  jaws,  are  ever  in  use  at 
any  one  time;  but  four  others 
exist  beneath  the  gums.  These 
teeth  are  of  great  size,  and  the  sur- 
face consists  of  a  large  number  of 
transverse  ridges  of  enamel.  As 
these  molars  become  worn  out  they 
are  replaced  by  the  reserve  teeth, 
which  grow  through  the  gum. 

The  ponderous  body  of  the  ele- 
phant is  encased  in  thick  wrinkled 
skin,  covered  sparsely  with  coarse 
hair  in  the  young  animal  but  al- 
most bare  in  the  adult.  The  legs 
are  massive,  and  the  knee  joints 
are  much  lower  down  than  in  most 
hoofed  animals.  This  causes  the 
elephant,  when  lying  down,  to  rest 
with  the  hind  legs  bent  much  in  the 
fashion  of  a  kneeling  man,  while  the 
fore  legs  are  thrust  out  in  front. 

The  head  is  enormous,  and  sug- 
gests the  presence  of  a  large  brain. 
But  this  appearance  is  deceptive. 
The  brain  is  curiously  small  for  the 
size  of  the  animal  and  is  placed  at 
the  back  of  the  head,  the  huge  skull 
consisting  of  a  mass  of  bone  com- 
pletely honeycombed  by  cells,  an 
arrangement  which  provides  for 
the  attachment  of  the  great  jaw 
and  trunk  muscles  without  making 
the  skull  so  heavy  as  to  be  a  burden. 

Elephants  are  entirely  vegetar- 
ian in  diet,  feeding  on  the  leaves 
and  twigs  of  trees  and  on  grass 
which  they  gather  by  the  aid  of 
their  trunks.  Trees  are  often  up- 
rooted by  pressure  with  the  head 
for  the  purpose  of  feeding  on  the 
branches.  Where  force  is  required, 
the  elephant  relies  upon  leverage 
with  the  tusks  or  pressure  with  the 
skull.  The  trunk  is  a  delicate  sense 
organ  for  smell  and  touch,  and  the 
animal  is  always  careful  to  keep  it 
out  of  the  way  of  rough  usage. 
When  an  elephant  holds  a  heavy 
weight  it  rests  it  on  the  tusks  or 
holds  it  with  the  teeth,  using  the 
trunk  only  to  steady  it. 


ELEPHANT 


2861 


ELEPHANT  APPLE 


The  Indian  elephant  is  easily  dis- 
tinguished by  its  massive  bulbous 
head,  comparatively  small  ears,  and 
the  presence  of  four  nails  on  the 
hind  feet.  It  is  dark  grey  in  colour, 
but  is  occasionally  more  or  less 
blotched  with  white.  This  elephant 
is  rarely  much  more  than  9  ft.  high 
at  the  shoulder.  It  has  been  known 
to  live  in  captivity  for  over  a  cen- 
tury, and  in  the  wild  state  probably 
attains  a  much  greater  age. 

The  African  elephant  has  a 
smaller  and  narrower  head,  very 
large  fanlike  ears,  and  only  three 
nails  on  the  hind  feet.  The  molar 
teeth  present  differences  in  struc- 
ture from  those  of  the  Indian 
species,  and  the  trunk  has  two 
finger-like  processes  instead  of  one. 
It  also  attains  a  greater  height,  has 
longer  legs,  and  a  generally  less 
heavy  and  clumsy  appearance. 
Owing  to  continuous  destruction 


w . 


Elephant.       Specimen  of  Jhe  Asiatic  elephant  in  the  Zoological  Gardens, 

London,  showing  the  whitish  markings  characteristic  of  this  species.      Above, 

African  elephant 

Photo  of  Asiatic  elephant  by  Gambier  Bolton,  F.Z.S. 


for  the  sake  of  its  tusks,  the  African 
elephant  has  been  greatly  reduced 
in  numbers.  This  elephant  is  of 
more  savage  disposition  than  the 
Indian  species.  Economically  the 
African  elephant  is  valued  for  its 
ivory,  the  Indian  for  its  qualities  as 
a  draught  animal. 

In  1917  two  mature  specimens, 
male  and  female,  of  dwarf  African 
elephants  were  brought  to  England. 
They  measured  about  5  ft.  6  ins.  to 
6  ft.  in  height.  See  illus.  facing  p.  428. 

Elephant.  Island  of  the  South 
Shetlands,  Antarctica.  The  most 
northerly  of  the  group,  it  lies  S.E. 
of  Cape  Horn  and  Drake  Strait.  ., 

Elephant,  ORDER  OF  THE.  Dan- 
ish order  of  knighthood  refounded 
in  1458  from  an  earlier  institution, 


and  remodelled 
in  1693.  It  is 
limited  to  30 
knights,  exclu- 
sive of  the  so- 
vereign and  his 
sons,  and  is 
conferred  only 
upon  Protest- 
ants. The  badge 
is  a  white  ele- 
phant ;  the 
ribbon  is  of 
light  blue  watered  silk. 

Elephant  and  Castle.  Design 
found  in  early  MSS.  and  in  medie- 
val times.  Elephants  carrying 
armed  men  into  battle  were  used 
in  the  East  from  immemorial  days. 
They  were  first  encountered  by  the 


Order  of  the  Ele- 
phant, Danish 
badge  of  knighthood 


Romans  during  the  war  with  Pyr- 
rhus  in  the  3rd  century  B.c/  Poly- 
aenus  records  that  an  elephant 
carrying  archers  in  a  houdah  led 
the  advance  iHHBMdiMHB 
when  Julius 
Caesar  forced 
the  passage  of 
the  Thames 
near  Chertsey 
in  54  B.C. 

Caesar  Fred- 
erick, a  V  e  n  e-    Elephant  and  Castle 
tian    merchant  badge 

of  the  16th  century,  states 
that  the  king  of  Pegu  had  4,000 
war  elephants  with  castles  on 
their  backs,  and  the  Cutlers'  Com- 
pany, who  had  a  large  trade  in 
ivory,  adopted  the  animal  so 
castled  as  their  crest. 

Elephant  and  Castle.  London 
tavern  in  the  met.  bor.  of  South- 
wark,  1J  m.  from  Ludgate  Hill. 
The  name  is  now  applied  also  to 
the  district  of  which  it  is  the 
centre.  The  tavern  stands  at  a 
point  from  which  six  thoroughfares 
radiate:  New  Kent  Road,  Wai- 
worth  Road,  Newington  Butts,  St. 
George's  Road,  Londo.n  Road,  and 
Newington  Causeway.  See  London. 

Elephanta  OR  GHARAPURI.  Is- 
land in  Bombay  Harbour,  India. 
From  4  m.  to  4£  m.  in  circumfer- 
ence, it  consists  of  two  long  hills. 
It  was  so  called  by  the  Portuguese 
from  a  large  stone  elephant.  The 
island  is  famous  for  its  caves  orrock 
temples,  supposed  to  date  from  the 
9th  century.  See  illus.  p.  1799. 

Elephant  Apple  (Feronia  ele- 
phantum).  Large  evergreen  tree 
of  the  natural  order  Rutaceae.  A 
native  of  Coromandel,  it  has 
glossy  leaflets  and  white  flowers. 
The  fruit  is  as  large  as  an  apple, 
with  a  hard,  woody  rind  containing 


ELEPHANTIASIS 


2862 


ELEUSIN1A 


seeds  embedded  in  pulpy  flesh.  The 
pulp  is  eatable,  and  is  made  into  a 
jelly;  it  is  also  useful  in  dysentery 
and  diarrhoea.  The  wood  is  hard 
and  heavy  but  not  durable.  The 
tree  exudes  a  gum  from  wounds. 


Elephant    Apple.     Leaves,    flower, 
and  fruit,  showing  arrangement  ot 
seeds  within  the  fruit 

which  forms  a  constituent  of  what 
is  known  as  Indian  gum-arabic. 

Elephantiasis  OB  BARBADOES 
LEG.  Disease  characterised  by 
chronic  inflammation  of  the  fibrous 
connective  tissue,  resulting  even- 
tually in  excessive  swelling  of  the 
leg,  scrotum,  arm  or  breast,  and 
less  frequently  other  parts.  The 
condition  is  due  to  obstruction  of 
the  lymph  circulation,  most  often 
caused  by  infection  by  a  parasite 
worm,  the  filaria. 

The  disease,  which  was  recog- 
nized in  ancient  times,  probably 
originated  in  Asia,  and  has  spread 
thence  to  Africa  and  America.  It 
is  now  most  often  seen  in  India, 
Ceylon,  China,  Japan,  the  Philip- 
pine Islands,  Fiji,  Samoa,  many 
parts  of  Africa,  the  S.  United  States, 
Central  America,  the  West  Indies, 
Brazil,  and  Peru.  Its  distribution 
is  influenced  by  that  of  mosquitoes, 
but  the  exact  conditions  governing 
its  transmission  have  not  yet  been 
determined. 

Elephantiasis  frequently  begins 
with  high  fever,  pain  in  various 
parts  of  the  body,  and  swelling  of 
the  extremities.  The  swelling 
may  abate  after  the  first  attack, 
but  in  subsequent  attacks  the  limb 
becomes  more  and  more  swollen 
until  eventually  it  may  attain  an 
enormous  size.  Treatment  is  not 
very  satisfactory.  Castellani  and 
Chalmers  state  that  the  best  results 
are  obtained  by  keeping  the  patient 
in  bed  and  injecting  fibrolysin  daily 
for  three  to  six  months. 

Elephantine.  Island  in  the  Nile 
at  Assuan,  Upper  Egypt.  Marking 
the  S  limit  of  ancient  Nile  navi- 
gation, it  contained  the  Old  King- 
dom frontier  station,  Abu,  or  ele- 
phant town,  an  entrepot  of  the  Su- 
danese ivory  trade.  On  the  W. 
Nile  bank  opposite  are  rock-hewn 


tombs  of  Old  and  Middle  Kingdom 
governors.  Under  Thothmes  III, 
Rameses  II.  and  other  kings,  its 
governor  controlled  the  Assuan 
granite  quarries.  During  the  Per- 
sian supremacy  there  was  a  Jewish 
garrison,  with  a  temple  of  Jehovah 
here.  Aramaic  papyri,  recovered 
1901  and  1906-8,  elucidate  5th  cen- 
tury life.  An  interesting  object 
is  the  nilometer,  recently  re- 
novated, which  dates  from  the 
Ptolemaic  period. 

Elephant  Seal  (Macrorhinus). 
Large  species  of  seal.  It  is  called 
sea  elephant  because  the  nose  is 
prolonged  into  a  short  proboscis  in 
the  adult  male.  Large  specimens 
attain  a  length  of  20ft.,  and  the 
girth  is  about  equal  to  the  length. 


•      .       '     - .-  '••  •,*::!::: 

Elephant  Seal,  or  Sea  Elephant,  a  large  marine  animal 
iound  in  the  Indian  and  Southern  Oceans 


These  animals  are  found  only  in 
the  Indian  and  Southern  oceans. 

Elephant's-foot,  HOTTENTOT 
BREAD,  OR  TORTOISE  PLANT  (Testu- 
dinaria  elephant  ipes).  Perennial 
climbing  herb  of  the  natural  order 
Dioscoreaceae.  It  is  a  native  of 
S.  Africa.  The  huge  rootstock 
(as  much  as  4  ft.  across)  is  covered 
with  a  corky  bark,  ultimately 


Elephants-toot.   Leaves  and  flowers 
of  the  S.  Airiuan  climber 

cracked  into  angular  protuber- 
ances. It  contains  a  store  of  starch, 
eaten  by  the  Bushmen.  The  slender 
stems  climb  to  a  height  of  30  ft.  or 
40  it.,  and  bear  small  heart-shaped 
leaves  and  sprays  of  tiny  greenish- 
yellow  flowers. 

Elephant  Shrew  (Macrosce-' 
lides,  long-legged).  Name  some- 
times given  to  the  jumping  shrew, 
owing  to  its  long  and  trunk-like 
nose.  They  are  small  African  in- 


sectivores,  and  have  the  hind  legs 
BO  long  in  proportion  to  the  body 
that  they  look  rather  like  miniature 
kangaroos.  They  are  nocturnal  in 
habit,  feed  mainly  on  insects,  and 
proceed  by  a  series  of  leaps. 

Elephas  Primigenius  OR  MAM- 
MOTH. One  of  the  extinct  elephants, 
almost  identical  with  modern  ele- 
phants, but  differing  in  greater  de- 
velopment of  curly  tusks,  and  in 
the  woolly  hair.  It  was  far  more 
widely  distributed  than  the  modern 
elephant,  remains  being  found  in 
America,  the  bed  of  the  North 
Sea,  the  Thames  Valley,  within  the 
Arctic  Circle,  and  in  the  frozen  earth 
of  N.  Russia.  See  Mammoth. 

Eletz.  Town  in  S.  Russia,  in  the 
govt.  of  Orel.  It  stands  on  the 
Sosna,  105  m.  E. 
1  of  Orel,  at  the 
junction  of  several 
rlys.  There  are 
leather,  flour,  soap, 
stearin  e,  and 
candle  factories, 
tanneries,  and  iron 
found  ries.  C  o  n  - 
siderable  trade  is 
done  in  grain, 
cattle,  leather,  and 
iron.  The  chief  in- 
d  u  s  t  r  y  is  linen 
weaving;  the 
women  are  expert 
lace  makers.  Eletz, 
mentioned  in  12th 
century  chronicles, 
was  long  the  chief 
town  of  a  principality  conquered  by 
Tamerlane.  Pop.  58,000. 

Eleusine.  Genus  of  grasses  of 
the  natural  order  Gramineae. 
Natives  of  warm  regions,  they  are 
distinguished 
by  the  flower 
spikes  being 
arranged  fin- 
ger-fashion at 
the  top  of  the 
stem.  As  a 
genus  they  are 
of  little  im- 
portance, but 
E.  coracana  is 
grown  in  Ja- 
pan and  on  the  Coromandel  coast, 
its  large  seeds  being  used  as  corn. 
Eleusinia  OR  ELEUSINIAN  MYS- 
TERIES. Festival  held  in  honour 
of  the  nature  goddess,  Demeter, 
more  especially  that  held  at  Eleusis 
in  Attica  in  Sept.  each  year.  Only 
those  who  were  properly  initiated 
were  allowed  to  take  part  in  the 
rites.  The  precise  nature  of  the 
rites  is  not  known,  as  they  were 
never  divulged  in  ancient  times, 
though  the  festival  continued  till 
nearly  A.D.  400.  They  were  doubt- 
less symbolical  of  the  death  of  Na- 
ture in  autumn  and  its  rebirth  in 
spring.  See  Demeter;  Mystery 


Eleusme,  showing  the 
finger-uke  flowers 


ELEUSIS 

Eleusis.  Ancient  city  of 
Attica  Said  to  have  been  founded 
by  Triptolemus  (q.v.),  it  stands  on 
the  Bay  of  Levsina,  12  ra.  N.W. 
of  Athens,  with  which  it  is  still 
connected  by  the  old  causeway 
called  the  Sacred  road.  It  was 
the  chief  seat  of  the  worship  of 
Demeter,  in  whose  temple  the 
Eleusinia  were  performed.  During 
the  Persian  Wars  this  great  temple 
was  destroyed,  but  soon  rebuilt, 
additions  being  made  by  Pericles, 
and  later  by  Demetrius  Phalereus. 
Still  further  enlarged  by  the 
Romans,  the  city  continued  intact 
until  it  was  destroyed  by  the  Goths 
under  Alaric  in  A.D.  396.  Eleusis 
was  the  birthplace  of  the  great 
tragic  poet  Aeschylus,  and  after 
the  Peloponnesian  War  its  citadel 
was  seized  by  the  remnants  of  the 
Thirty  Tyrants  (q.v.).  Though  the 
site  is  strewn  with  ruins,  little  of 
the  temples  but  two  porches  re- 
main, with  a  sacred  well,  a  council 
hall,  and  lesser  temple.  Eleusis, 
later  Eleusin,  is  now  represented 
by  the  village  Levsina,  lying  15m. 
by  rly.  N.W.  of  Athens,  chiefly 
inhabited  by  Albanians. 

Eleuthera.  Island  of  the  Baha- 
mas. It  is  50  m.  N.E.  of  New  Pro- 
vidence, and  is  separated  from  Great 
Abaco  by  the  Providence  Channel. 
Long  and  very  narrow,  it  is  fertile 
and  produces  cascarilla,  oranges, 
pineapples,  onions,  and  tomatoes. 
The  capital  is  Governor's  Harbour, 
with  a  good,  fortified  harbour.  Area, 
235  sq.  m.  Pop.  6,533. 

Elevation.  In  architecture  and 
engineering,  the  vertical  view  of  a 
building,  machine,  or  other  object 
drawn  to  scale,  but  ignoring  per- 


2863 


ELF 


Elevator.     Grain  elevator  on  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  at  Fort  William, 
Lake  Superior,  Ontano 


Elevator.  Interior  of  a  grain  elevator ; 
belt  conveyer  stacking  sacks  of  grain 


spective.  In  astronomy  it  is  the 
angular  height  above  the  horizon 
of  a  star  or  other  celestial  object ; 
and  in  gunnery  the  angle  between 
the  axis  of  the  gun  and  the  horizon- 
tal. See  Gunnery. 

Elevator  (Lat.  elevare,  to  lift 
up).  In  aeronautics,  the  flap,  or 
hinged  controlling  surface,  which 
governs  the  speed  of  the  aeroplane 
to  which  it  is  fitted  by  raising  or 
depressing  the  nose  of  the  machine. 
It  is  usually  mounted  at  the  rear 
of  the  machine,  and  is  operated  by 
the  fore  and  aft  movement  of  the 
control  lever.  The  elevator  is  also 
employed  in  steep  banks  or  sharp 
turns  to  bring  the  machine  round. 
When  the  elevator  is  moved  down- 
wards by  pushing  the  control  lever 
forward  it  presents  its  surface  to 
the  air  stream  at  an  angle  which 
sets  up  increased  resistance.  A 
lifting  effect  is  thus  produced  at 
the  tail  of  the  machine  where  the 
elevator  is  fitted ;  the  machine 
rises  at  the  tail  and  tilts  down- 
wards at  the  nose.  To  make  the 
aeroplane  rise,  the  elevator  is  tilted 
upwards.  The  air  resistance  is  now 
felt  at  the  upper  surface  of  the 
elevator.  It  is  consequently  pressed 
downwards,  and  with  it  the  tail  of 
the  machine,  while  the  nose  rises. 
See  Aeroplane. 

Elevator.  American  name  for  a 
grain  silo  or  store.  It  contains  a 
number  of  deep  vertical  bins,  circu- 
lar, hexagonal,  or  square  in  plan, 
and  constructed  of  steel  plates 
or  reinforced  concrete ;  and  is 
equipped  with  elevating,  cleaning, 
distributing,  and  discharging  appar- 
atus. On  arrival  the  grain  is 
emptied  by  means  of  a  bucket  or 
pneumatic  elevator  into  a  receiving 
chamber,  whence  it  passes  down- 
wards, through  an  automatic 
weigher  and  a  cleaning  machine,  to 


a  bucket  elevator,  which  carries  it 
to  the  distributing  floor  at  the  top 
of  the  building.  Here  it  is  received 
on  a  system  of  belt  conveyers  and 
is  rapidly  delivered  into  one  of  the 
bins.  These  have  conical  bottoms 
and  are  self-emptying.  Trucks  are 
run  under  them  and  loaded  directly 
or  the  grain  is  transferred  to  ships 
by  belt  conveyers,  or  through 
spouts.  The  largest  silos  have  a 
capacity  of  several  millions  of 
bushels  ;  will  take  in  40,000- 
50,000  bushels  an  hour,  and  dis- 
charge 100,000  bushels  and  up- 
wards in  the  same  time.  A  lift 
for  goods  or  passengers  is  some- 
times called  an  elevator. 

Elf.  Small  being  common  to  the 
folklore  of  most  countries  of 
northern  Europe.  Grimm  says  that 
an  elf  comes  as  much  short  of 
human  size  as  a  giant  towers  above 
it.  The  white  elves  are  well  formed 
and  symmetrical,  the  black  ugly 
and  misshapen.  The  latter  mostly 
work  underground  at  their  forges, 
and,  like  their  white  brethren  on 
the  earth's  surface,  take  pleasure  in 
teasing  mankind.  If  left  undis- 
turbed they  maintain  peace  with 
men  and  delight  in  doing  them 
service  ;  but  if  interfered  with  re- 
taliate with  mischief. 

Elves  are  generally  gifted  with 
wisdom  and  sometimes  with  divina- 
tion. A  common  characteristic  of 
the  elf  was  his  power  of  becoming 
invisible,  frequently  by  means  of  a 
cloak  or  cap ;  thus,  Siegfried  in  the 
Nibelungs  Song  has  an  invisible  cap 
which  he  obtains  from  Alberich,  the 
elf -king.  In  most  stories  elves  are 
peculiar  to  the  earth  and  under- 
ground, and  are  scarcely  distin- 
guishable from  the  forge-working 
dwarfs  and  gnomes  of  the  moun- 
tains; while  in  others  they  are 
associated  with  light  and  flowers, 


EL     FASHER 

and  blend  in  the  more  general  term 
of  fays  and  fairies.  There  have  been 
attempts  to  link  the  elf  tradition 
with  a  primitive  northern  people 
of  small  stature. 

Flint  arrow-heads  were  called 
elf-arrows  or  elf-bolts  from  an  idea 
that  they  were  weapons  of  these 
little  people.  They  are  worn  as 
amulets  (Ancient  Etruria,  Italy), 
and  reproduced  for  sale  (Mecca). 
In  Ireland  water  poured  over  them 
is  given  to  cattle.  Other  things 
associated  with  them  were  elf- 
locks,  hair  matted  together  by 
them  in  mischief,  or  as  they  wore 
it  ;  elf-child,  a  changeling  ;  elf- 
knot,  the  hole  in  a  piece  of  wood 
from  which  a  knot  has  fallen,  being 
the  hole  through  which  an  elf  can 
pass  ;  night-elf,  the  nightmare  ; 
elf-light,  will-o'-the-wisp  ;  elf-lay, 
an  enchanting  fairy  song.  See 
Folklore. 

Bibliography.  The  Fairy  Mythol- 
ogy, T.  Keightly,  rev.  ed.  1847; 
Teutonic  Mythology,  J.  L.  C. 
Grimm,  Eng.  trans,  from  4th  Ger- 
man ed.  J.  S.  Stallybrass,  vol.  iv, 
1888  ;  Testimony  of  Tradition,  D. 
MacRitchie,  1890. 

El  Fasher.  Capital  of  Darfur, 
in  the  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan.  It 
is  about  200  m.  N.N.W.  of  El 
Obeid,  the  W.  terminus  of  the 
Sudan  Government  rlys.,  and  is  a 
caravan  centre  with  considerable 
trade. 

Elgar,  Sm  EDWARD  (b.  1857). 
British  composer.  Born  at  Broad- 
heath,  Worcestershire,  June  2, 
1857,  the  son 
of  an  organist, 
he  was  largely 
self-taught  as 
a  musician.  He 
gained  valu- 
able experi- 
ence in  con- 
nexion with 
the  local  musi- 
c  a  1  societies, 
his  first  success 
being  the  pro- 
duction of  King  Olaf  at  Hanley 
in  1893.  In  1899  his  Enigma  orches- 
tral variations  and  his  Sea  Pictures 
added  much  to  his  reputation,  which 
was  firmly  established  by  the  per- 
formanceof  TheDreamof  Gerontius 
(Birmingham,  1900).  His  other 
important  works  are  The  Apostles, 
The  Kingdom,  two  orchestral  sym- 
phonies, and  a  violin  concerto.  In 
1904  Elgar  was  knighted,  in  1911 
was  given  the  Order  of  Merit,  and 
in  1924  was  appointed  Master  of 
the  King's  Musick 

Elgin.  Royal  and  mun.  burgh 
and  county  town  of  Elginshire,  Scot- 
land. It  is  80  m.  by  rly.  N.W.  of 
Aberdeen  by  the  G.N.S.  and  High- 
land Rlys.  ;  Lossiemouth,  its  port, 
is  5  m.  to  the  N.  Elgin  has  ruins 
of  a  beautiful  cathedral,  founded 


2864 


Elgin  arms 


in  1224,  burnt 
down  in  1270, 
rebuilt,  and 
again  destroyed 
by  fire  in  1390  by 
the  Wolf  of  Bade- 
noch.  Restored 
to  greater  magni- 
ficence, it  was 
wrecked  by  the 


fall  of  the  central  tower,  1711. 

Remains  exist  of  the   bishop's 
palace,  a  royal  castle,  and  monas- 


1  "** 
Sir  Edward  Elgar, 
British  composer 


Elgin,     Scotland.       The     western 

towers   of   the    ruined   cathedral. 

viewed  from  the  chancel  end 

teries  of  Blackfriars  and  Grey- 
friars  ;  the  Greyfriars  chapel  was 
restored  by  the  third  marquess  of 
Bute.  Woollen  manufacture,  iron- 
founding,  and  tanning  are  indus- 
tries. A  park  of  over  40  acres  was 
presented  by  G.  A.  Cooper  in  1903. 
Market  day,  Fri.  The  shire  is  more 
usually  known  as  Morayshire  (q.v. ). 
Pop.  of  mun.  burgh,  8,656. 

Elgin.  City  of  Illinois,  U.S.A., 
in  Kane  co.  On  the  Fox  river, 
which  supplies  power  for  the  in- 
dustrial establishments,  it  is  36  m. 
W.N.  W.  of  Chicago  by  the  Chicago, 
Milwaukee,  and  St.  Paul  Rly.  Dairy 
farming  is  an  important  local  in- 
dustry, and  the  city  has  large 
watch  factories  and  manufactures 
condensed  milk,  flour,  boots,  shoes, 
and  shirts.  There  are  several 
hospitals  and  a  public  library. 
Settled  in  1835,  it  was  granted  a 
city  charter  in  1854.  Pop.  28,560. 

Elgin,  EARL  OF.  Scottish  title 
held  by  the  family  of  Bruce  since 
1633.  Sir  Edward  Bruce,  master  of 
the  rolls  under  James  I,  was  made 
a  ba-on  in  1 60 1 ,  and  his  son  Thomas 
was  made  earl  of  Elgin  and  later  an 
English  baron.  The  2nd  earl  was 
made  earl  of  Aylesbury  in  1663.  In 
1746  the  direct  line  failed,  and 
there  was  a  division  of  the  titles, 
the  earldom  of  Elgin  passing  to 
Charles  Bruce,  9th  earl  of  Kincar- 


ELGIN 

dine,  whose  successors  have  borne 
the  double  title.  Thomas  Bruce, 
7th  earl  of  Elgin  and  llth  earl  of 
Kincardine,  a  general  in  the  army 
and  ambassador  at  Brussels,  Ber- 
lin, and  Constantinople,  is  remem- 
bered as  the  collector  of  the  Elgin 
Marbles  (q.v.).  His  son  and  grand- 
son served  the  state  in  various  high 
capacities.  The  family  seat  is 
Broomhall,  Fife,  the  earl's  son  is 
known  as  Lord  Bruce,  and  the  earl 
sits  in  the  House  of  Lords  by 
virtue  of  a  barony  created  in  1849. 
Pron.  Elg-in. 

Elgin,  JAMES  BRUCE,  STH  EARL 
OF  (1811-63).  British  diplomatist. 
Born  in  London,  July  20,  1811,  son 
of  the  7th  earl, 
whom  he  suc- 
ceeded in  1841, 
he  was  gover- 
nor of  Jamaica 
from  1842-46, 
and  governor- 
general  of 
Canada  from 
1846-54.  He 
was  raised  to  8th  Earl  oJ  Elgin, 
the  British  British  diplomatist 
peerage  in  1849.  In  1857  he  was 
sent  as  envoy  to  China  to  demand 
reparation  for  the  seizure  of  the 
British  lorcha  Arrow,  and  on  the 
way  out  diverted  his  troops  to 
assist  Lord  Canning  in  the  Indian 
mutiny.  He  negotiated  the  treatise 
of  Tientsin  and  Yeddo  in  1858, 
and  in  China  again  in  1860  secured 
the  ratification  of  the  treaty  of 
Tientsin.  In  1862  and  1863  he  was 
viceroy  of  India,  where  he  died 
Nov.  20,  1863.  See  his  Letters 
and  Journals,  1872;  Lives,  J.  G. 
Bourinot,  1905 ;  G.  M.  Wrong,  1905. 
Elgin  ,  VICTOR  ALEXANDER  BRUCE, 
9ra  EARL  OF  (1849-1917).  British 
statesman.  Born  at  Montreal, 
May  16,  1849, 
when  his  father 
was  governor- 
general  of  Can- 
ada, he  was 
educated  at 
Glenalmond, 
Eton,  and  Bal- 
liol  College, 
Oxford.  In 
1863  he  suc- 
ceeded to  his 
f  a  t  h  e  r'  s  es- 


9th  Earl  of  Elgin, 
British  statesman 


Elliott  &  Fry 

tates  and  titles,  these  including  the 
earldom  of  Kincardine.  With  Glad- 
stone he  became  a  Home  Ruler, 
and  in  the  government  of  1886  was 
treasurer  of  the  household  and  first 
commissioner  of  works  yFrom 
1894-99  he  was  viceroy  of  India.  In 
1902  he  was  chairman  of  the  royal 
commission  appointed  to  inquire 
into  the  preparations  for  the  South 
African  War,  and  later  of  the  one 
that  reported  on  the  ecclesiastical 
crisis  in  Scotland,  caused  by  the 


ELGIN      MARBLES 


2865 


ELIJAH 


judgement  of  the  House  of  Lords  on 
the  property  of  the  Free  Church.  In 
1905  Campbell-Bannerman  made 
Elgin  colonial  secretary,  but  he 
did  not  retain  this  office  when 
Asquith  became  premier  in  1908, 
refusing  then  the  marquessate 
offered  him  ;  his  cautious  policy 
and  freedom  from  partisanship  had 
not  been  altogether  acceptable  to 
the  extremists  in  his  party.  He 
died  at  Broomhall,  Fife,  Jan.  18, 
1917,  when  his  eldest  son  (b.  1881) 
became  10th  earl  of  Elgin  and  14th 
earl  of  Kincardine. 

Elgin  Marbles.  Collection  of 
sculptures  brought  from  Greece  by 
the  7th  earl  of  Elgin,  while  ambas- 
sador to  the  Porte.  Keenly  inter- 
ested in  the  remains  of  ancient  art 
in  Athens  and  other  Greek  towns, 
his  first  intention  was  to  have 
accurate  drawings  of  them  made, 
but  seeing  that  they  were  fast  going 
to  ruin,  he  obtained  the  Forte's 
sanction  to  remove  various  relics. 
These  consisted  largely  of  sculp- 
tures by  Pheidias  and  other  great 
artists  from  the  Parthenon  and 
the  temple  of  Nike  Apteros  (Wing- 
less Victory)  in  Athens.  Despite 
enormous  difficulties,  including  the 
wreck  of  the  ship  conveying  the 
precious  cargo  to  England,  the 
Elgin  Marbles  (as  they  were  after- 
wards collectively  called)  were 
brought  to  London  in  1806.  Added 
to  in  later  years  up  to  1812,  they 
were  finally  acquired  for  the  British 
nation  in  1816  for  £35,000,  less  than 
half  of  the  sum  (£74,000)  Lord  Elgin 
had  paid  to  preserve  them  from 
total  destruction,  and  are  now  in 
the  galleries  of  the  British  Museum. 
Lord  Elgin  was  accused  of  van- 
dalism, and  even  dishonesty,  but 


Elgin  Marbles.    Two  views  of  the  north  frieze  of  the 
Parthenon,  now  in  the  British  Museum 


the  select  committee  of  the  House 
of  Commons  appointed  to  investi- 
gate the  whole  subject  entirely 
exonerated  him.  See  illus.  p.  643. 
Elgon.  Extinct  volcano,  14,097 
ft.  high.  It  stands  on  the  frontiers 
of  Uganda  and  Kenya  Colony,  60 
m.  N.E.  of  the  Victoria  Nyanza. 
The  rivers  on  the  W.  side  drain  into 
Lake  Kioga,  those  on  the  E.  into 
the  Victoria  Nyanza.  The  forest 
(about  50  sq.  m.)  on  Mount  Elgon 
is  little  known. 

Eli.  Judge  and  priest  of  Israel 
in  the  later  period  of  the  Judges. 
Through  Samuel,  who  was  in  his 
service  as  a  boy  attendant,  God 
indicated  his  anger  at  the  misdeeds 
of  Eli's  sons.  When  the  news 
came  that  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant 
had  been  taken  by  the  Philistines, 
and  both  his  sons  killed,  Eli  fell 
back  and  broke  his  neck. 

Elia.  Name  taken  by  Charles 
Lamb.  It  was  that  of  a  clerk  in  the 
South  Sea  House,  and  was  first 
assumed  by  Lamb  when  in  1820  he 
began  to  contribute  essays  to  The 
London  Magazine.  See  Essays  of 
Elia  ;  Lamb,  Charles. 

Elibank,  BAKON.  Scottish  title 
borne  since  1643  by  the  family  of 
Murray,  and  now  merged  in  that 
of  Viscount  Elibank.  Patrick 
Murray,  a  person  of  importance  in 
Selkirkshire,  where  Elibank  is 
situated,  and  on  the  Scottish  bor- 
ders generally,  was  made  a  baronet 
in  1628,  and  a  baron  by  Charles  I 
in  1643.  His  title  passed  to  his  son 
Patrick  in  1650,  and  then  down  a 
line  of  descendants,  of  whom 
George,  the  6th  baron,  became  an 
admiral.  In  1871  Montolieu  Fox 
Oliphant  (b.  1840)  became  the  10th 
baron,  and  in  1911  he  was  made  a 
viscount  of  the 
United  Kingdom, 
His  eldest  son, 
Alexander,  was 
made  Lord  Mur- 
ray of  Elibank  in 
1912,  after  serv- 
ing as  chief  whip 
of  the  Liberal 
government  (see 
Murray).  Of  Vis- 
count Eh' bank's 
younger  sons, 
Gideon  had  a 
long  record  of 
service  under  the 
colonial  office, 
and  Arthur  was 
chosen  M.P.  for 
Kincardineshire  in 
1908,  and  was  re- 
elected  in  1910  and 
1918.  The  latter 
won  the  D.S.O.  in 
the  Great?  War. 

Elie.  Police 
burgh,  parish,  and 
watering-place  o  f 


Elijah.    The  prophet  fed  by  ravens 
in  the  wilderness 

After  the  painting  by  Burne-Jones 

Scotland,  hi  Fifeshire.  It  is  on  the 
N.  side  of  the  Firth  of  Forth,  10  m. 
S.  of  St.  Andrews  and  45  m.  by  rly. 
N.E.  of  Edinburgh.  It  includes 
Earlsf erry,  a  royal  burgh.  It  has  a 
harbour  and  pier,  and  is  a  coast- 
guard station  with  a  flashing  light 
on  Elieness.  The  chief  buildings  are 
a  church  of  the  17th  century,  and 
the  town  hall.  There  are  fine  golf 
links.  Pop.  of  parish,  1,147. 

Elijah.  Hebrew  prophet.  A 
Jiative  of  Gilead  (1  Kings  xvii,  1), 
he  lived  in  the  days  of  Ahab.  He 
appears  to  have'  led  a  kind  of 
hermit  life  in  the  mountains,  only 
emerging  at  intervals  to  denounce 
Ahab  and  attack  the  priests  of 
Baal.  On  Mount  Carmel  he  chal- 
lenged the  priests  of  Baal  to  a  test 
of  the  rival  religions  by  calling 
down  fire  from  heaven,  after  which 
he  had  to  flee  from  the  wrath  of 
Queoo  Jezebel  to  Beersheba,  where 


ELIOT 

he  seems  to  have  wandered  about 
the  desert  for  six  weeks.  ', 

When  Ahaziah  succeeded  Ahab, 
Elijah  warned  him  that  he  would 
die  as  a  result  of  an  accident  that 
he  had  suffered.  Towards  the  close 
of  Jehosaphat's  reign  Elijah  was 
still  living,  for  he  sent  a  letter  to 
Jehoram,  the  king's  son.  When  the 
end  came,  we  are  told  that  Elijah 
passed  in  a  chariot  of  fire  into  the 
heavens.  Jewish  tradition  long 
held  that  he  would  reappear  before 
the  coming  of  the  Messiah,  and  the 
chair  of  Elijah  is  still  set  ready  at 
the  Passover  meal. 

Legend  points  out  Elijah  as  the 
founder  of  the  Carmelite  Order,  and 
in  the  Greek  Church  he  is  regarded 
as  the  patron  saint  of  the  moun- 
tains. He  appears  to  have  had 
some  connexion  with  the  mysteri- 
ous religious  communities  known 
as  the  "  Sons  of  the  Prophets,"  of 
which  there  were  a  large  number 
in  Palestine  in  his  period.  In  the 
N.T.  he  is  referred  to  as  Elias. 

Eliot  ,  SIR  CHARLES  NORTONEDGE- 
CUMBE  (b.  1864).  British  diploma- 
tist. He  was  educated  at  Chelten- 
ham and  Ox- 
ford, where  he 
graduated  i  n 
1885.  Entering 
the  diplomatic 
service,  he 
served  in  the 
embassy  at  St. 
P  e  t  e  r  a  b  urg, 
1888-92  and 
Constan  t  i- 
nople,  1893- 
98.  Charge 
d'affaires  at  Morocco  1892-93, 
Bulgaria  1895,  Serbia  1897,  he 
became  secretary  at  Washington 
in  1898,  and  was  appointed  British 
High  Commissioner  at  Samoa  in 
1899.  Knighted  in  1900,  he  was 
agent  at  Zanzibar  1900-4,  in  which 
year  he  retired.  He  became  vice- 
chancellor  of  Sheffield  University  in 
1905,  and  was  made  the  first  princi- 
pal of  Hong  Kong  University  in 
1912.  In  1918  he  became  commis- 
sioner for  Siberia,  and  the  following 
year  was  appointed  ambassador 
to  Japan. 

Eliot,    CHARLES     WILLIAM    (b. 
1834).        American    educationist. 
Born  at  Boston,  March  20,  1834,  he 
was     educated 
there    and     at 
Harvard.       In 
1854  he  became 
a  mathematical 
tutor  at    Har- 
vard, and  later 
assistant     pro- 
fessor of  math- 
ematics     and 


Sir  Charles  Eliot, 
British  diplomatist 

Lafayette 


2866 

School.  After  studying  in  Europe 
he  was  appointed  in  1865  professor 
of  chemistry  in  the  Massachusetts 
Institute  of  Technology.  In  1869 
he  was  chosen  president  of  Harvard, 
being  made  president  emeritus  on 
his  retirement  hi  1909. 

At  Harvard  Eliot  did  great  work. 
He  improved  its  teaching  by 
adopting  reforms  from  Europe,  and 


in  other  ways  widened  the  aims  6f 
the  university.  He  became  known 
as  a  writer  on  education  and  as  an 
advocate  of  international  peace. 
In  1913  he  was  offered  the  post 
of  U.S.  ambassador  in  London. 
His  books  include  Educational  Re- 
form, 1898  ;  Four  American 
Leaders,  1906;  and  The  Road 
Towards  Peace,  1915. 


GEORGE    ELIOT   AND    HER    WORK 

R.  Brimley  Johnson,  Author  of  Some  Contemporary  Novelists  (Women) 

For  further  information  about  this  writer  see  the  articles  on  her  books 

and  characters,  e.g.  Adam  Bede,  Mrs.   Poyser,  Middlemarch,  etc. 

See  also  English  Literature  ;  Lewes,  G.  H. 


Mary  Ann,  or  Marian  Evans, 
known  as  George  Eliot,  was  born 
at  Arbury  Farm,  near  Nuneaton, 
Nov.  22,  1819.  The  daughter 
of  a  carpenter,  turned  estate  agent, 
living  for  us  in  Adam  Bede  and  in 
Caleb  Garth  (of  Middlemarch),  she 
early  became  wise  in  all  that  per- 
tains to  country  life  in  Warwick- 
shire, of  which  she  has  given  us  so 
intimate  a  picture.  Her  mother's 


Scientific  educationist 


After  P.  D' Albert  Durade 

death,  and  the  marriage  of  her 
elder  sister,  Christiana  (also  drawn 
in  Middlemarch)  threw  on  her 
shoulders,  at  16  years  old,  the  re- 
sponsibility of  her  father's  house- 
hold. Here  she  was  surrounded  by 
the  narrowest  influences  of  evan- 
gelical revivalism,  deeply  con- 
firmed by  her  aunt  Elizabeth,  the 
original  of  Dinah  Morris  (in  Adam 
Bede;. 

A  move  to  Coventry,  in  1841,  first 
brought  her  into  a  wider  and  more 
literary  atmosphere.  A  student  of 
German  and  Italian,  Latin  and 
Greek,  and  music,  she  now  mingled 
with  those  for  whom  books  were 
their  most  treasured  companions 


and  philosophy  the  chief  staple  of 
daily  talk.  Though  too  sensible 
and  too  affectionate  to  risk  perma- 
nently estranging  her  father  by  any 
formal  and  visible  break  with  the 
religious  observances  of  her  child- 
hood, she  turned  her  mind  to  such 
tasks  as  a  translation  of  Strauss's 
Life  ef  Jesus,  and,  in  her  own  heart, 
gave  up  orthodox  faith  for  ever. 

When,  however,  in  1849,  the  old 
man  died,  it  was  only  natural  that 
she  should  seek  further  freedom  of 
intellect  in  London  among  the  men 
and  women  then  chiefly  inspired 
by  the  materialistic  agnosticism  of 
Herbert  Spencer.  She  was  soon 
afterwards  appointed  assistant- 
editor  of  The  Westminster  Review, 
where  she  published  some  weighty 
articles  on  ethics,  and  through 
which  she  met  George  Henry 
Lewes.  The  life-long  union  between 
them  was  not  lightly  entered  upon. 
George  Eliot's  preoccupation  with 
the  problems  of  married  life,  her 
continual  insistence  upon  the  bind- 
ing nature  of  promises  between 
husband  and  wife,  are  pathetic 
testimony  to  her  uneasiness,  which 
never  left  her,  in  a  position  that 
could  so  easily  be  criticised  from 
her  own  standard  of  duty.  But  as 
she  had  entered  into  it  with  de- 
liberation, she  never  admitted  dis- 
loyalty to  her  own  conscience ;  and 
from  a  literary  point  of  view,  the 
consequences  were  almost  an  un- 
mixed gain. 

It  was  Lewes  who  first  dis- 
covered, well-nigh  by  accident,  her 
genius  for  fiction.  Instantly  recog- 
nizing a  new  force  in  literature,  he 
encouraged  her  somewhat  diffident 
aspirations,  and  himself  carried  out 
all  the  negotiations  with  editors 
and  publishers,  which  resulted  in 
the  anonymous  appearance  of 
three  stories  in  Blackwood's  Maga- 
zine, published  hi  1858  as  the  well- 
known  Scenes  of  Clerical  Life. 
Being  immediately  popular,  they 
were  followed  by  Adam  Bede, 
1859  ,  the  Mill  on  the  Floss,  1860; 
and  Silas  Marner,  1861.  Hence- 
forth she  lived  happily  and  stren- 
uously among  the  thinkers  of  the 


•LIOT 


George  Eliot.     Arbuty  Farm,  Nuneaton,  where  Mary 
Ann  Evans  was  born,  Nov.  22,  1819 


day ;  a  professional  woman  of 
letters,  whose  work  enjoyed  not 
only  critical  appreciation  but  an 
exceptional  measure  of  popularity 
and  influence  among  thoughtful 
middle-class  readers.  Her  later  out- 
put embraced  Romola,  1863,  a 
painstaking  reconstruction  of  the 
past ;  Felix  Holt,  the  Radical,  1866, 
a  political  treatise  .  Middlemarch, 
187 1-72,  a  problem  novel  with  three 
loosely-knit  plots ;  Daniel  Deronda, 
1876,  a  study  of  an  alien  race; 
besides  The  Spanish  Gypsy  and 
The  Legend  of  Jubal  in  verse,  and 
the  somewhat  ponderous  collection 
of  short  essays  entitled  Impressions 
of  Theophrastus  Such.  After 
Lewes'  death  in  1878,  she  married 
in  1880  John  W.  Cross,  afterwards 
her  biographer,  but  died  on 
December  22  of  the  same  year. 

It  was  the  grafting  of  a  somewhat 
arid  philosophy  upon  the  Calvinism 
of  early  years  that  gave  distinction 
and  popularity  to  George  Eliot's 
work.  Always  profoundly  religious, 
and  mastered  at  all  times  by  an  un- 
comfortably strict  sense  of  duty, 
she  met  the  questionings  of  the 
mid -Victorians  with  a  rare  and 
illuminating  sincerity,  and  awoke 
echoes  in  many  a  young,  ardent 
spirit  newly  ah've  to  the  serious 
mysteries  of  life. 

She  was,  in  fact,  more  receptive 
than  original  or  independent ;  her 
poems,  and  Theophrastus,  and  in 
lesser  degree  her  later  no vels,  reveal 
the  dangersof  undigested  analysis  in 
imaginative  writing  ;  she  was  over- 
much weighted  with  anxiety  about 
the  soul  of  mankind.  But,  because 
she  was,  before  all  things,  a  great 
artist  and  a  warm-hearted  and 
sympathetic  woman,  she  was  able 
to  create  an  immortal  gallery  of 
human  beings,  whose  joys  and 
sorrows  can  never  lose  their  hold 
on  the  affections.  Her  excellent 
professional  training,  moreover, 
secured  fine  fruit  for  her  varied 
powers  of  ordered  memory,  acute 
observation,  and  dramatic  instinct. 
The  earlier  novels  reach  right  into 


2867 

the  heart  of  things 
because  they  are 
built  on  the  most 
intimate  experi- 
ences of  youth,  with 
spontaneous  hum- 
our  and  deep 
emotion.  If  the 
style,  the  plot,  and 
the  psychology  of 
what  folio  wed  yield 
somewhat  to 
affected  pedantry, 
we  have,  at  least 
i  n  Middlem  arch, 
many  a  revelation 
in  emotional  prob- 
lems of  profound 
interest. 

Like  her  great  feminine  prede- 
cessors she  was  realistic  and  paro- 
chial ;  but  what  Charlotte  Bronte 
first  bitterly  proclaimed  on  a  few 
passionate  topics  became  with  her 
a  definite  philosophy  universally 
applied.  She  insisted  that  women 
should  dare  to  think  for  them- 
selves, establish  their  own  moral 
standards,  follow  their  own  con- 
science, and  even  demand  man's 
acquiescence*  <  No  writer  of  fiction 
has  illustrated  with  greater  power 
the  ultimate  ethical  truths  of  life, 
the  tragic  pathos  of  continual 
backsliding,  and  the  eternal  sig- 
nificance of  the  choice  between 
good  and  evil;  Her  passionate 
faith,  indeed,  called  for  more  than 
reason  could  give  to  doubt.  Her 
message  was  not  final. 

But  she  left  an  unrivalled  reve- 
lation of  all  that  our  forefathers 
were  feeling,  thinking,  and  striving 
for :  a  living  picture,  admirably 
studied,  of  Victorian  domesticity, 
the  farmer,  the  tradesman,  and 
their  womenkind — that  great  army 
of  hitherto  inarticulate,  middle- 
class  Englishmen  who  were  to  prove 
themselves  eventually  the  backbone 
of  the  Empire. 

Bibliography.      George     Eliot    in 
Derbyshire,    Guy    Roslyn    (pseud.), 
1876  ;  George  Eliot's  Life  as  related 
in  her  letters  and  journals,  ed.  J.  VV. 
Cross,   3  vols.,   1885;    Monographs, 
Mathilde  Blind,  new  ed.  1888;    O. 
Browning,  1890;  and  L.  Stephen,  1 902. 
Eliot,    Sm   JOHN    (1592-1632). 
English  statesman.     Born  at  Port 
Eliot,  Cornwall,  and  educated  at 
Exeter  College, 
Oxford,  he  was 
knighted  in 
1618,    and     in 
1619    was    ap- 
pointed   vice- 
admiral     of 
Devon  as  a  sup- 
porter   of    the 
duke  of  Buck- 
Sir  John  Eliot,       ingham.     First 
English  statesman     elected  M.P.  in 

From  a  painting  in  the      1614,        he 

possession  of  the  Earl  '  ,  , 

of  St.  Germans  attacked 


ELIZABETGRAD 

Buckingham  in  1626,  and  was  a 
principal  promoter  of  the  Petition 
of  Right,  1627.  On  March  2, 1629, 
Eliot  read  a  protest  against  un- 
authorised taxation,  whilst  he  had 
the  Speaker  forcibly  held  down 
in  his  chair,  and  two  days  later  he 
was  sent  to  the  Tower.  Refusing  to 
yield  to  Charles  I,  he  remained  in  the 
Tower  until  his  death,Nov.  27,1632. 
See  Life,  John  Forster,  1864, 

Eliot,  JOHN  (1604-90).    English 
missionary    to    the    Red    Indians. 
He  was  born  at  Widford,  in  Hert- 
fordshire,   and 
educated  at 
Jesus    College, 
Cambridge.   In 
1631  he  went  as 
a       Protestant 
missionary    t  o 
the  Indians  in 
Massachusetts. 
His   headquar- 
John  Eliot,  ters  were  at 

English  missionary  Roxbury,  near 
Boston,  where  he  died  May  20, 
1690.  Eliot  translated  the  Bible 
into  the  native  dialects,  in  addition 
to  preparing  a  grammar  and  cate- 
chism. He  assisted  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  famous  Bay  Psalm 
Book(g.v.).  See  Life,  C.  Francis, 
new  ed.  1848  (in  Jared  Sparks' 
Lib.  of  American  Biog.). 

Elis.  Country  on  the  VV.  coast 
of  Peloponnesus,  Greece.  Its  chief 
city  was  Elis,  on  the  Peneus,  while 
another  city,  Pylos,  was  the  seat  of 
the  kingdom  of  the  Homeric  hero 
Nestor.  In  Elis  was  the  district  of 
Pisa,  where  the  great  Olympic 
games  were  held  every  four  years. 
It  forms  the  modern  dept.  of 
Achaia  and  Elis,  the  capital  of 
which  is  Pyrgos.  See  Greece. 

Elisha.  Son  of  Shaphat,  and 
companion  of  the  prophet  Elijah, 
whose  successor  he  became.  At  the 
translation  of  Elijah,  he  received 
his  mantle  as  a  sign  of  office.  He 
flourished  in  the  reigns  of  Jehoram, 
Jehu,  Jehoahaz,  and  Joash,  and 
had  considerable  influence  in  public 
affairs.  His  many  miracles  were 
mainly  of  a  beneficent  character. 

Elixir  (Arab,  el  ikslr,  the  philo- 
sopher's stone).  In  pharmacy  the 
term  is  used  for  preparations  con- 
taining alcohol,  flavouring  agents, 
sometimes  active  ingredients  as 
senna.  It  is  a  tincture  of 
various  substances  held  together 
by  alcohol. 

In  alchemy,  the  elixir  of  life 
(elixir  vitae)  was  believed  to  be 
a  substance  which  would  prolong 
indefinitely  the  life  of  anyone  who 
consumed  it. 

Elizabetgrad.  A  town  of 
Ukrainia,  in  the  govt.  of  Kherson. 
It  stands  on  the  Ingul  river,  135 
m.  N.  of  Kherson  on  the  Kharkov- 
Odessa  rly.  The  district  is  fertile, 


ELIZABETH 


2868 


ELIZABETH 


tobacco  and  fruit,  especially  melons, 
being  much  cultivated.  Pop. 
75,800.x  Pron.  Yelizavetgrad. 

Elizabeth.  City  of  New  Jersey, 
U.S.A.,  the  co.  seat  of  Union  co. 
Near  the  mouth  of  the  Elizabeth 
river  on  Staten  Island  Sound,  it  is 
4  m.  S.S.W.  of  Newark,  and  is 
served  by  the  Pennsylvania  and 
other  rlys.  There  are  large  sewing- 
machine  factories,  shipbuilding 
yards,  chemical  works,  foundries, 
oil  refineries,  and  tanneries.  Its 
port,  2  m.  to  the  S.E.,  is  on  Staten 
Island,  and  ships  anthracite  coal 
and  iron.  Settled  in  1664,  it  was 
incorporated  as  a  town  in  1796 
and  became  a  city  in  1855.  Pop. 
88,830. 

Elizabeth.  Feminine  Christian 
name.  It  originated  in  a  Hebrew 
word,  Elisbeba,  meaning  God  hath 
sworn,  and  became  very  popular 
throughout  the  Christian  world. 


It  has  various  forms,  one  of  which 
is  Isabella,  and  is  common  in 
Russia  and  eastern  Europe  as  well 
as  in  the  west.  Eliza,  Elsie,  and 
the  Scotch  Elspeth  are  among  its 
abbreviations.  .. 1 

Elizabeth  (1207-31).  Hunga- 
rian princess  and  saint.  Daughter 
of  Andreas  II  of  Hungary,  she 
was  born  at  Presburg,  and  early 
showed  her  love  of  the  ascetic  life. 
Married  in  1221  to  Louis  IV  of 
Thuringia,  she  was  driven  from  the 
court  on  his  death  in  1227.  Re- 
nouncing the  world,  she  lived  at 
Marburg  under  the  influence  of 
Conrad  of  Marburg,  and  subjected 
herself  to  the  severest  penances 
and  self-denial.  She  died  there  on 
Nov.  19, 1231,  and  was  canonised  in 
1235,  after  many  miracles  reported 
from  her  tomb  at  Marburg.  See 
Life,  C.  F.  R.  de  Montalembert, 
Eng.  trans.  F.  D.  Hoyt,  1904. 


ELIZABETH  :  HER  REIGN  AND  ITS  GLORIES 

A.  D.  Innes,  Author  of  England  Under  the  Tudors 

This  biography  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  series  on  the 
sovereigns  of  England  and  Scotland.  Further  information  is 
under  England :  History;  Mary  Queen  of  Scots ;  Armada.  See 
also  biographies  of  Burghley ;  Drake;  Leicester;  Philip  II,  etc- 


Elizabeth  was  the  daughter  of 
Henry  VIII  and  Anne  Boleyn, 
whom  he  married  before  the  Eng- 
lish law  courts  had  pronounced 
his  earlier  marriage  with  Catherine 
of  Aragon  invalid.  Elizabeth  was 
born  on  Sept.  7,  1533  ;  Catherine 
did  not  die  till  1536.  According  to 
Roman  Catholics,  therefore,  Ehza- 
beth  was  not  born  in  wedlock.  In 
1536  Anne  was  executed,  after  a 
pronouncement  of  the  courts  that 
her  marriage  had  not  been  valid. 
The  title  under  which  Elizabeth 
succeeded  her  half-sister  Mary  hi 
1558  was  conveyed  by  the  will  of 
Henry  VIII.  The  actual  legitimate 
heir  to  the  throne  was  her  cousin 
Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  the  grand- 
daughter of  Henry's  elder  sister, 
Margaret. 

Elizabeth's  girlhood  was  hard 
and  loveless ;  she  lived  hi  an  at- 
mosphere of  suspicion,  in  which  she 
learnt  that  duplicity  was  the  condi- 
tion of  self-preservation.  During 
Mary's  reign  she  was  charged  with 
complicity  in  Wyatt's  rebellion, 
though  it  was  found  impossible  to 
bring  the  accusation  home  to  her. 
Throughout  the  reign  she  was  kept 
under  suspicious  surveillance,  but 
successfully  evaded  definite  pro- 
fession of  her  sister's  religion.  It 
was  imposed  upon  her  by  her  posi- 
tion that  she  should  take  her 
stand  as  a  Protestant.  Her  own 
wisdom  taught  her  that  her  strength 
must  depend  upon  the  solid  sup- 
port of  her  Protestant  subjects. 

From  her  accession  in  1558  Eliza- 
beth was  herself  the  ruler  of  her 


country,  though  she  chose  and 
trusted  her  counsellors  with  pro- 
found insight.  Public  opinion  de- 
manded that  she  should  marry,  and 
secure  an  undisputed  succession. 
She  herself  never  had  the  slightest 
intention  of  marrying,  but  under- 
stood to  the  full  the  diplomatic  use 
that  might  be  made  of  the  fact  that 
it  was  open  for  her  to  choose  a  hus- 
band. For  five-and-twenty  years 


from  an  engraving  uy   W.   Rogers   it 
the  collection  of  B..M.    the  King 


she  played  with  marriage  pro- 
posals, the  most  notable  of  her 
suitors  being  Philip  of  Spain,whose 
offer  she  declined  in  the  first 
months  of  her  reign  ;  the  Austrian 
Archduke  Charles ;  Henry  of 
Anjou,  afterwards  Henry  III  of 
France,  her  junior  by  eleven  years  ; 
and  finally  his  younger  brother, 
Francis.  Fears  were  at  one  time 
entertained  that  she  might  marry 
her  undesirable  favourite,  Robert 
Dudley,  whom  she  made  earl  of 
Leicester.  It  was  not  till  she 
reached  the  age  of  fifty  that  the 
theory  of  her  probable  marriage 
was  finally  abandoned. 

The  antagonism  between  Eliza- 
beth and  Philip  of  Spain  was  the 
controlling  factor  in  her  policy. 
Elizabeth  saw  that  Philip's  hands 
were  tied ;  if  he  struck  at  her 
successf  ully  the  succession  of  Mary 
Stuart  to  the  English  throne  would 
be  the  inevitable  result,  and  Mary's 
association  with  France  was  so 
intimate  that  her  accession  would 
almost  inevitably  mean  the  close 
alliance  of  England  and  France,  to 
the  great  inconvenience  of  Philip. 
Hence  for  five-and-twenty  years  a 
positive  rupture  between  England 
and  Spain  seemed  always  immi- 
nent, but  was  always  postponed, 
which  was  precisely  what  Elizabeth 
wanted. 

Elizabeth  and  Mary  Stuart 

England  had  been  weakened  by 
years  of  misrule,  and  Elizabeth 
did  not  mean  to  fight  until  Eng- 
land was  strong  enough  to  make 
sure  of  winning.  Year  after  year, 
though  she  carried  on  and  en- 
couraged what  was,  in  fact,  a  covert 
war  against  Spain,  she  abstained 
always  from  the  last  provocation 
which  would  have  compelled  Philip 
to  open  war.  Primarily  because  the 
life  of  Mary  Stuart  was  an  obstacle 
to  Philip,  she  kept  Mary  Stuart 
alive  and  a  prisoner,  in  spite  of 
the  personal  danger  to  herself. 
But  Elizabeth's  hand  was  at  last 
forced ;  in  1586  she  was  obliged 
to  give  open  official  support  to  the 
United  Provinces  of  the  Nether- 
lands and  sanctioned  the  execution 
of  Mary  Stuart. 

The  result  was  the  coming  of  the 
Spanish  Armada,  and  its  annihila- 
tion in  1588.  After  its  destruction 
maritime  war  between  England 
and  Spam  continued  through 
the  remaining  ten  yeais  of  Philip's 
life  and  the  five  years  by  which 
Elizabeth  outlived  him.  For  the 
old  queen  those  years  were  em- 
bittered by  the  tragedy  of  the 
young  earl  of  Essex,  Robert 
Devereux,  to  whom  she  became  de- 
votedly attached,  but  whose  arro- 
gant folly  led  him  into  treasonable 
acts,  from  the  consequences  of 
which  the  queen  could  not  save  him. 


ELIZABETH 


Queen  Elizabeth 

From  the  painting  try  f-  Zuccaro 

To  the  last  Elizabeth  persisted 
in  her  refusal  to  make  any  pro- 
nouncement as  to  her  successor  on 
the  throne.  Besides  King  James 
of  Scotland,  the  son  of  Mary  Stuart, 
there  were  various  living  descend- 
ants of  the  two  sisters  of  Henry 
VIII,  all  of  them  Protestants,  on 
whose  behalf  more  or  less  plausible 
claims  might  be  put  forward. 
There  was  also  a  possible  claimant 
in  the  person  of  a  daughter  of 
Philip  of  Spain,  who  claimed  de- 
scent from  John  of  Gaunt.  But  for 
Elizabeth  to  have  nominated  an 
heir  at  any  time  would  have  been 
an  inducement  to  her  own  assas- 
sination. Only  at  the  point  of  death, 
at  Richmond,  Mar.  24,  1603,  was 
she  said  to  have  approved  by  a 
sign  the  name  of  the  Scottish  king. 

No  reign  in  our  annals  is  more 
glorious  than  that  of  Elizabeth. 
Its  extraordinary  political  success 
was  due  in  great  part  to  her  own 
extraordinary  political  intelligence 
and  to  the  peculiarities  of  her 
character.  Between  good  fortune 
and  her  own  ingenuity  she  was  in- 
variably provided  with  some  way 
of  escape  from  every  complication 
which  she  herself  wove,  or  which 
was  woven  about  her.  In  the  last 
resort  she  deliberately  utilised  as- 
sumed feminine  weaknesses  as 
justifying  the  unjustifiable  in  her 
conduct.  She  made  full  use  of  the 
shrewdest  brains,  the  strongest 
hands,  and  the  stoutest  hearts  that 
could  be  called  into  her  service  ; 
and  she  never  misjudged  her  ser- 
vants. But  ever  she  went  her  own 
way — devious  always,  not  seldom 
false,  not  often  generous,  but  never 
without  knowing  exactly  what  she 
was  doing.  And  exactly  what  she 
was  doing  was  what  no  other 
living  man  or  woman,  including 
her  most  intimate  advisers,  ever 
knew.  She  outwitted  every  states- 


2869 

man  in  Europe ;  none  outwitted 
her.  And  she  raised  England  from 
the  degradation  into  which  it  had 
fallen  under  her  immediate  pre- 
decessors to  the  highest  rank 
among  nations. 

But  it  is  not  only  Elizabeth's 
political  success  that  gives  to  the 
Elizabethan  era  a  unique  place  in 
history.  It  was  the  era  in  which 
England  sprang  suddenly  into  the 
position  of  maritime  supremacy, 
and  an  era  also  of  such  poetic 
achievement  as  could  be  paralleled 
only  by  Athens  in  the  past,  and 
once  again  by  England  herself 
early  in  the  19th  century. 

In  Elizabeth's  reign  the  English 
seamen  came  to  their  own.  They 
acquired  the  skill  in  ocean  naviga- 
tion which  gave  them  a  complete 
ascendancy  over  the  earlier  ocean 
sailors,  Spanish  and  Portuguese. 
Frobisher  and  Davis  explored  the 
far  northern  shores  of  the  recently 
discovered  American  continent  and 
penetrated  deep  into  the  Arctic 
seas.  John  Hawkins  and  many 
another  sea-dog  of  Devon  made 
the  voyage  to  the  Spanish  main, 


ELIZABETH 

and  learnt  to  make  little  account 
of  fighting  with  Spanish  ships  of 
thrice  their  tonnage.  Save  the 
Spaniards  and  Portuguese,  the 
Englishman,  John  Oxenham,  was 
the  first  European  to  lay  keel  in 
the  Pacific.  Francis  Drake  was  the 
first  captain  who  sailed  the  whole 
way  round  the  world,  since  the 
Portuguese  Magellan  died  before 
his  voyage  was  completed.  Before 
Elizabeth  was  dead,  Cavendish, 
too,  had  sailed  round  the  world. 
The  Englishmen  who  destroyed 
the  Armada  first  made  it  manifest 
that  the  ship  of  war  should  be 
herself  a  weapon  of  war,  with 
sailors,  not  soldiers,  to  fight  her ; 
that  seamanship  is  the  grand 
factor  in  naval  warfare,  and  is  the 
inheritance  of  Englishmen  more 
than  of  any  other  people.  The 
Elizabethan  seamen  laid  the  foun- 
dations both  of  the  commercial 
and  of  the  naval  supremacy  of 
England,  though  neither  was  quite 
decisively  established  until  nearly 
another  century  had  passed. 

No    less    astonishing    was    the 
literary  development  of  the  latter 


Queen  Elizabeth.   The  last  scene  in  the  royal  palace  of  Sheen,  Richmond,  where 
away,  March  24, 1603,  in  the  presence  of  some  of  her  advisers 


the  queen  passed  away, 


After  a  painting  by  P.  Delacroix,  in  the  Louvre,  Paris 


ELIZABETH 

half  of  Elizabeth's  reign,  extending 
almost  to  the  close  of  the  reign  of 
her  successor.  Before  this  time  it 
woxild  be  hard  to  name  any  English 
writers  with  a  real  title  to  the 
epithet  great,  except  Chaucer  and 
perhaps  Thomas  More.  But  at 
last  the  creative  literary  spirit  was 
fermenting.  The  drama  was  bom. 
After  the  Armada  the  great  poetic 
flood  burst  forth — Spenser's  Faerie 
Queene,  Marlowe's  tragedies,  and 
then  Shakespeare  ;  and,  following 
upon  Shakespeare,  Ben  Jonson  and 
others.  The  foundations  were  laid 
also  of  an  English  prose  literature 
by  the  Essays  of  Francis  Bacon, 
Hooker's  Ecclesiastical  Polity,  the 
vigorous  narrative  of  Raleigh,  and 
also  by  the  eccentricities  of  Lyly 
and  imitators,  and  the  efforts  of 
Sir  Philip  Sidney,  in  the  search  for 
a  prose  style. 

Both  the  maritime  and  the  liter- 
ary energy  were  the  expression  of 
what  was  the  fundamental  charac- 
teristic of  the  Elizabethan  period, 
its  intense  vitality,  with  free  play 
for  its  activities.  The  "  spacious 
days  "  are  rightly  named.  Intel- 
lectually, as  well  as  geographically, 
the  horizon  had  been  infinitely  en- 
larged, the  cramping  conditions  of 
the  Middle  Ages  had  been  broken 
down  ;  the  new  oceans  and  new 
lands  were  only  the  material  type 
of  the  new  intellectual  and  spiritual 
field  which  lay  open  to  exploration 
and  cultivation.  $eeillus.  p.  1113. 

Bibliography.  Lives  of  the  Queens 
of  England,  A.  Strickland,  1857  ; 
Lives  of  Elizabeth,  E.  S.  Beesly, 
1892  ;  Mandell  Creighton,  new  ed. 
1899 ;  The  Courtships  of  Queen 
Elizabeth,  M.  A.  S.  Hume,  rev.  ed. 
1904  ;  Political  History  of  England, 
A.  F.  Pollard,  vol.  vi,  1910. 

Elizabeth  (c.  1437-92).  Queen 
of  Edward  IV  of  England.  She 
was  the  daughter  of  Sir  Richard 
Woodville,  af- 
terwards Earl 
Rivers,  and  was 
married  first  to 
Sir  John  Grey, 
who  died  in 
1461.  The 
young  king  met 
the  handsome 
widow  while 
hunting,  and 
married  her  se- 
cretly in  1464, 
and  in  1465  she  was  acknowledged 
queen  and  crowned.  Of  her  chil- 
dren by  the  king  her  eldest  son 
became  king  as  Edward  V,  and  her 
eldest  daughter,  Elizabeth,  became 
the  queen  of  Henry  VII.  She  re- 
founded  Queens'  College,  Cam- 
bridge, originally  founded  by 
Henry  VTs  consort,  Margaret  of 
Anjou.  She  was  buried  in  S. 
George's  Chapel,  Windsor. 


Elizabeth    Wood- 
ville,    Queen    of 
Edward  IV 


Elizabeth  (1465-1503).  Queen 
of  Henry  VII.  The  daughter  of 
Edward  IV  and  Elizabeth  Wood- 
ville, she  was 
born  at  West- , 
I  minster,  Feb. 
I  11,1465.  When 
a  girl,  various 
negotiations  for 
a  husband  were 
carried  on  by 
her  father,  mar- 
riages with  a 
Elizabeth  of  York  Nevffl  and  the 
Queen  ot  Henry  VII  dauphin  of 

France,  afterwards  Charles  VIII, 
being  arranged.  She  was,  however, 
unmarried  when  Edward  died,  in 
1483,  and  after  the  murder  of  her 
two  young  brothers  in  the  Tower, 
she,  the  eldest  of  five  daughters, 
was  his  heiress.  She  was  then  in 
the  power  of  Richard  III,  who  con- 
templated marrying  her.  Before 
this  time,  the  names  of  Elizabeth 
and  Henry  Tudor  bad  been  coupled, 
and  the  princess,  then  in  Yorkshire, 
was  probably  in  the  plot  that 
culminated  in  the  battle  of  Bos- 
worth.  She  and  Henry  were 
married,  after  Parliament  had  ap- 
proved of  the  match,  Jan.  18, 
1486,  the  rival  houses  of  York  and 
Lancaster  being  thus  united.  She 
was  crowned  queen  Nov.  25,  1487. 

Elizabeth  had  four  children; 
Arthur  ;  Henry,  afterwards  Henry 
VIII ;  Margaret,  who  became  the 
wife  of  James  IV  of  Scotland  ;  and 
Mary,  afterwards  the  wife  of  Louis 
XII  of  France;  as  well  as  three 
who  died  in  infancy.  She  died 
Feb.  11,  1503,  shortly  after  the 
birth  of  the  youngest. 

Elizabeth  (1837-98).  Empress 
of  Austria.  Born  Dec.  24, 1837.  the 
daughter  of  Maximilian  I,  king  of 
Bavaria,  she 
married  Fran- 
cis Joseph  of 
Austria,  April  I 
24,  1854.  Her  < 
attempts  to  f:  ^  , 
modify  the  I 
strict  etiquette 
of  the  imperial 
court  aroused 
opposition  Elizabeth, 

amongst  the  Empress  of  Austna 
nobility,  but  she  soon  gained  the 
love  of  the  people  and  retained  it 
to  the  last.  In  1877  she  was 
crowned  queen  of  Hungary.  In 
1889  her  only  son,  Rudolph,  died 
in  very  tragic  circumstances  ;  her 
cousin,  Leopold  of  Bavaria,  com- 
mitted suicide,  and  her  sister, 
Sophie,  duchess  of  Alen9on,  was 
killed  in  a  fire  at  a  Paris  charity 
bazaar,  1897.  The  empress  herself 
was  mortally  stabbed  by  an  Italian 
anarchist  at  Geneva,  Sept.  10, 1898. 
See  Life,  A.  de  Burgh,  pseud.,  1899. 


Elizabeth, 
Queen  of  Bohemia 

After  Mierewald 


ELIZABETH 

Elizabeth  (1596-1662).  Queen 
of  Bohemia.  The  eldest  daughter 
of  James  I,  she  was  born  at  Falk- 
land, Fife,  Aug.  19, 1596.  In  1612 
she  was  betrothed  to  the  elector 
palatine  Frederick  V,  whom  she 
married  early  in  1613,  beginning 
wedded  life  at  Heidelberg,  the 
elector's  capital.  In  161 8  Frederick 
was  chosen  king  of  Bohemia,  and 
the  Thirty  Years'  War  began.  He 
and  his  wife  were  crowned  at 
Prague  in  1619  and  lived  there  for 
a  time,  but  soon  were  fugitives, 
the  queen  ultimately  reaching 
Holland,  where  Maurice  of  Orange 
befriended  her. 
By  this  time 
Frederick  had 
lost  the  pala- 
tinate as  well 
as  Bohemia, 
and  the  exiled 
pair  remained 
in  Holland, 
where  in  1632 
the  elector 
died. 

Elizabeth 

strove  to  obtain  the  lost 
tinate  for  her  eldest  surviving 
son,  Charles  Louis,  and  in  1648 
had  the  satisfaction  of  seeing 
him  settled  at  Heidelberg.  He  did 
nothing,  however,  to  relieve  the 
considerable  poverty  to  which  she 
was  reduced  by  her  husband's 
misfortunes  and  the  loss  of  her 
own  annuity  as  an  English  princess 
after  the  civil  war  broke  out.  She 
remained  in  Holland,  befriended 
by  the  earl  of  Craven,  to  whom 
report,  probably  incorrectly,  said 
she  was  married,  until  1661,  when 
she  crossed  over  to  England  and 
was  given  a  pension  by  Charles  II. 
She  was  living  in  Leicester  Square, 
London,  when  she  died,  Feb.  13, 
16u2.  Elizabeth  had  thirteen  chil- 
dren ;  two,  Rupert  and  Maurice, 
fought  in  the  Civil  War  for  their 
uncle,  Charles  I,  and  the  twelfth 
was  Sophia,  the  mother  of  George  I. 
See  Life,  M.  A.  E.  Green,  rev.  ed. 
S.  C.  Lomas,  1909. 

Elizabeth  (1843-1916).   Queen 
of    Rumania.     Born  at  Neuwied, 
Dec.    29,    1843,    the   daughter   of 
^^^^^^^^    Prince  Her- 
I    mann  of  Wied, 
Wjfr^m    in     1869     she 
m  1    married    King 

r:4i||    (then    Prince) 
'  ffiitiT^l    Carol    °*    RU' 
i    mania.      She 
endeared  her- 
self to  her  ad- 
opted country 
by  her  minis- 
trations to  the 
wounded   in 
the   war   with  Turkey  (1877-78), 
and  founded  the  order  of  Elizabeth 


Elizabeth, 
Empress  of  Russia 

From  an  old  engraving 


ELIZABETH 

to  reward  distinguished  Red  Cross 
work.  She  became  a  widow  Oct. 
10,  1914,  and  died  March  2, 1916. 

A  woman  of  cultivated  tastes, 
a  fine  musician,  and  no  mean 
painter,  the  queen  wrote  under  the 
pen-name  of  Carmen  Sylva  and 
published  poems  and  stories  in 
Rumanian,  German,  French,  and 
English.  Her  chief  works  are 
Stiirme,  1881 ;  Leidens  Erdengang, 
1882  (Eng.  trans,  by  M.  A.  Nash  as 
Suffering's  Journey  on  the  Earth, 
1905) ;  Les  Pensees  d'une  Reine, 
1882:  Pelesch  Marchen.  1 883, a  book 
steeped  in  Rumanian  folk-lore. 

Elizabeth  (1709-62).  Empress 
of  Russia.  Daughter  of  Peter  the 
Great,  and  therefore  called  Eliza- 
beth Petrovna, 
she  was  born 
Dec.  18,  1709. 
Under  her 
cousin  Anne's 
reign,  1730-iO. 
she  took  no 
part  in  court 
affairs,  but, 
living  her  own 
life,  gave  rein 
to  her  some- 
what a  b  a  n- 
doned  tastes.  On  Dec.  6,  1741, 
aided  by  her  intimates  and  par- 
tisans, she  dethroned  the  child 
emperor,  Ivan  VI,  by  a  coup 
d'etat  at  the  Winter  Palace,  and 
mounted  his  throne.  Through- 
out the  Seven  Years'  War  she 
worked  steadfastly  for  Russian 
interests,  implacable  in  her  opposi- 
tion to  Frederick  II  of  Prussia. 
Joining  with  France  and  Austria 
against  Prussia  in  1757,  she  was  a 
tower  of  strength  in  that  combina- 
tion which  brought  Prussia  almost 
to  destruction  by  the  end  of  1761, 
her  army  having  entered  Berlin  in 
1760.  To  Frederick's  great  relief, 
Elizabeth  died  on  Jan.  5,  1762. 
Before  her  accession  an  indolent 
woman,  as  empress  she  ruled  with 
unselfish  energy,  strengthening 
Russian  prestige  all  over  Europe, 
and  carried  out  various  internal 
reforms.  She  founded  the  uni- 
versity of  Moscow,  1755,  and  the 
Academy  of  Arts  at  St.  Petersburg. 
Elizabeth  (b.  1876).  Queen  of 
the  Belgians.  Born  July  25,  1876, 
at  Possenhofen,  she  belonged  to  a 
younger  branch  of  the  family  that 
until  1918 
ruled  over 
Bavaria.  Her 
father  was 
Charles  Theo- 
dore, duke  of 
Bavaria,  and 
she  was  the 
younger  of  his 
two  daughters. 

Elizabeth,  Queen 
of  the  Belgians 


Elizabeth, 
English  Princess 

from  an 


n™ 
1900,  she   was 


married  at  Munich  to  Albert,  who, 
in  1909,  became  king  of  the  Bel- 
gians.  During  the  Great  War  'the 
queen  with  her  husband  worked 
constantly  for  the  good  of  her 
country,  its  soldiers  and  inhabi- 
tants. See  Albert  ;  Belgium. 

Elizabeth  (1635-50).  English 
princess.  The  second  daughter  of 
Charles  I,  she  was  born  Dec.  28, 
1635.  She  was 
placed  in  the 
charge  of  Par- 
liament, and 
appealed  in  a 
touching  letter 
to  the  House 
of  Lords  for 
permission  t  o 
retain  her  at- 
tendants. I  n 
1  648  she  helped 

her     brother 

James,  duke  of  York,  to  escape. 
She  said  good-bye  to  her  father  the 
day  before  his  execution,  and,  after 
a  visit  to  Penshurst,  was  sent  in 
1650  to  Carisbrooke  Castle,  where 
she  died,  Sept.  8,  1650,  from  fever 
She  was  buried  in  S.  Thomas's 
Church,  Newport,  where  is  a  monu- 
ment to  her  by  Baron  Carlo  Maro- 
chetti  erected  by  Queen  Victoria 
in  1856. 

Elizabeth,    PHILIPPINE    MARIE 
HELENE  (1764-94).     French  prin 
cess,   usually   known   as   Madame 
Elizabeth.  Born 
a  t      Versailles. 
May  3,  1764,  she 
was     a    grand- 
daughter       o  f 
Louis  XV.   De- 
voted    to     her 
brother     Louis 
XVI,    she     ac- 
companied him 
Elizabeth,  on  his  flight  to 

French  princess       Varennes,    and 

From  an  old  engraving      shared         his 

captivity  in  the  Temple.  Accused 
of  aiding  Louis  and  the  royalist 
troops  in  1792,  she  was  guillotined, 
May  10,  1794. 

Elizabethville.  Town  of  the  Bel- 
gian Congo  and  headquarters  of  the 
Katanga  prov.  It  is  2,305  m.  from 
Cape  Town  and  292  m.  from  Bu- 
kama,  on  the  Lualaba  portion  of  the 
Congo  river.  The  fitoile  du  Congo 
mine  is  8  m.  distant,  and  there  are 
other  rich  copper  deposits  in  the 
neighbourhood.  The  surrounding 
country  is  well  wooded  and  there 
are  numerous  agricultural  settle- 
ments. Pop.  (European),  929. 

Elizabetpol.  Govt.  of  Transcau- 
casia. It  is  bounded  N.  by  the 
govts.  of  Daghestan  and  Tiflis,  E. 
by  Baku,  W.  by  Erivan,  and  S.  by 
the  Persian  prov.  of  Azerbeijan. 
A  mountainous  steppe  region,  with 
extensive  forests,  it  is  traversed  by 
the  river  Kur.  The  inhabitants  are 


EL-KAB 

chiefly  occupied  in  cattle  rearing, 
agriculture,  cultivation  of  vines, 
and  silkworm  breeding.  Other 
industries  are  copper  mining,  silk 
spinning  and  weaving.  The  area 
is  16,991  sq.  m.  Pop.  1,117,200, 
mostlv  Armenians  and  Tartars. 

Elizabetpol.  Town  of  Trans- 
caucasia. Chief  town  of  the  govt. 
of  Elizabetpol,  it  is  90  m.  S.E.  of 
Tiflis,  on  the  Gauja  and  the  Tiflis- 
Baku  Rly.  There  are  many  Ar- 
menian churches  in  the  town.  The 
inhabitants  are  chiefly  engaged  in 
the  cultivation  of  fruit,  vegetables, 
and  tobacco,  and  in  silkworm  rear- 
ing. Elizabetpol,  formerly  the  resi- 
dence of  a  Moslem  khan,  was  taken 
by  the  Russians  in  1804.  Some  ruins 
in  the  neighbourhood  have  yielded 
coins  of  many  nations.  Pop.  63,400. 

Elk  (Alces  macMs ;  Gr.  alke,  Lat. 
alces).  Largest  member  of  the  deer 
family,  known  in  America  as  the 
moose.  The  European  elk  is  found 
in  Scandinavia,  E.  Prussia,  Poland, 
and  parts  of  Russia  ;  but  is  now 
much  diminished  in  numbers,  and 


Elk.     Specimen    ol    the    common 
elk,  or  moose,  Alces  machlis 

only  occurs  very  locally.  The 
adult  elk  is  usually  about  6£  ft. 
high  at  the  withers,  and  may 
weigh  as  much  as  1,000  Ib.  It  is 
very  long  in  the  leg,  of  heavy 
build,  short  in  the  neck,  with  long 
ears,  and  has  a  very  long  head 
with  overhanging  muzzle.  The 
antlers  of  the  male  are  very  broad 
and  palmated.  It  inhabits  dense 
forests,  where  it  feeds  mainly  on 
the  leaves  and  young  branches  of 
the  willow  and  birch  as  well  as 
on  lichens  and  moss.  The  flesh  is 
apt  to  be  coarse,  and  has  a  musky 
flavour.  See  Moose. 

Elk.  Group  of  mountains  of  Col- 
orado, U.S.A.,  in  Pitkin  co.  They 
form  a  section  of  the  Rockies 
near  Aspen,  and  the  highest  sum- 
mit is  Castle  Peak,  with  an  eleva- 
tion of  14,259  ft. 

El-Kab.  Site  of  the  ancient 
city  Nekheb,  near  the  right  Nile 
bank,  44  m.  above  Luxor,  Upper 
Egypt.  The  predynastic  capital  of 
the  S.,  it  was  sacred  to  the  vulture- 
goddess  Nekhbet.  Within  the  gir- 
dle-wall, 37  ft.  thick  and  enclosing 
"^75  acres,  Quibell  conducted  exca- 
vations in  1897.  In  the  vicinity 


EL     KANTARA 


2872 


ELLERMAN      LINES 


are  many  rock-cut  tombs  with 
agricultural  and  domestic  scenes. 
The  royal  residence  lay  across  the 
stream  at  Hieraconpolis»  ^  .;  • 

El  Kantara.  Town  of  Egypt, 
situated  on  the  Suez  Canal.  Here 
on  Jan.  26,  1915,  in  their  first  in- 
vasion of  Egypt,  an  advance 
guard  of  Turks  came  into  touch 
with  a  British  patrol.  On  Feb.  3 
they  launched  subsidiary  attacks 
against  the  canal  at  El  Kantara 
and  other  points  to  cover  their 
main  attack  at  Serapeum,  32  m. 
further  S.  This  battle  for  the 
canal  ended  in  the  complete  defeat 
of  the  Turks.  A  British  war  me- 
morial is  to  be  erected  here.  See 
Egypt ;  Palestine,  Conquest  of. 

ElKefr.  Village  of  Palestine.  It 
lies  in  the  foothills  of  Mt.  Ephraim, 
18  m.  E.  by  N.  of  Joppa,  and 
16  m.  S.W.  of  Shechem.  It  was 
captured  together  with  Refat  by 
the  British  on  April  9,  1918.  See 
Palestine,  Conquest  of. 

Elkesaites  OK  ELCHASAITES. 
Heretical  3rd  century  sect  which 
followed  alleged  revelations  con- 
tained in  the  Book  of  Elchasai. 
This  taught  that  the  Son  of  God 
had  been  manifested  in  the  persons 
of  many  good  men,  and  that  Christ 
was  merely  one  of  these  manifes- 
tations. 

Elkhart.  City  of  Indiana,U.S.A., 
in  Elkhart  co.  At  the  junction  of 
the  Elkhart  and  St.  Joseph  rivers, 
100  m.  E.S.E.  of  Chicago,  it  is 
served  by  the  Lake  Shore  and 
Michigan  S.  and  other  rlys.  Settled 
about  1833,  it  received  its  city 
charter  in  1875.  Pop.  21,735. 

Elkhorn.  River  of  Nebraska, 
U.S.A.  Rising  in  the  N.  part  of  the 
state,  it  flows  200  m.  S.E.  to  La 
Platte  river,  an  affluent  of  the 
Missouri. 

Elkington,  GEORGE  RICHARDS 
(1801-65).  British  manufacturer. 
Bom  Oct.  17,  1801,  at  Birming- 
ham, the  son  of  a  spectacle-maker, 
he  became  partner  and  afterwards 
sole  proprietor  of  his  uncle's  silver- 
plating  business  in  that  city.  By 
energy  and  experiment  he  made 
electro -plating  a  commercial  pro- 
position, and  superseded  the  old- 
fashioned  method  of  plating  by 
soldering  thin  sheets  of  silver  upon 
copper.  He  died  Sept.  22,  1865. 

El  Kosseir.  Seaport  of  Upper 
Egypt.  It  stands  on  the  Red  Sea, 
96  m.  E.  of  Keneh,  and  has  a  ^ood 
harbour.  Pop.  2,000. 

Elk's-horn  Fern  (Platycenum). 
A  small  genus  of  large  epiphytal 
ferns.  They  are  natives  of  Aus- 
tralia, Malaya,  and  Africa.  The 
lower  fronds,  which  are  barren,  are 
thick  and  undivided,  and  spread 
close  to  the  tree-trunk  on  which 
they  grow.  The  much  longer  fertile 
fronds  present  the  appearance  of  a 


tfiKnJ 


Elk's-horn    Fern.      Specimen    of 

Platycerium  grande,  growing  on  a 

tree  trunk 

stag's  antlers.  In  an  Indian  species 
(P.  bi forme)  they  are  from  6  ft. 
to  15  ft.  in  length. 

El  Kutrani.  Village  of  Hejaz. 
It  is  on  the  Hejaz  Rly.,  80  m.  N. 
of  Maan  on  the  borders  of  Moab, 
and  was  finally  captured  in  the 
great  Allied  offensive  in  the  autumn 
of  1918.  See  Hejaz;  Palestine, 
Conquest  of. 

Ell  (Lat.  ulna,  Ger.  ellenbogen, 
Eng.  elbow).  Medieval  European 
measure  of  length.  It  varies  from 
the  English  ell,  probably  borrowed 
from  France,  which  equals  45  ins., 
to  the  Scottish  of  37  ins.  and  the 
Flemish  of  27  ins. 

Ellagic  Acid  OR  BEZOARDIC  ACID 
(C14H608).  Constituent  of  the  animal 
concretions  which  are  met  with  in 
Oriental  countries  under  the  name 
of  bezoars.  It  can  also  be  made 
artificially  by  treating  gallic  acid 
in  acetic  acid  solution  with  potas- 
sium persulphate  and  sulphuric 
acid.  The  name  is  Fr.  gatte  (gall) 
reversed,  with  suffix — ic. 

Elland.  Town 
and  urban  dis- 
trict of  York- 
shire (W.R.).  It 
stands  on  the 
Calder,  3  m. 
S.E.  of  Halifax, 
and  has  a  station 
on  the  L.  &  Y. 
Rly.  The  indus- 
tries include  the 
manufacture  of 
textiles,  while 
there  are  stone 
quarries  in  the 
neighbourhood. 
The  chief  of 
several  public 
buildings  is  S. 


AfterSirThos.  Lawrenc 


Ellenborough,  EDWARD  LAW, 
BARON  (1750-1818).  British  lawyer. 
Born  at  GreatSalkeld, Cumberland, 
Nov.  16,  1750,  he  was  educated  at 
Charterhouse  and  Peterhouse, Cam- 
bridge. He  was 
called  to  the 
bar  in  1780  and 
eight  years 
later  was  lead- 
ing counsel 
for  Warren 
Hastings 
(q.v.).  In  1802 
he  was  ap- 
pointed lord 
chief  justice 
and  created  a 
peer.  He  re- 
signed office  in  Nov.,  1818,  and 
died  Dec.  13,  1818. 

Ellenborough,  EDWARD  LAW, 
EARL  OF  (1790-1871).  British  ad- 
ministrator. Born  Sept.  8,  1790, 
the  eldest  son 
of  the  first 
Baron  Ellen  - 
borough,  h  e 
was  educated 
at  Eton  and  S. 
John's  College, 
Cambridge, 
and  in  1813 
entered  Parlia- 
m  e  n  t.  Made 
lord  privy  seal 
in  1828,  he  was 
transferred  the  same  year  to  the 
presidency  of  the  board  of  control, 
and  in  1841  became  governor- 
general  of  India.  He  annexed  Sind 
in  1842  and  subdued  Gwalior  in 
1844.  He  was  made  first  lord  of 
the  Admiralty  in  1846,  and  presi- 
dent of  the  board  of  control  in 
1858.  He  died  Dec.  22,  1871. 

Ellen's  Isle  OR  EILEAN  MOLACH. 
Islet  in  Loch  Katrine,  Perthshire, 
Scotland.  It  is  largely  the  scene 
of  Scott's  Lady  of  the  Lake. 

Eller man  Lines.  British  steam- 
ship company.  An  offshoot  of  the 
Bibby  line  founded  in  1840,  it  was 


1st  Earl  of  Ellen- 
borough, 
British  administrator 


Mary's    Church. 
Pop.  10,676. 


Ellen's  Isle,  the  woody  islet  on  Loch  Katrine  immor- 
talised in  Scott's  poem,  The  Lady  of  the  Lake 


ELLES 


2873 


ELLIOTT 


purchased  in  1870  by  Frederick 
Leyland  &  Co.,  and  flourished  as 
the  Leyland  line  until  1902,  when 
it  was  sold,  the  Atlantic  services 
being  acquired  by  the  International 
Mercantile  Marine,  an  American 
combine,  and  the  Mediterranean 
services  by  Sir  J.  R.  Ellerman.  The 
latter,  born  1862,  was  created  C.H. 
in  1921,  and  was  interested  in  news- 
paper enterprises,  including  The 
Times. 

The  Ellerman  lines  control 
the  City,  Ellerman,  Hall,  Buck- 
nail,  Papayanni,  Westcott  and 
Laurance,  and  Wilson  lines.  The 
City  and  Hall  lines  run  fast  pas- 
senger steamers  from  Liverpool  to 
India  and  Egypt  ;  the  Ellerman 
and  Bucknall  lines  have  a  big  fleet 
going  to  almost  all  parts  of  the 
world  —  Africa,  Australia,  New  Zea- 
land, India,  Mesopotamia,  the  Far 
East,  and  New  York  ;  the  West- 
cott and  Laurance  line  serves  the 
Mediterranean,  the  Black  Sea,  and 
the  Danube.  The  headquarters  of 
the  combination  are  12,  Moorgate 
Street,  London,  E.G 

Elles,  HUGH  JAMIESON  (b.  1880). 
British   soldier.      Born  April   27, 
1880,  he  was  gazetted  to  the  R.E. 
in   -1899      and 
served    in    the 
South     African 
War  1901-2.  He 
passed  the  Staff 
College    course, 
1913-14.  Cross- 
ing with  the  Ex- 
peditionary 
Force  in  the  lat- 
Hugh  J.  Elles,       fcer  year,    he 
British  soldier       served  in  France 


throughout  the 
Great  War,  becoming  major,  1915, 
brevet-lieut.  -colonel,  1918,  and 
colonel,  1919.  He  was  promoted 
temporary  major-general  com- 
manding the  Tank  Corps  in  1918. 

Ellesmere.  Urban  dist.  and 
market  town  of  Shropshire,  Eng- 
land. It  is  11  m.  S.W.  of  Whit- 
church,  on  the  Cambrian  Rly.,  and 
on  the  mere  and  canal  of  the  same 
name.  No  traces  remain  of  its 
castle,  whose  site  is  now  occupied 
by  a  recreation  ground  ;  S.  Mary's 
Church  is  a  fine  Gothic  structure. 
Malting  and  tanning  are  industries. 
Market  day,  Tues.  Pop.  1,946. 

Ellesmere.  Large  island  of 
British  N.  America.  In  the  Arctic 
region,  N.  of  Devon  Island,  it  is 
separated  from  Greenland  by 
Smith  Sound,  Kennedy  Channel, 
and  Robeson  Channel.  It  is  deeply 
indented,  especially  on  the  W. 
coast,  and  has  the  Prince  of  Wales 
mountains  on  the  E.  It  is  a  desolate 
tract  covered  with  ice  and  snow. 

Ellesmere,  EARL  OF.  British 
title  borne  since  1846  by  the  family 
of  Egerton.  Francis  Leveson- 


Gower,  a  younger  son  of  the  1st 
duke  of  Sutherland,  assumed  the 
name  of  Egerton  in  1833,  when  he 
inherited  the  estates  of  the  Eger- 
tons,  dukes  of  Bridgewater.  He 
was  a  politician  with  remarkably 
enlightened  views,  and  won  some 
distinction  as  a  writer  and  a  patron 
of  the  arts.  He  was  created  earl  of 
Ellesmere  in  1846,  and  died  Feb. 
18,  1857,  and  from  him  the  present 
earl  is  descended.  The  earl's  chief 
seat  is  Worsley  Hall,  Manchester, 
but  he  has  property  in  Shropshire, 
where  is  Ellesmere.  His  eldest  son 
is  called  Viscount  Brackley. 

Ellesmere  and  Chester  Canal. 
Waterwayof  England  andWalescon- 
necting  the  Dee  and  Mersey.  It  con- 
nects Chester  with  Ellesmere  port, 
on  the  Manchester  Ship  Canal  line. 

Ellesmere  Port  and  Whitby. 
Urb.  dist.  of  Cheshire,  England.  It 
is  7  m.  N.  of  Chester,  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Manchester  Ship  and 
Ellesmere  Canals.  An  embankment 
about  1  m.  long  separates  the  Mer- 
sey from  the  Manchester  Ship 
Canal.  There  are  large  docks,  ware- 
houses, and  dyeworks,  and  syn- 
thetic indigo  is  manufactured  in 
large  quantities.  Pop.  10,366. 

Ellice  Islands.  Group  of  coral 
islands  in  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Called 
the  Lagoon  islands,  they  lie  N.  of 
Fiji,  between  lat.  5°  30'  and  11°  S. 
and  long.  176°  and  179°  50'  E. 
The  chief  industries  are  connected 
with  phosphates  and  copra.  They 
were  formally  annexed  by  Great 
Britain  in  1916  as  the  Gilbert 
and  Ellice  Islands  Colony,  and  are 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  high 
commissioner  for  the  W.  Pacific. 

Ellichpur.  Town  of  India,  chief 
town  of  Berar  prov.  It  is  100  m.  W. 
of  Nagpur.  Once  an  important  city, 
its  prosperity  has  declined.  By 
local  tradition  it  is  supposed  to 
date  from  the  1 1th  century  ;  it  is 
known  to  have  been  prominent  in 
the  13th  century,  and  then  passed 
under  Mahomedan  rulers.  Besides 
an  old  palace,  the  town  contains 
a  number  of  early  remains,  in- 
cluding a  burial  shrine  associated 
with  a  mythical  hero,  Shah  Abdur- 
Rahman.  Cotton  is  the  chief  in- 
dustry. Pop.  13,909,  three-fifths 
Hindus,  one -third  Mahomedans. 

Elliot,  JANE  OB  JEAN  (1727- 
1805).  Scottish  song  writer.  The 
daughter  of  Sir  Gilbert  Elliot,  2nd 
bart.,  of  Minto,  she  is  famous  as  the 
author  of  The  Flowers  of  the 
Forest,  which  Sir  Walter  Scott  in- 
cluded in  his  Minstrelsy  of  the 
Scottish  Border,  1802.  She  died  in 
Edinburgh,  March  29,  1805. 

Elliot,  JOHN  (d.  1808).  British 
lailor.  Son  of  Sir  Gilbert  Elliot,  a 
Scottish  judge,  he  entered  the  navy 
and  in  1758  served  under  Hawke 
and  Anson.  He  distinguished  him- 


self in  1 760  off  the  coast  of  Ireland  in 
the  capture  of  three  French  vessels. 
After  serving  in  the  Mediterranean 
and  at  Plymouth  he  commanded 
the  Trident  to  America.  In  1779  he 
sailed  under  Rodney  to  the  relief  of 
Gibraltar,  distinguished  himself  at 
St.  Vincent,  vand  fought  under 
Kempenfelt.  *  From  1786-89  he 
was  commander-in-chief  at  New- 
foundland, and  was  promoted 
admiral,  1 795,  when  he  retired.  He 
died  Sept.  20,  1808. 

Elliott,  CHARLOTTE  (1789-1871). 
English  hymn-writer.  She  was 
born  at  Clapham,  March  18, 
1789,  and  after  an  uneventful  life, 
passed  for  the  most  part  as  an 
invalid,  she  died  at  Brighton,  Sept. 
22,  1871.  Her  hymns,  amounting 
to  about  a  hundred  and  fifty,  made 
her  among  the  foremost  of  British 
women  hymn -writers.  Many  of 
them  became  very  popular,  notably 
"  Just  as  I  am,  without  one  plea." 
Elliott,  EBENEZER  (1781-1849). 
British  poet,  known  as  the  Com 
Law  Rhymer.  Born  at  Mas- 
borough,  York-  . 
shire,  March  17,  ^^Jtogtu*. 

1781,    he    was         jF 
engaged,      like  ;      K 
his    father,    in  ;   :   lMi&  ,<f 
the  iron  trade. 
He    attributed 
his  father's  ruin 
and     his    own 
early  losses  to 
the  bread  tax, 
and  in  his  Corn 
Law     Rhymes 
(1831)      he 
depicted  in  vigorous  language  and 
with  intense  feeling  the  sufferings 
of  the  poor  under  the  Corn  Laws. 
His  hymn  beginning  "  When  wilt 
Thou  save  the  People?"  is  still 
sung.    He  died  at  Great  Houghton, 
Dec.  1,  1849.    See  Life,  John  Wat- 
kins,   1850;   Poetical   Works,   ed. 
Edwin  Elliott,  1876. 

Elliott,  GRACE  DALRYMPLE  (c. 
1758-1823).  Reputed  mistress  of 
George  IV.  She  was  a  daughter  of 
Hew  Dalrym- 
ple,  an  Edin- 
burgh lawyer, 
was  educated 
in  France,  in 
1771  married 
John  Elliott, 
and  was  di- 
vorced in  1774. 
About  1782 she 
gave  birth  to 
a  daughter,  of 
whom  the 
prince  of  Wales 
acknowledged  himself  the  father. 
She  subsequently  settled  in  France, 
and  died  near  Sevres,  May  16, 1823. 
Her  account  of  her  life  during  the 
French  Revolution  was  published 
in  1859. 


Ebenezer  Elliott, 
British  poet 

From  a  contemporary 
sketch 


Grace  Dalrymple 

Elliott, 
British  adventuress 

After  Co&iuay 


ELLIOTT 

Elliott,  MAXINE  (b.  1873). 
American  actress.  Born  in  Rock- 
land,  Maine,  Feb.  5,  1873,  she 
began  acting 
in  The  Middle- 
man.with  E.  S. 
Willard  (New 
York,  Nov.  10, 
1890),  and  was 
soon  taking 
leading  parts, 
including  that 
of  Mrs.  Allen  by 

Maxine  Elliott,         in   A   Woman 
American  actress       of  No  Import- 

.  *L.  Ca,waU  Smith      -     ance.        Her 

Shakespearean  renderings  were 
greatly  praised.  Her  first  appear- 
ance in  London  was  as  Silvia  in  The 
Two  Gentlemen  of  Verona,  Daly's, 
July  2,  1895 ;  from  then  onwards 
she  acted  in  England  frequently, 
a  notable  success  being  Zuleika  in 
Joseph  and  His  Brethren  (His 
Majesty's,  1913).  Her  sister,  Ger- 
trude, also  an  actress,  is  the  wife  of 
Sir  J.  Forbes-Robertson  (q.v. ). 

Ellipse  (Gr.  elleipsis).  A  curve 
such  that  the  sum  of  the  distances 
of  any  point  on  it,  from  two  fixed 
points  within  it,  is  constant.  When 
the  fixed  points  coincide  the  curve 
becomes  a  circle.  See  Conic  Sections. 
Ellipsis.  Figure  of  speech, 
whereby  part  of  a  sentence,  strictly 
necessary  for  complete  fullness  of 
expression,  but  which  can  easily  be 
supplied  from  the  grammatical 
connexion,  is  omitted.  It  is  often 
deliberately  employed  in  writing,  in 
order  to  lay  stress  upon  what  is 
more  important  and  essential,  un- 
essentials  being  omitted. 

Ellipsoid.  Solid  of  which  all 
sections  are  either  ellipses  or  circles. 
See  Geometry. 

Ellis,  ROBINSON  (1834-1913). 
British  classical  scholar.  He  was 
born  at  Banning,  in  Kent,  Sept.  5, 
1834,  and  educated  at  Rugby 
and  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  where 
his  career  was  most  distinguished. 
In  1883  he  became  reader  in  Latin 
at  the  university,  and  in  1893  pro- 
fessor of  Latin.  He  is  chiefly  known 
for  his  work  on  Catullus,  whose 
poems  he  edited  and  also  translated 
in  the  original  metres;  while  his 
Commentary  on  Catullus  (1876, 
2nd  ed.  1889)  ranks  as  the  highest 
authority  on  its  subject.  He  died  at 
Oxford,  Oct.  9,  1913. 

Efliston, 
ROBERT  WIL- 
LIAM (1774- 
1831).  British 
actor  and  thea- 
trical manager. 
Born  in  Lon- 
don, April  7, 
1774,  the  son  of 

Robert  W.Elliston.    a    ^tchmaker 
British  actor         and      educated 

After  Harlowe  at       O.        Paul  S 


School,  he  made  his  first  appearance 
at  Bath,  as  Tressel  in  Richard  III. 
On  Aug.  29,  1796,  he  played  Sir 
Edward  Mortimer  in  a  revival  of 
George  Colman's  The  Iron  Chest  at 
The  Haymarket,  where  he  acted 
during  thesummerseasons  of  1803-5 
and  1811.  He  made  his  debut  at 
Dairy  Lane,  Sept.  20, 1804,  succeed- 
ing Kemble  as  Rolla  in  Pizarro, 
continued  amemberof  the  company 
till  1809,  rejoined  it  from  1812-15, 
and  was  lessee  of  the  theatre  from 
1819-26,  when  he  retired,  bank- 
rupt. He  afterwards  became  lessee 
of  the  Surrey  Theatre,  where  he 
played  until  within  a  fortnight  of 
his  death  in  1831.  Both  as  a 
tragedian  and  a  comedian  Elliston 
stands  high  in  the  annals  of  the 
British  stage.  See  Life  and  Enter- 
prises of  R.  W.  Elliston,  George 
Raymond,  1857. 

Ellora.  Ruined  town  of  India,  in 
Hyderabad  state.     Situated  13  m. 


Ellipse.  S  S'  are  foci  on  the  axis 
X  X'.  A  A'  is  called  the  principal 
diameter.  P  is  any  point  on  the 
ellipse,  and  has  the  property  that 
S  P  +  S'  P  is  constant 

N.W.  of  Aurangabad,  it  is  famous 
for  the  Kailas  temple  built  in  the 
8th  century,  and  for  its  rock  tem- 
ples and  caves  dating  from  the  5th 
to  the  9th  or  10th  century.  These 
caves  cover  the  face  of  a  hill  for  1 J 
m.  and  belong  to  three  groups — 
Buddhist,  12  caves,  Brahminical, 
17,  and  Jain,  5.  See  illus.  p.  1799. 

Ellore.  Town  of  Madras,  India, 
in  the  Kistna  dist.  It  stands  near 
Colair  Lake,  38  m.  N.  of  Masulipa- 
tam.  Ellore  is  noted  for  its  carpets, 
and  has  a  large  trade  hi  grain. 
Pop.  37,819,  nearly  all  Hindus. 

Ellsworth.  City  of  Maine, 
U.S.A.,  the  co.  seat  of  Hancock  co. 
A  port  of  entry  on  Union  river,  at 
the  head  of  navigation,  it  is  30  m. 
S.E.  of  Bangor  on  the  Maine  Cen- 
tral Rly.  It  has  several  prominent 
buildings.  There  are  foundries  and 
an  important  fish  hatchery.  Settled 
in  1763,  it  was  incorporated  in  1800 
and  granted  a  city  charter  in  1869. 
Pop.  3,549. 

Ellwood,  THOMAS  (1639-1714). 
English  author  and  Quaker.  He 
was  born  at  Crowell,  Oxfordshire, 
and  became  a  Quaker  in  1659,  a 
conversion  which  cost  him  several 
terms  of  imprisonment.  He  became 
companion  and  reader  to  Milton 
after  the  latter  lost  his  sight,  and 
suggested  to  him  the  idea  of  Para- 
dise Regained.  He  assisted  George 


Fox  in  the  dissemination  of  his 
principles,  and  wrote  various 
polemical  treatises,  but  his  most 
important  work  is  his  autobio- 
graphy, which  was  finished  by 
Joseph  Wyeth  and  published  in 
1714;  new  ed.  by  Crump,  1900. 
He  died  March  1,  1714.  % 

Elm  ( Ulmus).     Familiar  native 
tree    of    Britain,   of    the    natural 
order  Urticaceae.     More  frequently 
found  in  avcn- 
ues,  parks,  and 
hedges  than  in 
woods  and  for- 
ests, elms  flour- 
ish in  any  soil, 
but    to    attain 
to    their   full 
height  of  80  ft. 
or  thereabouts, 
and  to  make  the 
best   wood,   re- 


Elm   tree    in   full     foliage.      Above, 
leaves  and  flowers  of  the  common  elm 

Photo.  F.  B.  Sinking 

quire  a  rich  alluvial  loam.  The 
most  familiar  species  are  wych 
elm  (£7.  montana)  and  the  bell  elm 
(U.  campestris).  Both  may  be 
planted  in  open  weather  at  any 
time  between  autumn  and  spring. 
The  usual  way  of  increasing  in  pri- 
vate gardens  is  by  layering,  or  in  the 
case  of  the  bell  elm  by  removal  of 
suckers,  as  this  tree  seeds  scantily. 

Elms  should  not  be  planted 
near  dwelling-houses,  as  the  tim- 
ber has  a  tendency  to  decay  in- 
wardly, involving  danger  of  the 
limbs  dropping  off  suddenly,  with- 
out any  warning,  especially  in 
high  winds. 

Elmalu,  ELMALI,  OR  AIMALI. 
Town  of  Asia  Minor,  in  the  vilayet 
of  Konia.  Situated  on  the  river 
Myra,  25  m.  from  its  entrance  into 
the  Mediterranean,  it  is  about  60  m. 
S.  W.  of  Analia.  Pop.  4,000.  The 
word  means  apple  town. 


ELMAN 


ELOCUTION 


Elman,  MISCHA  (b.  1891).  Rus- 
sian violinist.  Born  at  Talnoi, 
Russia,  Jan.  20,  1891,  he  received 
-.  •-•••••mKm  ••-  -:  his  musical 
JBPiP\,  j  education  at 
f*  \  Odessa  and  St. 

Ipipll  S:  *  Petersburg.  He 
.  made  his  debut 
•j  there  in  1904, 
'  afterwards 
-  appearing  in 
Berlin,  Dres- 
i  den,  and  else- 

Mischa  Elman,         where.       His 

Russian  violinist  first  a  p  p  e  a  r- 
ance  in  London  took  place  March 
21,  1905  ;  in  New  York  in  1908. 
From  the  first  he  was  recognized 
as  one  of  the  world's  greatest 
violinists. 

Elmet.  Name  of  a  little  British 
kingdom  in  Yorkshire.  It  existed 
in  the  6th  century  and  earlier,  but 
was  ended  when  conquered  by 
Edwin,  king  of  Northumbria,  about 
617.  Its  extent,  roughly,  corre- 
sponded to  the  West  Riding.  The 
name  was  long  preserved  by  the 
forest  of  Elmet. 

Elmina  OK  ST.  GEORGE  DEL 
MINA.  Small  port  of  the  Gold 
Coast  colony,  8  m.  S.W.  of  Cape 
Coast  Castle.  Here  is  a  castle,  built 
by  the  Portuguese  in  1482  and  suc- 
ceeding years,  taken  by  the  Dutch 
in  1637,  and  transferred  to  the 
British  in  1872,  with  the  other 
Dutch  settlements  in  West  Africa. 
Pop.  5,091. 

Elmira.  City  of  New  York, 
U.S.A.,  the  co.  seat  of  Chemung  co. 
On  the  Chemung  river,  145  m.  S.E. 
of  Buffalo,  it  is  served  by  the  Erie 
and  other  rlys.  It  contains  the 
state  reformatory,  a  federal  build- 
ing, a  state  armoury,  and  other 
public  buildings,  and  among  several 
educational  institutions  are  Elmira 
College  for  women,  a  free  academy, 
and  a  school  of  commerce.  A  busy 
rly.  and  industrial  centre,  it  has 
rly.  workshops,  iron  works,  foun- 
dries, and  glass,  tobacco,  and  boot 
and  shoe  factories.  Settled  in  1788, 
it  was  incorporated  in  1828  and 
received  a  city  charter  in  1864. 
Pop.  38,275. 

Elmore  Process.  Method  of 
making  seamless  copper  (or  other 
metal)  tubes  by  depositing  the 
metal  by  electrolytic  action  on  a 
bar  or  mandrel  kept  rotating  in  the 
electric  bath.  It  was  devised  by 
J.  0.  S.  Elmore,  an  engineer  in 
India,  in  1896.  A  tube  so  formed 
would  be  wanting  in  mechanical 
strength  if  the  deposition  only 
were  depended  upon.  Elmore 
therefore  compacted  the  tube  as 
the  deposition  of  metal  proceeded 
by  rotating  the  mandrel  against  an 
agate  burnisher,  and  thus  greatly 
increased  its  strength.  The  advan- 
tage of  the  process  lies  in  the 


purity  of  the  product  and  the 
elimination  of  smelting  processes. 
See  Copper  ;  Electrolysis. 

Elmshorn.  Town  of  Slesvig- 
Holstein,  Germany.  It  stands  on 
the  Kriichau,  about  10  m.  from  its 
junction  with  the  Elbe  and  23  m. 
from  Hamburg.  It  is  a  river  port, 
and  has  a  shipping  trade.  Other  in- 
dustries including  the  manufacture 
of  textiles,  beer,  and  boots ;  also 
shipbuilding.  Pop.  14,790. 

Elmsley,  PETER  (1773-1825). 
British  scholar.  Educated  at  West- 
minster School  and  Christ  Church, 
Oxford,  he  showed  a  remarkable 
aptitude  for  study.  He  was  or- 
dainedjbut  devoted  most  of  his  time 
to  the  study  of  the  classics  and  won 
a  reputation  throughout  Europe 
by  his  critical  work  on  the  Greek 
tragedians.  He  wrote  for  The  Edin- 
burgh Review  and  The  Quarterly 
Review.  In  1823  he  became  princi- 
pal of  St.  Alban  Hall  and  Camden 
professor  of  ancient  history  at 
Oxford  He  died  March  8, 1825.  See 
History  of  Classical  Scholarship, 
vol.  iii,  J.  E.  Sandys,  1908. 

Elmslie,  WILLIAM  GRAY  (1848- 
89).  British  divine.  Bornatlnsch, 
Aberdeenshire,  Oct.  5,  1848,  he 
was  educated  at  Aberdeen  Univer- 
sity and  New  College,  Edinburgh, 
and  later  studied  in  Germany.  In 
1873  he  became  assistant  to  Dr. 
J.  Oswald  Dykes,  at  Regent's 
Square  Presbyterian  Church,  Lon- 
don, and  was  chosen  minister  of 
Willesden  Presbyterian  Church  in 
1875.  In  1880  he  was  appointed 
tutor  of  Hebrew  in  the  Presby- 
terian College,  London,  being 
elected  to  the  professorship  of 
Hebrew  and  O.T.  literature  in 
1883.  He  died  in  London,  Nov.  16, 
1889.  His  son,  William  Alexander 
Leslie  (b.  1885),  a  distinguished 
Oriental  scholar,  wrote  Aboda 
Zara  or  The  Mishna  on  Idolatry, 
1911,  and  Studies  in  Life  from 
Jewish  Proverbs,  1917.  See  W.  G. 
Elmslie,  Memoir  and  Sermons,  ed. 
W.  R.  Nicoll  and  A.  N.  Macnicoll, 
3rd  ed.  1890. 

El  Mughar ,  BATTLE  or.  Fought 
between  the  British  and  the  Turks. 
Nov.  13-14,  1917,  and  also  called 
the  battle  of  Katrah  After  captur- 
ing Gaza,  Gen.  Allenby  pushed  N. 
without  delay,  and  on  Nov.  8, 
1917,  struck  hard  at  the  Turks 
from  both  Gaza  and  Sheria,  Scots 
and  Indian  troops  advancing  along 
the  coast  to  Deir  Sineid,  from 
which  the  Turks  had  a  rly.  to 
Huj,  and  Londoners,  assisted 
by  yeomanry,  taking  Huj  and 
Jemmameh. 

Allenby' s  objective  was  the  junc- 
tion station  where,  from  the  Central 
Palestine  rly.,  a  branch  line  ran  E. 
to  Jerusalem,  possession  of  which 
meant  depriving  the  Turkish  forces 


in  the  Holy  City  of  supplies  by  rail 
from  the  N.  and  the  separation  of 
these  forces  from  those  on  the 
coast.  With  the  52nd  (Scots) 
division,  Indian,  and  other  troops 
on  his  left,  next  the  sea,  Londoners 
and  yeomanry  in  the  centre,  and 
Anzacs  and  other  cavalry  on  his 
right,  Allenby  swept  forward,  occu- 
pying Ascalon,  Ashdod  (Esdud), 
and  Tel  es  Safi  (Gath),  and  on 
Nov.  13  began  a  general  assault  of 
the  position  that  the  retreating 
Turks  had  taken  up  from  El  Ku- 
beibeh  on  the  N.W.,  through  El 
Mughar,  to  Beit  Jibrin  on  the  S.E. 

Most  of  the  country  wag  open  and 
rolling,  dotted  with  small  villages, 
two  of  which,  Katrah  and  El 
Mughar,  stood  on  a  ridge  which  the 
Turks  had  fortified,  and  was  the 
centre  of  the  fighting.  The  Scots 
and  yeomen  got  on  the  ridge,  but 
twice  were  repulsed.  Charging  a 
third  time,  and  assisted  by  W.  of 
England  infantry  and  other  yeo- 
manry, they  took  both  villages, 
capturing  1,100  prisoners.  After 
losing  El  Mughar  the  Turks 
abandoned  the  junction  station, 
and  the  British  occupied  it  on 
Nov.  14.  See  Palestine,  Conquest  of. 

El  Mugheir.  Village  of  Pales- 
tine. It  lies  slightly  W.  of  the 
Jordan,  17  m.  N.  of  Jericho. 
British  and  Indian  troops  occupied 
it  Sept.  19,  1918.  See  Palestine, 
Conquest  of. 

El  Obeid.  Town  of  the  Anglo - 
Egyptian  Sudan,  capital  of  the 
prov.  of  Kordofan.  It  is  the  ter- 
minus of  the  Kordofan  extension 
of  the  Sudan  government  rlys. 
(completed  1911),  and  is  situated 
about  160  m.  by  road  W.  of  the 
Nile  and  430  m.  by  rly.  S.W.  of 
Khartum.  A  primary  school  where 
English  is  taught  has  been  opened 
here.  The  pop.  fluctuates,  but 
the  normal  figure  is  about  12,000. 

Elobey.  Two  small  islands, 
called  Great  and  Little,  off  the 
mouth  of  the  Gabun  river,  W. 
coast  of  Africa,  belonging  to  Spain. 
Great  Elobey  is  covered  with  bush, 
and  has  an  area  of  £  sq.  m.  The 
area  of  Little  Elobey  is  36  acres. 
The  islands  are  under  the  control  of 
a  sub-governor,  who  is  responsible 
to  the  governor-general  resident  at 
Santa  Isabel  on  the  island  of  Fer- 
nando Po.  Pop.,  Gt.  Elobey,  123  ; 
Little  Elobey,  222,  mostly  of  the 
Benga  tribe. 

Elocution  (Lat.  eloqui,  to  speak 
out).  The  art  of  effective  public 
speaking.  In  classical  times  it  in- 
cluded oratory,  but  now  refers 
solely  to  the  method  and  manner 
of  delivery,  the  right  study  of 
which  includes  breath  control, 
voice  production,  articulation,  pro- 
nunciation, and  expression. 

Breath  is  the  motive  power  of 


ELOHIST 


2876 


ELSIE      VENNER 


the  voice.  Authorities  agree  that 
the  intercostal  diaphragmatic  me- 
thod of  breathing,  i.e.  the  free  ex- 
pansion laterally  of  the  lungs  at 
their  base  with  the  descent  of  the 
diaphragm  in  inspiration  and  the 
reverse  action  with  an  even  abdo- 
minal pressure  in  expiration — in- 
haling quickly  and  silently  and 
exhaling  slowly  and  evenly — gives 
a  maximum  of  breath  with  a  mini- 
mum of  exertion.  There  should 
always  be  a  supply  of  breath  in  the 
lungs,  and  inspiration  should  be 
renewed  well  before  expiration  is 
accomplished.  A  speaker's  words 
should  be  poised  on  the  breath,  for 
any  escape  through  or  between  the 
words  will  cause  loss  of  tone  and 
power,  and,  under  continuous 
strain  of  public  work,  may  lead  to 
permanent  injury  of  the  voice.  An 
open  throat,  a  mobile  jaw,  muscu- 
lar control  of  the  tongue  and  soft 
palate,  together  with  right  control 
of  the  breath,  are  the  keynotes 
of  correct  voice  production. 

A  knowledge  of  present-day 
accepted  pronunciation  is  essential; 
provincialisms  must  be  overcome. 
A  sense  of  rhythm  and  beauty  of 
diction,  with  a  distinctive  delivery, 
is  as  essential  in  the  speaking  of 
modern,  as  in  that  of  classical, 
selections.  Enunciation  is  the 
medium  for  expressive  pronuncia- 
tion, clearness  of  articulation  being 
of  the  greatest  importance.  The 
tongue,  hard  and  soft  palate,  gums, 
teeth,  and  lips  all  constitute  part 
of  the  articulating  organs,  and  by 
their  partial  or  complete  contact 
the  consonants  are  formed.  Vowels, 
being  purely  vocal,  are  produced 
by  the  changing  shape  of  the 
mouth  cavity  and  varying  positions 
of  the  tongue.  Pace  must  be  varied 
according  to  the  different  emotions 
expressed.  Emphasis  is  used  prin- 
cipally to  mark  the  salient  word  or 
words  of  a  sentence,  so  as  clearly 
to  define  the  meaning.  Its  too 
frequent  use  negatives  its  own 
value,  and  over-emphasis  is  an 
offence  to  the  intelligence.  Pauses 
facilitate  proper  phrasing,  and  at 
the  same  time  permit  the  reciter 
to  take  breath ;  the  rhetorical 
pause,  in  which  the  breath  is  sus- 
pended, is  used  to  emphasise 
some  special  effect.  Tone  should 
illumine  and  colour  the  words  so 
that  the  full  beauty  of  the  theme 
is  appreciated  by  the  hearers. 
Lack  of  variety  in  tone  renders 
many  a  speaker  dull  and  spiritless. 

Gesture  should  directly  help 
the  meaning  of  a  passage.  It 
should  never  be  redundant,  and, 
when  used,  should  be  spontaneous 
and  easy,  the  arms  moving  from 
the  shoulders,  not  from  the  elbow, 
the  hands  conveying  the  expres- 
sion and  completing  the  signific- 


ance of  the  gesture.  The  body 
should  be  well  poised  and  the 
position  firm,  the  weight  being 
shifted  easily  from  one  foot  to  the 
other  so  that  there  is  a  free  and 
full  command  of  all  movements. 
Facial  expression,  the  complement 
of  voice  and  gesture,  indicates  the 
changing  thoughts  or  feelings  as 
they  pass  through  the  speaker's 
mind,  the  eyes  visualising  the  in- 
tensity of  the  emotion  and  marking 
more  than  all  else  the  personality 
of  the  speaker.  » 

The  prevalent  method  of  speak-' 
ing  is  careless  and  slovenly.  This 
inefficiency  is  due  largely  to  the 
indifference  with  which  this  im- 
portant subject  is  treated  in  our 
present  educational  scheme.  Elo- 
cution should  be  compulsory  in  all 
schools,  and  it  should  apply  to  all 
classes  alike.  It  should  be  taught 
from  childhood,  when  the  imita- 
tive faculty  is  more  active. 

Acton    Bond 

Bibliography.  A  Grammar  of  Elo- 
cution, J.  Millard,  2nd  ed.  1882  ; 
The  Art  of  Speaking,  Ernest  Pert- 
wee,  3rd  ed.  1904  ;  Voice  Produc- 
tion in  Singing  and  Speaking,  Wes- 
ley Mills,  5th  ed.  1920. 

Elohist.  Term  used  in  Biblical 
Criticism  to  denote  the  writer  of 
one  of  the  documents  used  in  the 
compilation  of  the  Pentateuch,  or 
rather  the  Hexateuch.  This  is 
called  the  Elohistic  document  be- 
cause the  writer  uses  consistently 
the  name  Elohim  for  the  God  of  the 
Hebrews,  whereas  the  writer  of 
another  document  (the  Jehovistic) 
employs  with  equal  consistency  the 
divine  name  Jehovah.  See  Criticism ; 
Hexateuch. 

Elopement.  Name  given  to  the 
secret  flight  of  a  pair  of  lovers, 
generally  with  the  object  of  mar- 
riage. Unless  abduction  can  be 
proved  it  is  not  an  offence  against 
the  law.  See  Abduction. 

El  Paso.  City  of  Texas,  U.S.A., 
the  county  seat  of  El  Paso  co.  A 
favourite  health  resort  and  a  port 
of  entry,  it  stands  3,760  ft.  above 
sea  level  on  the  Rio  Grande,  which 
separates  the  state  from  Mexico. 
Situated  opposite  Ciudad  Juarez, 
it  is  the  terminus  of  the  National 
of  Mexico  and  several  other  rlys. 
Among  its  buildings  are  the 
federal  building,  the  city  hall,  a 
Carnegie  library,  and  a  sanatorium. 
It  contains  also  military  and  civil 
educational  institutions  and  a 
large  number  of  parks.  It  trades 
largely  in  lead,  copper,  and  silver, 
and  has  foundries,  rly.  repair  shops, 
flour  mills,  and  cigar  and  wood  box 
factories.  El  Paso  received  its 
city  charter  in  1873.  Pop.  69,150. 

Elphinstone,  MOUNTSTUART 
(1779-1859).  British  administra- 
tor. Born  Oct.  6,  1779,  the  fourth 


son  of  the  llth  Baron  Elphinstone, 
he  entered  the  Bengal  civil  service 
in  1796.  Appointed  resident  at  Nag- 

Pur    in    1804, 
he     was     sent 
as  envoy  to 
Kabul  in  1808, 
and    was   resi- 
dent at  Poona 
from   1811-17, 
j:  and    commis- 
^f\k        s  i  o  n  e  r    after 
™^-  its  annexation. 
Mounstuart  Elphin-    From   1819-27 

S'0ad^oi,F,art'oVSh    hewasgover- 

Front  a  portrait  in  the       UOT      Of      Bom- 
British  Museum          '  my         JJe      re_ 

turned  to  England  in  1829  and 
lived  in  retirement,  twice  refusing 
the  governor-generalship  of  India. 
He  compiled  the  famous  legal  code 
known  by  his  name,  and  virtually 
founded  the  system  of  state  edu- 
cation in  India.  Elphinstone 
College,  in  Bombay  City,  was  en- 
dowed by  the  natives  as  a  memorial 
of  his  administration.  He  wrote  a 
valuable  Account  of  the  Kingdom 
of  Cabul  and  its  Dependencies, 
1815;  and  a  History  of  India 
(Hindu  and  Mahomedan  periods), 
1841.  He  died  Nov.  20, 1859.  See 
Life,  J.  S.  Cotton,  1892. 

Elphinstone,  WILLIAM  (1431- 
1514).  Scottish  prelate,  founder  of 
Aberdeen  University.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Glasgow  University,  of 
which  he  became  rector  in  1474, 
was  made  bishop  of  Ross  in  1481, 
and  nominated  to  the  see  of  Aber- 
deen in  1483.  In  1488  he  was  ap- 
pointed lord  chancellor,  and  lord 
privy  seal  in  1492.  In  1494  he  estab- 
lished King's  College,  the  original 
foundation  of  Aberdeen  University, 
appointing  Boece  (q.v.)  its  first 
rector,  and  securing  grants  from 
James  IV  for  its  maintenance.  He 
introduced  the  printing  press  into 
Scotland,  1507.  He  died  at  Edin- 
burgh, Oct.  25,  1514,  it  is  said 
through  grief  at  the  battle  of 
Flodden.  See  illus.  p.  17. 

Elsass-Lothringen.  German 
name  for  the  district  better  known 
as  Alsace-Lorraine  (q.v.). 

Elsie  Venner.  Novel  by  Oliver 
Wendell  Holmes.  After  serial  ap- 
pearance in  The  Atlantic  Monthly 
under  the  title  of  The  Professor's 
Story,  the  novel  was  published  in 
volume  form  in  1861  as  Elsie  Ven- 
ner :  a  Romance  of  Destiny.  Its 
theme  is  the  possible  effect  of  ante- 
natal influence  upon  individual 
conduct.  In  this  case  a  mother  is 
bitten  by  a  rattlesnake  shortly 
before  giving  birth  to  her  child. 
The  romance  shows  Elsie  Venner' s 
whole  life  and  character  affected  by 
that  pre-natal  poisoning,  since  her 
nature  turns  out  to  be  half  that  of 
a  snake. 


Elsinore,  Denmark.     View  of  the  Narrows  at  the  entrance 

to  The  Sound,  with  the  ferry  which  crosses  to  Helsingborg 

on  the  Swedish  coast 


Elsinore  (Dan.  Helsingor).  Sea- 
port in  Denmark.  In  the  dist.  of 
Frederiksborg  and  on  the  island  of 
Zealand,  it  stands  on  The  Sound, 
and  has  ferry  communication  with 
Helsingborg  on  the  Swedish  coast, 
and  connexion  by  rly.  with  Copen- 
hagen. Shipbuilding  is  the  princi- 
pal occupation,  and  iron-founding, 
engineering,  and  agriculture  are  car- 
ried on.  The  place  is  referred  to  in 
Shakespeare's  Hamlet.  Pop.  13,783. 

Elster.  Name  of  two  rivers  of 
Germany.,  the  Schwarze  (black) 
and  Weisse  (white).  The  former 
rises  in  the  mountains  between 
Saxony  and  Bohemia  and  flows 
mainly  N.  until  it  falls  into  the  Elbe 
10  m.  from  Wittenberg.  Its  length 
is  110  m.  The  white  Elster  rises 
near  Eger  in  the  Elstergebirge  in 
Bohemia,  but  most  of  its  course  is  in 
Saxony.  It  falls  into  the  Saale  in 
two  branches,  one  near  Halle  and 
the  other  near  Merseburg.  It  flows 
past  Plauen  and  Leitz,  and  past 
Leipzig,  where  the  Pleisse  joins  it. 
Its  length  is  120  m.  The  town  and 
watering-place  of  Elster  stands 
on  the  white  Elster  near  the  Bohe- 
mian border.  The  Elstergebirge  is 
a  range  of  mountains  in  Bohemia. 
It  runs  from  the  Erzgebirge  to 
the  Fichtelgebirge,  and  reaches  a 
height  of  2,630  ft. 

Elstow  (formerly  Helenstow). 
Parish  and  village  of  Bedfordshire, 
England.  It  is  1  m.  S.  of  Bedford 
and  is  noted  as  the  birthplace  of 
John  Bunyan  (q.v,).  Pop.  499. 

Els  tree.  Parish  and  village  of 
Hertfordshire,  England.  It  is  a  sta- 
tion on  the  M.R.,  7  m.  S.  of  St. 
Albans.  The  church  of  S.  Nicolas 
was  rebuilt  in  the  19th  century. 
Here  are  paper  mills  and  a  large 
reservoir  used  for  fishing  and  boat- 
ing. Pop.  1,939. 

Elswick.  Parish  of  Northum- 
berland, England,  forming  a  ward 
in  the  W.  of  the  co.  bor.  of  New- 
castle, with  station  on  the  N.E.R. 
Here  are  situated  the  extensive  Els- 
wick  Works  of  Sir  W.  G.  Armstrong, 
Whitworth  &  Co.,  Ltd.  During 


of  the 
area  of 
By 

the  Great  War  vast  quantities  of 
munitions  of  war  were  manufac- 
tured here.  Elswick  .  Park  was 
opened  as  a  public  recreation 
ground  in  1878.  Pop.  58,352.  See 
Armstrong,  Whitworth  &  Co. 

El  Teb,  BATTLE  OF.  Fought  by 
the  British,  Feb.  29,  1884,  against 
the  Arabs.  El  Teb  is  a  post  in  the 
Anglo -Egyptian  Sudan,  on  the  road 
from  Trinkitat  on  the  Red  Sea  to 
Tokar.  In  1883  Osman  Digna  was 
besieging  Tokar,  and  Valentine 
Baker,  with  a  force  of  4,000  men, 
was  sent  to  relieve  it.  On  Feb.  4, 
1884,  he  was  met  by  the  tribesmen 
and  was  routed,  two -thirds  of  his 
men  being  killed.  Tokar  then  sur- 
rendered. 

A  British  force  of  4,400  men  was 
then  collected  from  Egypt  and 
India,  and  under  Sir  G.  Graham 
was  landed  at  Suakin.  On  Feb.  29 
this  force  faced  the  Arabs  in  their 
camp  at  El  Teb.  The  latter  threw 
themselves  in  wild  fury  against  the 
British  square,  but  after  a  fierce 
combat  they  were  decisively  beaten. 
The  British  casualties  were  34  killed 
and  155  wounded,  largely  incurred 
in  a  charge  made  by  the  10th  and 
19th  Hussars. 

Eltham.   Parish  of  Kent,  in  the 
met.  bor.  of  Woolwich,  7  m.  S.E. 
of  London  Bridge.    Once  a  market- 
ing town,  it  contained  a  palace,  the 
fine  banqueting  hall  of  which  still 
remains.     Well    r--- 
Hall,   an  Eliza- 
bethan   mansion,     : 
i  s    supposed    t  o     | 
have    been   occu- 
pied    by    Sir  ,:.,^B 

Thomas  More's 
daughter.  Eltham  ;  JP''/ 
has  many  open 
spaces,  including 
Eltham  Common, 
Eltham  Green, 
Eltham  Park,  and 
AveryHill.  Dur- 
ing the  Great  War 
Eltham  was  bomb- 
ed by  enemy  air- 
craft. Pop.  13,450. 


The  works  and  shipyard  on  the  north  bank 
_..  The  Armstrong- Whitworth  works  cover  an 
2  acres,  and  have  a  river  frontage  of  6,100  ft. 

urtesy  of  Sir  W,  O.  Armstrong,  Whitworth  &  Co, 

+,  Eltham  Palace  was  built  towards 
the  end  of  the  13th  century.  It  pro- 
bably owes  its  origin  to  Anthony 
Bee,  bishop  of  Durham,  who  ap- 
pears to  have  lived  here  from  1297 
to  1311.  At  first  a  fortified  manor 
house,  it  was  subsequently  con- 
verted into  a  royal  residence.  Its 
extant  portions,  viz.  the  great  hall 
and  part  of  the  old  kitchens  ad- 
joining, are  fine  examples  of  domes- 
tic architecture  of  the  reign  of  Ed- 
ward IV.  The  15th  century  bridge 
across  the  moat,  which  still  re- 
mains, led  by  way  of  a  gatehouse  to 
a  large  court,  to  the  right  of  which 
stood  the  chapel  and  the  royal 

rrtments.  The  architecture  of 
palace  is  notable  for  the  fine 
oriel  windows,  the  open  timber 
roof  of  the  hall,  and  the  gables, 
with  beautifully  carved  barge 
boards,  of  the  kitchens. 

Eltham.  Township  of  North 
Island,  New  Zealand.  It  is  on 
the  mam  line  from  Wellington  to 
New  Plymouth,  from  which  it  is 
distant  36  m.  The  chief  centre 
of  the  Taranaki  district,  it  has 
an  extensive  dairying  industry. 
Pop.  1,711. 

Eltham,  EARL  OF.  Title  borne 
by  the  eldest  son  of  the  marquess  of 
Cambridge  (q.v.). 

El  Tineh.  Village  of  Palestine. 
It  lies  about  15  m.  N.  of  Beersheba, 
on  the  branch  rly.  of  the  Lydda- 


Eltham,   Kent.    Exterior  of  the 
Eltham  Palace,  said  to  have  been 


ELTON 


2878 


ELY 


Jerusalem  line,  and  is  the  junction 
for  Gaza  and  Beersheba.  It  was 
captured  by  Australian  troops 
Nov.  13,  1917.  There  is  another 
El  Tineh  on  an  inlet  of  the  sea, 
S.E.  of  Port  Said,  Egypt,  near  the 
ruins  of  Pelusium.  See  Palestine, 
Conquest  of. 

Elton  OR  YELTON.  Salt  lake  of 
Russia,  in  the  govt.  of  Astrakhan. 
It  lies  on  the  border  of  the  Kirghiz 
Steppes,  60  m.  E.  of  the  Volga. 
Area,  60  sq.  m.  Although  it  receives 
the  waters  of  several  streams,  and 
has  no  outlet,  it  is  very  shallow, 
and  strongly  impregnated  with  salt, 
thousands  of  tons  being  extracted 
from  it  yearly.  The  Kalmucks  call 
it  the  lake  of  gold. 

Elul.  Sixth  month  of  the 
sacred  and  twelfth  month  of  the 
civil  year  of  the  Jews,  correspond- 
ing approximately  to  September. 
It  is  mentioned  in  the  book  of 
Nehemiah.  See  Calendar. 

Elutriation  (Lat.  elutriare,  to 
wash  out).  Process  of  obtaining 
mineral  substances  in  a  finely 
powdered  condition  by  diffusing 
them  in  water  after  they  have 
been  ground  or  crushed.  The 
coarser  particles  rapidly  subside, 
and  the  water  which  still  holds  the 
finer  particles  in  suspension  is 
decanted  into  another  vessel  and 
the  powder  allowed  to  settle.  The 
process  is  used  for  obtaining  emery 
of  different  grades  of  fineness,  and 
also  for  preparing  jewellers'  rouge 
free  from  gritty  matter. 

El  van.  Term  applied  by  miners 
to  the  dykes  frequently  met  in  Corn- 
ish tin  and  copper  mines.  These 
dykes  have  been  intruded  into 
vacant  spaces  in  the  formations 
originally  over  them.  In  chemical 
and  mineralogical  composition,  they 
are  identical  with  the  granites  of 
Cornwall,  but  their  mechanical 
structure  is  different.  They  vary 
in  width  from  a  few  feet  to  many 
yards,  and  have  been  often  worked 
for  tin.  The  word  elvan  is  said  to  be 
derived  from  the  Cornish  term  for 
a  spark,  elven,  from  the  fact  that 
the  rock  being  hard  emits  sparks 
when  the  pick  strikes  against  it. 
Other  terms  by  which  the  rock  is 
known  are  whinstone,  granitic  or 
quartz  porphyry,  and  elvanite. 
Mineral ogically  it  is  a  granular 
mixture  of  quartz  and  orthoclase. 
See  Mineralogy  ;  Tin. 

Elvas.  Frontier  city  of  Portu- 
gal, hi  Portalegre  dist.  It  stands 
on  an  affluent  of  the  Guadiana, 
170  m.  E.  of  Lisbon  and  10  m.  W. 
of  Badajoz,  on  the  Lisbon-Madrid 
Rly.  It  has  a  Gothic  cathedral, 
a  15th  century  aqueduct,  and  an 
arsenal.  The  manufactures  in- 
clude pottery  and  brandy,  and  the 
exports  olives  and  plums.  The 
Roman  Alpesa  or  Helvas  and  the 


Elvas.     Fortifications  of  the  city  defending  the  Spanish 
frontier  of  Portugal 


Moorish  Balesh,  Elvas  is  an  his 
toric  place;  it  held  out  against  the  niggardliness, 
Spanish  in  1658  and  1711,  but  fell  during  which 
to  the  French  in  March,  1808.  he  let  the  es- 
Pop.  14,018.  tate  go  to  ruin 

Elvey,  SIR  GEORGE  JOB  (1816-    for  want  of  re- 
93 ).   British  organist  and  composer. 
Born    at   Canterbury,    March    27, 

1816,     he    be- 
came a  choris- 

ter     at    the 

cathedral    and 

a  pupil  of  the 

organist.        In 

1835    he     was 


the  estate  of  his 
uncle,  Sir  Hervey 
Elwes  of  Stoke 
College,  Suffolk, 
he  assumed  his 
name.  The  es- 
tate having  been 
originally  much 
encumbered, 
habits  of  fru- 
gality had  turned 
Sir  Hervey  into  a 
miser,  and  John 
Elwes  proved  an 
apt  pupil.  Good- 
hearted  by  na- 
ture, and  of  un- 
impeachable 
honesty,  he  was 
kindly  to  all  but 
himself.  After  a 
life  of  the  utmost  penury  and 


Sir  George  Elvey, 
British  organist 


pairs,  he  died 
Nov.  26,  1789. 
He  left  a  for- 
tune of  over 
£500,000. 

Elwood.City 
of     Indiana, 

U.S.A.,  in  Madison  co.  It  stands 
on  a  small  stream,  39  m.  N.E.  of 
made  organist  Indianapolis,  and  is  served  by  the 
of  S.  George's  Lake  Erie  and  Western  and  other 
Chapel,  Wind-  rlys.  Situated  in  the  natural  gas 
retaining  district,  it  has  large  tinplate  works, 
and  manufactures  flour,  glass,  and 
furniture.  Formerly  known  as 


sor, 

this    post 

until  1882.     He  was  knighted  in 

1871,  and  died  Dec.  9, 1893.  Elvey's     Quincy,  it  became  a"  city  in  1891. 
compositions    are    chiefly    church     Pop.  11,028. 
music.     See  Life,  M.  Elvey,  1894. 
Elvira,  COUNCIL  OF.      Ecclesi 


Ely.        Episcopal    city,    urban 
dist.    and   market   town  of  Cam- 


astical  assembly  held  at  Elvira  bridgeshire,  England.  Situated  on 
in  Granada,  early  in  the  4th  cen- 
tury. It  was  attended  by  nineteen 
bishops,  and  put  forth  about 
eighty  canons  dealing  with  church 
discipline.  It  forbade  the  venera- 
tion of  pictures  in  churches, 
ordered  attendance  at  mass  on 
Sundays,  and  enjoined  celibacy 
on  the  clergy. 

Elwell,  FRANK  EDWIN  (b.  1858). 
American  sculptor  and  art  critic. 
Born  at  Concord,  June  15,  1858, 
he  studied  art  under  D.  C.  French  at 
New  York,  and  later  at  Paris  under 
Falguiere  and  at  the  Beaux  Arts. 
He  was  the  first  American  sculptor 
to  have  a  statue  erected  in  Europe. 
His  work  reproduces  to  some  ex- 
tent the  characteristics  of  ancient 
Egyptian  sculpture,  of  which  he 
has  made  a  profound  study.  He 


an  eminence  on 
the  left  bank  of 
the  Ouse,  in  the 
Isle  of  Ely,  16  m. 
N.N.E.  of  Cam- 
bridge on  the 
G.E.R.,  it  is  fam- 
ous for  its  magni- 
rms  of  ficent  cathedral, 
e  bishop  in  673  Ethel- 
dreda  founded  a  monastery  here  for 
monks  and  nuns,  and  became  first 
abbess.  It  was  destroyed  by  the 
Danes  in  870,  and  in  970  was  re- 
founded  as  aBenedictine  monastery 
by  Ethelwold,  bishop  of  Winchester. 
The  present  cathedral  was  begun 
by  Abbot  Simeon  in  1083.  It 
embraces  every  style  of  architec- 
ture from  Early  Norman  to  Late 
Perpendicular.  "  It  is  537  ft.  long 


was  curator  of  the  sculpture  sec-  and  189  ft.  across  the  great  tran- 
tion  at  the  Metropolitan  Museum,  septs.  The  W.  portion  of  the  nave 
New  York,  1902-5. 

Elwes,  JOHN  (1714-89).   British 


and  W.  tower  were  added  in  1180; 
the  fine  Galilee  or  W.  porch  was 
miser.    Bom  April  7,  1714,  son  of    completed  about  the  beginning  of 


Robert  Meggott,  on  succeeding  to     the  18th  century  ;    the  choir  was 


ELY 


2879 


Ely.     The  cathedral  viewed  from  the  west.     The  12th  century  west  tower  and 

Galilee  porch;  to  the  right,  the  south-west  transept  and  tower,  of  Transitional 

Norman  architecture 


erected  between  1235-52 ;  the 
beautiful  Decorated  octagon  tower 
and  lantern  (170  ft.  high),  finished 
in  1328,  took  the  place  of  the 
central  tower,  which  collapsed  six 
years  earlier ;  the  lady  chapel 
(now  the  parish  church)  dates 
from  1321-49.  Since  1845  the 
edifice  has  undergone  general 
restoration.  Within  the  cathedral's 
precincts  are  the  Tudor  bishop's 
palace,  the  King's  School  (1541), 
and  a  theological  college.  Ely  be- 
came a  bishopric  in  1109.  Market 
day,  Thurs.  Pop.  7,917. 

Ely,  MARQUESS  OF.  Irish  title 
borne  since  1800  by  the  family  of 
Loftus.  In  1771  Henry  Loftus,  an 
Irish  landowner,  was  made  earl  of 
Ely,  taking  his  title  from  Ely  in 
Fermanagh.  The  title  died  with 
him  in  1783,  but  his  nephew,  Sir 
CharlesTottenham,  Bart., inherited 
his  estates  and  took  the  name  of 
Loftus.  He  was  postmaster-general 
and  was  made  a  baron  in  1785. 
Other  Irish  honours  followed,  cul- 


minating in  a  marquessate  in  1800, 
the  reward  for  his  support  of  the 
union  of  1801,  when  he  was  made 
a  baron  of  the  United  Kingdom. 

Elyot,  SIB  THOMAS  (c.  1490- 
1546).  English  diplomatist  and 
scholar.  A  native  of  Wiltshire,  he 
was  knighted 
by  Henry  VIII 
and  sent  on 
several  embas- 
sies. His  most 
famous  work  is 
The  Book 
named  The 
Governor,  1531, 
the  first  on  the 
subject  of  edu- 
cation written 
and  printed  in 
the  English  language 


1 

Sir  Thomas  Elyot, 
English  diplomatist 

After  Holbein 

edition, 


with  life  of  Elyot,  by  H.  H.  S. 
Croft,  1880).  He  also  compiled  a 
Latin-English  dictionary,  1538. 

Ely  Place.  Cul-de-sac  near  Hoi* 
born  Circus,  London,  E.C.  It  occu- 
pies part  of  the  site  of  Ely  House, 


the  inn  or  hostel  of  the  bishops  of 
Ely,  of  which  the  church  of  S. 
Etheldreda,  restored  to  Roman 
Catholic  worship  in  the  19th  cen- 
tury, was  the  chapel.  John  of 
Gaunt  died  in  Ely  House  in  1399, 
and  Henry  VIII  is  said  to  have 
first  met  Cranmer  here.  The  church, 
one  of  the  most  perfect  examples 
of  Decorated  architecture  in  Eng- 
land, has  windows  E.  and  W.  with 
exquisite  tracery,  and  an  unre- 
stored  crypt.  Ely  House  was  de- 
mised to  the  crown  under  Eliza- 
beth, and  transferred  to  Sir 
Christopher  Hatton. 

Elyria.  City  of  Ohio,  U.S.A., 
the  co.  seat  of  Lorain  co.  On  the 
Black  river,  25  m.  W.  by  S.  of 
Cleveland,  it  is  served  by  the  Bal- 
timore and  Ohio,  and  the  Lake 
Shore  and  Michigan  rlys.  It  trades 
in  building  stone  obtained  from 
local  quarries,  and  has  chemical, 
motor-car,  paint,  and  lace  manu- 
factures, iron  and  steel  works,  and 
tanneries.  It  became  a  city  in 
1892.  Pop.  19,503. 

Elysee.  Palace  in  Paris,  the 
official  residence  of  the  president  of 
the  French  Republic.  In  the  Fau- 
bourg St.  Honore,  a  garden 
separates  it  from  the  Champs 
Elysees.  It  was  built  in  1718  for  the 
comte  d'Evreux,  but  passed  later 
into  royal  hands,  and  was  the  resi- 
dence of  Madame  de  Pompadour. 
Others  who  lived  here  included 
Napoleon  I  and  Napoleon  III. 
After  1870  it  became  the  official 
residence  of  the  president. 

Elysium  OR  THE  ELYSIAN  FIELDS. 
In  classical  mythology,  the  abode 
of  the  souls  of  the  good  after  death. 
Some  legends  make  Elysium  a  part 
of  the  underworld,  others  make  it 
an  island  or  islands  in  the  Atlantic 
Ocean — the  Fortunate  Islands  or 
Isles  of  the  Blessed.  Elysium  is 
represented  as  a  place  of  perpetual 
sunshine  with  flowery  meadows 
and  pleasant  streams. 

Elytra  (Gr.  elytron,  covering, 
sheath).  Horny  sheaths  or  cases 
into  which  the  fore  wings  have 
been  modified  in  the  beetles  and 
certain  other  insects.  They  usually 
cover  the  back  of  the  insect,  and 
the  hind  wings  are  folded  under 
them.  See  Insects. 

Elze,  FRIEDRICH  KARL  (1821- 
89).  German  student  and  critic. 
Born  at  Dessau,  Anhalt,  May  22, 
1821,  he  studied  at  Leipzig  and 
Berlin.  Having  published  a  life  of 
Byron  (1870),  Eng.  trans.  1872,  and 
various  works  on  the  Elizabethan 
drama,  he  was  appointed  to  the 
chair  of  English  literature  at  Halle 
in  1 875.  His  best  known  work  is  a 
biography  of  William  Shakespeare 
(1876),  Eng.  trans.  1888.  He  died 
at  Halle,  Jan.  21,1889. 


ELZEVIR 


2880 


EMBANKMENT 


Elzevir.  Name  of  a  family  of 
printers  which  is  given  also  to  some 
famous  books  printed  by  them,  e.g. 
pocket  editions  of  the  Greek  Testa- 
ment, Latin  and  Italian  classics, 
and  French  memoirs.  The  firm, 
founded  in  Leiden  in  1583  by 
Louis  Elzevir,  was  carried  on 
after  1655  at  Amsterdam  by 
members  of  the  family  until  1681, 
and  ended  in  1712.  The  first  edi- 
tion of  the  Caesar  of  1635  is  the 
acknowledged  masterpiece  in  type, 
ornaments,  paper,  printing,  and 
purity  of  text.  More  than  150 
spurious  Elzevirs  are  known  to 
experts.  The  publications  of  the 
firm  dated  from  1626  to  1680  are 
generally  the  most  valuable.  See 
Bibliotheca  Curiosa:  Catalogue  of 
all  Publications  of  the  Elzevier 
Presses,  E.  Goldsmid,  1888. 

Emanation  (Lat.  emanare,  to 
flow  out).  In  philosophy,  the 
theory  that  all  things  proceed  from 
a  higher  original  principle  (as  light 
from  the  sun),  into  which  they  are 
again  received  and  absorbed.  This 
form  of  pantheism,  of  eastern  ori- 
gin, was  adopted  by  the  neo- 
Platonists  and  developed  by  the 
Gnostics  and  Cabbalists. 

Emanuel  I  ( 1469-1521 ).  King 
of  Portugal.  Born  May  3, 1469,  he 
ascended  the  throne  in  1495.  He 
inspired  the  ex- 
peditions  of 
VascodaGama, 
Albuquerque 
and  Cabral  to 
Brazil,  Goa, 
Malacca,  and 
S  u  m  a  t  r  a . 
Under  his  guid- 
ance Portugal 
became  the 
principal  mari- 
time power  in 
He  died  Dec.  13,  1521. 


Embalming  (Fr.  em,  in,  baume  ; 
Gr.  balsamon,  balm).  Art  of  pre- 
serving dead  bodies.  Among  the 
ancient  Egyptians,  and  possibly 


Emanuel  I, 
King  of  Portugal 

From  an  old  engravin 

the  world. 


Emanuel,  WALTER  LEWIS 
(1869-1915).  British  humorous 
writer.  Born  April  2, 1869,  in  Lon- 
don, and  educated  at  University 
College  School  and  at  Heidelberg, 
in  1896  he  became  a  solicitor,  but 
had  already  begun  contributing  to 
humorous  periodicals.  In  1902  his 
amusing  comment  on  current  mat- 
ters, Charivaria,  became  a  regular 
feature  in  Punch.  He  died  in 
London,  Aug.  4,  1915.  His  books 
included  Me  and  Some  Others, 
1901;  A  Dog  Day,  1902;  The 
Dogs  of  War,  1906;  Never,  1907  ; 
Puck  Among  the  Pictures,  1908  ; 
One  Hundred  Years  Hence,  1911. 

Emba  OB  YEMBA.  „  Non-navi- 
gable river  of  Central  Asia,  in 
Uralsk  and  the  Kirghiz  Steppes.  It 
rises  in  the  Mugojar  hills  on  the  E. 
border  of  Uralsk  to  the  N.  of  the 
sea  of  Aral,  flows  from  E.  to  W, 
and  falls  in  to  theN.E.  of  the  Caspian 
Sea  after  a  course  of  about  300  m. 


Embalming.    Egyptian  embalmers 
at  work,  from  a  relief 

the  Peruvians,  embalming  origin- 
ated in  the  idea  of  the  resurrection 
of  the  body.  Herodotus  describes 
three  Egyptian  methods.  In  the 
most  expensive  process,  after  re- 
moving the  brains  and  intestines 
the  abdomen  was  rinsed  with  palm- 
wine  and  filled  with  myrrh,  cassia, 
and  other  perfumes,  and  the  in- 
cision in  the  left  flank  sewn  up.  The 
body  was  then  steeped  in  natron 
(native  sodium  carbonate)  for  70 
days,  washed,  and  wrapped  in 
gummed  linen  cloths. 

A  less  expensive  method  was  to 
inject  the  body  with  Kedria  (cedar 
pitch)  in  order  to  remove  the  intes- 
tines, and  then  steep  it  in  natron. 
In  embalming  the  poor  the  abdomen 
was  rinsed  in  the  substance  known 
as  syrmaea  and  the  body  steeped 
70  days  in  natron.  Usually  the 
internal  organs  were  embalmed  and 
placed  in  jars.  The  Egyptians  also 
embalmed  cats,  crocodiles,  hawks, 
and  other  sacred  animals  and  birds. 
See  illus.  p.  1503. 

The  ancient  Persians  apparently 
embalmed  with  wax,  the  Assyrians 
with  honey,  and  the  Guanches,  the 
aborigines  of  the  Canary  Islands, 
in  the  Egyptian  manner.  Em- 
balming has  long  been  practised  in 
Europe  and  is  fairly  common  in  the 
U.S.A.  See  Burial  Customs. 

Embankment.  Mound  of  loose 
material  artificially  formed,  or  a 
bank  supported  by  artificial  means. 
Embankments  may  be  classed  as 
(a)  embankments  formed  simply  by 
tipping  material  and  allowing  the 
sides  to  assume  the  natural  angle 
of  repose  of  the  material  of  which 
they  consist,  as  in  railway  embank- 
ments ;  (b)  reservoir  embankments 
for  containing  and  resisting  the 
pressure  of  water ;  (c)  embank- 
ments of  earth  or  similar  material  re- 
tained, supported,  and  protected  by 
walls,  sheet  piling,  or  other  means. 

Railway  embankments,  which 
consist  for  the  most  part  of  ma- 
terials excavated  in  cuttings,  serve 
the  purpose  of  carrying  a  railway 
across  a  valley  or  depression,  in 
order  to  avoid  steep  gradients ; 
they  are  also  constructed  to  raise 


the  level  of  railways  across  wide 
plains,  especially  where  the  soil 
becomes  waterlogged,  the  necessary 
materials  being  obtained  by  exca- 
vating trenches  known  as  borrow 
pits  on  either  side  of  the  line.  When 
formed  along  the  side  of  a  hill  a 
side  excavation  is  usually  made, 
the  excavated  material  being 
utilised  to  form  the  bank  portion, 
the  sloping  ground  under  the  bank 
being  first  cut  into  steps  to  prevent 
side-slipping  of  the  deposited 
material.  Broken  stone,  gravel, 
and  good  sand  are  the  best  ma- 
terials ;  wet  clay  and  surface  soil 
are  liable  to  cause  trouble  and  ex- 
pense, as  the  initial  angle  of  repose 
may  become  much  flatter.  An 
embankment  should  be  made 
higher  than  its  permanent  level  to 
allow  for  subsidence  ;  the  allow- 


Embalming.   Left,  inner  and,  right. 
outer    bandages    wrapped    by    the 
ancient  Egyptians  round  an     em- 
balmed body  or  mummy 

ance  varies  from  TV  to  |  of  the 
height.  Tipping  should  always 
proceed  in  a  forward  direction,  as 
materials  tipped  sideways  are  liable 
to  slip. 

In  first-class  work  the  slopes  are 
finally  covered  with  surface  soil  for 
a  depth  of  a  few  inches  and  either 
turfed  or  sown  with  grass  seed,  as 
grass  binds  the  surface  and  tends 
to  prevent  washing  away  by  rain. 
Embankments  in  still  water  should 
have  their  slopes  pitched  with 
stone  ;  if  subject  to  the  action  of 
waves  or  currents  they  should  con- 
sist of  rubble  or  be  contained  by 
walls.  When  a  stream  of  water  is 
encountered,  a  drain,  culvert,  or 
bridge  is  insertedt^^Along  each  side 
of  an  embankment  a  ditch  is  cut 
into  which  surface  water  drains, 
and  by  which  it  is  carried  and  dis- 
charged into  the  nearest  stream. 


EMBARGO 


EMBLEM 


°  Embassy.  Term  used  ior  an 
ambassador  and  his  staff  collec- 
tively. It  is  also  used  for  the  build- 
ing which  serves  as  their  head- 
quarters, e.g.  the  British  Embassy 
in  Paris.  By  international  courtesy 


Embankment.      1.  Thames  Embankment,  London,  looking  E.  from  Waterloo 
Bridge.      2.  Embankment   at   Belvide   reservoir,  Staffordshire.      3.  Sectional 
diagram  of  Thames  Embankment  at  Lambeth,  and,  4,  at  Chelsea.    5.  Embank- 
ment on  the  National  Transcontinental  Rly.  at  James  Bay,  Canada 


The  angle  ot  repose  varies  with 
different  materials  from  14°  to  37°  ; 
the  range  for  materials  usually  em- 
ployed is  from  26°  to  34°.  Owing  to 
the  steeper  gradients  permissible, 
road  embankments  are  not  often 
necessary  on  a  big  scale,  but,  where 
constructed,  the  same  rules  apply 
as  to  railway  embankments. 

Reservoir  embankments  consist 
of  earth  or  similar  material  lined 
inside  with  concrete  or  stone  and 
rendered  watertight  by  a  vertical 
wall  of  clay  puddle  in  the  centre  of 
the  bank,  extending  from  a  founda- 
tion of  impervious  material  to  well 
above  water  level.  Such  embank- 
ments have  to  sustain  the  side  pres- 
sure of  the  impounded  water,  and 
are  made  with  slopes  much  flatter 
than  the  natural  angle  of  repose. 

A  wharf  contained  by  sheet  piling  v 
with  earth  filling,  or  the  protection 
or  reclamation  of  a  foreshore  or 


riparian  land  by  a  wall,  may  con- 
stitute an  embankment.  The  term 
is  popularly  applied  to  riverside 
constructions  whereby  the  banks 
are  protected  and  retained  by  walls 
and  have  a  road  and  footwalk  some- 
times ornamented  with  gardens. 

Embargo  (Span.).  Term  used  in 
English  law  meaning  an  arrest  of 
merchant  ships.  In  time  of  war  it 
has  long  been  customary  for  a  bel- 
ligerent to  lay  an  embargo  upon 
the  ships  of  the  enemy  found  in  its 
ports.  Sometimes,  without  a  de- 
claration of  war,  an  embargo  has 
been  laid  on  the  ships  of  a  state 
which  has  committed  a  wrong  and 
has  refused  to  make  satisfaction  for 
it.  In  such  cases  the  embargo  is 
used  as  an  engine  of  pressure. 

The  term  is  used  by  analogy  for 
•prohibitions  of  other  kinds,  e.g.  an 
embargo  on  places  of  amusement,  on 
imports,  and  so  on.  See  Blockade 


in  the  soil  of  the  country  to  whicl 
the  ambassador  belongs.  This 
means,  for  instance,  that  in  the 
French  embassy  in  London  English 
law  is  not  operative.  Writs  cannot 
be  served  there  or  orders  of  the 
court  executed.  See  Diplomacy. 

Embattled,  IMBATTLED,  OR 
BATTLED.  In  heraldry,  a  line  of 
division,  or  outline,  showing  square 
projections  like  ___«____— ^ 


the  crenellations 
or  embrasures  of 
a  castle  wall. 
The  term  crenel- 
lated is  some- 
times used. 

Ember  Days. 
In  the  Angli- 
can and  Ro • 
man  Catholic 
Churches,  fasts 
of  the  four  seasons.  They  are  the 
Wednesday,  Friday,  and  Saturday 
after  the  1st  Sunday  in  Lent,  Whit- 
sunday, Sept.  14  (Holy  Cross  Day), 
and  Dec.  13  (feast  of  S.  Lucy).  The 
weeks  in  which  these  days  occur  are 
called  Ember  Weeks.  They  were 
introduced  into  England  by  S. 
Gregory  (590-604).  Ordinations  in 
the  Anglican  Church  take  place  on 
the  Sundays  following  the  Ember 
Days,  and  in  the  R.C.  Church  on  the 
Saturdays  of  the  Ember  Weeks. 

Embezzlement.  In  English 
law,  the  wrongful  appropriation 
to  his  own  use,  by  a  clerk  or 
servant,  of  money  received  by  him 
from  his  master.  It  must  be  dis- 
tinguished from  larceny  by  a 
servant.  In  the  latter  case  the 
servant  steals  property  which  has 
been  in  his  master's  possession  ; 
in  embezzlement  he  intercepts  it. 
For  example,  if  a  shop  assistant 
receives  a  shilling  for  goods  sold 
and  simply  puts  it  in  his  pocket,  and 
does  not  account  for  it  to  his 
master,  it  is  embezzlement.  If  he 
puts  it  in  the  till,  and  then  takes  it 
out  again  and  steals  it,  it  is  larceny 
by  a  servant. 

Emblem  (Gr.  emblema,  an  inser- 
tion). Originally  meaning  an  orna- 
ment inserted  on  a  mosaic  or  vase, 
the  term  is  now  generally  used  for  an 
object  or  representation  symbolic 
by  reason  of  its  connexion  with 
another  object,  person,  or  event. 
It  is  also  used  for  the  marks  used 
by  printers  to  distinguish  the  work 
.of  their  press. 
^)  In  art  the  emblem  has  played  an 
important  part,  especially  in  the  re- 
presentation of  Christian  saints,  etc. 
The  work  of  the  old  masters,  and 

N     4 


EMBLEMENTS 

the  pages  of  old  missals,  Bibles, 
etc.,  are  full  of  such  representa- 
tions. It  has  been  estimated  that 
the  emblems  of  the  saints  number 
over  800,  or  including  variant 
forms,  over  3,000.  ,"'- 

Among  the  commonest  are  the 
keys  of  S.  Peter,  the  sword  of  S. 
Paul,  the  spiked  wheel  of  S. 
Catherine,  the  lamb  of  S.  John 
Baptist,  the  lion  of  S.  Jerome,  the 
dragon  of  S.  George,  the  X-shaped 
cross  of  S.  Andrew,  the  serpent  of 
S.  Patrick,  the  arrows  of  S.  Sebas- 
tian. For  the  most  part  these 
objects  are  emblematic  of  the  death 
suffered  by  the  saint,  or  of  miracles 
attributed  to  him. 

Emblems  are  also  given  to 
various  virtues  and  religious  con- 
ceptions, e.g.  the  hand,  marked 
with  a  cross  or  sacred  heart,  is 
found  to  stand  for  labour;  a  globe, 
surmounted  by  a  cross  and  rest- 
ing on  a  heart,  for  the  reign  of  love 
and  concord  on  earth;  a  lily  for 
purity  and  the  Virgin  Mary.  The 
patriarchs,  prophets,  and  sibyls 
have  their  emblems,  as  Adam  with 
a  spade,  Moses  with  the  tables  of 
the  law,  David  with  harp  or  sling, 
or  Sibylla  Agrippina  with  a 
scourge.  An  early  emblem  of 
Christ  was  a  fish,  the  letters  of  the 
Gr.  ichthus,  fish,  standing  for  Jesus 
Christ  Son  of  God  the  Saviour. 
During  the  15th  century,  when 
heraldry  was  at  its  height,  armorial 
bearings  incorporating  many  em- 
blems were  devised  for  almost  100 
saints.  See  Hagiology. 

Bibliography.  Emblems  of  Saints, 
F.  C.  Husenbleth,  3rd  ed.  1882; 
Symbols  and  Emblems  of  Early  and 
Mediaeval  Christian  Art,  L.  Twin- 
ing, new  ed.  1885  ;  Saints  and  their 
Emblems,  M.  Drake,  1916. 

Emblements  (old  Fr.  emblae- 
ment,  harvest;  late  Lat.  imbla- 
dare,  to  sow).  Term  used  in  Eng- 
lish law  for  certain  rights  of  the 
tenants  of  a  manor,  e.g.  the  right 
to  cut  timber  for  the  repair  of  the 
house  and  fences. 

Embolism  (Gr.  embolos,  stop- 
per, plug).  Obstruction  of  a  blood- 
vessel by  material  which  has  been 
carried  along  in  the  blood -stream. 
The  commonest  cause  of  embolism 
is  detachment  of  a  blood-clot  or 
portion  of  a  blood-clot  which  has 
formed  in  a  vein.  Other  substances 
which  may  form  emboli  are 
portions  of  growths  on  the  heart- 
valves  resulting  from  endocarditis, 
calcareous  material  from  degener- 
ated vessels,  pieces  of  tumours,  fat, 
masses  of  bacteria,  and  air  bubbles. 
Embolism  of  a  coronary  artery 
may  cause  sudden  death  ;  embol- 
ism of  the  brain  may  lead  to 
paralysis  ;  embolism  affecting  the 
main  blood  supply  to  a  limb  leads 
to  sudden  pain,  swelling,  and  pulse- 


lessness, followed  by  gangrene  in 
some  cases  and  by  recovery  in  others 
where  other  vessels  enlarge  and 
replace  the  blocked  circulation. 
If  the  embolus  contains  infective 
micro-organisms,  as,  for  instance, 
when  it  has  been  broken  off  from  a 
septic  clot,  the  result  is  often  to 
set  up  an  abscess  where  it  lodges. 
Air  may  accidentally  find  entrance 
into  the  blood-stream  during  opera- 
tions involving  the  large  veins  of  the 
neck,  and  when  the  bubbles  reach 
the  heart  they  become  churned  up 
with  the  blood,  leading  to  dilatation 
of  the  heart  and  sudden  death. 

Embossing  (Fr.  em,  in;  bosse, 
hump).  In  architecture,  ornament- 
ing a  surface  with  decorative  work 
in  relief,  obtained  by  hammering, 
stamping,  or  other  mechanical 
force  on  metal  or  stone.  Reliefs 
obtained  by  carving  or  casting 
cannot  be  termed  embossed  work. 
See  Architecture. 

Embouchure  (Fr.  em,  in ; 
bouche,  mouth).  In  music,  the  part 
of  a  wind  instrument  through 
which  it  is  blown.  It  is  also  used 
for  the  adjustment  of  the  player's 
lips,  teeth,  and  tongue  to  the 
mouthpiece  of  his  instrument. 
Upon  this  adjustment  depend  the 
pitch,  quality,  and  power  of  the 
tone  produced.  See  Mouthpiece. 

Embowed.     In   heraldry   any 
charge  which  is  bent,  as  an  arm  or 
a  curved  dolphin,  is  said  to  be  em- 
fa  o  w  e  d.      A 
human  limb  is 
sometimes  said 
to  be  "flexed." 
E  m  b  r  a- 
cery.    InEng- 
1  i  s  h    law,    an 
attempt, 

whether    s  u  c- 
Embowed  in  heraldry  ^^  Qr  not> 

to  influence  a  jury  in  favour  of  one 
party  to  a  trial,  whether  by  pro- 
mise, persuasion,  monetary  bribery, 
treating,  or  the  like.  The  person 
who  attempts  to  so  influence  a 
jury  is  called  an  embraceor;  and 
the  same  term  is  applied  to  one 
who  comes  into  court  to  overawe  a 
jury,  or  for  reward,  and  speaks  in 
favour  of  one  party.  It  is  a  mis- 
demeanour punishable  by  fine  and 
imprisonment.  The  word  is  de- 
rived from  old  Fr.  embracer  (mod. 
embraser),  to  set  on  fire,  excite  ;  to 
embrace,  meaning  to  clasp  in  the 
arms,  is  from  Fr.  em,  in ;  bras, 
arm  (Lat.  bracchium). 

Embrasure  (Fr.,  aperture  with 
sloping  sides).  Military  term  for 
the  opening  made  or  left  in  the 
parapet  of  a  defensive  work  for  a 
gun  to  be  trained  and  fired  through. 

Embrocation  (Gr.  embroche, 
fomentation).  Medicinal  prepara- 
tion intended  to  be  rubbed  into  the 
skin.  It  is  also  known  as  liniment. 


EMBROIDERY 

Embroidery.  Art  of  decoration 
by  means  of  needle  and  thread. 
Its  practice  is  of  the  highest  anti- 
quity. There  are  references  to  it  in 
the  description  of  the  Tabernacle, 
and  Ezekiel  (xxvii,  7)  mentions 
"  fine  linen  with  broidered  work 
from  Egypt."  Phrygia  and  ancient 
Babylon  were  renowned  for  their 
embroideries.  The  art  was  well 
known  in  ancient  Greece,  and  to 
Greek  workmanship  of  the  4th 
century  is  attributed  one  of  the 
oldest  specimens  extant,  in  the 
Hermitage,  Petrograd.  The  ground 
is  purple  cloth,  upon  which  is  sewn 
a  palmette  ornament  in  green  and 
yellow. 

In  Christian  times  embroidery  be- 
came the  handmaid  of  the  Church, 
and  so  the  most  ancient  examples 
are  ecclesiastical  vestments.  These 
were  most  ornate  in  very  early 
times,  for  we  learn  of  a  Christian 
senator  of  Rome  in  the  4th  cen- 
tury whose  robe  was  decorated 
with  no  fewer  than  600  figures 
representing  incidents  in  the  life  of 
Christ.  The  oldest  existing  vest- 
ments are  those  at  Aries,  which 
date  from  the  6th  century.  In  Dur- 
ham Cathedral  are  a  stole  and 
maniple,  found  on  the  body  of  S. 
Cuthbert.  Of  ancient  vestments, 
perhaps  the  most  beautiful  is  the 
dalmatic  in  the  Vatican  reputed  to 
be  that  of  Charlemagne,  but  now 
attributed  to  the  llth  century. 
One  example  of  medieval  embroi- 
dery that  stands  alone  is  the 
Bayeux  Tapestry  (q.v. ). 

In  the  13th  century  English 
embroideries  were  without  equal 
and  the  "  Opus  Anglicanum  "  was 
eagerly  sought  after.  Matthew 
Paris  states  that  in  1246  the  pope, 
astonished  at  the  number  and  mag- 
nificence of  the  vestments  worn 
by  the  English  bishops,  sent  letters 
to  the  English  abbots  urging  them 
to  procure  a  quantity  for  him. 
Apparently  one  of  the  characteris- 
tics of  early  English  embroidery 
was  the  amount  of  gold,  pearls,  and 
precious  stones.  Examples  of  mag- 
nificent early  English  copes  are 
exhibited  in  Ascoli-Piceno,  Pienza, 
Anagni,  Madrid,  Toledo,  South 
Kensington,  and  elsewhere.  French 
and  German  embroidery  reached  a 
high  pitch  of  excellence  during  the 
13th  and  14th  centuries,  as  did  also 
the  Italian  ateliers  in  Milan  and 
Florence.  These  developed  a  real- 
istic style  which  in  the  16th  cen- 
tury was  characteristic  of  Italian 
work.  In  the  15th  century  English 
embroidery  deteriorated. 

In  W.  Europe,  embroidery  was 
both  a  professional  and  amateur 
handicraft.  In  the  Middle  Ages 
the  lady  of  the  castle  during  the 
absence  of  her  lord  on  warlike 
or  hunting  expeditions  passed  her 


EMBRUN 


EMBRYO 


time  in  embroidering  scenes  from 
Scripture,  history  and  legend,  or 
decorating  banners  with  the  family 
devices.  The  reputation  of  Queen 
Matilda  was  equalled  by  Catherine 
of  Aragon,  Bess  of  Hardwick, 
countess  of  Shrewsbury,  and  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots,  who  used  to  work 
at  her  embroidery  all  day  long  until 
very  pain  caused  her  to  give  it 
up.  At  that  time  the  elaborate 
embroidery  on  ecclesiastical  vest 
ments  was  extended  to  secular 
dresses  and  furniture,  and  cross 
stitch  or  petit  point  came  into  use 
for  panels  and  cushions.  Magnifi 
cent  bed-curtains  ornamented  with 
trees  and  large  leaves  full  of  elabor 
ate  detail  were  made  in  the  Jaco 
bean  period,  while  that  of  Charles  1 
is  characterised  by  the  highly 
raised  style  known  as  "  stump 
work."  A  return  to  simplicity  in 
the  early  18th  century  is  seen  in  the 
powderings  of  natural  flowers 
worked  in  chain-stitch  on  a  light 
ground,  and  many  beautiful  sam- 
plers of  the  period  yet  remain 
Under  the  Hanoverian  kings,  the 
highly  ornate  court  dresses  afforded 
excellent  opportunity  for  the  art  of 
the  needle,  and  the  upholstered 
chairs  were  covered  with  cross-  and 
tent-stitch  work.  Later  the  art 
sank  to  a  low  ebb  in  copying  prints 
in  black  and  white  and  slavish 
imitations  of  paintings,  but  the  pre 
Raphaelite  movement,  the  revela- 
tion of  Japanese  art,  and  the  study 
of  Eastern  examples  have  restored 
embroidery  to  a  very  high  level. 


5  6  7 

Embroidery.     Stitches  in  common  use.     1.  Buttonhole.     2.  Long  and  short 
stitches.     3  and  4.  Satin.     5.  Chain.    6.  Eastern  or  Oriental.     7.  Back  stitch. 
8.  Working  diagram  of  cnt  work  shown  complete  in  9 


There  are  many  kinds  of  embroi- 
dery, such  as  cut-work,  applique, 
couching,  quilting,  etc.,  while  the 
principal  stitches  are  chain,  feather, 
satin,  cushion,  comb,  cross,  tent, 
lace,  long-and-short,  back,  herring- 
bone, buttonhole,  and  many  East- 
ern Stitches.  W.  G.  Thomson 

Bibliography.  Needlework  as  Art, 
M.  M.  Alford,  1886  ;  La  Broderie  du 
Xle  Siecle  jusqu'  a  nos  Jours,  L.  de 
Farcy,  1890-1900;  English  Embroi- 
dery, A.  F.  Kendrick,  1905  ;  La  Bro- 
derie (Les  Arts  du  Tissu),  G.  Migeon, 
1909  ;  Art  in  Needlework,  F.  Day 
and  M.  Buckle,  4th  ed.  rev.  1914. 

Embrun.  Town  of  France.  It 
stands  above  the  Durance  in  the 
department  of  Hautes  Alpes,  being 
nearly  3,000  ft.  high.  Although  a 
small  place  it  has  much  historic 
interest.  It  was  once  the  seat  of 
an  archbishop,  and  its  magnificent 
cathedral,  built  in  the  12th  cen- 
tury, remains.  Dedicated  to  Notre 
Dame,  it  has  a  fine  tower  and  other 


features.  The  palace  of  the  arch- 
bishops is  now  used  for  public  pur- 
poses, and  there  is  an  old  tower,  a 
relic  of  the  fortifications  which 
were  pulled  down  hi  1884.  Pilgrims 
visited  Embrun  in  the  Middle  Ages 
to  venerate  a  picture  of  the  Ma- 
donna painted  on  the  cathedral 
door.  A  large  Roman  station,  the 
place  became  a  bishopric  soon  after 
300.  The  bishops  (later  arch- 
bishops) were  princes  of  the  Empire 
and  rulers  of  an  extensive  territory. 
The  see  was  transferred  to  Gap  in 
1791.  Pop  of  commune,  3,556. 

Embryo  (Gr.  en,  in ;  bryein,  to 
swell,  teem  with).  Word  used  in 
various  meanings.  In  a  general 
sense  it  expresses  an  undeveloped 
idea  or  conception,  the  initial  stage 
of  anything.  In  biology  it  is  the 
living  creature  which  develops  it- 
self in  the  egg  or  womb ;  in  botany, 
that  part  of  the  seed  from  which 
the  plant  is  fojmed. 


Embroidery.     Examples  of  artistic  designs.      Left,  rose  and  leaves,  illustrating  bow  the  pattern  traced  on  the  clo** 
is  followed.     Centre  and  right,  willow  pattern  design  showing  finished  work  and  original  tracing 


EMBRYOLOGY 


2884 


EMBRYOLOGY:    THE    SCIENCE    OF    LIFE 

J.  Arthur  Thomson,   Regius  Professor  of  Natural  History,  Aberdeen 

With  the  article  on  this  department  of  the  science  of  biology  should 

be  read  those  on  Biology ;  Evolution ;  Life.     See  also  Bacteriology ; 

Cell;  Eugenics;  Heredity,  etc.,  and  the  biographies  of  Darwin  and 

other  biologists 


Embryology  (Gr.  embryon,  em- 
bryo ;  logos,  science)  is  the  science 
of  the  individual  life-cycle,  especi- 
ally of  the  early  stages  during 
which  a  germ  grows  into  a  body. 
In  other  words,  embryology  is  the 
science  of  individual  development. 
From  what  looks  like  a  minute 
drop  of  living  matter,  though  it  is 
doubtless  a  little  world  with  intri- 
cate organization,  of  which  the 
microscope  gives  us  a  hint,  there  is 
gradually  built  up  a  young  bird  or 
mammal,  or  some  other  creature, 
whether  animal  or  plant.  Out  of 
apparent  simplicity  there  arises  ob- 
vious complexity,  and  this  develop- 
ment is  one  of  the  most  mysterious 
processes  in  the  world. 

In  the  great  majority  of  cases  the 
individual  life  of  plant  or  animal 
begins  in  the  intimate  union  of  two 
germ-cells  or  gametes,  a  more 
passive  egg-cell  or  ovum  and  a 
more  active  sperm-cell  or  sperma- 
tozoon. What  follows  refers  chiefly 
to  animal  development. 

EGG-CELL  OR  OVUM.  In  most 
animals  the  egg-cells  or  ova  are 
formed  by  the  multiplication  of 
primitive  germ -cells  within  the 
ovary.  These  primitive  germ -cells 
are  the  unspecialised  descendants 
of  the  fertilised  egg-cell  which  de- 
veloped into  the  body,  and  they  re- 
tain its  essential  qualities.  They 
increase  in  number  by  repeated 
division,  and  some  of  them  increase 
in  size  and  become  unripe  ova.  It 
frequently  happens  that  an  ovum 
absorbs  its  less  successful  sister- 
cells,  or  that  they  form  a  protec- 
tive and  often  nutritive  covering 
(follicle  cells)  for  it.  In  the  ovary  of 
the  fresh-water  Hydra  and  the 
marine  Tubularia  there  is  usually 
only  one  ovum  left  out  of  many. 
Formation  of  the  Yolk 

The  egg-cell  usually  accumulates 
yolk-material,  which  may  come  to 
be  enormous  in  amount.  The  yolk 
is  furnished  by  the  blood  or  other 
nutritive  fluid  of  the  parent,  the 
follicle  cells  often  acting  as  inter- 
mediary units  ;  or  it  may  be  fur- 
nished by  special  yolk-glands.  It 
accumulates  in  the  ovum  as  glob- 
ules or  platelets  mainly  consisting 
of  a  substance  called  lecithin. 

Around  the  egg  are  eventu- 
ally formed  sheaths  or  envelopes 
of  various  kinds  :  (a)  a  delicate 
vitelline  membrane  made  by  the 
egg  itself  immediately  after  fertili- 
sation ;  (b)  a  follicular  envelope 
secreted  by  the  follicle  cells  ;  and, 


it  may  be,  (c)  a  hard  shell  formed 
by  special  glands  in  the  walls  of  the 
oviduct.  The  follicular  envelope  is 
often  formed  before  fertilisation, 
and  is  perforated  by  a  minute  aper- 
ture (the  micropyle)  or  by  several 
of  them.  Otherwise  the  sperma- 
tozSon  could  not  effect  entrance. 

The  calcareous  shells  of  birds' 
eggs  and  the  horny  mermaid's  purse 
round  the  eggs  of  skates  and  dog- 
fish are  formed  after  fertilisation. 
What  is  called  a  bird's  egg  consists 
of  a  hugely  dilated  egg-cell  heavily 
laden  with  yolk,  of  a  follicular  en- 
velope of  some  complexity  around 
this,  of  a  large  amount  of  albumen 
or  white  of  egg,  of  a  tissue-paper- 
like  shell  membrane,  and  of  the 
porous  shell.  Most  ova  are  minute 
spheres,  and  the  majority  are  mi- 
croscopically minute.  The  nucleus 
of  the  unripe  ovum  is  usually  a 
vesicle  full  of  clear  nuclear  sap  (the 
germinal  vesicle  of  the  older  embry- 
ologists),  with  grains  of  readily 
stainable  chromatin  material  borne 
on  fibres  crossing  the  sap,  and  a 
dense  corpuscle  called  the  nucleolus. 
Plant  Egg-cells 

The  egg-cell  or  oosphere  of  a 
flowering  plant  lies  within  an  "  em- 
bryo-sac," within  the  ovule,  within 
the  ovary.  When  it  is  fertilised, 
by  a  nucleus  from  the  pollen-tube, 
it  divides  and  re-divides  to  form  an 
embryo.  Thus  the  possible  seed  or 
ovule  becomes  a  real  seed  able  to 
germinate. 

THE  SPERM-CELL  OR  SPERMA- 
TOZOON. Primitive  germ-cells, 
usually  localised  in  a  special  repro- 
ductive organ  or  testis,  increase  in 
number  enormously  and  decrease 
in  size,  becoming  spennatocytes. 
These  divide  further  into  unripe 
spermatozoa  or  spermatids,  which 
become  mature  spermatozoa.  A 
typical  spermatozoon  is  an  ex- 
tremely minute  cell,  hundreds  of 
which  might  be  suspended  in  a 
drop  on  a  pin's  head  ;  it  is  some- 
times only  about  TO&roth  of  the 
size  of  the  egg-cell  which  is  often 
the  size  of  a  pin's  head.  In  typical 
cases  it  shows  three  parts :  the 
essential  "  head  "  consisting  chiefly 
of  nucleus,  the  mobile  "  tail " 
which  is  often  fibrillated,  and  a 
small  middle  piece  between  them 
which  bears  a  little  corpuscle  called 
the  centrosome.  The  spermatozoa 
of  threadworms  and  most  crusta- 
ceans are  of  a  different  type,  slug- 
gish and  inclined  to  be  amoeboid. 
The  spermatozoa  of  different  ani- 


EMBRYOLOGY 

mals  differ  considerably  in  detail. 
In  flowering  plants  the  male  ele- 
ment is  represented  by  a  generative 
nucleus  within  the  pollen-tube 
which  grows  out  of  the  pollen-grain. 
In  flowerless  plants  the  male  ele- 
ment is  usually  a  motile  anthero- 
zooid,  as  in  ferns  and  mosses. 

MATURATION.  In  the  history 
of  the  germ- cells,  both  ova  and 
spermatoz5a,  a  remarkable  process 
occurs  which  is  known  as  matura- 
tion or  reducing  division.  In  the 
nucleus  of  the  immature  stages  of 
the  germ-cells  there  are  a  number 
of  readily  stainable  bodies  or  chro- 
mosomes which  separate  from  one 
another,  and  can  be  counted  when 
division  is  going  to  occur.  The 
number  is  quite  definite  for  each 
species,  e.g.  2  or  4  in  the  two  races 
of  the  threadworm  of  the  horse, 
12  in  the  grasshopper,  24  in  the 
mouse,  and  24  hi  man.  This 
definite  "  normal  number,"  what- 
ever it  may  be,  is  often  (but  not 
always)  demonstrable  in  all  the 
cells  of  the  body  as  well  as  in  the 
germ-cells. 

In  the  mature  ovum  and  the  ma- 
ture spermatoz5on  the  number  of 
these  chromosomes  is  half  the  nor- 
mal, therefore  in  one  way  or  an- 
other, at  one  stage  or  another — for 
it  seems  to  occur  variously  in  dif- 
ferent types — there  is  a  process  of 
reduction,  by  which,  in  the  division, 
half  of  the  whole  chromosomes  go 
to  each  daughter-cell,  whereas  in 
an  ordinary  cell-division  each 
chromosome  is  halved  longitudi- 
nally, and  one  set  of  halves  passes 
to  each  daughter-cell.  The  pecu- 
liar kind  of  cell-division  which 
occurs  during  the  maturation  of  the 
germ-cells  is  called  a  reducing  or 
meiotic  division  ;  the  ordinary  me- 
thod is  called  an  equation  division. 
Reduction  of  Chromosomes  '' 

If  we  compare  the  chromosomes 
with  the  wooden  matches  in  a  box, 
a  reducing  division  would  be  com- 
parable to  putting  hah*  of  the 
matches  into  another  box,  while 
the  equation  division  would  be 
comparable  to  splitting  each  match 
longitudinally  and  then  putting 
one  set  of  halves  into  another  box. 
When  the  egg-cell  is 'ripening  the 
nucleus  moves  to  the  periphery  and 
gives  off  an  abortive  sister-cell,  the 
first  polar  body,  which  often 
divides  into  two,  but  never  comes 
to  anything.  The  nucleus  of  the 
ovum  then  divides  again  and  gives 
rise  to  a  second  polar  body,  which 
also  comes  to  nothing.  The  re- 
duction of  the  number  of  chromo- 
somes is  often  effected  in  the  for- 
mation of  the  first  polar  body,  and 
there  is  a  corresponding  reduction 
in  the  penultimate  division  of  the 
spermatocytes. 

In     the    sperm -cell    lineage     a 


EMBRYOLOGY 

spermatogonium  divides  into 
"spermatocytesof  the  first  order"  ; 
each  of  these  divides  into  two  sper 


2885 

maternal  hereditary  contributions, 
(2)  the  restoring  of  the  number 
of  chromosomes  to  the  normal, 


Embryology.   Spermato- 
zoon of   man.      Above, 
that  of  a  horse 


matocytes  of  the 
second  order; 
each  of  which 
divides  again 
into  two  sper- 
matids,  which 
become  sperma- 
tozoa. In  this 
case  all  the  four 
cells  which  are 
descended  from 
a  spermatocyte 
of  the  first  order 
become  sperma- 
tozoa ;  in  the  egg-cell  lineage  the 
first  polar  body  and  the  second 
polar  body  are  useless.  The  whole 
subject  is  very  difficult,  but  it  is 
very  important,  for  maturation 
probably  affords  opportunity  for 
new  arrangements  among  the  here- 
ditary qualities  which  are  borne,  in 
part  at  least,  by  the  chromosomes. 
It  is  held  by  many  that  it  is  in 
the  maturation-division  that  the 
germ -cells  are  segregated  into  two 
contingents  differing  hi  the  here- 
ditary factors  they  carry,  as  is 
suggested  by  the  facts  of  Mendelian 
inheritance  (see  Heredity).  Ac- 
cording to  others,  the  segregation 
of  qualities  is  not  confined  to  the 
reduction -division. 

FERTILISATION.  The  intimate 
union  of  the  mature  ovum  and  the 
mature  spermatozoon  is  called 
fertilisation.  The  head  of  the 
spermatozoon,  penetrating  the 
ovum,  swells  up  and  becomes  the 
"  male  pronucleus  " ;  it  moves  to- 
wards the  reduced  ovum -nucleus — 
the  "  female  pronucleus";  the  two 
coalesce  to  form  one  nucleus — the 
"  zygote  nucleus  " — which  will 
presently  divide. 

Fertilisation  implies  (1)  the 
mingling  of  the  paternal  and  the 


(3)  the  introduc- 
tion of  a  centro- 
some  (along  with 
the  middle  piece 
of  the  spermato- 
zoon)  which 
plays  an  import- 
ant part  in  the 
subsequent  division  of  the 
ovum,  (4)  a  stimulus  to  the 
ovum  to  divide  or  the  re- 
moval of  some  fetter  that 
was  keeping  the  ovum  from 
dividing,  and  (5)  a  rapid 
physical  and  chemical  change  in 
the  periphery  of  the  egg-cell  which 
nips  off  the  tail  of  the  spermatozoon 
and  makes  the  egg-cell  non-recep- 
tive to  other  spermatozoa,  the 
entrance  of  which  would  cause 
abnormal  division. 
By  the  brilliant 
work  of  Loeb, 
Delage,  and  SHELLS  ; 

others  it  has  been 
shown     that 
"  artificial    p  a  r  - 
thenogenesis''can 
be  readily  induced 
in  a  large  number 
of  ova  (of  starfish, 
sea-urchin,     of 
some  worms,  mol- 
luscs, fishes,  and 
of  the  frog)  by  a 
variety     of     me- 
chanical,    physi- 
cal, and  chemical 
stimuli.       If    the 
eggs  of  the  sea-urchin  be  placed  for 
a  little  while  in  sea  -  water  whose  com- 
position has  been  slightly  altered 
by  the  addition  of  a  small  quantity 
of   magnesium  chloride,  they  will 
develop  without  fertilisation   and 
become  larvae  or  even  small  sea- 
urchins  when  restored  to  sea-water. 


EMBRYOLOGY 

If  the  eggs  of  the  frog  be  pricked 
with  a  fine  needle,  washed  in  blood, 
and  restored  to  fresh  water,  they 
will  develop  without  fertilisation 
and  become  tadpoles  or  even  frogs. 

It  should  also  be  noted  that  in 
some  cases  the  occurrence  or  non- 
occurrence  of  fertilisation  deter- 
mines whether  the  ovum  is  to  de- 
velop into  a  female  or  into  a  male. 
Thus  the  unfertilised  eggs  of  a  hive- 
bee  develop  into  drones.  In  other 
cases,  where  there  are  two  kinds 
of  spermatozoa,  the  nature  of  the 
fertilisation  settles  the  sex  of  the 
offspring.  Though  the  external 
features  of  fertilisation  in  plants 
are  very  different  from  those 
typical  of  animals,  the  essentials 
are  the  same.  (See  Sex.) 

SEGMENTATION.  On  the  heels 
of  fertilisation  comes  segmentation 
or  cleavage,  the  egg-cell  dividing 
into  many  daughter-cells  or  blasto- 
meres.  The  segmentation  differs 
according  to  the  amount  and  dis- 
tribution of  the  yolk.  Thus  it  may 

BLASTODERM 


£X  TCHN  ALLAYER 


YOLK  BAG 


Embryology.     Sectional  view  o!  the  embryo  of  a  frog,  illustrating  how  the 

brain,  spinal  cord,  vertebrae,  and  alimentary  canal  are  among  the  earliest 

parts  to  form 


•ALBUMEN 

Embryology.     Hen's  egg  shown  in  section 

be  total  and  equal  (as  in  the  sea- 
urchin)  or  total  and  unequal  (as  in 
the  frog) ;  partial  and  discoidal  (in 
birds,  reptiles,  and  most  fishes) ;  or 
partial  and  peripheral  (as  in  most 
Arthropods).  The  result  may  be  a 
solid  ball  of  cells  (morula),  or  a 
hollow  ball  of  cells  (blastula),  or  a 
disk  of  cells  (blastoderm).  In  each 
division  the  chromosomes  are  split 
longitudinally,  and  in  some  cases 
it  is  possible  for  a  time  to  demon- 
strate that  each  nucleus  has  half 
its  chromosomes  of  paternal  origin 
and  half  of  maternal  origin.  But 
while  the  divisions  bring  about  a 
scrupulously  equal  partition  of  the 
chromosome  material  (which  may 
perhaps  carry  the  essential  ger- 
minal material  of  the  race),  there 
may  be  dissimilar  division  of  the 
cell-substance  of  the  ovum,  so  that 
different  kinds  of  building  material 
go  to  different  cells.  ." 

In  the  fertilised  egg-cell  of  one 
of  the  Ascidians  or  Sea-squirts 
called  Styela  there  are  four  or  five 
different  kinds  of  substance  which 
occupy  different  positions,  and 


EMDEN 

are  distributed  in  the  course  of 
development  in  different  ways. 
They  happen  to  have  different  col- 
ours, so  that  they  can  be  followed. 
There  is  a  yellow  peripheral  layer 
which  gathers  at  the  lower  pole  of 
the  egg  (where  the  spermatozoon 
enters)  and  there  forms  a  yellow 
cap.  It  afterwards  moves  to  form 
a  crescent  around  the  posterior  side 
of  the  egg  just  below  the  equator. 

On  the  anterior  side  of  the  egg 
there  is  a  grey  crescent,  at  the  lower 
pole  between  the  two  crescents 
there  is  a  slate-blue  substance,  and 
at  the  upper  pole  there  is  a  zone 
of  colourless  living  matter.  Now, 
when  the  egg  divides  and  re- 
divides  the  yellow  crescent  goes 
into  those  cells  which  will  become 
muscle  and  mesoderm,  the  grey 
crescent  into  cells  which  become 
nervous  system  and  the  support- 
ing rod  called  the  notochord,  the 
slate-blue  substance  into  the  endo- 
derm  cells  lining  the  future  food- 
canal,  and  the  colourless  substance 
into  more  ectoderm  cells. 

GERMINAL  LAYERS.  In  many 
developing  eggs  which  are  not  en- 
cumbered with  much  yolk  ma- 
terial, a  hollow  ball  of  cells  (a  bias- 
tula)  becomes  in-dimpled  or  in- 
vaginated  to  form  a  two-layered 
sac  of  cells  (the  gastrula).  The 
outer  layer  of  cells  is  called  the 
ectoderm  or  epiblast,  the  inner 
layer,  the  endoderm  or  hypoblast. 
The  cavity  which  corresponds  to 
the  future  digestive  cavity  is  called 
the  archenteron,  and  the  mouth  of 
the  sac  the  blastopore.  In  sponges 
and  stinging  animals  there  are 
only  two  fundamental  layers  ;  in 
higher  forms  an  intermediate  layer, 
the  mesoderm  or  mesoblast,  is 
established.  It  is  important  to 
notice  that  these  three  layers  give 
rise  to  the  same  sort  of  structures 
throughout  the  animal  kingdom. 

Thus  the  ectoderm  forms  the 
epidermis,  the  nervous  system,  and 
the  foundations  of  the  sense- 
organs.  The  endoderm  forms  the 
lining  of  the  digestive  tract  and 
of  outgrowths  from  it.  The  meso- 
derm forms  muscle  and  connective 
tissue,  and  in  many  cases  (e.g.  all 
vertebrates)  the  skeleton.  It  is 
possible  in  many  cases  to  go 
farther  back,  and  point  to  certain 
particular  cells  in  the  segmented 
ovum  which  will  form  certain 
structures  in  the  adult,  and  no 
others.  An  early  localisation  of 
organ-forming  substance  is  often 
demonstrable,  and  it  is  a  remark- 
able fact  that  an  artificial  dis- 
arrangement of  the  cells  may  be 
put  right  again  by  regulation 
processes  which  are  very  charac- 
teristic of  development 

DIFFERENTIATION.  As  develop- 
ment proceeds  new  kinds  of  ma- 


2886 

terial  become  evident ;  all  sorts 
of  different  cells — nervous,  mus- 
cular, glandular,  connective,  and 
so  on — appear ;  tissues  and  organs 
arise.  In  a  word,  there  is  a 
mysterious  process  of  differentia- 
tion. There  is  interaction  be- 
tween nuclear  substance  and  cell- 
substance,  there  are  movements 
and  localisations  of  different  kinds 
of  building  material,  there  are 
differential  (i.e.  dissimilar)  divi- 
sions of  the  cell-substance  into 
heterogeneous  daughter-cells  which 
are  in  some  measure  partitioned 
from  one  another.  Thus,  to  use  a 
metaphor,  the  developing  embryo 
becomes  like  a  garden  in  which 
different  plots  have  come  to  have 
different  kinds  of  soil,  as  well  as 
different  relations  to  one  another 
and  to  the  outer  world.  A  similar 
handful  of  seeds,  including  a  score 
of  different  kinds  (corresponding 
to  the  nuclear  material),  is  sown  in 
each  plot,  but  while  each  plot  gets 
the  same  kind  of  seeds,  those  able 
to  develop  in  each  are  different. 

But  while  differentiation  is  in  pro- 
gress the  developing  body  is  also  in- 


EMDEN 

Bibliography.  Human  Embry- 
ology, C.  S.  Minot,  repr.  1897  ;  The 
Cell  in  Development  and  Inherit- 
ance, E.  B.  Wilson,  2nd  ed.  1900  ; 
The  Science  and  Philosophy  of  the 
Organism,  H.  Driesch,  1908  ;  Ex- 
perimental Embryology,  J.  W. 
Jenkinson,  1909;  Textbook  of  Em- 
bryology, ed.  W.  Heape,  1914,  etc.  ; 
Heredity  and  Environment  in  the 
Development  of  Man,  E.  G.  Conklin, 
2nd  ed.  1916. 

Emden.  Seaport  and  town  of 
Germany.  In  the  Prussian  province 
of  Hanover,  it  stands  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Ems,  50  m.  W.N.  W.  of 
Oldenburg,  and  is  the  terminus  of 
the  Dortmund-Ems  canal.  The 
port  and  its  harbours  are  on  a 
ship  canal,  which  connects  with 
the  Ems,  2|  m.  away,  and  other 
canals  passing  through  the  town. 
The  chief  ecclesiastical  buildings 
are  the  Great  Church,  the  Gasthaus 
Church,  and  the  New  Church.  The 
Renaissance  town  hall,  built  in  the 
16th  century,  contains  a  valuable 
collection  of  firearms,  and  there  are 
museums,  colleges,  schools,  etc. 
Emden  has  a  large  shipping  trade, 
and  is  an  important  fishing  centre. 


Emden.      View  of   the  inner  harbour    on   the   canal   connecting  the   town 
with  the  river  Ems 


tegrated.  That  is  to  say,  it  becomes 
more  and  more  of  a  unity,  and 
nothing  is  more  remarkable  than 
the  way  in  which  different  parts 
work  into  one  another's  hands,  and 
conspire,  as  it  were,  towards  a  co- 
operative result.  The  germ  is  what 
it  is  because  it  has  somehow  had 
enregistered  within  it  the  many 
developments  manifested  in  the 
past  by  the  race  to  which  it  belongs. 
Development  is  the  actualisation 
of  this  inheritance,  and  it  comes 
about  in  such  a  way  that  there  is  in 
the  individual,  especially  in  the 
making  of  organs,  a  condensed 
recapitulation  of  the  evolution 
which  has  been  the  work  of  ages. 

In  a  general  way  the  develop- 
ing organism  climbs  up  its  own 
genealogical  tree.  It  must  further 
be  noted  that  the  development 
of  the  inherited  nature  always  re- 
quires at  least  a  minimum  of  ap- 
propriate nurture  if  it  is  to  develop 
aright,  and  that  the  fullness  of  the 
development  depends  in  some  mea- 
sure on  the  fullness  of  the  nurture 
supplied.  In  this  fact,  as  well  as 
in  the  slow  improvement  of  the 
breed,  there  is  hope  for  mankind. 


Shipbuilding  is  carried  on.  Origi- 
nally a  town  in  East  Friesland,  in 
1595  it  became  a  free  city  under  the 
sovereignty  of  the  Dutch  Republic, 
and  in  1744  it  was  handed  over  to 
Prussia.  In  1815  it  was  transferred 
to  Hanover,  passing  with  that 
kingdom  to  Prussia  in  1866.  Pon. 
24,000. 

Emden.  German  light  cruiser. 
A  sister  ship  to  the  Dresden,  she 
displaced  3,600  tons  and  had  ten 
4'1-in.  guns.  She  was  launched  in 
1908.  During  the  Great  War 
the  Emden  did  much  damage  to 
British  and  Allied  commerce. 
Von  Miiller,  her  commander, 
showed  humanity  by  providing  for 
the  safety  of  the  crews  of  the 
vessels  he  sank.  While  convoying 
Australian  troops  to  England,  the 
Australian  cruiser  Sydney  learned 
that  the  Emden  was  at  Cocos 
Island  and  drove  her  ashore  at 
North  Keeling  Island  and  de- 
stroyed her,  Nov.  9,  1914,  with 
the  loss  of  230  of  her  crew.  Miiller, 
who  was  allowed  to  retain  his 
sword,  was  among  those  saved. 
This  was  the  first  actual  fighting 
done  by  any  ship  of  the  Australian 


EMERALD 


t 


Emden.     The  German  light  cruiser  when  she  had  been 

driven  ashore  on  North  Keeling,  one  of  the  Cocos  Islands, 

after  her  battle  with  the  Australian  cruiser  Sydney 


navy,  and  relics  from  the  Emden 
were  distributed  to  various  Aus- 
tralian cities. 

Another  German  light  cruiser, 
built  in  1915,  was  christened  Em- 
den in  fulfilment  of  a  promise 
made  by  the  Kaiser  when  the  first 
was  destroyed  that  a  new  one 
should  sail  the  seas.  This  vessel  was 
among  the  warships  surrendered  to 
the  Allies  after  the  armistice,  and 
was  allotted  to  France  in  1920. 

Emerald  (Gr.  smaragdos,  Fr. 
emeraude,  Span,  esmeralda).  Green 
variety  of  mineral  beryl,  a  me- 
tasilicate  of  beryllium  and  alu- 
minium found  in  granitic  or  schis- 
tose rocks,  and  in  veins  traversing 


2887 

1    "  scientific     emer- 
j    aids,"   contains 
1    from  7  p.  c.  to  8  p.  c. 
|    of     beryllin,     butt 
i    although      almost 
I   identical  with,  are 
j    of    lower    specific 
I    gravity     and     re- 
l    f ractivity  than, the 
'4    true    stones,    and 
are  almost  always 
"  cloudy  "      or 
j    "mossy."  "Emer- 
aldines"   are  arti- 
ficially      coloured 
chalcedony. 

Emerald 
Green.  Name  ap- 
plied to  certain 
green  colouring 
matters.  The  two 
mineral  emerald  greens  are  aceto- 
arsenite  of  copper  and  hydrated 
chromium  sesqui-oxide.  The  ani- 
line dye  known  under  this  name  is 
prepared  by  the  action  of  benzal- 
dehyde  upon  dimethylaniline  and 
subsequent  oxidation. 

Emergency  Ration.  Ration 
carried  by  troops  on  active  service 
or  at  manoeuvres  to  serve  in  the 
event  of  their  being  beyond  reach 
of  the  ordinary  daily  issue.  Also 
known  as  an  Iron  Ration,  most 
stringent  regulations  are  in  force 
to  prevent  its  consumption  except 
in  the  last  emergency.  In  the 
British  army  it  consists  of  four 
biscuits,  one  tin  of  bully  beef,  and  a 


prisms ;  it  is  valued  as  a  gem- 
stone  on  account  of  its  colour. 
Perfect  crystals  are  rare,  many 
stones  show  "  mossiness,"  due  to 
tiny  fissures  and  air  bubbles,  while 
the  colour  is  often  very  irregularly 
distributed.  Emeralds  of  antiquity 
came  from  Egypt ;  its  mines,  re- 
opened in  the  19th  century,  yield 
handsome  stones,  though  generally 
small  in  size  and  rather  pale  in  hue. 
The  finest  crystals  come  from 
South  America,  chiefly  Colombia, 
and  from  the  Urals  ;  a  few  are 
found  in  Austria,  Australia,  and 
the  U.S.A. 

Certain  other  stones  are  known 
as  emeralds.  The  "  oriental " 
emeralds  are  Australian  sage-green 
corundums  ;  "  Brazilian  "  are 
tourmalines  ;  "  Uralian  "  are  green 
garnets  ;  "  lithia  "  are  spodu- 
menes  ;  "  evening  emeralds  "  are 
bottle-green  peridots  ;  "  false  " 
are  fluor-spar  ;  while  "  mother  of 
emerald  "  is  green  quartz  ;  and 
"  emerald  copper  "  a  dioptase  (a 
green  silicate  of  copper). 

Artificial  emeralds  are  made  by 
fusing  together  4,608  parts  of  strass, 
42  parts  of  copper  oxide,  and  2 
parts  of  chromic  oxide.  A  finer  qual- 
ity, known  as  "  synthetic "  or 


may  only  be  opened  by  order  of 
an  officer. 

Emerson,  RALPH  WALDO  (1803- 
82).  American  poet,  essayist,  and 
philosopher.  He  was  born  at  Bos- 
ton, Mass.,  May  25,  1803,  the  son 
of  a  Unitarian  minister,  and  was 
educated  at  the  Boston  Latin 
school  and  Harvard.  After  gradua- 
ting in  1821,  he  spent  three  years  in 
teaching,  and  then,  having  entered 
the  Unitarian  ministry,  was  ap- 
pointed joint  minister  of  the 
Second  Church  in  Boston,  1829. 
In  the  same  year  he  married  Ellen 
Louisa  Tucker,  who  died  in  1832, 
and  in  that  year  he  resigned  his 
ministry  in  consequence  of  his 
widened  views,  to  which  he  had 
given  expression  in  a  sermon  on  the 
Lord's  Supper  (Works,  vol.  xi,  7), 
not  meeting  with  the  approval  of 
his  congregation. 

In  1833  Emerson  travelled  in 
Europe,  visited  Carlyle,  and  began 
that  lifelong  friendship  with  him 
Which  bore  literary  fruit  in  a  not- 
able collection  of  letters.  On  re- 
turning to  America  he  settled  at 
Concord,  Mass.,  and  entered  upon 
his  career  as  writer  and  lecturer, 
which,  in  a  few  years,  was  to  place 


EMERSON 

him  hi  the  front  rank  of  American 
men  of  letters.  The  year  after 
settling  in  Concord,  he  married 
again,  his  second  wife  being  Lydia 
Jackson  (1802-92).  In  1836  he 
published  a  slim  volume,  Nature, 
in  which  he  briefly  stated  the  case 
for  a  new  outlook  on  things  in  place 
of  the  continued  acceptance  of  mere 
tradition.  In  subsequent  addresses, 
lectures,  and  essays,  the  thoughts 
enunciated  in  Nature  were  enlarged 
upon  and  developed.  In  1840  he 
commenced  writing  for  The  Dial, 
and  edited  it  for  two  years  ;  this 
magazine  came  to  be  regarded  as 
the  special  organ  of  the  New  Eng- 
land Transcendental  movement  in 
religion,  literature,  and  philosophy. 
The  first  volume  of  those  essays 
by  which  he  was  to  become  most 
widely  famous  was  published  in 
1841,  and  a  second  series  followed 
three  years  later.  In  1847  the  first 
collection  of  his  poems  was  pub- 
lished, and  in  the  autumn  of 
the  same  year  he  revisited  England 
on  a  lecturing  tour,  delivering  a 
series  of  addresses  on  Representa- 
tive Men  —  Plato,  Swedenborg, 
Montaigne,  Shakespeare,  Napoleon, 


and  Goethe.  The  volume  contain- 
ing these  addresses  was  published 
in  1850.  He  had  returned  to  Con- 
cord in  1849,  and  in  1856  the  fruits 
of  his  observation  during  his  ex- 
tended stay  in  England  were  em- 
bodied in  that  admirable,  and,  on 
the  whole,  rarely  discriminating 
volume,  English  Traits. 

Writing  and  lecturing,  he  came 
to  take  a  high  position  as  the  chief 
leader  of  American  thought  of  his 
generation,  and,  despite  some  un- 
favourable comment  on  his  some- 
what staccato  literary  style,  to  be 
recognized  in  England  as  a  great 
suggestive  and  stimulating  writer. 


EMERY 


2888 


EMIGRANTS'    INFORMATION    OFFICE 


Thus  his  successive 
works  met  with 
a  cordial  welcome 
on  both  sides  of 
the  Atlantic.  In 
June,  1872,  his 
house  at  Concord 
was  partly  de- 
stroyed by  fire, 
a  disaster  which 
caused  him  a 
severe  shock ;  it 
was,  however,  re- 
built by  his  friends 
and  admirers,  and 
he  sought  health 
by  revisiting  Eu- 
rope, 1872-73.  He 
died  at  Concord, 
where  his  house  still  stands.Apr.  27, 
1882,  and  is  buried  in  the  famous 
cemetery  of  Sleepy  Hollow,  at 
that  town. 

The  work  which  Emerson  left, 
alike  in  prose  and  in  poetry,  is 
peculiarly  individual.  He  was, 
perhaps,  essentially  a  poet,  but 
only  in  a  small  degree  a  singer  ;  his 
verse,  often  marked  with  penetrat- 
ing thought  and  lofty  conception, 
is,  for  the  most  part,  lacking  in  any 
beauty  of  form  or  music.  Though  a 


Emerson.     The  old  manse  at  Concord,  Massachusetts, 

where  Emerson  settled  in    1833,  and  where  Nathaniel 

Hawthorne  lived  from  1842-46 

son,  F.  B.  Sanborn,  1901  ;  Remem- 
brances of  Emerson,  J.  Albee,  1903, 
Emerson  and  his  Philosophy,  J.  A. 
Hill,  1919. 

Emery  (Gr.  smyris,  old  Fr. 
inter il,  Span,  esmeril).  Dark,  gran- 
ular variety  of  mineral  corundum, 
chemically  an  oxide  of  aluminium. 
In  association  with  schistose  rocks 
it  occurs  in  Saxony,  and  in  Naxos 
and  other  Greek  islands.  In  the 
U.S.A.  it  is  largely  worked  at  Peek- 
skill,  New  York,  where  deposits  are 
probably  segregations  of  the  basic 
oxides  in  a  norite  rock.  Owing 
to  its  extreme  hardness,  it  is  used 
for  abrasive  purposes,  the  commer- 
cial emery  being  a  mechanical 
mixture  of  corundum,  magnetite  or 
hematite,  and  sometimes  spinel. 

Emery,  WINIFRED  (1862-1924). 
Stage  name  of  Isobel  Winifred 


of  the  moment's  consideration 
rather  than  that  of  any  fully  deve- 
loped scheme  ;  is,  indeed,  the  philo- 
sophy of  the  poet  rather  than  that 
of  the  scientist.  It  is,  therefore, 
less  as  master  of  any  definite  course 
of  philosophy  than  as  a  stimulator 
of  thought  along  idealistic  and  ^  - 
optimistic  lines  that  he  exercised  Maud  Emery  Maude,  British  act- 


as  great  an  influence  as  he  did  on 
his  time.  His  position  in  this  res- 
pect is  perhaps  best  summed  up  hi 
the  words  of  Richard  Garnett : 
"  More  than  any  of  the  other  great 
writers  of  the  age  he  is  a  Voice.  He 
is  almost  impersonal.  He  is  pure 
from  the  taint  of  sect,  clique,  or 
party.  He  does  not  argue,  but 
announces;  he  speaks  when  the 
spirit  moves  him,  but  not  longer. 
Better  than  any  contemporary,  he 
exhibits  the  enigma  how  Confucius, 
and  Buddha  and  Socrates  and 
greater  teachers  still  should  have 

Enuced  such  marvellous  effects 
mere  oral  utterance."  The 
t  of  his  work,  it  has  been  said, 
is  that  of  good  and  stimulating 
conversation,  but  it  should  also  be 
said  that  it  is  conversation  on  a 
high  and  impersonal  plane.  His 
utterance  has  something  of  a  finely- 
balanced  sanity,  and  though  at 
times  it  may  suggest  the  mystic, 
it  is  the  mysticism  of  a  glorified 
common  sense,  not  that  of  mere 

nebulosity.  Walter  Jerrold 


Winifred  Emery, 
British   actress 

Vandyk 


Born  at 
M  a  n  c  h  e  s  ter, 
Aug.  1,  1862, 
and  belonging 
to  a  well- 
known  theatri- 
cal family,  in 
1888  she  mar- 
ried Cyril  F. 
Maude  (q.v.). 
Her  first  ap- 
pearance o  n 
the  stage  was 
at  The  Amphitheatre,  Liverpool, 
1870,  as  Geraldine  in  The  Green 
Bushes.  Her  first  London  apne.ar- 
ance  was  in  pantomime  at*  The 
Princess's,  Dec.  1874.  Her  debut 
as  an  adult  was  at  The  Imperial, 
Westminster,  April  14,  1879,  in 
Man  is  Not  Perfect.  A  versatile 
actress,  she  appeared  with  Wilson 
Barrett,  Comyns  Carr,  Forbes- 
Robertson  and  Beerbohm  Tree- 
She  accompanied  Henry  Irving  to 
the  U.S.A.  in  1884  and  1887-88. 
She  died  July  15.  1024 


Emetic   (Gr.   emetikos).      Drug 

Bibliography.     Works,  Centenary     wnicn  causes  vomiting.     Emetics 
ed.,  12  vols.  1903-15;  Lives,  O.  W.     are  occasionally  used  as  therapeu- 


Holmes,  1885;    J.  E.  Cabot,  1887; 
and  R.  Garnett,  1887 ;  R.  W.  Emer 


tic  agents  in  cases  of  simple  illness. 
Dyspepsia     and     sick  .  headache 


caused  by  excessive  eating  may 
sometimes  be  relieved  by  evacua- 
ting the  stomach  of  its  contents. 
Another  use  is  in  conditions  of 
difficulty  of  breathing  caused  by 
bronchitis,  especially  in  children, 
the  act  of  vomiting  stimulating  the 
respiratory  mechanism  and  re- 
lieving the  symptoms. 

The  great  use  of  emetics  is  to 
remove  poison  from  the  stomach. 
This  form  of  treatment  may  be 
adopted  with  safety  in  almost  all 
cases  where  poison  has  been  swal- 
lowed, except  poisoning  from 
strong  mineral  acids  and  carbolic 
acid,  which  are  apt  to  corrode  the 
stomach  wall  and  render  violent 
movement  of  the  organ  undesir- 
able. Some  knowledge  of  emetics 
should  be  possessed  by  every 
household,  for  the  prompt  admini- 
stration of  an  emetic  may  avert 
serious  symptoms,  and  even  save 
life,  which  would  be  lost  if  treat- 
ment were  delayed.  The  simplest 
emetics  are  a  tablespoonful  of  mus- 
tard, or  one  or  two  tablespoonfuls 
of  salt,  in  a  tumbler  of  warm  water. 
The  following  emetics  should  be 
taken  only  under  medical  advice. 

Zinc  sulphate.  10  to  30  grs.  dis- 
solved in  half  a  tumbler  of  warm 
water,  repeated  if  necessary.  Am- 
monium carbonate.  15  to  30  grs. 
dissolved  in  warm  water.  Ipeca- 
cuanha. Four  to  six  drams  of  the 
wine,  or  20  to  30  grs.  of  the  pow- 
dered root. 

Apomorphine  is  best  adminis- 
tered hypodermically  in  doses  of 
TV  gr.  This  emetic  stimulates  the 
nerve  centre  in  the  brain  which 
controls  the  process  of  vomiting, 
and  is  therefore  particularly  useful 
in  poisoning  by  narcotics  such  as 
opium,  or  drugs,  such  as  carbolic 
acid,  which  tend  to  produce  loss  of 
sensation  in  the  stomach. 

Emetine.  Chief  alkaloid  found 
in  the  roots  of  ipecacuanha 
(Cephaelis  Ipecacuanha).  It  is  ex- 
tracted by  mixing  the  finely  pow- 
dered root  with  an  equal  weight  of 
lime,  making  into  a  paste  with 
water,  and  after  drying  the  mass, 
extracting  it  with  chloroform.  The 
emetine  is  dissolved  by  the  chloro- 
form, and  after  the  evaporation  of 
the  solvent,  remains  behind.  Eme- 
tine is  a  violent  emetic,  but  in  medi- 
cinal doses  is  a  valuable  remedy 
for  certain  forms  of  dysentery. 

E.M.F.  Abbrev.  for  electro- 
motive force,  a  measure  of  the 
strength  of  an  electric  current. 

Emigrants'  Information  Of- 
fice, THE.  Name  formerly  given  to 
a  department  of  the  Colonial  Office. 
Its  function  was  to  give  informa- 
tion to  intending  emigrants,  espec- 
ially those  going  to  other  parts  of 
the  Empire.  It  is  now  merged  into 
the  Oversea  Settlement  Office  (q.v. ) 


EMIGRATION 


2889 


Emigration  (Latin  e,  from ; 
migrare,  to  change  one's  residence). 
Systematic  migration  of  the  sur- 
plus population  of  one  land  to 
another  for  the  purpose  of  settle- 
ment. This  movement  has  been 
one  of  the  great  factors  in  shaping 
the  modern  world,  more  potent 
even  than  military  conquest. 
The  military  victor  holds  his  pos- 
sessions at  the  point  of  the  sword, 
often  over  a  rebellious  people ; 
settlers  absorb  the  land  and  sooner 
or  later  obtain  control  of  it. 

The  modern  emigration  move- 
ment began  after  the  discovery  of 
America,  developing  contempor- 
aneously with  the  era  of  the 
merchant  adventurers.  Spain  led 
the  way,  absorbing  enormous  areas 
in  S.  America  and  in  the  southern 
half  of  N.  America.  S.  America  is 
still  overwhelmingly  Spanish,  in 
language,  customs,  and  life.  Portu- 
gal and  Holland  played  no  incon- 
siderable part,  but  Spain's  main 
rivals  were  France  and  Britain. 
The  enterprise  of  the  merchants  of 
Bristol  gave  Great  Britain  a  foot- 
hold in  Newfoundland  from  which 
the  British  people  spread  to  the 
Pacific  in  the  W.  and  Mexico  in 
the  S.  Everywhere,  but  especially 
in  N.  America,  French  and  British 
found  themselves  as  rivals  in  the 
race  for  new  empire. 

Religion  played  a  large  part  in 
the  first  emigration  movements. 
Zeal  for  the  Catholic  Church  led 
Spain  to  attempt  to  establish  on 
a  large  scale  model  Catholic  na- 
tions in  S.  America.  The  effort  to 
create  new  peoples  to  overcome 
the  growing  heresies  of  Europe 
influenced  the  French  kings  in 
their  pious  endeavours  to  build 
up  New  France  along  the  banks 
of  the  St.  Lawrence.  The  de- 
parture of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers 
from  Plymouth  in  1620  for  New 
England  laid  the  foundations  of 
the  U.S.A.  of  to-day.  A  second 
great  impelling  force  has  been 
poverty.  The  most  marked  ex- 
ample of  this  was  the  steady  exodus 
of  the  Irish  people  to  America 
during  the  Irish  famines  in  the  19th 
century.  The  third  cause  is  love 
of  adventure  and  ambition,  of 
which  the  most  striking  instance 
is  to  be  found  in  a  large  part  of 
the  emigration  from  England  and 
still  more  from  Scotland. 

The  Outflow  from  Europe 
As  Spain  and  Portugal  declined, 
the  outflow  of  their  people  ceased. 
The  Dutch  settlers  in  many  parts 
— notably  in  the  state  of  New 
York — were  gradually  absorbed 
in  the  English-speaking  race.  S. 
Africa  remains  the  outstanding 
example  of  successful  Dutch  set- 
tlement, and  is  still  mainly  Dutch 
in  language  and  institutions,  al- 


though British  in  government. 
France,  defeated  in  her  struggle 
for  political  supremacy  in  N. 
America  after  the  Napoleonic 
wars,  became  one  of  the  least  mi- 
gratory nations  in  Europe,  but 
the  province  of  Quebec  still  re- 
mains distinctively  French  under 
the  British  flag.  Britain  maintained 
the  outpouring  of  her  people. 
While  she  lost  political  control 
of  a  large  part  of  N.  America,  the 
U.S.A.  still  remained  British  in 
speech,  and  the  British  stock  pre- 
dominated. The  convict  settle- 
ments of  New  South  Wales  and 
Tasmania  gave  way  to  the  free 
British  commonwealths  of  Aus- 
tralia and  New  Zealand.  The 
growth  of  Australia  and  the  open- 
ing up  of  the  Pacific  coast  of  N. 
America  were  enormously  stimu- 
lated by  the  discovery  of  gold  in 
California  and  Victoria  in  the 
middle  of  the  19th  century. 

The  defeat  of  the  liberal  move- 
ment and  the  triumph  of  im- 
perialism in  Germany  stimulated 
a  German  migration  westwards, 
which  militarism  and  poverty  did 
much  to  encourage.  The  German 
people  prefer  not  to  settle  in  Ger- 
man-ruled colonies,  and  belore  the 
Great  War  went  mostly  to  the 
U.S.A.  and  to  S.  America.  After  the 
war  their  migration  to  the  U.S.A. 
was  checked,  and  they  tended  to  go 
in  larger  numbers  to  S.  America, 
Poland,  and  W.  Russia.  Italy,  Rus- 
sia, and  the  states  of  South-Eastern 
Europe  in  the  years  immediately 
before  the  Great  War  were  the 
main  sources  of  European  emi- 
gration. 

Migration  to  the  U.S.A. 

The  abundant  industrial  open- 
ings and  the  high  wages  of  the 
U.S.A.  have  made  it  for  many 
years  the  Mecca  of  the  European 
emigrant.  The  flow  of  population 
early  in  the  20th  century  averaged 
1,000,000  a  year,  and  in  1914  was 
over  1,200,000.  Three-quarters 
came  from  Russia,  Italy,  and 
Austria- Hungary.  Most  of  this 
migration  was  closed  down  for  a 
time  by  the  Great  War.  The  large 
German  and  Eastern  European 
settlements,  and  the  considerable 
negro  population  (9,827,703  in 
1910,  and  rapidly  increasing)  pre- 
sent some  of  America's  gravest 
social  problems.  Despite  the  large 
Eastern  European  immigration  in 
recent  years,  the  most  considerable 
section  of  the  foreign  white  stock 
in  the  U.S.A.  is  to-day  English 
speaking. 

Canada  failed  to  draw  any  con- 
siderable number  of  new  settlers 
until  near  the  close  of  the  19th 
century.  Then,  partly  on  account 
of  the  closer  settlement  and  grow- 
ing scarcity  of  land  in  the  U.S.A., 


a  big  movement,  largely  of  far- 
mers, started  from  there  into  the 
prairie  provinces.  This  ran  paral- 
lel with  a  movement  from  Europe. 
Between  1901  and  1911,  the  popu- 
lation rose  from  5,371,135  to 
7.206,643.  In  the  next  decade, 
owing  to  the  war  and  economic 
difficulties,  the  growth  was  slower, 
but  by  1920  the  population  ex- 
ceeded 8,000,000.  The  Dominion 
Government  showed  a  certain 
timidity  in  dealing  with  immi- 
grants immediately  after  the  war, 
partly  owing  to  fear  of  the  Labour 
vote.  Australia  had  gone  through 
a  similar  experience  earlier,  but, 
learning  better,  launched  out  on 
fresh  schemes  for  attracting  im- 
migrants. 

Japanese  on  the  Pacific  Coast 

One  of  the  most  significant 
movements  of  recent  years  has 
been  the  large  Japanese  emigra- 
tion all  over  the  Pacific  coast  and 
islands  due  to  the  rapid  growth  of 
Japanese  population.  This  has 
given  rise  to  serious  difficulties 
with  the  white  nations  of  the 
Pacific,  more  particularly  with  the 
people  of  California,  who  have 
caused  deep  offence  in  Japan  by 
carrying  exclusive  legislation.  The 
Japanese  claim  the  right  to  be 
treated  like  white  men.  The  Cali- 
fornians  say  that  for  them  to  do 
so  would  involve  the  Japanese 
absorption  of  their  land.  Despite 
all  repressive  legislation  there  are 
close  on  90,000  Japanese  in  Cali- 
fornia alone.  The  Japanese  are 
a  majority  of  the  population  in 
Hawaii,  they  are  spreading  through 
Eastern  Siberia,  and  they  have 
settlements  in  almost  every  port 
or  trading  centre  in  Eastern  Asia. 
See  Alien  ;  Immigration;  Popu- 
lation. P.  A.  McKenzie 

Emigres.  Term  applied  to 
Frenchmen  who  sought  refuge  in 
foreign  countries  during,  and  imme- 
diately after,  the  French  Revolu- 
tion. Most  of  these  supporters  of 
the  old  regime  went  to  the  Rhenish 
states  of  Germany,  but  everywhere 
actively  advocated  the  restoration 
of  the  Bourbon  dynasty.  Their 
hopes  of  a  speedy  accomplishment 
of  this  object  were  shattered  when 
the  French  Revolutionary  armies 
defeated  the  Prussians  and  their 
allies  at  Valmy  in  1793.  After  the 
final  overthrow  of  Napoleon  in 
1815  the  emigres  who  were  still 
alive  or  had  not  permanently  set- 
tled abroad  returned  to  France. 
See  French  Revolution. 

Emilia.  Administrative  divi- 
sion of  N.  Italy.  It  slopes  from  the 
Apennines  to  the  river  Po,  and 
facing  the  Adriatic.  The  name 
is  derived  from  the  Roman  Via 
Aemilia,  the  great  N.  road  which 
passed  through  the  territory.  The 


EMINESCU 


EMMICH 


Emin  Pasha,  German 
administrator 


compartimento  includes  the  provs. 
of  Bologna,  Ferrara,  Forli,  Modena. 
Parma,  Piacenza,  Ravenna,  and 
Reggio  Emilia.  Low- lying  along 
the  coast,  it  is  elsewhere  hilly,  and 
is  drained  by  tributaries  of  the  Po. 
Area,  8,042  sq.  m.  Pop.  2,809,187. 
Eminescu,  MIHAIL  (1849-89). 
Rumanian  poet  and  editor.  Born 
at  Ipateshti  in  Moldavia,  Dec.  26, 
1849,  he  was  educated  at  the  uni- 
versities of  Vienna,  Jena,  and 
Berlin.  In  1870  he  contributed 
two  memorable  poems,  Venere  si 
Madona,  and  Epigonii,  to  the  Con- 
vorbizi  Literare,  and  in  1874  he  was 
appointed  school  inspector  and 
librarian  in  the  university  of  Jassy. 
He  died  at  Bukarest,  June  15,  1889, 
and  is  regarded  as  a  great  lyric 
and  satiric  poet. 

Emin  Pasha  (1840-92).  Ger- 
man administrator.  Born  at 
Oppeln,  Silesia,  March  28,  1840,  of 
Jewish  parents, 
his  real  name 
was  Edward 
Schnitzer.  Alter 
studying  medi- 
cine at  Breslau 
and  Berlin,  he 
took  up  an  ap- 
pointment on 
the  staff  of 
Hakki  Pasha, 
in  Turkey,  and 
adopted  a  Turkish  name.  In 
1876  he  went  to  Egypt,  and  in 
1878  was  appointed  by  Gordon 
governor-general  of  the  Equatorial 
province.  When  the  Sudan  was 
abandoned  in  1883,  Emin  was 
left  in  the  heart  of  the  country, 
whence  he  was  rescued  by  Stanley 
in  1889.  Returning  to  Equatoria 
in  the  German  service,  he  met  his 
death  at  the  hands  of  Manyama 
Arabs  in  Oct.,  1892.  His  success 
in  abolishing  the  slave  trade  in  the 
district  under  his  control,  his  care- 
ful survey  of  over  4,000  miles  of 
road,  and  his  observations  of  the 
flora,  fauna,  and  meteorology  of  the 
country  gained  him  an  enduring 
reputation.  See  his  Letters  and 
Journals,  Eng.  trans.  Mrs.  R.  W. 
Felkin,  1888;  New  Light  on  Dark 
Africa,  C.  Peters,  Eng.  trans.  H.  W. 
Dulcken,  1891. 

Emir.  Arabic  word  meaning 
commander,  also  spelt  ameer  or 
amir.  It  is  used  for  chiefs  and 
other  rulers  of  certain  Mahomedan 
peoples,  the  form  emir  being  mainly 
confined  to  those  in  Africa. 

Em'ly,  LITTLE.  Character  in 
Dickens's  David  Copperfield.  A 
pretty  and  attractive  girl,  the  niece 
and  adopted  daughter  of  the  old 
boatman,  Daniel  Peggotty,  and  en- 
gaged to  her  cousin  Ham,  she  runs 
off  with  David  CopperfiekT  s  old 
schoolfellow,  Steerforth,  by  whom 
she  is  ultimately  abandoned. 


Emmanuel  College 
arms 


Emma.  Novel  by  Jane  Austen, 
written  in  1815  and  published  the 
following  year.  It  is  one  of  the 
best  of  its  author's  works,  full 
of  character  and  humour  in  the 
presentation  of  the  society  of  High- 
bury, a  "  large  and  populous  vil- 
lage almost  amounting  to  a  town." 
Emmanuel  College.  One  of 
the  colleges  of  Cambridge  Univer- 
sity. It  was  founded  by  Sir  Walter 
Mildmayin  1584, 
but  is  now  gov- 
erned by  statutes 
made  in  1882. 
The  head  is  the 
master,  and  there 
are  both  senior 
and  junior  fel- 
lows. The  build- 
ings in  St.  An- 
drew's Street 
date  mainly  from 
the  latter  part  of 
the  16th  century,  although  Wren 
designed  the  chapel.  Those  which 
they  replaced  belonged  before  the 
Reformation  to  a  house  of  the 
Dominicans.  The  college  names  in- 
clude Archbishop 
Sancroft,  John 
Harvard,  and 
Bishop  Percy.  It 
was  long  a 
stronghold  of  ; 
Puritanism. 

E  m  m  a  u  s  . 
Ancient  town  of 
Palestine.  It  is 
now  represented 
by  the  village  of 
Amwas,  on  the 
road  between 
Jaffa  and  Jerusa- 
lem, noted  for  a 
medicinal  spring 
It  is  not  to  be 
confused  with  the 
Emmaus  of  the 
N.T.,  near  which 
Christ  appeared  to  His  disciples 
after  the  Resurrection,  the  site  of 
which  is  unknown. 

Emmen.  Town  of  Holland,  in 
the  prov.  of  Dreulbe.  It  is  29  m. 
S.S.E.  of  Groningen,  just  N.W.  of 
the  Berger  Meer,  and  on  the  road 
from  Groningen  to  Koevorden.  The 
inhabitants  are  principally  engaged 
in  agriculture  and  sheep  and  cattle 
rearing.  Pop.  37,156. 

Emmerich.  Town  of  Germany 
in  the  Prussian  Rhine  province.  It 
stands  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Rhine,  5  m.  from  Cleves,  and  not 
far  from  the  frontiers  of  the  Nether- 
lands. The  chief  building  is  the 
minster  church,  built  in  the  llth 
and  12th  centuries,  while  another 
is  the  church  of  S.  Aldegunde.  A 
steam  ferry  crosses  the  Rhine  here. 
Emmerich  is  an  old  place,  having 
been  a  Roman  settlement.  In  1217 
it  was  made  a  town  ;  later  it  joined 


the  ph 


the  Hanseatic  League,  and  as  part 
of  the  duchy  of  Cleves  it  passed 
into  the  possession  of  Brandenburg 
in  1609.  Having  been  for  a  few 
years  part  of  Berg,  it  was  returned 
to  Prussia  in  1815.  Pop.  13,400. 

Emmet,  ROBERT  (1778-1803). 
Irish  nationalist.  Youngest  son  of 
the  viceroy,  and 
pi  brother  of  the 
I  United  Irish- 
man, Thomas 
Addis  Emmet, 
he  was  born 
in  Dublin 
and  educated 
at  Trinity 
College.  B  e  - 
tween  1800-2, 
Emmet  tra- 
velled on  the 
Continent, 
and  was  fired  with  the  idea  of  se- 
curing French  aid  from  Bonaparte 
in  a  rising  against  England.  He 
succeeded  in  collecting  arms  at 
various  depots  in  Dublin  and  drew 
up  a  full  plan  of  campaign  for  a 
rising  on  July  23,  1803. 


Robert  Emmet, 
Irish  nationalist 

After  Petrie 


Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge.     Chapel   and    cilo;s:er 

on  the  east  side   of  the  Great  Court,  the  work  of  Sir 

Christopher  Wren 

J.  Palmer  Clarke,  Cambridge 

Treachery  and  faulty  organiza- 
tion, however,  frustrated  his  plans, 
and  Emmet  fled  for  refuge  into  the 
Wicklow  Mts.  On  Aug.  25  he  was 
arrested  near  Harold's  Cross,  was 
found  guilty  of  treason,  and  hanged, 
Sept  20,  1803.  The  hold  of 
Emmet's  memory  on  the  popular 
imagination  in  Ireland  was  in- 
creased by  the  story  of  his  love 
affair  with  Sarah  Curran,  daughter 
of  John  Philpot  Curran  (q.v.),  a 
theme  which  inspired  Thomas 
Moore's  lyric,  She  is  far  from  the 
land  where  her  young  hero  sleeps. 

Emmich,  OTTO  VON  (1848- 
1915).  German  soldier.  Bom  at 
Minden,  Sept.  4,  1848,  the  son  of  a 
Prussian  officer,  he  entered  the 
Prussian  army  in  1866.  He  served 
in  the  Franco -Prussian  War,  1870- 
71,  and  in  1909  he  was  general  of 
infantry,  and  commander  of  the 
1  Oth  Army  Corps.  On  the  outbreak 


EMMOTT 


289  1 


EMPETRACEAE 


of  the  Great  War,  he  was  in  com- 
mand of  the  army  of  the  Meuse 
that  invaded  Belgium  and  at- 
tacked Liege,  which  he  captured 
on  Aug.  7,  1914.  In  April-May, 
1915,  he  took  part  in  Macken- 
sen's  drive  in  Galicia.  He  died 
Dec.,  1915. 

Emmott,  ALFRED  EMMOTT,  IST 
BARON  (b.  1859).  British  politician. 
The  son  of  Thomas  Emmott,  a 
Quaker  cotton  spinner  of  Brook- 
field,  Oldham,  he  was  born  May  8, 
1859.  After 
graduating  at 
London  U  n  i  - 
versity,he  spent 
some  years  in 
business  at  Old- 
h  a  m ,  and  i  n 
1899  was  re- 
turned at  a  bye- 
election  as  Lib-  Baron  Emmott, 
eral  M.P.  for  British  politician 
the  borough.  In  EIHOU  &  Fry 
1906  he  was  chairman  of  ways  and 
means  in  the  House  of  Commons,  a 
post  he  retained  until  1911,  when  he 
was  made  Baron  Emmott  of  Old- 
ham.  In  the  same  year  he  was  ap- 
pointed under-secretary  for  the 
colonies,  and  in  1914  he  became 
first  commissioner  of  works,  leaving 
office  on  the  fall  of  the  Asquith 
ministry  in  1915.  In  1918-19 
Emmott  was  director  of  the  War 
Trade  Department.  His  Nationali- 
zation of  Industries  was  published 
in  1920. 

Emotion  (Lat.  emovere,  to  agi- 
tate). Mental  state  or  feeling 
brought  about  by  sensations,  as 
contrasted  with  cognition  or  voli- 
tion. Emotions  are  subjective  and 
isolated.  Thus,  when  I  hate  some 
one,  I  am  conscious  that  I  am  the 
person  who  hates  and  that  I  hate  a 
particular  person  who  arouses  the 
emotion  of  hate.  I  am  concerned 
only  with  my  particular  hate  and 
with  the  particular  object  of  it. 
Love,  hate,  fear,  anger,  joy,  sorrow 
are  emotions.  Emotions  may  be 
roughly  divided  into  pleasant  or 
unpleasant,  to  which  others  add 
those  emotions  that  produce  ex- 
citement or  depression,  tension  or 
relief.  The  psychical  disturbance 
caused  by  emotion  as  a  rule  pro- 
duces a  corresponding  external 
disturbance. 

Empedocles  (c.  495^*35  B.C.). 
Greek  philosopher  of  Agrigentum 
in  Sicily.  He  was  the  first  to  teach 
that  all  material  substances  are 
compounded  from  the  four  so- 
called  elements,  fire,  air,  earth,  and 
water.  These  four  elements  are 
continually  being  separated  and 
mingled  by  two  moving  forces, 
one  Love  or  Friendship,  the  other 
Strife.  He  thus  combined  the 
Being  of  the  Eleatics  (q.v.)  with 
the  Becoming  of  Heraclitus  (q.v.). 


According 
to  legend, 
Empedocles 
threw  himself 
into  the  burn- 
ing crater  of 
Etna  in  order 
that  the  com- 
pleteness o  f 
his  disappear- 
ance might 
engender  the 
belief  that  he  had  been  translated 
alive  to  heaven.  This  legend  is  the 
subject  of  Matthew  Arnold's  Em- 
pedocles on  Etna  (1852).  Pron. 
Emped-o-kleez. 

Empennage  (Lat.  penna,  fea- 
ther). French  word  used  generally 
for  the  feathering  or  complete 
equipment  of  minor  planes,  fins, 
etc.,  at  the  tail  of  an  aeroplane.  It 
thus  comprises  the  fixed  tail  or  sta- 
biliser, the  vertical  fin,  the  rudder, 
and  the  elevator.  Empennage 
would  be  more  accurately  restric- 
ted to  the  tail  plane  and  the  fixed 
vertical  fin.  See  Aeroplane. 

Emperor  (Lat.  imperare,  to 
command).  Title  applied  to  sov- 
ereigns of  the  highest  class.  It  was 
first  used  in  this  sense  by  Julius 
Caesar,  who,  among  other  titles, 
called  himself  imperator,  a  title 
hitherto  borne  by  certain  officials 
while  in  command  of  troops 
abroad.  His  nephew  Augustus  es- 
tablished the  empire,  and  the  title 
was  borne  by  his  successors  both 
in  Rome  and  in  Constantinople  ;  it 
was  taken  by  Charlemagne  when, 
in  800,  he  founded  the  medieval 
empire.  The  rulers  of  the  Holy 
Roman  Empire  bore  it  until  the 
dissolution  of  that  body  in  1806, 
and  in  the  19th  century  it  was 
assumed  by  several  rulers  who  re- 
garded themselves  as  more  power- 
ful than  ordinary  kings.  Chief 
among  these  was  Napoleon,  who  in 
1804  assumed  the  title  of  Emperor 
of  the  French,  an  example  followed 
in  1853  by  Napoleon  III. 

While  the  English  translated  the 
word  imperator  as  emperor  and 
the  French  as  empereur,  the  Ger- 
mans  had  rendered  it  as  Kaiser, 
a  tribute  to  Caesar,  and  this  was 
the  title  taken  by  Francis  II  when  he 
became  emperor  of  Austria  in  1804. 
In  1871  William  I  took  the  title  of 
Deutscher  Kaiser,  but  in  both  these 
cases  the  idea  was  well  represented 
by  the  English  word  emperor.  Less 
correctly,  perhaps,  the  Russian 
word  tsar  was  freely  translated 
emperor. 

In  the  New  World  there  were 
emperors  of  Brazil  from  1821  to 
1889,  and  in  1864  Maximilian  of 
Austria  took  the  title  when  he  set 
up  his  empire  in  Mexico.  The  word 
is  also  used  to  translate  the  titles 
of  rulers  of  E.  countries :  for  in- 


stance,  we  speak  sometimes  of  the 
emperor  of  Japan.  The  British 
sovereign  is  called  emperor  of  India, 
a  translation  of  Kaiser  -i-  Hind,  the 
title  taken  by  Queen  Victoria  in 
1876.  The  Greek  word  basile.ua  is 
usually  translated  emperor.  This 
was  applied  to  certain  rulers  be- 
fore the  Christian  era,  and  was 
afterwards  taken  by  the  emperors 
at  Constantinople. 

The  original  idea  was  that  there 
could  be  only  one  emperor,  whose 
authority  extended  throughout 
Christendom,  and  who  was  the 
overlord  of  kings.  The  modern  ten- 
dency is  to  use  it  for  the  ruler  of  a 
collection  of  countries,  but,  al- 
though we  speak  of  the  British 
empire,  it  has,  strictly  speaking, 
no  emperor.  See  Sovereignty 

Emperor  Butterfly  OR  PURPLE 
EMPEROR  (Apatura  iris).  Large 
British  butterfly,  found  locally  in 
woods  in  the  S.E.  counties  of  Eng- 
land. It  usually  haunts  the  tops 
of  oak  trees  and  rarely  visits  the 
ground.  In  colour  the  male  is  dark 
Brown,  with  a  rich  purple  lustre  ; 
with  a  white  curved  band  crossing 
the  wings  that  bear  white  spots  at 
the  tips.  The  female,  which  is  larger 
than  the  male,  lacks  the  purple 
lustre.  See  Butterfly  ;  also  Fig.  23, 
on  colour  plate  2,  following  p.  1528. 

Emperor  Moth  (Saturnia  pa- 
vonia).  Large  night-flying  moth, 


fairl     common 


Emperor  Moth, 

Saturnia  pavonia 


many  parts  of 
Great  Britain. 
The  wings 
are  mottled 
brown  and 
tawny,  with 
a  conspicuous 
eye  in  the 
middle  of 
each,  which 
readily  dis- 
tinguishes it 

British    species. 


from    any    other 

The  caterpillar  feeds  on  the  sallow, 
bramble,  heather,  and  other  plants, 
See  Moth ;  also  iilus.  p.  454. 

Emperor  Nicholas  II  Island. 
Partially  explored  land  N.  of  North 
East  Cape,  or  Cheliuskin,  Siberia. 
See  Nicholas  II  Land. 

Empetraceae  (Gr.  empetros, 
growing  on  rocks).  Natural  order 
of  evergreen  heath-like  shrubs. 
They  are  natives  of  the  N.  tem- 
perate and  arctic  zones,  and  also  of 


Empetraceae.  Leaves  and  fruit,  also 
shown  in  section,  o!  red  crowberry 


EMPHYSEMA 

Chile  and  Fuegia.  They  have  small, 
narrow,  alternate  leaves,  and  small, 
regular  flowers,  succeeded  by 
fleshy  berries.  See  Crowberry. 

Emphysema  (Gr.,  inflation). 
Condition  in  which  the  alveoli  or 
air-cells  of  the  lungs  are  over-dis- 
tended with  air  and  their  walls 
atrophied.  It  is  due  mainly  to  long- 
continued  increase  of  pressure  of 
the  air  within  the  lungs  and  is  most 
often  seen  in  players  on  wind- 
instruments,  glass-blowers,  and 
sufferers  from  chronic  bronchitis. 

Emphysema  produces  enlarge- 
ment of  the  chest,  which  becomes 
barrel-shaped  owing  to  arching  of 
the  ribs  and  sternum  ;  the  costal 
cartilages  frequently  become  calci- 
fied, and  movement  of  the  ribs 
during  respiration  is  much  dimin- 
ished, breathing  being  effected 
chiefly  by  means  of  the  diaphragm 
muscle.  The  symptoms  come  on 
gradually,  the  earliest  being  some 
difficulty  in  breathing  and  feeling 
of  "  tightness  "  in  the  chest.  The 
incomplete  oxygenation  of  the 
blood  may  lead  to  cyanosis  or 
blueness  of  the  face.  The  disease 
may  persist  for  many  years,  but 
gradually  becomes  worse.  Death 
may  occur  from  pneumonia,  or  the 
long-continued  pressure  in  the 
lungs  may  lead  to  dilatation  of  the 
heart  and  dropsy.  Medical  treat- 
ment is  not  of  much  avail.  Sufferers 
are  always  worse  in  winter  than  in 
summer,  and  if  possible  the  winter 
should  be  spent  in  a  warm  climate. 

Subcutaneous  or  surgical  em- 
physema is  a  condition  in  which 
air  finds  its  way  into  the  tissues  of 
the  body,  most  often  due  to  an 
injury  which  has  resulted  in  an 
abnormal  communication  between 
an  air- containing  cavity  and  the 
subcutaneous  tissue.  In  rupture  of 
a  lung,  for  instance,  air  may  pass 
under  the  pleura  or  lining  mem- 
brane, and  spread  up  into  the  root 
of  the  neck  and  over  the  chest,  pro- 
ducing swelling  and  a  characteris- 
tic crepitation  on  pressure.  Frac- 
ture of  the  frontal  sinuses  or  air- 
cells  may  lead  to  subcutaneous 
emphysema  in  the  forehead. 

Emphyteusis  (Gr.-Lat.,  im- 
planting). Term  of  Roman  law. 
It  meant  the  right  to  enjoy  the 
fruits  of  property  belonging  to 
another,  on  payment  of  a  pensio  or 
rent  to  the  owner.  It  applied  not 
only  to  land  and  houses,  but  to 
other  property,  e.g.  slaves.  The 
lessee  might  not  allow  the  thing  to 
deteriorate  in  value ;  and  was 
bound  to  pay  the  rent  whether  the 
thing  was  beneficial  to  him  or  not. 
Empire.  Word  derived  from  the 
Roman  word  imperium  and  mean- 
ing rule.  It  was  used  to  describe 
the  lands  ruled  by  an  emperor,  the 


2892 

most  powerful  of  temporal  rulers, 
who  claimed  to  be  superior 
to  kings.  The  Roman  empire 
founded  by  Augustus  was  suc- 
ceeded by  the  medieval  empire, 
known  as  the  Holy  Roman  Empire, 
and  by  the  Byzantium  empire  at 
Constantinople.  In  the  19th  cen- 
tury there  arose  the  Austrian, 
French,  and  German  empires,  and 
in  the  New  World  those  of  Brazil 
and  Mexico. 

The  word  is  used  also  for  large 
states  of  the  E.,  and  we  speak  of 
the  Chinese  and  Japanese  empires. 
Moreover,  the  great  states  that 
existed  before  the  Christian  era 
are,  for  convenience,  called  em- 
pires, and  we  are  familiar  with  a 
cycle  of  empires — those  of  Assyria, 
Persia,  Macedonia  preceding  that 
of  Rome.  At  present  the  tendency 
is  to  describe  a  federation  of  states 
as  an  empire,  the  great  use  of  the 
word  in  this  sense  being  for  the 
British  Empire  (q.v. ).  See  Rome. 

Empire,  HOLY  ROMAN.  Medie- 
val institution  that  lasted  from 
800  to  1806.  The  Holy  Roman 
Empire  was  born  on  Christmas 
Day  A.D.  800,  when  Charlemagne 
was  crowned  emperor  by  the 
pope.  It  expired  in  1806,  when 
Francis  II  dropped  the  ancient 
title  and  called  himself  emperor 
of  Austria. 

From  A.D.  475  to  A.D.  800  Con- 
stantinople had  been  the  seat  of 
the  lineal  successor  of  the  Roman 
emperors,  whose  supremacy  in  the 
W.  had  been  a  mere  figment,  while 
the  bishops  of  Rome  had  asserted 
a  claim  to  be  the  spiritual  head  of 
Christendom  in  defiance  of  the 
E.  authority  whether  temporal  or 
ecclesiastical.  Charlemagne  made 
himself  effective  master  of  W. 
Europe,  and  the  defender  of  the 
papacy  against  its  enemies  ;  and, 
as  at  Constantinople  the  empress 
Irene  usurped  the  imperial  throne, 
the  pope  crowned  the  Frankish 
king  as  the  heir  of  the  Caesars  and 
Roman  emperor.  The  actual  title, 
the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  was 
adopted  by  Otto  I  in  962. 

The  Dominions  of  Charlemagne 
The  new  Roman  Empire,  then, 
was  at  first  co-extensive  with  the 
dominions  of  Charlemagne.  The 
British  Isles  were  outside  it ;  so 
was  Scandinavia  ;  and  so  was  the 
greater  part  of  Spain.  Roughly 
speaking,  the  line  of  the  Elbe 
and  the  Adriatic  Sea  marked  its  E. 
boundary.  Under  Charlemagne's 
successors  it  was  parted  into  three 
portions  :  the  Latinised  West, 
which  retained  the  Frankish  name, 
and  was  ultimately  shaped  into  the 
kingdom  of  France ;  the  eastern  or 
definitely  German  section,  which 
was  gradually  extended  till  it  em- 


EMP1RE 

braced  all  the  German  and  some  of 
the  Slavonic  peoples  ;  and  the  cen- 
tral portion,  lying  about  the  rivers 
Rhine  and  Rhone,  and  including 
the  greater  part  of  Italy,  of  which, 
however,  a  S.  remnant  continued  to 
be  attached  to  the  E.  empire. 

In  spite  of  the  division  between 
the  princes  of  the  Carolingian 
house,  one  was  recognized  as  en- 
joying a  sort  of  primacy,  and  he 
bore  the  imperial  title.  But  the 
Carolingian  dynasty  wore  itself  out 
by  the  beginning  of  the  10th  cen- 
tury in  the  eastern  and  middle 
kingdoms ;  with  the  result  that 
France  became  independent,  while 
the  supremacy  in  the  empire  passed 
to  an  elected  German  king,  who 
himself  only  bore  the  imperial  title 
when  he  had  been  crowned  in 
Rome.  Fragments  of  the  middle 
kingdom  were  attached  to  France, 
but  the  greater  part  of  it  was  in- 
cluded in  the  empire. 

The  first  German  king  was  Henry 
the  Fowler ;  under  his  son  Otto  the 
Great,  the  Holy  Roman  Empire 
was  reconstituted.  There  was  no 
hereditary  right  of  succession  to 
the  German  kingdom ;  but  the 
descendants  of  a  powerful  emperor 
usually  retained  the  succession  for 
generations.  The  ruler  was  there- 
fore German  king  by  a  mixture  of 
election  and  descent,  for  the  elected 
king  was  more  frequently  than  not 
a  son  or  near  relative  of  the  late 
ruler. 

Great  Congeries  of  Principalities 
A  custom  grew  up  by  which,  in 
order  to  avoid  an  electoral  struggle 
on  the  death  of  an  emperor,  the 
future  emperor  was  designated 
during  the  lifetime  of  the  reigning 
one,  and  he  bore  the  title  of  king  of 
the  Romans.  The  Empire  in  fact 
was  a  great  congeries  of  principali- 
ties large  and  small,  lay  and  eccle- 
siastical, of  which  one  of  the 
princes  was  the  official  head,  by 
right  of  election  and  by  sanction  of 
the  exercise  of  physical  force 
superior  to  that  of  rivals  or  recal- 
citrants. From  the  middle  of  the 
10th  century  to  the  middle  of  the 
13th  the  emperor  is  in  the  first 
place  a  German  prince  having  a 
limited  authority  over  the  rest  of 
the  German  princes.  In  the  second 
place  he  is  the  legal  overlord  also 
of  Italy  ;  the  tradition  and  title 
of  the  "Empire  fosters  in  the  em- 
perors a  desire  to  be  Roman 
Caesars  rather  than  German  Kais- 
ers. Thirdly,  the  emperors  incar- 
nate the  idea,  but  not  the  fact,  of 
Christendom  as  a  unity. 

But  beside  the  Empire  as  unify- 
ing Christendom  stood  the  papacy, 
actually  dominating  the  entire 
ecclesiastical  organization  of  West- 
ern Christendom,  claiming  for  the 


EMPIRE 

pope  a  spiritual  supremacy  over- 
riding that  of  the  emperor  as  the 
temporal  head  of  Christendom ;  and 
overriding  that  of  all  temporal 
authorities  whatever  within  their 
own  dominions.  Theoretically,  the 
papacy  did  not  claim  to  exercise 
control  over  things  temporal.  But 
practically  the  lay  and  ecclesiastical 
interpretations  of  the  spiritual 
and  temporal  spheres  of  control 
differed  and  overlapped,  so  that 
there  was  an  endless  contest  of 
authority.  Thus  we  have  the  em- 
perors in  their  fourth  aspect,  as  the 
supreme  representatives  of  secular 
authority  in  antagonism  to  ecclesi- 
astical authority,  in  the  contest 
between  Church  and  State. 

Guelfs  and  Ghibellines 
The  Saxon  emperors,  Henry  and 
the  three  Ottos,  finally  rolled  back 
or  stemmed  the  advance  of  more 
barbarian  races  on  the  E.,  and 
penned  the  Magyars  into  Hungary. 
They  dominated  the  papacy,  nomi- 
nating several  of  the  popes.  They 
were  followed  in  the  llth  century 
by  the  Franconian  or  Salian  series, 
Conrad  II  and  Henry  III,  IV,  and 
V.  The  reign  of  Henry  IV  was 
marked  by  the  struggle  between  the 
emperor  and  Pope  Gregory  VII, 
with  whom  begins  the  great  period 
of  papal  domination.  With  Henry's 
death  the  rivalry  opened  in  Ger- 
many between  the  Saxon  house  of 
the  Welfs,  or  Guelfs,  and  the  Swa- 
bian  house  of  the  Hohenstaufen. 

The  Swabians  secured  the  im- 
perial crown  for  some  generations  ; 
hence  the  an ti -imperialists  in  Italy 
adopted  the  name  of  Guelf  as  a 
party  title,  while  the  imperialists 
were  called  Ghibellines.  The  em- 
peror Frederick  Barbarossa  (1152- 
90)  was  worsted  in  his  struggle  with 
the  popes,  while  the  cities  of  Lom- 
bardy  succeeded,  after  a  hard 
struggle,  in  securing  their  liberties  ; 
but  in  Germany  he  broke  the  power 
of  the  Guelfs  and  established  his 
own  supremacy,  which  was  main- 
tained by  his  successor,  Henry  VI. 
Henry,  by  his  marriage,  acquired 
the  kingdom  of  Sicily  ;  his  son, 
Frederick  II,  the  last  Hohenstau- 
fen emperor,  succeeded  to  the  em- 
pire after  an  interval  of,  contest 
between  other  rivals.  But  he  was 
in  effect  a  Sicilian,  not  a  German. 
His  reign  and  the  strife  which  pre- 
ceded it  destroyed  what  Frederick 
I  had  done  towards  the  unification 
of  Germany  itself.  Frederick  II's 
death  in  1250  was  followed  by  the 
great  interregnum  during  which  no 
imperial  authority  was  recognized. 
It  was  brought  to  an  end  by  the 
election  of  a  minor  prince,  Rudolph 
of  Hapsburg,  1273,  who  laid  the 
foundations  of  the  greatness  of  that 
famous  house. 


2893 

The  medieval  European  system 
was  now  breaking  up.  The  papacy 
lost  prestige  by  its  transference 
from  Rome  to  Avignon.  The  im- 
perial crown  passed  from  one  house 
to  another ;  from  Hapsburg  to 
Luxembourg,  from  Luxembourg  to 
Bavaria,  from  Bavaria  back  to 
Luxembourg.  It  was  at  this  time 
that  a  group  of  German  princes 
were  definitely  established  as  the 
electors  with  whom  alone  lay  the 
right  of  fixing  the  imperial  suc- 
cession. Sigismund,  son  of  the  em- 
peror Charles  IV,  acquired  the 
kingdom  of  Hungary  by  marriage, 
though  it  was  not  brought  within 
the  imperial  bounds  as  was  Bohe- 
mia. With  Charles  IV  the  efforts  of 
German  rulers  to  maintain  their 
position  in  Italy  came  to  an  end. 

The  reign  of  Sigismund,  during 
the  early  part  of  the  15th  century, 
is  chiefly  notable  for  the  reinstate- 
ment of  the  papacy  after  the  great 
schism  at  the  council  of  Constance 
(1414-18),  and  also  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  first  Hohenzollern 
margrave  of  Brandenburg,  the 
progenitor  of  the  kings  of  Prussia. 

On  Sigismund's  death,  in  1437, 
Albert  of  Hapsburg  became  king 
and  emperor ;  and  from  his  day 
until  1806  a  Hapsburg  was,  with 
one  exception,  at  the  head  of  the 
Holy  Roman  Empire. 

Effect  ol  the  Thirty  Years'  War 
In  1519  Charles  V  succeeded  his 
grandfather,  Maximilian  I,  as  em- 
peror. His  reign  is  contempor- 
aneous with  the  development  of 
the  Reformation.  The  hereditary 
Austrian  and  other  German  estates 
of  the  house  of  Hapsburg  were 
transferred  to  Ferdinand,  the 
brother  of  Charles,  and  he  suc- 
ceeded his  brother  as  emperor  in 
1556.  The  pacification  of  Passau, 
procured  mainly  by  his  agency 
just  before  his  accession,  gave 
Germany  peace  for  some  60  years 
by  establishing  a  compromise  be- 
tween the  Roman  Catholic  and 
Protestant  princes.  The  attempt 
of  Charles  V  to  establish  the  per- 
sonal supremacy  of  the  emperor 
throughout  Germany,  failed  ;  Ger- 
man princes,  big  and  little,  were 
nearly  independent  sovereigns. 

In  the  17th  century  Ferdinand 
II,  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War, 
sought  to  bring  the  Protestant 
princes  into  subjection,  while  Wal- 
lenstein,  careless  of  the  religipus 
question,  sought  by  means  of  the 
war  to  make  the  emperor  absolute 
monarch  of  Germany.  Both  at- 
tempts failed.  After  the  Thirty 
Years'  War  (1648)  the  independ- 
ence of  the  greater  German  princes 
was  an  established  fact,  while  the 
still  nominal  imperial  authority 
was  little  more  than  a  fiction.  The 


EMPIRE 

struggle  of  the  next  100  years 
between  Bourbon  and  Hapsburg 
was  not  a  struggle  between  the 
Empire  and  France,  but  between 
the  Hapsburgs  and  France.  Al- 
though the  war  of  the  Austrian 
succession  included  a  contest  for 
the  succession  to  the  imperial 
crown  between  the  Bavarian 
claimant,  Charles  Albert,  and  Maria 
Theresa,  the  representative  of  the 
Hapsburgs,  that  was  altogether  a 
minor  aspect  of  the  struggle. 

End  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire 
Charles  Albert  was  made  em- 
peror, but  on  his  death  the  crown 
reverted  to  the  Hapsburgs  in  the 
person  of  Francis  of  Lorraine, 
whose  son  Joseph  II  again  aimed 
at  establishing  an  imperial  ascend- 
ancy by  the  consolidation  of  Haps- 
burg dominions  within  Germrny. 
The  attempt,  however,  collapsed 
when  Frederick  II  of  Prussia 
formed  the  Furstenbund  (League 
of  Princes)  to  maintain  the  con- 
stitutional rights  of  the  German 
princes — which  meant  in  effect 
their  freedom  from  any  recogniz- 
able imperial  control. 

In  1792  the  French  Republic 
went  to  war,  not  with  the  Empire, 
but  with  Austria.  It  was  Austria, 
not  the  Empire,  which  was  brought 
to  submission  by  Bonaparte  in 
1797,  again  by  Moreau  at  the 
battle  of  Hohenlinden  in  1800,  and 
by  Napoleon  at  Austerlitz  in  1805, 
when  Napoleon  had  already  pro- 
claimed himself  emperor.  There 
was  no  longer  any  plausibility  in 
maintaining  the  pretence  that 
there  was  one  imperial  head  of 
Christendom,  so  in  1806  the  em- 
peror Francis  dropped  the  title  and 
the  Holy  Roman  Empire  ended. 

The  history  of  the  Holy  Roman 
Empire  down  to  the  16th  century 
is,  in  respect  of  one  part  of  it, 
identical  with  the  history  of  Ger- 
many, and,  in  respect  of  another 
part,  is  intimately  bound  up  with 
the  histories  of  Italy  and  of  the 
papacy.  In  the  16th  century  it  is 
practically  the  history  of  Germany  ; 
the  emperor  is  the  German  em- 
peror with  no  pretensions  to  being 
the  Roman  emperor  or  the  head  of 
Christendom.  From  the  middle  of 
the  17th  century  the  emperor  is 
the  Austrian  emperor  ;  the  German 
or  Holy  Roman  Empire  exists  only 
in  name,  with  the  survival  of  con- 
stitutional forms,  until  even  the 
name  disappears  in  1806.  See 
Charlemagne  ;  Electors  ;  Golden 
Bull;  Papacy;  consult  also  The 
Holy  Roman  Empire,  J.  Bryce, 
1864  and  later ;  The  Empire  and  the 
Papacy,  T.  F.  Tout,  1898 ;  The 
Medieval  Empire,  H.  A.  L.  Fisher, 
1898 ;  The  Close  of  the  Middle  Ages, 

R.  Lodge,  1901.  A.   D.   Innes 


EMPIRE      DAY 


2894 


EMPLOYMENT      EXCHANGE 


Empire  Day.  British  im- 
perial celebration  held  annually  on 
May  24,  the  anniversary  of  Queen 
Victoria's  birthday.  The  first 
official  celebration  was  held  in 
1904.  The  movement  was  started 
in  1902  and  unremittingly  carried 
on  by  the  earl  of  Meath,  whose  aim 
was  to  introduce  into  schools  a 
training  that  would  produce  patri- 
otic citizens  of  the  empire,  special 
prominence  being  given  to  saluting 
the  flag.  The  idea  was  quickly 
taken  up  and  soon  gained  wide 
official  recognition.  At  the  earl's 
request  the  movement  was  taken 
over  by  the  Royal  Colonial  Insti- 
tute, 1921.  • 

Empire  Powder.  Smokeless 
sporting  propellant  manufactured 
by  Nobel's  Explosives  Company. 
It  is  of  the  type  designated 
33-grain  powder,  the  nomencla- 
ture signifying  that  this  weight  of 
propellant  is  the  normal  charge 
for  a  12-bore  gun,  and  comparable 
to  the  standard  charge  of  82 
grains  of  black  gunpowder.  It 
consists  essentially  of  nitrocellu- 
lose, containing  about  12 '5  p.c.  of 
nitrogen,  with  small  quantities  of 
barium  and  potassium  nitrate. 
Powders  of  this  type,  which  are 
also  known  as  condensed  powders, 
are  greatly  valued  on  account  of 
the  low  recoil  imparted  to  the  gun, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  the  products 
of  explosion  are  ejected  from  the 
muzzle  with  a  higher  velocity  than 
the  shot.  See  Ammunition  ;  Ex- 
plosives ;  Nitrocellulose  ;  Smoke- 
less Powder. 

Empire  Style.  In  decoration 
and  furniture,  a  development  of 
the  Directoire  style,  an  outcome 
of  the  admiration  felt  by  the 
leaders  of  the  French  Revolution 
for  Greek  and  Roman  culture. 
The  style  was,  therefore,  severely 
classical  in  outline  and  decoration. 
As  regards  outline,  the  rectilinear 
was  adopted,  legs  of  tables  and 
chairs  were  straight  or  tapered, 
round  and  fluted  or  reeded.  Classic 
mouldings,  capitals  and  pediments, 
with  a  few  republican  symbols 
and  animal  masks,  were  the  prin'u- 
pal  decorative  commonplaces. 

With  the  Empire  some  of  the 
solidity  and  simplicity  of  the 
Directoire  disappeared.  The  fur- 
niture was  rather  light  in  con- 
struction, and  while  the  straight 
line  was  the  rule  in  contour,  curved 
lines  were  introduced  in  the  deco- 
rative designs,  such  as  wreaths  of 
laurels,  olive  and  palm,  dainty 
ribbon  bows  and  lyres.  Imperial 
symbols,  such  as  the  eagle,  bee, 
and  crowned  N,  replaced  the  re- 
publican designs,  while  the  sphinx 
was  also  used.  Medallion  portraits 
and  figures  (painted,  enamelled, 
or  porcelain  plaques)  were  used, 


together  with  heavy  gilded  mount- 
nigs  of  classic  design.  Much  of 
the  furniture  was  painted  white,  or 
gilded.  White,  gold,  crimson,  and 
dark  blue  were  adopted  for  uphol- 
stery and  hangings.  The  tripod and 
X  legs  are  often  seen.  See  Furniture. 

Empiricism  (Gr.  empeiria,  ex- 
perience). In  philosophy,  the 
theory  that  regards  experience  as 
the  only  source  of  knowledge.  It 
is  closely  akin  to  sensualism,  the 
theory  that  all  knowledge  is  only 
transformed  sensation.  The  Stoics 
occupied  a  position  midway  be- 
tween empiricism  and  idealism 
(q.v.),  in  that  they  considered  the 
impressions  made  upon  the  soul 
through  the  sensations  to  be  alone 
certain,  but  held  that  the  truth  or 
falsehood  of  these  impressions  de- 
pended upon  their  being  character- 
ised by  an  arresting  power  of  con- 
viction. 

The  founders  of  empiricism  in 
modern  philosophy  are  Hobbes, 
who  maintained  that  all  knowledge 
comes  from  the  senses  and  that 
the  activity  of  the  mind  merely 
consists  in  combinations  of  words, 
and  Locke,  according  to  whom 
the  mind  is  a  blank  slate  indebted 
for  all  its  knowledge  to  the  senses, 
which  give  it  sensation  and  the 
perception  of  external  objects,  and 
to  reflection  which  is  exercised 
upon  the  operations  of  the  mind. 
In  more  recent  times  its  chief  up- 
holder is  John  Stuart  Mill.  See 
Philosophy. 

Employers'  Liability.  Legal 
term  for  the  liability  of  an  em- 
ployer for  injuries  to  his  employees. 
By  the  common  law  of  England, 
when  a  servant  was  injured  in  the 
course  of  his  employment  through 
the  fault  of  a  fellow-servant  acting 
in  the  scope  of  the  same  employ- 
ment, the  employer  was  not  liable. 
This  was  held  in  Priestly  ».  Fowler, 
1837,  where  a  butcher's  man  was 
hurt  through  a  fellow-servant  over- 
loading the  van,  and  in  Hutchin- 
son  v.  York  Railway,  1850,  where 
a  railway  servant  was  killed  in  an 
accident  caused  by  a  fellow-ser- 
vants negligence. 

Neither  the  Employers'  Liability 
Act  of  1880  nor  the  Workmen's 
Compensation  Acts  abolishes  this 
doctrine.  The  former  Act  gives 
right  of  action  for  damages  to  per- 
sons engaged  in  manual  labour 
other  than  domestic  servants  on 
account  of  (1)  defect  in  machinery 
through  master's  or  fellow-ser- 
vant's negligence  ;  (2)  negligence 
of  responsible  official ;  (3)  wrong- 
ful act  done  in  obedience  to  bye- 
laws  of  firm  or  its  authority  ;  (4) 
negligence  on  the  railway.  A 
master's  negligence  rendering  him 
liable  may  consist  in  employing  a 
person  knowing  him  to  be  incom- 


petent or  retaining  in  kis  service 
an  habitually  negligent  person,  or 
allowing  premises  to  be  in  a  dan- 
gerous condition. 

The  doctrine  of  common  em- 
ployment is  a  good  defence,  ex- 
cept in  the  above  category.  It  has 
been  held  that  miners  and  surface- 
men, and  a  chorus  girl  and  a  scene- 
shifter  are  fellow-servants  for  this 
purpose.  But  the  rule  does  not 
apply  where  A,  the  injured  man, 
is  employed  by  a  contractor,  and 
B,  who  caused  the  accident,  is  the 
servant  or  contractor's  employer. 
It  has  been  held  that  the  Em- 
ployers' Liability  Act  does  not 
apply  to  a  tram-driver,  a  'bus  con- 
ductor, or  a  grocer's  assistant,  nor 
in  the  case  of  accidents  not  coming 
within  the  above  categories. 

Except  in  the  case  of  death 
notice  of  claim  must  be  given 
within  six  weeks  of  the  accident ; 
action  at  law  must  be  begun  within 
six  months  in  case  of  injury,  and 
within  a  year  in  case  of  death.  Pro- 
cess must  be  taken  in  the  county 
court,  damages  being  limited  to 
three  years'  earnings.  Good  de- 
fences include  (a)  the  workman  has 
contracted  himself  out  of  the  Act ; 
(6)  contributory  negligence ;  (c) 
Volenti  non  fit  injuria  (consent 
does  away  with  injury). 

The  Workmen's  Compensation 
Acts  give  nearly  every  class  of 
servant  the  right  of  compensation 
for  all  accidents  arising  out  of  their 
employment.  Where  a  sufferer  can 
proceed  either  for  damages  at 
common  law  or  under  the  Em- 
ployers' Liability  Act,  or  for  com- 
pensation under  the  Workmen' s 
Compensation  Acts,  he  must  make 
his  choice. 

In  addition  to  the  Acts  above 
cited,  Lord  Campbell's  (Fatal 
Accidents)  Act,  1846,  also  con- 
cerns the  liability  of  employers.  It 
enables  the  wife,  or  husband,  or 
parent,  or  child  of  a  workman,  or 
any  other  person  whose  death  is 
caused  by  the  wrongful  act  or 
neglect  of  another,  to  claim  dama- 
ges, provided  that  the  claimant 
has  suffered  some  loss,  e.g.  of  edu- 
cation or  support,  which  can  be  ap- 
praised in  money.  Process  must  be 
begun  within  a  year  of  the  death. 
The  jury  apportions  the  damages 
among  those  entitled  where  there 
are  more  than  one.  The  Act  does 
not  apply  to  Scotland.  See  Work- 
men's Compensation. 

Employment  Exchange.  Brit- 
ish organization  for  bringing  em- 
ployer and  employee  into  touch. 
Previously  known  as  labour  ex- 
change (q.v. ),  the  name  was  altered 
in  1916  to  employment  exchange. 
Labour  exchanges  are  found  in 
the  principal  countries  of  Europe, 
but  their  existence  in  the  United 


EMPOLI 

Kingdom  is  of  comparatively  re- 
cent date.  They  were  established 
under  the  Unemployed  Work- 
men's Act,  1905,  and  managed  by 
local  authorities.  The  royal  com- 
mission on  the  Poor  Laws  and  Re- 
lief of  Distress,  1909,  recommended 
the  setting  up  of  a  national  system 
of  labour  exchanges  to  deal  with 
unemployment.  The  Labour  Ex- 
changes Act  of  that  year  provided 
the  necessary  machinery,  and  the 
first  exchanges  under  the  Act  were 
opened  Feb.,  1910.  Their  control 
was  placed  in  the  hands  of  the 
board  of  trade,  with  general  ad- 
visory committees  in  principal 
centres.  Exchanges  exist  hi  all  the 
larger,  and  also  in  many  smaller, 
towns  and  country  districts. 

As  first  established  in  1910,  their 
functions  were  to  act  as  a  clearing 
house  for  labour,  and  to  bring 
master  and  man  into  touch.  They 
formed  the  basis  of  the  unemploy- 
ment section  (Part  II)  of  the 
National  Insurance  Act  of  1912. 
No  fees  were  charged,  and  the 
system  was  purely  voluntary.  The 
organization  was  solely  industrial. 

Originally  the  exchanges  were  of 
much  use  in  coping  with  prevailing 
unemployment  and  the  disorgan- 
ized casual  labour  conditions.  Men 
of  the  labouring  class  used  them  in 
particular.  They  entered  their 
names  at  the  local  exchange,  and 
called  daily  until  suited.  Registra- 
tion of  application  for  work  held 
good  for  seven  days  from  date  of 
registration,  but  could  be  renewed 
within  that  period  for  a  like  term. 
Employers  registered  their  re- 
quirements at  the  exchange,  and  in 
this  way  master  and  worker  were 
put  into  touch  with  each  other. 
The  exchanges  took  no  responsi- 
bility with  regard  to  wages  or  other 
conditions,  but  were  merely  the 
agents  whereby  a  man  found  work. 

During  the  earlier  part  of  the 
Great  War  the  exchanges  did  much 
to  maintain  industries  and  muni- 
tion establishments,  and  later  on 
placed  a  large  number  of  dis- 
charged sailors  and  soldiers  in  civil 
employment.  With  the  end  of  the 
war,  Nov.,  1918,  they  were  con- 
fronted by  serious  difficulties,  as 
not  only  the  demobilised  service 
men,  but  demobilised  war  workers 
at  home  were  thrown  upon  their 
organization.  In  addition  to  pro- 
viding work,  and  administering  the 
unemployment  insurance  scheme, 
they  had  to  administer  the  out-of- 
work  donation  which  was  paid 
both  to  ex-soldiers  and  munition  i 
workers,  male  and  female.  The 
work  done  by  the  exchanges  in  the 
period  of  resettlement,  1918-20, 
was,  therefore,  very  onerous  and 
responsible.  Later  the  exchanges 
came  under  the  control  of  the 


2895 

ministry  of  labour,  under  whose 
auspices  domestic  servants  were 
dealt  with,  and  a  scheme  for  the 
co-operation  of  private  registry 
offices  with  the  exchanges  was  in- 
augurated in  Oct.,  1919. 

At  the  end  of  1919  there  were 
414  exchanges,  and  1,203  branch 
exchanges  in  operation.  The  total 
cost  of  the  employment  exchange 
service  during  the  six  months 
ended  June  30,  1919,  including  the 
cost  of  special  war  services  charge- 
able to  the  vote  of  credit,  and  all 
expenses  incurred  at  divisional 
offices,  was  £1,500,000.  The  num- 
bers of  individuals  who  applied  to 
the  exchanges  since  their  institu- 
tion in  1910,  and  the  numbers 
placed  in  employment,  down  to 
1919,  were  as  follows  : 


Year 

Individuals 
applying 

Individuals 
placed 

1910 

1,127,447 

(Not  known) 

1911 

1,513,369 

469,210 

1912 

1,643,587 

573,709 

1913 

1,871,671 

552,306 

1914 

2,164,023 

814,071 

1915 

2,326,803 

1,058,336 

1916 

2,843,784 

1,351,406 

1917 

2,837,650 

1,375,198 

1918 

3.045,263 

1,324,743 

1919 

5,003,786 

1,137,875 

The  out-of-work  donation  paid 
through  the  exchanges  between 
November  11,  1918,  and  June  18, 
1920,  was  £53,209,000,  of  which 
£30,813,000  was  paid  to  ex-service 
men  and  women,  and  £22,396,000 
to  civilians.  The  number  of  sep- 
arate payments  was  42,350,000,  of 
which  21,973,000  were  to  ex- 
service  men  and  women,  and 
20,377,000  to  civilians.  Criticism 
having  been  directed  against  the 
exchanges  on  the  grounds  of  their 
cost  to  the  nation  and  practical 
use,  a  committee  was  appointed 
by  the  ministry  of  labour  in  June, 
1920,  to  examine  their  working  and 
administration.  See  Labour ;  Un- 
employment ;  Wages 

G.  A.  Leask 

Empoli.    Old  town  of  Italy  in 
the  prov.  of  Florence.     It  stands 
on  the  Arno,  20  m.  by  rly.  W.  of 
Florence,  in  a  fertile  district.    The 
collegiate   church,   founded    1093, 
retains  part  of  its  curious  original 
facade  ;      its  pictures  are  mostly 
housed  in  a  neighbouring  gallery. 
Jacopo  Chimenti, 
the    painter,   was    f 
a  native.      It  has    I 
manufactures     of  , 

cotton,  leather, 
glass,  and  art  pot- 
tery. Pop.  21,566 

E  m  p  r  e  s  s. 
Feminine  of  em 
peror.  It  is  a 
corruption  of  the 
Latin  imperatrix.. 
and  is  applied  by 
courtesy  to  the 


EMPYEMA 

wives  of  emperors  and  also  to  the 
few  women  who  have  ruled  over 
an  empire.  Maria  Theresa  was  an 
empress  or  kaiserin  as  the  Ger- 
mans call  it,  and  Queen  Victoria 
was  empress  of  India.  The  women 
rulers  of  the  Byzantine  empire, 
Irene,  for  instance,  and  Catherine 
and  Elizabeth  of  Russia,  are  also 
known  in  English  as  empresses. 
See  Emperor ;  Sovereignty. 

Empress  of  Ireland.  Passenger 
steamer  belonging  to  the  C.P.R. 
On  May  29,  1914,  outward  bound 
from  Quebec  to  Liverpool  with 
1,367  people  on  board,  the  Empress 
of  Ireland  was  rammed  by  the  Nor- 
wegian collier,  Storstad,  in  the  St. 
Lawrence  river  during  a  fog.  The 
Empress  of  Ireland  sank  in  ten 
minutes,  and  934  persons  went 
down  in  her. 

Eznpson  OB  EMSON,  SIR  RICH- 
ARD (d.  1510).  English  lawyer. 
Born  at  Towcester,  Northants, 
he  became  member  of  parliament 
for  that  county,  and  speaker  of 
the  house  in  1491,  and,  knighted 
in  1504,  was  made  chancellor  of  the 
duchy  of  Lancaster.  A  favourite  of 
Henry  VII,  he  collaborated  with 
Edmund  Dudley  (q.v.)  in  that 
king's  obnoxious  fiscal  policy,  and 
became  universally  unpopular  for 
his  harshness.  After  Henry  VIII. 's 
ac6ession  he  was  tried  on  a  charge  of 
constructive  treason,  attainted  by 
parliament,  Jan.  21,  1510,  and 
beheaded  with  Dudley  on  Tower 
Hill,  Aug.  17,  1510. 

Empyema  (Gr.,  suppuration). 
Collection  of  pus  in  the  pleural 
cavity — that  is,  between  the  layers 
of  membrane  lining  the  chest- wall 
and  the  lung.  The  condition  may 
be  due  to  infection  from  within, 
following  simple  pleurisy  or  septic 
pneumonia,  or  sometimes  tuber- 
culous broncho -pneumonia ;  less 
frequently  to  infections  from 
without,  as  a  result  of  fracture  of 
a  rib  or  a  penetrating  wound  of  the 
chest.  The  symptoms  may  begin 
suddenly  with  pain  in  the  chest, 
sweating  and  rise  of  temperature, 
but  when,  as  usually,  the  condition 
develops  in  the  course  of  simple 
pleurisy  or  a  morbid  condition  of 
the  lung,  there  is  no  marked  line 
of  separation  in  the  symptoms. 


BOB 


Empress  01  Ireland.    C.P.R.  passenger  steamer  rammed 
and  sank  in  the  St.  Lawrence  river,  May  29,  1914 


EMS 


2896 


EMULSION 


Empyema  is  a  serious  condition, 
and  if  left  untreated  is  likely  to 
prove  fatal.  In  mild  cases  it  may 
be  sufficient  to  draw  off  the  pus 
by  aspiration,  but  generally  it  is 
necessary  to  secure  thorough 
drainage  of  the  pleural  cavity  by 
making  an  opening  between  the 
ribs  or  removing  a  portion  of  a  rib 
so  that  a  large  drainage  tube  can 
be  inserted.  This  causes  collapse 
of  the  lung  on  the  affected  side, 
but  if  the  operation  has  been  per- 
formed early  there  is  a  good  pros- 
pect of  the  lung  re-expanding  after 
the  discharge  has  ceased  and  the 
wound  has  healed. 

Ems.  River  of  Germany.  It 
rises  in  Westphalia,  in  the  Teuto- 
burger  Wald,  and  flows  mainly 
in  a  N.  direction  through 
Westphalia  and  Hanover  to  the 
Dollart,  an  opening  of  the  North 
Sea.  Its  length  is  about  210  m., 
and  its  chief  tributaries  are  the 
Aa,  Haase,  Hessel,  and  Leda.  It 
has  been  canalised  as  part  of  the 
system  of  German  waterways. 
(See  Dortmund-Ems  canal.)  Em- 
den  is  at  its  mouth.  On  Oct.  6, 
1914,  the  British  submarine  E  9 
torpedoed  and  sank  the  German 
destroyer  S  126  off  the  Ems  river. 

Ems.  Town  and  watering- 
place  of  Prussia,  Germany.  It 
stands  on  the  Lahn,  in  the  prov. 
of  Hesse-Nassau,  11  m.  from  Cob- 
lenz.  It  lies  on  both  sidesof  theriver, 
and  is  in  three  parts — Bad  Ems, 
where  the  waters  are ;  Spiess  Ems, 
and  Dorf  Ems,  the  original  village. 
There  are  some  mines  hear  by,  but 
the  town  is  chiefly  known  for  its 
waters,  these  and  the  beautiful 
scenery  attracting  many  visitors. 
For  them  there  are  many  hotels 
and  places  of  amusement  of  all 
kinds,  including  the  Kursaal  in 
extensive  gardens  and  a  theatre. 
The  royal  Kurhaus,  where  many 
of  the  springs  and  baths  are,  and 
the  new  bathhouse,  have  every 
comfort  for  those  taking  the  waters. 
There  is  a  wire  rope  rly.  to  the 
summit  of  the  Malberg,  one  of  the 
picturesque  hills  in  the  neighbour- 
hood, and  steamers  on  the  Lahn. 
Before  the  Great  War  there  was  an 
English  church  here.  The  congress 
of  Ems  hi  1766  drew  up  the 
Punctation  of  Ems,  a  protest 
against  the  interference  of  the 
pope  in  the  affairs  of  the  church 
in  Germany.  Pop.  6,800. 

Ems  Telegram.  Message  pub- 
lished by  Bismarck  in  1870  which 
was  the  immediate  cause  of  the 
Franco -Prussian  War.  France 
had  just  succeeded  in  obtaining 
the  withdrawal  of  Leopold  of 
Hohenzollern  as  a  candidate  for 
the  throne  of  Spain,  but  put  for- 
ward a  further  demand.  On 


July  13,  1870,  Benedetti,  the 
French  ambassador,  interviewed 
King  William  I,  who  was  staying 
at  Ems,  and  requested  a  promise 
that  he  would  not  allow  the  can- 
didature to  be  renewed.  The  king 
refused,  and  later  in  the  day  de- 
clined to  reopen  the  discussion. 
To  Bismarck  at  Berlin  he  sent  an 
account  of  the  proceedings,  and 
this  was  the  Ems  telegram. 

Bismarck  thereupon  published 
the  telegram  with  certain  altera- 
tions, especially  in  that  part  of  the 
message  in  which  the  king  informed 
Benedetti  that  he  could  not  discuss 
the  matter  further.  These  made  it 
appear  that  instead  of  this  being 
merely  a  courteous  refusal  to  reopen 
the  matter,  it  was  a  dismissal  of  the 
ambassador  from  his  presence. 
Thus  it  was  treated  by  France  as  a 
casus  belli.  The  vital  sentence  was 
"  His  majesty  refused  to  receive 
the  French  ambassador,  sending 
word  that  he  had  nothing  more  to 
communicate. " 

Emsworth.  Seaport  of  Hamp- 
shire, England.  It  stands  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Ems,  a  small  stream. 
With  a  station  on  the  L.B.  &  S.C. 
Rly.,  it  is  76  m.  from  London  and  9 
from  Portsmouth.  The  port  has  a 
coasting  trade  and  oyster  beds. 
Pop.  2,200. 

Emu  (Port,  ema,  ostrich)  (Dro- 
maeus  novae  -  hollandiae).  Large 
bird  belonging  to  the  division  Rati- 
tae.  It  is  found  only  in  Australia 
and  certain  neighbouring  islands. 
The  second  largest  bird  now 
living,  it  is  only  exceeded  in  size 
by  the  ostrich,  which  it  some- 
what resembles  in  general  build. 
But  the  wings  of  the  emu  are  more 
rudimentary,  and  the  bird  depends 
entirely  on  its  swiftness  as  a  runner 
to  escape  its  foes.  The  slender 
feathers  are  brown,  mottled  with 
grey,  but  the  younger  birds  bear 
longitudinalstripesof  lightercolour. 
Emus  are  rare  except  in  the  wilder 
parts  of  the  country,  where  they 
live  in  small  flocks  and  feed  chiefly 


upon  small  fruits.  Although  not 
web-footed,  they  swim  well,  and 
take  to  the  water  readily.  They 
are  hunted  with  dogs,  and  when 
brought  to  bay  can  deliver  serious 
kicks.  These  birds  are  easily 
domesticated,  and  breed  readily  in 
captivity.  The  male,  which  i.s 
smaller  in  size  than  the  female,  in- 
cubates the  eggs,  which  are  green. 
Emulsin  (Lat.  emulsus,  milked 
out)  OR  SYNAPTASE.  Unorganized 
ferment  (enzyme)  present  in  al- 
monds and  mustard  seeds.  The 
action  of  emulsin  on  the  amyg- 
dalin  also  present  in  almonds  pVo- 
duces  essential  oil  of  almonds  in 
the  process  of  manufacturing  the 
expressed  oil.  Emulsin  may  be 


Emu. 


Specimen   of     the  large 
Australian  bird 


Ems,  Germany. 

the  valley  of  the  river 


Town  and  bathing-place  standing 
Labn 


made  from  an  aqueous  extract  ot 
almond  press  cake  by  adding  to 
it  an  equal  volume  of  alcohol. 
The  granular  precipitate  which 
falls  is  emulsin. 

Emulsion.     In  photography,  a 
mixture  containing  the  silver  com- 
pounds, sensitive  to  light,  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  photographic 
plates  and  print- 
|  ing  papers.   Gela- 
i  tin  emulsions,  by 
far  the  most  com- 
monly  used,   are 
made  by  forming 
the    silver    com- 
pounds in  a  hot 
solution   of  gela- 
tin,  which   is  al- 
lowed to  set  to  a 
jelly,    shredded 
and  washed,  and 
re-melted    for 
coating  on  plates 
or    paper,     on 
which   it  rapidly 
sets.    In  collodion 
emulsions,  the 


ENABLING     ACT 


2897 


sensitive  compounds  are  dissolved 
or  formed  in  collodion(g.  v- ),  and  are 
left  distributed  in  the  pyroxyline 
on  the  solvents  evaporating  from 
the  coated  materials.  See  Photo- 
graphy. 

Enabling  Act.  Popular  name 
for  the  National  Assembly  of  the 
Church  of  England  (Powers)  Act, 
which  became  law  in  Dec.,  1919. 
It  was  introduced  by  the  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  in  May,  1919, 
the  object  being  to  set  up  for  the 
Church  of  England  a  national 
assembly  with  considerable  powers 
for  the  government  of  the  Church. 

The  national  assembly  consists  of 
three  houses,  the  two  houses  of  con- 
vocation and  a  house  of  laity.  It 
can  discuss  any  proposal  concerning 
the  Church,  and  pass  measures 
thereon,  provided  that  such  do 
not  attempt  to  define  the  doctrine 
of  the  Church.  Its  decisions  are 
then  submitted  to  a  legislative 
committee  of  Parliament,  15  mem- 
bers from  each  house,  which  reports 
upon  them.  They  are  then  laid  be- 
fore Parliament,  which  simply  by 
resolution  can  approve  or  disap- 
prove. If  a  measure  is  approved 
it  receives  the  royal  assent  and 
becomes  law. 

For  electing  members  of  the 
house  of  laity  and  for  other  pur- 
poses the  Act  sets  up  a  roll  of  elec- 
tors in  each  parish.  These  form 
a  parochial  Church  council  for  the 
affairs  of  their  particular  church. 
The  various  diocesan  conferences 
elect  the  members  of  the  house  of 
laity.  See  Church  of  England ;  Con- 
vocation ;  National  Assembly;  con- 
sult also  Church  Self-Government, 
P.  V.  Smith,  1920. 

Enamel.  Transparent  or  opaque 
glassy  substance  applied  to  metal 
or  other  surfaces  in  the  form  of  a 
paste  and  then  fired  to  fix  it.  The 
material — ground  very  fine,  mixed 
with  gum,  water,  or  oil  of  spike  to 
render  it  adhesive,  and  reduced  to 
a  pasty  consistence — is  brushed  on 
to  the  object,  which,  when  duly 
decorated,  is  placed  in  a  furnace. 
In  pots,  pans,  and  culinary  utensils 
an  internal  lining  of  enamel  pro- 
tects the  iron  body  from  oxidi- 
sation when  exposed  to  heat  and 
wet  or  from  corrosion  by  acids. 
The  metal,  after  having  been 
annealed  to  bear  the  heat,  is 
dipped  into  the  glaze  and  fired  in 
a  furnace  at  1,500°  F. 

In  the  fine  arts  enamel  is  princi- 
pally used  in  connexion  with  pot- 
tery and  porcelain  wares,  jewelry, 
watches,  snuff-boxes,  plaques,  arid 
articles  for  the  toilet  table.  The 
enamel  may  be  applied  by  the 
enclosed  method  or  cloisonnee 
(q.v.),  the  engraved  or  incised 
method  or  champleve,  and  the  sur- 
face method,  in  which  the  whole 


Enamel.     1.  Gold  brooch  with  bust  in  cloisonne  enamel,  Italian,  c.  7ta  century. 

2.  Gold  brooch  of  German  make  with  Byzantine  cloisonne  enamels,  llth  cent. 

3.  Enamelled  cross,  attributed  to  Godefroid  de  Clare  of  Huy,  late  12th  cent. 

4.  Ciborium  of  Limoges  work,  13th  cent.      5.    Plate  in  brilliant  colours  of 

Limoges  work,  c.  1530.    6.  Pillar  candlestick,  Limoges,  c.  1560 


surface  is  covered  with  enamel  on 
which  the  design  is  delicately 
painted  and  fired.  Coloured  ena- 
mels were  used  by  the  Egyptians, 
the  Greeks,  and  Romans,  but  the 
art  was  brought  to  a  high  state  of 
perfection  under  the  Byzantine 
emperors.  A  special  style  was 
developed  among  the  Orientals, 
while  a  kindred  art  of  polycoloured 
enamelling  was  carried  out  ex- 
tensively in  N.  Europe.  Of  the 
surface  style  the  enamels  for  which 
Battersea  was  noted  in  the  18th 
century  are  an  example,  while  in 


Limoges  enamel,  which  was  a 
variety  of  surface  work,  painting 
was  carried  to  rare  perfection  by 
the  practitioners  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury. Copper  was  the  metal  custo- 
marily employed  for  this  pur- 
pose, but  gold  and  silver  were 
sometimes  used. 

Enare.  Lake  in  Finland,  in  the 
N.  of  the  govt.  of  Uleaborg.  It  is 
fed  by  a  number  of  rivers,  and  dis- 
charges its  waters  through  the  Pas- 
vik  into  the  Varanger  Fiord  in  the 
Arctic  Ocean.  Its  area  is  550  sq.  m. 
Pron.  Enah-re. 


ENAREA 

Enarea.  Plateau  region  of  Abys- 
sinia, S.W.  of  Shoa.  It  has  hills 
attaining  an  elevation  of  8,000  ft. 
above  sea  level,  upon  the  slopes 
of  which  coffee  grows  in  abun- 
dance. The  people  are  an  off-shoot 
of  the  Gallas.  The  chief  town  is 
Saka,  near  the  Gibbe  river. 

Encaenia  (Gr.  en,  in  ;  kainos, 
new).  Feast  of  dedication  or  re- 
newing. It  is  used  especially  for 
an  anniversary  of  the  dedication  of 
a  church  or  temple.  Among  the 
Jews  it  is  applied  particularly  to 
the  anniversary  festival  of  the  dedi- 
cation of  the  temple  at  Jerusalem. 
At  Oxford  University,  Commemor- 
ation, the  festival  at  the  end  of  the 
academic  year,  when  founders  and 
benefactors  are  commemorated,  is 
also  known  as  Encaenia. 

Encalada,  MANUEL  BLANCO 
(1790-1876).  Chilean  soldier  and 
diplomatist.  He  was  born  at  Buenos 
Aires,  and  having  been  educated  at 
Madrid  and  the  naval  academy 
at  Leon,  returned  to  S.  America, 
where  he  joined  the  revolutionary 
party.  He  was  with  Cochrane  (earl 
of  Dundonald)  in  his  Pacific  cam- 
paign as  commander  of  the  Chilean 
navy.  In  1853  he  was  appointed 
Chilean'minister  to  France.  He  died 
Sept.  5/1876,  at  Santiago  de  Chile. 

Encarnacion.  Department  of 
S.E.  Paraguay.  Watered  by  the 
Parana  and  tributaries,  it  is  one  of 
the  most  important,  fertile,  and  best 
cultivated  districts  of  Paraguay, 
the  chief  products  being  fruit.  Villa 
Encarnacion,  the  capital,  stands  on 
the  river  Parana,  175  m.  by  rly.  S.E. 
of  Asuncion.  Its  harbour  is  the 
port  of  five  lines  navigating  the 
Parana.  Pop.  12,500. 

Encaustic  (Gr.  enkaustikos, 
burnt  in).  Species  of  painting  with 
colours  and  wax,  said  to  have  been 
invented  by  Polygnotus  (5th  cen- 
tury B.C.)  and  much  practised  by 
the  ancient  Egyptians  and  Greeks. 
Their  technique  is  not  definitely 
known,  but  it  is  surmised  that 
coloured  powder  was  mixed  with 
white  wax  and  kneaded  into  small 
cakes.  When  required  metal  disks 
with  cuplike  indentations  were 
heated  and  a  cake  was  laid  on  the 
palette,  a  different  colour  in  each 
depression,  and  gradually  melted. 
The  process  was  rapid,  for  the 
wax,  laid  on  with  a  brush,  cooled 
quickly  and  the  work  had  then  to 
be  touched  again  with  moderately 
hot  irons, which  fused  the  tints.  En- 
caustic painting  has  been  revived 
by  H.  Cros  and  C.  Henry,  who 
adapted  Caylus'  formula  for  the 
blending  of  the  wax  and  pigments. 

Enceinte  (Fr.,  circuit,  enclo- 
sure). Innermost  line  of  continuous 
earthworks  or  other  fortifications 
enclosing  a  fortress,  strong  point, 
or  locality.  The  general  modern 


arrangement  is  an  outer  ring  of 
detached  fortresses,  then  a  series  of 
prepared  defences  on  favourable 
positions  which  permit  of  a  step  by 
step  retirement  if  the  outer  ring 
falls,  leading  up  to  the  enceinte, 
the  last  line  of  resistance.  This 
defence  is  provided  at  Metz,  Stras- 
bourg, Verdun,  and  fortifications  of 
similar  dates,  but  conditions  of 
modern  warfare  render  the  enceinte 
of  little  if  any  value  as  a  line  of  re- 
sistance. See  Castle ;  Fortification. 

Encephalartos  (Gr.  enkephalos, 
in  the  head  ;  artos,  bread).  Botani- 
cal name  for  the  plant  producing 
kaffir  bread  (q.v. ).  tfeeillus.  p.  2416. 

Enchantment  (Lat.  incantare, 
to  chant  a  magic  formula).  Magical 
spell  or  incantation  by  means  of 
which  the  subject,  animate  or  in- 
animate, is  thought  to  be  brought 
under  the  influence  of  sorcery  or 
witchcraft.  See  Magic. 

Enchondroma  (Gr.  en,  in ;  chon- 
rfras,gristle,cartilage). Tumour  com- 
posed mainly  of  cartilaginous  tissue. 

Encina  OR  ENZINA,  JUAN  DE  LA 
(c.  1468-1534).  Spanish  poet  and 
dramatist.  He  was  born,  it  is  sur- 
mised, at  the  village  the  name  of 
which  he  bore,  and  was  educated  at 
Salamanca  University.  His  first 
plays  were  acted  in  1492,  and  two 
years  later,  when  his  Represen- 
taciones  were  performed  before 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella  and  the 
court,  he  was  secretary  to  the  duke 
of  Alva.  In  1496  his  plays,  partly 
autos  (q.v.)  and  partly  secular, 
were  published,  and  shortly  after 
he  went  to  Rome,  where  he  became 
a  priest  and  received  an  appoint- 
ment in  the  pope's  chapel.  In  1519 
he  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem, 
and  published  an  account  of  it  in 
1521.  He  was  made  prior  of  Leon, 
and  died  at  Salamanca,  1534.  As 
founder  of  the  secular  drama  he 
occupies  an  important  position  in 
Spanish  literature,  and  his  contem- 
porary popularity  was  such  that 
six  editions  of  his  plays  were  pro- 
duced between  1496  and  1516. 

Encke,  JOHANN  FRANZ  (1791- 
1865).  German  astronomer.  Born 
in  Hamburg,  Sept.  23,  1791,  he 
studied  in  Gottingen,  and  in  1817 
became  director  of  the  Seeberg 
Observatory  near  Gotha.  In  1825 
he  succeeded  to  the  post  of  as- 
tronomer of  the  Academy  of 
Science,  and  director  of  the  Berlin 
Observatory,  then  in  course  of 
election.  In  1863  he  retired  into 
private  life  at  Spandau,  where  he 
died,  Aug.  26, 1865.  Encke  worked 
out,  from  the  observations  of  the 
transits  of  Venus  of  1761  and  176&, 
the  first  authentic  value  of  the  sun'i 
parallax ;  determined  the  path  of 
Pons'  Comet ;  and  undertook  the 
observation  of  another  comet,  since 
known  as  Encke' s  Comet. 


ENCLOSURES 

Encke's  Comet.  On  Nov.  26, 
1818,  Pons  of  Marseilles  discovered 
an  inconspicuous  comet  whose  ele- 
ments Encke  calculated  with  the 
unexpected  result  of  finding  that  it 
revolved  about  the  sun  in  a  period 
of  3i  years  (1,208  days).  The 
period  is  considerably  shorter  than 
that  of  any  other  known  comet.  Its 
outward  journey  takes  it  round  the 
planet  Jupiter,  to  whose  family  it 
belongs.  Its  great  point  of  interest 
is  the  irregularity  of  its  movements. 
For  some  six  or  seven  successive 
appearances  it  will  appear  accord- 
ing to  its  time  table,  then  it  will 
suddenly  appear  before  it  is  ex- 
pected  ;  and  yet  again  will  resume 
its  normal  periodicity.  The  ir- 
regularity of  its  movements  has 
given  rise  to  the  speculation  that 
there  may  be  in  the  solar  system 
some  very  attenuated  resisting 
medium  which  retards  its  move- 
ments, and  so  shortens  its  orbit. 
See  Comet. 

Enclave  (Lat.  in,  in ;  clavis, 
key).  Detached  part  of  a  country 
or  state  entirely  surrounded  by  the 
territories  of  another.  The  name  is 
used  by  the  country  owning  the 
surrounding  land,  the  separated 
tract  being  an  exclave  from  the 
point  of  view  of  the  country 
possessing  it. 

Enclosures.  Word  which  is  used 
specially  for  common  land  which  is 
enclosed,  i.e.  converted  by  private 
persons  to  their  own  use.  This 
began  in  England  with  the  decay 
of  the  manorial  system,  when  the 
lords  of  the  manor  frequently  en- 
closed common  land.  From  time 
to  time  there  was  an  outcry  against 
it,  this  being  specially  so  in  Tudor 
times.  Latimer  referred  scathingly 
to  enclosures,  while  Somerset, 
acting  for  Edward  VI,  appointed  a 
commission  to  inquire  into  the 
matter.  The  law  about  it  during 
the  Middle  Ages  was  contained  in 
the  statute  of  Merton  of  1235,  which 
allowed  the  lords  to  enclose  land, 
provided  that  they  left  sufficient 
common  unenclosed  to  meet  the 
rights  of  the  commoners. 

About  1700  there  was  a  change. 
Enclosures  continued,  but  they 
were  done  by  special  Acts  of  Par- 
liament, each  dealing  with  a  special 
enclosure,  and  these  distributed  the 
land  between  the  lord  of  the  manor 
and  the  various  persons  who  had 
rights  in  it.  Between  1700  and  1845 
there  were  about  4,000  of  these  Acts, 
under  which  about  5,000,000  acres 
of  land  were  enclosed.  In  1801  an 
Act  said  that  the  consent  of  three- 
fourths  of  the  freeholders  and 
copyholders  of  the  manor  was 
necessary  before  land  could  be  en- 
closed. In  1845  the  matter  was  put 
in  the  hands  of  enclosure  com- 
missioners whose  business  was  to 


ENCORE 

examine  suggested  enclosures,  and 
see  that  some  part  of  the  land  was 
set  aside  for  public  purposes.  About 
then  the  movement  for  the  preser- 
vation of  common  land  began. 
Suggested  enclosures,  the  case  of 
Epping  Forest  being  the  standing 
example,  were  prevented,  and  in 
1876  an  Act  virtually  put  an  end 
to  the  practice.  In  Scotland  and 
Ireland  the  matter  never  attained 
the  importance  it  did  in  England. 
See  Commons  ;  Manor. 

Encore.  Exclamation  by  lis- 
teners to  music  or  play,  signifying 
desire  for  a  repetition.  The  word 
is  a  French  adverb,  meaning  again, 
but  is  also  used  as  a  substantive, 
an  encore  ;  and  as  a  verb,  to  en- 
core. It  was  employed  in  Great 
Britain  as  early  as  the  beginning  of 
the  18th  century. 

Encounter  Bay.  Inlet  of  the 
coast  of  S.  Australia,  between  Port 
Elliot  on  the  N.  and  Jaffa  Cape  on 
the  S.  -It  is  90  m.  across  its  entrance 
and  is  the  last  important  indenta- 
tion of  the  coast  before  the  state 
of  Victoria.  Off  the  N.W.  corner  of 
the  bay  lies  Kangaroo  Island. 

Encratites  (Gr.  enkrates,  self- 
controlling ).  Ascetic  sect  of  the  2nd 
century.  They  taught  the  essential 
evil  of  matter  and  abstained  from 
flesh,  wine,  property,  and  marriage. 
Encratite  doctrines  seem  to  have 
been  first  taught  systematically  by 
Saturninus  early  in  the  2nd  century, 
although  the  principle  was  com- 
bated already  in  I  Timothy  iv, 
and  the  sect  became  organised 
under  the  leadership  of  Tatian. 
Encratism  spread  widely  in  Asia 
Minor,  and  the  apocryphal  Gospel 
according  to  the  Egyptians  fur- 
nished some  of  its  arguments.  In 
the  4th  century  they  became  merged 
with  Gnosticism  and  Montanism. 

Encrinites.  Popular  name  for 
the  crinoidea  (q.v.). 

Encyclical  (Gr.  enkyldios,  circu- 
lar). Eccles.  term  for  a  letter  from 
a  Church  authority,  not  addressed 
to  any  particular  individual  or 
community.  Thus  the  General 
Epistles  of  S.  Peter  and  the  pro- 
nouncements of  councils  which 
were  sent  forth  to  the  Church  at 
large  were  thus  named.  The  term 
is  now  used  for  a  communication  of 
the  Pope  to  the  bishops  generally 
on  some  ecclesiastical  topic.  It 
differs  from  a  bull,  since  it  does  not 
deal  with  any  special  case,  but 
indicates  general  principles  to 
guide  the  bishops  in  dealing  with 
important  questions.  , 

Encyclopedia,  Word  derived 
from  the  Greek  (enkyklios,  circular, 
complete  ;  paideia,  education), 
which  may  be  translated  as  the 
whole  circle  of  knowledge.  For 
many  centuries  it  expressed  this 
idea  to  scholars  trained  in  the  tra- 


2899 

ditions  of  Rome,  but  it  was  not  used 
as  the  title  of  a  book  until  the  16th 
century,  some  years  after  the  in- 
vention of  printing.  Before  then, 
however,  many  works  had  been 
written  which  may  be  fairly  de- 
scribed as  encyclopedias,  for  their 
authors  claimed  to  give  information 
in  them  about  all  the  interests  of 
the  human  mind. 

The  first  of  these  known  encyclo- 
pedias is  the  Historia  Naturalis  of 
the  elder  Pliny  ;  and  the  Middle 
Ages  saw  the  production  of  Ety- 
mologies by  Isidore,  bishop  of 
Seville  (d.  636)  ;  and  of  The  Origin 
of  Sciences  by  the  Arab  scholar, 
Alfarabi  (d.  950) ;  as  well  as  of  a 
number  of  less  notable  ones.  The 
most  outstanding  encyclopedia, 
however,  written  in  Latin,  was  by 
Vincent  of  Beauvais  (d.  c.  1264). 
It  was  called  Speculum  Ma  jus 
(Greater  Mirror),  and  is  divided 
into  four  main  parts,  dealing  with 
science,  theology,  history,  and 
morality  (the  last  section  being 
possibly  wrongly  ascribed  to 
Vincent). 

The  material  in  these  encyclo- 
pedias was  arranged  according  to 
subjects,  not  in  alphabetical  order, 
but  some  time  after  the  invention 
of  printing  the  advantages  of  the 
latter  arrangement  became  mani- 
fest. About  the  same  time,  too, 
it  was  realized  that  if  encyclo- 
pedias were  to  be  read  they  must 
be  written,  not  in  Latin,  but  in 
a  popular  language.  However,  be- 
fore these  important  changes  came 
about  J.  H.  Alsted,  in  1620,  had 
produced  a  Latin  work  of  the 
old  kind,  notable  because  it  was 
the  first  of  any  size  to  be  called 
an  encyclopedia.  The  two  in- 
novations just  mentioned  were 
both  introduced  to  the  world  by  a 
Frenchman,  Louis  Moreri.  His 
Grand  Dictionnaire,  1674,  was  an 
encyclopedia  in  the  modern  sense, 
although,  like  his  immediate  suc- 
cessors, he  preferred  to  call  it  a 
dictionary.  It  was  very  popular, 
and  so  was  that  of  Pierre  Bayle, 
which  in  1697  appeared  as  an  im- 
provement on  Moreri. 

The  first  encyclopedia  written 
in  English  was  the  Lexicon  Techni- 
cum,  1704,  of  the  Rev.  John 
Harris,  though  as  early  as  1398 
Jo hnTre  visa  had  translated  a  Latin 
work  of  this  kind  into  English. 
Harris  was  followed  by  a  much 
greater  name  in  the  history  of 
encyclopedias,Ephraim  Chambers, 
the  real  originator  of  the  modern 
work.  In  1728  Chambers  produced 
his  Cyclopaedia :  or  Universal 
Dictionary  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 
A  little  earlier  an  Italian,  M.  V. 
Coronelli,  had  begun  a  more  ambi- 
tious work,  but  it  was  never  com- 
pleted. In  1732-54  was  published 


ENCYCLOPED1STES 

Zedler's  Great  Universal  Lexicon, 
a  German  work  ed.  by  J.  A.  Frank- 
enstein and  others,  but  usually 
known  by  its  publisher's  name. 

The  effects  of  Chambers's  work 
were  felt  in  France.  It  was  trans- 
lated into  French,  and  on  it  was 
founded  the  most  celebrated  of  all 
encyclopedias,  the  Encyclopedic, 
which,  edited  by  Diderot  and 
D'Alenibert,  counted  Voltaire  and 
Rousseau  among  its  contributors. 
Neither  Chambers's  nor  the  Ency- 
clopedic included  biographies, 
although  Moreri  and  other  earlier 
writers  had  done  so. 

The  British  counterpart  of  the 
Encyclopedic  was  the  Encyclopae- 
dia Britannica.  The  first  edition 
of  this,  ed.  W.  Smellie,  appeared 
in  three  volumes  in  1771.  From  it 
biography  and  history  were  ex- 
cluded, but  both  appeared  in  the 
second  and  subsequent  editions. 
Throughout  the  19th  century 
further  editions  of  the  Britannica 
appeared,  to  which  the  leading 
scholars  of  the  age  contributed. 
The  eleventh  edition,  issued  by 
the  Cambridge  University  Press, 
was  published  in  1910-11. 

Meanwhile,  a  host  of  "'other 
encyclopedias  had  appeared  both 
in  Britain  and  abroad.  In  France 
there  was  La  Grande  Encyclopedic, 
also  that  of  Larousse ;  in  Germany 
the  Konversations  -  Lexicon  of 
Brockhaus  and  that  of  Meyer;  in 
the  U.S.A.,  the  New  International ; 
and  many  others.  Among  the  Eng- 
lish works  of  the  kind  were  The 
Penny  Cyclopaedia  of  Charles 
Knight,  1833-43,  and  the  one  issued 
by  the  Edinburgh  firm  of  Chambers 
in!859-68,andseveraltimesre  vised. 

At  the  end  of  the  century  a 
gigantic  and  novel  advertising 
campaign  carried  on  by  The  Times 
in  order  to  sell  the  ninth  and  tenth 
editions  of  the  Britannica  had  an 
enormous  effect  in  popularising  the 
work  and  in  stimulating  a  demand 
for  books  of  this  kind.  This  was 
seen  in  1905-6,  when  The  Amalga- 
mated Press  put  upon  the  market 
The  Harmsworth  Encyclopaedia. 
Sold  in  sevenpenny  fortnightly 
parts  this  was  an  unprecedented 
success.  Recent  years  have 
witnessed  the  output  of  a  host 
of  encyclopedias  devoted  to  a 
single  branch  of  human  know- 
ledge— theology,  sport,  agriculture 
and  education,  for  example;  but 
the  day  of  the  general  encyclopedia 
is  by  no  means  over,  as  was  proved 
when,  in  Feb.  1920,  The  Amalga- 
mated Press  brought  out  the 
UNIVERSAL.  ,  A.  w.  Holland 

Encyclopedistes.  Name  given 
to  the  contributors  to  the  Encyclo- 
pe*die  edited  by  D'Alembert  and 
Diderot.  They  were  writers  of  high 
repute  in  literature  and  philosophy, 


29OO 


ENDYMION 


including  Rousseau,  Grimm,  Vol- 
taire, Baron  d'Holbach,  and  the 
two  editors.  Several  of  the  ency 
clopedistes  held  advanced  views 
on  political  and  social  matters, 
besides  being  sceptics  with  regard 
to  Christianity,  and  this  was 
reflected  in  much  that  they  wrote. 
The  influence  thus  exerted  by  the 
Encyclopedic  upon  the  minds  of 
the  educated  classes  helped  to 
ripen  French  public  opinion  in 
favour  of  the  Revolution. 

End.  In  place  names,  e.g. 
Audley  End,  Crouch  End,  a  small 
suburb,  or  hamlet.  Its  older  form 
is  endship,  and  this  is  used  in  this 
sense  by  Bunyan  and  Defoe. 

Endecott,  JOHN  (1589-1665). 
English  colonial  governor.  Born 
at  Dorchester,  Dorset,  he  sailed 
to  N.  America 
in  1628  and  be- 
came manager 
of  the  Naum- 
keag  (now  Sa- 
lem)  planta- 
tion. Being 
superseded  by 
John  Wi  n- 
throp,  he  em- 
ployed himself 
in  fighting  the 
Indians.  I  n 

1641  he  was  made  deputy-governor 
of  Massachusetts  and  three  years 
later  became  governor,  a  post  he 
held  with  intervals  until  his  death 
at  Boston,  March  15,  1665. 

Endemic  (Gr.  endemos,  native). 
Term  applied  to  infectious  diseases 
which  are  always  more  or  less 
present  in  certain  localities,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  epidemic  diseases 
which  may  be  widely  prevalent  at 
one  time  and  completely  absent  at 
another.  SeeDisease;  Public  Health. 
En  derby  Land.  Desolate  tract 
of  Antarctica.  It  extends  S.  from 
the  Antarctic  Circle.  It  was  dis- 
covered by  John  Biscoe  in  1831, 
who  named  it  after  his  employers, 
Enderby  Brothers. 

Endive  (Lat.  intibus).  Plant  of 
the  same  genus  as  chicory  (q.v. ). 

Endocardium  (Gr.  endon,  with- 
in ;  Icardia,  heart).  Smooth  mem- 
brane which  lines  the  interior  of  the 
chambers  of  the  heart.  Inflamma- 
tion of  this  membrane  is  termed 
endocarditis.  See  Heart ;  Rheu- 
matic Fever. 

Endogamy  (Gr.  endon,  within  ; 
gamos,  marriage).  Primitive  insti- 
tution binding  a  man  to  marry 
within  his  own  social  group  only. 
The  best  developed  example  is  the 
Hindu  caste,  with  exogamous  clans 
or  gotras.  See  Family ;  Marriage. 
Endogens  (Gr.  endon,  within  ; 
gen,  to  produce).  Name  formerly 
applied  to  the  division  of  flower- 
ing plants  now  known  as  mono- 
cotyledons (q.v.). 


Endolymph  (Gr.  endon,  within  ; 
Lat.  lympha,  water).  Anatomical 
term  denoting  the  fluid  which  occu- 
pies the  interior  of  the  membranous 
labyrinth  of  the  ear  of  higher 
animals.  See  Ear. 

Endometritis  (Gr.  endon,  with-, 
in  ;  metra,  womb).  Inflammation 
of  the  membrane  lining  the  interior 
of  the  uterus  or  womb.  See  Womb. 

Endor.  Village  of  Palestine, 
now  known  as  Endur,  about  6  m. 
from  Nazareth  and  close  to  Mt. 
Tabor.  It  was  the  home  of  the 
witch  whom  Saul  consulted. 

Endorsement  OK  INDORSEMENT 
(Lat.  dorsum,  back).  Something 
written  on  the  back  of  a  document. 
It  is  used  mainly  for  the  signature 
which  must  be  put  upon  the  back 
of  a  cheque,  bill  of  exchange,  etc., 
when  it  is  passed  from  one  person 
to  another.  The  endorsement  must 
correspond  with  the  name  on  the 
front  or  it  will  be  irregular.  By  en- 
dorsing the  owner  of  the  cheque  or 
bill  transfers  his  rights  to  another. 

Endosperm  (Gr.  endon,  within  ; 
sperma,  seed).  Tissue  found  in  the 
spores  of  ferns  and  their  allies  and 
in  the  seeds  of  many  flowering 
plants.  In  the  pines  (Gymno- 
sperms)  the  endosperm  is  formed 
before  the  embryo  comes  into  exis- 
tence ;  in  the  flowering  plants  pro- 
per (Angiosperms)  embryo  and 
endosperm  are  formed  simultane- 
ously. If  a  longitudinal  section  is 
made  of  a  ripe  pine-seed,  for  ex- 
ample, the  embryo  will  be  found  to 
occupy  a  centra]  cavity,  surrounded 
by  a  mass  of  cellular  tissue.  This 
is  the  endosperm,  which  is  gradu- 
ally absorbed  as  food  by  the 
developing  embryo  or  seedling  to 
tide  over  the  critical  period  in 
which  it  is  establishing  its  roots  and 
expanding  its  first  leaves. 

Endothermic  AND  EXOTHERMIC 
REACTION.  Terms  used  in  physics 
for  the  liberation  or  absorption  of 
heat  during  chemical  changes.  It 
is  important  to  know  in  any  parti- 
cular chemical  reaction  what  kind 
of  heat  phenomena  arise  and  what 
amount  of  heat  is  transferred,  as 


will  be  liberated.  The  formation 
of  nitro-glycerine  is  an  example 
of  an  operation  in  which  heat 
disappears,  to  be  liberated  again 
should  the  nitro-glycerine  be  de- 
composed, often  with  great  vio- 
lence. On  the  other  hand,  where, 
in  forming  a  new  compound,  heat  is 
liberated,  the  reaction  is  said  to  be 
exothermic,  i.e.  heat  is  given  out. 
The  reduction  of  iron  in  the  blast 
furnace  furnishes  an  example  of 
such  reaction. 

Endowment  (Lat.  dos,  a  dowry 
or  gift).  Gift  of  money  or  land  to 
which  the  idea  of  permanence  is 
attached.  Such  indicate  the  vast 
amounts  that  have  been  given  or 
bequeathed  for  the  support  of 
churches,  colleges,  schools,  hos- 
pitals, and  charitable  institutions 
of  all  kinds.  In  the  United  King- 
dom ancient  endowments  are  under 
the  general  control  of  the  state, 
acting  through  bodies  appointed  to 
supervise  them.  Such  are  the  Ec- 
clesiastical, or  Church  Estates  Com- 
mission that  controls  the  endow- 
ments of  the  Church  of  England, 
and  the  Charity  Commission  that 
controls  funds  left  for  almshouses, 
hospitals,  and  the  like.  Endowed 
schools  are  under  the  supervision 
of  the  board  of  education.  The 
process  of  time  frequently  makes 
trusts  governing  old  endowments 
quite  out  of  keeping  with  the  age, 
and  from  time  to  time  Parliament 
has  dealt  with  the  matter.  Thus 
the  Endowed  Schools  Acts  of  1869- 
74  removed  many  abuses  and  en- 
abled these  trusts  to  be  worked  in  a 
more  modern  spirit.  See  University. 

Endurance.  Sir  Ernest  Shackle- 
ton'sshipinhissecond  Antarctic  ex- 
pedition. S  he  left  England  in  1 9 1 4 
j  us  t  after  the  Great  War  had  begun, 
and  was  crushed  in  the  ice,  Oct., 
1915.  See  Antarctic  Exploration. 

Endymion.  In  Greek  mytho- 
logy, a  youthful  shepherd  of  great 
beauty.  Of  him  the  moon-goddess 
Selene  became  enamoured,  as  he 
lay  asleep  on  Mt.  Latinos  in  Caria. 
Selene  caused  him  to  sleep  for  ever, 
so  that  she  might  be  able  to  visit 


the  possibility  of  a  suggested  indus-    him  and  kiss  him  every  night  with- 

trial  process  or  its  economy  may  be 

determined      b  y  • 

these    considera- 

tions. 

When  heat  is 
absorbed  or  dis- 
appears  during 
the  production  of 
a  chemical  com- 
pound,  the  reac- 
tion is  said  to  be 
eridothermic,  for 
heat  enters  into 
the  new  body,  and 
if  the  new  body 
be  subsequently 
decomposed,  heat 


Endy 


Greek  statue  of  the  sleeping  shepherd,  in 
the  British  Museum 


ENDYMION 


ENERGY 


Endymion.  Poetic  romance  in 
four  books  of  rhymed  couplets  by 
John  Keats,  first  published  in  1818. 
A  rhapsodical  rendering  of  the 
classic  story  of  the  beautiful  youth 
who  inspired  love  in  Cynthia,  it  is 
full  of  poetic  riches,  both  of  lan- 
guage and  thought.  Its  opening 
line,  "  A  thing  of  beauty  is  a  joy 
for  ever,"  has  become  one  of  the 
most  familiar  of  quotations. 

Endymion.  Novel  by  Benjamin 
Disraeli,  earl  of  Beaconsfield,  first 
published  in  1880.  It  is  a  presenta- 
tion of  political  and  social  life  in 
England  during  the  middle  of  the 
19th  century,  opening  with  the 
death  of  Canning  and  passing 
lightly  through  the  Reform  period. 
Though  the  story  is  slight,  the 
characterisation  is  brilliant;  and 
the  narrative  has  much  of  the 
sparkle  and  less  of  the  ornateness 
of  Disraeli's  earlier  novels.  Many 
of  the  characters  were  but  thinly 
disguised  delineations  of  actual 
people  of  the  period,  Lord  Pal- 
merston,  Lady  Jersey,  and  others. 

Enema  (Gr.,  injection).  Fluid 
preparation  for  injecting  into  the 
rectum.  Enemata  are  used  for 
washing  out  the  rectum  in  cases  of 
severe  or  chronic  constipation, 
when  they  usually  consist  of  soap 
and  water  and  may  amount  to  one 
or  two  pints  ;  for  introducing  into 
the  bowel  substances  such  as 
quassia  for  the  purposes  of  destroy- 
ing threadworms  ;  and  for  provid- 
ing nourishment  when  acute 
disease  of  the  stomach  prevents 
feeding  in  the  ordinary  way,  ene- 
mata  for  this  purpose  being  small 
in  volume  and  consisting  usually  of 
peptonised  milk,  raw  eggs,  and 
meat  extracts. 

Enemy  (Lat.  inimicus).  Gener- 
ally one  who  is  antagonistic  or 
hostile.  In  time  of  war,  however,  it 
has  a  special  and  narrower  meaning 
referring  to  the  state  and  its  sub- 
jects with  which  another  state  is 
at  war.  By  the  laws  of  war  these 
are  on  a  very  different  footing  from 
friends  or  neutrals.  Their  persons 
and  property  can  be  seized,  and 
freedom  of  movement  denied  to 
such  of  them  as  are  on  the  soil 
of  the  country  with  which  they 
are  at  war.  They  become  enemy 
aliens,  sharply  distinguished  from 
friendly  or  neutral  aliens.  See 
International  Law  ;  War. 

Enemy  Trading.  Term  used 
generally  during  the  Great  War  to 
denote  all  commercial  and  econo- 
mic relations  with  Germany,  Aus- 
tria, Turkey,  and  Bulgaria.  On 
Aug.  5,  1914,  a  royal  proclamation 
was  issued  relating  to  trading  with 
the  German  Empire,  and  extended 
to  Austria- Hungary,  Aug.  12. 
British  firms  were  not  restricted 
from  trading  with  German  or  Aus- 


trian firms  established  in  neutral 
or  British  territory,  but  only  with 
those  in  hostile  territory.  A  pro- 
clamation of  Sept.  9  defined  enemy 
country  as  the  territories  of  the 
German  Empire  and  of  the  dual 
monarchy  of  Austria-Hungary, 
with  their  colonies  and  dependen- 
cies, and  prohibited  the  payment 
of  money  to  or  for  the  benefit  of 
an  enemy.  In  the  same  month  cer- 
tain licences  were  granted  per- 
mitting payments,  exchange  trans- 
actions, and  payment  of  fees  to 
obtain  the  grant  or  renewal  of 
patents.  Later  proclamations 
placed  an  embargo  on  the  import 
of  enemy-produced  sugar  (Sept. 
30),  and  the  entering  into  new 
marine,  life,  fire,  or  other  policy 
or  contract  of  insurance  (Oct.  8). 

In  1915  many  additional  licences 
and  prohibitions  were  issued — as 
the  treasury  licence  (Jan.  8)  per- 
mitting transactions  by  certain 
Turkish  banks  with  their  estab- 
lishments in  France,  Cyprus,  or 
Egypt,  certain  regulations  as  to 
property,  and  so  on.  The  Trading 
with  the  Enemy  (Extension  of 
Powers)  Act  of  this  year  applied 
to  certain  firms  in  the  U.S.A.,  and 
the  blacklisting  of  enemy  firms  in 
that  country  led  to  an  American 
Note  of  protest.  Statutory  black 
lists  were  also  in  existence  for 
Holland,  Denmark,  Spain,  Sweden, 
and  other  countries. 

Late  in  1916  the  business  com- 
munity of  London  agitated  for  the 
closing  of  alien  enemy  banks  in 
Great  Britain,  and  a  drastic  review 
of  certificates  of  naturalisation 
granted  since  1904.  The  board  of 
trade  appointed  a  controller  in 
July,  1918,  to  wind  up  the  busi- 
nesses carried  on  in  the  United 
Kingdom  by  the  various  German 
banks,  of  which  the  Deutsche  was 
the  chief,  and  these  were  restricted 
from  carrying  on  business  for  five 
years  after  the  end  of  the  war. 
With  the  end  of  the  war  many 
prohibitions  were  withdrawn,  and 
the  black  lists  ceased  to  operate. 

Energumen  (Gr.  energoumenos). 
Greek  word  meaning  one  wrought 
upon  by  a  spirit,  usually  evil.  It 
was  applied  to  demoniacs  in  the 
early  days  of  Christianity.  Persons 
suffering  from  mental  disease  were 
supposed  to  be  inhabited  or  con- 
trolled by  a  demon,  who  could  only 
be  expelled  by  exorcism.  See 
Demonology. 

Energy  (Gr.  energeia).  Capacity 
to  db  work.  A  weight  raised  above 
the  earth  has  the  power  of  doing 
work  as  it  returns  to  the  earth's 
surface.  A  body  in  motion  pos- 
sesses the  power  of  doing  work 
while  losing  its  motion.  The  energy 
of  a  body  is  measured  by  the  work 
it  can  do  while  changing  to  some 


standard  state;  or,  conversely, 
the  work  which  has  to  be  done  on 
the  body  to  bring  it  from  some 
standard  state  to  the  state  in 
which  it  is.  In  the  two  examples 
chosen,  the  work  the  weight  can 
do  before  it  reaches  the  ground,  or 
the  work  the  body  can  do  before 
it  comes  to  rest,  can  be  measured. 
The  energy  is  evidently  of  a  dif- 
ferent kind.  The  weight  raised 
above  the  ground  owes  its  energy  to 
its  position.  It  has  potential  energy. 
The  energy  of  the  body  is  due  to 
its  motion.  It  has  kinetic  energy. 

The  weights  of  a  grandfather 
clock  are  given  potential  energy 
when  they  are  raised,  and  as  they 
gradually  sink  they  expend  it  in 
keeping  the  wheels  of  the  clock 
going,  in  overcoming  friction,  and 
in  other  ways.  The  mainspring  of 
a  watch  haS  potential  energy, 
which  was  imparted  to  it  when  the 
spring  was  coiled  or  wound  up, 
and  which  it  expends  as  the  spring 
uncoils.  In  the  example  of  the 
spring  the  material  of  the  spring 
or  cord  is  in  a  state  of  strain,  and 
it  is  owing  to  this  strain  that  the 
body  possesses  potential  energy. 
The  potential  energy  conferred  by 
weight,  or  the  attraction  due  to 
gravity,  is  regarded  as  due  to  a 
strain  set  up  in  the  ether.  If  a 
body  of  mass  m  is  moving  with  a 
speed  v,  its  kinetic  energy  is  \  m  v2. 

Energy,  CONSERVATION  OF.  Po- 
tential energy  and  kinetic  energy 
can  be  changed  one  into  the  other, 
but  the  total  quantity  of  energy  is 
constant  despite  the  change.  When 
a  watch  spring  runs  down,  or  when 
a  dropped  stone  comes  to  rest  on 
the  ground,  both  the  kinetic  and 
the  potential  energy  seem  to  have 
vanished.  But  that  is  not  so,  be- 
cause the  energy  has  been  con- 
verted into  heat,  which  is  another 
form  of  energy.  Joule  showed 
early  in  the  19th  century  that  a 
given  amount  of  work  (or  energy) 
entirely  spent  in  producing  heat 
always  produced  the  same  quan- 
tity of  heat.  From  his  experiments 
it  is  concluded  that  in  every  case 
without  exception  the  sum  total  of 
all  the  energy  within  any  given 
boundary  through  which  energy  is 
not  allowed  to  pass  remains  con- 
stant, although  the  energy  within 
the  boundary  may  be  transformed 
into  any  of  the  many  forms  in 
which  it  is  capable  of  existing. 
This  is  the  doctrine  or  principle  of 
the  conservation  of  energy.  Energy 
is  indestructible  and  uncreatable 
by  man.  It  exists  independently 
of  human  senses  and  human  rea- 
son, though  it  is  known  to  man 
solely  by  their  aid.  The  discovery 
of  the  radio-active  elements  has 
thrown  a  new  light  on  this  doctrine. 
See  Radium. 


ENERGY 


2902 


ENFANTIN 


ENERGY:    THE    DISSIPATION    OF    POWER 

Sir  Oliver  J.  Lodge,  F.R.S.,  Author  of  Man  and  the  Universe 

This  article,  following  those  on  Energy  and  Conservation  of  Energy, 

deals  with  the  waste  of  power,  i.  e.  the  loss  due  to  its  dissipation 

throughout  the  universe,  in  machinery,  and  in  other  ways.     Consult 

also  Heat ;  Physics  ;  Thermodynamics 


Lord  Kelvin  first  noticed  and 
formulated  in  1852  "a  universal 
tendency  in  nature  to  the  dissipa- 
tion of  mechanical  energy."  The 
idea  is  associated  with  that  of 
different  forms  or  grades  of  energy, 
some  higher  in  the  scale  than 
others,  from  the  point  of  view  of 
utility  or  availability. 

Energy  is  protean  in  form,  and 
in  the  physical  universe  activity  is 
always  accompanied  by  transfor- 
mation of  energy ;  as  soon  as  all 
transformation  ceases,  activity 
ceases,  and  torpor  sets  in.  Now 
some  forms  of  energy  are  readily 
controllable,  and  are  transformable 
into  others  at  will.  A  rotating 
flywheel  and  a  raised  weight  are 
types  of  easily  transformable 
energy ;  either  can  be  made  to 
drive  machinery,  and  so  do  anything 
required.  In  such  cases  very  little 
energy  need  be  wasted  by  taking 
the  form  of  heat,  though  friction 
cannot  altogether  be  avoided.  An 
electric  current  is  another  useful 
and  tractable  form  of  energy.  But 
some  forms  are  comparatively  in- 
tractable,  such  as  sound  and  light 
and  random  eddies ;  the  only  result 
that  can  be  shown  for  such  forms, 
when  they  have  ceased  to  be,  is  a 
modicum  of  heat. 

Energy  and  Heat 

In  every  activity  contrived  by 
man  some  portion  of  energy  is 
always  liable  to  run  down  into  the 
form  of  heat.  The  analogy  of 
water  running  down  hill  may  be 
adduced.  When  taken  from  a  high- 
level  source,  water  can  be  em- 
ployed to  drive  water-wheels  or 
turbines,  but  as  it  descends  its 
working  power  becomes  less,  and 
ultimately,  when  it  reaches  the 
level  of  the  sea,  though  the  quan- 
tity of  water  remains  the  same,  its 
availability  for  power  is  lost. 

So  when  energy  has  reached 
the  form  of  heat,  not  much  can  be 
done  with  it  mechanically,  unless 
indeed  the  body  possessing  it  is  at 
a  high  temperature.  Heat  at  high 
temperature  can  be  utilised  by 
engineers,  through  steam  engines, 
internal-combustion  engines,  and 
other  devices.  To  work  any  form 
of  heat-engine  there  must  be  a 
difference  of  temperature ;  one 
body,  acting  as  source,  must  be 
hotter  than  another,  acting  as  sink ; 
just  as  in  the  utilisation  of  water 
one  reservoir  must  be  at  a  higher 
level  than  another.  If  all  were  at 
dead  level,  or  all  at  the  same  tern- 
perature,  nothing  could  be  done. 


But  everyone  knows  that  reser- 
voirs tend  to  leak,  and  hot  bodies 
tend  to  cool,  without  doing  any 
work  at  all ;  in  other  words,  speak- 
ing thermally,  useful  inequalities  of 
temperature  tend  to  become  ob- 
literated by  the  ordinary  processes 
of  radiation  and  conduction.  Hence 
heat  is  considered  the  lowest  form 
of  energy.  The  proportion  of  heat 
that  can  be  utilised  by  a  perfect 
engine,  working  between  given 
limits  of  temperature,  depends 
directly  on  the  difference  of  tem- 
perature and  inversely  on  how  far 
the  higher  of  the  two  temperatures 
is  above  absolute  zero. 

Laws  of  Thermodynamics 

This,  in  mathematical  language, 
is  called  the  second  law  of  thermo- 
dynamics, a  law  which  we  owe 
originally  to  the  genius  of  Sadi 
Carnot  (1796-1832).  This  law  in- 
volves in  a  precise  and  mathemati- 
cal manner  much  that  has  been 
popularly  expressed  above  about 
the  dissipation  of  energy.  The  con- 
servation of  energy,  similarly  ex- 
pressed, is  called  the  first  law  of 
thermodynamics;  a  law  which, 
though  simple  to  state,  was  by  no 
means  obvious,  and  had  to  be 
proved,  notably  by  Joule's  experi- 
ments between  1840  and  1860. 
The  second  law,  on  the  other  hand, 
was  established  by  reasoning,  and 
historically  preceded  the  first  law. 

It  may  be  perceived  that  in  a 
popular  statement  of  the  second 
law  of  thermodynamics,  or  the  law 
of  metrical  dissipation  of  energy, 
such  terms  as  "  utility  "  or  "  avail- 
ability "  are  naturally  employed ; 
this  tends  to  show  that  the  law  is 
associated  with  our  present  means 
of  utilising  the  energy  of  heat. 
And  even  when  expressed  precisely, 
the  terms  heat  and  temperature 
are  essentially  employed.  Now 
when  we  consider  what  heat  and 
temperature  really  are,  and  think 
of  them  in  terms  of  the  motion  of 
molecules,  we  perceive  that  if  only 
the  molecules  themselves  could  be 
harnessed  we  could  extract  their 
energy  from  them  and  utilise  it, 
just  as  we  utilise  the  energy  of  a 
driven  flywheel.  If  we  possessed 
such  power,  the  idea  of  different 
grades  of  energy  would  be  super- 
fluous or  misleading.  But  since  no 
means  of  dealing  individually  with 
molecules  has  as  yet  been  dis- 
covered, heat  is,  to  us,  a  low  form 
of  energy  ;  and  the  tendency  of  all 
other  forms  of  energy  sooner  or 
later  to  degenerate  into  heat,  and 


for  heat  to  become  of  uniform  tem- 
perature, is  what  is  meant  by  the 
universal  tendency  in  nature  to 
dissipation  of  mechanical  energy. 

It  is  unwise,  however,  to  base 
on  this  law  any  confident  eschato- 
logical  prediction  about  the  uni- 
verse, because  it  is  always  con- 
ceivable that  a  mode  of  utilising 
molecular  energy  may  be  dis- 
covered, less  indirect  and  statisti- 
cal than  any  so  far  known.  People 
have,  in  fact,  speculated  whether 
some  low  forms  of  life  may  not  be 
already  selectively  extracting  the 
energy  of  quick-moving  molecules. 
But  for  practical  purposes,  at 
present,  the  law  of  dissipation  of 
energy,  as  well  as  the  law  of  con- 
servation, holds  sway. 

If  there  is  any  appearance  of 
contradiction  between  these  two 
laws  it  is  only  superficial,  and  can 
be  avoided  by  precision  of  state- 
ment and  careful  definition  of 
terms,  especially  by  careful  defini- 
tion of  the  term  energy.  The  irreg- 
ular motion  of  a  set  of  molecules, 
called  heat,  is  as  much  energy  as 
their  regular  motion,  called  wind  ; 
but  one  is  easy  to  utilise,  while  the 
other  is  not.  Hence,  when  wind 
or  water  currents  run  down  into 
generally  diffused  heat,  their  en- 
ergy is  not  destroyed  nor  diminished 
in  quantity,  but  for  all  useful  pur- 
poses is  dissipated ;  the  case  is 
similar  when  milk  is  spilt  upon  the 
ground. 

The  Problem  before  Humanity 

We  live  in  a  stream  of  continu- 
ously dissipating  energy,  emitted 
by  an  exceptionally  hot  body,  the 
sun.  Plants  are  able  to  utilise  and 
store  some  of  this,  and  thus  tem- 
porarily rescue  it  from  dissipation. 
Dissipation  of  the  energy  so  stored 
in  wood  or  coal  ultimately  occurs 
in  our  homes,  furnaces,  and  factor- 
ies. Without  solar  energy  every- 
thing on  earth  would  be  stagnant. 
The  chief  problem  which  faces 
humanity  is  to  see  that  the  uses 
to  which  we  put  all  this  beneficent 
energy  are  good. 

Enfantin,  BARTH^LEMY  PROSPER 
(1796-1864).  French  Socialist. 
Born  in  Paris,  Feb.  8,  1796,  he  was 
educated  at  the  Ecole  Polytech- 
nique.  In  1825  he  met  Saint- 
Simon  and  adopted  his  teaching, 
which  he  and  Bazard  disseminated 
during  the  next  five  years.  In  1832 
he  was  sentenced  to  a  year's  im- 
prisonment for  his  public  advocacy 
of  free  love.  After  a  journey  to 
Egypt  he  was  appointed  post- 
master of  Lyons,  and  in  1845  be- 
came a  director  of  the  Paris-Lyons 
Ely.  He  died  at  Paris,  Aug.  31, 
1864.  Enfantin's  principal  works 
are  Doctrine  Saint  -  Simonienne, 
with  Amand  Bazard,  1830;  Econo- 
mic Politique,  1831. 


EN  FIELD 

Enfield.  Urban  dist.  and  market 
town  of  Middlesex,  England.  It  is 
10£  m.  N.  of  London  by  the  G.N. 
and  G.E.  Rlys.  The  New  River 
intersects  the  town.  The  chief 
buildings  are  a  16th  century  palace 
opposite  the  church,  used  by  the 
Constitutional  Club,  a  grammar 
school  founded  in  1557,  and  the 
parish  church  of  S.  Andrew,  which 
contains  a  beautiful  15th  century 
brass.  The  Ridgeway  is  a  residen- 
tial district,  and  in  the  neighbour- 
hood are  Forty  Hall,  White  Webbs 
House,  and  Middelton  House.  The 
famous  chase  of  Enfield  was  dis- 
forested in  the  18th  century.  At 
Enfield  Lock  is  the  Royal  Small 
Arms  Factory,  erected  in  1856, 
where  the  once  celebrated  Enfield 
rifles  were  made.  Pop.  56,338. 

Enfield  is  mentioned  in  Domes- 
day Book  as  Enefelde.  Edward  VI 
and  Queen  Elizabeth  lived  here,  and 
the  chase  was  a  favourite  hunting 
ground  of  James  I.  It  has  associa- 


2903 


ENGELBERG 


Engadine. 


Village  of  Samaden  in 
Rosatscb 


into  a  freehold.  This  can  be  done 
by  mutual  consent,  or  at  the  in- 
stance of  the  lord  of  the  manor  or 
the  tenants  thereof.  If  they  cannot 
agree  on  the  terms,  these  are 
settled  by  the  Board  of  Agriculture. 
Engadine.  Upper  portion  of 
the  Inn  valley,  Switzerland,  in 
the  canton  of  Grisons.  Divided 


tbe   Upper   Engadine,   with  the   Piz 
on  tbe  left 

Engagement.  Word  meaning 
originally  to  bind  by  a  gage  or 
pledge,  and  used  in  several  senses. 
It  means  an  undertaking  to  marry 
and  also  a  more  general  kind  of 
pledge — e.g.  an  engagement  to  pay 
a  debt  or  to  meet  a  friend.  It  is 
also  used  as  a  synonym  for  a  battle  ; 
this  comes  from  an  old  meaning  of 


Enfield.     Tbe  mark 


parish  cburcb  of  S.  Andrew        Engelberg.     The  Swiss  village  at  tbe  foot  of  the  Titlis  Alp 


tions  with  Keats,  Captain  Marryat, 
and  Charles  Lamb,  who  lived  at 
Chase  Side.  During  the  Great 
War  it  was  a  busy  munition  centre. 

Enfield  Lock.  Lock  on  the 
river  Lea,  Enfield,  Middlesex. 
The  name  is  also  applied  to  the 
district  around  it. 

Enfilade  (Fr.  enfiler,  to  thread). 
Military  expression  which  indicates 
fire  along  the  direction  of  the 
enemy's  line  or  trenches — i.e.  from 
a  flank.  It  robs  the  defenders  of  an 
entrenched  position  of  their  cover 
unless  the  line  is  very  well  traversed 
and  few  weapons  in  the  line  can 
be  brought  to  bear  to  counter  it.  If 
a  unit  in  action  has  to  change  its 
front  it  runs  grave  risks  of  coming 
under  enfilade  fire  at  once.  The 
advantage  of  gaining  a  position  on 
the  enemy's  flank  when  attacking 
is  enhanced  by  the  opportunity  it 
gives  of  subjecting  him  to  enfilade 
fire.  See  Artillery  ;  Tactics. 

Enfranchisement  (old  Fr.  en- 
franchir ;  en  and  franc,  free).  In 
English  law,  a  term  meaning  the 
turning  of  an  estate  of  copyhold 


into  the  Upper  and  Lower  .Enga- 
dine, it  stretches  60  m.  between 
two  chains  of  the  Rhaetian  Alps, 
and  is  1  m.  to  1£  m.  broad.  From 
Martinsbruck,  on  the  border  of 
Tirol,  it  runs  S.W.  up  to  the 
Maloja  Pass,  traversed  by  a  good 
carriage  road,  and  there  are  rlys. 
to  S.  Moritz  and  Pontresina.  The 
Upper  Engadine  has  a  series  of 
small  lakes  and  is  more  frequented 
than  the  Lower  Engadine,  which, 
however,  has  the  attraction  of  its 
mineral  springs  at  Schuls.  The 
sides  of  the  surrounding  mts.  are 
covered  with  pine  forests  to  the 
height  of  7,200  ft.  The  strong, 
bracing  air  of  the  valley  renders  it 
an  extremely  popular  health  resort. 
The  inhabitants,  mostly  Protest- 
ants, still  speak  Latin  or  Romansch, 
a  speech  akin  to  Italian  and  French. 
Engadine.  British  seaplane 
carrier.  She  was  present  with  the' 
fleet  at  Jutland,  May  31,  1916,  and 
sent  out  the  seaplanes  that  scoutc-d 
for  Admiral  Jellicoe.  Later,  she 
towed  the  Warrior  out  of  the 
firing  line. 


engage,  that  of  joining  or  fastening, 
as  when,  in  architecture,  two  beams 
are  said  to  engage  or  interlock. 

Historically,  the  engagement  is 
the  agreement  signed,  Dec.  26, 
1647,  by  Charles  I  and  the  Scots 
represented  by  the  marquess  of 
Hamilton.  Charles  was  a  prisoner 
at  Carisbrooke,  and  he  agreed,  in 
return  for  Scottish  assistance  in 
restoring  him  to  the  throne,  to 
establish  Presbyterianism  in.  Eng- 
land. See  Charles  I ;  Civil  War. 

Engelberg.  Village  of  Switzer- 
land, in  the  canton  of  Unter- 
walden.  It  stands  at  the  N.  foot 
of  the  Titlis,  14  m.  by  electric  rly. 
S.  of  Lucerne.  It  is  a  favourite 
summer  and  whiter  tourist  resort, 
with  numerous  hotels  and  board- 
ing-houses and  an  English  church. 
The  abbey  church  is  interesting  ; 
and  the  library  has  20,000  vols.  and 
210  MSS.  The  large  Benedictine 
abbey,  founded  1120,  was  re  built  in 
1729 ;  it  has  a  school  and  its  farm  is 
noted  for  its  cheeses.  Engelberg 
owns  common  lands,  which  help 
to  maintain  its  poor.  Pop.  2,434. 


Friedrich  Engels, 
German  Socialist 


Engels,  FRIEDRICH  (1820-95). 
German  socialist  writer.  Born  in 
Barmen,  Prussia,  Nov.  28,  1820, 
he  lived  in 
London  for 
the  last  25 
years  of  his  life 
and  was  corre- 
sponding sec- 
retary of  the 
I  n  ternational 
W  o  r  king 
Men's  Associa- 
tion.  More 
^generally 
known  as  the  International,  for 
Italy,  Spain,  and  Belgium,  this 
organization  was  formed  in  1864 
with  the  object  of  ending  war  and 
subordinating  capital  to  labour. 
Engels  was  the  friend  of  its  moving 
spirit,  Karl  Marx,  with  whom  he 
collaborated  in  the  communist 
manifesto  of  1847.  Engels'  works 
include  The  Condition  of  the 
Working  Classes  in  England,  1845; 
Eng.  trans,  repr.  1920;  and  The 
Origin  of  the  Family,  Private 
Property  and  The  State,  1 884.  He 
died  in  London,  Aug.  5,  1 895. 

Enghien,  Louis  ANTOINE  HENRI 
DE  BOURBON  CONDE,  Due  D'(1772- 
1804).  French  noble.  Born  at 
Chantilly,  Aug.  2,  1772,  he  entered 
the  army  in  1788.  In  1792  he  held 
a  command  in  the  royalist  army 
raised  by  his  grandfather,  the 
Prince  de  Conde,  fighting  against 
the  republicans  until  the  peace  of 
Luneville,  1801.  In  1804  he  was 
falsely  accused  of  having  taken 
part  in  the  Cadoudal-Pichegru 
conspiracy  against  Napoleon,  was 
seized  in  the  neutral  territory  of 
Baden,  hurried  to  Paris,  and,  after 
a  mock  court-martial,  was  shot  at 
Vincennes,  March  21,  1804.  The 
murder  of  the  due  d' Enghien,  a 
crime  from  which  Napoleon  vainly 
tried  to  exculpate  himself  in  St. 
Helena,  occasioned  the  famous 
saying  of  Fouche  :  "  It  was  worse 
than  a  crime  ;  it  was  a  blunder." 
See  Napoleon ;  consult  also  Corres- 
pondance  du  due  d'Enghien,  etc., 
ed.  Boulay  de  la  Meurthe,  1904-13. 
Engine  (Lat.  ingenium,  skill). 
Generic  name  now  given  to  a  class 
of  machines  for  the  conversion  of 
one  form  of  energy  to  another.  For- 
merly a  term  used  for  a  large 
variety  of  mechanical  appliances,  as 
beer-engine,  water-engine,  etc.,  its 
present-day  usage  is  confined 
chiefly  to  the  names  of  steam- 
engine,  gas-engines,  and  oil  or  in- 
ternal combustion  engines. 

In  the  sense  of  a  mechanical  con- 
trivance  the  term  engine  was  used 
for  a  warlike  appliance,  and  it  was 
in  this  connexion  that  the  first  en- 
gine was  ever  suggested,  by  Nye, 
the  mathematician,  who  in  The 
Art  of  Gunnery,  1647,  suggested 


the  use  of  water  suitably  heated  as 
a  propelling  force  for  shot  instead 
of  powder,  followed  in  1655  by  the 
marquess  of  Worcester's  descrip- 
tion of  a  steam-engine  for  raising  a 
column  of  water  a  height  of  40  ft. 
The  conversion  of  heat  energy  into 
mechanical  energy  by  means  of  the 
steam-engine  turned  inventors' 
thoughts  to  the  use  of  other  sub- 
stances besides  water,  and  there 
appeared  the  hot-air  engine,  and  in 
later  years  the  gas-engine,  oil- 
engine, etc.  The  invention  of  the 
internal  combustion  engine  has  had 
an  rnormous  effect  upon  the  pro- 
gress of  the  world.  See  Air  engine ; 
Internal  combustion  engine;  Oil 
engine;  Steam  engine;  also  illus. 
p.  1332. 


ENGINEERING 

Engineer,  THE.  London  weekly 
illustrated  paper  devoted  to  the 
engineering  profession.  Established 
Jan.  4,  1856,  by  Edward  Healey,  it 
is  the  oldest  engineering  paper  in 
the  United  Kingdom.  For  many 
years  the  property  of  the  founder, 
it  is  now  owned  by  a  private 
limited  company,  most  of  the 
shares  in  which  are  held  by  the 
Healey  family.  For  a  few  years 
The  Engineer  was  edited  by  Zerah 
Colburn.  He  was  succeeded  by 
Vaughan  Pendred,  who  held  the 
post  for  about  40  years,  and  was 
followed  in  1905  by  his  son,  Lough- 
man  Pendred.  The  editorial  policy 
has  been  consistently  to  depend 
upon  expert  engineers  and  scientists 
for  contributions. 


ENGINEERING:    A  GENERAL   SURVEY 

A.  H.  Gibson,  D.Sc.,  Prof,  ot  Engineering,  University  College,  Dundee 

This  article  serves  as  an  introduction  to  those  on  engineering  sub- 
jects, e.g.  Breakwater ;   Bridge ;   Docks ;    Harbour,  etc.     See  also 
Hydraulics ;  Railways,  etc. 


Historically  considered,  engin- 
eering is  the  earliest  of  the  arts, 
emerging  in  the  first  dawn  of  civili- 
zation when  the  first  tool  was  made 
by  man. 

Little  is  known  as  to  the  earliest 
development  of  engineering  know- 
ledge. It  must  have  been  of  a  com- 
paratively high  order  to  render 
possible  the  construction  of  the 
monumental  works  of  Egypt  and 
the  East,  and  the  priests  of  many  of 
the  ancient  religions  probably  had 
an  expert  knowledge  of  some 
branches  of  mechanics.  The  aque- 
ducts and  bridges  built  by  the 
Romans,  and  the  remains  of  metal 
pumps  of  the  Roman  period,  show 
that  the  principles  of  civil,  me- 
chanical, and  hydraulic  engineer- 
ing were  well  understood  before  the 
Christian  era. 

The  Medieval  Engineer 

In  England  the  term  engineer  as 
defining  an  occupation  appears  to 
have  dated  from  the  13th  century. 
In  the  wardrobe  account  of  Edward 
I  (1300)  occurs  a  statement  of 
sums  paid  to  engineers  for  military 
artificer's  work,  while  in  1344  the 
army  records  have  a  note  of  the 
number  of  engineers  borne  on  the 
strength  of  the  ordnance.  The  duty 
of  such  engineers  was,  not  only  to 
direct  warlike  engines  and  weapons, 
a  duty  afterwards  delegated  to  the 
artillery,  but  also  to  undertake  the 
design  and  construction  of  fortifi- 
cations, roads,  bridges,  machinery, 
and  other  works  of  militaryJBervice. 

About  the  12th  century  public 
attention  in  France  became  di- 
rected to  the  internal  communica- 
tions of  the  country,  and  an  asso- 
ciation was  formed  under  the  name 
of  the  Freres  Pontiers  with  the 
main  object  of  building  bridges. 


The  association  was  extended 
throughout  Europe,  and  built  a 
large  number  of  important  works, 
including  the  first  stone  London 
Bridge.  This  is  perhaps  the  earliest 
example  of  a  definite  body  devoting 
itself  to  civil  engineering  works. 
Early  Civil  Engineering 

The  real  birth  of  civil  engineer- 
ing in  its  modern  sense,  however, 
dates  from  the  beginning  of  the 
17th  century.  At  that  time  the 
rivers  of  N.  Italy,  which  had  been 
in  use  for  navigation  and  regu- 
lated for  irrigation  from  early 
times,  appear  to  have  relapsed 
into  a  bad  state  of  order,  with  the 
result  that  many  disastrous  inun- 
dations took  place.  To  prevent 
this,  the  most  learned  scientific 
men  of  the  day  were  called  into 
consultation,  which  led  to  a  series 
of  valuable  studies  and  experi- 
ments. A  class  of  practitioners 
was  called  into  existence  capable  of 
dealing  with  hydraulic  works  and 
with  their  necessary  mechanical 
arrangements,  and  the  scope  of 
their  work  was  gradually  extended 
to  cover  also  the  design  and  con- 
struction of  roads,  bridges,  docks, 
workshops,  and  machinery  in 
general.  In  view  of  the  fact  that 
the  class  of  work  undertaken  was 
analogous  to  that  allotted  to  the 
engineers  of  the  military  service, 
the  new  profession  adopted  the  title 
of  engineer,  prefixing  the  word 
civil  to  distinguish  its  members 
from  their  military  brethren. 

Probably  the  best  definition  is 
that  used  by  the  Institution  of 
Civil  Engineers  which  defines  en- 
gineering as  "the  art  whereby  the 
great  sources  of  power  in  nature 
are  converted,  adapted,  and  applied 
to  the  use  and  convenience  of 


ENGINEERING 


2905 


ENGINEERING 


man,"  a  definition  which  covers  all 
the  activities  of  the  engineer, 
whether  he  call  himself  civil,  me- 
chanical, or  electrical. 

The  development  of  the  steam 
engine  led  to  an  enormous  and 
rapid  expansion  in  the  branch  of 
civil  engineering  devoted  to  the 
design  and  construction  of  motive- 
power  machinery  and  mechanical 
appliances,  and  to  the  develop- 
ment of  manufacturing  processes, 
and  from  this  period  dates  the  pro- 
fessional term  mechanical  engineer. 
Still  later,  the  development  of  the 
electric  dynamo  and  of  all  the  elec- 
trical appliances  and  accessories  to 
electric  power  and  lighting,  ren- 
dered this  sub- branch  of  mechanical 
engineering  sufficiently  important 
to  justify  the  use  of  the  professional 
title  of  electrical  engineer. 
Specialised  Branches 
The  more  recent  rapid  develop- 
ments in  all  branches  of  engin- 
eering have  necessitated  further 
intensive  specialisation,  and  aero 
engineering,  agricultural  engineer- 
ing, chemical  engineering,  and 
metallurgical  engineering  are  now 
to  all  intents  and  purposes  separate 
professions.  In  general  the  term 
civil  engineering  is  now  confined  to 
the  design  and  construction  of  such 
works  as  roads,  bridges,  railways, 
docks,  harbours,  canals,  dams,  and 
coast  defences,  all  of  which  are 
essentially  of  a  foundational  and 
stationary  character. 

The  scientific  study  of  engineer- 
ing principles  is  of  comparatively 
recent  growth.  The  first  engineer- 
ing school  attached  to  any  uni- 
versity in  the  United  Kingdom  was 
founded  at  Glasgow.  This  was 
quickly  followed  by  similar  schools  ' 
at  other  universities,  and  a  training 
in  the  profession  can  now  be  ob- 
tained at  any  university  or  technical 
institute  in  the  kingdom. 

In  the  domain  of  mechanical  en- 
gineering the  steam  engine  has 
been  developed  and  improved  until 
in  its  modern  form  its  output  of 
energy  per  pound  of  fuel  is  im- 
mensely greater  than  that  of  its 
predecessors.  Other  forms  of  prime 
mover,  steam  turbines,  gas,  oil,  or 
petrol  engines,  have  also  been  de- 
veloped, until  from  the  point  of 
view  of  efficiency  little  further  scopr 
for  improvement  seems  possible. 
Thanks  to  the  reduction  in  weight 
found  possible  by  scientific  atten- 
tion to  design  and  by  the  use  of 
high  tensile  steels  and  aluminium 
alloys  developed  by  the  metallur- 
gical engineer,  the  weight  per  h.p. 
of  the  petrol  engine  has  been  cut 
down  to  a  figure  which,  only  a  few 
years  ago,  would  have  been  thought 
fantastic,  and  the  performance  of 
the  modern  aeroplane  has  been 
rendered  possible. 


In  electrical  engineering,  the 
development  of  high-tension  over- 
head transmission  lines,  by  which 
electrical  energy  may  be  trans- 
mitted for  very  long  distances 
comparatively  cheaply  and  effi- 
ciently under  a  pressure  of  several 
thousand  volts,  has  rendered  it 
possible  to  harness  many  large 
waterfalls  and  other  sources  of 
water-power  remote  from  any 
industrial  centre,  and  to  transmit 
this  energy,  developed  by  the  use 
of  hydraulic  turbines  coupled  to 
electric  generators,  to  be  used  at 
the  most  convenient  site.  In  the 
U.S.A.  and  Canada  such  trans- 
mission lines,  some  of  them  exceed- 
ing 200  m.  in  length,  have  long 
been  in  use. 

In  view  of  the  success  of  these 
systems,  of  the  comparative  cheap- 
ness with  which  water-power  can 
be  developed,  and  of  the  rising 
cost  of  coal,  great  interest  is  being 
taken  in  the  harnessing  of  water- 
power  in  most  countries  of  the 
civilized  world,  and  such  hydro- 
electric development  promises  to 
provide  a  most  interesting  chapter 
of  engineering  history.  The  possi- 
bility of  utilising  very  large  powers 
in  this  way  has  reacted  on  the 
mechanical  side  of  hydraulic  en- 
gineering. The  size  of  the  turbine 
units  has  increased  by  leaps  and 
bounds,  culminating,  for  the  pres- 
ent, in  the  units  of  100,000  h.p. 
each,  now  under  consideration  for 
the  Queenston-Chippewa  project 
on  the  Niagara  river. 
Electro-chemical  and  other  Processes 

The  possibility  of  obtaining 
large  blocks  of  power  at  the  low 
prices  obtaining  in  many  hydro- 
electric developments  has  given  a 
great  stimulus  to  electro-chemical 
and  electro -metallurgical  processes. 
Many  processes,  partly  chemical  and 

Eartly  engineering,  e.g.  the  manu- 
icture  of  aluminium  and  the  pro- 
duction of  electrolytic  copper,  are 
only  commercially  possible  where 
electrical  energy  at  a  very  cheap 
rate  is  available.  On  the  European 
continent  much  electrical  energy 
derived  from  water-power  is  also 
being  used  for  the  production  of 
artificial  fertilisers  from  the  nitro- 
gen of  the  air. 

In  view  of  the  rapid  depletion  of 
xne  world's  natural  nitrate  deposits, 
and  of  the  diminution  in  fertility 
of  most  of  the  great  wheat  and 
cotton  growing  areas,  the  produc- 
tion of  such  artificial  fertilisers 
must  become  a  question  of  world- 
wide importance.  Among  other 
important  developments  in  elec- 
trical engineering  may  be  men- 
tioned electric  lighting  by  the  arc 
and  incandescent  lamp,  electric 
traction  as  applied  to  tramways 
and,  more  recently,  to  suburban 


and  main  railway  lines,  and  wire- 
less telegraphy  and  telephony. 

The  developments  in  civil 
engineering  have  been  probably 
less  marked  than  in  any  other 
branch.  Methods  of  construction 
have  been  in  general  improved 
and  rendered  more  efficient  by 
the  extended  use  of  labour-saving 
machinery ;  the  design  of  masonry 
structures  and  of  steel  bridges  has 
been  put  on  to  a  more  satis- 
factory footing,  and  the  necessity 
for  road  surfaces  capable  of  with- 
standing the  wear  and  tear  of  high- 
speed motor  traffic  has  led  to 
advances  in  the  art  of  road 
construction.  The  introduction  of 
ferro -concrete,  with  its  combina- 
tion of  steel  bars  embedded  in 
concrete  to  increase  its  tensile 
strength,  has  given  rise  to  a  dis- 
tinctive type  of  construction  which 
for  such  structures  as  bridges, 
retaining  walls,  and  large  buildings 
often  offers  many  advantages  in 
the  way  of  cheapness  of  construc- 
tion and  maintenance  over  the  older 
type  of  masonry  or  steel  structure. 

Training  of  the  Engineer 
This  brief  review  indicates  to 
what  an  extent  the  material  pros- 
perity of  mankind  depends  on  the 
work  of  the  engineer.  Its  means  of 
communication,  transport,  and 
locomotion,  whether  by  land,  water, 
or  air ;  its  energy  supplies ;  its 
water  supplies  and  drainage,  are 
dependent  on  his  activities.  In- 
deed, civilization  in  the  modern 
sense  of  the  word  and  engineering 
may  be  said  to  be  synonymous. 
While  the  enormous  range  of  the 
subject  renders  it  imperative  for 
the  engineer  to  specialise  in  some 
one  branch  of  his  profession,  the 
training  of  the  young  engineer 
should  be  on  as  broad  lines  as 
possible,  and  the  wider  his  grasp  of 
the  outlines  of  all  its  branches,  the 
better  are  his  prospects  of  ultimate 
success.  The  professional  training 
should  include  a  three  years' 
course  in  the  engineering  school  of 
some  university  or  technical  insti- 
tute. The  first  two  years  of  this 
course  are  common  to  all  branches 
of  engineering,  and  usually  include 
the  study  of  chemistry,  physics, 
and  mathematics,  and  the  elemen- 
tary study  of  civil  and  mechanical 
engineering  construction,  strength 
of  materials,  heat  engines,  hydrau- 
lics, mechanics,  along  with  design 
work  in  the  drawing-office. 

The  third  year  is  usually  devoted 
to  a  more  advanced  treatment  of 
the  subjects  relating  to  some 
special  branch  of  engineering,  and 
this  theoretical  training  should  be 
followed  by  a  course  of  practical 
work  in  the  appropriate  workshops 
or  engineering  office.  It  is  in 
some  respects  an  advantage  for  the 


ENGINEERING 


2906 


ENGINEERS 


practical  training  to  be  taken, 
whether  wholly  or  in  part,  before 
the  university  course,  while  in 
some  universities  provision  is  made 
for  a  "  sandwich  "  course,  in  which 
the  engineer  takes  his  workshop 
training  during  the  summer  months 
of  each  year,  and  his  theoretical 
training  during  the  six  winter 
months. 

Bibliography.  Hydraulics  and  its 
Applications,  A.  H.  Gibson,  1908  ; 
A  Practical  Treatise  on  Bridge  Con- 
struction,!1. C.  Fidler,  4th.  ed.  1909  ; 
The  Steam  Engine  and  Other  Heat 
Engines,  J.  A.  Ewing,  3rd.  ed.  1910  ; 
Civil  Engineering  as  applied  in  Con- 
struction, L.  F.  V.  Harcourt,  2nd. 
ed.  revised  by  Henry  Fidler,  1910  ; 
Surveying  and  Surveying  Instru- 
ments, G.  A.  T.  Middleton,  3rd.  ed. 
1912  ;  Natural  Sources  of  Energy, 
A.  H.  Gibson,  1913 ;  The  Gas,  Petrol 
and  Oil  Engine,  D.  Clerk,  rev.  ed. 
1909-13  ;  Strength  of  Materials,  A. 
Morley,  4th  ed.  1916 ;  The  Principles 
of  Electrical  Engineering  and  Their 
Application,  G.  Kapp,  1916,  etc. 

Engineering.  London  illus- 
trated weekly  journal  devoted  to 
all  branches  of  the  engineer's  work, 
and  giving  full  attention  to  the 
theoretical,  practical,  and  econo- 
mic sides.  It  was  founded  in  1866 
by  Zerah  Colburn,  the  editorship 
passing  early  in  1870  to  William 
H.  Maw,  M.Inst.C.E.,  and  James 
Dredge.  On  the  death  of  Mr. 
Dredge  in  1906,  B.  A.  Ra worth, 
who  had  for  many  years  acted  as 
assistant  editor,  was  appointed 
joint  editor  with  W.  H.  Maw,  a 
position  he  occupied  until  his  death 
in  1919.  He  was  succeeded  as  joint 
editor  by  Alex.  Richardson,  M.P. 
The  volumes  of  Engineering  con- 
tain a  valuable  record  of  develop- 
ments in  the  construction  of  steam 
and  other  prime  movers,  as  well  as 
in  the  manufacture  and  treatment 
of  steel  and  other  products  em- 
ployed by  the  engineer.  / 

Engineer  Officer.  Commis- 
sioned officer  of  the  British  navy. 
He  is  a  technical  specialist,  respon- 
sible for  the  running  of  all  main 
and  subsidiary  machinery  in  a  war- 
ship and  the  control  of  the  engi- 
neering workshops  and  repairs 
aboard.  In  the  smaller  vessels  he 
frequently  also  performs  the  duties 
of  accountant  officer.  Since  1903 
engineer  officers  have  been  trained 
as  executive  officers  and  are  com- 
petent to  take  executive  duties  and 
rise  to  the  highest  ranks  in  the 
navy.  They  enter  training  like 
other  naval  cadets,  pass  through 
Osfcorne  and  Dartmouth,  where  the 
general  course  includes  engineer- 
ing, spend  eight  months  on  a  train- 
ing cruiser  and  qualify  as  midship- 
men. Having  been  commissioned 
and  spent  one  to  three  years  in  the 
ranks  of  sub-lieutenant  and  lieu- 
tenant, those  who  volunteer  for 


specialist  branches  take  a  course 
at  the  Royal  Naval  College,  Green- 
wich, and' the  engineers  then  take  a 
further  course  at  the  engineering 
school  at  Keyham,  near  Devonport. 
An  engineer  officer  is  distinguished 


Engineer   Officer.     Cuff  badges   of 
officers  in  British  navy.     Left,  sub- 
lieutenant: right,  vice-admiral 

by  wearing  strips  of  purple  cloth 
between  the  bands  of  gold  lace 
denoting  his  rank. 

Engineers,  Royal.  Technical 
corps  of  the  British  army,  popu- 
larly termed  the  Sappers.  The  ori- 
gin of  the  corps  is  of  considerable 
antiquity.  There  was  until  1716  a 
Chief  Engineer  who  was  responsible 
for  the  care  of  all  engines  of  war 
and  had  headquarters  at  the  Tower 
of  London  before  1350.  The  ord- 
nance department  was  constituted 
a  separate  unit  in  1450,  but  the 
Engineers  were  responsible  for  the 
guns  until  1716,  when  the  Royal 
Artillery  was  established. 

The  corps  may  be  said  to  have 
originated  in  its  modern  form  in 
the  company  of  military  artificers 
raised  by  Sir  William  Green  at 
Gibraltar  in  1772,  which,  during 
the  long  siege,  distinguished  itself 
in  the  construction  of  galleries  on 
the  north  face  of  the  Rock  and  by 
the  repair  of  breaches  made  by  the 
enemy's  fire. 

In  peace  time  the  corps  is  organ- 
ized as  field,  signal,  bridging,  sur- 
vey, fortress,  railway,  printing,  and 
postal  companies 
and  troops — de- 
scriptions which 
indicate  the  wide 
activities  of  the 
units  and  which 
have  been  con- 
tinually aug- 
mented as  science 
has  played  a  more 
and  more  impor- 
tant part  in  warfare.  During  the 
Great  War,  special  companies  were 
added,  whose  duty  it  was  to  inves- 
tigate and  direct  the  use  of  poison 
gas  and  the  measures  adopted  to 
counteract  it.  Meteorological  com- 
panies were  responsible  for  informa- 
tion regarding  the  weather  which 
was  essential  for  aviation  and 
valuable  in  ordinary  strategy. 

The  corps  does  not  take  the  field 
as  a  unit,  but  sends  detached  com- 
panies to  organize  the  signal  and 
communication  services,  etc.,  of 


Royal  Engineers 
badge 


divisions  and  other  units,  advise  on 
the  construction  of  trenches,  super- 
intend and  organize  large  defence 
works,  entrenchments,  mining  of 
enemy  positions,  and  the  destruc- 
tion of  communications  in  a  retreat. 

During  the  long  periods  of  trench 
warfare  the  Engineers  were  chiefly 
employed  in  tunnelling  and  mining, 
At  one  stage  of  the  war  they  used 
the  geophone,  an  instrument  for 
magnifying  the  sounds  of  enemy 
mining.  Later  they  were  provided 
with  the  seismomicrophone,  which 
transmitted  sounds  from  as  ma<ny 
as  fift}'  gallery  faces  to  a  central 
station,  which  was  situated  in  a 
place  of  safety.  This  saved  the 
many  casualties  formerly  entailed 
by  listening  at  each  face.  Also  their 
work  included  the  improvement 
of  the  communications,  organizing 
and  manning  searchlight  stations, 
and  the  duties  previously  outlined. 
In  the  advance  of  August  to  Novem 
ber,  1918,  they  erected  in  the  battle 
area  326  steel  bridges  (the  longest 
having  a  180 -ft.  span),  213  heavy 
timber  bridges  capable  of  carrying 
loads  of  17  to  30  tons,  and  necessary 
for  tanks,  as  well  as  hundreds  ot 
lighter  bridges  suitable  for  fighting 
units  and  first  line  transport. 
In  addition  to  serving  in  France 
and  Flanders,  the  Engineers  were 
conspicuous  by  their  intrepidity 
and  persistence  in  the  campaigns 
in  Italy,  Salonica,  Egypt,  Gallipoli, 
Palestine,  and  Mesopotamia.  On 
the  outbreak  of  the  Great  War  the 
Corps  of  Royal  Engineers  totalled 
1,808  officers  and  23,521  other 
ranks.  In  November,  1918,  its 
strength  was  17,711  officers  and 
322,739  other  ranks,  its  casualties 
in  killed,  died,  and  missing  during 
the  war  exceeding  1, 100  officers  and 
17,500  other  ranks. 

A  memorial  to  the  services  of  the 
Engineers  in  the  Great  War  and  to 
the  fallen  is  to  take  the  form  of  (a)  an 
educational  scheme  for  the  benefit 
of  all  ranks  and  all  branches  of  the 
corps  as  at  present  constituted ;  and 
(6)  a  monumental  memorial  in  Lon- 
don. The  cost  of  the  entire  scheme 
was  estimated  to  be  £150,000.  Its 
motto  is  Ubique  (Everywhere). 
See  illus.  facing  p.  614. 

Engineers,  SOCIETY  OF.  British 
learned  society.  Established  in 
1854,  it  was  incorporated  in  1910, 
when  it  was  amalgamated  with  the 
Civil  and  Mechanical  Engineers' 
Society,  dating  from  1859.  It 
exists  to  further  the  interests  of  the 
engineering  profession.  The  society 
consists  of  fellows,  members,  and 
associates,  and  its  head  offices  are 
»t  17,  Victoria  Street,  Westminster, 
S.  W.  One  of  the  largest  of  the  trade 
unions  was  known  until  1921  as 
the  Amalgamated  Society  of  Engi- 
neers. See  Trade  Unions. 


ENGLAND 


2907 


ENGLAND 


ENGLAND:   ITS   TOPOGRAPHY,  HISTORY,  ETC. 

A.  D.  INNES,  Author    of  A  History  of  England.  B.  C.  WALLIS,  and  A.  W.  HOLLAND 

A  description  of  England  from  the  topographical,  the  geological,  and  the  climatic  point  of  view,  is  followed 
by  some  account  of  its  industries  and  communications.  Then  come  sections  dealing  with  its  government  and 
its  history,  the  latter  being  taken  down  to  1707,  from  which  date  it  is  continued  under  the  heading  of  United 
Kingdom.  In  addition,  some  thousands  of  articles  describe  the  counties  and  towns,  rivers  and  mountains 
of  England,  deal  with  the  lives  of  kings  and  statesmen,  with  wars,  battles,  and  political  and  social  movements. 
The  government  is  described  in  detail  in  a  series  of  articles  from  Parish  to  Parliament 


England,  originally  Angleland  or 
the  land  of  the  Angles,  covers  the 
larger  and  southern  part  of  the 
island  of  Great  Britain,  excepting 
only  that  western  part  of  it  known 
as  Wales.  It  is  bounded  by  Scot- 
land  on  the  N.  and  Wales  on  part  of 
the  W. ;  elsewhere  its  borders  are  the 
North  Sea  on  the  E.,  the  English 
Channel  on  the  S.,  and  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  and  the  Irish  Sea  on  the  W. 

The  area  of  England  is  50,874 
sq.  m.,  being  nearly  two-thirds  of 
Great  Britain.  It  measures  430  m. 
in  extreme  length,  from  the  Lizard 
to  Berwicu-on-Tweed,  and  370  m.  in 
extreme  width,  from  Land's  End  to 
Lowestoft.  In  shape  it  is  an  irre- 
gular triangle.  The  coast,  especially 
on  the  W.j  is  broken  with  numerous 
openings,  making  a  total  length 
of  1,800  m.  The  W.  coast  is 
high  and  rocky,  bold  cliffs  and 
buttresses  of  hard  rock  standing 
out  to  sea.  On  it  are  three  large 
openings — Sol  way  Firth,  More- 
cambe  Bay,  and  the  Bristol  Chan- 
nel, as  well  as  the  mouths  of  the 
Ribble,  the  Mersey,  and  the  Dee, 
which,  however,  is  Welsh  on  one 
side.  Between  England  and  Wales 
there  is  only  a  county  boundary. 
^  Coast-line  and  Harbours 

The  chief  headlands  are  St.  Bees 
Head,  Hartland  Point,  and  Land's 
End.  The  S.  coast  combines 
the  peculiarities  of  both  the  E. 
and  W.  coasts,  the  two  sections 
being  divided  by  the  Isle  of  Wight. 
East  of  it  is  a  coast-line  with  a  low, 
clay  shore,  broken  here  and  there 
by  chalk  cliffs  ;  W.  of  it  the  coast 
is  high  and  bold.  Its  chief  openings 
are  harbours,  several  of  which  are 
unusually  good.  They  include 
Portsmouth  Harbour,  Southampton 
Water,  Weymouth  Bay,  Tor  Bay, 
Plymouth  Sound,  Falmouth  Har- 
bour, and  Mount's  Bay.  The  chief 
headlands  are  the  Lizard,  Start 
Point,  Portland  Bill,  St.  Alban's 
Head,  Selsey  BUI,  Beachy  Head, 
Dungeness,  and  the  S.  Foreland. 

The  E.  coast  is  regular  in  out- 
line, broken  only  by  the  estuaries 
of  rivers.  In  places  it  is  high  and 
rocky,  lut  much  of  it  is  low  and 
sandy,  and  along  parts  of  it  the 
sea  is  encroaching.  The  princi- 
pal river  mouths  are  those  of  the 
Tyne,  the  Tees,  and  the  Humber, 
the  Wash,  and  the  Thames.  The 
chief  headlands  are  Flamborough 
Head,  Spurn  Head,  Lowestoft  Ness, 
the  Naze,  and  the  North  Foreland. 


The  N.  boundary  is  formed  by  the 
course  of  the  Tweed,  the  line  of  the 
Cheviots,  and  three  streams — Kers- 
hope  Burn,  Liddel  Water,  and  the 
Sark — falling  into  the  Solway.  Its 
length  is  just  under  100  m. 

There  are  but  few  islands  off  the 
coast  of  England.  The  Isle  of  Man 
and  the  Isle  of  Wight  are  the  largest, 
but  the  former  is  not,  strictly 
speaking,  part  of  England,  having 
its  own  laws  and  government.  Off 
Northumberland  are  the  Fame 
Islands,  Lindisfarne  or  Holy  Island, 
and  Coquet  Island,  but  off  the  E. 
coast  there  is  nothing  else  until 
Foulness  Island,off  Essex,is  reached. 
Thanet  and  Sheppey  cannot  pro- 
perly be  called  islands.  Off  the 
W.  coast  are  Walney  Island,  op- 
posite Barrow,  and  Lundy  Island 
in  the  Bristol  Channel.  Off  Corn- 
wall is  a  group,  the  Scilly  Islands. 
The  County  Divisions 

England  is  divided  into  forty 
counties,  varying  greatly  in 
size.  Some  of  them  are  further 
divided  for  local  government  and 
other  purposes,  while  in  the  three 
ridings  Yorkshire  has  a  more  his- 
toric division.  The  counties  and 
their  acreage,  which  includes  the 
sheets  of  water  therein,  are  as 
follows.  The  number  after  each 
indicates  its  relative  position  as  re- 
gards size. 


County 
Bedford  (37) 
Berkshire  (32) 
Buckingham  (30) 
Cambridge  (25) 
Cheshire  (19) 
Cornwall  (14) 
Cumberland  (11) 
Derby  (20) 
Devon  (3) 
Dorset  (23) 
Durham  (21) 
Essex  (9) 
Gloucester  (17) 
Hampshire  (7) 
Hereford  (27) 
Hertford  (35) 
Huntingdon  (38) 
Kent  (10) 
Lancashire  (6) 
Leicester  (28) 
Lincoln  (2)    . . 
Middlesex  (39) 
Monmouth  (36) 
Norfolk  (4)    . . 
Northampton  (22 
Northumberland    5) 
Nottingham  (26) 
Oxford  (31) 
Rutland  (40) 
Shropshire  (16 
Somerset  (8) 
Stafford  (18) 
Suffolk  (12) 
Surrey  (33) 
Sussex  (13) 
Warwick  (24) 


Area  in  Acres. 
302,942 
463,834 
479,360 
553,241 
656,370 
868,167 
973,086 
650,369 

1,671,364 
625,612 
649,244 
979,532 
805,794 

1,053,092 
538,924 
404,523 
233,985 
975,966 

1,061,615 
532,779 

1,705,293 
148,701 
349,552 

1,315,064 
638,612 

1,291,515 
540,123 
479,220 
97,273 
861,800 

1,032,490 
741,318 
948,269 
461,829 
932,409 
605,275 


Westmorland  (29) 
Wiltshire  (15) 
Worcester  (34)      .. 
Yorkshire  (1)  E.R. 

N.R. 

W.R. 


505,330 

864,101 

458,352 

750,214 

1,362,285 

1,773,529 


This  table  does  not  include  the 
county  of  London,  formed  in  1888 
out  of  the  counties  of  Middlesex, 
Surrey,  and  Kent.  Its  area  is 
74,816  acres. 

POPULATION.  The  population  of 
England,  according  to  the  census 
of  1921,  was  35,678,530.  Of 
these,  16,984,087  were  males 
and  18,694,443  were  females. 
The  increase  since  the  1871  census, 
according  to  the  decennial  census 
figures,  was  as  follows  : 


Year 
1871 
1881 
1891 
1901 
1911 


Population 
21,495,131 
24,613,926 
27,489,228 
30.813,043 
34,045,290 


Taking  England  and  Wales  to- 
gether, the  average  pop.  per  sq.  m. 
had  grown  from  389  in  1871  to 
618  in  1911.  The  population  of 
England  and  Wales,  when  the  first 
census  was  taken  in  1801,  was 
8,892,536,  or  152  to  the  sq.  m.  ' 

In  the  years  between  1911  and 
1921  there  were  great  movements 
of  population,  this  being  due  to  the 
general  upheaval  caused  by  the 
Great  War.  A  full  revelation  of  the 
extent  and  nature  of  these  changes 
can  only  be  seen  when  the  census 
figures  for  1921  are  complete. 

Each  year  the  registrar-general, 
with  the  various  vital  statistics 
before  him,  makes  an  estimate  of 
the  population  of  the  country.  He 
includes  Wales  with  England.  For 
the  years  1914-19  they  include  the 
civilian  population  only.  They  are 
as  follows,  the  date  being  June  30 
each  year : 

Year  Population 

1914      .      ..      .       36,960,684 


1915 
1916 
1917 
1918 
1919 


35,358,896 
34,500,000 
33,711,000 
33,474.700 
35,993,000 


In  1915,  and  still  more  in  1916, 
1917,  and  1918,  the  military  popu- 
lation was  large,  something  like 
4,000,000  at  one  time,  although 
these  did  not  all  come  from  Eng- 
land. It  was  considerable  in  1919, 
when  the  population  was  returned 
at  just  about  a  million  below  the 
1914  figure.  It  seems,  therefore, 
fair  to  assume,  on  the  basis  of  the 
registrar-general's  figures,  that  the 


ENGLAND 


2908 


ENGLAND 


population  of  England  in  1920  was 
about  the  same  as  it  was  in  1914. 
The  losses  of  the  war  had  been 
made  good,  but  that  was  all. 

The  following  table  gives,  ac- 
cording to  the  census  of  1921,  the 
population  of  the  various  counties. 
It  includes  that  of  the  county 
boroughs  which  are  within  their 
areas,  although  not  under  the 
control  of  the  county  councils  : 

Bedford  (34)        206,478 

Berkshire  (28) 294,807 

Buckingham  (32)        ..      .          236,200 
Cambridge  (35)    . .     . 
Cheshire  (9)         . .      . 
Cornwall  (27)      ..      ., 
Cumberland  (30) 

Derby  (15) 

Devon  (16) 

Dorset  (33)          . . 
Durham  (3)         ..      .. 

Essex  (4)     

Gloucester  (12)   ,.      ., 
Hampshire  (10)  . . 
Hereford  (37)      ..      ., 
Hertford  (26)       . . 
Huntingdon  (39) 

Kent  (8)       

Lancashire  (1) 
Leicester  (20)      . . 
Lincoln  (18)        ..      .. 
Middlesex  (7)      . . 
Monmouth  (22)   ..      ., 
Norfolk  (19)        . . 
Northampton  (25) 
Northumberland  (13)  .  . 
Nottingham  (17) 
Oxford  (36)          . . 
Rutland  (40)        . . 
Shropshire  (31)   . . 
Somerset  (21)      . . 
Stafford  (6)          ..      .. 
Suffolk  (24)         . . 


Surrey  (11) 
Sussex  (14) 
Warwick  (5)  . . 
Westmorland  (38) 
Wiltshire  (29)  . . 
Worcester  (k3)  . . 
Yorkshire  (2)  E.E.  .. 

N.E.  .. 

W.IJ.  .. 


203,312 

1.025,425 
320,559 
273.037 
714,539 
709,488 
228,258 

1,478,506 

1,468,341 
757,668 

1,005,030 
113,118 
333,236 
54,748 

1,141,867 

4,928,359 
494,522 
602,105 

1,253,164 
450,700 
504.277 
349^84 
746,138 
641,134 
189,558 
18,368 
242,959 
465,682 

1,349,225 
399,988 
930,377 
728,001 

1,390,092 
65,740 
292,213 
405,876 
544,769 
456,312 

3,181,654 


From  this  table,  too,  London  is 
excluded.  Its  population  was 
4,483,249. 

In  1921  there  were  in  England 
42  towns  and  urban  districts  with 
populations  estimated  as  in  excess 
of  100,000.  This  excludes  London. 
There  were  in  addition  a  further  52 
places  with  populations  in  excess 
of  50,000.  The  population  figures 
for  the  largest  towns  were  : 

Birmingham 
Liverpool 
Manchester 
Sheffield       . . 

Leeds    

Bristol  . .      . . 
West  Ham    . 

Hull       

Bradford  . .  .  . 
Newcastle-oi:  -T.  e 
Nottingham  >.  .  . 
Portsmouth  . . 
Stoke-on-Trent  . . 
Leicester 


Salford 
Plymouth     . . 
Croydon 
Bolton  . . 
Willesden     . . 
Southampton 
Sunderland  . . 
Tottenham  . . 
Birkenhead  . . 
Oldham 


919,438 
803,118 
730,551 
490,724 
458,320 
377,061 
300,905 
287,013 
285,979 
274,955 
262,658 
247,343 
240,440 
234,190 
234,150 
209,857 
>  190,877 
'  178,678 
165,669 
160,997 
159,100 
146,695 
145,592 
145,001 


ENGLAND  &  WALES 

(GEOLOGICAL) 


England.     Map  showing  the  general  geological  formation  of  England  and  Wales 


East  Ham    ...        .  143,304 

Brighton       ...        .  142,427 

Middlesbrough     .        .  131,103 

Derby 129,836 

Leyton            .      .        .  128,432 

Coventry        .      .        .  128,205 

Walthamstow      .        .  127,441 

Blackburn      .      .        .  126,630 

Gateshead      .      .        . .  124,514 

Stockport 123,315 

Norwich        120,653 

Preston         117,426 

South  Shields      .        ..  116,667 

Huddersfleld        .        ..  110,120 

Southend-on-Sca        . .  106,021 

Burnley        103,175 

St.  Helens 102,675 

Wolverhampton          . .  102,373 

Blackpool 99,640 

Halifax         99.129 

Walsall          96,964 

Reading        92.274 

These  populous  centies  fall  into 
three  groups  :  the  manufacturing 
towns  on  the  coalfields  of  Durham, 
Lancashire, Yorkshire,  and  the  Mid- 
lands ;  the  seaports  such  as 
Portsmouth,  Plymouth,  and  South- 
ampton ;  and  the  outer  suburbs  of 
London,  urban  districts  such  as 
Leyton,  Tottenham,  Walthamstow, 
and  Willesden,  with  Brighton  put 
in  this  category.  Norwich  is  the 
only  large  centre  outside  this 
classification.  A.  w.  Holland 


DESCRIPTION.  England  is  the 
largest  of  the  four  countries  which 
compose  the  United  Kingdom, 
comprising  two-fifths  of  the  total 
area. 

The  situation  of  England  with 
reference  to  France  and  the  conti- 
nent of  Europe  is  of  supreme  im- 
portance. The  E.  and  S.  coasts 
make  an  angle  with  its  vertex  just 
where  the  British  seas  are  narrow- 
est. Through  this  S.E.  corner  conti- 
nental civilization  reached  Britain, 
and  through  it  Britain  maintains 
its  closest  ties  with  modern  Europe. 
The  English  people,  as  distinct  from 
the  Scots,  Welsh,  and  Irish,  com- 
prise diverse  elements,  and  similarly 
the  English  land  consists  of  rocks 
representative  of  many  more  geo- 
logical ages  than  are  encountered 
elsewhere  in  the  British  Isles. 

THE  GEOLOGICAL  FORMATION. 
From  the  modern  alluvium  of  the 
Wash  to  the  oldest  rocks  present  in 
Cumberland  and  Cornwall  the  geo- 
logical series  is  almost  complete. 
England  has  been  gradually  built 
up  by  successive  additions  to  the 
older  Cumbrian  and  Cornish  lands 


ENGLAND 


ENGLAND 


as  the  marine  deposits  of  the  several 
geological  ages  have  permanently 
emerged  from  below  the  sea. 

The  old  western  lands  occur  in 
three  portions.  The  Lake  District 
is  the  oldest,  with  Ordovician  and 
Silurian  rocks  and  large  massive  or 
eruptive  basalt.  The  Cornish  penin- 
sula and  Herefordshire  are  mainly 
Old  Red  Sandstone  and  Devonian 
rocks  with  eruptive  granites  in 
Cornwall.  Here  the  rivers  have 
bitten  into  the  rocks  and  carved 
the  upland  into  steep-sided,  nar- 
row, winding  valleys.  Between 
rounded  smooth-topped  ridges  and 
domes  lie  marshy  alluvial  flats, 
where  the  streams  meander  across 
valley  bottoms  made  by  more 
powerful  torrents.  In  the  Lake  Dis- 
trict the  ice  sheet  gave  a  slightly 
different  character  to  the  land  sur- 
face, and  in  the  valleys  carved  by 
glaciers  long  narrow  lakes  walled 
by  steep  slopes  radiate  from  a'  cen- 
tral knot  of  mountains. 

Between  the  rivers  Tweed  and 
Trent  the  carboniferous  rocks  form 
a  chain  of  uplands  which  make  a 
definite  water-parting  between  the 
rivers  of  the  North  and  the  Irish 
Seas.  Flanking  the  Pennines  are 
the  coal  measures,  which  lie  in  pairs. 
In  the  N.  the  Cumberland  and  Dur- 
ham and  Northumberland  coal- 
fields reach  the  coast;  S.  of  the 
range  the  Lancashire  and  N. 
Staffordshire  coalfields  on  the  W., 
and  the  York,  Derby  and  Notting- 
ham coalfield  on  the  E.,  lie  on  the 
slopes  between  the  watershed  and 
the  almost  flat  plains  of  Cheshire 
and  the  vales  of  York  and  Trent. 

Farther  S.  the  carboniferous 
rocks  only  appear  in  detached  frag- 
ments in  the  midland  coalfields  be- 
tween the  Trent  and  the  Stratford 
Avon;  in  the  mountain  limestone 
and  the  Forest  of  Dean  coalfield  on 
the  edge  of  the  Old  Red  Sandstone 
of  the  Wye  and  Usk. 

The  New  Red  Sandstone 

On  the  E.  margin  of  the  car- 
boniferous rocks,  along  a  line  from 
the  mouth  of  the  Tyne  to  that  of  the 
Exe,  are  detached  portions  of  the 
Permian  system.  FromTynemouth 
to  Nottingham  both  Permian  sand- 
stone and  magnesian  limestone 
appear  in  long  narrow  bands. 

Triassic  rocks  cover  a  V-shaped 
area  reaching  from  Middlesbrough 
to  Gloucester,  and  from  Gloucester 
to  the  shore  of  Morecambe  Bay.  De- 
tached portions  fringe  the  coast  of 
the  Lake  District,  form  the  valley 
of  the  Lower  Eden,  and  extend 
across  the  isthmus  of  the  Cornish 
peninsula.  Their  best  known  repre- 
sentative is  the  New  Red  Sand- 
stone. Triassic  rocks  are  asso- 
ciated with  lowlands,  the  vale  of 
York,  the  valley  of  the  Trent, 
the  Cheshire  plain,  the  Fylde  of 


Lancashire,   and  the  lowlands  W. 
of  the  Severn. 

The  remaining  portion  of  Eng- 
land comprises  rocks  which  have  no 
representatives  on  the  W.  The 
Lias  stretches  in  an  almost  un- 
broken band  from  Lyme  Regis,  E. 
of  the  Severn  and  the  Stratford 
Avon,  E.  of  the  Trent,  and  from 
Goole  to  the  coast  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Tees.  Fringing  the  lias  along 
its  eastern  margin  lies  the  oolitic 
limestone,  which  gives  rise  to  a 
line  of  residual  hills,  from  the 
Cotswolds  to  the  N.  York  moors. 

Between  the  Wash  and  Dorset  a 
narrow  band  of  Greensand  separ- 
ates the  oolite  from  the  chalk  which 
gives  rise  to  a  series  of  hills — the  E. 
Anglian  Heights,  the  Chilterns,  the 
Marlborough,  and  N.  and  S.  Downs. 
Within  the  V-shape  of  these  hills 
lies  the  London  basin  with  its  young 
rocks. 

The  N.  and  S.  Downs  are  relics  of 
a  ridge  of  chalk  which  was  raised  as 
the  Wealden  uplift  to  form  a  con- 
tinuous ridge  from  Wiltshire  to 
France.  The  middle  of  the  ridge 
has  been  worn  away  to  form  the 
Wealden  plain  and  expose  the 
Greensand  along  the  inner  scarped 
edge  of  the  chalk,  the  Wealden 
clay  within  the  Greensand,  and 
the  Hastings  Sand  within  the  clay. 
Scenic  Differences 

Each  of  these  geological  horizons 
has  been  weathered  into  character- 
istic land  forms.  The  steep  cliff 
faces  of  the  Millstone  Grit  in  Derby- 
shire are  in  striking  contrast  to  the 
chalk  landscape  of  the  downs, 
marked  by  rounded  contours.  The 
Triassic  landscape  of  the  vale  of 
Trent  or  the  Cheshire  Plain  differs 
widely  from  either  the  oolitic 
Oxford  Clay  or  the  younger  London 
Clay  of  Herefordshire  or  Middlesex. 

These  scenic  differences  are  em- 
phasised by  the  vegetation  typical 
of  each  type  of  rock.  The  beeches 
and  silver  birches  of  the  sandstone 
of  Sherwood  Forest  differ  widely 
from  the  woodland  which  clothes 
the  sides  of  the  narrow  Cornish 
valleys  and  leaves  the  uplands  bare. 

Similarly,  the  coastal  edges  of  the 
formations  give  an  infinite  variety 
to  the  shores  of  England.  The 
chalk  cliffs  of  Dover  and  Beachy 
Head,  with  their  vertical  white 
faces,  differ  from  the  sandy  cliffs 
exposed  near  Bournemouth  in  the 
eocene  of  the  Hampshire  basin ;  the 
miles  of  iron-bound  coast  along  N 
Cornwall  from  Tintagel  southwards 
are  totally  different  from  the  sandy 
lowland  shores  of  the  Triassic  for- 
mation in  the  Wirral  peninsula. 

RIVERS  AND  VALLEYS.  Although 
the  highest  ground  of  England  is 
largely  due  to  those  foldings  of  the 
earth's  crust  which  produced  the 
Pennine  and  Wealden  uplifts,  the 


residual  features  are  largely  the 
work  of  rivers.  In  the  N.E.,  in 
Northumberland  and  Durham,  the 
North  Sea  drainage  reaches  to  a 
water-parting  on  the  western  side 
of  the  Pennines  ;  near  Cross  Fell 
(2,930  ft. )  the  Tyne,  Wear,  and  Tees 
rise  close  to  each  other.  From 
Haltwhistle  the  S.  Tyne  and  the 
Tyne  itself  flow  due  E. ;  the  valley 
of  the  S.  Tyne  leads  W.  through 
the  Tyne  Gap  in  the  Pennines  at  a 
lower  elevation  than  500  ft.  to  Car- 
lisle. The  Coquet,  Wansbeck,  and 
Blyth  cross  the  coastal  plain  of 
Northumberland,  and  the  Wear 
and  Tees  for  more  than  half  their 
length  are  on  the  Durham  lowland. 
River  Drainage 

Between  Teesmouth  and  the 
Wash  almost  the  whole  of  the 
drainage  is  concentrated  on  the 
Humber.  The  large  rivers,  except 
the  Yorkshire  Derwent,  rise  to- 
wards the  W.  side  of  the  Pennines, 
the  Trent  even  on  the  western 
slopes,  and  drop  through  the 
dales  to  the  level  of  the  Trias- 
sic sandstones  and  marls  in  the 
plains  of  York  and  Trent.  Rich- 
mond, Leyburn,  Ripley,  Shef- 
field, Stoke-on-Trent,  the  first 
large  places  on  the  rivers,  mark 
the  termination  of  Pennine  valleys. 
Lower  down  stream  the  rivers  flow 
over  the  sandstones  to  the  main 
streams  of  Trent  and  Ouse  which 
flow  parallel  and  close  to  the  E. 
edge  of  the  Trias. 

The  drainage  has  hollowed  the 
sandstone  into  a  trough  with  Lias 
clays  on  the  E.  The  Yorkshire 
Derwent  is  the  one  exception 
to  the  rule  that  no  long  rivers 
cross  the  Lias  to  the  Triassic  plain. 
This  stream  rises  close  to  the 
coast,  flows  across  the  oolitic  vale 
of  Pickering  between  the  Cleve- 
land Hills  and  the  Yorkshire 
wolds  in  an  abnormal  course 
which  was  determined  originally 
by  the  presence  of  sea  ice  during 
the  ice  age  in  the  North  Sea.  This 
ice  barrier  forced  the  drainage 
towards  the  S.W.,  so  that  a  per- 
manent valley  was  carved  across 
the  Lias  clay. 

The  Wash,  Witham,  Welland, 
Nen,  and  Great  Ouse  rivers  rise 
on  or  close  to  the  Lias,  and  carv- 
ing out  the  low  residual  oolitic  hills, 
drain  the  trough  of  clayey  land 
bounded  on  the  E.  by  the  chalk 
ridge  N.E.  of  the  Chilterns.  The 
water  gap  at  the  great  bend  of 
the  Witham  is  dominated  by  the 
city  of  Lincoln  on  the  oolite  ridge 
above  the  river. 

Probably  the*  Thames  once 
flowed  over  dry  land  to  join  the 
Rhine  and  make  a  great  river 
which  flowed  N.  across  the  North 
Sea  floor.  The  Yare,  Waveney, 
Orwell,  Stour,  Colne,  Blaokwater, 


ENGLAND 


2910 


ENGLAND 


and  Crouch  are  thus  the  relics  of 
longer  streams  which  drained 
from  the  chalk  ridge  eastwards  to 
this  parent  stream.  The  Kennet 
rises  in  the  angle  where  the  Chil- 
tern  and  Downs  chalk  ridges 
meet  in  the  Maryborough  downs, 
and  flows  in  a  straight  course  to 
the  Thames  at  Reading  in  the 
general  line  towards  Southend. 
This  is  the  real  lower  Thames,  with 
all  the  left  bank  tributaries,  Colne, 
Lea,  etc.,  coming  down  from  the 
chalk  across  the  London  clay. 

The  upper  Thames  makes  a 
great  break  through  the  chalk 
at  the  Goring  Gap  to  reach  Read- 
ing, and  the  shape  of  its  basin  in 
the  Oxford  clay  plain  between  the 
Cotswold  oolitic  ridge  and  the 
Chilterns  is  due  to  the  general 
drainage  to  the  S.E.  and  the  side- 
ways drainage  in  the  clay  hollow. 
River  System  and  Market  Towns 

The  Churn,  Coin,  Leach,  Wind- 
rush,  Evenlode  and  Cherwell  and 
the  Thames  itself  between  Oxford 
and  Reading  flow  to  the  S.E.  ;  the 
Ray  and  the  Thame  (vale  of 
Aylesbury),  the  Ock  (White  Horse 
vale),  and  the  Thames  above 
Oxford  flow  at  right  angles  to  this 
main  direction  across  the  clay. 

The  Wealden  rivers  rise  along  a 
water-parting  which  roughly  fol- 
lows the  line  from  Hythe  to  Hind- 
head.  From  the  northern  clay  vale 
the  Wey,  Mole,  Medway  and  Stour 
cut  through  the  N.  downs.  The 
Arun,  Adur,  Ouse  and  Cuckmere 
stft  through  the  S.  downs  to  the 
!  English  Channel.  The  Rother 
alone  is  entirely  on  the  Weald,  and 
crosses  the  Hastings  sand. 

The  Itchen,  Test,  Avon,  Stour 
and  Frome  flow  from  the  chalk  to 
the  Hampshire  basin.  The  Avon 
drains  Salisbury  Plain.  All  around 
the  coast  from  the  Wash  to  Poole 
harbour  the  rivers  reach  the  sea 
along  a  low  coast,  where  the  rise 
and  fall  of  the  tides  makes  a  great 
difference  to  each  estuary. 

The  river  system  in  general  has 
determined  the  situation  of  the 
market  towns.  Guildf  ord,  Arundel, 
and  Lewes  are  gap  towns  on  the 
downs.  Oxford,  Reading  Chelms- 
ford  and  Norwich  have  each  been 
influenced  by  the  confluence  of 
two  streams. 

The  peninsular  rivers  of  the  S.  W. 
are  developed  from  the  Exmoor, 
Dartmoor,  and  Bodinin  moor- 
lands. The  Tamar  and  Torridge, 
rising  in  the  Ditchen  Hills  inland 
from  Hartland  Point,  are  excep- 
tions ;  the  valley  of  the  Tamar 
makes  a  lowland  way  across  the 
peninsula.  Falmouth  Bay  is  a 
typical  Cornish  estuary.  The 
rivers  of  the  oldest  rocks  in  Eng- 
land are  tiny  streams  which  flow 
into  large  rock-walled  estuaries 


which  are  the  drowned  valleys  of 
the  middle  or  lower  courses  of 
the  streams ;  they  indicate  a  period 
when  the  streams  were  larger, 
longer,  and  more  powerful,  and 
which  preceded  the  inflow  of  the 
sea  or  the  sinking  of  the  coast. 
The  Camel  estuary  is  the  only 
large  break  in  the  iron-bound  coast 
of  N.  Cornwall  between  St.  Ives 
and  Hartland  Point ;  here  miles 
of  sand  at  low  water  attest  the  fact 
that  the  estuary  is  too  large  for 
the  tiny  stream  which  drains  into 
it ;  the  river  and  estuary  are  not 
conformable. 

The  Parret,  Brue,  Axe,  and 
Bristol  Avon  belong  to  an  area 
where  many  geological  formations 
are  crowded  together.  The  Parret 
is  bounded  S.  by  greensand  hills, 
like  Leith  Hill  in  the  Weald  ;  the 
Brue  and  the  Axe  belong  to  Sedge- 
moor,  a  fen  district  in  miniature 
with  the  limestone  Mendip  Hills 
to  the  N.  The  scenery  of  the 
Mendips  repeats  that  of  the  Peak 
district,  with  lead  mines,  swallow 
holes,  and  caverns.  The  Cheddar 
Gorge  is,  however,  without  parallel 
in  Derbyshire  ;  the  cliffs  are  prob- 
ably the  sides  of  a  great  cave  of 
which  the  roof  has  fallen.  The 
Bristol  Avon  rises  in  the  oolitic 
Cotswolds,  crosses  the  S.  portion 
of  the  Oxford  clay  plain,  cuts  a 
gorge  through  the  oolite,  crosses 
a  lias  clay  plain,  and  cuts  a  second 
gorge  at  Clifton  through  the  car- 
boniferous limestone  of  the  Bristol 
coalfields  to  the  Bristol  Channel. 
The  Severn  and  Thames 

The  Severn  is  a  Welsh  river  of 
which  the  middle  and  lower  courses 
are  English.  It  originated  prob- 
ably as  one  of  a  series  of  streams 
which  flowed  in  a  general  S.E. 
direction  from  the  Cambrian  mts. 
The  young  stream,  in  all  prob- 
ability the  parent  stream  of  the 
Thames,  flowed  across  a  slope 
where  the  surface  features  were 
of  small  magnitude.  In  time  the 
softer  clay  rocks  of  the  lias  and 
the  oolite  were  worn  away,  leav- 
ing outstanding  sandstone  and 
limestone  hills  and  ridges.  Strug- 
gles were  initiated  between  the 
streams  and  the  harder  rocks ; 
there  was  a  chance  that  the  Cots- 
wold  and  Chiltern  ridges  would 
cut  the  young  stream  into  three 
sections.  The  Goring  Gap  was 
cut  through  the  chalk,  but  no  gorge 
was  made  in  the  oolite,  and  the 
young  stream  grew  into  two  rivers 
— the  Thames  and  the  Severn.  On 
the  one  hand  the  Severn  is  parallel 
to  the  Cotswolds  and  the  general 
lines  of  the  T"bame,  Thames,  and 
Upper  Bristol  Avon  ;  on  the  other, 
it  lies  on  the  lias  clay,  close  to  the 
edge  of  the  Trias,  and  is  related  in 
this  respect  to  the  lower  Trent. 


The  vales  of  Evesham  and  Berke- 
ley resemble  the  vales  of  Newark 
and  York.  Above  the  confluence 
with  the  Stratford  Avon  between 
Tewkesbury  and  the  Coalbrook- 
dale  Gorge  at  Ironbridge,  the 
Severn  valley  belongs  to  the 
Trias ;  the  Worcester  plain  is 
like  the  plain  of  Burton  on  the 
middle  Trent,  The  Teme,  Wye,, 
and  Usk  may  be  considered  as 
Severn  tributaries.  In  their  Eng- 
lish sections  they  cut  valleys  in  the 
Old  Red  Sandstone. 

Lancashire  and  Cheshire  Estuaries 
The  Triassic  plain  of  S.E.  Lan- 
cashire and  Cheshire  is  drained  by 
the  Mersey  and  its  affluent  the 
Irwell,  the  Weaver,  and  the  lower 
Dee.  Their  outlets  to  Lancashire 
Bay,  the  Mersey  and  Dee  estuaries, 
are  not  conformable  with  the 
streams  themselves.  In  both  cases 
the  estuaries  are  being  silted  up, 
sandbanks  a  few  feet  below  the  sea 
continue  the  Wirral  peninsula  far 
to  the  N.,  the  main  channel  wind- 
ing at  low  water  as  a  narrow  stream 
across  the  sand-choked  Dee  estu- 
ary. The  bottle-neck  formation  of 
the  Mersey  estuary  assists  the  daily 
scour  of  the  tides,  but  large  dred- 
gers have  to  be  maintained  to 
provide  a  regular  channel  for 
liners.  Ribblesdale  belongs  to  the 
mountain  limestone  of  the  Pen- 
nines,  and  connects  with  Airedale 
at  the  Aire  Gap. 

Lonsdale  is  a  reminder  that  the 
Lune  is  a  Pennine  stream  with  a 
silt-filled  estuary.  The  tiny  streams 
of  the  Lake  District  which  reach 
Morecambe  Bay  are  really  longer 
than  the  map  indicates,  since  they 
form  definite  valleys  across  More- 
cambe sands  and  have  lower 
courses  which  are  only  obscured  at 
high  tide.  The  Eden  rises  close  to 
the  sources  of  the  Swale  and  Ure, 
flows  across  Permian  sandstone  to 
the  Triassic  Solway  Plain  ;  its  afflu- 
ent, the  Irthing,  completes  the 
Tyne  Gap  in  the  Pennines.  Like,  all 
the  Triassic  bays,  Solway  Firth  has 
vast  stretches  of  sand  exposed  at 
low  tide.  The  Lake  District  cul- 
minates in  Scawfell,  but  the  lake 
valleys  radiate  from  Helvellyn. 
Windermere,  Coniston  Water, 
Wastwater,  Bnnerdale  Water, 
Buttermere,  Derwent  Water,  Bas- 
senthwaite,  Thirlmere,  Ullswater, 
and  Hawes  Water  are  typical  lakes 
of  a  glaciated  area,  and  fill  part  of 
the  narrow  dales  which  lead  down- 
wards between  tree-clad  ridges 
from  the  central  dome  where  an- 
cient sedimentary  rocks  are  exposed 
in  Skiddaw,  and  intrusive  volcanic 
rocks  raise  weathered  peaks,  as  at 
Scawfell.  Walney  Island  and  the 
coast  from  Foulney  Island  to 
S.  Bees  Head  is  Triassic  low- 
land. Windermere,  Ambleside  and 


Specially  drawn   Jor   Harmsworth's   Universal    Encycloped 

Fuller  topographical  details  of  England  and  Wales  will  be  found  in  the  larger  scale  maps  givsn  under  the  headings  of  the 
To  face  page  29IO  respective  couaties 


ENGLAND 


291  1 


ENGLAND 


England. 


Map   indicating   the  mean   actu; 
mperature  of  England  and  Wales 


actual   annual 


tern 

Keswick  are  examples  of  settle- 
ments where  a  route  leads  from 
one  dale  to  another. 

The  shallowness  of  British  seas 
and  the  gradual  shelving  of  the 
English  shore  are  important  in  re- 
ference to  the  rhythmic  pulsations 
of  the  tides.  In  few  countries  is  the 
tidal  effect  felt  so  far  up  the  rivers. 
In  the  characteristically  English 
unconformable  estuaries  the  scour 
of  the  tides  keeps  open  the  regular 
channels,  with  the  result  that  there 
are  scores  of  tidal  harbours  round 
the  English  coasts.  No  part  of 
England  is  more  than  70  m.  from 
a  section  of  this  tide-swept  coast. 

CLIMATE  AND  WEATHER.  Ulti- 
mately, the  climate  depends  upon 
solar  insolation  and  upon  the  cur- 
rents in  the  atmosphere  between 
the  lower  surface  inhabited  by  man 
and  the  isothermal  layer  about  5  m. 
or  6  m.  up.  The  lower  faces  of  these 
currents  are  disturbed  into  eddies 
and  whirls  by  the  varied  configura- 
tion of  the  land  surface,  but  the 
general  movements  are  steady  and 
continuous.  The  climate  of  Eng- 
land is  determined  within  very  wide 
limits  by  the  intensity  of  the  sun's 
rays  which  it  receives  ;  because  of 
its  situation  England  is  not  tropical 
like  Ceylon,  nor  arid  like  Egypt, 
nor  a  frozen  waste  like  Spitsbergen. 

The  limits  set  to  its  climate  by  its 
latitude  are  very  far  apart.  The 
precise  range  of  the  climate  within 
these  extremes  is  determined  by 
the  atmospheric  currents,  which 
move  in  relation  to  three  areas  of 
definite  types  of  atmospheric  pres- 
sure. To  the  S.  W.  over  the  Atlantic 


lies  the  Azores 
area  of  high  pres- 
sures, to  the  E. 
over  the  main- 
land the  pressure 
is  usually  high, 
to  the  N.W.  over 
the  Atlantic  the 
pressure  near 
Iceland  is  usually 
low. 

The  prevalent 
surface  winds 
are,  therefore, 
those  with  a  wes- 
terly  direction 
which  bring 
oceanic  influ- 
ences to  bear, 
for  these  winds 
are  usually  mois- 
ture-laden,warm 
in  winter  and  cool 
in  summer.  The 
net  result  is  that 
English  seas, 
rivers,  and  lakes 
are  never  frozen, 
that  England  has 
the  mildest  win- 
ters of  any  part 
of  the  world  in  corresponding  lati- 
tudes. These  results  are  chiefly  due 
to  the  clouds  and  the  consequent 
rain.  The  masses  of  moisture-laden 
air  carried  to  England  from  the 
Atlantic  are  necessarily  cloudy ; 
England  has  usually  a  high  per- 
centage of  cloud-covered  sky.  The 
clouds  are  a  blanket  in  winter  and 
a  screen  in  summer. 

In  winter  when  the  earth  should 
cool  rapidly  and  dissipate  the 
warmth  stored 
in  summer  the 
clouds  restrict 
the  radiation  of 
heat,  condense 
into  relatively 
warm  rain,  and 
in  so  doing  re- 
lease heat  and 
bring  muggy, 
foggy  days.  In 
summer  the 
clouds  screen 
England  from 
the  fierce  rays  of 
a  sun  high  in  the 
sky,  and  supply 
frequent  rains. 
As  more  water  is 
evaporated 
in  summer  than 
in  winter  fre- 
quent rainfall 
means  a  lower- 
ing of  the  tem- 
perature by  the 
absorption  of  the 
heat  necessary  to 
change  the  water 
into  gaseous 
moisture.  An 


English  July  may  therefore  be  cool 
and  rainy. 

The  isotherms,  which  indicate 
corrected  temperatures  at  sea 
level,  show  that  in  July  London  in 
the  S.E.  is  hottest,  over  64°  F., 
and  that  the  strip  of  land  along  the 
Scottish  border  is  coolest,  below 
59°  F.  But  in  Jan.  Land's  End  is 
warmest,  over  44°  F.,  and  the  E. 
coast  from  Flamborough  Head  to 
the  Nore  is  coldest,  below  38°  F.  ; 
London  is  no  warmer  than  Carlisle 
or  Berwick,  Liverpool  is  as  warm 
as  Southampton. 

Effect  of  Winds 

The  actual  weather  which  io 
probable  at  any  English  town  is 
determined  by  local  conditions  of 
elevation  and  slope  and  by  general 
variations  from  the  normal.  The 
prevalent  winds  usually  reach 
England  as  cyclonic  storms  which 
follow  more  or  less  definite  tracks 
from  the  Atlantic  ;  sometimes  the 
storms  are  fended  away  from  Eng- 
land because  the  continental  high 
pressure  extends  over  the  S.E. 
counties  and  brings  clear  skies,  cool 
or  cold  nights  with  a  frosty  period 
in  winter ;  at  other  times  the 
Azores  high  pressure  approaches 
the  S.W.,  and  Cornwall  has  bright, 
sunny  days  while  the  N.  is  cloudy, 
cool,  and  wet. 

These  general  variations  affect 
the  entire  country  while  the  sur- 
face configuration  introduces 
purely  local  variations.  The  annual 
temperature  of  England,  were  it 
entirely  a  plain,  would  lie  between 
48°  F.  and  54°  F.  ;  the  map  shows 
that  it  actually  lies  between  38°  F. 


England.    Map  showing  the  annual  distribution  of  rail*' 
fall  in  England  and  Wales 


ENGLAND 


29  1  2 


ENGLAND 


and  52°  F.,  and  that  the  hills  are 
cooler  than  the  lowlands.  Really 
the  S.  coast,  the  London  area,  and 
the  lowlands  of  the  S.W.  are 
warmest,  the  Lake  District  is 
coldest,  and  the  Vale  of  York  is  as 
cool  as  the  tops  of  the  N.  Downs 
or  the  Chilterns.  The  rainfall 
map  shows  primarily  the  effect  of 
elevation;  the  wettest  place  in 
England  is  in  the  Lake  District, 
and  even  minor  ridges  are  wetter 
than  the  plains  beneath ;  the 
tops  of  the  Downs  receive  more 
rain  than  the  Weald  plain.  But 
rain  clouds  come  from  the  ocean, 
so  that  the  W.  of  England  is  wetter 
than  the  E.  Dartmoor  and  Bod- 
min  Moor  are  wetter  than  the  Peak, 
and  the  500  ft.  level  on  the  Lan- 
cashire slope  of  the  Pennines  re- 
ceives 10  ins.  more  rain  a  year  than 
the  corresponding  level  on  the 
Yorkshire  slope ;  Holderness  is 
drier  than  the  Wirral. 

The  actual  number  of  hours  of 
sunshine  experienced  in  England 
varies  considerably.  Cornwall, 
Norfolk,  and  the  S.  coast  receive 
more  than  1,500  hours,  the  E. 
slopes  of  the  Pennines  less  than 
1,200  hours.  But  the  difference  is 
largely  neutralised  by  the  slope  of 
the  ground.  Although  the  sun 
shines  almost  equally  upon  both 
sides  of  the  S.  Downs  the  southern 
slopes  are  so  tilted  that  the  sun's 
rays  have  an  increased  heating 
effect,  while  the  northern  slopes 
are,  as  it  were,  tilted  away  from 
the  sun's  activity. 

The  climate  and  weather  of  Eng- 
land have,  therefore,  a  definite 
character.  There  are  no  extremes, 
there  is  constant  change,  and, 
within  a  small  space  or  a  short 
period,  considerable  variety. 

MOVEMENTS  OF  POPULATION. 
Celt,  Saxon,  Dane,  and  Norman  left 
their  impress  upon  the  English 
people,  and  the  prosperity  of  Eng- 
land later  attracted  Welsh,  Scots, 
and  Irish  from  within  the  British 
Isles  and  strangers  from  the  Con- 
tinent. British  freedom  drew  many 
immigrant  aliens  from  Central 
Europe,  particularly  the  Jews.  Con- 
sequently, the  English  people  is 
almost  as  kaleidoscopic  as  the  Eng- 
lish rocks  or  English  weather.  The 
total  of  some  36  millions  is  unevenly 
distributed  over  the  area  of  51,000 
sq.  m.  England  contained  two- 
thirds  of  tlie  population  of  the 
British  Isles  in  1871  and  three-quar- 
ters in  1911  ;  the  rate  of  increase 
per  decade  has  gradually  diminished 
from  134  per  thousand,  1861-71, 
to  105,  1901-1911.  In  1801  the 
population  was  8,900,000,  and  in 
1851,  17,900,000. 

The  Pennine,  N.  Yorkshire  and 
Cornish  moors,  and  the  Cumbrian 
Mts.  are  uninhabited  ;  in  the  in- 


habited  areas 
there  is  a  con- 
tinuous gradation 
towards  definite 
areas  of  concen- 
tration Roughly, 
in  a  belt  of  country 
stretching  from 
Weymouth  across 
Salisbury  Plain 
and  the  Clay  Vale 
to  near  Peter  - 
borough,  past 
Lincolnand  Gains- 
borough to  York 
and  the  N.  half  of 
the  plain  of  the 
Tees,  the  popu- 
lation is  least 
dense.  E.  of  thi< 
belt  there  is 
approximately  a 
steady  increase 
towards  the  Lon- 
don area.  W.  of 
it  there  are  several 
foci  of  population. 
Bristol,  the  Black 
Country,  the  Pot- 
teries, the  invert- 
ed sickle  of  S.E. 


England.    Isothermic  map,  in  which  points  recording 
the  same  temperature  at  a  given  time  are  joined  by  lines 


Lancashire,  and  the  W.  Riding  with  come  larger  except  at  Newark.  New 

the  continuation  to  Derby  and  Not-  nuclei  had  grown  along  the  lines 

tingham,  the  Durham  district  from  already    noted,   but   the    greatest 

Darlington  to  Newcastle — all  these  change  occurred  near  Nottingham, 

are  crowded,  and  the  population  where  a  small  urban  area  had  ex- 

gradually    thins    out    away    from  panded  to  make  almost  a  complete 

these  centres.  ring    something   like    5   m.    wide. 

Varying  Areas  of  Population  Throughout  two-thirds  of  the  area 

A  closer'  examination  of  details  the  population  was  less  numerous 

indicates  that  the  areas  of  dense  in  1901  than  a  century  earlier  ;   in 

population  such  as  the  London  dis-  Parts  there  had   been   an   almost 

continuous  decline,  elsewhere  there 


trict  include  nuclei  of  very  dense 
population  grading  off  to  areas  of 
relatively  few  inhabitants.  Con- 
sider the  area  composed  of  the 
counties  of  Cheshire,  Derbyshire, 
Nottingham,  and  the  N.  half  of 
Staffordshire.  In  1801  more  than 
half  the  area  had  fewer  people  than 
128  per  sq.  m.  In  the  W.  half 
Chester,  Nantwich,  Northwich, 
Macclesfield,  Stoke,  Stockport,  and 
Altrincham  were  small  urban  areas 
with  at  least  1,920  people  per  sq.m. 
In  the  E.,  Derby,  Nottingham, 
Newark,  Retford,  and  Chesterfield 
were  similar  urban  areas.  By  1851 
the  areas  of  sparse  population  had 
grown  smaller  and  the  urban  areas 
exceeding  1,920  per  sq.  m.  were 
more  numerous  along  certain 
definite  Jines,  from  Birkenhead  to 
Stockport  along  the  Mersey,  from 
Stoke  N.  to  Macclesfield,  from 
Derby  N.  to  Chesterfield  ;  the  Not- 
tingham nucleus  was  larger,  but 
those  of  Chester,  Retford,  and 
Newark  were  unchanged. 

By  1901  the  areas  of  sparse 
population  were  nearly  as  large  as 
in  1801 ;  the  rural  areas  were  being 
depopulated.  The  urban  nuclei, 
already  developed  in  1851,  had  be- 


had  been  growth  until  1841  and 
subsequent  decline.  The  urban 
areas  already  specified  had  multi- 
plied their  numbers  by  from  4  to  10 
times.  Near  Birkenhead,  round 
Stoke,  in  a  belt  of  country  from 
Nottingham  to  Chesterfield,  there 
occurred  exceptional  growth. 

General  Conclusions 
An  inquiry  into  the  circum- 
stances attendant  upon  these 
changes  yielded  the  following  con- 
clusions. The  purely  farming  areas 
either  absolutely  declined  in 
numbers  or  increased  by  little 
more  than  50  p.c.  In  the  lead-min- 
ing districts  the  population  was 
almost  stationary  until  the  mines 
failed,  when  it  declined  absolutely. 
In  the  colliery  districts  the  popu- 
lation increased  approximately 
eightfold.  In  the  salt -mining  areas 
of  Cheshire  the  people  increased 
steadily. .  In  the  districts  where 
cotton  factories  were  established 
growth  in  population  was  rapid,  but 
the  failure  of  factories  established 
in  unsuitable  localities  during  the 
boom  caused  a  decline.  Results 
may  be  summarised  thus  :  the  in- 
dustrial development  of  the  are* 


ENGLAND 


2913 


ENGLAND 


attracted  the  people  from  the 
farms  and  also  drew  to  the  urban 
nuclei  large  numbers  from  other 
parts  of  England.  Similar  conclu- 
sions may  be  drawn  from  an  in- 
vestigation concerning  the  popula- 
tion of  the  W.  Riding  ;  the  farming 
areas  tend  to  decline  in  population, 
the  purely  mining  areas  increase 
steadily,  the  iron-working  and 
textile^areas  increase  rapidly,  the 
latter  especially  from  the  advent  of 
female  immigrants. 

English  towns  may  be  divided 
into  7  groups :  1.  The  ring  of 
dormitory  towns  round  London  : 
East  Ham,  West  Ham,  Wimbledon, 
Richmond,  etc-  2.  Factory  towns 
for  textiles,  pottery,  iron  goods, 
etc. :  Manchester,  Leeds,  Bradford, 
Birmingham,  etc.  3.  Mining  towns  : 
Barnsley,  Nuneaton,  etc.  4.  Trans- 
port centres  :  Crewe,  Swindon, 
Liverpool,  Bristol,  Hull,  etc.  5. 
Historic  market  towns  :  Oxford, 
Chester,  Bath,  Canterbury,  etc.  6. 
Playgrounds  :  Brighton,  Scar- 
borough, Blackpool,  etc.  7.  Towns 
of  specialised  industry  :  Reading, 
Luton,  Bedford,  etc. 

INDUSTRIES.  TRADE,  COMMUNICA- 
TION. England  grows  2  p.c.  of  the 
world's  wheat  and  oats,  4  p.c.  of 
the  barley,  and  contains  2  p.c.  of 
the  world's  cattle  and  horses,  and 
3  p.c.  of  the  sheep.  These  products 
only  supply  a  fraction  of  the  cereals 
and  meat  required  by  the  inhabit- 
ants, with  the  result  that  England 
is  proportionally  the  greatest  food 
importing  country  in  the  world. 
The  wheat  is  grown  chiefly  N.  of 
the  Thames,  and  E.  of  a  line  drawn 
from  London  to  Goole.  In  the 
U.K.,  with  a  small  increase  in  pro- 
duction and  a  decrease  in  imports 
of  wheat  during  the  Great  War, 
the  proportion  of  home-grown  to 
the  total  consumption  of  wheat  in- 
creased from  22  to  21  p.c.  Oats  are 
spread  over  the  lowlands.  The 
largest  count}'  yields  are  in  the  E. 
Riding  and  Cambridgeshire,  but  do 
not  equal  those  of  E.  Ulster.  In 
Cheshire  three-quarters  of  the 
arable  land  is  devoted  to  oats  to 
supply  the  local  needs.  Only  a 
small  proportion  of  the  oats  con- 
sumed in  England  is  grown  outside 
the  U.K.  Barley  is  grown  in  the 
driest  E.  counties,  Norfolk,  Suffolk, 
and  Lincoln;  thedryness  of  the  har- 
vest improves  malting  quality,  and 
the  warm  spring  yields  specially 
valuable  crops.  During  the  Great 
War  the  quantity  of  barley  grown 
was  considerably  diminished. 
Cattle  and  Dairy  Farming 

Cattle  are  most  numerous  in  the 
W.  lowlands,  extending  from  the 
plains  round  Morecambe  Bay  in  a 
wide  sweep  along  the  Severn  valley 
into  the  Cornish  peninsula,  where 
the  rainfall  exceeds  40  ins.  an- 


nually, and  the  clays  and  alluvial 
flats  yield  rich  meadow  grass.  A 
third  of  the  cattle  belongs  to  dairy 
farmers.  The  great  centres  of  popu- 
lation have  brought  into  existence 
many  small  farmers  with  small 
herds  of  milkers  on  poor  grass-land. 
The  demand  of  London  has  pro- 
duced special  rly.  facilities  for 
bringing  the  milk  from  as  far  as 
the  Vale  of  Pe  \vsey.  in  Wiltshire. 
In  Cheshire  the  dairymen  sup- 
ply the  cotton  towns  with  milk, 
and  make  cheese ;  Derbyshire 
and  Leicestershire  produce  Stilton 
cheese.  Cornwall  is  almost  purely  a 
cattle  county,  the  milk  being  made 
into  butter  and  clotted  cream.  In 
Devon  the  cattle  are  reared  for  their 
milk  as  in  Cornwall,  but  also  for  the 
butcher,  being  sold  to  graziers  as 
two-year  olds  and  sent  to  the  Mid- 
lands or  Hampshire.  During  the 
Great  War  the  number  of  cattle  in- 
creased by  at  least  5  p.c. 

Sheep  Runs  and  Farm  Lands 

Great  Britain  contains  probably 
the  largest  number  of  sheep  in  pro- 
portion to  area  of  any  country. 
Kent  has  the  most  sheep  per  sq.  m., 
the  short  pasture  and  dryness  of 
the  chalk  hills  being  specially  suit- 
able. Wiltshire,  Dorset,  Lincoln- 
shire, and  the  E.  Riding  are  great 
sheep  counties  for  the  same  reason. 
The  hill  slopes  of  Shropshire,  Here- 
ford, Monmouth,  Northumber- 
land, and  Cumberland  are  also  im- 
portant. The  number  of  sheep  de- 
clined by  16  p.c.  during  the  Great- 
War,  in  Wiltshire  and  Hampshire 
the  decline  amounting  to  30  p.c. 

In  thousandths  of  the  total  area 
of  England  the  proportions  of  the 
various  kinds  of  farm  lands  are  as 
follow  :  Mountain  and  heath  used 
for  grazing,  84  ;  permanent  grass, 
392;  oats,  70;  wheat,  66;  barley, 
44;  mixed  corn  and  rye,  7;  beans 
and  peas,  14;  potatoes,  14;  turnips, 
swedes,  and  mangolds,  40 ;  clover 
arid  other  rotation  grass,  62 ;  bare 
fallow,  20.  The  average  number  of 
animals  per  1,000  acres  are  respec- 


lation.  Devon  and  Cheshire  are 
wet,  and  Cheshire  is  near  populous 
S.E.  Lancashire.  The  minor  crops 
of  Essex  are  beans,  peas,  potatoes, 
and  other  roots;  glasshouses  supply 
grapes,  tomatoes,  etc.,  to  Co  vent 
Garden  ;  there  are  numerous  seed 
and  fruit  farms  :  rose  culture  is  im- 
portant. The  cattle  supply  much 
milk  to  London. 

t  Devon  has  few  towns ;  the  wheat 
yield  per  acre  is  one  of  the  lowest 
in  England;  apples,  pears,  plums, 
etc. ,  are  largely  grown ;  Devon 
cattle  fetch  high  prices  and  Devon- 
shire cream  is  celebrated.  Cheshire 
grows  considerable  quantities  of 
potatoes,  and  roots  for  winter  feed ; 
damsons  are  the  chief  stone 
fruit;  the  cattle  consist  chiefly  of 
dairy  cows. 

Lincolnshire  is  definitely  a  farm- 
ing county  ;  the  acreage  under 
barley  roughly  equals  that  under 
wheat,  and  exceeds  that  of  any 
other  county  ;  peas,  beans,  pota- 
toes, and  other  roots  are  important 
crops ;  Lincoln  shorthorns  are  good 
milkers  and  Lincoln  sheep  are  ex- 
ported for  breeding  to  the  S.  hemi- 
sphere. A  large  proportion  of  the 
cattle  are  bred  for  the  butcher. 

Comparing  the  tabulated  results, 
it  appears  that  the  wetter  W.  has 
a  relative  excess  of  permanent 
grass  and  cattle,  the  cattle  of  Che- 
shire being  60  p.c.  above  the  aver- 
age. Devon  has  above  the  average 
number  of  sheep.  All  four  counties 
exceed  the  average  in  oats,  but  the 
greater  excess  is  in  the  wet  west. 
In  the  drier  counties  Essex  has  an 
exceptional  area  under  wheat  and 
Lincolnshire  under  barley  ;  the  W. 
has  little  of  either  crop.  Essex  has 
below  the  average  in  both  sheep 
and  cattle. 

Distribution  of  Coalfields 

In  estimating  the  value  of  min- 
ing in  the  U.K.  and  in  England  in 
relation  to  the  rest  of  the  world,  it 
is  necessary  to  consider  the  statis- 
tics for  the  period  immediately 
preceding  the  Great  War.  The 


PROPORTIONS    OF   CROPS   AND    ANIMALS  PER   1,000   ACRES 


Essex  ..      . 
Devon  . . 
Cheshire 
Lincolnshire 


Permanent 
grass 

Wheat 

Oats 

Barley 

Sheep 

Cattle 

Acres 

Nun 

140 
449 
151 
426 

iber 

^. 

100 
189 
274 
152 

262 
379 
475 

285 

131 
47 
45 
106 

72 
95 
119 
79 

60 
24 

111 

tively  :  horses,  38  ;  cattle,  166 ; 
sheep,  420  ;  pigs,  50. 

A  comparison  between  these 
average  values  for  England  a.s  a 
whole,  and  the  return  for  four 
selected  counties,  indicates  roughly 
the  effect  of  climate  and  soil  upon 
the  farmer's  work. 

Essex  is  dry  and  near  London  ; 
Lincolnshire  is  equally  dry,  but 
distant  from  dense  areas  of  popu- 


chief  English  mineral  is  coal.  A 
quarter  of  the  world's  coal  was 
mined  in  the  U.K.,  one-fifth  in 
England  alone.  To  get  this  coal 
occupied  about  a  million  workers, 
so  that  about  10  p.c.  of  the  U.K. 
population  was  dependent  upon 
the  collieries.  The  distribution  of 
the  coalfields  depends  upon  the 
presence  of  the  carboniferous  rocks, 
but  the  E.  coalfields,  in  particular 

P     4 


ENGLAND 


291  4 


ENGLAND&WALES 

..    RAILWAYS 

V  >         English  Mile* 


Referervrs 
London  &  North  Eastern 

2  London  Midland  i  Scottish 

3  Southern 

Westei-n 


those  of  York,  Derby,  and  Notting- 
ham, have  an  indefinite  boundary 
under  the  newer  rocks  to  the  E.  of 
the  carboniferous  series  ;  thus  coal 
inav  be  found  at  greater  depths  on 
the  E.  margins. 

Britain  produced  about  one- 
cighth  of  the  world's  iron,  chiefly 
on  the  coalfields,  where  the  ore  was 
found  between  beds  of  coal,  and,  in 
addition,  in  Cleveland  and  Furness, 
where  there  are  large  deposits  of 
haematite  ore.  The  demand  for 
iron  ore  for  war  purposes  led  to  the 
increased  mining  of  low-grade  ores 
in  the  newer  strata  E.  and  S.E.  of 
the  Trent,  and  modern  methods  of 
iron-mining,  combined  with  high 
prices,  may  mean  the  continued 
exploitation  of  these  ores. 
Decline  of  Lead-mining 

Less  than  one  p.c.  of  the  world's 
lead  was  mined,  chiefly  in  Derby- 
shire, but  lead-mining  has  been  de- 
clining for  many  years.  Cornwall 
produced  less  than  4  p.c.  of  the 
world's  tin,  chiefly  at  the  E.  Pool 
and  Tresavean  mines.  Zinc  in 
Cumberland,  manganese  in  Corn- 
wall and  Devon,  and  tungsten  in 
Cornwall  are  minerals  of  minor 
importance.  The  most  important 
non-metallic  mineral  is  salt,  which 
is  chiefly  found  in  the  Nantwich 
district  in  Cheshire,  but  also  in 
Lancashire,  Worcestershire,  and 
Durham. 

The  chief  English  fishing  towns 
are  on  the  E.  coast.  Grimsby,  Yar- 
mouth, and  Lowestoft  account  for 
most  of  the  catch  on  this  coast, 
which  amounts  to  more  than 
three-quarters  of  the  English  total 
Newlyn,  near  Penzance,  is  the 
chief 'fishing  centre  on  the  S. 
coast,  and  St.  Ives  and  Fleetwood 
on  the  W.  coast.  The  main  catch 
in  the  N.  Sea  is  herring,  in  the  Chan- 
nel, mackerel  and  pilchard. 

The  most  important  English 
manufactures  are  textiles.  Cottons 
occupy  500,000  workers  and  are 
f  ocussed  on  Manchester  ;  the  chief 
districts  are  Blackburn,  Oldham, 
Bolton,  Stockport,  Preston,  and 
Rochdale.  Woollens  are  chiefly 
made  in  the  W.  Riding,  with  Brad- 
ford as  a  technical  and  Leeds  as  a 
marketing  centre,  the  other  chief 
districts  being  Huddersfield  and 
Halifax.  The  manufacture  of 
woollens  extends  W.  to  Rochdale, 
that  of  cottons  E.  to  Halifax  and 
Bradford.  Silk  goods  are  made  over 
a  wider  area  and  on  a  smaller  scale, 
the  main  centres  being  Bradford, 
Stockport,  Halifax,  Stoke,  Bir- 
mingham, and  London.  Leicester, 
Nottingham,  and  Derby  manufac- 
ture lace  and  both  cotton  and 
woollen  hosiery.  The  distribution 
of  the  textile  industry  is  largely 
controlled  bv  the  S.  Pennine  coal- 
fields. 


England.     Map  showing  the  principal  railway  systems  of  England  and  Wales 


Because  England  took  the  lead 
in  manufacturing  on  a  large  scale, 
the  English  manufactures  of  iron 
and  steel  were  for  a  long  time  more 
important  inrly.  construction,  and 
in  iron  and  steel  shipbuilding,  than 
those  of  any  other  country. 

Smelting  operations  are  usually 
carried  out  near  the  mines,  especi- 
ally in  Cleveland  and  the  Black 
Country.  Pig  iron  is  made  to  the 
extent  of  nearly  3,000,000  tons 
annually  of  each  type  :  forge  and 
foundry,  Bessemer,  haematite, 
and  basic ;  for  these  purposes 
iron  ore  is  imported  chiefly  to 
Middlesbrough  to  supplement  local 
supplies.  Steel  is  made  chiefly  by 
the  open  hearth  process  ;  the 
Bessemer  process  yielding  only  a 
fifth  of  the  total;  during  the 
decade  1910-20  many  electric  fur- 
naces were  established  for  special 
steels.  Sheffield  steel  and  Bir- 
mingham hardware  are  famous 
all  over  the  world. 

The  chief  shipbuilding  district 
extends  from  the  Tees  to  the  Tyne. 
The  Great  War  led  to  a  rapid 
expansion  of  the  iron  industry; 
numerous  factories  were  extended 
or  newly  built,  and  it  remains  to 
be  seen  whether  they  will  survive. 


The  great  centres,  Sheffield,  the 
Black  Country,  the  N.E.,  and 
Barrow-in-Furness  lie  on  coal  or 
iron  fields,  although  the  newer 
factories  are  more  widespread. 
Metal  factories  and  workshops  for 
zinc,  copper,  aluminium,  and  tin 
goods  are  associated  with  the  Iron 
works,  but  are  also  developed,  e.g. 
the  metal  parts  of  motor-cars,  in  the 
large  urban  centres  such  as  London 
and  Manchester.  Wolverhampton 
is  an  important  metal  centre. 

Localised  Manufactures 
Certain  manufactures  are  speci- 
fically localised.  The  Potteries  on 
the  N.  Staffordshire  coalfield  use 
local  clay  and  coal  for  making 
crockery  and  earthenware,  coal  pur- 
chase being  the  main  factory  expen- 
diture. Northampton  and  Leicester 
are  the  main  centres  for  boot  and 
shoe  manufacture.  Walsall  special- 
ises in  harness  and  saddlery.  Chem- 
icals, alkali,  and  soaps  are  made 
chiefly  near  the>  Mersey  in  close  re- 
lation to  the  Cheshire  salt  for  .-aw 
material  and  the  textile  works  for 
consumption  of  part  of  the  finished 
products.  Steam-driven  flour  nails 
have  superseded  water  mills  :nd 
are  located  at  the  wheat-imvrt- 
ing  ports,  London,  Hull,  er-c. 


ENGLAND 


2915 


ENGLAND 


The  main  English  rlys.  radi- 
ate from  London.  The  L.  &  Y. 
and  the  N.  Staffordshire  Rlys.  are 
the  two  principal  lines  not  based 
upon  London.  The  L.N.E.  lily, 
forms  an  integral  part  of  the  E. 
coast  route  from  London  to  Scot 
land.  The  lure  of  London  traffic 
caused  the  Manchester,  Sheffield, 
and  Lincolnshire  Rly.  to  become 
+,ho  Great  Central  Rly.,  with  a 
Ijondon  terminus  at  Marylebone. 
Although  London  has  profoundly 
influenced  the  railway  system,  it 
has  not  overwhelmed  provincial 
traffic  even  outside  the  textile 
area  of  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire, 
for  the  ports  of  Bristol  and  South- 
ampton are  well  served,  especially 
from  the  Midlands.  A  new  group 
ing  system  came  into  force  in  1923 
(See  Railways.) 

Canals  and  Roads 

During  the  later  19th  century 
the  several  rly.  companies  com- 
peted vigorously  for  traffic,  but 
later  the  stringent  economy  in 
rolling-stock  and  personnel  added 
to  the  ever-mounting  cost  per 
passenger-  or  per  ton-mile.  The 
gradual  electrification  of  the  rly. 
service  is  of  great  importance. 

English  barge  canals  have  been 
subordinated,  by  rly.  competition, 
mainly  to  the  slow  carriage  at  low 
cost  of  heavy,  bulky,  and  non- 
perishable  commodities.  The  canal 
map  shows  roughly  four  main 
canal  routes  radiating  from  the 
Midlands  to  the  Mersey,  Humber, 
Thames,  and  Severn  estuaries. 
These  routes,  at  present,  suffer 
from  differences  of  section,  i.e. 
width  and  depth  of  water,  which 
limit  the  carrying  capacity  of 
"  through  "  boats. 

The  only  ship  canal  of  import- 
ance has  made  Manchester  a  port 
and  has  brought  ocean  steamers 
some  30  m.  inland,  almost  to  the 
doors  of  the  cotton  factories. 

The  main  roads,  roughly  a  dozen, 
radiate  from  London  to  all  points 
of  the  compass  ;  but  Leeds,  Man- 
chester, Chester,  Birmingham,  and 
Gloucester  are  also  road  centres. 
There  are  two  great  routes  which 
do  not  touch  London ;  from 
Sheffield  through  Birmingham, 
Gloucester,  Bristol,  and  Exeter  to 
Land's  End,  and  from  Chester 
through  Shrewsbury  and  Hereford 
to  Gloucester.  The  minor  hills  do 
not  affect  the  roads,  but  the  Pen- 
nines  are  only  crossed  by  four 
main  roads,  through  the  Tyne  and 
Aire  Gaps,  over  Blackstone  Edge 
to  Manchester,  and  by  Buxton  from 
Manchester  to  Derby.  Road  de- 
velopment will,  however,  follow 
the  demand  for  improved  surfaces, 
w/der  and  straighter  roads,  and 
better  cross  connexions  between 
one  and  another. 


The  exchange  of  commodities 
within  England  and  between  Eng- 
land and  other  portions  of  the 
U.K.  constitutes  the  home  trade. 
The  geological  division  of  the 
country  into  an  area  of  new  rocks 
in  the  S.E.  separated  by  the  oolite 
ridges  from  the  older  rocks  of  the 
W.  and  N.  corresponds  roughly  to 
a  division  into  an  agricultural  S.E. 
and  an  industrial  Midlands  and 
N.,  and  has  definitely  localised 
many  occupations.  The  specialised 
local  products  are  interchanged ; 
London  coal  is  brought  by  rly.  to 
the  area  N.  of  the  Thames,  a.nd  by 
sea  for  that  S.  of  the  river ;  the  tex- 
tiles warehoused  and  retailed  in 
the  metropolis  are  brought  by 
train  from  Lancashire  and  York- 
shire ;  jams,  metal  products, 
luxury  commodities  of  all  kinds 
are  distributed  from  London. 

Burton  beer,  Stoke  crockery, 
Northampton  boots,  Leeds  ready- 
made  clothing,  Yarmouth  fish, 
Scilly  Isles  flowers,  Reading  bis- 
cuits, Bristol  tobacco,  Nottingham 
curtains,  are  a  few  articles  of  home 
trade.  Welsh  mutton,  Irish  butter, 
Scottish  oatmeal,  Belfast  and  Dun- 
dee linens,  Swansea  tinplate,  Isle 
of  Man  fish,  Channel  Islands  po- 
tatoes and  tomatoes  increase  its 
total  volume.  In  addition  to  long- 
distance trade  each  urban  centre 
is  a  market  attracting  a  consider- 
able traffic  in  foodstuffs. 

The  Market  of  the  World 

England  is  probably  the  greatest 
market  in  the  world.  The  world- 
price  of  wheat,  for  example,  is 
affected  by  the  price  which  im- 
ported wheat  fetches  in  England. 
The  desire  to  supply  England  has 
brought  about  cold  storage  for 
mutton  and  beef,  perishable  fruits, 
etc.,  and  has  caused  great  develop- 
ments in  canning,  drying,  or  pre- 
serving foodstuffs.  Wheat  is 
harvested,  and  fruits  are  picked 
somewhere  in  the  world  every  week, 
and  consequently  the  world  can 
send  to  England  a  continuous 
stream  of  foodstuffs  ;  the  products 
of  the  S.  hemisphere,  wheat,  mut- 
ton, beef,  butter,  fruits,  etc.,  are 
at  their  best  when  the  supplies  of 
the  N.  begin  to  fail.  In  addition 
to  these  supplements  to  home 
supplies,  tea,  coffee,  rice,  etc.,  are 
imported. 

But  England  is  a  market  for  raw 
materials  as  well  as  foodstuffs.  The 
prices  of  raw  cotton  and  raw  wool 
are  affected  by  the  English  demand. 
Iron  ore  in  distant  parts  of  the 
world  could  be  mined  cheaply  if  it 
could  be  utilised  locally,  but  it  is 
undisturbed  because  the  price  in 
the  English  market  will  not  yield  a 
profit  after  freights  and  mining  ex- 
penses are  met.  Copper,  tin,  lead, 
zinc,  manganese,  either  smelted  or 


as  ores,  are  all  largely  imported. 
England  also  obtains  large  quanti- 
ties of  semi-manufactured  articles, 
chiefly  for  textile  and  metal  trades. 

Finally,  England  buys  the 
specialities  of  other  lands  :  Parisian 
finery,  American  motor-cars,  and, 
before  the  war,  German  pianos, 
chemicals,  etc.  England  pays  for 
these  imports  by  the  services  of  the 
merchant  shipping,  of  the  technical 
experts  lent  to  other  lands,  and  by 
the  export  of  coal  and  English 
manufactures.  English  textiles  are 
sent  over  the  whole  world,  English 
machinery  and  metal  goods  cover 
almost  as  wide  an  area.  Except  for 
the  coal  most  of  the  exports  repre- 
sent English  labour  much  more 
than  English  material.  On  a  broad 
view,  therefore,  England's  over- 
seas trade  consists  in  the  receipt  of 
food  supplies  which  are  paid  for 
almost  entirely  by  the  sale  to  the 
rest  of  the  world  of  English 
technical  skill,  i.e.  human  labour 
exerted  through  machinery. 
Seaports  of  England 

London  and  Liverpool  rank 
among  the  greatest  seaports  of  the 
world.  They  are  approximately 
equal  in  total  value  of  trade  in 
normal  times,  but  London  has  an 
excess  of  imports,  in  the  ratio  of  2 
to  1,  over  exports,  while  at  Liver- 
pool exports  and  imports  balance. 
They  are  each  responsible  for  a 
third  of  the  overseas  trade  of  Eng- 
land. Hull,  Manchester,  and 
Southampton  are  the  chief  of  the 
smaller  ports  ;  their  imports  ex- 
ceed their  exports.  Grimsby,  New- 
castle, and  Goole  have  exports  and 
imports  to  balance.  Bristol,  Har- 
wich, Newhaven,  Dover,  and  Folke- 
stone are  characterised  by  an  over- 
whelming excess,  about  four  times 
as  valuable,  of  imports. 

The  above  facts  refer  to  pre-war 
conditions.  During  that  critical 
period  Harwich,  Dover,  Newhaven, 
and,  to  some  extent,  Southampton, 
were  closed,  and  Falmouth  rose  to 
considerable  importance  by  being 
used  to  a  large  extent  instead  of 
London.  Similarly  Newcastle  was 
used  hi  preference  to  Hull. 

B.  C.  Wallis 

CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERN- 
MENT. The  system  of  government 
which  for  centuries  served  to  regu- 
late the  affairs  of  England  has  been 
extended  to  deal  with  those  of  the 
other  three  parts  of  the  United 
Kingdom,  and  to  some  extent  with 
those  of  the  British  possessions 
throughout  the  world.  The  result 
is  a  system  unsound  theoretically, 
bewildering  and  confused  historic- 
ally, but  from  the  practical  point 
of  view  workable,  and  on  the  whole 
satisfactory.  Fortunately  there  is 
one  fixed  point  amid  the  confusion 
— the  British  monarchy. 


ENGLAND 


ENGLAND 


The  official  who  by  a  series  of 
events  added  to  his  duties  and 
powers  as  king  of  England  those  of 
ruler  of  Ireland,  Wales,  and  Scot- 
land, and  then  of  vast  territories 
in  America,  Asia,  Africa,  and 
Australia,  had  before  these  events 
his  ministers,  his  parliament,  and 
his  court.  As  his  duties  expanded 
so  too  did  theirs,  although  in  an 
unequal  and  illogical  manner.  His 
chancellor  became  the  lord  chan- 
cellor for  Wales  and  Scotland,  but 
not  for  Ireland :  his  secretaries 
took  over  certain  duties  in  the 
other  countries,  but  by  no  means 
all,  nor  on  any  consistent  plan. 
The  result  is  a  ministry  hi  origin 
that  of  England  alone,  but  com- 
posed of  ministers  exercising  vary- 
ing degrees  of  power  over  the  rest 
of  the  United  Kingdom. 

Parliament,  too,  has  extended 
the  area  of  its  duties.  It  has  been 
transformed,  with  very  little 
structural  alteration,  into  one  re- 
presenting the  four  countries  of  the 
United  Kingdom,  and  controlling, 
in  addition,  the  affairs  of  the 
British  Empire.  Here,  however, 
there  are  neither  limitations  nor 
exceptions.  Parliament  has  ex- 
actly the  same  power  over  Ireland 
and  Scotland  as  it  has  over  Eng- 
land ;  theoretically,  at  least,  it  has 
equal  authority  over  Canada,  Aus- 
tralia, and  the  rest  of  the  Empire. 
How  the  Democracy  Works 

England,  classed  from  the  point 
of  view  of  government,  is  a  demo- 
cracy, perhaps  the  most  complete 
the  world  has  ever  known,  and  the 
democracy  exercises  its  power 
through  the  representative  system. 
Since  1918  the  vote  has  been 
possessed  by  practically  all  adult 
males  and  females,  and  by  them  the 
members  of  the  House  of  Commons 
are  elected.  Every  possible  device, 
trickery,  and  even  deception  may 
be  used  to  influence  their  choice, 
but  the  fact  remains  that  they  are 
free  to  send  to  Parliament  man  or 
woman,  whomsoever  they  will. 

The  democracy,  however,  works 
through  certain  traditional  and 
historical  forms.  It  has  secured 
the  supreme  power  in  the  state 
without  making  any  violent  changes 
in  the  constitution.  The  state  has  a 
figure-head  in  the  person  of  an 
hereditary  monarch,  while,  part  of 
the  high  court  of  Parliament, 
there  is  a  House  of  Lords,  in  which 
again  the  hereditary  element  pre- 
vails. The  House  of  Commons, 
too,  employs  very  much  the  same 
methods  as  it  did  a  century  or  two 
ago.  Democracy  hi  England  has 
found  less  violent  ways  of  securing 
its  omnipotence  than  by  behead- 
ings and  bloodshed.  It  has  made 
the  House  of  Commons  its  instru- 
ment of  action,  by  transforming  it 


into  the  dominant  factor   in  the 
constitution. 

THE  LEGISLATURE.  The  con- 
stitution of  England  may  be  con- 
sidered under  three  heads:  the 
legislature,  the  executive,  and  the 
judicature,  three  departments  with 
entirely  different  functions.  Of 
these,  the  legislature  is  supreme. 
It  consists  of  king,  lords,  and  com- 
mons, or  the  king  in  Parliament, 
and  the  laws  are  made,  theoretic- 
ally at  least,  by  the  three  together. 
This  untrammelled  law-making 
power  is  the  reason  why  the  legis- 
lature is  supreme.  Everything 
else  flows  from  it.  All  that  is 
necessary  to  abolish  the  House  of 
Lords,  to  sell  off  the  navy,  to  make 
the  income  tax  20/-  in  the  £,  is  a 
law  passed  by  Parliament. 

Legislature  and  the  Commons 

It  is  hardly  true,  however,  when 
we  come  to  actual  facts,  to  speak  in 
the  20th  century  of  legislation  by 
king,  lords,  and  commons,  while 
it  is  little  more  than  a  pleasing 
ceremonial  that  requires  the  assent 
of  the  king  to  Acts  of  Parliament. 
In  practice  the  legislature  is  the 
House  of  Commons.  It  has  two 
partners  in  the  matter,  it  is  true, 
but  they  have  no  power  whatever 
to  stop  any  measure  which  the 
Commons  are  determined  shall 
become  law. 

To  the  House  of  Commons  Eng- 
land returns  a  clear  majority  of 
members.  Of  a  total  of  707.  no 
less  than  492  are  returned  by  Eng- 
lish constituencies :  230  by  the 
counties,  255  by  the  boroughs,  and 
7  by  the  universities.  There  is 
also  a  majority  of  Englishmen  in 
the  House  of  Lords. 

The  House  of  Commons  is  the 
supreme  organized  body  in  the 
state.  By  degrees,  curbing  the 
powers  of  the  king  and  of  the 
House  of  Lords,  it  has  attained 
that  position,  the  final  touch  being 
given  to  this  process  by  the  Par- 
liament Act  of  1911.  The  king's 
veto  has  passed  into  disuse,  while 
that  of  the  House  of  Lords  is  only 
a  suspensory  one  for  a  short  period 
of  time.  It  is  true  to  say  that  the 
House  of  Commons  alone  possesses 
the  law-making  power,  and  there 
is  no  possible  way  of  questioning 
the  laws  it  makes,  save  by  violence ; 
judges  cannot,  as  they  can  in  the 
U.S.A.,  be  called  upon  to  pro- 
nounce upon  their  validity  ;  they 
can  only  interpret  their  meaning. 
However  absurd  a  measure  is, 
however  unpractical,  if  the  House 
of  Commons  wishes  it  and  is  pre- 
pared to  push  it  through  the  neces- 
sary stages,  it  becomes  the  law  of 
the  land  quite  as  much  as  Magna 
Carta.  The  house  can  even,  as  it 
did  in  1715  and  in  1915,  prolong 
its  own  existence. 


THE  EXECUTIVE.  The  House  of 
Commons  cannot,  by  its  very  size 
and  constitution,  do  more  than 
legislate  and  exercise  a  general 
supervision  over  affairs  of  state, 
and  it  is  that  fact  which  is  the 
real  check  on  its  own  omnipotence. 
It  is  frequently  faced  with  the 
dilemma  of  suffering  a  violation  of 
its  wishes  or  parting  with  a  minis- 
ter who  may  in  many  wavs  suit  it 
well,  while  its  zeal  is  tempered  by 
the  reflection  that  its  master,  the 
electorate,  might  possibly,  if  asked, 
endorse  the  action  of  the  offender. 

At  the  head  of  the  executive  is 
the  prime  minister,  the  most 
powerful  man  in  the  state,  and  one 
whose  powers  have  increased 
vastly  since  about  1900.  Origin- 
ally a  minister  of  the  king  of  Kng- 
land,  he  is  now  the  prime  minister 
of  the  whole  country,  and  in  a 
sense  of  the  whole  empire.  Acting 
with,  or  rather  under  him,  are  other 
ministers,  the  most  important  of 
whom  form  the  Cabinet.  These 
Cabinet  ministers  are  bound  to- 
gether by  a  common  set  of  prin- 
ciples, this  being  especially  so  when 
they  belong  to  a  single  political 
party,  but  it  is  also  true  of  a 
coalition,  even  if  it  is  only  the 
common  principle  of  forgetting 
them.  The  modern  tendency,  how- 
ever, is  rather  for  the  decisive  bond 
to  be  the  common  enjoyment  of 
the  prime  minister's  confidence. 
Powers  oi  the  Cabinet 

The  powers  of  the  Cabinet  can 
hardly  be  defined,  so  much  depends 
upon  the  personality  of  its  mem- 
bers, but  they  are  considerable.  It 
has  a  marked  influence  on  legisla- 
tion because,  without  its  support, 
a  proposal  for  a  new  law  has  little 
chance  of  success.  In  practice  the 
Cabinet  initiates  legislation.  It  is 
the  creature  of  the  House  of 
Commons,  and  is  never  unmindful 
of  its  creator's  will  if  such  is 
emphatically  expressed,  but  in  the 
dealings  of  the  one  with  the  other 
the  Cabinet  has  the  inestimable 
advantage  of  being  a  small  body 
animated  by  a  common  purpose 
against  a  large  one  in  which  the 
common  purpose  is  rarely  present. 

The  ministers  are  in  charge  of  the 
various  departments  of  state,  being 
responsible  for  their  working  in 
Parliament.  The  outward  sign  of 
this  responsibility  is  their  presence 
in  one  or  other  of  the  Houses  of 
Parliament  in  order  to  answer 
questions,  or  to  defend,  if  need  be, 
the  actions  of  the  departments  over 
which  they  preside.  The  depart- 
ments are  manned  by  civil  servants, 
permanent  officials  who  stay  in 
office  and  carry  on  its  everyday 
work,  while  ministers  come  and  go. 

Apart  from  the  executive,  but 
equally  under  the  control  of  Parlia- 


ENGLAND 


2917 


ENGLAND 


merit,  is  the  judiciary.  At  its  head 
is  the  lord  chancellor,  who  presides 
over  the  House  of  Lords,  which  is 
the  supreme  court  of  law,  save  for 
certain  classes  of  cases  in  which  the 
judicial  committee  of  the  privy 
council  serves  that  purpose.  For 
England  and  Wales  there  is  a 
supreme  court  of  judicature,  from 
which  appeals  lie  to  the  House  of 
Lords.  "  This  consists  of  two 
branches,  a  court  of  appeal  and  a 
high  court  of  justice.  The  latter  is 
further  divided  into  chancery, 
king's  bench,  and  probate,  divorce 
and  admiralty  divisions,  while 
special  branches,  e.g.  bankruptcy, 
have  been  established.  The  judges 
of  the  king's  bench  go  round  the 
country  on  circuit,  there  being  for 
England  and  Wales  eight  circuits, 
and  in  each  a  number  of  assize 
towns.  London  is  outside  the 
circuit  system,  and  for  it  there  is  a 
central  criminal  court. 

Justice  is  administered  locally 
by  recorders  and  magistrates,  who 
sit  in  quarter  and  petty  sessions. 
They  deal  with  minor  cases,  send- 
ing those  of  a  more  serious  charac- 
ter to  the  judges  at  the  assizes. 
County  courts  all  over  the  country 
deal  with  civil  cases  involving  less 
than  a  certa.in  amount  of  money. 

LOCAL  GOVERNMENT.  Under  the 
supreme  control  of  Parliament,  the 
people  of  England  enjoy  a  large 
measure  of  local  goveniment.  Here 
again  each  unit  is  a  democracy 
working  through  the  representa- 
tive system.  The  men  and  women 
of  county,  borough,  district,  and 
parish  elect  certain  men  and  women 
to  form  a  council  which  manages 
such  matters  as  Parliament  has 
entrusted  to  it.  In  many,  but  not 
all,  of  these  councils  there  is  an 
element  not  directly  elected,  the 
aldermen. 

The  County  and  the  Borough 

The  main  division,  as  far  as 
local  government  areas  are  con- 
cerned, is  the  venerable  one  between 
county  and  borough,  although  the 
demarcation  is  by  no  means  com- 
plete. The  forty  counties  of 
England  have  had  some  sort  of 
local  government  for  a  thousand 
years,  but  the  existing  system  only 
dates  from  the  Local  Government 
Act  of  1888.  The  officials  who  until 
that  time  governed  the  counties, 
lord-lieutenant,  high  sheriff,  and 
magistrates  in  quarter  sessions, 
retain  their  positions,  but  not  their 
powers,  which  passed  in  1888 
almost  entirely  to  elected  bodies 
called  county  councils. 

The  county  councils  set  up  in 
1888  do  not  correspond  altogether 
to  the  counties  as  they  existed 
before  that  date.  For  the  forty  old 
or  geographical  counties,  as  they 
are  called,  fifty  county  councils 


were  set  up  and  there  are,  conse- 
quently, fifty  new  or  adminis- 
trative counties.  Most  of  the  old 
counties  were  simply  given  county 
councils  without  serious  change  of 
boundary,  but  a  number  were 
divided  to  make  fresh  counties. 
The  additional  ten  were  found  by 
making  the  three  historic  divisions 
of  Yorkshire  and  the  three  of 
Lincolnshire  into  counties,  each 
with  a  council,  by  dividing  the 
five  counties  of  Cambridgeshire, 
Hampshire,  Northamptonshire, 
Suffolk,  and  Sussex  into  two  each, 
and  by  creating  a  new  county  of 
London  from  parts  of  Surrey, 
Middlesex,  and  Kent. 

The  County  Boroughs 

The  county  councils  hold  elec- 
tions every  third  year,  and  their 
powers  over  education,  police, 
public  health,  and  other  matters  are 
laid  down  in  the  Acts  of  1888  and 
following  years.  Towards  their 
expenses  they  receive  large  sums 
from  the  government,  but  the 
balance  they  raise  by  a  rate  on  all 
property  within  the  county.  There 
is  no  limit  to  the  amount  they  can 
thus  raise,  but  their  accounts  are 
supervised  by  the  ministry  of 
health.  They  can,  under  certain 
conditions,  borrow  money. 

The  Act  of  1888  affected  also  the 
boroughs.  It  created  a  class  of 
boroughs  called  county  boroughs, 
placing  them  entirely  outside  the 
authority  of  the  county  councils, 
and  thus  established  a  system  by 
which  every  place  is  in  a  county, 
either  county  proper  or  county 
borough,  and  consequently  every 
voter  is  represented  in  one  or  the 
other  of  the  councils.  A  county 
borough  must  have  a  population  of 
at  least  50,000,  and  it  is  a  recog- 
nized practice  that  as  soon  as  a 
borough  attains  that  size  it  is  made 
a  county  borough  by  order  of  the 
ministry  of  health.  There  are  about 
70  of  these  county  boroughs,  but 
the  number  is  being  steadily  in- 
creased. They  have  exactly  the 
same  powers  as  the  county  councils 
received  under  the  Act  of  1888, 
together  with  any  others  they  may 
possess  under  Acts  regulating  the 
affairs  of  the  boroughs. 

We  come  now  to  areas  and 
councils  which  are  subordinate  to 
the  county  councils.  Excluding 
the  county  boroughs,  every  part  of 
England  is  either  a  borough,  an 
urban,  or  a  rural  district,  and  every 
one  of  these  is  part  of  an  adminis- 
trative county  and  is  represented 
in  its  county  council. 

The  borough  is  a  place  which 
has  received  a  charter  of  incor- 
poration, and,  excluding  the  county 
boroughs,  there  are  over  200  of 
them  in  England.  Their  local 
government  is  regulated  by  the 


Municipal  Corporation  Act  of  1835 
and  an  amending  Act  of  1882. 
These  made  their  constitutions 
uniform.  Each  borough,  and 
each  county  borough  also,  is 
governed  by  a  mayor  and  council 
consisting  of  aldermen  and  council- 
lors. The  councillors  are  elected  for 
three  years,  one -third  of  them 
retiring  every  year,  and  they  choose 
the  aldermen,  who  form  one-third 
of  their  number. 

Since  1888  the  affairs  of  these 
non-county  boroughs  have  been 
supervised  to  some  extent  by  the 
county  councils,  to  which  they 
send  representatives.  There  is  thus 
a  division  of  authority.  In  some 
the  borough  has  its  own  police 
force,  in  others  the  county  council 
provides  this.  Education  again  is 
sometimes  controlled  by  the  one 
and  sometimes  by  the  other.  These 
boroughs  levy  their  own  rates  and 
also  raise  something  towards  the 
expense  of  the  county  council.  A 
special  class  of  boroughs  are  the  28 
into  which  the  county  of  London  is 
divided.  They  are  subordinate  to 
the  London  County  Council  and 
their  powers  are  somewhat  different 
from  those  of  the  ordinary  boroughs. 
Although  of  considerable  size,  they 
are  not  county  boroughs. 

Urban  and  Rural  Districts 

The  country  outside  London  and 
outside  the  provincial  boroughs  is 
divided  into  urban  and  rural  dis- 
tricts, called  into  existence  by  an 
Act  of  1894.  Urban  districts  are 
the  thickly  populated  areas  which 
have  not  yet  become  boroughs ; 
rural  districts  are  the  country 
areas.  The  division  is  not  abso- 
lutely rigid,  and  occasionally  a 
rural  district  is  found  to  be  quite 
populous.  Each  is  governed  by  a 
council,  elected  for  three  years. 
The  head  is  called  chairman,  not 
mayor,  and  there  are  no  aldermen. 

These  councils  -work  hi  general 
under  the  supervision  of  the 
county  council.  If  their  population 
exceeds  10,000  they  manage  their 
own  education,  but  the  chief 
duties  of  the  bulk  of  them  are  con- 
nected with  the  public  health. 

A.   W.    Holland 

Bibliography.  Parliamentary  Gov- 
ernment of  England,  2  vols.,  A. 
Todd,  2nd  ed.  1887  ;  Europe,  vol. 
2,  O.  G.  Chisholm,  1902  (in  Stan- 
ford's Compendium  of  Geography 
and  Travel) ;  Local  Government  in 
England,  J.  Redlich  (trans.  F.  W. 
Hirst),  1903  ;  Stanford's  Geological 
Atlas  of  Gt.  Britain,  H.  B.  Wood- 
ward, 1907  ;  Britain  and  the  British 
Seas,  H.  J.  Mackinder,  2nd  ed.  1907  ; 
A  Geography  of  the  British  Isles,  A. 
M.  Davies,  1909  ;  The  Governance 
of  England,  S.  Low,  rev.  ed.  1914 ; 
The  Victoria  History  of  the  Counties 
of  England,  ed.  W.  Page,  2nd  ed. 
1900,  etc.  ;  The  Statesman's  Year 
Book,  publ.  annually. 


ENGLAND 


2918 


ENGLAND 


ENGLAND 

IN  ANGLO -SAXON  TIMES 

sh  Mile* 


England.     Map  of  the  country  under  the  Anglo-Saxons,  snowing  the  divisions 
of  the  heptarchy  and  the  territories  occupied  by  the  various  peoples 


HISTORY.  The  departure  of  the 
Roman  legions  in  A.D.  407  left 
Britain  without  any  controlling 
government,  but  the  old  system  of 
local  principalities  soon  revived. 
The  N.  however,  was  open  to  at- 
tack by  the  Picts  and  Scots,  the  W. 
coast  to  invasions  from  Ireland,  and 
the  E.  to  raiders  from  the  Euro- 
pean coast.  About  the  middle  of 
the  5th  century,  Jutes  from  Den- 
mark made  a  settlement  in  Kent 
which  became  permanent.  During 
the  next  hundred  years,  Angles 
and  Saxons  sent  fresh  hordes  which 
established  themselves  on  the  E. 
and  S.  coasts,  pushing  inland  till 
they  had  mastered  the  country  E.  of 
a  line  running  roughly  from  Dunbar 
to  Portsmouth. 

Between  560  and  613  the  new- 
comers overran  the  midlands, 
pushing  the  Britons  further  to  the 
W.,  and  thrust  wedges  up  to  the 
sea  both  on  the  N.  and  on  the  S.  of 
Wales.  In  596  Christianity  was  in- 
troduced into  Kent.  Thence  it 
spread  N.,  where  through  the 
greater  part  of  the  7th  century 
Northumbria  was  the  most  power- 


ful of  the  English  states.  In  the 
8th  century  the  supremacy  passed 
to  Mercia,  and  in  the  9th  to  Wessex. 

The  second  half  of  the  century 
saw  a  desperate  struggle  between 
the  English  and  a  new  host  of  in- 
vaders, the  Danes,  who  established 
their  mastery  over  half  the  island, 
but  were  forced  back  by  Alfred  the 
Great.  In  the  10th  century  Ed- 
ward the  Elder  and  his  sons  subju- 
gated the  Danes,  and  the  kings  of 
Wessex  became  kings  of  England. 
The  Battle  of  Hastings 

But  the  subjugation  of  the  Celts 
on  the  Cumbrian  hills  and  the 
Devon  moors  was  slow  and  incom- 
plete ;  while  in  Wales  they  success- 
fully preserved  their  independence. 
In  the  1 1th  century  Sweyn,  king  of 
Denmark,  and  his  son  Canute  es- 
tablished a  brief  Danish  dynasty  ; 
but  on  the  death  of  the  last  of 
Canute's  sons,  Edward  the  Con- 
fessor was  recalled  to  the  throne  of 
England.  When  he  died  in  Jan., 
1066,  the  English  elected  Harold, 
Godwin's  son,  as  king,  but  the  crown 
was  claimed  by  William,  duke  of 
Normandy,  who  shattered  Harold's 


army  at  Hastings,  and  was  crowned 
in  London  on  Christmas  Day,  1066. 

During  the  next  six  years  risings 
in  the  N.  and  W.  compelled  Wil- 
liam to  subdue  the  whole  country 
by  merciless  force,  and  provided  him 
with  an  excuse  for  confiscating  much 
of  the  land  and  distributing  it  among 
his  Norman  followers,  though  a 
substantial  number  of  small  es- 
tates remained  in  English  hands. 
Theoretically,  the  Norman  king 
reigned  as  the  legitimate  successor 
of  the  Wessex  kings,  by  the  same 
laws,  legislating  with  assent  of  the 
Witan,  the  assembly  of  magnates, 
occasionally  expanded  into  the 
common  assembly  of  such  free- 
holders as  might  choose  to  attend. 
Actually  the  conquest  effected  a  re- 
volution, because  all  the  magnates 
and  half  the  barons  or  lesser  land- 
holders were  now  Norman  instead  of 
English  ;  the  law  was  interpreted  by 
them  in  their  own  interests  and  they 
reduced  many  of  their  own  tenants 
to  serfdom  or  villeinage. 

Rule  of  the  Normans 

William  and  his  two  sons,  Wil- 
liam Rufus  and  Henry  I,  were 
powerful  monarchs  who  utterly 
crushed  the  attempts  of  the  new 
baronage  to  ignore  or  defy  the 
authority  of  the  crown.  They 
called  to  their  support  the  English 
population,  who  were  infinitely 
more  hostile  to  the  local  Norman 
tyrants  than  to  the  crown,  though 
William  II  was  himself  a  tyrant. 
After  a  reign  of  35  years,  Henry 
was  succeeded  by  his  nephew 
Stephen,  whose  claim  to  the  crown 
was  disputed  by  Henry's  daughter, 
Matilda  or  Maud.  The  reign  was  a 
long  horror  of  anarchy  ;  the  strife 
for  the  crown  wrought  less  havoc 
than  the  private  wars  waged 
against  each  other  by  the  barons, 
who  pillaged,  robbed,  and  mur- 
dered on  all  sides.  The  evil  days 
were  brought  to  an  end  on  the 
death  of  Stephen  in  1154  by  the 
accession  of  Henry  II,  grandson  of 
Henry  I,  the  first  Plantagenet. 

Henry,  already  by  inheritance 
or  by  marriage  in  possession  of 
half  France,  did  great  work  in  the 
reorganization  of  the  government 
of  England.  The  baronage  on  the 
whole  cooperated  loyally  with  the 
king  in  the  work.  Revenues  were 
collected,  and  the  higher  courts  of 
justice  were  conducted  by  the  king's 
officers,  removable  at  his  pleasure ; 
the  practical  freedom  of  appeal  to 
the  royal  courts  against  local  in  jus- 
tice'was  greatly  extended.  The  old 
system  by  which  the  king's  officers 
could  call  up  the  freemen  of  the 
shire  in  arms  was  revived,  counter- 
balancing the  feudal  right  of  every 
baron  to  call  upon  his  own  tenants 
for  military  service,  while  inci- 
dentally, through  the  practice  of 


ENGLAND 


2919 


ENGLAND 


obtaining  the  formal  approval  of 
the  Great  Council  for  the  measures 
upon  which  the  king  had  decided, 
the  idea  developed  that  the  Council 
had  a  right  to  be  consulted.  In  the 
course  of  the  reign  a  Norman 
baronage  was  planted  in  Ireland, 
and,  through  the  formal  homage  of 
the  Irish  chiefs,  the  island  was  an- 
nexed to  the  English  crown. 

Henry's  elder  son,  Richard  I,  left 
the  governance  of  the  kingdom  to 
justiciars,  while  he  himself  was 
engaged  on  crusade  or  in  his  French 
dominions.  Public  spirit  and  re- 
spect for  law  developed,  so  that  in 
the  reign  of  Richard's  brother, 
John,  who  repeatedly  overrode  the 
law  for  his  own  ends,  the  barons 
combined  to  wring  from  him 
Magna  Carta.  Incidentally,  also, 
John's  reign  brought  about  the 
severance  of  Normandy  and  most 
of  the  Plantagenet  possessions  in 
France  from  the  English  crown, 
making  the  baronage  of  England 
an  English  baronage  with  exclu- 
sively English  interests. 

In  spite  of  Magna  Carta,  John's 
son,  Henry  III,  in  the  course  of  a 
reign  of  56  years,  persistently 
attempted  arbitrary  and  illegal 
methods  of  government,  choosing 
for  his  ministers  his  own  or  his 
wife's  foreign  kinsmen  in  place  of 
the  English  nobles,  who  regarded 
such  offices  as  due  to  themselves  of 
right.  At  length  the  baronial  party 
combined  under  the  leadership  of 
Simon  de  Montfort,  in  effect  to 
transfer  the  supreme  control  from 
the  hands  of  the  king  to  baronial 
committees.  Faction  among  the 
barons  led  to  the  fall  of  Montfort 
in  1265. 

Henry  III  and  Parliament 

But  he  had  championed  two 
great  principles  —  first,  that  the 
sanctity  of  the  law  was  to  be  main- 
tained as  sternly  on  behalf  of  the 
commons  as  on  behalf  of  the  barons ; 
and,  secondly,  that  the  government 
should  rest  upon  the  assent  of  the 
realm  expressed  through  the  com- 
mon council  of  the  realm,  which 
was  now  acquiring  the  name  of 
Parliament.  The  practice  of  sum- 
moning thereto  elected  represen- 
tatives of  the  freeholders  had  been 
developing  all  through  the  cen- 
tury ;  Montfort  in  1265  estab- 
lished the  principle  of  calling  also 
representatives  elected  by  the 
boroughs.  Montfort  himself  failed, 
but  his  cause  had  triumphed. 
Acting  as  champion  of  the  law,  he, 
like  Cromwell  four  centuries  after 
him,  found  himself  compelled  to 
ride  roughshod  over  the  law,  to 
adopt  unconstitutional  methods  of 
asserting  constitutional  principles. 
His  mantle  fell  upon  the  man  who 
had  overthrown  him,  who,  as 
Edward  I,  made  the  law  supreme. 


The  reign  of  Edward  I  is  a 
crucial  epoch  in  the  history  of 
England.  In  it  the  English  nation, 
finally  consolidated  and  unified, 
realized  that  the  common  interests 
of  all  classes  were  of  more  im- 
portance to  each  than  the  antagon- 
istic interests  of  individual  classes 
and  groups  ;  that  the  law  which 
should  be  directed  to  the  good  of 
all  should  be  uniform  and  fixed. 
It  was  the  great  era  of  definition, 
regulation,  systematisation.  It  de- 
'clared,  though  not  finally,  the 
powers  of  the  crown  for  raising 
revenue,  the  jurisdictions  of  the 
baronage,  the  rights  of  the  national 
assembly  to  consultation.  It  estab- 
lished the  law  of  inheritance,  and 
the  subjection  of  the  clergy  to  the 
civil  law.  Above  all,  it  defined  for 
500  years  the  constitution  of  the 
national  assembly  itself ;  this  being 
in  the  Model  Parliament  of  1295. 
Yeomen  and  Serfs 

But  while  Edward  succeeded  in 
unifying  England  and  shaping  the 
structure  of  the  constitution  upon 
foundations  which  had  already 
been  laid,  he  was  not  equally  suc- 
cessful in  accomplishing  his  desire 
of  extending  the  unification  to 
the  whole  island.  Hard  fought 
campaigns  in  Wales  brought  her 
into  the  English  system  ;  the  at- 
tempt to  absorb  Scotland  upon 
pretexts  of  feudal  law  forced  her 
into  temporary  and  incomplete 
subjection  tempered  by  persistent 
insurrection,  and  finally  issued  in 
complete  failure  during  the  reign  of 
his  son  and  successor,  Edward  II. 

During  the  13th  century  Eng- 
land had  become  definitely  the 
Merrie  England  of  the  ballads. 
The  old  hostility  of  Norman  and 
Englishman  had  disappeared. 
The  rural  population  had  fallen 
into  the  two  divisions  of  those  who 
had  succeeded  in  preserving  their 
legal  freedom,  the  yeomanry,  and 
those  who  had  been  thrust  into 
serfdom  or  villeinage  which  bound 
them  to  the  soil  on  which  they 
were  born. 

But  already  the  practice  of  com- 
muting services  for  payment,  and 
correspondingly  of  hiring  service 
for  wages  was  becoming  wide- 
spread ;  the  lot  even  of  the  villein 
was  not  generally  a  very  hard  one. 
The  larger  towns  were  flourishing 
commercial  centres,  although  being 
still  to  a  great  extent  agricultural 
communities  which  had  purchased 
rights  of  self-government  and 
immunity  from  the  jurisdiction  of 
overlords  from  the  king.  These 
rights  were  conveyed  to  them  by 
charter.  There  was  already  an 
extensive  foreign  trade  ;  cloths, 
wines,  and  many  other  European 
products  being  imported,  while 
the  leading  English  exports  were 


wool   and   hides,   and   rural  pro- 
ducts of  all  kinds. 

An  incompetent  king,  Ed- 
ward II,  succeeded  Edward  I. 
There  was  a  recrudescence  of  the 
struggle  between  the  crown  and 
nobles,  who  looked  upon  them- 
selves as  the  champions  of  con- 
stitutionalism, but  were  in  fact 
endeavouring  to  concentrate  poli- 
tical power  in  the  hands  of  a  nar- 
row oligarchy.  The  civil  strife, 
whether  latent  or  active,  caused 
that  complete  neglect  of  the 
Scottish  question  which  enabled 
Robert  Bruce  gradually  to  clear 
Scotland  of  the  English  garrison, 
and  to  recover  an  unqualified  in- 
dependence by  inflicting  upon 
the  English  the  decisive  defeat 
of  Bannockburn  in  1314. 

In  1327  Edward  II  was  de- 
posed and  murdered  by  his 
French  wife,  Isabella,  and  her 
paramour,  Roger  Mortimer,  while 
the  crown  was  set  on  the  head  of 
Edward  III.  Three  years  later 
the  king,  then  eighteen  years  of 
age,  effected  a  coup  d'etat  which 
ended  the  intolerable  government 
of  the  regency,  and  executed  Mor- 
timer. All  this  time  Plantagenets 
had  retained  possession  in  France 
of  their  hereditary  fiefs  of  Guienne 
and  Gascony,  which  successive 
French  kings  on  various  pretexts 
had  sought  to  filch  from  them. 
This  process  was  continued  by 
Philip  VI.  On  his  accession,  a 
fairly  tenable  claim  to  France  had 
been  put  forward  on  behalf  of 
Edward  of  England  through  his 
mother,  the  sister  of  the  last  king 
of  France;  but  France  had  de- 
cided in  favour  of  the  Valois  suc- 
cession, and  of  the  principle  that 
there  was  no  right  of  inheritance 
to  the  French  crown  by  or  through 
a  female. 

The  Hundred  Years'  War 

The  strife  over  Guienne  and 
Gascony  was  a  standing  cause 
of  quarrel ;  the  claim  to  the 
French  throne  provided  another 
pretext ;  while  a  serious  subject  of 
contention  was  the  attempt  to 
restrict  the  valuable  trade  be- 
tween England  and  Flanders  which 
was  a  fief  of  the  French  crown. 
On  account  of  this  the  Flemings 
were  ready  to  take  part  with 
Edward  if  he  assumed  the  char- 
acter of  their  lawful  suzerain  by 
asserting  his  claim  to  the  French 
crown,  and  on  this  combination  of 
pretexts  the  Hundred  Years'  War 
between  France  and  England  was 
embarked  upon  in  1337. 

The  English  longbow  and  the 
clothyard  shaft  had  first  been 
brought  into  effective  play  by 
Edward  I  in  his  Scottish  wars. 
The  Scots  and  Flemings  had 
recently  proved  the  power  of 


ENGLAND 


2920 


ENGLAND 


spearmen  to  defy  the  shock  of 
the  charge  of  mailed  cavalry.  The 
two  principles  were  combined  by 
Edward  III  and  his  son,  the  Black 
Prince.  The  English  archery  and 
dismounted  men-at-arms  shattered 
superior  forces  at  the  battles  of 
Crecy  (1346)  and  Poitiers  (1356). 
King  Edward  captured  Calais  in 
1347,  to  remain  as  a  gateway  to 
France  for  200  years.  In  1360  he 
forced  on  the  French  the  treaty 
of  Bretigny,  which  conceded  to 
him  a  quarter  of  France  in  full 
sovereignty. 

Twelve  years  later  all  that  had 
been  won  was  practically  lost ; 
England  retained  only  a  pre- 
carious hold  upon  a  part  of  Guienne 
and  Gascony,  as  well  as  Calais. 
The  war  was  enormously  costly, 
and  its  costliness  developed  the 
power  of  the  Parliament,  which  was 
now  strong  enough  to  forbid  the 
imposition  of  taxes,  other  than 
those  formally  sanctioned  in  the 
reign  of  Edward  I,  except  by  its 
own  vote.  The  power  of  the  purse 
passed  definitely  into  the  hands 
of  Parliament,  and  with  it  a  cer- 
tain limited  control  of  policy  ;  the 
royal  revenues  were  insufficient,  at 
least  for  war  programmes,  unless 
supplemented  by  the  land  and 
property  taxes,  known  as  tenths 
and  fifteenths,  and  afterwards  as 
subsidies,  which  the  lords  and 
commons  voted. 

The  Black  Death 

The  general  prosperity  was 
checked  by  the  tremendous  visita- 
tion of  the  Black  Death  in  1348. 
A  third  of  the  rural  population  is 
said  to  have  perished  ;  for  lack  of 
labour  the  harvest  was  left  to  rot 
and  the  fields  were  left  untilled, 
while  famine  followed  upon  the 
plague.  The  landholders  sought 
to  revive  all  their  old  powers  of 
enforcing  service  ;  the  peasantry 
refused  to  work  except  at  very 
high  wages,  and  the  government 
stepped  in  with  the  Statute  of 
Labourers,  vainly  attempting  to 
fix  a  standard  wage.  A  class  ani- 
mosity was  born,  quite  different 
from  the  bygone  hostility  between 
the  English  occupants  of  the  soil 
and  their  Norman  conquerors. 
This  bore  fruit  in  the  peasant  revolt 
of  1381.  The  revolt  was  crushed, 
but  was  not  followed  by  any  en- 
actments for  the  removal  of  griev- 
ances ;  the  system  of  villeinage, 
forced  agricultural  services,  and 
restrictions  upon  rural  wages  re- 
mained. 

Edward  III  in  the  pursuit  of 
revenue  had  grasped  the  advan- 
tages of  encouraging  and  organiz- 
ing trade  under  state  supervision. 
The  export  of  staple  goods,  wool, 
hides,  etc.,  was  restricted  to  the 
Company  of  the  Merchants  of  the 


Staple,  trading  only  in  authorised 
localities,  known  "as  the  staple 
towns;  the  import  of  manufac- 
tured goods  was  mainly  in  the 
hands  of  foreign  trading  societies, 
notably  the  German  Hanse  ;  both 
groups  paid  for  their  privileges  and 
enjoyed  powers  of  regulating  the 
traffic.  But  at  the  same  time  the 
process  of  manufacture  in  England 
itself  advanced  greatly,  and  English 
cloth  goods  began  to  compete  in 
foreign  markets  as  well  as  in 
England.  Although  a  gloomy  pic- 
ture of  rural  life  is  presented  in 
Langland's  Vision  of  Piers  Plow- 
man, the  pages  of  Geoffrey  Chaucer 
convey  an  altogether  convincing 
impression  of  an  England  ma- 
terially prosperous,  genial,  and 
light-hearted,  and  full  of  a  robust 
kindliness. 

Rule  of  the  Lancastrians 

Richard  II  (1377-99)  found  him- 
self much  in  the  hands  of  a  fac- 
tion of  the  nobility,  who,  however, 
could  no  longer  usurp  the  functions 
now  acknowledged  to  lie  in  Parlia- 
ment. Soon  after  coming  of  age, 
he  succeeded  in  recovering  the 
royal  authority,  but  though  he 
ruled  well  for  several  years,  he 
was  unhappily  nursing  vindictive 
schemes  and  plans  of  arbitrary 
rule.  He  turned  suddenly  upon 
the  nobles  who  had  once  held  him 
in  restraint,  put  some  of  them  to 
death,  banished  others,  and  imag- 
ined himself  undisputed  master  of 
the  kingdom.  But  in  1399  his 
banished  cousin,  Henry  of  Lancas- 
ter, returned  to  England.  The  dis- 
contented nobles  rallied  to  Henry's 
standard,  Richard  was  deserted 
arid  brought  a  prisoner  to  London, 
a  parliament  was  called,  Richard 
was  compelled  to  abdicate,  and  the 
parliament  declared  Henry  king  of 
England  by  lawful  descent. 

With  Henry  IV  began  the  rule 
of  the  Lancastrian  branch  of  the 
house  of  Plantagenet.  Raised  to 
the  throne  of  the  cousin  who  was 
done  to  death  soon  afterwards, 
while  yet  another  cousin,  the  child 
Edmund  Mortimer,  had  a  better 
claim  than  his  own  to  the  succes- 
sion as  descending  from  an  elder 
son  of  Edward  III,  Henry  knew 
that  he  ruled  by  a  parliamentary 
title.  Parliament  knew  it,  too,  and 
the  result  was  that  the  Lancastrian 
kings  were  very  much  at  the  mercy 
of  their  parliaments.  Also,  as 
clerical  influences  had  been  vigor- 
ously applied  on  Henry's  behalf, 
the  house  of  Lancaster  was  com- 
pelled to  conciliate  the  clergy. 
Hence  Henry  was  led  to  a  rigorous 
suppression  of  the  Lollards.  The 
teaching  of  Wycliffe,  about  the 
end  of  the  reign  of  Edward  III,  had 
attained  considerable  popularity 
during  the  reign  of  Richard  II  in  a 


country  where  the  anti-clerical 
sentiment  was  always  strong,  until 
it  began  to  be  applied  as  a  sort  of 
communistic  propaganda ;  but 
burning  at  the  stake  as  the  punish- 
ment for  the  unrepentant  heretics 
first  became  the  law  of  the  land  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  IV. 

That  monarch's  uneasy  rule  of 
fourteen  years  was  followed  by  the 
brilliant  reign  of  his  son  Henry  V. 
In  the  anarchy  which  had  over- 
taken the  French  kingdom,  Henry 
found  occasion  for  a  preposterous 
revival  of  the  claim  of  Edward  III 
to  the  French  crown.  In  1415  he 
invaded  France,  captured  Harfleur, 
and  at  the  head  of  no  more  than 
8,000  men  won  the  victory  of 
Agincourt.  Three  years  later  he 
returned  to  France  and  set  about 
a  systematic  and  organized  con- 
quest. The  factions  of  French 
politics  brought  over  to  his  side 
the  powerful  duke  of  Burgundy 
and  the  French  queen,  when  all 
Normandy  was  already  in  his 
possession.  The  king  of  France 
was  compelled  to  acknowledge 
Henry  as  his  heir,  while  the 
dauphin  Charles  and  the  greater 
part  of  France  remained  defiant. 
Inch  by  inch  Henry  made  himself 
master  of  N.  France,  but  in  1422 
he  died,  leaving  the  English  crown 
and  the  French  succession  to  his 
infant  son,  Henry  VI,  and  the 
government  of  the  country  to  a 
council  of  regency. 

Loss  of  Burgundy  and  Guienne 
The  resources  of  England  were 
not  equal  to  a  conquest  of  France. 
In  spite  of  the  abilities  of  Henry's 
brother,  John,  duke  of  Bedford, 
the  subjugation  proceeded  slowly, 
and  was  stopped  altogether  by  the 
extraordinary  interposition  of  Joan 
of  Arc.  The  death  of  Bedford  him- 
self in  1435  was  fatal  to  English 
ambitions  ;  the  defection  of  Bur- 
gundy was  still  more  decisive,  and  [ 
from  that  time  the  record  of  the 
French  war  was  one  of  almost 
continuous  defeat ;  until  in  1453 
even  Guienne  was  lost,  and  Calais 
was  the  only  foothold  left  to  the 
English  in  France. 

The  usurpation  of  Henry  IV 
and  the  aggression  of  Henry  V 
brought  their  Nemesis.  Popular 
disgust  was  kindled  against  the 
faction  who  exercised  control  over 
the  imbecile  Henry  VI  as  being 
responsible  for  the  disastrous  mis- 
management of  the  war  and  the 
feeble  government  at  home.  The 
opposition  was  led  by  Riohard  of 
York,  representative  of  a  branch 
of  the  descendants  of  Edward  III 
senior  to  the  house  of  Lancaster. 
Richard  claimed  to  be  the  effective 
head  of  the  government.  The 
rebellion  of  Jack  Cade  in  1450  was 
not,  as  is  commonly  supposed,  an 


ENGLAND 


2921 


ENGLAND 


agrarian  rising  like  that  of  Wat 
Tyler,  but  was,  primarily  at  least, 
a  popular  protest  against  the  un- 
popular government.  The  strife  of 
the  factions  in  high  places  issued 
in  the  War  of  the  Roses. 

From  1455  to  1460  war  and  truce 
between  the  parties  alternated.  It 
was  not  until  1460  that  Richard 
startled  his  own  supporters  by  as- 
serting his  own  claim  to  the  crown, 
a  claim  modified  into  demand  for 
recognition  as  the  heir,  although 
King  Henry  had  a  young  son. 
Richard  was  killed  at  the  battle  of 
Wakefield,  but  his  son  Edward, 
supported  by  Warwick,  proclaimed 
himself  king,  shattered  the  Lan- 
castrian army  at  Tow  ton  in  1461, 
and  maintained  himself  on  the 
throne  till  his  death  in  1483. 

During  the  first  ten  years  of  his 
reign  there  were  repeated  Lan- 
castrian insurrections  ;  the  defec- 
tion of  Warwick  actually  drove 
Edward  IV  in  flight  from  the  coun- 
try in  1470  ;  but,  returning  in  the 
next  year,  he  crushed  Warwick 
and  the  Lancastrians  at  the  battles 
of  Barnet  and  Tewkesbury,  and 
for  the  rest  of  his  reign  ruled  with- 
out fear  of  any  rivals. 

On  Edward's  death  his  brother, 
Richard  of  Gloucester,  after  an  in- 
terval of  a  few  weeks  usurped  the 
throne  of  his  young  nephew 
Edward  V,  who  was  shortly  after- 
wards murdered  in  the  Tower  with 
his  brother.  The  usurper  instituted 
a  reign  of  terror  so  intolerable  that 
after  two  years  Henry  Tudor,  earl 
of  Richmond,  a  descendant  of  John 
of  Gaunt,  though  by  an  illegiti- 
mate line,  and  the  acknowledged 
head  of  the  Lancastrian  party,  was 
able  to  return  to  England  from  the 
exile  into  which  he  had  retired,  to 
slay  Richard  III  at  the  battle  of 
Bosworth,  and  to  claim  the  crown, 
a  title  acknowledged  by  the  par- 
liament which  he  summoned. 
The  Reign  of  Henry  VII 

During  25  years  the  power  of  the 
sword  had  decided  who  was  to  be 
king  in  England  ;  parliaments  had 
been  summoned,  but  were  at- 
tended only  by  partisans  of  the 
dominant  faction.  Each  side  had 
attainted  of  treason  all  the  leaders 
on  the  other  side,  put  them  to 
death  when  it  could  lay  hands  on 
them,  and  redistributed  their  es- 
tates. The  old  families  were  almost 
blotted  out,  and  the  new  genera- 
tion of  nobles  bore  names  which 
had  hardly  been  heard  of  fifty  years 
before.  It  was  the  business  of 
Henry  VII  (1485-1509)  to  restore 
peaceful  and  orderly  government, 
commercial  prosperity,  and  re- 
forms, at  least  of  law.  The  claws  of 
rebellion  were  clipped  and  the  royal 
treasury  was  simultaneously  filled 
by  the  systematic  process  of  fines 


and  confiscations,  drastically  ap- 
plied wherever  an  excuse  could  be 
found.  Parliament  was  habitually 
summoned  and  treated  as  the  king's 
responsible  partner  in  all  his  acts. 

Foreign  policy  was  directed 
to  the  development  of  commerce 
and  the  acquisition  of  indemnities 
for  campaigns  on  which  nothing 
had  been  spent ;  commerce  itself,  on 
the  other  hand,  was  applied  as  a 
weapon  for  making  the  rulers  of 
France  and  Burgundy  compliant. 
The  king  ruled  always  by  forms  of 
law  ;  taxation  and  legislation  were 
the  province  of  parliament,  though 
a  skilful  king  rarely  failed  to  pro- 
cure from  parliament  the  powers 
or  the  money  which  he  required. 
Rebellions  raised  on  behalf  of  pre- 
tended members  of  the  house  of 
York,  Lambert  Simnel  and  Perkin 
Warbeck,  were  suppressed.  Henry's 
marriage  to  Elizabeth  of  York 
put  the  title  of  his  son  to  the  suc- 
cession beyond  question  ;  the  mar- 
riage of  his  daughter  Margaret  to 
James  IV,  king  of  Scotland,  in 
1503,  placed  a  Stuart  on  the  Eng- 
lish throne  as  the  legitimate 
monarch  a  hundred  years  later. 
When  Henry  died  in  1509  the 
house  of  Tudor  was  firmly  estab- 
lished on  the  English  throne,  and 
the  crown  with  a  full  treasury  en- 
joyed an  almost  unprecedented 
power. 

The  Discovery  of  America 
The  reign  of  Henry  VII  fell  upon 
that  period  of  transition  when  the 
medieval  world  was  passing  into 
the  modern.  In  1477  the  first 
printing  press  had  been  set  up  in 
England.  The  intellectual  move- 
ment long  active  in  Italy  reached 
England  and  awakened  a  new  spirit 
of  criticism.  Columbus  discovered 
the  West  Indies,  the  Cabots  from 
Bristol  reached  Labrador,  the 
Portuguese  sailed  across  the  In- 
dian Ocean  to  India.  Europe  was 
emerging  into  a  new  state  system. 
With  Henry  VII  dawns  the  con- 
ception of  international  relations 
as  being  concerned  with  the  pre- 
servation of  a  balance  of  power 
among  the  great  states.  In  the 
reign  of  Henry  VIII  (1509-47) 
Cardinal  Wolsey  stands  out  as  the 
diplomatist  who  made  it  his  aim 
to  hold  the  balance  between  the 
king  of  France  and  the  king  of 
Spain,  who  was  at  the  same  time 
lord  of  the  Netherlands  and  Ger- 
man emperor — Charles  V. 

But  Henry's  international  ac- 
tivities were  merely  an  episode. 
The  great  feature  of  the  reign  was 
the  ecclesiastical  revolution  which 
fixed  the  grip  of  the  state  irresist- 
ibly upon  the  church,  annexing 
the  greater  part  of  its  wealth, 
and  repudiated  the  authority  of 
the  papacy.  The  instrument  of 


the  revolution,  the  artificer  who 
designed  its  methods,  was  Thomas 
Cromwell,  who,  after  Wolsey's  fall 
in  1529,  won  Henry's  confidence 
and  retained  it  till  1540,  when  he 
had  completed  the  work,  not  only 
of  subordinating  the  church  to  the 
crown,  but  of  obtaining  for  the 
crown  by  strictly  legal  parlia- 
mentary process  such  a  latitude  of 
power  as  it  had  never  before  pos- 


Edward  VI  and  Mary 

When  Henry  initiated  the 
ecclesiastical  revolution  with  the 
primary  object  of  getting  rid  of  his 
wife  in  order  to  marry  another,  he 
took  the  nation  into  partnership 
and  secured  parliamentary  sanc- 
tion for  everything  he  did.  He, 
however,  procured  from  it  first  a 
weapon  for  silencing  all  external 
opposition  in  the  Treasons  Act  of 
1534,  and  then  a  virtually  abso- 
lute authority  for  himself,  though 
not  for  his  successors,  by  the  Royal 
Proclamations  Act  of  1539.  Henry- 
left  one  young  son,  whose  legiti- 
macy was  indisputable,  and  two 
older  daughters  by  mothers  whose 
marriages  with  him  had  both  been 
pronounced  invalid,  though  before 
his  death  it  had  been  formally  laid 
down  that  the  right  of  succession 
remained  to  both  children. 

While  Edward  VI  was  king 
(1547-53)  the  government  was  in 
the  hands  of  a  council  controlled 
first  by  Edward's  uncle,  the  pro- 
tector Somerset,  and  then  by  John 
Dudley,  earl  of  Warwick,  best 
known  as  duke  of  Northumberland. 

Henry's  extravagance  had  de- 
pleted the  treasury ;  he  had  sup- 
pressed the  monasteries,  the  only 
institutions  in  the  country  which 
were  officially  concerned  with  the 
relief  of  poverty.  For  more  than 
half  a  century  the  peasantry  had 
been  ousted  from  the  land,  and 
distress  and  suffering  were  wide- 
spread. 

Both  Somerset  and  Northumber- 
land, from  conviction  or  from 
policy,  actively  fostered  the  re- 
ligious reformation,  and  carried  out 
the  protestantising  of  the  Church 
with  gross  and  unseemly  violence, 
though  without  extreme  persecu- 
tion. The  accession,  however,  of 
Mary  in  1553  was  followed  by  an 
extreme  reaction  with  the  sanction 
of  parliament — under  which  some 
300  persons,  including  five  bishops, 
were  burnt  at  the  stake.  The  effect 
of  the  persecution  was  not  the  sup- 
pression of  heresy,  but  the  develop- 
ment in  the  popular  mind  of  an  in- 
tense hostility  to  Romanism.  The 
general  impoverishment  and  the 
miserable  misgovernment  during 
the  two  reigns  of  Edward  VI  and 
Mary  brought  England  to  such 
low  estate  that  she  was  unable  to 


ENGLAND 


ENGLAND 


retain  her  hold  upon  Calais,  which 
was  retaken  by  the  French  in 
1558,  leaving  her  without  a  footing 
on  the  Continent  for  the  first  time 
since '1066. 

Elizabeth  in  1558  found  the 
country  in  evil  case  indeed,  but 
with  all  the  elements  for  a  glorious 
recuperation.  An  unfailing  judge- 
ment in  the  selection  of  counsellors 
and  instruments,  a  supreme  confi- 
dence in  the  spirit  of  the  nation 
with  which  she  identified  herself,  a 
complete  freedom  from  conscien- 
tious scruples,  an  intuitive  percep- 
tion of  the  weaknesses  of  her 
enemies,  a  perfect  mastery  of  stage 
effects,  united  with  an  indomitable 
determination  to  raise  England  to 
the  position  of  the  first  power  in 
the  world,  made  her  the  most  bril- 
liantly successful  of  all  English 
monarchs.  The  national  finances 
were  reorganized  with  a  rigid 
economy  which  ensured  full  value 
for  every  penny  spent. 

The  question  of  religion  was 
taken  in  hand,  on  the  principle  of 
permitting  the  widest  possible  lati- 
tude of  opinion  compatible  with 
uniformity  in  practice,  while  ex- 
plicitly requiring  the  subordination 
of  all  authority  to  that  of  the  state, 
and  rejecting  any  compromise 
which  implicitly  attributed  autho- 
rity to  the  pope.  The  enter- 
prise of  the  seamen  who  set  at 
naught  the  Spanish  claims  to  a 
monopoly  of  the  New  World  was 
unofficially  encouraged.  Nearly 
thirty  years  passed  before  that 
open  rupture  with  Spain  came,  but 
by  that  time  England  was  ready, 
and  there  came  the  annihilation  of 
the  Spanish  Armada,  in  the  fight 
of  July  20-August  2,  1588. 

Period  of  General  Prosperity 

A  regular  government,  pursuing 
a  popular  policy  with  conspicuous 
success  and  with  increasing  stabil- 
ity, free  from  every  kind  of  un- 
settling capricious  ness,  encouraged 
energy  and  enterprise  in  every 
direction.  The  regulation  of  trading 
and  apprenticeship,  the  multipli- 
cation of  chartered  mercantile 
companies,  the  gradual  readjust- 
ment of  the  rural  population  to  the 
agrarian  upheaval  of  the  first  half 
of  the  century,  and  the  judicious 
experiments  which  culminated  in 
the  poor  law  of  1601,  established  a 
general  prosperity.  The  queen 
ruled,  but  always  with  the  express 
assent  of  her  people. 

Elizabeth  was  the  last  of  the  off- 
spring of  Henry  VIII.  ,She  was  suc- 
ceeded therefore  by  the  legitimate 
heir,  James  VI  of  Scotland,  the 
great-grandson  of  Henry's  elder 
sister  Margaret.  James  I  (1603-25) 
came  to  the  throne  of  England  with 
a  title  less  disputable  than  that  of 
any  monarch  since  Richard  II, 


except  Henry  VIII  and  Edward 
VI.  By  the  peculiar  cunning  which 
he  called  kingcraft,  he  had  already 
acquired  for  the  crown  in  Scotland 
a  control  over  the  government 
enjoyed  by  none  of  his  ancestors 
since  Robert  Bruce.  James  claimed 
and  sometimes  tried  to  exercise  the 
power  of  overriding  the  law  by 
divine  right ;  but  a  wholesome  fear 
of  arbitrament  by  battle  always 
kept  him  from  overstepping  the 
limits  of  English  endurance.  He 
wrought  the  country  up  to  a 
high  pitch  of  irritation,  destroying 
utterly  the  basis  of  mutual  good- 
will between  the  crown  and  the 
people,  which  had  in  fact  been 
the  basis  of  the  apparently  despotic 
authority  of  the  Tudors. 

Charles's  Struggle  with  Parliament 

Charles  I  (1625-49)  reaped  the 
bitter  fruits  of  his  father's  theories. 
Elizabeth's  parliaments  loved  her 
and  bore  with  her  caprices.  The 
parliaments  of  the  Stuarts  did  not 
love  them  at  all,  and  were  only  too 
ready  to  discover  grounds  for 
quarrelling  with  the  monarch. 
Charles  gave  them  ground  enough 
by  entrusting  the  direction  of 
policy  to  his  favourite,  George 
Villiers,  duke  of  Buckingham,  by 
standing  on  what  he  regarded  as 
his  legal  rights  of  raising  revenue 
without  sanction  of  parliament,  by 
overriding  the  law  in  the  punish- 
ment of  recalcitrants,  and  by 
repressing  all  latitude  of  religious 
doctrine  and  observance  ;  enforcing 
his  will  through  the  arbitrary 
powers  of  the  courts  of  Star 
Chamber  and  High  Commission. 

Charles's  parliament,  on  the 
other  hand,  refused  supplies  until 
grievances  should  be  removed, 
asserted  the  novel  claim  to  a  right 
to  the  control  of  religious  affairs, 
and  in  1628  compelled  the  king  to 
accept  the  Petition  of  Right,  which 
unfortunately  failed  of  its  precise 
purpose — the  accurate  definition 
of  the  limits  of  the  royal  preroga- 
tive. Eleven  years  of  arbitrary 
rule  without  parliament  were 
ended  in  1640  by  the  arming  of 
Scotland  —  an  independent  king- 
dom to  whose  king  accident  had 
also  given  the  crown  of  the  neigh- 
bouring kingdom  of  England.  Scot- 
land found  the  king's  rule  too 
arbitrary  ;  the  king  could  not  sup- 
press his  Scottish  subjects  without 
the  aid  of  English  arms  ;  all  his  ex- 
pedients had  not  provided  him 
with  the  money  for  an  army,  and 
he  was  obliged  to  summon  the 
English  parliament,  and  then  to 
dissolve  it,  and  summon  it  anew. 

The  Long  Parliament,  instead  of 
aiding  him  against  the  Scots, 
attainted  and  beheaded  Strafford, 
impeached  Laud,  and  proceeded 
to  force  the  king  to  accept  a 


series  of  enactments  abolishing  the 
arbitrary  courts,  and  explicitly 
depriving  him  of  the  disputed 
prerogatives.  A  coup  d'etat,  the 
attempted  arrest  of  five  members 
on  Jan.  4,  1642,  failed  completely; 
the  king  left  London,  and  after 
several  months  of  futile  negotia- 
tion, the  great  Civil  War  opened  in 
August,  1642. 

The  struggle  was  conducted  with 
a  decency  and  humanity  which  offer 
a  pleasing  contrast  to  the  horrors  of 
the  Thirty  Years'  War,  then  raging 
on  the  Continent.     After  various 
vicissitudes,  the  army  of  the  parlia- 
ment  was   reorganized   by   Oliver 
Cromwell  and  won  the  decisive  vic- 
tory of  Naseby  on  June  14,  1645. 
Charles  surrendered  to  the  Scots, 
who  had  associated  themselves  with 
the  cause  of  parliament,  in  May, 
1646,  was  by  them  handed  over  to 
the  parliament  in  Feb.,  1647.  and   j 
was  carried  off  into  the  custody  of   j 
the  army  on  June  3.   From  his  con-    j 
finement  he  intrigued  with  his  own    j 
supporters    and    negotiated    with   ; 
three  separate  groups — the  chiefs 
of  the  parliament,  the  chiefs  of  the 
army,    and    the    Scots — each    of 
whom  now  had  different  objects  in 
view.      The  king's  attempt  to  re-   | 
cover  his  ascendancy  by  playing   ; 
them  off  against  each  other  failed    j 
disastrously.    His  own  attempt  to 
escape   to   France   in    November, 
cavalier  insurrections,  and  a  Scots 
invasion  in  1648,  threw  the  con- 
trol into  the  hands  of  the  victor- 
ious   army,    and    determined    its 
chiefs  that  the  king's  death  was 
the   necessary    condition   for   the 
restoration  of  a  stable  government. 
An  arbitrary  court  condemned  him 
to  death  and  he  was  executed  on 
Jan.  30,  1649. 

The  Commonwealth 

England  was  now  proclaimed  a 
commonwealth  or  republic.  The 
Scots  recalled  the  prince  who  was  de 
jure  Charles  II,  but  the  English 
Commonwealth  could  not  afford  to 
have  the  claimant  to  the  throne 
of  England  seated  on  the  throne 
of  Scotland.  A  war  with  the  Scots 
followed  and  culminated  in  Crom- 
well's crowning  victory  at  Worces- 
ter (Sept.  3,  1651),  but  Charles  II 
made  liis  escape  from  the  country. 
The  remnant  or  rump  of  the  parlia- 
ment, which  had  constituted  itself 
the  sovereign  body  by  its  own 
authority,  sought  to  transform  it- 
self into  a  permanent  oligarchy, 
with  the  result  that  it  was  forcibly  , 
ejected  by  Cromwell  in  April,  1653  ;  \ 
and  from  that  time  Cromwell,  who  ! 
was  made  lord  protector  by  the  j 
army  in  December,  was  virtually  i 
the  absolute  ruler  of  England.  The 
former  champion  of  parliamentary 
government  found  all  attempts 
to  work  in  harmony  with  the 


ENGLAND 


ENGLISH      HORN 


parliament  vain.  His  government 
was  necessarily  arbitrary,  butstrove 
at  least  to  be  as  just  as  the  circum- 
stances permitted,  while  his  vigor- 
ous Imperial  policy,  though  it 
helped  to  raise  France  to  a  danger- 
ous height  of  power,  made  England 
feared  on  the  Continent  as  she  had 
never  been  feared  before.  With 
Cromwell's  death  (1658)  came 
chaos.  The  country  was  sick  of 
the  rule  of  soldiers  and  saints,  and 
it  was  with  a  practically  unanimous 
satisfaction  that  Charles  II  was 
recalled  to  the  throne  (1660). 

The  Restoration  meant  nothing  ac 
all  like  the  triumph  of  the  Stuart 
conception  of  monarchy.  Half  the 
royalists  in  the  Civil  war  had  been 
men  who  had  been  on  the  side  of 
the  parliament  against  the  king 
until  the  parliament  of  1641  was 
dominated  by  the  advanced  Puri- 
tan element.  The  country  intended 
parliament  to  be  predominant,  and, 
as  far  as  concerned  legislation  and 
taxation,  the  king  found  that  it  was 
neither  to  be  cajoled  nor  over- 
ridden. B,ut  parliament,  rendered 
by  the  arbitrary  Puritan  rule  of  the 
Commonwealth  intensely  hostile 
to  Puritanism,  which  it  smote  in  a 
series  of  enactments  much  more  re- 
pressive than  was  at  all  pleasing  to 
the  king,  proved  no  less  hostile  to 
Romanism ;  to  the  surprise  and  dis- 
appointment of  Charles,  who  had 
promised  himself  and  his  cousin, 
Louis  XIV  of  France,  the  restora- 
tion of  a  Romanist  ascendancy. 
Charles  II  and  Parliament 

Under  the  mask  of  frivolity  and 
dissipation,  however,  Charles  con- 
cealed an  invincible  determination 
to  avoid  fighting  with  parliament  in 
deed,  but  to  make  himself  entirely 
independent  of  it  by  secretly  selling 
himself  and  the  country  to  the  king 
of  France.  For  25  years  he  success- 
fully deceived  statesmen,  courtiers, 
politicians,  English  and  foreign,  and 
the  king  of  Francehimself.  On  March 
28,  1681,  with  Louis  XIV's  pur- 
chase money  in  his  pocket,  he  dis- 
solved his  last  parliament  at  the 
moment  when  its  leaders  imagined 
that  he  was  fast  in  their  grip.  In 
those  21  years  he  had  built  up  a 
standing  army  sufficient  for  his 
purposes.  In  the  next  three  years 
he  cancelled  and  renewed  the  char- 
ters of  the  boroughs  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  the  crown  had  a  practi- 
cally absolute  control  over  their 
parliamentary  elections. 

Having  no  legitimate  children, 
he  had  secured  the  succession  to  his 
Roman  Catholic  brother  James. 
His  death  left  James  II  with  all 
the  master  cards  in  his  hands,  had 
he  but  known  how  to  play  them  skil- 
fully. Fortunately  he  did  not,  The 
loyalty  of  the  country  was  turned 
first  into  uneasiness  and  then  into 


grim  hostility.  When  he  alienated 
ardent  royalists  and  fervent  church- 
men by  arbitrarily  suspending  or 
overriding  the  law  for  the  advance- 
ment of  Romanism,  men  of  every 
party  joined  in  calling  to  their  aid 
his  son-in-law,  William  of  Orange. 
William  landed  in  Tor  Bay  on  Nov. 
5,  1688.  James  took  flight,  and  on 
Feb.  13,  1689,  William  and  Mary 
were  proclaimed  king  and  queen  of 
England,  having  accepted  the 
declaration  of  right  which  laid  down 
what  were  to  be  in  future  the  funda- 
mental limitations  of  the  power  of 
the  crowo. — limitations  which  were 
put  forward  as  the  historic  right  of 
the  people.  Scotland  followed  suit 
and  the  crowns  remained  united. 
Development  of  the  Party  System 
The  accession  of  the  stadtholder 
of  Holland,  the  lifelong  enemy  of 
Louis  XIV,  carried  England  full 
into  the  vortex  of  international 
politics.  The  ascendancy  of  the 
English  navy,  long  disputed  by 
Holland,  and  now  for  a  moment 
challenged  by  France,  was  decisive- 
ly established  and  was  never  again 
lost  save  for  a  moment  between 
1779  and  1782.  The  right  of  par- 
liament to  fix  the  course  of  the 
succession  to  the  throne  was  esta- 
blished ;  the  state  system  of  finance 
was  reconstructed  by  the  creation 
of  the  national  debt  and  the  Bank 
of  England.  The  party  system  in- 
augurated by  Shaftesbury  under 
Charles  II  developed  steadily.  Wil- 
liam died  on  March  8,  1702,  at  the 
moment  when  he  had  organized  the 
Grand  Alliance  which  was  plunging 
England  into  the  War  of  the 
Spanish  Succession.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Anne,  the  second  daugh- 
ter of  James  II,  under  whom  that 
war  was  fought  out  to  its  issue. 
But  another  issue  had  arisen.  Scot- 
land demanded  a  permanent  union 
with  England  upon  terms  agree- 
able to  herself,  threatening  in  the 
alternative  to  name  for  Scotland 
another  successor  to  the  throne  than 
that  of  England.  On  May  1,  1707, 
the  Act  of  Union  came  into  effect. 
From  that  hour  the  history  of  Eng- 
land as  a  sovereign  state  is  merged 
in  the  history  of  Great  Britain. 

A.   D.  Innes 

Bibliography.  Constitutional  His- 
tory of  England  from  Henry  VII  to 
Death  of  George  II,  H.  Hallam, 
1827,  frequently  reprinted  ,  History 
of  England  from  the  Accession  of 
James  II,  T.  B.  Macaulay,  1849-61  ; 
Constitutional  Hist,  of  England,  W. 
Stubbs,  Lib.  ed.,  3  vols.,  1880; 
Oxford  Manuals  of  English  History, 
ed.  C.  W.  C.  Oman,  vols.  i-v, 
1894-98  ;  Political  Hist,  of  England, 
ed.  W.  Hunt  and  R.  L,  Poole,  vols. 
i-ix,  1905-10  ;  Hist,  of  the  British 
Nation,  A.  D.  Innes,  1912;  Consti- 
tutional Hist,  of  England  since 
Accession  of  George  III,  T.  Erskine 
May,  ed.  F.  Holland,  1912;  Short 


Hist,  of  the  English  People,  J.  R. 
Green,  brought  down  to  1914  by 
A.  Stopford  Green,  1917;  Outline 
of  English  History,  S.  R.  Gardiner, 
new  ed.  1919. 

Englefield.  Parish  and  village  of 
Berkshire,  England,  5$  m.  W.S.W. 
of  Reading.  Here  Alfred  defeated 
the  Danes  in  870.  Pop.  399. 

Englefield  Green  is  a  residential 
district  in  Surrey,  1£  m.  N.W.  of 
Egham  at  the  S.  of  Cooper's  Hill. 
The  cottage  on  the  green  was  for 
some  years  the  home  of  George 
IVs  Perdita  (Mrs.  Robinson). 

English  Bazar  OR  ANGRAZA- 
BAD  ).  Town  of  Bengal,  India,  in  the 
Malda  district.  It  stands  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Mahananda  river, 
56  m.  N.  of  Murshidabad.  The  East 
India  Company  established  a  silk 
factory  here,  and  there  were  also 
Dutch  and  French  settlements.  The 
chief  trade  now  is  in  grain.  An 
embankment  prevents  the  overflow 
of  the  Mahananda.  Pop.  15,000. 

English  Channel  (!•>.  La 
Manche,  the  sleeve).  Stretch  of 
water  separating  the  S.  shore  of 
England  from  the  N.  coast  of 
France.  It  communicates  with  the 
North  Sea  on  the  E.  and  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  on  the  W.  Its 
extreme  length  from  the  Strait  of 
Dover  to  a  line  drawn  between 
Ushant,  in  France,  and  Land's 
End,  in  Cornwall,  is  280  m.  Its  j 
width  from  Dover  to  Cape  Griz 
Nez  is  21  m.,  from  Land's  End  to 
Ushant  110  m.  Its  widest  part  is  • 
between  St.  Malo  and  Lyme  Regis, 
a  distance  of  145  m.  Its  maximum 
depth  is  70,  its  average  depth 
30  fathoms.  In  the  Strait  of  Dover 
there  is  a  chalk  ridge  at  a  depth  of 
12  fathoms.  The  bed  of  the  chan- 
nel is  composed  of  coarse  gravel. 
England  has  a  coast  line  of  392  m.. 
while  the  French  seaboard  is  574 
m.  Many  rivers  discharge  their 
waters  into  the  Channel,  the  prin- 
cipal being  the  Seine,  on  the  French 
coast.  The  chief  islands  are  the 
Isle  of  Wight,  and  the  Channel 
Islands.  Fishing  is  carried  on,  the 
principal  catches  being  mackerel  i 
and  pilchard. 

English  Church  Union.  As- 
sociation  of  clergy  and  laity  of  the 
Church  of  England.  It  was  founded 
in  1859  for  the  defence  of  the  doc- 
trine and  discipline  of  the  Church. 
It  is  the  leading  organization  of  ; 
the  High  Church  party,  and  has 
frequently  defended  clergymen 
charged  with  illegal  doctrine  or  j 
ritual.  Lord  Halifax  was  president 
until  1920,  when  he  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Sir  Robert  Newman.  Its 
organ  is  the  Church  Union  Gazette. 

English  Horn.  Double -reed 
wind  instrument  of  the  hautboy 
family,  and  of  tenor  pitch.  See 
Cor  Anglais. 


ENGLISH     LANGUAGE 


2924 


ENGLISH     LANGUAGE 


ENGLISH  LANGUAGE  AND   LITERATURE 

H.    C.    K.    WYLD,   M.A.,  Oxford  Univ.;   and  H.  J.  C.  GRIEBSON,  LL.D..    Edinburgh    Univ.    ' 

This  article  is  divided  into  two  sections.  The  language  may  be  studied  further  under  Alphabet ;  Phonetics-' 
while  for  the  literature  there  are  articles  on  the  great  figures  of  English  literature:  Milton;  Shakespeare  f 
Dickens ;  Fielding,  and  others.  See  also  the  general  article  Literature,  and  those  on  various  verse  and  { 

prose  forms,  e.g.  Ballad  ;  Essay  ;  Novel ;  Ode 


The  earliest  form  of  English — 
from  the  beginning  to  about  one 
hundred  years  after  the  Norman 
Conquest — is  sometimes  called 
Anglo-Saxon,  but  nowadays  more 
generally  simply  Old  English.  The 
people  who  lived  in  the  oldest 
period  called  themselves  Angel 
cynn,  and  their  language  Englisc  in 
the  vernacular,  or,  in  Latin,  gener- 
ally Angli,  sometimes  Angli  sive 
Saxones,  and  Sermo  Anglicus  or 
Lingua  Saxonica.  These  terms  are 
applied  to  all  the  tribes  and  to  all 
the  dialects. 

Old  English  is  shown  by  its  voca- 
bulary and  its  system  of  inflexions 
to  be  a  W.  Germanic  language, 
closely  akin  to  Old  Frisian  and  Old 
Saxon,  and  still  closely,  though 
more  remotely,  to  the  High  Ger- 
man dialects.  The  resemblances 
between  Old  English  and  Old  Fri- 
sian are  indeed  so  great  and 
numerous  that  some  regard  these 
two  groups  of  dialects  as  forming 
a  special  branch  of  W.  Germanic 
speech  subsequently  differentiated 
into  English  and  Frisian  which 
they  call  the  Anglo-Frisian  branch. 
From  the  earliest  records  four  main 
dialect  types  in  Old  English, 
corresponding  to  tribal  divisions, 
may  be  distinguished :  the  Anglican 
dialects,  i.e.  Northumbrian  and 
Mercian  ;  the  Saxon  dialect ;  and 
the  Kentish,  spoken  by  the  Jutes. 
The  differences  between  these  are 
comparatively  slight,  so  far  as  they 
can  be  traced  in  the  records,  but  the 
subsequent  history  of  the  several 
types  is  very  different.  The  Angles 
settled  in  the  N.  and  Midlands,  the 
Saxons  in  the  S.  and  S.W.,  and  the 
Jutes  in  Kent,  the  Isle  of  Wight, 
and  parts  of  Hampshire. 

The  Old  English  Alphabet 

The  English,  in  common  with 
other  Germanic  tribes,  possessed 
an  angular-shaped  alphabet  suit- 
able for  cutting  or  scratching  upon 
metal,  bone,  and  other  hard  sub- 
stances. This  is  known  as  the 
Runic  Alphabet,  and  the  letters  are 
called  runes.  A  few  inscriptions  in 
this  form  survive  on  stones  and 
whalebone,  but  probably  none  are 
much  older  than  the  oldest  written 
documents  of  the  ordinary  kind. 
After  the  introduction  of  Chris- 
tianity, the  English  learnt  the  art 
of  writing  from  Irish  monks,  and 
the  ordinary  Old  English  alphabet 
is  almost  identical  with  that  in 
which  Old  Irish  was  written.  It  was 
soon  found  convenient,  however,  to 


borrow  from  the  Runic  alphabet 
two  symbols  to  express  charac- 
teristically English  sounds-b  called 
"thorn"  for  th,  and  p called  "wen" 
for  w.  In  modern  editions  of  Old 
English  works  it  is  now  unusual  to 
reproduce  the  shapes  of  the  MS. 
letters,  which  are  printed  in 
ordinary  type  except  b  and  8 
which  also  stands  for  th ;  the  vowel 
symbol  SR,  for  the  vowel  sound  in 
Modern  fiat  ;  and  occasionally  5 
the  Old  English  form  of  g.  The 
spelling  of  Old  English,  allowing 
for  certain  inconsistencies,  is  on 
the  whole  phonetic. 

Sound  Changes  and  Dialect 

Perhaps  the  most  important 
aspect  of  the  evolution  of  language 
is  the  change  in  pronunciation 
which  continuously  proceeds. 
Sound  changes  have  a  far-reaching 
effect  upon  the  history  of  every 
language  and  bring  much  else  in 
their  train.  Not  only  does  sound 
change  alter  the  whole  external 
aspect  and  character  of  a  language, 
so  that  by  this  means  chiefly,  or 
alone,  dialect  is  often  differentiated 
from  dialect,  and  language  from 
language,  but  sound  change  in- 
volves the  alteration,  or  it  may  be 
the  destruction,  of  inflexional  suf- 
fixes, whereby  the  main  features  of 
accidence  are  modified  or  swept 
away,  and  these  losses  of  signifi- 
cant endings  may,  and  often  do, 
bring  about  a  revolution  in  the 
syntax  of  the  language. 

It  is  now  recognized  that  sound 
changes  are  regular  in  their  effects, 
and  that  they  take  place,  within  a 
given  period  and  in  a  given  lan- 
guage, according  to  definite  prin- 
ciples and  conditions.  Within  the 
above-mentioned  limitations  of 
time  and  language  and  phonetic 
conditions  the  same  sound  will  al- 
ways change  in  the  same  way  or 
direction.  By  the  side  of  regular 
sound  change,  the  principle  of  lin- 
guistic analogy,  or  the  close  associ- 
ation of  form  with  form,  whereby 
one  is  modified  by  the  other,  with- 
out normal  phonetic  development, 
is  recognized  as  of  hardly  inferior 
importance  to  the  action  of  pho- 
netic laws.  It  must  be  remembered 
that  language  cannot  exist  apart 
from  living  human  beings  who 
speak  it,  and  that  change  in  lan- 
guage implies  a  change  in  the  phy- 
sical and  mental  habits  of  the 
speakers. 

THE  HISTORY  OF  ENGLISH.  The 
history  of  English  may  be  said  to 


have  begun  from  the  moment  when 
the  group  of  dialects  known  as  Old 
English  had  become  differentiated 
from  the  parent  W.  Germanic  stock. 
At  the  moment  of  its  earliest  ap- 
pearance in  a  written  record,  Old 
English  had  ahead}'  undergone  a 
number  of  characteristic  changes 
which  separate  it  from  the  nearest 
cognate  languages.  Under  the  con- 
ditions of  complete  geographical 
separation  from  the  speakers  of  the 
other  W.  Germanic  languages  of  the 
Continent,  English  underwent  still 
further  independent  changes. 

While  alterations  in  the  conso- 
nant changes  were  comparatively 
slight,  those  involving  the  vowels 
were  considerable.  There  are  two 
main  classes  of  sound  changes : 
Isolative,  which  arise  in^the  sound 
of  a  language  in  the  course  of  its 
history,  without  any  discoverable 
reason,  and  without  any  influence 
exerted  by  the  neighbouring  sound 
in  the  word  or  sentence  ;  and  Com- 
binative, which  result  from  the  in- 
fluence of  one  or  more  sounds  in 
the  word,  or  sentence,  upon  an- 
other sound,  or  from  the  effect  of 
the  position  of  the  accent  or  stress 
in  native  words,  upon  the  root 
syllable,  not  upon  the  prefix  or  suf- 
fix. In  English,  unstressed  sylla- 
bles have  always  been  very  liable 
to  weakening,  and  are  often  elimi- 
nated altogether. 

The  Old  English  vocabulary  is  of 
a  characteristic  W.  Germanic  na- 
ture, and  the  great  bulk  of  words 
are  of  this  origin.  There  is,  how- 
ever, a  considerable  element  of 
Latin  loan-words  :  (a)  those  bor- 
rowed during  the  Continental 
period,  e.g.  siraet  "  street,"  Lat. 
strata  via,  paved  way  ;  (b)  those 
borrowed  from  Latin -speaking 
Britons  in  this  country,  such  as 
center,  town,  Lat.  castra,  camp ; 
(c)  those  borrowed  from  Roman  ec- 
clesiastical sources,  e.g.  papa,  pone. 
Effect  of  Spoken  Latin 

Latin  must  have  been  freely 
spoken  among  the  upper  classes  of 
the  Britons,  and  in  the  larger  towns 
of  Britain.  Several  Latin  words 
which  expressed  ideas  for  which  no 
equivalent  existed  in  Old  English 
were  literally  translated,  such  as 
welwillend  for  benevolens.  It  has 
been  suggested  that,  if  the  English 
invasion  had  not  taken  place,  the 
chief  language  of  the  country 
would  not  be  a  form  of  Welsh,  but 
more  probably  a  neo -Latin,  or 
Romance  language.  Celtic  exerted 


ENGLISH     LANGUAGE 


2925 


ENGLISH     LANGUAGE 


only  a  small  influence  upon  the 
vocabulary  in  the  Old  English 
period,  except  in  the  names  of  hills, 
rivers,  and  other  geographical  fea- 
tures, which  retained  their  old  de- 
signations— pen,  avon,  cumb,  dun, 
etc.  The  Scandinavian  influence, 
which  began  in  the  8th  century, 
shows  very  slight  traces  in  the 
written  documents  before  the  1 1th, 
by  which  time  the  English  and 
the  Danes  in  certain  districts  had 
amalgamated,  and  having  passed 
through  a  bi  lingual  stage,  had 
settled  down  together,  with  Eng- 
lish as  the  surviving  language  in  a 
form  which  retained  many  ele- 
ments of  the  language  of  the  once 
hostile  settlers. 

With  the  rise  of  Wessex  to  the 
ruling  political  position  among  the 
Old  English  states,  the  literary 
labours  of  King  Alfred  made  the 
dialect  of  this  province  the  chief 
vehicle  of  literature.  All  the  works 
of  literary  importance,  both  poetry 
and  prose,  which  have  survived, 
are  written  in  a  form  of  West 
Saxon,  occasionally  with  traces  of 
other  dialects.  This  form  of  Eng- 
lish may  be  regarded  as  a  common 
literary  standard  for  the  whole 
country  from  the  beginning  of  the 
10th  century. 

From  Old  to  Middle  English 

The  Conquest'  had  at  h'rst  little 
effect  upon  the  spoken  language. 
Few  Englishmen  learnt  French  for 
several  centuries,  and  they  could 
not  boiTow  words  from  a  language 
which  they  did  not  know ;  nor 
was  there  any  reason  why  the  pre- 
sence of  foreigners  ignorant  of  the 
native  tongue  of  the  country 
should  in  any  way  affect  its  pro- 
nunciation and  inflexions.  The 
changes  made  apparent  by  the 
spelling  in  the  middle  of  the  12th 
century  are  not  the  result  of  the 
Norman  Conquest,  but  the  normal 
development  of  tendencies  which 
were  active  before  the  Normans 
came.  The  rather  abrupt  contrast 
observable  in  the  language  of  docu- 
ments from  about  1150  onwards 
does  not  represent  any  sudden  new 
development,  but  implies  that  the 
old  literary  tradition,  which  largely 
concealed'  the  facts  of  speech  by 
means  of  an  antiquated  convention, 
has  almost  passed  away,  and  that 
a  new  literary  convention,  and  to 
some  extent  a  new  scribal  mode  of 
spelling,  have  begun  which  are 
nearer  to  the  language  of  everyday 
life  than  was  the  older  tradition. 

The  language  of  the  last  part  of 
the  Laud,  or  Peterborough  Chron- 
icle, written  soon  after  1157,  is  still 
in  a  sense  Old  English,  but  many 
changes  are  observable.  The  highly 
inflected  Old  English  definite 
article  has  to  a  great  extent  given 
way  to  an  uninflected  form",  fie, 


"  the,"  which  never  varies,  but 
takes  prepositions  before  it  to  ex- 
press case-relations  which  Old  Eng- 
lish expressed  by  inflexion.  Such 
constructions  as  be  ^vreece  men  of 
pe  land,  "  the  wretched  men  of  the 
country,"  betwyx  fie  hinges  freond 
and  f>e  earles  freond  "  between  the 
king's  friends  and  the  earl's 
friends,"  sound  strangely  modern. 
Already  in  the  latter  part  of  this 
Chronicle  the  unstressed  vowels  are 
fairly  regularly  written  e,  as  in  the 
later  Middle  English  period,  to 
represent  Old  English  o,  a,  u  and  e. 
The  Norman  scribes  have  taught 
the  Englishman  the  useful  graphic 
distinction  between/ and  v.  whereas 
the  latter  formerly  wrote  /  for 
both  sounds.  The  Old  English 
accusative  singular  of  the  third 
personal  pronoun  masculine,  hine, 
has  already  been  lost  in  favour  of 
the  dative  him,  as  at  present,  the 
feminine  pronoun  scce,  the  ancestor 
of  she,  first  appears  instead  of  the 
old  heo. 

The  present-day  use  of  a  pre- 
position at  the  end  of  a  sentence 
occurs — me  lihlede  candles  to  celen 
by  "men  lighted  candles  to  eat  by." 
The  case-endings  of  adjectives  are 
largely  lost.  Although  most  of  the 
typical  Middle  English  changes  in 
the  vowels  are  not  yet  consistently 
expressed  in  the  spelling,  there 
appears  an  uncertainty  and  a  ten- 
tative groping  after  the  best  way  of 
expressing  a  pronunciation  which 
is  evidently  changing.  As  regards 
vocabulary,  a  few  French  words 
are  used,  all  more  or  less  technical, 
expressing  new  and  foreign  con- 
ceptions or  institutions,  offices  or 
titles — cancder,  prisun,  cuniesse, 
emperice.  The  only  word  which 
might  be  considered  non-technical 
and  belonging  to  everyday  life 
is  pais,  "peace."  A  few  new 
Scandinavian  words  are  used:  toe 
"took,"  and  oc  "and."  The  usual 
English  words  niman  "take"  and 
and  are  also  used. 

The  Middle  English  Period 

This  may  be  held  to  begin  about 
1200.  The  process  of  change  is 
more  rapid  in  the  dialects  of  the  N. 
and  those  of  the  E.  Midland  than 
in  those  of  the  S.  and  of  the  S.W. 
Midland.  In  the  N.  especially  the 
loss  and  confusion  of  flexional 
endings  has  gone  very  far  by  the 
beginning  of  the  14th  century.  A 
characteristic  of  the  Middle  English 
period  is  the  great  dialectal  variety 
which  finds  expression  in  the 
written  documents.  The  main 
types  are  the  N.,  which  includes 
the  dialect  of  S.  Scotland  ;  the  E. 
Midland;  the  W.  Midland;  the 
S.W.  Midi and.in eluding  the  dialects 
of  Herefordshire,  Worcestershire, 
Oxfordshire,  and  Shropshire  ;  the 
S.  dialect,  including  all  types  as  far 


E.  as  Surrey  ;  the  S.E.,  including 
the  speech  of  Kent  and  Essex.  The 
London  dialect,  which  in  its  earliest 
forms  shows  a  mixture  of  purely 
S.  with  Kentish  or  S.  Eastern  forms, 
becomes  increasingly  important 
from  the  first  quarter  of  the  14th 
century  onwards. 

The  London  Dialect 

Early  in  the  14th  century  the 
London  dialect  is  still  largely  pure 
S.  in  type,  that  of  Surrey  and  Mid- 
dlesex, but  shows  certain  Kentish  or 
S.  E.  features,  and  a  slight  tinge  of  E. 
Midland.  By  the  end  of  the  century, 
Chaucer  and  those  of  his  contem- 
poraries who  write  in  this  dialect 
show  an  increasing  number  of 
purely  E.  Midland  features,  rather 
strong  S.E.  influence,  and  a  cer- 
tain survival  of  S.  characters. 
Chaucer  is  fairly  representative  of 
the  best  London  and  court  English 
of  his  day.  Owing  to  the  political 
and  commercial  importance  of  the 
capital,  the  type  of  English  there 
spoken  was  naturally  bound  to 
become  the  leading  variety  in  the 
country,  and  the  prestige  of 
Chaucer  and  the  popularity  of  his 
writings  led  to  many  imitations, 
not  only  of  his  style  but  of  his 
dialect,  even  among  writers  who 
did  not  speak  London  English. 

Nevertheless,  for  the  most  part, 
throughout  the  14th  century,  people 
continued  to  write  in  the  dialect 
which  they  spoke.  The  beginnings 
of  a  change  may  be  seen  when 
Chaucer's  contemporary,  Gower, 
writes,  not  in  the  Kentish  dialect 
which  was  naturally  his  own,  but 
in  a  close  approximation  to  that 
of  London,  with  but  few  provin- 
cialisms to  betray  his  native  dia- 
lect. The  Middle  English  period 
may  be  said  to  close  with  the  death 
of  Chaucer,  or  in  the  first  quarter 
of  the  15th  century,  and  soon  after 
that  date  there  are  no  more  literary 
works  written  in  pure  provincial 
dialect,  except  in  Scotland,  which 
had  a  standard  of  its  own,  so  that 
the  history  of  English  centres  more 
and  more  round  that  one  form 
which  has  become  the  universal 
standard.  But  while  the  London 
type  predominates  increasingly  in 
written  documents  of  all  kinds, 
from  whatever  area,  there  are 
plenty  of  traces,  far  into  the  15th 
century,  of  the  provincialisms  of 
the  writer's  native  speech. 

The  vocabularyof  Chauceris  very 
largely  our  own.  He  uses  Norman 
French  words,  not  here  and  there, 
like  early  Middle  English  writers, 
but  as  indispensable  elements  of  his 
style.  Norman  French  words  are  no 
longer  foreign,  but  hundreds  have 
penetrated  into  the  very  fibre  of 
English  speech,  and  it  is  not  very 
easy  to  write  many  consecutive 
sentences  not  containing  words  of 


ENGLISH     LANGUAGE 


2926 


ENGLISH     LANGUAGE 


this  origin.  Norman  French  having 
been  the  language  of  the  upper 
classes  for  nearly  300  years,  and  the 
official  vehicle  of  law  and  govern- 
ment, was  abolished  in  courts  of 
law  hi  favour  of  English  in  1362  ; 
in  1385  it  was  no  longer  used  in 
schools  ;  by  the  end  of  the  century 
it  was  probably  dead  as  a  spoken 
language.  The  Scandinavian  ele- 
ment is  very  large  in  Middle  English 
in  the  N.  and  E.  Midland  dialects. 
Modern  English 

The  chief  event  in  the  general 
history  of  English  since  the  be- 
ginning of  the  15th  century  has 
been  the  gradual  acceptance  of  a 
virtually  uniform  dialect  by  all 
writers.  This  agreement  was 
greatly  helped  by  the  introduction 
of  printing  in  1476.  Caxton,  him- 
self a  Kentishman,  adopted  the 
London  dialect  for  his  translations 
and  prefaces,  and  a  knowledge  of 
this  type  was  rapidly  diffused 
throughout  the  country  through 
his  labours.  Even  by  the  middle 
of  the  15th  century,  provincial  or 
regional  dialect  was  falling  into 
disuse  in  writing. 

The  adoption  of  a  standard  of 
spoken  English  was  a  much  slower 
process.  George  Puttenham,  in 
his  Art  of  English  Poesie  (1589), 
says  that  in  the  N.  noblemen 
and  gentlemen  spoke  their  own 
dialect ;  Aubrey  has  it  from  one 
who  knew  Sir  Walter  Raleigh 
that  he  spoke  broad  Devonshire 
all  his  life.  In  the  17th  century 
comedies  country  gentlemen  who 
come  to  London  for  the  first  time 
are  made  to  speak  a  broad  rus 
tic  form  of  English,  and  as  late 
as  the  18th  century  Fielding 
makes  Squire  Western  speak  pure 
Somersetshire.  It  was  the  language 
of  the  court  which  in  Elizabeth's 
day  was  recognized  as  the  best 
form  of  spoken  English,  and  upon 
tin's  the  literary  English  ot  the  day, 
the  ancestor  of  our  own,  was  based. 
The  English  of  Caxton  is  virtually 
the  descendant  of  that  of  Chaucer. 
The  differences  between  the  two 
are  due  chiefly  to  the  growing 
encroachment  of  the  E.  Midland 
element  in  London  English  since 
Chaucer's  time. 

Since  the  Middle  English  period 
English  pronunciation  has  changed 
considerably,  although  the  con- 
ventional spelling  handed  on,  with  . 
few  modifications  of  importance, 
from  the  early  printers  who  de- 
rived it  from  the  professional 
Middle  English  scribes,  reveals  next 
to  nothing  of  this.  All  the  long 
vowels  and  all  the  Middle  English 
diphthongs  have  altered  com- 
pletely in  character.  Many  changes 
in  the  pronunciation  of  consonants 
have  also  taken  place,  though 
some  of  these  have  since  been 


"restored"  through  the  influence 
of  the  received  spelling.  The  same 
factor  has  influenced  to  some  ex- 
tent the  pronunciation  of  un- 
stressed vowels  which  in  the  Early 
Modern  period  had  undergone  con- 
siderable weakening. 

It  is  a  necessary  result  of  the 
recognition  of  a  standard  dia- 
lect, which  in  origin  was  that  of  the 
upper  classes,  that  other  forms  fall 
into  disrepute,  and  are  considered 
either  vulgar  or  merely  provincial 
and  rusticT  The  latter  epithets  are 
now  applied  to  the  modern  regional 
dialects,  while  the  former  justly 
applies  to  certain  forms  of  English, 
cognate  with  the  best  form  of 
spoken  English  in  origin,  but 
differentiated  from  it  in  the  mouths 
of  the  humbler  and  less  refined 
classes  of  society.  The  principal 
sound  changes  were  probably  com- 
plete, or  at  least  well  under  way, 
by  the  end  ot  the  16th  century, 
though  the  final  distribution  of  the 
various  dialect  types  which  com- 
pose standard  English  was  not  yet 
finally  settled.  The  subsequent 
history  of  standard  spoken  English 
is  very  largely  the  result  of  the 
influence  exerted  upon  this  by 
other  class  dialects,  and  to  some 
small  extent  by  regional  or  pro- 
vincial dialects. 

Modern  English  Sound  Changes 
The  changes  made  in  the 
English  vowel  system  from  the 
"  Continental  values  "  to  approxi- 
mately our  present  pronunciation 
are  traceable  from  occasional  spell- 
ings of  the  scribes,  in  some  cases 
as  early  as  the  early  14th  century, 
very  clearly  and  frequently  in  the 
15th  century,  when  private  letter 
writing  began  to  be  practised  by 
all  sorts  of  persons,  and  in  the  1 6th 
and  later  periods,  not  only  from 
this  source,  but  also  from  de- 
liberate descriptions  of  English 
pronunciation.  Most  of  the  tvpical 
modern  vowel  changes  began  very 
early,  but  acceptance  of  many  of 
these  in  court  English  was  con- 
siderably later  than  the  15th 
century,  and  some  appear  to  have 
been  accepted  only  m  a  few  words. 
Many  of  them  were  considered 
vulgarisms  at  first,  and  penetrated 
into  the  standard  language  through 
the  influence  of  lower  class  London 
English.  Many  pronunciations 
used  by  the  beat  speakers  during 
the  17th  and  18th  centuries  would 
now  appear  vulgar,  rustic,  or,  at 
least,  antiquated.  Among  these 
may  be1  mentioned  sarvis,  sarvant, 
sarmon,  varttie,  Booshop.  goold. 

There  is  ample  evidence  from  the 
15th  century  onwards  that  the  pre- 
sent day  natural  pronunciation  o£ 
the  vowels  in  unstressed  syllable^ 
either  with  the  "  murmur  vowel  " 
(a)  as  in  second  syllable  of  father, 


or  with  i  was  already  in  vogue.  In 
the  18th  century  words  with  on 
were  often  pronounced  as  with  in, 
e.g.  flaggin,  dunjin,  durjin  for 
flaggon,  dungeon,  sturgeon,  etc. 
The  ending  ure  was  pronounced 
like  -er  far  into  the  18th  century — 
jointer,  picter,  nater,  etc.  Such  a 
word  as  fellow  was  pronounced 
fetter  (without  r),  and  Pope  rhymes 
it  with  prunella.  The  present-day 
pronunciation  of  the  suffix  -es, 
-est,  -eth,  etc.,  as  -iz,  -1st,  is  already 
established  as  the  polite  one  in  the 
court  English  of  the  15th  and  16th 
centuries  by  such  spellings  as 
horsis,  princis,  eldist,  givith,  etc. 

Spelling  Pronunciation 
In  the  18th  century  nus,  pus, 
Usly,  thusty  are  the  spellings  of  a 
writer  on  pronunciation  to  express 
the  proper  forms  of  nurse,  purse, 
Ursula,  thirsty.  The  ending  -ing 
was  pronounced  as  -in  as  early  as 
the  15th  century,  and  this  was 
probably  universal  in  standard 
English  until  the  end  of  the  first 
quarter  of  the  19th  century,  when 
the  spelling- pronunciation  won  the 
day  to  some  extent.  Usage  now 
varies.  The  loss  of  the  sound  of  gh 
in  the  middle  of  words  before  t  is 
shown  to  have  been  caused  in  the 
15th  century  by  the  omission  of 
the  symbol  in  words  where  it 
belongs  historically,  and  by  such 
spellings  as  dought  "  doubt,"  ought 
"  out,"  uright  "  write."  In  the 
16th  century  even  Spenser  often 
writes  whight,  quight,  etc.  The 
sound  of  w  develops  initially  before 
o  and  ho  ;  won  for  one  is  fairly 
common  in  the  15th  century,  and 
in  the  16th  occurs  in  the  letters 
both  of  Henry  VIII  and  Elizabeth. 
The  spelling  whole  has  been  re- 
tained. Consonants  are  often  lost, 
finally  and  in  combinations,  as  ia 
proved  by  spellings  from  the  15th 
century  onwards. 

Similar  pronunciations  are  re- 
corded in  the  18th  century.  The 
following  15th  and  16th  century 
spellings  show  losses  in  combina- 
tions in  the  middle  of  words : 
Whys-yon  we  Ice  "  Whitsun  "  ;  Wens- 
day,  morgage,  xepukyr,  Woftreet 
"  Wood  Street."  Queen  Elizabeth 
herself  writes  "  often  "  offen.  Lun- 
non  was  a  polite  18th  century  pro- 
nunciation. Many  of  these  forms 
survive  at  the  present  time,  but 
the  consonants  are  now  often  re- 
stored from  the  spelling.  At  the 
beginning  of  unstressed  syllables 
w  was  normally  dropped  already 
in  Middle  English.  It  has  been 
largely  restored,  however,  through 
the  influence  of  the  spelling.  While 
w  is  still  omitted  in  Norwich, 
Southwark,  etc.,  it  has  been  re- 
stored in  forward,  earlier  forrard, 
Edward,  etc.  Eddard  was  the  polite 
18th  century  pronunciation,  and 


ENGLISH     LITERATURE 


2927 


ENGLISH     LITERATURE 


survived  as  such  among  old- 
fashioned  speakers  far  into  the 
19th  century. 

Weak  plurals  are  more  frequent 
among  good  writers  in  Early 
Modern  English  than  now,  e.g. 
housen,  shone,  eyen,  All  Soulen, 
peason,  etc.  The  old  feminine  pos- 
sessive without  -s  is  found  com- 
monly as  late  as  the  16th  century — 
Our  Lady  Mary  Grace,  the  Queen 
Grace,  etc.  These  survive  now  in 
Lady  Chapel,  Lady  Day.  The  per- 
sonal pronouns  her  (possessive)  and 
hem  (dative  plural)  are  frequently 
used  in  the  15th  century  by  the 
side  of  their,  them.  The  former  is 
apparently  not  found  after  the 
early  16th  century ;  the  latter  is 
rare  in  the  16th  and  early  17th, 
but  reappears  in  the  18th  century 
as  'em.  "  Group  inflexion  "  in  the 
possessive  of  nouns  is  found  as 
early  as  the  15th  century — the  erle 
of  Wiltones  wyf—by  the  side  of  the 
older  construction,  the  dukys 
daughter  of  Northfolke.  Such  con- 
structions as  for  Jesus  Christ  His 
sake  are  veiy  common  in  the  15th 
and  16th  centuries,  the  pronoun 
being  often  detached  and  written 
iff,  and  sometimes  joined  to  the 
preceding  noun  as  a  possessive 
sufrix,  which  indeed  it  originally 
was  in  this  case. 

Continuity  amid  Constant  Change 

The  old  Southern  present  plurals 
of  verbs  in  -eth  linger  on  in  occa- 
sional literary  and  colloquial  use 
far  into  the  16th  century,  though 
the  form  without  ending  is  far 
commoner.  In  the  15th  century 
the  forms  in  -en,  -in  are  still  often 
used.  The  third  person  present 
singular  ends  in  -eth,  -ith  or  -th 
during  the  whole  of  the  15th  and 
16th  centuries  in  the  best  English. 
The  forms  in  -s  come  in  very  gradu- 
ally, and  are  at  first  chiefly  used 
either  in  poetry  for  the  sake  of 
rhyme  or  metre,  or  in  fairly  collo- 
quial style.  They  are  by  no  means 
universal  by  the  end  of  the  16th 
century.  Hath  and  doth  survive  far 
into  the  18th  century  both  in  collo- 
quial and  literary  use.  In  the  18th 
century  Pope  and  other  good 
writers  use  was  instead  of  were 
after  you,  when  one  person  only  is 
addressed.  This  practice  survived 
in  good  colloquial  vise  well  into  the 
19th  century. 

A  careful  study  of  the  history 
of  English  from  the  earliest  times 
to  the  present  day,  based  on  an 
intelligent  interpretation  of  the 
written  records  of  the  successive 
ages,  leaves  an  impression  of  con- 
tinuity amid  perpetual  change. 
The  history  of  standard  English 
during  the  last  500  years  has  been 
largely  one  of  the  varying  distri- 
bution of  elements  drawn  first 
!  from  regional,  and  later  from  social 


dialects.  The  standards  of  what  is 
polite  and  correct  shift  from  age  to 
age.  What  is  vulgar  in  one  genera- 
tion becomes  the  pattern  of  pro- 
priety hi  the  next ;  that  which  was 
elegant  and  habitual  to  the  most 
refined  speakers  is  felt  to  be  slip- 
shod or  worse.  There  is  no  doubt 
that  since  the  early  19th  century 
there  has  been  a  great  striving 
after  "  correctness "  in  English 
speech.  Our  speech  to-day  is  far 
less  untrammelled  in  its  colloquial 
forms  than  that  of  the  17th  and 
18th  centuries.  Good  speakers 
then  seem  to  have  been  content  to 
follow  the  natural  tendencies  of 
unstudied  utterance,  and  were  less 
anxious  for  "  correctness  "  as  this 
was  later  understood. 

The  Future  of  English 
This  process  is  still  going  on,  and, 
with  the  increased  diffusion  of 
education  among  those  who  have 
no  traditional  knowledge  of  the 
best  speech,  bids  fair  to  alter  our 
language  out  of  all  recognition. 
But  other  tendencies  may  arise. 
It  is  impossible  to  foretell  the 
future  of  English,  though  we  may 
well  believe  that  it  will  be  no 
meaner  or  less  splendid  than  its 
past.  New  standards  of  speech 
will  arise  in  all  probability,  with 
the  growth  of  new  centres  of  cul- 
ture in  this  country,  and  still  more 
in  our  distant  colonies,  whose  popu- 
lations are  still  "  mewing  their 
mighty  youth,"  and  future  his- 
torians of  spoken  English  will  have 
to  take  into  account  the  many 
varieties  of  our  mother  tongue, 
spoken  by  peoples  of  very  different 
experiences  and  modes  of  life, 
throughout  the  Empire. 

H.   C.   K.   Wyld 

Bibliography.  History  of  English, 
General  :  A  New  English  Grammar, 
H.  Sweet,  1892-98  :  The  History  of 
the  English  Language,  O.  F.  Emer- 
son, 1894  ;  Historical  Outlines  of 
English  Accidence,  R.  Morris,  rev. 
ed.  1895;  The  Making  of  English, 
H.  Bradley,  1904;  Growth  and 
Structure  of  the  English  Language, 
O.  Jespersen,  2nd  eel.  1912;  A 
Short  History  of  English,  H.  C. 
Wyld,  1914  (contains  Bibliography 
with  lists  of  Authorities  and  Editions 
of  O.  and  M.E.  Texts) ;  A  History 
of  Modern  Colloquial  English,  H.  C. 
Wyld,  1920. 

English  Vocabulary  :  New  English 
Dictionary,  ed.  J.  A.  H.  Murray  and 
others,  1884,  etc.  ;  Principles  of 
English  Etymology,  W.  W.  Skeat, 
1887-91  ;  A  Shakespeare  Glossary, 
C.  T.  Onions,  2nd  ed.  1919. 

Old  and  Middle  English  :  An 
Anglo-Saxon  Reader,  H.  Sweet,  8th 
ed.  rev.  1908  ;  An  Old  English 
Grammar,  Joseph  and  E.  M. 
Wright,  2nd  ed.  1914;  A  Middle 
English  Reading,  O.  F.  Emerson, 
rev.  ed.  1915. 

Texts  and  Editions.  TJi9  chief 
O.  and  M.E.  works  are  published 


by  the  Early  English  Text  Society  ; 
some  are  in  the  Camden  Society, 
and  the  Rolls  Series  and  Percy 
Society.  The  English  Reprints,  ed. 
Edward  Arber,  include  a  number 
of  important  Early  Modern  works, 
exactly  reproduced  from  the  origi- 
nal editions. 

LITERATURE.  Anglo-Saxon  litera- 
ture is  interesting  rather  as  a  docu- 
ment illustrating  the  spirit  of  the 
English  stock,  Angles  and  Jutes, 
than  as  a  direct  ancestor  of  English 
literature  as  traced  from  Chaucer. 
For  modern  English  literature  does 
not  derive  directly  from  Old  Eng- 
lish literature.  From  the  llth 
century,  even  before  the  Conquest, 
to  the  14th  century,  England  was 
a  pupil  in  the  school  of  France. 
For  the  greater  part  of  this  time 
Latin  was  the  language  of  learned, 
French  of  polite,  literature.  For 
three  centuries  English  and  French 
were  jostled  together,  with  the  re- 
sult that  when  at  last  in  the  14th 
century  English  came  to  its  own, 
it  had  become  the  rich  composite 
speech,  in  vocabulary  and  syntax, 
which  was  to  be  the  medium  of 
English  poets  from  Chaucer  to  the 
present  time ;  and  in  the  same 
centuries,  English  poets  gradually  j 
assimilated,  adapting  it  to  the  ' 
genius  of  the  English  language,  the 
syllabic,  accentual  metre  which 
had  been  first  heard  in  the  Latin 
hymns  of  the  Church  and  Proven- 
?al  and  French  Song. 

French  literature  itself  was  only 
beginning  when  the  Normans  con- 
quered England,  but  in  the  course 
of  the  12th  and  13th  centuries  the 
French  poets  of  Provence  and  Gas- 
cony,  of  France  proper  and  of 
England,  created  the  romantic  and 
lyric  literature  which  is  the  foun- 
tain-head of  all  modern  European 
literature.  The  new  love-poetry  of 
Provence,  with  its  courtly  and 
ideal,  but  also  conventional,  cult 
of  love,  the  romances  of  Charle- 
magne, of  Arthur  and  his  Knights, 
of  Troy,  Thebes  and  Alexander, 
beast-epic  and  allegory  and  fabliau 
— these  were  made  by  the  French 
familiar  to  every  country  of  W. 
Europe  and  reproduced  in  other 
tongues.  In  the  creation  of  this 
courtly  literature  as  such  England 
took  no  part ;  but  when  English 
literature  began  to  awaken  again 
it  was  in  the  reproduction  of  French 
themes  and  forms. 

The  first  English  poem  written 
after  the  Conquest  which  is  really  a 
work  of  literature.  Layamon's 
Brut,  is  a  long  and  interesting  elab- 
oration of  that  legendary  history  of 
Britain,  from  Brutus  to  Arthur, 
which  had  first  taken  the  shape  of 
history  in  the  Historia  Regum 
Britanniae  of  Geoffrey  of  Mon- 
mouth,  and  had  been  already 
thrown  into  verse  by  the  Norman 


ENGLISH    LITERATURE 


2928 


ENGLISH    LITERATURE 


poet  Wace.  But  Layamon  makes 
interesting  additions  from  Welsh 
oral  tradition.  The  vei-se  is  ap- 
parently intended  to  follow  the 
Old  English  model,  but  is  rapidly 
approximating  to  an  English  re- 
production of  the  French  octo- 
syllabic or  four  foot  verse,  the  long 
line  falling  into  two  parts.  Even  in 
religious  and  didactic  works  of  no 
great  literary  merit,  the  Ormulum, 
the  Bestiary,  etc.,  we  can  note  the 
interaction  of  old  English  form  and 
feeling  with  the  new  influences  ; 
but  the  full  effect  of  French  in- 
spiration in  the  begetting  of  a  new 
literature,  fresh  in  spirit  and  in 
form,  is  seen  in  the  lyrics  and  the 
romances  of  the  13th  and  early 
14th  centuries. 

Early  Lyrics  and  Romances 

The  earliest  English  lyrics,  songs 
like  Sumer  is  i-cumen  in,  Lenten  is 
come  with  love  to  town,  are  the 
work  of  poets  familiar  with  the 
French  lyric,  its  rhythms  and  its 
tone,  gayer  than  that  of  Old  English 
poetry/  They  blend  in  humorous 
fashion  lines  English,  French,  and 
Latin.  The  same  is  true  of  the  first 
English  romances,  all  probably 
translations,  even  when,  as  in  King 
Horn,  Havelok  the  Dane,  Richard 
Coeur  de  Lion,  Bevis  of  Hampton, 
and  Guy  of  Warwick,  they  deal 
with  native  legendary  themes.  And 
all  the  varieties  of  French  romance, 
Carlovingian,  e.g.  The  Sowdone  of 
Babylon  ;  Arthurian,  e.g.  Lybaeus 
Desconus  ;  Oriental,  e.g.  King  Ali- 
saunder ;  classical,  e.g.  The  De- 
struction of  Troy ;  and  miscellane- 
ous romances  of  adventure,  e.g. 
Ipomydon,  are  represented. 

All  lack  the  courtly  tone  of 
French  romance,  being  composed 
for  popular  audiences  who  love  a 
genially  told  story  of  adventure 
rather  than  refinement  of  senti- 
ment. In  their  diction  we  see 
the  shaking  together  of  the  ele- 
ments, English,  French,  and 
Scandinavian,  which  make  up  the 
rich  tongue  of  Shakespeare  and 
Milton  ;  while  in  the  metrical,  not 
alliterative,  poems,  we  can  trace 
the  process  by  which  the  syllabic 
rhythm  of  French  verse  was 
adjusted  to  the  idiosyncracies  of 
stress  and  cadence  in  English  pro- 
nunciation. Outside  romance  and 
lyric,  poetry  of  the  13th  and  early 
14th  centuries  is  didactic — the  Cur- 
sor Mundi,  a  long  paraphrase  of 
Scripture  history  and  Church  le- 
gend ;  the  Pricke  of  Conscience,  a 
summary  of  theology,  erroneously 
attributed  to  Richard  Rolle  of 
Hampole,  a  writer  of  mystical 
works  in  Latin  and  English  prose ; 
Robert  of  Gloucester's  verse  his- 
tories, and  other  works. 

The  14th  century  witnessed  the 
victory  of  English  over  French,  in 


the  schools,  the  law  courts,  parlia- 
ment, and  even  the  court  where 
French  still  to  some  extent  held  its 
own  and  French  poets  found  ad- 
mirers and  patrons.  In  the  same 
century  appears  an  English  poetry 
artistically  on  a  level  with  the  best 
of  France  and  Italy.  The  move- 
ment to  raise  the  artistic  level  of 
poetry  took  two  directions.  One 
was  an  artificial  and  abortive  at- 
tempt to  revive  and  elaborate, 
with  or  without  the  addition  of 
rhyme,  the  old  alliterative  verse — 
a  movement  which  produced  the 
finest  of  the  English  romances, 
Gawain  and  the  Green  Knight ;  the 
beautiful  elegiac  and  symbolic 
poem,  The  Pearl ;  and  the  interest- 
ing, if  inchoate,  satirical,  didactic, 
and  mystical  poem  known  as  The 
Vision  of  Piers  Plowman,  attributed 
to  William  Langland,  of  whom  the 
poem  supplies  a  shadowy  outline. 

But  the  future  of  English  poetry 
lay  with  those  who  completed  the 
naturalisation  of  French  poetry, 
its  regular  metre,  its  refined  and 
courtly  spirit,  its  grace  and  ele- 
gance of  style.  John  Gower,  after 
experimenting  in  a  satirical  Latin 
poem,  and  a  tedious  didactic  poem 
in  French,  composed  at  the  close  of 
his  life  a  long  poem  in  English, 
Confessio  Amantis,  in  which  he  sets 
in  the  framework  of  the  confession 
of  a  lover  to  Genius,  the  priest  of 
Love,  a  series  of  stories  drawn  from 
many  medieval  and  classical  sources 
and  narrated  in  smooth,  equable, 
well-turned  octosyllabic  couplets. 
Spirit  of  Chaucer's  Poetry 

Geoffrey  Chaucer,  however,  did 
more  than  this.  Brought  up  at 
court,  and  sent  in  later  years  on 
mission^  o  various  lands,  including 
Italy,  Chaucer  was  educated  in  the 
tradition  of  contemporary  French 
poetry.  His  earliest  poem,  The 
Book  of  the  Duchess,  is  an  elegant 
but  jejune  dream  allegory,  a  love 
poem  whose  incidents  are  repre- 
sented as  happening  in  a  dream, 
the  characters  being  personified 
abstractions.  But  the  majority  of 
Chaucer's  extant  poems  were 
written  after  he  had  made  acquaint- 
ance with  the  Italian  poetry  of 
Dante,  Petrarch,  and  Boccaccio. 

The  House  of  Fame,  an  in- 
complete, ironical  allegory,  shows 
the  influence  of  Dante  in  style 
and  incident.  The  Parliament 
of  Fowls  enriched  its  decorative 
fabric  with  borrowings  from  Boc- 
caccio. Chaucer's  first  and 
greatest  dramatic  story,  Troilus 
and  Criseyde,  is  based  on  the 
same  poet's  Filostrato  with  an  in- 
cident from  the  Teseide.  The 
Teseide  itself  is  the  source  of  the 
chivalrous  story  of  Palamon  and 
Arcite  which  became  the  Knight's 
Tale  in  The  Canterbury  Tales.  The 


stories  collected  in  the  Legend  of 
Good  Women  are  drawn  from  Ovid 
and  from  a  couple  of  Latin  works 
by  Boccaccio.  The  charming  Pro- 
logue to  the  poem  is  Chaucer's  own. 

But  much  as  Chaucer  learned 
from  Italy,  the  more  serious  and 
idealistic  spirit  of  Dante  and  Pet- 
rarch did  not  pass  into  his  poetry. 
That  transmission  was  reserved 
for  the  16th  century.  To  the  end 
the  spirit  of  Chaucer's  poetry  is 
that  of  the  French  love-poetry, 
allegoric  and  romantic,  qualified  by 
his  own  bent  towards  a  more  real- 
istic and  humorous  handling  of 
conventional  themes.  The  latter 
bent  achieved  its  complete  eman- 
cipation in  the  Prologue  to  The 
Canterbury  Tales,  with  its  vivid 
and  ironical  pictures  of  all  the 
social  types  of  the  England  of  the 
14th  century. 

Chaucer's  Successors 

Some  of  the  tales  themselves 
are  probably  earlier  compositions, 
but  the  best  are  in  the  vein  of  the 
Prologue,  fabliaux,  short  satiric 
tales,  told  with  consummate  dra- 
matic and  poetic  art.  Only  in  the 
fragment  of  The  Squire's  Tale  does 
the  poet  reopen  the  well  of  pure 
and  enchanting  romance.  Chaucer 
gave  England  a  courtly  poetry 
superior  in  dramatic  and  poetic  in- 
terest to  the  poetry  of  France.  He 
embellished  it  with  beauties  de- 
rived from  the  great  Italian  poets. 
He  breathed  into  the  whole  a  spirit 
entirely  English,  and  in  his  hands 
the  English  language  attained  to  all 
but  the  highest  perfection  of  poeti- 
cal diction  and  metrical  beauty. 

Chaucer  had  no  adequate  suc- 
cessors for  nearly  two  centuries. 
John  Lydgate  and  Thomas  Occleve 
kept  faintly  burning  the  tradi- 
tion of  didactic  allegory  and  story, 
and  handed  on  the  lamp  to  its  last 
representative,  Stephen  Hawes, 
author,  in  Henry  Vll's  reign,  of 
The  Pastime  of  Pleasure.  In  Scot- 
land this  courtly  poetry  enjoyed 
a  brighter  S.  Martin's  summer. 

The  popular  literature  of  the 
15th  century  is  of  greater  interest 
than  the  courtly.  The  religious 
drama,  the  mysteries  and  miracle 
plays,  reached  their  highest  level 
in  the  14th  century,  and  gave  place 
in  the  15th  to  the  moralities.  To 
the  15th  century  probably  belong 
also  the  oldest  of  the  ballads  which, 
taking  the  place  of  the  longer  lays, 
preserved  the  quintessence  of  the 
old  romances  in  a  way  that  was  to 
quicken  the  romantic  spirit  with 
surprising  and  delightful  results  in. 
later  English  poetry.  Of  artistic 
prose  in  Middle  English,  the  ten- 
tative beginnings  may  be  best 
studied  in  Chaucer's  translation  of. 
Boethius.  The  15th  century  wit- 
nessed a  fairly  steady  advance  of 


ENGLISH     LITERATURE 


2929 


ENGLISH     LITERATURE 


prose  as  an  artistic  medium  whose 
finest  result  is  the  Morte  d'  Arthur  of 
Sir  Thomas  Malory. 

The  revival  of  learning  in  the 
15th  century  made  Italy  the  centre 
of  influence  in  literary  fashions  as 
definitely  as  France  had  been  so  in 
the  12th  and  13th  centuries.  That 
influence  came  to  England  in  two 
successive  waves — from  Italy  direct 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  from 
Italy  by  way  of  France  in  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth.  Stephen  Hawes 
was  still  writing  dull  allegory,  and 
John  Skelton  was  burlesquing  the 
same  in  individual  fashion;  the 
older  tradition  of  amorous  and  gay 
songs  and  carols  after  the  French 
manner  was  still  in  vogue  with 
Henry  VIII  and  his  musicians; 
when  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt  and 
Henry,  earl  of  Surrey,  having 
"  tasted  the  sweet  and  stately 
measures  and  style  of  Italian 
poesie,"  began  to  cultivate  this 
more  dignified  and  passionate  note 
in  sonnets,  in  irregular  imitations 
of  the  canzone  and  other  Italian 
forms,  and  in  songs,  all  published 
after  their  death  in  Tottel's  Mis- 
cellany (1557). 

French  and  Italian  Influences 

The  twenty  years  which  fol- 
lowed was  a  period  of  arrested 
development  and  of  experiment, 
especially  in  verse  translation 
from  Latin,  e.g.  Arthur  Golding's 
Ovid.  The  one  bright  ornament 
is  Thomas  Sackville's  Induction 
and  Legend  of  the  Duke  of  Buck- 
ingham, contributed  in  1563  to 
The  Mirror  for  Magistrates,  which, 
apart  from  these  poems,  was  but 
a  dull  continuation  of  Lydgate's 
moralising  "  tragedies,"  and  sen- 
tentiously  narrated  stories  of  the 
overthrow  of  great  men  through 
the  fickleness  of  fortune. 

When  the  Shepheards'  Calender 
of  Edmund  Spenser  appeared  in 
1579,  the  artistic  influence  of  Italy 
and  France  was  reacted  upon  by 
the  temperament  of  a  people  whose 
national  self-consciousness  had 
grown  eager  and  intense,  and 
whose  spiritual  life  was  being  pro- 
foundly modified  by  that  religious 
Reformation  which  tended  to 
separate  them  from  the  Latin 
peoples  who  were  their  artistic 
tutors.  The  result  was  naturally 
complex,  a  literature  at  once 
national  and  exotic,  at  times 
Italian  in  its  dissolute  moral 
tone,  again  already  growing  Puri- 
tan in  its  moral  ardour,  rich  in 
felicities  and  beauties  of  style  and 
verse,  yet  abounding  in  fantastic 
extravagances. 

Spenser's  pastoral,  The  Shep- 
heards' Calender,  his  allegorical 
romance,  The  Faerie  Queen 
( 1590-96),  and  all  his  shorter 
poems,  satirical,  elegiac,  and  lyrical, 


reveal  the  influence  of  French 
and  Italian  poetry,  of  Italian 
Platonism,  of  Chaucer  and  of  Sir 
Thomas  Malory ;  but  the  spirit 
which  strives  to  harmonise  the 
whole  is  that  of  an  Elizabethan 
Englishman  passionately  patriotic 
and  Protestant.  And  if  much  re- 
mains unharmonised,  the  discords 
are  held  hi  solution  by  a  style  dif- 
fuse in  picture  and  melody,  a  verse 
in  which  the  grave  iambic  move- 
ment of  Sackville's  Induction  is 
heightened  by  every  resource  of 
varied  cadence  which  English 
metre  permits,  and  adorned  with 
all  the  accessories  of  alliteration 
and  vowel-music  which  English 
verse  welcomes. 

Of  all  the  exotic  forms  natural- 
ised by  Wyatt  and  Surrey,  the 
sonnet  enjoyed  the  greatest  popu- 
larity in  the  closing  decades  of  the 
century.  One  sequence  of  love 
sonnets,  after  the  fashion  of 
Petrarch's  Laura,  followed  on 
another  in  rapid  succession,  in- 
cluding Sir  Philip  Sidney's  Astro- 
phel  and  Stella,  Samuel  Daniel's 
Delia,  Michael  Drayton's  Idea, 
Spenser's  Amoretti,  and  the  later 
published  Sonnets  of  Shakespeare. 
The  Elizabethan  sonnets  are 
largely  translations  and  imitations, 
and  abound  in  the  conventional  and 
extravagant  conceits  which  are 
common  to  the  kind,  while  few  or 
none  have  the  exquisite  perfection 
of  form  which  makes  Petrarch 
a  classic.  But  on  the  best  of  the 
English  sonnets,  as  on  Michael 
Angelo's,  is  set  the  impression  of 
personality,  the  insolent  gallantry 
and  passion  of  Sidney,  the  brooding 
thought,  the  self-abnegation  in 
friendship,  of  Shakespeare. 
Elizabethan  Poetry 

The  same  poets  experimented  in 
many  kinds,  e.g.  in  the  decorative 
Ovidian  idyll,  as  Marlowe's  Hero 
and  Leander,  Shakespeare's  Venus 
and  Adonis  and  Rape  of  Lucrece  ; 
and  the  same  overwrought  rhetoric 
characterises  Daniel's  Rosamund, 
a  continuation  of  the  Mirror  for 
Magistrates  type  of  story,  and 
Drayton's  antithetic  imitations  of 
Ovid's  Heroides,  imaginary  love- 
letters  in  verse,  England's  Heroical 
Epistles.  But  Daniel  and  Drayton 
cultivated  a  severer  style  in  their 
historical  poems,  suggested  by 
Lucan's  Pharsalia,  Daniel's  Civil 
Wars  between  York  and  Lancas- 
ter, and  Drayton's  Barons'  Wars. 

Daniel,  George  Chapman,  Dray- 
ton,  Sir  John  Davies,  author  of 
Orchestra  and  Nosce  Teipsum, 
John  Donne,  Sir  Henry  Wotton, 
and  others  cultivated  a  grave 
philosophical  poetry,  frequently 
epistolary  in  form,  in  which 
Stoicism  and  Christianity  are 
blended.  Distinctively  religious 


poetry,  whether  Roman  Catholic, 
like  Robert  Southwell's  St.  Peter's 
Complaint  and  Henry  Constable's 
Spiritual  Sonnets,  or  Protestant, 
like  Joshua  Sylvester's  translation 
of  Du  Bartas'  Divine  Weeks  and 
Works,  shows  the  same  elaboration 
of  style  and  sentiment.  The  crown 
of  Elizabethan  verse  translations 
are  George  Chapman's  Iliad  and 
Odyssey. 

/  The  greatest  and  happiest  work 
was  achieved  in  drama  and  song. 
In  the  closing  decades  of  the  cen- 
tury a  new  impetus  was  given  to 
song  writing  by  the  study  of  lute 
music  and  the  coloured,  cadenced 
lyric  of  the  French  renaissance 
poets,  Ronsard  and  his  fellows, 
with  the  result  that  a  lyric  of  many  j 
moods,  and  a  new  wealth  of  • 
imagery  and  harmony,  adorned 
romance  and  drama,  or  was  gar- 
nered in  song-books  and  antholo- 
gies such  as  England's  Helicon 
and  Davison's  Poetical  Rhapsody. 
Songs  were  composed  by  all  the 
poets  of  the  day,  and  many  of  the 
most  charming  are  anonymous. 
Growth  of  the  Drama 

The  drama  is  a  larger  subject, 
and  its  history  in  the  16th  cen- 
tury is  one  of  shifting  and  confus- 
ing development,  of  overlapping 
kinds,  of  natural  evolution  crossed 
and  disturbed  and  directed  by  ex- 
traneous influence.  The  Morality, 
which  had  produced  in  the  later 
15th  century  such  a  fine  flower  of 
serious  drama  as  Everyman,  was 
responsible  in  the  16th  for  the  im- 
pressive Cradle  of  Security.  Farce  , 
of  a  realistic  kind — thumb-nail 
sketches  of  low  life  in  London — 
mingles  with  the  serious  element, 
especially  in  Moralities  dealing 
with  the  follies  of  youth. 

The  general  tendency  of  the 
Morality  is  to  be  dull,  and  this  was 
intensified  by  the  Renaissance 
schoolmaster's  love  for  the  didactic, 
as  in  John  Rastell's  Interlude  of  the 
Four  Elements,  by  such  political 
allegory  as  Lord  Governance,  and 
by  the  Reformation  passion  for 
polemic,  as  in  John  Bale's  The 
Three  Laws,  etc.,  Lusty  Juventus 
Respublica,  and  others.  Queen 
Elizabeth  checked  this  intrusion 
into  controversy.  The  same  Bale's 
Kyng  Job  an  and  a  play  like 
Thomas  Preston's  King  Cam- 
byses,  or  the  weird  version  of 
Aeschylus's  great  story,  Horestes, 
show  how  Morality  blended  with 
story  and  developed  into  the 
characteristically  Elizabethan  pro- 
duct, the  story  play,  serious  or 
farcical,  or  more  commonly  a 
blend  of  both. 

Classical  influence  made  itself 
felt,  here  as  in  other  countries,  in 
attempts  to  reproduce  the  exact 

Q      4 


ENGLISH    LITERATURE 


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ENGLISH     LITERATURE 


form  and  features  of  Seneca's 
Latin  tragedies,  e.g.  in  Sack- 
ville's  Gorboduc,  and  of  Latin 
comedy,  e.g.  Nicholas  Udell's 
Ralph  Roister  Doister.  The  at- 
tempt miscarried,  and  the  domi- 
nant type  of  play  of  the  '60's  and 
'70's  was  the  story-play,  the  play 
which  brought  on  the  stage  all  the 
crowded  incidents,  dramatic  and 
undramatic,  of  a  story  drawn  from 
any  and  every  source,  with  little 
interest  of  character  and  no  beauty 
of  style.  The  artistic,  refining 
effect  of  classical  and  Italian  in- 
fluence made  itself  felt  when  into 
these  story-plays  was  breathed 
something  of  the  spirit  of  ancient 
comedy  and  tragedy,  and  they 
were  clothed  in  a  new  beauty  of 
form,  prose  and  verse. 

Marlowe  and  Shakespeare 

John  Lyly  led  the  way  in  the 
reform  of 'the  drama  as  literature 
with  his  light  and  graceful,  if 
flimsy,  mythological  and  courtly 
comedies.  George  Peele  sweetened 
the  versification  and  brightened 
the  fancy  of  comedy  and  romance, 
and  Robert  Greene  is  mainly  re- 
sponsible for  the  woodland  set- 
tings and  the  fair  maidens  of 
Shakespeare's  As  You  Like  it  and 
Twelfth  Night.  Thomas  Kyd 
achieved  a  success  by  his 
Spanish  Tragedy,  which  popu- 
larised the  melodramatic  revenge- 
motive  and  the  stilted  rhetoric  of 
Seneca,  while  eliminating  the 
choruses  and  loosening  the  struc- 
ture. But  the  great  forerunner  of 
Shakespeare  was  Christopher  Mar- 
lowe (Tamburlaine,  Dr.  Faustus, 
Edward  II),  who  gave  to  serious 
English  drama  stateliness  and 
splendour  of  form,  while  quickening 
within  it  the  soul  of  dramatic 
interest.  His  blank  verse  is  the 
overture  to  the  fuller,  more  varied 
harmonies  of  Shakespeare  and 
Milton. 

In  William  Shakespeare  a  great 
tradition  found  its  fullest  expres- 
sion. The  statue  had  been 
blocked  out,  the  tools  were  ready 
to  his  hand.  It  was  no  restraint  to 
him,  it  seems  rather  to  have  been 
a  help,  to  revise  older  work,  to  col- 
laborate with  lesser  men.  But  the 
miracle  of  genius  remains.  The 
tradition  broke  into  a  new  life  in 
his  hands.  The  old  play,  the  lesser 
dramatist,  found  through  him  their 
fulfilment.  He  neither  led  nor 
followed,  he  moved  instinctively 
with  the  changing  currents  of 
taste.  His  early  tragic  histories, 
Henry  VI  and  Richard  III,  are 
Marlowesque  in  spirit  and  style  ; 
his  early  comedies  and  romances, 
Love's  Labour's  Lost,  and  A  Mid- 
summer Night's  Dream,  absorbed 
and  enriched  all  the  currents  that 
flowed  more  faintly  in  Lyly  and 


Peele  and  Greene.  As  the  century 
draws  to  an  end  he  satirisesthe  bom- 
bast of  Marlowe  and  Kyd  through 
Ancient  Pistol,  and  Lyly's  Eu- 
phuism in  the  wit  of  Falstaff,  and 
blends  heroic  history,  full  of  the 
same  spirit  as  Daniel's  and  Dray- 
ton's  Chronicle  poems,  with  genial 
and  boisterous  comedy. 

And  when  Jonson  turned  drama 
from  romance  to  realism,  Shake- 
speare passed  to  tragedy,  tragedies 
of  character  and  adverse  stars  in 
Hamlet  and  Julius  Caesar,  tragedies 
of  great  souls  driven  from  their 
orbit  by  passion  to  clash  and  de- 
stroy and  perish  in  Othello  and 
Lear,  and  the  style  and  imagery 
and  verse  change  with  the  change 
of  theme.  Lastly,  when  Beaumont 
and  Fletcher  revive  the  flutings 
and  falsetto  of  romance,  Shake- 
speare, too,  turns  back  to  the 
charm  of  romantic  setting  and 
pathetic  lovers  and  children  and 
flowers  and  poetry  and  recon- 
ciliation. He  works  with  all  his 
fellows,  but  gives  to  each  kind  of 
play  an  infinitely  richer  dramatic 
and  poetic  worth. 

English  prose  in  the  16th  cen- 
tury felt  the  influence  of  Latin  in 
vocabulary  and  structure.  The 
prose  of  the  16th  century — of 
John  Fisher,  Thomas  Elyot,  Roger 
Ascham,  Thomas  North,  and  others 
— is  a  happy  blend  of  simple, 
direct,  colloquial  English,  with  a 
free  importation  of  Latin  words 
and  a  sentence  shaping  towards  the 
Latin  period.  The  finest  product 
of  this  are  the  translations  of  the 
Bible,  from  Tyndale  to  the  Au- 
thorised Version,  a  book  which  has 
shaped  and  coloured,  as  perhaps 
no  other,  the  diction  and  rhythm 
of  the  best  English  prose  and  verse. 
Hooker  and  English  Prose 

For  the  last  two  decades  of  the 
century  prose,  like  verse,  came 
under  the  influence  of  the  taste 
for  elaborate  rhetoric.  Lyly's 
Euphues  set  the  fashion  of  an- 
tithesis, alliteration,  and  artificial 
simile  for  a  succession  of  imitators 
in  novels  and  pamphlets,  Robert 
Greene,  Thomas  Lodge,  Thomas 
Nash,  and  Thomas  Dekker ;  though 
in  Nash  and  Dekker  a  racy  collo- 
quialism blended  with  and  super- 
seded the  tricks  of  Euphuism. 
Sidney  cultivated  a  more  poetical 
rhetoric  in  his  Arcadia,  and,  with 
much  less  of  artifice,  in  the  De- 
fence of  Poesie.  Richard  Hooker, 
in  the  Ecclesiastical  Polity,  raised 
the  Latinised,  periodic  prose  to  a 
higher  level  of  rhythm,  and  digni- 
fied eloquence,  and  made  English  a 
fitting  medium  for  philosophical 
disquisition. 

The  literature  of  the  earlier  17th 
century  is  as  varied  in  character  as 
that  of  the  16th.  The  first  fifteen 


years  witnessed  the  culminating 
achievement  of  the  drama  in 
Shakespeare's  great  tragedies  and 
the  sombre,  extravagant,  but  im- 
pressive work  of  Marston,  Chap- 
man, Middleton,  and  Webster,  and 
in  the  sardonic,  unromantic  "hu- 
mours "  comedy  of  Ben  Jonson 
and  his  classical  tragedies.  In 
the  work  of  Beaumont  and  Flet- 
cher, Massinger  and  Ford,  Shirley, 
and  smaller  men,  we  study  the  set- 
ting of  a  brilliant  day  in  a  sky  rich 
in  the  colours  of  sentiment  and 
phrasing. 

John  Donne  and  Ben  Jonson 

In  poetry  Spenser  found  no 
follower  in  the  endeavour  to  re- 
vive, and  give  a  new  significance 
to,  the  chivalry  of  medieval  ro- 
mance, though  Ariosto  and  Tasso 
were  translated  by  Sir  John  Har- 
rington and  Edward  Fairfax.  But 
Spenser's  pastoralism  was  vari- 
ously tuned  by  many  poets,  as 
William  Browne,  Britannia's  Pas- 
torals ;  and  Drayton,  The  Muses 
Elizium  ;  and  the  Scottish  Drum- 
mond  of  Hawthornden,  a  late 
Elizabethan,  in  his  Italianism  and 
his  love  for  sonnets  and  pas- 
torals. The  didactic,  allegorical, 
religious  aspect  of  Spenser's  work 
appealed  more  strongly  than  the 
romantic  and  chivalrous  to  ardent 
Protestants  like  the  poet  brothers 
Giles  Fletcher  (Christ's  Victory  and 
Triumph)  and  Phineas  (The  Purple 
Island). 

None,  however,  of  these  over- 
flows from  Elizabethan  poetry, 
modified  by  the  changing  spirit  of 
the  time,  represents  quite  clearly 
the  two  main  directions  in  which 
literature  moved  during  the  cen- 
tury, on  the  one  hand  towards  an 
increasing  weight  and  fullness  of 
thought  and  conceit,  to  which  is 
sacrificed  grace  and  beauty  of  form 
and  verse,  on  the  other  towards 
more  definiteness,  uniformity,  and 
correctness  of  style  and  verse.  The 
dominant  influences  in  this  two- 
fold movement  are  the  late  Eliza- 
bethan poets,  John  Donne  and  Ben 
Jonson.  The  poems,  erotic,  satiri- 
cal, complimentary,  and  religious, 
of  the  former  fascinated  all  the 
younger,  bolder  spirits  by  their 
intellectual  subtleties  and  passion- 
ate perversities  of  feeling,  their 
rugged  strength  and  frequent  felici- 
ties of  phrase,  their  contemptuous 
violations  of  smoothness  and  sweet- 
ness hi  versification  with  the  deep 
and  plangent  harmonies  which 
none  the  less  they  repeatedly 
achieve. 

Ben  Jonson.  in  his  songs  and  epi- 
grams and  odes  and  verses,  compli- 
mentary and  satirical,  combines 
the  same  compacted  pregnancy  of 
thought  with  a  constant,  though 
not  always  successful,  striving  after 


I 


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2931 


ENGLISH     LITERATURE 


classical  definiteness  of  form,  classi- 
cal finish,  and  felicity  of  phrasing. 
The  influence  of  both  is  obvious  in 
English  poetry  to  the  time  of  Cow- 
ley  and  Dryden.  Jonson's  and 
Donne's  best  disciples  are  the  court- 
ly lyrists,  Thomas  Carew,  Richard 
Lovelace,  John  Suckling,  Thomas 
Stanley,  and  a  host  of  others  down 
to  the  earl  of  Dorset,  the  earl  of 
Rochester,  Charles  Sedley,  Aphra 
Behn,  and  John  Dryden  himself  in 
the  years  after  the  Restoration. 
The  greatest  of  them,  as  artist  and 
poet,  is  Robert  Herrick,  the  great- 
est Epicurean  and  fanciful  song- 
writer in  our  literature.  The  in- 
fluence of  Donne,  his  metaphysical 
wit  and  his  passionate  egotism,  is 
most  directly  traceable  in  the  reli- 
gious poets,  Anglican  and  Catholic 
—George  Herbert,  The  Temple; 
Henry  Vaughan,  Silex  Scintillans; 
Richard  Crashaw,  Steps  to  the 
Temple,  and  Carmen  Deo  Nostro ; 
in  Thomas  Traherne,  and  others. 
But,  together  with  Donne's  in- 
fluence, that  of  Italian  religious 
poetry,  with  its  sugared  conceits 
and  the  mysticism  of  Spanish 
writers,  as  S.  Theresa  and  John  of 
the  Cross,  can  be  recognized. 
The  Poetry  of  Milton 

The  greatest  of  seventeenth  cen- 
tury poets,  John  Milton,  shares  the 
taste  of  his  age  for  compacted 
thought  and  multifarious  learning 
while  despising  its  fantastic  and 
metaphysical  conceits.  In  his 
poetry,  Ben  Jonson's  ideal  of  classi- 
cal form  and  finish  is  ministered  to 
by  a  finer  ear  and  by  a  poetic  tem- 
perament and  imagination  as  spon- 
taneously creative  as  those  of  the 
greatest  Elizabethans.  The  early 
Cambridge  and  Horton  poems,  the 
Nativity  Ode,  At  a  Solemn  Music, 
On  Time,  L' Allegro  and  II  Pen- 
seroso,  Arcades,  On  the  Marchioness 
of  Winchester,  Comus,  Lycidas, 
combine  the  spontaneity,  fancy,  and 
ravishing  music  of  Spenser  and 
Shakespeare  with  a  consciously 
elaborated  art,  architectonical, 
stylistic,  and  metrical,  which,  on 
this  scale,  was  a  new  thing,  and  has 
never  been  surpassed  in  the  history 
of  English  poetry. 

Paradise  Lost  is  built  from  the 
stern  experiences  and  the  rigid 
political  theology  of  the  years  of 
rebellion  and  pamphleteering.  The 
freshness  and  charm  of  the  earlier 
poems  are  gone,  but  their  loss  is 
compensated  for  by  grandeur  of 
epic  creation  in  incident,  character, 
and  setting,  and  by  the  most  majes- 
tic and  harmoniously  modulated 
blank  verse  which  English  ears  have 
ever  heard.  Paradise  Regained  is  a 
paler  reflex  of  these  qualities,  but 
into  Samson  Agonistes,  Milton's 
experiment  hi  classical  tragedy,  he 
poured  the  passion  of  his  own 


sufferings  and  the  defeat  of  his 
cause,  the  pride  of  his  defiant 
will,  clothing  them  in  words  and 
measures  as  sublime  as  they  are 
severe. 

But  the  movement  towards 
classification,  definiteness,  and  per- 
fection which  fulfilled  itself  so 
strikingly  in  Milton  followed  a  line 
of  less  resistance  in  the  work  of 
Edmund  Waller,  John  Beaumont, 
John  Denham,  William  Davenant, 
and  Abraham  Cowley.  In  Cowley's 
Mistress  and  Pindarique  Odes  and 
Davideis  the  extravagances  of  the 
earlier  period  are  made  the  more 
obvious  by  the  subsidence  of  the 
imaginative  passion  which  in  Donne 
inspired  and  condoned  for  these  ; 
but  the  common  aim  of  the  others, 
conscious  or  unconscious,  was  the 
rejection  of  this  extravagance,  the 
limitation  of  the  pattern  which 
verse  might  follow,  and  the  ex- 
action of  a  higher  degree  of  correct- 
ness within  that  pattern. 

The  movement  was  carried  to  a 
triumphant  success  by  John  Dry- 
den, a  far  inferior  poet  to  Milton, 
but  the  first  and  among  the  most 
accomplished  of  English  men  of 
letters — dramatist ;  poet,  eulo- 
gistic, lyrical,  satiric,  and  didactic  ; 
translator ;  literary  critic ;  and  es- 
sayist. In  Dryden's  verse  and 
prose  the  English  language  is  writ- 
ten as  we  still  use  it ;  he  is  our  first 
modern.  His  satires,  as  Absalom 
and  Achitophel,  and  didactics,  as 
Religio  Laici,  The  Hind  and  the 
Panther,  are  an  idealised  reflection 
in  verse  of  easy,  masculine  conver- 
sation or  eloquence.  His  odes 
are  our  supreme  examples  of  lyrics 
in  which  there  is  not  a  note  of  song 
but  all  is  artfully  managed  noise 
and  declamation.  Working  within  a 
still  more  limited  pattern,  Alexan- 
der Pope  achieved,  in  the  next 
generation,  a  yet  higher  degree  of 
pointed  and  polished  perfection. 

Dryden  and  Pope 

Nothing  can  surpass  in  its  own 
way  the  eloquence  of  Eloisa  to  Abe- 
lard,  the  satirical  miniature-paint- 
ing of  The  Rape  of  the  Lock,  the 
aphorisms  and  declamations  of  the 
Essays  on  Criticism  and  Essay  on 
Man,"  the  condensed,  polished,  poi- 
sonous satire  of  the  Dunciad,  Moral 
Essays,  and  Imitations  of  Horace. 
Dryden  and  Pope  are  the  high 
priests  of  a  school  of  poets  including 
Prior  and  Gay  among  their  contem- 
poraries and  a  succession  of  elegant, 
conventional  poets,  continued  to 
the  end  of  the  century  and  beyond, 
whose  work  may  be  studied  in  a 
collection  like  Dodsley's. 

The  Restoration  drama  of  Eng- 
land is  represented  by  the  high- 
flown  and  absurd,  but  eloquent, 
heroic  plays  of  Dryden,  the  path- 


etic, rhetorical  tragedies  of  Nath- 
aniel Lee  and  Thomas  Otway,  the 
brilliant,  polite,  licentious  comedy 
of  George  Etherege,  George  Far- 
quhar,  William  Wycherley,  John 
Vanbrugh,  and  especially  William 
Congreve.  Thereafter,  except  for 
brief  intervals,  as  in  the  plays  of 
Goldsmith  and  Sheridan  and  the 
drama  of  our  own  day,  the  acted 
drama  has  not  formed  an  import- 
ant section  of  English  literature, 
although  almost  every  poet,  Addi- 
son,  Thomson,  Gray,  Wordsworth, 
Coleridge,  Byron,  Shelley,  etc.,  has 
tried  his  hand  at  poetic  drama, 
Elizabethan  or  classical. 

Development  of  English  Prose 

The  same  idea  of  uniformity,  of 
a  definite  but  not  too  rigid  pattern, 
"  correctness,"  shaped  the  prose  of 
Dryden,  Temple,  and  their  follow- 
ers. The  earlier  prose  of  the  17th 
century  had  shared  in  the  irregular 
greatness  of  the  poetry.  The  prose 
of  Francis  Bacon's  Essays,  and 
History  of  Henry  VII ;  of  the  great 
Anglican  preachers,  Lancelot  An- 
drewes,  John  Donne,  poet  in  prose 
as  well  as  verse,  Jeremy  Taylor  ; 
of  philosophical  humorists  as 
Robert  Burton,  The  Anatomy  of 
Melancholy,  Thomas  Browne,  Re- 
ligio Medici,  and  Urn  Burial ;  the 
controversial  pamphlets  of  Milton, 
as  Areopagitica ;  the  historical 
memoir-writing  of  Clarendon,  His- 
tory of  the  Rebellion — all  illustrate 
the  erudite,  imaginative  phrase- 
ology, the  splendid  but  not  per- 
fectly controlled  harmony,  the 
too  long  and  complex  sentence- 
structure  of  a  prose  which  en- 
riched our  language,  but  was  not 
a  fully  developed  and  controlled 
medium. 

A  simpler  style  is  traceable 
in  the  antithetic  sentences  of 
the  character-writers,  as  Earle's 
Microcosmographie;  the  prose  of 
moderate  divines  like  Chilling- 
worth,  The  Religion  of  Protes- 
tants, and  Hales,  Golden  Remains  ; 
and  the  virile,  well-girt  style  of  the 
philosopher  Hobbes,  Leviathan. 
The  strain  of  racy  colloquialism  in 
17th  century  prose,  coloured  by  a 
sensitive  and  imaginative  tempera- 
ment, and  enriched  by  the  sub- 
limer  phraseology  of  the  English 
Bible,  gives  individuality  to  the 
Grace  Abounding  to  the  Chief  of 
Shiners  and  Pilgrim's  Progress  of 
John  Bunyan.  A  gentler  temper 
sweetens  the  talkative  prose  of 
Izaak  Walton's  Compleat  Angler, 
and  Lives,  and  the  multifarious, 
witty  writings  of  Thomas  Fuller. 
The  new  prose,  colloquial  but 
urbane  and  weighty,  begins  in  the 
Sermons  of  Tillotson  and  South, 
the  Essays  of  Sir  William  Temple, 
and,  above  all,  in  the  prefaces  and 
essays  of  John  Dryden,  whose 


ENGLISH    LITERATURE 


2932 


ENGLISH     LITERATURE 


critical  prefaces  manifest,  for  the 
first  time,  the  qualities  of  urbanity, 
of  ease  and  elegance  combined 
with  force,  which  mark  the  prose 
of  a  people  who  have  come  of  age 
socially  and  culturally. 

The  new  instrument  lent  itself 
to  all  the  purposes  of  an  age  in 
which  political  and  social  life 
entered  into  the  closest  union  with 
literature.  The  first  of  these  is 
satire ;  and  the  pamphlets  and 
occasional  pieces  of  Jonathan 
Swift,  from  The  Tale  of  a  Tub  to 
the  Travels  by  Lemuel  Gulliver, 
made  him  a  power  in  English  politi- 
cal life,  and  revealed  the  greatest 
mastery  of  irony  in  the  English 
or  perhaps  any  other  tongue. 
Richard  Steele  and  Joseph  Addi- 
son,  pamphleteers  on  the  other 
side  from  Swift,  showed  in  The 
Tatler  and  The  Spectator  how  the 
same  style,  used  with  less  mascu- 
line vigour  than  in  Dry  den's,  and 
less  incisive  virulence  than  in 
Swift's  prose,  but  with  a  delightful 
blend  of  irony  and  "  sweet  reason- 
ableness," might  be  made  to  incul- 
cate good  sense  and  purer  manners 
on  a  society  which  still  felt  the 
evil  effects  of  Puritan  and  Restora- 
tion excesses.  The  Tatler  and  The 
Spectator  had  many  successors 
down  to  the  end  of  the  century,  in- 
cluding The  Guardian  and  John- 
son's Rambler  and  Idler. 

Birth  of  the  Modern  Novel 

The  first  of  modern  novels  in 
Western  Europe  was  Cervantes' 
Don  Quixote,  whose  fame  was 
quickly  diffused.  The  most  in- 
teresting precursors  of  the  novel 
in  English  were  such  varied  pro- 
ducts as  the  picaresque  and  senti- 
mental extravagances  of  Aphra 
Behn's  Oroonoko  and  The  Forced 
Marriage  ;  Bunyan's  realistic  alle- 
gories ;  Daniel  Defoe's  stories, 
which  are  almost  the  complete 
thing,  e.g.  Robinson  Crusoe,  Cap- 
tain Singleton,  Moll  Flanders,  Cap- 
tain Jack ;  and  the  fantastic  real- 
ism of  Jonathan  Swift's  Gulliver's 
Travels.  But  a  potent  shaping  in- 
fluence was  that  of  the  press,  which, 
beginning  in  the  reign  of  James  I, 
had  developed  in  the  News  Books, 
Mercuries,  etc.,  of  the  Civil  Wars, 
the  last  phase  of  which  was  the 
Newsletters  of  Henry  Muddiman 
and  the  fuller  journalistic  work  of 
John  Dunton  and  Daniel  Defoe. 

The  man  in  whose  work  these 
various  elements — realistic  narra- 
tive, the  minute  portrayal  of  con- 
temporary life  and  manners,  the 
didactic  interest  in  conduct — crys- 
tallised, finding  their  centre  in  the 
sympathetic  analysis  of  a  human 
soul  passing  through  a  moral  crisis, 
was  Samuel  Richardson,  whose 
Pamela,  Clarissa,  and  Sir  Charles 
Grandison  created  a  type  of  novel 


which  has  been  more  assiduously 
cultivated  in  France  than  in 
England.  A  different  kind  of  plot, 
deriving  from  Don  Quixote,  full 
of  adventures  at  inns,  bringing 
together  all  sorts  and  conditions  of 
men,  a  more  mascuJine  philosophy 
of  life  and  conduct,  made  Henry 
Fielding,  dramatist,  essayist,  and 
novelist,  the  father  of  a  novel  more 
characteristically  English  than  that 
of  Richardson.  Joseph  Andrews, 
Jonathan  Wild,  Tom  Jones,  and 
Amelia  are  the  most  genial  and 
vivid  pictures?  of  English  life  which 
the  18th  century  has>  bequeathed. 
Smollett  and  Goldsmith 

He  was  followed  by  an  ill- 
conditioned  Scot  of  genius,  Tobias 
Smollett,  a  sardonic  and  angry 
painter  of  sordid  and  violent  life, 
the  creator  of  some  immortal  types, 
as  of  the  English  sailor,  in  ttoderick 
Random,  Peregrine  Pickle,  and 
Humphrey  Clinker.  The  tendency 
of  the  novel  in  Smollett's  hands 
to  revert  to  picaresque  story  was 
checked  by  Laurence  Sterne,  whose 
self-conscious  sentiment  and  whim- 
sical humour,  which  owed  much  to 
Rabelais,  Montaigne,  Cervantes, 
Burton,  and  Swift,  found  expres- 
sion in  The  Life  and  Opinions 
of  Tristram  Shandy,  Gent.,  and 
the  Sentimental  Journey,  a  tour 
through  France  and  Italy,  tales 
which,  following  no  plan,  vindicated 
the  right  of  the  novel  to  take  what 
form  it  please,  so  it  mirror  the  idio- 
syncrasies of  character  and  feeling. 
Among  the  followers  of  these  great 
painters  of  manners  is  Frances  Bur- 
ney,  with  Evelina,  Cecilia,  and 
Camilla,  while  Johnson's  Rasselas 
is  but  an  expanded  epilogue  of  the 
type  of  Addison's  Vision  of  Mirza. 
Goldsmith's  The  Vicar  of  Wake- 
field,  with  its  fanciful,  humorous, 
pathetic  picture  of  life  seen  through 
the  idealising  atmosphere  of  remin- 
iscence, had  an  influence  on  Goethe 
and  Continental  writers  hardly  in- 
ferior to  that  of  Richardson.  In 
Horace  Walpole's  Castle  of  Otranto 
the  first  wave  of  the  Gothic  revival 
reached  the  novel. 

The  novel  was  only  one  channel 
of  prose  literature  in  the  century. 
If  the  didactic  spirit  invaded  and 
chilled  poetry,  the  regard  for  form, 
for  correctness,  elegance  and  dig- 
nity of  composition,  gave  artistic 
interest  to  work  of  kinds  which  a 
later  age  has  too  scrupulously  di- 
vorced from  literature.  John  Locke, 
Essay  concerning  Human  Under- 
standing, was  a  diffuse  and  cum- 
brous writer;  but  there  are  few 
finer  practitioners  in  the  prose  of 
Dryden  and  Addison  than  George 
Berkeley,  Three  Dialogues,  Alci- 
phron,  and  David  Hume,  Essays. 
Johnson,  poet,  lexicographer,  es- 
sayist, and  critic,  sacrificed  the 


lightness  of  Addisonian  style  for 
more  force  and  dignity,  not  un- 
touched with  pomposity,  qualities 
not  more  evident  in  his  own  work 
than  in  the  record  of  his  conversa- 
tion preserved  in  James  Boswell's 
immortal  Life. 

English  prose  acquires  grace  and 
charm  in  the  work  ot  Oliver  Gold- 
smith, whose  Citizen  of  the  World, 
Vicar  of  Wakefield,  and  comedies 
have  an  unfading  freshness. 
Edward  Gibbon  made  the  same 
dignified  prose  the  purple  vest- 
ment of  his  not  more  learned  than 
splendidly  ordered  Decline  and  Fall 
of  the  Roman  Empire.  Edmund 
Burke,  the  most  diffuse  and 
gorgeous  of  English  orators,  com- 
bined with  eloquence  a  unique  in- 
tellectual and  imaginative  insight 
into  the  principles  of  politics, 
the  mainsprings  of  man's  social 
nature. 

A  didactic  purpose,  a  regard  for 
"  correctness  "  within  a  narrow  but 
widening  pattern  of  diction  and 
verse,  are  the  accepted  principles 
of  English  poetry  to  the  time  of 
Blake  and  Wordsworth,  and  even 
later.  The  beginning?  of  a  change 
showed  themselves  first  rather  in 
an  enlarged  choice  of  subjects — 
Nature,  the  Middle  Ages,  Liberty, 
and  the  Natural  as  opposed  to 
Civilized  Man,  and  in  some  experi- 
ments in  earlier  verse  forms,  than 
in  any  radical  change  of  spirit  and 
style. 

Augustan  Conventions 

James  Thomson's  blank-verse 
Seasons ;  John  Dyer's  octosylla- 
bic Granger  Hill;  the  essays  in 
Spenserians,  as  Thomson's  Castle 
of  Indolence  ;  Thomas  Gray's  pen- 
sive Ode  on  a  Distant  Prospect  of 
Eton  College,  or  Elegy  in  a  Country 
Churchyard ;  and  the  equally  pen- 
sive, less  finished  and  sustained, 
but  more  spontaneous  and  sensitive 
odes  of  William  Collins :  the  minor 
poetry  of  the  Wartons,  Thomas  and 
Joseph,  and  of  Mark  Akenside ; 
the  poems,  more  Pope-like  in  form, 
of  Dr.  Johnson,  as  The  Vanity  of 
Human  Wishes;  Oliver  Gold- 
smith's The  Deserted  Village,  and 
George  Crabbe's  The  Village,  all 
show  in  different  ways  the  change 
that  is  being  effected,  but  are  still 
quite  Augustan  in  their  conven- 
tional "  poetic  diction,"  their 
studied  "  correctness  "  in  spirit 
and  form  ;  and  so,  despite  their  ro- 
mantic themes,  are  Gray's  more 
ambitious  odes.  The  Progress  of 
Poesy  and  The  Bard. 

But  the  new  spirit  was  to  find  its 
proper  style,  to  substitute  for  a 
poetic  heightening  of  eloquence  a 
style  whose  ideal  is  the  free  and 
natural  outpouring  of  the  heart. 
The  frost  is  loosening  in  the  poetic 
prose  of  Macpherson's  Ossian,  and 


ENGLISH     LITERATURE 


ENGLISH     LITERATURE 


Chatter-ton's  Rowley  Poems,  in 
Goldsmith,  and  in  Cowper's  The 
Task.  It  is  broken  up  in  the  songs 
of  William  Blake,  mystical  poet 
and  painter,  Songs  of  Innocence, 
Songs  of  Experience,  and  in  the 
Lyrical  Ballads  of  Wordsworth  and 
Coleridge. 

The  long  poetical  career  of 
William  Wordsworth  was  run  in  the 
fervour  of  imaginative  and  mys- 
tical insight  into  the  life  of  nature 
and  its  significance  for  the  soul  of 
man,  to  which  he  had  attained 
through  the  meditative  country 
life  of  his  youth  and  the  spiritual 
aaitations  'of  the  French  Revolu- 
tion. The  Prelude,  The  Excursion, 
The  Recluse,  fragments  of  a  never- 
completed  autobiography  and 
spiritual  creed  in  blank  verse ; 
lyrical  and  narrative  poems  in- 
spired by  nature,  childhood,  the 
peasant,  the  affections ,  patriotic 
sonnets,  have  one  common  theme, 
and  are  composed  in  a  style  which 
Wordsworth  was  disposed  to  make 
something  of  a  religion  too — bald 
and  prosaic  and  even  awkwardly 
pompous  when  inspiration  fails,  at 
its  best  unique  in  passionate,  im- 
aginative simplicity.  Coleridge's 
best  poetry  shows  the  influence  of 
Wordsworth  in  thought  and  feel- 
ing and  style,  but  what  is  most  in- 
dividual in  The  Ancient  Mariner, 
Christabel,  Kubla  Khan,  is  not 
these  Wordsworthian  qualities,  but 
the  magic  with  which  the  reawak- 
ened sense  of  beauty  and  mystery 
is  expressed  in  phrase  and  in 
subtle  music  of  vowel  and  con- 
sonant and  cadence. 

Poetry  of  Scott  and  Byron 

The  spirit  and  art  of  Words- 
worth's and  Coleridge's  poetry  were 
too  novel  and  elusive  for  immediate 
appreciation.  Public  taste  had  to 
be  stimulated  and  purged  by  the 
more  crudely  romantic  poetry  of 
Walter  Scott,  Byron,  and  Thomas 
Moore.  Scott's  stirring  but  some- 
what rococo  lays  are  of  less  pure 
poetic  worth  than  the  delightful 
snatches  of  song  in  which  he  re- 
vived the  impersonal,  chivalrous 
note  of  medieval  lyric.  The  fiery, 
brilliant,  crude  improvisations  of 
Byron  in  lyric  and  lay,  and  the 
blend  of  description  and  rhapsody 
in  Childe  Harold  are  the  unre- 
flective,  potent  expression  of  the 
spirit  of  pure  revolt  in  romanticism, 
but  Byron's  best  work  was  satire  in 
conversational  style  and  ottava 
rima,  Beppo,  Don  Juan,  and  The 
Vision  of  Judgment. 

Scott  and  Byron  enjoyed  a 
European  reputation.  They  are 
the  most  human  and  worldly  of  the 
poets  of  the  period  ;  there  is  more 
passionate  flesh  and  blood  in 
Byron's  technically  inferior  work 
than  in  the  work  of  any  of  our  poets 


save  Shakespeare  and  Burns.  The 
"desire  of  the  moth  for  the  star" 
is  the  burden  of  the  lyrical  dramas, 
Prometheus  Unbound  and  Hellas, 
rhapsodies  as  Alastor,  and  elegiac 
poems  as  Adonais,  and  the  songs  in 
winged  and  ethereal  rhythms  of 
Percy  Bysshe  Shelley.  Beauty,  the 
beauties  of  nature,  of  Spenser's 
poems,  of  medieval  chivalry,  of 
Greek  mythology  and  art,  of  Mil- 
tonic  cadences  and  Shakespearean 
phrases,  are  the  theme  and  inspira- 
tion of  the  Endymion  and  later 
poems  and  odes  of  John  Keats. 
The  curiously  carved  Gebir,  Hel- 
lenics and  Lyrics  of  Walter  Savage 
Landor  are  inspired  by  a  like  sense 
of  the  statuesque  beauties  of  Greek 
poems  and  epigrams  and  by  a  finer 
scholarship,  if  a  less  spontaneous 
creative  genius. 

The  Revolutionary  Novel 

The  last  great  novelist  in  the 
18th  century  school  of  manners 
and  character  was  Jane  Austen, 
whose  Northanger  Abbey  was  an 
early  skit  on  the  new  romantic 
novel.  Her  exquisite  pictures  of 
genteel  English  life  in  the  country 
and  at  Bath  include  Pride  and 
Prejudice,  Emma,  and  Persuasion. 
But  the  novel,  too,  came  under  the 
influence  of  the  taste  for  romantic 
scenery,  a  medieval  atmosphere, 
the  marvellous  and  mysterious, 
dreams  of  the  perfectibility  of 
human  nature  and  political  re- 
generation. The  result  is  seen  in 
revolutionary  novels  as  William 
Godwin's  Caleb  Williams  ;  didactic 
stories  like  Thomas  Day's  Sand- 
ford  and  Merton  and  Miss  Edge- 
worth's  tales ;  Mrs.  RadclifiVs  tales 
of  mysterious  adventures,  The 
Mysteries  of  Udolpho  ;  crude  ex- 
periments in  historical  fiction  as 
Longsword,  Earl  of  Salisbury,  Clare 
Reeve's  The  Old  English  Baron, 
Jane  Porter's  The  Scottish  Chiefs. 
Maria  Edgeworth's  Castle  Rackrent 
and  other  tales  extended  the  study 
of  manners  to  the  Irish  gentry 
and  peasants. 

These  and  the  historical  stories 
are  interesting  now  only  or  mainly 
as  marshalling  the  way  to  the  great 
achievement  in  the  Waverley 
Novels,  from  Waverley  to  Count 
Robert  of  Paris,  of  Sir  Walter 
Scott,  who  combined  and  har- 
monised the  interest  in  character 
and  manners  of  the  great  18th 
century  novelists,  the  romantic 
passion  for  other  times  and  other 
manners  and  for  a  picturesque 
setting  in  scenery  rich  in  historical 
associations,  and  that  respect  and 
affection  for  the  peasantry  which 
had  grown  steadily  throughout  the 
18th  century  from  Thomson  and 
Gray  to  Rousseau  and  Burns  and 
Wordsworth. 

The  influence  of   the  romantic 


movement  on  prose  work  other 
than  the  novel  can  be  studied 
in  the  picturesque,  archaically 
coloured  prose  essays  and  Eliza- 
bethan critical  studies  of  Charles 
Lamb,  Essays  of  Elia,  Specimens 
from  the  Dramatic  Poets  ;  in  the 
vivid,  passionate,  impressionistic 
essays  and  criticism  of  William 
Hazlitt,  Lectures  on  the  English 
Poets,  Lectures  on  the  English 
Comic  Writers  ;  in  the  cadenced 
prose,  musical  and  fanciful,  of 
Thomas  De  Quincey,  The  Con- 
fessions of  an  Opium  Eater  ;  and  in 
the  pleasant  chat  about  letters  and 
art  and  scenery  of  Leigh  Hunt, 
The  Examiner,  etc.  William  Cob- 
bett's  racy,  idiomatic  prose,  Rural 
Rides,  continues  the  tradition  of 
South  and  Swift. 

The  poetry  of  the  reign  of  Queen 
Victoria  is  a  continuation  and 
elaboration  of  the  romantic  re- 
vival. The  chief  themes  are  the 
same — Nature,  the  romantic  past, 
medieval  and  classical,  the  prob- 
lems of  life  and  death.  There  is 
less  of  the  suggestion  of  a  prophetic 
burden  (that  is  taken  over  by  prose 
writers  like  Carlyle  and  Ruskin) 
than  in  Wordsworth  and  Shelley, 
more  of  consciously  artistic  hand- 
ling, of  antiquarian  accuracy  of 
reproduction,  of  analysis  and  in- 
quiry, of  dramatic  interest  which, 
except  in  Scott,  had  been  some- 
what overshadowed  by  the  large 
topics — Nature  and  Liberty  and 
Romance.  The  purification  of 
style,  the  rejection  of  a  stereotyped 
convention  in  poetic  diction,  had 
led  to  an  enrichment  of  phrase- 
ology, a  more  imaginative  style  that 
owes  much  to  older  poets,  and  in 
the  elaboration  of  which  Keats  is 
a  principal  agent,  and  Keats's  influ- 
ence is  obvious  in  all  the  Victorians. 
Tennyson  and  Browning 

The  most  representative  poet  is 
Alfred  Tennyson,  whose  careful 
experiments  in  the  artistic  expres- 
sion of  moods  culminated  in  the 
two  volumes  of  1842,  lyrics  and 
idylls  of  nature  and  English  rural 
life,  of  character,  Simon  Stylites 
and  Ulysses,  of  medieval  and 
classical  legend,  and  of  the  prob- 
lems of  sin  and  death  and  immor- 
tality, The  Vision  of  Sin.  In  the 
years  which  followed  the  style  thus 
studied  and  mastered  became  the 
medium  of  longer,  more  ambitious, 
not  always  entirely  successful 
poems,  The  Princess,  In  Memoriam, 
Idylls  of  the  King,  jewelled  settings 
of  tales  from  Malory  and  the 
Mabinogion,  touched  with  modern 
feeling.  Tennyson's  later  ballads 
and  idylls  reflect  with  great  but 
unequal  power  his  passionate 
patriotism  and  the  trouble  of  soul 
with  which  he  contemplated  the 
changing  spirit  of  his  age. 


ENGLISH      LITERATURE 


ENGLISH      LITERATURE 


A  wider  dramatic  range,  a  more 
curiously  analytic  mind,  a  more 
colloquial  style,  and  a  less  me- 
lodious but  more  varied  verse 
distinguish  the  not  essentially 
different  dramatic  monologues  and 
lyrics  of  Robert  Browning.  The 
long  and  somewhat  chaotic  and 
obscure  poems,  of  which  the  hap- 
piest is  Paracelsus,  were  followed 
by  experiments  in  dramas  intended 
to  be  acted  (as  some  were),  and 
then  Browning  found  himself  in  a 
series  of  shorter  dramatic  lyrics  and 
monologues,  beginning  with  Pippa 
Passes  and  closing  with  Dramatis 
Personae.  The  longest  of  his  dra- 
matic, analytic  studies  of  the  hu- 
man soul,  The  Ring  and  the  Book, 
was  followed  by  many  similar  stud- 
ies, subtly  intellectual  but  more  fit- 
fully inspired. 

As  a  revival  of  the  life  and  art 
and  spirit  of  past  times  the  move- 
ment which  began  in  the  18th 
century  culminated  in  the  exotic, 
cultured  poetry  of  the  middle  of 
the  19th  century.  But  this  poetry 
also  reflects  that  change  of  spiritual 
temper  which  troubled  Tennyson 
and  Browning,  on  the  one  hand 
the  revival,  actual  or  artistic, 
of  medieval  Catholicism,  on  the 
other  the  Lucretian  philosophy 
of  life  to  which  modern  science 
tended. 

Learning  and  Lyrical  Inspiration 

In  this  philosophy,  in  the  poetry 
of  Greece,  in  Goethe  and  Words- 
worth, Matthew  Arnold  found  the 
inspiration  of  poems,  lyrical,  nar- 
rative, and  in  Greek  dramatic 
form,  with  a  piercing  elegiac  note 
of  their  own.  Medieval  art,  early 
Italian  poetry,  Keats  and  Brown- 
ing were  the  influences  which 
shaped  and  coloured  the  ballads, 
monologues,  sonnets,  and  lyrics, 
sensuous,  mystical,  and  elaborate, 
of  Dante  Gabriel  Rossetti.  Early 
French  poetry,  Froissart  and  Chau- 
cer, Rossetti  and  Browning,  the 
architecture  and  decorative  arts 
of  the  12th  and  13th  centuries,  the 
passionate,  stoical  heroism  of  Ice- 
landic myth  and  saga,  a  socialism 
which  is  in  part  an  artist's  hatred 
of  modern  machinery  and  com- 
merce, are  the  blended  strains  in 
the  lyrical  and  narrative  poetry 
and  prose  of  William  Morris,  re- 
teller  of  stories  classical  and 
northern  after  the  manner  of 
Chaucer,  but  without  his  humour. 

A  deeper  sympathetic  compre- 
hension of  the  spirit,  but  even 
more  of  the  form,  the  metrical 
complexities  and  beauties,  of 
Greek  poetry,  superior  to  that  of 
Gray,  perhaps  even  of  Milton,  for 
Milton  was  limited  by  the  scholar- 
ship, more  Latin  than  Greek,  of  his 
day  ;  an  equally  intimate  know- 


ledge and  understanding  of  French 
poetry  from  Villon  to  Victor  Hugo ; 
a  love  amounting  to  idolatry  for 
Shakespeare  and  the  Elizabethan 
dramatists — are  the  sources  of  the 
poetry,  decorative  and  intoxi- 
catingly  harmonious,  of  Algernon 
Charles  Swinburne.  Never  have 
learning  and  lyrical  inspiration 
been  more  strangely  blended ; 
never  has  poetry  so  spontaneously 
lyrical  been  so  purely  literary  in 
its  sources  and  motives. 

Old  Forms  and  Modern  Feeling 

To  this  school  belongs  the  in- 
timate, ascetic,  religious  poetry  of 
Christina  Rossetti ;  and  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  products  of  the 
tendency  to  find  inspiration  in 
the  past  and  adapt  old  forms  to 
modern  feeling  is  Edward  Fitz- 
gerald's Rubaiyat  of  Omar  Khay- 
yam. There  is  no  room  here  to 
speak  of  lesser  work, as  Keble's  The 
Christian  Year,  the  Lays  of  Lord 
Macaulay,  the  Festus  "of  Bailey, 
the  poetry  of  Taylor,  Alexander 
Smith,  Sidney  Dobell,  and  Arthur 
O'Shaughnessy,  or  the  lighter 
verse  of  William  Edmonstoune 
Aytoun,  C.  S.  Calverley,  and 
Lewis  Carroll. 

Among  the  many  prose  writers 
other  than  novelists  of  the  early 
and  middle  century,  historians  like 
George  Grote,  History  of  Greece  ; 
Lord  Macaulay,  Essays,  History 
of  England ;  James  Anthony 
Froude,  History  of  England ; 
philosophers  as  John  Stuart  Mill, 
Logic,  On  Liberty,  Utilitarianism ; 
and  Herbert  Spencer,  Principles 
of  Psychology,  First  Principles ; 
theologians  and  religious  writers 
as  John  Henry  Newman,  Apologia 
pro  Vita  Sua,  Grammar  of  Assent  ; 
critics  of  literature  and  art  as 
Matthew  Arnold,  Essays  on  Criti- 
cism; and  Walter  Pater,  Studies 
in  the  History  of  the  Renaissance, 
Marius  the  Epicurean,  Apprecia- 
tions, two  stand  out  most  vividly. 
The  first  is  Thomas  Carlyle,  the 
tormented,  passionate,  eloquent 
prophet  of  duty  and  work,  whose 
Sartor  Resartus  is  at  once  a 
spiritual  autobiography  and  a 
philosophy,  following  Swift  and 
Burke,  of  the  clothes,  political  and 
religious,  in  which  the  human 
spirit  is  ever  concealing  its 
"  shivering  nakedness,"  only  to 
find  them  grow  old  and  drop  away, 
if  not  burnt  up  in  Protestant 
Reformations  and  French  Revolu- 
tions, and  to  begin  again  to  weave 
them  in  time's  tireless  loom. 

In  the  French  Revolution  Car- 
lyle portrayed,  with  an  amazing 
vividness  of  dramatic  and  cinema- 
tographic presentation,  an  era  of 
dissolution  and  rebirth,  the  flaming 
apparition  of  modern  democracy. 


In     Heroes     and     Hero-worship, 
Cromwell's  Letters  and  Speeches, 
and  History  of  Frederick  II,  he 
dilated    upon    and    dramatically 
reconstructed  some  of  those  great 
spirits    who,    penetrating    to    the 
reality  which  underlies  the  illusions 
of  life,  are  the  true  leaders  of  men. 
The  reference  to  current  events 
which  runs  through  all  his  work 
found  clearest  expression  in  Chart- 
ism Past  and  Present,  and  Latter 
Day  Pamphlets.    The    other  Vic- 
torian prophet  is  John  Ruskiu,  the 
more  musically  eloquent  expounder 
of  art,  painting  and  architecture, 
in  its  relation  to   the  moral  na- 
ture of  man  and  the  ordering  of 
society.     Modern  Painters,  Seven 
Lamps  of  Architecture,  Stones  of   i 
Venice,   Unto   this   Last,  Sesame   | 
and  Lilies.  Fora  Clavigera,  Preter-   I 
ita  are  among  the  principal  works   i 
which   brought  art  into  a  closer 
relation  with  literature  than  had 
ever  been  done  before  in  England,    | 
and  trace  the  troubled  progress  of 
a  great  and  sensitive  soul.    A  less   I 
prophetic  but  equally  prejudiced   ! 
and    individual    writer     of     the   i 
period   was   George    Borrow,  the 
first    interpreter    of    the     Gipsy 
character,  and  a  writer  of  natural, 
racy  prose,    Lavengro,    and    The 
Romany  Rye. 

Dickens  and  Thackeray 

The  Victorian  novel  resumed 
with  certain  definite  limitations 
imposed  upon  it  by  the  moral 
taste  of  the  time,  the  work  of  the 
great  18th  century  novel,  the 
serious  and  humorous  portrayal 
and  the  active  criticism  of  con- 
temporary life  and  manners,  with 
occasional  digressions  into  the 
historical.  Charles  Dickens,  humor- 
ist, sentimentalist,  pictorial  de- 
scriber  and  dramatic,  not  to  say 
melodramatic,  narrator,  social 
critic  and  reformer,  began  with 
The  Pickwick  Papers  a  series  of 
novels  and  tales  that  enthralled  the 
readers  of  the  world.  The  greatest 
are  probably  Pickwick,  Nicholas 
Nickleby,  Martin  Chuzxlewit, 
David  Copperfield,  and  Great 
Expectations.  Barnaby  Rudge 
and  A  Tale  of  Two  Cities  are 
historical  novels,  the  latter  col- 
oured by  the  readmg  of  Carlyle's 
French  Revolution.  Dickens's 
favourite  sxibject  was  the  character 
and  manners  of  the  lower  middle 
classes. 

But  the  most  penetrating  critic 
of  the  devastating  snobbishness 
of  English  upper  class  society, 
never  worse  than  at  this  time,  when 
wealthy  merchants  were  pressing 
for  aristocratic  recognition,  was 
William  Makepeace  Thackeray, 
the  most  unerring  portrayer  since 
Fielding  of  human  nature  as  it  is, 


ENGLISH      LITERATURE 


2935 


ENGLISH      LITERATURE 


the  novelist  who  gives  us  no 
heroes.  Vanity  Fair,  Pendennis, 
and  The  Newcomes  are,  with  his 
shorter  sketches,  the  greatest  of 
his  novels  of  contemporary  life. 
In  Esmond,  and  in  a  lesser  degree 
in  its  sequel  The  Virginians,  the 
same  delicacy  of  satirical  and 
sympathetic  portraiture  is  given  an 
historical  sotting  of  wonderful  com- 
prehensiveness and  atmosphere. 
The  early  sketches  of  provincial 
life  by  George  Eliot  (Marian  Evans), 
Scenes  from  Clerical  Life,  Adam 
Bede,  The  Mill  on  the  Floss,  Silas 
Marner,  and  Felix  Holt,  have  a 
freshness  and  power  that  some- 
what failed  her  in  the  later  more 
learned  and  philosophical  works, 
Romola,  Daniel  Deronda. 

The  tendency  to  make  of  the 
novel  a  political,  social  or  ethical 
and  religious  pamphlet,  which  is 
obvious  in  Dickens' s  works,  though 
constantly  transcended  by  his 
buoyant  humour  and  creative 
power,  is  dominant  in  the  brilliant 
political  novels  of  Benjamin  Dis- 
raeli, Coningsby,  Sybil,  Tancred, 
Lothair,  and  Endymion  ;  in  the 
ardent  and  vivid  pictures  of  con- 
temporary and  past  problems  and 
agitations  of  Charles  Kingsley,  Al- 
ton Locke,  Hypatia,  Westward  Ho, 
and  Hereward  ;  and  in  the  stories 
of  Mrs.  Gasket!.  The  Bronte  sisters, 
Charlotte  and  Emily,  poured  into 
the  same  form,  Jane  Eyre,  Villette, 
Wuthering  Heights,  the  lyrical  re- 
cord of  their  own  lives  and"  passion- 
ate thoughts.  Anthony  Trollope, 
with  his  delightful  sketches  of  cleri- 
cal society,  Barchester  Towers, 
Framley  Parsonage ;  Charles  Reade, 
ardent  social  reformer,  It  Is  Never 
Too  Late  to  Mend,  The  Cloister  and 
the  Hearth  ;  and  Lord  Lytton,  ex- 
perimenter in  all  kinds  of  novels, 
The  Caxtons,  My  Novel,  The  Last 
Day?  of  Pompeii,  A  Strange  Story, 
are  typical  Victorian  novelists. 

George  Meredith  and  Thomas  Hardy 

Of  the  later  Victorian  writers 
and  their  followers  four  have  been 
most  influential  ;  of  the  older  men 
George  Meredith  and  Thomas 
Hardy,  novelists  and  poets,  whose 
influence  to-day  is  greater  than  in 
the  heyday  of  their  productivity  ; 
Robert  Louis  Stevenson,  essayist, 
novelist,  and  poet ;  Rudyard  Kip- 
ling, story-teller  and  poet — younger 
men,  whose  influence  was  more 
immediate,  and  probably  more 
ephemeral ;  for  the  older  men  were 
more  prophetic  of  the  main  move- 
ment of  thought  and  literature. 
They  turned  their  back  on  the  ro- 
mantic reconstruction  of  earlier 
ages,  the  self-conscious  revival  of 
artistic  fashions  and  forms. 

Their  primary  concern  is  with 
nature  and  life  seen  through  eyes 
that  are  cleared  of  the  beliefs  and 


prejudices,  religious  and  ethical, 
which  formed  the  background  of 
English  literature  from  Chaucer  to 
Tennyson  and  Browning,  but  in 
the  course  of  the  19th  century  had 
been  in  process  of  disintegration  or 
reconstruction.  They  re-interpret 
life  for  themselves  in  the  light  of 
Darwinian  science.  Meredith's 
poems,  Modern  Love,  A  Reading  of 
Earth,  and  novels,  The  Egoist, 
Richard  Feverel,  etc.,  preach  a 
stern,  hijrh  lesson — of  nature's 
harsh,  inevitable  discipline,  whose 
finest  flower  is  the  intelligence  of 
man.  In  his  style  subtle  analysis, 
grotesque  wit,  and  poetical  meta- 
phor combine  and  obscure  by  their 
brilliance ;  his  verse  is  a  blend 
of  wonderful  felicities  of  phrase  and 
rhythm  with  painful  obscurities, 
incongruities,  and  harshness. 

Great  Analysts  of  the  Human  Soul 

Thomas  Hardy  depicts  in  langu- 
age of  quiet  clarity  and  beauty  the 
rural  and  urban  life  of  "  Wessex," 
Dorsetshire  and  surrounding  coun- 
try, which  had  already  found  an 
interpreter  in  the  dialect  poems  of 
William  Barnes.  His  theme  is,  like 
Meredith's,  man  and  nature,  their 
mutual  interaction,  their  signific- 
ance as  factors  of  one  problem,  but 
Hardy  dwells  on  failure  rather  than 
on  conflict,  on  the  strange,  ironic, 
tragic  circumstances  of  which  men 
and  women  are  the  helpless  victims, 
the  sport  of  the  Immortals  with 
Tess  and  Jude  ;  and  the  chorus  to 
his  tragedy  is  the  homely,  re- 
signed, quaintly  humorous  peasan- 
try of  his  chosen  district. 

Hardy's  poems,  and  the  Dynasts, 
are  instinct  with  the  same  spirit.the 
same  sensitive  appreciation  of  the 
tears  in  human  things,  be  it  an  in- 
dividual life  or  the  destinies  of  na- 
tions. Far  from  the  Madding 
Crowd,  The  Woodlanders,  The 
Return  of  the  Native,  Tess  of  the 
D'Urbervilles,  and  Jude  the 
Obscure,  are  representative  of  his 
spirit  and  style  as  a  novelist. 

The  influence  of  one  or  other  of 
these  great  analysts  of  man's  soul 
is  traceable  in  "all  that  is  most 
"  modern  "  in  recent  literature,  all 
that  has  endeavoured  strenuously 
to  fulfil  the  high  task  of  literature 
and  reveal  man  to  himself,  A.  E. 
Housman's  Shropshire  Lad,  the 
more  realistic  and  dramatic  part  of 
H.  G.  Wells's  work,  the  novels  of 
Arnold  Bennett,  Joseph  Conrad, 
the  poetry  of  Masefield,  Gibson, 
Lascelles,  Abercrombie,  and  others. 

But  a  more  widely  diffused 
influence  was  that  of  Stevenson  and 
Kipling.  Robert  Louis  Stevenson 
poured  the  keen,  hectic  joy  of  a 
short,  consumptive  life,  full  of 
travel,  adventure,  experiment,  and 
achievement,  into  essays,  Virgini- 
bus  Puerisque.  poems,  English  and 


Scottish  short  stories,  New  Ara- 
bian Nights,  Dr.  Jekyll  and  Mr. 
Hyde,  and  novels,  Treasure  Island, 
Kidnapped,  The  Master  of  Ballan- 
trae,  Weir  of  Hermiston,  all  with  a 
buoyant,  courageous  philosophy  of 
their  own  and  a  studiously  elabor- 
ated beauty  of  style. 

His  essays  continued  the  tradi- 
tion of  Montaigne,Cowley,  Addison, 
Lamb,  and  Hazlitt ;  to  Ha/.litt  and 
to  Sir  Thomas  Browne  his  style 
owes  a  debt  of  influence.  His  novels 
blend  the  historic,  adventurous  ro- 
mance of  Scott  with  a  dramatic 
curiosity  as  to  psychological  and 
moral  subtleties  which  is  partly 
French  in  origin,  and  with  a  strain 
of  the  fantastic  humour  of  Poe  and 
De  Quincey.  He  taught  the  Eng- 
lish novelists  a  regard  for  form ; 
and  even  the  popular  novel  of  later 
19th  century  writers,  the  work  of 
writers  like  Anthony  Hope,  Stan- 
ley Weyman,  and  others,  is  superior 
to  its  diffuse  Victorian  predecessor, 
not  in  character  and  humour,  but 
in  technique,  style,and  the  wxrking 
out  of  the  story. 

In  Rudyard  Kipling's  work  the 
spirit  of  modern  journalism  passed 
into  fiction  and  poetry.  Descrip- 
tive journalism — as  distinct  from 
the  periodical  essay — had  attained 
to  the  rank  of  literature  in  the  re- 
ports of  the  Crimean  War  written 
for  the  press  by  William  Russell, 
and  of  the  Franco-Prussian  War  by 
Russell  and  Archibald  Forbes. 
Trained  to  journalism  in  India,  at 
the  same  time  a  lover  of  the  rich 
colours  and  varied  rhythms  of  the 
school  of  Rossetti  and  Swinburne, 
Rudyard  Kipling,  after  some  ex- 
periments in  verse  and  story  con- 
cerned with  Anglo-Indian  life, 
came  to  his  own  in  short  tales  of 
Indian  life  proper,  of  the  soldier  of 
the  old  regular  army  serving  in 
India,  and  in  verses,  Barrack  Room 
Ballads,  on  the  latter  theme. 
Rudyard  Kipling's  Popularity 

Clever  journalism  and  imagina- 
tive interpretation  are  inextricably 
interwoven  in  his  work,  which 
touches  its  highest  level  in  stories 
of  Indian  life  like  Kim  and  The 
Conversion  of  Purun  Dass,  animal 
stories  as  The  Jungle  Book,  sket- 
ches of  Sussex  life  and  character, 
poems  as  Recessional,  Kabul  Town, 
A  Ballad  of  East  and  West.  For 
good  and  for  ill  no  writer  has 
enjoyed  so  wide  a  popularity  since 
Dickens.  The  twang  of  his  banjo 
is  audible  in  much  English  and 
Colonial  verse ;  his  peculiar  blend 
of  realism  and  romance  has  been 
reproduced  in  the  work  of  almost 
every  writer  who  has  touched  on 
the  life  of  Englishmen  and  others 
on  the  outskirts  of  civilization. 

In  the  'nineties  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury the  influence  of  contemporary 


ENGLISHMAN 


2936 


ENGLISHMAN 


French  literature  was  felt  in  the 
spirit  and  the  form  alike  of  English 
novel  and  poetry  and  critical  prose. 
The  doctrine  of  "  art  for  art's  sake  " 
found  ardent  disciples  in  Oscar 
Wilde,  whose  early  imitative  poems 
were  followed  by  prose  essays  of 
original  and  subtle  beauty,  Inten- 
tions, comedies  in  which  something 
of  the  art  of  Congreve  was  revived, 
and  one  or  two  poems,  The  Ballad 
of  Reading  Gaol,  which  owed  their 
tragic  beauty  to  the  bitter  experi- 
ence of  which  they  were  born ; 
Arthur  Symons  ;  Ernest  Dowson, 
author  of  at  least  one  immortal 
lyric  ;  Lionel  Johnson,  the  rare 
quality  of  whose  scholarly  and 
thoughtful  verse  time  will  make 
more  manifest ;  Rachel  Annand 
Taylor,  whose  lyrics  have  the 
jewelled  richness  and  hardness  of 
the  Italian  art  of  the  Renaissance. 
The  older  tradition  of  the  Humani- 
ties in  English  poetry,  classical  in 
spirit  and  form,  was  preserved 
in  the  verse  of  William  Watson, 
and  of  Robert  Bridges,  the  poet 
laureate. 

The  "Art  ior  Art"  Movement 

But  poetry  has  never  been  for 
Englishmen  sopurely  an  art,  a  ques- 
tion of  exquisite  form  cultivated  for 
its  own  sake,  as  for  the  French.  For 
the  English  inspiration  has  ever 
been  its  source  and  ralson  d'etre, 
and  inspiration  is  born  of  a  quick- 
ening theme,  of  life  realized  with  a 
heightened  intensity  on  this  side  or 
that — religion,  country,  nature,  the 
vicissitudes  of  human  experience. 
The  "  art  for  art "  movement 
yielded  place  rapidly  to  poetry  of 
two  kinds — that  whose  inspiration 
comes  from  within,  spiritual,  sym- 
bolistic, religious,  and  that  wFiich 
seeks  its  subjects  in  the  changing 
face  of  nature  and  men's  lives, 
realistic,  prophetic,  combative. 
William  Butler  Yeats  learned  from 
Blake  the  significance  of  the  imag- 
ination as  the  levealer  of  transcen- 
dental truths,  and  found  in  Irish 
mythology  the  symbols  in  which 
these  truths  may  be  shadowed 
forth.  His  lyrics  hold  a  place  of 
their  own  among  the  finest  in  the 
language. 

Francis  Thompson,  morbid  and 
devout,  sensuous  and  metaphy- 
sical, found  in  all  his  themes, 
nature,  child  and  woman,  symbols 
of  Catholic  truth  and  Divine  mys- 
teries, the  ultimate  object  of  his 
ecstatic  ardours  expressed  in  a 
style  full  of  rich  tangled  imagery 
reminiscent  of  Crashaw  and  Keats 
and  Shelley,  and  in  luxuriant,  trail- 
ing rhythms.  In  The  Hound  of 
Heaven  he  has  made  one  certain 
contribution  to  all  future  antholo- 
gies of  English  verse,  a  poem 
abounding  in  "  images  which  find 
a  mirror  in  every  mind,  and  with 


sentiments  to  which  every  bosom 
returns  an  echo." 

But  if  Yeats  and  Thompson 
represent  one  direction  in  which 
poetry  moved  away  from  the  cult 
of  imagery  and  rhythm  for  their 
own  sake,  the  stronger  current  was 
that  which  flowed  towards  actu- 
ality, the  absorption  into  poetry  of 
all  the  stuff  of  everyday  experi- 
ence, the  employment,  in  preference 
to  the  jewelled,  precious  diction  of 
romantic  poetry  from  Keats  to 
Thompson,  of  "  language  really 
used  by  men,"  including  the  slang 
and  oaths  of  the  low  street. 
William  E.  Henley,  as  well  as  Kip- 
ling, led  the  way  in  Hospital  Verses 
and  London  Voluntaries  ;  he  was 
followed  by  John  Davidson,  and 
the  bulk  of  Georgian  poets,  John 
Masefield,  William  H.  Davies,  Wil- 
fred Wilson  Gibson, Ralph  Hodgson, 
Rupert  Brooke,  Lascelles  Aber- 
crombie,  though  there  are  individ- 
ual divergents,  as  Walter  de  la 
Mare,  Sturge  Moore,  and  the  Irish 
poets  A.  E.  (George  Russell)  and 
James  Stephens. 

This  movement,  too,  has  its 
metaphysical  aspect,  and  it  is  here 
that  one  feels  the  influence  of 
Meredith  and  Hardy.  For  these 
poets,  also,  have  endeavoured  to 
see  the  world  round  them  through 
unprejudiced  eyes,  have  broken 
with  the  tradition,  religious,  ethical, 
and  artistic,  of  English  poetry  from 
Chaucer  to  Tennyson,  have  put 
forth  on  a  North-West  Passage  of 
their  own,  with  what  result  time 
only  can  tell.  The  effect  of  the 
Great  War  was,  if  anything, 
to  intensify  the  movement,  the 
desire  for  actuality,  the  groping 
after  a  metaphysic  that  corre- 
sponds to  that  actuality.  Of  all  the 
abundant  poetry  which  flowed 
home  from  the  trenches  but  little 
dealt  with  the  traditional  topics 
of  war,  glory,  and  conquest. 
The  Great  Sacrifice 

It  was  charged  with  memories  of 
England,  of  the  beauty  and  sweet- 
ness of  the  homeland  for  which  the 
writers  were  making  the  great  .sac- 
rifice ;  a  strenuous  endeavour  to 
see  the  terrible  things  around  them 
as  they  really  were,  a  seeking  after 
some  view  of  life  that  would  with- 
out illusion  reconcile  these  things 
in  an  harmonious  whole.  The 
haunting  verses  of  Charles  Sorley 
are  typical  poems  of  this  genera- 
tion, strangely  unconcerned  with 
the  topics  of  young  men's  songs, 
wine  and  women  and  the  luxury 
of  passing  sorrow,  piercingly  nat- 
ural and  direct  in  style,  thoughtful 
and  original,  full  of  a  high  spirit 
of  effort  and  resolve  : 

If  I  have  suffered  pain, 
?••  It  is  because  I  would; 

the  poetry  of  one  who  has  awak- 


ened to  a  sense  of  the  inner  mean- 
ing and  mystery  of  things  before 
he  has  realized  all  their  appeal  to 
the  senses  and  the  imagination  and 
the  heart. 

The  English  drama,  which  since 
Congreve  has  only  at  rare  intervals, 
in  the  comedy  of  Goldsmith  and 
Sheridan,  been  a  channel  of  any  im- 
portance to  the  stream  of  English 
literature,  was  given  a  fresh  interest 
and  significance  bv  the  witty  social 
comedy  of  Oscar  Wilde  ;  and  by  the 
clever,  vivid,  paradoxical  come- 
dies of  Bernard  Shaw,  who  adapted 
Ibsen  to  the  British  taste  for  prac- 
tical teaching  and  hearty  humour ; 
by  Galsworthy's  sensitive  and 
sombre  pictures  of  social  injustice 
and  cruelty;  by  others  like  Gran- 
ville  Barker,  and  by  the  very  differ- 
ent Irish  plays,  poetic  and  sym- 
bolic, or,  in  the  work  of  J.  M. 
Synge,  ironical  and  reflective,  and 
the  light  and  fanciful  plays  of 
J.  M.  Barrie. 

Aspects  o?  the  Later  Fiction 

But  no  form  of  literature  has 
diminished  the  popularity  of  the 
novel.  The  English  writers  who 
bulked  most  largely  in  the  first  two 
decades  of  the  20th  century  were 
the  novelists  :  H.  G.  Wells,  author 
of  scientific  romances  and  satirical 
social  studies,  reflecting  as  in  a  clear, 
many-sided  crystal  the  tastes  and 
tendencies  of  various  strata  of 
English  society  ;  Arnold  Bennett, 
fantastic  humorist  and  realistic 
portrayer  of  life  in  the  "  five 
towns  "  ;  John  Galsworthy,  whose 
novels  are  the  counterpart  of  his 
plays  ;  Joseph  Conrad  and  Comp- 
ton  Mackenzie,  realists  with  a 
fine  sense  for  the  beauty  of  setting 
and  style.  Gilbert  Chesterton  and 
Hilaire  Belloc,  poets,  humorists, 
and  essayists,  are  also  authors  of 
novels  fantastic  and  satirical. 

H.  J.   C.   Grierson 

Bibliography.    A  Literary  History 

of  the  English  People  from  the  Ori- 

fins  to  the  Renaissance,  J.  A.  A.  J. 
usserand,  Eng.  ed.  1895,  etc.  ; 
Chambers's  Cyclopaedia  of  English 
Literature,  ed.  D.  Patrick,  1901-3  ; 
A  Short  History  of  English  Litera- 
ture, G.  E.  B.  Saintsbury,  3rd  ed. 
1903  ;  English  Literature,  R.  Gar- 
nett  and  Edmund  Gosse,  1903-4  : 
The  Cambridge  Hist,  of  English 
Literature,  ed.  A.  W.  Ward  and 
A.  R.  Waller,  14  vols.,  1907-16  ; 
English  Literature  :  Medieval,  W.  P. 
Ker,  1912  ;  Modern  English  Litera- 
ture from  Chaucer  to  the  Present 
Day,  G.  H.  Mair,  1914. 

Englishman,  THE.  Leading 
daily  newspaper  in  Calcutta.  First 
appearing  July  2,  1821,  as  John 
Bull  in  the  East,  in  1833  it  was 
bought  by  H.  Stocqueler,  who 
changed  its  name  to  John  Bull.  A 
year  later  it  became  known  as  The 
Englishman.  Under  Major  Fen- 
wick's  editorship  it  became  a 


ENGLISH     REVIEW 


ENGRAVING 


recognized  authority  on  military 
affairs.  Macau  lay  is  said  to  have 
written  for  it,  and  some  of  his 
Essays  were  printed  and  corrected 
in  its  office  before  being  sent  to  The 
Edinburgh  Review. 

English  Review,  THE.  English 
literary  monthly,  started  in  1908. 
Austin  Harrison  was  editor  in 
1910-23  The  review  has  made  a 
feature  of  poetry  by  Thomas 
Hardy,  John  Masefield,  and  others. 
In  its  pages  in  1913  Frederic  Har- 
rison and  Lord  Roberts  uttered 
striking  warnings  of  the  coming 
national  peril.  Other  contributors 
have  included  Arnold  Bennett, 
Joseph  Conrad,  John  Galsworthy, 
R.  B.  Cunninghame  Graham, 
Maurice  Hewlett,  Ford  Madox 
Hueffer,  Eden  Phillpotts,  G.  Ber- 
nard Shaw,  and  Sidney  Webb. 

English  River.  Estuary  on  the 
W.  side  of  Delagoa  Bay,  in  Portu- 
guese E.  Africa.  It  is  formed  by 
the  union  of  the  rivers  Umbelosi 
and  Tembi. 

Englishry.  Term  used  in  early 
English  law.  Presentment  of 
Englishry  was  the  offering  of  proof, 
in  cases  of  violent  death,  that  the 
person  killed  was  an  Englishman, 
not  a  Norman,  as,  if  a  Norman  was 
killed,  the  community  had  to  pay 
a  fine.  This  collective  punish- 
ment was  abolished  in  the  time  of 
Edward  III.  The  term  was  also 
used  by  Macaulay  and  others  for 
the  English  settlers  in  Ireland. 

Engrailed.    In  heraldry,  a  line 
of    division,    or    an    outline    of    a 
charge,  of  irregular  form,  showing 
a  series  of  seiui- 
circles,  with 
points    out- 
wards.    The 
word,  from  Fr. 
grele,  hail,  liter- 
ally means  cut 
into  points  like 
hailstones. 
Engrailed  in  heraldry       Engraver 
Beetle  OR  BARK  BEETLE  (Scoly- 
.   tidae).     Genus  of  small  cylindrical 
i   beetles,  of  which  there  are  n  inner- 
|  ous  species.     Most  of  them  burrow 
|  under  the  bark  of  trees,  where  the 
1  female  lays  her  eggs  in  a  straight 
'  tunnel,    from    which     the      grubs 
f   burrow  out  at  right  angles.      Most 
of     the     species      are     extremely 
destructive,  causing  much  damage 
to  the  forests  of  the  U.S.A.  and 
Europe.     See  Beetle. 

Engraving.  (I)  Art  of  drawing 
on  metal  or  wood  by  means  of  an 
incised  line;  and  (2)  impression  in 
ink  obtained  from  such  drawing  on 
paper  or  similar  substance.  In 
wood  engraving  the  lines  to  be 
printed  appear  in  relief,  the  wood 
between  them  being  cut  away.  In 
the  metal  process,  known  as  in 
laglio,  the  lines  are  sunk  or  incised 


Engraving.     Example  oi  stippled  engraving  on  copper  of  a  sketch  by  G.  Morland. 
Left,  the  copper  piate  on  which  the  design  was  engraved.    Right,  the  impression 


by  means  of  a  graver  or  burin.  The 
latter  implement  is  a  steel  rod, 
four  or  five  inches  long,  of  square  or 
lozenge  section,  with  a  cutting 
point  and  edges  obtained  by  sharp- 
ening the  head  in  an  oblique  sec- 
tion. There  are  various  forms  of 
wooden  handle,  the  commonest  one 
resembling  an  elongated  half  pear. 

Plates  of  several  different  metals 
have  been  used  for  intaglio  engrav- 
ing :  copper,  steel,  zinc,  iron,  silver, 
and  even  brass  and  pewter.  Copper 
and  steel,  however,  and  especially 
copper  coated  with  a  thin  layer  of 
galvanised  steel,  are  by  far  the  most 
common.  Pure  copper  is  softer  and 
easier  to  work  than  pure  steel,  but 
for  the  same  reason  does  not  wear 
so  well  under  the  press  as  the 
harder  metal,  and  so  does  not  throw 
off  as  many  good  impressions.  The 
use  of  steel  plates,  though  less  duc- 
tile, was  developed  during  the  19th 
century  on  account  of  their  greater 
powers  of  resistance,  until  the 
copper  plate  covered  with  galvan- 
ised steel  was  substituted  for  them. 

Wood  engraving  is  real'y  wood 
cutting,  and  so  coes  not  come  with- 
in the  scope  of  engraving  proper. 
Lithography,  which  is  a  form  of 
engraving  on  stone,  is  dealt  with 


under  that  title.  The  lines  of  an  en- 
graving on  metal  are  often  modified 
by  the  use  of  the  etching  needle, 
but  etching,  although  a  branch  of 
engraving,  differs  from  it  in  so 
many  respects  that  it  constitutes  a 
separate  art.  The  line  of  the  graver, 
for  example,  is  obtained  by  direct 
pressure  upon  the  metal,  whereas 
the  etching  needle  is  used  in  much 
the  same  way  as  a  pencil,  the  sub- 
sequent incision  being  obtained 
by  the  "  biting "  of  the  acid  on 
the  plate. 

There  is  evidence  of  the  existence 
of  wood-cut  playing  cards  as  early 
as  1440,  but  the  earliest  extant  in- 
taglio engraving,  a  "Flagellation" 
belonging  to  a  Passion  series  in  the 
Berlin  Museum  and  attributed  to  a 
master  in  Upper  Germany,  is  dated 
1446.  This  disposes  of  Vasari's 
story  that  the  invention  of  the  art 
was  due  to  Maso  Finiguerra,  the 
Florentine  goldsmith  and  niellist, 
in  1460  :  there  is  reason  to  believe 
that  even  in  Italy  the  art  was  being 
practised  at  least  as  early  as  1450. 
Maso,  however,  may  serve  as  a 
starting  point  for  the  history  of  that 
school  of  Italian  engravers  that 
arose  directly  out  of  the  niello 
workers  of  the  15th  century.  At 


Engraving.     Wood  block  oi  a  drawing  by  Harrison  Weir,  after  Sir  E.  Landseer. 

Leit,  the  wood  block  on  which  the  outlines  showing  white  are  raised  to  catch 

the  ink  and  make  the  black  lines  in  the  finished  result  shown  at  the  ngbt 


ENGROSSING 


2938 


ENLISTMENT 


first  the  taking  of  impressions 
from  the  gold  and  silver  plates  en- 
graved according  to  the  niello 
method  by  the  goldsmith  or  silver- 
smith was,  doubtless,  for  the  sake 
merely  of  checking  his  work  ;  later, 
as  the  artistic  value  of  the  im- 
pression itself  became  evident,  the 
scope  of  engraving  was  extended. 

Among  famous  Italian  painters 
of  the  15th  century  who  practised 
engraving  were  Antonio  Pollaiuolo 
and  Andrea  Mantegna  (q.v.) ;  while 
Marco  Antonio  Raimondi,  the  en- 
graver of  Raphael's  pictures,  may 
be  claimed  as  the  first  of  the  "repro- 
ductive "  engravers.  In  Germany 
an  illustrious  school  of  engravers 
flourished  in  the  late  15th  century, 
including  in  its  ranks  Martin  Schon- 
gauer,  Albrecht  Dvirer,  Albrecht 
Altdorfer,  the  Behams,  and  Hein- 
rich  Aldegrever.  Line  engraving 
was  somewhat  later  in  beginning  in 
France,  but  Jean  Duvet  ( 1485-1561) 
and  Jean  Cousin  (1501-89)  were 
famous  10th  century  engravers,  and 
the  French  portrait  engravers  of 
the  17th  century  touched  heights 
that  have  hardly  been  equalled 
since.  In  Great  Britain  the  great 
artists  of  the  18th  and  early  19th 
centuries  owe  much  to  British 
"  reproductive "  engravers,  and 
William  Blake's  original  work  in 
this  medium  was  unique. 

Engrossing  (Fr.  en  gros,  in 
large).  Term  used  by  English 
lawyers  for  the  copying  out,  in  a 
"  fair  hand,"  of  any  legal  docu- 
ment. A  lawyer  always  makes  out 
a  draft  of  any  important  docu- 
ment, and  has  it  engrossed,  and  the 
engrossment  is  executed  by  the 
parties  concerned. 

Engrossing.  Word  used  in 
former  days  in  England  for  what 
amounts  to  buying  and  selling 
wholesale.  In  other  words  the 
engrosser  was  a  middleman.  This 
was  early  regarded  as  an  offence 
against  law  and  custom,  for  it 
tended  to  put  up  the  price,  and 
various  statutes  declared  it  illegal, 
the  chief  being  one  of  1552.  These 
were  directed  mainly  against  the 
buying  and  selling  of  corn  and 
other  foodstuffs  wholesale,  and 
the  operation  of  the  laws  tended  to 
keep  these  in  and  around  the  places 
where  they  were  grown.  As  society 
became  more  specialised  this  was 
very  irksome,  and  even  when  the 
laws  were  in  full  force  licences  were 
issued  allowing  certain  persons 
to  buy  and  sell  wholesale.  In  1663 
an  Act  permitted  engrossing  as 
long  as  the  price  of  corn  did  not 
exceed  48s.  a  quarter  ;  and  in  1773 
the  earlier  statutes  against  it  were 
repealed,  but  as  an  offence  against 
the  common  law  engrossing  dis- 
apneared  finally  with  further  Acts 
in  1844. 


Enham  OB  KNIGHTS  ENHAM. 
Parish  of  Hampshire,  2  m.  N.  of 
Andover.  In  1919  a  scheme  was 
started  for  taking  over  the  Enham 
estate  of  1,027  acres  to  erect 
buildings  for  the  treatment  and 
training  of  disabled  soldiers.  The 
treatment  covers  electric,  whirl- 
pool, and  paraffin  baths  for  men 
with  stiff  limbs,  and  psycho- 
therapeutic  methods  for  neur- 
asthenic and  shell-shock  cases.  The 
training  embraces  agriculture,  hor- 
ticulture, the  care  of  stock,  poultry 
farming,  carpentry,  furniture  and 
boot-making,  tailoring,  building, 
and  painting.  The  British  Red 
Cross  Society  made  a  grant  of 
£10,000  for  the  purpose  of  building 
and  equipping  a  medical  block, 
the  first  of  its  kind  to  be  established 
in  England.  Pop.  169. 

Enhanced 
(  A  n  g  1  o  -  F  r. 
enhauncer,  to 
raise).  In 
heraldry,  any 
ordinary  borne 
higher  up  than 
its  usual  posi- 
tion is  said  to 
be  enhanced.  Enhanced  in  heraldry 
See  Ordinary. 

Enharmonic  (Gr.  enarmonikos, 
fitting  in).  In  music,  the  interval 
between,  for  example,  E  natural 
and  F  flat,  or  C  sharp  and  D  flat. 
Through  the  influence  of  the  key- 
board instruments,  with  their 
fixed  twelve  notes  to  the  octave, 
the  term  often  loses  this  meaning 
and  is  defined  as  "a  change  of 
name  without  a  change  of  pitch." 


Enharmonic.  Example  oi  enharmonic 
change  in  music 

Enid.  Feminine  Christian  name. 
Of  Celtic  origin,  it  means  spotless 
purity.  Enid  is  a  character  in  the 
Arthurian  legend,  being  the  pure 
and  faithful  wife  of  Geraint. 

Enid.  City  of  Oklahoma,  U.S.A., 
the  co.  seat  of  Garfield  co.  It  is  54 
m.  N.W.  of  Guthrie,  and  is  served 
by  the  Atchison,  Topeka,  and  Santa 
Fe  and  other  rlys.  The  seat  of 
Phillips  University,  it  contains  a 
colleg3  of  fine  arts  and  a  free  public 
library.  It  has  foundries,  machine 
shops,  flour  mills,  lumber  mills,  and 
boiler  works,  and  trades  exten- 
sively in  poultry  and  the  agricul- 
tural produce  of  the  locality.  It 
dates  from  1893,  when  it  was 
granted  its  city  charter.  Pop.21,355. 

Enlarging.  Photographic  pro- 
cess of  making  prints  of  larger  size 


from  negatives.  The  usual  process 
is  to  project  an  image  of  an  illu- 
minated negative  by  means  of  a 
lens  upon  a  sheet  of  bromide  paper 
(<7-?'.).  When  the  negative  is  illu- 
minated by  artificial  light  it  is 
usually  necessary  to  place  a  con- 
denser behind  the  negative  to 
equalise  the  illumination.  The  con- 
denser consists  of  two  plano-convex 
lenses  of  diameter  a  little  greater 
than  the  diagonal  of  the  negative. 
The  negative  image  is  thus  pro- 
jected and  focussed  upon  an  easel 
as  in  the  use  of  an  optical 
lantern.  The  operation  with  such 
apparatus  is  carried  out  in  a  dark 
room,  but  enlarging  boxes  and 
cameras  are  made  for  use  in  full 
daylight,  the  bromide  paper  being 
then  carried  in  a  loose  dark  slide. 
See  Camera  ;  Photography. 

Enlistment.  Act  of  the  indi- 
vidual in  voluntarily  contracting  to 
render  military  service  as  a  private 
soldier  to  the  state.  Theform  of  con- 
tract is  the  attestation  paper,  which 
the  recruit,  after  being  accepted 
and  passed  medically  "fit,  is  re- 
quired to  sign  when  taking  the 
oath  of  allegiance,  in  the  presence 
of  an  officer,  magistrate,  or  other 
public  dignitary,  who  witnesses  or 
attests  the  signature.  The  period 
of  service  in  the  British  army  is 
laid  down  in  the  Army  Act  and 
recruiting  regulations,  and  is  nor- 
mal lv  12  years,  of  which  from  three 
to  eight  is  spent  with  the  colours 
and  the  remainder  in  the  reserve. 
Recruits  may  choose  the  branch  of 
the  service  they  prefer,  and  skilled 
men  usually  select  one  of  the 
specialist  corps  which  offer  better 
pay.  In  the  line  the  recruit  may 
choose  any  regiment  for  which  he 
has  a  preference  and  which  is  open 
to  recruiting.  He  cannot  then  be 
transferred  to  another  regiment 
without  his  consent.  A  special 
branch  of  the  army  is  detailed  for 
recruiting  duties,  with  an  officer  in 
charge  of  each  district.  Enlistment 
is  only  applicable  to  voluntary  re- 
cruiting. It  enables  a  professional 
army  of  high  qualifications  to  be 
obtained  even  in  competition  with 
other  employers  of  labour. 

The  disadvantage  is  obvious 
when,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Great 
War,  a  greatly  increased  army  is 
essential,  and  it  is  necessary,  even 
after  the  introduction  of  compul- 
sory service,  to  pay  the  soldiers  at 
the  normal  high  rate  as  compared 
with  other  countries,  who,  by  a 
normal  system  of  conscription, 
obtain  practically  gratuitous  mili- 
tary service  from  the  male  popu- 
lation. Aliens  and  negroes  may 
be  enlisted  in  the  British  army, 
but  cannot  be  promoted  beyond 
the  rank  of  warrant  officer.  See 
Army,  British  ;  Compulsory  service. 


2939 


ENOCH 


Ennel.  Lough  or  lake  in  the  S. 
of  co.  Westmeath,  Ireland.  It  is 
about  5  m.  long  and  2  m.  broad,  is 
drained  by  the  Brosna  river,  and 
has  several  wooded  islets. 

Ennerdale.  Lake  in  the  W.  of 
Cumberland,  England.  From  it 
Whitehaven  draws  its  water  sup- 
ply ;  it  is  3  m.  long  and  £  m.  broad. 
Ennis.  Urban  dist.  and  county 
town  of  eo.  Clare,  Ireland.  It  stands 
on  the  Fergus  river,  25  m.  N.W.  of 
Limerick,  on  the  G.S.  &  W.  and 
West  Clare  Rlys.  Here  are  the 
Roman  Catholic  pro-cathedral  and 
college  of  the  diocese  of  Killaloe, 
and  the  ruins  of  a  Franciscan 
abbey.  It  has  a  statute  of  O'  Connell 
and  in  the  neighbourhood  are  the 
ruins  of  Clare  Abbey.  There  are 
large  flour  mills  and  breweries,  and 
timber  and  grain  are  exported 
through  Clare  Castle,  its  port. 
Market  day.  Sat.  Pop.  5,472. 

Enniscorthy,  Market  town 
and  urb.  dist.  of  Wexford,  Ireland. 
It  stnnds  on  the  Slaney,  77  m.  S.  of 
DuL.ni  by  the  Dublin  and  S.E.  Rly. 
The  chief  building  is  the  castle, 
built  by  the  Norman  conquerors 
in  the  12th  century.  The  town  is  an 
important  agricultural  centre,  hav- 
ing fairs  and  markets,  while  there 
is  some  shipping  on  the  river. 
There  are  other  industries,  includ- 
ing brewing,  distilling,  and  tanning. 
Near  by  is  Vinegar  Hill  (q.v.).  Made 
a  municipality  about  1610,  Ennis 
corthy  was  represented  in  the  Irish 
Parliament  until  1800.  Market 
days,  Sat.  and  Thurs.  Pop.  5,500. 
Enniskillen  OR  INNISKILLING. 
Market  town  and  co.  town  of 
Fermanagh,  Ire- 
land. It  stands 
on  an  island  in 
the  river  between 
the  upper  and 
lower  loughs 
Erne,  and  has 
suburbs  on  either 
side,  with  which 
t  is  connected 


Enniskillen  arms 


by  bridges.  It  is  a  station  on  the 
G.N.  of  Ireland 
Rly.,  116m.  N.W. 
of  Dublin.  There 
are  some  small 
manufactures  and 
a  fair  trade  in  agri- 
cultural produce, 
while  steamers  go 
alone  the  river. 
Enniskillen  be- 
came a  munici- 
pality about  1 600. 
and  was  repre- 
sented in  the  Irish 
Parliament.  From 
1800  to  1885  it 
sent  a  member  to 
the  parliament  of 
the  United  King- 
dom. It  is  chiefly 


famous,  however,  as  a  Prote  tant 
stronghold  in  the  time  of  William 
III,  and  as  giving  its  name  to  two 
regiments  of  the  British  army,  fusi- 
liers and  dragoons.  Market  days, 
Tues.  and  Thurs.  Pop.  4,850. 

Enniskillen,  EARL  OF.  Irish  title 
borne  since  1789  by  the  family  of 
Cole.  In  1760  John' Cole,  an  Irish 
M.P.,  was  made  a  baron,  and  his 
son  William,  the  2nd  baron,  was 
made  a  viscount  and  an  earl,  both 
in  the  peerage  of  Ireland.  The  2nd 
earl  was  made  a  British  peer  as 
Baron  Grinstead  in  1815,  and  from 
him  the  present  earl  is  descended. 
William  Willoughby  Cole,  the  3rd 
earl  (1807-86),  made  a  fine  col- 
lection of  fossil  fishes,  now  in  the 
British  Museum.  Florence  Court, 
Enniskillen,  is  the  earl's  chief  seat, 
and  his  eldest  son  is  known  as 
Viscount  Cole. 

Ennius,  QTJINTUS  (239-169  B.C.). 
Earliest  of  the  great  Roman  poets. 
Born  at  Rudiae,  in  Calabria,  he 
was  not  a  full  Roman  citizen,  ac- 
quiring that  privilege  at  a  later 
date.  While  serving  in  the  Roman 
army  in  Sardinia,  he  attracted  the 
notice  of  the  elder  Cato,  who  took 
him  to  Rome,  where  his  knowledge 
of  Greek  and  literary  acquirements 
procured  him  admission  to  the 
Seipionic  circle.  His  works  em- 
braced a  wide  variety  of  subjects, 
but  it  was  as  the  author  of  some 
twenty  tragedies  and  of  the  An- 
nales,  an  epic  of  Roman  history — 
in  which,  for  the  first  time,  the  Latin 
language  was  moulded  to  the  Greek 
hexameter — that  he  achieved  im- 
mortality. Only  fragments  of  his 
works  survive,  chiefly  in  the  form 
of  quotations  in  later  writers, 
especially  Cicero.  His  reputation  as 
a  poet  stood  very  high,  some 
ancient  critics  regarding  him  as  the 
equal  even  of  Virgil.  His  versifica- 
tion, though  possessing  a  certain 
rugged  dignity,  is  harsh  compared 
with  the  finish  which  Latin  poetry 
attained  in  the  hands  of  Horace 
and  Virgil. 


Enniskillen,  Fermanagh,  Ireland.      View  of  the  town 

and    quays  on    the  river    connecting   the  upper    and 

lower  loughs  Erne 


Enns.  Town  and  river  of  Aus- 
tria. The  town,  which  is  11  m.  from 
Linz,  stands  just  where  the  river 
falls  into  the  Danube.  An  old 

ice,  it  grew  up  around  a  castle 

lilt  about  900.  It  became  a  free 
city,  and  was  at  one  time  a  prosper- 
ous commercial  place.  Its  chief 
buildings  are  the  town  hall,  the 
castle,  built  in  the  18th  century, 
and  a  Gothic  church.  It  was  at  one 
time  fortified,  and  it  is  said  that  the 
money  for  the  fortifications  came 
from  the  ransom  of  Richard  I.  Near 
it  is  the  monastery  of  S.  Florian 
(q.v.).  The  river  rises  in  the  moun- 
tains near  Radstatt  and  flows 
through  Styria,  passing  through 
lovely  mountainous  scenery.  Its 
course  is  east  and  then  north.  Its 
chief  tributaries  are  the  Salza  and 
Steyer ;  its  length  is  about  150  m. 

Enoch.  Name  of  four  men  in  the 
O.T.  They  are  a  son  of  Cain,  a 
grandson  of  Abraham,  a  son  of 
Reuben,  and  a  son  of  Jared.  The 
last,  the  father  of  Methusaieh,  is 
recorded  to  have  lived  365  years, 
and  to  have  been  translated  with- 
out dying.  He  is  described  as  being 
the  seventh  from  Adam,  and  the 
Epistle  of  Jude  (verse  14)  quotes  a 
prophecy  ascribed  to  him.  See 
Enoch,  The  Book  of. 

Enoch,  THE  BOOK  or.  One  of  the 
non-canonical  O.T.  Apocrypha  or 
Pseudepigrapha  (i.e.  works  written 
under  an  assumed  name),  written 
originally  partly  in  Aramaic  and 
partly  in  Hebrew.  It  incorporates 
fragments  of  the  Book  of  Noah. 
The  work  is  not  a  unity  in  any 
sense,  and  ranges  from  about  200 
B.C.  to  A.D.  64.  It  has  therefore 
been  described  as  a  library  rather 
than  a  single  book.  In  the  words  of 
Dr.  Charles  (Religious  Develop- 
ment Between  the  Old  and  the  New 
Testaments),  "  it  touches  upon 
every  subject  that  could  have 
arisen  in  the  ancient  schools  of  the 
prophets."  These  subjects  include 
the  origin  of  evil,  the  millennium, 
the  Messiah,  the  future  life,  and 
even  the  Hebrew  calendar.  The 
book  seems  to  have  had  a  consid- 
erable influence  on  N.T.  theology. 
See  Apocrypha. 

Enoch,  BOOK  OF  THE  SMCRETS 
OF.  A  book  belonging  to  the  same 
category  as  the  Book  of  Enoch. 
Dr.  Charles  describes  this  book  as 
2  Enoch  and  the  Book  of  Enoch 
as  1  Enoch.  The  work,  preserved 
only  in  Slavonic,  seems  to  have 
been  written  by  a  Hellenistic  Jew 
in  Egypt  at  about  the  beginning  of 
the  Christian  era.  It  is  related  in 
some  way  to  a  Hebrew  book  re- 
ferred to  in  Jewish  literature  (in 
the  Zohar)  as  "the  book  of  Enoch  " 
and  the  "  Book  of  the  Secrets  of 
Enoch."  The  author  is  orthodox, 
but  at  the  same  time  so  broad- 


ENOS 

minded  as  to  adopt  into  his  philo- 
sophical system  Platonic,  Egyp- 
tian, and  Zend  elements.  The  book 
describes  Enoch's  ascension  and 
voyage  through  the  seven  heavens. 

Enos.  Town  of  Thrace,  the  an- 
cient Aenos.  It  lies  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Maritza,  on  the  Aegean  Sea, 
about  40  m.  N.W.  of  Gallipoli,  and 
carries  on  some  trade.  In  April, 
1915,  an  Mlied  landing  took  place 
in  Enos  Bay.  Pop.  7,000. 

Enschede.  Town  of  Holland,  in 
the  prov.  of  Ovcryssel.  It  is  29  m. 
N.E.  of  Zutphen,  and  is  a  seat  of 
the  cotton-spinning  and  weaving 
industries.  Enschede  is  a  rly.  junc- 
tion and  has  communication  with 
the  coal  districts  of  Westphalia.  It 
was  severely  damaged  by  a  con- 
flagration in  1862.  Pop.  41,602. 

Ensemble  (Fr..  together).  Con- 
certed vocal  or  instrumental  piece. 
In  opera  it  is  a  performance  by  all 
the  principals  who  are  on  the  stage. 

Ensiform  Cartilage  (Lat.  eras  is, 
sword;  forma,  form).  Thin  process 
of  cartilage  forming  the  lower  end 
of  the  sternum  or  breastbone,  and 
projecting  downwards  between  the 
cartilages  of  tne  seventh  ribs.  See 
Cartilage. 

Ensign.  Flag  which  a  ship  car- 
ries astern  to  indicate  her  nation- 
ality Each  country  has  separate 


Ensign.    White  ensign  flown 
by  Royal  Navy 


ensigns  for  its  navy  and  its  mercan- 
tile marine.  GreatBritain  has  three: 
the  white  ensign,  flown  only  by 
ships  of  the  Royal  Navy  and  vessels 
of  the  Royal  Yacht  Squadron ;  the 
blue  ensign,  which  is  the  flag  of  the 
Royal  Naval  Reserve  ;  and  the  red 
ensign,  the  flag  of  the  merchant 
service.  War  Department  craft  fly 
a  blue  ensign  with  crossed  swords 
on  it.  The  earliest  date  on  which 
the  S.  George's  Cross  was  flown  by 
English  admirals  was  in  the  Cadiz 
Expedition  of  1596.  When  a 
ship  flies  her  ensign  upside  down 
it  denotes  that  she  is  in  distress. 
See  Flag. 

Ensign.  Rank  in  the  British 
army,  now  obsolete.  The  rank  was 
that  given  to  an  officer  of  the  infan- 
try on  first  being  commissioned, 
and  it  was  his  duty  to  carry  and 
guard  the  regimental  colours,  both 
on  parade  and  in  the  field.  The 
corresponding  rank  in  the  cavalry 
was  cornet,  and  both  were  dis- 
carded in  1871  when  the  purchase 


2940 

of  commissions  was  abolished,  the 
rank  of  second-lieutenant  being 
substituted. 

Ensilage  (Span,  en,  in ;  silo, 
underground  granary  ;  Lat.  sirus). 
Method  of  keeping  grass,  clover, 
maize,  and  any  green  fodder  crops 
in  a  succulent  condition  throughout 
the  winter.  It  can  be  usefully 
adopted  in  a  year  of  drought,  when 
root-crops  fail,  or  in  a  very  wet 
season  as  an  alternative  to  hay- 
making. The  herbage  to  be  con- 
verted into  "  silage,"  as  the  finished 
product  is  termed,  is  placed  in  a 
specially  constructed  receptacle 
(silo),  or  simply  heaped  up  in  a 
stack  or  clamp  and  covered  with 
earth.  When  a  silo  is  employed  the 
material  is  usually  chaffed  up,  to 
allow  of  better  packing.  The  re- 
sulting silage  differs  in  texture  and 
chemical  composition  from  the  raw 
material,  and  also  from  hay,  owing 
to  changes  brought  about  by  pro- 
cesses of  fermentation,  due  to  bac- 
teria, and  to  ferments  (enzymes) 
in  the  herbage.  It  is  necessary  that 
air  be  excluded,  and  this  is  effected 
by  the  application  of  pressure  and 
by  enclosing  the  raw  material  in  an 
airtight  space. 

A  "distinction  is  drawn  between 
sweet  and  sour  silage,  that  made  in 
a  stack  being  as  a  rule  sweet,  and 
that  made  in  silos  and  clamps,  sour. 
Sour  silage  is  made  at  a  tempera- 
ture below  120°  F.,  and  owes  its 
acidity  to  the  action  of  various 
acid- forming  bacteria.  Its  un- 
pleasant odour  is  readily  absorbed 
by  milk,  and  consequently  it  should 
not  be  used  for  milch  cows.  To  make 
sweet  silage,  which  is  sweetish  to 
the  taste  and  possesses  an  aromatic 
smell,  a  temperature  of  130°  F.  to 
160°  F.  is  necessary,  as  the  forma- 
tion of  acid  is  thereby  prevented. 
The  desired  temperature  cannot  be 
secured  if  air  is  at  first  excluded, 
and  therefore  the  herbage  must  be 
filled  slowly  into  the  receptacle 
and  pressure  applied  by  degrees. 

Properly  made  silage  is  a  valu- 
able feeding-stuff  in  both  its  forms, 
but  is  not  of  precisely  the  same  nu- 
tritive value  as  the  herbage  from 
which  it  is  made.  The  chief  results 
of  the  chemical  changes  that  take 
place  during  fermentation  are  loss 
of  sugar,  alteration  of  part  of  the 
albuminoids  into  nitrogenous  sub- 
stances (amides)  of  less  food  value, 
and  conversion  of  part  of  the  fibre 
(cellulose)  into  a  digestible  form. 

The  system  of  ensilage  was  intro- 
duced into  Great  Britain  from 
France  about  1880-85,  but  the 
results  were  less  satisfactory  than 
in  France  and  the  U.S.A.,  and  it 
has  not  been  generally  adopted. 
See  Agriculture  ;  Crops  ;  Pasture. 

Enstatite.  Common  rock-form- 
ing mineral.  One  of  the  pyroxene 


ENTEBBE 

group,  it  crystallises  in  the  rhombic 
system,  in  stout  prismatic  crystals. 
Chemically  a  metasilicate  of  mag- 
nesium, it  occurs  in  serpentines  and 
peridotites,  in  the  Whinsill  dolorite, 
the  Cheviot  andesite,  and  generally 
as  a  primary  constituent  of  inter- 
mediate and  basic  igneous  rocks. 
The  word  enstatite,  from  Gr.  en- 
states,  adversary,  refers  to  the  re- 
fractory nature  of  the  mineral. 
See  Crystallography. 

Entablature.  Term  in  architec- 
ture signifying  the  combination  of 
architrave,  frieze,  and  cornice  at 
the  summit  of  a  building.  In  early 
Greek  architecture  the  entablature, 
like  the  supporting  column,  was 
frequently  of  wood  ;  and  there  is 
evidence  to  show  that  it  was 
constructed  of  this  material  for 
some  time  after  wooden  columns 
had  been  replaced  by  stone  or  mar- 
ble. In  the  Greek  towns  of  S.  Italy 
wooden  entablatures  upon  stone 
columns  are  known  to  have  been  in 
use  for  several  centuries.  The  en- 
tablature is  necessarily  a  prominent 
feature  of  the  classic  or  horizontal 
styles  of  architecture,  rather  than  of 
the  Gothic  or  vertical  styles;  but  its 
principle  is  universal.  The  original 
meaning  of  the  word  was  a  board 
work  or  flooring  (Lat.  tabula,  plank). 
See  Architecture  ;  Building ;  also 
illus.  p.  2275. 

Entail.  Legally,  the  settling  of 
an  estate  on  a  man  and  his  heirs. 
In  feudal  times  land  was  granted  to 
a  man  and  his  heirs  in  tail  male  or 
tail  general,  the  idea  being  that  if 
an  heir  failed  it  would  revert  to  the 
king  or  lord  who  granted  it.  In 
time,  however,  the  practice  grew 
up  of  regarding  it  as  a  free  estate 
as  soon  as  an  heir  was  born,  thus 
depriving  the  grantor  of  his  rights. 
The  statute  De  Donis  Conditiorial- 
ibus  of  Edward  I  put  an  end  to  this 
practice,  but  only  for  a  time,  as 
legal  fictions  for  evading  it  were  in- 
vented. The  entailed  estates  of  to- 
day are  simply  settled  estates,  but 
they  can  only  be  settled  on  living 
persons  and  a  period  of  21  years 
beyond.  The  entail  can  be  broken 
with  the  consent  of  the  heir  and 
after  the  performance  of  certain 
legal  formalities.  The  word  comes 
from  the  French  tailler,  to  cut,  the 
idea  being  that  from  an  entailed 
estate,  something,  i.e.  freedom  of 
bequest,  had  been  cut.  See  Land 
Laws;  Real  Property ;  Settlement. 

Entebbe.  Administrative  capi- 
tal of  the  Uganda  Protectorate, 
E.  Africa.  It  is  situated  on  a 
promontory  to  the  W.  of  Murchi- 
son  Bay  in  Lake  Victoria,  and  is 
connected  with  Kisumu  and  other 
lake  harbours  by  steamer.  Mengo, 
the  capital  of  Buganda,  is  25  m. 
to  the  N.E.  Pop.  dist.  (European) 
about  150. 


ENTENTE    CORDIALS 


2941 


ENTRENCHING    TOOL 


Entente  Cordiale  (Fr.,  cordial 
understanding).  Phrase  that  be- 
came current  early  in  the  20th  cen- 
tury to  signify  the  friendly  rela- 
tions then  beginning  to  exist  be- 
tween Britain  and  France.  The 
entente  began  soon  after  the  South 
African  War  and  was  greatly  helped 
by  the  influence  of  Edward  VII 
and  the  steady  realization  of  the 
German  menace.  It  culminated  in 
the  alliance  of  1914. 

Enteric  Fever  (Gr.  enter ikos,  in- 
testinal ).  Infective  disease  caused 
by  the  bacillus  typhosus.  It  is 
most  frequently  conveyed  by  drink- 
ing water.  Se  Typhoid  Fever. 

Entering  Edge.  Front  edge  of 
an  aeroplane  wing.  It  is  this  which 
first  encounters  or  enters  the  mass 
of  air  through  which  the  machine 
is  to  progress.  See  Aeroplane. 

Enteritis  (Gr.  enteron,  intes- 
tine). Inflammation  of  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  intestine.  The 
condition  may  be  due  to  eating  un- 
suitable or  unsound  food,  such  as 
unripe  fruit  or  decomposing  meat, 
or  to  irritant  poisoning  by  arsenic, 
mercury,  and  other  substances. 
Secondary  enteritis  is  a  symptom  of 
many  diseases,  particularly  cholera, 
dysentery,  and  typhoid  fever. 

The  prominent  symptoms  are 
abdominal  pain,  severe  diarrhoea, 
and  sometimes  blood  in  the  evacua- 
tions. In  severe  cases  ulceration  of 
the  intestine  may  be  followed  by 
perforation  and  fatal  peritonitis. 
Epidemic  enteritis,  or  "  summer 
diarrhoea,"  is  a  very  fatal  disease 
among  infants  under  one  year  of 
age,  in  large  towns  sometimes  ac- 
counting for  one-fifth  of  the  total 
infant  mortality.  The  causation  is 
not  fully  known,  but  the  disease  is 
most  prevalent  in  hot,  dry  weather, 
the  dust  blown  up  from  dirty 
streets  and  refuse  heaps  being  an 
important  factor. 

Enteroptosis  (Gr.  enteron,  in- 
testine; ptosis,  falling).  General 
dropping  or  downward  displace- 
ment of  the  abdominal  organs, 
chiefly  the  stomach  and  intestines. 
It  usually  develops  gradually.  The 
condition  is  more  frequent  in 
women  than  in  men,  and  is  often 
associated  with  neurasthenia.  Mas- 
sa^,c,  electricity,  and  physical  exer- 
cises may  be  employed  to  improve 
the  tone  of  the  abdominal  vessels, 
and  the  symptoms  are  often  re- 
lieved by  wearing  a  belt  so  as  to 
support  the  sagging  organs. 

Enterprise.  British  steamship, 
the  first  to  make  the  passage  be- 
tween Great  Britain  and  India. 
She  left  London  Aug.  16,  and 
reached  Calcutta  Dec.  7,  1825.  The 
Enterprise,  which  displaced  480 
tons  and  had  engines  of  120  h.p., 
was  also  the  first  steamship  to 
double  the  Cape.  A  light  cruiser  of 


this  name,  the  first  of  a  new  type, 
was  launched  in  1919.  She  had 
89,000  engine-power,  giving  a  speed 
of  33  knots,  was  535  ft.  in  length,and 
carried  seven  6-in.  and  other  guns 
Entertainments  Duty.  Tax 
levied  in  the  United  Kingdom  on 
persons  attending  theatres,  music 
halls,  and  other  places  of  amuse- 
ment; also  football  and  cricket 
matches,  and  other  open-air  sports. 
Introduced  in  the  Budget  of  1916, 
it  was  charged  on  all  tickets  of 
admission  as  follows : 

Below  2kl 

Between  2id.  and 


7/6 
10/6 


7d. 
U- 

21- 

5/- 

7/6 

10/6 


Hd. 

2d. 

3,1. 

4d. 

fid. 

9d, 

l/- 

1/6 

21- 


Beyond  this  it  was  2/-  on  the  first 
15/-  and  iid.  for  every  5/-  or  part 
of  5/-  in  excess  of  that  amount.  It 
was  paid  to  the  inland  revenue  au- 
thorities by  the  proprietors,  who 
charged  it  on  the  tickets  of  admis- 
sion. Entertainments  promoted  by 
schools  and  for  charitable  purposes 
were  exempt  By  thr  budget  ot 
1924,  when  the  payment,  excluding 
the  amount  of  the  duty,  does  not 
exceed  Hd  no  duty  is  levied. 
Also  other  reduction?  were  made. 

Enthymeme  (Gr.  en,  in ;  thymos, 
mind).  Term  in  logic.  According  to 
Aristotle,  it  is  merely  a  rhetorical 
syllogism,  founded  on  probability, 
and  therefore  not  demonstrative. 
A  later  meaning  is  a  syllogism  in 
which  one  premise  has  to  be  "  men- 
tally "  supplied  :  e.g.  All  men  are 
mortal ;  therefore  Socrates  is  mor- 
tal ;  where  the  minor  premise, 
Socrates  is  a  man,  is  omitted. 
See  Logic. 

Entombment.  Literally  a 
burial.  In  a  special  sense,  how- 
ever, it  is  applied  to  the  burial  of 
Jesus  Christ,  and  as  such  is  the 
subject  of  several  notable  paint- 
ings. The  most  famous  of  these 
are  one  by  Raphael,  in  the 
Borghese  Palace  at  Rome,  one  by 
Titian  in  the  Louvre,  and  one  by 
Caravaagio,  in  the  Vatican. 

Entomology  (Gr.  entomon,  in- 
sect; logos,  science).  Branch  of 
zoology  which  deals  with  insects. 
The  offices  of  the  Entomological 
Society  of  London  are  at  11,  Chan- 
dos  Street,  Cavendish  Square,  W. 
See  Insects. 

Entomostraca  (Gr.  entomon, 
insect ;  ostrakon,  shell).  One  of  the 
great  divisions  into  which  Crustacea 
are  divided.  It  includes  the  lower 
forms  of  crustaceans,  characterised 
by  a  variable  number  of  body  seg- 
ments, the  absence  of  the  gastric 
mill  (grinding  apparatus),  and  life 
usually  beginning  in  the  nauplius 
See  Crustacea. 


Entophytes  (Gr.  entos,  within ; 
phyton,  a  plant).  Name  given  to 
plants  which  live  on  other  plants. 
See  Fungus;  Parasite. 

Entozoa  (Gr.  entos  within; 
zoon,  animal).  Name  given  to 
parasitical  worms  which  live  in 
the  interior  of  the  body  of  their 
host,  as  the  tape  worm  and  flukes. 
They  are  opposed,  therefore,  to  the 
ectozoa,  which  live  on  the  exterior. 
See  Parasite. 

Entr'acte  (Fr.  entre,  between  ; 
acte,  act).  Short  piece  of  music 
played  by  the  orchestra  between 
the  acts  or  scenes  of  a  play.  It  is 
generally  of  a  suave  and  melodious 
character.  Sometimes,  in  a  musical 
play,  it  consists  of  the  develop- 
ment of  a  melody  or  leitmotiv  em- 
bodied in  the  work  ;  sometimes  of 
an  independent  piece. 

Lnuvcasceaox,  JOSEPH  AN- 
TOINE  BRTTNT  D'  (1739-93).  French 
sailor.  A  native  of  Provence,  he 
entered  the  navy.  He  commanded 
a  ship  in  the  war  against  Britain, 
but  his  great  work  was  as  a  dis- 
coverer. As  commander  of  the 
French  fleet  in  the  E.  Indies,  he 
visited  China ;  he  was  also  gov- 
ernor of  Mauritius  and  the  He  de 
Bourbon.  He  sailed  into  the  south 
seas  and  made  several  discoveries 
therein,  a  strait,  a  point,  and  a 
group  of  islands  commemorating 
his  name.  He  was  in  the  East 
when  he  died,  July  20,  1793. 

Entree  (Fr.).  Term  in  cookery. 
It  is  usually  applied  to  a  "  made  " 
dish  served  between  courses,  e.g. 
before  the  roast  or  principal  dish 
of  a  dinner.  In  France,  on  the 
other  hand,  entrees  may  consist  of 
fish  or  roast  or  braised  meat,  and 
are  not  merely  fancy  dishes. 

Entremets  (Fr.  entrc,  between  ; 
mets,  dish).  Term  in  cookery.  It  is 
used  for  a  side  dish,  such  as  a 
sweet  or  savoury,  served  after  the 
roast  at  dinner. 

Entre  Minho  e  Douro.  Prov. 
of  N.W.  Portugal.  It  lies  between 
the  Minho  and  Douro  rivers,  facing 
the  Atlantic.  Mountainous  and 
well  watered,  it  has  a  mild  climate, 
and  produces  maize,  wine,  oil, 
fruit,  and  nuts,  while  palms  and 
fuchsias  thrive.  Cattle  and  pigs  are 
reared,  timber  is  cut  on  the  mts., 
and  fish  abound  in  the  rivers. 
Though  implements  are  primitive, 
agriculture  flourishes.  The  roads 
are  bad ;  ox-traction  is  the  chief 
means  of  transport.  Oporto  is  the 
chief  port.  The  prov.  is  divided 
into  the  three  districts  of  Vianna 
do  Castello,  Braga,  and  Porto 
Area,  2,790  sq.  m.  Pop.  1,289,859. 

Entrenching  Tool.  Implement 
carried  by  each  soldier  in  the  firing 
line  and  used  to  excavate  tempo- 
rary cover  for  protection  against 
the  enemy's  fire  until  complete 


ENTRENCHMENT 


ENVER      PASHA 


trenches  can  be  dug.  In  open  war- 
fare, when  the  advance  is  held  up 
by  hostile  fire,  the  troops  lie  down 
and  dig  a  nar- 
row, shallow 
pit  in  which  to 
lie,  throwing 
the  earth  to 

i   the    front     to 

|   form    a    para- 
pet.    If  re- 


Entrenching  tool  used  in  German  army. 
Above,  type  issued  to  British  troops 

quired,  the  pit  may  be  deepened 
to  provide  cover  in  a  kneeling  and 
then  standing  position,  and  if  it  is 
finally  necessary  to  hold  the  po- 
sition the  pits  may  be  linked  up  to 
form  a  trench.  The  British  en- 
trenching tool  is  double-ended,  and 
provides  both  a  pick  and  small 
spade,  the  handle  being  easily  de- 
tachable and  carried  apart  from 
the  head  The  German  tool  is 
merely  a  small  spade  to  which  the 
handle  is  a  fixture. 

Entrenchment.  Military  term 
meaning  the  employment  of  exca- 
vated positions  for  the  protection 
of  troops  in  attack  or  defence.  This 
method  of  warfare  appears  to  have 
been  introduced  by  the  Turks,  but 
was  not  adopted  by  the  soldiers  of 
Christendom  until  about  the  16th 
century  During  the  Great  War 
most  elaborate  trench  systems  were 
used,  including  shelters  many  feet 
below  the  surface  which  were  un- 
affected during  bombardments  ex- 
cept by  a  direct  hit  from  large 
calibre  explosive  shell.  Conceal- 
ment ol  trenches  from  enemy  obser- 
vation is  most  important,  but  aerial 
reconnaissance  has  rendered  this 
extremely  difficult.  For  a  parapet 
which  will  resist  modern  rifle  fire 
at  medium  range  the  following 
depths  of  various  materials  are  re- 
quired :  shingle,  6  ins.  ,  brickwork, 
12  ins.  ;  sand  in  bags  or  boxes,  18 
ins. :  loose  sand,  30  ins. ;  earth,  40 
ins.  See  Tactics  ;  Trench  Warfare. 

Entrepot  (Lat.  inter pos Hits, 
placed  between).  French  word 
meaning  a  bonded  warehouse,  i.e. 
a  place  where  imported  goods  are 
stored  pending  the  payment  of 
duty  thereon.  In  English  usage, 
however,  it  has  come  to  mean  a 
seaport  or  an  inland  town  through 
which  much  produce  merely  passes ; 
e.g.  Singapore,  a  great  port  on  a 
small  island,  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  world's  entrepot*. 

Entrepreneur  (Fr.  entre,  be- 
tween ;  prendre,  to  take).  Word 
used  for  one  who  brings  capital  and 


labour  together.  Employing  them 
as  he  thinks  best,  he  pays  interest 
to  the  one  and  wages  to- the  other, 
keeping  any  balance  of  profit  for 
himself.  The  old  theory  of  econo- 
mics that  the  partners  in  industry 
were  the  landowner,  the  capitalist, 
and  the  labourer  left  out  of  account 
the  fact  that  in  large  undertakings 
the  directing  brain  often  belonged 
to  none  of  these  classes.  He  was 
simply  one  who  hired  the  others, 
and  the  word  entrepreneur  was 
invented  to  describe  him.  The 
term  has  never  taken  any  deep 
hold  in  England,  however,  although 
sometimes  used  by  economists  for 
convenience.  See  Labour :  Political 
Economy  ;  Prices. 

Entre  Rios  (Span.,  between 
rivers).  Prov.  of  N.E.  Argentina, 
occupying  the  angle  between  the 
Parana  and  Uruguay  rivers.  The 
surface  is  low,  alternating  between 
swamps  and  prairies,  while  in  the 
N.  it  is  heavily  forested  and  fur- 
nishes wood  for  building  and 
cabinet-making.  Cattle,  sheep,  and 
horses  are  raised  by  the  million, 
and,  together  with  hides,  horns, 
and  other  animal  products,  are 
exported.  Cereals,  wine,  and  alfalfa 
are  grown.  It  has  a  healthy  climate, 
and,  traversed  by  several  rlys.  and 
waterways,  it  is  one  of  the  most 
prosperous  pro  vs.  in  the  republic. 
The  capital  is  Parana.  Area. 
29,241  sq.  m.  Pop.  425,373. 

EntreRios.  Town  ot  Brazil, in  the 
state  ot  Rio  de  Janeiro.  It  is  about 
50  m.  by  rly  N.  of  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
in  a  coffee-producing  district.  Pop. 
8,000.  There  is  another  Brazilian 
town  of  this  name  in  the  state  of 
Goyaz,  45  m.  N.W.  of  San  Jose. 

Entresol  (Fr  entre,  between , 
sol,  ground).  Term  used  in  French 
architecture  for  an  intermediate 
storey  in  a  building.  Its  use  is 
generally  confined  to  a  low  storey 
placed  between  the  ground  floor 
and  the  first  floor  proper.  In  this 
sense  it  is  really  a  sub-division  of 
a  lofty  ground  storey. 

Entropy  (Gr  entrope,  turning 
in).  An  important  concept  in  the 
theory  ot  heat  engines  and  the 
science  of  thermodynamics.  The 
entropy  of  a  substance  is  a 
quantity  which  increases  with  any 
increase  in  the  total  heat  of  the 
substance  and  likewise  decreases 
with  any  decrease  in  the  total  heat. 
The  change  of  entropy  is  meas- 
ured by  the  change  in  the  quantity 
of  heat  divided  by  the  absolute 
temperature  at  which  this  change 
takes  place.  Thus  the  entropy  ol 
a  system  under  what  are  known  as 
adiabatic  conditions,  where  heat 
neither  enters  nor  leaves  the  system, 
is  constant. 

Where  heat  simply  flows  from  *» 
hot  body  to  a  cold  one,  the  loss  of 


entropy  by  the  hot  body  is  more 
than  made  up  by  the  gain  of 
entropy  by  the  cold  body,  so  that 
there  is  a  net  gain  of  entropy 
on  the  whole  In  a  heat  engine, 
heat  flows  from  a  hot  body  to 
a  cold  one,  but  in  the  process 
some  of  the  heat  disappears,  being 
converted  into  work.  In  the  case 
of  a  theoretical  engine  of  maximum 
efficiency,  there  is  no  change  of 
entropy  due  to  this  process,  but 
no  actual  engine  succeeds  in  con- 
verting as  much  of  the  heat  into 
work  as  the  theoretically  perfect 
engine,  and  the  effect  of  an  actual 
heat  engine  is  a  net  gain  of  entropy. 

As  heat  is  every  where  flowing  from 
hot  bodies  to  cvjld  ones,  the  entropy 
of  the  universe  as  a  whole  is  con- 
tinually increasing,  and  is  often 
said  to  be  tending  towards  a  maxi- 
mum. In  such  an  imaginary  con- 
dition of  maximum  entropy,  there 
would  be  no  motion,  ail  the  existent 
energy  of  the  universe  would  be 
converted  into  heat,  and  the  whole 
would  stagnate  at  a  uniform  tem- 
perature. See  Carnot's  Cycle ; 
Energy  ;  Thermodynamics. 

Enure  sis  (Gr.  en,  in :  our  em,  to 
urinate).  Involuntary  discharge  of 
the  urine.  It  is  most  frequently 
seen  in  young  children  who  have 
not  acquired  normal  control  over 
the  bladder.  It  is  sometimes  due  to 
irritation  of  the  bladder  by  urine 
containing  uric  acid  crystals,  or 
may  result  from  irritation  set  up 
by  a  polypus  or  worms  in  the  rec- 
tum. Care  should  be  taken  not  to 
frighten  a  nervous  child  by  threats 
of  punishment. 

Envelope.  Cover  tor  a  letter. 
The  making  of  envelopes,  one  in 
which  female  labour  is  mamlv  em- 
ployed, is  connected  with  the  sta- 
tionery trade.  The  processes,  usually 
carried  out  by  machinery,  are  those 
ot  cutting,  gumm'^ ",  and  folding 
the  paper.  See  Pape<  ,  Stationery. 

Envelope.  In  geometry,  a 
curve  generated  by  the  successive 
positions  of  a  line*  The  envelope 
is  a  curve  to  which  the  line,  or 
family  of  lines  as  it  is  more  usually 
expressed,  is  always  a  tangent.  A 
caustic  curve  (q.v. )  in  optics  is  a 
'  familiar  example  of  an  envelope. 

Envelope.  Gas  bag  ot  an  air- 
ship, or,  in  a  rigid  airship,  the  whole 
body  of  the  vessel  within  which 
the  gas  bags  are  housed.  Gas  bags 
are  made  of  skin  or  fabric,  and  the 
outer  envelope  of  the  rigid  airship 
is  ot  a  stouter  fabric,  rubberised  or 
otherwise  treated  so  as  to  resist 
the  absorption  of  moisture  and  the 
effects  of  weather.  See  Airship. 

Enver  Pasha  (1882-1922).  Tur- 
kish soldier  and  politician.  Born  at 
Constantinople  of  humble  parent- 
age, he  entered  the  Turkish  army 
in  1896.  He  first  came  into  notice 


ENVIRONMENT 


2943 


EOLITH 


in  connexion  with  the  Young  Turk 
movement  in  1905  at  Salonica,  and 
three  years  later  joined  the  revo- 
lutionaries, 
who  in  July, 
1908,  captured 
Monastir, 
where  a  consti- 
tution, accept- 
ed by  the  sul- 
tan  Abdul 
H  Hamid,  was 
(reclaimed. 
Enver  Pasha,  Enver  soon 
Turkish  soldier  afterwards 
was  appointed  military  attache  at 
Berlin,  but  on  the  outbreak  of  the 
Turkish  counter  -  revolution  in 
March,  1909,  he  returned  to  Salo- 
nica, and  assisted  in  the  deposi- 
tion of  Abdul  Hamid. 

Enver  then  went  back  to  Berlin, 
and  in  1910  paid  a  visit  to  London. 
In  1911  he  organized  the  Arabs  of 
Tripoli  against  the  Italians  in  the 
Tripoli  War.  In  the  second  Balkan 
War  he  recaptured  Adrianople 
from  the  Bulgarians  in  July,  1913. 
Shortly  before  he  had  become 
minister  of  war  with  the  rank  of  a 
pasha,  and  married  one  of  the 
imperial  princesses.  One  of  the 
leading  spirits  of  the  Committee  of 
Union  and  Progress,  the  central 
organization  of  the  Young  Turks, 
he  was  personally  pro-German,  his 
influence  being  one  of  the  factors 
that  brought  Turkey  into  the  Great 
War  against  the  Entente.  After 
the  submission  of  Turkey  in  1918 
Enver  fled  to  the  Caucasus.  He 
encouraged  the  Turks  in  their  re- 
sistance to  the  terms  of  the  Peace 
Treaty  in  1920.  He  was  killed  in 
Bokhara,  Aug.  4,  1922. 

Environment  (Fr.  environ, 
around).  Biological  term  for  the 
sum  total  of  all  the  conditions, 
agencies,  and  influences  which 
affect  the  development,  growth, 
life  and  death  of  an  organism, 
species,  or  race.  Various  theories 
of  evolution  have  maintained;  on 
the  one  hand,  that  variations  in 
animals  and  plants  arise  so  that 
they  may  be  adapted  to  environ- 
ment ;  on  the  other  hand,  that 
environment  itself  produces  modi- 
fication in  the  living  organism.  In 
the  absence  of  adaptation  to  en- 
vironment, no  organism  could  live 
or  reproduce  itself,  and  the  main 
object  of  a  living  creature  must  be 
to  become  more  and  more  per- 
fectly adapted  to  its  surroundings. 
The  term  is  usually  understood  to 
refer  to  physical,  chemical,  or 
material  agencies.  With  reference 
to  man  it  includes,  in  its  widest 
sense,  mental  and  spiritual  agen- 
cies, so  that  it  may  be  said  that 
each  individual  lives  in  a  physical, 
mental,  and  spiritual  environment. 
See  Evolution. 


Envoy  (Fr.  envoyer,  to  send). 
Term  used  for  one  sent  on  a  dip- 
lomatic errand.  It  is  more  general 
than  ambassador,  being  used  for 
persons  who  go  on  temporary  mis- 
sions to  foreign  courts  as  well  as 
for  more  permanent  officials.  The 
former  are  merely  described  as 
envoys  ;  the  latter  are  envoys  ex- 
traordinary, and  include  ambas- 
sadors. See  Diplomacy. 

Enzeli.  Town  of  Persia,  in  the 
prov.  of  Gilan.  It  stands  on  the  S. 
shore  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  16  m. 
N.W.  of  Resht.  A  shipping  centre, 
it  came  into  prominence  in  Aug., 
1918,  in  connexion  with  a  British 
move  on  Baku  (q.v. ).  In  May,  1920, 
a  small  British  force  stationed 
here  was  withdrawn  on  the  arrival 
of  a  Bolshevist  force  from  Baku. 

Enzyme  (Gr.  en,  in;  zyme, 
leaven).  Substance  formed  by 
micro-organisms  and  living  animal 
and  vegetable  cells,  which  trans- 
forms organic  compounds  into 
simpler  bodies.  The  most  familiar 
example  of  enzyme  action  is  the 
fermentation  of  sugar  by  means  of 
yeast,  a  minute  unicellular  organ- 
ism. The  yeast  cells  contain  an 
enzyme  called  zymase,  which  con- 
verts sugar  into  alcohol  and  car- 
bonic acid  gas.  The  enzyme  itself 
is  unchanged  in  the  process,  and  a 
very  small  quantity  is  therefore 
capable  of  causing  a  large  amount 
of  transformation.  The  process 
probably  resembles  the  familiar 
catalytic  action  of  inorganic 
chemistry.  Enzymes  play  a  large 
part  in  the  digestion  of  food. 
Ptyalin,  which  is  secreted  by  the 
salivary  cells,  converts  cooked 
starch  into  dextrin  and  maltose  ; 
pepsin,  secreted  by  cells  in  the 
stomach,  changes  protein  to  pro- 
teoses  and  peptones  ;  and  enzymes 
in  the  pancreatic  juice  convert  fat 
into  simpler  bodies.  The  souring 
of  milk  and  the  decomposition  of 
meat  by  bacteria  are  other  in- 
stances of  enzymic  changes. 

Eoanthropus  (Gr.  eos,  dawn; 
anthropos,  man).  Systematic  name 
of  the  oldest  known  European  race 
with  distinct  head  traits.  It  was 
given  by  A.  S.  Woodward  to  some 
fossil  bones  now  in  the  British 
Museum,  unearthed  in  1912  at 
Piltdown,  Sussex.  After  their  dis- 
coverer, Charles  Dawson,  the  spe- 
cies is  called  E.  Dawsoni.  Other 
remains  were  subsequently  found. 
See  Man  ;  Piltdown  Skull. 

Eocene  (Gr.  eos,  dawn  ;  kainos, 
recent).  Name  given  to  the  earliest 
part  of  the  Tertiary  period,  when 
stratified  rocks,  the  eocene  system, 
were  being  formed.  It  followed 
the  Cretaceous  period,  the  strata  of 
both  ages  merging  gradually  in  S. 
Europe,  America,  and  New  Zealand. 
In  W.  Europe,  at  the  end  of  the 


Cretaceous  period,  great  geographi- 
cal changes  were  in  progress  ;  con- 
sequently there  is  a  sharp  line  of 
demarcation  between  the  two  sets 
of  strata.  Eocene  beds  usually  rest 
on  eroded  surface  of  chalk.  Eocene 
rocks  of  W.  Europe  are  usually  soft 
sands  and  clays,  with  some  limestone 
and  marl ;  all  were  laid  down  in 
local  basins  under  marine,  brackish, 
or  fresh-water  conditions.  In  S. 
Europe,  Caucasus,  Asia  Minor,  { 
N.  Africa,  through  Persia  towards  | 
China  and  Japan,  great  thickness 
(several  thousand  feet)  of  lime- 
stone developed,  made  up  in  places 
largely  of  the  fossilised  shells  of 
large  disk-shaped  foraminifera 
(nummulites).  Volcanoes  were  ac- 
tive in  eocene  times,  old  lavas  and 
other  forms  of  rock  being  found 
in  Antrim,  the  inner  Hebrides, 
Apennines,  and  western  U.S.A., 
Tasmania,  etc. 

The  forerunners  of  nearly  all 
kinds  of  animals  now  living  ap-. 
peared  in  eocene  times.  The  early 
ancestors  of  the  horse  had  then 
five  toes  ;  small,  pig-like,  marsh- 
dwelling  animals  in  Africa  repre- 
sented the  original  stock  from 
which  elephants  came.  Placental 
mammals  appeared  in  great  num- 
bers. Crocodiles  and  toothed  birds 
lived  in  a  sub-tropical  estuary 
where  London  now  stands.  Im- 
portant areas  of  eocene  deposits 
are  known  as  London,  Hampshire, 
and  Paris  basins.  Various  beds  in 
the  London  basin,  in  order  of  suc- 
cession, are  Thanet  Sands  (at  base), 
Woolwich  and  Reading  Beds, 
Blackheath  Pebble  Bed,  London 
Clay,  Bagshot  Sands  ;  total  thick- 
ness about  970  ft.  Those  of  the 
Hampshire  basin  are  much  thicker, 
and  slightly  different :  no  Thanet 
Sands  at  base,  great  development 
of  Barton  Beds  at  top,  and  Brackles- 
ham  and  Bournemouth  Beds  in 
the  middle. 

Eolith  (Gr.  eos,  dawn  ;  lithos, 
stone).  Stone  implement  of  ruder 
workmanship  than  those  of  the 
Palaeolithic  Age,  so  called  in  1892  by 
J.  Allen  Brown.  Theoretically  the 
Chellian  hand-axe  had  a  long  an- 
tecedent history,  back  to  the 
time  when  primeval  man,  or  even 
his  anthropoid  precursors,  first 
employed  unwrought  stones  as 
tools.  Many  such  flints  have  been 
found,  notably  at  Ightham,  Kent, 
and  in  the  Ipswich  Red  Crag,  for 
which  human  use  is  claimed.  A 
characteristic  hawk-beak  form  (ros- 
trocarinate)  is  regarded  by  Ray 
Lankester  as  ancestral  to  true 
palaeoliths.  The  eolithic  stage  of 
industry  was  traceable  in  modern 
savagery  among  the  Tasmanians. 
See  Stone  Age ;  consult  also  Pre- 
Palaeolithic  Man,  J.  P.  Moir.  1920 ; 
also  illus.  facing  p.  458. 


EON      DE      BEAUMONT 


2944 


Eon  de  Beaumont,  CHARLES 
( J  727- 1810).  French  diplomatist. 
Born  Oct.  17,  1727,  he  entered  the 
army  in  1755, 
and  in  1757, 
I  having  attract- 
ed the  atten 
I  tion  of  Louis 
m  XV,  was  sent, 
I  disguised  as  a 
|  woman,  on  a 
diplomatic  mis- 
sion to  Russia. 
Eon  de  Beaumont,  In  17 62  he  came 
French  diplomatist  to  England, 
where  in  a  fit  of  pique  he  pub- 
lished certain  libels,  for  which 
he  was  convicted  in  1764  and 
outlawed.  The  question  of  his 
sex  had  aroused  such  contro- 
versy that  heavy  bets  were  made 
and  gambling  policies  of  assur- 
ance effected.  General  opinion 
declared  him  a  woman,  and  Eon 
took  no  steps  to  decide  the  matter. 
He  returned  in  1777  to  France 
where  he  lived  as  a  woman,  but 
came  back  to  England  in  1785,  and 
ten  years  later,  having  lost  every- 
thing in  the  French  Revolution, 
dressed  as  a  woman  he  gave  an 
exhibition  of  fencing  in  London, 
where  he  died,  May  21,  1810.  See 
Historical  Mysteries.  A.  Lang, 
1904. 

Eos.  In  Greek  mythology,  god- 
dess of  the  morning.  She  is  iden- 
tified with  the  Latin  Aurora  (q.v.). 

Eosin.  Scarlet-coloured  ani- 
line dye  prepared  by  the  action 
of  bromine  upon  fluoresceine.  It 
occurs  as  dark  brown  crystals 
with  a  green  metallic  lustre,  dif- 
ferent strengths  and  shades  of 
colour  being  distinguished  com- 
mercially by  the  addition  of 
letters,  e.g.  A,  GGF,  DH.  The 
colour,  although  not  fast,  is  much 
used  for  dyeing  silk  and  other 
fibres.  See  Dyes. 

Eothen  (Gr.,  from  the  East). 
Travel  book  by  A.  W.  Kinglake, 
first  published  in  1844  with  the  full 
title  of  Eothen:  or  Travels 
Brought  Home  from  the  East.  A 
most  engaging  book,  it  describes 
the  author's  journeyings  from 
Belgrade  to  Constantinople  and 
Cairo,  and  through  Palestine. 

Eotvos,  JOZSEF,  BARON  (1813- 
71).  Hungarian  novelist  and  states- 
man. He  was  born  Sept.  3,  1813, 
at  Buda,  and  educated  at  the  uni- 
versity there.  After  travelling 
extensively  in  Western  Europe,  he 
returned  to  Hungary,  and  in  1838 
produced  his  novel  The  Carthusian, 
a  sentimental  study  of  a  wealthy 
young  French  count  who  retires 
from  the  world  and  becomes  a 
monk.  His  second  novel,  The 
Village  Notary,  1846,  is  an  attack 
upon  serfdom  and  other  evils.  His 
Hungary  in  1514,  an  historical 


romance  describing  the  great  peas 
ant  rising  under  Dozsa,  and  the 
terrible  vengeance  taken  by  the 
nobles,  appeared  in  1847.  The 
Influence  of  the  Leading  Ideas  of 
the  Nineteenth  Century  upon  the 
State  (1850-54)  is  an  attempt  to 
show  how  far  it  is  possible  fully  to 
realize  the  doctrines  of  liberty, 
fraternity,  and  equality.  Eotvos 
was  twice  minister  of  public  in- 
struction, in  the  first  Hungarian 
ministry  of  1848  and  in  the 
Andrassy  ministry  of  1867.  He 
died  at  Buda,  Feb.  2,  1871. 

Eozoon  (Gr.  eos,  dawn;  zoon, 
animal).  Name  given  to  mineral 
structure  consisting  of  thin  wavy 
layers  of  white  calcite  and  green 
silicate  (serpentine),  curiously 
intergrown,  and  resembling  struc- 
tures of  certain  lowly  organisms 
(foraminifera).  Found  in  the  earliest 
formed  rocks  in  Canada,  it  was  for- 
merly regarded  as  of  organic  origin, 
formed  by  Rhizopods. 

Epacris  (Gr.  epi,  on ;  alcris,  top). 
Genus  of  shrubs  of  the  natural 
order  Epacrideae.  Natives  of 
Australasia,  they  have  scattered 
leaves  and  abundant,  cylindrical, 
bell-shaped  flowers  produced  singly 


Epacris.      Leaves   and   flowers   of 
Epacris  nivalis,  an  Australian  shrub 

from  the  axil  of  a  leaf.  They  are 
largely  grown  in  European  green- 
houses, and  many  varieties  and 
hybrids  have  been  produced. 

Epact  (Gr.  epaktos,  brought  on, 
added).  Number  of  days  by  which 
the  solar  year  exceeds  the  lunar 
year,  or  the  excess  of  a  calendar 
month  over  a  lunar  month.  The 
excess  of  the  solar  year  is  about 
11  days.  Should  a  new  moon  fall 
on  Jan.  1,  the  epact  of  the  ensuing 
year  would  be  zero  or  0.  On  Jan.  1 
of  the  calendar  year  following  the 
epact  would  be  11.  The  number  is 
increased  accordingly  until,  at  the 
end  of  the  lunar  cycle,  19  years,  the 
moon's  aspects  begin  to  be  repeated. 
As  the  moon's  age  cannot  exceed 
30  days,  the  epact  22,  e.g.,  would 
be  folio  wed  by  3,  thus:  22+11  = 
33-30=3.  The  epact  for  1901 


Epaminondas, 
Theban  general 


was  10 ;  for  1 920, 1 0.  See  Calendar ; 
Chronology :  Golden  Number : 
Lunar  Cycle ;  Solar  Cycle. 

Epaminondas  (Gr.  Epamein- 
ondas).  A  Theban  general  and 
statesman.  Born  about  418  B.C., 
although  of 
aristocratic 
family,  his 
early  life  was 
spent  in  pov- 
erty. He  first 
came  forward 
as  a  man  of 
o  u  tstanding 
ability  at  the 
battle  of  Leuc- 
tra  (371 ),  when 
he  was  chiefly  responsible  for  the 
great  defeat  inflicted  on  the  Spar- 
tans which  brought  to  an  end  the 
Spartan  hegemony  over  Greece. 
Epaminondas  determined  to  follow 
up  his  victory  and  to  break  the 
power  of  Sparta  in  Peloponnesus, 
her  particular  stronghold.  With 
this  object,  he  united  the  citiea  of 
Arcadia  in  a  league,  with  the  new 
city  of  Megalopolis,  founded  by 
himself,  as  the  capital.  As  part  of 
the  same  policy,  Messenia,  which 
had  been  for  three  centuries  under 
the  heel  of  Sparta,  was  made  into 
an  independent  state.  Dissension, 
however,  arose  in  the  new  Arcadian 
league,  some  of  its  members 
inclining  towards  Sparta.  In  362 
the  Spartans  sent  an  army  into 
Arcadia,  which  was  defeated  at  the 
battle  of  Mantinea,  but  Epamin- 
ondas fell  in  the  battle.  During  his 
lifetime,  Epaminondas  had  raised 
Thebes  to  be  the  leading  power  of 
Greece,  but  the  hegemony  did  not 
last  after  his  death. 

Epaulette  (Fr.,  little  shoulder). 
Shoulder  ornament  worn  by  officers 
of  the  British  Navy  and  bearing 
the  marks  that  indicate  their  rank. 
Lieutenants  and  superior  ranks 
wear  fringed  epaulettes  The 
British  Army  abolished  epaulettes 
in  1855.  but  they  are  worn  in  many 
foreign  armies,  as  well  as  in  navies. 
Ep6e  Club.  London  club  for  the 
practice  of  fencing  and  swordsman 
ship.  It  was  founded  in  1900,  just 
after  the  holding  in  England  of  the 
first  open  epee  tournament  for 
amateurs.  Before  the  Great  War, 
international  tournaments  were 
held  under  its  auspices,  and  these 
were  revived  in  1919.  See  Fencing. 
Epehy.  Town  of  France,  in  the 
dept.  of  Somme.  It  lies  13  m.  S. 
by  E.  of  Cambrai.  It  was  captured 
by  the  British  April  1,  1917.  and 
was  one  of  the  places  where  there 
was  heavy  fighting  in  the  German 
counter-attack,  Nov.  30,  1917,  in 
the  Cambrai  (q.v.)  sector.  Retaken 
by  the  Germans,  Mar.  22,  1918,  it 
was  captured  by  the  British  in  Sept. , 
1918,  in  the  battle  of  that  name. 


EP£HY 


2945 


Epehy,  BATTLE  OF.  Fought  be- 
tween the  British  and  the  Germans,  • 
Sept.  12-25,  1918.  After  the  severe 
German  defeats  by  the  British 
armies  in  the  battles  of  Bapaume 
and  Arras,  Ludendorff  decided  to 
fall  back  to  the  Hindenburg  Line, 
confident  that  his  troops  would  be 
able  to  hold  this  gigantic  fortress 
system  in  the  face  of  any  attack 
through  the  winter  of  1918-19.  Sir 
Douglas  Haig  was  equally  confi- 
dent that  the  line  could  be  cap- 
tured. But  before  delivering  the 


Epehy.  Plan  oi  the  battlefield  show- 
ing the  ground  gained  by  the  British 
in  the  battle  of  Sept.  12-25,  1918 

decisive  attack  upon  it,  its  ad- 
vanced positions  and  outworks  had 
to  be  taken. 

For  this  purpose  the  battle  of 
Epehy  was  fought,  in  very  difficult 
country.  A  fortified  belt  three 
miles  deep  had  to  be  traversed  be- 
fore the  main  Hindenburg  Line 
could  be  reached,  and  several  subsi- 
diary lines  of  defences  had  to  be 
taken.  The  British  forces  operating 
were  troops  of  the  3rd  army  under 
Sir  Julian  Byng  on  the  left,  and  of 
the  4th  army,  including  the  Aus- 
tralian corps,  under  Sir  Henry 
Rawlinson  on  the  right,  with  the 
36th  French  corps,  forming  part  of 
Debeney's  1st  French  army  on  the 
extreme  right,  operating  south  of 
Holnon.  The  German  forces  en- 
gaged were  troops  of  the  2nd  and 
18th  German  armies,  forming  part 
of  von  Boehn's  army  group,  and 
they  included  several  crack  corps, 
among  them  the  Alpine  corps  and 
the  2nd  Guards  division. 

The  first  operation  was  the  at- 
tack on  the  German  positions  at 


Havrincourt  and  Trescault,  which 
>  was  begun  by  the  3rd  British  army 
on  Sept.  12.  Both  villages  were 
taken  on  that  day,  and  a  deter- 
mined German  counter-attack  on 
Sept.  13  was  beaten  off  at  Havrin- 
court. Meantime  the  Australians 
captured  Jeancourt,  and  on  Sept. 
17  the  9th  corps  on  the  extreme 
British  right  fought  its  way  into 
Holnon,  where  a  struggle  continued 
for  some  days  with  doubtful  result 
for  the  possession  of  the  village. 

The  main  battle  was  timed  to 
open  at  5.20  a.m.  of  Sept.  18  and, 
as  in  the  first  battle  of  Cambrai  and 
the  battle  of  Amiens,  the  infantry 
was  to  advance  without  any  pre- 
liminary bombardment  and  to  de- 
liver a  surprise  attack,  covered  by 
a  creeping  barrage.  The  Germans 
expected  attack,  but  were  not  cer- 
tain of  the  exact  date  or  time  ;  as 
the  British  troops  advanced  to  the 
assembly  points,  a  heavy  gas-bar- 
rage was  put  down  by  the  German 
guns  ;  and  two  hours  before  the 
moment  for  the  advance  rain  began 
to  fall  and  the  weather  became 
thick  and  unfavourable. 

On  the  extreme  British  left  the 
3rd  army  beat  off  a  determined 
German  attack  at  Havrincourt. 
The  3rd  corps  cleared  Peiziere, 
Ep6hy,  and  Ronssoy,  but  was  held 
up  at  Lempire  and  could  not  reach 
its  objectives.  In  the  centre  the 
Australian  corps  under  Gen.  Mon- 
ash  advanced  with  great  dash  and 
initiative,  broke  through  the  Ger- 
man front  over  an  extent  of  5,000 
yards,  and  pushed  rapidly  forward 
to  a  depth  of  nearly  four  miles 
through  the  fortified  zone,  taking 
Hargicourt  and  Villeret,  and  forc- 
ing its  way  into  the  outer  defences 
of  the  mahi  Hindenburg  Line, 
where  it  established  itself  firmly 
about  1  m.  W.  of  Bellicourt.  To  the 
south  of  them  the  9th  corps  was 
held  up  at  Fresnoy-le-Petit  and  in 
the  Quadrilateral :  but  the  village 
of  Berthaucourt  was  stormed. 

On  Sept.  19  the  3rd  corps  made 
an  advance  of  about  a  thousand 
yards  towards  Vendhuille.  The 
36th  French  corps,  south-east  of 
Holnon,  could  not  get  forward,  but 
Holnon  village  was  captured  at  last 
by  the  British  after  a  three  days' 
struggle  in  which  it  had  changed 
hands  repeatedly.  On  Sept.  20-22 
the  3rd  corps  reached  the  positions 
which  had  to  be  attained  before  a 
direct  attack  was  delivered  on  the 
Hindenburg  Line.  On  Sept.  24  the 
9th  corps  attacked  once  more  at 
Fresnoy-le-Petit  and  in  the  Quadri- 
lateral. The  German  gas-shelling 
was  exceedingly  violent,  but  Fres- 
noy  and  Gricourt  were  taken,  and 
the  French  south-east  of  Holnon 
advanced  some  distance.  On  Sept. 
25  the  Quadrilateral  was  hi  British 


hands,  and  all  the  ground  needed 
for  the  attack  on  the  Hindenburg 
Line  had  been  secured. 

This  battle  was  fought  on  the 
British  side  with  very  limited  re- 
sources, but  all  the  objectives  were 
attained  and  100  guns  and  11,750 
prisoners  were  taken  from  the  Ger- 
mans on  the  British  section  of  the 
front.  In  all,  14  British  divisions 
were  engaged  against  15  German. 
The  British  success  was  the  more 
notable  because  it  was  won  by 
troops  that  had  been  fighting 
almost  continuously  for  seven 
weeks  and  in  that  time  had  suffered 
casualties  totalling  72,000.  See 
Cambrai,  Battles  of. 

Bibliography.  Earl  Haig's  De- 
spatches, 1920  ;  The  Last  Four 
Months,  Maj.-Gen.  Sir  F.  Maurice, 

1919  ;  My  War  Memories,  1914-18, 
Gen.  LudendorfE,  1919  ;  The  Story  of 
the  Fourth  Army  in  the  Hundred 
Days,    Maj.-Gen.    A.   Montgomery, 

1920  ;    Tanks    in    the    Great    War, 
1914-18,  Col.  J.  F.  C.  Fuller,  1920  ; 
Australian  Victories  in  France,  1918, 
Sir  J.  Monash,  1920. 

Eperjes,  EPERIES  OR  PRESSOW. 
Town  of  Czecho-Slovakia,  formerly 
in  Hungary,  capital  of  the  comitat 
of  Saros.  It  stands  on  the  Tarcza, 
a  tributary  of  the  Theiss.  25  m. 
W.  of  Leutschau.  Encompassed 
by  walls,  the  town  is  well  planned, 
with  fine  streets,  gardens,  and 
buildings,  including  an  18th  cen- 
tury cathedral.  A  thriving  trade  is 
carried  on  in  pottery,  beer,  gram, 
wine,  cattle,  and  linen  goods.  The 
seat  of  a  Catholic  bishop,  it 
possesses  an  academy  of  law  and 
theology.  There  are  mineral 
springs  and  opal  mines  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood. Pop.  16,323. 

Eperaay.  Town  of  France,  hi 
the  dept.  of  Marne,  about  19  m. 
W.N.W.  of  Chalons-sur-Marne.  It 
has  important  in- 
dustries, including 
spinning,  tanning, 
cork  and  cask 
making,  and  brew- 
ing, but  its  chief 
importance  is  its 
connexion  with 
the  champagne 
Epernay  arms  industry,  the  wine 
being  stored  in  cellars  hollowed  out 
of  the  chalk  rock.  In  normal  times 
about  5  million  bottles  are  laid 
down  annually.  The  town  was 
occupied  for  a  brief  period  by  the 
Germans  in  the  early  stages  of  the 
Great  War,  and  came  into  pro- 
minence later,  being  one  of  the 
German  objectives  in  the  second 
battle  of  the  Marne,  July,  1918. 
The  assistance  of  the  British  divi- 
sions, composed  of  Yorkshiremen 
and  Highlanders,  in  the  defence  of 
Epernay,  was  specially  recognized 
by  Gen.  Berthelot.  Pop.  21,800. 
See  Marne,  Battles  of  the. 

R    4 


EPHAH 


2946 


EPHESUS 


Ephah.  In  the  O.T.,  name  for 
the  first  in  order  of  the  sons  of 
Midian  (Gen.  25 ;  1  Chron.  1  ; 
Isaiah  60) ;  concubine  of  Caleb  in 
the  line  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  2) ; 
son  of  Jahdai  (1  Chron.  2).  The 
word,  of  Egyptian  origin,  was 
adopted  as  the  name  of  a  Hebrew 
dry  measure  which  corresponded 
to  the  bath  in  liquid  measure.  See 
Weights  and  Measures. 

Ephelis  (Gr. )  Pigmented  spots 
appearing  on  the  skin  after 
exposure  to  the  sun.  See  Freckles. 

Ephemera  OR  MAY  FLY  (Gr. 
ephemeros,  living  only  for  a  day). 
Family  of  neuropterous  insects, 
with  a  long,  ten-jointed  abdomen 
terminating  generally  in  three  long 
processes  resembling  bristles.  The 
eyes  are  large  and  compound,  the 
wings  lace-like,  and  the  mouth 
parts  undeveloped,  as  the  perfect 
insect  does  not  eat.  The  larval 
stage  is  passed  in  the  water,  where 
the  insect  usually  feeds  on  the 
vegetation,  though  some  species 
are  carnivorous,  and  prey  on  small 
aquatic  animals.  The  perfect  insects 


Epistles  of  the  Captivity,  because 
they  seem  to  have  been  written, 
probably,  between  A.D.  61  and  63, 
during  S.  Paul's  first  imprisonment 
in  Rome.  It  was  probably  intended 
to  be  a  circular  letter,  and  was 
not  addressed  particularly  to  the 
Ephesians.  It  contains  no  personal 
greetings  to  the  friends  of  the 
apostle,  and  in  the  two  best  Greek 
MSS.  the  words  "  in  Ephesus " 
("to  the  saints  which  are  in 
Ephesus  " )  are  omitted.  Moreover, 
Marcion  speaks  of  it  as  the  Epistle 
to  the  Laodiceans. 

Its  connexion  with  the  Epistle 
to  the  Colossians  is  so  close  that 
the  one  is  sometimes  supposed  to 
be  an  expansion  of  the  other,  but 
such  a  supposition  is  unnecessary. 
The  external  evidence  for  the 
authenticity  of  the  epistle  is 
sufficient,  if  not  conclusive.  As* 
regards  internal  evidence,  the  fact 
that  the  language  and  thought 
differ  somewhat  from  those  of 
other  Pauline  epistles  has  caused 
difficulties,  but  these  are  by  no 
means  insuperable.  The  circum- 


stances that  impel  a  writer  to  take 
up  the  pen,  the  mood  in  which 
he  writes,  are  not  always  the  same, 
and,  in  the  interval  between  the 
writing  of  one  epistle  and  another, 
the  language  and  thought  of  S. 
Paul  may  have  undergone  con- 
siderable development  as  a  result  of 
his  experiences. 

Ephesus.  Ancient  city  of  Asia 
Minor,  ^situated  on  the  Cayster 
(Gr.  Ka-ystros),  near  its  mouth. 
It  was  the  chief  of  the  twelve 
Ionian  colonies  of  Asia,  and  was 
founded  probably  about  1000  B.C. 
In  the  6th  century  it  fell,  with  the 
other  Greek  cities  of  Asia  Minor, 
under  the  dominion  of  Croesus, 
king  of  Lydia,  and  later  under  that 
of  Cyrus  the  Great,  king  of  Persia. 
During  the  Athenian  hegemony  it 
paid  tribute  to  Athens,  but  about 
the  beginning  of  the  4th  century 
B.C.  it  again  passed  under  Persian 
rule.  When  Persia  was  overthrown 
by  Alexander  the  Great,  it  ac- 
knowledged the  Macedonian  supre- 
macy, and  eventually,  after  the 
Roman  conquest  of  Greece,  became 
the  administrative  capital  of  the 
Roman  province  of  Asia. 

Ephesus  was  noted  for  the  wor- 
ship of  Artemis  or  Diana ;  its 
temple  to  the  goddess  was  re- 
garded as  one  of  the  seven  wonders 
of  the  ancient  world.  The  city  was 
visited  by  S.  Paul  on  his  second 
and  third  journeys,  and  was  an 
early  seat  of  Christianity.  Ephesus 
was  the  birthplace  of  the  philo- 
sopher Heraclitus.  There  are  ruins 
of  a  theatre  (Acts  xix,  27 ),  a  sta- 
dium or  racecourse,  an  odeum  or 
hall  in  which  musical  and  poetical 
contests  took  place,  and  the  temple 
of  Artemis.  See  Discoveries  at 
Ephesus,  J.  T.  Wood,  1877  ;  Ex- 
cavations at  Ephesus,  D.  G. 
Hogarth,  1908. 


emerge  about  the  end  of  May  in 
most  species,  and  their  life  is  very 
short.  The  name  suggests  that  the 
insect  lives  only  lor  a  day,  but 
some  examples  live  only  for  a 
few  hours,  while  others  survive 
several  days  if  the  weather  is 
favourable.  About  fifty  species  of 
may  fly  are  found  in  Great  Britain, 
and  are  in  great  favour  with 
anglers  for  bait.  See  Insects. 

Ephemcrides  (Gr.,  journals). 
Table  or  tables  showing  the  pre- 
dicted positions  of  a  heavenly  body 
tor  every  day  during  a  given 
period.  These  are  right  ascension, 
declination,  horizontal,  parallax, 
semi -diameter,  in  the  case  of  the 
moon  and  planets ;  equation  of 
time,  in  the  case  of  the  sun,  etc. 

Ephesians,  EPISTLE  TO  THE. 
The  first  of  the  group  of  Pauline 
epistles  commonly  known  as  the 


Ephesus.  Ruins  of  the  city  viewed  from  above  the  theatre,  looking  towards 
the  sea.  In  tbe  foreground,  ancient  main  street ;  in  the  distance  the  Prison 
of  S.  Paul,  on  the  hill  top.  Above,  remains  of  later  temples  in  the  Artemisium 


EPHESUS 

Ephesus,  COUNCILS  OF.  Six  im-; 
portant  councils  of  the  Church  held , 
between  the  2nd  and  5th  centuries. 
The  first  took  place  A.D.  197,  on  the 
question  of  the  date  of  the  obser- 
vance of  Easter ;  and  the  second  in 
245,  against  the  heresy  of  Noetus, 

The  third  council,  431,  was  the 
third  ecumenical  council  of  the 
Church,  and  dealt  especially  with 
the  Nestorian  controversy  on  the 
person  of  Christ  (see  Nestorians). 
Cyril,  archbishop  of  Alexandria, 
had  denounced  Nestorius,  and  the 
emperors  Theodosius  and  Valen- 
tinian  convoked  a  general  council 
to  decide  the  matter.  The  council 
confirmed  the  Nicene  Creed,  con- 
demned the  heresy  of  Nestorius, 
and  also  settled  certain  points  of 
discipline.  The  fourth  council,  440, 
and  the  fifth,  447,  met  to  decide  a 
question  of  episcopal  succession. 
The  sixth  or  robber  council,  con- 
vened by  Theodosius  in  449,  dealt 
with  disputes  about  individual 
bishops  and  clergy,  but  its  general 
findings  were  tainted  by  outside 
influences  and  were  superseded  by 
the  council  of  Chalcedon  in  451. 

Ephialtes  (d.  456  B.C.).  Athen- 
ian statesman  and  democratic 
leader,  who  opposed  Cimon  (q.v.), 
the  leader  of  the  aristocratic  party, 
and  was  associated  with  Pericles. 
Among  the  reforms  of  Ephialtes 
was  the  limitation  of  the  power  of 
the  Areopagus.  He  is  not  to  be  con- 
fused with  the  traitor  of  the  same 
name  who,  when  Leonidas  and  his 
Spartans  were  defending  the  pass  of 
Thermopylae  in  480  B.C.  against 
the  Persians,  showed  the  enemy 
a  path  whereby  the  defenders  of 
the  pass  could  be  taken  in  the  rear. 
In  Greek  mythology,  Otus  and 
Ephialtes  were  giants,  who  rebelled 
against  the  gods,  and  endeavoured 
to  pile  Ossa  on  Olympus  and  Pelion 
on  Ossa.  Pron.  Effi-alteez. 

Ephod.    Symbolical  waistcloth 
worn  by  the  Jewish  priests  when 
officiating.    That  worn  by  the  high 
priest   was   of 
fine  linen,  col- 
o  u  r  e  d     gold, 
blue,     purple, 
and     scarlet, 
worn    over    a 
blue  robe,  fas- 
tened round 
the  body  by  a 
girdle,    and 
supported    by 
two  shoulder- 
s traps,  each 
ornamented 
with  an  onyx 
stoneinscribed 
with  the  names 
Ephod.    Jewish  high    of  six  of  the  12 
priest    wearing    the    tribes.     At- 
tached to  the 
plate  front  of  it  was 


2947 

the  breastplate  (q.v. ).  References 
are  made  in  Exodus  28,  29,  39  ; 
Lev.  8 ;  Judges  17 ;  1  Sam.  2  and 
22 ;  2  Sam.  6. 

Ephor  (Gr.  ephoros,  overseer). 
Spartan  official.  Originally  ap- 
pointed by  the  kings  to  take  over 
certain  police  and  judicial  duties, 
the  ephors  gradually  became  the 
most  influential  body  in  the  state. 
After  the  second  Messenian  War 
(685-668  B.C.),  they  became  an  in- 
dependent magistracy.  Five  in 
number,  and  elected  by  the  Apella 
(the  Spartan  general  assembly), 
they  held  office  for  a  year.  They 
possessed  civil  jurisdiction,  looked 
after  public  morals,  had  the  right 
of  dismissing,  fining,  and  imprison- 
ing public  servants,  and  even  the 
kings  were  subject  to  their  author- 
ity. Two  of  them  accompanied  the 
king  in  the  field  to  keep  a  watch  on 
his  movements.  They  summoned 
and  presided  at  the  public  assem- 
blies, controlled  the  finances,  and 
conducted  negotiations  with  the 
representatives  of  foreign  powers. 
When  Agis  IV  tried  to  limit  their 
authority,  he  was  imprisoned  by 
their  order,  and  murdered  (240). 
The  ephorate  was  abolished  by 
Cleomenes  III,  but  restored  after 
he  lost  the  throne  in  221,  although 
it  never  recovered  its  former  posi- 
tion. See  Sparta. 

Ephraem  Syrus  OR  EPHRAIM 
THE  SYRIAN  (c.  306-378),  Theolo- 
gian and  sacred  poet.  A  native  of 
Nisi  bis,  where  he  spent  his  youth  in 
study,  about  the  year  363  he  re- 
moved to  Edessa,  where  he  lived 
the  life  of  a  hermit,  and  was  or- 
dained deacon.  He  devoted  his  life  to 
teaching  and  writing,  and  assisted 
the  poor  during  a  great  famine. 

Ephraim.  Second  son  of  Joseph. 
With  his  brother,  Manasseh,  he 
was  adopted  by  their  grandfather 
Jacob,  and  their  descendants  were 
reckoned  among  the  tribes  of 
Israel.  Ephraim  took  precedence 
of  his  elder  brother  Manasseh,  but 
nothing  is  known  of  his  personal 
career.  The  tribe  of  Ephraim  oc- 
cupied part  of  the  northern  terri- 
tory of  Palestine.  Joshua  belonged 
to  this  tribe. 

Ephrath  OR  EPHRATHAH  (fruit- 
ful). Old  name  for  Bethlehem 
(q.v.},  in  Palestine. 

Epiblast  (Gr.  epi,  on  ;  blasios, 
shoot).  Term  used  in  embryology 
for  the  outer  covering  of  the  organ- 
ism when  it  has  reached  the  stage 
of  a  sac  or  gastrula.  It  is  sometimes 
referred  to  as  the  ectoderm,  the 
exterior  germinal  layer  of  a  de- 
veloping embryo  in  an  early  stage. 
See  Embryology. 

Epic  (Gr.  epos,  tale,  song).  Name 
given  to  narrative  poetry  which 
deals  in  dignified  and  elevated 
style  with  some  important  action, 


EPIC 

usually  heroic.  The  great  examples 
are  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  of  Homer, 
which  are  unmatched  in  any  other 
language.  Other  peoples  and  later 
ages,  however,  produced  poetry  de- 
scriptive of  great  events  to  which 
the  term  epic  has  been  generally 
and  legitimately  applied,  such  as 
the  French  Song  of  Roland  and  the 
English  Beowulf.  These  all  belong 
to  the  authentic,  as  distinguished 
from  the  literary,  type,  that  is,  they 
are  "  poems  of  growth,"  not  the 
work  of  a  single  age  or  author,  but 
stitched  together  by  generations  of 
bards  from  the  myths  and  tradi- 
tions of  their  race,  embodied  in 
older  and  more  primitive  lays  and 
ballads.  Such  poems  are  important 
as  historical  documents.  Though 
mingling  fiction  with  fact,  they 
preserve  irreplaceable  accounts  of 
the  manners  and  customs,  and  the 
political,  social,  and  religious  ideas 
of  times  otherwise  unchronicled 

English  Epics 

Beowulf,  for  example,  raises  the 
curtain  which  hides  the  early  life  of 
our  forefathers,  and  in  its  persons, 
scenes  and  episodes  reveals  many 
of  the  mental  and  moral  character- 
istics of  the  race,  as  well  as  ele- 
ments of  the  social  order  which 
still  prevails  in  the  British  islands. 
Several  other  narratives  which  fall 
short,  indeed,  of  the  unity  and 
completeness  of  the  more  famous 
heroic  poems,  still  display  many  of 
their  essential  features,  like  the 
English  Maldon,  a  splendid  though 
comparatively  late  piece  of  the 
llth  or  12th  century.  Rhymed 
chronicles  like  Layamon's  Brut 
partake  of  the  epic  character  in 
that  they  contain  fragments  of 
actual  history  and  are  heroic  in 
scope  and  intention,  but  deficient 
in  plan  and  insufficiently  elevated 
in  style  to  bear  comparison  with 
the  Iliad  or  Paradise  Lost.  Para- 
dise Lost  belongs,  like  Virgil's 
Aeneid  or  Tasso's  Gerusalemme 
Liberata,  to  the  artificial,  in- 
vented or  literary  type.  These  are 
imitative  poems,  written  in  the  epic 
manner  by  learned  authors  in 
epochs  of  advanced  civilization. 
They  are  the  works  of  bookmen, 
who  describe  events  of  which  they 
had  no  personal  knowledge  and 
their  value  and  interest  rest  wholly 
upon  the  imagination  and  poetical 
skill  at  work  in  their  construction. 

Few  such  attempts  were  greatly 
successful ;  nevertheless,  since  they 
followed  the  tradition  and  endea- 
voured to  treat  a  noble  subject 
worthily,  they  are  properly  to  be 
styled  epic.  The  Renaissance,  on 
the  other  hand,  produced  many 
chivalric  and  romantic  narratives, 
of  epic  dimensions  certainly,  like 
those  of  Ariosto  and  Spenser.  Some 
are  humorous,  soma  serious,  but 


EP1CHARMUS 


2948 


EPIDEMIC 


even  when  serious,  and  however 
charged  with  poetic  quality — since 
they  forsook  the  region  of  the 
heroic,  of  events  that  might  have 
happened,  for  the  region  of  the 
symbolic,  marvellous  or  incredible 
— have  little  in  common  with  the 
true  and  original  types.  In  the 
mock-heroic,  like  the  classical  Ba- 
trachomyomachia,  or  Battle  of  the 
Frogs  and  Mice,  or  Pope's  Rape  of 
the  Lock,  the  manner  and  machi- 
nery of  epic  poetry  are  imitated,  the 
great  style  applied  to  the  trifling 
subject,  with  humorous  intention 
or  for  the  purposes  of  parody  or 
burlesque.  In  modern  times  prob- 
ably the  nearest  approach  to  the 
epic  spirit  is  realized  in  The 
Dynasts  of  Thomas  Hardy.  See 
Poetry. 

Epicharmus  (c.  560-470  B.C.). 
Greek  comic  poet.  Born  at  Megara 
in  Sicily,  he  lived  there  until  its 
destruction  in  483,  when  he  re- 
moved to  Syracuse,  where  he  en- 
joyed the  patronage  of  the  "  ty- 
rants "  Gelo  and  Hiero.  The  chief 
representative  of  the  Dorian  or 
Sicilian  comedy,  his  35  plays  writ- 
ten in  the  Doric  dialect,  of  which 
only  scanty  fragments  remain,  dealt 
chiefly  with  mythological  subjects 
(Busiris,the  shipwrecked  Odysseus, 
the  Sirens).  They  were  distin- 
guished by  rapidity  of  action,  in 
which,  according  to  Horace,  they 
served  as  a  model  for  Plautus. 

Epictetus.  Stoic  philosopher 
who  lived  about  100  A.D.  Born  at 
Hierapolis  in  Phrygia,  he  was  taken 
as  a  slave  to  Rome.  Having  been 
given  his  freedom,  he  became  an 
adherent  and  teacher  of  Stoicism, 
and  when  Domitian  expelled  the 
philosophers  from  Rome,  Epictetus 
removed  to  Nicopolis  in  Epirus, 
where  he  lived  until  the  reign  of 
Hadrian.  One  of  his  pupils,  Arrian 
the  historian,  published  his  Dis- 
courses and  a  Manual  of  his  doc- 
trines. The  latter  and  four  books  of 
the  Discourses  are  extant.  Accord- 
ing to  Epictetus,  we  are  only  con- 
cerned with  things  that  are  under 
our  control ;  all  other  things  are 
adiaphora  (indifferent).  The  good 
is  that  which  corresponds  to  reason 
and  the  general  moral  ideas  im- 
planted in  us ;  the  bad  is  that 
which  runs  counter  to  them.  The 
highest  principles  of  life  are  pa- 
tience, abstemiousness,  and  self- 
control.  ,  Epictetus  assumed  the 
existence  of  daimonia,  spirits 
which,  like  that  of  Socrates,  accom- 
panied man  everywhere  and  acted 
as  his  guardians  through  life. 

Epicureanism.  The  doctrines 
of  the  school  founded  by  the  Greek 
philosopher  Epicurus  (341-270 
B.C.  ).  He  was  of  Athenian  parent- 
age, and  born  in  Samos.  Coming 
to  Athens,  he  founded  his  school 


in  his  Garden,  which  became  as 
famous  as  the  Stoic  Porch 
about  306.  Epicurus  divided 
philosophy  into  three  parts : 
Canonics  (logic,  the  theory  of 
knowledge),  Physics,  and  Ethics. 
The  basis  of  all  knowledge  is  the 
evidence  of  sensual  perception ; 
all  perceptions  are  true  and  irre- 
futable. Opinions  are  true  or  false, 
according  as  they  are  confirmed 
or  refuted  by  perception. 

In  physics  Epicurus  agrees  in  the 
main  with  Democritus,  the  founder 
of  the  atomic  theory.  Bodies  are 
formed  by  the  collision  and  com- 
bination of  an  infinite  number  of 
atoms  in  infinite  space.  The  num- 
ber of  worlds  also  is  infinite.  The 
gods,  made  of  the  finest  atoms,  do 
not  trouble  about  the  world  or 
human  affairs,  but  live  happily  hi 
the  empty  spaces  between  the  dif- 
ferent worlds.  The  soul  is  material, 
made  up  of  the  finest  atoms  dis- 
persed throughout  the  body.  There 
is  no  such  thing  as  immortality ; 
after  death  the  soul-atoms  are 
scattered.  Sensation  is  due  to 
effluxes  and  images,  which  issue 
from  the  surface  of  things  and 
pass  through  the  air  to  the  sight 
or  understanding. 

In  ethics  Epicurus  follows  the 
Cyrenaics.  Pleasure  is  the  aim  of 
life,  the  only  happiness.  No  plea- 
sure is  bad  in  itself,  but  only  plea- 
sure in  rest — freedom  from  pain — is 
a  true  good.  The  virtuous  man,  he 
who  rightly  pursues  pleasure,  is 
alone  happy.  In  modern  language, 
Epicureanism  is  used  for  addiction 
to  sensual  enjoyment,  more  par- 
ticularly that  of  the  table.  See 
Ethics;  Philosophy. 

Epicycle  (Gr.  epi,  upon  ;  kykhs, 
circle).  A  circle,  the  centre  of  which 
moves  along  the  circumference  of  a 
greater  circle.  In  Ptolemy's  system 
of  the  heavens  each  of  the  "  seven 
planets  "  was  supposed  to  revolve  in 
an  epicycle.  This  obsolete  explana- 
tion describes  with  approximate 
truth  the  relative  motion  of  a  planet 
with  regard  to  the  earth,  if  the  earth 
is  assumed  to  be  stationary. 

Epidaurus.  Town  of  Argolis, 
ancient  Greece,  situated  on  the 
Saronic  Gulf.  It  was  famous  for  its 
temple  of  Asclepios  (Aesculapius), 
the  god  of  healing,  about  8  m. 
distant,  which  was  extensively 
visited  by  the  sick  from  all  parts  of 
Greece.  Miraculous  cures  similar 
to  those  at  Lourdes  are  recorded. 
Excavations  carried  on  since  1881 
have  revealed  remains  of  the  tem- 
ples of  Asclepios  and  Artemis,  of 
a  tholos  or  rotunda,  and  inscrip- 
tions connected  with  the  worship 
of  Asclepios. 

Epidemic  (Gr.  epi,  in;  demos, 
people).  Occurrence  of  a  disease 
among  a  number  of  persons  about 


the  same  time.  When  a  disease  is 
continually  present  in  a  locality  the 
term  endemic  is  usually  employed. 
A  pandemic  is  an  outbreak  of  a 
disease  which  extends  over  the 
whole  or  a  large  part  of  the  world. 
In  the  Middle  Ages,  when  sanita- 
tion was  still  in  its  infancy,  epi- 
demics were  of  frequent  occurrence 
and  were  usually  regarded  as  mani- 
festations of  divine  wrath.  Later 
the  communicability  of  the  disease 
from  one  person  to  another  was 
recognized,  and  the  cause  of  the 
outbreak  was  looked  for  in  clima- 
tic occurrences  or  cosmic  phenom- 
ena— for  example,  the  influence  of 
a  comet. 

How  Epidemics  are  Spread 
In  the  18th  and  19th  centuries 
more  scientific  views  were  gradu- 
ally established,  and  it  was  recog- 
nized that  the  disease  was  con- 
veyed from  one  to  another  by  some 
virus  or  poisonous  agent,  which 
was  eventually  found  in  most  cases 
to  be  a  bacillus  or  other  micro- 
organism. Epidemics  are  spread 
by  various  agencies.  Pollution  of 
drinking  water  by  sewage  has  been 
the  commonest  cause  of  outbreaks 
of  cholera  and  typhoid  fever.  Epi- 
demics of  diphtheria  have  fre- 
quently been  spread  by  contamin- 
ated milk.  In  other  cases  insects  or 
animals  have  been  the  transmitting 
agent.  Typhus-fever,  for  example, 
is  conveyed  by  the  bite  of  the  louse, 
and  plague  by  the  rat  flea.  Air- 
borne infection  is  probably  the 
method  of  transmission  of  in- 
fluenza, and  possibly  of  scarlet 
fever  and  small-pox.  Epidemics 
may  also  be  caused  by  the  whole- 
sale contamination  of  food  with 
poisonous  substances.  In  1900 
there  was  an  epidemic  of  arsenic 
poisoning  in  the  N.  of  England  due 
to  the  contamination  of  beer  with 
arsenic  derived  originally  from  ar- 
senical iron  pyrites  from  which 
sulphuric  acid  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  the  beer  had  been  made. 
Epidemics  of  lead  poisoning  have 
also  followed  the  contamination  of 
drinking  water  by  lead  derived 
from  cisterns  and  conduit  pipes. 

Measures  of  Prevention 
The  prevention  and  arrest  of 
epidemics  necessitate  active  mea- 
sures which  vary  with  the  par- 
ticular circumstances  controlling 
the  disease.  Often  a  system  of 
notification  of  affected  persons, 
followed  by  their  isolation,  is  im- 
portant. This  is  only  possible  in 
advanced  communities  and  where 
the  severity  of  the  disease  justifies 
the  course  and  the  numbers  are 
not  too  great  to  cope  with.  It 
could  be  followed,  for  example,  in 
this  country  during  outbreaks  of 
small-pox,  but  it  could  not  be  done 


EPIDENDRUM 


EPIGRAM 


for  influenza.  Search  must  be 
made  for  any  causative  factor, 
particular  attention  being  paid  to 
the  purity  of  food  and  drinking 
water.  Accumulations  of  filth  or 
rubbish  should  be  removed.  In 
fact,  cleanliness  both  of  habita- 
tion and  person  is  an  important 
feature  in  the  prevention  of  epi- 
demics. See  Plague ;  Public  Health. 
Epidendruzn  (Gr.  epi,  on ; 
dendron,  tree).  Large  genus,  main- 
ly of  epiphytes,  of  the  natural  order 
Orchidaceae.  They  are  natives 
chiefly  of  S.  and  Central  America 


Epidendrum.   Flower  bud  and  leaves 

and  the  W.  Indies.  They  have 
leathery,  strap-shaped  leaves,  and 
flowers  solitary  or  disposed  in 
spikes  and  sprays.  The  character- 
istic features  of  the  genus  are  the 
union  (more  or  less  complete  in 
different  species)  of  the  fleshy  base 
of  the  Kp  to  the  column,  a  passage 
at  the  base  of  the  lip,  and  the  four 
compressed  pollen-masses.  Some 
of  them  have  handsome  flowers, 
but  in  many  species  these  are  of  a 
dingy  green  hue. 

Epidermis  (Gr.  epi,  on  ;  derma, 
skin).  Name  for  the  superficial 
layer  of  the  skin,  lying  above  the 
cut  is  vera  or  true  skin.  It  is  formed 
by  a  number  of  layers  of  cells,  the 
most  superficial  of  which  consist 
of  stratified  epithelium,  and  are 
horny  in  character.  These  form  the 
thickest  part  of  the  epidermis. 
Beneath  the  horny  layers  are 
several  layers  of  clear  rounded 
cells  forming  the  stratum  lucidum; 
next  is  a  layer  of  granular  cells, 
the  stratum  granulosum.  In  these 
strata  the  change  from  protoplasm 
to  horny  material  takes  place.  The 
deepest  layers  constitute  the  rete 
mucosum  or  Malpighian  layer,  and 
consist  of  soft  protoplasmic  cells. 
The  epidermis  grows  from  the 
deeper  layers,  the  superficial  horny 
cells  being  continually  shed.  It  has 
no  blood  vessels,  but  fine  nerves 
ramify  in  the  deeper  layers.  See 
Anatomy;  Skin. 

Epidiascope  (Gr.  epi,  on  ;  diat 
through  ;  skopein,  to  look).  Ap- 
paratus of  the  optical  lantern  type. 


Originally  intended  for  projecting 
on  to  a  screen  images  of  opaque 
bodies  such  as  insects,  coins,  dia- 
grams, etc.,  in  their  natural  colours, 
it  may  also  be  used  for  projecting 
transparent  objects,  e.g.  lantern 
slides  and  microscopic  preparations 
may  be  shown  with  considerable 
magnification.  The  illumination  is 
obtained  from  an  arc  lamp  located 
at  the  focus  of  a  parabolic  mirror  ; 
the  light  is  thrown  upon,  or  trans- 
mitted through,  the  object  by  a 
system  of  condensers  and  mirrors. 
Means  are  provided  to  effect  the 
change  over  from  transmitted  to 
reflected  light,  or  vice  versa. 

Epididymis  (Gr.  epi,  on  ;  didy- 
mos,  testicle).  In  anatomy,  a  con- 
voluted tube  which  receives  the 
ducts  from  the  testicle,  and  is  pro- 
longed into  a  tube,  the  vas  deferens, 
through  which  semen  passes  to  the 
urethra. 

Epidiorite  (Gr.  epi,  on ;  dior- 
ite).  Crystalline  rock  much  altered 
by  metamorphism.  It  is  composed 
of  the  minerals  hornblende  and 
felspar,  and  sometimes  a  little 
quartz.  Hornblende  is  the  result  of 
alteration  of  augite  in  the  original 
rock,  the  felspar  is  granular,  and  all 
constituents  rearranged.  It  occurs 
as  large  intrusive  sheets  with 
schists  in  the  Scottish  highlands 
and  N.  Ireland.  See  Diorite. 

Epidote  (Gr.  epi,  on,  besides  ; 
dotos,  given).  Hydrous  silicate  of 
calcium  and  aluminium.  It  is 
found  abundantly,  but  outside 
Austria  and  America  is  rarely  of 
sufficient  transparency  and  fine 
colour  to  be  cut  as  a  precious  stone. 
The  colour  ranges  from  green  to 
brown.  Its  specific  gravity  is  from 
3'25  to  3'5  ;  it  stands  low  in  the 
scale  of  hardness.  Piedmondite  is  a 
manganese  epidote  found  in  Pied- 
mont, some  valued  specimens 
being  characterised  by  a  magni- 
ficent cherry-red  colour.  Epidote 
is  so  called  because  the  base  of  the 
primary  crystals  is  enlarged  in 
some  of  the  secondary  forms. 

Epigastrium  (Gr.  epi,  on ; 
gaster,  belly).  Upper  central  por- 
tion of  the  abdomen,  or  pit  of  the 
stomach. 

Epigenesis  (Gr.  epi,  on ;  gene- 
sis, generation).  Term  used  in  bio- 
logy to  express  the  development  of 
an  organism  as  the  result  of  the 
growth  and  subsequent  differen- 
tiation of  a  single  germ -cell  into  the 
complicated  tissues  of  an  indivi- 
dual. This  takes  place  by  the  seg- 
mentation or  division  of  the  fer- 
tilised cell.  See  Biology ;  Cell ;  Re- 
production. 

Epiglottis  (Gr.  epi,  on  ;  glossa, 
glotta,  tongue).  Thin  leaf -shaped 
structure,  consisting  of  fibro-carti- 
lage,  placed  behind  the  root  of  the 
tongue  and  in  front  of  the  superior 


opening  of  the  larynx.  It  was 
formerly  supposed  that  it  was  bent 
back  during  the  act  of  swallowing 
and  served  as  a  lid  to  close  the 
larynx ;  but  it  is  now  recognized 
that  the  closing  of  the  glottis  is 
effected  by  the  arytenoid  and  thyro- 
arytenoid  muscles. 

Epigoni  (Gr.  descendants).  In 
Greek  legend,  the_sons  of  the  seven 
heroes  who  fell  in  the  war  against 
Thebes.  See  Adrastus. 

Epigram  (Gr.  epi,  upon  ;  gram- 
ma, a  writing).  Originally  a  simple 
inscription  attached  to  religious 
offerings.  It  was  afterwards  writ- 
ten on  the  temple  gate,  and  by 
easy  transition  passed  to  other 
public  edifices  and  to  statues  of 
gods,  heroes,  and  all  who  had  dis- 
tinguished themselves  by  patriot- 
ism, courage,  and  virtue.  The 
term  at  first  included  inscriptions 
in  verse  or  prose,  and  the  form  was 
employed  by  legislators  and  phil- 
osophers to  convey  any  political  or 
moral  precept,  its  brevity  impress- 
ing it  readily  upon  the  memory. 
Finally,  among  the  Greeks,  the 
epigram  came  to  signify  any  short 
piece  of  poetry  which  conveyed  a 
single  idea  with  neatness  and  grace. 
The  Greek  Anthology  contains 
epigrams  characterised  by  delicacy 
and  truth  of  sentiment,  and  by 
elegance  of  expression,  and  entirely 
devoid  of  satire,  play  upon  words, 
and  even  of  conceit.  Even  in  the 
lighter  convivial  epigrams  the 
thought  is  generally  of  a  melan- 
choly cast,  and  the  sepulchral  in- 
scriptions are  remarkable  for  their 
simple  delicacy  and  their  perfect 
appropriateness. 

In  the  hands  of  the  Latin  epi- 
grammatists the  epigram  acquired 
a  new  character.  The  term  was 
now  applied  to 
any  brief  and 
concise  composi- 
tion in  prose  or 
verse,  in  which 
a  single  idea  was 
expressed  and 


the  point  made 
b  y  antithesis, 
surprise,  or  play 
upon  words. 
Catullus  and 
Martial  are  the 
acknowledged 
masters  of  the 
Latin  verse  epi- 
gram, Tacitus  of 
its  prose  equiva- 
lent. Despite 
much  concert 
and  some  ob- 
scenity Catul- 
lus excelled  all 
other  Roman 


Epiglottis  seen  from 
the  front.  Above, 
sectional  diagram 
showing  position  of 
this  structure  in  the 
throat 


EPIGRAPHY 

wits  in  elegance  and  beauty,  while 
Martial  stands  supreme  in  wit  and 
fecundity,  in  brevity,  smartness, 
and  variety.  His  greatest  fault  is 
his  licentiousness.  As  used  by 
Martial,  and  in  the  modern  sense, 
the  verse  epigram  has  been  defined 
as  a  short  poem,  generally  of  a 
personal  character,  meant  to  vex 
somebody,  to  pay  off  an  old  score, 
or  to  be  smart  at  someone  else's 
expense.  In  the  best  examples  the 
point  is  made  unexpectedly  in  the 
last  word,  wherefore  the  epigram 
has  been  compared  to  the  scorpion 
because  "  as  the  sting  of  the 
scorpion  lyeth  in  the  tail,  so  the 
force  and  virtue  of  the  epigram  is 
in  the  conclusion." 

Of  modern  literatures  the  Italian 
contains  the  nearest  approxima- 
tions to  the  Greek  epigram  in 
respect  of  feeling,  though  not  of 
simplicity,  in  the  softly  melodious, 
elegant,  and  pathetic  songs  of 
Metastasio  and  the  amatory  verse 
of  Guarini,  Tasso,  and  others,  while 
Pananti,  in  the  early  19th  century, 
wrote  many  epigrams  notable  for 
their  causticity,  political  allusion, 
and  boldness.  The  French  madrigal 
is  sometimes  written  in  the  spirit 
of  ancient  Greece,  and  is  often 
unequalled  in  condensation  of 
thought,  happiness  of  epithet,  and 
delicacy  of  turn.  Voltaire,  how- 
ever, is  the  supreme  French  epi- 
grammatist, the  author  of  an  im- 
mense number  of  epigrams  on 
every  conceivable  subject  and  of 
every  degree  of  merit. 

English  literature  is  deficient  in 
the  serious  and  tender  style  of 
epigram,  but  singularly  rich  in  the 
witty  and  satirical.  The  18th  cen- 
tury was  the  flowering  time  of  the 
English  verse  epigram,  which  was 
admirably  suited  to  the  malicious 
wit  of  Pope,  the  whole  of  whose 
poetry,  indeed,  is  a  string  of  epi- 
grams. As  epigrammatist,  he 
stands  head  and  shoulders  above 
all  other  English  poets.  While, 
owing  to  their  vagueness  and  in- 
appropriateness,  his  epitaphs  are 
notoriously  bad,  his  epigrams  are 
of  the  highest  polish  and  point. 
His  epigram  on  epitaphs,  addressed 
to  Dr.  Robert  Freind,  headmaster 
of  Westminster  School,  may  fitly 
be  adduced : 

Ereind,  for  your  epitaphs  I'm  grieved  ; 

Where  still  BO  much  Is  s  id, 
Oneh  If  will  never  be  believed. 

The  other  never  read. 

Epigraphy  (Gr.  epi,  on;  gra- 
phein,  to  write).  Study  of  inscrip- 
tions. In  practice  it  concentrates 
upon  inscriptions  on  durable  mater- 
ials such  as  stone,  metal,  and  wood, 
including  coins,  gems,  ornaments, 
seals,  vases,  and  weapons,  whereas 
palaeography  studies  the  forms  of 
writing  upon  papyrus,  parchment, 
and  paper.  When  concerned  with 


2950 

form  it  is  a  branch  of 
graphy,  but  in  addition  it  deals 
with  subject-matter.  Important 
departments  are  Chinese,  Greek, 
Hittite,  Latin,  Indian,  Runic,  and 
Semitic  epigraphy.  See  Inscrip- 
tions ;  Palaeography. 

Epilepsy  OR  FALLING  SICKNESS 
(Gr.  epilepsis,  seizure).  Disease  of 
the  nervous  system  characterised 
by  periods  of  unconsciousness.  Two 
forms  are  recognized :  petit  mal,  or 
minor  epilepsy,  in  which  convul- 
sions do  not  occur  ;  and  grand  mal, 
or  major  epilepsy,  marked  by  the 
occurrence  of  convulsions  or  fits. 
Epilepsy  most  commonly  begins  in 
childhood,  before  the  fifth  year,  and 
the  first  indication  of  the  disease 
after  thirty  is  very  exceptional.  The 
fundamental  cause  of  the  disease 
is  unknown,  though  fright,  injury, 
alcoholism,  and  an  attack  of  illness 
sometimes  appear  to  be  exciting 
causes.  Hereditary  influences  play 
a  part,  the  offspring  of  those  who 
suffer  from  insanity  or  neurasthenia 
being  rather  more  prone  to  ex- 
hibit epilepsy  than  other  children. 
In  petit  mal  the  attacks  of  un- 
consciousness often  last  no  longer 
than  a  few  seconds.  The  individual 
may  suddenly  stop  talking  and  his 
eyes  stare  fixedly ;  after  a  few 
moments  he  resumes  his  conversa- 
tion as  if  nothing  had  happened. 

Symptoms  of  Grand  Mal 
Grand  mal  is  characterised  by 
the  occurrence  of  convulsive  fits. 
In  many  cases  the  subject  has  a 
preliminary  sensation  or  aura, 
which  warns  him  of  what  is  going  to 
happen.  This  may  take  the  form 
of  tingling  or  sensation  of  heat  or 
cold  in  the  limbs  or  face,  flashes  of 
light  before  the  eyes,  noises  or 
voices  in  the  ears,  or  uneasy  sen- 
sations in  the  stomach.  After  an 
interval  of  varying  duration  the 
patient  suddenly  loses  conscious- 
ness, and  may  fall  to  the  ground 
without  making  any  effort  to  save 
himself.  Sometimes  the  beginning 
of  the  fit  is  marked  by  a  loud  cry. 
At  first  the  muscles  are  rigid  ;  the 
jaws  are  clenched,  the  limbs  ex- 
tended, and  suspension  of  respira- 
tion causes  blueness  of  the  face. 
After  a  few  seconds,  violent  con- 
vulsions occur ;  the  limbs  are 
jerked  about,  the  muscles  of  the 
face  twitch,  and  the  tongue  may 
be  severely  bitten.  After  one  or  two 
minutes  the  patient  passes  into  a 
state  of  somnolence  which  may  be 
succeeded  by  prolonged  sleep.  In 
severe  cases  fits  may  rapidly  follow 
each  other,  and  consciousness  may 
not  be  regained  in  the  intervals. 

Masked  epilepsy  is  a  form  in 
which  the  fits  are  replaced  by 
attacks  of  delirium  or  outbursts 
of  maniacal  fury,  during  which  the 
sufferer  may  commit  crimes  of 


EPILOGUE 

brutal  violence  or  destroy  himself. 
In  another  form  there  is  loss  of 
memory.  A  person  may  leave  his 
home  and  wander  about  the 
country,  behaving  as  a  normal 
being,  but  having  forgotten  his 
previous  life  or  even  his  name. 
After  an  interval  his  old  self  returns 
and  he  has  no  knowledge -of  what 
has  happened  in  the  interval. 

Jacksonian  epilepsy  is  a  con- 
dition in  which  consciousness  is 
not  lost,  and  the  spasms  affect  only 
part  of  the  body.  The  condition  is 
probably  quite  distinct  from  true 
epilepsy,  and  is  the  result  of  some 
irritation  of  the  brain. 

TREATMENT  OF  EPILEPSY.  Dur- 
ing an  actual  fit  all  that  can  be 
done  is  to  prevent  the  patient  from 
hurting  himself.  He  should  be 
allowed  to  remain  in  the  recum- 
bent posture,  the  clothes  should  be 
loosened  round  the  neck,  and  a 
roll  of  cloth  should  be  introduced 
between  the  teeth  to  prevent  the 
tongue  from  being  bitten.  The 
most  useful  drugs  in  the  treat- 
ment of  epilepsy  are  the  bromides 
of  sodium  and  potassium.  These 
should  be  given  for  a  long  period, 
possibly  two  years,  the  amount  and 
frequency  of  the  dose  depending 
upon  the  severity  of  the  condition, 
the  age  of  the  patient,  and  the 
manner  in  which  he  reacts  to  the 
treatment. 

An  epileptic  should  lead  a 
quiet  life.  Alcohol  should  not  be 
taken;  meals  should  be  light  and 
moderate  in  quantity  ;  and  meat 
should  not  be  eaten  more  than  once 
a  day.  It  is  better  for  the  patient 
to  be  at  work  or  occupied,  pro- 
vided the  occupation  is  not  one 
which  subjects  him  to  danger  if  a 
fit  occurs.  When  epilepsy  de- 
velops in  childhood,  a  thorough 
examination  should  be  made  of  the 
child  in  order  to  eliminate  any 
possible  sources  of  reflex  irritation 
such  as  adenoids,  worms  in  the 
intestine,  etc. 

Epilogue  (Gr.  epilogos,  conclu- 
sion, peroration).  Short  address  in 
prose  or  verse  frequently  employed 
to  round  off  a  dramatic  perform- 
ance ;  sometimes  in  the  form  of  an 
appeal  to  public  favour  for  the  play 
it  followed,  sometimes  explanatory 
or  even  apologetic.  Many  of  the 
plays  of  Shakespeare  and  other 
great  dramatists  were  provided 
with  epilogues.  In  the  17th  and 
18th  centuries  the  epilogue  was  fre- 
quently written  by  a  friend  or  pat- 
ron of  the  playwright.  The  use  of 
the  epilogue,  as  of  the  prologue, 
went  out  of  fashion  before  the  close 
of  the  19th  century,  except  on 
special  occasions.  See  A  Study  of 
the  Prologue  and  Epilogue  in  Eng- 
lish Literature  from  Shakespeare 
to  Dryden,  G.  S.  B.,  1884. 


EPIMENIDES 

Epimenides.  Greek  legendary 
priest  and  miracle-worker.  A  na- 
tive of  Crete  and  associated  with 
the  worship  of  the  Cretan  Zeus  and 
Apollo,  he  was  summoned  to 
Athens  in  596  B.C.  to  purify  the  city 
from  the  curse  of  Cylon  (see 
Alcmaeonidae).  He  was  the  author 
of  oracular  and  purificatory  poems, 
and  is  supposed  to  be  the  "prophet" 
of  S.  Paul's  epistle  to  Titus  (i,  12), 
according  to  whom  the  Cretans 
were  "  always  liars."  Some  regard 
him  as  an  entirely  mythical  char- 
acter. Pron.  Epimeni-deez. 

Epinal.  Town  of  France.  The 
capital  of  the  dept.  of  Vosges,  it  is 
situated  on  both  sides  of  the  Mo- 
selle, 190  m.  E.S.E.  of  Paris.  It  has 
various  manufactures,  and  has  long 
been  noted  for  the  production  of 
pictures  for  children.  It  has  ex- 
tensive quays  and  promenades. 
With  Belfort,  Verdun,  and  Toul  it 
formed,  during  the  Great  War,  the 
first  line  of  the  French  permanent 
defences  along  the  lines  of  the 
Moselle  and  the  Meuse.  The  fortress 
of  Epinal  was  built  after  the 
Franco-Prussian  War,  and  was  one 
of  France's  most  important  works 
of  defence.  There  is  a  monument 
to  the  French  who  fell  in  the  war  of 
1870-71.  In  the  Great  War  it  re- 
mained in  French  hands,  though  it 
was  threatened  by  the  Germans  in 
thejirst  three  months.  Pop.  30,042. 
Epinay,  LOUISE  FLORENCE  PE- 
TRONILLE  D'ESCLAVELLESD'  (1726- 
83).  French  author.  Born  at  Val- 
••MMiMnB  enciennes, 
•  __  J  March  11, 

^pffPllfefc  1  1726,  she  mar- 
j  ried  in  1745 
|  her  cousin 
Denis  de  La 
Live  de  Belle- 
garde,  who 
soon  af ter- 
wards  de- 
serted her. 
Her  charm 
and  literary 
ability  made 
her  many 
friends  among  writers  of  her  day, 
J.  J.  Rousseau,  Voltaire,  Diderot, 
and  Grimm  among  others.  For 
Rousseau  she  built  in  1756  the 
Hermitage,  in  the  valley  of  Mont- 
morency  ;  the  story  of  their  inti- 
macy is  told  in  his  Confessions,  but 
after  little  more  than  a  year  they 
quarrelled.  She  died  April  17,  1783. 
Her  chief  writings  were  her 
Memoires,  published  in  1818,  a 
lively  picture  of  her  literary  circle 
and  Parisian  society,  the  names 
being  fictitious,  and  her  Conversa- 
tions d'Emilie,  1774,  crowned  by 
the  French  Academy,  1783. 

Epiphany  (Gr.  epiphainein,  to 
manifest).  Festival  of  the  Christian 
Church,  celebrated  on  Jan.  6.  The 


Louise   d'Epinay, 
French  author 

After  Liotard 


Epinal. 


The  town,  looking  up  the  Moselle  towards 
the  wooded  Vosges  Mountains 


English  Prayer  Book  title  is  The  about  the  16th 
Epiphany,  or  The  Manifestation  of  —  •  -  - 
Christ  to  the  Gentiles.  Formerly 
the  Epiphany  seems  to  have  been 
part  of  the  festival  of  Christmas, 
which  lasted  twelve  days.  It  com- 
memorated the  manifestation  of 
Christ's  birth  to  the  magi  (which 
in  medieval  times  was  associated 
with  a  mass  of  picturesque  legends), 
the  manifestation  of  the  Trinity  at 
Christ's  baptism,  and  Christ's  first 
miracle  at  Cana. 

In  the  Greek  Church  the  festival, 
a  special  day  for  baptism,  is  known 
as  Epiphaneia,  or  showing  forth. 

In  England  on  this  day  it  was 
customary  for  the  sovereign  to  offer 
gold,  frankincense,  and  myrrh  at 
the  altar.  Since  the  time  of  George 
III  this  offering  has  been  made  at 
the  Chapel  Royal,  St.  James's,  by  an 
officer  of  the  royal  household.  See 
Calendar  ;  Festival ;  Twelfth  Day. 

Epiphora  (Gr.,  bringing  upon, 
sudden  attack).  Persistent  over- 
flow of  tears  down  the  cheek,  usu- 
ally due  to  obstruction  of  the  lach- 
rymal duct.  See  Lachrymal  Gland 
and  Duct. 

Epiphyllum  (Gr.  epi,  on;  phyl- 
/on,  leaf).  Small  genus  of  climbing 


Epiphyllum.      Fleshy  branches  and 

flowers  of  Epiphyllum  truncatum,  a 

Brazilian  cactus 

sub -shrubs  of  the  natural  order 
Cactaceae.  They  are  natives  of 
Brazil.  They  have  thin  cylindrical 
steins,  2  ft.  or  3  ft.  high,  with  short, 
fleshy,  leaf-like  branches,  whose 
broad  ends  produce  large,  showy 
flowers  of  pink  or  crimson  hue. 

Epiphysis  (Gr.,  on-growth). 
Part  of  a  bone  which  develops 
from  a  separate  centre  of  ossifica- 


EPISCIA 

tion  and  is  at  first 
attached    to    the 
main  part  of  the 
bone  by  cartilage, 
which   ultimately 
is   replaced   by 
bone.    In  the  hu- 
merus,    or   upper 
arm  bone,  for  in- 
stance, the  upper 
end    forms    an 
epiphysis  which  is 
not  united  to  the 
shaft    by    bony 
union  until  about 
the     20th     year, 
and  the  lower  end 
is  another  epiphy- 
sis  which    unites 
See  Arm;  Elbow. 
Epiphytes  (Gr.  epi,  on  ;  phyton, 
plant).     Plants  which,  instead  of 
being  rooted  in  the  soil,  grow  upon 
the  surface  of  other  plants,  chiefly 
trees.   Large  numbers  of  the  tropi- 
cal orchids  are  of  this  character,  and 
are  therefore  known  as  epiphytal 
orchids.     Some  ferns  and  mosses 
have  the  same  habit.     True  epi- 
phytes do  not  derive  any  of  their 
nutriment  from  their  hosts,  and  are 
therefore  often  called  air-plants. 

Epirus  (Gr.  epeiros,  mainland). 
Country  in  the  N.W.  of  ancient 
Greece.  It  was  bounded  by  Illyria, 
Macedonia,  and  Thessaly  on  the 
N.  and  E.,  and  by  the  Ionian  Sea 
on  the  W.  The  original  inhabitants 
were  so-called  Pelasgians,  like  those 
in  other  parts  of  Greece,  but  the 
Epi  rots  of  historical  times  were  a 
mixed  race.  The  most  famous  king 
of  later  times  was  Pyrrhus  (d.  272 
B.C.),  who  seriously  challenged  the 
power  of  Rome.  In  Epirus  was 
the  celebrated  oracle  of  Zeus  at 
Dodona.  The  modern  district  in- 
cludes part  of  southern  Albania  and 
northern  Greece.  In  Nov.,  1914, 
Greece  occupied  North  Epirus,  but 
in  Nov.,  1920,  this  occupation  had 
not  been  recognized,  nor  the  future 
of  the  country  settled.  Pop.  about 
250,000.  See  Albania  ;  Greece. 

Episcia.  Genus  of  perennial 
herbs  of  the  natural  order  Gesner- 
aceae.  Natives  of  Central  America 
and  the  West  Indies,  they  have 
opposite  leaves  and  beautiful  fun- 
nel-shaped flowers.  In  colour 
they  are  white,  flesh- tinted,  lilac, 
vermilion,  or  crimson. 


Episcia.    Foliage  and  bloom  of  the 
American  plant 


EPISCOPACY 

Episcopacy  (Gr.  episkopos,  over- 
seer). Government  by  bishops.  It 
is  thus  a  particular  type  of  Church 
government,  as  are  Presbyteri- 
anism,  Congregationalism  or  In- 
dependency, and  Papalism.  Any 
organized  society  must  have  a  seat 
and  organ  of  its  authority  over  its 
members,  and  these  the  Christian 
Church  began  from  the  first  to 
develop.  The  New  Testament, 
however,  by  its  reticence  and  am- 
biguities on  the  subject,  indicates 
that  constitutional  questions  were 
not  of  primary  importance  in  the 
1st  century.  The  system  of  author- 
ity was,  naturally,  first  modelled 
on  that  of  the  Jewish  synagogue, 
with  its  board  of  elders.  Later  it 
conformed  increasingly  to  the  lines 
of  Greco-Roman  institutions,  polit- 
ical and  social,  in  which  responsi- 
bility tended  to  settle  in  the  hands 
of  one  representative  official. 

Bishops  and  elders  appear  con- 
currently in  the  New  Testament, 
and,  though  the  former  title  begins 
to  attach  to  the  presiding  elder 
only,  the  whole  board  is  at  least 
once  (Phil,  i,  1)  referred  to  as 
bishops.  The  position  of  Timothy 
and  Titus  appears  to  be  excep- 
tional, corresponding  to  that  of 
Paul  himself ;  among  the  func- 
tions of  each  is  the  appointment  of 
bishops  over  local  churches. 

Early  in  the  2nd  century  the 
growing  need  of  a  centre  of  unity 
and  source  of  discipline  in  each 
church  led  Ignatius  to  emphasise 
the  local  bishop  as  such,  and  so  the 
importance  of  the  presbytery,  over 
which  he  presided,  lessened.  From 
the  middle  of  that  century  the 
bishop  is  the  representative  and 
spokesman  of  each  local  church, 
and  the  appeal  of  Irenaeus,  in  his 
arguments  with  heretical  sects  and 
groups,  to  episcopal  consensus,  and 
to  the  continuity  of  the  Christian 
tradition  from  bishop  to  bishop  in 
certain  churches,  shows  the  devel- 
opment towards  the  monarchical 
episcopate.  It  remains,  however,  on 
a  thoroughly  democratic  basis. 
Consent  of  the  Laity 

The  bishop  was  chosen  by  the 
church,  and  his  powers  as  ruler  were 
limited  by  the  concurrent  rights  of 
his  presbyters,  in  the  appointment 
of  whom  the  laity  also  had  a  de- 
cisive influence.  The  nominee  of 
the  local  church  had  then  to  be 
recognized  and  "consecrated"  by 
the  bishops  of  the  surrounding 
churches  or  dioceses,  which  gradu- 
ally formed  themselves  into  pro- 
vinces under  metropolitan  bishops ; 
and  thus  the  system  acquired  that 
catholic,  or  world-wide,  quality 
and  range  to  which  nc  rival  sys- 
tem has  ever  attained. 

To  this  day  no  bishop  of  the 
Church  of  England  can  ordain  a 


Eriest  without  the  consent  of  the 
ilty  and  cooperation  of  the  other 
priests,  i.e.  presbyters,  present, 
who  all  join  in  the  laying  on  of 
hands ;  and  the  pope  still  addresses 
the  bishops  of  his  obedience  as 
Venerable  Brethren,  though,  since 
the  Vatican  Council  of  1870,  all 
idea  of  joint  authority  is  gone. 

The  naturalness  and  convenience 
of  the  episcopal  system  are  empha- 
sised by  the  way  in  which  some  of 
the  non-episcopal  churches  are 
developing  a  virtual  episcopate  ; 
and  the  system  prevailing  in  the 
Lutheran  Churches  of  Germany 
and  Scandinavia,  the  Moravian 
Church,  and  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church  of  America. 

The  historic  episcopate  may 
only  imply  that,  in  point  of  histori- 
cal fact,  the  succession  of  bishops 
in  a  particular  church  goes  back 
unbroken  to  the  first  bishops  of  all, 
or  it  may  be  pushed  further  to 
cover  the  claim  that  the  whole 
value  of  episcopacy  lies  in  this  un- 
broken continuity,  so  that,  where 
that  is  broken,  even  episcopal 
government  does  not  produce  real 
membership  in  the  Catholic  Church. 
Apostolic  Succession 

The  latter  view  rests  on  the  as- 
sumption that  the  earliest  bishops 
were  the  successors  of  the  Apostles, 
and,  like  them,  an  order  divinely 
appointed  and  apart,  deriving  their 
authority,  not  by  delegation  from 
the  presbyters  or  the  congregation, 
but  from  above,  in  the  sense  of  from 
their  predecessors.  On  this  showing, 
valid  consecration  is  crucial,  and 
can  only  be  performed  by  one  who 
is  himself  in  the  Apostolic  Succes- 
sion, and  therefore  a  recognition  of 
non-episcopal  bodies  as  churches 
endangers  the  chief  powers  and 
possessions,  especially  the  valid 
sacraments,  committed  by  Christ 
to  the  Apostles  for  the  Church. 

This  view,  however,  is  not  that 
of  the  Church  of  England,  nor  yet 
is  it  that  of  modern  scholarship. 
Lightfoot's  assertion  that  "  the 
Episcopate  was  formed,  not  out  of 
the  apostolic  order  by  localisa- 
tion, but  out  of  the  presbyteral  by 
elevation,"  is  endorsed  by  J. 
Armitage  Robinson,  in  an  authori- 
tative volume,  in  which  also 
C.  H.  Turner  shows  that  the 
supposed  connexion  between  the 
Apostolic  Succession  and  the 
validity  of  sacraments  only  emerges 
in  the  3rd  century.  What  the  his- 
toric episcopate  really  stands  for, 
and  helps  to  secure,  is  the  unity  and 
cohesion  of  the  Church  through- 
out time  and  space — from  the  1st 
century  onward,  and  across  all  six 
continents.  The  exclusive  claims 
associated  with  the  phrase  tend 
to  counteract  the  inclusive  and 
reconciling  influence  of  the  ideal. 


EPISTAXIS 

But  such  a  document  as  the  Re- 
port of  the  Lambeth  Conference  of 
1920  marked  a  great  advance  on 
the  part  of  the  Church  of  England 
towards  the  broader  and  more 
ancient  view.  See  Anglicanism; 
Church  of  England;  consult  also 
Essays  on  the  Early  History  of 
the  Church,  ed.  H.  B.  Swete,  1918. 

E,    A.    Burroughs 

Episcopius,  SIMON  (1583-1643). 
Dutch  theologian  whose  family 
name  was  Bischop.  He  was  born 
at  Amsterdam,  Jan.  1,  1583,  and 
educated  at  Leiden,  where  he 
came  under  the  influence  of  Ar- 
minius  (q.v.).  In  1612  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  a  chair  at  Leiden 
University,  and  became  recognized 
as  the  leader  of  the  Arminians 
against  the  Calvinists.  He  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  synod  of 
Dort  in  1618,  with  the  result  that 
he  was  deprived  of  office  and  had 
to  live  for  a  time  in  France.  About 
1626  he  returned  to  Holland,  and 
became  rector  of  the  Remonstrant 
College  at  Amsterdam,  where  he 
died  April  4,  1643.  His  Confessio, 
Apologia  pro  Confessione  and  In- 
stitutiones  Theologicae  are  the 
standard  works  on  Arminianism. 

Episode  (Gr.  epi,  on,  in  addi- 
tion ;  eisodios,  coming  in).  (1)  In 
ancient  Greek  tragedy,  that  part  of 
the  dialogue  which  comes  between 
the  choric  songs.  (2)  In  music,  part 
of  a  composition  in  which  some 
departure  is  made  from  the  main 
theme,  or  form,  for  the  sake  of 
variety.  In  the  fugue  form,  the 
episodes  allow  the  use  of  fragments 
of  the  subject  matter,  varied  treat- 
ment of  the  subject,  entries  at 
irregular  intervals  of  time  and  pitch, 
and  free  changes  of  key.  In  sonata 
and  rondo  forms,  episodes  are  of 
the  nature  of  second  subjects,  but 
of  less  importance  than  the  true 
second  subject  which  appears  again 
fully  in  the  recapitulation  section. 
(See  Rondo ;  Sonata. )  (3)  In  liter- 
ary composition,  a  minor  event  or 
incident  introduced  to  give  variety 
to  a  narrative,  or  to  illustrate  a 
character  or  event.  A  story,  for 
instance,  is  said  to  be  episodical 
when  it  consists  of  loosely  knit 
incidents,  or  where  the  incidents 
do  not  merge  together  in  a  natural 
succession  to  the  making  of  a  har- 
monious whole. 

Epistaxis  (Gr.  epi,  on  ;  stazein, 
to  drip).  Bleeding  from  the  nose. 
It  may  arise  from  injury,  ulceration 
of  the  mucous  membrane,  tumour 
in  the  nose,  rupture  of  a  varicose 
vein,  the  presence  of  a  foreign  body, 
or  cerebral  congestion.  Epistaxis 
may  also  be  a  symptom  of  enteric 
fever,  influenza,  and  other  dis- 
orders, or  may  occur  in  chronic 
Bright's  disease.  As  a  rule,  the 
haemorrhage  can  readily  be  stopped 


EPISTEMOLOGY 


2953 


EPITHELIUM 


by  applying  cold  compresses  to  the 
toot  of  the  nose  and  nape  of  the 
neck.  Holding  the  nose  for  a  short 
time  may  allow  the  blood  to  clot 
and  closri  the  bleeding  vessel.  Fre- 
quently the  bleeding  point  can 
be  detected,  and  a  touch  with  a 
cautery  or  with  a  piece  of  cotton 
wool  soaked  in  a  5  p.c.  solution  of 
chromic  acid,  will  usually  suffice. 
In  severe  cases  plugging  of  the 
nostril  may  be  necessary. 

Epistemology  (Gr.  episteme, 
knowledge  ;  logos,  theory).  Theory 
or  science  of  human  knowledge.  It 
investigates  the  origin  and  limits  of 
knowledge ;  defines  the  part  played 
in  it  by  experience  and  thought 
respectively ;  and  examines  the 
formation,  meaning,  and  employ- 
ment of  its  fundamental  notions. 

Epistle  (Gr.  epistole,  message, 
letter).  Term  generally  applied  in 
English  literature  to  verses  written 
in  the  form  of  letters  addressed  to 
specific  persons,  or  to  readers  gener- 
ally, as  in  the  epistle  dedicatory. 
In  the  former  sense  it  was  a  revival 
of  the  use  of  the  epistle  by  Horace 
and  other  classical  poets.  Satiric 
or  moral  epistles,  such  as  Pope's 
Essay  on  Man  and  Moral  Essays, 
more  or  less  on  the  Latin  model, 
were  a  notable  feature  of  English 
literature  in  the  18th  century,  at 
the  close  of  which  Burns  gave  the 
epistle  an  easier  and  freer  form. 

There  are  examples  of  epistles 
in  the  O.T.  and  in  the  O.T. 
apocryphal  pseudepigraphic  writ- 
ings ;  but  the  famous  letters  or 
epistles  of  the  Bible  are  confined  to 
the  N.T.  The  chief  writer  is  the 
apostle  Paul,  to  whom  thirteen 
Epistles  are  ascribed.  These  are 
commonly  divided  into  four  groups 
(1)1  and  2  Thessalonians,  written 
from  Corinth  in  A.D.  52  or  53.  (2) 
Galatians,  1  and  2  Corinthians,  and 
Romans,  written  in  A.D.  57-58. 
(3)  Ephesians,  Philippians,  Colos- 
sians,  and  the  Epistles  of  the  (first 
Roman)  Captivity,  written  in  A.D. 
62  or  63.  (4)  1  and  2  Timothy, 
Titus,  the  Pastoral  Epistles,  so 
called  because  they  are  addressed 
to  two  pastors  and  deal  with 
matters  relating  to  the  ministry, 
written  in  A.D.  65.  The  so-called 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  does  not 
claim  to  have  been  written  by 
Paul,  though  ascribed  to  him  in  the 
Eastern  and  later  in  the  Western 
Church,  and  the  description  Epistle 
is  hardly  correct.  Its  author  is  un- 
known. It  seems  to  have  been 
written  between  A.D.  75  and  85. 

The  rest  of  the  N.T.  Epistles  are 
commonly  known  as  General  or 
Catholic  Epistles,  because  they  are 
apparently  addressed  to  Christians 
in  general.  They  are :  James, 
Jude,  1  and  2  Peter,  1,  2  and  3 
John.  The  author  of  the  Epistle  of 


James  may  have  been  the  brother 
of  the  Lord.  Jude  describes  himself 
as  "  servant  of  Jesus  Christ  "  and 
"  brother  of  James."  Peter  is  the 
famous  apostle.  The  First  Epistle 
of  John  is  closely  related  to  the 
Gospel  of  John.  The  Second  and 
Third  Epistles  claim  to  be  written 
by  "  the  Elder." 

Epistolae  Obscurorum  Vi- 
rorum  (Letters  of  Obscure  Men)'. 
Series  of  satirical  letters  ad- 
dressed to  Ortwinus  Gratius  and 
called  into  existence  by  the  Reuch- 
lin-Dominican  controversy.  They 
played  an  important  part  in  the 
Reformation,  and  have  been  many 
times  reprinted.  The  first  part, 
consisting  of  41  letters,  was  pub- 
lished in  1515,  seven  more  letters 
being  added  in  the  3rd  edition, 
1516.  The  second  part,  comprising 
62  fresh  letters,  appeared  in  1517  ; 
its  2nd  edition,  same  year,  con- 
tained eight  more.  The  two  series 
were  not  published  in  one  volume 
until  1556.  Their  authorship,  long 
in  doubt,  was  established  by  W. 
Brecht,  who  proved  the  principal 
writers  of  Parts  1  and  2  respec- 
tively to  have  been  Johann  Jager, 
called  Crotus  Rubianus,  and  Ul- 
rich  von  Hutten.  See  text,  ed.  with 
Eng.  trans.  F.  G.  Stokes,  1909; 
consult  also  Die  Verfasser  der  Epis- 
tolae obscurorum  Virorum,  W. 
Brecht,  1904.  See  Reuchlin,  Johann. 

Epitaph  (Gr.  epi,  on  ;  taphos, 
tomb  or  grave).  Inscription  on  a 
tomb.  The  desire  to  record  in  last- 
ing form  the  virtues  or  great  deeds 
of  the  dead  is  universal,  and  has 
found  expression  in  all  ages.  Some 
of  the  earliest  extant  epitaphs  are 
found  on  Egyptian  sarcophagi,  and 
they  were  commonly  used  among 
the  Jews.  One  of  the  most  famous 
Greek  epitaphs  is  that  recorded  by 
Herodotus  as  having  been  in- 
scribed in  honour  of  the  Spar- 
tans who  fell  at  Thermopylae  : 
"  Stranger,  go  tell  the  Lacedae- 
monians that  we  lie  here  obedient 
to  their  commands."  Various  an- 
thologies and  the  catacombs  of 
Rome  supply  numerous  Greek  and 
Latin  examples. 

Epitaphs  vary  infinitely  in  style, 
and  reflect  the  literary  taste  of  their 
age.  In  England  they  range  from 
the  lengthy  recital  of  the  deceased's 
titles  and  dignities  in  Latin  and  the 
solemn  and  elaborate  survey  of 
his  career  in  the  English  of  the 
eighteenth  century  to  the  severely 
simple  and  the  frankly  humorous. 
An  effective  Latin  epitaph  is  that 
on  Sir  Christopher  Wren  in  S.  Paul's 
Cathedral,  London,  Si  monumentum 
requiris,  circumspice  (If  you  seek 
his  monument,  look  around) ; 
while  humorous  epitaphs  of  the 
jesting  sort  frequently  allude  to 
differences  between  husband  and 


wife.  Much  ingenuity  has  been  de- 
voted to  the  play  of  words  in  epi- 
taphs, e.g.  in  S.  Benet,  Paul's 
Wharf.  London,  is  the  following  : 

Here  lies  one  More,  and  no  more  than  he  ; 
One  More  and  no  more,— how  can  that  he  ? 
Why,  one  More  and  no  more  may  lie 

here  alonp  ; 
But  here  lies  one  more,  and  that's  more 

than  one. 

Unconscious  humour  due  to 
carelessness  or  ignorance  is  occa- 
sionally found,  as  on  a  tombstone 
at  Ventnor  : 

Here  lies  the  body  of  Samuel  Young,  who 
came  here  and  died  for  the  benefit  of 
his  health. 

Frequently,  however,  epitaphs  of 
the  humorous  kind  are  not  genuine, 
being  composed  as  a  form  of  liter- 
ary amusement.  Some  of  fine 
quality  come  almost  under  the 
head  of  epigrams.  Such  are  most 
of  the  epitaphs  in  Ben  Jonson's 
works;  for  instance,  the  lines  Under- 
neath this  sable  hearse,  and  the 
beautiful  tribute  to  Elizabeth  L.  H. : 

Would'st  thou  hear  what  man  can  say 

In  a  little?   Reader,  stay. 
Underneath  this  stone,  doth  lip 

As  much  beauty  as  could  die  ; 
Which  in  life  did  harbour  give 

To  more  virtue  than  doth  live: 

Leave  it  buried  in  this  vault. 
One  name  was  Elizabeth, 

Th'other  let  it  sleep  with  death; 
Fitter,  where  it  died  to  tell, 

Than  that  it  liv'd  at  all.    Farewell. 

Epitkalamium.  Nuptial  song 
in  praise  of  a  newly  wedded  pair 
and  invoking  blessings  on  them, 
sung  before  the  bridal  chamber 
(Gr.  thalamos).  Fragments  of 
Greek  epithalamia  by  Anacreon, 
Pindar,  and  others  have  been  pre- 
served. One  of  the  most  celebrated 
by  Latin  poets  is  the  epithalamium 
on  Peleus  and  Thetis  by  Catullus. 
In  English  literature"  Spenser's 
Prothalamium  and  Epithalamium 
are  among  the  most  beautiful 
poems  of  this  kind. 

Epithelioma.  Form  of  cancer  in 
which  the  growth  is  mainly  com- 
posed of  cells  pertaining  to  the  epi- 
thelial or  surface  layer  of  the  skin 
or  mucous  membrane.  See  Cancer. 

Epithelium  (Gr.  epi,  on  ;  thele. 
nipple).  Tissue  composed  almost 
entirely  of  cells  with  little  cement- 
ing material.  It  forms  the  super- 
ficial layer  of  the  skin  and  lines  the 
internal  cavities  of  the  body.  Pave- 
ment epithelium,  consisting  of  one 
layer  of  cells  fitted  together  like  a 
mosaic,  is  found  in  the  air-sacs  of 
the  lungs.  Columnar  epithelium 
lines  the  stomach  and  intestines. 
Stratified  epithelium  consisting  of 
numerous  layers  of  cells,  covers  the 
surface  of  the  body.  Ciliated  epithe- 
lium is  a  form  in  which  the  surface 
of  the  cell  carries  a  bunch  of  fine 
filaments  having  a  continuous 
movement  which  sets  up  a  current 
over  the  surface  of  the  tissue.  This 
form  occurs  in  the  air  passages  where 
the  ciliary  movement  helps  to  clear 
the  tissues  of  fine  particles  of  foreign 
material  and  other  debris. 


EPOCH 

Epoch  (Gr.  epoche,  pause).  In 
astronomy,  a  date  arbitrarily  fixecty 
and  necessary  for  computing  the 
place  of  a  heavenly  body.  Jan.  1, 
1901,  might,  for  example,  be  the 
date  for  the  definition  of  the  posi- 
tions of  the  planet  Mercury,  and  all 
the  changes  in  its  positions  would 
then  be  noted  in  succeeding  periods 
of  time.  See  Chronology. 

Epode  (Gr.  epi,  on  ;  ode,  ode). 
Third  part  of  the  triple  system  of 
the  Greek  ode,  which  consisted  of 
strophe,  antistrophe,  and  epode. 
The  term  subsequently  came  to  be 
loosely  used  in  a  wider  signification, 
being  applied  to  certain  of  the 
lyrics  of  Archilochus  and  his  imita- 
tor Horace.  See  Ode. 

Eponym  (Gr.  epi,  on  ;  onoma, 
name ).  Name  of  a  real  or  fictitious 
person,  the  reputed  founder  of  a 
country  or  people.  Such  are  the 
mythical  Brutus,  from  whom  the 
name  Britain  is  supposed  to  be 
derived,  and  Hellen,  the  traditional 
founder  of  the  Hellenes  or  Greeks. 

Eponym  Canon.  Assyrian 
chronological  table.  The  Sumerian 
identification  of  years  by  signifi- 
cant local  events  was  simplified  in 
Assyrian  records  by  naming  years 
after  official  personages  in  an  or- 
derly sequence.  The  word  eponym 
is  used  after  the  analogy  of  the 
Greek  archon  (q.v. ).  The  king  was 
eponym  in  his  first  year,  followed 
by  his  commander-in-chief,  court 
officials,  city  governors,  and  others. 
Inaugurated  in  1500  B.C.  if  not 
earlier,  the  canon  hitherto  re- 
covered comprises  fragmentary 
name-lists  from  Ashurbanipal's 
Nineveh  library  dated  continu- 
ously from  893  to  666,  and  discon- 
tinuously  from  911  to  640.  From  a 
supplementary  list  mentioning  im- 
portant events  as  well,  an  eclipse 
record  was  dated  by  astronomical 
calculation  June  15,  763,  thus 
fixing  the  whole  series. 

Epping.  Market  town  and  urban 
district  of  Essex.  It  stands  on 
the  summit  of  a  hilly  ridge,  382  ft. 
above  sea  level,  near  Epping 
Forest,  17m.  N.E.  of  London  by  the 
G.E.  Ely.  The  church  of  S.  John 
Baptist  (1832)  was  rebuilt  in  1890 
and  superseded  All  Saints  at  Epping 
Upland  as  the  parish  church  in 
1 889.  Its  tower  was  added  in  1 908. 
The  town  hall  was  built  in  1863. 
Epping  has  an  agricultural  trade, 
while  cattle  fairs  are  held  here.  It 
gives  its  name  to  a  division  return- 
ing one  member  to  Parliament. 
Market  day,  Fri.  Pop.  4,253. 

Epping  Forest.  Stretch  of  wild 
woodland  in  Essex,  England.  All 
that  remains  of  the  old  Royal 
Forest  of  Essex,  known  after  the 
13th  century  as  the  Forest  of  Wal- 
tham,  it  consists  of  about  6,800 
acres  between  Leytonstone,  S.,  and 


2954 


Epping,  Essex.     The  High  Street,  looking  towards  the 
new  parish  church  oi  S.  John  Baptist 


Epping,  N.,  with  Loughton,  E.,  and 
Chingford,  W.,  on  high  ground  be- 
tween the  valleys  of  the  Lea  and 
Roding.  The  best  of  the  wooded 
section  includes  Monkwood,  N.W. 
of  Loughton,  and  Epping  Thicks, 
N.W.  of  Theydon  Bois.  Dark 
brown  fallow  deer  run  wild  ;  a  few 
small  roe  deer  were  introduced 
from  Dorsetshire  in  1883.  The  last 
of  the  old  red  deer  were  removed 
to  Windsor  in  1827.  Rabbits  are 
numerous,  and  a  certain  number 
of  badgers,  foxes,  squirrels,  and 
weasels  are  also  found. 

While  the  pollarded  hornbeam  is 
a  striking  feature,  there  are  a  few 
aged  oaks,  and  the  beech,  black- 
thorn, crab-apple,  birch,  willow, 
holly,  and  brushwood,  together  with 
gorse,  broom,  wild  rose,  and  honey- 
suckle, lend  charm  and  variety  to 
the  landscape.  Of  two  ancient 
camps,  Ambresbury  Banks,  2  m.  N. 
of  Loughton,  is  popularly  assigned 
to  Queen  Boadicea  ;  and  Loughton 
Camp,  about  11  acres,  to  early 
British  or  pre-Roman  origin.  After 
protracted  legal  proceedings  Epping 
Forest  was  secured  to  the  public  by 
the  City  Corporation  and  the  Com- 
mons Preservation  Society,  at  a 
cost  of  £250,000,  and  was  opened 
by  Queen  Victoria,  May  6,  1882. 
It  is  controlled  by  a  committee  of 
the  City  Corporation.  There  is  an 
excellent  Guide  by  E.  N.  Buxton, 
1911  ;  see  also  The  Forest  of  Essex, 
R.  Fisher,  1887  ;  the  Royal  Forests 
of  England,  1905  ;  and  Memorials 
of  Old  Essex.  1908,  J.  C.  Cox.  See 
Essex;  Forests. 

Epr  cuvette  (Fr.,  testing  appar- 
atus). Instrument  for  measuring 
the  strength  of  gunpowder.  The 
first  recorded  specimen  is  that  de- 
scribed by  William  Bourne  in  In- 
ventions or  Devises,  1578.  It  con- 
sisted of  a  small  metal  cylinder  to 
which  was  hinged  a  heavy  metal 
lid,  which  was  prevented  from 
falling  by  engaging  with  a  ratchet. 
The  strength  of  the  powder  was 
measured  by  firing  a  standard 
weight  of  explosive  in  the  cylinder 
with  the  lid  closed  and  noting  the 
angle  to  which  the  latter  was  raised. 


EPSOM     SALTS 

In  1627  Curten- 
bach  devised  a 
small  mortar,  on 
the  mouth  of 
which  rested  a 
heavy  conical  shot 
which  travelled 
vertically  up  a 
stretched  wire 
passing  through 
it.  The  power  was 
measured  by  the 
height  to  which 
the  charge  raised 
this  shot.  In  1647 
Nye,  a  master 
gunner,  proposed 
to  measure  the  strength  of  gun- 
powder by  noting  the  depth  to 
which  bullets  fired  from  a  pistol 
penetrated  into  clay.  He  also  sug- 
gested measuring  the  strength  of 
powder  by  the  distance  which  a 
heavy  spherical  shot  travelled 
when  fired  from  a  mortar.  This 
method  was  taken  up  by  the  French 
government  and  the  mortar  was 
called  eprouvette.  In  1742  a  fur- 
ther advance  was  made,  when 
Robins  invented  the  ballistic  pen- 
dulum, by  means  of  which  the 
actual  velocity  of  a  projectile  could 
be  measured.  About  1820  much 
use  was  made  by  sportsmen  of  the 
hinged  lid  eprouvette  in  the  form  of 
a  flint  lock  pistol.  For  the  testing 
of  modern  explosives  much  more 
complicated  and  accurate  instru- 
ments have  been  designed  to  esti- 
mate the  various  characteristics  of 
the  explosives.  See  Gunpowder. 

Epsom.  Urban  district  and  mar- 
ket town  of  Surrey,  England.  It  is 
14  m.  S.W.  of  London  on  both  the 
L.B  &  S.C.  and  L.  &  S.W.  Rlys. 
It  was  first  known  for  its  mineral 
springs  accidentally  discovered  in 
1618  by  Henry  Wicker  when  graz- 
ing his  cattle.  The  town  became  a 
fashionable  spa  in  the  17th  century 
and  was  visited  by  royalty  and 
London  society,  being  especially 
popular  about  1690.  S.  Martin's, 
the  parish  church,  has  works  by 
Flaxman  and  Chantrey.  Epsom 
College  is  a  public  school,  especially 
associated  with  the  medical  pro- 
fession. Near  the  town  is  Lord 
Rosebery's  seat,  The  Durdans. 

Epsom  is  known  for  its  race 
meetings,  held  on  the  downs,  which 
stretch  for  some  miles.  Here  the 
Derby,  the  Oaks,  and  other  races  are 
run  and  there  are  several  large  rac- 
ing stables  around.  The  town  has 
some  industries  and  is  an  outer  sub- 
urb of  London.  It  gives  its  name 
to  a  division  sending  one  member 
to  Parliament.  Pop.  19,150.  See 
Derby  ;  Horse-racing  ;  Oaks. 

Epsom  Salts.  Magnesium  sul- 
phate (MgS047H2O).  It  crystallises 
in  small  rhombic  prisms,  and  forms 
a  useful  saline  purgative. 


EPSTEIN 


2955 


EQUATION 


Epstein,  JACOB  (b.  1880).  Brit- 
ish sculptor.     Born  in  New  York, 
of  Russo-Polish  parents,  Nov.  10, 
1880,  he  studied 
in  Paris  at  the 
E  c  o  1  e    d  e  s 
Beaux  Arts  and 
at   J  u  1  i  e  n's 
Academy.      He 
has   always 
shown     origin- 
ality of  thought 
and  design  and 
Jacob  Epstein,       remarkable 
British  sculptor       technical    skill. 
His  sympathies 

are  both  catholic  and  eclectic. 
Rodin's  influence  can  be  traced  in 
the  figures  on  the  British  Medi- 
cal Association's  quarters  in  the 
Strand,  1907-8,  while  the  sculpture 
for  Oscar  Wilde's  tomb,  1913,  is 
interesting  for  its  echoes  of  Abys- 
sinian and  Egyptian  art.  Among 
his  most  notable  busts  are  those  of 
Admiral  Lord  Fisher,  the  Duchess 
of  Hamilton,  Muirhead  Bone,  and 
Mrs.  McEvoy,  the  last-named  in  the 
Johannesburg  Art  Gallery,  and  the 
Contemporary  Art  Society  possesses 
excellent  examples  of  his  crafts- 
manship in  a  Seated  Figure  and  the 
Head  of  Mrs.  Lamb.  Much  dis- 
cussion was  aroused  also  by  his 
large  figures  of  Venus,  1917,  and 
of  Christ,  1920.  See  Monograph, 
B.  van  Dieren,  1920. 

Epulis  (Gr.  epoulis,  gumboil). 
Tumour  of  the  jaw  growing  from 
the  alveolar  periosteum  or  fibrous 
membrane  in  contact  with  the  bone. 
Epworth.  Market  town  of  Lin- 
colnshire, England.  It  is  on  the  Isle 
of  Axholme,  9  m.  N.N.W.  of  Gains- 
borough and  24  m.  from  Lincoln.  It 
is  famed  as  the  birthplace  of  John 
Wesley,  whose  father  was  rector 
here,  and  here  the  Wesleyans  have 
a  church  to  his  memory.  Pop.  1 ,836. 
Equaliser.  In  engineering,  a  bar 
which  serves  to  equalise  a  pull  or 


Epstein.    Bronze  mask  of  the  sculptor's 
wife,  a  typical  example  of  his  work 

octave  instead  of  according  to  na- 
ture's scale.  See  Harmonic  Series ; 
Temperament. 

Equation  (Lat.  aequare,  to  make 
equal).  Statement  of  equality  be- 
tween two  quantities.  Thus  19 
-J-  6  =  25  is  an  arithmetical  equa- 
tion. In  algebra  an  equation  is 
usually  a  statement  involving 
known  and  unknown  quantities, 
the  knowns  being  denoted  by  the 
earlier  letters  of  the  alphabet,  a,  b, 
c,  and  the  unknowns  by  the  later 
letters  x,  y,  z.  ax=b  is  a  simple 
algebraic  equation,  x  being  the  un- 
known quantity,  a  and  b  being  sup- 
posed known.  If  a=6  and  6=42 
then  «=6/a=42/6=7. 

Equations  involving  a  number 
of  unknowns,  x,  y,  z,  may  form  a 
system,  and  are  then  called  simul- 
taneous equations. 

ax-\-by+cz=d 


Epworth.      Interior  of  the  Wesley  Memorial  church  built 
in  1889  to  commemorate  the  birthplace  of  John  Wesley 

thrust,  applied  at  an  intermediate 
point  equally  between  its  two  ends. 
See  Compensating  Beam.  \j 

Equal  Temperament.  System 
of  tuning  keyboard  instruments 
with  twelve  equal  semitones  to  the 


kx+ly+mz=n 

are  simultaneous  equations,  and  the 
problem  is  to  find  values  of  x,  y, 
and  z  which  will  satisfy  all  three 
equations. 

The  degree  of  an  equation  is  in- 
dicated by  the  highest  power  of  one 
of  its  unknowns. 
Thus  in  the  equa- 
tion ax2  -{-by  =  c 
the  highest  power 
of  the  unknown 
x  is  2,  and  the 
equation  is  said 
to  be  of  the  second 
degree.  An  equa- 
tion which  is  true 
for  any  values 
whatever  of  the 
q  uan  tities  c  o  n- 
ceriitjd  is  called 
an  identity,  and 
the  connecting 
symbol  is  usually 
three  parallel  straight  lines  : 
x*-y*=(x-y)  (x+y) 
is  an  example. 

There  are  as  many  solutions  to  an 
equation  as  the  degree  of  the  un- 
known. An  equation  of  the  second 


degree  has  two  solutions,  an  equa- 
tion of  the  third  degree  three,  and 
so  on.  The  methods  of  solving 
equations  up  to  and  including  the 
fourth  degree  are  well  known,  and 
it  has  been  proved  impossible  to 
obtain  the  algebraic  solutions  of 
equations  of  a  higher  degree.  The 
symbol  =  was  first  used  by  Recorde 
(1510-58).  See  Algebra;  consult 
also  W.  S.  Burnside  and  A.  W. 
Panton,  The  Theory  of  Equations, 
1899-1901. 

CHEMICAL  EQUATIONS.  The 
change  which  occurs  in  a  chemical 
reaction  is  represented  by  formulae 
and  symbols  which  show  the  distri- 
bution of  the  molecules  of  the  re- 
acting bodies  before  and  after  the 
change.  The  elements  are  repre- 
sented by  symbols  and  atomic 
weights,  and  the  sum  of  the  weights 
of  the  original  substances  equals 
the  sum  of  the  weights  of  the  pro- 
ducts of  the  reaction  :  hence  the 
representation  is  termed  an  equa- 
tion. Chemical  equations  merely 
express  symbolically  the  verified 
results  of  the  action  of  different 
molecules  upon  each  other.  Ber- 
thollet  formulated  the  conditions 
as  regards  solutions  as  follows  : 

1.  When  two  or  more  substances 
are  brought  together  in  solution,  a 
substance  will  form  and  separate  as 
a  precipitate,  if  by  any  rearrange- 
ment of  the  atoms  a  product  can 
be  formed   which  is  insoluble   in 
the  liquid. 

2.  When    two    substances    are 
brought  together  in  solution,  if  a 
gaseous  body  or  one  that  is  volatile 
at  the  temperature  of  the  experi- 
ment can  form,  it  will  escape  as  a 
gas  or  vapour. 

For  example  :  When  silver  ni- 
trate solution  and  hydrochloric 
acid  are  mixed,  the  insoluble  silver 
chloride  is  formed  as  a  white  pre- 
cipitate (1  )  ;  when  vinegar  is  added 
to  a  solution  of  washing  soda 
(sodium  carbonate)  a  brisk  effer- 
vescence results  from  the  carbon 
dioxide  given  off  (2). 

The  equation  representing  the 
formation  of  water  (H20)  from  its 
elements  (hydrogen  and  oxygen)  is 
written  : 


2(1X2)  +  (16x2)  =2(1x2  +  16) 
This  equation  symbolises  the 
formation  of  two  molecules  of  water 
from  two  molecules  of  hydrogen 
and  one  molecule  of  oxygen.  The 
numbers  beneath  the  symbols  are 
the  parts  by  weight  of  the  elements 
involved  in  the  reactions.  The 
equation,  however,  does  not  tell  us 
the  conditions  of  the  experiment  ; 
in  this  case  a  mere  mixing  of  the 
gases  does  not  result  in  a  reaction, 
it  is  necessary  to  cause  them  to 
combine  by  means  of  an  electric 
current. 


EQUATOR 


EQUINOCTIAL 


As  another  example,  the  re- 
action between  washing  soda  and 
vinegar  may  be  used.  Washing  soda 
is  sodium  carbonate  (Na2COj), 
with  ten  molecules  of  water  of 
crystallisation  which  need  not  be 
shown  in  the  equation.  The  acidity 
of  vinegar  is  due  to  the  acetic  acid 
it  contains.  The  formula  for  acetic 
acid  can  be  written  in  several 
ways,  e.g.  HC,H30,;  C,H40,  ;  CH3. 
COOH;  orC?H3.OH.  "Taking  the 
first  expression  as  most  suitable, 
we  obtain  the  following  equation  : 


,02  +  H,0  +C0a 
118  +  120  =  176  +  18  +  44 

On  the  right  hand  side  results 
are  shown,  sodium  acetate  (which 
remains  in  solution),  water,  and 
carbon  dioxide.  We  have  thus 
accounted  for  the  products  of  the 
reaction  in  accordance  with  the 
doctrine  of  the  indestructibility 
of  matter.  The  sums  of  the  mole- 
cular weights  on  both  sides  are 
equal  (rounded  figures  have  been 
used),  showing  that  all  the  atoms 
are  accounted  for. 

EQUATION  OF'  TIME.  A  solar 
day  is  the  interval  which  elapses 
between  two  successive  passages 
of  the  sun  over  the  meridian 
of  a  given  place  (e.g.  London). 


Equatorial  telescope  mounted  to  enable 

the  observer  to  follow  the  heavenly 

bodies  across  the  sky 

By  courtesy  of  T.  Cooke  &  Son 

Owing  to  the  obliquity  of  the 
ecliptic  to  the  equator,  and  to  the 
varying  velocity  of  the  earth  in  its 
orbit,  this  interval  is  not  always 
the  same.  Hence  solar  time  differs 
from  the  mean  solar  time,  regis- 
tered by  a  perfectly  even-going 
clock, constructedso  as  to  record  24 
hours  to  a  mean  solar  day.  There 
will  be  a  difference  between  noon 
as  registered  by  the  sun  and  as 


Equator.     Perspective  view   of  the 

earth,  showing  where  the  equator 

cuts    Africa    and  a   portion  of  S. 

America 

registered  by  the  clock,  and  the 
difference  will  vary  from  day  to 
day.  This  difference  is  called  the 
equation  of  time,  and  is  expressed 
in  the  minutes  and  seconds  at 
which  apparent  noon  takes  place 
before  or  after  mean  noon.  See 
Horology. 

Equator  (Lat.  aequare,  to  equal- 
ise). Circle  drawn  round  the 
globe  midway  between  the  N.  and 
S.  poles.  At  the  equator  the  sun 
is  seen  directly  overhead  at  noon 
at  the  equinoxes.  Latitude  is 
measured  N.  and  S.  of  this  circle. 
It  is  the  longest  line,  in  one  plane, 
that  can  be  drawn  round  the  earth, 
measuring  approximately  24,902  m. 

Strictly  speaking,  this  line  is  the 
terrestrial  equator.  The  great 
circle  in  which  the  plane  of  the 
terrestrial  equator  cuts  the  celestial 
sphere  is  called  the  celestial 
equator.  The  magnetic  equator  is 
that  line  drawn  round  the  earth 
at  any  point  on  which  the  vertical 
components  of  the  force  of  the 
earth's  magnetism  is  zero.  See 
Earth  ;  Equinox  ;  Latitude. 

Equatorial.  Instrument  so 
mounted  that  it  can  follow  a 
heavenly  body  from  its  rising  to  its 
setting.  This  continuous  obser- 
vation is  regulated  by  clockwork 
machinery.  In  the  best  arrange- 
ment, a  strong  steel  pillar  supports 
a  headpiece,  in  <Khich  is  fixed  the 
polar  axis  of  the  instrument,  parallel 
to  the  axis  of  the  earth.  This  polar 
axis  is  turned  round  once  in 
twenty-four  hours.  A  telescope 
fixed  to  such  an  axis  will  always 
move  in  a  "  circle  of  declination," 
and  thus  a  clock  driving  the  tele- 
scope in  one  direction  as  fast  as  the 
earth  is  carrying  it  in  the  opposite 
direction  will  always  keep  the  tele- 
scope fixed  on  the  same  point  in  the 
sky.  It  is  not  convenient  to  at- 
tach the  telescope  directly  to  the 
polar  axis,  because  its  range  is 
thereby  limited ;  it  is  therefore 
fixed  to  a  declination  axis  placed 
above  the  polar  axis  and  at  right 
angles  to  it.  Most  of  the  great 


modern  refractors  are  equatorials. 
See  Observatory  ;  Telescope. 

Equatorville.  Alternative  name 
for  the  administrative  and  trading 
centre  of  the  Belgian  Congo,  better 
known  as  Coquilhatville  (g.v. ). 

Equerry.  Originally  an  official 
of  the  royal  stables.  In  the  British 
royal  household  the  equerries  are 
army  officers  in  the  department  of 
the  master  of  the  horse.  The  chief 
or  crown  equerry  is  a  permanent 
official,  who  looks  after  the  stables 
and  stud.  The  sovereign  always 
has  an  equerry  in  attendance.  The 
form  of  the  word,  originally  mean- 
ing stable  (Fr.  ecurie,  late  Lat. 
scuria),  has  been  influenced  in 
English  by  a  supposed  connexion 
with  Lat.  equus  (horse). 

Equidae  (Lat.  equus,  horse). 
Family  of  Ungulate  mammals,  in- 
cluding the  horses,  asses  and  zebras. 
In  geological  history,  the  horse 
family  can  be  traced  back  to  an- 
cestors that  had  five  toes  instead 
of  the  single  toe  of  modern  horses. 
The  Phenacodus,  a  five-toed  animal 
about  the  size  of  a  bull-dog,  lived 
at  the  beginning  of  the  tertiary 
period.  The  next  stage  is  seen  in 
Hyracotherium,  with  four  equal 
toes  on  the  fore  limbs,  found  in 
lower  eocene  strata.  Succeeding 
stages  are  represented  by  Anchi- 
therium,  with  three  toes  and  a  di- 
minutive fourth,  in  the  Miocene 
age  in  Europe;  Hipparion,  with  one 
large  middle  toe  and  two  smaller 
side  toes,  in  the  Pliocene  age  ;  and 
Equus,  two  diminutive  toes  on  each 
side  of  the  large  toe,  in  the  Pliocene 
age.  See  Horse. 

Equilibrium  (Lat.  aequus, 
equal ;  libra,  balance).  In  a  system 
of  forces  a  state  of  equilibrium 
exists  when  the  forces  under  con- 
sideration are  so  arranged  that  they 
balance  or  have  no  resultant  at 
any  point.  A  body  is  in  stable  equi- 
librium when  it  returns  to  its  ori- 
ginal position  after  being  disturbed; 
in  unstable  equilibrium,  when  it 
continues  to  move  in  the  direction 
given  to  it  by  a  disturbing  force. 

CHEMICAL  EQUILIBRIUM.  A  bal- 
anced action  between  chemicals 
similar  to  that  indicated  by  equili- 
brium in  mechanics.  It  mostclosely 
resembles  the  mechanical  equili- 
brium established  when  friction  is 
large  or  inertia  small,  because  in 
a  chemical  system  there  is  nothing 
corresponding  to  the  oscillations  in 
mechanics.  See  Dynamics ;  Motion. 

Equinoctial  Gales  (Lat. 
aequus,  equal ;  nox,  night).  Term 
indicating  a  belief  that  gales  nor- 
mally occur  about  the  equinoxes. 
In  N.  America  and  Europe  and 
over  the  N.  Atlantic  Ocean,  from 
Nov.  to  Jan.  is  the  period  of  most 
frequent  and  most  intense  gales. 
See  Meteorology ;  Weather. 


EQUINOX 


2957 


EQUITY 


Equinox.  Dates  on  which  the 
day  and  night  are  of  equal  length, 
and  the  length  of  day  is  the  same 
for  all  parts  of  the  world.  Twice 
a  year — at  the  vernal  equinox, 
March  22,  and  at  the  autumnal 
equinox,  Sept.  22 — all  places  on 
the  earth  experience  a  day  and 
a  night  each  twelve  hours  long. 

The  plane  of  the  path  of  the 
centre  of  the  earth  round  the 
centre  of  the  sun  is  called  the  plane 
of  the  ecliptic.  The  earth  is  tilted, 
and  the  axis  of  its  rotation  makes 
a  constant  angle  with  this  plane. 
Consequently  the  plane  of  the 
earth's  equator  infinitely  produced 
cuts  the  celestial  sphere  in  a  fixed 
great  circle  which  is  called  the  celes- 
tial equator.  At  the  points  where 
the  plane  of  the  ecliptic  cuts  the 
plane  of  the  equator,  or  more  pre- 
cisely, when  the  earth  in  its  annual 
path  is  at  these  points,  it  will  be  so 
placed  with  regard  to  the  sun  that 
all  over  the  earth  day  and  night 
will  be  equal  in  length. 

Equipment.  Term  employed 
popularly  to  describe  the  complete 
outfit  worn  and  carried  by  the  sol- 
dier in  the  field,  but  officially  re- 
stricted to  weapons  and  acces- 
sories as  distinct  from  clothing 
and  necessaries.  The  equipment 
of  the  British  infantryman  com- 
prises ammunition  (150  rounds  *303 
inchf  or  rifle),  bayonet  withscabbard 
and  frog,  belt  with  braces  and  car- 
tridge carriers,  haversack  with 
rations,  knife,  fork,  and  spoon, 
entrenching  implement  and  carrier, 
mess  tin,  pack  containing  great- 
coat, mending  and  cleaning  ma- 
terials, toilet  necessaries  such  as 
razor,  towel,  and  brushes,  rifle,  and 
water-bottle. 

Cavalry  carry  similar  equipment, 
but  with  leather  belt  and  bandolier 
in  place  of  the  webbing  belt,  braces 
and  cartridge  carriers,  and  in  ad- 
dition a  sword  and  scabbard  (also 
in  some  cases  a  lance),  and  various 
articles  of  saddlery  and  harness. 
They  do  not  carry  a  pack,  the  small 
articles  which  the  infantryman 
places  therein  being  accommodated 
in  the  haversack.  The  normal 
weight  of  the  infantry  equipment  is 
about  60  lb.,  and  a  cavalry  horse 
carries  about  270  lb.  including  the 
rider.  The  present  webbing  belt  and 
braces  issued  to  the  infantry  weigh 
much  less  than  the  old  leather  gear, 
permit  of  exact  adjustment  to  the 
most  comfortable  position  for  the 
individual  wearer,  and  are  so  de- 
signed that  no  straps  cross  the  chest 
or  back,  thus  permitting  of  unre- 
stricted breathing  in  spite  of  the 
heavy  load.  The  cartridge  carriers 
are  arranged  on  the  front  of  the 
braces  which  support  the  belt,  their 
weight  being  balanced  by  that  of 
the  pack  secured  to  the  braces  on 


the  shoulders,  the  remaining  items 
being  slung  oA  the  belt  so  that  the 
shoulders  bear  all  the  weight. 

Equisetaceae(Lat.  equus,  horse; 
seta,  bristle).  Small  natural  order 
of  Pteridophytes.  It  consists  of 
the  single  genus  Equisetum — the 
horsetails.  They  are  mostly  natives 
of  the  N.  temperate  regions,  but  a 
few  are  sub-tropical.  They  have 
creeping  rootstocks  from  which 
arise  the  erect,  hollow,  jointed 
stems,  which  are  round,  and  finely 
grooved.  They  are  solid  at  the 
joints,  which  have  toothed  sheaths 
into  which  the  next  joint  fits  and 
from  which  the  branches  are  given 
off  in  whorls.  The  spores  are  pro- 
duced on  the  undersides  of  scales 
of  a  terminal  oval  cone.  E.  martii, 
a  native  of  Brazil,  attains  a  height 


Equisetaceae.     Fertile  and   barren 
stems  of  the  horsetail 

of  30  ft.,  but  the  other  species  are 
only  a  few  feet  high.  The  stems 
are  covered  with  silica,  and  those 
of  E.  hyemale  constitute  the  Dutch 
rushes  of  commerce,  used  for  scour- 
ing and  polishing. 

Equitable.  British  life  assur- 
ance company,  in  full  the  Equitable 
Life  Assurance  Society.  Founded 
in  1762  as  the  Society  for  Equit- 
able Assurance  in  Life  and  Sur- 
vivorship, it  is  one  of  the  oldest  of 
the  kind.  In  1892  it  was  registered 
as  a  company.  It  is  what  is  known 
as  a  mutual  office,  i.e.  it  has  no 
shareholders  merely  as  such.  It  has 
a  controlling  interest  in  the  Univer- 
sity Life  Assurance  Society  and  the 
Reversionary  Interest  Co.  The 
head  offices  are  110,  Mansion  House 
Street,  London,  E.G. 

Equitable  Charge.  In  English 
law,  a  charge  on  property  which 
formerly  was  not  enforced  by  a 
court  of  common  law,  but  only  by 
the  court  of  chancery.  Wherever 
the  chancery  court  found  an  in- 
tention in  a  document  that  a  sum 
of  money  should  be  secured  on 
property,  or  paid  out  of  it,  the 
court  would  enforce  it  as  a  charge. 
For  instance,  if  A  owes  B  money, 
and  gives  B  a  letter  saying  "  I 
will  pay  you  out  of  the  money  due 


to  me  by  C,"  this  is  a  charge  on  C's 
debt,  and  the  court  will  restrain 
C  from  paying  the  debt  to  A  with- 
out satisfying  B's  claim.  To-day 
all  courts  recognize  and  enforce 
equitable  charges. 

Equitable  Estate.  In  English 
law  the  legal  ownership  of  property 
may  be  vested  in  one  person,  and 
the  equitable  ownership  in  another. 
Thus  a  trustee  is  the  legal  owner 
of  the  trust  property,  but  the  bene- 
ficiaries have  the  equitable  estate. 

Equites  (pi.  of  eques,  horseman). 
In  ancient  Rome,  originally  citi- 
zens wealthy  enough  to  support  the 
burden  of  serving  as  horse  sol- 
diers. With  lapse  of  time,  as  the 
citizen  militia  gave  way  to  a  paid 
army,  the  equites,  conventionally 
translated  knights^  became  merely 
a  class  in  the  state  possessed  of  a 
certain  amount  of  wealth,  ranking 
below  the  senatorial  order,  but 
above  the  common  people.  As 
senators  were  forbidden  to  engage 
in  trade,  this  equestrian  order 
tended  to  be  composed  largely  of 
merchants  and  other  capitalists. 

The  farming  of  taxes  was  an 
equestrian  privilege,  and  at  one  time 
jurymen  were  exclusively  drawn 
from  the  ranks  of  the  knights. 
Under  Augustus  the  order  became 
more  sharply  defined ;  certain  posts 
in  the  state  service  were  reserved 
for  them,  the  most  important  being 
the  governorship  of  Egypt,  the 
commissionership  of  corn  supply, 
and  the  command  of  the  fleet.  The 
originally  military  associations  of 
the  equites  survived  only  in  state 
ceremonies.  Pron.  ek-wit-eez. 

Equity  (Lat.  aequitas).  Term 
used  by  English  lawyers  to 
describe  that  part  of  the  law  of 
England  formerly  enforced  only 
by  the  court  of  chancery,  and  not 
by  the  common  law  courts. 
Equity  was  of  two  kinds :  ( 1 )  where 
the  court  of  chancery  gave  rights 
which  the  common  law  courts  did 
not  give  ;  and  (2)  where  chancery 
gave  remedies  which  the  common 
law  knew  nothing  about. 

Equitable  rights  unknown  to 
the  common  law  were  numerous. 
The  common  law  knew  nothing  of 
trusts  and  trustees.  If  a  man  had 
property  conveyed  to  him,  he  was 
the  legal  owner,  but  if  the  property 
had  been  conveyed  to  him  to  be  ap- 
plied for  the  benefit  of  another,  the 
chancellor  would  enforce  the  trust. 
The  chancellor's  jurisdiction  was 
said  to  be  founded  on  conscience. 
Gradually,  side  by  side  with  the 
common  law  and  sometimes  con- 
flicting with  it,  a  great  system  of 
equity  or  chancery  law  grew  up. 
When  rights  at  common  law  and 
rights  in  equity  did  so  conflict,  the 
chancery  court  would  grant  an  in- 
junction to  restrain  the  defendant 


EQUULEUS 

from  exercising  his  legal  rights — 
that  is,  from  bringing  or  going  on 
with  a  common  law  action  to 
enforce  those  rights.  Since  the 
Judicature  Act,  1873,  all  courts 
administer  common  law  and  equity 
side  by  side,  so  that  such  injunc- 
tions are  now  unnecessary. 

Equitable  remedies  unknown  to 
the  common  law  were  invented  by 
the  chancellors.  The  chief  were 
the  injunction  and  specific  perform- 
ance. The  latter  compels  a  man 
to  carry  out  the  contract  he  has 
made,  and  does  not  allow  him  to 
break  it  and  pay  damages.  This 
jurisdiction  was  founded  on  the 
inadequacy  of  the  remedy  at 
common  law,  whose  one  and  only 
panacea  for  every  wrong  and  every 
breach  of  contract  was  damages. 
On  the  same  principle  the  chan- 
cellor would  grant  an  injunction 
to  restrain  a  breach  of  contract,  or 
the  continuance  of  a  wrong,  or 
the  commission  of  a  threatened 
wrong,  where  damages  would  be 
an  inadequate  remedy.  Thus,  if  I 
had  a  right  of  way  over  a  footpath 
across  A's  field,  and  A  stopped  up 
the  path,  at  common  law  I  would 
get  damages ;  but  in  equity  I 
would  have  an  injunction  to  re- 
strain A  from  continuing  to  ob- 
struct the  path ;  and  if  A  dis- 
obeyed, he  would  be  attached. 
Equity,  however,  would  not  grant 
specific  performance  of  every  con- 
tract, or  grant  an  injunction  to 
prevent  every  wrong ;  but  only 
when  the  remedy  in  damages  was 
inadequate. 

At  common  law  there  was  no 
discovery,  and,  until  compara- 
tively recently,  neither  plaintiff 
nor  defendant,  nor  anyone  privy 
to  them  in  blood  or  estate,  was 
allowed  to  give  evidence.  This 
did  not  apply  in  the  chancery 
court.  So  a  common  law  plain- 
tiff or  defendant  used  to  "file  a 
bill "  for  discovery.  That  is,  he 
made  the  other  side  answer  on 
oath  as  to  what  documents  he  had 
in  his  possession.  Also  he  could 
ask  a  long  string  of  questions  about 
the  common  law  action,  and  compel 
the  other  side  to  answer  them  in 
writing  and  on  oath.  This  pro- 
cedure is  now  obsolete,  as  all 
courts,  even  county  courts,  have 
power  to  order  discovery  and  in- 
terrogatories. 

The  principal  subjects  of  the 
equitable  jurisdiction  are  the  en- 
forcement and  administration  of 
trusts,  the  winding-up  of  part- 
nerships; the  administration  of 
deceased  persons'  estates ;  the 
guardianship  and  property  of  in- 
fants; injunctions;  the  specific 
performance  of  contracts  ;  the 
taking  of  accounts  ;  the  rectifica- 


2958 

tion,  setting  aside,  or  cancellation 
of  deeds  or  other  written  instru- 
ments, on  the  ground  of  mistake,  - 
misrepresentation,  fraud,  or  undue 
influence  ;  and  the  partition  or 
sale  of  real  estates. 

At  one  time  a  court  of  equity 
could  not  award  damages.  They 
were  reserved  for  the  courts  of 
common  law.  By  the  Judicature 
Act,  1873,  however,  all  branches 
of  the  high  court  can  now  award 
damages  in  proper  cases  ;  though 
it  is  still  unusual  to  bring  an 
action  for  damages  alone  in  the 
chancery  division.  See  Juris- 
prudence ;  Law. 

R.   Storry   Deans 

Equuleus  (Lat.,  young  horse). 
One  of  the  Ptolemaic  constella- 
tions. It  is  a  small  group  of  stars 
close  by  the  head  of  Pegasus,  so 
placed  as  to  suggest  that  another 
horse  is  galloping  by  Pegasus. 

Era  OR  AERA.  In  chronology,  a 
fixed  point  of  time  from  which 
years  and  historical  events  are 
reckoned.  Generally  the  date  of 
some  decisive  occurrence  in  the 
history  of  the  world,  or  of  a  par- 
ticular people  or  individual,  it  also 
denotes  the  series  of  years  reckoned 
therefrom.  Important  eras  are :  the 
Greek  Olympiads,  from  776  B.C.  ; 
the  Roman,  from  753  B.C.,  the  tra- 
ditional date  of  the  foundation  of 
Rome ;  the  Babylonian,  that  of 
Nabonassar,  747  B.C.  ;  the  Spanish 
from  38  B.C.,  the  conquest  of  Spain 
by  Augustus ;  the  Christian ;  the  Ma- 
homedan,  622.  See  Chronology. 

Era,  THE.  Weekly  organ  of  the 
theatrical  and  musical  professions. 
It  was  founded,  Sept.  30, 1838,  and 
acquired  by  Frederick  Ledger  in 
1856,  being  afterwards  edited  by 
his  son  Edward.  It  was  bought  by 
Sir  William  Bass  in  1904  ;  and  in 
1916  was  owned  by  Messrs.  Bert 
Feldman  and  Alfred  Barnard,  the 
editor.  The  Era  Almanack  was  first 
issued  in  1868. 

Eradicated  (Lat.  ex,  out ;  radix, 
root).  In  heraldry,  a  term  applied 
to  a  tree  shown  torn  up  by  the  roots. 
Erased.  In 
heraldry,  a 
charge,  such  as 
a  head,  a  limb, 
a  branch  of  a 
tree,  shown 
with  a  jagged 
end.  But  a 
branch  shown 
as  torn  off  is 
generally  said  to  be  slipped  if 
small,  or  snagged  if  large. 

Erasmus,  DESIDERIUS  (1466- 
1536).  Dutch  humanist.  He  was 
probably  born  at  Rotterdam,  Oct. 
28,  1466,  the  illegitimate  son  of 
Gerard  de  Praet  of  Gouda.  For  the 
name  Gerard,  meaning  well-be- 
loved, he  afterwards  substituted 


ERASMUS 

the  incorrect  Latin  and  Greek 
equivalents,  Desiderius  Erasmus. 
After  four  years'  schooling  at  De- 
venter,  he  was  sent  by  his  guardians 
to  a  seminary  of  the  Brothers  of 
the  Common  Life  at  Hertogen- 
bosch  (Bois-le-duc),  and  in  1486 


Erased  in  heraldry 


After  F.  Fcnn  in  the  Royal  Collection  at  Windsor 


entered  the  cloister  of  Stein  and 
took  the  vows  of  the  Augustinian 
order.  In  1491  he  became  secre- 
tary to  the  bishop  of  Cambrai  and 
a  priest  in  1492.  After  spending 
some  time  at  the  College  Montaigu 
in  Paris,  he  returned  to  Cambrai, 
but  resumed  his  studies  in  Paris  in 
1496.  At  the  same  time  he  took 
pupils,  one  of  whom,  Lord  Mount- 
joy,  invited  him  to  England. 

Residing  chiefly  at  Oxford,  he 
became  the  friend  of  Thomas  More 
and  Colet,  and  received  instruction 
in  Greek  from  Grocyn  and  Linacre. 
He  re-  visited  England  in  1506  and 
1509,  the  last  time  at  the  invitation 
of  Fisher,  bishop  of  Rochester  and 
chancellor  of  Cambridge  univer- 
sity. He  taught  Greek  in  Cam- 
bridge, and  was  appointed  Lady 
Margaret  professor  of  divinity. 
Between  his  visits  to  England  and 
for  some  time  afterwards  he  led  a 
wandering  life.  From  1521-29  he 
was  at  Basel,  where  most  of  his 
works  were  published,  and  at  Frei- 
burg from  1529-35,  whence  he  re- 
turned to  Basel  and  died  July  12, 
1536. 

Of  his  editions  of  classical  works 
the  most  important  is  Terence, 
1532.  Adagia,  1500,  and  Apoph- 
thegmata,  1531,  contain  maxims 
and  anecdotes  from  classical  au- 
thors, accompanied  by  moral  re- 
flections ;  Ciceronianus,  1528,  is 
an  attack  upon  the  Italian  school 
of  Latin  prose  writers,  who  re- 
fused to  admit  any  words  or 
phrases  not  found  in  Cicero.  He 
edited  many  of  the  Fathers  of  the 
Church,  but  his  greatest  service  to 


ERAST1AN1SM 


2959 


ERCOLE     DA     FERRARA 


theology  was  his  edition  of  the 
New  Testament,  1516,  the  Greek 
text  with  a  Latin  translation,  his 
treatment  of  which  entitles  him  to 
be  called  the  pioneer  of  Biblical 
criticism.  The  Enchiridion  Militis 
Christiani  (Dagger  or  Manual  of  the 
Christian  soldier),  1502,  is  an 
attack  on  the  inefficacy  of  formal 
religion.  Other  famous  treatises 
are  Encomium  Moriae  (Praise  of 
Folly),  1509,  a  satire  on  clerical 
abuses  and  human  follies,  and  Col- 
loquia,  1516,  specially  a  castiga- 
tion  of  the  vices  of  priests  and 
others.  Much  of  his  correspondence 
throws  light  on  the  manners  and 
customs  of  the  England  of  his  day. 
Erasmus  has  been  much  criti- 
cised for  the  part  he  played  in  the 
Reformation  and  his  attitude  to- 
wards Luther.  "  Erasmus  laid  the 
egg  and  Luther  hatched  it,"  it  was 
said.  The  truth  is  that  Erasmus 
was  a  scholar,  not  a  theologian  ; 
he  was  not  the  stuff  of  which  re- 
ligious zealots  or  martyrs  are  made. 
To  use  his  own  words,  "  I  am  afraid 
if  I  were  put  to  the  trial,  I  should 
imitate  S.  Peter."  While  conscious 
of  the  faults  of  Roman  Catholicism, 
he  always  remained  a  Catholic,  and 
while  acknowledging  the  need  of 
religious  reform,  he  clearly  saw  the 
dangers  that  would  inevitably  fol- 
low extremist  efforts  in  that  direc- 
tion. See  Humanists ;  Renaissance. 

J.  H.  Freese 

Bibliography.  Collected  Works, 
ed.  J.  Glorious  (Le  Clerc),  10  vols., 
Leyden,  1703-6.  Lives,  by  R.  B. 
Drummond,  1873,  R.  C.  Jebb,  1890, 
E.  F.  H.  Capey,  1902  (with  biblio- 
graphy). The  Epistles  of  E.  (to  his 
51st  year),  Eng.  trans,  with  com- 
mentary, F.  M.  Nichols,  1901-4  ; 
Opus  Epistolarum  Erasmi,  ed.  P.  S. 
Allen,  1906 ;  The  Age  of  Erasmus, 
P.  S.  Allen,  1914. 

Erastianism.  Term  specially 
applied  to  the  view  of  Church 
policy  which  regarded  the  Church 
as  mainly  or  solely  a  department  of 
the  state.  Its  upholders  urged  that 
while  the  choice  and  practice  of  re- 
ligion was  a  matter  for  the  in- 
dividual conscience,  the  external 
organization  of  churches — includ- 
ing the  appointment  of  ministers — 
was  a  function  of  the  State.  In  a 
general  sense,  Erastianism  means 
the  doctrines  of  Thomas  Erastus. 

Erastus,  THOMAS  (1524-83). 
Swiss  theologian.  His  family  name 
was  Lieber  or  Lie  bier,  of  which 
Erastus  (beloved)  is  the  Greek 
form.  Born  at  Baden,  Switzerland, 
of  peasant  origin,  he  studied  theo- 
logy at  Basel,  and  medicine  arid 
philosophy  at  Padua.  In  1558  he 
became  professor  of  medicine  at 
Heidelberg,  and  later  of  ethics  at 
Basel.  A  strong  opponent  of  Cal- 
vinism, he  upheld  the  Zwinglian 
doctrine.  In  an  important  post- 


humous work,  he  maintained  that 
the  offences  of  Christians  should 
be  punished  rather  by  the  civil 
power  than  the  ecclesiastical  (see 
The  Theses  of  Erastus  touching 
Excommunication,  Eng.  trans.  R. 
Lee,  1844). 

Erasure  (Lat.  e,  out  ;  radere,  to 
scratch).  Word  meaning  to  ob- 
literate, used  mainly  in  connexion 
with  written  documents.  In  a  legal 
document  an  erasure  may  be  fatal 
to  its  validity,  unless  it  can  be 
proved  that  it  was  made  before 
the  document  was  executed.  The 
parties  concerned  should  initial  the 
place  where  the  erasure  is  made. 

Eratosthenes  (c.  284-204  B.C.). 
Greek  geographer,  mathematician, 
astronomer,  critic,  and  poet.  Born 
at  Gyrene,  he  studied  at  Alexandria 
and  then  at  Athens,  whence  he 
was  summoned  in  235  by  Ptolemy 
Euergetes  to  take  charge  of  the 
library  at  Alexandria,  a  post  which 
he  held  until  his  death.  His  chief 
work,  Geographica,  was  a  treatise 
on  physical,  mathematical  (based 
on  his  method  of  measuring  the 
earth),  and  political  geography. 
His  mathematical  works  included 
a  treatise  On  Means  ;  the  Koskinon 
(sieve)  was  a  mechanical  device  for 
finding  prime  numbers.  He  also 
wrote  an  astronomical  poem,  Her- 
mes, a  description  of  the  heavens 
and  the  mythological  legends  asso- 
ciated with  the  stars  ;  a  Chrono- 
graphiaor  Annals;  a  valuable  list  of 
the  victors  in  the  Olympic  games  ; 
and  a  history  of  old  comedy. 

Erbium.  Metallic  element  of 
the  rare  earth  erbia,  which  is  its 
oxide.  Its  atomic  weight  has  been 
determined  as  167  '7,  and  its  speci- 
fic gravity  as  4  '77  ;  but  while  pure 
compounds  have  been  prepared, 
the  element  has  not  yet  been 
isolated.  The  oxide  was  first  recog- 
nized in  1843.  With  dysprosium, 
holmium,  and  thulium  it  forms  the 
erbia  sub-group  of  rare  earths,  all 
of  which  are  included  in  the 
yttrium  group.  Erbia  is  found  in 
almost  all  the  rare  earths,  but  is 
most  conveniently  extracted  from 
zenotine,  fergusonite,  euxenite, 
polychrase,  and  blomstrandin. 

Er  cilia  y  Zuniga,  ALOSSO  DE 
(1533-95).  Spanish  poet.  He  was 
a  native  of  Madrid,  and  became 
attendant  to 
Philip  II, 
whom  he  ac- 
companied to 
England  in 
1554.  Ercilla 
fought  in  Chile 
against  the 
Araucanians. 
The  closing 


Alexandra  Chatrian, 
French  author 


poet          poverty      and 


neglect.  His  poems  are  mainly 
heroic,  notably  La  Araucana,  which 
embodied  his  war  experiences. 

Erckmann- Chatrian.  Com- 
pound signature  of  two  successful 
literary  partners  and  collaborators. 
They  were  Emile  Erckmann,  born 
May  20,  1822, 
at  Phalsbourg, 
and  Alexandre 
Chatrian,  born 
Dec.  18,  1826, 
at  Soldaten- 
thal,  both  in 
Lorraine.  They 
began  to  col- 
laborate in 
1848,  but  first 
won  success 
in  1859  with 
L'illustre  Doc- 
teurMatheus.  In  1862  they  began, 
with  L'invasion  :  ou  le  f ou  Yegof,  a 
series  of  novels  which  included 
Histoire  d'un  Conscrit  and  Water- 
loo, which  remain  among  the  best 
war  stories  ever  written.  Indus- 
trious playwrights,  also  in  collabo- 
ration, they  wrote  Le  Juif  Polonais 
(Theatre  Cluny,  June,  1869),  fami- 
liar in  English 
to  all  playgoers 
as  The  "Bells. 
Another  of 
their  p  lays, 
L'ami  Fritz, 
187  6,  re  tains  its 
popularity  in 
various  modi- 
fied forms. 
The  collabora- 
tion was  ter- 
minated by  a 
difference  of 
opinion  on  money  matters.  Chat- 
rian died  in  Paris,  Sept.  4,  1890. 
Erckmann  died  at  Luneville, 
March  13,  1899. 

Ercole  da  Ferrara  (c.  1462- 
1531).  Italian  painter.  Born  at 
Ferrara,  little  is  known  of  him 
except  that  he 
was  in  the  ser- 
vice of  the 
Duke  of  Fer- 
rara from 
1492-99,  and 
died  in  Fer- 
rara in  1531. 
Among  his 
best  works, 
distinguished 
by  the  warmth 

Of     their     COl-        From  an  old  engraving 

ouring,  are  The  Madonna  and 
Child,  and  Conversion  of  S.  Paul 
in  the  National  Gallery,  London. 
His  real  name  appears  to  have  been 
-'Ercole  di  Giulio  Grandi,  and  his 
pictures  have  often  been  con- 
founded with  those  of  his  fellow- 
townsman  and  contemporary,  Er- 
cole di  Roberti  Grandi  (c.  1455-96), 
probably  his  brother.  The  latter 


Erckmann, 
French  author 


ERDELLI 

2960 

ERFURT 

was  obviously  influenced  by  Man- 

Warka  on  the  left  Euphrates  bank 

of  Constantinople.   It  is  also  known 

tegna  in  his  earlier  work  at   Bo- 

between Samawa  and  Shatra.-  138 

as  Eski  Eregli  and  was  the  ancient 

logna;   bis  second  style,  adopted 

m.  S.S.E.  of  Bagdad,  and  its  ex- 

Perinthus.    Pop.  3,000. 

after  he  settled  in  Ferrara  in  1488, 

tensive    ruins    attest    its    former 

Eremurus.   Genus  of  perennial 

was  more  suave  and  graceful. 

greatness.     Mentioned  in  Gen.  10, 

herbs  of  the  natural   order  Lilia- 

Erdelli,  DIMITRI.    Russian  sol- 

the hegemony  established  by  Lu- 

ceae.      Natives  of  Asia,   from  S. 

dier.    A  corps  commander  early  in 

galzaggisi  (c.  2825  B.C.)  was  finally 

Russia  to   Hindustan,  they  have 

the  Great  War,  in  1917  he  com- 

secured by  Ur  about  2450.    Ashur- 

fascicled      roots,     long      slender 

manded    the    llth    army.       The 

banipal  deported  to  Samaria  some 

leaves,   and  leafless   flower  stems 

troops,     however,    were    infected 

of  its  inhabitants,  the  Archevites 

terminating    in   a   long    spray   of 

with  insubordination  following  the 

of  Ezra  4.     Loftus's  excavations, 

yellow,    rosy,    or    white    flowers, 

revolution,  and  on  his  sector  oc- 

1854; revealed  the  temple  and  zig- 

much  like  those  of  the  hyacinth. 

curred  the  first  great  breach  lead- 
ing to  the  Russian  retreat,  although 

gurat  (or  tower)  of  its  city-goddess 
Nana.  Further  excavations  in  1913 

Eretria.  Ancient  city  of  Greece, 
on  the  W.  coast  of  Euboea*     It 

he  made  strong  efforts  to  restore 

brought    to    light    relics    of    the 

stood  on  the  Euripus,  14  m.  S.E. 

discipline.        Appointed    military 

Arsacid  and  Seleucid  period. 

of    Chalcis.       It    sided    with    the 

governor  of  Petrograd  by  Keren- 

Erechtheum  (Gr.  Erechtheion). 

Greeks  of  Asia  Minor  against  the 

sky,  July,  1917,  he  was   arrested 

Ionic    temple    on    the    Acropolis, 

Persians  in  498  B.C.,  who  destroyed 

with  Denikin,  Sept.,  1917,  but  was 

Athens  (q.v.),   just    N.W.    of   the 

it  eight  years  later.   Rebuilt  by  the 

released.     Later,  he  was  reported 

Parthenon.  It  was  built  partly  in 

Athenians,  it  was  the  seat  of  a 

to  have  been  shot. 

honour  of  the  Greek  hero,  Erech- 

short-lived   school   of    philosophy 

Erdington.    Suburb  and  eccle- 

theus,  and   contained    the   shrine 

founded    by    Menedemus,    whose 

siastical  district  of  Birmingham.  It 

and   a  sacred    wooden    image    of 

tenets  were  akin  to  those  of  the 

lies  N.  of  the  city  proper,  of  which  it 

Athena  Polias,  guardian  of  the  city, 

Megarians.      Eretria   figured  pro- 

is a  residential  suburb.     It  is  now 

and  the  tomb  of  Cecrops,  beside 

minently  hi  the  war  between  Athens 

part  of  the  municipality,  and  has 

other   treasures.      A    unique    and 

and  Philip  of  Macedon.      Recent 

a  station  on  the  L.  &  N.W.  Rly. 

beautiful  structure,  much  of  which 

excavations  have  revealed  the  re- 

Pop. 28,940.     See  Birmingham. 
Erebus  (Gr.  erebos,  darkness). 
In  Greek  mythology,  son  of  Chaos 

is  still  standing,  it  is  noted  for  its 
remarkable  porch  of  the  Caryatides 
(q.v.),  six    draped   female   figures 

mains  of  a  theatre,  an  early  temple, 
and  other  relics  of  the  pre-Persian 
period.  The  site  is  now  occupied  by 

and  father  of  Hemera  (Day)   by 
union  with  his  sister  Nyx  (Night). 

supporting  the  roof.     The  original 
building  was  destroyed  by  the  Per- 

the unhealthy  and  swamp-bound 
town  of  Nea  Prasa. 

The   word   is   sometimes   used  as 

sians  in  480  B.C.;  the  new,  begun 

Erfurt.    City   of   Germany,   in 

equivalent    to    the    lower    world 

about    437    or    later,    was    much 

Prussian  Saxony.    It  stands  on  the 

generally,  sometimes  for  the  region 

damaged  by  fire  in  406,  and  was 

Gera,  14  m.  from  Weimar.     The 

through    which    souls    passed    on 

unfinished  in  395.     See  Athens. 

finest  building  is  the  cathedral,  dedi- 

their way  to  Hades  proper. 

Erechtheus  OR  ERICHTHONIUS. 

cated  to  the  Virgin  Mary,  which 

Erebus.  Volcano  of  Ross  Island, 

in    Greek    mythology,    legendary 

was  mainly  built  in  the  13th  cen- 

off S.   Victoria  Land,  Antarctica, 

king  of  Athens.     He  was  said  to 

tury    and   restored    in    the    19th. 

in  lat.  77°  30'  S.    It  has  an  alt.  of 

have  been  the  founder  of  the  great 

Among  its  features  are  the  beauti- 

12,370 ft.    Another  volcanic  peak, 

Athenian    festival    of    the    Pana- 

ful  chancel,  the  cloisters,  and  the 

Mt.  Terror  (alt.  10,900  ft.),  lies  30 

thenaea,  and  to  have  introduced 

lofty  towers.  It  has  decorations  by 

m.    farther   E.      They    were   dis- 

the worship  of  Athena. 

Peter  Vischer  and  others.   Next  to 

covered  by  Captain  James  Ross  in 

Eregli.    Name  of  three  towns, 

it,  on  the  Friedrich  Wilhelms  Platz, 

1841,   who  named  them  after  his 

two   in    Asia   Minor    and   one  in 

is  the  church  of  S.  Severus. 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 

^^^m    Thrace.    (l)a 

There  are  other   old   churches, 

|     port  of  Asia  Mi- 

including   the  Prediger,  the   mer- 

'^aHlHBSMHHi 

|     nor  on  the  Black 

chants',   and   the   Barfiisser.     All 

!HifeMiiH|&J     ^ea>  between  the 

date  from  the  12th  and  13th  cen- 

I    Bosporus     and 

turies,   when   Erfurt  was   a  great 

Sinope.  This  was 

monastic  centre.      Two  of  its  con- 

]    the  ancient  Hera- 

vents  still  remain,  but  the  monas- 

A^     JdSk  J 

k                          i     cleia,    whence 

tery  to  which  Luther  belonged  is 

irirf  *nJ 

[     Xenophon's 

now  an  orphanage,  being  called  in 

^^K^H 

TTlr"    fa  !• 

1  0,000  Greeks  set 

his  honour  the  Martinsstift.    Other 

-  '  a  IBS"1"*1*1 

j    out  on   their  re- 

buildings are  the  town  hall,  a  pic- 

turn to  Greece  by 

ture  gallery,  a  library  and  museums. 

1    sea.     Sometimes 

Two   citadels   overlook    the    city, 

1     called  Bander  - 

which  was  fortified  until  1873. 

' 

1     egli,  it  is  a  busy 

Apart  from  its  historical  interest, 

place,  with  some 

Erfurt  is  a  busy  industrial  town, 

Erebus.     Sir  Ernest  Snackleton's  camp  7,000  ft  up  Mt.        an  export  trade 
Erebus.    The  steam  from  the  active  crater  it  viable  on        in    silks,   cattle, 
the  mountain  top                                     and  coal.      Pop. 

century.     Rly.  stock  and  various 
kinds  of  clothing  are  manufactured, 
also  chemicals,  machinery,  furni- 

By court*,,,  of  Wm.  Ueinemann                                        ^QQQ    (2)Town  of 

ships.     Erebus  has  been  recently     Asia  Minor  the  ancient  Cybistra. 

ture,  etc.    Brewing  and  dyeing  are 
other  industries.     In  and  around 

active,   but  Terror  is  dormant  or 
extinct.     The  former  was  reached 

It  stands  on  the  Bagdad  Rly.,  half- 
way between  Konieh  and  Adana. 

much  land  is  devoted  to  growing 
flowers  and  vegetables,  for  which 

in  March,  1908,  by  the  expedition 
under  Shackleton. 

There  are  remarkable  Hittite  re- 
mains in  the  neighbourhood.    Pop. 

the  city  is  one  of  the  chief  markets 
in  Germany.     There  are  theatres, 

Erech.      Biblical  name  of  the 

10,000.     (3)  Town  of  Thrace.      It 

baths,  and  a  service  of  electric  tram- 

Sumerian city  Uruk.     Its  site  is 
occupied  by  the  modern  village  of 

stands  on  the  European  side  of  the 
Sea  of  Marmora,  about  50  m.  W.S.  W. 

ways.      In  the  suburb  of  Hversge- 
hofen  is  a  noted  salt  mine. 

ERG 


2961 


Erfurt.     The   Gothic   cathedral    church  of   Our  Lady   seen  from  the  east. 

Below  it  is  the  Friedricb  Wilhelms  Platz  and  to  the  right  the  15th  century 

church  of  S.  Severus 


Erfurt  was  a  town  in  the  8th 
century  or  earlier,  being  then  made 
a  bishopric.  The  archbishop  of 
Mainz  took  possession  of  it,  main- 
taining it  with  difficulty.  Fora 
time  it  was  part  of  Thuringia,  but 
in  1255  it  became  a  free  city, 
as  such  joining  the  Hanseatic 
League,  this  being  the  time  when 
its  wealth  and  prosperity  were  most 
marked.  The  electors  of  Saxony 
secured  it,  but  in  1648  it  was  again 
given  to  the  elector  of  Mainz,  who 
held  it  until  1802,  when  it  became 
Prussian.  From  1806  to  1814  the 
city  was  in  the  power  of  Napoleon. 
In  1850  the  states  of  N.  Germany 
held  a  parliament  here.  From  1378 
to  1816  Erfurt  had  a  university 
Pop.  123,548. 

Erg  (Gr.  ergon,  work).  Measure- 
ment of  work  done  by  the  force  of 
one  dyne  acting  on  a  body  through 
a  distance  of  one  centimetre.  The 
unit  of  power  is  the  erg  per  second. 
See  Dyne. 

Ergasteria  (Gr.,  workshops). 
Port  of  Greece,  better  known  as 
Laurium  (q.v.). 

Ergeri.  Alternative  name  of 
the  Albanian  town  of  Argyrokas 
tro  (q.v.). 

Ergot  (Fr.,  spur).  Fungoid  pest 
(Claviceps  pur  pur  ea)  that  attacks 
the  flowers  of  cereals — especially 
rye — cultivated  grasses,  such  as  rye- 
grass  and  Timothy  grass,  and  wild 
grasses.  What  should  have  been  a 
grain  is  replaced  by  a  hard  spur- 
like  outgrowth  (ergot),  which,  if 
devoured  by  pregnant  stock,  may 
cause  abortion.  Ergots  should  not 
be  sown  with  gram  or  grass  seeds, 
and  wild  grasses  infested  by  them 
should  be  destroyed. 

The  chief  active  principle  of  ergot 
is  ergotoxin,  a  substance  which 
causes  powerful  contractions  of 
the  uterus.  For  this  reason  ergot 


or  its  preparations  are  sometimes 
administered  after  labour  to  ensure 
efficient  contraction  of  the  uterus 
and  diminish  the  risk  of  post-par- 
turn  haemorrhage.  This  property 
of  ergot  formerly  led  to  its  use  to 
induce  labour  where  this  was  desir- 
able on  medical  grounds,  but  its 
action  in  this  respect  is  very  uncer- 
tain,and  the  drug  is  now  hardly  ever 
used  for  this  purpose.  It  is  some- 
times resorted  to  with  criminal 
intent,  but  it  may  cause  severe 
symptoms  of  general  poisoning  with- 
out achieving  the  desired  result. 

Poisoning  by  ergot  may  be  acute 
or  chronic.  Acute  poisoning,  which 
may  result  from  taking  a  single 
large  dose,  gives  rise  to  giddiness, 
vomiting,  colicky  pains  in  the  abdo- 
men, disturbance  of  vision,  cramps, 
muscular  weakness,  coma  or  de- 
lirium, and  convulsions.  Fatal 
cases  are  rare,  but  if  the  poisoning 
is  associated  with  premature  ex- 
pulsion of  the  uterine  contents  the 
risk  is  much  greater.  Chronic 
poisoning  is  generally  the  result  ol 
eating,  for  a  considerable  period, 
bread  which  has  been  made  from 
rye  or  other  cereals  infected  with 
the  fungus.  Ergotism,  as  the  con- 
dition is  called,  is  not  often  seen  in 
this  country,  but  it  is  common  in 
certain  parts  of  the  Continent,  par- 
ticularly Russia.  The  early  symp- 
toms are  those  of  irritant  poisoning : 
vomiting,  diarrhoea,  and  pain  in  the 
abdomen.  The  latter  symptoms 
present  two  types,  the  nervous  and 
the  gangrenous  form.  In  the  former 
there  may  be  tingling  sensations  in 
the  skin,  spasms,  and  painful 
cramps  in  the  muscles.  Generalised 
convulsions  resembling  those  of 
epilepsy  may  occur.  Paralysis  and 
affections  of  the  mind,  such  as  de- 
lirium, melancholia,  or  dementia, 
are  other  manifestations.  The  gan- 


grenous form  may  lead  to  mortifi- 
cation of  the  fingers  and  toes.  Both 
sets  of  symptoms  may  be  present  in 
one  individual. 

Eric.  Masculine  Christian  name. 
A  Scandinavian  word  meaning  ever 
king,  it  has  been  especially  popular 
in  the  Scandinavian  countries.  It 
was  brought  from  there  into  Eng 
land.  Thereis  a  feminine form,Erica 
Eric  XIV  (1533-77).  King  ol 
Sweden,  1560-68.  Born  Dec.  13. 
1533,  he  was  the  son  and  unworthy 
successor  of 
Gustavus 
Vasa.  His 
short  reign  was 
marked  by  the 
limiting  of  the 
power  of  the 
royal  dukes 
and  by  the 
securing  of 
E  s  t  h  o  n  i  a ,  Eric  XIV, 

which  began  King  of  Sweden 
Sweden's  policy  of  oversea  expan- 
sion. His  insanity  and  cruelty  cut 
short  his  reign,  for  after  the  murder 
of  the  Stores  in  1567  the  nobles  rose 
and  deposed  him  (1568).  At  different 
times  he  contemplated  marriage 
with  Elizabeth  of  England,  Mary  of 
Scotland,  Christina  of  Hesse,  and 
Renee  of  Lorraine,  but  finally  con- 
tented himself  with  marrying  his 
mistress,  Katrina  Mansdotter,  a 
peasant.  He  is  believed  to  have  been 
poisoned  Feb.  26,  1577,  by  his 
brother  and  successor,  John,  to  put 
an  end  to  conspiracies  in  his  favour. 
Ericaceae  (Gr.  ereike,  heath). 
Large  natural  order  of  evergreen 
shrubs,  under-shrubs,  and  a  few 
small  trees.  They  are  chiefly  na- 
tives of  temperate  and  cold  climates. 


Ericaceae.     Leaves  and  Sowers  of 
Calluna  vulgaris 

They  have  simple  leaves,  and  regu- 
lar flowers,  some,  e.g.  the  heaths 
(Erica),  bell-shaped  or  tubular, 
others  expanded,  e.g.  the  rho- 
dodendron. 

Ericht.  Loch  on  the  borders  of 
Perthshire  and  Inverness-shire, 
Scotland.  Lying  1,152  ft.  above 
sea  level,  it  is  14£  m.  long  and  has  a 
greatest  depth  of  513  ft.  Over- 
looking the  W.  shore  is  Ben  Alder 

S     4 


Jobn  Ericsson. 
Engineer 


ERICSSON 

(3,757  ft.)  Here  is  a  cavern  in 
which  Charles  Edward  sought  re- 
fuge after  the  battle  of  Culloden. 

Ericsson,  JOHN  (1803-89). 
Swedish-American  engineer.  Born 
July  31,  1803,  in  Vermland,  Swe- 
den, at  an 
early  age  he 
developed 
great  aptitude 
for  mechanics, 
and  in  1820 
became  an 
engineer  in  the 
Swedish  army. 
Seeking  a 
wider  scope 
for  his  talents, 
he  came  to  England  in  1826  and 
occupied  himself  with  improve- 
ments in  steam  machinery.  Three 
years  later  be  built,  with  John 
Braithwaite  (g.v.),  the  Novelty 
locomotive  engine  to  compete  with 
Stephenson's  Rocket.  Ericsson  was 
occupied  with  various  inventions, 
chiefly  marine  engines,  up  to  1836, 
when  he  brought  out  a  marine 
screw  propeller. 

Not  obtaining  the  recognition  he 
expected  from  the  British  Admir- 
alty, in  1839  he  went  to  America, 
where  he  lived  for  the  remainder  of 
his  life.  Turning  his  attention  to 
defensive  armour  for  warships  and 
improvements  in  marine  engines, 
he  gained  a  wide  reputation.  In 
1861  he  designed  the  famous  ar- 
moured turret  ship  the  Monitor, 
and  in  1862  built  a  number  of 
similar  vessels  for  the  American 
navy.  Ericsson's  contributions  to 
the  science  of  mechanical  engin- 
eering had  a  marked  effect  on  the 
navigation  of  the  world.  He  died 
in  New  York,  March  8,  1889.  See 
Life,  W.  C.  Church,  new  ed.  1892. 

Eridanus.  In  classical  myth- 
ology, a  river  and  river-god  of 
Italy.  It  was  identified  with  the 
Padus,  the  modern  Po,  which  rises 
in  the  Alps  and  discharges  into  the 
Adriatic  by  several  mouths. 

Eridanus.  One  of  the  Ptolemaic 
constellations.  The  larger  part  of 
it  is  below  the  northern  horizon. 
Alpha  Eridani  or  Achernahr  is 
known  as  the  End  of  the  River ;  but 
the  title  was  given  by  Ptolemy  to 
Theta  Eridani  much  farther  N. 
Beta  Eridani  is  known  as  Cursa, 
the  footstool  of  Orion.  The  con- 
stellation is  also  called  the  River, 
which  may  have  referred  to  the 
Euphrates!  See  Cursa. 

Bridge  Castle.  Seat  of  the  mar- 
quess of  Abergavenny  in  Sussex, 
near  the  Kentish  border,  3  m.  from 
Tunbridge  Wells.  The  estate  has 
belonged  to  the  Nevilles  since  the 
13th  century,  but  the  present  castle 
is  modern,  being  built  early  in  the 
19th  century.  The  park  covers  2,000 
acres.  At  Eridge  Green  are  the 


Ericsson.      The   Monitor,  an  ironclad 
from  Ericsson's  plans  by  the  Federal  Navy  d 
American  Civil  War 


Eridge  Rocks.  The  village  has  a 
station  on  the  L.B.  &  S.C.  Rly., 
and  the  place  gives  its  name  to  the 
Eridge  Hunt.  It  is  probable  that 
there  was  a  deer  park  here  in  1086. 

Eridu.  Sumerian  settlement  at 
Abu  Shahrain,  S.  of  Muqayyar 
(Moghair  or  Ur),  S.  Babylonia.  Ori- 
ginally an  islet  on  a  Persian  Gulf 
estuary,  sacred  to  the  water-god 
Ea,  it  was  the  traditional  cradle- 
land  of  some  aspects  of  Babylonian 
religion.  Examined  by  J.  E.  Tay- 
lor, 1854,  its  sandstone  wall,  20  ft. 
high,  enclosed  a  platform  with 
marble  staircase,  bearing  a  two- 
staged  brick  tower.  Capt.  R.  C. 
Thompson's  excavations  in  1918 
revealed  a  pre-Sumerian  neolithic 
substratum,  and  copper-age  culture, 
further  explored  by  H.  R.  Hall 
during  1919. 

Erie.  Southernmost  of  the 
chain  of  great  lakes  of  N.  America. 
It  forms  part  of  the  boundary 
between  the  U.S.A.  and  Canada. 
Area,  10,000  sq,  m.  It  is  250  m. 
long,  and  its  greatest  breadth  is 
60  m.,  while  its  average  depth  is 
90  ft.  The  lake  is  565  ft.  above  the 
level  of  tide  water  in  the  Hudson 
river  at  Albany,  and  330  ft.  above 
the  level  of  Lake  Ontario,  into 
which  it  discharges  its  waters  by 
the  Falls  of  Niagara.  At  its  N.  W. 


hip,  1 
uring 


the 


ERIE 

end  it  receives 
the  surplus 
waters  of  lakes 
Superior,  Michi- 
gan, and  Huron, 
through  the  river 
Detroit.  Con- 
tributory feeders 
are  the  rivers 
Thames  and 
Grand.  A  large 
number  of  steam- 
ers and  other 
ships  traverse  it, 
except  in  win- 
ter, when  it  is 
generally  frozen  over  for  a  con- 
siderable period.  In  very  hard 
winters  it  is  possible  to  cross 
from  the  U.S.A.  to  Canada  over 
the  ice. 

Lake  Erie  is  the  outlet  of  a  large 
system  of  connecting  canals,  which 
render  its  navigation  of  great 
importance.  The  Welland  Canal 
connects  with  Lake  Ontario  ;  the 
Erie  Canal  affords  communication 
between  Buffalo  and  Albany,  thus 
linking  up  with  the  Hudson  river  ; 
the  Ohio  Canal  begins  at  Cleveland 
and  ends  at  Portsmouth,  on  the 
Ohio  river ;  and  the  Miami  and 
Erie  Canal  connects  Toledo  with 
Cincinnati.  During  the  war  of 
1812-15  an  American  squadron, 
under  Commodore  Perry,  captured 
here  a  British  force  of  six  vessels 
on  Sept.  10,  1813. 

Erie.  City  of  Pennsylvania, 
U.S.A.,  the  co.  seat  of  Erie  co.  On 
Lake  Erie,  88  m.  S.W.  of  Buffalo, 
it  is  served  by  the  New  York, 
Chicago  and  St.  Louis,  and  other 
rlys.  Its  fine  natural  harbour, 
with  artificial  improvements,  is 
protected  by  Presque  Isle,  a  strip 
of  land  6  m.  long  and  1  m.  in 
extreme  breadth,  and  has  a 
maximum  depth  of  25  ft.  An 
important  industrial  and  com- 
mercial centre  with  a  valuable 


Erie.     Engineering  works  on  the  shores  of  the  lake  at  Buffalo.  N.Y. 

By  courtesy  of  Grand  Trunk  Railway  of  Canada 


ERIE      CANAL 


2963 


ERITREA 


trade  by  lake  and  rly.  in  coal, 
iron,  grain,  and  agricultural  pro- 
duce, Erie  has  ironworks, 
machinery,  paper,  woollen,  silk, 
motor-car,  and  tobacco  factories, 
foundries,  and  chemical  works. 
Its  chief  buildings  include  the 
court  house,  city  hall,  two  cathe- 
drals, arid  a  public  library,  and  it 
has  several  educational  establish- 
ments and  benevolent  institu- 
tions. Founded  on  the  site  of  the 
old  French  fort  of  Presque  Isle, 


Erinus. 


Roots,  foliage,  and  flower 
o!  Erinus  alpinus 


erected  1753,  Erie's  city  charter 
dates  from  1851.  In  Aug.,  1915, 
the  city  was  inundated  by  a  cloud- 
burst, when  many  people  perished 
and  considerable  Damage  was  done 
to  property.  Pop.  76,590. 

Erie  Canal.  Largest  artificial 
waterway  in  the  U.S.  A.  Extending 
across  New  York  State  from 
Buffalo  to  Albany,  it  communi- 
cates between  the  Hudson  river 
and  Lake  Erie.  Begun  in  1816, 
and  completed  in  1825,  it  has  a 
length  of  361  m.  Originally  only 
accessible  to  boats  of  70  tons, 
periodical  alterations  increased  its 
breadth  to  70  ft.  and  its  depth  to 
9  £f t . ,  makin  git  navigable  for  vessels 
of  250  tons.  Vessels  of  1,000  tons 
can  make  its  passage.  For  five 
months  in  the  yearnavigation  is  ob- 
structed by  ice.  It  serves  Roches- 
ter, Syracuse,  Utica,  and  Troy. 

Erigena,  JOHANNES  SCOTUS  (c. 
810-877).  Scottish  philosopher 
and  theologian.  He  was  a  Scot 
born  in  Ireland,  which  at  the  time 
was  called  Greater  Scotland,  the 
name  Erigena  (lerugena,  Erugena, 
Eriugena)  probably  meaning  Irish- 
born.  About  840  he  was  summoned 
by  Charles  the  Bald  to  Paris,  where 
he  became  teacher  at  the  court 
school.  Erigena  attempts  to  com- 
bine the  neo-Platonist  theory  of 
emanation  with  the  Christian  idea 
of  the  Creation  and  the  doctrine  of 
the  Trinity,  the  result  being  a  kind 
of  pantheism,  the  view  that  all 
things  are  contained  in  God.  Q 

Erin.  Poetical  name  for  Ireland. 
It  was  popularised  by  Thomas 
Moore's  Irish  Melodies,  but  is  of 


much  earlier  origin.  Philologists 
assume  an  old  Celtic  form,  Iveriu  or 
piveriu,  probably  meaning  fertile 
(c/.  Gr.  pi-on,  fat),  in  old  Irish 
Eriu,  in  the  declension  of  which 
Erin,  Erinn,  appear.  The  Greek 
name  lerne  =  Iverne,  the  v  being 
preserved  in  the  Latin  Juverna  or 
Jubema,  of  which  Hibernia  (q.v.) 
is  another  form. 

Erin  go  bragh.  Irish  phrase 
meaning  Ireland  for  Ever.  Through 
its  association  with  Ireland's  de- 
mand for  a  freer  and  more  inde- 
pendent government  it  became 
a  party  instead  of  an  entirely  na- 
tional cry.  It  is  widely  used  as  an 
expression  of  national  sentiment, 
equivalent  to  Scotland  for  Ever. 

Erinus.  Genus  of  alpine  herbs 
of  the  natural  order  Scrophularia- 
ceae.  They  are  natives  of  W. 
Europe.  The  spoon-shaped  leaves, 
which  grow  in  a  tuft,  have  their 
broad  ends  boldly  cut  into  about 
five  pointed  teeth.  The  leafy  stem 
ends  in  a  cluster  of  pretty  rosy- 
purple  or  yellow  flowers. 

Erinyes.  In  Greek  mythology, 
older  name  of  the  Eumenides  (q.v. ), 
or  tragic  furies. 

Eriocaulaceae  (Gr.  erion,  wool; 
kautos,  stalk).  Natural  order  of 
rush-like  perennial  marsh  herbs. 
Chiefly  natives  of  the  tropics,  they 
have  slender,  spongy  leaves,  and 
minute  flowers  gathered  into  a 
head.  These  flowers  are  either 
male  or  female,  the  former  having 
two  or  three  stamens  and  a  rudi- 
mentary ovary,  the  latter  with 
developed  ovary  and  short  style, 
but  no  stamens.  Pipe -wort 
(Eriocaulon  septangulare)  of  Euro- 
pean lakes  is  typical  of  the  order. 

Eriphyle.  In  Greek  legend, 
sister  of  Adrastus,  king  of  Argos, 


Eris.  In  Greek  mythology, 
goddess  of  discord.  Annoyed  at 
not  being  invited  with  the  other 
gods  to  the  wedding-feast  of 
Peleus  and  Thetis,  she  threw  a 
golden  apple  into  the  midst  of 
the  feast  inscribed  "  For  the 
fairest."  It  was  claimed  by  Hera, 
Athena,  and  Aphrodite,  and  the 
shepherd  Paris  (q.v.)  had  to  decide. 
Erith.  Market  town  and  urban 
district  of  Kent.  It  stands  on  the 
S.  side  of  the  Thames,  14  m.  E.  of 
London,  being  a 
station  of  the 
S.E.  &  C.  Rly.  A 
busy  industrial 
place,  there  are 
large  engineering 
works,  while  other 
industries  are  the 
making  of  gun- 
powder, glue, 
manure,  etc.  Pleasure  grounds 
have  been  laid  out  along  the  river, 


Erith.    The  parish  church  of  S.  John  the  Baptist,  founded 
in  the  12th  or  13th  century 

and  wife  of  Amphiaraus.  Before 
he  joined  the  expedition  of  the 
Seven  against  Thebes,  Amphiaraus 
charged  his  son  Alcmaeon  to 
murder  his  mother  as  soon  as  he 
should  hear  of  his  father's  death, 
and  in  due  course  Alcmaeon 
obeyed  his  behest.  See  Alcmaeon ; 
Amphiaraus. 


Eriocaulaceae.     1.  Leaf.   2.  Male  flower. 
3.  Entire  plant.    4.  Head  of  flower 

and  the  town  is  the  headquarters 
of   several   yachting  clubs.      The 
chief  church  is  that  of  S.  John  the 
Baptist,  which  has 
some    interesting 
brasses.     Parts  of 
it   date   from    the 
12th  or  13tb   cen- 
tury.     Here  is    a 
home  for  disabled 
seamen.    Erith  has 
an  interesting  his- 
tory,   as    it     was 
made    a    borough 
in  the  Middle  Ages 
and   in    the    17th 
century  was  used 
by     the    navy. 
Changes   deprived 
it  of  both  advan- 
tages,   but  it    be- 
came an  industrial  centre  in  the 
19th  century.     Pop.  (1921)  31,568. 
Eritrea.   Italian  colony  situated 
on  the  Red  Sea.    Its  coast  is  about 
670  m.  long  ;  it  is  bounded  N.  and 
W.  by  the  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan, 
S.  and  S.W.  by  Abyssinia,  and  on 
the    extreme    S.    by    the    French 
Somali  Coast  Protectorate.    Eritrea 


ERIVAN 


2964 


ERMINE 


contains  the  following  administra- 
tive divisions  :  Massowah,  Hamas- 
sen,  Assab,  Accheli  Guzzi,  Serae, 
Cheren,  Barca,  Gasc  and  Setit. 
Generally  arid  and  extremely  hot, 
there  is  yet  good  pasture  for  cattle, 
sheep,  and  goats,  and  camels  are 


cotton.  After  being  alternately  in 
the  hands  of  Turks  and  Persians, 
it  was  taken  by  the  Russians  in 
1827,  and  definitely  ceded  to 
Russia  by  the  treaty  of  Turkman- 
shai,  1828.  Pop.  34,000. 

Erlangen.  Town  of  Bavaria, 
Germany.  It  is  in  Franconia,  15m. 
N.  W.  of  Nuremberg,  just  where  the 
Schwabach  joins  the  Regnitz.  Its 
chief  buildings  are  the  town  hall 
and  the  university,  and  there  are  a 
number  of  churches,  schools,  etc., 


Eritrea.    Map  of  the  Italian  colony 
in  north-east  Africa 


numerous.  A  rly.  (74  m.)  joins  the 
capital,  Asmara,  to  the  chief  port, 
Massowah.  The  chief  products  are 
hides,  butter,  palm-nuts,  gold, 
ostrich  feathers,  and  mother-of- 
pearl.  Pearls  are  gathered  at  Mas- 
sowah and  in  the  Dahlak  Archi- 
pelago, which  is  included  in  the 
colony.  Massowah  was  occupied 
by  Italy  in  1 885,  and  the  surround- 
ing territory  was  formed  into  the 
colony  of  Eritrea  in  1889.  Italian 
enterprise  was  checked  by  the 
disastrous  defeat  of  the  Italians  by 
Abyssinian  forces  at  Adowa,  March 
1,  1896.  Area,  45,800  sq.  m.  Pop., 
mostly  nomadic,  450,000. 

Erivan.  Former  govt.  in  Trans- 
caucasia, since  1918  an  Armenian 
republic.  It  is  bounded  by  Turkish 
and  Persian  Armenia,  the  prov.  of 
Kars,  and  the  govts.  of  Tiflis  and 
Elizabetpol.  It  is  a  mountainous 
country,  the  chief  heights  being 
Great  and  Little  Ararat  and  Alag- 
yuz,  and  is  watered  by  the  Aras, 
ancient  Araxes.  On  an  island  in 
Lake  Goktcha  is  the  famous  con- 
vent of  Sevanga,  founded  in  the 
4th  century  A.D.  Minerals  abound, 
especially  rock-salt.  The  inhabi- 
tants are  chiefly  engaged  in  agri- 
culture and  cattle-breeding.  The 
area  is  10,000  sq.  m.  Pop.  1,034,800. 

Erivan.  Town  of  Transcaucasia, 
capital  of  Erivan.  It  stands  on  the 
Sanga,  40  m.  N.E.  of  Ararat  and 
145  m.  S.S.E.  of  Tiflis.  It  is  the 
seat  of  a  bishopric  and  contains  the 
remains  of  an  old  palace  of  the 
Persian  viceroys.  An  active  trade 
is  carried  on  with  Russia  and  other 
countries  in  leather,  pottery,  and 


but  none  is  notable  architecturally. 
The  principal  industries  are  the 
making  of  beer,  paper,  and  textile 
goods,  the  last,  to  which  the  town 
owes  much  of  its  prosperity,  having 
been  introduced  by  the  Huguenots. 
The  university  was  founded  in 
1742  by  Frederick,  margrave  of 
Baireuth.  It  has  a  large  library, 
a  botanical  garden,  and  hospital, 
in  addition  to  laboratories,  etc. 
Erlangen  passed  in  the  Middle 
Ages  from  one  ruler  to  another. 
It  was  made  a  town  in  1398,  and 
until  1791  was  in  the  margraviate 
of  Baireuth  ;  the  palace  of  the 
margraves  is  now  used  for  the 
university.  In  1791  it  passed  to 
Prussia  and  in  1810  to  Bavaria. 
Pop.  24,900. 

Erlanger,  £MILE  BEAUMONT, 
BARON  D'  (b.  1866).  British  finan- 
cier. Of  German  parentage,  he  was 
born  in  Paris  and  educated  pri- 
vately. Naturalised  a  British  sub- 
ject in  1891,  he  became  interested 
in  many  commercial  undertakings, 
and  was  senior  partner  of  the  firm 
of  Emile  Erlanger  &  Co.  Baron 
d' Erlanger  was  chairman  of  many 
companies,  was  interested  in  S. 
Africa,  and  took  a  prominent  part 
in  the  Channel  tunnel  scheme, 
being  chairman  of  the  Channel 
Tunnel  Co.,  Ltd. 

Erlau.  Variant  name  of  the  city  in 
Hungary  better  known  as  Eger.  The 
red  wine  produced  around  here  is 
frequently  called  Erlauer.  See  Eger. 


Erl-king  OB  EBLKONIG.  Figure 
in  German  mythology.  He  personi- 
fies an  evil  spirit  haunting  forests 
and  plotting  mischief  to  passers-by, 
especially  children.  The  word, 
meaning  king  of  the  alders  (Ger. 
Erie),  from  the  vapours  that  cling 
to  these  trees  at  night,  is  a  mis- 
translation, and  should  properly  be 
elf-king,  its  meaning  in  Scandi- 
navian (Dan.  Ellerkonge).  The 
character  was  introduced  to  Ger- 
man folklore  by  Herder's  trans- 
lation of  the  Danish  ballad,  Sir 
Olaf  and  the  Erl-king's  Daughter, 
1778-79.  It  is  the  subject  of  a 
famous  ballad  by  Goethe,  set  to 
music  by  Schubert. 

Ermeland  OB  EBMLAND.  Dist. 
of  E.  Prussia,  Germany.  It  is  a 
level  and  sandy  region,  stretching 
inland  from  the  Frisches  HafE  be- 
tween Elbing  and  Konigsberg.  It 
covers  about  1,700  sq.  m.  The 
name  was  borne  by  a  district  in 
Prussia  before  that  country  passed 
into  the  possession  of  the  Teutonic 
Order.  It  was  later  the  principality 
of  a  bishop,  who  was  a  member  of 
the  medieval  empire.  In  1466  it 
was  added  to  Poland,  but  at  the 
partition  of  the  latter  in  1 772  it  was 
seized  by  Prussia.  There  is  no  town 
named  Ermeland,  the  chief  places 
being  Braunsberg,  Allenstein,  and 
Frauenburg,  where  the  bishop  had 
his  cathedral.  At  Braunsberg  is 
the  Ermeland  Museum. 

Ermine.  Name  given  to  the 
winter  phase  of  the  stoat,  when 
the  fur  is  white  with  the  exception 
of  the  black  tip  to  the  tail.  In 
Great  Britain  this  change  from  the 
brown  of  summer  takes  place  regu- 
larly in  Scot- 
1  a  n  d,  and 
often  in  the  N. 
o  f  England  ; 
but  further  S. 
it  is  very  rare. 
The  ermine  fur 
of  commerce 
comes  from 
more  northern 
Ermine  in  heraldry  latitudes, 
chiefly  from  Alaska  ;  but  it  is  now 
in  little  favour,  except  for  official 
robes.  The  name  is  either  a  cor- 
ruption of  Lat.  Armenius  (mus), 
i.e.  Armenian  (mouse),  or  of  Ger. 
Hermelin,  ermine,  ermine-fur. 

In  heraldry,  ermine  is  the  princi- 
pal fur.  It  is  represented  as  silver 
or  white  powdered  with  sable  spots, 
usually  depicted  like  a  small  arrow 
head  surmounted  by  three  dots. 
There  are  four  variants :  ermines 
represented  as  black  powdered  with 
silver  spots;  erminetes  or  erminites, 
represented  as  black  with  silver 
spots  between  two  red  hairs ;  ermin- 
ois,  black  with  gold  spots  ;  and 
pean,  gold  with  black  spots.  St 
Stoat. 


ERMINE      STREET 


2965 


EROS 


Ermine  Street.  Early  English 
name  for  an  ancient  British  high- 
way from  London  to  Lincoln,  and 
thence  to  York.  Incorporated  in 
part  into  the  Romano -British  road 
system,  it  passes  through  London 
along  Kingsland  and  Stoke  New- 
ington  to  Royston,  thence  through 
Godmanchester,  Castor,  Ancaster 
to  Lincoln.  It  appears  in  the  laws 
of  Edward  the  Confessor  as  one 
of  four  royal  roads.  See  Britain. 

Ernakulum.  Town  of  India, 
the  capital  of  Cochin  state.  It  is 
the  terminus  of  the  Cochin  State 
Rly.,  which  connects  the  state  with 
the  main  line  of  the  Madras  Rly. 
The  Raja's  College  here  accom- 
modates 700  students.  Pop.  21, 195, 
53  p.c.  Hindus,  40  p.c.  Christians. 

Erne  OR  SEA  EAGLE.  Name  given 
to  the  white-tailed  sea  eagle,  the 
only  member  of  its  group  still 
found  in  Great  Britain.  It  is  of 
brownish  colour,  has  a  white  tail, 
and  is  about  3  ft.  in  length.  It 
still  breeds  in  the  Hebrides,  but  is 
becoming  very  rare.  See  Eagle. 

Erne.  River  of  Ireland.  It 
issues  from  Lough  Gownagh,  in  co. 
Longford,  and  flows  mainly  N. 
through  Lough  Oughter  and  both 
upper  and  lower  Lough  Erne  until 
it  falls  into  Donegal  Bay  near  Bally- 
shannon.  Its  main  feature  is  the 
Balleck  Falls  on  the  lower  river.  Its 
length  is  70  m.  Enniskillen  is  the 
chief  town  on  its  banks,  and  after 
leaving  Longford  it  passes  through 
counties  Cavan  and  Fermanagh. 

Erne.  Name  of  two  loughs  or 
lakes  of  Ireland.  The  upper  lake 
is  13  m.  long,  and  in  one  place  4  m. 
wide  ;  the  lower  lake  is  18  m.  long, 
and  from  2  to  5  m.  broad.  The  river 
Erne  passes  through  them,  the 
distance  between  the  two  being  10 
m.  The  lakes  occupy  hollows  in 
the  limestone,  and  have  a  very 
irregular  shape  ;  the  upper  portion 
is  merely  a  collection  of  narrow 
ponds  abutting  on  the  river.  In 
both,  but  especially  in  the  upper 
lake,  are  numerous  islands. 

Erne,  EARL  OF.  Irish  title  borne 
since  1789  by  the  family  of  Crich- 
ton.  In  1788  Abraham  Creighton, 
an  Irish  landowner,  was  made 
Baron  Erne.  His  son  John  (d. 
1828)  was  made  a  viscount  and 
an  earl,  and  John  the  3rd  earl 
(1802-85)  changed  the  spelling  of 
the  name  to  Crichton.  He  was  made 
a  British  peer  as  Baron  Fermanagh 
in  1872,  and  from  him  the  present 
earl  is  descended.  The  family  es- 
tates are  mainly  in  counties  Fer- 
managh and  Mayo,  and  the  resi- 
dence is  Crom  Castle,  Fermanagh. 
The  earl's  eldest  son  is  known  as 
Viscount  Crichton.  Pron.  Cryton. 

Ernest.  Masculine  Christian 
name,  probably  derived  from  the 
German  ernst,  serious.  The  French 


form  is  Ernest;  Ital.  and  Span. 
Ernesto.  Its  comparatively  recent 
introduction  into  Britain  is  largely 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  fifth  son  of 
George  III  was  Ernest  Augustus, 
whilst  the  father  and  brother  of 
the  Prince  Consort  were  named 
Ernest.  The  feminine  form  of  the 
name  is  Ernestine. 

Ernest  Augustus  (1771-1851). 
King  of  Hanover.  The  fifth  son  of 
George  III  of  England,  he  was  born 
at  Kew,  June  5, 1771.  He  entered 
the  Hanoverian  army  and  distin- 
guished himself  during  the  Napo- 
leonic wars.  In  1799  he  was  made 
duke  of  Cumberland  and  Teviot- 
dale,  and  in  the  House  of  Lords  he 
acted  with  the  more  extreme  Tories 
in  opposing  all  kinds  of  reform, 
especially  Roman  Catholic  eman- 
cipation and  the  great  measure  of 
1832.  In  1810  some  excitement 
was  caused  by  a  murderous  attack 
made  on  the  duke  by  his  valet ;  the 
latter  was  afterwards  found  dead, 
and  some  went  so  far  as  to  accuse 
Ernest  of  his  murder. 

At  one  time  it  seemed  likely  that 
Ernest  would  inherit  the  English 
throne,  but  by  the  operation  of  the 
Salic  law  he  succeeded  to  Hanover 
in  1837.  There  he  reigned  for 
fourteen  years.  He  would  not 
hear  of  anything  in  the  nature  of 
constitutional  reform,  but  in  spite 
of  troubles  caused  by  this  unyield- 
ing attitude  he  appears  to  have 
been  popular  with  his  subjects.  He 
died  Nov.  18,  1851,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  George.  His  wife 
was  Frederica,  daughter  of  Charles, 
duke  of  Mecklenburg -Strelitz.  See 
photo,  p.  2399. 

Ernie,  ROWLAND  EDMUND  PRO- 
THERO, BARON  (b.  1852).     British 
politician  and  writer.   Born  Sept.  6, 
1852,  a  younger 
son  of  the  Rev. 
G.  Prothero, 
canon  of  West- 
minster, he  was 
educated   at 
Marlborough 
and  Balliol  Col- 
lege,   Oxford, 
becoming 
fellow     of     All          Baron  Ernie, 
Souls  in   1875.       British  politician 
He    was    ad-  Eiuott  &  fry 

mitted  to  the  bar,  did  literary  work 
for  some  years,  and  in  1894  was 
made  editor  of  The  Quarterly 
Review.  An  authority  on  agricul- 
ture, he  was  appointed  agent-in- 
chief  to  the  duke  of  Bedford  in  1899. 

In  1914  Oxford  University  chose 
Prothero  as  one  of  its  members, 
and  in  1916  he  was  included  in  the 
Coalition  Government  as  president 
of  the  board  of  agriculture.  He 
continued  in  office  after  the 
general  election  of  1918,  but  was 
made  a  peer  as  Baron  Ernie, 


the  name  being  that  of  a 
Wiltshire  family  with  which  his 
mother  was  connected.  He  wrote 
The  Pioneers  and  Progress  of  Eng- 
lish Farming,  1888 ;  English  Farm- 
ing, Past  and  Present,  .1912  ;  but 
his  most  popular  works  are  Life 
and  Correspondence  of  Dean 
Stanley,  1893  (with  G.  G.  Brad- 
ley) ;  and  The  Psalms  in  Human 
Life,  1903.  His  only  son  was 
killed  during  the  Great  War. 

Ernulf  OR  ARNTJLF  (1040-1124). 
English  ecclesiastic.  He  was  born 
in  France  and  educated  at  Bee, 
under  Lanfranc,  on  whose  advice 
he  came  to  England.  Made  prior  of 
Canterbury  by  Anselm,  he  was 
abbot  of  Peterborough  from  1107- 
14,  when  he  became  bishop  of 
Rochester.  He  was  a  great  autho- 
rity on  canon  law,  and  the  author 
of  the  Textus  Roffensis,  preserved 
in  the  library  of  Rochester  Cathe- 
dral, which  comprises  records  of 
the  cathedral,  and  other  historical, 
ecclesiastical,  and  legal  documents. 
This  collection  contains  the  form 
of  excommunication  entitled  The 
Pope's  Dreadful  Curse,  quoted  by 
Sterne  in  Tristram  Shandy  to  show 
his  veneration  for  the  pious  bishop 
who  had  ready  for  use  "  fit  forms 
of  swearing  suitable  to  all  cases." 

Erode.  Town  of  Madras,  India. 
It  is  in  the  Coimbatore  district,  and 
was  at  one  time  a  place  of  some 
importance.  It  suffered  during 
successive  invasions  of  the  country 
in  the  17th  and  18th  centuries. 
The  town,  which  is  the  head- 
quarters of  the  divisional  officer, 
contains  two  old  temples.  Pop. 
16,701,  five-sixths  Hindus. 

Eros.  In  classical  mythology, 
the  Greek  name  for  Cupid  (q.v.). 

Eros.  Nearest  of  the  minor 
planets,  discovered  in  1898.  The 
importance  of  the  discovery  lay 
in  the  fact  that  it  had  then  ap- 
proached nearer  to  the  earth  than 
Mars.  The  asteroid's  subsequent 
nearest  approach  to  the  earth  was 
in  1901,  when  many  of  the  great 
telescopes  of  the  world,  then  en- 
gaged on  the  Great  Star  map,  were 
turned  on  Eros  with  a  view  to  deter- 
mining its  nearness.  Another  near 
approach  is  due  in  1931. 

The  task  of  coordinating  the 
observations  of  Eros  was  under- 
taken by  A.  R.  Hinks,  of  Cam- 
bridge University  observatory.  By 
1909  Hinks  was  able  to  announce  a 
most  satisfactory  result  for  the 
distance  of  the  planet,  and  by  im- 
plication for  that  of  the  sun  and  of 
the  other  members  of  the  solar 
system.  The  value  of  92,830,000 
m.  was  obtained  for  the  sun's 
distance,  and  it  was  estimated 
that  this  result  was  probably 
within  30,000  miles  of  the  actual 
distance.  See  Asteroids  ;  Parallax. 


EROSION 

Erosion  (Lat.  erosio,  eating 
away).  The  wearing  down  of  the 
earth's  surface  through  the  action 
of  the  atmosphere,  rain,  rivers,  ice, 
and  the  sea  and  its  tides.  Atmo- 
spheric erosion  is  either  chemical 
or  mechanical.  Wind  transports 
particles  and  polishes  surfaces  over 
which  they  are  carried,  e.g.  in 
deserts.  Sudden  changes  of  tem- 
perature cause  particles  of  rock 
to  split  off,  subsequently  to  be 
removed  by  wind  or  water.  Atmo- 
sphere acts  chemically  through 
rainfall,  in  causing  decomposition 
of  rocks.  Disintegration  of  rocks 
being  thus  effected,  the  products 
are  afterwards  removed  by  running 
water,  in  most  cases  the  water  erod- 
ing the  boundaries  of  its  course  by 
abrasive  action  of  materials  carried. 

Erosion  beneath  the  surface  of 
the  ground  is  chiefly  chemical, 
and  often  results  in  formation  of 
caves  and  caverns,  especially  in 
limestone  districts.  Glacial  erosion 
takes  place  over  large  areas  and  on 
an  extensive  scale,  ice  being,  under 
certain  conditions,  a  powerful 
scouring  agent.  Marine  erosion  is 
in  continuous  progress  along  coasts, 
the  sea  often  using  debris  broken 
from  cliffs  by  waves  as  battering- 
rams  for  further  destruction.  The 
burrowing  of  animals,  e.g.  worms, 
and  penetration  of  roots  of  plants 
assist  also  in  disintegration  of  land 
surfaces.  The  general  result  of  all 
erosion  is  to  lower  the  level  of  land. 
See  Coast ;  Glacier  ;  River. 

Erotic  Literature  (Gr.  erotikos, 
amatory).  Literature  inspired  by 
the  theme  of  love.  The  name  is 
generally  applied  to  poetry,  and 
latterly  more  especially  to  poetry 
of  a  warmly  impassioned  character. 
The  classical  erotic  poets  include 
Anacreon,  Callimachus,  Sappho, 
and  Theocritus  among  the  Greeks  ; 
and  Catullus,  Horace,  Ovid,  and 
Tibullus  among  the  Latins.  The 
troubadours  of  the  Middle  Ages 
carried  on  the  erotic  tradition  in 
France,  and  at  the  Renaissance  this 
form  of  literature  had  a  revival  on 
the  continent  of  Europe.  In  Eng- 
lish literature  it  reached  a  high 
level  in  the  lyrical  work  of  poets  of 
the  17th  century,  such  as  Donne, 
Cowley,  Herrick,  Waller,  Lovelace, 
and  Suckling.  In  the  19th  century, 
more  especially  in  the  latter  half,  it 
had  a  recrudescence  in  the  poems 
of  Rossetti  and  Swinburne,  and  in 
France  in  the  writings  of  Baude- 
laire and  others. 

Er  Ram.  Village  of  Palestine. 
It  is  situated  on  a  hill  on  the  Jeru- 
salem-Nablus  road.  Identified  as 
the  ancient  Ramah  (q.v.)  of  Ben- 
jamin (1  Kings  xv,  17),  it  formed  a 
kind  of  frontier  castle  between  the 
N.  and  S.  kingdoms  of  Palestine, 
and  was  repeopled  after  the  return 


2966 

from  captivity.  The  modern  vil- 
lage was  captured  by  Allenby,  Dec. 
28,  1917,  in  the  advance  following 
the  capture  of  Jerusalem.  ,  „  See 
Palestine,  Conquest  of. 

Erratics  (Lat.  errare,  to  wan- 
der). In  geology,  portions  of  rock 
of  varying  size  which  have  been 
moved  from  their  original  home  by 
natural  agencies.  They  commonly 
consist  of  rock-fragments  torn 
away  by  glaciers,  and  often  bear 
scratches  resulting  from  move- 
ment under  great  pressure.  They 
occur  in  great  profusion  in  glacial 
boulder-clays,  and  are  often  spread 
over  high  levels  by  glacial  tor- 
rents. See  Glacier ;  Rock. 

Errigal  OB  ABIGAL.  Mountain 
of  Donegal,  Ireland,  the  highest 
point  in  Ulster.  It  is  5  m.  S.E.  of 
Gweedore  and  is  2,460  ft.  high. 

Enroll,  EARL  OF.  Scottish  title 
borne  since  1452  by  the  family 
of  Hay.  William  Hay,  hereditary 
constable  o  f 
Scotland,  a  n 
honour  given 
in  1315  to  his 
forefather,  Sir 
Gilbert,  was 
made  an  earl 
in  1452.  The 
first  earls 
were  not  very 
prominent,  but 
Francis,  the 
9th  earl,  was 
active  in  the  16th  century,  being 
constantly  in  rebellion  against 
James  VI.  He  was  then  a  Roman 
Catholic,  and  in  league  with  Spain  : 
in  1594  he  led  a  small  rising,  after 
which  his  residence,  Slains  Castle, 
was  destroyed.  Later  he  became  a 
Protestant. 

A  dispute  as  to  whether  Erroll 
or  the  earl  marischal  was  the  right- 
ful constable  was  decided  in  favour 
of  the  former,  and  so  the  earls  take 
precedence  in  Scotland  just  after 
the  royal  family.  When  the  13th 
earl  died  unmarried  his  sister  suc- 
ceeded to  the  title.  The  great- 
nephew  who  followed  was  a  son  of 
the  earl  of  Kilmarnock  who  was 
executed  for  his  share  in  the  rising 
of  1745,  but  this  did  not  affect  his 
earldom,  and  from  him  the  later 
earls  are  descended.  The  18th  earl, 
lord  steward  of  the  household,  was 
made  a  peer  of  the  United  King- 
dom as  Baron  Kilmarnock  in  1831, 
and  in  1891  his  grandson,  Charles 
Gore  Hay  (b.  1852),  became  the 
20th  earl.  The  earl's  estates  are 
in  Aberdeenshire,  where  is  his  seat, 
Slains  Castle.  His  eldest  son  is 
-  called  Lord  Kilmarnock. 

Erromanga.  One  of  the  S. 
group  of  the  New  Hebrides.  It 
measures  30  m.  long  by  20  wide. 
The  chief  anchorage  is  Dillon's 
Bay ;  the  chief  product,  copra. 


20th  Earl  of  Erroll, 
British  soldier 

Lafayette 


Here  John  Williams,  the  mission- 
ary, was  killed  and  eaten  in  1839, 
since  when  most  of  the  natives  have 
been  Christianised.  Est.  pop.  2,500. 

Error.  False  idea  which  is  re- 
garded as  true.  Errors  are  due  to 
an  appearance  of  truth,  which  de- 
ceives the  subject.  When  referring 
to  the  logical  form  of  the  judge- 
ment, they  are  formal,  and  contra- 
dict the  laws  of  thought ;  when  to 
its  content  they  are  material,  and 
contradict  the  facts. 

There  are  two  important  classes 
of  error :  those  which  are  of  so 
little  consequence  that  they  may  be 
neglected,  and  those  which  are  in- 
evitable, but  must  be  allowed  for. 
Error  in  Mechanics 

Most  munition  workers  were  in- 
troduced to  the  necessity  for  ex- 
treme accuracy  of  measurement  in 
dealing  with  delicate  machinery, 
and  brought  to  realize  that  errors 
of  small  magnitude  but  important 
consequences  were  unavoidable. 
They  learnt  something  of  the  deli- 
cacy of  modern  scientific  measure- 
ments, and,  in  many  cases,  found 
that  the  instruments  which  they 
used  were  subject  to  a  constant 
error,  for  which  allowance  had  to 
be  made.  No  scientific  investiga- 
tor uses  an  instrument  for  precise 
measurement  without  first  finding 
the  constant  error  to  which  it  is 
subject.  Consequently  a  piece  of 
metal  reputed  to  be  31  ins.  in  length 
is  almost  certainly  not  precisely  31 
ins.  If  the  ruler  used  is  accurately 
graduated  to  tenths  of  an  inch  the 
possible  error  may  be  ^  in.  too 
much  or  too  little ;  this  error  is 
solely  due  to  the  fact  that  the  ruler 
only  shows  tenths  of  an  inch.  It  be- 
comes a  matter  of  importance  to 
investigate  the  character  of  such 
errors,  and  statisticians  have  for- 
mulated the  "  law  of  error,"  from 
which  the  probable  error  in  the 
measurement  can  be  calculated. 

It  is  found  mathematically  that 
the  likelihood  that  the  actual  error 
will  exceed  the  probable  error  is 
small,  there  is  only  one  chance  in 
six  that  the  actual  error  will  be 
double,  and  one  in  1,388  that  it  will 
be  five  times  the  probable  error. 
Scientists,  consequently,  express 
numerical  results  in  the  form  6'17 
±  0 '02,  which  means  that  the  mea- 
sured value  is  probably  6*17,  and 
certainly  not  more  than  6'19,  nor 
less  than  6 '15,  and,  further,  that 
there  is  a  very  great  probability 
that  the  error  is  less  than  ±(V01, 
although  the  potable  erroris  ±  0'02. 

Errors  are  sometimes  conveni- 
ently expressed  as  percentages, 
e.g.  ±  1  p.c. ;  and  when  calcula- 
tions are  made  with  quantities, 
each  of  them  subject  to  a  possible 
error,  the  final  result  is  subject 
to  a  much  larger  error,  e.g.  if  A,  B, 


2967 


ERUPTIVE    ROCKS 


and  C  are  measured  quantities  with 
possible  errors  of  ±  1,  ±2,  and  ±  3 
p.c.  respectively,  then  the  result  of 
computations  AxBxC,  or  AxB 
-^-C,  or  A-t-B-^C,  is  subject  to  an 
error  of  ±(1+2+3),  i.e.  ±6  p.c. 

The  practical  consequences  of 
these  considerations  are  numerous 
and  important.  Unless  consider- 
able time  and  skill  be  expended  over 
the  operation,  measurements  ex- 
pressed by  more  than  three  signifi- 
cant figures  are  probably  incorrect  : 
it  is  almost  certain,  for  instance, 
that  a  value  of  16  '34  feet  is  in- 
correct ;  the  final  4  is  almost  cer- 
tainly wrong,  and  the  3  may  be 
doubtful.  Consequently  it  is  useless 
to  try  to  measure  18  '69  yards  or 
26'75  cwts.  This  fact  justifies  the 
grocer  who  weighs  butter,  etc.,  to 
the  nearest  half  ounce. 

Error,  WRIT  OF.  Name  of  a  writ 
of  appeal  to  the  king's  bench  in 
criminal  cases,  or  to  the  court  of 
exchequer  chamber  or  the  House 
of  Lords  in  civil  cases.  It  was  for 
errors  appearing  on  the  record,  but 
it  is  now  abolished  in  all  cases. 

Ersch,  JOHANN  SAMUEL  (1766- 
1828).  German  bibliographer.  He 
was  born  at  Grossglogau,  Silesia, 
June  23,  1766,  and  studied  at 
Halle.  He  was  successively  li- 
brarian, 1800,  and  professor,  1803, 
at  Jena,  and  principal  librarian, 
1808,  at  Halle.  His  Handbuch  der 
deutschen  Literatur  seit  der  Mitte 
des  18ten  Jahrhunderts,  1812-14, 
laid  the  foundation  of  modern 
German  bibliography.  In  1818  he 
began,  with  J.  G.  Gruber,  the  famous 
Allgemeine  Encyklopadie  der  WIs- 
senschaften  und  Kiinste,  which  was 
not  completed  a  century  later.  He 
died  at  Halle,  Jan.  16,  1828. 

Erse.  Early  Scottish  variant  o 
Irish.  In  the  14th-15th  centuries 
the  term  was  used  of  kings  and 


PP 


RJI  sr  cc  uu 

Erse.     Irish  Gaelic  alphabet  of 
eighteen  letters 

caterans.  In  the  18th  century  it 
denoted  Gaelic  speech ;  at  first 
Scottish  Gaelic,  and  subsequently 
Irish  Gaelic.  It  is  no  longer  in  cur- 
rent usage  in  this  sense.  In  modern 
philology  it  sometimes  designates 
the  language  -  group,  embracing 
Gaelic  and  Manx,  which  is  now 
usually  called  Goidelic.  See  Gaelic 
Language  and  Literature ;  Goidels; 
1  reland  :  Language  and  Literature. 
Ersekujyar.  Town  of  Czecho- 
slovakia, formerly  in  Hungary, 
now  known  as  Nove  Zamky.  It  oc- 


cupies  an  important  situation  on ' 
the  Nyitra  (Nitra)  river,  and  is  both 
a  rly.  and  road  junction,  57  m.  by 
rly.  almost  due  E.  of  Bratislava 
(Pressburg).  Pop.  16,2CO,  nine- 
tenths  Roman  Catholic  Magyars. 

Erskine,  EBENEZER  (1680-1754) 
Scottish  divine  and  founder  of  the 
Secession  Church.  Born  at  Dry- 
burgh,  in 
Berwickshire, 
June  22, 1680, 
the  son  of  a 
minister,  he 
was  educated 
at  Edinburgh 
Uni  versitv. 
His  first 
charge  was 
at  Portmoak, 
i  n  Kinross  - 
moved  to  a 
There  he  came 


Ebenezer  Erskine, 
Scottish  divine 


shire,  whence  he 
church  at  Stirling, 
into  collision  with  his  ecclesiastical 
superiors,  and  the  matter  came 
to  a  head  when,  in  1732,  he  de- 
clared that  parishes  should  choose 
their  own  ministers.  This  led  to  his 
suspension,  but  with  some  associ- 
ates he  founded  a  separate  presby- 
tery, which  developed  into  the 
Secession  Church.  In  this  Erskine 
remained  until  1748,  when  the 
section  opposed  to  him  secured  his 
removal  from  the  ministry.  He 
died  at  Stirling,  June  2,  1754.  See 
Presbyterianism;  Secession  Church ; 
consult  also  The  Erskines,  A.  R. 
MacEwen,  1900. 

Erskine,  JOHN,  OF  DUN  (1509- 
91).  Scottish  reformer.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  King's  College,  Aberdeen, 
travelled  on  the  Continent,  and 
in  1534  returned  with  a  French 
scholar,  who  introduced  the  study 
of  Greek  into  Scotland.  His  en- 
thusiasm was  equally  divided  be- 
tween the  new  learning  and  the  new 
faith.  He  was  an  ultimate  friend  of 
John  Knox,  and  his  influence  was 
always  exerted  in  the  direction  of 
moderation.  He  was  several  times 
moderator  of  the  general  assembly 
and  vi  1579  was  appointed  a 
member  of  the  king's  council. 

Erskine,  THOMAS  ERSKINE,  IST 
BARON  (1750-1823).  British  lawyer. 
A  younger  son  of  the  10th  earl  oi 
Buchan,  he 
was    born    in 
Edinburgh, 
Jan.  10,  1750. 
After  a  scanty 
education    a  t 
Edinburgh 
and    St.    An- 
drews, he  en- 
tered the  navy 
1st  Baron  Erskine,      in    1764,    but 
British  lawyer          soon      trans. 

AflerHoppner  ferred     fa     the 

army.  This  career,  too,  he  aban- 
doned after  a  few  years,  and  in 
1778  he  was  called  to  the  bar. 


As  a  barrister  Erskine's  success 
'was  instantaneous.  He  made  his 
name  in  his  first  case,  and  in  1781 
he  added  to  his  reputation  when 
junior  counsel  for  Lord  George 
Gordon.  In  17  83  he  was  elected  M.  P. 
for  Portsmouth,  and  after  six  years' 
absence  he  was  again  returned  for 
that  borough  in  1790.  He  made  no 
mark  in  Parliament,  but,  having 
been  attorney -general  and  chan- 
cellor to  the  prince  of  Wales,  he  was 
lord  chancellor  in  the  Whig  ministry 
of  1806-7.  He  was  then  raised  to 
the  peerage.  He  died  Nov.  1 7, 1823. 
The  barony  still  remains  with  his 
descendants.  See  Speeches,  ed. 
J.  Ridgway,  with  Memoir  by  Ld. 
Brougham,  4  vols.,  1847  ;  Lives  of 
the  Chancellors,  Lord  Campbell, 
4th  ed.  1856-57. 

Erskine's  eldest  brother,  Henry 
Erskine  (1746-1817),  was  also  a 
distinguished  advocate.  Trained  at 
St.  Andrews  and  Edinburgh  for 
the  Scottish  bar,  he  was  lord  advo- 
cate in  1783,  and  again  in  1806-7. 
He  was  for  a  short  time  M.P.  and 
died  Oct.  8,  1817.  Like  his  brother, 
his  reputation  rests  upon  his  stately 
and  pleasing  eloquence.  See  Life, 
A.  Fergusson,  1882. 

Erskine ville.  Industrial  suburb 
of  Sydney,  New  South  Wales. 
Pop.  7,299.  See  Sydney. 

Erubescite  (Lat.  erubescere,  to 
grow  red).  Ore  of  copper  also 
known  as  variegated  copper  pyrites 
and  as  horse-flesh  ore.  In  colour  it 
varies  between  copper-red  and 
pinkish  brown ;  it  is  brittle  and 
tarnishes  rapidly  on  exposure  ;  its 
specific  gravity  is  5.  Chemically  it 
is  a  sulphide  of  the  metal,  its  com- 
position being  copper  62 '8,  sulphur 
25 '7,  and  iron  11,  and  traces  of 
impurities.  It  does  not  occur 
in  large  quantities,  but  is  found 
frequently  with  other  copper  pyri- 
tous  ores  in  granite  and  allied  for- 
mations in  Cornwall,  Ireland,  Nor- 
way, Silesia,  Saxony,  Siberia,  the 
U.S.A.,  and  Canada.  See  Copper. 

Eruptive  Rocks.  Rocks  which 
have  been  either  extruded  at  the 
surface  of  the  earth  or  have  con- 
solidated beneath  the  surface  under 
pressure  of  overlying  rock-masses. 
Those  extruded  (effusive  rocks),  as 
in  volcanic  eruptions,  are  of  the 
type  of  lava  and  are  found  near  vol- 
canoes, active  or  extinct ;  they  fre- 
quently exhibit  flow-structure,  in- 
dicating rapid  consolidation.  Ba- 
salts and  rhyolites  are  examples. 

Rocks  consolidated  beneath  the 
surface  (intrusive  rocks)  are  of  two 
kinds  :  very  deep-seated  (plutonic) 
and  less  deep-seated  (hypabyssal). 
Plutonic  rocks  are  usually  coarsely 
crystalline,  never  glassy  or  with 
vapour  cavities  ;  hypabyssal  rocks 
are  often  coarsely  crystalline,  but 
show  great  variation  in  structure. 


St.  John  Ervine, 
Irish  dramatist 

Lena  Connell 


ERVILLERS 

Intrusive  rocks  occur  as  areas  of 
great  extent  and  irregular  shape 
(batholiths),  in  spreading  sheets 
forced  up  from  below  between 
other  strata  (laccoliths  and  sills), as 
filling  the  pipes  of  old  volcanoes 
(necks),  as  occupying  more  or  less 
vertical  fissures  (dykes),  or  as 
branching  injections  (veins).  See 
Geology  ;  Rock. 

Ervi'Uers.  Village  of  France,  in 
the  dept.  of  Pas-de-Calais.  It  is  on 
the  Arras-Bapaume  road,  6  m.  N.of 
Bapaume.  Taken  by  the  Allies  in 
the  springof  1917,itwas  recaptured 
by  the  Germans  a  year  later,  and 
stormed  by  the  British  on  Aug.  23, 
1918.  See  Bapaume,  Battle  of; 
Somme,  Battles  of  the. 

Ervine,  ST.  JOHN  GREEK  (b. 
1883).  Irish  dramatist  and  novel- 
ist. He  was  botn  at  Belfast,  Dec. 
28,  1883. 
Notable  plays 
written  by 
him  are: 
Mixed  Mar- 
riage, Dublin, 
1911;  The 
Magnanimous 
Lover,  D  u  b- 
lin,  1912;  Jane 
Clegg,  M  a  n- 
chester,  1913; 
and  John  Fer- 
guson, Dublin,  1916.  In  1915  Er- 
vine was  appointed  manager  of  the 
Abbey  Theatre,  Dublin.  In  1916 
he  joined  the  Household  Cavalry, 
and  being  transferred  to  the  Royal 
Dublin  Fusiliers,  went  with  them 
to  the  French  front.  He  has  also 
written  novels  and  volumes  of  short 
stories,  including  Eight  O'Clock 
and  Other  Studies,  1913 ;  Mrs.  Mar- 
tin's Man,  1 9 14;  Alice  and  a  Family, 
1915;  Changing  Winds,  1917;  and 
The  Foolish  Lovers,  1920. 

Erymanthus  (mod.  Olonos). 
Mountain  of  Arcadia,  ancient 
Greece.  The  loftiest  peak  in  the 
Kalliphonia  range,  it  is  associated 
with  the  story  of  Hercules  and  the 
Erymanthian  boar  which  haunted 
this  region  and  was  slain  by  the 
hero.  Alt.  7,296  ft. 

Erysipelas  (Gr.  erythros,  red  ; 
pella.  skin).  Acute  contagious  dis- 
ease due  to  infection  by  the  micro- 
organism Streptococcus  pyogenes. 
Infection  occurs  through  some  in- 
jury to  the  surface  of  the  skin, 
which  may  be  quite  trivial,  such  as 
a  cut  while  shaving.  It  was  for- 
merly believed  that  the  disease 
could  arise  without  a  wound,  the 
so-called  "  idiopathic  "  form,  but  it 
is  now  recognized  that  in  every  case 
there  is  some  lesion,  however  small. 
The  skin  rapidly  becomes  swollen 
and  red,  the  inflammation  advanc- 
ing with  a  more  or  less  well-defined 
margin  and  dying  away  behind 
this.  The  face  is  most  frequently 


2968 

involved,  and  the  swelling  may 
cause  the  eyes  to  close.  The  tem- 
perature rises  to  103°  F.  or  more, 
and  delirium  may  occur. 

The  duration  of  the  disease  is 
variable,  but  generally  it  lasts  from 
one  to  three  weeks.  Death  in 
healthy  adults  is  rare,  but  in  aged, 
debilitated  persons  and  chronic 
alcoholics  the  outlook  is  not  so 
good.  Recently  delivered  women 
exhibit  an  increased  liability  to  the 
disease.  Treatment  by  drugs  does 
not  appear  markedly  to  influence 
it,  but  some  physicians  strongly 
recommend  perchloride  of  iron. 
Ichthyol  has  been  found  to  be  a 
useful  local  application,  and  bella- 
donna or  opium  may  be  employed 
to  relieve  pain.  Injections  of 
antistreptococcic  serum  have  been 
used  with  success.  The  patient 
must  be  strictly  isolated. 

Erythema  (Gr.  from  erythainein, 
to  make  red).  Redness  of  the  skin 
owing  to  dilatation  of  the  small 
blood-vessels.  It  is  usually  associ- 
ated with  swelling  or  infiltration. 
The  condition  may  be  localised, 
when  it  may  be  due  to  simple  in- 
flammation, burning,  or  irritation 
by  chemical  substances  ;  or  it  may 
be  more  or  less  present  over  the 
whole  body,  when  it  is  usually  a 
symptom  of  infectious  fever,  e.g. 
scarlet  fever  or  measles ;  or  of 
poisoning  by  unsound  food  or  cer- 
tain drugs,  particularly  belladonna ; 
or  is  a  manifestation  of  disease  of 
the  skin. 

Erythrite  OR  ERYTHROL  (Gr. 
erythros,  red).  Sweet- tasting  sub- 
stance first  prepared  by  Sten- 
house  in  1848  from  several  species 
of  lichen  such  as  orchella  weed 
(Roccella  tincloria).  The  lichen 
is  boiled  with  milk  of  lime,  fil- 
tered, and  precipitated  by  adding 
hydrochloric  acid  ;  the  precipitate 
being  afterwards  purified  by  crys- 
tallisation from  alcohol.  The 
name  erythrite  is  also  applied  to 
the  mineral  known  as  cobalt  bloom, 
a  hydra  ted  arsenate  of  cobalt. 

Erythromelalgia  (Gr.  erythros, 
red  ;  melos,  limb  ;  algos,  pain).  Rare 
disease  characterised  by  acute  pain 
in  the  foot,  or  less  frequently  the 
hand,  with  purplish-red  congestion 
of  the  skin  and  moderate  swelling 
The  cause  is  unknown. 


Matthias  Erzberger, 
German  politician 


ERZERUM 

Eryx  (mod.  Monte  San  Giu- 
liano).  Mountain  of  Sicily  near 
Drepanum  (Trapani).  It  was 
crowned  by  a  famous  temple  of 
Aphrodite,  who  was  locally  called 
Erycina.  The  temple  derived  its 
revenue  from  17  Sicilian  towns  be- 
longing to  it.  On  the  W.  slope  of 
the  mountain  is  the  decayed  town 
of  Eryx.  Its  old  Roman  walls  still 
exist  beside  the  ruins  of  the  temple. 
The  mountain  is  2,465  ft.  high. 

Erzberger,  MATTHIAS  (1875- 
1921 ).  German  politician.  B.  at  But- 
tenhausen,  Sept.,  1875,  and  edu- 
cated at  Frei- 
burg, he  de- 
voted himself 
to  the  study 
of  political 
economy. 
Earlyinterest- 
e  d  in  the 
Christian  So- 
cialist move- 
ment, in  1897 
he  was  a  dele- 
gate at  the  International  Confer- 
ence at  Zurich.  He  entered  the 
Reichstag,  and  came  into  pro- 
minence when,  as  a  member  of  the 
Catholic  or  Centre  Party,  he  made  a 
speech  on  July  6,  1917,  accusing 
ministers  of  misrepresenting  the 
military  situation,  and  at  the  same 
time  demanding  the  reform  of  the 
Prussian  franchise  and  a  statement 
of  the  peace  aims  of  Germany.  In 
1918  Erzberger  was  secretary  of 
state  when  Prince  Max  of  Baden 
was  imperial  chancellor,  and  in 
June,  1919,  after  holding  office  in 
Scheidemann's  cabinet,he  was  min- 
ister of  finance  and  vice-premier. 
He  resigned  in  Feb.,  1920,  and  was 
assassinated,  Aug.  26,  1921. 

Erzeruxn.  Vilayet  or  province 
of  Armenia.  It  consists  of  a  high 
plateau  traversed  from  E.  to  W.  by 
several  lofty  chains  of  mountains, 
in  which  are  the  sources  of  the 
Euphrates,  the  Aras,  the  Chorok, 
and  other  rivers.  The  capital  is 
Erzerum.  Area.  19,180  sq.  m. 
Pop.  645,700. 

Erzerum  OR  ERZRUM.  City  of 
Armenia.  Situated  in  a  wide  plain, 
surrounded  by  mountains,  and 
lying  6.200  ft.  above  the  sea,  it  is 
120  m.  S.E.  of  Trebizond,  its  port, 
and  about  150  m.  W.  of  Mt.  Ararat, 


Erzerum. 


The  mountain  city  of   Armenia,  once  a  frontier  fortress  oi  the 
Byzantine  Empire.     To  the  right  is  the  medieval  citadel 


ERZERUM 

and  is  an  important  commercial 
town  and  military  position.  It  is 
walled,  and  its  streets  are  narrow 
and  crooked.  It  has  few  fine  build- 
ings, the  chief  being  the  Armenian 
and  Greek  churches.  Erzerum  is 
the  seat  of  an  Armenian  bishop. 

Its  main  importance  came  from 
its  position  strategically  with 
respect  to  Russia.  Under  the 
Turks,  who  occupied  it  in  the  16th 
century,  it  was  made  into  a  fortress 
and  was  the  headquarters  of  an 
army  corps.  It  was  taken  by  the 
Russians  in  1829  and  again  in  1878. 
During  the  Great  War  it  was  cap- 
tured by  the  Russians  in  Feb., 
1916,  but  during  the  winter  of 
1917-18  it  was  abandoned  by  them 
by  order  of  the  Bolshevist  Govern- 
ment, and  was  reoccupied  by  the 
Turks  in  March,  1918,  in  spite  of 
strong  resistance  by  the  local  Ar- 
menians. Before  the  Great  War  its 
pop.  was  approximately  80,000,  a 
large  number  of  whom  were  Ar- 
menians. It  was  the  scene  of 
massacres  of  Armenians  in  1895 
and  again  in  1915. 

Erzerum,  CAPTURE  OF.  Russian 
success  against  the  Turks,  Feb.  16, 
1916.  After  capturing  Koprikoi, 
Jan.  19,  1916,  the  Russians  under 
Yudenitch  pressed  on  to  Hassan 
Kale,  23  m.  from  Erzerum.  The 
enemy  retreated  to  Deve  Boyun, 
a  strongly  fortified  ridge  on  the 
east  front  of  that  city,  and  on 
Jan.  26  Yudenitch  stood  before  it. 

The  Russian  right  wing  pushed 
the  Turks  from  Tortum  to  the 
Chorok,  crossed  the  mountains,  and 
reached  Kara  Gubek  on  the  Kara 
Su,  or  Western  Euphrates,  thus 
threatening  Erzerum  from  the  N. 
The  left  wing  worked  its  way  from 
the  S.E.  to  Palandoken,  capturing 
the  enemy  positions  there,  and 
menacing  Erzerum  from  the  S.  On 
the  N.  Kara  Gubek  was  taken  on 
Feb.  12,  and  Tafta,  5  m.  nearer  Er- 
zerum, on  Feb.  13.  Yudenitch  now 
attacked  the  Deve  Boyun  forts, 
nine  of  which  fell  into  his  hands  on 
Feb.  15  ;  the  defence  collapsed, 
and  he  entered  Erzerum  next  day. 
As  a  military  operation  its  capture 
was  a  great  feat,  considering  that  it 
was  the  depth  of  winter,  that  his 
wings  had  to  advance  through  high 
and  most  difficult  mountain  coun- 
try, and  that  the  city  itself  was 
protected  by  many  forts.  In  and 
about  Erzerum  the  Russians  cap- 
tured 13,000  prisoners,  more  than 
300  guns,  and  immense  quantities 
of  munitions  and  supplies.  The 
total  loss  of  the  Turks  was  put  »t 
60,000  men.  The  town  was  reoccu- 
pied'by  the  Turks,  March  11, 1918. 
See  Caucasus,  Campaign  in  the. 

Erzgebirge  OR  ORE  MOUNTAINS. 
Mountain  range  of  Germany.  It  is 
partly  in  Saxony  and  partly  in 


2969 

Bohemia,  stretching  for  about  90 
m.  from  the  Elbe  to  the  Elsterge- 
birge.  The  highest  peaks  are  the 
centre,  the  Keilberg  being  over 
4,000  ft.  high.  Only  a  little  lower 
are  the  Fichtelberg  and  the  Spitz- 
berg.  On  the  south  the  range  has 
a  precipitous  face,  but  on  the  north, 
or  Saxon  side,  it  slopes  more 
gradually  to  the  plain.  The  range, 
as  the  name  suggests,  is  rich  in 
minerals,  silver,  lead,  tin,  copper, 
iron,  and  some  gold  being  found 
here.  There  are  a  number  of 
health  resorts  in  the  mountains 
which  are  visited  both  for  health 
and  pleasure,  much  of  the  scenery 
being  very  fine.  The  hills  are 
densely  wooded  and  the  district  is 
well  served  by  railways. 

Erzingan,  ERZINJAN,  or  ERZIN- 
GHIAN.  Town  of  Asia  Minor,  the 
medieval  Arsinga.  This  formerly  im- 
portant military  centre  of  the  Turks 
lies  on  the  W.  Euphrates  (Kara  Su) 
about  75  m.  W.  of  Erzerum.  During 
the  Great  War  it  was  the  head- 
quarters of  a  Turkish  army  corps, 
and  as  a  military  base  was  second 
in  importance  only  to  Erzerum.  It 
was  taken  by  the  Russians  in  July, 
1916.  The  pop.  was  25,000  in  1914, 
but  many  of  its  Armenian  in- 
habitants were  massacred  in  1915. 
Erzingan,  FALL  OF.  Russian 
success,  July  26,  1916.  After  the 
capture  of  Erzerum  on  Feb.  16, 
1916,  Yudenitch  advanced  hismain 
forces  towards  Erzingan,  75  m. 
distant.  In  May,  however,  he  was 
held  up  at  Mamakhatun  by  the 
Turks,  whose  front  reached  from 
Baiburt  on  the  N.  to  Oghnut  on 
the  S.  At  the  beginning  of  July 
Yudenitch  resumed  the  offensive, 
took  Mamakhatun  on  the  12th, 
drove  the  enemy  out  of  Baiburt  on 
the  15th,  and  on  the  18th  captured 
Kighi,  N.W.  of  Oghnut.  From  Bai- 
burt he  struck  W.  to  Kelkid,  al- 
most due  N.  of  Erzingan,  marched 
to  the  N.  and  took  Gumushkane 
and  Ardasa  by  July  22,thus  making 
easy  his  descent  on  Erzingan  from 
the  N.  Meanwhile  other  of  his 
forces  had  advanced  from  the  E. 
and  S.E.,  and  by  July  25  had  cap- 
tured Mertekeli,  8  m.  from  Er- 
zingan, which  he  occupied  the  next 
day.  The  fall  of  Erzingan  completed 
the  Russian  conquest  of  Armenia. 
Sec  Caucasus,  Campaign  in  the. 

Erzsebetfalva.  Town  of  Hun- 
gary, in  the  comitat  of  Pest  Pilis. 
It  is  a  summer  resort,  7.\  m.  S.E.  of 
Budapest,  on  the  main  line  from 
the  capital  to  Belgrade.  Pop. 
30,970,  including  a  number  of  Jews. 
Esarhaddon.  Assyrian  king, 
who  reigned  680-668  B.C.  His  first 
three  years  were  marked  by  the  re- 
building of  Babylon,  destroyed  by 
his  father,  Sennacherib  (2  Kings 
19).  Besides  conducting  campaigns 


ESBJERG 

against  Cilicia,  Arabia,  and  Elam, 
he  sacked  Sidon,  676,  and  Mem- 
phis, 670.  At  Shamaal  he  set  up  a 
stela  with  his  portrait  in  relief,  and 
erected  palaces  at  Nineveh  and 
Calah.  His  son  Ashurbanipal  suc- 
ceeded him.  See  Sinjerli. 

Esashi.  Town  and  seaport  of 
Japan,  on  the  island  of  Hokkaido. 
It  is  a  port  of  call  on  the  S.W.  coast, 
35  m.  W.N.W.  of  Hakodate.  Pop. 
12,500. 

Esau.  Son  of  Isaac  and  elder 
brother  of  Jacob,  whose  great  rival 
he  became  after  the  younger 
brother  had  secured  by  a  trick  the 
privileges  of  primogeniture.  He 
became  a  hunting  man,  married 
wives  of  Hittite  nationality,  and 
founded  a  tribe  which  occupied  the 
mountains  S.  of  the  Dead  Sea.  In 
his  later  days  he  was  on  friendly 
terms  with  Jacob,  but  his  descend- 
ants were  always  hated  and  de- 
spised by  the  Jews.  See  Jacob. 

Esbjerg.  Seaport  of  Denmark, 
in  Jutland.  It  stands  on  the  North 
Sea,  opposite  the  island  of  Fano, 
56  m.  by  rly.  W.  of  Fredericia,  and 
is  the  principal  port  on  the  W.  Jut- 
land coast.  The  harbour  was  built 
in  1868-74,  and  is  state  subsidised. 
Its  exports  to  Great  Britain 
mainly  consist  of  bacon,  beef, 
cattle  and  dairy  produce.  The  fish- 
ing and  manufacturing  industries 


Esarhaddon.    Monument  excavated 

at  Sinjerli,  showing  the  Assyrian 

king  with  an  inscription,  670  B.C., 

detailing  his  conquest  of  Egypt 

Berlin  Museum 


ESCALADE 

are  important  and  there  is  cable 
communication  with  Calais.  Be- 
fore the  construction  of  the  har- 
bour it  was  a  small  fishing  village. 
Pop.  18,208. 

Escalade  (Lat.  scala,  ladder). 
Method  of  attacking  fortifications 
in  the  Middle  Ages.  The  walls 


2970 

Michigan,  72  m.  S.  by  E.  of  Mar-^ 
guette,  it  is  served  by  the  Minne- 
apolis, St.  Paul  and  Sault  Ste. 
Marie,  and  other  rlys. .  A  favourite 
summer  resort  with  a  fine  harbour/ 
it  exports  iron  ore  and  trades  in 
fish,  coal,  and  other  commodities. 
It  has  various  manufactures,  fur- 
niture and  lum- 
ber products 


Escalator.   Diagrammatic  view  of 

an  escalator  as  used  on  the  London 

Electric  Railways 

were  reached  by  the  use  of  scaling 
ladders  or  by  a  staircase  or  ramp  of 
faggots  or  similar  material  placed 
against  them. 

Escalator.  Moving  stairway, 
consisting  of  an  endless  chain  of 
steps  running  round  sheaves  at  the 
top  and  bottom  of  the  staircase. 
Every  step  is  mounted  on  two  two- 
wheeled  trucks,  the  forward  wheel 
of  a  truck  being  out  of  line  with 
the  rear  one,  so  that  they  may  run 
on  separate  rails.  On  the  sloping 
part  of  the  staircase  the  rear- 
wheel  rails  are  set  higher  than  the 
front-wheel,  but  gradually  reach 
the  same  level  as  the  horizontal 
portions  are  approached ;  the 
treads  are  always  horizontal. 

The  "  risers  "  of  the  steps  are 
curved  to  keep  close  to  the  treads 
immediately  above  them  while  the 
steps  are  moving  vertically  rela- 
tively to  one  another.  The  stair- 
chain  is  driven  by  an  electric 
motor.  An  escalator  transports 
more  people  than  a  lift  in  a  given 
time,  vertical  travel  and  power 
consumption  being  equal  in  both 
cases,  costs  less  in  attendance,  and 
is  generally  more  convenient  to 
use.  At  several  stations  on  the 
London  underground  railways  it 
has  already  displaced  lifts  ;  and  its 
use  will  probably  be  considerably 
extended  where  large  numbers  of 
people  have  to  be  moved  from  one 
level  to  another.  « 

Escallonia.  Genus  of  ever- 
green shrubs  of  the  natural  order 
Saxifragaceae,  natives  of  S. 
America.  The  undivided,  lea- 
thery leaves  are  covered  with 
resinous  glands  which  render 
them  somewhat  sticky.  The  tubu- 
lar white,  pink,  or  red  flowers  are 
disposed  in  small  clusters  at  the 
ends  of  branches.  E.  rubra  and  E. 
macrantha  are  much  grown  in  the 
S.  of  England  near  the  sea  as 
garden  hedges.  The  shrub  is  named 
after  Escallon,  a  Spanish  traveller. 

Escanaba.  City  ot  Michigan, 
U.S.A.,  the  co.  seat  of  Delta  co. 
On  an  arm  of  Green  Bay,  Lake 


ESCHEAT 

>Schelde  or  Scheldt.    See  Schelde. 

Eschatology  (Gr.  eschatos,  last; 
logos,  discourse).  Term  used  for 
that  branch  of  theology  which  deals 
with  death,  judgement,  the  life 
after  death,  and  the  return  of 
Christ  to  the  earth.  All  ancient 
religions  and  some  philosophies 
paid  considerable  attention  to  the 
"  doctrine  of  final  things,"  the 
teaching  of  the  ancient  Egyptians 
on  life  after  death  being  especially 
detailed.  The  Bible  contains  little 
on  the  subject.  The  earlier  books 
of  the  Old  Testament  appear  to 
for  granted  that  personality 


oemg  tne  chief, 
and    rly.    work- 
shops.     Settled   in   1863,  it   be- 
came a  city  twenty  years  later. 
Pop.  14,747. 

Escapement.  Part  of  the  me- 
chanism of  a  clock  by  which  one 
tooth  of  a  wheel  is  released  or  es- 
capes from  the  pallet  at  each  swing 
of  the  pendulum. 

Escarpment  (Fr.  escarper,  to 
cut  vertically).  Steep  face  or  ridge 
along  which  a  bed  or  formation  ol 
rock  abruptly 
ends.  Escarp- 
ments are  often 
found  where  gent- 
ly tilted  beds  of 
hard  and  soft 
rocks  occur  in 
alternate  layers. 
The  diagram 
shows  a  simplified 
section  from  Gloucester  to  London. 
First  there  are  the  soft  layers  of  the 
Severn  Valley.  This  is  overlooked 
by  the  steep  face,  or  escarpment,  of 
the  oolitic  limestone  of  the  Cots- 
wold  Hills.  These  measures  gently 
dip  below  plains  of  soft  clay, 
which  in  turn  are  dominated 
by  the  escarpment  of  the  chalk 
Chilfcerns.  Formerly  both  the 
chalk  and  limestone  measures 
extended  farther  W.  The  steep 
southern  face  of  the  N.  Downs 
and  the  abrupt  northern  face  of 
the  S.  Downs 
are  also  escarp- 
ments. Escarp- 
ments are  also 
found  in 
plateau  regions, 
where  they  are 
usually  pro- 
duced by  the 
fracturing  and 
tilting  of  crus- 
tal  blocks. 
See  Rocks. 

E  s  c  a  u  t  . 
French     name 

of    the    river 

Escallonia.  Foliage  i  i 

and  flower  of  8-     genera  1  1  y 
callonia  macrantha     known    as    the 


will  survive  death,  and  gradually 
unfold  the  idea  of  rewards  and 
punishments  after  death.  The 
teaching  of  Christ  and  His  apostles 
emphasised  these  truths,  but  added 
little  to  our  knowledge.  Such 
passages  as  the  parable  of  the  rich 


Escarpment.  Sectional  diagram  illustrating  formation 
of  escarpments  E  E.  1.  Soft  layers  of  lower  Severn  Valley. 
2.  Oolitic  limestone  of  Cotswold  Hills.  3.  Soft  layers  of 
middle  Thames  basin.  4.  Chalk  beds  of  Chiltern  Hills. 
5.  Soft  layers  of  London  basin 

man  and  Lazarus  and  the  descrip- 
tions in  the  book  of  Revelation  are 
couched  in  the  language  of  Orien- 
tal imagery,  and  were  not  intended 
to  be  taken  literally. 

The  general  teaching  of  the 
Christian  Church  on  the  subject 
has  been  marked  by  great  reserve, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Church 
of  Rome  in  the  Middle  Ages,  when 
the  doctrine  of  purgatory  was 
developed  in  detail.  The  present 
attitude  of  theologians  is  one  of 
opposition  to  speculation  on  the 
subject.  See  Immortality ;  Survival. 

Escheat  (Lat.  excidere,  to  fall 
out).  Term  used  in  law  for  the 
reversion  of  land  to  its  ultimate 
owner  because  there  is  no  other 
heir.  It  is  a  relic  of  feudal  times 
when  land  was  granted  by  the  king 
or  other  lord  on  the  condition  that 
in  certain  contingencies  it  escheated 
or  came  back  to  him.  Land  also 
escheated  when  the  holder  was 
attainted,  the  theory  being  that  his 
blood  being  thus  corrupt,  his  heirs 
could  not  inherit.  This,  however, 
was  abolished  in  England  in  1870. 
The  majority  of  escheats  fell  to  the 
crown.  Escheat  through  failure 
of  heirs  was  recognized  by  both 


ESCHSCHOLTZ     BAY 


2971 


ESCUR1AL 


English  and  Scottish  law,  until  it 
was  abolished  in  1922.  It  applied 
both  to  freehold  and  to  copyhold 
land.  See  Feudalism. 

Eschscholtz  Bay.  Inlet  of  Alas- 
ka. An  arm  of  Kotzebue  Sound, 
Bering  Strait,  near  the  Arctic  Circle, 
its  name  commemorates  Johann 
Friedrich  Eschscholtz,  the  Russian 
naturalist. 

Eschscholtzia.  Botanical  name 
for  the  perennial  herb  Californian 
poppy  (q.v.). 

Eschwege.  Town  of  Germany. 
It  stands  on  the  Werra,  38  m.  E.S.E. 
of  Cassel,  in  the  Prussian  prov.  of 
Hesse-Nassau.  The  old  buildings 
include  a  14th  century  castle,  re- 
stored in  1581,  and  the  tower  of  an 
1 1  th  century  monastery.  The  indus  - 
tries  include  weaving  and  tanning. 
The  town  was  part  of  Hesse  until 
taken  by  Prussia  after  the  war  of 
1866.  Pop.  12,600. 

Eschweiler.  Town  of  Germany, 
in  the  Prussian  Rhine  prov.  It  is 
on  the  Inde,  8  m.  from  Aix-la- 
Chapelle,  and  stands  on  a  large  coal- 
field. The  chief  industries  are  the 
manufacture  of  iron,  steel,  zinc,  and 
copper  goods  ;  also  brewing,  tan- 
ning, etc.  Pop.  24,718. 

Escombe,  HAKRY  (1838-99). 
South  African  politician.  Born  July 
25,  1838,  and  educated  in  Lon- 
don, he  emi- 
grated to  the 
Cape  in  1859 
and  joined  the 
commerci  al 
staff  of  The 
Natal  Mercury. 
After  some 
time  in  busi- 
ness, he  became 
a  solicitor  and 
was  elected  to 
the  Legislative 


Harry  Escombe, 
S.  African  politician 

Lafayette 


Council  of  Natal.  After  a  short 
visit  to  England  he  returned  to 
Natal,  fought  through  the  Zulu 
(1879)  and  Transvaal  (1881)  wars, 
and  defended  Dinizulu  successfully 
against  the  charge  of  rebellion.  In 
1 893  he  was  made  attorney-general 
and  devoted  himself  to  developing 
the  commercial  resources  of  the 
colony.  Elected  premier  in  1897, 
at  the  same  time  being  minister  of 
education  and  of  defence,  he  came 
to  London  for  Queen  Victoria's  Dia- 
mond Jubilee,  and  on  his  return  re- 
signed office.  He  died  Dec.  27, 1899. 
Escott,  THOMAS  HAY  SWEET 
(1844-1924).  British  journalist  and 
author  Born  at  Taunton,  he  was 
educated  at 
Bath  and 
Queen's  College, 
Oxford.  Lectur- 
er in  logic  and 
deputy  -profes- 
sor of  clapsical 
literature  at 
King's  College, 
London,  1866- 
73.  he  edited 
The  Fortnightly 
Review,  1882- 
86,  was  for  many  years  leader  writer 
on  The  Standard,  and  became  a 
prolific  writer  on  political  and  social 
affairs.  His  numerous  books  include 
England:  its  People,  Polity,  and 
Pursuits,  1870:  Social  Transforma- 
tions of  the  Victorian  Age,  1897  ; 
King  Edward  VII  and  his  Court, 
1903  ;  The  Story  of  British  Di- 
plomacy, 1908  ;  monographs  on 
Lord  Randolph  Churchill,  1895, 
and  Anthony  Trollope,  1913; 
Masters  of  English  Journalism, 
1911  He  died  June  14,  1924. 

Escudo  (Port.,  shield).  Silver 
coin,  monetary  unit  of  Portuguese 
currency  since  May  22,  1911. 


T.  H.  Sweet  Escott, 
British  journalist 

Russell 


Divided  into  100  centavos,  and  of 
nominal  value  4s.  5d.,  it  replaced 
the  old  milreis  gold  piece  ;  2,  5, 
and  10  escudo  pieces  are  minted  in 
gold,  and  1,000  escudos  form  a 
conto.  The  shield  with  the  national 
arms  is  on  the  obverse.  In  Spain, 
a  silver  escudo,  equal  to  10  reals, 
was  used  from  1864-68.  In  Chile, 
since  1895,  a  gold  escudo  worth  5 
pesas  has  circulated. 

Escurial  (Span.  Escorial),  Pal- 
ace and  monastery  of  Spain,  situ- 
ated 26  m.  N.W.  of  Madrid,  on  a 
spur  of  the  Guadarrama  moun- 
tains. It  was  designed  for  Philip 
II  of  Spain  by  Juan  Bautista  de 
Toledo,  the  first  stone  being  laid 
April  23,  1563.  His  pupil,  Juan  de 
Herrera,  carried  on  the  work, 
which  was  completed  about  1582. 
Philip  dedicated  the  building  to 
S.  Lorenzo,  and  intended  it  to 
be  a  retreat  to  which  he  could 
retire  and  meditate  upon  his  own 
end.  With  this  idea,  he  ordered 
that  the  structure  should  be  of  the 
plainest  character. 

It  is  built  of  grey  granite,  in  the 
severest  Doric  style.  The  plan  is 
that  of  an  immense  rectangle, 
with  a  comparatively  small  rect- 
angular wing,  embodying  the 
Palace  of  the  Infantas,  projecting 
beyond  the  E.  side.  The  gloomy 
severity  of  the  exterior  is  emphatic. 
The  fa9ades  are  pierced  by  rows  of 
small  square  windows,  each  row 
marking  a  storey.  At  each  of 
the  four  angles  of  the  main  struc- 
ture is  a  tower  200  ft.  in  height ; 
other  towers  rise  above  the  roofs, 
and  there  are  four  flanking  the 
great  dome  of  the  church.  The 
main  entrance,  in  the  centre  of 
the  W.  front,  is  severely  Doric,  in 
keeping  with  the  rest  of  the  fa9ade. 
The  door  itself  is  20  ft.  high  by  12 


Escurial 


The  palace  and  monastery,  covering  nearly  400,000  sa.  it.,  seen  from  the  north.      In  the  centre  is  the  greal 
church,  and  the  palace,  college,  and  convent  occupy  parts  of  the  surrounding  buildings          .   •- 


ESCUTCHEON 


2972 


ESHER 


ft.  wide  ;  above  it  is  a  colossal 
statue  of  S.  Lorenzo,  the  work  of 
the  sculptor  Monegro.  The  head, 
hands,  and  feet  of  this  statue  are 
wrought  in  white  marble,  but  the 
rest  of  the  figure  is  granite.  This 
entrance  leads  into  a  vestibule  80 
ft.  wide,  flanked  on  the  right  hand 
by  the  convent,  including  library 
and  refectory,  and  on  the  left  by 
the  college. 

The  central  space  is  occupied  by 
the  church,  the  plan  of  which  was 
based  on  the  original  one  of  S. 
Peter's,  Rome.  The  dome  and  lan- 
tern are  carried  on  four  enormous 
piers,  from  which  spring  the  arches 
of  the  three  naves.  There  are  48 
side  chapels,  and  below  the  high 
altar  is  the  famous  Pantheon,  con- 
taining the  tombs  of  the  kings  and 
queens  of  Spain.  The  decoration  of 
this  octagonal  chamber,  consisting 
of  precious  marble  linings,  dates 
from  1654  ;  more  interesting  art 
treasures  are  the  paintings  dis- 
tributed over  the  church,  particu- 
larly those  by  Tintoretto,  El  Greco, 
Zurbaran,  and  Ribera  in  the  sac- 
risty, and  the  masterpieces  of 
Coello  in  the  chapels. 

On  the  N.  side  is  the  palace,  in 
the  N.E.  corner  of  which  were  the 
apartments  of  Philip  himself.  In 
the  room  in  which  he  died  was 
a  panel,  by  opening  which  the 
king  could  look  down  upon  the 
high  altar  of  the  church.  Other 
apartments  of  the  palace  were 
added  to  and  embellished  by 
later  monarchs,  the  bulk  of  the 
decoration  belonging  to  the  18th 
century.  Philip  II  was  the  founder 
of  the  Escurial  Li  brary.  Don  Diego 
de  Mendoza,  the  Inquisition,  and 
Augustin,  archbishop  of  Tarra- 
gona, were  other  donors,  the  collec- 
tion being  further  increased  by 
confiscated  libraries,  and  by  the 
rule  that  a  copy  of  every  book  pub- 
lished in  Spain  should  be  presented 

The  Hermits  oi  S.  Jerome  were 
the  first  tenants  of  the  monastery, 
which  was  stormed  in  1807  by 
French  troops  ;  only  part  of  the 
looted  treasure  was  restored  at  the 
peace  of  1814.  See  Architecture. 

Escutcheon  (old  Fr.  escuchon, 
Lat.  scutum,  shield).  In  heraldrv, 
term  used  to  describe  a  shield 
blazoned  with  armorial  bearings 
or  other  insignia.  See  Shield. 

Esdraelon,  PLAIN  OF.  District 
of  Palestine.  It  is  sometimes  called 
the  plain  of  Jezreel,  a  term  which 
applies  more  specifically  to  its 
eastern  extension  towards  the  Jor- 
dan. An  historic  tract  of  country, 
it  has  been  the  scene  of  many 
battles,  from  Gideon's  victory  over 
the  Midianites  to  the  actions 
fought  by  Allenby's  cavalry  in  his 
conquest  of  the  Holy  Land.  It  lies 


S.E.  of  Haifa,  between  Mt.  Carmel 
and  the  Mountains  of  Gilboa,  in  N. 
Palestine,  and  is  the  Armageddon 
of  the  Apocalypse.  Watered  by  the 
Kishon,  the  plain  is  very  fertile. 
During  the  Great  War  the  British, 
after  defeating  the  Turks  at  El 
Lejjun,  a  village  on  its  S.  edge, 
marched  across  it  to  Nazareth  in 
Sept.,  1918. 

Esdras,  THE  BOOKS  OF.  Several 
works  bear  the  title  Esdras.  One 
of  these  (O.T.  Apocrypha)  con- 
tains substantially  the  same  ma- 
terials as  the  Biblical  books  known 
as  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  and  II  Chron- 
icles. In  the  Septuagint  and  in  the 
Latin  and  Syriac  versions  this  is 
called  I  Esdras ;  but  in  Latin  bibles 
since  the  time  of  Jerome,  III  Esdras 
(the  O.T.  books  of  Ezra  and  Nehe- 
miah being  reckoned  as  I  and 
II  Esdras ).  Modern  scholars  prefer 
to  call  it  "  Greek  Esdras."  The 
other  work  in  the  O.T.  Apocrypha 
is  commonly  called  II  Esdras,  but 
sometimes  IV  Esdras.  It  contains 
seven  visions,  and  is  the  only  speci- 
men of  Apocalyptic  Literature  in 
the  O.T.  Apocrypha.  I  Esdras  was 
used  by  Joseph  us,  and  may  have 
been  composed  in  the  first  cen- 
tury B.C.  II  Esdras  was  probably 
written  in  the  reign  of  Domitian 
(A.D.  81-96).  The  author  appears 
to  have  witnessed  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem  in  A.D.  70  (iii,  1 ) ; 
and  in  the  Eagle  Vision  the  eagle 
seems  to  represent  Rome. 

Esdud.  Village  of  Palestine. 
On  the  Mediterranean,  it  occupies 
the  site  of  ancient  Ashdod  (q.v.). 

Eserine  Sulphate.  The  sul- 
phate of  an  alkaloid  extracted  from 
Physostigma  venenosum,  the  Cala- 
bar bean.  It  produces  contraction 
of  the  pupils,  and  in  minute  doses 
is  useful  in  various  affections  of  the 
eye.  In  large  doses  it  is  very 
poisonous. 

Esh.  Village  and  parish  of  Dur- 
ham. It  is  5  m.  W.  of  Durham,  and 
is  a  mining  centre.  Near  here,  at 
Ushaw,  is  the  Roman  Catholic  col- 
lege of  S.  Cuthbert, 
the  successor  of  the 
one  at  Douai.  It 
has  a  collection  of 
pictures  and  anti- 

r'ties,  while  its 
pel  was  designed 
by  Pugin.  S. 
Michael's  is  the 
chief  church.  Pop. 
1,075. 

Esher.  Parish  ol 
Surrey,  England,  a 
residential  suburb 
of  London.  It 
stands  on  the  Ports- 
mouth Road  near 
the  little  river  Mole. 
Pleasantly  situated 
it  is  15  m.  S.W.  of 


London  by  the  L.  &  S.W.  Rly. 
Esher  Place,  beside  the  Mole, 
built  by  William  of  Waynflete  in 
1460,  and  now  represented  by  a 
ruined  tower,  was  the  residence 
of  Wolsey  after  his  fall  in  1529. 
One  mile  S.  of  the  town  is  Clare- 
mont  (q.v.).  Pop.  2,609.  The  urb. 
dist.  includes  Esher,  Thames 
Ditton,  and  Long  Ditton.  Pop. 
12,518. 

Esher,  WILLIAM  BALIOL  BRETT, 
IST  VISCOUNT  (1817-99).  British 
judge.  The  son  of  a  clergyman,  he 
was  born  Aug.  13,  1817,  and  went 
from  Westminster  School  to  Caius 
College,  Cambridge.  In  1840  he 
became  a  barrister,  and  after  some 
successful  years  at  the  bar  entered 
the  House  of  Commons  as  Conser- 
vative M.P.  for  Helston  in  1866,  a 
tie  at  this  election  ending  in  the 
House  allowing  both  candidates  to 
sit.  In  1868  Brett  was  made  solici- 
tor-general, but  very  soon  he  left 
political  life  to  become  a  judge  of 
the  court  of  common  pleas.  In  1876 
he  was  promoted  to  be  a  lord  jus- 
tice, and  in  1883  to  be  master  of 
the  rolls.  He  retired  in  1897,  and 
died  May  24,  1899.  In  1885  Brett 
was  made  Baron  Esher  and  in  1897 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  viscount. 

Esher,  REGINALD  BALIOL  BRETT, 
2ND  VISCOUNT  (b.  1852).  British 
publicist.  Born  in  London,  June 
30,  1852,  he  was 
the  son  of  Wil- 
liam Baliol 
Brett,the  judge, 
created  Vis- 
count Esher  in 
1897.  Educated 
at  Eton  and 
Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  he 
was  Liberal  M.P.  forPen- 
ryn  and  Falmouth  1880- 
85.  He  was  secretary 
to  the  office  of  works 
1895-1902,  and  enjoyed 
the  confidence  of  both  Queen  Vic- 
toria and  Edward  VII,  under  whom 
he  was  deputy-governor  of  Windsor 


Esher.     The  old  parish  church  of  S.  George,  disused 

since  1853.      One  of  the  bells  was  brought  from  S 

Domingo  Island  by  Sir  Francis  Drake 


ESHOWE 

Castle.  Esher  took  a  great  interest 
in  the  Territorial  Force.  He  was 
on  the  committee  of  imperial  de- 
fence, and  in  1904  was  chairman  of 
the  committee  appointed  to  inquire 
into  the  constitution  of  the  war 
office.  He  wrote  To-day  and  To- 
morrow and  Other  Essays,  1910  ; 
and,  with  A.  C.  Benson,  edited  the 
Letters  of  Queen  Victoria,  1907. 

Eshowe.  Town  of  Zululand, 
Natal.  It  is  30  m.  S.  S.  E.  of  Ulun  d  i , 
and  there  are  asbestos  mines  in  the 
neighbourhood.  It  was  besieged 
for  a  time  by  the  Zulus  during  the 
Zulu  War  of  1879.  Pop.  1,523. 

Esk.  River  of  Great  Britain 
Formed  by  the  confluence  of  the 
Black  Esk  and  White  Esk,  which 
meet  in  Eskdalemuir,  it  flows  for 
35  m.  through  Dumfriesshire  and 
Cumberland  to  the  Solway  Firth, 
about  5  m.  below  Longtown. 

Esk.  River  of  Midlothian,  Scot- 
land. It  is  formed  by  the  junction 
of  the  N.  Esk  and  S.  Esk  in  Dal- 
keith  Park,  flowing  thence  3£  m.  N. 
to  theFirthof  Forth  at  Musselburgh. 

Esk,  NORTH.  River  of  Kincar- 
dineshire  and  Forfarshire,  Scot- 
land. It  is  formed  by  the  junction 
of  the  Lee  and  Mark,  which  unite 
at  Invermark,  and  flows  S.W.  for 
29  m.  to  the  North  Sea,  4£  m. 
N.N.E.  of  Montrose. 

Esk,  SOUTH.  River  of  Forfar- 
shire, Scotland.  It  rises  in  the  Gram- 
pian Mts.  and  flows  49  m.  S.E.  and 
E.  to  the  North  Sea  at  Montrose. 

Esker  (Irish  eskar).  Long,  wind- 
ing ridge  of  coarse  gravel  and  sand. 
Formed  by  torrents  of  water  re- 
leased from  glaciers,  eskers  are 
situated  in  areas  formerly  occupied 
by  ice-sheets. 

Eski-Djumaia,  -JUMA  OR  -JuM- 
AYA.  Town  of  Bulgaria.  It  is  situ- 
ated on  the  rly.  from  Sofia  to 
Varna,  about  16  m.  W.  of  Shumla, 
Pop.  10,000. 

Eskilstuna.  Town  of  Sweden, 
in  the  prov.  of  Sodermanland.  It 
stands  on  the  Hjelmar  river,  be- 
tween the  Malar  and  Hjelmar  lakes, 
60  m.  W.  of  Stockholm.  Known  as 
the  Sheffield  of  Sweden,  it  has  iron- 
foundries,  steel  works,  a  royal 
arms  factory,  and  a  technical 
school.  It  is  celebrated  for  its  cut- 
lery and  damascened  work.  Named 
after  S.  Eskil  (d.  1181),  the  English 
apostle  in  Sodermanland,  its  12th 
century  monastery  was  destroyed 
by  fire  in  1680.  Pop.  28,485. 

Eskimo  (Abenaki,  raw  flesh- 
eater).  Primitive  race  inhabiting 
arctic  America.  Numbering  (1911) 
about  12,500,  Greenland;  14,000, 
Alaska;  (1915)  l,099,Siberiancoast; 
and  3,447,  Canada,  their  geographi- 
cal range  of  5,000  m.  is  the  widest 
of  any  aboriginal  race  in  the  world. 
The  Danish  form  Eskimo  has  dis- 
placed the  French  Esquimaux.  The 


2973 

Hudson  Bay  "husky,"  used  of  man 
and  dog,  is  a  colloquial  variant.  The 
native  name  is 
Innuit  (men). 
Long  -  headed, 
broad -faced, 
lank-haired, 
and  of  a  yel- 
lowish brown 
colour,  an  ori- 
gin in  prehis- 
toric Europe 
is  suggested. 
Thus,  besides 
theirseal-food, 
they  still  hunt 
musk-ox  and 
reindeer.  Their 
bone  arrow- 
heads,  h  a  r- 
poons,  shaft  - 
straighteners, 
and  o  rna- 
Eskimomanin  ments,  their 
bunting  dress  gtone  lampg 

and  ivory  engravings  —  almost 
reaching  picture-writing — support 
this  view,  which,  however,  has 
recently  been  contested  in  favour 
of  relationships  more  definitely 
mongoloid.  That  they  crossed  by 
the  Bering  Strait  is  undisputed,  so 
that  a  pre-American  habitat  in  N. 
Siberia  is  a  reasonable  inference. 
The  claim  that  they  extended  at 
one  time  to  the  Scandinavian, 
and  even  to  the  N.  coasts  of 
Britain,  is  less  fully  established. 
Their  one-man  skin  canoes  (kayak), 
transport  boats  (umiak),  summer 
tents  of  skin,  winter  huts  of  turfed 
stone,  migrant  snow-houses  (igloo), 
harpoon  floats,  dog  sledges,  cairn- 
burials,  all  betoken  an  intelligent 
adaptation  to  adverse  conditions. 

The  language-stock,  with  its 
many  dialects,  attests  a  long  ances- 
try, anterior  to  their  American  ad- 
vent. Their  animism  embraces  a 
crude  magic,  governed  by  medi- 
cine-men (angakok),  akin  to  Af- 
rican witch-doctors  rather  than 
Siberian  shamans.  Their  communal 
life  recognizes  no  national  chiefs  ; 
tribal  warfare  is  unknown.  Their 
ample  folklore  points  to  a  belief  of 
some  tribes  in  a  woman  of  the  sea, 
perhaps  Scandinavian,  of  others  in 
a  moon-god.  The  Aleuts  of  the 
Aleutian  Islands  are  a  self-con- 
tained branch  of  the  race,  exhibit- 
ing traces  of  Asiatic  rather  than 
American  Indian  contact.  A  tribe 
of  blond  Eskimo  was  discovered 
by  Stefansson  during  his  1909-11 
expedition  on  Coronation  Bluff,  far 
in  the  Arctic  Zone.  See  Aborigines ; 
Ethnology;  also  illus.  p.  561. 

Bibliography.  The  Central  Eski- 
mo, F.  Boas,  1888  (Smithsonian  In- 
stitution :  Bureau  of  Ethnology)  ; 
The  People  of  the  Polar  North,  K. 
Rasmussen,  compiled  from  the  Dan- 
ish by  G.  Herring,  1908  ;  The  Lab- 
rador Eskimo,  E.  W.  Hawkes,  1916. 


ESLAVA 

Eskimo  Dog.  Breed  of  dogs 
kept  by  the  Eskimos  of  Arctic 
America.  They  are  little  more 
than  domesticated  wolves  of  the 
district.  The  practice  of  crossing 
the  females  with  wild  wolves 
tends  to  check  those  modifications 
which  domestication  produces. 

The  Eskimo  dog  has  a  sharp 
muzzle,  upright  ears,  rough  coat, 
and  a  bushy  tail.  Though  usually 
of  the  colour  of  the  wolf,  black- 
and-white  specimens  are  not  un- 
common. Like  the  wolf,  it  does 
not  bark,  but  howls.  The  dogs  are 
fed  on  frozen  fish,  but  in  spring 
often  find  birds  and  eggs.  Their 
usual  drink  is  snow.  They  are 
employed  for  sledge  drawing, 
about  eight  beVng  usually  yoked 


Eskimo    Dog.     Specimen    of    the 
breed,  closely  akin  to  the  wolf 

together.  When  the  going  is  good 
a  dog  will  draw  on  an  average  over 
300  Ib.  for  35  m.  in  a  day.  See 
illus.  facing  p.  2624. 

Eski-Sagra.  Alternative  name 
for  the  Bulgarian  town  better 
known  as  Stara-Zagora  (q.v.). 

Eski  Shehr  (Turk.,  old  city). 
Town  of  Asia  Minor,  the  ancient 
Dorylaeum.  This  important  town, 
with  its  rich  deposits  of  meers- 
chaum and  considerable  trade  in 
pipes  of  that  material,  stands  on 
the  Pursak  Su.  It  is  the  junction 
at  which  the  main  rly.  from  the 
Bosporus  divides  into  two,  one 
branch  going  E.  to  Angora  and  the 
other  S.W.  to  connect  on  the  W. 
with  the  Smyrna  rly.,  and  on  the 
E.  with  the  Bagdad  rly.  Pop. 
20,000.  See  illus.  p.  683. 

Esla.  River  of  Spain.  It  rises 
on  the  S.  slopes  of  the  mts.  of  As- 
turias,  in  the  N.  part  of  the  prov.  of 
Leon,  and  flows  a  generally  S.W. 
course  to  discharge  its  waters  into 
the  Douro,  16  m.  below  Zamora. 
It  has  a  length  of  120  m. 

Eslava,  MIGUEL  HILAEION  (1807- 
78).  Spanish  music  composer. 
Born  near  Pampeluna,  Oct.  21, 
1807,  he  became  master  of  the 
choir  in  Ossuna  cathedral  in  1828. 
He  moved  to  Seville  in  1832,  and 
was  appointed  maestro  at  the 
cathedral,  and  to  a  similar  posi- 
tion at  the  court  of  Isabella  in 
1844.  He  died  at  Madrid,  July  23, 


ESMARCH 

1878.  He  wrote  three  operas, 
El  Solitario,  1841  ;  Las  Treguas 
de  Tolemaida,  1842;  Pedro  el 
cruel,  1843;  and  about  150 
masses  and  other  pieces  of  eccle- 
siastical music. 

Esmarch,  JOHANNES  FRIED- 
RICH  AUGUST  VON  (1823-1908). 
German  surgeon.  Born  Jan.  9, 
1823,  at  Tonning,  Slesvig-Hol- 
stein,  he  studied  at  Kiel  and  Got- 


tion  for  her  mother.  This  vivid 
and  fascinating  story  is  a  masterly 
presentation  of  early  18th  century 
life  and  manners;  the  illusion  as 
to  its  having  been  written  by  a 
man  of  the  very  time  with  which 
it  deals  is  complete. 

Esmond,  HENRY  VERNON  (1869- 
1922).  Stage  and  pen  name  of 
Henry  Vernon  Jack,  British  drama- 
tist and  actor.  He  was  born  at 


tingen,  served  in  the  wars  of  1848  Hampton  Court,  Nov.  3,  1869, 
and  1864,  and,  in  the  Franco- 
Prussian  war,  1870-71,  was  sur- 
geon-general to  the  army.  After- 
wards he  specialised  in  hospital 
management  and  military  surgery. 
He  invented  an  indiarubber  band- 
age for  field  work  and  temporary 
dressing.  Of  his  many  works  three 
have  been  translated  into  English. 

Esmeraldas.  Maritime  dept. 
of  N.W.  Ecuador,  S.  of  Colum- 
bia, S.  America.  The  surface  is 
broken  and  hilly,  but  there  are  the 
open  pasture  valleys  of  the  Es- 
meraldas, Cayapas,  and  other 
rivers.  The  hills  are  heavily 
forested,  yielding  many  kinds  of 
timber.  Although  the  mineral  re- 
sources have  not  been  largely  ex- 
ploited, gold  and  platinum  are 
found.  Area,  7,430  sq.  m.  Pop. 
14,600.  Esmeraldas,  the  capital, 
is  a  Pacific  port  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Esmeraldas,  96  m.  N.W.  of 
Quito.  It  manufactures  tobacco 
and  exports  rubber,  cacao,  sugar, 
fruit,  and  cattle.  Pop.  3,020. 

Esmond.  Novel  by  Thackeray 
published  in  1852,  the  full  title 
being  The  History  of  Henry  Es- 


Egypt. 
the  Nile, 


Esmond  being  knighted  by  Beatrix.     From  a  painting 
of  a  scene  in  Thackeray's  novel,  by  Augustus  L.  Egg 

Talc  Gallery 

mond,  a  colonel  in  the  Service  of 
Her  Majesty  Queen  Anne,  Written 


was  educated  privately,  and  went 
on  the  stage  hi  1885.       He  was 
the  author  of  many  plays,  some  of 
which  enjoyed  considerable  popu- 
larity.  They  include  Bogey,  1895  ; 
The   Divided   Way,    1895;      One 
Summer's  Day,  1897  ;    Grierson's 
Way,  1899  ;  The  Wilderness,  1901  ; 
The  Sentimentalist,  1901  ;  My  Lady 
Virtue,    1902  ; 
Under      the 
Greenw  o  o  d 
Tree,  1907  ;  A 
Young     Man's 
Fancy,     1912  ; 
Eliza      Comes 
to   Stay,   1913 
(previously 

Henry  V.  Esmond,      called      Sandy 
British  dramatist       and  His  Eliza); 
The   Dangerous   Age,    V7audeville, 
1914  (previously  called  The  Dear 
Fool).    He  died  April  17,  1922. 
Esneh    OR    ESNA.        Town    of 
It  is  on  the  W.  bank  of 
36  m.  by  rly.  from  Luxor. 
It    is   identical    with  the  Tesnet 
of  ancient  Egypt,  but  was  called 
Latopolis    by    the    Greeks,    after 
the    locally    venerated   latos    fish. 
The   chief    object 
of  interest  is  the 
temple  of  Khnum, 
which     was     em- 
bellished    by 
Roman    emperors 
from       Titus      to 
Decius    (251).      A 
subterranean  Cop- 
tic     church     was 
identified   here  hi 
1895.      The    bar- 
rage   at    Esneh 
ensures    adequate 
irrigation     for      a 
large    tract    of 
land. 

Espagnols-sur- 
Mer    (Fr.,    Span- 
iards on  the  sea). 
Name  given  to  a 
sea  fight  that  took  place  off  Win- 
chelsea  between  the   English  and 


by  Himself.    The  hero,  true  heir  to  the  Castilians,  Aug.  29, 1350.    The 

the  Viscount  Castlewood,  though  two  peoples  were  not  actually  at 

he    magnanimously   destroys    the  war,  but  the  Castilians  had  helped 

evidence  of  his  right,  tells  his  own  the  French  in  the  war  then  raging, 

story  from  boyhood  and  as  soldier  Moreover,  acts  of  piracy  had  been 

through  the  campaigns   of  Marl-  committed  on  both  sides, 
borough,  and  so  to  the  end  when         The   sequel  was   an  attack   on 

his  adoration  of  the  lofty  Beatrix  a  Castilian   fleet   of   armed  mer- 

lias   changed   into   devoted   affec-  chantmen  as  it  was  returning  from 


ESPARTERO 

the Netherlandsto  Spain.  Under  the 
command  of  Edward  III  the  Eng- 
lish fleet  was  assembled  atWinchel- 
sea,  and  there  the  Castilians,  nothing 
loth,  joined  battle  with  them.  This 
was  rather  an  encounter  of  ssldiers 
than  of  sailors.  Crossbowmen  on  the 
Castilian  ships  did  much  execution, 
and  lying  side  by  side,  the  crews 
of  each  fought  hand  to  hand.  In 
Cog  Thomas,  King  Edward  and  his 
nobles  took  a  gallant  part,  and  this 
ship  was  sunk  just  as  the  royal 
party  had  boarded  an  enemy  vessel. 
Forty  or  fifty  ships  were  engaged  on 
either  side,  the  Castilians  being  the 
larger.  Night,  rather  than  a  de- 
cision, put  an  end  to  the  combat, 
which  is  described  by  Froissart. 

Espalier  (Fr. ).  Shape  or  form 
of  fruit-tree  which  has  been 
trained  from  its  earliest  or  budded 
stage.  An  espalier  consists  of  a 
main  root  stem,  the  original  stock, 
from  which  fruit  branches  in  tiers 
extend  horizontally  right  and  left, 
one  above  another.  During  the 
year  after  budding,  when  the  side- 
shoots  make  their  appearance,  all 
should  be  removed  except  three, 
which  should  be  grouped  close 
together.  One  of  these  shoots  is 
trained  upwards  to  form  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  main  stem,  and 
the  remaining  couple  are  coaxed 
by  sticks  and  strings  to  grow  right 
and  left,  parallel  with  the  surface  of 
the  ground.  When  the  main 
stem  produces  three  more  buds 
suitably  situated,  the  process  is 
repeated  at  a  distance  of  about  one 
foot  above  the  original  tier.  The 
word  seems  to  have  originally  de- 
noted the  trellis-work  on  which  the 
trees  were  trained.  See  illus.  p.  497. 
Espartero,  BALDOMERO  (1792- 
1879).  Spanish  soldier  and  states- 
man. Born  Feb.  27, 1792,  at  Gran- 
atula,  Ciudad 
Real,  of  hum- 
ble parentage, 
he  f  ough  t 
against  Napo- 
leon in  Spain, 
and  afterwards 
against  the  re- 
belsin  S.Amer- 
ica. Again  in 

B.  Espartero,  Spain,  he  ob- 
Spanish  soldier  tained  several 
successes  against  the  Carlists,  and 
in  1839  concluded  the  treaty  of 
Vergara,  which  ended  the  war. 
Turning  to  politics,  he  became 
prime  minister,  and  from  1841-43 
was  regent,  but  in  the  latter  year 
he  fell  from  power  and  passed  the 
next  few  years  as  an  exile  in  Eng- 
land. Pardoned,  he  returned  to 
Spain  in  1848,  and  from  1854-56 
was  again  premier.  In  1868  he  was 
put  forward  as  a  candidate  for  the 
throne,  and  later  was  made  prince 
of  Vergara.  He  died  Jan.  9, 1879. 


ESPARTO      GRASS 

Esparto  Grass  (Stipa,  tenacis- 
sima).    Tall  perennial  grass  of  the 
natural  order  Gramineae.    It  is  a 
native   of    S. 
Europe  and  N. 
Africa,  where  it 
grows  in  rocky 
soil.    Its  leaves 
are  rolled  in 
^^^^          from  the  edges, 
W;1  1  so  that  they 
M    ^ffSSBr  1  appear    thread- 
1   ^m     %***'    1  like.     Being 
!  tough  and  wiry, 

; — A. ,-.,  •- ^J  it  is  used  in  the 

Esparto  Grass  manufacture  of 
ropes,  mats,  and  a  very  durable 
kind  of  paper.  For  the  latter 
purpose  many  thousands  of  tons 
of  the  grass  are  imported  into 
Britain  annually.  As  a  crop  it 
yields  about  10  tons  per  acre. 
See  Paper. 

Esperance.  Harbour  of  W. 
Australia.  It  is  situated  on  the  S. 
coast,  220  m.  N.E.  of  Albany.  Gold 
from  Coolgardie  is  shipped  here. 
Pop.  239. 

Esperanto.  International  lan- 
guage invented  by  Dr.  Zamenhof, 
an  oculist  of  Warsaw.  Completed 
in  1878,  and  first  published  in  1887, 
it  has  since  made  great  strides, 
the  number  of  Esperanto  societies 
rising  from  26  in  1901  to  2,700  in 
1913.  The  alphabet  consists  of  28 
letters,  none  of  which  offers  any  dif- 
ficulty  to  English-speaking  people. 
The  omission  of  Y,  however,  and  its 
representation  by  J  may  at  first 
cause  slight  confusion.  The  follow- 
ing are  the  terminations  of  words  : 
-o,  noun  (nominative)  ;  -a,  adject- 
ive ;  -;,  plural  ;  -n,  objective  (accu- 
sative) ;  -e,  adverb  ;  (tenses)  -as, 
present,  -is,  past,  -os,  future ; 
(active  participles)  -anta,  present, 
-inta,  past,  -onta,  future  ;  (passive 
participles)  -ata,  -ita,  -ota. 

The  passive  is  formed  by  the  aid  of 
esti,  to  be,  the  tense  required  being 
indicated  by  the  proper  participle. 
About  30  prefixes  and  suffixes  are 
employed  to  form  derivatives  ;  e.g. 
mal-,  indicating  the  exact  con- 
trary: bona,  good,  malbona,  bad; 
•il,  instrument;  haki,  hew;  hakilo, 
axe  ;  -ist,  trade  or  occupation ; 
boto,  boot,  botisto,  bootmaker  ;  ig-, 
factitive  (causing  an  action),  bruli, 
burn,  bruligi,  cause  to  burn.  Com- 
pounds are  formed  by  combining 
the  root  or  simple  forms  of  words  : 
fervojo,  railway,  iron  way.  The 
word  gesamideanoj  (people  of  the 
same  idea)  is  a  good  illustration 
of  word-formation ;  ge  denotes 
males  and  females  ;  sam,  same ; 
ide,  idea ;  an,  a  partisan  ;  o,  noun 
ending ;  j,  plural.  There  is  an  in- 
geniously constructed  table  of  cor- 
relative words — demonstrative,  in- 
definite, inclusive,  negative,  and 
relative. 


2975 

The  language  is  easily  learned, 
every  rule  being  without  exception, 
the  spelling  phonetic,  and  the 
vocabulary  surprisingly  small. 

International  congresses  have 
been  held  annually  since  1905, 
except  during  the  years  1914-18, 
at  Boulogne,  Geneva,  Cambridge, 
Dresden,  Barcelona,  Washington, 
Antwerp,  Cracow,  Berne,  Paris,  San 
Francisco,  arid  (Aug.,  1920)  The 
Hague.  These  have  been  attended 
by  representatives  of  30  or  more 
countries,  with  an  attendance 
varying  from  1,000  to  4,000.  The 
language  is  controlled  by  an  inter- 
national academy  and  a  language 
committee,  and  the  organization 
of  the  movement  by  the  central 
office  at  51,  Rue  Clichy,  Paris. 
Many  eminent  philologists  have 
pronounced  warmly  in  its  favour. 
It  is  officially  taught  in  a  number 
of  colleges  and  schools.  Many  firms 
now  use  it  for  business  purposes, 
and  there  is  a  growing  demand  for 
competent  teachers. 

There  is  &  flourishing  literature, 
translated  and  original,  and  some 
70  Esperanto  periodicals  are  now 
published  regularly.  The  language 
is  recognized  by  the  British 
Post  Office,  and  has  received 
much  government  support  in  other 
countries.  It  is  claimed  that 
the  general  adoption  of  Esper- 
anto as  an  auxiliary  language  for 
international  use  would  remove 
one  of  the  chief  obstacles  in  the 
way  of  world-peace,  facilitate  the 
working  and  effectiveness  of  inter- 
national congresses,  save  money 
and  effort  now  spent  on  transla- 
tions and  interpreters,  lighten  the 
curricula,  and  increase  the  effi- 
ciency of  schools,  render  literary 
masterpieces  and  scientific  works 
accessible  to  the  world,  and  facili- 
tate the  study  of  other  tongues, 
besides  its  obvious  utility  in  travel, 
science,  commerce,  and  in  all 
branches  of  human  activity.  The 
headquarters  for  the  British  Em- 
pire is  The  British  Esperanto  As- 
sociation, Incd.,  17,  Hart  Street, 
London,  W.C.  The  Universala 
Esperanto -Asocio,  14,  Museum- 
strasse,  Berne,  deals  with  the 
practical  application  of  the  lan- 
guage to  business,  travel,  etc. 
See  Language  ;  Phonetics  ;  con- 
sult also  International  Language, 
W.  J.  Clark,  1907. 

Esperanza,  LA.  Town  of  Hon- 
duras, capital  of  the  dept.  of  Inti- 
buca.  It  stands  on  a  plateau  at  an 
alt.  of  nearly  5,000  ft.  above  sea 
level,  45  m*  W.N.W.  of  Teguci- 
galpa. The  Indian  city  of  Intibuca 
is  adjacent.  Pop.  11,453. 

Espinal.  Town  of  Colombia,  hi 
the  dept.  of  Tolima.  It  stands  at 
an  alt.  of  1,020  ft.,  25  m.  N.E.  of 
Purificaeion,  and  75  m.  S.W.  of 


ESPIONAGE 

Bogota.  It  is  the  centre  of  an  agri- 
cultural district,  producing  coffee, 
cocoa,  and  tobacco,  and  manufac- 
tures pottery.  Pop.  10,010. 

Espionage  (Fr.  espion,  spy). 
Aiding  an  enemy  by  supplying  in- 
formation otherwise  than  as  a  belli- 
gerent engaged  on  reconnaissance 
duty,  or  as  a  citizen  openly  helping 
his  own  country.  The  soldier  if 
captured  must  be  treated  as  a 
prisoner  of  war  ;  a  civilian  may  be 
guilty  of  a  war  crime,  such  as  Var 
treason,  but  in  neither  case,  if  no 
dissimulation  has  been  practised, 
is  the  offence  that  of  espionage. 

Espionage  as  defined  by  the 
Hague  Rules  was  extensively  em- 
ployed during  the  American  Civil 
War  of  1861-65,  and  as  the  belli- 
gerents spoke  a  common  language, 
the  offence  was  hard  to  detect.  A 
favourite  plan  of  the  "couriers" 
was  to  be  captured  by  the  enemy, 
and  as  prisoners  of  war,  on  the  way 
to  the  enemy's  base,  to  make  a 
careful  study  of  his  camps  and 
depots.  When  the  hour  approached 
for  internment,  an  escape  was 
effected,  the  outpost  lines  re- 
crossed,  and  a  report  prepared. 
British  officers  on  the  retreat  from 
Mons  in  Aug.,  1914,  testify  to  the 
execution  of  two  German  officers, 
who,  dressed  in  the  correct  uniform 
of  the  British  staff,  made  a  tour  of 
British  positions  in  a  British  motor- 
car, and  in  faultless  English  ques- 
tioned the  troops  at  important 
points.  In  Westminster  Abbey  lie 
the  remains  of  John  Andre  (q.v.), 
an  English  soldier,  who  was  hanged 
as  a  spy  in  1780,  during  the  Ameri- 
can War  of  Independence.  Even  in 
time  of  peace  soldiers  are  employed 
as  agents  of  the  Intelligence  De- 
partments to  visit  other  countries 
and  obtain  information  by  stealth. 
General  "JBaden-Powell  has  de- 
scribed his  own  adventures  as  one 
of  these  agents.  He  cannot  be 
regarded  as  a  spy,  since  his  investi- 
gations had  no  reference  to  an 
actual  enemy.  On  the  other  hand, 
he  was  knowingly  breaking  the 
laws  of  the  country  visited  in 
pursuing  illegitimate  inquiries,  and 
so  risked  a  term  of  imprisonment. 

The  methods  by  which  Germany 
obtained  information  of  economic 
and  military  value  in  peace  time 
are  peculiar.  An  insurance  office  in 
Paris  would  afford  a  pretext  for  the 
employment  of  German  reserve 
officers  to  tour  the  E.  of  France, 
ostensibly  in  search  of  clients.  An 
offer  was  made  to  a  French  insur- 
ance office  to  relieve  it  of  all  risk  in 
respect  of  important  clients  such  as 
the  Creusot  Works,  and  thus  the 
German  agency  was  furnished  with 
daily  reports  in  regard  to  the  staff 
and  also  the  material  of  war  manu- 
factured by  the  French  company. 


ESP1RITO      SANTO 


Such  an  act  is  not  criminal  ;  and  in 
time  of  peace  no  question  of  espion- 
age in  a  military  sense  can  arise. 
Yet  to  the  popular  mind  the  term 
spying  would  seem  appropriate. 
Even  in  war  time,  it  is  difficult  to 
define  the  offence  committed  by  a 
Swiss  concern  which,  in  1915,  in- 
vited 10,000  French  families  to  send 
the  address  of  a  French  soldier  to 
whom  a  present  of  tobacco  would 
be  acceptable.  The  addresses  thus 
obtained  were  forwarded  to  Ger- 
many as  an  indication  of  the  where- 
abouts of  French  units.  Carl  Lody, 
a  German  ex-officer,  was  discovered 
during  hostilities  to  be  collecting 
information  about  the  British  navy 
and  sending  it  to  Germany.  He  was 
tried  by  court-martial  for  war 
treason  and  shot.  As  he  was  avow- 
edly serving  his  country  outside  the 
war  zone,  he  became  a  war  criminal 
under  British  law  ;  similar  action 
within  the  zone  of  operations  would 
have  involved  espionage,  according 
to  the  Hague  Rules. 

It  may  be  concluded,  then,  that 
almost  any  act  done  in  the  interests 
of  the  enemy  after  war  has  been  de- 
clared, by  whomsoever  committed, 
is  a  war  crime,  but  whether  it  is  to 
be  classed  as  espionage  or  war 
treason  depends  upon  the  circum- 
stances. See  Secret  Service  ;  Spy. 

Espirito  Santo.  Maritime  state 
of  S.E.  Brazil.  It  is  bounded  N.  by 
Bahia,  W.  by  Minas  Geraes,  E.  by 
the  Atlantic,  and  S.  by  Rio  de  Jan- 
eiro. Hilly  in  the  interior  and  on 
the  W.,  where  runs  the  Serra  dos 
Aim  ores  and  the  Serra  do  Mar, 
elsewhere  it  is  level,  and  in  parts 
marshy.  Well  watered  by  the  Rio 
Doce  and  its  tributaries,  it  pro- 
duces coffee,  sugar,  cocoa,  tobacco, 
rice,  and  salt  ;  its  forests  yield 
valuable  timber  and  drugs.  The 
Parahyba  do  Sul  flows  along  the 
S.  boundary.  The  mining  resources 
of  this  region  are  not  yet  tapped, 
but  deposits  of  iron  ore  are  known 
to  exist.  Three  rlys.  serve  the  state. 
Education  is  backward.  The  capital 
is  Victoria,  on  the  bay  of  Espirito 
Santo.  Area,  17,308  sq.  m.  Pop. 
434,512. 

Espiritu  Santo.  Largest  and 
westernmost  of  the  New  Hebrides, 
Pacific  Ocean,  in  lat.  15°  S.,  long. 
167°  E.  It  is  65  m.  long  by  20  m. 
wide,  and  mountainous,  attaining 
an  altitude  of  over  5,000  ft.  Maize, 
coconuts,  millet,  coffee,  and  ban- 
anas are  grown.  Trade  is  mostly 
with  Sydney.  Area,  1,850  sq.  m. 
Pop.  20,000. 

Esprit  des  Lois  ,  DE  iA  Title  of 
a  great  work  by  Montesquieu.  It  is 
divided  into  31  books,  each  of  which 
contains  a  number  of  short  chap- 
ters, some  only  a  few  lines  in  length, 
and  made  a  big  quarto  volume. 
Published  anonymously  at  Geneva 


in  1748,  it  has  been  many  times  re- 
printed. It  is  a  comprehensive  sur- 
vey  of   the   nature   of  laws   and 
government  "  almost  unique  in  its 
entire  freedom  at  once  from  doo- 
trinairism,  from  visionary  enthu- 
siasm, from  egotism,  and  from  an 
und^ie  spirit  of  system."    Its  con- 
tents may  be  expressed  by  its  sub- 
title,   "  the  relation    which    laws 
should    have    to 
the    constitution 
of  every  govern- 
ment, to  manners, 
climate,  religion, 
commerce,  etc." 

Espronceda,  ..„ 
Josfi    DE    (1810- 
42).      Spanish 
poet.     Born  near 
Almen  d  r  a  1  e  j  o, 
Estremadura,   he 
was  educated  at 
the  college  of  S. 
Matthew,  Madrid, 
and    before     the 
age  of  15  was  im- 
prisoned  as   a 
member  of  a  revolutionary  secret 
society.        On    returning    to    the 
capital  he  found  himself  suspect, 
and  after  a  further  spell  of  incar- 
ceration escaped  to  England.     In 
London  he  studied   Shakespeare, 
Milton,  and  Byron  (by  whom  he 
was    most    markedly  influenced), 
and  while  there  wrote  his  fine  ode 
A  la  Patria  (1829).       In  1830  he 
was  in  Paris,  fighting  in  the  brief 
revolution  there.    On  the  amnesty 
after  the  death  of  Ferdinand,  1833, 
he  returned  to  Spain  and  entered 
the  queen's  bodyguard,    but  was 
cashiered  for    writing  a   political 
song.     Journalism,  novel-writing, 
and  various  revolutionary  move- 
ments occupied  him  for  a  few  years, 
and  in  1841  he  became  secretary  of 
the  embassy  at  the  Hague.  In  1842 
he  returned  to  take  his  seat  in  the 
Cortes  as  deputy  for  Almeria.    He 
died  May  23,  1842. 

Showing  early  gifts  as  a  poet,  he 
gained  a  leading  position  among 
19th  century  Spanish  writers,  and 
his  influence  on  his  successors  was 
marked.  His  best  work  was  of  a 
lyrical  and  self -revealing  charac- 
ter, as  is  seen  in  the  Don  Juan-like 
narrative,  The  Student  of  Sala- 
manca, and  the  Faust-like  The 
Devil- World.  See  Spain:  Litera- 
ture ;  consult  also  Modern  Poets 
and  Poetry  of  Spain,  J.  Kennedy, 
1852;  Hist,  of  Spanish  Literature, 
J.  Fitzmaurice-Kelly,  1898. 

Esquiline  Hill  (Mons  Esqui- 
linus).  The  highest  of  the  "  seven 
hills  "  on  and  around  which  ancient 
Rome  was  built.  Lying  between 
the  Caelian  and  the  Viminal,  in  the 
oiiginal  city  it  was  regarded  as  in- 
cluding the  Oppian,  Cispian,  and 
Fagutal.  On  the  EsquUine  were 


ESSAD 

the  Colosseum  (q.v. ),  erected  on  the 
site  of  the  Golden  House  of  Nero, 
and  the  thermae,  or  warm  baths,  of 
Titus  and  Trajan.  See  Rome. 

Esquimau.  Port  of  British 
Columbia,  Canada.  It  is  on  Van- 
couver Island.  3  m.  from  Victoria. 
It  has  a  magnificent  harbour  and 
is  the  Pacific  coast  headquarters 
of  the  Canadian  navy,  for  which 


Esquimau,  British  Columbia.      View    of    the   harbour, 
one  of  the  safest  and  best  defended  on  the  Pacific  coast 

there  is  a  dockyard  and  other 
naval  establishments.  The  town  is 
served  by  the  C.N.R.  and  C.P.R. 
The  industries  include  shipbuilding 
and  oyster  culture.  Pop.  4,700. 

Esquire  (old  Fr.  escuyer,  shield- 
bearer).  Title  of  honour.  The 
word,  originally  denoting  one  who 
bore  the  shield  for  a  knight,  be- 
came a  title  of  honour  below  the 
rank  of  knight.  Among  those 
legally  esquires  are  sons  of  peers, 
the  eldest  sons  of  baronets  and 
knights,  justices  of  the  peace,  and 
barristers. 

Essad,  AHMET,  PASHA  (1863- 
1920).  Albanian  soldier  and  poli- 
tician. Descended  from  the  Top- 
tan  i  family, 
hereditary 
claimants  t  o 
the  Albanian 
kingship,  Es- 
sad first  en- 
t  e  r  e  d  the 
Al  banian 
army.  He 
served  in 
Macedon  is- 
and  Albania 

on  the  side  of  Turkey,  and  was  re- 
warded for  services  against  Greece, 
1897,  with  the  title  of  pasha.  The 
assassin  of  Essad's  brother,  hired 
by  Abdul  Ham  id,  was  slain  by 
Essad  in  Constantinople,  but  soon 
after  the  sultan  made  him  com- 
mander of  gendarmerie  at  Janina. 

In  1908  Essad  headed  the  depu- 
tation which  announced  to  Abdul 
his  deposition,  and  in  the  Balkan 
war  of  1912  heroically  defended 
Scutari  against  the  Greeks.  During 
the  short  reign  of  Prince  William 
of  Wied  as  mpret,  Essad  was 
the  real  ruler  of  Albania  and 


Essad  Pasha, 
Albanian  soldier 


ES     SALT 

attempted  an  abortive  coup  d'etat, 
was  arrested  but  released,  and  after 
the  mpret's  departure  made  himself 
head  of  the  provisional  govern- 
ment, Oct.  5,  1914. 

In  Jan.,  1916,  he  sided  with  the 
Allies.  In  Feb.  the  Austrians  over- 
ran Albania,  and  Essad  escaped  to 
Salonica.  His  connexion  with  the 
Serbians,  whom  he  had  aided  in 
their  1915  retreat,  made  him  dis- 
tasteful to  the  Italians  who  occu- 
pied Albania  after  the  Austrian 
retreat,  1918,  and  he  was  not  al- 
lowed to  return  there.  He  lived 
for  some  months  in  Paris,  and  was 
murdered  by  an  Albanian  student, 
June  13,  1920.  See  Albania. 

Es  Salt.  Village  of  Palestine. 
Identified  as  the  ancient  Ramoth 
(Deut.  iv,  43;  Josh,  xx,  8),  it  is 
15  m.  N.E.  of  the  crossing  of  the 
Jordan  at  El  Ghoraniyeh,  20  N.E. 
of  the  N.  end  of  the  Dead  Sea. 
Situated  at  an  elevation  of  2,740  ft. 
above  the  sea,  it  is  the  capital  of  the 
Kada  (division)  of  El-Belka.  Wine 
and  raisins  are  produced  in  the  dis- 
trict. The  inhabitants  are  two- 
thirds  Moslems,  the  rest  Greeks, 
Protestants,  and  Roman  Catholics. 
During  the  Great  War  it  was  a 
large  depot  of  the  Turks,  who  when 
they  retired  from  it,  April  1,  1918, 
brought  away  some  thousands  of 
Jewish,  Syrian,  and  Armenian 
refugees.  On  April  30  Allenby  re- 
sumed operations  E.  of  the  Jordan, 
and  Australian  mounted  troops  en- 
tered Es  Salt.  It  was  evacuated 
May  3,  when  Allenby  withdrew  his 
whole  force  to  the  Jordan  crossings. 
See  Palestine,  Conquest  of. 

Essay  (Fr.  essai,  attempt ;  Lat. 
exigere,  to  examine).  Literary  com- 
position, generally  in  prose,  of  a 
short  and  informal  character.  The 
origin  of  the  word  is  the  same  as 
that  of  assay,  for  at  first  it  was 
taken  as  indicating  a  testing  or 
trying  of  a  subject.  The  word  has, 
however,  at  different  times  been 
applied  to  a  great  variety  of  com- 
positions, embracing  at  once  the 
sententious  brevities  of  Bacon  and 
the  fullness  of  such  a  philosophical 
work  as  that  of  Locke,  On  the 
Human  Understanding.  It  is  also 
applied  to  certain  of  the  didactic 
poems  of  Pope. 

Montaigne  (16th  century)  is 
generally  regarded  as  the  origin- 
ator of  the-  modern  essay,  as  he  was 
the  first  to  employ  the  word  as  title 
for  his  pleasantly  discursive  and 
personal  writings  ;  yet,  as  Bacon, 
the  earliest  notable  master  of  the 
English  essay,  wrote,  "  the  word  is 
late,  but  the  thing  is  ancient." 
Bacon's  Essays,  1597,  are  mainly 
a  succession  of  pithy  maxims,  and 
differ  greatly  from  the  essay  as  it 
was  evolved  during  the  succeeding 
centuries ;  for  it  was  rather  from 


2977 

the  Frenchman  than  from  their 
countryman  that  the  English  es- 
sayists derived.  Ignoring  its  use  as 
something  of  an  apologetic  prefix  to 
philosophical  and  historical  studies, 
and  its  employment  in  poetry  by 
Pope  and  some  of  his  imitators,  the 
history  of  the  essay  in  English 
literature  may  be  followed  in  a 
record  of  some  of  its  exponents. 

Abraham  Cowley,  the  first  Eng- 
lish author  to  write  in  the  easy, 
familiar,  personal  style  of  Mon- 
taigne, though  he  frequently 
rounded  off  his  essay  with  a  poem 
on  its  theme,  or  wrote  the  essay  as 
little  more  than  introduction  to  a 
poem,  may  be  called  the  father  of 
the  familiar  essay  in  English.  It 
was  with  Richard  Steele  and 
Joseph  Addison  that  the  essay  es- 
tablished itself  as  a  popular  form 
of  literary  composition.  Their 
personal  studies  in  essay  form  in 
The  Tatler  and  The  Spectator 
are  regarded  as  adumbrating  the 
English  novel  ;  as  two  laughing 
philosophers, with  their  genial  com- 
ment on  men  and  affairs  in  periodi- 
cal essays,  they  established  a  form 
of  the  composition  which  continued 
throughout  the  18th  century. 

In  the  hands  of  Daniel  Defoe 
early  in  that  century,  the  periodical 
essay  received  that  particular  bent 
out  of  which  developed  the  news- 
paper leader.  Towards  the  middle 
of  the  century  the  periodical  essay 
was  revived  in  The  True  Patriot, 
The  Rambler,  The  Covent  Garden 
Journal,  The  Adventurer,  The 
Idler,  The  Bee,  The  Citizen  of  the 
World,  and  many  more,  and  found 
its  most  notable  writers  in  Henry 
Fielding,  Samuel  Johnson,  and 
Oliver  Goldsmith.  These  various 
works  were  brought  together  in 
British  Essayists,  with  prefaces  by 
A.  Chalmers,  45  vols.,  1817. 

With  the  19th  century  the  essay 
branched  more  definitely  into  two 
main  kinds,  both  already,  but  less 
distinctly,  differentiated,  the  fami- 
liar and  the  critical  essay.  Of  the 
writers  of  the  former  kind  the 
greatest  examplar  is  Charles  Lamb, 
whose  Essays  of  Elia,  1823,  Last 
Essays  of  Elia,  1833,  and  uncol- 
lected  essays  may  be  said  to  have 
influenced  many  of  his  successors 
up  to  the  present  day.  At  the  same 
period  William  Hazlitt  was  writer 
of  essays  of  a  more  robust  charac- 
ter, and  Leigh  Hunt  was  master  of 
a  dainty,  graceful  essay  style,  less 
charmingly  individual  than  that  of 
Lamb.  The  critical  essay  received 
a  stimulus  from  the  establish- 
ment of  the  quarterly  reviews  and 
the  rapid  growth  of  the  magazines, 
Francis  Jeffrey,  Sydney  Smith, 
and  Thomas  Babington  Macaulay 
being  among  its  most  notable  ex- 
ponents. 


ESSAYS      OF      ELIA 


Later  essayists  of  note  were 
William  Makepeace  Thackeray,  ' 
whose  Roundabout  Papers  (1863) 
takes  high  rank  among  familiar 
essays,  James  Anthony  Froude, 
and  Matthew  Arnold  ;  while  more 
recently  Robert  Louis  Stevenson, 
Austin  Dobson,  Augustine  Birrell, 
Arthur  Christopher  Benson,  and 
Edward  Verrall  Lucas  have  won 
applause  by  their  diverse  writings 
in  this  form.  In  America  Ralph 
Waldo  Emerson  has  been  the  most 
notable  essayist,  though  Edgar 
Allen  Poe,  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes, 
James  Russell  Lowell,  and  more 
recently  Paul  Elmer  More  (Shel- 
burne  Essays)  must  be  mentioned. 
See  English  Essays,  ed.  J.  H. 

Lobban,  1896.  Walter  Jerrold 

Essay  on  Man,  AN.  Moral 
poem  by  Alexander  Pope.  It  takes 
the  form  of  four  epistles  to  Lord 
Bolingbroke,  who  is  supposed  to 
have  suggested  the  theme,  and  was 
published  anonymously  in  1732-34. 
Though  it  has  been  objected  that 
the  author  was  hampered  by  the 
metaphysical  nature  of  his  subject, 
and  gives  no  consistent  scheme  of 
beliefs,  the  Essay  will  always  be  re- 
membered for  the  many  terse  sen- 
tences it  has  added  to  the  great  body 
of  familiar  quotations.  Among 
these  are  :  "  The  proper  study  of 
mankind  is  man,"  "Hope  springs 
eternal  in  the  human  breast," 
"  Die  of  a  rose  in  aromatic  pain," 
"Pleased  with  a  rattle,  tickled 
with  a  straw,"  and  a  large  number 
of  others. 

Essays  and  Reviews.  Volume 
by  seven  writers,  six  of  them  clergy- 
men of  the  Church  of  England. 
On  its  publication  in  1860,  its 
rationalistic  tendencies  aroused  a 
storm  of  criticism.  Two  of  the 
clergymen — Williams  and  Wilson 
— were  suspended  by  the  ecclesias- 
tical courts,  but  the  suspension  was 
revised  on  appeal  to  the  Privy 
Council,  when,  as  it  was  said,  Lord 
Chancellor  Westbury  "  dismissed 
eternal  punishment  with  costs." 
The  contents  of  the  volume  were  : 
The  Education  of  the  World,  Fred- 
erick Temple  ;  Bunsen's  Biblical 
Researches,  Rowland  Williams  ; 
On  the  Study  of  the  Evidences  of 
Christianity,  Baden-Powell ;  The 
National  Church,  H.  B.  Wilson  ; 
The  Mosaic  Cosmogony,  C.  W. 
Goodwin  ;  Tendencies  of  Religious 
Thought  in  England,  1688-1750, 
Mark  Pattison  ;  and  the  Interpreta- 
tion of  Scripture,  Benjamin  Jowett. 

Essays  of  Elia.  Volume  of 
familiar  papers  on  various  themes 
by  Charles  Lamb,  published  in 
volume  form  in  1823  after  appear- 
ance in  The  London  Magazine,  and 
supplemented  in  1833  by  the  Last 
Essays  of  Elia.  These  essays,  vary- 
ing from  grave  to  gay,  pervaded 

T    4 


ESSEG 


2978 


ESSENES 


with  delightful  fancy  and  rich  in 
humour  and  tenderness,  reveal 
much  of  the  life  and  character  of 
the  author.  They  not  only  include 
the  best  of  Lamb's  work,  but  stand 
alone  and  unchallenged  as  the  su- 
preme collection  of  familiar  essays 
in  the  English  language.  Pron. 
Ellia.  See  Lamb,  Charles. 

Esseg.  Variant  spelling  for  the 
name  of  the  former  Hungarian 
town  better  known  as  Esz6k  (q.v-)> 
Essen.  Town  of  Germany.  In 
the  Prussian  Rhine  province,  it  is 
20  m.  N.E.  of  Diisseldorf.  Situated 

. ( near  the  vast  iron 

""""  and  coal  deposits 
of  Westphalia,  it 
was  here  that  the 
Krupp  works  were 
established,  and 
to  them  the  town 
owes  its  growth, 
the  population 
having  increased 


Essen  arms 


from  9,000  in  1850  to  295,000  in 
1910.  It  is  also  an  important  rail- 
way centre,  and  has  manufactures 
of  machinery  and  other  iron  goods, 
tobacco,  etc. 

Although  so  modern  in  most  re- 
spects, Essen  is  an  old  place.  It 
grew  up  around  a  Benedictine  nun- 
nery, and  has  a  notable  church,  the 
minster,  dating  in  the  main  part 
from  the  10th  century  ;  it  was  re- 
stored in  the  19th.  The  town  was 
ruled  by  the  abbess,  a  princess  of 
the  empire,  who  retained  her  pow- 
ers until  1803.  In  1814  it  became 
part  of  Prussia.  In  addition  to  the 
minster,  which  is  noteworthy  both 
on  account  of  its  design  and  its 
decorations,  there  are  several 
modern  churches.  Other  buildings 
include  a  fine  town  hall,  rebuilt 
in  the  old  style,  1899,  the  large 
railway  station,  theatre,  etc.  There 
are  several  technical  schools  and 
hospitals ;  also  parks  and  other 
amenities.  Essen,  together  with 
neighbouring  towns,  was  occupied 
by  the  French  in  Jan.,  1923,  in  their 
seizure  of  the  Ruhr  district,  and 
the  Krupp  directors  imprisoned. 
See  Krupp  Works  ;  Ruhr. 

Essen,  HANS  HBKRIK,  COUNT 
(1755-1824).  Swedish  soldier  and 
statesman.  Born  in  West  Gothland, 
Sept.  26,  1755,  and  educated  at 
Upsala,  he  entered  the  army.  He 
became  a  favourite  of  Gustavus 
III,  whom  he  accompanied  in  the 
war  against  Russia,  1788-90,  and 
whose  assassination  he  witnessed 
in  1792.  In  1795  he  was  appointed 
governor  of  Stockholm.  From  1800 
to  1807  he  was  governor-general  of 
Pomerania  and  distinguished  him- 
self by  a  stubborn  defence  of  Stral- 
sund  against  the  French.  In  1810 
he  negotiated  a  peace  with  France 
by  which  Pomeiania  was  restored 
to  Sweden,  and  in  1811  was  pro- 


Admiral  von  Essen, 
Russian  sailor 


moted  field-marshal.  In  1813  he 
commanded  the  successful  expe- 
dition against  Norway,  and  was 
governor  there,  1814-16.  He  died 
at  Uddewalla,  June  28,  1824. 

Essen,  ADMIRAL  VON  (1860- 
1915).  Russian  sailor.  He  com- 
manded the  Vladivostock  fleet  in 
the  Russo  - 
Japanese  War, 
and  took  a 
prominent 
part  in  the  re- 
organization of 
the  Russian 
navy.  Com- 
mander of  the 
Russian  Baltic 
fleet  in  Aug., 
1914,  he 
brought  his  fleet  out  from  Libau 
by  a  daring  manoeuvre.  He  dis- 
guised several  of  his  ships  as  Ger- 
man, and,  engaging  the  German 
fleet  in  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  Aug.  27, 
destroyed  the  German  cruiser 
Magdeburg  and  damaged  another. 
He  died  at  Reval,  May  20,  1915. 

Essence  (Lat.  esse,  to  be).  The 
sum  of  the  permanent,  constitutive 
qualities  which  make  an  existing 
thing  what  it  is.  The  name  quint- 
essence (fifth  essence)  was  given  by 
Aristotle  to  ether,  the  other  four 
being  fire,  water,  earth,  air.  Es- 
sence is  now  used  to  denote  the 
best  and  purest  part  of  anything. 
As  a  theological  term,  essence  or 
substance  (ousia)  is  used  of  that 
which  is  common  to  the  three 
Persons  of  the  Trinity,  in  contrast 
with  Tiypostasis  (person),  which 
refers  to  the  special  characteristics 
of  each  Person. 

Essence.  Strong  flavouring 
used  in  puddings,  cakes,  and 


rennet  is  made  from  the  stomach 
of  the  calf,  which  poured  into  milk 
produces  curds.  Beef  essence  or 
extract  is  used  in  the  making  of 
gravies,  and  also  as  a  nourishing 
food  for  invalids 

Essendon.  Parish  and  village  of 
Hertfordshire,  England.  It  stands 
on  the  Lea,  3  m.  E.  of  Hatfield. 
During  the  Great  War  it  was 
bombed  by  German  aircraft. 
Pop.  601. 

Essendon.  Town  of  Victoria, 
Australia,  in  Bourke  co.  It  forms 
a  suburb  of  Melbourne,  from  which 
it  is  5  m.  distant.  Pop.  23,749. 

Essenes.  Ancient  Jewish  sect. 
It  sought  to  combine  the  ascetic 
practices  of  the  Jewish  religion 
with  various  Oriental  tenets  and 
rites.  Probably  an  offshoot  of  the 
older  sect  of  the  Chasidim  or  Assi- 
deans,  it  would  appear  to  have 
originated  in  the  days  of  the  Mac- 
cabees (2nd  century  B.C.).  The 
Essenes  believed  in  one  God  and  in 
eternal  predestination.  While 
maintaining  the  immortality  of  the 
soul,  they  denied  the  resurrection 
of  the  body  ;  and  they  held  a  Greek 
view  of  future  rewards  and  punish- 
ments. Strongly  opposed  to  an 
official  priesthood,  they  refused  to 
take  part  in  the  Temple  sacrifices, 
but  held  ceremonial  feasts  with 
prayer  in  their  own  houses.  They 
led  very  austere  lives,  some  living 
in  community  under  a  kind  of 
monastic  rule,  while  others  lived 
apart  in  contemplative  solitude. 
Community  of  goods  was  practised, 
and  the  time  was  divided  between 
prayer,  study  of  the  sacred  books, 
and  agriculture. 

Later,  becoming  tainted  with  the 
Gnostic  tenets  of  the  essential  evil 
of  matter  and  the 
dualistic  origin  of 
the  universe,  they 
abstained  from 
flesh,  wine,  and 
marriage.  They 
paid  peculiar  re- 
verence to  certain 
angels,  and  in  som  e 
cases  practised 


sweets.  It  is  mad- 
by  extracting 
or  distilling  the 
volatile  oil  from 
plants,  seeds,  or 
kernels,  such  as 
vanilla,  coriander, 
musk,  anise,  nut- 
meg, peppermint, 
and  coffee.  Rata- 
fia is  prepared 
from  bitter  al- 
monds and  other 
kernels  and  orange 
peel.  Essence  of 


Essen.  Krupp's  steel  works  at  the  great  German 
manufacturing  town.  Above,  model  village  in  which 
some  of  the  workmen  are  housed 


ESSENTIAL 

a  form  of  sun  worship.  Strongly 
opposed  by  orthodox  Jews,  though 
favoured  by  the  Herods,  they  werev 
cruelly  persecuted  by  the  Romans. 
They  had  a  settlement  near  the 
Dead  Sea  ;  Josephus  estimated  the 
stricter  Essenes  of  his  day  at  about 
4,000.  The  sect  died  out  before 
the  3rd  century.  Pron.  Es-seenz. 
See  Jews. 

Essential  OR  VOLATILE  OILS. 
Oils  representing  in  the  majority  of 
cases  the  characteristic  properties 
of  the  plant  from  which  they  have 
been  extracted.  The  term  volatile 
oil  refers  to  the  fact  that  this  class 
of  oils  can  be  entirely  volatilised 
without  change,  whereas  the  fixed 
or  fatty  oils  make  a  permanent 
greasy  mark  if  placed  on  a  piece  of 
paper.  The  methods  of  preparation 
vary  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
plant  from  which  the  oils  are  ex- 
tracted. Delicate  perfume  oils  are 
produced  by  an  absorption  process 
known  as  enfleurage. 

Essequibo.  Settlement  and 
river  of  British  Guiana,  S.  America. 
The  settlement  extends  to  the 
Venezuelan  frontier  and  borders  on 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  for  120  m.  It 
contains  locust  trees,  iron  wood, 
ebony,  greenheart,  and  other  hard- 
wood trees.  It  was  the  subject  of 
rival  claims,  settled  by  the  Arbitra- 
tion Treaty  of  Feb.  2, 1897,between 
Great  Britain  and  Venezuela. 

The  river  rises  near  the  equa- 
tor, among  the  mountains  on  the 
Brazilian  border,  and  flows  N., 
entering  the  Atlantic  near  George- 
town through  a  long  estuary,  from 
15  m.  to  20  m.  wide,  containing 
several  islands.  Its  length  is 
about  600  m.,  only  40  m.  being 
navigable  to  vessels  of  deep 
draught,  owing  to  cataracts  ;  its 
mouth  is  impeded  by  sand  bars. 
The  largest  river  of  the  colony,  it 
receives  important  tributaries,  e.g. 
the  Rupununi,  Masaruni,  Cuyuni, 
and  the  Polaro. 

Essex.  Agricultural  and  mari- 
time county  of  S.E.  England.  It 
is  bounded  S.  by  the  Thames,  E. 
and  S.E.  by  the  North  Sea,  N.  by 
Suffolk  and  Cam- 
bridgeshire, and 
W.  by  Hertford- 
shire and  Middle- 
sex.  Its  area  is 
1,530  sq.  m.  Its 
90  m.  or  more  of 
seaboard,  indent- 
ed  by  several 
river  estuaries,  is 
low-lying  islands: 
Canvey,  Foulness,  Wallasea,  Mer- 
sea,  etc.  The  chief  rivers  are  the 
Thames,  Lea,  Stour,  Colne,  Chel- 
mer,  Blackwater,  Crouch,  and  Rod- 
ing.  While  the  coastal  region  is 
flat  and  marshy,  there  is  com- 
paratively high  ground  in  the  N.  W. 


Essex  arms 
marked     by 


2979 

and  centre,  the  highest  points  being 
reached  at  High  Beech,  in  Epping 
Forest ;  Danbury,  between  Chelms- 
ford  and  Maldon,  and  in  the  Lang- 
don  Hills.  Harwich  is  the  chief 
port.  Southend-on-Sea,  Walton- 
on-the  Naze,  Dovercourt,  Clacton- 
on-Sea,  and  Frinton-on-Sea  are 
popular  holiday  resorts. 

The  county  produces  wheat, 
barley,  and  fruit,  but  apart  from 
brewing  (Romford)  and  engineer- 
ing (Colchester),  the  manufactur- 
ing industries  are  to  a  large  extent 
confined  to  the  metropolitan  area, 
in  which  is  the  bulk  of  the  popula- 
tion, that  of  the  agricultural  cen- 
tres having  decreased  of  late  years. 
The  Crouch,  Blackwater,  and  Colne 
have  productive  oyster  beds,  the 
Colchester  Oyster  Feast,  an  annual 
event  of  some  importance,  dating 
from  early  times.  There  is  a  gun- 


ESSEX 

became  the  scene  of  many  con- 
flicts between  Saxons  and  Danes. 
William  of  Normandy  laid  a 
heavy  hand  upon  it.  In  the  12th 
century  it  gave  its  name  to  an 
earldom  created  by  Stephen  in 
favour  of  Geoffrey  de  Mandeville. 
From  the  7th  until  the  middle  of 
the  19th  century  it  was  ecclesiasti- 
cally attached  to  the  see  of  Lon- 
don. It  was  next  linked  first  to 
Rochester  and  then  to  St.  Albans. 
In  1914  the  see  of  Chelmsford  was 
founded.  There  are  bishops  suffra- 
gan of  Colchester  and  Barking. 

By  the  earthquake  of  April  23, 
1884,  affecting  the  area  between 
Colchester  and  the  Blackwater, 
1,200  houses  were  damaged. 

The  county  is  rich  in  prehistoric, 
Roman,  Anglo-Saxon,  medieval, 
and  monastic  remains  ;  has  many 
notable  churches  and  some  fine  old 


Essex.  Map  of  the  deeply  indented  county 
powderf  actory  at  Waltham  Abbey, 
and  the  Tilbury  Docks  and  Vic- 
toria Docks  (Plaistow)  are  on  the 
Thames.  Yachts  and  pleasure  boats 
are  built  at  Burnham-on-Crouch, 
which  is  also  a  yachting  centre. 

The  forest  of  Essex,  known 
after  the  early  part  of  the  14th 
century  as  the  forest  of  Waltham, 
has  dwindled  to  what  is  known  as 
Epping  Forest  (q.v.),  a  public  pos- 
session since  1882.  There  are  eight 
municipal  boroughs  :  Chelmsford, 
Colchester,  Harwich,  Maldon,  Saff- 
ron Walden,  Southend,  West  Ham, 
and  East  Ham.  The  county  is 
served  by  the  G.E.,  L.T.  &  S.,  Mid., 
and  Colne  Valley  Rlys.  Eight  mem- 
bers are  returned  to  Parliament. 

In  the  1st  century  B.C.  Essex 
was  the  home  of  the  British  tribe 
of  the  Trinobantes.  Later  the 
kingdom  of  the  East  Saxons,  it 


,  showing  its  relation  to  the  London  area 
houses,  Audley  End  among  them, 
while  the  remains  of  Norman  cas- 
tles, e.g.  Colchester  and  Heding- 
ham,  and  the  fragment  at  Had- 
leigh,  bear  witness  to  the  Norman 
occupation.  Pop.  (1921)  1,468,341. 
LITERARY  ASSOCIATIONS.  In 
Chigwell  is  the  gabled  King's  Head 
Inn  described  as  The  Maypole  in 
Dickens's  novel,  Barnaby  Rudge. 
The  Rose  Inn  at  Peldon  and  the 
marshes  figure  in  Baring-Gould's 
Mehalah.  Miss  Braddon  laid  the 
scene  of  her  Lady  Audley's  Secret 
at  Ingatestone.  John  Lockej 
the  philosopher,  spent  the  last  ten 
years  of  his  life,  and  was  buried,  at 
High  Laver.  John  Ray,  the 
botanist,  was  born  and  died  at 
Black.  Notley;  Thomas  Tusser, 
author  of  Five  Hundred  Points  of 
Good  Husbandry,  1573,  was  born 
at  Rivenhall;  Sydney  Smith  at 


ESSEX 


2980 


ESSEX   REGIMENT 


Walter  Devereux, 
1st  Earl  of  Essex 

From  a  portrait  in  the 

collection  of  Baron 

Bagol 


Wood  ford ;  Isaac  Taylor  at  Ongar, 
his  father  at  Lavenham ;  and 
Francis  Quarles,  the  poet,  near 
Romford.  Dr.  William  Harvey 
was  buried  at  Hempstead,  near 
Saffron  Walden. 

Bibliography.  Handbook  for  Es 
sex,  Miller  Christy,  1887  ;  High- 
ways, Byways,  and  Waterways  of 
Essex,  C.  R.  B.  Barrett,  1892-93: 
Memorials  of  Old  Essex,  A.  C. 
Kelway,  1908  ;  Romantic  Essex,  R. 
A.  Beckett,  2nd  ed.  1907;  Victoria 
History  of  the  Counties  of  England, 
ed.  H.  A.  Doubleday  and  W.  Page, 
2  vols.,  1903-7 ;  Essex,  J.  C.  Cox, 
3rd  ed.  rev.  1915. 

Essex,  EARL  OF.  English  title 
now  held  by  the  family  of  Capell. 
There  were  earls  of  Essex  soon  after 
the  Norman 
Conquest,  and 
Geoffrey  de 
Mandeville  was 
one  of  the  first. 
His  sons  fol- 
lowed him, 
after  which  the 
earldom  came 
to  the  Bohuns. 
This  family  be- 
came extinct  in 
1373,  when  the 
title  passed  to 
Thomas  of  Woodstock,  duke'  of 
Gloucester,  who  had  married  one 
of  the  heiresses  of  the  Bohuns. 
Henry  Bourchier,  a  grandson  of 
Gloucester,  was  the  next  earl,  but 
his  family  died  out  in  1540.  Thomas 
Cromwell  was  made  earl  of  Essex 
in  1540,  and  William  Parr,  mar- 
quess of  Northampton,  in  1543,  but 
both  lost  the  title  when  they  lost 
their  lives. 

The  family  of  Devereux,  to  which 
the  most  famous  e"arls  of  Essex  be- 
longed, was  related  to  the  Bour- 
chiers,  and  probably  for  this  reason 
Walter  Devereux  (1541-76)  was 
made  earl  of  Essex  in  1572.  He 
married  a  daughter  of  Sir  Francis 
Knollys,  and  spent  three  years  in 
unsuccessful  efforts  to  colonise 
Ulster,  whither  he  went  with  a 
small  army  in  1573.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son,  the  favourite  of 
Queen  Elizabeth,  and  with  the 
death  of  the  latter's  son  Robert, 
in  1646,  the  title  became  extinct. 

In  1661  Arthur  Capel]  was  made 
earl  of  Essex.  He  was  succeeded 
in  1683  by  his  son  Algernon,  and 
the  title  is  still  held  by  his  descen- 
dants. His  seat  is  Cassiobury  Park 
(q.v.}.  The  earl's  eldest  son  is 
known  as  Viscount  Maiden.  In 
1916  Algernon  (b.  1884)  became 
the  8th  earl. 

Essex,  ROBERT  DEVEREUX,  2ND 
EARL  OF  (1566-1601).  English 
soldier  and  courtier.  Eldest  son  of 
the  1st  earl,  he  was  born  at  Nether- 
wood,  Herefordshire,  Nov.  19, 
1566,  educated  at  Trinity  College, 


Cambridge,  introduced  at  court, 
1577,  and  was  general  of  the  horse 
under  his  stepfather  in  the  Nether- 
lands, 1585 -86, 
being  made  a 
knight  for  gal- 
lantry at  Zut- 
phen.  He  in- 
herited Leices- 
ter's  court 
feud  with  the 
party  in  which 
the  Cecils  and 


Robert  Devereux, 
2nd  Earl  of  Essex 

After  Billiard 


Raleigh  were 
prominent,  but 
became  a  fa- 
vourite of  the  queen,  though  his 
lack  of  self-control  led  to  frequent 
quarrels,  and  his  marriage  with 
the  widow  of  Sir  Philip  Sidney 
especially  angered  her. 

Essex  took  part  in  Drake's  ex- 
pedition to  Portugal,  1589,  com- 
manded an  expedition  to  Nor- 
mandy, 1591,  secured  the  convic- 
tion of  Roderigo  Lopez  for  con- 
spiracy against  the  queen's  life, 
1594,  distinguished  himself  at  the 
capture  of  Cadiz,  1596,  lost  favour 
by  the  failure  of  the  Islands,  or 
Cadiz  Voyage,  1597,  and  was 
master  of  ordnance,  earl  marshal, 
informal  foreign  secretary  to  the 
queen,  and  chancellor  of  Cam- 
bridge. In  1599  he  was  appointed 
governor-general  of  Ireland,  and, 
returning  without  leave,  from  his 
attempt  to  suppress  the  rebellion 
of  O'Neil,  earl  of  Tyrone,  with 
whom  he  was  accused  of  making 
a  dishonourable  treaty,  he  was  dis- 
missed from  office  and  imprisoned 
from  Oct.,  1599,  to  Aug.,  1600. 

Thwarted  in  his  efforts  to  regain 
influence  at  court,  and  broken  in 
health,  he  was  implicated  with 
Southampton  and  others  in  an 
attempt  to  secure  the  dismissal  of 
the  queen' s  advisers.  He  at  tempted 
a  rising  in  London,  was  arraigned, 
and  beheaded  Feb.  25,  1601. 
Bacon,  whom  he  had  befriended, 
appeared  against  him  on  his  return 
from  Ireland,  and  with  Raleigh 
was  largely  responsible  for  carry- 
ing out  the  death  sentence,  to 
which  Elizabeth  reluctantly  con- 
sented. The  story  that  the  queen 
gave  Essex  a  ring,  the  return  of 
which  would  have  ensured  his 
pardon,  is  generally  discredited, 
though  what  was  described  as  the 
identical  ring  was  sold  at  Chris- 
tie's, May  19,  1911,  for  £3,412. 
Essex  was  fearless  but  head- 
strong, reckless  but  generous,  and 
a  popular  favourite.  He  was  a 
writer  of  sonnets  and  masques. 

Bibliography.  Lives  and  Letters 
of  the  Devereux,  Earls  of  Essex, 
W.  B.  Devereux,  1853  ;  Bacon  and 
Essex,  E.  A.  Abbott,  1877  ;  With 
Essex  in  Ireland,  E.  Lawless,  1890  ; 
Hatfield  MSS.  ;  correspondence  in 
Manchester  Guardian,  Oct.,  1907. 


Robert  Devereux, 
3rd  Earl  of  Essex 

After  Walker 


Essex,  ROBERT  DEVEREUX,  3RD 
EARL  OF  (1591-1646).  English  sol- 
dier. Son  of  the  favourite  of  Queen 
Elizabeth,  he  was  restored  in  1604 
to  the  title  his  father  had  lost, 
James  I  being  then  on  the  throne. 
He  began  life  in  the  king's  circle, 
being  chosen  as  one  of  the  com- 
panions of  Henry,  prince  of  Wales. 
In  1620  Essex  went  with  a  force 
to  recover  the  Palatinate  for  the 
elector  Frederick,  and  in  1625  with 
the  fleet  that  went  to  capture  Ca- 
diz In  1 639  he  held  a  command  in 
the  army  sent  by  Charles  I  against 
the  Scots  in  the 
first  Bishops' 
War,  after 
which  there 
was  an  es- 
trangement be- 
tween him  and 
the  king.  On 
the  outbreak 
of  the  Civil 
War  Essex  took 
the  side  of  the 
parliamentari- 
ans, and  was  appointed  general  of 
their  forces. 

The  earl  led  the  army  at  Edge- 
hill,  relieved  Gloucester  and  fought 
the  first  battle  of  Newbury.  He 
proved  his  incapacity  when,  after 
leading  his  army  into  Cornwall,  he 
left  it  to  surrender  at  Lostwithiel, 
himself  escaping  by  boat.  He 
resigned  his  position  when  the 
self-denying  ordinance  was  passed 
in  1645,  and  died  Sept.  14,  1646. 

Essex  Regiment.  Regiment  of 
the  British  army.  Formerly  the 
44th  and  56th  Foot,  raised  in  1741 
and  1745  respec- 
tively,  these 
troops  took  part 
in  the  siege  of 
Gibraltar  (1779- 
83),  where  'their 
services  are  com- 
memorated by  the 
Castle  and  Key 
and  the  wo  rd 
Gibraltar  on  their  colours.  They 
fought  in  the  West  Indies  and 
Egypt  against  France,  before  tak- 
ing part  in  the  Peninsular  War ; 
there  the  regiment  won  the  nick- 
name of  the  "  little  fighting  fours." 
They  were  at  Waterloo,  and  in  the 
retreat  from  Kabul  (1842),  the 
Crimean  War,  the  Indian  Mutiny, 
the  China  War  (1860),  and  the  Nile 
Campaign  (1884-85).  During  the 
S.  African  War  they  took  part  in 
the  battle  of  Paardeberg  and 
the  relief  of  Kimberley.  In  the 
Great  War  the  2nd  Essex  were 
in  the  retreat  from  Mons.  In 
the  German  counter-offensive  at 
Cambrai,  1917,  a  company  of  the 
13th  Essex  made  a  gallant  stand 
at  Moeuvres.  The  regimental 
depot  is  at  Warley. 


Essex  Regiment 
badge 


ESSEXITES 

Essexites.  Crystalline  granular 
rocks  named  after  Essex  co.,  Mass., 
where  they  were  first  found.  They 
belong  to  the  gabbro  group  and 
usually  contain  felspar  (labra- 
dorite),  olivine,  augite,  hornblende, 
and  biotite. 

Es  Sinn,  ATTACK  ON.  British 
operations,  Jan.-May,  1916.  After 
his  retreat  from  Ctesiphon,  Meso- 
potamia, Townshend  was  closely 
invested  by  the  Turks  at  Kut-el- 
Amara,  Dec.  3,  1915,  and  a  relief 
force  was  organized  under  Aylmer. 
To  reach  Kut  the  Indo -British 
forces  had  to  storm  several  posi- 
tions on  the  Tigris.  The  British 
base  camp  was  Imam  Ali  Gherbi ; 
and  the  final  objective  was  the 
strong  entrenched  position  of  Es 
Sinn,  7  m.  E.  of  Kut. 

On  Jan.  7-8,  1916,  Aylmer 
forced  the  Turks  from  Sheikh  Saad, 
and  on  Jan.  13-15  they  were  driven 
from  the  Wadi  positions,  about  25 
m.  from  Kut.  Delayed  by  adverse 
weather  conditions  Aylmer  was 
unable  to  make  any  considerable 
movement  until  March  8,  when  he 
attempted  a  flanking  movement  by 
attacking  the  Dujailar  redoubt  at 
the  S.  end  of  the  Es  Sinn  position. 
On  March  12,  Gorringe,  who  had 
succeeded  to  the  command  of  the 
relief  force,  planned  an  attack  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Tigris.  On 
April  4  the  Hannah  position  was 
carried,  by  which  time  the  Felahieh 
position  had  been  won. 

Townshend  was  in  great  need 
of  food  and  supplies,  and  great 
efforts  were  made  by  the  relief 
force.  On  April  17  the  British 
achieved  a  small  success  at  Beit 
Aiessa,  but  the  Es  Sinn  positions 
could  neither  be  turned  nor  carried. 
On  April  24  a  desperate  effort  was 
made  to  break  the  blockade  of  Kut, 
and  get  supplies  to  Townshend. 
The  steamer  Julnar  was  dispatched 
at  night  up  the  Tigris  with  270 
tons  of  supplies  under  Lt.  H.  0.  B. 
Firman  and  Lt.-Com.  C.  H.  Cowley. 
It  reached  Magasis,  behind  Es  Sinn, 
where  it  was  captured  by  the  Turks. 
Townshend  sui  rendered  on  April 
25.  The  Turks  failed  to  follow  up 
their  success.  Instead  of  attacking 
the  exhausted  Indo -British  army 
they  retired  from  their  advanced 
position  by  Es  Sinn  on  May  19. 
The  British  followed  up  and 
cleared  most  of  the  right  bank 
of  the  Tigris,  but  they  were  too 
exhausted  to  carry  on  a  vigorous 
offensive,  and  the  situation  de- 
veloped into  a  stalemate  until 
autumn.  See  Aylmer ;  Kut ;  Meso- 
potamia, Conquest  of  ;  consult  also 
My  Campaign  in  Mesopotamia, 
C.  V.  F.  Townshend,  1920. 

Essipoff,  ANNETTE  .  (1851- 
1914).  Russian  pianist.  Born  at 
St.  Petersburg,  Feb.  1,  1851,  she 


298  1 

studied  at  the  Conservatoire  under 
Theodor  Leschetitzky,  whom  she 
married  in  1880.  For  many  years 
she  was  a  teacher  at  the  Conser- 
vatoire. She  played  with  great 
success  in  most  of  the  chief  cities 
of  Europe  and  America.  She  died 
in  Dec.,  1914. 

Essling.  Village  of  Lower 
Austria.  It  stands  on  the  Danube, 
7  m.  E.  of  Vienna.  Between  this 
village  and  the  neighbouring  one 
of  Aspern  a  battle  was  fought 
between  the  French  and  Austrians, 
May  21-22,  1809.  See  Aspern, 
Battle  of. 

Esslingen.  Town  of  Germany, 
in  Wurttemberg.  It  stands  on  the 
Neckar,  7  m.  E.S.E.  of  Stuttgart. 
Its  chief  interest  is  historical.  The 
old  town,  around  which  are  the 
modern  suburbs,  is  still  girt  with 
its  walls  and  towers,  while  above  is 
the  ruined  castle.  The  public  build- 
ings include  the  church  of  S. 
Dionysius,  dating  in  part  from  the 
llth  century;  the  14th  century 
church  of  Our  Lady,  a  Gothic 
building  restored  in  the  19th  cen- 
tury, and  containing  some  beau- 
tiful stained  glass  and  a  fine  tower; 


ESTATE      AGENT 

Estaing,CHAKLES  HECTOR  THEO- 
DAT,  COMTE  D'  (1729-94).  French 
sailor.  Born  in  Auvergne,  he  en- 
tered the  army  and  attained  the 
rank  of  brigadier.  After  serving  in 
India,  he  returned  to  France  and 
entered  the  navy,  being  promoted 
vice-admiral  in  1777.  The  follow- 
ing year  he  fought  against  Britain, 
and  in  1779  took  St.  Vincent  and 
Grenada.  After  his  return  to 
France,  he  was  colonel  of  the  na- 
tional guard  at  Versailles  in  1789, 
but  his  royalist  tendencies  aroused 
suspicion.  He  gave  evidence  at  the 
trial  of  Marie  Antoinette  in  1793, 
but  was  subsequently  accused  of 
being  a  royalist,  and  was  guillo- 
tined April  28,  1794 

Estaires.  Town  of  France,  in 
the  dept.  of  Nord.  It  is  on  the 
river  Lys,  13  m.  W.  of  Lille,  and 
was  prominent  in  the  Great  War. 
The  Allies  occupied  it  early  in  Oct., 
1914,  and  it  continued  in  their  pos- 
session until  1918.  In  the  German 
offensive  against  the  Channel  Ports, 
April,  1918,  it  was  the  scene  of 
spirited  fighting.  At  the  Estaires 
drawbridge  the  British  held  the 
enemy  until  the  great  steel  and  con- 
crete structure  was 
blown  up.  The 
town  was  held  by 
^  t  h  e  British 
throughoutthe  day 
and  night  of  April 
9-10.  On  April  11 
men  of  the  50th 
division  were  en- 
gaged in  street 
fighting  here.  Oc- 
cupied  by  the 
Germans,  April  11, 
i  t  was  recovered  by 
the  Allies  early  in 
Sept.  See  Ypres, 
Battles  of. 


Esslingen.      The    historical    town    of   Wurttemberg, 
showing,  on  the  left,  the  Gothic  church  of  Our  Lady 


the  13th  century  Gothic  church  of 
S.  Paul;  a  hospital,  and  several 
schools.  There  are  two  town  halls : 
the  older  one,  dating  from  1430,  is 
now  a  school,  and  has  a  wonderful 
clock  ;  the  newer  one  was  formerly 
a  palace.  The  industries  include 
large  engineering  works,  railway 
shops,  electrical  and  lithographic 
works,  also  the  making  of  cloth  and 
a  trade  in  wine.  Esslingen,  a  town 
since  886,  was  a  free  city  from  1209 
until  1802,  when  it  was  taken  into 
Wurttemberg.  Pop.  32,364. 

Est,  CANAL  DE  L'.  Canal  of  N.E. 
France.  It  extends  from  the 
Meuse,  near  Givet  in  Ardennes,  to 
Porte -sur-Sa6ne  in  Haute-Sa6ne, 
and  has  connexion  with  the  Marne 
and  Rhone  Canal  at  Void.  Por- 
tions of  the  Meuse  and  Moselle  are 
included  in  the  canal  system, 
which  has  a  length  of  286  m. 


Estate.  Origin- 
ally a  condition,  or 
rank,  the  idea  expressed  by  the 
modern  word  state.  It  is  chiefly 
used,  however,  for  landed  and  other 
property,  and  all  property  is 
by  English  law  classed  as  either 
real  estate  or  personal  estate.  By 
the  word  alone  is  meant  landed 
property,  generally  a  considerable 
amount  under  a  single  ownership 
and  all  contiguous.  An  estate  may 
be  of  various  kinds,  freehold,  lease- 
hold, or  copyhold.  See  Land  Laws : 
Real  Property. 

Estate  Agent.  One  who  acts  for 
another  in  the  management  or  sale 
of  landed  or  house  property.  He 
lets  and  collects  the  rents  of  es- 
tates, farms,  houses,  cottages,  etc.; 
and  generally  represents  the  land- 
lord in  dealing  with  tenants.  He 
should  have  a  knowledge  of  agri- 
culture, bookkeeping,  surveying, 
valuing,  forestry,  drainage,  building 


ESTATE      DUTIES 


2982 


ESTER 


construction  and  repair,  and  the 
laws  concerning  the  relations  of 
landlord  and  tenant.  See  Surveyor. 

Estate  Duties.  Name  given  in 
the  United  Kingdom  to  the  duties 
paid  on  the  estates  of  deceased 
persons.  They  date  from  1894, 
before  which  time  there  were  death 
duties  of  various  kinds,  including 
legacy,  probate,  and  succession 
duties.  In  1894  two  new  principles 
were  introduced.  Real  property, 
hitherto  exempt  from  charges  of 
this  kind,  was  made  to  pay  at  the 
same  rate  as  personal  property, 
and  the  duties  were  levied  on  a 
graduated  scale.  The  first  scale 
was  from  1  p.c.  on  small  estates  to 
8  p.c.  on  those  over  £1,000,000  in 
value.  The  duties  on  the  larger 
estates  were  increased  several 
times,  these  rising  to  10,  15,  and 
then  to  20  p.c.,  and  in  1919  there 
was  another  increase  on  the  latter, 
the  scale  rising  to  40  p.c.  on  estates 
of  £2,000,000  and  over.  In  1917-18 
the  receipts  from  the  estate  duty 
were  £25,742,554. 

Gifts  made  within  three  years  of 
death,  unless  part  of  the  deceased's 
normal  expenditure,  are  charged 
with  duty.  Payment  may  be  made 
in  real  or  leasehold  property  ;  also 
in  war  loan,  which  is  taken  at  its 
nominal  value.  Estates  under  £500 
may  pay  an  inclusive  fee  of  30s. 
or  50s.,  which  covers  all  duties. 
Interest  on  the  duty  on  personal 
property  is  charged  at  the  rate  of 
4  p.c.,  reckoned  from  the  day  of 
death.  On  real  estate  this  can 
be  paid  by  instalments,  on  which 
interest  is  only  charged  after 
twelve  months.  "See  The  Law  and 
Practice  of  the  Estate  Duty,  A.  W. 
Soward,  5th  ed.  1914. 

Estates.  Word  used  for  "  an 
organized  collection,  made  by  re- 
presentation or  otherwise,  of  the 
several  orders,  states,  or  condi- 
tions of  men  who  are  recognized  as 
possessing  political  power."  Its 
interest  is  now  solely  historical, 
although  we  still  speak  of  the  es- 
tates of  the  realm.  In  France, 
Germany,  and  some  other  Euro- 
pean countries,  the  same  idea  is 
translated  by  the  word  states,  and 
so  we  have  the  states-general  of 
France  and  the  Dutch  Republic. 

The  idea  of  estates  began  about 
the  13th  century  with  the  growth 
of  the  representative  system,  and 
we  soon  find  them  in  Spain  and 
France,  as  well  as  in  England  and 
Scotland.  In  France  the  various 
provinces,  e.g.  Brittany  and  Lan- 
guedoc,  had  their  local  estates,  and 
in  Spain  the  various  kingdoms  had 
theirs.  The  German  countries  had 
also  their  estates  who  met  in  a  land- 
tag or  diet.  It  is  usual  to  assume  the 
number  of  estates  as  three,  but  this 
is  purely  accidental.  In  Sweden 


and  Aragon  there  were  four  estates. 
In  England  the  merchants  and. 
lawyers  might  easily  have  formed  a 
Separate  estate,  but  they  did  not, 
and  so  we  have  the  three  estates  of 
lords  spiritual,  lords  temporal,  and 
commons,  sitting,  however,  in  two 
houses.  In  Scotland  the  lesser 
barons  formed  a  separate  estate, 
not  sitting,  as  they  did  in  England, 
with  the  representatives  of  the 
towns.  The  sovereign  is  sometimes 
referred  to  as  an  estate  of  the 
realm,  and  the  press  is  known,  a 
tribute  to  its  power,  as  the  fourth 
estate,  a  phrase  said  to  be  due  to 
Burke.  See  Diet ;  Landtag  ;  Par- 
liament ;  Representation. 

Estcourt.  Town  of  Natal.  It 
stands  at  an  elevation  of  3,830  ft., 
on  the  rly.  from  Pietermaritzburg 
to  Ladysmith,  76  m.  N.W.  of 
the  former.  It  was  the  scene  of 
important  operations  during  the 
S.  African  War.  At  Weenen,  28 
m.  E.,  parties  of  Boers  were  mas- 
sacred by  the  Zulus  in  1838. 
Pop.  1,295. 

Este  (anc.  Ateste).  City  of  Italy, 
in  the  prov.  of  Padua.  It  stands  on 
the  slopes  of  the  Euganean  Hills, 
20  m.  by  rly.  S.W.  of  Padua.  It 
is  enclosed  by  medieval  walls,  has 
a  ruined  castle,  a  cathedral,  and 
two  other  churches,  one  with  a 
leaning  bell -tower.  The  National 
Museum  is  rich  in  prehistoric,  la- 
custrine, and  sepulchral  relics, 
besides  Greco-Roman  antiquities. 
The  manufactures  include  pottery, 
ropes,  and  iron  goods.  A  Roman 


Rinaldo,  Cardinal 
d'Este 

From  an  old  print 


Este. 


The  Villa  d'Este  at  Tivoli,  near  Rome,  built  by 
Cardinal  Ippolito  d'Este  in  1549 


town,  it  became  the  seat  of  the 
Este  family  in  the  10th  century, 
and  in  1405  it  surrendered  to 
Venice.  Pop.  11,704. 

Este.  Name  of  a  noble  Italian 
family  founded  by  Oberto  II  (c. 
1015),  margrave  of  Casalmaggiore. 
His  grandson,  Azzo  II,  became 
duke  of  Milan,  and  his  sons,  Guelph 
and  Fulco,  founded  the  German 
and  Italian  branches  of  the  family 
respectively.  From  the  former  the 


Hanoverian   sovereigns   of   Great 
Britain  are  descended. 

From  the  latter 
Italian  family 
which  held 
the  lordships 
of  F  e  r  r  a  r  a, 
Modena,  and 
R  e  g  g  i  o,  the 
emperor 
Frederick  III 
making  Barco 
d'Este  (d. 
1471)  duke  of 
Modena  and 
Reggio  in 
1452,  while  Pope  Paul  II  created 
him  duke'iof  Ferrara  in  1471.  His 
brother,  Ercole  I  (1431-1505),  was 
father  of  Beatrice  (1475-97), 
duchess  of  Milan,  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  and  cultured  women  of 
the  Italian  renaissance. 

Alfonso  I  (1486-1 534),  who  mar- 
ried Lucrezia  Borgia  as  his  second 
wife,  he  being  her  third  husband, 
was  a  statesman  and  a  soldier. 
His  son,  Cardinal  Ippolito  (1509- 
72),  built  the  magnificent  Villa 
d'Este  at  Tivoli.  Alfonso  II 
(1533-97)  kept  a  luxurious  court, 
where  he  detained  the  poet  Tasso, 
who  was  in  love  with  his  sister 
Eleanora.  Alfonso  IV  (1634-62) 
was  father  of  Maria  Beatrice,  queen 
of  James  II  of  England.  The 
Italian  branch  of  the  family  ended 
with  Ercole  III  (1727-1803),  who 
was  dispossessed  of  the  duchy  of 
Modena  by  the  treaty  of  Campo- 
formio  in  1797,  and  whose  only 
daughter,  Maria 
Beatrice,  married 
Archduke  Ferdi- 
nand, third  son 
of  Francis  I  of 
Austria.  His  son 
Francis  IV  (1779 
-1846)  was  made 
duke  of  Modena 
by  the  congress 
of  Vienna  in 
1814,  but  his  son 
Francis  V  (1819- 
75)  was  dispos- 
sessed by  the 
incorporation  of 
the  duchy  in 
the  kingdom  of 
Italy  in  1859.  See 
Modena.  Pron. 
Es-ty. 

Ester.  Substance  formed  by  the 
union  of  alcohols  and  acids  with 
the  elimination  of  water.  Gmelin 
first  used  the  term  ester  to  distin- 
guish this  class  of  compounds  from 
simple  and  mixed  "  ethers."  An 
ether  is  an  oxide  of  the  alcohol 
radical  analogous  to  metallic 
oxides,  whereas  in  esters  both  an 
alcohol  radical  and  an  acid  radical 
are  present.  Esters  are  prepared  (1 ) 
by  the  direct  action  of  an  acid  upon 


Count  Esterhazy. 
French  soldier 


ESTERHAZY 

an  alcohol,  (2)  by  the  action  of  an 
acid  chloride  or  the  anhydride  of 
an  acid  upon  an  alcohol,  or  (3)  by 
treating  the  salt  of  an  acid  with  an 
alkyl  halide,  e.g.  methyl  acetate 
may  be  prepared  by  treating  silver 
acetate  with  methyl  iodide. 

Esterhazy,  MARII5CHA.RLES  FER- 
DINAND WALZIN,  COUNT  (b.  1847). 
French  soldier.  He  served  in 
the  regiment  of 
PapalZouaves, 
became  a 
major  in  t[he 
French  army, 
and  accused 
Captain  Drey- 
fus of  writing 
the  famous 
bordereau,  or 
document, 
contai  ning 
military  secrets,  said  to  have  been 
communicated  to  the  German  mili- 
tary authorities.  The  opinion  grew 
that  Esterhazy  had  himself  forged 
the  bordereau  in  Dreyfus's  hand- 
writing, and  that  he  had  supplied 
information  to  Germany.  He  was 
compelled  to  leave  France  when 
the  truth  became  known,  and  later 
confessed  the  forgery.  See  Drey- 
fus Case. 

Esterhazy  de  Galantha.  Family 
of  Hungarian  noblemen.  Dating 
back  to  the  early  1 3th  century,  in 
the  1 7th  they  became  princes  of  the 
German  empire.  They  were  great 
supporters  of  the  house  of  Haps- 
burg  and  have  included  several 
notable  men.  Among  these  were 
Paul  IV  (1635-1713),  a  great  gen- 
eral in  the  wars  against  the  Turks ; 
Nikolaus  Joseph  (1714-90),  gen- 
eral, diplomatist,  and  patron  of 
art,  literature,  and  music ;  and 
Nikolaus  IV  (1765-1833),  founder 
of  a  famous  collection  of  pictures 
at  Vienna,who  declined  Napoleon's 
offer  of  the  crown  of  Hungary, 
and  supported  the  national  Hun- 
garian movement. 

Esther,  BOOK  OP.  O.T.  book  so 
named  after  the  chief  character  in 
the  story.  When  Vashti,  the  con- 
sort of  the  Persian  king  Ahash- 
verdsh  (Xerxes),  was  deposed, 
Esther  the  adopted  daughter  of 
Mordecai,  a  Jewish  exile,  was 
chosen  in  her  place.  She  was  thus 
enabled  to  frustrate  the  plots  of 
Haman  (q.v.),  a  powerful  enemy 
of  her  people.  Haman  had  cast 
lots  (purim)  to  destroy  the  Jews, 
and  the  real  purpose  of  the 
book  seems  to  be  to  explain  the 
origin  of  the  Jewish  festival  Purini 
(called  in  2  Maccabees  xv,  36,  the 
Day  of  Mordecai).  The  book  of 
Esther  would  seem  to  have  been 
written  between  300  B.C.  and  the 
Christian  era.  See  Commentary 
by  T.  Witton  Davies  in  the  Century 
Bible. 


2983 


Esthonia.  Republic  of  N.W. 
Europe,  formerly  part  of  the  Rus- 
sian Empire.  It  is  bounded  N.  by 
the  Gulf  of  Finland,  E.  by  Russia, 
S.  by  Latvia  and  the  Gulf  of  Riga, 
and  W.  by  the  Baltic.  It  com- 
prises the  N.  part  of  Livonia,  the 
former  govts.  of  Estland  and  the 
N.W.  part  of  Pskoff.  Its  area  is 
about  23,160  sq.  m.,  and  in  1920 
its  estimated  pop.  was  1,800,000. 
Except  in  the  S.E.,  which  is  hilly, 
the  mainland  lies  low,  it  is  inter- 
sected by  numerous  rivers  and 
streams,  and  much  of  it  is  swampy. 
There  are  many  lakes,  and  about 
half  of  Lake  Peipus  lies  within  it. 
About  30  p.c.  is  forest.  The  climate 
is  rather  hot  in  the  summer  and  cold 
in  the  winter.  Dago,  Oesel  (Ezel), 
and  other  islands  belong  to  it 

The  chief  occupation  of  the 
people  is  agriculture.  This  is 
conducted  scientifically,  with  the 
result  that  good  crops,  particularly 
of  flax,  are  raised  from  a  naturally 
poor  soil,  and  there  is  a  flourishing 
livestock  industry.  Oil-shale  in 
rich  quality  is  plentiful.  Manu- 
factures include  iron,  steel,  mach- 


ESTHON1A 

were  few  class  distinctions  among 
the  Esthonians  proper. 

The  early  history  of  the  country 
is  obscure,  but  early  in  the  13th 
century  it  was  conquered  by  Danes 
and  Germans.  The  Danes  founded 
Reval  in  1219,  and  later  divided 
the  land  between  themselves  and 
the  Germans,  finally  selling  their 
part  of  it  in  1346  to  the  Teutonic 
Knights  who  joined  it  up  with 
Livonia.  After  the  dissolution  of 
the  Teutonic  Order  in  1560,  N. 
Esthonia  passed  to  Sweden.  S. 
Esthonia  remained  under  Poland 
till  1629,  when  the  whole  of  Esthonia 
became  a  Swedish  province  with  Li- 
vonia, which  was  ceded  to  Russia  in 
1 721 .  German  influence  was  always 
strong  owing  to  the  presence  of  the 
Baltic  Barons,  the  descendants  of 
the  Teutonic  Knights,  and  of 
numerous  German  settlers  (Baits), 
who  called  the  country  Estland  or 
Esthland  and  its  natives  the  Ests. 
Only  after  the  Russian  revolution 
and  the  Esthonian  war  of  liberation 
was  this  German  influence  crushed. 

In  religion  the  Esthonians  are 
Lutherans,  except  about  15  p.c. 


Esthonia.     Map  of  the  Baltic  republic,  which,  before  the  Great  War,  was  part 
of  the  Russian  Empire 


inery,  cotton,  paper,  wood  pulp, 
and  spirits.  Esthonia  carries  on  a 
large  transit  trade,  the  seaport  of 
which  is  Reval,  the  capital,  con- 
nected by  railway  with  Petrograd. 
Baltic  Port  and  Pernau  are  other 
shipping  centres.  Other  towns  of 
note  are  Narva  and  Dorpat,  or 
Yuriev.  Arensburg  and  Hapsal  are 
famed  for  their  curative  mud  baths. 
The  Esthonians  are  of  Finnish 


who  belong  to  the  Greek  Ortho- 
dox Church,  forming  an  indepen- 
dent apostolic  church  of  Esthonia. 
The  standard  of  education  is 
very  high,  there  being  hardly  any 
illiterates.  Secondary  education  is 
provided  by  numerous  grammar 
schools  and  lyceums.  Dorpat 
University,  established  by  Gusta- 
vus  Adolphus  in  1632,  was  re- 
opened on  Oct.  6,  1919,  as  an  Es- 


origin,  but  about  10  p.c.  of  the  pop.  thonian   university,  with  faculties 

are    Russians,    Germans,    Swedes,  of  theology,  mathematics,  physics, 

etc.     The  pure  Esthonians  have  a  history,  law,  agriculture,  etc. 
language  and  a  culture  of  their  own.         All  instruction  is  given  in  Es- 

Before  the  Great  War  the  upper  thonian  ;     until  recently   Russian 

classes  consisted  chiefly  of  Russian  and     German     were    compulsory, 

officials   and   Germans,   and  there  There   is   a  polytechnic   school  in 


ESTIMATE 

—————  . 

Reval  and  technical  schools  in  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  country.  Esthonia 
is  rich  in  folklore,  the  chief  records 
of  which  are  Monumenta  Estoniae 
Antiquae,  and  the  MS.  collection  of 
Jacob  Hurt,  containing  songs,  tales, 
proverbs,  and  other  folklore  items. 
After  F.  R.  Kreutzwald  published 
the  national  epic  Kalevipoeg  in 
1861,  a  new  Esthonian  literature 
developed  in  the  19th  century, 
among  the  best  known  writers 
being  Otto  Masing,  Lydia  Koldula, 
Mihkel  Weski,  and  Johan  Liiw. 

ESTHONIA  AND  THE  WAR.  By  de- 
cree of  the  Russian  provisional 
government  on  April  12,  1917,  the 
prov.  of  Esthonia  was  united  with 
the  N.  part  of  the  prov.  of  Livonia, 
which  was  inhabited  by  Esthonians. 
and  formed  into  a  new  autonomous 
prov.  called  Esthonia,  under  a  na- 
tional council  or  diet.  This  council 
was  elected  by  universal  suffrage, 
May-June,  1917,  and  met  at  Reval, 
June  14,  when  a  national  govern- 
ment was  set  up. 

Declaration  of  Independence 
After  the  seizure  of  the  supreme 
power  in  Russia  by  Lenin,  Esth- 
onia, like  Finland,  decided  to  be- 
come independent.  She  was  about 
to  hold  a  constituent  assembly 
when  the  Bolshevists  intervened, 
and  summarily  dissolved  the 
national  council.  The  Esthonian 
Government,  under  Paets,  still  re- 
mained in  being,  though  pre- 
cariously, and  on  Feb.  24,  1918, 
proclaimed  Esthonia  an  indepen- 
dent republic.  During  the  Brest- 
Litovsk  negotiations,  the  Germans, 
to  compel  Lenin  to  come  to  terms, 
took  Reval  on  Feb.  25,  and,  march- 
ing through  Esthonia  and  Livonia, 
captured  Dvinsk  and  Pskoff. 

By  the  Brest-Litovsk  treaty  the 
Bolshevists  undertook  to  evacuate 
those  territories,  which  were  to  be 
policed  by  the  Germans  until  the 
state  organization  of  both  provinces 
was  restored.  As  this  would  have 
virtually  meant  the  complete  Ger- 
manisation  of  these  regions,  the 
people,  90  p.c.  of  whom  were  pure 
Esthonians,  made  emphatic  pro- 
tests to  the  Allies,  and  on  May  3, 
1918,  Great  Britain,  and  later 
France  and  Italy,  recognized  the 
national  council  as  the  de  facto 
government  of  Esthonia. 

But  the  Germans  remained 
masters  of  the  country,  and  it  was 
not  till  Nov.  1 1  that  the  Esthonians 
recovered  supreme  power.  On 
Nov.  19  they  concluded  an  agree- 
ment with  Germany,  who  under- 
took to  evacute  Esthonia  at  once, 
but  did  not  do  so,  preferring  to  play 
into  the  hands  of  the  Bolshevists, 
then  beginning  an  invasion  which 
carried  them  to  within  15  m.  of 
Reval.  Finland  then  came  to  the 
aid  of  Esthonia  with  5,000  rifles, 


2984 

«M«W-_ 

some  guns,  and  10,000,000  Finnish 
marks.  On  Dec.  12  a  British  fleet, 
under  Admiral  Sinclair,  entered 
Reval  with  arms  and  munitions, 
and  on  Dec.  26  captured  two  Bol- 
shevist destroyers,  which  were 
handed  over  to  the  Esthonians. 

Meanwhile  Esthonia  had  organ- 
ized her  army  under  General 
Laidoner,  a  former  Russian  staff 
officer,  and  by  Feb.  24,  1919,  her 
soil  was  free  of  the  enemy. 

A  general  election  took  place  in 
Esthonia,  April  5-7,  the  constitu- 
ent assembly  opened  on  April  23, 
and  a  democratic  government  was 
formed,  with  0.  Strandmann  as 
prime  minister;  he  remained  in 
power  until  Nov.,  1919,  when  a 
new  coalition  government,  under 
J.  Toenisson,  was  established.  The 
chief  work  of  the  assembly  lay  in 
agrarian  reform — the  nationalisa- 
tion of  the  estates  of  the  Baltic 
barons,  and  the  division  of  the  land 
among  the  people,  but  also  a  con- 
stitution was  elaborated,  and 
several  bills  were  passed. 

After  five  years  of  almost  con- 
tinuous fighting  Esthonia  longed 
for  peace,  andasKoltchak,  Denikin, 
and  Yudenitch  were  averse  from 
recognizing  its  independence,  the 
new  state  accepted  the  proposals 
for  a  peace  conference  made  by  the 
Soviet  Government  throughTchit- 
cherin  on  Aug.  31.  This  took  place 
at  Pskoff,  Sept.  19,  but  the  Estho- 
nian delegates  made  it  a  condition 
that  Bolshevist  peace  proposals 
were  to  be  submitted  to  all  the 
Baltic  States  together,  to  which 
the  Soviet  representatives  agreed. 

Conclusion  of  Peace 
Various  conferences  were  held  by 
Esthonia,  Latvia,  and  Lithuania, 
and  it  was  decided  to  hold  a  con- 
ference with  the  Soviet  Govern- 
ment in  Oct.  at  Dorpat.  But  in 
that  month  Yudenitch,  supported 
by  the  British  and  Esthonian 
fleets,  advanced  on  Petrograd,  and 
Bermondt,  ostensibly  in  "the  anti- 
Bolshevist  interest,  began  opera- 
tions in  Latvia;  therefore  the 
peace  conference  was  not  held. 
Yudenitch's  attempt  failed,  and 
the  Reds  heavily  attacked  Narva 
in  Nov.-Dec.,  but  were  checked  by 
the  Esthonians. 

Peace  negotiations  were  resumed, 
an  armistice  was  signed  on  Dec.  31, 
and  peace  was  finally  made  Feb. 
2,  1920.  By  the  peace  treaty  the 
full  independence  of  Esthonia  was 
recognized  by  the  Soviet  Govern- 
ment, which  promised  to  pay  to  her 
15,000,000  roubles  in  gold,  and  also 
gran  ted  preferential  rights  for  build- 
ing a  rly.  from  Reval  to  Moscow. 

Bibliography.  L'Allemagne  et 
la  Baltikum,  G.  Caillard,  1919; 
L'Esthonie,  les  Esthonians,  et  la 
question  Esthonierme,  M.  Martna 
1920. 


ESTIMATE 


Estimate  (Lat.  aestimare,  to 
value).  Generally,  a  statement  of 
the  probable  cost  of  any  contem- 
plated undertaking.  More  parti- 
cularly, it  is  a  statement  furnished 
by  builders,  contractors  and  others, 
naming  the  sum  for  which  they  are 
prepared  to  execute  a  specified 
piece  of  work. 

In  the  Imperial  Parliament  the 
consideration  of  the  estimates  of 
national  expenditure  is  an  impor- 
tant part  of  the  financial  work  of 
the  year.  The  various  departments 
send  to  the  treasury  before  Dec.  1 
particulars  of  the  amount  they  are 
likely  to  want  for  the  year  begin- 
ning April  1  following.  These  are 
examined  and  sometimes  reduced 
by  the  treasury  officials,  and  in 
their  amended  form  are  presented 
to  the  House  of  Commons  in  three 
groups :  civil  service,  navy,  army. 

Civil  Service  Estimates 
The  civil  service  estimates  prope 
are  divided  into  eight  classes:  (1 
public  works  and  buildings  ;  (2 
salaries  and  expenses  of  civil  de 
partments  ;  (3)  law  and  justice 

(4)  education,    science,  and   art 

(5)  foreign  and  colonial   services 

(6)  non-effective    and    charitabl 
services;    (7)  miscellaneous ;    (8 
insurance  and  labour  exchanges 
and  the  estimates  of  the  revenu 
departments  into  tli  ree  :    (1)  cus 
toms  and  excise  ;    (2)  inland-  re 
venue;   (3)  post  office.     The  Com 
mons  consider  the  estimates  earlv 
in    the    year,    as    they    must    be 
passed   before  March   31,   or  the 
money  cannot    be    legally   spent 
This  difficulty,  however,  is  usually 
met  by  voting  a  sum  on  account. 

The    twenty  days   allowed   for 
their  discussion  afford  a  recognized 
opportunity  for  criticising   mini- 
sters and  officials  and  the  work  of 
the  various  departments.  The  pro- 
cedure is  for  a  member  to  move 
that  the  vote  in  question,  e.g.  for 
the  salaries  of  consuls  or  the  pro- 
vision of  rifles,  be  reduced  by  a 
certain  amount.   In  practice,  how- 
ever, a  few,  often  trivial,  points  are 
picked  out  for  debate,  and  the  bulk 
of  the  estimates  are  passed  en  bloc 
and  without  a  word  on  the  last  of 
the  allotted  days.    If  the  amounts 
provided  by  the  estimates  are  in- 
sufficient, which,  apart  from  ordi- 
nary miscalculations  or  changes, 
may  be  due  to  a  sudden    emer- 
gency, e.g.  an  outbreak  of  disease, 
supplementary  estimates  are  pre- 
sented later.  In  1912  a  select  com- 
mittee was  appointed  to  examine 
and  report  upon  the  estimates,  and 
this  course  has  since  been  followed 
each  year.    In  1918  another  select 
committee  made  recommendations 
with  a  view  to    securing  for  the 
House  more   control   over   them. 
See  National  Finance. 


ESTOILE 

Estoile  (old  Fr.,  star).    In  her- 
aldry, a  star,  usually  represented 
as  having  wavy  rays.    If  there  are 
six  rays  or  more, 
only    the  alter- 
nate   rays     are 
-    wavy.  An  estoile 
with   a  number 
of     long      rays 
springing    from 
it    at  an  angle, 
Estoile,  in  heraldry    or  with   a  iong 

tail,  is  called  a  comet.  See  Mullet. 

Eston.  Urban  dist.  and  town  of 
N.  Riding,  Yorkshire,  England.  It 
is  5  m.  S.E.  of  Middlesbrough,  on 
the  N.E.R.  There  are  important 
blast  furnaces,  iron-foundries,  and 
saw-mills,  and  steel  rails  are  largely 
made.  Ironstone  is  quarried  ex- 
tensively in  the  Cleveland  Hills. 
Pop.  12,026. 

Estoppel  (old  Fr.  estoper,  late 
Lat.  stuppare,  to  stuff  with  tow, 
stuppa).  Doctrine  of  English  law. 
Broadly,  it  means  that  in  certain 
circumstances  a  party  will  not  be 
allowed  to  show  the  truth  in  his 
own  favour,  when  he  has,  by  some 
act  or  deed  or  negligence,  led  the 
other  party  to  believe  that  some- 
thing else  is  the  truth.  Estoppel  is 
(1  )  by  deed  ;  (2)  in  pais,  or  by  act  ; 
(3)  by  negligence.  (1  )  If  A  makes  a 
deed  of  conveyance  of  Whiteacre 
to  B  on  March  1,  reciting  in  it  that 
he  (A)  is  the  owner,  and  in  fact  he 
is  not,  but  on  some  subsequent  day 
he  becomes  the  owner,  the  estate 
at  once  passes  to  B,  because  A  will 
not  be  allowed  to  come  and  say  that 
on  March  1  he  had  no  right  to  con- 
vey. Generally  speaking,  every 
statement  made  by  a  man  in  a  deed 
estops  him  from  denying  the  truth 
of  it.  (2)  If  A  does  an  act  or  makes 
a  statement  which  causes  B  to 
alter  his  position,  A  is  not  allowed 
afterwards  to  aver  against  B  any- 
thing to  contradict  the  act  or  state- 
ment. Thus,  if  A  takes  lease  of  a 
house  from  B,  he  cannot  after- 
wards say  that  B  is  not  the  owner 
thereof  and  refuse  to  pay  his  rent. 
(3)  If  A  by  his  negligence  causes 
B  to  alter  bis  position,  he  is  not 
allowed  to  dispute  the  correctness 
of  B's  action  so  as  to  take  advan- 
tage of  his  own  negligence. 

Estournelles     de     Constant, 


PAUL  HENBI  BENJAMIN,  BARON 
(b.  1852). 
French  pub- 
licist. Enter- 
ing the  diplo- 
matic service, 
he  became 
charge  d'af- 
faires in  Mon- 
tenegro, and 
was  attached 

to  the  embas-    _ 

Baron 


In         French  publicist 


2985 

1904  he  was  elected  a  senator,  and 
as  a  member  of  the  Hague  Court 
exerted  his  influence  for  peace.  He 
received  the  Nobel  Peace  prize  in 
1909.  He  wrote  much  for  French, 
English,  and  American  reviews.  ' 

Estovers  OB  BOTES.  Certain 
furnishings  of  wood  that  a  tenant 
is  allowed  to  cut  and  use  for  the 
purpose  of  his  holding.  They  in- 
clude firebote,  or  wood  for  firing  ; 
ploughbote,  to  mend  his  plough  ; 
housebote,  to  repair  his  house  ;  and 
hedgebote,  to  maintain  his  fences. 
Estovers  are  usually,  if  not  always, 
enforceable  by  the  custom  of  a 
manor,  and  are  rights  indefeasibly 
attached  to  the  freeholds  and  copy- 
holds of  that  manor;  that  is  to  say, 
they  are  not  personal  rights,  but 
must  be  claimed  in  the  character 
of  tenant  of  the  manor.  Estovers 
is  old  Fr.,  necessaries ;  bote  is  mid. 
Eng.,  advantage.  See  Lopping. 

Estray  (old  Fr.  estraier,  to 
stray,  wander  from  the  street, 
Lat.  strata).  Term  used  in  law  for 
a  strayed  animal.  A  quaint  old 
law  of  England  says  that  if  valu- 
able tame  animals  are  found  wan- 
dering at  large  they  are  to  belong 
to  the  sovereign.  But  in  most  cases 
the  sovereign  long  ago  granted 
the  right  in  them  to  the  lord  of  the 
manor  where  they  might  be  found. 
They  must  be  "  proclaimed "  in 
the  nearest  church  and  two  market 
towns,  and,  if  not  claimed  in  a 
year  and  a  day,  are  irredeemably 
lost  to  the  owner.  See  Pound. 

Estreat  (old  Fr.  estrait,  ex- 
tract). Term  used  in  English  law, 
meaning  to  forfeit  something, 
generally  a  sum  of  money,  by  way 
of  enforcing  an  obligation  to  the 
crown.  It  usually  occurs  in  the 
case  of  recognizances,  where  a 
person  has  agreed  to  do  or  not  to 
do  something  in  face  of  a  court 
under  penalty  of  paying  so  much 
if  he  does  not  fulfil  the  obligation. 
Thus,  A.  B.  will  enter  into  a  re- 
cognizance to  keep  the  peace  for 
six  months  under  penalty  of  £50. 
If  he  breaks  the  peace  within  that 
time  his  recognizance  may  be 
estreated,  and  the  like  happens  if 
X.  Y.  goes  ban  in  £50  that  A.  B. 
should  appear  and  stand  his  trial. 
The  bail  will  be  estreated  if  A.  B. 
does  not  duly  appear.  Estreat  is 
enforced  by  levying  a  distress  upon 
the  property  of  the  person  liable. 
The  original  meaning  of  the  word 
is  a  copy  or  extract  of  an  original 
record  or  document. 

Es trees.  Name  of  four  villages 
of  France:  (1)  in  dept.  of  Nord, 
slightly  S.  of  Douai ;  (2)  in  dept. 
of  Aisne,  slightly  E.  of  St.  Quentin 
Canal,  N.  of  Bellenglise.  On  Oct.  1, 
1918,  the  British  stormed  the  vil- 
lage and  its  defences  in  the  great 
offensive  N.  of  St.  Quentin  ;  (3)  in 


Gabrielle  d'EstrSes 

From  an  old  portrait 


ESTREMADURA 

dept.  of  Somme,  on  the  Amiens - 
St.  Quentin  road,  prominent  in  the 
battles  of  the  Somme,  1916-18;  (4) 
in  Oise  dept.,  known  as  Estrees-St. 
Denis,  W.  of  Compiegne.  See  Cam- 
*  brai,  Second  Battle  of  ;  Hinden- 
burg  Line ;  Somme,  Battles  of  the. 
Estates,  GABBIELLE  D'  (1573- 
99).  •'  Mistress  of  Henry  IV  of 
France.  Daughter  of  Marquis 

Antoine    d'Es- 

trces,  she  met 
Henry  at  Coeu- 
vres  in  1590. 
Impressed  by 
her  beauty,  the 
king  caused  her 
to  be  divorced 
from  her  hus- 
band, Nicholas 
d' Ame  rval, 
Sieur  de  Lian- 
court,  and  in 
1 592  he  fetched  her  to  Paris,  where 
she  bore  him  several  children.  He 
created  her  marquise  de  Monceaux 
and  duchesse  de  Beaufort,  and 
was  so  infatuated  that  had  she  not 
died  suddenly  at  Paris,  April  4, 
1599,  he  would  have  divorced 
Marguerite  de  Valois  and  made  her 
his  queen.  See  Life  (in  French ),  A. 
Desclozeaux,  1889.  Pron.  Estray. 
Estrella,  SEBBA  DA.  Range  of 
mountains  of  Portugal,  in  the 
prov.  of  Beira.  Lying  midway 
between  the  Tagus  and  the  Douro 
rivers,  virtually  forming  the  water- 
shed between  the  Mondego  and 
the  Zezere,  the  highest  point  is 
Malhao,  6,540  ft.  A  beautiful 
verdure-clad  range,  it  commands 
extensive  views,  and  runs,  from 
S.W.  to  N.E.,  a  distance  of  75  m. 
Estremadura.  Province  of 
W.  Portugal,  S.  of  Beira.  It  is 
divided  into  the  districts  of  Leiria, 
Santarem,  and  Lisbon.  Its  other- 
wise regular  coast-line  is  broken 
by  the  estuaries  of  the  Tagus  and 
the  Sado  rivers.  N.  of  the  Tagus 
it  is  hilly  ;  to  the  S.  it  is  low-lying 
with  marshy  land.  Some  parts  are 
fertile,  others  barren;  barely  half  is 
under  cultivation.  In  the  Tagus 
valley  wine,  oil,  and  fruit  are  pro- 
duced. The  manufactures  are  of 
little  importance,  but  cork,  salt, 
soda,  and  fish  are  exported,  and 
herbs  are  grown  on  the  sandy  plains. 
Area,  6,937  sq.  m.  Pop.  1,438,726. 
Estremadura.  Former  ter- 
ritorial division  of  S.W.  Spain, 
co -extensive  with  the  present 
provinces  of  Caceres  and  Badajoz. 
An  arid  plateau,  denuded  of  its 
forests,  lacking  water,  and  depopu- 
lated by  emigration  to  America, 
it  is  largely  a  barren,  heath-covered 
waste  or  undulating  pastureland, 
feeding  huge  droves  of  migratory 
sheep  and  pigs.  Wine,  oil,  figs, 
and  almonds  are  produced,  but 
agriculture  is  hindered  by  drought 


2986 


ETAWAH 


and  locusts.  Minerals  exist,  but 
mining  is  neglected.  Area,  16,000 
sq.  m.  Pop.  1,034,799. 

Estrup,  JACOB  BRONNUM  SCA- 
VENnrs(1825-1913).  Danish  states- 
man. In  1 864  he  became  a  member 
of  the  Landsthing,  From  1865-69 
he  was  minister  of  the  interior,  and 
took  part  in  the  revision  of  the  con- 
stitution and  improved  the  coun- 
try's rly.  system.  In  1875  he 
became  minister  of  finance  and 
president  of  the  council,  and,  sup- 
porting the  king  in  his  conflict  with 
the  democratic  parties,  made  use  of 
the  royal  prerogative  in  issuing 
acts,  and  even  governed  for  10  years 
by  provisional  budgets.  He  re- 
signed in  1894,  and  his  retirement 
indicated  the  change  to  more  demo- 
cratic rule  in  Denmark.  In  1902 
he  opposed  the  sale  of  the  Danish 
West  Indies  to  the  U.S.A.  He 
died  Dec.  26,  1913. 

Estuarine  Deposits.  Accu- 
mulations of  sediment  transported 
by  a  river  and  laid  down  near  its 
mouth.  They  depend  on  grade  of 
sediment,  strength  of  current,  and 
depth  of  river.  Frequently  the 
dropping  of  sediment,  caused  by 
the  checking  of  the  stream  by  the 
sea,  forms  a  barrier  across  the 
mouth,  and  lagoon  conditions  are 
established  inside.  In  former  geo- 
logical periods  such  conditions 
have  resulted  in  deposits  marked 
by  comparatively  limited  extent, 
usually  sandy  facies,  and  accom- 
panied by  characteristic  vegeta- 
tion and  animal  remains  (shell- 
fish, etc.),  e.g.  inferior  oolite  beds 
of  Yorkshire. 

Estuary  (Lat.  aestus,  tide).  Arm 
of  the  sea  into  which  a  river  flows. 
As  a  rule  an  estuary  consists  of  the 
drowned  lower  portion  of  a  valley. 
Where  the  land  slopes  gently  down 
below  sea  level  and  the  shores  are 
wider  apart  nearer  the  open  sea 
the  estuary  is  a  ria,  or  drowned 
ri-ver  valley  ;  the  indentations  of 
S.W.  Ireland  belong  to  this  type. 
The  indentations  of  the  Norwegian 
coast,  the  fiords,  are  steep -sided, 
deep  estuaries  which  are  shallow 
near  the  entrance  ;  they  are  due  in 
part  to  glacier  action.  On  some 
coasts  estuaries  arise  from  the 
emergence  above  the  water  of  sand 
banks,  which  transform  a  bay  into 
a  lagoon  filled  with  river  water. 
Such  estuaries  are  the  haffs  of  the 
S.  shores  of  the  Baltic.  British  es- 
tuaries are  notably  more  extensive 
than  the  rivers  which  now  flow  into 
them;  thus  inconformity  indicates 
submergence.  Estuaries  tend  to  be 
filled  up  with  alluvium,  the  Dee 
estuary  being  thus  almost  useless 
for  navigation.  See  Coast ;  River. 

Esze"k,OsiEKOREssEG.  Town  in 
Yugo-Slavia,  formerly  in  Hungary. 
It  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of 


Bouches-du- Rhone.  It  has  com- 
munication by  the  Passe  de  Mar- 
tigues,  a  narrow  channel,  with  the 
Gulf  of  Foz  and  the  Mediterranean. 
Its  area  is  about  81  sq.  m.,  and  its 
average  depth  is  20  ft.  It  is  noted 
f  orbits  eel  fisheries  and  salt  works. 
Etaples .  Town  of  France,  in  the 
dept.  of  Pas-de-Calais.  It  stands  on 
the  estuary  of  the  Canohe,  17  m. 


the  Drave,  125  m.  by  rly.  N.W.  of  Such  are  frequent  in  the  S.W.  part 
Belgrade,  and  is  the  first  import-  of  France,  bordering  the  Bay  of 
ant  town  above  the  confluence  Biscay.  One  of  the  largest  is  the 
with  the  Danube.  Here  one  rly.  Etang  de  Berre,  in  the  dept.  of 
crosses  the  Drave  from  the  N.  and  7 
four  lines  radiate  S.  of  the  river  to 
various  centres  in  Slavonia.  As  the 
capital  of  Slavonia,  it  is  a  busy  trad- 
ing centre  and  is  strongly  fortified. 
Silk  factories  and  flour  mills  de- 
rive their  motive  power  from  the 
river.  Pop.  31, 400,  one-third  Croats, 
nearly  one-third  Germans;  three- 
quarters  Roman  Catholics. 

Esztergom     OR  . — 
GRAN.  City  of  Hun-   | 
gary,  on  the   right   f 
bank  of  the  Danube,    } 
38  m.  by  rly.  N.W. 
of  Budapest.     It  is 
the   eccles.   capital, 
and  guards  the  river 
bridge    for    road 
traffic   from   Buda- 
pest  to    the   Little 
Alfold.    The  cathe- 
dral is  said  to  be  the 
finest  building  of  its 
kind    in    Hungary. 
Agriculture  and  the 
culture  of  the  vine 
are  carried  on,  and 
the  town  is  noted  for  its  thermal 
springs.     Below  the  town  the  Dan- 
ube flows  in  a  contracted  valley 
and  makes  its  great  bend  to  the 
S.      Pop.  17,900,  nearly  all  Magyar 
Roman  Catholics. 

Etah.  District  and  town  in 
India,  in  the  Agra  Division  of  the 
United  Provinces.  The  area  of  the 

district  is  1,729  sq.m.   Sixty  p. c.  of     to  Boulogne,  a  city  of   hospitals 
the  land  is  cultivated,  among  the     in  that  direction,  with  the  British 

military  cemetery  on  the  Camiers 
road,  containing  11,300  graves. 
It  was  a  huge  British  encampment 
of  huts,  tents,  canteens,  barbed- 
wire  compounds,  as  well  as  a  cen- 
tre of  the  Y.M.C.A.,  Church  Army, 
and  other  huts,  Chinese  coolie 
compounds,  Red  Cross  centre,  and 
motor  traction  yards.  Here  were 
extensive  training  grounds,  in- 
cluding the  well-known  Bull  Ring. 
It  was  noted  as  a  British  hospital 
and  convalescent  camp,  and  its 
Tipperary  road  leading  to  the  latter 
on  the  hill-top  was  known  to  thous- 
ands of  British  soldiers.  On  May  19, 
1918,  the  Germans  made  a  night 
air  raid  on  its  hospitals,  causing 
about  300  casualties  among  the 
nurses  and  patients.  Pop.  6,000. 
Eta  wan.  District  and  town  of 


Staples.  Part  of  the  huge  encampment  which  was  erected 
when  the  town  was  a  British  base  during  the  Great  War 

S.  of  Boulogne,  and  near  the  coast. 
It  is  the  railway  terminus  for  Paris- 
Plage,  and  is  a  fishing  centre.  In 
early  days  it  was  a  flourishing  port, 
and  here,  in  1492,  England  and 
France  made  a  treaty. 

The  Great  War  created  a  new 
Etaples  of  wider  dimensions.  It 
expanded  N.  along  the  main  road 


chief  crops  being  wheat,  barley, 
maize,  grain,  cotton,  sugar-cane, 
and  indigo.  The  headquarters  of 
the  district  are  situated  in  the  town 
of  Etah,  which  dates  from  the  14th 
century. 

Etah.  Settlement  on  the  coast  of 
Greenland.  In  Prudhoe  Land  on 
Smith  Sound,  it  is  inhabited  by 
Eskimos. 

Etampes.  Town  of  France,  in 
the  dept.  of  Seine-et-Oise.  It  stands 
on  the  Juine,  38  m.  by  rly.  S.S.W. 
of  Paris,  and  has  a  number  of  small 
industries,  including  flour-milling, 
but  is  chiefly  a  market  for  agricul- 
tural produce.  In  the  Middle  Ages 
it  was  comparatively  more  im- 
portant than  it  is  to-day,  and  it  re- 
tains some  of  its  old  buildings. 
These  include  the  churches  of  Notre 
Dame,  S.  Basil,  S.  Gilles,  and  S. 
Martin  ;  and  the  16th  century  hotel 
de  ville.  Francis  I  made  one  of  his 
mistresses  duchess  of  Etampes.  The 
house,  once  occupied  by  Diana  of 
Poitiers,  is  now  used  for  public 
purposes.  Pop.  9,454. 

Etang  (Lat.  stagnum).  French 
word  for  a  shallow  sheet  of  water 
somewhat  similar  to  a  lagoon. 


India,  in  the  Agra  Division  of  the 
United  Provinces.  The  district  has 
an  area  of  1,691  sq.  m.  Fifty  p.c.  of 
it  is  under  cultivation,  the  chief 
crops  being  wheat,  gram,  inillet, 
and  barley  ;  cotton  is  also  grown. 
Etawah  town  is  situated  on  the 
Jumna  and  on  the  East  Indian 
rly.,  60  m.  S.E.  of  Agra.  It  contains 
a  mosque  and  a  number  of  Hindu 


ETCHING 


2987 


ETHANE 


more  between  1515  and  1518,  but 
no  practitioner  has  ever  equalled 
the  wonderful  productions  of  Rem- 


Etching.      The  Pool,  London,  a  typical  etching  by  J.  M.  Whistler,  dated  1859 


temples.  Trade  consists  largely  in 
ghi,  gram,  cotton,  and  oilseeds. 
Pop.  of  dist.,  760,121,  90  p.c. 
Hindus;  of  town,  45,350,  60  p.c. 
Hindus,  30  p.c.  Mahomedans. 

Etching  (Ger.  atzen,  to  corrode). 
Method  of  engraving  on  metal 
either  by  biting  with  an  acid  a 
design  drawn  through  a  ground 
specially  laid  on  the  metal,  or  by 
drawing  with  a  needle  directly  on 
the  metal.  Though  several  metals, 
such  as  iron,  zinc,  and  pewter,  have 
been  employed,  copper  is  almost 
universally  used. 

In  etching  by  acid,  the  plate  is 
covered  with  a  coating  of  wax  or 
other  resinous  substance,  and  to  this 
ground  are  transferred  the  details 
of  a  drawing  by  laying  upon  it  the 
paper  upon  which  the  design  has 
already  been  made  in  black  pencil 
or  red  chalk  and  passing  it  through 
a  hand  press.  The  drawing  is 
then  traced  with  a  steel  needle 
through  the  wax  down  and  into  the 
copper,  and  when  it  is  finished  the 
plate  is  submitted  to  the  action  of 
nitric  or  other  acid.  The  parts 
that  are  to  come  light  and  sketchy 
are  exposed  for  a  certain  time  to  the 
mordant  and  then  "  stopped  out  " 
with  a  suitable  varnish  to  prevent 
further  action  of  the  acid  in  these 
passages ;  the  parts  which  con- 
tain more  work  and  are  to  be  darker 
are  exposed  for  a  further  period, 
and  when  sufficiently  eaten  are, 
in  turn,  stopped  out ;  the  parts 
which  contain  the  heavy  shadows 
and  blacks  are  then  exposed  long 
enough  to  complete  the  erosion. 
The  duration  of  the  bath  will 
depend  upon  the  amount  and 
elaborateness  of  the  drawing. 

In  the  dry-point  method  of 
etching,  the  artist  draws  his  sub- 
ject with  a  hard,  sharp  steel  point 
upon  a  perfectly  clean,unscratched, 
flawless  copper  plate.  Dry  point 
was  also  employed  to  some  extent 
to  define  the  general  features  of  a 


brandt  (1606-69).  Modern  etchers 
like  Sir  Seymour  Haden  (1818- 
1911),  James  McNeill  Whistler 
(1834-1903),  David  Young  Came- 
ron, William  Strang,  Joseph  Pen- 
nell,  Muirhead  Bone,  and  many 
Continental  artists,  carry  on  the 
best  traditions  of  the  art.  See 
Short  History  of  Engraving  and 
Etching,  A.  M.  Hind,  2nd  ed. 
1911  ;  Modern  Etchings  and  their 
Collectors,  T.  Simpson,  1919. 

Eteocles  (Gr.,  of  true  renown). 
In  Greek  legend,  son  of  Oedipus, 
king  of  Thebes.  See  Oedipus ; 
Polynices.  Pron.  Eti-o-kleez. 

Etesian  Winds  (Gr.  etesios, 
yearly).  Prevailing  northerly  winds 
blowing  in  summer  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean region.  They  blow  very 
»Cu  .LOUO  strongly  up  the  Nile  valley,  and  are 
of  great  value  to  the  dahabiyehs,  as 

drawing    that   was   to    be   finally     they  help  them  to  ascend  the  river 

treated  by  the  method  of  line  en-     against  the  current.    See  Wind. 

graving,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  the 

graver  was  occasionally  borrowed 

to  open  up  work  or  strengthen  an 

effect  which   the   unaided   needle 

could    not    satisfactorily    accom- 
plish.     Etching    dates    from    the 

time  of  Albert  Diirer  (1471-1528), 

who    dry-pointed    two    or    three 

plates  in  1512  and  etched  a  few 


Ethane  OB  ETHYL  HYDRIDE 
(C2H6).  Gas  discovered  in  1848  by 
Frank!  and  and  Kolbe.  It  occurs 


in  the  gases  evolved  from  oil  wells, 
but  can  be  made  artificially. 
Kolbe  obtained  it  by  the  electro- 
lysis of  potassium  acetate  and 
Frankland  by  allowing  zinc  ethyl 
to  drop  into  iced  water.  Ethane  is 
a  colourless  and  odourless  gas 
which  burns  with  a  faintly  lumin- 
ous flame. 


Rembrandt  with  the  Sabre,  an  etching  by  Rembrandt,  dated  1634. 
Only  lour  first  impressions  of  this  exist,  one  being  sold  in  1893  for  £2,000 


Ethel.  Anglo-Saxon  word  mean- 
ing noble  and  formerly  spelt  aethel. 
It  is  found  as  a  prefix  to  many 
Anglo-Saxon  names  for  both  sexes, 
e.g.  Ethelfrith  and  Ethelflaeda. 
To-day  its  chief  use  is  as  a  femi- 
nine Christian  name. 

Ethelbert  (d.  c.  616).  King  of 
Kent,  son  of  Eormenric,  and  a 
descendant  of  Hengist.  He  be- 
came king  about  560  and  was  de- 
feated by  the  W.  Saxons,  568.  In 
597  his  over-lordship  is  said  to  have 
extended  over  all  the  English  kings 
as  far  N.  as  the  Humber.  His  wife 
was  a  Christian — Bertha,  daughter 
of  the  Frank  king  of  Paris,  Chari- 
bert — and  in  597  Ethelbert  was  bap- 
tized by  S.  Augustine.  He  issued  in 
600  a  code  of  laws  known  as  dooms 
(q.v. ),  one  of  the  earliest  documents 
in  English.  See  illus.  p.  753. 

Etheldreda,  SAINT  (c.  630-679). 
Abbess  of  Ely,  often  called  S. 
Audrey.  The  third  daughter  of 
King  Anna  of  E.  Anglia,  she  was 
born  at  Exning  in  Suffolk.  Married 
first  to  Tonbert,  an  E.  Anglian 
prince,  secondly  to  King  Egfrid  of 
Northumbria,  she  shunned  the  mar- 
ried state  and  became  a  nun  at  Col- 
dingham.  About  672  she  founded  a 
monastery  on  her  own  estate  at  Ely 
and  died  June  23,  679.  Ely  Cathe- 
dral marks  the  site  of  her  grave. 

Ethelfleda  (d.  918).  Eldest 
daughter  of  Alfred  the  Great,known 
as  the  Lady  of  the  Mercians. 
Brought  up  at 
Alfred's  court, 
she  married 
Ethelred,  earl 
of  M  e  r  c  i  a. 
After  her  hus- 
band's death, 
911,  she  be- 
came sole  ruler 
of  Mercia, 
which  she  se- 
cured against 
attack  by 
building  numerous  fortresses.  In 
916  she  ended  the  incursions  of  the 
Welsh  by  taking  Brecknock  and 
capturing  the  king's  wife.  She  died 
at  Tarn  worth,  June  12,  918,  and 
was  buried  at  Gloucester. 

Ethelfrith  (d.  617).  King  of 
Northumbria.  He  was  the  son  of 
Ethelric,  king  of  Bernicia,  whom 
he  succeeded  about  593.  He  mar- 
ried the  daughter  of  Ella,  king  of 
Deira,  and  drove  out  his  son  Ed- 
win. In  603  he  defeated  the  Scots 
at  Daegsastan,  and  about  613  the 
Welsh  at  Chester.  He  was  defeated 
on  the  banks  of  the  Idle  by  Edwin's 
protector  Raedwald,  king  of  E. 
Anglia,  and  was  slain  in  the  battle. 
Ethelred  I  (d.  871).  King  of 
Wessex  and  Kent.  Son  of  Ethel- 
wulf,  king  of  Wessex,  and  elder 
brother  of  Alfred  the  Great,  he 
succeeded  his  brother  Ethelbert  in 


Ethelfleda,  daughter 
of  Allied  the  Great 

From  an  old  engraving 


2988 

866.  In  his  reign  the  northern 
kingdoms  were  in  the  hands  of  the 
Danes,  against  whom  in  871  Ethel- 
red  and  Alfred  fought  six  battles, 
the  most  notable  being  the  English 
victory  at  Aescesdun,  or  Ashdown. 
The  white  horse  at  Uffington,Berks, 
is  traditionally  supposed  to  com- 
memorate this  success.  Ethelred 
made  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome,  pos- 
sibly in  the  hope  of  averting  the 
Danish  peril,  and  died  of  wounds 
received  in  battle,  April  23,  871. 
He  was  buried  at  Wimborne. 

Ethelred  II  (c.  968-1016).  King 
of  the  English.  Son  of  Edgar  by 
his  second  wife  Aelfthryth,  he  was 
known  as  the  Unready  or  the  Rede- 
less  from  his  inability  to  discern 
good  rede  or  counsel.  He  succeeded 
his  stepbrother  Edward  the  Martyr, 
979.  In  constant  conflict  with  the 
Danes,  he  instituted  the  danegeld, 
for  raising  tribute  to  buy  them  off. 
In  1002  a  general  massacre  of  the 
Danes  in  England  was  carried  out 
on  S.Brice's  day  by  Ethelred's  com- 


mand, which  merely  led  to  further 
invasions,  higher  danegeld,  and 
eventually  to  the  recognition  of 
Sweyn,  king  of  Denmark,  as  king  of 
England.  Ethelred  fled  to  Nor- 
mandy, 1014,  but  reigned  again 
after  Sweyn's  death.  His  wife  was 
Emma,  daughterof  Richard,  duke  of 
Normandy.  He  died  April  23, 1016. 
Ethelwulf  (d.  858).  King  of 
Wessex.  Son  of  Egbert  and  father 
of  Alfred  the  Great,  he  succeeded 
his  father  in  839,  Athelstan  being 
made  king  of  Kent.  The  Danes 
wintered  in  England  for  the  first 
time  in  his  reign.  In  851  he  routed 
them  at  Aclea,  perhaps  Ockley.  He 
went  on  pilgrimage  to  Rome  in  855 
with  his  son  Alfred  and  brought 
back  a  second  wife,  Judith, 
daughter  of  Charles  the  Bald.  On 
his  return  he  is  said  to  have  made 
over  Wessex  to  his  son  Ethelbald, 
who  in  his  absence  had  seized 
Kent,  which  Ethelwulf  retained 
for  his  own  rule.  He  was  buried  at 
Winchester. 


ETHER:    ITS  FUNCTION  IN  THE  UNIVERSE 

Sir  Oliver  J.  Lodge,  F.R.S.,  Author  of  Man  and  the  Universe 

This  article  deals  with  one  of  the  most  interesting  and  difficult  of  all 
problems.     See  also  A  torn ;  Matter ;  Relativity 


Ether  or  Aether  (Gr.  aither)  is 
the  name  given  to  a  super-sensible 
elusive  medium  supposed  to  fill  all 
spare,  not  only  the  space  between 
the  worlds,  but  the  space  between 
the  atoms  of  matter  even  in  the 
most  solid  object.  Most  authorities 
consider  it  to  be  an  all-permeating 
perfectly  continuous  substance, 
linking  the  otherwise  detached 
particles  of  matter  together  and 
welding  the  whole  into  a  coherent 
cosmos. 

-  This  view  regards  the  ether  as 
responsible  for  gravitation  and 
cohesion  as  well  as  for  electric  and 
magnetic  attraction ;  but  all  this 
must  be  regarded  as  still  to  some 
extent  hypothetical,  since  the 
theory  of  these  forces  has  not  yet 
been  finally  worked  out.  Indeed,  a 
recent  school  of  mathematical 
physicists  seeks  to  dispense  with 
the  ether,  or  at  any  rate  to  proceed 
on  the  explicit  assumption  that  we 
shall  never  know  anything  about  it, 
so  that  for  all  practical  purposes  we 
may  concentrate  our  attention  on 
matter  alone.  This  doctrine,  the 
principle  of  relativity,  leads  to 
remarkable  consequences,  some  of 
which  have  apparently  been 
verified. 

We  shall  assume,  however,  that 
the  ether  exists,  and  that  it  is 
proved  to  exist  by  facts  ascer- 
tained concerning  light.  Light  is 
known  to  be  a  tremor  or  exces- 
sively rapid  vibration,  too  rapid  to 
be  associated  with  the  properties 
of  any  ordinary  matter.  The  ether 


therefore  is  assumed  not  to  be 
ordinary  matter,  though  it  may  be 
the  fundamental  substance  out  of 
which  matter  is  made. 

We  do  .not  know  many  of  its 
properties.  The  most  definite 
thing  we  know  is  that  it  transmits 
every  vibration  that  can  be  im- 
parted to  it  with  the  enormous 
speed  of  300,000  kilometres,  or 
roughly  187,000  m.  per  sec.,  a  rate 
which  would  enable  a  flash  of 
light  to  travel  from  London  to 
New  York  and  back  in  the  twink- 
ling of  an  eye. 

Whether  these  vibrations  or  so- 
called  waves  are  long  or  short, 
whether  they  are  ultra-microscopic 
ones  such  as  appeal  to  the  eye,  or 
are  the  immensely  large  ones 
employed  in  wireless  telegraphy, 
makes  no  difference  to  the  rate  at 
which  they  travel.  Hence  the  ether 
must  be  of  simple  constitution. 
When  light  enters  matter,  it  is 
retarded ;  and  if  the  matter  is  not 
quite  transparent,  some  light  is 
absorbed  and  converted  into  heat ; 
but  no  such  accident  happens  to  it 
in  the  ether,  which  is  perfectly 
transparent.  The  valocity  of  light 
is  a  definite  physical  constant  in 
free  or  empty  space,  and  as  it 
proceeds  on  its  way  it  is  enfeebled 
only  by  gradual  spreading  out, 
not  by  conversion  into  some  other 
form  of  energy.  The  term  "  empty 
space "  means  space  empty  of 
matter  but  full  of  ether  ;  no  space 
empty  of  ether  can  be  imagined. 
The  ether  is  a  positive  name  for 


ETHER 

the  negative  idea  of  a  perfect 
vacuum,  and  we  know  that  it 
contains  ether  because  light  can 
travel  across  it. 

Sound  has  no  existence  in  a 
vacuum ;  nor  heat  either ;  both  are 
affections  of  ordinary  matter,  and 
apart  from  matter  are  non- 
existent. This  cannot  be  said  of 
either  light  or  magnetism  or 
electricity,  though  it  is  true  that  in 
order  to  detect  and  display  these 
agencies  a  material  medium  or 
instrument  is  necessary. 

The  eye  is  a  physiological  organ 
adapted  for  the  reception  and 
detection  of  etherial  tremors  ;  so 
is  a  photographic  camera  with  its 
sensitive  plate.  Without  the  eye 
we  should  be  wholly  ignorant  of 
the  ether,  and  it  is  the  only  organ 
of  the  body  which  responds  to 
etherial  influence.  The  information 
which  it  conveys  to  us,  however, 
is  not  about  the  ether,  but  about 
the  material  bodies  which  have 
either  emitted,  scattered,  or  other- 
wise modified  etherial  tremors. 

Light  conveys  to  us  certain 
information  about  the  source  emit- 
ting it,  and  hence,  by  what  is 
called  spectrum  analysis,  the  con- 
stitution of  sun  and  stars  has  been 
chemically  examined,  and  their 
relative  motions  along  the  line  of 
sight  have  been  measured. 

Even  the  constitution  of  atoms 
is  yielding  to  the  scrutiny  made 
possible  by  still  finer  kinds  of 
etherial  vibration,  those  known  as 
ultra-violet  light  and  X-rays.  For 
these  are  ether-tremors  emitted 
by  electric  particles  vibrating  or 
revolving  with  incredible  rapidity, 
thousands  of  millions  of  million 
times  a  second. 

Density  of  Ether 

It  used  to  be  thought  that  the 
ether  was  an  exceedingly  tenuous 
rarefied  substance,  far  more  subtle 
than  any  ponderable  matter,  and 
this  is  the  meaning  which  poets 
associate  with  the  word  ethereal. 
In  fact,  a  series  of  chemical  liquids 
have  been  rather  inconveniently 
designated  "ethers"  by  chemists 
because  they  are  lighter  and  more 
mobile  than  water.  But  the 
modern  view  of  the  ether  of  space  is 
that  it  must  be  at  least  as  dense 
and  substantial  as  any  form  of 
matter  which  exists  in  it.  If  atoms 
of  matter  are  in  any  way  composed 
of  ether,  and  if  the  ether  as  a  con- 
tinuous medium  is  incompressible, 
then  no  atom  of  matter  can  be 
denser  than  the  medium  of  which  it 
is  made.  And  inasmuch  as  we  now 
know  that  matter,  even  the  most 
solid,  is  excessively  porous,  and 
consists  of  specks  permeated  by 
otherwise  empty  space,  it  has 
become  probable  that  the  ether  is 
immensely  more  substantial  than 


2989 

lead  or  gold  or  platinum  ;  in  fact, 
as  some  think,  more  than  a  million 
times  as  dense. 

But  here  we  are  getting  out  of 
our  depth.  The  density  of  the 
ether  is  not  yet  known.  But  we 
should  remember  that  the  word 
etherial,  when  it  signifies  proper- 
ties relating  to  the  ether,  need  not 
mean  ethereal  at  all,  and  had 
better  not  be  so  spelt ;  there  is 
literary  authority  for  both  spell- 
ings, and  the  meanings  associated 
with  them  are  clearly  different. 

The  modern  view  of  matter  is 
that  matter,  and  not  ether,  is  the 
rare  and  tenuous  substance ;  a 
milky  way  or  gossamer  structure 
of  detached  particles,  immersed  in 
a  substantial  medium,  and  held 
together  by  the  force  which  it 
exerts  ;  that  is  how  matter  now 
appears  to  a  physicist. 

Electric  and  Magnetic  Properties 

A  difficulty  is  sometimes  felt  as 
to  how  bodies  can  move  through  a 
dense  or  massive  ether,  and  the 
question  has  not  been  finally 
answered,  but  it  is  clear  that  the 
ether  possesses  no  viscosity,  and 
so  causes  no  frictional  resistance  to 
motion.  It  is  certain  that  motion 
is  the  fundamental  property  of 
matter,  and  it  is  almost  equally 
certain  that  the  ether  as  a  whole  is 
at  what  we  should  call  at  rest.  But 
it  is  susceptible  of  elastic  strain, 
and  therefore  is  responsible  for  the 
recoil  and  restoration  of  particles 
of  matter  when,  as  in  a  spring  or 
raised  weight,  they  have  been  dis- 
placed from  their  equilibrial  posi- 
tion. One  way  of  expressing  that 
is  to  say  that  all  potential  or  static 
energy  is  possessed  by  the  ether, 
while  kinetic  energy  is  possessed 
by  matter. 

The  properties  of  ether  are  per- 
fect ;  it  has  no  opacity,  nor  any 
kind  of  imperfect  elasticity.  In 
other  words,  it  dissipates  no  energy, 
but  stores  without  loss  anything 
committed  to  it.  It  is  in  the  inter- 
action of  matter  and  ether  that 
loss  or  dissipation  occurs.  A 
medium  filling  all  space  was  origin- 
ally needed  for  carrying  light, 
whence  it  was  called  the  lumini- 
ferous  or  light-carrying  ether,  but 
it  is  also  required  to  explain  most 
of  the  phenomena  of  electricity 
and  magnetism,  both  of  which 
agencies  are  at  home  in  a  vacuum, 
and  are  only  modified  by  ordinary 
matter.  The  ether  must  have  both 
electric  and  magnetic  properties, 
and  Clerk  Maxwell  discovered  that 
these  electric  and  magnetic  pro- 
perties were  both  utilised  in  the 
propagation  of  light,  so  that  for 
the  first  time  it  was  perceived  that 
light  was  an  electro -magnetic  phe- 
nomenon. Ether  waves  can  be 
excited  by  any  rapid  electric  or 


magnetic  oscillation,  just  as  sound 
is  excited  in  air  by  a  rapid  mechan- 
ical oscillation.  Electric  oscilla- 
tions are  employed  in  wireless 
telegraphy,  and  if  they  are  of 
sufficiently  high  frequency  they 
appeal  to  our  eyes  as  light. 

Matter  and  Ether 

At  a  time  when  the  oscillations 
of  ether  were  considered  to  be 
mechanical  vibrations,  the  ether 
was  thought  to  be  analogous  to  an 
elastic  solid  and  was  likened  to  a 
jelly.  Now  that  we  know  the  os- 
cillations to  be  electro -magnetic, 
analogies  become  unservice- 


able. People  sometimes  think  that 
contradictory  properties  have  to  be 
attributed  to  ether;  but  these 
belong  to  the  exploded  elastic  solid 
theory,  and  are  only  appropriate 
to  a  mistaken  view  as  to  its  con- 
stitution. 

Electric  strain  can  exist  just 
as  well  in  a  fluid  as  in  a  solid, 
for  the  strain  is  not  really  in  the 
matter,  but  in  the  intervening  and 
connecting  medium.  It  is  not  to 
be  supposed  that  the  ether  is 
structureless ;  it  is  continuous, 
and  yet  it  may  be  in  a  constitu- 
tional state  of  vortex  motion  ;  but 
if  so  its  elements  or  units  of  in- 
trinsic motion  must  be  excessively 
fine-grained,  far  finer  than  even 
the  electrons  which  stand  out  in 
it  as  knots  or  singularities,  related 
to  the  main  bulk  of  the  ether  of 
space  somewhat  as  an  ordinary 
knot  is  related  to  the  rest  of  a 
piece  of  string.  We  cannot  press 
this  analogy,  or  any  other,  at 
present,  for  we  know  too  little 
about  it.  Nor  do  we  know  as  yet 
whether  human  beings,  or  living 
things  generally,  make  any  use  of 
ether,  after  the  same  fashion  as 
they  make  use  of  ordinary  matter. 
Much  remains  to  be  discovered 
about  the  interaction  between 
matter  and  ether,  and  still  more 
about  the  interaction  of  life  and 
mind  with  both. 

Ether  (ETHYL  ETHER)  (C?H5)20. 
In  chemistry,  a  colourless,  inflam- 
mable liquid,  lighter  than  water, 
prepared  by  heating  together  a 
mixture  of  sulphuric  acid  and  alco- 
hol. First  described  by  Valerius 
Cordus  in  1540,  the  product  made 
by  his  method  was  employed  as  a 
stimulant,  later  popular  as  Hoff- 
mann's drops.  S.  A.  Frobenius  in 
Great  Britain  communicated  to 
the  Royal  Society  a  recipe  for 
making  ether,  1730^1. 

The  chemical  name  is  ethyl 
oxide.  Boullay's  process  is  gener- 
ally followed  in  its  manufacture. 
This  employs  nine  parts  of  concen- 
trated sulphuric  acid  to  five  parts 
of  90  p.c.  alcohol,  and  is  continu- 
ous, i.e.  by  adding  fresh  alcohol 
the  etherification  is  continued  with 


ETHEREGE 

the  same  sulphuric  acid.  Heck- 
mann's  apparatus  is  employed  on 
a  small,  and  Barbet's  on  a.  com- 
mercial, scale.  The  product  is 
further  purified  by  re-distillation 
over  calcium  chloride.  Owing  to 
its  inflammable  nature,  special 
precautions  have  to  be  taken 
against  fire  and  explosion.  Large 
quantities  of  ether  are  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  cordite,  aniline 
dyes,  and  artificial  silk.  As  a  sol- 
vent of  gun-cotton  it  is  employed 
in  making  collodion,  used  in  the 
wet-plate  process  of  photography. 

In  medicine,  ether  is  employed 
hi  doses  of  15  to  30  minims  for 
repeated  administration,  and  45 
to  60  minims  for  single  adminis- 
tration. The  following  prepara- 
tions of  ether  are  also  used : 
spiritus  aetheris,  ether  1  part  and 
alcohol  2  parts,  dose  20  to  40 
minims  repeated,  60  to  90  minims 
single  administration  ;  and  spiritus 
aetheris  compositua,  or  Hoffmann's 
anodyne,  hi  the  same  doses.  Ether 
evaporates  rapidly,  producing  great 
cold,  and  a  spray  directed  against 
the  skin  eventually  numbs  sensa- 
tion sufficiently  to  permit  the 
performance  of  small  operations. 
Small  doses  act  as  gastric  stimu- 
lants, and  are  of  service  in  various 
forms  of  dyspepsia.  Ether  also 
stimulates  the  heart  and  is  an 
excellent  restorative  in  cases  of 
fainting.  Its  most  frequent  use  is 
as  a  general  anaesthetic,  either 
alone  or  in  combination  with 
chloroform.  Though  less  dangerous 
than  chloroform,  it  is  more  apt  to 
irritate  the  respiratory  passages, 
and  should  not  be  administered  to 
those  suffering  from  bronchitis. 

Etherege,  Sm  GEORGE  (1634- 
91).  English  dramatist.  Born  of 
an  Oxfordshire  family,  he  studied 
law,  but  gave  his  tune  mainly 
to  the  We  of  a  man  of  fashion. 
In  1664  his  first  comedy,  The 
Comical  Revenge,  or  Love  in  a 
Tub,  was  produced  at  the  Duke's 
Theatre,  and  from  that  time  its 
author's  name  and  fame  were 
assured.  A  second,  She  Would  if 
She  Could,  and  then  a  third.  The 
Man  of  Mode,  followed,  each  a 
distinct  success.  In  1685  Charles 
II,  having  knighted  Etherege,  sent 
him  to  represent  England  at 
Ratisbon.  In  1688  he  left  that 
city,  and  passed  most  of  his  later 
life  in  Paris. 

Etherege  may  be  described  as  the 
orginator  of  the  modern  comedy 
of  social  life.  His  knowledge  of  the 
life  of  his  time  was  complete,  and  his 
portraiture  of  its  gallants,  ladies, 
and  their  surroundings  perfect 
See  Works,  ed.  A.  W.  Verity,  1888. 

Ethers.  Oxides  of  the  alcohol 
radicals  formed  by  the  elimination 
of  water  frcm  two  molecules  of 


2990 

alcohol.  Ethers  which  contain  the 
same  radical  twice  are  termed  simple 
ethers. those  which  contain  different 
ilcohol  radicals,  mixed  ethers.  The 
chief  method  of  preparation  is  by 
the  action  of  sulphuric  acid  on  the 
alcohols.  Another  method  is  to 
dissolve  metallic  sodium  in  ethyl 
alcohol  and  warm  the  sodium  ethy- 
late,  when  ethyl  oxide  is  obtained. 
Ethers  are  volatile  bodies  and  are 
either  gases,  liquids,  or  solids.  Cetyl 
ether  is  solid,  methyl  ether  gase- 
ous, and  ethyl  ether  (ordinary 
ether)  liquid. 

Ethical  Society.  Society 
founded  for  the  culture  of  morality 
apart  from  theology.  Its  members 
profess  freedom  from  all  religious 


ETHICS 

creeds,  butopposition  to  none.  The 
movement  began  in  the  U.S.A., 
largely  through  Felix  Adler,  who 
founded  the  New  York  Ethical 
Society,  in  1877.  It  spread  to 
England,  Stanton  Coit  (q.v.)  and 
Moncure  D.  Con  way  (q.v,)  doing 
much  for  its  advancement.  South 
Place,  Finsbury,  E.G.,  and  the  W. 
London  Ethical  Church,  Bayswater, 
W.,  are  the  principal  London  cen- 
tres. The  more  important  English 
ethical  societies  are  federated  in  a 
Union,  the  offices  of  which  are  at 
19,  Buckingham  Street,  London, 
W.C.  The  ethical  movement  has 
a  number  of  periodicals,  conducts 
Sunday  schools,  classes  and  lec- 
tures, and  has  a  large  membership. 


ETHICS:    THE  PROBLEM  OF  CONDUCT 

A.  D.  Lindsay,  M.A.,  Fellow  of  Balliol  College,   Oxford 

Further  information  on  philosophy,  of  which  Ethics  is  a  branch,  will 
be  found  in  the  articles  Metaphysics ;  Philosophy ;  Psychology.     See 
also   biographies    of  Aristotle;  Green;  Hegel;  Kant;  Plato,  and 
other  philosophers 


Ethics  is  the  inquiry  into  human 
conduct  in  so  far  as  conduct  is 
right  or  wrong,  or  has  moral  value. 
The  term  good  is  used  to  denote 
that  which  possesses  such  value, 
and  thus  ethics  is  sometimes 
described  as  consisting  of  an  in- 
quiry into  the  meaning  of  good. 
It  is  to  be  distinguished  from  an- 
thropology or  sociology,  sciences 
which  do  not  exclusively  refer  to 
moral  values,  being  mainly  descrip 
tive  or  scientific,  while  ethics  is 
essentially  reflective  or  philosophic. 
"  How  is  human  life  organized  and 
carried  on  ?  "  is  the  question  of 
sociology  and  allied  sciences. 
"  What  is  the  aim  of  human  life, 
and  what  the  chief  end  of  man's 
activities  ?  "  is  the  question  which 
ethics  has  to  answer.  Starting  with 
men's  moral  judgements  of  right 
and  wrong,  of  good  and  bad,  it 
asks  what  they  imply  as  to  man's 
nature,  in  what  relation  they  stand 
to  scientific  and  aesthetic  judge- 
ments, and  how  and  in  what  sense 
they  are  objective. 

Economic  Activity     . 

The  fundamental  conception  of 
ethics  is  that  of  value.  It  assumes 
that  man  is  not  an  animal  with 
certain  fixed  wants,  whose  different 
actions  are  merely  different  ways 
of  satisfying  the  same  fundamen- 
tal needs,  but  tho-t,  over  and  above 
his  simple  physiological  require- 
ments, man  has  other  wants, 
changeable  and  changing,  between 
which  he  chooses.  This  act  of 
choosing  between  different  wants, 
or  the  preference  of  one  satisfac- 
tion to  another.  ;s  valuation. 

From  this  valuation  or  appraise- 
ment of  wants  must  be  dis- 
tinguished the  actual  steps  which 
have  to  be  taken  to  satisfy  these 
wants,  or  the  discovery  of  means 


towards  the  ends  which  man  has 
approved.  Generally  speaking,  this 
may  be  called  the  sphere  of  eco- 
nomic activity,  whether  technical, 
if  occupied  with  the  adaptation 
of  the  material  world  to  man's 
peculiar  wants,  or  economic  in  the 
strict  sense,  if  occupied  with  men's 
relations  so  far  as  they  will  produce 
most  efficiently  what  man  wants. 
Economic  activity,  then,  unlike 
ethics,  takes  for  granted  the  end  of 
man's  efforts  and  deals  solely  with 
the  means  to  attain  that  end.  It  is 
not  immoral,  but  simply  non- 
moral. 

Naturalistic  Ethics 

Some  have  denied  that  this  dis- 
tinction between  these  aspects  of 
human  conduct  exists.  Natural- 
istic ethics  tries  to  show  that  man's 
conduct  can  in  all  respects  be  ex- 
plained by  the  working  of  certain 
evolutionary  laws  and  forces.  Be- 
haviour, it  is  argued,  has  not 
changed  owing  to  any  change  in 
the  conception  of  the  end  to 
be  attained,  but,  being  directed 
always  to  the  one  end  of  the  sur- 
vival and  continuance  of  the 
human  species,  has  only  altered 
with  changes  in  human  environ- 
ment. Were  this  conception  true, 
ethics  would  become  only  one  part 
of  biological  science.  Looking  more 
closely,  however,  at  the  struggle 
for  survival,  it  is  plain  that  both 
degeneracy  and  progress  have  been 
produced.  The  survival  of  the 
fittest  means  strictly  the  struggle 
of  the  fittest  to  survive,  and  the 
judgement  that  the  results  of  the 

Gcess  are  some  good  and  some 
,  cannot  be  got  from  the  pro- 
cess itself,  but  from  ethical  reflec- 
tion upon  it.  Adaptation  to  en- 
vironment must  certainly  be  taken 
into  account  in  a  history  of  ethics, 


ETHIOPIA 


2991 


ETHIOPIA 


but  no  less  must  ethics  make  al- 
lowance for  those  variations  in  the 
ultimate  standard  of  life  for  which 
men  are  prepared  to  struggle.  The 
attempt  to  explain  history  by 
assuming  that  men's  aims  are  al 
ways  the  same  will  not  fit  the  facts 

This  distinction  between  tech- 
nical activity  and  conduct  was 
first  elaborated  in  Greek  moral 
philosophy.  The  ethics  of  Plato 
deal  with  the  good  of  the  in- 
dividual, the  good  of  society,  and 
the  relations  existing  between 
them.  Thus,  in  The  Republic,  he 
sought  chiefly  to  determine  the 
nature  of  justice  as  such,  and  the 
means  of  attaining  justice  in  the 
relations  of  men,  i.e.  in  society. 
He  showed  that  life  could  be  re- 
garded as  divided  between  a  num- 
ber of  skilled  processes  or  arts. 
Plato  and  Ethics 

Conduct,  however,  was  not  one 
of  these,  but  was  concerned  rather 
with  the  relations  between  the 
ends  of  all  these  human  processes 
and  the  relation  of  these  ends  to 
life  itself.  All  the  arts  and  activi- 
ties of  life  he  regarded  as  sub- 
ordinate to  the  one  purpose  of  life 
as  a  whole,  which  he  called  the 
good.  This  idea  of  the  good  is 
at  once  the  eternal  object  of  all 
human  speculation,  and  a  prac- 
tical ideal  capable  of  human  at- 
tainment, such  as  justice  or  tem- 
perance. Ethics,  then,  was  an  in- 
quiry into  the  good  which  all  men 
sought,  but  the  nature  of  which 
none  properly  understood.  Greek 
thought  sometimes  regarded  the 
good  as  attainable  by  the  har- 
monious adjustment  of  human 
desires  to  one  another,  making 
pleasure,  or  the  satisfaction  of  the 
greatest  possible  number  of  desires, 
the  summum  bonum,  or  highest 
good.  But  Plato  showed  that  such 
a  harmony  was  impossible  without 
the  recognition  that  certain  activi- 
ties or  wants  of  the  soul  were 
higher  than  others.  Thus,  though 
Plato  still  regarded  ethics  as  a 
matter  of  knowledge,  he  made 
clear  that  knowledge  of  the  good 
was  different  from  skill  and  in- 
volved certain  emotional  elements, 
was  not  in  fact  purely  a  matter  of 
reason. 

Aristotle  elaborated  the  distinc- 
tion between  knowledge  and  moral 
insight,  dwelling  especially  on  the 
nature  of  the  deliberate  choice  or 
will  of  man  in  his  search  after  the 
good  life.  Here  he  insisted  that 
both  emotional  and  intellectual 
elements  must  be  recognized,  and 
pointed  out  that  in  an  art  the  end 
existed  outside  the  means,  calling 
therefore  for  knowledge,  while  in 
conduct  the  end  lay  within  the  act 
itself,  a  recognition  of  moral 
insight. 


Greek  moral  philosophy,  how- 
ever, preoccupied  with  the  notion 
of  the  supreme  good,  remained 
intellectualistic,  as  may  be  seen  in 
its  difficulty  in  explaining  that 
outstanding  fact  in  human  con- 
duct, moral  conflict  and  the  weak- 
ness of  the  will.  Characteristic 
also  was  the  Greek  identification 
of  ethics  with  politics.  The  rela- 
tions of  men  with  each  other  were 
conceived  as  analogous  to  those  of 
the  different  desires  within  the  in- 
dividual, a  manifold  to  be  recon- 
ciled within  the  harmony  or  unity 
of  the  good  life,  that  is,  according 
to  Aristotle,  the  complete  exercise 
of  man's  rational  functions  which 
differentiate  him  from  the  rest  of 
creation.  Other  important  schools 
of  Greek  ethical  thought  were  those 
of  the  Cyrenaics  and  Epicureans, 
who  interpreted  morality  in  hedon- 
istic terms,  and  those  of  the  Cynics 
and  Stoics,  who  held  rational 
virtue  to  be  an  end  in  itself. 

In  modern  times  the  greatest 
influence  has  been  the  growth 
of  the  natural  sciences  with  their 
view  of  nature  as  one  deterministic 
system.  This  assumption  made  a 
sharp  contrast  with  the  Christian, 
and  especially  the  Protestant,  in- 
sistence on  the  absolute  worth  of 
the  individual,  and  so  has  focussed 
ethical  inquiry  on  the  problem  of 
the  freedom  of  the  will. 
Immunucl  Kant 

The  modern  point  of  view  is 
represented  better  by  Immanuel 
Kant  than  by  anyone  else.  He  re- 
garded the  outstanding  fact  of 
conduct  as  the  contrast  between 
what  w  and  what  ought  to  be,  and 
emphasised  the  impossibility  of 
deriving  the  latter  from  the 
former.  However  much  we  may 
learn  of  the  influence  of  heredity 
and  environment  upon  human 
action,  the  statement  that  an  action 
is  wrong  implies  that  it  ought  not 
to  have  been  done,  and  therefore 
need  not  have  been  done.  Here 
is  the  contrast  with  the  deter- 
ministic conceptions  of  modern 
science.  The  possibility  of  alter- 
natives of  action  is  as  fundamental 
for  human  conduct  as  determinism 
for  the  natural  sciences. 

How  the  two  are  to  be  reconciled 
is  a  matter  for  metaphysics. 
Ethics  is  content  to  show  that  con- 
duct implies  a  definite  principle  of 
action,  not  inconsistent  with  man's 
heredity  or  environment,  but  dif- 
ferent and  underivable  from  such 
influences.  The  judgement  of  value, 
then,  so  closely  bound  up  with 
conduct,  is  seen  to  tell  us  some- 
thing about  the  nature  of  man. 

How  its  underivable  and  immedi- 
ate character  is  consistent  with  the 
change  and  development  of  ethical 
judgements  in  history ;  how  ethical 


progress  takes  place  in  the  deve- 
loped moral  insight  of  individuals  ; 
how  ethical  progress  finds  expres- 
sion in  a  system  of  social  rights  and 
obligations ;  how  moral  judge- 
ments imply  something  more  than 
the  mere  results  of  human  reason- 
ing, and  yet  may  have  an  objec- 
tivity different  from,  but  as  real  as, 
that  of  scientific  judgements — 
these  are  the  questions  with  which 
ethics  is  concerned. 

Bibliography.  Prolegomena  to 
Ethics,  T.  H.  Green,  ed.  A.  C.  Brad- 
ley, 1883  ;  The  Theory  of  Good  and 
Evil,  H.  Rashdall,  1907 ;  A  Study  of 
Ethical  Principles,  James  Seth,  10th 
ed.  1908;  The  Classical  Moralists, 
B.  Rand,  1909 ;  Ethics,  John  Dewey 
and  J.  H.  Tufts,  1909;  Manual  of 
Ethics,  J.  S.  Mackenzie,  5th  ed.  1915  ; 
The  Method  of  Ethics,  H.  Sidgwick, 
6th  ed.  1901. 

Ethiopia  OB  AETHIOPIA  (Gr. 
Aithiopia).  In  ancient  geography, 
name  given  by  the  Greeks  to  the 
whole  of  Africa  from  the  Red  Sea 
to  the  Atlantic,  in  a  narrower  sense 
to  the  territory  comprised  hi  the 
modern  Nubia,  Sennar,  Kordofan, 
and  part  of  Abyssinia.  The  name, 
derived  according  to  Greek  popular 
etymology  from  aithein,  to  burn, 
and  dps,  face,  was  originally  ap- 
plied to  all  countries  inhabited  by 
persons  of  dark- brown  or  black 
colour,  the  result  of  the  heat  of  the 
sun.  In  the  Homeric  poems  the 
Ethiopians  are  described  as  dwell- 
ing on  the  uttermost  confines  of 
the  earth,  a  pious  and  blameless 
people,  often  visited  by  the  gods. 
According  to  Herodotus,  they  were 
divided  into  the  straight-haired 
Ethiopians  of  the  E.  and  the  curly- 
haired  Ethiopians  of  the  W. 

From  the  earliest  times  the 
history  of  the  country  was  intim- 
ately connected  with  that  of  Egypt, 
which  was  more  than  once  under 
the  rule  of  Ethiopian  kings.  The 
first  Ethiopian  kingdom  was  that 
of  Napata  (mod.  Merawi),  founded 
about  the  llth  century  B.C.  After 
the  invasion  of  the  country  by 
Cambyses  in  624  B.C.  the  capital 
was  removed  to  Meroo  (Assur,  near 
Shendi)  hi  the  S.,  and  a  new  king- 
dom arose  which  lasted  until  about 
the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era, 
chiefly  ruled  by  princesses  called 
Candace,  probably  not  a  name  but 
a  title  like  Abgar  and  Pharaoh. 
The  Romans  made  expeditions 
into  the  country,  in  one  of  which 
(24  B.C.)  the  Ethiopians  suffered  a 
severe  defeat ;  but  the  conquered 
territory  was  abandoned  by  order 
of  Augustus.  The  name  Ethiopia 
is  also  given  to  a  Christian  king- 
dom established  in  the  Abyssinian 
highlands,  with  capital  Axumis 
(mod.  Axum).  This  was  the  origin 
of  the  empire  of  Abyssinia,  the 
official  title  of  which  is  still  Ethiopia. 


ETHMOID     BONE 


2992 


ETHNOLOGY 


The  inhabitants  of  Ethiopia 
were  of  Semitic  origin,  and  spoke 
a  language  called  Geez,  which 
showed  greater  affinities  with  the 
Arabic  of  the  Sabaeans  in  S.  Arabia 
than  with  classical  Arabic.  The 
alphabet  was  perhaps  of  Phoenician 
origin.  There  was  an  Ethiopia 
version  of  the  Bible,  including 
various  apocryphal  books  added  to 
both  the  O.T.  and  the  N.T.  Geez 
was  superseded  by  Amharic  as  the 
official  language,  but  continued  to 
be  used  "in  the  churches  and  in 
literature.  It  is  now  represented  by 
two  dialects,  Tigre  and  Tigrai.  See 
Abyssinia;  also  illus.  facing  p.  129. 

Ethmoid  Bone  (Gr.  ethmos, 
strainer,  sieve  ;  eidos,  form).  Bone 
which  projects  downwards  from 
the  frontal  bones  of  the  head.  It 
enters  into  the  formation  of  the 
floor  of  the  cranium,  the  orbits  or 


eye-sockets,  and  the  deeper  parts 
of  the  nose.  Roughly  cuboid  in 
shape,  it  is  of  a  spongy,  porous 
consistency,  a  very  complicated 
structure,  and  contains  a  number 
of  small  cavities. 

Ethnography  (Gr.  ethnos, 
nation ;  graphein,  to  write).  Branch 
of  anthropology,  which  comprises 


Ethmoid  Bone.     Left,  front  view 
of  the  bone ;  right,  side  view 

the  study  and  description  of  vari- 
ous nations,  in  reference  to  their 
distinctive  material  characteristics. 


ETHNOLOGY:    THE  SCIENCE  OF   RACE 

Sir  H.  H.  Johnston,    G.C.M.G  ,   K.C.B.,  eto. 

One  aspect  of  a  great  question  is  here  discussed.     See  also  Anthro- 
pology; Family;  Tribe;  also  articles  on  American  Indians;  Celt; 
Slav ;  and  other  branches  of  the  human  race 


This  term  is  artificially  derived 
from  Greek  words,  meaning  a  dis- 
course about  human  races  or 
nations  ;  but  has  gradually  come  to 
mean  the  science  dealing  with  the 
results  of  man's  mental  develop- 
ment in  contradistinction  from 
Anthropology. 

The  classification  of  existing 
human  races  or  sub-species  belongs 
rather  to  anthropology  proper 
than  to  ethnology,  which  deals 
with  the  history,  distribution,  and 
intellectual  achievements  of  Homo 
sapiens.  But  for  the  better  under- 
standing of  the  ethnological  dis- 
quisition which  follows,  we  might 
briefly  consider  the  present  racial 
divisions  of  humanity  and  the 
criteria  on  which  they  are  based. 
In  this  classification  we  can  only 
take  into  consideration  physical 
traits  ;  it  is  useless  to  go  by  mental 
developments  and  degrees  of  cul- 
ture, since  these  vary  according 
to  circumstances,  and  not  always 
according  to  the  size  or  structure 
of  the  brain. 

The  comparative  size  and  weight 
of  the  brain  is  of  some  im- 
portance. For  instance,  the 
Australoids  and  Melanesians  are 
set  apart  from  the  other  sub- 
species of  man  by  their  lower 
average  in  skull  capacity  and 
weight  of  brain,  and  by  the'  reten- 
tion in  the  conformation  of  the 
brain  of  a  few  anthropoid  features. 
The  hair  of  the  head  and  body  is 
another  criterion  in  race  classifi- 
cation. The  two  extremes  in  hair 
are  that  of  the  Negro — flat  in  sec- 
tion and  curly — and  that  of  the 


Mongol-Amerindian — round  and 
straight.  The  hair  of  the  white  man 
varies  between  these  two  extremes 
and  further  tends  in  the  N.  Euro- 
pean to  be  flaxen,  brown,  or  red — 
characters  which  also  reappear 
among  the  Berber  mountaineers  in 
N.  Africa  and  the  Aryan  tribes 
of  Afghanistan  and  the  Hindu 
Rush.  Stature  is  a  variable  factor. 
The  Negro  sub-species  includes 
both  the  shortest  and  the  tallest 
men.  Skull  form,  round  and  broad, 
narrow  and  long,  with  or  without 
strong  brow  ridges,  prognathous, 
or  vertical  from  brow  to  chin,  and 
the  conformation  of  the  lower  jaw 
are  points  of  great  importance  in 
classification.  Skin  colour  is  ac- 
cepted as  a  general  characteristic 
of  each  distinct  sub-species  ;  that 
is  to  say,  the  Australoid  is  usually 
brown,the  Negro  black,  the  Mongol- 
Amerindian  yellow,  and  the  Europ- 
ean white. 

Primary  Divisions  of  Mankind 
The  generally  accepted  primary 
divisions  of  existing  humanity  are 
as  follows  : 

Homo  sapiens  australis. — The  Aus- 
traloid. 

Homo  sapiens  aethiops. — The  Negro. 

Homo  sapiens  mongolicus. — The  Mon- 
gol and  Amerindian. 

Homo  sapiens  europaeus. — The  White 
Man. 

The  first  of  the  four  may  be 
further  sub-divided  into  the  Vedda 
and  Dravidian  types  of  India  and 
the  Melanesians  of  Oceania ;  the 
second  into  the  Bushman,  the 
African  Negro,  the  Asiatic  Negro, 
the  Oceanic  Negro,  the  Papuan  and 
the  extinct  Tasmanian  ;  the  third 


into  the  true  Mongol  or  Kalmuk,  the 
long-headed  Eskimo,  the  Tibetan, 
Chinese,  Indo-Chinese,  and  Malay  ; 
and  into  the  main  stocks  of  the 
Amerindian  ;  and  the  fourth  into 
Nordic  (Aryan),  Mediterranean, 
and  Armenian- Alpine  Man.  There 
are  also  indeterminate  and  compo- 
site human  races  obviously  derived 
from  comparatively  recent  inter- 
mixture, such  as  the  Finns  and 
Lapps  of  N.  Europe,  the  Egyp- 
tians, the  Hamitic  and  Sudanese 
Negroids  of  the  Sahara,  W.  and 
E.  Africa,  the  Gala-Somali  (ancient 
hybrids  between  Mediterranean 
man  and  the  Negro),  many  tribes 
in  India  composed  of  Negro,  Med- 
iterranean, Nordic,  Australoid,  and 
Mongolian  elements  ;  the  Indones- 
ians, and  the  Polynesians  resulting 
from  a  fusion  of  Indo-Mediterra- 
nean  man,  and  the  Mongol-Malay, 
Melanesian,  and  Oceanic  Negroid ; 
the  Ainus  of  North-east  Asia,  very 
primitive  "  white  men,"  not  with- 
out ancient  Australoid  affinities 
and  Mongol- Amerindian  intermix- 
ture ;  the  very  composite  Japanese 
and  Formosans,  the  Malay-Negro 
hybrids  of  Madagascar,  the  Aus- 
traloid-Negro  Papuans  of  New 
Guinea  and  the  E.  islands  of  the 
Malay  Archipelago. 

Origin  of  Man 

In  what  part  of  the  globe  did 
Homo  sapiens  originate  ?  Almost 
certainly  not  in  America,  because 
in  the  New  World  no  fossil  remains 
have  ever  been  discovered  showing 
the  existence  there  at  any  time  of 
such  Old  World  apes  and  anthro- 
poids as  are  known  to  be  the  near- 
est relations  of  the  human  family. 
Moreover,  up  to  the  present  time, 
no  vestiges  have  been  discovered 
in  the  New  World  of  any  human 
type  approximating  more  than 
Homo  sapiens  in  its  skull  formation 
or  bones  to  any  more  ape-like 
stages  in  man's  ancestry. 

On  the  other  hand,  such  remains 
have  been  found  in  the  Old  World  : 
in  Java,  for  example,  and  in  the 
English  county  of  Sussex,  in  Ger- 
many, France,  Spain  (Gibraltar), 
and  Austria.  And  there  abound 
in  Asia  and  Africa  at  the  present 
day  living  human  types  on  the 
very  borderland  of  the  sapiens 
species,  which  still  exhibit  in  teeth, 
limbs,  face,  viscera,  and  brain 
remarkable  affinities  with  the 
ancestral  and  more  anthropoidal 
forms  of  the  human  stock.  Per- 
haps the  most  "  Simian "  type  of 
humanity,  Pithecanthropes  erectus, 
may  have  only  been  a  late  survivor 
in  Java  of  an  early  type  of  Man, 
and  there  exist  reasons  for  thinking 
that  he  migrated  thither  from 
India,  and  represented  the  transi- 
tional form  between  the  actual  Ape 
and  the  actual  Human  which  must 


ETHNOLOGY 


2993 


ETHNOLOGY 


HOMO 

M1SED  HOMO  SAPIENS 


MOMO   s.  etiRoiveus 


Diagram  illustrating  the  main  developments  ol  the  species  of  Man,  and  the  inter-relationships  of  the  existing 


Ethnology. 

and  recent  races  of  mankind.  From  the  generalised  HOMO,  related  to  earlier  species,  emerge  the  Negro',  Mongolian,  and 
White  sub-species,  within  which  numerous  racial  specialisations  appear.  Tinting  indicates  the  approximate  skin  colours 
or  degrees  of  nigrescence  ;  size  indicates  only  evolutionary,  not  numerical  or  political,  importance.  The  races  of  mankind 
have  been,  and  still  are,  constantly  modifying  each  other  by  their  movements,  penetrating  and  fusing  with  each  other. 
Thus,  the  Ainu  type  influenced  Russian  races  and  penetrated  to  Japan.  Mongols  influenced  N.  America,  N.  India,  and 
became  the  dominant  stock  of  the  Oceanic  Polynesians.  The  extinct  Cro-magnon  race,  originating  in  Asia,  penetrated 
Europe,  crossed  to  Africa,  left  descendants  in  the  Punjab,  and  crossed  through  N.  Asia  to  mingle  with  Amerindians.  Negroes 
have  influenced  S.  and  W.  European  peoples,  and  great  parts  of  the  New  World.  The  ribands  of  communication  show 
these  various  processes  :  where  they  have  no  arrow-heads,  or  where  small  arrows  point  both  ways,  there  has  been  give-and- 
take  in  the  process  of  penetration  ;  where  the  ribands  end  in  arrow-heads,  there  has  been  one  definite  hybridising  impulse. 

with  little  or  no  reciprocity 


have  inhabited  a  considerable  area 
of  S.  and  W.  Asia,  N.  Africa,  and 
Europe.  The  Piltdown  Man  of 
Sussex  (Eoanthropos),  whose  re- 
mains are  more  abundant  and  de- 
finite than  those  of  Pithecanthropes 
in  Java,  was  nearer  to  the  modern 
human  type,  but  it  is  probable  that 
he  was  a  fugitive  to  S.  England 
before  the  pressure  of  more  ad- 
vanced types  in  France. 

Europe  was  in  comparatively 
early  times  a  favourite  region  for 
the  development  of  Man.  From 
some  human  base  of  generalised 
characters  like  the  existing  Austra- 
loid,  there  seems  to  have  developed 
on  independent  and  specialised 
lines  the  remarkable  Neanderthal 
species,  which  apparently  got  no 
nearer  to  Britain  than  the  Channel 
Islands,but  which  certainly  reached 
Gibraltar,  and  possibly  N.  Africa, 
and  dwelt  principally  in  France, 


Germany,  and  Austria.  There  may 
also  have  arisen  another  divergent 
human  species  in  S.  Africa,  Homo 
capensis,  so  named  from  a  fossil 
skull  found  at  Boskop,  in  Cape 
Colony,  in  1915. 

The  Colonisers  of  Europe 
The  generalised  Homo  sapiens,  in 
the  form  more  or  less  of  the  Black 
Australian,  seems  to  have  colonised 
much  of  Europe  south  of  N.  Ger- 
many and  Scandinavia,  to  have 
penetrated  even  to  Ireland  (as  evi- 
denced by  the  Sligo  skull),  to  have 
passed  over  N.  and  perhaps  E. 
Africa,  over  W.  and  S.  Asia.  In 
Asia  at  the  present  day  he  is 
represented  by  the  Veddas  of 
Ceylon,  and  by  the  black  people  of 
Australia,  and  some  of  the  Melan- 
esian  islands.  In  N.  and  E.  Asia 
this  Australoid  type  specialised 
into  the  Mongolian ;  in  Europe 
into  the  white  man,  with  his  two 


main  branches  of  the  fair-haired 
Nordic  and  the  dark-haired  Medi- 
terranean type;  in  W.  Asia  into 
the  Armenian-Alpine  and  the 
Dravidian ;  and  in  the  same  region 
possibly  into  the  Negro. 

The  region  in  which  the  negro — 
one  of  the  most  specialised  forms 
of  Homo  sapiens  at  the  present 
day — had  his  origin  has  been  much 
discussed.  Sometimes  it  has  seemed 
as  though  India  was  the  negro's 
original  home  and  focus  of  distri- 
bution. There  is  undoubtedly  a 
considerable  negroid  strain  in  the 
forest  peoples  of  S.  India,  and  ab- 
solute negroes  exist  now  in  the  An- 
daman Islands.  There  is  a  negro 
tinge  about  Burma,  and  there  are 
negritos  or  pygmy  negroes  li ving  in 
the  Malay  Peninsula.  Sumatra  and 
neighbouring  islands  are  negroid. 
Oceanic  negroes  are  the  dominant 
population  of  the  large  islands  to 


U    4 


ETHNOLOGY 

the  N.E.  and  E.  of  New  Guinea, 
and  a  very  generalised  type  of 
negro  existed  in  Tasmania  down 
to  the  close  of  the  19th  century. 
Oceanic  negroid  influence  extends 
even  to  Hawaii,  Fiji,  and  New 
Zealand.  But  there  are  also  traces 
of  considerable  ancientryindicating 
a  negroid  race  inhabiting  S.  France 
and  Italy,  rather  more  related  in 
head-form  to  the  Asiatic  than  to 
the  African  negro.  Skulls  of  a  some- 
what generalised  negro  type  have 
been  recently  discovered  in  E. 
Africa  and  at  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  In  probably  very  ancient 
days,  the  negro  sub-species  some- 
where in  N.  Africa,  possibly  in  the 
Sahara  Desert,  gave  birth  to  a  re- 
markable variant,  the  Bushman, 
not  necessarily  a  negro  pygmy,  be- 
cause in  some  districts  he  attains 
to  almost  normal  height,  but  very 
specialised  in  regard  to  head-form, 
bodily  conformation,  and  the 
peculiarities  of  certain  organs. 
The  Bushman  seems  to  have  been 
pushed  by  force  of  circumstances 
across  the  Sahara  into  Nigeria,  and 
more  particularly  into  equatorial 
E.  Africa.  South  of  the  Victoria 
Nyanza  he  has  left  traces  of  his 
remarkable  type  of  language,  with 
its  baboon-like  clicks.  But  it  was 
in  the  sterile  region  of  S.  Africa 
that  the  "  Bush  "  type  attained  its 
most  marked  development,  and 
there  alone  it  is  now  found. 
Migrations  into  America 

Human  migrations  into  America 
seem  to  have  begun  in  the  inter- 
glacial  episodes  of  warmer  climates, 
when  N.  America  was  more  or  less 
broadly  connected  with  N.E.  Asia. 
Quite  possibly  the  first  human  type 
to  cross  by  this  land  bridge  from 
Kamchatka  to  Alaska  was  more 
akin  to  the  Australoid,  and  later  to 
the  primitive  Ainu-like  type  of 
White  man  that  developed  out  of 
the  Australoid.  This  last-men- 
tioned is  the  predominant  type  of 
the  Russian  population  at  the 
present  day,  and  recurs  again  with 
a  marked  resemblance  in  N.  Japan 
and  amongst  the  coast  tribes  of 
British  Columbia.  But  the  domin- 
ant human  type  to  colonise  the 
New  World  in  early  times  was 
certainly  Mongol — a  generalised 
Mongol,  mixed,  it  may  be,  with  the 
Cr6-magnbn  race  of  Europe  and 
Asia,  and  resembling  further  the 
generalised  Mongolians  of  the 
Malay  Archipelago. 

This  mixed  Mongolian  followed 
closely  on  the  heels  of  the  early 
Australoids  and  Ainu,  and  rapidly 
penetrated  America  till  it  reached 
the  S.  extremity.  Mongoloids, 
consequently,  formed  by  far  the 
bulk  of  the  aboriginal  population 
of  all  America.  The  peoples 
of  east  or  forested  S.  America, 


2994 

especially  Brazil,  resemble  very 
closely  in  appearance,  and  even  in 
manners  and  customs,  the  Mongo- 
loid peoples  of  Borneo.  In  pre- 
historic times  there  was  a  drift  of 
human  emigration  across  the  Pa- 
cific from  islet  to  islet  and  archi- 
pelago to  archipelago,  until  at  last 
western  S.  America,  and  perhaps 
Central  America,  were  invaded  by 
Polynesian  Mongoloids,  akin  in 
race  to  the  Moriori  type  of  pre- 
historic New  Zealand  and  of  the 
Chatham  Islands. 

Japanese  and  Amerindians 

Probably  in  much  later  times, 
when  the  Mongol  peoples  of  China 
and  Japan  acquired  sufficient 
knowledge  of  shipbuilding  and 
navigation,  ships  manned  by  these 
people  were  occasionally  stranded 
on  the  Californian  coast,  giving 
an  early  Japanese  civilization  to 
the  Amerindians  of  Central  Amer- 
ica. A  recent  interesting  theory  is 
that  the  Phoenicians  of  the  Persian 
Gulf  and  S.  Arabia  first  of  all 
opened  up  trade  with  Peninsular 
India,  and  thus  gave  such  a  tre- 
mendous impulse  to  the  adven- 
turous semi-Caucasian  element  in 
N. ,  Central  and  Further  India,  that 
not  only  was  the  shipping  trade 
opened  up  with  China  a  few  cen- 
turies before  the  Christian  era,  but 
this  Phoenician-inspired  adventure 
in  the  Far  East  was  followed  by  a 
crossing  of  the  Pacific. 

Probably,  too,  after  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Christian  era  there 
still  occurred  from  time  to  time 
Asiatic  immigrations  into  N.  Amer- 
ica by  the  short  canoe  journeys 
across  Bering  Straits.  The  Eskimo 
race  seems  to  have  originated  in 
boreal  Asia  or  Europe.  Though 
closely  allied  to  the  typical  Mongol, 
it  is  long-headed  and  not  broad- 
headed.  There  is  evidence  of 
Eskimo  culture  and  race  having 
extended  to  the  N.  of  Scotland. 
In  the  New  World  they  only 
colonised  the  N.  of  Alaska,  the 
extreme  north  of  the  Canadian 
Dominion,  and  Greenland ;  but  in 
course  of  time  they  extended  S. 
almost  to  Nova  Scotia.  But  in 
addition  to  the  Eskimo  in  com- 
paratively recent  times  it  would 
also  seem  as  though  the  Tartar  and 
Ainu  peoples  of  N.E.  Asia  found 
their  way  into  S.  Alaska  and  even- 
tually influenced  the  Red  Indian 
tribes  of  N.  America. 

After  remaining  for  some  100,000 
years  but  sparsely  populated  with 
humanity,  the  American  contin- 
ents attained  an  amazing  develop- 
ment in  human  history,  following 
on  the  discovery  of  Columbus.  In 
the  17th  century  began  the  great 
set  of  the  human  race  from  the 
Old  World  towards  the  New — an 
outstanding  event  in  human  his- 


ETHNOLOGY 

tory  which  culminated  early  in 
the  20th  century.  Central  and  S. 
America  were  first  colonised  on  a 
large  scale  by  Spaniards  and  Por- 
tuguese, who  further  introduced 
the  negro  from  Africa.  The  more 
Nordic  races  of  N.W.  Europe 
colonised  N.  America — French  and 
British,  together  with  a  certain 
number  of  Basques. 

N.  America  has  now  a  White 
population  of  100,000,000,  chiefly 
representative  of  the  physical 
types  of  Britain,  W.  and  Central 
Europe,  with,  however,  a  large 
number  of  Jews  and  a  not  incon- 
siderable recruitment  of  Syrians. 
The  European  element  in  S. 
America  is  mainly  Spanish,  Por- 
tuguese, and  Italian,  but  there  still 
remain  some  16,000,000  of  Amer- 
indian race,  and  these  Amerindians 
in  Brazil  have  mingled  extensively 
with  European  immigrants  or  with 
negroes.  Negroes  constitute  the 
main  type  of  population  in  the 
Guianas,  in  portions  of  E.  Brazil, 
as  well  as  in  the  S.E.  States  of  N. 
America.  But  a  remarkable  change 
is  taking  place  in  the  distribution 
of  the  N.  American  negro.  Owing 
to  the  discomforts  and  disabilities 
inflicted  on  him  in  the  S.E.  States, 
he  is  migrating  to  the  N.,  the  W., 
the  centre,  and  to  Canada. 

Reviewing  the  prehistoric  past 
of  Europe  we  find,  especially  in  W. 
and  S.  Europe,  indications  that 
after  the  anthropoid  Piltdown  man 
and  the  aberrant  Neanderthal — 
who  differed  so  much  from  Homo 
sapiens  in  the  structure  of  his  teeth, 
skull,  and  skeleton,  that  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  believe  he  was  able  to  min- 
gle with  Homo  sapiens  and  leave 
hybrids  behind  him — had  passed 
away,  the  next  stage  of  human 
types  was  somewhat  Australoid  in 
physical  characteristics,  with  even 
a  negroid  development  on  the 
Mediterranean  shores. 

The  Cro-magnon  Race 

But  as  the  recurrent  glacial 
periods  gave  way  to  more  normal 
conditions  of  climate,  there  ap- 
pearedin  France — possibly  emigrat- 
ing thither  from  W.  Asia — the  re- 
markable Cro-magnon  race,  of  large 
brain  development,  tall  stature,  and 
great  talent  in  the  arts,  altogether 
a  superior  form  of  Man.  The  Cro- 
magnon  had  rather  projecting 
cheek-bones  and  is  thought  to  have 
resembled  the  handsome,  dark- 
skinned  peoples  of  N.  India,  or  the 
better-looking  types  of  Amerindian 
in  N.  America.  He  gave  human 
culture  a  decided  uplift,  and  was 
a  conqueror  and  successful  invader 
of  many  regions.  Possibly  he  not 
only  entered  N.  Africa,  but  pene- 
trated southwards  across  the  Sa- 
hara into  southernmost  Africa,  and 
was  the  origin  of  the  Strandlooper 


ETHNOLOGY 


2995 


SIMIIDAE 

C  OLD  WORLD  MONKEYS ) 


Ethnology.  Man's  family  tree.  A  diagrammatic  representation  of  the  emer- 
gence of  the  human  race  from  its  early  origins.  From  the  Simiidae  or  man- 
like apes  there  is  gradually  developed,  through  stages  not  yet  fully  explored, 
the  family  Hominidae  and  finally,  the  genus  HOMO,  which  culminates  in  the 
species  Homo  sapiens.  This  species,  represented  in  its  primitive  form  by 
Austral  old  types,  branches  along  Mongolian,  Eurasiatic.  and  Negroid  stems 
into  numerous  specialised  races,  whose  movements  and  inter-reactions  are 
described  in  the  article.  Note  the  Ainu  type  of  N.E.  Asia,  intermediate 
between  the  Australoid  sub-species  and  the  highly  developed  European ; 
it  has  probably  influenced  the  development  of  the  Russian,  E.  Asiatic,  N.W. 
American,  and  other  important  peoples 


art  and  civilization  which  existed 
thousands  of  years  ago  in  Cape 
Colony.  The  Cro-magnon  appar- 
ently also  entered,  if  he  did  not 
come  from,  Central  Asia.  He  may 
even  have  migrated  across  Bering 
Straits  and  influenced  the  Red  In- 
dian peoples  of  N.  America. 

In  course  of  time  he  gave  way 
in  Europe  to  shorter  and  less  re- 
markable types  of  humanity.  By 
that  time  the  dominant  human  in 
S.  and  W.  Europe  was  of  the 
Iberian  or  Mediterranean  race,  a 
white  man  with  dark  hair  and  dark 
eyes,  of  medium  stature  and  some- 
what hairy  face  and  body.  This 
Iberian  type  certainly  penetrated 
to  the  British  Islands  and  subdued 
and  absorbed  the  pre-existing  Es- 
kimo and  Ainu  breeds.  The  Medi- 
terranean race  spread  over  Asia 
Minor,mixing  with  the  Armenoid  or 
Alpine  (which  had  also  invaded 
Central  Europe),  the  Arabian  Pen- 
insula, and  much  of  N.  and  N.E. 


Africa,  forming  subsidiary  races  by 
mixing  with  the  earlier  Dravidians, 
Anstraloids,  and  Negroes.  The 
Mediterranean  race  produced  by 
intermixture  the  Dravidian  that 
preceded  the  Nordic  Aryan  in  the 
conquest  of  India.  This  ever  more 
diluted  Mediterranean  race  may 
even  have  started  the  Indonesians, 
that  semi- white  people  which  pene- 
trated into  Further  India,  and  into 
the  Malay  Archipelago  and  parts 
of  New  Guinea,  and  ended  up  by 
colonising  New  Zealand  and  most 
Pacific  archipelagoes  between  2,000 
and  600  years  ago. 

To  a  great  extent  the  Mediter- 
ranean race  stands  for  the  typical 
Caucasian.  In  the  early  days  of 
ethnological  study  the  superior 
White  was  named  Caucasian  be- 
cause it  was  erroneously  thought 
to  be  represented  by  the  people  of 
the  Caucasus,  but  these  are  com- 
pounded really  of  mixed  elements. 
Perhaps  the  best  example  of  the 


ETHNOLOGY 

Mediterranean  race  is  the  Berbers 
of  N.  Africa,  where  they  are  free 
from  intermixture.  The  Semite 
stock  from  which  the  Arabs  are  de- 
scended has  a  Mediterranean  basis, 
but  contains  also  Armenian  (Al- 
pine) and  Asiatic  Negroid  blood, 
besides  here  and  there  a  Mongolian 
element  derived  from  the  early 
Mongolian  colonisation  of  Meso- 
potamia. 

In  Old  Woild  dominance,  the 
Mediterranean  or  brunet  type  of 
White  man  was  succeeded  by  the 
Nordic  peoples  of  N.  Europe.  No 
doubt  there  is  Cro-magnon  blood 
and  influence  in  the  Nordic  stock. 
The  early  Nordics  were  certainly 
tall,  but  their  most  striking  varia- 
tion from  preceding  types  lay  in 
their  development  of  red  hair, 
which  further  specialised  into  the 
yellow-brown,  flaxen,  golden,  or 
even  lint-white  ;  while  the  brown 
iris  of  the  eye  changed  into  grey- 
green  or  blue-grey.  This  type  at 
present  is  purest  in  Scandinavia  and 
in  N.  Germany  and  N.W.  Russia. 
The  Goths  of  history  were  of  pure 
Nordic  stock.  The  Caledonians  of 
N.  Scotland  represented  a  more 
primitive  offshoot,  with  red  hair 
and  rough-hewn  facial  features  of 
the  Cr6-magnon  type. 

This  tall,  fair-haired,  grey-eyed 
or  blue -eyed  man  first  began  to 
trouble  Mediterranean  Europe 
over  3,000  years  ago.  He  ori- 
ginated the  Aryan  languages  and 
carried  them  into  W.  Asia  and 
India.  But  in  culture  he  had  been 
forestalled  in  W.  Asia  by  the  Al- 
pine or  Armenoid  stock,  a  squarer 
or  rounder-headed  variant  of  the 
Mediterranean  race.  The  Arme- 
noids  had  civilized  the  Mongols  of 
Central  Asia,  thus  starting  the  civil- 
ization of  China  3,000  to  4,000 
years  ago,  as  earlier  still  they  had 
started  that  of  Mesopotamia. 
Aryan  Influence 

The  Aryan  conquest  of  Europe 
and  Asia  was  due  in  the  main  to  the 
Aryan  discovery  of  the  uses  of  iron 
in  Central  or  N.  Europe,  and  the 
iron  weapons  with  which  they 
could  overcome  the  S.  races  using 
weapons  of  bronze  or  stone.  These 
golden-haired,  blue-eyed  Aryans 
descended  with  their  Aryan  lan- 
guages on  the  Balkan  Peninsula, 
and,  by  fusion  with  the  Mediter- 
ranean race  and  civilization  of  the 
Aegean,  founded  classical  Greece. 
They  equally  founded  the  empire 
of  Rome  by  invading  the  Italian 
peninsula  and  subduing  the  Etrus- 
cans and  Ligurians.  More  than 
3,OCO  years  ago  they  had  Aryan- 
ised  Sicily. 

In  Central  Europe  they  origin- 
ated the  Celtic  race,  which  min- 
gled freely  with  the  Armenoids  of 
the  Bronze  period.  The  Aryan 


ETHYL 


ETHYL      NITRITE 


Celts  crossed  France  and  invaded 
N.  Spain.  They  passed  from 
France  or  Belgium  into  Britain, 
spread  to  N.  Scotland  and  all  over 
Ireland.  In  Ireland  they  remain 
mixed  with  the  pre-existing  Iberi- 
ans, and  therefore  require  to  be 
known  (as  in  N.  Spain)  as  Celti- 
berians.  This  Celtiberian  type  in 
England  and  Scotland  was  overlaid 
by  a  much  later  Celtic  invasion  of 
the  Belgae  or  Britons,  surviving  in 
language  in  Wales.  The  Celts  over- 
spread Holland  and  Belgium  and 
probably  Denmark,  and  most  of 
S  Germany,  Austria  -  Hungary, 
and  perhaps  S.  Russia.  The  Aryan 
invaders  of  N.  Persia  and  Armenia 
were  more  related  to  the  early 
Aryan  peoples  of  Russia,  whose 
language  type  survives  in  Lithu- 
ania. Allied  with  these  invaders  of 
Persia  were  those  who  colonised 
much  of  Turkistan,  Afghanistan, 
and  N.  India,  and  originated  the 
Sanskrit  language. 

Goths,  Germans,  Northmen 

The  next  great  Aryan  uprising 
was  the  Gothic,  followed  by  the 
German,  divided  again  into  the 
High  German  or  Allemanic  and  the 
Low  German  or  Frank.  One  branch 
of  Low  German  speech  was  Frisian, 
whence  came  Anglo-Saxon  and 
modern  English.  Then  came  the 
Scandinavians  or  Northmen,  who 
originated  modern  Scandinavia, 
and  profoundly  affected  the  history 
of  the  British  Isles,  Iceland,  pre- 
historic N.  America,  Sicily,  S.  Italy, 
and  the  Byzantine  empire.  Ori- 
ginally, the  Scandinavian  people 
only  occupied  the  extreme  S.  of 
Sweden,  the  Danish  peninsula,  and 
S.  Norway,  with  the  islands  off  Fin- 
land and  patches  of  N.W.  Russia. 

Their  predecessors  in  Scandi- 
navia were  Mongol  types  culmi- 
nating far  back  in  the  European 
Eskimo.  Russia  was  peopled  in 
the  N.  by  the  same  Mongol  races, 
and  over  the  rest  of  the  area 
anciently  by  a  primitive  type  of 
white  man  akin  to  the  Ainu  of 
Japan,  noteworthy  for  their  hairi- 
ness of  face  and  body.  From  these 
dark-haired  forms  of  white  man 
arose  the  Lithuanians,  who  were 
early  Aryanised  by  the  Nordic 
peoples  and  still  speak  a  primitive 
Aryan  language.  In  time  the 
Nordic  races  romped  ever  Russia 
on  their  way  to  invade  W.  Asia. 
The  Goths  became  dominant  in 
Russia  in  the  first  half  of  the 
Christian  era,  and  Gothic  was 
spoken  in  S.  Russia  down  to  a  few 
centuries  ago. 

We  cannot  leave  out  of  account 
the  effects  of  the  Arab  outpouring 
in  the  7th  century  A.D.  They  re- 
Semiticised  Syria  (fast  becoming 
Hellenic),  paved  the  way  for  the 


Turkish  invasions  of  Asia  Minor 
and  the  Persian  culture-conquests 
of  India  and  Central  Asia.  The 
Arabs  awoke  the  Berbers  of  N. 
Africa  and  carried  Hamitic  N. 
Africa  into  Spain  and  France  and 
across  the  deserts  into  W.  Africa 
and  the  Niger  Basin,  the  Egyptian 
Sudan  and  E.  Africa,  till  at  last 
their  influence  reached  the  confines 
of  Zululand.  and  even  permeated 
much  of  the  N.  and  E.  watershed  of 
the  Congo.  They  Arabicised  India 
and  Malaysia  to  the  verge  of  New 
Guinea  and  the  Philippines. 

After  the  Aryan  migrations,  the 
next  great  event  that  affected 
Europe  and  Asia  was  the  boiling 
over  of  the  Mongol  tribes  of  N.E. 
and  Central  Asia.  These,  as  Huns, 
Avars,  Turks,  and  Tartars,  ravaged 
two-thirds  of  Russia  and  much  of 
E.  and  Central  Europe  down  to 
the  conquest  of  the  Byzantine 
empire.  They  also  invaded  Asia 
Minor,  and  as  rulers  or  soldiers  of 
fortune  penetrated  to  N.  Africa, 
bringing  with  them  first  the  Bud- 
dhist, and  secondly  the  Mahom- 
edan,  religion.  Mediterranean  and 
Nordic  Europe  only  began  to  make 
headway  against  this  latest  Mongol 
invasion  about  the  17th  century. 

In  the  19th  century,  however, 
after  having  laid  the  foundations 
of  a  white  man's  America,  the 
Nordic  and  Mediterranean  Euro- 
peans commenced  their  last  tre- 
mendous expansion  of  power  and 
colonisation.  They  discovered  and 
colonised  nearly  all  Australasia. 
They  dominate  all  but  E.  Asia 
to-day.  They  conquered  and 
took  under  control  the  whole  of 
Africa,  wherein  also  they  planted 

Erosperous  colonies  of  white  people, 
a  the  Old  World  and  the  New  they 
are  the  ruling  type.  Whether  they 
will  remain  so  must  depend  on 
many  factors  :  race  fertility,  con- 
quest over  disease  and  alcohol, 
education,  reconcilement  of  ambi- 
tions, and  international  coopera- 
tion. Nature,  however,  is  entirely 
without  "  pink  and  white  "  sym- 
pathies, and  cares  little  for  the  skin 
colour  of  the  coming  super-man. 

Bibliography.  The  Races  of 
Europe,  W.  Z.  Ripley,  1900 ; 
Ethnology,  A.  H.  Keane,  2nd  ed. 
1901  ;  The  Wanderings  of  Peoples, 
A.  C.  Haddon,  1911  ;  A  Survey  of 
the  Ethnography  of  Africa,  etc.,  vol. 
xliii,  R.  Anthr.  Inst.,  H.  H.  John- 
ston, 1913  :  The  Antiquity  of  Man, 
A.  Keith,  1915  ;  The  Peoples  of 
India,  H.  H.  Risley,  1915  ;  Men  of 
the  Old  Stone  Age,  H.  F.  Osborn, 
1916;  The  American  Indian,  C. 
Wissler,  1917  ;  British  Museum, 
Guide  to  the  Fossil  Remains  of  Man, 
1918;  Comparative  Study  of  the 
Bantu  and  semi-Bantu,  etc.  H.  H. 
Johnston,  1919 ;  Man.  Past  and 
Present,  A.  H.  Keana,  rev.  ed.  1920. 


Ethyl.  Organic  radical  repre- 
sented by  the  chemical  formula 
C2HS.  It  has  not  been  isolated, 
but  its  combinations,  e.g.  ethyl  alco- 
hol (ordinary  alcohol)  and  many 
compounds,  are  well  known.  The 
name  was  introduced  by  Berzelius 
as  Ethule.  It  is  denoted  by  the 
contraction  Et.  Ethyl  is  a  con- 
traction of  ether  and  yl,  an  abbre- 
viation of  Gr.  hyle,  material. 

Ethyl  Alcohol  (C2H60).  Chem- 
ical name  for  alcohol,  the  active 
principle  of  intoxicating  liquors. 
It  is  also  known  as  vinous  alco- 
hol or  aqua  vitae.  See  Alcohol. 

Ethylamine.  Organic  base  with 
an  ammoniacal  odour,  burning 
taste,  and  strong  alkaline  character. 
It  is  liquid,  behaves  in  most  respects 
like  ammonia,  and  is  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  some  aniline  dyes. 
First  prepared  by  Wurtz,  1848,  by 
distilling  cyanic  ether  with  caustic 
potash,  ethylamine  is  now  made 
by  Hofmann's  process,  in  which 
crude  ethyl  chloride,  a  by-product 
in  the  manufacture  of  chloral,  is 
acted  on  by  ammonia.  This  pro- 
duces diethyloxamide,  which,  puri- 
fied and  distilled  with  caustic 
potash,  yields  ethylamine. 

Ethyl  Chloride  OR  MONOCHLOR- 
ETHANE  (C2HCC1).  Ethereal  liquid 
known  to  the  alchemists  as 
sweet  spirit  of  salt.  It  is  made  by 
passing  hydrochloric  acid  gas  into 
absolute  alcohol  containing  zinc 
chloride,  and  distilling  the  pro- 
duct. Ethyl  chloride  is  a  volatile 
liquid,  used  as  a  solvent,  and  as 
a  local  and  general  anaesthetic. 

Ethylene  (C2H4).  Colourless 
gas  prepared  by  the  action  of 
sulphuric  acid  on  alcohol,  and 
purified  by  passing  through  sul- 
phuric acid  and  caustic  soda.  It 
was  first  investigated,  1781,  by 
the  Dutch  chemists,  Deimann, 
Pacts  van  Troostwyk,  Bondt,  and 
Lauwerenburgh.  It  is  also  known 
as  heavy  carburetted  hydrogen, 
elayl,  and  ethene.  It  is  easily  in- 
flammable, burns  with  a  luminous 
flame,  and  forms  an  explosive  mix- 
ture with  air  or  oxygen. 

Ethyl-hydrocupreine.  A  de- 
rivative of  cupreine,  an  alkaloid 
occurring  in  cuprea  bark  (Remijia 
pedunculata).  Known  also  as  opto- 
chin,  it  has  been  used  in  treating 
pneumonia,  but  is  a  dangerous  drug. 

Ethyl  Nitrite.  A  solution  con- 
taining 3  p.c.  of  ethyl  nitrite,  by 
weight,  with  95  parts  of  absolute 
alcohol  and  five  parts  of  glycerine. 
It  forms  the  Liquor  Ethyl  Nitritis 
of  the  British  Pharmacopoeia.  It 
causes  the  small  blood- vessels  of  the 
skin  to  dilate,  the  face  to  flush,  and 
the  heart  to  beat  rapidly  and  vio- 
lently, and  relieves  the  pain  of 
heart  affections.  The  dose  is  from 
15  to  60  minims. 


ET1ENNE 


Etna. 


The  snowcapped  volcano  seen  from  Taormina,  the  beautiful  Sicilian 
coast  town  on  the  Straits  of  Messina 


Eugene    Etienne, 
French  politician 


Etienne,  EUGENE  (b.  1844). 
French  politician.  Born  at  Oran, 
Dec.  15,  1844,  he  was  educated  at 
Algiers.  He  be- 
came deputy 
for  Oran  in 
1881  ;  under- 
secretary for 
the  colonies, 
1887,  1889, 
and  1892; 
minister  of  the 
interior,  1905, 
and  of  war, 
1905-6,  and 

Manuel  1913.      He  was 

also  elected  vice-president  of  the 
chamber  of  deputies  in  1913  and 
again  in  1914. 

Etiology  OR  AETIOLOGY  (Gr. 
aitia,  cause  ;  logos,  account).  The 
doctrine  of  causes,  of  the  origin  of 
things,  specially  applied  to  the  ori- 
gin of  diseases.  By  some  it  is  classed 
with  ontology  and  teleology,  as  a 
branch  of  metaphysics  (q.v.). 

Etiquette.  French  word  intro- 
duced into  English  to  denote  a 
routine  of  behaviour  established  by 
custom.  It  includes  court  cere- 
monial, formalities  of  diplomatic 
intercourse,  procedure  in  parlia- 
ment, in  the  army  and  navy,  etc.  ; 
rules  of  behaviour  in  social  inter- 
course ;  and  the  code  observed  by 
professional  men,  especially  doc- 
tors and  lawyers,  for  safeguarding 
the  dignity  and  interests  of  their 
profession. 

Of  all  peoples  the  Chinese  attach 
the  greatest  importance  to  eti- 
quette. From  remote  times  they 
have  codified  their  ceremonial,  and 
the  Book  of  Rites,  though  rela- 
tively modern,  dates  from  the  1st 
century  B.C.  See  Manners. 

Etive.  River  and  sea-loch  of 
Argyllshire,  Scotland.  The  river 
issues  from  Loch  Mathair  Etive 
and  flows  15m.  S.  W.  to  the  head  of 
Loch  Etive.  The  loch  extends  10J 
m.  S.W.  and  then  8£  in.  W.  to  the 
Firth  of  Lome.  There  are  interest- 
ing ruins  on  its  shores.  The  river  is 
noted  for  its  salmon  and  trout. 
Pron.  Et-iv.  See  illus.  p.  2730. 


Etna  (Lat.  Aetna  ;  Sicil.  Monte 
Gibello).  Active  volcano,  situated 
near  the  E.  coast  of  Sicily,  and  the 
loftiest  in  Europe.  Its  present  alt. , 
10,755  ft.,  shows  a  decrease  of  115 
ft.  since  1861.  The  base  covers  an 
area  of  about  460  sq.  m.,  and  has  a 
circumference  of  90  m.,  while  the 
floor  of  the  crater,  which  con- 
stantly alters  and  has  become 
wider  in  recent  years,  is  9,765  ft. 
above  sea  level.  In  the  distance 
Etna  presents  the  appearance  of  a 
huge  symmetrical  cone,  but  on 
closer  observation  discloses  an  irre- 
gular surface,  studded  with  some 
200  minor  cones,  attaining  3,000  ft. 
in  height,  and  broken  on  the  E.  side 
by  the  Valle  del  Bove,  a  gaping 
abyss  from  2,000  to  4,000  ft.  deep. 
Its  slope  comprises  three  distinct 
zones  of  vegetation.  The  lower,  or 
lava,  region  rises  3,000  ft.  from  the 
base,  and  is  thickly  populated  and 
well  cultivated ;  the  middle,  or 
wooded,  region,  between  3,000  ft. 
and  6,850  ft.,  is  covered  with 
forests  of  pines,  birches,  and  other 
trees  ;  the  upper,  or  desert,  zone  is  a 
barren  waste,  under  snow  during 
most  of  the  year. 

The  ascent  is  generally  made 
from  Catania  or  Nicolosi,  and  1,100 
ft.  from  the  summit  is  an  observa- 
tory, with  accommodation  for 
tourists.  Pindar  describes  an  out- 
break in  476  B.C.  Violent  explo- 


Etive. 


The  Argyllshire  loch,  famous  for  its  salmon  and 
trout  fishing 


ETON     COLLEGE 

sions  occurred  in  1169,  1527,  1669, 
1693,  1792,  1830,  1852,  1865,  1879, 
1886,  1892  (when  a  new  crater  was 
formed  near  Monte  Gemellaro), 
1899,  and  1910.  The  eruption  of 
1169  partly  destroyed  Catania,  and 
that  of  1693  caused  enormous  loss 
of  life.  Of  over  80  recorded  activi- 
ties, the  most  recent  took  place  in 
May,  1914.  Ancient  legend  con- 
nects the  volcano  with  the  giant 
Typhon,  who  is  said  to  have  been 
buried  beneath  it  by  Zeus,  and  to 
have  caused  its  eruptions  by  his 
heavy  breathing ;  and  with  the 
workshops  of  Hephaestus  (Vulcan), 
wherein  the  Cyclopes  fabricated 
thunderbolts. 

Eton.  Town  and  parish  of 
Buckinghamshire,  England.  On 
the  left  bank  of  the  Thames,  oppo- 
site Windsor,  of  the  part.  bor.  of 
which  it  forms  part,  it  is  21  m. 
W.  S.W.  from  London.  Da  ting  from 
Anglo-Saxon  times,  it  has  a  church 
in  Early  Decorated  style  dedicated 
to  S.  John  the  Evangelist,  1852-54, 
and  a  noted  inn,  the  Christopher. 
Pop.  3,300.  See  Old  Days  of  Eton 
Parish,  J.  Shephard,  1908. 

Eton  College.  English  public 
school.  Founded  by  Henry  VI  as 
the  College  of  the  Blessed  Marie  of 
Eton  beside 
Windsor,  and 
now  known  as 
the  King's  Col- 
lege of  Our  Lady 
beside  Windsor, 
its  first  charter  is 
dated  Sept.  12, 

1440.  A  supple- 
mentary charter 
was    granted    in 

1441,  when   the 

pleted  1553,  were  begun.  The  con- 
stitution (based  upon  that  of  Win- 
chester, 1382)  provided  for  a  pro- 
vost,  head  master,   10  priests,  4 
clerks,  6  choristers,  25  poor  scholars 
and  25  bedesmen.     Henry  Sever 
was  the  first  provost,  succeeded  by 
William  of  Waynflete,1443.  Among 
the  heads  have  been  Nicholas  Udall, 
1504-66,  John  Keate,  the  famous 
flogger,  1773-1852, 
J.    J.     Hornby, 
1826-1909,     and 
Edmond    W  a  r  r  e 
(q.v.).     Arms  were 
granted  to  the  Col- 
lege in  1448. 

The  founder's 
statutes  were  for- 
mally repealed  in 
1872.  The  foun- 
dationnow  consists 
of  the  provost, 
appointed  by  the 
crown,  10  fellows, 
who  form  the 
nominal  governing 
body,  vice-provost, 
head  and  lower 


Eton  College  arms 
buildings,   com- 


£TOURDI 


2998 


ETRURIA 


Eton. 


The  town  viewed  from  Windsor.     In  the  centre  is  seen  the  college 
chapel,  built  by  Henry  VI 


masters,  one  or  more  bursars,  and 
two  chaplains  or  conducts.  The 
number  of  collegers  (or  Tugs)  is  70. 
In  1920,  in  addition  to  the  college 


stored  in  1848-60.  The  old  build- 
ings, of  dark  red  brick,  with  stone 
dressings  and  clustered  chimney 
shafts,  form  three  sides  of  a  quad- 
rangle which  is 
completed  by  the 
chapel.  The  li- 
brary was  built  in 
1729,  and  new 
buildings  in  1844 
-4  6  and  1885- 
87.  In  athletics 
the  wall  game  is 

BBBHHBI 


proper,  there  were  27  houses  and 
over  1,100  king's  scholars  and  oppi- 
dans or  house  residents.  There  are, 
in  all,  65  masters.  Notable  scholars 
have  included  Bolingbroke,  Boyle, 
Canning,  Chatham,  Fox,  Glad- 
stone, Gray,  Hallam,  Kinglake, 
Milman,  Peel,  Person,  Pusey,  Shel- 
ley, Swinburne,  and  Wellington, 
whose  remark  that  Waterloo  was 
won  on  the  playing-fields  of  Eton 
has  been  explained  as  a  reference  to 
the  fights  that  took  place  there. 

In  the  Great  War  about  5,000 
Etonians  served  and  over  1,100 
were  killed.  The  restoration  of  the 
vestry  chapel,  a  register  in  a  Golden 
Book  of  the  names  of  all  who 
served,  and  a  statue  in  the  playing- 
fields  constitute  the  proposed  war 
memorial.  In  addition  Etonians 
undertook  to  help  to  rebuild  the 
French  village  of  Eton,  destroyed 
in  the  early  days  of  the  war. 

Of  the  buildings,  the  hall,  1448, 
restored  1858,  is  the  only  part  built 
according  to  the  founder's  final 
plan.  The  Gothic  chapel,  1442-80, 
originally  parochial  as  well  as  col- 
legiate, resembles  that  of  King's 
College,  Cambridge,  and  was  re- 


a  special  feature, 
and  the  rowing 
boys  are  known  as 
"  wet  bobs,"  the 
cricketers  as  "  dry 
bobs."  The  school 
gives  its  name  to 
the  familiar  short 
j  ac  k  e  t  worn  by 
boys. 

Bibliography. 
History  of  Eton 
College,  H.  C.  Max 
well  Lyte,  4th  ed. 
1911;  Annals  of 
Eton,  W.  Sterry, 
1898;  An  Eton 
Bibliography,  L.  V. 
Harcourt,  new  ed. 
1902;  Fasti  Eton- 
enses,  A.  C.  Benson, 


1899 ;  Hist,  of  Eton  College,  L.  Gust, 
1899  ;  Eton,  A.  Clutton -Brock,  1900; 
Memories  of  Eton  Sixty  Years  Ago, 
A.  C.  Ainger,  1917. 

Etourdi,  L' ;  OR  LES  CONTRE- 
TEMPS (The  Thoughtless,or  TheMis- 
haps).  Five-act  comedy  by  Moliere, 
adapted  from  Italian  sources.  The 
scene  is  laid  in  Messina.  The  title 
refers  to  the  character  Lelie,  who 
is  often  doing  the  wrong  thing 
from  right  motives.  His  rascally 
servant  Mascarille,  a  character 
played  by  Moliere,  is  the  life  and 
soul  of  the  play,  which  was  first 
produced  at  Lyons,  1653. 

Etretat.  Town  and  watering- 
place  of  Normandy,  France,  in  the 
dept.  of  Seine  Inferieure.  Facing 
the  English  Channel,  16  m.  N.N.E. 
of  Havre,  it  became  a  popular 
holiday  resort  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  19th  century.  The  chief  build- 
ing is  the  Romanesque  church  of 
Notre  Dame,  dating  in  part  from 
the  llth  century.  There  are  public 
gardens,  a  casino,  and  ample  bath- 
ing facilities.  Pop.  1,973. 

Etrich  Taube.  Type  of  aero- 
plane (q.v. )  developed  by  Igo  Etrich 
in  Austria.  It  was  one  of  the  early 
types  with  a  large  degree  of  in- 
herent stability,  due  chiefly  to  the 
form  of  its  wing.  Each  wing  was 
swept  backward  and  upwards  to- 
wards the  outer  extremity  like  a 
bird's  wing.  The  type  was  copied 
by  many  German 
and  Austrian  con- 
structors,  and 
from  the  wing  form 
became  known  as 
Taube  or  dove. 

Etruria  (Gr. 
Tyrrhenia).  An- 
cient district  of 
Italy  nearly  corre- 
sponding to  the 
modern  Tuscany. 
To  what  race 
i  t  s  inhabitants, 
variously  called 


J 


Eton  College.     1.  The  School  Yard  and  Lupton's  Tower, 

built  in  the  18th  century.     2.  The  Upper  School,  built 

1690-91.     3.  The  Hall,  one  of  the  original  buildings  of 

Henry  VI,  restored  in  1858 


ETRURIA 

Tusci,  Etrusci,  or  Rasenae,  and 
their  language  belonged  are  pro- 
blems yet  unsolved.  They  were  a 
warlike  and  enterprising  people, 
whose  power,  at  its  height  during 
the  7th  century  B.C.,  began  to  de- 
cline two  centuries  later.  The 
chief  authority  was  in  the  hands  of 
an  aristocratic  caste  called  lucu 
nions ;  the  12  principal  cities  were 
confederated,  with  ageneralcouncil 
controlling  matters  of  peace  and 
war.  They  early  came  into  contact 
with  Rome,  whose  Tarquin  kings 
were  of  Etruscan  origin,  and  in  285 
finally  submitted  to  her  yoke. 

There  is  abundant  archaeological 
evidence  that  the  Etruscans  were  a 
wealthy,  highly  civilized  people. 
Although  their  architecture  was 
mainly  borrowed  from  Greece  and 
the  East,  it  exhibits  a  certain 
originality.  Above  all,  they  were 
the  first  to  make  practical  use  of 
the  principle  of  the  arch,  as  in  the 
bridges  at  Chiusi  (q. v. ).  Their  walls, 
unattached  by  cement,  consisted 
of  large  blocks  of  stone,  sometimes 
rectangular,  sometimes  roughly 
hewn.  The  Servian  wall  at  Rome 
was  of  Etruscan  construction.  The 
tombs,  all  subterranean,  differ  ac- 
cording to  periods  and  the  condi- 
tion of  the  soil.  In  mountainous 
districts  they  were  usually  cham- 
bers hewn  out  of  the  rock.  Where 
the  soil  was  yielding  and  crumbly 
they  took  the  form  of  a  tumulus,  a 
conical  earth -mound  erected  on  a 
walled  substructure,  frequently 
having  a  pear-shaped  ornamental 
top,  e.g.  the  so-called  tomb  of  the 
Horatii  and  Curiatii  at  Rome.  The 
walls  of  the  grave  chambers  were 
often  adorned  with  paintings. 

In  their  plastic  arts,  three 
stages  have  been  distinguished — - 
Egyptian,  Etruscan,  and  Hellenic. 
Special  excellence  was  shown  in  the 

E reparation  of  clay  vessels  adapted 
•om  Greek  models,  cinerary  urns, 
and  terra-cotta  sarcophagi.  Nu- 
merous specimens  are  extant  of 
statues,  from  tiny  lares  (household 
gods)  to  colossal  figures,  such  as  the 
she -wolf  of  the  Capitol ;  and  of  all 
kinds  of  vessels,  candelabra,  silver 
goblets,  ivory,  gold,  and  silver 
thrones,  and  ornamented  weapons. 
Most  of  the  sculpture  is  sepulchral. 

It  is  perhaps  in  painting  that  the 
Etruscans  achieved  the  greatest 
success,  whether  on  the  walls  of  the 
sepulchral  chambers  or  on  pottery. 
The  painted  vases  also  passed 
through  the  three  stages  of  Egyp- 
tian (or  perhaps  archaic  Greek), 
Etruscan,  and  Hellenic.  In  the 
first  the  figures  are  of  a  blackish 
brown,  in  the  second  black,  in  both 
cases  painted  on  the  yellowish-red 
ground  of  the  clay ;  in  the  third, 
the  ground  is  black,  the  figures  red. 

The  Etruscan  mirrors  are  well 


2999 


ETTRICK      FOREST 


Etruria.     Paintings  discovered  at  Cervetri,  the  ancient  Etruscan  city  of  Caere, 
illustrating  the  ceremonial  burning  of  the  dead 

By  courtesy  of  Wm.  Beinematrn 


known  —  round  or  pear-shaped 
plates  of  bronze,  the  outer  side 
polished  and  the  inner  adorned 
with  figures.  Some  of  them  are  very 
beautiful  and  more  than  anything 
else  throw  light  on  the  national  life. 
The  Etruscans  were  skilled  musi- 
cians, their  national  instrument 
being  the  flute.  See  Archaeology ; 
consult  also  Manuel  d'archeologie 
etrusque  et  romaine,  Jules  Martha, 
1884;  Cities  and  Cemeteries  of 
Etruria,  G.  Dennis,  ed.  W.  M. 
Lindsay,  1907. 

Etruria.  Eccl. 
dist.  and  village  of 
S  taf  f  ordshire. 
England.  It  is 
within  the  bor.  of 
Stoke,  with  a  sta- 
tion on  the  N. 
Staffordshire  Rly. 
Josiah  Wedgwood 
established  his 
pottery  works  here 
in  1769.  Etruria 
Hall,  where  Wedg- 
wood died  in  1795, 
has  been  convert- 
ed into  the  offices 
of  a  large  iron,  steel,  and  coal 
works.  Pop.  8,056.  See  Burslem. 

Etruria  Marls.  In  geology,  beds 
of  red  and  purple  marl  and  clay, 
occurring  in  the  upper  coal  mea- 
sure strata  of  the  coal-basins  of  the 
Midlands  and  N.  of  England.  They 
are  used  in  pottery  manufacture. 
See  Pottery. 

Ettlingen.  Town  of  Baden, 
Germany.  It  stands  on  the  Alb, 
4  m.  S.  of  Karlsruhe.  The  chief 
buildings  are  a  castle,  standing  in 
large  grounds,  the  town  hall, 
several  churches,  and  a  monastery, 
now  put  to  secular  uses.  It  is  still 
surrounded  by  walls  and  a  moat. 
Its  industries  include  the  manufac- 


ture of  paper,  dating  from  before 
1500,  textiles  of  various  kinds, 
and  machinery.  A  Roman  station, 
Ettlingen  was  made  a  town  in 
1227  and  has  since  been  part  of 
Baden.  It  is  famous  for  the  battle 
fought  here  between  the  French 
and  the  Austrians,  July  9-10, 
1796,  the  French  being  the  vic- 
tors. Pop.  9,400. 

Ettmiiller,  ERNST  MORITZ  Lm>- 
WIG(  1802-77).  German  philologist. 
Born  at  Gersdorf,  Saxony,  Oct.  5, 
1802.  he  became  professor  of  Gor- 


Etruria.    Plate  of  primitive  Etruscan  work  ornamented 
with  figures  depicting  a  ploughing  scene 


man  literature  at  the  Zurich  Gym- 
nasium, 1833,  and  professor  at  the 
university  there,  1863.  His  writ- 
ings contributed  largely  to  the 
knowledge  of  early  German,  Anglo- 
Saxon,  and  Scandinavian  litera- 
tures. His  best  known  works  are  a 
translation  of  Beowulf,  1840,  and 
a  Lexicon  Anglo-Saxonicum,  1851. 
He  died  April  15,  1877. 

Ettrick  Forest.  District  of  Sel- 
kirkshire, Scotland.  Formerly  a 
part  of  the  Caledonian  Forest 
which  comprised  Selkirkshire  and 
portions  of  Peeblesshire  and  Mid- 
lothian, it  was  at  one  time  a  hunting 
ground  of  the  Scottish  kings.  It  is 
now  almost  denuded  of  its  trees. 


ETTRICK      WATER 


3OOO 


EUCHAR1S 


Ettrick  Water.  River  of  Sel- 
kirkshire, Scotland.  It  rises  in 
Ettrick  Pen  and  flows  32  m.  N.E. 
to  the  Tweed,  about  2  m.  below 
Selkirk.  In  the  churchyard  of 
Ettrick  parish  are  buried  James 
Hogg,  the  "  Ettrick  shepherd," 
Thomas  Boston  (1677-1732),  the 
Puritan  divine  and  author,  and 
Tibbie  (Elizabeth)  Shiel  (1782- 
1878),  who  kept  the  famous  inn 
at  the  head  of  St.  Mary's  Loch. 

Etty,  WILLIAM  (1787-1849). 
English  painter.  Born  in  York, 
March  12,  1787,  he  was  appren- 
ticed to  a 
printer  in 
Hull.  Coming 
to  London  he 
began  copying 
famous  p  i  c- 
t  u  r  e  s.  In 
1806  he  en- 
tered the 
Royal  Aca- 
demy schools 
and  was  for  a 
year  a  pupil 
of  Sir  Thomas 
Lawrence.  Be- 
tween 1816-  Fromaphotc 

24  he  made  several  visits  to  the 
Continent,  chiefly  to  Italy,  whence 
he  returned  with  a  fine  sense  of 
colour  and  of  graceful  composition. 
In  1824  he  was  elected  A.R.A.,  and 
R.A.  in  1828.  He  died  in  York, 
Nov.  13,  1849.  Not  until  late  in 
life  did  he  obtain  good  prices  for 
his  work,  probably  owing  to  his 
preference  for  vast  canvases.  Of 
his  smaller  pictures  Youth  on^the 
Prow  and  Pleasure  at  the  Helm  at 
the  National  Gallery  is  the  most 
popular.  The  nobility  and  dig- 
nity of  his  huge  works,  such  as  The 
Combat  and  the  three  Judith  pic- 
tures atEdinburgh,and  Ulysses  and 
the  Sirens  in  the  Royal  Institution, 
Manchester,  compel  admiration. 
See  Life,  A.  Gilchrist,  1855. 

Etymology  (Gr.  etymon,  true; 
logos,  science).  The  investigation 
of  the  origin  and  meaning  of  words. 
The  term  dates  back  to  the  early 
schools  of  Greek  philosophy,  whose 
theories  are  ridiculed  by  Plato  in 
the  Cratylus,  where  he  himself  pro- 
pounds some  extraordinary  deriva- 
tions. The  Stoics  and  Alexandrian 
grammarians  also  devoted  much 
attention  to  the  study  of  words  and 
the  parts  of  speech.  Owing  to  com- 
plete ignorance  of  phonetic  laws, 
the  older  etymologists  laid  down 
arbitrary  and  impossible  sound 
changes,  and  even  went  so  far  as  to 
derive  words  from  others  of  oppo- 
site meaning,  e.g.  lucus  (grove),  a 
non  lucendo  (from  not  shining).  In 
the  Middle  Ages  the  influence  of 
theology  led  to  the  attempt  to 
derive  everything  from  Hebrew 
as  the  parent  of  all  languages. 


Etymology  as  a  science  is  of 
comparatively  recent  origin,  and 
became  possible  with  the  intro- 
duction of  a  knowledge  of  Sans- 
krit into  Europe  by  Sir  William 
Jones.  This  led  to  a  thorough 
examination  of  the  vocabulary  of 
the  Indo-European  languages  and 
the  establishment  of  certain  fixed 
principles  of  sound-change  which 
governed  the  changes  in  the  form 
of  a  word  in  different  languages. 

What  is  called  popular  ety- 
mology is  really  false  analogy, 
and  is  an  endeavour  to  adapt  the 
form  of  a  word  not  directly  in- 
telligible to  that  of  one  more 
familiar  and  apparently  related  ; 
for  example,  crawfish  (French 
ccrevisse),  wormwood  (German 
Wermuth),  bridegroom  (A.S.  bride- 
guma,  brideman),  Charterhouse 
(Chartreux).  See  Language ;  Place 
Names. 

Eu.  Town  of  Normandy,  France, 
in  the  dept.  of  Seine  Inf  erieure.  It 
stands  on  the  Bresle,  64  m.  N.E. 
of  Rouen.  It  has  a  few  industries, 
flour  mills,  brickyards,  and  glass 
works  among  them,  and  a  transit 
trade,  but  its  main  interest  is  his- 
torical. The  church  of  S.  Lawrence 
is  a  fine  Gothic  building  of  the 
12th  and  13th  centuries,  and  the 
chateau,  partly  burned  down  in 
1902,  dates  from  the  16th  century, 
when  it  replaced  an  older  one. 
Louis  Philippe,  who'  restored  it, 
often  resided  here.  Pop.  4,900. 

EuaoREoA.  Island  of  the  Tonga 
group  in  lat.21°24'S.  and  long.  174° 
50'  W.  Densely  populated,  it  is 
10m.  long,  3  m.  broad,  and  has  an 
area  of  67  sq.  m.  It  is  mountainous, 
well  watered,  and  fertile. 

Euboea  (Turk.  Egripo;  Ital. 
Negroponte).  Large  island  of 
Greece,  in  the  Aegean  Sea.  It  lies 
off  the  E.  coasts  of  Boeotia  and 
Attica,  has  a  length  of  115  m.,  a 
breadth  varying  from  4  m.  to  32  m. 
and  is  separated  from  the  main- 
land by  a  narrow  channel  called 
Euripus.  The  surface  is  moun- 
tainous with  fertile  valleys,  pas- 
turing large  herds  of  cattle.  Oil, 


Eucharis.     Foliage  and  flowers  of 

Eucharis  Amazonica,  a  S.  American 

bulbous  herb 


wine,  corn,  fruit,  honey,  and  pitch 
are  produced,  but  stock-breeding 
is  the  principal  occupation.  The 
highest  point  is  Mt.  Delphi,  5,720  ft. 
Its  thermal  springs  have  been 
esteemed  since  ancient  times.  The 
chief  town  is  Chalcis.  Its  history 
is  merged  in  that  of  Greece  and 
Rome.  In  medieval  times  it  be- 
longed to  Venice.  It  was  taken  by 
the  Turks  in  1470,  and  in  1830  was 
restored  to  Greece.  Area  1,430  sq. 
m.  Pop.  116,903.  Pron.  Ev-via. 

Eubulus  (d.  330  B.C.).  Greek 
orator  and  demagogue.  He  was  a 
friend  of  Aeschines,  whose  clerk 
he  had  been,  and  a  violent  op- 
ponent of  Demosthenes.  It  was 
chiefly  owing  to  him  that  Aeschines 
was  acquitted  when  accused  of 
treacherous  dealings  with  Philip 
of  Macedon.  A  decided  pacifist, 
Eubulus  carried  a  proposal  that 
whoever  suggested  applying  any 
portion  of  the  theoric  or  festival 
fund  to  any  other  purpose,  such  as 
war,  should  be  put  to  death.  In 
346  B.C.,  negotiating  with  Philip, 
he  concluded  a  peace  highly  dis- 
advantageous to  Athens. 

Eucaine  (Gr.  eu,  well ;  and  co- 
caine). Artificially  prepared  alka- 
loid allied  to  cocaine.  It  is  used  as 
a  local  anaesthetic  in  small  opera- 
tions and  extraction  of  teeth.  It 
is  safer  than  cocaine,  but  is  not  so 
powerful. 

Eucalyptus  (Gr.  eu,  well ;  kalyp- 
tos,  covered).  Genus  of  trees  of 
the  natural  order  Myrtaceae.  The 
name  is  given  to  it  because  the 
petals  cover  thoroughly  the  un- 
expanded  flowers.  See  Gum  Trees. 

Eucalyptus  Gum.  Exudate 
of  the  red  gum-tree  of  Australia. 
It  contains  tannic  acid  and  is  a 
powerful  astringent,  being  used  in 
lozenges  or  in  gargles  for  relaxed 
throat,  and  occasionally  prescribed 
in  diarrhoea  and  dysentery.  Eu- 
calyptus oil  is  distilled  from  the 
eucalyptus  globulus,  the  blue  gum- 
tree.  It  is  used  as  an  antiseptic, 
and  as  an  inhalation  or  spray  in 
conditions  accompanied  by  foetid 
expectoration. 

Eucasin  OR  CASEIN  AMMONIA 
(Lat.  caseus,  cheese).  Soluble  form 
of  casein.  It  is  prepared  by  passing 
ammonia  gas  over  casein,  or  into  a 
suspension  of  casein  in  alcohol  or 
ether.  It  is  used  as  a  food. 

Eucharis  (Gr.  eucharis,  pleas- 
ing). Small  genus  of  bulbous  herbs 
of  the  natural  order  Amaryllida- 
ceae.  Natives  of  New  Granada, 
they  have  egg-shaped  bulbs,  broad, 
elliptical  leaves  with  long  stalks, 
and  white  flowers,  from  3  ins.  to  5 
ins.  across.  These  are  borne  in 
clusters  on  top  of  a  taH  stem,  and 
consist  of  a  slender  tube  expand- 
ing into  a  cup,  surrounded  by  six 
sepals  and  petals. 


EUCHARIST 


3001 


EUCHLORINE 


Eucharist  (Gr.  eucJiaristia, 
thanksgiving).  One  of  the  names 
used  from  early  times  for  the  Sacra- 
ment of  the Lord'sSupper.The term 
occurs  frequently  in  the  N.T.  in  the 
general  sense  of  thanksgiving,  but 
for  the  most  part  without  special 
reference  to  the  Lord's  Supper  or 
Holy  Communion.  The  special  ap- 
plication of  the  word  arose  from 
the  Gospel  accounts  of  the  Supper, 
in  which  Christ  is  recorded  to  have 
given  thanks  over  both  the  bread 
and  the  cup.  The  Apostles  fol- 


tions  prefer  the  primitive  name  of 
the  Lord's  Supper. 

As  the  central  act  of  worship, 
the  Eucharist  has  been  the  cause 
of  much  embittered  controversy. 
The  history  of  Eucharistic  doctrine 
exhibits  two  main  points  at  issue  : 

(1)  the  nature  and  method  of  the 
presence  of  Christ  in,  or  associated 
with,   the   consecrated  elements  ; 

(2)  the   sacrificial   aspect  of   the 
service.   From  comparatively  early 
times  it  was  held  that  after  the  act 
of   consecration,    the    Body    and 


lowed  His  example,  and  thus  the  Blood  of  Christ  are  really  and  sub- 
blessing  or  consecration  of  the  stantially  present,  and  "  are  verily 
elements  became  known  as  a  euch-  and  indeed  taken  and  received  by 
arist  or  thanksgiving.  Later  the  the  faithful  in  the  Lord's  Supper." 

But  in  defining 
the  method  of  the 
mysterious  Pre- 
sence, wide  differ- 
ences of  opinion 
arose. 

Throughout  the 
Western    Church 
the    doctrine    of 
T  ran  substantia- 
tion   became,    in 
the  course  of  time, 
a  matter  of  faith. 
This  taught  that 
the   substance  of 
the  elements  was 
changed   into   or 
replaced  by  that 
of  the  Body  and 
Blood  of   Christ, 
so  that  only  the 
accidents  or   ap- 
pearance   of   the 
bread    and    wine 
remain.    Consub- 
stantiation 
taught  that  both 
substances     are 
present  as  a  com- 
pound substance. 
At  the  Reforma 
t  i  o  n  ,   Transub- 
stantiation    was 
generally   a  b  a  n- 
doned  by  Protest- 
ant  bodies  ;    but  no  one  theory 
took  its  place.     The  Lutheran  view 
was  nearly  identical  with  Consub- 
stantiation  ;  the  Anglican  Church 
maintained  the  Real  Presence,  but 
without  defining  its  method  ;  and 
most    other     reformed     churches 
adopted  the   view  of  Calvin  that 
there  is  no  Real  Presence  in  the 
elements   themselves,    but  simply 
a  spiritual  presence  of  Christ  in  the 
souls  of  the  faithful. 

As  regards  the  sacrificial  aspect, 
the  Roman  Church  teaches  that  in 
the  Eucharist  there  is  a  "  true  and 
proper  "  sacrifice  of  Christ,  Who 
is  offered  to  the  Father  as  a  pro- 
pitiation for  both  living  and  de- 
parted. The  Eastern  and  Anglican 
Churches  recognize  a  perpetual 
memorial  or  pleading  before  God 


Eucharist. 

painting  by  Sebastiano  Ricci  (1662-1734)  in  the  academy 
of  S.  Fernando,  Madrid 


Benedict  celebrating  Mass,  from  the 
•1734 


consecrated  elements  themselves 
became  known  as  eucharistia,  and 
the  service  itself  was  called  the 
Eucharist,  as  being  the  Christian 
sacrifice  or  offering  of  thanks- 
giving and  praise. 

The  Eucharist  is  the  act  of  united 
worship  directly  commanded  by 
Christ  Himself  in  the  words,  "  Do 
this  in  remembrance  of  Me." 
It  has  always  been  the  central  act 
of  Christian  worship  in  all  the 
churches,  save  in  a  few  bodies,  such 
as  the  Quakers  and  the  Salvation 
Army.  In  the  early  Church  it  was 
commonly  called  the  Oblation  or 
Liturgy,  as  it  is  still  in  the  Eastern 
Churches.  The  Roman  Church 
styles  it  the  Mass,  the  Anglican 
Church  Holy  Communion,  while 
most  of  the  Protestant  denomina- 


of  the  sacrifice  of  Christ  on  Calvary, 
but  not  a  repetition  of  it.  The 
various  Protestant  churches  alto- 
gether reject  the  sacrificial  idea. 
•  In  primitive  times  the  Eucharist 
was  celebrated  in  the  evening,  but 
from  the  time  of  Trajan  it  began  to 
be  a  morning  service.  This  practice 
has  prevailed  ever  since,  except  in 
the  Free  Churches,  and  is  con- 
nected with  the  ancient  custom  of 
receiving  the  Communion  fasting. 
At  first  the  celebration  of  the 
Eucharist  followed  the  Agape  (q.v. ) 
or  common  meal,  and  was  probably 
held  daily.  Later  on  the  two  were 
separated,  and  as  a  rule  the  Com- 
munion service  was  held  on  Sun- 
days and  Festival  days.  There  is 
evidence  that  in  some  of  the  larger 
churches  daily  celebrations  took 
place,  but  this  was  not  the  general 
custom.  Originally  all  the  faithful 
communicated  at  each  celebration, 
the  catechumens,  penitents,  and 
strangers  withdrawing  before  the 
consecration  ;  but  as  the  sacrificial 
aspect  became  emphasised,  the 
practice  of  non-communicating  at- 
tendance became  common,  all  the 
faithful  attending  each  service,  but 
only  communicating  occasionally 
or  on  obligatory  feasts. 

Except  the  Church  of  Rome,  all 
Churches  from  Apostolic  days  have 
given  Communion  to  the  people 
in  both  kinds.  In  the  Roman 
Church  the  cup  has  not  been  given 
to  the  laity  through  fear  of  acci- 
dents since  the  14th  century ;  while 
in  the  Greek  Church  the  conse- 
crated bread  is  dipped  in  the  cup, 
and  the  elements  are  thus  given 
together.  Throughout  the  Western 
Church  unleavened  bread  has  been 
used  ;  but  this  practice  has  not 
been  adopted  by  the  Eastern 
Churches.  In  the  Anglican  Church 
either  kind  of  bread  is  permissible. 
The  practice  of  adding  water  to  the 
wine  is  general,  except  in  Protest- 
ant churches,  on  the  ground  that 
the  cup  was  thus  mixed  at  the 
Passover. 

The  reception  of  Holy  Commu- 
nion is  a  condition  of  membership 
throughout  the  Christian  Church. 
The  Roman  Church  requires  at 
least  one  annual  participation  at 
Easter  ;  the  Anglican  Church  fixes 
three  times  a  year,  Easter  to  be 
one,  as  the  minimum.  See  Com- 
munion ;  Consubstantiation ;  Mass ; 
Real  Presence  ;  Sacrament ;  Tran- 
substantiation ;  also  illus.  p.  1892 

Euchlorine  (C10?).  Yellow  gas 
formed  when  potassium  chlorate  is 
treated  with  hydrochloric  acid. 
First  prepared  by  Davy,  in  1815, 
it  was  thought  to  be  a  new  oxide  of 
chlorine,  but  is  merely  a  mixture 
of  chlorine  and  chlorine  peroxide. 
An  efficient  disinfectant,  it  is  some- 
times used  instead  of  chlorine. 


EUCHRE 

Euchre.  A  card  game.  It  is 
played  with  32  cards,  the  2,  3,  4, 
5,  and  6  of  each  suit  being  thrown 
out.  There  are  two  players,  or  four 
in  partnership.  The  dealer  gives 
five  cards  to  each  player,  three  at 
a  time  and  then  two,  turning  up 
the  next  face  upwards  on  the  pack 
for  trumps.  In  the  trump  suit  the 
knave,  the  "  right  Bower,"  is  high- 
est, the  other  knave  of  the  same 
colour  coming  next,  the  "  left 
Bower."  The  remaining  cards  of 
the  trump  suit,  and  those  of  the 
other  three,  rank  from  ace  to  seven. 
In  the  two-handed  game  the 
non-dealer  begins  by  deciding 
whether  he  shall  play  or  pass. 
If  satisfied  that  he  can  win  the 
odd  trick  he  says,  "  Order  it 
up."  His  opponent  then  puts  one 
card  face  downwards  on  the  table 
and  is  entitled  to  the  card  turned 
up  for  trumps,  but  generally  leaves 
this  card  until  he  wishes  to  play  it. 
Should  the  non-dealer  be  dissatis- 
fied, he  passes  ;  the  dealer  may 
then  either  take  up  the  top  card 
in  exchange  for  one  of  his  own, 
and  play,  or  he  may  pass  also. 
Both  having  passed  in  turn, 
either  player  has  the  chance  of 
going  on  any  other  suit  he  chooses 
to  make  trumps.  If  both  pass 
again,  the  hands  are  thrown  up. 

Two  cards  constitute  a  trick. 
A  player  must  follow  suit  if  he  can, 
but  need  not  take  a  trick  unless  a 
higher  card  is  his  only  play  in 
that  suit.  The  game  is  five  up.  If 
the  player  ordering  up  succeeds  in 
making  five  tricks  he  wins  a 
march,  and  scores  two  points  ;  if 
three  tricks,  he  makes  the  point, 
and  scores  1  (four  tricks  count  for 
no  more  than  three).  If  he  fails  to 
make  three  tricks  he  is  euchred, 
and  his  opponent  scores  2. 

There  is  a  variant  of  the  game, 
called  cut-throat  euchre,  for  three 
players.  Pron.  U-ker.  Sep.  The 
Standard  Hoyle.  1887. 

Eucken,  RUDOLF  CHRISTOPH  (b. 
1846).  German  theologian  and 
philosophical  writer.  Born  Jan.  5, 
1846,  in  E. 
Friesland,  h  e 
was  educated 
a  t  Gottingen 
and  Berlin.  He 
was  professor 
of  philosophy 
in  the  univer- 
sity of  Basel 
from  1871  to 
Radoll  Euckeo,  ]  874,  when  he 
German  theolosian  accepteda 
similar  post  at  Jena.  His  views  and 
writings  show  the  influence  of  Plato 
and  the  elder  Fichte.  He  upholds 
the  Christian  standpoint,  and  is 
the  opponent  of  naturalism  in  all 
its  forms,  whether  as  empiri- 
cism, positivism,  or  utilitarianism. 


3OO2 

His  chief  works  translated  into 
English  are :  The  Fundamental 
Concepts  of  Modern  Philosophic 
Thought,  critically  and  histori- 
cally considered,  1880  ;  The  Prob- 
lem of  Human  Life  as  viewed  by 
Great  Thinkers,  1909;  The  Meaning 
and  Value  of  Life,  1909  ;  Christian- 
ity and  the  New  Idealism,  1909. 

Eucla.  Township  of  W.  Aus- 
tralia. It  stands  at  the  head  of  the 
Great  Australian  Bight  near  the 
S.  Australian  border,  on  the  over- 
land telegraph  route  through  W. 
and  S.  Australia. 

Euclase  (Gr.  eu,  well;  klasis, 
breaking ).  Rare  mineral  consisting 
of  hydrated  silicate  of  beryllium 
and  alumina.  Occurring  in  short 
prisms,  with  vertical  striae  on  crys- 
tal faces,  it  is  either  colourless, 
yellowish,  green,  or  blue.  It  is  found 
in  Minas  Geraes,  Brazil,  in  the  Ural 
mts.  and  Austrian  Alps. 

Eucleides  (fl.  300  B.C.).  Greek 
mathematician,  whose  more  fami- 
liar name  is  Euclid.  Little  is 
known  of  his 
life  except  that 
he  was  of 
Greek  descent, 
and  lived  and 
taught  at 
Alexandria. 
His  individu- 
ality has  in- 
deed been  so 
merged  in  his 
works  that  me- 
dieval writers 
attempted  to  prove  that  he  never 
existed.  Besides  the  Elements 
of  Geometry,  Euclid  wrote  De 
Divisionibus,  a  collection  of  36 
problems  on  the  division  of  areas, 
possibly  the  only  survivor  of  many 
such  collections. 

Eucleides  (5th  cent.  B.C.  ).  Greek 
philosopher.  A  native  of  Megara, 
he  founded  the  Megarian  school, 
one  of  the  so-called  imperfect 
Socratic  philosophical  schools.  He 
held  that  there  was  only  one  good 
(Reason,  Truth),  and  only  one 
virtue  (a  knowledge  of  this  good), 
all  else  being  non-existent — a 
Socratic  modification  of  the  Eleatic 
doctrine  of  the  Absolute  One. 

Euclid.  Text -book  on  the 
elements  of  geometry,  based  upon 
the  work  of  Eucleides  (q.v.).  The 
course  in  elementary  mathe- 
matics in  vogue  during  the  latter 
portion  of  the  last  century  unwit- 
tingly introduced  the  student  to 
a  set  of  brilliant  exercises  in 
deductive  logic  in  the  guise  of 
Euclid  as  an  introduction  to  geo- 
metry. Many  pupils  never  sur- 
mounted the  Pons  Asinorum 
(Euclid  I),  others  managed  by  a 
sheer  exercise  of  memory  to  master 
Euclid  Bk.  I,  but  only  the  com- 
paratively select  few  succeeded  in 


Eucleides, 
Greek  mathematician 


EUDIOMETER 

enjoying  Euclid  Bks.  I  to  IV.  As 
a  school  text-book  in  the  days  of 
dull  drill  and  lengthy  routine, 
Euclid  was  admirable.  The  propo- 
sitions supplied  material  for  the 
dullard,  and  the  hosts  of  exercises 
kept  the  keener  intellects  busy. 

Euclid  has  been  discarded  by 
schools  mainly  for  two  impor- 
tant reasons:  it  is  unsuitable  to 
students  of  school  age  because  it  is 
entirely  deductive  ;  it  is  almost 
valueless  as  an  introduction  to 
geometry  because  it  takes  no  note 
of  modern  ideas.  Measurement 
and  constructive  movement  are 
dominant  in  modern  life,  and 
Euclid  ignores  both.  See  Geometry ; 
Mathematics. 

Eucomis.  Small  genus  of 
perennial  bulbous  herbs  of  the 
natural  order  Liliaceae.  They  are 
natives  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 
They  have  broad  lance-shaped  or 
oblong  leaves,  and  a  stout,  leafless 
flower-stem,  the  upper  half  crowded 
with  greenish  brown  flowers,  and 
surmounted  by  a  small  tuft  of  leaf- 
like  bracts. 

Eucrite.  Crystalline  granular 
rock,  a  variety  of  gabbro.  It  is 
characterised  by  the  presence, 
among  mineral  constituents,  of  basic 
species  of  felspar.  It  is  well  devel- 
oped in  Tertiary  eruptive  rock  in 
the  Isle  of  Rum  and  near  Carling- 
ford,  Ireland. 

Eudaemonism  (Gr.  eudaimon- 
ismos).  Greek  term  for  the  theory 
that  happiness  (eudaimonia)  is 
the  chief  end  of  life.  This  happi- 
ness, according  to  Aristotle,  must 
be  striven  after  for  its  own  sake, 
not  as  a  means  to  an  end,  and  is 
defined  by  him  as  a  perfect  activity 
in  a  perfect  life.  The  most  excel- 
lent and  specially  human  activity  is 
that  of  the  reason ;  happiness 
therefore  is  to  be  sought  in  a  con- 
templative, otherwise  a  virtuous, 
life.  Eudaemonism  is  to  be  distin- 
guished from  Hedonism  (q.v. ). 

Eudiometer  (Gr.  eudia,  fine 
weather ;  metron,  measure).  In- 
strument used  for  measuring  gases, 
Originally  designed  for  determin- 
ing the  amount  of  oxygen  con- 
tained in  a  sample  of  air,  it  is  now 
commonly  used  for  determining 
the  constituents  of  a  gaseous 
mixture.  In  some  forms  it  com- 
prises a  graduated  glass  tube  or 
cy Under,  either  straight  or  U- 
shaped,  closed  up  at  one  end  and 
open  at  the  other,  and  having  in- 
verted near  the  closed  end  two 
platinum  wires,  which  are  near 
enough  to  allow  the  passage  of  an 
electric  spark  through  the  mixture. 

A  Cavendish  eudiometer  is  a 
vessel  closed  at  both  ends,  having 
a  screwed  connexion  by  which  it 
can  be  pumped  clear  of  air  before 
being  filled  with  a  gaseous  mixture 


EUDOCIA 

for  analysis.  A  mixture  of  two 
volumes  of  hydrogen  and  one  of 
oxygen  can  be  exploded  in  a 
eudiometer  tube  to  form  water. 

Eudocia  (c.  393-460).  East 
Roman  empress.  Daughter  of  the 
Athenian  philosopher  Leontius, 
celebrated  for  her  beauty  and  in- 
tellect, she  was  converted  to 
Christianity  by  Pulcheria,  sister  of 
Theodosius  II  who  married  her  in 
421.  Before  conversion  her  name 
was  Athenais.  The  two  sisters-in- 
law,  however,  quarrelled  over  the 
Eutychian  heresy  (see  Eutyches), 
and  Eudocia  was  banished,  re- 
turning to  a  life  of  good  works 
at  Jerusalem.  She  wrote  several 
poems,  chiefly  of  a  religious  nature. 
Euganean  Hills.  Isolated  group 
of  hills  of  N.E.  Italy,  in  the  prov. 
of  Padua.  Lying  in  the  W.  of  the 
prov.  they  are  of  volcanic  origin, 
have  numerous  thermal  springs, 
and  extensive  trachyte  quarries. 
The  loftiest  point  is  Monte  Venda, 
1,895  ft.  On  their  slopes  are  sev- 
eral villas  and  a  ruined  convent. 

Eugene.  City  of  Oregon,  U.S.A. 
the  co.  seat  of  Lane  co.  It  stands 
on  the  Willamette  river,  46  m.  S. 
of  Albany,  and  is  served  by  the  S. 
Pacific  rly.  It  is  the  seat  of  the 
Oregon  university  (opened  1876). 
It  has  machine  shops,  ironfound- 
ing  and  tanning  industries,  and 
manufactures  of  furniture,  cotton 
goods,  window-sashes  and  doors. 
Eugene  is  at  the  head  of  naviga- 
tion, and  carries  on  a  brisk  trade  in 
lumber,  cereals,  cattle  and  animal 
products  and  canned  fruit.  It  is 
a  rapidly  growing  city,  settled  in 
1854,  and  incorporated  10  years 
later.  Pop.  14,257. 

Eugene  (1663-1736).  Italian 
prince  and  Austrian  soldier.  Born 
in  Paris,  Oct.  18,  1663,  his  father 
was  Eugene 
Maurice,  prince 
of  Savoy,  and 
his  mother  a 
Frenchwoman, 
a  niece  of  Maz- 
arin.  He  was 
baptized  as 
Fran9ois  Eu- 
gene. Educated 
in  France,  at 
first  for  the 
church,  he  en- 
tered the  Aus- 
trian army,  as  Louis  would  not 
admit  him  to  the  French,  a  fact 
which  some  think  gave  a  distinct 
anti-French  impetus  to  his  military 
career.  His  early  experiences  were 
gained  fighting  against  the  Turks, 
and  his  advance  was  rapid. 

In  1691  Eugene  held  a  com- 
mand in  Italy,  where,  between 
then  and  1693,  he  won  several 
successes  over  the  French.  In 
1697,  in  command  of  the  im- 


Prince  Eugene, 
Austrian  soldier 

From  a  contemp. 
portrait 


3003 

perialists  in  Hungary,  he  crushed 
the  Turks  at  Zenta.  In  1701,  when 
the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession 
broke  out,  he  was  sent  to  Italy, 
where  again  he  won  considerable 
successes  over  the  French.  In  1704 
began  the  association  with  Marl- 
borough  which  has  linked  together 
the  two  names  in  history.  The 
prince  helped  in  the  battle  of 
Blenheim,  but  when  Ramillies 
was  fought  (1706)  he  was  again  in 
Italy,  where  his  outstanding  feat 
was  the  capture  of  Turin.  He 
fought  at  Oudenarde,  but  after  the 
English  had  withdrawn  from  the 
struggle,  he  advised  his  master, 
the  emperor,  to  do  the  same.  This 
counsel  being  taken,  he  arranged  in 
1714  the  peace  of  Rastatt. 

Next  began  one  of  Eugene's 
greatest  campaigns,  the  one  that 
made  him  the  idol  of  the  Aus- 
trians.  In  the  war  against  the 
Turks  that  opened  in  1716,  he  won 
a  victory  at  Peterwardein,  and  a 
greater  one  when  he  captured  Bel- 
grade. A  period  of  peace  fol- 


EUGENICS 

lowed,  the  prince  serving  as 
governor  for  the  Netherlands,  and 
then  as  the  emperor's  representa- 
tive in  Italy.  In  1734  he  led  the 
Austrians  in  the  war  of  the  Polish 
succession,  and  on  April  21,  1736, 
he  died  in  Vienna. 

The  greatest  of  all  the  soldiers 
who  have  served  Austria,  Eugene 
was  responsible  for  the  only  period 
in  her  military  history  that  can  be 
called  glorious.  He  had  a  passion 
for  war.  the  genius  that  knew  in- 
stinctively when  risks  could  be 
taken,  for  several  of  his  victories 
were  won  over  greatly  superior 
forces.  He  was  interested  in  art, 
and  left  a  magnificent  collection  of 
pictures.  The  prince  never  married. 
See  Life,  G.  B.  Malleson,  1888. 

Eugene  Aram .  Poem  by  Thomas 
Hood,  The  Dream  of  Eugene 
Aram,  published  in  The  Gem  in 
1829 ;  and  romance  by  Lord 
Lytton,  published  anonymously 
in  1832.  Both  are  based  on  the 
history  of  a  schoolmaster  of  that 
name.  See  Aram,  Eugene. 


EUGENICS:    THE  SCIENCE  OF  BREEDING 

J.  Arthur  Thomson.  Prof,  of  Natural  History,  Aberdeen 

The  attention  given  by  modern  scientific  students  to  this  subject 
justifies  the  following  article,  wi*h  which  should  be  read  those  on  Bio- 
logy ;  Heredity ;  Life.  See  also  Birth  Rate ;  Death  Rate ;  Population 


Eugenics  (Gr.  eugenes,  well 
born)  is  defined  by  Sir  Francis 
Galton  as  "  the  study  of  agencies 
under  social  control  that  may  im- 
prove or  impair  the  racial  qualities 
of  future  generations,  either  phy- 
sically or  mentally."  It  is  based 
on  what  is  known  of  heredity  and 
other  factors  affecting  the  organic 
welfare  of  the  human  stock.  Its 
primary  reference  is  to  the  inborn 
qualities  of  the  race,  considered  as 
a  breed.  In  plain  words,  eugenics 
is  the  art  of  breeding  well.  But  it 
is  artificial  to  consider  a  living 
creature  apart  from  its  surround- 
ings and  activities,  so  that  euge- 
nics must  be  supplemented  by  a 
study  of  environment  and  function. 

For  the  combined  influences  of 
environment  and  function,  Galton 
used  the  term  nurture,  opposing  it, 
as  Shakespeare  did  in  The  Tem- 
pest, to  the  inborn  or  inherited 
nature,  and  it  has  been  much  dis- 
cussed whether  nature  or  nurture 
is  the  more  important.  But  na- 
ture and  nurture  are  complemen- 
tary, not  antithetic.  If  a  good  in- 
heritance is  to  develop  fully  it 
must  have  an  appropriate  nurture, 
which  liberates  the  possibilities 
that  might  otherwise  remain  un- 
developed. Good  nurture  de- 
velops the  good,  and  inhibits  the 
bad  elements  in  an  inheritance. 
Bad  nurture  stimulates  evil  pre- 
dispositions and  hinders  the  em- 
ergence of  the  good.  Thus  euge- 


nics cannot  be  separated  from 
nurture,  and  this  commonsense 
conclusion  is  the  more  important 
since  nurture  is  more  in  man's 
control  than  the  inheritance  can 
ever  be. 

The  fundamental  fact  of  eugenics 
is  that  the  chief  determining  factor 
of  human  life  is  what  the  child  is 
or  has  to  start  with,  in  virtue  of  its 
hereditary  relation  to  parents  and 
ancestry.  The  statistical  inquiries 
of  the  workers  in  the  Galton  Eu- 
genics Laboratory  show  the  funda- 
mental importance  of  natural  in- 
heritance. Exception  may  perhaps 
be  taken  to  the  form  of  the  state- 
ment that  "  nature  is  five  to  ten 
times  as  influential  as  nurture,"  for 
no  matter  how  fine  the  seed,  it  will 
not  yield  a  rich  crop  without  good 
soil  and  plenty  of  sunshine  and  rain; 
but  it  must  be  allowed  that  the  fun- 
damental determinant  of  racial  wel- 
fare is  heredity.  This  emphasis  on 
the  inherited,  nature  has  this 
further  justification,  that  there  is 
no  secure  warrant  at  present  for 
believing  that  gains  made  by  the 
individual  as  the  direct  results  of 
beneficial  nurture  can  be  entailed 
on  the  offspring. 

The  peculiarities  which  are  ac- 
quired by  the  individual's  care- 
ful choice  of  surroundings  do  not 
seem  to  be  transmitted  as  such  to 
the  next  generation.  This  may 
sound  discouraging,  but  three 
points  must  be  noticed,  (a)  If  the 


EUGENICS 

gains  of  good  nurture  are  not 
handed  on,  neither  are  the  losses 
due  to  deteriorative  nurture,  (b, 
The  bodily  and  mental  health  of 
mothers,  which  depends  in  part  on 
individual  nurture,  influences  thf 
general  development  of  the  un 
born  child,  which  lives  in  long  ante- 
natal partnership  with  her.  Thus 
nurture  indirectly  affects  the; 
general  vigour  of  the  race,  (c)  The 
new  departures  in  a  race,  known  as 
variations  or  mutations  (nee  Evo- 
lution), appear  to  be  expressions  of 
intrinsic  changes  in  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  germ.  In  course  of  de- 
velopment these  find  expression, 
and  they  have  to  stand  the  criti- 
cism of  everyday  life.  It  is  plain 
that  a  promising  new  departure, 
whether  idiosyncrasy,  originality, 
or  genius,  may  be  nipped  in  the 
bud  without  congenial  nurture. 

The  results  of  nurture  may  thus 
prove  of  great  importance  as  part 
of  that  social  system  which  decides 
whether  new  departures  are  to  sur- 
vive or  not.  Promising  novelties, 
which  the  eugenist  regards  as  the 
raw  materials  of  progress,  the 
most  precious  things  in  life,  may 
fail  to  persist,  and  the  race  is  ob- 
viously the  poorer  if  the  clever 
artist  or  musician  is  starved  into 
celibacy.  Fortunately  the  same 
process  may  operate  against  the 
establishment  of  variations  in  vice 
or  criminality. 

The  question  arises  how  the  in- 
trinsic endowment  can  be  practi- 
cally controlled.  To  this  it  may  be 
answered,  that  while  men  and 
women  cannot  select  their  parents, 
they  can  and  do  select  their  part- 
ners in  life.  This  may  operate,  in 
the  first  place,  negatively.  There 
are  unsound  types  of  constitution 
who  should  not  become  parents, 
because  by  so  doing  they  still 
further  deteriorate  the  quality  of 
the  race.  There  are  some  types  of 
constitutional  disease,  defect,  or 
unsoundness  which  have  peculiar 
staying  power  in  inheritance, 
which  sometimes  behave  as  Men- 
delian  characters.  These  should 
be  allowed  to  die  out. 

Eugenics  and  Legislation 

A  character  like  colour-blindness, 
which  usually  passes  from  a  father 
through  an  unaffected  daughter  to 
a  grandson,  is  not  of  great  moment, 
but  no  one  can  contemplate  with- 
out grave  regret  the  spoiling  of  a 
more  or  less  sound  stock  by  the  in- 
troduction of  predisposition  to 
diabetes  or  S.  Vitus's  Dance,  a 
well-defined  mental  instability,  or 
a  defect  like  deaf-mutism.  How 
far  eugenic  legislation  should  go  is 
a  difficult  question.  It  ie  certainly 
desirable  to  educate  public  opinion 
so  as  to  form  rational  prejudices 
against  the  spoiling  of  approxi- 


3OO4 

mately  good  stock  by  bad,  strong 
by  weakly,  fine  by  poor.  Without 
adopting  drastic  measures  a 
nation  might  do  much  in  the  way 
of  negative  eugenics. 

In  some  races,  e.g.  Jews  and 
Chinese,  the  strong  eugenic  tradi- 
tion has  expressed  itself  in  a  pride 
in  sustaining  a  vigorous,  alert, 
wholesome  lineage.  Preoccupa- 
tion with  the  struggle  for  wealth, 
selfish  love  of  ease,  and  immoral 
gratifications  of  the  sex-impulse 
tend  to  destroy  pride  in  having  a 
vigorous  family.  That  many  celi- 
bates are  the  salt  of  the  earth  does 
not  dispose  of  the  fact  that  there 
are  selfish,  we  may  almost  say  non- 
mammalian,  forms  of  celibacy.  A 
few  social  arrangements,  e.g.  in 
connexion  with  taxation,  seek  to 
lessen  the  difficulty  of  bringing  up 
a  family,  and  Galton  contemplated 
the  direct  pecuniary  encourage- 
ment of  the  early  marriages  of 
highly  desirable  members  of  the 
community. 

Eugenic  and  Economic  Ideals 

It  may  be  doubted,  however, 
whether  indirect  encouragement 
is  not  much  safer.  A  community 
which  realizes  the  racial  value  of 
types  with,  let  us  say,  high  ar- 
tistic gifts  associated  with  health, 
will  in  its  criticised  expenditure 
tend  to  secure  their  continuance. 
The  applications  of  this  economic 
idea  of  "  the  criticism  of  consump- 
tion "  are  endless  and  far-reaching. 
All  expenditure  which  promotes 
unhealthy  rather  than  healthy  oc- 
cupations, which  helps  to  multiply 
undesirable  types,  which  makes  for 
sweated  labour  and  slums  rather 
than  for  well-paid  work  and 
gardens,  is  necessarily  dysgenic, 
and  not  eugenic.  In  many  ways  it 
will  probably  be  found  possible  to 
combine  eugenic  and  economic 
ideals  by  ceasing  to  penalise 
maternity. 

When  primitive  man's  mastery 
of  nature  was  only  beginning,  there 
must  have  been  an  intense  struggle 
for  existence  The  ranks  were 
thinned  by  storm  and  flood,  by 
famine  and  pestilence,  by  wild 
beasts  and  poisonous  herbs.  When 
the  thinning  was  sifting,  i.e.  when 
those  who  survived  did  so  in  virtue 
of  some  quality,  say  of  vigour  or 
alertness,  which  those  who  perished 
lacked,  then  it  was  natural  selec- 
tion, and  made  for  evolution.  With 
the  progress  of  civilization  there 
has  been  a  continual  rebellion  of 
men  against  the  yoke  of  natural 
selection. 

The  growth  of  kin-sympathy 
and  social  solidarity  has  led  to 
persistent  endeavours  to  interfere 
with  the  crudity  of  natural  selec- 
tion, and  to  save  the  weak,  the 
diseased,  and  the  foolish.  Here  is  a 


EUGENICS 

dilemma  where  biological  and  social 
ideals  are  opposed.  It  is  biologi- 
cally unsound  that  the  unhealthy 
and  unstable  should  be  allowed  to 
multiply  their  kind  ,  it  is  socially 
unsound  that  altruistic  sympathies 
should  be  outraged.  This  dilemma 
still  remains. 

"  Social  Surgery  " 

The  problem  is  to  substitute  for 
nature's  regime,  which  man  has  in 
great  part  abolished,  a  process  of 
rational  selection  which  will  sift  out 
the  tares  from  the  wheat.  The 
seriousness  of  the  dilemma  has  led 
to  proposals  implying  some  mea- 
sure of  "  social  surgery."  It  has 
been  suggested  that  obviously  un- 
desirable types  who  have  fallen 
back  upon  the  community  for  sup- 
port should  be  prevented  from  re- 
producing their  kind. 

Objections  against  this  are  (1) 
that  in  some  measure  society  may  be 
responsible  for  the  making  of  those 
absolute  failures,  and  that  their 
production  as  much  as  their  repro- 
duction should  be  stopped  ;  (2)  that 
measures  of  repression  and  segrega- 
tion are  repugnant  to  the  social  sen- 
timents of  freedom  and  solidarity. 
Some  strong-minded  counsellors, 
not  lacking  in  humane  feelings, 
have  advised  a  return  to  "  the  pur- 
gation of  the  state  "  which  Sparta 
to  some  extent  practised  and  Plato 
approved.  It  has  been  suggested 
that  weakly  infants  whose  life  must 
be  more  or  less  miserable  should  be 
allowed  to  pass  away  in  their  sleep. 
The  gravest  objections  to  this  are  : 

(1)  that  many  weaklings  have  been 
makers  and  shakers  of  the  world  ; 

(2)  that  the  proposals  outrun  our 
present  secure  knowledge  ;  (3)  that 
it  would  remove  the  results  of  evil 
without  touching  the  causes  ;  and 
(4)  that  it  outrages  social  sentiment 
in  its  finest  expressions. 

Another  line  seems  at  present 
safer  and  more  promising,  namely  a 
criticism  of  the  processes  which 
thin  the  ranks  of  mankind.  Some 
of  these  are  more  or  less  indiscrimi- 
nate elimination,  as  microbic  dis- 
eases like  cholera.  As  such  diseases 
do  not  select  the  weaker  as  their 
victims,  leaving  the  stronger  to  sur- 
vive, their  reduction,  much  marked 
in  modern  times,  is  in  a  eugenic  di- 
rection. A  wasteful  thinning  of  the 
population  is  avoided,  and  many 
fine  lives,  which  might  have  been 
gratuitously  sacrificed,  are  saved. 

The  reduction  of  infantile  morta- 
lity, which  has  still  a  long  way  to 
go,  must  be  approved  by  all  eugen- 
ists.  Similarly,  the  reduction  of 
infection  by  the  tubercle  bacillus 
operates  against  a  profitless  wast- 
age of  fine  types.  The  case  of  syphi- 
lis is  more  difficult,  since  its  cura- 
bility may  remove  a  deterrent  from 
vice  ;  but  a  consideration  of  the 


EUGENIE 


3OO5 


EUGENIUS 


poisoning  of  innocent  mothers  and 
the  blinding  of  innocent  children 
makes  it  clear  that  the  curative 
treatment  of  the  disease  will  oper- 
ate eugenically. 

In  regard  to  war,  it  is  generally 
agreed  that  a  war  may  be  socially 
and  ethically  inevitable  and  justifi- 
able, though  in  itself  a  regrettable 
anachronism.  But  it  is  certain  that 
a  prolonged  war  in  which  a  large 
proportion  of  the  men  of  fighting 
age  are  engaged  must  have  dys- 
genic  consequences.  On  the  whole, 
the  best  and  the  bravest  will  tend 
to  be  eliminated,  and  this  means 
impoverishment  of  the  stock.  The 
costliness  of  war  also  operates  dys- 
genically  in  diverting  expenditure 
from  the  support  of  the  more 
highly  individualised  and  less 
readily  replaceable  members  of  the 
community. 

This  illustration  of  the  dysgenie 
influence  of  war  clearly  points  to 
two  highly  important  considera- 
tions. First,  that  man' s  great  prob- 
lem is  to  substitute  for  dysgenie 
elimination  eugenic  selection,  for 
indiscriminate  thinning  a  discrim- 
inate sifting,  for  the  cruder  forms 
of  natural  selection  the  subtler 
forms  of  rational  and  social  se- 
lection. Secondly,  that  it  is  abso- 
lutely vital  for  the  student  of  hu- 
man eugenics  to  bear  in  mind, what 
is  to  the  breeder  of  other  organisms 
irrelevant,  that  man  is  a  rational, 
social  personality.  Man's  mind  to 
him  a  kingdom  is,  and  not  less  im- 
portant than  the  natural  inherit- 
ance mysteriously  transmitted  in 
the  vehicle  of  the  germ-plasm  is 
that  external  systematisation  or 
registration  of  institutions  and 
traditions,  of  literature  and  art, 
which  form  his  social  heritage. 

Bibliography,  Eugenics  :  its  de- 
finition, scope  and  aims,  F.  Galton, 
1905,  etc.  ;  National  Life  from  the 
Standpoint  of  Science,  K.  Pearson, 
2nd  ed.  1905;  The  Methods  and 
Scope  of  Genetics,  W.  Bateson,1908 ; 
Darwinism  and  Human  Life,  J.  A. 
Thomson,  1909 ;  Parenthood  and 
Race -Culture :  an  outline  of  eu- 
genics, C.  W.  Saleeby,  1909;  The 
Scope  and  Importance  to  the  State 
of  the  Science  of  National  Eugenics, 
K.  Pearson,  2nd  ed.  1909  ;  Biological 
Fact  and  the  Structure  of  Society, 
W.  Bateson,  1912  ;  Heredity  in  Re- 
lation to  Eugenics,  C.  B.  Davenport, 
1912  ;  An  Introduction  to  Eugenics, 
W.  C.  D.  and  C.  D.  Whetham, 
1912 ;  Problems  in  Eugenics,  Eu- 
genics Education  Soc.,  1912  ;  The 
Task  of  Social  Hygiene,  H.  H.  Ellis, 
1912;  Eugenics,  E.  Schuster,  1913  ; 
The  Progress  of  Eugenics,  C.  W. 
Saleeby,  1914 ;  Heredity  and  En- 
vironment in  the  Development  of 
Men,  E.  G.  Conklin,  2nd  ed.  1916  ; 
Genetics  and  Eugenics,  W.  E.  Castle, 
1916 ;  Towards  Racial  Health,  N.  H. 
March,  3rd  ed.  1918  ;  Heredity,  J.  A. 
Thomson,  3rd  ed.  1919. 


From  a  photn  *-^^ 

of  I860  <^^^**^*7 

Eugenie  (1826-1920).  Empress 
of  the  French.  Born  at  Granada, 
Spain,  May  5,  1826,  the  daughter 
of  count  de  Monti  jo  and  Maria 
Manuele  Kirkpatrick,  whose  Scot- 
tish father  was  U.S.A.  consul  at 
Malaga,  she  made  her  debut  in 
Paris  society  in  1851,  where  her 
beauty  attracted  Napoleon  ITI, 
who  married  her,  Jan.  30,  1853. 
The  marriage  created  a  great  sen- 
sation, and  the  comparatively 
humble  origin  of  the  new  empress 
made  for  many  jealousies.  Under 
her  influence  the  court  became  a 
centre  of  luxury  and  extravagance. 

In  political  affairs  the  empress 
exercised  a  strong,  not  always 
beneficial,  influence  upon  Napo- 
leon. She  favoured  the  disastrous 
Mexican  expedition  of  1863-66,and, 
anxious  to  show  her  devotion  to 
the  Church,  hindered  the  emperor's 
Italian  policy  until  all  his  influence 
with  the  liberals  was  lost.  At  the 
outbreak  of  the  Franco -Prussian 
War,  1870,  into  which  she  urged 
Napoleon  in  order  to  strengthen 
the  dynasty  for  her  son,  she  became 
regent  when  the  emperor  went  to 
the  front,  but  after  Sedan  fled  to 
England,  where  she  was  joined  by 
the  emperor,  1871,  and  they  settled 
at  Chislehurst.  Napoleon  died  in 
1873  ;  their  only  son,  the  Prince 
Imperial,  was  killed  with  the  Brit- 
ish army  in  the  Zulu  campaign  in 
June,  1879. 

Henceforward  the  empress  lived 
in  seclusion,  her  chief  friend  being 
Queen  Victoria.  She  moved  to 
Farnborough  in  1887  and  usually 
spent  the  winters  in  the  S.  of  Eu- 
rope, and  died  whilst  on  a  visit  to 
Spain,  July  11,  1920.  Her  body 


was  brought  to  England  and  buried 
in  the  mausoleum  with  Napoleos 
III  and  her  son,  at  Farnborough. 
See  The  Empress  Eugenie  and  her 
Son,  E.  Legge,  1916;  Memoirs, 
Comte  Fleury,  1920. 

Eugenius.  Name  of  four  popes, 
of  whom  two  are  notable.  Eu- 
genius III  (d.  1153)  was  born  at 
Pisa,  where  he  was  educated  and 
ordained.  He  joined  the  Cistercian 
Order,  came  under  the  influence  of 
Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  and  was 
made  abbot  of  the  monastery  of 
Tre  Fontane  at  Rome.  His  eleva- 
tion to  the  papacy,  1145,  coincided 
with  a  revolt  against  the  temporal 
supremacy,  and  he  was  driven  to 
Viterbo.  The  activities  of  Arnold 
of  Brescia  (q.v.)  compelled  him  to 
leave  Italy,  1146.  During  his  two 


Eugenie.    From  a  photo  of  the  ex- 
empress  taken  in  1906 

years  in  France  he  promoted  the 
second  crusade,  and  promulgated 
measures  for  the  reform  of  the 


fore  his  death,  July  8,  1153,  that, 
thanks  to  the  intervention  of  the 
emperor,  Frederick  Barbarossa,  he 
was  able  to  return  to  Rome. 

Eugenius  IV  (d.  1447)  was  a  Ve- 
netian and  a  monk  of  the  Celestine 
order.  He  was  bishop  of  Siena  and 
became  pope  in  1431.  He  was  first 
engaged  in  a  struggle  with  the 
Colonna  family,  and  then  with  the 
Council  of  Basel,  which  refused  to 
dissolve  on  his  order  in  1431,  the 
recalcitrants  of  the  council  declar- 
ing him  suspended  and  deposed,  and 
electing  the  anti-pope  Amadeus  of 
Savoy  (Felix  V).  Outside  a  com- 
paratively small  party,  however, 
Eugenius  maintained  his  position 
as  rightful  pope.  From  1433-53  he 
was  driven  to  live  at  Florence  by  a 
revolt  of  the  Romans.  He  effected 
a  temporary  union  with  the  Greek 
and  Armenian  churches,  1439. 


EUGENOL 


3006 


EUNUCH 


Eugenol.  Chief  constituent  of 
clove  oil.  Obtained  by  distilling 
cloves,  and  from  pimento-leaf  oil, 
the  oil  contains  from  80  to  90  p.c. 
of  eugenol.  It  has  the  same 
spicy  odour  as  clove  oil,  from  which 
it  is  separated  by  caustic  potash. 
Eugenol  is  used  medicinally  as 
a  carminative,  and  frequently 
as  a  palliative  in  toothache,  a 
pledget  of  cotton- wool  wetted  with 
eugenol  being  inserted  into  the 
hollow  tooth.  Commercially  euge- 
nol is  of  importance  in  the  manu- 
facture of  vanillin. 

Eugubine  Tables.  Seven  large 
bronze  tablets  found  in  1444  in  a 
vault  near  Gubbio  (ancient  Igu- 
vium,  middle-age  Eugubium),  in 
central  Italy.  They  are  covered 
with  inscriptions  in  Umbrian  and 
Latin,  one  in  both  languages,  in  ex- 
cellent preservation.  The  oldest 
date  from  200  B.C.  They  embody 
almost  all  that  is  known  of  the 
Umbrian  dialect  and  throw  valu- 
able light  upon  the  religious  cus- 
toms of  ancient  Italy.  The  text 
contains  the  proceedings  of  a 
priestly  corporation  named  the  At- 
tidian  brothers,  a  code  of  religious 
ceremonies  with  directions  for  au- 
guries, sacrifices,  and  expiatory 
ceremonies.  See  Inscriptions 

Euhemerus  (4th  century  B.C.). 
Greek  rationalist.  A  native  of  Mes- 
sene  in  Sicily,  and  a  follower  of  the 
Cyrenaic  school,  he  lived  at  the 
court  of  Cassander,  king  of  Mace- 
donia. Euhemerus  was  the  author 
of  a  Sacred  Register,  in  which  he 
tells  how,  having  been  sent  by  Cas- 
sander to  the  Indian  Ocean,  he 
landed  in  the  mythical  island  of 
Panchaea.  Here  he  discovered,  in- 
scribed on  a  golden  pillar  in  a  tem- 
ple of  Zeus,  a  history  of  the  world, 
the  study  of  which  led  him  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  gods  and  heroes 
were  nothing  but  supermen,  on 
whom  divine  honours  had  been  be- 
stowed after  death.  Other  Greek 
writers  had  already  expressed  simi- 
lar views,  but  they  were  first  sys- 
tematised  by  Euhemerus,  whose 
name  and  ideas  survive  in  the 
modern  term  Euhemerism.  His 
writings  were  translated  into  Latin 
by  Ennius,  and  fathers  of  the 
church,  such  as  Lactantius,  made 
use  of  them  as  a  source  of  argu- 
ments against  paganism. 

Eulenburg,  PHILIPP,  PRINCE 
zu  (1847-1921).  'German  diploma- 
tist. Born  at  Konigsberg,  he  served 
in  the  Franco-Prussian  War,  1870, 
studied  law  from  1 872-75,  and  then 
entered  the  diplomatic  service. 
Prussian  ambassador  to  Stuttgart, 
1890,  and  Munich,  1891,  he  was 
imperial  ambassador  to  Vienna 
from  1894-1902,  when  he  retired 
owing  to  ill-health.  In  1907  he  was 
virulently  attacked  by  Maximilian 


Harden  in  his  Zukunft.  His  repu- 
tation never  recovered,  and  he  died 
Sept.  16,  1921. 

Eulenspiegel,  TYLL.  Name  of 
a  peasant  to  whom  were  ascribed 
the  jests  and  practical  jokes  in  a 
popular  Low-German  collection  of 
the  late  15th  century  (now  lost). 
The  High-German  version,  the 
basis  of  all  subsequent  editions, 
was  printed  in  1515.  Eulenspiegel 
is  supposed  to  have  been  an  actual 
person,  who  died  in  1350,  and  his 
traditional  grave  is  shown  at  Molln. 
His  story  was  widely  popular  in 
Europe  and  in  England,  and  is 
the  basis  of  the  well-known  sym- 
phonic poem  by  Richard  Strauss, 
1895.  See  Tyll  Owlglass. 

Euler,  LEONAKD(  1707-83).  Swiss 
mathematician.  Born  at  Basel, 
April  15.  1707,  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  at  St.  Peters- 
burg, 1733,  and  at  Berlin  by 
Frederick  II' s  invitation,  1741,  re- 
turning to  Russia  in  1766.  He  died 
there  Sept.  18,  1783.  He  was  an 
accomplished  mathematician  and  a 
prolific  writer  on  the  subject,  doing 
valuable  work  in  mathematical 
analysis,  in  revising  and  coordinat- 
ing the  existing  branches  of  pure 
mathematics,  and  in  a  study  of 
planetary  motions. 

Eumaeus  (Gr.  Eumaios}.  In 
Greek  legend,  the  faithful  swine- 
herd of  Odysseus,  to  whom  his 
master  revealed  himself  when  he 
arrived  in  disguise  in  his  native 
Ithaca  after  20  years'  absence. 
Eumaeus  afterwards  helped  Odys- 
seus to  slay  the  suitors  of  Penelope 
(q.v.).  Pron.  U-me-us. 

Eumenes  OF  CARDIA  (c.  360- 
316  B.C.).  Private  secretary  to 
Philip  of  Macedon  and  Alexander 
the  Great.  He  accompanied  the 
latter  on  his  Persian  campaigns, 
and  on  Alexander's  death,  in  323 
B.C.,  became  ruler  of  Paphlagonia, 
Cappadocia,  and  Pontus.  After  a 
four  years'  struggle  with  Anti- 
gonus  (q.v.),  he  was  taken  prisoner 
by  the  latter  and  put  to  death. 
See  Craterus.  Pron.  U-men-eez. 

Eumenes.  Name  of  two  kings 
of  Pergamum.  Eumenes  I  reigned 
263-241  B.C.,  but  Eumenes  II,  who 
reigned  197-159  B.C.,  is  the  more 
important.  Realizing  that  his  in- 
terests lay  in  recognition  of  the 
power  of  the  Romans,  he  entered 
into  an  alliance  with  them,  assisted 
them  in  the  war  against  Antiochus 
the  Great,  taking  part  in  the  battle 
of  Magnesia,  and  was  established 
by  them  as  ruler  of  Mysia,  Lydia, 
Phrygia,Lycaonia,  and  Pamphylia. 
His  lukewarmness  in  the  war 
against  Perseus,  king  of  Macedo- 
nia, caused  him  to  be  suspected  of 
intriguing  with  the  enemy,  and  he 
never  completely  regained  Roman 
favour.  Under  his  rule  Pergamum 


became  a  city  of  great  magnifi- 
cence. Eumenes  founded  a  library 
said  to  rival  that  of  Alexandria. 
See  Pergamum. 

Eumenides  OK  ERINYES.  In 
Greek  mythology,  avenging  deities 
who  pursued  those  guilty  of  crime, 
especially  crimes  against  the  family 
and  crimes  of  bloodshed  They  are 
represented  as  winged  women  with 
snakes  sprouting  from  their  heads 
instead  of  hair,  and  bearing  torches 
and  scourges.  They  were  three 
in  number — Tisiphone  (avenger), 
Alecto  (unceasing,  relentless),  and 
Megaera  (jealous ).  Erinyes  was  the 
older  name,  Eumenides  (the  kindly) 
being  a  euphemistic  title,  bestowed 
upon  them  after  they  had  aban- 
doned their  persecution  of  Orestes. 
In  Attica  they  were  by  preference 
called  Semnai,  the  awful  goddesses. 
They  were  propitiated  by  wine- 
less  libations  of  water,  milk,  and 
honey.  Furiae  and  Dirae  were 
the  Roman  equivalents.  Pron. 
U-meny-deez. 

Eumenides.  Tragedy  by  Aes- 
chylus, last  of  the  trilogy  Oresteia. 
The  subject  is  the  trial  of  Orestes 
before  the  Areopagus  (q.v.)  for  the 
murder  of  his  mother,  Clytaemnes- 
tra.  The  Erinyes  act  as  prosecu- 
tors, and  Orestes,  who  is  defended 
by  Apollo,  is  acquitted  by  the  cast- 
ing vote  of  Athena.  The  play  ends 
with  a  panegyric  of  Athens  and  its 
venerable  court  of  justice,  and  the 
Erinyes  are  propitiated  by  their 
name  being  changed  to  Eumenides. 
See  Agamemnon  ;  Choephori. 

Eumolpus  (Gr.,  sweetly  sing- 
ing). In  Greek  mythology,  son  of 
Poseidon,  the  sea-god,  by  a  mortal 
mother,  Chione,  who,  in  remorse, 
threw  the  infant  Eumolpus  into 
the  sea.  He  was  saved  by  Posei- 
don, and  after  many  adventures 
reached  Attica,  where  he  perished 
in  a  war  with  Erechtheus,  the 
Athenian  king.  He  was  credited 
with  being  the  founder  of  the 
Eleusinian  mysteries,  and  his  de- 
scendants, the  Eumolpidae,  were 
priests  at  Eleusis  throughout  all 
Greek  history. 

Eunuch  (Gr.  eune,  bed  ;  ekhein, 
to  keep).  Word  originally  applied 
to  a  man  in  charge  of  the  women's 
apartments  in  Oriental  countries, 
but  afterwards  to  a  castrated  at- 
tendant in  the  harem.  The  custom 
of  entrusting  women  to  eunuchs 
has  prevailed  in  the  East  since 
Babylonian  times,  and  was  imi- 
tated by  the  later  Roman  em- 
perors. These  eunuchs  frequently 
acquired  great  power  and  high 
position.  In  modern  times  lads 
were  castrated  in  order  to  preserve 
their  clear  boyish  voices.  Italian 
churches  employed  castrati  in 
choirs,  but  Leo  XIII  abolished  the 
practice  in  1878  From  time  to 


EUONYMIN 


3OO7 


EUPHRATES 


time  religious  fanatics  have  under- 
gone self-mutilation,  the  Skoptsi, 
of  Russia,  being  notable  examples. 
The  only  Christian  self-castrate  of 
note  was  Origen. 

Euonymin.  Extract  of  the  bark 
of  Euonymus  atropurpureus,  the 
spindle-tree  of  the  U.S.A.  It  is 
useful  for  constipation  associated 
with  disturbance  of  the  liver.  See 
Spindle  Tree. 

Eupatoria.  Seaport  of  S. 
Russia.  It  stands  on  the  W.  coast 
of  the  Crimea  at  the  N.  end  of  Kala- 
mita  Bay,40m.  N.  W.  of  Simferopol. 
The  chief  industries  are  soap-boil- 
ing and  tanning,  and  considerable 
trade  is  done  in  grain,  wool,  hides, 
and  salt.  Its  Tartar  name  was 
Gyuzleve,  Russian  Kozlov.  In 
1783  it  was  taken  from  the  Tartars 
by  the  Russians,  who  re-named  it 
Eupatoria,  after  the  ancient  town 
founded  by  Mithradates  VI  the 
Great,  King  of  Pontus.  In  1855-56 
Eupatoria  was  occupied  by  Anglo- 
French  troops.  Pop  30,432,  mainly 
Tartars  and  Karaite  Jews. 

Eupatridae  (Gr.  eu,  well ;  pater, 
father).  Nobility  of  Athens  and 
Attica,  supposed  to  be  descended 
from  the  ancient  heroes.  The  rest 
of  the  inhabitants  were  roughly  di- 
vided into  Geomori  or  farmers,  and 
Demiurgi  or  artisans  and  traders. 
As  the  kingship  declined,  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Eupatridae  increased 
until  they  virtually  governed  the 
state.  Their  influence  was  checked 
by  Draco's  Code  of  Laws,  pro- 
viding for  the  administration  of 
justice  equally  among  all  classes, 
and  ended  by  the  constitution  of 
Solon.  See  Draco  ;  Solon. 

Eupen.  District  and  town  of 
Belgium.  The  territory  known  as 
the  Kreis  (circle)  of  Eupen  lies  S. 
of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  and  covers  an 
area  of  400  sq.  m.,  with  a  pop.  of 
about  40,000.  It  is  fertile,  with 
rich  pastures  and  meadows,  and 
its  chief  industry  is  dairy  farming. 
It  contains  Eupen,  Raeren,  Kam- 
mersdorf,  and  Conzen.  The  town, 
the  administrative  centre  of  the 
Kreis,  has  a  pop.  of  about  14,000. 
It  is  situated  on  the  Weser,  10  m. 
S.  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  and  is  a  busy 
industrial  centre,  manufacturing 
woollen  and  cloth  goods,  paper, 
soap,  and  machinery.  It  has  iron- 
foundries,  breweries,  and  tanneries. 

Formerly  part  of  the  duchy  of 
Limburg,  Eupen  was  under  the 
government  of  Austria  until  1801, 
when  by  the  peace  of  Luneville  it 
passed  to  France.  In  1814  it  was 
given  to  Prussia,  later  forming  part 
of  the  Rhine  province  until  1919. 
The  town  reverted  to  the  old  French 
name  of  Neaux  (q.v.). 

By  the  treaty  of  Versailles, 
Germany  renounced  in  favour  of 
Belgium  all  rights  and  title  over  the 


territory  comprising  the  whole  of 
the  circles  of  Eupen  and  Malmedy. 
The  inhabitants  were  "  entitled  to 
record  in  writing  a  desire  to  see  a 
whole  or  part  of  it  remain  under 
German  sovereignty."  This  was 
not  the  same  procedure  as  adopted 
in  the  plebiscite  areas  like  N. 
Slesvig.  Belgian  troops  occupied 
Eupen  on  May  26,  1919,  taking  it 
over  from  the  French.  See  Belgium. 
Euphemism  (Gr.  eu,  well; 
pheme,  voice).  Substitution  of  re- 
fined and  delicate  words  for  coarse 
and  vulgar  words  conveying  the 
same  idea.  The  object  is  to  suppress 
as  far  as  possible  painful  or  un- 
pleasant subjects  which  yet  must 
be  referred  to.  While  literature, 
like  art,  properly  embraces  the 
entire  range  of  human  activity,  its 
function  is  to  idealise  and  refine, 
and  it  therefore  employs  euphemism 
in  dealing  with  such  matters  as 
strong  animal  passions,  gross 
pleasure,  excessively  painful  or  re- 
pellent conditions.  The  shock  of  an 
ugly  or  revolting  image  is  more 
violent  when  presented  in  words 
used  only  by  the  coarse -minded, 
but  it  is  mitigated  if  presented  in  a 
less  familiar  euphemism.  Thus  by 
euphemism  refined  pleasure  may 
be  extracted  from  subjects  which 
at  first  seem  repugnant. 

Euphonium  (Gr.  eu,  well ; 
phone,  sound).  Brass  wind  instru- 
ment of  the  saxhorn  family.  Of 

, ...  ,  bass   pitch    and 

tone,    it    is    of 
the  same  pitch 
as  the  baritone 
saxhorn,  but  its 
bore    is     wider 
i  and  tone  fuller. 
',.  !  The  euphonium 
!  is  the  chief  bass 
i  solo  instrument 
in  military 
\  bands,   and  of- 

Euphonium.  ""*  ten,  <*oubles  the 
4-valve  instrument   melody   an   oc- 

By  courtesy  of  taVC    below    the 

Bawkes  A  Co.  cornets.  It  also 
plays  bass  parts  with  the  heavier 
bass  instruments,  bombardon,  bass 
tuba,  etc.  Euphoniums  are  made 
in  C  and  B  flat,  both  played  as  non- 
transposers.  In  brass  bands  the  B 
flat  euphonium  is  sometimes  written 
for  on  the  treble  stave,  when  it  be- 
comes a  transposer,  and  the  notes 
are  placed  a  major  ninth  higher, 
i.e.  : 


The  open  notes  of  the   B  flat 
instrument  are : 


and  its  three,  four,  or  five  pistons 
complete  the  scale,  and  give  a 
chromatic  compass  of  over  three 
octaves. 

Euphorbia  ceae(  Spurge  Family ). 
Large  natural  order,  comprising 
trees,  shrubs,  and  herbs.  They  are 
mostly  with  milky  juice,  found  in 
all  parts  of  the  world  except  the 
Arctic  zones.  The  leaves  are  all  un- 
divided, and  either  alternate  or 
opposite.  The  sexes  are  always  in 


Euphorbiaceae.     Foliage  and  flowers 
oi  the  box,  Buxus  sempervirens 

separate  flowers  without  petals. 
About  3,500  species  are  known, 
including  spurges,  mercury,  box, 
castor-oil  plant,  etc.  Preparations 
of  Euphorbia  peplus  and  Euphorbia 
pilulifera  are  sometimes  used  in 
medicine,  to  relieve  conditions 
associated  with  difficult  breath- 
ing. The  order  is  named  after  a 
Greek  physician,  Euphorbus  (1st 
century  B.C.). 

Euphorbus  i  In  Greek  mytho- 
logy, a  Trojan  hero  slain  by  Mene- 
laus.  Pythagoras,  who  taught  the 
transmigration  of  souls,  believed 
that  he  himself  had  once  been 
Euphorbus,  and  in  proof  he  un- 
hesitatingly identified  the  shield  of 
Euphorbus  in  the  temple  of  Hera 
near  Mycenae  as  his  own. 

Euphotide  (Gr.  eu,  well ;  stem, 
phot,  light).  Coarsely  crystalline 
basic  rock,  belonging  to  the  family 
of  gabbros.  It  consists  essentially 
of  the  mineral  diallage  and  plagio- 
clase  felspar,  with  minor  quantities 
of  iron  and  carbonates  as  acces- 
sories. It  occurs  in  the  Alps,  Cor- 
sica, and  elsewhere. 

Euphrates.  The  western  river 
of  Mesopotamia,  flowing  over  the 
alluvial  plain  to  join  the  Tigris  and 
enter  the  Persian  Gulf.  One  of  the 
notable  rivers  of  antiquity,  the 
joint  valley  was  the  home  of  the 
earliest  civilization.  The  river, 
called  Frat  by  the  Turks,  rises  in 
the  Armenian  highlands,  about 
lat.  40°  N.  The  parent  streams,  the 
Kara  Su  and  the  Murad  Su,  origi- 
nate well  over  1  m.  above  sea  level, 
in  a  land  snow-covered  and  ice- 
bound for  three  months.  Both 
flow  at  first  W.  between  snow-clad 


EUPHUISM 


3008 


EURHYTHMICS 


function 


allusion,  and  the 
extravagant  drafts 
upon  natural  his- 
tory for  purposes 
of  moral  reflection. 
The  high  artifici- 
ality of  euphuism 
carried  the  seeds  of 
decay  within  it,  and 
it  died  before  the 
16th  century  was 
out.  Scott  claimed 
to  have  modelled 


ridges ;  the  Kara  Su  crosses  the 
plain  of  Erzerum,  and  is  a  big 
river,  200  ft.  in  width;  it  breaks 
through  the  southern  ridge  by  a 
series  of  rapids,  receives  the  Murad 
Su  at  Keban  Maden,  flows  still 
to  the  W.  and  then  breaks  through 
a  second  ridge  by  a  long,  narrow 
gorge,  to  enter  the'Malatia  plain  at  a 
level  of  about  2,600  ft.  The  Murad 
Su,  which  rises  near  Mt.  Ararat, 
has  a  wilder  course  than  the  Kara 
Su,  and  receives  greater  quantities 
of  melted  snow. 

From  the  plain  the  Euphrates 
has  a  rocky  course  through  the 
Tauric  mts.  to  Samsat,  falling 
1,500  ft.  in  about  100  m.,  to  emerge 
on  to  the  lowland  and  fall  1,000  ft. 
in  1 ,800  m. ,  a  broad,  majestic  stream 
only  crossed  until  quite  recently  by 
primitive  ferries.  In  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Aleppo,  the  river  is  but  80 
m.  from  the  N.E.  corner  of  the 
Mediterranean  Sea,  but  it  almost 
immediatelyturns  definitely  to  the 
S.E.  on  its  way  to  the  Persian  Gulf. 
The  lowland  course  is  in  a  sandy 
trough,  comparable  to  that  of  the 
Nile  in  Egypt ;  a  narrow  bordering 
strip  is  cultivable  by  the  use  of 
river  water ;  it  receives  only  one 
important  tributary,  the  Khabur, 
and  consequently  decreases  in 
volume  by  excessive  evaporation. 

During  hot  summers  it  becomes 
fordable;  nearer  Kurna,  where  it 
joins  the  Tigris,  it  percolates  into 
marshes,  losing  still  more  water. 
The  combined  stream  is  the  Shatt- 
el- Arab.  The  Euphrates  has  no  large 
modern  town  on  its  banks,  yet  the 
site  of  Babylon  is  due  S.  of  Bagdad. 
The  stream  is  navigable  for  small 
craft  to  Birejik  on  the  caravan 
route  to  Syria.  During  the  Great 
War  important  battles  were  fought 
at  Ramadie  and  Khan  Baghdadi. 
See  itt.ua.  facing  p.  811  and  p.  813. 

Euphuism  ((Jr.  euphues,  clever). 
Name  given  to  the  artificial  style 
in  which  John  Lyly  (q.v.)  couched 
his  famous  romance,  Euphues,  the 
Anatomy  of  Wit,  1579,  followed  in 
1580  by  Euphues  and  His  England. 
The  characteristics  of  this  "new 
English  "  were  the  balanced  antith- 
etical sentences  marked  by  elaborate 
alliteration,  the  excess  of  classical 


on  the  euphuistic  fashion  which 
prevailed  for  some  years. 

Eupolis  (d.  c.  410  B.C.).  Athe- 
nian comic  writer.  He  was  a  con- 
temporary of  Aristophanes  and 
Cratinus,  with  whom  he  was  as- 
sociated by  Horace  and  others  as 
one  of  the  chief  representatives  of 
the  Old  comedy.  Among  his 
comedies,  of  12  of  which  fragments 
remain,  were  Kolakes  (the  Flat- 
terers), ridiculing  the  wealthy 
Callias,  a  patron  of  learning,  who 
was  always  surrounded  by  a  host 
of  toadies  ;  Marikas,  an  attack  on 
the  demagogue  Hyperbolus  (q.v.), 
represented  as  a  slave  ;  Demoi, 
lamenting  the  unhappy  condition 
of  the  state  under  the  encroach- 
ments of  democracy  ;  and  Baptae 
(the  Dippers),  an  exposure  of  the 
licentious  practices  of  Alcibiades 
and  his  companions  in  connexion 
with  a  Thracian  ritual. 

Eurasian.  Term  originally  de- 
noting the  offspring,  and  their 
descendants,  of  a  European  father 
and  a  Hindu  mother.  It  was 
formed  out  of  the  continental 
names,  about  1820 ;  the  collo- 
quial name  in  previous  use  was 
chee-chee.  In  India  100,451  were 
returned  at  the  last  census  under 
the  official  designation  Anglo-In- 
dians. The  term  now  denotes  any 
mingling  of  European  and  Asiatic 
blood,  and,  in  physiology  and 
ethnology,  natural  or  ethnic 
characters  common  to  both  con- 
tinents. 

Eure.  River  of  France.  It 
rises  in  the  dept.  of  Orne  and  flows 
through  the  dept.  of  Eure  et  Loir 
to  the  Seme,  which  it  enters  near 
Pont  de  PArche,  not  far  from 
Rouen.  Its  length  is  about  70  m. 
and  Chartres  is  the  chief  place  on 
its  banks. 

Eure.  Department  of  France. 
In  the  N.W.  of  the  country,  it  is  a 
fairly  level  area,  and  the  soil  is 
fertile.  Much  of  it  is  covered  with 
forest,  but  elsewhere  wheat  is 
grown.  Horses,  sheep,  and  cattle 
are  reared,  a  great  deal  of  fruit  is 
cultivated,  and  the  peasants  ex- 
port butter  and  eggs.  The  Seme 
borders  the  dept.,  which  is  also 
drained  by  the  Eure,  Rille,  and 


other  tributaries  of  that  river. 
Evreux,  the  capital,  Elbeuf,  Les 
Andelys,  and  Louviers  are  the 
chief  towns  of  the  dept.,  which  has 
five  arrondissements.  Before  the 
Revolution,  Eure  was  mainly  part 
of  Normandy.  Its  area  is  2,330  sq. 
m.  Pop.  323,651. 

Eure  et  Loir.  Department  of 
France.  An  inland  dept.  in  the 
N.W.  of  the  country,  it  is  flat  and 
fertile  in  the  S.  and  E.,  but  less  so 
in  the  N.  and  W.  The  former  is 
included  in  the  plain  of  Beauce, 
while  the  latter  is  known  as  the 
Perche  and  the  Thimerais.  The 
chief  rivers  are  the  Eure,  Loir,  and 
their  tributaries.  The  main  pro- 
ducts are  wheat  and  oats.  Apples 
are  grown,  while  cattle,  sheep,  and 
horses  are  reared.  Chartres  is  the 
capital,  and  the  dept.  is  divided 
into  four  arrondissements.  Dreux 
and  Chateaudun  are  other  towns. 
Before  the  Revolution  it  was 
partly  in  Normandy  and  partly  in 
Orle"anais.  Its  area  is  2,293  sq.  m. 
Pop.  272,225. 

Eureka  (Gr.  heureka,  I  have 
found).  Exclamation  of  Archi- 
medes (q.v. ),  on  finding  that  he  had 
discovered  a  method  of  detecting 
the  alloy  in  the  gold  of  Hiero's 
crown.  In  modern  language,  the 
term  is  applied  to  an  expression  of 
delight  on  making  some  great 
discovery. 

Eureka.  City  of  California, 
U.S.A.,  the  co.  seat  of  Humboldt 
co.  It  stands  on  Humboldt  Bay, 
225  m.  N.W.  of  San  Francisco,  on 
the  North-Western  Pacific  Rly.  A 
port  of  entry,  with  a  fairly  good 
harbour,  it  is  largely  engaged  in 
shipping  lumber,  obtained  from 
the  red  wood  forest  region  in  which 
it  is  situated.  Its  industrial  estab- 
lishments include  saw-mills,  tan- 
ning and  shingle  works,  and  tobacco 
factories.  The  federal  building,  city 
hall,  and  a  public  library  are  among 
the  chief  buildings.  Settled  in  1850, 
it  was  incorporated  in  1856.  Pop. 
13,770. 

Eureka  Springs.  City  and 
watering-place  of  Arkansas,  U.S.A. 
It  stands  near  the  White  river  and 
is  chiefly  noted  for  its  medicinal 
springs,  opened  hi  1879  and  now 
public  property;  to  them  the 
town  owes  its  growth  and  pros- 
perity. Pop.  3,230. 

Eurhythmies  (Gr.  eu,  well ; 
rhythmos,  measured  motion).  Art 
of  expressing  harmony  by  gestures, 
in  which  physical  movement  is 
made  to  reflect  musical  notation. 
It  was  invented  by  Emile  Jaques- 
Dalcroze,  professor  of  harmony  at 
the  Geneva  Conservatoire,  towards 
the  end  of  the  19th  century.  Time 
is  shown  by  movements  of  the  arms 
and  notes  by  movements  of  the  legs. 
The  unit  is  the  crotchet,  which  is 


EURIPIDES 


3OO9 


EUROPA     POINT 


Euripides, 
Greek  dramatist 

From  a  bust 


indicated  by  a  single  step,  longer 
or  shorter  notes  being  shown  by  a 
step  with  one  foot  and  movements 
with  the  other.  The  various  exer- 
cises relate  to  rates  and  changes  of 
speed,  dynamic  expression,  synco- 
pation, phrasing,  etc.,  and  are 
made  by  both  arms  and  legs.  There 
is  a  School  of  Dalcroze  Eurhyth- 
mies in  London.  See  Dalcroze. 

Euripides  (480-406  B.C.).  Athe- 
nian tragic  dramatist.  According 
to  tradition,  he  was  born  on  the 
island  of  Sala- 
mis  on  the  day 
of  the  great 
naval  victory 
over  the  Per- 
sians. A  pupil 
of  the  famous 
sophist  Prodi  - 
cus,  he  seems 
to  have  been  at 
first  intended 
for  a  profes- 
sional athlete, 
and  secondly, 
for  a  painter, 
but  soon  took 
to  writing  for  the  stage.  In  455  B.C. 
he  exhibited  his  first  tragedy,  and 
in  441  gained  the  first  prize  for  the 
first  time.  He  was  credited  with 
over  90  plays  in  all,  of  which  18 
survive.  He  gained  the  first  prize 
only  five  times,  his  contemporaries 
apparently  regarding  him  as  in- 
ferior to  both  Aeschylus  and  So- 
phocles and  other  dramatists.  His 
vogue  increased,  however,  after 
his  death,  and  though  never  the 
favourite  of  the  critics,  he  has  been 
the  favourite  dramatist  of  many  of 
the  world's  poets,  notably  Virgil, 
Horace,  and  Milton. 

Euripides  is  undoubtedly  a 
master  in  the  handling  of  the  tender 
and  the  pathetic  ;  Aristotle  truly 
called  him  "  the  most  tragic  "  of 
the  poets.  A  reputed  misogynist, 
he  has  yet  portrayed  women  as 
fine  as  any  to  be  found  in  all 
literature.  As  a  playwright  also 
Euripides  ""stands  high  ;  there 
is  an  excitement  about  his  plots 
and  a  vividness  in  his  situations, 
although  they  sometimes  verge  on 
the  ridiculous,  which  are  lacking  in 
the  plays  of  Aeschylus  and  Sopho- 
cles. Euripides  is,  in  fact,  the  most 
human  of  the  three  dramatists, 
and  this  quality  of  humanity 


accounts     for     his    Drama;    Tragedy, 
greater    popularity    deez. 
in  subsequent  ages.        Bibliography. 
Among   the   blem- 
ishes of  his  art  may 
be    mentioned    his 
artificial   prologues 
and    his    too    fre- 
quent  use    of    the 
deus    ex     machina 


'  -.'    •  y 

or       "      .  y^^      ""•""'"^ 


Eurhythmies.      Two  attitudes  in   a  plastic   exercise 
in  the  rhythmic  method  o!  training 

(q.v.)    or    divine    intervention    in 
unravelling  a  plot. 

The  extant  plays  of  Euripides 
are  :   Alcestis,  Medea,  Hippolytus, 
Hecuba,    Andromache,    Ion,    The 
Suppliants,  Heracleidae,  The  Mad 
Heracles,    Iphigenia    among    the 
Tauri,  The  Trojan  Women,  Helen, 
The  Phoenician  Maidens,  Electra, 
Orestes,  Iphigenia  at  Aulis,  Bac- 
chae,Cyclops,  the  last  being  the  only 
extant     specimen     of     a     satyric 
drama.     The  Rhesus  is   certainly 
spurious.    Of  the  plays  perhaps  the 
best  are  Alcestis,  notable  for  its 
exquisite   delineation  of  woman's 
devotion  ;   Hippolytus,  the  tragic 
story  of  the  illicit  love  of  Phaedra, 
a    plot    used    by   Racine  in    his 
Phedre  ;    and  Bacchae,  a  brilliant 
glorification    of    the    worship    of 
Dionysus  or  Bacchus.   The  plots  of 
Euripides  were  all  drawn  from  the 
old  mythology,  yet  the  characters 
are  not  cast  in  heroic  mould,  but 
act   and   talk  like  Athenian  men 
and  women  of  his  time.     Euripides 
was  accused  by  his 
contemporaries  of 
endeavouring    t  o 
undermine  faith 
in  the  gods  and  in 
morality,  and  for 
this     supposed 
tendency,  as  well 
as  for  his  alleged 
bad  art,    he   was 
bitterly    attacked 
by    Aristophanes. 
The  last  few  years 
of    his    life    were 
spent  at  the  court 
of  King  Archelaus 
in  Macedonia, 
where    he  died, 
406B.C.  See  Greek       Europa.  The  story  of  Europa  depicted  by  Paolo  Veronese 

Li  teratUte,  Dogt't  Palace.  Venice 

X     4 


Pron.  U-ripi- 

John  McBain 
The    most    useful 
edition  of  the  text,  with  notes,  is 
that  of  F.  A.  Paley,  1857-60.    There 
is   an    excellent    verse    translation, 
with  parallel  text,  by  A.  S.  Way, 
4  vols.,  1912  ;  and  there  are  spirited 
renderings  of   individual   plays    by 
Prof.  Gilbert  Murray  ;   consult  also 
Euripides  :    an  account  of   his  Life 
and   Works,   J.   P. 
Mahaffy,  1878 ;  Eu- 
ripides the  Ration- 
alist, A.  W.  Verrall, 
1895;  Euripides 
and    His  Age,  Gil- 
bert Murray,  1913. 
Euripus     ( G  r . 
euripos).      General 
name  for  a  narrow 
channel,     specially 
applied  to  the  strait 
between  the  island 
of  Euboea  and  the 
mainland.    See 
Chalcis. 

Euroclydon(Gr. 
Euros,  east  wind ; 
klydon,  wave).  Name  given  in 
Acts  xxvii.  14,  A.V.,  to  the  gale 
which,  blowing  off  Crete,  seized  the 
ship  in  which  S.  Paul  was  wrecked 
on  the  coast  of  Malta.  The  form 
adopted  in  the  R.V.  is  Euraquilo, 
meaning  a  tempestuous  N.E.  or 
E.N.E.  wind  of  the  Mediterranean. 
Europa.  In  Greek  mythology, 
daughter  of  Agenor,  king  of  Phoe- 
nicia. While  she  was  playing  one 
day  with  her  maidens,  Zeus  ap- 
peared in  the  form  of  a  white  bull, 
and  Europa  was  induced  to  mount 
on  the  animal's  back.  The  bull 
thereupon  carried  her  off  over  the 
sea  to  Crete,  where  by  Zeus  she 
became  the  mother  of  Minos, 
Rhadamanthus,  and  Sarpedon. 

Europa  Point.  Headland  at  the 
extremity  of  the  peninsula  of  Gib- 
raltar, Spain,  just  S.E.  of  Europa 
Bay.  To  the  N.W.  is  Little  Europa 
Point  and  to  the  E.  Great  Europa 
Point.  Europa  Bay  is  a  small  cir- 
cular inlet  in  the  S.W.  coast  of  the 
peninsula  just  S.  of  Shingle  Point. 


EUROPE 


3010 


EUROPE 


EUROPE:   THE  CONTINENT  AND  ITS   HISTORY 

A.  D.  INNES.  M.A..    Author  of   A   General  Sketch  of  Political   History,  and  B.  C.  WALLIS,  B.Sc. 

This  article,  like  those  on  Africa,  Asia,  North  America,  etc.,  is  a  general  sketch  of  the  physical  and  racial 
features,  industries  and  history  of  the  continent.  In  addition  there  are  articles  on  each  of  its  countries, 
whether  old  or  new,  on  all  cities  and  toivns  of  importance,  rivers,  lakes,  and  mountain  ranges.  See  also  the 
biographies  of  Napoleon ;  Metternich  and  other  great  European  figures ;  also  articles  on  French  Revolution  : 
Reformation ;  Renaissance,  and  other  movements 


Europe  is  almost  the  smallest  of 
the  six  continents,  and  covers  about 
3f  million  sq.  m.  It  is  thus  about 
the  same  size  as  Canada  atid 
slightly  larger  than  Australia. 
Excluding  Russia,  where  two- 
fifths  of  the  continent  is  in  an  in- 
determinate political  condition, 
France  has  the  greatest  area  in 
Europe.  Spain,  Germany,  and 
Sweden  are  almost  as  large;  Nor- 
way, Rumania,  and  Italy  are  about 
the  same  size  as  the  British  Isles, 
which  has  about  three-fifths  the 
area  of  France. 

The  total  population  of  Europe 
lies  between  350  and  400  millions 
of  people,  of  whom  about  a  quarter 
live  in  Soviet  Russia.  Germany  is 
the  next  most  populous  state; 
then  the  United  Kingdom,  France, 
and  Italy.  Several  countries  have 
roughly  about  half  the  population 
of  one  or  other  of  these  four — 
Spain,  Poland,  Rumania,  Czecho 
Slovakia.  The  remaining  states 
have  less  than  10  million  in- 
habitants each. 

The  chief  factor  regarding  popu- 
lation is  not  so  much  its  absolute 
number  as  its  relative  distribution 
over  the  land.  The  people  of 
Europe  live  almost  wholly  S.  of 
the  latitude  of  Petrograd  (60°  N. ). 
Not  numerous  between  the  lati- 
tudes of  Petrograd  and  Copen- 
hagen, they  are  most  numerous  in 
a  belt  of  country,  about  200  miles 
or  less  in  width,  roughly  in  the 
latitudes  of  London,  Cologne,  and 
Cracow  (50°-52°  N.). 

Belts  of  Population 

From  Lancashire  and  the  W. 
Riding  of  Yorkshire,  through  the 
midland  counties  to  the  London 
area,  across  the  sea  through  Bel- 
gium and  S.  Holland,  through  the 
middle  of  Germany  near  Cologne, 
Leipzig,  and  Dresden,  through 
Bohemia,  Moravia,  S.  Poland 
(Galicia),  and  the  Ukraine  to  the 
valley  of  the  Don,  the  people  are 
clustered  together  in  a  belt  of 
dense  population  most  numerous 
between  Cologne,  Lille,  and  Rot- 
terdam, and  gradually  thinning  out 
eastwards.  From  this  belt  two 
projections  of  dense  population  go 
southwards — one  up  the  Rhine  val- 
ley to  Zurich  and  Bern,  the  other 
across  the  Danube  at  Vienna  to 
Graz  and  Zagreb  (Agram). 

Apart  from  this  great  populous 
area,  the  only  other  large  densely 
peopled  portions  are  the  coastal 


strip  of  Portugal  and  N.W.  Spain 
and  part  of  Italy.  In  the  latter 
peninsula,  the  plain  of  Lombardy, 
and  a  strip  of  land  on  each  flank 
of  the  Apennines  reaching  some 
distance  S.  of  Naples,  have  large 
numbers  to  the  sq.  m.  Sicily  is 
almost  equally  densely  populated. 
These  areas  with  many  people  do 
not  merge  suddenly  into  sparsely 
inhabited  tracts  except  where 
they  reach  the  mountains,  the 
Alps,  or  the  Carpathians.  The 
peninsulas  of  Jutland,  the  Balkans, 
and  Spain  (except  for  a  fringe  along 
the  N.E.  coast)  have  few  people  ; 
the  Rhdne  valley  in  France  is 
densely  peopled  alongside  the  river. 

These  facts  give  an  added  im- 
portance to  certain  of  the  small 
states.  Belgium,  Holland,  Czecho- 
slovakia, and  Poland  are  thus  in- 
trinsically greater  than  Spain, 
Sweden,  or  the  major  portion  of 
Russia,  the  'and  of  the  Great  Rus- 
sians, because-density  of  population 
implies  closer  community  of  inter- 
ests and  a  fuller  national  life. 
Anthropological  Classification 

Anthropologists  classify  people 
physically  with  reference  to  the 
shape  of  the  skull.  The  two  ex- 
tremes are  round  heads  where  the 
width  exceeds  85  p.c.,  and  long 
heads  where  the  width  is  less  than 
77  p.c.  of  the  length.  Except  in 
Portugal,  England,  and  the  areas 
near  the  Rhine,  the  districts  of 
dense  population  are  inhabited  by 
round  heads  :  the  Slavs,  Italians, 
and  South  Germans  in  these  areas 
are  round-headed.  In  Portugal 
the  people  are  long-headed.  Else- 
where in  the  densely  peopled  areas 
they  are  mixed,  approaching  on 
the  average  the  long-headed  type 

PHYSICAL  FEATURES.  From  the 
physical  point  of  view  the  conti- 
nent of  Europe  may  be  regarded 
as  a  peninsula  of  Asia,  extending 
westwards  about  one-sixth  of  he 
distance  round  the  world  from  the 
indefinite  E.  boundary  which  is 
only  approximately  marked  by 
the  Ural  Mountains.  This  penin- 
sular characteristic  enters  even 
into  the  details  of  the  continent, 
for  in  addition  to  the  great  Scan- 
dinavian peninsula  in  the  north 
and  the  smaller  peninsula  of  Jut- 
land, there  are  the  three  Mediter- 
ranean peninsulas,  the  Iberian, 
Italic,  and  Balkan  peninsulas.  The 
truly  Asiatic  character  of  Europe 
is  revealed  by  the  mountain  back- 


bone and  the  great  plain  which 
lies  between  the  backbone  and  the 
N.  seas. 

The  Alps  are  merely  the  central 
European  portion  of  a  great  Old 
World  chain  of  folded  mountains 
which  extends  from  S.  Spain  by 
way  of  the  Atlas  Mountains  in 
N.W.  Africa,  the  Apennines,  Alps, 
Balkans,  and  the  Caucasus  through 
the  Himalayas  almost  to  the 
shores  of  the  S.  China  Sea.  From 
the  French  shores  of  the  Bay  of 
Biscay  the  Great  European  plain 
stretches  E.  with  ever-increasing 
width  until  it  reaches  from  the 
Arctic  to  the  Caspian,  and  forms 
a  W.  continuation  of  the  great 
plains  of  N.  Asia. 

The  only  section  of  Europe 
which  is  not  physically  Asiatic  is 
the  N.W.,  where  the  Scandi- 
navian mountains  and  the  uplands 
of  Scotland  and  Iceland  belong  to  a 
continental  land  mass,  older  than 
the  rest  of  Europe,  which,  it  is 
conjectured,  once  joined  Scan- 
dinavia to  Greenland,  and  has 
become  submerged.  The  E.  boun- 
dary of  Europe  is  a  purely  con- 
ventional line,  the  political  fron- 
tier which  separated  Russia  in 
Europe  from  Russia  in  Asia. 

It  follows  the  Ural  Mountains 
across  the  uninhabitable  tundra, 
but  lies  well  to  the  E.  of  the  S. 
two -thirds  of  this  range  ;  in  the  S. 
it  follows  the  Ural  river  almost  to 
Orenburg,  and  then  it  lies  W.  of 
that  river  until  it  reaches  the 
Caspian.  Even  were  the  boundary 
purely  physical,  i.e.  the  Ural 
mountains  and  river,  it  would  not 
serve  any  better  than  the  present 
administrative  limit  to  separate 
the  natural  vegetation,  the  types  of 
cultivation,  or  the  peoples  of  W. 
Asia  from  E.  Europe.  The  steppes, 
the  forests,  the  nomad  Kirghiz  are 
continuous  across  the  frontier. 
The  Great  Rivers 

Beginning  with  the  Garonne, 
many  rivers  flow  across  the  Great 
European  Plain  The  chief  of  these 
are  the  Loire,  Seine,  Oder,  Vistula, 
and  the  streams  that  cross  N. 
Russia  to  the  Arctic.  The  Iberian 
streams,  Douro,  Tagus,  Guadiana, 
Guadalquivir,  and  Ebro  have 
carved  valleys  in  the  plateau.  The 
Po,  the  Vardar,  Struma,  and  Ma- 
ritza  flow  to  the  Adriatic  or  the 
Aegean,  their  course  guided  by  the 
great  chain  of  mountains.  The 
Dniester,  Dnieper,  Don,  and  Volga 


EUROPE 

(NATIONALITIES) 

English  Miles 


Europe.    Map  showing  the  main  distribution  of  the  nationalities  of  Europe, 
are  omitted. 


Scattered  peoples  such  as  the  Jews  and  Gypsies 
The  Celts  of  Scotland,  Ireland,  and  Wales  are  included  under  British,  and  those  o!  Brittany  under  French 


are  lowland  rivers  which  have 
found  their  way  to  the  Black  Sea  or 
the  Caspian  across  the  plain. 

But  the  most  important  rivers  of 
Europe  are  the  three  great  Alpine 
streams,  the  Rhone,  Rhine,  and 
Danube.  Their  sources  lie  near 
together,  but  their  mouths  are  as 
far  apart  as  they  could  well  be.  The 
Rhone  leaves  the  Alps  at  Lake 
Geneva  and  flows  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean in  the  trough  between  the 
central  massif  of  France  and  the 
W.  Alps,  the  trough  occupied  in 
the  N  by  the  Saone,  the  principal 
tributary  of  the  Rhone. 

The  Rhine  suddenly  turns  N.  at 
Basel,  and  by  a  geological  accident 
flows  through  the  gorge  between 
Bingen  and  Coblenz,  ultimately  to 
the  North  Sea.  The  Danube  flows 
along  the  N.  edge  and  round  the  E. 
end  of  the  Alps,  fed  first  by  streams 
from  the  transverse  valleys  of  the 
Central  Alps  and  later  by  streams, 
such  as  the  Drave,  from  the  longi- 
tudinal valleys  of  the  E.  Alps.  Its 
lower  course  is  along  the  N.  edge  of 
the  mountainous  Balkan  penin- 
sula ;  here  it  receives  only  one 
great  tributary,  the  Theiss,  not  of 


Alpine  origin.  Next  hi  importance 
is  the  Elbe,  which  issues  from  the 
Bohemian  plateau  to  cross  the  Ger- 
man plain  to  the  North  Sea. 

The  most  useful  rivers  are  those 
which  cross  the  plain  to  the  Chan- 
nel, the  North  and  Baltic  Seas; 
there  is  considerable  river  traffic 
on  the  Rhine  and  the  Elbe,  and  a 
fair  volume  of  traffic  on  the  Seine, 
the  Schelde,  Oder,  and  Vistula.  E. 
of  the  Rhine  there  is  some  trouble 
with  winter  ice  and  spring  floods. 
Rivers  and  Canals 

But  the  greatest  value  of  these 
streams  lies  in  their  use  in  con- 
nexion with  canal  systems,  which 
are  being  developed  hi  order  to 
join  them  all  together ;  these 
canals  have  been  made  more  or  less 
parallel  to  the  coast  and  some. 


The  lakes  of  Europe  are  not  so 
large  or  important  as  those  of 
Africa  or  N.  America.  The  largest, 
Wener,  Ladoga,  Onega,  and  the 
Finnish  lakes  are  shallow  expanses 
on  the  plains,  due  to  dams  across 
the  lower  ends  of  hollows  scraped 
in  the  rock  surface  during  the 
Great  Ice  Age  The  most  beautiful, 
those  of  the  Alps,  Como,  Maggiore, 
Lucerne,  etc.,  are  long,  narrow, 
deep  lakes  due  to  dams  across  the 
ends  of  glacier-moulded  valleys. 

The  Arctic  coast  of  Europe  is 
flat.  The  Norwegian  coast,  like  the 
W.  coast  of  Scotland,  has  a  well- 
developed  system  of  fiords,  sub- 
merged glacier-moulded  valleys. 
For  100  m.  along  the  coast  o|  the 
great  European  plain  there  is  a 
belt  of  sand  dunes,  best  known  in 


distance  inland,  so  that  eventually'    Holland,  Belgium,  and  S.W.France 


it  will  be  possible  to  send  goods  by 
barge  from  Paris  to  Bromberg 
through  a  series  of  canal  ports, 
Hanover,  Berlin,  etc.,  which  lie 
parallel  to  the  seaports  Havre, 
Antwerp,  Rotterdam,  Bremen, 
Hamburg,  Stettin,  and  Danzig, 
with  which  they  will  have  barge 
and  steamer  connexions. 


(the  Landes).  The  rocky  coast  of 
the  French  peninsulas,  the  Coten- 
tin  and  Brittany,  is  a  break  in  this 
belt.  The  N.  coast  of  Spain  drops 
sheer  from  the  mountains  to  the 
great  depths  of  the  Bay  of  Biscay. 
The  W.  Iberian  coast,  like  that  of 
S.W.  Ireland,  consists  of  drowned 
river  valleys,  known  technically  as 


J 


EUROPE 

rias.  The  Mediterranean  coasts  are 
rocky,  and  in  the  W.  are  the  edge 
of  a  fractured  area,  the  W.  Medi- 
terranean covering  a  foundered 
land  mass.  The  E.  Adriatic  coast 
is  the  edge  of  a  mountain  ridge  like 
that  of  the  Aegean  ;  the  gulfs  of 
Cattaro,  Corinth,  and  Salonica  are 
flanked  by  ridges  and  headlands. 
Europe's  Physical  Boundary 

The  Baltic  and  North  Seas,  in- 
cluding the  English  Channel,  are 
shallow,  and  are  really  water- 
covered  portions  of  the  great 
European  plain.  This  implies  that 
the  physical  boundary  of  Europe 
lies  well  W.  of  Ireland.  It  is  cus- 
tomary to  indicate  the  edge  of  the 
land,  the  limit  of  the  deep  ocean,  by 
the  100  fathom  (600  ft.)  line.  This 
line  runs  to  the  coast  in  the  Bay  of 
Biscay,  sweeps  round  the  British 
Isles,  runs  in  a  well-marked  deep 
S.  of  Norway,  and  continues  N. 
near  the  Norwegian  coast.  The 
British  archipelago  consists,  there- 
fore, of  continental  islands  with 
shores  which  shelve  gradually 
below  the  sea. 

GEOLOGY.  The  dominant  physi- 
cal features  of  Europe  mark  its 
geological  development.  N.W. 
Ireland,  N.  Scotland,  Scandinavia, 
and  Finland  are  the  oldest  parts 
of  Europe ;  they  consist  of 
Archaean  igneous  rocks,  which  are 
the  residue  of  an  ancient  continent 
once  extending  away  to  the  N.  and 
W.  Within  and  adjacent  to  these 
areas  arose  a  series  of  folded 
mountains,  consisting  of  Silurian 
rocks  with  intrusions  of  granite, 
still  to  be  seen  in  the  heights  of 
Wales,  N.W.  Ireland,  Scotland, 
Scandinavia,  and  Esthonia.  Among 
these  peaks  the  old  Red  Sandstone 
of  the  Devonian  horizon  was  laid 
down  in  the  valleys.  Carboniferous 
rocks,  magnesian  limestone,  etc., 
were  then  deposited  under  a  Car- 
boniferous sea,  or  in  the  marshes 
along  its  edge. 

At  the  next  stage  a  new  set  of 
mountain  folds  arose  ;  their  relics 
are  the  hills  of  S.W.  Ireland,  S. 
Wales,  Cornwall,  and  Brittany,  the 
Ardennes,  the  Black  Forest,  the 
Vosges,  the  plateau  of  Bohemia, 
the  Auvergne  plateau,  and  the 
Meseta  or  major  portion  of  the 
Iberian  plateau.  These  folds  be- 
long to  the  Armorican  period.  The 
next  great  incident  was  the  inva- 
sion of  the  Cretaceous  Ocean, 
which  washed  the  shores  of  the 
ancient  continent  and  of  the  islands 
which  were  the  exposed  tops  of 
Armorican  Mts.  No  land  had  yet 
appeared  to  the  S. 

In  tertiary  times,  first  the 
Pyrenees  and  later  the  Sierra 
Nevada,  N-  African  Atlas,  the 
Apennines,  Alps,  Carpathians, 
Balkans,  Crimean  and  Caucasus 


3012 

Mts.  emerge  as  crumplings  of  the 
earth's  crust.  Their  sinuous  curves 
are  due  to  the  resistance  of  the 
stable  relics  of  the  Armorican  Mts. 
During  this  epoch  most  of  the  old 
continent  sank  beneath  the  ocean, 
and  as  the  new  mountains  rose 
they  were  denuded,  and  the  pro- 
ducts of  erosion  filled  the  seas 
between  them  and  the  more  an- 
cient land.  The  new  mountains 
vary  in  the  amount  of  material 
removed  as  they  gradually  uprose  ; 
in  the  Apennines  and  Carpathians 
the  older  underlying  igneous  rocks 
are  not  laid  bare  as  they  are  in  the 
Balkans  and  the  Alps. 

While  these  great  changes  were 
taking  place  the  arrangement  of 
land  and  water  upon  the  earth  was 
greatly  modified  beyond  European 
limits.  The  N.  Atlantic  Ocean  was 
formed,  the  ancient  ocean  be- 
tween the  beginnings  of  Europe 
and  an  older  continent  to  the  S., 
now  represented  by  Africa  and 
India,  dwindled  to  form  the 
Mediterranean  ;  the  relative  level 
of  sea  to  land  was  gradually 
altered,  and  the  shallow  seas  then 
existing  have  been  gradually  filled 
in  with  alluvial  deposits  since  ter- 
tiary times.  These  shallow  seas 
were  at  least  once  disturbed  by  a 
great  ice  sheet  which  extended  from 
the  N.  as  far  S.  as  the  Thames, 
Bohemia,  and  the  Carpathians. 
Erosion  and  Glaciation 

In  its  subsequent  retreat  the  ice 
left  behind  it  quantities  of  glacial 
debris,  so  that  the  whole  of  the  great 
European  plain  from  Ostend  to 
Archangel  is  the  product  of  erosion 
from  the  southern  mountains  and 
glaciation  from  the  remains  of  the 
ancient  northern  continent.  The 
plains  of  the  Po,  Hungary,  the 
lower  Danube,  and  N.W.  of  the 
Caspian  are,  however,  solely  ero- 
sion deposits. 

CLIMATE.  Owing  to  its  penin- 
sular character  the  climate  of 
Europe  is  modified  by  the  oceanic 
conditions  which  affect  it  on  the 
W.  The  prevalent  surface  air 
currents  are  the  W.  winds,  which 
regularly  traverse  definite  cyclone 
tracks  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
and  carry  moisture  far  into 
Europe.  The  prevalent  surface 
oceanic  movements  are  the  drifts 
of  wind-driven  warm  water,  which 

rvent  the  coasts  of  W.  Europe 
of  the  North  Cape  from  being 
ice-bound  in  winter. 

In  relation  to  its  latitude,  winter 
conditions  are  abnormal.  In  Jan. 
the  temperatures  of  Scotland  are 
35°  F.  above  the  average  for  the 
latitude,  so  that  Cape  Wrath, 
which  has  a  temperature  of  40°  F., 
lies  in  a  latitude  where  the  average 
temperature  is  5°  F.,  i.e.  27  de- 
grees of  frost.  Only  in  the  extreme 


EUROPE 


E.  of  Europe,  on  the  Kirghiz  { 
steppe,  is  the  January  temperature 
colder  than  the  normal  for  the 
latitude.  From  Brittany  through 
Stettin  to  Petrograd  the  coast 
strip  is  15°  F.  above  the  normal. 
The  boundary  line,  32°  F.  isotherm, 
which  limits  the  area  frost  bound 
in  winter,  starts  at  the  North 
Cape,  goes  S.  to  Hamburg  and  the 
Alps,  and  crosses  the  Balkans  and 
the  Crimea  to  Baku.  E.  and  N.  of 
this  line  the  winter  frosts  last  from 
1  to  7  months,  the  period  length- 
ening towards  the  N.E.  of  Europe. 
These  facts  show  the  influence  of 
oceanic  conditions. 

In  summer,  temperatures  are 
normal ;  the  Arctic  circle  has  a 
temperature  of  50  °  F.,  lat.  55°  N., 
70°  F.,  while  the  coast  lands  of  the 
Mediterranean  have  three  hot 
months,  when  the  temperature 
exceeds  68°  F. 

The  rainfall  exceeds  60  ins. 
annually  on  the  highest  areas  and 
on  parts  of  the  W.  coast.  The 
Pyrenees,  Alps,  Balkans,  and 
Caucasus  include  districts  where 
the  rains  exceed  40  ins.,  but  most 
of  Europe  has  an  annual  precipi- 
tation of  between  20  and  40  ins. 
Spain,  E.  and  N.  Russia  receive 
less  than  20  ins.  In  the  Mediter- 
ranean area  most  rain  falls  during 
the  cool  season  ;  the  summers  are 
hot  and  dry.  On  the  Atlantic 
coast  rains  are  usually  heaviest 
during  late  autumn.  In  the  E.  most 
rain  falls  during  hot  weather. 

The  Mediterranean  peninsulas 
are  lands  of  clear  skies  with  a  maxi- 
mum duration  of  sunshine  in  excess 
of  2,500  hours  annually.  Scandi- 
navia is  a  cloudy  area  with  less  than 
half  as  much  sunshine.  In  Decem- 
ber Scandinavia  does  not  average  1 
hour  of  sunshine  a  day,  while  Spain 
averages  at  least  3  hours  daily. 

VEGETATIOK.  From  N.  to  S. 
the  natural  growth  occurs  in  belts 
merging  each  into  the  next.  Along 
the  Arctic  shore  the  tundra  has 
stunted  willows  and  a  few  annual 
plants  ;  to  the  S.  lies  the  forest, 
at  first  coniferous,  then  deciduous ; 
farther  S.  the  trees  give  place  to  the 
steppe  or  natural  grass  land ;  in  the 
extreme  S.  there  is  little  grass,  only 
evergreen  shrubs,  cypresses,  and 
chestnut  trees. 

Growth  of  Economic  Plants 

The  vegetation  zones  are  best 
marked  in  the  E.  In  the  W.,  Ger- 
many and  England,  for  example, 
have  had  their  natural  forest  cover 
removed  by  man  ;  there  are  no 
wide  plains  in  France  to  be  grass 
land  like  the  Hungarian  Alf  old  (q.  v. ). 
The  mountains  are  forested  on  the 
lower  slopes,  and,  if  high  enough, 
snow-capped  ;  the  plateaus  tend  to 
be  forested,  or  bare  if  there  is  in- 
sufficient soil. 


EUROPE 

The  N.  limit  of  the  growth  of 
economic  plants  illustrates  the 
effects  of  climate.  Greece,  peninsu- 
lar Italy  and  S.  Spain  are  suitable 
for  olive  trees.  The  N.  limit  of  the 
vine  is  approximately  50°  N.,  of 
wheat  60°  N.  Wheat  grows  best 
between  40°  and  50°  N.,  maize 
about  45°  N.,  rye  about  55°  N.  The 
most  characteristic  region  of  Eu- 
rope is  the  Mediterranean  area,  the 
land  of  wheat,  wine,  and  olive  oil 
as  the  staple  foodstuffs,  of  winter 
rains  and  summer  droughts,  of  lus- 
cious fruits — oranges,  lemons,  etc. 
The  W.  margin  is  the  land  of  wheat, 
meat,  and  milk,  of  autumn  down- 
pours and  muggy  warm  winters  ; 
the  N.E.  lands  are  notable  for  rye 
and  alcohol,  hard  frosty  winters 
and  hot,  dusty  summers. 

NATIONALITIES.  Politically,  Eu- 
rope is  the  most  important  portion 
of  the  Old  World.  Along  its  S.  and 
W.  margins  has  developed  a  civiliza- 
tion which  has  been  carried  to  the 
New  World  and  to  Australasia, 
while  in  modern  times  the  civiliza- 
tion of  W.Europe  tends  to  dominate 
the  world  and  to  guide  or  control 
the  younger  states  now  achieving 
nationhood. 

Branches  of  the  Slavs 

The  boundaries  of  the  new  Euro- 
pean states  coincide  fairly  com- 
pletely with  the  limits  of  the  habi- 
tation of  definite  types  of  people. 
Finland,  Esthonia,  Latvia,  and 
Lithuania  are  the  homes  of  people, 
Finns,  Esthonians  (akin  to  the 
Finns),  Letts,  and  Lithuanians, 
who  are  not  Slavs  and  are  mostly 
Protestants.  By  speech,  history, 
and  religion,  they  were  antagonistic 
to  the  Russian  Slavic  autocracy. 
Poland  is  the  land  of  the  Poles,  a 
Roman  Catholic  Slav  people  with  a 
distinct  Slav  speech,  who  main- 
tained for  many  centuries  a  king- 
dom ultimately  divided  between 
Russia,  Prussia,  and  Austria. 

Czecho-Slovakia  includes  within 
its  boundaries  Czechs,  Moravians, 
and  Slovaks,  a  Slav  people  akin  to 
the  Poles,  Roman  Catholics  as 
a  rule,  but  with  a  distinct  Slav 
tongue  and  a  separate  history, 
mainly  centred  round  the  former 
kingdom  of  Bohemia.  These  two 
branches  of  the  N.  Slavs  have 
adopted  republicanism.  The  S. 
Slavs  of  Yugo  (S.)  Slavia  include 
the  Slovenes,  Croatians,  and  Serbs. 

The  Slovenes  and  Croats  are 
Roman  Catholics  with  no  definite 
separate  history  ;  the  Serbs  belong 
to  the  Greek  Orthodox  Communion, 
and  their  kingdom  of  Serbia  was  in 
existence  before  the  Turks  invaded 
Central  Europe.  The  common 
speech  of  the  three  branches  has 
been  obscured  by  the  use  of  differ- 
ent scripts,  the  Serbs  use  Cyrillic 
and  the  others  Latin  characters  for 


3O13 

the  written  language,  but  the  unity 
of  tongue  and  of  nationality  have 
given  rise  to  the  extension  of  the 
kingdom  of  Serbia  into  the  Serb- 
Croat-Slovene  (S-C-S)  kingdom. 

The  Bulgars  are  akin  to  the  S. 
Slavs  and  their  state  was  carved  in 
1878  out  of  the  Turkish  dominions. 
The  Rumanians  are  not  Slavs, 
although  almost  completely  sur- 
rounded by  Slav  peoples. 

Hungary  is  the  land  of  the  Mag- 
yars, an  Asiatic  people  from  the 
Siberian  steppes.  Their  speech  has 
no  affinities  among  the  main  Euro- 
pean languages  ;  its  strangeness  has 
tended  to  isolate  the  Magyar  from 
the  peoples  of  W.  Europe.  This  iso- 
lation has  been  intensified  by  the 
strong  national  feeling  which  main- 
tains a  nice  distinction  between 
Magyars  and  foreigners,  and  possi- 
bly accounts  for  the  unique  govern- 
ment compromise  which  has  been 
established.  The  new  Austria  is 
almost  precisely  the  habitation  of 
the  Austrian  Germans,  all  the  non- 
Germanic  areas  of  the  old  Austria 
have  been  detached  and  the  Ger- 
manic section  of  the  old  Hungary 
has  been  added  to  the  Germanic 
nucleus  of  the  once  powerful  Aus- 
trian Empire  ;  the  new  Austrian  re- 
public is  prohibited  from  joining 
the  republican  states  of  Germany. 
Greece,  like  Rumania,  has  exten- 
ded its  boundaries  to  include  areas 
largely  inhabited  by  co-nationals. 
Denmark  and  North  Slesvig 

The  Danes  of  N.  Slesvig  are  now 
included  in  Denmark.  Of  the  other 
states  France  has  regained  the  lost 
provinces,  Alsace  and  Lorraine, 
Italy  has  gained  the  Trentino  and 
Istria,  and  Belgium  has  gained 
Malmedy,etc.,all  acquisitions  based 
upon  nationality.  The  peoples  of 
the  remaining  countries,  Portugal, 
Spain,etc.,  are  homogeneous  except 
in  Belgium  and  Switzerland.  In 
both  these  small  countries  two 
peoples,  one  Teutonic  and  the  other 
French  in  speech  and  origin,  con- 
stitute the  nation.  The  Jews  are 
scattered  in  many  lands  in  small 
numbers,  chiefly  in  the  large  cities, 
but  forming  considerable  proport- 
ions of  the  population  in  Poland, 
the  Ukraine,  Rumania,  and  in 
Hungary. 

AGRICULTURE  AND  FISHERIES. 
The  largest  portion  of  the  people 
of  Europe  work  on  the  land,  or  are 
dependants  of  farmers  and  pea- 
sants. Wherever  it  is  at  all  pos- 
sible the  land  is  cultivated,  even 
if  only  to  grow  some  crops  for 
home  use.  These  domestic  har- 
vests must  be  ignored  in  this  sum- 
mary, and  attention  paid  to  the 
cultivation  of  the  ground  as  a 
business.  Of  the  great  cereal 
crops  Europe  produces  half  the 
world's  wheat,  two-thirds  of  the 


^ EUROPE 

oats,  three-quarters  of  the  barley, 
nearly  all  the  rye,  but  only  a 
seventh  of  the  maize. 

Of  animals,  Europe  has  nearly 
half  the  world's  horses,  a  third  of 
the  sheep,  more  than  half  the  pigs, 
and  nearly  a  third  of  the  cattle. 
European  Wheat  Belt 

Within  Europe  the  wheat  belt 
is  approximately  the  N.  edge  of 
the  area  of  the  densest  population, 
and  in  the  E.  the  areas  E.  and  S. 
of  this  belt.  The  rye  belt  lies 
farther  N.,  where  it  is  colder,  the 
maize  belt  farther  S.  Oats  are 
grown  largely  between  rye  and 
wheat;  barley  is  grown  with  the 
wheat  and  to  the  S.  of  it.  W. 
Europe — i.e.  the  U.K.,  France, 
Belgium,  Holland,  and  Germany — 
may  be  compared  with  the  rest  of 
the  continent.  This  area  produces 
almost  a  third  of  the  wheat  of 
Europe,  half  the  oats,  a  third  of 
the  barley  and  rye,  and  contains 
a  third  of  the  sheep,  nearly  half 
the  horses,  three-fifths  of  the  pigs, 
and  a  third  of  the  cattle.  In 
the  colder  areas  of  poor  soil  in 
W.  Europe,  potatoes  are  produced 
in  large  quantities,  and  roots — 
swedes,  mangolds,  etc. — are  an 
important  crop  in  the  W.  where 
required  as  winter  food  for  stock. 

Europe  produces  roughly  hah* 
the  world's  sugar  from  the  sugar 
beet,  extensively  grown  in  Ger- 
many, N.E.  France,  Czecho-Slo- 
vakia, Poland,  Austria  and  Hun- 
gary. Nearly  all  the  rest  of  the 
world's  sugar  is  obtained  from 
tropical  sugar  canes. 

Flax  and  hemp  are  grown  on 
the  cold  wet  soils  of  Russia,  Ger- 
many, and  Ireland.  In  the  Medi- 
terranean area  the  products  are 
chiefly  fruits — oranges,  lemons, 
currants,  figs,  plums,  prunes  and 
olives.  The  cultivation  of  the  vine 
extends  from  the  Mediterranean  to 
lat.  50°  N.  Europe  leads  the  rest 
of  the  world  in  the  production  of 
these  fruits,  which  require  dry,  hot 
summers  and  cool,  moist  winters. 

Europe  produces  no  coffee  or 
cocoa,  only  about  one-eighth  of 
the  world's  tobacco,  and  a  small 
harvest  of  rice,  chiefly  in  Italy. 
In  addition  to  the  flax  mentioned, 
Europe  produces  a  fifth  of  the 
world's  wool  from  a  third  of  the 
world's  sheep,  no  cotton  or  jute, 
but  obtains  some  raw  silk  in 
France  and  Italy. 

Much  of  the  fishing  along  the 
coasts  is  for  local  consumption. 
The  main  fisheries  of  world-wide 
importance  are  located  in  the  North 
Sea,  and  off  the  Norwegian  coast, 
where  herring  and  cod  constitute 
the  main  catch.  The  fishing 
grounds  are  in  shallow  waters, 
where  the  sea  temperatures  are 
never  low  enough  for  freezing  nor 


EUROPE 

too  hot  for  the  fish.  In  these  waters 
large  quantities  of  fish  food  ac- 
cumulate, probably  borne  S.  from 
the  Arctic  Ocean  Although  much 
of  the  catch  is  sold  fresh,  being 
distributed  by  rail  from  the  fishing 
ports,  a  great  deal  of  it  is  salted 
or  cured  and  sent  overseas  or  to 
Mediterranean  countries. 

MINING.  About  half  the  world's 
coal  and  three-fifths  of  the  world's 
iron  ore  are  mined  in  Europe. 
The  chief  collieries  of  Europe  lie 
within  the  belt  of  dense  popula- 
tion, but  the  iron  mines  are  more 
widely  scattered,  Spain  and  Swe- 
den gaining  large  quantities  of 
iron  ore,  but  little  or  no  coal. 
Half  of  the  world's  bauxite,  the 
source  of  aluminium,  is  mined  in 
France.  Greece,  Yugo-Slavia,  and 
Russia  are  sources  of  chrome  ore. 
Over  a  tenth  of  the  world's  copper 
is  obtained  in  Germany  and  Spain 

Gold  is  mined  in  the  Ural  Mts., 
and  in  the  Perm  district  in 
Russia,  Europe  producing  an 
eighth  of  the  world's  total.  Gra- 
phite, used  for  pencils  and  as  a  lu- 
bricant, is  obtained  in  Bavaria  and 
Austria.  France  obtains  a  third  of 
the  world's  gypsum,  the  source  of 
plaster  of  Paris.  Two-fifths  of  the 
world's  lead  is  mined  in  Europe. 
Oil  Fields  and  Mineral  Products 

Europe  produces  about  a  quarter 
of  the  world's  petroleum,  of  which 
about  two-thirds  is  obtained  in  the 
Baku  district.  The  other  main  oil 
fields  are  in  Rumania  and  E.  Galicia. 

About  90  p.c.  of  the  world's  sup- 
ply of  platinum  was.  before  1914, 
obtained  from  the  Ural  Mts.  The 
Strassfurt  deposits,  Germany,  are 
the  world's  chief  source  of  potash 
salts,  valuable  fertilisers.  Half 
the  world's  mercury  is  European 
in  origin  ;  the  chief  sources  being 
Almaden  (Spain)  and  Idria  (Car- 
niola);  new  sources  are  being  tapped 
in  Italy  (Mts.  Amiata  and  San  Sal- 
vadore).  Sicily  is  responsible  for 
half  the  world's  supply  of  sulphur. 
Portugal  mines  half  the  tungsten 
ore  of  Europe,  the  industry  being 
state  controlled.  Zinc  is  mined  in 
Germany,  Belgium,  Czecho-Slova- 
kia,  Poland,  Sardinia,  and  Spain. 

MANUFACTURES  AND  TKADE. 
Parts  of  Europe  are  almost  as  pri- 
mitive in  their  industrial  outlook 
as  England  was  before  the  indus- 
trial revolution;  almost  everything 
in  use  is  of  local  or  domestic  manu- 
facture. Nearer  the  big  centres  of 
population  this  primitive  simplicity 
is  gradually  left,  and  the  opposite 
extreme  is  met  in  the  big  cities, 
where  everything  is  bought,  and 
nothing*,  made  at  home.  In 
every  country  domestic  industries 
abound,  and  in  some,  domestic  pro- 
ducts enter  slightly  into  general 
trade.  The  present  outline  of 


3014 

European  industrial  activities  must 
be  limited  to  the  great  industries, 
and  must  assume  reconstruction 
of  industry  on  the  same  lines  and 
scale  as  it  existed  in  1914. 

The  belt  of  dense  population  is 
due  partly  to  the  fertility  of  the 
soil,  but  especially  to  the  presence 
of  coal  and  iron,  and  the  conse- 
quent development  of  ironworks 
and  textile  factories.  On  the  main- 
land the  industrial  area  begins  in 
N.E.  France  with  the  textiles  of 
Rouen,  Lille,  Roubaix,  passes 
through  Belgium  with  the  factory 
towns  centring  on  Liege,  and  on 
to  the  Rhine  district  near  the  iron- 
works at  Essen,  the  textiles  of 
Crefeld,  Barmen,  and  Elberfeld. 
Hardware  and  Textile  Industries 

The  central  group  of  factories 
include  those  of  Saxony  (Chem- 
nitz), Silesia  (Breslau),  Czecho- 
slovakia, near  the  mountainous 
rim  in  many  small  towns,  and  Po- 
land, near  Lodz.  Farther  E.  in  the 
Moscow  district,  near  the  Oka 
coalfield,  hardware  and  textiles 
are  made.  The  southward  exten- 
sion of  the  crowded  Rhine  popula- 
tion is  intimately  related  to  the 
collieries,  iron  mines,  steel  works, 
and  textile  factories  of  Alsace  and 
Lorraine.  This  extension  continues 
even  into  N  Switzerland,  for  the 
absence  of  coal  is  balanced  by 
abundance  of  water  power,  and 
Zurich  is  noted  for  textiles.  The 
southward  extension  past  Vienna 
is  dependent  in  part  upon  the  de- 
velopment of  textile  industry  in 
Moravia,  and  in  part  upon  the 
iron  and  steel  works  of  Austria. 

The  isolated  areas  of  dense  popu- 
lation resemble  the  main  belt. 
In  Lombardy  the  soil  is  fertile, 
water  power  is  used  as  well  as  im- 
ported coal  and  timber,  and  there 
is  a  textile  industry  round  Milan. 
In  N.E.  Spain  the  textiles  of  the 
Barcelona  district  depend  upon 
sea-borne  coal.  In  the  Rhone 
valley  the  factories  of  the  Lyons 
neighbourhood  obtain  coal  from 
a  small  local  coalfield.  It  thus  ap- 
pears that  W.  Europe  in  particular 
is  a  great  manufacturing  district, 
and  that  the  main  factor  in  the 
localisation  of  the  industrial  towns 
was  the  circumstance  that,  in  the 
dim  geological  past,  carboniferous 
deposits  were  laid  down  in  the 
swamps  that  fringed  the  island 
relics  of  the  Armorican  mountains. 

On  the  continent  there  is  no 
such  distinct  separation  of  cotton, 
woollen,  and  linen  districts  as  ex- 
ists in  Britain  ;  all  the  cotton  fac- 
tories work  under  the  climatic  dis- 
advantage of  a  drier  atmosphere 
than  prevails  in  S.E.  Lancashire, 
and  are  unable  to  specialise  in  fine 
counts  of  cotton.  Only  the  silk 
mills  of  S.  France,  Italy,  and  Swit- 


EUROPE 

zerland  are  separate ;  this  is  due  in 
part  to  the  localisation  of  seri- 
culture to  the  Mediterranean  lands. 

The  elementary  fact  behind  the 
trade  of  Europe  is  that  she  requires 
foodstuffs  for  the  people  and  raw 
materials  for  the  factories.  Food 
and  cotton  must  be  paid  for  with 
factory  products.  But  the  factories 
cannot  all  produce  the  same  type 
of  goods  equally  cheaply  ;  conse- 
quently some  specialise,  others 
produce  only  half  manufactured 
articles,  others  become  noted  for 
articles  of  luxury.  At  the  same  time 
Europe  is  so  large  that  the  products 
of  the  E.  and  W.,  of  N.  and  S., 
differ  considerably ;  so  Russian 
wheat  is  sent  to  England,  Lyons 
silk  is  sold  in  Petrograd,  and  Man- 
chester goods  are  bargained  over 
at  Nijni  Novgorod.  Russia,  Hun- 
gary, and  Rumania  send  wheat, 
oats,  barley,  and  rye  to  Britain, 
Germany,  Belgium,  Denmark,  and 
Holland  ;  France,  when  her  harvest 
is  poor,  imports  wheat.  British 
coal  goes  to  Italy,  Spain,  and  the 
Baltic  ports.  German  chemicals, 
Austrian  glass,  Danish  butter, 
Dutch  cheese,  and  Greek  currants 
are  sent  away  in  considerable 
quantities.  The  products  of  the 
fisheries  of  the  North  Sea  find  their 
readiest  market  in  Spain  and  Italy. 
Imports  from  Overseas 

Raw  silk,  tea,  and  rice  reach 
Europe  from  India,  China,  Japan, 
etc.  Coffee  from  Brazil  and  cocoa 
from  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  meat, 
wool,  and  wheat  from  Argentina, 
reach  W.  Europe  from  the  S.  At- 
lantic. The  U.S.A.  sends  wheat, 
meat,  tinned  goods,  iron  and  steel 
goods  machinery,  and  motor-cars 
across  the  N.  Atlantic.  Australasia 
supplies  wool  and  mutton,  butter 
and  fruits,  chiefly  through  the  Suez 
Canal.  W.  Europe  sends  away  cot- 
tons, woollens,  silks,  hardware,  and 
leather  goods  in  exchange,  usually 
to  the  respective  colonies  estab- 
lished by  the  European  states. 

COMMUNICATIONS.  The  ordinary 
railway  map  fails  to  represent  the 
railway  system  correctly,  not  dif- 
ferentiating between  single  and 
double  track  lines,  frequently  not 
indicating  narrow  gauge  lines, 
rarely  showing  the  lines  used  for 
slow  or  express  traffic,  or  the  fre- 
quency of  the  service.  In  general 
there  are  no  double  tracks  E.  and 
S.  of  a  line  from  Trieste  to  Moscow, 
or  in  S  Italy  or  Spain.  Narrow 
gauge  lines  are  used  for  moun- 
tainous areas  or  in  Balkan  lands 
for  branches  which  end  "  in  the 
air."  Express  traffic  lines  are  rare 
except  for  the  connexions  between 
the  great  cities,  and  the  frequency 
of  the  trains  decreases  away  from 
the  Great  European  Plain  to  the 
E.,  S.E.,  or  S. 


EUROPE 

Paris,  Berlin,  and  Vienna  are 
the  great  rly.  junctions.  Cologne, 
Dijon,  Munich,  Milan,  Warsaw, 
Budapest,  and  Moscow  are  junc- 
tions of  less  importance.  The  Alps 
and  Carpathians  interfere  with 
rly.  traffic,  as  a  glance  on  the 
rly.  map  shows,  though  each  range 
is  traversed  by  passes  or  bored  by 
tunnels  The  Pyrenees  are  circum- 
vented by  the  E.  and  W.  routes  and 
the  straits  of  the  Danish  archi- 
pelago are  crossed  by  train  ferries. 
The  great  rivers  control  rly.  de- 
velopment as  definitely  as  the 
mountains,  for  either  the  streams 
themselves  or  their  flood  plains  are 
too  wide  to  be  crossed  by  many 
bridges,  so  that  the  Rhine,  Danube, 
and  Rhone  have  rlys.  on  either 
bank  and  connexion  from  one  line 
to  the  other  must  be  most  often 
made  by  ferry. 

The  rivers  of  the  plains  are  used 
for  barge  and  steamer  traffic.  Most 
have  been  canalised,  e  g.  the  Rhine, 
Seine,  Elbe,  Oder,  Danube.  Where 
the  river  is  unregulated  traffic  is 
interfered  with  by  the  spring  floods. 
The  E.  rivers,  Volga,  Dnieper,  Don, 
are  frozen  for  months  ;  the  Central 
European  streams  are  made  dan- 
gerous by  drifting  ice,  ice  harbours 
being  necessary  on  the  Rhine. 
From  Paris  to  the  Vistula  the 
Great  European  Plain  has  many 
canals  connecting  the  fluvial  water- 
ways ;  Antwerp  is  an  outport  for 
Germany,  as  much  merchanise  un- 
loaded at  the  seaport  is  distributed 
by  the  canals  radiating  thence. 

These  waterways  link  up  the 
canalised  rivers,  and  facilitate  the 
distribution  of  goods  from  the 
seaports  at  the  river  mouths  It 
was  a  German  dream  to  improve 
the  canals  so  that  large  vessels 
could  traverse  Europe  from  the 
North  Sea  to  the  Black  Sea,  either 
by  the  Rhine-Danube  or  the  Elbe- 
Danube  routes  ;  this  ideal  was  con- 
nected with  the  use  of  the  Kiel  ship 
canal  to  help  Hamburg  to  dominate 
the  Baltic  Sea  commercially. 

SEAPORTS.  Owing  to  the  in- 
creasing size  of  modern  ships,  the 
tendency  is  to  concentrate  the 
ocean  traffic  of  each  country  upon 
one  or  two  great  ports.  In  Britain, 
London  and  Liverpool  far  outstrip 
any  other  seaport ;  Marseilles  and 
Havre,  Antwerp,  Rotterdam,  and 
Hamburg  are  pre-eminent  in  their 
respective  countries  The  chief  Bal- 
tic ports  are  Petrograd,  Stockholm, 
Riga,  Konigsberg,  Danzig,  Stettin, 
Kiel,  and  Copenhagen.  The  chief 
Black  Sea  ports  are  Odessa,  Varna, 
Constantsa,  and  Galatz,  on  the  Dan- 
ube; Constantinople,  the  Piraeus, 
(Athens),  and  Salonica  are  the  great 
ports  of  the  S  E.  In  the  Adriatic 
Sea,  Venice,  Trieste,  and  Fiume  are 
the  main  ports,  while  Brindisi  is  a 


3015 

packet  station.  In  the  W.  Mediter- 
ranean Naples,  Genoa,  and  Barce- 
lona are  the  chief  ports.  Cadiz, 
Lisbon,  and  Bordeaux  lie  on  the 
Atlantic  ;  Dunkirk,  Amsterdam, 
and  Bremen  on  the  North  Sea. 

B.  C.  Wallis 

Bibliography.  Prehistoric  Europe, 
J.  Geikie,  1881  ;  Europe,  G.  G.  Chis- 
holm,  2  vols.,  1899  and  1902  (in 
Stanford's  Compendium  of  Geo- 
graphy and  Travel) ;  The  Mediter- 
ranean Race  :  A  Study  of  the  Origin 
of  European  Peoples,  G.  Sergi,  1901  ; 
Regions  of  the  World,  ed.  H.  J. 
Mackinder,  1902-5  ;  Historical  Geo- 
graphy of  Europe,  E.  A.  Freeman, 
3rd  ed.  1903 ;  The  Face  of  the 
Earth,  E.  Suess,  Eng.  trans.  H .  B.  C. 
Sollars,  1904,  etc.  ;  The  Anthropolo- 
gical History  of  Europe,  J.  Beddoe, 
1912  ;  The  Expansion  of  Europe,  R. 
Muir,  1917  ;  Present-Day  Europe  : 
Its  Natural  State  of  Mind,  T.  L. 
Stoddard,  1917  ;  The  Statesman's 
Year  Book,  publ.  annually. 

HISTORY.  The  continent  of 
Europe  with  its  present  contours 
emerged  after  the  last  ice  age,  pro- 
bably not  less  than  20,000  years 
ago.  For  untold  ages  before,  the 
greater  part  of  ithadbeensubjected 
to  Arctic  or  tropical  conditions  of 
varying  intensity,  so  that  geologists 
divide  the  whole  period  into  a  suc- 
cession of  ice  ages  with  non- Arctic 
intervals  between  them.  Man  had 
existed  before  the  last  ice  age.  but 
the  new  Europe  was  repopulated, 
not  by  the  descendants  of  the 
"drift"  men,  but  by  men  who,  mov- 
ing from  warmer  regions,  made  their 
way  across  it  as  the  ice  receded 
In  the  course  of  some  thousands  of 
years  tribes  coming  either  from  the 
East  or  out  of  Africa  had  spread 
thinly  over  the  habitable  area 
settling  in  communities,  acquiring 
to  a  limited  degree  the  arts  of 
agriculture,  and  developing  the 
use  of  tools  and  utensils. 
Aryan  Immigrations 

Somewhere  about  3000  B.C. 
began  the  migration  of  the  Aryan 
races  from  a  centre  somewhere  in 
Asia  or  in  Russia.  The  presump- 
tion is  that  they  were  races  har- 
dened by  life  in  northern  and  com- 
paratively unproductive  regions, 
and  wherever  they  moved  they 
went  as  conquerors,  but  rarely  as 
exterminators.  The  evidence  of 
their  kinship  is  to  be  found  in  the 
evidently  common  origin  of  their 
languages  and  the  common  charac- 
teristics in  bone  and  skull  struc- 
ture, as  witnessed  by  their  burying 
grounds.  Those  who  spread  over 
Europe  are  commonly  divided  into 
four  main  groups,  Celtic,  Greco- 
Italian,  Teutonic,  and  Slavonic 

The  first  made  straight  across 
Europe  to  the  W.,  dominating, 
though  not  exterminating,  the 
earlier  inhabitants  of  modern 
France  Spain,  and  the  British 


EUROPE 

Isles.  The  second  pushed  S. 
towards  the  Mediterranean,  and 
by  1000  B.C.  were  masters  of  the 
Balkan  and,  less  completely,  of  the 
Italian  peninsulas.  The  Teutons, 
moving  later  than  Celts  and  S. 
Aryans,  gradually  occupied  Scandi- 
navia and  modern  Germany,  and 
first  came  into  contact  with  the 
Roman  Empire  when  it  was  almost 
supreme  over  the  whole  area  W.  of 
the  Rhine  and  S.  of  the  Danube  at 
the  close  of  the  2nd  century  B.C. 
The  movement  of  the  Slavonic 
group  came  still  later  A  group  of 
Aryans,  less  advanced  than  the 
Greeks  and  Italians,  had  long  been 
in  occupation  of  Austro-Hungary 
and  Rumania  and  the  mountain 
regions  E.  of  the  Adriatic,  but 
whether  they  were  nearer  akin  to 
the  Greeks  and  Italians  or  to  the 
Slavs  is  uncertain. 

Aegean  and  Greek  Civilization 

Recorded  European  history  be- 
gins somewhere  after  2000  B.C. 
with  pre-Aryan  races  who  domi- 
nated the  islands  and  coasts  of  the 
Aegean  Sea,  and  developed  an 
advanced  civilization  to  which  the 
modern  excavations  principally  in 
Crete  and  at  Mycenae  bear  witness. 
Between  1500-1000  B.C.  the  Hel- 
lenic Aryans  mastered  all  the  S. 
portion  of  the  Balkan  peninsula, 
the  islands  of  the  Aegean,  and  the 
W  coasts — though  only  the  coasts 
— of  Asia  Minor  Greek  political 
organization  developed  rapidly  in 
the  form  known  as  the  city  state. 
The  system  was  fostered  by  geo- 
graphical conditions.  Hellas,  the 
area  under  Greek  occupation,  did 
not  form  a  political  unity,  but  was 
broken  up  into  a  large  number  of 
small  communities,  often  hostile  to 
each  other, though  sharing  a  sense  of 
common  race  and  tradition. 

Maritime  and  commercial  deve- 
lopment followed  naturally,  as 
there  was  easy  communication  by 
sea  with  earlier  civilizations  and 
state  systems  of  W.  Asia  and 
Egypt.  Between  1000-500  B.C.  a 
high  political  organization  was  at- 
tained by  many  city  states,together 
with  a  remarkable  intellectual  and 
artistic  activity.  The  Greeks  were 
so  far  in  advance  of  the  rest  of  the 
world  that  it  has  been  said  that 
"nothing  moves  in  the  world  which 
is  not  Greek  in  origin."  The  state- 
ment is  not  strictly  true.  Moving 
forces,  notably  Christianity,  have 
come  out  of  the  East;  Celts,  Romans, 
and  Teutons  have  all  made  contri- 
butions ;  but  the  truth  remains 
that  the  most  active  forces  of 
progress  had  developed  so  far 
with  the  Greeks  before  the  other 
westerns  came  in  contact  with 
them,  that  their  more  rapid  ad- 
vance was  the  direct  outcome  of 
the  assimilation  of  Greek  ideas 


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Later  than  the  Greeks  in  the 
Balkan  peninsula,  and  developing 
more  slowly,  the  Latin  or  Italian 
branch  of  the  same  or  of  a  kindred 
stock  found  its  way  through  the 
passes  hi  N.  Italy,  crossed  the 
Lombard  plain,  and  pushed  S., 
breaking  across  the  Apennines  into 
the  W.  plains.  There  they  fought 
with  the  earlier  inhabitants,  not- 
ably the  Etruscans,  supposed  by 
some  authorities  to  have  been  of 
the  same  race  as  the  makers  of  the 
Cretan  civilization.  On  the  W.  of 
the  Apennines  they,  like  the 
Greeks,  developed  politically  on 
the  city  state  system,  the  Latin 
states  warring  with  each  other,  but 
uniting  against  the  Etruscans  on 
the  N.,  and  the  new  tribes  of  their 
own  kinsfolk,  Sabellians  or  Sam- 
nites,  who  followed  them.  Greeks 
and  Italians  alike  seem  to  have 
passed  through  a  stage  when  each 
state  had  an  hereditary  monarch 
to  a  stage  when  the  monarchy  was 
absorbed  by  an  aristocracy,  dis- 
placed in  its  turn  by  a  military 
despotism  or  tyranny. 

The  Rise  of  Rome 

The  primacy  among  the  Latin 
states,  whose  league  stretched  S. 
from  the  Tiber,  was  won  towards 
the  end  of  the  6th  century  B.C.  by 
the  Romans,  whose  city,  Rome, 
founded  according  to  tradition  in 
753  B.C.,  was  the  barrier  fortress 
holding  the  Tiber  between  Etrus- 
cans and  Latins. 

The  next  200  years  formed  the 
most  brilliant  period  in  Greek 
history,  in  which  first  the  Hel- 
lenes stemmed  the  westward 
pressure  of  the  Asiatic  powers,  then 
carried  their  own  political,  literary, 
and  artistic  development  to  its 
highest  point,  and  finally,  led  by 
Alexander  the  Great,  shattered  the 
great  empire  of  Persia.  The  passion 
of  each  state  for  individual  inde- 
pendence and  their  mutual  jeal- 
ousies prevented  the  Greeks  from 
building  up  a  common  national 
structure.  Neither  Athens  nor 
Sparta  succeeded  in  establishing 
her  own  supremacy  over  the  rest 
of  the  states ;  Macedon  at  last  won 
the  leadership  about  340  B.C.,  but 
failed  to  create  a  united  empire. 

Meanwhile  Rome,  after  a  severe 
struggle,  broke  up  the  Etruscan 
power,  which  received  its  coup  de 
grace  at  the  hands  of  Celtic  in- 
vaders from  the  N.,  who  pene- 
trated as  far  as  Rome  (394  B.C.), 
but  then  rolled  back  beyond  the 
Apennines  to  the  plain  of  the  Po. 
It  would  appear  that  long  after 
the  first  Celtic  migration,  which 
had  passed  Italy  by,  a  second 
great  Celtic  flood  poured  across 
Europe  till  it  collided  with  its  own 
Celtic  predecessors.  The  result 
was  that  the  S.  wing,  being  beaten 


back,  forced  its  way  into  Italy  and 
occupied  the  N.  plain. 

The  Romans  blocked  the  Celtic 
invasion  of  Italy,  and,  freed  from 
the  severe  Etruscan  pressure  on  the 
N.,  gradually  came  to  dominate  the 
Latin  states  and  the  kindred 
tribes,  first  known  as  Sabines  and 
then  as  Samnites,  who  were 
pushed  down  on  the  E.  and  S., 
after  the  Latin  occupation  of  the 
lands  W.  of  the  Apennines.  Rome, 
compelled  by  her  position  to  main- 
tain a  political  organization  adap- 
ted to  military  needs,  won  in  Italy 
an  undisputed  ascendancy  over 
her  rivals. 

Meanwhile  Hellas  had  attained 
the  high-water  mark  of  her  pro- 
gress with  Alexander  the  Great, 
whose  death  in  323  B.C.  left  his  un- 
completed empire  to  a  century  of 
disintegration.  That  same  century, 
300-200  B.C.,  saw  the  great  struggle 
between  Rome  and  the  Semitic 
power  of  Carthage,  which  had  estab- 
lished itself  in  N.  Africa,  to  some 
degree  in  Sicily,  and  in  Spain. 
Carthage  was  not  decisively  crushed 
until  202  B.  c.  Italy  had  supported 
Rome  in  the  momentous  conflict ; 
the  result  of  which  was  that  not 
only  was  her  ascendancy  over- 
whelmingly confirmed  in  Italy,  but 
her  sway  was  also  established  in 
the  Spanish  peninsula,  with  its 
mixed  population  of  Celts  and  pre- 
Celtic  Iberians. 

Roman  Power  Expands 

During  the  next  170  years  (200- 
30  B.C.  )  the  dominion  of  the  Roman 
republic  expanded.  The  conquests 
of  Julius  Caesar  in  Gaul  (58-50  B.C.  ) 
completed  the  subjection  of  all 
Europe  W.  of  the  Rhine  and  S.  of 
the  Danube,  including  the  whole 
Celtic  or  partly  Celtic  area,  except 
Britain,  of  which  the  part  now 
called  England  was  absorbed  100 
years  later.  But  all  along  the 
Rhine  and  the  Upper  Danube,  the 
Teutons  were  now  pressing  upon 
the  Roman  frontier.  The  system 
which  had  built  up  the  might  of 
the  Roman  republic  was  not 
adapted  to  the  administration  of 
so  heterogeneous  an  empire.  Con- 
centration of  control  was  a  neces- 
sity. Caesar  gathered  into  his  own 
hands  the  powers  which  enabled 
his  genius  to  shape  an  imperial 
system  under  a  single  control. 

For  400  years  and  more,  the 
civilized  world  meant  the  Roman 
empire,  which  covered  much  of  Eu- 
rope and  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa. 
On  its  borders  there  was  incessant 
war  ;  within  it  reigned  the  Roman 
Peace,  save  when  the  death  of  an 
emperor  afforded  a  commander  in 
some  distant  province  the  chance 
of  snatching  at  the  imperial  purple. 

W.  of  the  Adriatic  and  the 
Rhine,  the  peoples  of  the  continent 


became  thoroughly  Latinised  in 
language  and  political  ideas,though 
across  the  Channel  Latinism  was 
little  more  than  a  superficial  veneer 
which  touched  not  at  all  either 
Celtic  Ireland  or  the  Celtic  north 
of  the  island  of  Britain.  In  the 
Balkan  peninsula,  Hellenism  held 
its  own  against  Latinism  except  in 
the  one  trans-Danubian  province 
of  the  empire,  Dacia,  the  modern 
Rumania,  planted  with  military 
colonies  from  Italy. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  3rd  cen- 
tury A.D.  Teutonic  hordes  were 
surging  against  the  Roman  barrier, 
pressing  now  southward  as  well  as 
westward  upon  the  middle  and 
lower  Danube.  At  the  close  of  the 
3rd  century  the  imperial  system 
was  reorganized  by  Diocletian,  and 
a  few  years  later  by  Constantine, 
who  transferred  the  headquarters 
of  the  empire  in  324  from  Rome  to 
Byzantium,  which  he  renamed 
Constantinople.  At  the  same  time, 
after  three  centuries  of  repression 
and  persecution,  Christianity  be- 
came the  popular  religion  under 
the  imperial  sanction,  and  the 
ecclesiastical  organization  of  the 
Church  was  officially  recognized. 
One  result  of  this  was  that  Rome 
acquired  the  religious  primacy  of 
Christendom  when  her  political 
primacy  was  lost. 

Barbarian  Irruptions 

With  the  beginning  of  the  6th 
century,  when  the  empire  was 
parted  into  E.  and  W.  under  the 
two  sons  of  Theodosius,  the  flood- 
gates of  the  imperial  frontiers 
burst,  and  the  Teutons  swept  over 
the  barrier.  The  Visigoths  burst 
into  Italy  under  Alaric,  and  moved 
W.  into  S.  Gaul  and  Spain,  whither 
they  had  been  preceded  by  Vandals 
and  Sueves.  Behind  the  Goths 
came  a  more  terrible  conqueror, 
Attila  and  his  Huns,  not  Teutons, 
but  Tartar  hordes  who  for  two 
generations  had  been  moving  across 
S.  Russia  from  Central  Asia.  The 
Goths  in  the  W.  had  chosen  to  pro- 
fess allegiance  to  the  empire  ;  they 
helped  the  imperial  armies  to  turn 
back  the  Huns  at  the  battle  of 
Chalons,  451. 

The  dispersal  of  the  Huns  made 
way  for  fresh  Teutonic  irruptions. 
The  Ostrogoths,  after  overrunning 
much  of  the  Balkan  peninsula, 
turned  W.  and  established  a  new 
Gothic  dominion  in  Italy  under 
Theodoric,  who  called  himself  a 
lieutenant  of  the  single  emperor 
now  reigning  at  Constantinople. 
Then  at  the  beginning  of  the  6th 
century  the  Teutonic  Franks  swept 
over  the  Rhine  and  made  them- 
selves masters  of  the  land  which 
still  bears  their  name,  though  the 
Franks  themselves  never  com- 
pletely Teutonised  the  country, 


EUROPE 

which  remained  persistently  Latin. 
At  the  same  time  the  native  cus- 
toms of  the  Franks  in  France,  as  of 
the  Goths  in  Spain,  fusing  with  the 
established  Latin  system,  produced 
the  social  and  political  system 
known  as  feudalism.  Other  Teu- 
tonic tribes  followed  ;  Burgundians 
into  the  Rhone  valley,  and  Lango- 
bards  into  the  Lombard  plain.  The 
latter  established  their  lordship 
over  most  of  Italy,  the  Ostrogoths 
having  been  extirpated  by  the 
generals  of  Justinian,  whose  suc- 
cessors failed  to  retain  the  domina- 
tion of  the  E.  over  the  W.  But  no- 
where did  the  Teutons  effectually 
Teutonise  populations  already 
Latinised.  Italy,  France,  and  Spain 
remained  essentially  Latin,  though 
Latinism  hardly  expanded  E.  of  the 
Rhine  or  N.  of  the  Danube. 

With  the  rise  of  Mahomedan- 
ism  in  the  7th  century,  Europe  was 
once  more  threatened  with  Orient- 
alism. Early  in  the  8th  century 
the  Moors  invaded  Spain  and  drove 
the  Christians  into  its  N.  corners. 
But  when  they  flooded  over  the 
Pyrenees,  their  armies  were  shat- 
tered by  Charles  Martel  at  the 
battle  of  Tours  or  Poitiers,  732,  and 
the  tide  was  rolled  back  for  ever 
behind  the  Pyrenees,  though 
Saracen  sea-rovers  established  a 
footing  in  Sicily.  In  the  E.  the 
Mahomedan  onslaught  had  been 
hurled  back  14  years  before  by  the 
emperor  Leo  the  Isaurian  under 
the  walls  of  Constantinople.  Ex- 
cept in  the  S.  of  Italy  all  sem- 
blance of  control  by  the  emperor 
at  Constantinople  vanished  from 
W.  Europe. 

The  Empire  of  Charlemagne 

Charlemagne  now  revived  the 
W.  Empire.  He  crossetl  the  Pyre- 
nees and  drove  the  Moors  S.  of  the 
Ebro.  He  completed  his  father's 
work  of  crushing  the  Lombards 
in  Italy.  His  armies  smote  the 
heathen  Saxons  in  the  N.  and  the 
Bavarians  in  the  S.,  and  compelled 
them  to  adopt  Christianity  ;  still 
pushing  E.,  they  shattered  the 
Mongolian  kingdom  of  the  Avars  in 
Hungary.  At  the  instance  of  the 
pope,  Charles  was  crowned  emperor 
in  Rome  on  Christmas  Day,  800. 
When  he  died  in  814,  the  Elbe  and 
the  Adriatic  were  approximately 
the  E.  boundaries  of  the  new  Holy 
Roman  Empire  which  he  had 
created.  The  Danube  still  re- 
mained in  effect  the  N.  boundary  of 
the  Byzantine  empire. 

Under  the  grandsons  of  Charle- 
magne his  empire  parted  into  three 
domains,  the  W.,  which  shaped  it- 
self into  the  kingdom  of  France,  the 
E.,  which  was  German,  and  the  in- 
termediate, "  middle,"  or  Burgun- 
dian,  which  stretched  from  the 
North  Sea  to  the  Gulf  of  Lyons,  and 


3017 

included  most  of  Italy,  the  S.  of 
which,  however,  still  belonged  to 
the  E.  Empire.  The  crown  of  the 
Holy  Roman  Empire  generally 
went  with  the  E.  or  German  king- 
dom. Burgundy  broke  up,  part 
going  with  France  and  part  with 
Germany,  but  never  with  a  definite 
bond,  while  Italy  became  a  con- 
geries of  dukedoms  and  counties 
over  which  the  emperor  on  the 
other  side  of  the  Alps  could  exer- 
cise little  authority.  When  the 
house  of  Charlemagne  died  out  in 
Germany,  the  crown  of  the  German 
kingdom,  of  the  Holy  Roman  Em- 
pire, passed  by  election  to  the 
dukes  of  Saxony.  The  first,  Henry 
the  Fowler,  was  never  crowned 
emperor  ;  but  he  and  his  son,  Otto 
the  Great,  stemmed  the  onrush  of 
the  third  Mongolian  horde  which 
occupied  Hungary,  the  Magyars, 
who  nevertheless  retained  perma- 
nent possession  of  that  tract. 
The  Middle  Ages 

The  close  of  the  10th  century, 
then,  is  the  era  of  transition  from 
the  chaos  of  the  earlier  Middle 
Ages  to  what  is  generally  more  dis- 
tinctively meant  by  the  medieval 
period.  During  the  9th  and  10th 
centuries  the  sea-rovers  from  Scan- 
dinavia had  planted  their  colonies 
of  Danes  or  Northmen  in  theBritish 
Isles  and  in  the  N.  of  France,  and 
had  shaped  their  own  kingdoms  in 
Norway,  Denmark,  and  Sweden. 
In  the  5th  and  6th  centuries  the 
Teutonic  English  had  conquered 
more  than  hall  the  island  of  Britain, 
and  in  the  10th  century  England 
had  become  a  fairly  consolidated 
state. 

France  was  on  the  way  to  con- 
solidation under  the  house  of 
Capet,  which  had  displaced  that  of 
Charlemagne,  but  as  yet  the  king  of 
France  was  little  more  than  a  pre- 
mier baron  amongst  many,  some  of 
whom  ruled  wider  domains  than  the 
king  himself.  Spain  was  still 
mostly  under  the  Saracen  sway, 
though  the  Christian  princes  were 
soon  to  emerge  from  their  northern 
fastnesses  to  win  it  back,  estab- 
lishing the  kingdoms  of  Castile 
and  Leon,  Portugal,  Aragon,  and 
Navarre. 

In  the  Spanish  kingdoms,  as 
in  France,  the  king  was  hardly 
more  than  a  premier  baron.  Cen- 
tral Europe  regarded  the  German 
king  as  its  head,  though  scarcely 
as  its  ruler,  while  to  W.  Christen- 
dom, in  his  character  of  emperor, 
he  represented  the  idea  of  Christen- 
dom as  a  unity.  The  popes,  as 
spiritual  heads  of  Christendom, 
now  began  gradually  to  claim  an 
authority  higher  than  that  of  any 
lay  potentate.  Outside  the  empire 
on  the  E.  the  Slavs  were  establish- 
ing the  Polish  and  Bohemian  king- 


EUROPE 

doms,  and  had  already  given  half 
the  Balkan  peninsula  and  the  whole 
Danube  basin  a  Slavonic  character, 
though  they  owned  the  supremacy 
of  the  emperor  at  Byzantium.  The 
latter,  with  his  hardly  held  domin- 
ion in  Asia,  barred  the  door  into  E. 
Europe  against  the  Mahomedans. 

The  new  age  was  the  age  of 
feudalism,  which  before  the  end  of 
the  llth  century  had  established 
itself  everywhere.  Theoretically ,the 
king  owned  every  inch  of  soil  in  his 
kingdom.  He  had  granted  great 
tracts  or  small  to  his  servants  on 
condition  of  military  service.  They 
in  turn  had  granted  portions  upon 
like  conditions,  while  every  one 
had  settled  husbandmen  upon  the 
soil,  allowing  them  patches  on  con- 
dition of  agricultural  and  other 
services  to  the  lord. 

But  outside  England,  the  tenant 
generally  owed  his  services  to  his 
immediate  lord  and  was  bound  to 
fight  for  him  against  anyone  else, 
even  the  king.  Hence  if  one  of  the 
king's  men  or  barons  accumulated 
enough  territory,  he  had  at  his 
back  an  army  of  tenants  with  which 
he  could  levy  war  against  the  king. 
The  royal  authority  depended  upon 
the  loyalty  to  the  king  of  a  propor- 
tion of  the  baronage.  Thus  the 
French  dynasty  and  each  German 
dynasty  tried  to  expand  the  crown 
estates  at  the  expense  of  the  great 
barons.  In  France  the  counts  of 
Anjou  acquired  by  marriage  the 
dukedoms  of  Normandy  and  Aqui- 
taine  as  well  as  the  independent 
kingdom  of  England.  Essentially 
the  Hundred  Years'  War  between 
England  and  France  in  the  14th 
and  15th  centuries  was  a  struggle 
between  the  crown  and  the  duke  of 
Aquitaine,  who  happened  also  to 
be  king  of  England.  The  final  vic- 
tory of  the  French  crown,  and  its 
absorption  of  the  duke's  dominions, 
cleared  the  way  for  the  final  estab- 
lishment of  an  absolute  monarchy 
in  France. 

Pope  and  Emperor 

In  Germany,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  monarchy  was  elective  ;  each 
time  that  the  succession  changed, 
the  new  dynasty  had  to  start  afresh 
the  absorption  of  feudatory  terri- 
tory, and  consequently  the  German 
kings  failed  to  establish  absolute 
monarchy.  Germany  remained  an 
aggregation  of  estates  great  and 
small,  over  which  the  emperor  exer- 
cised little  control. 

The  papacy  again  established  its 
own  supreme  authority  over  the 
whole  ecclesiastical  organization  of 
W.  Christendom,  and  sought  to 
assert  that  authority  over  all  lay 
potentates.  Within  the  empire,  in 
Germany  and  in  Italy,  the  struggle 
between  the  pope  as  the  spiritual 
head  of  Christendom,  and  the 


3018 


EUROPE 


SILK 

SUGAR 

TIMBER 

TOBACCO 

TUNNY    - 

WATCHES 

WHEAT 

WINES 


ALUMINIUM  A 
CHEMICALS  # 
CHROME  ORE  f 

COAL  m 

COPPER  ^ 

COLD 
GRAPHITE 
QYPSUM 
'RON 
LEAD 
MANGANESE  V 
MERCURY  B 
NAPHTHA  T 
PETROLEUM  ® 
PHOSPHATES* 
PLATINUM  •%• 
POTASH  •!• 

SILYCR 
SULPHUR 
TIN 

TUNGSTEH 
ZINC 


EUROPE 

(INDUSTRIAL) 


Europe.     Map  indicating  the  principal  industries  and  occupations  in  the  various  countries  of  the  Continent.      The  areas 
in  which  minerals  are  obtained  and  worked  are  also  shown 


emperor  as  its  temporal  head, 
helped  the  baronage  to  maintain 
their  independence,  since  they 
could  support  emperor  or  pope  as 
best  suited  themselves. 

Europe,  then,  in  the  second  as  in 
the  first  half  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
shows  nothing  like  the  system  of 
organized  states  to  which  we  are 
accustomed.  Through  the  Scots' 
War  of  Independence  and  the  Hun- 
dred Years'  War  between  England 
and  France,  the  defined  kingdoms 
of  England,  Scotland,  and  France 
were  consolidating  themselves 
during  the  four  centuries  which 
followed  the  Norman  conquest  of 
England  in  1066.  Spain  shaped 
into  a  group  of  four  separate  king- 
doms, the  Moorish  kingdom  of 
Granada  in  the  S.,  and  the  king- 
doms of  Portugal,  Castile,  and 
Aragon,  to  the  last  of  which  Sicily 
was  attached  in  1282.  Central 
Europe — Germany — was  only  a 
loose  confederation  of  states  in  a 
state  of  perpetual  flux. 

Italy  became  practically  a  col- 
lection of  city  states,  in  which  there 
was  developed  an  intellectual  life 


far  in  advance  of  that  of  the  rest  of 
the  world,  especially  during  the 
14th  and  15th  centuries.  On  the  N. 
of  the  empire  lay  the  Scandinavian 
kingdoms  ;  to  the  E.  of  it  Poland, 
Bohemia,  which  had  a  connexion 
with  the  empire,  and  Hungary.  S. 
of  Hungary  chaos  for  the  most 
part  reigned  in  the  Balkan  penin- 
sula, though  Byzantium  held  back 
the  Asiatic  invaders  till  its  fall 
in  1453,  when  a  Turkish  dominion 
was  established  in  the  European 
continent.  E.  of  Poland,  the  de- 
velopment of  a  Russian  empire 
was  prevented  by  the  great  Tartar 
incursion  in  the  14th  century ;  but 
by  the  end  of  the  15th  the  Musco- 
vite kingdom  was  shaping  itself. 

The  latter  half  of  the  15th  cen- 
tury marks  the  transition  from 
medieval  to  modern  Europe.  The 
union  of  the  crowns  of  Castile  and 
Aragon  by  the  marriage  of  Ferdi- 
nand and  Isabella,  1469,  unified 
the  Spanish  monarchy.  The  im- 
perial crown  had  passed  to  the 
Hapsburg,  Frederick  III  of  Austria, 
in  whose  dynasty  it  became  heredi- 
tary. The  use  of  gunpowder  was 


to  revolutionise  warfare.  The  voy- 
ages of  Christopher  Columbus  and 
Vasco  da  Gama  opened  the  ocean 
pathway  to  a  new  world  in  the  W. 
and  to  the  E.,  hitherto  cut  off  from 
Europe  by  the  Moslem  wall  which 
the  crusaders  had  failed  to  break 
through.  The  intellectual  revival 
in  Italy  received  a  new  impulse 
from  the  revived  study  of  ancient 
literatures  following  upon  the  fall 
of  Constantinople  and  the  disper- 
sion of  Greek  scholars  in  the  W., 
and  men  were  beginning  to  chal- 
lenge the  doctrines  of  the  Church 
itself. 

With  the  16th  century  the  his- 
tory of  Europe  becomes  inter- 
national, as  it  had  never  been  be- 
fore. The  struggle  of  individual 
states  for  a  general  European  as- 
cendancy now  begins,  and  against 
this  effort  the  common  interest  in 
the  preservation  of  a  balance  of 
power  makes  itself  felt.  Across  this 
for  150  years  cuts  the  religious 
struggle  between  Protestantism 
and  Romanism,  and  this  again  is 
crossed  by  the  struggle  for  dominion 


EUROPE 

The  accident  of  marriages  con- 
veyed to  one  man,  Charles  V,  the 
entire  Spanish  inheritance,  includ- 
ing Sicily,  S.  Italy  or  Naples,  the 
Netherlands,  and  the  whole  Haps- 
burg  territorial  inheritance  in  Ger- 
many, while  he  also  succeeded  his 
grandfather  as  emperor  in  1519. 
A  year  later  the  floodgates  of  the 
Reformation  were  opened  by 
Luther's  defiance  of  the  papacy. 
The  German  inheritance  of  the 
Haps  burgs  was  transferred  to 
Charles's  brother  Ferdinand,  who 
acquired  for  his  own  house  the 
crowns  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia, 
and  the  Hapsburg  monarchies  be- 
came the  barrier  between  Europe 
and  the  Turks.  During  Charles's 
reign  Protestantism  was  estab- 
lished in  Scandinavia,  over  the  N. 
half  of  Germany,  and  hi  the  N. 
half  of  the  Netherlands  ;  while  it 
was  planted  as  yet  insecurely  in 
England,  Scotland,  and  France. 

Religion  and  Politics 
When  Charles  died  in  1558  his 
son  Philip  II  was  ruling  over  the 
Spanish  dominions  and  the  Nether- 
lands, Ferdinand  was  emperor,  and 
a  truce  had  been  confirmed  be- 
tween the  Protestant  and  Catholic 
states  of  the  empire.  By  the  end 
of  the  century  Philip  had  virtually 
lost  the  N.  Netherlands,  which 
became  the  United  Provinces  of 
the  Dutch  Republic,  while  the 
Catholic  S.  still  remained  the 
Spanish  Netherlands.  England 
and  Scotland  had  both  become 
definitely  Protestant,  soon  to  be 
united  under  one  crown  ;  while 
France  remained  Catholic,  with 
freedom  of  worship  secured  to  the 
Protestants,  and  her  foreign  policy 
directed  by  purely  political  con- 
siderations irrespective  of  religion. 
Maritime  ascendancy,  once  en- 
joyed by  Italian  city  states;  had 
first  passed  from  them  to  Portugal 
and  Spain,  but  was  now  decisively 
transferred  to  England  and  the 
Dutch  states. 

The  struggle  of  the  religions  was 
fought  out  in  the  Thirty  Years' 
War      (1618-48),      the      emperor 
himself  championing    the   Catho- 
lics, while  Gustavus  Adolphus   of 
Sweden  intervened  on   behalf   of 
Protestantism.      Its  outcome  left 
the  division  between  Catholic  and 
Protestant  states  in  Germany  very 
much  where  it  had  been  at  the 
beginning.     It  also  broke  the  last 
I   attempt  to  establish  an  effective 
j   central  control  of  the  empire  in 
!   the  hands  of  the  emperor.     And 
meanwhile     Spain     had     become 
j   practically    a    secondary    power, 
while  France,  by  Richelieu's  policy, 
had   developed    a   strong    central 
government. 

In  the  next  phase,  Louis  XIV 
of  France,  a  monarch  whose  abso- 


3019 

lutism  in  his  own  country  was 
almost  unqualified,  sought  through 
a  long  series  of  wars,  1667-1713, 
to  enlarge  the  borders  of  France 
and  to  make  her  the  dictator  of 
Europe.  For  40  years  the  main 
resistance  came  from  Spain  and 
Austria,  and  from  the  little  Dutch 
state  under  William  of  Orange, 
whose  accession  to  the  thrones  of 
England  and  Scotland  brought 
Great  Britain  into  the  European 
struggle,  of  which  the  last  phase 
at  this  stage  was  the  War  of 
the  Spanish  Succession  (1702-13) 
That  war  gave  Spain  herself  to  a 
Bourbon,  Philip,  a  grandson  of 
Louis,  who  was  himself  succeeded 
on  the  throne  of  France  by  his 
great-grandson  Louis  XV.  It  also 
transferred  the  Spanish  Nether- 
lands to  Austria,  together  with  the 
Two  Sicilies. 

Meanwhile  within  Germany  the 
electorate  of  Brandenburg  had 
been  erected  into  the  kingdom  of 
Prussia  (1701);  and  outside,  Eng- 
land and  Scotland  had  been  incor- 
porated in  the  kingdom  of  Great 
Britain  (1707),  while  in  the  E. 
Russia  had  at  last  been  organized 
into  a  consolidated  dominion  by 
Peter  the  Great,  and  Sweden, 
under  Charles  XII,  had  made  her 
last  effort  to  retain  among  the 
European  powers  the  position  won 
for  her  by  Gustavus  Adolphus. 
Britain  had  now  emerged  as  the 
supreme  maritime  power,  and  es- 
tablished naval  bases  at  Gibraltar 
and  Minorca.  The  reign  of  Louis 
XV  in  France  (1713-74)  covers  an 
era  of  protracted  European  strug- 
gles. The  last  aggressive  effort  of 
Turkey  was  crushed  in  1718 ; 
Russia  established  herself  on  the 
Baltic  and  the  Black  Sea,  and  ex- 
tended her  boundaries  eastwards. 
Prussia  and  Silesia 

The  War  of  the  Polish  Succes- 
sion (1733-38)  set  up  a  Bourbon 
dynasty  in  the  Sicilies.  The  War 
of  the  Austrian  Succession  (1740- 
48)  saved  the  Austrian  dominion 
from  disintegration,  except  for  the 
annexation  of  Silesia  by  Frederick 
II  of  Prussia — a  robbery  which  led 
the  way  to  a  regrouping  of  the 
powers  in  the  Seven  Years'  War 
(1756-63).  Great  Britain,  the 
former  ally  of  Austria,  now  sup- 
ported Prussia,  which  had  to  de- 
fend itself  against  the  French  on 
the  W.,  the  Austrians  on  the  S., 
and  the  Russians  on  the  E.  Great 
Britain's  part  in  the  war  was 
mainly  on  the  seas  and  beyond 
them,  where  she  fought  the  French 
in  America  and  in  India,  and  in 
effect  turned  them  out  of  both.  In 
Europe,  the  war  confirmed  Prussia 
as  a  first-class  power,  still  in  posses- 
sion of  Silesia  ;  but  no  fighting  was 
needed  when,  in  1772,  the  tsarina 


EUROPE 

Catherine  arranged  with  Frederick 
of  Prussia  and  with  Austria  the 
first  partition  of  Poland,  a  partition 
carried  farther  in  1793  and  1795, 
when  the  whole  of  Poland  was  ab- 
sorbed by  one  or  other  of  the  three. 

The  development  of  the  last  300 
years  had  established  despotic 
governments  in  every  state  in  the 
European  continent,  large  or  small, 
with  the  exception  of  Switzerland 
and  Holland.  The  despots  were 
generally  well  disposed  towards 
their  subjects.  Many  tried  to  im- 
prove the  conditions  of  their  people, 
and  some  succeeded.  But,  broadly 
speaking,  most  of  the  populations 
lived  actually  or  approximately  in 
serfdom.  Political  Liberty  was  non- 
existent, and  between  the  classes 
there  was  an  almost  impenetrable 
social  barrier,  while  the  burdens  of 
taxation  and  service  pressed  most 
heavily  upon  those  least  capable  of 
supporting  them. 

The  French  Revolution 

The  summoning  of  a  popular 
assembly  in  France — the  states- 
general  of  1789 — in  the  hope  of 
discovering  a  panacea  for  the 
imminent  financial  ruin  of  the 
country,  proved  to  be  the  first 
step  in  a  wide  revolution.  Succes- 
sive assemblies  passed  from  advo- 
cating the  abolition  of  privileges 
to  demanding  the  abolition  of  the 
privileged.  The  extremists  cap- 
tured the  control  of  the  govern- 
ment, first  emasculated  and  then 
wiped  out  the  monarchy,  and  went 
on  to  proclaim  themselves  the  libe- 
rators of  Europe  from  the  tyranny 
of  monarchs  and  aristocrats. 

Great  Britain,  whose  constitu- 
tionalism had  been  the  model  of  the 
reformers  before  they  were  swept 
away  by  the  revolutionary  tide, 
was  swung  into  the  vortex  when 
the  new  republic  tore  up  treaties, 
and  set  about  annexing  the  Aus- 
trian Netherlands  in  1793.  Long 
before  the  terrors  of  the  revolution 
within  France  had  exhausted 
themselves,  the  armies  of  the 
republic,  reckless  of  established 
methods,  were  facing  and  routing 
the  orthodox  armies  of  the  mon- 
archies. Prussia  and  Spain  soon 
retired  from  the  struggle  ;  Bona- 
parte's Italian  campaigns  broke 
Austria.  Bonaparte  betook  him- 
self to  Egypt ;  Britain,  fighting  on 
alone,  won  the  mastery  of  the 
Mediterranean  ;  Austria  returned 
to  the  attack,  supported  by  Russia. 
The  return  of  Bonaparte  and  his 
establishment  as  First  Consul  of 
France  was  followed  by  the  shat- 
tering of  the  new  coalition,  and  even 
by  the  accession  of  Great  Britain 
to  the  peace  of  Amiens,  1802. 

In  1803  the  Franco-British  duel 
was  renewed  ;  two  years  later  a 
new  coalition  was  formed.  Nels»n 


EUROPE 

sealed  the  naval  supremacy  of 
Great  Britain  at  Trafalgar,  1805, 
but  Napoleon,  now  emperor  of  the 
French,  shattered  the  new  coalition 
at  Austerlitz.  Prussia,  aroused  at 
last,  took  up  the  challenge  and 
was  crushed  at  Jena,  1806,  and 
Napoleon  made  his  peace  with 
Russia  at  Tilsit  in  1807,  and  set 
about  the  reconstruction  of  Europe 
according  to  his  own  fancy.  His 
attempt  to  appropriate  the  Spanish 
peninsula  brought  Great  Britain 
into  the  war  for  the  first  time  as  a 
military  power,  1808.  For  five 
years  Napoleon's  generals  strove  in 
vain  to  drive  the  British  into  the 
sea.  But  Napoleon  quarrelled  with 
the  tsar,  and  his  Moscow  expedi- 
tion in  1812  ended  in  irretrievable 
disaster.  The  uprising  of  the 
peoples  rather  than  of  the  govern- 
ments overwhelmed  him,  he  was 
compelled  to  abdicate  in  1814,  and 
though  he  reappeared  to  make  a 
last  bid  for  victory,  he  was  finally 
crushed  at  Waterloo,  1815. 

The  congress  of  Vienna  restored 
the  map  of  Europe  so  that  the 
state  boundaries  were  much  as 
they  had  been  in  1792,  except  that 
the  Netherlands  were  formed  into 
a  new  kingdom.  The  old  dynas- 
ties were  replaced  and  the  old 
despotisms  renewed,  the  former 
states  of  the  empire  forming  the 
German  Confederation.  But  the 
French  Revolution  had  kindled  new 
ideas  of  liberty,  partly  democratic, 
partly  nationalist,  and  despite  the 
efforts  of  Metternich,  those  move- 
ments could  not  be  crushed.  Greece 
broke  free  from  her  subjection  to 
Turkey  ;  France  turned  out  the 
Bourbons  and  established  the  con- 
stitutional Orleans  monarchy  in 
1830.  The  S.  Netherlands  separ- 
ated from  Holland  in  1839  and 
became  the  Belgian  kingdom. 
Liberals  and  reactionaries  did 
battle  in  Spain  and  Portugal. 
Austria  and  the  German  Confederation 

Then  in  1848  came  the  Year  of 
Revolutions.  In  almost  every 
country,  nationalist,  constitution- 
alist, or  democratic  movements 
came  to  a  head.  Generally,  though 
not  always,  the  Reaction  was  for 
the  time  victorious.  France  made 
herself  into  a  republic,  but  in  five 
years  the  nephew  of  Napoleon  had 
turned  the  republic  into  the  Second 
Empire.  Limited  constitutions 
were  conceded  in  sundry  German 
states.  Austria  kept  her  grip  on  the 
diverse  portions  of  her  empire, 
and  though  the  title  of  the  Holy 
Roman  Empire  had  been  dropped 
since  1806,  she  still  retained  her 
place  as  leader,  or  as  joint  leader 
with  Prussia,  of  the  German  con- 
federation. The  mutual  jealousies 
and  distrust  between  Great  Britain 
and  Russia,  the  causes  of  which 


3O20 

were  more  Asiatic  than  European, 
were  a  constant  disturbing  factor 
in  European  affairs. 

The  three  great  movements  afoot 
were  towards  the  liberation  of  the 
Balkan  peninsula  from  Turkish 
rule,  towards  the  unification  of 
Italy,  and  towards  the  unification 
of  Germany  under  the  headship  of 
Prussia.  The  rising  of  N.  Italy 
under  the  leadership  of  Victor 
Emmanuel,  king  of  Sardinia,  sup- 
ported by  Napoleon  III,  in  1859, 
liberated  most  of  N.  Italy  from 
Austria  and  from  the  temporal 
control  of  the  papacy  and  created 
the  kingdom  of  N.  Italy.  The 
revolt  of  Sicily  and  Naples  against 
the  Bourbon  dynasty  in  1860  was 
followed  by  the  adhesion  of  S.  Italy 
to  the  N.  kingdom,  and  in  1861  the 
united  kingdom  of  Italy  was  es- 
tablished, though  Austria  still  held 
the  N.E.  corner  and  Rome  still 
belonged  to  the  pope.  In  1871, 
however,  it  was  united  to  the  new 
kingdom  of  which  it  was  made  the 
capital. 

Policy  of  Bismarck 

Bismarck  organized  the  Prussian 
military  power,  contrived  the  an- 
nexation of  Slesvig  and  Holstein 
from  Denmark,  and  procured  the 
Seven  Weeks'  War  with  Austria  in 
1866,  which  in  effect  ejected 
Austria  from  the  German  con- 
federation and  gave  Prussia  decis- 
ive ascendancy  therein.  Incident- 
ally, Italy  was  rewarded  for  her 
assistance  to  Bismarck  by  the 
acquisition  of  Venetia.  Bismarck's 
policy  achieved  its  triumph  with 
the  Franco-Prussian  War  of  1870- 
71.  The  recovery  of  the  Rhine 
provinces  from  France  was  accom- 
panied by  the  recognition  of  the 
king  of  Prussia  as  German  em- 
peror and  by  the  consolidation 
of  the  new  German  Empire  under 
Prussian  direction,  with  a  machin- 
ery which,  for  the  first  time  in 
Germany's  history,  brought  her 
under  a  single  control  and  made 
her  the  first  military  power  in 
Europe.  Another  outcome  of  the 
war  was  the  establishment  of  the 
third  republic  in  France. 

Turkish  misrule  was  the  excuse 
or  justification  of  the  wars  with 
Turkey  upon  which  Russia  entered 
in  1853  and  1877.  In  both,  British 
intervention  was  responsible  for 
the  preservation  of  Turkey,  but 
those  wars  brought  about  the  vir- 
tual independence,  first  of  Ru- 
mania and  then  of  the  Slav  states  of 
Bulgaria,  Serbia,  and  Montenegro, 
while  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  were 
placed  under  Austrian  administra- 
tion, paving  the  way  for  annexa- 
tion after  an  interval  of  30  years. 
The  outstanding  features,  how- 
ever, of  the  European  situation 
in  the  latter  years  of  the  19th 


EUROPE 

century  were  the  alliance  of  the 
three  emperors,  and  the  substitu- 
tion for  it  of  the  alliance  of  the 
three  powers,  Germany,  Austria- 
Hungary,  and  Italy,  which  was 
answered  by  the  alliance  between 
France  and  Russia.  The  settle- 
ment of  outstanding  differences 
between  Great  Britain  and  France 
in  1905  prepared  the  way  for  the 
Triple  Entente  between  Great 
Britain,  France,  and  Russia,  which 
became  an  accomplished  fact  in 
1907,  while  its  solidarity  was 
proved  to  the  great  dissatisfaction 
of  Germany  in  1911  by  the  British 
support  of  the  French  in  connexion 
with  the  Agadir  incident.  The 
Balkan  Wars  of  1912-13  liberated 
the  Balkan  States  from  the  last 
relics  of  Turkish  sovereignty,  but 
failed  to  establish  a  concord  among 
them,  whereof  the  fruits  were  later 
to  become  apparent. 

Two  more  events  prior  to  1914 
have  here  to  be  noted.  In  the  15th 
century  Denmark,  Norway,  and 
Sweden  had  been  united  under  one 
crown  ;  in  the  16th  Sweden  had 
separated  herself,  but  Norway  had 
remained  attached  to  Denmark. 
At  the  European  reconstruction  in 
1815  Norway  had  been  taken  from 
Denmark  and  attached  to  Sweden. 
The  union,  however,  had  never 
been  harmonious  or  satisfactory  to 
Norway,  and  in  1905  she  procured 
her  establishment  as  a  separate 
kingdom.  In  1908  a  revolution  in 
Portugal  expelled  the  reigning 
dynasty,  and  changed  Portugal 
into  a  republic. 

The  Great  War,  1914-1918 

In  1914  Europe  was  again  flung 
into  the  melting-pot,  from  which 
it  had  not  fully  emerged  at  the 
close  of  1920.  The  Kaiser,  with  the 
carefully  educated  public  opinion 
of  Germany  at  his  back,  planned  to 
bring  on  at  Germany's  own  time  a 
world  conflict  which  should  result 
first  in  the  subjection  of  France  and 
the  paralysis  of  Russia,  and  ulti- 
mately in  the  collapse  of  the  British 
Empire.  Reckoning  that  she  would 
have  only  Russia  and  France  to 
deal  with  immediately,  Germany 
prepared  for  an  Austro- Russian 
quarrel  in  the  Balkans  which  should 
either  at  once  establish  Austro- 
German  supremacy  in  the  Near 
East  or  precipitate  the  great  conflict 
in  which  she  anticipated  prompt 
and  overwhelming  triumph. 

But  while  Russia,  necessarily 
joined  by  France,  met  the  chal- 
lenge, Germany's  violation  of  Bel- 
gium brought  Great  Britain  de- 
cisively into  the  struggle.  For  four 
years  Europe  was  the  stage  of  the 
most  terrific  and  devastating  war 
in  the  annals  of  mankind.  In  the 
west  the  German  rush  just  failed  to 
reach  Paris,  and  a  long  battle- 


EUROPIUM 


3021 


EURYPTER1DA 


line  of  entrenchments  was  estab- 
lished from  the  Swiss  border  to  the 
North  Sea.  In  the  east  the  Russian 
invasion  of  German  territory  was 
swept  back.  Turkey  threw  in  her 
lot  with  the  Central  Powers ;  then 
Italy,  which  at  first  stood  neutral, 
broke  from  the  Triple  Alliance  and 
joined  the  Entente  Powers.  Bul- 
garia joined  the  attack  on  Serbia  ; 
in  1916  Rumania  came  into  the 
fray  with  disastrous  results  for  her- 
self. The  tide  of  the  Russian  war 
surged  backwards  and  forwards 
over  Poland  and  Galicia. 

In  1917  came  the  Russian  revolu- 
tion, first  wearing  a  constitutional 
aspect,  then  developing  into  the 
Bolshevism  which  freed  the  Central 
Powers  from  the  Russian  grip 
which  they  had  hitherto  failed  to 
break.  The  German  submarine 
campaign  drew  the  U.S.A.  into 
the  struggle.  Before  the  U.S.  ar- 
mies could  come  in,  the  Germans 
in  the  spring  of  1918  launched  the 
concentrated  attack  in  the  west.  It 
failed  by  a  hair's- breadth  to  attain 
its  object,  and  then  the  decisive 
counterstroke  was  delivered  which 
forced  Germany  to  sue  for  the 
armistice,  of  which  the  terms  were 
accepted  on  Nov.  11. 

The  German  Empire  went  down. 
Therein  every  state,  from  Prussia 
downwards,  ejected  its  hereditary 
dynasty.  Austria-Hungary  was 
dissolved  into  its  component  parts 
— Czecho  -  Slovakia,  Yugo-Slavia, 
Hungary,  Austria ;  Italy  recovered 
what  remained  of  Italia  Irredenta, 
and  France  her  lost  provinces. 
Poland  was  reconstituted.  In 
Russia  the  tsardom  had  been  hor- 
ribly swept  away,  but  the  whole 
empire  was  torn  in  fragments  under 
the  Bolshevist  regime. 

Rumania  was  greatly  enlarged 
as  the  result  of  the  addition  of 
Bessarabia,  Bukowina,  and  Tran- 
sylvania ;  Turkey  was  practically 
confined  to  Constantinople,  Greece 
receiving  from  her  most  of  Thrace. 
In  Nov.,  1920,  the  Adriatic  question 
was  settled,  Fiume  being  declared 
independent,  and  a  new  frontier 
being  drawn  between  Italy  and 
Yugo-Slavia.  See  N.V. 

A.  D.  Innes 

Bibliography.  Periods  of  Euro- 
pean History,  ed.  A.  Hassall,  8  vols., 
1893,  etc.  ;  History  of  Modern 
Europe,  R.  Lodge,  4th  ed.  1897; 
General  Sketch  of  European  History, 
E.  A.  Freeman,  1898  ;  History  of 
Modern  Europe,  T.  H.  Dyer,  ed. 
A.  Hassall,  1901;  Medieval  Europe, 
H.  W.  C.  Davis,  1911  ;  General 
Sketch  of  Political  History,  A.  D. 
Innes,  1911 ;  General  History  of  the 
World,  O.  Browning,  1913;  Euro- 
pean History  chronologically  ar- 
ranged, 476-1920,  A.  Hassall,  new 
ed.  1920.  For  ancient  history  see 
bibliographies  under  Rome  and 
Greece. 


Europium.  Rare  element  dis- 
covered by  E.  A.Demar9ay  in  1896. 
Found  associated  with  samarium, 
it  is  separated  by  fractional  crystal- 
lisation. It  was  first  isolated  in 
1901.  Its  symbol  is  Eu. 

Eurotas.  River  of  ancient  La- 
conia,  Greece,  now  known  as  Iri.  It 
discharges  into  the  Gulf  of  Laconia 
after  a  course  of  60  m.  Sparta 
stood  on  its  banks. 

Euryale  ferox.  Aquatic  peren- 
nial herb  of  the  natural  order 
Nymphaeaceae.  It  is  a  native  of 
the  E.  Indies.  Its  circular  floating 
leaves  are  1  ft.  to  4  ft.  in  dia- 
meter, the  rich  purple  underside, 
like  the  sepals  of  the  purple  flower, 
being  protected  by  numerous 
spines.  The  fruit  is  a  round  berry 
containing  numerous  farinaceous 
seeds,  which  are  eaten  after  being 
baked  in  sand.  The  Chinese  culti- 
vate the  plant  for  these  seeds. 


lyre  induced  Pluto,  ruler  of  the 
underworld,  to  restore  his  wife  to 
him,  on  condition  that  he  did  not 
look  behind  until  he  reached  the 
earth  again.  In  his  eagerness  to  see 


Euryale  ferox.    Leaves  and  Sowers 
of  the  East  Indian  aquatic  plant 

if  his  wife  were  following,  he  forgot 


In  Greek  mythology  Euryale  is  the  condition,  and  Eurydice  was 
the  name  of  one  of  the  Gorgons  lost  to  him  for  ever.  See  Orpheus. 
(q.v.).  Pron.  U-ri-alee. 

Eurydice .  In  Greek  mythology, 


she  died  Orpheus  went  down  into 
Hades,  and  by  the  power  of  his 


Pron.  U-riddy-see. 

Eurymedon.    Ancient  name  of 

wife  of  the  poet  Orpheus.     When     the  Kopru  Su,  a  river  of  Pamphylia, 

Asia  Minor.  It  flowed  into  the 
Mediterranean,  W.  of  the  Taurus 
Mts.,  and  at  its 
mouth  the  Athe- 
nians under  Cimon 
(q.v.)  defeated  the 
Persians  466  B.C. 
Eurypterida(Gr. 
eurys,  broad; 
pteron,  wing).  Ex- 
tinct scorpion-like 
animals  of  the  class 
Arachnida  (q.v.). 
The  body  is  rather 
flat,  sometimes  as 
much  as  6  ft.  in 
length,  covered  by 
a  thin  horny  cover- 
ing (carapace)  and 
ornamented  by 
fine,  scale-like 
markings.  The 
head  is  semicircu- 
lar, consisting  of 
six  segments,  fused 
together,  and  six 
pairs  of  append- 
ages are  attached 
to  the  head-shield, 
the  last  pair  being 
adapted  as  swim- 
ming paddles  The 
abdominal  portion 
is  long,  of  12  seg- 
ments, the  first  six 
bearing  plate-like 
appendages  with 
leaf -like  gills.  The 
last  segment  is  a 
tail  -  plate,  some- 
times  produced 
into  a  long  spine. 
The  upper  surface 
of  the  head -shield 


Eurydice.  By  disobeying  the  command  of  Pluto 
Orpheus  loses  the  wife  whom  he  had  nearly  rescued 
from  Hades 


From  the  painting,  Orpheui  and  Evrydice,  by  0.  F.  Wattt.  B.A.     "'  has    two   eye-Spots 


EUSEBIUS 

near  the  centre,  and  a  large  pair  of 
facetted  eyes  near  the  margin.  Eury- 
pterids  originally  inhabited  the  sea, 
but  became  adapted  to  brackish 
and  possibly  to  fresh-water  condi- 
tions. Fossils  are  found  in  Silurian, 
Devonian,  and  carboniferous  strata. 

Eusebius  (c.  264-340).  Church 
historianv  Often  called  Eusebius 
Pamphili^  he  was  probably  a 
native  of  Palestine  and  spent  his 
youth  at  Caesarea.  After  the  mar- 
tyrdom of  his  teacher  Pamphilus, 
he  took  refuge  in  Egypt  for  some 
years,  and  about  313  was  ap- 
pointed bishop  of  Caesarea  by  his 
patron,  the  emperor  Constantino 
the  Great.  At  the  council  of  Nicaea, 
325,  though  himself  orthodox,  he 
showed  leanings  towards  the  Arian 
party.  His  historical  writings 
especially  Praeparatio  Evangelica 
(selections  translated  by  H.  Street, 
1842),  Demonstratio  Ev angelica, 
and  Historia  Ecclesiastica,  entitle 
him  to  be  called  the  father  of  eccle- 
siastical history.  The  Historia  has 
been  translated  into  English  by 
A.  C.  McGifTert,  1890. 

Euskirchen.  Town  of  Ger- 
many, in  the  Prussian  Rhine  prov. 
It  stands  on  the  Erft  and  is  a  rly. 
junction,  20  m.  S.W.  from  Co- 
logne. Textiles  are  manufactured 
and  beer  is  brewed,  other  in- 
dustries being  tanning  and  the 
making  of  chemicals.  Pop.  11,350. 

Eusol.  Solution  containing  free 
hypochlorous  acid.  Introduced 
1915  as  an  antiseptic  in  treating 
wounds,  it  is  prepared  by  shaking 
25  grams  of  a  mixture  of  bleaching 
powder  and  boric  acid  (called  eupad ) 
with  one  litre  of  water  and  filtering 
the  solution  after  some  hours. 

Eustachian  Tube.  Tube  lead- 
ing from  the  upper  part  of  the 
pharynx  to  the  tympanic  cavity  of 
the  ear.  Its  function  is  to  maintain 
equal  atmospheric  pressure  on 
both  sides  of  the  ear-drum.  It  is 
ordinarily  closed,  but  is  opened  by 
each  act  of  swallowing.  Blocking 
of  the  tube,  as  in  catarrhal  condi- 
tions or  from  the  growth  of  ade- 
noids, leads  to  bulging  of  the  mem- 
brane and  partial  deafness.  If  the 
passage  does  not  open  when  the 
catarrh  disappears,  the  obstruction 
can  usually  be  removed  by  blowing 
air  into  the  tube  or  passing  a  fines- 
catheter.  When  due  to  adenoids, 
the  growth  is  usually  removed.  The 
tube  is  named  after  Bartolommeo 
Eustachio  (d.  1574),  an  Italian  ana- 
tomist. Prom,.  U-sta-kyan.  See  Ear. 

Euston  Road.  London  tho- 
roughfare. With  Marylebone  Road 
on  the  W.  and  Pentonville  Road  on 
the  E.,  it  forms  part  of  the  New 
Road  laid  out  in  1754-56  to  con- 
nect Paddington  and  Islington,  and 
extends  from  Great  Portland 
Street  rly.  station  to  King's  Cross. 


3022 

In  Euston  Square  is  the  entrance  to 
the  terminus  of  the  L.  &  N.W.R. 
An  obelisk  45  ft.  in  height  is  to  be 
erected  between  the  terminus  and 
Euston  Road  by  the  L.  &  N.W.R. 
as  a  memorial  to  their  employees 
who  fell  in  the  Great  War. 

St.  Pancras  is  the  terminus  of 
theM.R.,  and  King's  Cross  that  of 
the  G.N.R.  The  Metropolitan  Rly. 
has  a  station  (Euston  Square)  at 
the  Gower  Street  corner,  and  the 
Hampstead  and  City  and  S. 
London  Rlys.  have  stations  at  the 
back  of  Euston  Square  and  at 
King's  Cross.  In  Euston  Road  are 
the  (new)  church  of  St.  Pancras, 
built  1819-22,  a  modified  copy  of 
the  Erechtheum  at  Athens;  and 
Unity  House,  headquarters  of  the 
National  Union  of  Railwaymen. 

Eutaw  Springs.  River  of  S. 
Carolina,  U.S.A..  a  tributary  of  the 
Santee  river.  Near  here  on  Sept.  8, 
1781,  was  fought  an  indecisive 
battle  in  the  War  of  Independence. 
The  American  force  under  General 
Greene  gained  an  early  success  over 
the  British  under  General  Stuart, 
but  the  latter  successfully  with- 
stood a  second  onslaught. 

Eutectic  (Gr  eu,  .well ;  iekein,  to 
melt).  Term  introduced  to  denote  a 
condition  of  equilibrium  which  was 
found  to  exist  in  solution  of  com- 
mon salt,  and  since  extended  to  in- 
clude similar  conditions. 

Between  1875-78  Guthrie  inves- 
tigated the  freezing  point  of  salt 
solution.  He  found  that,  no  matter 
what  the  initial  strength  of  the 
solution,  there  was  a  certain  con- 
centration (23'5  p.c.  of  salt)  and 
temperature  (  —  22°  C.)  when  the 
solution  completely  solidified.  This 
he  called  the  eutectic,  which  has 
always  for  the  same  solute  and  sol- 
vent a  constant  composition,  but  is 
not  a  chemical  composition.  This 
helped  to  explain  the  state  of 
metals  in  alloys.  Those  which  are 
looked  upon  as  "  solid  solutions  " 
exhibit  eutectic  properties.  Pig 
iron,  for  example,  is  eutectic  when 
it  has  a  proportion  of  4'3  p.c.  of 
carbon.  Plumbers'  solder,  consist- 
ing of  two  parts  lead  and  one  part 
tin,  is  a  eutectic  alloy,  solidify- 
ing at  a  lower  temperature  than 
any  other  alloy  of  these  metals, 
which  constitutes  its  utility  in 
"  wiping  "  a  joint. 

Euterpe  (Gr.,  the  well-pleasing). 
In  Greek  mythology,  one  of  the 
nine  muses.  Her  special  province 
was  lyric  poetry.  See  Muses. 

Euthanasia  (Gr.  eu,  well ; 
thanatos,  death).  Easy  or  comfort- 
able death;  in  medical  language, 
the  employment  of  means  calcu- 
lated to  render  the  death  of  those 
suffering  from  painful  and  incur- 
able diseases  as  painless  as  pos- 
sible. Induced  euthanasia  was 


EVAGORAS 

advocated  by  Plato,  and  was 
common  under  the  Roman  em- 
perors, many  of  Pliny's  friends 
being  recorded  as  submitting  to  it. 
In  the  island  of  Ceos  (Zea),  in 
the  Cyclades,  euthanasia  was  en- 
joined on  citizens  over  60.  In  old 
Marseilles  it  is  said  that  the  au- 
thorities were  memorialised  in 
cases  of  serious  illness,  or  even  of 
dire  misfortune,  as  to  the  advis- 
ability of  euthanasia.  In  More's 
ideal  state,  Utopia,  euthanasia  was 
practised. 

Eutheria  (Gr.  eu,  well ;  therion, 
beast )  OR  PLACENTALS.  One  of  the 
three  sub-classes  of  Mammalia,  the 
other  two  being  the  prototheria  or 
monotremes  and  the  metatheria  or 
marsupials.  Of  these  the  prototheria 
are  oviparous  ;  the  metatheria  bring 
forth  their  young  prematurely  and 
nurture  them  in  a  pouch  ;  and  the 
eutheria  produce  more  or  less 
perfectly  developed  young,  which 
during  gestation  are  vitally  united 
to  their  mother  by  a  placenta.  See 
Mammal. 

Eutropius.  Roman  historian  of 
the  4th  century  A.D.  He  was  the 
author  of  Breviarium  ab  urbe  con- 
dita,  a  short  history  of  Rome  from 
its  foundation  to  A.D.  364.  The  work 
has  little  historical  value,  but  the 
simplicity  of  its  style  has  made  it  a 
favourite  text- book  for  beginners 
in  Latin. 

Eutych.es  (5th  century  A.D.). 
Founder  of  the  Eutychian  heresy. 
Superior  of  a  monastery  at  Con- 
stantinople, he  taught  that  the 
human  nature  of  Christ  was  ab- 
sorbed in  the  divine,  and  therefore 
non-existent,  even  His  body  not 
being  truly  human.  For  this  he 
was  condemned  by  a  synod  at 
Constantinople  in  448,  restored  by 
the  "  Robber  "  council  of  Ephesus 
in  449,  but  finally  condemned  by 
the  council  of  Chalcedon  in  451, 
and  afterwards  banished.  Pron. 
U-ty-keez. 

Eutychus.  Name  of  a  young 
man  who,  having  fallen  into  a  deep 
sleep  while  Paul  was  preaching  at 
Troas,  fell  from  the  third  loft,  and 
was  healed  or  restored  to  life  by  the 
Apostle  (Acts  xx,  9-10). 

Euxine.  Ancient  name*of  the 
Black  Sea,  the  Pontus  Euxinus,  or 
hospitable  sea.  It  was  originally 
called  Axenos,  inhospitable,  from 
the  prevalent  storms,  and  the  hatred 
of  strangers  shown  by  the  dwellers 
on  the  coasts.  The  name  was  pro- 
bably changed  when  increasing 
commerce  and  the  establishment 
of  Greek  colonies  made  it  better 
known.  See  Black  Sea. 

Evagoras  (d.  374  B.C.).*'  King 
of  Salamis  in  Cyprus.  An  able 
ruler,  he  greatly  developed  the 
naval  power  of  his  kingdom. 
He  was  on  friendly  terms  with  the 


EVAGRIUS 

Athenians,  especially  with  the 
Athenian  admiral  Conon  (q.v.),  and 
it  was  due  to  him  that  Conon  was 
helped  by  the  Persian  fleet  atCnidus 
(q.v. )  in  394.  Subsequently,  in  the 
war  between  Evagoras  and  the 
Persians,  the  Athenian  fleet  came 
to  his  aid.  The  war  with  Persia 
dragged  on  for  several  years,  and 
was  eventually  ended  by  a  settle- 
ment which  guaranteed  Evagoras 
his  kingdom. 

Evagrius  (c.  536-600).  Byzan- 
tine eccles.  historian.  Born  at 
Epiphania,  in  Coele-Syria,  he 
flourished  during  the  reigns  of  the 
emperors  Tiberius  and  Maurice. 
At  first  he  studied  law  at  Antioch, 
whence  his  surname  Scholasticus 
(advocate).  One  of  the  contin- 
uators  of  Eusebius,  his  history 
covers  the  period  from  the  council 
of  Ephesus,  431,  down  to  593.  It 
throws  light  chiefly  on  the  re- 
ligious controversies  of  the  period, 
but  also  on  secular  affairs. 

Evander.  Legendary  Italian 
hero.  Some  time  before  the  Trojan 
war  he  was  said  to  have  con- 
ducted a  band  of  colonists  from 
Pallantium  in  Arcadia  to  Italy, 
where  he  founded  a  settlement  on 
the  Palatine  hill.  Writing  and  other 
arts  and  the  institution  of  the 
Lupercalia  in  honour  of  the  Arca- 
dian god,  Pan,  were  ascribed  to 
him.  Evander  is  really  the 
Italian  Faunus  (the  favourable 
one),  to  whom  the  Greek  Pan  also 
corresponds,  and  the  story  of  the 
Arcadian  colony,  like  much  in 
Roman  mythology  and  legend,  is 
due  to  Greek  influence. 

Evangelical  (Gr.  evangdikos, 
of  the  Gospel).  Term  applied  to 
the  two  religious  revivals  within 
and  without  the  Anglican  Church 
in  the  18th  century.  The  move- 
ment led  by  John  Wesley  (q.v.) 
became  exterior  to  the  Church. 
The  other  movement  is  attributed 
to  the  teaching  of  William  Law, 
author  of  The  Serious  Call,  and 
with  it  are  prominently  associated 
the  names  of  Henry  Venn,  James 
Hervey,  Joseph  and  Isaac  Milner, 
John  Newton,  William  Cowper, 
Richard  Cecil,  Thomas  Scott, 
Henry  Martyn  the  missionary, 
Charles  Simeon,  John  Thornton, 
and  his  fellow  members  of  "the 
Clapham  sect,"  William  Wilber- 
force,  and  Selina,  Countess  of  Hunt- 
tingdon.  The  movement  has  left 
its  mark  on  hymnology,  notably 
in  the  compositions  of  Toplady  and 
the  hymnal  of  E.  H.  Bickersteth. 
With  its  views  are  associated  such 
societies  as  the  C.M.S.,  Church 
Association,  Church  Parochial 
Mission,  Y.M.C.A.,  Y.W.C.A.,  and 
many  organizations  for  bringing 
the  Gospel  message  to  the  poor. 

The     Evangelicals    emphasised 


3023 

original  sin,  the  efficacy  of  the 
Atonement,  the  need  of  personal 
conversion,  justification  by  faith 
and  veneration  for  the  letter  of 
the  Scriptures.  What  is  known  to- 
day as  the  Low  Church  party  in 
the  Church  of  England  (to  be  dis- 
tinguished from  the  Low  Church 
party  of  the  period  preceding  the 
Evangelical  revivals)  is  usually 
called  evangelical ;  it  holds  many 
things  in  common  with  English 
Nonconformity,  and  its  leaders 
meet  annually  at  the  Keswick  Con- 
vention and  the  Islington  Confer- 
ence. The  term  evangelical  is  ap- 
plied to  the  United  Church  in 
Germany  and  to  the  Jansenists  of 
France.  It  forms  part  of  the  title  of 
the  world's  Evangelical  Alliance; 
the  Evangelical  Association  of 
North  America,  founded  early  in  the 
19th  century  by  a  Lutheran  named 
Jacob  Albrecht;  and  the  Evangeli- 
cal Union,  constituted  in  Scotland 
in  1843  by  the  Rev.  James  Morison, 
of  Kilmarnock.  See  The  Evange- 
lical Revival  in  the  18th  Century, 
J.  H.  Overton,  2nd  ed.  1900. 

Evangelical  Alliance, WORLD'S. 
Protestant  organization  founded  in 
Liverpool  in  1845,  and  incorporated 
in  1912.  Its  objects  include  the 
maintenance  of  evangelical  prin- 
ciples, the  promotion  of  Christian 
unity,  the  holding  annually  of  a 
universal  week  of  prayer,  the  relief 
of  persecuted  Christians  in  all  lands, 
and  the  defence  of  religious  liberty. 
Its  work  is  carried  on  by  means  of 
international  conferences  in  differ- 
ent countries,  by  bringing  influence 
to  bear  on  governments,  and  by  the 
formation  of  public  opinion.  Its 
organ  is  Evangelical  Christendom, 
published  bi-monthly  in  London, 
and  its  central  office  is  19,  Russell 
Square,  London,  W.C. 

Evangelical  Union  OR  MOR- 
ISONIANS.  Scottish  Presbyterian 
body.  It  was  founded  by  the  Rev. 
James  Morison,  1816-93,  of  Kilmar- 
nock, and  other  seceders  from  the 
United  Secession  Church  in  1843. 
Soon  afterwards  they  were  joined 
by  ministers  expelled  from  the 
Congregationalist  Union.  They  re- 
jected the  doctrine  of  predestina- 
tion, and  maintained  universal  re- 
demption and  the  freedom  of  the 
will.  The  churches  were  independent 
and  free  to  adopt  Presbyterian  or 
Congregationalist  forms  of  govern- 
ment. All  ministers  had  to  be  total 
abstainers.  The  bulk  of  the  congre- 
gations joined  the  Congregational 
Union  (of  Scotland)  in  1896. 

Evangeline.  Narrative  idyllic 
poem  by  H.  W.  Longfellow.  First 
published  hi  1847,  the  story  is  a 
romantic  account  of  the  deport- 
ations in  1755  of  the  French  Aca- 
dians  from  Acadie  (Nova  Scotia), 
owing  to  their  lack  of  sympathy 


Evangeline.  the 
Acadian  heroine 


From  a  statue  by  Saral 
Terry 


EVANS 

with  their 
British  and 
P  ro testant 
rulers.  It  is  a 
tender,  tragic 
romance,  beau  - 
tifully  told,and 
one  of  the  most 
successful  in- 
stances in  Eng- 
lish of  the  sus- 
tained use  of 
hexameters. 
The  poem  is 
named  from 
the  heroine, 
who  was  first  to 
have  been  Ga- 
brielle,  a  name 
later  adapted 
as  Gabriel  for 
the  hero.  A 
monument  to 
her  was  un- 
veiled at  Grand 
P  r  e,  Nova 
Scotia  (q.v.), 
Aug.,  1920. 
Evangelist  (Gr.  evangeUstes, 
proclaimer  of  glad  tidings).  Origi- 
nally one  chosen  by  the  apostles 
to  preach  the  Gospel  where  it  was 
unknown.  Theodoret  first  re- 
stricted the  name  to  travelling 
preachers ;  Oecumenius  first  ap- 
plied it  to  the  authors  of  the 
four  Gospels ;  to-day  it  is  also 
used  for  missionaries  and  revivalist 
preachers.  (See  Eph.  4 ;  Acts  8 
and  21 ;  2  Tim.  4.)  The  four  living 
creatures  referred  to  in  Ezek.  1 
and  10,  and  Rev.  4,  were  regarded 
by  Jerome  as  symbols  of  the  four 
evangelists — the  man,  Matthew  ; 
the  lion,  Mark  ;  the  ox,  Luke  ;  the 
eagle,  John.  Irenaeus  assigned  the 
lion  to  John  and  the  eagle  to  Mark ; 
Augustine  and  Bede,  the  lion  to 
Matthew  and  the  man  to  Mark. 
See  Apostle  ;  Gospel ;  Preaching. 

Evan  Harrington.  Novel  by 
George  Meredith.  After  serial 
appearance  in  Once  a  Week,  as 
Evan  Harrington,  or  He  Would  be 
a  Gentleman,  it  was  published  in 
volume  form  in  1861.  It  is  one  of 
the  author's  best  stories,  including 
in  Evan's  sister,  the  Countess  de 
Saldar,  one  of  his  triumphs  of  por- 
traiture. Evan  is  the  son  of  a  tailor, 
the  great  Mel,  and  the  whole  Har- 
rington family  is  founded  on  mem- 
bers of  Meredith's  paternal  family. 
Evans,  SIR  ARTHUR  JOHN  (b. 
1851).  British  archaeologist  and 
numismatist.  Born  at  Hemel 
Hempstead,  the  eldest  son  of  Sir 
John  Evans  (q.v.),  he  studied  at 
Harrow,  Oxford,  and  Gottingen. 
He  travelled  in  Finland  and 
Russian  Lapland,  1873-74,  and  was 
engaged  in  researches  in  the  Balkan 
peninsula  between  1875-82.  From 
1884-1908  he  was  keeper  of  the 


3024 


EVANSVILLE 


Ashmolean 
Museum  at 
Oxford.  H  i  s 
discovery  in 
Crete  in  1893 
of  a  pre-Phoe- 
nician  script 
was  discussed 
in  his  Cretan 

Sir  Arthur  Evans,       P  i  c  t  o  g  r  a  p  h  s, 
British  archaeologist     1895,  and   de- 

Lajayeile  Veloped    in    his 

Scripta  Minoa,  1909.  His  excava- 
tf~:n  of  the  Minoan  palace  of 
Cnossus  in  1900-8  elucidated  the 
Aegean  civilization  first  revealed 
by  Schliemann  at  Mycenae.  He 
became  extraordinary  professor  of 
prehistoric  archaeology  at  Oxford 
in  1910,  and  was  president  of  the 
British  Association,  1916-17.  In 
1911  he  was  knighted. 

Evans,  EDWARD  RADCLIFFE 
GARTH  RUSSELL  (b.  1881).  British 
sailor  and  explorer.  The  son  of  a 
barrister,  h  e 
was  educated 
at  the  Mer- 
chant Taylors' 
School.  Enter- 
ing the  navy  in 
1897,  he  be- 
came lieuten- 
ant in  1902, 
and  was  navi- 
gating officer 
to  the  Ant- 
arctic relief 
ship  Morning,  1902-4,  making  two 
voyages  to  the  S.  Polar  regions  to 
the  relief  of  the  Discovery  when 
she  was  frozen  in  MacMurdo  Strait. 
He  joined  the  British  Antarctic 
Expedition  as  second  in  command 
in  1909,  and  after  the  death  of 
Captain  Scott  in,  1912  he  brought 
it  back.  A  commander  in  the  navy, 
on  the  outbreak  of  the  Great  War, 
he  took  part  in  the  bombardment 
of  the  Belgian  coast  in  1914.  He 
was  in  command  of  the  Broke 
when,  in  1917,  that  vessel  and  the 
Swift  defeated  six  German  de- 
stroyers. He  was  promoted  cap- 
tain in  1917,  and  received  the 
D.S.O.  See  Antarctic  Exploration. 
Evans,  SIR  GEORGE  DE  LACY 
(1787-1870).  British  soldier.  Born 
at  Moig,  co.  Limerick,  Ireland,  he 
entered  the  In- 
dian army  in 
1806  and  in 
1812  joined  the 
3rd  Dragoons 
in  the  Penin- 
sula. He  was 
present  at  Vit- 
toria,  Pampe- 
luna,  and  Tou- 
louse. In  the 
American  War 
he  took  part  in  the  seizure  of 
Washington,  and  in  the  operations 
before  New  Orleans,  and,  returning 


E.  R.  G.  R.  Evans. 
British  explorer 

Russell 


Sir  John  Evans, 


Sir  G.  de  Lacy  Evans, 
British  soldier 


to  Europe,  was  present  at  Waterloo. 
After  a  short  time  in  Parliament 
as  an  advanced  radical,  he  com- 
manded the  legion  recruited  in 
England  to  assist  Queen  Isabella 
of  Spain  against  the  Carlists.  The 
legion,  though  ill-equipped  and 
neglected  by  the  Spanish  govern- 
ment, fought  well  under  Evans's 
command,  1835-37.  Evans's  last 
active  service  was  in  the  Crimean 
War,  from  which,  however,  he  was 
invalided  home.  He  resumed  his 
seat  in  the  House,  received  the 
thanks  of  Parliament,  and  was 
made  a  G.C.B.  He  died  Jan.  9, 1870. 

Evans,  SIB  JOHN  (1823-1908). 
British  archaeologist  and  numis- 
matist. Born  at  Britwell  Court, 
Buckingham- 
shire, Nov.  17, 
1823,  in  1840 
he  entered  his 
uncle's  paper 
mills  at  Kernel 
Hempstead. 
He  was  pre- 
sident of  the 
Geological  So- 
ciety, 1874-76; 

the  N  u  m  i  s-  British  archaeologist 
matio  Society,  Elliott  *  f'* 
1874-1908;  the  Society  of  An- 
tiquaries, 1885-92  :  and  the  An- 
thropological Institute,  1877-79. 
Admitted  a  Fellow  1861,  he  was 
treasurer  of  the  Royal  Society, 
1878- -98.  He  wrote  Coins  of  the 
Ancient  Britons,  1864,  with  supple- 
ment, 1890  :  Ancient  Stone  Imple- 
ments of  Great  Britain,  1872, 
2nd  ed.  1897;  Ancient  Bronze 
Implements  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland,  1881.  He  died  May  31, 
1908.  His  collection  of  1,700  coins 
was  presented  to  the  British 
Museum  by  his  son  in  1919. 

Evans,  MARIAN  OR  MARY  ANN 
(1819-80).  Maiden  name  of  the 
British  novelist  better  known  as 
George  Eliot  (q.v.). 

Evans,  OLIVER  (1755-1819). 
American  inventor.  Born  at  New- 
port, Delaware,  he  entered  his 
brother's  milling  business,  and 
invented  and  fitted  up  various 
appliances  for  economising  time 
and  labour.  The  machinery  was 
worked  by  water  power,  and  re- 
volutionised the  grinding  of  corn. 
Americana  claim  that  Evans  de- 
signed the  first  steam  engine  on 
the  high-pressure  principle,  and  it 
is  agreed  that  his  plans,  sent  to 
England,  were  seen  by  Trevethick. 
Although  never  so  successful  as 
Watt,  he  was  one  of  the  pioneers  of 
steam  locomotion,  and  ranks  as  one 
of  the  most  ingenious  mechanics 
that  America  has  produced.  He 
died  at  New  York,  April  25,  1819. 

Evans,  ROBLEY  DUNQLISON 
(1846-1912).  American  sailor. 
Born  in  Virginia,  Aug.  18,  1846, 


Sir  Samuel  Evans, 
British  lawyer 

Ruttell 


he  received  his  naval  training  in 
the  U.S.  Naval  Academy  in  1863. 
He  saw  considerable  service  during 
the  Civil  War,  being  wounded  in 
the  land  attack  on  Fort  Fisher, 
1865.  In  1891  he  was  in  command 
of  the  Yorktown  off  Valparaiso, 
where  his  attitude  towards  Chile, 
between  whom  and  the  U.S.A. 
relations  were  at  the  time  strained, 
earned  him  the  nickname  of 
Fighting  Bob.  Promoted  captain 
in  1893,  in  the  Spanish- American 
War  he  commanded  the  Iowa 
under  Admiral  Sampson  off  San- 
tiago, and  fought  Cervera's  fleet, 
July  3,  1898.  Promoted  rear- 
admiral  1901,  he  was  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  Asiatic  station  in 
1902.  He  died  Jan.  3,  1912. 

Evans,  SIR  SAMUEL  THOMAS 
(1859-1918).  British  lawyer  and 
politician.  Born  at  Neath,  Glam- 
organshire, he 
graduated  at 
London  Uni- 
versity, and 
became  a  so- 
licitor in  1883. 
Practising  in 
his  native 
town,  he  was 
elected  M.P. 
for  mid- Glam- 
organshire in 
1890,  which 
constituency  he  represented  for 
twenty  years.  He  became  a  bar- 
rister in  1891,  a  Q.C.  in  1901,  was 
recorder  of  Swansea  from  1906-8, 
and  in  1908  was  appointed  solicitor- 
general  and  knighted.  In  1910  he 
left  Parliament  to  become  president 
of  the  probate,  divorce,  and  admi- 
ralty division,  which,  after  the  out- 
break of  the  Great  War,  included 
the  business  of  the  prize  court.  He 
died  at  Brighton,  Sept.  13,  1918. 

Evanston.  City  of  Illinois, 
U.S.A.,  in  Cook  co.  It  stands  on 
Lake  Michigan,  13  m.  N.  by  W. 
of  Chicago,  and  is  served  by  the 
Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul, 
and  the  Chicago  and  N.W. 
Rlys.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  North- 
western University,  and  contains 
various  educational  institutions. 
Settled  in  1835,  it  was  incorporated 
in  1863,  and  received  a  city  charter 
in  1892.  Pop.  29,305. 

Evansville.  City  of  Indiana, 
U.S.A.,  the  co.  seat  of  Vanderburg 
co.  On  the  Ohio  river,  150m.  W. 
by  S.  of  Indianapolis,  it  is  served 
by  the  Louisville  and  Nashville  and 
other  rlys.  A  port  of  entry,  it 
carries  on  a  thriving  trade  in  coal, 
flour,  and  tobacco,  and  has  cotton, 
woollen,  and  flour  mills,  in  addition 
to  foundries,  machinery  works,  and 
cigar,  glass,  and  leather  factories. 
Evansville  dates  from  1816,  and 
became  a  city  in  1847.  Pop. 
77,531. 


iVAN-THOMAS 


3O25 


EVENING      NEWS 


Sir  H.  Evan-Thomas. 
British  sailor 

Russell 


Evan-Thomas,  SIB  HUGH  (b. 
1862).  British  sailor.  Born  Oct.  27, 
1862,  he  entered  the  navy  in 
1 875.  He  was 
flag-captain  to 
the  Channel 
fleet,  1903^*, 
and  private 
secretary  to 
the  first  lord  of 
the  admiralty, 
1905-8.  From 
1910-12hewas 
in  command 
of  the  R.N. 
College,  Dartmouth,  being  A.D.C. 
to  the  king,  1911-12,  when  he 
was  promoted  rear-admiral.  Rear- 
admiral  of  the  first  battle  squad- 
ron, 1913-14,  he  commanded  the 
fifth  battle  squadron  in  the  battle 
of  Jutland.  Knighted  for  his  ser- 
vices, he  was  commander-in-chief 
at  the  Nore,  1920-23. 

Evaporation  (Lat.  e,  from,  out  ; 
vapor,  vapour).  Name  commonly 
given  to  the  process  by  which  a 
liquid,  and  less  commonly  a  solid 
such  as  carbonic  acid  snow, 
changes  into  a  state  of  vapour. 
Evaporation  may  be  said  to  be  a 
function  of  heat  and  pressure. 
Liquids  may  evaporate  at  all  tem- 
peratures ;  under  the  application 
of  heat  or  the  removal  of  pressure 
from  their  surfaces,  they  evaporate 
more  quickly.  At  a  given  tempera- 
ture evaporation  hi  a  closed  vessel 
ceases  when  a  certain  pressure  of 
vapour  is  attained,  for  condensa- 
tion of  the  vapour  balances  the 
evaporation  of  the  liquid. 

The  rate  of  evaporation  of  a 
liquid  depends  upon  the  area  of 
the  surface  exposed,  the  freedom 
of  the  space  surrounding  it  from 
vapour,  and  the  difference  between 
the  vapour  pressure  and  the  ex- 
ternal pressure.  Thus  a  given 
volume  of  a  liquid  evaporates  more 
quickly  in  a  shallow  dish  than  a 
deep  one,  in  a  dry  atmosphere  than 
a  damp  one,  and  on  a  warm  day 
than  a  cold  one.  The  movement  of 
the  atmosphere  over  the  surface  of 
the  liquid  also  increases  the  rate  of 
evaporation,  as  the  evaporated 
particles  are  carried  away. 

In  converting  a  liquid  into  a 
vapour  at  the  same  temperature, 
heat  has  to  be  supplied.  In  other 
words,  heat  is  absorbed  in  the  pro- 
cess of  evaporation.  The  quantity 
of  heat  that  has  to  be  supplied  to 
one  gram  of  liquid  at  the  boiling 
point  without  changing  its  tem- 
perature is  called  the  latent  heat 
of  vaporisation.  This  is  the  same 
thing  as  the  quantity  of  heat  given 
out  by  one  gram  of  the  vapour  at 
boiling  point,  when  condensing  to  a 
liquid  at  the  same  temperature. 

Evaporation  of  water  is  of  great 
importance  in  nature.  In  spring 


and  summer  wind  and  rising 
temperature  increase  evaporation, 
while  in  autumn  and  winter  falling 
temperature  and  cold  spells  de- 
crease the  capacity  of  the  air  for 
holding  water  particles,  causing 
mists,  fogs,  and  rain.  See  Boiling 
Point ;  Condenser  ;  Heat. 

Evaporation  Value.  Method 
by  which  the  relative  values  of 
different  fuels  may  be  expressed. 
It  consists  in  stating  the  amount  of 
water  which  each  is  capable  of 
converting  into  steam  when  burnt 
under  specified  conditions.  Thus 
one  pound  of  average  coal  is  cap- 
able, theoretically,  of  converting 
15  pounds  of  water  at  boiling  tem- 
perature in  the  atmosphere  into 
steam  ;  while  under  the  same  con- 
ditions petroleum  would  convert 
21  pounds,  and  ordinary  dry 
straw  8£  pounds.  These  figures 
represent  the  evaporation  values 
of  the  fuels  named.  See  Fuel. 

Eve.  Name  of  the  first  woman 
in  the  Biblical  story  of  creation. 
In  Hebrew  the  form  of  the  name 
is  Chawwah.  It  was  given  to  the 
woman  by  Adam  (Gen.  iii,  20),  and 
is  explained  as  meaning  "  living  " 
or  "  life."  She  was  so  called,  it  is 
stated,  because  she  was  the  mother 
of  all  living.  See  Adam ;  Creation. 
Evection  (Lat.  e,  from,  out ; 
vehere,  to  carry).  Inequality  of  the 
moon's  motion,  which  increases  or 
diminishes  the  mean  longitude  of 
the  moon  to  the  extent  of  1  deg. 
20  mins.  See  Moon. 

Evelina.  Fanny  Burney's  first 
novel.  The  first  avowed  novel  of 
society,  it  was  published  anony- 
mously in  1778  under  the  title  of 
Evelina ;  or  a  Young  Lady's 
Entrance  into  the  World.  Johnson 
declared  that  there  were  passages 
in  it  which  might  do  honour  to 
Richardson. 

Evelyn,  JOHN  (1620-1706).  Eng- 
lish author  and  diarist.  He  was 
born  at  Wotton  House,  Surrey, 
Oct.  31,  1620. 
Of  a  g  o  o  d 
family,  he  was 
educated  a  t 
Lewes  and 
Balliol  Col- 
lege, Oxford, 
and  became  a 
student  of  the 
Middle  Tem- 
ple. Posses- 
sing ample 
means,  he 
remained 
abroad  during 
the  greater  part  of  the  Civil  War. 

A  sincere  royalist  and  churchman, 
his  admiration  for  Charles  II  hi 
exile  did  not  blind  him  to  his  faults 
later,  when,  after  the  restoration, 
he  enjoyed  favour  at  Court.  -From 
1653-94  Evelyn  was  settled  at 


Sayes  Court,  Deptford,  where  he 
transformed  a  rude  orchard  and 
field  of  100  acres  into  a  pleasaunce 
of  notable  charm.  He  befriended 
Jeremy  Taylor  and  other  divines, 
was  on  terms  of  intimacy  with 
many  notable  men  of  his  time,  in- 
cluding Bentley,  Boyle,  John  Wil- 
kins,  Pepys,  Grinling  Gibbons,  and 
Hollar.  He  helped  to  found  the 
Royal  Society,  and  was  its  secre- 
tary in  1672.  He  was  a  commis- 
sioner for  the  rebuilding  of  S. 
Paul's  Cathedral ;  aided  church 
establishment  in  the  plantations  ; 
was  a  commissioner  of  the  privy 
seal,  1685-87 ;  and  treasurer  of 
Greenwich  Hospital,  1695-1703. 

In  addition  to  gardening  and 
forestry,  he  took  an  active  interest 
in  agriculture,  architecture,  art, 
engraving,  music,  and  navigation. 
His  Sylva,  1664,  first  drew  atten- 
tion to  the  importance  of  forestry 
in  England ;  Terra,  1676,  was 
a  first  attempt  in  English  at  a 
scientific  study  of  agriculture ; 
Sculptura,  1662,  a  work  on  en- 
graving, was  suggested  by  Boyle. 
He  wrote  a  Character  of  Eng- 
land, 1659,  an  admirable  Life  of 
Mrs.  Godolphin,  a  discourse  on 
Medals,  and  a  History  of  the 
Dutch  War,  which  is  lost. 

He  is  remembered  for  his  Diary, 
1620-1706  (more  properly  de- 
scribed as  his  memoirs),  a  work 
valuable  for  its  reflection  of  the 
political,  social,  and  religious  life 
of  his  time.  The  MS.  of  this  was  in 
danger  of  destruction  when,  at  the 
suggestion  of  William  Upcott,  it 
was  edited  by  William  Bray,  and 
first  published  in  1818.  After  1694 
he  lived  at  Wotton,  where  he  died, 
Feb.  27,  1706,  and  was  buried  in 
the  chapel.  He  is  well  described  as 
a  patriot  who  kept  his  loyalty  in 
dangerous  times,  a  Christian  who 
preserved  his  integrity  in  the  most 
immoral,  and  a  philosopher  who 
viewed  every  object  with  a  desire 
to  extract  from  it  all  the  beauty 
and  goodness  it  contained.  See 
editions  of  the  Diary,  with  Life 
by  H.  B.  Wheatley,  1906  ;  and  by 
Austin  Dobson,  with  introduction 
and  notes,  1908 ;  The  Early  Life  and 
Education  of  John  Evelyn,  1620- 
41,  H.  Maynard  Smith,  1920. 

Evening  News,  THE.  London 
evening  newspaper.  Started  in 
1881  in  the  Conservative  interest  as 
a  rival  to  The  Echo,  in  1889  it  ab- 
sorbed The  Evening  Post,  founded 
1887.  In  Aug.,  1894,  it  was  acquired 
for  £25,000  by  a  new  company  of 
which  Alfred  Harmsworth  (Vis- 
count Northcliffe),  Harold  Harms- 
worth  (Viscount  Rothermere),  and 
Kennedy  Jones  were  the  pro- 
prietors. Under  the  new  direction 
it  emerged  from  an  almost  mori- 
bund concern  into  a  property 

FT 


EVENING      PRIMROSE 


3026 


EVERGLADES 


yielding  in  the  first  year  a  profit  of 
£14,000  and  in  the  second  £25,000. 
Its  ever-increasing  success — it  had 
in  1920  a  net  sale  of  825,825 — led  to 
the  foundation  of  The  Daily  Mail. 
From  1894  until  1896  Kennedy 
Jones  was  editor  ;  he  was  succeeded 
by  W.  J.  Evans.  Prominent  regular 
contributors  have  included  Claude 
Burton  (C.  E.  B.),  Oswald  Barron 
(The  Londoner),  P.  H.  Fearon 
(Poy),  and  Arthur  Machen.  With 
The  Daily  Mail  and  The  Weekly 
Dispatch  it  is  issued  by  The  Asso- 
ciated Newspapers,  Limited,  from 
Carmelite  House.  See  Daily  Mail ; 
Northcliffe,  Viscount. 

Evening  Primrose  (Oenothera 
biennis).  Biennial  herb  of  the 
natural  order  Onagraceae.  It  is 
a  native  of  N.  p-»"^ 
America.  The 
leaves  are  ob- 
long-lance- 
shaped;  the 
flowering  stem 
(2nd  year),  4  ft. 
or  5  ft.  high, 
branched  with 
narrower, 
toothed  leaves, 
terminates  in  a 
long  spike  of 
large,  pale  yel- 
low flowers, 
opening  in  the 


Evening  Primrose, 
a  biennial  berb 


evening.  The  variety  lamarckiana 
has  much  larger  flowers  than  the 
type  form,  and  has  been  much 
studied.  See  Mutation. 

Evening  Schools.  Term  speci- 
fically given  to  evening  classes 
established  in  the  United  Kingdom, 
mainly  during  the  first  half  of  the 
19th  century,  for  giving  elementary 
instruction  to  illiterate  adults.  One 
of  the  earliest  was  started  at  Bala, 
N.Wales,  in  1811.  The  system  was 
warmly  supported  by  Bishop  Hinds 
in  1839,  and  was  adopted  by  the 
Ragged  School  Union,  founded 
1844,  and  known  since  1898  as  the 
Shaftesbury  Society.  The  term  is 
still  officially  used  to  cover  schools 
in  which  pupils  beyond  the  com- 
pulsory school  age  may  continue 
their  education.  See  Continuation 
School ;  Education. 

Evening  Standard,  THE.  Lon- 
don evening  newspaper,  started 
June  11,  1860,  as  a  pendant  to  its 
morning  namesake,  itself  originally 
an  evening  paper  first  published 
May  21,  1827.  Acquired  from  the 
Johnstone  family  in  1905  by  C. 
Arthur  Pearson,  who  had  in  1903 
purchased  the  St.  James's  Gazette 
(founded  in  1880),  The  Evening 
Standard  was  merged  with  the 
latter.  In  1910  Davison  Dalzie! 
secured  the  controlling  influence ; 
in  1915-23  it  was  owned  by 
Hulton  &  Co.,  and  from  1924  by 
Lord  Beaverbrook. 


Everest.  Loftiest  peak  of  the 
Himalayas.  Its  height  is  29,002  ft. 
(5£m.),  the  highest  on  the  globe.  It 
stands  on  the  border  between  Ne- 
pal and  Tibet,  and  its  snow-covered 
peak  is  difficult  of  access,  and  has 
never  been  ascended  or  thoroughly 
explored.  It  was  named  after  Sir 
George  Everest  (1790-1866),  sur- 
veyor-general of  India,  and  has 
often  been  confused  with  the 
neighbouring  peak,  Gaurisaukar. 
British  expeditions,  in  1921,  1922, 
and  1924  attempted  to  scale  it, 
but  without  success 

Everett.  City  of  Massachusetts, 
U.S.A.,  in  Middlesex  co.  It  stands 
on  the  Mystic  river,  4  m.  N.E.  of 
Boston,  and  is  served  by  the 
Boston  and  Maine  Rly.  Its  indus- 
trial activities  include  ironfounding 
and  the  manufacture  of  steel,  boots 
and  shoes,  radiators,  and  leather 
goods.  Settled  in  1643,  it  became  a 
city  in  1892.  Pop.  40,150. 

Everett.  City  of  Washington, 
U.S.A.,  the  co.  seat  of  Snohomish 
co.  A  port  of  entry  on  Puget 
Sound,  it  is  34  m.  N.  of  Seattle,  and 
is  served  by  the  Chicago,  Milwau- 
kee and  St.  Paul,  and  other  rlys. 
Situated  in  a  mineral  and  lumber- 
ing region,  it  has  an  excellent  har- 
bour, and  trades  largely  in  the  pro- 
ducts of  the  locality.  Settled  in 
1891,  it  was  incorporated  in  1893. 
Pop.  32,050. 

Everett,  EDWARD  (1794-1865). 
American  statesman  and  writer. 
Born  at  Dorchester,  Massachusetts, 
April  11,  1794,  he  was  for  two  years 
a  Unitarian  minister.  Leaving  the 
ministry,  he  became  professor  of 
Greek  at  Harvard  College,  1819-25, 
and  president,  1846-49.  He  edited 
the  North  American  Review,  1820- 
24,  was  member  of  Congress,  1824- 


35,  minister  to  Great  Britain 
1841-45,  and  senator  1853-54,  when 
he  abandoned  publiclife.  In  politics 
Everett  was 
a  republican, 
and  when  the 
Civil  War 
broke  "(fat  he 
strongly  sup- 
ported  the 
cause  of  the 
Union,  al- 
though to  the 
Edward  Everett,  last  he  had 
American  statesman  hoped  that 
war  might  be  averted.  He  died  at 
Boston,  Jan.  15,1 865.  His  literary 
output  consists  mainly  of  articles  in 
The  North  American  Review,  and 
A  Defence  of  Christianity,  1814. 
His  reputation,  however,  chiefly 
rests  upon  his  speeches,  highly 
elaborate  and  most  carefully  pre- 
pared. See  Orations  and  Speeches, 
1850-59 ;  Life  and  Services  of 
Edward  Everett,  R.  H.  Dana,  1865. 
Everglades.  Swampy  wilder- 
ness in  S.  Florida,  U.S.A.  The 
region  is  low-lying  and  its  heavy 
rainfall  and  high  temperature  en- 
courage the  rank  growth  of  vegeta- 
tion, thus  increasing  the  natural 
difficulty  of  drainage.  Situated  in 
the  S  part  of  the  state,  it  extends 
N.  to  S.  for  about  120  m.  and  is 
about  45  m.  broad.  During  the 
rainy  season  it  has  a  depth  of  1  ft. 
to  10  ft.  It  contains  a  number  of 
islands  bearing  cypresses,  pines, 
palms,  and  vines,  but  is  mainly  a 
huge,  almost  impenetrable,  tract 
covered  with  saw-grass  which 
reaches  a  height  of  6  ft.  Attempts 
at  reclamation  by  cutting  canals 
have  met  with  some  success,  and 
sugar-cane  has  been  cultivated  in 
the  drained  portions.  See  Florida. 


Everest.    The  highest  peak  in  tbe  world  viewed  from  Mt.  Phalut,  Darieeling. 
Five  miles  high,  its  summit  is  almost  inaccessible  * 


EVERGREENS 

Evergreens.  Plants  whose 
leaves  last  several  years  and 
are  not  shed  simultaneously.  The 
plants  are  thus  never  leafless.  The 
holly,  for  example,  produces  new 
leaves  each  season,  but  each  of 
these  lives  for  three  or  four  years  ; 
therefore,  although  there  is  a  leaf- 
fall  every  year,  it  only  affects  the 
oldest  leaves  and  the  foliage  as  a 
whole  is  always  full  and  green. 
Evergreen  leaves  are  of  leathery 
consistence  with  glossy  surface, 
and  are  thus  protected  against 
rapid  loss  of  moisture  in  summer 
and  the  effects  of  frost  in  winter. 

Everlastings  OB  IMMOKTELLES. 
Term  applied  to  the  flower-heads  of 
certain  composite  plants.  Their 
bracts  are  of  a  hard,  parchment- 


Everlastings.  Flowers  of  Helichry- 
sum  bracteatum,  which,  when  dried, 
retain  their  colour  and  form  for  years 

like  character  and  coloured,  so  that 
if  gathered  in  their  prime,  i.e.  just 
before  they  are  fully  expanded, 
they  will  retain  their  form  and 
colour  for  several  years.  The  most 
striking  of  these  are  species  of 
Helichrysum,  Acroclinium,  Rho- 
danthe,  Aphelexis,  Waitzia,  and 
Xeranthemum.  When  gathered 
they  are  hung  heads  downwards  to 
ensure  perfect  drying. 

Eversley.  Village  and  parish  of 
Hampshire,  England.  It  is  14  m. 
N.E.  of  Basingstoke,  and  almost  on 
the  borders  of  Surrey.  The  church 
of  S.  Mary,  which  dates  from  the 
early  part  of  the  18th  century,  had 
Charles  Kingsley  for  its  rector  from 
1844-75.' ,  He  is  buried  in  the 
churchyard  and  the  place  is  chiefly 
known  for  its  association  with  him. 
Near  is  Bramshill  House,  a  fine 
building  erected  for  Prince  Henry, 
son  of  James  I.  Pop.  841. 

Eversley,  CHARLES  SHAW-LE 
FEVBE,  IST  VISCOUNT  (1794-1888). 
British  politician.  Born  Feb.  22, 
1794,  he  was 
educated  at 
^^  Winchester 
•  and  Trinity 
College,  Cam- 
.  bridge.  He  en- 
I  t:  \  tered  Parlia- 

1    mentasaWhig 
I    in    1830     and 
jj    sat     for     N. 
1st  Viscount  Eversiey.     Hants     from 
British  politician        1832-57.  After 


3O27 

serving  as  chairman  of  various  com- 
mittees, he  was  elected  speaker  in 
1839,  and  filled  that  office  with  dis- 
tinction, reforming  procedure  and 
maintaining  order  in  the  difficult 
times  of  O'Connell  and  the  free 
trade  debates.  In  1857  he  retired 
and  was  created  Viscount  Eversley. 
He  died  at  Heckfield,  Hampshire, 
Dec.  28, 1888.  The  title  became  ex- 
tinct, but  was  revived  as  a  barony 
in  1906  in  favour  of  his  nephew, 
Rt.  Hon.  G.  J.  Shaw-Lefevre. 

Eversley,  GEORGE  JOHN  SHAW- 
LEFEVRE,  BARON  (b.  1832).  British 
politician.    Born  June  12,  1832,  he 
was    educated 
at    Eton    and 
Trinity      Col- 
1  e  g  e,    C  a  m- 
bridge.      As  a 
Liberal  he  was 
M.P.  for  Read- 
ing,    1863-85 
and  for  Brad- 
ford, 1885-95. 
He    was    civil     1st  Baron  Eversley, 
lord     of      the        British  politician 
admiralty    i  n  Ruisel1 

1856,  secretary  to  the  board  of 
trade,  1869-71  ;  secretary  to  the 
admiralty,  1871-74;  first  commis- 
sioner of  works,  1881-83  and  1892- 
93;  postmaster-general,  1883-84; 
and  president  of  the  local  govern- 
ment board,  1894-95.  He  was  raised 
to  the  peerage  in  1906.  In  1919 
he  published  his  Reminiscences. 

Evert,  ALEXIS  ERMOLAEVITCH 
(b.  1857).  Russian  soldier.  Born 
Feb.  20,  1857,  he  entered  the  army 
in  1874,  saw  active  service  in  the 
Russo-Turkish  War,  1877-78,  and 
took  part  in  the  Russo-Japanese 
War,  1904-5.  After  the  outbreak 
of  the  Great  War  he  commanded 
one  of  the  Russian  armies  in  'S.E 


EVERTON 

Poland,  which 

defeated    the 

Austrians 

under     Dankl 

in  Aug.-Sept., 

1914.  In  1915- 

16     he     was 

comma  nder 

in-chief  of  the 

Russian     cen-          Alexis  Evert, 

tral     armies,        Russian  soldier 

and  skilfully  conducted  the  retreat 

from  the  Niemen.    He  resigned  his 

command  in  March,  1917. 

Everton.  Parish  of  Lancashire, 
England,  forming  a  N.E.  suburb  of 
Liverpool,  and  within  its  borough 
limits.  Here  is  S.  Edward's  Roman 
Catholic  College,  founded  1842  and 
enlarged  in  1875.  It  stands  in  its 
own  grounds  of  11  acres.  Everton 
is  celebrated  for  its  toffee.  Pop. 
120,865.  See  Liverpool. 

Everton.  Association  Football 
Club.  Founded  in  1879,  it  origi- 
nated from  a  church  school,  the 
first  ground  being  in  Stanley  Park, 
Liverpool.  In  1885  it  adopted  pro- 
fessionalism, and  in  1888  was  one  of 
the  twelve  clubs  that  formed  the 
Football  League  on  its  foundation. 
The  club  has  played  in  the  premier 
division  ever  since.  In  the  first 
year  of  the  competition  it  occupied 
eighth  place  in  the  league  table,  and 
in  1890-91  secured  the  champion- 
ship, scoring  29  points  out  of  a  pos- 
sible 44.  In  1914-15  it  again  won 
chief  honours,  its  record  being  46 
pouits  out  of  a  possible  76.  On  six 
occasions  the  club  has  been  runner- 
up.  Everton  won  the  Football 
Association  Cup  in  1905-6,  beating 
Newcastle  United  by  one  goal  to 
nil  in  the  final.  Their  ground  is 
Goodison  Park,  Liverpool.  See 
Football. 


Everton.     Association  Football  Club  Team,  1920-21.     Left  to  right,  standing  : 

J.  Elliott  (trainer),  T.  Fleetwood,  J.  McDonald,  A,  Grenyer,  T.  Fern,  G.  Brew- 

ster,  R.  Downs  ;   sitting,    S.  Chedgzoy,  W.  Kifsopp,  J.  Peacock.   D.   Reid, 

G.  Harrison,  —  Clarkson 


Tuson.   Manchester 


EVERYMAN 


3O28 


EVIDENCE 


Everyman.  English  morality 
play  of  the  late  15th  century,  pro- 
bably translated  from  its  Dutch 
counterpart,  Elckerlijk  (printed  c. 
1495).  The  earliest  known  editions 
of  Everyman  were  printed  by 
Richard  Pynson  (undated,  but  ap- 
parently before  1531).  The  play, 
which  "  comprises  the  whole  pitiful 
pathos  of  human  life  and  death,"  is 
one  of  the  finest  examples  of  the 
moralities.  The  story  of  God's 
summoning  of  Everyman  (all  man- 
kind represented  as  an  individual) 
by  Death  on  that  journey  which  none 
may  escape,  and  of  Everyman's  at- 
tempts to  find  a  willing  companion, 
is  based  on  an  earlier  parable  told  in 
the  religious  romance  of  Barlaam 
and  Josaphat  (q.v.). 

Bibliography,  Select  Collection  of 
Old  Plays,  R.  Dodsley,  ed.  W.  C. 
Hazlitt,  vol.  1,  1874;  Everyman, 
introd.  by  F.  Sidgwick,  1902;  The 
Summoning  of  Everyman,  ed.  J.  S. 
Farmer,  1906. 

Everyman  Theatre.  Theatre 
at  Hampstead,  London,  N.W.  A 
drill-hall  close  to  the  Tube  station 
at  Hampstead  was  acquired  and 
fitted  up  as  a  small  theatre  with 
a  seating  capacity  of  about  300. 
This  was  opened  as  a  repertory 
theatre  on  Sept.  15,  1920,  with 
Bonds  of  Interest,  a  Spanish  com- 
edy by  Jacinto  Benevente,  and 
other  high-class  plays  followed  in 
quick  succession.  Norman  Mac- 
Dermott  was  the  first  manager. 

Evesham.  Mun.  bor.  and  mar- 
ket town  of  Worcestershire,  Eng- 
land It  stands  on  the  Avon,  15  m. 
E.S.E.  of  Wor- 
cester, on  the 
G.W.  and  Mid. 
Rlys.  S.  Egwin 
founded  a  Bene- 
dictine monas- 
tery here  in  the 
8th  century,  of 
which  a  bell 
tower  and  gate- 
The  town  hall  k 

an  Elizabethan  structure,  and  the 
grammar  school  was  founded  by 
Abbot  Lichfield  in  1536.  The 
battle  of  Evesham  was  fought  at 
Green  Hill.  The  site  is  marked  by 
an  obelisk.  Fruit  growing  and  mar- 
ket gardening  are  actively  engaged 
in.  There  is  excellent  boating  on 
the  Avon.  Market  day,  Mon.  The 
town  lends  its  name  to  a  co.  div. 
returning  one  member  to  Parlia- 
ment. Pop.  8,340. 

Evesham,  BATTLE  OF.  Fought 
Aug.  4.  1265,  between  the  royalists 
under  Edward,  afterwards  Edward 
I,  and  the  baronial  party  under 
Simon  de  Montfort.  Defections  had 
broken  Montfort' s  power,  and  in 
the  summer  of  1265  he  was  retreat- 
ing before  his  foes.  The  force 
which  his  son  Simon  was  bringing 


Evesham  arms 
way  still  remain. 


from  the  S.  to  join  him  was  de- 
stroyed by  Edward  at  Kenilworth, 
Aug.  1,  and  the  elder  Simon,  fall- 
ing back  into  Wales,  halted  at 
Evesham,  Aug.  3.  Prince  Edward 
hastened  up  and  cut  off  all  chances 
of  escape.  His  plans  were  so 
cleverly  laid  that  Earl  Simon  ex- 
claimed :  "  God  have  mercy  on 
our  souls,  for  our  bodies  are  theirs." 
The  royalists  attacked  in  two 
divisions,  and  the  battle  was  soon 
over.  Numbers  told,  both  Simon's 
horse  and  foot  gave  way,  the 
former  only  after  a  stubborn  re- 
sistance, and  Montfort  and  his  son 
Henry  were  killed. 

Eviction  (Lat.  evincere,  to  over- 
come). Name  given  to  the  process 
of  ejecting  a  tenant  from  a  house  or 
land.  In  the  United  Kingdom,  as 
the  law  stood  before  1914,  an  evic- 
tion order  could  be  obtained  from 
a  magistrate  by  the  landlord,  pro- 
vided he  had  given  due  notice  to 
the  tenant.  The  legislation  occa- 
sioned by  the  Great  War  made  evic- 
tions more  difficult,  and  by  the 
Courts  (Emergency  Powers)  and 
other  Acts,  tenants  could  only  be 
evicted  if  the  landlord  required  the 
premises  for  his  own  use.  The 
word  is  chiefly  known  in  connexion 
with  the  evictions  of  Irish  tenants 
for  refusing  to  pay  their  rent,  which 
was  a  marked  feature  of  the  land 
trouble  between  1880  and  1900. 
In  1907  an  Act  for  the  benefit  of 
the  evicted  tenants  was  passed  ; 
it  gives  powers  to  commissioners 
to  secure  land  for  them.  See 
Distraint ;  Ireland ;  History ;  Rent 
Restriction. 


Evesham.     Bell  tower  of  the  old 
Benedictine  monastery 

From  a  sketch  by  C.  O.  Harper 

Evidence  (Lat.  evidentia).  Word 
used  for  the  legal  method  of  prov- 
ing facts  in  a  court  of  law.  The 
law  of  evidence  is  one  of  the  chief 
points  of  difference  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  justice  between  English- 
speaking  countries  and  others. 
English  courts  are  very  strict  in 
their  admission  of  evidence,  or 
rather  in  their  exclusion  of  certain 
matters  of  evidence  and  modes  of 
proof.  The  chief  rules  of  evidence 
are  :  (1 )  That  all  evidence  must  be 
relevant  to  the  issue ;  (2)  that 


such    relevant    matters    must    be 
proved  by  the  "  best "  evidence. 

Relevancy  is  really  a  matter  of 
logic.  How  far  any  given  fact 
offered  to  be  proved  tends  to  prove 
any  matter  in  issue  is  for  the  judge 
to  decide.  One  or  two  things  may 
be  borne  in  mind.  A  witness's 
opinion  (e.g.  "I  think  the  driver 
of  the  car  was  to  blame")  is  no 
evidence.  It  is  never  relevant, 
except  where  technical  matters  are 
in  dispute,  and  then  the  opinion  of 
skilled  experts  is  admitted  because 
there  is  no  other  way  of  arriving  at 
the  facts.  The  character  of  the 
parties  is  not  relevant ;  and,  there- 
fore, if  I  sue  a  man  for  damages 
for  fraud  I  arn  not  allowed  to 
call  50  witnesses  to  show  that  he 
is  a  man  who  has  committed 
other  frauds.  All  I  am  allowed 
to  do  is  to  cross-examine  him  as 
to  his  character,  and  try  to  drive 
him  to  admit  that  his  record  is 
bad.  But  even  this  is  not  evidence 
that  he  defrauded  me. 

The  only  time  a  plaintiff,  or 
prosecutor,  can  call  evidence  of  the 
kind  above  described  is  where  the 
evidence  shows  a  system  of  wrong- 
doing, and  the  act  in  issue  is  a  part 
of  the  system — long  firm  frauds  for 
example.  On  the  other  hand,  a 
man  accused  of  crime  may  always 
bring  evidence  of  his  good  charac- 
ter. A  plaintiff's  character  can  be 
attacked  to  reduce  the  damages  in 
an  action  for  slander  or  libel  ;  be- 
cause, obviously,  a  man  of  bad 
character  does  not  suffer  so  much 
from  an  attack  on  his  reputation 
as  a  man  of  good  character  does. 

The  rule  of  best  evidence  is  a  rule 
of  exclusion,  It  excludes  hearsay. 
If  you  wish  to  prove  something 
seen  or  heard,  you  must  put  in  the 
box  the  man  who  saw  or  heard  it, 
and  not  a  man  who  heard  that 
another  man  saw  or  heard  it.  This 
is  English  law.  The  contents  of  a 
document  must  be  proved  by  pro- 
ducing the  document  itself.  If 
the  document  is,  or  has  been,  in 
the  possession  of  the  other  side, 
who  does  not  produce  it  after  no- 
tice to  do  so,  secondary  evidence 
may  be  given.  Again,  if  the  judge 
is  satisfied  that  it  has  been  lost, 
stolen,  or  destroyed,  secondary 
evidence  is  admissible.  Bankers  are 
allowed,  instead  of  producing  their 
books  in  court,  to  send  a  certified 
copy.  And  there  are  whole  classes 
of  public  documents,  such  as  en- 
tries in  marriage,  birth  and  death 
registers,  wills,  or  bills  of  sale, 
which  can  be  proved  by  officially 
certified  copies. 

A  statement  made  by  one  of  the 
parties  (admission  or  confession)  is 
always  evidence  against  him,  but 
not  in  his  favour.  Thus,  a  trades- 
man cannot  put  in  his  books  to 


EVIDENCES    OF    CHRISTIANITY 


3029 


EVOLUTE 


prove  his  claim  ;  but  the  other 
side  can  call  for  them  and  put 
them  in  to  disprove  it. 

There  are  a  few  exceptions  to 
the  rule  against  hearsay,  i.e.  in 
pedigree  cases,  the  statements 
made  by  a  deceased  member  of 
the  family  before  the  litigation 
was  mooted.  For  example,  the 
question  being  whether  Harry 
Smith  is  the  son  of  John  Smith  of 
Chichester,  a  member  of  the 
family  can  say,  "  My  mother  was 
John  Smith's  sister.  She  is  now 
dead.  I  often  heard  her  say  that 
her  brother  John  married,  and  had 
a  son  he  called  Harry  after  my 
grandfather."  On  this  principle, 
entries  in  family  Bibles,  and  even 
inscriptions  on  tombstones  can  be 
called  into  play.  Another  class  of 
hearsay  admissible  is  "  declara- 
tion against  interest"  by  a  de- 
ceased person.  Thus,  a  deceased 
solicitor's  bill,  receipted,  but  not 
otherwise,  is  admissible  in  evi- 
dence to  prove  the  facts  set  out  in 
it.  Yet  another  class  of  hearsay 
admissible  is  any  entry  made  by  a 
person,  since  deceased,  which  it 
was  his  duty  to  make  when  he 
made  it. 

At  one  time,  the  English  com- 
mon law  did  not  allow  any  person 
who  was  interested  in  an  action  to 
give  evidence,  whether  his  interest 
arose  from  blood  or  was  pecuniary. 
This  restriction  has  now  been  done 
away  with.  The  only  remnant  of  it 
remaining  is  that  in  a  criminal  case, 
except  in  a  case  of  bigamy,  a 
husband  or  wife  cannot  give  evi- 
dence for  the  prosecution,  unless  it 
is  on  a  charge  brought  by  one 
spouss  against  the  other.  See 
Jurisprudence  ;  Law. 

Evidences  of  Christianity,  A 
VIEW  OF  THE.  Theological  work  by 
William  Paley  first  published  in 
1794,  containing  (1)  the  direct  his- 
torical evidences  of  Christianity  ; 

(2)  the  auxiliary  evidences  ;    and 

(3)  a  consideration  of  some  popular 
objections.    Largely  based  on  But- 
ler's Analogy  of  Religion  and  Na- 
thaniel   Lardner's    Credibility    of 
the  Gospel  History,  the  work,  in  its 
time  hailed  as  a  crushing  reply  to 
scepticism,  has  come  to  be  regarded 
as  inadequate. 

Evil.  In  the  theological  and 
ethical  sense  the  absence  of  good, 
or  unsatisfied  desire.  But  neither 
definition  is  satisfactory.  To  say 
that  evil  is  the  absence  or  the 
opposite  of  good  at  once  raises  the 
question,  "  What  is  good  ?  "  ;  and 
the  answer  must  depend  largely 
upon  the  standpoint  of  the  in- 
dividual. To  define  evil  as  un- 
satisfied desire  pre-supposes  that 
the  desire  itself  is  not  evil.  If  it  is, 
its  frustration  is  good  rather  than 
evil.  To  find  the  supreme  good  in 


the  satisfaction  of  desire,  and  evil 
in  its  frustration,  ignores  the  pos- 
sibility of  a  higher  and  external 
moral  imperative  taking  prece- 
dence over  mere  personal  desire. 

From  the  theological  point  of 
view,  the  definition  of  evil  is  com- 
paratively simple.  It  is  that  which 
does  not  conform  to  the  Will  of 
God.  But  the  Will  of  God  is  mani- 
fested by  both  direct  command 
and  by  permission.  Evil,  like  all 
other  things,  can  only  exist  by 
divine  permission ;  and  in  this 
sense  its  existence  is  not  contrary 
to  the  Will  of  God.  But  the  thing 
in  itself  and  the  fact  of  its  existence 
are  not  the  same  thing.  The  Will 
of  God  may  permit  the  existence 
of  an  evil  which  is  itself  directly 
opposed  to  that  Will ;  and  such 
permission  in  no  sense  makes  God 
the  author  or  the  cause  of  evil. 
The  Problem  of  Relativity 

Why  evil  is  permitted  to  exist 
has  always  been  a  perplexing  pro- 
blem ;  and  it  is  not  greatly  helped 
by  the  counter  question,  "  Does 
evil  exist  ?"  If  evil  is  a  mere  nega- 
tion or  absence  of  good,  it  has  no 
real  existence,  and  is  nothing  at  all. 
What  really  happens  is  that  the 
good  exists  in  a  less  degree  than 
is  to  be  desired.  The  existence  of 
so-called  evil,  therefore,  resolves 
itself  into  this — that  the  universe 
is  not  perfect.  Viewing  evil  as 
merely  imperfection,  the  problem 
of  its  existence  becomes  less  diffi- 
cult. It  is  no  reflection  on  the 
goodness  of  God  that  He  is  pleased 
to  let  the  world  progress  through 
imperfection  to  perfection.  Such  a 
process  of  progression  and  growth 
is  analogous  to  what  is  seen  in  the 
world  of  animal  and  vegetable  life. 

Another  element  in  the  problem 
of  evil  is  that  of  relativity.  In 
certain  circumstances  and  in  some 
relations  a  thing  may  be  evil  which 
is  not  necessarily  evil  in  itself. 
But  we  are  not  in  a  position  to 
judge  the  circumstances  or  to 
weigh  the  relations  ;  for  the  simple 
reason  that  only  a  portion  of  the 
world  of  reality  lies  within  our 
ken.  We  only  see  part  of  the 
machine  ;  and  those  parts  which 
appear  inappropriate  or  superflu- 
ous may  be  essential  or  beneficial 
to  the  part  of  which  we  know 
nothing.  See  Ethics. 

Evil  Eye.  Faculty  of  causing 
material  harm  by  means  of  a 
glance.  In  Shakespeare,  and  in 
modern  rural  England,  it  is  called 
overlooking.  From  its  ancient 
Roman  name  fascinum  comes  the 
word  fascination.  Distinguishable 
from  the  subjective  influence  of 
the  eyes  of  snakes,  it  denotes  a 
form  of  witchcraft,  owing  its  origin 
to  the  presumption  that  the  eye  is 
capable  of  operating  at  a  distance. 


It  may  be  exerted,  voluntarily  or 
involuntarily,  upon  human  beings 
and  domestic  animals,  especially 
when  young,  besides  crops,  dwel- 
lings and  other  objects.  Envy 
(Lat.  invidia,  on-looking)  is  a 
potent  incentive  of  evil  eye. 

The  belief  is  traceable  to  the 
beginnings  of  recorded  history, 
and  its  widespread  survival  in 
primitive  culture  attests  its  prime- 
val origin.  Various  curative  and 
preventive  measures  are  employed. 
Prevention  is  sought  by  spitting, 
muttering  counter-charms,  making 
offensive  figures  or  gestures,  giving 
to  children  opprobrious  names, 
wearing  knotted  cords,  or  display- 
ing amulets,  many  of  which  are 
specific  for  evil  eye.  They  include 
representations  of  eyes — such  as 
the  ancient  Egyptian  uza — hands, 
horns,  teeth,  shells,  nuts,  lunar 
crescents — such  as  the  camel- 
ornaments  of  Judges  8 — red  and 
blue  objects,  and  magical  or  sacred 
texts.  Evil  eye  is  referred  to  by  its 
technical  name  in  the  N.T.  in  Gal.  3, 
where  it  is  translated  "  bewitched." 
The  Greek  belief  is  enshrined  in  the 
mythical  gorgon  Medusa,  whose 
glance  turned  its  victims  to  stone ; 
the  use  of  the  gorgon's  head  as  a 
preventive  amulet  persists  in 
modern  doorknockers.  See  Divin- 
ation ;  Magic ;  consult  also  Evil 
Eye,  F.  T.  El  worthy,  1895. 

Evil-Merodach  (d.  560  B.C.). 
King  of  Babylon.  The  name  is  the 
Biblical  spelling  of  the  cuneiform 
Amel-Marduk,  servant  of  Marduk. 
He  succeeded  his  father,  Nebu- 
chadrezzar II,  and  after  a  career 
of  tyranny  and  unrestraint  was, 
within  two  years,  violently  slain 
by  his  brother-in-law,  the  Nergal- 
sharezer  of  Jer.  39,  who  seized  the 
throne.  In  II  Kings  25  he  is  said 
to  have  shown  special  clemency  to 
Jehoiachin,  king  of  Judah,  after 
37  years  of  rigorous  imprisonment. 

E  volute  (Lat.  e,  from,  out ; 
volvere,  to  roll).  In  geometry  a 
curve  which  is  the  path  of  all 
points  that  are  the  centres  of 
curvature  of  a  second  curve  called 
the  involute.  To  measure  the  cur- 
vature of  any  involute  we  find  a 
circle  which  coincides  with  the 
curve  for  a  short  distance.  If  the 
curvature  to  be  measured  is  great 
this  circle  of  curvature  can  only 
have  a  small  radius  because  it  will 
accompany  the  first  curve  only  a 
small  way.  If  the  curvature  is 
small  the  radius  of  the  circle  will 
be  correspondingly  larger.  The 
centre  of  this  circle  at  any  point  on 
the  curve  is  the  centre  of  curvature 
at  that  point.  It  is  clear  that  there 
will  be  a  number  of  these  circles 
for  any  curve.  When  their  centres 
are  all  joined  up  they  form  the 
evolute.  See  Circle :  Geometry. 


EVOLUTION 


3O3O 


EVOLUTION 


EVOLUTION:  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  LIFE 

J.   Arthur  Thomson.    LL.D.,   Regius  Prof,  of  Natural  History,  Aberdeen 

This  important  article  can  well  be  supplemented  by  those  on  Biology  ; 

Life ;  Sex.     See  also  Cell ;  Heredity  ;  and  other  articles  bearing  on 

the  subject;  also  Darwin  ;  Gallon;  biographies  of  other  biologists 


Evolution  (Lat.  evolvere,  to  unroll) 
is  a  process  wherein  one  kind  of 
living  creature  gives  rise  to  another 
kind,  which  persists  alongside  of 
or  in  place  of  the  original  stock. 
Thus  we  believe  that  birds  evolved 
from  an  ancient  reptilian  stock,  and 
mankind  from  a  primitive  simian 
lineage,  the  origins  in  both  cases 
being  extinct.  In  the  case  of 
domestic  pigeons  derived  from  the 
wild  rock-dove  (Columba  livia),  or 
of  poultry  derived  from  the  jungle- 
fowl  (Gallus  bankiva),  the  origins 
are  still  extant.  Similarly,  wild 
ancestors  of  such  cultivated  plants 
as  cabbages  and  apple-trees  still 
exist.  The  evolutionary  process  is 
going  on  among  wild  plants  and 
animals,  e.g.  in  some  evening 
primroses,  or  in  many  birds  and 
butterflies,  but  it  is  not  readily 
detected  in  a  lifetime  or  in  the 
relatively  short  time  since  precise 
biological  registration  began. 
What  Evolution  Means 

While  evolution  is  strictly  a 
slow  racial  change  in  living  crea- 
tures, the  term  is  often  used  much 
more  widely.  Evolution  should  not 
be  confused  with  development, 
which  is  best  restricted  to  a  con- 
tinuous change  in  one  and  the 
same  unity,  such  as  a  germ,  a  seed, 
an  organ,  an  institution,  or  a  solar 
system.  Development  agrees  with 
evolution  in  being  a  series  of 
changes  in  a  definite  direction 
from  one  position  of  equilibrium 
to  another,  but  differs  from  it  in 
concerning  one  and  the  same  in- 
dividual system  from  beginning  to 
end,  whereas  evolution  is  racial,  im- 
plying a  succession  of  generations 
and  a  sifting  process.  Briefly, 
development  in  biology  is  the 
individual's  coming  to  be  (Onto- 
geny) ;  evolution,  in  biology,  is 
the  genetic  history  of  a  race 
(Phylogeny).  Hence  we  should 
speak  of  the  development,  not  of 
the  evolution,  of  the  earth. 

Evolution  may  be  hi  the  direc- 
tion of  increased  complexity  and 
control  (differentiation  and  integra- 
tion), or  in  the  opposite  direction. 
A  tapeworm  is  the  result  of  a  pro- 
cess of  evolution  just  as  surely  as  is 
the  golden  eagle  within  which  it 
lives.  Yet  in  spite  of  many  in- 
stances of  retrogressive  evolution  in 
animate  nature,  the  general  trend 
of  the  process  has  been  progressive, 
i.e.  towards  increased  differentia- 
tion and  integration  of  fuller  and 
freer  life.  This  fact  must  never  be 
lost  sight  of  in  contemplating  the 
history  of  things  as  a  whole.  i 


As  applied  to  living  creatures, 
the  evolution  theory  states  the 
broad  idea  that  the  present  is  the 
child  of  the  past  and  the  parent  of 
the  future.  The  fauna  and  flora  of 
to-day,  both  in  themselves  and  in 
their  myriad  inter-relations,  are 
the  outcome  of  an  antecedent  state 
of  affairs  in  which  animals  and 
plants  were  on  the  whole  rather 
simpler.  This  again  originated  in 
organisms  and  relations  simpler 
still,  and  so  on  back  through  hun- 
dreds of  millions  of  years,  until  all 
clues  are  lost,  and  we  find  our- 
selves in  the  mist  of  life's  begin- 
nings. The  evolution  theory  thus 
states  the  view  that  the  manifold 
intricacy  of  animate  nature  has 
arisen  by  a  natural  process  of  slow 
organic  change,  similar  to  that 
seen  in  the  history  of  domestic 
animals  and  cultivated  plants. 

One  point  remains  to  be  empha- 
sised. The  statement  that  living 
creatures  have  come  to  be  as  they 
are  by  evolution,  only  means 
that  their  history  has  been  a 
natural  history,  the  moves  in  which 
have  known,  or  at  any  rate  know- 
able,  causes.  To  think  that  any 
result  whatsoever  acquires  dig- 
nity, permanency,  worth,  invulner- 
ability, or  sanctity,  because  it  is 
the  result  of  evolution,  is  a  misun- 
derstanding, for  the  value  of  sur- 
vival, as  judged  by  human  stand- 
ards, depends  on  the  conditions 
under  which  survival  is  secured. 
Evidences  of  Organic  Evolution 

This  general  evolution  theory, 
or  doctrine  of  descent,  cannot  be 
proved  like  the  law  of  gravitation. 
It  is  the  only  scientific  way  of 
answering  the  question :  How 
has  the  present-day  system  of 
animate  nature  come  into  being  ? 
But  while  all  the  facts  of  zoology 
and  botany  serve  as  evidences  of 
evolution,  four  main  lines  of  argu- 
ment have  been  followed  by 
Darwin  and  others. 

The  first  is  mainly  ana- 
tomical. Many  facts  in  regard  to 
structure  corroborate  the  evolu- 
tionist interpretation,  and  seem  to 
naturalists  to  admit  of  no  other. 
Thus,  the  fore -limb  of  a  frog,  the 
paddle  of  a  turtle,  the  wing  of  a 
bird,  the  fore -leg  of  a  horse,  the 
flipper  of  a  whale,  the  wing  of  a 
bat,  the  arm  of  a  man,  exhibit  in 
diverse  guise  the  same  essential 
parts,  twisted  into  manifold  forms 
for  different  uses,  but  always  of  the 
same  fundamental  type.  There  is 
essential  similarity  in  the  import- 
ant bones,  and  considerable  re- 


semblance in  the  musculature,  in- 
nervation,  and  blood-supply.  All 
these  fore-limbs  are  homologous 
with  one  another,  i.e.  they  agree 
in  fundamental  structure  and  de- 
velopment. It  is  difficult  to 
understand  this  adherence  to 
type  except  on  the  theory  of  the 
actual  flesh-and-blood  relationship 
of  backboned  animals.  Many  ves- 
tigial organs  in  animals,  especially 
the  higher  animals,  remain  very 
slightly  developed  and  are  of  no 
use;  comparable,  as  Darwin  said,  to 
unpronounced  letters  in  words,  the 
o  in  leopard,  or  the  b  hi  doubt. 
Man  has  a  minute  useless  third 
eyelid  and  a  hint  of  muscles  for 
moving  the  trumpet  of  the  ear.  The 
only  rational  interpretation  of  such 
structures  is  the  evolutionist  one, 
that  they  are  dwindling  relics  of 
structures  well  developed  and  of 
some  functional  importance  in 
ancestral  forms. 

The  Physiological  Argument 

The  second  line  of  argument 
may  be  called  physiological.  When 
the  blood  of  a  horse  is  transfused 
into  an  ass,  or  that  of  a  hare  into  a 
rabbit,  there  is  harmonious  blend- 
ing. But  when  human  blood  is 
transfused  into  a  horse  or  rabbit 
there  is  great  disturbance,  marked, 
for  instance,  by  destruction  of  red 
blood  corpuscles.  The  harmonious 
mingling  is  evidence  of  near  blood- 
relationship,  the  destructive  reac- 
tion proves  the  reverse.  By  modi- 
fication of  this  experiment  it  is 
possible  to  gauge  the  degree  of 
relationship  between  man  and 
the  various  groups  of  apes  and 
monkeys.  Along  with  this  physio- 
logical argument  may  be  taken  the 
abundant  evidence  of  the  varia- 
bility of  living  creatures.  In  a 
short  time  man  has  established 
over  200  breeds  of  domestic 
pigeons,  which  seemallto  have  been 
derived  from  the  blue  rock-dove. 

Another  line  of  argument 
is  historical  or  palaeontological. 
From  the  rock  record  we  have  ac- 
cumulated a  great  mass  of  material 
in  regard  to  the  successive  appear- 
ance of  horse-types,  elephant- 
types,  crocodile-types,  and  so  forth, 
all  reading  like  a  lineage  or  pedi- 
gree. Moreover,  there  are  many 
connecting  links  now  extinct, 
such  as  Archaeopteryx  (see  Birds), 
which,  though  an  indubitable  bird, 
had  several  well-marked  reptilian 
features,  e.g.  teeth  in  both  jaws,  a 
lizard -like  tail,  and  claws  on  the 
three  digits  of  the  hand.  Again, 
there  is  the  big  fact  that  in  the 
rock  record  amphibians  appear 
after  fishes,  reptiles  after  am- 
phibians, birds  and  mammals  after 
reptiles ;  as  age  succeeded  age, 
nobler  and  nobler  forms  of  life 
emerged. 


EVOLUTION 


3031 


EVOLUTION 


Evolution.  Early  and  late  stages  in  evolution.  A.  Early 
four-toed  ancestor  of  the  horse.  Its  proportionate  size  is 
shown  by  comparison  with  a.  B.  Head  and  skull  of  an 
early  ancestor  (Meritherium)  of  the  elephant,  whose  head 
and  skull  are  shown  in  b.  C.  The  oldest  known  bird, 
Archaeopteryx,  two  specimens  of  which  have  been  obtained 
Irom  Jurassic  strata,  compared  with,  c,  golden  eagle 

By  courtesy  of  Andrew  Melrose 

The  embryological  evidence  is 
very  striking.  The  embryos  of  the 
higher  vertebrates,  viz.  reptiles, 
birds,  and  mammals,  develop  for  a 
considerable  distance  along  the 
same  road,  or  along  closely  parallel 
roads,  before  they  diverge.  For 
instance,  in  the  neck  region  of 
the  embryo  higher  vertebrate, 
there  are  gill-clefts  or  visceral 
clefts  which  have  no  respiratory 
significance,  and  can  hardly  be 
said  to  be  useful,  except  that  the 
first  becomes  the  Eustachian  tube 
connecting  the  ear  passage  with 
the  back  of  the  mouth.  These  can 
only  be  recapitulations  of  the  re- 
spiratory apparatus  of  remote 
aquatic,  lower  vertebrate,ancestors. 

Great  Steps  in  Organic  Evolution 
There  was  a  time  when  the  tem- 
perature of  the  earth  was  far  too 
high  to  admit  of  the  existence  of 
any  forms  of  life  like  those  we 
know.  Whether  germs  of  living 
organisms  reached  the  earth  from 
elsewhere,  or  whether  very  simple 
living  organisms  evolved  upon  the 
earth  out  of  non-living  matter,  is 
unknown,  but  it  is  certain  that  liv- 
ing organisms  did  have  a  beginning 


the  first  organ- 
isms were  much 
simpler  in  organi- 
zation than  any 
clearly  visible 
living  creatures 
of  to-day.  It  has 
been  suggested 
that  the  earliest 
living  beings 
were  minute, pos- 
sibly ultra-micro- 
scopic particles 
of  the  nature  of 
chromatin,  a  pro- 
tein material 
characteristic  of 
all  cell-nuclei. 
These  hypothe- 
tical primitive 
organisms  have 
been  called  bio- 
cocci.  Some  of 
these  may  have 
given  rise  to  the 
bacterial  type  of 
organism,  con- 
sisting  of  a 
minute  globule 
of  chromatin  sur- 
rounded bya  firm 
envelope.  As  time 
went  on  and  size 
increased  the 
chromatin-glo- 
bules  might  in- 
crease in  number 
and  acquire  some 
complexity  of 
arrangement,and 
a  non-chromati- 
nic  ground  sub- 
stance (cytoplasm)  might  accu- 
mulate around  them  and  within 
the  envelope. 

On  another  line  of  evolution  a 
less  vegetative  and  more  predatory 
organism  may  have  arisen  by  the 
formation,  around  a  number  of 
biococci  or  chromatin-grains,  of 
an  enveloping  matrix  of  active 
semi-fluid  substance  exhibiting 
streaming  or  amoeboid  movements. 
This  was  a  prototype  of  the  animal, 
and  it  preyed  upon  other  minute 
creatures.  Later  on,  the  chro- 
matin-grains probably  concen- 
trated to  form  a  definite  cell- 
nucleus  in  the  midst  of  the  active 
matrix,  and  a  true  cell  was  formed. 
These  suggestions  serve  to  indi- 
cate that  probably  a  long  journey 
had  to  be  travelled  before  even  the 
first  true  cells  appeared. 

The  next  great  steps  probably 
consisted  in  the  establishment  of 
numerous  distinct  types  of  cellular 
organization,  besides  the  bacterial 
and  the  amoeboid.  On  the  animal 
line  of  evolution,  towards  which 
the  primeval  amoeboid  organisms 
pointed,  there  doubtless  arose  all 
sorts  of  specialisations  of  the 


upon  the  earth,  and  probable  that    creeping  cell,  many  with  support- 


ing skeletal  framework.  More  ac- 
tive forms  had  lashes  of  protoplasm 
instead  of  outflowing  threads  and 
lobes.  Others,with  an  enclosing  cyst, 
were  adapted  for  spending  much 
of  their  life  as  passive  parasites. 

One  of  the  primeval  great  events 
must  have  been  the  emergence  of 
green  plants.  These  perhaps  origin- 
ated among  flagellate  infusorians 
on  the  animal  line  which  had  been 
able  to  build  up  the  green  pigment 
chlorophyll,  the  most  important 
substance  in  the  world,  next  to  liv- 
ing matter  itself.  The  divergence 
between  plants  and  animals  was 
one  of  the  greatest  cleavages  in  evo- 
lution. While  all  typical  animals 
require  organic  food  which  has 
been  worked  up  for  them  by  other 
living  creatures,  green  plants  are 
able  to  utilise  the  energy  of  the 
sunlight,  shining  through  a  screen 
of  chorophyll,  to  break  down  the 
carbon  dioxide  of  the  air,  the  car- 
bon being  used  in  the  rynthesis 
of  complex  organic  compounds. 
Thus  green  plants  feed  at  a  low 
chemical  level,  on  air,  water,  and 
salts,  and  build  up  nutritive  ma- 
terials which  animals  utilise. 

Moreover,  the  plant  ceU  is 
almost  always  surrounded  by  an 
envelope  or  cell-wall  of  cellulose, 
and  this  restriction,  taken  along 
with  the  poorly  developed  means  of 
getting  rid  of  nitrogenous  waste - 
products,  may  explain  the  fixity 
and  sluggishness  of  plant-life.  We 
are  unable  here  to  follow  the  evo- 
lution of  the  plant  world  which 
went  on  simultaneously  with  that 
of  the  animal  world.  One  of  the 
striking  general  impressions  is 
that  of  a  succession  of  dominant 
groups,  each  reaching  supremacy, 
and  then  yielding  to  another. 
Thus  the  gigantic  club-mosses  and 
horse-tails  which  made  great 
forests  yielded  to  Cycad-like  forms 
and  passed  into  relative  insigni- 
ficance ;  the  Cycadophytes  in  turn 
yielded  to  the  flowering  plants. 

Multicellular  Organisms 
It  was  a  red-letter  day  in  organic 
evolution  when  "  bodies  "  began 
to  be,  i.e.  when  some  living  crea- 
tures passed  from  the  unicellular 
to  the  multicellular  grade  of  organi- 
zation. Many  flagellate  infusorians 
form  colonies  or  families  of  con- 
nected cells,  the  daughter-units, 
formed  by  division  of  the  mother- 
unit,  remaining  associated,  instead 
of  drifting  apart  to  live  isolated 
lives,  and  it  was  probably  in  some 
such  way  that  multicellular  organ- 
isms began.  It  must  be  clearly 
understood  that  the  step  was  not 
primarily  one  of  increase  in  size, 
for  a  rotifer  or  wheel-animalcule 
built  up  of  a  thousand  cells  is  much 
smaller  than  a  unicellular  infusor- 
ian  such  as  the  Noctiluca  (q.v.). 


EVOLUTION 


3032 


EVOLUTION 


Nor  was  the  step  primarily  one 
of  increasing  complexity  either 
of  organization  or  activity,  for 
many  ciliated  infusorians,  though 
unicellular,  are  far  more  complex 
in  plasmic  architecture  and  in 
ways  of  life  than  the  fresh-water 
polyps,  built  up  of  thousands  of 
cells.  The  step  was  on  to  a  new 
line  of  organization,  the  formation 
of  a  many-celled  body  in  which 
scope  was  given  to  division  of 
labour  among  the  component 
units.  The  structural  side  of  this 
is  called  differentiation.  The  at- 
tainment of  a  multicellular  body 
opened  the  way  to  unlimited 
specialisation  of  function,  and 
also  to  an  increase  of  size,  which, 
other  things  being  equal,  counts 
for  something  in  a  rough  and  cal- 
lous physical  environment.  The 
nemesis  of  this  great  step  of  gain- 
ing a  body  was  apparently  that 
organisms  became  liable  to  na- 
tural death  in  proportion  to  the 
complexity  of  the  bodily  frame- 
work. For  natural  death  appears 
to  result  from  the  accumulation 
of  wear  and  tear  effects,  and  the 
failure  of  the  ceaseless  attempts  to 
cope  with  these. 

Evolution  of  Sex 

Another  big  step  was  the  evolu- 
tion of  male  and  female  multi- 
cellular  individuals  within  the  same 
species,  the  two  sexes  being  comple- 
mentary in  the  process  of  reproduc- 
tion which  secures  the  continuance 
of  the  race.  The  biological  signifi- 
cance of  the  evolution  of  sex  among 
multicellular  animals  was  threefold. 
First,  sexual  reproduction  implies 
that  multiplication  is  effected  by 
the  liberation  of  germ-cells,  which 
is  more  economical  than  separat- 
ing off  fragments  or  buds.  There 
is  also  an  increasing  possibility 
of  a  large  number  of  offspring. 
Secondly,  to  have  special  germ- 
cells  in  some  measure  apart  from 
the  body-cells  tends  to  secure  the 
hereditary  persistence  of  a  success- 
ful constitution,  and  lessens  the 
risk  of  the  offspring  being  pre- 
judiced by  disadvantageous  dints 
made  on  the  parent's  body. 

Thirdly,  to  have  two  different 
kinds  of  sex-cells,  which  have  to 
unite  at  the  beginning  of  each  in- 
dividual life,  offers  opportunities 
for  new  permutations  and  combi- 
nations of  qualities,  for  those  new 
departures  technically  called  varia- 
tions and  mutations.  The  separa- 
tion of  sperm -producers  or  males 
and  egg-producers  or  females, 
which  differ  deeply  in  constitu- 
tion, would  also  tend  to  increase 
the  range  of  cross  -fertilisation 
which  is  often  advantageous,  and 
would  permit  of  a  profitable  divi- 
sion of  labour  between  the  parents 
in  their  relations  to  the  offspring. 


Differentiation  includes  a  multi- 
tude of  evolutionary  steps.  In  the 
creature  called  Volvox,  which  con- 
sists of  a  thousand  or  ten  thousand 
flagellate  green  cells  united  in  a 
ball,  all  the  component  units,except 
those  concerned  with  reproduction, 
are  alike.  There  is  no  division  of 
labour  in  the  colony.  In  sponges, 
however,  we  see  the  beginnings  of 
tissues,  i.e.  groups  of  similar  cells 
performing  the  same  functions. 
Thus  contractile  tissue,  connective 
tissue,  and  flagellate  lining  tissue 
(or  epithelium)  appear  among 
sponges.  In  the  next  great  series  of 
animals,  the  Coelentera  or  Stinging 
animals,  other  kinds  of  tissue,  such 
as  nervous  and  glandular,  are 
differentiated,  and  we  find  the  first 
occurrence  of  organs,  such  as  sen- 
sory, digestive,  and  reproductive 
organs. 

In  most  sponges  and  stinging  ani- 
mals the  symmetry  of  the  body  is 
radial,  i.e.  there  is  no  right  or  left 
side  ;  the  animal  is  the  same  all 
round.  This  is  well  suited  to  a  se- 
dentary or  drifting  existence,  but 
for  more  strenuous  life  involving 
the  pursuit  of  prey  and  mates,  and 
the  avoidance  of  enemies,  bilateral 
symmetry,  which  virtually  began 
among  "  worms,"  is  incomparably 
more  effective.  It  implies  a  right 
and  a  left  side,  a  head  end  which 
leads  the  way,  and  a  tail  end. 

With  the  acquisition  of  bilateral 
symmetry  was  associated  the  estab- 
lishment of  an  anterior  brain  and 
the  development  of  a  head  worthy 
of  the  name.  This  opened  up  an- 
other line  of  advance,  technic- 
ally called  integration,  in  contrast 
to  differentiation.  Differentiation 
means  increasing  complexity  of 
parts,  integration  means  their  more 
perfect  unification  and  control, 
and  one  of  the  main  functions  of 
the  nervous  system  is  integrative. 
Differentiation  and  Integration 

The  story  of  evolution,  apart 
from  retrogressive  parasites  and 
other  degenerates,  is  one  of  pro- 
gressive differentiation  and  inte- 
gration, and  the  evolutionist  has  to 
record  a  long  series  of  achieve- 
ments. Among  these  are  :  an  open 
food  canal;  a  body  cavity  or  coelom 
between  the  food  canal  and  the 
body  wall ;  striped  or  swiftly  con- 
tracting muscle ;  a  circulatory  sys- 
tem for  distributing  digested  food 
and  oxygen  throughout  the  body 
and  for  collecting  waste;  oxygen- 
capturing  pigments  such  as  haemo- 
globin ;  a  segmented  body  as  in 
earthworms ;  a  renewable  external 
armour  as  in  crustaceans;  muscular 
appendages  first  unjoin  ted  and 
then  jointed;  specialised  sense 
organs  such  as  eyes  and  balancers  , 
improved  respiratory  arrangements 
reaching  extraordinary  perfec- 


tion among  insects ;  delicate  adjust- 
ments for  filtering  out  the  poison- 
ous nitrogenous  waste  of  the  body. 

We  can  only  allude  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  leading  types  of 
architecture  represented  by  the 
various  series  of  invertebrates  or 
backboneless  animals.  Besides  the 
sponges  and  coelenterates,  we  have 
to  deal  with  the  great  variety  of 
worm-types  ;  with  the  higher  seg- 
mented worms  or  Annelids  ;  with 
the  starfishes,  sea-urchins,  and  the 
like  forming  the  Echinoderms ; 
with  the  jointed-footed  Arthro- 
pods, such  as  crustaceans,  insects, 
and  spiders ;  with  the  unsegmented 
molluscs  without  appendages,  such 
as  bivalves,  snails,  and  cuttles; 
and  with  many  smaller  groups. 
Origin  of  Vertebrates 

A  step  of  great  magnitude  was 
the  origin  of  the  backboned  ani- 
mals or  Vertebrates.  It  is  not  un- 
likely that  these  emerged  from  the 
stock  of  segmented  worms.  Their 
origin  meant  a  fresh  start  on  a  new 
line  of  more  masterful  life.  A  dom- 
inant feature  was  the  establish- 
ment of  a  relatively  large  brain 
protected  by  a  skull,  and  of  a  long, 
spinal  cord  protected  by  the  back- 
bone. Of  great  importance  also 
was  the  first  appearance  of  bone 
and  of  an  internal  living  skeleton 
(usually  of  bone)  pervading  the 
whole  body,  and  contributing  to 
integration.  In  the  establishment 
of  numerous  glands  of  internal  se- 
cretion, whose  hormones  or  regula- 
tive substances  are  distributed  by 
the  blood  throughout  the  body, 
a  chemical  integration  began  to 
operate,  or  to  do  so  on  a  larger  scale. 

Skulls  began  with  the  hags  and 
lampreys  ;  jaws  and  paired  fins, 
scales  and  typical  gills  with  the 
true  fishes  ;  digits,  true  lungs,  vocal 
chords,  and  a  mobile  tongue  with 
Amphibians  ;  the  antenatal  robes 
(or  foetal  membranes)  known  as 
amnion  and  allantois  with  the  rep- 
tiles ;  a  four-chambered  heart  with 
the  crocodilians ;  warm-blooded- 
ness,  or  keeping  the  temperature  of 
the  body  approximately  constant, 
with  birds  and  mammals,  which 
also  show  an  enormous  advance  in 
brain  development ;  the  usually 
prolonged  antenatal  connexion  be- 
tween mother  and  offspring  with 
the  placental  mammals.  And  just 
as  amphibians  mark  the  transition 
from  water  to  dry  land,  so  the  ex- 
tinct flying  dragons  (Pterodactyls) 
pointed  towards  that  mastery  of 
the  air  which  birds  and  bats  have 
attained. 

Along  with  the  great  structural 
advances,  there  went  a  functional 
progressiveness.  The  smooth  work- 
ing that  marks  even  the  simplest 
creatures  is  not  lost  with  intricate 
organization.  But  the  scope  of  the 


EVOLUTION 


3033 


EVOLUTION 


life  is  widened  and  its  agency  be- 
comes more  free.  In  a  sense,  the 
behaviour  of  a  ciliated  infusorian 
is  just  as  perfect  as  that  of  a  bird, 
but  the  range  is  narrower,  and  the 
resources  are  fewer.  The  behaviour 
of  ants  and  bees  is  extraordinarily 
effective  on  the  instinctive  line  (see 
Instinct),  and  in  its  way  unsur- 
passable. It  cannot  be  profitably 
pitted  against  the  behaviour  of  a 
horse  or  a  dog,  which  is  on  the  in- 
telligent line,  but  its  range  re- 
sources are  narrower.  The  instinc- 
tive creature  is  apt  to  be  sadly  non- 
plussed by  some  slight  alteration  in 
the  routine  of  its  experience.  What 
Sir  Ray  Lankester  has  called  the 
"  little-brain  "  type,  rich  in  inborn 
or  instinctive  capacities  but  slow 
to  learn,  must  be  distinguished 
from  the  "  big-brain  "  with  little 
ready-made  equipment,  but  with 
prodigious  educability. 

The  "big-brain"  type  came  to 
its  own  in  birds  and  mammals, 
and  there  convincing  evidence  is 
found  of  an  inner  mental  life  of 
subjective  experimenting,  called 
perceptual  inference,  or  intelli- 
gence. Interesting  also  is  the  fact 
that,  as  an  organism  attains  to 
complex  efficiency  and  to  more  or 
less  intelligent  mastery  of  its  en- 
vironment, it  is  able  to  practise 
reproductive  economy.  There  are 
fewer  offspring,  but  there  is  less 
mortality. 

Emergence  of  Man 

In  the  Early  Eocene  age,  perhaps 
three  million  years  ago,  there 
emerged  an  arboreal  race,  the 
Primates,  differentiated  from  other 
mammals  in  digits,  teeth,  skull,  and 
brain.  From  this  stock  there 
diverged  in  succession  the  New 
World  monkeys,  the  small  anthro- 
poid Apes  (gibbon  and  siamang), 
and  the  large  anthropoid  Apes 
(orang,  chimpanzee,  and  gorilla). 
This  left  towards  the  end  of  the 
Oligocene  (or  perhaps  in  the 
Miocene)  a  generalised  human  stem, 
from  which  there  diverged  in  suc- 
cession Pithecanthropus  the  erect, 
the  slouching  man  of  Neanderthal, 
and  the  early  Briton  of  the  Sussex 
Weald — known  by  the  famous 
Piltdown  skull.  None  of  the  off- 
shoots came  to  much,  it  seems, 
but  the  main  stem  continued  as  the 
stock  of  modern  man,  broken  up  in 
relatively  recent  times  into  African, 
Australian,  Mongolian,  and  Euro- 
pean races. 

With  the  emergence  of  Man 
evolution  passed  on  to  another 
grade.  For  there  are  several 
reasons  for  avoiding  the  false  sim- 
plicity of  regarding  social  evolution 
as  no  more  than  a  continuation  of 
infra-human  evolution.  The  first 
and  chief  reason  is  to  be  found  in 
man's  undeniable  apartness  and 


pre-eminence  as  a  rational  and 
social  person.  Man  is  differentiated 
by  his  language,  by  his  capacity  for 
forming  and  experimenting  with 
general  ideas,  i.e.  by  his  reason ,  by 
his  vivid  self-consciousness  of  his 
own  evolution  and  by  purposeful 
determination  to  control  it ;  and  by 
his  strong  kin-instincts.  The  second 
reason  is  the  fact  that  in  social 
history  we  have  to  deal  with 
integrates  of  social  persons,  oper- 
ating as  unities  of  a  higher  order. 
The  third  reason  is  the  importance 
of  what  lies  outside  the  individual, 
namely,  in  literature  and  art,  the 
folk-ways  of  customs  and  tradition, 
the  external  registrations  which  we 
call  institutions.  In  all  this  new 
notes  are  struck,  and  the  evolution 
of  man,  though  continuous  with,  is 
more  than  a  mere  continuation  of, 
the  evolution  that  goes  on  in  infra- 
human  animate  nature. 

Factors  in  Organic  Evolution 

While  the  general  idea  of 
evolution  is  accepted  by  most 
naturalists,  there  is  great  un- 
certainty in  regard  to  the  operative 
factors.  The  uncertainty  is  partly 
due  to  the  difficulty  of  arguing 
from  a  meagre  experience  of  the 
present  to  a  past  of  many  millions 
of  years,  and  partly  to  the  fact  that 
the  inquiry  is  still  very  young,  for 
it  virtually  dates  from  Darwin's 
Origin  of  Species,  1859. 

There  are  two  main  problems. 
The  first  asks  how  the  continual 
emergence  of  new  things,  8f 
changes  or  variations  which  make 
an  organism  appreciably  different 
from  its  parents  or  its  kin,  is  to  be 
accounted  for.  The  second  asks 
what  directive  factors  may  operate 
on  the  variations  which  arise,  deter- 
mining their  elimination  or  persist- 
ence and  working  towards  the 
familiar  but  puzzling  result — the 
existence  of  distinct  and  relatively 
well-adapted  species. 

Some  of  the  peculiarities  or 
observed  differences  distinguish- 
ing members  of  the  same  species 
can  be  shown  to  be  individually 
acquired  bodily  modifications  di- 
rectly due  to  some  peculiarity  of 
nurture  in  the  widest  sense.  But 
as  there  is  no  secure  evidence  that 
these  characteristics  are  trans- 
mitted to  the  offspring,  they  can 
only  be  of  indirect  importance  to 
the  race.  The  raw  material  of 
evolution  is  furnished  not  by  these 
modifications,  but  by  variations 
which  are  inborn,  not  acquired  or 
imposed  from  without. 

Among  these  variations  there 
may  be  distinguished  minute  pecu- 
liarities, and  larger  abrupt  sports  of 
notable  amount,  such  as  a  fantail 
pigeon  or  a  copper  beech.  The 
former,  Darwin's  "  individual  vari- 
ations," may  be  usefully  termed 


fluctuations.  The  sports  corre- 
spond to  Galton's  "  transilient  vari- 
ations," Bateson's  "  discontinuous 
variations,"  De  Vries's  "  muta- 
tions," and  the  last  term  should  be 
kept  for  them.  The  transmissibility 
of  inborn  fluctuations  has  been 
proved  in  a  few  cases,  and  it  was 
Darwin's  conviction  that  "  it  is 
by  the  accumulation  of  such  ex- 
tremely slight  variations  that  new 
species  arise." 

As  to  the  origin  of  those  minute 
novelties,  a  falling  out  of  some 
feature,  or  a  rearrangement  of 
certain  characters  displayed  by 
ancestors,  it  is  possible  to  think  of 
them  as  due  to  the  intricate  permu- 
tations and  combinations  that 
occur  in  the  germinal  material  in 
the  history  of  the  germ -cells, 
especially  during  maturation  and 
fertilisation  (see  Embryology) 

But  the  baffling  problem  is  the 
origin  of  the  distinctively  new, 
where  the  novelty  is  qualitative, 
not  quantitative,  where  a  new 
pattern,  like  a  genius,  appears.  At 
present  science  cannot  go  beyond 
tentative  suggestions.  Some  facts 
suggest  that  environmental  influ- 
ences may  act  as  variational  stimuli 
on  the  germ-cells  and  provoke 
mutation.  It  is  also  known  that 
one  species  may  differ  from  another 
in  the  number,  shape,  size,  and 
structure  of  its  nuclear  bodies  or 
chromosomes,  and  just  as  bacteria 
sometimes  change  suddenly  in 
their  physiological  properties,  so 
the  chromosomes  which  last  on 
from  generation  to  generation  may- 
change  in  their  stereochemic  archi- 
tecture or  functional  powers. 
Germ-cells  and  Variations 
This  again  might  be  due  to  environ  - 
mental  influence  or  to  processes  of 
ageing  or  rejuvenescence  occurring 
in  the  germ -cells.  Just  as  a  remark- 
able regulatory  process,  called 
endomixis,  takes  place  periodically 
in  a  "  pure  line "  of  slipper- 
animalcules  (i.e.  in  a  stock  all 
descended  from  one  individual),  so 
in  a  lineage  of  germ -cells,  within 
the  organism  that  bears  them,  a 
similar  process  might  occur. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  a 
germ -cell  is  no  ordinary  cell,  but 
an  organism  telescoped  down  into 
a  one-cell  phase  of  its  being.  Just 
as  a  Protozoon  may  make  experi- 
ments as  well  as  a  Mammal,  so  the 
germ-cells  may  conceivably  make 
architectural  experiments  in  self- 
adjustment  or  self-expression,  the 
outcome  being  seen  in  variations. 

The  most  clearly  discerned 
directive  factor  in  organic  evolu- 
tion is  natural  selection,  the  pro- 
cess by  which,  in  the  struggle  for 
existence,  certain  variants  of  a 
species,  marked  from  their  fellows 
by  the  presence  or  absence  of  some 


EVORA 


3034 


EVORA 


character,  are  on  that  account 
favoured  with  longer  life  or  more 
successful  families  than  their 
neighbours,  who  are  therefore 
sooner  or  later  eliminated.  The 
full  title  of  Darwin's  great  work 
should  be  remembered :  The 
Origin  of  Species  by  Means  of 
Natural  Selection,  or  the  Preserva- 
tion of  Favoured  Races  in  the 
Struggle  for  Existence.  He  stated 
the  gist  of  the  theory,  which  Alfred 
Russel  Wallace  had  independently 
reached,  in  a  couple  of  sentences  : 
"  As  many  more  individuals  of 
each  species  are  born  than  can 
possibly  survive,  and  as,  conse- 
quently, there  is  frequently  recur- 
ring struggle  for  existence,  it 
follows  that  any  being,  if  it  vary 
however  slightly  in  any  manner 
profitable  to  itself,  under  the  com- 
plex and  sometimes  varying  con- 
ditions of  life,  will  have  a  better 
chance  of  surviving,  and  thus  be 
naturally  selected.  From  the 
strong  principle  of  inheritance  any 
selected  variety  will  tend  to  propa- 
gate its  new  and  modified  form." 
Natural  Selection 

There  are  several  different  modes 
of  natural  selection  ;  thus  it  is  use- 
ful to  distinguish  between  "  lethal 
selection  "  which  works  by  the  dis- 
criminate elimination  of  the  rela- 
tively less  fit,  and  "  reproductive 
selection,"  which  works  through 
the  increased  multiplication  of  the 
relatively  more  fit.  The  operation 
of  natural  selection  has  been  satis- 
factorily demonstrated  in  a  few 
cases,  and  it  is  certainly  a  potent 
directive  factor.  But  it  is  still  on 
trial  as  regards  its  scope.  Thus,  if 
reason  be  found  for  believing  that 
great  steps  in  evolution  have  been 
made  by  sudden  mutations,  we 
must  reduce  our  estimate  of  the 
importance  of  natural  selection  ex- 
cept as  a  pruning  agency.  To  turn 
to  a  less  difficult  point,  it  is  impor- 
tant to  avoid  the  popular  fallacy 
that  natural  selection  works  out 
the  survival  of  the  fittest  in  any  ab- 
solute sense  ;  what  ensues  is  the 
survival  of  the  relatively  more  fit  to 
the  given  conditions — which  may 
not  imply  desirability. 

On  the  other  hand,  we  would  re- 
emphasise  the  idea  that  natural 
selection  operates  in  part  in  refer- 
ence to  a  system  of  inter-relations 
which  is  continually  becoming  more 
complex,  which  is  made  up  of  many 
stable  and  beautiful  and  intelligent 
components  that  have  stood  the  test 
of  time.  Theref  ore,natural  selection 
does  not  work  capriciously  ;  we  get 
at  least  a  hint  of  the  reason  for  its 
working  on  the  whole  progressively. 
Besides  selection  some  have  recog- 
nized isolation  as  a  directive  factor, 
that  is  to  say  all  the  barriers  which 
restrict  the  range  of  intercrossing 


within  a  species.  "  I  do  not  doubt," 
Darwin  said,  "  that  isolation  is  of 
considerable  importance  in  the  for- 
mation of  new  species." 

RETROSPECT  AND  PROSPECT. 
When  we  look  back  on  the  majestic 
process  by  which  the  present  sys- 
tem of  animate  nature  has  come  to 
be,  certain  general  impressions 
arise  in  the  mind.  In  the  course  of 
the  ages  there  has  been,  in  the 
animal  world,  a  progressive  evolu- 
tion of  the  nervous  system,  an  in- 
creasing elaboration  of  behaviour, 
a  gradual  increase  of  free  agency,  a 
growing  emancipation  of  mental- 
ity. Since  the  beginning  of  life 
there  has  been  on  the  part  of  living 
creatures  an  increasing  apprecia- 
tion and  mastery  of  their  world.  To 
Man,  who  is  part  and  parcel  of  the 
order  of  Nature,  though  also  singu- 
larly apart  from  it,  there  is  encour- 
agement in  the  fact  that  we  know 
of  no  reason  for  believing  that  the 
evolutionary  process  will  stop.  An- 
other general  impression  of  great 
interest  is  that  while  organisms  are 
ever  experimenting  and  tentative, 
proving  all  things,  they  are  just  as 
characteristically  given  to  holding 
fast  to  that  which  is  good.  Species 
become  extinct  and  races  perish, 
but  great  organic  inventions,  such 
as  amoeboid  movement  or  haemo- 
globin or  hormones,  are  carried  on 
by  some  collateral  lineage.  There  is 
a  strong  power  of  conservation  in 
the  midst  of  the  evolutionary  flux. 
Complexity  of  the  Process 

As  Lotze  said,  the  process  of  evo- 
lution has  the  unity  of  an  onward 
advancing  melody.  Retrogressions 
and  involutions  there  have  been 
and  are,  but  the  big  fact  is  progress 
to  finer  issues.  With  the  growing 
differentiation  and  integration  (i.e. 
complexity  and  control)  in  organ- 
isms, there  was  correlated  some 
degree  of  external  registration  in 
the  system  of  inter-relations  gradu- 
ally established.  For  one  result  of 
organic  evolution  has  been  the 
weaving  of  a  web  of  life  whose  pat- 
tern has  become  more  and  more  in- 
tricate, as  in  the  inter-relations  be- 
tween flowers  and  their  insect  visi- 
tors. This  complexifying  of  rela- 
tions has  probably  been  of  great 
importance  in  evolution,  for  it  is  in 
reference  to  this  externa1  system 
that  new  organic  experiments  are 
tested  and  that  selection  works. 
Thus  it  seems  that  the  intensifica- 
tion of  life  has  been  in  part  secured 
and  in  part  prompted  by  the  grow- 
ing complexity  of  the  external  sys- 
tem of  Nature. 

Thus  living  creatures  contribute 
to  the  evolution  of  their  kind,  not 
only  directly  by  exhibiting  varia- 
tions and  by  personally  testing 
these,  but  also  indirectly  by  contri- 
buting to  the  complexifying  of  the 


external  web  of  life.  If  this  be  so, 
there  is  for  Man  the  hint  that  pro- 
gressive evolution  depends  not 
merely  on  the  improvement  of  the 
natural  inheritance  and  intensifica- 
tion of  the  individual  life,  but  also 
on  the  ennoblement  of  the  external 
heritage — so  much  Man's  own  crea- 
tion— the  treasures  of  literature  and 
art.  the  tradition  of  high  ideals,  and 
the  multitudinous  linkages — many 
in  need  of  amelioration — in  the 
framework  of  society  itself. 
The  Philosophic  Conclusion 

When  we  try  to  think  of  facts  in 
their  entirety,  that  is  to  say  philo- 
sophically, we  are  probably  wise  if 
we  hold  firmly  by  the  Aristotelian 
conviction  that  there  can  be  no- 
thing in  the  end  which  was  not  also 
present  in  kind  in  the  beginning. 
So,  if  Man  is  altogether  an  outcome 
of  the  evolutionary  process,  as  most 
naturalists  believe  ;  and  if  experi- 
ence of  reality  to  the  best  of  man- 
kind includes  a  spiritual  life,  i.e. 
persistent  activity  towards  the 
ideals  of  the  true,  the  beautiful,  and 
the  good ;  then  we  may  be  sure  that 
the  primordium  from  which  this 
was  evolved  could  not  be  ade- 
quately or  exhaustively  formulated 
in  terms  of  matter  and  motion. 
For  by  no  jugglery  is  it  possible  to 
evolve  mind  out  of  matter  and 
motion. 

Bibliography.  Origin  of  Species, 
C.  Darwin,  1859  ;  Darwinism,  A. 
R.  Wallace,  1S89  ;  Materials  for  the 
Study  of  Variation,  W.  Bateson, 
1894  ;  The  Evolution  Theory,  A. 
Weismann,  Eng.  trans.  J.  A.  and 
M.  R.  Thomson,  1904  ;  Species  and 
Varieties  :  their  origin  by  mutation, 
H.  de  Vries,  ed.  D.  T.  MacDougal, 
1905  ;  Experimental  Zoology,  T.  H. 
Morgan,  1907  ;  Darwinism  and  Hu- 
man Life,  J.  A.  Thomson,  1909  ; 
Story  of  Creation,  a  plain  account  of 
evolution,  E.  Clodd,  rev.  ed.  1910  ; 
Creative  Evolution,  H.  Bergson, 
Eng.  trans.  A.  Mitchell,  1911  ;  Evo- 
lution Old  and  New,  Samuel  Butler, 
3rd  ed.  1911  ;  Evolution,  P.  Geddes 
and  J.  A.  Thomson,  1911  ;  Problems 
of  Genetics,  W.  Bateson,  1913  ;  Re- 
cent Progress  in  the  Study  of  Varia- 
tion, Heredity  and  Evolution,  R.  H. 
Lock,  rev.  ed.  L.  Doncaster,  1916; 
The  System  of  Animate  Nature,  J. 
A.  Thomson,  1920. 

Evora.  District  of  Portugal,  in 
the  prov.  of  Alemtejo.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  dist.  of 
Portalegre  and  on  the  S.  by  the 
dist.  of  Beja.  The  river  Guadiana 
forms  its  E.  boundary.  Hilly  on 
the  N.W.  and  S.  it  slopes  E.  and  S., 
forming  the  basin  of  the  Degebe  and 
smaller  streams  flowing  into  the 
Guadiana.  A  large  portion  of  the 
district  is  barren,  but  there  are 
cork-oak  forests.  Evora  is  the 
capital,  and  Redondo  and  Monte  - 
nior  are  other  important  towns. 
Pop.  144,307 


EVORA 


3035 


I, 


The  city  and  cathedral  seen  from  the  south.     To  the  left  is  the  15tb 
century  Tour  d'Horloge  or  Belfry 


Evora  (anc.  Ebora).  City  and 
archiepiscopal  see  of  Portugal, 
capital  of  Evora  dist.  Beautifully 
situated  on  a  low  hill  in  a  fertile 
plain,  72  m.  by  rly.  E.  of  Lisbon, 
it  is  enclosed  by  ancient  walls  and 
towers,  has  many  Roman  and 
Moorish  remains,  and  is  as  interest- 
ing as  it  is  ancient.  It  has  a  cathe- 
dral, founded  in  1186,  a  16th  cen- 
tury church,  an  art  gallery,  a 
museum,  many  old  convents,  a 
library,  a  Roman  temple,  various 
palaces,  and  a  famous  aqueduct. 
It  manufactures  cloth,  cotton  and 
woollen  goods,  and  hats,  and  trades 
in  wine.  In  the  vicinity  are  copper 
and  iron  mines,  and  marble  and 
asbestos  quarries.  An  important 
fair  is  held  annually.  A  stronghold 
of  Sertorius  (q.v. )  and  a  Roman 
colony,  Evora  was  a  bishop's  see 
under  the  Visigoths,  taken  by  the 
Moors  in  715,  and  recaptured  by  the 
Christians  in  1166.  Pop.  17,901. 

Evreux.  City  of  Normandy, 
France.  Itis67m.  W.N.W.  of  Paris, 
and  stands  on  the  Iton,  a  branch  of 
the  Eure,  in  the  dept.  of  Eure,  of 
which  it  is  the  capital.  The  chief 
building  is  the  cathedral  of  Notre 
Dame,  the  earliest  part  dating  from 
the  llth  century  and  some  part 
from  the  16th.  It  was  completely 
restored  at  the  end  of  the  19th 
Other  old  buildings  are  the  church 
of  S.  Taurin,  a  Romanesque  build- 
ing of  the  llth  century,  to  which  an 
abbey  was  at  one  time  attached, 
the  episcopal  palace,  and  the  belfry. 
The  hotel  de  ville,  museum,  public 
library,  and  botanical  gardens  are 
notable.  There  are  some  small 
manufactures  and  a  considerable 
agricultural  trade. 

Evreux  was  frequently  besieged 
and  taken  in  the  wars  between 
England  and  France.  At  Vieil 
Evreux,  4  m.  distant,  extensive 
remains  of  a  Roman  theatre,  baths, 
aqueduct,  etc.,  have  been  unearthed. 
In  the  Middle  Ages  the  counts  of 
Evreux  were  powerful  nobles  ;  the 
dignity  was  given  in  1427  to  Sir 
John  Stuart  of  Damley,  a  Scot  in 
the  French  service.  The  English 
family  of  Devereux  takes  its  name 
from  here.  Pop.  18,950. 


Evzones  OR  EUZONES.  Greek 
troops.  They  bear  a  variant  of  the 
name  given  to  troops  in  the  timea 
of  ancient  Greece,  Euzonoi,  mean- 
ing well-girdled,  and  so  girt-up  for 
fighting.  They  are  light  troops 
consisting  normally  of  about  six 
battalions,  and  from  their  dress 
are  known  as  the  Greek  High- 
landers. Their  uniform  consists  of 
a  white  kilt  or  fustandla,  wide- 
sleeved  white  shirt,  embroidered 
vest,  red-pointed  shoes,  and  blue- 
tasselled  red  cap.  The  Evzones 
fought  in  Macedonia  and  Serbia 
in  the  Great  War. 

Ewald,  CARL  (1856-1908).  Dan- 
ish novelist.  Born  in  Slesvig,  when 
a  child  he  removed  with  his  family 
to  Copenhagen 
after  the  an- 
nexation of  the 
duchy  by  Ger- 
many. He  start- 
ed in  active 
work  as  a  for- 
e  s  te  r,  but 
turned  to  mis- 
cellaneous lit- 
erary work,and 
then  to  the 
novel,  in  which  he  chiefly  won  dis- 
tinction. In  The  Old  Room  he  de- 
picted a  rebel  against  orthodox  life, 
and  in  Cordt's  Son  his  opposite  in  a 
strict  observer  of  the  conventions. 
Several  of  his  stories  have  been 
translated  into  English  by  Texeira 
de  Mattos,  notably  Two-Legs  and 
Other  Stories,  1907 ;  My  Little  Boy, 
1908;  and  The  Pond  and  Other 
Stories,  1909.  Prow.  Ayvahld. 

Ewald,  GEORG  HEFNRICH  AUGUST 
VON  (1803-75).      German  Biblical 
critic  and  Orientalist.  He  was  born 
at  Gottingen,  Nov.  16, 1803,    where 
in  1827  he  be- 
came professor 
of  Oriental 
languages  and 
philosophy.  In 
1838    he     was 
appointed      to 
the    chair     of 
theology  at  Tu- 
bingen, and  in 

Heinrich  Ewald,        1848    returned 
German  scholar        to    Gottingen, 


Carl  Ewald, 
Danish  novelist 


where  in  1867  his  retirement  came 
about  through  political  complica- 
tions. His  numerous  works  includea 
Hebrew  Grammar,  1827,  and  vari- 
ous works  on  the  O.T.,  but  the  most 
important  was  his  Geschichte  des 
Volkes  Israel,  1843-59.  His  criti- 
cism was  cautious,  and  he  exposed 
the  extreme  views  of  the  Tubingen 
school.  He  died  May  4,  1875.  See 
Heinrich  Ewald  ;  a  centenary 
appreciation,  T.  W.  Davies,  1903. 
Pron.  Ayvalt. 

Ewald  OR  EVALD,  JOHANNES 
(1743-81).  A  Danish  poet.  Born  at 
Copenhagen,  Nov.  18,  1  743,  a  yearn- 
ing for  change  and  adventure  in- 
duced him,  while  still  a  student  of 
sixteen  at  Copenhagen  University, 
to  join  the  army  of  Frederick  the 
Great,  then  engaged  in  the  Seven 
Years'  War.  In  1760  he  returned 
to  Denmark  and  resumed  his 
studies.  A  cantata  written  in  1766 
on  the  death  of  Frederick  V  of 
Denmark  placed  him  in  the  front 
rank  of  lyric  poets  ;  but  his  drama, 
Balder's  Death  (1773),  in  which 
he  introduced  the  old  gods  of 
Scandinavian  mythology,  first  en- 
sured his  fame  and  gave  an  im- 
mense stimulus  to  the  national 
pride  in  the  legendary  'past  of  Den- 
mark. George  Sorrow's  English 
translation  of  this  was  published 
in  1889.  Other  well-known  works 
are  Adam  and  Eve,  1769  (rewritten 
from  his  rejected  Adamiade,  1764), 
and  The  Fishermen,  1778.  He  died 
March  17,  1781.  Collected  Works, 
ed.  H.  Brix  and  V.  Kuhr,  1914,  etc. 
Ewart,  JAMES  COSSAR  (b.  1851). 
Scottish  naturalist.  Born  at  Peni- 
cuik,  Nov.  26,  1851,  he  was  edu- 
cated at  Edin- 
burgh. In  1878 
he  became  pro- 
fessor of  Na- 
tural History 
at  Aberdeen, 
where  he  estab- 
lished a  marine 
zoological  sta- 
tion, and  in 
1882  at  Edin- 
burgh.  He 
did  much  to 
develop  the  Scottish  fisheries,  and 
is  an  authority  on  marine  zoology. 
Ewart,  SIR  JOHN  SPENCER  (b. 
1861).  British  soldier.  Born  March 
22,  1861,  he  was  educated  at  Marl- 
borough  and 
Sandhurst, 
joining  the 
Cameron  High- 
landers, 1881. 
He  saw  service 
in 
18 

Sudan,    1885- 
86,   1898,   and 

Sir  John  Ewart.        *  n    S>     Africa, 
Brittsh  soldier         1899-1901. 


J.  Cossar  Ewart, 
Scottish  naturalist 

From  an  etching 


Egypt,  1882, 
84-85,  in  the 


EWBANK 


3036 


EXAMINATIONS 


He  was  director  of  military  opera- 
tions at  the  War  Office,  1906-10, 
adjutant-general  and  a  member  of 
the  Army  Council  from  1910-14, 
when  he  was  appointed  G.O.C. 
Scottish  Command,  May,  1914, 
which  post  he  held  until  May, 
1918.  He  was  created  K.C.B.  and 
lieut. -general  in  1911. 

Ewbank,  THOMAS  (1792-1870). 
British  author.  Born  at  Barnard 
Castle,  March  11,  1792,  at  the  age 
of  13  he  was  apprenticed  to  a 
plumber,  and  in  1812  obtained 
employment  in  London  as  a 
labourer.  He  emigrated  to  America 
about  1819,  and  started  a  metal  tube 
manufactory  in  New  York,  from 
which  business  he  retired  in  1836. 
After  travelling  in  Brazil,  1845-46, 
he  published  his  Life  in  Brazil,  1856. 
Ewbank  was  commissioner  of  pa- 
tents from  1849-52.  The  remainder 
of  his  life  was  spent  in  writing  on 
engineering  subjects  and  contribut- 
ing to  scientific  journals.  He  died 
in  New  York,  Sept.  16,  1870. 

Ewe  (Lat.  ovis,  a  sheep).  Word 
used  for  the  female  of  the  sheep  (q.v.) 
and  of  certain  other  animals. 

Ewe.  W.  African  language- 
group.  Mostly  found  in  Dahome,  S. 
Togoland,  and  the  Gold  Coast  Col- 
ony, it  forms  part  of  a  primitive  W. 
Sudanic  speech  once  widespread  in 
the  Guinea  region  before  the  advent 
of  Bantu  influences.  Of  the  Ewe- 
speaking  peoples  the  chief  French 
tribes  are  the  Dahome  and  Mahi ; 
the  British  tribes  include  the 
Awuna,  Agbosomi,  and  Krikor,  E. 
of  the  Volta  river.  The  racial  type 
tends  to  be  shorter,  fairer,  and 
rounder-headed  than  that  of  the 
true  negro. 

Ewell,  RICHARD  STODDARD 
(1817-72).  American  soldier.  Born 
at  Georgetown  and  educated  at 
the  military  academy  of  West 
Point,  on  the  outbreak  of  the 
Civil  War  he  resigned  his  com- 
mission in  1861  to  fight  for  the 
Confederacy,  and  took  part  in  both 
battles  of  Bull  Run,  Antietam, 
Chancellors ville,  Gettysburg,  and 
others.  In  the  closing  days  of  the 
war,  in  1865,  Ewell  and  his  force 
were  captured  by  Sheridan  at 
Sailor's  Creek.  He  died  at  Spring 
field,  Tennessee,  Jan.  25,  1872. 

Ewer.  Pitcher  or  jug  with  a 
wide  mouth.  It  is  particularly  one 
for  holding  water  for  toilet  pur- 
poses. The  word  is  a  corruption 
of  Lat.  aquarium,  watering  place: 
cf.  FT.  eau.  See  illus.  p.  2443. 

Ewing,  SIR  JAMSS  ALFRED  (b. 
1855).  British  physicist  and  en- 
gineer. Born  at  Dundee,  March  27, 
1855,  he  was  educated  at  the  high 
school  and  at  Edinburgh  Univer- 
sity. Until  1878  he  assisted  Lord 
Kelvin,  and  from  1878-83  was 
professor  of  mechanical  engineer- 


Sir  Alfred  Ewmg. 
British  physicist 


ing  at  the  imperial  university  of 
Tokyo,  Japan,  where  he  studied 
earthquakes.  From  1883-90  Ewing 
was  professor 
of  engineering 
at  University 
College,  Dun- 
dee, and  of 
mechanism 
and  applied 
mechanics  i  n 
Cam  bridge 
University, 
1890-1903.  He 
sat  on  the  ex- 
plosives committee,  and  became  a 
member  of  the  ordnance  research 
board  in  1906.  In  1903  he  was  ap- 
pointed director  of  naval  educa- 
tion, and  in  1916  became  principal 
and  vice-chancellor  of  Edinburgh 
University.  Among  his  important 
inventions  were :  magnetic  curve- 
tracer,  hysteresis  tester,  and  a  per- 
meability bridge,  all  used  in  testing 
the  iron  employed  in  making 
dynamos  and  transformers.  He  has 
written  much  on  engineering  and 
scientific  subjects,  and  a  Treatise 
on  Earthquake  Measurements, 
1883.  He  was  knighted  in  1911. 

Ewing,  JULIANA  HORATIA  (1841- 
85).  Writer  of  stories  for  children. 
She  was  the  daughter  of  Alfred 
Gatty,  vicar  of 
Ecclesfield, 
Yorkshire,  and 
the  wife  of  Ma- 
jor Alexander 
Ewing.  Among 
the  pleasantest 
of  her  tales  are 
The  Land  of 
Lost  Toys, 
1869;  A  Flat 
Iron  for  a  Far- 


Juliana  H.  Ewing. 
British  author 


/>V:,  '•'%%.  \ 


Ewer.     Silver  repouss6  ewer  in  the 
style  of  early  German  goldsmiths 


thing,  1873;  Jackanapes,  1884; 
and  The  Story  of  a  Short  Life, 
1885  She  died  May  13,  1885. 

Examinations.  The  raison 
d'etre  of  examinations  is  the  desire 
to  find  some  ready  test  of  capacity. 
The  system,  so  far  as  is  known, 
started  in  China  about  2200  B.C. 
The  medieval  universities  sought 
to  test  intellectual  capacity  by 
dialectical  discussions  called  dis- 
putations. The  result  was  to 
reward  mere  "  quickness  in  logical 
fence." 

The  change  from  disputations  to 
questions,  the  germ  of  the  modern 
examination  system,  dates  from 
the  18th  century,  when  the  Cam- 
bridge tripos  list  and  senior 
wranglership  began  to  acquire  fame. 
Originally  intended  "  to  guide 
men  so  that  they  might  learn  what 
was  thought  best  for  them,"  the 
mathematical  tripos  soon  degene- 
rated into  a  test  for  allocating  the 
college  fellowships.  The  incorpora- 
tion of  the  university  of  London  in 
1836  was  important  as  first  differ- 
entiating the  teaching  and  examin- 
ing functions  of  a  university,  and 
in  1848  Dr.  Whewell,  at  Cambridge, 
sought  by  introducing  compulsory 
examination  in  elementary  sub- 
jects to  prevent  perfunctory  read- 
ing of  the  higher  subjects.  There- 
after we  observe  two  educational 
parties — one  trying  to  train  men  to 
play  a  successful  part  in  life;  the 
other,  to  supply  the  scientific  world 
with  expert  mathematicians  for 
professorial  chairs. 

At  first  the  whole  examination 
was  conducted  viva  voce.  As  the 
number  of  candidates  increased, 
the  viva  voce  method  proved  too 
slow  and  costly.  The  need  for  a 
close  discrimination  between  large 
numbers  of  candidates,  not  greatly 
differing  in  ability,  led  to  the  in- 
troduction of  an  ever-increasing 
number  of  questions  on  paper, 
covering  an  expanding  field  of  facts, 
and  the  allotment  of  marks,  which, 
added  up,  established  an  order  of 
merit  by  a  comparison  of  totals 
differing  sometimes  by  only  a  few 
figures.  As  the  members  still  in- 
creased the  screw  was  progressively 
tightened  by  enlarging  the  field  of 
acquisition  and  deepening  the  ob- 
scurity of  the  tests  until  many  of  the 
examination  questions  of  a  body 
like  the  old  university  of  London 
became,  in  Pope's  satiric  words, 

.    .    .    tricks     to     show     the     stretch     of 

human  brain. 
Mere   curious  pleasure,  or  ingenious   pain. 

Inevitably  those  candidates  suc- 
ceeded best  who  by  nature  could 
acquire  the  largest  number  of  facts, 
retain  them  until  the  opening  of 
the  examination  halls,  and  place 
them  most  rapidly  on  paper.  On 
the  other  hand,  examiners  strove 


EXAMINER     OF     PLAYS 


3037 


EXCALJBUR 


to  discover  questions  which  had 
not  been  set  before  and  could  be 
marked  with  precision  and  speed. 
The  use  of  this  "  ready  reckoner  " 
of  ability  was  both  fostered  and 
abused  by  the  call  of  democracy 
for  some  means  of  distinguishing 
merit  apart  from  birth  and  parent- 
age. Thus  arose  the  competitive 
examinations  for  the  Civil  Ser- 
vice, the  Navy  and  the  Army,  the 
emoluments  of  a  university  career, 
and  latterly  even  for  the  acquisi- 
tion of  a  stool  in  bank  and  count- 
ing-house. When  also  degree  ex- 
aminations ceased  to  be  used  as 
tests  of  teaching  capacity,  profes- 
sional examinations  in  music, 
pharmacy,  surveying,  and  so 
forth  were  introduced.  School- 
leaving  examinations  and  the  sub- 
mission of  theses  for  degrees  have 
been  imported  from  the  Continent. 
Merits  and  Demerits 

Though  examinations  have 
failed  to  accomplish  their  original 
purpose,  they  must  not  be  re- 
garded as  an  unmixed  evil. 
They  tell  us  little  about  moral 
qualities  and  tend  to  destroy 
spontaneity  and  originality.  They 
overstrain  the  mind,  particularly 
in  "  information  subjects,"  to 
the  serious  detriment  of  physical 
development  at  a  critical  age. 
They  foster  false  intellectual 
values  by  tempting  both  teacher 
and  pupil  to  concentrate  on  one 
subject  or  a  single  group,  in  order 
to  achieve  some  reward  therein,  a 
prize  or  scholarship,  to  the  ex- 
clusion of  general  culture.  They 
encourage  memory  far  more  than 
mind.  Lastly,  they  have  gathered 
round  them  a  body  of  sterile 
scholarship  which  glories  in  a  vast 
knowledge  of  dead  tongues  and  a 
heap  of  learned  antiquarian  lum- 
ber valueless  to  the  progress  of  true 
science  and  the  growth  and  culture 
of  the  human  heart. 

Nevertheless,  examinations  must 
be  credited  with  some  good  effects. 
They  act  as  stimulants  to  the  desire 
of  excellence  and  development, 
both  personal  and  intellectual,  and 
force  young  minds  to  traverse  in- 
tellectual paths  which  they  would 
never  have  trodden  for  any  other 
reason.  A  much  examined  man 
may  remain  a  poor  piece  of  hu- 
manity; but  he  will  have  come 
under  valuable  influences,  have  be- 
come acquainted  with  vast  tracts 
of  knowledge,  and  obtained  a 
breadth  of  vision,  if  not  a  pro- 
fundity of  judgement,  of  which  the 
untested  man  or  woman  is  too 
often  quite  innocent.  Lastly,  they 
militate  against  loose  thinking  and 
inchoate  knowledge. 

With  a  view  to  improving  secon- 
dary school  examinations  the 
board  of  education  of  England 


and  Wales  has  (Circular  996)  un- 
dertaken "  the  functions  and  re- 
sponsibilities of  a  coordinating 
authority,"  with  the  assistance  of 
a  Secondary-School  Examinations 
Council  of  18  persons,  represent- 
ing the  leading  universities  and 
examining  boards,  councils,  and 
associations.  This  Council  will, 
under  the  coordinating  authority 
of  the  board  of  education,  deal 
with  the  recommendations  of  ex- 
amining bodies,  the  maintenance 
of  adequate  standards  of  examina- 
tion, the  investigation  of  com- 
plaints thereupon  from  school 
authorities,  the  promotion  of  ex- 
amination conferences,  the  form 
and  contents  of  examination  cer- 
tificates, inter-university  negotia- 
tions for  equivalence  of  rival  ex- 
aminations, and  the  effecting  of 
general  improvements  in  examina- 
tion schemes  by  bringing  teachers 
into  touch  with  examiners,  by  ex- 
amining schools  on  their  own  sylla- 
buses, and  by  taking  into  account 
the  teachers'  estimates  of  the  merit 
of  the  candidates  from  their  own 
schools  (Circular  1002). 

Remedies  for  the  System 

In  view  of  the  establishment  of 
such  a  Council  it  may  be  well  to 
state  succinctly  some  obvious 
remedies  for  the  faults  of  the 
present  system.  If  the  pupil's 
mind  is  not  to  be  narrowed  by  the 
withdrawal  of  his  interest  and  at- 
tention from  all  matters  beyond 
the  purview  of  the  examination, 
its  scope  must  be  so  limited  that 
preparation  for  it  occupies  only 
part  of  his  school  time.  Moreover, 
examination  schemes  must  be  fre- 
quently reviewed.  If  expository 
power  is  not  to  be  paralysed,  sys- 
tematic training  must  be  given  in 
composition.  The  "chancy"  nature 
of  written  examinations  must  be 
counteracted  and  the  handicap  of 
ill-health  or  nervousness  removed 
by  calling  into  council  the  teacher 
and  learning  the  pupil's  past 
record.  Individual  ability  must 
be  drawn  out  of  the  examination 
crowd  by  combining  oral  and  prac- 
tical tests  with  written  answers. 
Multiplicity  must  give  place  to 
equivalence  of  school  leaving  and 
entrance  examinations.  The  uni- 
versity rewards  which  are  now  the 
Dead  Sea  fruit  of  a  sterile  facility 
in  passing  examinations,  must  be 
given  in  future  to  men  and  women 
who  have  proved  their  ability  to 
"  teach  "  and  to  "  discover  "  by 
actual  performances. 

In  conclusion,  examinations  do 
not  show  men  and  women  how  to 
teach  or  write  in  the  higher  sense  ; 
but  they  do  train  them  how  to  set 
down,  clearly,  succinctly,  and 
rapidly,  the  facts  which  they  havs 
acquired  and  retained.  If  such 


persons  are  not  born  with  creative 
power,  this  acquired  knowledge 
becomes  mere  "learned  lumber." 
But,  if  they  are  born  to  do  and  to 
make,  the  acquisitions  of  the  ex- 
amination course  and  the  habits 
of  the  examination  hall  may  enable 
them  to  lay  the  foundation  of  deeds 
and  works  which  the  world  will 
inscribe  upon  its  scroll  of  honour. 
See  Education ;  School ;  University. 

W.   K.   Hill 

Examiner  of  Plays.  Official 
acting  on  behalf  of  the  Lord  Cham- 
berlain, who  has  the  theatres  under 
his  jurisdiction.  A  copy  of  every 
new  piece,  or  alterations  of  old 
pieces  intended  to  be  revived,  must 
be  forwarded  to  him  seven  clear 
days  before  the  intended  produc- 
tion. No  alteration  of  the  text, 
when  licensed,  is  permitted  with- 
out express  sanction.  The  selec- 
tion of  Charles  Hallam  Brookfield 
(q.v.)  for  the  post  in  1911  in  suc- 
cession to  G.  H.  Bedford  amused 
many  people  and  shocked  others, 
for  he  had  at  one  time  been  one  of 
the  chief  adapters  of  frankly  non- 
moral  French  comedies  for  the 
English  stage,  his  Dear  Old  Charley 
(Newcastle,  1906),  in  particular, 
enjoying  a  succes  de  scandale.  He 
was  succeeded  by  George  S.  Street, 
the  critic  and  essayist,  appointed 
Dec.  30,  1913<  See  Censorship. 

Exarch  (Gr.  exarchos,  leader). 
In  Byzantine  history,  a  title 
specially  applied  to  the  military 
governor  of  the  district  of  Ravenna 
in  Italy.  The  exarch  has  been  com- 
pared to  the  viceroy  of  India.  The 
direct  representative  of  the  em- 
peror, he  commanded  the  troops, 
controlled  the  civil  administration 
and  finance,  and  exercised  great 
influence  in  ecclesiastical  affairs. 
The  exarchate  of  Ravenna  lasted 
from  584-752. 

There  was  also  an  exarch  of 
Africa,  the  earliest  mention  of  whom 
occurs  in  591.  The  name  exarch 
was  also  given  to  a  dignitary  of  the 
church  who  held  a  position  below 
that  of  the  patriarch,  but  above 
that  of  the  metropolitan,  and  to  the 
head  of  certain  monasteries,  and 
survives  as  the  title  of  the  patri- 
arch of  Bulgaria. 

Excalibur.  King  Arthur's 
magic  sword  ;  called  Caliburn  and 
made  in  the  isle  of  Avalon.  In  the 
Morte  d' Arthur  the  King  takes 
the  sword  from  the  hand  of  the 
Lady  of  the  Lake,  and  learns  that 
its  name  signifies  Cut-Steel,  and 
that  while  he  has  the  scabbard  he 
can  never  be  sore  wounded  and 
cannot  lose  blood.  When  stricken 
down  in  the  final  battle,  Arthur 
commanded  that  the  sword  be 
thrown  into  the  lake,  where  it  was 
caught  by  a  hand  and  vanished. 
See  Morte  d' Arthur, 


EXCAMBION 

Excambion. '  Term  used  in 
Scots  law  for  an  exchange  of  lands. 
The  law  allows  this  to  be  done  in 
the  case  of  entailed  property,  as 
well  as  unentailed,  several  statutes 
to  this  effect  having  been  passed. 
It  is  often  done  to  make  boundaries 
and  the  like  more  convenient. 

Excavation.  In  engineering, 
term  used  for  the  removal  of  ma- 
terial for  building  and  other  pur- 
poses. In  nearly  every  branch  of 
engineering  excavation  work  oc- 
curs, from  the  sinking  of  a  well  to 
the  construction  of  huge  reservoirs, 
ship  canals,  railway  tunnels,  etc., 


3038 

several  tons  each,  and  work  on  a 
face  12-16  ft.  high.  This  machine, 
usually  self-propelling,  has  in  front 
a  swivelling  jib  made  up  of  two 
powerful  girders,  between  which 
swings  the  back  end  of  a  beam. 

To  the  forward  end  of  the 
beam  is  attached  a  large  steel 
scoop,  holding  up  to  five  cubic 
yards  of  material,  and  provided 
with  a  flap  bottom  that  can  be 
tripped  by  pulling  on  a  cord.  The 
mechanism  includes  gear  for  re- 
volving the  jib  ;  racking  the  beam 
inwards  or  outwards  to  vary  the 
reach  of  the  shovel :  and  lifting  the 


involving  the  use  of  tools  from  the 
simple  pick  and  shovel  to  giant 
excavators  (q.v.),  dredges,  etc. 

Excavation  problems  are  among 
the  most  difficult  the  engineer  has 
to  solve,  the  mere  task  of  removing 
the  material  being  a  simple  one 
compared  with  the  difficulty  of 
preventing  the  sides  of  the  excava- 
tion from  collapsing.  The  excava- 
tion of  the  Panama  Canal  (q.v.),  in- 
volving the  removal  of  175,000,000 
cubic  yards  of  material,  was  con- 
siderably delayed  for  this  cause. 
The  original  plans  were  altered 
because  the  soft  earth  could  not  be 
prevented  from  spreading.  Great 
masses  of  earth,  constituting  the 
adjoining  banks  in  the  deepest 
parts  of  the  Culebra  Cut,  slid  down 
into  the  canal,  necessitating  con- 
stant dredging  to  restore  naviga- 
tion. Excavating  is  an  important 
part  of  archaeological  work.  See 
Archaeology  ;  Canal ;  Dredging  ; 
Foundation  ;  Tunnel ;  also  illus. 
pp.  811  and  813. 

Excavator  (Lat.  ex,  from,  out; 
cavare,  to  hollow).  Mechanism 
for  removing  large  masses  of 
earth.  Some  of  the  digging  ma- 
chines used  closely  resemble  the 
various  kinds  of  dredgers.  The 
spoon  dredger  has  its  counter- 
part in  the  steam-shovel  or 
steam-navvy,  which  will  deal  with 
anything  from  soft  earth  to 
lumps  of  blasted  rock  weighing 


EXCAVATOR 

shovel  by  means  of  a  chain  or  cable 
passing  over  the  end  of  the  jib.  In 
operation  the  scoop  is  lowered  to 
about  rail  level,  and  thrust  forward 
while  being  lifted.  At  the  end  of 
the  stroke,  the  jib  is  swung  to 
bring  the  scoop  over  a  dirt  car,  and 
the  contents  are  dumped  by  re- 
leasing the  bottom. 

In  the  hands  of  skilful  operators 
a  shovel  will  pick  up  and  deliver 
four  loads  per  minute.  A  ninety- 
ton  machine,  controlled  by  three 
men,  can  move  3,600  tons  a  day, 
performing  the  work  of  2,000  hand 
labourers.  An  immense  amount 
of  excavation  was  done  on  the 
Panama  Canal  works  by  these  giant 
diggers  in  combination  with  me- 
chanical unloaders  which  enabled 
ten  men  to  clear  in  a  day  as  much 
as  would  have  kept  500  men  busy 
with  shovels.  The  steam-navvy  is 
found  very  valuable  for  purposes 
other  than  those  of  civil  engineer- 
ing, being  widely  used  for  stripping 
the  useless  "  overburden  "  of  sur- 
face deposits  of  coal  and  iron  ore, 
digging  ore  and  phosphates,  and 
excavating  dry  gold-bearing  gravel 
in  "  placer  "  mines. 

Another  excavator,  used  chiefly 
for  earth  and  gravel,  is  the 
French  navvy,  which  moves  on 
rails  along  the  top  edge  of  the  cut, 
drawing  the  spoil  towards  it  in  an 
endless  chain  of  buckets  running 
round  a  sheave  at  the  end  of  a  jib- 
supported  ladder.  The  buckets  ex- 
cavate while  travelling  upwards 
under  the  ladder,  and  the  spoil  is 
discharged  into  a  shoot,  or  on  to  a 
belt-conveyer  for  delivery  to  cars, 
or  directly  on  to  a  dump.  As  ex- 
cavation proceeds,  the  ladder  is 
lowered  gradually  till  the  full  depth 
commanded  by  the  machine  is 
reached.  The  excavator  then  lifts 


Excavator.     Crane  navvies  on  mountings  suitable  for  various  types  of  work. 
1.  With  caterpillar  travelling  gear.  2.  On  road  wheels.  3.  Mounted  on  rail  wheels 

By  courtesy  of  Rutlon  &  Horn&by,  Ltd. 


EXCELLENCY 

the  ladder,  moves  forward  a  little, 
and  takes  a  fresh  cut.  This  type  of 
digger  is  very  effective  for  canal 
and  dock  work. 

The  latest  form  of  mechanical  ex- 
cavator for  surface  work  is  a  rotary 
machine.  It  travels  on  two  main 
traction  wheels  at  the  rear,  and  on 
a  forward  steering  wheel,  the  height 
of  which  can  be  adjusted.  In  the 
space  between  the  traction  and 
steering  wheels  the  frame  supports 

spokeless  excavating  wheel  of 
diameter,  with  buckets 
mounted  on  its  circumference.  It 
revolves  in  a  fore-and-aft  plane, 
making  a  cut.  as  the  machine 
moves  forward,  6^  ft.  wide  and 
from  1  ft.  to  5  ft.  deep,  according 
to  the  adjustment  of  the  steering 
wheel,  which  is  supported  by  the 
undisturbed  ground.  A  belt- con- 
veyer, running  transversely  through 
the  wheel,  receives  the  spoil  and 
empties  it  at  one  side  into  cars  or 
on  to  a  heap.  The  capacity  of  the 
machine  is  325  cubic  ft.,  or  about 
16  tons,  of  material  per  minute. 

An  apparatus  with  a  scoop  wheel 
working  in  the  manner  just  de- 
scribed, but  mounted  on  a  four- 
wheeled  frame  like  that  of  a  trac- 
tion engine,  has  proved  very  suc- 
cessful in  excavating  ditches  or 
trenches  for  water  and  drain  pipes. 
The  scoop  wheel  revolves  between 
the  arms  of  a  falling  jib  at  the  rear 
of  the  machine.  The  "  ditcher,"  as 
it  is  called,  will  deal  with  any  kind 
of  ground  that  can  be  moved  with 
a  pick,  even  macadam  road,  and 
will  cut  through  buried  roots  and 
logs.  The  largest  machines  ex- 
cavate trenches  4£  ft.  wide  to  a 
depth  of  12  ft.  A  correct  grade  is 
maintained  by  means  of  the  jib 
gear  and  a  sighting-box  on  the 
wheel  frame. 

Some  sections  of  the  London 
"  tube  "  tunnels  were  driven  by  an 
electrically  operated  rotary  boring 
digger,  a  transverse  wheel  with  six 
radial  arms  carrying  chisels  and 
scoops.  Rotary  motion  is  imparted 
to  the  wheel  by  pinions  engaging  a 
circumferential  rack.  The  cutting 
chisels  loosen  the  material,  which 
falls  into  the  invert  and  is  picked 
up  by  the  buckets  and  emptied 
on  to  a  belt  -  conveyer.  See 
Engineering. 

Excellency.  Title  of  honour, 
formerly  applied  to  emperors, 
kings,  princes,  and  other  high  per- 
sonages. In  modern  British  usage 
it  is  confined  to  the  governor-gen- 
eral of  India,  the  lord-lieutenant  of 
Ireland,  colonial  governors,  and 
ambassadors  and  envoys.  In  France 
and  the  S.  American  republics  the 
president  is  styled  Excellency, 
but  not  in  the  U.S.A.  The  Italian 
eacelenza  is  a  common  mode  of 
addressing  strangers. 


3O39 


EXCHANGE 


Excellent. 


Parade  ground  of  the  chief  school  of  naval  gunnery  on 
Island,  Portsmouth  Harbour 

Cribb,  Southsea 


Whale 


Excellent.  Name  of  a  British 
warship,  and  of  the  chief  school 
of  naval  gunnery,  also  known  as 
Whale  Island.  It  is  situated  in 
Portsmouth  Harbour  on  a  small 
island  made  up  largely  of  earth 
excavated  for  the  construction  of 
new  docks.  In  the  Excellent  gun- 
nery school  officers  and  men  are 
trained  as  specialists.  » 

The  Excellent,  a  3rd  class  gun- 
boat, built  in  1870,  displacing  508 
tons,  with  one  7'5-in.  and  one  4-in. 
gun,  took  part  in  the  bombard- 
ment of  the  Belgian  coast  in  the 
early  months  of  the  Great  War. 

Excelsior.  Lyric  poem  by  H. 
W.  Longfellow,  published  in  Bal- 
lads and  Other  Poems,  1841.  It  is 
intended  to  show  the  life  of  a  man 
of  genius,  resisting  all  temptations, 
laying  aside  fears,  heedless  of  warn- 
ings, and  pressing  right  on  to  ac- 
complish his  purpose.  After  every 
warning,  in  the  face  of  every  temp- 
tation, he  repeats  his  motto,  Ex- 
celsior, higher;  and  then  perishes 
without  having  reached  the  per- 
fection he  longed  for.  The  voice 


heard  in  the  air  at  the  close  is  the 
promise  of  immortality  and  pro- 
gress ever  upward. 

Excess  Profits  Duty.  Tax 
levied  by  the  British  Government 
to  meet  the  expenses  of  the  Great 
War.  It  was  first  imposed  in  Sept., 
1915,  when  all  excess  profits  made 
in  business  were  taxed  at  the  rate 
of  50  p.c.,  the  amount  being  raised 
to  60  p.c.  in  1916  and  to  80  p.c.  in 
1917.  Excess  profits  were  defined 
as  those  in  excess  of  the  average 
made  in  the  two  or  three  years 
before  the  outbreak  of  war,  and 
the  tax  was  not  charged  on  the 
first  £200.  Farmers  and  professional 
men  were  not  liable  to  the  tax, 
which  in  the  financial  year  1919-20 
produced  £290,045,000.  A  similar 
tax  was  introduced  in  Canada  and 
Australia,  and  in  several  foreign 
countries.  The  duty,  reduced  to 
40  p.c.  in  1919,  was  raised  to  60  p.c. 
in  1920.  The  duty  was  very  un- 
popular and  by  Sept.  20,  1920, 
there  was  a  drop  of  over  twenty 
millions  in  the  estimated  total.  It 
was  abolished  in  Mar.,  1921. 


EXCHANGE:   INTERNATIONAL  FINANCE 

Ellis  T.   Powell,   D.Sc.,  Author  of   The   Mechanism   of   the    City 

Banking ;  Credit ;  and  Money  are  articles  which  deal  with  subjects 
of  kindred  interest.       See  also  Bill  of  Exchange  and  the  articles  on 
<th  British  and  fo 


the  great  banks,  both 

The  science  of  the  foreign  ex- 
changes is  concerned  with  the 
transformation  of  the  currency  of 
one  country  into  that  of  another. 
The  exchange  is  necessary  in  order 
to  adjust  the  international  obliga- 
tions which  arise  from  the  world- 
wide operations  of  finance,  in- 
dustry, and  trade. 

Giving  change  for  a  sixpence  is 
proverbially  unprofitable  ;  nobody 
here  and  now  will  give  more  than 
sixpence  for  sixpence.  But  six- 
pence here  may  be  worth  more  or 
less  than  sixpence  somewhere  else, 
while  sixpence  now  may  be  worth 
more  than  sixpence  in  three 
months'  time.  This  principle  is  the 
key  to  the  mysteries  of  the  foreign 
exchanges, the  machinery  by  which 
money  in  one  country  is  trans- 


foreign 

formed  into  money  of  another.  By 
money  we  mean  coin,  or  else  some 
instrument  or  document — a  cheque, 
bill,  or  note,  for  example — con- 
vertible as  of  right  into  coin. 

I  want  to  pay  15s.  to  McGinty  in 
Glasgow.  I  could,  if  I  liked,  send 
him  a  10s.  currency  note  and  two 
half-crowns  in  a  registered  letter  ; 
but  this  is  cumbersome.  The  ideal 
method  is  to  find  somebody  in 
Glasgow  who  owes  me  15s.  and 
tell  him  to  pay  it  to  McGinty.  Un- 
fortunately, I  have  no  debtor  in 
Glasgow  ;  but  I  know  an  individual 
who  does  possess  large  funds  there, 
and  it  occurs  to  me  that  I  might 
buy  15s.  of  his  Glasgow  money 
with  my  London  cash.  This  indi- 
vidual with  the  large  Glasgow  bal- 
ances is  the  postmaster-general. 


EXCHANGE 


3040 


EXCHANGE 


At  a  post  office  I  buy  a  Glasgow 
claim  for  15s.,  paying  the  post- 
master-general an  extra  l|d.  be- 
yond the  15s.  for  the  convenience 
he  has  afforded  me.  This  claim  on 
the  postmaster-general's  Glasgow 
balances,  called  a  postal  order,  I 
send  to  my  creditor.  In  due  course 
he  cashes  it  and  is  perfectly  satis- 
fied. This  was  an  exchange  trans- 
action, a  transformation  of  London 
money  into  money  somewhere  else. 
What  I  bought  was,  in  fact,  a  bill 
of  exchange  drawn  by  the  post- 
master-general upon  his  balances 
in  Glasgow. 

In  ordinary  circumstances  the 
postmaster-general's  balances  at 
Glasgow  are  sufficient  to  meet  all 
demands.  But  suppose  that  cir- 
cumstances create  an  abnormal 
number  of  remittances  to  Glasgow, 
so  that  the  postmaster-general  has 
to  make  special  arrangements  in- 
volving extra  expense  and  labour 
for  dealing  with  them.  It  is  con- 
ceivable that  he  must  then  raise 
the  price  which  he  charges  for  the 
means  of  making  remittances  to 
the  north.  Instead  of  selling  a  15s. 
bill  or  order  for  15s.  l£d.,  he  must 
demand  15s.  3d.  or  15s.  6d.  In  the 
language  of  the  foreign  exchanges 
we  should  say  that  the  London- 
Glasgow  exchange  was  moving 
against  London,  because  a  given 
amount  in  "the  metropolis  was 
exchangeable  for  a  less  in  Glasgow. 
A  Hypothetical  Example 

In  the  supposed  instance  why 
should  the  London-Glasgow  ex- 
change move  against  London  ? 
Simply  because  so  many  London 
people  were  anxious  to  acquire 
claims  to  Glasgow  money  in  order 
to  meet  their  obligations  there. 
Finding  such  a  strong  demand  for 
Glasgow  money,  the  postmaster- 
general  put  up  the  price  at  which 
he  was  willing  to  sell  his  Glasgow 
balances.  For  some  commercial 
reason  everybody  was  desirous  of 
providing  funds  in  Glasgow  to  pay 
for  goods  bought  there;  conse- 
quently people  like  the  postmaster- 
general  with  money  in  Glasgow 
were  besieged  by  London  buyers 
of  their  Glasgow  funds.  Bills  on 
Glasgow  were  eagerly  snapped  up ; 
people  were  bidding  for  them 
against  one  another.  The  result 
was  that  the  price  of  Glasgow 
money  went  up;  the  London- 
Glasgow  exchange  moved  against 
London.  Let  us  turn  from  this 
simple  illustration  of  the  principle, 
to  its  working  throughout  the 
business  world. 

If  English  exporters,  at  a  given 
time,  had  sent  so  large  a  quantity 
of  commodities  to  Krance  as  to 
create  the  necessity  for  unusually 
extensive  remittances  to  London 
in  payment  thereof  there  will  arise 


an  insistent  French  demand  to 
exchange  francs  in  Paris  for  sove- 
reigns in  London.  The  price  of  the 
sovereign,  as  expressed  in  francs, 
will  advance.  Now  the  Paris  ex- 
change, as  quoted,  expresses  the 
price  of  the  sovereign  in  francs  ; 
therefore  the  higher  it  goes  the 
cheaper  do  the  francs  become, 
since  the  sovereign  will  buy  more  of 
them  at  the  higher  quotation  than 
at  the  lower.  This  is  what  is  meant 
when  the  Paris  exchange  is  said 
to  move  in  favour  of  London. 
Exchange  Quotations 

At  the  same  time  it  must  be 
remembered  that  some  of  the  ex- 
changes— the  Portuguese,  for  ex- 
ample— are  quoted  the  other  way 
round.  While  the  Paris  exchange 
is  francs  to  the  sovereign,  the 
Portuguese  exchange  is  pence  to 
the  milreis.  This  reversal  turns  the 
whole  process  upside  down,  with 
the  result  that  the  lower  the  quo- 
tation the  better  for  the  English 
buyer  of  Portuguese  currency, 
since  it  increases  the  amount  which 
he  can  purchase  in  Lisbon  for  a 
given  sum  in  London.  The  varying 
methods  of  quoting  the  exchanges 
are  at  first  sight  perplexing.  The 
inquirer  will  discover,  however, 
that  in  the  quotations  of  the 
foreign  exchanges  in  the  daily  news- 
papers the  exact  significance  of  the 
figures  is  indicated.  He  is  in- 
formed, for  instance,  that  the 
Amsterdam  exchange  is  quoted 
florins  to  the  £  ;  that  of  Hong  Kong 
is  the  value  of  the  dollar  in  shillings 
and  pence.  In  theory,  of  course, 
these  transactions  are  exchanges 
of  money  for  money ;  but  the 
buyer  of  London  sovereigns  in 
Paris  will  get  a  draft  or  bill  of 
exchange  on  a  London  firm  or 
bank.  Hence  the  French  exchange 
quotation  is  for  Paris  cheques. 
This  represents  the  money,  and  is 
in  due  course  transformable  there- 
into. The  element  of  time,  as  well 
as  of  an  alien  currency,  has  to  be 
taken  into  consideration.  Some  of 
the  exchange  quotations  in  the 
current  lists  are  for  so  many  days' 
sight.  They  represent  the  price 
asked  on  a  given  date  for  English 
pounds  payable  in  London  after 
the  expiration  of  90  days,  plus  the 
days  of  grace. 

As  the  speed  of  modern  business 
tends  ever  to  accelerate,  there  has 
arisen  a  need  for  a  quicker  remit- 
tance from  distant  points,  than  is 
represented  by  a  draft  payable  at 
60  or  90  days.  Hence  the  "  T.T." 
quotations  in  the  published  lists  of 
exchange  rates,  i.e.  the  prices  of 
telegraphic  transfers.  They  stand 
for  the  terms  upon  which  the  ex- 
change dealer  in  Shanghai,  for 
instance,  will  buy  or  sell  sovereigns 
in  London,  the  money  to  be  pay- 


able as  soon  as  the  cable  can  carry 
instructions  to  the  London  agent. 

This  element  of  time  is  impor- 
tant. Obviously  a  Rome  draft  on 
London,  payable  eight  days  after 
sight,  or  really  11  when  the  days 
of  grace  are  added,  will  not  be 
worth  so  much  in  the  Italian 
capital  as  a  sight  draft  on  the  same 
place.  In  the  one  case  the  re- 
cipient of  the  draft  can  get  his 
money  at  once  across  the  London 
counter.  But  with  the  draft  at 
eight  days'  sight  he  must  wait  11 
days  before  he  handles  the  coin. 
Similar  principles  operate  between 
countries  employing  the  same  cur- 
rencies. The  price  of  the  English 
sovereign,  as  expressed  in  terms  of 
its  Australian  brother,  undergoes 
a  constant  fluctuation.  So  again, 
large  remittances  from  New  York 
to  Chicago  will  send  up  the  price 
of  the  Chicago  dollar  as  expressed 
in  the  New  York  dollar. 
The  Gold  Point 

In  our  preliminary  illustration 
the  postmaster-general  gradually 
raised  his  London  price  for  Glas- 
gow money.  But  he  could  not  go 
on  doing  this  indefinitely.  If  he 
advanced  his  charges  beyond  a 
certain  rate,  it  would  pay  better 
to  send  coin  or  notes  to  Glasgow 
by  registered  letter,  or  by  train, 
than  to  buy  his  Glasgow  bills.  The 
cost  of  remitting  coin  is  easily  cal- 
culable. It  is  the  value  of  the 
coin,  plus  freight,  insurance,  and 
the  expense,  in  large  remittances, 
of  packing  and  unpacking.  Unless 
the  postmaster-general  keeps  his 
charges  below  the  aggregate  of 
these  expenses,  people  will  send 
coin  and  notes  to  Glasgow  in  pre- 
ference to  buying  postal  remit- 
tances. If  £150  in  notes  or  gold 
can  be  sent  to  Glasgow  for  £1  in 
freight,  insurance,  and  expenses, 
nobody  will  pay  a  commission  of 
£1  10s.  to  the  postmaster-general. 

The  same  principle  holds  good 
in  international  exchange.  If  the 
Paris  price  of  English  money  rises 
above  a  certain  point,  the  exchange 
dealers  will  ship  gold  to  London. 
They  can  then  sell,  in  Paris,  the 
English  money  obtained  for  their 
gold.  With  the  rate  at  its  sup- 
posed high  figure,  they  would 
make  a  profit,  since  they  would 
get  more  for  their  English  coin 
than  it  had  cost  them  in  shipping, 
insurance,  and  expenses.  The  rate 
of  exchange  which  tends  to  en- 
courage the  transit  of  bullion,  in 
preference  to  the  purchase  of  bills, 
is  called  the  gold,  or  specie,  point 

Bullion,  however,  is  not  in- 
variably remitted  whenever  this 
point  is  passed.  Other  factors  in 
the  international  monetary  situa- 
tion may  prevent  this.  Certain 
governments,  e.g.,  place  obstacles 


EXCHANGE 

in  the  way  of  the  export  of  gold. 
Consequently  their  subjects  might 
be  deterred  or  prevented  from 
making  remittances  in  specie,  al- 
though the  rate  of  exchange  had 
passed  the  gold  point. 

We  can  now  discern  the  modus 
operandi  of  the  exchange  market. 
There  is  a  demand,  constant  in  kind 
but  variable  in  intensity,  for  the 
means  of  meeting  claims  in  every 
centre  of  commercial  activity. 
Bankers  and  brokers  specialise  in 
the  practice  of  buying  remittances. 
They  know  who  is  likely  to  have 
them  for  sale.  Frequently  they 
sell  their  own  foreign  balances  and 
embark  upon  various  delicate 
operations  in  order  to  restore 
them.  For  more  than  a  century, 
however,  there  has  been  a  ten- 
dency to  settle  all  international  in- 
debtedness by  means  of  bills  on 
London,  and  it  has  been  the  policy 
of  London  to  honour  all  inter- 
national obligations  in  gold. 

Until  the  outbreak  of  the  Great 
War  in  1914  this  availability  of 
gold  was  an  unbroken  tradition. 
Occasionally  the  workings  of  inter- 
national finance  led  to  the  pros- 
pect of  a  shortage  in  London's 
gold  resources,  but  that  state  of 
affairs  was  remedied  by  raising 
the  Bank  of  England  rate  so  as 
to  attract  gold  from  abroad  by 
the  offer  of  higher  interest.  The 
effect  of  this  gold-paying  policy 
was  to  render  the  draft  on  London 
negotiable  throughout  the  world, 
and  to  create  a  preference  for  it  as 
against  drafts  on  any  other  mone- 
tary centre.  The  possessor  of  a 
sound  draft  on  London  knew  that 
it  was  as  good  as  gold  ;  he  lacked 
this  assurance  if  he  held  only  a 
draft  on  Berlin  or  Paris.  The  effect 
of  this  knowledge  and  preference 
was  to  stimulate  the  settling  of  all 
international  obligations  by  drafts 
on  London,  rather  than  by  drafts 
on  the  place  where  the  business 
which  created  the  obligation  had 
actually  been  done. 

A  fine  (i.e.  absolutely  first-class) 
bill  of  exchange,  payable  at  a 
future  date,  is  clearly  an  instru- 
ment whose  usefulness  is  not  con- 
fined to  the  original  holder.  If  he 
requires  the  money  forthwith,  he 
can  discount  the  bill  with  his 
banker.  The  banker  will,  however, 
pay  more  for  it  if  it  is  accepted  by 
some  firm  of  the  highest  repute. 
From  this  fact  has  arisen  the  prac- 
tice, on  the  part  of  banks  and  cer- 
tain eminent  mercantile  firms  and 
finance  houses,  of  systematically 
accepting  approved  bills,  in  return 
for  a  commission.  Firms  who 
specialise  in  this  class  of  business 
are  known  as  accepting-houses. 

Bibliography.  The  Theory  of  the 
Foreign  Exchanges,  G.  J.  G.  Go- 


3041 

schen,  new  ed.  1896 ;  A  B  C  of  the 
Foreign  Exchanges,  G.  Clare,  4th 
ed.  1905  ;  Money,  Exchange  and 
Banking,  H.  T.  Easton,  2nd  ed. 
1907  ;  Money  Changing,  H.  Withers, 
new  ed.  1915. 

Exchange.  Name  given  to  a 
building  wherein  merchants  meet 
for  the  transaction  of  business.  It 
is  frequently  referred  to  as  'Change 
and  is  the  equivalent  of  the  French 
bourse.  Prominent  among  such 
buildings  is  the  Royal  Exchange, 
London.  In  modern  times  many 
forms  of  business  have  their  own 
exchange.  There  are  stock  ex- 
changes in  London,  Montreal, 
Sydney,  Johannesburg,  and  other 
large  cities.  London  has  a  hop  ex- 
change and  a  coal  exchange,  while 
many  towns  have  a  corn  exchange. 
See  Stock  Exchange. 

Exchange  (Lat.  ex,  out ;  late 
Lat.  cambiare,  to  change ;  Fr. 
echange ).  As  a  legal  term  this  has 
two  principal  meanings.  Exchange 
of  lands  in  England  is  effected  by 
deed  of  exchange.  A  true  deed  of 
exchange  demands  that  like  shall 
be  given  for  like,  though  not  neces- 
sarily in  value  :  a  freehold  for  a 
freehold,  leasehold  for  leasehold, 
copyhold  for  copyhold.  The  par- 
ties to  the  deed  must  actually  enter 
upon  the  property  to  complete  the 
transaction  ;  so  that  the  deed  is 
void  if  one  party  to  the  deed 
dies  before  entry.  Exchange  of 
livings  by  incumbents  is  allowed 
by  ecclesiastical  law.  Each  in- 
cumbent resigns  his  living  into 
the  hands  of  the  bishop,  who  then 
inducts  them  both  into  their  new 
livings  ;  but,  as  in  exchange  of 
lands,  if  one  dies  before  both  are 
inducted,  the  exchange  becomes 
null  and  void. 

Exchange,  MILITARY.  Term  de- 
signating the  privilege  extended  to 
officers  of  the  regular  and  Indian 
armies  of  exchanging  with  one 
another  from  one  unit  or  corps  to 
another.  Officers  desiring  to  ex- 
change must  forward  their  appli- 
cations to  the  War  Office,  stating 
their  reasons,  and  accompanied  by 
the  recommendations  of  the  com- 
manding officers  concerned,  who 
must  certify  that  the  exchange 
does  not  originate  through  any 
question  affecting  the  honour, 
character,  or  professional  efficiency 
of  the  applicants.  Medical  cer- 
tificates are  also  required  stating 
that  the  officer  is  in  a  fit  state  of 
health  for  duty  in  the  locality 
where  the  unit  to  which  he  desires 
to  transfer  is  stationed.  Exchanges, 
when  sanctioned,  are  notified  in 
The  London  Gazette.  Exchanges 
are  usually  made  for  private 
reasons,  and  are  made  between 
officers  of  similar  rank.  See  Com- 


EXCHEQUER 

Exchange  and  Mart,  THE. 
Name  sometimes  given  to  the 
London  paper,  the  full  title  of 
which  is  The  Bazaar,  Exchange 
and  Mart  (q.v.). 

Exchequer.  Name  given  in 
England  to  the  department  en- 
trusted with  the  duty  of  receiving 
the  royal  revenues.  The  word 
means  a  chess  board  because  it 
was  by  means  of  a  device  of  this 
kind  that  the  early  accounts  were 
kept.  The  late  Lat.  equivalent  is 
scaccarium,  and  the  Dialogus  de 
Scaccario,  a  treatise  of  the  time  of 
Henry  II,  gives  most  of  our  exist- 
ing information  about  the  early 
exchequer.  The  sittings  were 
held  at  Winchester  and  then  at 
Westminster. 

The  early  kings  had  both  a  trea- 
sury and  an  exchequer,  and  the 
functions  of  the  two  have  been 
somewhat  intermingled  even  until 
the  present  day.  The  Dialogue 
tells  how  the  exchequer  met,  the 
justiciar,  treasurer,  chancellor,  and 
other  high  officials  with  their  clerks 
attending  its  meetings,  how  the  re- 
ceipts were  entered  on  rolls,  and 
how  tallies  were  used  in  this  con- 
nexion. It  met  twice  a  year,  at 
Easter  and  Michaelmas,  and  its 
main  dealings  were  with  the  sheriffs 
who  attended  to  account  for  the 
royal  revenues  which  they  had 
collected  or  failed  to  collect.  In 
addition  to  this  court  there  was  a 
lower  exchequer,  which  was  a  per- 
manent department  and  in  prac- 
tice a  branch  of  the  treasury.  ^ 

Gradually  certain  changes  were 
introduced.  The  treasurer  took 
the  place  of  the  justiciar  as 
its  president,  and  then  these  high 
officials  ceased  to  attend  its  sittings 
in  person.  The  seal,  hitherto  held 
by  the  chancellor,  was  given  to  a 
new  official,  and  the  chancellor  of 
the  exchequer  came  into  being. 
The  chief  members  were  known  as 
barons,  and  as  they  began  to  hear 
cases  affecting  the  revenue,  they 
resolved  themselves  into  one  of  the 
regular  courts  of  law,  the  court  of 
exchequer,  with  a  court  of  appeal, 
the  court  of  exchequer  chamber, 
which  existed  from  1357  to  1830. 

As  the  country  became  richer, 
the  duties  of  the  exchequer  be- 
came more  varied  and  numerous. 
It  dealt  not  only  with  the  accounts 
of  the  counties,  but  with  others 
which  concerned  the  royal  revenue. 
The  exchequer  continued  in  exist- 
ence until  the  19th  century.  It 
collected  and  paid  out  the  royal 
income  and  expenditure,  while  its 
five  barons,  under  a  chief  baron, 
heard  cases  as  a  court  of  law. 

In  1834  great  changes  were 
made,  the  old  exchequer  being 
practically  abolished,  the  pay- 
master-general taking  over  its 

Z     4 


EXCHEQUER 


3042 


EXCOMMUNICATION 


duties.  A  new  exchequer  was  set 
up,  but  this  was  an  audit  office,  and 
in  1866  the  present  exchequer  and 
audit  office  was  established.  The 
name  exchequer  remains  in  several 
connexions,  exchequer  bonds,  etc., 
but  the  main  financial  work  of  the 
country  is  done  by  the  treasury, 
whose  actual  head,  however,  is  the 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  and  not 
the  first  lord  of  the  treasury.  The 
court  of  exchequer  lasted  until  the 
legal  reforms  of  1876. 

Scotland  and  Ireland  had  each 
their  exchequer  and  their  court  of 
exchequer  on  the  English  model. 
The  union  of  both  kingdoms  with 
England  made  these  separate 
institutions  unnecessary,  although 
the  Irish  exchequer  lasted  until 
1817,  and  the  Scottish  court  of  ex- 
chequer until  1856.  See  National 
Finance  ;  Treasury. 

Exchequer  and  Audit  De- 
partment. Government  depart- 
ment under  the  comptroller  and 
auditor-general.  His  business  is 
to  see  that  all  public  money  is  ex- 
pended in  accord  with  the  wishes  of 
Parliament.  Without  his  author- 
ity no  money  is  paid  out  of  the 
exchequer.  He  is  also  the  national 
auditor,  bound  to  notify  any  irregu- 
larities in  his  annual  report  to  the 
House  of  Commons.  The  office, 
established  in  1866,  took  over  the 
duties  formerly  discharged  by  the 
comptroller-general  and  the  com- 
missioners for  auditing  public 
accounts.  He  can  only  be  dismissed 
at  the  request  of  both  Houses  of 
Parliament.  His  offices  are  on  Vic- 
toria Embankment,  London,  E.G. 

Exchequer  Bill.  Form  of 
British  Government  security  in 
vogue  from  1696  to  1896.  First 
issued  under  William  III,  when 
metal  money  was  scarce  owing  to 
the  reform  of  the  coinage,  they 
were  really  promissory  notes  for 
money  borrowed  by  the  Govern- 
ment from  capitalists.  They 
usually  ran  for  five  years,  but  were 
sometimes  repaid  earlier,  and 
taxes  could  be  paid  with  them  ;  the 
rate  of  interest  varied,  but  they 
were  free  from  any  risk  of  depre- 
ciation. Their  place  was  largely 
taken  after  1877  by  Exchequer 
Bonds  ;  the  last  bills  were  paid 
off  in  1896.  See  National  Debt; 
National  Finance. 

Exchequer  Bond.  Form  of 
British  Government  security  first 
issued  in  1853.  They  are  promis- 
sory notes  issued  generally  for  three 
or  five  years,  and  redeemable  at 
par.  During  the  Great  War  much 
money  was  raised  by  the  sale  of 
these  bonds  ;  most  of  them  bore 

5  p.c.   interest,  but  at  one  time 

6  p.c.  bonds  were  sold.   An  attempt 
was  made  to  sell  them  through  the 
Post  Office  to  the  small  investor, 


as  advised  in  1916  by  a  committee 
on  war  savings  for  this  class.  To 
do  this  they  were  issued  in  bonds 
of  £5  and  multiples  of  £5 ;  after  the 
issue  of  the  National  War  Bonds 
in  Oct.,  1917,  the  special  need  for 
them  ceased.  In  1920,  however,  an 
issue  of  five-year  bonds,  carrying 
5f  p.c.  interest,  was  made.  See 
National  Debt ;  National  Finance. 

Excise  (Lat.  ad,  to;  census,  a 
tax).  Name  given  to  taxes  levied 
on  goods  produced  within  a  country, 
as  opposed  to  customs,  which  are 
taxes  on  goods  coming  into  it 
from  without.  The  early  taxes 
of  both  kinds  were  known  as 
customs,  and  for  long  there  was  a 
similar  loose  use  of  the  word  ex- 
cise, but  the  distinction  is  now 
generally  recognized.  In  the  time 
of  the  Civil  War  the  parliamentary 
party  introduced  the  first  excise 
duties,  placing  them  on  ale,  beer, 
and  other  beverages  and  then  on 
salt,  starch,  and  certain  victuals. 
Some  were  removed  in  1649. 

During  the  18th  century  the 
number  of  excise  duties  was  in- 
creased. In  1711  they  were  placed 
on  soap  and  paper ;  in  1746  on 
glass  ;  then  came  bricks,  candles, 
etc.  In  the  19th  century  the  pro- 
cess of  reducing  and  simplifying 
these  began,  and  to-day  the  num- 
ber of  articles  so  taxed  is  very  few. 
In  1917,  to  meet  the  cost  of  the 
Great  War,  excise  duties  were  laid 
on  table  waters,  entertainments, 
and  matches.  The  following  figures 
show  the  classes  and  net  receipts 
from  the  excise  duties  in  the  U.K. 
for  year  ended  Mar.  31,  1921. 

Beer 123,393,903 

Spirits          . .      . .  53,907,633 

Patent  Medicines  1,309,730 

Licences      . .      . .  4,278,742 

Table  Waters     . .  1,180,784 

Entertainments  11,735,840 

Matches       ..      ..  2,155,654 

This  money  is  collected  by  the 

board     of    customs    and    excise. 

See  Customs;   National   Finance, 

Taxation. 

Excise  Bill.  Measure  intro- 
duced by  Sir  Robert  Walpole  in 
1733  for  the  substitution  of  an  ex- 
cise instead  of  a  customs  duty  on 
wine  and  tobacco.  His  object  was 
to  lessen  smuggling  and,  by  making 
the  ports  free,  to  stimulate  a  re- 
export trade.  The  bill  aroused  much 
opposition  and  was  withdrawn. 

Exciter.  Generator  for  produc- 
ing electric  current  for  exciting  the 
field  magnets  of  an  alternator  or  a 
dynamo.  In  the  case  of  alternators, 
the  field  magnetism  of  which  it  is 
difficult  to  excite  by  current  gen- 
erated by  the  alternator  itself,  the 
exciter  may  consist  of  a  separate 
dynamo.  Direct  current  dynamos 
are  usually  self-excited,  i.e.  their 
magnetic  fields  are  produced  by 
their  own  current.  See  Dynamo. 


Exclusion  Bill.  Measure  intro- 
duced into  the  English  Parliament 
in  1679  for  the  purpose  of  exclud- 
ing James,  duke  of  York,  from  the 
throne.  The  country  was  greatly 
excited  by  Titus  Gates'  story  of  a 
Roman  Catholic  plot,  and  the  bill 
was  introduced,  Mary  and  William 
of  Orange  being  named  to  succeed 
Charles  II.  To  save  his  brother, 
Charles  dissolved  Parliament,  but 
the  bill  was  again  brought  forward 
in  1680  and  passed  by  a  large 
majority  in  the  House  of  Commons. 
The  Lords  rejected  it ;  and  a  pro- 
posal to  substitute  the  duke  of 
Monmouth  for  James  led  to  its 
abandonment  in  1681.  See  James 
II ;  Monmouth. 

Excommunication  (Lat.  ex, 
out  of;  communis,  common).  Term 
used  specifically  for  the  temporary 
or  permanent  exclusion  of  an 
offending  member  from  the  fellow- 
ship of  the  Christian  Church. 
Generally  it  means  exclusion  from 
any  organized  community.  Ex- 
amples are  to  be  found  in  the 
history  of  the  Jews  (Lev.  13 ; 
Num.  9  and  12;  Ezra  10).  It 
existed  among  Greeks,  Romans, 
and  Druids,  and  has  affinity  in  the 
tabu  of  the  Polynesian  islanders. 

The  Christian  Church  claims 
Scriptural  authority  for  excommu- 
nication (Matt.  16  and  18  ;  John  12 
and  16  ;  1  Cor.  5).  Imposed  first  by 
the  community  and  then  by  the 
bishops  as  a  penalty  for  heresy, 
immorality,  or  disobedience,  its 
primary  objects  were  the  bringing 
of  the  offender  to  repentance,  and 
the  protection  of  the  Church  from 
corrupting  influences.  In  pagan 
and  Christian  usage  it  has  been 
imposed  in  degrees  of  varying 
severity,  ranging  from  admonition 
to  temporary  and  partial  suspen- 
sion, and,  finally,  anathema  (q'.v.). 

Gregory  VII  first  claimed  the 
right  to  depose  kings  by  excom- 
munication, and  an  ecclesiastical 
authority  could  place  a  whole 
country  under  an  interdict.  Papal 
claims  of  this  nature  led  to  much 
trouble  in  Elizabethan  England. 

In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
excommunication  is  now  provided 
for  by  the  constitution  Apostoli- 
cae  Sedis,  1869,  ratified  Jan.  6, 
1884.  The  Anglican  view  is  repre- 
sented in  Hooker's  Ecclesiastical 
Polity  and  Canons  65  and  68.  At 
one  time  in  England,  after  a 
person  had  been  under  excommu- 
nication for  40  days  he  might,  on 
the  issue  of  a  certificate  of  the 
diocesan  authority  to  the  court  of 
chancery,  be  imprisoned  on  a  writ 
of  excommunicato  capiendo  until 
he  submitted  and  was  absolved, 
and  the  sentence  carried  with  it  a 
number  of  civil  disabilities.  By  an 
Act  of  George  III,  53,  c.  127,  it  was 


EXCORIATION 


3043 


EXEGESIS 


provided  that  no  person  excom- 
municated could  be  imprisoned  for 
more  than  six  months  and  that  no 
civil  incapacity  should  be  imposed. 

By  54  George  III,  c.  68.  a  similar 
law  was  enacted  for  Ireland.  Civil 
penalties  were  abolished  in  Scotland 
in  1690.  In  Great  Britain,  though 
disciplinary  jurisdiction  of  the 
eccles.  courts  over  the  laity  exists 
still,  it  is  subject  to  statute  and 
common  law,  and  excommunica- 
tion in  the  old  sense  is  virtually 
obsolete.  In  recent  times  imprison- 
ment has  been  imposed  only  in 
cases  of  ritualistic  disobedience.  In 
the  Scottish  Presbyterian  churches, 
lesser  excommunication  is  an  affair 
of  the  kirk  session ;  the  greater 
excommunication  is  a  prerogative 
of  the  presbytery. 

Modern  cases  of  excommunica- 
tion were  those  of  Bishop  Colenso 
(q.v.),  1863,  whose  deposition  was 
negatived  as  invalid  by  the  Judicial 
Committee  of  the  Privy  Council  in 
1865,  and  of  Father  George  Tyrrel 
for  his  criticism  of  Pius  X's  ency- 
clical against  modernism  (q.v.)  in 
1907.  Notable  excommunications 
in  earlier  times  were  those  pro- 
nounced by  Gregory  VII  against 
the  emperor  Henry  IV,  1077  ; 
Innocent  III  against  King  John  of 
England,  1208-14;  Gregory  IX 
against  the  emperor  Frederick  II, 
1228-45  ;  Julius  II  against  Louis 
XII  of  France,  1570;  Leo  X 
against  Luther,  1521  ;  Paul  III 
against  Henry  VIII,  1535 ;  and 
Pius  V  against  Elizabeth,  1570. 

Excoriation  (Lat.  ex,  from; 
corium,  skin).  Superficial  destruc- 
tion of  the  skin  (q.v.). 

Excursion  (Lat.  excursio,  run- 
ning out).  Popular  name  for  a  brief 
holiday.  In  the  United  Kingdom 
and  other  countries  previous  to  the 
Great  War,  the  railways  gave 
special  facilities  to  those  who  de- 
sired to  visit  various  seaside  and 
other  pleasure  resorts  for  short 
periods.  They  issued  excursion 
tickets,  at  low  rates,  the  day  ex- 
cursion to  Brighton  and  back  from 
London  being  only  3s.  The  Great 
War  put  an  end  to  these  excur- 
sions, but  in  1920  the  running  of 
day  excursion  trains  on  certain 
railways  was  resumed.  Single  fare 
was  charged  for  the  double  journey. 
Thomas  Cook  was  the  pioneer  of 
the  cheap  excursion  traffic.  See 
Railways. 

Excursion,  THE.  Blank  verse 
poem  by  William  Wordsworth. 
Published  in  1814,  it  forms  the 
second  part  of  a  projected  work  in 
three  parts  entitled  The  Recluse, 
conceived  3.3  a  philosophical  poem 
on  Man,  Nature  and  Society. 
Wordsworth  never  wrote  the  third 
part,  but  The  Prelude,  an  intro- 
duction, and  the  first  book  of  the 


first  part  of  The  Recluse  were 
published  posthumously  in  1850 
and  1888  respectively. 

Exe.  River  of  Devon,  England. 
It  rises  in  Somerset  on  Exmoor  and 
flows  right  across  Devon,  mainly 
S.,  to  the  English  Channel,  which  it 
enters  by  a  navigable  estuary  6 
m.  long.  Exeter  stands  on  it,  as 
does  Tiverton,  while  Exmouth  is  at 
the  mouth  of  the  estuary.  Its 
length  is  55  m.  Its  chief  tributaries 
are  the  Barle  and  other  streams 
that  rise  on  Exmoor.  A  ship  canal, 
5  m.  long,  connects  Exeter  with 
Topsham,  from  which  point  the 
river  is  navigable.  There  is  some 
trout  fishing  in  the  Exe,  which  flows 
mainly  through  wild  and  beautiful 
scenery. 

Execution  (Lat.  exsequi,  to  fol- 
low out,  carry  out).  Act  of  per- 
forming anything.  It  is  used  in 
law  (see  below),  and  also  in  other 
senses,  as  in  executing  a  commis- 
sion, or  the  execution  of  a  piece 
of  music.  In  a  special  sense  the 
word  has  come  to  mean  the  carry- 
ing out  of  a  death  sentence.  In 
England  the  death  penalty  was 
carried  out  mainly  in  two  ways,  by 
hanging  or  by  beheading.  The 
former  was  the  f a>e  of  the  ordinary 
offender.  Beheading  was  reserved 
for  political  offenders  and  persons 
of  rank. 

When,  in  course  of  time,  the 
death  penalty  was  confined  to 
serious  crime,  hanging  became  the 
only  form.  For  long  these  execu- 
tions were  a  public  spectacle  to 
which  thousands  flocked,  but  in 
1866  a  royal  commission  recom- 
mended that  they  should  be  carried 
out  in  private,  and  this  change  was 
quickly  made.  Burning  and  drown- 
ing were  also  practised  in  former 
days.  In  France  the  guillotine  is 
adopted  for  executions,  while  elec- 
trocution has  been  used  in  the 
U.S.A.  See  Capital  Punishment; 
Electrocution ;  Guillotine. 

Execution.  In  English  law, 
term  generally  used  to  mean  the 
carrying  into  effect  of  the  judge- 
ment of  a  competent  court.  In 
civil  cases  this  is  done  by  the 
successful  litigant  applying  to  the 
court  for  a  writ  of  execution,  which 
as  a  rule  can  be  had  for  the  asking 
at  an  office  attached  to  the  court. 
Some  kinds  of  execution,  however, 
require  an  order  from  a  judge  or 
judicial  officer.  Execution  is  also 
used  in  the  sense  of  perfecting  a 
legal  document  by  signing,  sealing 
or  delivering  it  with  all  proper 
formalities. 

Executive.  Name  given  to  a 
body  of  men  who  carry  out  the 
orders  of  others.  In  most  modern 
states  there  is  a  sharp  distinction 
between  the  executive  and  the 
legislature  ;  the  latter  making  the 


laws  which  the  former  carry  out. 
In  the  United  Kingdom  the  execu- 
tive consists  of  the  Cabinet  and  the 
various  state  departments  under  its 
control.  The  local  government 
bodies  have  also  a  legislature  and  an 
executive.  See  Cabinet ;  Govern- 
ment; Parliament. 

Executor.  In  English  law,  the 
person  or  persons  appointed  by  a 
will  to  carry  into  execution  a  will  as 
the  "  legal  personal  representative  " 
of  the  deceased.  An  executor  be- 
comes the  legal  owner  of  all  the  de- 
ceased's property.  He  must  first 
prove  the  will.  Armed  with  the 
probate  copy  thereof  he  collects  the 
property,  realizes  enough  to  pay 
(1)  funeral  and  testamentary  ex- 
penses ;  (2)  debts,  crown  debts 
coming  first;  (3)  legacies  in  order"; 
and  then  hands  over  the  balance  to 
the  persons  entitled  under  the  will. 

If  the  will  does  not  completely 
dispose  of  it,  the  executor  must 
share  the  balance  or  residue  of  per- 
sonalty amongst  the  next  of  kin  ; 
and  hands  the  freeholds  to  the  heir- 
at-law.  He  must  not  dispose  of 
realty  to  pay  debts  unless  specially 
empowered  by  the  will  to  do  so  ;  or 
unless  the  personalty  is  not  enough. 
When  an  executor  has  paid  out  all 
the  assets  to  creditors  he  is  not 
liable  for  any  debts  he  may  have 
left  unpaid,  unless  he  has  paid  one 
of  a  lower  class  of  creditor,  a  simple 
contract  debt,  before  paying  a 
higher,  a  crown  or  specialty  debt. 
That  is,  he  is  not  bound,  as  between 
one  creditor  and  others  of  the  same 
class,  to  pay  them  rateably  if  there 
is  not  enough  for  all.  He  is  al- 
lowed a  year  to  wind  up  the  estate 
before  any  legatee  can  sue  him  for 
his  legacy.  See  Will. 

Executory.  Term  used  in  Eng- 
lish law  in  two  senses.  An  execu- 
tory contract  is  one  which  consists 
of  a  promise  on  both  sides,  e.g.,  I 
will  make  you  a  chair  if  you  will 
pay  me  £10  for  it.  An  executory 
devise  or  bequest  is  a  gift  of  land  by 
will,  without  the  intervention  of  a 
trust,  where  the  estate  of  the  de- 
visee, or  the  legatee  if  a  leasehold, 
is  to  arise  upon  a  contingency. 

Exegesis  (Gr.,  explanation). 
Branch  of  study  concerned  with  the 
interpretation  of  Holy  Scripture. 
Properly  including  all  that  is  con- 
nected with  the  full  exposition  and 
understanding  of  the  Bible,  it  is 
more  commonly  restricted  to  liter- 
ary interpretation,  which  deter- 
mines the"  sense  of  the  sacred  text 
upon  the  same  principles  that 
would  be  applied  to  any  other  lit- 
erary work.  It  differs  from  Biblical 
criticism  in  taking  the  text  as  it 
stands,  and  examining  its  meaning 
rather  than  its  origin  and  authen- 
ticity. Being  concerned  not  merely 
with  the  precise  meaning  of  the 


EXELMANS 

text,  but  with  the  doctrines  and 
practical  inferences  to  be  drawn 
from  it,  the  study  of  exegetics  is  an 
extensive  one. 

Exegetes  have  from  early  days 
been  divided  into  two  classes  :  the 
Literalists  took  the  statements  of 
Holy  Scripture  in  their  literal  and 
grammatical  meaning ;  the  Alle- 
gorists  found  an  inner  and  spiritual 
signification  underlying  the  obvi- 
ous meaning  of  the  text.  The  N.T. 
writers  afford  many  examples  of 
the  influence  of  this  school.  For 
example,  many  O.T.  passages  are 
applied  to  Christ  which  obviously 
referred  originally  to  contempor- 
aries of  the  writers.  The  two 
schools  were  long  in  antagonism, 
believers  in  verbal  inspiration  natu- 
rally demanding  a  literal  interpre- 
tation of  the  text  of  Scripture;  while 
the  medieval  tendency  to  read 
sacramental  doctrine  into  every 
text  of  Scripture  led  to  the  most 
far-fetched  allegorisation. 

The  history  of  exegesis  shows  a 
great  activity  of  commentators 
among  both  Jews  and  Christians  in 
the  days  of  the  Early  Church ;  but 
little  was  done  during  the  Middle 
Ages.  The  allegorical  interpreta- 
tion of  a  few  favourite  texts  was 
the  subject  of  most  of  the  books 
and  sermons  that  could  be  called 
exegetical ;  and  collections  of  pat- 
ristic comments  replaced  critical 
investigation.  The  Reformation 
saw  a  great  revival  of  Bible  study, 
and  most  of  the  commentators  of 
this  period  belonged  to  the  literal 
school  This  may  be  largely  attri- 
buted to  the  need  for  proving  from 
Scripture  the  doctrines  that  were 
now  emphasised,  as  opposed  to 
accretions  to  primitive  doctrine 
which  owed  their  existence  mainly 
to  allegorical  exegesis.  See  Bible  ; 
Criticism. 

Exelmans,  REMY  JOSEPH  ISI- 
DORE, COMTE  D'  (1775  -  1852). 
French  soldier.  BornatBar-le-Duc, 
Nov.  13, 1775,  he  joined  the  Revolu- 
tionary armies  in  1791,  becoming 
a  captain  of  cavalry  in  1799, 
after  his  courageous  behaviour 
during  the  Italian  campaigns.  On 
Murat's  staff  from  1801,  he  was 
promoted  general  after  Eylau, 
1807,  the  climax  of  his  active 
service  during  the  campaigns  in 
Prussia  and  Poland.  Captured  in 
Spain,  he  was  held  a  prisoner  in 
England  from  1808-11.  He  took 
part  in  the  Russian  expedition, 
1812,  and  in  the  fighting  in  France 
in  1814.  At  Waterloo  he  com- 
manded a  cavalry  corps,  and  after 
the  Bourbon  restoration  lived 
abroad  in  exile  until  1823.  Hi  a  high 
reputation,  however,4  led  to  his  re- 
storation as  a  peer  of  France,  1830, 
and  to  his  elevation  to  the  rank  of 
marshal.  He  died  Nov.  11, 1852. 


3044 

Exemption  (Lat.  eximere,  to 
take  out).  Term  used  in  Britain 
during  the  Great  War  for  freedom 
from  compulsory  service.  Under 
the  various  Military  Service  Acts, 
1916-18,  all  men  within  prescribed 
age  limits  were  liable  to  join  the 
forces  unless  they  had  secured  ex- 
emption. Married  men,  for  exam  pie, 
were  not  liable  under  the  first  Act, 
which  came  into  force  in  Feb.,  1916, 
nor  were  doctors  and  clergymen. 
Other  grounds  of  exemption  were 
medical  and  compassionate,  as  in 
the  case  of  a  man  the  sole  support 
of  dependents,  and  men  in  indus- 
tries essential  to  the  successful  pro- 
secution of  the  war.  Tribunals  set 
up  under  the  Act  granted  either 
temporary  or  complete  exemption, 
according  to  the  circumstances  of 
the  applicant.  A  second  Service 
Act,  which  came  into  force  in  May, 
1916,  did  away  with  exemption  for 
married  men,  as  such,  though  they 
were  protected  in  the  same  way  as 
single  men  on  compassionate  and 
occupational  grounds.  Conscien- 
tious objectors,  married  and  single, 
if  they  satisfied  the  tribunal,  were 
exempted  from  combatant  service 
only,  as  was  the  same  class  in 
Australia  and  S.  Africa. 

Meantime  many  men  were  being 
exempted  on  medical  grounds  in 
somewhat  haphazard  manner,  and 
in  1917  a  Military  Service(Review  of 
Exceptions)  Act  was  passed.  All 
men  previously  medically  exempted 
were  re-examined,  the  examination 
was  more  thorough,  and  only  men 
definitely  rejected  by  a  qualified 
army  doctor  were  exempt.  As  the 
need  for  men  became  more  pressing 
many  semi-skilled  and  unskilled 
men  had  their  exemptions  taken 
away.  An Actof  Jan., 1918,  enabled 
the  Government  to  take  into  their 
own  hands  the  whole  question  of 
exemptions  of  men  on  an  occupa- 
tional basis,  as  hitherto  the  Trade 
Unions  had  partly  undertaken  this. 
A  final  man-power  bill,  introduced 
into  Parliament  April,  1918,  raised 
the  age  limit  to  50,  and  removed 
the  exemption  hitherto  granted  to 
duly  qualified  medical  practi- 
tioners up  to  the  age  of  56.  In 
France  and  other  countries  ex- 
emption from  service  was  granted 
on  certain  medical  grounds  and  to 
only  sons.  See  Certified  Occupa- 
tions ;  Compulsory  Service  ;  Man- 
power. 

Exercise  (Lat.  exercitium). 
Movements  of  the  muscles,  either 
voluntary  or  passive.  Voluntary 
exercise  means  deliberate  move- 
ment ;  passive  exercises  are  move- 
ments effected  by  the  manipulation 
of  another  person  or  by  a  machine. 
Muscular  contraction,  such  as 
occurs  during  steady  walking, 
stimulates  the  circulation  of  the 


EXETER 

blood  through  the  muscles.  This, 
in  turn,  acts  on  the  heart  and  the 
respiratory  system,  which  both  act 
more  vigorously. .  The  formation  of 
more  waste  products  in  the  tissues 
makes  increased  demands  upon  the 
excretory  system. 

Severe  exercise  is  beneficial 
to  the  young  and  healthy,  but 
should  not  be  undertaken  by  per- 
sons beyond  middle  life  or  those 
suffering  from  cardiac  or  other 
serious  affections.  Heavy  muscular 
effort,  long  continued,  such  as  that 
of  a  blacksmith,  tends  to  produce  a 
thickening  of  the  walls  of  the  ar- 
teries, which  may  eventually  lead 
to  heart  disease,  apoplexy,  and 
other  diseases,  especially  if  associ- 
ated with  alcoholism  or  syphilis. 
Regular  daily  exercise  is  an  im- 
portant adjunct  to  medical  treat- 
ment in  obesity,  gout,  digestive 
disorders,  insomnia,  neurasthenia, 
and  other  nervous  affections. 
Suitable  exercises  are  of  value  to 
children  and  young  persons,  to 
strengthen  the  muscles  and  correct 
wrong  methods  of  carrying  the 
body,  which  may  have  resulted 
from  weakness  or  curvature  of  the 
spine,  and  other  affections  which 
may  follow  rickets  or  malnutrition. 
Passive  exercises  are  mainly  em- 
ployed to  prevent  wasting  of  the 
muscles  and  stiffening  of  the  joints 
following  sprains  of  the  bones  or 
other  injuries  to  limbs,  and  to  in- 
crease the  mobility  of  joints  in 
those  suffering  from  rheumatism  or 
similar  conditions.  See  Physical 
Training;  also  illus.  p.  2718. 

Exeter.  City,  county,  parl.  and 
mun.  bor.,  county  in  itself  since 
1537,  riverport,  andcounty  town  of 
Devonshire,  Eng- 
land. It  stands  on 
the  Exe,  17 1£  m. 
W.S.W.  of  Lon- 
don, on  the  L.  & 
S.W.  and  G.W. 
Rlys.  Still  partly 
surrounded  by  its 

Exeter  arms       °!d  walls' ii;  occu' 
pies  an  elevated 

position  on  a  ridge  of  land  over- 
looking  the  Exe. 

The  chief  attraction  of  the  city 
is  its  comparatively  small  but 
magnificent  cathedral,  with  mas- 
sive Norman  transeptal  towers  (a 
unique  feature  except  for  a  copy  in 
the  collegiate  church  at  Ottery  S. 
Mary),  dating  from  the  12th  cen- 
tury ;  the  remainder  of  the  edifice 
was  transformed  between  1280  and 
1370  from  the  Norman  to  the 
Decorated  style,  and  a  complete 
restoration  was  undertaken  by  Sir 
G.  G.  Scott  towards  the  end  of  the 
19th  century.  Among  other  inter- 
esting buildings  are  the  guildhall, 
rebuilt  in  1330,  the  episcopal 
palace,  the  College  of  Priest  Vicars, 


3045 


EXETER     BOOK 


Exeter. 


West  front   of   the   cathedral  and  the  14th-15th  century  screen 
ornamented  with  sculptured  figures  of  Biblical  characters 


S.  Nicholas  Priory,  the  remains  of 
Rougemont  Castle,  and  Royal 
Albert  Memorial  Museum,  Library 
and  Art  Gallery. 

The  chief  educational  establish- 
ments in  the  city  are  the  Royal 
Albert  Memorial  College  and 
Exeter  School.  The  former,  which 
is  affiliated  to  the  universities  of 
Oxford  and  Cambridge,  was  foun- 
ded in  1865  as  a  technical  college, 
and  was  given  the  rank  of  a  univer- 
sity college  in  1901.  Exeter  School, 
one  of  the  most  important  public 
schools  in  the  west  of  England, 
was  founded  in  1629.  In  1876  it 
was  reorganized  and  new  buildings 
were  erected  for  it ;  they  include 
a  chapel,  gymnasium,  laboratory, 
swimming  baths,  etc.  The  old 
buildings  in  the  High  Street  were 
then  abandoned,  and  the  school 
is  now  outside  the  city  proper. 
There  are  also  training  colleges 
for  teachers. 

An  important  rly.  centre,  Exeter 
has  a  floating  basin  and  is  con- 
nected with  the  sea  by  a  ship  canal 
(begun  in  1564),  which  extends  five 
miles  and  opens  into  the  estuary 
near  Topsham.  Formerly  the  seat 
of  an  active  woollen  industry,  it 
is  now  an  important  agricultural 
centre,  while  brewing,  iron-found- 
ing, and  Honiton  lace  and  paper 
manufactures  are  carried  on.  Mar- 
ket day,  Friday.  One  member  is  re- 
turned to  Parliament.  Pop.  59,608. 
The  British  Caer  Isc,  the  Roman 
IscaDamnoniorum,  and  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  Exancestre,  Exeter,  as  the 
principal  fortified  town  of  the  W., 
was  frequently  besieged  by  the 
Danes  and  other  invaders  ;  it  capi- 
tulated on  terms  to  the  Conqueror 


in  1068,  was  surrendered  in  1136, 
successfully  withstood  attacks  in 
1467,  1497,  and  1549.  It  sur- 
rendered to  the  royalists  in  1643, 


Exeter.     University  College,  part  of 
the  Albert  Memorial 

but  the  parliamentarians  were  re- 
admitted three  years  later.  It  is 
the  Chatteris  of  Thackeray's  Pen- 
dennis.  Its  motto  is  Semper 
Fidelis. 

Exeter  ,  MARQUESS  AND  DUKE  OF. 
English  titles  borne  by  several  dis- 
tinguished families.  The  first  duke 
was  John  Holand,  a  half-brother  of 
Richard  II  and  a  descendant  of  Ed- 
ward I.  The  son  of  Thomas  Holand, 
earl  of  Kent,  and  Joan,  afterwards 
the  wife  of  the 
Black  Prince, 
he  was  made  a 
duke  in  1397. 
He  had  al- 
ready married 
a  daughter  of 
John  of  Gaunt, 
and  had  been 
made  earl  of 
Huntingdon. 
One  of  Rich- 
ard's chief 


assistants,  he  was  condemned 
and  executed  in  Jan.,  1400,  for 
conspiring  against  Henry  IV, 
his  titles  and  estates  being  for- 
feited. After  Thomas  Beaufort, 
earl  of  Dorset,  had  been  duke  of 
Exeter  from  1416  to  1426,  the  title 
returned  to  the  Holands  ;  in  1443 
John  Holand,  a  son  of  the  executed 
John,  was  made  duke  of  Exeter. 
His  son,  Henry,  lost  his  title  during 
the  Wars  of  the  Roses. 

The  title  of  marquess  of  Exeter 
began  with  the  Courtenays.  In 
1525  it  was  given  to  Henry  Courte- 
nay,  earl  of  Devon.  He  was  execu- 
ted in  Dec.,  1538,  his  heirs  being 
deprived  of  his  titles.  In  1605 
Thomas  Cecil,  Lord  Burghley, 
(q-v.),  a  son  of  the  great  Lord 
Burghley,  was  made  earl  of  Exeter, 
His  descendants  continued  to  hold 
the  title,  and  in  1801  Henry,  the 
10th  earl,  was  made  a  marquess. 
In  1898  William  Thomas  (b.  1876) 
became  the  5th  marquess.  The 
seat  is  Burghley  House  (q.v. ),  and 
the  eldest  son  is  known  as  Lord 
Burghley. 

Exeter  Book,  THE.  MS.  collec- 
tion of  Anglo-Saxon  poems  in  the 
library  of  Exeter  cathedral,  to 
which  it  was  presented  in  the  llth 


1st  Earl  of  Exeter, 
English  statesman 


Exeter.     The  pillared  facade  of  the 

Guildhall,    added   to   the   original 

building  in  1593 

century  by  Bishop  Leofric.  It  is 
clearly  written  on  vellum  by  one 
scribe,  and  forms  the  most  impor- 
tant body  of  Anglo-Saxon  litera- 
ture that  has  come  down  to  us.  It 
includes  Cynewulf's  Christ,  The 
Legend  of  S.  Juliana,  a  metrical 
life  of  Guthlac,  Widsith,  and  The 
Wonders  of  Creation.  It  was  first 
printed  as  Codex  Exoniensis  in 
1842,  with  translations  by  Benja- 
min Thorpe.  See  English  Writers, 
H.  Morley,  vol.  ii,  1888. 


EXETER  COLLEGE 


3046 


EXHIBITION 


r 


Exeter  College,  Oxford.    The  front  quadrangle,  showing 
the  fine  Gothic  chapel 

Hills  &  Sounders 


Exhaust  (Lat. 
ex,  from,  out ; 
haurire,  to  draw). 
Word  meaning 
in  general  the 
stream  of  burnt 
gases  ejected 
from  the  engine, 
or  it  may  be  ap- 
plied to  the  ex- 
haust piping  it- 
self.  In  the 
internal  combus- 
tion engine  the 
waste  gases  after 
combustion  are 
expelled  through 
the  exhaust 
valve,  and  the 


Exeter  College 
arms 


Exeter  College.  One  of  the  col- 
leges of  the  university  of  Oxford. 

Founded  in   1314  by  Walter  de 

Stapeldon,  bishop  of  Exeter,  it  was 

first  called  Stapeldon  Hall,  after- 
wards  Exeter 
Hall,  and  then 
Exeter  College, 
being  enlarged 
by  Sir  William 
Petreinl565.  It 
has  always  had 
a  special  con- 
nexion with 
Devon  and  Corn- 
wall, and  certain 

scholarships  are  confined  to  schools 

in  those  counties.    Among  famous 

Devonians    educated    here    were 

R.  D.  Blackmore  and  Archbishop 

Temple.      The   buildings  face  on 

Turl  Street  and  Broad  Street,  and 

their  chief  feature  is  the  19th  cen- 
tury chapel,  with  decorations  by 

Burne-Jones  and  William  Morris, 

both  members  of  the  college.    The 

hall  is  notable  and  there  is  a  small 

but  beautiful  garden.   The  head  is 

called  the  rector. 
Exeter  Hall.  Public  building  in 

London,  the  site  of  which  is  now 

occupied    by    the    Strand    Palace 

Hotel.     Built  in 

1831  on  land  be- 
longing    at     one 

time  to  the  mar- 
quess of   Exeter, 

it   was    first   the 

headquarters     of 

the   Sacred  Har- 
monic   Society, 

where  most  of  the 

great    singers    of 

the  time,  includ- 
ing Jenny  Lind, 

appeared.      It 

later   became 

known      as     the 

place    where    the 

annual    meetings     Exeter  Hall.  An  anti-slavery  meeting  held  in  the  hall  in  1841 

of  many  religious  From  a  contemporary  engraving 

bodies  were  held.     In  1880  it  was  several  were  held  in  Paris  in  the 

acquired  by  the  Y.M.C.A.,  which  time  of  Napoleon.     The  practice  of 

occupied  it  until  1907.       The  hall  awarding  medals  was  then  intro- 

held  5,000  people.  duced.      Others  followed  —  Great 


exhaust  port  into  the  exhaust  pipe 
at  the  exhaust  stroke  of  the  piston. 

Exhibition.  In  education,  a 
grant  made  to  assist  persons  to  pay 
for  their  education.  It  ranks  as  less 
important  and  is  usually  less  valu- 
able than  a  scholarship.  There  are 
exhibitions  at  most  of  the  colleges 
of  Oxford  and  Cambridge.  This 
use  of  the  word  comes  from  an  old 
meaning  when  exhibition  meant 
maintenance.  See  Scholarship. 

Exhibition  (Lat.  ex,  out ;  habere, 
to  have).  Term  used  for  a  display 
or  show  of  any  kind.  Thus  there 
are  exhibitions  of  pictures  and 
other  works  of  art.  In  a  special 
sense,  however,  the  word  is  used 
for  displays  of  manufactured  goods, 
and  national  and  international  ex- 
hibitions of  this  kind  were  organ- 
ized on  an  enormous  scale  during 
the  19th  and  20th  centuries.  These 
are  known  to  the  French  as  ex 
positions.  In  a  sense  they  are  the 
modern  equivalent  of  the  great 
medieval  fairs,  although  the  idea 
is  not  so  much  to  sell  goods  directly 
as  to  make  them  known. 

Several  exhibitions  were  held 
during  the  18th  century.  In  1797 
one  was  held  at  St.  Cloud,  and 


Britain,  Germany,  and  other  Euro- 
pean countries,  also  other  parts  of 
the  British  Empire  and  the  U.S.A., 
borrowing  the  idea  from  France. 
Some  of  them  were  confined  to  a 
single  industry,  and  to  the  products 
of  the  home  country,  but  others 
were  wider  in  their  scope.  Paris 
remained  the  centre  of  this  form 
of  activity,  but  exhibitions  were 
held  in  London  (1828),  Manchester 
(1837),  Leeds  (1839),  and  Birming- 
ham (1849). 

The  modern  international  ex- 
hibition is  generally  regarded  as 
having  started  in  1851,  when  one 
was  held  in  Hyde  Park,  London. 
Prompted  by  the  Society  of  Arts, 
the  Crystal  Palace  was  built  to 
accommodate  the  exhibits,  and  it 
was  a  great  success.  It  was  visited 
by  over  6,000,000  people,  and  from 
the  fund  money  was  set  aside  for 
scholarships — 1851  exhibitions  they 
are  called — and  for  other  purposes. 
Other  international  exhibitions 
followed,  one  or  two  being  held 
almost  every  year.  Among  the 
largest  were  New  York  (1853)  and 
Paris  (1855).  In  1862  a  second  was 
held  in  London,  and  in  1853  and 
1865  there  were  exhibitions  in 
Dublin,  where,  on  a  smaller  scale, 
triennial  ones  had  been  held  since 
1829.  In  1867  another  interna- 
tional exhibition,  with  several 
novel  features,  was  held  in  Paris  ; 
in  1873  there  was  one  in  Vienna ; 
in  1876  at  Philadelphia  ;  in  1878  at 
Paris,  as  before  in  the  Champs  de 
Mars  ;  in  1888  at  The  Hague.  In 
1886  there  were  exhibitions  in 
Edinburgh  and  Liverpool,  and  a 
Colonial  and  Indian  Exhibition  in 
London,  and  in  1888  one  at  Glas- 
gow. In  1889  a  great  exhibition 
was  held  hi  Paris,  the  Eiffel  Tower 
being  erected  for  it.  In  1893  there 
was  one  at  Chicago.  Glasgow  had 
another  in  1901. 

The  Paris  Exhibition  of  1900 
was  the  largest  till  then  held  in 
Europe,  and  in  1904  the  one  at 
St.  Louis  again  created  a  record  for 
size.  In  1901  a  Pan-American 
Exhibition  was  held  at  Buffalo, 
and  others  were  held  at  Liege 
(1905),  Brussels  (1910),  Turin 
(1911),  and  Ghent  (1913).  In  1908 
there  was  held  at  Shepherd's  Bush 
the  first  of  a  series  of  exhibitions  on 
slightly  different  lines.  This  was 
confined  to  the  produce  of  Britain 
and  France,  and  one  in  1910  to 
those  of  Britain  and  Japan.  The 
annual  exhibitions  held  at  Earl's 
Court,  London,  were  a  prominent 
feature  of  the  metropolis.  The 
Great  War  put  a  temporary  stop 
to  this  form  of  activity,  but  with 
its  cessation  numerous  plans  for 
exhibitions,  both  general  and  par- 
ticular, were  suggested  The  British 
Empire  exhibition,  arranged  for 


EXHUMATION 


3047 


EXMOUTH 


1923  in  London,  is  intended  to 
foster  imperial  interests,  both 
commercial  and  political.  Exhi- 
bitions are  held  by  particular 
trades,  such  being  the  motor  trades, 
drapery  trades,  etc.  Other  exhi- 
bitions are  promoted  by  news- 
papers, a  notable  instance  being  the 
Ideal  Home  Exhibition  arranged 
by  The  Daily  Mail,  at  Olympia,  in 
1920,  and  the  Efficiency  Exhibition 
arranged  for  1921. 

Exhumation  (Lat.  ex,  out  of ; 
humus,  ground).  Act  of  digging  up 
and  removing  any  object  from  the 
ground,  but  generally  applied  to 
the  removal  of  a  dead  body  from 
its  burial  place.  It  is  a  misdemean- 
our to  do  this  for  any  purpose  with- 
out legal  authority.  In  England, 
such  authority  may  be  the  coroner 
where  foul  play  is  suspected  or  a 
post-mortem  examination  ordered, 
and  the  ordinary  (q.v.)  of  the 
diocese  when  reinterment  is  the 
reason.  See  Autopsy ;  Burial  Acts. 

Exile  (Lat.  exsilium).  Removal 
from  one's  native  land,  either 
voluntarily  or  under  compulsion. 
The  word  probably  means  "  leap- 
ing forth,"  from  the  root  sal-, which 
occurs  in  con-sul  and  Salii,  the 
leaping  priests  of  Mars. 

In  Greece,  exile  was  chiefly  a 
punishment  in  cases  of  homicide, 
but  was  also  enforced  for  certain 
crimes  and  offences  against  the 
state  and  society.  Homicides  could 
anticipate  their  sentence  by  volun- 
tary withdrawal,  but  were  liable  to 
be  put  to  death  if  they  returned. 
Exile  was  also  a  political  measure 
employed  in  troublous  times.  It 
carried  with  it  disfranchisement 
and  confiscation  of  property.  A 
peculiar  method  of  banishment 
was  ostracism  (q.v.). 

At  Rome,  exile  did  not  become  a 
recognized  form  of  punishment 
until  about  the  time  of  the  Gracchi. 
Theoretically,  a  citizen's  life  and 
liberty  were  inviolable,  so  the  fic- 
tion of  aquae  et  ignis  interdictio, 
exclusion  from  the  use  of  fire  and 
water,  was  invented,  since  anyone 
deprived  of  these  necessaries  in 
Rome  would  perforce  have  to  seek 
a  home  elsewhere,  it  being  an  of- 
fence for  anyone  to  supply  them  to 
a  person  under  the  ban.  It  is  un- 
certain whether  interdictio  involved 
loss  of  civil  rights  and  confisca- 
tion. The  sentence  was  at  first  pro- 
nounced by  the  comitia  centuriata 
(q.v.),  later  by  the  quaestiones  per- 
petuae,  the  standing  courts  which 
dealt  with  serious  offences,  such  as 
high  treason,  poisoning,  and  arson. 
Everyone  had  the  right  of  volun- 
tarily leaving  the  city,  but  was 
forbidden  to  return  under  pain  of 
death. 

In  early  imperial  times,  deporta- 
tio  took  the  place  of  interdictio.  The 


Exmoor.    The  Doone  Valley,  part  of  the  romantic  country 
in  which  Blackmore  laid  the  scene  of  his  Lorna  Doone 


study  o  f  book- 
plates. See  Book- 
plate. 

Exmoor.  Pic- 
turesque and  ele- 
v  a  t  e  d  moorland 
expanse  in  Somer- 
setshire and  Dev- 
onshire, England. 
Formerly  a  forest, 
its  trees  have 
largely  dis- 
appeared, and 
three  -  fourths  of 
its  area  is  now 
covered  with 
heather  and  a 


coarse  grass,  on 
which  are  pas- 
condemned  person  was  compelled  tured  ponies,  sheep,  and  red  deer, 
to  take  up  his  abode  for  life  in  the  last  preserved  for  stag-hunting, 
some  place  out  of  Italy,  or  on  some  On  Feb.  22,  1917,  Sir  Thomas 
island.  He  was  sometimes  allowed  Acland  granted  a  lease  of  lands 
to  choose  the  place  of  exile  him-  covering  between  7,000  and  8,000 
self,  but  generally  it  was  assigned  acres  to  the  National  Trust  for 
to  him.  Deportation  entailed  loss  500  years  under  an  arrangement 
of  civil  rights  and  confiscation.  whereby  he  relinquished  the  rights 
A  milder  form  of  banishment  to  develop  the  property  as  a 
was  relegatio,  temporary  or  for  life,  building  estate,  and  granted  the 
pronounced  by  a  higher  magistrate  Trust  power  to  preserve  the  estate 
or  the  emperor  against  any  person  in  its  present  condition,  retaining 


for  himself  and  his  successors  the 
rents  and  profits  and  rights  of  an 
owner  The  area  thus  placed  in 


whose  presence  in  the  city  was  con- 
sidered undesirable.      It  entailed 
neither  loss  of  civil  rights  nor  confis- 
cation,  as    is   ex- 
pressly stated   by 
the  poet  Ovid,  who 
was  exiled  by  Au- 
gustus to  Tomi  on 
the  Black  Sea  for 
some  unknown  of-  \ 
fence.  5eeDeporta-  \ 
tion;     Outlawry;  ? 
Transportation. 

ExLibris(Lat..  fe 
from  books).  Label  tt 
of  o  wnershi  p  j| 
usually  called  in  |T 

England    a    book-  ^Exmouth.    Training  ship,  anchored  off  Grays,  Essex, 
plate.    Pasted   in-      where  boys  are  trained  for  the  navy  and  merchant 


side  the  front  cover 


service.     See  page  3048 


of  a  book,  it  bears  the  name  and  trust  for  the  nation  includes  some 
device  of  the  owner,  preceded  by  of  the  finest  hill,  valley,  and  wood- 
the  words  Ex  Libris.  This  Latin  land  scenery  of  Exmoor.  Lorna 
appellation  is  incorporated  in  the 
titles  of  societies  devoted  to  the 


Doone,  Blackmore' s  romance,  has 
made  Exmoor  familiar.  The  river 
Exe  takes  its  rise 
here.  The  highest 
point  is  Dunkery 
Beacon,  1,707ft. 

E  x  m  o  u  t  h. 
Urban  dist.,  sea- 
port, market  town 
and  watering- 
place  of  Devon- 
shire, England.  It 
stands  at  the 
mouth  of  the 
Exe,  10£  m.  S.E. 
of  Exeter  on  the 
L.  &  S.W.R.  Ex- 
mouth  wae  the 

Exmouth  from  the  east,  looking  along  the  promenade       first  seaside  resort 
and  sands  towards  the  mouth  of  the  Exe  m  the  county, 


EXMOUTH 

and  is  largely  resorted  to  by 
sufferers  from  lung  complaints. 
Once  a  flourishing  seaport,  Ex- 
mouth  contributed  ten  ships  for 
the  attack  on  Calais  in  1347.  The 
chief  industries  are  brick-making, 
fishing,  and  the  manufacture  of 
Honiton  lace.  Market  day,  Tues. 
Pop.  11,962. 

Exmouth.  Training  ship  for 
the  British  navy  and  mercantile 
marine.  Moored  off  Grays,  Essex, 
boys  are  trained  on  it  for  the 
above  services,  and  also  for  em- 
ployment in  naval  and  military 
bands.  Attached  to  it  is  a  sea- 
going tender,  Exmouth  II. 

Exmouth,  EDWARD  PELLEW, 
IST  VISCOUNT  (1757-1833).  British 
sailor.  He  was  born  at  Dover.  April 
19,  1757,  and 
entered  the 
navy  at  the 
age  of  13.  In 
1776  by  his 
gallantry  a  t 
Lake  Champ- 
lain  (q.v.)  he 
secured  his 
promotion  to 
lieutenant.  In 
1793  he  was 
appointed  to 

the      frigate          After  W.Owen.R.A. 

Nymphe.  For  his  capture  of  the 
Cleopatre  he  was  knighted  in  1793, 
and  in  1794  commanded  one  of  the 
western  squadrons.  Baronet  in 
1796,  and  M.P.  for  Dunstable, 
1802,  in  1804  he  was  promoted 
rear-admiral  and  commander-in- 
chief  in  India. 

Returning  to  England  in  1809, 
lie  became  commander-in-chief  of 
the  North  Sea,  1810,  and  of  the 
Mediterranean  station,  1811.  In 
1814  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage 
as  Baron  Exmouth  of  Canonteign. 
In  1816,  on  the  refusal  of  the  dey 
of  Algiers  to  cease  his  piracies, 
Exmouth  was  sent  to  bombard 
that  city,  with  the  result  that  over 
2,000  slaves  were  liberated.  Made 
viscount  in  that  year,  he  died 
Jan.  23,  1833.  The  title  is  still 
held  by  his  descendants,  Edward 
(b.  1890)  having  become  the  5th 
viscount  in  1899. 

Exmouth  Gulf .  Inlet  of  the  W. 
coast  of  Australia.  It  penetrates 
inland  about  65  m.,  and  at  its 
entrance  is  30  m.  across.  It  is 
sheltered  from  the  Indian  Ocean 
by  a  peninsula  80  m.  in  length, 
which  terminates  in  the  North 
West  Cape. 

Exodus.  The  second  book  of 
the  Pentateuch,  or  rather  Hexa- 
teuch.  The  title,  taken  from  the 
Septuagint  (Ex.  xix,  1 ),  means  the 
•'Going-forth."  The  Hebrew  title 
s  "Names"  or  "Aod  these  are 
the  Names."  The  book  falls  into 
two  main  divisions :  (a)  history  of 


3O48 

Israel  in  Egypt,  Ex.  1-18;  (6) 
account  of  Moses'  administra- 
tion at  Sinai,  whither  he  had  led 
the  children  of  Israel,  Ex.  19-40. 
The  former  section  incorporates  a 
much  earlier  composition,  the 
Song  of  the  Red  Sea  (Ex.  15). 
The  latter  includes  one  of  the  three 
chief  Hebrew  codes  of  law  (Ex.  xx, 
22-xxiii,  19),  described  by  scholars 
as  the  Book  of  the  Covenant.  See 
Hexateuch. 

Exogamy  (Gr.  exo,  outside. 
gamos,  marriage).  Primitive  in 
stitution  binding  a  man  to  marry 
outside  his  own  social  group.  Its 
primal  impulse  was  probably  eco- 
nomic rather  than  eugenic.  In 
those  societies  wherein  the  family 
is  overshadowed  by  the  kinship 
group,  the  exogamous  clan  is  often 
associated  with  a  totem,  a  mystical 
token  of  kinship.  Highly  developed 
with  the  Australian  aborigines,  it  is 
usual  among  the  N.  Mongols,  and 
widespread  with  the  American 
Indians.  Arising  from  it  are  such 
marriage  customs  as  marriage  by 
capture.  A  special  form  called 
hypergamy  exists  in  some  Hindu 
castes ;  it  requires  a  woman  to 
marry  into  a  caste  higher  than  her 
own.  See  Marriage ;  Society. 

Exogens  (Gr.  exo,  outside;  stem, 
gen,  to  be  born ).  Name  for  the  great 
division  of  plants  now  generally 
known  as  dicotyledons.  It  indicates 
that  the  annual  increase  of  girth  is 
due  to  the  addition  of  a  ring  of 
new  wood  between  the  old  wood 
and  the  bark.  See  Botany. 

Exophagy  (Gr.  exo,  outside;  pha- 
gein,  to  eat).  The  practice  among 
some  cannibal  peoples  of  seeking 
their  human  food  outside  their  own 
kin,  totem  or  tribe.  The  contrary 
usage  is  endophagy.  The  words 
are  loosely  employed  by  different 
writers ;  endocannibalism  and  exo- 
cannibalism  might  usefully  be 
reserved  for  the  man-eating  of 
totemic  tribes,  exophagy  for  extra- 
tribal  cannibalism  (q.v. ). 

Exophthalmic  Goitre,  GRAVE'S 
OR  BASEDOW'S  DISEASE.  Condition 
associated  with  increase  in  the  size 
of  the  thyroid  gland,  the  organ  situ- 
ated in  front  of  the  lower  part  of 
the  neck.  It  may  be  due  to  exces- 
sive secretion  from  that  gland 
(hyperthyroidism),  or  may  result 
primarily  from  an  affection  of  the 
nervous  system.  Strong  emotions, 
such  as  fright,  grief,  or  worry,  are 
antecedent  factors  in  some  cases. 
The  disease  is  more  common  in 
women  than  men,  and  generally 
begins  between  the  age  of  20  and 
30.  Usually  the  first  symptom  is 
severe  palpitation  of  the  heart  and 
throbbing  of  the  large  blood- 
vessels in  the  neck.  The  enlarge- 
ment of  the  thyroid  may  affect  the 
whole  gland  or  only  one  lobe 


EXORCISM 


Exogens.     Diagram  in   transverse 

section  of  an  exogenous  shoot.    C 

shows  the  point  where  the  growth 

takes  place 

ExophlJialmos,  or  protrusion  of  the 
eyeballs,  is  a  prominent  feature.  A 
fine  tremor  of  the  muscles  of  the 
lower  and  upper  limbs  is  sometimes 
an  early  symptom. 

Occasionally  the  disease  runs  an 
acute  course,  and  death  occurs  in 
a  few  months.  More  frequently  the 
condition  becomes  chronic,  and 
extends  over  years  with  periods  of 
improvement  and  exacerbation.  A 
certain  number  of  cases  recover, 
but  rarely  completely  when  the 
symptoms  are  well  marked.  Death 
may  result  from  disturbance  of 
the  heart,  tuberculosis,  or  exhaus- 
tion. Treatment  consists  in  giving 
absolute  rest  in  bed,  followed  by  a 
quiet  country  life.  Iron  and  strych- 
nine have  proved  useful,  and  appli- 
cation of  the  galvanic  current  may 
be  tried.  Serum  therapy  has  given 
inconsistent  results. 

Exorcism  (Gr.  ex,  out ;  horkiz 
ein,  to  adjure).  The  expulsion  of 
malign  spirits  by  ritual  means. 
Belief  in  demon -possession  and 
demon-obsession  is  revealed  in 
early  Sumerian  inscriptions.  The 
Semitic  Babylonians  regarded  most 
mental  and  bodily  ailments  as  due 
to  intrusive  demons,  whose  expul- 
sion was  sought  by  the  incantation 
of  charms  containing  a  divine 
name,  fortified  by  material  aids. 
Exorcism  passed  into  the  Greco  - 
Roman  world,  was  rife  in  W.  Asia 
in  N.T.  times,  was  taken  over  by 
early  Christianity,  and  survives 
here  and  there  in  ecclesiastical 
ritual.  Baptismal  exorcism  is  re- 
tained by  the  Roman  and  Old 
Lutheran  communions.  >. 

In  primitive  culture  disease  it 
commonly  attributed  to  evil  magic 
wrought  by  one  person  upon 
another.  The  intrusive  evils, 
whether  human  j  hosts  or  non- 
human  demons.  m.iy  haunt 
persons  or  places.  Preventive 
exorcism  is  one  chief  purpose  of 
the  amulet.  Expulsion  may  be 
attempted  by  sympathetic  magic, 


EXOSTOSIS 


3049 


EXPERIENCE 


such  as  the  Babylonian  wasting  of 
a  wax  effigy  of  the  sorcerer,  or  the 
Dakota  shooting  of  a  bark  effigy 
of  the  demon. 

Ills  may  be  driven  out  by  drums, 
as  in  Patagonia,  or  other  musical 
means,  as  in  the  case  of  David  and 
Saul ;  they  may  be  transferred  to 
scape-animals,  such  as  fowls,  as  in 
W.  Africa ;  to  goats,  as  in  Arabia  ; 
or  to  swine  (Matt.  8).  They  may 
be  enclosed  in  a  receptacle  left 
by  the  roadside,  or  thrown  into  the 
stream,  as  in  Uganda ;  conjured 
into  a  proa,  driven  out  to  sea,  as  in 
the  Malay  archipelago  ;  or  attached 
to  a  rag  or  wisp  of  hair  suspended 
from  a  tree.  An  appeal  or  command 
addressed  to  the  demon  may  be 
fortified  by  a  promised  sacrifice  or 
a  vow.  See  Demonology  ;  consult 
also  The  Devils  and  Evil  Spirits  of 
Babylonia,  R.  C.  Thompson,  1903- 
4 ;  The  Golden  Bough,  pt.  i,  J.  G. 
Frazer,  3rd  ed.  1911. 

Exostosis  (Gr.  ex,  out;  osteon, 
bone).  Abnormal  outgrowth  of 
bone.  See,  Bone. 

Expansion  (Lat.  ex,  from,  out ; 
pandere,  to  spread).  If  the  tem- 
perature of  most  bodies  is  raised  the 
body  expands.  The  amount  by 
which  solids  expand  when  heated 
through  any  reasonable  degree  of 
temperature  is  very  small.  A  bar 
of  iron  one  metre  in  length  only 
extends  a  little  more  than  a  thou- 
sandth of  its  length  when  heated 
from  0°  C.  to  100°  C.  The  coeffi- 
cients of  expansion  of  a  number  of 
metals  have  been  experimentally 
determined  by  very  refined  methods. 
For  each  degree  Centigrade  the 
following  are  the  coefficients  of  ex- 
pansion of  some  materials  : 

Platinum  =  0*00000899 
Copper  =  0-00001678 
Zinc  =  0-00002918 

Glass  =     0-0000083 

The  expansion,  both  apparent 
and  absolute,  of  some  liquids  can 
also  be  determined.  The  mean 
value  for  the  coefficient  of  cubical 
expansion  of  mercury  between  0° 
C.  and  100°  C.  is  0'0001819.  Water 
does  not  expand  normally  because, 
at  ordinary  pressures,  water  has  a 
maximum  density  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  4°  C.,  and  if  it  is  cooled 
below  this  it  expands  and  decreases 
in  density.  Gases  expand  with 
heat  at  all  temperatures,  but  pres- 
sure changes  their  coefficients  of 
expansion.  At  ordinary  atmo- 
spheric pressure,  the  coefficient  of 
expansion  of  air  is  0'003671,  of 
hydrogen,  0'00366  ;  in  both  cases 
practically  ^fo.  See  Heat;  Tem- 
perature. 

Ex  parte  (Lat.,  from  one  side). 
Expression  used  in  English  law  to 
signify  something  done  or  said  by 
one  person  not  in  the  presence  of 
his  opponent.  Thus  an  ex  parte  ap- 


plication is  one  made  in  the  absence 
of  the  other  side.  An  ex  parte  state- 
ment is  one  made  when  no  one  is 
present  to  contradict  it. 

Expectant.  Term  used  in  Eng- 
lish law.  An  expectant  estate  is  one 
that  comes  into  possession  and  en- 
joyment when  some  date  arrives 
or  event  happens.  Reversions  and 
remainders  are  the  only  expectant 
estates  known  to  common  law  ;  but 
when  wills  of  land  were  allowed  the 
law  permitted  executory  interests. 
An  expectant  heir  is  one  who  is 
bound  to  come  into  property  on  the 
death  of  another. 

Expectation.  State  of  expect- 
ing something.  In  the  plural  it  is 
used  for  the  money  which  one 
should  receive  under  a  will.  If  this 
is  a  certainty,  i.e.  if  the  will  is  that 
of  a  person  already  dead,  money 
can  be  borrowed  on  this  antici- 
pation. The  Sunday  after  As- 
cension Day  is  sometimes  called 
Expectation  Sunday,  because  the 
apostles  were  then  expecting  the 
Lord. 

Expectation  of  Life.  Term  used 
by  actuaries  and  others  engaged  in 
life  insurance  business  for  the 
number  of  years  a  person  may  be 
expected  to  live.  By  careful  cal- 
culations from  a  large  number  of 
cases  tables  have  been  worked  out 
which  are  used  when  annuities  are 
bought  and  sold.  The  expecta- 
tion differs  for  males  and  females, 
and  for  different  ages,  but  a  roughly 
accurate  method  is  to  value  the  ex- 
pectation of  life  at  two-thirds  of 
the  difference  between  the  present 
age  and  80.  Thus  a  man  of  41  may 
count  upon  living  to  67,  this  being 
26  more  years,  two -thirds  of  39, 
which  is  the  difference  between  41 
and  80.  Some  writers  have  ob- 
jected to  the  term,  and  equation  of 
life  has  been  suggested  as  a  substi- 
tute. See  Annuity  ;  Death-Rate ; 
Insurance. 

Expectorant  (Lat. ear,  out;  stem, 
pector-,  breast).  Drug  which  assists 
the  expulsion  of  mucus  from  the 
lungs  and  air  passages.  Those 
most  frequently  employed  are  am- 
monium carbonate,  senega,  squills, 
ipecacuanha,  benzoin,  and  balsam 
of  tolu. 

Expectoration.  Term  applied 
to  the  act  of  spitting,  and  to  the 
material  e  j  ected.  By  expectoration 
medical  men  usually  mean  material 
coughed  up  from  the  lungs,  not 
merely  saliva.  In  health  there 
should  be  practically  no  expec- 
toration ;  in  diseases  of  the  lungs 
or  air  passages  the  secretion  may 
contain  blood,  pus,  and  bacteria. 

Expeditionary  Force.  Name 
given  in  the  British  army  organiza- 
tion to  the  force  of  regulars 
trained  and  ready  for  operations 
abroad.  As  planned  in  the  re- 


organization of  the  army,  1907, 
and  developed  in  the  next  few 
years,  it  was  to  consist  of  six  divi- 
sions of  infantry,  each  composed 
of  598  officers  and  18,077  men, 
with  54  field  guns,  18  4'5-in.  howit- 
zers, and  4  heavy  60-pounder 
guns,  and  one  division  of  cavalry, 
composed  of  485  officers  and  9,412 
men  with  24  horse-artillery  guns. 
In  addition,  troops  were  provided 
for  the  line  of  communications. 
The  total  strength  available  for 
the  firing  line  was  thus  about 
130,000  officers  and  men,  with  480 
guns.  Each  infantry  division  in- 
cluded the  usual  divisional  troops, 
engineers,  medical  unit,  etc.  The 
cavalry  division  had  four  brigades. 

The  actual  British  Expeditionary 
Force  that  reached  France  in  Aug., 
1914,  had  a  combatant  strength  of 
about  60,000  men — four  divisions, 
and  one  cavalry  division.  The 
other  two  divisions  did  not  reach 
the  front  till  the  middle  of  Sept. 
The  original  force,  divided  into 
two  corps  under  Haig  and  Smith- 
Dorrien,  and  the  whole,  commanded 
by  French,  took  its  place  on  the 
front  in  Belgium,  Aug.  23.  See 
Army,  British ;  Great  War :  Mons ; 
consult  also  1914,  Field-Marshal 
Viscount  French,  1919. 

Expenditure  (Lat.  ex,  out; 
pendere,  to  weigh).  Act  of  paying 
out  money.  In  large  firms  expen- 
diture passes  through  the  counting- 
house  and  is  checked  by  the  audi- 
tors. National  expenditure  is  voted 
by  the  House  of  Commons,  and  the 
expenditure  of  local  authorities, 
which  is  under  the  control  of  finance 
committees  and  officials  acting 
under  their  orders,  is  checked 
by  auditors  of  the  ministry  of 
health.  See  Accountancy ;  National 
Finance. 

Experience  (Lat.  experiri,  to 
try).  Generally  speaking,  any 
sense -perception  ;  in  a  narrower 
sense,  a  systematic  organization 
of  perceptions.  The  knowledge 
derived  from  experience,  which 
alone  provides  communication  with 
the  objective  world  outside, 
is  closely  connected  with  the 
mental  activity  which  compre- 
hends and  shapes  experiences. 
Kant,  while  admitting  that  all 
true  knowledge  is  derived  from 
experience,  held  experience  itself 
to  be  the  result  of  the  application 
of  a  priori  forms  to  phenomena. 
One  defect  of  experience  is  that, 
o  whig  to  different  impressions  being 
produced  upon  different  persons  by 
the  same  things,  it  receives  a  per- 
sonal, individual  tone,  and  fails  to 
be  completely  general.  Again,  it 
lacks  absolute  certainty  and  ne- 
cessity, since  it  does  not  acquaint 
us  with  the  foundation  of  our 
knowledge.  See  Psychology. 


EXPERIMENT 


3O5O 


EXPLORATION 


Experiment.'  Testing  a  pro- 
visionally adopted  theory  by  facts. 
The  great  progress  of  natural 
science  in  modern  times  has  been 
chiefly  due  to  the  systematic  em- 
ployment of  experiment.  Ancient 
philosophers  and  inquirers  had  a 
contempt  for  this  method,  which 
first  received  due  recognition  by 
Francis  Bacon  in  his  Novum 
Organum,  1620.  An  experiment 
may  be  defined  as  an  observation 
which  can  be  repeated,  varied,  and 
explained. 

Experimental  Farm.  Farm 
at  which  science  is  applied  to  the 
processes  of  agriculture,  and  the 
results  tabulated  for  reference  and 
publication.  The  best  known  and 
oldest  of  English  experimental 
farms  is  that  founded  by  Sir  John 
Lawes  at  Rothamsted  in  1843. 
He  succeeded  to  the  estate  in  1834, 
and  from  the  first  carried  out  cer- 
tain experiments  ;  but  it  was  not 
until  1843  that  he  obtained  the 
assistance  of  Dr.  Gilbert,  and 
began  his  famous  systematic  ex- 
periments. Since  that  pioneer 
work,  the  great  agricultural  socie- 
ties started  other  stations  such  as 
that  at  Woburn,  and  of  Pum- 
pherston  in  Scotland.  The  oldest 
French  station  was  founded  by 
Boussingault  at  Bechelbronn  in 
Alsace.  Most  governments  have 
established  similar  agricultural 
research  institutions,  among  them 
being  several  in  Canada.  See  Agri- 
culture ;  Crops ;  Farm. 

Expert  (Lat.  expertus,  tried). 
Term  used  by  English  lawyers  to 
describe  one  who  has  special  skill 
in  and  knowledge  of  a  trade  or 
profession.  A  surgeon,  an  archi- 
tect, a  builder,  a  chemist,  for 
example,  are  experts  in  surgery, 
building,  and  chemistry.  Experts 
are  often  called  to  give  their 
opinions  in  technical  cases. 

Exploder.  Term  designating 
(a)  the  priming  employed  in  high- 
explosive  shell,  and  (6)  the  electric 
machine  for  firing  blasting  charges 
fitted  with  electric  detonators. 

(a)  The  high-explosive  charge 
employed  in  a  shell  is  always 
in  a  very  dense  condition  in 
order  to  reduce  its  sensitivity, 
utilise  the  greatest  possible  weight 
in  the  limited  space,  and  prevent 
movement  owing  to  the  shock  of 
discharge  when  the  projectile  is 
fired.  High  explosives  in  a  dense 
condition  cannot  readily  be  de- 
tonated by  fulminate  of  mercury 
or  other  initiators,  and  in  order  to 
build  up  sufficient  violence  it  is 
necessary  to  interpose  a  quantity 
of  loose  or  lightly  compressed  high 
explosive  between  the  detonator 
in  the  fuze  and  the  bursting 
charge.  This  priming  may  be 
confined  in  a  gaine  (q.v.),  or 


placed  in  a  bag,  or  merely  loosely 
stemmed  into  a  cylindrical  cavity  in 
the  bursting  charge  just  below  the 
fuze,  and  is  termed  the  exploder. 
The  high  explosive  employed  in  ex- 
ploders is  usually  trinitrotoluene, 
tetryl,  picric  acid  or  picric  pow- 
der. See  Ammunition;  Explosives; 
Shell. 

(6)  Exploders  for  firing  blasting 
charges  occasionally  utilise  current 
from  a  set  of  accumulators  passed 
through  an  induction  coil,  but 
the  more  usual  machines  are  of 
the  magneto  type,  a  sectional  illus- 
tration of  such  a  machine  being 
shown.  It  consists  essentially  of  a 
double-wound  armature,  A,  which 
can  be  rotated  between  the  poles 
of  the  horseshoe  magnet,  B, 
through  the  free  wheel  pinion,  C, 
which  is  actuated  by  the  rack,  hav- 
ing a  hand  grip,  D,  at  its  upper  end. 
The  free  wheel  ensures  that  the 
armature  does  not  rotate  as  the 
handle  is  pulled  up,  but  only  when 
it  is  pushed  down  and  the  current 
is  normally  short-circuited  by  the 
switch,  E.  When  the  rack  reaches 
the  bottom  of  its  stroke,  and  the 
armature  is  revolving  at  maximum 
speed,  the  rack  opens  switch,  E, 


Exploder.      Sectional    diagram    of 

magneto  exploder.    For  explanation 

see  text 

and  the  whole  of  the  current 
passes  to  the  main  leads  secured 
by  the  wing-nuts  shown  on  the 
left,  and  thus  to  the  detonators. 
A  machine  of  this  type  weighs 
som3  16  lb.,  and  is  capable  of 
simultaneously  firing  up  to  100 
charges  if  desired. 

Exploitation  (old  Fr.  esploit, 
profit).  Stage  in  the  life  of  a  mine 
when  ore  is  extracted  and  sold,  the 
previous  stages  being  prospecting 
and  development.  During  the 
earlier  periods  the  money  expended 


is  regarded  as  capital  invested  in 
the  business  ;  during  exploitation 
the  revenue  from  sales  is  regarded 
partly  as  return  of  the  capital 
expended  and  the  interest  thereon. 
See  Mining  ;  Prospecting. 

Exploits.  River  of  Newfound- 
land. The  longest  river  in  the 
island,  it  rises  in  the  hills  of  Long 
Range  and  flows  right  across  in  a 
N.E.  direction.  It  passes  through 
a  well-wooded  district  which  sup- 
plies timber  for  the  pulp  mills,  and 
on  it  is  the  town  of  Grand  Falls. 
It  empties  itself  into  the  Bay  of 
Exploits,  having  drained  about 
4,000  sq.  m.  Its  length  is  about 
160  m.,  and  it  is  navigable  by 
steamers  for  12  m. 

Exploration  (Lat.  explorare, 
to  search  out).  Literally,  any 
kind  of  discovery,  but  the  word  is 
applied  specially  to  discovering 
and  making  known  the  hitherto 
unknown  parts  of  the  world. 
There  was  little  in  the  way  of 
exploration  from  the  time  of  the 
Greeks  to  almost  the  end  of  the 
Middle  Ages. 

In  the  13th  century  something 
became  known  about  China,  and 
Marco  Polo  may  fairly  be  ranked  as 
a  pioneer  of  exploration.  It  was, 
however,  towards  the  end  of  the 
15th  century  that  the  great  dis- 
coveries were  made  that  gave  a  re- 
markable impetus  to  the  work  of 
the  explorer.  In  1492  Columbus 
reached  the  W.  Indies;  in  1497 
Vasco  da  Gama  rounded  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  and  reached  India  ; 
while  about  those  years  notable 
voyages  were  undertaken  by  Bar- 
tholomew Diaz,  the  Cabots,  and 
others.  Newfoundland  was  dis- 
covered ;  Cabral  reached  Brazil ; 
Balboa  saw  the  Pacific.  From 
these  discoveries  followed  the  ex- 
ploration of  America.  In  the  N. 
the  lead  was  taken  by  Frenchmen, 
La  Salle  being  one  of  their  greatest 
names,  and  in  the  S.  by  the  Span- 
iards and  Portuguese.  Gradually 
the  nature  and  extent  of  the  two 
continents  were  made  known ; 
the  Amazon  and  the  Mississippi 
were  discovered  and  then  explored, 
while  the  secrets  of  the  wonderful 
Aztec  civilization  were  revealed. 

In  the  18th  century  Australia 
was  discovered  by  Captain  Cook, 
although  the  Dutch  Tasman  had 
some  time  before  found  Tasmania 
and  New  Zealand.  Early  in  the 
19th  century  the  continent  was  ex- 
plored by  Oxley,  Sturt,  Eyre,  and 
a  host  of  others.  More  and  more 
was  becoming  known  of  Asia, 
although  it  was  long  before  its 
central  area  was  explored  by 
Hedin  and  others,  the  final  stage 
being  the  en  try  in  to  Lhasa,  1904. 
In  the  19th  century,  too,  came  the 
exploration  of  Africa,  the  work  of 


EXPLOSION 

Livingstone,  Stanley,  Manning, 
Speke,  and  others  among  English- 
men, and  of  a  number  of  French- 
men and  Germans.  The  secrets  of 
the  Nile  and  the  Congo  were  re- 
vealed, and  soon  there  was  little 
for  the  explorer  to  do. 

From  the  time  of  the  discovery  of 
America,  explorers  had  turned  their 
attention  to  a  north-west  or 
north-east  passage,  and  from  this 
came  the  desire  to  reach  the  north 
pole.  The  south  pole,  too,  was 
aimed  at,  and  the  exploration  of 
the  world's  surface  may  be  said  to 
have  ended  whsn  these  goals  were 
reached.  See  Africa  ;  Antarctic 
Exploration;  Arctic  Exploration; 
Australia. 

Explosion  (Lat.  ex,  from,  out; 
plaudere,  to  clap).  Accidental  igni- 
tion of  gas.  Explosions  in  coal  mines 
are  due  to  the  fact  that  coal  de- 
posits are  liable  to  give  off  certain 
gases  which,  when  mixed  with  air  in 
certain  proportions,  form  explosive 
compounds  which  only  require  a 
spark  or  flash  to  fire  them  with 
possibly  disastrous  consequences  to 
the  workers,  as  at  Courrieres  in 
France  in  1906,  when  1,100  lives 
were  lost.  Not  all  coal  mines  are 
equally  liable  to  have  explosions  ; 
many,  indeed,  are  so  entirely  free 
from  fire-damp  that  naked  lights 
are  used  by  the  miners  in  all  parts 
of  the  workings,  while  electricity 
is  freely  employed  both  for  lighting 
and  for  power  purposes.  In  others 
the  danger  is  always  present,  and 
the  most  exacting  precautions  are 
necessary  to  avoid  a  disaster. 

It  is,  indeed,  contended  by  many 
authorities  that  no  coal  mine  can 
be  absolutely  safe,  as  dust  alone 
without  any  admixture  with  me- 
thane or  fire-damp  may  give  rise 
to  an  explosion.  The  flame  from  a 
blown-out  shot,  that  is  from  an 
explosive  cartridge  which  has  not 
expended  its  force  upon  the  coal 
in  which  it  has  been  embedded,  but 
has  blown  out  the  tamping  by 
which  it  was  shut  in,  may  be  20  ft. 
in  length  and  even  35  ft.  in  narrow 
galleries,  and  may  travel  80  ft.  or 
more  along  the  workings  if  dust 
be  present  in  the  air ;  consequently 
a  real  danger  may  exist  even  in 
mines  which  are  not  "  fiery." 

Apart  from  blown-out  shots, 
which  are  regular  occurrences,  an 
explosion  may  be  caused  by  any 
kind  of  spark  or  flame  or  any 
ignited  substance — a  blown  electric 
fuse,  a  broken  electric  lamp,  for 
example,  where  electricity  is  em- 
ployed ;  or  an  overheated  safety 
lamp.  It  is  a  remarkable  circum- 
stance that  mine  explosions  began 
to  be  more  frequent  as  the  ventila- 
tion of  the  workings  was  improved, 
a  circumstance  which  led  to  an  im- 
portant inquiry  as  to  the  relations 


3051 

between  explosive  gas  and  the  oxy- 
gen in  the  atmosphere  of  the  work- 
ings. Legislation  in  this  country  re- 
quires that  the  oxygen  in  the  air 
of  the  workings  shall  not  be  below 
19  p.c.  and  that  the  carbonic  acid 
gas  shall  not  exceed  a  definite  very 
low  proportion,  but  inquiry  has 
shown  that  an  explosion  would  be 
almost  impossible  if  the  proportion 
of  oxygen  were  reduced  to  17  p.c. 

Thus  the  measures  taken  on  the 
one  hand  to  improve  the  working 
conditions  of  the  miners  would 
appear  only  to  increase  his  risk  in 
another  direction.  Other  precau- 
tions recommended  to  prevent  an 
explosion  comprise  watering  the 
dust  of  the  floor  at  the  working  face 
before  firing  a  shot ;  removing  the 
dust  from  the  intake  haulage  ways 
by  reversing  the  air  current  from 
time  to  time  ;  watering  the  floor, 
sides,  and  roof  of  the  roadways,  and 
rendering  the  coal-dust  unignitable 
by  mixing  it  or  covering  it  with 


EXPLOSIVES 

stone-dust,  which  may  be  made  by 
grinding  waste  shale,  '^he  use  of 
safety-lamps  (q.v. )  is  made  impera- 
tive and  certain  classes  of  explo- 
sives prohibited  by  legislation  in 
all  dangerous  mines  ;  while  arrange- 
ments now  exist  for  giving  all  coal 
mining  regions  warnings  of  any 
approaching  atmospheric  changes 
which  may  be  calculated  to  favour 
the  escape  of  gas  in  the  workings 
and  thus  increase  the  normal  risks. 
Where  risk  of  explosion  is  the 
normal  condition  of  a  mine,  special 
preparations  are  now  made  at  the 
most  modern  works  for  the  prompt 
release  of  miners  who  happen  to  be 
below  at  the  time  of  the  explosion. 
These  men  may  escape  with  their 
lives  from  the  explosion  itself  only 
to  fall  victims  to  the  after-damp  or 
choke-damp,  unless  they  can  be 
promptly  got  out,  and  as  a  rule 
their  ways  of  escape  will  be  blocked 
by  destroyed  or  damaged  workings. 
See  Coal-dust;  Fire-damp. 


EXPLOSIVES:     IN     PEACE     AND     WAR 

Capt.    E.    de   W.    S.   Colver,    Author  of  High  Explosives 

In  addition  to  the  following  introductory  sketch  this  work  contains 
shorter  articles  on  all  the  leading  explosives,  e.g.  Dynamite ;   Gun- 
powder, etc.     See  also  A  vnmunition ;  A  rtillery  ;  Gas,  etc. 


Explosives  (Lat.  explosus,  driven 
out)  are  solid  or  liquid  substances  or 
mixtures  which  are  capable,  when 
suitably  initiated,  of  being  conver- 
ted in  a  very  small  interval  of  time 
into  other  more  stable  substances 
which  are  wholly  or  chiefly  gaseous. 

Contrary  to  popular  belief,  the 
energy  content  of  explosives  is 
comparatively  low,  as  shown  by 
the  relative  heat  (energy)  content 
of  the  following:  petroleum,  15; 
coal,  10  ;  wood,  5  ;  nitroglycerine, 
2.  The  tremendous  explosive  effect 
is  solely  due  to  their  capability  of 
releasing  the  whole  of  their  energy 
in  a  minute  interval  of  time. 

The  early  history  of  explosives 
and  their  actual  invention  is  a 
matter  of  much  speculation.  Gun- 
powder is  certainly  the  oldest 
variety,  and  whilst  many  writers 
confer  on  it  great  antiquity  and 
connect  it  with  "  Greek  fire,"  it  is 
doubtful  whether  saltpetre  of 
sufficient  purity  was  known  at  the 
time.  Saltpetre  was  known  to  the 
Chinese  and  Arabic  people  about 
1200,  and  they  used  it  in  fire- 
works for  military  purposes.  Roger 
Bacon' s  writings  contain  undoubted 
references  to  gunpowder,  instruc- 
tions for  its  manufacture  being  con- 
cealed by  cyphers,  and  he  was  well 
acquainted  with  the  fact  that  it 
explodes  violently  when  ignited  in 
confinement.  No  real  development 
of  gunpowder  occurred  until  it  was 
used  for  the  propulsion  of  missiles 
from  guns,  and  this  invention 
appears  to  be  due  to  a  German 


monk,  Berthold  Schwartz.  Old 
manuscripts  record  different  dates 
for  the  discovery,  but  guns  were 
certainly  in  use  by  1320. 

For  some  six  centuries  gun- 
powder remained  the  only  explo- 
sive known  to  man,  and  its  compo- 
sition remained  almost  unchanged, 
saltpetre,  charcoal,  and  sulphur 
being  the  ingredients,  in  varied 
proportions.  Its  progress  from  an 
uncertain,  irregular  medium  to  a 
uniform  and  reliable  explosive 
has  been  entirely  due  to  im- 
proved manufacturing  methods  and 
greater  purity  of  ingredients,  this 
tending  to  more  intimate  contact 
of  the  components  and  conse- 
quently to  faster  and  more  regular 
burning.  A  mechanical  mixture  of 
oxidiser  and  combustible  can  never 
exceed  a  certain  degree  of  intimacy 
of  contact,  so  the  rate  of  burning 
or  violence  of  explosives  was  limited 
whilst  gunpowder  remained  the 
only  type. 

Marked  progress  was  made  after 
1846,  when  both  nitrocellulose 
and  nitroglycerine  were  dis- 
covered, the  former  simultaneously 
by  two  Germans,  Schonbein  and 
Bottcher,  and  the  latter  by  an 
Italian,  Sobrero.  Both  proved  to  be 
extremely  violent  explosives,  in- 
comparably more  powerful  than 
gunpowder.  The  reason  for  this  is 
that  both  are  chemical  compounds, 
the  oxidiser  and  combustible  being 
combined  in  the  same  molecule, 
and  hence  in  the  closest  possible 
contact.  They  are  types  of  a 


EXPLOSIVES 


3052 


EXPLOSIVES 


distinct  class  of  explosives,  termed 
the  nitric  esters,  in  which  the 
hydroxyl  groups  (OH)  of  the  raw 
material  are  more  or  less  com- 
pletely replaced  by  nitrate  groups 
(ONOii)  during  nitration. 

The  molecular  arrangement  of 
the  product  is  such  that  the  carbon 
atoms  are  linked  to  the  ON02 
groups  by  hydrogen.  The  oxygen 
has  the  greatest  affinity  for  carbon 
and  hydrogen,  but  is  bound  to  the 
nitrogen,  resulting  in  the  sub- 
stances being  in  an  unstable  state, 
and  when  they  are  suitably  initi- 
ated, re-grouping  occurs  in  accord- 
ance with  the  chemical  affinities 
and  with  the  production  of  heat. 

Attempts  to  utilise  these  new 
substances  commercially  showed  a 
number  of  unexpected  difficulties. 
Many  disastrous  explosions  oc- 
curred during  storage  and  handling, 
and,  although  a  spark  or  flame  had 
been  the  accepted  method  of  firing 
gunpowder,  these  were  quite  in- 
adequate for  the  new  explosives, 
which  were  easily  exploded  by 
percussion.  Credit  for  solving  the 
ignition  problem  rests  with  a 
Swedish  chemist,  Alfred  Nobel, 
who,  in  1864,  after  years  of  patient 
research,  evolved  a  tube  containing 
mercury  fulminate  which,  when 
exploded  by  a  spark,  initiated  com- 
plete detonation  in  nitroglycerine. 
Invention  of  Dynamite 

Fulminate  of  mercury  had 
previously  only  been  used  in  per- 
cussion caps  for  firing  guns,  and 
Nobel's  application  of  it  to  the 
initiation  of  explosives  is  one  of 
the  greatest  advances  in  explosives 
science,  and  alone  has  rendered 
possible  the  use  of  most  of  our 
modern  high  explosives. 

In  commenting  on  the  early 
difficulties  with  nitroglycerine  and 
nitrocellulose,  reference  was  made 
to  two  very  important  properties 
of  explosives — stability  and  sensi- 
tivity. Stability  is  the  ability  of  a 
substance  to  remain  unchanged 
during  prolonged  storage,  and  early 
explosives  were  deficient  in  this 
respect.  Nitric  esters  slowly  de- 
compose if  minute  traces  of  the 
nitrating  acid  remain  in  the  pro- 
duct, sufficient  heat  being  even- 
tually generated  to  explode  the 
mass,  and  some  compounds  which 
would  be  successful  explosives  are, 
inherently,  so  unstable  that  they 
cannot  be  used.  In  the  case  of  ex- 
plosives, sensitivity  is  always  com- 
parative, and  is  employed  to  ex- 
press the  ease  with  which  the  com- 
pound may  be  exploded  by  such 
agencies  as  heat,  friction,  per- 
cussion, etc.  Many  compounds 
are  known  which  cannot  be  used 
as  explosives  owing  to  being  ex- 
cessively or  insufficiently  sensitive. 
It  is  a  popular  but  fallacious  belief 


that  a  successful  explosive  is  sensi- 
tive and  detonates  as  soon  as  dis- 
turbed, whereas  the  desideratum  is 
one  that  is  so  insensitive  as  to  be  un- 
affected by  rough  usage,  but  which 
detonates  with  great  power  or 
violence  when  suitably  initiated. 

Many  years  of  patient  work  were 
required  to  make  nitroglycerine 
and  nitrocellulose  of  commercial 
value.  The  former  was  so  sensitive 
to  percussion  that  soon  Nobel  was 
the  only  worker  who  persevered 
with  it.  He  suffered  grave  family 
casualties,  and  accidents  were  so 
numerous  that  many  countries 
prohibited  the  transport  of  the 
substance,  but  in  1867  he  was 
rewarded  by  the  discovery  that 
kieselguhr  would  absorb  about 
three  times  its  weight  of  nitro- 
glycerine, yielding  a  plastic  mass 
of  sufficient  insensitivity.  This  was 
christened  dynamite  and  its  rapid 
adoption  founded  Nobel's  fortune. 
Progress  in  the  use  of  nitrocellu- 
lose was  equally  slow,  and  at- 
tended by  numerous  accidents, 
much  work  being  done  by  von 
Lenk  and  later  by  Abel.  Improve- 
ments in  manufacture  increased  its 
stability,  and  in  1868  guncotton 
was  made  a  successful  military 
blasting  explosive.  Neither  of  the 
new  explosives,  however,  was 
capable  of  use  in  guns,  being  too 
violent  in  their  action,  whilst  they 
were  too  sensitive  for  employment 
as  shell  fillings. 

In  1867  mixtures  of  ammonium 
nitrate  with  various  combustibles 
were  introduced  as  explosives,  but 
were  too  insensitive  for  use  until 
nitroglycerine  was  added,  when 
they  found  a  certain  amount  of 
favour.  Another  class  of  explo- 
sive was  invented  by  Sprengel 
in  1871,  when  he  employed  mix- 
tures of  nitric  acid  with  organic 
combustibles,  the  essential  feature 
being  that  the  ingredients  were 
non-explosive  until  mixed  just 
before  use.  These  have  been  ex- 
tensively used  for  blasting. 
High  Explosives  for  Shells 

Sprengel  also  experimented  with 
picric  acid  or  trinitrophenol  in 
1871,  but  he  was  not  encouraged  by 
the  British  Government,  and  this 
explosive  was  not  taken  up  until 
1 885,  when  Turpin  proposed  its  use 
for  shell  filling,  and  France  adopted 
it.  This  was  the  first  high  explosive 
which  was  sufficiently  insensitive 
for  this  purpose,  and  belongs  to  a 
new  class — the  nitro  derivatives  of 
aromatic  hydrocarbons.  These 
also  are  chemical  compounds,  but, 
during  nitration,  hydrogen  atoms 
are  displaced  by  nitryl  groups 
(ONO),  which  are  consequently 
joined  direct  to  the  carbon  atoms, 
and  the  products  are  more  stable 
and  less  sensitive  than  the  nitric 


esters.  Aromatic  hydrocarbons 
occur  chiefly  hi  coal  tar  and  petro- 
leum, which  are  the  raw  materials 
for  this  class  of  explosives. 

Smokeless  powder  became  a 
successful  sporting  propellant  in 
1865,  and  a  military  one  in  1884. 
The  successful  use  of  nitrocellulose 
for  this  purpose  became  possible 
when  its  structure  was  destroyed 
by  gelatinisation,  its  decomposi- 
tion being  then  more  of  the  nature 
of  extremely  rapid  combustion 
than  explosion. 

Picric  acid  did  not  prove  an 
ideal  explosive  for  shell  filling,  as 
it  was  liable  to  form  picrates  which 
are  sensitive,  and  in  itself  proved 
somewhat  too  sensitive  for  use  in 
large  guns.  Nitration  of  other 
aromatic  hydrocarbons  was  there- 
fore essayed,  but  did  not  become 
a  commercial  success  until  the 
manufacture  of  cheap,  highly  con- 
centrated sulphuric  acid  was  a 
commercial  possibility.  Trinitro- 
toluene then  sprang  into  promin- 
ence, and  was  shortly  adopted 
by  Germany  for  military  purposes, 
most  other  powers  following,  with 
the  exception  of  Great  Britain 
and  France. 

Explosion  and  Combustion 

Chlorates  became  cheap  in  1889, 
and  as  they  contain  much  available 
oxygen,  attempts  were  made  to 
employ  them  in  explosive  mix- 
tures. Early  attempts  to  use  them 
in  gunpowder  had  proved  disas- 
trous owing  to  their  sensitivity  to 
percussion  and  friction,  and  to 
avoid  such  trouble  some  use  was 
made  of  porous  cartridges  of 
potassium  chlorate,  which  were 
dipped  into  a  liquid  combustible 
just  before  use. 

The  invention  of  cheddite  (q.v.) 
was,  however,  the  first  completely 
successful  application  of  chlorates. 
Ammonium  and  potassium  per- 
chlorates  have  also  been  employed. 
They  contain  more  available  oxy- 
gen, and  are  less  sensitive  than  the 
chlorates,  the  ammonium  salt 
being  the  more  advantageous  as  all 
the  products  of  explosion  are 
gaseous,  but  for  use  underground 
it  possesses  the  disadvantage  that 
the  products  of  explosion  contain 
hydrochloric  acid  gas,  which  is 
poisonous,  and  if  the  explosive  is 
to  be  so  used  it  must  contain  some 
metallic  or  alkaline  ingredient  to 
fix  this  gas. 

The  power  of  an  explosive  can 
be  increased  by  raising  the  tem- 
perature of  the  gases  evolved,  and 
this  effect  may  be  obtained  by 
including  a  combustible  having  a 
high  temperature  of  combustion, 
and  metals  are  generally  em- 
ployed for  this  purpose,  such  ex- 
plosives being  designated  Thermit 
explosives. 


EXPLOSIVES      LAW 


3053 


EXPRESSION 


Dynamite,  gelatine  dynamite, 
and  blasting  gelatine  are  generally 
used  where  great  shattering  effect 
is  required,  and  gunpowder  is  still 
employed  for  rending.  Military 
requirements  generally  demand  a 
most  brisant  effect  from  shell  fil- 
lings, and  here  nitro- aromatic  com- 
pounds alone  are  most  used, 
trinitrotoluene  being  pre-eminent ; 
but  during  the  Great  War  shortage 
of  supplies  rendered  it  necessary  to 
employ  ammonium  nitrate  explo- 
sives for  this  purpose,  and  amatol 
and  schneiderite  are  examples  of 
successful  practice.  Smokeless 
powders  all  have  nitrocellulose  as 
a  basis,  and  some  contain  nitro- 
glycerine in  addition — (see  Cordite, 
Poudre  B.,  Ballistite,  E.G.  Powder, 
Schultze  Powder,  etc.) — propel- 
lants  for  rifled  weapons  being  re- 
quired to  burn  much  more  slowly 
than  for  smooth  bores. 

Combustion,  explosion,  and  de- 
tonation are  terms  designating  the 
same  chemical  change,  the  sole 
variant  being  the  speed  with  which 
reaction  occurs,  detonation  being 
so  rapid  that  an  explosive  wave 
apparently  propagates  the  change 
instantaneously  through  the  whole 
mass,  whereas  in  combustion  and 
explosion  the  reaction  proceeds 
by  layers  through  each  particle. 
Use  in  Mining 

In  mining,  explosives  are  used  to 
supplement  the  work  of  the  miner's 
pick  in  breaking  down  the  rock 
which  it  is  desired  to  remove.  The 
explosives  in  common  use  com- 
prise: gunpowder;  cheddites,  which 
are  chlorate  preparations  ;  dyna- 
mite, blasting  gelatine,  gelignite, 
Ardeer  powder,  britonite,  cam- 
brite,  arkite,  carbonite,  kolax 
and  duxite,  which  are  preparations 
of  nitroglycerine  ;  ammonite, 
bellite,  Faversham  powder  and 
roburite,  which  are  preparations  of 
ammonium  nitrate,  and  fulminate 
of  mercury,  which  is  used  for  de- 
tonators. Gunpowder  is  still  large- 
ly used,  especially  for  the  softer 
rocks,  on  account  of  its  cheapness 
and  general  security.  The  dyna- 
mites, blasting  gelatine,  and  gelig- 
nite are  most  used  for  hard  rocks 
where  an  intense  shattering  effect 
is  desired. 

For  use  in  coal  mines,  particu- 
larly those  where  there  is  a  risk 
of  a  gas  or  coal-dust  explosion, 
safety  explosives  are  employed, 
these  usually  having  an  ammonium 
nitrate  base,  sensitised  with  either 
nitroglycerine  or  an  aromatic  nitro- 
compound.  Explosives  of  a  similar 
type,  but  of  a  more  brisant  nature, 
including  some  of  the  cheddites, 
ammonals,  etc.,  are  used  in  mining 
and  quarrying.  For  military  de- 
molitions guncotton  or  trinitro- 
toluene is  usually  employed,  but 


dynamite  or  blasting  gelatine  may 
be  used  in  an  emergency.  For 
land  mines  the  British  army  used 
ammonal  extensively  during  the 
Great  War.  See  illus.  p.  2346. 

Bibliography.  ExplosiveMaterials, 
M.  P.  E.  Berthelot,  Eng.  trans.  M. 
Benjamin,  1883  ;  Traite  theorique 
et  pratique  des  explosifs  modernes, 
P.  F.  Chalon,  2nd  ed.  1889  ;  Manu- 
facture of  Explosives,  O.  Guttman, 
1895  ;  with  supplement,  1909 ; 
Poudres  et  Explosifs  :  dictionnaire 
des  matieres  explosives,  J.  Daniel, 
1902  ;  Explosives,  H.  Brunswig, 
Eng.  trans.  C.  E.  Monroe  and  A.  L. 
Kibler,  1912;  Les  Poudres  et 
Explosifs,  L.  Vennin  and  G. 
Chesneau,  1914  ;  Explosives,  A. 
Marshall,  2nd  ed.  1917  ;  Notes  on 
Military  Explosives,  E.  M.  Weaver, 
4th  ed.  1917  ;  High  Explosives, 
E.  de  W.  S.  Colver,  1918. 

Explosives  Law.  A  new  Act 
concerning  explosives  was  passed 
in  England  in  1860,  and  amended 
in  1861  and  1862,  repealing  all 
previous  Acts.  In  1875  a  new  Ex- 
plosives Act  was  passed  dealing 
comprehensively  with  the  whole 
question.  This  was  based  on  the 
report  of  the  House  of  Commons 
Committee  appointed  to  enquire 
into  the  terrible  explosion  on  the 
Regent's  Canal  in  1874,  and  still 
governs  the  whole  question.  Part  I 
deals  with  gunpowder,  which  may 
only  be  manufactured  in  licensed 
factories  and  kept  in  licensed  maga- 
zines under  specified  conditions. 
Part  II  deals  similarly  with  nitro- 
glycerine, and  other  high  explo- 
sives ;  Part  III  with  inspection, 
accidents,  search,  etc.,  and  Part  IV 
gives  supplementary  provisions. 
The  Act  is  administered  by  the 
home  office,  which  publishes 
annual  reports  of  its  inspectors, 
and  is  responsible  for  new  regu- 
lations, etc.  The  term  explo- 
sive may  include  any  substance 
deemed  to  be  specially  dangerous, 
and  the  Act  provides  for  the  com- 
position, quality,  character,  and 
classification  of  any  explosive  to 
be  defined  by  an  Order  in  Council. 
Owing  to  many  of  the  newer  ex- 
plosives being  of  a  poisonous 
nature,  regulations  can  also  be 
made  to  safeguard  the  health  of 
workers.  Most  other  countries 
have  introduced  similar  legislation. 
The  Merchant  Shipping  Act  of 
1894  regulates  the  carrying  of 
explosives  in  British  vessels. 

Exponent  (Lat.  ex,  from,  out ; 
ponere,  to  place).  Symbol  of  an 
algebraic  expression  denoting  the 
number  of  times  the  expression  is 
to  be  multiplied  by  itself.  Thus  in 
the  expression  a3,  the  figure  3  is  the 
exponent  of  a,  and  the  expression 
is  equivalent  to  a  times  a  times  a. 

Exponential.  A  term  used 
in  mathematics.  The  exponential 
function  is  the  inverse  of  the  loga- 


rithm :  thus  if  y=log  x,  then  x  is 
said  to  be  the  exponential  of  y. 
See  Logarithms. 

Exports  (Lat.  exportare,  to 
carry  out).  Name  given  to  goods 
sent  out  of  a  country.  These  are 
valued  at  the  custom  houses,  or  by 
other  authorities,  and  all  civilized 
countries  issue  periodical  returns 
showing  their  value.  In  the  United 
Kingdom  this  is  done  monthly  by 
the  board  of  trade.  They  are  divid- 
ed into  four  main  classes  :  food, 
drink  and  tobacco  ;  raw  materials  ; 
manufactured  articles ;  miscella- 
neous. The  total  value  of  a  year's 
exports  from  the  United  Kingdom 
rose  from  £354,400,000  in  1900  to 
£962,694,911  in  1919,  but  this  great 
increase  was  largely  due  to  an  ad- 
vance in  prices,  not  to  an  advance 
in  volume. 

The  difference  between  a  coun- 
try's exports  and  its  imports  is 
known  as  its  balance  of  trade,  but 
to  strike  an  accurate  balance  cer- 
tain considerations  should  be  re- 
membered. For  instance,  exports 
are  valued  at  their  price  when  put 
on  board  ship,  whereas  in  the  price 
of  imports  the  cost  of  carriage  is  in- 
cluded. Invisible  exports  is  the 
name  given  to  charges  for  freights 
and  the  like.  These  are  paid  to  the 
country  owning  the  carrying  ships 
and  play  a  part  in  the  balance  of 
trade,  but  are  not  included  in  the 
monthly  figures.  See  Balance  of 
Trade;  Trade. 

Exposition  (Lat.  exponere,  to 
set  forth).  In  music,  the  placing 
out  or  setting  forth  of  the  themes 
and  materials  upon  which  a  piece  is 
constructed.  In  fugue  the  exposi- 
tion includes  the  first  entries  of  all 
the  voices  or  parts.  In  sonata  form 
it  includes  the  first  presentation  of 
the  chief  themes,  before  their  deve- 
lopment or  elaboration  is  entered 
upon.  See  Fugue  ;  Sonata. 

Express.  Literally  to  press  out, 
a  word  used  in  several  senses,  all, 
however,  conveying  the  idea  of 
speed.  It  is  given  to  a  fast  train 
and  to  a  newspaper.  See  Railways. 

Expression,  FACIAL.  Outward 
indication  on  the  features  of  the 
inward  character  or  emotions.  Sir 
Charles  Bell  first  put  the  matter  on 
a  scientific  basis  in  his  essay  on  the 
Anatomy  of  Expression  in  Painting, 
1806.  Continental  writers  fol- 
lowed, but  the  great  classic  work  on 
the  subject  is  Charles  Darwin's 
Expression  of  the  Emotions  in  Man 
and  Animals,  1872,  in  which  are 
set  forth  the  physiological  reasons 
for  the  variety  of  expression  of 
which  the  human  face,  and  in  a 
lesser  degree  the  faces  of  animals, 
are  capable. 

Darwin  maintains  that  some  hu- 
man expressions,  such  as  the  bristl- 
ing of  the  hair  under  the  influence 


EXPRESS      SERVICE 

of  extreme  terror,  or  the  uncovering 
of  the  teeth  under  that  of  furious 
rage,  can  only  be  understood  on  the 
assumption  that  man  once  existed 
in  a  much  lower  and  animal-like 
condition.  He  thinks  the  movement 
of  the  same  facial  muscles  during 
laughter  by  man  and  by  various 
monkeys  indicates  descent  from  a 
common  ancestor.  See  illus.  p.  59. 

Express  Service.  Organiza- 
tion for  the  rapid  transit  of  small 
parcels.  Companies  for  this  pur- 
pose are  especially  numerous  in  the 
U.S.A.  and  Canada,  where  they 
undertake  the  carrying  of  money 
and  valuables,  as  well  as  of  ordi- 
nary goods.  They  insure  these,  and 
if  required  collect  the  money  on  de- 
livery. Express  companies  are  con- 
trolled by  the  government  as  to 
charges,  etc.,  much  as  railway 
companies  in  Great  Britain. 

In  the  U.S.A.  the  first  express 
company  was  organized  in  1836. 
Others  followed,  and  soon  the 
whole  country  had  an  efficient  ser- 
vice, each  company  with  its  own 
coaches  and  riders.  Among  the 
largest  were  the  Adams,  the  Ameri- 
can, the  United  States  and  the 
Wells,  Fargo.  Soon  they  made 
agreements  with  the  railway  com- 
panies, by  which  most  of  their  loads 
are  now  carried.  In  1912  their  pros- 
perity was  gravely  affected  by  a  law 
permitting  the  post  office  to  carry 
heavier  parcels  than  had  hitherto 
been  the  case. 

In  Canada  there  are  four  large 
companies,  in  addition  to  those 
of  the  U.S.A.,  which  work  the 
country.  The  four  have  a  capital 
of  £1,000,000,  and  in  1916  the 
turnover  of  the  whole,  those  of 
the  U.S.A.  included,  amounted  to 
£11,000,000.  The  four  are  Cana- 
dian, Canadian  Northern,  Do- 
minion, and  British  America. 

Extension.  Term  used  in  engi- 
neering for  the  stretching  of  mate- 
rials under  strain.  All  materials 
stretch  under  a  pull,  though  the 
amount  may  be  relatively  very 
small.  A  bar  of  wrought  iron,  for 
example,  one  inch  square  will  only 
stretch  one  twelve-thousandth  of 
an  inch  with  a  pull  of  a  ton  on  it. 
Heat  is  an  important  cause  of  ex- 
tension of  metals,  and  due  allow- 
ance for  that  extension  is  made  in 
all  engineering  construction.  In 
railway  engineering,  for  example,  a 
space  is  left  between  each  set  of 
railway  lines  to  allow  of  the  expan- 
sion due  to  the  heat  of  summer.  If 
this  were  not  allowed  for,  the  rails 
would  become  twisted  completely 
out  of  shape.  See  Engineering. 

Extensometer.  Instrument 
for  measuring  the  stretch,  or  small 
deformation  of  materials  under 
various  kinds  of  stresses.  The  use 
and  design  of  extensometers  have 


3054 

become  of  increasing  importance  in 
the  modern  engineering  with  the 
increasing  refinements  in  the  use  of 
metals  and  other  materials.  The 
stretch  and  deformation  of  mate- 
rials under  certain  conditions  must 
be  allowed  for,  as  for  example  in 
railway  construction,  bridge  build- 
ing, etc.  Modern  extensometers  will 
measure  to  less  than  the  millionth 
part  of  an  inch.  See  Materials, 
Strength  of;  Testing. 

Extent.  English  writ  of  execu- 
tion to  recover  crown  debts.  Under 
writ  called  an  extent  in  aid,  a 
crown  debtor  can,  on  making  an 
oath  that  otherwise  the  debt  will 
be  lost,  obtain  an  order  to  seize  the 
lands  and  goods  of  a  debtor  to  him- 
self, so  that  he  may  be  able  to 
pay  what  he  owes  to  the  crown. 
See  Crown  Debts. 

Extenuating  Circumstances. 
Term  used  in  English  law.  A  jury 
may  add  a  rider  to  a  verdict  of 
guilty  that  there  were  extenuating 
circumstances  in  favour  of  the 
prisoner.  The  judge  may  take  this 
into  account  in  the  sentence,  ex- 
cept in  cases  of  murder  and  high 
treason,  when  he  is  bound  to  pass 
the  capital  sentence.  In  France, 
"  Guilty  with  extenuating  circum- 
stances "  is  a  different  verdict 
from  guilty ;  and  the  sentence  is 
different. 

Extortion  (Lat.  ex,  out;  and 
torquere,  to  twist).  In  English  law, 
a  demand  by  an  official,  or  some- 
one else  performing  a  public 
service,  of  money  in  excess  of  the 
amount  due,  or  of  money  not  yet 
due.  It  is  applied  by  an  extension 
to  the  act  of  obtaining  money  by 
means  of  threats,  the  offence  known 
as  blackmail.  Extortion  in  the 
strict  sense  is  punishable  by  fine 
and  imprisonment,  a  number  of 
statutes  having  forbidden  it.  Other 
forms  may  become  robbery  and  be 
punished  as  such. 

Extract  (Lat.  extraclus,  drawn 
out).  Term  applied,  in  chemistry 
and  pharmaceutics,  to  products  ob- 
tained by  treating  any  substance 
with  solvents  and  then  evaporating 
the  latter.  In  a  more  restricted 
sense,  an  extract  is  a  concentrated 
form  of  a  vegetable  drug.  It  con- 
tains the  active  part  of  the  drug, 
the  inert  portion,  consisting  of 
woody  fibre,  being  exhausted  of  its 
active  principles  during  the  process 
of  extraction. 

The  various  operations  involved 
in  extraction  have  received  special 
names.  Infusion  is  the  process  of 
allowing  a  drug  to  remain  in  con- 
tact with  hot  or  cold  water  for 
definite  periods  of  time ;  if  the 
solvent  is  boiled  during  the  period 
the  process  is  decoction.  In 
another  common  method,  known 
as  percolation,  the  comminuted 


EXTRATERRITORIALITY 

drug  is  placed  in  a  conical  vessel 
and  the  solvent  slowly  passed 
through  it.  To  reduce  the  liquid  to 
a  more  concentrated  form  it  is 
evaporated  by  heat.  The  extracts 
prepared  hi  pharmacy  are  either 
thick  liquids  or  soft  pastes.  The 
pastes  are  used  as  ingredients  in 
making  pills  and  lozenges. 

Extradition  (Lat.  ex,  out ;  tra- 
ditio,  handing  over).  Term  used  in 
law  for  the  surrender,  by  one  state 
to  another,  of  fugitive  criminals. 
As  between  the  states,  this  depends 
on  treaty  ;  no  state  has  an  inherent 
right,  apart  from  express  agree- 
ment, to  claim  extraditory  rights 
from  another.  Treaties  for  extradi- 
tion now  exist  between  most  civi- 
lized states,  but  political  criminals 
are  invariably  excepted  from  their 
operation.  The  manner  in  which 
extradition  is  applied  for  and 
granted  depends  upon  the  law  of 
the  country  where  the  fugitive  is. 
In  England  it  is  governed  by  the 
Extradition  Acts,  1870, 1873, 1895, 
and  1906,  and  the  Fugitive  Of- 
fenders Act,  1881.  The  last- 
named  statute  applies  to  the 
Colonies. 

By  these  Acts,  a  fugitive  offender 
is  not  to  be  surrendered  unless  the 
foreign  state  concerned  undertakes 
to  try  him  only  on  the  charge  on 
which  he  is  extradited.  The  fugi- 
tive is  to  be  brought  before  a  mag- 
istrate, who  must  be  satisfied  that 
the  alleged  offence  is  not  political, 
and  is  one  of  the  crimes  for  which 
extradition  can  be  claimed.  These 
offences  range  from  murder  to 
bribery.  If  the  magistrate  decides 
that  the  case  is  made  out,  he  com- 
mits the  offender  to  prison,  and 
then  a  secretary  of  state  makes  an 
order  for  the  gaoler  to  hand  the 
offender  over  to  the  representative 
of  the  foreign  state.  See  Inter- 
national Law. 

Extraterritoriality.  Term  used 
in  international  law.  It  describes 
the  status  of  a  person  who,  when 
in  foreign  territory,  is  immune 
from  the  jurisdiction  of  local  laws 
and  courts.  Sovereigns  and  diplo- 
matic agents  are  considered  such 
persons  by  ancient  usage.  If  a 
sovereign  is  abroad,  his  house  is 
extraterritorial ;  and  the  official 
residence  of  an  ambassador  is,  by 
courtesy,  part  of  the  country  which 
he  represents.  Hence  no  arrest  can 
be  made  there  under  a  local  war- 
rant ;  nor  is  the  house  assessable 
to  rates  and  taxes.  Sometimes  by 
treaty  all  the  subjects  of  one  state 
residing  in  another  are  made  extra- 
territorial for  purposes  of  justice. 
A  ship  of  war  in  a  foreign  harbour, 
behaving  peacefully,  remains  a 
part  of  the  country  whose  flag  she 
flies ;  and  a  military  force  in  a 
foreign  country  is  not  subject  to 


EXTRAVASATION! 


3055 


EYCK 


the  laws  of  that  country  except  by 
agreement,  e.g.  the  British  army  in 
France  during  the  Great  War  was 
subject  to  English,  not  to  French, 
military  law.  See  International  Law 

Extravasation  (Lat.  extra,  out- 
side, beyond  ;  vas,  vessel).  Out- 
pouring of  fluid  into  the  tissues 
from  an  injured  vessel.  The  most 
familiar  example  is  the  extravasa- 
tion of  blood  which  may  follow  a 
blow  on  the  skin  resulting  in  the 
formation  of  a  bruise. 

Extreme  Unction  OB  SACRA 

MENT  OF  THE  DYING.     Fifth  of  the 

seven  sacraments  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  It  was  instituted 
for  the  spiritual  and  bodily  comfort 
of  those  in  extremis  Recognized 
also  in  the  Greek,  Coptic,  Ar- 
menian, and  Nestorian  Churches, 
with  varying  ceremonial,  and  dat- 
ing from  the  12th  century,  it 
regarded  as  authorised  by  James 
v,  14-15,  and  is  administered  by 
the  priest,  who  anoints  the  dying 
person. 

Unction  is  usually  applied  to  the 
seat  of  each  of  the  five  senses,  with 
prayer,  e.g.  "  Through  this  holy 
unction,  and  His  most  tender 
mercy,  may  the  Lord  pardon  thee 
whatever  sins  thou  hast  committed 
by  seeing.  Amen."  With  the  other 
senses  the  necessary  word  is  used 
in  place  of  "  seeing."  In  Roman 
usage  the  oil  is  applied  in  the  form 
of  a  cross,  after  reception  of  the 
Viaticum  or  Holy  Communion.  In 
the  Church  of  England  the  rite  was 
abolished  in  1552,  the  Protestant 
claim  being  that  the  words  of  S. 
James  have  reference  to  a  miracu- 
lous cure,  and  that  the  anointing 
ceased  to  have  efficacy  with  the 
withdrawal  of  miraculous  powers 
from  the  Church.  See  Sacrament. 

Exudation  (Lat.  ex,  from,  out ; 
sudare,  to  sweat).  Emission  of  a 
liquid  constituent  or  mixture  of  in- 
gredients from  a  solid  or  gelatinous 
explosive.  The  material  ejected  is 
also  occasionally  termed  the  exuda- 
tion. Dynamites  which  have  be- 
come damp  and  blasting  gelatines 
which  have  been  subjected  to  pres- 
sure and  high  temperature  are 
liable  to  exude  nitroglycerine,  when 
the  material  becomes  highly  dan- 
gerous owing  to  the  sensitive 
nature  of  this  explosive. 

Exuma.  Two  of  the  Bahama 
Islands,  known  as  Great  and  Little. 
They  lie  S.E.  of  Andros  Island  and 
W.  of  Long  Island.  Great  Exuma 
s  30  m.  in  length  and  contains  the 
chief  settlement,  Georgetown.  The 
area  of  the  two  islands,  including 
;he  numerous  cays  (low  islands), 
's  about  250  sq.  m.,  and  the  total 
pop.  is  3,465.  ;""• 

Eyam.  Parish  and  village  ot 
Derbyshire,  England.  It  stands  in 
Eyam  Dale,  5  m.  N.  of  Bakewell. 


In  the  churchyard  is  a  Runic  cross,  and  brilliant  as  it  was  500  years 
and  there  are  several  barrows,  one  ago,  and  they  so  improved  the  me- 
of  which,  on  Eyam  Edge,  is  more  thod  of  oil  painting  that  they  made 

it  virtually  a  new 
medium.  They 
were  not,  how- 
ever, as  some- 
times alleged,  its 
discoverers. 

A  10th  century 
MS.  by  the  monk 
E  r  a  c  1  i  u  s  (De 
Goloribus  et  Arti- 
bus  Romanorum) 
states  that  a 
method  of  grind- 
ing colours  with 
oil  was  then  "  in 
the  air,"  and 
Rogierus,  a  monk 
of  the  12th 
During  century,  recommended  that  colours 


Eyam.     Cottages  dating  from  the  plague  of  1685-66, 
when  three-fourths  of  the  inhabitants  died 

than  100  ft.  in  diameter. 


is     the  plague  in  1665-66  the  greater    should    be    ground  with  oil  and 


part  of  the  population  perished. 
Pop.  1,224.     Pron.  Eem. 
Eyck,  HUBERT  VAN   (c. 


mixed.     The   nature   of    the  im- 
provement introduced  by  the  Van 
1366-     Eycks    seems    to    have   been  re- 


1426).  Flemish  painter.  He  was  garded  as  a  craft  secret,  but  it 
born  at  Maeseyck,  in  the  province  is  conjectured  that  it  was  some 

... ..,^^  o  f  Limburg.  essential  oil  which  yielded  a  clear, 
I  Before  set- 

It'jL       tling  at  Ghent 


Hubert  van  Eyck, 
Flemish  painter 

From  an  old  print 

famous  altar-piece  of  The  Adora- 
tion of  the  Lamb,  executed  for  the 
cathedral  of  S.  Bavon,  Ghent, 
where  he  died,  Sept.  18,  1426. 
Certain  panels  sold  in  1816  and  long 
in  German  possession  were  restored 
in  Oct.,  1920,  under  the  treaty  of 
Versailles.  Both  painters  rank 
among  the  very  greatest  of  the 
Flemish  school.  Their  drawing 


transparent,  liquid  vehicle,  which 
retained  its  limpidity,  dried  with- 
a  s  court  out  darkening,  and,  when  mixed 
painter,  early  with  colours,  gave  results  so  supe- 
in  the  15th  rior  as  to  supersede  the  viscous 
century,  h  e  varnishes  formerly  in  vogue, 
spent  a  con-  Eyck,  JAN  VAN  (c.  1385-1440). 
siderable  time  Flemish  painter,  brother  of  Hubert, 
in  N.  Italy.  Born  at  Maeseyck,  he  appears  to 

have  resided 
in  The  Hague 
from  1422-24, 
at  Bruges  for 
a  few  months 
in  1425,  in 
which  year  he 
went  to  Lille, 


He  began,  and 
h  i  s  brother 
Jan  com- 
pleted, the 


Jan  van  Eyck, 
Flemish  painter 

From  an  old  print 


where  he  re- 
mained for 
four  years, 

and  later 
visited  varioug 

foreign      COUn- 


and  finish  were  meticulously  exact,     tries    in   an    official    capacity  as 
their  colouring  is  almost  as  fresh     painter  to  fulfil  State  commissions. 


Van  Eyck.     The  Adoration  of  the  Lamb,  the  central  panel  of  the  altar-piece  at 
the  cathedral  of  S.  Bavon,  Ghent,  the  masterpiece  of  the  Van  Eyck  brothers 


EYE 

He  died  at  Bruges  on  July  9,  1440. 
He  is  represented  at  his  best  in  the 
National  Gallery,  London,  by  the 
magnificent  picture  of  John  Arnol- 
fini  and  his  Wife,  and  at  the 
Louvre  by  the  exquisite  Chancellor 
Rollin  Kneeling  before  the  Virgin. 

Of  Margaret  van  Eyck  (c.  1377- 
1430),  his  sister,  nothing  is  known 
beyond  the  bare  fact  that  she  also 
was  an  excellent  painter.  Some 
writers  have  even  questioned  her 
existence.  See  Hubert  and  Jan 
van  Eyck :  their  life  and  work, 
W.  H.  J.  Weale,  1908. 

Eye.  The  organ  of  vision.  Well 
protected  from  injury  by  its  situ- 
ation in  the  bony  orbit,  it  possesses 
an  extensive  range  of  vision,  the 
movements  of  the  globe  being 
effected  by  three  pairs  of  opposing 
muscles.  The  eyeball  consists  of 
segments  of  two  hollow  spheres,  of 
which  the  smaller,  representing 
about  one-sixth  of  the  whole,  is 
anterior.  This  segment  is  convex 
anteriorly  and  projects  in  front  of 
the  remainder  of  the  globe.  It  is 
covered  by  the  cornea,  which  con- 
sists of  five  layers  of  transparent 
cells,  the  innermost  layer  known 
as  Descemet's  membrane. 

The  posterior  and  larger  sphere, 
rather  longer  transversely  than  in 
other  directions,  is  formed  by  three 
tunics  or  coats,  the  sclerotic  ex- 
ternally, the  choroid  and  iris 
medially,  and  the  retina  internally. 
The  sclerotic  is  white  in  colour 
externally,  tough  and  fibrous,  and 
forms  the  chief  means  by  which  the 
shape  of  the  globe  is  maintained. 
It  is  perforated  posteriorly  by  the 
optic  nerve  and  by  blood-vessels, 
forming  the  lamina  cribrosa,  and  is 
attached  internally  by  a  layer  of 
delicate  connective  tissue  (lamina 
fusca )  to  the  choroid.  The  choroid 
consists  mainly  of  pigment  and 
blood-vessels.  Chocolate- brown  in 
colour,  it  extends  forward  to  the 
ciliary  ligament,  where  it  is  con- 


3056 

nected  with  the  iris,  and  where  its 
inner  surface  is  thrown  into  folds 
known  as  ciliary  processes. 

The  iris  (rainbow)  forms  a  thin 
contractile  curtain,  having  a  per- 
foration, the  pupil,  which  is  slightly 
to  the  nasal  side  of  the  centre,  for 
the  transmission  of  light.  The  iris 
is  of  different  colours  in  different  in- 
dividuals ;  the  colour  varying  from 
light  blue  to  dark  brown  according 
to  the  amount  and  position  of  the 
pigment  contained.  In  the  albino 


EYEBOLT 

the  ciliary  muscle  which  surrounds 
the  outer  edge  of  the  iris  and  is 
more  convex  when  accommodat- 
ing, that  is  to  say  when  a  near 
object  is  being  viewed. 

Rays  of  light  entering  the  eye 
should  be  brought  to  a  focus  on 
the  retina.  If  the  globe  is  too 
long  in  its  antero-posterior  dimen- 
sion, as  in  the  short-sighted,  it  is 
necessary  to  place  a  concave  lens 
before  the  eye  to  throw  the  focus 
farther  back.  With  advancing 


this  pigment  is    entirely   absent,     years  the  cornea  and  the  crystalline 

lens  tend  to  become  flattened,  and 


Eye.      Sectional  diagram  showing 

formation   and  principal   parts  of 

the  eye 


Composed  of  radiating  and  circular 
muscular  fibres  which  are  innerv- 
ated by  fibres  of  the  sympathetic 
nerve  and  of  the  third  cranial  nerve 
respectively,  it  regulates  the 
amount  of  light  entering  the  eye. 

The  pupil   con-   ggjBBSMRig 
tracts    or    dilates 
according    as    the 
eye  is  exposed  to 
a   bright  or   dim 
light.     The  iris  is 
immediately       i  n 
front    of    and    in 
contact    with   the 
lens.      The   retina 
consists    of    three 
principal  layers, 
chiefly  of    nerve 
tissue.       The    ex- 
ternal   layer    is 
formedby  terminal 
cells  of  the  optic 
nerve  called  from  their  shape  rods 
and  cones.     Exactly  in  the  centre 
of  the  posterior  part  of  the  retina, 
and  in  a  line  with  the  central  axis 
of  the  globe,  is  the  yellow- spot  in 
which  the  sense  of  vision  is  most 
acute.     At  a  distance  of  one- tenth 
of  an  inch  to  the  nasal  side  of  the 
yellow- spot   is   the   point   of    en- 
trance   of    the    optic    nerve.     It 
possesses  no  vision  and  therefore 
is  known  as  the  blind- spot. 

The  refracting  media  of  the  eye 
constitute  the  contents  of  the 
globe  and  consist  of  the  aqueous 
humour,  the  crystalline  humour  or 
lens,  and  the  vitreous  humour. 
The  aqueous  humour  fills  the  space 
between  the  cornea  and  the  lens. 
It  is  very  small  in  quantity,  weigh- 
ing from  4  to  5  grs.  The  vitreous 
humour  forms  four- fifths  of  the 
entire  globe.  It  is  perfectly  trans- 
parent, of  the  consistency  of  thin 
jelly,  and  is  enclosed  in  a  delicate 
transparent  membrane.  The  crys- 
talline humour  is  a  double  convex 
lens  with  the  greater  curvature 
posteriorly.  It  is  situated  im- 
mediately behind  the  pupil,  and  is 
held  in  place  between  the  aqueous 
humour  in  front  and  the  vitreous 
humour  behind  by  an  elastic  cap- 
sule and  a  suspensory  ligament. 
It  measures  about  £  in.  across  and 
about  i  in.  antero- posteriorly.  Its 
shape  is  modified  by  the  action  of 


the  lens  partly  loses  its  ability  to 
alter  its  shape  when  accommodat- 
ing, a  condition  known  as  pres- 
byopia. Therefore,  it  frequently 
is  necessary,  after  middle  life,  to 


Eye,  Suffolk.    The  parish  church  oi  SS.  Peter  and  Paul, 

whose  tower  is  a  magnificent  specimen  o!  E.  Anglian 

dressed  flint  work 

use  convex  lenses  when  reading  or 
occupied  in  near  work.     See  Blind  - 

ness.  H.  E.  Davison 

Eye.  Small  hole,  or  loop,  at  the 
top  of  certain  articles.  Eyebolts 
are  screw  bolts  with  a  ring  in  them. 
The  eyes  of  a  sail  are  holes  which 
take  the  lashings  when  reefing.  A 
Flemish  eye  is  the  end  of  a  rope 
bent  to  form  a  loop. 

Eye.  Mun.  bor.  and  market 
town  of  Suffolk,  England.  It  stands 
on  an  affluent  of  the  river  Waveney 
19  m.  N.  of  Ipswich,  on  the  G.E.R. 
An  ancient  town,  it  has  castle  ruins, 
a  grammar  school  founded  in 
1566,  a  town  hall  and  corn  ex- 
change. Brewing  is  an  industry. 
Market  day,  Mon.  It  gives  its  name 
to  a  co.  div.  returning  one  member 
to  Parliament.  Pop.  2,001. 

Eyebar.  Metal  bar  with  one  or 
both  ends  enlarged.  In  the  en- 
larged end  a  hole  is  drilled  so  that 
by  means  of  a  pin  or  bolt  the  end  of 
the  bar  may  be  secured  to  another 
object.  Eyebars  vary  in  size,  from 
a  fraction  of  an  inch  in  diameter  up 
to  the  great  eyebars  used  in  the 
Quebec  bridge,  each  sustaining  a 
pull  of  300  tons. 

Eyebolt.  Bolt  with  one  end 
formed  like  an  eye  or  rigid  ring  in- 
stead of  an  ordinary  head.  Eye- 
bolts  are  used  for  many  purposes, 
e.g.  as  door  fastenings  and  attach- 
ments for  stays  and  guys. 


EYEBR1GHT 


3057 


Eylau.     Napoleon  riding  across  the  battlefield  after  his  victory  over  the  Russians, 
Feb.  8, 1807.    From  a  painting  by  Baron  Gros 

Louvre  Museum,  Paris 

Eyebright  (Euphrasia  officina-  for  micrometer  eye-pieces,  which 
Us).  Small  annual  herb  of  the  have  spider-webs  for  measuring  the 
natural  order  Scrophulariaceae.  A  sizes  of  the  different  objects  In 
native  of  N.  Europe,  N.  and  W.  these  the  flat  sides  are  both  turned 
Asia,  and  N.  America,  it  is  a  para-  away  from  the  eye.  See  Telescope, 
site  upon  the  roots  of  grasses, 
sedges,  etc.  The  leaves  are  oval  or 
lance-shaped,  with  cut  edges,  the 
flowers  small,  white,  veined  with 
purple,  and  the  middle  lobe  of  the 
lip  yellow.  It  grows  in  meadows 
and  heaths. 

Eyemouth.  Burgh  of  Berwick- 
shire. It  stands  at  the  mouth  of  the 
little  river  Eye,  8  m.  from  Berwick, 
and  has  a  station  on  the  N.B.  Rly. 
It  is  a  fishing  centre,  for  which  in- 
dustry there  is  a  good  harbour, 
protected  on  the  N.  by  St.  Abb's 
Head.  The  town  hall  is  the  chief 
public  building.  Pop.  2,450. 

Eye-piece.  Lens  of  a  telescope 
nearest  to  the  eye.  In  a  telescope 
light  falls  in  nearly  parallel  rays  on 
the  object  lens,  which  throws  an 
image  of  the  field  of  vision.  The 
eye-piece  enables  the  eye  to  form 
an  image  of  the  image. 

The  eye-pieces  used  with  astro- 
nomical telescopes  vary  in  form. 
The  first  telescope  made  by  Gali- 
leo had  a  bi-concave  eye-piece  such 
as  opera  glasses  now  have.  This 
eye-piece  is  placed  between  the  ob- 
ject glass  and  the  focus  at  which 
the  image  is  thrown.  Convex  eye- 
pieces are  placed  outside  the  focus. 
But  both  these  kinds  of  eye-pieces 
colour  the  light  coming  from  the 
image  owing  to  the  refraction  of 
the  rays.  Huygens  discovered  that 
this  defect  might  be  remedied  in 
the  eye-piece  by  employing  two 
plano-convex  lenses,  both  with  the 
flat  sides  towards  the  eye,  the  larger 
placed  nearer  the  image,  and  the 
Smaller  nearer  the  eye.  This  con- 
struction  is  in  general  use,  except  piece  ;  F,  focus  ;  B,  object  lens 


Eyebright.    Foliage  and  flowers  of 
Euphrasia  officinalis 

Eye- Witness.  Pseudonym  of 
Col.  W.  S.  Swinton  (q.v.)  He  was 
the  first  to  write  accounts  of  mili- 
tary operations  in  France  and  Flan- 
ders for  the  press,  under  official 
sanction,  during  the  early  part  of 
the  Great  War  (1914-15). 

Eylau.  Town  of  Prussia.  It 
stands  on  the  Pasmar,  about  24 
m.  from  Konigsberg,  and  is  noted 
for  the  battle  fought  here,  Feb.  8, 
1807,  between  the  French  under 
Napoleon,  and  the  combined  Rus- 
sians and  Prussians.  After  his  de- 


EYRE 

feat  at  Pultusk,  Dec.  26,  1806, 
Bennigsen,  who,  pursued  by  Na- 
poleon, had  begun  to  retreat  upon 
Konigsberg,  decided  to  make  a 
stand  at  Eylau.  In  an  engagement 
on  Feb.  7,  1807,  Bagration  and 
Barclay  de  Tolly,  after  several 
assaults  by  the  French,  were  forced 
to  abandon  the  village. 

In  a  snowstorm  on  the  morning 
of  the  8th  the  battle  developed. 
The  emperor  could  only  bring  into 
the  field  Augereau's  and  Soult's 
corps,  together  with  six  divisions  of 
Murat's  cavalry ;  his  other  troops 
were  hurrying  up  over  snow-bound 
roads.  An  advance  by  the  French 
from  Eylau  was  beaten  back  and 
the  Russians  attacked  in  force 
against  Eylau  windmill.  Augereau's 
7th  corps  was  thereupon  ordered  by 
Napoleon  to  stem  the  Russian  ad- 
vance. The  day  was  going  against 
the  French,  and  the  battle  reached 
a  crisis  when  Augereau's  troops, 
blinded  with  driving  sleet  and 
snow,  enfiladed  by  artillery  and 
attacked  by  infantry,  suddenly  had 
a  mass  of  cavalry  launched  against 
them.  Augereau  was  hit,  and  all 
his  colonels  and  brigadiers  were 
killed  or  wounded. 

The  French  broke,  and  were  in 
full  flight  when  Napoleon  hurled 
18,000  of  Murat's  cavalry  upon  the 
Russians.  The  effect  was  decisive. 
The  Russians  were  scattered,  regi- 
ments were  ridden  down  in  the 
blinding  snow,  the  squares  were 
broken,  16  standards  were  taken, 
and  the  victorious  French  only 
stopped  on  encountering  Bennig- 
sen's  reserves.  As  the  afternoon 
wore  on,  with  the  arrival  of  Napo- 
leon's reserves,  the  day  was  won, 
and  Bennigsen  retired  on  Konigs- 
berg, having  lost  18,000  men  and 
24  guns.  The  French  losses 
amounted  to  15,000  men.  Napo- 
leon brought  into  action  altogether 
79,000  men ;  the  Russians  num- 
bered 75,000.  Pron.  Ile-ow. 

Eyot  (A.S.  iget)  OR  Arr.  Islet  in 
river  or  lake,  especially  one  over- 
grown with  willows.  Pron.  eight. 

Eyra.  S.  American  wild  cat.  Re- 
sembling a  large  weasel  with  a  long 
tail,  it  is  reddish  brown  in  colour, 
without  stripes.  It  ranges  from 
Mexico  to  Brazil,  and  is  a  trouble 
to  the  poultry  farmer. 

Eyre.  Lake  in  S.  Australia.  It 
is  4,000  sq.  m.  in  area,  but  in  dry 
seasons  merely  a  salt  marsh.  In 
wet  seasons  the  Barcoo  and  Dia- 
mantine  rivers  flow  into  it.  Edward 
John  Eyre  discovered  it  in  1840. 

Eyre.  Word  derived  from  the 
Latin  iter,  a  journey.  It  is  used 
chiefly  in  connexion  with  the  itin- 
erant justices  sent  out  by  Henry  II 
and  known  as  justices  in  eyre.  In 
Scotland  the  form  aire  came  into 
use.  See  Henry  II ;  Judge. 

1A    « 


Edward  J.  Eyre, 
British  explorer 


EYRE 

Eyre,  EDWARD  JOHN  (1815- 
1901).  British  explorer  and  colo- 
nial governor.  Born  at  Hornsea, 
Yorkshire, 
Aug.  5,  1815, 
he  emigrated 
to  Australia  in 
1833,  and  car- 
ried out  valu- 
able explora- 
t  i  o  n  s  of  un- 
it no  wn  terri- 
tory, especially 
of  the  coast 
between  Ade- 
laide and  King  George  Sound,  in 
1 841 .  He  went  to  New  Zealand  as 
governor  in  1846,  to  St.  Vincent, 
1854,  and  to  Jamaica,  1861.  His 
stern  handling  of  the  negro  rising 
there  in  1865  caused  his  recall  to 
England,  where  his  action  roused 
wide  controversy.  In  1872  the 
government  repaid  the  legal  ex- 
penses which  he  had  in  self-defence 
incurred,  and  awarded  him  a  pen- 
sion in  1874.  He  died  Nov.  30, 
1901. 

Eyre,  SIR  JAMES  (1734-99). 
English  lawyer.  Born  at  Wells,  he 
was  the  son  of  a  clergyman.  From 
Winchester  he  went  to  S.  John's 
College,  Oxford,  and  became  a 
barrister.  He  was  counsel  for  the 
defence  of  John  Wilkes  in  1763. 
From  his  post  as  recorder  of 
London  he  was  promoted  in  1772 
to  be  a  judge ;  in  1787  he  became 
chief  baron  of  the  exchequer  and 
in  1793  chief  justice  of  the  court  of 
common  pleas.  He  remained  at  the 
common  pleas  until  his  death, 
July  1,  1799,  having  been  for  a 
few  months  commissioner  of  the 
great  seal  when  there  was  no  lord 
chancellor,  and  having  presided  at 
the  trial  of  Home  Tooke. 

Eyre,  SIR  VINCENT  (1811-81). 
British  soldier.  The  son  of  a  soldier, 
he  was  born  Jan.  22,  1811,  and 
educated  at  Norwich  Grammar 
School.  He  joined  the  service  of  the 
E.  India  Co.  hi  1828  and,  in  the 
artillery,  was  with  the  force  that 
entered  Afghanistan  in  1840  ;  after 
the  siege  of  Cabul  by  the  Afghans 
he  and  his  family  were  surrendered 
to  them  as  hostages.  In  1843  they 
were  rescued  by  a  relieving  force, 
after  which  Eyre  commanded  the 
artillery  at  Gwalior.  During  the 
Mutiny  he  distinguished  himself  by 
his  prompt  action  in  marching 
against  some  rebels  at  Arrah  and 
defeating  them  also  at  Jagdespur. 
He  held  a  command  in  the  force 
that  relieved  Lucknow,  was  recom- 
mended for  the  V.C.,  and  retired  as 
a  major-general  in  1863.  During 
the  Franco-Prussian  War  he  orga- 
nized an  ambulance  service.  He 
died  at  Aix-les-Bains,  Sept.  22, 
1881.  Eyre  wrote  an  account  of  his 
imprisonment  in  Afghanistan. 


3O58 

Eyre's  Peninsula.  Tract  of 
land  in  S.  Australia.  It  lies  be- 
tween the  Great  Australian  Bight 
and  Spencer  Gulf,  an  area  of  sand, 
scrub,  and  salt  marsh.  Port  Lin- 
coln, near  its  apex,  exports  wheat. 

Ezekiel,  BOOK  or.  One  of  the 
prophetic  books  of  the  O.T.  Eze- 
kiel was  both  priest  and  prophet. 
He  was  one  of  the  priests  of  Jeru- 
salem, who,  with  King  Jehoiachim 
and  other  members  of  the  upper 
classes,  were  deported  to  Baby- 
lonia in  597  B.C.  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar (605-562  E.G.).  The  exiles 
were  settled  at  different  points, 
Ezekiel  becoming  a  member  of  the 
community  at  Tel-abib,  near  the 
river  Chebar,  which  has  been  iden- 
tified with  the  grand  canal  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Nippur.  We  are 
told  that  the  prophet  received  his 
call  in  the  fifth  year  of  the  reign  of 
Jehoiachim  (592  B.C.). 

The  book  falls  into  five  divisions : 
(a)  the  prophet's  call  and  consecra- 
tion, Ezek.  i,  1-iii,  15 ;  (b)  dis- 
courses on  the  imminent  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem,  Ezek.  iii,  16- 
xxiv,  27  ;  (c)  oracles  against  Am- 
mon,  Moab,  Edom,  Philistia,  Tyre, 
Sidon,  and  Egypt,  Ezek.  xxv- 
xxxii ;  (d)  prophecies  of  the  re- 
storation of  Israel  and  the  over- 
throw of  her  foes,  Ezek.  xxxiii- 
xxxix;  (e)  vision  of  a  restored  theo- 
cracy of  a  united  Israel,  Ezek.  xl.- 
xlviii.  The  book  itself  assigns  defin- 
ite dates  to  many  of  the  prophecies, 
the  latest  mentioned  being  about 
570  B.C.  On  one  occasion  the  pro- 
phet admits  that  a  prediction  had 
not  been  fulfilled.  In  Ezek.  xxvi, 
7-14,  Nebuchadnezzar  is  expected 
to  capture  Tyre.  Tyre,  however, 
did  not  fall,  and  in  Ezek.  xxix, 
17-21,  Nebuchadnezzar  is  prom- 
ised Egypt  as  a  recompense. 

The  authorship  and  integrity  of 
the  book  of  Ezekiel  present  no 
difficulty.  The  difficulties  are 
associated  with  the  Hebrew  text, 
often  obscure  and  corrupt.  As  the 
author  was  a  priest,  it  is  not  sur- 
prising to  find  that  he  lays  more 
stress  than  the  other  great  pro- 
phets on  externalities,  rites,  and 
ceremonies.  We  find  points  of 
affinity  with  the  priestly  phrase- 
ology of  the  later  legislation,  which 
has  been  called  the  Code  of  Holi- 
ness ( Lev.  xvii-xxvi).  But  due 
emphasis  is  laid  also  upon  personal 
responsibility  and  personal  re- 
ligion. He  has  been  described  even 
as  "pastor  rather  than  prophet." 

Ezekiel' s  visions  of  the  chariot 
and  cherubim  (Ezek.  i,  1— iii,  15) 
had  considerable  influence  on  the 
later  symbolical  literature.  They 
have  been  interpreted  (e.g.,  by  the 
Rabbis)  as  a  synopsis  of  theo- 
sophy.  The  vision  of  the  valley  of 
dry  bones  in  Ezekiel  xxxvii  has 


become  famous.  In  Ezekiel  xxxviii 
and  xxxix  occur  the  curious  crea- 
tions Gog  and  Magog.  Gog,  per- 
haps suggested  by  Gyges,  king  of 
Lydia,  is  a  prince  from  the  land  of 
Magog,  who  leads  a  great  host 
of  nations  against  the  restored 
Israel,  and  is  defeated  ignomini- 
ously.  In  the  later  Jewish  eschat- 
ology  Gog  and  Magog  are  repre- 
sented as  leading  in  vain  the  final 
attack  of  the  powers  of  the  world 
upon  the  Kingdom  of  God. 

Bibliography.  Introd.  to  the  Lit- 
erature of  the  O.T.,  S.  R.  Driver,  8th 
ed.  1909  ;  The  Books  of  the  O.T.,  O. 
C.Whitehouse,  1910  ;  Critical  Introd. 
to  the  O.T.,  G.  B.  Gray,  1913  ;  Lit. 
of  the  O.T.,  G.  F.  Moore,  1914. 

Ezra,  BOOK  OF.  Book  of  the  O.T. 
Ezra  was  a  Jewish  scribe  living  in 
exile  in  Babylon,  under  Artax- 
erxes  Longimanus.  He  is  said  to 
have  belonged  to  the  priestly  line, 
and  to  have  been  a  descendant 
of  Seraiah,  the  high  priest  when 
Jerusalem  was  captured  by  Nebu- 
chadnezzar. About  458  B.C.  he  was 
allowed  to  return  to  Jerusalem 
with  about  1,500  men,  in  addi- 
tion to  women  and  children.  There 
he  found  that  the  remaining  Jews 
had  intermarried  with  heathen 
women,  and  great  laxity  pre- 
vailed, and  he  set  out  to  restore 
worship  and  order.  He  started  the 
rebuilding  of  the  Temple,  and  re- 
stored the  text  of  the  Jewish  law. 

The  O.T.  Book  of  Ezra  is  closely 
related  to  the  Book  of  Nehemiah, 
so  closely  indeed  that,  asthe  Talmud 
and  early  Christian  writers  indi- 
cate, they  form  really  one  work. 
Closely  related  to  them  are  the 
Books  of  Chronicles,  of  which  Ezra 
and  Nehemiah  are  a  continuation. 
The,  three- fold  work,  Chronicles- 
Ezra-Nehemiah,  covers  the  history 
of  Israel  from  the  period  of  Adam 
to  the  second  visit  of  Nehemiah  to 
Jerusalem  in  432  B.C.  ;  but  the 
history  is  viewed  from  a  differ- 
ent standpoint  from  that  of  the 
other  O.T.  books  from  Genesis  to 
Kings,  namely  an  ecclesiastical  and 
priestly  standpoint. 

Ezra — Nehemiah ( which  together 
appear  in  the  Septuagint  as  II 
Esdras)  includes  the  history  from 
538  B.C.,  when  Cyrus  issued  a  de- 
cree permitting  Jewish  exiles  to 
return,  to  432  B.O.,  when  Nehemiah 
made  his  second  visit  to  Jerusalem. 
The  Ezra  portion  records  the  re- 
turn of  the  exiles,  the  rebuilding  of 
the  temple,  and  the  mission  of  Ezra, 
who  was  sent  as  royal  commissioner 
from  Babylonia  to  Jerusalem  by 
Artaxerxes.  Part  of  the  book  is 
written  in  Aramaic  (iv,  8-vi,  18, 
and  vii,  12-26).  Ezra-Nehemiah 
seems  to  have  been  compiled  from 
various  sources,  including  the 
Memoirs  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah, 
between  about  300  and  250  B.C. 


F  Sixth  letter  of  the  English 
and  Latin  alphabets.  Its 
form  is  that  of  the  old 
Greek  digamma,  the  double  Gam- 
ma, one  f  being  superposed  on 
the  other.  It  is  a  hard  labial 
(lip-sound),  the  corresponding  soft 
letter  being  V.  Its  ordinary  sound 
is  as  in  fat.  In  the  single  word 
of  it  is  pronounced  as  v,  but  in 
its  compounds  as  hereof,  thereof,  it 
commonly  retains  the  hard  sound. 
In  halfpenny  both /and  I  are  mute 
(ha-peny ).  In  the  plural,  /  is  often 
softened,  as  in  loaf,  loaves.  The 
sound  of  /  is  also  represented  by 
ph  in  words  derived  from  the 
Greek,  as  in  philosophy,  phrase. 
See  Alphabet ;  Phonetics. 

F.  In  music,  the  fourth  note  of 
the  natural  scale  of  C.  F  is  only  a 
semitone  above  E,  instead  of  a 
whole  tone.  F  sharp  is  the  first 
sharp  to  appear  in  a  key  signature 
— key  of  G.  See  Key  Signature  ; 
Pitch. 

F.A.  Abbrev.  for  Football  Asso- 
ciation (q.v.). 

Faber,  FREDERICK  WILLIAM 
(1814-63).  British  divine.  Bora  at 
Calverley,  Yorks,  June  28,  1814,  he 
was  educated 
at  Balliol  Col- 
lege, Oxford, 
and  became 
rectorof  Elton, 
Huntingdon- 
shire. In  1845 
he  seceded  to 
the  Roman 
Church,  and 
four  years  later 
became  su- 
perior of  the  Oratory  of  S.  Philip 
Neri,  now  at  Brompton.  A  popular 
preacher,  he  is  best  known  by  his 


hymns,  which  include  Sweet 
Saviour,  bless  us  ere  we  go,  Hark, 
Hark,  my  soul,  and  Souls  of  Men, 
why  will  ye  scatter  ?  He  died  at 
Brompton,  Sept.  26,  1863. 

Fabia.  One  of  the  oldest  Roman 
gentes  or  clans,  probably  of  Sabine 
origin.  They  appear  to  have  been 
originally  priests,  who  took  part 
in  the  supervision  of  the  festival 
Lupercalia  (q.v.).  They  were  a 
patrician  clan,  whose  chief  families 
were  those  of  Ambustus,  Labeo, 
Maximus,  and  Pictor. 

Fabian  Society.  English  poli- 
tical organization.  Founded  in  1884 
to  promote  the  principles  of  social- 
ism, it  was  so  called  because  its  pro- 
moters preferred  the  slow  and  sure 
methods  of  the  Roman  general, 
Fabius  Maximus,  to  violence.  It 
has  attracted  the  most  intellectual 
socialists,  such  as  G.  B.  Shaw  and 
Sidney  Webb,  and  exercised  an  in- 
fluence greater  than  its  numbers 
alone  would  merit.  It  has  sought  to 
influence  public  opinion  by  lectures 
and  writings,  directed  especially  to 
the  more  thoughtful  part  of  the 
population,  and  by  taking  an 
active  part  in  elections,  especially 
thosef  or  the  government  of  London. 
The  society,  which  is  officially  con- 
nected with  the  Labour  Party,  has 
offices  at  25,  Tothill  Street,  West- 
minster, S.W.  Since  1912  it  has 
had  a  labour  research  depart- 
ment, and  the  weekly  New  States- 
man is  closely  connected  with  the 
society.  See  Socialism. 

Fabius  Maximus,  QUINTUS  (d. 
203  B.C.).  Roman  general.  He  was 
appointed,  with  dictatorial  powers, 
to  the  command  of  the  Roman 
forces  after  the  defeat  by  the  Carth- 
aginians at  Lake  Trasimenus,  217 


B.C.  By  a  series  of  delaying  tactics 
— whence  his  surname,  Cunctator 
(the  delayer) — Fabius  avoided 
pitched  battles  with  Hannibal, 
wore  down  the  offensive  power  of 
the  Carthaginians,  and  gave  the 
Romans  time  to  reconsolidate 
their  forces.  He  thus  paved  the 
way  for  Scipio's  victories,  which 
ended  the  Second  Punic  War. 
Fabian  tactics  have  become  pro- 
verbial for  a  waiting  and  cautious 
policy. 

Fabius  Pictor,  GAITTS.  Painter 
of  a  battle  scene,  the  first  recorded 
Roman  painting,  on  the  walls  of 
the  temple  of  Salus  (Safety)  in 
ancient  Rome  (c.  302  B.C.).  In  the 
reign  of  Claudius  both  temple  and 
picture  were  destroyed  by  fire. 

Fabius  Pictor,  QUINTUS  (c.  225 
B.C.).  Earliest  Roman  historian. 
His  writings,  which  were  in  Greek, 
are  lost,  with  the  exception  of  some 
fragments,  but  he  was  one  of  the 
authorities  used  by  Livy,  Diodorus 
Siculus,  and  Polybius.  A  Latin 
version  was  also  in  existence, 
whether  by  himself  or  a  later 
writer  is  doubtful. 

Fable  (Lat.  fabula,  story,  nar- 
rative). Short  allegorical  story  in 
which  generally  animals,  trees, 
etc.,  are  endowed  with  speech  and 
human  qualities,  and  by  their 
words  and  deeds  are  made  to  con- 
vey moral  lessons.  Its  invention  is 
frequently  ascribed  to  Aesop  (q.v.), 
but  many  fables  associated  with 
his  name  probably  originated  at  a 
much  earlier  date  in  India,  where 
they  are  known  sometimes  as  the 
fables  of  Bidpai  or  Pilpay,  a  tra- 
ditional ancient  Indian  philoso- 
pher, and  sometimes  as  the  work 
of  Buddha.  Some  of  the  fables 


FABLIAUX 


3060 


FABRONI 


traditionally  ascribed  to  Aesop  are 
but  variants  of  those  found  on 
ancient  Egyptian  papyri.  Many, 
too,  are  traced  to  the  Arabs,  by 
whom  they  may  have  been  brought 
from  India. 

It  is  probable  that  tales  of  a 
fabulist  character  are  common  to 
most  primitive  peoples,  mark, 
indeed,  a  definite  stage  in  race- 
culture ;  the  addition  of  a  "  moral" 
to  any  beast  tale  being  a  natural 
development,  and  not  peculiar  to 
one  originating  writer  or  people. 
Of  later  fabulists  the  French 
writer  La  Fontaine  is  perhaps  the 
most  celebrated.  See  editions  of 
Bidpai,  1888,  and  Aesop,  1889,  by 
Joseph  Jacobs :  The  Big  Book  of 
Fables,  ed.  Walter  Jerrold,  1912. 

Fabliaux.  Short  tales  in  verse, 
almost  always  octosyllabic  coup- 
lets, dealing  from  the  comic  point 
of  view  with  incidents  of  ordinary 
life.  The  fabliaux  appeared  in 
France  in  the  12th  century,  and 
remained  popular  for  about  200 
years.  The  tales  are  licentious  both 
in  subject  and  treatment,  fre- 
quently satirising  priests  or  women 
or  both  in  language  that  is  gener- 
ally coarse,  but  many  of  them  have 
real  humour  and  the  best  are  free 
from  objection.  The  fabliaux  were 
first  collected  and  published  by 
Barbazan  in  the  18th  century,  and 
were  re-collected  and  issued  in  six 
volumes  by  Anatole  de  Montaiglon 
and  Gaston  Raynaud  ha  1872-90. 
Averaging  200-300  lines  in  length, 
the  fabliaux,  with  their  smallness 
of  range,  delicacy  of  argument, 
wit,  irony,  and  provocative  treat- 
ment, are  the  direct  ancestors  of 
the  French  short  story. 

Fabre,  FERDINAND  (1830-98). 
French  novelist.  Born  at  Beda- 
rieux,  Herault,  he  studied  for  the 
priesthood,  medicine,  and  the  law 
in  turn  before  producing  his  first 
novel,  Les  Courbezon,  1862.  He 
died  in  Paris,  Feb.  11,  1898.  A 
moderate  realist,  he  depicted  with 
minute  fidelity  the  people  and 
manners  of  the  Cevennes,  as  in  Le 
Chevrier,  and  excelled  particularly 
in  studies  of  clerical  life,  as  in 
L'Abbe  Tigrane,  1873,  and  Mon 
Oncle  Celestin,  1881.  See  French 
Profiles,  E.  W.  Gosse,  1905. 

Fabre,  JEAN  HENEI(  1823-1915). 
French  entomologist.  .'  Born  at 
Sainte-Leone,  Aveyron,  his  early 
years  were  passed  in  great  poverty. 
At  18  he  was  in  charge  of  a  primary 
school,  where  he  improved  his 
knowledge  of  mathematics  and 
physics  in  his  spare  time,  and 
where  he  bought  his  first  book  on 
entomology.  ^/Becoming  professor 
of  philosophy  in  the  college  of 
Ajaccio  and  hi  the  Lycee  at  Avig- 
non, he  turned  his  attention  to  the 
study  of  insects.  His  earliest  ob- 


servations appeared  in  the  Annales 
des  Sciences  Naturelles,  1855-58, 
subsequently  enlarged  in  Souvenirs 
Entomologiques,  10  vols.,  2nd  ed. 
1914,  etc.  The  earlier  volumes 
are  remarkable  for  their  close  and 
painstaking  observations  on  living 


Jean  H.  Pabre, 
French  entomologist 


insects,  bring- 
ing to  light 
many  unsus- 
pected habits 
and  instincts 
of  wasps  and 
bees  in  par- 
ticular. H  i  s 
work,  though 
gaining  the 
praise  of  Dar- 
win, failed  to 
win  popular  attention. 

The  insect's  Homer,  as  he  has 
been  called,  Fabre' s  reputation  has 
been  steadily  increasing.  A  curious 
blend  of  White  of  Selborne  and 
Darwin,  he  displays  not  only  most 
amazing  powers  of  minute  and 
careful  observation,  but  his  writ- 
ings have  an  unusually  high  liter- 
ary quality.  He  died  Oct.  11, 1915. 
See  Works,  complete  Eng.  trans. 
A.  Texeira  de  Mattos,  1912,  etc. 

Fabre  d'£glantine,  PHILIPPE 
FRANCOIS  NAZAIRE  (1750-94).  A 
French  revolutionary  and  drama- 
tist. Born  at  Carcassonne,  July  28, 
1750,  he  became  a  member  of  the 
National  Convention  and  for  a 
time  was  secretary  to  Danton.  His 
play  Philinte  attracted  some  at- 
tention in  1790,  but  perhaps  his 
most  successful  literary  achieve- 
ment was  the  renaming  of  the 
months  for  the  revolutionary 
calendar,  1793.  He  was  guillotined 
on  a  false  charge  of  forgery,  April 
5,  1794. 

Fabriano.  City  of  Italy,  in  the 
prov.  of  Ancona.  It  stands  on  the 
E.  slopes  of  the  Apennines,  at  an 
alt.  of  over  1,000  ft.,  45  m.  by  rly. 
S.W.  of  Ancona.  It  has  a  cathe- 
dral, a  town  hall,  and  some  of  the 
churches  contain  pictures  of  the 
Fabriano  school.  The  city  is  cele- 
brated for  its  paper  mills,  estab- 
lished hi  the  13th  century.  Gun- 
powder, glue,  parchment,  and  felt 
are  also  made,  and  there  is  trade 
in  cattle  and  cereals.  It  is  the  rly. 
junction  for  Urbino.  Pop.  23,752. 
Fabric  (Lat.  fabrica,  workshop, 
skilled  production).  Word  used  for 
any  kind  of  manufactured  cloth. 
By  an  extension  it  is  also  used  for 
the  outer  body  of  a  building,  as  the 
fabric  of  a  church  or,  figuratively, 
the  fabric  of  the  constitution.  See 
Textiles. 

Fabricius  Luscinus,  GAITJS  (c. 
280  B.C.).  Roman  general.  He 
won  notable  victories  over  the 
Lucanians,  Bruttians,  and  Sam- 
nites,  and  in  the  war  with  Pyrrhus 
twice  conducted  negotiations  with 


that  monarch.  After  the  Roman 
defeat  at  Heraclea  in  280  B.C. 
Pyrrhus  tried  hard  to  buy  Fab- 
ricius* over,  but  the  stern  Roman 
was  incorruptible.  "  Later,  after 
Fabricius  had  delivered  up  a 
traitor  who  had  offered  to  poison 
Pyrrhus,  negotiations  were  re- 
sumed, with  the  result  that  in  278 
satisfactory  terms  of  peace  were 
arranged.  During  his  censorship 
in  275  he  made  great  efforts  to 
check  the  growing  tendency  to 
luxury  and  extravagance.  He  him- 
self died  so  poor  that  his  daughters 
had  to  be  provided  with  dowries  by 
the  state.  Fabricius  was  lauded  by 
subsequent  generations  as  the  em- 
bodiment of  the  old  republican 
virtues.  Pron.  Fab-rish-ius. 

Fabricius,  JOHANN  ALBERT 
(1668-1736).  German  classical 
scholar.  Born  at  Leipzig,  Nov.  11, 
1668,  at  the  age  of  25  he  removed 
to  Hamburg,  where  shortly  after 
publishing  his  Bibliotheca  Latina, 
1697,  he  became  a  professor  at  the 
gymnasium.  His  later  works  on 
classical  bibliography,  storehouses 
of  learning  and  still  indispensable, 
included  Bibliotheca  Graeca,  1705- 
28  ;  Bibliotheca  Ecclesiastica,  1718; 
and  Bibliotheca  Latina  Mediae  et 
Infimae  Aetatis,  1734.  He  died  at 
Hamburg,  April  30,  1736.  Pron. 
Fab-reets-ioos. 

Fabrizi,  NICOLA  (1804-85). 
Italian  patriot.  Born  at  Modena, 
April  4,  1804,  he  was  implicated  in 
the  Carbonari  insurrection  of  1831. 
He  fled  to  Marseilles  and  thence  to 
Spam,  where  he  fought  against  the 
Carlists,  1837.  One  of  Mazzini's 
most  trusted  agents,  he  moved  to 
Malta,  whence  he  assisted  the 
Sicili an  insurrection  of  1848.  When 
revolution  broke  out  in  Italy,  he 
fought  at  Venice  and  Rome,  retir- 
ing to  Malta  after  the  fall  of  Rome. 
He  raised  a  revolt  in  Sicily  in  1860 
and  joined  forces  at  Palermo  with 
Garibaldi,  who  made  him  governor 
of  Messina  and  war  minister.  He 
opposed  Garibaldi's  Rome  cam- 
paign of  1862,  but  in  1867  fought 
at  Mentana.  He  died  March  31, 
1885.  Pron.  Fab-reet-si. 

Fabroni,  ANGELO  (1732-1803). 
Italian  biographer,  called  "  the 
Plutarch  of  modern  Italy."  Born 
at  Marradi,  Tuscany,  Sept.  25, 
1732,  he  became  prior  of  San  Lo- 
renzo, Florence,  in  1767,  and  was 
appointed  tutor  to  the  sons  of 
Leopold,  grand  duke  of  Tuscany, 
in  1773.  His  chief  work  was  Vitae 
Italorum  Doctrina  Excellentium 
qui  Saeculis  XVII  et  XVIII  florue- 
runt,  hi  20  vols.,  1778-1805,  vol. 
19  containing  his  autobiography. 
He  also  wrote  biographies  of  Lo- 
renzo de'  Medici,  1784  ;  Cosimo  de' 
Medici,  1788-89 ;  and  Petrarch, 
1799.  He  died  Sept.  22,  1803. 


FACADE 


3061 


FACIAL    ANGLE 


Facade  (Fr.).  Architectural 
front  of  any  building  or  part  of  a 
building.  Not  necessarily  confined 
to  the  principal  front,  the  term  is 
mostly  used  in  connexion  with 
street  architecture,  where  one 
face  of  the  building  is  mainly  im- 
portant. A  fayade  is,  strictly,  a 
front  in  one  plane.  Thus  a  front 
with  one  or  more  pavilions  pro- 
jecting from  its  surface  could  not 
be  referred  to  as  a  single  fa£ade, 
the  pavilion  having  its  own  fa9ade. 
See  Architecture  ;  also  illus.  p.  508. 

Face.  Front  of  the  head.  The 
face  may  be  divided  into  the 
regions  of  the  forehead,  temples, 
ears,  eyes,  nose,  mouth,  cheek,  and 
upper  and  lower  jaws.  The  bones 
of  the  face  are  fourteen  in  number, 
twelve  being  in  pairs,  namely  :  the 
superior  maxillary,  malar,  nasal, 
palate,  lachrymal,  and  inferior  tur- 
binated  bones.  The  mandible  or 
lower  jaw  and  the  vomer,  which 
forms  part  of  the  septum  dividing 
the  nose  into  two  parts,  are  single 
bones. 

The  palate  bone  is  situated  deeply 
in  the  region  of  the  mouth  and  nose. 
Besides  these  bones,  some  of  the 
bones  assigned  by  anatomists  to 
the  cranium  also  take  part  in  the 
formation  of  the  face,  namely  : 
the  frontal,  parietal,  sphenoid,  and 
temporal  bones.  The  forehead  is 
formed  by  the  frontal  bone.  Un- 
derlying the  scalp  is  the  frontalis 
muscle,  contraction  of  which  causes 
the  furrows  which  appear  on  the 
forehead  when  the  brows  are  lifted 
to  express  surprise.  Running  up 
on  each  side  of  the  forehead  is  the 
temporal  artery  which,  in  elderly 
persons,  is  often  prominent  and 
well  marked,  owing  to  thickening 
of  the  walls  of  the  vessel,  an  in- 
dication of  senility.  The  super- 
ciliary ridges  are  bony  prominences 
above  the  eyes,  best  seen  in  adult 
males.  These  ridges  were  strongly 
developed  in  certain  prehistoric 
forms  of  man,  particularly  the 
type  known  as  Neanderthal  man. 
The  vertical  furrows  seen  in  the 
act  of  frowning  are  produced  by 
a  small  muscle,  the  corrugator 
supercilii. 

The  eyeball  is  situated  in  a 
bony  framework  known  as  the 
orbit,  which,  together  with  the  pro- 
jection of  the  nose,  serves  to  pro- 
tect it  from  injury.  The  aperture 
between  the  eyelids  is  known  as 
the  palpebral  fissure.  The  nose  is 
divided  into  two  parts  by  a  sep- 
tum formed  partly  of  bone  and 
partly  of  cartilage,  the  junction  of 
the  two  being  marked  by  the 
bridge  of  the  nose.  The  outer 
angle  of  the  orbit  is  prolonged 
towards  the  ear  into  a  bridge  of 
bone  known  as  the  zygoma.  The 
temporal  muscle  occupies  a  fossa 


Face.     Diagram  showing  the  muscles 
of  expression  in  the  human  iace 

forming  the  greater  part  of  the 
temporal  region,  its  tendon  passing 
beneath  the  zygoma  to  be  at- 
tached to  the  lower  jaw.  This 
muscle  takes  part  in  the  act  of 
mastication,  and  can  be  felt  con- 
tracting when  the  mouth  is  firmly 
closed.  The  anatomical  features 
of  the  ear,  chin,  and  mouth  are 
described  under  their  respective 
headings. 

The  principal  nerves  of  the  face 
are  the  fifth  or  trigeminal  nerve, 
which  is  the  main  sensory  supply 
to  the  face,  and  the  seventh  or 
facial  nerve,  which  supplies  most 
of  the  muscles  of  the  face.  The 
face  is  well  supplied  with  blood- 
vessels, which  explains  the  pro- 
fuseness  of  haemorrhage  following 
injury  to  the  tissues. 

Face  Conveyer.  Machine  used 
for  the  transport  of  coal.  The 
transport  of  coal  from  the  point 
where  it  is  cut  out  of  the  working 
face  comprises  three  stages — from 
the  face  to  the  main  haulage  way  ; 
the  main  haulage  to  the  foot  of 
the  shaft ;  the  raising  of  the  coal 
to  the  surface.  The  first  stage 
is  relatively  costly,  and  often 
difficult  on  account  of  the  very 
limited  space  usually  available, 
and  particularly  the  low  roof. 
Although  usually  performed  by 
manual  labour,  of  recent  years 
very  ingenious  mechanical  ap- 
pliances known  as  face  conveyers 
have  been  introduced. 

The  jigging  conveyer  consists 
essentially  of  a  long  steel  trough 
suspended  on  short  arms  in  such 
a  way  that  the  trough  may  be 
"  jigge(l  "  to  and  fro.  The  coal 
is  shovelled  on  to  the  trough,  and 
at  each  stroke  or  movement  is 
thrown  or  jerked  bodily  forward  a 
short  distance  until  it  is  finally 
thrown  off  the  end  of  the  con- 
veyer. The  chain  conveyer  con- 
sists of  a  fixed  trough  or  bed 


along  which  a  chain  is  drawn. 
The  chain  is  composed  of  bars 
of  steel,  forming  links  and  cross- 
pieces  all  of  which  have  their 
faces  vertical.  The  coal  is  thrown 
on  to  the  chain,  the  large  pieces 
being  carried  along  on  the  tops 
of  the  links  and  cross-pieces,  while 
the  small  drop  through  the  chain 
to  the  bottom  of  the  trough,  and 
are  scraped  forward  by  the  under 
edges  of  the  chain.  These  ma- 
chines admit  of  being  moved  for- 
ward as  the  working  face  is  ex- 
tended, and  are  driven  either  by 
compressed  air  or  electrically.  A 
Blackett  patent  chain  conveyer 
can  remove  360  tons  from  a  face 
of  100  yards  in  eight  hours.  See 
Coal;  Conveyer;  Mining;  also 
illus.  p.  2238. 

Face  Value.  Nominal  value  of 
debentures,  stocks,  shares,  and 
securities  generally,  as  opposed  to 
their  real  or  market  value.  For 
instance,  the  face  value  of  consols 
is  in  £100  and  multiples  of  £100, 
and  of  a  share  in  the  Amalgamated 
Press  £1,  although  in  each  case  the 
selling  value  is  very  different. 

Facheux,  LES  (The  Bores). 
A  three-act  comedy-ballet  or 
masque  by  Moliere.  Written  and 
played  within  a  fortnight,  it  was 
first  produced  in  the  garden  of 
Fouquet's  residence,  Vaux-le-Vi- 
comte,  Aug.  17,  1661.  It  displays 
ten  bores,  satirical  portraits  from 
society,  who  prevent  an  ardent 
young  lover  from  speaking  with 
the  object  of  his  devotion.  It  was 
the  first  play  written  by  Moliere 
for  Louis  XIV,  and  the  first  play 
of  its  kind  on  the  French  stage. 

Facial  Angle.  Method  of 
measuring  the  facial  profile,  espe- 
cially in  man  and  the  anthropoid 
apes.  The  earliest,  Pieter  Cam- 
per's (c.  1770),  was  subtended  by 
two  lines  (1)  drawn  from  the  gla- 
bella  to  the  upper  jaw,  (2)  drawn 
in  a  plane  passing  through  the 


Facial  angle.     Diagram  illustrating 
method  of  measuring  facial  angle 


FACIAL      NERVE 

base  of  the  nose  and  the  centre  of 
the  aural  orifice.  This  measures 
40°  (orang-utan),  70°  (negro),  80° 
(European).  Camper's  angle  is  now 
superseded.  See  Craniometry. 

Facial  Nerve.  Seventh  cranial 
nerve.  It  supplies  most  of  the 
muscles  of  the  face,  and  the  sense 
of  taste  in  the  anterior  part  of  the 
tongue.  Paralysis  of  the  facial 
nerve  (Bell's  Palsy)  may  be  due 
to  injury  to  the  brain,  blows  near 
the  lower  part  of  the  ear,  and 
syphilis,  but  most  commonly  is 
caused  by  exposure  to  cold.  Move- 
ments on  the  affected  side  are  lost, 
the  eye  cannot  be  closed,  the  lower 
lip  drops,  the  forehead  cannot  be 
wrinkled.  The  difference  in  the 
two  sides  is  obvious  when  the 
patient  smiles.  When  due  to 
injury  of  the  brain  or  nerve, 
recovery  cannot  be  expected,  but 
is  possible  where  the  paralysis  has 
followed  exposure  to  cold. 

Facility  (Lat.  facilis,  easy). 
Ability  to  perform  anything  easily. 
In  Scots  law  it  has  a  special  mean- 
ing. By  it  is  understood  a  condi- 
tion of  mental  weakness  that  falls 
short  of  idiocy.  The  person  suffer- 
ing from  it  is  one  easily  persuaded. 

Facings.  Cloth  of  contrasting 
colour  worn  on  the  collar  and  cuffs 
of  the  full  dress  military  uniform. 
In  general  the  facings  are  of  white 
cloth,  but  regiments  entitled  to  the 
prefix  royal,  King's  Own  or  Queen's 
Own,  wear  blue  facings,  and  in  a 
few  cases,  for  example  the  Buffs 
and  the  Sherwood  Foresters,  special 
coloured  facings  are  authorised  on 
account  of  historical  or  similar 
associations.  See  Uniform. 

Facsimile  (Lat.  fac  simile, 
make  like).  Term  meaning  an 
exact  copy.  It  is  used  chiefly  for 
the  reproduction  of  ancient  MSS. 
and  the  like,  e.g.  facsimiles  of 
Domesday  Book.  See  Process; 
also  illus.  pp.  424  and  447.  Pron. 
fac-simily. 

Factor  (Lat,  maker).  In  mathe- 
matics, any  of  two  or  more  num- 
bers or  expressions  which  when 
multiplied  together  produce  a  given 
number  or  expression.  Thus  7,  3, 
2  are  factors  of  42  and  (a  +  6), 
(a  -  6)  of  a2  —  62.  A  factor  which 
can  only  be  divided  by  itself  and 
unity  is  called  a  prime  factor.  The 
factor  of  the  greatest  degree  which 
is  common  to  two  algebraic  expres- 
sions is  called  the  highest  common 
factor.  In  arithmetic  the  highest 
number  which  is  a  factor  of  two  or 
more  numbers  is  called  the  greatest 
common  divisor.  See  Algebra; 
Mathematics. 

Factor  (Lat.  facer e,  to  make). 
Word  meaning  an  agent,  but  in  a 
special  sense  an  agent  who  buys 
and  sells  for  a  principal.  He  carries 
on  business  in  his  own  name,  but 


3062 

differs  from  a  broker  in  that  he 
usually  handles  the  goods  in  which 
he  deals  and  transfers  them  to  his 
principal ;  moreover,  he  has  a 
greater  latitude  about  buying  and 
selling.  In  English  law  several 
statutes  have  regulated  the  rela- 
tions between  a  factor  and  his  em- 
ployer, these  having  been  consoli- 
dated by  the  Factors  Act  of  1889. 
Much,  however,  is  left  to  custom, 
and  this  differs  obviously  very 
much  between  one  trade  and  an- 
other. The  main  provision  of  the 
Act  is  to  give  the  principal  a  valid 
title  to  the  goods  bought  for  him  by 
the  factor,  as  in  transactions  of  this 
kind  this  was  the  main  difficulty. 

Factor  is  used  in  Scotland  for  a 
man  who  manages  an  estate,  a  land 
agent.  A  judicial  factor  is  one  ap- 
pointed by  a  court  of  law  to  manage 
the  estate  of  a  minor  or  imbecile. 

Factor  of  Safety.  Ratio  or 
figure  which  indicates  the  maxi- 
mum strength  of  any  part  of  an 
engineering  structure  in  relation  to 
the  maximum  stress  which  it  is 
called  upon  to  bear.  The  figure  is 
obtained  by  dividing  the  stress 
under  which  the  body  collapses  by 
the  maximum  stress  which  it  is 
subjected  to  in  ordinary  usage. 
Thus  a  factor  of  safety  of  five  to 
one  indicates  that  the  part  so 
described  is  five  times  as  strong  as 
the  maximum  stress  which  will  be 
placed  upon  it.  The  figure  is  not 
wholly  accurate,  since  in  actual 
use  there  may  be  set  up  stresses 
above  those  calculated  for.  In 
aeroplane  structures  the  factor  of 
safety  is  replaced  by  the  factor  of 
loading,  based  on  the  forces  acting 
on  the  aeroplane  in  horizontal 
flight. 

Factory.  Building  or  assembly  of 
buildings  devoted  to  the  manufac- 
ture of  goods.  Factories  are  defined 
by  the  Factory  Act,  1901,  as 
premises  wherein  "  steam,  water, 
or  other  mechanical  power  "  is  used 
in  aid  of  the  manufacturing  pro- 
cess carried  on.  Most  important 
are  the  textile  group,  where  cotton, 
wool,  silk,  and  other  fabrics  are 
made.  The  non-textile  factories 
include  engineering  works,  iron 
mills,  foundries,  and  blast  furnaces, 
paper  mills,  lace  warehouses,  dye- 
ing and  chemical  works.  The  em- 
ployment of  mechanical  motive 
force  distinguishes  all  of  these  from 
workshops,  where  the  power  is 
supplied  by  human  effort. 
Considerations  as  to  Site 

In  planning  a  modern  factory, 
the  first  consideration  is  that  of 
site.  The  buildings  should  be  near 
the  sources  of  the  principal  raw 
materials  needed,  and  conveniently 
placed  for  the  transport  of  goods 
into  and  out  of  the  factory.  Coal 
being  a  prime  necessity  for  almost 


FACTORY 

all  machinery,  coalfield  areas  at- 
tract a  large  proportion  of  the  fac- 
tories. In  alkaline  works,  however, 
where  salt  and  lime  are  also  first 
necessaries,  it  is  cheaper  to  erect 
the  building  over  brine  supplies 
than  to  be  within  immediate  reach 
of  lime  and  coal  at  the  cost  of  trans 
porting  brine  in  large  quantities. 

The  most  usual  type  of  modern 
factory  consists  of  a  group  of  light, 
well-ventilated,  one-storey  build- 
ings, so  constructed  that  they  can 
be  readily  expanded  or  adapted  at 
need.  But  the  structures  vary 
widely  in  character,  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  industry  followed 
there.  Proximity  to  railways, 
roads,  and  waterways  is  an  obvious 
requirement.  Other  considerations 
are  accessibility  for  workers,  good 
supplies  of  water,  and  a  dry,  brac- 
ing air.  The  last-named  condition 
has  a  marked  influence  upon  out- 
put. The  same  individual  workers, 
transferred  from  a  low,  humid  site 
to  an  airy  position,  have  been 
shown  to  respond  by  substantially 
increased  production.  In  a  well- 
designed  factory  the  buildings  are  so 
placed  that  the  internal  transport 
of  goods  is  reduced  to  a  mini- 
mum. Each  stage  of  manufacture 
naturally  involves  transference  to 
another  workshop ;  but  the  journey 
should  be  the  shortest  practicable. 
Example  of  Sound  Planning 

The  Bayer  Chemical  Works 
afford  an  instance  of  sound  plan- 
ning. Placed  between  the  river  and 
the  railway,  the  factory  receives 
its  raw  material  by  water.  The 
first  processes  of  manufacture  are 
carried  on  in  buildings  adjoin- 
ing the  wharves.  Thence  the  pro- 
ducts pass  to  neighbouring  work- 
shops, and  from  these  to  the  next 
group,  and  the  next,  as  they 
undergo  the  successive  stages  of 
manufacture  —  moving  meantime 
in  a  direct  line  away  from  the 
river,  until  the  finished  goods  reach 
the  packing  department  beside  the 
railway  by  which  they  are  to  be 
dispatched.  A  centrally  placed 
power  station  distributes  motive 
power  radially  to  each  department. 
Its  central  site  ensures  the  utmost 
economy  in  transmission. 

Labour-saving  devices,  especially 
those  that  avoid  liftingand carrying 
goods  by  hand,  such  as  continu- 
ous belt  conveyers,  are  profitable. 
Light  railways  between  the  shops 
enable  heavy  products  to  be  trans- 
mitted from  point  to  point  with 
the  minimum  of  effort.  At  the 
Maypole  Dairy  Company's  model 
factory  in  Southall,  the  force  of 
gravity  is  utilised  so  that  bulky 
materials  are  made  to  slide  over 
friotionless  bearings,  from  stage  to 
stage,  by  their  own  weight.  Modern 
engineering  shops  are  provided 


FACTORY     ACTS 

with  every  type  of  hoist  and  pulley 
for  the  easy  handling  of  heavy 
castings. 

Electricity  is  increasingly  em- 
ployed to  supply  power  to  the 
shops ;  but  the  earlier  system  of 
large  central  dynamos  with  huge 
shafts  and  many  driving  belts  is 
replaced  more  and  more  by  small 
electric  motors  at  various  points, 
each  being  supplied  with  current, 
which  can  be  converted  into  power 
at  will. 

Expenditure  and  Economy 

Fearless  expenditure  and  vigilant 
economy  are  required  to  ensure 
success.  Large  savings  have  been 
effected  by  the  utilisation  of  waste 
and  of  by-products.  In  a  steam  - 
heated  factory,  the  warm  water 
arising  from  condensation  of  the 
vapour  is  usually  "fed"  to  the 
boilers  instead  of  cold  water  from 
the  main.  A  substantial  saving 
of  fuel  is  thus  effected.  Coal  tar, 
once  thrown  away  in  the  process  of 
preparing  coal-gas,  has  proved  to 
be  of  greater  value  than  the  gas 
itself.  Otherwise  useless  rubbish  is 
burnt  in  a  destructor,  the  resultant 
heat  being  duly  turned  to  account. 
The  sheets  of  tinned  iron  "  scrap  " 
from  tinware  factories,  formerly 
discarded  as  useless,  are  now  chemi- 
cally stripped,  and  the  recovered 
tin  is  used  again. 

The  work  of  a  factory  is  technic- 
ally divided  into  two  classes :  (a) 
the  actual  process  of  manufacture, 
and  (6)  the  services  which  facilitate 
those  processes.  The  latter  and 
subsidiary  branch  comprises  the 
supply  of  power,  maintenance  of 
buildings,  repair  of  tools  and 
machines,  packing  and  labelling 
finished  products,  and  the  care  of 
the  workers. 

A  typical  factory  includes  most  or 
all  of  the  f  ollowing  departments  : — 

(a)  Manufacture :  Receipt  and 
storage  of  raw  material ;  actual 
manufacture  (in  successive  stages) ; 
finishing  and  assembling  ;  packing, 
labelling,  and  analysis ;  and  di- 
spatch. (6)  Services  :  Transport  by 
motor,  rail,  or  water ;  power  (in- 
cluding water  services,  light,  heat, 
and  motive  force  —  hydraulic, 
steam,  or  electrical);  engineers' 
shop  and  stores ;  social  service 
(rest  rooms,  canteens,  etc.) ;  time- 
keeping ;  accountancy,  and  store- 
keeping. 

Each  manufacturing  department 
is  restricted  to  a  single  phase  of  the 
complex  process  of  converting  the 
raw  material  into  the  finished 
product.  To  coordinate  the  output 
of  all  these  independent  parts,  so 
that  none  of  them  is  kept  idle  by 
any  other,  is  a  task  requiring  the 
closest  care,  and  it  is  upon  such 
fine  adjustments  and  economies 
that  the  margin  of  profit  often 


3063 

depends.  Under  the  general  con- 
trol of  the  departmental  managers, 
a  foreman  in  charge  of  each  work- 
shop is  responsible  for  the  work  it 
turns  out. 

The  modern  tendency  in  favour 
of  a  shorter  day  for  the  factory 
hand  appears  to  be  justified  even 
upon  purely  economic  grounds. 
Experimental  studies  in  the  psy- 
chology of  fatigue  as  exhibited  in 
factories,  have  afforded  surprising 
results.  Ten  minutes  rest  per  hour 
was  found  to  increase  the  hourly 
output,  and  an  eight-hour  day  to 
be  more  productive  than  one  of 
nine  hours.  But  the  enormous  sums 
now  sunk  in  machinery  require  a 
longer  working  day  than  before,  so 
that  the  earning  capacity  of  the 
machines  may  be  increased. 
Psychology  o!  Factory  Life 

The  problem  is  solved  by  em- 
ploying two  shifts  of  labour  daily, 
of  7  or  8  hours  each.  It  is  found 
that  a  weekly  or  fortnightly  change 
of  shift  has  a  beneficial  effect  on 
the  psychology  of  factory  em- 
ployees, and  stimulates  their 
powers  of  work.  Strict  cleanli- 
ness, order  and  quiet  in  the  work- 
rooms, and  tools  and  equipment 
exactly  adapted  to  their  function, 
have  similar  results  on  output. 

Increased  care  for  the  worker's 
well-being,  thus  justified  by  finan- 
cial as  well  as  moral  considerations, 
is  not  restricted  by  providing  him 
with  better  physical  conditions 
at  his  work.  Many  factory  owners 
maintain  a  "social  service"  de- 
partment, supplying  rest  rooms, 
libraries,  and  recreation  grounds, 
and  promoting  schemes  for  sport 
and  study.  They  regard  as  proven 
the  contention  that  the  master  key 
to  successful  factory  control  is 
health  and  content  in  the  worker. 
Ernest  A.  Carr 

Factory  Acts.  In  the  United 
Kingdom,  a  series  of  over  twenty 
statutes,  aimed  at  regulating  con- 
ditions in  factories  and  workshops, 
especially  on  behalf  of  women  and 
children.  The  first  was  passed  in 
1802,  Addington's  Act,  "for  the 
preservation  of  the  health  and 
morals  "  of  apprentices,  etc.,  em- 
ployed in  cotton  and  other  fac- 
tories ;  child  employees  were  not 
allowed  to  work  more  than  12 
hours  a  day  nor  later  than  9  p.m., 
and  had  to  be  taught  the  three  R's 
in  working  hours. 

The  Act  of  1833  barred  the  em- 
ployment of  children  under  nine 
years  of  age  at  factories  and  pro- 
vided inter  alia  for  an  eight-hour 
day  for  children  under  13,  for 
certain  holidays,  and  for  factory 
inspectors.  The  1844  Act  initiated 
the  following  interpretations,  viz. 
"  young  person,"  between  13  and 
18  years  old  ;  child,  under  13  years ; 


FACTORY      ACTS 

it  laid  down  that  women  were  to 
be  employed  on  the  same  conditions 
as  to  hours  as  young  persons,  who, 
together  with  children,  were  not  to 
work  on  Saturdays  after  4.30 ;  and 
regulated  the  fencing  of  machinery. 
The  1847  Act  set  up  an  eleven-hour 
day  maximum  for  factory  workers 
and  a  ten-hour  day  for  women  and 
young  persons,  with  a  58  hours' 
maximum  for  the  week. 

Lord  Ashley  (earl  of  Shaftes- 
bury)  was  perhaps  the  most  pro- 
minent of  the  reformers  of  abuses 
which  for  years  disfigured  the  in- 
dustrial system  in  the  19th  cen- 
tury. Other  Factory  Acts  were 
passed  at  intervals  to  safeguard 
the  workers  further  from  accident, 
disease,  or  oppression,  and  to  pro- 
vide for  the  education  of  children 
employed  at  factories  before  na- 
tional education  was  adopted. 

Important  changes  were  made 
by  the  1874,  1878,  1883,  1891, 
1895,  and  1897  Acts,  but  the 
present  law  is  contained  in  the 
consolidating  Factory  and  Work- 
shop Act,  1901,  of  163  sections. 
By  this  Act  a  young  person  is  be- 
tween 14  and  18  years  and  a  child 
under  14,  unless  such  child,  though 
over  13  and  under  14,  has  obtained 
an  educational  certificate  of  pro- 
ficiency. A  child  is  not  allowed  to 
clean  machinery,  and  women  and 
young  persons  may  not  clean  ma- 
chinery in  motion.  Minute  pro- 
visions are  laid  down  for  ventila- 
tion, sanitary  conveniences,  means 
of  escape  from  fire,  as  to  inspection 
and  accidents,  and  working  hours. 
Working  Hours  for  Women 

In  textile  factories  the  hours  for 
women  and  young  persons  must 
not  exceed  66  a  week,  which 
period  includes  at  least  10  hours 
for  meals,  and  they  must  not 
start  before  6  a.m.  or  leave  off 
after  7  p.m.  There  are  detailed 
working-hour  limitations  for  this 
type  and  other  classes  of  fac- 
tories. The  Saturday  half-day  is 
stereotyped  with  few  exceptions. 
No  female  may  be  employed  within 
four  weeks  after  her  confinement. 
Children  who  work  half-time  are 
not  to  be  employed  otherwise.  For 
these  classes  of  employees  Sunday 
work  is  barred,  with  specific  excep- 
tions, and  overtime  and  night 
work  are  the  subject  of  restrictions. 

In  1911  a  further  Factory  Act 
was  passed  empowering  the  Home 
Secretary  to  make  regulations  for 
cotton  cloth  factories,  and  a  statu- 
tory order  was  made  for  the  regu- 
lation of  "  home-work."  There  are 
now  many  women  as  well  as  men 
inspectors,  and  during  the  Great 
War  welfare  committees  were  set 
up  throughout  the  industrial  sys- 
tem on  behalf  of  the  workers.  See 
Children  ;  Labour. 


FACTORY     INSPECTOR 


3064 


Factory  Inspector.  Class  of 
British  civil  servants  attached  to 
the  Home  Office.  Stationed  all 
over  the  country,  they  serve  under 
a  chief  inspector,  and  supervise  the 
observation  of  the  laws  regulating 
employment  in  factories  and  work- 
shops ;  they  are  concerned  with 
the  hours  of  labour  of  women  and 
young  persons,  sanitary  conditions, 
etc.  Some  inspectors  are  women, 
and  in  1920  women  became  eligible 
for  all  posts.  See  Factory  Acts. 

Faculae  (Lat.  facula,  small 
torch).  Bright  spots  on  the  sun's 
granular  surface,  most  often  found 
associated  with  the  dark  sun-spots. 
They  appear  after  sun-spots,  and 
reaches  of  them  may  stretch  tens 
of  thousands  of  miles.  High  in  the 
sun's  atmosphere,  they  escape 
some  of  its  absorptive  influence, 
and  thus  acquire  their  brilliancy  of 
aspect.  See  Sun. 

Faculties,  COURT  OF.  Court  held 
on  behalf  of  the  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury. It  takes  no  litigation,  but 
is  merely  for  the  purpose  of  grant- 
ing faculties  to  perform  certain 
actions  hi  connexion  with  church 
buildings,  to  be  married  otherwise 
than  by  the  publication  of  banns,  or 
at  a  place  or  time  outside  the  ordin- 
ary places  and  hours,  or  to  be  made 
a  public  notary.  The  president  is 
the  judge  of  the  court  of  arches  and 
the  court  has  a  registrar  and  other 
officials.  Its  offices  are  at  23, 
Knightrider  Street,  Doctors'  Com- 
mons, London,  E.G.  In  the  arch- 
diocese of  York  similar  work  is 
performed  by  the  archbishop's 
chancery  court,  while  in  the  ordin- 
ary dioceses  consistory  courts  are 
held  in  the  names  of  the  various 
bishops.  See  Ecclesiastical  Law. 

Faculty  (Lat.  facultas,  facility, 
ability).  Word  having  several 
meanings.  One  indicates  any  special 
mental  power  ;  e.g.,  the  faculty  of 
speech.  This  use  has  come  down 
from  the  early  philosophers.  De- 
rived obviously  therefrom  is  the 
use  of  the  word  for  a  department  of 
a  university,  and  for  its  instructors, 
thus  in  modern  universities  we 
have  the  faculties  of  arts,  medicine, 
law,  theology,  science,  etc.  Similar 
is  its  occasional  application  to  the 
members  in  a  collective  sense  of  a 
learned  profession,  e.g.,  the  faculty 
of  advocates  in  Scotland. 

In  English  ecclesiastical  law  and 
usage  the  term  means  a  permission 
to  do  something  which  is  not  al- 
lowed by  the  common  law  ;  e.g.,  to 
be  married  otherwise  than  after  the 
publication  of  the  banns,  or  to 
make  an  alteration  in  a  church. 
For  such  matters  as  the  altering  of 
churches,  putting  up  monuments, 
etc.,  therein,  each  bishop  deputes 
his  chancellor  to  hear  the  applica- 
tion. See.  Ecclesiastical  law. 


house     of    Fleet. 


Thomas  Faed, 
Scottish  painter 


Faed,  THOMAS  (1826-1900). 
Scottish  painter.  Born  at  Gate- 
Kirkcudbright- 
shire,  June 
8,  1826,  he 
studied  art  at 
Edinburgh, 
and  painted 
many  scenes 
of  Scottishlife, 
humorous  and 
pathetic. 
A.R.S.A.  in 
1843,  he  came 
to  London  in 
1852.  and  became  A.R.A.  1861,  and 
R.A.  in  1864.  He  died.  Aug.  17, 
1900,  almost  blind,  at  St.  John's 
Wood.  His  Faults  on  Both  Sides, 
Silken  Gown,  and  the  Young  High- 
land Mother  are  in  the  Tate  Gallery. 
Faenza  (anc.  Faventia).  City  of 
Italy,  in  the  prov.  of  Ravenna.  It 
stands  on  the  Lam  one,  31  m.  by 
rly.  S.E.  of  Bologna.  Surrounded 
by  medieval  walls,  it  has  for  cen- 
turies been  famed  for  its  art  pot- 
tery called  "faience"  (q.v.).  On 
the  principal  square  are  the  cathe- 
dral (1474),  the  former  palace  of 
the  Manf  redi,  now  the  city  hall,  and 
the  church  of  S_.  Michele.  There  is 
an  arcaded  market-place,  and  the 
municipal  art  gallery  has  frescoes, 
sculptures  and  fine  specimens  of 
local  majolica.  Silk  spinning, 
weaving,  and  sulphur  refining  are 
carried  on.  Founded  as  Faventia 
by  the  Romans,  it  was  the  scene  in 
A.D.  542  of  the  defeat  of  the  Byzan- 
tines by  Totila,  and  was  prominent 
in  the  medieval  wars  of  the  Guelphs 
and  the  Ghibellines.  Captured  in 
1240  by  Frederick  II,  it  fell  suc- 
cessively to  the  Manf  redi,  the 
Borgias,  Venetians,  and  the  popes. 
Pop.  40,164. 

Faery  Queene,  THE.  Poem  by 
Edmund  Spenser  published  in 
1590-96.  The  published  poem  con- 
sists of  six  books,  divided  into  12 
cantos,  between  50  and  60  stanzas 
in  each  canto,  and  is  written  in 
nine-line  stanzas,  each  ending  with 
a  twelve-syllable  line.  The  poem 
blends  the  Arthurian  legend  of 
knights  errant  with  classical  lore, 
Christian  teaching,  and  allegory, 
both  general  (concerning  the  vir- 
tues and  vices)  and  particular  (con- 
cerning people  of  the  poet's  time). 
Devised  as  an  allegory  on  a  grand 
scale,  and  only  half  completed,  it 
remains  a  wonderful  medley  of 
poetic  romance,  shot  through  with 
threads  of  allegory,  full  of  descrip- 
tive beauty  and  rich  verbal  music. 
Fafnir.  Treasure-guarding  worm 
or  dragon  of  Scandinavian  and 
Teutonic  mythology.  In  both 
a  smith's  brother  is  supposed  to 
have  been  transformed  into  this 
form.  In  the  Scandinavian  Volsung 
Saga,  Sigurd  slays  Fafnir,  guardian 


James  B.  Fagan, 
British  dramatist 

Russell 


of  Ardvara's  hoard,  and  is  there- 
after known  as  Sigurd  Fafnirsbane  : 
while  in  the  Nibelungen  Lied  Sieg- 
fried kills  Fafnir,  who  guards  the 
great  Nibelung  hoard.  ": 

Fagaceae.  Natural  order  of 
trees.  The  fruit  is  enclosed  in  a  cup, 
and  the  order  includes  the  sweet 
chestnut  (Castanea),  oak  (Quercus), 
and  beech  (Fagus). 

Fagan,  JAMES  BERNARD  (b. 
1873).  British  dramatist.  He  was 
born  May  10,  1873,  and  educated  at 
Clongowes 
Wood  College 
and  Trinity 
College,  Ox- 
ford. He 
gained  an  in- 
timate know- 
ledge of  stage- 
craft during 
four  years  as 
an  actor.  His 
first  play,  The 
Rebel,  was  per- 
formed in  1899.  It  was  followed  by 
The  Prayer  of  the  Sword,  1904  ; 
Under  Which  King,  1905  ;  Haw- 
thorne, U.S.A.,  1905  ;  The  Earth, 
1909  ;  A  Merry  Devil,  1909  ;  The 
Dressing  Room,  1910:  and  Bella 
Donna,  adapted  from  Robert 
Hichens's  novel,  1911. 

Fagging.  Old-established  sys- 
tem at  English  public  schools  under 
which  the  older  boys  are  em- 
powered by  the  school  authorities 
to  exact  certain  duties  from  the 
younger  boys.  The  duties,  formerly 
heavy,  now  consist  of  running 
errands,  tidying  studies,  etc.,  and 
games'  fagging.  The  system,  some- 
times elaborately  organized,  varies 
at  different  schools.  All  boys  are 
liable  to  fagging  until  they  reach  a 
certain  form.  As  a  rule  the  sixth 
form  alone  are  entitled  to  fags,  but 
some  schools  extend  the  privilege 
to  the  fifth  and  also  to  the  cricket 
eleven  and  football  fifteen. 

Faggot  Voter.  Name  given  to 
a  class  of  voters,  now  non-existent 
at  elections  in  England.  The 
main  qualification  for  a  vote  in 
the  counties  was  the  ownership 
of  land  worth  40s.  a  year.  When 
instituted  in  the  15th  century 
this  meant  a  considerable  estate, 
but  in  the  18th  century  it  meant 
little.  Landowners  therefore  gave 
patches  of  ground  to  their  servants 
and  dependants  on  the  implied 
condition  that  they  voted  as  their 
masters  wished,  a  practice  not 
completely  destroyed  till  the  Re- 
form Act  of  1884. 

Fagin.  Character  in  Dickens's 
novel  Oliver  Twist.  A  disreputable 
old  Jew,  he  is  a  prominent  member 
of  the  criminal  gang  to  which  Bill 
Sikes  belongs,  and  is  hanged  for 
complicity  in  Sikes's  murder  of 
Nancy.  His  special  province  is  the 


FAGOTTO 


3065 


FAINTING 


training  of  children  to  be  thieves 
and  pickpockets.  In  Comyns  Carr's 
adaptation  of  Oliver  Twist,  pro- 
duced at  His  Majesty's,  July  10, 
1905,  Beerbohm  Tree  played  Fagin 
to  the  Nancy  of  Constance  Collier 
and  the  Sikes  of  Lyn  Harding. 

Fagotto.  Italian  name  for  the 
bassoon,  the  bass  wood-wind  in- 
strument. See  Bassoon. 

Faguet,     SMILE    (1847-1916). 
French  critic  and  literary  historian. 
Born    at   La    Roche-sur-Yon,    he 
'""     •"     -   '  became    p  r  o  - 

I    fessor  of  poetry 
;    jB       HL,ffi    at    the    uni- 
versity of  Paris, 

1"  I    1  897.       His 

I    writings,  which 
I    are    character- 
ffc^  I   isedbyacatho- 

I  licity  of  taste 
^•&r^BH  and  a  flexi 
£  mile  Faguet,  bility  of  judge- 
French  critic  ment  reminis- 
cent of  Sainte-Beuve,  include  La 
Tragedie  au  XVIe  Siecle ;  a  series 
of  studies  of  great  French  authors 
of  the  16th,  17th, 18th,  and  19th 
centuries  ;  Politiques  et  Moralistes 
du  XIXe  Siecle  ;  and  monographs 
on  Voltaire,  Flaubert,  and  Zola. 
He  died,  June  6,  1916.  See  Emile 
Faguet,  A.  Sechc,  1904. 

Fa-Hien  OR  FA-HSIEN  (c.  A.D. 
400).  Chinese  traveller  and  anti- 
quary. A  Buddhist  monk,  he  set 
out  in  399  from  the  ancient  capital 
Hsian-fu,  Shensi,  for  a  prolonged 
pilgrimage  of  the  Buddha's  cradle- 
land.  Traversing  the  Gobi  desert, 
mostly  afoot,  to  Khotan,  he 
crossed  the  Hindu  Kush  into  the 
Afghan  valleys,  and  remained  ten 
years,  visiting  Peshawar  and  the 
Ganges  cities.  He  proceeded  by 
sea  in  412  to  Ceylon,  whence  he 
returned  home  in  414,  with 
numerous  pictures,  images,  and 
books.  The  account  of  his  pil- 
grimage was  translated  into  French 
by  J.  P.  Abel  Remusat,  1836; 
into  English  by  S.  Beal,  1869,  and 
James  Legge,  1886. 

Fahl  Ore  (Ger  ).  Steel-grey  cop- 
per ore  consisting  of  copper,  sul- 
phur, antimony,  arsenic,  silver, 
iron,  and  zinc.  The  silver  some- 
times runs  to  30  p.c.,  such  an  ore 
being  known  as  argentiferous  grey 
copper  ore,  or  formerly  silver 
fahlerz.  Owing  to  the  arsenic  and 
antimony  it  is  not  easily  worked 
as  a  copper  ore ;  but  a  rich  silver 
content  makes  it  worth  while  to 
treat  it  for  that  metal  primarily. 
It  is  found  in  Cornwall,  Germany, 
Chile,  and  Mexico.  See  Copper. 

Fahlum  OR  FALUM.  Town  of 
Sweden,  cap.  of  the  len  or  govt.  of 
Kopparberg.  It  stands  near  Lake 
Runn,  57  m.  by  rly.  W.  of  Gefle. 
The  town  was  burnt  down  in  1761. 
Its  only  notable  feature  is  the  14th 


century  church,  which  escaped  the 
fire.  Minor  buildings  include  the 
town  hall,  a  mineralogical  museum, 
and  technical  schools.  Its  copper 
mines,  once  the  richest  in  Europe, 
now  nearly  exhausted,  have  been 
worked  for  six  centuries,  and  the 
company  owning  them  has  existed 
since  about  1345.  Iron  pyrites, 
gold,  silver,  and  sulphur  are  still 
produced.  Fahlum  has  railway 
wagon  works,  wood  pulp  factories, 
and  textile  industries.  Pop.  12,213. 

Fahrenheit,  GABRIEL  DANIEL 
(1686-1736).  German  physicist. 
Born  at  Danzig,  May  14,  1686,  his 
life  was  spent  chiefly  in  England 
and  Holland,  where  he  studied 
physics  and  constructed  meteorolo- 
gical instruments.  His  name  is 
commemorated  by  a  thermome- 
tric  scale.  He  died  in  Holland, 
Sept.  16,  1736. 

Fahrenheit  Thermometer. 
Thermometer  invented  by  G.  D. 
Fahrenheit.  He  encountered  tem- 
peratures 32°  below  the  freezing 
point  of  water,  and  fixed  that 
degree  of  cold  as  the  zero  of  his 
scale.  The  freezing  point  of  water 
thus  became  32°.  The  difference 
in  temperature  between  this  and 
the  boiling  point  of  water  Fahren- 
heit divided  into  180  degrees,  so 
that  the  latter  is  212°  F. 

The  centigrade  scale  of  tem- 
perature has  the  melting  point  of 
ice  for  its  zero  degree,  and  the 
boiling  point  of  water  is  fixed  at 
100  degrees.  Reaumur's  scale 
(used  in  Germany)  divides  the 
difference  between  the  freezing 
and  boiling  points  of  water  into 
80  degrees.  To  convert  these 
scales  : 


C° 


—  32)  R°  =  4(F°—  32) 


See  Centigrade  ;  Thermometer. 

Faidherbe,  Loms  LEON  CESAR 
(1818-89).  French  soldier  and 
scholar.  Born  at  Lille,  June  3 
1818,  he  en- 
tered the  en- 
gineers, after  a 
military  educa- 
tion, in  1840. 
Almost  at  once 
he  saw  service 
in  Algiers,  and 
in  1854  he  was 
appointed 
governor  of 
Senegal. 

France  was  then  just  entering 
upon  her  policy  of  acquiring 
colonies  in  Africa,  and  of  this 
Faidherbe  was  a  pioneer.  After 
holding  a  command  in  Algeria,  he 
returned  to  France  in  1870  to  lead 
the  army  of  the  north  after  the 
disasters  at  Sedan  and  Metz.  He 
showed  great  ability  when  fighting 
a  number  of  battles  against  heavy 


L.  L.  Faidherbe. 
French  soldier 


odds,  but  at  last  he  was  beaten  at 
St.  Quentin.  For  a  short  time  he 
sat  in  the  National  Assembly,  and 
in  1879  he  was  elected  to  the 
Senate.  He  died  in  Paris,  Sept.  28, 
1889.  Faidherbe  was  also  an 
archaeologist,  and  wrote  an  ac- 
count of  his  campaign  of  1870-71. 

Faidit,  GATJCELM  (c.  1159-1216). 
French  troubadour.  Born  at 
Uzerche  in  Limousin,  the  son  of  an 
artisan,  his  singing  gifts  attracted 
the  patronage  of  Richard  Coeur  de 
Lion.  About  70  of  his  poems  have 
been  preserved,  including  a  beauti- 
ful planh,  or  song  of  sorrow,  in 
memory  of  Richard.  His  poems  are 
included  in  Chrestomathie  Pro- 
vengale,  C.  Bartsch,  6th  ed.  1904. 

Faience.  Term  loosely  used  to 
designate  every  description  of 
glazed  pottery  and  earthenware 
painted  with  decorative  designs. 
The  name  comes  from  the  Italian 
city  of  Faenza,  which  has  made  a 
speciality  of  this  kind  of  ware  from 
the  close  of  the  13th  century.  It 
had  a  soft  paste  and  thin  trans- 
parent glaze,  which  heightened  the 
colours.  The  very  rare  French 
Oiron  ware  is  called  Henry  II 
faience.  Some  varieties  from  Josiah 
Wedgwood's  work  are  styled  Eng- 
lish faience.  See  Pottery. 

Fails  worth.  Urban  dist.  of  Lan- 
cashire, England.  It  is  4  m.  N.E. 
of  Manchester  on  the  L.  &  Y.R. 
In  the  Manchester  area,  although 
just  outside  the  city  boundary,  its 
main  industries  are  connected  with 
the  manufacture  of  cotton.  Gas 
and  water  are  supplied  by  the  Old- 
ham  corporation.  Pop.  15,998. 

Fainting  OR  SYNCOPE.  Tempor- 
ary unconsciousness  due  to  in- 
sufficient supply  of  blood  to  the 
brain.  The  condition  may  be 
caused  by  defective  action  of  the 
heart,  sudden  violent  emotion, 
over-exertion,  loss  of  blood,  blows 
on  the  head  or  abdomen,  and  other 
causes.  A  person  about  to  faint 
feels  giddy,  and  everything  around 
him  seems  to  be  becoming  dark. 
He  turns  pale,  the  pupils  dilate,  the 
skin  becomes  cold  and  often 
sweaty,  and  if  standing  he  falls 
heavily.  The  pulse  is  weak  and 
hurried. 

Recovery  is  usually  rapid.  So  long 
as  he  is  unconscious,  the  person 
should  be  allowed  to  lie  quietly  on 
his  back  with  his  head  as  low  as 
possible,  and  the  clothing  about 
the  neck  and  chest  should  be 
loosened.  If  in  a  room  the  window 
should  be  opened,  and  if  outside, 
persons  should  be  prevented  from 
crowding  round.  Smelling  salts 
may  be  held  beneath  the  nose,  but 
until  consciousness  returns  nothing 
should  be  given  by  the  mouth. 
When  able  to  swallow,  a  little 
brandy  or  sal  volatile  in  water 


FAIR 


3066 


FAIRBAIRN 


may  be  given.  When  feelings  of 
faintness  first  come  on,  complete 
loss  of  consciousness  can  often  be 
prevented  by  the  person  bending 
forwards  and  placing  his  head 
between  his  knees  at  as  low  a  level 
as  possible.  ** 

Fair  (Lat.  feria,  holiday).  Peri- 
odical assembly  of  traders  at  a 
place  and  time  fixed  by  charter, 
statute,  or  immemorial  custom.  In 
early  times  certain  localities  came 
to  be  used  for  the  periodical 
exchange  of  commodities,  either  by 
reason  of  their  situation  or  be- 
cause they  were  resorted  to  at 
stated  times  for  religious  or  other 
purposes.  In  Greece  the  Olympic 
games  and  such  religious  festivals 
as  those  of  Delos  and  Delphi  pro- 
vided occasions  for  trading.  Among 
the  Incas  of  Peru  fairs  were  held 
thrice  a  month  in  the  most  populous 
places  and  were  visited  by  the  out- 
lying agricultural  populations.  In 
ancient  Mexico,  fairs  took  place 
every  fifth  day  in  the  chief  cities. 

The  earliest  royal  charter  for  a 
fair  was  granted  in  642  by  the 
Frank  king  Dagobert  to  the  monks 
of  S.  Denis,  Paris.  The  concourse 
of  worshippers  at  a  famous  shrine 
afforded  great  opportunities  for 
trade,  and  nearly  all  medieval  fair 
charters  were  granted  to  ecclesias- 
tics. The  fairs  were  usually  held 
on  a  saint's  day  and  on  its  vigil  and 
morrow,  and  often,  until  prohibited 
by  statute,  in  the  churchyard.  The 
religious  associations  of  medieval 
fairs  are  indicated  by  the  German 
word  for  "  fair,"  Messe  (mass),  and 
in  the  term  kermesse  or  kirmess 
(church  mass)  used  for  the  quasi- 
religious  carnivals  of  Brittany  and 
the  Low  Countries.  In  every  fair 
there  was  a  court  specially  ap- 
pointed for  settling  disputes,  called 
in  England  pie-powder  courts  (q.v. ). 
Fairs  and  Trade 

To  promote  trade,  fairs  were 
encouraged  by  the  sovereigns  of 
Europe.  During  fair  time  in  the 
10th  century  Otto  the  Great  pro- 
nounced the  ban  on  breakers  of  the 
peace  and  suspended  the  right  of 
private  feud.  In  the  14th  century 
the  emperor  Charles  IV's  charter 
for  the  great  fair  of  Frankfort-on- 
Main  declared  fair-goers  free  from 
arrest  and  imperial  taxes  during 
the  fair  as  well  as  for  18  days 
before  and  after. 

Though  fairs  were  invaluable 
for  international  trading,  local 
traders  were  usually  compelled  to 
close  their  shops  in  fair  time. 
During  the  Westminster  fair  the 
city  tradesmen  were  commanded 
to  shut  their  shops,  and  during  the 
fair  on  St.  Giles's  Hill,  near  Win- 
chester, which  lasted  16  days,  the 
Winchester  and  the  Southampton 
shopkeepers  were  only  allowed  to 


trade  in  the  fair.  The  bishop  of 
Winchester  was  the  lord  of  the 
fair,  and  while  it  lasted  the  powers 
of  the  regular  city  officers  were  in 
abeyance.  On  the  Eve  of  S.  Giles 
the  keys  of  the  city  gates  were 
handed  over  to  the  bishop,  who 
appointed  a  mayor,  bailiff,  and 
coroner  of  his  own  for  the  duration 
of  the  fair. 

The  influence  of  country  fairs 
was  far-reaching.  In  1338  the 
statutes  of  St.  Mary  Ottery's  College 
in  Devonshire  ordained  that  200  Ib. 
of  wax  for  the  choir  should  be 
bought  annually  at  Winchester 
fair.  In  the  15th  century  the  monks 
of  Maxstoke  and  Bicester  laid  in 
their  yearly  stores  at  Stourbridge 
fair,  and  in  the  16th  century  it  was 
still  customary  for  stewards  of 
country  houses  to  purchase  their 
year's  supply  of  household  stores 
at  remote  fairs.  With  the  improve- 
ment in  communications  the  im- 
portance of  fairs  diminished,  and 
by  1855  all  those  in  London  were 
abolished. 

"  Fun  of  the  Fair  " 

Amusements  formed  an  import- 
ant feature  of  fairs,  many  of  which 
became  mere  disorderly  revels  and 
were  suppressed  as  nuisances.  This 
was  the  fate  of  Donny brook  fair  in 
Dublin,  of  Charlton  or  Horn  fair, 
of  Greenwich  fair,  and  of  all  the 
London  fairs.  The  "  fun  of  the 
fair"  included  jugglers,  mounte- 
banks, rope-dancers,  acrobats, 
wrestling  and  other  sports,  wild 
beasts,  learned  animals,  freaks  and 
monstrosities,  puppet-shows,  mira- 
cle plays,  mysteries,  moralities,  and 
stage  plays  of  every  description  ; 
ballad-singing,  grinning  through 
horse-collars,  swings,  roundabouts, 
and,  in  modern  times,  steam  music. 
Ballad-singers  were  very  popular 
at  fairs  ;  Outroaring  Dick  and  Wat 
Wimbers,  two  Elizabethan  trebles, 
were  paid  as  much  as  20  shillings  a 
day  at  Braintree  fair.  Of  fairings, 
or  gifts  bought  at  fairs,  the  most 
familiar  are  the  little  gingerbread 
figures,  usually  gilt,  possibly  a 
survival  of  images  of  saints. 

The  most  celebrated  London  fair 
was  Bartholomew  fair  (q.v.),  and 
among  existing  English  livestock 
fairs  may  be  mentioned  those  for 
horses  at  Horncastle  (described  in 
George  Borrow' s  Romany  Rye), 
Bamet,  and  Woodbridge  ;  Weyhill, 
for  sheep,  and  Ipswich,  for  lambs  ; 
Exeter,  for  cattle  and  horses  ;  and 
Carlisle  and  Ormskirk,  for  cattle. 
Nottingham  has  a  goose  fair ; 
Falkirk,  a  fair,  or  tryst,  for  cattle, 
sheep,  and  horses ;  and  Ballinasloe, 
co.  Galway,  one  for  cattle.  Glouces- 
ter cheese  fair  is  well  known.  In 
parts  of  England  and  Wales,  and 
in  Scotland,  servants  are  engaged 
at  the  hiring,  or  statute,  fairs. 


-  On  the  continent  of  Europe,  the 
Lyons  fair  is  supposed  to  have 
been  founded  by  the  Romans  and 
long  enjoyed  a  great  reputation  ; 
bills  of  exchange  from  all  parts  of 
Europe  were  often  made  payable  at 
Lyons  fair.  The  fairs  of  Champagne 
and  Brie  were  world  renowned,  and 
are  referred  to  as  early  as  the  5th 
century.  Those  of  Frankfort-on- 
Main  and  Frankfort-on-Oder  and 
those  of  Leipzig,  especially  the 
great  Easter  book-fair,  are  the 
best  known  German  fairs.  The 
most  important  Russian  fair  is  the 
Makaryevskaya  fair  at  Nijni- 
Novgorod,  which  lasts  from  July  29 
to  Sept.  10.  It  has  been  held  from 
remote  times  at  various  points  on 
the  river  Volga,  and  was  settled  at 
Nijni  in  1817,  taking  its  name  from 
a  monastery  near  Makaryev,  where 
it  was  formerly  held.  The  fair 
comprises  over  8,000  shops  as 
well  as  circuses,  theatres,  banks, 
and  other  buildings.  Trade  is 
carried  on  in  cotton,  woollens, 
silk  and  linen  goods,  furs,  iron, 
corn,  salt,  etc. 

In  the  Nile  delta  Tanta  is  famous 
for  its  fairs,  held  thrice  yearly  at 
the  tomb  of  Said  el  Bedawi,  a  13th 
century  saint.  One  of  the  largest 
fairs  in  Asia  is  that  at  Hardwar,  or 
Hurdwar,  in  Upper  India.  The 
Meccan  fairs  existed  long  before  the 
time  of  Mahomet.  In  America  the 
term  "  fair  "  denotes  an  industrial 
exhibition.  See  Exhibition 

Bibliography.  Fairs,  Past  and 
Present,  C.  Walford,  1883:  Memoirs 
of  Bartholomew  Fair,  H.  Morley, 
1859;  History  of  English  Poetry,  T. 
Warton,  1871,  for  an  account  of 
Winchester  fair ;  Treatise  on  the  Law 
of  Markets  and  Fairs,  J.  G.  Pease 
and  H.  Chitty,  1899. 

Fair  bairn,  ANDREW  MARTIN 
(1838-1912).  British  theologian. 
Born  near  .  Edinburgh,  Nov.  4, 
•  1838,  and  edu- 
cated at  the 
university 
there  and  at 
Berlin,  for  some 
years  he  was  a 
Congregational 
minister  at 
Bathgate  and 
Aberdeen.  He 
became  princi- 
pal of  the  Aire- 
dale Congrega- 
tional College,  Bradford,  nf  1877, 
and  in  1889-1909  was  principal  of 
Mansfield  College,  Oxford.  He  was 
Muir  Lecturer  at  Edinburgh,  Gifford 
Lecturer  at  Aberdeen,  and  Lyman 
Beecher  Lecturer  at  Yale.  He 
published  numerous  books  chiefly 
on  the  philosophy  of  religion, 
among  them  The  Place  of  Christ 
in  Modern  Theology,  1893,  and 
Philosophy  of  the  Christian  Re- 
ligion, 1902.  He  died  Feb.  9, 1912. 


Andre w  M.  Fairbairn, 
British  theologian 

Elliott  &  Fry 


FAIRBA1RN 


3067 


FAIRFORD 


Fairbairn,  Sm  WILLIAM  (1789- 
1874).    British  engineer.    Born  at 
Kelso,    Roxburghshire,    Feb.    19, 
1789,  the  son 
of  a  farmer,  in 
1804    he     was 
apprenticed  to 
a  millwright  in 
Newcastle,  and 
educated  him- 
self    in    his 
spare  time. 
Coming    to 
Sir  W.  Fairbairn,       London     in 
British  engineer        18H5    jn    ig17 

he  started,  in  partnership  with 
James  Lillie,  an  engineering  busi- 
ness which  proved  successful.  In 
1830  he  turned  his  attention  to  iron 
boat  construction,  and  in  1835 
opened  shipbuilding  works  at  Mill- 
wall.  Moving  thence  to  Manchester 
he  invented  a  riveting  machine, 
and  superintended  the  construc- 
tion of  the  Menai  Bridge,  1848.  He 
was  made  a  baronet  in  1869,  and 
died  Aug.  18,  1874. 

Fairbanks,  CHARLES  WARREN 
(1852-1918).  American  politician. 
Born  in  Ohio,  May  11,  1852.  he 
graduated  a  t 
the  Wesleyan 
university, 
1872,  a  n'd 
worked  for  The 
Associated 
Press.  Ad- 
mitted to  the 
Ohio  bar  in 
1874,  he  was 
elected  a  Re- 
publican sena- 
tor for  Indiana,  1897-1909.  He 
was  elected  vice-president  in  1904. 
He  stood  unsuccessfully  for  the 
vice-presidency  in  1916.  He  died 
June  5,  1918. 

Fairbanks,  DOUGLAS  (b.  1883). 
American  actor.  Born  at  Denver, 
May  23,  1883,  he  was  educated 
there  and  studied  mining  at  the 
Colorado  School  of  Mines.  His  first 
appearance  on  the  New  York  stage 
was  in  1901.  Engagements  at  vari- 
ous New  York  theatres  followed, 
and  he  toured  the  U.S.  from  1908- 
10  in  A  Gentleman  from  Missis- 
sippi. About  1914  he  took  up 
cinema  work,  at  which  he  made  a 
great  success.  In  1920  he  married 
Mary  Pickford  (q.v. ),  with  whom 
he  visited  England  in  that  year. 

Fairey.  Name  given  to  British 
aircraft  manufactured  by  the 
Fairey  Aviation  Co.,  Hayes,  Mid- 
dlesex. The  firm's  activities  have 
been  almost  entirely  confined  to 
the  design  and  construction  of  sea- 
planes, but  in  1914  Fairey  designed, 
and  in  1916  completed  and  de- 
livered to  the  R.N.A.S.,  one  of  the 
first  examples  of  the  large,  twin- 
engine  type  of  machines  used  for 
bombing.  See  illus.  p.  3068. 


C.  W.  Fairbanks, 
American  politician 


Fairfax,  FERDINANDO  FAIRFAX, 
2ND  BARON  (1584-1648).  English 
soldier.  The  son  of  Thomas  Fair- 
fax, a  Yorkshire  landowner,  he  was 
born  March  29,  1584,  and  when 
young  served  against  Spain  in  the 
Netherlands.  In  1640  he  succeeded 
his  father  as  Baron  Fairfax  of 
Cameron,  a  Scottish  title  dating 
from  1627,  but  this  did  not  pre- 
vent him  from  becoming  a  member 
of  the  Long  Parliament.  Therein, 
taking  the  side  of  the  parliament, 
he  was  chosen  to  command  its 
forces  in  Yorkshire  when  war  be- 
gan in  1642.  He  served  for  about 
two  years,  but  only  met  with  one 
or  two  minor  successes  ;  on  the 
other  hand,  he  was  routed  at  Ad- 
walton  Moor,  and  driven  from  the 
field  at  Marston  Moor.  He  died 
March  14,  1648. 

Fairfax,  THOMAS  FAIRFAX,  3RD 
BARON  (1612-71).  English  soldier. 
The  son  of  the  2nd  baron,  he  was 

born      at       _  ^^^ ~,-^-^m^l 

D  e  n  t  o  n  ,     ] 
Yorkshire,     ! 

Jan.  17, 1612.     j        KW  *J| 
He   went    to     >  «^Hr''"*      v^I 
S.     J  o  h  n's 
College, 
Cam  bridge, 
after    which 
he  saw  mili- 
tary   service 
in        the 
Netherlands. 
In    1640    he 
s   e  r  v  e  d 
against     the 
Scots,    but  when    the    civil    war 
began  in  1642,  he  and  his  father 
were  prominent  among  the  king's 
opponents. 

In  1644,  on  the  passing  of  the 
self-denying  ordinance,  Fairfax 
was  made  commander-in-chief  of 
the  parliamentary  armies,  and  as 
such  was  responsible  for  the 
victory  at  Naseby.  At  the  end  of 
the  first  period  of  the  war  he  was 
something  of  a  national  hero,  but 
he  had  little  sympathy  with  the 
policy  of  the  more  violent  of  the 
army  leaders.  He  helped,  however, 
to  put  down  the  royalist  rising  in 
1648,  and  was  one  of  the  judges  ap- 
pointed to  try  Charles.  But  when 
the  trial  began  he  refused  to  sit,  and 
in  1650  he  resigned  his  position  as 
head  of  the  army,  receiving  a  pen- 
sion of  £5,000  a 'year.  In  1659  he 
came  from  retirement,  and  helped 
Monk  to  place  Charles  II  on  the 
throne,  going  as  head  of  the  depu- 
tation to  The  Hague.  He  was 
elected  as  M.P.  for  Yorkshire  to  the 
new  parliament,  and  that  was  the 
end  of  his  public  career,  although 
he  lived  until  Nov.  12,  1671, 
dying  at  Nun  Appleton.  Fairfax 
was  a  man  of  culture,  who  wrote 
two  accounts  of  his  campaigns, 


verses,  and  made  translations.  His 
correspondence  was  published  in 
four  volumes,  1848-49.  See  also 
The  Great  Lord  Fairfax.  Sir  C.  R. 
Markham,  1870. 

Fairfax  was  succeeded  in  the 
barony  by  his  son.  It  passed  to 
his  descendants,  coming  in  1710  to 
Thomas  Fairfax,  who  became  the 
6th  baron.  He  sold  Denton  Hall, 
the  Yorkshire  seat  of  the  family, 
and  settled  in  Virginia,  where  he 
inherited  some  millions  of  acres, 
and  lived  in  princely  splendour. 
His  brother,  the  7th  baron,  died 
without  sons,  when  the  title  passed 
to  a  distant  relative.  For  a  time, 
the  heirs  being  American  citizens, 
it  was  not  claimed,  but  in  1912 
Albert  Kirby  Fairfax  was  permitted 
by  the  House  of  Lords  to  take  it. 
He  ranked  as  the  12th  baron. 

Fairfax,  Sm  JAMES  READING 
(1834-1919).  Australian  news- 
paper proprietor.  Born  at  Leam- 
ington, Eng- 
land, Oct.  17, 
1834,  he  joined 
the  staff  of  his 
father's  paper, 
The  Sydney 
Morning  Her 
aid,  in  1851. 
Five  years 
later  he  be- 
came a  part- 
n  e  r,  and 
during  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life  was  actively  en- 
gaged in  the  management  of  The 
Herald  and  The  Sydney  Mail, 
which  he  founded.  Knighted  in 
1898,  he  was  a  director  of  the 
Bank  of  N.S.W.,  and  president  of 
the  national  art  gallery  of  N.S.W. 
He  died  March  28,  1919. 

Fairfield.  Parish  of  Derby- 
shire, England,  partly  within  the 
borough  of  Buxton.  Pop.  4,114. 
There  are  a  number  of  other  Fair- 
fields  in  England,  one  being  a 
suburb  of  Manchester  and  another 
of  Liverpool.  Fairfield  is  the 
name,  too,  of  a  mountain  (2,863 
ft.  high),  near  Helvellyn,  in  West- 
morland. 

Fairford.  Parish  and  village  of 
Gloucestershire,  England.  It  stands 
on  the  Coin,  25  m.  W.S.W.  of 
Oxford,  and  has  a  station  on  the 
G.W.R.  Its  15th  century  church, 
dedicated  to  S.  Mary,  and  built  by 
John  Tame,  a  London  merchant, 
contains  some  of  the  most  wonderful 
stained  glass  in  the  country.  The 
28  windows  figure  the  whole  story 
of  the  Creation  and  of  the  work  of 
Jesus  Christ.  The  village  has  a  fair 
and  was  a  centre  of  cloth  manufac- 
ture. It  is  visited  for  trout  fishing, 
and  was  the  birthplace  of  John 
Keble.  In  the  neighbourhood  are 
Hatherop  Castle  and  Fairford 
Park.  Pop.  1,410. 


Sir  James  Fairfax, 
Australian  news- 
paper proprietor 


FAIR     HEAD 


3O68 


Fair  Head  OR  BENMOBE.  Head- 
land on  the  N.  coast  of  Antrim,  Ire- 
land. It  is  4£  m.  N.E.  of  Bally- 
castle,  is  636  ft.  high,  and  being 
a  sheer  precipice  from  a  height  of 
320  ft.  presents  a  superb  basaltic 
columnar  formation. 

Fairing.  In  aeronautics,  any 
streamline-shaped  cover  or  casing, 
or  any  part  so  shaped  that  it  pro- 
vides a  streamline  form.  In  air- 
craft construction  it  is  most  essen- 
tial to  reduce  the  wind  resistance 
set  up  by  every  part  of  the  struc- 
ture, and  this  is  attained  by  giving 
as  far  as  possible  a  streamline 
shape,  or  in  other  words  fairing 
them  off.  The  word  is  used  also 
for  a  present,  originally  one  brought 
from  a  fair.  See  Aeronautics. 

Fair  Isle  OR  SHEEP  ISLE.  One 
of  the  Shetland  Is.,  Scotland,  about 
equidistant  from  that  group  and 
the  Orkney  Is.  It  is  3  m.  long 
and  2  m.  broad,  and  rises  to  480 
ft.  in  Sheep  Craig  on  the  E.  coast. 
Fishing,  knitting,  and  sheep-rear- 
ing are  engaged  in.  The  island  has 
two  lighthouses,  and  is  in  tele- 
graphic communication  with  the 
mainland.  Pop.  139. 

Fair  lie.  Parish,  village,  and 
watering-place  of  Ayrshire,  Scot- 
land. It  stands  on  the  Firth  of 
Clyde,  2  m.  S.  of  Largs  by  the  G. 
and  S.  W.R.  It  has  a  noted  yacht- 
building  yard,  and  there  are  ruins 
of  a  castle.  Pop.  800. 

Fair  Maid  of  Perth,  THE,  OR 
ST.  VALENTINE'S  DAY.  Romance  of 
the  last  years  of  the  14th  century 
when  Robert  III  was  king  of  Scot- 
land. Published  hi  May,  1828,  it 
forms  the  second  series  of  Scott's 
Chronicles  of  the  Canongate.  The 
scene  is  laid  in  and  around  Perth  ; 
the  titular  heroine  is  Catharine,  the 
beautiful  and  devout  daughter  of 


Simon  Glover,  burgess  of  the  city. 
In  addition  to  the  unique  study  of 
the  Highland  lad  Conachar  (Eachin 
Maclan),  nominally  Simon's  ap- 
prentice, who  is  destined  to  be  the 
last  chief  of  the  Clan  Quhele,  and 
whose  inherent  cowardice  offers  a 
striking  contrast  to  the  dauntless 
courage  of  Henry  Smith  (Hal  of  the 


as  British  goods  are  admitted  there. 
After  languishing  for  a  time  the 
cause  revived  early  in  the  20th  cen- 
tury in  the  shape  of  Tariff  Reform. 
See  Free  Trade  ;  Tariff  Reform. 

Fair  Wages  Clause.  Agreement 
in  public  contracts  to  protect  the 
wage  earner.  It  is  usual  to  insert 
in  agreements  with  contractors, 


-•"••  j    ^J  ^"-    \*~^~  '  J.X1        a»glCOlU.d.li;O         W1UI1        WUUXCVUVU&Dj 

Wynd),  the  armourer  who  is  also     who  undertake  works  paid  for  from 


Catharine's  suitor,  the  story  con 
tains  a  vivid  description  of  the 
Palm  Sunday  battle  on  the  North 
Inch  between  the  champions  of  the 
rival  clans  Chattan  and  Quhele. 

Fair  Oaks,  BATTLE  OF.  Federal 
victory  in  the  American  Civil  War, 


The  Fair  Maid  of  Perth.     Catharine 
Glover,  the  heroine  of  Scoh's  novel, 
from  a  drawing  by  Charles  Land- 
seer,  B.A. 


Fair  Isle,  Shetland  Islands,  from  the  east,  with 
lighthouse  on  the  southern  extremity 

Valentine 

May  31-June  1,  1862,  also  known 
as  the  battle  of  Seven  Pines.  In 
command  of  the  Federals,  Mc- 
Clellan  was  forcing  Johnston  back 
upon  Richmond  when  the  Southern 
general  made  a  stand  as  the  Fed- 
erals were  crossing  the  Chicka- 
hominy  river.  Two  of  McClellan'  s 
corps  were  already  to  the  S.  of  the 
river  when  they  were  attacked  by 
Longstreet.  Reinforcements  were 
hurried  up,  and  stubborn  fighting 
took  place,  during  which  Johnston 
was  severely  wounded,  being 
succeeded  by  G.  W.  Smith.  The 
next  day,  June  1,  Longstreet' s  at- 
tack was  repulsed,  and  Lee  only 
arrived  in  time  to  withdraw  the 
Confederate  army  to  Richmond. 
About  42,000  men  were  engaged  on 
either  side.  The  Federal  losses  were 
5.000,  the  Confederates  losing  more 
than  6,000. 

Fair  Trade.    Term  much  used 
in  the  United  Kingdom  during  the 
latter  part  of  the 
19th    century   for  j 
what     was     later 
called     tariff     re-  f 
form.    It  was  used 
by  the  opponents 
of  free  trade,  who 
demanded    that 
the  United  King- 
dom  should   only 
admit    the    goods 
of    other    nations 
on  the  same  terms 


the 


public  money,  a  clause  to  the  fol- 
lowing effect :  "The  contractor 
shall  pay  his  workmen  the  wages 
usually  deemed  fair  in  the  district 
in  the  trade  to  which  they  belong, 
i.e.  the  trade  union  rate  of  wages, 

under  a  penalty  of  £ or  under 

pain  of  forfeiting 
the  contract  a  t 
the  option  of  the 
employer."  F  o  r- 
merly  a  clause  was 
often  inserted 
forbidding  the 
contractor  to  pay 
his  employees  in 
kind  or  in  any- 
thing but  money. 

Fairway.  Navi- 
gable part  of  a 
river  or  other  chan- 
nel. It  is  con- 
tinually under  su- 
pervision in  order 
to  keep  it  free  from 
obstructions. 

Fairweather.  Mountain  of 
Alaska,  U.S.A.  It  is  a  volcano  in 
the  St.  Elias  Range,  alt.  15,290  ft. 

Fairy.  Legendary  or  mythical 
being  common  to  the  folklore  of 
most  peoples.  They  are  manifested 
in  varied  forms,  from  tiny  crea- 
tures in  human  shape  which  haunt 
the  flowers,  to  the  ordinary  size  of 
human  beings.  Fairies  are,  how- 
ever, generally  regarded  as  rela- 
tively small,  whence  it  has  been 
surmised  that  the  origin  of  the 
fairy  myth  is  to  be  found  in  a  dim 
antiquity  when  surviving  races 
were  in  conflict  with  smaller  races 
that  have  become  extinct.  The 
discovery  of  the  African  pygmies 
has  lent  colour  to  this  ;  Sir  Harry 
Johnston  pointing  out  that  the  ac- 
tions of  those  dwarf  people  again 
and  again  suggested  the  traits  at- 
tributed to  the  brownies  and  gob- 
lins of  fairy  lore.  Fairies  in  their 
many  manifestations  are  some- 


Fairey  Seaplane,  type  III  C,  asjidopted^by  the  British 


Government 


FAIRY      RING 


3069 


FAITHORNE 


times  friendly  and  beneficent,  some- 
times mischievous  and  malevolent. 

The  term  is  occasionally  em- 
ployed as  covering  the  whole  field 
of  terrestrial  supernatural  beings, 
hence  Fairyland  is  a  sort  of  fourth 
dimensional  world  that  coexists 
with  that  in  which  we  live,  and  the 
term  Fairy  stories  is  applied  to  all 
tales  introducing  earthly  beings  of 
an  extra  -  natural  character.  In 
poetry  and  modern  fairy  stories  the 
fairy  is  generally  represented  as  a 
tiny  dainty  creature.  Since  fairy  ori- 
ginally meant  enchantment,  and 
then  fairy  people  collectively,  a 
single  fairy  is  better  called  fay, 
Fr.  fie,  Ital.  fata,  from  late  Lat. 
fata,  a  fate  or  fay,  the  neut.  pi.  of 
fatum  being  used  as  a  singular.  See 
Brownie;  Changeling;  Elf;  Folk- 
lore ;  Gnome ;  Goblin ;  Puck ;  Sylph. 

Bibliography.  Observations  on 
Popular  Antiquities,  J.  Brand,  rev. 
ed.  1893;  Fairy  Legends  of  the 
South  of  Ireland,  T.  Crofton  Croker, 
newed.  1862:  Teutonic  Mythology, 
Jacob  Grimm,  1835  (Eng.  trans. 
J.  S.  Stallybrass,  1880-88)  :  Fairy 
Mythology,  T.  Keightley,  1847: 
Science  of  Fairy  Tales,  E.  S.  Hart 
land,  1889 ;  The  Childhood  of  Fic- 
tion, J.  A.  MacCulloch,  1905  ;  Myths 
and  Legends  of  the  Celtic  Race,  T. 
W.  Rolleston,  1911. 

Fairy  Ring.  Ring  ot  a  more 
vivid  green  than  the  surrounding 
grass  of  fields,  fancifully  ascribed 
to  fairies  dancing  in  a  circle  at 
night.  They  are  really  caused  by 
the  growth  of  certain  species  of 
fungi— notably  the  fairy-ring  cham- 
pignon (Marasmius  oreades)  — 
which,  starting  from  the  centre, 
extend  their  underground  threads 
(mycelium)  in  all  directions,  form- 
ing a  circle  increasing  every  year. 

Faisans,  ILE  DBS  (Fr.,  Pheas- 
ants' Isle).  Island  in  the  river  Bi- 
dassoa,  lying  between  France  and 
Spain,  about  15  m.  S.E.  of  St.  Sebas- 
tian. Its  position,  between  two 
frontiers  made  it  on  two  notable  oc 
casions  the  meeting-place  of  French 
and  Spanish  negotiators.  Louis  XI 
and  Henry  IV  of  Castile  met  here  in 
1463,  and  Mazarin  and  Don  Luis  de 
Haro  here  concluded  the  Treaty  oi 
the  Pyrenees  in  Nov.  1659,  by 
which  Spain  ceded  Artois  and  other 
northern  possessions,  and  gave  up 
her  claims  to  Alsace  and  Lorraine, 
while  France  gave  up  territory 
taken  in  Italy  and  N.E.  Spain. 

Faith  (Lat.  fides).  In  ordinary 
speech  a  term  used  to  denote  the 
leap  of  the  mind  from  the  known 
to  the  unknown.  In  the  sphere  of 
nature  it  signifies  the  acceptance 
of  fundamental  assumptions  which 
in  themselves  are  incapable  of 
logical  demonstration.  The  law  of 
the  Uniformity  of  Nature,  for  in- 
stance, is  an  act  of  scientific  faith 
enunciating  a  universal  principle 


on  the  basis  of  certain  established 
data.  The  fact  that  the  sun  has  in- 
variably risen  at  daybreak  does  not 
in  itself  afford  a  demonstrative 
proof  that  it  will  always  rise,  but  it 
justifies  our  faith  that  such  will  be 
the  case.  In  the  sphere  of  human 
relations  the  term  is  also  employed 
to  denote  the  confidence  which  we 
feel  in  other  men  whose  character 
and  integrity  are  known  to  us. 

From  ordinary  usage  the  term 
naturally  passed  into  the  religious 
sphere — to  which  it  preeminently 
belongs,  and  it  is  commonly  used  to 
describe  the  faculty  or  organ  of  the 
soul  by  which  a  man  grasps  the 
realities  of  the  unseen  and  divine 
universe.  What  the  eye  is  to  the 
body,  faith  is  to  the  soul.  It  is  the 
medium  or  instrument  by  means  of 
which  the  soul  enters  into  com- 
munion with  God. 

Philosophers  and  theologians 
have  made  many  attempts  at  a  psy- 
chological analysis  of  the  faculty 
of  faith.  Some  have  held  that  it 
is  a  divine  endowment — a  special 
religious  sense,  created  in  the  soul 
for  the  purpose  of  the  exercise  of 
spiritual  functions.  Others  have 
regarded  it  as  an  aspect  of  the  emo- 
tions analogous  to  the  aesthetic 
sense.  A  third  school  has  made  it  a 
department  of  the  intellectual  side 
of  human  nature — while  a  fourth 
has  located  it  in  the  activity  of  the 
will.  All  these  theories  are  inade- 
quate, for  intellect,  feeling,  and  will 
are  all  involved  in  the  act  of  faith. 

Corresponding  to  these  different 
views  as  to  the  character  of  the 
organ  of  faith,  there  are  similar 
divergences  of  opinion  as  to  the 
scope  of  its  activity.  Even  in  the 
New  Testament  itself  the  term  is 
used  in  three  different  senses.  In 
the  Epistle  of  James  it  is  employed 
to  signify  the  intellectual  assent  of 
the  mind  to  the  primary  Christian 
beliefs,  and  from  this  use  of  the 
word  has  grown  up  the  conception 
which  identifies  faith  with  the  ac- 
ceptance of  a  creed.  In  the  Epistle 
to  the  Hebrews,  on  the  other  hand, 
faith  is  defined  as  "  the  assurance 
of  things  hoped  for,  the  proving  of 
things  not  seen,"  words  which  Dr. 
Moffatt  has  paraphrased,  "  Faith 
means  we  are  confident  of  what  we 
hope  for,  convinced  of  what  we  do 
not  see."  It  is  out  of  this  interpre- 
tation of  faith  that  Christian  mys- 
ticism developed.  To  the  Apostle 
Paul  faith  has  still  a  deeper  signifi- 
cation. It  implies  nothing  less  than 
the  complete  surrender  of  the  soul 
to  Christ  as  its  Redeemer  and  its 
living  Lord.  And  it  is  to  this  great 
Pauline  idea  of  faith  that  the  Evan- 
gelical interpretation  of  Chris- 
tianity owes  its  genesis  and  in- 
spiration. See  Faith  and  its  Psy- 
chology, W.  R.  Inge,  1909. 


Faithfull,     EMILY     (1835-95). 
British  publicist.  Born  at  Headley 
Rectory,  Surrey,  daughter  of  Rev. 
Ferdinand 
Faithfull,  and 
educated  at 
Kensington, 
she    devoted 
the  greater 
part  of  her  life 
to  advocating 
the  claims    of 
women  to  re- 
Emily  Faithfull,        munerative 
British  publicist        employment. 

Douney  jn    j  g'g  Q  ^    Jn 

Great  Coram  Street,  London,  she 
founded  a  printing-office  in  which 
women  were  employed  as  compo- 
sitors, and  for  which  she  secured 
the  approval  of  Queen  Victoria. 
Later,  in  Farringdon  Street,  she 
formed  the  Victoria  Press,  and  was 
appointed  printer  and  publisher  in 
ordinary  to  the  queen.  In  1863  she 
started  a  monthly  entitled  The  Vic- 
toria Magazine.  In  1868  she  issued 
a  novel,  Change  upon  Change.  Her 
lectures  in  the  U.S.A.,  1872-73, 
were  described  in  her  Three  Visits 
to  America,  1884.  She  received  a 
civil  list  pension  of  £50  in  1889  and 
died  May  31,  1895 

Faith  Healing.  Cure  of  disease 
by  faith  in  the  healing  power  of 
God.  In  the  early  Church  the  prac- 
tice of  anointing  the  sick  for  the 
purpose  of  curing  them  was  a 
normal  function  of  the  clergy,  and 
still  survives  in  an  altered  form  and 
with  different  intention  in  Extreme 
Unction.  In  medieval  days  the 
touch  of  a  saint  or  of  his  relics  was 
resorted  to  for  healing  ;  and  down 
to  the  time  of  Queen  Anne  the 
British  sovereign  used  to  touch 
persons  to  cure  them  of  scrofula. 

The  practice  of  faith  healing  is 
common  among  certain  Protestant 
bodies,  such  as  the  Peculiar  People. 
Most  of  the  miracles  at  Lourdes 
and  elsewhere  are  probably  ex- 
amples of  faith  healing.  Such  cures 
are  usually  effected  in  functional 
and  nervous  complaints,  not  in 
cases  of  organic  lesion ;  and 
medical  science  attributes  them  to 
the  power  of  suggestion  upon  the 
minds  of  persons  who  are  at  the 
time  in  a  state  of  strong  religious 
emotion. 

Faithorne,  WILLIAM  (1616-91). 
English  engraver.  Born  in  London, 
he  studied  painting  and  drawing 
under  Robert  Peake,  and  engrav- 
ing with  John  Payne.  Made  pris- 
oner by  the  Roundheads  in  the 
Civil  War,  he  pursued  his  art  in 
Aldersgate  prison,  and  on  his  liber- 
ation proceeded  to  Paris,  becoming 
a  pupil  of  Robert  Nanteuil.  Re- 
turning to  London  in  1650,  he  set 
up  as  a  print-seller  near  Temple 
Bar,  retiring  in  1680.  He  died  in 


FAIZABAD 


Valaba.     The  British  liner  torpedoed  in  St.  George's 
Channel  by  a  German  submarine,  March  28,  1915 

Blackfriars,  May  13,  1691.  Faith- 
orne  engraved  portraits  of  most  of 
the  conspicuous  figures  of  the  Com- 
monwealth and  Restoration  after 
Van  Dyck,  Lely,  Dobson,  and 
others,  among  them  the  notorious 
Lady  Castlemaine.  His  portraits  of 
Charles  I,  Charles  II,  James  II, 
the  Duke  of  Monmouth,  Milton, 
Thomas  Killigrew  and  Thomas 
Hobbes  may  be  specially  men 
tioned. 

FaizabadoRFYZABAD.  Division, 
district,  and  town  of  Oudh, 
United  Provinces,  India.  Faizabad 
city,  the  administrative  head- 
quarters (with  cantonment)  of  the 
district,  is  situated  at  the  junction 
of  three  branches  of  the  Oudh  and 
Rohilkhand  Rly.,  and  forms  with 
Ajodhya  a  single  municipality.  Its 
chief  industry  is  sugar  refining,  and 
it  has  a  large  agricultural  trade.  It 
is  the  terminus  of  the  river  steamers 
on  the  Gogra.  The  main  crops  of 
the  district  are  rice,  grain,  wheat, 
lentils,  peas,  barley,  and  sugar-cane. 
Pop.,  div.,  6,646,362,  75  p.c.  Hin- 
dus; dist.,  1,154,109,  90  p.c.  Hin- 
dus; town,  54,655,  70  p.c.  Hindus. 

Fakenham.  Parish  and  market 
town  of  Norfolk,  England.  It 
stands  on  the  Wensum,  24  m.  by 
rly.  from  King's  Lynn.  It  has  two 
stations,  one  on  the  G.E.R.  and  the 
other  on  the  Mid.  &  G.N.  joint  line. 
The  chief  building  is  the  church, 
with  a  lofty  tower.  Pop.  3,181. 

Fakir  (Arab,  faqir,  beggar). 
Religious  devotee,  especially  in  In 
dia.  They  numbered  in  1911, 787,124 
Mahomedan,  175,902  Hindu,  16,187 
Sikh,  and  80  Jain.  The  Mahome 
dans  are  orthodox  members  of  the 
marrying  dervish  orders  or  un 
orthodox  celibate  mendicants  who 
dispense  with  abstinence,  fasting, 
and  prayer.  The  Hindus  include 
members  of  the  monastic  yogi 
orders  devoted  to  education  and 
poor  relief,  besides  mendicant 
vagabonds  who  practise  jugglery 
and  resort  to  mutilations  and 
austerities.  See  illus.  p.  740. 

Fal.  River  of  Cornwall,  Eng- 
land. It  rises  near  Roche,  flows 
S.  and  S.W.  for  23  m.  to  the 


3070 

English  Channel  at 
Falmouth,  and  is 
navigable  for  nearly 
10  m. 

Falaba.    British 
liner  torpedoed  by 
the     German    sub- 
marine  U28   S.    of 
St.  George's  Chan- 
nel, March  28, 1915. 
At    the    inquiry  it 
was  stated  that  the 
submarine    was 
flying   British 
colours,    and   its 
crew    wore     khaki. 
Herr  Dernberg   at- 
tempted to  justify  this  crime  by 
saying  that  it  was    a   return  for 
Britain's    attempt   to   starve    out 
Germany.    The  Falaba,  4,800  tons, 
belonged  to  the  Elder  Dempster  Co. 


FALAISE 


wm 

Falaise.    The  castle  where  William  the  Conqueror  was 

born.      Above,  statue  of  William  by  Louis  Rochet. 

erected  in  1851 

Falaba.  Town  of  Sierra  Leone, 
W.  Africa.  It  is  fortified,  and  lies 
near  the  frontier  of  French  Guinea, 
170  m.  N.E.  of  Freetown,  at  the 
junction  of  many  trade  routes. 
There  is  trade  hi  palm  kernels  and 
kola  nuts.  Pop.  6.000 


Falaise.     Town 
of  France,  in   the 
dept.  of  Calvados. 
It   stands   on   the 
Ante,  20  m.  S.S.E. 
of    Caen.       It    is 
a  n        agricultural 
centre,  and   Guib- 
ray,  a   suburb,    is 
noted  for  its  horse 
and  cattle  fairs. 
Other    industries 
are    tanning    and 
the    manufacture 
of  hosiery,  cottons, 
and    dyestuffs. 
The  chief  churches 
are  S.  Gervais,  with  its  fine  Norman 
tower  and  some   beautiful   stone- 
work,  and   the    Trinity,   but    the 
most    interesting   building   is    the 
castle,  famous  as  the  birthplace  of 
William  the  Conqueror  and  at  one 
time  the  residence  of  the  dukes  of 


Fakir.     1.  Undergoing  thirst  ordeal 
water  overhead,  he  abstains  from  drinking. 
3.  Rollins   his  way  from  shrine  to  shrine. 


with  the  river  by  his  side  and  jars  ol 
2.  Lying  on  a  bed  of  thorns. 


4.  Seated  on  a  bed  of  nails 


FALASHAS 

Normandy.  It  stands  on  a  hill 
above  the  town  and  is  largely  in- 
tact, the  remains  including  the  keep 
and  Talbot's  Tower,  dating  from 
the  15th  century.  Near  the  town 
hall  is  an  equestrian  statue  of 
William  the  Conqueror,  and  there 
is  a  fine  Norman  church  at  Guibray. 
As  part  of  Normandy,  Falaise  was 
long  a  possession  of  the  English 
kings.  In  1450  it  was  finally  cap- 
tured by  the  French.  Pop.  6,847. 

Falashas  (Ethiop.,  strangers). 
Communities  of  Hamitic  stock, 
mainly  between  Aksum  and  Gon- 
dar,  in  Abyssinia.  Although  allied 
racially  to  the  Galla,  and  ignorant 
of  Hebrew  and  the  Talmuds,  they 
profess  Judaism,  there  being  three 
distinct  sects.  They  are  farmers 
and  artisans,  speaking  an  Abys- 
sinian (Agao)  dialect,  and  they 
practise  a  rigid  racial  and  ritual 
exclusiveness. 

Falces.  Town  of  Spain,  in  the 
prov.  of  Navarre.  It  stands  in  a 
plain  between  the  rivers  Ebro  and 
Arga,  30  m.  S.W.  of  Pamplona.  It 
has  ruins  of  a  Roman  castle,  but  is 
chiefly  known  for  the  mineral 
springs  in  the  vicinity.  Pop. 
3,200. 

Falchion.  Type  of  sword  used  in 
medieval  times.  It  was  usually 
slightly  curved,  rather  heavy,  and 
the  blade  was  broader  towards  the 
point  than  at  the  hilt.  The  word  is 
derived  from  Lat.  falx,  sickle.  See 
Sword. 

Falcon  (Lat.  falco).  Name  ap- 
plied generally  to  the  family  of 
birds  of  prey  which  includes  falcons, 
hawks,  kites,  and  eagles  ;  but  more 
especially  to  a  sub-family  which 
includes  the  true  falcons,  the  pere- 
grine falcon  and  the  kestrels.  All 
these  have  short,  curved  beaks 
with  one  notch  in  the  upper  man- 
dible, round  nostrils,  short  pointed 
wings,  and  long  toes. 

Several  species  of  falcon  are 
found  in  Great  Britain.  Of  these 
the  peregrine  falcon  builds  sparsely 
on  cliffs  in  the  S.  of  England.  It 
preys  mainly  on  birds,  and  its  rav- 
ages among  game  are  compensated 
by  the  fact  that  it  only  attacks  the 
weaklings,  and  thus  tends  to  main- 
tain the  strength  of  the  breed.  It 
was  formerly  trained  to  bring  down 
birds  in  hawking. 

Other  species  which  occur  in 
the  British  Isles  are  the  Greenland 
falcon,  the  Iceland  Jer-falcon,  and 
the  Scandinavian  Jer-falcon,  all  of 
which  are  occasional  winter  visi- 
tants. The  birds  take  their  name 
from  the  hook-shaped  claws  (Lat. 
fals,  sickle).  See  Hawking. 

Falcon.  Volcanic  island  ot  the 
Tongo  or  Friendly  Islands.  It  is 
in  lat.  20°  20'  S.  and  long.  175°  20' 
W.  It  made  its  appearance  above 
the  ocean  on  Oct.  14,  1885,  after  a 


3071 

volcanic  erup- 
tion. It  dis- 
appeared for  a 
time  but  was 
again  uplifted. 

Falcon.  Mari- 
time state  of 
N.  Venezuela, 
facing  the  Gulf 
of  Maracaibo 
and  Caribbean 
Sea  and  bound- 
ed S.  by  the 
state  of  Lara. 
It  has  been  a 
separate  state 
since  1904, 
when  it  was 
separated  from 
Z  u  1  i  a.  The 
coastal  region 
is  low-lying 
and  sterile,  but 
inland  there 
are  several 
ranges  of  hills 
with  fertile 
valleys.  Agri- 
culture and 
stock-raising 
are  the  chief 
industries  ; 
coffee,  cocoa, 
sugar,  cotton, 
tobacco,  and 
maize  are  pro- 
duced. Coal  is 
worked  in  small 
quantities,  but 
the  mineral  re- 
sources of  the 
state  are  virtu- 
ally untapped. 
Pop.  170,154. 

Falcone,    ANIELLO 


FALCONER 


Falcon.     Species  found  in  the  British  Isles.     1.  Iceland 

Jer-falcon.     2.  Greenland  falcon.      3.   Peregrine  falcon. 

4.  Scandinavian  Jer-falcon 


The  capital  is  Coro. 


(1600-65). 

Italian  painter.  Born  in  Naples,  he 
was  a  pupil  of  Ribera,  and  became 
famous  as  a  spirited  painter  of 
battle-scenes.  During  the  insurrec- 
tion of  Masaniello,  1647,  Falcone 
gathered  a  band  of  his  friends  and 
pupils,  among  whom  was  Salvator 
Rosa  (q.v.\  and  this  "  Company  of 
Death  "  made  many  Spaniards  pay 
with  their  li ves  for  the  murder  of 
the  leader's  nephew  and  of  one  of 
his  pupils.  Pictures  painted  of 
these  events  are  in  the  museum  at 
Naples.  Falcone  worked  in  Paris 
from  1648-56,  when  he  returned  to 
Naples,  where  he  died.  His  Fight 
between  Turks  and  Cavalry  is  in 
the  Louvre. 

Falconer,  HUGH(  1808-65).  Scot- 
tish botanist.  Born  at  Forres,  Feb. 
29,  1808,  Falconer  was  educated  at 
Aberdeen  and  Edinburgh  universi- 
ties, and  entered  the  service  of  the 
E.  India  Company  as  a  surgeon 
in  1830.  His  chief  interests,  how- 
ever, were  in  palaeontology  and 
botany,  in  which  sciences  he 
made  many  important  investi- 
gations. He  experimented  in  tea- 


planting  in  India,  and  also  dis- 
covered the  assafoetida  plant,  used 
in  medicine.  Returning  to  England 
for  a  time,  he  arranged  the  Indian 
fossils  at  the  British  Museum,1844- 
47,  and  then  returned  to  India  as 
professor  of  botany  and  curator  of 
the  botanical  gardens  of  Calcutta, 
where  he  worked  from  1848-55. 
Retiring  in  1856,  he  died  in  London, 
Jan.  31, 1865. 

Falconer,  Sm  ROBERT  ALEX- 
ANDER (b.  1867).  Canadian  scholar. 
Born  Feb.  10,  1867,  at  Charlotte- 
town,  Prince  Edward  Island,  he 
was  the  son  of  a  Presbyterian 
minister.  His  education,  begun  in 
Trinidad,  was  continued  at  the 
university  of  Edinburgh  and  at 
German  universities,  after  which, 
in  1892,  he  returned  to  Canada  and 
was  ordained  in  the  Presbyterian 
ministry.  He  became  lecturer  at 
Pine  Hill  College,  Halifax,  his 
subject  being  N.T.  Greek.  In  1904 
he  was  made  principal  of  Pine  Hill, 
and  in  1907  was  chosen  president 
of  Toronto  University.  He  was 
knighted  in  1917. 

Falconer,  WILLIAM  (1732-69). 
Scottish  poet.  Born  at  Edinburgh, 
Feb.  11,  1732,  the  son  of  a  barber, 


FALCONRY 


3072 


FALKENHAYN 


he  became  a  sailor,  and  wrote 
The  Shipwreck,  1763,  a  realistic 
poem,  and  a  Marine  Dictionary, 
1769.  He  joined  the  navy,  and, 
Sept.,  1769,  sailed  for  India  in  the 
frigate  Aurora,  which  was  lost  off 
Cape  Town. 

Falconry.  Sport  of  hawking 
and  the  breeding  and  training  of 
hawks,  more  usually  known  as 
hawking  (q.v.). 

Faldstool  (late  Lat.  fcddistori- 
um ;  Ger.  fatten,  to  fold,  Stuhl,  stool, 
seat,  or  throne).  Portable  crossed 
or  folding  stool  so  constructed  that 
it  can  be  used  as  a  prie-dieu  or 
kneeling  desk  or  a  seat.  In  Eng- 
land it  was  used  by  bishops  when 
occupying  a  seat  in  the  sanctuary 
other  than  their  throne,  or  were 
visiting  a  church  other  than  their 


Faldstool  or  Litany  desk  of  carved  oak 


cathedral ;  and  it  is  still  used  in 
Roman  Catholic  churches.  The 
term  is  applied  to  the  small,  low 
desk  at  which  the  Litany  is  en- 
joined to  be  sung  or  said,  and  to 
the  stool  at  which  a  sovereign 
kneels  at  his  coronation.  The 
faldistorium  on  which  Queen  Mary 
sat  at  her  marriage  with  Philip  II 
of  Spain  is  preserved  in  Langton's 
chapel,  Winchester  Cathedral. 

Faleme.  River  of  Senegal.  It 
forms  part  of  the  boundary  be- 
tween the  Senegal  and  Haut- 
Senegal  and  Niger  colonies.  It  rises 
in  French  Guinea  in  the  water- 
shed separating  the  Gambia  and 
Bafing  rivers,  and  runs  N.N.W.  to 
the  Senegal  river,  which  it  enters 
near  Bakel.  It  is  partly  navigable 
for  small  boats  during  the  wet 
season.  Its  length  is  200  m. 

Falerii.  Ruined  city  of  Etruria. 
Its  site  is  near  the  modern  town  of 
Civitk  Castellana,  35  m.  N.  of 
Rome.  One  of  the  league  of  12 
Etruscan  cities,  its  origin  is  lost 
in  antiquity.  Destroyed  by  the 
Romans,  241  B.C.,  the  inhabitants 
built  a  new  town  3  m.  N.W.  of 
the  original  site.  Of  the  Roman 
Falerium  Novum  there  are  many 
remains,  the  walls,  towers,  and 


gateways  being  well  preserved,  and 
reputed  to  be  among  the  most  re- 
markable specimens  extant  of 
ancient  military  architecture .  The 
town  was  deserted  early  in  the  llth 
century. 

Falernian  Wine.  Famous  wine 
of  the  ancient  Romans.  It  was 
light  in  colour  and  potent.  A  wine 
produced  in  the  district,  which  is  a 
fertile  plain  in  Campania,  near  the 
Volturno  river,  is  called  Falerno. 

Falguiere,  JEAN  ALEXANDRE 
JOSEPH  (1831-1900).  French  sculp- 
tor and  painter.  Born  at  Toulouse, 
Sept.  7,  1831,  he  studied  at  the 
Beaux  Arts  under  Jouffroy,  and 
at  Rome.  His  work  was  at  first 
classical  in  manner,  but  after- 
wards became  strongly  realistic. 
A  marble  statue  of  Tarcisus,  mar- 
tyr, now  in  the  Luxembourg,  was 
his  crowning  success ;  one  may 
cite  also  Cain  and  Abel,  Les 
Lutteurs,  and  the  statue  of 
Lafayette.  Falguiere  died  at 
Paris,  April  19,  1900. 

Faliero,  MARINO  (1279-1355). 
Doge  of  Venice.  Member  of  an 
ancient  Venetian  family,  he  de- 
feated the  Hungarians  at  Zara  in 
1346,  and  captured  the  city. 
Elected  doge  in  1354,  his  troubles 
began  with  the  defeat  of  the 
Venetian  navy  by  the  Genoese. 
The  unrest  caused  by  this  disaster 
aroused  Faliero' s  ambitions.  He 
allied  himself  with  the  leaders  of 
the  populace,  and  a  plot  was 
hatched  to  murder  the  leaders  of 
the  nobility  on  April  15,  1355,  and 
proclaim  Marino  prince  of  Venice. 
The  Council  of  Ten,  learning  of  the 
plot,  seized  Faliero,  who  confessed 
his  share  therein  and  was  executed 
April  17,  1355. 

Falk,  PAUL  LTTDWIG  ADALBERT 
(1827-1900).  German  statesman. 
Born  at  Metschkau,  Silesia,  Aug. 
10,  1827,  after  studying  law  he 
entered  the  Prussian  diplomatic 
service  in  1847.  In  1867  he  re- 
presented Silesia  in  the  parliament 
of  the  N.  German  Confederation. 
Appointed  Prussian  minister  for 
ecclesiastical  and  educational 
affairs  in  1872,  he  successfully  op- 
posed Roman  Catholic  interven- 
tion in  educational  matters,  and 
introduced  a  law  declaring  the 
right  of  the  state  to  supervise  all 
schools.  Instigated  by  the  pope, 
the  bishops  ignored  this  law  and 
various  penalties  and  fines  were 
imposed  on  them.  This  brought 
such  odium  upon  Falk  that  he  re- 
signed in  1879.  In  1882  he  was 
given  a  judicial  appointment  and 
he  died  at  Hamm,  Westphalia, 
July  7,  1900. 

Falkenhausen,  FRIEDRICH, 
BARON  VON  (b.  1869).  German 
soldier.  He  was  born  at  Pots- 
dam, and  entering  the  army  in 


1887  had  a  distinguished  career. 
He  commanded  the  6th  army 
corps,  1916-17,  and  in  April,  1917. 
succeeded  von 


Friedrich  von  Fal- 
kenhausen,     Ger- 
man soldier 


ernor  -  general 
of  Belgium, 
where  his  rule 
was  more  op- 
pressive than 
that  of  his  pre- 
decessor. In 
one  year  he 
had  170  Bel- 
gians shot,  in- 
cluding women 
and  boys  and  girls,  and  he  author- 
ised severe  penalties,  deportations, 
and  floggings.  See  Belgium. 

Falkenhayn,  ERICH  VON  (1861- 
1922).  German  soldier.  He  was 
born  at  Burg  Belchau,  Sept.  11, 
1861,  and  entered  the  German 
army  in  1880.  After  leaving  the 
Academy  of  War  in  Berlin  in  1890 
he  joined  the  general  staff.  He 
served  on  Count  Waldersee's  staff 
in  the  China  Expedition  in  1900. 
In  1911  he  commanded  the  4th 
regiment  of  Guards,  and  in  1912 
was  chief  of  the  staff  of  the  4th 
army  corps.  In  1913  he  became 
minister  of  war,  which  post  he 
held  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Great 
War ;  but  in  Dec.,  1914,  he  was 
definitely  appointed  chief  of  the 
general  staff,  and  was  its  respon- 
sible head  till  removed  in  Aug., 
1916,  owing  to  the  failure  of  the 
German  offensive  at  Verdun. 

In  Sept.,  1916,  he  was  appointed 
commander-in-chief  of  the  Ninth 
Army,  composed  of  German  and 
Austrian  divi- 
s  i  o  n  s,  and 
after  driving 
the  Rumani- 
ans from  the 
N.  side  of  the 
Transylvanian 
Alps,  he  forced 
the  passes,  and 
descendedinto 
the  plains  of 
Wallachia,  the 
first  step  in  the 
overthrow  of  Rumania.  He  re- 
turned to  Germany  in  1917  on 
Mackensen's  taking  entire  control 
of  the  Austro-German  forces  in  Ru- 
mania, and  later  went  to  the  Middle 
East  to  direct  the  Turkish  opera- 
tions against  the  British  in  Pales- 
tine and  Mesopotamia,  but  not 
being  successful  was  recalled  and 
replaced  by  Liman  von  Sanders  in 
March,  1918.  He  died  April  8,  1922. 
By  many,  Falkenhayn  was  re- 
garded as  the  ablest  strategist 
produced  by  Germany  during  the 
Great  War.  In  1919  he  published 
General  Headquarters,  1914-16, 
and  its  Critical  Decisions,  Eng. 
trans.  1919.  See  illus.  p.  249. 


Erich  von  Falken- 
hayn, German 

soldier 


FALK1RK 


FALKLAND      ISLANDS 


Falkirk.  Parl.  and  mun.  burgh 
and  market  town  of  Stirlingshire, 
Scotland.  It  is  22  m.  N.E.  of  Glas- 
gow  on  the 
N.B.R.  Falkirk, 
which  embraces 
the  suburbs  of 
Laurieston, 
Grahamston, 
Bainsf  ord,  and 
Camelon,  is  con- 
nected by  rly. 
with  Grange- 
distant),  its  port 
on  the  Firth  of  Forth,  and  is 
the  centre  of  a  busy  ironworking 
and  colliery  district,  the  Carron, 
Falkirk,  Camelon,  and  other  large 
ironworks  being  situated  in  or 
near  the  town.  Brewing,  distilling, 
tanning,  and  the  manufacture  of 
bricks,  tiles,  chemicals,  and  ex- 
plosives are  flourishing  industries. 
The  famous  cattle  "  trysts "  or 
open  sales,  which  were  held  thrice 
yearly,  have  been  superseded  by 
weekly  markets.  The  Stirling  and 


Falkirk  arms 
mouth    (3 


m. 


Scots,  who  were  greatly  outnum- 
bered, were  either  dead  or  in  flight. 

The  second  battle  was  fought 
between  the  English,  under  General 
Hawley,  and  the  Jacobites,  Jan. 
17,  1746.  Charles  Edward,  the 
Young  Pretender,  returning  from 
Derby,  found  his  way  N.  barred 
by  the  English.  His  Highlanders, 
in  an  impetuous  charge,  swept 
away  the  English  troops,  and 
Hawley  lost  700  prisoners. 

Falkland.  Royal  burgh,  mun. 
burgh,  and  village  of  Fifeshire, 
Scotland.  It  stands  at  the  N.  foot 
of  East  Lomond  Hill,  36  m.  N. 
of  Edinburgh,  on  the  N.B.R.  The 
chief  attraction  is  its  palace,  for- 
merly the  residence  of  the  dukes  of 
Fife,  in  which  David,  the  duke  of 
Rothesay,  heir  to  the  Scottish 
throne,  is  said  to  have  been  starved 
to  death  at  the  instance  of  Albany, 
the  regent,  in  1402.  The  palace 
was  a  favourite  residence  of  the 
Scottish  monarchs,  and  here  James 
V  sought  refuge  and  died  in  1542. 


Falkirk.  The  town  from  the  south- 
west, looking  towards  the  Firth  of 
Forth.  In  circle,  the  parish  church 
which  in  1811  replaced  the  "  Speckled 
Kirk"  of  1057-93 


Falkirk  burghs  return  one  member 
to  Parliament.  Market  day,  Thurs. 
Pop.  of  mun.  burgh,  33,574. 

Falkirk,  BATTLES  OF.  The  first 
battle  of  Falkirk  was  fought,  July 
22,  1298,  between  the  English  and 
the  Scots.  Under  Edward  I  the 
English  invaded  Scotland  to  crush 
the  rebellion  of  William  Wallace. 
The  two  armies  met  near  Falkirk. 
The  Scots,  mostly  pikemen,  were 
ranged  in  four  circular  groups, 
each  ring  surrounded  by  stakes. 
Between  the  groups  were  bowmen 
and  behind  a  few  horsemen.  The 
English  knights  were  in  three 
columns,  their  traditional  forma- 
tion, flanked  and  backed  by 
archers.  The  first  line  charged,  only 
to  flounder  in  a  morass  in  front  of 
the  Scots  ;  the  second  drove  away, 
the  bowmen,  but  made  no  im- 
pression upon  the  pikes.  Edward, 
therefore,  called  upon  his  archers, 
whose  deadly  aim  soon  broke  the 
Scottish  rings.  The  knights  seized 
their  advantage,  and  soon  the 


Rob  Roy  occupied  the  palace  in 
1715.  It  fell  into  decay,  but  was 
restored  towards  the  end  of  the 
19th  century  by  the  3rd  marquess 
of  Bute.  Brewing  and  weaving  are 
carried  on.  Pop.  2,356. 

Falkland,  Lucius  CARY,  2ND 
VISCOUNT  (c.  1609-43).  English 
royalist.  He  was  the  son  of  Sir 
Henry  Gary,  a  Devonshire  man, 
who,  after  being  lord  deputy  of  Ire- 
land, was  made  a  Scottish  peer  as 
Lord  Falkland  in  1620.  Lucius  was 
born  about  1609,  and  educated  at 
Trinity  College,  Dublin.  He  saw  a 
little  military  service  in  the  Nether- 
lands. In  1633  he  became  Viscount 


{Lucius  Gary,  2nd  Viscount  Falkland^ 

After  Van  Dyck 

Falkland,  but  by  this  time  he  had 
inherited  from  his  grandfather,  Sir 
Lawrence  Tanfield,  the  estate  of 
Great  Tew  in  Oxfordshire,  and 
had  married  Lettice  Morrison. 
His  political  career  began  in  1640 
with  his  election  as  M.P.  for  New- 
port. He  opposed  the  worse  ille- 
galities of  the  king,  but  was  never 
a  bitter  partisan,  and  gradually, 
as  the  opposition  to  Charles  har- 
dened, he  became  more  definitely 
on  his  side.  In  1642  he  was  made  a 
secretary  of  state.  He  was  at 
Edgehill  with  Charles,  but  soon  he 
fell  into  the  melancholy  described 
by  Clarendon,  seeing  nothing  but 
misery  before  his  country.  Ex- 
pressing a  wish  to  be  "  out  of  it 
ere  night,"  he  found  the  death  he 
desired  at  Newbury,  Sept.  20. 
1643,  when  riding  forward  alone 
towards  the  foe.  ** 

Falkland  is  known  mainly  from 
the  accounts  given  of  him  by  his 
friend  Clarendon,  and  these  make 
him  one  of  the  most  attractive  men 
of  his  own  or  any  age.  He  loved 
learning  and  the  society  of  scholars, 
who  gathered  in  delightful  freedom 
at  his  hospitable  house,  Chilling- 
worth  and  Hales,  Suckling,  and 
Waller  among  them.  He  wrote  A 
Discourse  of  Infallibility.  Of  him 
Clarendon  said,  "  Whosoever  leads 
such  a  life  need  not  care  upon  how 
short  warning  it  be  taken  from 
him."  The  title  passed  to  Falkland's 
eldest  son,  but  his  direct  line  died 
out  in  1694.  It  then  passed  to 
Lucius  (d.  1730),  a  descendant  of 
the  1st  viscount,  the  ancestor  of 
the  present  holder.  See  Life  and 
Times  of  Lucius  Gary,  Viscount 
Falkland,  J.  A.  R.  Marriott,  1907. 

Falkland  Islands.  British 
crown  colony  in  the  S.  Atlantic. 
The  islands  lie  about  320  m.  E.  of 
the  Strait  of  Magellan,  and  1,000 
m.  S.  of  Montevideo.  The  group 
contains  two  large  islands  and 
about  100  small  ones,  with  an 
estimated  land  area  of  about  6,500 


IB     4 


FALKLAND      ISLANDS 


3074 


FALKLAND       ISLANDS 


sq.  m.,  excluding  S.  Georgia,  es- 
timated at  1,000  sq.  m.  The  chief 
are  Falkland  (area  3,000  sq.  m. )  and, 
W.  Falkland  (2,300  sq.  m.).  The 
highest  point  is  Mt.  Adam  (2.315 
ft.)  on  W.  Falkland.  E.  Falkland 
ia  hilly  in  the  N.,  but  low-lying, 
marshy,  and  boggy  elsewhere.  Trees 
are  lacking,  but  grasses  flourish  ; 
vegetables  and  green  crops  are  cul- 
tivated. The  coasts  are  much  in- 
dented, affording  good  anchorage. 
The  chief  industries  are  sheep- 
farming  and  whale  fishing  ;  horses 
and  cattle  are  reared.  Apart  from 
the  important  pastoral  industry  at 
the  Falklands  and  the  extensive 
whaling  of  the  dependencies,  there 
are  few  enterprises  of  commercial 
value.  A  mutton-canning  factory 
has  been  established,  and  at  S. 
Georgia  sealing  is  carried  on.  The 
climate  in  the  Falklands,  although 
very  bleak,  is  healthy.  In  the  S. 
Orkneys,  S.  Shetlands,  and  Graham 
Land,  the  land  is  covered  with 
snow  and  glaciers,  except  in  a  few 
low-lying  spots  during  the  summer. 
The  almost  constant  succession  of 
strong  winds,  snowstorms  and  fogs 
makes  it  a  most  inhospitable  re- 
gion. The  only  indigenous  mam- 
mals are  the  fox  and  mouse. 

Stanley,  the  capital,  is  the  only 
town.  It  is  on  E.  Falkland,  and 
possesses  a  good  harbour.  Regular 
communication  is  established,  by 
steamer  and  wireless,  with  Great 
Britain.  T  he  S  andwich  group  ( q.  v . ) 
is  also  a  dependency.  The  chief  ex- 
ports are  animal  products.  Pop.  950. 
The  Falklands  were  discovered 
by  John  Davis  in  1502,  and  taken 
by  the  French  in  1764.  Recovered 
three  years  later  by  the  British, 
who  were  ejected  by  the  Spaniards, 
and  it  was  not  until  1832  that  they 
finally  became  British.  Off  these 
islands  Sturdee  won  a  naval  victory 
over  a  German  squadron,  under 
von  Spee,  in  Dec.,  1914.  In  1917 
a  committee  was  appointed  to 
study  the  development  of  the  re- 
sources of  the  dependencies  of  the 
islands.  Their  report  was  issued 
as  a  blue-book  (Cd.  657)  in  1920. 
Pop.  of  the  colony,  including  S 
Georgia,  3,451. 

Falkland  Islands,  BATTLE  OF 
THE.  Naval  engagement  during  the 
Great  War,  Dec.  8.  1914.  Follow- 
ing his  appointment  as  first  sea  lord 
at  the  end  of  Oct,  1914,  Lord  Fisher 
took  immediate  steps  to  concen- 
trate overwhelming  force  against 
the  German  squadron,  which  had 
just^destroyed  Cradock's  two 
cruisers  at  Coronel  (q.  v. ).  He  deter- 
mined to  dispatch  the  two  battle 
cruisers  Invincible  and  Inflexible 
secretly  to  the  Falklands.  The 
force  of  battle  cruisers  available 
for  work  in  British  waters  was  very 
small,  and  was  reduced  to  three  by 


BATTLE  OF 

FALKLAND  ISLANDS 

Nautical  Miles 


Figuris  give  tirn'e 


-3  / 

fSchamKorst 
.      -  sunk  +I7P.H. 
•Gneisenau 
sunk  6.0ZKM. 


Falkland  Islands.     Chart  illustrating  the  course  of  the  naval  battle  of  Dec.  8, 

1914.     Inset,  map  showing  the  relative  position  of  the  Falkland  Islands  to  the 

main  land 


this  detachment  and  by  the  dis- 
patch of  a  battle  cruiser  to  N. 
American  waters.  On  Nov.  11 
the  two  ships  left  England  under 
Vice-Adm.  Sturdee.  Off  the  Bra- 
zilian coast  they  were  joined  by 
the  old  armoured  cruisers  Car- 
narvon, Cornwall,  and  Kent,  the 
light  cruisers  Glasgow  and  Bristol, 
and  the  armed  ships  Macedonia 
and  Orama.  They  reached  Port 
William  in  the  Falklands  on  Dec.  7, 
and  immediately  began  to  coal. 
In  the  harbour  there  was  the  old 
battleship  Canopus,  with  12-in. 
guns,  so  moored  as  to  act  as  a 
floating  battery. 

Von  Spee  had  heard  nothing  of 
the  movements  of  the  battle 
cruisers,  and  expected  to  find  only 
a  weak  British  force  at  the  Falk- 
lands. His  plan  was  to  destroy 
any  vessels  there,  and  then  to  seize 
the  British  naval  base.  After  that 
he  intended  to  proceed  to  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  where  he  expected 
to  be  joined  by  a  large  number  of 
disaffected  Boers.  At  7.50  a.m.  of 
Dec,  8  he  was  sighted  off  the  Falk- 
lands. His  flag  was  hoisted  in  the 
Scharnhorst,  armoured  cruiser,  and 
with  him  was  her  sister  ship, 
Gneisenau,  the  light  cruisers  Nurn- 
berg,  Leipzig,  and  Dresden,  and 
three  transports.  As  soon  as  the 
Germans  were  sighted  Sturdee 
ordered  his  ships  to  raise  steam  for 
full  speed  and  at  8.30  sounded  for 
action. 

At  9.20  Gneisenau  approached 
the  wireless  station  and  was  fired 
on  by  Canopus' s  12-in.  guns. 
Supposing  that  she  was  being 
attacked  by  coast  defences  of  un- 
expected strength,  she  turned 
away ;  a  little  later  her  officers  saw 
the  tripod  masts  of  the  two  British 
battle  cruisers,  whereupon  all  von 


Spee's  squadron  increased  speed 
and  steered  E.  Von  Spee  ordered 
his  crews  to  prayers,  warning  them 
of  the  ordeal  before  them.  About 
10  the  British  squadron  put  to  sea, 
and  as  the  Germans  were  in  good 
view  and  reported  to  be  going  only 
15  knots,  the  British  cruisers 
steamed  for  some  time  at  moderate 
speed  (20  knots)  to  allow  the 
older  British  vessels  to  close  up. 
At  12.20  p.m.  Sturdee  quickened 
first  to  22  and  then  to  25  knots  ; 
at  12.51  the  first  shots  were  fired, 
and  a  few  minutes  later  the  firing 
became  general. 

Soon  after  1,  the  German  light 
cruisers  parted  company  with  the 
armoured  cruisers  and  fled  S., 
followed  by  the  British  cruisers, 
while  Sturdee  with  Invincible  and 
Inflexible  engaged  Scharnhorst  and 
Gneisenau,  steaming  generally 
S.E.  Sturdee's  two  ships  were 
now  going  "  all  out,"  and  fast 
overhauled  their  opponents,  who 
were  repeatedly  engaged  at  ranges 
of  16,000  to  13,000  yards.  At 
3.30  Scharnhorst  was  on  fire  ;  two 
funnels  had  been  shot  away  and 
the  red  glow  of  flame  could  be 
seen  in  her.  She  struggled  on 
gallantly  and  received  a  whole 
series  of  hits  till  at  4.4  p.m.  she 
listed,  turned  over  on  her  beam 
ends,  and  sank  at  4.17  with  every 
soul  on  board. 

Fire  was  next  concentrated  on 
Gneisenau,  at  ranges  of  10,000- 
12,000  yards.  She  had  been  much 
damaged  in  the  earlier  part  of  the 
action  ;  now  her  second  funnel  was 
knocked  over  ;  and  at  5.30  she  was 
badly  on  fire  with  steam  and 
smoke  pouring  from  her.  Just  as 
the  British  sMps  were  about  to 
close,  supposing  that  she  had 
ceased  resistance,  she  discharged 


FALL 


3075 


FALLOPI  US 


several  shots,  and  they  resumed 
their  fire,  *^At  5.45  her  8-in.  am- 
munition was  exhausted ;  ten 
minutes  later  she  heeled  over  sud- 
denly as  her  sea-cocks  had  been 
opened,  and  she  sank  very  quickly. 
Of  her  crew  of  over  800  only  94 
officers  and  men  could  be  rescued 
from  the  icy  water. 

Leipzig  and  Nurnberg  were  sunk 
in  separate  actions  by  the  smaller 
British  cruisers,  and  25  of  their 
crews  were  saved.  Dresden  was 
able  to  escape  temporarily,  but  on 
March  14,  1915,  she  was  caught  by 
Glasgow  and  Kent  off  Juan  Fer- 
nandez, in  the  Pacific,  and  was 
destroyed  in  Chilean  waters,  on  the 
ground  that  she  had  been  guilty  of 
grave  infractions  of  Chilean  neu- 
trality ;  most  of  her  crew  escaped. 
Thus  von  Spee's  squadron  was 
wiped  out  with  a  loss  of  2,100  men. 

The  British  loss  in  the  battle 
cruisers  was  nil,  though  Invincible 
was  hit  22  times,  twice  below  water, 
and  Inflexible  thrice.  In  Kent, 
four  were  killed  and  12  wounded  by 
a  single  hit ;  in  Glasgow,  one  was 
killed  and  4  were  wounded.  The 
strategy  which  brought  overwhelm- 
ing force  to  bear  was  of  extra- 
ordinary merit,  and  rendered  the 
battle  tactically  a  military  execu- 
tion. See  The  Navy  in  Battle,  A. 
H.  Pollen,  1918;  Falkland*,  Jut- 
land, and  the  Bight,  B.  Bingham, 
1919 ;  The  Official  History  of  the 
Great  War,  vol.  i,  Naval  Opera- 
tions, J.  Corbett,  1920. 

H.  W.   Wilson 

Fall.  Word  used  in  several 
senses,  all  with  the  idea  of  drop- 
ping down.  It  is  used  in  wrestling, 
also  for  the  descent  of  a  river,  and 
the  surrender  of  a  fortress.  In 
America  it  is  used  for  autumn,  the 
time  of  the  f all  of  the  leaf.  In  the 
plural  it  is  a  common  abbreviation 
for  waterfall,  e.g.  Niagara  Falls. 
See  River  ;  Waterfall ;  Wrestling. 

FaU,  THE.  Defection  of  the 
first  human  beings  from  a  state  of 
innocence.  This  is  represented  in 
the  Eden  story  as  an  act  of  wilful 
disobedience  to  a  command  of  God 
at  the  instigation  of  the  serpent. 
As  a  consequence,  Adam  and  Eve 
became  conscious  of  guilt,  and 
were  expelled  from  the  Garden  of 
Eden.  Theology  teaches  that  the 
disobedience  of  our  first  parents  had 
a  threefold  consequence  in  (1)  a 
change  of  man's  relation  to  God; 

(2)  the  loss  of  certain  privileges 
connected  with  that  relation  ;  and 

(3)  the  beginning  of  a  degenera- 
tive process  which  tended  to  make 
human  nature  more  and  more  cor- 
rupt and  alienated  from  God. 

From  this  results  the  doctrine 
of  original  sin — that  all  men  are 
born  in  a  state  of  sin  and  are  prone 
to  wickedness  as  a  result  of  Adam"  s 


fall.  This  may  be  viewed  in  two 
ways.  Adam  was  the  representative 
man,  and  with  Eve  constituted  the 
whole  human  family  ;  so  that  the 
whole  race  fell  in  him.  Or  it  may  be 
viewed  in  connexion  with  theories 
of  heredity,  and  sin  be  regarded  as 
a  mental  and  moral  tendency  trans- 
mitted by  natural  generation.  In 
any  case,  all  orthodox  theologians 
hold  that  original  sin  infected  the 
race  in  all  its  individuals,  and 
could  only  be  removed  by  the  act  of 
God  in  Redemption  through  Christ. 

In  recent  theological  develop- 
ment there  is  a  tendency  to  ques- 
tion the  foundation  on  which  the 
doctrine  of  original  sin  depends. 
This  criticism  rests  on  the  following 
grounds  :  (1)  the  assumption  that 
the  human  race  started  in  a  state 
of  perfection  is  in  conflict  with  the 
findings  of  modern  anthropology 
and  is  difficult  to  reconcile  with  the 
doctrine  of  evolution;  (2)  the 
account  of  the  Fall  in  Genesis  does 
not  contain  the  doctrine  ;  (3)  there 
is  no  definite  trace  of  the  doctrine 
in  the  rest  of  the  O.T. ;  (4)  the 
doctrine  of  original  sin  was  the 
creation  of  the  intermediate  period 
between  the  O.T.  and  N.T.,  and 
first  appears  in  Ecclesiasticus  ;  (5) 
there  is  no  hint  of  such  a  doctrine 
in  the  teaching  of  Jesus ;  (6)  it  is 
doubtful  whether  Paul  accepted 
the  full  implications  of  the  theory, 
though  it  must  be  admitted  that 
there  is  one  statement  in  his 
epistles  (Rom.  v,  12)  which  seems 
to  contain  it;  (7)  the  theory  is 
difficult  to  reconcile  with  a  true 
conception  of  Divine  justice  on  the 
one  side  and  human  responsibility 
on  the  other.  See  Sin  ;  consult  also 
The  Origin  and  Propagation  of 
Sin,  F.  R.  Tennant,  1902. 

Fallacy  (Lat.  fallax,  likely  to  de- 
ceive). Term  meaning  in  general  a 
false  or  mistaken  belief  or  opinion  ; 
in  logic,  a  process  of  reasoning  at 
variance  with  the  recognized  rules 
of  the  syllogism. 

Fallacies  may  be  verbal,  real  or 
material,  formal  (paralogisms).  The 
commonest  verbal  fallacies  arise 
from  the  use  of  ambiguous  terms, 
words  used  hi  two  different  mean- 
ings ;  thus,  the  word  agreeable  may 
be  used  of  an  occupation  or  of  a 
pleasant-mannered  person.  Am- 
phibology is  the  use  of  an  ambigu- 
ous phrase  or  proposition.  Simi- 
larly, the  meaning  of  a  word  may 
be  altered  by  its  position  in  a  sen- 
tence and  by  the  accent  or  stress 
laid  on  it. 

*  Among  material  fallacies  are 
petitio  principii,  begging  the  ques- 
tion or  arguing  in  a  circle,  where 
the  very  thing  which  it  is  desired 
to  prove  is  assumed  at  the  outset ; 
ignoratio  elenchi,  ignorance  of  the 
elenchus,  in  which  an  attempt  is 


Armand  Fallieres, 
French  statesman 


made  to  prove  or  disprove  some- 
levant  to  the  question  at 
Formal  fallacies  consist  in 
violating  the  rules  of  the  syllogism. 
Similarly,  fallacies  occur  in  the 
process  of  inductive  reasoning. 
See  Induction;  Syllogism;  con- 
sult also  Logic,  R.  Whately,  repr. 
1851  ;  Fallacies,  H.  Sidgwick,1883. 
Fallieres,  CLEMENT  ARMAND  (b. 
1841).  French  statesman.  Born 
at  Agen,  Lot-et-Garonne,  Nov.  6, 
1841,  he  stu- 
died law  in 
Paris,  and  be- 
came a  barris- 
ter at  Nerac, 
for  which  he 
was  elected 
republican  de- 
puty, 1876.  He 
was  under-sec- 
retary  for  the 
interior  in 
Ferry's  ministry,  1880,  minister  of 
the  mterior  in  1882,  1887,  1889,  of 
justice  in  1887,  of  education  from 
1883-85,  and  president  of  the  coun- 
cil in  1883.  A  senator  in  1890,  he  was 
president  of  the  senate  from  1899— 
1906.  He  was  elected  president  of 
the  republic  on  Jan.  17,  1906,  de- 
feating Paul  Doumer.  Among  the 
chief  events  of  his  term  of  office, 
which  ended  Jan.  7,  1913,  were  his 
visit  to  England  in  May,  .1908,  and 
the  cementing  of  the  Franco- 
Russian  alliance.  Pron.  Falli-yare. 
Falling  Sickness.  Old  name  for 
the  disease  now  generally  known 
as  epilepsy  (q.v.). 

Falling  Stars.  Name  given  of 
old  to  meteorites.  There  are  many 
references  in  literature,  for  ex- 
ample, Shakespeare's  Beatrice  de- 
clared "  A  star  danced,  and  I  was 
born."  See  Meteors. 

Fallopian  Tubes.  Two  tubes, 
one  on  each  side  of  the  uterus  or 
womb,  which  convey  the  ova  or 
eggs  from  the  ovary  to  the  uterus. 
Each  tube  is  about  4  his.  in  length. 
The  inner  end  opens  into  the 
uterus  near  its  superior  angle.  The 
outer  end  opens  into  the  peritoneal 
cavity,  and  terminates  in  an  ex- 
tremity in  close  relation  to  the 
ovary,  and  bearing  a  number  of 
fimbriae  or  fringe-like  processes. 

Fallopius  OB  FALLOPIO,  GAB- 
EIELLO  (1523-62).  Italian  phy- 
sician and  anatomist,  discoverer 
of  the  functions  of  the  Fallopian 
tubes.  Born  at  Modena,  be 
studied  medicine  at  Ferrara  and 
other  centres,  becoming  professor 
of  anatomy  at  Ferrara.  Afterwards 
he  held  the  chairs  of  anatomy, 
surgery,  and  botany  at  Padua 
university,  where  he  died  Oct.  9, 
1562.  He  published  in  1561  his  Ob- 
servationes  Anatornicae  at  Venice, 
where  his  works,  Opera  Genuina 
Omnia,  were  published  in  1584. 


FALLOW 


3076 


FALSE    ACACIA 


Fallow.  Saxon  word  meaning 
reddish  or  buff-coloured,  used  to 
describe  ploughed  land  without  a 
crop.  Before  root-crops  were  known 
and  artificial  manures  in  use,  land 
exhausted  by  the  growth  of  crops 
was  given  a  rest,  and  was  then 
said  to  be  in  bare  fallow.  Proper 
tillage  of  a  fallow  cleans  the  soil 
thoroughly  from  weeds,  while  the 
air  and  water  circulating  in  the 
soil  gradually  convert  dormant 
plant-food  into  soluble  and  avail- 
able forms. 

Land  does  not~"  require  a  rest, 
as  was  formerly  supposed,  and  the 
practice  of  allowing  it  to  become 
overgrown  with  natural  vegetation 
was  a  great  mistake.  On  land  which 
is  very  heavy,  or  full  of  weeds, 
bare  fallowing  is  still  practised ; 
but  in  modern  agriculture  fallowing 
is  replaced  by  the  growth  of  root- 
crops  or  kale  or  rape,  which  do  not 
interfere  with  cleaning  operations, 
and  allow  of  replenishment  of 
plant-food  by  suitable  manuring. 
When  the  crop  is  fed  off  on  the 
land,  with  an  added  ration  of  cake, 
the  resulting  manure  keeps  up  the 
supply  of  plant-food  in  the  soil. 
Half,  bastard,  or  rag  f allowing  con- 
sists in  letting  a  seed  crop  persist 
for  two  years,  cultivation  following 
when  the  hay  has  been  carried,  or 
the  best  of  the  keep  eaten  off  by 
stock.  See  Agriculture. 

Fallow  Deer.  Small  group  of 
deer,  characterised  by  having 
antlers  round  at  the  base  and 
palmated  above.  They  have 
small  heads,  rather  large  ears,  and 
comparatively  long  tails,  and 
usually  stand  about  3  ft.  high. 
The  hair  is  generally  fawn  colour, 
more  or  less  dappled  with  white, 
but  some  local  races  lack  the  white 
spots,  and  are  of  such  dark  brown 
as  to  approach  black.  This  is  the 
deer  generally  kept  in  parks  in 
Great  Britain,  and  it  occurs  in  a 
wild  state  in  Epping  Forest.  It  was 
probably  introduced  into  Great 
Britain  from  the  Mediterranean 
district  at  some  early  period.  The 
huge  extinct  deer  of  Ireland,  often 
erroneously  called  the  Irish  elk, 
was  a  gigantic  species  of  fallow 
deer,  and  stood  6  ft.  high  at  the 
shoulder,  with  antlers  spanning 
over  11  ft.  Its  remains  are  also 
found  in  England  and  Scotland. 
See  Deer ;  also  illus.  p.  472. 

Fallowfield.  Suburb  of  Man- 
chester. On  the  S.  of  the  city,  it  is 
mainly  a  residential  district.  It 
has  a  station  on  the  G.C.  Rly.,  and 
is  also  connected  with  the  city 
proper  by  tramways.  Pop.  of 
dist.  3,316.  See  Manchester. 

Fall  River.  City  of  Massachu- 
setts, U.S.A.,  in  Bristol  co.  On 
Mount  Hope  Bay,  50  m.  S.S.W.  of 
Boston,  it  is  served  by  the  New 


York,  New  Haven,  and  Hartford 
Rly.,  and  by  an  inter-urban  electric 
system.  It  has  a  commodious 
harbour,  is  among  the  leading 
producers  of  cotton  goods  in  the 
country,  and  manufactures  calico, 
woollens,  boots  and  shoes,  hats, 
pianos,  and  machinery.  There 
are  also  brass  and  iron  foundries, 
and  granite  is  largely  worked  in 
the  neighbourhood.  Abundant 
water-power  is  obtained  from  Fall 
River.  Among  the  principal  build- 
ings are  the  custom-house  and  the 
state  armoury.  Forming  part  of 
Freetown  down  to  1803,  it  was 
called  Troy  until  1834,  and  received 
a  city  charter  in  1854.  Pop.  129,630. 
Falmouth.  Mun.  bor.,  seaport 
and  market  town  of  Cornwall, 
England.  It  stands  at  the  mouth 

^ 7  of  the  Fal,  llf  m. 

by  rly.  S.  of  Truro, 
on  a  branch  of 
the  G.W.R.  It  is 
an  important  port 
of  call,  and  has 
an  excellent  har- 
bour, accessible  to 
the  largest  vessels. 
The  two  dry 
docks  have  been  recently  deepened 
by  4  ft.,  and  pneumatic  plant  and 
electric  welding  apparatus  in. 
stalled,  and  large  vessels  can  now 
put  in  for  repairs.  A  new  dry  dock 
to  accommodate  vessels  of  length 
720  ft.,  beam  90  ft.,  and  draught 
28  ft.,  was  under  construction  in 
1920.  Shipbuilding  and  engineer- 
ing, brewing  and  rope -making 
are  prominent  industries,  and 
there  is  a  considerable  pilchard 
fishery.  Falmouth  exports  tin.  Its 
mild  and  equable  climate  and  the 
scenery  of  the  Fal  valley  make  it 
a  favourite  watering-place.  Here 
are  the  headquarters  of  the  Royal 
Cornwall  Yacht  Club.  The  cor- 
poration maintains  the  markets, 
library  and  pleasure  grounds. 
Great  improvements  have  been 
made  along  the  sea  front,  a  sub- 
tropical garden  having  been  laid 
out  and  a  concert  pavilion  erected. 
Market  day,  Sat,  Pop.  (1921)13,318. 


Falmouth  arms 


Falmouth.  British  light  cruiser. 
She  was  torpedoed  in  the  North  Sea, 
Aug.  19,  1916.  Belonging  to  the 
Weymouth  type,  and  completed  in 
1911,  she  was  430  ft.  long,  48£  ft.  in 
beam,  displaced  5,250  tons,  and 
had  engines  of  23,500  h.p.,  giving  a 
speed  of  25  knots.  She  carried  eight 
6-in.  and  nine  smaller  guns. 

Falmouth,  VISCOUNT.  British 
title  borne  by  the  family  of  Bos- 
cawen  since  1720.  The  family  is 
an  old  Cornish  one,  members  of 
it  having  possessed  Boscawen-Rose 
in  the  time  of  King  John.  Several 
Boscawens  were  M.P.'s  for  Corn- 
wall, and  in  1720  one  of  these, 
Hugh,  was  made  a  viscount.  The 
title  passed  to  his  son  and  grandson 
and  came  in  1808  to  Edward  Bos- 
cawen,  who  in  1821  was  made  earl 
of  Falmouth.  When  his  son,  the 
2nd  earl,  died  in  1852  the  earldom 
became  extinct,  but  the  viscounty 
passed  to  a  cousin,  Evelyn.  The 
latter's  son,  Evelyn,  the  7th  vis- 
count, succeeded  in  1889.  He  in- 
herited from  his  mother  in  1891  the 
ancient  barony  of  Le  Despencer 
and  saw  service  in  Egypt,  1880-85. 
In  1918  his  son,  Evelyn  Hugh, 
became  the  8th  viscount.  The 
family  seat  is  Tregothnan,  Truro. 

False  Acacia  (Robinia  pseud- 
acacia)  OR  LOCUST-TREE.  Tree  of 
the  natural  order  Leguminosae, 


Falmouth.    Prince  of  Wales  pier,  opened  in  1905,  from 
which  all  steamers  start 


False  Acacia.   Flower  of  the  Locust- 
tree  of  N.  America 

native  of  N.  America.     It  attains  a 
height  of  60  ft.  to  80  ft.    Its  long, 
narrow  leaves  are  broken  up  into 
5-12  pairs  of  oval 
j     leaflets,     and     at 
i     the    base    of    the 
]     leafstalk  are   two 
stipules    which, 
on  the  non-flower- 
ing branches,  be- 
c  o  m  e     hardened 
into      persistent 
spines.     The   fra- 
grant flowers  are 
produced  in  long, 
pendant     sprays, 
like  those  of  the 
laburnum,  but  are 
white    instead    of 
yellow.    The  seed- 
pods,  too,  are  like 


FALSE     ANTIQUITIES 


3077 


FAMILIAR 


those  of  laburnum,  but  dark  red  in 
colour.  The  wood,  though  hard  and 
durable,  is  liable  to  crack  and  is 
little  used. 

False  Antiquities.  Relics  of  the 
human  past  fraudulently  forged,  de- 
liberately falsified,  or  erroneously 
attributed.  The  chief  motives  for 
their  production  are  desire  for  gain 
and  love  of  mystification. 

The  production  of  copies  of 
genuine  originals  (coins,  scarabs, 
paintings,  porcelain)  with  a  fraudu- 
lent intention  is  on  a  different 
plane.  To  a  special  category  should 
be  referred  such  literary  decep- 
tions as  Bertram's  fabrication  (see 
Bertram,  Charles  Julius).  Among 
famous  modern  forgeries  are  those 
of  Shapira,  a  Pole,  who  sold  a  col- 
lection of  spurious  Moabite  pottery 
to  the  Prussian  government  for 
£3,000,  and  afterwards  offered  the 
British  Museum  an  alleged  Mosaic 
MS.  on  leather.  The  Louvre  Mu- 
seum, Paris,  acquired,  in  1896,  for 
£8,000,  a  gold  tiara  inscribed  to  a 
Scythian  king,  Saitarpharnes,which 
was  found  in  1903  to  have  been 
produced  in  Odessa  by  a  Russian 
workman.  In  1908  scarabs,  pur- 
porting to  record  the  circumnavi- 
gation of  Africa  under  Pharaoh  - 
necho,  led  to  a  conviction  for  fraud. 
Prehistoric  remains  have  fur- 
nished the  forger  with  a  profitable 
field.  Fifty  years  ago  chipped  flints 
were  openly  manufactured  by  Ed- 
ward Simpson  (Flint  Jack).  Meillet 
of  Poitiers  published  grotesque 
palaeolithic  engravings  in  1864. 

Experts  allow  themselves  some- 
times by  self-deception  to  attribute 
antiquity  to  modern  relics,  as  when 
W.  Bode  acquired  for  Berlin  in 
1909  a  wax  bust  made  by  an  Eng- 
lish sculptor,  Lucas,  and  claimed  it 
as  the  work  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci. 
See  Literary  Forgery  ;  consult  also 
Archaeology  and  False  Antiquities, 
R.  Munro,  1905  ;  Forged  Egyptian 
Antiquities,  T.  G.  Wakeling,  1912. 
False  Bay.  Inlet  of  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  on  the  E.  side  of  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope.  The  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  and  Hangklip  Cape  form  the 
W.  and  E.  extremities.  Its  length 
is  22  m.  and  its  breadth  23  m.  It 
was  much  used  as  a  rendezvous  for 
the  Cape  Squadron. 

False  Point.  Cape  and  port  of 
India.  In  the  Cuttack  District  of 
Bengal,  the  cape  is  on  the  Maha- 
nadi  estuary,  and  is  situated  in 
20°  20'  N.  and  86°  47'  E.  It  is  so 
called  from  being  mistaken  by  sea- 
men for  Point  Palmyras,  1°  farther 
N.  The  port  (opened  1860)  has  the 
best  harbour  between  Bombay  and 
Calcutta,  and  has  canal  communi- 
cation with  the  interior  of  Orissa. 
False  Pretences.  Term  used  in 
English  law.  It  is  a  misdemeanour 
at  common  law  to  obtain  or  at- 


tempt to  obtain  money  or  property 
by  false  pretences.  The  pretence 
must  be  false ;  it  must  be  a  state- 
ment of  fact  and  not  merely  of  in- 
tention ;  the  person  making  it  must 
know  it  to  be  false ;  by  it  the  other 
person  must  be  induced  to  part 
with  the  money,  etc.,  and  it  must 
be  done  with  intent  to  defraud.  The 
pretence  may  be  made  otherwise 
than  by  words — e.g.  a  man  in  an 
undergraduate's  cap  and  gown 
enters  a  shop  in  Oxford  and  obtains 
goods  on  credit.  He  has  represen- 
ted himself  to  be  an  undergraduate 
of  the  university.  A  person  enters  a 
restaurant,  and  orders  a  meal  value 
five  shillings.  He  has  represented 
that  he  has  five  shillings  wherewith 
to  pay.  It  must  be  distinguished 
from  larceny  by  trick.  See  Larceny. 
False  Relation.  In  harmony, 
one  note  following  a  different  note 
of  the  same  letter  in  another  part, 
e.g.  C  sharp  in  alto  followed  by  C 
natural  in  tenor,  in  successive 
chords.  It  is  not  permitted  in  strict 
harmony,  but  is  condoned  if,  using 
the  above  example,  both  parts 
have  C  sharp  in  the  first  chord. 

Falsetto  (TtaL).  Term  applied 
to  a  kind  of  high  voice  of  men,  who 
discard  the  natural  pitch  of  speak- 
ing and  singing  in  order  to  cultivate 
extreme  high  notes  and  sing  an 
alto  part.  It  is  produced,  according 
to  some,  by  allowing  only  a  short 
length  and  a  portion  of  the  breadth 
of  the  vocal  cords  to  vibrate,  in- 
stead of  the  whole.  There  are  a 
few  natural  adult  alto  voices,  but 
most  choir  singers  who  adopt  this 
part  are  baritones  or  basses,  using 
their  falsetto  range.  See  Voice. 

Falsification.  Term  meaning 
making  false.  It  is  chiefly  used  in 
connexion  with  accounts.  The  falsi- 
fication of  accounts  by  a  clerk  or 
servant  with  intent  to  defraud  is  by 
English  law  a  misdemeanour  punish  - 
able  by  penal  servitude.  It  is  also 
an  offence  to  falsify  the  service 
certificate  of  a  seaman  or  soldier. 
Some  forms  of  falsification  come 
under  the  heading  of  forgery  (q.r.). 
Falstaff.  Comic  character  in 
Shakespeare's  King  Henry  IV 
and  The  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor. 
In  the  former  the  fat  knight  is  the 
boon  companion  of  Prince  Hal ;  in 
the  latter  he  is  the  dupe  of  Mistress 
Ford  and  Mistress  Page,  whom  he 
courts  with  the  intention  of  making 
money  out  of  them.  His  boastful- 
ness,  cozening,  drunkenness,  and 
cowardice  are  balanced  by  his  wit 
and  gaiety.  See  illus.  p.  58. 

Falster.  Island  of  Denmark.  It 
lies  to  the  S.  of  Zealand,  between 
Laaland  on  the  E.  and  Moen  on  the 
W.,  separated  from  them  by 
narrow  straits.  It  is  28  m.  from  N. 
to  S.,  with  a  maximum  width  of 
15  m.  The  surface  is  fairly  level, 


but  low  and  marshy  near  the  coast, 
where  malaria  is  endemic.  The 
island  is  fertile  and  cultivated ; 
stock-raising,  dairy  farming,  and 
agriculture  are  the  principal  occu- 
pations; Sugar-beet  and  fruit  are 
the  chief  crops.  The  largest  towns 
are  Nykjdbing  and  Stubbekjobing, 
connected  by  rly.  Area,  183  sq.  m. 
Pop.  34,436. 

Faluns  (Fr.).  Series  of  loose, 
sandy  shell-beds,  of  Miocene  age. 
They  occur  in  the  Touraine  area 
of  the  S.W.  part  of  France.  Of 
marine,  shallow-water  origin,  they 
often  contain  numerous  fossils. 

Fama  Clamosa  (Lat.,  crying 
report).  Term  used  in  Scottish 
Church  law  for  any  public  scandal 
against  a  minister  with  which  the 
authorities  find  it  necessary  to  deal. 
The  charge  must  be  maintained  by 
some  responsible  person  who  is 
prepared  to  prove  it,  or  it  must  be 
a  matter  of  such  notoriety  that  no 
special  complainant  is  necessary 
before  it  can  claim  official  notice. 

Famagusta  (Lat.  Fama  Au- 
gusta}. Seaport  of  Cyprus.  It 
stands  on  the  E.  coast,  3  m.  S.  of 
ancient  Salamis.  The  cathedral  of 
S.  Nicolas  and  a  castle  are  notable 
features  of  the  town.  The  harbour 
improvements  were  finished  in 
1906,  and  a  narrow  gauge  rly.  con- 
nects the  town  with  Nicosia  and 
Evrykhou  (76  m.).  Agriculture  is 
the  chief  occupation,  and  the  town 
is  noted  for  its  pomegranates.  The 
original  Roman  walls  were  strength- 
ened by  the  Genoese  and  Vene- 
tians, and  are  still  fairly  well  pre- 
served. Here,  in  1191,  Guy  de 
Lusignan  (q.r.)  was  crowned  king 
of  Cyprus  by  Richard  I.  The  town 
flourished  under  Venetian  rule 
(1487-1571),  but  later  was  taken 
by  the  Turks,  when  its  prosperity 
began  to  decline.  An  earthquake 
in  1735  destroyed  it.  Pop.,  includ- 
ing the  village  of  Varashia,  5,327. 
Famars.  Village  of  France,  in 
the  dept.  of  Nord.  It  is  3  m.  S.  of 
Valenciennes  and  was  captured  on 
Oct.  26,  1918,  by  troops  of  the 
51st  Highland  division  in  the  fight 
for  Valenciennes.  See  Sambre, 
Battle  of  the ;  Selle,  Ba.ttle  of  the. 
Famennian.  Uppermost  stage 
of  the  Devonian  system  of  strati- 
fied rocks.  It  is  well  developed  in 
Belgium  and  northern  France, 
where  it  consists  of  fossiliferous 
shales  and  sandstones,  and  in 
Rhineland,  where  limestones  also 
are  developed.  Beds  of  slate  near 
Ashburton  and  the  Petherwin 
beds  near  Dartmoor  belong  to  this 
stage.  iThe  name  is  taken  from 
the  slates  of  Famenne  (Belgium). 
Familiar  (Lat'.  familiaris).  In 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  a  per- 
son who  belongs  to  the  household 
of  a  pope  or  bishop.  He  must  at 


FAMILLE     JAUNE 


3O78 


FAMINE 


least  reside  in  the  same  diocese.  The 
office  became  at  one  time  an  easy 
ladder  to  ordination  and  prefer- 
ment. Consequently,  the  council  of 
Trent  decreed  that  a  familiar  could 
not  be  ordained  by  his  bishop  un- 
less he  belonged  to  the  same  diocese 
and  had  lived  with  him  three  years. 
Familiars  of  the  Holy  Office  were 
officials  of  the  Inquisition  charged 
with  the  duty  of  arresting  and 
imprisoning  persons  suspected  of 
heresy  or  other  offences  against  the 
spiritual  authority.  The  name  is 
explained  by  reference  to  their  ad- 
mission into  the  confidence  of  the 
Holy  Office,  as  members  of  the 
family.  (See  Inquisition.) 

Familiar  was  also  the  term  ap- 
plied to  the  spirit  supposed  to  be 
in  the  service  of  necromancers  and 
witches,  incarnate  sometimes  in 
the  form  of  a  black  cat  or  other 
animal.  In  this  instance  the  idea 
was  derived  from  the  universal 
belief  in  a  daemon,  tutelar  genius, 
or  guardian  angel  associated  with 
an  individual  from  the  moment  of 
birth.  See  Demonology. 

Famille  Jaune  (Fr.).  Much  of 
the  finest  old  Chinese  pottery  is 
classified  into  family  coloured 
groups,  according  to  the  predomin- 
ating tints  used.  The  most  es- 
teemed are  the  famille  rose,  noire, 
jaune,  and  verte  (rose,  black,  yellow, 
green).  See  Pottery. 

Family  (Lat.  familia).  Group 
comprising  father  and  mother,  with 
their  offspring.  The  unit  of  human 
society,  its  roots  are  traceable  in 
the  primeval  life  of  mankind. 

The  first  modern  attempt  to 
elucidate  the  origin  of  family  life 
was  Maine's  patriarchal  theory 
(1861).  Based  on  Roman  models, 
it  assumed  that  the  primitive  father 
possessed  uncontrolled  power,  the 
patria  potestas,  over  his  house- 
hold. This  view  was  impugned  by 
MacLennan  (1865),  who  postu- 
lated a  primeval  promiscuity,  out 
of  which  emerged  matriarchy,  at- 
tributed to  uncertain  paternity  ; 
and  exagamy,  due  to  the  theoretic 
kinship  of  the  maternal  clan ; 
while  communal  marriage  ulti- 
mately broke  up  into  polyandry 
and  polygyny.  Working  on  similar 
material  Lewis  Morgan  (1870)  ob- 
served that  in  primitive  communi- 
ties it  was  more  customary  to  de- 
note kinship  by  "  classificatory  " 
than  by  "  descriptive  "  terms.  The 
main  classes  were  five  in  number,  a 
man  using  the  same  words  for  all 
persons  within  the  clan  of  the 
generations  of  his  grandparents, 
parents,  brothers,  children,  and 
grandchildren  respectively.  These 
systems  were  hailed  as  further 
evidence  of  a  stage  of  communal 
marriage  preceding  the  growth  of 
family  groups. 


Westermarck  (1891)  reverted  to 
Darwin's  view  (1871)  that  the 
family  was  from  the  beginning 
based  upon  the  supremacy  of  the 
individual  father.  When  the  "  mat- 
rimonial classes  "  of  the  Australian 
aborigines,  based  on  the  totem, 
were  studied  by  Spencer  and 
Gillen,  Howitt,  and  others,  they 
were  held  to  point  to  a  primitive 
form  of  group-marriage.  Subse- 
quently Atkinson  and  Lang  (1903) 
suggested  that  the  prohibition  of 
marriage  within  an  incest-group — 
whence  exogamy  sprang — was  due 
to  the  jealousy  of  the  sire.  The 
theory  of  promiscuity  is  incon- 
sistent with  the  evidence  ;  the  wide- 
spread variants  of  the  normal  family 
are  explicable  on  other  grounds. 

In  polygynous  societies  the 
family  is  composed  of  sub-families, 
which  under  the  system  of  concu- 
binage tend  to  become  subordinate 
to  that  of  the  chief  wife.  The  closer 
social  relationship  of  the  mother 
with  her  own  children  obscures  the 
paternal  status  ;  one  outcome  of 
this  is  the  toleration  of  union  with 
the  half-sister,  e.g.  Abraham  and 
Sarah. 

The  matriarchal  system,  impos- 
ing rights  and  duties  towards  the 
child,  first  upon  the  kinship  group, 
and  afterwards,  as  their  repre- 
sentative, upon  the  mother's 
brother,  is  a  widespread  social  de- 
vice for  securing  the  observance 
of  tribal  law.  It  may  be  reason- 
ably attributed  to  the  beginnings 
of  agriculture  at  the  end  of  the 
neolithic  age,  having  been  found 
in  Europe  by  the  Aryan-speaking 
peoples  who  spread  westward, 
bringing  new  conceptions  of  father- 
right  that  lay  at  the  base  of  patri- 
archal society.  This  view  is  con- 
firmed by  the  matriarchy  of  early 
Egypt,  and  by  the  fact  that  patri- 
archy was  well  established  at  the 
dawn  of  Semitic  history,  which 
antedated  the  Aryan  family. 

In  aboriginal  America,  where 
social  organizations  were  developed 
on  the  neolithic  f  oundationbrought 
from  Eurasia,  the  family — hi  the 
sense  of  the  homestead  or  "  house- 
fire  " — is  traceable  at  every  cultural 
level.  See  Kinship ;  Marriage ; 
Society. 

Family.  In  zoological  classifi- 
cation, term  used  for  a  group  of 
genera  which  resemble  one  another, 
but  are  not  marked  by  such  im- 
portant distinctive  features  as  to 
justify  making  them  into  an  order. 
For  example,  the  domestic  dog 
belongs  to  the  genus  Canis,  which, 
with  three  other  living  genera  and 
several  extinct  ones,  is  included  in 
the  family  Canidae,  or  dog-like 
mammals ;  and  this  family  forms 
one  of  the  groups  of  the  order  Car- 
nivora,  or  flesh-eating  mammals. 


Family  Compact.  Arrange 
ments  made  in  the  18th  century  be- 
tween the  kings  of  France  and  Spam 
for  the  maintenance  of  an  alliance 
between  them,  the  Bourbons  being 
the  family  then  ruling  over  both 
countries.  There  were  three  of 
these  compacts.  On  Nov.  7,  1733, 
France  and  Spain  signed  a  secret  j 
treaty  directed  against  Austria, 
with  whom  war  quickly  followed.  I 
In  Oct.,  1743,  this  alliance  was 
renewed  in  a  new  family  compact, 
directed  mainly  against  Britain, 
with  whom  Spain,  but  not  France, 
was  then  at  war.  War  with  France 
quickly  followed.  A  third  was  made 
in  1761,  when  the  Seven  Years' 
War  was  raging.  By  this  Spain 
entered  the  war. 

The  term  family  compact  was 
applied  to  the  domination  of  Upper 
Canada  or  Ontario,  by  a  narrow 
circle  of  men,  attached  to  England 
and  the  English  church,  in  the 
early  19th  century. 

Family  Herald,  THE.  London 
weekly  journal  of  useful  informa- 
tion and  amusement,  "  interesting 
to  all ;  offensive  to  none,"  founded 
in  Dec.,  1842,  and  the  first  period- 
ical to  be  produced  entirely  by 
machinery.  Until  May,  1843,  it 
was  issued  as  a  broadsheet,  when 
the  patent  machinery  was  given  up. 
The  Rev.  James  E.  Smith,  M.A., 
the  universalist,  was  its  first  editor. 
See  "Shepherd"  Smith  the  Uni- 
versalist, W.Anderson  Smith,  1892. 

Family  of  Love  OR  FAMILISTS. 
Religious  sect,  founded  by  Henry 
Niclaes,  or  Nicholas  (c.  1502-80). 
Influenced  by  the  mystical  teach- 
ings of  David  Joris  (1501-56),  he 
claimed  to  be  a  recipient  of  divine 
revelations.  The  sect  made  its  way 
to  England  in  the  reign  of  Edward 
VI,  and  had  a  few  scattered  follow- 
ers. They  taught  that  no  one  out- 
side their  sect  could  have  a  true 
knowledge  of  God ;  gave  all  the 
chief  doctrines  of  Christianity  a 
purely  allegorical  interpretation  ; 
and  were  extreme  antinomians  in 
practice  as  well  as  in  theory.  They 
became  extinct  about  the  middle 
of  the  17th  century. 

Famine  (Lat.  fames,  hunger). 
Period  of  want  or  scarcity  of  food 
supplies,  usually  confined  to  a  more 
or  less  restricted  locality.  Its  chief 
primary  cause  is  deficiency  of  rain- 
fall, but  floods,  frosts,  storms,  visi- 
tations of  insects  or  other  pests,  in- 
adequate agricultural  methods,  ill- 
directed  labour,  deficient  trans- 
port, and  the  ravages  of  war  are 
contributory  causes.  Neglect  in  the 
storage  of  food  frequently  brings 
about  famine  among  primitive 
peoples,  but  it  is  sometimes  to  be 
accounted  for  by  less  obvious 
reasons,  such  as  wholesale  defores- 
tation, which  gives  rise  to  local 


FAMINE      FEVER 


3079 


Fan.  Examples  of  delicate  and  artistic  work.  1.  Pachly  painted  gilt  fan,  decorated  in  Vernis  Martin  lacquer,  period  of 
Louis  XIV,  formerly  belonging  to  Queen  Victoria.  2.  Silk  fan  with  medallions  painted  by  F.  Boucher  (1703-70).  The 
ivory  stick  is  carved  and  enriched  with  gold.  3.  English  fan  made  to  commemorate  the  recovery  from  illness  of  George 
III  in  1789,  now  in  the  British  Museum.  4.  White  lace  fan  mounted  on  mother-of-pearl,  formerly  belonging  to  the 

Empress  Eugenie 


conditions  of  drought,  and  the  de- 
pendence of  a  race  upon  one  kind 
of  food,  as  maize  in  S.  America,  rice 
in  China,  or  the  potato  in  Ireland. 

Although  scarcity  is  only  par- 
tially preventable,  the  careful 
organization  and  governmental 
supervision  of  agricultural  produc- 
tion in  most  parts  of  Europe  and 
America  has  virtually  freed  civili- 
zation from  the  dread  of  starvation 
in  normal  circumstances.  But  all 
the  foresight  and  accumulated  ex- 
perience of  man  is  by  no  means 
equal  to  combating  the  conditions 
of  serious  dearth  which  follow  pro- 
longed hostilities.  During  and  after 
the  Great  War  of  1914-18  famine 
spread  widely  throughout  Europe, 
especially  in  Russia,  Germany, 
Austria,  the  Balkans,  Czecho-Slo- 
vakia,  and  certain  parts  of  France 
and  Belgium. 

The  greatest  recorded  famines 
occurred  at  an  early  period  in  his- 
tory, when  the  world  was  entirely 
dependent  upon  local  and  circum- 
scribed supplies.  In  439  B.C.  Rome 
was  visited  by  a  famine  so  severe 
that  thousands  cast  themselves  into 
the  Tiber.  In  Egypt  famine  lasted, 
A.D.  1067-72,  while  in  1005  Saxon 
England,  and  eleven  years  later 
the  whole  of  Europe,  experienced  a 
prolonged  period  of  terrible  dearth. 
Another  great  European  famine 
occurred  in  1162,  driving  the  popu- 
lation in  many  countries  to  canni- 
balism and  brigandage,  Ireland 
has  frequently  suffered  from 
periods  of  scarcity,  especially  se- 
vere visitations  occurring  in  1491, 


1822,  and  from  1846-47,  when  the 
potato  crop  failed  with  conse- 
quences of  the  most  disastrous 
kind,  thousands  perishing  from  the 
"  famine  fever  "  which  followed. 
In  the  period  of  dearth  which  fol- 
lowed the  Thirty  Years'  War  in 
Germany  multitudes  perished  from 
hunger. 

Chiefly  through  its  liability  to 
conditions  of  drought,  the  East 
has  been  peculiarly  susceptible  to 
famine.  In  1877,  1888,  and  again 
in  1920,  N.  China  suffered  from  ap- 
palling famine.  India  has,  perhaps, 
more  than  any  other  country  ex- 
perienced frequent  dearth  over 
'widespread  localities.  Native  re- 
cords speak  of  disastrous  famines 
in  450,  941,  1022,  1033,  1052-60, 
1344-45, 1396-1407, 1631, 1769-70, 
when  3,000,000  people  perished; 
1782-84  and  1790-92.  Later  ones 
were  in  1866,  when  over  a  million 
natives  perished ;  1869,  when 
1,500,000  died;  1877,  1897,  and 
in  1899-1900,  when  the  loss  of  life 
was  estimated  at  1,000,000. 

Famine  Fever.  Popular  name 
for  relapsing  fever  (q.v.). 

Fampoux .  Village  of  France,  in 
the  dept.  of  Pas-de-Calais.  It  lies 
slightly  N.  of  the  river  Scarpe,  5  m. 
E.  of  Arras.  It  was  stormed  by  the 
British,  April  10,  1917.  Severe 
fighting  took  place  here  in  April, 
1918,  and  at  the  end  of  Aug.  in 
the  same  year  the  British  in  their 
great  offensive  advanced  E.  of  it 
See  Arras,  Battles  of. 

Famund  OR  Faemund.  Lake  of 
Norway,  in  Hedemarken,  near  the 


Swedish  border.  It  lies  in  a  moun- 
tainous district,  at  an  alt.  of  2,199 
ft.,  85  m.  S.S.E.  of  Trondhjem.  It 
is  37  m.  long  from  N.  to  S.,  with  a 
maximum  width  of  5  m. 

Fan  (Lat.  vannus).  Implement 
for  agitating  the  air,  especially  used 
for  cooling  the  face.  Fans  have  been 
used  from  the  earliest  ages  in  hot 
countries,  and  in  their  primitive 
form  they  were  made  of  feathers 
stuck  into  long  handles.  In  Europe 
they  came  into  general  use  in  the 
16th  century,  and  were  known  as 
early  as  the  14th  century,  having 
probably  been  introduced  from  the 
East.  They  were  usually  made  of 
feathers,  straw,  silk,  etc.,  with 
handles  of  ivory,  gold,  silver,  and 
wood,  often  richly  carved  and  en- 
crusted with  precious  stones. 

The  folding  fan,  an  invention  of 
the  Japanese,  was  adopted  in  Eu- 
rope towards  the  end  of  the  16th 
century.  Fan  painting  became  an 
art  in  the  middle  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury, and  printed  fans,  illustrating 
pastoral  scenes,  and  reference  to 
politics,  etc., also  became  the  vogue. 
Fans  have  always  played  a  sym- 
bolic part  in  ceremonial,  and  even 
now  are  used  in  the  East,  and  are 
carried  on  state  occasions  in  papal 
processions  in  Rome.  See  Punkha ; 
consult  also  Fans  and  Fan  Leaves, 
collected  and  described  by  Lady 
Charlotte  Schreiber  (English),  1888 
and  (Foreign)  1890 ;  History  of  the 
Fan,  G.  W.  Rhead,  1910. 

FAN  PAINTING.  Both  folding 
and  non-folding  fans  have  been  the 
object  of  elaborate  decoration. 


Antoine  Watteau,  Nicolas  Lancret, 
Jean  Baptiste,  Joseph  Pater,  Fran- 
Qois  Boucher,  and  other  18th  cen- 
tury French  artists  produced  fans 
of  incomparable  beauty.  Among 
English  artists  who  have  practised 
the  art  the  most  notable  was 
Charles  Conder  (1868-1909),  who 
in  this  genre  was  no  mean  rival  of 
Watteau  himself. 

Fan.  In  industry,  a  revolving 
wheel  to  move  air  or  gas.  To  an 
axle,  usually  horizontal,  is  at- 
tached a  series  of  vanes  or  blades, 
which  may  be  flat  or  curved,  the 
whole  being  enclosed  in  a  casing  of 
volute  shape  having  a  central  open- 
ing  for  admission  of  the  air  or  gas, 
and  an  opening  hi  the  circum- 
ference for  the  delivery  of  the  air. 


3O8O 

smith's  fire.  The  type  of  fan  shown 
below  is  known  as  the  centri- 
fugal ;  another  form,  with '  vanes 
set  more  or  less  spirally  on  the  axle, 
the  movement  of  the  air  being 
parallel  to  the  axis,  is  the  propeller 
or  tunnel  type.  See  Blowing  Engine. 
Fanariotes  OK  PHANARIOTES. 
Name  given  to  the  aristocratic 


FANG 


people  to  triple  time.     A  charac- 
teristic rhythm  of  the  music  is  : 


See  Castanets. 

Fanfare  (Fr.)  OB  FLOURISH. 
Properly,  a  short  passage  for  trum- 
pets in  unison,  performed  on  state 


Fanfare  sounded  by  state  trumpeters 


Greek  class  in  Constantinople  pro- 
minent during  the  18th  century  as 
governors  of  the  E.  European  pro- 
vinces of  the  Porte.  The  word  is 
derived  from  Fanar,  the  Turkish 
name  for  that  quarter  of  Constanti- 
nople which  was  inhabited  by 
Greek  residents.  Members  of  this 
class,  bv  means  of  a  recognized 


occasions.  That  used  at  the  open- 
ing of  Parliament  dates  from  the 
reign  of  Charles  II.  Some  com- 
posers have  used  fanfares  in  opera, 
notably  Beethoven,  Spontini,  Am- 
broise  Thomas,  and  Wagner. 

Fang.  Specialised  teeth  in 
poisonous  snakes  by  which  the 
venom  is  conveved  into  the  wound 


Fan.      Standard   centrifugal  ventilating   fan   and,  right,  sectional  diagram. 
A,  fan-wheel ;  B,  air-inlet ;  C,  casing;  course  of  air  indicated  by  arrows 


Fan.  Propeller,  wing,  or  tunnel 
type  for  moving  large  volumes  of 
air  at  low  pressure  for  ventilating, 
drying,  or  removing  noxious  fumes 

When  air  enters  it  is  caught 
by  the  vanes,  whirled  round  with 
them,  and  thrown  by  centrifugal 
action  to  the  circumference  while 
it  acquires  the  velocity  of  the  re- 
volving vanes.  This  combined 
action  carries  the  air  out  through 
the  discharge  opening  with  a  velo- 
city and  at  a  pressure  determined 
by  the  size  and  speed  of  the  vanes. 
The  fan-wheel  may  be  only  a  few 
inches  hi  diameter,  or  it  may  be 
20  or  30  ft.,  as  in  the  case  of  mine 
and  tunnel  ventilating  fans. 

The  volume  of  air  moved  by  a 
large  fan  may  amount  $0  700,000 
cubic  ft.  per  minute.  Fans  are  used 
largely  for  metallurgical  furnaces 
where  only  a  moderate  pressure  of 
air  is  required,  as  in  the  black- 


system  of  bribery,  obtained  no- 
mination as  rulers  of  principalities 
such  as  Wallachia,  and  set  them- 
selves to  recoup  their  expenses  by 
unscrupulous  taxation.  The  sys- 
tem of  appointing  fanariotes  was 
dropped  in  1821. 

Fancy.  Shortened  form  of  phan- 
tasy. It  means  primarily  any  crea- 
tion of  the  imagination.  From  this 
it  came  to  be  used  for  an  inclina- 
tion or  liking,  and  thus  we  speak  of 
fancying  anything  and  have  the 
phrase  bird  fancier.  The  fancy  is 
sometimes  applied  to  the  adherents 
of  pugilism,  while  De  Quincey  uses 
it  for  lovers  of  rare  books.  Fancy 
goods  as  a  trade  term  refers  to  the 
lighter  and  supplementary  forms 
of  women's  dress,  such  as  ribbons, 
gloves,  veilings,  etc.,  also  to  hand- 
bags and  articles  used  to  ornament 
rooms,  such  as  silver  vases,  picture 
frames,  and  the  like. 

Fandango.  Name  of  a  Spanish 
dance.  It  is  usually  accompanied 
by  castanets  to  reinforce  the  strong 
rhythm,  as  well  as  by  melodic  in- 
struments. It  is  danced  by  two 


caused  by  the  bite.  In  the  viper 
tribe  the  fangs  are  channelled,  so 
that  the  venom,  exuding  from  the 
tip  of  the  tooth,  is  conveyed  to  the 
deepest  part  of  the  wound.  In  cer- 
tain other  snakes  the  fang  is  simply 
grooved,  and  most  of  the  venom 
merely  reaches  the  surface.  The 
fangs  may  be  either  at  the  front  of 
the  jaw  or  at  the  back,  and  in  the 
latter  case  the  bite  is  seldom 
dangerous  to  man,  though  it  may 
be  fatal  to  small  animals.  The  fangs 
usually  fold  back  against  the  jaw 
when  not  in  use.  The  venom  is 
forced  through  the  fang  partly  by 
constriction  of  the  venom  bag, 
partly  by  pressure  on  the  base  of  the 
fang  in  the  act  of  biting. 

Fang  OR  PANQWE.  Negro  tribe 
of  the  French  Gabun  colony  and 
Spanish  Guinea.  Their  debased 
Bantu  speech,  including  the  Make 
dialect,  is  spoken  within  the  coast- 
highland  region  bounded  by  the 
Ogowe,  Ivindo,  and  Campos  rivers. 
Well-built,  slim,  5  ft.  7  his.  hi  height, 
bronze -coloured,  bearded,  intelli- 
gent, they  display  Hamitic  ele- 


FANMAKERS-     COMPANY 


3081 


FAN      TAN 


ments,  having  migrated  due  W.  from 
the  valleys  of  the  N.  Congo  affluents 
about  1850,  driving  the  weaker  ab- 
original negroes  before  them.  They 
are  hunters  and  fishers,  using  cross- 
bows and  throwing-knives,  and  are 
adept  potters  and  ironworkers.  The 
men  wear  bark  waistcloths,  the 
women  grass  girdles. 

Fanmakers'  Company.  Lon- 
don city  livery  company,  incor- 
porated April 
19,  1709.  Its 
offices  are  at  19, 
Great  Winches- 
ter St.,  E.C. 
Fannich.  Loch 
or  lake  of  Ross 
and  Cromarty, 
Scotland.  Near 
the  centre  of 
the  county,  it  is 


Fanmakers' 
Company  arms 


drained  by  Fannich  Water  (6J  m. 
long).  The  Fannich  Mts.  (Sgurr 
Mor,  3,637  ft. )  and  Fannich  Forest 
(20,000  acres)  lie  to  the  N.  of  the 
lake,  which  is  6£  m.  long  and  about 
1  m.  broad. 

Fanning.  Coral  island  in  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  lying  due  S.  of  the 
Hawaiian  Islands  in  lat.  3°  50'  N. 
and  long.  159°  20'  W.  Administra- 
tively it  is  annexed  to  the  Gilbert 
and  Ellice  Islands  Colony,  and  is  a 
station  of  the  submarine  cable 
between  Australia  and  Vancouver. 
It  exports  mother-of-pearl,  and 
there  are  guano  deposits.  Area, 
15  sq  m.  Pop.  150.  The  name  is 
also  applied  to  a  neighbouring 
group,  viz.  Christmas,  Jarvis, 
Washington,  and  Palmyra,  the 
last  being  claimed  by  the  U.S.A. 
The  total  land  area  is  about  260  sq. 
m.  They  were  discovered  in  1798 
by  Edmund  Fanning. 

Fanning,  EDMUND  (1737-1818). 
American  soldier.  Born  at  Long 
Island,  New  York,  he  graduated  at 
Yale  in  1757.  He  became  a  lawyer 
in  N.  Carolina,  and  occupied  various 
posts  in  the  local  government, 
where  his  malpractices  and  sub- 
servience to  the  home  government 
earned  for  him  unpopularity.  In 
1774  he  was  made  surveyor-general, 
and  in  1777  he  raised  a  regiment 
to  combat  the  revolution.  Colonel 
in  the  British  army  in  1782  and 
governor  of  Prince  Edward  Island 
in  1787,  he  became  major-general 
in  1794  and  general  in  1808.  In 
those  years  he  did  some  voyaging 
in  the  Pacific.  He  died  in  London. 
Feb.  28,  1818. 

Fanning,  JOHN  THOMAS  (1837- 
1911).  American  engineer.  Born  at 
Norwich,  Conn.,  he  was  there  edu- 
cated. He  became  an  engineer,  but 
left  his  profession  to  serve  the 
North  in  the  Civil  War.  Returning 
to  his  work,  he  was  for  nearly  fifty 
years  one  of  the  leading  authorities 
on  hydraulics,  being  concerned  in 


the  construction  of  numerous  water- 
works and  similar  undertakings  in 
the  U.S.  A.  He  was  consulting  engi- 
neer to  a  large  number  of  schemes 
for  obtaining  water  and  chief  en- 
gineer of  the  water-power  company 
at  St.  Anthony.  His  work,  A 
Treatise  on  Hydraulic  and  Water 
Supply  Engineering,  1877,  was  long 
the  most  authoritative  American 
book  on  the  subject. 

Fannius,  GAIUS.  Roman  an- 
nalist. He  served  in  Africa,  where 
he  and  Tiberius  Gracchus  were  the 
first  to  mount  the  walls  of  Carthage 
146  B.C.,  and  in  Spain  142.  Through 
the  influence  of  Gaius  Gracchus  he 
obtained  the  consulship  122,  but 
when  the  former  proposed  to  confer 
full  citizenship  upon  the  Latins, 
Fannius  opposed  him  in  a  famous 
speech.  Orator,  advocate,  and 
student  of  philosophy,  Fannius 
was  best  known  for  his  Annales,  a 
history  of  Rome  from  the  earliest 
days  down  to  his  own  times.  The 
work  enjoyed  a  high  reputation, 
and  was  used  by  Plutarch  in  his 
Lives  of  the  Gracchi. 

Fanny's  First  Play.  Comedy 
by  Bernard  Shaw.  It  was  first  pro- 
duced at  The  Little  Theatre,  April 
19,  1911,  where  it  ran  for  624  per- 
formances, and  afterwards  at  The 
Kingsway,  Feb.  13,  1915. 

Fano.  Island  of  Denmark.  It 
lies  off  the  S.W.  coast  of  Jutland, 
and  its  N.E.  point  faces  Esbjerg 
on  the  mainland.  It  is  11  m.  long 
and  from  2  m.  to  3  m.  broad.  There 
are  three  small  towns  on  the 
island  :  Fano,  a  health  resort  on 
the  W.  coast ;  Nordby,  on  the  N.E. 
coast ;  and  Sonderho,  in  the  S. 
Fishing  is  the  main  industry.  Area, 
20  sq.  m.  Pop.  3,000. 

Fano  (anc.  Fanum  Fortunae). 
City  and  seaside  resort  of  Italy,  in 
the  prov.  of  Pesaro  e  Urbino.  It 
stands  on  the  Adriatic,  8  m.  by  rly. 
S.E.  of  Pesaro.  It  is  enclosed  by 
medieval  walls,  with  bastions  facing 
the  sea.  Its  cathedral  and  churches 
contain  many  pictures  by  old  mas- 
ters. The  town  possesses  a  fine 
theatre,  formerly  a  palace,  the  re- 
mains of  a  triumphal  arch  of  Au- 
gustus, and  a  palace  of  the  Mala- 
testa.  Fishing  is  the  chief  occupa- 
tion of  the  inhabitants,  and  there  is 
trade  in  corn,  oil,  and  silk.  The  old 
harbour  has  silted  up,  and  shipping 
is  now  conducted  through  a  canal 
to  the  sea.  Here,  in  1514,  the  first 
printing  press  with  Arabic  type  was 
set  up.  The  Roman  city  owed  its 
origin  to  a  temple  of  Fortune  com- 
memorating the  defeat  of  Hasdru- 
bal  on  the  Metaurus.  Pop.  26,928. 

Fan-palm  (Livistona).  Genus 
of  trees  of  the  natural  order  Pal- 
mae.  They  have  large,  fan-shaped, 
plaited  leaves,  and  are  natives  of 
Eastern  Asia,  Malaya,  and  Austral  - 


Sir  E.  Fanshawe, 
British  soldier 

After  Francis  Dodd 


Fan-palm.  Foliage  of  Livistona  chinensis 
asia.  The  best-known  species  are 
L.  australis,  from  Eastern  Austra- 
lia, and  L.  chinensis,  from  S.  China. 
Fanshawe,  SIR  EDWARD  ARTHUR 
(b.  1859).  British  soldier.  Born 
April  4,  1859,  and  educated  at 
Winchester,  in 
1878  he  entered 
the  Royal  Ar- 
tillery, serving 
in  the  Afghan 
War  of  1878-80 
and  in  Egypt 
in  1885.  In  1903 
he  became  a 
lieutenant- 
colonel  and  in 
1909  was  put  in 
charge  of  the 
artillery  of  the  6th  division.  When 
the  Great  War  broke  out  he  was 
commanding  the  artillery  of  a 
Territorial  division,  but  in  Sept., 
1914,  he  went  to  France  at  the  head 
of  a  regular  brigade,  the  6th.  In 
1915  he  took  command  of  the 
cavalry  corps.  In  1918  he  com- 
manded the  5th  corps,  and  in  1917 
was  knighted. 

Fanshawe,  SIR  RICHARD  (1608- 
66).  English  diplomatist  and  writer. 
Born  at  Ware  Park,  Hertford- 
shire, after 
travelling  in 
France  and 
Spain,  he  was 
appointed  i  n 
1635  secretary 
to  the  embassy 
at  Madrid. 
About  1644  he 

became    secre-      sir  R.  Fanshawe, 
t  a r y     to    the     English  diplomatist 

prince  of  Wales  After  Harding 

and  in  1648  was  made  treasurer  of 
the  navy  under  Prince  Rupert.  He 
was  created  a  baronet  in  1650.  After 
the  Restoration  he  sat  in  Parlia- 
ment for  Cambridge  University 
from  1661  until  his  death,  and 
undertook  various  missions  to 
Spain  and  Portugal.  He  translated 
the  Lusiad  of  Camoens,  1655,  and 
Guarini's  Pastor  Fido,  1647.  He 
died  at  Madrid,  June  26,  1666. 

Fan  Tan.  Chinese  gambling 
game.  The  implements  for  playing 
consist  of  a  bowl  full  of  beans  or 
counters  and  an  oblong  card, 
placed  on  a  table,  the  corners  of 
which  are  numbered,  or  assumed 
to  be  numbered,  from  1  to  4  :  the 
lower  right  hand  corner  being  1. 


FANTASIA 


3082 


FARADAY 


the  top  right  hand  corner  2,  the  top 
and  bottom  left  hand  corners  3  and 
4  respectively.  Or,  in  place  of  the 
card  a  corresponding  oblong  space 
is  chalked  upon  the  table.  Bets  are 
made  upon  these  separate  corners, 
which  are  decided  by  the  banker 
taking  a  handful  of  beans  or  coun- 
ters, and  dividing  them  into  fours  ; 
the  number  of  odd  pieces  over  de- 
ciding the  winning  number.  If  there 
is  no  remainder,  No.  4  wins. 

An  American  variety  is  played 
with  an  ordinary  full  pack  of 
cards,  by  any  number  of  players 
up  to  eight.  One  card  is  dealt  to 
each  player,  the  remainder  forming 
the  stock  and  being  placed  face 
downwards  upon  the  table.  Each 

S'ayer  contributes  a  fixed  stake, 
nless  an  ace  has  been  dealt  to 
him,  each  player  draws  a  card  from 
the  stock  in  rotation  until  he  ob- 
tains an  ace ;  each  time  he  fails  to 
do  so,  paying  an  ante  or  stake, 
which  continues  until  all  four  are 
drawn  by  one  or  other  of  the 
players.  The  aces  are  laid  side  by 
side  as  they  are  turned  up,  and  the 
different  suits  are  built  upon  them, 
from  ace  to  king.  The  player  who 
first  gets  rid  of  all  his  cards  takes 
the  pool.  See  Gaming. 

Fantasia  (Ital.).  Musical  com- 
position in  which  strict  form  is  not 
exacted,  and  everything  is  left  to 
the  "  phantasy  "  of  the  composer. 
In  different  centuries  and  coun- 
tries, this  term  and  similar  ones — 
fancy,  fantasie,  rhapsody,  phan- 
tasy, etc. — have  denoted  greatly 
varying  types  of  music,  but  all  pos- 
sessing the  idea  of  freedom  from  the 
more  formal  designs  of  their  periods 
and  surroundings.  These  terms 
have  covered  alike  the  naive  old 
contrapuntal  string  trios  of  Or- 
lando Gibbons  (early  17th  cent.), 
the  monumental  organ  fantasias  of 
J.  S.  Bach  (early  18th  cent.),  and 
much  worthless  pianoforte  music 
of  the  19th  century. 

Fanti  (cabbage-eaters).  Negro 
people  in  the  Gold  Coast  colony, 
W.  Africa.  They  are  allied  to  the 
Ashanti  (q.v.),  and  their  number  is 
estimated  at  1,000,000.  They  are 
muscular,  round-headed,  chocolate- 
hued,  of  medium  stature,  and  live  in 
small  village-communities,  and  on 
the  coast.  Their  tribal  scars  are 
three  lines  on  each  side  of  the  jaw- 
bone. Their  Tshi  dialect  is  the 
dominant  speech  round  Cape  Coast 
Castle.  Ceremonial  cannibalism 
formerly  prevailed  among  them. 

Fantin-Latour,  IONACE  HENKI 
JEAN  THEODORE  !  (1836-1904). 
French  painter.  Born  at  Grenoble, 
Jan.  14,  1836,  son  of  the  painter 
Theodore  Fantin-Latour^  he  stud- 
ied under  Boisbaudran  and  at  the 
Beaux  Arts.  He  began  to  exhibit 
at  the  Salon  in  1861,  and  obtained 


Fantin-Latour, 
French  painter 

Self-portrait  in  Uffizi 
Gallery,  Florence 


his  first  award  in  1876.  Under  the 
naturalistic  influence  of  Manet  and 
Bastien- Lepage,  he  achieved  a 
striking  tri- 
umph with  a 
portrait  of  the 
former;  an  even 
higher  achieve- 
ment  is  the 
portrait  of  Mr. 
and  Mrs.  Edwin 
Edwards,in  the 
National  Gal- 
lery, London. 

Simple  and 
unaffected  in 
arrangement, 
cool  and  reticent  in  colour,  this 
picture  shows  an  art  refined 
and  exquisitely  delicate  with- 
out departing  from  naturalistic 
principles.  Fantin  was  known  as  an 
unsurpassed  painter  of  flowers  be- 
fore his  genius  in  portraiture  was 
revealed  ;  in  the  National  Gallery 
is  a  study  of  roses  by  him.  Among 
his  other  works  may  be  cited 
L'hommage  a  Delacroix  (Louvre), 
Portrait  de  Mme.  Fantin-Labori 
(Luxembourg),  Portrait  de  Par- 
tiste  a  23  ans  (Grenoble),  and  Le 
Toast.  He  died  at  Bure,  Orne, 
Aug.  28,  1904. 

Fan-Tracery.  In  Perpendicu- 
lar Gothic  architecture,  the  rich 
tracery  of  a  vault  created  by  spring- 
ing the  stone  ribs  from  their  vari- 
ous points  of  support  in  such 
fashion  that  the  effect  is  that  of  a 
spreading  fan.  There  are  finely 
developed  examples  in  Henry  VH's 
Chapel,  Westminster  Abbey,  and 
in  St.  Stephen's  cloister  at  West- 
minster  Hall.  See  Gothic  Archi- 
tecture. 


Fan-Tracery  seen  in  the  vaulting  of 

Henry  VII's   Chapel,  Westminster 

Abbey 

Fao.  Village  of  Mesopotamia.  It 
lies  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Shatt 
el  Arab,  about  3  m.  from  the  Per- 
sian Gulf,  and  before  the  Great 
War  was  of  some  importance  as  a 
cable  and  telegraph  station  of  the 
Indo-European  Telegraph  Co.  The 
mud  fort  erected  by  the  Turks  was 
captured  by  the  British,  Nov.  7, 
1914,  at  the  beginning  of  the  opera- 
tions in  Mesopotamia.  The  forti- 


fications were  afterwards  strength- 
ened by  the  British,  who  retained 
it  as  a  sort  of  naval  base  through- 
out the  war.  Pop.  600. 

Farad.  Unit  of  electrical 
capacity  of  an  electrical  conductor. 
A  capacity  of  one  farad  is  that 
which  would  be  raised  to  a  differ- 
ence of  pressure  of  one  volt  by  a 
charge  of  one  coulomb.  For  practi- 
cal purposes  the  farad  is  too  large, 
and  a  smaller  unit — the  microfarad, 
one  millionth  of  a  farad,  is  employed. 
See  Capacity  ;  Unit,  Electrical. 

Faraday,  MICHAEL  (1791-1867). 
British  chemist  and  physicist. 
The  son  of  a  blacksmith,  he  was 


born  at  Newington  Butts,  London, 
Sept.  22,  1791.  After  a  short 
apprenticeship  with  a  bookbinder, 
he  became  assistant  to  Sir  Hum- 
phry Davy  at  the  Royal  Institution. 
There  he  quickly  showed  remark- 
able ability  as  an  acute  observer 
and  original  experimenter.  In 
1813-15  he  travelled  with  Sir 
Humphry  Davy  in  Europe ;  ten 
years  later  he  became  director  of 
the  laboratory  ;  and  in  1833  he 
was  made  Fullerian  professor  of  the 
Institution  for  life. 

Faraday  stands  at  the  head  of 
scientific  observers  of  the  19th 
century,  and  his  discoveries  have 
left  their  indelible  mark  on  the 
progress  of  mankind.  To-day  his 
pointers  to  the  paths  of  investi- 
gation in  electricity  are  still  being 
followed,  and  results  are  being 
obtained  hi  accordance  with  his 
brilliant  predictions.  Faraday's 
earliest  work  under  Davy  was  con- 
cerned with  chlorine,  two  new  com- 
binations of  which  he  discovered. 
He  followed  this  up  with  the 
liquefaction  of  a  number  of  gases, 
and  the  discovery  of  new  kinds  of 
optical  glass.  The  later  discovery 
was  destined  to  lead  to  one  of  his 


FARADAY'S     LAW 


3083 


FARINELLI 


most  important  investigations  in 
electricity,  that  of  magnetic  rota- 
tory polarisation  in  1846. 

In  1831  he  made  the  discovery  of 
magneto -electrical  induction,  the 
forerunner  of  the  modern  dynamo, 
and  each  succeeding  year  brought 
fresh  discoveries.  In  1833  he 
proved  the  identity  of  electricity 
from  different  sources ;  in  1834 
came  the  discovery  of  equivalents 
in  electro-chemical  decomposition  ; 
in  1838  electro-static  induction, 
followed  the  same  year  by  the 
announcement  of  the  relation  be- 
tween electric  and  magnetic  forces; 
diamagnetism  and  the  magnetic 
condition  of  all  matter,  1849  ;  at- 
mospheric magnetism,  1851. 

In  1835  Faraday  was  given  a 
pension,  and  in  1858  a  house  at 
Hampton  Court,  where  he  died 
Aug.  25,  1867.  Deeply  religious, 
a  member  of  the  sect  known  as  the 
Sandemanians,  Faraday  rigidly 
separated  his  religion  from  his 
science.  In  the  latter,  he  was  one 
of  the  most  brilliant  experimenters 
ever  known,  and  to  mm  must  be 
given  the  credit  for  the  solid 
foundation  of  electrical  science  as 
it  is  known  to-day.  See  laves  by 
Tyndall,  5th  ed.  1894;  Bence 
Jones,  1870;  J.  H.  Gladstone, 
1872  ;  S.  P.  Thompson,  1899. 

Faraday's  Law.  Law  dis- 
covered by  Michael  Faraday.  In 
an  electrolytic  cell  the  amount  of 
an  ion  liberated  at  an  electrode 
is  proportional  to  the  strength  of 
the  current.  An  electrical  current 
may  thus  be  measured  in  terms  of 
the  quantity  of  an  electrolyte 
which  it  decomposes.  See  Current ; 
Electricity ;  Electrolysis. 

Faraday  Society.  Society 
founded  in  1903  in  honour  of 
Michael  Faraday,  to  promote  the 
study  of  electro-chemistry,  electro- 
metallurgy, and  kindred  subjects. 
Among  its  presidents  have  been 
Lord  Kelvin,  Sir  Oliver  Lodge,  Sir 
Robert  Hadfield,  and  Sir  Richard 
Glazebrook.  Offices,  10  Essex  St., 
London,  W.C. 

Faradism  OB  FARADISATION. 
Term  for  the  use  of  an  interrupted 
current  of  electricity  in  medicine. 
Faradism  is  useful  in  cases  of 
paralysis,  gout,  rheumatism,  and 
neurasthenia.  See  Electricity. 

Farce  (Fr.  from  Lat.  farcire,  to 
stuff).  Dramatic  piece  of  an  es- 
sentially ridiculous  character  to 
which  extravagant  language,  cari- 
cature, and  ludicrous  situations 
may  all  contribute.  The  modern 
farce  is  more  closely  connected 
with  the  ludicrous  element  that 
came  to  be  grafted  on  to  early 
morality  plays,  and  in  time  came 
to  be  given  in  separate  perform- 
ances. In  its  modern  sense  it  is 
denned  by  A.  W.  Ward  as  the 


briefer  sort  of  comic  play  in  which 
a  more  unrestricted  licence  of  fun 
is  allowed,  and  a  stronger  demand 
made  upon  the  sense  of  probability. 

Modern  farce  may  be  said  to  have 
started  with  the  plays  of  Samuel 
Foote,  in  the  18th  century.  In 
the  19th  century  the  short  farcical 
play  as  written  by  Poole,  Maddison 
Morton,  F.  C.  Burnand,  and  others 
was  highly  popular.  The  word 
originally  meant  an  interpolation, 
like  an  actor's  gag,  hence  a 
performance  in  which  jests  and 
humorous  incidents  predominated. 

Farcy  (Lat.  farciminum).  Dis- 
ease affecting  horses.  It  is  a  form 
of  glanders  (q.v.),  and  as  such  must 
be  notified  to  the  local  authorities. 

Fareham.  Market  town,  sea- 
port, and  urb.  dist.  of  Hampshire, 
England.  It  stands  on  a  creek  off 
Portsmouth  Harbour,  8  m.  N.  W.  of 
Portsmouth  and  76  m.  S.W.  of 
London,  and  is  a  junction  on  the 
L.  &  S.W.  Rly.  The  chief  building 
is  S.  Mary's  Church,  and  near  are 
the  ruins  of  Porchester  Castle. 
There  is  a  trade  in  corn  and  coal. 
In  medieval  times  Fareham  was  a 
prosperous  port,  but  now  it  can 
only  be  reached  by  small  vessels. 
It  was  also  a  borough,  and  at  one 
time  sent  members  to  Parliament. 
Market  day,  Mon.  Pop.  9,674. 

Farewell.  Cape  of  Greenland, 
at  its  southernmost  point,  in  lat. 
59°  50'  N.  It  is  on  a  small  island 
off  the  coast,  with  an  alt.  of  1,000 
ft.  The  ice  drifting  past  it  from 
the  N.E.  towards  Davis  Strait,  hi 
addition  to  the  currents,  makes  it 
dangerous  for  navigators. 

Far  from  the  Madding  Crowd. 
Novel  by  Thomas  Hardy,  first  pub- 
lished in  1874.  One  of  the  earliest  of 
his  realistic  novels  of  Wessex  rustic 
life,  it  tells  of  the  tragic  relations  of 
the  woman  farmer  Bathsheba 
Everdene  with  three  men,  the  mid- 
dle-aged farmer  whom  she  inflames 
by  means  of  a  thoughtless  valentine, 
the  worthless  Sergeant  Troy,  whom 
she  first  marries,  and  the  fine  loyal 
Gabriel  Oak  in  whose  love  she 
eventually  finds  repose. 

Fargo.  City  of  N.  Dakota, 
U.S.A.,  the  co.  seat  of  Cass  co.  The 
largest  city  in  the  state,  it  stands 
on  the  Red  River  of  the  North  at 
the  head  of  steamship  navigation, 
240  m.  N.W.  of  Minneapolis,  and  is 
served  by  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee 
&  St.  Paul  and  other  rlys.  It  con- 
tains the  state  agricultural  college, 
Fargo  College,  other  educational 
institutions,  and  several  parks. 
An  extensive  trade  in  gram  is 
carried  on,  and  machinery  and 
farming  implements  are  largely 
dealt  in.  The  manufacturing  in- 
terests include  flour  and  knitting 
mills,  foundries,  and  leather  goods 
factories.  Settled  in  1871,  it  was 


incorporated  in  1875.  A  fire  in 
1893  caused  damage  estimated  at 
£600,000.  Pop.  17,875.  , 

Faridkot.  Sikh  state  of  the 
Punjab,  India.  In  the  S.  of  Feroze- 
pore  district,  its  area  is  642  sq. 
m.  The  ruling  family  belongs  to 
the  Sidhu-Barar  clan  of  the  Jats. 
The  E.  of  the  state  is  irrigated  from 
the  Sirhind  canal.  Pop.  130,294; 
42  p.c.  Sikhs,  29  p.o.  Hindus,  29 
p.c.  Mahomedans. 

Faridpur.  District  and  town  of 
Bengal,  India,  in  the  Dacca  divi- 
sion. The  name  is  derived  from 
a  Mahomedan  saint,  Farid  Shah, 
whose  shrine  has  been  set  up  in 
the  town.  Of  the  total  area  of  the 
district,  2,576  sq.  m.,  more  than 
three-quarters  is  under  cultivation. 
Other  crops  are  jute,  the  chief 
export,  and  pulses.  Hand  weav- 
ing is  the  principal  industry.  Pop. 
dist.,  2,121,914  ;  town,  13,131. 

Faridun.  Hero  of  Persian  my- 
thology. His  story  is  told  in  the 
Shah-Nameh  of  Firdusi  (Eng. 
trans.  A.  Rogers,  1907).  Faridun 
overcomes  the  dragon  tyrant 
Zuhak  and  occupies  the  throne.  He 
is  said  to  have  reigned  justly  for 
500  years,  and  to  have  gone  about 
the  world  doing  good  and  planting 
cypresses  and  roses. 

Farina  (Lat.,  meal).  Starchy 
preparation  used  for  food  or  in  the 
industrial  arts.  The  food-products 
of  cereal  grains  and  pulses,  and 
starchy  stems,  roots,  and  tubers, 
are  collectively  called  farinaceous. 
As  a  synonym  for  meal  or  flour  the 
word  denotes  in  N.  America  white, 
granular  maize  meal,  finer  than 
hominy,  used  for  puddings,  and  in 
S.  America  starchy  breadstuffs 
with  fibrous  admixture  derived 
from  cassava. 

The  farina  used  for  sizing  cotton 
textiles  is  principally  potato  starch, 
comprising  normally  starch  82 '70 
p.c.,  cellulose  and  ash  0  '58  p.c.,and 
water  16  •  72  p.c.  It  yields  a  thicker 
paste,  and  owing  to  its  sparse  nitro- 
genous matter  is  less  liable  to  mil- 
dew than  any  other  starch.  It  is 
mixed  with  wheat  flour  and  china 
clay  for  stiffening  fabrics,  and  be- 
cause of  its  purity  is  the  chief  source 
of  British  gum  or  dextrin.  Fossil 
farina  or  rock-meal  is  a  white 
crumbly  form  of  calcium  carbonate. 

Farina ;  A  LEGEND  OF  COLOGNE. 
One  of  George  Meredith's  shorter 
stories,  first  published  in  1857.  It 
is  an  extravagant  medieval  love 
romance,  telling  how  it  was  that 
the  famous  scent,  eau-de-Cologne, 
came  to  be  associated  with  the 
name  of  Farina. 

Farinelli  (1705-82).  Professional 
name  of  the  Italian  singer  Carlo 
Broschi.  Born  at  Naples,  Jan.  24, 
1705,  Broschi  was  a  pupil  of  Por- 
pora,  in  whose  opera,  Eumene,  he 


FARINGDON 


FARM 


Farinelli, 
Italian  singer 

From  an  engraving 


made  his  first  appearance  in  1722. 
This  made  him  famous,  and  pro- 
cured him  lucrative  engagements 

in  Vienna  and 

London.  I  n 
1736  he  went 
to  Madrid  and 
became  a  fav- 
ourite of  Philip 
V.  There  he 
remained  for 
25  years,  being 
loaded  with 
honours  and 
exercising  al- 
most regal 
powers.  His 

last  years  were  passed  at  Bologna, 
and  he  died  July  15,  1782.  The 
exceptional  beauty  and  range  of 
Farinelli' s  voice  and  his  wonderful 
control  over  it  made  him  one  of 
the  most  remarkable  singers  who 
have  ever  lived,  if  not  the  greatest 
of  all  male  soprano  singers. 

Faringdon.  Market  town  of 
Berkshire,  England,  known  also  as 
Great  Faringdon.  A  station  on  the 
G.W.  Rly.,  it  is  13  m.  W.  of  Abing- 
don  and  17  m.  S.W.  of  Oxford. 
All  Saints  Church  is  a  large  build- 
ing with  brasses  and  other  memo- 
rials; among  other  buildings  are 
the  market  hall  and  Faringdon 
House.  The  agricultural  centre  for 
a  large  district,  Faringdon  has  a 
trade  in  corn,  cattle,  etc.  Market 
day,  Tues.  Pop.  3,079. 

Faringdon,  ALEXANDER  HEN- 
DERSON, IST  BARON  (b.  1850). 
British  business  man  and  poli- 
tician. A  son 
of  George 
Henderson  of 
Langholm, 
Dumfries,  he 
was  born  in 
London,  Sept. 
28,  1850.  He 
became  a 
s  t  o  c  kbroker, 
and  in  time 
head  of  the 
firm  of  Greenwood  &  Co.  Having 
joined  the  board  of  the  Great 
Central  Rly.  in  August,  1894,  he 
became  chairman  of  the  line,  May, 
1899.  In  1898  he  was  returned 
to  Parliament  as  Unionist  M.P. 
for  West  Staffordshire,  but  lost 
his  seat  in  1906.  From  1913- 
16  Henderson  was  M.P.  for  St. 
George's,  Hanover  Square.  _  In 
1902  he  was  made  a  baronet 
and  in  1916  a  baron,  taking 
his  title  from  Faringdon,  near 
where  is  his  seat,  Buscot  Park. 
Farington,  JOSEPH  (1747-1821). 
British  artist  and  diarist.  A  pro- 
minent R.A.  in  his  day,  he  is  now 
chiefly  noted  for  his  voluminous 
diaries,  which  were  acquired  by 
The  Morning  Post  early  in  1922 
and  serialised  in  that  journal.  They 


Alexander  Henderson, 
1st  Baron  Faringdon 


abound  in  anecdote  and  gossip,  and 
most  of  the  eminent  men  and 
women  of  his  time  figure  in  them. 
The  diaries  were  published  in  book 
form  in  1922. 

Farini,  LUIGI  CARLO  (1812-66). 
Italian  statesman.  Born  at  Russi, 
near  Ravenna,  Oct.  22,  1812,  he 
early  became 
an  ardent  na- 
tionalist, and 
in  1843  was 
banished  from 
the  papal 
states.  On  the 
election  of 
Pius  IX  in  1846 
he  returned  to 

Luigi  Farmi.  Rome  as  secre- 

Italian  statesman  tary  to  the 
ministry  of  the  interior,  and  later 
was  appointed  to  the  department  of 
publich  health.  On  the  declaration 
of  the  Roman  Republic,  1849,  he 
resigned,  but,  disappointed  at 
the  trend  of  Pius's  policy,  Farini 
went  to  Turin,  and  wrote  his 
famous  Lo  Stato  Romano  dal  1815 
al  1850  in  1851.  The  same  year  he 
became  minister  of  public  instruc- 
tion and  an  ardent  supporter  of 
Cavour,  creating  a  deep  impression 
by  his  letters  to  Gladstone  on 
Italian  problems.  In  1859  Farini 
was  sent  as  Piedmontese  commis- 
sioner to  Modena,  became  dictator 
of  the  duchy,  and  negotiated  the 
transfer  of  Modena,  Parma  and  Tus- 
cany to  Piedmont.  Appointed 
minister  of  the  interior,  1860,  he 
became  prime  minister  of  the  new 
kingdom  of  Italy,  1861-63,  and 
died  Aug.  1,  1866. 

Farjeon,  BENJAMIN  LEOPOLD 
(1833-1903).  British  novelist.  Born 
in  London,  of  Jewish  descent,  he 
early  migrated  to  Australia.  He 
edited  a  newspaper  at  Dunedin, 
New  Zealand,  before  returning  to 


London,  where  in  1870  he  pub- 
lished Grif,  A  Story  of  Australian 
Life,  which  was  immediately  suc- 
cessful. His 
novels,  realis- 
tic and  senti- 
mental, fre- 
quently dealt 
with  mysteries 
and  the  detec- 
tion of  crime. 
Among  the 
more  notable 
were  London's  Benjamin  L.  Farjeon, 
Heart,  1873;  Brihsb  novelist 
The  Duchess 

of  Rosemary  Lane,  1876  ;  The 
House  of  White  Shadows,  1884; 
Toilers  of  Babylon,  1888  ;  Aaron 
the  Jew,  1894 ;  and  The  Mesmerists, 
1900.  He  died  July  23,  1903. 

Farley,  JOHN  MURPHY  (b.  1842). 
Roman  Catholic  prelate.  Born  at 
Newton  Hamilton,  co.  Armagh, 
Ireland,  April 
20,  1842,  he 
was  educated 
in  Monaghan, 
New  York,  and 
Rome.  Or- 
dained priest, 
June  11,  1870, 
he  was  assist- 
ant pastor  of 
S.Peter's,  New 
Brighton,  Sta- 
ten  Island.  1870-72  ;  secretary  to 
Archbishop  M'Closkey,  1872-84; 
private  chamberlain  to  Leo  XIII, 
1884 ;  vicar-general,  New  York 
diocese,  1891,  and  domestic  prelate 
to  Leo  XIII,  1892.  Consecrated 
auxiliary  bishop  of  New  York, 
1895,  he  became  archbishop  of  New 
York,  1902,  and  was  made  a 
cardinal,  Nov.  27,  1911.  He  wrote 
a  Life  of  Cardinal  M'Closkey,  1900, 
and  a  History  of  S.  Patrick's 
Cathedral,  N.Y.,  1908. 


John  M.  Farley, 
Irish  prelate 


THE    FARM:     TYPES    AND    ORGANIZATION 

J.  C.  Newsham,  Principal,  Monmouthshire   Agricultural    Inst. 

This   article   describes   the   nature   of  the  farm  and   its   varieties, 

leaving  the  subject  of  its  products  to  articles  such  as  Agriculture; 

Cattle;  Crops.     See  also  Barley ;  Electro-Culture;   Wheat 

The  word  farm,  when  understood 
with  etymological  propriety,  can 
designate  only  such  land  and  build- 
ings as  are  rented  or  held  by  a 
tenant,  but  in  ordinary  modern 
usage  it  may  designate  also  the 
home  farm  of  a  large  estate,  or  the 
small  landed  property  of  one  who 
is  himself  both  owner  and  farmer. 
The  word  itself  originally  comes 
from  the  late  Lat.  firma,  a  tribute 
or  fixed  payment. 

The  home  farm  on  a  large  estate 
may  be  run  on  commercial  lines 
to  obtain  the  greatest  profit,  or 
merely  to  supply  farm  produce  to 
the  family  and  the  immediate 


dependents  of  the  landowner,  or  as 
a  model  to  exhibit  all  that  is 
modern  in  the  way  of  farm- 
buildings,  and  to  demonstrate  the 
best  methods  of  husbandry  suit- 
able for  the  district.  The  modern 
tendency  is  to  conduct  home  farms 
on  purely  commercial  lines,  leaving 
agricultural  colleges,  farm  insti- 
tutes, and  schools  of  agriculture  to 
experiment  and  demonstrate  in  all 
matters  pertaining  to  the  advance- 
ment of  agriculture. 

The  Great  War  resulted  in  many 
small  patches  of  pasture  land  in 
the  British  Islands  being  brought 
under  the  plough.  Thus  farms  are 


i.  Drying  racks  for  oats.    2.   Dipping  bath  for  sheep  buildings.     7.  Part  of  a  ig-bay  wagon  shed.    8.  Stalls  in 

with  draining  pens  beyond.     3.  Old  army  hut  used  for  a  cowshed.   9.  Fittings  used  in  pens  where  young  stock 

storage.     4.  Cowsheds  and  stone  manure  pit.    5.  Stack-  are  housed.    10.  Another  form  of  cowshed,  with  wooden 

yard  with  iron  rick  stands.    6.  Farmhouse  and  adjacent  stall  partitions 

FARM:     FEATURES   OF   A   MODERN   BRITISH   FARM   EQUIPMENT 

By    courtesy  of  The  Agricultural  Gazette 


FARMAN 


SO86 


FARM   COLONY 


found  varying  in  extent  from  a 
small  arable  holding  little  larger 
than  a  cottage  allotment,  with 
perhaps  a  barn  to  house  the  corn, 
to  an  estate  of  several  thousands  of 
acres  of  rich  pasture  and  arable 
land,  with  a  mansion,  and  houses 
for  bailiffs,  skilled  workers,  and 
farm  labourers.  In  further  con- 
trast to  the  latter  there  are  exten- 
sive areas  of  boggy  land  fit  only 
for  grazing  cattle  and  sheep  in 
summer  ;  there  is  also  mountainous 
land,  restricted  entirely  to  the 
breeding  and  feeding  of  sheep. 
Types  of  Farms 

The  wide  variation  in  the  soil  and 
climatic  conditions  in  Great-  Brit- 
ain and  Ireland  has  a  distinct 
influence  upon  the  systems  of  farm- 
ing adopted,  and  the  farms  are 
distributable  into  several  widely 
different  classes.  Pastoral  farms, 
such  as  those  which  exist  through- 
out the  west  of  England  and  in 
many  parts  of  Ireland,  are  almost 
wholly  utilised  for  the  breeding  of 
horses,  cattle,  and  sheep.  A 
pastoral  farm  may,  of  course,  only 
comprise  a  sheep  farm  or  "  sheep 
walk"  in  the  wild  mountainous 
parts  of  Cumberland,  or  Scotland, 
or  a  cattle-rearing  farm  in  rich 
pastoral  counties  like  Devonshire. 
Or  it  may  comprise  a  valley  farm, 
where  both  dairy  cattle  and  sheep 
of  the  heavier  Down  breeds  flourish 
on  the  rich  alluvial  soils. 

Distinct  from  these  is  the  dairy 
farm  for  the  production  of  milk 
and  the  manufacture  of  cheese 
and  butter,  where  the  by-products, 
including  separated  milk,  butter- 
milk, and  whey  are  utilised  in  calf- 
rearing  and  pig-feeding.  In  close 
proximity  to  cities,  large  provincial 
towns,  or  industrial  centres,  typical 
mixed  farms  are  encountered  where 
almost  every  form  of  husbandry  is 
practised,  from  horse-breeding  and 
corn -growing  to  catch-cropping  and 
the  breeding  and  feeding  of  poultry 
and  rabbits ;  special  attention  is 
also  given  to  the  cultivation  of 
market  garden  crops. 

In  many  of  the  southern  counties 
of  England,  e.g.  Hampshire,  two 
classes  of  farms,  known  as  upland 
and  woodland  farms,  are  met  with. 
The  former  comprise  large  areas  of 
arable  land^  overlying  the  chalk  in 
many  cases,  and  these  farms  are 
almost  entirely  restricted  to  the 
breeding  and  fattening  of  the  heavy 
breeds  of  sheep,  such  as  the  Hamp- 
shire Downs,  Oxford  Downs,  and 
Suff  oiks,  and  crosses  of  these  breeds. 
The  system  of  rotation  cropping 
on  these  shallow  upland  farms  is 
intricate,  and  requires  consider- 
able local  knowledge. 

Woodland  farms  usually  com- 
prise one-third  of  their  area  as 
arable  land,  and  as  a  rule  the  soil 


consists  of  a  heavy  retentive  clay 
loam  overlying  clay,  difficult  and 
expensive  to  cultivate,  and  strictly 
limited  as  regards  the  variety  of 
crops  which  can  be  grown.  There  are 
few  farms  in  England  where  large 
areas  of  corn  are  grown  without  the 
assistance  of  sheep  as  a  means  of 
manuring  and  consolidating  light 
and  shallow  soils,  although  here 
and  there  grain  is  grown  by  the  use 
of  chemical  manures,  while  the 
ploughing  in  of  green  crops  com- 
prises the  only  means  of  returning 
organic  matter  to  the  soil. 

Although  there  is  a  tendency  to 
divide  large  into  smaller  farms, 
many  do  not  readily  admit  of  this, 
more  especially  where  the  propor- 
tion of  light  to  heavy  soil  is  well 
balanced.  Where  there  is  an  ex- 
cessive quantity  of  heavy  soil  the 
farmer  stands  to  lose  consider- 
ably, because  both  men  and 
horses  are  often  idle  during  the 
winter  months.  A  typical  mixed 
farm  of  not  more  than  400  acres 
would  appear  to  be  as  much  as 
one  man  can  manage  if  he  is  to 
give  the  amount  of  personal  atten- 
tion to  it  necessary  for  the  success- 
ful conduct  of  his  business,  especi- 
ally in  view  of  the  amount  of  detail 
in  modern  intensive  farming. 

In  order  successfully  to  control 
large  areas  either  privately  or  on 
cooperative  lines,  good  organization 
is  essential,  including  the  employ- 
ment of  skilled  and  experienced 
farm  managers  or  bailiffs.  The 
small  mixed  farm  or  holding  is  one 
of  from  30  to  50  acres,  on  which  the 
farmer,  his  wife  and  family  may 
maintain  themselves  in  reasonable 
comfort,  simply  through  dint  of 
hard  work,  economy,  and  thrift. 
In  counties  like  Kent  many  families 
make  quite  comfortable  livings  by 
specialising  in  fruit-growing. 
Modern  Farm  Buildings 

The  planning  and  erection  of 
modern  farm  buildings  requires  as 
much  expert  advice  as  the  erection 
of  dwelling-houses  or  factories.  The 
aspect  most  favoured  is  S.  or  S.E. ; 
to  facilitate  drainage  the  buildings 
should  be  erected  on  rising  ground. 

The  production  of  milk  under 
hygienic  conditions  calls  for  special 
attention  in  the  erection  of  modern 
cowsheds,  which  are  now  usually 
equipped  on  American  principles. 
Low  mangers,  tubular  iron  stan- 
chions, stall  division,  and  neck 
yokes  have  done  much  to  ensure 
cleanlmess,  particularly  in  prevent- 
ing the  udders  and  hind-quarters  of 
the  cows  from  becoming  soiled 
with  manure.  Ventilation,  light, 
and  drainage  were  far  from  satis- 
factory in  the  older  types  of  cow 
houses,  but  these  defects  have  been 
largely  remedied  of  recent  years. 
Surface  drainage,  the  abolition  of 


the  old  insanitary  subsoil  and 
indoor  trap  systems,  the  conserva- 
tion of  the  liquid  manure  in  suitable 
tanks  apart  from  the  buildings,  and 
the  removal  of  the  solid  excrements 
to  some  distance  from  the  byres, 
all  tend  to  more  healthy,  sanitary, 
and  better  economic  conditions. 

Although  previous  to  the  Great 
War  something  like  £10  per  acre 
was  required  to  stock  and  equip  a 
farm  and  leave  something  in  hand 
for  working  expenses  and  current 
expenditure  until  stock  and  crops 
•^aatured,  under  post-war  condi- 
tions it  requires  at  least  an  80  p.c. 
increase  on  this  estimate  if  the 
farm  is  to  be  reasonably  well 
stocked  and  equipped.  Farms  are 
usually  let  on  a  lease  for  a  term  of 
years  or  on  a  yearly  tenancy,  but 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  much 
of  the  land  in  the  British  Isles  will 
be  much  more  intensively  farmed 
under  some  satisfactory  system  to 
ensure  proper  security  of  tenure. 
See  A  Pilgrimage  of  British  Farm- 
ing, A.  D.  Hall,  1913. 

Farman.  Name  of  aeroplanes 
built  by  the  brothers  Henry  and 
Maurice  Farman.  The  son  of  an 
English  journalist,  Henry  (b.  1875) 
was  born  hi  France  and  began 
his  career  as  a  bicycle  racer,  then 
manufactured  bicycles  and  motor- 
cars. He  took  up  aeronautics  in 
1907,  and  developed  and  perfected 
an  aeroplane  known  by  his  name, 
making  his  first  trials  at  Issy-les- 
Moulineaux,Nov.,  1907-Jan.,  1908. 
He  was  the  first  aviator  to  fly  from 
town  to  town  (Chalons-Reims, 
1908),  and  to  fly  100  miles  (Reims, 
1909).  He  established  in  1908  a 
school  of  aviation  and  works  at 
Buc,  near  Versailles. 

Maurice  Farman  established 
aviation  works  a  little  later,  and 
in  1912  the  two  combined  their 
resources,  erecting  a  factory  at 
Billancourt.  They  supplied  aero- 
planes to  the  French  army  and 
other  countries,  including  Britain. 
Various  types  of  their  machines 
did  good  work  in  the  Great  War. 
See  Aeronautics ;  Aeroplane. 

Farm  Colony.  Name  given  to 
a  settlement  of  persons  on  the  land 
for  the  purpose  of  cultivating  it. 
The  experiment  has  been  tried  in 
England,  America,  and  elsewhere 
with  varying  degrees  of  success. 
General  Booth  established  one  in 
Essex  to  solve  the  unemployment 
problem.  The  first  farm  colony 
for  ex-soldiers  was  established  in 
1916  at  Holderness,  in  E.  York- 
shire. It  was  intended  to  provide 
about  sixty  holdings,  averaging 
thirty-five  acres  each.  The  Small 
Holdings  (Colonies)  Act,  1916, 
arranged  for  the  settlement  of  dis- 
charged service  men  at  Holbeach, 
Patrington,  and  elsewhere. 


FARMER 


3087 


FARNBOROUGH 


An  important  farm  colony  was 
founded  at  Lasswade,  near  Edin- 
burgh, by  Sir  Robert  Philip,  in 
1910.  Known  as  the  Royal  Vic- 
toria Farm  Colony,  in  four  years 
it  passed  out  88  fit  men  to  em- 
ployments, who  had  entered  it  hi 
various  stages  of  disablement  and 
disease.  In  1920  it  was  proposed 
to  establish  a  colony  for  sailors  and 
soldiers  suffering  from  tuberculosis, 
and  115  acres  were  acquired  at 
Frimley,  Surrey.  See  Land  Settle- 
ment; Small  Holdings. 

Farmer.  One  who  farms  land, 
an  agriculturist.  Originally  the  word 
had  a  different  meaning,  referring 
to  one  who  collected  the  taxes  by 
contract.  The  farmer  collected  as 
much  as  he  could,  but  paid  over  a 
fixed  sum,  called  the  firma,  to  the 
king.  There  was  a  system  of  this 
kind  in  Rome  ;  it  was  done  by  the 
sheriffs  in  medieval  England.  The 
word  was  used  later  for  one  who 
took  over  a  piece  of  land,  paying 
a  fixed  sum  for  the  right  to  culti- 
vate it,  and  this  is  the  modern 
sense.  See  Agriculture ;  Farm. 

Farmer,  JOHN  (1835-1901). 
British  musician.  Born  at  Not- 
tingham, Aug.  16,  1835,  he  studied 
music  at  Leip- 
zig and  Coburg, 
and  afterwards 
taught  it  at 
Zurich.  In  1862 
he  settled  at 
Harrow,  and  in 
1864  was  made 
music  master 

at  the  school. 

John  Farmer,          From  1885  un- 
British  musician        ta    his    death 

Elliott  &Fry  he    wag   Qrgan. 

ist  of  Balliol  College,  Oxford, 
where  he  arranged  Sunday  even- 
ing concerts  and  founded  the 
Musical  Society.  He  died  July  17, 
1901.  In  addition  to  his  song 
tunes,  Farmer  wrote  oratorios  and 
edited  a  volume  of  songs  for 
soldiers  and  sailors,  and  another 
for  children. 

Farmer,  JOHN  BRETLAND  (b. 
1865).  British  botanist.  Born  at 
Atherstone,  April  5,  1865,  and 
educated  at  Magdalen  College,  Ox- 
ford, he  was  demonstrator  in 
botany  to  the  university,  1887-92, 
when  he  became  assistant  professor 
of  biology  at  the  royal  college  of 
science,  S.  Kensington.  In  1895 
his  chair  was  made  independent, 
and  he  became  professor  of  botany. 

Farmer- General.  Member  of 
a  financial  organization  in  France 
under  the  monarchy,  who,  in  con- 
sideration of  payment  of  an 
agreed  sum  to  the  government, 
secured  the  privilege  of  collecting 
taxes.  The  system,  based  upon 
that  of  the  Roman  publicani  (q.v. ), 
seems  to  have  been  in  existence  in 


France  in  the  14th  century  and 
was  firmly  established  in  the  16th. 
In  the  general  reform  of  fiscal 
methods  which  followed  the  Revo- 
lution the  farmers- general  were 
abolished. 

Farmer  Labour  Party .  Ameri- 
can political  party.  Organized  in 
Chicago  in  July,  1920,  it  ran  as  its 
candidate  for  president  at  the 
election  of  that  year  Parley  P. 
Christensen,  of  Salt  Lake  City, 
Utah.  As  its  name  implies,  it  was 
in  the  main  composed  of  radical 
farmers  from  the  West,  dissatisfied 
with  "Wall  Street"  and  the 
general  financial  system,  and 
Labour  extremists,  and  it  aroused 
special  interest  as 
representing  for  the  ' 
first  time  in  Ameri-  | 
can  politics  a 
separate  party  of 
this  kind. 

Farmers'  Alli- 
ance.    Political 
party  in  the  U.S.  A. 
It  began  about  1873 
when    societies   of 
the   kind   were  es- 
tablished in  Texas 
and    other    states, 
the     movement 
being  the  successor 
of  that  known  as 
the    Grange.        In 
1882  some  of  these 
associations      banded     themselves 
together  in  a  national  society,  and 
in    1889    the    name   of    National 
Farmers'    Alliance   and  Industrial 
Union    was    taken.       It   consisted 
mainly  of  farmers  of  the  South,  and 
the  adopted  programme  included 
many    changes     for    the     benefit 
of    the    farming    interest.        The 
alliance    took    an    active    part    in 
politics,  especially  at  the  elections 
of  1890.     In  general  it  supported 
the   Democrat  candidates,   but  it 
secured  seats  for  some  of  its  own 
nominees,  and  controlling  power  in 
Kansas  and  Nebraska.      In  1914  it 
represented  about  3,000,000  farm- 
ers, and  had  a  programme  which 
included   the   restriction  of  immi- 
gration and  the  free  distribution  of 
seed.     See  Grange  Party  ;  Populist 
Party. 

Farmers'  Club.  -London  club 
founded  in  1842.  Affording  a  con- 
venient social  centre  for  those  in- 
terested in  agriculture,  it  is  housed 
at  2,  Whitehall  Court,  S.W.  The 
term  is  also  often  applied  to  the  co- 
operative trading  societies  formed 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Agricul- 
tural Organization  Societies  of 
England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland. 
See  Agricultural  Organization. 

Farmer's  Dynamite.  Explo- 
sive of  the  gelatine  dynamite 
type.  It  was  specially  manufac- 
tured to  provide  a  mild,  cheap  ex- 


plosive which  would  be  suitable  fo 
breaking  up  sub-soil,  uprootin 
tree  stumps,  and  similar  agricu 
tural  purposes.  It  is  a  mixture  o 
about  40  p.c.  of  nitroglycerine 
gelatinised  with  nitrocellulose, 
p.c.  of  dry  wood  meal,  40  p.c.  o 
sodium  nitrate,  and  a  small  propor 
tion  of  magnesium  carbonate. 

Farnborough.  Urban  dist.  an 
parish  of  Hampshire,  England.  ] 
is  33  m.  S.W.  of  London,  on  th 
S.E.  &  C.,  and  L.  &  S.W.  Rlys. 
mausoleum  attached  to  S.  Michael' 
Roman  Catholic  church,  built  by 
the  Empress  Eugenie,  contains  th 
remains  of  Napoleon  III,  the  Princ 
Imperial,  and  the  empress  herself 


Farnborough,  Hampshire.    The  mausoleum  among  the 

trees  where  Napoleon  III,  Empress  Eugenie,  and  the 

Prince  Imperial  are  buried  ;    it  was  erected  in  1887 

For  many  years  the  exiled  lady 
lived  at  Farnborough  Hill.  Within 
the  Aldershot  area,  Farnborough 
contains  north  camp,  and  early  in 
the  20th  century  Farnborough  Com 
mon  was  chosen  as  the  site  of  the 
Royal  Aircraft  Factory.  Here,  too, 
is  a  large  aerodrome.  Pop.  14,200. 
Another  Farnborough  is  a  village 
in  Kent,  4m.  S.E.  of  Bromley  (pop. 
3,210),  and  there  are  Farnboroughs 
in  Berkshire  and  Warwickshire. 

Farnborough ,  THOMAS  ERSKINE 
MAY,  BARON  (1815-86).  British 
historian.  Born  in  London,  Feb.  8, 
1815,  he  was 
educated  at 
Bedford  Gram- 
mar School.  In 
1831  he  be- 
came an  assist- 
a  n  t  in  the 
library  of  the 
House  of  Com- 
mons, and  in 
1838  was  called 
to  the  bar.  In 

1846  he  was  made  an  examiner  of  pri- 
vate bills ;  in  1847  a  taxing  master, 
and  in  1856  a  clerk  assistant  to  the 
House.  In  1871  he  was  appointed 
clerk  of  the  House  of  Commons,  and 
he  retired  in  April  1886,  dying  in 
London  a  month  later,  May  1?.  He 
had  been  knighted  in  1886,  and  was 
made  a  peer  a  few  days  before  his 
death.  He  left  no  heir.  Erskine 


T.  Erskine  May, 
Baron  Farnborough 


FARNE 


FARNHAM 


May's  long  association  with  the 
House  of  Commons,  together  with 
his  aptitude  for  research,  made  him 
the  chief  authority  on  its  procedure, 
on  which  he  wrote  several  books 
notably  his  Treatise  on  the  Lawr 
Privileges,  Proceedings  and  Usage 
of  Parliament,  1844.  Taking  a 
wider  range,  he  devoted  himself  to 
the  constitutional  history  of  Eng- 
land, and  his  work  dealing  with  the 
period,  1760-1860,  published  1861- 
63,  remains  the  standard  authority 
on  the  subject.  He  wrote  also 
Democracy  in  Europe,  1877. 

Fame ,  FEARNE  OR  FERN  ISLANDS, 
OR  THE  STAPLES.  Group  of  seven- 
teen rocky  islets  and  rocks  off  the 
coast  of  Northumberland,  England, 
separated  from  the  mainland  by 
the  Fairway  Channel.  Fame  or 
House,  the  largest  ( 16  acres),  was  the 
retreat  of  S.  Cuthbert  (q.v.)  in  the 
7th  century,  and  Longstone  with  its 
lighthouse  is  famous  for  its  as- 
sociation with  Grace  Darling  (q.v.). 
Farnese.  Name  of  the  Italian 
ducal  family  of  Parma  during  the 
16th  and  17th  centuries.  First 
appearing  in  history  as  lords  of 
Farnete,  in  Tuscany,  in  the  12th 
century  they  became  prominent 
by  the  election  as  pope  Paul  III  of 
Alessandro  Farnese,  1534,  brother 
of  Giulia,  favourite  of  pope  Alex- 
ander VI.  In  1545  pope  Paul  gave 
the  duchy  of  Parma  to  his  natural 
son  Pierluigi  (1503-47),  a  notorious 
libertine,  murdered  by  partisans  of 
Charles  V.  at  Piacenza.  Of  Pier- 
luigi's  sons,  Alessandro  (1520-89) 
became  a  cardinal  in  1534,  and 
completed  the  Farnese  Palace  (q.v.) 
in  Rome,  while  Ottavio  (1521-86), 
after  a  long  struggle  with  his 
randfather  the  pope,  became  2nd 
uke  of  Parma  in  1551,  recovering 
Piacenza  a  few  years  later.  His  son 
Alessandro  was  the  famous  soldier 
in  Spanish  ser- 
vice, better 
known  as  the 
3rd  duke  of 
Parma  (q.v. ). 

Elizabeth 
Farnese  (1692 
-1766)  was  the 
last  notable 
member  of 
the  family. 
Daughter  o  f 
Odoardo  Far- 


Elizabeth  Farnese, 
Queen  of  Spain 

from  a  print 


nese,  she  married  in  1714  Philip  V 
of  Spain,  whose  weakness,  and  in 
ater  years  insanity,  left  her  the 
virtual  ruler  of  Spain  during  his 
nominal  reign.  With  cardinal 
Alberoni  she  worked  for  the  re- 
storation of  Spanish  rule  in  the  lost 
Italian  provinces,  a  scheme  only 
Broken  by  the  demands  of  the 
Quadruple  Alliance  in  Jan.  1720. 
The  direct  Farnese  -  succession 
ended  with  Antonio  (1679-1731). 


Fame.     S.  Cuthbert's  church,  Inner  Fame,  on  the  site 
of  the  hermitage  where  the  saint  died  in  687 

Valentine 

Farnese  Palace.     Building  in 
Rome,  one  of  the  finest  examples  of 
later  Renaissance  architecture.    It 
was  designed  and  begun  in  1530  by 
Antonio  da  Sangallo,  and  the  work 
was  carried  on  and  completed  by 
Michelangelo,  Vignola,  and  Giacomo 
della  Porta.  The  length  of  the  front 
fa9ade  is  190  ft., 
and  the  building  is 
260  ft,  deep  and  97 
ft.  high  to  the  top 
of  the  cornice.  The 
latter,    the    most 
striking     feature, 
was  added   by 
Michelangelo,  who 
was   also    respon- 
sible for  the  upper 
storey     which    it 
crowns.  The  court- 
yard on  the  S.  side 
is  surrounded  by 
arcades,  modelled 
on    those    of    the 
Colosseum.      The 
building  was  com- 
missioned by  Car- 
dinal    Alessandro  ' 
Farnese,  afterwards  Pope  Paul  III, 
and  it  remained  in  the  possession  of 
the  Farnese  family  until  the  latter 
became  extinct  in  the  18th  century. 
It  then  passed,  with  the  Villa  Far- 
nesina,  to  the  king  of  Naples. 


Farnham.  Mar- 
ket town  and  urban 
district  of  Surrey, 
England.  It  stands 
on  the  Wey,  38  m. 
S.W.  of  London, 
being  served  by  the 
L.  &  S.W.R.  The 
centre  of  a  district 
in  which  hops  are 
grown,  it  has  trade 
therein  and  in 
other  agricultural 
produce,  which  it 
has  developed 
partly  owing  to  its 
proximity  to  Alder- 
shot.  S.  Andrew's 
church  is  a  noble 
Transitional 
edifice,  and  the  other  buildings 
include  the  town  hall  and  an  old 
grammar  school. 

Above  the  town  stands  the 
castle,  the  seat  of  the  bishop  of 
Winchester.  The  first  castle  was 
built  in  the  12th  century,  but  this 
and  also  its  successor  were  de- 


Farnese  Palace,   Rome.     Arcade   of  the  courtyard,  a 

magnificent  example    of    the    architectural    work    of 

Michelangelo 

stroyed.       The    present    building 
dates  mainly  from  the  17th  cen- 
tury, although  there  are  slight  re- 
mains  of  its   predecessors.      Near 
the  town  are  Moor  Park,  the  resi- 
dence of  Sir  W.  Temple,  where  for 
a  time  Swift  lived, 
and  the  ruins  of 
Waverley  Abbey. 
Farnhambelonged 
to  the   bishop   of 
Winchester  before 
1066,  and  one  of 
the  bishops  made  it 
a  chartered  town. 
Having    decayed, 
it  ceased  to  be  a 
borough  in  1789. 
Here  Cobbett  was 
born,     his     birth- 
place   being    now 
an  inn,  The  Jolly 
Farmer.      Market 
day,  Mon.       Pop. 
7,365. 


Farnham.     Front  view  of  Farnham  Castle,  the  seat  of 

the  bishop  of  Winchester.    The  magnificent  cedars  on 

the  lawn  were  brought  direct  from  Lebanon 


r~ 


FARQUHAR 


Farnol,  JOHN  JEFFREY  (b.  1878). 
British  novelist.      Born  Feb.    10, 
1878,  and  educated  at  a  private 
school,  he  began  writing  while  in 
his  teens.      In   1902   he  went  to 
America,  where  he  painted  theatri- 
cal scenery,  and  contributed  stories 
to  various  periodicals.    In  America 
he  published  his  first  volume,  My 
Lady  Caprice,  1907  (later  reissued 
a  s    Chronicles 
of    the    Imp). 
In  1910  he  re- 
turned  to  Eng- 
land,   and    by 
the  publication 
of  The   Broad 
Highway 
achieved  popu- 
larity    as   a 
Jeffrey  Farnpl,         writer       of 
British  novelist         healthy    senti. 
Elliott* Fry  mental  adven- 

turous  romance.  Later  stories  in- 
cluded The  Money  Moon,  1911; 
The  Amateur  Gentleman,  1913  ; 
The  Honourable  Mr.  Tawnish, 
1914;  Beltane  the  Smith,  1915; 
Our  Admirable  Betty,  1918;  and 
Black  Bartlemy's  Treasure,  1920. 
Farnol  also  wrote  Some  War  Im- 
pressions, 1918. 

Farnworth.  Urban  district  and 
parish  of  Lancashire.  It  is  3  m. 
S.E.  of  Bolton,  of  which  it  is  practi- 
cally a  suburb,  and  has  a  station  on 
the  L.  &  Y.  Rly.  Sharing  in  the  in- 
dustries  of  Bolton,  it  has  spinning 
mills,  engineering  works,  and  ma- 
chinery shops,  while  around  are 
coal  mines.  Bricks  and  tiles  are 
made  here.  S.  John's  is  the  chief 
church,  and  there  are  a  number  of 
Nonconformist  places  of  worship. 
The  council  owns  the  electric 
lighting  and  tramway  under- 
takings,  markets,  baths,  cemetery, 
town  hall,  library,  and  refuse 
destructor.  Water  is  supplied  by 
Bolton  Corporation.  The  gas 
supply  is  owned  by  a  public  com- 
pany. Market  days,  Mon.  and  Sat. 
Pop.  28,131. 

Faro.  Gambling  card  game.  It  is 
one  of  the  oldest  of  banking  games, 
supposed  to  be  of  Italian  origin,  and 
under  the  name  of  Pharaon  was 
very  popular  in  the  time  of  Louis 
XIV.  It  requires  costly  apparatus 
and  a  lay-out.  A  full  pack  of  52 
cards  is  put  into  a  dealing  box  with 
an  open  top,  one  card  being  re- 
leased at  a  time.  The  first  card  in 
sight  at  the  beginning  of  each  deal 
is  called  soda  and  the  last  card  left 
in  the  box  is  in  hoc.  The  dealer  or 
banker  withdraws  soda  and  places 
it  some  little  distance  away  ;  the 
next  card,  termed  the  loser,  he  lays 
by  the  side  of  the  box.  The  third 
card  taken  out  is  the  winner,  which 
he  places  on  the  soda  ;  thus,  each 
alternate  card  is  a  winner  or  loser, 
eventually  forming  two  separate 


piles,  with  soda  and  loser  for  foun- 
dation. The  object  of  the  players  is 
to  forecast  correctly  (indicated  by 
the  way  in  which  they  stake  their 
money  upon  the  lay-out)  which 
particular  card  of  any  suit  will  win 
or  lose. 

Faro.  Administrative  dist.  of 
S.  Portugal,  coextensive  with  the 
prov.  of  Algarve.  The  climate  is 
genial  and  the  soil  fertile,  pro- 
ducing olives,  dates,  almonds,  figs, 
and  cereals.  Area,  1,937  sq.  m. 
Pop.  274,122. 

Faro.  Seaport  and  city  of  Por- 
tugal, capital  of  Faro  dist.  It 
stands  on  the  Atlantic,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Rio  Fermoso,  20  m. 
S.W.  of  Tavira,  and  is  the  terminus 
of  the  Lisbon-Faro  Rly.  Its  har- 


Sheep,  fish  (wet  and  dried),  wool, 
feathers,  skins,  tallow,  butter,  and 
fish-oil  are  exported.  The  largest 
island  is  Stromo,  with  the  capital, 
Thorshavn  ;  Sudero  is  the  next 
largest.  There  are  cathedral  ruins 
in  Kirkebo  on  Stromo.  Colonised  by 
the  Norwegians  in  the  9th  century, 
they  became  Danish  in  1380.  The 
people  still  speak  an  old  Norse  dia- 
lect. They  have  a  local  parliament 
and  are  represented  in  the  Danish 
parliament.  The  chief  magistrates 
are  an  amtman,  who  is  also  a 
commandant,  and  a  landvogt,  who 
is  chief  of  police.  In  religion  they 
are  mostly  Lutheran.  Area,  540  sq. 
m.  Pop.  19,617.  See  Map,  p.  2523 ; 
consult  also  The  Faroes  and  Ice- 
land. T  N.  Annandale.  1905 


Faroe.     Klaksvig,  the  principal  town  on  Bordo  Island,  and  Klaksvig  Mountain 


bour  is  large  and  sheltered,  but 
shallow  and  tidal.  The  town  pos- 
sesses a  cathedral,  a  military  hos- 
pital, a  museum,  and  a  ruined 
Moorish  castle.  Its  large  public 
square  is  the  centre  of  the  life 
of  the  city.  It  exports  fruit, 
vegetables,  wine,  cork,  sumach, 
sardines,  anchovies,  tunny,  and 
baskets.  Burned  by  the  English 
in  1596,  it  was  almost  destroyed 
by  an  earthquake  in  1755.  Pop. 
11,789. 

Faroe  (Dan.  Fdroerne,  sheep 
island).  Group  of  islands  in  the  N. 
Atlantic,  belonging  to  Denmark. 
The  group  lies  about  195  m.  N.W 
of  the  Shetlands,  and  250  m.  S.E. 
of  Iceland.  There  are  21  islands, 
17  of  them  inhabited.  Of  volcanic 
and  basaltic  formation,  they  are 
mountainous,rising  in  Slatarretinde 
in  the  island  of  Ostero  to  2,890  ft., 
with  lofty  and  steep  cliffs  and  deep 
fiords,  and  separated  from  each 
other  by  swift  and  dangerous  cur- 
rents. The  rainfall  is  heavy,  and 
storms  are  frequent.  Lying  between 
lat.  61°  20'  and  62°  20'  N.,  not  a 
great  distance  from  the  Arctic 
Circle,  the  climate  is  mild  but 
moist,  and  the  harbours  are  seldom 
frozen.  There  are  no  trees,  and 
barley  is  the  only  cereal  grown ; 
turnips  and  potatoes  thrive,  and 
coal  and  peat  are  found. 

The  chief  industries  are  sheep- 
raising,  cattle-breeding,  wild- 
fowling,  whaling,  and  fishing. 


Farquhar,  HORACE  BRAND  FAR- 
QUHAR, IST  EARL  (b.  1844-1923). 
British  politician.      Born  May   19, 
1844,  a  younger  son  of  Sir  W.  M. 
Townsend-Farquhar,  he  was  edu- 
cated at  Eton.    He  became  a  part- 
ner   in    the    firm    of    Sir    Samuel 
Scott  &  Co.,  bankers,  but,  devoting 
much  time  to  social  life,  became 
^^^^^^^^^_    one  of  the  in- 
timates of   the 
^        prince  of  Wales, 
•kjitok'  I    afterwards 
"f        Edward      VII. 
|   From    1901-7 
MBlK  ''*     ;    be  was  master 
r:^^|    TJ.        of    the    house- 
j^fc^  p^k          hold    to     the 

i^Mv  JLJBfe    king.     He    sat 

Earl  Farquhar,         i  n    Parliament 

British  politician       as    a    Unionist 

for  W.  Maryle- 

bone,  1895-98,  retiring  on  being 
made  a  baron.  From  1889  to  1901 
he  was  a  member  of  the  L.C.C., 
and  he  was  actively  connected  with 
the  central  Unionist  organizations. 
Extra  lord-in-waiting  both  to  King 
Edward  and  King  George,  he  was 
lord  steward,  1915-16,  made  an 
earl,  1922,  and  died  Aug.  30, .  1923. 
Farquhar,  SIR  ARTHUR  MURRAY 
(b.  1855).  British  sailor.  Born 
Jan.  19,  1855,  he  entered  the  navy 
in  1868  and  was  lieutenant  of  the 
Bacchante  1879-82,  on  board 
which  the  duke  of  Clarence  and 
George  V  (then  prince  George) 
were  training.  Promoted  captain 

1C     4 


FARQUHAR 


3O9O 


A.  M.  Farquhar, 
British  sailor 

Russell 


in  1896,  he  conveyed  the  duke  and 
duchess  of  Connaught  to  the  Delhi 
Durbar  in  1902  on  the  Renown. 
Rear-  admiral 
1906,  he  com- 
manded the 
fourth^ "J  cruiser 
squadron,  1909- 
11,  and  was  pro- 
moted vice-ad- 
miral. In  1913 
he  was  appoint- 
ed  to  command 
the  coastguard 
and  reserves, 
and  in  1914  was 
knighted  and  became  admiral. 

Farquhar,  GEORGE  (1678-1707). 
English  dramatist.  Born  in  Lon- 
donderry, and  educated  at  Trinity 
College,  Dub- 
lin, he  started 
life  as  an  actor 
in  Dublin,  but 
obtained  a 
commission  in 
the  army,  1702. 
His  first  play 
was  Love  and 
a  Bottle,  1699. 
which  was  fol- 
lowed by  The 
Constant  Cou- 


pie, 
1701 


George  Farquhar, 
English  dramatist 

From  an  old  print 

1700  ;  and  Sir  Harry  Wildair, 
701.  Other  notable  productions 
were  The  Beaux'  Stratagem,  1707, 
two  characters  in  which,  Lady 
Bountiful  and  Boniface,  the  inn- 
keeper, have  passed  into  the  lan- 
guage as  types.  The  Recruiting 
Officer,  1706,  contains  the  song 
Over  the  Hills  and  Far  Away.  Far- 
quhar  died  in  pecuniary  difficulties. 
He  had  sold  his  commission  to 
marry  a  professed  heiress,  who 
turned  out  penniless.  Farquhar 
magnanimously  forgave  her.  His 
large-heartedness  is  reflected  in  his 
comedies,  which,  though  not  per- 
haps so  witty  as  those  of  Congreve, 
are  pervaded  by  a  human  sympathy 
which  gives  reality  to  both  plot  and 
characters.  Dramatic  Works,  ed. 
with  Life,  A.  C.  Ewald,  1892. 

Farr,  WILLIAM  (1807-83).  Brit- 
ish statistician.  Born  at  Kenley, 
Shropshire,  Nov.  30,  1807,  he 
studied  medi- 
cine in  Paris, 
and  practised 
in  London. 
In  1838  he  was 
appointed 
compiler  of 
abstracts  t  o 
the  registrar- 
general.  For 
the  two  decen- 
nial censuses, 
1851  and  1861,  he  was  assistant 
commissioner,  and  commissioner 
for  that  of  1871.  Disappointed  at 
not  obtaining  the  registrar-general- 
ship in  1879,  he  resigned  his  post. 


William  Farr, 
British  statistician 


Author  of  many  articles  on  statis- 
tics and  actuarial  matters,  he  wrote 
most  of  the  papers  on  the  causes 
of  death  in  England  in  the  annual 
reports  of  the  registrar-general  from 
1839-80.  He  died  April  14,  1883. 
Farragut,  DAVID  GLASGOW 
(1801-70).  American  sailor.  Born 
at  Knoxville,  Tennessee,  July  5, 
1801,  of  Spanish  descent,  he  en- 
tered the  navy,  and  in  1825  was 
promoted  lieutenant.  When  the 
Civil  War  came  in  1861,  notwith- 
standing his  southern  birth,  he 
offered  his  services  to  the  Wash- 
ington government,  and  hi  1862 
was  given  command  of  the  Wes- 
tern Gulf  blockading  squadron. 
His  great  popularity  was  inten- 
sified by  his  brilliant  forcing  of 
the  passage  of  the  Mississippi 
and  capture  of 
New  Orleans. 
After  an  un- 
successful op- 
eration against 
Vicksburg, 
with  the  aid 
o  f  monitors 
he  defeated 
Buchanan  at 


Mobile  in  1864,  but  his  health  being 
undermined  by  the  climate  he  re- 
turned to  New  York  the  same  year, 
being  made  the  first  rear-admiral  of 
the  U.  S.  navy.  In  1 866  he  was  pro  - 
moted  admiral,  and  retired  1867. 
He  died  at  Portsmouth,  New 
Hampshire,  Aug.  14,  1870. 

Farrant,  RICHARD  (c.  1530-80). 
British  organist  and  composer.  A 
gentleman  of  the  Chapel  Royal, 
Farrant  was  for  some  time  organist 
of  S.  George's  Chapel,  Windsor. 
Much  of  the  music  attributed  to 
him  has  been  proved  to  be  by 
.other  composers,  but  it  is  probable 
that  he  composed  the  beautiful 
anthem  Call  to  Remembrance.  He 
died  Nov.  30,  1580. 

Farrar,  FREDERIC  WILLIAM 
(1831-1903).  British  divine  and 
writer.  Born  at  Bombay,  Aug.  7, 
1831,  he  was  educated  at  London 
University  and  Trinity  College. 
Cambridge, 
and  became 
in  1855  an  as- 
sistant master 
a  t  Harrow. 
He  was  head- 
in  aster  of 
Marlborough 
College  from 
1871-76,  when 
he  became 
canon  of  West- 
minster and 
rector  of  S. 
Margaret's, 


Elizabeth  Farren, 
British  actress 


being  appointed  archdeacon  of 
Westminster  in  1883.  Farrar  was 
made  dean  of  Canterbury  in  1895. 
His  Life  of  Christ,  1874:  Life  of 
S.  Paul,  1879;  and  Lives  of  the 
Fathers,  1889,  enjoyed  remarkable 
success.  He  died  March  22,  1903. 

Farren,  ELIZABETH  (c.  1759- 
1829).  British  actress.  The  daughter 
of  a  Cork  surgeon  turned  actor, 
she  made  her 
first  London 
appearance  at 
The  Haymar- 
ket,  June  9. 
1777,  as  Miss 
Hardc  a  s  1 1  e. 
She  made 
her  debut  at 
Drury  Lane, 
Sept.  8,  1788, 
a  s  Charlotte 

After  SirT,  Lawrence        RuspOrt          i  n 

The    West  Indian,  and    acted   at 
this  theatre  and  The  Haymarket 
till   her  retirement    in    1797.     At 
Drury  Lane    she    succeeded    Mrs. 
Abington  as  the  impersonator  of 
fine  ladies  and  was  received  with 
favour  as  Lydia  Languish,  Milla- 
mant,  Lady  Betty  Modish,  Lady 
Teazle,    Berinthia    hi    Sheridan's 
Trip  to  Scarborough,  and  Angelica 
in  Congreve' s  Love  for  Love.     In 
1797  she  married  the  12th  earl  of 
Derby,  and  died  on  April  23,  1829. 
Farren,     ELLEN     OR     NELLIE 
(1848-1904).  British  actress.  Grand- 
daughter of  William  Farren  (q.v.), 
nnm^^^^^M  and     born     at 
i   Liverpool,    she 
I  played     many 
i   parts  in   com- 
I  edy,     farce, 
I   and    burlesque 
I   at     Sadler's 
^  1    Wells,  The 

ML      4  I    Olympic,    and 

Hyilk  £i  The  Queen's. 
She  joined 
John  Hollings- 
head's  c  o  m- 
pany  in  1868  at  the  (old)  Gaiety 
Theatre,  where  she  remained  under 
his  management,  and  that  of  his 
successor  George  Edwardes,  till  her 
retirement  in  1 89 1 ,  playing  as  princi  - 
pal  boy  in  innumerable  burlesques. 
Farren,  WILLIAM  (1786-1861). 
British  actor.  He  made  his  debut 
on  the  London  stage,  Sept.  10, 1818, 
as  Sir  Petei 
T  e  a  z  le  at 
Covent  Gar- 
den, where  he 
remained  till 
1828.  He  ap- 
peared as  Sir 
Peter  at  Drury 
Lane,  Oct.  16. 
1828,  remain- 
ing a  member  William  Farren, 
ofgthe  com.  F,™^tr, 
pany  for  nine  by  Mayan 


Nellie  Farren, 
British  actress 

Downey 


FARRER 

years.  In  1837  he  returned  to 
Covent  Garden,  which  he  left  a  few 
years  later  to  join  Benjamin 
Webster  as  stage-manager  at  The 
Haymarket,  where  he  stopped  10 
years.  Subsequently  he  managed 
The  Strand  and  The  Olympic,  tak- 
ing leave  of  the  public  at  The  Hay- 
market  July  10, 1855,  in  his  favour- 
ite part  of  Lord  Ogleby  in  The 
Clandestine  Marriage.  He  died  in 
London,  Sept.  24,  1861.  As  the 
old  man  of  18th  century  comedy 
he  was  unrivalled. 

Farrer,  THOMAS  HENRY  FARRER, 
IST  BARON  (1819-99).  British 
economist.  The  son  of  a  London 
solicitor,  he  was 
born  June  24, 
1819.  E  d  u- 
cated  at  Eton 
and  Balliol  Col- 
lege, Oxford, 
he  became  a 
barrister,  but 
his  career  was 
influenced  by 
his  close  f  riend- 
ship  with  Sir 
tafford 
Northcote,  who  secured  for  him  in 
1848  a  position  in  the  board  of  trade. 
He  rose  in  the  civil  service  and  from 
1865-88  was  permanent  secretary  to 
the  board.  He  was  largely  respon- 
sible for  much  valuable  legislation, 
including  some  concerning  mer- 
chant shipping  and  bankruptcy.  In 
1883  he  was  made  a  baronet,  in  1893 
a  baron.  As  an  economist  Farrer 
made  his  reputation  after  his 
retirement.  He  was  a  strong  free 
trader,  at  one  time  president  of 
the  Cobden  Club,  and  was  a  critic 
of  high  national  expenditure  and 
bimetallism.  From  1889-98  he  was 
a  member  of  the  London  County 
Council,  and  he  died  Oct.  12, 1899. 
Of  his  writings  the  best  known  is 
Studies  hi  Currency,  1898.  •. 

Farrier.  Name  given  originally 
to  a  man  who  shod  horses,  the 
word  being  derived  from  the  Latin 
ferrum,  iron.  After  a  time  the 
farrier  began  to  attend  to  the 
diseases  of  the  horses,  and  farriery 


3091 

was  the  name  for  what  is  now 
more  generally  known  as  veterinary 
surgery  (q.v. ). 

Farriers'  Company,  THE.  Lon- 
don city  livery  company.  Dating 
from  1356  as  a  fraternity,  its  first 
charter  was 
granted  in  1685. 
Farriers,  who  were 
also  called  ferrers, 
ferriers,  and  fer- 
rones,  are  men- 
tioned in  the  13th 
century.  They  owe 
their  ordinances  to 
a  complaint  that  Co£pTnTarm3 
certain  unskilled 
ferrones,  having  set  up  forges  in 
the  city,  had  caused  the  loss  of 
many  horses.  In  1758  an  act  of 
common  council  imposed  on  all 
operative  farriers  the  obligation  of 
taking  up  the  freedom  of  the  com- 
pany. While  this  rule  has  been 
abandoned  the  company  has  taken 
in  later  years  an  active  interest  in 
the  welfare  of  the  craft  by  the  offer 
of  prizes  for  good  workmanship, 
etc.,  and  in  1890,  in  cooperation 
with  the  Royal  Agricultural  So- 
ciety and  the  Royal  College  of 
Veterinary  Surgeons,  promoted  a 
scheme  for  the  national  registra- 
tion of  farriers  or  shoeing-smiths. 
The  archives  of  the  company  were 
almost  entirely  destroyed  by  fire 
in  1666.  Its  offices  are  at  140, 
Leadenhall  St.,  E.G. 

Farringdon  Street.  London 
thoroughfare  running  S.  from 
Charterhouse  Street  to  Ludgate 
Circus,  E.G.  Named  after  the  city 
ward  in  which  it  is  situated,  it  was 
built  over  the  Fleet  Ditch,  now  a 
sewer,  in  1826-30.  Fleet  Market, 
which  once  occupied  the  site,  was 
opened  Sept.  30,  1737,  and  for  92 
years  remained  a  centre  for  the  sale 
of  meat,  fish,  and  vegetables.  It 
was  removed  in  1829-30.  The 
market  for  fruit  and  vegetables 
built  between  Farringdon  Street 
and  Shoe  Lane,  N.  of  Stonecutter 
Street,  and  known  as  Farringdon 
Market,  was  opened  Nov.  20,  1829, 
but  the  site,  which  covered  1£  acres, 
sold  hi 


Farringdon  Street,  looking  south  towards  Holborn  Viaduct 


1892,  and  is 
now  covered  by 
a  fine  block 
of  buildings 
known  as 
B'arringdon 
Avenue.  The 
market  is  said 
to  have  costthe 
city  corpora- 
tion £280,000 

Farringdon 
St.  is  spanned 
by  Holborn 
Viaduct,  and 
contains  the 
Memorial  Hall 


(q.v.),  built  hi  1874  to  com- 
memorate the  fidelity  to  con- 
science of  2,000  ministers  ejected 
from  the  church  in  1662  by  the  Act 
of  Conformity;  Fleetway  House, 
headquarters  of  the  Amalgamated 
Press ;  and  is  fronted  on  the  E.  side 
by  part  of  the  London  Central 
(Smithfield)  Markets.  Fleet  Prison 
stood  on  ground  partly  occupied 
by  the  Memorial  Hall.  N.  of 
Charterhouse  Street  is  Farring- 
don Road,  notable  for  its  open 
market  and  old  bookstalls,  with  a 
Metropolitan  Rly.  station  and  a 
goods  station  of  the  G.N.R.  Far- 
ringdon Road  was  first  called  Vic- 
toria Road.  It  extends  to  King's 
Cross  Road,  and  was  made  in  1856. 
See  Fleet  Prison. 

Farrow's  Bank.  Former  Brit- 
ish bank.  Founded  hi  1904  by 
Thomas  Farrow,  it  was  registered 
as  a  credit  bank  under  the  Indus- 
trial and  Provident  Societies  Act. 
In  1907  it  was  registered  as  a  joint 
stock  company.  With  a  capital  of 
£1,000,000,  the  bank  had  75 
branches,  mainly  in  England.  In 
1921  Farrow  and  another  official 
were  sentenced  to  imprisonment 
for  fraud  hi  connection  with  it. 

Farrukhabad.  District  and 
town  of  India.  In  the  E.  of  the 
Agra  division  of  the  United  Pro- 
vinces, the  area  of  the  district  is 
1,744  sq.  m.  The  town  was  founded 
early  in  the  18th  century.  Farruk- 
habad city  lies  near  the  Ganges,  on 
the  rly.  line  from  Cawnpore  to 
Muttra,  and  at  the  end  of  a  branch 
of  the  E.  Indian  Rly.  from  Shikoha- 
bad.  It  forms  with  Fatehgarh,  lying 
3  m.  to  the  E.,  the  headquarters  of 
the  district  and  the  cantonment,  a 
single  municipality.  Cloth  printing 
is  the  chief  industry.  The  principal 
crops  are  wheat,  barley,  millet,  and 
gram ;  the  poppy,  cotton,  and 
sugar-cane  are  also  grown ;  tobacco 
is  exported.  Pop.  of  dist.,  900,022, 
five-sixths  Hindus;  of  town,56,573, 
two-thirds  Hindus,  one-third  Ma- 
homedans. 

FarsoRFARSisTAN.  Province  of 
Persia.  It  lies  on  the  E.  side  of  the 
Persian  Gulf,  and  is  bounded  on  the 
N.W.  by  Khuzistan  and  Ispahan, 
E.  by  Yazd  and  Kerman.  From 
the  warm  coastal  plain  the  coun- 
try rises  into  the  mts.,  where  the 
climate  is  cold.  The  highest  mt. 
is  the  Kuh-i-Bul,  14,000ft.  The 
rivers  are  small  and  not  numerous. 
There  are  several  lakes,  the  princi- 
pal being  Niris.  The  capital  is 
Shiraz,  and  the  ports  are  Bushire, 
Liajah,  and  Bander  Abbas.  The 
province  contains  the  ruins  of 
Persepolis.  Many  parts  of  the 
province  are  fertile,  and  produce 
wheat,  barley,  rice,  cotton,  and  an 
excellent  tobacco.  Area,  60,000 
sq.  m.  Pop.  750,000. 


FARSETIA 


3O92 


FASHION 


Farsetia.  Genus  of  annual  and 
perennial  herbs,  and  sub-shrubs  of 
the  natural  order  Cruciferae.  Na- 
tives of  S.  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa, 
they  have  opposite,  undivided 
leaves,  and  white  or  yellow  flowers. 

Farther  India  OB  INDO-CHINA. 
Term  used  to  designate  the  S.E. 
peninsula  of  Asia,  lying  E.  of  India 
and  S.  of  China.  It  includes  Assam, 
Burma,  the  Malay  and  Federated 
States,  the  Straits  Settlements, 
Annam,  Laos,  Cambodia,  Tong- 
king,  and  Cochin  China.  See 
Indo-China. 

Farthing  (A.S.  feortha,  fourth). 
Name  of  the  smallest  British  bronze 
coin,  value  one  quarter  of  a  penny. 


Farthing.     Obverse  and  reverse  of 

George  V  farthing,  1914 
From  its  first  appearance  under 
Edward  I,  until  about  1555,  it  was 
a  silver  com.  A  copper  farthing 
was  coined  in  1613,  but  did  not 
form  part  of  the  true  coinage  till 
a  reissue  in  1672,  under  Charles  II, 
who  also  struck  a  tin  farthing,  with 
a  circle  of  copper  inset,  in  1684. 
Copper  half-farthings  circulated 
between  1842-69.  The  farthing 
became  a  bronze  coin  in  1860,  and 
has  a  standard  weight  of  43 '750 
grains.  The  coin  is  legal  tender 
up  to  the  number  of  four  at  one 
time.  See  Coinage  ;  Numismatics. 

Farthingale  (Span,  verdugado, 
hooped).  Hooped  framework  sup- 
porting and  extending  a  wide  skirt. 
The  fashion  was  introduced  from 
Spain  into  England  in  the  time  of 
Elizabeth,  and  continued  until 
about  the  middle  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury. It  grew  to  a  prodigious  size, 
the  big  hoop  at  the  level  of  the  hips 
giving  a  flat,  circular  surface,  and 
keeping  the  skirt  well  away  from 
the  figure.  The  fardingale,  as  it  was 
then  called,  was  revived  in  rather 
a  different  form  in  the  time  of 
Queen  Anne,  when  the  skirt  be- 
came more  bell-shaped.  It  was 
abolished  by  royal  command  in 
George  IVs  reign,  but  it  later  re- 
appeared as  the  crinoline. 

Fasa.  Town  of  Persia.  It  is  an 
important  centre  in  the  prov.  of 
Fars,  about  80  m.  S.E.  of  Shiraz. 
Pop.  15,000. 

Fasano.  Town  of  Italy,  in  the 
prov.  of  Bari.  It  is  35  m.  by  rly. 
N.W.  of  Brindisi.  The  old  palace  of 
the  Knights  of  S.  John  is  now  the 
town  hall.  In  the  vicinity  are  the 
ruins  of  Egnatia,  an  ancient  port  on 
the  Appian  Way.  Situated  in  an 
olive-growing  district,  Fasano  has 
many  oil  mills.  Pop.  20,077. 


Fasces.     Roman  symbol  of  magisterial  authority 


Fascine.     A  fagot  of  brushwood  on 
the  trestles  upon  which  it  is  made 


ash  often  exhibit 
the  abnormality 
in  their  upper 
branches. 

Fascine  (Lat. 
fcueina,  fagot). 
Name  for  a  long 
fagot  of  thin 

Fasces  (Lat.,  bundles).  Bundles  boughsorbrushwood,tightlypacked 
of  rods  with  an  axe  bound  up  in  and  securely  bound,  used  in  military 
the  middle.  They  were  the  symbols 
of  the  authority  of  certain  of  the 
higher  magistrates  in  ancient  Rome 
and  were  borne  over  the  shoulders 
of  attendants  (lictores)  who  pre- 
ceded them.  See  Imperium. 

Fascia.  In  anatomy,  layer  of 
connective  tissue  interposed  be-  engineering.  For  making  fascines  a 
tween  the  skin  and  the  muscles,  cradle  of  trestles  is  arranged  at  a 
and  prolonged  inwards  between  uniform  height,  the  lengths  of 
the  muscles  so  as  to  form  sheaths  brushwood  are  placed  thereon,  and 
around  them.  The  strength  and  tightly  packed  by  means  of  a 
thickness  of  fascia  vary  in  differ-  choker,  which  consists  of  a  length 
ent  parts  of  the  body.  On  the  °f  chain,  the  two  ends  of  which 
outer  side  of  the  thigh,  for  in-  are  secured  to  stakes,  enabling 
stance,  it  forms  a  dense,  strong  considerable  leverage  to  be  brought 
structure,  the  ilio-tibial  band,  'to  bear  on  the  bundle  of  wood, 
which  helps  to  steady  the  body  in  After  bcing  compressed,  the  fascine 
the  erect  position.  *s  secured  by  withes  of  flexible 

Fascia  OR  FACIA  (Lat.,  bandage,    wood  bound  round  it- 
fillet).    Architectural  term  applied        Fascist!,  THE  (Lat.  fascia,  bun 
originally  to  the  bands  or  divisions    die).  Society  recruited  from  Italian 
of  an  Ionic  entablature  (g.v.),  now    Nationalists    to    oppose    extreme 
extended  to  include  any  flat  band    socialism.      Started    in     1919,    at 


or  facing  in  an  entablature. 


first  it  met  opposition  with  force. 


Fasciation.     Abnormal  growth  but  gradually  under  its  leader,  B. 

of  stems  when  they  become  flat-  Mussolini,  the  movement  became 

tenod.  and  the  branches,  instead  of  passive,  and  a  fascist  government, 

being  separate,  coalesce  with  the  with  Mussolini  as  premier,   came 

stem.    This  is  the  constant  condi-  into   being  in   1922.      Under  him 

tion  of  the  flowering  parts  of  cock's  Italy  recovered  from  the  dislocation 

comb  (Celosia  cristata)  (q.v.)  ;  but  following  the  Great  War,  abuses  were 

is  often  found  in  other  herbs  and  put  down,  and  trade  was  stimulated, 

trees.    The  willow  f amity  and  the  See  Italy  ;  Mussolini,  B. 

FASHION:   IN  ANCIENT  &  MODERN  TIMES 

M.  E.  Brooke,  Member  of  the  editorial  staff  of  Eve 

The  article  Costume  supplements  the  information  given  below.    See 

also  Dressmaking  and  articles  on  the  various  items  of  dress  :  Boot  : 

Cap:  Glove;   Hat;  Skirt,  etc. 


Derived  from  Latin  fact io,  mak- 
ing, old  Fr.  fachon,  this  word  has 
come  to  mean  the  prevailing  mode 
or  custom,  primarily  in  dress  but 
also  in  social  intercourse,  sports, 
and  the  like. 

So  far  as  Europe  is  concerned, 
many  authentic  records  of  raiment 
are  found  on  tombs  and  cathedral 
doors,  and  stained-glass  windows. 
In  1321  a  direct  attempt  was  made 
to  disseminate  fashion,  a  fashion 
doll  being  sent  to  the  queen  of 
England.  Later  these  dolls  were 
sent  out  at  regular  intervals  at 
the  beginning  of  the  spring,  sum- 
mer, autumn,  and  winter  seasons. 
They  were  dispatched  from  Paris 
to  London,  St.  Petersburg,  Rome, 
Lisbon,  and  Berlin.  In  the  days  of 
Catherine  de'  Medici,  when  Colbert 
declared  that  France  should  supply 
the  wardrobes  of  the  world,  two 


dolls  were  dressed  in  accordance 
with  the  last  word  in  the  story  of 
fashion,  one  en  grande  tenue  and 
the  other  en  deshabille.  They  were 
half  life-size,  and,  having  been 
exhibited  at  the  Hotel  Rambouillet, 
duplicates  were  sent  to  the  leading 
cities.  These  dolls  were  the  fore- 
runners of  the  modern  fashion 
papers. 

Curiously  enough,  the  first  paper 
devoted  to  fashion  was  neither 
published  in  Paris  nor  written  in 
French.  It  was  brought  out  by 
Josse  Amman,  a  painter  who 
was  born  at  Zurich,  and  died 
at  Nuremberg  in  1586.  It  was 
published  in  Frankfort,  was  writ- 
ten in  Latin,  and  was  followed  by 
Les  Modes  de  la  Cour  de  France, 
which  treated  of  the  costumes 
of  the  court  of  Louis  XIV  from 
1675-89. 


FASHODA 

June,  1798,  saw  the  production 
of  Le  Journal  des  Dames  et  des 
Modes  by  Selleque  and  Madame 
Clement.  They  were  joined  by 
Pierre  Lamesangere,  a  professor  of 
literature  and  philosophy  who  had 
fallen  on  evil  times.  Two  years 
later,  on  the  death  of  Selleque, 
Lamesangere  took  entire  control, 
frequenting  the  theatres  and  all 
fashionable  rendezvous  in  order  to 
study  the  dresses.  The  journal 
was  published  at  intervals  of  five 
days,  with  one  coloured  plate  of  a 
woman  in  an  attractive  gown,  and 
on  the  15th  of  the  month  there 
were  two  plates.  It  lasted  until  the 
death  of  Lamesangere  in  1829. 
History  Reflected  in  Fashions 

The  vast  fortune  he  amassed 
caused  others  to  follow  in  his  foot- 
steps, and  in  a  short  time  appeared 
Le  Petit  Courrier  des  Dames,  Le 
Follet  and  La  Psyche  ;  also  La 
Mode,  which  was  under  the  patron- 
age of  the  duchess  of  Berri. 

Conquests  have  always  in- 
fluenced the  modes.  The  Roman 
dominion  of  England  was  respon- 
sible for  the  abandonment  of  the 
braccae  (breeches)  and  the  adoption 
of  the  Roman  tunic.  To  the  Cru- 
sader is  due  the  introduction  of  the 
taste  for  things  Oriental.  The  con- 
quests of  Edward  III  were  re- 
sponsible for  the  French  fashions 
in  England.  The  "  blistered  " 
modes  followed  the  defeat  of  the 
duke  of  Burgundy  in  1497,  for  it 
was  a  compliment  to  the  van- 
quished. The  Wars  of  the  Roses 
robbed  fashion  of  all  gaiety.  The 
prosperity  of  the  reign  of  Henry 
VIII  was  reflected  in  the  richness  of 
attire  ;  the  persecutions  of  Mary's 
reign  had  the  opposite  effect,  and 
the  anti  -  Catholics  showed  their 
disapproval  in  their  clothes.  In 
Queen  Elizabeth's  reign  the  mag- 
nificence of  raiment,  for  men  as 
well  as  women,  was  unprecedented. 

This  was  followed  by  the  Puritan 
influence.  The  French  Revolution 
sounded  the  knell  of  gaiety  in  mas- 
culine dress.  Women  adopted  the 
Athenian  costume,  as  best  ex- 
pressing the  feelings  of  the  day, 
and  the  harvest  of  this  diaphanous 
attire  in  mid -winter  was  consump- 
tion. Shortly  afterwards  public 
feeling  became  favourable  to  com- 
mon .sense  in  clothes  whereby 
health  received  due  consideration. 
This  resulted  in  the  disappearance 
of  the  waspish  waist  and  tight 
shoes,  and  the  adoption  of  wool  or 
wool  mixture  underwear.  In  1887 
began  a  new  era  of  life  in  London. 
Before  that  date  all  entertaining 
had  been  done  at  home.  Dining  in 
public  resulted  in  women  giving 
moreconsiderationto  their  toilettes. 

Cycling  was  introduced  in  Paris 
and  became  the  rage  in  England 


3093 

about  1896.  Golf  followed  and 
caused  an  improvement  in  tailor- 
made  costumes.  In  1896  the  Loco- 
motives on  Highways  Act  became 
law  and  the  motor  arrived.  The 
South  African  War  in  1899  put  a 
check  on  fashion,  but  it  revived  after 
the  coronation  of  Edward  VII  in 
1902,  when  daylight  drawing-rooms 
were  abolished.  In  1906  came  the  re- 
vival of  roller-skating.  In  1919  the 
aeroplane  began  to  be  used  as  a 
general  means  of  locomotion,  and 
for  this  last-mentioned  event  the 
notable  dressmakers  on  both  sides 
of  the  Channel  were  already  de- 
signing costumes  in  1918. 

A  good  income  may  be  made  by 
fashion  writers  as  well  as  artists. 
The  former  should  have  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  history  of  cos- 
tume. There  is  no  better  train- 
ing for  this  work  than  a  subordinate 
position  in  the  office  of  a  paper, 
where  a  knowledge  of  what  is 
needed,  as  well  as  of  the  pitfalls  to 
be  avoided,  is  acquired. 

The  fashion  artist  must  be  a 
clever  draughtswoman,  and  must 
possess  a  peculiar  qualification 
that  may  be  called  the  "  dress 
sense."  There  are  many  schools 
that  teach  fashion  drawing.  This 
they  are  able  to  do  in  a  highly 
satisfactory  manner  provided  that 
the  student  has  talent  and  is  able 
to  draw.  They  are  an  fait  regard- 
ing the  work  of  reproduction  for 
various  kinds  of  papers,  and  the 
best  methods  of  accentuating  the 
essential  points  of  the  article  to  be 
sketched.  See  Costume ;  also  illus. 
p.  1702. 

Bibliography.  Dresses  and  Decora- 
tions of  the  Middle  Ages,  2  vols., 
H.  Shaw,  1843  ;  A  Cyclopaedia  of 
Costume  (53  B.c.-18th  cent.),  J.  R. 
Planche,  1876-79  ;  Costume  in  Eng- 
land, a  History  of  Dress  from  the 
Earliest  Period  till  the  close  of  the 
18th  Cent.,  F.  W.  Fairholt,  3rd  ed. 
1885 ;  Le  Costume  Historique,  6 
vols.,  A.  Racinet,  1888  ;  Mesdames 
nos  Ai'eules,  A.  Robida,  1891,  Eng. 
trans.  Yester-Year,  Ten  Centuries 
of  Toilet,  C.  Hoey,  1892  ;  A  History 
of  English  Dress  from  the  Saxon 
Period  to  the  Present  Day,  2  vols., 
G.  Hill,  1893. 

Fashoda,  NOW  KODOK.  Town  of 
the  Anglo -Egyptian  Sudan.  It  is 
situated  on  the  W.  bank  of  the 
Bahr-el-Abiad  or  White  Nile,  470 
m.  S.  of  Khartum.  The  climate  is 
extremely  hot  and  the  place  is  in- 
fested with  mosquitoes.  On  the 
caravan  route  from  Kordofan,  it 
has  several  government  buildings. 

Fashoda  Affair.  Name  given 
to  an  episode  which  occurred  just 
after  the  British  reconquest  of  the 
Sudan  in  1898.  A  small  French  ex- 
pedition under  Major  (afterwards 
General)  Marchand  made  itsway up 
the  Niger  to  Fashoda,  which  was  oc- 
cupied on  Sept.  7,  in  spite  of  the  fact 


that  in  1895  the  British  Government 
had  given  formal  notice  that  the 
Nile  valley  was  within  its  sphere  of 
influence.  Sir  Herbert  Kitchener, 
who  was  then  sirdar,  went  at  once 
to  Fashoda  and  asked  Marchand 
to  withdraw.  The  French  officer 
refused,  but  on  Nov.  -5  after 
further  negotiations,  his  govern- 
ment ordered  him  to  give  up  the 
post.  By  an  agreement  signed 
March  21,  1899,  France  undertook 
to  withdraw  from  the  Nile  valley, 
and  a  new  boundary  between  the 
areas  protected  by  the  two  coun- 
tries was  outlined.  The  affair 
caused  a  good  deal  of  excitement 
in  both  countries. 

Fassaite.  Greenish  variety  of 
mineral  augite.  It  is  named  after 
the  Fassathal  Tirol,  where  it  was 
first  found.  See  Augite. 

Fast  and  Loose.  Dishonest 
game  formerly  much  played  by 
gypsies  and  tricksters,  known  also 
as  prick  the  garter.  The  victim  was 
invited  to  push  a  pin  or  bodkin 
through  a  folded  belt  so  as  to  fix  it 
to  the  table,  but  the  folds  were  so 
disposed  by  the  owner  that  on  the 
ends  being  pulled  it  came  free,  and 
the  stake  was  forfeit.  From  this 
came  the  expression  "  to  play  fast 
and  loose,"  i.e.  to  repudiate  ex- 
pressed obligations  when  these 
seem  no  longer  convenient  to 
acknowledge. 

Fast  Castle.  Ruined  fortress  of 
Berwickshire,  Scotland.  It  stands 
on  a  steep  cliff  about  3£  m.  N.W.  of 
St.  Abb's  Head,  and  was  formerly 
a  stronghold  of  some  importance, 
though  little  now  remains  of  the 
buildings.  It  was  to  Fast  Castle 
that  James  VI  of  Scotland  was  to 
have  been  brought  by  the  Gowrie 
conspirators,  and  it  is  described  as 
Wolf's  Crag  by  Scott  in  The  Bride 
of  Lammermoor. 

Fast  Colours.  Broadly  speak- 
ing, colours  which  behave  satis- 
factorily in  wear  for  a  reasonable 
time — say,  six  months.  Colours 
should  be  fast  against  sunlight  and 
water,  rubbing,  the  action  of  street 
mud,  and  of  perspiration.  Colours 
are  frequently  required  to  be  fast 
against  specific  finishing  or  manu- 
facturing processes,  e.g.  against 
milling  and  potting.  See  Dyes. 

Fasti  (Lat.  fas,  divine  law). 
Latin  word  meaning  lawful,  ap- 
plied to  those  days  (dies  fasti)  in 
the  year  on  which  legal  business 
could  be  done,  as  opposed  to  days 
on  which  it  could  not  (dies  nefasti). 
The  word  then  came  to  mean  a 
calendar.  Such  calendars  were  of 
two  kinds  :  Fasti  diurni,  a  calen- 
dar indicating  religious  festivals, 
market  days,  etc.  ;  Fasti  anna'es, 
a  calendar  giving  the  names  of 
the  magistrates  for  the  year  and 
the  chief  events. 


FASTING 


FATA     MORGANA 


Fasting  ( A.  S.  faestan,  to  hold  fast, 
observe).  Total  or  partial  absten- 
tion from  all  or  special  kinds  of  food 
and  drink/  Such  abstinence  has 
been  practised  for  religious  or  other 
reasons  by  people  of  all  nations  from 
early  times.  It  has  formed  part  of 
both  pagan  and  Christian  asceticism 
(q.v.),  in  a  religious  sense  being  en- 
joined or  commended  together  with 
prayer  and  almsgiving,  and  regarded 
as  a  method  of  self  -discipline  which, 
controlling  the  animal  appetites,  en- 
ables the  mind  more  clearly  to  appre- 
hend and  appreciate  spiritual  truths. 

The  Mosaic  law  prescribed  one 
great  fast  day  in  the  year,  the 
Day  of  Atonement  or  10th  day 
of  the  7th  month  (Lev.  16)  ; 
others  were  added  in  commemora- 
tion of  events  connected  with  the 
captivity  (Zech.  8) ;  and  in  the 
O.T.  many  instances  are  recorded 
of  individual  and  communal  fast- 
ing. The  king  of  Nineveh,  when 
Jonah  prophesied  its  fall,  pro- 
claimed a  general  fast,  and  the 
city  was  spared  (Jonah  3).  In  the 
N.T.  J.BSUS  Christ  is  represented 
not  as  enjoining  His  disciples  to 
fast,  but  as  teaching  that,  when- 
ever fasting  was  undertaken,  it 
was  to  be  without  ostentation  and 
with  purity  of  intention  (Matt.  6). 
At  the  same  time  He  indicated  that 
it  would  be  a  duty  after  His  depar- 
ture (Matt.  9  ;  homily  On  Fast- 
ing li) ;  and  said  of  certain  demons 
(Mark  9,  A.V.):  This  kind  can 
come  forth  by  nothing  but  by 
prayer  and  fasting  (R.V.  omits 
"  and  fasting  ").  Fasting  was  re- 
commended and  practised  by  the 
apostles  (Acts  13,  14 ;  2  Cor.  6, 11). 
In  the  early  Church  fasts  were  kept 
on  Wednesdays  and  Fridays,  and 
during  Lent. 

Unlike  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  the  Church  of  England 
makes  no  distinction  between  fast- 
ing and  abstinence  (q.v.).  In  the 
homily  On  Fasting,  the  custom  is 
said  to  be  of  itself  a  thing  merely 
indifferent.  It  is  regarded  not  as  a 
means  of  grace  but  as  a  prepara- 
tion for  the  means  of  grace,  and  is 
voluntary,  and  the  rule,  obligatory 
among  Roman  Catholics,  as  to 
partaking  of  the  Holy  Communion 
fasting,  is  observed  only  among 
High  Church  Anglicans.  The  pro- 
clamation of  1548  for  the  abstain- 
ing from  flesh  in  Lent  time  (2  and 
3  Edward  VI,  c.  19)  was  issued  for 
political  and  economic  reasons.  At 
the  same  time,  the  Book  of  Com- 
mon Prayer  enumerates  as  days  of 
fasting  or  abstinence  the  40  days 
of  Lent,  Ember  days,  Rogation 
days,  all  Fridays  except  Christmas 
Day,  and  the  evens  or  vigils  of 
certain  festivals  where  these  festi- 
vals do  not  fall  on  a  Monday, 
Sunday  never  being  a  fast  day. 


The  manner  of  fasting  or  abstin- 
ence is  left  to  the  individual. 
-  In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
all  baptized  persons  who  have  com- 
pleted their  21st  year  are  bound  to 
observe  the  days  of  fasting,  on 
which  they  may  not  eat  more  than 
one  full  meal,  this  meal  to  be  with- 
out flesh  meat,  and  to  be  eaten 
after  mid-day.  The  days  of  fasting 
are  all  Lent,  ex-  r,, ,„..,,,, ;.,.,,,, 
cept  Sundays,  the  | 
Ember  days, 
vigils  of  the  more 
solemn  feasts,  all 
Fridays  except 
those  falling 
within  12  days  of 
Christmas,  and 
between  Easter 
and  the  Ascen-  I 
sion.  Fasting  is 
exceptionally 
strict  in  the  | 
Eastern  Church, 
in  which  226  days 
are  set  apart  for  it 
in  the  year  ;  it  is 
an  important  re- 
ligious  duty 
among  the 
Hindus ;  and 
among  Mahome- 
dans,  who  regard  the  practice  as 
mitigating  the  penalties  of  sin,  the 
month  of  Ramadan  (q.v.)  is  a 
period  in  which  fasting  is  obliga- 
tory. In  ancient  Greece  rigid  fasts 
preceded  the  solemnities  of  the 
Eleusinian  mysteries ;  and  in  Rome 
every  fifth  year  a  general  fast  was 
held  in  honour  of  Ceres. 

From  a  physiological  or  medical 
point  of  view,  abstention  from  food 
leads  to  the  tissues  of  the  body 
being  consumed  in  order  to  main- 
tain the  output  of  heat  and  energy. 
Hence,  progressive  emaciation  oc- 
curs, absorption  of  the  fat  in  the 
tissues  being  well  marked.  The  face 
becomes  pale,  the  cheeks  sunken, 
and  the  eyes  hollow.  The  abdomen 
sinks  in  and  the  bones  become 
prominent.  The  temperature  is 
often  subnormal. 

Towards  the  end,  mental  symp- 
toms may  appear  and  hallucina- 
tions may  be  followed  by  coma 
and  death,  the  immediate  cause  of 
which  appears  to  be  reduction  of 
the  bodily  temperature.  The  dura- 
tion of  life  under  such  conditions 
varies  within  wide  limits.  Instances 
apparently  well  authenticated  are 
recorded  of  survival  for  upwards  of 
forty  days.  A  notable  case  of 
fasting  was  that  of  the  lord  mayor 
of  Cork,  Terence  MacSwiney,  who 
in  1920  fasted  in  Brixton  prison, 
dying,  after  abstaining  from  food 
for  73  days,  on  Oct.  25,  1920. 
After  a  fast  the  stomach  is  not  in  a 
condition  to  exercise  its  functions 
normally,  and  at  first  only  very 


small  quantities  of  liquid  and  easily 
digested  food  should  be  given.  See 
Hunger  Strike;  Starvation. 

Fastnet,  Rock  off  the  S.W. 
coast  of  co.  Cork,  Ireland.  It  has 
a  lighthouse  showing  a  flashing 
light  visible  for  18  m. 

Fat.  Chief  constituent  of  fatty 
or  adipose  tissue,  which  is  present 
to  a  varying  extent  in  nearly  all 


Fastnet.       The  lighthouse  as  it  was  completed  in  1907. 
Ths  old  building  on  the  rock  has  since  been  demolished 


parts  of  the  body.  Adipose  tissue 
consists  of  a  foundation  of  connec- 
tive tissue  in  the  meshes  of  which 
are  the  fat-cells  containing  an  oily 
material  which  is  a  mixture  of 
palmitin,  stearin,  and  olein  formed 
by  combination  of  fatty  acids  with 
glycerol.  Chemically,  fat  consists 
of  carbon,  oxygen,  and  hydrogen, 
and  its  function  hi  the  animal 
economy  is  to  provide  a  reserve  of 
combustible  material  which  is 
drawn  upon  to  maintain  the  heat 
of  the  body.  See  Obesity. 

Fatalism  (Lat.  fatum,  fate). 
View  that  all  the  events  of  human 
life  are  ordained  beforehand  by  an 
absolute  necessity.  Such  was  the 
view  of  Epicurus  and  the  Stoics, 
and  it  is  held  by  Mahomedans  at 
the  present  day.  Fatalism  differs 
from  determinism,  according  to 
which  events  stand  in  a  relation  of 
cause  and  effect  to  other  events 
immediately  preceding,  in  that  it 
asserts  that,  no  matter  how  much 
the  antecedent  causes  may  be 
varied,  it  will  not  affect  the  pre- 
ordained result.  See  Free  Will. 

Fata  Morgana.  Form  of 
mirage  seen  in  the  straits  of  Mes- 
sina between  Sicily  and  Calabria. 
The  name  is  due  to  the  fact  that  it 
was  supposed  to  be  the  work  of  a 
fata  or  fairy  named  Morgana.  In 
this  type  of  mirage,  which  is  seen 
across  calm  water,  inverted  images 
of  ships,  etc.,  are  seen  in  the  air 
above  the  real  objects.  The  term 
is  in  general  use  to  describe  a 
mirage  (q.v.). 


FAT      BOY 


3095 


FATHERS     OF     THE     CHURCH 


Fat  Boy,  THE.  Character  in 
Dickens's  Pickwick  Papers.  Page- 
boy to  Mr.  Wardle,  Joe  is  enor- 
mously fat  and  given  to  somno- 
lence in  the  intervals  between 
meals.  On  his  own  confession  he 
delights  in  making  people's  flesh 
creep  by  making  himself  the  vehicle 
for  unpleasant  news. 

•  Fatehganj.  A  village  of  the 
United  Provinces,  India.  In  the 
district  of  Bareilly,  it  is  23  m.  S.E. 
of  Bareilly,  and  was  founded  to 
commemorate  the  British  victory 
over  the  Rohillas  in  1774.  A  few 
miles  N.W.  in  the  same  district 
there  is  another  village  of  this 
name,  where  the  Rohillas  were 
defeated  by  the  British  in  1796. 
Pop.  2,569,  two-thirds  Hindus. 

Fatehgarh.  Town  of  the  United 
Provinces,  India.  The  headquar- 
ters of  Farrukhabad  district,  it 
forms  with  Farrukhabad  city,  3  m. 
to  the  W.,  a  single  municipality. 
The  fort  near  the  Ganges  was  built 
in  1714  by  Nawab  Mahommed 
Khan.  A  monument  commemo- 
rates the  European  residents  who 
lost  their  lives  in  the  Mutiny.  See 
Farrukhabad. 

Fatehpur .  Dist.  and  town  of  the 
United  Provinces,  India,  in  the  Alla- 
habad division.  The*  area  of  the  dis- 
trict, which  lies  between  the  Ganges 
and  the  Jumna,  is  1,642  sq.  m. 
Slightly  more  than  half  the  district 
is  under  cultivation,  the  chief  crops 
being  gram,  barley,  wheat,  rice,  and 
cotton.  Fatehpur  town  is  on 
the  E.  Indian  Railway.  Pop.  dist., 
676,939,  90  p.c.  Hindus  ;  town, 
16,939,  almost  equally  Hindus  and 
Mahomedans. 

A  second  town  of  the  same 
name,  which  is  situated  in  the 
Bara  Banki  district  of  the  United 
Provinces,  is  noted  for  its  old 
buildings,  some  of  which  tradition 
assigns  to  the  14th  or  15th  century. 
Pop.  6,801,  three-fifths  Mahome- 
dans, two -fifths  Hindus.  A  third 
town  belongs  to  the  Sikar  chiefship 
in  Jaipur  state,  Rajputana.  It 
is  146  m.  N.W.  of  Jaipur.  Pop. 
17,294,  two-thirds  Hindus,  30  p.c. 
Mahomedans. 

Fatehpur  Sikri.  Town  of  the 
United  Provinces,  India.  It  is 
23  m.  W.  of  Agra  city,  and  was 
founded  in  1569  by  the  Mogul  em- 
peror, Akbar,  to  whom  the  saint 
Salim  Chishti  foretold  the  birth 
of  a  son.  A  wall  nearly  5  m.  long 
runs  along  three  sides  of  Akbar' s 
town.  The  modern  town  lies 
near  the  western  end.  Prominent 
among  the  buildings  are  the  mosque 
with  Salim  Chishti's  mausoleum  in 
the  quadrangle,  the  palace  named 
after  Akbar' s  Rajput  wife,  and  his 
own  palace  and  audience  halls. 
Pop.  6,132,  three-fifths  Hindus, 
the  rest  Mahomedans. 


Fates.  In  classical  mythology, 
goddesses  who  presided  over  the 
destinies  of  men.  By  the  Greeks 
they  were  called  Moirai,  by  the 
Romans  Parcae.  They  were  three 
in  number,  and  were  daughters 
of  Zeus  and  Themis,  or  daughters 
of  Night  and  Erebus.  Clotho,  the 
youngest  of  the  three  sisters,  held 
the  distaff  which  spun  the  thread 
of  life  ;  Lachesis  mixed  good  and 
evil  fortune  with  it ;  Atropos  cut 
the  thread  at  the  allotted  moment. 
They  were  very  powerful  goddesses, 
with  whose  decrees  even  Zeus  him- 
self was  unwilling  to  interfere.  In 
art  the  Fates  are  generally  repre- 
sented as  aged  women,  but  some- 
times as  maidens  of  grave  mien : 
Clotho  with  a  distaff  or  book  of 
fate ;  Lachesis  pointing  with  a  staff 
to  a  globe ;  Atropos  with  a  pair  of 
scissors  or  a  pair  of  scales. 

Father.  Word  common  to  most 
Indo-European  languages,  the 
forms  of  which  differ  slightly  in 
accordance  with  phonetic  laws. 
Originally  denoting  a  male  parent, 
then  by  extension  a  remoter  rela- 
tionship such  as  ancestor  or  fore- 
father, it  came  to  be  applied  to  the 
inventor  or  first  person  prominent 
in  any  art  or  pursuit.  Thus,  the 
Greek  historian  Herodotus  is  popu- 
larly called  the  father  of  history. 
Father  is  also  a  term  of  respect,  as 
conscript  fathers  for  the  senators  of 
ancient  Rome  ;  father  of  his  coun- 
try for  Cicero,  Augustus,  and  other 
emperors ;  father  Thames  and 
father  Tiber.  Special  applications 
are  the  Pilgrim  fathers,  the  first 
settlers  in  North  America  ;  father 
of  the  House,  the  member  of  the 
House  of  Commons  who  has  sat  in 
it  longest  without  a  break.  In 
theology,  Father  is  used  for  the 
Supreme  Being,  the  First  Person  of 
the  Trinity ;  for  a  priest  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church;  and  for 
the  earliest  Christian  writers.  In 
Rome  the  father  of  the  family  had 
very  wide  powers  over  his  chil- 
dren and  household.  See,  Family ; 
Patria  Potestas. 

Fatherhood.  Theological  term 
for  one  aspect  of  the  relationship 
of  God  to  the  universe  generally, 
and  to  man  particularly.  In  most 
ancient  religious  systems  the  idea 
of  paternity,  usually  associated 
with  that  of  maternity,  is  connected 
with  the  Deity  or  the  chief  of  the 
deities  worshipped.  The  deity  is 
married,  and  is  a  father,  but  the 
goddess  never  ranks  on  an  equality 
with  him.  In  monotheistic  systems 
the  two  ideas  of  paternity  and 
maternity  are  combined  in  one 
God  who  is  the  cause  and  pro- 
genitor of  all  existence. 

In  Christian  theology  the  term 
father  is  applied  to  the  First  Person 
of  the  Trinity,  both  as  expressing 


a  special  relationship  to  the  Son 
and  an  attitude  as  Creator,  sus- 
tainer  and  chief  benefactor  of  the 
human  race.  This  aspect  of  God 
as  the  Father  of  His  people  was 
only  gradually  unfolded  in  the 
Hebrew  Scriptures,  and  it  was  not 
until  post -exilic  days  that  the 
idea  of  a  warrior  king  appears  to 
have  been  superseded  by  that  of 
a  loving  and  merciful  Father.  The 
teaching  of  Christ  developed  the 
doctrine  to  a  degree  unknown 
before.  He  claimed  to  be  in  a 
special  sense  the  Son  of  God, 
and  in  Him  all  Christians  are 
the  children  of  God  by  adoption 
and  regeneration.  This  feature 
of  Christ's  teaching  was  unique, 
and  is  the  key  to  the  whole 
Christian  system.  It  is  because 
God  is  our  Father  that  His  love 
prevails  over  His  wrath  at  man's 
disobedience,  and  He  sends  forth 
His  only  begotten  Son  to  be  an 
atonement  and  to  make  possible 
the  repentance  of  the  sinner  and 
the  pardon  of  his  sin.  See  Trinity. 

Father  Lasher.  Marine  species 
of  bullhead.  Common  around 
the  British  coasts,  it  has  a  large 
flattened  head,  and  the  spines  can 
inflict  an  unpleasant  wound  if  the 
fish  is  carelessly  handled.  The 
male  acts  as  guardian  of  the  spawn. 
See  Bullhead. 

Father  of  the  Chapel.  Name 
given  to  one  who  presides  over  the 
meetings  of  employees  in  a  printing 
or  newspaper  office.  See  Chapel. 

Fathers  of  the  Church.  Term 
specially  applied  to  early  Christian 
writers  pre-  eminent  for  learning  and 
sanctity,  whose  works  are  regarded 
as  having  authority  next  after  that 
of  the  Bible.  The  name  seems  to 
have  been  generally  accepted  by  the 
4th  century.  It  has,  however,  always 
been  used  rather  loosely.  Even 
writers  like  Origen,  whose  ortho- 
doxy was  open  to  dispute,  have 
been  included  among  those  who  are 
known  as  fathers  of  the  church. 

The  prominent  writers  of  the  1st 
century  were  known  as  the  apos- 
tolic fathers  from  their  personal 
association  with  the  apostles,whose 
teachings  they  are  held  to  reflect. 
The  list  of  the  church  fathers  has 
been  held  to  include  writers  down 
to  the  12th  century ;  but  in  com- 
mon practice  it  is  restricted  to 
those  antecedent  to  S.  Gregory  the 
Great  (A.B.  604)  in  the  Western 
Church  and  to  John  of  Damascus 
(A.D.  756)  in  the  Eastern.  Some 
authorities,  however,  regard  S. 
Bernard  of  Clairvaux  (d.  1153)  as 
the  last  of  the  fathers. 

The  chief  church  fathers  are  usu- 
ally divided  as  follows  :  Doctors  of 
the  church — Athanasius,  Basil  the 
Great,  Gregory  Nazianzus,  Chrysos- 
tom,  Ambrose,  Augustine,  Jerome, 


FATHOM 


3O96 


FATTY   ACIDS 


and  Gregory  the  Great.  Ante- 
Nicene  Fathers  —  Justin  Martyr, 
Clement  of  Alexandria,  Origen,  Ter- 
tullian,  Irenaeus,  Cyprian,  Gregory 
Thaumaturgus  ;  Post-Nicene  Fa- 
thers —  Eusebius,  Cyril  of  Jerusa- 
lem, Gregory  of  Nyssa,  Theodoret, 
Hilary  of  Poitiers,  Hilary  of  Aries, 
Leo  the  Great,  John  of  Damascus, 
and  others.  The  Venerable  Bede 
is  sometimes  included  in  the  last 
category. 

In  the  Roman  Church,  the  fa- 
thers, in  their  testimony  to  the 
fundamental  doctrines  of  the  faith, 
are  held  to  be  without  fault,  and 
their  teaching  is  to  be  accepted 
without  question  ;  but  in  details 
and  method  of  teaching  they  are  of 
varying  authority  and  value. 
Among  Protestants  no  such  au- 
thority is  assigned  to  them  ;  but 
the  general  consensus  of  the  fathers 
is  regarded  as  of  the  highest  im- 
portance as  showing  how  the  early 
Church  understood  the  teaching  of 
Christ  and  His  Apostles.  The  writ- 
ings of  all  the  chief  fathers  of  the 
Church  are  included  in  Migne's  edi- 
tion, in  387  large  volumes,  1844- 
66  ;  and  most  of  them  have  been 
translated  into  English. 

Fathom.  Nautical  measure  6  ft. 
in  length.  Cables,  etc.,  are  mea- 
sured by  the  fathom,  and  lead  lines 
are  marked  off  in  fathom  spaces. 


by 


Fatigue.      Condition  produced 
prolonged  or  excessive  muscu- 


lar activity,  due  partly  to  consump- 
tion of  the  available  energy-pro- 
ducing materials,  and  partly  to  the 
accumulation  in  the  tissues  of  the 
waste  products  formed  during  these 
efforts.  The  physiology  of  fatigue 
in  a  single  muscle  can  be  studied 
graphically  with  the  aid  of  the 
muscle-nerve  preparation,  obtained 
by  dissecting  out  the  gastro- 
cnemius  muscle  from  the  leg  of  a 
frog  with  the  nerve  attached.  In 
the  living  being,  besides  the  changes 
in  the  muscles,  the  development 
of  fatigue  is  increased  by  the 
exhaustion  of  the  central  nervous 
system  which  follows  the  accu- 
mulation of  waste  products  in  the 
blood. 

The  scientific  study  of  fatigue  in 
workers  received  a  great  impetus 
during  the  Great  War  owing  to  the 
importance  of  securing  the  maxi- 
mum output  from  munition  fac- 
tories. Researches  show  that  both 
the  hourly  and  the  absolute  output 
may  be  materially  influenced  by 
fatigue,  and  that  to  secure  the  best 
results  for  each  form  of  work  there 
appears  to  be  a  definite  period  of 
labour.  If  this  period  is  exceeded 
the  worker  never  recovers  fully 
from  his  fatigue,  and  the  total  de- 
cline in  the  average  hourly  output 
may  be  greater  than  the  increase 
made  by  working  overtime.  Among 


women  engaged  in  moderately 
heavy  work,  it  was  found  that  a 
diminution  of  the  hours  by  8'5  p.c. 
actually  increased  the  weekly  out- 
put by  8  p.c.  Among  men  engaged 
in  heavy  labour  a  decrease  of  hours 
from  61 '5  to  56 '2  per  week  eventu- 
ally increased  the  hourly  output  by 
24  p.c.  Similar  observations  have 
shown  that  in  the  great  majority  of 
cases  Sunday  labour  is  a  mistake, 
the  worker  requiring  at  least  one 
full  day's  rest  a  week. 

Other  investigations  showed  that 
fatigue  is  less  severely  felt  by 
workers  who  are  well  and  properly 
fed.  A  group  of  women,  whose 
early  morning  period  of  work  was 
suspended  so  that  they  had  time 
to  obtain  a  properly  cooked  meal, 
increased  their  average  output  in 
the  remaining  hours  by  12*4  p.c., 
although  the  length  of  the  working 
day  was  reduced  by  20  p.c.  The 
general  application  of  these  prin- 
ciples to  industry  should  be  of  great 
benefit,  for  at  present  most  man- 
agers of  factories  have  a  tendency 
towards  establishing  uniformity  of 
hours  for  all  types  of  labour  and 
for  workers  of  both  sexes,  and  in 
consequence  do  not  always  get  the 
best  results.  See  Factory. 

Fatigue.  Term  used  in  metal- 
lurgy. It  was  at  one  time  generally 
assumed  that  so  long  as  a  metal 
was  not  stressed  beyond  its  limits  of 
elasticity,  it  could  never  give  way  ; 
thus  one  might  go  on  bending  a  bar 
of  steel  or  iron  backwards  and  for- 
wards for  ever,  and,  so  long  as  the 
bar  was  not  bent  so  far  that  it  did 
not  recover  itself,  it  would  never 
break.  It  has  been  shown,  how- 
ever, that  a  continued  vibratory 
stress,  even  well  within  the  limits  of 
elasticity  of  a  metal,  will  in  time 
"  fatigue  "  it  and  cause  a  rearrange- 
ment of  the  molecules,  a  crystallisa- 
tion in  fact,  or  a  change  in  the  origi- 
nal crystalline  structure,  which  will 
result  in  fracture  ;  or  a  microscopi- 
cal flaw  may  by  such  stressing  be 
developed  into  a  plane  of  rupture. 
Formerly,  before  the  manufacture 
of  steel  was  so  well  understood  as  it 
is  to-day,  when  the  axles  of  railway 
carriages  were  made  of  malleable 
iron,  breakages  occurred  and  seri- 
ous accidents  resulted  owing  to  the 
original  fibrous  structure  of  the 
axle  having  been  changed  into  a 
crystallisation  by  repeated  vibra- 
tory stresses.  See  Steel. 

Fatigue.  Duty  performed  by 
soldiers  in  connexion  with  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  troops.  It  in- 
cludes coal  carrying,  loading  bag- 
gage, cleansing  surface  drains  and 
flushing  latrines,  sweeping  yards 
and  removing  snow,  but  not  per- 
sonal service  for  officers.  When 
employed  on  whitewashing  build- 
ings or  other  technical  work,  which 


properly  should  be  performed  by  a 
departmental  corps,  the  troops 
are  called  "  working  parties,"  and 
receive  "  working  pay." 

Fatima  (c.  606-632).  Daughter 
of  Mahomet  by  his  first  wife  Kadi- 
jah.  Born  at  Mecca,  she  was  the 
prophet's  favourite  daughter,  and 
was  called  by  him  one  of  the  four 
perfect  women  in  the  world.  She 
bore  her  husband  AH  three  sons, 
Al-Hassan,  Al-Hussein,  and  Al- 
Muhsin.  From  the  first  two  are 
descended  the  Fatimate  caliphs  of 
N.  Africa  and  Syria. 

Another  Fatima  was  the  heroine 
of  Perrault's  story  of  Bluebeard, 
where,  as  his  seventh  and  last  wife, 
she  discovered  the  bodies  of  her 
predecessors.  (See  Bluebeard.)  The 
name  also  occurs  as  that  of  an  en- 
chantress in  the  Arabian  Nights 
story  of  Sindbad  the  sailor. 

Fatshan.  City  of  China,  in  the 
prov.  of  Kwang-tung.  It  lies  in  the 
Si-Kiang  and  Pe-Kiang  delta,  7  m. 
S.W.  of  Canton.  It  has  iron  and 
steel  industries,  and  a  trade  in 
cereals,  oil,  timber,  and  cassia.  At 
Fatshan  Creek,  a  number  of  Chinese 
junks  were  destroyed  by  British 
naval  forces  during  the  war  of 
1857.  Pop.  est.  400,000. 

Fatty  Acids.  Series  of  acids 
with  the  general  formula  Cn  H2n  O2, 
so-called  because  most  of  them 
occur  in  natural  fats.  The  formula 
given  above  requires  the  number 
of  hydrogen  atoms  to  be  double 
the  carbon  atoms  in  each  acid.  The 
following  is  a  list  of  those  at  present 
known,  arranged  in  order  of  their 
carbon  atoms : 

C  Ha  Oa  Formic. 

CaH4  Oa  Acetic. 

C3H6  Oa  Propionic. 

C4H8  Oa  Butyric. 

C5  H,0  Oa  Valeric  or  pentoic. 

(VH12  Oa  Caproic  or  hexoic. 

C,  H,4  Oa  Oenanthylic  or  heptoic. 

C8  H,B  Oa  Caprylic  or  octoic. 

C8  His  Oa  Pelargonic  or  nonoic. 

C.oHao  Oa  Capric  or  decatoic. 

CuHaa  Oa  Undecylic  or  hendecatoic. 

C12Ha«  O3  Laurie  or  dodecatoic. 

C13H20  Oa  Trldecylic  or  tridecatoic. 

C^Haa  Oa  Myristic  or  tetradecatoic. 

C.sH .-«,  Oa  Pentadecatoic. 

doH.™  Oa  Palmitic  or  hexadecatoic. 

C,7H:>4  Oa  Margaric  or  heptadecatoic. 

C18H36  Oa  Stearic  or  octodecatoic. 

C,8H38  Oa  Nondecatoic. 

C^oHio  Oa  Arachidic  or  enendecatoic. 

C,iH42  Oa  Medullic. 

CaaHH4  Oa  Behenic  or  icosoic. 

C24H4H  Oa  Lignoceric. 

Ca.-.H5o  Oa  Hyaenasic. 

O.7H54  O»  Cerotic. 

CsoHeo  Oa  Melissic. 

C:MHB«  Oa  Dicetylic. 

CeJInsOa  Theobromic. 

The  fatty  acids  may  be  roughly 
divided  into  two  classes,  liquid  and 
solid.  Those  containing  ten  or  more 
atoms  of  carbon  are  solids.  All  dis- 
solve readily  in  alcohol  and  ether. 
The  lower  members  of  the  series  are 
soluble  in  water,  but  the  solubility 
decreases  as  the  number  of  carbon 


FATTY     COMPOUNDS 


3097 


atoms  increases.  The  acidity  dimi- 
nishes with  the  increase  in  the 
carbon  atoms,  this  property  being 
utilised  in  a  process  for  separating 
the  various  acids.  Another  process 
of  separation  depends  upon  the 
progressive  decrease  in  the  solubi- 
lity of  the  barium,  magnesium,  and 
lead  salts.  All  the  fatty  acids,  ex- 
cept formic  and  acetic,  are  oily  or 
greasy.  The  boiling-point  rises 
about  19C  for  each  addition  of  CH2 
in  the  formula,  in  the  case  of  the 
acids  from  formic  to  capric.  The 
melting-points  of  the  solids  show  a 
similar  rise.  The  volatility  of  the 
acids  decreases  as  the  carbon  atoms 
increase,  so  that  lauric  acid  and 
those  higher  in  the  series  can  only 
be  distilled  without  decomposition 
under  diminished  pressure.  The 
acids  with  an  odd  number  of  carbon 
atoms  are  comparatively  rare. 

Fatty  Compounds.  In  organic 
chemistry,  those  in  which  the  car- 
bon atoms  are  connected  together 
by  a  single  linking.  They  are  also 
known  as  saturated  compounds  be- 
cause chemical  changes  are  brought 
about  by  substituting  one  atom  or 
group  by  other  groups.  Another 
series  of  organic  compounds  con- 
taining less  hydrogen  than  the  fatty 
compounds  are  known  as  unsatur- 
ated  compounds,  as  they  can  com- 
bine directly  with  hydrogen  or 
chlorine.  The  fatty  acids  belong 
to  the  group  of  fatty  compounds. 

Fatty  Degeneration.  Change  in 
the  cells  of  animal  tissues  in  which 
the  constituents  of  the  cell  become 
partly  broken  down  into  fat.  It 
may  be  the  result  of  various  dis- 
eases, e.g.  pernicious  anaemia,  or 
poisoning  by  certain  substances, 
such  as  phosphorus  or  arsenic,  or, 
more  frequently,  may  follow  lessen- 
ing of  the  blood  supply  to  an  organ 
owing  to  narrowing  of  the  arteries. 
The  last  is  the  usual  cause  of  fatty 
degeneration  of  the  heart. 

Fatwa.  Town  of  Bihar  and 
Orissa,  India,  in  the  Barh  sub- 
division of  the  Patna  district.  It 
is  situated  on  the  E.  Indian  Rly., 
7  m.  S.E.  of  Patna,  at  the  junction 
of  the  Punpun  with  the  Ganges. 
It  is  a  resort  of  pilgrims.  Pop. 
74,757,  90  p.c.  Hindus. 

Faubourg.  French  word  for  a 
suburb,  e.g.  the  Faubourg  St.  Hon- 
ore  in  Paris.  It  comes  from  Latin 
words  meaning  outside  the  borough 
or  burg,  and  in  the  days  when  cities 
had  walls  was  given  to  suburbs  out- 
side them. 

Faucher,  LEON  JOSEPH  (1803- 
54).  French  economist  and  politi- 
cian. Born  at  Limoges,  Sept.  8, 
1803,  he  became  prominent  as  a 
journalist,  chiefly  on  Le  Temps  and 
Le  Courrier  Fran§ais,  between 
1830-42,  making  a  close  study  of 
economic  problems  and  exerting  a 


moderating  influence  on  the  liberal 
factions.  Elected  a  deputy  in 
1847,  he  was  also  returned  to  the 
constituent  assembly  of  1848  for 
the  Marne  dept.  He  was  a  strong 
advocate  of  free  trade  principles, 
influenced  by  a  visit  to  England  in 
1843.  Although  minister  of  the 
interior  in  1848^49,  and  again  in 
1851,  his  active  political  career  was 
not  successful,  and  he  retired  from 
public  life  in  protest  against  the 
adoption  of  universal  suffrage  in 
1851.  He  was  largely  responsible 
for  the  foundation  of  the  Credit 
Foncier  (q.v.)  in  1852.  He  died 
Dec.  14,  1854. 

Fauchet,  CLAUDE  (1744-93). 
French  Revolutionist.  Born  Sept. 
22.  1744,  he  became  a  priest  in 
Paris  and  tutor  in  a  noble  family. 
His  preaching  won  fame  for  him, 
and  after  being  dismissed  from  his 
position  as  court  preacher  he 
joined  the  Revolutionary  party.  He 
helped  in  the  attack  on  the  Bastille, 
and  was  afterwards  a  member  of 
the  legislative  assembly  and  the 
national  convention.  He  was  made 
bishop  of  Calvados,  but  ceasing  to 
act  with  the  advanced  republicans, 
he  was  guillotined,  Oct.  31,  1793. 

Faucille,  COL  DE  LA.  Mt.  and 
pass  of  France,  in  the  dept.  of  Ain. 
They  are  in  the  Jura  Mts.,  16  m. 
N.W.  of  Geneva.  On  the  summit  of 
the  mountain  (4,355  ft.)  are  two 
hotels.  The  pass  leads  through  the 
valley  of  the  Dappes,  which  in  1862 
was  partitioned  between  France 
and  Switzerland. 

Faucit,  HELENA  SAVILLE  (1820- 
98).  A  British  actress.  She  made 
her  first  London  appearance  at 
Covent  Garden, 
Jan.  5,  1836,  as 
Julia  in  Sheri- 
dan Knowles's 
The  Hunch- 
back, and 
achieved  con- 
spicuous s  u  c- 
cess  as  Juliet, 
Portia,  Con- 
stance, Desde- 
mona,  Imogen, 
and  Hermione.  Macready  engaged 
her  as  leading  lady  from  1837  at 
Covent  Garden,  The  Haymarket, 
and  Drury  Lane.  Among  other 
parts  she  acted  Cordelia  to  his 
Lear,  Virginia  to  his  Virginius  in 
Knowles's  drama,  and  Pauline  to 
his  Claude,  Julie  to  his  Richelieu, 
and  Clara  to  his  Alfred  Evelyn, 
in  the  original  production  of 
Lytton's  plays,  The  Lady  of  Lyons, 
Richelieu,  and  Money.  In  1851 
she  married  Sir  Theodore  Martin, 
who  wrote  her  life,  1900.  She 
died  Oct.  31,  1898. 

Fauconberg,  BARON.  English 
title  dating  from  1283  and  now 
united  with  that  of  Conyers. 


,  Helena  Faucit, 
British  actress 


Walter  de  Fauconberg,  who  was 
summoned  to  Parliament  as  a  baron 
in  1283,  was  the  first  holder,  and 
the  title  passed  to  his  descendants 
until  it  came  in  1362  to  Thomas, 
the  5th  baron.  He  left  an  only 
daughter,  Joan,  who  married  Sir 
William  Neville,  and  he,  following 
the  custom  of  the  time,  became 
Lord  Fauconberg.  He  was  made 
earl  of  Kent,  but  died  without  sons, 
and  from  the  time  when  his  widow 
died  (1491)  to  1627  the  barony  was 
in  abeyance.  In  that  year  Charles  I 
gave  Thomas  Belayse  the  title  of 
Baron  Fauconberg,  and  in  1642 
created  him  a  viscount.  To  those 
titles  his  grandson  Thomas  suc- 
ceeded in  1652.  He  was  a  parliamen- 
tarian and  married  Mary,  daughter 
of  Oliver  Cromwell.  Afterwards 
he  became  a  royalist  and  courtier 
under  Charles  II.  He  was  made  an 
earl  in  1689  and  died  without  sons 
in  1700.  In  1903  the  barony 
was  granted  to  the  countess  of 
Yarborough,  a  descendant  of  Joan 
Neville. 

The  barony  of  Conyers  dates  from 
1509  and  was  held  by  the  families 
of  Conyers  and  Darcy  until  1888. 
In  1892  an  abeyance  was  ended 
in  favour  of  the  countess  of  Yar- 
borough. See  Holderness,  Earl  of. 

Fauldhouse.  Parish  and  town 
of  Linlithgowshire,  Scotland.  It  is 
7  m.  S.W.  of  West  Calder,  on  the 
Cal.  and  N.B.  Rlys.  Coal  and  iron- 
stone are  worked,  and  there  is  a 
paraffin  industry.  Pop.  3,923. 

Faulhorn.  Mt.  of  Switzerland, 
in  the  canton  of  Berne.  It  is  in 
the  Bernese  Oberland,  32  m.  S.E. 
of  Berne,  between  the  lake  of 
Brienz  and  the  Grindelwald  valley. 
It  is  composed  of  calcareous,  fri- 
able schist.  Alt.  8,803  ft. 

Fault.  In  geology,  a  dislocation 
of  rock- beds  due  to  movements  of 
the  earth's  crust.  Three  main  types 
are  recognized  :  normal,  reversed, 
and  transcurrent.  In  normal  faults 
the  displacement  is  more  or  less 
inclined,  rarely  vertical.  On  one 
side  of  the  line  of  fracture  rock-beds 
are  thrown  to  a  lower  level,  the 
amount  of  vertical  displacement 
being  known  as  the  throw,  the 
inclination  from  vertical  being 
termed  the  hade. 

Normal  faults  may  run  in  ap- 
proximately the  same  direction  as 
inclination  of  beds  (dip  faults),  or 
at  right-angles  to  it,  that  is,  coincid- 
ing with  the  trend  of  the  bed  (strike- 
faults).  They  may  be  oblique,  or 
occur  in  groups  (step  or  trough  - 
faults),  and  intersection  of  faults 
often  takes  place.  When  dis- 
location is  inclined  to  the  upthrow, 
the  reversed  type  of  fault  is  pro- 
duced. Reversed  faulting  is  usually 
associated  with  highly  inclined  or 
folded  strata,  and  may  lead  to 


FAUN 


3098 


FAUST 


Fault.     Diagram  illustrating  a  fault  in  the  earth's  sur- 
face.    The  relative  positions  of  the  letters  A  A,  B  B. 
etc.,  show  the  extent  of  dislocation 


of  commercial  and 
colonial  condi- 
tions made  him 
prominent,  and  he 
was  under-secre- 
t ary  for  the 
colonies  in  Jules 
Ferry's  ministry 
of  1883,  and  min- 
ister of  marine  in 
the  ministry  of 
Dupuy,  1894.  He 
was  elected  pre- 
sident of  the  re- 
public after  Casi- 
mir-Perier's  resig 


Felix  Faure, 
French  statesman 


development  of  overthrusts.    With     nation,   Jan.    15,    1895,   defeating 
transcurrent    faulting    the    move- 
ment has  been  in  horizontal  direc- 
tion,   and   there   are   neither   up- 
throws nor  downthrows.    Friction 
is  set  up  along  the  planes  of   all 
faults,  and  results  in  the  crushing 
and  polishing 
of   the   oppos- 
ing  rock  -  sur- 
faces,   "  slick - 
ensides "    and 
"crush  -  brec- 
cias"  being 
produced.   See 
Dip;    Earth- 
movement; 
Tectonics. 

Faun.  In 
Roman  myth- 
ology, a  minor 
nature  deity 
identified  with 
the  Greek 
satyr.  See 
Faunus. 

Fauna. 
Term  used  by 
naturalists  for 


the  collective  'Faun7  The  Dancing 
animal  life  of  Faun,  a  statuette 
any  special  from  Pompeii 

locality     Or          NaPle>  Museum 

period,  just  as  flora  is  used  for  the 
plant  life.  See  Animal. 

Faunus  (Lat.  favere,  to  favour^. 

In  Roman  mythology,  originally  an     appeared  at  the  Opera  Comique  in 
Italian  nature  god,  whom  rational-     1852,  and  achieved  success  in  opera 
istic  explanations  made  out  to  be  a     ' 
prehistoric    king.        He    was    the 
patron  of  agriculture  and  of  flocks 
and    herds,    and    had     prophetic 


Brisson  by  69  votes.  An  unsuccess- 
ful attempt  on 
his  life  was 
made,  July  14, 
1896.  The 
chief  events 
marking  his 
tenure  of  office 
were  the  visit  of 
the  tsar  of  Rus- 
sia and  the  con- 
clusion of  the 
Franco-  Russian 

alliance,  1896,  and  the  opening 
stages  of  the  Dreyfus  affair,  at  a 
critical  point  in  which  Faure  died 
suddenly,  Feb.  16,  1899. 

Faur6,  GABRIEL  (1845-1924). 
French  music  composer.  Born  at 
Pamiers,  Ariege,  May  13,  1845,  he 
studied  in  Paris  and  became  or- 
ganist, first  of  S.  Sulpice,  and  then 
of  La  Madeleine,  1896.  Director 
of  the  Conservatoire  Nationale, 
1909-20,  he  was  elected  to  the 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in  1913. 
Among  his  works  are  orchestral 
poems  and  suites,  a  symphony,  and 
a  berceuse  for  solo  violin.  He  die^ 
Nov  4,  1924. 

Faure,  JEAN  BAPTISTE  (1830-' 
1914).      French  singer.      Born  at 
Moulins,  Jan.  15,  1830,  he  excelled 
in  singing  as  a  boy.  After  studying 
at  the  Conservatoire  in  Paris,  he 


in  Paris,  London,  Vienna,  and 
Brussels.  He  died  Nov.  10,  1914. 
Faust.  German  scholar  of  the 
16th  century  whose  name  has  be- 

powers.     As  the  god  of  flocks,  he     come  the  centre  of  a  great  body  of 

was  known  as  Lupercus,  and  the     legend    and    poetry   in    European 

Lupercalia  (Feb.  15)  was  celebrated 

in    his    honour.       The    Faunalia 


(Dec.  5)  was  rather  a  local  festival. 
In    art    he    is    represented    as    a 


literatures.  There  is  good  histori- 
cal evidence  for  the  existence  of  a 
real  doctor  of  this  name  who, 
during  the  first  half  of  the  15th 


bearded  man,  with  goatskin  cape,     century,    practised    magical    arts, 


and  bearing  a  club  and  a  horn. 

Faure,  FRANCOIS  FELIX  (1841- 
99).  French  statesman.  Born  in 
Paris,  Jan.  30,  1841,  he  made  a 
fortune  as  a  shipowner  in  Havre. 
He  fought  as  a  volunteer  officer  in 
the  war  of  1870-71,  and  entered 


and  gained  wide  notoriety  as  a 
clever  charlatan  in  various  parts 
of  Germany,  especially,  it  is  be- 
lieved, at  Cracow.  The  numerous 
stories  popularly  attached  to  his 
name  were  collected  anonymously 
and  published  by  Johann  Spiess 


the  chamber  as  republican  deputy     at  Frankfort  in  1587  as  The  His- 
for  Havre  in  1881.    His  knowledge     tory  of  Dr.  Johann  Faust,  a  book 


which  went  through  many  editions, 
translations,  and  adaptations.  In 
this  work  the  essentials  of  the 
story  are  given  as  follows : 

Faust,  weary  of  the  pursuit  of 
learning  and  worldly  pleasures 
alike,  has  taken  up  the  study  of 
magic  and  necromancy.  He  con- 
jures the  devil,  who  engages  to 
serve  him  in  all  he  may  desire  for 
a  period  of  24  years,  after  which 
he  passes  into  the  devil's  power. 
The  devil  accordingly  procures  for 
Faust  all  sorts  of  pleasures  and 
supernatural  aids  to  his  study  of 
sorcery,  alchemy,  and  philosophy. 
Faust  has  occasional  fits  of  repent- 
ance, which  pass  as  his  servant 
provides  fresh  delights ;  among 
his  lovers  is  Helen  of  Troy,  a 
familiar  medieval  incarnation  of 
pagan  delights.  When  the  ap- 
pointed time  expires,  Faust  dies  in 
an  agony  of  fear,  and  falls  irrevo- 
cably into  the  devil's  hands. 

The  Tragicall  History  of  Dr. 
Faustus,  the  drama  by  Chris- 
topher Marlowe,  published  in  1604, 
is  the  first  appearance  of  the 
story  in  serious  literary  form  in 
England.  It  was  derived  from  an 
English  version  of  the  Spiess  pub- 
lication, published  probably  about 
1590.  Faust  is  depicted  as  a  young 
man,  enjoying  to  the  full  his  ill- 
gotten  pleasures;  and  the  devil, 
Mephistopheles,is  a  genuinely  tragic 
figure,  fallen  from  heaven  and  tor- 
tured  by  regret  for  his  lost  state. 
Helen  of  Troy  is  conjured  up  near 
the  end  of  the  tragedy,  symbolising, 
as  some  hold,  the  return  of  ancient 
beauty  in  the  Renaissance  to  chal- 
lenge medieval  doctrines. 
Goethe's  Faust 

The  Faust  of  Goethe,  the  great- 
est version  of  all,  is  a  long  verse 
drama  in  two  parts.  First  begun 
in  1773,  Goethe  did  not  complete 
working  on  it  until  1832,  a  few 
days  before  his  death,  but  parts 
were  published  in  1790  and  1808. 
The  story  is  developed  on  widely 
different  lines  from  the  early  Faus't 
books.  Faust,  inspired  by  a  fierce 
desire  for  knowledge  and  for 
pleasure,  and  convinced  of  the  un- 
reality and  uselessness  of  his  life, 
sells  himself  to  Mephistopheles. 
He  seduces  and  deserts  the  beauti- 
ful Marguerite,  who  in  despair  kills 
her  child  and  is  thrown  hi  to  prison. 
Faust  visits  her,  and  tries  in  vain 
to  persuade  her  to  flee  with  him, 
but  she  dies  in  his  arms.  A  voice 
from  Heaven  declares  that  peni- 
tence has  saved  the  soul  which  he 
had  imperilled.  This  is  the  central 
episode  in  the  story,  but  the  Pro- 
logue hi  Heaven  describes  how  the 
temptation  of  Faust  is  undertaken 
by  Mephistopheles  as  a  wager  with 
Go,d,  who  believes  that  Faust  can 
withstand  his  seductions. 


FAUSTINA 


3099 


FAVERSHAM 


In  Goethe's  second  part,  the  phil- 
osophic aspect  forms  the  exclusive 
interest,  although  the  symbolism  is 
often  very  obscure.  Faust  comes  to 
the  conclusion  that  neither  learning 
nor  bodily  pleasures  can  satisfy 
his  soul,  but  only  a  life  of  useful 
activity,  contributing  to  the  bene- 
ficent works  of  God  and  Nature. 
By  this  decision  his  soul  is  saved 
from  perdition.  Goethe  has  thus 
transformed  the  old  Faust  story, 
with  its  stress  on  the  punishment 
awaiting  those  who  seek  human  and 
rational  knowledge  in  preference 
to  theological  doctrine,  into  an  ex- 
pression of  the  noblest  humanism 
in  thought  and  action. 

Faust  has  also  been  the  subject 
of  a  romance  by  Friedrich  Klinger, 
1791,  of  a  dramatic  poem  by 
Nikolas  Lenau,  1836,  and  used  as 
the  basis  for  operas  by  Spohr,  1818, 
Berlioz,  1846,  and  Gounod,  1859. 
A  tragedy,  Faust,  by  W.  G.  Wills, 
based  on  Goethe's  version,  was 
produced  successfully  by  Henry* 


Faust  Up  to  Date.  Burlesque 
written  by  George  R.  Sims  and 
Henry  Pettit,  with  music  by  Meyer 
Lutz,  produced  Oct.  30,  1888,  at 
The  Gaiety,  London,  where  it  ran 
for  180  performances. 

Fauvette.  British  mercantile 
auxiliary.  She  was  sunk  by  a  mine 
off  the  E.  coast  of  England,  on 
March  9,  1916,  when  two  officers 
and  12  men  were  lost. 

Favara.  Town  of  Sicily,  in  the 
prov.  of  Girgenti.  It  stands  at  an 
alt.  of  1,100  ft.,  5  m.  S.E.  of  Gir- 
genti, and  9  m.  from  the  Mediter- 
ranean. It  is  the  centre  of  a  fruit- 
producing  district,  and  is  noted  for 
its  rich  sulphur  mines ;  other  pro- 
ducts are  marble,  alum,  and  tour- 
maline. There  is  a  14th  century  cas- 
tle of  the  Chiaramonti.  Pop.  21,599. 

Favart,  CHARLES  SIMON  (1710- 
92).  French  dramatist.  Born  in 
Paris,  Nov.  13,  1710,  he  produced 
his  first  light  opera,  Les  Deux 
J  umelles,  in  1734,  with  such  success 
that  he  left  his  father's  bakery 


Faust.     The  meeting  of  Faust  and  Marguerite,  from  the  painting  by  J.  J.  J. 
Tissot,  in  the  Luxembourg,  Paris 

the   Lvceum,    London,     business  and  turned  to  play  writing. 


Irving  at  the  Lyceum,  London, 
Dec.  19,  1885,  revived  in  1888, 
1894,  and  1902.  In  Oct.,  1920, 
the  original  version  of  Goethe's 
Faust,  found  by  Friedrich  Schmidt 
of  Berlin  University  in  a  contem- 
porary manuscript  copy,  was  pro- 
duced in  Berlin  by  Max  Rein- 
hardt.  Prow.  Fowst.  /See  Goethe  ; 
Mephistopheles.  J.  E.  Miles 

Faustina  (d.  A.D.  141).  Wife  of 
the  Roman  emperor  Antoninus 
Pius.  His  daughter  of  the  same 
name  (d.  A.D.  175)  married  Marcus 
Aurelius,  successor  of  Antoninus. 
Mother  and  daughter  were  noted 
for  their  profligacy,  yet  their  mem- 
ory was  held  in  honour  after  their 
death  by  their  husbands,  who 
founded  institutions  for  the  edu- 
cating of  orphan  girls  called  after 
them  Faustinianae. 


Under  his  direction  the  Opera 
Comique  became  the  centre  of  this 
class  of  work 
for  many  years. 
A  protege  of 
Madame  de  Pom- 
padour, he  scored 
other  notable  suc- 
cesses with  La 
Chercheuse  d'Es- 
prit,  1741  ;  Les 
Moissoneurs, 
1747  ;  Les  Trois 
Sultanes,  1761. 
His  wife,  Marie 
Justine  du  Ron- 
cerai  (1727-72), 
was  a  celebrated 
actress,  whose 

coldness    to    the       Faversham.    The 
enamoured  Mar- 


Faustina,    wife   of   the   emperor 
Antoninus  Pius 

From  a  bust  in  the  Naples  Museum 

shal  de  Saxe,  when  the  Favart 
company  was  performing  in  his 
camps  in  Flanders,  1747,  brought 
his  wrath  on  her,  and  a  lettre  de 
cachet  on  her  husband,  the  execu- 
tion of  which  he  escaped.  Favart 
die'd  in  Paris,  May  12,  1792.  See 
Favart,  L' Opera  Comique,  et  la 
Comedie-Vaudeville  aux  17e  et  18e 
Siecles,  A.  Font,  1894. 

Faversham.  Mun.  bor.  and 
market  town  of  Kent,  England.  It 
stands  on  a  branch  of  the  Swale, 
called  Faver- 
sham Creek,  and 
is  9J  m.  N.W.  of 
Canterbury,  o  n 
the  S.E.  &  C.R 
An  ancient  town, 
in  1147  Stephen 
and  Matilda 
founded  here  a 
Cluniac  abbey, 
of  which  traces  still  exist.  In  it 
the  royal  pair  and  their  son  Eus- 
tace were  buried.  The  cruciform 
church  of  S.  Mary  of  Charity,  in 
the  Early  English  style,  restored 
by  Sir  G.  G.  Scott  in  1874,  con- 
tains some  superb  brasses. 

Faversham  has  a  trade  in  fruit, 


Faversham  arms 


parish  church  of  S.  Mary  of  Charity, 
restored  in  1874 


FAVIER    EXPLOSIVES 


3  1  OO 


FAWKES 


hops,  and  agricultural  produce, 
also  powder  mills,  brick  and 
cement  works,  breweries,  and  an 
important  oyster  industry.  The 
port  has  a  trade  in  coal,  timber, 
etc.  The  corporation  owns  the 
electric  lighting  plant,  a  recreation 
ground,  and  a  cemetery.  Owing 
to  its  position  at  the  point  where 
Watlirig  Street  touched  the  river, 
Faversham  was  an  important  place 
in  Anglo-Saxon  times,  having 
probably  been  so  in  Roman  ones. 


It  was  a  member  of  the  Cinque 
Port  of  Dover,  had  its  own  mayor 
and  corporation,  while  its  abbot 
was  rich  and  powerful.  It  is  still 
governed  by  a  mayor  and  corpora- 
tion. A  serious  explosion  occurred 
at  a  powder  factory  here  in  April, 
1916.  Market  days,  Wed.  and  Sat. 
Pop.  10,619. 

Favier  Explosives.  Original 
name  of  ammonium  nitrate  ex- 
plosives, and  a  term  by  which  the 
class  is  still  generally  known. 
Owing  to  a  number  of  accidental 
explosions  due  to  blasting  in  coal 
mines,  attention  was  drawn  to  the 
suitability  of  ammonium  nitrate 
explosives  for  this  work,  owing*  to 
their  low  explosion  temperature, 
and  Favier  patented  the  type  in 
1884-85,  the  manufacture  being 
taken  up  by  the  French  govern- 
ment. The  official  French  explo- 
sives generally  consist  of  about  95 
p.c.  of  ammonium  nitrate  and  5  p.c. 
of  di-  or  tri  nitronaphthalene,  for 
use  in  fiery  mines,  whilst  the  latter 
ingredient  is  increased  to  12  p.c.  for 
use  in  others.  Ammonite  is  an  Eng- 
lish representative  of  this  class. 

Favignana  (a,nc.Aegusa).  Island 
of  the  Mediterranean,  belonging  to 
Italy.  It  lies  off  the  N.W.  coast  of 
Sicily,  and  is  the  largest  of  the 
Aegades  Islands.  Favignana,  the 
chief  town  and  fishing  port,  lies  on 
the  N.  shore,  and  has  a  fortified 
harbour.  Off  the  island  the  Cartha- 
ginian fleet  was  defeated  by  the 
Romans  in  241  B.C.  The  island  is  6 
m.  long,  and  rises  over  1,000  ft. 
It  is  honeycombed  with  caves. 
Area,  8  sq.  m.  Pop.  6,079. 

Favonius.  In  Roman  mytho- 
logy, the  name  of  the  W.  or  S.W. 
wind  which  blew  in  spring,  identi- 
fied with  the  Greek  Zephyrus. 

Favorinus.  Greek  sophist  and 
rhetorician.  A  native  of  Arelate 
(Aries)  and  a  great  traveller,  he 
flourished  during  the  reign  of 
Hadrian.  He  wrote  several  miscel- 
laneous works,  but  none  survives. 

Favre,  JULES  CLAUDE  GABRIEL 
(1809-80).  French  statesman.  Born 
at  Lyons,  March  21,  1809,  he  en- 
tered the  legal  profession,  and,  an 
ardent  republican  from  the  first, 
was  elected  deputy  for  Lyons  to 
the  constituent  assembly,  1848.  A 
bitter  enemy  of  Louis  Napoleon, 


he  attempted  an  armed  riot  against 
his  election  to  the  presidency, 
1851,  defended  his  assailant  Orsini, 
___ .—^^  1858, led  there- 
publican  oppo- 
sition in  the 
chamber,  1863- 
70; and  founded 
the  republican 
paper.  L'Elec- 
teur,  1868. 

In  the  gov- 
ernment of 
Jules  Favre,  national  de- 
French  statesman  fence,  1870, 
Favre  was  foreign  minister  and 
vice  -  president,  but  mismanaged 
the  armistice  negotiations,  Jan. 
28,  1871,  and  as  foreign  minister 
under  Thiers,  1871,  was  easily 
out  -  manoeuvred  by  Bismarck. 
The  treaty  of  Frankfort  brought 
about  his  resignation,  July  23, 
1871.  He  was  elected  to  the 
senate  in  1876,  and  died  Jan.  20, 
1880.  His  writings  include  political 
studies,  and  an  account  (1873-75) 
of  The  Government  of  National 
Defence,  in  which  he  describes  his 
part  in  the  events  of  1870-71. 

Fa vus  (Lat.,  honeycomb).  Dis- 
ease caused  by  §,  parasite  fungus, 
the  Achorion  "Schoenleinii,  which 
most  frequently  attacks  the  scalp, 
but  may  affect  any  part  of  the 
skin.  Favus  is  common  in  Eastern 
Europe  and  Asia,  but  is  rare  in 
Great  Britain.  On  the  scalp  it  first 
appears  as  small,  irregular  cups  of  a 
sulphur-yellow  colour.  Large  seabs 
are  gradually  formed  which  event- 
ually drop  off,  leaving  a  depressed 
scar  destitute  of  hair.  The  condi- 
tion is  intractable,  and  may  per- 
sist for  years.  The  contagion  may 
be  derived  from  rabbits,  dogs, 
fowls,  and  other  animals.  Exposure 
of  the  patch  to  X-rays,  followed 
by  vigorous  treatment  with  anti- 
septics, give  the  best  results. 

Fawcett,  HENRY  (1833-84). 
British  politician  and  economist. 
Born  at  Salisbury,  Aug.  26,  1833, 
he  graduated  at  — 
Cambridge  in  j 
1856,  distin-  t 
guishing  h  i  m-  i 
self  in  mathe-  | 
matics.  He  was  I 
accident  ally  I 
blinded  at  a  1 
shooting  party  I"; 
in  1857,  but,  Li 
taking  up  his  *Fe.?.r?  . 

fellowship  at      British  politician 

Trinity  Hall,  devoted  his  time  to 
the  study  of  political  economy,  of 
which  he  became  professor  in  1863. 
In  1867  he  married  Millicent 
Garrett,  a  distinguished  advocate 
of  women's  rights.  In  1865  he 
became  Liberal  M.P.  for  Brighton, 
and  took  up  an  independent  line 
which  brought  him  into  opposition 


with  every  other  party.  .  •  Identi- 
fying himself  with  many  schemes 
of  reform  and  devoting  himself 
especially  to  all  questions  con- 
cerning India,  he  became  known 
as  the  member  for  India.  In  1875 
he  was  chosen  M.P.  for  Hackney, 
and  in  1880  became  postmaster- 
general  under  Gladstone,  but  with- 
out a  seat  in  the  cabinet.  He 
introduced  several  postal  reforms. 
HediedatCambridge,  Nov.  6,  1884. 
See  Life,  Leslie  Stephen,  1885. 

Fawcett,  DAME  MILLICENT 
GARRETT  (b.  1847).  British  writer 
and  feminist.  Born  June  11. 
1847.  she  was 
the  dau  g  h  t  e  r 
of  Newson  Gar- 
rett, and  sister 
of  Mrs.  Garrett  m 
Anderson.  In 
1867  she  mar- 
ried Henry 
Fawcett.  She  be- 
came a  leading 


Elliott  <t  Fry 

advocate  of  women's  suffrage,  being 
president  of  the  national  union  of 
women's  suffrage  societies  until 
1919.  Mrs.  Fawcett  was  known 
also  as  a  writer  on  educational 
and  political  subjects.  ^  -Her  two 
text-books,  Political  Economy  for 
Beginners,  1870,  and  Tales  in 
Political  Economy,  1875,  had  great 
popularity.  She  wrote  Essays  and 
Lectures,  jointly  with  Henry  Faw- 
cett, 1872  ;  Life  of  Queen  Vicfcorja, 
1895;  Women's  Suffrage,  1912. 
She  received  the  G.B.E.  in  1925 
Her  daughter,  Philippa  Garrett 
Fawcett,  was  senior  wrangler 
in  fact,  though  not  in  name,  in 
1890.  Afterwards  she  was  engaged 
in  educational  work. 

Fa  wkes,  GUY  (1570-1606).  Eng- 
lish. conspirator,  central  figure  in 
the  Gunpowder  Plot.  Born  at 
York,  April  16,  1570,  he  served  for 
some  years  in  the  Spanish  armies  in 
Flanders  from  1593.  The  circum- 
stances of  his  implication  in  the  con- 
spiracy were  as  follows. 

In  1604  a  small  group  of  Roman 
Catholic  zealots,  finding  that  they 
had  nothing  to  hope  from  the  ac- 
cession of  James  I,  formed  a  plot 
for  the  overthrow  of  the  govern- 
ment by  blowing  up  king,  minis- 
ters, and  parliament  together  ;  in 
the  resultant  chaos,  the  Roman 
Catholics,  headed  by  the  conspir- 
ators, were  themselves  to  seize  the 
government.  '^The  secret,  imparted 
to  few  —  Catesby,  Percy,  Digby, 
Rookwood,  and  Tresham  are  the 
most  familiar  of  the  names  of  the 
plotters  —  was  for  a  long  time  well 
kept.  The  design  was  to  be  car- 
ried out  on  the  day  of  the  assem- 
bling of  parliament  in  Feb.,  1605. 


3101 


F.E. 


But  the  meeting  was  adjourned  till 
Oct.,  and  finally  till  Nov.  5.  The 
conspirators  procured  an  adjoining 
house  which  gave  them  access  to  the 
chambers  under  the  Parliament 
House,  where  gunpowder  was 
stored,  while  the  actual  execution  of 
the  plot  was  entrusted  to  Fawkes. 

But  at  the  critical  moment  a 
hint  was  conveyed  by  one  of  the 
conspirators,  Francis  Tresham,  to 
Lord  Monteagle,  warning  him  to 
absent  himself  from  the  ceremony, 
since  "  this  Parliament  shall  receive 
a  terrible  blow,  and  shall  not  know 
who  hurts  them."  The  meaning 
of  the  hint  was  unexpectedly  eluci- 
dated ;  on  the  night  of  Nov.  4 
Fawkes  was  found  at  his  post,  and 
was  seized  after  a  desperate  resis- 
tance. The  rest  of  the  conspirators 
fled,  but  were  hunted  down  and 
captured  or  slain.  A  full  con- 
fession was  extorted  under  torture 
from  Fawkes,  who,  with  the  sur- 
viving conspirators,  was  executed, 
Jan.  31,  1606. 

The  share  taken  in  the  affair  by 
the  Jesuits  is  a  matter  of  dispute, 
but  two  of  them,  Gerard  and  Gar- 
net, the  head  of  the  order  in  Eng- 
land, certainly  knew  of  the  plot, 
though  the  latter  is  said  to  have  re- 
ceived his  information  only  under 
the  seal  of  confession.  The  effect 
of  the  plot  was  to  establish  in  the 
minds  of  the  English  people  an  un- 
reasoning and  persistent  fear  and 
hatred  of  the  Roman  Catholics  ; 
though  none  but  a  few  desperate 
fanatics  had  been  in  any  way  con- 
cerned. See  Gunpowder  Plot. 

Fayal  OR  FATAL.  Island  of  the 
Azores,  belonging  to  Portugal.  It 
lies  W.  of  Pico.  Almost  wholly 
mountainous  (highest  point  3,300 
ft. ),  it  is  fertile,  cereals,  fruit,  and 
vegetables  being  cultivated.  The 
fig  tree  nourishes,  and  from  its  pith 
carvings  are  made ;  lace  is  made 
from  the  agave.  Basket-making 
is  carried  on,  but  the  so-called 
Fayal  wine  was  made  in  the  neigh- 
bouring island  of  Pico.  The  capital 
and  chief  port  is  Horta,  with  a 
wireless  station.  Area,  65  sq.  m. 
Pop.  22,385. 

Faye,  HERVE  ATJGTJSTE  ETIENNE 
(1814-1902).  French  astronomer. 
Born  at  St.  Benoit-du-Sault,  Indre, 
Oct.  5, 1814,  he  was  made  professor 
of  astronomy  at  Nancy  in  1854.  In 
1873  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  astronomy  and  geodesy  at  the 
Ecole  Polytechnique  in  Paris.  He 
discovered  the  comet  named  after 
him,  Nov.  22,  1843.  It  has  a  period 
of  7i  years,  and  pursues  the  most 
nearly  circular  path  of  any  known 
object  of  the  kind.  His  name  was 
associated  with  the  cyclonic  theory 
of  sunspots,  with  the  nature  of,  and 
velocities  in,  prominences.  He  died 
in  Paris,  July  4,  1902. 


Emile  Fayolle, 
French  soldier 


Fayolle,  MARIE  EMILE  (b.  1852). 
French  soldier.  Born  at  Le  Puy, 
Loire,  May  14,  1852.  he  entered  the 
French  army  as  a  lieutenant  of 
artillery  in  1877,  and  saw  active 
service  in  Tu- 
nisia. He  was 
later  a  pro- 
fessor in  the 
fi  c  o  1  e  Supe- 
rieure  de 
Guerre,  be- 
came colonel 
1907,  and 
general  1910. 
At  the  out- 
fa  re  a  k  of  the 
Great  War  he  was  in  command  of 
the  139th  brigade,  and  then,  after 
leading  a  division,  commanded  the 
33rd  army  corps.  Succeeding  Cas- 
telnau,  he  led  the  French  Sixth  and 
First  Armies  in  the  battle  of  the 
Somme,  1916.  In  1917  he  com- 
manded the  Army  of  the  Centre, 
which  took  part  in  the  Aisne  bat- 
tles. In  Oct.,  1917,  he  was  in  Italy 
as  commander  -  in  -  chief  of  the 
French  forces.  In  1918  he  returned 
to  France  and  was  placed  at  the 
head  of  the  reserve  army.  For  a 
time,  in  1919,  he  commanded  the 
French  Army  of 
Occupation  in  Ger- 
many. In  1920  he 
was  appointed 
French  military 
representative  on 
the  permanent 
armaments  com- 
mission of  the 
League  of  Nations. 
Fay  um(  Coptic, 
lakeland)  Prov. 
of  Upper  Egypt. 
It .  contains  the 
districts  of  Etsa, 
Fayum,  and  Sen- 
nures.  The  district 
of  Fayum  consists 
of  a  nearly  circu- 
lar basin,  well  irrigated  and  fertile, 
sunk  below  the  level  of  the  sur- 
rounding desert.  In  it  are  Lake 
Moeris  and  the  town  of  Medinet- 
el-Fayum.  The  chief  products  are 
rice,  cotton,  flax,  hemp,  figs,  olives, 
and  oranges.  The  prov.,  which  is 
watered  by  the  Bahr  Yusuf,  an 
old  Nile  branch,  abounds  in  an- 
cient remains,  its  sites  having  been 
dug  by  Flinders  Petrie  mainly  be- 
tween 1888-90.  The  area  of  the 
prov.  is  669  sq.  m.  Pop.  507,617. 
Its  overflow  was  embanked  by 
Amenemhat  III,  who  built  a  funer- 
ary temple,  known  in  ancient  times 
as  the  Labyrinth,  two  colossal 
statues  on  limestone  pedestals,  and 
the  Hawara  pyramid.  Adjacent 
Roman  torn  bs  have  furnished  many 
mummy-portraits.  Senwosri  II 
erected  the  Illahun  pyramid.  At 
Gurob  precious  papyri  were  re- 


covered from  mummy -wrappings ; 
other  papyrus  collections  have 
come  from  Arsinoe  and  elsewhere. 

Fazakerley.  Suburb  of  Liver- 
pool. It  has  a  station  on  the  L.  &  Y. 
Rly.  and  is  also  connected  with  the 
centre  of  the  city  by  tramways. 

Fazogli  OR  FAZOKL.  Region  of 
the  Anglo -Egyptian  Sudan.  It  is 
intersected  by  the  Blue  Nile  and 
borders  Abyssinia  on  the  S.  and  E. 
The  inhabitants  are  negroes,  but 
there  are  Arab  settlements.  The 
chief  town  is  Famaka.  Gold, 
ivory,  gum,  and  fruits  are  ex- 
ported, and  tobacco  and  durra  are 
produced.  Pop.  (est.)  500,000. 

F.B.A.  Abbrev.  for  Fellow  of 
the  British  Academy  (q.v.),  an  im- 
portant learned  society. 

F.B.A.  Name  of  a  two-seater 
flying  boat  manufactured  by  the 
Franco-British  Aircraft  Co.,  fitted 
with  a  100-h.p.  Gnome  engine.  It 
was  45  ft.  in  breadth  and  28  ft.  in 
length,  and  was  used  during  the 
Great  War  for  patrol  work  and 
submarine  spotting. 

F  Boat.  Name  given  to  a  class 
of  flying  boats  developed  by  the 
Felixstowe  experimental  seaplane 
station  of  the  R.N.A.S. — later 


F  Boat.     The  Felixstowe  Fury  triplane  flying  boat,  a 
development  of  the  earlier  F  boats.     See  page  3107 

R.A.F.  The  types  F  2,  F  2A,  F  3, 
and  F  5  were  built  in  considerable 
numbers  by  various  contractors, 
and  were  extensively  employed  in 
the  Great  War  for  anti-submarine 
patrols.  These  four  types  were  all 
biplane  flying  boats  of  large  size, 
fitted  with  two  Rolls-Royce  en- 
gines from  250  to  375  h.p.,  carry- 
ing generally  a  crew  of  five,  a  for- 
midable machine  -  gun  armament, 
and  a  large  load  of  bombs.  See 
Felixstowe  Fury. 

F.E.  Name  of  a  type  of  British 
aeroplane  built  at  the  Royal  Air- 
craft Factory,  Farnborough,  later 
known  as  the  Royal  Aircraft 
Establishment.  The  letters  origin- 
ally indicated  Farman  Experimen- 
tal. It  was  a  pusher  biplane,  and 
was  named  after  Henry  Farman, 
who  was  credited  with  having 
originated  the  pusher  type. 


FEALE 

Feale.  River  of  Ireland.  Rising 
in  N.W.  co.  Cork,  it  passes  N.W. 
between  cos.  Limerick  and  Kern 
and  thence  W.  through  co.  Kerry 
to  the  Shannon,  which  it  enters 
as  the  Cashen.  Its  length  is  37  m 

Fear.  Feeling  of  mental  uneasi- 
ness arising  from  the  expectation  of 
evil  to  come.  Exercising  a  disturb- 
ing and  lowering  effect,  it  drives  the 
blood  to  the  heart,  giving  rise  to 
paleness  and  accelerated  heart- 
beat ;  perspiration  exudes  from 
the  skin,  the  hair  stands  on  end. 
The  eye,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
stimulated.  The  aggravated  form 
of  fear  is  terror ;  a  modified  form  is 
known  as  shyness.  See  Emotion 
Psychology. 

Fear.  Cape  or  headland  of 
North  Carolina,  U.S.A.  It  is  the 
extreme  S.  point  of  Smith's  Island 
and  of  the  state.  A  lighthouse  has 
been  erected  on  the  point. 

Feast.  Term  applied  to  days 
on  which  notable  events  in  Church 
history,  giving  occasion  for  solemn 
joy,  are  commemorated.  From  this 
has  developed  its  use  for  occasions 
of  rejoicing  in  public  or  private; 
for  public  dinners,  e.g.  mayoral  or 
civic  feasts,  etc.  See  Festival. 

Feather.  Outgrowth  from  the 
skin  in  birds,  forming  an  external 
protective  covering.  They  do  not 
occur  in  any  other  phylum  of  the 
animal  kingdom,  their  place  being 
taken  by  hair  in  the  mammals. 
Feathers  are  of  a  horny  character, 
and  are  composed  structurally  of 
an  axis  and  a  large  number  of 
barbs.  The  hollow  base  of  the  axis 
is  fixed  in  the  skin,  and  is  known  as 
the  quill.  The  small  hole  at  its  base 
is  the  opening  through  which  nutri- 
tion is  supplied  during  growth.  The 
solid  upper  part  of  the  axis  is  called 
the  shaft,  from  which  branches  or 
barbs  grow  out  on  either  side. 
These  barbs  have  smaller  branches 
or  barbules,  which  interlock  and  so 
resist  the  pressure  of  the  air  in 
flight.  In  flightless  birds,  as  the 
ostrich,  the  barbules  do  not  inter- 
lock, and  the  feathers  are  soft  an'* 
loose.  , 

Although  the  body  of  a  bird 
appears  to  be  pretty  uniformly 
covered  with  feathers,  it  is  not 
really  so.  The  feathers  grow  in 
definite  tracts,  and  certain  por- 
tions of  the  body  are  without  them. 
Feathers  are  of  many  types,  the 
strongest  being  the  flight  feathers 
on  the  wings.  Small  soft  feathers, 
known  as  down,  form  an  underlayer 
for  purposes  of  warmth,  and  are 
most  developed  in  the  water-fowl. 
In  some  species,  as  the  birds  of 
paradise,  certain  feathers  are  modi- 
fied to  produce  plumes  and  crests 
of  varied  form.  ,  . 

Economically,  feathers  -  were 
formerly  much  used  for  stuffing 


3  1  O2 


FEATHER      GRASS 


Feather.     1.  Left,  wing  of  wood  pigeon  ;  right,  of  tawny  owl.     2.  Wing  of 

chaffinch.      3.  Primary   feather    of   tawny  owl  ;    above,    of    wood  pigeon. 

4.  Tail  of  male  chaffinch 


beds,  quilts,and  cushions,  especially 
the  down  of  the  eider  duck,  but 
have  now  largely  given  way  to 
more  sanitary  materials.  They 
are  much  employed  for  personal 
adornment,  and  the  larger  quills 
are  still  to  some  extent  used  as 
pens.  For  long  an  agitation  has 
been  carried  on  against  the  wear- 
ing of  feathers  obtained  from  birds 
of  plumage.  A 
Plumage  (Pro- 
hibition) Bill 
to  prohibit 
the  importa- 
tion of  the 
plumage  of 
birds  and  the 
sale  or  pos- 
se s  s  i  o  n  of 
plumage  ille- 
gally import- 
ed was  intro- 
duced into 
Parliament  in 
1920.  (See  Ostrich;  Plumage.) 

The  preparation  of  feathers  for 
the  market  includes  cleaning, 
blanching,  dyeing,  and  curling  or 
bending  to  some  required  shape. 
The  most  important  decorative 
feather  is  taken  from  the  wings  of 
the  ostrich,  being  cut — close  to  the 
root — about  three  times  in  two 
years ;  the  root  either  falling  out 
or  being  extracted  later.  The 
feathers  are  sorted  according  to 
size,  colour,  and  quality,  are  well 
washed,  and  sometimes  dipped  in 
strong  starch,  then  shaken  together 
in  bundles  in  the  hot  sun  until 
quite  dry.  Burning  sulphur  is 
sometimes  used  in  purifying  them. 
All  but  feathers  which  are  to  be 
dyed  black  need  blanching,  by 
which  cape  feathers  from  the  male 
bird  can  be  made  perfectly  white. 


Feather  of  common 
fowl 


Stiff  feathers  have  the  quill  scraped 
with  glass  to  make  them  more 
pliable.  Dyeing  follows  blanching, 
and  the  last  process  is  curling  the 
filaments  according  to  the  fashion 
in  vogue  with  a  blunt  knife.  Some- 
times they  are  glycerined  instead 
of  curled,  and  under  those  con- 
ditions they  present  a  lank,  thread- 
like appearance. 

Feather.  River  of  California, 
U.S.A.  Rising  in  many  head- 
streams  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  range, 
it  flows  S.W.  and  S.  to  the  Sacra- 
mento river  about  20  m.  above 
Sacramento  city.  Over  230  m. 
long,  it  is  navigable  for  only  30  m. 
Its  basin  contains  valuable  gold 
deposits,  which  are  extensively 
worked. 

Feather  Grass  (Stipa  pennata). 
Perennial  grass  of  the  natural  order 
Gramineae.  A  native  of  Europe,  it 
was  long  cultivated  in  gardens  as 
an  ornamental  plant.  The  glume 
containing  the  seed  is  covered  with 
stiff  hairs  pointing  upwards,  whilst 
its  base  terminates  in  a  sharp 
point.  Above  it  is  continued  as 
a  long,  spirally  twisted  awn,  ending 
in  a  long  feather-like  tail,  the 
whole  being  about  1  ft.  long.  The 
wind  acting  on  the  glume  detaches 
the  seed,  etc.,  from  the  plant,  and 
when  it  reaches  the  earth  the 
spiral,  by  expanding  in  dry  and 
contracting  in  wet  weather,  forces 
the  seed  into  the  ground,  the 
bristles  on  the  glume  allowing  it 
to  enter  but  preventing  its  return. 
If  these  seeds  get  into  the  fleece 
of  sheep  they  are  driven  by  the 
same  mechanism  into  the  flesh  of 
the  animal.  Two  allied  species, 
S.  capillata  (Russia)  and  S.  sparlea 
(N.  America),  are  known  to  kill 
sheep  in  this  manner. 


FEATHER  STAR 


3103 


FECKENHAM 


Feather  Star.  Class  of  the  Echi- 
noderma  (q.v.),  otherwise  known 
as  sea  lilies.  They  resemble  very 


Feather  Star.     Specimen  of  rosy 
feather  star,  Comatula  rosacea 

slender  starfish,  with  long  rays 
bearing  little  branches  or  pinnules, 
somewhat  like  feathers.  They  live 
in  deep  water.  Only  one  species, 
the  rosy  feather  star,  occurs  around 
the  British  coasts.  See  Crinoidea. 

Featherstone.  Urban  district 
and  parish  of  Yorkshire  (W.R.).  It 
is  2  m.  S.W.  of  Pontefract,  on  the 
L.  &  Y.R.,  and  ia  a  coal-mining 
centre.  The  place  is  specially 
known  because,  during  a  strike, 
there  was  a  riot  here,  Sept.  7,  1893. 
Colliery  works  having  been  de- 
stroyed, the  military  arrived,  and 
order  was  not  restored  without « 
bloodshed.  Pop.  14,374. 

Feathertop.  Mt.  of  Victoria, 
Australia.  It  lies  N.  of  the  Divid- 
ing Range  and  rises  to  6,303  ft. 

Featherweight.  Literally  a 
weight  absolutely  exact,  so  much 
so  that  the  addition  of  a  feather 
would  make  it  wrong.  The  term 
is  used  in  racing  for  the  lightest 
weight  that  can  be  carried  by  a 
horse  hi  a  handicap  race.  In  box- 
ing it  refers  to  the  lightest  class 
but  one  of  competitors  in  a  recog- 
nized competition.  Under  English 
rules  such  must  not  exceed  1261b. 
in  weight;  under  American  rules 
the  figure  is  115  Ib.  See  Boxing; 
Handicap. 

Febrifuge  (Lat.  febris,  fever; 
fugare,  to  put  to  flight).  Term 
used  for  any  medicine  that  cures 
or  attempts  to  cure  fever.  Anti- 
pyrin  and  phenacetin  are  febri- 
fuges, while  quinine  is  another  in 
frequent  use. 

Febris.  In  Roman  mythology, 
the  personification  of  fever  and 
also  the  goddess  who  was  supposed 
to  avert  it.  Three  temples  in  Rome, 
one  on  the  Palatine,  were  sacred 
to  her. 

Febronianism.  Reform  move- 
ment among  the  Roman  Catholics 
of  Germany.  It  was  started  in  1763 
by  Johann  von  Hontheim,  who 
wrote  under  the  name  of  Justinius 
Febronius.  Its  object  was  to  limit 


the  autocratic  power  of  the  pope 
and  to  secure  a  larger  measure  of 
independence  for  national  churches. 

February.  Second  month  of 
the  Christian  calendar,  ordinarily 
consisting  of  28  days,  in  leap  year 
of  29.  The  name  comes  from  Latin 
februare,  to  purify,  hi  allusion  to 
the  Lupercalia  (q.v.),  the  Roman 
expiatory  festival,  which,  as  well  as 
the  Feralia,  or  general  festival  of 
the  dead,  was  celebrated  at  Rome 
during  this  month.  The  month  is 
popularly  known  as  February  "  fill- 
dyke."  January  and  February 
were  additions  to  the  old  Roman 
calendar.  See  Calendar. 

Fecamp.  Town  and  seaport  of 
Normandy,  France.  It  stands  on 
the  English  Channel,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  river  Fecamp,  28  m.  N.N.E. 
of  Havre.  The  port,  which  has  a 
harbour  and  docks,  has  a  trade  in 
coal,  timber,  etc. ;  it  is  also  a  fishing 
centre.  There  are  some  industries, 
mainly  shipbuilding,  and  here  is 
made  the  liqueur  called  benedictine. 

The  most  interesting  building  is 
the  church  of  the  Trinity,  built  in 
the  12th  century,  once  the  abbey 
church.  A  magnificent  building, 
it  has  a  spacious  and  noble  interior, 
while  it  has  some  fine  memorials 
and  decorations,  tombs,  stained 
glass,  etc.  S.  Etienne  is  a  16th 
century  church,  while  the  re- 
maining monastic  buildings  are 
now  used  for  the  town  hall,  library, 


Fecamp.    Sea  front  looking  north-east  towards 
harbour 

and  museum.  The  town  grew  up 
around  a  nunnery  founded  in  the 
7th  century  to  hold  a  relic  of  the 
True  Blood,  which  was  washed 
ashore  in  the  trunk  of  a  fig  tree. 
Hence  the  name,  a  corruption  of 
ficus  campus.  Pop.  15,380. 

Fechner,  GUSTAV  THEODOE 
(1801-87).  German  philosopher 
and  physicist.  Born  near  Muskau, 
Prussia,  April  19,  1801,  he  was 
professor  of  physics  and  afterwards 
of  philosophy  in  the  university  of 
Leipzig.  The  founder  of  psycho- 
physicism,  he  held  that  all  mental 
changes  were  accompanied  by  a 
parallel  change  in  the  nervous 


system.  His  chief  scientific  works 
are  The  Supreme  Good,  1846,  and 
Elements  of  Psychophysics,  1860. 
Fechner  was  also  the  author  of 
a  number  of 
satirical 
writings  o  n 
various  sub- 
jects, p  u  b- 
lished  under 
the  name  of 
Dr.  Mises.  He 
died  Nov.  18, 

1887  8  e  e  Gustav  Fechner> 
Psychophysics.  German  philosopher 
Fechter,CHABLEs  ALBEKT(1824- 
79).  British-French  actor.  Born  hi 
London,  Oct.  23,  1824,  he  was  a 
sculptor  before  he  went  on  the 
French  stage  in  1844.  He  soon 
became  recognized  as  the  leading 
French  jeune 
premier,  not- 
ably by  his 
Armand  Du- 
val  hi  Dumas 
fils's  La  Dame 
aux  Camelias, 
1852.  He 
appeared  a  t 
ThePrincess's, 
London,  Oct. 
27,  1860,  as 
Ruy  Bias  in  a 
version  of  Hugo's  play,  with  great 
success.  His  Hamlet,  March  20, 
1861,  was  enthusiastically  received ; 
but  his  Othello,  Oct.  23,  1861, 
— ,  proved  disappoint- 
j  ing.  From  1863- 
i  67  he  was  lessee  of 
The  Lyceum, 
where  he  played 
in  various  melo- 
dramas, such  as 
The  Duke's  Motto, 
The  Roadside  Inn, 
and  The  Corsican 
Brothers.  In 
1870  he  appeared 
in  New  York.  He 
finally  left  Eng- 
land  in  1872, 
remaining  in 
America  until  his 
death,  Aug.  5, 
1879. 

Feckenham,  JOHN  (c.  1515-84). 
Last  abbot  of  Westminster.  Born 
about  1515  at  Feekenham,  near 
Droitwich,  he  became  a  Benedic- 
tine monk  at  Evesham.  He  was 
rector  of  Solihull,  Warwickshire, 
and  was  confined  in  the  Tower  by 
Cranmer,  1549-53. ,  When  Mary 
restored  the  monastery  of  S.  Peter 
at  Westminster  he  was  chosen 
abbot.  At  the  accession  of  Eliza- 
beth he  refused  to  acquiesce  in  the 
reformation  of  the  Church,  oppos- 
ing t'he  new  liturgy  and  the  Act  of 
uniformity,  1559.  The  monastery 
was  soon  afterwards  dissolved  and 
Feckenham  lived  hi  retirement. 


FEDDAN 

Feddan.  Modern  Egyptian  land 
measure.  The  feddan  is  1'038 
acres,  but  in  certain  localities  it  is 
equivalent  to  T127  acres,  whilst 
formerly  it  equalled  as  much  as 
1-266  acres.  The  measure  is  di- 
vided into  24  kirats. 

Federalism  (Lat.  foedus,  a 
league).  Form  of  government 
generally  distinguished  from  the 
unitary  organization  of  a  state.  The 
federal  form  of  government  in- 
volves limitations  upon  the  power 
of  the  central  government  of  a 
sovereign  state,  and  fairly  large 
units  of  subordinate  government. 
Thus  a  federal  state  is  distin- 
guished from  a  confederation  of 
states  in  having  a  powerful,  though 
limited,  central  government ;  and  - 
federal  units  are  distinguished  from 
units  of  local  government  in  being 
large  and  controlling  elements  in 
the  governmental  organism. 

Federation  means  either  the 
character  of  the  government  in  a 
federal  state,  or  the  political  move- 
ment towards  decentralization ; 
and  thus  it  may  be  best  explained 
by  reference  to  the  practice  of 
federal  governments.  Such  govern- 
ments may  be  formed  either  by  the 
unification  of  diverse  units,  as  in 
Switzerland  and  the  original  United 
States  of  North  America,  or  by 
decentralization  of  a  single  unit  of 
government,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
Dominion  of  Canada.  The  federal 
states  of  South  and  Central  Amer- 
ica vaguely  reflect  both  methods 
of  formation. 

The  subordinate  elements  in  a 
federation  are  sometimes  called 
states,  as  in  N.  and  S.  America,  and 
sometimes  called  by  other  names,  as 
cantons  in  Switzerland.  The  idea 
of  subordination,  however,  is  not 
quite  adequate,  for  the  distinction 
between  the  functions  of  central 
and  non- central  government  in  a 
federal  state  is  not  one  between  a 
superior  and  an  inferior.  The  dis- 
tinction is  based  on  a  division  be- 
tween equally  important  functions. 

The  non-central  governments 
generally  deal  with  industrial 
issues  of  a  localised  character,  with 
education,  with  taxation  or  a 
large  part  of  it,  with  roads  and 
summary  justice ;  the  central 
governments  deal  with  peace  and 
war,  foreign  or  international  affairs, 
basic  administration  of  justice,  and 
communication.  Clearly  the  way 
in  which  the  functions  are  divided 
must  vary  with  the  peculiar  circum- 
stances or  the  history  of  the  people 
concerned,  and  where  there  is  an 
increase  of  governmental  functions 
there  may  be  disputes  as  to  the 
competence  in  particular  issues  of 
the  central  and  the  non-central 
governments.  Thus  the  state  of 
California  in  U.S.A.  may  make  the 


3104 

foreign  policy  of  the  central 
government  difficult  by  excluding 
some  Japanese. 

In  the  United  Kingdom  federal- 
ism would  involve  the  partial 
separation  of  the  old  kingdoms  and 
the  principality  of  Wales,  with  a 
view  to  decentralizing  some  parts  of 
the  administration ;  and  it  is  there- 
fore connected  with  devolution. 
The  tendency  in  the  great  states  of 
modern  times  is  towards  federation 
because  of  the  separation  between 
a  highly  centralized  machine  of 
government  in  a  large  population 
from  the  necessary  contact  with 
local  differences.  Thus,  while  in  the 
United  Kingdom  there  is  only  one 
Parliament  and  executive  for  about 
fifty  million  persons,  in  the  Scandi- 
navian States  there  is  a  complete 
organism  of  government  for  about 
five  million.  The  tendencies  point 
to  changes  of  the  older  form  of 
federal  government,  e.g.  in  the 
U.S.A.,  and  to  experiment  in  new 
forms.  See  Devolution;  Home 
Rule ;  Politics ;  Sovereignty ;  State. 

C.  Delisle  Burns 

Biolioijraphy.  History  of  Federal 
Government,  E.  A.  Freeman,  1863  ; 
The  American  Commonwealth,  J. 
Bryce,  1888;  The  Federal  Solution, 
J.  A.  Murray  Macdonald,  1920. 

Federalists.  American  political 
party  formed  in  1787.  When  the 
thirteen  British  colonies  of  N. 
America  were  recognized  as  an  in- 
dependent nation  in  1783,  the  most 
urgent  problem  before  them  was 
the  provision  of  a  common  central 
government  which  at  the  same 
time  should  not  interfere  with  the 
autonomy  of  the  several  states. 
The  practical  result  was  that  poli- 
ticians were  group'ed  into  two 
parties  with  an  indefinite  line  of 
demarcation — the  Federalists,  who 
emphasised  the  necessity  for 
strengthening  the  authority  of  the 
central  government,  and  the  anti- 
Federalists,  who  emphasised  the 
rights  of  the  individual  states. 
Since  the  individual  interests  of  the 
northern  states  clashed  with  the  in- 
dividual interests  of  the  southern 
states,  while  if  representation  rested 
upon  population  and  wealth  the 
north  would  dominate  the  central 
government,  the  northern  poli- 
ticians became  roughly  identified 
with  the  Federalists,  the  southern 
with  the  anti-Federalists. 

Washington,  as  president,  did 
not  wish  to  identify  himself  with  a 
party ;  Hamilton,  the  leading 
Federalist,  and  Jefferson,  a  promi- 
nent an ti -Federalist,  served  under 
him  in  the  same  government.  But 
at  bottom  the  real  question  was 
whether  the  interests  of  the  N. 
or  those  of  the  S.  should  pre- 
dominate. The  series  of  presidents 
from  Jefferson  onwards  were  anti- 
Federalists — mainly  a  consequence 


FEEDER 

of  want  of  solidarity  among  the 
Federalists  and  of  the  popular  anti- 
British  policy  of  the  anti -Federalist 
statesmen.  The  Federalist  party 
broke  up  and  disappeared  after  the 
"  Hartford  Convention,"  which  was 
held  by  the  Federalist  states  of  New 
England  in  1814,  with  the  some- 
what paradoxical  aim  of  organiz- 
ing defence  against  encroachments 
upon  the  rights  of  the  northern 
states,  while  it  was  strongly  sus- 
pected of  really  aiming  at  the 
separation  of  the  New  England 
states.  See  United  States :  History. 
Federated  Malay  States.  Name 
given  to  a  federation  of  native 
states  under  British  protection  in 
the  Malay  Peninsula.  There  are 
four  of  'them— Perak,  Selangor, 
Nigri  Sembilan,  and  Pahang,  and 
the  seat  of  government  is  at  Kuala 
Lumpur.  The  states  have  an  area 
of  27,500  sq.  m.  and  a  pop.  of 
about  1,000,000.  Each  state  has  its 
own  sultan  and  a  British  resident, 
while  over  them  is  the  British  high 
commissioner.  Large  quantities  of 
tin  and  gold  are  mined  in  these 
states,  and  dense  forests  yield 
valuable  timber.  See  Nigri  Sem- 
bilan ;  Pahang  ;  Perak  ;  Selangor. 
Federation  of  British  Indus- 
tries. British  organization  of 
manufacturer.  Established  in  1916 
as  a  central  organization  of  manu- 
facturing interests,  its  main  object 
is  to  decide  upon  and  carry  into 
effect  a  definite  line  of  policy  in  re- 
gard to  various  matters  affecting 
British  industry.  It  seeks  to  ex- 
pand and  develop  overseas  trade 
by  means  of  ambassadors  of  com- 
merce. It  has  a  large  membership, 
representing  millions  of  industrial 
capital.  It  was  incorporated  by 
royal  charter  in  1923.  The  head- 
quarters are  at  39,  St.  James's 
Street,  London,  S.W. 

Fee.  Payment  made  for  ser- 
vices, especially  of  a  professional 
kind.  The  fees  of  doctors,  lawyers, 
architects,  and  others  are  usually 
settled  by  custom,  although  as  re- 
gards solicitors  a  maximum  scale  of 
fees  is  fixed  by  the  Law  Society. 
The  fees  of  barristers,  being  origin- 
ally honoraria,  are  not  recoverable 
in  a  court  of  law.  Fees  vary 
very  considerably,  more  especially 
those  of  medical  men  and  lawyers. 
Those  of  architects,  surveyors,  and 
the  like  are  generally  arranged  on 
a  percentage  basis.  The  charge 
made  for  entrance  to  societies, 
clubs,  etc.,  also  the  right  to  sit  at 
examinations,  is  called  a  fee. 

Feeder.  Main  lead  or  conductor 
from  an  electric  generating  station 
which  runs  direct  to  a  point  or  dis- 
trict to  be  served  without  supplying 
intermediate  points.  A  positive 
feeder  is  that  connected  to  the  posi- 
tive terminal  of  the  generator  or 


FEEDING      STUFFS 


3105 


FEHMGERICHT 


battery  ;  a  negative  feeder  is  con- 
nected to  the  negative  terminal.  A 
neutral  feeder  is  a  common  con- 
ductor which  completes  two  separ- 
ate circuits  from  a  pair  of  dyna- 
mos coupled  in  series.  See  Cir- 
cuit ;  Dynamo. 

Feeding  Stuffs.  Food  for  cattle, 
which  may  be  roughly  divided  into 
five  classes  :  (1)  Oil  seeds  such  as 
cotton  cake,  linseed  cake,  rape, 
palm-nut,  coconut  and  earthnut 
cakes  ;  (2)  leguminous  crops,  such 
as  peas,  beans,  lentils,  malt,  dried 
grains,  etc. ;  (3)  cereals,  including 
wheat,  barley,  oats,  maize  or  In- 
dian corn,  rice  ;  (4)  grass  and  hay  ; 
(5)  root  crops,  such  as  swedes  and 
mangolds,  potatoes,  carrots,  kohl- 
rabi, etc. 

The  oil  cakes  so  largely  used  as 
winter  feed  for  cattle  are  valuable, 
not  only  for  the  oil  which  they  con- 
tain, but  also  for  their  albuminous 
matter.  Linseed  cake  contains 
from  9  p.c.  to  13  p.c.  of  oil,  and  26 
p.c.  to  30  p.c.  of  albuminoids.  De- 
corticated cotton  cake  may  con- 
tain 40  p.c.  to  45  p.c.  of  albumin- 
oids. Besides  oil  and  albuminoids, 
a  good  sample  of  linseed  cake  holds 
valuable  carbohydrates  as  well  as 
a  certain  amount  of  mineral  mat- 
ter not  without  value.  The  value  of 
oil  cakes  does  not  depend  upon 
the  amount  of  oil  which  they  con- 
tain. Samples  of  linseed  cake  and 
of  rice  meal  may  each  contain  13 
p.c.  of  oil,  yet  while  the  linseed  oil 
is  highly  esteemed,  that  in  the  rice 
meal  is  considered  of  very  slight 
value.  Beans  and  peas  are  among 
the  most  valuable  of  feeding  stuffs, 
the  reason  being  that  they  contain 
from  50  p.c.  to  55  p.c.  of  starchy 
bodies  as  well  as  from  20  p.c.  to 
24  p.c.  of  albuminoids. 

Of  the  cereals,  maize  contains 
as  much  as  70  p.c.  of  starch ; 
rice,  at  the  other  end  of  the  scale, 
containing  50  p.c.  Grass,  clover, 
cabbage,  tares,  etc.,  are  valuable 
principally  for  their  succulent 

Sualities.  With  these  may  be  in- 
uded  brewers'  grains,  so  largely 
given  to  cows  in  milk.  The  bulky 
dry  foods,  such  as  hay  and  straw, 
are  valuable  chiefly  for  their  fibre, 
while  the  root  crops  are  useful  on 
account  of  their  sugar  and  their 
easily  digested  carbohydrates. 
Sugar  has  a  rapidly  fattening  effect 
upon  stock,  and  of  late  years  a  large 
amount  of  molasses,  from  both 
cane  and  beet,  has  been  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  artificial  feed- 
ing stuffs. 

The  Fertilisers  and  Feeding 
Stuffs  Act  passed  in  1906  was  de- 
signed to  protect  the  farmer  against 
frauds  in  connexion  with  the  sale  of 
these  articles.  The  seller  of  any 
artificially  prepared  article  of  food 
for  cattle  or  poultry  is  bound  to 


give  the  purchaser  an  invoice  stat- 
ing the  substances  or  seeds  from 
which  it  has  been  prepared,  and 
the  percentages  (if  any)  of  oil  or 
albuminoids  contained  in  it.  See 
Agriculture  ;  Cattle  ;  Farm. 

Feeler.  Name  given  to  the 
antennae  or  other  similar  organs 
of  insects.  The  word  is  also  used 
for  a  lever  on  a  loom,  and  for  the 
jaws  of  a  measuring  instrument. 
See  Antennae. 

Feeling.  Act  of  perceiving  by 
one  of  the  five  senses,  more  particu- 
larly the  sense  of  touch  and  the 
sensations  produced  by  it.  Feel- 
ings again  have  been  divided  into 
skin  sensations,  which  are  referred 
to  external  things,  and  organic 
sensations,  which  are  referred  to 
ourselves,  and  are  accompanied 
by  an  element  of  pleasure  or  pain. 
Among  organic  sensations  are  hun- 
ger, thirst,  disgust,  cheerfulness, 
depression.  Psychologically,  feel- 
ing is  distinct  from  sensation.  Sen- 
sation is  always  preceded  by  an  or- 
ganic impression  ;  not  so  feeling, 
which  only  manifests  itself  in  the 
body  by  virtue  of  the  natural  reac- 
tion of  the  mind  on  certain  organs. 
Various  classes  of  f  eelings  are  sug- 
gested :  sensual  and  intellectual, 
material  and  formal.  Some  psy- 
chologists admit  only  two  qualita- 
tive differences  of  f  eeling — pleasure 
and  displeasure ;  others  six — plea- 
sure, displeasure,  tension,  relaxa- 
tion, elevation,  depression. 

Fee  Simple  (Lat.  feodum  sim- 
plex). Highest  estate  known  to 
English  law.  A  tenant  in  fee  simple 
is  what  is  popularly  styled  a  free- 
holder. Though  in  theory  the 
sovereign  is  the  lord  paramount, 
the  freeholder  can  grant  his  land 
away  or  devise  it  to  whomsoever 
he  likes  by  will.  An  estate  in  fee 
simple  must  be  granted  by  deed 
and  a  peculiar  form  of  words,  ex- 
cept in  a  will  where  words  are  more 
widely  construed  than  in  deeds. 
See  Land  Laws. 

Fee  Tail  (Lat.  feodum  talliatum, 
limited).  Form  of  freehold  estate 
set  up  originally  by  the  Statute  De 
Donis,  1285,  by  which  a  grant  to 
X  and  the  heirs  of  his  body  gave 
X  an  estate  tail.  This  estate  would 
last  only  as  long  as  X  has  heirs  of 
his  body,  and  would  then  revert  to 
the  grantor.  This  led  to  Fines  and 
Recoveries,  tortuous  legal  fictions 
by  which  the  estate  became  fee 
simple.  In  1833  a  new  Act  was 
passed  by  which,  by  a  deed  enrolled, 
X  could  convert  his  holding  into  a 
fee  simple.  The  holder  of  a  fee  tail 
cannot  dispose  of  it  by  will. 

Fehling's  Solution.  Alkaline 
solution  of  copper  used  for  the  de- 
tection of  sugars.  Solution  No.  1  is 
prepared  by  dissolving  34' 65  grams 
of  pure  copper  sulphate  in  distilled 


water  and  diluting  to  500  c.c.  Solu- 
tion No.  2  is  made  by  dissolving  50 
grams  of  sodium  hydroxide  con- 
taining not  less  than  97  p.c.  of  the 
salt,  and  175  grams  of  recrystal- 
lised  Rochelle  salt  in  about  400  c.c. 
of  water,  and  afterwards  diluting  to 
500  c.c.  When  required  for  use 
equal  volumes  are  mixed  together. 

Fehmarn  OR  FEMARN.  Island  in 
the  Baltic  Sea,  belonging  to  Ger- 
many. Area,  70  sq.  m.  It  lies 
off.  the  E.  coast  of  Holstein, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  the 
narrow  Sound  of  Fehmarn  and 
from  the  island  of  Laaland  on 
the  N.  by  the  Fehmarn  Belt.  The 
surface  is  level  and  the  soil  fairly 
fertile.  Its  few  harbours  can  only 
accommodate  vessels  of  shallow 
draught.  Agriculture,  fishing,  and 
the  rearing  of  cattle  and  sheep  are 
the  main  occupations.  The  only 
manufacture  of  importance  is  hosi- 
ery. The  capital  is  Burg.  Prussia 
annexed  the  island  in  1866  as  a 
result  of  her  victories  over  Den- 
mark and  Austria.  Pop.  10,000. 

Fehmarn  Belt.  Channel  be- 
tween the  islands  of  Fehmarn  and 
Laaland,  Denmark.  It  has  a  width 
of  about  12  m.,  and  leads  from 
the  Baltic  to  Kiel  Bay.  Fehmarn 
Sound  is  a  narrow  passage  be- 
tween the  island  of  Fehmarn  and 
the  mainland. 

Fehmgericht  OR  VEMGERTCHT 
(Ger.  Fthm,  a  criminal  court ;  Ger- 
icht,  judgement).  Medieval  Ger- 
man tribunal.  Known  sometimes 
as  the  Holy  Vehme,  it  exercised 
power,  especially  in  Westphalia,  in 
the  14th  and  15th  centuries,  and  is 
believed  to  have  been  a  survival 
from  the  jurisdictions  of  the  Saxons. 
The  courts  were  open  for  trial  of 
civil  matters,  but  might  be  secret 
in  special  cases.  It  has  been  esti- 
mated that,  in  the  14th  century, 
the  members  (Schoffen  or  Frei- 
schoffen],  bound  by  an  all-embrac- 
ing oath  of  fidelity,  numbered 
about  100,000. 

The  government  of  the  tribunal 
was  vested  in  a  chapter  presided 
over  by  the  emperor  or  his  deputy, 
calledtheOberstuhlherr,  before  whom 
all  members  were  liable  to  account 
for  their  acts.  It  had  affinity  with 
the  process  of  summary  jurisdiction 
in  Anglo-Saxon  England,  those 
found  guilty  of  capital  offences 
being  hanged,  a  dagger  bearing  the 
secret  letters  S.S.G.G.  being  placed 
on  the  corpse.  As  civilization  pro- 
gressed its  power  waned,  to  some 
extent  through  abuse.  The  Fehm- 
gericht existed  in  attenuated  form 
down  to  the  middle  of  the  18th 
century,  and  was  finally  suppressed 
by  Jerome  Bonaparte  in  1811.  See 
Introduction,  Anne  of  Geierstein, 
W.  Scott,  1831  ;  On  the  Rise  and 
Progress  of  the  English  Common- 
ID  4 


FEHRBELLIN 

wealth,  F.  Palgrave,  1832  ;  Die 
Feme,  T.  Lindner,  1887  ;  Das 
Femgericht  Westphalens,  P.  Wig- 
and,  1893. 

Fehrbellin.  Town  of  Germany, 
in  Brandenburg,  40  m.  N.W. 
of  Berlin.  It  is  famous  for  the 
great  victory  gained  by  the  Prus- 
sians, or,  as  they  were  then,  the 
Brandenburgers,  over  the  Swedes, 
June  18,  1675.  A  monument 
marks  the  site  of  the  battle,  which 
the  Prussians  regard  as  a  memor- 
able one.  It  was  the  beginning  of 
Prussia's  military  power,  as  till 
then  the  Swedes  had  been  con- 
sidered all  but  invincible. 

Feilding.  Town  of  New  Zealand, 
in  North  Island.  It  is  90  m.  by  rly. 
N.N.E.  of  Wellington,  and  is  the 
centre  of  an  agricultural  and  pas- 
toral district,  carrying  on  butter 
and  cheese  making,  saw  and  flour- 
milling.  Pop.  3,483. 

Feilding,  STB  GEOFFREY  PEECY 
THYNNE  (b.  1866).  British  soldier. 
Born  Sept.  21,  1866,  a  son  of  Sir 
Percy  Feilding, 
he  belonged  to 
the  family  of 
the  earl  of  Den- 
bigh.  From 
Wellington  Col- 
lege he  entered 
the  Coldstream 
Guards  in  1888, 
and  with  them 
Sir  GeoSrey  Feilding,  served  through 
British  soldier 


the  g. 

War>  where  he 

won  the  D.S.O.  When  the  Great 
War  broke  out,  Feilding,  as  lieu- 
tenant-colonel, led  one  of  the 
battalions  of  Coldstreamers  to  the 
front  and  was  wounded.  He  com- 
manded the  1st  brigade  of  the 
Guards  division  at  the  battle  of 
Loos,  and  later  was  promoted  to 
the  command  of  the  division.  He 
was  in  command  of  the  London 
district,  1918-1920,  and  was 
knighted  in  1919. 

Feilding,  ROBERT  (c.  1651- 
1712).  English  rake,  called  Beau 
Feilding.  A  member  of  the  Den- 
bigh family,  he  led  a  regiment  in 
Ireland  for  James  II.  After 
squandering  the  fortune  of  his  first 
wife,  a  daughter  of  the  1st  vis- 
count Carlingford,  he  married  a 
daughter  of  the  1st  marquis  of 
Clanricarde.  After  her  death  he 
married,  in  1705,  Mary  Wads- 
worth,  represented  to  him  as  a 
wealthy  widow,  and  in  the  same 
year  also  married  the  duchess  of 
Cleveland,  Charles  II's  former 
mistress.  In  1706  he  was  con- 
victed of  bigamy.  Feilding  was 
satirised  by  Steele  and  Swift.  He 
died  May  12,  1712. 

Feira  de  Santa  Anna.  Town 
of  Brazil,  in  the  state  of  Bahia. 
It  is  about  30m.  N.W.  of  Cachoeira, 


3106 

on  the  Bahia-S.  Francisco  Rly. 
The  centre  of  a  region  rich  in 
minerals,  it  produces  marble,  gold, 
and  diamonds.  There  is  trade  in 
cereals,  tobacco,  and  cotton.  Cattle 
fairs  are  held.  Pop.  16,000. 

Feis.  Irish  word  for  an  assem- 
bly. Something  like  the  folk  moots 
of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  these  were 
mainly  meetings  for  the  promulga- 
tion of  laws  by  the  kings,  but  they 
had  also  a  festive  element.  They 
were  frequently  held  in  Ireland, 
some  being  national  and  others 
local.  The  most  noted  was  the  feis 
held  regularly  at  Tara  for  several 
centuries  until  560.  Over  it  the 
supreme  king  presided.  The  word 
is  still  in  use ;  for  instance,  in 
1897  a  feis  ceoil  was  founded  to 
encourage  Irish  music. 

Feisal  OR  FEISUL  (b.  1887). 
King  of  Irak.  The  third  sur- 
viving son  of  Hussein,  king  of  the 
Hedjaz,  he  was 
born  in  Arabia, 
but  left  it  when 
five  years  old. 
He  spent  the 
next  18  years 
in  Constanti- 
nople, where  he 
received  a 
modern  educa- 
tion and,  later, 
appointments 
under  the 
Turkish  government.  Along  with 
his  brothers,  Ah'  and  AbduUa,  he 
took  a  leading  part  in  the  move- 
ment which  led  to  the  deposition  of 
Abdul  Hamid.  He  commanded  the 
Arab  contingent  in  the  Turkish 
campaigns  in  the  district  S.  of 
Mecca,  against  a  new  religious  sect 
which  was  threatening  the  stability 
of  the  emirate  of  the  Hejaz  which 
had  been  restored  after  the  down- 
fall of  Abdul  Hamid. 

When,  in  June,  1916,  his  father 
sided  with  the  Allies  against  Turkey, 
the  Emir  Feisal  commanded  the 
rebels  in  Medina,  but  was  defeated 
by  the  Turks.  He  then  presented 
to  the  British  a  scheme  for  the  for- 
mation of  an  Arab  regular  army. 
This  was  accepted  and  Feisal' s 
army  eventually  formed  Allenby's 
right  wing  in  Palestine.  His  ser- 
vices in  the  conquest  of  Palestine 
and  Syria  were  rewarded  with  the 
privilege  of  setting  up  in  eastern 
Syria  (Amman,  Damascus  and 
Aleppo)  a  provisional  military  ad- 
ministration which  was  guaranteed 
to  tne  Arabs  as  an  independent 
sphere  by  the  Sykes-Picot  Treaty. 
In  March,  1920,  he  was  made  king 
of  Syria,  but  owing  to  his  failure  to 
recognize  the  rights  of  France  in 
Syria,  he  was  deposed  by  Gen. 
Gouraud,  the  latter  entering  his 
capital,  Damascus,  on  July  25. 
Feisal  became  king  of  Irak  in  Aug., 


FELIX 

1921.  See  Arabia  ;  Damascus ; 
Hejaz;  Lawrence,  T.  E.  ;  Pales- 
tine, Conquest  of. 

Felahiyeh.  Village  of  Mesopo- 
tamia. It  stands  on  the  N.  bank 
of  the  Tigris,  5  m.  from  Sanna-i- 
Yat,  and  about  25  m.  W-  of  Kut. 
It  was  prominent  in  the  earlier 
stages  of  the  campaign  in  Mesopo- 
tamia, and  was  captured  by  Gor- 
ringe,  April  4,  1916.  See  Es-Sinn, 
Attack  on ;  Kut,  Battles  of ;  Meso- 
potamia, Conquest  of. 

Felanitx  OR  FELANICHE.  Town 
of  Spain,  in  the  island  of  Majorca. 
It  stands  in  a  mt.  valley,  28  m.  S.E. 
of  Palma,  and  5  m.  from  its  port, 
Puerto  Colon.  On  the  mt.  of  Puig 
de  San  Salvador,  in  the  vicinity,  is 
a  Moorish  castle  with  underground 
vaults.  The  church  of  San  Miguel 
is  a  fine  building.  Brandy  is  dis- 
tilled and  soap  manufactured. 
There  is  trade  in  cattle,  wine, 
fruit,  and  earthenware,  the  water 
coolers  of  Felanitx  having  been 
noted  from  the  3rd  century  B.C. 
Pop.  11,223. 

Felegyhaza  OR  KISKUNFELEGY- 
HlzA.'  Town  of  Hungary,  in  Little 
Kumania.  An  important  rly.  junc- 
tion, it  is  70  m.  S.E.  of  Budapest. 
It  has  a  handsome  town  hall,  and  a 
large  church.  The  town  is  noted 
for  its  cattle  markets,  while  there  is 
considerable  trade  in  cereals,  wine, 
tobacco,  and  fruit.  The  town  was 
sacked  by  the  Turks  in  the  16th 
century.  Pop.  34,924. 

Felidae  (Lat.  felis,  cat).  Family 
of  the  carnivora,  or  flesh-eating 
mammals,  which  includes  the  cat- 
like animals.  They  comprise  only 
two  genera,  but  a  large  number  of 
species,  and  are  generally  regarded 
as  the  typical  carnivores,  being  the 
best  adapted  for  catching  and  prey- 
ing upon  living  animals,  and,  with 
the  exception  of  the  weasels,  the 
most  lithe  and  active  of  the  order. 

They  are  provided  with  finely  de- 
veloped canine  and  carnassial  teeth 
and  their  sharp  claws  are  retrac- 
tile. One  marked  feature  of  the 
family  is  the  short  and  rounded 
muzzle,  which  is  in  conspicuous 
contrast  with  the  long  and  sharp 
muzzle  in  the  dogs.  Their  fur  is 
soft  and  often  handsomely  marked, 
and  their  feet  are  provided  with 
cushion-like  pads  which  enable 
them  to  move  about  silently.  All 
are  of  savage  disposition,  and  only 
two'  species  have  been  domesti- 
cated with  any  success.  See  Cat. 

Felix  (d.  c.  647).  English  saint 
and  bishop.  A  native  of  Burgundy, 
he  came  to  England,  and,  helped 
by  Sigebert,  king  of  E.  Anglia, 
preached  Christianity.  He  became 
bishop  of  Dunwich,  and  is  said  to 
have  founded  the  monastery  at 
Soham.  His  name  survives  in 
Felixstowe,  Suffolk. 


FELIX 


3107 


FELLAH 


Felix.  Name  of  four  popes  and 
five  anti-popes,  of  whom  the  fol- 
lowing are  notable.  Felix  I  (d.  274) 
is  entered  in  the  Roman  martyr- 
ology  probably  in  mistake  for  a 
Roman  martyr  of  the  same  name 
buried  on  the  Via  Aurelia.  A  letter 
of  the  pope's  in  response  to  a 
report  by  the  Synod  of  Antioch, 
which  had  deposed  its  heretical 
bishop,  Paul  of  Samosata,  was 
made  use  of  at  the  council  of 
Ephesus  (431).  To  Felix  I,  who 
reigned  269-74,  was  attributed  a 
decree  for  the  celebration  of  masses 
over  the  tombs  of  the  martyrs.  His 
festival  is  kept  May  30. 

Felix  II,  pope  from  355-58,  was 
a  Roman  archdeacon  who  was  in- 
truded into  the  papal  chair  on  the 
banishment  of  pope  Liberius  by 
the  emperor  Constantius.  On  the 
return  of  Liberius,  Felix  was  ex- 
iled and  lived  in  retirement  until 
his  death,  Nov.  22,  365.  Felix  III, 
pope  from  483-92,  was  chiefly  en- 
gaged in  conflicts  with  heretical 
bishops  at  Alexandria  and  Antioch. 
He  finally  excommunicated  Aca- 
cius,  patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
and  this  schism  lasted  until  518. 
Felix  IV,  pope  from  526-30,  was 
the  nominee  of  Theodoric  the 
Goth.  He  obtained  an  edict  from 
Theodoric' s  successor  ordering  all 
charges  against  the  clergy  to  be 
taken  to  ecclesiastical  courts 

Felix  V,  anti-pope,  was  born  at 
Chambery,  Dec.  4,  1383.  He 
reigned  as  duke  Amadeus  VIII  of 
Savoy  from  1416-34,  when  he/  re- 
tired in  favour  of  his  son.  In  }439 
the  remnant  of  the  council  of  Basel 
elected  him  as  pope,  although  he 
was  not  in  orders,  in  place  of  pope 
Eugenius  IV,  whom  they  declared 
deposed.  As  Felix  V  he  was 
crowned  hi  July,  1440.  He  never 
obtained  general  recognition,  but 
with  some  show  of  a  following, 
especially  in  Switzerland  and 
Savoy,  he  held  his  position  till 
1449,  when  he  abdicated.  He  died 
at  Geneva,  Jan.  7,  1451,  last  of 
the  anti-popes. 

Felix  Antonius.  Brother  of  the 
freedman  Pallas,  minister  of  the 
Roman  emperor  Claudius.  He  was 
procurator  of  Judaea,  but  was  re- 
called in  A.D.  62  to  answer  charges 
of  oppression  made  against  him  by 
the  Jews.  It  was  before  Felix  that 
S.  Paul  preached  at  Jerusalem 
(Acts  23,  24). 

Felix  Holt  THE  RADICAL.  Novel 
by  George  Eliot,  first  published  in 
1866.  It  presents  in  broad  effect 
the  life  of  a  midland  county  during 
the  1832  Reform  period,  but  there 
is  something'  unreal  about  the 
central  figure,  who  is  too  philoso- 
phical and  cold-blooded  to  re- 
present the  enthusiastic  reformer 
of  that  time. 


Felixstowe.  Seaside  resort, 
urban  dist.  (Felixstowe  and  Wal- 
ton), and  parish  of  Suffolk,  Eng- 
land. It  stands 
on  the  estuary  of 
the  Orwell,  10  m. 
from  1  p  s  w  i  c  h. 
Excellent  bath- 
ing facilities  and 
a  fine  pier,  yacht- 
ing, a  model 
Felixstowe  arms  yacht  pond,  and 
golf  links  are  among  its  attractions. 
It  has  a  small  dock  and  a  wireless 
telegraphic  station.  Phosphate  of 
lime  is  produced  ^ — ?..^...^_.,,..,  .... ,  ,..„., 
for  export.  Nu-  I 
merous  Roman  \ 
remains  have  been  | 
discovered.  The 
corporation  owns 
the  electric  light 
undertaking  and 
pleasure  grounds. 
During  the  Great 
War  the  Germans 
made  an  air  raid 
upon  the  place, 
July  22,  1917, 
which  was  attend- 
ed with  loss  of  life. 
Pop.  11.655 

Felixstowe 
Fury.  Namegiven 
to  a  large  flying 


of  a  IVth-dynasty  official,  found 
by  Mariette  at  Sakkara,  was  given 
that  title  by  the  workmen  from  its 
likeness  to  their  own  headman.  (See 
illus.  p.  2825.)  Some  are  Christian 
Copts,  9.tH  »o,000  are  Moslems. 

Of  medium  height,  black-eyed, 
thick-lipped,  and  straight-nosed,  the 
Semitic  and  Nubian  elements  they 
have  absorbed  have  but  slightly 
affected  their  racial  make-up  as  a 
Caucasian  people  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean type.  The  progressive 
deepening  of  hue  from  N.  to  S. 
marks  the  influence  both  of  climate 


Felixstowe. 


The  promenade,  looking  towards  the  pier 
from  the  Cliff  Gardens 

Frith 

boat  designed  by  Col.  J.  C.  Porte,     and  of  ethnic  contact.    The  women, 

who  wear  head-veils,  which  expose 
the  antimony-stained  eyelashes 
and  tattooed  chin,  are  sometimes 
wed  by  the  nomad  Beduins,  but 
the  amount  of  racial  mixture  in 
actual  progress  is  inconsiderable. 
Their  food  is  largely  vegetable, 
and  they  are  mostly  abstemious. 
Many  of  their  methods  of  cereal 
and  pulse  cultivation,  and  of  ir- 


A  triplane  with  five  Rolls-Royce 
engines,  each  of  375  horse-power, 
it  had  a  span  of  123  ft.,  an  over-all 
length  of  60  ft.  and  a  height  of  27  ft. 
6  in.  After  many  successful  flights 
the  machine  was  wrecked,  Aug.  11, 
1919,  when  starting  on  a  test  flight 
with  a  heavy  load,  preparatory  to  a 
journey  to  Egypt.  See  illus.  p.  3101. 
Fell  (Scand. 


fjeld,    mountain 

or  rock).  Term  occurring  in  the 
names  of  many  British  mountains, 
e.g.,  Cross  Fell,  Goat  Fell,  Hart 
Fell,  Snaefell.  See  Mountain. 

Fell,  JOHN  (1625-86).  English 
pedagogue  and  divine.  Born  June 
23,  1625,  he  was  educated  at  Christ 
Church,  Oxford,  of  which  he  be 
came  dean  in  1660.  Vice-chan 
cellor  of  the  university  from  1666- 
69,  he  was  appointed  bishop  oi 
Oxford  in  1675.  He  notably  im- 
proved the  buildings  as  well  af 
the  discipline  of  his  college,  and  is- 
chiefly  remembered  by  some  lines 
"I  do  not  love  thee,  Dr.  Fell," 
etc.,  attributed  to  Thomas  Brown 
(q.v. ).  He  died  July  10, 1686. 

Fellah  (plur.  Fellahin).  Arabic 
word  for  peasant  or  ploughman, 
especially  in  Egypt.  Forming  the 
bulk  of  the  native  population, 
the  fellahin  descend  in  direct 
lineage  from  the  ancient  Egyp 
tians.  They  dwell  in  villages, 
mainly  of  mud  hovels,  under  a 
village  chief,  the  sheikh-el-beled. 
A  wooden  statuette,  now  at  Cairo, 


rigation  with  water-wheel,  sakiya, 
and  balanced  bucket,  shaduf,  are 
of  remote  antiquity.  The  water- 
carrier,  sakka.  is  often  a  member 


Fellah. 


Egyptian  sakka  or  water- 
carrier 


FELLING 

of  a  dervish  sect,  whose  ritual  de- 
monstration, zikr,  is  the  occasion 
of  much  festivity,  wherein  quarter- 
staff,  nabut,  is  a  favourite  game. 
The  veneration  of  trees  and  stones, 
and  the  universal  employment  of 
amulets,  mark  the  persistence  of 
the  predynastic  animism  of  the 
Nile  valley.  The  sedentary  pea- 
santry of  Palestine,  also  called 
fellahln,  are  largely  descended  from 
the  primitive  Canaanite  stock.  Ex- 
cept for  a  few  colonies  introduced 
under  Mehemet  All,  they  have  no 
ethnic  identity  with  their  Egyp- 
tian namesakes. 

Felling.  Urban  dist.  of  Dur- 
ham, England.  It  is  1£  m.  S.E.  of 
Gateshead,  of  which  it  forms  a 
suburb.  It  has  a  station  on  the 
N.E.R.,  also  coal  -mining,  engineer- 
ing, shipbuilding,  and  other  indus- 
tries. Pop.  25,026.  See  Gateshead. 

Fellmonger.  Dealer  in  the 
pelts  of  slaughtered  sheep,  one  who 
separates  the  wool  from  the  hides. 
The  skins  may  be  soaked  in  lime- 
water  until  the  roots  of  the  fibre 
are  loosened  sufficiently  to  come 
away  with  ease,  a  method  which 
gives  the  so-called  sliped  wool. 
Alternatively  the  skins  may  be 
hung  in  moist  air  until  bacterial 
action  has  loosened  the  fleece, 
and  this  is  the  method  adopted  hi 
Mazamet,  France,  the  chief  centre 
of  fellmongering.  Chemical  means 
may  be  substituted,  the  flesh  side 
of  the  hide  being  painted  over- 
night with  a  solution  of  sodium 
sulphide.  See  Leather. 

Fellow.  Word  meaning  a  male 
person.  It  is  now  used  in  two 
senses.  In  general  speech,  usually 
in  a  slighting  sense,  it  means  a 
man,  and  academically  it  refers 
to  certain  members  of  colleges  at 
Oxford,  Cambridge,  or  elsewhere, 
and  to  members  of  learned  socie- 
ties. The  original  meaning  was 
that  of  a  companion,  hence  the 
phrase  fellow-countryman,  and 
this  survives  in  its  use  at  the 
universities,  where  it  is  the  equi- 
valent of  the  Latin  socius. 

In  the  colleges  of  Oxford  and 
Cambridge,  a  fellow  is  a  member 
of  the  governing  body  and  founda- 
tion, and  a  fellowship  is  a  coveted 
distinction  only  bestowed  on 
scholars  of  exceptional  ability. 
Before  the  reforms  of  1877-81 
fellows  were  usually  chosen  for 
life,  or  until  marriage.  To-day  the 
fellows  are  chosen  by  the  existing 
fellows,  usually  for  a  definite  term 
of  years.  /They  may  be  elected  on 
a  reputation  or  after  examination, 
or  because  suitable  for  a  particular 
vacancy  on  the  teaching  or  man- 
aging staff.  Many  of  them  act  as 
tutors,  and  form  the  group  that 
with  the  head  is  responsible  for 
the  daily  work  of  the  college. 


3  1  OS 

The  fellows  of 
Eton  and  Winches- 
ter form  the  gov- 
erning body.  The 
fellows  of  Trinity 
College,  Dublin, 
who  are  divided 
into  senior  and 
junior  fellows,  are 
elected  after  ex- 
amination,  and 
hold  the  position 
for  life.  King's  Col- 
lege, London,  and 
some  other  col- 
leges, have  fellows, 
but  their  duties  are 
rather  different  from  those  at  the 
older  universities.  Following  this 
use,  fellow  is  used  for  member  of  a 
learned  society.  See  University. 

Felo  de  se  (late  Lat.  felo,  evil 
doer,  i.e.  slayer  ;  de  se,  of  himself). 
English  legal  term,  meaning  a 
man  who  commits  a  "  felony 
against  himself  " — hi  other  words, 
a  suicide.  A  suicide  used  to  be 
buried,  as  Thomas  Hood  puts  it, 
"  at  four  cross  roads,  with  a  stake  in 
his  inside."  This  ended  in  1824, 
and  the  body  of  a  suicide  was 
ordered  to  be  buried  in  the  usual 
burial-ground  without  divine  ser- 
vice, between  9  p.m.  and  midnight. 
In  1882  the  night  burial  was  abol- 
ished and  a  religious  service  per- 
mitted ;  but  the  Burial  Service  of 
the  Church  is  not  allowed  by  the 
rubrics  to  be  used.  See  Suicide. 

Felony.  Class  of  crime  in  Eng- 
lish law.  By  common  law  all 
crimes  are  either  felonies  or  mis- 
demeanours. Nobody  knows  for 
certain  the  original  distinction 
between  them  ;  one  theory  is  that 
a  felony  was  originally  a  crime 
involving  a  breach  of  the  king's 
peace.  Certainly  until  1870  the 
lands  and  goods  of  a  felon  were 
forfeited  to  the  crown. 

Jurymen  are  sworn  separately  in 
a  trial  for  felony,  but  together  for 
misdemeanour.  The  accused  is 
called  the  prisoner  at  the  bar  in 
felony,  but  the  defendant  in  mis- 
demeanour. To  be  convicted  of 
felony  after  a  previous  conviction 
for  felony  is  itself  a  felony.  To  con- 
ceal a  felony  is  a  crime — misprision 
of  felony.  A  prisoner  convicted  of 
felony  must  be  "  called  upon  " — 
that  is,  asked  if  he  has  anything  to 
say  before  sentence  is  passed. 

Felsite.  Close-grained  or  com- 
pact rock  of  varying  colour.  It 
consists  of  altered  lava  which  has 
lost  its  glassy  structure.  Small 
crystals  of  felspar  and  quartz  are 
scattered  through  the  ground- 
mass  of  the  rock.  See  Rhyolite. 

Felspar.  Important  group  of 
rock-forming  minerals,  variable  in 
chemical  composition,  crystalline 
form,  and  colour.  Chemically  they 


Felspar.     Huge  masses  of   orthoclase,  weighing 
tons,  at  Carne,  near  Veryan,  Cornwall 


many 


are  silicates  of  alumina  with  vari- 
able proportions  of  potassium, 
sodium,  or  calcium  :  hence  some- 
times distinguished  as  potash- 
felspar,  soda-felspar,  lime-felspar. 
Widely  distributed,  they  are 
usually  opaque  and  dull  of  colour. 
A  few  varieties  are  handsome,  and 
are  cut  as  gem  stones.  Amazon 
stone  is  a  potash  felspar  of  a  verdi- 
gris green  colour  with  bluish  tinge, 
found  in  N.  America  and  the  Urals. 
Sunstone  is  a  semi -translucent, 
almost  white  material,  showing  by 
reflected  light  a  brilliant  red  me- 
tallic glitter,  and  is  obtained  in 
Siberia,  Norway,  and  N.  America. 
Moonstone  is  a  translucent  white 
felspar  emitting  by  reflected  light 
a  milky,  bluish  gleam.  In  cry- 
stalline form  felspars  are  either 
monoclinic  or  triclinic. 

Monoclinic  species  are  orthoclase 
(potash-felspar)  and  its  glass-clear 
variety  sanidine.  Other  varieties 
are  adularia  (colourless),  moon- 
stone, sunstone  (aventurine).  Tri- 
clinic species  include  microcline  (a 
potash-felspar),  anorthoclase  (so- 
da-potash felspar),  and  the  plagio- 
clase  felspars.  See  illus.  p.  2389. 

Felsted  School.  English  public 
school.  It  was  founded  in  1564  by 
Richard,  Lord  Riche,  and  is  now 
governed  by  a  scheme  dating  from 
1876.  It  consists  of  the  school 
house,  divided  into  four  houses, 
another  house,  and  a  junior  house, 
the  accommodation  being  for  about 
300  boys.  It  stands  in  grounds  of 
42  acres,  and  there  are  scholar- 
ships to  the  school.  The  village  of 
Felsted,  sometimes  called  Felstead, 
is  3  m.  S.E.  of  Dunmow  and  has  a 
station  on  the  G.E.R.  Pop.  1,969. 

Felt  (A.S.).  Cloth  made  of  wool, 
hair  or  fur,  or  mixtures,  compacted 
by  moistening,  heating,  rolling, 
and  pressing.  Some  felts  are  woven, 
but  the  true  felts  are  unwoven. 
Wool  possesses  the  highest  felting 
properties,  and  the  fur  or  hair  of 
the  ox,  goat,  hare,  rabbit,  and 
beaver  are  readily  felted. 

The  principal  hat  felts  are 
made  of  rabbit  ("coney"  in  the 
trade),  hare,  beaver,  musquash,  and 


FELTHAM 


3109 


FEMINISM 


nutria ;  cow  hair  is  used  largely  for 
roofing  felts.  Felting  is  probably 
older  than  weaving,  the  cloth 
having  been  used  for  tents,  cloth- 
ing, and  other  purposes  from  the 
remotest  times.  The  invention  is 
sometimes  ascribed  to  Oriental 
shepherds,  and  stories  are  extant 
of  kings,  monks,  and  others  putting 
wool  into  their  shoes  or  sandals 
and  finding  it  turned  by  walking 
into  a  new  fabric.  Clement  of  Rome 
was  commemorated  by  hatters  as 
the  inventor  of  felt.  See  Hat. 

Feltham.  Urb.  dist.  and  village 
of  Middlesex,  England.  It  is  16  m. 
W.S.W.  of  London,  on  the  L.  & 
S.W.R.  The  London  County  Coun- 
cil has  an  industrial  school  for  boys 
here,  and  there  are  large  nurseries 
and  market  gardens  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood. Extensive  aeroplane- 
building  works  were  established 
here  by  the  Whitehead  Aircraft  Co. 
during  the  Great  War.  Pop.  5,135. 


against    Bucking- 
ham, increased  by 
brooding  over  the 
attacks     on     the 
favourite,    turned 
his     thoughts    to 
assassination,  and 
he     mortally 
stabbed  the  duke 
at  Portsmouth, 
Aug.  23,  1628.   He 
was     hanged     at 
Tyburn.  Nov.  28. 
Feltre      (anc. 
Feltria).     City  of 
HH  Italy,  in  the  prov. 
Feltham,  Middlesex.     The  High  Street  looking  tow  ards       of     Belluno.        A 
the  church  of  S.  Catherine  picturesque  place, 


Felt.     Table  or  plate  machine  for  felting  four  pieces  at  one  time 

By  courtesy  of  W.  Bywater  Ltd.,  Leedt 

and  his  animosity     Senegal   and   Portuguese   Guinea. 
Under  the  Mandingan  name  Jola 


Feltmakers'  Company,  THE. 
London  city  livery  company.  Incor- 
porated 1604  and  an  offshoot  of  the 
Haberdashers,  it 
was  founded  to 
regulate  the  mak- 
ing and  sale  of  felt 
hats.  Feltmakers 
were  formerly 
known  as  felt- 
mongers,  and  as 
Feltmakers'  such  existed  in  the 
Company  arms  12th  century.  The 
offices  are  at  Arundel  House,  W.C. 
Felton,  JOHN  (c.  1595-1628). 
English  soldier.  He  came  of  a  good 
Suffolk  family,  early  entered  the 
army,  and 
served  as  lieu- 
tenant at  Cadiz 
in  1625.  Fail- 
ing to  obtain  a 
captain's  corn- 
mi  ssi  on,  he 
applied  p  e  r- 
sonally  to  the 
duke  of  Buck- 


ingham, who 
refused  his  re- 
quest. Poverty 


John  Felton, 
English  soldier 

From  an  old  engraving 


standing  on  an  eminence  near  the 
Piave  river,  it  is  34  m.  by  rly.  N.W. 
of  Treviso.  It  has  a  ruined  castle,  a 
cathedral,  a  modern  palace,  and  a 
municipal  pawnshop,  said  to  be  the 
oldest  establishment  of  the  kind  in 
Europe.  Minor  buildings  include  a 
hospital,  gymnasium,  seminary,  and 
an  asylum  for  orphans.  In  1819  the 
bishopric  was  incorporated  with 
that  of  Belluno.  There  is  trade  in 
wine,  oil,  and  silk.  Pop.  15,465. 

Felucca  (Arab,  faluka,  Ital. 
feluca).  Vessel  used  in  the  Levant 
and  on  the  Nile.  It  is  propelled  by 
lateen  sails  and  oars,  and  moves 
swiftly.  Sometimes  the  helm  can 
be  used  at  either  end  of  the  hull. 

Feluja.  Town  of  Mesopotamia. 
Situated  on  the  Lower  Euphrates, 
it  is  about  40  m.  W.  of  Bagdad, 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  a 
rly.  built  by  the  British  during  the 
Great  War  after  the  capture  of 
that  city.  It  was  occupied  by  the 
British  on  March  19,  1917. 

Felup  OR  FULUP.  Collective 
name  applied  by  Portuguese  trad- 
ers to  numerous  primitive  negro 
tribes  in  the  coast-lands  of  French 


they  extend  into  British  Gambia. 
Their  allied  semi-Bantu  dialects 
prevail  from  the  Gambia  and  Casa- 
mance  to  the  Cacheo  and  Geba 
rivers.  The  typical  Felup  are  mus- 
cular, flat-nosed,  thick-lipped,  dark- 
bronze-coloured  hunters,  almost 
unclad,  using  bow  and  arrow  and 
inhabiting  roughly  constructed  log- 
huts  or  earth-houses. 

Feme  OR  FEMME.  Anglo-Norman 
legal  term  for  a  woman.  A  woman 
who  is  married  is  called  feme 
convert,  and  a  woman  who  is  either 
a  spinster,  a  widow,  or  divorced,  is 
feme  sole. 

Feminism  (Lat.  femina,  a 
woman).  Term  which  may  be  taken 
to  embrace  the  movement  for  the 
raising  of  the  economic,  legal,  and 
political  status  of  women.  In  the 
decade  before  the  Great  War  the 
attention  of  feminists  in  most 
European  countries  was  necessarily 
concentrated  on  the  acquisition  of 
the  right  to  vote,  and  now  that 


Felucca.    Egyptian  sailing  boat  on 
the  Nile  above  Cairo 


FEMMES     SAVANTES 


3110 


FENCE 


political  power  has  been  won  in  the 
Anglo-Saxon,  Teuton,  and  Slav  na- 
tions, women  are  considering  how 
that  power  shall  be  used  to  secure 
the  necessary  legal  and  social  re- 
forms. The  status  and  the  ambi- 
tions of  women  differ  widely  even 
in  advanced  and  modern  civilized 
countries,  but  the  stages  of  the 
feminist  movement  in  each  racial 
group  are  fairly  well  denned. 

Scandinavian  women  have  long 
had  equal  educational  advantages 
with  men  ;  they  early  acquired  poli- 
tical power,  and  are  determined  to 
secura  absolute  equality  in  profes- 
sional and  industrial  life,  and  inde- 
pendence, as  nearly  as  may  be,  in 
marriage  and  family  life.  There  is 
no  suggestion  that  a  woman  should 
abandon  her  profession  when  she 
marries,  and  so  place  herself  in  de- 
pendence on  her  husband. 

In  Great  Britain  feminist  ideals 
tend  more  and  more  towards  the 
Scandinavian,  but  with  a  differ- 
ence due  probably  to  temperament 
and  education.  The  English  femin- 
ist claims  equal  pay  for  equal  work, 
an  adjustment  of  the  marriage 
laws,  equal  partnership  and  give 
and  take  between  the  sexes,  but  she 
clearly  wishes  to  develop  on  her  own 
lines,  not  on  masculine  lines.  She 
is  inclined  to  think  that  the  Scandi- 
navian development  takes  too  little 
account  of  sex.  Olive  Schreiner's 
work,  too  little  acknowledged,  has 
had  great  influence  on  English 
women  in  this  connexion. 

The  German  feminist  moves 
rather  slowly  in  the  direction  of 
her  Scandinavian  sisters,  but  in 
Czecho-Slovakia  women  have  leapt 
at  one  stride  into  full  political  ac- 
tivity. In  the  Latin  countries  the 
ideal  of  domestic  and  social  life  is, 
and  always  has  been,  very  different, 
and  this  is  no  doubt  the  reason 
why  the  demand  for  suffrage  has 
not  been  insistent.  The  French- 
woman still,  in  the  main,  exercises 
her  power  indirectly.  It  is  remark- 
able that  in  France,  where  the  au- 
thority of  the  mother,  and  even  of 
the  grandmother,  is  very  great  in 
the  family,  and  where  women  of 
the  lower  middle  class  are  con- 
spicuous for  successful  and  often 
equal  share  in  their  husband's  busi- 
ness, women  should  so  long  have 
submitted  to  the  injustice  of  the 
Code  Napoleon,  which  leaves  them 
legally  in  the  position  of  minors, 
and  with  virtually  no  personal  lib- 
erty before  the  law.  But  even  in 
France,  and  more  slowly  in  the 
two  other  great  Catholic  countries 
of  Europe,  Italy  and  Spain,  women 
are  beginning  to  demand  greater  in- 
dependence and  a  voice  in  public 
affairs. 

The  social  and  political  unrest  in 
the  Middle  and  Far  East  is  having 


its  repercussion  on  women.  In  Is- 
lam, women  are  beginning  to  resent 
their  immemorial  position  of  ser- 
vitude ;  they  are  demanding  edu- 
cation and  the  right  to  come  into 
the  open.  In  non-Mahomedan 
India,  women  are  demanding  and 
receiving  a  better  education  and  a 
better  industrial  position.  They 
also  look  for  a  change  in  the  mar- 
riage law.  Similar  movements  are 
taking  place  all  over  the  East. 

American  women,  like  their  Eu- 
ropean sisters,  have  received  the 
vote.  Feminist  propaganda  has  in 
some  ways  a  less  favourable  soil  to 
work  on.  There  is  to  a  great  extent 
co-education,  there  is  less  pressure 
on  women  to  earn  their  own  living, 
and  divorce  is  less  difficult  than  in 
Europe.  And  because  of  these  con- 
ditions there  is  less  incentive  to 
violent  discontent.  It  remains  to 
be  seen  on  what  characteristic  lines 
American  feminists  will  move. 

Margaret  Bryant 

Femmes  Savantes,  LES  (The 
Learned  Women).  Five-act  com- 
edy by  Moliere,  first  acted  at  the 
Palais-Royal,  Paris,  March  11, 
1672.  In  it  Moliere  returns  to  the 
theme  of  feminine  affectation  less 
seriously  treated  in  his  Les  Pre- 
cieuses  Ridicules.  The  easy-going 
bourgeois  Chrysale  is  at  the  mercy 
of  a  wife  and  one  of  his  two  daugh- 
ters. The  wife  has  more  pretence 
to  learning  than  knowledge  or  in- 
telligence, and  the  elder  daughter, 
Armande,  is  like  her  mother,  who 
is  abetted  by  an  old  maid,  Chry- 
sale's  sister.  Clitandre,  suitor  to 
Armande,  is  rebuffed,  and  turns  to 
her  more  simple-minded  sister  Hen- 
riette,  whom  the  mother  wishes  to 
marry  the  parlour-poet  Trissotin. 
The  denouement,  in  which  Hen- 
riette  and  Clitandre  are  united,  is 
brought  about  by  Chrysale's  bro- 
ther Ariste,  who  exposes  the  mer- 
cenary character  of  Trissotin. 
Moliere  acted  the  part  of  Chrysale. 
Trissotin  is  usually  accepted  as  a 
caricature  of  the  Abbe  Cotin,  the 
feeble  pettiness  and  pretentious- 
ness of  whose  verses  Moliere 
regarded  as  fair  game  for  satire. 

Femoral  Artery  (Lat.  femur, 
thigh).  Main  artery  of  the  thigh 
running  from  the  groin  to  a  point 
rather  above  the  knee,  where  it  be- 
comes the  popliteal  artery  and  is 
continued  down  the  leg.  It  gives 
off  numerous  branches,  which  sup- 
plythe  muscles  and  skin  with  blood. 

Femur  OR  THIGH-BONE.  Longest 
bone  in  the  human  body.  Above 
it  articulates  with  the  pelvis  to 
form  the  hip- joint,  and  below  with 
the  patella  (knee-cap)  and  tibia  to 
form  the  knee-joint.  The  superior 
extremity  consists  of  a  rounded 
eminence,  the  head,  which  fits  into 
the  acetabulum  or  socket  of  the 


pelvis,  the  neck,  which  is  set  at 
about  an  angle  of  125°  with  the 
shaft  of  the  bone,  and  two  bony 
prominences  known  as  the  greater 
and  lesser  trochanters,  which  serve 
for  the  attachments  of  muscles. 
The  shaft  of  the  femur  is  somewhat 
convex  forwards,  and  in  the  cen- 
tral third  of  the  posterior  surface 
bears  a  prominent  ridge,  the  linea 
aspera,  to  which  muscles  are  at- 
tached. The  inferior  extremity 
broadens  out  into  two  expansions, 
the  internal  and  external  tuber- 
osities,  which  terminate  in  two 
smooth  rounded  articular  eminences 
known  as  the  condyles,  separated 
from  each  other  by  a  deep  depres- 
sion, the  inter-condylar  notch. 

Fracture  of  the  shaft  of  the 
femur  is  a  common  accident.  If 
due  to  indirect  violence  the  frac- 
ture is  usually  oblique,  if  due  to 
direct  violence  more  or  less  trans- 
verse. Unless  complicated  by 
serious  damage  to  the  soft  parts, 
the  fracture  usually  unites  in  from 
6  to  8  weeks,  though  the  leg  should 
not  be  made  to  bear  the  full  weight 
of  the  body  for  another  two 
months.  Fracture  of  the  neck  of 
the  femur  is  most  often  met  with 
in  elderly  persons,  whose  bones 
have  become  weakened  by  atrophy. 
The  condition  is  always  serious  in 
aged  persons,  owing  to  the  diffi- 
culty of  getting  the  broken  frag- 
ments to  unite,  and  to  the  risk  of 
pneumonia  supervening,  which  is 
always  present  when  it  is  necessary 
to  keep  an  elderly  patient  in  bed 
for  any  considerable  length  of 
time.  See  Hip- joint ;  Knee-joint. 

Fen.  Anglo-Saxon  word  for 
marshy  or  boggy  land.  The  district 
of  this  nature  in  Cambridgeshire, 
Norfolk,  Huntingdonshire,  and  Lin- 
colnshire is  known  as  the  Fens. 
The  will  o'  the  wisp  is  sometimes 
called  the  fenfire,  while  fenberry  is 
another  name  for  the  cranberry. 
See  Fens. 

Fence.  Device  used  on  farms 
for  boundary  purposes,  to  prevent 
stock  from  wandering  and  as  a 
wind-screen.  The  proper  establish- 
ment and  maintenance  of  fences  is 
costly  ;  they  often  waste  valuable 
ground,  and  neglected  hedges  in 
particular  harbour  vermin  and 
weeds,  the  latter  often  serving  to 
maintain  insect  and  fungoid  pests. 

Turf  fences,  chiefly  consisting 
of  mud  and  stones,  are  cheap  and 
fairly  durable  if  properly  drained 
and  protected  from  the  rain  by 
coping-stones.  Walls,  usually  of 
the  dry  sort,  without  cement  or 
mortar,  are  much  favoured  where 
suitable  flat  stones  are  available. 
They  last  for  many  years  if  care- 
fully built,  but  after  50  years  or 
more  they  are  liable  to  get  out  of 
plumb,  and  fall  after  winter  frosts. 


FENCHURCH  STREET 


3111 


FENCING 


Wood  and  wire  fences  include  a 
large  number  of  contrivances. 
These  may  consist  entirely  of  wood 
(palings,  stakes,  and  brushwood, 
post  and  rail),  wood  and  wire,  or 
wire  with  iron  or  concrete  stan- 
dards. Wood  lasts  much  longer  if 
treated  with  creosote  or  stop-rot 
composition,  or  simply  tarred. 
That  part  of  a  post  driven  into  the 
ground  should  previously  be  tarred. 
A  farmer  can  only  employ  barbed 
wire  lawfully  if  it  falls  entirely 
within  the  boundaries  of  his  own 
holding  ;  if  used  in  a  fence  adjoin- 
ing another  farm,  or  adjacent  to  a 
public  road,  he  will  be  liable  for 
any  injury  it  may  cause  to  human 
beings  or  other  people's  stock.  One 
useful  kind  of  wire  is  rabbit-proof 
netting,  for  keeping  out  hares  and 
rabbits.  Hedges  are  particularly 
characteristic  of  many  parts  of 
England,  and  when  well  established 
present  many  advantages.  They 
are  costly,  however,  and  require 
continual  care. 

Hedging  is  an  expert  rural  art, 
and  involves  not  merely  lopping  of 
superfluous  twigs  and  branches, 
but  also  "  laying  "  at  least  every 
20  years.  In  this  process  the  main 
stems  are'  partly  cut  through  not 
far  from  the  bottom,  bent  into  an 
oblique' or  horizontal  position,  and 
then  secured.  This  promotes  the 
growth  of  shoots  at  the  base  of  the 
hedge,  without  which  it  will  never 
form  a  thick  continuous  stock - 
proof  barrier.  Equally  important 
is  the  provision  of  a  ditch  adequately 
drained,  and  its  maintenance  in  a 
clean  condition  free  from  weeds 
and  rubbish.  The  best  hedge-plant 
is  the  hawthorn  (quick),  while 
beech  and  hornbeam  also  give  good 
results.  Mixed  hedges  are  not  to 
be  recommended.  See  Hedge. 

Fenchurch  Street.  London 
thoroughfare.  The  name  is  be- 
lieved to  have  been  derived  from 
the  fenny  ground  in  the  vicinity 
when  the  Langbourne  was  a  run- 
ning brook.  The  street  runs  E.  from 
Gracechurch  Street,  describing  a 
northward  curve  until  it  meets 
Leadenhall  Street  at  Aldgate  Pump. 
At  the  London  Tavern,  rebuilt  in 
1877,  Queen  Elizabeth  is  supposed 
to  have  dined  in  1554.  Iron- 
mongers' Hall  is  in  this  street. 
Mark  Lane,  a  turning  on  the  S. 
side,  is  known  for  its  Old  and  New 
Corn  Exchanges.  Lloyd's  Avenue 
was  made  in  1899. 

Fencible.  Term  applied  to  regi- 
ments of  horse  and  foot  raised  for 
limited  service  within  the  king- 
dom and  for  a  limited  time.  They 
ranked  junior  to  the  standing  army. 
The  new  armies  raised  in  1915 
would  have  been  called  fencibles  in 
18th  century  England.  The  word 
meant  anything  capable  of  defence. 


FENCING:     ENGLISH    AND   CONTINENTAL 

Sir  T.   A.   Cook,   Captain,  English  Fencing    Team,   19O3   and  19O6 

The  art  of  using  various  light  weapons  is  here  outlined.     A  llied  in- 
formation will  be  found  in  the  articles  Rapier  ;  Sabre ;  Sword,  etc. 


Fencing  is  the  art  of  using  as  a 
recreation  the  epee,  foil,  sabre,  or 
other  light  weapon.  In  England  it 
may  be  said  to  have  come  in  about 
the  time  of  Elizabeth,  when  the  su- 
periority of  the  rapier  and  the  point 
over  the  edge  and  broadsword  was 
realized.  But  the  introduction  of 
pistols  in  duelling,  the  disuse  of  the 
sword  as  a  customary  accompani- 
ment to  every  gentleman's  attire, 
and  the  national  preference  for 
boxing  combined  to  drive  the  prac- 
tical Englishman  from  fencing 
lessons,  which  retained  a  merely 
academic  interest.  It  was  only 
about  1905  that  the  badge  of  the 
English  fencing  team  (a  Tudor 
rose)  recalled  for  the  first  time  for 
nearly  three  centuries  the  official 
patronage  extended  to  masters  of 
arms  by  Henry  VIII.  Even  this 
would  not  have  been  accomplished 
had  the  revival  of  English  fencing 
depended  solely  on  the  scholastic 
graces  of  conventional  foil -play. 
To  the  epee  de  combat,  the  modern 
French  duelling  sword,  but  with  a 


button  on  its  point,  we  owe  the 
rapid  development  of  fencing  in 
the  20th  century. 

Moreover,  the  conventions  of 
foil-play  had  overgrown  its  beauty, 
and  the  extreme  difficulty  of  scor- 
ing, if  scoring  be  indeed  advisable 
at  all,  added  yet  another  reason 
against  its  general  popularity.  The 
average  young  Englishman  at  the 
dawn  of  the  20th  century  liked  to 
know  whether  he  was  really  better 
or  worse  than  his  opponent,  and 
objected  to  being  told  he  could 
score  nothing  when  his  weapon, 
had  it  been  sharp,  would  obviously 
have  slain  or  seriously  disabled  his 
adversary.  When  he  was  given  a 
game  which  enabled  him  to  hit  his 
man  anywhere  from  the  top  of  his 
head  to  the  sole  of  his  feet,  and 
necessitated  the  guarding  of  an 
equal  area  in  his  own  person,  the 
combination  of  possibilities  became 
interesting.  When  he  realized  that 
his  old  lessons  with  the  foil  were 
just  as  essential  as  before,  by  way 
of  a  correct  foundation  for  sound 


Fencing.     1.  Position  of  hand  on  foil.     2.  Preliminary  position.     3.  On  guard. 

4.  Lunge.     5.  Parry   of  quarte.     6.  Parry   of  sixte.     7.  Parry   of  septime. 

8.  Parry  of  octave.    9.  Riposte  from  parry  of  quarte 


FENCING 


3112 


FENCING 


sword -play,  but  were  now  the  in- 
troduction to  far  wider  and  more 
thrilling  practical  problems,  he  be- 
gan to  see  that  fencing  was  one  of 
the  best  games  in  the  world.  By 
swift  degrees  he  took  up  the  science 
and  art  of  the  epee  until  he  could  at 
least  make  a  fair  fight  with  the  best 
exponents  of  the  sword  in  Europe. 

In  1900  Sulzbacher  fought  in  the 
first  pool  ever  seen  by  an  English 
audience.  In  1903  the  first  fencing 
team  to  represent  Great  Britain 
was  sent  out  to  Paris  by  the  ama- 
teur fencing  association  to  compete 
in  the  grande  semaine  for  the  inter- 
national medals.  It  was  beaten  by 
France  ;  but  it  won  the  second 
place  by  conquering  Belgium,  who 
had  her  revenge  in  1912  at  Stock- 
holm, where  France  was  not  repre- 
sented. In  1906  at  the  Olympic 
Games  at  Athens  a  British  team 
for  the  first  time  fought  France  to 
a  dead  heat  in  the  final  of  an  inter- 
national tournament,  and  a  Brit- 
isher hit  four  Frenchmen  one  after 
another.  In  the  Olympic  Games  at 
Antwerp  in  1920  the  challenge  cup, 
presented  by  British  fencers  for 
amateur  epee  teams,  open  to  the 
world,  was  won  by  the  Italians, 
chiefly  owing  to  the  fine  fencing  of 
the  brothers  Nadi,  who  also  put 
their  country  ahead  in  foils  and 
sabres.  The  English  team,  though 
well  up  to  the  average,  did  not  do 
as  well  as  usual  in  any  of  the  three 
weapons  at  these  games,  one  reason 
being  a  new  rule  which  gave  points 
in  foil-play  to  hits  on  the  sword- 
arm  from  the  shoulder  to  the  elbow. 

To  obtain  practice  fencers  often 
form  a  pool.  The  winner  is  he  who 
is  least  hit.  The  score -sheet  would 
be  something  of  this  kind  : 


A 

A 

'  B 
0 

c 
1 

D 
0 

E 
1 

F 

1 

Hits 
received 

3 

B 

1 

0 

0 

1 

0 

2 

c 

0 

1 

1 

Id 

0 

3 

T) 

1 

1 

0 

0 

Id 

3 

E 

0 

0 

Id 

1 

1 

3 

F 

0 

1 

1 

Id 

0 

3 

This  would  show  that  B  wins 
because  he  received  less  hits  than 
anyone  else,  having  lost  only  to  A 
and  to  E.  Turning  to  A's  line, 
under  the  column  marked  B  one 
finds  a  cipher  showing  that  he  won 
his  fight  against  B,  and  another 
cipher  appears  in  E's  line,  also 
under  the  column  marked  B.  It 
will  be  noticed  also  that  C,  D,  E, 
and  F  have  each  one  square  with 
the  mark  Id  ;  this  means  a  coup 
double,  to  signify  that  »  hit  was 
scored  against  each  man,  proba- 
bly because  one  of  them,  when 


attacked,  defended  himself  by  a 
counter-attack  instead  of  a  parry, 
and  though  he  hit  his  man  he  was 
not  quick  enough  to  do  so  before 
being  hit  himself.  Though  this  is 
sometimes  a  calculated  stroke  on 
the  part  of  a  fencer  admittedly  in- 
ferior to  his  opponent,  it  is  not 
generally  considered  good  fencing. 

A  pretty  variation  of  the  pool, 
when  there  are  eight  fencers  or 
more,  is  the  team  fight.  The  num- 
ber of  fights  in  a  pool  can  be  easily 
calculated.  Let  X  be  the  total 
fencers  ;  the  number  of  fights  will 
be  X(X-l)  /2.  Therefore  if  the 
pool  is  composed  of  six  fencers 
there  will  be  6(6— 1)/2=15. 
Style  in  Fencing 

To  turn  to  style.  In  fencing  it  is 
possible  to  analyse  all  the  useful 
movements  mathematically  into 
conic  sections,  the  point  of  the 
sword  describing  the  base  of  the 
cone  of  which  the  apex  is  the  pum- 
mel. Again,  they  may  be  described 
geometrically  by  assuming  the 
position  of  the  point  in  the  final 
thrust  to  be  within  one  or  other 
of  the  quadrants  of  the  circle  on  a 
compass,  i.e.  between  the  cardinal 
points  N.  and  E.  or  N.  and  W.  in 
the  upper  lines,  and  the  cardinal 
points  S.  and  E.  or  S.  and  W.  in  the 
lower  lines.  Practically  this  ex- 
hausts the  possibilities  of  the 
fleuret.  It  also  serves  as  a  definition 
for  any  thrust  or  parry  with  the 
sword  ;  for  wherever  an  attacking 
blade  threatens  a  thrust,  thither 
should  the  defending  sword  imme- 
diately follow  it,  and  though  the 
central  point  of  the  circle  on  the 
compass  may  shift  from  breast  to 
throat,  or  breast  to  knee,  the  rela- 
tive movements  of  the  subsequent 
final  attack  or  defence  will  remain 
the  same.  To  make  any  movement 
outside  the  imaginary  circle,  with  a 
radius  of  about  fifteen  inches  at 
most, would  obviously  be  dangerous. 

The  easy  way  in  which  diagrams 
and  mathematics  can  be  applied  to 
perfect  swordsmanship  was  the  pit- 
fall in  the  progress  of  the  art  of 
fencing  with  the  point.  It  resulted 
in  vast  and  complicated  encyclo- 
pedias which  were  of  little  prac- 
tical use,  if  any,  in  a  real  fight. 
The  riposte,  perhaps  the  most 
deadly  stroke  of  all,  was  only  "  in- 
vented "  after  duelling  had  been 
largely  discontinued ;  and  the  basic 
principle  of  all  first-rate  exercise  in 
the  early  days  of  fencing  was  en- 
tirehr  lost  sight  of  ;  indeed,  it  has 
only  emerged  into  general  view  in 
the  last  generation.  The  principle 
may  be  briefly  stated  as  the  em- 
ployment, in  any  sudden  action, 
which  may  in  this  case  involve  life 
or  death,  of  the  simplest,  most 
direct,  and  most  instinctive  move- 
ment—instinctive in  the  special 


sense  of  the  result  of  putting  into 
unconscious  practice  a  series  of 
simple  and  perfectly  executed 
movements  originally  learnt  with 
more  or  less  difficulty. 

In  the  thrust  the  knuckles  must 
be  turned  toward  the  ground  if  the 
point  is  to  be  straight,  the  head 
must  be  erect,  the  point  of  the  toe 
in  a  direct  line  with  the  point  of  the 
sword,  the  shoulders  at  once  loose 
and  low,  the  left  foot  exactly  at 
right  angles  to  the  right.  Unless 
these  things  at  least  have  become 
instinctive  (in  the  sense  defined), 
it  is  useless  to  try  fencing  either 
with  foil  or  sword  even  in  any 
friendly  competition.  But  these 
things  being  granted,  an  illimitable 
field  for  activity,  for  delicate  speed, 
for  subtle  character,  for  courage, 
for  patience,  opens  up  before  the 
courteous  swordsman.  No  game  in 
the  world  enables  you  so  quickly  to 
take  the  measure  of  your  man.  The 
sword  becomes  a  nerve  stretching 
from  your  heart  right  down  to  the 
searching,  pulsating  point  in  front 
of  you.  It  feels  the  opposing  blade. 
At  last  it  seems  as  if  you  might 
fence  blindfold,  so  extraordinarily 
is  that  sixth  sense  developed  which 
deals  with  "  time,  distance,  and 
proportion,"  as  you  fight.  The 
parry  that  fails  to  find  your  adver- 
sary's sword  automatically  repeats 
itself.  The  thrust  that  meets  his 
guarding  blade  slips  almost  uncon- 
sciously the  other  side  of  it. 

French  and  Italian  Schools 
It  is  held  that  the  French  school 
of  foil  and  epee -play  is  invariably 
the  best,  in  spite  of  occasional  bril- 
liant exceptions  like  the  brothers 
Nadi  at  Antwerp  in  1920,  while  the 
Italian  school  of  sabre  leads  the 
world  in  that  deadly  and  beautiful 
weapon,  the  sciabola.  This  is  as 
light  as  an  epee  de  combat  and 
almost  as  deadly  with  its  point, 
while  the  swift  play  of  its  edge  adds 
great  variety  and  excellence  to  any 
contest.  It  is  the  combination  of 
edge  with  point  which  is  the  su- 
preme beauty  of  this  weapon,  and 
those  who  know  only  either  single- 
stick or  heavy  sabre  could  never 
appreciate  the  subtle,  swift,  and 
delicate  play  required  of  the  first- 
rate  swordsman  in  the  Italian 
school  of  sabre. 

Bibliography.  A  Bibliography  of 
Fencing  and  Duelling,  C.  A.  T. 
Thimm,  1896  ;  L'Escrime,  J.  Joseph 
Renaud,  1911  ;  The  Sword  and  the 
Centuries,  Alfred  Hutton,  1901  ; 
Secrets  of  the  Sword,  Barancourt, 
Eng.  trans.  C.  Felix  Clay,  1900  ;  The 
Works  of  George  Silver,  1599,  ed. 
Cyril  Matthey,  1898;  Schools  and 
Masters  of  Fence,  Egerton  Castle, 
1892  ;  Cold  Steel,  Alfred  Hutton, 
1889  ;  Fencing  (with  Boxing  and 
Wrestling),  W.  H.  Pollock,  in  The 
Badminton  Library,  1889. 


FENDER 


3113 


FENIANISM 


Fender.  Article  of  domestic 
furniture.  It  is  used  as  a  guard 
against  the  falling  of  hot  cinders 
from  the  fire  into  the  room.  It  is 
generally  made  of  a  flat  oblong  of 
japanned  metal,  with  a  raised  edge 
of  brass  or  steel  along  the  outer  side 
and  the  two  ends.  Its  use  followed 
upon  the  introduction  of  grates 
raised  from  the  floor,  and  it  super- 
seded the  old  shallow  kerb  which 
enclosed  the  open  stone  hearth. 

Fender.  Nautical  term  for  a 
bundle  of  sticks,  rope  or  wood 
dropped  over  a  vessel's  side  to  pre- 
vent her  from  rubbing  against 
another  vessel  or  the  wall  of  a  quay. 
Hence  the  expression  to  fend  off, 
i.e.  to  keep  away,  to  protect.  A 
"  pudding  fender  "  is  a  large  ball 
of  old  rope  used  as  a  fender. 


Fender.    Left,  rope  fender  in  net ; 

right,  fender  of  hazel  wood  bound 

with  wire 

t'ribb,  Southsea 

Fenelon,  FRANCOIS  DE  SALIONAC 
DE  LA  MOTHE  (1651-1715).  French 
ecclesiastic,  author  and  academi- 
cian. He  was  born  near  Sarlat, 
Aug.  6,  1651.  Ordained  priest  in 
1675,  he  was  director  of  the  con- 
vent of  the  Nouvelles  Catholiques, 
and  missionary  to  the  Protestants 
in  the  disturbed  provinces  of 
Poitou  and  Saintonges,  the  fascina- 
tion of  his  personality  being  a  great 
factor  in  his  success.  In  1689  he 
was  appointed  preceptor  to  Louis 
XIVs  grandson,  the  duke  of  Bur- 
gundy, and  in  1695  was  made  arch- 
bishop of  Cambrai.  Soon  after  this 
his  interest  in  Quietism  and  defence 
of  its  leader,  Mme.  Guyon,  brought 
him  into  collision  with  his  old 
friend  Bossuet,  who,  after  a  bitter 
controversy,  obtained  the  con- 
demnation by  Rome  (1699)  of  his 
offending  volume  Explication  des 
Maximes  des  Saints  sur  la  Vie  In 
terieure.  He  died  Jan.  7,  1715. 

Fenelon  was  a  man  of  great  ver- 
satility and  his  writings  cover  a 
wide  range.  The  best  known  is  the 
didactic  romance,  Les  Aventures  de 
Telemaque,  1699,  which,  like  his 
Fables  and  his  Dialogues  des  Morts. 


Fender.     Examples  in  domestic  use.     1  to  4,  the  modern  kerb  form:  1,  of  cast 

steel;  2,  of  polished  brass,  pierced]  and  beaded;  3,  brass,  fitted  with  seats  ; 

4,  copper,  antique  style.     5,  Steel  and  brass  fenders  of  the  18th  century 

1—4,  by  eourlety  of  Waring  &  Billow,  Ltd.;  5.  of  Gill  &  Reigate,  Ltd. 


was  designed  to  instruct  his  royal 
pupil  in  the  conduct  of  life  and  the 
responsibilities  of  absolute  govern- 
ment. His  Education  des  Filles, 
1687,  has  also  a  place  in  the  peda- 
gogical literature  of  the  time.  See 
Lives,  Viscount  Saint-Gyres,  1901  ; 
and  P.  E.  R.  Janet,  Eng.  trans.  V. 
Leuliette,  1914. 

Feng-huang- cheng.  Town  of 
Manchuria,  China,  in  the  prov.  of 
Fengtien,  on  the  Mukden-Antung 
Rly.  It  was  opened  to  international 
trade  by  agreement  between  China 
and  Japan,  1905.  Pop.  25,000. 

Feng-siang.  Town  of  China,  in 
the  prov.  of  Shensi.  It  is  perched 
on  a  high  loess  terrace  on  the  main 
road  from  Peking  to  Lanchow. 

Fengtien  OB  SHENG-KING.  De- 
pendency of  the  Chinese  Republic. 


After  Vivien,  Louvre,  Paris 


It  is  the  most  southerly  of  the  three 
provs.  of  Manchuria,  lying  between 
Pe -chili  on  the  W.  and  Korea  on 
the  E.  In  the  S.  the  Liau-tung 
Peninsula  projects  between  the 
Gulf  of  Liau-tung  and  Korea  Bay. 
At  its  S.  extremity  is  Port  Arthur, 
leased  to  Japan  for  99  years 
from  1915.  The  capital  is  Mukden, 
other  towns  of  importance  being 
Fu  -  chau,  Kinchau,  and  New- 
chwang.  Area,  56,000  sq.  m. 
Pop.  10,312,241. 

Feng-yang.  City  of  China,  in 
the  prov.  of  Anhui  (Nganhui).  It 
was  the  birthplace  of  the  Mings,  but 
the  first  emperor  transferred  his 
capital  to  Nanking. 

Fen-ho.  River  of  China,  in  the 
prov.  of  Shansi.  It  is  a  tributary 
of  the  Yellow  River. 

Fenian  ism.  Name  given  to  the 
revolutionary  movement  springing 
from  the  Fenian  brotherhood.  Its 
real  name  was  the  Irish  Revolu- 
tionary Brotherhood.  One  of  the 
organizers,  O'Mahoney,  gave  it  the 
name  of  the  Fenian  Society,  and 
by  that  name  it  became  known. 

The  name  was  derived  from  the 
semi  -  legendary  warrior  bands 
(Fianna)  of  early  Irish  history. 
The  society  was  really  a  political 
association  of  Irish  and  Irish- 
Americans  whose  object  was  to 
overthrow  British  government  in 
Ireland  and  establish  a  republic 
there.  There  was  an  American 
branch  and  an  Irish  branch.  It 
has  been  said  that  the  movement 
began  in  America,  but  really  the 
plans  for  both  branches  were  drawn 
up  in  Paris  by  a  small  band  of 
Irish  revolutionaries  in  1848. 


FENN 


3114 


FENTON 


The  Irish  famines  in  the  'forties 
caused  a  great  emigration  to 
America,  and  the  emigrants  laid  the 
blame  for  their  exile  on  the  British 
Government,  which  had  been  pain- 
fully unsuccessful  in  its  efforts  to 
cope  with  distress.  The  sentiment 
of  hatred  towards  England  was 
fomented  by  James  Stephens  and 
others,  who  had  escaped  after  the 
abortive  Young  Ireland  insurrec- 
tion of  1848.  The  organizers  knew 
that  oj>en  rebellion  against  the 
armed  forces  of  the  British  Govern- 
ment could  bring  only  disaster,  but 
were  persuaded  that  justice  could 
not  be  won  by  peaceful  methods 
Therefore  they  held  it  justifiabb  to 
foster  "  secret  warfare  " — which 
those  who  did  not  sympathise  with 
them  called  outrage  and  assassina- 
tion. Their  aim  was  purely  politi- 
cal ;  being  neither  religious  nor 
agrarian,  it  appealed  neither  to  the 
priesthood  nor  to  the  peasantry. 

James  Stephens  returned  to  Ire- 
land to  organize  the  society  in  that 
country,  while  the  real  head- 
quarters remained  in  America.  In 
the  American  Civil  War,  which 
ended  in  1865,  large  numbers  of 
American  Irish  had  learnt  the  busi- 
ness of  fighting.  The  moment 
seemed  ripe  for  the  organization  of 
risings,  and  an  active  secret  propa- 
ganda was  set  to  work  in  Ireland  ; 
but  the  authorities  were  on  the 
alert,  seized  the  offices  of  the 
Fenian  organ,  "  The  Irish  People," 
and  arrested  sundry  ringleaders. 
For  the  time  the  vigilance  of  the 
government  seemed  to  have  para- 


Fennec.     Small  fox  found  in  the 
deserts  of  North  Africa 

lysed  the  conspirators.  In  1866 
some  hundreds  of  American  Irish 
attempted  to  raise  an  insurrection 
in  Canada,  but  failed  completely, 
receiving  none  of  the  support  ex- 
pected from  the  U.S.A.  govern- 
ment. Another  effort,  however, 
had  been  prepared  in  England  and 
Ireland.  In  Feb.  1867  a  plan  to 
seize  the  arsenal  in  Chester  Castle 
was  forestalled  by  drafting  troops 
to  that  city.?  f  $ 

In  Sept.,  two  Fenians  were  ar- 
rested in  Manchester  on  charges  of 
felony.  A  rescue  was  attempted, 
the  prisoners  escaped,  and  a  police 
officer  was  killed,  but  29  Fenians 
were  arrested  and  three  were 
hanged  for  the  murder  of  the  ser- 
jeant,  which  had  not  been  inten- 


G. Man ville  Fenn, 
British  novelist 


ded,  and  of  which  the  men  convicted 
had  been  guilty  only  in  a  technical 
sense.  These  men  became  known  as 
the  Manchester  Martyrs.  A  worse 
crime  was  the  blowing  up  of  a  part 
of  Clerkenwell  prison  on  December 
13.  The  brotherhood  after  this 
time  became  merged  in  other 
societies  of  a  similar  character, 
such  as  Clan-na-Gael  (q.v.),  and  the 
Irish  Republican  Brotherhood.  See 
Ireland  :  History ;  Parnell. 

Fenn,  GEORGE  MANVILLE  (1831- 
1909).  British  novelist  and  story- 
writer  for  boys.  He  was  born  at 
W  e  s  t  m  inster 
and  was  edu-  H 
cated  at  pri-  g 
v  a  t  e  schools. 
Having  early 
contributed  to  I 
popular  period-  | 
icals',  he  was  in 
1870  appointed 
editor  of  Cas- 
sell's  Magazine, 
and  in  1873 
became  pro- 
prietor of  Once  a  Week.  His  pub- 
lished work  totalled  close  upon  200 
volumes  and  included  numerous 
stories  told  in  pleasant  narrative 
style,  among  them  being  The  Sap- 
phire Cross,  1871  ;  The  Parson  o' 
Dumford,  1879  ;  Off  to  the  Wilds, 
1881  ;  Nat  the  Naturalist,  1883  ; 
Bunyip  Land,  1885;  The  Bag 
of  Diamonds,  1887  ;  A  Crimson 
Crime,  1899. 

Fennec  (Canis  zerda).  Small  fox- 
like  member  of  the  dog  family, 
found  in  N.  Africa.  The  ears  are 
enormously  long,  sometimes  a 
quarter  the  length  of  the  whole 
body.  The  colour  is  a  very  pale 
buff,  with  white  beneath  and  a 
black  tip  to  the  tail.  It  lives  in 
burrows  in  the  desert  and  feeds  at 
night  on  birds,  lizards  and  small 
mammals. 

Fennel  (Foeniculum  vulgare). 
Tall  perennial  herb  of  the  natural 
order  Umbelliferae.  It  is  a  native 
of  Europe,  N.  Africa,  and  W.  Asia. 
The  leaves  are  much  divided  into 
thread-like  segments.  The  tubular, 
but  almost  solid  stem  is  3  ft.-4  ft. 
in  height,  crowned  with  compound 
umbels  of  minute  yellow  flowers. 
The  fruits  are  compressed  from  side 
to  side.  The  leaves  are  used  as  a 
pot-herb,  and  for  garnishing  dishes, 
and  the  fruit  supplies  an  aromatic 
oil  which  possesses  carminative 
properties. 

Fenny  Stratford.  Market  town 
and  urban  district  of  Buckingham- 
shire, England.  It  stands  on  the 
Ouzel,  48  m.  N.W.  of  London  and 
17  m.  S.W.  of  Bedford,  and  has  a 
station  on  the  L.  &  N.W.  Rly.  It 
has  a  trade  in  agricultural  produce. 
The  chief  building  is  S.  Martin's 
church,  dating  [from  the  18th  cen- 


tury.  Market  day,  Thurs.  (alter- 
nate). Pop.  4,000. 

Fens.  Extensive  flat  'and  low- 
lying  region  of  England,  70  m.  in 
length  and  35  m.  in  extreme 
breadth,  occupying  parts  of  several 
counties  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  Wash.  They  represent  the 
silted  up  portion  of  a  bay  of  which 
only  the  Wash  is  left,  and  syste- 
matic drainage  at  various  periods 
has  rendered  them  extremely 
fertile.  The  Romans  attempted  to 
drain  the  Fens  by  constructing 
causeways  and  throwing  up  im- 
mense embankments  along  the 
rivers  and  the  seashore,  but  the 
sluices  were  gradually  choked  and 
the  district  again  became  water- 
logged, serious  inundations  by  the 
sea  occurring  at  intervals  down  to 
the  second  half  of  the  16th  century. 

In  1634,  Francis,  earl  of  Bedford, 
and  thirteen  co-adventurers  under- 
took to  drain  the  area  now  known 
as  the  Bedford  Level  (q.v.). 
It  was  not  until  1807,  however, 
that  the  effectual  draining  of  the 
entire  region  was  finally  accom- 
plished, the  Holland  and  neigh- 
bouring fens  having  been  reclaimed 
in  1767,  the  Witham  Fens  in  1807, 
and  the  Welland  Fens  almost 
totally  reclaimed  by  1801.  Grain, 
flax,  cole-seed  and  potatoes  are 
extensively  cultivated,  and  wild- 
fowl abound.  The  Fen  country 
is  the  home  of  English  skating. 


I: 


Fennel.      Flower-head  and  leaf  of 
Foeniculum  vulgare 

During  the  second  half  of  the  7th 
century,  Peterborough,  Ely,  Ram- 
sey, Thorney,  Crowland  and  many 
other  places  were  settled  by  mem- 
bers of  various  monastic  orders, 
who  erected  churches,  monasteries 
and  abbeys. 

Fenton  OR  GREAT  FENTON. 
Parish  of  Staffordshire,  England, 
now  part  of  the  county  borough  of 
Stoke-on-Trent.  It  has  a  station  on 
the  N.  Staffs  Rly.,  and  is  largely 
engaged  in  earthenware  manufac- 
ture. To  the  east  of  Stoke,  it  was  a 
separate  urban  district  until  ab- 
sorbed. Market  day,  Sat.  Pop. 
25,626.  See  Stoke-upon-Trent. 


FENTON 


31  15 


FERDINAND     I 


Fenton,  LAVINIA  (1708-60). 
English  actress.  She  made  her  first 
appearance  in  1726  as  Monimia  in 
Otway's  The 
Orphan.  Her 
beauty,  voice, 
and  charm 
soon  made  her 
a  reigning 
toast,  and  her 
success  as 
Polly  Peachum 
in  Gay's  Beg- 
gar's Opera 
(Jan.  29, 1728) 


Lavinia  Fenton, 
English  actress 

Ajle 


aarth 


at  Lincoln's 
Inn  Fields  was 
such  that  the  opera  was  played  62 
times  during  the  season,  and  in  it 
the  actress  made  her  last  appear- 
ance on  the  boards.  The  3rd  duke 
of  Bolton  married  her  in  1751.  She 
died  on  Jan.  24,  1760. 

Fents  (Fr.  fente,  slit).  Rem- 
nants of  cloth  from  one  yard  to  a 
few  yards  in  length.  They  are  too 
short  for  sale  in  a  regular  way,  and 
are  generally  sold  by  weight. 

Fenugreek  (Triqonella  foenum 
Graecum).  Annual  herb  of  the 
natural  order  Leguminosae.  It  is  a 
native  of  S.  Europe.  The  leaves  are 
divided  into  toothed  oval  leaflets, 
flowers  pea-like,  white,  on  un- 
branched  stems  1  ft.  to  2  ft.  high. 
The  plant,  whose  name  means 
Greek  hay,  has  the  odour  of  new- 
mown  hay,  into  which  it  was  made 
by  the  ancients.  The  seeds  are  used 
in  veterinary  medicine. 

Fen  wick, "CHARLES  (1850-1918). 
British  politician.    Born  at  Cram- 
lington,   Northumberland,  May  5, 
1850,  he  worked  on  the  pit- bank 
,  1    at   the  age   of 
ijljjt  I    nine,    and    on 

I  his  tenth  birth - 
day  became  an 
underground 
labourer.  H  e 
was  employed 
as  a  miner 
until  1885. 
Having  edu- 
cated himself 
in  his  spare 
time,  he  held 
Northumber- 


Charles  Fenwick, 
British  politician 

Barratl 

offices     under     the 


land  miners'  association.  He  was 
elected  to  Parliament  as  Liberal- 
Labour  candidate  for  the  Wans- 
beck  division  in  1885.  He  was 
the  first  Labour  M.P.  to  preside 
over  the  House  of  Commons  in 
committee.  He  was  secretary  of 
the  parliamentary  committee  of 
the  Trade  Union  Congress,  1890- 
94,  and  was  made  a  privy  coun- 
cillor in  1911.  He  represented  the 
Wansbeck  division  until  his  death 
on  April  22,  1918. 

Fenwick,  SIR  JOHN  (c.  1645-97). 
English  conspirator.  Of  an  old 
Northumberland  family,  he  early 


Sir  John  Fenwick, 
English  conspirator 

From  an  engraving 


entered  the 
army.  Be- 
coming major- 
general  in 
1688,  he  sat 
in  Parliament 
for  his  native 
county,North- 
umberlan  d, 
from  1677-85. 
Against  Wil- 
liam III  Fen- 
wick is  said  to 
have  had  an  old  personal  grudge, 
perhaps  reciprocated,  andin!696  he 
was  arrested  in  connexion  with  an 
assassination  plot.  In  his  confes- 
sion he  cast  aspersions  on  many 
prominent  Whigs.  He  was  at- 
tainted and  beheaded  on  Tower 
Hill,  Jan.  28,  1697. 

Fepdor  (1557-98).  Tsar  of 
Russia.  The  son  of  Ivan  the 
Terrible,  he  was  born  May  11,  1557, 
and  came  to  the  throne  in  1584. 
Mentally  deficient,  he  was  never 
capable  of  ruling,  and  was  under 


1      £ 
$ 

"N> ' 


Fenugreek.    1.  Flower.   2.  The  entire 
plant.     3.  Flower  and  leaf 

the  direct  influence  of  his  brother- 
in-law,  Boris  Godunov,  who,  upon 
Feodor's  death,  Jan.  7,  1598, 
ascended  the  throne. 

Feoffment.  In  England,  the 
Common  Law  method  of  trans- 
ferring a  fee,  or  freehold.  It  was  a 
symbolical  placing  of  the  trans- 
feree in  possession  of  the  estate  by 
delivering  it  to  him.  If  it  were  a 
house,  the  transferor  might  hand 
him  the  key  of  the  front  door.  If 
it  were  land  he  would  hand  him,  on 
the  land  itself,  a  sod,  or  a  twig, 
saying,  "  I  liver  this  to  thee  in  the 
name  of  seisin  of  Whitacre,  which 
is  bounded  by"  (here  he  would 
name  the  boundaries  of  the  estate), 
"  to  have  and  to  hold  to  thee  and 
thy  heirs,"  or  for  life,  or  as  the 
case  might  be. 

After  a  while  it  became  custom- 
ary to  set  out  the  boundaries,  etc., 
in  a  deed  on  parchment,  sealed 
with  the  seal  of  the  parties,  and 
then  the  feoffment  was  somewhat 
in  this  form,  "  I  liver  this  (sod, 
twig,  etc. )  to  thee  in  the  name  of 
all  the  lands  set  out  in  this  my 


deed,"  at  the  same  time  handing 
over  the  deed.  The  deed  was  called 
a  charter  of  feoffment.  The  Statute 
of  Frauds  (Charles  II)  made  some 
writing  necessary  on  the  sale  of 
land  ;  but  livery  of  seisin  or  feoff- 
ment was  still  necessary  as  well. 
To  evade  the  necessity  for  feoff- 
ment the  device  was  introduced  of 
employing  two  deeds,  (1)  a  lease 
to  the  transferee,  and  (2)  a  release 
to  him  of  the  reversion.  Neither 
lease  nor  release  required  feoffment. 
By  the  Real  Property  Act,  1845, 
conveyances  of  freeholds  are  made 
lawful  by  deed  of  grant,  which  is 
the  method  in  force  to-day. 

Ferdinand.  Masculine  Chris- 
tian name.  It  comes  from  Teutonic 
words  meaning  a  life  of  daring. 
Popular  in  Germany,  it  never  be- 
came so  in  England.  It  was 
carried,  however,  into  Italy  and 
Spain,  where  many  kings  and  other 
rulers  bore  it.  The  Spanish  form  is 
Fernando  or  Hernando,  and  the 
Italian  Ferdinando. 

Ferdinand  I  (1503-64).  Ger- 
man king  and  Roman  emperor. 
Born  March  10,  1503,  he  was  the 
younger  son  of  _ ,,.„,_„.  _ ;.._  ,._,„ 
the  archduke 
Philip  and  of 
Joanna  of  Cas- 
tile. He  was 
thus  a  Haps- 
burg,  a  grand- 
son of  the 
emperor  Maxi- 
milian and  a 
brother  of 
Charles  V.  His 
early  years 
were  passed  in  Spain,  but  after 
Charles  was  chosen  emperor  in  1519 
he  was  given  extensive  territories  in 
Germany  and  helped  his  brother  in 
the  work  of  government.  In  1521 
he  married  Anna,  daughter  of  the 
Icing  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia,  and 
when  her  childless  brother  Louis 
was  killed  in  1526  he  put  himself 
forward  as  his  successor.  In  both 
lands  he  was  chosen  and  crowned  ; 
in  Bohemia  he  had  some  semblance 
of  authority,  but  in  Hungary  he 
had  for  long  little  more  than  the 
name  of  king. 

It  is  from  Ferdinand,  not  from 
Charles,  that  the  modern  Haps- 
burgs  are  descended.  The  brothers 
agreed  that  on  the  elder's  death 
Ferdinand  should  succeed  him  in 
Germany,  leaving  to  Charles's  son 
Philip  only  Spain  and  its  colonies. 
Ferdinand,  therefore,  was  chosen 
German  king  in  1531,  and  when 
Charles  abdicated  in  1559  the  ar- 
rangement was  carried  out.  In  the 
intervening  years  Ferdinand  was 
fighting  for  Hungary  and  dealing 
as  best  he  could  with  the  religious 
disorders  in  Germany  and  Bohemia. 
He  was  useful  to  Charles  after  the 


FERDINAND     II 


3116 


FERDINAND     V 


Ferdinand  II, 
German  king 

From  an  engraving 


latter's  humiliation  at  the  hands  of 
Maurice  of  Saxony,  and  arranged 
with  the  Protestants  the  peace  of 
Augsburg. .  His  own  reign  as  em  - 
peror  (1558-64)  saw  but  a  continu 
ance  of  his  war  with  the  Turks 
and  of  his  efforts  to  settle  the  re- 
ligious differences.  He  died  in 
Vienna,  July  25,  1564,  his  eldest 
son.  Maximilian  II,  succeeding  him. 
Ferdinand  II  (1578-1637).  Ger- 
man  king  and  Roman  emperor. 
Born  at  Gratz,  July  9,  1578,  be 
.,,.__^,N  was  a  son  of 
*.  1  the  archduke 

Charles  and  a 
nephew  of  the 
emperor  Maxi- 
m  i  1  i  a  n  II. 
Educated  by 
the  Jesuits,  he 
began  his  pub- 
lic life  as  ruler 
of  Styria  and 
Carinthia,  the 
portion  of  the 
Hapsburg  domains  that  had  been 
his  father's  share.  His  rule  was 
chiefly  distinguished  for  his  per- 
secution of  the  Protestants.  In 
1612  the  emperor  Rudolph,  Fer- 
dinand's cousin,  died,  and  another 
cousin,  Matthias,  became  emperor. 
He  was  old  and  childless,  and  the 
outcome  of  much  political  strategy 
was  the  decision  that  Ferdinand, 
and  not  one  of  his  own  brothers, 
should  succeed  him.  The  family 
agreed  to  the  arrangement,  and  as 
a  beginning  the  archduke  was 
chosen  king  of  Bohemia  and  king 
of  Hungary.  Matthias  died  in  1619 
and  in  Aug.  his  nephew  was  elected 
German  king. 

Meanwhile,  in  1618,  the  Thirty 
Years'  War  had  begun.  A  rival  to 
Ferdinand,  set  up  by  the  Protes- 
tants in  Bohemia,  kindled  the 
flame,  and  the  struggle  lasted 
throughout  the  emperor's  life- 
time. Ferdinand  acted  vigorously, 
and  until  the  appearance  of  the 
Swedes,  aided  by  Maximilian  of 
Bavaria,  he  was  completely  vic- 
torious. He  recovered  Bohemia, 
put  an  end  as  far  as  possible  to 
Protestantism,  and  by  the  edict 
of  1629  gave  back  lands  taken  from 
the  Church.  The  Swedish  interven- 
tion followed,  and  in  1635  the  em- 
peror made  the  treaty  of  Prague 
with  some  of  his  foes.  He  died  Feb. 
15,  1637,  leaving  by  his  wife,  a 
Bavarian  princess,  two  sons,  his 
successor,  Ferdinand  III,  and 
Leopold,  a  prelate.  See  Thirty 
Years'  War. 

Ferdinand  HI  (1608-57).  Ger- 
man king  and  Roman  emperor. 
Son  of  the  emperor  Ferdinand 
II,  he  was  born  at  Gratz,  July  13, 
1608.  To  secure  his  position  his 
father  had  him  crowned  king  of 
Hungary  and  king  of  Bohemia 


Ferdinand  III, 
German  king 


during  his  own  lifetime,  and  in  1636 
he  was  chosen  German  king.  In 
1637  his  father  died  and  Ferdinand 
^_^^^^^^^___  became  the 
jjgJ^S^Iw  §  real  ruler  of 
these  king- 
doms and  as- 
sumed  the 
title  of  em- 
peror. The 
Thirty  Years' 
War,  in  which 
he  had  taken 
part,  was  then 
raging,  and 
his  reign  saw  its  end  in  1648.  He 
died  April  2,  1657.  Ferdinand  was 
succeeded  by  his  eldest  surviving 
son,  Leopold  I. 

Ferdinand  (b.  1861).  Ex-tsar 
of  Bulgaria.  Born  at  Vienna,  Feb. 
26,  1861,  he  was  the  youngest 
son  of  Augus-  m^nR^^H^Bl! 
tus,  prince  of  j 
Saxe-Coburg-  1 
Got  ha,  and  1 
Clementine,  JJ 
daughter  of  i 
Louis  Philippe.  | 
He  was  well  1 
educated,  and  g 
with  his  bro-  1!L_ .,'^Jal 
ther  Augustus  Ferdinand, 

CMished  a  Ex-tsar  of  Bulgaria 
k  on  his  botanical  observations 
in  Brazil.  He  entered  the  Austrian 
army,  but  soon  his  ambition  led 
him  in  another  direction.  In  1887 
Alexander,  prince  of  Bulgaria,  ab- 
dicated, and  after  much  intrigue 
Ferdinand  was  chosen  as  his  suc- 
cessor. Russia  was  opposed  to  him, 
but  he  won  through  and  by  1896 
most  of  the  objections  to  him  had 
ceased.  In  1908  he  proclaimed  the 
independence  of  Bulgaria,  and 
called  himself  king  or  tsar,  winning 
recognition  from  the  powers  shortly 
afterwards.  He  was  an  advocate 
of  the  Balkan  League,  and  was  one 
of  the  instigators  of  the  war  of 
1912-13. 

On  the  outbreak  of  the  Great 
War,  Ferdinand  was  cautious 
enough  to  await  developments  be- 
fore committing  himself  to  any 
definite  policy.  His  strong  German 
tendencies  gradually  became  more 
apparent,  however,  and  finally, 
having  exhausted  all  the  prevari- 
cations of  diplomacy,  he  declared 
war,  Oct.  13,  1915.  He  played  no 
conspicuous  part  in  the  war  itself, 
and,  on  the  final  breakdown  of  the 
Bulgarian  effort,  he  abdicated,  Oct. 
4,  1918,  in  favour  of  his  son  Boris, 
and  retired  to  Germany.  Ferdi- 
nand married  first,  in  1893,  a 
Bourbon  princess,  daughter  of  the 
duke  of  Parma ;  and  secondly,  in 
1908,  Eleanor,  a  princess  of 
Reuss. 

Ferdinand  (b.  1865).  King  of 
Rumania.  Born  at  Sigmaringen, 


Aug.   24,    1865,  he  was  a  son  of 
Leopold,   a  member  of   the  non- 
reigning     and     Roman     Catholic" 
branch  of  the  Hohenzollern  family. 
In    1866    i 

uncle    Charles    |->  JflHP'^-v 
had  been  cho-    j 
sen    king    of 
Rumania,  and 
as  his  heir  Fer- 
dinand became 
king    in    Oct., 
1914.      The 
Great  War  was    1 
then    in     pro-  Ferdinand, 

gress,  but  it  King  of  Romania 
was  not  until  1916  that  Rumania 
joined  in  on  the  side  of  the  Allies. 
The  land  was  soon  overrun  by  Aus- 
tro-Germans,  and  during  the  diffi- 
cult period  that  followed  there  were 
rumours  of  the  king's  abdication  ; 
but  these  did  not  materialise, 
and  the  end  of  the  war  saw  him 
again  in  possession  of  his  country. 
Ferdinand  married  in  1893  Marie, 
cousin  of  King  George  V. 

Ferdinand.  Name  of  several 
kings  of  Spain  and  Naples.  Other 
than  those  who  are  given  separate 
biographies,  the  principal  are  Ferdi- 
nand I  (d.  1065),  El  Magno,  or  the 
Great,  who  became  king  of  Castile 
in  1028;  Ferdinand  II  (d.  1188), 
king  of  Leon;  and  Ferdinand  IV 
(d.  1312),  king  of  Castile.  Of  the 
Neapolitan  kings,  Ferdinand  I 
(1423-84)  was  the  natural  son  of 
Alphonso  V  of  Aragon  and  I  of 
Sicily.  He  succeeded  to  the  throne 
by  the  will  of  his  father.  His  reign 
was  troubled  by  the  jealousy  of 
the  other  Italian  states,  wars  with 
the  Turks,  and  difficulties  with 
France.  His  grandson,  Ferdinand 

II  (1469-96),     was     temporarily 
dispossessed    by   Charles   VIII   of 
France.     The  Bourbon  Ferdinand 

III  (1751-1825),   king   of  Sicily, 
welded  the  titles  of  Naples  into 
one  and   became  Ferdinand  I  of 
the  Two  Sicilies. 

Ferdinand  III  (1199-1252). 
King  of  Castile  and  Leon,  called  the 
Saint.  Son  of  Alfonso  IX  of  Leon 
and  Berengaria  of  Castile,  he  suc- 
ceeded his  cousin  Henry  as  king  of 
Castile  in  1217,  and  showed  him- 
self a  prudent  and  merciful  ruler. 
In  1231  the  death  of  his  father 
brought  him  the  throne  of  Leon, 
and  as  king  of  Castile  and  Leon  he 
waged  war  vigorously  against  the 
Moors,  eventually  confining  them 
to  Granada,  and  securing  Seville  in 
1248.  He  was  canonised  by  Clement 
X  in  1671  on  account  of  his  un- 
flinching orthodoxy  in  repressing 
the  Albigenses,  and  for  his  services 
towards  the  Crusades. 

Ferdinand  V  (1452-1516).  King 
of  Spain.  Known  as  Ferdinand  of 
Aragon,  he  was  the  son  of  John  II, 
king  of  Aragon  and  Sicily,  and  was 


FERDINAND     VI 


3117 


FERDINAND      II 


born  March  16,  1452.  He  was  as- 
signed the  Sicilian  kingdom  in  1468, 
and  succeeded  his  father  as  Ferdi- 
nand II  of  Aragon  in  1479.  In  1469 
he  had  married  Isabella,  sister  of 
Henry  IV  of  Castile,  the  recognized 
heiress  to  the  Castilian  throne. 
Henry  died  in  1474,  and  Isabella 
was  established  as  queen  of  Castile 
in  1479,  the  year  in  which  Ferdi- 
nand succeeded  to  the  crown  of 
Aragon.  There  were  now  in  the 
Spanish  penin- 
sula five  king- 
d  o  m  s  :  the 
Moorish  do- 
minion of  Gra- 
nada, Portugal, 
Navarre,  Cas- 
tile, and  Ara- 
gon. The  last 
two  kingdoms 
were  under  one 
crown,  though 
'  retaining  sepa- 
rate governments.  A  long  war 
with  Granada  ended  triumphantly 
with  its  annexation  in  1492;  and 
in  1512  Ferdinand  acquired  almost 
all  of  Navarre. 

Thus  during  his  reign  the  entire 
peninsula,  except  Portugal,  was 
brought  under  a  single  dominion. 
Sicily  was  already  attached  to  the 
kingdom  of  Aragon,  to  which  S. 
Italy  or  Naples  was  added  by  the 
ousting  of  the  French  in  1504. 
Further,  the  discovery  of  America, 
1492,  by  Columbus,  under  the  aus- 
pices of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella, 
secured  what  was  almost  the  mon- 
opoly of  the  New  World  to  Spain, 
which  had  thus  been  raised  to  the 
position  at  least  of  equality  with 
France.  Isabella  was  something 
more  than  the  partner  of  Ferdi- 
nand in  the  expansion  of  their  joint 
dominion  and  in  bringing  -each  of 
their  separate  kingdoms  under  the 
effective  control  of  the  crown.  She 
rendered  ill  service  to  Spain,  how- 
ever, by  introducing  the  Inquisi- 
tion (q.v.)  in  1480.  The  expulsion 
of  the  Jews  and  the  harsh  re- 
strictions imposed  upon  the 
Moors  were  also  highly  injurious. 
The  course  of  future  events  was 
greatly  influenced  by  the  marriage 
of  the  elder  daughter  Joanna  to 
Philip,  duke  of  Burgundy,  heir 
to  the  Austrian  Hapsburgs,  and 
of  the  younger,  Catherine,  first 
to  Arthur,  prince  of  Wales,  and 
after  his  death  to  his  brother 
Henry. 

Ferdinand  was  noted  as  the 
craftiest  sovereign  of  his  day,  his 
only  rival  in  that  quality  being 
Henry  VII  of  England,  with 
whom  he  was  usually  joined  in  an 
alliance  in  which  each  sought  the 
maximum  advantage  at  the  other's 
expense.  After  the  death  of  Isabella, 
1504,  Ferdinand's  craft  degenerated 


into  mere  cunning.  The  crowns 
of  Castile  and  Aragon  were  actually 
parted  when  Isabella  died ;  but 
Joanna,  duchess  of  Burgundy,  was 
heiress  of  both,  and  her  place  was 
taken  by  her  son,  afterwards 
Charles  V.  Except  during  a  brief 
interval,  Ferdinand  retained  the 
government  of  Castile  as  regent 
until  his  death,  Jan.  23,  1516. 
The  character  of  Ferdinand  is 
summed  up  in  the  story  of  his 
reply  when  told  that  Louis  XII 
complained  that  he  had  cheated 
him  once.  "  He  lies ;  I  have 
cheated  him  thrice."  See  Hist,  of 
the  Reign  of  Ferdinand  and  Isa- 
bella, W.  H.  Prescott,  ed.  J.  F. 
Kirk,  repr.  1902.  See  illus.  p.  2158. 
Ferdinand  VI  (1712-59).  King 
of  Spain.  The  second  son  of  Philip 
V,  he  was  born  Sept.  23,  1712,  and 
ascended  the  throne  in  1746.  He 
immediately  set  himself  to  carry 
out  internal  reforms,  having  first 
concluded  the  peace  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle,  1748.  At  the  outbreak 
of  the  Seven  Years'  War  in  1756 
he  declared  his  neutrality.  Three 
years  later,  broken-hearted  at  the 
loss  of  his  wife,  Maria  of  Portugal, 
his  reason  gave  way,  and  he  died 
Aug.  10,  1759.  The  crown  of  Spain 
passed  to  his  half-brother,  Charles 
III  of  Naples. 

Ferdinand  VII  (1784-1833). 
King  of  Spain.  Son  of  Charles  IV, 
he  was  born  Oct.  14,  1784,  and  five 
years  later  be- 
came prince  of 
A  s  t  u  r  i  a  s.  In 
opposition  t  o 
his  father,  in 
1806  he  ap- 
proached the 
court  of  France 
with  the  pro- 
ject of  marry- 
i  n  g  one  of 
Napoleon's 
nieces.  He  was  imprisoned  by  his 
father,  but  the  French  invasion  of 
Spain  caused  the  latter  to  abdicate 
in  Ferdinand's  favour  in  1808. 
Charles,  however,  appealed  to 
Napoleon,  and  withdrew  his  abdica- 
tion, and  Ferdinand  went  into  re- 
tirement. After  the  Peninsular 
War  in  1814  Napoleon  reinstated 
Ferdinand.  A  reign  of  terror  fol- 
lowed, and  such  chaos  and  rebel- 
lion prevailed  that  in  1823  a  French 
army  was  sent  to  establish  Fer- 
dinand on  his  throne.  To  secure 
the  succession  for  his  daughter, 
Isabella,  in  1830  he  abolished  the 
Salic  law  as  applying  to  the  Span- 
ish throne,  thus  excluding  his 
brother  Carlos,  an  act  which  led 
to  grave  complications  later.  He 
died  Sept.  29,  1833,  and  Isabella 
came  to  the  throne  under  the 
regency  of  Maria  Christina.  See 
Carlists  ;  Spain  :  History. 


Ferdinand  VII, 
King  of  Spain 


*  Ferdinand  I  (1751-1825).  King 
of  the  Two  Sicilies.  Born  in  Naples, 
Jan.  12,  1751, 
when  his  father 
ascended  the 
Spanish  throne 
as  Charles  III 
in  1759,  he  be- 
came his  suc- 
cessor as  king 
of  Naples  and 

of    Sicily.    '  In 
Ferdinand  I,  King       ,  7RQ    .  J 
of  the  Two  Sicilies      l  .768.  h®   ma.r- 

ned    Maria 

Carolina  of  Austria,  and  was  com- 
pletely dominated  by  her  violent 
and  tyrannical  nature. 

After  the  short-lived  Parthen- 
opean  Republic  (1799),  in  the 
bloody  repression  of  which  Nelson, 
deluded  by  Lady  Hamilton  and 
Maria  Carolina,  played  a  part, 
Ferdinand  oppressed  his  subjects 
still  more.  He  aided  the  Austrians 
against  Napoleon,  who  sent  troops 
to  occupy  Naples,  whereupon  Fer- 
dinand fled  to  Sicily,  and  Joseph 
Bonaparte  was  proclaimed  king 
in  his  place.  In  1815  Murat,  who 
had  succeeded  Joseph  as  king  in 
1808,  was  deposed,  and  Ferdinand 
returned  to  vent  his  spite  on  the 
populace  by  the  indulgence  of  an 
inconceivable  tyranny  and  cruelty. 
Uniting  Naples  and  Sicily,  he  be- 
came the  first  king  of  the  Two 
Sicilies.  At  the  suggestion  of  the 
European  powers  he  promised 
various  reforms,  but  consistently 
with  the  whole  tenor  of  his  life 
he  broke  all  his  oaths  and  re- 

n'iated  his  own  signature.  He 
on  Jan.  4,  1825. 
Ferdinand  U  (1810-59).  King 
of  the  Two  Sicilies.  Born  at 
Palermo,  Jan.  12,  1810,  he  suc- 
ceeded to  the  ^m^amuammaamam 
throne  at  the 
age  of  20,  in- 
augurating his 
reign  with  the 
promise  of 
many  reforms. 
His  despotic 
and  cruel 
nature  soon 
showed  itself, 
however,  and 
before  long  the  kingdom  was  groan- 
ing under  oppressionandcorruption. 
The  insurrections  of  1837,  1843, 
and  1844  culminated  in  a  rising  in 
Sicily  and  Naples,  1848,  which 
terrified  him  into  granting  a  con- 
stitution. The  crushing  of  Italian 
hopes  after  Novara,  1849,  en- 
couraged him  to  annul  this,  and  in 
order  to  quell  the  revolutionary 
spirit  he  caused  Messina  and 
Palermo  to  be  bombarded,  thus 
earning  the  nickname  of  King 
Bomba.  Those  who  showed  liberal 
tendencies  were  imprisoned  to  the 
number  of  about  30,000  under 


Ferdinand  II,  King 
of  the  Two  Sicilies 


FERDINAND 


31  18 


FERIAE 


conditions  which  Gladstone,  who 
visited  the  country  in  1851,  ex- 
posed, describing  Ferdinand's  rule 
as  the  "  negation  of  God."  He 
died  May  22,  1859 

Ferdinand  (1769-1824).  Grand 
Duke  of  Tuscany  Born  May  6, 
1769,  he  was  a  younger  son  of  the 
emperor  Leopold  II.  In  1790, 
when  his  father  became  German 
emperor,  he  succeeded  to  the  grand 
duchy  of  Tuscany.  In  1799  he 
was  deposed  by  the  French,  in  1802 
was  made  elector  of  Salzburg,  and 
in  1806  became  grand  duke  of 
Wurzburg.  He  was  restored  to 
his  Tuscan  throne  in  1814,  and 
by  his  liberal  government  saved 
his  people  from  the  misfortunes 
which  overtook  their  neighbours 
on  the  restoration  of  the  old 
monarchies.  He  died  June  18, 1824, 
succeeded  by  his  son  Leopold  II 

Fere-en-Tardenois.  Town  of 
France,  in  the  dept.  of  Aisne.  It  is 
on  the  river  Ourcq,  12  m.  N.N.E 
of  Chateau -Thierry,  and  was  pro- 
minent in  the  Great  War.  It 
was  the  British  G.H.Q.  during  the 
first  battle  of  the  Aisne.  The 
Germans  reached  it  on  May  30, 
1918,  in  their  thrust  for  Paris.  It 
was  recaptured  by  the  Allies  on 
July  28, 1918,  with  2,000  prisoners. 
See  Aisne,  Third  Battle  of  the 
Marne,  Second  Battle  of  the. 

Ferentino  (anc.  Ferentinum). 
City  of  Italy,  hi  the  prov.  of  Rome. 
It  stands  on  an  eminence,  at  an 
alt.  of  1,290  ft.,  48  m.  by  rly.  E.S.E. 
of  Rome.  It  has  extensive  remains 
of  the  fortifications  of  the  ancient 
city,  including  two  gateways.  It 
has  a  fine  cathedral  with  mosaic 
floors,  and  there  are  a  few  Gothic 
churches.  The  town  carries  on 
trade  in  oil  and  wine.  Pop.  12,928. 

Ferg,  FRANZ  DE  PAULA  (1689- 
1740).  Austrian  painter.  Born  at 
Vienna,  he  studied  under  his 
father,  Pancrazius  Ferg,  J.  Orient, 
and  Jean  GraS  ,  and  painted  land- 
scapes in  the  manner  of  Poelenberg 
and  genre  in  the  Flemish  style. 
After  some  years  at  the  court  at 
Dresden,  he  visited  Brunswick, 
and  then  London,  where,  after 
enjoying  some  years  of  affluence, 
he  died  in  poverty. 

Ferghana.  Prov.  in  Russian 
Turkistan,  W.  Asia,  between  Syr- 
daria  hi  the  N.  and  Semiryec- 
hensk  in  the  N.E.  Its  area  is 
55,483  sq.  m.  Much  of  the  land  is 
barren  and  hardly  fit  for  pasturage, 
but  is  rich  hi  minerals — coal,  lead, 
graphite,  and  petroleum.  The  silk 
industry  has  long  been  famous. 
The  chief  towns  are  Khokand,  Mar- 
ghilan,  and  Andijan.  Ferghana, 
once  part  of  the  ancient  Sogdiana, 
was  formed  from  the  old  khanate  of 
Khokand,  arvd  was  annexed  by 
Russia  in  1876.  Pop.  2,169,600. 


Fergus.  River  of  Ireland.  It 
rises  in  the  N.W.  of  co.  Clare  and 
flows  S.E.  for  25  m.  to  its  estuary 
at  Clare  village.  The  estuary,  about 
10  m.  long  and  4  m.  hi  extreme 
breadth,  is  dotted  with  green 
islands  and  contains  salmon. 

Ferguson,  ADAM  (1723-1816). 
Scottish  philosopher.  Born  at 
Logierait,  Perthshire,  June  20, 
1723,  he  was  educated  at  Perth 
and  the  university  of  St.  Andrews. 
He  became  an  army  chaplain,  and 
was  present  at  Fontenoy  and 
elsewhere  with  the  Black  Watch. 
He  was  then  a  private  tutor  until 
in  1759  he  was  chosen  professor  of 
natural  philosophy  at  Edinburgh. 
He  retained  his  post  there  until 
1785,  and  lived  until  Feb.  22,  1816. 
Ferguson  is  known  by  his  Essay  on 
the  History  of  Civil  Society,  and 
his  philosophy  elaborated  in  his 
Institutes  of  Moral  Philosophy, 
1772,  and  Principles  of  Moral  and 
Political  Science,  1792.  He  wrote 
also  a  History  of  the  Progress  and 
Termination  of  the  Roman  Re- 
public, 1783. 

Ferguson,  JAMES  '  (1710-76). 
Scottish  astronomer.  Born  April 
25.  1710.  near  Rothiemay,  Banff- 
shire,  he  at- 
tended Keith 
grammar 
school  for  a  few 
months.  At  10 
years  old  he 
became  a  farm 
hand,  and 
o  o  k  e  d  after 
sheep,  watch- 
ing the  stars 
at  night.  He 
returned  home 
broken  in  health,  but  his  ingenious 
construction  of  a  clock  attracted 
the  attention  of  Sir  James  Dunbar. 
who  took  him  into  his  own  house- 
hold. In  1734  he  went  to  Edinburgh, 
where  he  painted  miniatures.  In 
1743  he  removed  to  London,  and 
was  elected  a  F.R.S.  in  1763.  He 
became  a  popular  lecturer  on  experi- 
mental science,  but  was  specially 
noted  as  an  inventor  of  astronomi- 
cal and  other  instruments.  He 
died  in  London,  Nov.  16,  1776. 

Ferguson,  ROBERT  (c.  1637- 
1714).  Scottish  conspirator  and 
pamphleteer,  known  as  "  the 
Plotter."  Born  hi  Aberdeenshire, 
he  came  to  England  about  1655, 
and  was  appointed  to  the  living  of 
Godmersham,  Kent,  from  which 
he  was  ejected  in  1662  by  the  Act 
of  Uniformity.  He  took  part  hi  the 
various  plots  against  Charles  II, 
James  II,  and  William  III,  but  al- 
ways succeeded  hi  escaping  from 
justice.  His  writings  include  a  His- 
tory of  the  Revolution,  1706,  and 
Qualifi cations  requisite  in  a  Minister 
of  State,  1710. 


James  Ferguson, 
Scottish  astronomer 

From  a  print 


Ferguson,  SIR  SAMUEL  (1810- 
86).  Irish  poet  and  antiquary. 
Born  at  Belfast,  March  10,  1810, 
and  educated 
at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Dublin,  he 
was  called  to 
the  Irish  bar  hi 
1838.  Deputy 
keeper  of  the 
public  records 
of  Ireland  in 
1867,  he  was 
knighted  in 
1878.  He  died 
Aug.  9,  1886. 
His  poems,  for  the  most  part  me- 
trical versions  of  Irish  legends, 
comprise  Lays  of  the  Western  Gael, 
1865 ;  Congal,  an  epic  poem,  1872  ; 
and  a  second  volume  of  lays,  Poems, 
1880.  He  helped  to  prepare  the 
way  for  the  Gaelic  revival. 

Fergusson,  SIR  CHARLES  (b. 
1865).  British  soldier.  Born  in 
Edinburgh,  Jan.  17,  1865,  he  suc- 
ceeded to  his 
father's  baron- 
etcy in  1907. 
Educated  at 
Eton  and  Sand- 
hurst, he  joined 
the  Grenadier 
Guards,  1883, 
and  in  1896 
transferred  to 
the  Egyptian 
army.  He  saw 
service  in 
Egypt,  being  wounded  and  winning 
the  D.S.O.  He  returned  to  England 
to  take  command  of  the  3rd  Grena- 
diers in  1904.  From  1909-13  Fer- 
gusson was  inspector  of  inf  antry,  and 
in  1913  was  appointed  to  the  5th  di- 
vision, which  he  led  in  the  retreat 
from  Mons.  He  took  over  the  com 
mand  of  the  2nd  corps  in  1915,  and 
in  1917  was  at  the  head  of  the  17th. 
which  he  led  in  the  final  offensive 
of  1918.  He  was  military  governor 
of  Cologne  from  1918  to  Aug.,  1919. 
He  was  appointed  governor -general 
of  New  Zealand,  1924. 

Fergusson,  ROBERT  (1750-74). 
Scottish  poet.  Born  in  Edinburgh. 
Sept.  5,  1750,  he  studied  at  St.  An 
drews  University,  and  entered  the 
office  of  the  commissary  clerk  at 
Edinburgh.  In  1771  he  began  to 
contribute  poems,  mostly  hi  the 
Scottish  dialect,  for  Ruddiman's 
Weekly  Magazine,  and  these  ap- 
peared in  collected  form  in  1773. 
He  died  Oct.  16,  1774,  largely  as 
the  result  of  convivial  excesses.  His 
work  greatly  influenced  Robert 
Burns,  who  in  1789  composed  the 
epitaph  for  the  headstone  of  his 
grave  hi  Canongate  churchyard. 
See  Life,  A.  B.  Grosart,  1898.  . 

Feriae.  Sacred  festivals  or  holi- 
days of  ancient  Rome.  The  most 
important  were  the  Feriae  Latinae, 


SJrCharles  Fergusson. 
British  soldier 

Barnelt 


FERIAL 


3119 


FERMENTATION 


the  great  Latin  festival.  During  the 
holding  of  the  feriae  the  city  was  in 
charge  of  special  officials  and  no 
business  was  done.  See  Festival. 

Ferial  AND  Festal.  Terms  used 
in  music.  In  the  Christian  Church 
ferial  signifies  any  day  not  spe- 
cially observed  either  as  festal  or 
penitential,  and  the  music  is  of  a 
simpler  order  on  feriaj  than  on 
festal  days. 

Feringhi  (Pers.  farangi).  Cor- 
ruption of  Frank,  the  name  given 
by  Asiatics  to  a  European.  It  is 
now  generally  used  as  a  term  of 
contempt. 

Fermanagh.  Inland  county  of 
Ireland,  in  the  prov.  of  Ulster.  The 
irregular  surface  is  marked  by  nu- 
merous hills,  the  highest  of  which, 
wholly  within  the  county,  is  Bel- 
more  (1,312  ft.).  Lough  Erne  con- 
sists of  two  lakes,  the  Upper  and 
Lower.  Enniskillen  is  the  co.  town. 
Agriculture  is  engaged  in,  coal, 
iron,  and  building  stones  are  found, 
and  the  lakes  supply  salmon.  The 
G.N.I,  and  other  rlys.  serve  the 
county.  Two  members  are  re- 
turned to  Parliament.  Tumuli, 
raths,  castle  ruins,  and  a  round 
tower  are  among  the  antiquities. 
Area,  653  sq.  m.  Pop.  61,636. 

Fermat,  PIERRE  DE  (1601-65). 
French  mathematician.  Born  at 
Beaumont-de-Lomagne,  Aug.  17, 
1601,  he  early  showed  remarkable 
mathematical  ability,  especially 
with  regard  to  the  theory  of  num- 
bers, upon  which  he  has  left  his 
mark.  Most  of  his  work  was  not 
published  till  after  his  death,  and 
some  of  his  more  important  trea- 
tises have  been  lost.  He  died  at 
Toulouse,  Jan.  12,  1665. 

Fermentation  (Lat.  fervere,  to 
boil).  Result  of  the  action  of 
organic  substances  known  as  fer- 
ments. In  1680  the  Dutch  micro- 
scopist  Leuwenhoeck  showed  that 
yeast  consists  of  definite  globules, 
but  only  in  1836  was  it  settled  that 
yeast  cells  originated  fermentation. 
Latour  first  observed  that  the 
cells  were  living  organisms,  and 
his  "  vital  hypothesis,"  violently 
opposed  by  Liebig,  was  supported 
by  Pasteur,  who  in  1857  gave  it  as 
his  opinion  that  "  the  chemical 
action  of  fermentation  is  essentially 
a  correlative  phenomenon  of  a 
vital  act,  beginning  and  ending 
with  it.  I  think  that  there  is  never 
any  alcoholic  fermentation  without 
there  being  at  the  same  time 
organization,  development,  multi- 
plication of  globules,  or  the  con- 
tinued consecutive  life  of  globules 
already  formed."  In  fermentation 
the  amount  of  matter  consumed 
and  changed  into  other  compounds 
is  much  greater  than  the  size  and 
weight  of  the  consuming  organisms. 
Yeast  globules  decompose  many 


Fermanagh. 


Map  oi  the  Ulster  province  containing  Lough  Erne,   famous 
for  salmon  and  trout  fishing 


times  their  weight  of  sugar  and 
produce  a  relatively  large  quantity 
of  alcohol  and  carbon  dioxide.  Ex- 
perimental work  has  thoroughly 
determined  the  action  of  ferments, 
and  also  that  each  particular 
organism  has  its  special  products 
of  fermentation.  All  ferments  are 
nitrogenous  organic  substances 
whose  activity  is  destroyed  by 
high  temperatures. 

They  are  organized  and  un- 
organized, the  difference  being  that 
an  organized  ferment  is  one  which 
does  not  leave  the  living  cell  during 
the  progress  of  fermentation, 
whereas  the  unorganized  ferment 
is  shed  out  of  cells  and  then  exerts 
its  activity.  Unorganized  ferments 
are  known  as  enzymes  or  chemical 
ferments.  Organized  ferments, 
which  will  be  considered  first,  are 
divided  into  moulds  or  fungi, 
yeasts  or  saccharomycetes,  bacteria 
or  schizomycetes. 

Moulds  and  Yeasts 

Moulds  are  the  most  highly 
organized  of  the  ferments,  in  that 
cell-wall  and  protoplasmic  con- 
tents are  distinguishable  in  the 
microscopic  cells.  The  best  known 
moulds  are  Mycoderma  cerevisiae, 
which  causes  mould  in  beer  ;  Peni- 
cillium  glaucum,  the  green  mould 
that  forms  on  bread,  jam,  etc.  ; 
Aspergillus  glaucus,  a  similar 
fungus ;  Micrococcus  prodigiosus, 
which  causes  red  bread ;  Puccinla 
graminis,  the  "  rust "  or  mildew 
of  wheat ;  Ustilago  segetum,  the 
"  smut "  of  cereal  crops ;  and 
Oidium  abortifaciens,  which  causes 
ergot  on  rye. 

Yeasts,  also  called  saccharomy- 


cetes because  they  live  mostly  in 
saccharine  solutions,  converting 
sugar  into  alcohol,  form  a  group  of 
micro-organisms  of  the  greatest 
importance  in  fermentation.  Yeast 
cells  are  round  or  oval  hi  shape, 
and  multiply  by  the  process  known 
as  gemmation  or  budding,  which 
goes  on  indefinitely  under  proper 
conditions.  In  other  cases  they 
form  spores  or  new  cells  liberated  by 
the  dissolution  of  the  mother  cell. 

Although  the  cells  can  use  oxygen, 
they  appear  to  be  independent  of 
an  environment  of  free  oxygen. 
Time,  strength  of  saccharine  solu- 
tion, and  temperature  also  in- 
fluence the  process  of  fermentation. 
The  alcohol  formed  retards  the 
growth  of  the  yeast  cell,  which 
ceases  action  when  14  p.c.  of 
alcohol  is  formed. 

Alcoholic  or  vinous  fermentation 
is  the  characteristic  function  of 
yeasts.  Ethylic  alcohol  (ordinary 
alcohol)  is  formed  when  sugar  is 
fermented.  The  higher  alcohols, 
propyl,  butyl,  amyl,  and  capryl 
alcohols,  are  also  produced  under 
suitable  conditions.  Fernbach  has 
recently  discovered  means  of  in- 
creasing the  proportion  of  amylic 
alcohol  produced  during  fermenta- 
tion. From  this  alcohol  artificial 
rubber  is  made  by  the  Matthews 
process.  Various  forms  of  starch 
are  used  as  the  source  of  sugar, 
which  is  formed  by  the  action  of 
diastase  in  the  process  of  brewing. 
Only  the  glucoses  are  capable  of 
direct  fermentation. 

The  chief  yeasts  are:  (1)  Sac- 
charomyces  cerevisiae,  the  ordinary 
yeast  of  the  brewer  and  distiller. 


Two  kinds  are  recognized,  "high" 
and  "  low  "  yeast,  the  former  rising 
to  the  top  of  the  liquid  during 
fermentation  and  the  latter  form- 
ing a  sediment  in  the  vats.  High 
yeast  is  the  one  used  in  English  ale 
fermentation,  low  yeast  producing 
the  lighter  lager  beer. 

(2)  Saccharomyces  ellipsoideus  is 
the  ordinary  ferment  of  vinous 
fermentation  by  which  "  must  " 
or  grape  juice  is  converted  into 
wine.  (3)  Saccharomyces  pastorianus 
also  occurs  in  wine-making,  and 
when  present  during  brewing  gives 
a  bitter  taste  to  the  beer. 

(4)  Saccharomyces  mycoderma  is 
the  cause  of  "  mother  "  which  ap- 
pears on  the  surface  of  wine  or  beer 
after  exposure  for  some  days  to 
the  air. 

Hansen,  the  Danish  brewing 
chemist,  has  isolated  and  culti- 
vated two  pure  yeasts,  species  of 
Saccharomyces  cerevisiae,  by  using 
which  it  is  possible  to  obtain  beers 
of  distinctive  properties. 

ACETIC  FERMENTATION.  It  has 
long  been  Jjiown  that  when  wine 
is  exposed  to  the  air  it  sours — turns 
into  vinegar — and  the  manufacture 
of  vinegar  wort  is  an  old-established 
art.  It  is  essentially  an  oxidation 
process,  and  Pasteur  first  detected 
the  organism,  "  flowers  of  vinegar," 
Bacillus  aceti,  which  effects  the 
change.  Hansen  has  detected  two 
distinct -species  with  the  same 
properties.  Both  require  oxygen 
for  their  growth,  which  is  most 
favoured  by  a  temperature  of  33°  C. 

Lactic  fermentation  produces 
sour  milk.  The  milk  sugar  is  first 
split  up  into  lacto-glucose  and  then 
into  lactic  acid  by  the  agency  of 
Bacillus  acidi  lactici.  A  special 
bacillus,  named  Bacillus  Caucasi- 
cum,  was  found  by  Mechnikoff  to 
be  present  in  the  soured  milk 
employed  as  a  beverage  under  the 
name  "  yoghourt." 

Viscous  fermentation,  due  to 
Pediococcus  cerevisiae,  is  the  cause 
of  "  ropiness  "  in  brewing,  and  a 
similar  condition  in  bread-making. 

Nitrification  in  Agriculture 

Nitrification  or  the  oxidation  of 
ammonia  into  nitrous  and  nitric 
acids  takes  place  through  the 
agency  of  bacteria.  Warington's 
investigations  at  Rothamsted  have 
shown  the  importance  of  nitri- 
fication hi  agriculture.  Recently 
special  preparations  of  nitrification 
bacteria  have  been  employed  com- 
mercially in  promoting  the  growth 
of  leguminous  plants. 

Enzymes  or  soluble  ferments 
may  be  defined  as  substances  pro- 
duced by  living  plants  or  animals, 
and  capable  of  acting  catalytically 
on  contiguous  compounds.  They 
are  thus  classified  : 


31  20 

Amylolytic,  which  convert  starch 
paste  into  soluble  starch  and 
soluble  starch  into  maltose  and 
dextrose.  To  this  class  belong 
diastase,  derived  from  malt ;  ptya- 
lin,  from  saliva  ;  and  amylopsin, 
from  pancreatic  juice.  Cellulolytic, 
represented  by  cytase ;  this  is  de- 
rived from  green  malt,  which  dis- 
solves the  cellulose  walls  of  grain. 
Coagulative,  such  as  fibrin-ferment 
from  blood,  myosin-ferment  from 
muscle,  and  rennet  from  gastric 
juice,  which  coagulate  protein  mat- 
ter. Emulsive,  which  convert 
glucosides  into  glucose  and  other 
compounds.  Examples  are  ermil- 
sin,  obtained  from  almonds,  and 
myrosin,  from  mustard  Inver- 
sive,  such  as  invertase  from  yeast 
and  invertin  from  intestinal  juice, 
which  convert  sucrose  into  glucose, 
and  maltase  from  yeast,  which 
changes  maltose  into  glucose. 
Enzymes  in  Industry 

Proteolytic  enzymes  convert 
proteins  into  peptones.  Examples 
are  pepsin  from  gastric -juice, 
trypsin  from  pancreatic  juice  and 
papain  from  Carica  papaya.  Steato- 
lytic  enzymes,  of  which  steapsin 
of  the  pancreatic -juice  is  an  ex- 
ample, separate  fats  into  fatty 
acids  and  glycerin.  Zymase  ob- 
tained from  yeast  converts  sugar 
into  alcohol  and  carbon  dioxide. 

Enzymes  play  a  considerable 
part  in  several  important  indus- 
tries, such  as  brewing  and  leather 
making.  In  the  preparation  of 
rubber,  the  drying  of  tea,  and  the 
curing  of  tobacco  the  proper  treat- 
ment of  the  vegetable  enzymes 
contained  in  these  substances  de- 
termines the  quality  of  the  pro- 
ducts. In  drying  drugs  the 
activity  often  depends  upon  the 
prompt  killing  by  heat  of  the 
enzymes  in  the  plants.  Special 
processes  have  been  evolved  in 
which  the  vapour  of  boiling  alcohol 
is  employed  for  this  purpose. 

Putrefaction  is  the  process  of 
fermentation  of  nitrogenous  or- 
ganic matter,  especially  albu- 
minoids, accompanied  by  the  pro- 
duction of  evil -smelling  gases. 
The  process  is  due  to  micro- 
organisms, the  decomposing  sub- 
stances yielding,  among  other 
organic  bases,  methylamine,  tri- 
methylamine,  and  the  important 
bodies  known  as  ptomaines.  Many 
of  the  ptomaines  are  very  poison- 
ous. They  are  produced  readily  in 
decaying  meat  and  fish,  and  when 
introduced  into  the  human  body 
give  rise  to  very  serious  blood 
poisoning.  See  Brewing;  Distilling: 
Liebig  ;  Pasteur  ;  Sterilization. 

Fermo  (anc.  Firmum  Pice- 
num).  City  of  Italy,  in  the  prov. 
of  Aucoli  Piceno.  It  stands  on  an 
eminence,  rather  more  than  1,000 


FERN 

ft.  high,  4  m.  from  the  Adriatic  and 
36  m.  by  rly.  S.E.  of  Ancona.  En- 
closed by  battlemented  walls,  it 
contains  a  13th  century  cathedral, 
a  town  hall  and  library,  besides 
remains  of  Roman  buildings. 
Porto  San  Giorgio,  its  port,  ex- 
ports grain,  wool,  and  silk. 
Fermo  was  founded  by  the 
Romans  in  264  B.C.,  and  was  a  free 
city  from  1199  to  1550,  when  it  fell 
to  the  papacy.  Pop.  7,000. 

Fermoy.  Urban  dist.  and  mar- 
ket town  of  co.  Cork,  Ireland.  It 
stands  on  the  Blackwater,  15  m. 
E.  of  Mallow,  on  the  G.S.  &  W.R. 


Mir 


Fermoy,  Ireland,  the  Roman  Catholic 
church  of  S.  Patrick 

Its  importance  is  chiefly  due  to 
the  efforts  of  John  Anderson,  a 
Cork  merchant,  who  began  to  build 
here  in  1791,  and  later  gave  a  site 
for  the  erection  of  military  barracks 
and  founded  Fermoy  college.  The 
town  contains  a  Roman  Catholic 
cathedral  and  S.  Colman's  Roman 
Catholic  college.  Salmon  and  trout 
fishing  is  engaged  in,  and  a  trade  in 
corn  carried  on.  There  is  a  race- 
course in  the  vicinity.  Fermoy  was 
the  scene  of  rioting  on  June  28-29, 
1920,  when  the  military  wrecked 
a  number  of  buildings  as  reprisal 
for  the  capture  of  General  Lucas. 
Market  day,  Sat.  Pop.  6,863. 

Fern  (Pteridophyta).  Most  high- 
ly organized  division  of  the  flower- 
less  plants  (Cryptogamia ),  which  are 
characterised  in  the  main  by  being 
built  solely  of  cells.  Pteridophytes 
alone  of  the  cryptogams  possess 
vessels.  They  are  mostly  perennial 
herbs,  only  a  few  being  annuals.  A 
few  others  have  shrubby  roots  or 
woody  trunks,  e.g.  the  tree-ferns. 
Besides  the  ferns  proper,  the  pteri- 
dophytes  include  the  horsetails  and 
?lub-mosses,  all  agreeing  generally 
in  their  mode  of  reproduction.  This 
is  known  as  the  Alternation  of 
Generations.  As  it  has  been  tersely 
put  by  a  modern  writer  :  "  Of  four 
successive  generations  of  fern-life, 


i.  Royal  fern,  Osmunda  regalis.  2.  Hart's- tongue, 
Phyllitis  scolopendrium.  3.  Sea  spleenwort,  Asple- 
nium  marinum.  4.  Hard  fern,  Blechnum  spicant. 
5.  Maidenhair  spleenwort,  Asplenium  trichomanes. 


6.  Common  polypody,  Polypodium  vulgare.  7.  Lady 
fern,  Athyrium  fUix-foemina.  8.  Male  fern,  Lastrea 
filix-mas.  9.  Prickly  shield  fern,  Polystichum 
aculeatum 


FERN:     SPECIES   FOUND   IN   THE   BRITISH   COUNTRYSIDE 


IE     4 


FERNANDEZ 


3122 


FERNDALE 


generations  1  and  3,  though  agree- 
ing each  with  the  other,  will  differ 
widely  from  generations  2  and  4, 
though  they  are  all  in  the  direct 
line  of  descent  one  from  another.". 

The  furry,  red-brown  patcheL 
on  the  back  of  the  fern-leaves  con- 
sist of  thousands  of  minute  cap- 
sules (sporangia),  each  containing 
about  64  microscopic  spores.  Each 
spore  under  suitable  conditions 
develops,  not  into  a  fern  like  that 
by  which  it  was  produced,  but 
into  a  tiny  heart-shaped  green 
scale  (prothallium),  which  bears 
on  its  under  surface  two  kinds  of 
sexual  organs — the  counterpart 
of  the  anthers  and  ovaries  of 
flowering  plants.  The  male  organs 
(antherids)  contain  motile  bodies 
termed  antherozoids,  which  find 
their  way  to  the  female  organs 
(archegones)  and  fertilise  them. 
The  result  is  the  production  of  an 
embryo  from  which  in  due  course 
arises  a  leafy  fern-plant  like  that 
which  produced  the  spore.  This 
leaf-bearing  form  is  known  as 
the  sporophyte  generation,  and 
did  prothallium  as  the  oophyte 
generation. 

From  the  gardener's  point  of 
view  hardy  ferns  are  valuable  to 
fill  moist,  shady  places  for  which 
the  choice  of  flowering  plants  is 
limited,  but  the  use  of  exotic  ferns 
except  as  specimens,  or  in  elabo- 
rate winter  gardens,  has  fallen  into 
disuse,  since  some  consider  that 
the  space  they  occupy  can  be  em- 
ployed to  greater  advantage  by 
flowering  plants.  This,  however, 
is  purely  a  matter  of  taste  ;  the 
beauty  of  the  fern  is  lasting,  that 
of  the  flower  ephemeral. 

Hardy  ferns  are  not  particular  as 
to  soil,  though  to  obtain  the  best 
results  a  mixture  which  contains 
a  considerable  percentage  of  well- 
decayed  leaf-mould  or  peat  is  de- 
sirable, or,  failing  this,  some  old 
stable  manure  should  be  mixed  with 
the  loam  when  making  up  the  bed. 
The  situation  is  more  important ; 
the  north  side  of  a  wall  or  hedge, 
where  less  hardy  things  are  difficult 
to  grow,  will  suit  ferns  admirably. 
It  is  well  not  to  plant  them  too 
near  ivy,  however,  as  this  climber 
is  so  greedy  a  feeder  that  it 
speedily  takes  all  the  nourish- 
ment away  from  the  ferns,  espe- 
cially if  they  are  of  choice  kinds. 
The  ordinary  brake  fern,  or 
bracken,  will  grow  anywhere,  but 
except  for  very  smoky  and  shady 
town  gardens,  its  employment  in 
any  quantity  is  not  recommended 
as  it  is  a  greedy  feeder. 

Exotic  ferns  should  be  taken  in 
hand  in  early  spring,  when  the  new 
growth  starts.  They  will  thrive  in 
any  ordinary  potting  mixture,  one 
which  contains  a  liberal  admixture 


of  silver  sand  for 
preference,  and 
they  may  be  shifted 
into  larger  pots 
when  necessary,  at 
any  time  of  the 
year  except  the 
winter.  Ferns  are 
most  easily  in- 
creased from 
spores,  which  are 
found  upon  the 
undersides  of  the 
leaves.  When  these 
are  ripe  the  most 
fruitful  leaf  or 
leaves  should  be 
severed  from  the 
parent  fern,  and  stored  away  in  a 
box  or  piece  of  paper  for  a  few  days, 
and  kept  dry  until  the  spore  cases 
burst.  The  spores  should  then  be 
lightly  sown  upon  the  surface  of  a 
box  of  finely  sifted  potting  soil, 
and  kept  moist.  Tiny  ferns  will  ap- 
pear in  the  course  of  a  few  weeks, 
and  these  should  be  very  care- 
fully potted  into  thumb-pots  when 
large  enough  to  handle,  and  after- 
wards repotted  as  desired.  When 
ferns  such  as  the  maidenhair, 
ribbon-fern,  or  any  of  the  native 
species  have  been  grown  in  the 
greenhouse,  it  will  be  found  that 
the  top-soil  of  the  pots  is  already 
sown  with  their  spores.  If  this  is 
removed  to  a  shallow  pan  and 
covered  with  glass,  it  will  soon  be 
covered  with  prothallia.  Observa- 
tion of  the  evolution  of  the  adult 
fern  from  this  beginning  is  a  valu- 
able lesson  in  botany. 

Gold  and  silver  ferns  are  popu- 
lar names  given  to  several  species 
to  denote  their  appearance.  It 
is  due  to  the  under  surface  of 
the  leaves  being  coated  with  fine 
particles  of  white  or  yellow  wax, 
which  looks  silvery  or  golden.  Chei- 
lanthes  argentea,  an  Asiatic  species, 
is  an  example  of  a  silver  fern. 
Others  of  the  same  genus  are  C. 
clevelandi  (N.  America),  C.  eatoni 
(W.  United  States),  and  G.  fari- 
nosa  (Tropics).  The  genus  Gymno- 
gramma  also  affords  examples  of 
silver  ferns  hi  G.  chrysophylla  (Tro- 
pics), 0.  decomposita  (S.  America), 
and  G.  sulphur ea  (W.  Indies). 

Bibliography.  Structure  and  De- 
velopment of  Mosses  and  Ferns, 
D.  H.  Campbell,  1895;  Book  of 
British  Ferns  (with  special  reference 
to  the  raising  of  fancy  varieties), 
C.  T.  Druery ;  Wayside  and  Wood- 
land Ferns,  with  Figures  of  all  the 
British  Species,  E.  Step,  1908. 

Fernandez,  JUAN  (c.  1536- 
1602).  Spanish  navigator.  A  native 
of  Cartagena,  Fernandez  spent  his 
life  as  a  pilot  on  the  Pacific  coast. 
In  1571  he  discovered  the  island 
now  called  by  his  name,  on  which 
he  vainly  tried  to  settle  some 
Indians.  His  skill  as  a  sailor  won 


Ferney.     The  chateau  built  by  Voltaire  in  175 
his  home  for  twenty  years 


him  the  nickname  of  the  wizard, 
and  also  brought  him  under  the 
notice  of  the  Inquisition. 

Fernando  de  Noronha.  Island 
in  the  Atlantic,  belonging  to 
Brazil.  It  is  about  200  m.  E.N.E. 
of  Cape  St.  Roque,  8  m.  long  by 
1£  m.  wide,  is  of  volcanic  origin, 
reaching  an  elevation  of  1,100  ft., 
and  has  several  good  harbours 
protected  by  forts.  The  surface 
is  rugged,  but  fertile,  producing 
cereals,  cotton,  and  fruit.  AtReme- 
dios  (pop.  2,100)  is  a  convict  set- 
tlement, with  a  cable  and  wireless 
telegraph  station.  The  island  was 
discovered  by  a  Portuguese  navi- 
gator, whose  name  it  bears. 

Fernando  Po.  Island  in  the 
Bight  of  Biaf  ra,  belonging  to  Spam. 
The  key  to  this  portion  of  the 
African  coast,  it  is  mountainous, 
fertile,  and  beautiful.  Of  volcanic 
origin,  it  is  35  m.  long  and  22  m. 
broad.  Densely  forested  in  the  N. 
and  covered  in  most  parts  with 
luxuriant  vegetation,  it  yields 
sugar-cane,  bananas,  and  yams, 
while  cotton,  coffee,  rice,  tobacco, 
and  cinchona  are  cultivated.  The 
highest  mt.,  Clarence  Peak,  10,190 
ft.,  is  called  by  the  Spaniards  Pico 
Santa  Isabel.  The  island  is  in- 
habited by  a  Bantu  tribe,  the 
Bubis,  and  a  few  negroes. 

Santa  Isabel,  the  chief  town,  is 
the  administrative  capital  of  the 
Spanish  possessions  in  the  Bight  of 
Biafra.  Rubber  and  palm  oil  are 
exported.  The  climate  is  con- 
sidered unhealthy.  The  island  is 
named  after  its  Portuguese  dis- 
coverer, Fernao  do  Po,  who 
sighted  the  island  in  1471,  and 
it  was  ceded  to  Spain  in  1778. 
Area,  1,185  sq.  m.  Pop.  about 
19,000,  of  whom  some  500  are  Euro- 
peans. See  From  the  Congo  to  the 
Niger  and  the  Nile,  Adolphus,  duke 
of  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  1913.  .  > 

Ferndale.  Eccles.  district  and 
village  of  Glamorganshire,  Wales, 
It  is  6  m.  N.W.  of  Pontypridd,  on 
the  Taff  Vale  Rly.  There  are  ex- 
tensive collieries  in  the  neighbour- 
hood. Pop.  18,144. 


FERNEY 


3  1  23 


FERRARA 


Ferney  OB  FEBNEY-VOLTAIRE. 
Village  of  France,  in  the  dept.  of 
Ain.  It  stands  near  the  Swiss  fron- 
tier, 4  m.  N.W.  of  Geneva.  The 
chateau  de  Ferney  was  built  by 
Voltaire,  who  lived  in  it  from  1758 
to  1778 ;  it  contains  numerous  me- 
morials and  personal  relics  of  the 
philosopher,  who  in  1768  founded 
a  watch  factory,  which  at  one  time 
employed  800  hands.  In  the  town- 
hall  is  a  statue  to  Voltaire  (q.v.), 
and  his  name  was  officially  added 
to  the  town  in  1878.  Pop.  1,172. 

Fern  Palm  (Gycas  revolula). 
Tree-like  perennial  of  the  natural 
order  Cycadaceae.  A  native  of 
China,  it  has  a  stout  stem,  in  old 
individuals  as  much  as  7  ft.  high, 
crowned  by  the  arching,  palm -like 
leaves.  These  are  cut  into  narrow 
segments  in  a  feather-like  manner, 
and  vary  in  length  from  2  ft.  to  6 
ft.  The  reproductive  organs  are 
found  in  the  heart  of  the  leaf -crown: 
the  males  in  cones,  whose  scales 
bear  anthers  on  their  under  sur- 
face ;  the  females  bearing  ovules 
in  the  marginal  notches  of  woolly, 
leaf-like  organs. 

Ferns.  Town  of  Ireland,  in  co. 
Wexford.  It  stands  on  the  Bann, 
74  m.  S.  of  Dublin  by  the  Dublin 
and  S.E.  Rly.  Its  interest  is  wholly 
historical.  It  was  long  the  seat  of 
a  bishop,  and  has  a  modern  church, 
formerly  ths  cathedral.  Other 
buildings  of  interest  are  the  epis- 
copal palace,  the  ruins  of  the  castle, 
of  a  church,  and  a  monastery. 
The  town  grew  up  around  a  mon- 
astery founded  by  S.  Edan  about 
600.  The  kings  of  Leinster  had  a 
palace  here,  and  here  the  Norman 
invaders  built  a  castle.  The  diocese 
was  united  with  Ossory  in  1836. 
James  I  made  it  a  chartered  town, 
and  until  1800  it  sent  two  members 
to  the  Irish  Parliament. 

Ferozepore.  District  and  town 
of  the  Punjab,  India.  The  area  of 
the  district  is  4,286  sq.  m.  There 
are  no  important  manufactures ; 
the  chief  crops  are  wheat,  gram, 
barley,  and  millet.  Half  the  culti- 
vated area  is  irrigated.  Ferozepore 
town  is  situated  at  the  junction  of 
the  Rajputana  and  North -Western 
Rlys.,  some  4  m.  from  the  Sutlej. 
It  is  the  site  of  a  large  canton- 
ment, and  has  an  arsenal ;  it  is  also 
the  centre  of  a  considerable  grain 
trade.  Pop.  dist.,  959,657,  25  p.c. 
Hindus,  25  p.c.  Sikhs,  50  p.c.  Ma- 
homedans;  town,  50,836,  42  p.c. 
Hindus,  47  p.c.  Mahomedans.  The 
Jats  are  the  chief  tribe. 

Ferozeshah,  BATTLE  OF'.  British 
victory  in  the  first  Sikh  war.  On 
Dec.  21,  1845,  Sir  Hugh  Gough, 
who  had  just  won  the  victory  of 
Moodka,  advanced  against  the 
Sikhs,  and  after  a  violent  cannon- 


ade attacked  with  his  infantry. 
The  first  British  attack  was  re- 
pulsed with  heavy  loss.  In  the 
second  effort  the  Sikhs  were  routed, 
losing  73  guns.  See  Sikh  Wars. 

Ferragus,  FERBACUTE,  FEB- 
BAUTE,  OB  VEBNAGU.  Giant  of  early 
French  romances.  In  the  Charle- 
magne legends  he  overcomes  all 
that  monarch's  paladins  except 
Roland,  by  whom  he  is  slain.  In 
Ariosto's  Orlando  Furioso  he  is 
a  Saracen  who  threw  away  his 
helmet,  declaring  that  he  would 
never  wear  another  until  he  had 
won  that  of  Orlando,  by  whom  he 
was  killed. 

Ferranti  Meter.  Type  of  elec- 
trical meter  invented  by  S.  Z. 
Ferranti.  in  1883.  It  consists  of  an 


Ferranti  Meter.  Froi 
used  for  measuring  electric  currents 

electro -magnet  containing  mer 
cury  in  the  shape  of  a  thin  disk. 
The  rotation  of  this  disk  serves 
as  a  measure  of  the  strength  of 
the  current  passing  through  the 
meter.  See  Meter,  Electrical. 

Ferrar,  NICHO- 
LAS (1592-1637). 
English  theologian 
and  founder  of  the 
Little  Gidd ing 
community.  Son  of 
a  London  mer- 
chant, he  was  edu- 
cated at  Clare 
Hall,  Cambridge, 
and  worked  for  the 
Virginia  Company, 
1619-23.  He  was 
elected  to  Parlia- 
ment in  1624,  but 
in  1625  retired, 
with  his  mother 
and  brother-in-law. 
Collet,  and  their 
families,  to  the 


manor  of  Little  Gidding,  Hunting- 
donshire, to  a  secluded  life  of 
devotion,  study,  and  good  works. 
In  1626  he  was  ordained  deacon 
by  Laud.  He  died  Dec.  4,  1637. 

The  members  of  Little  Gidding 
household  were  famed  for  their 
skill  in  embroidery,  bookbinding, 
and  "  scrap  book "  making,  and 
examples  survive  in  the  British 
Museum  and  elsewhere  of  cun- 
ningly constructed  "  harmonies," 
or  "  concordances  "  of  the  Bible, 
illustrated  with  prints  collected  by 
Ferrar  on  his  travels.  The  "  Ar- 
minian  Nunnery,"  as  it  was  called, 
was  twice  visited  by  Charles  I,  and 
was  broken  up  by  the  Puritans 
in  1647  ;  it  figures  in  J.  H.  Short- 
house's  philosophical  romance 
John  Inglesant,  and  in  Izaak 
Walton's  Life  of  George  Herbert. 

Ferrar,  ROBEBT  (1500-55). 
English  divine  and  martyr.  He 
studied  at  Oxford,  was  or- 
dained, and  later  was  head  of  a 
religious  house  in  Yorkshire,  but 
only  became  prominent  on  the 
accession  of  Edward  VI.  Owing  to 
the  influence  of  Somerset  he  was 
made  bishop  of  St.  Davids.  He 
was  a  zealous  reformer,  but 
charges  were  brought  against  him, 
and,  Somerset  having  fallen  from 
power,  he  was  imprisoned  in 
1552.  In  1554  his  bishopric  was 
taken  from  him,  and  he  was  put  on 
his  trial.  Found  guilty,  he  was 
burned  at  Carmarthen,  March  30, 
1555.  The  chief  charge  against 
him  was  that  he  had  violated  his 
vow  of  chastity  by  marrying. 

Ferrara.  Prov.  of  N.E.  Italy. 
It  is  bounded  N.  by  the  river  Po 
and  E.  by  the  Adriatic  Sea.  Area, 
1,019  sq.  m.  Low-lying  and  marshy 
in  parts,  it  lies  mostly  within  the 
delta  formed  by  the  Po  and  its 
branches  and  by  the  Primaro  and 
the  Panaro,  and  embraces  the 
lagoons  of  Comacchio  (q.v.).  Fairly 
fertile,  it  produces  rice,  grain,  wine, 
hemp,  silk,  salt,  and  fish.  The 
capital  is  Ferrara.  Pop.  326,447. 


Ferrara.     Facade  o!  the  cathedral  ol  S.  George,  in  the 
city  ot  Ferrara,  the  lower  part  dating  from  1135 


FERRARA 

Ferrara.  City  of  Italy,  capital 
of  the  prov.  of  Ferrara.  'it  stands 
about  3  m.  S.  of  the  river  Po  di 
Volano,  30,  m.  by  rly.  N.N.E.  of 
Bologna.  A.n  archiepiscopal  see, 
its  cathedral  dates  from  the  early 
12th  century.  The  city  is  sur- 
rounded by  crumbling  walls,  but  its 
palaces  and  other  structures  attest 
its  former  splendour.  It  was  the 
seat  of  the  court  of  the  family  of 
Este  (q.v.),  and  their  castle  (now 
utilised  as  public  offices)  was  a 
moated  fortress  with  four  towers. 
The  university  was  founded  in 
1264,  and  its  library  is  rich  in  MSS. 
of  Tasso,  etc.  Among  other  build- 
ings of  interest  are  a  picture 
gallery,  and  the  houses  of  Ariosto 
and  Guarini. 

From  the  14th  to  the  17th  cen- 
tury Ferrara  was  a  prosperous  city, 
and  in  the  15th  was  noted  for  its 
school  of  painting.  It  has  a  trade 
in  hemp,  soap,  wax,  candles,  glass, 
and  silk.  Guarini  and  Savonarola 
were  natives.  It  came  into  the 
possession  of  the  Este  family  in 
1146,  and  was  their  capital  until 
1598,  when  it  passed  to  the  papacv. 
Pop.  102,550. 

Ferrara,  ANDREA,  Italian  sword  - 
maker  of  the  16th  century.  He  was 
working  in  Belluno  in  1585,  and 
swords  bearing  his  name  were  used 
in  Scotland  in  the  16th  and  17th 
centuries.  The  steel  had  a  temper 
which  was  claimed  to  be  that 
invented  by  the  swordsmiths  of 
Damascus.  The  name  Andrea 
Ferrara  was  afterwards  employed 
rather  as  a  trademark  than  as 
implying  any  connexion  with  the 
original  maker. 

Ferrara- Florence,  COUNCIL  OF. 
Oecumenical  council  of  the  Church 
held  at  Ferrara,  and  later  at 
Florence,  between  April,  1438,  and 
July,  1439.  It  was  called  by  Pope 
Eugenius  IV  as  a  continuation  of 
the  council  of  Basel,  and  had  as  its 
main  object  the  healing  of  the 
breach  between  the  Roman  and 
Greek  churches.  The  Latin  em- 
peror, John  Palaeologus,  represent- 
ing the  Greeks,  brought  a  large  dele- 
gation at  the  pope's  invitation  to 
Ferrara.  The  scene  of  the  council 
was  changed  to  Florence  in  Jan., 
1439.  The  debates  turned  chiefly 
on  the  Filioque  controversy,  i.e. 
the  question  whether  the  Holy 
Ghost  proceeds  from  the  Father 
and  Son  (ex  Patre  Filioque),  or 
from  the  Father  alone.  On  July  6 
a  decree  was  published  which 
declared  that,  '  while  the  pope 
was  the  supreme  head  of  all  the 
Church,  the  rights  of  the  Eastern 
patriarchs  were  to  be  unaffected. 

The  two  churches  were  thus 
momentarily  united  in  intention, 
but  not  in  effect.  Isidore  of  Kiev 
was  sent  as  legate  to  Constanti- 


3124 

nople  by  Pope  Nicholas  V  in  1452, 
in  order  to  push  the  process  of 
union  forward,  but  before  he  had 
accomplished  his  mission  the  city 
was  taken  by  the  Saracens,  1453. 
This  undid  the  work  of  the  council, 
the  last  effort  at  Eastern  and 
Western  reunion. 

Ferrel,  WILLIAM  (1817-91). 
American  meteorologist.  Born  in 
Bedford  co.,  Pa.,  he  early  turned  his 
attention  to  the  study  of  meteor- 
ology, then  a  neglected  science, 
and  his  researches  soon  won  him 
world-wide  fame.  In  1867  he 
became  a  member  of  the  United 
States  coast  and  geodetic  survey, 
and  began  to  formulate  the  laws 
of  meteorology  on  a  scientific  basis. 
His  invention  of  a  tide -predicting 
machine  came  into  general  use  in 
the  U.S.  government  coast  sur- 
veys, He  wrote  much  on  his  sub- 
ject, including  Tidal  Researches, 
1874 ;  Meteorological  Researches, 
1877-82  ;  and  Popular  Treatise  on 
the  Winds,  2nd  ed.  1898. 

Ferrel's  Law.  Law  of  the 
deflection  of  bodies  moving  in  the 
air  of  the  rotating  globe.  If  a 
body  moves  in  any  direction 
except  E.  or  W.  on  the  earth's 
surface,  the  rotation  of  the  earth 
will  cause  it  to  be  deflected  to  the 
right  in  the  northern  hemisphere, 
and  to  the  left  in  the  southern 
hemisphere.  The  law  is  an  example 
of  the  general  case  in  mechanics 
when  a  body  acted  upon  by  two 
forces  moves  in  a  direction  com- 
pounded of  the  original  directions 
of  the  forces.  In  the  northern 
hemisphere  a  body  forced  north- 
wards receives  an  eastward  im- 
pulse from  the  earth's  rotation, 
and  moves  towards  the  north-east. 
Ferrer,  FRANCISCO  (1859-1909). 
Spanish  revolutionist.  Born  near 
Barcelona,  he  was  employed  as  a 
rail  wayman, 
1877-85,  de- 
voting atten- 
tion to  the 
study  of 
socialism  and 
ratio  n  a  1  i  s  m. 
He  was  closely 
asso  c  ia ted 
with  the 
Francisco  Ferrer,  activities  of 
Spanish  revomiioni,,  g"™lilaS 
agitator  Zorrilla,  with  whom  he 
lived  in  Paris.  He  returned  to 
Barcelona  in  1901,  and  was 
prominent  in  founding  lay 
schools  and  centres  of  advanced 
socialist  and  rationalist  teaching. 
In  June,  1907,  he  was  acquitted  of 
having  taken  part  in  the  attempt 
to  assassinate  the  king  in  1906.  In 
July,  1909,  he  was  active  in  the 
insurrections  in  Barcelona,  aiming 
at  the  establishment  of  a  new  anti- 
Catholic  state  in  Catalonia.  Con- 


FERRERS 

demned  as  the  prime  instigator,  he 
was  shot  on  Oct.  13,  1909,  his 
execution  raising  much  indigna- 
tion, directed  mainly  against 
Roman  Catholic  influence  in 
Spanish  politics,  and  leading  to 
the  fall  of  the  Maura  cabinet. 

Ferrers,  EARL.  British  title 
borne  since  1711  by  the  family  of 
Shirley.  The  family  of  Ferrers, 
ancestors  of  the  Shirleys,  first 
appeared  in  England  with  William 
the  Conqueror,  having  previously 
been  powerful  in  Normandy. 
Henry  Ferrers  was  a  great  land- 
holder under  the  Conqueror,  especi- 
ally in  the  North  Midland  counties, 
and  his  son  Robert  was  made  earl 
of  Derby  in  1138.  His  successor?, 
who  had  Tutbury  Castle  for  their 
main  stronghold,  were  known  as 
earls  Ferrers  or  earls  of  Derby. 
William,  the  4th  earl,  was  one  of 
the  richest  and  most  powerful 
nobles  of  the  time  of  Henry  III,  as 
was  his  son,  the  5th  earl.  Robert, 
the  6th  earl,  having  rebelled  against 
the  king,  lost  his  lands  and  title. 

The  family,  however,  survived 
in  several  branches.  Robert's  son, 
John,  was  summoned  to  Parlia- 
ment in  1299  as  Baron  Ferrers  of 
Chastley,  this  being  one  of  the 
family  seats.  This  title  passed  to 
the  family  of  Devereux  in  1461 
and  remained  therein  until  1646, 
when  it  fell  into  abeyance. 

The  Shirleys  became  connected 
with  the  title  through  the  marriage 
of  Sir  Henry  Shirley,  Bart.,  with 
the  daughter  of  Robert  Devereux, 
2nd  earl  of  Essex.  In  1677  Sir 
Robert  Shirley,  a  descendant  of 
Sir  Henry,  was  allowed  to  assume 
the  baronial  title,  and  in  1711  he 
was  made  Viscount  Tarn  worth  and 
Earl  Ferrers.  On  his  death  in  1717 
the  barony  passed  to  a  grand- 
daughter, Elizabeth,  wife  of  the 
5th  earl  of  Northampton,  while  a 
son  became  the  2nd  Earl  Ferrers. 

The  barony  passed  to  other  fami- 
lies and  fell  into  abeyance  in  1855. 
Laurence,  the  4th  earl  (1720-60), 
was  the  last  peer  in  England  to  be 
executed  as  a  felon.  In  1745  he 
succeeded  to  the  title  on  the  death 
of  his  uncle.  In  a  moment  of  anger 
he  shot  his  steward,  a  man  named 
Johnson,  and  was  tried  for  murder 
by  his  peers  in  Westminster  Hall. 
Found  guilty,  he  was  hanged  at 
Tyburn,  May  5,  1760.  The  story 
that  he  was  hanged  with  a  silken 
rope  is  now  disbelieved.  The  titles 
passed  to  his  brother,  Washington, 
who  became  the  5th  earl.  His 
descendants  held  them  until  the 
10th  earl  died  in  1912,  when  an  heir 
was  found  in  a  descendant  of  the 
1st  earl,  Walter  Knight  Shirley 
(b.1864).  Tarn  worth  Castle,  long  the 
family  seat,  no  longer  belongs  to 
the  Shirleys. 


FERRERS 

Ferrers,  GEORGE  (c.  1500-79). 
English  politician  and  poet.'.  He 
was  page  of  the  chamber  to  Henry 
VIII,  who  took  him  with  him  in 
the  Scottish  and  French  wars  and 
bequeathed  him  100  marks.  He 
is  mainly  remarkable  for  having 
produced  and  probably  written 
masques  for  Edward  VI' s  Christ- 
mas entertainments  in  1551-52 
and  for  having  contributed  several 
tragical  episodes  to  Baldwin's 
Mirror  for  Magistrates,  1559-78. 

Ferret  (Putorius).  Domesti- 
cated variety  of  the  polecat,  kept 
for  hunting  rabbits.  According  to 
Roman  writers  the  polecat  came 
from  Africa,  and  although  it  is  now 
quite  unknown  there,  it  is  probable 
that  it  was  originally  domesticated 
in  N.  Africa  or  Spain,  and  after 
wards  introduced  into  Italy.  As  a 
result  of  domestication,  the  polecat 
became  smaller  and  slimmer,  and 
albinos  became  the  rule  instead  of 
the  exception.  In  this  way  the 


Ferret.   The  domesticated  polecat  used 
for  rabbiting 

ferret  developed.  It  is  a  some- 
what delicate  animal,  and  its  in- 
tolerance of  cold  suggests  its  Medi- 
terranean origin.  It  breeds  readily 
with  the  wild  polecat,  and  the 
brownish  variety  known  as  the 
polecat -ferret  is  probably  the 
result  of  such  crosses.  The  ferret  is 
only  semi -domesticated.  It  has  no 
affection  for  its  owner,  is  very 
ferocious,  and  is  as  likely  to  bite 
the  hand  that  feeds  it  as  any  other. 
It  therefore  needs  to  be  handled 
with  caution,  the  best  way  being  to 
grasp  it  close  behind  the  shoulders. 

The  method  of  hunting  a  rabbit 
warren  with  ferrets  is  to  net  or  stop 
all  the  holes  except  one,  at  which 
the  ferret  is  inserted.  The  rabbits, 
finding  an  inveterate  enemy  on 
their  track,  bolt  for  the  holes  and 
are  thus  caught  in  the  nets.  It  is  a 
common  practice  to  muzzle  the 
ferret,  otherwise,  if  it  catches  a 
rabbit  in  the  burrow,  it  will  remain 
there  to  make  a  meal  of  it. 

Ferrets  need  great  care  to  keep 
them  in  good  health,  warmth  and 
scrupulous  cleanliness  being  the 
chiet  essentials;  Plenty  of  warm 
litter  must  be  provided,  and  the 
hutch  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned 
and  disinfected  at  least  once  a 
week.  The  food  should  consist  of 
fresh  bread  and  milk,  and  a  little 
raw  meat  may  be  given  once  a 


Enrico  Ferri, 
Italian  socialist 


3125 

week.  Ferrets  breed  freely  in  cap- 
tivity and  usually  rear  two 
families  in  the  year.  See  Rabbit. 

FerrexandPorrex.  One  of  the 
titles  under  which  the  earliest  ex- 
tant English  tragedy  is  known. 
See  Gorboduc. 

Ferri,  ENRICO  (b.  1856).  Italian 
socialist.     Born  near  Mantua,  Feb. 
2f>,   1850.  he  was  educated  in  that 
,    city  and  at  Bo- 
logna, taking  a 

r^^Hk  ';    Ie8al  degree, 
I  j    1877,       and 

studying  under 
Lombroso, 
1879.  In  1880 
UK  he  became  pro- 

fessor of  crimi- 
nal law  at  Bo- 
logna univer- 
sity, andin  1891 
succeeded  the  criminologist  Carrara 
at  Pisa  university.  Appointed  to  a 
chair  in  the  new  university  at 
Brussels,  1895,  he  received  a  simi- 
lar appointment  at  the  College  des 
Sciences  Sociales  at  Paris,  1901 .  A 
radical  deputy,  1886-93,  in  the 
Italian  chamber,  he  afterwards 
joined  the  socialist  party. 

Ferric  Salts.  Iron  forms  with 
acids,  two  series  of  salts,  ferrous  and 
ferric.  The  ferric  salts  are  generally 
yellowish  or  reddish  brown  in  col- 
our, and  are  reduced  to  the  ferrous 
state  by  means  of  zinc.  Ferric 
chloride  (FeCl3)  is  prepared  in  the 
anhydrous  state  by  heating  iron 
wire  in  a  current  of  dry  chlorine  gas. 
and  hi  the  form  of  solution  by  dis- 
solving iron  wire  in  hydrochloric 
acid  and  then  passing  chlorine  into 
the  liquid  until  it  smells  of  the  gas. 
As  a  tincture  ("steel  drops") 
ferric  chloride  is  employed  in  medi- 
cine as  a  tonic.  With  a  soluble  thio- 
cyanate,  ferric  chloride  gives  an  in- 
tense blood-red  colour.  Ferric  sul- 
phate, Fe,(S04)3,  obtained  by  oxi- 
dising ferroxis  sulphate  by  means  of 
nitric  acid,  is  used  in  dyeing  cotton 
black,  in  combination  with  log- 
wood. Iron  alum  is  a  compound  of 
ferric  sulphate  and  potassium  sul- 
phate. This  and  ferric  nitrate  are 
employed  in  dyeing.  Ferric  oxide, 
which  occurs  naturally  and  is  also 
produced  by  distilling  ferrous  sul- 
phate, is  known  as  red  ochre  and 
colcothar,  and  used  as  colouring 
matter  and  polishing  material. 

Ferricyanides.  Salts  of  ferri- 
cyanhydric  acid,  H3Fe(CN)6,  first 
made  'by  Gmelin  by  decomposing 
lead  ferricyanide  with  dilute  sul- 
phuric acid  and  evaporating  the 
solution  after  filtration.  Potassium 
ferricyanide  or  red  prussiate  of 
potash  is  prepared  by  passing 
chlorine  through  a  solution  of  po- 
tassium ferrocyanide  or  over  the 
dry  salt  until  it  no  longer  gives  a 
blue  colour  with  a  ferric  salt. 


FERRIER 

The  salt  is  in  deep  red  crystals 
and  forms  with  water  a  dark  yellow 
solution  which  darkens  with  age 
and  becomes  converted  into  ferro- 
cyanide.  On  adding  ferrous  sul- 
phate (green  vitriol)  to  potassium 
ferricyanide  solution  a  blue  preci- 
pitate known  as  Turnbull's  blue  is 
obtained.  When  chlorine  is  passed 
into  a  solution  of  potassium  ferri- 
cyanide a  green  precipitate  known 
as  Prussian  green  is  formed,  the 
appearance  of  which  is  the  indi- 
cation that  the  end  of  the  process 
has  been  reached.  Potassium  ferri- 
cyanide, a  powerful  oxidising  agent, 
when  employed  with  caustic  potash, 
is  used  in  the  preparation  of  ferro- 
prussiate  paper  upon  which  "  blue 
prints"  are  made.  See.  Colour 
Printing. 

Ferrier,  SIR  DAVID  (b.  1843). 
British  physician.  Born  at 
Aberdeen,  he  was  educated  at  the 
«^ PMI^HH^K  university 
i  there  and  a  t 
I  Edin  burgh 
fc^  ;  i  and  Heidel- 
I  berg.  Having 
iSLr'-  •  m^m  taken  his  med- 
ical degree  at 
Edinburgh,  he 
began  to  prac- 
tise as  a  spe- 

Sir  David  Ferrier,       c  i  a  1  i  s  t  and 

British  physician  soon  won  a 
Mauu&Fox  reputation  as 

an  authority  on  the  brain.  In  1889 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  neu- 
ro-pathology  at  King's  College, 
London,  and  he  was  also  consulting 
physician  at  King's  College  Hos- 
pital. His  many  honours  include 
an  F.R.S.  Ferrier,  who  was 
knighted  in  1911,  wrote  The 
Functions  of  the  Brain,  etc.,  1876. 

Ferrier,  JAMES  FREDERICK 
(1808-64).  Scottish  metaphysician. 
Born  at  Edinburgh,  June  16,  1808, 
he  was  professor  of  moral  philo- 
sophy and  political  economy  at  St. 
Andrews  from  1845  until  his 
death,  June  11,  1864.  Like  Berke- 
ley, he  is  an  idealist  and  im- 
materialist.  There  is  no  such  thing 
as  independent  matter,  all  external 
things  exist  only  subjectively  ;  the 
only  material  world  which  really 
exists  is  one  with  which  intelli- 
gence also  exists.  The  conscious 
subject  is  inseparably  connected 
with  the  conceived  object.  At  the 
same  time,  he  does  not  deny  the 
existence  of  the  real  material  world 
per  se,  as  distinct  from  that  known 
to  us  through  thesubjective  medium 
of  space  and  time,  but  declares  it  to 
be  simply  unknowable.  His  writ- 
ings are  distinguished  by  a  clear- 
ness of  style  extremely  rare  in 
the  discussion  of  abstruse  subjects. 
His  most  important  works  are 
Institutes  of  Metaphysics,  1854, 
and  Lectures  on  Greek  Philosophy. 


FERRIER 

Ferrier,  PAUL  (1843-1920). 
French  dramatist.  Born  at  Mont- 
pellier,  he  studied  for  the  bar,  but 
turned  to  playwriting  after  the  pro- 
duction of  his  first  piece,  a  verse 
play,  La  Revanche  d'Iris,  in  1868. 
He  wrote  and  collaborated  in  a 
large  number  of  opera  libretti, 
comic  operas,  and  comedies,  well 
known  in  France  for  their  gaiety 
and  humour.  Among  the  most  suc- 
cessful were  Les  Mousquetaires  au 
Couvent,  1880;  Tabarin,  1884; 
L' Article  231, 1891 ;  La  Belle  Mere, 
1898.  He  died  at  Nouan-le-Fuz- 
elier  on  Sept.  11,  1920.  • 

Ferrier,  SUSAN  EDMONSTONE 
(1782-1854).  Scottish  novelist. 
Born  at  Edinburgh,  Sept.  7,  1782, 
she  published 
her  first  novel, 
Marriage,  in 
1818,  followed 
by  The  Inherit- 
ance, 1824,  and 
Destiny,  1831. 
Published  an- 
onymously, 
they  gave 

fysathTcal 
picture  of  contemporary  Scottish 
society,  and  won  great  popularity 
and  the  praise  of  critics  as  eminent 
as  James  Hogg  and  Scott.  She 
was  known  familiarly  as  Scott's 
"  sister-shadow,"  and  died  at  Edin- 
burgh, Nov.  5, 1854.  Her  Recollec- 
tions of  Visits  to  Ashestiel  and 
Abbotsford  were  published  in  1881. 
See  Life,  J.  Ferrier,  1899. 

Ferrite.  Term  used  in  mineral- 
ogy for  the  particles  of  iron  hy- 
droxide which  constitute  some  of 
the  binding  elements  in  many 
rocks  ;  and  also  to  a  particular  form 
of  chrysolite.  In  chemistry  it  re- 
fers to  compounds  of  iron  oxide 
with  other  oxides  more  distinctly 
basic,  as  in  barium  ferrite,  calcium 
ferrite,  and  others  ;  and  in  metal- 
lurgy to  the  pure  iron  constituent 
of  steel.  See  Steel. 

Ferro- Concrete.  One  of  the 
several  names  for  reinforced  con- 
crete. Concrete  is  reinforced  for 
use  as  a  building  material  by  plac- 
ing within  its  substance  mild-steel 
bars  which  resist  the  pulling  forces 
that  would  destroy  plain  concrete. 
No  other  building  material  is 
equally  fire-resistant,  and  its  ability 
to  withstand  all  kinds  of  stresses 
has  rendered  possible  new  methods 
of  construction — balconies  or  gal- 
leries, for  example,  ean  be  pro- 
jected without  the  propping-up 
from  below  that  would  be  needed 
for  any  other  system  of  construc- 
tion ;  and  the  enormous  strength 
of  the  material  enables  the  con- 
struction of  much  thinner  walls 
than  would  be  allowable  with  brick 
or  stone.  See  Building  ;  Concrete. 


3  1  26 

Ferrocyanides.  Salts  of  ferro- 
cyanic  acid,  H4Fe(CN)6.  Most 
ferrocyanides  are  coloured,  and 
those  of  the  soluble  alkalis  are 
non-poisonous,  although  from 
them  hydrocyanic  or  prussic  acid 
can  be  readily  prepared.  The 
most  important  of  these  salts  is 
potassium  ferrocyanide  or  yellow 
prussiate  of  potash.  The  old  pro- 
cess of  manufacture  consisted  in 
fusing  together  potassium  car- 
bonate with  iron  borings  and 
nitrogenous  animal  matter  such 
as  leather  cuttings  or  woollen 
rags,  and  lixiviating  the  mass 
with  water.  Potassium  ferro- 
cyanide is  made  largely  as  a  by- 
product in  the  manufacture  of 
coal-gas.  It  is  used  in  producing 
Prussian  blue  (ferric  ferrocyanide) 
and  other  cyanogen  compounds  in 
calico-printing,  and  for  case-har- 
dening iron. 

Ferrol.  Seaport  of  Spain,  in  the 
prov.  of  Corunna.  It  stands  on  the 
N.  arm  of  the  Bay  of  Betanzos,  and 
is  the  chief  Spanish  naval  station 
on  the  Atlantic.  The  harbour  is 
sheltered  and  commodious,  with 
shipbuilding  yards,  docks,  and 
quays,  defended  by  both  nature 
and  art.  It  has  a  first-class  arsenal, 
a  naval  academy,  and  many  fine 
public  buildings.  It  manufactures 
naval  stores,  leather,  sailcloth, 
cotton  and  linen,  and  exports  pit- 
props,  vinegar,  brandy,  and  sar- 
dines. The  British  besieged  it  in 
1799,  and  took  it  hi  1805,  after 
defeating  the  French  fleet  off  the 
bay.  It  was  captured  by  the 
French  after  six  weeks'  blockade 
in  1823.  Pop.  26,270. 

Ferro -manganese.  One  of  the 
most  important  of  a  series  of  iron, 
manganese,  carbon  alloys  now 
largely  used  in  the  preparation 
of  steel.  The  constitution  of 
the  alloy  varies  according  to  the 
character  of  the  metal  which  it 
is  desired  to  convert  into  steel, 
manganese  ranging  from  50  p.c. 
to  80  p.c.  The  alloy  is  prepared 
in  blast-furnaces  and  cast  into  pigs, 
in  all  essentials  precisely  as  ordin- 
ary pig-iron  is 
made.  See  Bes-  f 
semer  Process;  I 
Metallurgy  ;  Steel.  I 

Ferrous  Salts. 
Group  of  iron 
salts.  Ferrous 
sulphate,  FeS04, 
7H20,  or  green 
vitrio1  is  obtained 
in  large  quantities 
by  exposing  the 
pyrites  occurring 
in  coal  -  measures 
to  the  a  t  m  o  s  • 
phere.  The  soluble 
ferrous  sulphate, 
together  with 


the  excess  of  sulphuric  acid,  runs 
into  underground  tanks  where 
the  excess  of  acid  is  removed  by 
means  of  scrap  iron.  The  liquid, 
on  evaporation,  yields  crystals  of 
ferrous  sulphate. 

Ferrous  sulphate  is  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  ink,  in  dyeing  and 
tanning,  and  in  the  preparation  of 
Prussian  blue.  The  pure  salt  is 
used  in  medicine.  Ferrous  oxide, 
FeO,  has  the  property,  when 
freshly  made,  of  oxidising  with  in- 
candescence on  exposure  to  the 
air.  Ferrous  iodide,  FeI2,  is  used 
in  medicine,  as  are  also  ferrous 
phosphate,  Fe3(PO4),.,8H2O,  and 
ferrous  carbonate,  FeC03.  The 
last-named  is  contained  in  chaly- 
beate waters,  from  which  the 
ferrous  carbonate  is  deposited,  on 
exposure  to  air,  as  the  hydrated 
oxide. 

Ferrule.  Short  metal  tube 
driven  tightly  into  a  hole  in  an 
iron  or  steel  pipe  and  soldered  or 
otherwise  secured  to  another  pipe 
so  as  to  connect  the  two.  It  is  also 
a  short  tapered  tube  driven  into 
the  end  of  a  boiler-tube  where  it 
passes  through  the  fire-box  plate. 
The  wedging  action  of  the  ferrule 
expands  the  boiler-tube  end  and 
ensures  a  tight  connexion  between 
the  boiler-tube  and  the  plate. 
There  are  also  other  types  of 
boiler-tube  ferrules.  In  common 
speech  the  word  is  used  of  a  metal 
ring  on  the  handle  of  a  tool,  and  of 
the  thimble-shaped  ring  fastened 
to  the  end  of  a  walking-stick  or 
umbrella  to  protect  it  from  being 
worn  down  by  use. 

Ferry.  Public  passage-way 
across  water,  usually  linking  up 
roadways  or  tracks  on  both  banks. 
The  most  usual  means  of  trans- 
port is  a  floating  vessel  of  some 
kind  which,  in  the  case  of  small 
loads  and  short  distances,  is  fre- 
quently a  flat-bottomed  boat, 
guided  by  a  taut  wire  cable  and 
propelled  by  an  endless  rope.  For 
heavy  loads  the  ferry-boat  may  be 
moved  to  and  fro  by  a  windlass  on 
board,  which  picks  up  and  pays 


Ferry.     Type  ol  steam  ferry-boats  formerly  in  use  on 
the  Mersey  between  Liver;oo.'  and  Birkenhea^ 


FERRY 

out  a  chain  crossing  the  bed  of  the 
river.  Where  there  is  a  strong 
current  in  one  direction  only,  the 
ferry-boat  may  be  attached  to  a 
chain  the  other  end  of  which  is 
moored  in  midstream  some  dis- 
tance higher  up,  the  current  being 
used  to  move  the  boat  across  by 
oblique  pressure.  See  Channel 
Ferry ;  Richborough  ;  Train  Ferry  ; 
also  illus.  p.  2207. 

Ferry,  JULES  FRANSOIS  CAMILLE 
(1832-93).      A  French  statesman. 
Born  at  St.  Die  in  the  Vosges,  April 
15, 1832,  he  be- 
came a  lawyer 
and  a  journal- 
ist.   In  1869  he 
was  chosen    as 
deputy    for 
Paris,  being  al- 
ready known  as 
a  vigorous   op- 
ponent   of   the 
Jules  Ferry,          emperor.  When 
French  statesman      parig    wag    be_ 

sieged,  as  prefect  of  the  Seine  he 
was  responsible  for  its  government. 
After  being  minister  at  Athens,  he 
returned  to  the  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties in  1873  and  entered  the  minis- 
try in  1879.  In  1880  he  became 
premier  for  a  short  term,  and  was 
again  premier,  1883-85,  being  in  the 
meantime  minister  for  education. 
In  1885  he  retired,  but  was  active  in 
politics  until  his  murder  by  a 
lunatic,  March  17,  1893,  just  after 
he  had  been  chosen  president  of  the 
senate.  Ferry  did  much  to  promote 
secular  education,  and  establish 
French  influence  in  Africa  and 
Indo-China. 

Ferrybridge.  Hamlet  of  York- 
shire ( W.R. ) ,  England.  It  stands  on 
the  Aire,  2  m.  N.E.  of  Pontefract, 
on  the  M.  &  N.E.J.R.  In  1461  it 
was  the  scene  of  an  engagement 
during  the  Wars  of  the  Roses. 

Ferryhill .  Parish  and  market  vill- 
age of  Durham,  England.  It  is  6  m. 
S.  of  Durham,  on  the  N.E.R.,  with 
ironworks  and  coal  mines.  Market 
day,  Fri.  (alternate).  Pop.  10,133. 
Ferryman's  House.  Fortified 
point  on  the  E.  bank  of  the  Yser 
canal,  midway  between  Dixmude 
and  Ypres,  for  which  there  was 
prolonged  fighting  in  the  winter  of 
1914.  The  troops  engaged  were 
French  of  the  9th  corps.  The  posi- 
tion was  of  importance  because,  if 
it  remained  in  German  hands,  the 
Germans  might  cross  the  Yser 
canal  and  turn  the  defences  of 
Ypres,  moving  by  a  short  line  upon 
Poperinghe,  6£  m.  to  the  rear  of 
Ypres.  By  attacking  at  this  point 
the  French  also  took  pressure  off 
the  Belgians,  who  were  being  sub- 
jected to  artillery  fire  on  the  Yser. 
On  Dec.  4,  1914,  the  French 
stormed  the  Ferryman's  House, 
and  established  themselves  there. 


Count  von  Fersen, 
Swedish  soldier 


3127 

Fersen,  FREDRIK  AXEL,  COUNT 
VON  (1719-94).  Swedish  soldier  and 
politician.  Of  Scottish  descent, 
Fersen  was  born  at  Stockholm,  and 
as  a  young  man  served  with  the 
French  army  with  distinction.  In 
1748,  he  fought  against  Prussia  in 
the  Seven  Years'  War.  Marshal  of 
the  Swedish  diet  in  1755,  and  again 
in  1769,  Fersen  was  prominent  as 
leader  of  the  aristocratic  party  (the 
"  Hats  ").  From  1786  he  was  an 
open  and  powerful  opponent  of 
Gustavus  III,  and  was  put  under 
arrest  fora  time  in  1789,  after 
which  he  retired. 

Fersen,  HANS  AXEL,  COUNT  VON 
(1755-1810).  Swedish  soldier.  Born 
at  Stockholm,  Sept.  4,  1755,  he 
served  in  the 
Swedish  army. 
Afterwards  he 
resided  at  the 
court  of  Louis 
XVI  of  France, 
with  whom  he 
became  a  great 
favourite. 
During  the 
American  War 
of  Indepen- 
dence he  fought  under  Lafayette. 
When  the  king  and  Marie  Antoi- 
nette, to  whom  Fersen  was  devoted, 
fled  to  Varennes  in  1791,  Fersen 
was  the  driver  of  the  coach.  After 
his  return  to  Sweden  he  was  mur- 
dered by  a  mob,  June  20,  1810,  on 
suspicion  of  having  been  concerned 
in  the  death  of  the  Crown  Prince 
Christian. 

Fertilisation..  Biological  term 
for  the  union  of  the  male  and  fe- 
male germ-cells  which  precedes  re- 
production in  almost  all  multi- 
cellular  organisms,  and  in  all  the 
higher  animals.  Plants  and  ani- 
mals in  which  the  sexual  organs  are 
distinct  produce  male  germ -cells,  or 
sperms,  and  female  germ-cells,  or 
ova,  respectively,  but  unless  there 
is  a  union  at  some  period  or  other  in 
the  life  cycle  of  the  individual  be- 
tween a  male  and  a  female  germ- 
cell,  these  cells  perish,  and  repro- 
duction does  not  occur.  Some  few 
species  consist  only  of  female  orga- 
nisms, where  fertilisation  is  absent, 
and  reproduction  takes  place  by 
parthenogenesis. 

In  some  other  species  the  orga- 
nism has  both  male  and  female  re- 
productive organs  in  the  same  indi- 
vidual, and  when  the  respective 
germ -cells  in  such  a  case  unite  the 
process  is  termed  self -fertilisation. 
This  occurs  in  many  plants,  where 
the  pollen  grains  (male)  unite  with 
the  ovules  (female),  the  result  be- 
ing a  f ertilised  ovum.  In  the  higher 
animals  cross-fertilisation,  how- 
ever, is  the  rule,  and  in  this  process 
the  sperm  and  the  ovum  which 
unite  come  from  two  distinct  indi- 


'  ^        FERTILISER 

viduals  of  opposite  sexes.  Cross 
fertilisation  takes  place  in  some 
plants  frequently  by  the  pollen 
s  grains  and  the  ovules,  which  are 
carried  on  the  same  plant,  ripening 
at  different  periods,  so  that  they 
become  fertilised  from  the  corre- 
sponding elements  of  other  plants 
of  the  same  species.  The  single  cell 
formed  by  the  union  of  a  male  and 
a  female  germ-cell  is  termed  a 
fertilised  ovum,  or  a  zygote. 

Fertilisation  is  brought  about  by 
the  activity  of  the  male  sperm-cell. 
Under  the  microscope  this  cell  is 
seen  to  consist  of  a  head  and  a  tail, 
and  the  essential  part  of  the  pro- 
cess is  the  fusion  of  the  head  of  the 
sperm  with  the  nucleus  of  the 
female  ovum.  After  this  fusion  the 
sperm  loses  its  tail  and  becomes  a 
rounded  body,  then  termed  the 
male  pronucleus.  Gradually  it 
penetrates  more  and  more  deeply 
into  the  female  germ-cell,  until  it 
unites  with  the  female  pronucleus 
to  form  a  combined  or  segmenta- 
tion nucleus.  Fertilisation  is  then 
complete,  and  the  cell  thus  formed 
is  the  first  stage  in  the  develop- 
ment of  a  new  unicellular  embryo, 
totally  unlike  the  parents  from 
which  it  springs,  or  the  individual 
into  which  it  will  develop. 

Cross -fertilisation  is  evidently 
one  of  the  latest  products  of  evolu- 
tion, since  it  is  the  usual  method  of 
fertilising  in  the  highest  plants  and 
animals.  It  must,  therefore,  have 
some  very  important  function.  It  is 
thought  that  one  of  the  objects  of 
cross  -fertilisation  is  to  secure  the 
production  of  vigorous  offspring, 
and  Darwin  found  in  the  case  of 
some  plants  which  usually  repro- 
duce by  cross  -fertilisation  that  if 
self  -  fertilisation  was  artificially 
produced  the  resulting  offspring 
were  feeble.  Nevertheless,  both 
plants  and  animals  which  nor- 
mally reproduce  by  partheno- 
genesis produce  healthy  offspring. 
It  would  appear,  therefore,  that 
cross  -fertilisation  is  essential  for 
the  continued  vigour  of  a  species  in 
which  that  process  is  normal.  See 
Biology  ;  Embryology  ;  Eugenics ; 
consult  also  The  Flower  and  the 
Bee,  John  H.  Lovell,  1919;  Prob- 
lems of  Fertilization,  F.  Rattray 
Lillie,  1919. 

Fertiliser.  Chemical  substitute 
for  animal  manures.  It  is  used  to 
restore  to  the  soil  various  elements 
and  ingredients  abstracted  from 
it  by  plants  in  the  course  of  cul- 
tivation. Fertilisers  are  easily 
procured,  cleanly  to  handle,  and 
less  likely  to  introduce  insect  pests 
than  the  old-fashioned  stable 
manure.  For  flower  gardens  pro- 
prietary complete  fertilisers,  the 
bases  of  most  of  which  consist  of 
dried  blood  and  ground  bones,  may 


FERULE 


3128 


FESTINIOG 


be  safely  used  according  to  direc- 
tions, but  for  vegetables,  in  par- 
ticular, three  chief  food  ingredients 
have  to  be  applied  directly  to 
crops  in  the  form  of  manure. 
These  are  nitrogen,  phosphates, 
and  potash.  The  presence  of  lime, 
also,  is  necessary,  not  so  much  as 
a  plant  food  as  on  account  of  its 
action  on  the  soil.  The  best  and 
most  economical  application  of 
chemical  fertilisers  to  vegetable 
crops  is  summarised  below. 

For  potatoes  use  sulphate  of 
ammonia,  %  oz  per  sq.  yd.,  just 
before  the  first  earthing  up.  Super- 
phosphate of  lime,  or  superphos- 
phate and  steamed  bone  flour 
mixed  hi  equal  proportions,  may 
be  applied  when  planting,  at  the 
rate  of  1J  oz.  per  sq.  yd.  For  the 
cabbage  for  family  use  sulphate  of 
ammonia,  £  oz.  to  |  oz.  per  sq.  yd. 
before  the  first  earthing  up  or  as 
soon  as  growth  starts,  and  super- 
phosphates at  the  rate  of  1  oz.  per 
sq.  yd.  On  very  light  soils,  salt  at  the 
rate  of  1  oz.  per  sq.  yd.  will  help. 
The  pea  and  bean  family  require 
a  mixture  of  superphosphate  and 
steamed  bone  flour  in  equal  pro- 
portions applied  to  the  ground 
before  or  after  sowing  the  seed,  at 
the  rate  of  1  oz.  to  4  yds.  of  drill. 
The  mixture  must  aot  come  into 
direct  contact  with  the  seed. 

Onions,  leeks,  and  celery  require 
sulphate  of  ammonia,  £  oz.  per 
sq.  yd.,  superphosphate  and 
steamed  bone  flour,  1  oz.  per  sq. 
yd.,  and,  on  light  soils,  1  oz.of  salt 
per  sq.  yd.,  all  in  the  early  stages 
of  growth.  For  carrots,  parsnips, 
and  beet,  use  sulphate  of  ammonia, 
£  oz.  per  sq.  yd.,  after  thinning 
out  or  singling,  and  superphos- 
phate, salt,  etc.,  as  for  onions. 
For  lettuces,  spinach,  and  radishes, 
use  sulphate  of  ammonia  and 
superphosphate  as  above  Where 
the  soil  is  known  to  be  overstocked 
with  organic  matter,  containing 
nitrogen,  producing  a  very  rank 
growth  of  leaf,  the  sulphate  of 
ammonia  should  be  withheld. 

Where  potash  salts  are  unob- 
tainable, wood  ashes  which  con- 
tain potash  should  be  collected  and 
applied  at  the  rate  of  1  oz.  per  sq. 
yd.  Ashes  must  be  collected  as 
soon  as  possible  after  burning,  as 
rain  quickly  washes  out  ,the  potash. 
On  heavy  soils,  those  rich  hi 
organic  matter,  basic  slag  may  re- 
place superphosphate,  particularly 
in  districts  with  a  good  rainfall. 
The  quantity  used  should  be  from 
one  and  a  half  times  to  twice  as 
much  as  is  recommended  in  the 
case  of  superphosphate. 

During  the  Great  War  the  prob- 
lem of  fertilisers  became  acute  in 
all  countries.  In  Great  Britain  the 
utilisation  of  by-products  from 


munitions  making  and  other  manu- 
facturing industries  partially  re- 
lieved the  situation.  A  commission 
recommended  the  utilisation  of 
the  excess  production  of  sulphuric 
acid  in  the  manufacture  of  super- 
phosphates. Both  France  and 
Italy  suffered  seriously,  the  latter 
country  only  securing  16  p.c.  of 
the  normal  supply  of  phosphate. 
Germany  took  steps  to  increase  her 
production  of  fertiliser  nitrogen, 
phosphoric  acid  and  potash,  her 
total  production  rising  from  220,000 
tons  in  1917-18,  to  520,000  tons  in 
1918-19.  She  also  developed  the 
production  of  synthetic  nitrogen 
compounds.  See  Crops  ;  Manure. 

Ferule  (Lat.  ferula,  fennel,  cane, 
ferire,  to  strike).  Instrument  of 
punishment.  The  stalk  of  the 
giant  fennel,  Ferula  communis,  was 
used  as  a  rod  or  cane,  to  which  it 
gave  its  name.  The  word  is  applied 
also  to  a  sole-shaped  strap,  com- 
parable to  the  Scotch  tawse,  with 
which  boys  are  beaten  on  the  palms 
of  the  hands  in  some  schools. 

Fescennine  Verses.  Improvi- 
sations in  dialogue  form  made  at 
rustic  gatherings  in  ancient  Italy, 
the  origin  probably  of  the  native 
Roman  satura,  or  satire,  in  which 
the  speakers  made  capital  out  of 
the  faults  and  follies  of  their 
neighbours.  As  a  feature  of  wed- 
ding celebrations  they  were  com- 
monly characterised  by  broad 
licentiousness.  Hence  the  deriva- 
tion of  the  name  from  the  Lat. 
fascinum,  a  phallic  emblem,  by 
some  etymologists  who  deprecate 
its  other  derivation  from  Fescennia 
on  the  ground  that  the  custom  was 
widespread  throughout  Italy,  and 
not  peculiar  to  that  small  Etrus- 
can town.  From  the  Fescennine 
verses  the  epithalamium,  or  nuptial 
song,  was  ultimately  developed,  a 
literary  form  of  which  Catullus,  for 
one,  made  exquisite  use,  and  which 
has  been  successfully  reproduced  in 
the  literature  of  many  countries, 
notably  by  Herrick  in  England. 

Fesch,  JOSEPH  (1763-1839). 
French  cardinal.  Born  at  Ajaccio, 
Jan.  3,  1763,  the  step- brother  of 
Letizia  Bonaparte,  he  was  arch- 
deacon of  Ajaccio  until  the  French 
revolution,  when  he  retired.  He 
had  always  befriended  the  Bona- 
parte family,  and  in  1802  Napoleon 
made  him  archbishop  of  Lyons, 
and  procured  for  him  a  cardinal's 
hat.  Ambassador  at  Rome  in  1804, 
he  persuaded  Pius  VII  to  crown 
Napoleon  in  Paris,  and  was  made 
grand  almoner  and  senator  of  the 
Empire.  His  position  as  interme- 
diary between  Napoleon  and  Pius 
was  extremely  difficult  during  the 
years  1806-7,  and  Fesch's  rela- 
tions with  both  became  strained, 
especially  after  the  Gallican  council 


of  1811,  from 
the  presidency 
of  which  the 
emperor  dis- 
missed his 
uncle.  Retir- 
ing to  Rome 
on  the  fall  of 
the  Empire  in 
1814,  he  re- 
turned to 
Lyons  during 
the  Hundred 
Days,  but  after 
Napoleon'sab- 
dication  he 
once  more 
went  to  Rome, 
where  he  died, 
May  13,  1839. 
Fescue 
Grass  (Fes- 
tuca).  Exten- 
sive genus  of 
grasses.  Of  the 
natural  order 
Gramineae, 
they  are  na- 
tives of  cold 
and  temperate 

regions.  The  Fescue  Grass, 
flattened  Festuca  pratensis 
flower  spikelets  are  grouped  in  pani- 
cles or  racemes  ;  there  being  three 
or  more  flowers  in  each  spikelet. 
Many  of  the  species  are  among  the 
most  valuable  of  meadow  and  pas- 
ture grasses,  being  rich  in  sac- 
charine matter.  Sheep's  fescue 
(F.  ovina),  with  bristle-like  leaves, 
meadow  fescue  (F.  pratensis),  and 
hard  fescue  (F.  duriuscula)  are 
most  useful  for  this  purpose. 

Fess  (Lat.  fascia,  band).  In 
heraldry,  a  horizontal  band  car- 
ried across  the  middle  of  the  shield 
and  occupying 
one-third  of  the 
field.  It  is  one 
of  the  ordi- 
naries (q.v.). 
The  middle  of 
the  field  is 
known  as  the 
Fess  Point.  A 
Fess.  m  heraldry  shield  or 
charge  divided  by  a  horizontal 
line  in  the  middle  is  said  to  be 
"  per  fess  "  ;  but  if  it  is  divided 
into  any  number  of  horizontal 
bands  above  four,  it  is  called 
"  barry."  If  there  are  three  divi- 
sions it  is  "  tierced  "  or  "  tiercy 
per  fess  ";  if  four,  "  quartered  per 
fess."  Charges  placed  in  horizontal 
rows  are  termed  "  in  fess." 

Festiniog  OR  FFESTINIOQ.  Urban 
dist.  and  town  of  Merionethshire, 
Wales.  It  is  16  in.  N.  of  Dolgelly, 
and  stands  amid  the  hills,  sur- 
rounded by  beautiful  scenery,  one 
feature  of  which  is  the  Cynfael 
Falls.  A  narrow  gauge  rly.  runs 
to  Portmadoc.  The  place  is  also 


FESTIVAL 


3129 


FESTUBERT 


served  by  the  G.W.  R.  The  main 
industry  is  the  large  slate  quarries, 
which  employ  most  of  the  male 
inhabitants.  Pop.  9,674. 

Festival  (Lat.  festivus,  joyful). 
Days  on  which  some  deity  or 
person  was  honoured  or  the  me- 
mory of  some  important  event  kept 
with  certain  solemnities,  ordinary 
work  being  as  a  rule  suspended. 
Such  festivals  or  feasts  no  doubt 
were  originally  nature  festivals, 
connected  with  its  changing  pheno- 
mena, its  decay  in  winter  and  re- 
nas  ence  in  spring  (see  Adonis). 
They  were  partly  merrymakings 
and  thanksgivings  for  benefits  re- 
ceived, partly  prayers  for  benefits  to 
come,  and  partly  ceremonies  to  ap- 
pease the  anger  of  the  gods  for  sins 
committed,  though  even  from  the 
latter  the  festive  element  was  not 
absent. 

The  Greek  festivals  were  held  in 
honour  of  national  heroes  ;  of  gods 
connected  with  the  fruits  of  the 
field,  such  as  the  Dionysia,  Lenaea, 
and  Eleusinia  ;  and  of  the  tutelary 
deities  of  Athens,  such  as  the 
Panathenaea.  The  four  great 
games — Isthmian,  Nemean,  Olym- 
pian, and  Pythian — set  the  seal  on 
the  national  unity.  At  Rome  each 
family  kept  the  festival  of  its 
domestic  gods,  the  Lares  and 
Penates  :  the  public  festivals  were 
under  the  control  of  the  state — 
festivals  in  honour  of  the  tutelary 
deities  of  Rome,  Romulus,  Mars, 
and  Quirinus,  and  of  the  divinities 
who  presided  over  the  crops,  the 
fields,  and  boundaries,  such  as  the 
Cerealia,  Lupercalia,  Saturnalia, 
and  Terminalia.  The  public  games 
(ludi)  were  also  national  festivals. 
(See  Feriae ;  Ludi.) 

Religious  Festivals 

Religious  festivals  are  days  set 
apart  for  rest,  thanksgiving,  and 
special  observance.  Some  are  fixed, 
as  Christmas  ;  others  movable,  as 
Easter.  In  the  Christian  calendar 
the  greater  festivals  are  called  red 
letter  days  ;  while  the  lesser  are 
known  as  black  letter  days. 

Among  the  Jews  such  days  are 
regarded  as  days  appointed  by 
God  for  meetings  with  His  children. 
They  include  Passover,  or  Un- 
leavened Bread,  Nisan  15-22  ;  Pen- 
tecost, Sivan  6  ;  Trumpets,  or  New 
Year,  Tishri  1  ;  the  Day  of  Atone- 
ment, or  Great  Sabbath,  observed 
on  Tishri  10,  by  complete  rest  and 
fasting,  the  only  fast  not  post- 
poned by  the  occurrence  of  the 
Sabbath  ;  the  Tabernacles,  or  In- 
gathering of  the  Harvest,  Tishri 
15-22 ;  Jubilee,  at  the  end  of  every 
seven  Sabbatical  Years ;  Purim,  etc. 

In  the  Christian  Church  the 
earliest  festivals  were  the  love 
feasts  or  Agapae  (q.v.).  Confusion 
has  been  caused  by  disregard  of 


the  fact  that  both  authorship  and 
date  of  festival  homilies  are  un- 
certain. Until  the  beginning  of  the 
4th  century,  record  exists  only  of 
Easter  and  Pentecost,  though  as 
each  Friday  was  a  fast  in  remem- 
brance of  the  Crucifixion,  so  each 
Sunday  was  a  festival  in  remem- 
brance of  the  Resurrection.  The 
feast  of  the  Nativity  was  observed 
about  300 ;  Christmas,  Epiphany, 
and  Ascension  Day  were  added 
later. 

Saints  and  Martyrs 

Days  in  memory  of  the  Apos- 
tles were  next  observed,  and 
were  followed  by  observance  of 
days  devoted  to  the  memory  of 
saints,  of  the  Purification  of  the 
Virgin  Mary,  the  Annunciation, 
the  nativity  of  S.  John  the  Baptist, 
the  Circumcision,  the  death  of 
martyrs,  the  transfer  of  their 
relics  or  the  consecration  of 
churches  dedicated  to  them.  Many 
Christian  festivals  are  of  local 
origin,  some  adapted  from  Jewish 
and  pagan  practice,  and  they  in- 
creased in  number  during'  the 
Middle  Ages.  In  the  Roman 
Catholic  communion,  feasts  are 
divided  into  doubles,  semi-doubles, 
simples,  etc.,  according  to  the 
offices  appointed  for  them. 

Inclusive  of  Sundays,  festivals 
in  the  Anglican  calendar  number 
149  ;  of  these  the  principal  have 
proper  collects,  epistles,  Gospels, 
and  lessons,  and  some  have  a 
proper  preface  at  Holy  Communion 
and  proper  Psalms.  The  movable 
festivals  which  depend  upon  Easter 
are  Septuagesima,  Rogation  Sun- 
day, Ascension  Day,  Whit  Sunday, 
and  Trinity  Sunday.  In  Great 
Britain  public  observance  of  Church 
festivals,  apart  from  Easter,  Whit- 
sun,  and  Christmas,  has  fallen  into 
abeyance  ;  formerly  all  were  made 
the  occasion  of  some  difference 
in  the  ordinary  daily  life  of  the 
people. 

Bairam  and  Ramadan 

The  chief  festivals  among  Mahom- 
medans,  whose  rest  day  is  Friday, 
the  day  on  which  Mahomet  was 
born,  are  the  Feast  of  Bairam, 
that  of  Sacrifices,  and  that  follow- 
ing the  fast  of  Ramadan.  The 
Hindus  have  their  festivals,  as  that 
of  Siva  ;  and  among  certain  tribes 
of  North  America  is  observed  a 
festival  called  the  Day  of  the  Dead. 
The  French  Revolutionary  cal- 
endar included  five  festival  days, 
dedicated  respectively  to  Virtue, 
Genius,  Labour,  Opinion,  and 
Rewards,  all  in  September.  See 
Calendar  ;  Prayer  Book  ;  articles 
under  the  name  of  each  festival 
or  saint ;  consult  also  Church 
Festivals,  A.  J.  Maclean,  in  the 
Prayer  Book  Dictionary,  ed.  G. 
Harford  and  M.  Stevenson,  1912. 


Festubert.  Village  of  France  in 
the  dept.  of  Pas-de-Calais.  It  is 
3  m.  W.  by  N.  of  La  Bassee  and 
was  prominent  in  the  Great  War. 
There  was  an  engagement  here 
between  the  British  and  the 
Germans,  Nov.  23-24,  1914.  On 
the  night  of  Nov.  23,  1914,  the 
Germans  had  carried  up  a  sap  close 
to  the  Allied  trenches,  E.  of  Festu- 
bert, which  were  held  by  troops  of 
the  Indian  corps.  When  day  broke 
next  morning  the  German  in- 
fantry poured  a  storm  of  bombs 


Festubert.  Plan  of  the  country  over 

which  were  fought  the  battles  of 

Nov.,  1914,  and  May,  1915 

and  hand-grenades  into  the  most 
advanced  British  trenches.  They 
followed  up  this  bombardment 
with  an  attack,  and  penetrated 
into  the  British  trenches. 

In  the  afternoon  Sir  J.  Will- 
cocks,  commanding  the  Indian 
corps,  ordered  the  original  line  to  be 
recovered  and  held  at  all  cost. 
All  available  British  guns  were 
directed  to  shell  the  trenches  that 
the  Germans  had  captured,  as 
preparation  for  a  British  counter- 
attack, which  was  to  open  at  4.30. 
The  infantry  had  to  advance  over 
snow-covered  ground  and  they  were 
received  with  violent  machine- 
gun  fire.  But  after  hard  and  con- 
tinuous hand-to-hand  fighting,  the 
ground  lost  was  recovered. 

Festubert,  BATTLE  OF.  Fought 
during  the  Great  War,  May,  1815. 
In  May,  to  assist  the  French  opera- 
tions in  Artois  and  at  Arras,  where 
Foch  was  attacking,  the  British 


FESTUS 

First  Army  (Haig)  was  ordered  to 
take  the  offensive  on  a  front  N.  W.  of 
La  Bassee,  from  Laventie  to  Riche- 
bourg  1'  Avoue,  against  the  German 
works  on  the  Aubers  Ridge.  On 
the  N.  portion  of  this  front  the 
4th  corps  (Rawlinson)  attacked  ; 
on  the  S.,  the  Indian  corps  (Will 
cocks)  and  the  1st  corps.  On  May 
9  the  infantry  advanced  after  a  40- 
min.  bombardment,  but  found  that 
the  Germans  were  perfectly  pre- 
pared, and  that  their  wire  had  not 
been  cut  or  their  defences  demol- 
ished by  the  artillery.  The  attack 
failed  with  heavy  British  losses. 
The  total  of  killed,  wounded,  and 
missing  exceeded  12,000,  without 
any  result,  except  that  the  Germans 
were  held  down  in  the  section  of 
attack.  The  failure  was  due  to  the 
weakness  of  the  British  artillery. 

Nevertheless,  French  decided  to 
resume  the  attack,  extending  it 
S.  to  Festubert.  On  May  15 
the  British  once  more  assaulted, 
late  in  the  night,  after  a  pro- 
longed artillery  preparation.  The 
troops  engaged  were  the  Indian 
corps  on  the  British  left,  with 
the  2nd  division  at  Givenchy 
and  the  7th  at  Festubert.  The 
Canadian  division  was  placed  in 
support.  The  2nd  division  broke 
into  the  German  trench  system, 
carrying  it  for  about  half  a  mile, 
and  the  7th  division,  attacking 
E.  of  Festubert,  took  another 
section  of  the  German  line,  but 
between  these  two  indentations  the 
Germans  could  not  be  dislodged. 
They  counter-attacked  in  the  night 
of  May  16,  and  forced  back  the 
2nd  division  slightly,  though  most 
of  the  ground  won  was  held.  On 
May  17  the  British,  both  from 
N.  and  S.,  assaulted  the  German 
wedge,  1,000  yds.  long,  between 
the  two  dents,  and  cleared  it. 

The  trench  battle  continued  on 
the  following  days ;  the  British 
were  much  hampered  by  wetweather 
and  insufficient  ammunition,  but 
ground  was  slowly  gained,  always 
at  the  price  of  heavy  sacrifices.  On 
May  20-21  the  Canadians  took  up 
the  work  of  the  7th  division  before 
Festubert ;  on  May  25  the  47th 
London  Territorial  division  was 
put  in  on  the  British  right  at 
Givenchy,  and  captured  a  section 
of  the  German  line  there,  which 
was  successfully  held.  The  battle 
brought  little  result,  as  the  capture 
of  some  thousands  of  yards  of 
trenches  was  no  compensation  for 
the  heavy  sacrifices  incurred.  In 
killed,  the  British  loss  was  3,620; 
wounded,  17,484;  missing,  4,321. 

'  _  i  H.   W.   Wilson 

Festus.  Poem  by  Philip  James 
Bailey  (q.v.).  First  published  in 
1839,  it  was  added  to  and  otherwise 
altered  during  50  years  until  in  its 


3130 

final  form,  1889,  it  consists  of  about 
10,000  lines.  A  variant  of  the 
Faust  legend,  illustrating  the  ulti- 
mate triumph  of  good  over  evil, 
its  scenes  take  place  in  Heaven 
and  on  the  earth,  and  though  it 
introduces  "the  three  Persons  of 
the  Trinity  as  interlocutors  in  its 
wild  plot "  in  a  way  which  many 
readers  resented,  it  has  frequent 
terse  and  happy  lines  which  have 
become  familiar  quotations. 

Festus,  PORCIUS  (d.  A.D.  62). 
Procurator  of  Judaea  in  succession 
to  Felix,  about  A.D.  58.  He  heard, 
in  the  presence  of  Herod  Agrippa  II 
and  Berenice,  the  case  of  S.  Paul, 
whom  he  sent  to  Rome  for  trial 
(Acts  24-25;  Josephus's  Ant.  of 
the  Jews,  xx,  8  ;  Wars,  ii,  14).  He 
is  said  temporarily  to  have  sup- 
pressed the  Sicarii  or  Assassins,  and 
was,  if  cynical,  inclined  to  justice. 
He  is  introduced  in  a  powerful 
short  story,  The  Procurator  of 
Judaea,  bv  Anatole  France. 


FETH    ALl     SHAH 

Festus,  SEXTUS  POMPEIUS  (3rd 
century  A.D.  ).  Latin  grammarian. 
He  was  the  author  of  an  abstract 
of  the  important  work  by  Marcus 
Verrius  Flaccus,  On  the  Meaning 
of  Words,  containing  an  alpha- 
betical list  of  obsolete  words, 
together  with  valuable  information 
concerning  old  state  institutions 
and  ceremonial.  Part  of  it  (M-T) 
has  been  preserved  in  the  abstract 
of  Festus  and  a  further  epitome  by 
Paulus  Diaconus  (8th  century), 
which  is  complete. 

Feth  All  Shah  OE  BABA  KHAN 
(1762-1834).  Shah  of  Persia. 
Nephew  of  Aga  Mohammed,  he 
came  to  the  throne  in  1798,  and 
threw  himself  into  a  contest  with 
Russia  to  recover  Persia's  lost 
Caucasian  territories.  This  brought 
him  into  conflict  with  Britain  in 

1812,  and  by  the  treaty  of  Gulistan, 

1813,  Feth  Ali  was  forced  to  cede 
Georgia  and  seven  adjacent  prov- 
inces to  Russia.  War  with  Turkey 


Fetishism.       1.  Bondu  witches  or    devils  from  Sierra  Leone,     a.  Man  ot 
Angola  worshipping  two  fetishes.     3.  Natives  of  the  Sierra  Leone  hinter- 
land with  their  fetish 


FETISHISM 


3131 


FEUDALISM 


followed,  1821-23,  but  neither  side 
gained  material  advantage.  He 
died  at  Ispahan,  Oct.  20,  1834. 

Fetishism  (Lat.  factitius,  arti- 
ficial). Belief  that  the  services  of 
a  spirit  may  be  appropriated  by 
the  possession  of  its  material  em- 
bodiment. The  15th  century 
Portuguese  navigators  applied  to 
the  sacred  objects  of  the  W. 
African  negroes  the  term  feitifo, 
a  variant  of  the  English  "  facti- 
tious," which  they  used  of  their 
own  amulets.  There  is,  however, 
a  radical  distinction  between  a 
fetish,  which  is  a  subservient  spirit 
in  its  shrine,  and  an  amulet,  which 
— as  in  a  modern  mascot — is 
merely  an  instrument  of  spirit 
service.  So  also  a  fetish  is  not  a 
god  or  even  a  divine  image,  and 
fetishism  is  not  idolatry.  The 
term  has  been  used  variously  and 
confusingly,  but  as  defined  above 
it  conveniently  describes  a  phase 
of  the  magico-religious  life  of  negro 
Africa,  and  an  analogous  though 
not  identical  one  of  that  of 
aboriginal  America. 

The  fetish  spirit  may  be  bodiless 
or  a  disembodied  soul ;  it  may 
reside  in  a  shell  or  a  tooth,  a  hoof  or 
a  horn,  a  bead  or  a  rag.  The  choice 
of  an  object  as  a  fetish  is  often 
determined  by  its  unusualness ; 
the  Mendi  people  consecrate  to  the 
same  use  rude  soapstone  statuettes 
(British  Museum)  found  hi  caves 
abandoned  by  an  earlier  race. 
Stock-and-Stone  Worship 

In  the  heart  of  Africa  there 
is  a  tendency  to  turn  a  shape- 
less stone  or  a  post — by  a  dab  of 
paint  or  by  rough  chiselling — into 
human  semblance.  This  belongs 
to  a  widespread  stock-and-stone 
worship  that  in  some  senses  is 
transitional  between  fetishism  and 
idolatry.  But  the  fetish  is  treated 
as  a  genie  or  guardian  spirit,  rather 
than  as  a  superior.  It  is  consulted 
or  implored,  praised  or  reproached, 
treasured  or  discarded.  Its  special 
"  medicine  "  is  discovered  by  ex- 
periment ;  the  strings  of  •  wongs 
hung  about  the  neck,  over  the  hut 
door,  at  the  village  entry,  have 
their  several  potencies,  bestowing 
health  or  success,  children  or  rain. 

Among  the  American  Indians, 
spirit-possessed  objects  are  em- 
ployed in  an  analogous  way,  and 
are  called  fetishes  by  American 
ethnologists.  With  the  Zuni,  ob- 
jects bearing  or  made  to  bear  an 
animal  semblance  are  highly  prized, 
especially  when  consecrated  by 
long  tribal  tradition.  Here,  how- 
ever, a  totemic  aspect  is  observ- 
able ;  both  in  N.  America  and  else- 
where objects  once  classed  as 
fetishes  are  now  perceived  to  be 
totems.  The  Amerind  fetish  usu- 
ally differs  from  the  African  in 


possessing,  instead  of  a  spirit,  an 
impersonal  power  which  the  Iro- 
quois  call  orenda  and  the  Algon- 
quins  manito.  See  Totemism. 

Fetter  Lane.  London  thorough- 
fare linking  Fleet  Street  with 
Holborn.  First  mentioned  in  1612 
and  once  a  way  leading  to  gardens, 
its  name  is  variously  derived  from 
faitours,  vagabonds  ;  and  feutriers, 
felt-makers.  The  town  hostel  of 
the  bishops  of  Norwich  was  once 
here.  On  the  W.  side  is  an  entrance 
to  Clifford's  Inn  (q.v.),  with  the 
Record  Office  and  Breams  Build- 
ings, containing  Birkbeck  College, 
beyond.  On  the  E.  is  a  Moravian 
chapel,  rebuilt  1748,  where  Richard 
Baxter,  Wesley,  and  Whitefield 
preached.  Nevill's  Court  has  old 
houses,  and  in  Fleur-de-Lis  Court, 
the  scene  of  Mrs.  Brownrigg's 
murder  of  her  apprentice,  Mary 
Clifford,  in  1767,  is  Newton  Hall, 
for  long  a  Positivist  meeting-place. 
The  White  Horse,  an  old  coaching 
inn,  stood  at  the  Holborn  end. 

Fettes  College.  Scottish  public 
school.  Founded  by  money  left  by 
Sir  William  Fettes  (1750-1836), 
lord  provost  of  Edinburgh,  it  was 
opened  in  1870,  on  a  site  near 


Fettes  College,  Edinburgh.      Buildings  seen  from  the  south 

J.  C.  Inglit 

Inverleith  Park,  Edinburgh.    It  is     holding    from 
now    governed   under    a    scheme 
dating  from  1886.     It  possesses  a 
.....  ...„„„.., fine      range      of 

buildings  and  all 

the     accessories, 

laboratories, 

gymnasium, 

playing       fields, 

etc.,   of    a  large 

public        school. 

There    are    four 

houses       and 

ace  ommodation 


Fettes  College 
arms 


for  about  250  boys. 

Fettling.  Engineering  term 
used  to  describe  the  lining  of  the 
hearth  of  a  puddling  furnace.  It  is 
usually  sand  or  cinders,  or  a  mix- 
ture of  ore.  See  Furnace. 

Feud.  Word  meaning  a  state  of 
animosity,  generally  between  two 
parties.  It  carries  the  idea  of  con- 
tinuous hostility.  A  notable  in- 


stance is  the  feud  between  the 
Guelphs  and  Ghibellines,  and  there 
are  instances  among  the  Scottish 
clans,  e.g.  between  the  Campbells 
and  the  Macdonalds.  See  Vendetta. 
Feudalism  (late  Lat.  feudum, 
A.S.  feoh,  cattle,  property).  Name 
given  to  the  social  and  political 
structure  or  organization  which 
grew  up  on  the  ruins  of  the  Im- 
perial Roman  system  in  Western 
Europe  during  the  early  Middle 
Ages.  Universally  established  in  its 
main  features  by  the  end  of  the 
llth  century,  on  its  political  side, 
it  was  by  the  16th  century  yielding 
to  the  effective  concentration  of 
the  sovereign  authority  in  the  hands 
of  supreme  central  governments. 

It  was  based  upon  tenure  of  land. 
According  to  the  lawyers,  every  foot 
of  soil  was  actually  the  property  of 
the  king.  Estates  had  been  granted 
by  him  to  his  servants  upon  recog- 
nized conditions.      On  those  con- 
ditions the  king's  "men,"  "barons," 
"tenants-in-chief,"  "vassals,"  held 
their  lands  from  their  overlord  the 
king.  They  in  their  turn  had  granted 
portions  of  their  estates  upon  like 
conditions  to  their  own  men  or  vas- 
sals.    At  the  bottom  of  the  scale 
.       came    the    actual 
^   occupants    of    the 
I   soil,  who  also  held 
I    their  plots  of  land 
upon   conditions, 
1    from  their  immedi- 
ate overlord,  who- 
ever he  might  be. 
Except    the   king, 
every     holder     o  f 
land     was     the 
vassal  of  someone, 
whether     his    im- 
mediate    overlord 
was  the  king  him- 
self,   or    a    baron 
holding   from   the 
king,   or  a   vassal 
a    baron,     or      a 
vassal  of  a  vassal. 

The  primary  condition  of  hold- 
ing land  was  the  rendering  of  mili- 
tary service  to  the  immediate  over- 
lord ;  at  the  bottom  of  the  scale 
agricultural  or  other  kinds  of 
service  took  the  place  of  military 
service.  The  vassal  rendered  hom- 
age to  his  overlord,  taking  the  oath 
of  allegiance  and  service  to  him  as 
his  man,  the  lord  taking  corres- 
ponding oath  to  be  "  true  lord  and 
protector"  to  his  man,  the  whole 
system  being  based  upon  the  re- 
cognition of  mutual  obligations. 
Further,  since  the  small  landholder 
was  not  strong  enough  to  protect 
himself  against  a  powerful  neigh- 
bour, and  cpuld  only  with  great 
difficulty  appeal  to  a  distant  over- 
lord for  protection,  it  was  cus- 
tomary for  the  small  men  to 
"  commend  "  themselves  to  the 


FEU      DE     JOIE 


3  1  32 


powerful — that  is,  to  surrender 
their  land  (since  it  was  alienable) 
to  a  lord,  from  whom  they  received 
it  back  as  his  tenants  or  vassals. 
Custom  established  the  right  of 
hereditary  succession  in  various 
forms,  and  the  claims  a  lord  was 
entitled  to  make  upon  his  tenants. 
Broadly  speaking,  on  the  con- 
tinent of  Europe,  it  was  generally 
held  that  the  vassal  owed  allegi- 
ance only  to  his  immediate  lord, 
the  result  being  that  the  king's  great 
vassals,  dukes  or  counts,  could,  if 
they  chose  to  resist  him,  call  upon 
their  own  vassals  to  serve  against 
the  king ;  the  royal  power  de- 
pended hi  effect  on  the  loyalty  of 
the  great  vassals  who  individually, 
or  by  combination,  were  strong 
enough  to  defy  him.  Thus  when  a 
duke  of  Aquitaine,  a  vassal  of  the 
French  crown  in  respect  of  Aqui- 
taine, happened  also  to  be  king  of 
England  in  respect  of  which  he 
was  independent  of  the  French 
crown,  he  was  able  singly  to  defy 
his  overlord ;  so  also  when  one 
person  was  at  once  duke  of  Aqui- 
taine, duke  of  Normandy,  and 
count  of  Anjou. 

In  England  the  feudal  system 
was  not  accompanied  by  an  equal 
danger,  because  until  the  15th 
century  no  single  feudatories  held 
sufficiently  extensive  domains  to 
be  strong  enough  to  defy  the  crown 
except  by  means  of  widespread 
combination.  Also,  in  England, 
the  doctrine  prevailed  from  the 
first  that  allegiance  to  the  over- 
lord prevailed  over  allegiance  to 
the  immediate  lord.  The  last 
remaining  relics  of  feudalism 
were  abolished  by  the  Law  of 
Property  Act,  1922.  See  Manor; 
Villeinage  ;  consult  also  Constitu- 
tional History  of  England,  W. 
Stubbs,  1897. 

Feu  de  Joie  (Fr.,  joy-fire).  Run- 
ning fire  of  musketry  used  gener- 
ally on  occasions  of  rejoicing. 
Ranks  of  soldiers  fire  one  after 
another,  beginning  on  the  right  of 
the  front  rank  and  continuing  from 
the  left  of  the  second  rank,  etc. 

Feuerbach,  LUDWIG  (1804-72). 
German  philosopher.  Born  at 
Landshut,  Bavaria,  July  28,  1804, 
he  attended 
Hegel's  lectures 
at  Berlin,  and 
became  a  tutor 
at  Erlangen. 
He  abandoned 
teaching  for  a 
literary  career 
in  consequence 
of  the  excite- 
Ludwig  Feuerbach,  ment  caused 
German  philosopher  byhisThoughts 

on  '_.  Death  and  Immortality 
(published  anonymously  1830), 
in  which  he  denied  the  im- 


mortality of  man.  Subsequently 
inclining  towards  atheism,  he  de- 
clared the  reconciliation  of  faith 
and  science  to  be  impossible,  and 
in  the  place  of  theology  substi- 
tuted anthropology.  The  body  is 
the  very  essence  of  man  ;  the  idea 
of  a  superhuman  power  is  a  fiction 
of  man's  own  imagination.  Man  is 
only  what  he  eats.  Sensuous  en- 
joyment is  the  supreme  good,  but 
only  attainable  by  man  as  a 
member  of  society.  He  died  near 
Nuremberg,  Sept.  13,  1872.  Hia 
other  works  include  The  Essence 
of  Christianity,  1841,  Eng.  trans.  M. 
Evans,  1854 ;  and  The  Philosophy 
of  the  Future,  1843. 

Feuillants.  Religious  order 
that  flourished  in  France  from  the 
16th  century.  It  was  an  offshoot  of 
the  Cistercians,  and  the  ri^me 
originated  in  their  monastery  at 
Feuillant,  near  Toulouse.  The 
abbot  there,  Jean  de  la  Barriere, 
got  into  trouble  with  the  authori- 
ties, so  with  a  following  he  migrated 
to  Paris  in  1587,  and  founded  the 
new  order,  one  adopting  a  stricter 
form  of  life.  A  home  was  given  to 
them  in  Paris  by  Henry  III,  and  in 
1589  they  were  recognized  for- 
mally by  the  Pope.  A  later  pope 
divided  the  order  into  two 
branches,  French  and  Italian.  The 
French  kept  the  original  name,  and 
at  the  Revolution  had  in  France 
24  monastic  houses,  including  one 
in  the  Rue  St.  Honore,  Paris. 

Feuillants.  Name  of  one  of  the 
parties  that  sprang  up  during  the 
French  Revolution.  It  was  given 
to  the  members  of  a  club  because 
they  met  in  the  building  in  Paris 
formerly  occupied  by  the  religious 
order  bearing  this  name.  They 
originated  with  some  Jacobins 
who,  in  1791,  refused  to  ask  for  the 
deposition  of  Louis  XVI,  and 
thereafter  they  formed  the  moder- 
ate wing  of  the  revolutionary  party. 

They  wished  to  maintain  the  con- 
stitution and  to  set  up  a  stable 
government,  and  at  the  outset  they 
called  themselves  the  Society  of 
Friends  of  theConstitution,  but  they 
never  secured  any  great  amount 
of  support  from  the  populace, 
although  they  were  the  largest 
party  in  the  Constituent  Assembly. 
Sieyes,  Barere,  and  Lafayette  were 
perhaps  the  most  prominent  mem- 
bers. Their  wealth  and  their  con- 
servatism brought  them  under  the 
suspicion  of  the  extremists,  and, 
after  the  rising  of  Aug.  10,  1792, 
their  names  were  published  as  ene- 
mies of  France.  This  put  an  end  to 
their  activities,  although  the  name 
was  still  used  to  describe  men 
holding  moderate  opinions. 

Feuillet,  OCTAVE  (1821-90). 
French  novelist  and  dramatist. 
Born  at  St.  L6,  in  La  Manche,  Aug. 


11,  1821,  he  became  an  assistant  to 
Dumas  the  elder.  When  he  started 
on  independent  work  he  soon 
achieved  con- 
siderablepopu  - 
I  a  r  i  t  y  with 
plays  and  with 
the  novel,  Le 
Roman  d'un 
Jeune  Homme 
Pauvre,  1858  ; 
this  was  fol- 
lowed by  the 


mystical  romance  Histoire  de 
Sybille,  1863.  In  1862  he  was 
elected  to  the  Academy,  and  was 
later  made  librarian  at  Fontaine- 
bleau.  Monsieur  de  Camors,  1867  ; 
and  Le  Journal  d'une  Femme, 
1878,  were  the  more  notable  of  his 
later  works.  His  stories  are  charac- 
terised by  a  blend  of  romanticism 
and  realism.  He  died  hi  Paris, 
Dec.  29,  1890. 

Feuilleton  (Fr.,  leaflet).  French 
word  for  the  part  of  a  newspaper, 
usually  the  lower  part  of  a  page, 
devoted  to  gossip,  literary,  artistic 
or  dramatic  criticism,  and  especi- 
ally serial  fiction.  The  practice, 
though  not  the  name,  has  been 
traced  to  the  section  in  Defoe's 
Review  headed  Mercure  Scandale, 
but  the  feuilleton,  as  at  present 
understood,  originated  in  the  Jour- 
nal des  Debats  in  the  early  years 
of  the  19th  century. 

Fever  (Lat.  febris).  Condition 
of  the  body,  the  most  characteris- 
tic feature  of  which  is  a  rise  of 
temperature.  Accompanying  symp- 
toms are  increase  in  the  pulse-rate, 
headache,  thirst,  and,  in  the  early 
stages,  sensations  of  chilliness  which 
in  severe  cases  may  amount  to  fits 
of  acute  shivering  or  rigors.  The 
skin  is  usually  dry  at  first,  but 
later  there  is  profuse  sweating, 
and  the  skin  is  hot  and  flushed. 
The  urine  may  be  diminished  in 
amount  and  is  highly  coloured. 
The  tongue  is  often  coated,  and  in 
children  vomiting  is  frequent.  The 
normal  temperature  of  the  body  in 
health  varies  between  98°  and  99° 
F.  Up  to  102°  F.  the  fever  may  be 
spoken  of  as  "  moderate."  Tem- 
peratures of  105°  or  106°  are  high, 
and  above  106°  the  term  hyper- 
jjyrexia  may  be  employed.  A 
temperature  of  107°  F.  is  very 
grave  and  recovery  is  improbable. 

The  cause  of  fever  is  most  often 
the  circulation  of  a  poison  in  the 
blood,  and  in  most  cases  the  poison 
is  a  product  of  bacterial  actiyity  in 
an  acute  infectious  disease.^  It  is 
now  recognized  that  the  rise  of 
temperature  indicates  the  reaction 
of  the  body  against  the  poison  in 
the  blood,  and,  provided  it  does 


FEVERFEW 

not  reach  a  dangerous  height,  it  is 
to  be  regarded  as  a  beneficial  pro- 
cess. vThe  treatment  of  fever  de- 
pends upon  the  disease  with  which 
it  is  associated.  Dangerously  high 
temperatures  may  be  reduced  by 
cold  sponging,  or  the  application  of 
an  ice-pack. 

Certain  clinical  terms  are  used 
to  describe  various  types  of  fever. 
Continued  fever  is  the  condition 
in  which  the  fever  remains  persis- 
tently high  ;  in  remittent  fever 
there  are  daily  fluctuations  of  two 
degrees  or  more  ;  and  in  intermit- 
tent fever  the  increased  tempera- 
ture is  only  present  during  part 
of  the  day.  In  malaria,  when  there 
is  a  daily  rise  of  temperature,  the 
condition  is  termed  quotidian; 
when  the  rise  occurs  on  alternate 
days  it  is  said  to  be  tertian  ;  and 
when  two  days  elapse  between  the 
paroxysms  it  is  quartan.  See 
Scarlet  Fever. 

Feverfew  (Matricaria  parthen- 
ium).  Perennial  herb  of  the  nat- 
ural order  Compositae.  A  native 
of  Mid  and  South  Europe,  it  has 
small,  clustered,  daisv-like,  yellow- 


3133 


Feverfew.    Plant  and  flower  of  the 
medicinal  herb 

centred,  white  flower-heads.  The 
leaves  are  deeply  cut  into  toothed 
oblong  segments.  The  whole  plant 
has  a  bitter,  tonic  smell,  and  was 
used  as  a  rustic  medicine  in  slight 
fevers  The  name,  formerly  spelt 
feverfuge,  is  derived  from  Lat. 
febrifugia  (febris,  fever  ;  fugare, 
to  drive  away). 

Fever  Hospital.  Hospital  for 
the  reception  of  patients  suffering 
from  infectious  diseases,  e.g.  scar- 
let fever  and  diphtheria.  Such  a 
hospital  should  be  built  on  a  site 
with  a  dry  subsoil  and  good  fall  for 
drainage.  It  should  be,  where 
possible,  outside  the  town  which 
it  serves  but  with  good  facilities 
for  access,  and  there  should  be 
ample  grounds  around  the  hospital. 
There  should  be  a  detached 
administrative,  block,  separate 
wards  for  patients  suffering  from 
different  diseases,  and  out-build- 
ings, such  as  laundry,  stores,  mor- 
tuary, and  disinfecting  cumber. 


F.F.A. 

compatriots.  He 
was  a  champion 
of  woman,  and 
advocated  a 
higher  position 
for  her  '  in  the 
community.  He 
was  attacked  by 
several  writers, 
and  called  before 
the  Inquisition, 
which,  however, 
he  refused  to 
attend.  Pron. 
Fa-ee-ho. 


In  the  wards 
of  hospitals 
the  minimum 
floor  space  should 
not  be  less  than 
144  sq.  ft.,  and 
the  minimum 
cubic  space  2,000 
cubic  ft.  per  head, 
the  system  of 
ventilation  pro- 
viding that  this 
is  changed  three 
or  four  times  an 
hour.  Where 
space  permits  the 
faaX  of  one- 
storeyed  p  a  v  i  1  - 
ions  is  the  best.  These  should 
be  connected  with  each  other  by 
corridors  open  to  the  air.  Isolation 
hospitals  for  small-pox  require  a 
larger  space  around  them  than 
hospitals  for  other  infectious 
diseases,  and  should  not  be  situated 
close  to  any  populated  neighbour- 
hood. See  Hospital. 

Fever  sham,  EARL  OF.  British 
title  borne  by  the  family  of  Dun- 
combe  since  1868.  Charles  Dun- 
combe  (1764-1841)  was  a  descen- 
dant of  Thomas  and  Ursula  Browne, 
who,  on  inheriting  the  wealth  of  Ur- 
sula's brother,  the  London  banker, 
Sir  Charles  Duncombe  (d.  1711), 
took  his  name.  In  1776  Charles 
Duncombe  was  made  Baron  Fever - 
sham.  His  grandson  William,  the 
3rd  baron  (1829-1915),  was  made 
an  earl  in  1868.  His  grandson,  who 
succeeded  to  the  title,  was,  as  Vis- 
count Helmsley,  Unionist  M.P., 
1906-15.  In  1916,  during  the  Great 
War,  he  was  killed  in  action  and 
his  son  Charles  became  the  3rd  earl. 
The  family  seat  is  Duncombe  Park, 
Helmsley,  Yorks. 

Feyjoo,  BENITO  (1676-1764). 
Spanish  poet  and  monk.  Born  Oct. 
18,  1676,  of  good  family,  he  entered 
the  Church  in  his  youth.  Of  a 
studious  disposition,  he  devoted 
himself  to  scientific  pursuits,  and 
the  art  of  healing.  Most  of  his  life 
was  spent  in  a  monastery  at 
Oviedo,  where  he  died,  Sept,  26, 
1764.  In  his  Teatro  Critico  (Critical 
Theatre)  1751-59,  Feyjoo  indicts 
the  metaphysical  views  of  his 


in  the  old  part  of  the  city.    Above, 
showing  position  of  the  principal  buildings 


Fez  OR  TARBUSH.  Close-fitting 
cap  of  felt  with  a  flat  top,  usually 
red  with  a  black  tassel.  It  is 
worn  chiefly  by  the  Turks  with 
or  instead  of  a  turban  (q.v.).  The 
name  comes  from  Fez,  in  Morocco, 
where  these  caps  were  originally 
made.  See  colour  plate,  Caps. 

Fez  OR  FAZ.  City  of  Morocco, 
and  the  northern  capital.  It  is 
situated  in  a  valley  about  I'OO  m. 
E.  of  the  port  of  Rabat  (q.v.),  and 
is  one  of  the  sacred  cities  of  Islam. 
The  city,  surrounded  by  ancient 
walls,  is  picturesque,  and  con- 
tains the  Mosque  of  the  Cherubim 
or  of  Muley  Edris,  to  which  is 
attached  a  Mahomedan  university, 
once  the  centre  of  learning  in 
N.W.  Africa,  with  a  library  con- 
taining some  30,000  MSS.  The  city, 
which  was  founded  in  A.D.  808,  is 
connected  with  Rabat  by  a  light 
railway  opened  Feb.  8,  1915.  Pop. 
105,855. 

Fezzan.  Country  occupying  the 
S.  portion  of  the  Italian  'colony  of 
Libia  ( Tripoli tania)  and  politically 
attached  to  it.  It  was  occupied  by 
Italian  troops  towards  the  end  of 
1913.  Fezzan  extends  some  400  m. 
N.  and  S.,  and  300  m.  E.  and  W., 
and  belongs  to  the  desert  region  of 
N.  Africa.  The  inhabitants,  who  are 
Mahomedans  belonging  to  the  Sun- 
nite  sect,  are  estimated  to  number 
about  70,000.  The  chief  oases  are 
Ghat  hi  the  extreme  S.W.,  and 
Murzuk. 

F.F.A.  Abbrev.  for  Fellow  oi 
the  Faculty  of  Actuaries. 


FFESTINIOG      GROUP 


3134 


FIBROLITE 


Ffestiniog  Group.  Series  of 
grey  flagstones  belonging  to  the 
Cambrian  system  of  sedimentary 
rocks,  developed  in  Merioneth.  It 
is  characterised  by  abundant  fossil 
remains  of  a  small  brachiopod  (Lin- 
gulella  davisi),  and  has  persistent 
upper  beds  crowded  with  remains 
of  Lingula.  It  was  deposited  under 
shallow  water. 

Fiacre  (Fr.).  Name  of  a  saint 
and  of  a  hackney  carriage.  The 
saint,  also  known  as  S.  Fiachrach, 
a  native  of  Ireland,  died  at  Breuil, 
near  Paris,  about  670,  and  is  com- 
memorated on  Aug.  30.  Outside 
the  Hotel  de  S.  Fiacre,  in  Paris,  in 
the  17th  century,  was  the  first 
stand  for  hackney  carriages,  and 
hence,  it  is  supposed,  is  derived 
the  application  of  the  name  fiacre 
to  the  vehicle.  See,  Cab. 

Fians  OR  FIANNA.  In  Celtic 
tradition,  the  band  of  warriors  led 
at  the  height  of  their  power  by 
Finn  (q.v. ).  Opinions  differ  widely 
as  to  their  original  nature,  but 
they  are  generally  believed  to 
have  flourished  about  the  middle 
of  the  3rd  century.  They  existed  in 
the  time  of  Finn's  father,  Cumhal, 
and  formed  a  militia  force  of  speci- 
ally chosen  fighting  men  to  expel 
foreign  invaders  from  Ireland.  The 
Gaelic  legends  of  Ireland  and  Scot- 
land have  much  to  tell  of  their 
exploits  in  war  and  love  and  hunt- 
ing, and  in  some,  the  Fians  appear 
as  a  knightly  order  similar  to  that 
of  the  Round  Table.  Numerous 
cairns,  standing-stones,  etc.,  all 
over  Ireland  and  in  some  parts  of 
the  Scottish  highlands  are  asso- 
ciated with  them. 

Their  strength,  however,  grew 
dangerous,  and  in  their  last  great 
battle  at  Gabra  (283)  they  were 
broken  by  Coirpre,  son  of  Cormac. 
The  anglicised  form,  Fenians,  gave 
title  to  the  Fenian  Brotherhood. 
See  Fenianism;  consult  also  The 
Dean  of  Lismore's  Book,  ed.  with 
trans.  T.  MacLauchlan,  1862; 
Leabhar  na  Feiune,  J.  F.  Camp- 
bell, 1872;  The  Fians,  ed.  J. 
G.  Campbell,  1891 ;  Bards  of  the 
Gael  and  Gall,  G.  Sigerson,  1897  ; 
Ossian  and  the  Ossianic  Litera- 
ture, A.  Nutt,  1899;  Myths  and 
Legends  of  the  Celtic  Race,  T.  W. 
H.  Rolleston,  1911. 

Fiar.  In  Scots  law,  name  given 
to  the  ultimate  owner  of  an  estate, 
the  one  in  whom  the  ownership  is 
really  vested.  The  fiar  is,  therefore, 
the  opposite  of  the  tenant  for  life. 

Fiars  Price.  Price  of  grain  in 
Scotland  as  fixed  by  the  sheriff  of 
the  county,  sometimes  with  the 
aid  of  a  jury.  It  is  done  for  each 
county  each  year,  the  object  being 
to  set  up  a  standard  in  order  that 
the  cash  value  of  certain  payments, 
formerly  made  in  kind,  can  be 


calculated.  Among  these  are  cer- 
tain clerical  and  other  incomes 
derived  from  tenants,  and  in  some 
cases  rents.  The  practice,  which  is 
very  old,  was  regularised  by  an 
Act  of  1723. 

Fiat  (Lat.,  let  it  be  done).  Term 
used  in  English  law  for  an  order 
that  does  not  need  to  be  drawn  up 
formally.  Fiats  are  issued  by 
judges  and  other  high  officials 
under  certain  conditions  and  ac- 
cording to  certain  rules. 

Fibre  (Lat.  fibra,  filament). 
Term  used  for  threadlike  construc- 
tion or  appearance  of  many  sub- 
stances. Hair,  wool,  silk  threads  of 
the  cocoons  of  silkworms,  parts  of 
leaves,  bark  of  certain  trees, 
grasses,  etc.,  are  all  fibres.  Though 
under  certain  conditions  some 
metals  exhibit  a  fibrous  construc- 
tion, it  is  difficult  to  separate  the 
fibres,  but  occasionally  metals  spun 
into  fine  threads  are  spoken  of  as 
metal  fibres,  as  also  is  spun  glass. 
With  the  exception  of  asbestos, 
the  fibres  of  which  are  woven 
into  a  kind  of  cloth,  the  fibres  of 
commerce  can  be  conveniently 
divided  into  two  classes,  animal 
and  vegetable. 

Animal  fibres  are  the  wool  and 
hair  of  animals,  and  the  silk  of 
insect  cocoons.  Though  compara- 
tively few  animals  prodiice  com- 
mercial fibre,  these  few  are  of  great 
importance.  Sheep's  wool,  mohair 
from  the  Angora  goat,  the  hair  of 
the  llama  and  alpaca,  and  those  of 
the  cow,  camel,  and  rabbit — the 
latter  for  felts — and  horsehair  are 
the  chief  commercial  animal  fibres, 
and  their  uses  are  dealt  with  under 
their  respective  headings. 

Vegetable  fibres  constitute  a 
large  and  important  class,  and  are 
put  to  a  greater  variety  of  uses 
than  animal  fibres.  Flax,  China 
grass  or  ramie,  hemp,  jute,  cotton, 
raffia,  sisal  hemp,  tampico,  coco- 
nut, esparto  grass,  and  Mexican 
whisk  or  broom  root  are  among  the 
chief  vegetable  fibres. 

The  grasses  or  fibres  of  S. 
America  and  Africa  are  collected 
and  sent  over  to  importers  in  the 
British  Isles,  who  sell  them  to  the 
dressers,  who  in  turn  cut  the  fibre 
to  different  lengths  for  various 
uses  and  sell  it  to  brush-makers. 
Brush-making  is  an  important 
industry,  and  an  enormous  amount 
of  fibre  is  used,  so  that  some  brush- 
makers  dress  and  clean  their  own 
raw  material.  The  fibre  is  cleaned 
of  all  dirt,  cut,  and  hackled  to 
make  it  clean  and  strong  ;  then  cut 
again,  dyed  if  necessary,  steamed 
and  so  made  straight,  and  then  it 
is  left  to  dry  hard. 

Palmyra  fibre,  commonly  known 
as  bassin  in  the  brush  trade,  is  a 
strong,  medium-sized  fibre,  and  is 


very  often  dyed  to  look  like  Bahia 
piassava,  which  is  the  best  fibre  for 
street  brushes,  etc.  Mexican  fibre, 
of  which  there  are  two  kinds — tula, 
which  is  short,  and  jumava,  a 
longer  variety — is  a  white  fibre 
which,  when  dressed,  is  used  for 
toilet  hair  brushes,  nail  brushes, 
etc.  Coco  fibre  from  the  husk  of 
the  coconut  is  used  for  making 
mats,  and  also  for  the  large  brushes 
and  brooms  which  are  used  for 
domestic  purposes. 

The  principal  use  of  coir  yarn  is 
for  thatching,  though  it  is  some- 
times used  for  large  mats.  Pias- 
sava, the  most  important  fibre  in 
the  brush  trade,  is  used  for  all 
kinds  of  brushes  and  brooms,  and 
is  found  chiefly  in  Brazil  and  W. 
Africa.  It  is  also  largely  used  in  S. 
America  for  rope-making.  Kitool, 
from  Ceylon,  is  the  aristocrat  of 
fibres,  being  polished  and  treated 
with  oil,  making  it  very  expensive. 
It  is  used  for  making  fine  brushes 
and  also  for  the  manufacture  of 
ropes  of  good  quality  in  India. 

Such  brushes  as  dandy  brushes 
for  horses  are  generally  made  from 
Mexican  fibre.  Animal  fibre,  as 
horsehair,  badger's  hair,  sable,  and 
camel's  hair,  are  also  extensively 
used  in  brush-making.  Fibres, 
chiefly  of  the  cheap  kinds,  which 
pulp  easily,  are  used  for  paper- 
making.  Among  them  are  esparto 
grass,  the  paper  mulberry — the 
bark  of  which  is  converted  into 
paper  extensively  used  in  Japan — 
cotton  grass,  and  Deccan  hemp. 
From  the  leaves  of  Carludovica 
palmata  is  obtained  the  fibre  from 
which  Panama  hats  are  manu- 
factured ;  from  Gibotium  barometz, 
a  fern  growing  in  the  Sandwich 
Islands,  comes  a  variety  of  vege- 
table silk  used  for  stuffing  uphol- 
stery work,  especially  in  the  U.S.  ; 
and  from  Eriodendron  anfractuosum 
comes  kapok,  a  soft,  silky,  elastic 
fibre  used  in  upholstery,  for  the 
stuffing  of  cushions,  seats,  etc. 
See  Asbestos;  Cotton;  Flax; 
Hemp  ;  Jute ;  Paper  ;  Rope  ;  Silk. 

Fibrin  (Lat.  fibra,  filament). 
Threads  of  solid  proteid  formed  in 
the  process  of  coagulation  of  blood. 
The  fine  threads  entangle  the 
corpuscles  of  the  blood  and,  gradu- 
ally shrinking,  squeeze  out  the 
fluid  part  of  the  blood  or  plasma,  the 
solid  mass  of  fibrin  and  corpuscles 
forming  the  clot.  See  Blood. 

Fibroid.  Tumour  composed 
mainly  of  fibrous  tissue,  more 
correctly  called  fibroma  (q.v.).  A 
common  tumour  of  the  uterus  is 
spoken  of  as  a  fibroid,  but  is  really 
developed  from  the  muscular  tissue. 
See  Uterus. 

Fibrolite.  Variety  of  mineral 
sillimanite  (q.v.),  one  of  the  anda- 
lusite  group.  Chemically  a  silicate 


FIBROMA 


of  aluminium,  it  occurs  in  crystal- 
line schists  in  form  of  lenticular 
lumps  consisting  of  finely  fibrous 
aggregates. 

Fibroma.  Tumour  composed 
mainly  of  fibrous  tissue.  Soft 
fibromata  most  frequently  develop 
from  the  connective  tissue  of  the 
skin,  and  may  form  pedunculated 
outgrowths.  Hard  fibromata  are 
found  in  connexion  with  the  perios- 
teum or  tissue  covering  the  surface 
bones,  the  ear,  and  other  parts. 

Fibrositis.  Disease  of  an  in- 
flammatory nature  affecting  the 
fibrous  tissue  or  fascia  which  ^  sur- 
rounds muscles  and  extends  be- 
tween the  muscular  fibres.  Pain  is 
the  most  prominent  symptom.  The 
causes  of  the  disorder  are  exposure 
to  cold  and  wet,  sudden  chilling 
after  heavy  labour,  and  some- 
times a  blow.  Persons  of  gouty 
tendency  are  most  likely  to  be 
affected.  See  Lumbago;  Pleuro- 
dynia;  Stiff  Neck. 

Fibrous  Tissue.  Tissue  com- 
posed chiefly  of  bundlesof  fine  white 
fibres.  It  is  found  in  tendons,  liga- 
ments, fascia,  and  the  deeper 
layers  of  the  skin. 

Fibula  (Lat.,  buckle).  Outer  of 
the  two  bones  which  form  the 
skeleton  of  the  lower  leg.  It  is  a 
long,  slender  bone,  firmly  attached 
to  the  tibia  by  ligaments  at  its 
upper  and  lower  extremities.  The 
lower  extremity  forms  the  external 
malleolus  or  bony  protuberance  on 
the  outer  side  of  the  ankle,  and 
helps  to  form  the  socket  in  which 
the  foot  articulates  with  the  bones 
of  the  leg.  See  Leg. 

Fibula  (Lat.  ).  Brooch  or  clasp, 
especially  of  the  early  metallic  ages. 
The  neolithic  bone  pin,  often  made 
from  the  splint  bone  or  fibula  of  a 
vertebrate  animal,  was  imitated 
in  bronze  ;  when  bent  over  until 
the  looped  head  clasped  the  point 
the  safety  -  pin  resulted.  Com- 
mon in  Italian  pile-dwellings, 
and  the  early  Aegean,  it  de- 
veloped at  Hallstatt  a  bolder 
bow,  often  much  decorated.  Under 
••n  La  Tene  influ- 
>|  ence  three  fur- 
ther stages  are 
traced,  the 
catchplate  be- 
ing bent  back  so 
as  to  (i)  ap- 
proach, (ii) 
clasp,  (iii)  unite 
with  the  bow. 
This  sequence 
serves  to  date 
iron-age  anti- 
quities wherever 
these  types  are 
found.  Unlike 
Fibula.  Merovingian  these  late-Celtic 


7th  cent. 


was  in  two  pieces.  Anglo-Saxon 
types,  sometimes  betraying  con- 
tinental influence,  mostly  dis- 
play native  developments,  espe- 
cially in  cloisonne.  The  choicest 
Gaelic  examples  came  from  Hun- 
terston,  Tara,  and  Aesica.  They  are 
now  in  Edinburgh,  Dublin,  and 
Newcastle  respectively.  See  Brooch. 
Fichte,  JOHAKN  GOTTLIEB  (1762- 
1814).  German  philosopher.  Born 
at  Rammenau,  Lusatia,  May  19, 
1762,  he  left  Germany  owing  to 
poverty,  for  Switzerland,  where  he 
became  acquainted  with  Kant's 
philosophy.  The  attention  at- 
tracted by  his  A  Critique  of  All 
Revelation,  written  while  he  was 
n  tutor  at  Koniesbenr.  helped  him 


Fibula.     Diagram  illustrating  rela- 
tive positions  of  tibia  and  fibula  in 
tbe  human  leg. 

to  obtain  the  professorship  of  phil- 
osophy at  Jena.  In  1799,  having 
been  accused  of  atheism,  he  re- 
signed his  post  and  retired  to  Ber- 
lin, where  he  was  allowed  to  lecture 
on  philosophy.  In  1807,  when  the 
French  invaded  Prussia,  Fichte 
showed  his  ardent  patriotism  in  his 
Addresses  to  the  German  Nation. 
He  died  at 
Berlin,  Jan. 
27,  1814,  from 
a  fever  con- 
I  tracted  during 
g  the  war  of 
independence. 

Fichte's  sys- 
tem  has   been 


Roman   fibula 


After  Bury 

called  practical  idealism,  according 
to  which  the  power  of  the  will  in  the 
Ego  is  supreme.  The  Ego  or  self  is 
a  purely  active  being,  which  derives 
from  itself  the  entirety  of  know- 
ledge. It  is  to  the  Ego  that  we  have 
to  look  for  the  explanation  of  every- 
thing. The  Ego,  feeling  itself  limited, 


"  posits  itself  "  as  determining  the 
non-Ego.  The  counterpart  of  what- 
ever belongs  to  the  Ego  belongs  to 
the  non-Ego.  The  Ego  created  the 
non-Ego;  it  creates  nature  and 
God.  But  God  is  not  merely  a 
creation  of  the  Ego,  but  the  abso- 
lute Ego,  the  infinite  will  of  the 
universe,  the 'source  of  the  finite 
Ego,  to  which  we  must  ever  strive 
to  become  united.  Fichte's  most 
important  work  is  The  Founda- 
tion of  the  Whole  Doctrine  of 
Knowledge,  1795. 

Fichtelgebirge.  Mountain  sys- 
tem of  Germany.  Its  central  nu- 
cleus is  situated  hi  N.E.  Bavaria 
between  the  basins  of  the  Regnitz 
and  the  Naad.  The  name  is  de- 
rived from  the  pine  trees  (Fichte), 
with  which  it  was  formerly  covered. 
It  forms  a  watershed  between  the 
sources  of  the  Elbe,  Rhine,  and 
Danube.  The  principal  summits 
are  Sckneeberg  (3,461  ft.)  and 
Ochsenkopf  (3,334  ft. ).  It  has  con- 
nections with  or  ramifications  into 
the  Erzgebirge  and  the  Thuringian 
Forest,  and  stretches  in  a  south- 
westerly direction  to  the  banks  of 
the  Altmiihl,  near  Eichstadt. 

Fiction  (Lat.  fictio,  feigning). 
Term  now  applied  almost  wholly  to 
prose  romances  or  novels,  although 
strictly  it  means  anything  that  is 
feigned,  and  is  applicable  to  any 
literary  productions  of  the  imagi- 
nation. See  Literature  ;  Novel : 
Romance. 

Fiction,  LEGAL.  Legal  phrase 
denoting  an  assumption  of  fact 
without  question  of  its  truth,  for 
the  purpose  of  evading  technical 
difficulties.  Fictions  occur  in  every 
system  of  jurisprudence.  They 
have  been  invented  to  enable 
changes  to  be  effected  in  the  sub- 
stance of  the  law  while  deferring  to 
the  wholesome  imaginative  rever- 
ence for  its  old  symbols  and  form- 
alities. Fictions  of  law  are  not  al- 
lowed to  be  denied,  their  proper 
operation,  according  to  Blackstone, 
being  "  to  prevent  a  mischief,  or 
remedy  an  inconvenience,  that 
might  result  from  the  general  rule 
of  law,"  while  further  the  maxim 
is  invariably  observed  that  no  fic- 
tion shall  extend  to  work  an  injury. 

In  England  it  was  through  fic- 
tions that  the  courts  of  king's 
bench,  exchequer,  and  common 
pleas  encroached  on  the  previously 
distinct  jurisdiction  of  one  another. 
By  the  common  law  no  mere  civil 
action  could  be  prosecuted  in  the 
king's  bench,  but  plea  of  any  civil 
action  could  be  held  there,  other 
than  actions  real,  if  the  defendant 
was  an  officer  of  the  court,  or  in 
the  custody  of  the  marshal  of  the 
court,  for  a  breach  of  the  peace 
or  any  other  offence ;  hence  the 
fiction  was  introduced  into  the 


FID.     DEF. 

pleadings  that  the  defendant  had 
been  arrested  for  a  supposed 
trespass,  and  so,  being  in  the 
custody  of  the  marshal,  could  be 
proceeded  against  for  any  other 
personal  injury. 

Similarly  in  the  court  of  ex- 
chequer, personal  actions  were 
gradually  admitted  by  the  fiction 
that  the  plaintiff  was  the  king's 
debtor,  and  was  prevented  from  dis- 
charging his  liability  by  the  failure 
of  the  defendant  to  pay.  By  another 
fiction,  actions  for  ejectment  were 
made  to  serve  the  purpose  of 
claimants  to  land,  the  names  John 
Doe  and  Richard  Roe  (q.v. )  being 
employed  as  those  of  an  imaginary 
lessee  and  wrongful  ejector. 

Other  fictions  impose  a  con- 
ventional rule  where  exact  facts 
are  difficult  to  be  ascertained,  e.g. 
the  law  takes  no  notice  of  fractions 
of  a  day,  so  that  if  a  thing  is  to  be 
done  on  a  certain  day,  as  payment 
of  rent  on  quarter  day,  the  whole 
day  is  allowed  for  its  performance. 
Again,  an  infant  becomes  21  the 
day  before  his  21st  birthday,  be- 
cause on  that  day  he  completes  21 
years  of  existence ;  but  because  it  - 
would  be  highly  inconvenient  to 
ascertain  the  precise  moment  of 
his  birth,  he  becomes  21  legally 
on  the  first  moment  of  that  day. 

Fictions  tend  to  disappear  by 
legislation.  Surviving  examples 
that  may  be  cited  are  found  in  the 
lord  mayor's  court,  London,  where 
the  plaintiff  always  avers  that  the 
defendant  promised  him  in  the 
parish  of  S.  Helen's,  so  as  to  bring 
the  matter  within  the  city  juris- 
diction. See  Jurisprudence ;  Law. 

Fid.  Def.  Abbrev.  for  fidei  de- 
j'ensor,  defender  of  the  faith  (q.v. ), 
a  title  of  the  British  sovereign. 

Fiddle.  Old  English  name  for 
the  violin  and  its  ancestors.  Gen- 
erically,  it  denoted  sometimes  any 
stringed  instrument  played  with  a 
bow,  but  latterly  the  word  was 
applied  chiefly  to  the  smaller  sizes 
of  such  instruments.  The  etymo- 
logy is  doubtful,  but  fiddle,  with 
viol,  is  connected  with  the  Latin 
vitulari,  to  celebrate  a  feast. 

Fidei  Commission  (Lat.  com- 
missum,  entrusted  ;  fidei,  to  good 
faith).  Term  of  Roman  law.  By 
the  civil  law  of  Rome,  a  citizen 
could  neither  make  a  foreigner  his 
heir  nor  leave  him  any  legacy. 
As  foreign  settlers  (peregrini)  be- 
came more  numerous  in  Rome, 
citizens  often  desired  to  leave  their 
property,  or  part  of  it,  to  some 
foreign  friend.  The  only  way  to  do 
this  was  to  leave  the  property  to  a 
citizen,  asking  him  to  carry  out 
the  testator's  wishes,  and  hand  the 
property  over  to  the  foreigner.  At 
first  it  was  entirely  optional  on  the 
heir  whether  he  carried  out  the 


3136 

request  or  not.  It  was  left  to  his 
faith.  But,  in  the  end,  fidei  com- 
missa  became  legally  enforceable. 

Fidelity  Guarantee.  Contract 
by  which  a  person  or  persons  un- 
dertake to  make  good  losses  due  to 
fraud  or  negligence  on  the  part  of 
another  person  occupying  a  posi- 
tion of  trust.  Banks  and  business 
houses  frequently  require  a  guar- 
antee of  this  kind  on  behalf  of 
such  of  their  employees  as  handle 
large  sums  of  money,  and  many  in- 
surance offices,  in  return  for  an  an- 
nual premium,  enter  into  guaran- 
tees of  this  kind.  Guarantee  socie- 
ties exist  for  the  same  purpose. 
See  Guarantee  ;  Insurance. 

Fidenae.  Italian  town  of  Latium. 
It  was'  situated  about  5  m.  N.E. 
of  Rome,  on  a  hill  between  the 
Anio  and  the  Tiber.  Frequently  at 
war  with  Rome,  it  was  finally  con- 
quered 438  B.C.,  and  destroyed  in 
the  year  following.  Thereafter, 
though  rebuilt,  it  never  became  a 
place  of  importance. 

Fides.  In  Roman  mythology, 
the  goddess  held  as  symbolical  of 
faith  and  honour. 

Fief.  Name  given  to  an  estate 
held  under  the  feudal  system. 
It  was,  therefore,  one  which  was 
held  on  condition  of  rendering 
certain  services  to  an  overlord,  and 
which  in  certain  eventualities  re- 
verted to  that  lord.  The  word  is 
sometimes  rendered  in  English  as 
feu  or  fee.  From  it  come  feoffee, 
the  one  who  receives  the  estate, 
and  feoff ment  (q.v.),  the  act  of 
granting  it  to  him.  See  Feudalism  : 
Land  Laws. 

Field.  Anglo-Saxon  word,  mean- 
ing the  open  country.  It  is  now 
used  for  a  piece  of  enclosed  land, 
e.g.  a  wheatfield,  and  by  analogy 
we  speak  of  a  coalfield  or  oilfield. 
It  is  employed  also  in  a  military 
and  sporting  senss.  In  the  former, 
field  is  a  synonym  for  battle  or 
battleground,  e.g.  the  field  of 
Waterloo.  This  use  has  many  com- 
pounds, such  as  field  ambulance, 
relating  to  war.  In  sport  the  field 
has  various  meanings,  e.g.  the 
horses  in  a  race  or  the  riders  at  a 
hunt  meeting  are  the  field  ;  field 
sports  are  hunting,  racing,  and  the 
like.  See  Cricket ;  Horse- Racing. 

Field.  In  heraldry,  the  surface 
of  an  armorial  shield  on  which 
charges  are  placed.  The  same  term 
is  applied  to  the  body  of  a  flag,  e.g. 
the  British  white  ensign  is  a  red 
cross  on  a  white  field,  with  the 
union  jack  in  a  canton  (q.v.). 

Field,  THE.  London  weekly 
newspaper  devoted  to  all  forms 
of  sport,  natural  history,  and 
country  life  occupations.  Founded 
Jan.  1,  1853,  by  Bradbury  and 
Evans,  its  first  editor  was  Mark 
Lemon.  Its  prosperity  dates  from 


FIELD 

its  acquisition,  in  Nov.,  1854,  by 
Mr.  Serjeant  Cox,  and  the  appoint- 
ment in  1857  of  J.  H.  Walsh 
( "  Stonehenge  " ),  as  editor.  Fred- 
erick Toms  succeeded  to  the  editor- 
ship in  1888,  being  followed  in 
1900  by  William  Senior  (Red 
Spinner),  who  resigned  at  the  close 
of  1909,  when  Theodore  A.  Cook 
(who  was  knighted  in  1916)  took 
over  the  editorship.  Early  in  1913 
George  Binney  Dibblee  became 
general  manager.  In  1919,  with  The 
Queen  and  The  Law  Times,  The 
Field  was  purchased  by  the  pro- 
prietors of  Land  and  Water  (q.v. ). 
Field,  SIR  ARTHUR  MOSTYN  (b. 
1855).  British  sailor.  Born  June  27, 
1855,  he  entered  the  navy  in 
1868,  becoming  commander,  1889, 
and  admiral,  1913.  His  chief  work 
was  done  in  surveying,  notably 
on  the  W.  African  coast,  Strait 
of  Magellan,  S.E.  American  coast, 
Strait  of  Malacca,  and  the  China 
Sea.  He  was  hydrographer  of  the 
navy  from  1904-9. 

Field,  CYRUS  WEST  (1819-92). 
American  financier.  Born  at 
Stockbridge,  Massachusetts,  Nov. 
30,  1819,  he 
made  a  for- 
tune and  re- 
tired from 
business  at 
the  age  of  33, 
when  he  be- 
came interest- 
ed in  the  idea 
of  the  trans - 
Atlantic  cable. 
In  1854  he 
organized  the 
New  York, 
Newf  o  un  d- 
land,andLondon Telegraph  Co., and 
10  years  later  persuaded  the  U.S.A. 
and  British  governments  to  con- 
firm by  soundings  the  existence  of 
Telegraph  Plateau  in  the  Atlantic. 
After  various  attempts  the  first 
cable  was  laid  in  1859.  Heavy 
financial  losses  necessitated  Field's 
return  to  business,  and  he  was  an 
originator  of  the  New  York  ele- 
vated rly.  He  died  at  New  York, 
July  12,  1892.  See  Atlantic  Cable. 
Field,  EUGENE  (1850-95).  Ameri- 
can poet  and  journalist.  Born  at 
St.  Louis,  Missouri,  Sept.  2,  1850, 
from  1883-95 
he  contributed 
to  The  Chicago 
Daily  News  a 
column  en- 
titled Sharps 
and  Flats,  in 
which  most  of 
his  best  work 
first  appeared. 
His  poems  in- 
clude A  Little 
Book  of  West- 
ern  Verse, 


FIELD     ALLOWANCE 


3137 


FIELD     GUN 


1889,  and  With  Trumpet  and 
Drum,  1892,  charming  verses  for 
children.  His  most  attractive 
essays  are  collected  in  The  Love 
Affairs  of  a  Bibliomaniac,  1896. 
He  died  Nov.  4,  1895.  „ 

Field  Allowance.  Emolument 
granted  to  officers  on  going  into 
camp  or  taking  the  field,  in  com- 
pensation for  the  extra  expense 
of  tent  furniture,  messing,  etc. 

Field  Ambulance.  Active  unit 
of  the  Royal  Army  Medical  Corps. 
Organized  in  companies  for  ad- 
ministrative purposes  in  peace 
time,  the  medical  units  are  re- 
arranged for  active  service,  and 
the  field  ambulance  is  the  unit 
which  can  deal  with  all  cases 
of  wounds  and  sickness  in  their 
early  stages,  and  which  is  suffi- 
ciently mobile  to  accompany  the 
troops  in  the  field.  The  personnel 
of  a  field  ambulance  numbers  10 
officers  and  241  other  ranks,  with 
10  ambulance  wagons,  6  general 
service  wagons,  3  water-carts,  and 
3  forage-carts.  They  are  divisional 
troops  under  the  command  of  the 
administrative  medical  officer,  and 
three  field  ambulances  are  allotted 
to  each  division  in  the  field. 

The  cavalry  field  ambulance  is 
a  similar  but  smaller  and  more 
mobile  unit,  the  personnel  num- 
bering 6  officers  and  110  other 
ranks,  with  6  light  and  4  heavy 
ambulance  wagons,  2  general  ser- 
vice wagons,  2  water-carts,  and 
2  forage-carts.  Four  are  allotted  to 
a  cavalry  division  and  one  to  a  de- 
tached cavalry  or  mounted  brigade. 
The  general  principle  on  which  the 
field  ambulances  work  is  to  treat 
slight  cases  which  can  be  returned 
to  their  units,  to  give  temporary 
aid  to  the  more  serious,  and  trans- 
port them  to  the  clearing  hospitals, 
and  only  to  retain  for  any  length 
of  time  such  cases  as  it  is  inadvis- 
able to  move.  See  Ambulance. 

Field  Dressing.  In  modern 
armies  a  packet,  containing  anti- 
septic materials,  stitched  to  the 
clothing  of  every  officer  and  man 
proceeding  to  the  firing-line. 
Recent  wars  have  shown  that  un- 
complicated wounds  caused  by 
modern  high  velocity  bullets  re- 
quire little  treatment  beyond  the 
exclusion  of  dirt  and  air,  and  con- 
sequently all  ranks  are  now  pro- 
vided with  a  dressing  for  imme- 
diate application  which  will  effect 
this  purpose.  The  dressing  actually 
consists  of  a  pad  of  sterilised  gauze 
or  lint,  to  which  is  fastened  a  length 
of  bandage  so  that  it  can  be  se- 
curely held  over  the  wound. 

Fieldfare  (A.S.  feldefare,  field 
traveller).  Bird  of  the  thrush 
family.  Visiting  Great  Britain  in 
vast  flocks  in  whiter,  it  spends 
the  rest  of  the  year  in  Scandinavia 


Field  Gun. 


Fieldfare.    Member  of  the  thrush 
family,  found  in  Great  Britain 

and  Russia.  In  plumage  and 
general  appearance  it  closely  re- 
sembles the  common  thrush,  but  it 
has  not  its  vocal  powers.  It  is 
seldom,  seen  in  parties  of  less  than 
twenty,  and  often  the  flock  will 
exceed  a  hundred.  It  feeds  upon 
grubs,  small  snails,  and  berries. 
When  feeding  it  continually  ad- 
vances hi  one  direction,  and  a  flock 
of  the  birds  appears  to  move  for- 
ward in  open  order  with  almost 
military  pre- 
cision. It  nests  in  ' 
great  colonies . 
and  returns  yeai 
by  year  to  the 
same  site,  the 
nests  being 
usually  built  in 
pine  woods. 

Field-glass. 
Small  binocular 
telescope  for 
viewing  distant 
objects.  The  earlier  field-glasses 
consisted  simply  of  two  short  tele- 
scopes mounted  side  by  side  in  a 
frame  and  focussed  by  means  of  a 
screw.  The  telescopes  were  of  the 
"Galilean"  type,  hi  which  the 
object-glass  is  a  convex  lens  which 
converts  the  parallel  beam  of 
light  from  a  distant  object  into  a 
convergent  pencil  of  rays.  The 
tube  is  a  short  one,  and  before  the 
convergent  rays  can  come  to  a 
focus  they  pass  through  the  con- 
cave eye-piece  which  transmits 
them  to  the  eye  as  a  parallel  beam. 
In  order  that  the  images  may  be 
free  from  coloured  fringes,  it  is 
necessary  to  substitute  achromatic 
combinations  for  the  simple  lenses. 

The  advantage  of  this  type  of 
telescope  for  field-glasses  lies  in  the 
shortness  of  the  tube,  its  disad- 
vantage in  the  narrowness  of  the 
field  of  vision.  Rays  from  objects 
slightly  off  the  direction  in  which 
the  glass  is  pointed  get  lost  inside 
the  tube,  and  fail  to  reach  the  eye- 
piece. To  avoid  this  defect,  prisms 
were  introduced  into  the  tube  to 
catch  the  aberrant  rays  and  reflect 
them  into  the  eye-piece.  This  was 
the  origin  of  the  modern  form  of 
field-glass,  the  prismatic  binocular. 


There  may  be  one  object-glass  or 
two,  but  in  either  case  the  entering 
pencil  of  rays  is  reflected  twice  or 
more  between  parallel  prisms,  and 
finally  directed  into  the  eye-piece. 
This  arrangement  gives  a  wider 
field  than  in  the  simple  type  of 
field-glass,  but  as  a  certain  amount 
of  light  is  lost  at  each  reflection  the 
field  is  not  so  bright.  In  fact,  the 
prismatic  binocular  was  rendered 
possible  only  by  the  invention  of 
a  glass  for  the  prisms  which  re- 
flected a  specially  large  percentage 
of  the  light  falling  on  it.  See 
Telescope. 

Field  Gun.  Mobile  piece  of 
artillery.  It  is  mounted  on  wheels, 
and  capable  of  horse  transport  of 
sufficient  mobility  to  keep  hi 
touch  with  advancing  infantry. 
The  field  guns  of  all  the  great 
powers  have  become  standardised 
at  about  three  inches  calibre,  and 
are  capable  of  throwing  a  shell 
weighing  about  16  Ib.  to  an  ex- 
treme range  of  9,000  yards,  the 
effective  range  being  about  5,000 


18-pounder  q.f.  gun,  unlimbered  and  ready 
for  action 


yards.  The  British  weapon,  known 
as  the  18-pounder  q.f.,  is  larger 
than  the  majority,  being  of  3*3  ins. 
calibre  and  throwing  a  shell 
weighing  18 £  Ib.  with  a  muzzle 
velocity  of  1,590  ft.  per  sec.  The 
weight  of  gun  and  carriage  is  25 
cwt.,  and  with  the  limber  2  tons. 
In  the  wider  sense,  field  guns 
may  be  said  to  include  all  pieces  of 
mobile  artillery  which  accompany 
moving  troops.  The  Royal  Horse 
Artillery  are  equipped  with  a  13- 
pdr.  gun,  which  is  much  lighter 
than  the  field  gun,  and  enables  the 
units  to  work  with  the  cavalry. 
During  the  Great  War  artillery 
played  a  more  important  part,  and 
in  addition  to  the  above,  6-in.  and  8- 
in.  howitzers,  9'2-in.  and  12-in.guns 
and  howitzers,  and  15-in.  howitzers 
were  designed  to  accompany  troops 
in  the  field,  this  being  rendered 
possible  by  the  improvements  in 
mechanical  haulage.  See  Artillery. 


Field-glass.    Diagram  illustrating  path 
of  light  in  a  prismatic  field-glass 

IF     4 


FIELD     HOSPITAL 


FIELD     MADDER 


Field  Hospital.  Popular  name 
for  the  clearing  hospital,  the  near- 
est stationary,  but  mobile,  medical 
institution  to  the  actual  battle  line. 
A  clearing  hospital 
is  established  by 
the  Eoyal  Army 
Medical  Corps  ', 
attached  to  each 
division  in  the 
field,  and  is  situ- 
ated in  buildings — 
schools  or  similar 
structures  for  pre- 
ference— in  civil- 
ized country,  or  in 
tents  and  mar- 
quees when  no 
better  accommo- 
dation is  a  vaila  ble. 
Technically,  it 
forms  a  unit  of  the 
evacuating  zone,  and  is  preferably 
placed  out  of  the  enemy's  range, 
and  near  rail-head,  but  should 
be  as  close  to  the  firing  line  as  is 
practicable,  and  must  be  in  touch 
with  the  field  ambulances.  The 
normal  accommodation  is  for  200 
casualties,  but  the  equipment  and 
organization  must  be  such  that 
far  larger  numbers  can  be  dealt 
with  if  occasion  demands. 

It  is  the  central  point  on  which 
a  definite  section  of  the  collecting 
zone  converges,  and  the  station  to 
which  the  field  ambulances  bring 
casualties,and  from  which  the  latter 
are  dispatched  by  ambulance  train 
or  water  transport  to  the  stationary 
hospitals.  Transport  for  the  hos- 
pital and  for  the  wounded  it  has 
received  are  arranged  by  the 
inspector-general  of  communica- 
tions. A  clearing  hospital  only  acts 
as  a  hospital  in  the  generally 
accepted  sense  of  t-he  term  during 
such  time  as  it  is  unable  to  pass 
its  patients  farther  down  the  line, 
and  for  such  casualties  as  are  unfit 
to  be  moved.  See  Ambulance; 
Red  Cross. 

Fielding,  HENRY  (1707-54). 
English  novelist.  Born  near  Glas- 
tonbury,  April  22,  1707,  a  scion  of 
the  Denbigh 
family,  he  was 
educated  a  t 
Eton  and  at 
the  university 
of  Leiden, 
studying  civil 
law.  Coming 
to  London 
about  the  age 
of  20,  he  gave 
up  his  legal 
studies  and 
began  to  work 
for  the  stage. 
He  wrote  a  number  of  farces  and 
other  light  pieces  whick  have  all 
passed  into  the  limbo  of  literary  curi- 
osities. Called  to  the  bar  in  1740, 


he  was  appointed  justice  of  the  peace 
for  Westminster  in  1749  and  proved 
a  conscientious  and  painstaking 
magistrate.  His  private  life,  how- 


Entrance  to  a  clearing  bos 
Front  during  the  Great 


ever,  had  not  been  beyond  reproach 
and  careless  living  had  undermined 
his  originally  strong  constitution. 
He  died  at  Lisbon, 
whither  he  had 
gone  for  his  health, 
Oct.  8,  1754. 

Fielding's  first 
novel,  Joseph 
Andrews,  ap- 
peared in  1742. 
It  began  as  a  de- 
liberate caricature 
of  Richardson's 
Pamela,  then  just 
published.  As  the 
narrative  pro- 
gressed, Fielding 
became  interested 
in  his  characters ; 
the  caricature  fades  into  the  back- 
ground, and  the  result  is  a  human 
and  lifelike  story.  Joseph  Andrews 
was  followed  in  1743  by  Jonathan 
Wild,  a  grim  portrayal  of  the  career 
of  a  consummate  scoundrel.  Then 
in  1749  came  Tom  Jones,  which 
some  critics  regard  as  the  greatest 
novel  ever  written.  The  plot  is  a 
masterpiece  of  construction,  the 
narrative  is  Homeric  in  its  power  to 
sustain  interest,  while  the  intensely 
lifelike  characters — the  hard-drink- 
ing, hard-swearing  Squire  Western, 
his  beautiful  and  lovable  daughter 
Sophia,  the  hypocrite  Blifil,  the 
egregious  humbugs  Thwackem  and 
Square,  and  the  ingenuous  Part- 
ridge— will  live  for  ever. 

Fielding's  last  novel,  Amelia, 
1751,  is  subdued  in  tone  as  com- 
pared with  the  boisterous  high 
spirits  of  Tom  Jones.  It  is  to  a 
certain  extent  autobiographical,the 
original  of  the  erring  Captain  Booth 
being  Fielding  himself.  Amelia  was 
the  favourite  novel  of  Thackeray, 
who  gives  a  masterly  appreciation 
of  Fielding  in  his  English  Humour- 
ists. See  English  Literature ;  Novel ; 
consult  also  The  History  of  Henry 
Fielding,  W.  L.  Cross,  1919. 


Fielding,  WILLIAM  STEVENS  (b. 
1848).  Canadian  statesman.  Born 
at  Halifax,  Nov.  24,  1848,  he  be- 
came a  journal- 
ist. In  1882  he 
entered  the 
legislature  o  f 
Nova  Scotia, 
and  from  1884- 
96  was  prime 
minister  of 

that  province.    H^MK'^/  t%.  "V; 
In    1896    he 
entered    the        W.  S.  Fielding, 
Dominion  par-     Canadian  statesman 
liament,    and  Ruisel1 

from  1896-1911  was  minister  of 
finance  in  the  Laurier  cabinet, 
being  responsible  for  tariff  changes. 
In  1921  he  again  became  minister 
of  finance. 

Field  Kitchen.  Boiler  and  self- 
contained  furnace  mounted  on 
wheels  for  horsed  transport.  It  is 
sufficiently  mobile  to  move  with 


Field  Kitchen,  of  British  Army  pattern,  in  use  on  the 
Western  Front  during  the  Great  War  ; 

marching  infantry.  Field  kitchuas 
enable  soup  and  stews  to  be  cooked 
while  on  the  march.  See  Supply. 
Field  Madder  (Sherardia  arven- 
sis).  Annual  bristly  herb  of  the 
natural  order  Rubiaceae.  It  is  a 
native  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  the 
Canaries.  Its  trailing  stems,  a  foot 
or  more  in  length,  spread  from  the 
root,  and  are  clothed  with  whorls  of 
sharp-pointed  lance-shaped  leaves. 
The  lilac  funnel-shaped  flowers  are 
about  £  in.  across.  It  grows  in  corn- 
fields and  pastures. 


Field  Madder.     Spray  of  foliage  and 
flower,  and  a  detached  leaf 


FIELD-MARSHAL 


3139 


FIESOLE 


Field-Marshal.  The  highest 
title  of  rank  in  the  British  army, 
equivalent  to  admiral  of  the  fleet 
T  in  the  navy. 
j  It  was  insti- 
|  tuted  in  1736 
|  when  George 
j  II  conferred 
i  the  rank  on 
John,  duke  of 
Argyll.  Any 
officer  on 
either  the  ac- 

Field-Marshal.          tive  or  retired 
Shoulder  strap  of  the    lists   may   be 
highest  rank    in    the    promoted   to 
British  Army  field-marshal 

without  reference  to  seniority, 
but  it  is  laid  down  that  there 
shall  not  be  more  than  eight  field- 
marshals  on  the  active  list. 
Colonels  of  the  Royal  Artillery, 
Royal  Engineers,King'  s  Royal  Rifle 
Corps,  and  the  Rifle  Brigade  are 
selected  from  the  field-marshals, 
who  are  also  eligible  for  appoint- 
ment as  governors  of  the  Tower 
and  Chelsea  Hospital.  The  pay  of 
a  field-marshal  is  dependent  on  the 
appointment  he  actually  holds, 
his  half-pay  is  £1,300  per  annum, 
and  his  gratuity  for  a  serious 
wound,  £3,500.  Actually,  the  title 
is  conferred  on  the  most  distin- 
guished soldiers  of  the  day,  and 
the  holders  carry  a  baton  in  ad- 
dition to  their  swords  when  in  full 
dress.  See  Marshal ;  also  illus.  pp. 
968  and  2806. 

Field  Mouse.  Name  errone- 
ously given  to  several  small  rodents, 
both  mice  and  voles.  It  is  correctly 


Field  Mouse.      Brown,  long-tailed 

Mus  sylvaticus 

applied  only  to  M us  sylvaticus,  the 
wood  mouse,  otherwise  called  the 
long-tailed  field  mouse,  a  common 
pest  in  most  parts  of  England,  in 
gardens  and  hedgerows,  and  occa- 
sionally in  corn-stacks. 

Field  Officer.  Any  officer  below 
the  rank  of  general  and  above  the 
rank  of  captain.  These  officers  were 
mounted  in  days  when  other  infan- 
try officers  marched  on  foot  with 
their  companies.  Field  officers  not 
having  the  charge  of  companies, 
etc.,  were  assigned  special  duties, 
such  as  presiding  at  courts-martial, 
inspection  of  guards.  A  brevet 
major,  being  a  regimental  captain, 
would  perform  either  class  of  duty 
as  required.  Sentries  pay  compli- 
ments to  field  officers  by  presenting 
arms.  See  Colonel ;  Major. 


Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold. 

Term  applied  to  the  meeting-place 
of  Henry  VIII  and  Francis  I  of 
France,  June  7-24,  1520.  The 
meeting  took  place  near  Guines,  and 
the  name  was  given  to  it  on  account 
of  the  magnificence  displayed. 

Field  Punishment.      Punish- 
ment authorised  by  the  Army  Act 


fleet-footed  retainers  of  the  chief 
carried  round  among  the  Scottish 
clansmen  to  call  them  together  in 
time  of  emergency.  Disobedience 
to  the  summons  rendered  any  man 
between  the  age  of  16  and  60  liable 
to  the  extreme  penalties  of  fire  and 
sword,  emblematically  denounced 
by  the  bloody  and  burnt  marks 


Fiery  Cross,  from  a  painting  by  J.  Drummond,  R.S.A.,  depicting  the  bearer  of 
the  fiery  cross  carrying  bis  summons  by  boat  from  village  to  village 

J.  Cairti  Inglis 


to  be  inflicted  on  private  soldiers  on 
active  service  in  consequence  of  the 
lack  of  prisons  or  detention  bar- 
racks. Field  punishment  No.  1, 
abolished  in  1923,  involved  such 
restraint  as  is  usual  in  cases  of  im- 
prisonment with  hard  labour,  and 
in  addition  the  prisoner  could  for 
three  days  out  of  four  be  "  attached 
to  a  fixed  object,"  such  as  a  tree  or 
a  gunwheel,  with  straps  or  ropes, 
for  not  more  than  two  hours  a  day. 
This  mode  of  restraint  could  not, 
however,  be  adopted  for  more  than 
21  days  in  all.  See  Court  Martial. 

Field- train .  Name  given  to  the 
transport  allotted  to  fighting  units 
for  the  conveyance  of  the  stores, 
supplies,  and  baggage  necessary  for 
their  subsistence.  The  train  is 
divided  into  two  sections,  baggage 
and  supply,  the  latter  being  known 
as  first  line  transport,  since  it  is  an 
integral  part  of  the  fighting  unit, 
without  which  the  necessary  tacti- 
cal functions  cannot  be  performed. 
See  Supply  ;  Transport. 

Fieri  facias  (Lat.,  cause  thou 
to  be  made).  Term  of  English  law. 
It  refers  to  a  writ  of  execution 
directed  to  the  sheriff  of  a  county, 
ordering  him  to  cause  to  be  made 
of  the  goods  of  A.  B.  a  sum  of 
money  due  by  A.  B.  on  a  judgement. 

Fiery  Cross.  Charred  sticks 
dipped  in  goat's  blood  and  usually 
joined  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  which 


upon  the  signal.  During  the  "Forty- 
five"  the  fiery  cross  made  many 
circuits.  A  fine  description  of  the 
custom  is  given  in  Scott's  Lady  of 
the  Lake,  Canto  III. 

Fiery  Serpent.  Name  given  to 
the  serpents  sent  to  the  Israelites 
in  the  wilderness  (Num.  21).  They 
were  probably  sand  snakes,  called 
fiery  because  of  the  effect  of  their 
bite.  See  Snake. 

Fiescherhorn.  Mt.  of  Switzer- 
land. In  the  Bernese  Oberland 
(q.v. ),  near  Grindelwald,  its  height 
is  13,286  ft.  The  ascent  from  the 
Bergli  Hut  by  the  Monch-Joch 
should  not  be  attempted  without 
the  help  of  a  guide. 

Fiesole  (anc.  Faesulae).  City  of 
Italy,  in  the  prov.  of  Florence.  It 
stands  on  an  eminence  overlooking 
the  valley  of  the  Arno,  3  m.  N.E.  of 
Florence.  It  was  one  of  the  12 
Etruscan  cities,  and  is  enclosed  by 
crumbling  cyclopean  walls.  Its 
cathedral,  founded  early  in  the 
llth  century,  contains  many  inter- 
esting paintings  and  sculptures. 
Straw-plaiting  is  carried  on  by  the 
inhabitants.  Here  in  225  B.C.  the 
Gauls  defeated  the  Romans,  and 
Sulla's  veterans  formed  a  colony, 
later  the  headquarters  of  Catiline. 
For  long  an  opulent  city,  its 
prosperity  waned  as  Florence  grew 
in  power.  Pop.  10,434.  Pron. 
Feeay-zoly. 


FIFE      

Fife  (Fr.  fifre,  Ger.  Pfeife,  Lat. 
pipare,  to  chirp,  pipe).  Small  flute 
used  for  military  marching.  It  is 
associated  with  drums  when  a  full 
band  is  not  available.  In  a  drum 
and  fife  band  the  chief  melodic 
work  is  allotted  to  the  B  flat  fifes, 
arranged  to  play  in  unison  or  in 
two  or  three  parts ;  they  are 
assisted  in  lower  notes  by  larger 
flutes,  in  F  and  in  E  flat,  and  in 
the  higher  ranges  by  piccolos  (q.v. ) 
in  F  and  in  E  flat.  As  the  open  key 
of  all  the  flutes  is  called  D,  trans- 
positions are  reckoned  from  D, 
instead  of  from  C,  as  is  the  case 
with  most  other  instruments.  For 
example,  the  first  two  bars  of 
"  God  Save  the  King,"  in  key  B  flat, 
would  be  written  as  follows  to 
secure  a  unison  effect : 

Piccolo  in  F. 


Piccolo  in  EtJ. 


FIFE 


Fife  in  Bp. 


and  the  actual  pitch  would  be 


In  fife  bands  the  percussion 
instruments  include  side -drums, 
bass  drum,  cymbals,  and  triangle. 
Fife  OE  FIFESHIRE.  Eastern 
maritime  and  peninsular  county  of 
Scotland.  Lying  between  the  Firth 
of  Tay  and  the 
Firth  of  Forth,its 
area  is  504  sq.  m. 
The  surface  al- 
ternates between 
hill  ridges  and 
fertile  and  well- 
cultivated  val- 
leys, the  highest 
Fifeshire  arms  eminence  being 
West  Lomond,  1,713  ft.  There  are 
several  small  lakes  ;  of  the  rivers, 
the  Eden  and  Leven  are  the  largest. 
Nearly  75  p.c.  of  the  soil  is  culti- 
vated, a  large  area  being  permanent 
pasture  ;  wheat,  barley,  oats,  and 
potatoes  are  raised.  The  mineral 
wealth  of  the  county  is  largely 
represented  by  coal,  but  limestone, 


Fife.     Map  of  the  Scottish  county  north  o!  the  Forth 


ironstone,  freestone,  and  oil-shale 
are  also  worked.  Most  of  the  coast 
towns  and  villages  engage  in  fish- 
ing, and  the  linen  and  floor-cloth 
manufactures  are  prominent.  St. 
Andrews  has  a  university,  and  is  an 
important  golf  centre.  The  rly. 
is  the  N.  B.  R.  Two  members 
are  returned  to  Parliament. 
Cupar  or  Cupar-Fife,  the  county 
town,  Kirkcaldy,  Dunfermline,  St. 
Andrews,  Cowdenbeath,  and  Buck- 
haven  are  the  largest  towns.  Pop. 
267,739.  Evidences  of  Roman 
occupation  exist,  and  other  ancient 
objects  of  interest  are  the  monastic 
ruins  found  in  many  parts  of  the 
"  kingdom,"  as  the  county  is  still 
popularly  called. 

LITERARY  ASSOCIATIONS.  To  Cu- 
par belonged  Sir  David  Lindsay, 
the  16th  century  satiric  poet,  and 
another  of  the  Lindsays  of  Fife  was 
Lady  Anne  Lindsay,  who  wrote 
Auld  Robin  Grey.  Adam  Smith, 
the  political  economist,  was  born  at 
Kirkcaldy,  while  Balwearie,  near  by, 
was  the  birthplace  of  Michael  Scott 
the  "  wizard."  At  Kirkcaldy,  too, 
Thomas  Carlyle  sojourned  as  the 
pupil  of  Edward  Irving.  To  Pitlour 
belonged  Miss  Campbell,  who  wrote 
The  March  of  the  Cameron  Men. 
At  Lower  Largo  was  born  Alex- 
ander Selkirk,  who  is  immortalised 
as  Defoe's  Robinson  Crusoe,  and  is 
the  subject  of  a  poem  by  William 
Cowper  ;  a  niched  statue  of  him  as 
Crusoe  was  erected  here  in  1885. 
St.  Andrews,  which  is  crowded  with 
associations  with  notable  students, 
has  memories  of  George  Buchanan 
and  of  John  Knox,  who  began  his 
work  as  reformer  here. 

Fife.  Settlement  in  Northern 
Rhodesia,  on  the  Stevenscra  Road 
from  Lake  Nyasa  to  Lake  Tan- 
ganyika. 

Fife,  EARL  AND  DUKE  or.  British 
titles  born  by  the  family  of  Duff. 
In  1735  a  certain  William  Duff, 


who  had  been  M.P.  for  Banff  shire, 
where  he  owned  large  estates,  was 
made  an  Irish  peer,  as  Baron  Breco. 
An  earldom  followed  in  1759. 
James,  the  4th  earl,  was  a  major- 
general  in  the  Spanish  army  during 
the  Peninsular  War,  and  James, 
the  5th  earl,  was  made  a  British 
peer  as  Baron  Skene  in  1857.  He 
died  in  1879  and  his  son  and  suc- 
cessor was  the  nobleman  who 
married  Princess  Louise.  He 
had  been  previously  made  a 
British  peer  (1885),  and  in  1889  he 
was  created  marquess  and  duke. 
He  died  in  1912,  when  his  Irish 
title  became  extinct,  but  the  newer 
ones  passed  by  special  remainder 
to  the  elder  of  his  two  daughters, 
who  became  duchess  of  Fife.  The 
duke  had  enormous  estates  in 
Banffshire  and  Aberdeenshire,  but 
much  of  his  land  has  been  sold. 
His  chief  seats  were  Mar  Lodge, 
Braemar,  and  Duff  House,  Banff. 
The  heir  to  the  title  is  known  as 
the  earl  of  Macduff. 

Fife,  ALEXANDER  WILLIAM 
GEORGE  DUFF,  DUKE  OF  (1849- 
1912).  British  nobleman.  Only 
son  of  the  5th 
earl  of  Fife,  he 
was  born  Nov. 
10,  1849,  and 
was  educated 
at  Eton.  He 
sat  in  the 
House  of 
Commons  for 
the  counties  of 
Elgin  and 
Nairn,  from 
1874  until  he  succeeded  to  the  peer- 
age in  1879.  In  1889  he  married 
Louise,  eldest  daughter  of  the 
prince  of  Wales,  and  was  created 
duke  of  Fife.  He  died  at  Assuau 
Jan.  29,  1912,  from  a  chill  con- 
tracted at  the  wreck  of  the  steamer 
Delhi  off  Morocco,  and  was  buried 
Aug.  8,  1912,  at  Braemar. 


FIFE 


3141 


FIGHTING     FISH 


Princess  Arthur  of 

Connaught, 
Duchess  of  Fife 

Corbett 


Fife,  ALEXANDRA,  DUCHESS  OF 
(b.  1891).  British  princess.  The 
elder  daughter  of  the  duke  of  Fife 
and  Louise, 
I  daughter  o  f 
Edward  VII, 
she  was  born 
May  17,  1891. 
In  1912,  on  the 
death  of  her 
father,  she  suc- 
ceeded  by 
special  remain- 
der  to  his 
dukedom  and 
some  of  his 
other  titles, 
and  on  Oct.  15,  1913,  she  was  mar- 
ried to  her  cousin,  Prince  Arthur 
of  Connaught.  A  son,  the  earl  of 
Macduff,  was  born  Aug.  9,  1914. 

Fifteenth.  In  English  history,  a 
tax  usually  associated  with  a  tenth. 
Taxation  of  property  other  than 
land  began  in  the  time  of  Henry  II, 
and  in  1193  one-fourth  of  their 
incomes  was  demanded  from  laity 
and  clergy  alike.  Succeeding  taxes 
of  this  kind  were  levied,  but  the 
amount  varied  from  a  fourth  to  a 
fourteenth.  Officials  from  the  ex- 
chequer arranged  for  a  fixed 
amount  from  each  shire,  leaving  it 
to  the  sheriff  to  collect  it  from 
individuals.  After  1290  it  was  a 
grant  voted  by  Parliament,  each 
estate  voting  its  own  share  to  the 
king.  Tenths  and  fifteenths  became 
the  regular  amount  of  the  votes, 
townsfolk,  i.e.  the  owners  of  per- 
sonal property,  paying  one-tenth 
of  their  incomes  and  those  in  the 
country  one-fifteenth. 

The  next  charge  was  to  make  the 
amount  voted  a  fixed  sum,  done  by 
taking  the  assessment  of  1332, 
which  produced  £39,000.  Hence- 
forward £39,000  represented  a 
tenth  and  fifteenth,  and  if  more 
money  was  needed  Parliament 
voted  two  tenths  and  fifteenths.  In 
later  votes  certain  towns  were  some- 
times excepted,  and  the  assess- 
ment became  antiquated  and  un- 
fair as  conditions  changed.  The 
last  vote  of  this  kind  was  in  1624  ; 
its  place  being  taken  by  the  subsidy 
(q.v.).  See  Taxation  ;  Tenth. 

Fifth.  Musical  interval.  A  fifth 
includes  five  scale  names  in  order, 
as  C,  D,  E,  F,  G.  Therefore  C  to  G 
is  a  fifth,  and  as  G  occurs  in  the 
major  scale  of  C,  this  fifth  is  called 
perfect,  or  by  some  major.  See 
Consecutive  :  Interval. 


Fifth  Monarchy  Men.  Sect  of 
the  Puritan  period  in  England  who 
believed  that  a  millennium  or  king- 
dom of  Christ  upon  the  earth  was 
at  hand.  This  was  to  be  the  fifth 


monarchy  of  the  world,  the  earlier 
ones  being  the  empires  of  the 
Assyrians,  the  Persians,  the  Greeks, 
and  the  Romans.  The  Fifth 
Monarchy  men  were  to  be  found 
in  considerable  numbers  in  Crom- 
well's army.  In  1661,  shortly  after 
the  Restoration,  they  took  part  in 
a  revolt  in  which  many  were  killed. 
Fig  (Ficu-s  carica).  Tree  of  the 
natural  order  Urticaceae,  native  of 
the  Mediterranean  region.  It  at- 
tains a  height  of  20  ft.  to  30  ft., 
and  has  large,  lobed,  alternate 
leaves,  rough  above  and  downy 
beneath.  The  sexes  are  in  separate 
flowers,  but  on  the  same  tree.  The 
minute  blossoms  are  contained  in- 
side a  hollow,  pear-shaped  flower- 
stalk.  Externally  nothing  indi- 
cates the  presence  of  flowers,  and 
but  for  the  ministrations  of  a  small 
wasp  (BlaMophaga  grossorum),  it 
would  be  impossible  for  the  pollen 
of  the  males  to  reach  the  female 
flowers.  In  the  same  receptacle  as 
the  male  flowers  are  some  aborted 
females,  and  these  are  attacked  by 
the  female  wasp,  which  lays  its 
eggs  in  them. 


Fig.     Tree  of  Ficus  carica  and,  right, 
branch  with  leaves  and  fruit 

The  wasp-grubs  feed  upon  their 
cradles,  and  in  due  time  become 
wasps.  In  seeking  the  external  air 
they  have  to  pass  among  the  male 
flowers,  and  get  dusted  with  their 
pollen.  Then  they  are  attracted  by 
the  odours  emanating  from  a 
cavernous  stalk  containing  female 
flowers,  and  enter  it,  shaking  off 
much  of  the  pollen  that  covers 
their  bodies  ;  and  thus  the  female 
flowers  are  pollinated  and  the 
flower-stalks  become  swollen  and 
juicy.  Numerous  other  species  of 
the  genus  Ficus  in  other  parts  of 
the  world  bear  edible  fruit,  such  as 
F.  roxburghii  (India),  which  has 
them  in  clusters  from  the  bare 
trunk,  quite  near  the  ground. 


Figaro,  as  presented 
by  Coquelin  aine 


Figaro.  Cen- 
tral character, 
the  barber 
himself,  in 
Beaumarchais' 
comedy,  The 
Barber  of  Se- 
ville. Valet, 
poet,  dramat- 
ist, etc.,  he  is 
the  personifi- 
cation of  the 
easy  gaiety 
which  has  come 
to  be  accepted 
as  a  type  of  the 
witty  social 
philosopher. 
Encouraged  by 
the  success  of 
The  Barber  of 
Seville,  1775, 
Beaumarchais 
wrote  TheMar- 
riage  of  Figaro, 
which,  how- 
ever, was  not  acted  until  1784,  and 
he  also  introduced  Figaro  into  La 
Mere  Coupable,  1792.  Mozart  wrote 
an  opera  on  The  Marriage  of  Figaro, 
and  Rossini  one  on  The  Barber  of 
Seville.  See  Beaumarchais. 

Figaro,  LE.  Satirical  journal 
founded  in  Paris,  1826.  It  was 
named  after  the  hero  of  two  of 
Beaumarchais'  comedies,  and  con- 
tributed to  by  Jules  Janin,  Alphonse 
Karr,  and  George  Sand.  It  ran  till 
1833.  The  title  was  revived  for  a 
weekly  started  by  J.  H.  deVillemes- 
sant,  April  22,  1854.  This  became 
a  morning  daily  devoted  to  politics 
and  literature  in  1866,  its  writers 
including  Edmund  About,  Gabriel 
Hanotaux,  Pierre  Loti,  Edmund 
Rostand,  and  Ernest  Daudet. 
Under  the  control  (1901-14)  of 
Gaston  Calmette,  who  was  shot  by 
Mme.  Caillaux,  wife  of  the  French 
finance  minister,  March  16,  1914, 
it  enjoyed  a  great  vogue  as  a 
society  as  well  as  a  literary  organ. 
It  publishes  a  literary  supplement, 
and  a  monthly,  Le  Figaro  Illustre. 
Fighting  Fish.  Name  given  to 
a  small  fresh -water  fish,  Betta 
pugnax,  found  in  Asia  and  Africa. 
The  Siamese  breed  it  for  fighting 
contests,  as  it  fights  furiously  when 
matched  with  an  opponent.  It 
assumes  vivid  colours  under  ex- 
citement. 


Fighting  Fish,  the  Japanese  Betta 
splendens 


FIGHTING     TOP 


3142 


FIGWORT 


Fighting  Top.  In  ancient 
naval  warfare,  a  platform  or  large 
barrel  high  up  on  the  mast  from 
which  heavy  weights  could  be 
thrown  into  any  vessel  lying  along- 
side, either  to  disable  men  or  to 
drive  a  hole  through  the  bottom  of 
the  ship.  Later  on,  fighting  tops 
were  occupied  by  archers  and 
riflemen ;  in  sailing  ships  they 
were  represented  by  the  "  tops," 
or  platforms  built  at  the  head  of  the 
lower  masts,  where  picked  marks- 
men were  stationed  during  close- 
fought  actions.  It  was  from  the 
mizen-top,theplatfonn  ontheafter- 
mast,  of  the  Redoutable  that  the 
shot  was  fired  which  killed  Nelson. 

In  the  later  years  of  the  pre- 
Dreadnought  era  fighting  tops 
were  equipped  with  machine  and 
light  quick-firing  guns  for  driving 
off  hostile  torpedo-craft,  but  as 
the  size  of  the  latter  and  the  range 
of  torpedoes  increased,  it  be- 
came impossible  to  mount  in  these 
positions  guns  sufficiently  heavy 
and  far-reaching  for  the  purpose. 
Modern  ships  still  have  large 
structures  built  high  up  on  the 
masts,  but  these  are  occupied  in 
action  by  the  spotting  officers  and 
apparatus  connected  with  fire- 
control.  See  Battleship. 

Figig.  Walled  oasis  of  Morocco, 
on  the  borders  of  Algeria.  It  lies 
three  miles  N.W.  of  Beni  Unif, 
and  165  m.  E.S.E.  of  Fez,  and  is  a 
station  on  the  rly.  from  Oran  to 
Colomb  Bechar.  There  are  250,000 
date  palms  and  a  considerable  trade 
is  carried  on  with  Morocco.  The 
inhabitants,  numbering  about 
15,000,  belong  to  the  Amour  tribe. 
After  a  revolt  in  1903,  order  was 
established  by  a  French  military 
mission.  Alt.  2,700  ft. 

Figline.  Town  of  Italy,  in  the 
prov.  of  Florence.  It  stands  on  the 
river  Arno,  15  m.  by  rly.  S.E.  of 
Florence.  It  manufactures  wine 
and  cutlery,  and  straw-plaiting  is 
carried  on.  In  the  vicinity  is  Monte 
Ferrato  (alt.  1,385  ft.),  noted  for  its 
quarries  of  serpentine.  Pop.  12,035. 
Pron.  Fil-yeeny. 

Fig  Marigolds  (Mesembryan- 
themum).  Large  genus  of  fleshy  herbs 
and  sub -shrubs.  Of  thenatural  order 
Ficoideae,  they  are  natives  of  hot, 
dry  climates,  especially  S.  Africa. 
The  leaves  vary  greatly  in  the 
different  species ;  the  flowers  are 
large  and  conspicuous,  white,  yellow 
or  red,  with  many  long,  slender 
petals.  See  Ice-plant. 

Figueira,  GUILLEN  (c.  1190- 
1250).  One  of  the  later  Proven9al 
troubadours.  He  was  born  at 
Toulouse,  and  is  reported  to  have 
been  a  tailor.  When  the  persecu- 
tion of  the  Albigenses  took  place, 
he  wrote  vigorously  in  their  de- 
fence, and  on  the  persecutors' 


Fighting  Top  or  Fire  Control  plat- 
form of  the  battle  cruiser  Renown 

Cribb,  Southtea 

capture  of  Toulouse  took  refuge  in 
Italy.  In  the  struggle  between  the 
Empire  and  Rome  he  sided  with 
the  former,  and  one  of  his  sirventes 
is  a  denunciation  of  the  latter.  He 
also  composed  some  notable  love 
songs.  Pron,  Feegayeera. 

Figueras.  Town  of  Spain, in  the 
prov.  of  Gerona.  It  stands  in  a  fer- 
tile plain  near  the  French  frontier, 
27  m.  N.E.  of  Gerona  on  the  Barce- 
lona-Perpignan  Rly.  The  town  is 
strongly  fortified,  with  a  citadel 
built  by  Ferdinand  VI,  which  has 
been  called  the  key  of  the  frontier. 
There  is  some  trade  in  soap,  wine, 
leather,  and  textiles ;  gold  and  cop- 
per mines  are  in  the  district.  The 
town  fell  three  times  to  the  French 
—in  1794,  1808,  and  1823.  Pop. 
11,778.  Pron.  Feegayrahss. 

Figueras  y  Moracas,  ESTANIS- 
LAO  (1819-82 ).  Spanish  statesman. 
Born  at  Barcelona,  Nov.  13,  1819, 
he  studied  law.  As  a  republican  he 
was  elected  to  the  Cortes  in  1851. 
Prominent  in  the  revolution  of 
1868,  he  strongly  opposed  all 
attempts  to  restore  the  monarchy, 
and  upon  the  establishment  of  the 
republic  of  1873  became  president 
of  the  provincial  council  of  minis- 
ters. He  occupied  a  prominent 
position  in  politics  until  1874, 
when  the  restoration  drove  him 
into  retirement.  He  died  at  Madrid, 
Nov.  11,  1882. 

Figurate  Number.  Term  used 
in  mathematics.  In  an  arithmetical 
progression,  if  the  first  number  is  a 
unit  and  the  successive  numbers 
differ  from  it  by  whole  numbers,  as 
hi  such  a  series  as  1,  2,  3, 4, 5,  then 
a  new  series  may  be  formed  by 
adding  together  the  first  two 
terms,  then  the  first  three  terms, 
then  the  first  four  terms,  etc.  The 
new  series  would  thus  be  1,  3,  6. 


10,  15.  These  numbers  are  called 
figurate  numbers.  Similarly  another 
series,  1,  4,  10,  20,  35,  etc.,  might 
be  formed  from  the  second  series. 

Figured  Bass.  In  music,  a  bass 
part  provided  with  figures  to  indi- 
cate the  chords  which  should  be 
added  to  it.  See  Basso  Continuo. 

Figure-Head.  Image  painted 
or  carved  on  the  prow  of  a  war 
vessel.  It  doubtless  originated  hi 
the  sentiment  that  a  ship  was  a 
living  thing  and  should  be  given 
in  at  least  one  respect  the  external 
appearance  of  one.  Possibly,  too, 
the  ferocious  aspect  of  a  grotesque- 
ly shaped  animal  in  the  bows  had 
some  sort  of  moral  effect  upon 
ancient  or  uncivilized  warriors. 

In  the  days  of  the  oared  galley 
the  figure-head  was  made  to  fill 
the  purpose  of  an  above-water 
ram.  Projecting  further  in  ad- 
vance of  the  bow  than  the  ram 
below  water,  it  was  driven  with 
such  force  against  an  enemy's  side 
as  to  cause  the  vessel  to  heel  over, 
thus  giving  the  submerged  pro- 
jection the  opportunity  of  striking 
in  a  more  vulnerable  and  vital 
part  of  the  hull.  When  the  sail 
superseded  the  oar  as  a  means  of 
propulsion,  the  figure-head  ceased 
to  have  any  practical  value,  but  it 
was  retained  for  ornament,  and 
as  an  expression  of  sentiment. 
No  British  warship  has  had  a  figure- 
head, or  even  a  bow  scroll,  for 
many  years,  excepting  only  the 
Triumph  and  Swiftsure,  which  were 
completed  as  they  were  designed 
for  the  Chilean  navy.  Many  figure- 
heads of  old  British  warships  are 
to  be  seen  in  naval  museums  in  the 
royal  dockyards  and  elsewhere.  Q 

Figwort  (Scrophularia).  Large 
genus  of  herbs,  of  the  natural  order 
Scrophulariaceae.  They  are  na- 
tives of  Europe,  Asia,  N.  Africa,  and 
America.  They  have  tuberous  or 
creeping  rootstocks,  opposite  leaves, 
and  somewhat  globular  flowers 
of  a  greenish-purple  or  yellow 
hue,  succeeded  by  a  two-valved 
capsule.  As  a  rule  they  have 
an  unpleasant  odour.  S.  nodosa, 


Figwort.   Leaves  and  flowers  of  the 
knotted  figwort 


Figure-heads  in  the  British  navy.     1.  Marlborough,  old  three-decker  wooden  sailing  ship  now  in  Portsmouth  harbour. 
2.  Minotaur,  ironclad  cruiser  built  in  1863.   3.  Duke  of  Wellington,  built  in  1852.     4.  Warrior,  the  first  ironclad,  launched 
in  1860.      5.  Iris,  steam  and  sail  ironclad  built  in  1877.      6.  Figure-head  intended  for  Royal  Frederick,  1841 

Photos  I,  2  and  5.  S.  Symonds  &  Co.,  Portsmouth;  3,  4  and  6,  C'ribb,  Southtea 


the  knotted  figwort,  is  used  by 
farmers  to  make  a  decoction  for 
the  cure  of  scab  in  swine. 

Fiji  OR  Vm  ISLANDS.  Crown 
colony  of  the  British  Empire.  It 
consists  of  a  group  of  nearly  250 
islands  and  islets 
in  the  S.  Pacific 
Ocean,  lying  be- 
tween lat.  15°  and 
20°  S.,  and  long. 
175°  E.  and  178° 
W.  The  total  land 
area,  including 

,-,  Rotumah,      is 

Fiji  Islands  arms    7>Q83     sq      m 

About  80  of  the  islands  are  inha- 
bited, but  only  three  are  of  large 
size,  viz.  Viti  Levu  (area  4,053  sq. 
m.),  Vanua  Levu  (2,130  sq.  m.), 
and  Taviuni  (217  sq.  m.) ;  the 
chief  of  the  smaller  islands  are 
Ovalau,  Kandavu,  Ngau,  Koro, 
and  Rotumah.  The  remainder  are 
islets  and  atolls,  bounded  by  reefs. 

The  islands  are  of  volcanic 
origin,  but  beyond  a  few  thermal 
springs  there  are  no  signs  of  recent 
activity.  The  larger  islands  are 
mountainous,  rising  to  4,000  ft. 
and  5,000  ft.,  densely  forested  in 
parts,  and  abounding  in  valuable 
woods,  but  the  sandalwood  for 
which  the  Fijis  were  formerly  noted 
is  almost  exhausted.  There  are 
many  good  harbours  'and  a  few 
navigable  rivers.  The  climate  is 
healthy  and  agreeable,  the  rainfall 
plentiful ;  the  mean  temperature 
is  about  70°  Fahr.,  and  malaria  ia 
rare.  The  islands  are  subject  to 


hurricanes  between  Dec.  and  April. 
The  soil  is  extremely  fertile,  the 
chief  products  being  coconuts, 
sugar,  cacao,  yams,  bananas,  maize, 
rice,  tobacco,  rubber,  and  turmeric. 
Horses,  cattle,  sheep,  and  goats  are 
reared  in  large  numbers.  The 


Canada,  Tonga,  arid  Samoa.  The 
exports  amounted  to  £2,896,448 
and  the  imports  to  £1,673,121  in 
1920,  more  than  three-quarters  of 
the  trade  being  done  with  British 
possessions.  The  capital  is  Suva 
on  the  S.  coast  of  Viti  Levu,  and 
there  are  wireless  telegraphy  sta- 
tions at  Suva,  Taviuni,  Labasa, 
and  Savusavu.  There  are  two 
grammar  schools  at  Suva  and  one 
at  Levukaon  Ovalau,  under  govern- 
ment control.  The  religions  are 
mainly  divided  between  the  Protes- 
tant and  Roman  Catholic  faiths. 
Money,  weights,  and  measures  are 
the  same  as  in  Great  Britain. 


natives  are  ^f  Malayan-Polynesian 
stock. 

The  chief  exports  include  sugar, 
copra,  molasses,  cotton,  rubber, 
green  fruit,  and  sici  shell.  Steamer 
communication  is  maintained  with 
Australia,  New  Zealand,  Honolulu, 


Fiji.    Native  man  of  Malayan-Poly- 
nesian origin.     Left,  Fijian  girl   •' 


FILANG1ERI 


3144 


FILE 


of  Satriano,  he 
died  Oct.  9,  1867. 
"*  Filaria  (Lat. 
filum,  thread). 
Genus  of  Nema- 
tode  or  thread- 
like worms,  many 
of  which  are 
parasitic  in  the 
bodies  of  man  and 
other  animals. 
Certain  of  these 
minute  worms 
are  the  cause  of 


Fiji.     Map  of  the  South  Pacific  islands  ceded  to  Great 
Britain  in  1874 


The  Fiji  Islands  were  ceded  by 
the  ruling  chiefs  to  the  British 
Empire  on  October  10,  1874,  and 
are  administered  by  a  governor 
appointed  by  the  crown,  who  is 
assisted  by  executive  and  legisla- 
tive councils,  but  a  fair  amount  of 
self-government  is  allowed.  The 
governor  is  high  commisioner 
and  consul-general  for  the  West 
Pacific.  The  islands  were  dis- 
covered by  Tasman  in  1643  and 
visited  by  Cook  in  1769.  Pop. 
163,416,  of  whom  87,761  are 
Frjians,  61,745  Indians,  4,800  Euro- 
peans, the  remainder  being  Chinese, 
Polynesians,  and  Rotumans. 

Filangieri,  GAETANO  (1752-88). 
Italian  lawyer.  The  son  of  Caesar 
Filangieri,  prince  of  Arianiello,  he 
was  born  at  Naples,  Aug.  18,  1752, 
and  became  a  lawyer.  He  is  chiefly 
known  for  his  work,  The  Science  of 
Legislation,  which  secured  a  Euro- 
pean reputation.  This  is  unfin- 
ished, only  four  out  of  its  six  books 
being  completed ;  it  deals  with 
legislation,  economics,  and  educa- 
tion, and  shows  its  author  as  a 
thinker  much  in  advance  of  his 
time.  Filangieri  passed  much  of 
his  life  in  Spain,  where  he  held 
appointments  at  court,  and  he  was 
there  when  he  died,  July  21,  1788. 
The  Science  of  Legislation  has  been 
translated  into  English  by  Sir  R. 
Clayton,  1806. 

Filangieri  had  a  son,  Carlo  (1784- 
1867),  famous  as  a  soldier  in  the 
French  service.  He  began  his 
career  under  Napoleon  and  saw 
service  at  Ulm,  Austerlitz,  and  else- 
where. He  was  afterwards  in  Spam, 
but  his  name  is  chiefly  associated 
with  Sicily.  In  1848  he  was  sent 
there  by  Ferdinand  II,  king  of 
Naples,  to  subdue  the  rebels,  which 
he  did.  He  remained  in  the  island 
as  governor  until  1855.  In  1859  he 
was  made  prime  minister  by  Fran- 
cis II,  king  of  Naples,  but  he  soon 
resigned  because  his  suggestions 
for  a  more  liberal  form  of  govern- 
ment were  rejected.  Made  prince 


various 
most  of  them 
peculiar  to  tropi- 
cal countries. 
Filaria  bancrofti, 
which  occurs  in 
Egypt,  Australia, 


Southern  Asia, 

and  Brazil,  lives  in  its  adult  stage 
in  the  lymphatic  glands,  while  its 
embryos,  Microfilaria  sanguinis- 
hominis,  are  found  in  the  blood. 
It  is  conveyed  by  the  bite  of  a 
mosquito,  and  is  the  cause  of 
elephantiasis  and  haematuria.  Fi- 
laria medinensis  is  known  as  the 
guinea  worm,  and  encysts  under  the 
skin  of  the  back  and  legs,  forming 
serious  subcutaneous  abscesses. 
The  larval  stage  is  passed  in  the 
cyclops,  and  the  larvae  probably 
conveyed  to  man  by  drinking  im- 
pure water.  See  Tropical  Diseases. 
Filariasis.  Disease  caused  by 
infection  with  a  nematode  worm 
belonging  to  the  family  Filariidae. 
Several  genera  and  species  are 
recognized,  but  by  far  the  most 
important  is  the  Filaria  bancrofti. 
See  Elephantiasis. 

Filbert.  Fruit  of  the  cultivated 
hazel.  In  it  the  leathery  husk  is 
greatly  extended  so  as  to  conceal 
the  nut.  Its  proper  name  is 
Philibert  nut,  so  called  from  S. 
Philibert,  whose  day  is  kept  Aug.  22 
during  the  height  of  the  nutting 
season.  See  Hazel. 

Fildes,  SIR  LTJKE  (b.  1844). 
British  artist.  Born  at  Liverpool, 
he  studied  at  Chester,  Warrington, 
South  Kensington  and  the  Academy 
schools.  He  began  his  career  with 
black  and  white  work  for  The 
Graphic,  contributing  a  sketch  of 
Casuals  for  the  first  number,  1869  ; 
this  was,  in  1874,  the  subject  of  a 
popular  p  i  c  - 
tureattheR.A. 
He  illustrated 
Dickens' s  Ed- 
win Drood. 
Casuals  was 
followed  b  y 
The  Doctor, 
1892  (Tate 
G  a  1  1  e  r  yX 
which  set  the 
seal  on  his 
reputation  as 
a  painter  of 


pathetic  subjects.  Ojln  1887  he 
turned  to  portraiture,  and  after- 
wards produced  little  else.  In  1901 
he  painted  the  official  portrait 
of  King  Edward  VII,  and  in  1905 
that  of  Queen  Alexandra.  He  was 
elected  A.R.A.  in  1879  and  R.A. 
in  1887.  Knighted  in  1906,  he  was 
created  K.C.V.O.  in  1918. 

File.  Important  hand  tool  used 
largely  in  the  metal  industries.  Its 
purpose  is  to  smooth  down,  by 
means  of  sharp  edges  or  points 
formed  upon  its 
surface,  a  rough 
or  irregular  sur- 
face or  remove  a 
film  or  excre- 
scence of  mate- 
rial. Files  are 
also  used  to  shar- 
pen saws.  Many 
varieties  are 
used  :  flat,  taper, 
round,  square, 
three  -  square  or 
triangular,  half- 
round,  and  rat- 
tail.  In  flat  files 
both  faces  and 
edges  may  be 
cut  ;  if  one  edge 
is  left  smooth  the 
file  is  said  to  have 
one  "safe-edge." 


. 

centre,  single-cut    single    cut    or 
rough    file;  at   double  cut.    The 


crucible  cast  steel  ;  the  cutting 
edges  are  formed  by  means  of  a 
short  chisel,  which  is  held  at  a 
particular  angle  on  the  "  blank," 
as  the  uncut  shape  is  called,  and 
struck  with  a  hammer.  A  rasp  is 
a  file  in  which  a  series  of  strong 
burrs  are  made  by  a  pointed  punch. 
The  cutting  begins  at  the  point 
of  the  file  and  advances  by  steps 
according  to  the  intended  fineness 
of  the  file.  After  the  first  cutting  is 
finished,  if  the  file  is  to  be  double 
cut,  it  is  gone  over  again  with  the 
chisel  held  so  as  to  cross  the  former 
cuts  at  an  angle.  Cutting  surfaces 
of  files  are  distinguished  in  a  com- 
plete series  as  rough,  middle  cut, 
bastard,  second  cut,  smooth  and 
dead  smooth.  The  sizes  range  from 
a  watchmaker's  tool,  about  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  long,  to  files 
three  feet  in  length.  Most  classes 
are  provided  with  a  "  tang,"  a 
pointed  end  intended  to  be  driven 
into  a  wooden  handle.  The  best 
files  are  still  cut  by  hand,  though 
file-cutting  machines  are  now 
largely  in  use.  Files  are  cut  while 
,the  blanks  are  in  the  soft  or  an- 
nealed state,  and  are  afterwards 
hardened,  great  care  being  taken 
to  avoid  distortion  of  their  shapes. 
Skill  in  filing,  the  ability  to  file  a 


FILE 

surface  flat,  is  the  hall-mark  of  a 
go  ^d  mechanic;  but  machine  tools 
have  diminished  the  importance  of 
the  art. 

File  (Lat.  filum,  thread).  Mili- 
tary term  for  soldiers  formed  up 
behind  one  another.  In  the  British 
army  men  fall  in  in  two  lines ;  those 
abreast  form  the  ranks  ;  each  man 
in  the  front  rank  with  the  man 
immediately  behind  him  forms  a 
file.  When  numbered  off,  the  front 
rank  man  numbers  for  his  file,  odd 
numbers  being  called  right,  even 
numbers  left,  files.  When  the  total 
of  the  men  in  the  squad  is  an  odd 
number  the  last  man  but  one  in 
the  front  rank,  who  is  known  as  a 
blank  file,  has  no  man  to  cover  him. 
Filey.  Urban  dist.  and  seaside 
resort  of  E.  Riding  of  Yorkshire, 
England.  It  is  9  m.  S.E.  of  Scar- 

r — . 7  borough    on    the 

N.E.R.,  and  is 
pleasantly  s  i  t  u- 
ated  on  the  cliffs 
overlooking  Filey 
Bay  with  a  fine 
stretch  of  firm 
sand,  a  good  pro- 
menade, and  golf 
Filey  arms  links_  The  urban 
council  owns  the  gas  and  water- 
works. Filey  Brigg,  on  the  N.  part 
of  the  Bay,  is  a  ridge  of  sandstone 
stretching  £  m.  out  to  sea.  S. 


Filigree. 


Filey. 


The  town  and  sea  front  seen  from  the  North  Cliff 

Frith 


Oswald's,  a  cruciform  building, 
partly  of  Norman  work,  is  the  chief 
church.  Until  recently  the  bound- 
ary between  the  E.  and  N. 
Ridings  of  Yorkshire  separated  this 
church  from  the  town  proper. 
Roman  antiquities  have  been  dis- 
covered here.  ,^op.  3,228. 

Filibuster.  General  term  for  a 
freebooter.  It  is  now  used  of  private 
individuals  who  wage  unauthorised 
warfare  against  a  foreign  state.  In 
the  U.S.A.  obstructive  legislators 
are  called  filibusters.  The  word 
was  originally  applied  to  the  buc- 
caneers or  17th  century  pirates  of 
the  West  Indies,  and  is  used  speci- 
fically for  the  adventurers  who, 


31  45 

after  the  Mexican   r 

war,  organized 

expeditions  in  the   j 

U.S.A.  to  fight  in    | 

Spanish  -  American    [ 

revolutions,       e.g.    \ 

N  a  r  c  i  s  o     Lopez   | 

against     Cuba   I 

(1850-51)       and   1 

William  Walker   J 

against  Nicaragua   ; 

(1855-60).       The   [ 

Spanish    form    of  , 

the  word  isfilibus-    j 

tero,    a  corruption 

of  Dutch  vrijbuiter   [ 

(vrij,  free ;     buit, 

booty). 
Filigree     (Lat.   I 

filum,     thread;   [ 

granum,    grain). 

Form    of    decora-   J 

tive  work  carried   | 

out  with  fine  wire   ! 

of   gold,  silver,  or   f 

copper.        It    has   j 

been   used   for 

jewelry  and  orna-   j 

ment    from     pre-   j 

historic       times,    \ 

sometimes     alone,    ^ 

sometimes  in  com- 

bination  with 

solid  metal,  enamel,  and  precious 

stones.      The  Etruscans  and  later 

the  Byzantines  combined  filigree 
work  with  granu- 
lation— a  type  of 
decoration  c  o  n- 
sisting  of  small 
and  large  balls. 
In  early  work  the 
dainty  wire 
patterns  were 
attached  to  metal 
plates,  and  when 
the  space  between 
was  filled  with 
enamel  it  was 
known  as  filigree 
enamel.  Treat- 
in  e  n  t  differs  a 
good  deal.  Indian 
work  is  mostly 
floral,  very  thin 

wire  filling  in  the  space   between 

the  outline  of  thicker  flattened  wire. 

Maltesefiligreeis  like  cobwebby  lace, 

andsoismuchof  that  from  Portugal. 
Apart  from  articles  for  personal 

adornment,  filigree  decoration  was 

largely  used  in  medieval  times  for 

embellishing  reliquaries,  and,  from 

this,  detached  lacework  in  Gothic 

architecture   is    sometimes    called 

filigree  work. 

There  are  two  types  of  filigree 

glass:    (1)  interwoven  or  spirally 

twisted  clouded  or  coloured  threads 

embedded  in  the  glass ;  (2)  surface 

decorations  or  other  ornaments  car- 
ried out  in  glass  threads.   See  illus. 

p.  1537. 


FILIPESCU 


IP* 

: 


Examples  of  modern  Genoese  filigree  work 
in  finely  drawn  silver  wire 

Filing.  Method  by  which  cor" 
respondence  or  other  records  are 
kept  in  order  to  be  available  for 
quick  and  easy  reference.  In  busi- 
ness circles  flat  filing,  i.e.  using  a 
board  with  a  metal  holder  attached 
to  it,  which  can  be  opened  and 
closed  at  will,  took  the  place  of  a 
spiked  wire,  and  in  its  turn  gave 
way  to  the  vertical  filing  system 
introduced  into  England  between 
1890  and  1900. 

The  primary  idea  of  vertical  filing 
is  to  bring  together  in  one  place 
all  letters  to  and  from  a  customer 
or  client,  and  to  arrange  them  in 
such  a  way  as  will  give  instant 
access  to  any  particular  one.  Each 
correspondent  has  a  separate  folder, 
in  which  the  letters  are  arranged 
in  chronological  order,  and  the 
folders  are  arranged  in  cabinets. 
See  Card  Index;  Indexing. 

Filipescu,  NICOLA  (1857-1916). 
Rumanian  statesman.  After  study- 
ing law  in  Paris  and  returning  to 
Rumania,  he 
was  elected  a 
deputy,  and  in 
1900  became 
minister  of  { 
agriculture 
and  domains. 
Minister  of 
war,  1911-12, 
he  was  largely 
responsible  for 

the  reorganization  of  the  army. 
On  leaving  the  war  office  he  was 
minister  of  agriculture  until  1913. 


Nicola  Filipescu, 
Rumanian  statesman 


FILIPINOS 


On  the  outbreak  of  the  Great  War 
he  was  a  strong  advocate  of  the 
participation  of  Rumania  on  the 
side  of  the  Allies.  He  died  on  Oct. 
13, 1916 

Filipinos.  Name  applied  gener- 
ally to  the  native  inhabitants  of 
the  Philippine  Islands  (q.v.).  They 
belong  to  tribes  of  Malayan  stock. 
The  Liga  Filipina  was  founded 
about  1890  by  Dr.  Jose  Rizal 
(q.v.)  with  the  object  of  securing 
more  freedom  for  the  inhabitants 
than  they  then  had  under  Spanish 
rule,  and  subsequently  the  term 
Filipino  came  into  general  use. 

Filite.  Italian  propellant.  Bal- 
listite  was  adopted  as  the  standard 
propellant  by  the  Italian  Govern- 
ment  very  soon  after  it  was  invented 
by  Nobel,  but  whereas  the  original 
ballistite  was  in  the  form  of  flakes, 
the  Italians  drew  it  into  fine  threads 
by  the  addition  of  a  solvent  and 
named  it  filite.  See  Solenite. 

Fillan  (d.  c.  777).  Early  Scottish 
saint.  According  to  the  Aberdeen 
breviary,  he  was  the  son  of  S. 
Kentigerna,  and  early  in  life  be- 
came a  monk.  He  lived  for  some 
years  in  a  cell  near  St.  Andrews, 
where  he  was  later  elected  abbot. 
Resigning  this  position,  he  retired 
to  Glendochart  in  Perthshire, 
where  he  founded  a  church,  which 
he  served.  He  was  buried  at  Strath- 
fillan,  Perthshire. 

Filler.  Word  used  in  several 
senses,  and  specially  applied  to  the 
contents  of  a  cigar  which  are  sur- 
rounded by  the  wrapper.  In  pre- 
paring ground  for  building,  and  hi 
canal  or  rly.  work,  etc.,  a  filler  is 
the  man  who  fills  the  barrows  or 
trucks  with  excavated  material. 

Fillet  (Old  Fr.  filet,  little 
thread).  Term  in  architecture,  sig- 
nifying a  narrow  moulding  or  flat 
band  in  a  moulding.  It  is  also 
used  to  indicate  the  flat  ridge 
between  the  flutes  of  a  shaft.  See 
Fluting  ;  Moulding. 

Fillmore,  MILLARD  (1800-74). 
President  of  the  U.S.A.  Born 
Feb.  7,  1800,  in  New  York  state, 
the  son  of  a  settler,  he  had  a  rough 
boyhood.  Apprenticed  to  the  cloth 
trade,  he  began  to  study  law,  and 
earned  a  livelihood  by  teaching  at 
Buffalo  until  qualified  to  practise. 
This  he  did  at  Aurora,  where  he  was 
soon  the  head  of  a  prosperous 
firm.  In  1829  he  entered  the 
legislature  of  New  York.  This  led 
to  Congress,  wherein  he  sat  as  a 
Whig,  1833-35  and  1837-43,  be- 
coming a  prominent  speaker  in  the 
House  of  Representatives.  In 
1848  he  was  chosen  vice-president, 
and  in  July,  1850,  he  succeeded  to 
the  presidency.  > 

On  the  slavery  question  Fillmore 
was  a  moderate.  On  the  one  side 
he  pressed  forward  in  1850  the 


fugitive  slave 
law  and  other 
measures  of 
compromise  ; 
on  the  other  he 
had  supported 
legislation  for 
preventing  the 
extension  of 
slavery  out- 
side  the  exist- 
ing  slave 

states.  In  1850  the  Whigs  declined 
to  put  Fillmore  forward,  and  when 
he  stood  for  president  in  1854  only 
one  state  supported  him.  He  died 
at  Buffalo,  March  8,  1874. 

Film.  System  of  photography 
in  which  a  flexible  material  is  used 
in  place  of  glass  plates  as  the  sup- 
port of  the  sensitive  emulsion  in 
the  making  of  negatives.  Its  ad- 
vantages are  reduction  of  weight 
and  the  facility  of  loading  the 
camera  and  developing  the  nega- 
tives without  a  dark-room,  and 
non-liability  of  the  negatives  to 
breakage  when  stored.  Celluloid  is 
almost  exclusively  used  as  the  flex- 
ible support ;  paper  is  employed  to 
a  slight  extent.  The  sensitive  film 
is  generally  used  as  a  long  band 
wound  on  a  spool  or  bobbin  along 
with  a  longer  band  of  black  paper, 
the  extra  length  of  which  at  each 
end  allows  of  the  spool  being  in- 
serted in  one  chamber  of  a  film- 
camera,  and  then  of  the  film  being 
wound  on  to  a  second  but  empty 
spool  after  exposure. 

Owing  to  the  enveloping  black 
paper  both  operations  can  be  done 
in  full  daylight,  and  material  for 
any  number  of  photographic  sub- 
jects thus  carried  and  used  with- 
out a  dark-room.  The  modern  use 
of  films  dates  from  1891,  when  this 
so-called  "daylight  loading"  was 
introduced  commercially  by  the 
Eastman  Kodak  Co.  for  the  East- 
man roll-film  introduced  in  1889. 
In  1914  a  new  (autographic)  pat- 
tern of  Eastman  film  spool  was  in- 
troduced in  which,  by  means  of  a 
special  paper  between  the  film  and 
the  black  paper,  the  title  or  date 
of  exposure  may  be  impressed 
below  the  negative  when  taking 
the  photograph. 

Emulsion-coated  film  of  stiffer 
substance  is  also  used  in  cut  pieces, 
and  is  handled  very  similarly  to 
dry  plates.  Emulsion-coated  paper 
for  the  making  of  negatives  is  also 
made  in  relatively  small  quantity 
in  out  sheets.  (See  Photography.) 
Film  is  also  used  as  a  general 
term  for  the  cinematograph  in- 
dustry, in  which  the  photographic 
film  is  a  prime  factor.  Plays 
written  for  the  film  are  examined 
in  Great  Britain  by  a  board  of  film 
censors,  who  in  1919-20  examined 
6,233,155  feet  of  film,  embracing 


2,311  subjects.  A  large  number 
of  persons  earn  a  livelihood  by 
working  for  the  great  companies 
that  prepare  films  for  the  public, 
while  the  works  of  many  novelists 
are  adapted  for  this  purpose.  See 
Cinematography ;  Picture  Theatre. 

Filmer,  Sm  ROBERT  (d.  1653). 
English  political  writer.  Edu- 
cated at  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge, he  was  a  staunch  royalist, 
and  suffered  much  during  the 
civil  war.  His  political  treatises, 
mostly  published  posthumously, 
are  of  an  absolutist  character, 
defending  the  patriarchal  theory 
of  the  origin  of  government,  and 
attacking  the  doctrines  of  Hobbes, 
Milton,  and  others.  The  most  im- 
portant is  Patriarcha,  published 
1680  and  to  which  Lock  replied  in 
his  Treatise  on  Government.  He 
died  May  26,  1653. 

Filmy  Fern.  Fern  of  delicate 
texture  belonging  to  the  genera 
Trichomanes,  HymenopJiyllum,  and 
Todea.  The  leaves  are  so  thin  in 


Filmy  Fern.      Leaves  of  Hymeno- 
pbyllum  Tunbridgense 

substance  that  they  are  more  or 
less  pellucid,  and  lose  moisture  so 
rapidly  that  they  are  found  grow- 
ing only  where  the  atmosphere  is 
humid.  Consequently  in  cultivation 
they  require  to  be  kept  in  a  closed 
case.  The  Filmy  ferns  proper  form 
the  genus  Hymenophyllum,ot  which 
H.  tunbridgense  is  a  well-known 
European  form,  with  leaves  only 
two  or  three  inches  long,  growing 
in  matted  sheets  on  moist,  shaded 
rock.  The  Killaraey  fern  (Tricho- 
manes radicans)  is  a  much  larger 
species,  with  leaves  as  much  as  a 
foot  long.  • 

Filon,  PIERRE  MARIE  AUGUSTEN 
(1841-1916).  French  author.  The 
second  son  of  the  historian,  Charles 
Auguste  Filon  (1800-75),  in  1867 
he  was  appointed  tutor  to  the 
Prince  Imperial,  only  son  of  Napo- 
leon III,  and  after  the  Franco- 
Prussian  War  he  accompanied  the 
prince  to  England.  He  died  at  j 
Croydon,  May  13,  1916.  -,  «,  j 

Besides  numerous  studies  ot 
English  life  and  literature  con- 
tributed to  French  reviews,  his 


FILTER 

voluminous  works  include  Guy 
Patin,  Sa  Vie  et  Sa  Correspondance, 
1862;  Histoire  de  la  Litterature 
Anglaise,  crowned  by  the  Academy, 
1883;  Nos  Grand-Peres,  1887; 
Profils  Anglais,  1893  ;  Merimee  et 
ses  Amis,  1894;  Le  Theatre  An- 
glais, 1896,  Eng.  trans.  F.  Whyte, 
1897  ;  Prosper  Merimee,  1898  ;  De 
Dumas  a  Rostand,  1898  ;  and  La 
Caricature  en  Angleterre,  1902. 

His  son,  Louis  Napoleon  George 
Filon  (b.  1875),  a  mathematician, 
was  appointed  professor  of  mathe- 
matics and  mechanics  in  the  uni- 
versity of  London,  1912.  He 
served  in  the  army  and  on  the  air 
board  during  the  Great  War. 

Filter  (late  Lat.  filtrum,  felt). 
Mechanism  designed  to  act  as  a  very 
fine  strainer  and  to  arrest  solid 
suspended  matter,  even  down  to 
germs  and  microbes  where  potable 
water  is  in  question. 

The  filter  bed  ordinarily  used  by 
water  companies  is  formed  either 
of  bricks  or  paving  slabs  laid  in 
cement  or,  more  generally  now,  of 
fine  concrete  finished  with  a  layer 
of  asphalt  or  bitumen,  the  aim 
being  to  secure  a  water-tight  sur- 
face. The  floor  will  not  be  laid 
level  but  will  slope  a  little  from  the 
sides  towards  the  middle  or  to  one 
end,  where  the  arrangements  for 
withdrawing  the  water  will  be 
placed.  On  this  floor  will  be  laid 
j  either  coarse  gravel  to  a  thickness 
of  about  6  ins.,  or  two  layers  of 
bricks  or  pipes,  the  lower  one 
having  the  bricks  spaced  an  inch 
or  so  apart,  and  the  upper  one 
having  them  placed  close  against 
one  another.  Upon  the  latter  will 
be  spread  fine  gravel  to  the  depth 
of  about  6  ins.,  and  over  this  a  mass 
of  clean,  sharp  sand  to  a  depth 
of  from  2  ft.  to  4  ft.  This  combi- 
nation of  bricks,  gravel,  and  sand 
constitutes  a  filter  bed.  The  term 
is  peculiarly  appropriate,  as  no 
part  of  this  formation  may  be  the 
real  filtering  medium,  which  will 
be  formed  usually  by  the  fine 
deposit  which  the  water  itself 
gradually  lays  on  the  surface  of 
the  filter  bed. 

When  the  filter  has  been  working 
for  some  time  a  film  of  mud,  pro- 
duced by  the  life-processes  of  in- 
numerable bacteria,  which  destroy 
organic  matter  and  are  an  essential 
feature  of  the  filter,  forms  on  the 
sand,  and  the  filter  is  then  in  its 
most  efficient  condition.  The  rate 
of  filtration  should  not  exceed 
about  one  gallon  per  sq.  ft.  of  bed 
per  hour.  In  the  U.S.A.  the 
mechanical  or  pressure  filter  is 
much  used.  The  water,  dosed  with 
a  minute  proportion  of  alum,  which 
precipitates  clay  and  organic  matter 
almost  instantaneously,  is  forced 
through  large  metal  containers  al- 


31  47 


FILTER     PRESS 


most  filled  with 
sand.  The  rate 
of  filtration  is  up 
to  100  times 
higher  than  that 
of  a  gravity  filter. 
The  best  forms 
of  household 
filter  are  those 
in  which  unglazed 
porcelain  or 
biscuit  china  is 
the  filtering 
medium.  Microbes 


Filter.      Multiple  filters   and   raw   water  reservoir  at 

Accra,  Gold  Coast  Colony.     Above,  filter  bed  as  used 

in  London  waterworks,  under  construction.     The  three 

depths  of  loose  pipes,  gravel,  and  sand  are  visible 

cannot  pass  through  or  into  such 
material,  and  water  itself  perco- 
lates so  slowly  at  low  pressure  that 
a  filter  of  this  kind  should,  if 
possible,  be  attached  directly  to  a 
tap  connected  with  the  main. 

To  use  a  neglected  filter  may  be 
more  dangerous  than  not  using  one 
at  all,  as  a  foul  filter  provides  an 
ideal  breeding-place  for  injurious 
microbes.  See  Water  Supply. 

Filter  Press.  Appliance  much 
used  in  a  variety  of  industries, 
including  the  manufacture  of 
chemicals,  dyes,  sugar,  paints  and 
colours,  pottery,  yeast,  starch,  and 
many  pharmaceutical  preparations. 
To  some  limited  extent  it  is  also 
used  in  the  treatment  of  sewage. 

Its  construction  and  operation 
are  best  explained  by  the  aid  of  a 
diagram  as  appended.  A,  A'  are 
two  frames,  of  cast  iron  usually, 
though  sometimes  they  are  made 
of  wood  and  occasionally  of  special 
metals — lead,  brass,  and  even  gold. 
These  are  filter  plates.  B  is  a  frame 
corresponding  generally  to  A,  A', 
and  prepared  so  that  it  may  make 
perfectly  water-tight  joints  with 
them  at  a,  a,  a,  a,  but  with 
the  centre  hollow.  This  is  the 
"  cake  "  plate.  A  series  of  these 
plates,  alternating  as  shown,  are 
placed  in  a  frame  which  is  provided 
with  gear  by  which  all  the  plates 
may  be  pressed  tightly  up  against 
one  another,  a  "  press  "  being  thus 
constituted.  Over  each  of  the 
filter  plates  is  placed  a  filter  cloth, 
C,  C',  or  double  cloths  may  be  used, 
one  being  fine  and  the  other  coarse. 


The    centre    of 
the  filter  plate  is 
grooved    all    over 
on  each    side,  so 
that  the  filter  cloth 
lies  against  or 
upon  the  grooved 
surface.      The 
liquor   to    be    fil- 
tered is  introduced 
at  D  (the  position 
shown  is  conven- 
tional for  simplici- 
ty of  illustration) 
and  at  once  fills  the  whole  of  the 
hollow  space  of  the  cake  plate ;  the 
liquid  passes  through  the  filter  cloth 
into  the  grooves  on  the  surface  of 
the  filter  plate  and  is  led  by  those 
grooves  into  the  vent  E  (conven- 
tional   posi- 
tion)    at    the 
bottom     of 
the    plate, 
whence   it  es- 
capes.   As  the 
process    goes 
on  the  hollow 
space    of    the 
cake    plate 
gradually    fills 
with  solid  ma- 
terial    filtered 
out    of    the 
liquid      which 
has   passed 
through     the 
cloth,  until  in 
time  this  space 
is  closed  with  a 
firm,     com- 
pacted     mass 
through  which 
it  is  difficult  or 
impossible    to 
force  any  more 
liquid.      The 
press    is  then 
opened,  the 
plates     drawn 
apart,     the 
"cake"    re- 
moved,   the 
filter       cloths 
cleaned    or 
replaced 


Filter  Press.   For 
explanation  see  text 


FILTER      PUMP 


3  1  48 


FINCK 


by  others,  and  the  press  closed 
up  again  for  a  further  operation. 
Not  all  substances,  however,  will 
form  a  firm  cake  hi  the  press, 
and  sometimes  the  solid  material 
must  be  removed  in  the  form  of 
sludge.  A  remarkable  degree  of 
purity  may  be  obtained  in  the 
effluent  by  the  use  of  this  apparatus. 
In  older  types  of  filter  press  the 
separate  cake  plate  was  not  used, 
and  the  space  for  the  cake  was 
provided  by  recessing  the  centre  of 
the  filter  plate  on  each  side.  There 
were  thus  fewer  joints,  but  the 
more  modern  arrangement  has 
decided  advantages,  though  it  is 
rather  more  costly  to  construct. 

It  should  be  noted  that  some- 
times it  is  the  filtered  liquor  which 
is  the  chief  object  of  the  process, 
but  in  others  it  is  the  "  cake." 
Thus  in  sugar  manufacture  and 
refining  it  is  the  liquor ;  in  the 
manufacture  of  yeast  and  paints 
and  colours  it  is  the  cake. 

Filter  Pump.  Term  given  to 
the  pump  used  to  operate  a  filter 
press.  The  pump  is  of  any  good 
ordinary  design,  but  must  be  con- 
structed to  work  against  a  high 
pressure,  as  the  filter  press  cakes 
formed  in  the  appliance,  when 
they  become  compacted,  offer 

great  resistance  to  the  passage  of  a 
quid  through  them.  This  resist- 
ance may  represent  as  much  as 
100  Ib.  to  the  square  inch  or  more. 
Fin  (Lat.  penna,  wing,  fin).  Ex- 
pansion of  the  skin  or  body  wall  in 
aquatic  animals,  by  means  of  which 
they  swim.  In  the  fishes  they  are 
of  two  distinct  kinds,  paired  and 
unpaired.  The  former  correspond 
to  the  limbs  in  the  higher  animals, 
and  are  connected  with  bones  ;  the 
latter,  which  consist  usually  of 
dorsal,  anal,  and  caudal  fins,  are 
simply  folds  of  skin  more  or  less 
supported  by  fin-rays 

Fin.  In  aeronautics,  any  fixed 
subsidiary  plane  or  surface  set 
vertically  to  the  rear  part  of  the 
fuselage  of  an  aircraft.  The  fin  is 
generally  mounted  in  front  of  the 
rudder,  and  its  purpose  is  to  in- 
crease the  stability  of  the  machine. 
A  cooling  rib  of  metal  formed  on 
the  cylinder  of  an  engine  is  also 
termed  a  fin.  Its  purpose  is  to 
facilitate  the  radiation  of  heat 
from  the  engine  and  prevent  over- 
heating. A  fin  post  is  the  strut  or 
post  to  which  the  stabilising  fin  of 
an  aeroplane  is  fixed.  See  Aero- 
plane. 

Finale  (Ital.,  end).  Closing 
movement  of  a  composition  of  ex- 
tended character,  such  as  a  sonata, 
symphony,  or  concerto  ;  or  the  last 
portion  of  one  of  the  acts  of  an 
opera,  in  which  as  a  rule  a  large 
"orce  of  the  performers  assembles 
on  the  stage.  The  operatic  finale 


often  consists  of  several  distinct 
movements,  but  all  leading  up  to 
the  final  ensemble.  As  the  coda  is 
the  concluding  section  of  a  single 
movement,  so  the  finale  winds  up 
a  complete  work  consisting  of 
several  movements.  During  the 
past  two  centuries  the  coda  and 
finale,  from  being  mere  perfunc- 
tory endings  of  little  significance, 
have  become  an  important  sum- 
ming up  and  climax. 

Finance  (late  Lat.  finare,  to  pay 
a  fine).  Word  used  for  money 
matters  in  general,  but  especially 
for  those  of  a  country,  town,  or 
other  corporate  body.  A  financier 
is  one  who  is  concerned  with 
money  matters,  but  refers  rather 
to  bankers  and  business  men  than 
to  the  civil  servants  who  manage 
a  country's  finances.  The  finances 
of  each  country  are  part  of  its 
system  of  government  and  are 
dealt  with  as  such.  See  Consols  ; 
National  Debt ;  National  Finance. 
Finance  Act.  Name  given  to 
the  annual  Act  of  Parliament  that 
legalises  the  proposals  contained 
in  the  Budget.  The  taxes  made  for 
the  coming  year  were  embodied  in 
a  Customs  and  Inland  Revenue 
Bill  until  1894,  in  which  year  the 
scope  of  the  bill  was  enlarged  and 
its  title  changed  to  Finance  Bill. 
In  1899  provisions  relating  to  the 
National  Debt  were  included  there- 
in. See  Budget. 

Financial  News,  THE.  London 
daily  newspaper.  Started  by  H.  H. 
Marks,  Jan.  23,  1884,  as  The 
Financial  and  Mining  News,  it  was 
at  first  issued  only  on  five  days  of 
the  week.  It  initiated  the  publi- 
cation in  London  of  daily  cables 
from  the  New  York  stock  market. 
Financial  Times,  THE.  London 
daily  newspaper.  It  was  founded 
in  1888  by  G.  D.  Macrae  and  F.  M. 
Bridgewater.  From  the  same  office 
are  issued  an  Investor's  Guide,  Oil 
Handbook,  and  Mining  Handbook. 
Financier  and  Bullionist,  THE. 
London  daily  newspaper.  It  was 
incorporated  with  The  Financial 
Times  in  1924.  Its  then  title  dated 
from  1900,  when  The  Financier, 
begun  in  1870,  was  amalgamated 
with  The  Daily  Bullionist,  a  paper 
begun  in  1806  as  The  Bullionist 
and  renamed  The  Daily  Bullionist 
in  1899 

Finch  (Lat.  Fringilla).  Name 
applied  to  a  large  family  of  small 
birds,  distributed  over  most  of  the 
temperate  zone,  except  Australasia. 
They  are  characterised  by  hard 
conical  beaks  with  smooth  edges, 
and  have  nine  primary  wing  feathers 
and  twelve  feathers  in  the  tail. 
The  nostrils  are  close  together,  and 
there  are  a  few  short  bristles  around 
the  mouth.  In  all  the  species  the 
sexes  are  differently  coloured  or 


marked.  Finches  are  in  the  main 
seed -eaters ;  they  are  apt  to  be 
found  in  small  companies,  and  they 
frequent  both  woods  and  open 
country.  Among  the  commoner 
finches  in  Great  Britain  are  haw- 
finch, greenfinch,  chaffinch,  bram- 
bling,  goldfinch,  siskin,  linnet,  and 
house  sparrow.  See  illus.  p.  1334. 
Finchley.  Residential  district 
and  parish  of  Greater  London. 
Lying  E.  of  Hendon,  N.  of  Golder's 
Green,  Hampstead  and  Highgate, 
and  S.  of  Whetstone  and  Barnet,  it 
is  approached  from  St.  John's 
Wood  by  the  Fjnahley  Road,  from 
Highgate  by  the  Great  North  Road, 


Finchley.     The  parish  church  of  S. 
Mary,  restored  in  1872 

has  stations  on  the  G.N.R.,  and 
electric  tram  and  motor-' bus  ser- 
vices. It  comprises  N.  Finchley,  E. 
Finchley,  and  Church  End.  Near 
the  Perpendicular  parish  church  of 
S.  Mary,  restored  in  1872,  is  Christ 
College,  founded  1857.  About  90 
acres  of  what  was  Finchley  Com- 
mon, once  a  resort  of  highwaymen, 
and  the  scene  of  several  military 
encampments,  are  occupied  by  the 
Islington  and  St.  Pancras  ceme- 
teries ;  Marylebone  cemetery  is 
between  East  Finchley  and  Church 
End.  General  Monk  mustered  his 
forces  here  in  1660,  and  the  Guards 
were  assembled  here  in  1745,  an 
event  commemorated  in  Hogarth's 
picture,  The  March  to  Finchley. 
An  urban  district,  Finchley  gives 
its  name  to  a  co.  div.  returning 
one  member  to  Parliament.  Pop. 
39,419. 

Finck,  HERMAN  (b.  1872).  Brit- 
ish conductor  and  composer.  Born 
in  London,  Nov.  4, 1872,  he  studied 
at  the  Guildhall  School  of  Music. 
In  1900  he  was  appointed  musical 
director  of  the  Palace  Theatre.  He 
has  written  more  than  50  light 
operas  and  some  hundreds  of  songs. 


FINDHORN 


3  1  49 


FINGALL 


Jane  H.  Findlater, 
British  novelist 


Findhorn,  Elgin.    The  fishing  village,  looking  along  the 
sea  front  towards  the  west 


Findhorn.  River  of  the  counties 
of  Elgin,  Nairn,  and  Inverness, 
Scotland.  It  issues  from  the 
Monadhliath  Mts.,  and  flows  N.E. 
for  62  m.  to  Moray  Firth,  which  it 
enters  2  m.  N.  of  Forres  through 
Findhorn  Bay.  Findhorn,  a  fishing 
village  and  watering-place,  is  on 
the  E.  shore  of  the  bay. 

Findlater,  JANE  HELEN.  British 
novelist.  Born  at  Edinburgh,  she 
published  her  first  novel,  The  Green 

-, ~-^-. — „_  Graves  of  Bal- 

JUH^     J  gowrie,  in  1896. 
Hi    J  It  was  followed 
I  by  A  Daughter 
Y4»  jpp     ]  of  Strife,  1897  ; 
j  Rachel,     1899  ; 
1  The  Story  of  a 
J  Mother,     1902  ; 
Vi         Stones   from   a 
M  Glass    House, 
1904  ;  and  The 
Ladder   to   the 

Elliott  &  Fry  Qfara    T  QO1     Qho 

otars,  lyU'i.  one 

also  wrote  several  stories  in  col- 
laboration with  her  sister,  Mary 
Findlater  (q.v.),  including  Tales 
That  Are  Told,  1901 ;  Crossriggs, 
1908;  Penny  Moneypenny,  1911; 
Seven  Scots  Stories,  1913 ;  Content 
With  Flies,  1916  ;  and  Seen  and 
Heard,  1916. 

Findlater,  MARY  (b.  1865). 
British  novelist.  She  was  born  at 
Lochearnhead,  Perthshire,  and 
educated  at  .  ^ 

home.  Besides   j 
the   stories 

written  with    ;   kjOjiPP        §£  .^ 
her  sister,  Jane    \ 
Helen  Find-    L 
later,     her| 
worksof  fiction   \ 

included  Over   ;  H^H 

the  Hills, 
1897;  Betty 
Musgrave, 

1899;  A  Nar-  ^  •«•*"»» —»-"»»«««» 
row  Way,  1901 ;  The  Rose  of  Joy, 
1903 ;  A  Blind  Bird's  Nest,  1903 ; 
and  Tents  of  a  Night,  1916.  < 

Findlay.  City  of  Ohio,  U.S.A., 
the  co.  seat  of  Hancock  co.  On  the 
Blanchard  river,  44  m.  by  rly. 
S.S.W.  of  Toledo,  it  is  served  by 


Mary  Findlater, 
British  novehst 


the  Ohio  Central 
and  other  rlys.  Its 
buildings  include 
Findlay  College,  a 
public  library,  and 
several  benevolent 
institutions,  and 
there  is  a  good 
park  system. 
Findlay  is  situ- 
ated in  an  agricul- 
tural,  oil,  and 
natural  gas  region, 
and  has  foundries, 
machinery  works, 
oil  refineries,  lime 
kilns,  and  motor- 
car, carriage,  boot 
and  shoe,  and  glove  factories. 
Settled  in  1813,  it  was  incorporated 
in  1837,  and  chartered  as  a  city  in 
1890.  Pop.  14,858. 

Findlay,  GEORGE  GILLANDERS 
(1849-1919).  British  scholar.  Born 
Jan.  3,  1849,  he  was  educated  at 
Wesley  College,  Sheffield,  Rich- 
mond theological  college,  and  Lon- 
don University.  Entering  the  Wes- 
leyan  ministry  in  1870,  he  was 
assistant  tutor  at  Headingley  Col- 
lege, 1870-74,  classical  tutor  at 
Richmond  College,  1874-81,  and 
tutor  in  exegesis  and  classics  at 
Headingley,  1881-1917.  His  writ- 
ings include  commentaries  in  the 
Expositor's  Bible  on  S.  Paul's 
Epistles,  contributions  to  the  Ex- 
positor's Greek  Testament,  and  the 
Cambridge  Greek  Testament  and 
the  Bible  for  Schools.  He  died 
Nov.  2,  1919. 

Findon.  Village  of  Kincardine- 
shire,  Scotland.  It  is  on  the  coast, 
6  m.  S.  of  Aberdeen.  Fishing  is 
carried  on,  and  the  village  gives  its 
name  to  the  Findon  or  Finnon  had- 
docks, which  were  first  cured  here. 
Fine  (Lat.  finis,  the  end).  Term 
common  in  English  law.  Originally 
a  sum  of  money  imposed  upon 
someone  by  way  of  compounding — 
i.e.  paying  to  make  an  end  of  the 
matter  instead  of  going  to  prison 
or  paying  in  several  instalments. 
By  feudal  law  a  leaseholder  often 
pays  a  fine  for  the  renewal  of  his 
lease,  and  copyholders  on  change  of 
ownership.  But  the  word  is  best 
known  in  its  connexion  with  crim- 
inal offences,  being  a  sum  of  money 
imposed  by  way  of  penalty  for  a 
crime  or  breach  of  some  law  or 
regulation.  As  a  rule,  the  amount 
of  fine  to  be  imposed  is  in  the 
discretion  of  the  judge,  "subject 
to  the  rule  of  Magna  Carta  that 
the  fines  must  not  be  excessive, 
a  maximum  in  most  cases  being 
fixed  by  statute. 

Fine  Arts.  Term  comprehen- 
sively embracing  all  the  five  greater 
arts  which  minister  to  the  love  of 
the  beautiful,  the  intellectual,  and 
the  tasteful,  viz. :  music,  poetry, 


painting,  sculpture,  and  architec- 
ture. Custom,  however,  has  con- 
fined the  term  to  the  last  three  par- 
ticularly, and  these  again  include 
allied  subjects,  such  as  engraving, 
decoration  and  design.  The  French 
term  Beaux  Arts  has  a  similar  sig- 
nificance. See  Art;  Painting; 
Sculpture. 

Finedon.  Urban  dist.  and  vil- 
lage of  Northamptonshire,  England. 
It  is  3  m.  N.E.  of  Wellingborough, 
on  the  Mid.  Rly.  Boot  and  shoe 
making  is  engaged  in,  and  there  are 
iron-ore  mines  close  by.  Pop.  3,782. 

Fines  and  Recoveries.  Legal 
fiction  introduced  in  England  to 
override  an  Act  of  Parliament 
which  was  against  the  public  in- 
terest. By  the  statute  De  Donis 
Conditionalibus  (on  conditional 
gifts)  in  1285,  it  was  enacted,  in 
effect,  that  land  which  was  entailed 
could  never  be  disentailed  ;  so  that 
if  an  estate  were  given  or  left  to  A  in 
tail,  it  must  always  keep  in  A's  fam- 
ily and  could  never  be  sold.  By  this, 
among  other  things,  the  creditors 
of  A,  or  his  heir  in  tail,  could  never 
touch  the  land  for  their  debts.  The 
judges  were  strongly  opposed  to  the 
policy  of  the  barons  who  had  passed 
this  Act,  because  they  thought  it 
against  the  public  interest  that 
land  should  be  made  inalienable. 

Therefore,  from  about  1400  they 
connived  at  fines  and  recoveries, 
which  were  fictitious  actions 
worked  thus.  A  is  the  holder  in  tail 
of  Whitacre.  He  wishes  to  disen- 
tail, so  that  he  can  sell  or  mortgage, 
or  divide  his  land  amongst  his 
family.  An  action  is  brought  by 
X,  claiming  the  land  from  A,  X 
alleging  that  the  land  was  his  in  fee 
simple  (q.v.).  A,  on  getting  into 
court,  says  that  the  land  was  granted 
to  him  by  Q,  who  was,  in  fact,  the 
usher  of  the  court ;  Q  was  then 
called  upon  to  come  into  court  and 
defend  his  title.  Of  course  Q  put 
in  no  appearance.  Judgement  was 
thus  given  in  favour  of  X  ;  and  X, 
having  recovered  the  land  as  a  fee 
simple,  promptly  re-conveyed  it  to 
A  as  a  fee  simple,  free  from  the 
entail.  By  an  Act  of  1833  fines  and 
recoveries  were  abolished.  See 
Fiction,  Legal. 

Fingall,  EARL  OF.  Irish  title 
borne  since  1628  by  the  family  of 
Plunkett.  In  1403  Sir  Christopher 
Plunkett,  a  member  of  this  old 
family,  became  by  marriage  the 
holder  of  the  barony  of  Killeen  in 
Meath.  This  made  him  an  Irish 
peer,  and  his  descendants  sat  in  the 
Irish  House  of  Lords  until  the 
union  of  1800.  Lucas,  the  10th 
lord,  was  made  earl  of  Fingall  in 
1628,  and  both  he  and  his  son  were 
supporters  of  Charles  I.  Peter,  the 
4th  earl,  was  outlawed  after  1689 
for  adhering  to  the  Stuart  cause, 


FINGAL'S    CAVE 


3  1  5O 


FINGER     PRINT 


and  after  his  time  the  title  passed 
to  another  descendant  of  the  1st 
earl.  Arthur  James,  the  8th  earl, 
was  made  a  peer  of  the  United 
Kingdom  in  1831,  and  in  1881  an 
other  Arthur  James  became  the 
llth  earl.  The  earl's  seat  is  Killeen 
Castle,  co.  Meath,  and  his  eldest 
son  is  known  as  Lord  Killeen. 

Fingal's  Cave.  Cavern  in  the 
island  of  Staffa,  the  most  notable  of 
its  kind.  Hollowed  out  of  the 
basalt,  the  grotto  is  228  ft.  long,  48 
ft.  wide,  and  60  ft.  high.  It  is  re- 
markable for  its  regular  basaltic 
columns,  for  its  wonderful  and 
varying  colours  revealed  as  the 
light  plays  upon  it,  and  for  its 
stalactites.  On  the  S.  of  the  island, 
it  was  discovered  by  Sir  Joseph 
Banks  in  1772.  Sea  birds  live  in  the 
cave,  which  is  also  noted  for  the 
sound  made  at  times  by  the  wind 
rushing  out  of  it.  In  Gaelic  speech 
it  is  called  the  cave  of  music. 

Finger.  Terminal  member  of 
the  hand.  The  bones  or  phalanges 
of  the  fingers  are  three  in  number 
in  each  finger,  except  the  thumb, 
which  has  only  two.  The  fingers 
articulate  with  the  metacarpal 
bones  of  the  palm.  Along  the 
backs  of  the  fingers  pass  the 
tendons  of  the  extensor  muscles, 
which  straighten  the  fingers,  and 
along  the  fronts  the  tendons  of  the 
flexor  muscles,  which  close  the 
hand.  The  blood  supply  of  each 
finger  is  derived  from  two  digital 
arteries  which  run 
:  along  each  side  of 
the  finger  and 
$Jb  unite  at  its  ex- 
tremity. The 
nerves  which  sup- 
ply the  skin  of  the 
fingers  are  derived 
from  the  ulnar, 
radial,  and  median 
nerves. 

Supernumerary 
fingers  are  not  un- 
common. In  a  case 
on  record  there 
were  twelve  fingers 
on  one  hand  and 
thirteen  on  the 
other,  and  twelve 
toes  on  each  foot.  Absence  of  one 
or  more  fingers,  or  part  of  a  finger, 
may  also  be  a  congenital  deformity, 
i.e.  present  at  birth.  In  webbing 
of  the  fingers,  or  syndactylism,  a 
thin  web,  usually  consisting  chiefly 
of  skin,  unites  one  or  more  fingers. 
Sometimes  the  bond  of  union  is 
thick  and  fleshy.  See  Anatomy. 

Finger  and  Toe.  Disease  caus- 
ing malformation  of  the  roots  of 
turnips  and  other  cruciferous  crops 
(cabbage,  rape,  radishes,  etc. ).  It  is 
also  known  by  the  names  of  clfci- 
root  and  anbury.  In  a  typical  speci. 
men  the  main  root  will  not  be  fully 


Finger.  Bones  oi 
human  finger 


Fingal's  Cave,  Staffa.  The  pillared  entrance  to  the  grotto 

developed,  but  the  lateral  roots  will 
be  much  swollen.  The  cause  of  the 
disease  is  a  microscopic  fungus 
(Plasmodiophora  brassicae),  one  of 
a  group  of  organisms  (Mycetozoa) 
regarded  by  many  authorities  as 
animals.  The  disease  is  highly 
infectious  and  difficult  to  stamp 
out.  It  is  scarcely  known  on  soils 
rich  in  lime,  and  the  best  plan  of 
dealing  with  it  is  by  application  of 
a  dressing — 2  to  4  tons  per  acre — of 
slaked  lime,  preferably  18  months 
before  the  turnip  or  other  crop  is  to 
be  sown.  The  remains  of  diseased 
plants  should  be  burnt.  Judicious 
rotation  is  of  much  importance,  and 
continuous  cropping,  especially  in 
kitchen  gardens,  must  be  avoided. 

Fingerboard.  Portion  of  a 
stringed  instrument  against  which 
the  fingers  press  the 
strings  in  order  to 
regulate  the  vibrating 
lengths  of  the  strings, 
and  so  control  the 
pitch  of  the  sounds. 
Bowed  instruments  of 
the  violin  family  have 
smooth  fingerboards 
on  which  the  player 
must  judge  and  re- 
member the  correct 
stopping-places  ;  the 
plucked  instruments 
such  as  the  guitar, 
mandoline,  and  banjo 
usually  have  frets 
or  cross  ridges  to 
assist  the  player. 

FingerPrint.   Im- 
pression of  the  human 
finger.        It    is    used 
to    classify     human    beings ;   but 
chiefly  for  the  identification  of  per- 
sons who  have  passed  through  the 
hands  of  the  police. 

The  individuality  of  finger  prints 
and  their  value  in  proving  identity 
were  known  to  the  Chinese  about 
200  B.C.,  and  an  impression  of  the 
thumb  was  used  in  lieu  of  signa- 
ture; but  it  was  not  till  the  19th 
century  that  the  classification  of 
the  ridges  on  the  finger  tips  was 
attempted.  In  1823,  Purkenje, 
professor  of  physiology  at  Breslau, 


suggested  a  system 
o  f  classification, 
and  in  1858  Sir 
William  Herschel 
laid  the  founda- 
tions of  the  present 
system  in  Bengal. 
In  1890  Sir  Francis 
Galton  pointed  out 
that  ridges  on  the 
fingers  of  a  new- 
bom  infant  were 
absolutely  identi- 
cal to  the  day  of 
death. 

The   full    value 
of   Purkenje's, 
Herschel' s,  and  Galton's  work  was 
only  recognized  when  Sir  Edward 


Finger  Print.  Two  diagrams  illustrating  (above)  the 
actual  thumb  print  in  blood  left  by  a  murderer,  and 
(below)  the  lines  of  the  ridges  of  this  thumb  print 
drawn  to  facilitate  examination.  The  letters  from 
A  to  S  indicate  the  various  characteristics  which 
distinguish  the  print,  e.g.  L  is  the  bifurcated  ridge, 
S  B  is  the  line  joining  the  two  terminal  points  of  the 
print,  to  enable  the  number  of  ridges  to  be  counted 
and  compared  with  a  known  finger  print  of  the  mur- 
derer, who  was  caught  and  sentenced  on  the  evidence 
furnished  by  these  two  diagrams 

Henry  devised  a  numerical  formula 
for  classifying  the  impressions.  The 
Henry  system  has  been  widely 
adopted  by  the  police  organizations 
of  the  world,  and  at  New  Scotland 
Yard  alone  the  number  of  cards 
registered  is  a  quarter  of  a  million, 
involving  some  2,500,000  finger 
prints. 

During  the  Great  War  the  system 
was  extensively  used  as  a  means  of 
identification  by  the  United  States 
government.  Under  the  American 
Seaman's  Law  of  1915  the  finger 


F1NGO 


3151 


FINLAND 


prints  of  every  sailor  in  the  Ameri- 
can merchant  marine  were  taken 
for  classification  of  able  seamen, 
etc.,  and  the  prevention  of  fraud, 
while  hi  the  war  department  finger 
print  records  were  kept  of  every 
soldier.  It  has  been  shown  that  the 
chance  of  identity  of  two  finger 
prints  is  less  than  one  in  sixty -four 
thousand  millions,  and  the  prints 
of  one  finger,  therefore,  are  enough 
to  decide  the  question  of  identity. 
If,  as  is  customary,  the  prints  of 
three  or  more  fingers  are  taken 
the  possibilities  of  error  are  en- 
tirely eliminated. 

All  finger  print  impressions  are 
divided  into  two  groups  of  four 
types  and  eight  distinct  patterns, 
such  as  loops,  arches,  etc.  The  ten 
fingers  in  the  Henry  system  are 
divided  into  five  pairs,  and  by  a 
special  way  of  numbering  these 
pairs  the  classification  of  a  par- 
ticular finger  print  is  made  simple. 
See  Scotland  Yard. 

Bibliography.  Classification  and 
Uses  of  Finger  Prints,  Sir  E.  R. 
Henry  ;  Asquith  Committee  Report 
on  Means  of  Identification  of  Habit- 
ual Criminals,  1894  ;  Origin  of 
Finger  Printing,  Sir  W.  J.  Her- 
schel,  1916. 

Fingo  OR  AMAFENGTJ  (Zulu, 
wanderers).  Collective  name  for 
Bantu-speaking  peoples  of  Kaffir 
stock  whose  tribal  unity  was  de- 
stroyed by  the  Zulus  under  Chaka. 
In  1835  the  Cape  government  gave 
them  asylum  near  the  Great  Fish 
river ;  this  Fingoland  reserve  be- 
came, in  1877,  one  of  the  Transkei 
districts.  Always  friendly  to  the 
British,  they  have  become  largely 
Europeanised  and  Christianised, 
with  a  high  educational  standard. 
They  furnish  labour  contingents 
for  the  harbours  and  mines. 

Finial  (Lat.  finis,  end).  In  archi- 
tecture, a  foliated  ornament  cap- 
ping a  pinnacle,  gable,  or  stair- 
post.  Occasionally  the  finials  of 


shop  of  the  Pollaiuoli.  He  is  stated 
by  Vasari  to  have  invented  engrav- 
ing on  metal,  but  he  was  only  one 
of  the  pioneers  in  this  craft,  which 
he  practised  together  with  niello 
work,  of  which  he  was  a  master. 
Intarsias  by  him  are  to  be  seen  in 
the  sacristy  and  the  cathedral 
museum,  Florence  ;  his  prints  and 
drawings  are  in  the  Uffizi  gallery 
and  the  British  Museum.  There  has 
been  much  controversy  as  to  his 
alleged  invention  of  engraving. 

Fining  (Lat.  finis,  end).  Pro- 
cess by  which  liquids  are  freed  of 
solid  matter  and  impurities,  and 
thus  clarified.  Though  somewhat 
akin  to  filtering,  it  is  used  in  a 
special  sense  in  the  brewing  and 
distilling  industries,  various  sub- 
stances such  as  isinglass,  sulphate 
of  lime,  etc.,  being  employed  to 
collect  and  carry  off  the  matter  in 
solution,  leaving  the  liquid  bright 
and  clear.  In  fining  syrups  white 
of  egg  may  be  used,  the  albumen 
being  dissolved  by  heat.  Wines  are 
similarly  fined  without  the  ap- 
plication of  heat,  the  alcohol  act- 
ing as  the  solvent.  (See  Brewing  ; 
Distilling.)  Fining  is  also  a  process 
in  glass-making,  and  was  used  in 
the  production  of  malleable  iron 
before  the  introduction  of  pud- 
dling. 


Finistere.  Dept.  of  France.  In 
the  extreme  N.W.  of  the  country 
and  part  of  Brittany,  it  is  bordered 
by  the  sea  on  three  sides.  The  Aulne 
is  the  most  important  river.  The 
coast  is  rocky  and  broken,  but  con- 
tains some  good  harbours.  Off  it 
are  Ushant  and  other  islands.  It 
is  a  hilly,  though  not  mountainous, 
region,  and  much  of  the  land  is 
covered  by  forest  and  heath,  use- 
less for  growing  crops.  Elsewhere, 
however,  especially  in  the  south, 
there  is  fertile  land  which  produces 
asparagus,  onions,  and  other  vege- 
tables, as  well  as  apples  and  fruit. 
Oats  and  wheat  are  grown  ;  cattle 
and  horses  are  reared,  while  the 
peasants  also  keep  bees  and  make 
butter.  Many  of  the  inhabitants  are 
employed  in  the  fisheries.  The  dept. 
has  five  arrondissements.  Quimper 
is  the  chief  town,  but  Brest  is  the 
most  important.  Morlaix  is  also  a 
flourishing  port.  Area,  2,713  sq.  m. 
Pop.  809,711. 

Finisterre.  Cape  on  the  N.W. 
extremity  of  Spain,  in  the  prov.  of 
Corunna.  Off  the  cape  two  naval 
actions  were  fought  in  1747  be- 
tween the  British  and  French,  re- 
sulting in  the  defeat  of  the  latter. 
Admiral  Anson  commanded  the 
British  forces  on  May  3,  and 
Admiral  Hawke  on  Oct.  14. 


FINLAND:    THE    LAND    AND    ITS    PEOPLE 

B.  N.  Rudmose  Brown,  M.A.,  Professor  of  Geography,  Sheffield 

This  article  describes  the  country  of  the  Finns  and  deals  also  with 
its  language,  literature,  history,  etc.  See  also  Finns ;  Russia  ; 
Sweden ;  and,  articles  on  A  bo ;  Helsingfors,  and  other  places  -in  the  land 


I 


Finial.  1  and  2.  From  Canterbury  Cathedral.     3.  Norwich 
Cathedral.     4.  Lady  Chapel,  Winchester  Cathedral 

stair-posts  themselves  acted  as 
supports  for  statuary,  as  those  at 
Cromwell  House,  Highgate,  where 
they  are  surmounted  by  Round- 
head figures. 

Finiguerra,  MASO  (c.  1426-64). 
Italian  goldsmith  and  engraver. 
Born  probably  at  Florence,  details 
of  bis  life  are  uncertain.  He  was 
trained  as  a  gpldsmith  in  the  work- 


This  republic  of  N.  Europe  lies 
between  Russia  on  the  E.,  Sweden 
and  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia  on  the  W., 
Norway  on  the  N.,  and  the  Gulf  of 
Finland  on  the  S.  The  country  has 
an  area  of  144,253  sq.  m.  Hel- 
singfors is  the  capital. 

Its  coast-line,  which  is  entirely 
on  the  Baltic,  is   1,000  m.   long, 
low-lying,     highly 
indented,    and 
fringed       with 
islands    of    which 
the  Aaland  Islands 
in    the    S.W.    are 
the  most  import- 
ant.   The  country 
consists  of  a  great 
plateau,    at    an 
elevation  of  300  to 
500  ft.,  with  low- 
lands   round    the 
coast.     The  southern  half  of  the 
plateau   has   about  25  p.c.  of  its 
area    occupied    by    thousands    of 
shallow  lakes,  many  of  them  linked 
by    short    natural    and    artificial 
channels.    In  the  N.  the  plateau  is 
more  elevated  and  rugged,  rising  in 
many   places   to   heights   of   over 
3,000  ft.,  but  there  are  no  well-de- 
fined mountain  ranges.  The  north- 


ern part  of  the  country  is  known  as 
Lapland  and  is  inhabited  by  the 
nomad  race  of  Lapps. 

Of  Finnish  lakes  the  largest 
are  Saima,  502  sq.  m.  ;  Inari,  534 
sq.  m.  ;  Paijane,  429  ;  and  Ulea- 
trask,  387.  Half 
of  Lake  Ladoga 
(7,000  sq.  m.)  is 
Finnish  and  half 
Russian.  Thereare 
numerous  short 
rivers  which  are 
broken  by  rapids, 
and  are  navigable 
only  in  stretches,  Finland  arms 
but  are  useful  for  floating  timber. 
Finland  has  a  short,  hot  summer 
and  a  long,  cold  winter.  Rainfall  is 
not  heavy,  and  there  is  compara- 
tively little  snow,  but  it  lies  on  the 
ground  from  Oct.  to  March.  Rivers 
and  lakes  are  frozen  from  Dec.  to 
May.  Abo,  Hango,  and  Helsingfors 
are  the  only  ports  open  in  winter. 
Coniferous  forests  cover  60  p.c.  of 
the  country.  Wild  animals  include 
reindeer,  bear,  wolf,  and  lynx. 
Mosquitoes  are  a  plague.  The  popu- 
lation numbers  3,329,401,  and  is 
vfound  mainly  in  the  S.  and  along 
"the  W.  coast.  In  the  days  of 


FINLAND 


3152 


FINLAND 


of  thought.  They 
a  r  g  e  1  y  reflect 
the  hardships  of 
the  Finnish  peas- 
ant's life.  Literary 
and  scientific  socie- 
ties are  active  in 
Finland,  particu- 
larly in  the  study 
of  the  home  coun- 
try. Several  Finns, 
including  A.  E. 
Nordenskjold,  the 
discoverer  of  the 
north-east  passage, 
have  been  distin- 
guished in  Arctic 
exploration.  Finn- 
ish painters  include 
E.  Jiirnefelt  and 
A.  Gallen. 

HISTORY.  The 
Finns  reached  Fin- 
land from  their 
Asiatic  home  in  the 
7th  and  8th  cen- 
turies. In  the  12th 
century  Sweden 
began  to  get  a  hold 
on  the  country, 
and  established 
Christianity.  Grad- 
ually Swedish  in- 
fluence spread 
round  the  coasts, 
and  by  the  16th 
century  Finland 
was  raised  to  a 
grand  duchy  which 
had  a  large  mea- 


Finland.     Map  ot  tne  North  European  tepuoiic,  lormerly 

part  of  the  Russian  Empire 

Russia's  rule  there  was  much  emi-     sure  of  self-government,  but  was  an 
gration  to  America.    Finns,  either    integral  part  of  the  Scandinavian 

kingdom.  Early  in  the  18th  century 


Tavastlanders  or  Karelians,  form 
90  p.c.,  and  Swedes  about  9'5  p.c. 
of  the  population.  There  are  a  few 
thousand  Lapps  in  the  North. 

The  language  is  Finnish,  but 
Swedish  is  understood  in  the  larger 
towns  and  is  the  language  of  the 
Aaland  Islands.  Swedish  was  for 
long  the  official  as  well  as  the  liter- 
ary language.  Finnish  literature 
may  be  said  to  have  begun  in  1835, 
when  Elias  Lonnrot  collected  and 
published  in  Finnish  the  traditions 
and  f  olklore'of  Finland  as  expressed 
in  its  national  songs.  This  epic  of 
Finland,  the  Kalevala,  was  later 
revised  and  extended,  and  in  1888 
translated  into  English.  The  Fin- 
nish Literary  Society  has  done 
much  to  revive  Finnish  as  a  literary 
language,  although  many  Finnish 
books  are  mere  translations  from 
Swedish  and  other  tongues. 
^  Writers  and  Explorers 

Among  Finnish  writers  may  be 
mentioned  A.  Stenvall,  dramatist 
and  poet ;  M.  Canth,  dramatist ; 
P.  Paivarinta,  noted  for  the  work 
entitled  His  Life;  and  J.  Aho.  Fin- 
nish novels  and  playsare  frequently 
grim  and  realistic,  but  often  show 
much  simplicity  and  tenderness 


Russia  began  to  pay  attention  to 
Finland,  and  by  the  treaty  of  Ny- 
stad  (1721)  secured  the  province 
of  Viborg.  Sweden  unsuccessfully 
tried  to  recover  the  lost  province 
in  1741,  and  the  Russian  sphere 
was  extended. 

In  1809,  after  years  of  fighting, 
Sweden  finally  withdrew  from  Fin- 
land, the  whole  of  which,  with  the 
Aaland  Islands,  passed  to  the  grand 
duchy  under  the  tsar  Alexander  I, 
who  guaranteed  the  Finn  constitu- 
tion and  became  grand  duke.  For 
many  years  the  relations  between 
Russia  and  Finland  were  cordial  and 
Finland  prospered.  Successive  tsars 
respected  the  Finnish  constitution 
and  the  right  of  Finland  to  settle 
her  own  affairs.  Gradually,  how- 
ever, a  Finnish  national  party  arose 
whose  first  object  was  to  put  Fin- 
nish on  the  same  standing  as 
Swedish  as  the  official  language  of 
the  country.  They  succeeded  hi 
doing  this  in  1863,  in  face  of  the 
opposition  of  the  Swedish  element. 

Meanwhile  the  reactionary  party 
in  Russia  tried  to  exert  its  influence 
against  the  Finnish  national  party, 
and  for  the  next  50  years  succeeded 


in  oppressing  Finland..  By  the 
"  February  manifesto "  of  1899, 
the  tsar  claimed  the  right  to  inter- 
fere in  Finnish  affairs,  to  overrule 
the  diet,  and  to  merge  the  Finnish 
in  the  Russian  army.  The  Finns 
met  these  measures  with  opposi- 
tion, but  were  overawed.  The  as- 
sassination of  the  Russian  governor 
hi  1904  and  a  general  strike  hi 
Finland  led  to  a  temporary  respite, 
and  in  the  following  year  the  con- 
stitution was  restored.  By  1908  the 
curtailment  of  Finnish  rights  began 
again,  the  aggressor  being  the  Duma 
in  place  of  the  tsar. 

The  Great  War 

At  the  outbreak  of  the  Great 
War  coercive  measures  increased, 
with  the  result  that  the  Finns,  dis- 
trustful of  Russia's  allies,  sympa- 
thised with  the  Germans.  The 
Russian  revolution  of  March,  1917, 
restored  freedom  to  Finland,  which 
declared  itself  a  republic  within 
Russia.  After  the  Bolshevist  revo- 
lution, Nov.,  1917,  Finland  de- 
clared her  independence  and  civil 
war  spread  to  the  country.  The 
White,  or  constitutional,  party, 
failing  to  get  help  hi  arms  and  food 
from  Britain  and  Sweden,  turned 
to  Germany  for  help  against  the 
Reds  and  Bolshevists.  A  German 
force  landed  and  subdued  the  Red 
forces.  The  Germans,  after  making 
a  treaty  with  Finland,  almost 
wholly  to  thjeir  advantage,  tried  to 
foist  a  German  prince  on  the  Fin- 
nish throne,  but  their  collapse  in 
Nov.,  1918,  put  an  end  to  the 
scheme.  In  Oct.,  1920,  a  state  of 
war  continued  between  Finland 
and  Soviet  Russia,  without  actual 
hostilities.  Finland  demanded  from 
the  former  the  port  of  Petschenga, 
the  province  of  Karelia,  and  cer- 
tain islands  in  the  gulf  of  Finland. 
Finland  then  became  an  indepen- 
dent republic  recognized  by  all  the 
powers.  Government  is  by  two 
houses,  senate  and  diet.  The  diet 
is  elected  by  all  men  and  women 
over  24.  Women  are  eligible.  After 
the  declaration  of  independence 'a 
conscript  army  was  raised.  There 
is  no  navy.  Education  is  good  ex- 
cept in  remote  parts  where  the 
population  is  too  scattered  for  the 
children  to  attend  school.  About  a 
third  of  the  population  is  said  to  be 
unable  to  write.  There  are  several 
high  schools,  technical  schools,  and 
agricultural  colleges.  The  Uni- 
versity of  Helsingfors  has  about 
3,500  students,  among  whom. are  a 
large  proportion  of  women. 

About  90  p.c.  of  the  population 
belong  to  the  Lutheran  Church. 
There  are  a  few  adherents  of  the 
Greek  Church,  and  a  small  number 
of  Roman  Catholics.  There  is  an 
archbishop  of  Abo,  and  bishops  of 
Borga,  Nyslott,  and^  Kuopio.  Of 


FINLAND 


FINN 


Finland.     A  typical  Finnish  family 


late  the  Church  has  lost  influence 
',  with  the  advance  of  socialism,  now 
to  be  reckoned  as  one  of  the  great- 
est forces  in  the  country,  with  a 
majority  in  the  diet. 

Finnish  peasants  live  simply, 
and  their  food  is  poor,  but,  except 
in  the  N.  and  E.,  there  is  little  real 
poverty.  The  bath  house  attached 
to  every  farm  is  characteristic  of 
the  country.  The  Swedish  element 
of  the  population  is  found  in  the 
towns,  where  until  recently  they 
formed  the  wealthy  commercial 
classes.  The  Finns  now  are  well 
represented  among  the  more  pros- 
perous classes  in  the  towns.  Local 
veto  and  strict  regulations  on  the 
sale  of  alcohol  have  made  the  Finns 
a  sober  nation.  The  organization 
of  public  wealth  and  preventive 
measures,  particularly  against  chol- 
era, are  well  developed. 

INDUSTRIES.  Oats,  barley,  and  rye 
are  the  chief  crops,  and  potatoes  are 
important.  A  little  flax  is  grown. 
Numbers  of  cattle  are  kept  for 
dairy  purposes.  Minerals  are  few 
and  of  small  importance.  Manu- 
factures are  well  developed,  mainly 
by  help  of  water  power.  They  in- 
clude engineering,  machine  and 
shipbuilding,  pulp  and  paper- 
making,  cotton  goods  and  tanning. 
Saw-mills  number  about  1,000. 
The  chief  ports  are  Helsingfors, 
Hango,  Abo,  Kotka,  Viborg,  and 
Uleaborg.  The  main  exports  are 
timber,  butter,  paper,  pulp,  and 
j  textiles,  and  the  imports  include 


cereals  and  other 
foods,  cotton, 
machinery,  and 
coal.  Much  inland 
traffic  is  by  water, 
but  roads,  in  the 
S.,  are  numerous 
and  well  made. 
The  southern  half 
of  the  country  is 
well  served  by 
rlys.,  which  are 
linked  with  those 
of  Russia  and  meet 
those  of  Sweden. 
The  gauge  is 
chiefly  5  ft.  ;  the 
mileage  in  1914 
was  2,500  m. 
Most  rlys.  are 
state-owned.  A 
rly.  through  Lap- 
land to  the  Arctic 
Ocean  is  being 
built.  The  tele- 
graph and  tele- 
phone systems  are 
well  developed. 

Bibliography. 
Through  Finland 
in  Carts,  A.  Twee- 
die,  new  ed.  1900  ; 
Finland  as  it  is,  H. 
de  Windt,  1901  ; 
A  Summer  Tour  in  Finland, 
P.  Waineman,  1908;  Through 
Finland  to  St.  Petersburg,  A.  M. 
Scott,  1908;  Finland  To-day,  G. 
Renwick,  1911;  Finland:  the 
Land  of  a  Thousand  Lakes,  E. 
Young,  19 12 ;  Finland  and  the  Finns, 
A.  R.  Reade,  1915;  Peace  Hand- 
books: No.  47,  Finland;  No.  48, 
Aaland  Islands,  1918;  The  Red  In- 
surrection in  Finland,  1 9 1 8,  H.  Soder- 
hjelm,Eng.  trans.  A.  I.  Fansholl,  1919. 

Finland,  GULF  OF.  Eastern  arm 
of  the  Baltic  Sea,  between  Finland 
and  Esthonia.  It  is  studded  with 
islands.  Several  important  towns 
are  on  the  coast — Petrograd,  Hel- 
singfors,  Viborg,  and  Reval.  Its 
length  is  250  m.  and  its  average 
breadth  60  m. 

Finlay,  ROBERT  BANNATYNE  FIN- 
LAY,!ST  VISCOUNT  (b.  1842).  British 
lawyer  and  politician.  Born  July  1 1 , 
1842,   he     was 
educated  at 
Edinburgh 
academy     and 
university.    He 
qualified   as    a 
doctor,  but  be- 
came a   barris-  '  t^ 
ter  in   1867. 
Success  quickly 
came    to    him,       Viscount  Finlay, 
and,  assured  of        Britisb  law*CT 
a    good   prac-  *""•» 

tice,  he  sat  in  Parliament  as 
Liberal  M.P.  for  Inverness  Burghs 
from  1885-92,  and  from  1895- 
1906.  From  1910-16  he  repre- 
sented the  universities  of  Edin- 


burgh  and  St.  Andrews,  having 
been  since  1886  a  strong  Unionist. 
From  1895-1900  Finlay  served  as 
solicitor-general,  and  from  1900-6 
as  attorney-general.  He  became 
lord  chancellor  in  the  Government 
formed  by  Lloyd  George  in  Dec., 
1916,  retiring  in  Dec.,  1918.  On  his 
appointment  he  was  made  a  baron, 
and  a  viscount  in  1919.  He  was  ap- 
pointed British  member  of  the  per- 
manent court  of  arbitration  at  the 
Hague,  in  1920,  and  was  lord  rector 
of  Edinburgh  University,  1902-3. 

Finlay,  GEORGE  (1799-1875). 
British  historian.  Born  at  Favers- 
ham,  Dec.  21,  1799,  he  was  edu- 
cated at  the  universities  of  Glasgow 
and  Gottingen.  He  espoused  the 
cause  of  Greek  independence,  saw 
much  of  Byron  at  Missolonghi, 
and  finally  made  Greece  his  home, 
never  visiting  England  after  1854. 
His  great  work,  A  History  of 
Greece  from  the  Conquest  by  the 
Romans  to  the  Present  Time,  was 
published  complete  in  1877,  its 
main  parts  having  previously  ap- 
peared in  1844,  1856,  and  1861. 
Among  the  other  writings  of  Fin- 
lay,  who  had  a  clear  if  not  pictur- 
esque style,  were  articles  in  Black - 
wood's  Magazine,  The  Athen- 
aeum and  The  Times,  and  studies 
of  classical  geography,  published 
in  German,  1844.  He  died  at 
Athens,  Jan.  26,  1875. 

Finmark.  Maritime  fylker  or 
county  of  N.  Norway.  It  is  bounded 
N.  by  the  Arctic  Ocean  and  S. 
by  Lapland,  and  is  the  northern- 
most portion  of  the  European  land 
mass,  culminating  in  the  North 
Cape.  Area,  18,535  sq.  m.  Its 
rugged  coast  is  indented  by  bays 
and  fiords  fringed  by  numerous 
islands.  The  surface  is  elevated, 
rising  to  over  3,000  ft.  in  parts. 
Fishing  and  reindeer- breeding  are 
the  chief  occupations.  Hammerfest 
(q.v. )  is  the  chief  town.  Pop.  44,777, 
mostly  dwelling  on  or  near  the  coast. 
Nomad  Lapps  occupy  the  .interior. 

Finn,,FioNN,  FIND,  OR  FINGAL. 
Warrior  hero  of  Celtic  tradition. 
The  legends  which  gather  round 
his  name  have  almost  certainly  a 
real  historical  figure  behind  them. 
Finn  was  the  son  of  Cumhal  (pran. 
cool )  of  Leinster  and  Morna  of  the 
White  Hand,  and  was  born  after 
his  father's  death  in  battle  at 
Cnucha ;  first  called  Demne,  he 
came  to  be  called  Finn,  the  Fair 
One,  from  his  appearance.  He 
took  over  the  leadership  of  the 
warrior  band  known  as  the  Fians 
or  Fianna  from  his  life-long 
enemy  Goll  MacMurna.  His  sons 
Oisin  and  Feargus,  his  grandson 
Oscar,  his  herald  Ullin,  his  fav- 
ourite hound  Bran,  were  famous 
figures  in  his  story.  One  of  the 
chief  episodes  in  his  career  was  the 

1G    4 


FINNESBURG 


FIN-WHALE 


pursuit   of   Diarmid,    who   eloped 
with  Grania,  Finn's  betrothed. 

In  Scottish  legends  Finn  fe 
known  as  Fingal,  and  was  king  of 
Morven,  in  Argyll.  He  was  slain 
in  the  great  defeat  of  the  Fians  at 
Gabra,  probably  in  283.  His  me- 
mory has  never  faded  among  the 
Gaelic  peoples  of  Ireland  and  Scot- 
land. See  Gaelic  Language  and 
Literature ;  consult  also  Finn  and 
His  Companions,  S.  J.  O'Grady, 
1892;  Gods  and  Fighting  Men, 
Lady  Gregory,  1910. 

Fmnesburg,  THE  FIOHT  AT. 
Fragment  of  heroic  Anglo-Saxon 
poetry,  discovered  in  the  binding 
of  a  MS.  in  Lambeth  Palace  li- 
brary in  the  16th  century.  It  de- 
scribes incidents  of  the  battle  be- 
tween the  Frisian  chieftain  Finn 
and  the  Danes. 

Finns.  Name  denoting  in 
general  a  people  inhabiting  central 
and  northern  Russia  before  the 
Slavonic  dispersion.  At  first  a 
medium-headed  race  of  hunters 
and  fishers,  akin  to  the  tall,  blond, 
blue-eyed  Nordic  type,  they  min- 
gled in  the  course  of  centuries  with 
Alpine  rather  than  Mongolian 
elements,  and  are  now  classifiable 
mainly  by  their  dialects.  These 
form,  with  the  Ugrian,  a  branch 
of  the  Ural-Altaic  family,  out  of 
which  Aryan  probably  emerged. 
Numbering  about  6,000,000,  they 
are  grouped  as  Volga,  Permian 
(Votyak),  and  Baltic  Finns.  Of 
the  last  group  the  true  Finns 
(Suomi),  in  Finland  and  contigu- 
ous territories,  number  2,600,000. 
These,  having  absorbed  Swedish 
influences  of  race,  culture,  and 
speech,  display  a  progressive  civili- 
zation, a  high  intellectual  attain- 
ment, and  a  passionate  love  of 
country.  See  Finland ;  Mordvin. 
»  Finsbury.  London  parl.  and 
met.  borough.  Bounded  S.  by  the 
City,  it  has  the  boroughs  of  Isling- 
ton on  the  N.,  Shoreditch  E.,  and 
Holborn  and  St.  Pancras  W.  At 
one  time  a  manor  or  lordship,  form- 
ing one  of  the  prebends  of  S.  Paul's 
Cathedral,  N.  of  Moorfields,  and 
known  as  Fensbury,  from  the 
swampy  nature  of  the  ground,  its 
old  fields  were  practising  grounds 
for  military  and  archers,  referred 
to  by  Shakespeare  and  Ben  Jonson. 
Here,  in  1548,  the  Protector  Som- 
erset was  met  by  the  lord  mayor 
on  his  return  from  Scotland.  Fins- 
bury  was  once  a  residential  quarter 
for  doctors  and  surgeons,  and  it 
includes  Clerkenwell,  a  clock  and 
watch  making  centre.  Within  its 
area  are  included  the  Charterhouse, 
the  headquarters  of  the  H.A.C., 
Bunhill  Fields,  Northampton  In- 
stitute, and  S.  John's  Gate.  Fins- 
bury  returns  one  member  to  Parlia- 
ment. Pop.  87,923. 


Finsbury  Park.  Recreation 
ground  of  N.  London,  the  name  of 
which  is  applied  to  the  district  im- 
mediately surrounding  it.  Just 
outside  the  county  boundary,  it 
occupies  115  acres  between  the 
G.N.R.  main  line  and  the  N.  con- 
tinuation of  Seven  Sisters  Road  and 
the  Green  Lanes.  On  the  site  of  old 
Hornsey  Wood  House,  it  was 
opened  by  the  metropolitan  board 
of  works  in  Aug.,  1869,  the  land 
costing  £56,869  and  the  laying  out 
about  £50,000.  It  owes  its  name 
to  the  fact  that  it  was  planned  to 
serve  as  a  public  park  for  the 
borough  of  Finsbury,  which  reached 
as  far  as  its  S.  border.  Part  of  it  is 
intersected  by  the  New  River. 
Adjoining  are  stations  of  the  G.N., 
G.N.  &  City,  and  G.N.,  Piccadilly 
&  Brompton  Rlys.  In  1920  a  pro- 
ject was  mooted  for  a  tube  rly. 
from  Finsbury 
Park  to  the  Crys- 
tal Palace. 

Finsbury 
Pavement.  Lon- 
don  thorough- 
tare.  It  ran  N. 
from  London 
Wall  to  Finsbury 
Square,  with 
Finsbury  Circus 
and  South  Place 
on  its  E.  side. 
Finsbury  Pave- 
ment and  Moor- 
gate  Street  were 
incorporated, 

1922,  as  Moor-  Finsteraarhorn, 
gate.  In  Finsbury 
Circus,  in  the  old  home  of  the  Lon- 
don Institution,  is  the  School  of 
Oriental  Studies,  opened  in  1917.  In 
South  Place  is  South  Place  Insti- 
tute, a  well-known  centre  of  the 
Ethical  Society.  See  illus.  p.  546. 


Finsen  Light.  Form  of  treat- 
ment for  lupus,  invented  by  the 
Danish  scientist  Niels  Ryberg  Fin- 
sen  (1860-1904).  The  rays  from  a 
powerful  electric  arc  lamp  are 
passed  into  an  absorbent  medium 
which  allows  only  the  actinic  or 
chemically  active  rays  to  pass 
through  it.  These  rays,  having  been 
concentrated  by  means  of  lenses 
of  rock  crystal  and  cooled  by  being 
passed  through  a  continuous  cur- 
rent of  cold  water,  are  directed  on  to 
the  affected  area.  The  application 
is  usually  continued  for  an  hour. 

Finsteraarhorn.  Mt. of  Switzer- 
land, between  the  cantons  of  Berne 
and  Valais.  It  is  the  highest  peak  of 
the  Bernese  Oberland  (alt.  14,025 
ft.,)andextremely  difficult  of  ascent. 
The  summit  was  first  reached  in 
1812.  The  Schreckhorn  lies  to  the 
N.  and  the  Jungfrau  to  the  W. 


Finsen  Light      Patient  under  treat- 
ment in  the  London  Hospital 


Switzerland,  and  the  Aletsob    glacier, 
seen  from  the  air 

Finsterwalde.  Town  of  Brand- 
enburg, Prussia.  It  is  40  m.  N.  of 
Dresden  and  70  m.  by  rly.  S.E.  of 
Berlin.  It  has  several  iron-foun- 
dries ;  agricultural  and  other  ma- 
chinery is  manufactured  here,  and 
coal  is  procured  in  considerable 
quantities  in  the  near  neighbour- 
hood. Pop.  13,100. 

Fin-whale  OB  FIN-BACK  (Bed 
aenoptera).  Name  sometimes  given 
to  the  rorqual,  a  common  and 
widely  distributed  whale,  of  which 
four  species  are  usually  recognized. 
As  their  yield  of  blubber  is  small 
and  their  whalebone  of  inferior 
quality,  they  are  not  in  great 
demand ;  this  doubtless  accounts 
for  their  being  still  found  in  great 
numbers  in  nearly  every  sea  ex- 
cept near  the  Poles.  They  are  of 
somewhat  slender  form,  and  have 
a  short  back  fin,  and  narrow  and 
pointed  flippers.  They  have  a 
large  pouch  in  the  throat  for  the 
reception  of  the  fish  on  which  they 
feed ;  and  when  this  pouch  is 
collapsed  the  skin  of  the  throat 
lies  in  folds  which  are  character- 
istic of  the  genus. 

All  four  species  are  included  in 
the  British  fauna.  The  common 


3155 


FIRDAUsf 


Fin-whale. 


Stranded  specimen  of  rorqual,  Balaenoptera 
musculus 


rorqual  (B.  musculus)  is  often  met 
with  in  the  English  and  Irish 
Channels  and  is  frequently  cast 
up  on  the  coasts.  Sibbald's  rorqual 
(B.  Sibbaldi)  is  the  largest  of  all 
whales,  often  exceeding  80  ft.  in 
length.  It  is  abundant  in  the 
North  Sea,  and  occurs  occasionally 
around  the  Hebrides.  Rudolphi's 
rorqual  (B.  borealis)  is  much 
smaller,  and  during  recent  years 
has  been  found  around  the  E.  and 
S.E.  coasts  of  England.  The  lesser 
rorqual  (B.  rostrata)  is  about  30  ft. 
in  length,  and  is  fairly  common 
around  all  the  British  coasts.  See 
Whale. 

Fiord  (Scand.).  Type  of  inlet 
found  on  the  coasts  of  regions  which 
have  been  greatly  glaciated.  During 
the  ice  age  great  glaciers  scooped 
out  deep  trough-like  valleys  with 
precipitous  sides,  and  the  disap- 
pearance of  the  glaciers  admitted 
the  sea.  A  fiord  is  usually  very  deep 
except  near  the  entrance,  and  in 
some  cases  subsidence  of  the  land 
has  added  to  its  size.  Fiord  coasts 
are  found  in  British  Columbia, 
Scotland,  and  Norway. 

Fir.  Cone-bearing  tree  of  the 
natural  order  Coniferae,  and  genera 
Abies,  Picea,  and  Pinus.  A  native 
of  Britain,  N.  Europe,  N.  America. 
Japan,  and  the  Himalayas,  its 
height  varies  from  10  ft.  to  200  ft. 
In  gardens  firs  are  best  grown  as 
specimen  trees  on  lawns,  where 


their  beauty  can 
be  fully  appreci- 
ated. They  thrive 
in  any  deep,  rich 
loam,  may  be 
planted  in  autumn 
or  spring,  and  are 
propagated  by 
seeds  sown  in  a 
cold  frame  in 
spring.  Much  con- 
fusion in  nomen- 
clature exists 
among  these  coni- 
fers, but  it  is  now 
generally  accepted 
that  the  true  fir 
means  Abies,  the 
silver  fir.  The  genus  Picea  embraces 
the  spruces,  and  Pinus  the  pines. 
Their  cultivation  in  large  quanti- 
ties for  timber  is  a  branch  of 
forestry  (q.v.).  See  illus.  p.  1287. 
Firbolg.  Legendary  name  of  an 
early  Irish  race,  usually  said  to 
mean  bag-men.  Some  ethnologists 
employ  it  to  denote  the  aboriginal 


on  Joseph  and  Potiphar's  wife. 
The  first-named  work,  in  60,000 
couplets,  was  commissioned  by 
Mahmud,  sultan  of  Ghazni,  who 
promised  60,000  gold  pieces  as  a 
reward.  Firdausi,  however,  excited 
the  enmity  of  Mahmud's  vizier, 
and  when,  at  the  end  of  his  task, 
which  occupied  him  for  30  years, 
the  vizier  sent  him  pieces  of  silver 
instead  of  gold,  the  indignant  poet 
divided  the  money  between  the 
keeper  of  a  bath,  a  sherbet  seller, 
and  the  vizier's  messenger,  penned 
a  flaming  satire  on  Mahmud,  and, 
after  spending  the  remainder  of  his 
life  a  proscribed  man,  died  at  Tus. 
According  to  legend,  as  his  body 
was  being  borne  to  the  grave,  a 
messenger  laden  with  60,000  gold 
dinars  from  Mahmud  arrived,  and, 
as  Firdausi's  daughter  refused  the 
money,  it  was  spent  on  some  much- 
needed  public  buildings  in  Tus. 

The  Shah-Nameh,  which  has 
been  described  as  the  Iliad  of  Per- 
sia, is  characterised  by  its  Persian 
vocabulary,  the  simplicity  of  its 
style,  its  high  qualities  of  inven- 
tion, its  original  transcripts  from 
nature,  its  patriotism,  its  dramatic 
dialogues,  and  its  reflection  of  the 
author's  Zoroastrian  faith.  Battles, 
combats,  feasts,  scenes  of  riot,  and 
carnage  alternate  with  pictures  of 
innocence  and  peace.  Much  is 
taken  up  with  the  wars  of  Persians 
and  Tartars,  and  one  of  the  central 
characters  is  Rustum,  the  Persian 
Hercules,  who  unwittingly  kills  his 
own  son,  an  episode  familiar  to 
modern  readers  in  Matthew  Ar- 
nold's poem,  Sohrab  and  Rustum. 

Bibliography.  Poems  of  F.,  Eng. 
trans,  by  J.  Champion,  1785 ;  Shah- 
Nameh,  trans,  and  abridged,  J. 
Atkinson,  1832,  new  ed.  1892  ;  Sooh- 


Fir. 


Foliage  of  silver  fir,  Abies 
pectinata  * 


people,  mainly 
composedof  dark- 
h aired,  long- 
headed non- 
Aryan  Iberians, 
whoweresubdued 
by  the  Milesians, 
a  wave  of  Goi- 
delic  Celts  that 
may  have  crossed 
from  Great  Brit- 
ain. /See  Milesian. 
Firdausi  o  R 
FERDUSI  (c.  940- 
1020).  Pen-name 

of  Abu-'l  Kasim  Mansur,  Persian 
poet,  called  the  Homer  of  the  East. 
He  was  born  at  Schadab,  near  Tus, 
Khorassan,  son  of  a  small  land- 
owner. Carefully  educated  and  an 
apt  scholar,  he  is  famous  as  the 
author  of  the  Shah-Nameh,  or  Book 
of  Kings,  a  metrical  history  of 
Persia  from  early  times  to  A.D. 
641;  and  Yusuf  u  Zulikha,  a  poem 


Fiord.     View  in  the  Naero  Fiord,  Norway;  above,  typical 
cliff-walls  of  a  fiord 

rab,  a  free  trans.,  J.  ACTcinson,  2nd 
ed.  1828;  Episodes  from  the  Shah- 
Nameh,  trans,  into  English  verse, 
S.  Weston,  1815  ;  Biographical  No- 
tices of  Persian  Poets,  Gore  Ouseley, 
1846  ;  Shah-Nameh,  the  orig.  text, 
with  French  trans,  in  prose,  J.  Mohl, 
1876-78  ;  The  Epic  of  Kings,  H. 
Zimmern,  1886  ;  Literary  History 
of  Persia,  E.  G.  Browne,  1902-6; 
Yusuf  and  Zalikha,  ed.  H.Eth<§,  1908. 


FIRE 


3156 


FIRE-ARM 


Fire  ( A.S.  fyr).  Word  embracing 
in  its  widest  sense  any  manifesta- 
tion of  glowing  heat.  It  commonly 
denotes  the  visible  effect  of  the 
combustion  of  substances  by  means 
of  the  chemical  combination  of 
atmospheric  oxygen  with  one  or 
more  of  their  constituents,  the  in- 
combustible residue  being  called 
ash.  Flame  is  formed  when  glow- 
ing gas  is  produced,  either  as  a 
primary  or  as  a  secondary  result 
of  the  burning.  There  may  also 
be  non -luminous  vapours  called 
smoke  or  fume. 

The  process  of  raising  the  tem- 
perature of  combustible  or  inflam- 
mable substances  to  the  point  at 
which  self-sustaining  combustion 
proceeds  is  calledignition.  This  may 
be  brought  about  by  solar  radiation, 
terrestrial  heat,  molecular  action, 
electrical  discharge,  friction,  pres- 
sure or  percussion.  Fire  may  be 
extinguished  before  combustion  is 
completed  by  reducing  the  tem- 
perature of  the  burning  mass  below 
the  ignition  point,  or  by  stopping 
the  access  of  air.  In  the  domestic 
and  industrial  arts  heat  and  light 
are  commonly  obtained  from  sub- 
stances— solid,  liquid,  or  gaseous — 
which  are  called  fuels,  mostly  de- 
rived from  carbonaceous  materials 
of  vegetable  origin. 

Primeval  man  first  encountered 
fire  as  a  natural  manifestation, 
which  he  came  to  regard  as  an  all- 
devouring  spirit  to  be  feared  and 
shunned.  Ages  may  have  elapsed 
before  the  recognition  of  fire  as  a 
physical  fact  was  followed  by  any 
attempt  to  control  it,  and  then  to 
turn  it  to  account,  at  first  perhaps 
as  a  defence  against  wild  beasts. 
The  next  advance  consisted  in  de- 
vising means  for  its  preservation, 
an  achievement  which  furnished  a 
potent  incentive  to  a  sedentary 
habit  of  life.  Out  of  this  arose  the 
customs  concerned  with  its  per- 
petuation, sanctity,  and  worship. 
During  this  period  of  prehistory 
were  laid  the  foundations  of  the  use 
of  fire  for  warming  the  person, 
cooking  food,  hardening  imple- 
ments and  utensils,  and  producing 
artificial  light.  Fire-making,  the 
artificial  production  of  fire  at  will, 
which  followed  in  due  time,  facili- 
tated nomadism  and  migration, 
and  was  destined  to  become  man's 
mightiest  auxiliary  in  the  conquest 
of  the  globe. 

From  the  primitive  notion  of  an 
all-devouring  spirit  ancient  philo- 
sophy advanced  to  the  conception 
of  fire  as  a  thing  stolen  from 
heaven,  as  in  the  Prometheus  myth, 
and  then  to  the  view,  attributed  to 
Heraclitus  (c.  500  B.C.),  that  the 
universe  was  evolved  from  an  om- 
nipotent fire-god.  Medieval  al- 
chemy pictured  the  world  as  com- 


posed of  four  elements :  fire,  water, 
earth,  and  air.  When  modern 
chemistry  began,  Boyle  (1626-91), 
while  still  holding  fire  to  be  a 
material  element,  discovered  that 
air  is  essential  to  combustion.  A 
theory  propounded  by  Stahl  (1660- 
1734),  that  combustible  bodies  con- 
tain a  substance  called  phlogiston, 
which  is  released  by  their  decom- 
position, was  not  exploded  until 
Lavoisier  (1743-94),  after  dis- 
covering oxygen,  explained  burn- 
ing as  caused  by  this  gas  being  ex- 
tracted from  air  and  joined  to  other 
substances. 

Man  is  still  confronted,  as  at  the 
beginning,  by  fire  in  its  destructive 
aspects.  Sometimes  they  are  re- 
leased intentionally,  as  by  the 
wasteful  agricultural  methods  prac- 
tised by  jungle-burning  tribes  in 
India.  Sometimes  property  is  fired 
maliciously,  a  felony  punishable  in 
England  as  arson  and  in  Scotland 
as  fire-raising.  More  evil,  however, 
is  wrought  by  thoughtless  or  unin- 
tentional incendiarism,  or  by  the 
operation  of  such  causes  as  spon- 
taneous combustion.  Out  of  these 
perils  have  arisen  the  organized 
services  concerned  with  fire  pre- 
caution, proofing,  prevention,  ex- 
tinction, and  insurance.  The  Great 
Fire  (q.v.)  of  London  in  1666  was 
one  of  the  greatest  conflagrations 
on  record.  Since  then  still  costlier 
conflagrations  have  occurred  in 
Moscow,  1812;  Paris,  1871;  Chi- 
cago, 1871  ;  Boston,  1872  ;  Balti- 
more, 1904;  San  Francisco,  1906; 
and  Salonica,  1917. 

Fire  Alarm.  Mechanism  for 
making  known  the  fact  that  a  fire 
has  broken  out.  An  electric  fire 
alarm  is  a  device  which  automati- 
cally closes  an  electric  bell  circuit 
when  the  air  in  its  neighbourhood 
attains  a  high  temperature  such  as 
would  be  due  to  an  outbreak  of  fire. 
The  expansion  of  matter  by  heat  is 
the  principle  used  in  fire  alarms  of 
all  kinds.  The  mercurial  type  con- 
sists of  a  thermometer  with  plati- 
num wires  entering  the  bulb  and  the 
top  of  the  tube  through  fused 
joints.  When  the  mercury  rises  to 
a  certain  height  it  completes  the 
circuit  of  which  the  wires  form  part, 
and  a  bell  rings.  An  adjustable 
form  has  the  top  of  the  tube  open 
and  a  sliding  upper  wire. 

Pneumatic  alarms  are  operated 
by  the  expansion  of  air  in  a  closed 
tube  or  vessel,  and  the  pressing  out 
ot  a  diaphragm  which  brings  a 
moving  contact  against  a  fixed 
contact.  One  variety  has  a  bowl- 
shaped  container  with  a  concen- 
trically corrugated  top.  The 
chamber  is  partly  exhausted  and 
then  sealed.  An  alarm  is  given  if 
the  air  inside  be  expanded  by  heat, 
or  the  chamber  leaks  and  the 


vacuum  is  broken,  as  in  either  case 
the  diaphragm  bulges  outwards. 
In  another  variety  air  at  atmo- 
spheric pressure  is  contained  in  a 
small  chamber  and  in  very  fine 
tubes  running  from  it  round  the 
walls  of  the  apartments  it  protects. 
The  air  in  the-  tubes  is  heated 
quickly  by  a  fire  and  communicates 
its  pressure  to  the  main  chamber. 

Metallic  fire-alarm  contacts  em- 
ploy two  metals  of  unequal  ex- 
pansibility. A  common  form  con- 
sists of  a  bar,  compounded  of  a 
strip  of  steel  and  a  strip  of  copper 
welded  together,  or  otherwise 
rigidly  joined,  fixed  at  one  end  and 
free  to  move  at  the  other.  When 
the  bar  is  heated  the  copper  ex- 
pands more  than  the  steel,  and  the 
bar  curves  towards  the  steel  side, 
bringing  the  free  end  against  a 
contact. 

The  May-Otway  alarm  has  a 
horizontal  steel  bar  several  feet- 
long,  to  the  ends  of  which  the 
extremities  of  a  piece  of  copper 
wire  are  fastened.  A  contact-piece 
hangs  from  the  centre  of  the  wire. 
The  bar  and  the  wire  form  together 
a  very  obtuse-angled  triangle.  If 
the  temperature  rises  slowly — on  a 
hot  day,  for  example — the  steel 
bar  takes  in  heat  as  fast  as  the 
copper  wire  and  their  relative 
lengths  are  changed  but  slightly, 
whereas  a  sudden  influx  of  heat 
affects  the  wire  much  more  quickly 
than  the  bar,  and  the  wire  droops 
sufficiently  to  let  its  contact-piece 
touch  a  contact  below.  This 
quality  of  discrimination  is  im- 
parted in  various  ways  to  several 
other  kinds  of  automatic  alarms. 

Fire-arm.  Generic  designa- 
tion of  weapons  which  throw  a 
missile  by  virtue  of  the  propellant 
power  generated  by  a  charge  of 
suitable  explosive.  While  popu- 
lar use  is  inclined  to  restrict  the 
term  to  such  weapons  as  can  con- 
veniently be  used  by  hand,  such  as 
rifles,  sporting  guns,  and  pistols, 
these  are  more  correctly  termed 
small-arms  (q.v.),  and  fire-arms  in- 
cludes even  the  largest  artillery. 

The  history  of  fire-arms  is,  natur- 
ally, closely  associated  Avith  that  of 
explosives,  but  there  is  no  doubt 
that  in  early  times  progress  was 
far  more  dependent  on  the  smith 
than  the  powder -maker,  as  the 
latter  was  always  in  a  position  to 
supply  a  more  powerful  explosive  j 
than  the  contemporary  guns  j 
could  employ  with  safety.  The 
invention  of  fire-arms  is  usually 
ascribed  to  a  German  monk,  Ber- 
thold  Schwarz,  but  the  date  is  not 
definitely  known.  From  illustra- 
tions and  accounts  in  contemporary 
manuscripts,  it  is  evident  that  guns 
were  in  use  by  1320,  and  the  Eng- 
lish used  them  at  Crecy,  1346. 


FIREBACK 


3157 


FIRE      BRIGADE 


These  were  both  bottle- shaped  and 
tubular  in  form,  and  at  first  were 
employed  to  fire  darts  with  either 
metal  vanes  or  a  leather  pad  in 
place  of  feathers,  but  spherical  shot 
were  early  introduced,  being  usu- 
ally made  of  stone,  as  the  guns 
would  not  withstand  the  charge 
necessary  to  propel  the  heavier 
metal  missiles. 

Early  Developments 

The  early  guns  were  generally 
built  up  of  wrought-iron  strips 
welded  together,  but  some  con- 
sisted of  wooden  staves  bound  with 
iron,  and  all  were  valued  far  more 
for  the  moral  effect  occasioned  by 
the  noise  of  their  discharge  than 
for  the  material  damage  caused. 
"  Hand  guns,"  which  appear  to 
have  come  in  use  about  1400,  were 
merely  smaller  sizes  of  cannon 
mounted  on  a  rough  wooden  stock, 
and  all  weapons  were  discharged  by 
applying  a  piece  of  smouldering 
match  to  the  touch  hole. 

The  next  improvement  was  the 
invention  of  the  matchlock  about 
1460,  and  it  was  not  until  the  in- 
vention of  the  flint  lock  early  in 
the  17th  century  that  they  were 
generally  superseded.  Flint  locks 
remained  supreme  until  early  in 
the  19th  century,  when  percus- 
sion caps  were  introduced.  During 
this  time  the  only  improvement  in 
cannon  was  better  construction, 
and  they  were  cast  in  bronze  in  the 
loth  century  and  in  iron  by  the 
18th,  enabling  more  powerful 
charges  and  heavier  missiles  to  be 
fired,  while  larger  weapons  could  be 
constructed.  The  advent  of  the 
wheel  lock  (q.v.)  in  1515  had  also 
made  it  possible  to  produce  a  prac- 
ticable pistol,  so  that  three  distinct 
varieties  of  firearm,  cannon,  mus- 
ket, and  pistol,  were  in  existence. 

In  order  to  increase  the  accuracy 
of  weapons,  rifled  barrels  were  in- 
troduced about  1520,  probably  by 
August  Kotter  of  Nuremberg,  but 
the  slowness  of  loading  from  the 
muzzle  end  with  this  type  of  wea- 
pon restricted  its  use  to  sporting 
weapons  until  the  end  of  the 
18th  century,  when  a  few  regiments 
of  marksmen  were  formed,  but  it 
was  not  until  breechloaders  were 
definitely  established  that  the  rifle 
superseded  the  musket. 

Breechloading  guns  have  been 
known  for  many  years.  Henry 
VIII  had  a  sporting  weapon  of 
this  type,  but  the  Prussian  needle 
gun  of  1841  was  the  first  weapon 
in  which  the  principle  was  applied 
with  any  real  success.  With  a 
view  to  increasing  the  rapidity  of 
fire,  double-barrel  guns  were  intro- 
duced about  the  middle  of  the 
17th  century,  and  magazine  rifles 
about  200  years  later,  one  of  the 
earliest  being  the  Winchester  of 


1867.  Revolvers  date  from  1835, 
when  Colt  developed  a  successful 
type. 

Since  1880  progress  has  been 
most  rapid,  improved  construction 
and  the  advent  of  smokeless  powder 
enabling  weapons  of  great  power 
and  extreme  accuracy  to  be  con- 
structed; improved  breech  blocks 
and  the  absorption  of  the  recoil  by 
hydraulic  buffers  have  revolution- 
ised artillery  practice ;  the  employ- 
ment of  the  force  of  the  recoil  to 
reload,  cock,  and  fire  the  weapon 
enables  machine  guns  to  fire  at  the 
rate  of  600  shots  per  minute. 

Developments  in  firearms  during 
the  Great  War  were  chiefly  in  the 
employment  of  larger  guns  and 
howitzers  as  mobile  equipment ;  in 
the  use  of  guns  of  immense  power  as 
instanced  by  anti-aircraft  artillery 
and  the  German  gun  having  a  range 
of  80  miles,  which  threw  9'1-in. 
shell,  weighing  about  3  cwt.  each, 
into  Paris ;  the  introduction  of  new 
types  of  ammunition ;  and  the  use 
of  trench  mortars,  which  were  es- 
sentially extremely  light  cannon, 
generally  smooth-bored  and  often 
muzzle-loading,  which  were  capable 
of  firing  heavy  projectiles  to  short 
and  medium  ranges. 

Firearms  Act,  1920 

In  Great  Britain  everyone  who 
wishes  to  use  or  carry  a  firearm, 
except  when  the  latter  is  solely  em- 
ployed for  the  destruction  of  ver- 
min or  is  used  in  the  course  of  mili- 
tary duty,  is  required  to  take  out  a 
licence,  which  costs  10s.  In  addi- 
tion the  Firearms  Act  of  1920  re- 
quires that  everyone  in  possession 
of  a  pistol,  revolver,  or  rifle  after 
Nov.  1,  1920,  shall  obtain  from  the 
chief  officer  of  police  in  the  district 
in  which  he  usually  resides,  a  per- 
mit authorising  him  to  keep  such 
weapon  or  weapons  and  the  am- 
munition for  them.  Particulars 
(such  as  maker  and  number)  suffi- 
cient to  identify  the  weapons  have 
to  be  recorded.  Permits  are  not 
required  for  military  equipment  if 
the  owner  is  a  member  of  the  forces, 
or  smooth-bore  weapons  such  as 
sporting  shot  guns,  nor  for  antiques, 
curiosities,  trophies  of  war,  etc.,  but 
in  the  latter  cases  no  ammunition 
suitable  for  the  weapons  must  be 
kept.  See  Ammunition ;  Arquebus ; 
Breech  Block;  Bullet;  Cartridge; 
Explosives  ;  Ordnance ;  Pistol ; 
Revolver ;  Rifle  ;  Trench  Mortar. 

Fireback.  Back  wall  of  a  fire- 
place, introduced  about  the  middle 
of  the  16th  century  as  a  protection 
for  the  walls.  Firebacks  were  of 
cast  iron,  often  elaborately  decor- 
ated with  designs  of  flowers,  figures, 
etc.,  in  high  or  low  relief.  The  most 
interesting  series  were  those  with 
coats  of  arms  and  other  heraldic 
devices,  with  inscriptions. 


Fireball.  Obsolete  military 
term  employed  to  designate  cer- 
tain early  types  of  projectiles, 
thrown  from  mortars  for  incen- 
diary and  illuminating  effects. 
They  consisted  of  a  hoop  iron 
frame  covered  with  canvas  and 
filled  with  composition.  The  term 
is  occasionally  applied  to  the  early 
fireworks  used  in  warfare  by  the 
ancients.  It  is  also  used  to  describe 
an  electrical  phenomenon  occur- 
ring during  thunderstorms.  ,  See 
Lightning. 

Firebox.  Steel,  copper,  or 
wrought-iron  box  adjoining  a 
boiler,  in  which  fuel  is  burnt  for 
generating  steam  in  the  boiler.  A 
firebox  is  fitted  internally  with  an 
arch  of  firebricks  so  arranged  as  to 
check  an  undue  escape  of  heat 
through  the  boiler  tubes  and  to 
prevent  the  passage  of  solid 
material  through  them.  In  a  loco- 
motive boiler  a  water  space  is  pro- 
vided over  the  top  of  the  firebox, 
and  for  the  full  depth  on  each  side 
and  in  front  so  as  to  present  as 
great  a  heating  surface  as  possible. 

Firebrick.  Bricks  intended  for 
use  in  the  building  of  structures 
which  are  to  be  exposed  to  high 
temperatures,  particularly  furnaces 
for  the  melting  of  metals.  They 
are  made  of  various  materials  all  of 
a  highly  refractory  character,  ac- 
cording to  the  particular  purpose 
for  which  they  are  intended. 
Common  firebricks  are  made  from 
special  clays  ;  while  other  materials 
used  comprise  ganister,  a  sand- 
stone with  just  sufficient  clay  to 
permit  the  ground  material  to  be 
moulded  ;  Dinas  rock,  flints,  and 
other  siliceous  sands  and  stone  ; 
lime  ;  magnesia  ;  graphite  ;  chro- 
mite,  an  iron  ore  containing 
chrome  ;  "  bull-dog,"  a  mixture  of 
iron  oxide  and  silica  used  for  lining 
puddling  furnaces ;  and  some 
other  special  compounds.  See 
Brickmaking  ;  Furnace. 

Fire  Brigade.  Organization 
for  combating  outbreaks  of  fire. 
There  apparently  existed  fire 
brigades  in  Egypt  4,000  years  ago  ; 
while  a  very  elaborate  organization 
was  already  in  operation  in  Rome 
by  40  B.C.  Early  in  the  Christian 
era  hose  pipes  appear  to  have  been 
in  use.  In  England  we  owe  the 
development  of  the  fire  brigade  to 
the  early  fire  insurance  companies, 
though  an  Act  of  Parliament  of 
1774  obliged  the  churchwardens  of 
all  the  London  parishes  to  maintain 
a  proper  engine  for  putting  out  fires 
in  their  own  boundaries.  In  their 
own  interests  the  insurance  com- 
panies organized  very  complete  ; 
brigades  and  equipped  them  with 
the  best  appliances  available.  The 
members  at  first  were  composed  of 
their  own  clerks  and  other  officials. 


FIRECLAY 


31  58 


FIRE      ENGINE 


In  1833  the  London  insurance 
companies  combined,  and  formed 
the  London  fire  brigade  under  the 
command  of  James  Braidwood, 
who  built  the  first  steam  fire 
engine  and  was  killed  while  at  a 
fire  near  London  Bridge  in  1861. 
In  1866  the  Metropolitan  Board  of 
Works  took  over  the  entire  London 
organization,  which  in  1918,  under 
the  L.C.C.,  comprised  79  land 
stations,  3  river  stations,  and 
6  ambulance  stations,  with  75 
motor  fire  engines,  81  motor  fire 
escapes,  5  motor  hose  tenders,  8 
horsed  fire  engines,  18  horsed  fire 
escapes,  4  electrically  driven  turn- 
table ladders,  19  long  ladders, 
9  motor  ambulance  vans,  16  motor 
cars,  4  fire  floats  on  the  river  and 
4  steam  engines  on  rafts,  60  miles 
of  fire  hose,  and  1,582  street  fire 
alarms.  The  personnel  comprised 
1,297  firemen  and  drivers  and 
58  ambulance  attendants,  with 
three  principal  and  one  chiei  officer. 
The  horsed  turn-out  was  abolished 
in  1921. 

All  important  cities  and  towns 
now  maintain  more  or  less  efficient 
fire  brigades,  though  the  number, 
character,  organization,  and  equip- 
ment of  the  units  of  the  brigades 
vary  considerably.  In  the  larger 
cities  and  towns  they  are  composed 
of  paid  officials,  while  in  the  smaller 
ones  voluntary  workers  usually 
man  the  brigade. 

Fireclay.  Material  so  called 
from  the  high  refractoriness  of  the 
articles  made  from  it,  i.e.  its 
quality  (when  manufactured)  of 
resisting  intense  heat,  and  its 
freedom  from  splitting  when  ex- 
posed to  rapid  changes  of  tempera- 
ture. The  determining  factor  of 
the  refractoriness  is  the  chemical 
composition  of  the  clay,  which 
contains  but  small  quantities  of 
fluxing  impurities  (such  as  iron, 
lime,  magnesia,  alkalis),  and  very 
little  free  silica.  A  "  proximate  " 
analysis  of  a  typical  Scottish  fire- 
clay shows  the  following  per- 
centages :  Clay  substance,  85 '42  ; 
quartz,  13*42  ;  felspar,  1-16.  Fire- 
clays should  dry  and  fire  without 
cracking  and  have  an  open  texture 
to  resist  alternate  heating  and 
cooling.  In  the  manufacture  of 
some  fireclays  sawdust  is  mixed 
with  the  clay  and  is  burnt  on 
firing,  leaving  the  open  porous 
texture  required.  The  minimum 
fusion  point  for  a  fireclay  is  usually 
taken  at  about  1,600°  C. 

Fireclays  abound  in  the  British 
coalfields.  Often  the  finest  clay  is 
found  at  the  depth  of  many  feet, 
and  underlying  or  alternating  with 
coal-seams.  -  The  beds  do  not 
usually  exceed  two  feet  in  thick- 
ness. Deposits  are  worked  in 
Cornwall,  Devon,  Dorset,  and  else- 


where in  the  S.  of  England.  Fire- 
clay from  Stourbridge,  in  Worces- 
tershire, said  to  have  been  worked 
in  the  16th  century,  is  largely  ex- 
ported on  account  of  its  excellent 
qualities.  See  Brickmaking. 

Fire  Command.  Unit  in  coast 
defence  artillery.  In  every  fortified 
area  the  efficiency  and  general 
readiness  for  action  is  entrusted 
to  an  officer,  usually  of  field  rank, 
who,  as  fire  commander,  is  re- 
sponsible for  the  fire  control  of  all 
batteries  and  groups  in  the  area. 
It  is  for  him  to  organize  and  decide 
upon  the  measures  to  be  adopted 
in  the  event  of  attack,  and  he 
orders  the  commencement  and 
cessation  of  fire  on  the  target, 
directing  which  forts  or  batteries 
shall  engage  individual  enemy 
vessels,  and  what  tactics  shall  be 
employed  to  prevent  a  bombard- 
ment or  landing.  See  Artillery. 

Fire  Control.  System  under 
which  a  warship's  guns  are  used  in 
action.  Fire  is  controlled  from  a 
station  aloft,  ranges,  etc.,  being 
passed  down  to  the  gun  crews. 
The  gunnery  officer  from  his  post 
aloft  controls  a  ship's  armament 
at  will,  his  orders  going  through  a 
transmitting  station  to  all  parts  of 
the  vessel.  Director  firing  is  the 
most  scientific  phase  of  gunnery, 
and  its  methods  are  confidential. 
All  turrets,  i.e.  the  armoured 
positions  wherein  the  big  guns  lie 
in  pairs,  are  indicated  by  a  letter 
for  fire  contro)  purposes,  and  the 
gunnery  officer  can  use  the  weapons 
singly  or  in  groups  at  his  discre- 
tion. See  Gunnery. 

Firedamp.  Name  given  by 
miners  to  the  most  important  of 
the  gases  which  are  found  occluded 
in  the  crust  of  the  earth.  It  is  the 
carburetted  hydrogen  or  marsh 
gas  (CH4),  which  appears  in  coal 
mines.  When  diluted  with  air  in 
certain  proportions  it  forms  a 
mixture  which  will  explode  with 
great  violence  if  lighted  either  by 
a  flame  or  by  contact  with  an  in- 
candescent surf  ace.  Such  an  explo- 
sion occurring  in  a  coal  mine  may 
kill  the  workers  either  directly, 
by  its  mere  mechanical  violence, 
or  indirectly,  by  destroying  the 
workings  or  machinery  of  the  mine. 

Like  marsh  gas  itself,  firedamp 
has  been  formed  by  the  decompo- 
sition of  vegetable  matter.  All 
beds  of  coal  are  more  or  less  porous, 
being  traversed  by  numerous 
seams,  while  pockets  may  occur 
here  and  there.  In  many  cases 
firedamp  has  accumulated  in  a  bed 
or  in  adjacent  strata  until  it  has 
attained  a  considerable  pressure. 
A  stroke  of  a  pick  or  a  drill  or  the 
falling  of  a  "block  of  coal  may  sud- 
denly release  this  gas,  which  may 
be  distinctly  heard  escaping.  If  the 


barometer  is  low,  that  is  if  the  nor- 
mal pressure  of  the  air  in  the  work- 
ings becomes  reduced,  the  gas  will 
the  more  readily  tend  to  escape  ; 
hence  the  importance  to  miners  of 
weather  forecasts  or  warnings. 

The  proportion  of  air  needed  to 
make  an  explosive  mixture  varies 
according  to  the  composition  of  the 
gas  itself,  which  may  contain  other 
gases,  particularly  oxygen  and  ni- 
trogen, and  still  more  according  to 
the  state  of  the  atmosphere  of  the 
mine,  e.g.  the  amount  of  coal 
dust  in  the  air.  The  propor- 
tion may  range  from  one  part  of 
the  gas  to  from  seven  to  fifteen  of 
air.  A  dangerous  accumulation  of 
the  gas  may  thus  be  recognized  by 
a  change  in  colour  of  the  flame  of 
a  miner's  safety  lamp,  the  use  of 
which,  to  the  exclusion  of  naked 
lights,  is  imperative  in  all  mines 
where  any  large  quantity  of  fire- 
damp may  suddenly  appear.  See 
Mining  ;  Safety  Lamp. 

Fire  Door.  Steel  or  iron  door  of 
a  furnace  through  which  fuel  is 
passed.  In  some  cases  the  doors 
are  arranged  to  hinge  open,  and  in 
others  to  slide  across  the  opening, 
and  hand-levers  are  fitted  for  open- 
ing and  closing  them.  See  Furnace. 

Fire-eating.  Branch  of  the 
juggler's  art.  It  includes  exhaling 
or  swallowing  flame,  holding  red- 
hot  iron  between  the  teeth,  drink- 
ing molten  substances,  and  similar 
pretensions.  A  writer  of  the  2nd 
century  described  breathing  from 
the  mouth  of  flame  and  smoke  as 
arising  from  inflammable  matter 
inside  a  nutshell  wrapped  in  tow 
In  1672  Evelyn  saw  Richardson 
chew  and  swallow  glowing  coals  and 
brimstone,  besides  pouring  molten 
lead — perhaps  cold  quicksilver — or\ 
his  tongue.  In  1762  Strutt  saw 
Powell  broil  a  piece  of  beefsteak 
upon  his  tongue  with  glowing  char- 
coal placed  beneath  it.  In  1814 
Josephine  Girardelli  claimed  to  put 
molten  lead  into  her  mouth  and  to 
spit  it  out  marked  with  her  teeth. 
These  effects  were  produced  partly 
by  utilising  unfamiliar  physical  and 
chemical  principles,  partly  by 
sleight  of  hand. 

Fire  Engine.  Particular  kind 
of  water-pumping  machine  used 
for  the  purpose  of  throwing  a 
stream  or  streams  of  water  on  to  a 
fire  to  extinguish  it.  Fire  engines 
were  among  the  earliest  applica- 
tions of  mechanical  science  to  use- 
ful purposes.  Hero  of  Alexandria, 
the  inventor  of  the  first  steam 
engine,  about  150  B.C.,  describes 
what  he  calls  a  "  siphon  "  used  in 
his  time  to  put  out  fires. 

This  apparatus,  in  its  essential 
ideas,  was  identical  with  the  com- 
mon manual  fire  engine  developed 
slowly  during  the  centuries  and 


1.  Old    style      turn-out    with     horse-drawn    engines.  shown  in  No.  4  raising  a  man  to  a  height  of  90  ft.  by 

2.  Turn-out  of  motor  equipment.    3.  1919-20  pattern  of  engine  power.   7.  The  Prince  of  Wales  decorating  fireman 
motor  fire  engine.     4.  Turntable  firetower,  with  reach  of  at    Southwark    Bridge    Road    station,   Feb.   12.   1920. 
90  ft.    5.  Rocket  apparatus  on  fire  float.     6.  Firetower  8.  Fireman  equipped  with  lamp  and  breathing  apparatus 

FIRE   BRIGADE:      THE   LONDON   COUNTY   COUNCIL   FIRE   BRIGADE   AND   ITS   WORK 

Topical   Press  and  Clarke    *   Hyde 


FIRE      ESCAPE 

still  largely  used  to-day.  It  con- 
sisted of  two  cylinders  with 
plungers  working  in  them  and 
connected  with  a  common  wooden 
beam  by  which  the  plungers  were 
alternately  moved  up  and  down 
in  then*  cylinders.  In  the  former 
movement  the  plungers  drew  water 
into  the  cylinders,  and  in  the  latter 
they  forced  it  out  through  a  com- 
mon jet,  the  double  arrangement 
permitting  a  continuous  discharge. 
It  also  appears  that  the  apparatus, 
either  by  design  or  accident,  in- 
cluded an  air  chamber  which  would 
give  steadiness  to  the  discharge. 

The  Romans  made  large  leather 
bags  which  they  filled  with  water 
and  then  forced  the  water  out  by 
pressing  the  bags,  thus  enabling 
them  to  throw  the  water  some 
considerable  distance  through  long 
spouts  attached  to  the  bags.  Water 
syringes  were  used  in  Germany  in 
the  16th  century  and  in  Great 
Britain  till  the  end  of  the  17th. 
The  latter  took  two  or  three  men 
to  work  them,  but  were  not  very 
effective.  In  1657  there  existed  in 
Nuremberg  a  fire  engine  which  was 
drawn  by  horses  and  took  30  men 
to  work  it  which  from  the  de- 
scription given  by  a  contemporary 
writer  was  a  practical  adaptation 
of  the  apparatus  described  by 
Hero.  The  hose  and  suction  pipe 
were  introduced  by  the  Dutch 
engineer  Jan  der  Heide  in  1670, 
while  in  1684  the  French  architect 
Claude  Perrault  suggested  the  use 
of  the  air  chamber. 

The  immediate  precursor  of  the 
modern  fire  engine  was  the  machine 
made  by  Richard  Newsham,  a 
pearl  button  maker  of  London, 
who  took  out  patents  for  his  engine 
about  1730.  Again  in  essential 
ideas  this  machine  was  on  the  lines 
of  the  form  described  by  Hero, 
but  it  was  a  practical  and  efficient 
apparatus,  and  Newsham  con- 
structed a  considerable  number, 
one  of  which  at  least  was  sent  to 
New  York.  At  a  demonstration 
in  London,  Newsham  threw  a  jet 
of  water  over  the  grasshopper  which 
crowned  the  top  of  the  then  Royal 
Exchange,  a  height  of  160  ft.  One 
of  his  engines,  supplied  to  Dart- 
mouth, is  now  in  the  museum  at 
South  Kensington,  in  good  work- 
ing condition.  Newsham' s  engine 
was  similar  to  the  hand-power 
engines  now  found  in  many  large 
country  mansions. 

A  modern  fire  engine  consists  of 
a  special  type  of  tubular  steam 
boiler,  very  compact,  and  capable 
of  raising  steam  to  a  pressure  of 
from  100  to  200  Ib.  per  square 
inch  in  a  few  minutes,  and  one  or 
more  steam-driven  pumps,  all 
mounted  on  a  light  but  strong 
wheeled  carriage.  Until  recently 


31  60 

the  engine  was  drawn  by  horses, 
although  it  has  frequently  been 
proposed  to  draw  it  by  its  own 
steam ;  but  of  recent  years  the 
petrol  motor  tractor  has  displaced 
horses  to  a  very  large  extent.  Such 
an  engine  will  throw  from  500  to 
1,400  gallons  of  water  per  minute 
to  a  height  of  150  feet.  Its  total 
weight  will  be  about  2£  tons. 
Specially  powerful  engines  will 
weigh  from  four  to  five  tons,  inclu- 
sive of  the  water  in  their  boilers. 
Engines  with  motor  tractors  and 
motor- opera  ted  pumps  are  also 
largely  adopted.  The  whole  engine 
is  much  lighter  than  a  steam  engine, 
thus  reducing  the  weight  that 
has  to  be  transported  through 
the  streets,  while  the  trouble  of  get- 
ting up  steam  is  avoided.  Neverthe- 
less, many  competent  fire  engineers 
consider  that  the  steam-operated 
pumps  still  have  the  balance  of 
advantages. 

Fire  Escape.  Device  of  two 
general  classes  :  those  which  are 
permanently  attached  to  the  build- 
ing, and  those  which  are  brought 
to  it  when  a  fire  has  broken  out. 
To  the  former  belong  many  ap- 
pliances, from  the  simple  knotted 
rope  attached  at  one  end  to  a  win- 
dow frame,  and  by  the  aid  of  which 
a  cool  man  may  climb  down  to  the 
ground  in  safety  or  lower  a  per- 
son from  a  considerable  height, 
to  the  elaborate  external  stair- 
cases and  balconies  built  of  iron 
with  which  many  modern  buildings, 
such  as  factories  and  large  hotels  in 
this  country,  and  still  more  in  the 
United  States,  are  now  provided. 

Of  the  portable  appliances  the 
chief  is  the  familiar  wheeled  ladder, 
consisting  of  a  principal  ladder  and 
a  number  of  supplementary  or  ex- 
tension ladders,  which  when  joined 
together  permit  a  height  of  60  feet 
and  over  to  be  reached.  The  escape 
is  also  provided  with  a  chute  or 
shoot  of  copper  wire  netting  which 
is  attached  to  the  under  side  of  the 
ladders  and  rises  with  the  exten- 
sion. A  person  may  slide  down 
this  shoot  to  the  ground  without 
risk  of  injury.  For  the  same  pur- 
pose shoots  of  stout  canvas  are 
adopted  and  kept  permanently 
ready  for  use  in  many  establish- 
ments where  numerous  workers 
are  congregated  on  upper  floors. 
They  are  in  the  form  of  a  large  pipe, 
with  appliances  at  one  end  by 
which  the  shoot  may  be  attached 
to  a  window  or  held  from  the  inside 
of  a  room  in  the  building.  When  in 
use  the  lower  end  is  held  by  two  or 
three  persons  on  the  ground,  stand- 
ing at  a  distance  from  the  building, 
so  that  the  shoot  hangs  at  an  angle. 
A  child  may  be  sent  down  such  a 
shoot  with  perfect  safety.  The 
hook  ladder  may  be  used  as  a  fire 


FIREPLACE 

escape,  although  its  primary  object 
is  to  enable  a  fireman  to  gain  access 
to  the  upper  floors  of  a  burning 
building.  See  Fire  Prevention. 

Firefly.  Name  applied  generally 
to  beetles  which  are  luminous  in 
the  dark.  In  Europe  they  are 
represented  by  the  family  Lampy- 
ridae,  of  which  the  glow-worm  is  a 
familiar  example.  In  America  and 
the  West  Indies  the  genus  Pyro- 
phorus  of  the  elater  beetles  are 
famed  for  the  green  and  red  lights 
which  they  display  in  flight.  Fire- 
flies are  frequently  used  as  hair 
ornaments  in  the  W.  Indies,  and 
also  in  S.  Italy. 

Firelock.  Musket  in  which  the 
means  of  igniting  gunpowder  was 
by  flint  and  steel.  About  1690  it 
replaced  the  matchlock,  a  musket 
that  required  a  burning  match  to 
discharge  it.  In  the  old  drill  books 
the  command  "  Shoulder  your  fire- 
lock "  was  used  before  "  Shoulder 
arms  "  came  into  use.  See  Flint 
Lock ;  Gun  ;  Musket. 

Fire-making.  Artificial  pro- 
duction of  flame,  spark,  or  glowing 
heat.  Of  primeval  invention,  it 
became  one  of  the  mightiest  factors 
in  human  culture.  Natural  mani- 
festations of  fire  were  doubtless 
feared  before  man  perceived  its 
beneficent  possibilities.  Use  gave 
rise  to  preservation,  preservation 
to  production  at  will. 

Artificial  fire  may  have  origi- 
nated in  wood-friction.  A  Mous- 
terian  beechwood  fire  twirl  (Tylor's 
fire  drill)  was  found  in  1904,  at 
Krapina,  in  Croatia.  Fire  twirls 
are  rotated  between  the  palms  in 
Australia,  as  in  ancient  India  and 
Mexico,  are  aided  by  a  cord  by  the 
Maoris,  and  by  a  bow  in  early 
Egypt ;  they  are  gripped  by  the  | 
teeth  by  the  Eskimo,  and  weighted 
with  a  spindle-whorl  by  the  Chuk- 
chi. Other  frictional  appliances 
are  stick-and-groove  fire  ploughs 
rubbed  along  the  grain  in  Poly- 
nesia, and  fire  saws  rubbed  across 
the  grain  by  the  Malays.  A  pneu- 
matic fire  piston  is  peculiar  to 
modern  S.E.  Asia.  The  primeval  ! 
percussion  implement — strike-a- 
light— resulted  from  flmt-knapping, 
and  flint  and  pyrites  developed  into 
the  early  iron -age  flint  and  steel. 

Fireplace.  Recess  in  the  wall 
of  a  room,  formerly  consisting  of 
an  open  space  walled  on  three  sides 
by  stone  or  bricks,  but  now 
generally  filled  with  a  metal  fitting, 
which  contains  a  fire  for  heating 
purposes.  The  earliest  form  of 
fireplace  is  commonly  believed  to 
have  been  the  hearth  in  the  centre 
of  a  room,  but  there  is  evidence 
that  the  wall  fireplace  has  an 
equally  long  ancestry.  In  the 
Norman  keep,  for  example,  where 
the  rooms  were  placed  one  over  the 


FIRE      PREVENTION 


3161 


Fire-making.      1.  Chinese  flint,  steel,  and  bag  of  tinder.     2.  Early  19th  cen- 
tury strike-a-light.  3.  Steel  mill,  formerly  used  in  coal  mines  for  striking  a  light. 
4.  Tinder  box  with  flint  and  steel.    5  and  6.  Fire  drills,  making  friction  between 
hard  and  soft  wood 


other,  wall  fireplaces  were  the  rule, 
since  a  central  hearth  in  any  but 
the  topmost  room  would  have  been 
an  impossibility. 

Extant  specimens  show  that 
these  fireplaces  were  recesses  in  the 
wall  surmounted  by  round  arches. 
There  was  no  chimney  shaft ;  the 
smoke  escaped  by  a  short  flue  lead- 
ing almost  directly  to  a  small  verti- 
cal opening  in  the  outside  wall, 
concealed  in  the  angle  of  a  but- 
tress. In  one-storeyed  buildings 
the  central  hearth  was  often  used, 
and  this  type  of  fireplace  persisted 
until  late  in  the  16th  century.  The 
great  hall  at  Richmond  Palace, 
and  the  hall  at  Penshurst  Place, 
Kent,  retain  examples. 

The  opening  in  the  roof,  through 
which  the  smoke  was  carried,  was 
protected  by  a  small  turret,  or 
louvre,  which  kept  out  the  rain 
while  allowing  the  smoke  to 
escape.  Chimney  shafts  began  to 
appear  about  the  middle  of  the 
13th  century,  but  were  not  carried 
above  the  level  of  the  eaves  until 
considerablv  later,  and  it  was  not 


until  Elizabethan  times  that  the 
chimney  stack  was  developed  as  an 
architectural  feature.  Then  the 
number  of  fireplaces  greatly  in- 
creased, calling  for  a  correspond- 
ing enlargement  and  beautification 
of  stacks  to  contain  the  flues. 

Gothic  fireplaces  are  generally 
treated  in  the  simplest  manner. 
The  hood,  sometimes  with  corbels, 
is  the  chief  and  only  decoration  of 
most  13th  century  fireplaces,  and 
the  single  square -framed  arch 
which  followed  it  was  equally 
devoid  of  ornament.  The  Renais- 
sance brought  the  architectural 
chimney-piece  and  elaborate  over- 
mantel, and  though  there  was  a 
return  to  greater  simplicity  in  the 
Later  Renaissance,  the  taste  for 
a  decorated  fireplace  had  taken 
firm  hold.  See  Building  ;  Chimney- 
piece  ;  Chimney  Shaft ;  House ; 
also  illus.  pp.  1948  and  1949. 

Fire  Prevention.  Fire  preven- 
tion systems  are  of  two  classes  : 
those  directed  to  the  prevention  of 
an  outbreak,  and  those  designed  to 
deal  promptly  with  one  when  it  has 


FIREPROOFING 

already  occurred.  The  former  are 
chiefly  structural  and  are  mostly 
represented  by  the  use  of  non-in- 
flammable materials  in  the  erec- 
tion of  buildings.  If  the  floor,  the 
walls,  and  the  roof  or  ceiling  of  a 
room  can  be  made  of  materials 
which  do  not  readily  take  fire,  the 
contents  of  the  room  may  be 
destroyed  by  fire  without  serious 
risk  to  other  parts  of  the  building. 
Iron,  notwithstanding  its  great 
strength  and  structural  value  in 
building,  is  not  a  good  fire-resisting 
material.  It  will  bend  and  twist  and 
bring  about  the  collapse  of  a  whole 
building ;  and  even  where  it  re- 
tains its  position  and  form  in  the 
course  of  a  fire  while  merely  ex- 
posed to  the  heat,  it  may  be  almost 
instantly  destroyed  by  being 
drenched  while  hot  with  water 
from  the  fire  hose.  Hence,  in  the 
modern  "  fireproof  "  building,  while 
iron  or  steel  is  very  largely  used,  it 
is  invariably  enclosed  in  some  form 
of  protective  covering — brickwork, 
concrete,  or  cement — which  will 
shield  it  from  the  direct  action  of  a 
fire.  The  extensive  use  in  modern 
buildings  of  reinforced  concrete  is 
due  not  alone  to  the  moderate  cost 
of  that  system  of  construction,  but 
also  to  the  fact  that  it  is  so  largely 
fire-resisting.  The  general  and  un- 
avoidable use  of  wood  in  buildings 
still  constitutes  a  serious  fire  risk 
nearly  everywhere,  and  not  least  on 
board  ship;  but  timber  is  much 
less  extensively  employed  than  for- 
merly, and  the  risk  of  fire  may  be 
reduced  by  the  use  of  wood  fire- 
proofing  processes. 

To  the  second  class  of  fire  pre- 
vention systems  belongs  a  large 
number  of  appliances,  comprising 
internal  fire  hydrants  or  stand- 
pipes  connected  permanently  to  a 
reliable  source  of  water,  which  may 
be  brought  into  operation  instantly 
on  any  floor  of  a  building  and  in 
large  buildings  at  more  than  one 
point  on  any  floor;  the  free  pro- 
vision of  fire  buckets  always  kept 
filled  with  water  and  always  main- 
tained in  proper  number  and  in 
order  at  definite  stations ;  the 
adoption  of  sprinklers  ;  the  use  of 
automatic  pumps  which  are  either 
arranged  to  be  driven  by  a  separate 
electrical  connexion  or  by  any  in- 
dependent steam  service,  so  placed 
and  arranged  that  they  may  be  put 
into  operation  instantly ;  chemical 
fire  extinguishers  and  the  instal- 
ment of  automatic  fire  alarms 
(<£.#.).  See  Concrete ;  Sprinkler. 

Fireproofing.  The  idea  under- 
lying this  term  is,  of  course,  that  of 
treating  a  material,  normally  in- 
flammable paper,  fabric,  or  wood, 
in  such  a  way  that  it  will  not  take 
fire.  The  idea  is  a  very  old  one,  and 
innumerable  processes  have  been 


FIRE     RAISING 


3162 


FIRE-WALKING 


suggested  in  connexion  with  it.  No 
method  has  yet  succeeded  in  ren- 
dering any  such  materials  incom- 
bustible. The  most  that  has  been 
achieved  is  to  render  them  less  in- 
flammable than  they  are  in  their 
natural  conditions.  That  is  to  say, 
the  materials  may  after  treatment 
slowly  burn  away,  if  the  surround- 
ing temperature  be  raised  suffi- 
ciently high,  without  bursting  into 
flame.  This  may  obviously  be  an 
important  end  attained,  as  if  flame 
can  be  avoided  the  risk  of  a  fire 
spreading  is  immensely  reduced. 

The  substances  proposed  as  fire- 
proofing  agents  include  common 
salt,  alum,  sulphate  of  zinc,  sul- 
phate of  ammonia,  sulphate  of 
soda,  sal  ammoniac,  borax,  sul- 
phate of  lime  and  of  baryta,  lime 
water,  ammonium  phosphate,  fer- 
ric sulphate,  and  silicate  and  tungs- 
tate  of  soda,  the  two  latter  pro- 
bably being  those  most  generally 
and  successfully  employed.  Many 
of  these  substances  are  unsuitable 
for  use  on  fabrics,  for  the  reason 
that  they  rot  them  more  or  less. 
All  such  substances,  which  are  ap- 
plied by  soaking  the  fabric  in  a 
solution  of  the  salt  in  water,  act  by 
depositing  minute  crystals  of  the 
salt  in  the  pores  of  the  fabric. 
By  thus  closing  up  the  pores  of  the 
material  with  a  non-inflammable 
substance,  access  of  air  to  the 
pores  is  prevented,  and  thus,  while 
the  fabric  may  char  superficially  by 
the  exposure  of  its  surface  to  a  high 
temperature,  it  will  not  take  fire. 

To  secure  the  best  results  it  may 
be  necessary  to  soak  the  material  in 
the  solution  more  than  once,  drying 
carefully  after  each  immersion. 
Also  it  may  be  necessary  to  repeat 
the  process  from  time  to  time  if 
the  proofed  material  is  much  used, 
as,  for  example,  in  the  case  of 
theatre  fabrics,  as  the  crystals  are 
only  held  mechanically  in  the  pores 
of  the  fabric  and  will  gradually 
shake  out.  In  fireproofing  wood, 
for  which  purpose  tungstate  and 
silicate  of  soda  and  sulphate  of 
zinc  are  chiefly  used,  the  penetra- 
tion of  the  pores  of  the  wood  by 
the  solution  is  usually  assisted  in 
the  best  processes  by  first  exhaust- 
ing the  air  from  the  wood  as  far  as 
possible  by  keeping  the  material 
under  a  vacuum  for  some  time 
before  the  solution  is  introduced. 

In  addition  to  substances  which 
are  intended  to  penetrate  the 
material,  certain  so-called  fireproof 
paints  are  employed  for  coating 
wood  superficially.  These  paints 
are  composed  chiefly  of  sodium 
silicate,  zinc  chloride,  and  asbestos, 
frequently  in  combination.  They 
undoubtedly  assist  to  prevent  wood 
from  catching  fire,  but  are  liable  to 
peel  off  more  or  less.  Brushing 


timber  with  common  limewash  two 
or  three  times  will  render  it  to  a 
great  extent  non-inflammable. 

Fire  Raising.  Term  used  in 
Scots  law  for  the  act  of  wilfully 
setting  on  fire  the  property  of 
another.  The  English  equivalent 
is  arson  (q.v.). 

Fireship.  Wooden  vessel  filled 
with  combustibles  that  used  to  be 
set  on  fire  and  made  to  drift  down 
upon  an  enemy  fleet  when  it  was  at 
anchor  or  in  harbour.  The  fireships 
were  sent  in  thus  to  create  panic  or 
set  on  fire  enemy  vessels  as  they 
came  in  contact  with  them.  The 
coming  of  steel  and  steam  made 
the  fireship  obsolete. 

A  notable  instance  of  the  use  of 
fireships  was  the  attack  made  by 
means  of  them  on  the  French  fleet 
in  the  Basque  Roads,  on  April  11, 
1809.  At  Lord  Cochrane's  sugges- 
tion eight  fireships  and  three 
explosion  vessels,  containing  1,400 
barrels  of  powder  with  400  shells 
and  thousands  of  hand-grenades 
were  sent  against  the  French  on  a 
dark  night.  So  great  was  the  panic 
caused  by  the  explosion  of  these 
vessels  that  most  of  the  French 
crews  cut  the  cables  and  allowed 
their  ships  to  drift  ashore.  An 
earlier  instance  was  their  use 
against  the  Spanish  Armada.  See 
Armada. 

Fire  Step.  In  the  military 
sense,  the  raised  portion  of  the 
floor  of  a  fire  trench  on  which 


Fire  Step.     Sectional  diagram  illustrating 
method  of  trench  construction 

stand  the  men  who  are  actually 
firing  over  the  parapet  or  through 
the  loopholes.  In  temporary 
trenches,  which  are  made  narrow, 
the  lower  portion  of  the  floor  has 
little  width,  and  chiefly  acts  as  a 
drain  to  remove  any  water  which 
may  find  its  way  into  the  position. 
In  trenches  which  are  to  be  occu- 
pied for  a  considerable  length  of 
time,  the  whole  excavation  is 
made  wider  and  the  floor  arranged 
at  three  different  levels,  the 
highest  on  the  forward  face  being 
the  fire-step,  one  at  an  inter- 
mediate level,  furnished  with  duck 
boarding,  providing  a  walk-way, 
along  which  people  may  pass 
without  interfering  with  the  men 
who  are  firing  or  acting  as  lodk- 
outs,  and  where  the  parapet  affords 


them  complete  cover  while  in  an 
erect  position,  the  lowest  portion 
of  the  floor  serving  as  a  drain. 

Fire  Tactics.  Term  employed 
to  designate  the  arrangements 
made  for  bringing  hostile  troops 
under  effective  fire,  whether  from 
small  arms  or  artillery.  Fire  tac- 
tics includes  both  the  dispositions 
made  of  the  troops  who  bring  fire 
to  bear  and  the  fire  control  by 
which  the  fire  is  directed.  It  is 
always  a  great  advantage  if  some 
troops  can  be  located  so  as  to  be  in 
a  position  to  bring  enfilade  fire  to 
bear  on  the  enemy,  while  indirect 
fire,  which  is  brought  to  bear  from 
a  position  in  which  the  enemy  is 
not  visible,  is  usually  demoralis- 
ing. Surprise  effect  is  always  of 
the  greatest  value,  and  may  fre- 
quently be  obtained  in  defence  by 
some  units  withholding  their  fire 
until  a  definite  stage  has  been 
reached  by  the  attack,  and  in  at- 
tack by  working  some  units  round 
to  a  position  in  which  the  enemy 
does  not  expect  them. 

The  method  was  occasionally  em- 
ployed by  the  Germans  during  the 
Great  War  of  placing  machine  guns 
in  the  area  over  which  an  attack  was 
expected  in  such  a  way  that  they 
remained  concealed  until  the  at- 
tacking troops  had  passed,  and 
then  fired  into  their  rear.  The 
extensive  use  of  strong  field  en- 
trenchments necessitated  violent 
artillery  bombardments  in  order 
to  obliterate  these 
defences  as  a 
preliminary  to  any 
infantry  attack. 
Barrage  fire  was 
developed  in  order 
to  screen  any  area 
from  reinforcements  and  sup- 
plies, and  the  creeping  barrage 
was  a  most  successful  method 
of  protecting  attacking  troops. 
Another  role  played  by  the 
artillery  in  fire  tactics  is  coun- 
ter battery  work,  certain  units 
being  detailed  for  the  special  duty  of 
keeping  the  hostile  artillery  under 
such  heavy  fire  that  they  will  be 
unable  effectively  to  support  their 
infantry.  Successful  fire  tactics 
are  largely  dependent  on  effective 
observation  and  communications 
in  order  that  every  advantage  may 
be  taken  of  the  changing  situations. 
See  Artillery ;  Tactics. 

Fire- Walking.  Magical  rite 
practised  by  several  primitive  peo- 
ples, mainly  to  ensure  sunshine  and 
bountiful  crops.  The  celebrants 
walk  barefoot  over  heated  stones 
or  embers,  and  are  reputed  to 
emerge  unscathed.  S.  P.  Langley, 
witnessing  the  ceremony  at  Ta- 
hiti in  1901,  found  that  the  vol- 
canic rock  used  was  a  bad  con- 
ductor, the  upper  surface  being 


FIRE-WATER 


3163 


FIREWORKS 


only  moderately  warmed.  W.  L. 
Allardyce,  watching  it  in  Fiji  in 
1904,  reported  that  a  handkerchief 
was  charred  by  the  stones,  and 
that  a  thermometer  registered  an 
air  temperature  over  the  pit  of 
280°  F.  Other  modern  accounts 
come  from  Mauritius,  New  Zea- 
land, Japan,  China,  India,  and 
Bulgaria.  The  rite  sometimes 
consists  in  passing  through  flame, 
especially  as  an  act  of  devotion,  a 
custom  preserved  among  Euro- 
pean rustics  when  leaping  over 
bonfires  "  for  luck." 

Fire-walking   as   a   chastity   or 
sanctity   ordeal   was   recorded   in 


early  Vedic  India  (c.  1200  B.C.), 
passed  into  medieval  Europe,  and 
in  the  form  of  treading  barefoot 
over  nine  glowing  ploughshares 
was  successfully  accomplished  by 
Queen  Emma,  mother  of  Edward 
the  Confessor.  See  Ordeal. 

Fire- Water.  Generic,  popular 
name  for  any  spirituous  or  dis- 
tilled liquor,  originally  used  by 
the  natives  of  half -civilized  lands 
for  European  cordials.  It  is 
akin  to  the  Spanish  name  for 
brandy,  aguardiente,  or  "  burning 
water,"  to  the  Celtic  usquebaugh, 
or  "  water  of  life,"  and  the  French 
eau-de-vie.  See  Brandy. 


FIREWORKS:    FOR   WAR   AND    DISPLAY 

Alan  St.  H.  Brock,  Director,  Brock's  Fireworks.  Ltd. 

This  article,  which  traces  the  development  of  fireworks,  is  supple- 
mented by  shorter  ones  on  the  various  fireworks  themselves,  e.g. 
Rocket ;   Roman  Candle ;  Squib.      See  also  Gunpowder 


The  science  of  pyrotechny  is  of 
great  antiquity  in  the  East,  where, 
however,  little  progress  has  been 
made.  The  Indian  pyrotechnists 
are  considerably  in  advance  of  the 
Chinese  in  display  work,  but  both 
depend  on  gunpowder,  Chinese 
fire,  and  a  few  simple  colour  com- 
positions, the  remainder  of  the 
display  being  made  up  of  such 
adventitious  aids  as  transparen- 
cies, paintings,  decorated  frame- 
work, and,  among  the  Chinese, 
paper  patterns.  Travellers  in  China 
give  enthusiastic  accounts  of 
Chinese  exhibitions  which — with- 
out these  accessories  which  have 
no  claim  to  be  called  fireworks — 
would  not  produce  a  display  equal 
to  that  given  in  their  own  country 
at  a  provincial  flower  show. 

Although  originally  the  art  was 
introduced  in  Europe  from  the 
East,  most  of  the  set  pieces  and 
devices  used  in  India  to-day  are 
primitive  copies  of  European 
originals.  The  European  method 
of  outlining  pictures  with  a  series 
of  small  fireworks  known  as  lances, 
connected  by  quickmatch,  is  imi- 
tated by  the  Hindu  pyrotechnists 
with  small  wicks  burning  in  oil. 
Early  European  Fireworks 

The  Japanese  alone  of  Eastern 
peoples  have  made  progress  in 
genuine  firework  effects,  the  aerial 
shells  being  particularly  fine,  de- 
pending for  their  effect  on  their 
wonderfully  careful  and  exact 
construction. 

In  Europe  there  is  very  little 
early  record  of  fireworks,  but  it 
seems  most  likely  that  pyrotechnic 
compositions  were  introduced  by 
the  Crusaders  in  the  13th  century. 
Richard  Coeur  de  Lion  used  Greek 
fire  in  his  own  galley.  Jebb,  in 
his  preface  to  Bacon's  Opus  Majus, 
refers  to  two  fireworks  evidently 


the  prototypes  of  the  rocket  and 
the  cracker.  Stowe  mentions  that 
two  foreigners,  Peter  Band  and 
Peter  van  Cullen,  made  for 
Henry  VIII  hollow  shot  of  cast 
iron  filled  with  "  firework  or  wild 
fire."  The  first  serious  work  on 
pyrotechny  published  in  Great 
Britain  is  Pyrotechnia,  by  John 
Babington,  Gunner,  1635  ;  there 
is  another  work  on  fireworks  pub- 
lished the  same  year  by  John 
Bate,  who  mentions  in  his  pre- 
face that  other  authors  were  writ- 
ing on  the  same  subject.  The  con- 
tents of  these  works  indicate  that 
by  this  time  the  art  had  greatly 
developed,  the  form,  methods  of 
making,  and  nomenclature  of  the 
firework  units  approximating  to 
those  of  the  present  day.  The 
methods  of  displaying  and  the 
contained  compositions,  however, 
have  greatly  advanced  since  then. 
Display  in  St.  James's  Park,  1749 
Up  to  the  beginning  of  the  19th 
century  the  display  was  expanded, 
as  in  the  East,  by  the  addition  of 
pictures,  transparencies,  bonfires, 
etc.  In  the  official  programme  of 
the  display  in  St.  James's  Park  to 
celebrate  the  peace  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle,  1749,  several  pages  are 
devoted  to  a  description  of  the 
Machine  for  the  Fireworks  in  the 
form  of  a  Doric  temple  114  ft.  high 
and  410  ft.  long,  ornamented  with 
"  frets,  gilding,  lustres  and  arti- 
ficial flowers,  inscriptions,  statues, 
"and  allegorical  pictures."  It  seems 
that  these  adjuncts  were  ]ooked 
upon  as  the  fireworks  proper,  the 
fireworks  themselves  as  now  ac- 
cepted being  known  as  *'  artificial 
fireworks."  During  the  19th  cen- 
tury, displays  became  gradually  to 
consist  of  veritable  fireworks ; 
great  advances  were  made.  The 
weekly  displays  carried  out  by 


Messrs.  Brock  at  the  Crystal 
Palace  from  1865  to  1910  and 
after  the  Great  War  were  perhaps 
the  most  important  factor  in  the 
development  of  the  art.  Other 
historical  displays  in  recent  years 
are  the  display  on  the  Tagus  for 
the  marriage  of  the  king  and 
queen  of  Portugal  in  1886  ;  that 
for  the  tercentenary  celebration  at 
Quebec  hi  1908  ;  and  the  official 
Peace  Day  display  in  Hyde  Park 
in  July,  1919. 

Broadly  speaking,  the  same  prin- 
ciple governs  the  compositions  of 
all  fireworks,  that  is  to  say,  a  sub- 
stance which  readily  takes  up 
oxygen  is  put  in  intimate  contact 
with  one  which  readily  supplies  it. 
Of  the  latter  the  most  frequently 
used  are  nitrate  of  potash  (salt- 
petre) and  chlorate  of  potash,  and 
of  the  former,  sulphur  and  char- 
coal, or  other  carbon  compounds, 
such  as  gums,  resins,  starch,  etc. 

Composition  and  Construction 
Many  of  the  metals  are  used  either 
in  the  form  of  salts,  as  those  of 
copper,  lead,  or  mercury,  or  pure, 
in  the  form  of  powder  or  filings,  as 
iron,  steel,  magnesium,  and  alumi- 
nium. The  pure  metals  are  gener- 
ally added  to  produce  glowing 
sparks  or  coruscations,  or  to  add 
brilliance  to  the  burning.  Colours 
are  produced  by  the  addition  of 
metal  salts,  strontium  producing 
red,  sodium  yellow,  copper  blue, 
barium  green.  The  salts  most  com- 
monly used  are  the  nitrates,  chlo- 
rates, carbonates,  and  perchlorates. 

The  usual  method  of  construc- 
tion is  to  charge  the  composition  j 
into  a  case  composed  of  strong 
paper  rolled  on  a  former ;  the  end 
to  be  ignited  is  covered  with  an 
easily  ignited  and  hotly  burning 
composition  or  priming,  the  func- 
tion of  which  is  to  ignite  the  main 
filling.  Priming  compositions  usu- 
ally contain  mealed  gunpowder. 
In  some  fireworks  the  case  burns 
down  with  the  composition,  as  in 
the  case  of  lances,  and  starlights 
and  Catherine  wheels.  The  latter 
consist  of  a  long,  charged  case 
wound  round  a  circular  block  of 
wood,  the  fire  issuing  with  suffi- 
cient force  to  rotate  the  wheel 
round  a  pin  inserted  through  a  hole 
in  the  centre  of  the  block.  Gener- 
ally the  case  does  not  burn,  and 
by  this  means  the  fire  is  projected 
with  more  force  from  the  mouth 
of  the  case.  To  this  type  belong 
Roman  candles,  which  have  at 
intervals  down  their  length  stars 
which  are  projected  upwards  from 
the  mouth  of  the  case  to  a  consider- 
able height.  These  stars  of  colour 
or  other  suitable  compositions  are 
compressed  into  small  cylinders  to 
fit  the  bore  of  the  case,  and  primed. 
When  still  more  force  is  required, 


FIRE-WORSHIP 


3  1  64 


FIRE-WORSHIP 


Tourb'illion 


Fireworks.     Various  types  of  fireworks  in  popular  use 
for  displays  and  illuminations 


the  mouth  of  the  case  is  choked, 
either  by  a  diaphragm  of  com- 
pressed clay  with  a  central  hole,  as 
with  gerbs  and  small  rockets,  or 
by  constricting  the  case  itself  before 
drying,  as  with  large  rockets. 

Tourbillions  and  Saxons  are 
similar  in  action  ;  both  have  the 
ends  of  the  case  closed  with  clay 
and  a  horizontal  hole  bored  near 
either  end,  so  that  the  fire  issues  at 
right  angles  to  the  axis.  The  holes 
in  the  Tourbillion  rotate  the  case 
on  a  piece  of  curved  wood  secured 
to  its  centre,  and  secondary  holes 
pointing  downwards  project  it  into 
the  air.  The  Saxon  revolves  on  a 
nail,  fixed  horizontally,  driven 
through  the  centre  of  the  case. 

What  may  be  called  compound 
fireworks  are  composed  of  a  num- 
ber of  the  foregoing,  fixed  to  wood 
frameworks  in  the  form  of  wheels 
or  geometrical  patterns.  In  the 
revolving  pieces  the  motive  power 
is  supplied  by  gerbs  or  turning 
cases  which  are  in  effect  small 
rockets  without  heads.  The  best 
known  pieces  are  rainbow,  single 
and  double  triangle  or  caprice 
wheels,  revolving  fountains,  Saxon 
cross,  chromatrope,  tree  piece, 
and  many  others.  The  fireworks 
are  connected  on  the  framework 
with  quickmatch,  which  is  cotton 
wick  soaked  in  a  paste  of  starch 
and  gunpowder,  dried,  and  threaded 
in  a  paper  tube. 

What  are  known  as  lancework 
set  pieces  are  carried  out  with 
small  coloured  fireworks  or  lances 
spaced  at  short  intervals  following 


the  lines  of  a  de- 
sign or  picture  and 
connected  by 
quickmatch.  The 
real  development 
of  lancework, 
which  had  hither- 
to  been  used 
merely  to  outline 
spokes  and  scrolls 
on  wheels  and  for 
similar  purposes, 
dates  from  1879, 
when  portraits 
and  other  pictorial 
effects  were  intro- 
duced at  the  Crys- 
tal Palace. 

Aerial  fireworks 
are  either  rockets 
or  shells,  or  modi- 
fications of  them. 
Rockets  consist 
of  rolled  paper 
cases  choked  at 
one  end.  In  fill- 
ing, the  case  is 
placed  on  a  metal 
nipple  having  a 
tapering  spindle 
in  the  centre,  the 
composition  is 


poured  in  in  small  quantities  and 
solidified  by  blows  of  a  mallet  on 
a  hollow  wooden  drift.  The  top  of 
the  case  is  fitted  with  a  paper  cap 
containing  the  "  garniture  "  of  the 
rocket,  stars  producing  various 
colours  and  effects.  The  case  has  a 
short  tube  fixed  to  the  side  to 
receive  the  dowelled  end  of  the 
stick,  which  directs  the  flight  and, 
by  passing  through  two  rings  on  a 
post  or  frame,  holds  the  rocket  in 
position  whilst  firing. 


of  the  shell.  The  quickmatch  which 
lights  the  lifting  charge  also  ignites 
a  time  fuse  at  the  top  of  the  shell, 
which  again  ignites  the  bursting 
charge  and  contained  effects  upon 
reaching  its  maximum  height. 

Besides  their  spectacular  value, 
fireworks  have  many  utilitarian 
uses.  The  life-saving  rocket  used  by 
the  coast  guard  and  National  Life- 
boat Institution  carries  a  line 
from  the  shore  to  wrecked  ships, 
and  the  later  development,  the 
Schermuly  and  Brock  rockets, 
carry  the  line  from  the  ship  to 
shore,  thus  getting  the  advantage 
of  the  wind,  as  the  vessel  is  gener- 
ally on  a  lee-shore. 

During  the  Great  War  pyro- 
technics were  of  great  value  for 
signalling  and  other  purposes, 
the  Very  light  being  practically  a 
single  star  Roman  candle  fired  by 
percussion  from  a  specially  con- 
structed pistol.  Parachutes  fitted 
with  lights  for  illumination  or 
signalling  purposes  and  coloured 
smoke-producing  stars  were  used 
from  aeroplanes,  either  fired  from 
Very  pistols  or  through  a  dropping 
tube  which  ignited  them  electri- 
cally. The  Dover  flares,  giving  over 
a  million  candle-power,  used  on  the 
attack  on  Zeebrugge,  and  by  the 
Dover  anti-submarine  patrol/aero- 
plane  landing  lights,  star  shells, 
and  many  others  were  the  outcome 
of  experience  gained  by  pyrotech- 
nists in  the  manufacture  of  recrea- 
tive fireworks. 

Fire-worship.  The  ritual  ex- 
pression of  reverence  for  fire  as  a 
natural  element  affecting  human 
welfare.  It  is  traceable  in  Dahome, 
among  the  Ainu,  some  Mongols  and 
American  Indian  tribes.  In  ancient 
Mexico,  Xiuhtecutli  was  reverenced 
with  daily  offerings  and  periodic 
rekindlings  before  his  image.  The 
cult  prevailed  in  early  Aryan  India, 
whose  fire-god  Agni,  personifying 
earth-kindled  fire,  lightning,  and 
solar  heat,  was  reborn  daily  of  ten 
maidens,  the  fingers  which  twirled 
the  sacred  fire-drill.  Honoured  by 
200  Vedic  hymns,  his  ritual  still 
survives  here  and  there. 


Shells  are 
papie  r-m  ache 
hollow  spheres 
filled  with  stars, 
or  other  pyro- 
technic effects, 
and  bursting 
charge.  They  are 
fired  from  a  mor- 
tar of  approxi- 
mately the  same 
diameter  by 
means  of  a  lifting 
charge  of  gun- 
powder in  a  coni- 
cal bag  fastened 
to  the  lower  side 


Fire-worship  in  ancient  Nineveh. 
"  f  at  K( 
from 


Fire-altar  and  sacrifice, 


from  a  bas-relief  at  Kouyunjik,  Assyria.    Above,  fire-altar 
Khorsabad,  Assyria 


FIRING     TEST 


31  65 


FIRST      AID 


In  early  Persia  a  less  developed 
fire-worship  appears  in  the  Avesta, 
wherein  A  tar,  a  son  of  Ahura- 
mazda,  shares  his  conflict  with 
darkness  and  impurity.  In  the 
Mazdean  ritual,  sacred  fire,  pre- 
served in  fire-temples,  is  not  an 
object  of  worship  but  an  emblem 
of  divine  power.  This  view  is 
maintained  by  its  modern  expo- 
nents, the  Persian  Gabars  and  the 
Indian  Parsees.  At  Baku,  on  the 
Caspian  Sea,  18th  century  pilgrims 
gathered  for  expiation  before  stone 
temples  near  the  burning  oil  wells. 
Many  phases  of  culture  exhibit 
fire-rituals  loosely  classed  as  fire- 
worship.  The  perpetual  fires  of  the 
Greek  prytaneum  and  the  Roman 
regia  with  its  vestal  virgins  were 
forms  of  Aryan  hearth -ritual.  These 
rites  survive,  with  much  primitive 
superstition,  among  E.  European 
peasantry,  and  in  Damaraland. 
The  Semitic  use  of  perpetual  fire- 
altars  for  burnt  offerings,  inci- 
dental rather  than  essential,  passed 
into  the  ceremonial  lights  of  ritual 
Christianity.  See  Moloch ;  Sun-wor- 
ship ;  Zoroastrianism. 

Firing  Test.  Experimental 
firing  of  pieces  of  ordnance  to 
ensure  their  reliability.  Before 
acceptance  guns  are  required  to 
fire  one  or  more  rounds  with  in- 
creased charges  without  showing 
undue  expansion  of  the  bore,  and 
a  number  of  rounds  with  normal 
charges  to  ascertain  that  the  range 
and  accuracy  of  the  piece  meets 
the  requirements  of  the  specifica- 
tion. The  firing  test  is  additional 
to  careful  measurement  of  the  bore 
and  all  working  parts,  and  me- 
chanical and  chemical  tests  of  the 
materials  used  in  construction. 
See  Artillery. 

Firkin.  Old  English  ale  mea- 
sure, the  fourth  of  a  barrel,  or 
9  galls.  Originally  it  varied  from 
7i  to  8  galls.,  and  now  it  would 
equal  9|  imperial  galls.  As  a  small 
wooden  cask  to  hold  butter,  a 
firkin  contains  56  Ib.  The  word  is 
derived  from  Dutch  vierde,  fourth, 
and  a  diminutive  suffix  -kin. 

Firlot  (Four  lot).  Obsolete  Scot- 
tish measure  of  dry  capacity, 
being  the  fourth  part  of  a  boll.  It 
varied  for  wheat  and  barley,  and 
in  different  localities. 

Firm  (Span,  firma,  signature). 
Word  used  for  an  association  of 
business  men.  In  commercial 
circles  of  the  17th  century  and 
thereabouts  it  was  used  for  a 
business  signature,one  that  clinched 
a  deal,  and  was  then  applied  to  the 
business  house  that  signed.  It  is 
now  the  legal  term  for  members  of 
a  partnership  (q.v.). 

Firmament  (Lat.  fir  mare,  to 
make  firm).  Term  used  for  the  area 
of  the  heavens.  It  is  used  to  trans- 


late the  Hebrew  word  raTcia  (Gen. 
i,  6),  and  refers  to  the  universe. 
See  Stars  ;  Universe. 

Firman  (Pers.).  Passport  issued 
to  favoured  travellers  by  the 
Turkish  government.  The  term  is 
also  applied  to  a  licence  to  carry 
out  some  enterprise  or  undertaking, 
or  to  engage  in  a  particular  trade. 
A  firman  bears  the  name  of  the 
sultan,  and  only  a  special  minister, 
the  nishanji  (signer)  effendi,  has 
the  right  to  affix  the  sultan's  name. 

Firminy.  Town  of  France.  It 
is  in  the  dept.  of  Loire,  8  m.  S.W. 


of  St.  Etienne.  Situated  in  a  coal 
district,  it  yields  an  average  of 
90,000  tons  a  year  and  employs 
over  4,000  men.  Other  industries 
are  steel  and  iron  manufactures, 
also  those  of  woollens,  buttons,  and 
ribbons.  Pop.  19,580. 

Fir ozabad .  Town  of  the  United 
Provinces,  India.  It  is  in  the  Agra 
district.  The  town,  which  is  ill- 
built,  is  24  m.  E.  of  Agra.  Dating 
from  the  16th  century,  it  contains 
an  old  mosque  and  some  temples. 
Pop.  13,571,  55  p.c.  Hindus,  35  p.c. 
Mahomedans. 


FIRST  AID:    HOW  TO  HELP  THE  INJURED 

H.  E.  Davison,  M.D.,  Examiner,  St.  John  Ambulance  Association 

This  article  is  one  of  a  group  that  includes  Ambulance;  Hospital; 
Red  Cross.     See  also  Dressing  Station  ;  Medicine ;  Surgery 

First  aid  is  a  term  for  assistance     should    be    applied    and    held   in 
which  may  be  given  in  cases  of 
accident  or  sudden  illness  before 


medical  advice  can  be  obtained.  A 
knowledge  of  the  principles  of  first 
aid  has  been  promulgated  widely 
in  Great  Britain  by  the  operations 
of  the  St.  John  Ambulance  Asso- 
ciation, St.  John's  Gate,  Clerken- 
well,  B.C.  ;  the  British  Red  Cross 
Society ;  the  St.  Andrew's  Am- 
bulance Association,  and  various 
educational  authorities.  During 
the  Great  War,  1914-18,  men  pos- 
sessing first  aid  certificates  from 
one  or  other  of  these  associations 
proved  of  great  value  in  augment- 
ing the  established  strength  of  the 
Royal  Army  Medical  Corps,  and,  in 
civil  life,  in  undertaking  stretcher- 
bearer  and  dressing -station  duty 
during  air-raids. 

As  regards  the  details  of  first 
aid,  bleeding  demands  priority  of 
attention  in  any  accident.  It  may 
be  stopped  by  firm  and  continuous 
pressure  upon  the  bleeding  point, 
or  on  the  appropriate  pressure 
point  in  the  case  of  arterial  hae- 
morrhage. All  dirt,  etc.,  should  be 
removed  and  the  wound  tho- 
roughly cleansed  with  boiled  water 
and  dressed  with  clean  lint,  linen, 
or  cotton.  Out  of  doors,  a  wound 
should  never  be  bathed  with  water 
unless  one  can  be  certain  that  the 
water  is  clean.  A  handkerchief,  if 
clean,  should  be  applied  to  the 
wound,  or,  if  only  a  soiled  hand- 
kerchief is  available,  the  inside  of 
an  envelope  may,  in  the  emergency, 
be  placed  next  to  the  wound,  and 
the  handkerchief  used  as  a  bandage. 
Treatment  of  Fractures 

All  fractures  should  receive 
attention  before  any  attempt  is 
made  to  remove  the  patient  from 
the  place  of  accident.  Treatment 
should  be  directed  towards  the 
immobilisation  of  the  broken  bone. 
Splints  consisting  of  any  rigid 
material,  as  wood  from  boxes, 
stout  cardboard,  walking  sticks, 
umbrellas,  broom-shanks,  etc., 


position  by  extemporised  band- 
ages. If  practicable  the  splints 
should  be  of  such  length  and  so 
arranged  that  the  joints  above  and 
below  the  seat  of  the  fracture  are 
kept  at  rest.  In  fractures  of  a  bone 
of  one  of  the  limbs,  the  limb  should 
be  gently  straightened  before  the 
splint  is  applied,  and  in  the  case  of 
the  upper  limb  support  should  be 
afforded  by  a  sling. 

Dislocations  and  Sprains 

In  dislocations  the  limb  should 
be  placed  and  supported  in  the 
most  comfortable  position,  and 
cold  dressings  applied ;  but  other- 
wise not  treated  except  by  a  doctor, 
as  by  unskilled  manipulation  grave 
damage  may  be  done  to  blood- 
vessels and  nerves  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  injured  joint. 

In  sprains  a  firm  bandage  should 
be  applied  and  kept  wet  by  the 
application  of  cold  water.  If  the 
ankle  is  sprained  when  out  of  doors 
the  boot  should  not  be  removed 
until  the  patient  returns  to  his 
house,  as  a  laced  boot  acts  tempo- 
rarily as  a  useful  support.  When- 
ever it  is  doubtful  whether  the 
injury  sustained  is  one  of  sprain 
or  fracture  the  case  should  be 
treated  as  if  it  were  a  fracture. 

For  burns  and  scalds  treatment 
should  be  directed  towards  the 
exclusion  of  air  from  the  injured 
part,  and  this  may  be  effected 
most  readily  by  the  immersion  of 
the  part,  if  a  limb,  in  warm  water 
in  which  bicarbonate  of  soda  has 
been  dissolved.  The  burn  or  scald 
should  then  be  dressed  as  soon  as 
possible  with  strips  of  lint,  linen, 
or  cotton,  covered  with  some  anti- 
septic ointment,  e.g.  boracic  oint- 
ment. Any  clothing  adherent  to 
the  burned  flesh  should  be  allowed 
to  remain,  the  remainder  of  the 
garment  being  cut  away. 

If  clothing  is  set  on  fire  the 
patient  should  lie  down  at  once  on 
the  floor  with  the  flames  upper- 
most. The  flames  should  then  be 


P1RSTBORN 

smothered  by  covering  them  with 
any  rug,  blanket,  cushion,  or  table- 
cover  which  may  be  at  hand. 
Apparent  drowning  or  asphyxia- 
tion should  be  treated  by  the  im- 
mediate and  sustained  application 
of  artificial  respiration. 

In  cases  of  poisoning  a  message 
should  be  sent  immediately  to  the 
nearest  doctor  explaining  the 
nature  of  the  case,  and,  if  possible, 
giving  the  name  of  the  suspected 
poison.  The  bottle  or  other  vessel 
containing  the  suspected  poison, 
together  with  any  vomited  ma- 
terial, should  be  kept  until  it  has 
been  examined.  Treatment  should 
be  directed  to  the  elimination  of 
the  poison  by  the  administration 
of  an  emetic,  except  in  the  case  of 
poisoning  by  a  corrosive  fluid,  such 
as  oil  of  vitriol,  etc.,  when  the  lips, 
etc.,  will  be  found  to  be  burned  ; 
towards  antagonising  the  action  of 
the  poison  by  administering  the 
appropriate  antidote  and  by  giving 
the  patient  demulcent  drinks  ;  and 
by  neutralising  the  tendency  to 
shock  by  promoting  the  warmth 
of  the  patient.  Emetics  readily 
obtainable  are  mustard,  one  table- 
spoonful  in  a  tumbler  of  warm 
water,  and  salt,  one  or  two  table- 
spoonfuls  in  a  tumbler  of  warm 
water.  For  children  a  convenient 
emetic  is  the  wine  of  ipecacuanha, 
of  which  one  teaspoonf  ul  should  be 
given  every  twenty  minutes  until 
vomiting  "occurs.  Demulcent 
drinks  are  milk,  milk  beaten  up 
with  eggs,  cream,  and  any  vegetable 
or  animal  oil. 

Loss  of  Consciousness 

When  loss  of  consciousness 
occurs,  all  tight  clothing  should  be 
loosened,  and  the  patient  put 
where  he  can  obtain  an  ample 
supply  of  fresh  air.  If  the  face  is 
pale,  the  head  should  be  placed  on 
the  ground,  and  the  lower  limbs 
elevated.  If  the  face  is  flushed,  the 
body  should  be  laid  flat  on  the 
ground  with  the  head  slightly 
raised.  In  all  cases  the  face 
should  be  inclined  to  one  side 
lest  vomiting  occurs,  and  the 
vomited  matter  be  sucked  into  the 
air-passages.  No  alcohol,  or  in- 
deed any  other  liquid,  should  be 
given  to  an  unconscious  patient. 
The  patient  should  be  kept  warm. 

Foreign  bodies  in  the  eye  may 
readily  be  removed,  if  on  the  under 
surface  of  an  eyelid,  by  a  camel's 
hair  brush,  or  the  moistened  corner 
of  a  handkerchief.  If  the  foreign 
body,  however,  is  on  the  ball  of 
the  eye,  and  not  easily  removed 
by  gentle  brushing,  a  drop  of 
almond  or  castor  oil  should  be 
dropped  into  the  eye,  and  a  pad 
of  cotton  wool  bandaged  over  the 
eyelid  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
light  pressure  of  the  cotton  wool 


31  66 

prevents  undue  movements  of  the 
eyeball,  until  medical  advice  can 
be  obtained. 

Foreign  bodies  in  the  nose  or 
ear  should  not  be  interfered  with 
by  the  unskilled.  They  will  do 
no  harm  during  the  time  necessary 
to  secure  medical  advice.  No  at- 
tempt should  be  made  to  remove 
a  needle  unless  a  part  of  it  is  pro- 
jecting. The  limb  should  be  kept 
at  rest,  and  medical  advice  sought. 
Stretchers  are  necessary  in  cases 
of  serious  illness  or  of  accident  out 
of  doors,  to  convey  the  patient  to 
his  home  or  to  a  hospital.  These 
may  be  improvised  by  removing 
a  door  or  a  field  gate  from  its 
hinges,  or  by  the  use  of  a  ladder. 

Clothing  should  always  be  re- 
moved very  carefully  from  an  in- 
jured limb.  In  all  cases,  it  should 
first  be  removed  from  the  sound 
limb,  and  in  some  instances  it  is 
necessary  also  to  cut  away  the  gar- 
ment on  the  injured  side.  If  this 
is  necessary,  the  trousers  or  coat- 
sleeve  should  always  be  cut  up  the 
outer,  and  not  the  inner,  seam. 
A  boot  is  best  removed  by  cutting 
the  lace  and  then  the  back  seam  ; 
the  boot  will  then  fall  away  easily 
from  the  foot. 

Bites  and  Stings 

Bites  of  animals  should  be  cauter- 
ised by  a  liquid  caustic,  such  as 
pure  carbolic  acid  or  caustic 
potash,  but  if  no  such  fluid  is  at 
hand,  a  red-hot  wire  should  be 
used.  If  there  is  any  suspicion 
that  the  animal  which  has  in- 
flicted the  injury  is  mad,  a  doctor 
should  be  consulted,  that  treat- 
ment  for  rabies  may  be  carried  out 
without  loss  of  time.  In  stings 
of  plants  and  animals  the  sting 
should  be  removed,  the  part 
bathed  with  weak  ammonia,  and 
then  dressed  with  a  paste  of  bi- 
carbonate of  soda  with  water  or 
sal  volatile. 

Firstborn.  Technical  term 
among  the  Jews.  It  signifies  "  that 
which  openeth  the  womb,"  and 
does  not  necessarily  imply  the  birth 
of  other  children.  In  commemora- 
tion of  the  deliverance  from  Egypt, 
all  firstborn  human  males  were  con- 
secrated to  God,  but  every  child 
that  lived  more  than  one  month 
could  be  redeemed.  In  lieu  of  the 
firstborn  the  tribe  of  Levi  were 
chosen  for  service,  thus  becoming 
the  priesthood. 

In  the  case  of  animals  the  first- 
lings, if  clean,  were  offered  in  sacri- 
fice ;  if  unclean,  redeemed.  For 
an  ass  a  lamb  had  to  be  substituted, 
otherwise  the  neck  of  the  ass  had 
to  be  broken.  The  Jews,  who  are 
referred  to  as  the  firstborn  among 
the  nations,  still  solemnise  the  re- 
demption of  the  firstborn  on  the 


FIRST    OFFENDER 

30th  day  after  birth.  In  the  N.T. 
the  term  firstborn  is  used  in  re- 
lation to  Christ,  the  dead,  and  the 
Church  (Ex.  4,  13,  22,  34;  Num. 
3,  8,  18  ;  Col.  1 ;  Heb.  12  ;  Rev.  1). 
See  Birthright ;  Passover. 

First  Empire.  Name  given  in 
France  to  the  period  between  1804 
and  1814.  In  May,  1804,  Bona- 
parte was  made  emperor,  and  the 
first  republic  came  to  an  end.  The 
empire  lasted  until  Napoleon's  ab- 
dication in  April,  1814.  See  French 
Revolution  ;  Napoleon. 

First  Footing.  New  Year's  Day 
folk  custom,  especially  in  Scotland 
and  the  N.  of  England.  It  was  re- 
garded as  unlucky  for  a  woman  or 
a  fair-haired  man  to  be  the  first 
visitor  to  any  house  on  New 
Year's  Day.  As  soon  as  midnight 
chimed  people  hurried  to  give  their 
friends  first  footing,  to  offer  them 
good  wishes,  and  to  partake  of 
their  hospitality.  The  custom  may 
be  traced  back  to  Druid  times, 
when  the  priests  sent  their  young 
men  from  house  to  house  bearing 
branches  of  mistletoe. 

First  Fruits.  Ancient  religious 
practice  of  offering  to  God  a  por- 
tion of  the  first  fruits  of  a  crop  or 
of  the  first  profits  of  any  commer- 
cial undertaking.  Prescribed  by 
the  law  of  Moses,  among  the 
Hebrews  it  was  usually  one-sixtieth, 
but  might  be  as  much  as  one- 
fortieth.  In  the  early  Christian 
Church  the  practice  was  con- 
tinued, though  it  was  regarded  as  a 
work  of  devotion  and  not  of  obli- 
gation. Later,  it  was  claimed  by 
the  clergy  as  their  due,  and  formed 
part  of  their  official  income. 

The  Apostolic  Constitutions  (q.v. ) 
direct  that  the  first  fruits  of  cattle 
and  crops  should  go  to  the  clergy, 
and  that  other  first  fruits  should 
be  devoted  to  the  relief  of  widows 
and  orphans.  See  Annates  ;  Tithes. 

First  Offender.  In  England  at 
common  law  there  was  always 
jurisdiction  to  bind  over  any 
offender  to  be  of  good  behaviour. 
But  since  many  magistrates  seemed 
to  ignore  this,  the  First  Offenders 
Act,  1887,  was  passed,  giving  all 
courts  of  criminal  jurisdiction 
power  to  bind  over  first  offenders 
instead  of  punishing  them.  The 
Probation  of  Offenders  Act,  1907, 
extends  this  power  to  all  cases, 
whether  first  offences  or  not ;  and 
gives  the  court  power  to  order  the 
first  offender  to  be  placed  under 
the  supervision  of  some  person 
named  (generally  the  probation 
officer)  for  a  period.  The  order  may 
also  provide  that  the  offender  shall 
abstain  from  intoxicating  liquor, 
refrain  from  associating  with 
thieves,  etc.,  and  shall  lead  an  in- 
dustrious  life.  See  Borstal  Sys- 
tem; Children. 


i  2,  and  3.  Arrangement  of  large  arm  sling.  4,  5,  6,  and 
7.  Stages  of  the  fireman's  lift.  8.  Application  of  splint, 
A,  to  fractured  thigh.  9.  Stretcher  made  by  passing 
poles  through  inverted  sleeves.  10.  Bearers  in  position 
tor  loading  stretcher.  ri.  Bearers  kneeling  to  lift  a 


15 


patient.     12.  Patient  on  knees  ot  bearers  Nos.  i,  2,  and  3. 

13.  Tourniquet    for    brachial    arteries,  backward   view. 

14.  Figure-of-8    bandage   for    hand  with  simple  spiral 
for  wrist.    15.  Digital  compression  of  radial  and  ulnar 
arteries  to  stop  bleeding 


FIRST    AID:    ELEMENTARY    MEASURES    AND    DEVICES    IN     FIRST    AID    TRAINING 


FIRST    OF    JUNE 


FISCHER 


First    of   June,    BATTLE    OF. 
Fought  on  June  1,   1794,   it  was 

the  first  great  naval  action  in  the 

.*,—— -—^-w-l    War     of     the 

French    Revo- 

—  "'" lution.  France, 

though  victori- 
ous on  land, 
was  in  a  situa- 
tion little  short 
of  desperate.  It 
was  the  epoch 
of  the  Terror, 
the  harvest  of 
the  previous 
year  had  been 
poor,  and  fam- 
ine was  threat- 


First  of  June 
medal  and  ribbon 


ened.  The  British  blockade  was 
crippling  the  avenues  of  supply. 
The  Committee  of  Public  Safety  had 
endeavoured  to  relieve  the  situa- 
tion by  purchasing  large  supplies 
of  grain  in  the  U.S.A.,  and  a  convoy 
of  116  vessels  was  dispatched, 
which  approached  the  French  coast 
towards  the  end  of  May.  Rear- 
Admiral  Nielly  was  sent  out  to 
meet  the  convoy,  which  Lord  Howe 
was  instructed  to  intercept. 

The  main  French  fleet,  under 
command  of  Admiral  Villaret- 
Joyeuse,  left  Brest  on  May  16  to 
cover  the  arrival  of  the  great  grain 
convoy,  and  it  was  not  until  the 
28th  that  Howe  sighted  his  adver- 
sary. A  good  deal  of  fighting  pre- 
ceded the  great  action,  in  which 
Howe's  fleet  was  shown  to  be  the 
superior  fighting  force.  His  plan 
was  to  attack  the  enemy  in  line, 
van  to  van,  centre  to  centre,  and 
rear  to  rear,  to  break  through  the 
opposing  line,  prevent  retreat,  and 
fight  to  a  finish  on  the  lee  side. 
His  ships  were  to  pass  through  the 
intervals  in  the  French  line,  but  the 
approach  was  slow,  and  the  order 
could  not  be  completely  executed. 

The  Bellerophon,  Russell,  Royal 
Sovereign,  and  other  ships  attacked 
to  windward,  and  "several  French 
ships  thus  slipped  or  were  driven 
away.  The  Marlborough  and 
Queen  Charlotte,  the  latter  Howe's 
flagship,  broke  through  the  line, 
and  delivered  their  broadsides  with 
shattering  fire.  Captain  John 
Harvey,  in  the  Brunswick,  en- 
deavoured to  drive  through  the 
French  line,  but  brave  Captain 
Renaudin,  in  the  Vengeur,  stopped 
his  way  and  the  two  ships  were 
locked  together  in  a  furious  struggle 
which  has  become  famous,  until  the 
Vengeur,  swept  and  broken  by  fire, 
went  down  with  all  her  company. 

At  every  point  the  action  was 
fought  with  the  utmost  gallantry 
and  resolution  on  both  sides.  Six 
prizes  remained  in  English  hands, 
and  the  success,  if  not  decisive,  was 
enough.  For  two  years  to  follow 
there  was  no  great  action  at  sea. 


The  French,  too,  claimed  a  victory, 
for  their  fleet,  damaged  as  it  was, 
had  not  been  destroyed,  and  their 
convoy  reached  Brest  in  safety. 

John  Leylancl 

First  Republic.  Name  given  in 
France  to  the  period  from  1792  to 
1804.  On  Sept.  21,  1792,  the  con- 
vention declared  the  monarchy  at 
an  end  and  the  country  a  republic. 
This  lasted  until  May,  1804,  when 
Bonaparte  was  declared  emperor. 
See  French  Revolution  ;  Napoleon. 

Firth.  Name  given  to  the 
narrow  inlets  or  arms  of  the  sea 
found  on  the  coasts  of  Scotland. 
Most  of  them  are  estuaries  or  gulfs 
into  which  rivers  discharge  them- 
selves, e.g.  firths  of  Clyde,  Tay, 
and  Forth,  but  Pentland  Firth  is  a 
broad  strait  or  channel.  Firths  are, 
as  a  rule,  valleys  which  have  been 
flooded  by  the  sea  owing  to  the 
subsidence  of  the  land. 

Firth,  SIR  ALGERNON  FREEMAN 
(b.  1856).  British  manufacturer. 
Born  Sept.  15,  1856,  the  eldest  son 
of  Sir  Thomas  Freeman  Firth, 
Bart.,  he  entered  his  father's  busi- 
ness, T.  F.  Firth  &  Sons,  of  Heck- 
mondwike.  In  1909  he  became  its 
head,  succeeding  in  the  same  year 
to  the  baronetcy.  Sir  Algernon  be- 
came known  as  a  spokesman  of 
business  interests,  specially  during 
1912-13,  as  president  of  the  asso- 
ciation of  chambers  of  commerce. 

Firth,  SIR  CHARLES  HARDING  (b. 
1857).  British  historian.  Born  in 
Sheffield,  March  16,  1857,  he  was 
educated  at  Clifton  and  Balliol 
College,  Oxford.  He  devoted  him- 
self to  historical  work,  became 
fellow  of  All  Souls  College,  1901, 
and  was  chosen  in  1904  to  succeed 
York  Powell  as  regius  professor  of 
modern  history  at  Oxford.  He 
edited  Ludlow's  Memoirs,  1894,  The 
Clarke  Papers  and  The  Memoirs  of 
Colonel  Hutchinson ;  wrote  mono- 
graphs on  Cromwell,  1900 ;  and 
Cromwell's  Army,  1902 ;  and  con- 
tinued S.  R.  Gardiner's  unfinished 
history  of  the  Commonwealth  and 
Protectorate.  This  work  and  his 
contributions  to  The  Dictionary  of 
National  Biography  have  thrown 
much  light  on  the  middle  decades  of 
the  17th  century.  His  other  works 
include  Scotland  and  the  Common- 
wealth, 1895.  He  was  knighted, 
1922. 

Firth,  MARK  (1819-80).  Brit 
ish  manufacturer.  Born  at  Shef> 
field,  April  25,  1819,  he  was  the  son 
cf  an  artisan  in  the  steel  industry. 
In  1833  he  began  to  follow  the  same 
calling,  and  in  1843  his  father, 
brother,  and  himself  together 
opened  a  steel  furnace.  Mark  was 
the  moving  spirit  of  this  enter- 
prise, and  soon  made  it  one  of  the 
largest  concerns  in  Sheffield.  The 
Norfolk  Works  were  built  to  cope 


with  the  increasing  business,  while 
others  were  erected  outside  the  city. 
Firth  died  Nov.  28, 1880.  Known 
as  a  philanthropist,  he  built  alms- 
houses  at  Ranmoor,  and  founded 
Firth  College,  the  nucleus  of  the 
university  of  Sheffield. 

Firuzkuh.  Province  of  Persia. 
It  lies  in  the  Elburz  Mts.,  and  i%s 
chief  town,  of  the  same  name, 
is  situated  about  90  m.  E.  of 
Teheran.  Pop.  5,000. 

Fisc  (Lat.  fiscus,  treasure  chest). 
Term  used  in  England  in  the 
Middle  Ages  for  what  is  now  the 
treasury,  the  account  into  which 
the  public  revenues  are  paid. 
From  it  comes  the  more  familiar 
word  fiscal.  See  Fiscus. 

Fischart,  JOHANN  (c.  1545-90). 
German  satirist.  He  was  born  in 
Alsace,  and  studied  at  Worms.  He 
travelled  in  Holland,  England, 
France,  and  Italy,  and  studied  law 
in  Strasbourg ;  he  had  already  pub- 
lished some  of  his  lampoons  and 
satires  against  the  Jesuits  and 
others,  and  a  free  rendering  of 
Gargantua  into  German,  1575, 
when  he  was  appointed  magistrate 
at  Forbach,  near  Saarbriicken, 
1583.  Under  various  pen  names, 
Fischart  did  good  service  to  the 
Lutheran  movement.  The  best 
known  of  his  reprinted  works  is 
the  simple  verse  narrative  Das 
Gliickhafft  Schiff  von  Zurich  (The 
Lucky  Boat  of  Zurich),  1576. 

Fischer,  JOHANN  GEORG,  VON 
(1816-97).  German  poet  and 
dramatist.  He  was  born,  Oct.  25, 
1816,  at  Gross-Svissen,  Wiirttem- 
berg.  Having  studied  botany  and 
literature  at  Tubingen,  he  was  in 
1846  appointed  professor  at  the 
Stuttgart  Oberrealschule.  In  1854 
he  published  his  first  volume  of 
poems,  and  in  1896  his  last,  Mit 
Achtzig  Jahren  (In  my  eightieth 
Year).  He  also  published  some 
dramas,  notably  Saul,  1862  ;  and 
Kaiser  Maximilian  von  Mexiko, 
1868.  His  lyric  poetry  is  charac- 
terised by  natural  beauty  and 
exalted  tone.  He  died  at  Stuttgart, 
May  4,  1897. 

Fischer,  KUNO  (1824-1907). 
German  philosophical  writer.  Born 
at  Sandewalde,  in  Silesia,  after 
studying  at  Leipzig  and  Halle, 
he  became  a  tutor  at  Heidel- 
berg, but  owing  to  his  advanced 
ideas  was  compelled  to  discontinue 
his  lectures.  For  16  years  he  was 
professor  at  Jena,  and  in  1872 
succeeded  Zeller  as  professor  of 
philosophy  at  Heidelberg,  where 
he  died.  A  modified  Hegelian  in 
his  views,  he  did  much  to  popu- 
larise Kant.  His  greatest  work, 
History  of  Modern  Philosophy 
(latest  ed.  1897-1904),  is  distin- 
guished by  lucidity  and  brilliancy 
of  style  and  by  wide  knowledge. 


FISCUS 

Parts  of  it  have  been  translated 
into  English  :  Commentary  on 
Kant's  Critick  of  Pure  Reason,  J. 
P.  Mahaffy,  1866;  Descartes  and 
his  School,  J.  P.  Gordy,  1887 ;  A 
Critique  of  Kant,  W.  S.  Hough, 
1888;  Life  and  Character  of  Bene- 
dikt  Spinoza,  Frida  Schmidt, 
1882. 

Fiscus.  Latin  word,  meaning  a 
purse,  which  came  to  be  applied 
to  the  treasury  of  the  emperor  in 
ancient  Rome,  as  opposed  to  the 
aerarium  (q.v.),  the  treasury  con- 
trolled by  the  senate.  As  the  power 
of  the  latter  declined,  the  fiscus 
gradually  became  the  state  treas- 
ury for  the  whole  empire,  the  func- 
tions of  the  aerarium  being  ulti- 
mately limited  to  the  municipal 
finances  of  Rome. 

Fiset,  SIR  JOSEPH  EUGENE  (b. 
1874).  Canadian  surgeon  and  sol- 
dier. Born  at  Rimouski,  March  15, 
1874,  he  was  the  son  of  Hon. 
J.  B.  R.  Fiset,  a  senator.  Educated 
at  Rimouski,  and  Laval  University, 
he  completed  his  medical  training 
in  London  and  Paris.  Having 
joined  the  Canadian  militia,  Fiset 
served  with  the  Canadian  contin- 
gent in  S.  Africa.  In  1903  he  was 
given  the  D.S.O.  and  reached  the 
rank  of  colonel.  From  1903-6  he 
was  director-general  of  medical  ser- 
vices, and  in  1906  he  was  made 
deputy-minister  of  militia  and  de- 
fence. As  such,  he  had  much  to  do 
with  equipping  the  Canadian  forces 
for  service  in  the  Great  War.  In 
1917  he  was  knighted. 

Fish.  One  of  the  phyla  or  sub- 
kingdoms  of  the  animal  world. 
Fishes  may  be  denned  as  cold- 
blooded vertebrate  animals,  living 
in  water,  and  breathing  by  means 
of  gills.  In  a  few  cases  a  primitive 
lung  is  present,  and  the  fish  can 
breathe  air  directly.  The  limbs, 
when  present,  are  modified  into 
paired  fins  ;  there  are  also  unpaired 
fins  which  consist  of  folds  or  out- 
growths of  the  skin.  The  body 
generally  tapers  towards  the  ex- 
tremities, and  is  specially  adapted 
for  rapid  passage  through  the 
water  with  the  minimum  of  re- 
sistance. Sometimes  the  body  is 
greatly  flattened — either  vertically, 
as  in  the  rays,  or  laterally,  as  in 
the  sole  and  turbot.  In  nearly  all 
the  genera  the  heart  has  two 
chambers  and  contains  venous 
blood  only.  With  few  exceptions 
fishes  reproduce  their  kind  by 
eggs  which  are  deposited  in  the 
water  and  fertilised  by  the  male 
after  they  leave  the  body  of  the 
female,  though  a  few  species 
bring  forth  living  young. 

Fishes  are  found  in  all  waters, 
both  marine  and  fresh,  and  at 
almost  all  temperatures.  Some- 
thing like  2,300  species  of  fresh- 


3169 


Fish.  Diagrams  illustrating  the  structure  of  fishes.  Above,  skeleton  of  common 
perch  :  a.  pre-maxillary  bone  ;  b,  maxillary  bone  ;  c,  under  jaw  ;  d,  palatine 
arch;  e,  cranium;  f,  inter-operculum;  g,  g',  vertebral  column;  h,  pectoral  fin; 
i,  ventral  fin  ;  k,  1,  dorsal  fins  ;  m,  anal  fin  ;  n,  n',  caudal  fin.  Below,  internal 
anatomy  of  carp:  br,  branchiae  or  gills;  c.  heart;  ei,  intestinal  canal ;  o, 
ovaries  ;  a,  a',  anus  ;  o',  oviduct 


water  fishes  are  known  to  science  ; 
about  3,500  species  are  littoral; 
many  others  inhabit  the  seas  far 
from  land  ;  and  about  100  genera, 
including  numerous  species,  have 
been  met  with  hi  the  lowest  depths 
of  the  ocean. 

The  skeletons  of  fishes  are  in 
most  cases  bony  ;  but  in  the  Elas- 
mobranohs  they  are  cartilaginous 
in  character.  In  addition  to  the 
skeleton  supporting  the  body  out- 
line and  the  limbs,  there  are  often 
numerous  bony  rays  supporting  the 
unpaired  fins  also.  The  tail,  with 
the  caudal  fin,  is  the  principal  pro- 
pelling instrument,  the  paired  fins 
being  used  as  auxiliaries  and  for 
steering.  The  unpaired  fins  on  the 
dorsal  and  ventral  sides  of  the  body 
serve  mainly  as  balancers.  The 
scales  with  which  the  body  is  more 
or  less  covered  are  in  some  cases 
horny  in  character  and  in  others 
bony.  In  the  latter  case  they 
are  often  nearly  allied  to  teeth  in 
structure  and  contain  dentine 
or  ivory. 

How  Fishes  Breathe 
Fishes  breathe  by  extracting  the 
air  contained  in  water,  which  is 
taken  in  by  the  mouth  and  passed 
out  through  the  gill-clefts  on  either 
side  at  the  hinder  part  of  the  head. 
In  its  course  it  passes  over  a  serief 
of  arches  or  plates,  abundantly 
supplied  with  blood-vessels,  and 
the  oxygen  is  thus  brought  into 
contact  with  the  blood  very  much 
as  in  the  lungs  of  terrestrial 
animals.  Most  fishes  are  well  sup- 
plied with  teeth,  which  in  some 


families  are  very  numerous.  They 
may  be  confined  to  the  edges  of  the 
jaws,  but  are  often  found  on  the 
palate  and  even  on  the  gill  arches 
and  in  the  throat.  There  may  be 
both  cutting  teeth  and  grinding 
ones,  the  latter  often  taking  the 
form  of  plates.  They  usually  grow 
from  the  surfaces  of  the  bones  of 
the  mouth,  but  are  sometimes 
found  in  sockets.  They  are  usually 
replaced  when  worn  down  by  fresh 
teeth  developing  from  behind  and 
not  from  beneath. 

Fishes  have  in  most  species  well- 
developed  eyes,  and  their  power  of 
vision  is  good.  A  few  genera,  found 
in  underground  streams  or  in  the 
greatest  depths  of  the  ocean,  are 
without  eyes.  Experiment  proves 
that  most  species  can  hear  well ; 
and  their  sense  of  touch  is  highly 
developed,  the  barbels  which 
are  found  around  the  mouth  in 
many  species  being  used  for  this 
purpose.  Whether  the  sense  of 
taste  is  at  all  developed  is  uncer- 
tain. In  colour  fishes  vary  greatly, 
from  the  most  sombre  tones  to  the 
most  brilliant  hues.  As  a  rule,  the 
upper  surface  is  darker  than  the 
lower,  an  arrangement  which  helps 
to  make  them  inconspicuous.  The 
silvery  appearance  is  due  to  the 
presence  of  minute  crystals  hi  the 
scales,  and  causes  the  surface  of  the 
fish  to  act  like  a  mirror  and  by  re- 
flecting its  surroundings  render  it 
almost  invisible.  Protective  colora- 
tion is  often  present,  notably  in 
the  flatfish,  which  often  so  exactly 
resemble  the  mud  and  sand  that 

1H    4 


FISH 


FISH      CULTURE 


they  are  very  difficult  to  see  when 
lying  on  the  bottom.  Many  species, 
especially  in  the  tropics,  are  gor- 
geously coloured  and  variegated  to 
match  the  seaweeds  and  corals. 

In  the  matter  of  diet  fishes  vary 
greatly,  and  almost  everything, 
both  animal  and  vegetable,  that 
lives  in  the  water  is  preyed  upon  by 
one  species  or  another.  Small  crus- 
taceans and  molluscs  form  the  most 
important  item  in  the  food  of  most 
fishes  ;  but  many  prey  on  smaller 
fish,  and  others  browse  on  the  aqua- 
tic vegetation.  Some  swallow  mud 
and  extract  nutriment  from  it.  As 
a  rule,  the  appetite  of  fishes  is  large, 
and  some  species  have  such  expan- 
sive powers  that  they  will  even 
swallow  other  fish  larger  than 
themselves.  Nearly  all  fish  are 
edible,  though  many  are  coarse  and 
indigestible  and  a  few  appear  to  be 
actually  poisonous.  But  the  poor 
reputation  of  certain  species  is 
simply  due  to  unskilful  and  unsuit- 
able cooking.  Fresh -water  fishes, 
with  the  exception  of  salmon  and 
trout,  are  as  a  rule  of  muddy  or  in- 
sipid flavour  and  contrast  poorly 
with  the  marine  fishes. 

Fishes  are  usually  divided  into 
four  sub-classes :  Elasmobranchii 
or  cartilaginous  fishes,  which  are 
now  all  extinct  with  the  exception 
of  the  sharks  and  the  rays  ;  Holo- 
cephali  or  chimaeroids,  of  which 
only  three  genera  now  exist  and  are 
of  very  eccentric  appearance  ;  Dip- 
noi or  lung  fishes,  which  can 
breathe  air  and  are  now  all  extinct, 
with  the  exception  of  three  species ; 
and  Teleostomi  or  end-mouthed 
fishes,  which  include  all  the  other 
fishes.  See  Animal ;  Fisheries ; 
Zoology. 

W.  J.  Wintle,  F.Z.S. 

Bibliography.  Fishes,  Living  and 
Fossil,  Bashford  Dean,  1895  ;  The 
Study  of  Fishes,  A.  Gunther,  1880  ; 
Marvels  of  Fish  Life  as  revealed  by 
the  Camera,  F.  Ward,  1911. 

Fish,  HAMmroN  (1808-93). 
American  statesman.  Born  Aug.  3, 
1808,  in  New  York,  he  became  a 
barrister  in  1830.  In  1842,  as  a 
Whig,  he  was  returned  to  Congress, 
and  in  1848  he  became  governor  of 
New  York  State.  In  1851  he  was 
elected  senator.  After  visiting 
Europe,  he  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  election  of  Lincoln. 
Organizing  many  schemes  for  the 
assistance  of  troops  during  the 
Civil  War,  Fish  was  also  largely  re- 
sponsible for  relief  measures  for  the 
prisoners.  From  1869-77  he  was  a 
secretary  of  state  under  Grant.  One 
of  the  commissioners  for  the  treaty 
of  Washington,  he  was  identified 
with  many  negotiations  which  im- 
proved the  relations  between  Great 
Britain  and  the  U.S.A.  He  died 
Sept.  7,  1893.  His  son,  Hamilton 


Fish,  was  assistant  treasurer  of  the 
U.S.A.,  1903-8,  and  a  member  of 
Congress,  1909-11.  * 

Fish,  STTJYVESANT  (b.  1851). 
American  railroad  official.  Born  at 
New  York,  June  24,  1851,  the  son 
of  Hamilton 
Fish,  he  gradu- 
ated at  Colum- 
bia University. 
He  became  a 
clerk  in  the 
Illinois  Central 
Ely.,  of  which 
he  was  made 
director  five 
years  later,  and 


Stuyyesant  Fish, 
American  railroad 


The  culture  of  coarse  fish  is  com- 
paratively simple.  It  is  merely 
necessary  to  place  the  ova  or  young 
fish  in  the  pond  or  lake  and  leave 
them  to  increase  and  multiply 
naturally.  In  a  pond  which  is 
supplied  with  fresh  water  from 
springs  or  a  brook,  perch,  tench, 
roach,  bream,  barbel,  and  pike  will 
flourish.  For  a  stagnant  pond, 
carp,  German  carp,  and  eels  are  the 
only  fish  suitable.  From  the  begin- 
ning of  the  food  shortage  caused  by 
the  Great  War,  the  British  govern- 
ment did  all  in  its  power  to  stimu- 
late fresh -water  culture  in  Britain, 
especially  that  of  eels.  The  fisheries 
department  supply  elvers,  that 
is  young  eels,  at  a  moderate  price 
to  all  individuals  who  desire  to 
stock  ponds. 

The  fish  hatchery  for  salmon  and 
trout  was  established  in  1853  at 
Stormontfield,  near  Perth,  on  the 
Tay.  It  consisted  of  a  series  of 
open-air  breeding  boxes  capable  of 
containing  half  a  million  ova.  A 
number  of  fish  hatcheries  were  after- 
wards formed  in  different  parts  of 
the  kingdom,  in  which  are  reared 
salmon,  brown  trout,  Loch  Leven 
and  rainbow  trout.  These  are 
sent  to  all  parts  of  the  world. 
Spawning  and  Hatching 

The  spawning  fish  are  netted 
when  on  the  spawning  beds.  By 
gentle  pressure  the  eggs  are  re- 
moved from  the  female  and  are 
then  fertilised  with  the  milt  of  the 
male.  The  fecund  eggs  are  care- 
fully conveyed  to  the  hatchery,  and 
placed  in  shallow  trays  or  boxes 
through  which  flows  a  gentle 
current  of  pure  water.  When 
hatched,  the  small  fish  are  kept 
in  the  boxes  until  the  yelk  sac  is 
absorbed  and  are  then  turned  out 
into  ponds,  or  into  the  open  river 
itself.  In  pure  and  scrupulously 
clean  water  the  proportion  of  ova 
safely  hatched  is  as  high  as  95  p.c. 
In  the  U.S.A.  the  government  has 
established  salmon  hatcheries  on  a 
large  scale  on  the  Pacific  Coast 
and  at  present  something  like 
300,000,000  young  salmon  are 
liberated  every  year. 

The  stock  of  salmon  in  a  river 
can  be  largely  increased  by  im- 
proving the  means  of  access  to  the 
upper  water  by  constructing  sal- 
mon ladders  at  spots  where  there 
are  falls,  to  enable  the  fish  to  reach 
their  spawning  grounds  more  easily. 
By  an  outlay  of  £2,000  the  duke  of 
Sutherland  doubled  the  fishing 
value  of  the  Helmsdale  river. 
The  question  of  the  close  time  for 
nets  is  also  important  as  regards 
the  increase  of  salmon.  The  stock  of 
fish  in  a  trout  stream  and  the  size  of 
the  trout  can  be  largely  increased 
by  deepening  the  pools  by  means  of 
rich  soil  for  gardening  purposes,  f  trough  stone  dams.  These  dams, 


was     president 
from!887-1906. 

From  1883-1906  he  was  trustee 
of  the  Montreal  Life  Insurance  Co. 
of  New  York.  He  was  vice-presi- 
dent and  director  of  the  National 
Park  Bank,  and  from  1904-6  presi- 
dent of  the  American  Railway 
Association. 

Fish  Culture.  Art  or  industry 
of  artificially  increasing  stocks  of 
food  fish,  both  fresh -water  and 
marine.  Ponds  or  stews  for  fresh- 
water fish  have  been  common  from 
time  immemorial.  The  Chinese 
have  cultivated  fish  for  thousands 
of  years  and  still  lead  the  world  in 
the  amount  of  fresh- water  fish  bred 
for  food.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
Christian  era  every  wealthy  Roman 
had  his  piscinae  or  fish  ponds. 

So  far  back  as  the  Saxon  epoch 
large  landowners  had  stews  for 
carp,  pike,  perch,  bream,  eels,  etc. 
In  Domesday  Book  ponds  are  men- 
tioned which  were  valued  at  five  to 
twelve  shillings  yearly,  represent- 
ing at  least  twelve  times  the  value 
of  a  similar  area  of  agricultural 
land  at  that  date.  In  1275  Parlia- 
ment passed  a  stringent  Act  pun- 
ishing poaching  and  injury  to 
ponds,  and  somewhat  later  the  52 
Plowden  Ponds  of  Ashton,  North- 
amptonshire were  said  to  be  capable 
of  producing  a  ton  of  fish  weekly. 

French  and  German  Methods 
On  the  Continent  fish  culture 
never  fell  into  disuse  as  it  did  in 
Britain.  France  possesses  fresh 
waters  devoted  to  fish  farming,  of  a 
total  area  of  nearly  500,000  acres, 
while  in  Germany  every  town  or 
village  where  running  water  is 
obtainable  has  its  fish  ponds  or 
stews.  In  Germany,  as  a  rule,  three 
or  more  ponds  are  constructed  in 
line  along  the  course  of  a  brook, 
and  while  two  are  filled  with  water 
holding  fish,  the  remainder  are 
drained  and  the  beds  cultivated. 
This  method  pays  doubly  in  that 
the  cultivated  ponds,  when  refilled, 
supply  a  stock  of  insect  food  for  the 
fish,  while  the  drained  ponds  make 


/I///  //// 


1.  Peristedion  cataphractum,  European  seas.     2.  Ifactyfopterus       laris,    Malay    Archipelago.        10.    Holacanthus   asfur.    Red   Sea. 


volitans  Mediterranean  and  tropical  Atlantic.  3.  Holaran  lius 
cil  aris  Atlant'c  coasts  of  tropical  America.  4.  Gomphosus 
coeruleus,  Indian  Ocean.  5.  Cirrhitps  cinctus.  Indian  Ocean 
and  West  Pac  fie.  6.  Acanihurus  velifer.  Polynesia.  7.  H>n  o- 
chus  macrolep^lotus,  Ind:an  Ocean  and  Malay  Arclrpelago. 
8  Balistes  aculeatus,  trop:cal  seas.  9.  Holacanthus  annu- 

FISH:    VIVIDLY    COLOURED    SPECIES.    HABITANTS    OF    MANY    SEAS 

Specially  drawn,  to  approximately  one-sixth  natural  size,  by  J.  F.  Campbell 
To  face  page  3170 


, 

11.  Pterois  miles.  Rid  Sea  and  Inclirtii  ocean.  1".  Anipliiprion 
chrysogas'er,  Ind;an  Ocean.  13.  Balistes  conspic.llum,  Ind'an 
and  Pacific  Oreans.  14.  Julis  filobata,  and  15.  Coris  ayeula 
Red  S-a,  Indian  and  West  Pacific  Oceans.  1C  Oyprinus 
auratus,  China  Sea.  17.  Eplbulus  insidiator,  Indian  Ocean  and 
Malay  Archipelago. 


FISH      CURING 


3171 


FISHER 


called  "  croys "  in  Scotland,  are 
particularly  valuable  in  swift  rocky 
or  moorland  streams  where  there 
is  not  any  great  accumulation  of 
silt  or  mud. 

Flat  fish,  such  as  plaice,  sole, 
and  turbot,  are  being  reared  in 
large  numbers  by  the  Scottish 
Fishery  Board  at  ponds  on  the 
shore  of  the  bay  of  Nigg,  near 
Aberdeen,  and  elsewhere.  The 
Norwegian  government  liberates 
yearly  hundreds  of  millions  of 
young  cod  hatched  in  salt  water 
ponds.  On  the  W.  coast  of  France 
there  are  a  number  of  brackish 
ponds,  where  salt-water  fish  are  not 
only  hatched  but  raised  to  matu- 
rity for  the  market.  It  is  there  that 
the  curious  fact  was  first  dis- 
covered that  plaice,  dabs,  and 
several  other  species  of  flat  fish  will 
fatten  as  rapidly  in  water  that  is 
almost  fresh  as  in  tidal  ponds. 
The  Fish  Commission  of  the  U.S.A. 
practises  the  artificial  rearing  of 
marine  fish  on  the  greatest  scale. 
Shad,  in  particular,  are  reared  hi 
millions,  and  the  artificial  propa- 
gation of  lobster  is  pursued  with 
great  success.  See  Close  Time. 

T.  C.   Bridges 

Fish  Curing.  Curing,  drying, 
pickling,  or  otherwise  preserving 
fish.  The  curing  of  cod,  mackerel, 
and  herring  are  the  most  impor- 
tant branches  of  the  industry  in 
Great  Britain,  and  the  methods 
employed  in  large  Scottish  curing- 
yards  are  typical.  Cod  are  gutted 
and  bled  as  soon  as  they  are  caught, 
being  carefully  packed  in  boxes,  or 
otherwise  protected  from  the  sun 
and  air. 

As  soon  as  the  fish  have  been 
brought  ashore,  the  heads  are  cut 
off  and  the  fish  carefully  cleaned 
by  being  brushed  in  fresh  water, 
and  then  split.  The  backbone  is  cut 
about  20  joints  from  the  tail.  The 
fish  are  then  washed  in  salt  water, 
and  the  black  lining  membrane 
removed.  They  are  then  pickled  in 
covered  vessels,  the  proportion  of 
salt  allowed  being  about  50  Ib.  to 
100  Ib.  of  the  dried,  cured  fish. 
In  packing  the  fish  into  barrels  a 
particular  method  is  adopted,  as  a 
result  of  which  the  lighter  side  of 
the  fish  is  uppermost,  until  the 
top  layer  is  reached,  when  the 
dark  side  is  placed  upmost.  Two 
fish  make  a  layer  in  the  barrel.  In 
1913  the  amount  of  dried  codfish 
in  Scotland  was  161,722  cwt., 
from  which  3,279  barrels  of  pickled 
cod  were  obtained,  and  over 
120,000  cwt.  of  smoked  cod. 

Mackerel  should  be  split,  cleaned, 
and  salted  as  soon  as  possible, 
because  this  fish  soon  becomes  soft 
and  flabby.  The  fish  are  cut  with  a 
clean,  sharp  knife  down  the  back 
from  head  to  tail.  The  intestines 


are  extracted,  the  gills  removed, 
and  the  blood  expressed.  The  fish 
is  then  washed  in  three  stages,  the 
first  merely  a  quick  swill,  the  second 
a  short  soaking,  and  in  the  third 
the  fish  are  left  in  clean  water  for 
about  an  hour.  Finally,  the  mack- 
erel are  reamed  and  salted,  the 
reaming  consisting  of  the  making 
of  a  shallow  cut  from  the  bottom 
of  the  belly  to  the  head.  Salting  is 
done  as  quickly  as  possible,  suffi- 
cient salt  being  used  to  cover  every 
part  lightly,  the  fish  then  being 
transferred  to  a  barrel  in  which 
enough  salt  is  placed  between  the 
layers  to  prevent  actual  contact 
between  fish  and  fish.  The  pickle, 
which  consists  of  clean  salt  water 
or  clean  fresh  water  with  salt 
added,  is  put  in  until  the  barrel  is 
quite  full,  and  in  this  the  mackerel 
are  left  five  or  six  days.  After 
this  the  mackerel  are  re-packed  into 
the  final  shipping-  barrel. 

Herring  curing  is  carried  on  on  a 
very  large  scale  in  normal  times  hi 
Great  Britain.  As  a  rule  only  the 
large  and  medium  fish  are  used. 
Curing  commences  directly  the 
herrings  are  emptied  into  the  far- 
land,  a  large  oblong  box  about 
2  ft.  high,  with  inward  sloping 
sides  and  ends  to  allow  the  gutters 
to  work  more  conveniently.  As  the 
fish  are  emptied  into  the  farland, 
platefuls  of  salt  are  thrown  on  to 
them  at  once.  A  light  sprinkling 
is  sufficient  if  they  are  to  be  gutted 
immediately,  a  more  heavy  sprink- 
ling if  they  are  to  be  left  all  night. 
The  women  gutters  stand  usually 
at  one  side  of  the  farland  and  work 
with  great  rapidity.  A  sharp- 
bladed  knife  is  inserted  through 
the  gills,  with  the  edge  towards  the 
worker.  By  means  of  a  sharp 
movement  the  gills  and  the 
stomach,  etc.,  are  completely  re- 
moved. The  gutted  herrings  are 
then  salted  until  every  fish  has 
come  into  contact  with  the  salt. 

The  herrings  are  packed  tier  by 
tier,  the  heads  to  the  sides  of  the 
barrel,  the  tails  meeting  or  over- 
lapping, the  middle  herring  being 
placed  in  front  of  the  tails  of  the 
last  two,  then  two  more  with  their 
heads  to  the  sides  of  the  barrel, 
this  being  repeated  until  the  tier 
is  complete.  Salt  is  sprinkled  be- 
tween the  tiers.  One  barrel  of  salt 
is  usually  necessary  to  cure  three 
barrels  of  herrings.  The  herrings 
are  packed  a  little  above  the  level 
of  the  barrel  at  first,  as  they  sink  a 
little  in  the  salt.  On  the  following 
day  the  barrels  are  filled  up  to  the 
level,  the  ends  put  in,  and  the 
barrels  laid  on  their  sides.  They 
are  left  hi  this  way  for  eight  or  ten 
days.  They  are  then  bored  in  the 
bilge,  set  on  their  ends,  and  the 
pickle  is  run  ofi  through  the  bung- 


hole.  In  normal  times  the  herring- 
curing  business  can  be  seen  on  a 
large  scale  in  Shetland  from  the 
beginning  of  May  until  the  middle 
or  end  of  Sept.,  and  on  an  average, 
in  normal  years,  100,000  barrels 
are  sent  annually  from  Shetland 
to  Petrograd  alone.  See  The  Art 
of  Fish-curing,  R.  J.  Duthie,  1911. 

O.   Leighton,   M.D. 

Fisher,  ANDREW  (b.  1862). 
Australian  politician.  Born  Aug. 
29,  1862,  at  Crosshouse,  Kilmar- 
nock,  Scot- 
1  a  n  d,  he 
worked  as  a 
boy  in  the 
coalmines.  In 
1885  he  emi- 
grated to 
Queensland, 
and  in  1893 
was  elected  in 
the  labour  Andrew  Fisher, 
interest  to  Australian  pohtician 
the  state  legislature.  In  1899  he  was 
made  minister  of  rlys.  Fisher 
entered  the  Commonwealth  parlia- 
ment as  M.P.  for  Wide  Bay  in  1900. 
In  1904  he  became  minister  of  trade 
and  customs,  and  in  1907  leader  of 
the  labour  party.  As  such  he  was 
prime  minister  for  a  few  months 
in  1908-9.  In  1910  the  labour 
party  returned  to  power,  and  he 
was  prime  minister  until  1913, 
when  his  party  was  defeated. 
Fisher  returned  to  power  in  1914, 
and  he  was  premier  when  the 
Great  War  broke  out.  In  Oct., 
1915,  he  resigned  the  premiership 
to  become  high  commissioner  for 
the  Commonwealth  in  England 
resigning  in  1921. 

Fisher,  HERBERT  ALBERT  LAU- 
EBNS  (b.  1865).  British  historian 
Born  in  London, 
March21,1865, 
he  had  a  bril- 
liant career  at 
Winchester 
and  New  Col- 
e, Oxford, 
o  which  he  be- 
came a  fellow. 
As  lecturer  and 
tutor  hi  history 
he  remained  in 
Oxford  until 
1912,  when  he  was  chosen  vice- 
chancellor  of  Sheffield  university, 
holding  that  post  until  in  1916 
he  was  made  president  of  the 
board  of  education,  resigning  in 
Oct.,  1922.  As  such  he  was  re- 
sponsible for  the  Education  Act 
of  1918.  He  entered  Parliament 
as  M.P.  for  Sheffield  in  1916,  and 
in  1918  and  1923  was  returned  as 
a  member  for  the  newer  English 
universities.  In  1907  he  became  a 
fellow  of  the  British  Academy,  and 
in  1909  delivered  the  Lowell  lec- 
tures at  Boston.  Fisher's  historical 


and  politician. 


'M% 


Herbert  Fisher, 
British  historian 


FISHER 


3172 


FISHER 


books  include;  Studies  in  Napo- 
leonic Statesmanship,  1903;  and 
Napoleon,  1913.  He  became  war- 
den of  New  College,  Oxford,  in  1925. 
Fisher,  JOHN  (c.  1459-1535). 
English  prelate.  He  was  educated 
at  Cambridge,  becoming  master  of 
Michail  House 
in  1497  and 
chancellor  of 
the  university 
in  1504.  In 
1497  he  had 
beenappointed 
confessor  to 
Henry  VII's 

John  Fisher,  mother,    Mar. 

English  prelate         garet,  countess 

Afterffolbein  of     Richmond, 

and  in  1503  became  the  first  Lady 
Margaret  professor  of  divinity.  In 
1504  he  was  made  bishop  of 
Rochester.  He  was  a  keen  oppo- 
nent of  Henry  VIII' s  divorce  from 
Catherine  of  Aragon,  was  impri- 
soned in  the  Tower  in  1534  for  re- 
fusing to  swear  to  the  Act  of  Succes- 
sion, and  on  June  22,  1535,  was 
beheaded  on  Tower  Hill  for  refusing 
to  recognize  Henry  as  supreme  head 
of  the  Church.  He  had  been  created 
a  cardinal  on  May  20.  He  was  a 
zealous  humanist,  and  was  instru- 
mental in  bringing  Erasmus  to 
Cambridge.  He  was  beatified  on 
Dec.  9,  1886. 

Fisher  of  Kilverstone,  JOHN 
ARBUTHNOT  FISHER,  IST  BARON 
(1841-1920).  British  sailor.  Born 
Jan.  25,  1841,  at  Rambodde,  in 
Ceylon,  he  entered  the  navy  on 
June  12,  1854,  on  board  the 
Victory  at  Portsmouth,  "  penni- 
less, friendless,  and  forlorn,"  as  he 
wrote  himself.  He  saw  active 
service  in  the  Calcutta  with  the 
Baltic  fleet  during  the  Crimean 
War  and  later  in  China,  when  he 
was  present  atthe  capture  of  Canton 
and  the  attack  on  the  Peiho  forts. 

Promoted  captain  in  1874,  he 
commanded  the  Inflexible  at 
the  bombardment  of  Alexandria, 
1882.  He  landed  there  with  the 
Naval  Brigade,  and  was  the  adap- 
tor of  the  armoured  train,  which  he 
commanded  in  several  engage- 
ments, receiving  the  C.B.  for  his 
services.  In  Feb.,  1892,  he  was 
appointed  to  the  board  of  admiralty 
as  controller  of  the  navy,  a  post 
which  he  held  until  Aug.,  1897, 
when  he  took  command  of  the 
squadron  on  the  N.  America 
station.  Fisher  returned  to  Europe 
in  1899  to  represent  British  naval 
interests  at  the  Hague  peace  con- 
ference. From  July,  1899,  until 
May,  1902,  he  was  commander-in- 
chief  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  on 
his  return  was  appointed  second 
sea  lord  of  the  admiralty.  "  • 

He  was  largely  responsible  for 
the  scheme  of  entry  and  training 


for  naval  officers  which  abolished 
the  Britannia,  substituting  the 
colleges  at  Osborne  and  Dart- 
mouth, and  trained  executive 
officers,  engineers,  and  marines 
together  up  to  the  rank  of  lieu- 
tenant, after  which  they  specialised 
into  the  various  branches.  From 
Aug.,  1903,  to  Oct.,  1904,  he  was 
commander-in-chief  atPortsmouth, 
and  served  as  a  member  of  Lord 
Esher's  committee  on  national 
defence.  He  was  appointed  first 
sea  lord  on  Oct.  21,  1904,  and  re- 
signed this  office  in  1910. 

Remarkable  changes  in  naval 
organization  and  material  were 
carried  out  in  this  period,  due 
mainly  to  the  rapid  rise  in  strength 
of  the  German  navy  and  to  the 
development  of  naval  ordnance 
and  the  science  of  gunnery.  The 
British  fleets  on  foreign  stations, 
particularly  in  the  Mediterranean 
and  the  Far  East,  were  drastically 
reduced,  and  in  1907  a  Home  Fleet 


was  formed  which,  two  years 
later,  absorbed  all  of  the  commis- 
sioned naval  forces  in  home  waters. 

Lord  Fisher,  who  was  knighted 
in  1894  and  created  a  baron  in 
1909,  was  the  creator  of  the  Dread- 
nought and  battle-cruiser  type, 
and  the  introducer  of  oil  fuel  and 
submarines  into  the  British  navy. 
His  work  in  improving  the  shooting 
of  the  navy  was  of  the  utmost 
importance.  He  was  specially 
promoted  to  admiral  of  the  fleet, 
and  was  appointed  in  1912  chair- 
man of  a  royal  commission  on  oil 
fuel  in  relation  to  the  navy.  He 
was  recalled  to  be  first  sea  lord 
on  the  resignation  of  the  marquess 
of  Milf ord  Haven,  Oct.  29,  1914. , 

He  took  steps  to  lay  down  612 
new  ships  of  various  types,  many 
of  which  were  designed  for  special 
work  in  the  Baltic.  He  also 


ordered  a  large  number  of  aircraft, 
including  the  small  airships  often 
known  as  "  blimps,"  which  proved 
of  great  value  for  reconnaissance 
in  the  early  stages  of  the  war  at 
sea.  He  advocated  the  intro- 
duction of  much  heavier  guns,  and 
had  a  battle  cruiser  planned  which 
would  have  mounted  six  or  eight 
20 -in.  weapons. 

In  one  very  important  matter 
Fisher's  naval  leadership  was  de- 
fective— he  attached  insufficient 
importance  to  tactical  training  and 
to  the  spiritual  side  of  his  pro- 
fession. He  provided  admirable 
weapons,  but  not  the  staff  to  use 
them  to  the  best  effect,  and  he 
never  properly  understood  the 
necessity  of  a  staff  in  modern  war. 

He  strongly  opposed  the  Dar- 
danelles expedition,  and  was  with 
difficulty  prevented  from  resigning 
when  it  was  ordered,  early  in  1915, 
by  the  Cabinet.  He  finally  resigned 
on  May  15,  1915,  on  the  ground 
that  ships  required  by  the  Grand 
Fleet  in  the  North  Sea  were  being 
imperilled  at  the  Dardanelles. 
Though  publicly  censured  by  the 
Dardanelles  committee  for  his  con- 
duct, he  refused  to  defend  himself. 

In  the  general  conduct  of  the 
war  he  was  successful ;  the  decisive 
result  of  the  battle  of  the  Falkland 
Islands,  Dec.  8,  1914,  was  entirely 
due  to  his  action  in  sending  two 
battle  cruisers  secretly  from  the 
North  Sea,  despite  the  opposition 
of  the  Cabinet  and  the  British  com- 
manders in  home  waters.  In  July, 
1915,  he  was  appointed  president 
of  the  board  of  invention  and 
research.  He  died  July  10,  1920, 
retaining  to  the  last  his  vigour  of 
mind  and  speech.  His  letters  to 
The  Times  in  1919-20  were  memor- 
able for  the  refrain  "  sack  the  lot," 
and  he  always  spoke  of  himself  as 
"  ruthless  and  relentless."  Yet  he 
had  a  warm  heart  and  never  bore 
malice  to  a  fair  critic.  Beyond 
question  he  was  one  of  the  great 
figures  of  his  age,  and  did  much  to 
achieve  the  British  victory. 

H.    W.    Wilson 

Bibliography.  Lord  Fisher  on  the 
Navy  :  A  Series  of  Articles  reprinted 
from  The  Times,  Sept.,  1919;  Re- 
cords, 1919 ;  Memories,  1919. 

Fisher,  SIR  NORMAN  FENWICK 
WARREN  (b.  1879).  British  civil 
servant.  Born  Sept.  22,  1879,  he 
was  educated  at  Winchester  and 
Hertford  College,  Oxford.  He  was 
private  secretary  to  Sir  Robert 
Chalmers,  1908-10,  and  a  special 
commissioner  of  income  tax,  1910- 
13.  He  was  on  the  National  Health 
Insurance  Commission,  1912-13, 
and  a  commissioner  of  inland 
revenue  in  the  latter  year.  Deputy 
chairman  of  the  board  of  inland 
revenue,  1914-18,  he  was  chairman 


FISHER 

from  1918  until  Aug.,  1919,  when 
he  succeeded  Sir  John  Bradbury 
as  permanent  secretary  of  the 
treasury.  His  signature  succeeded 
that  of  Bradbury  on  the  currency 
notes.  . 

Fisher,  WILLIAM  MARK.  British- 
American  artist.  Born  at  Boston, 
U.S.A.,  of  American  and  Irish 
parents,  he  studied  art  in  Paris 
when  20  years  of  age,  and  after  a 
brief  sojourn  in  America,  settled 
in  England.  He  was  elected  A.R.  A. 
in  1911,  and  R.A.  in  1919.  His 
subjects  are  rural  scenes,  mostly 
taken  from  the  Essex  country 
in  which  he  lived. 


3173 

Fisher,  SYDNEY  ARTHUR  (b. 
1850).  Canadian  politician.  Born 
at  Montreal,  June  12,  1850.  he  was 
educated  at  the  high  school,  and 
at  McGill  University.  He  then 
went  to  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
where  he  studied  agriculture,  and 
later  became  a  farmer  at  Knowl- 
ton,  Quebec.  In  1882  Fisher  was 
elected  for  Brome  to  the  Dominion 
House  of  Commons,  and  was 
minister  for  agriculture,  1896- 
1911.  He  was  largely  responsible 
for  the  reorganization  of  the  civil 
service  by  introducing  new  rules 
with  regard  to  entrance  by  a  system 
of  competitive  examination. 


FISHERIES:  THE  INDUSTRY  &  ITS  GROWTH 

Gerald  Leighton,  M.D.,  Inspector,  Scottish  Board  ot  Health 

Additional  information  on  the  subject  of  fisheries  will  be  found  in 
the  articles  on  the  various  fish,  e.g.  Cod;  Herring;  Mackerel,  etc. 
See  also  Trawling  and  the  articles  Fish  Culture ;  Fish  Curing,  etc. 


Dwellers  upon  coastal  margins 
have  always  depended  to  a  large 
extent  upon  their  skill  as  fishermen 
for  their  sustenance.  In  modern 
times,  however,  the'  world's  fish- 
eries mean  more  than  the  catching 
of  local  fish  for  local  needs.  As 
knowledge  of  fishing  areas  has 
become  greater,  and  methods  of 
catching  have  developed,  the  in- 
dustry has  taken  a  prominent 
position  in  world  commerce. 

Methods  of  preservation  and 
treatment  have  caused  fish  to  be 
distributed  all  over  the  world, 
even  to  the  interior  of  continents, 
where  fish  food,  unknown  previ- 
ously, is  to-day  common.  In  this 
advance  the  processes  of  drying, 
smoking,  refrigerating,  and  canning 
have  played  an  important  part. 
Pelagic  and  Deep  Sea  Fish 

Marine  fish  may  be  divided  into 
shore,  pelagic,  and  deep  sea  fish. 
The  shore  fish  live  either  on  or 
just  under  the  surface  of  the  water 
close  to  the  land.  Some  are  con- 
fined to  shallow  coasts  with  sandy 
bottoms,  others  to  rocky  coasts. 
Pelagic  fish  live  near  the  surface  of 
the  open  ocean,  and  only  come 
near  the  shore  for  spawning  or 
food.  Most  of  them  spawn  in  the 
open  sea.  They  roam  over  large 
areas,  either  in  virtue  of  their 
strength  as  swimmers  or  by  the 
aid  of  ocean  currents. 

Deep  sea  fish  live  in  the  depths, 
where  light,  temperature,  and 
movement  are  but  little  felt.  These 
groups  cannot  be  separated  by  hard 
and  fast  lines.  They  merge  gradu- 
ally, and  fish  probably  change 
from  one  to  the  other.  These 
changes  are  occasioned  by  the 
search  for  food.  Thus  the  surface 
of  the  sea  near  the  shore  some- 
times contains  numerous  small 
crustaceans,  or  molluscs,  upon 
which  fish  in  the  open  ocean  feed. 


The  latter,  therefore,  come  close 
into  shore,  pursued  in  their  turn 
by  other  large  fish  which  prey  upon 
them.  Edible  fish  all  come  within 
the  groups  of  shore  or  pelagic  fishes. 
European  Fisheries 

Of  the  principal  European  fish- 
eries, the  shore  fishing  of  France 
includes  herring,  mackerel,  sar- 
dines, anchovies,  sprats,  tunny, 
salmon,  sturgeon,  and  oysters. 
The  deep  sea  fisheries,  including 
those  from  Iceland,  the  North  Sea, 
and  Newfoundland,  are  mainly 
those  of  the  cod,  but  include  her- 
ring and  mackerel.  German  fishing 
vessels  land  their  fish  on  the  coasts 
of  the  North  and  Baltic  Seas,  the 
most  important  being  cod,  had- 
dock, coal-fish,  whiting,  plaice, 
lemon  sole,  ling,  and  herring. 
Holland's  vessels  land  principally 
herring,  plaice,  flounders,  an- 
chovies, and  smelts.  The  chief 
fishery  of  Belgium  is  of  the  inshore 
kind,  and  that  of  Denmark  consists 
of  flat  fish,  eels,  herring,  and  cod. 
Of  the  produce  of  the  Portuguese 
fisheries,  more  than  half  is  sardines. 

The  Norwegian  fisheries  are  by 
far  the  most  important  of  the 
European  fisheries,  and  have 
steadily  increased  in  value  during 
recent  years,  cod  and  herring  being 
the  first  on  the  list.  In  1915  the 
value  of  the  fish  landed  rose  to 
over  £10,000,000. 

Newfoundland's  chief  catches 
are  cod,  herring,  and  whale.  The 
Canadian  fisheries  embrace  cod, 
the  largest  quantity,  followed  by 
salmon,  hake,  pollack,  halibut, 
haddock,  white  fish,  sardines. 

The  main  fisheries  of  the  U.S.A. 
are:  (1)  on  the  Atlantic— herring, 
cod,  alewives,  haddock,  hake,  pol- 
lack, shad,  flounders,  halibut, 
mackerel,  menhaden,  and  mullet ; 
(2)  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico— mullet 
and  snapper;  (3)  on  the  Pacific 


FISHERIES 

coast — salmon,  halibut,  flounders, 
and  cod.  In  the  Mississippi  River, 
carp,  and  in  the  Great  La/ies,  lake 
herring  are  caught. 

BRITISH  FISHERIES.  The  edible 
fish  included  in  the  statistical  re- 
turns of  Great  Britain  are  obtained 
from  such  widely  separated  ^pots  as 
N.  Scotland  and  the  Bay  of  Biscay, 
the  Porcupine  and  Rockall  Banks 
of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  the 
coasts  of  Denmark,  Holland,  Nor- 
way, and  Shetland.  During  the 
past  30  years  the  industry  has  seen 
the  disappearance  of  the  old  fish- 
ing smack  in  favour  of  the  power- 
ful and  fast  steam  trawler,  together 
with  improvements  in  the  gear  and 
machinery  employed,  and  the  in- 
troduction on  a  large  scale  of 
ice  for  preserving  the  fish.  Thus 
fish  can  now  be  brought  from  far 
greater  distances  than  was  for- 
merly the  case,  and  trawlers  can 
remain  at  sea  for  one  or  two  weeks 
before  landing  their  catch. 

The  position  of  Great  Britain  as 
an  island  has  given  her  an  unique 
advantage  in  the  industry ;  and 
the  enormous  figures  given  in  the 
official  returns  suggest  either  that 
the  quantity  of  fish  must  seriously 
diminish  as  time  goes  on,  or  else 
that  the  supply  is  inexhaustible. 
The  latter  is  probably  the  truth, 
provided  that  the  fish  get  fair 
treatment.  The  reason  is  bio- 
logical, the  extraordinary  power  of 
reproduction  possessed  by  fish. 
A  herring  produces  from  20,000  to 
30,000  annually— a  small  figure 
compared  to  turbot  and  cod,  and 
some  others,  which  produce  mil- 
lions. This  fertility  explains  why, 
for  example,  it  is  possible  for  the 
Scottish  herring  fishery  alone  to 
handle  about  1,000,000,000  fish 
annually. 

Experimental  Conservation 

Fishermen  do  little  or  nothing 
towards  the  conservation  of  their 
catch.  The  few  efforts  made  to  re- 
stock the  sea  are  experimental,  and 
negligible  from  the  point  of  view 
of  the  total  result.  In  the  period 
preceding  the  Great  War,  there 
were  some  80,000  men  and  boys 
engaged  in  the  fishing  fleets  of 
Great  Britain,  excluding  Ireland, 
entirely  engaged  in  catching  and 
landing  fish,  and  not  in  any  way 
producing  them  in  the  sense  that 
the  farmer  produces  meat. 

EDIBLE  FISH.  From  a  theo- 
retical point  of  view  any  fish  which 
is  wholesome  food  would  be  con- 
sidered edible  ;  but  a  number  of 
the  smaller  fishes  found  along  the 
sea-shore  are  commercially  to  be 
ignored  Different  countries  have 
different  tastes.  For  example,  the 
bass  is  highly  esteemed  in  Constan- 
tinople, and  grows  in  Turkish 
waters  to  a  much  larger  size  than 


FISHERIES 


3174 


FISHERIES 


in  British  waters.  In  Great  Britain 
it  is  much  neglected,  possibly  be- 
cause.it  requires  to  be  caught  with 
hook  and  line,  and  then  only  in 
restricted  districts.  Pollack,  again, 
is  caught  in  large  quantities  on  the 
line  off  Cornwall  and  other  places, 
but  it  does  not  pack  well,  or  keep 
well,  and  is  thus  neglected.  Skate 
and  ray,  until  recent  years,  were 
not  seen  in  the  fishmongers'  shops 
nearly  so  much  as  they  are  now, 
but  are  highly  esteemed  in  French 
restaurants.  Other  fish  are  con- 
sumed almost  entirely  in  or  near 
the  locality  of  their  capture,  among 
them  the  coal-fish  and  cat-fish  of 
Scottish  waters,  the  pollack  and 
pilchard  of  Cornwall,  the  conger, 
the  dog-fish,  and  weever  of  Sussex. 
Landings  in  England  and  Wales 
In  1913,  the  last  completed  year 
before  the  Great  War,  the  total 
landings  of  fish  in  England  and 
Wales  reached  a  maximum,  while 
in  Scotland  the  quantity  was  less 
than  that  of  the  previous  year, 
though  of  greater  value.  For  the 
11  years,  1903-13,  the  quantities 
and  value  of  fish  landed  in  England 
and  Wales  were  as  follow  : 


Fish  (exclusive  of 
Years               Shell  Fish) 

Shell  Fish 

i  Total  Value 

1903 
1904 
1905 
1906 
1907 
1908 
1909 
1910 
1911 
1912 
1913 


Cwts. 
11,  198,000 
11,365,000 
11,310,000 
12,195,000 
13,994,000 
13,282,000 
13,955,000 
13,118.000 


14,612,000 
16,152,000 


£ 

6,930,000 
6,490,000 
7,201,000 
7,641,000 
7,826,000 
7,748,000 
7,497,000 
7,966,000 
8,051,000 
8,884,000 
10,009,000 


The  total  landed  showed  an  in- 
crease, largely  attributable  to  the 
record  catch  of  herring  in  1913,  of 
44  p.c.  on  that  of  1903,  and  of  10'5 
p.c.  on  that  of  1912.  The  E. 
coast  contributed  about  92  p.c.  of 
the  pelagic  fish. 

MARKETING.  The  placing  of  fish 
upon  the  market  involves  first  the 
production  and  catching  of  the 
fish,  and,  secondly,  the  means  of 
distribution.  The  catching  is  done 
either  by  nets,  baited  hand-lines, 
or  traps,  the  latter  used  especially 
for  shell-fish.  The  nets  are  the 
trawl,  the  drift-net,  and  the  tram- 
mel. Commercial  distribution 
bears  little  relation  to  the  natural 
distribution  of  the  fish  in  the  sea. 
Thanks  to  improved  methods  of 
transport,  and  ice-packing,  thou- 
sands of  tons  of  fish  are  brought  a 
thousand  miles  to  be  sold  at  Billings- 
gate. Much  of  this  is  collected  in 
the  fishing  grounds  themselves  by 
fast  steamers.  This  is  known  as  the 
"  fleeting  system."  About  40,000 
tons  per  annum  is  brought  to  the 
Thames  every  year  in  this  manner. 


Fish  caught  in  trawl-nets  are  dead 
when  brought  on  board,  and  must 
be  packed  in  ice.  The  same  thing 
applies  to  fish  caught  on  lines,  only 
hauled  up  at  long  intervals. 

Other  fish,  such  as  cod  and  hali- 
but, which  are  hauled  up  by  hand- 
line  as  soon  as  hooked,  can  be  kept 
alive  in  salt  water  until  reaching 
their  destination,  a  process  which 
is  somewhat  cruel,  and,  moreover, 
does  not  conduce  to  keep  the  fish 
in  good  condition.  Marine  fish 
really  keep  better  if  they  are  killed 
as  soon  as  they  are  caught,  gutted 
at  once,  then  washed  and  salted. 
The  great  bulk  of  the  fish  in  Great 
Britain,  probably  about  1,000,000 
tons  per  annum,  is  distributed 
by  rly.,  and  the  various  rly.  com- 

ries  have  special  departments 
dealing  with  the  fish  traffic 
alone.  How  complicated  the  whole 
question  of  distribution  and  cost 
is,  may  be  realized  from  the  fact 
that  (as  F.  G.  Aflalo  says)  "  a  slice 
of  turbot  eaten  in  a  London  club 
may  have  been  caught  in  the  Bay 
of  Biscay,  then  brought  on  ice  to 
Plymouth  Barbican,  sent  by  S.W. 
Rly.  to  Waterloo,  thence  by  van  to 
Billing  s  g  a  t  e, 
and  finally  by 
cart  to  the 
Bond  Street 
shop  from 
which  the  club 
buys  it." 

INSPECTION. 
Fish  come 
under  the 
notice  of  the 
food  inspector, 
whose  duty  it 
is  to  see  that 

no  fish  are  exposed  for  sale  unless 
they  are  of  sufficient  freshness  to 
be  good  for  food.  Absolute  fresh- 
ness is  desirable  in  fatty  fish,  such 
as  mackerel,  herrings,  and  eels,  but 
the  firmer  cod  and  turbot  eat  better 
the  day  after  they  are  caught. 
Purchasers  should  avoid  fish  which 
are  bruised,  as  often  happens  to 
those  caught  in  a  trawl. 

It  is  by  no  means  easy  to  tell  a 
perfectly  fresh  fish.  The  sense  of 
smell  is  an  unsatisfactory  test, 
being  more  acute  in  some  people 
than  in  others,  and,  moreover,  a  fish 
may  be  fresher  or  staler  than  its 
smell  suggests.  Frequent  washing 
of  the  fish,  as  is  carried  out  on  the 
slabs  of  many  fishmongers,  keeps 
away  the  smell.  Well-marked  dull- 
ness in  the  eyes  of  the  fish  is  a  re- 
liable test  for  freshness,  but  sets 
up  a  somewhat  high  standard,  be- 
cause the  eyes  become  dull  in  24 
hours,  and  decomposition  may  not 
set  in  for  much  longer. 

Another  test  is  that  of  the 
rubbing  off  of  the  scales.  If  this 
can  be  done  with  ease  the  fish 


£ 

279,000 
290,000 
302,000 
324,000 
329,000 
294,000 
263,000 
228,000 
273,000 
327,000 
328,000 


£ 

7,209,000 
6,780,000 
7,503,000 
7,965,000 
8,155,000 
8,042,000 
7,760,000 
8,194,000 
8,324,000 
9,211,000 
10,337,000 


should  not  be  eaten.  The  same 
remark  applies  to  fish  whose  flesh 
comes  readily  off  the  back  bone. 
The  gills  in  a  fresh  fish  are  red,  but 
the  exact  colour  differs  in  different 
species.  Thus,  the  gills  of  the 
whiting  and  the  haddock  are  not 
as  dark  in  colour  as  those  of  the 
salmon.  After  24  hours  the  gills 
lose  their  fresh  red  colour,  though 
frequent  washing  tends  to  retain 
it.  If  the  fish  be  held  out  by  the 
hand  and  remains  horizontal  with- 
out drooping,  it  is  a  sure  sign  of 
freshness.  As  staleness  comes  on, 
the  body  becomes  more  and  more 
limp,  before  there  is  any  really 
unpleasant  smell.  This  stiffness,  or 
rigor  mortis,  sets  in  about  twelve 
hours  after  death,  and  may  last 
for  another  24  hours,  or  even 
longer  in  fresh  fish  placed  on  ice 
at  once.  These  tests  are  used  by 
experienced  inspectors. 

Finally,  one  may  just  note  that 
cod  should  be  very  firm  to  the 
touch ;  skate  should  be  thick, 
firm,  and  the  flesh  pure  white  ; 
eels  should  be  bought  alive ; 
whiting  deteriorate  quickly ;  the 
flesh  of  turbot  is  not  pure  white  ; 
herrings  show  redness  about  the 
head  when  fresh,  but  in  mackerel 
this  redness  indicates  decay.  It 
should  be  noted  that  certain 
frauds  are  perpetrated  by  un- 
scrupulous salesmen  on  ignorant 
purchasers.  The  street-hawker 
often  sells  slices  of  halibut  as 
turbot,  not  showing  the  whole 
fish.  The  skinned  weever  is  also 
sometimes  sold  for  sole,  and  lemon 
soles  frequently  as  soles.  It  is  a 
good  rule  never  to  buy  a  portion 
of  fish  unless  the  skin  is  on  it. 
Fish  in  Season 

Cookery  books  and  calendars 
usually  contain  tabulated  lists  of 
edible  fish  in  season,  but  many  of 
these  lists  are  misleading.  Strictly 
speaking,  there  is  no  season  in 
which  any  fish  should  not  be  sold 
for  food,  except  from  a  legal  point 
of  view.  Speaking  generally,  it 
may  be  said  that  a  fish  is  at  its  best 
at  the  half -spawn  period,  i.e.  when 
the  roe  is  about  half  ready  for 
depositing.  Some  fish,  however, 
are  at  their  best  in  full  roe.  Im- 
mature fish,  on  the  other  hand,  i.e. 
fish  too  young  to  spawn,  are  never 
out  of  condition,  but  should  be 
avoided  for  the  sake  of  conserving 
the  supply. 

Fish  are  brought  to  the  markets 
from  such  great  distances  that  it 
becomes  more  and  more  difficult  to 
define  their  seasons.  Thus  it  used 
to  be  considered  that  the  winter 
was  the  proper  season  for  cod,  but 
excellent  cod  may  now  be  got 
during  the  summer.  Soles  may  be 
had  in  good  condition  all  the  year 
round,  but  plaice  are  inferior 


i.  The  fleet  at  work  ofi  the  Dogger  Bank.      2.  A  netful  of  cod  being  hauled  aboard.      3.  A  normal  catch.     4.  Taking 

a  load  in  a  small  boat  to  the  carrier.       5.  Passing  fish  into  the  hold  of  the  carrier.       6.   Unloading  the  carrier  at 

the   quay.     7.  Packing  in   tubs.     8.  Packing  haddock  in  boxes 

FISHERIES:   SCENES  AND  INCIDENTS  IN  THE  WORK  OF  THE  NORTH  SEA  FISHING  FLEET 


FISHERMAN 


3176 


FISHING 


during  the  first  three  months  of 
the  year.  The  season  for  herring 
and  other  migratory  fish  is  deter- 
mined by  the  time  of  year  at  which 
they  come  within  reach  of  the 
trawlers.  Salmon  are  protected  by 
special  laws.  (See  Close  Time.)  ^ 

Speaking  generally,  it  is  illegal 
to  buy  or  sell  British  salmon  from 
Sept.  3  to  Feb.  1,  but  the  law  ap- 
plies to  fresh  salmon  only,  not  to 
cured  fish.  Mackerel  and  whiting 
are  at  their  best  in  the  cold  months, 
because  they  do  not  keep  well  in 
warm  weather.  If  perfectly  fresh 
they  are  also  in  season  in  the 
summer.  Oysters  are  usually 
avoided  from  May  to  August,  and 
are  not  very  good  even  in  Sept. 
Lobsters  are  always  in  season,  as 
far  as  fitness  for  food  goes,  but 
the  females  are  protected  in  most 
places  while  carrying  the  eggs. 
The  legal  seasons  for  fish  are 
usually  posted  up  in  all  fish 
markets. 

Fisherman.  The  term  usually 
applied  to  one  who  earns  his 
living  by  fishing  in  the  sea.  From 
the  earliest  times  off-shore  fishing 
has  been  the  principal  occupation 
of  dwellers  on  the  sea  coast,  while 
trawling  and  deep-sea  fishing  have 
largely  developed  with  the  intro- 
duction of  steam  and  of  wire  haw- 
sers. Fishing  in  streams  and  rivers 
is  usually  called  angling  (q.v. ),  and 
is  subject  to  various  restrictions. 
See  Angling  ;  Close  Time. 

Fisher's.  Island  of  the  U.S.A. 
Situated  at  the  E.  end  of  Long 
Island  Sound,  it  forms  a  part  of 
Suffolk  co.,  New  York.  It  is 
about  8  m.  long  by  1  m.  broad.  It  is 
frequented  as  a  summer  resort,  and 
the  chief  occupation  is  agriculture. 
Fort  Wright,  one  of  the  defences  of 
Long  Island  Sound,  stands  at  the 
E.  end.  Pop.  about  200. 

Fishery  Board.  In  Gt.  Britain 
a  body  of  men  whose  work  it  is 
to  foster  and  protect  the  fishing 
industry.  Scotland  has  a  separate 
board,  consisting  of  paid  and  un- 
paid members.  Its  offices  are  in 
George  St.,  Edinburgh.  In  England 
and  Wales  the  fisheries  are  looked 
after  by  the  board  of  agriculture 
and  fisheries,  and  in  Ireland  by  the 
department  of  agriculture  and 
technical  instruction.  In  Nov., 
1919,  the  fisheries  department  of 
the  board  of  agriculture  was  placed 
under  the  direct  control  of  the 
parliamentary  secretary,  who  would 
act  as  deputy-minister  of  fisheries. 
The  officer  in  charge  of  the  depart- 
ment is  known  as  fisheries  secre- 
tary to  the  board. 

Fishguard  OB  ABERGWAEN.  Ur- 
ban dist.,  seaport,  and  market 
town  of  Pembrokeshire,  Wales.  It 
stands  on  the  Gwaen  riear  its  en 
trance  into  Fishguard  Bay,  12£  m. 


N.   of  Haverfordwest.      The   ter- 
minus of  the  G.W.R.  on  its  route 
to  Ireland,  Fishguard  has  an  excel- 
lent   harbour   and    a   fine    break- 
water (2,500  ft.), 
a  coastguard  and 
lifeboat     station, 
and   a    pier  con-    ; 
structed    by    the 
rly.  co.   in   1906. 
Slate    is    worked 
in  the  neighbour- 
hood a.nd  fishing 
is    an     industry. 
There   is   regular 
steamer    commu- 
nication   with 
Rosslare     in    co. 
Wexford,  Ireland. 
In  1797  Fishguard 
was    invaded    by 
somel,200French 
soldiers,  who  were 
forced  to  surrender  to  the  local 
yeomanry.     Market  day,    Thurs. 
Pop.  2,892. 

Fish  Hatchery.  Place  for  hatch- 
ing the  eggs  of  fish.  Various  fish 
hatcheries  have  been  established, 
especially  by  the  United  States 
Fish  Commission.  This  body,  in 
1902,  hatched  and  set  free  nearly 
1,500,000,000  young  fish,  the  prin- 
cipal species  dealt  with  being  cod, 
flounders,  and  lobsters.  In  Canada 
the  hatcheries  established  devote 
their  attention  mainly  to  cod  and 
lobsters.  In  Europe  hatcheries  have 
been  started  in  Norway,  England, 
and  Scotland,  and  the  methods 
for  obtaining  the  eggs  vary  in 
different  places.  See  Fish  Culture. 

Fish  Hook.  Apparatus  for 
catching  fish.  At  first  a  flake  of 
flint  sharpened  at  both  ends,  with 
a  thong  attached  to  the  centre,  was 
employed  for  this  purpose.  But  the 
antiquity  of  the  metal  hook  is  great, 
bronze  fish  hooks  of  modern  shape 
having  been  found  in  lake-dwell- 
ings in  Switzerland  and  elsewhere. 

The  modern  fish  hook  is  made  of 
soft  cast  steel  wire.  The  wire  is  cut 
into  lengths  and  the  barb  formed 
and  sharpened  before  the  wire  is 


^bent  into  shape.  The  shanks  are 
then  ringed  or  flattened,  and  the 
hooks  are  hardened,  tempered,  and 
scoured.  Machinery  performs  the 


I.... 


ufj 


Fishguard,  Pembrokeshire.     Railway  terminus  and  quay 
for  the  steamer  service  to  Rosslare,  Waterford,  and  Cork 

various  processes  automatically. 
Hooks  vary  greatly  in  size  and 
shape,  from  the  huge  hook  with 
swivel  and  chain  attachment  used 
for  catching  sharks,  down  to  the 
tiny-eyed  hook  on  which  the 
smallest  trout  flies  are  dressed. 
See  illus.  p.  1251. 

Fishing.  Art  or  practice  of 
catching  fish.  It  is  divided  into  two 
main  branches.  Sea  fishing  is  done 
chiefly  by  men  who  work  at  it  for  a 
livelihood,  and  to  whose  efforts  are 
due  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
world's  food  supply.  In  this  trawl- 
ing plays  an  important  part.  The 
other  branch  is  known  more  usually 
as  angling,  and  is  pursued  mainly 
by  amateurs  for  their  own  amuse- 
ment, although  in  America  great 
quantities  of  salmon  are  caught  for 
food  by  professional  fishermen. 
Fly-fishing  is  a  form  of  angling. 

The  chief  fish  caught  by  the  pro- 
fessional are  the  cod,  herring,  and 
mackerel ;  by  the  amateur,  salmon 
and  trout.  Whale  fishing,  seal  fish- 
ing, and  pearl  fishing  are  special 
branches.    The  culture  of  oysters, 
lobsters,  and  other  shellfish  hardly 
falls  into  the  category  of  fishing 
proper,  although  some  of  these  are 
caught    by   those 
who  are  fishermen 
by  trade. 

Fishing  is  one  of 
the  oldest  arts 
practised  by  man, 
and  there  are 
evidences  that  he 
did  something  of 
this  kind  8,000 
years  ago.  Various 
devices  were  em- 
ployed, and  some 
of  the  earlier  forms, 
made  of  stone  and 
bronze,  have  been 
unearthed.  Further 
progress  was  made 
&  Co.  until  the  existing 


Fish  Hooks.  1.  li-in.  beetle 
spinner.  2.  Insect  bait.  3. 
Hollow-pointed  Limerick  hook. 
4.  Fennell  turn-down  eye  hook 


FISHING      ROD 


FISH      RESIDUES 


varieties  of  rod,  bait,  and  all  the 
accessories  were  evolved.  -  Close 
times  are  enforced  by  law,  while  a 
long  series  of  Acts,  which  may  be 
said  to  date  from  Magna  Carta, 
lay  down  the  law  on  the  matter 
as  far  as  the  United  Kingdom  is 
concerned.  Dealing  with  fisheries 
of  every  kind,  deep  sea,  inshore, 
and  inland  water,  they  forbid  the 
use  of  poison  or  explosives  for  the 
purpose  of  catching  fish,  make 
regulations  about  the  registration 
and  management  of  fishing  boats, 
and  lay  down  other  conditions  for 
the  purpose  of  conserving  the  sup- 
plies and  using  them  in  the  interest 
of  the  whole  nation. 

For  England  and  Wales  the  law 
is  administered  by  the  board  of 
agriculture,  which  has  a  special 
branch  to  deal  with  fisheries,  while 
Scotland  and  Ireland  have  each 
their  own  department  for  the  pur- 
pose. The  United  States,  Canada, 
and  other  countries  are  equally 
vigilant  in  this  matter.  Inter- 
national agreements  deal  with 
areas,  such  as  the  Newfoundland 
banks  and  Bering  Sea,  where  men 
of  different  nations  come  into  con- 
tact. See  Angling  ;  Close  Time  ; 
Fisheries  ;  Fly-fishing  ;  Trawling. 

Fishing  Rod.  Rod  employed  by 
anglers.  Used  for  casting  the  line 
and  keeping  it  clear  of  the  bank  or 
shore  upon  which  the  fisherman  is 
standing,  the  rod  varies  largely 
with  the  nature  of  the  sport.  Sal- 
mon fly  rods,  which  are  liable  to 
great  strain,  are  usually  of  cane 
with  a  steel  rod  in  the  centre,  and 
measure  from  16  ft.  to  17  ft.  6  ins. 
For  trout  and  other  fresh-water 
fishing  a  lighter  rod  from  12  ft.  to 
13  ft.  in  length  has  been  found  the 
most  suitable.  Fishing  rods  are 
usually  jointed  for  greater  con- 
venience, and  are  fitted  with  a  reel 
to  wind  in  the  line.  See  Angling. 

Fishkill.  Town  of  New  York 
state,  U.S.A.,  now  part  of  the  city 
of  Beacon.  It  stands  on  a  creek  of 
the  Hudson,  59  m.  from  New  York 
city,  and  its  full  name  of  Fishkill 
Landing  throws  light  on  its  origin. 
One  of  the  oldest  places  in  the 
state,  it  has  two  churches  dating 
from  the  18th  century,  one  being 
the  building  in  which  the  congress 
of  New  York  met  in  1776.  It  was  a 
base  for  the  Americans  during  the 
War  of  Independence.  It  is  con- 
nected by  rail  and  ferry  with  New- 
burgh  on  the  other  side  of  the 
Hudson. 

Fish  Lice.  Small  crustaceans  of 
the  order  Copepoda  (q.v,),  which 
am  parasitic  on  fishes.  They  de- 
part widely  from  the  typical  forms 
of  the  order,  and  are  degenerate  in 
both  structure  and  function.  The 
usual  head  appendages  are  modified 
into  sucking  or  adhesive  organs. 


Fish  Measure.     Special  mea- 
sures of  capacity  used  in  the  sale  of 
fish.      These   can   be  summarised 
thus :    4   fish   make   1   warp ;   33 
warps,  a  long  hundred  ;   10  long 
hundreds,  a  long  thousand  ;  10  long 
thousand  (13,200  fish),  a  last.    In 
addition  to  this  500  herrings  make 
a  code,  600  herrings  a  mease,  and 
615  herrings  a  maze ;  37  J  gallons  of 
fresh  herrings  equal  a  cran,  and 
26f  gallons  of  cured  herrings  a  bar- 
rel.  A  barrel  of  anchovies  is  30  Ib. 
Fishmongers'  Company.  Lon- 
don city  livery  company.  Founded 
to  exercise  a  mo- 
nopoly of  the  fish 
trade  of  London, 
and      originally 
divided  into  two 
companies,   Salt- 
fishmongers    and 
Stock-  fishmon- 
gers,  its   earliest 
extant  charter  is 
dated   1364,   but 
foundation   fraternity    of    S. 
Peter  existed  in  the  12th  century. 
Sir    William    Walworth,  the    lord 
________  mayo  r 

who  slew 
Wat  the 
Tyler,  and 
Doggett 
(q.v.),  who 
bequeath- 
ed money 
for  the  an- 
nual race 
for  D  o  g- 
gett's  coat 
and  badge 
on  the 
Thames, 
were  mem- 
bers ;  the 
king  and 
the  prince 
of  Wales 
are  f  r  e  e- 
men.  The 
c  o  mpany, 
which 
e  x  a  mines 
all  fish 
brought 
into  Bil- 
lingsgate, 
has  a  cor- 
p  o  r  a  t  e 
and  trust 
income 
of  over 
£50,000. 
The  hall 
in  Upper 
Thames  Street,  E.G.,  was  built  in 
1831-33,  near  the  site  of  its  two 
predecessors,  the  first  of  which  was 
burnt  in  1666  and  rebuilt  1671. 
In  it  are  shown  Sir  W.  Walworth's 
dagger,  an  embroidered  Tudor  pall, 
and  a  chair  made  from  one  of  the 
original  piles  of  old  London  Bridge. 


Fishing    Rod.       Left, 

salmon  rod  and  three 

joints  ;  right,  pike  rod 

and  joints 

By  courtesy  of  S.  Allcock 


During  the  Great  War  the  hall  was 
used  for  the  purposes  of  a  military 
hospital. 

Fishponds.  Ecclesiastical  dis- 
trict within  the  county  borough  of 
Bristol.  In  the  N.E.  of  the  city,  it 
has  a  station  on  the  M.R.  It  is 
divided  into  three  ecclesiastical 
districts,  All  Saints,  S.  John's,  and 
S.  Mary's.  See  Bristol. 

Fish  Residues.  Fish  offal  suit- 
able for  manufacture  hi  to  various 
by-products.  The  main  products 
are  fish  meal,  oils  from  the  livers 
of  fish,  and  oil  and  manure  from 
the  intestines.  Fish  meal  is  made 
chiefly  from  the  head  and  bones. 
It  is  a  valuable  food  for  cattle 
and  pigs.  Medicinal  oil  is  princi- 
pally the  product  of  the  livers  of 
the  cod.  Other  oil  used  in  com- 
merce and  industry,  especially  in 
the  process  of  tinning  and  in  the 
manufacture  of  soap,  is  extracted 
from  the  livers  and  intestines  of 
various  fish.  Fish  manure  is  a 
valuable  fertiliser,  used  particu- 
larly in  the  growing  of  beet. 

The  fish  from  which  most  of  the 
waste  material  is  obtained  con- 
sist of  herring,  codfish,  whiting, 
and  haddocks.  A  large  amount 
of  herring  waste  is  obtained  from 
the  herrings  prepared  for  curing, 
in  which  usually  the  head,  the 
gills,  and  the  viscera  are  rejected. 
In  making  kippers  from  herrings 
the  gills  and  viscera  are  rejected. 
From  the  codfish  the  liver  is 
always  separated  for  the  manu- 
facture of  cod-liver  oil,  the  head, 
gills,  viscera,  and  the  backbone 
being  used  for  by-products. 

The  industry  is  extensive  in  the 
U.S.A.  and  hi  Norway,  but  is  still 
in  its  infancy  in  Great  Britain, 
where  in  many  fishing  ports  there 
is  no  provision  for  utilising  the 
waste,  which  is  emptied  into  the 
sea.  Factories  already  exist,  how- 
ever, at  Grimsby,  Hull,  Milford 
Haven,  Falkirk,  Montrose,  Fraser- 
burgh,  Wick,  and  Aberdeen.  The 
industry  has  received  considerable 
stimulus  from  the  shortage  of  the 
supplies  of  natural  guano  from 
Peru.  Two  kinds  of  fish  guano  are 
made,  one  from  herring,  the  other 
from  white  fish.  The  former  con- 
tains a  large  percentage  of  oil, 
which  has  to  be  extracted  in  the 
manufacture  of  guano,  the  pro- 
duct from  the  oily  residues  being  a 
dark-coloured,  soft  fish  guano. 
The  product  from  the  white  fish 
is  a  dry,  friable,*  light-coloured, 
more  valuable  guano.  The  value  of 
fish  guano  depends  upon  its  ascer- 
tained chemical  analysis,  the  two 
most  valuable  constituents  being 
phosphate  of  lime  and  nitrogen. 

Cod-liver  oil  comes  from  the 
liver  of  that  fish,  the  oil  in  white 
fish  being  accumulated  in  the  liver 


FISKE 


31  78 


FITCHETT 


instead  of  being  scattered  through- 
out the  flesh,  as  it  is  in  the  herring. 
Hence  the  livers  of  the  cod  when 
caught  are  immediately  separated, 
kept  fresh,  then  broken  up  and 
allowed  to  ferment,  after  which 
they  are  cooked  until  the  oil  is 
free,  and  can  be  run  off.  A  cer- 
tain amount  of  stearine  is  present 
in  this  cod-li ver  oil,  and  has  to  be 
separated  out  before  the  oil  can  be 
used  medicinally.  This  is  done  by 
means  of  extreme  cold. 

Fiske,  BRADLEY  ALLEN  (b. 
1854).  American  sailor.  Born  at 
Lyons,  New  York,  June  13,  1854, 
and  trained  at  U.S.  naval  academy, 
he  was  promoted  lieutenant  in 
1887.  He  was  on  the  Yorktown 
during  the  affray  at  Valparaiso  in 
1891,  was  mentioned  for  services 
at  Manila,  1898,  and  took  part  in 
the  bombardment  of  San  Fernando, 
1899.  He  became  commander  in 
1903,  captain  in  1907,  and  rear- 
admiral  in  1911.  Fiske  invented 
many  electrical  naval  appliances, 
notably  a  naval  telescope  sight, 
and  wrote  much  on  naval  matters. 
See  From  Midshipman  to  Rear- 
Admiral,  B.  A.  Fiske,  1919. 

Fiske,  JOHN  (1842-1901).  Ameri- 
can historian  and  philosopher. 
Born  March  30,  1842,  he  was 
educated  a  t 
Harvard, 
where  he  be- 
came lecturer 
on  philosophy 
and  assistant 
librarian.  In 
philosophy, 
especially  in 
Outlines  o  f 
Cosmic  Philo- 
sophy, 1874, 
he  did  much  to 
popularise  the  evolutionist  theory, 
combined  with  a  belief  in  immor- 
tality, which  he  supported.  His 
historical  works  cover  most  of  the 
development  of  the  U.S.A.  from  the 
earliest  times.  He  died  July  4, 1901. 
Fisk  University.  American 
educational  institution.  Founded 
in  1866  at  Nashville,  Tennessee,  it 
is  for  the  education  of  coloured 
persons  and  is  named  after  Clinton 
B.  Fisk  (1828-90),  American  soldier 
and  philanthropist,  to  whom  its 
establishment  was  largely  due.  The 
teaching  given  at  Fisk  is  some- 
what off  the  ordinary  university 
lines.  Money  for  its  endowment 
was  raised  in  Great  Britain  by  the 
Jubilee  Singers  (q.v,),  as  they  were 
called ;  coloured  men  also  gave, 
concerts,  etc.,  for  this  purpose. 

Fismes,  CAPTURE  OF.  American 
exploit  in  the  Great  War,  Aug., 
1918.  After  the  Franco -American 
capture  of  Chateau -Thierry,  July  21, 
1918,  the  3rd  and  26th  U.S.  divi- 
sions swept  forward  towards  the 


Ourcq  and  the  Vesle  in  pursuit  of 
the  Germans.  On  July  28  severe 
fighting  took  place  at  Sergy,  which 
changed  hands  several  times,  the 
New  York  Irish  regiment  holding 
it  through  the  night,  and  the  Ger- 
mans recapturing  it  next  day  only 
to  be  again  driven  out  when  the 
Americans  resumed  their  advance. 

On  Aug.  1-2  the  42nd  division, 
with  the  28th  division  and  a  brigade 
of  the  3rd  division,  was  close  to 
the  Vesle ;  it  was  relieved  by  the 
4th  division,  which,  with  the  32nd 
division,  tried  to  get  across  the 
river  and  take  Fismes,  but  was  re- 
peatedly beaten  back.  The  77th 
New  York  national  army  division 
and  the  28th  division  next  made 
the  effort,  and  on  Aug.  4-5,  by  out- 
flanking movements  which  threat- 
ened the  complete  envelopment 
and  capture  of  the  German  forces 
in  Fismes,  compelled  the  enemy  to 
withdraw  from  the  town.  There- 
after the  Americans  gained  ground 
on  the  N.  side  of  the  Vesle.  See 
Marne,  Second  Battle  of  the ;  United 
States:  History. 

Fissirostres  (Lat.  fissus,  split ; 
rostrum,  beak).  Obsolete  term  for 
birds  which  have  gaping  mouths,  as 
the  swallow  and  the  goat-sucker. 
As  a  means  of  classification  this 
feature  is  useless,  for  widely  separ- 
ated families  of  birds  possess  it. 

Fissurellidae  (late  Lat.,  little 
fissure).  Family  of  small  limpets 
which  have  a  hole  at  the  apex  or 
margin  of  the  shell,  whence  their 
popular  names,  keyhole  and  slit 
limpets.  Five  species  are  found 
around  the  British  coasts. 

Fistula  (Lat.,  pipe).  Abnormal 
opening  between  a  cavity  in  the 
body  and  the  skin,  or  between  two 
cavities  in  the  body.  For  instance, 
a  communication  between  the 
rectum  and  bladder  is  termed  a 
recto-vesical  fistula. 

Fit  (A.S.  fitt,  struggle).  Popular 
term  for  a  sudden  seizure,  accom- 
panied by  loss  of  consciousness 
with  or  witkrmt  convulsions.  See 
Convulsions  ;  Epilepsy  ;  Hysteria. 

Fitch,  SIR  JOSHUA  GIRLING 
(1824-1903).  British  educationist. 
Son  of  Thomas  Fitch  of  Colchester, 
he  was  educated  there  and  at 
University  College,  London.  He 
became  a  teacher,  and  in  1856  was 
made  principal  of  a  training  college 
for  teachers  in  elementary  schools. 
In  1863  he  was  appointed  an  in- 
spector of  schools,  and  the  rest  of 
Ms  working  life  was  passed  in  the 
public  service,  from  which  he 
retired  in  1894.  When  chief  in- 
spector of  training  colleges  he  was 
entrusted  with  various  special 
duties,  and  from  1870-77  was  an 
assistant  commissioner  of  endowed 
schools.  He  died  July  14,  1903. 
Fitch,  who  was  knighted  in  1896, 


was  one  of  the  foremost  education- 
ists of  his  day,  and  wrote  a  great 
deal  on  the  subject  of  education. 

Fitch,  WILLIAM  CLYDE  (1865- 
1909).  American  playwright.  Born 
and  educated  in  New  York,  he 

scored  a  success 

with  his  first 
play,  Beau 
Brummell,1890. 
In  1899  he  pro- 
duced Nathan 
Hale,  an  his- 
torical play 
dealing  with 
the  American 
William  Clyde  Fitch,  War  of  Inde- 
American  play wright  pendence,  and, 
in  London,  The  Cowboy  and  The 
Lady.  The  Last  of  the  Dandies, 
1901,  and  The  Woman  in  the  Case, 
1909,  were  also  produced  at  Lon- 
don theatres.  He  died  Sept.  4, 1909. 
Fitchburg.  City  of  Massachu- 
setts, U.S.A.,  one  of  the  co.  seats 
of  Worcester  co.  On  a  branch  of 
Nashua  river,  49  m.  W.  by  N.  of 
Boston,  it  is  served  by  the  New 
York,  New  Haven  and  Hartford, 
and  the  Boston  and  Maine  Rlys.  It 
contains  a  state  normal  school, 
several  benevolent  institutions,  a 
public  library,  and  a  number  of 
fine  parks.  Settled  1719,  it  was 
incorporated,  1764,  and  received  a 
city  charter,  1872.  Pop.  42,420. 

Fitche"e  (Fr.  fiche,  fixed).  In 
heraldry  a  cross  with  a  spike  at  its 
lower  extremity  is  said  to  be 
fitchee  or  fitchy.  It  represents  the 
proper  cross  of  the  old  pilgrims  and 
crusaders,  which  was  stuck  in  the 
earth  to  improvise  an  altar.  See 
Cross. 

Fitchett,  WILLIAM  HENRY.  Aus- 
tralian author  and  journalist. 
Educated  at  Melbourne  Univer- 
sity, he  en- 
tered  the 
Methodist 
ministry.  A 
practical  jour- 
nalist, he 
edited  The 
Mel  bourne 
Daily  Tele- 
graph  and 
Southern 
Cross,  and, 
being  greatly 
interested  in  education,  became 
principal  of  the  Methodist  Ladies' 
College.  In  1897  his  Deeds  that 
Won  the  Empire  attained  immedi- 
ate success.  His  other  works  in- 
clude How  England  Saved  Europe, 
1899;  Fights  for  the  Flag,  1900; 
Wellington's  Men,  1900;  Nelson 
and  his  Captains,  1902;  Weslev 
and  his  Century,  1906;  Ithuriers 
Spear,  1906 ;  The  Tale  of  the  Great 
Mutiny,  1907  ;  Beliefs  of  Unbelief, 
1908 ;  The  New  World  of  the  South, 
Australia  in  the  Making,  1913. 


W.  H.  Fitchett. 
Australian  author 

Elliott  &  Fry 


FITTER 

Fitter.  Term  used  in  engineer- 
ing to  designate  the  workman  who 
assembles  parts  of  machinery,  and 
makes  them  fit.  The  work  is  highly 
skilled.  The  term  is  also  applied  in 
tailoring  to  one  who  takes  measure- 
ments, tries  on  and  adjusts  gar- 
ments. See  Engineering. 

Fittings,  ELECTRIC.  Accessory 
to  a  principal  electrical  apparatus. 
Thus,  an  electrical  glow  lamp  is  not 
a  fitting  ;  but  the  holder  into  which 
the  lamp  fits,  the  wall  plug  or  the 
ceiling  rose  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected, and  the  switch  by  means  of 
which  the  light  is  turned  on  or  off, 
are  all  fittings.  The  number  of 
classes  in  which  electrical  fittings 
may  be  ranged  is  not  very  large;  they 
are  chiefly  switches,  wall  plugs, 
ceiling  roses,  adapters  or  connec- 
tors such  as  are  used  to  connect  a 
lampholder  to  a  fan  or  to  a  flat 
iron,  cut-outs,  junction  boxes, 
lampholders,  and  shade  carriers  : 
all  in  an  almost  infinite  variety 


3179 ^^ 

Thus,  under  switches  we  have 
distribution  boards  or  panels 
which  are  simply  collections  of 
switches,  suspension,  bracket,  bolt, 
plate,  and  rotary  switches ;  while 
the  scale  on  which  switches  are 
used  extends  from  the  simple 
button  which  puts  on  or  off  a  single 
glow  lamp  to  the  elaborate  switch- 
board structure,  which  may  occupy 
some  hundreds  of  square  feet,  by 
which  the  current  supplies  from  a 
great  power  station  are  controlled. 
Again,  the  ordinary  glow  lamp 
holder,  which  is  essentially  a 
socket  provided  with  a  bayonet 
joint  in  which  the  end  of  the  lamp 
engages,  may  also  be  provided  with 
a  switch  to  put  the  light  on  or  off, 
and  this  switch  may  be  a  push-bar, 
rotary,  or  chain-pull ;  or  it  may 
have  a  locking  device  which  en- 
sures that  once  the  lamp  is  in  place 
and  locked  it  cannot  be  removed, 
or  it  cannot  be  turned  off  or  on, 
without  the  authority  of  the  person 


FITZCLARENCE 

who  holds  the  key.  Other  forms 
as  used  in  mines  and  on  board  ship 
are  specially  adapted  to  resist  vi- 
bration. See  Lighting,  Electric. 

Fitz  (Lat.  filius  ;  Fr.  fils).  Old 
Anglo-Norman  word  formerly  spelt 
fiz  and  meaning  son.  Like  Scots 
Mac,  Irish  0',  and  Welsh  ab,  ap, 
it  is  prefixed  to  proper  names 
to  show  parentage.  Familiar  ex- 
amples are  Fitzalan,  Fitzgerald, 
and  Fitzwilliam.  It  is  specially 
used  to  indicate  natural  sons  of 
royal  blood,  e.g.  Fitzjames,  duke  of 
Berwick,  son  of  James  II. 

Fitzclarence,  CHARLES  (1865- 
1914).  British  soldier.  Born  May  8, 
1865,  a  son  of  the  earl  of  Munster, 
he  was  educated  at  Eton  and  Wel- 
lington. He  joined  the  Royal  Fusi- 
liers in  1886,  and  the  Irish  Guards 
in  1900.  He  served  in  S.  Africa 
1899-1900,  in  which  campaign  he 
won  the  V.C.  He  went  to  France 
in  Aug.,  1914,  and  commanded  the 
1st  Guards  brigade  at  the  first 


Fittings      Examples   oi   fittings   for   electric  lights.      1.  7-lamp   electrolier.      2.  Inverted   pendant   for  reflected  light. 
*    Adam  stvle  electrolier.      4.  6-lamp  electrolier  for  billiard  table.      5.  Switch  designed  in  Adam  style.     6.  Standard  desk 

lamps.     7.  Electric  lantern  for  public  streets 

By  courtesy  of  General  Electric  Company 


FITZGEORGE 

battle  of  Ypres,  in  which  his 
leadership  helped  to  stem  the 
German  onrush  towards  the  Chan- 
nel ports.  On  Oct.  31,  the  most 
critical  day,  he  was  killed  in 
action.  See  Ypres,  First  Battle  of. 
Fitzgeorge.  Name  taken  by  the 
three  sons  of  the  duke  of  Cambridge 
and  his  morganatic  wife,  Miss 
Louisa  Fairbrother,  the  actress, 
whom  he  married  in  1840.  One  of 
them,  Sir  Adolphus  Augustus  Fred- 
erick Fitzgeorge  (b.  1846),  entered 
the  navy  and  retired  with  the  rank 
of  rear-admiral.  In  1904  he  was 
knighted.  Another,  Sir  Augustus 
Charles  Frederiek  Fitzgeorge  (b. 
1847),  entered  the  Rifle  Brigade  in 
1865  and  later  served  in  the  llth 
Hussars.  He  retired  as  a  colonel 
and  was  knighted  in  1904. 

Fitzgerald,  LORD  EDWARD  (1763 
-98).  Irish  rebel.  Son  of  the  1st 
duke  of  Leinster,  he  joined  the 
English  army, 
served  in  Ire- 
land, and  in 
1781  was 
wounded  at 
the  battle  of 
Eutaw  Springs 
in  America.  He 
was  elected  to 
the  Irish  par- 
liament  as 
member  for 
Athy,  after- 
wards tra- 
velled  in  America,  and  in  1792 
was  cashiered  for  attending  a 
revolutionary  banquet  in  Paris. 
He  joined  the  United  Irishmen  in 
1796  and  took  an  active  part  in  the 
plans  for  the  French  invasion.  The 
plot  was  discovered,  and  Fitzgerald 
died  in  prison,  June  4,  1798,  from 
wounds  inflicted  by  one  of  his  cap- 
tors. His  wife  Pamela  was  generally, 
but  wrongly,  believed  to  be  a 
daughter  of  Madame  de  Genlis  by 
Philippe  Egalite,  duke  of  Orleans. 
She,  who  was  probably  born  in 
Newfoundland,  married  Fitzgerald 
in  1792  and  lived  until  Nov.,  1831. 
Fitzgerald,  EDWARD  (1809- 
83).  English  poet  and  translator. 
He  was  born  March  31,  1809,  at 
Bredfield  House,  near  Woodbridge, 
Suffolk,  the  son 
of  John  Pur- 
cell,  who  as- 
sumed his 
father-in  -law's 
name,  Fitzger- 
ald, nine  years 
after  the  poet's 
birth.  Spend- 
ina  his  boy- 
••••  hood 
^-  abroad, 
he  was 

sent,  in  1821,  to  a  school  in  Bury  St. 
Edmunds,  entering  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  five  years  later.  He 


After  0.  Humphry,  R.A. 


)J         i 


became  intimate  with  Thackeray 
and  Spedding;  later  with  Tenny- 
son and  Carlyle.  On  leaving  the 
university,  he  spent  a  short  time 
in  France,  but,  returning  to  Suffolk 
in  1831,  never  left  it  again,  for 
more  than  a  week  or  two,  till  his 
death,  June  14,  1883. 

His  life  was  that  of  a  recluse 
spent  among  books,  flowers,  and 
music ;  he  began  the  study  of 
Spanish  in  1850,  that  of  Persian  in 
1853.  The  world-famous  transla- 
tion of  The  Rubaiyat  of  Omar 
Khayyam,  preceded  in  1856  by  an 
anonymous  version  of  the  Sala- 
man  and  Absal  of  Jami  in  Miltonic 
verse,  was  first  published  in  Jan., 
1859  ;  but  lay  for  months  neg- 
lected, even  by  the  translator's 
own  friends,  until  Rossetti  dis- 
covered it  in  the  f  ourpenny  box  of 
a  second  -  hand  bookseller,  and 
Swinburne  proclaimed  its  genius 
to  the  world.  A  second,  greatly  re- 
vised, edition  appeared  in  1868, 
and  its  subsequent  popularity  has 
been  phenomenal.  Fitzgerald  also 
published  Euphranor,  a  Platonic 
Dialogue,  1851 ;  Six  Dramas  of 
Calderon,  1853  ;  a  version  of  the 
Agamemnon,  1876 ;  two  Oedipus 
Tragedies,  1880-81 ;  and  Readings 
in  Crabbe,  1882.  The  dedication  of 
Tennyson's  Tiresius  to  "  Old  Fitz  " 
advanced  Fitzgerald's  personal  re- 
putation, but  it  was  not  till  W.  Aldis 
Wright  brought  out,  in  1889,  his 
Letters  and  Literary  Remains,  and, 
in  1895,  his  Letters  to  Fanny 
Kemble,  that  the  world  knew 
much  of  the  man  whose  work  it  had 
long  since  taken  to  its  heart. 

He  married,  in  middle  life,  Lucy, 
daughter  of  Bernard  Barton,  the 
Quaker  poet,  and  the  interest  of  his 
later  years  was  centred  in  the  sea, 
"  knocking  about  somewhere  out- 
side of  Lowestoft,"  as  he  puts  it 
himself.  He  was  a  witty,  pic- 
turesque, and  sympathetic  letter- 
writer,  on  terms  of  intimacy  with 
the  most  interesting  men  and 
women  of  the  day.  His  verse  is 
tranquil  and  exquisite :  the  cul- 
tured expression  of  most  attractive 

speculations.  R.  B.  Johnson 

Bibliography.  Letters  and  Liter- 
ary Remains,  ed.  W.  A.  Wright,  new 
ed.  1902  ;  Letters  to  Fanny  Kemble, 
1895;  Two  SufEolk  Friends,  F.  H. 
Groome,  1895 ;  Lives,  J.  Glyde, 
1900;  T. 
Wright,  1904. 
Fitzgerald, 
PERCY  HETH- 

ERINGTON     (b. 

1834).  Irish 
writer.  Born 
in  co.  Louth, 
he  was  educa- 
ted at  Stony  - 
hurst,  and 
Trinity  Col- 
lege, Dublin. 


FITZHERBERT 

Called  to  the  Irish  bar,  he  be- 
came crown  prosecutor,  but  aban- 
doned law  for  literature  and 
removed  to  London;.  He  con- 
tributed stories  .to  Dickens's  All 
the  Year  Round,  and  produced 
many  literary  studies,  historical 
and  theatrical  works,  and  novels. 
In  1895  he  published  Memoirs  of 
an  Author.  He  engaged  in  sculpture 
as  a  hobby,  and  his  statue  of  Dr. 
Johnson  stands  in  London  in  the 
churchyard  of  S.  Clement  Danes. 

Fitzherber t ,  MARIA  A  NNE  ( 1 756- 
1837).  Wife  of  George  IV.  A 
daughter  of  Walter  Smythe,  of 
Brambridge,  Hampshire,  she  mar- 
ried in  1775  Edward  Weld,  of  Lul- 


Percy  Fitzgerald, 
Irish  writer 


Maria  Anne    Fitzherbert,   wife    of 
George  IV 

After  B.  Cotway 

worth  Castle,  Dorset.  Her  second 
husband  was  Thomas  Fitzherbert, 
and  after  his  death  in  1781  she 
lived  at  Richmond.  In  1785  she 
met  the  prince  of  Wales,  who  fell 
in  love  with  her,  but  to  avoid  his 
attentions  she  went  abroad.  He 
pressed  his  suit,  however,  and  the 
pair  were  married  privately  on 
Dec.  21,  1785. 

According  to  the  Royal  Mar- 
riages Act,  1772,  the  union  was 
illegal,  and  some,  but  not  the 
prince,  held  that  it  was  invalid  ; 
the  lady  being  a  Roman  Catholic, 
it  was  sanctioned  by  the  pope.  In 
1795  George  married  Caroline  of 
Brunswick  and  Mrs.  Fitzherbert 
left  him  for  a  time.  They  lived  to- 
gether again  until  1803,  when  the 
prince  began  to  tire  of  her.  They 
finally  parted,  but  George  seemed 
to  retain  some  affection  for  her  to 
the  end.  Mrs.  Fitzherbert,  who 
had  an  allowance  of  £6,000  a  year, 
died  at  Brighton,  March  29,  1837. 
A  box  of  papers  was  left  by  her  to 
her  executors  for  use  at  their  dis- 
cretion, but  its  contents  have 
never  been  really  examined.  See 
Mrs.  Fitzherbert  and  George  IV, 
W.  H.  Wilkins,  1905. 


FITZMAUR1CE 


3181 


FITZWILL1AM 


85hewasM.P. 
for  Calne.     In 


Fitzmaurice,  EDMOND  GEORGE 

FlTZMATJRICE,  1ST  BARON  (b.  1846). 

British  politician.  Born  June  19, 
1846,  second 
son  of  the  4th 
marquess  of 
Lansdowne,  he 
was  educated 
at  Eton  and 
Trinity  Col- 
1  e  g  e,  C  a  m- 
bridge.  En- 
tering political 

Baron  Fitzmaurice,     Iife,froml869~ 
British  politician 

Elliott  &  Fry 

1880  he  was  commissioner  for  the 
reorganization  of  the  European 
provinces  of  Turkey  and  Crete 
under  the  treaty  of  Berlin,  and 
second  plenipotentiary  at  the  Dan- 
ube Conference,  London,  1882-83. 
In  1882  he  became  under -secretary 
for  foreign  affairs  in  the  Liberal 
ministry,  but  in  1885  he  lost  his 
seat,  and  until  1898  he  remained 
out  of  Parliament.  He  was  then 
returned  for  the  Cricklade  division 
of  Wiltshire,  retiring  in  1905. 
Again  under-secretary  for  foreign 
affairs,  he  was  made  a  peer  in 
1906,  and  in  1908-9  was  chan- 
cellor of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster. 
Lord  Fitzmaurice  wrote  a  number 
of  books,  the  best  known  being 
Life  of  William,  Earl  of  Shelburne, 
1875-77  ;  and  Life  of  Earl  Gran- 
ville,  1905. 

Fitzmaurice-Kelly,  JAMES 
(1857-1923).  British  man  of  let- 
ters. Born  June  20, 1857,  he  devoted 
himself  to  the 
study  of  the 
language  and 
literature  of 
Spain.  He  held 
the  posts  of 
Taylorian  lec- 
turer at  Ox- 
ford Univer- 
sity,1902;Nor- 
man  MacColl 
lecturer  at 
Cambridge,  1908  and  1912 ;  and  pro- 
fessor (Cervantes  chair  of  Spanish) 
at  King's  College,  London,  re- 
signing in  1920.  His  works  include 
Life  of  Cervantes,  1892  ;  A  History 
of  Spanish  Literature,  1898  ;  Lope 
de  Vega  and  the  Spanish  Drama, 
1902  ;  Chapters  on  Spanish  Litera- 
ture, 1908  ;  Miguel  de  Cervantes 
Saavedra :  a  Memoir,  1913 ;  and  an 
edition  of  Cervantes'  works  in  Eng- 
lish, 1901-3.  He  died  Jan.  11, 1 923. 

Fit zpa trick,  SIR  CHARLES  (b. 
1853).  Canadian  lawyer.  Born  in 
Quebec,  Dec.  19, 1853,  he  was  edu- 
cated at  St.  Anne's  College  and 
Laval  University  there.  In  1876  he 
became  a  barrister,  and  in  1879 
crown  prosecutor  for  Quebec.  From 
1890  to  1896  he  was  a  member  of 
the  legislative  assembly  of  Quebec, 


J.  Fitzmaurice-Kelly, 
British  man  of  letters 


Sir  C.  Fitzpatrick, 
Canadian  lawyer 


being  one  of  the  representatives  of 
the  capital  therein.  At  the  general 
election  of  1896  Fitzpatrick  en- 
tered Dominion  politics  as  member 
for  the  same  city  in  the  House  of 
Commons  at  Ottawa.  In  the  same 
year  he  was  made  solicitor-general 
in  the  Laurier  administration,  and 
in  1902  he  became  minister  of 
justice.  In 
1906  he  was 
chosen  chief 
justice  of  Can- 
ada, retaining 
this  post  until 
made  lieuten- 
ant-governor of 
the  province  of 
Quebec  in  1918. 
In  1907  he  was 
knighted.  From 
1908-10  Sir  Charles  was  a  member 
of  the  Hague  tribunal. 

Fitzroy.  River  of  Queensland, 
Australia.  It  is  formed  by  the 
union  of  the  Dawson  with  the 
Mackenzie,  and  flows  an  easterly 
course  to  discharge  into  Keppel 
Bay.  It  is  navigable  for  steamers 
up  to  1,000  tons  to  Rockhampton, 
a  distance  of  35  m.  One  of  the 
most  important  rivers  in  Queens- 
land, its  fertile  valley  contains 
many  stock  farms  which  supply 
the  refrigerating  works  on  the 
coast ;  this  industry  will  develop. 
There  is  another  river  of  this  name 
in  W.  Australia.  It  rises  in  King 
Leopold  range,  and  pursuing  a 
generally  westerly  course  it  empties 
into  King  Sound  on  the  Indian 
Ocean.  It  is  navigable  for  100  m. 
Length,  300  m. 

Fitzroy.  North-eastern  suburb 
of  Melbourne,  Victoria,  Australia. 
It  is  a  manufacturing  centre,  with 
a  rly.  station  and  several  large 
recreation  grounds,  including  the 
Edinburgh  Gardens  to  the  N.E., 
the  Carlton  Gardens  to  the  S.W., 
and  the  Fitzroy  Gardens  to  the  S. 
The  last  are  laid  out  with  fine 
avenues  of  trees  and  adorned  with 
statues  and  fountains.  Pop.  34,283. 
See  Melbourne. 

Fitzroy,  ROBERT  (1805-65). 
British  sailor.  Son  of  Lord  Charles 
Fitzroy,  and  grandson  of  the  3rd 
duke  of  Grafton,  he  was  born  in 
Suffolk,  July  5,  1805.  He  entered 
the  R.N.  College  in  1819,  and  be- 
came lieutenant  in  1824.  In  1831 
he  sailed  in  command  of  the  Beagle, 
a  brig  engaged  in  surveying  the  S. 
coast  of  S.  America,  with  Charles 
Darwin  as  naturalist.  During  this 
voyage,  1831-36,  Fitzroy  sur- 
veyed most  of  the  S.  American 
coasts  and  ran  a  chronometric  line 
round  the  world.  In  1839  he  pub- 
lished his  Narrative  of  the  Survey- 
ing Ships  H.M.S.  Adventure  and 
Beagle,  in  three  volumes,  the  last 
written  by  Darwin.  In  1841  he  was 


M.P.  for  Durham,  and  in  1843  was 
appointed  governor  of  New  Zea- 
land, but  his  attitude  towards  the 
settlers  incurred  their  anger  and  he 
was  recalled  in  1845.  He  became 
vice-admiral  in  1863  and  died 
April  30,  1865.  He  is  remembered 
by  his  invention  of  the  Fitzroy 
barometer. 

Fitzrpy's  Cypress  (Fitzroya 
patagonica).  Evergreen  tree  of  the 
natural  order  Coniferae.  A  native 
of  Patagonia,  it  has  slender, 
spreading  branches  and  flat,  over- 
lapping, oval- oblong  leaves.  The 
cones  are  small  and  star-shaped, 
consisting  of  nine  scales.  The 
height  of  the  trunk  is  100  ft. 

Fitzsimmons,  ROBERT  (1862- 
1917).  British  pugilist.  Born  at 
Helston,  Cornwall,  June  4,  1862, 
he  went  to  New  Zealand  with  his 
parents  at  the  age  of  nine,  and  was 
trained  as  a  blacksmith.  After 
several  local  successes  he  entered 
the  ring  as  a  professional,  and 
moved  to  Sydney,  where  he  beat 
Bill  Slam,  West,  and  Professor 
Hall,  but  was  himself  beaten  by 
Jem  Hall  in  the  contest  for  middle- 
weight championship. 

Proceeding  to  the  United  States 
in  1890,  he  defeated  Jack  Dempsey 
— to  be  distinguished  from  the 
later  pugilist  of  the  same  name 
— in  13  rounds  in  the  fight  for 
the  middleweight  championship  of 
the  world ;  nine  months  later  he 
beat  Peter  Maher  hi  12  rounds, 
and  in  1897  obtained  the  heavy- 
weight championship  at  Carson 
City.  In  June,  1899,  he  was  de- 
feated by  Jeffries,  and  in  1902, 
although  forty  years  of  age,  he 
challenged  Jeffries  again,  but  was 
beaten  in  the  eighth  round,  after 
putting  up  a  splendid  fight.  In 
1905  he  was  beaten  in  13  rounds  by 
Jack  O'Brien,  and  after  meeting 
Jack  Johnson  in  1907,  and  Bill 
Lang  in  1912,  he  retired  from  the 
ring  after  an  exceptionally  long 
career.  He  died  Oct.  22,  1917. 

Fitzwilliam,  EARL.  British 
title  held  by  the  family  of  Fitz- 
william since  1746.  The  family  is  an 
old  one,  tracing  back  its  descent  to 
Sir  William  Fitzwilliam  of  Ehnley, 
Yorkshire.  It  became  specially 
prominent  hi  the  time  of  Elizabeth. 
Sir  William  Fitzwilliam  (1526- 
1599)  was  the  grandson  of  another 
Sir  William,  a  London  merchant 
who  was  also  one  of  the  servants  of 
Cardinal  Wolsey.  The  younger  Sir 
William  passed  much  of  his  time  in 
Ireland  as  lord  deputy,  1571—75 
and  1588-94.  Having  acquired 
lands  in  Ireland,  his  grandson  was 
made  an  Irish  baron  in  1620. 

William,  the  3rd  baron  (1643- 
1719),  was  created  a  viscount 
and  an  earl  in  1716,  and  from  him 
the  present  peer  is  descended. 


FITZWILLIAM 


William,  the  3rd  earl,  was  made 
baron  (1742)  and  earl  (1746)  in  the 
peerage  of  the  United  Kingdom. 
He  married  Anne,  daughter  of  the 
marquess  of  Rockingham,  a  union 
that  brought  Wentworth  Wood- 
house  and  large  estates  to  the 
family.  In  1902  William  (b.  1872), 
who  as  Viscount  Milton  had  been 
M.P.  for  Wakefield  since  1895,  be- 
came the  7th  earl.  The  earls  own 
large  estates  in  Yorkshire  and 
Wicklow,  also  Milton  Hall,  Peter- 
borough, which  has  been  in  the 
family  since  about  1500.  His  eldest 
son  is  called  Viscount  Milton  and 
his  chief  seat  is  Wentworth  Wood- 
house,  near  Rotherham. 

Fitz  william,  WILLIAM  WENT- 
WORTH FITZWILLIAM,  2ND  EARL 
(1748-1833).  British  statesman. 
Born  May  30, 
1748,  he  was 
the  eldest  son 
of  the  first 
earl,  whom  he 
succeeded  i  n 
1756.  In  1782, 
on  the  death 
of  his  uncle, 
Lord  Rocking- 


After  w.owen  ham,  he  suc- 
ceeded to  the  Yorkshire  estates 
of  the  Wentworths  and  took  the 
additional  name  of  Wentworth.  He 
was  president  of  the  council  in 
1794,  and  later  in  1806,  and  was 
lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland  for  a  few 
months  in  1795.  In  1798  he  was 
appointed  lord-lieutenant  of  the 
W.  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  but  was 
dismissed  in  1819  for  censuring  the 
Peterloo  massacre.  Fitzwilliam 
died  Feb.  8,  1833. 

Fitzwilliam  Museum.  Art 
and  archaeological  museum  in 
Cambridge.  It  was  founded  by 
Richard  Fitzwilliam  (1745-1816), 
7th  Viscount  Fitzwilliam,  an  Irish 
peer,  who  must  be  distinguished 
from  Earl  Fitzwilliam.  He  be- 
queathed to  the  university  his  col- 
lection of  books,  illuminated  MSS., 
pictures,  drawings,  engravings, 
etc.,  together  with  certain  divi- 
dends, for  the  erection  of  a  gallery 
to  accommodate  them.  The  money 
was  allowed  to  accumulate,  and 
when  £40,000  had  been  amassed 
the  Fitzwilliam  Museum  in  Trump- 
ington  Street,  Cambridge,  was 
begun  in  1837  from  the  designs  by 
George  Basevi,  continued  (1845) 
by  Charles  Robert  Cockerell,  and 
completed  (1874)  by  Edward  Mid- 
dleton  Barry.  The  schools  of  art 
are  well  represented  by  over  700 
pictures,  the  original  bequest  has 
been  increased  by  othjer  donors,  and 
the  museum  now  possesses  in  addi- 
tion a  fine  collection  of  antiquities 
and  a  valuable  library. 


Fiume. 


Plan  of  the  Adriatic  port,  formerly  belonging  to  Austria-Hungary, 
and  one  of  the  most  important  seaports  of  the  Adriatic 


Fiume.  Seaport  and,  since  the 
Treaty  of  Rapallo  (1920),  an  inde- 
pendent State.  It  stands  on  the 
river  Refiina,  at  its  outfall  into 
the  Bay  of  Quarnero,  at  the  N.E. 
extremity  of  the  Adriatic.  It  has 
several  harbours — the  Fiumara 
canal,  used  by  coasting  vessels  ;  the 
Baross  harbour ;  the  main  harbour, 
which  is  protected  by  a  mole , 
and  the  free  and  petroleum  har- 
bours to  the  W.  Practically  all 
the  shipping  trade  of  Hungary 
passed  through  its  port,  and  the 
fisheries  are  of  great  importance. 
Among  the  features  of  architec- 
tural interest,  the  cathedral,  the 
Roman  triumphal  arch,  and  the 
governor's  residence  may  be  men- 
tioned. 

The  town  possesses  distilleries, 
petroleum  refineries,  and  mills, 
while  there  is  trade  in  fruit,  barrels, 
staves,  furniture,  tobacco,  paper, 
chemicals,  fertilisers,  and  soap. 
Fiume  constituted  under  the  old 
regime  a  crown-land  of  Hungary, 
with  an  area  of  8  sq.  m.  The  pop. 
is  largely  Italian,  but  the  suburb 
of  Sushak  across  the  river,  and  the 


surrounding  area,  is  inhabited  by 
Yugo-Slavs,  chiefly  Croats.  Pop. 
49,806. 

Fiume' s  mixed  population  of 
Italians,  Croats,  Magyars,  and  vari- 
ous other  nationalities  made  it  a 
point  of  racial  dispute.  Long  a 
small  centre  of  coastwise  trade,  it 
came  into  prominence  only  when 
the  Budapest-Zagrab-Fiume  Rly. 
was  built.  Originally  known  as  S. 
Vitus  in  Flumine,  in  1465  it  became 
a  Hapsburg  possession.  Charles  VI 
declared  it  a  free  port  in  1717,  and 
in  1776,  by  a  decree  of  Maria 
Theresa,  it  was  handed  over  to 
Croatia.  In  1807  it  was  incorpor- 
ated in  Hungary.  Two  years  later, 
under  the  rule  of  Napoleon,  it  be- 
came part  of  Illyria.  In  1822 
Fiume  was  restored  to  Hungary, 
but  as  a  result  of  the  Croatian 
national  movement  of  1848  was 
reunited  to  Croatia.  In  1861  it  was 
made  autonomous.  The  Magyars 
of  Fiume  under  this  arrangement 
favoured  the  Italian  section  of  its 
inhabitants,  and  for  nearly  fifty 
years  this  union  strove  to  prevent 
Slav  predominance.  It  became  in 


Fiume.    The  quays  looking  north-west  from  Zichy  Mole 


FIVE      KNIGHTS'      CASE 


3183 


FIVES 


appearance  a  Magyar-Italian  city, 
though  the  bulk  of  the  shipping 
was  owned  and  manned  by  Croats. 
Since  the  Great  War  its  posses- 
sion has  become  a  burning  question. 
Though  not  assigned  to  Italy  by 
the  Treaty  of  London  (April,  1916) 
it  was  claimed  as  Italian  because  it 
contained  a  majority  of  Italian - 
speaking  inhabitants.  The  Croats, 
and  on  their  behalf  the  new  Serb- 
Croat-Slovene  government,  claimed 
it  as  a  Southern  Slav  port  as 
being  historically  Croatian,  further 
claiming  that  with  the  suburb  of 
Sushak  it  was  inhabited  by  a  ma- 
jority of  Southern  Slavs. 

The  feeling  between  Yugo-Slavia 
and  Italy  as  to  its  possession  be- 
came more  strained.  The  latter 
maintained  it  was  the  most  vital 
port  on  the  Adriatic  and  was  neces- 
sary for  her.  Matters  came  to  a 
head  when  on  Sept.  11,  1919, 
Gabriele  d'Annunzio,  at  the  head 
of  the  Italian  volunteers,  seized 
Fiume  and  set  up  a  national  council 
or  provisional  government.  On  Nov. 
12,  1920,  the  Treaty  of  Rapallo, 
signed  by  the  representatives  of 
Italy  and  Yugo-Slavia,  established 
an  independent  state  of  Fiume 
which  was  to  be  slightly  larger  than 
the  independent  administrative 
district  formerly  incorporated  in 
Hungary;  and  provided  that  the 
new  territory  should  be  delimited 
by  a  commission.  The  insurgents 
in  Fiume  denounced  the  treaty, 
and  d'Annunzio  declared  that 
Fiume  was  in  a  state  of  war  with 
Italy.  The  government  of  the  lat- 
ter expelled  the  insurgents  in  Dec., 
1920,  and  in  1923  Fiume  was  an- 
nexed by  Italy  with  the  consent 
of  Yugo-Slavia.  See  Annun/io, 
Gabriele  d' ;  Italy  ;  Yugo-Slavia  ; 
N.  V.  Consult  also  Abridged  Politi- 
cal History  of  Rieka  (Fiume),  F. 
gisic,  1919. 

Five  Knights'  Case,  THE.  Trial 
in  the  court  of  king's  bench,  Nov. 
22,  1627.  Sir  Thomas  Darnell,with 
four  other  knights,  Corbet,  Earl, 
Hampden,  and  Heveningham,  had 
been  committed  to  the  Fleet  prison 
the  previous  March  by  warrant 
signed  only  by  the  attorney -general 
for  refusing  payment  of  the  forced 
loan  raised  by  King  Charles  I. 
They  applied  for  a  writ  of  Habeas 
Corpus,  demanding  that  the  war- 
den of  the  fleet  should  bring  them 
before  the  court  of  king's  bench 
and  specify  the  cause  of  their  com- 
mittal. " 

The  case  came  on  for  argument 
Nov.  22,  1627,  when  the  gaoler  re- 
turned that  they  were  imprisoned 
by  the  king's  special  command,  i.e. 
for  no  stated  offence,  and  the  court, 
presided  over  by  Chief  Justice 
Hyde,  decided,  Nov.  28,  that  this 
was  sufficient  ground  for  commit- 


tal. The  prisoners  did  not  deny  the 
right  of  the  crown  to  imprison 
in  certain  circumstances  without 
showing  cause,  but  pleaded  that 
they  were  imprisoned  for  refusing 
to  subscribe  to  the  forced  loan,  of 
which  they  denied  the  legality. 
See  Forced  Loan. 

Five  Members.  Specially,  the 
five  members  of  Parliament  whom 
Charles  I  tried  to  arrest,  Jan.  4, 
1642.  The  relations  between  the 
two  parties  were  very  strained 
when  the  king  ordered  the  attor- 
ney-general to  prepare  articles  of 
impeachment  against  the  five : 
John  Hampden,  John  Pym,  Denzil 
Holies,  Sir  Arthur  Hazlerigg,  and 
William  Strode.  This  was  done,  one 
of  the  charges  being  that  of  levying 
war  against  the  king,  and  the 
House  of  Lords  was  asked  to  order 
their  arrest,  a  necessary  prelim- 
inary to  their  trial  before  that  body. 
This  the  peers  refused  to  do,  so  the 
king  went  with  the  serjeant-at- 
arms  to  do  it  himself ;  with  him 
were  about  300  attendants. 

He  entered  the  house  just  as  the 
warned  members  had  escaped  by 
river  to  the  city,  and  asked  the 
Speaker  for  them.  The  latter, 
Lenthall,  replied  that  he  could 
only  do  as  the  house  directed  him, 
to  which  the  king  answered,  "  I  see 
all  the  birds  are  flown."  Next  day 
Charles  went  to  the  city,  but  again 
he  failed  to  secure  the  five.  The 
impeachment  was  declared  illegal. 


On  the  llth  the  members  returned 
to  Westminster,  a  great  concourse 
of  people,  both  on  the  river  and 
on  the  banks,  cheering  their  arrival. 

Five  Mile  Act.  Act  passed  in 
1665  which  forbade  those  ministers 
who  had  been  expelled  from  their 
livings  in  1662  from  residing  within 
five  miles  of  any  corporate  town  or 
teaching  in  any  school.  They  could 
only  obtain  relief  by  subscribing  to 
the  Act  of  Uniformity  and  taking 
an  oath  that  resistance  to  the  king 
was  unlawful.  The  Act  was  part  of 
the  Clarendon  Code,  and  became 
inoperative  by  lapse  of  time. 

Five  Nations.  Name  given  to 
the  Indian  nation  of  the  Iroquois, 
because  it  consisted  of  five  tribes. 
These  were  Mohawks,  Oneidas, 
Cayugas,  Onondayas,  and  Senecas. 
Early  in  the  18th  century  they 
were  joined  by  the  Tuscaroras  and 
were  known  as  the  Six  Nations.  (See 
Iroquois).  It  is  also  the  name  of  a 
volume  of  poems  by  Rudyard 
Kipling,  the  five  nations  being  the 
five  chief  members  of  the  British 
Empire. 

Fives.  Game  of  handball.  It  is 
played  either  with  the  bare  hand  or 
with  gloves,  though  at  the  present 
time  almost  invariably  with  the 
latter.  The  derivation  of  the  word 
fives  is"' doubtful,  although  various 
suggestions  have  been  made  that  it 
is  so  called  from  the  five  fingers 
of  the  hand,  or  that  it  was  played 
by  five  people  on  each  side. 


Fives.     An  Eton  game  in  progress,  illustrating  the  construction  of  the  court. 
Above,  about  to  volley  for  the  pepper-box 


FIViZZANO 


3  1  84 


FLACIUS 


Fives  was  very  popular  in  the 
early  part  of  the  19th  century, 
when  it  was  played  in  closed  spaces, 
especially  built  for  the  purpose,  and 
also  in  tennis  courts.  One  of  the 
most  famous  of  fives  courts  was  in 
St.  Martin' s-in-the-Fields,  and  there 
is  an  old  print  representing  Fives 
in  the  tennis  court  in  Leicester 
Fields,  which  gives  some  idea  of 
the  game  as  then  played.  A 
feature  of  the  game  was  that  the 
ball  was  bounced  on  the  ground, 
and  then  struck  with  the  hand  for 
the  service.  This  has  now  en- 
tirely disappeared.  The  ball  in  the 
modern  games  is  invariably  thrown 
up  by  one  player  and  hit  by  one  of 
the  adversaries.  William  Hazlitt's 
obituary  of  John  Cavanagh,  the 
Fives  Player,  which  appeared  in 
The  Examiner,  is  the  best  known 
piece  in  the  literature  of  the  game. 

In  modern  days  fives  is  played 
chiefly  in  three  forms  of  court,  and 
is  mainly  confined  to  the  public 
schools  and  universities.  One  form 
is  Eton  Fives.  The  court,  unique  in 
several  features,  which  is  now  very 
carefully  constructed  for  this  game, 
originated  from  part  of  the  chapel 
at  Eton  against  which  the  game 
used  to  be  played.  A  buttress  and 
some  of  the  chapel  steps  gave  rise 
to  the  present  hazards  in  the  court 
which  afford  so  much  interest  and 
variety  to  the  game.  The  court  has 
three  walls,  and  up  to  a  few  years 
ago  all  courts  were  uncovered. 
Now  there  are  a  few  courts  which 
are  covered  by  a  pent-house  roof. 
The  game  is  played  by  four  players, 
and  demands  the  highest  skill  and 
quickness  of  movement.  It  is  also 
possible,  but  not  usual,  to  play  a 
single.  The  rules  of  the  game  for 
many  years  existed  in  oral  tradition 
only,  but  were  eventually  codified. 

A  Rugby  fives  court,  called  after 
the  school  of  that  name,  is  a  four- 
walled  building  covered  with  a  roof. 
The  walls  are  all  plain,  except  that 
on  the  front  wall  there  is  a  ledge 
or  board,  above  which  the  ball 
must  be  struck  to  be  in  play. 
The  game  is  played  at  the  majority 
of  the  public  schools.  The  rules 
were  revised  and  brought  up  to 
date  in  1913,  and  are  printed  in  the 
Tennis  Rackets  and  Fives  Associa- 
tion's Handbook. 

Winchester  fives  is  practically 
similar  to  the  Rugby  game,  except 
that  in  the  left-hand  side  wall  of 
the  court  there  is  a  projecting 
buttress  which  forms  a  hazard. 
Courts  of  this  kind  exist  only  in 
one  or  two  places  outside  Win- 
chester. Both  the  Rugby  and 
Winchester  games  can  be  played 
either  by  one  or  two  players  a  side. 
The  service  is  given  by  one  player 
throwing  the  ball  on  to  the  wall. 
His  adversary  can  refuse  any 


service,  but  if  he  does  not  refuse 
it,  he  must  hit  the  ball  on  to  the 
right-hand  side  wall,  and  then  on 
to  the  front  wall  above  the  ledge 
or  line.  The  rally  then  proceeds  in 
the  ordinary  way,  i.e.  the  ball  is 
returned  on  the  volley  or  the  first 
round  above  the  line.  The  player 
who  first  fails  to  do  this  loses  the 
rally,  and  either  yields  the  service 
to  another  player  or  loses  a  point. 
A  game  consists  of  15  points. « 

The  ball  used  in  fives  is  made  like 
a  racket  ball.  The  foundation  is  of 
cloth,  bound  tightly  round  with 
twine  and  covered  with  white  kid. 
The  weight  of  the  ball  in  Eton 
fives  is  l|  oz.,  and  in  Rugby  1|  oz. 

E.    B.   Noel 

Bibliography.  T  e  n  n  is,  Lawn 
Tennis,  Rackets  and  Fives,  J.  M. 
Heathcote  and  others,  4th  ed.  1897  ; 
Tennis,  Rackets  and  Fives,  J.  A.  A. 
Tait,  1890. 

Fivizzano.  Town  of  Italy,  in 
the  prov.  of  Massa  e  Carrara.  It 
stands  among  the  Apuan  Alps,  at 
an  elevation  of  1,045  ft.,  20  m. 
N.N.E.  of  Spezia.  It  is  surrounded 
by  medieval  walls,  and  has  castle 
ruins  and  other  antiquities.  In  the 
vicinity  are  noted  quarries  of 
Carrara  marble.  An  earthquake 
in  Sept.,  1920,  caused  widespread 
havoc.  Pop.  17,250. 

Fixture  (Lat.  figere,  to  fix). 
Term  used  in  English  law  for  a 
thing  of  a  chattel  nature  which  is 
affixed  to  the  freehold,  so  as  to  be- 
come part  of  it,  and,  therefore,  to 
become  realty  and  not  personalty. 
Sometimes  these  things  can  be  re- 
moved again  by  the  people  who  put 
them  there,  so  that  they  become 
personal  property  again,  and  some- 
times not.  Practically,  questions 
about  fixtures  become  important 
as  between  landlord  and  tenant, 
between  the  heir  and  the  personal 
representative  of  a  deceased,  and 
between  the  representative  of  the 
owner  of  a  particular  estate,  e.g.  a 
tenant  for  life,  and  the  ultimate 
owner.  In  the  last  two  cases,  the 
personal  representative  is  en- 
titled to  claim  only  such  articles 
as  were  put  up  for  domestic  use, 
ornament,  or  trade  use,  provided 
that  they  are  easily  removable. 

As  between  landlord  and  tenant 
the  right  of  removal  is  stronger. 
A  tenant  is  entitled  to  remove  all 
fixtures  put  up  by  him  for  orna- 
ment or  convenience  which  can  be 
removed  without  much  damage 
to  the  premises,  e.g.  marble  mantel- 
pieces, pier-glasses,  tapestry,  grates, 
etc.,  or  cupboards  fixed  in  the  hold- 
fasts. In  the  case  of  trade  fixtures, 
the  tenant  may  remove  them,  un- 
less in  so  doing  he  causes  serious 
damage  to  the  property.  Similarly 
agricultural  fixtures  can  always 
be  removed,  but  the  tenant  must 
make  good  any  damage  he  does. 


A  tenant  must  remove  his  fix- 
tures before  his  tenancy  ex- 
pires— he  cannot  go  back  after- 
wards and  take  them  away.  If  he 
leaves  them  behind  he  has  no 
claim  to  them,  or  to  compensation 
for  them,  as  many  people  suppose  ; 
nor  can  he  demand  that  a  succeed- 
ing tenant  shall  pay  for  them. 
They  are  the  landlord's  property 
See  Landlord ;  Tenant. 

Fizeau's  Experiment.  Well- 
known  experiment  first  used  by 
A.  H.  L.  Fizeau  for  the  determination 
of  the  velocity  of  light.  The  ap- 
paratus used  consisted  of  a  toothed 
wheel,  which  was  made  to  revolve 
at  a  definite  speed.  The  teeth  of 
the  wheel  cut  off  the  view  from  a 
distant  light  when  a  certain  speed 
was  reached,  and  enabled  calcula- 
tions to  be  made  of  the  time  taken 
for  the  light  to  travel  from  its 
source  to  a  mirror  and  back  again. 
See  Light. 

Flaccus .  Name  of  a  well  known 
Roman  family,  the  following  mem- 
bers of  which  deserve  mention: 
(1)  Quintus  Fulvius  Flaccus, 
Roman  general  in  the  second  Punic 
War.  Together  with  his  col- 
league, Appius  Claudius  Pulcher, 
he  captured  Capua  in  212.  (2) 
Marcus  Fulvius,  one  of  the  com- 
missioners appointed  to  carry  out 
the  agrarian  measures  of  Tiberius 
Gracchus,  who  met  his  death,  with 
Gaius  Gracchus,  in  121.  (3)  Marcus 
Verrius,  a  grammarian  in  the  reign 
of  Augustus,  the  author  of  a  work 
on  the  Meaning  of  Words,  abridged 
by  Festus  (q.v. ).  The  poets  Horace 
and  Valerius  also  belonged  to  the 
family.  See  Horace  ;  Valerius. 

Flacius  OR  VLACICH,  MATTHIAS 
(1520-75).  Lutheran  divine.  Born 
at  Albona,  Illyria,  March  3,  1520, 
he  studied  lan- 
guages in  Ven- 
ice, and  theo- 
logy at  Basel, 
Augsburg,  and 
Wittenberg, 
where  he  came 
under  the  in- 
fluence of  Lu- 
ther and  Me- 
lanchthon,  and 
was  appointed 
professor  of  Hebrew  in  1554. 
Henceforth  he  was  involved  in  a 
series  of  controversies,  siding  with 
Luther  against  Melanchthon.  He 
settled  in  turn  at  Magdeburg,  Jena, 
where  he  was  professor  of  theology, 
Ratisbon,  Antwerp,  Strasbourg, 
and  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  where 
he  died  in  poverty,  March  11, 1575. 
One  of  the  charges  against 
Flacius  was  that  of  Manichaeism, 
based  on  his  statement  that  sin 
was  inherent  in  human  nature  from 
the  Fall.  The  work  in  which  this 
appeared,  Clavis  Scripturae  Sacrae 


Matthias  Flacius, 
Lutheran  divine 


ROYAL  STANDARD  (UNITED  KINGDOM)  UNION  JACK  WHITE    ENSI8M  (BRITISH  NAVY)          BLUE  ENSIGN  (NAVAL  RESERVE) 


RED  ENS1QN(BRIT|SH  MERCANTILE  MARINE)       CANAOA(MERCANTILE  MARINE)  AUSTRALIA(ENSIGN)  NEW  ZEALAND  (ENSIGN) 


YUGO-SLAVIA 


GERMANY 

i         • 


UNION  OFSOUTH  AFRICA(ENSieN)  INOIAfGOVERNOR  GENERAL) 


CZECHO-  SLOVAK! 


FLAGS  OF  THE  NATIONS,  INCLUDING  THOSE  ADOPTED  AFTER  THE  GREAT  WAR 

Specially   drawn  for   Harmsworth's    Universal   Encyclopedia  bu  J.    F.    Campbell 
To  lace  page  3184 


ARGENTINA 


FLAGS  OF  THE  NATIONS.  INCLUDING  THOSE  ADOPTED  AFTER  THE  GREAT  WAR 

*!ip<-iiilhi   ilrnu-n   for   Hiinnsworth' s    Universal    Encyclopedia  by  J.    F.    Campbell 
Facing  page  3185 


(Key  to  Holy  Scripture),  1567, 
formed  the  basis  of  biblical  her- 
meneutics,  a  term  defining  the 
principles  of  biblical  interpretation 
as  distinguished  from  exegesis  or 
interpretation.  Other  works  of 
Flacius  replied  to  the  Roman 
objection  to  the  Reformation  as 
a  mere  innovation,  and  traced 
Church  history  from  an  evange- 
lical standpoint. 

Flag  (Iris).  Large  genus  of 
perennial  herbs.  Of  the  natural 
order  Iridaceae,  they  are  natives 
of  the  N.  temperate  regions.  The 
species  form  two  groups  :  one  in 
which  the  rush-like  foliage  dies 
down  each  autumn,  and  the  life  of 
the  plant  is  continued  by  a  long 
bulb-like  tuber  ;  the  other  in  which 
the  thick,  sword -shaped  leaves 
arise  from  stout,  slightly  creeping 
rhizomes.  The  term  flag  is  gener- 
ally applied  to  members  of  the 
second  group,  the  others  being 
spoken  of  by  the  name  Iris.  The 
leaves  enfold  each  other  at  the 
base,  and  from  their  midst  rises 
the  flower  stem,  bearing  the  large 
brightly  coloured  flowers.  There 
are  three  sepals  and  three  petals, 
the  sepals  much  larger  than  the 
petals,  and  the  stigmas  expanded 
to  look  like  petals.  The  yellow 
flag  (/.  pseudacorus)  is  common  in 
ditches  and  marshes.  The  blue 
flag  (/.  germanica),  so  common  in 
gardens,  is  wild  in  S.  and  Central 
Europe.  The  seed  vessel  is  a  large, 
leathery  capsule,  splitting  when 
ripe  into  three  pod-like  divisions, 
packed  with  large  flattened  seeds. 
See  Iris. 

Flag.  Pieces  of  s^uff,  parti- 
coloured, or  of  a  single  colour, 
plain  or  bearing  symbols,  and 
flown  from  a  staff  or  halyard. 
They  may  be  national  or  personal. 
Flags  were  known  to  the  ancients, 
though  the  standard  or  symbol 
placed  on  the  top  of  a  staff,  like 
the  Roman  eagles,  were  more 
common.  This  was  followed  by 
the  gonfalon  type,  and  then  by  the 
guidon,  a  small  piece  of  stuff  at- 
tached to  a  lance.  In  medieval 
days  the  shapes  and  sizes  of  flags 
were  diverse,  but  were  soon  strictly 
regulated.  The  standard  was  a 
large  and  long  flag,  often  with  one, 
two,  or  more  points,  parti-coloured 
and  decorated  with  crests,  badges, 
and  devices.  The  banner  was  large 
and  square,  or  rectangular,  em- 
blazoned with  armorial  ensigns, 
and  denoted  that  the  bearer  was 
entitled  to  levy  and  lead  troops. 

The  standard  with  one  point  was 
known  as  the  guidehomme  (abbre- 
viated into  guidon) ;  the  ancient 
was  a  small  guidon  j  the  pennon 
(bearing  badges  and  motto  only) 
was  half  the  size  of  the  guidon,  and 
had  one  tail ;  the  pendant  was 


3185 

the  ship's  guidon ;  the  pennoncelle, 
or  pencil,  a  small  pennon,  at- 
tached to  a  lance  and  usually 
bearing  a  single  heraldic  symbol ; 
the  pavon  was  a  triangle,  with 
horizontal  base ;  the  banderolle 
a  long  narrow  flag  or  streamer, 
such  as  the  modern  pennant. 

National  flags  only  evolved 
slowly.  The  English  white  flag 
with  the  red  cross  of  S.  George 
appears  to  have  been  introduced 
by  Richard  I  on  his  return  from 
the  East,  but  it  long  appeared 
side  by  side  with  many  others,  in- 
cluding the  Royal  armorial  banner. 
The  British  national  flag  is  the 
Union  Jack  (q.v.).  The  white  en- 
sign, with  the  red  cross  of  S. 
George  and  the  Union  Jack  in  the 
upper  quarter,  is  a  naval  flag,  re- 
served for  the  Royal  Navy  and 
certain  privileged  yacht  clubs. 
The  blue  en- 
sign, with  a 
plain  blue  field 
and  the  Jack 
in  the  upper 
corner,  belongs 
to  the  Royal 


Navm  Reserve. 
certain  nation- 
al service  ships 
and  privileged 
yacht  clubs. 
The  red  ensign, 
similar  to  the 
above  in  de- 
sign's the  mer- 
chant  flag. 
Regimental 
flags  are  simi- 
lar  to  the 
above,  the  field 
being  of  the 
colour  of  the 
regimental  fac- 
ings (see  Col- 
ours).  The 
British  colonial 


Flag.  Yellow  Flag, 
Iris  pseudaeorus, 
showing  the  tall 
flags  are  the  sword-like  leaves ; 
above,  flower  o! 


Iris  foetidissima 


blue  and  red 
ensigns,  with 
Union  Jack  supplemented  by  na- 
tional emblems  or  armorial  shields 
placed  in  the  fly. 

As  the  result  of  the  Great  War, 
several  new  national  flags  came 
into  existence.  The  flag  of  Latvia 
(Lettland  or  Letonia),  one  of  the 
new  Baltic  States,  is  red,  white, 
red,  horizontally,  the  two  red 
stripes  being  each  double  the 
width  of  the  central  white. 
Esthonia  has  blue,  black,  and 
white  in  horizontal  stripes.  The 
present  emblem  of  Austria  is 
similar  to  that  of  Latvia,  the 
colours  being  red,  white,  red,  hori- 


FLAGELLANTS 

zontal,  but  in  this  case  of  equal 
width.  This  design  only  differs 
from  the  old  flag  of  Austria-Hun- 
gary in  not  having  the  lowest 
stripe  half  red,  half  green,  the 
latter  colour  representative  of 
Hungary.  The  new  flag  of  Yugo- 
slavia has  included  the  colours  of 
blue,  white,  red,  horizontally. 
These  are  the  old  colours  of  Serbia 
and  Montenegro  rearranged.  The 
kingdom  of  Hejaz  has  black, 
green,  and  white  hi  horizontal 
stripes.  See  Colour  Plate. 

Flag  Day.  Day  set  apart  for  the 
raising  of  money  for  charitable 
purposes  by  selling  small  emblems, 
usually  flags,  in  the  streets.  The 
origin  of  the  scheme  was  due  to 
the  success  attending  the  sale  of 
the  artificial  roses  on  Alexandra 
Day.  During  the  Great  War  mil- 
lions of  pounds  were  raised  for 
various  war  funds  by  means  of 
flag  days.  The  method  was  to 
make  millions  of  little  flags,  each 
showing  in  colour  scheme  or  device 
the  nature  of  the  particular  fund. 
These  were  sold  in  the  streets  by 
ladies,  and  were  provided  with 
pins  so  that  they  could  be  worn. 

In  London  it  was  necessary  to 
obtain  permission  for  flag  days. 
Applications  were  submitted  to  the 
commissioner  of  police.  A  check 
on  abuses  was  the  stipulation  that 
after  the  collection,  accounts  show- 
ing the  total  money  received 
and  spent  had  to  be  submitted. 
Statistics  compiled  from  accounts 
in  the  metropolitan  area  between 
May  13,  1916,  and  April  9,  1918, 
.howed  that  a  total  sum  of  £286,830 
was  collected  at  a  cost  of  £51,432, 
leaving  a  net  amount  of  £235,398. 

Flagellants  (Lat.  flagellum,  little 
whip).  Name  given  to  various 
ascetic  bodies  in  the  Roman 
.Catholic  Church,  that  practised 
flogging  themselves  or  one  another 
as  a  means  of  disciplining  the 
flesh  and  promoting  spiritual 
growth.  They  arose  in  Italy  in  the 
13th  century,  and  continued  to 
break  out  sporadically  for  about 
150  years.  One  of  their  chief 
leaders  was  Cardinal  Peter  Da- 
miani,  who  taught  that  a  vigorous 
scourging  was  worth  many  years 
of  ordinary  self-denial  and  mor- 
tification. In  1260  there  was  a 
great  outbreak  of  this  form  of 
fanaticism  at  Perugia,  and  in  the 
following  century  it  caused  trouble 
in  Germany  and  Hungary. 

When  the  Black  Death  swept 
over  Europe  in  1348,  the  Flagel- 
lants had  a  great  revival,  and  held 
processions  through  the  streets 
stripped  to  the  waist  and  singing 
penitential  psalms.  A  halt  was 
called  at  intervals,  and  all  scourged 
one  another  in  turn.  About  120  of 
these  enthusiasts  reached  London, 

II    4 


FLAGELLATA 


FLAMBARD 


but  they  won  no  followers  in  Eng- 
land. They  were  denounced  by 
Pope  Clement  VI,  and  finally 
suppressed  by  the  Inquisition. 
See  Asceticism. 

Flagellata.  Sub-division  of  the 
Infusorians,  or  minute  protozoa. 
Found  in  stagnant  water,  they 
have  "  whiplike  "  threads  of  pro- 
toplasm which  by  their  lashing 
movements  propel  the  animal 
through  the  water.  The  minute 
Noctiluca,  which  causes  the  phos- 
phorescence of  the  sea,  belongs  to 
this  order. 

Flageolet  (Fr.).  Wind  instru- 
ment of  flute  tone,  played  verti- 
cally through  a  mouth -tube.  The 

modern    in-    r -        —  -    , 

strument  has 
a  separate 
mouthpiece, 
but  those  of 
the  17th  cen- 
tury had  the 
blowing  hole 
on  a  sloped 
end  of  the 
main  tube,  like 
the  present- 
day  penny 
whistle.  The 
true  17th  cen- 
tury flageolet 
had  two  of 
its  six  fin- 
ger-h  o  1  e  s  at 
the  back, 
governed  b  y 
the  player's 
thumbs.  See 
Flute -a -Bee; 
Recorder. 

Flag  Lieu- 
tenant. I  n 
the  British 
navy,  the 
personal  aide- 
de-camp  of  an 

admiral  Flag    KKr  fiff    . 
Jack,    as    the    modern  flageolet  with 
navy  calls  him,  *°«r  keys 

is  usually  a  specialist  in  signalling. 
He  is  distinguished  from  the  other 
lieutenants  by  the  aiguillette  or 
golden  cord  on  his  left  breast. 

Flag  Officer.  Naval  term 
meaning  an  officer  of  admiral's  or 
flag  rank.  Only  admirals  hoist 
flags  ;  other  officers,  when  in  com- 
mand, fly  pennants.  In  the  British 
navy  there  are  four  grades  of  flag 
officer,  viz.  rear-admiral,  vice-ad- 
miral, admiral,  and  admiral  of  the 
fleet,  the  last  being  the  equivalent 
of  field-marshal  in  the  army.  The 
admiral's  flag  is  derived  from  the 
banners  which  in  the  old  days  used 
to  be  hoisted  aboard  ship  by 
generals  who  held  a  command  at 
sea.  Admirals'  flags  are :  Rear- 
admiral,  S.  George's  '  Cross  with 
two  red  balls ;  vice-admiral,  S. 
George's  Cross  with  one  red  ball ; 


L 

Flageolet.  Left,  17th 
century  instrument ; 
the  open  circles  show 
thumb  positions  at 
Right. 


admiral,  S.  George's  Cross ;  admiral 
of    the    fleet,   Union    Jack. 
Admiral. 

Flagship.  Vessel  in  which  a 
flag  officer  is  accommodated,  and 
in  which  he  flies  a  distinctive  flag 
to  indicate  the  ship  to  which 
others  must  look  for  signals.  A 
single  fleet  may  have  many  flag- 
ships, according  to  the  number  of 
its  tactical  units.  The  tactical  unit 
is  a  division  of  four  ships,  usually 
with  a  rear-admiral  in  command  : 
and  two  divisions  make  a  squad- 
ron, over  which  is  a  vice-admiral, 
who  also  has  charge  of  one  of  the 
two  divisions.  A  number  of  battle 
squadrons,  with  their  attendant 
craft,  make  up  a  fleet,  the  com- 
mander-in-chief,  as  a  rule,  flying 
his  flag  in  a  vessel  which  is  out- 
side the  divisional  formation,  and 
at  liberty  to  place  herself  where 
she  chooses. 

At  the  principal  home  naval 
stations  the  flag  of  the  local 
commander-in-chief  is  flown  in  an 
old  warship,  i.e.  the  Victory  at 
Portsmouth,  the  Impregnable  at 
Devonport,  the  Pembroke  at 
Chatham,  and  the  Crescent  at 
Rosyth,  but  the  officer  lives  in  an 
official  residence  ashore.  Most  of 


Flail  (L&t.flagellum,  little  whip). 
See     Hand  implement  for  threshing.    It 
is  now  little  used,  except  on  a  small 


Flail. 


The  old-fashioned  threshing 
implement  in  use 


scale    for    flax  or  when    securing 


the  senior  departmental  officers  in  peas  and  beans  for  seed  purposes, 
flagships,  i.e.  those  chosen  for  staff,  It  consists  of  a  shaft  or  handle, 
gunnery,  torpedo,  navigation,  or  commonly  made  of  ash,  and 
engineering  duties,  receive  a  special  swingle  (swiple)  of  some  hard,  non- 
flag  allowance  in  addition  to  their  splitting  wood.  The  two  are  fixed 
pay.  Vessels  that  are  not  flagships 
are  sometimes  called  private  ships. 
See  Battleship ;  Navy. 


Flagstone.   Fine-grained  argill- 
aceous   sandstone,     which     splits 


together  so  that  the  swingle  can 
move  freely,  this  being  effected 
either  by  leather  thongs  or  by  inter- 
locking an  ash  swivel  on  the  shaft 
with  a  leather  loop  on  the  swingle. 


easily  in  slabby  fashion  along  the     See  Agricultural  Implements. 


bedding  plane.  Fine  sandstones 
which  do  not  show  this  so-called 
lamination  are  sometimes  included 


Flambard,  RANULF  OR  RALPH 
(d.  1128).  Chief  minister  of 
William  Rufus.  Son  of  a  Norman 


under  the  same  name.    Flagstones     priest,   he  was  made  chaplain  to 


are  composed  mainly  of  minute 
grains  of  quartz,  but  generally 
contain  also  some 
felspathic  and  mi- 
caceous material. 
The  colour  of  flags 
varies  from  almost 
white  to  grey  or 
yellow,  while  the 
mica  flakes,  if 
present,  give  the 
stone  a  sparkling 
appearance  in  the 
sunlight.  T  h  ei  r 
fine,  even  texture, 
their  strength,  and 
the  readiness  with 
which  they  break 
into  blocks  of  con- 
venient size  make  them  suitable 
for  use  as  building  stones. 

Flagstones  are  mainly  used,  how- 
ever, for  paving-stones,  kerbstones, 


the   bishop  of  London,   and  after 
William  II's  accession  became  his 


Flamborough  Head.      View  from  the  north,  showing 
part  of  the  lighthouse 

Photochrom 

principal  adviser,  especially  in 
financial  matters.  In  1099  he  was 
made  bishop  of  Durham.  He  in- 
curred unpopularity  by  his  extor- 


hearths,  sills,  and  steps,  and  those    tionate   fiscal   methods,  and  after 
varieties  which  split  into  very  thin     the  death  of  Rufus  was  imprisoned, 


layers  are  used  for  roofing. 


but  escaped  to  Normandy,  where 


FLAMBOROUGH      HEAD 


3187 


FLAMINGO 


he  became  bishop  of  Lisieux.  He 
returned  to  England  in  1106,  after 
the  battle  of  Tinchebrai. 

Flam  borough  Head.  Promon- 
tory on  the  E.  coast  of  Yorkshire, 
England.  It  lies  to  the  N.  of 
Bridlington  Bay.  The  limestone 
rocks,  which  rise  to  a  height  of 
450  ft.,  are  pierced  by  a  number  of 
caverns,  and  the  action  of  the  sea 
has  fashioned  the  rocks  into  fan- 
tastic shapes.  The  lighthouse  is 
214  ft.  above  sea  level,  and  its 
flashing  light  is  visible  for  21  m. 

Flamboyant  (Fr.,  naming).  In 
architecture,  a  development  of  late 
French  Gothic.  It  owes  its  name 
to  the  flame-shaped  openings  in 
tracery  which  were  its  chief  char- 
acteristic. The  period  of  Flamboy- 
ant was  the  late  15th  and  early 
16th  centuries.  The  style  hardly 
penetrated  to  Great  Britain,  though 
some  of  the  flowing  tracery  in 
Chester  Cathedral  approximates  to 
it.  Among  French  examples  are 
the  church  of  S.  Maclou  at  Rouen, 
and  part  of  Tours  Cathedral.  See 
Architecture. 

Flame.  Gaseous  matter  raised 
to  a  temperature  at  which  it  be- 
comes self-luminous,  as  a  result  of 


Flame.    Types  oi  flame.    Left  to  right. 

Bunsen  burner  ;  ordinary  burner  for 

lighting  purposes  ;  wax  candle 

combustion.  Some  gases  inflame 
spontaneously  because  the  ignition 
temperature  is  as  low  as  the  ordi- 
nary temperature  of  the  air.  Ex- 
amples are  cacodyl,  phosphorus 
dihydride,  and  zinc  ethyl.  As  a 
rule,  however,  the  temperature  of 
the  gas  must  be  raised  before  the 
chemical  reaction  with  the  oxygen 
of  the  atmosphere  takes  place.  An 
agency  which  lowers  the  tempera- 
ture below  ignition  point  puts  out 
the  flame;  a  copper  helix  placed  in  a 
candle  flame  extracts  heat  so  rapidly 
that  the  flame  is  extinguished. 


This  cooling  action  is  employed 
in  the  Davy  miners'  safety  lamp, 
where  the  wire  gauze  prevents  the 
flame  being  communicated  to  the 
inflammable  fire-damp  in  the  mine. 
It  has  long  been  known  that  ordi 
nary  flames  are  hollow  and  that 
there  are  "  solid  "  flames  in  cases 
where  the  complex  molecule  of  a 
gas  is  by  combustion  broken  up 
into  simpler  forms,  e.g.  in  burning 
nitrogen  trichloride.  Berzelius 
pointed  out  that  a  candle  or  hy- 
drocarbon flame  shows  four  dis- 
tinct regions:  (1)  the  dark  central 
region,  (2)  the  yellow  region,  (3) 
the  blue  region,  and  (4)  the  faintly 
luminous  portion.  The  dark  por- 
tion consists  of  unburnt  gases, 
whilst  the  yellow  portion  occupy- 
ing the  greatest  part  of  the  flame 
is  the  luminous  portion. 

The  temperature  of  a  flame  de- 
pends upon  the  heats  of  combina- 
tion of  the  constituents  and  the 
specific  heats  of  the  products  of  the 
combination.  The  temperature  of 
sulphur  burning  in  air  is  compara- 
tively low,  whereas  an  oxy-acety- 
Jene  flame  reaches  2,500°  C.  The 
colour  of  a  flame  is  not  as  a  rule  in- 
dicative of  the  calorific  power.  The 
yellow  gas  flame  is  converted  into 
a  hotter  non-luminous  flame  by  the 
admixture  of  air,  such  burners, 
known  as  Bunsen  burners,  being 
used  for  heating  operations  in  the 
laboratory  and  the  kitchen. 

A  sensitive  flame  is  a  gas  flame 
produced  by  a  pin-hole  burner  in 
which  the  pressure  of  the  gas  has 
been  increased  till  it  is  on  the  point 
of  flaring.  This  long,  thin  flame  is  a 
very  sensitive  detector  of  sound 
waves,  particularly  of  those  of  high 
pitch  and  tiny  amplitude.  When  a 
train  of  these  sound  waves  im- 
pinges on  the  sensitive  flame  it 
flares  and  suddenly  shortens.  See 
Fire;  Heat. 

Flame-flower  OR  REDHOT  PO- 
KER (Kniphqfia  aloides).  Perennial 
herb  of  the  natural  order  Liliaceae. 
It  is  a  native 
of  S.  Africa. 
The  leaves, 
which  grow  in 
a  compact  tuft 
from  the  root, 
are  long,  nar- 
row, and  of 
tough  consist- 
ence ;  they  are 
channelled 
above  and 
keeled  below, 
the  keel  and 
the  edges 
finely  toothed. 
The  brilliant 
red,  tubular 
flowers  are 

disposed  in  a    Fiame.nower.  Speei- 
close     oval         mens  in  bloom 


spike,  at  the  summit  of  a  stem  3  ft. 
or  4  ft.  high.  The  aspect  of  the 
flowers  gives  the  herb  its  descrip- 
tive name. 

Flamen.  In  ancient  Rome,  a 
priest  devoted  to  the  service  of  a 
particular  god.  The  chief  of  these 
priests,  who  had  to  belong  to  the 
patrician  order,  was  the  flamen 
Dialis  or  priest  of  Jupiter.  Not 
only  the  flamen  Dialis  himself,  but 
his  wife,  who  was  called  Flaminica, 
and  the  whole  household  were  re- 
garded as  consecrated  to  the  god. 

Flamingo  (Phoenicopterus).  Or- 
der of  large  birds,  nearly  related  to 
the  ducks.  They  have  extremely 


Flamingo.     Adult  specimens  oi  the 
European  flamingo 

long  legs  and  necks,  rosy  or  scarlet 
plumage  with  black  on  the  wings, 
and  beaks  sharply  bent  down  at  an 
angle.  Adult  specimens  sometimes 
exceed  6  ft.  in  height.  One  Euro- 
pean species,  four  or  five  American, 
and  one  African  are  known. 

Flamingoes  are  wading  birds,  as 
their  long  legs  and  necks  suggest, 
and  are  found  in  great  flocks  by  the 
margin  of  lakes  and  rivers,  feeding 
on  molluscs  and  aquatic  vegeta- 
tion. When  feeding,  the  flamingo's 
head  is  turned  upside  down  and 
the  curved  beak  acts  as  a  scoop 
for  picking  up  food.  The  birds  are 
fairly  strong  in  flight,  and  can 
swim  well.  The  nests  are  made  of 
mud,  and  when  built  on  land 
rather  resemble  large  soup  plates. 
When  constructed  in  the  water, 
they  are  tall  and  conical.  The  Eu- 
ropean flamingo  is  common  in  the 
S.  of  France  and  in  Spain  during 
the  nesting  season,  and  it  ranges 
through  many  parts  of  Africa.  It 
is  very  rarely  met  with  in  Great 
Britain.  The  French  name  is  flam- 
ant,  Span,  flamenco,  ultimately 
from  Lat.  flamma,  flame,  in  refer- 
ence to  the  bird's  colour. 


FLAMINIAN   WAY 


3188 


FLANDERS 


FlaminianWay  (Via  Flaminia). 
Ancient  Roman  road.  It  took  its 
name  from  C.  Flaminius,  censor  in 
220  B.C.,  who  extended  it  to  Ari- 
minum,  making  it  the  first  Roman 
road  to  cross  Italy,  Previous  to 
this  time  it  had  existed  only  as  far 
as  Spoletium.  It  issued  from  Rome 
at  the  Porta  Flaminia,  being  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  Via  Latina,  and, 
crossing  the  Tiber  by  the  Milvian 
bridge,  reached  Spoletium  by  way 
of  Narnia. 

Flamininus,  TITUS  QuiNCTrcrs 
(d.  c.  175  B.C.).  Roman  general. 
Before  he  was  30,  he  attained  the 
consulship,  and  in  197  defeated  the 
Macedonians  at  Cynoscephalae 
(q.v. ).  A  clever  diplomatist  and  an 
admirer  of  the  Greeks  and  their 
culture,  he  was  appointed  to  settle 
the  affairs  of  that  country.  At  the 
Isthmian  games  in  196  he  pro- 
claimed amidst  great  enthusiasm 
the  independence  of  Greece,  really 
the  exchange  of  a  Roman  for  a 
Macedonian  master.  After  crushing 
the  Spartan  tyrant  Nabis,  he  was 
honoured  by  a  splendid  triumph 
on  his  return  to  Rome  in  194. 
In  192  he  was  again  in  Greece  and 
prevented  the  pro-Syrian  party 
from  assisting  Antiochus  in  his 
struggle  against  Rome.  In  183 
Flamininus  was  sent  to  demand 
the  surrender  of  Hannibal  from 
Prusias,  king  of  Bithynia. 

Flaminius,  GAIUS.  Roman 
statesman.  He  introduced  an 
agrarian  law  in  232  B.C.,  providing 
for  the  distribution  of  recently 
conquered  territory  in  Picenum 
and  Senonian  Gaul  among  the 
plebeians.  During  his  censorship 
in  220  he  built  the  great  Circus 
Flaminius,  and  constructed  the 
Via  Flaminia.  He  was  one  of  the 
generals  in  command  of  the  Roman 
army  at  the  battle  of  the  Trasimene 
lake  in  217,  in  which  he  himself 
was  slain. 

Fl animation,  CAMILLB  (1842- 
1925).  French  astronomer.  B.  Feb. 
26,1842,  atMontigny-le-Roi,he  stud- 
ied theology  at 
Langres  and 
Paris.  In  1858 
he  entered  the 
Paris  observa- 
tory, and  was 
a  member  of 
the  Bureau 
des  Longi- 
tudes in  1862. 
From  1863 
onwards  he 
edited  Cosmos 
and  L' Astronomic.  'Hie  carried  out 
numerous  observations,  especially 
on  Mars,  at  his  private  observatory! 
at  Juvisy.  He  won  wide  fame  as 
a  popular  writer  on  astronomy,  and 
founded  the  astronomical  society 
of  France  in  1887.  In  Oct.,  1920, 


he  married  Gabrielle  Renaudot,  his 
collaborator  in  some  of  his  chief 
works.  Among  his  books  trans- 
lated into  English  are:  Popular 
Astronomy ;  Astronomy  for  Ama- 
teurs. He  died  June  4,  1925. 

Flammenwerfer  (Ger.,  flame- 
thrower). Special  type  of  blow- 
lamp for  military  use.  German 
equipment  of  this  type  was  de- 
signed as  a  method  of  cutting 
barbed-wire  entanglements  by 
melting  the  strands,  but  during 
their  attack  at  Hooge  in  1916  was 
employed  by  them  against  the 
defenders,  and  was  subsequently 
used  on  many  occasions  as  a  short 
range  weapon  in  trench  fighting. 
Similar  devices  were  later  adopted 
by  the  Allies. 


Flammenwerfer.  French  soldier  testing 

a  captured  German   flame-thrower  of 

the  portable  type 

The  Flammenwerfer  consists 
essentially  of  a  reservoir  of  in- 
flammable oil,  usually  petroleum 
or  benzene,  which  can  be  thrown 
to  a  considerable  distance  in  the 
form  of  a  spray,  by  means  of  a 
suitable  nozzle,  the  oil  being  forced 
through  the  nozzle  by  the  pressure 
of  gas  contained  in  a  separate 
reservoir.  The  end  of  the  nozzle  is 
fitted  with  mechanism  for  igniting 
the  spray.  The  grosser  (large) 
Flammenwerfer  held  nearly  350 
pints  of  oil. 

The  kleiner  (small)  Flammen* 
werfer  was  portable,  and  held 
about  16  pints  of  oil  in  a  reservoir 
with  attached  gas  reservoir,  so 
designed  as  to  carry  from  the 
operator's  shoulders  a  short  length 
of  hose  carrying  a  nozzle.  See 
Trench  Warfare. 

Flamsteed,  JOHN  (1646-1719). 
English  astronomer.  Born  at 
Denby,  Derbyshire,  Aug.  19,  1646, 
he  was  educated  at  Cambridge, 
and  devoted  himself  early  to  the 


study  of  astronomy,1 7  He  was 
appointed  King's  Astronomer  in 
1675,  with  an  annual  salary  of  £100, 
and  installed 
eventually  at 
the  New  Green- 
wich Observa- 
tory, begun  in 
that  year.  His 
observations 
there  gave 
Newton  much 
help  in  the  per- 

Ifecting  of  his 
lunar  theory, 
though  there  was  much  ill-feeling 
between  the  two  men.  Flamsteed' s 
chief  work  was  the  great  catalogue 
of  the  fixed  stars,  the  origin  of  all 
later  catalogues,  which  was  in- 
complete at  his  death  on  Dec.  31, 
1719,  but  was  published  with  his 
other  observations  in  1725.  See 
An  Account  of  the  Rev.  John 
Flamsteed,  the  first  Astronomer 
Royal.  To  which  is  added  his 
British  Catalogue  of  Stars,  F. 
Baily,  1835. 

Planches  OR  FLAKQTJES.  In 
heraldry,  the  dexter  and  sinister 
sides  of  a  shield  cut  off  by  curved 
lines,  giving  the 
middle  an  hour- 
glass form.  They 
are  usually  borne 
in  pairs.  Classed 
among  the  Sub- 
Ordinaries  (q.v. ) 

Flanders. 
Name    given   to 
that  part  of  the         Flancties,  in 
Netherlands  heraldry 

which  is  bounded  roughly  by  the 
lower  reaches  of  the  river  Schelde, 
the  Lys  valley,  and  the  coast  from 
Calais  to  the  Schelde  estuary. 
The  political  frontiers  of  Flanders 
have  varied  considerably,  but  most 
of  this  territory  now  lies  inBelgium, 
and  the  old  name  is  retained  hi 
the  two  provinces  of  W.  Flanders 
(Flandre  Occidentale),  and  E. 
Flanders(Flandre  Orientale).  These 
pro  vs.  are  markedly  different  in 
character  from  the  Walloon  provs. 
of  Belgium,  being  mainly  peopled 
by  peasant  Flemish  stock,  almost 
entirely  speaking  their  own  Flem- 
ish tongue,  a  Teutonic  language 
closely  akin  to  Dutch.  Ethno- 
logically,  a  large  part  of  the  French 
dept.  of  Nord  is  Flemish,  and  is 
often  referred  to  as  French  Flan- 
ders. The  chief  towns  of  W.  Flan- 
ders are  Bruges,  Courtrai,  Ostend, 
Roulers,  Thielt,  Fumes,  Ypres, 
Dixmude  ;  of  E.  Flanders,  Ghent, 
Alost,  Audenarde,  Eecloo,  St. 
Nicolas  Termonde.  •  W.  Flanders, 
area  1,249  sq.  m.,  pop.  884,777  ; 
E.  Flanders,  area  1,158  sq.  m., 
pop.  1,134,079. 

The     original     inhabitants     of 
Flanders     were     known     to     the 


FLANDERS 


3189 


FLANDERS 


Romans  as  the  Menapii  and  the 
Morini,  whom  they  conquered 
about  51  B.C.  During  the  7th  cen- 
tury Christianity  was  introduced, 
chiefly  by  S.  Bertinus,  S.  Omer,  and 
S.  Bavon.  The  treaty  of  Verdun, 
843,  by  which  the  empire  of  Charle- 
magne was  partitioned  among  his 
sons,  gave  the  greater  part  of 
Flanders  to  Charles  the  Bald  of  the 
W.  Franks.  Finding  this  part  of 
his  dominion  constantly  harassed 
by  the  Northmen  or  Normans, 
he  entrusted  its  defence  to  Baldwin 
Bras  -  de  -  Fer  (Iron  -  Arm),  who 
founded  the  historic  line  of  the 
counts  of  Flanders.  The  last  of  the 
direct  line,  Baldwin  VII,  died  in 
1119,  and'  Flanders  passed  to  his 
cousin  Charles,  called  the  Good. 
Flanders  and  Hainault 

In  1157  Count  Thierry  resigned 
in  favour  of  his  son  Philip,  who 
ruled  with  marked  success,  being 
largely  responsible  for  the  early 
economic  prosperity  of  the  great 
Flemish  market  towns  of  Bruges, 
Ypres,  Ghent,  etc.,  and  who  died 
crusading  at  Acre,  1191.  He  left  his 
Flemish  dominions  to  his  sister 
Margaret  of  Hainault,  who  thus 
united  the  crowns  of  Flanders  and 
Hainault,  though  ceding  Artois  to 
Philip  Augustus  of  France.  Her 
son,  Baldwin  IX  (1171-1205),  em- 
peror of  Byzantium,  succeeded  her 
in  1194.  His  daughter,  Joanna, 
was  married  to  Ferdinand  of  Por- 
tugal, who  resisted  the  suzerainty 
of  France,  but  was  disastrously 
defeated  at  Bouvines,  1214. 

After  Joanna's  death,  1244,  the 
kingdoms  of  Flanders  and  Hain- 
ault were  torn  by  a  war  of  succes- 
sion, and  were  eventually  separated 
by  the  arbitration  of  S.  Louis,  who 
awarded  Flanders  to  William  of 
Dampierre,  and  Hainault  to  his 
stepson,  John  of  Avesnes,  1246. 
Guy  of  Dampierre,  who  succeeded 
in  1280,  waged  war,  in  alliance  with 
Edward  I  of  England,  against  Philip 
the  Fair  of  France.  Supported  by 
popular  feeling,  directed  by  the 
Flemish  patriots,  Deconninck  and 
Breydel,  he  routed  the  strong  force 
of  French  knights  near  Courtrai, 
1302,  and  for  a  time  Flanders  was 
definitely  free  from  France.  But 
under  Louis  of  Nevers,  1322-46,  it 
was  again  virtually  a  French  fief. 

The  following  period  of  internal 
dissensions  was  marked  chiefly  by 
the  resistance  of  the  Flemish  com- 
munes to  the  arbitrary  and  extor- 
tionate rule  of  Louis  II  of  Male, 
who  succeeded  hi  1346.  The  names 
of  John  and  Philip  van  Artevelde 
(q.v. )  hold  a  great  place  in  Flemish 
history  as  spokesmen  and  leaders 
of  the  popular  party,  or  White 
Hoods.  ,By  the  autumn  of  1382 
Philip  had  become  very  powerful 
in  W.  Flanders,  established  in 


Bruges,  and  assured  of  the  people's 
support.  But  at  Roosebeke,  Nov. 
27,  1382,  he  was  utterly  defeated 
by  Louis  with  the  aid  of  Charles 
VI  of  France.  Thenceforth  Louis 
ruled  with  a  firm  hand  until  his 
death,  1385,  when  Flanders  fell  to 
his  daughter  Margaret,  wife  of 
Philip  the  Bold  of  Burgundy. 

From  this  date  Flanders  was  for 
historical  purposes  part  of  Bur- 
gundy, until,  in  1477,  Mary  of 
Burgundy  married  the  emperor 
Maximilian  and  brought  it  into  the 
empire.  It  was  in  this  period  that 
the  extraordinary  economic  pros- 
perity of  the  great  Flemish  towns 
reached  its  highest  point.  The 
abdication  of  Charles  V  brought 
Flanders  into  the  Spanish  domin- 
ions under  Philip  II  in  1555,  intro- 
ducing the  long  wars  for  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  Netherlands,  and 
the  old-time  prosperity  suffered 
sadly.  In  1648  the  treaty  of  West- 
phalia made  Flanders  part  of  the 
United  Netherlands,  and  in  1659 
and  1713  Louis  XIV  absorbed 
large  parts  of  Flemish  territory  as 
well  as  Artois.  In  1714  the  treaty 
of  Rastatt  put  Flanders  again 
into  Austrian  possession,  and  in 
1794  it  fell  into  French  hands  once 
more.  But  when  the  new  kingdom 
of  Belgium  was  formed  in  1830, 


Flanders  entered  into  her  present 
position  therein. 

Modern  Flanders 

Neither  these  many  changes  of 
sovereignty,  nor  the  unfortunate 
position  of  Flanders  as  a  battle- 
field of  the  nations,  has  destroyed 
the  individual  character  of  the 
Flemings  or  their  country.  Within 
Belgium  itself  racial  consciousness 
is  sharply  marked.  The  possession 
of  a  tongue  and  literature  of  their 
own  has  given  the  Flemish  national 
movement  considerable  strength. 
It  has  won  recognition  of  Flemish 
rights,  linguistic  and  educational, 
and  is  to-day  an  important  factor 
in  Belgian  politics.  A  strong  body 
of  feeling  has  long  favoured 
Flemish  autonomy,. and  during  the 
Great  War  the  Germans  tried  un- 
successfully to  exploit  this  against 
Belgian  unity  by  establishing  the 
so-called  Council  of  Flanders  at 
Ghent,  1917.  But  despite  the  dis- 
credit done  to  the  cause  by  a  few 
extremists,  the  movement  is  grow- 
ing in  strength,  and  may  well 
modify  still  further  the  Belgian 
constitution.  See  Belgium  ;  con- 
sult also  Histoire  de  Belgique,  H. 
Pirenne,  1900,  etc.  ;  Belgium,  R. 
C.  K.  Ensor,  1915  ;  The  Language 
Question  in  Belgium,  A.  van  de 
Perre,  1919.  J.  E.  Miles 


FLANDERS:     THE    BATTLE    OF    1918 

H.  W.  Wilson.  Military  Critic  of  The  Daily  Mail 

This  engagement  was  one  of  those  that  finally  broke  the  German 

resistance.     For  the  other  battles  of  these  closing  months  of  the  Great 

War  see  Cambrai ;  Le  Cateau ;  Sambre ;  Selle.     See  also  Foch  ; 

Haig;  Great  War 


This  battle  was  fought  in  Sept.- 
Nov.,  1918.  The  heavy  fighting 
in  Flanders  in  1914,  sometimes 
known  as  the  1st  battle  of  Flanders, 
is  more  usually  described  under  the 
titles  Ypres  and  the  Yser. 

In  accordance  with  Foch's 
general  plan,  which  was,  after  re- 
covering the  initiative  from  the 
Germans  in  the  3rd  battle  of  the 
Marne  (July  18-Aug.  3,  1918),  to 
press  them  continually  by  attacks 
which  should  gradually  develop 
along  the  whole  Allied  front  in 
the  W.,  preparations  were  made  in 
Sept.,  1918,  for  a  great  Allied  offen- 
sive extending  from  Dixmude  to 
the  S.  of  the  Ypres  salient.  For 
that  purpose  a  group  of  armies  was 
formed  and  placed  under  the  king 
of  the  Belgians.  It  consisted  of 
the  Belgian  army,  with  three  divi- 
sions on  the.  Allied  left,  the  6th 
French  army  (Boissoudy),  with 
three  divisions  in  line  and  one  in 
reserve,  which  were  to  engage  in 
the  centre,  and  the  2nd  British 
army  (Plumer),  with  the  2nd  and 
19th  British  corps,  on  the  right. 
Gen.  Degoutte,  one  of  the  French 
officers  who  had  particularly  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  2nd  and 


3rd  battles  of  the  Marne,  acted  as 
King  Albert's  chief  of  staff.  The 
German  force  on  the  front  selected 
for  attack  was  only  5  divisions 
strong,  and  formed  part  of  the  4th 
army  under  Sixt  von  Armin.  The 
date  fixed  was  Sept.  28,  coincident 
with  the  tremendous  assaults  which 
were  being  delivered  by  the  British 
armies  on  the  Hindenburg  line,  and 
by  the  French  and  American  armies. 
*  At  5.30  a.m..  of  the  28th,  without 
any  preliminary  bombardment,  the 
Allied  infantry  suddenly  advanced, 
covered  by  a  creeping  barrage,  and 
employing  all  the  latest  tactical 
methods,  including  the  "  leap- 
frogging" of  fresh  divisions  through 
the  assaulting  troops  as  these  tired. 
The  hideous  terrain  S.E.  of  Ypres 
was  crossed  at  a  single  bound. 
Wytschaete,  lost  in  April,  1918, 
Zandvoorde,  Gheluvelt,  and  Be- 
celaere  were  stormed  by  the  Brit- 
ish. The  French  and  Belgians 
took  Zonnebeke,  Poelcappelle,  and 
Houthulst  Forest.  The  country 
was  almost  impassable ;  rain  fell 
heavily  and  hampered  the  assail- 
ants, but  the  Germans  at  the 
outset  offered  only  a  feeble  re- 
sistance. 


FLANDIN 


BAITUh    Qt- 

FLANDERS 

English  Miles 


Railways 

Territory  recovered  t 
Allies  Sep.toNov.19 


FLANDRIN 


Flanders.    Map  of  East  and  West  Flanders  indicating  the  area  recovered  from 
the  Germans  during  the  great  battles  of  Sept.-  Nov.,  1918 


On  Sept.  29  the  attack  was 
continued  with  the  utmost  de- 
termination. That  day  the  Bel- 
gians took  Dixmude  and  Pas- 
schendaele,  and  reached  the  high 
road  from  Roulers  to  Menin,  while 
the  British  cleared  Ploegsteert 
Wood,  recovered  Messines,  and 
reached  Warneton  and  Dadizeele. 
On  Oct.  1  the  British  were  close 
up  to  Wervicq,  and  had  crossed 
the  Menin-Roulers  road  near  Le- 
deghem,  while  the  Belgians  and 
French  had  cleared  Moorslede  and 
Staden.  It  was  then  necessary  to 
suspend  the  advance  in  order  to 
bring  up  the  heavy  artillery  and 
repair  the  roads.  The  German 
front  had  been  penetrated  to  a 
depth  of  over  8  m.,  and  all  the 
German  main  defensive  lines  on 
the  Flanders  front  had  fallen.  The 
capture  of  10,000  prisoners  and 
200  guns,  half  of  them  taken  by  the 
British  2nd  army,  afforded  prac- 
tical proof  of  the  importance  of  the 
victory.  The  Germans  at  once 
began  preparations  for  the  evacua- 
tion of  the  Flanders  coast,  which 
had  so  long  been  a  menace  to 
London  as  the  base  of  their  cruel 
air  attacks,  and  which  they  had 
at  one  time  decided  to  annex 
permanently. 

Between  Oct.  1  and  14  another 
British  corps,  the  10th,  was 
brought  up  and  the  Allied  com- 
munications were  reorganized.  The 
Germans  had  utilised  the  respite  to 
lay  wire,  construct  machine-gun 
positions,  and  bring  up  what 
reserves  they  possessed.  At  5.35 
a.m.  of  Oct.  14  the  second  phase  of 
the  battle  opened  along  «bhe  whole  ' 
front  from  Comines  to  Dixmude. 
The  Belgians  reached  the  out- 
skirts of  Tseghem,  and  the  French 


enveloped  Roulers.  The  British 
carried  Gheluwe,  and  fought  their 
way  into  the  outskirts  of  Menin.  On 
the  next  two  days  further  important 
gains  were  made.  Thourout  and 
Cortemarck  were  captured,  and  the 
British  at  several  points  secured 
bridge-heads  over  the  Lys.  The 
sound  of  heavy  explosions  in  the 
German  lines  and  along  the  Flan- 
ders coast  told  that  von  Armin 
was  destroying  his  dumps  and 
blowing  up  his  heavy  guns. 

The  Belgians  directed  their  ad- 
vance northwards  to  clear  the 
Germans  out  of  the  coast,and,  if  pos- 
sible, to  get  on  the  line  of  their  re- 
treat ;  but  von  Armin  was  too  quick. 
On  Oct.  17  the  last  Germans  quitted 
Ostend,  almost  exactly  four  years 
from  the  date  on  which  they  had 
entered  it,  and  that  same  day  the 
British  entered  Courtrai.  On  Oct. 
18  the  Belgian  advance  compelled 
the  Germans  to  abandon  Zeebrugge, 
and  this  naval  base,  with  the  city  of 
Bruges,  was  occupied  by  the  Allies 
on  Oct.  19.  To  the  S.  the  Germans 
were  also  compelled  to  retreat  to 
avoid  envelopment,  and  on  Oct.  18 
they  had  abandoned  the  industrial 
centres  of  Tourcoing  and  Roubaix. 
On  the  20th  the  Belgians  reached 
the  Dutch  frontier. 

The  Germans  were  now  in  slow 
retreat  along  this  whole  section  of 
the  front ;  they  were  steadily 
pressed,  and,  by  the  date  of  the 
armistice  (Nov.  11),  the  Allies  had 
reached  a  line  which  ran  from  the 
Dutch  frontier  south  of  Temeuzen 
to  Ghent,  and  thence  along  the 
Schelde  past  Ath,  to  a  point  near 
St.  Ghislain  where  they  linked  up 
with  Haig's  main  group  of  British 
armies.  In  the  second  battle  of 
Flanders  the  British  captured  6,000 


-.prisoners  and  210  guns,  and  the 
French  and  Belgian  captures  were 
about  as  large.  The  trials  of  the 
Allied  troops  were'  severe  ;  they 
had  to  march  and  fight  in  most 
difficult  country  with  deplorable 
communications  which  rendered 
the  supply  of  food  and  ammunition 
exceedingly  difficult.  Mines  with 
delay-action  fuses  were  left  by  the 
Germans  at  all  cross-roads,  and  at 
many  points  on  the  railways,  as 
they  retreated,  and  these  ex- 
ploded, sometimes  weeks  after 
their  retirement.  Foch,  who  visited 
the  5th  British  army  (Bird wood), 
which  took  part  in  the  Allied 
advance  on  the  front  south  of  the 
2nd  army,  gave  the  British  troops 
just  praise  for  the  magnificent 
character  of  their  work.  "  Your 
soldiers,"  he  said,  "  marched  when 
they  were  exhausted,  and  they 
fought,  and  fought  admirably, 
when  they  were  worn  out.  It  is 
with  such  indomitable  will  that  the 
war  has  been  won." 

Flandin,  EUGENE  NAPOLEON 
(1809-76).  French  painter.  Born 
in  Naples,  Aug.  15, 1809,  he  studied 
in  Italy,  and  under  Horace  Vernet 
in  Paris,  and  travelled  widely  in 
the  East.  He  painted  many  land- 
scapes, notably  of  Venice,  Athens, 
Algiers,  and  Constantinople,  and 
wrote  valuable  accounts  of  his 
travels  and  archaeological  dis- 
coveries. He  was  awarded  the 
Legion  of  Honour  in  1 842,  and  died 
Feb.  15,  1876. 

Flandrin,  JEAN  HIPPOLYTE 
(1809-64).  French  painter.  Born 
at  Lyons,  March  23,  1809,  son  of  a 
miniature  painter,  he  studied  there, 
and  at  Paris  under  Ingres  (q.v. ). 
Obtaining  the  Grand  Prix  in  1832, 
he  went  to  Rome,  whence  he  re- 
turned in  1838  to  Paris,  and  was 
employed  in  the  mural  decoration 
of  S.  Severin,  1841,  S.  Vincent-de- 
Paul,  1850,  and  other  churches  at 
Paris  and  elsewhere.  Later  he  took 
to  portrait-painting,  among  his 
best  works  in  this  genre  being  the 
full-length  portrait  of  Napoleon 
III,  at  Versailles.  He  died  of 
smallpox  at  Rome,  March  21,  1864. 

Flandrin,  JEAN  PAUL  (1811- 
1902).  French  painter.  A  brother 
of  J.  H.  Flandrin,  he  was  born  at 
Lyons,  May  8,  1811,  and  studied 
under  Ingres.  He  was  a  prolific 
artist,  his  best  work  being  of  land- 
scapes. Among  the  most  note- 
worthy are  his  Solitude  in  the 
Sabine  Mountains,  1852,  in  the 
Luxembourg,  Paris  ;  The  Rhone, 
1857  ;  Meadow  near  Mantua,  1874 ; 
and  Diggers  at  Work,  1884.  He 
was  awarded  the  Legion  of  Honour 
in  1856,  and  died  in  1902.  His 
eldest  brother  Auguste  (1804-43) 
worked  under  Ingres,  and  was  a 
teacher  of  painting  at  Lyons. 


FLANGE 

Flange  (Fr.  flanc,  flank,  side). 
Projection  which  guides,  strength- 
ens, or  affords  a  means  of  attach- 
ment. CircumferentiaPflanges  are 
used  on  wheels  which  run  on  rails 
or  over  which  rails,  belts  or  ropes 
run,  to  prevent  displacement.  In 
metal  beams  or  girders  the  central 
part,  or  web,  has  a  flange  at  one 
edge  or,  more  usually,  at  both 
edges,  to  give  lateral  stiffness  and 
take  the  bending  stresses  of  tension 
and  compression.  Annular  or  oval 
flanges  are  used  on  the  ends  of 
steam  and  other  pipes  which  are 
subject  to  heavy  pressures,  so  that 
the  pipes  may  be  drawn  and  held 
together  by  bolts.  The  hubs  of 
wire-spoked  wheels  have  flanges 
to  which  the  heads  of  the  spokes 
are  secured.  See  Girder. 

Flank.  Military  term  used  for 
the  side  of  a  unit,  whether  in 
column,  line,  mass  or  any  other 
formation.  On  the  march  troops  are 
protected  by  flank  guards,  and, 
when  taking  up  a  position,  by 
outposts,  unless  the  nature  of  the 
ground  makes  an  attack  im- 
possible. See  Tactics. 

Flank  Guard.  Patrols  or  bodies 
of  troops  detailed  to  protect  the 
main  body  from  flank  attacks 
while  on  the  move  or  at  rest.  The 
strength  of  the  flank  guard  and  its 
distance  from  the  main  body  de- 
pends on  the  size  of  the  latter  and 
the  nature  of  the  country.  It 
should  always  be  strong  enough  to 
hold  up  any  attack  until  the  main 
body  has  had  time  to  deploy  into 
fighting  formation,  if  the  attack  is 
too  strong  to  be  defeated  by  the 
flank  guard.  A  large  flank  guard 
must  protect  itself  by  advanced 
and  flank  guards  so  that  it  can 
move  in  close  formation. 

Flaniian  Isles.  Cluster  of  seven 
small  islands  in  the  Outer  Hebrides, 
Ross  and  Cromarty,  Scotland. 
Called  also  the  Seven  Hunters,  they 
lie  16  m.  N.W.  of  Gallon  Head, 
Lewis  Island,  and  contain  many 
Caledonian  remains.  They  are 
the  Insulae  Sacrae  of  Buchanan. 
Large  numbers  of  sea-fowl  fre- 
quent them. 

Flannel.  Soft  woollen  cloth 
used  for  clothing,  blankets,  etc. 
Highly  absorbent,  it  is  eminently 
adapted  for  wearing  next  the  skin. 
The  word  is  probably  of  Celtic 
origin  (cf.  Welsh  gwlan,  wool). 
Wales  is  the  original  home  of  the 
flannel  industry,  and  has  long  held 
flannel  fairs.  Falstaff  calls  Sir 
Hugh  Evans  the  "  Welsh  flannel." 
Welshpool,  in  Montgomeryshire, 
formerly  the  chief  seat  of  the  manu- 
facture, has  been  superseded  by 
Newtown.  Lancashire  and  York- 
shire are  noted  for  flannels,  par- 
ticularly the  town  of  Rochdale. 
See  Blanket, 


3191 

Flannelette.  Cotton  imitation 
of  flannel,  used  for  pyjamas,  under- 
wear, etc.  The  term  was  first  used 
towards  the  end  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury. Flannelette  is  now  made 
extensively  in  Europe  and  the 
U.S.A.,  and  is  a  popular  clothing 
material,  though  it  lacks  the  ab- 
sorbent properties  of  flannel,  and 
is  liable  to  catch  fire.  A  "  non-flam" 
flannelette  has  been  patented. 

Flare.  Fireworks  of  the  nature 
of  coloured  fires.  They  are  used  in 
warfare  to  illuminate  portions  of 
the  front  at  night,  and  in  some 
cases  are  arranged  so  that  they  are 
automatically  ignited  if  anyone 
moving  about  stumbles  over  a 
trip  wire  placed  in  front  of  the 
position.  Screens  should  be  ar- 
ranged behind  the  flares  so  that 
the  enemy  troops  are  illuminated, 
while  their  opponents  remain  in 
the  shadow  and  are  not  incon- 
venienced by  the  light.  Small 
hand  flares  are  used  for  both 
illumination  and  signal  purposes, 
and  generally  burn  for  about 
three  minutes.  Larger  ones  may 
be  thrown  from  trench  howitzers. 
Flares  intended  to  illuminate  the 
ground  usually  contain  a  mixture 
of  powdered  magnesium  and  a 
chlorate  or  nitrate  of  one  of  the 
alkali  metals.  They  give  an  in- 
tense white  light,  throwing  strong 
shadows.  Similar  flares  were  also 
employed  on  board  ship  to  illumi- 
nate particular  operations,  as  at 
Zeebrugge  and  Ostend.  Signal 
flares  are  frequently  required  to 
give  a  coloured  light,  and  for  this 
purpose  the  following  compositions 
are  typical : 


Ked 


Green 


BluejY 


eilow 


Potassium 
chlorate     . . 

Strontium 
carbonate . . 

Shellac  . . 

Barium 

chlorate    . . 

Milk  sugar    . . 

Sodium  nitrate 

Sulphur 

Antimony  sul- 
phide 

Lampblack  . . 

Basic  copper 
carbonate . . 

Calomel 


78 


See  Fireworks. 

Flash.  Bow  of  broad  black  silk 
ribbon  with 
long  ends, 
which  is  at- 
tached to  the 
back  of  the 
tunic  collar  of 
the  Royal 
Welch  Fusi- 
liers. No  au- 
thentic explan- 
ation of  this 
custom  is  forth- 


coming, but  in 


Flash.    Distinctive 

bow  worn  by  the . 

Royal     Welch 

Fusiliers 


FLASK 


an  inspection  report  of  1786  it  was 
noted  that  "the  officers  of  this 
regiment  wear  the  hair  turned 
up  behind."  Evidently  the  flash 
is  a  survival  from  the  days  of 
queues  and  hair  powder ;  it  is 
issued  officially  as  an  item  of 
"  personal  clothing."  See  Uniform. 
Flashlight  Photography. 
Photography  by  the  brilliant  light 
obtained  by  burning  the  metal 
magnesium.  It  is  used  chiefly  for 
portraits,  groups,  and  interiors  of 
moderate  size.  In  one  apparatus 
fine  magnesium  is  blown  through 
the  flame  of  a  spirit  lamp,  but  the 
magnesium  is  usually  combined 
with  chlorate  or  perchlorate  of 
potash,  and  fires  readily  on  the 
application  of  a  taper  or  electric 
spark.  The  chief  drawback  to 
these  "  flash-powders "  is  the 
smoke  which  is  produced  by  them. 
See  Photography. 

Flash  Point.  Temperature  at 
which  an  inflammable  liquid  gives 
off  vapour  which  takes  fire  when  a 
flame  is  passed  over  the  surface. 
It  is  also  used  for  that  at  which  the 
vapour  that  collects  forms  an  in- 
flammable mixture  with  the  air  in 
the  closed  vessel  of  the  test  appar- 
atus. The  former  is  called  the 
open  and  the  latter  the  closed  test. 
The  test  is  specially  applied  to 
petroleum  products.  The  open  test 
was  employed  in  accordance  with 
Petroleum  Acts,  1868  and  1871. 

In  consequence  of  the  unsatis- 
factory results,  Sir  Frederick  Abel 
investigated  the  matter,  with  the 
result  that  the  Petroleum  Act, 
1879,  was  passed,  legalising  the 
closed  or  Abel  test.  The  new 
standard  was  fixed  at  73°  F. 
(22-8°  C  ).  The  Abel  apparatus, 
which  is  standardised  by  the  board 
of  trade  before  use,  is  employed 
in  this  country  for  low -flash  oils, 
and  by  order  in  Council,  1907, 
the  Abel-Pensky  apparatus  for 
high-flash  oils.  For  determining  the 
flashing  point  of  the  heavier  mineral 
oils  modifications  of  the  above  ap- 
paratus are  used.  These  are  the 
Pensky -Martens  and  Gray  appara- 
tus. See  Oil ;  Paraffin ;  Petroleum. 
Flask.  Word  used  in  various 
senses.  (1)  In  founding,  a  wooden 
or  iron  box  or  frame-like  structure 
for  holding  the  sand  or  material 
forming  a  mould  into  which  molten 
metal  is  poured  for  making  a  cast- 
ing in  a  foundry.  The  flask  com- 
5 rises  a  cope,  or  top  member  ;  a 
rag,  or  bottom  member ;  and, 
when  used,  intermediate  members 
termed  cheeks.  If  the  mould  is 
contained  in  two  or  more  members, 
the  structure  is  known  as  a  two- 
part  flask,  a  three-part  flask,  etc. 
(2)  A  vessel  of  glass,  metal,  etc., 
usually  having  a  neck,  and  pro- 
vided with  a  body  portion  which 


FLAT 

may  assume  a  variety  of  shapes, 
for  use  in  storing  and  heating 
liquids,  and,  formerly,  as  a  recep- 
tacle for  gunpowder.  ( 3 )  As  applied 
to  ordnance,  a  flask  is  a  metal 
reservoir  for  storing  compressed  air 
which  forms  the  actuating  medium 
of  a  motor  fcV  as,  automobile 
torpedo. 

Flat.  Self-contained  residence. 
It  is  on  one  floor,  with  a  private 
entrance  door,  and  opening  on  to 
a  common  staircase.  Many  build- 
ings are  composed  of  such  separate 
dwellings.  The  upper  stories  of 
business  premises  are  frequently 
used  as  flats,  and  sometimes 
ordinary  dwelling-houses  are  so 
adapted.  In  Scotland  a  block  of 
flats  is  known  as  a  flatted  house, 
and  in  the  U.£.A.  as  an  apartment 
house.  See  Housing. 

Flat.  In  music,  a  sign  (I? ).  It  in- 
dicates that  the  note  to  which  it 
refers  is  to  be  a  semitone  lower  in 
pitch  than  the  ordinary  note  of 
the  same  alphabetical  name  or 
in  the  same  position  on  the  stave. 
It  was  first  applied  to  the  note  B, 
and  the  sign  was  actually  a  little  b, 
to  distinguish  this  note  from  Jj  B 
which  in  Germany  was  and  is 
still  called  H  ($•=*).  See  Double 
Flat ;  Natural ;  Semitone ;  Sharp. 

Flat  bush.  Suburb  of  Brook- 
lyn, U.S.A.  Formerly  a  township 
in  King's  co.,  Long  Island,  it  was 
acquired  by  Brooklyn  in  1894,  and 
became  a  part  of  that  borough 
four  years  later.  The  battle  of 
Long  Island,  Aug.  27,  1776,  is 
sometimes  called  the  battle  of 
Flabbusb, 

Flateyjarbok.  Icelandic  manu- 
script dating  from  the  14th  cen- 
tury. Among  other  things  it  con- 
tains some  account  of  the  voyages 
of  the  Norsemen  of  the  10th  and 
llth  centuries  to  the  American 
continent.  Flateyjarbok  (the  Book 
of  Flatey)  is  preserved  at  Copen- 
hagen. See  Anecdotes  of  Olave 
the  Black,  J.  Johnstone,  1780; 
Flateyjarbok,  ed.  G.  Vigfusson  and 
C.  R.  Unger,  1860-68. 

Flatfish  (Pleuronectidcie).  Large 
groxip  of  fishes  of  flattened  shape, 
in  which  the  two  sides  are  unlike 
in  colour  and  the  two  eyes  are  on 
one  side.  The  plaice  and  sole 
are  examples.  In  these  fish  the 
body  is  greatly  compressed  later- 
ally. In  early  life  the  flatfish  are 
symmetrical,  and  swim  like  round 
fishes.  Then  they  become  flat- 
tened, the  body  tilts  over,  and 
the  fish  takes  to  swimming  on  its 
side  and  to  lying  on  the  bottom 
of  the  sea.  The  upper  side  then 
becomes  darkened,  and  assumes 
a  hue  which  approximates  to  the 
nature  of  the  ocean  bed  on  which 
it  lies,  while  the  markings  closely 


3192 

resemble  the  gravel  and  mot- 
Uings  of  the  sand  or  mud.  At  the 
^ame  time,  the  eye  on  the  under 
tide  gradually  works  round  to  the 
-3pper  surface  and  the  mouth 
becomes  more  or  less  twisted. 

Flatfish  are  marine  in  habit, 
though  flounders  frequently  ascend 
Tivers,  and  a  few  species  have 
a,  lapted  themselves  to  a  life  in  fresh 
water.  Most  are  good  table  fish. 

Flat  Foot.  In  mankind,  a  con- 
dition in  which  the  arch  of  the 
foot  is  reduced,  or  in  bad  cases 
nearly  abolished,  so  that  almost 
the  whole  extent  of  the  sole  comes 
in  contact  with  the  ground.  Flat 
foot  is  most  common  in  young 
persons  of  poor  physique,  whose 
occupation  has  necessitated  their 


Flat  Foot.      Illustration  of  a  severe 
case.     Above,  diagram  of  the  foot 
with. corrective  apparatus  support- 
ing the  arch 

standing  for  long  periods,  or  fre- 
quently carrying  heavy  weights. 
Occasionally  it  may  result  from 
injuries  to  the  foot  which  have  torn 
or  weakened  some  of  the  ligaments. 

Flat  foot  produces  feelings  of 
fatigue  and  weakness  after  a  com- 
paratively small  amount  of  exer- 
cise. Severe  pain  may  be  felt  in  the 
sole,  and  the  gait  becomes  shuf- 
fling and  awkward.  Eventually, 
the  whole  posture  of  the  body  may 
be  altered,  particularly  when  the 
condition  is  more  marked  in  one 
foot  than  in  the  other.  Compen- 
satory changes  may  result  in  a 
tilting  of  the  pelvis,  curvature  of 
the  spine,  and  even  changes  in  the 
position  of  the  shoulders.  '""» 

In  early  cases,  where  weakness 
rather  than  actual  deformity  of 
the  arch  is  present,  rest  should  be 


FLAUBERT 

enjoined  ;  at  the  same  time,  the 
patient  should  undergo  a  course 
of  instruction  in  exercises  speci- 
ally designed  to  strengthen  the 
weak  parts.  When  the  condition 
is  more  marked,  it  is  necessary  to 
afford  artificial  support  to  the 
arch  of  the  foot  by  means  of  instep- 
pads  worn  inside  the  boots.  These, 
however,  merely  relieve  the  symp- 
toms, and  exercise  no  curative 
functions.  In  long-standing  cases, 
remedial  measures  may  prove 
useless,  and  a  surgical  operation 
alone  will  relieve  the  condition. 
See  Foot. 

Flatman,  THOMAS  (1637-88). 
English  miniaturist.  He  was 
born  in  London,  and  educated  at 
Winchester  and  New  College, 
Oxford,  of  which  he  was  scholar 
and  fellow.  He  became  a  barrister 
and  practised  poetry  and  minia- 
ture painting  as  an  amateur,  the 
latter  with  conspicuous  success. 
Walpole  cites  a  portrait  of  Dr. 
Tooke's  father  by  him  which  was 
highly  praised  by  contemporary 
connoisseurs.  He  died  Dec.  8,  1688. 

Flattening  Out.  In  aeronau- 
tics, a  manoeuvre  whereby  an 
aeroplane  in  making  a  descent 
decreases  its  gliding  angle  until 
its  flight  path  becomes  almost 
horizontal.  It  also  means  to  raise 
the  nose  of  a  flying-machine  after 
a  steep  dive,  and  thus  bring  it  back 
to  its  normal  line  of  flight. 

Flattery.  Cape  or  promontory 
of  Washington,  U.S.A.  At  the 
S.  side  of  the  entrance  to  the 
strait  of  Juan  de  Fuca,  it  is  the 
extreme  N.W.  point  of  the  state. 
There  is  another  cape  of  this  name 
in  Queensland,  Australia,  in  Banks 
co.,  about  lat.  14°  52'  S. 

Flatulence  (late  Lat.  flatulentus, 
full  of  wind).  Gas  in  the  stomach 
or  intestines.  It  is  due  partly  to  air 
which  is  swallowed  with  food,  and 
partly  to  the  fermentation  of  food 
in  the  alimentary  canal.  The  con- 
dition is  often  associated  with 
disorders  of  digestion,  and  results 
from  too  hasty  swallowing  of  food 
or  imperfect  mastication.  Hy- 
sterical persons  are  more  prone  to 
develop  the  condition.  Intestinal 
flatulence  is  often  associated  with 
constipation. 

The  treatment  consists  in  at- 
tention to  the  teeth,  thorough 
mastication  and  avoidance  of 
starchy  food  and  sugar.  Intestinal 
flatulence  necessitates  proper  atten- 
tion to  the  bowels.  Dyspeptic  con- 
ditions should  receive  appropriate 
treatment.  See  Dyspepsia. 

Flaubert,  GTJSTAVE  (1821-80). 
French  novelist.  Born  at  Rouen, 
Dec.  12, 1821,  the  son  of  a  surgeon, 
he  went  to  Paris  to  study  law  in 
1840,  but  spent  a  number  of  years 
in  travel,  visiting  the  East  in 


FLAUTO      TRAVERSO 


31  93 


FLAX 


1849-50.  Returning  to  Paris  in 
1850,  he  began  his  first  novel, 
Madame  Bovary.  It  took  six  years 
of  constant 
labour  to  com- 
plete, and  was 
published 
serially  in 
1857.  An  ac- 
tion against 
author  and 
publisher  for 
its  alleged  im- 
morality was 
dismissed, 
and  the  book, 
his  undoubt- 
ed master- 
piece, made 
his  name  famous.  There  fol- 
lowed Salammb6  (Eng.  trans.  M. 
F.  Sheldon),  1862;  L'Education 
Sentimentale,  1869  ;  La  Tentation 
de  S.  Antoine  (Eng.  trans.  R. 
Francis),  1874 ;  Trois  Contes,  1877  ; 
and  the  posthumous  Bouvard  et 
Pecuchet,  1881.  Flaubert  died  at 
Croisset,  near  Rouen,  May  8,  1880. 
He  was  the  dominant  figure 
among  French  novelists  of  the  last 
epoch  of  Romanticism.  A  literary 
descendant  of  Balzac,  he  was  by 
turns  a  sheer  realist  and  a  sheer 
romanticist,  in  both  aspects  bril- 
liant and  infinitely  laborious.  He 
took  his  art  very  seriously,  tor- 
menting himself  for  days  in  the 
search  for  a  word,  polishing  his 
work  with  untiring  zeal.  His 
technical  skill,  especially  as  a 
realist,  greatly  influenced  later 
French  writers,  in  particular  the 
De  Goncourts  and  Zola.  See 
Flaubert's  Correspondence  with 
George  Sand,  preface  by  Guy  de 
Maupassant,  1884;  Life,  E. 
Faguet,  1899. 

Flauto  tra verso  (Ital.,  cross 
flute).  Ordinary  present-day  flute. 
It  is  played  crosswise,  with  a  side 
blowing-hole ;  formerly  it  was 
called  the  German  flute.  See  Flute. 
Flaveria  contrayerba.  Bien- 
nial herb  of  the  natural  order 
Compositae.  A  native  of  Peru,  it 
has  opposite,  saw-toothed,  lance- 
shaped  leaves,  and  yellow  flower 
heads.  In  Chile  a  yellow  dye  is 
obtained  from  the  plant. 

Flavine  (Lat.  flavus,  yellow). 
Antiseptic,  the  value  of  which  was 
discovered  in  1916  by  the  Bland- 
Sutton  Institute  for  Clinical  Patho- 
logy of  the  Middlesex  Hospital, 
London.  The  discovery  of  the  drug 
itself  was  due  to  Prof.  Ehrlich,  who 
treated  cases  of  sleeping  sickness 
with  it.  Flavine  is  a  yellow  dye 
belonging  to  the  acridine  series, 
hence  its  official  name  acriflavine. 
Unlike  most  germicides,  it  is  abso- 
lutely harmless  to  the  tissues. 
The  discovery  of  its  efficacy  as  an 
antiseptic  was  hastened  by  the 


need  for  such  a  drug  occasioned  by 
the  Great  War.  See  Antiseptics  ; 
Surgery. 

Flavouring.  Condiment  put 
into  food  to  give  it  a  distinctive 
taste.  Spices,  herbs,  and  essences 
are  flavourings,  also  lemons,  juice 
of  various  fruits,  onion  and  garlic. 

Flax  (Linum  usitatissimum). 
Annual  herb  of  the  natural  order 
Linaceae.  Its  native  country  is 
unknown ;  but  it  is  found  in  a  wild 
state,  as  an  escape  from  cultivation, 
in  every  temperate  country  where 
it  is  grown  for  the  production  of 
linen  or  oil.  Linen  fabrics,  thread, 
and  stores  of  linseed  have  been 
found  in  excavations  of  the  Stone 
Age.  It  is  a  slender  plant,  with 
erect  stems,  about  a  foot  and  a 
half  high,  and  narrow,  lance-shaped 
alternate  leaves.  The  numerous 
flowers  are  comparatively  large 
(1  inch  diam.),  and  purplish-blue 
in  colour.  The  flax  fibres  of  which 
linen  is  woven  are  obtained  by 
macerating  the  skin  of  the  stems. 
Flax  seed,  from  which  linseed  oil 


Flax.     Stem,  leaves,  and  flowers  of 
Linum  usitatissimum 

comes  under  pressure,  leaving  oil- 
cake as  a  valuable  residue,  is  ob- 
tained from  this  species. 

Flax  is  little  grown  in  the 
United  Kingdom,  except  in  Ulster 
and  some  parts  of  Yorkshire.  The 
seed  is  broadcasted  or  drilled,  at 
the  rate  of  70  Ib.  to  80  Ib.  per  acre 
in  the  former  case,  40  Ib.  to  60  Ib. 
hi  the  latter,  and  the  seed  time 
varies  from  April  to  mid-Mayv 
Well -drained,  deep  loam  is  the 
most  favourable  soil.  Rotation  is 
necessary,  and  an  average  of  seven 
years  should  elapse  between  two 
crops  on  the  same  land.  It  is  not 


usual  to  apply  farmyard  manure 
directly,  for  highly  fertile  soil  is 
apt  to  cause  "  lodging  "  ;  but  the 
preceding  crop  should  be  well 
dunged.  Artificials,  however,  can 
be  used  with  advantage  :  for  flax 
production,  5  cwt.  kainit  or  1J 
cwt.  muriate  of  potash  per  acre  ; 
for  seed  production,  a  mixture  of 
£  to  f  cwt.  sulphate  of  ammonia, 
3  cwt.  superphosphate,  and  £  to  £ 
cwt.  muriate  of  potash  per  acre. 

Flax  should  be  cultivated  on 
clean  land,  and  when  drilled,  weeds 
must  be  kept  down.  Harvesting 
takes  place  in  August,  and  the 
best  fibre  is  obtained  by  hand- 
pulling,  though  the  reaping  hook 
and  reaping  machine  are  also  used. 
The  crop  should  be  cut  before  the 
seed  is  quite  ripe,  for  it  matures  in 
the  stook  (shock).  The  sheaves 
should  be  small.  When  grown  on 
a  large  scale,  it  may  be  necessary 
to  use  the  threshing  machine,  and 
this  should  be  set  close  and  run 
at  a  high  speed.  The  best  results, 
however,  are  obtained  by  the  flail, 
afterwards  crushing  the  seed-heads 
(bolls)  with  a  roller ;  by  passing 
the  plants  through  a  mangle ;  or 
by  drawing  them  through  a  rippling 
comb,  and  afterwards  using  the 
roller.  The  average  yield  per 
acre  is  36  to  40  cwt.  dried  straw 
(giving  about  4£  cwt.  fibre),  and 
8  to  10  cwt.  seed. 

The  board  of  trade  appointed 
a  committee  to  investigate  the 
question  of  increasing  the  supply 
of  flax  in  the  British  Empire.  In 
its  report,  issued  June,  1920,  refer- 
ence was  made  to  substitutes  for 
flax,  such  as  ramie,  the  main  diffi- 
culty in  preparing  which  for  spin- 
ning was  the  elimination  of  the  gum 
which  holds  the  fibre  together. 
Germany  before  the  Great  War 
had  succeeded  in  discovering  a 
process  of  degumming.  This  pro- 
cess was  successfully  transferred 
to  England,  and  ramie  yarns  of 
very  good  quality  are  now  pro- 
duced in  Yorkshire.  The  report 
showed  that,  while  for  a  number  of 
the  purposes  for  which  flax  is  em- 
ployed substitutes  exist,  none  of 
these  can  satisfactorily  replace  flax 
in  the  manufacture  of  fine  linens, 
damasks,  and  similar  articles. 
During  the  latter  part  of  the  Great 
War  flax  was  controlled  by  a  board 
set  up  for  that  purpose. 

New  Zealand  flax  (Phormium 
tenax)  is  a  perennial  herb  of  the 
natural  order  Liliaceae,  native  of 
New  Zealand.  The  tough,  leathery 
leaves  are  sword-shaped,  springing 
from  the  root  in  two  ranks,  and 
from  3  ft.  to  6  ft.  in  length.  The 
dull,  yellowish -red,  tubular  flowers, 
about  2  ins.  long,  are  produced  on 
short,  alternate  branches  of  a  tall, 
flowering  stem,  6  ft.  or  more  in 


FLAXMAN 


31  94 


FLECHE 


height.  See  Linen;  consult  also 
Flax  and  its  Products,  H.  R. 
Carter,  1920. 

Flaxman,  JOHN  (!  755-1826). 
English  sculptor.  BOSM  at  York, 
July  6,  1755,  he  was  tl.e  son  of  a 
ntt.  ter  of  plas- 
t  c .:  casts. 
0  ^.  •  i  n  g  to 
phj  sical  de- 
foRnity,  his 
cbfdhood  in 
Lot.don  was 
patted  mainly 
in  his  father's 
shop,  where^ 
he  drew,  mo- 
delled, and 
studied  the 
classics.  In 
1770  he  entered  the  Academy 
schools,  having  previously  ex- 
hibited and  gained  awards  at  the 
Society  of  Arts,  the  Free  Society  of 
Artists,  etc. ;  and  in  1775  began  to 
be  regularly  employed  by  the 
Wedgwoods  in  designing  classical 
friezes  and  medallions  for  their 
ware.  Married  in  1782,  Flaxman 
and  his  wife  went  to  Rome  in  1787. 
Returning  in  1794,  they  settled  in 
London.  In  1797  he  was  elected 
A.R.A.,  and  R.A.  in  1800,  and  in 
1810  was  appointed  professor  of 
sculpture.  He  died  Dec.  7,  1826. 

Flaxman' s  most  notable  monu- 
mental works  are  in  Westminster 
Abbey  and  S.  Paul's,  his  classical 
figures  and  groups  at  Petworth, 
Woburn,  and  other  country  seats, 
and  his  characteristic  memorial 
reliefs  are  numerous  in  the  British 
cathedrals  and  churches.  Collec- 
tions of  his  drawings  are  in  the 
British  and  South  Kensington 
museums,  and  the  Fitzwilliam 
Museum,  Cambridge.  University 
College,  in  Gower  Street,  London, 
contains  in  the  Flaxman  gallery  a 
large  number  of  his  original  draw- 
ings and  sketches  in  pen  and  pencil, 
and  also  plaster  casts  from  his  clay 
models.  See  Sculpture. 

Flea.  Family  of  small  wingless 
insects,  more  or  less  parasitic  on 
other  animals.  The  body  is  later- 
ally compressed,  and  strongly  en- 
cased in  a  coating  of  chitin  ;  the 
last  pair  of  legs  is  very  long,  en- 
abling the  insect  to  jump  about  200 
times  its  own  length.  The  jaws 
are  modified  into  a  piercing  instru- 
ment and  a  sucking  tube,  and  the 


Fleche,  LA. 

Town  of  France. 
It  stands  on  the 
Loir,  24  m.  from 
Le  Mans,  in  the 
dept.  of  Sarthe.  It 
is  an  agricultural 
centre,  trading  in 
corn,  wine,  etc., 
and  has  also  some 
small  manuf  ac  - 
tures  ;  its  build- 
ings include  a 
town  hall,  mu- 
seum, and  the  - 
atre.  More  fa- 
mous is  the  mili- 
tary school  here 
known  as  the 
Prytanee,  from 
which  students 


Flea.    Much  enlarged  specimens.   1.  Rat  flea.    2.  Common 
flea,  Pulex  irritans,  male  and,  3,  female 

1  Phoioyraphea  at  Nat.   Hist:  Mustum,   S.   Kensington 


insect  in  the  adult 
stage  lives  by 
sucking  blood. 

Most  of  the 
numerous  species 
confine  their  at- 
tention to  some 
one  genus  of  the 
animal  world. 
While  a  rat  flea 
or  chicken  flea  will 
on  occasion  attack 
man,  it  will  not 
stay  with  him.  The 
rat  flea  is  known 
to  be  the  con- 
veyer of  plague, 
and  it  is  probable 
that  other  fleas  also 
carry  disease.  The 
human  flea  (Pulex 
irritans)  deposits 
its  eggs  in  the  dust 
of  floors,  where  the 
white,  worm-like 
larva  feeds  on 
decaying  organic  matter,  taking 
about  a  month  to  attain  maturity. 
See  Insects  ;  Parasite. 

Fleabane  (Pulicaria  and  Eri- 
geron).  Herbs  of  the  natural  order 
Compositae.  P.  dysenterica,  a  na- 
tive of  Europe,  N.  Africa,  and  the 
Himalaya,  is  a  perennial,  with 
creeping  rootstock,  erect  stems,  and 
heart-shaped, oblong,  woolly  leaves. 
The  daisy-like  flower-heads  are 
bright  yellow.  It  was  formerly  used 
as  a  medicine  in  dysentery.  Cana- 
dian fleabane  (Erigeron  canadense), 
generally  distributed  in  warm  and 
temperate  re- 
gions, is  an  an- 
nual, with  stem 
1  or  2  ft.  high, 
and  narrow, 
lance-s  h  a  p  e  d 
leaves.  The 
small,  yellow- 
centred,  white 
flower  -heads 
are  clustered. 


Flaxman.     Two  examples  of  his  work.     Mercury  and 

Pandora,  from  a  cast  now  in  University  College,  London. 

Above,  Pandora  endowed  by  Athena  and  Hermes,  from 

an  illustration  to  Hesiod's  Works  and  Days 

pass  to  St.  Cyr.  Founded  in  1774, 
this  occupies  the  buildings  of  a 
Jesuit  college,  and  has  a  large 
library.  The  earlier  college,  at 
which  Descartes  was  educated, 
was  founded  in  1604  by  Henry  IV, 
to  whom  there  is  a  statue  in  the 
market  place.  Pop.  10,700. 


Fleabane.     Leaves  and  flowers  of 
Pulicaria  dysenterica 


FLEECE 


Coat  of  the  live  sheep 
removed  by  shearing  and  forming 
a  fairly  coherent  mass  by  the  inter- 
locking of  adjacent  fibres.  Fleeces 
deprived  of  some  of  their  inferior 
portions  are  rolled  into  bundles,  se- 
cured by  a  twist  of  their  own  fibre, 
and  packed  into  bales  or  into  bags 
known  by  the  trade  name  of  sheets. 
Locks  and  pieces  are  portions  of 
the  coat  separated  by  accident  or 
design  from  the  main  bulk  or  fleece. 
In  the  course  of  wool-sorting  the 
fleece  is  opened  out  and  examined. 
Fleeces  of  like  quality  placed  to- 
gether are  described  as  cased. 

Wool  of  different  strengths 
grows  upon  different  parts  of  the 
body,  and  in  sorting  wool  fully  the 
fleeces  are  broken  up.  When  the  re- 
spective sorts  of  wool  from  many 
fleeces  have  been  collected  together 
the  lots  are  given  the  name  of 
matchings.  The  term  fleece  wool  in 
some  parts  of  the  country  implies 
wool  not  of  the  first  clip.  Certain 
manufactured  goods,  e.g.  warm 
linings,  are  called  fleece  from  their 
warmth  and  fleecy  appearance.  See 
Woollen;  also  illus.  p.  1181. 

Fleet.  In  the  naval  sense,  a 
number  of  ships  under  a  single 
command.  The  word  simply  means 
to  float  or  flow,  hence  its  use  in  this 
connexion.  At  one  time  fleet  was 
almost  synonymous  with  squadron, 
but  it  is  now  used  for  a  much 
larger  unit.  The  whole  of  a  navy  is 
often  called  the  fleet,  e.g.  the 
French  fleet,  and  during  the  Great 
War  there  was  the  Grand  Fleet 
(q.v.).  See  Navy  ;  Squadron. 

Fleet.  Urban  district  of  Hamp- 
shire, England.  It  is  6  m.  N.E.  of 
Odiham  and  36  m.  S.  W.  of  London, 
having  a  station  on  the  L.  &  S.  W.R. 
Near  the  village  is  Fleet  Pond,  a 
sheet  of  water  130  acres  in  extent. 
Pop.  3,280.  There  is  also  a  village 
of  this  name  in  Lincolnshire, 
2  m.  S.E.  of  Holbeach.  Pop.  1,155. 

Fleet,  THE.  Name  of  the  navig- 
able part  of  an  old  London  river 
vhich,  rising  in  Hampstead,  en- 
tered the  city  S.  of  Chick  Lane  (now 
Charterhouse  Street)  and  joined 
the  Thames  at  Blackfriars.  First 
mentioned  in  12th  century  MS.,  it 
was  known  as  the  Fleet  Ditch, 
owing  to  the  frequency  with  which 
it  became  choked  with  refuse.  The 
N.  part  was  known  as  the  Hoi- 
bourne,  hence  Holborn.  After  the 
Great  Fire  of  1666  it  was  cleansed, 
deepened,  and  called  the  New 
Canal.  Wharves  were  erected  as 
well  as  bridges  at  Holborn,  Fleet 
Lane,  Fleet  Street,  and  Bridewell. 
The  part  between  Holborn  and 
Fleet  Street  was  arched  over  in 
1737,  and  later  the  stream  was 
converted  into  a  sewer,  its  course 
being  covered  by  Farringdon  Street 
(q.v.)  and  New  Bridge  Street. 


31  95 

Fleet  Prison,  THE.  Former 
prison  of  old  London.  Its  history 
has  been  traced  back  to  the  12th 
century.  Named  after  the  Fleet 
river,  it  stood  on  the  E.  bank 
of  that  stream,  S.  of  Fleet  Lane, 
was  burnt  in  the  Great  Fire,  re- 


Fleet  Prison. 


The  inner  court  with  prisoners  engaged 
jn  a  game  of  racquets 

From  a  drawing  by  Bowlandson  &  Pugin,  1807 

built,  destroyed  in  the  Gordon  riots 
of  1780,  rebuilt  again  in  1781-82, 
purchased  by  the  City  Corporation 
in  1844,  used  as  a  stone- yard,  and 
sold  in  1864  to  the  L.C.  &  D.R. 
On  part  of  the  site  was  erected  the 
Memorial  Hall.  The  prison  was  used 
for  prisoners  of  the  Star  Chamber, 
and  later  for  debtors  and  bankrupts. 
The  register  books  are  preserved 
at  Somerset  House. 

The  poet  Surrey,  Bishop  Hooper, 
Thomas  Nash,  Dr.  Donne,  Falk- 
land, Prynne,  James  Howell,  Wy- 
cherley,  and  Richard  Savage  were 
among  notable  prisoners  here  ;  as, 
among  literary  creations,  were 
Falstaff,  Mr.  Pickwick,  and  Shan- 
don,  the  shiftless  journalist  of 
Thackeray's  Pendennis.  Here,  and 
in  the  liberties,  clergymen  im- 
prisoned  for  debt  celebrated  clan- 
destine marriages,  known  as  Fleet 
marriages,  between  1614  and  1754, 
when  they  became  illegal.  Favoured 
debtors  were  allowed  to  live  in  what 
was  known  as  the  rules  or  liberty  of 
the  Fleet,  which  included  the  N.  side 
of  Ludgate  Hill  and  the  Old  Bailey 
to  Fleet  Lane  and  Market,  and  along 
the  E.  bank  of  the  Fleet  to  what 
is  now  Ludgate  Circus.  See  Far- 
ringdon Street ;  consult  also  The 
Fleet :  Its  River,  Prison  and  Mar- 
riages, J.  Ashton,  1888  ;  The  Chap- 
lain of  the  Fleet,  W.  Besant  and 
J.  Rice,  1881. 

Fleet  Reserve,  THE  ROYAL. 
British  naval  unit.  It  was  consti- 
tuted in  1901  as  a  scheme  to  secure 
the  services  in  war  of  men  who 
had  retired  from  the  navy.  With 
the  Royal  Naval  Reserve  it  was 
designed  to  form  a  reserve  of 
personnel  from  which  to  draw  in 
the  event  of  war.  Men  composing 
it  undergo  a  period  of  training. 


FLEET  STREET 

They  were  called  out  on  the  out- 
break of  the  Great  War,  and  on 
Aug.  15,  1914,  numbered  27,395. 
Their  strength  on  Nov.  15,  1918, 
was  19,189.  See  Navy,  British. 

Fleet  Street.  London  thorough- 
fare, in  Farringdon  Ward  Without. 
Running  W.  from 
Ludgate  Circus  to 
Temple  Bar,  its  pre- 
cincts are  closely 
associated  with  the 
ecclesiastical,  legal, 
theatrical,  bank- 
ing, publishing  and 
printing  activities 
of  the  metropolis. 
It  contains  two 
churches  of  note, 
S.  Bride's  and  S. 
Dunstan's  in  the 
West,  the  remains 
of  Clifford's  Inn 
and  the  second 
Serjeants'  Inn, 
part  of  the  Law 
Courts,entrances  to 


the  Temple  (q.v.),  and,  near  to  the 
last-named,  a  restored  timber  house 
of  1610,  the  projecting  upper  storey 
of  which,  called  Prince  Henry's 
Room,  is  described  as  the  council 
chamber  of  the  duchy  of  Cornwall 
in  the  time  of  James  I. 

On  each  side  of  Fleet  Street  are 
lanes  and  courts  and  squares,  e.g. 
Chancery  Lane,  Fetter  Lane,  Shoe 
Lane  ;  Bolt  Court,  Crane  Court, 
Wine  Office  Court,  Mitre  Court; 
Gough  Square  and  Salisbury 
Square — all  with  some  interesting 
story  to  tell.  Whitefriars  Street 
still  serves  to  remind  the  passer-by 
of  the  Carmelite  monastery  which 
once  stood  near  ;  and  Anderton's, 
the  Cheshire  Cheese,  the  Cock, 
Peele's,  and  the  Rainbow  represent 
the  taverns  and  coffee  houses  of 
an  earlier  day.  The  site  of  the  old 
Mitre  tavern  of  Johnson's  time  is 
covered  by  Hoare's  Bank,  and  that 
of  the  Devil  tavern  by  Child's  Bank. 

Notable  modern  buildings  are 
those  of  Child's  Bank,  the  Law 
Courts  branch  of  the  Bank  of  Eng- 
land, the  Norwich  Union  Insurance 
Co.,  and,  in  Bride  Lane,  the  S. 
Bride  Foundation  Institute.  Most 
of  the  buildings  in  Fleet  Street  are 
wholly  or  in  part  newspaper  offices. 
Here  are  the  chief  offices  of  The 
Daily  Telegraph  and  The  Daily 
Chronicle,  branch  offices  of  The 
Daily  Mail  and  The  Daily  News, 
and  London  offices  of  provincial, 
Indian,  Australian,  and  American 
journals.  The  Great  Fire  of  1666 
extended  to  Clifford's  Inn  on  the 
N.  side  and  to  the  Temple  on  the 
S.  side,  and  after  it  the  street  was 
virtually  rebuilt. 

Wynkyn  de  Worde,  the  printer, 
worked  at  No.  32,  near  Temple 
Bar;  Richard  Tothill  had  his 


FLEETWOOD 


3196 


FLEGEL 


Fleet  Street. 


Left,  bouses  on  the  N.  side  between  Chancery  Lane  and  Temple  Bar,  as  they  appeared  in  1799;  right,  the 
street,  as  widened,  looking  E.  towards  Ludgate  Hill  and  S.  Paul's 


printing  office  in  Fleet  Street,  and 
here  Gorboduc,  the  first  English 
tragedy,  was  printed  and  published. 
Punch  offices  were  at  the  N.W. 
corner  of  St.  Bride's  Avenue ;  they 
are  now  in  Bouverie  Street.  At 
No.  32  John  Murray  the  first  pub- 
lished Byron's  Childe  Harold,  and 
John  Murray  the  second,  the  early 
numbers  of  The  Quarterly  Review. 
On  the  site  of  Samuel  Richardson's 
house  in  Salisbury  Court  is  the  office 
of  Lloyd' s  News.  Michael  Drayton 
and  Cowley  lived  in  Fleet  Street ; 
Samuel  Johnson  in  Bolt  Court, 
Johnson's  Court  and  Gough  Square ; 
Defoe  stood  in  the  pillory  within 
Temple  Bar  in  1703.  Our  view  of 
the  N.  side  between  Chancery  Lane 
and  Temple  Bar  is  from  a  print 
by  W.  Capon.  The  timbered 
house  with  overhanging  storeys 
and  gabled  roof  was  built  in 
Henry  VIII's  time  and  destroyed 
in  1799.  Izaak  Walton  lived  in 
the  house  adjoining.  The  modern 
view  is  from  H.  Simonis's  The 
Street  of  Ink,  1917.  The  legend 
of  Sweeny  Todd,  the  demon  bar- 
ber, originated  in  a  tale  published 
in  1840.  London's  first  pillar-box 
was  put  up  at  Ludgate  Circus  in 
1855.  See  London. 

Bibliography.  The  Highway  of 
Letters,  T.  Archer,  1893  ;  Annals  of 
Fleet  Street,  E.  B.  Chancellor,  1912  ; 
Fleet  Street  in  Seven  Centuries,  W. 
G.  Bell,  1912  ;  A  Londoner's  Lon- 
don, W.  Whitten,  1913. 

Fleetwood.  Urban  dist.,  sea- 
port, and  watering-place  of  Lanca- 
shire, England.  It  stands  at  the 

< ,    mouth   of    the 

Wyre,  9  m.  N. 
of  Blackpool,  on 
the  L.  &  N.W. 
and  L.  &  Y.  J.R., 
of  which  it  is  a 
terminus.  It 
owes  its  name 
and  prosperity 
to  Sir  P.  H. 
Fleetwood,  who 


Fleetwood  arms 


built  quays  and  rlys.,  and  planned 
the  town  in  1836.  IV  has  regular 
steamer  service  with  the  Isle  of 


Man  and  Ireland,  and  carries  on  a 
brisk  coasting  trade.  The  fisheries 
are  extensive  and  much  salt  is  pro- 
duced for  export.  Fleetwood  has  a 
safe  and  commodious  harbour  ;  the 
Wyre  Dock  covers  an  area  of  about 
10  acres,  and  has  a  large  .grain 
elevator.  The  council  owns  the 
electricity  works,  markets,  free 
library,  and  recreation  grounds, 


commander-in-chief  in  Ireland 
from  1652  to  1655,  being  also  lord 
deputy  until  replaced  by  Henry 
Cromwell.  Fleetwood  was  one  of 
Cromwell's  ten  major-generals,  and 
sat  in  his  House  of  Lords.  During 
Richard  Cromwell's  rule  he  was 
also  influential.  Fleetwood  was 
commander-in-chief  when  Monk 
entered  London,  but  at  this  time 


and  a  fine  esplanade  has  been  con-     he   hesitated,   and  was  lost.     He 


structed.  There  is  also  a  town  hall. 

Market  day,  Fri.    Pop.  19,448. 
Fleetwood,  CHARLES  (d.  1692). 

English  soldier.    A  younger  son  of 

Sir  Miles  Fleetwood,  of  Northamp- 
tonshire, h  e 
was  trained 
for  the  law. 
He  joined  the 
Parliamentary 


army    at 
outbreak 


the 
of 


commanded  a 

Charles  Fleetwood,     regiment.      In 
English  soldier         1646    he    en_ 

After  Walker  tered       the 

House  of  Commons  as  M.P.  for 
Marlborough.  He  went  with  Crom- 
well into  Scotland  in  command 
of  the  horse,  and  was  present 
both  at  Dunbar  and  Worcester, 
being  at  the  time  of  the  latter  battle 
in  command  of  the  troops  in  Eng- 
land. Fleetwood  was  then  made 


did  not,  as  he  thought  of  doing, 
go  over  to  Charles,  while  the 
Parliament,  again  restored,  took 
from  him  his  command.  Although 
he  had  taken  no  part  in 
the  trial  of  Charles  I,  he  was 
exempted  from  a  complete  pardon 
at  the  Restoration.  He  died  Oct.  4, 
1692.  In  religion  a  Baptist,  Fleet- 
wood  was  a  zealot,  without  any  of 
the  graces  of  some  of  the  Puritans. 
He  married,  in  1652,  Cromwell's 
the  Civil  War  daughter  Bridget,  the  widow  of 
and  afterwards  Ireton,  but  their  relations  with  the 
Protector  were  not  uniformly 
cordial,  although  it  is  believed  by 
some  that  the  latter  at  one  time 
intended  Fleetwood  to  succeed  him. 
Flegel,  EDUABD  ROBEKT  (1855- 
86).  German  traveller.  Born  at 
Vilna,  Oct.  1,  1855,  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  a  commercial  post  at 
Lagos,  W.  Africa,  in  1875,  and  in 

1879  surveyed  the  Benue  river.   In 

1880  he    ascended   the    Niger   to 
Gomba  and   in    1882    discovered 

the  source  of  the 
Benue.  Return- 
ing to  Europe,  he 
gained  the  inter- 
est of  high  Ger- 
man officials, 
and,  backed  by 
Bismarck,  made 
another  expedi- 
tion to  secure  the 
Benue-Niger  dis- 
trict for  German 
trade.  In  this, 
however, ,  he  was 
forestalled  by  the 
British  Niger  Co. 
He  died  on  the 
coast  at  Brass, 
Sept.  11,  1886. 


Fleetwood,  Lancashire.     The  quay  and  harbour 

By  courlety  of  L.  &  N.W.  Rly. 


FLEMING 


3197 


FLEMISH  ART 


Fleming ,  JOHN  AMBROSE  (b.  1 849). ." 
British  engineer  and  physicist.  Born  " 
at  Lancaster,  Nov.  29,  1849,  he  was 
educated  at  University  College, 
London,  and  S.  John's  College,  v 
Cambridge,  where  he  gained  a 
fellowship,  arid  became  lecturer  on 
applied  mechanics  at  Cambridge. 
In  1881  he  took  up  the  position  of 
electrical  engineer  to  the  Edison 
Electrical  Lighting  Co.  While 
professor  at  University  College, 
London,  and  since  1910  of  electri- 
cal engineering  in  the  university,  he 
remained  in  business  as  a  consult- 
ing engineer  and  devoted  much 
attention  to  radio-telegraphy. 

Fleming,  MARGABET  OR  MAR- 
JORIE  (1803-11).  Infant  prodigy 
and  favourite  of  Sir  Walter  Scott. 
A  niece  of  Mrs. 
Keith  of  Ra- 
v  e  1  s  t  o  n,  at 
whose  house 
Scott  fre- 
quently saw 
her,  she  read 
history  at  the 
age  of  six  and 
wro'te  diaries 
and  poems 
which  were 
preserved  b  y 
her  family.  Her  story  is  told  in  Pet 
Margarie  :  A  Story  of  Child  Life 
Fifty  Years  Ago,  H.  B.  Farnie,1858 ; 


Margaret  Fleming 


After  a  water-colour  by 
1.  Keith 


and  Dr.  John  Brown  includes  an 
essay  on  her  life  and  character  in 
Horae  Subsecivae. 

Fleming,  SIR  SAND  FORD  (1827- 
1915).  Canadian  engineer.  Born  at 
Kirkcaldy,  Jan.  7, 1827,  he  went  to 
Canada  and  became  connected  with 
rly.  construction  about  1846.  After 
1871  the  Dominion  Government 
employed  him  to  survey  and  con- 
struct the  Intercolonial  line,  and 
afterwards  he  surveyed  a  route 
through  the  Rockies  for  the  C.P.R. 
He  advocated  an  imperial  cable 
system  and  standard  time.  In  1897 
he  was  made  a  K.C.M.G.  He  died 
at  Halifax,  July  22,  1915. 

Flemings.  Name  given  to 
the  inhabitants  of  Flanders.  A 
small  sect  of  early  Protestants,  in- 
fluenced by  the  Mennonites,  were 
called  Flemings  or  Flandrians  about 
the  middle  of  the  16th  century. 

Flemish  immigrants  to  England 
have  frequently  played  a  part  in 
English  and  Welsh  history.  Early 
chroniclers  speak  of  Tostig  having 
Flemish  auxiliaries  under  his  flag 
at  Stamford  Bridge,  1066.  Henry  I 
settled  a  number  of  Flemings  at 
Dyfed,  in  S.  Wales,  about  1108, 
who  were  long  the  objects  of  Welsh 
hostility.  In  the  battle  with  the 
S.  Wales  marchers  at  Teifi  Ford, 
near  Cardigan,  in  1136,  large  num- 
bers of  these  Flemish  settlers  were 


]  slain.  Other  attacks  on  them  in 
1144  and  1164  were  avenged  by 
their  harrying  of  Iscold  or  Lower 
Gwent  in  1165.  Strongly  attacked 
by  the  Welsh  leader  Maelgwyn 
Gwynedd  in  1188,  they  made  sub- 
mission to  Llewellyn  I  in  1217. 

Flemings  were  important  in  the 
growth  of  the  woollen  and  weaving 
industries  in  England,  especially  in 
E.  Anglia.  See  Flanders. 

Flemington.  Suburb  of  Mel- 
bourne, Victoria.  It  is  3  m.  from 
the  city  and  has  a  fine  racecourse, 
founded  1861,  on  which  is  run  the 
race  for  the  Melbourne  cup.  Pop.  | 
6,109.  See  Melbourne. 

Flemish  Art.  Art  of  Flanders. 
As  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  be- 
tween Dutch  and  Flemish  painters, 
the  word  Netherlands  is  sometimes 
used  for  the  school  which  suddenly 
attained  power  in  the  15th  cen- 
tury. There  were  distinct  schools 
at  Bruges,  Ghent,  and  Antwerp. 
The  earliest  phases  of  the  two  first 
are  still  obscure  ;  the  first  great 
masters  of  the  Netherlands  were 
the  Limburg  brothers,  illuminators 
of  Maaseyck.  Next  come  the  two 
Van  Eycks,  masters  of  the  school. 
The  so-called  Mattre  de  Flemalle 
(possibly  Robert  Campin),  Jacques 
Daret,  Roger  van  der  Weyden, 
Dierick  Bouts,  and  Petrus  Christus 
are  the  great  names  of  the  next 


I 


"Flemish  Art.     Massacre^  the "innocenta,  by  Pieter  Brueghel  the  Younger,  typical  o!  the 
century  Flemish  painters.    This  picture,  in  the  museum  at  Brussels,  is  an  exact  copy  of  one  by  P.  Brueghel 


FLENSBURG 


31  98 


FLENSBURG 


generation.  A  little  later  comes 
Hans  Memlinc  and  Hugo  van  der 
G®es,  followed  by  Gerard  of  Haar- 
lem (Geertgen  of  S.  John),  Gerard 
David,  and  Quinten  Massys.  This 
closes  the  list  of  the  first-rank 
Netherlandish  religious  painters. 

Their  contemporaries  were  Jer- 
ome Bosch,  the  earliest  satirist,  and 
Patinir,  the  landscape  painter. 


Flemish  Art.    A  Canon  with  Patron  Saints,  by  Gerard 
David  (c.  1450-1523),  a  pupil  of  Hans  Memlinc 

National  Gallery,  London 

Mabuse  represents  the  next  phase 
of  Flemish  art,  when  it  was  invaded 
by  Italian  influence ;  the  rococo 
period  of  excessive  elaboration, 
compensated  by  no  serious  inter- 
pretation, is  seen  in  B.  van  Orley, 
Mostaert,  Jacob  Cornelisz,  and 
Cornells  Engelbrechtsen.  Better 
masters  were  Lucas  van  Leiden 
and  Scoreel.  In  this  period  was 
popularised  the  satirical  genre  pic- 
ture best  known  in  Marinus  von 
Reymerswael,  whose  Moneylenders 
and  Misers  are  still  famous.  P. 
Aertsen  of  Amsterdam  is  a  pre- 
cursor on  a  large  scale  of  Dutch 
genre.  The  great  genre  and  land- 
scape painter  of  the  school,  the  last 
Flemish  Primitive  master,  and  one 
of  the  greatest,  is  Pieter  Brueghel, 
the  most  original  painter  of  his 
school.  The  influence  of  the  Flem  - 
ish  masters  of  the  15th  century  in 
Germany  and  to  a  small  extent  in 
Florence  was  important.  In  Spain, 
too,  and  Portugal,  the  northern 
school  left  a  deep  impression,  and 
in  England,  chiefly  in  East  Anglia, 
Flemish  painters  for  a  short  while 
had  considerable  business. 

In  the  great  Flemish  Primitives, 
before  Italian  influence<came  north, 
the  true  Gothic  spirit  found  some 
expression.  If  nothing  comparable 


with  the  mystic  emotion  of  the 
French  13th  century  sculptors  is 
found  in  the  van  Eycks,  Roger 
van  der  Weyden,  Dierick  Bouts, 
and  Hugo  van  der  Goes,  yet  they 
echoed  the  intensity  of  the  Gothic 
conception  of  the  Christian  drama. 
Withal  they  reflected  the  desire  for 
richness  and  elaboration  of  detail 
inseparable  from  the  Gothic  ideal. 
No  Italian  mas- 
ter rivalled  the 
northern  artists 
in  this  respect ; 
nor,  even  when 
the  technique  of 
the  Netherlands 
was  practised  in 
Italy,  could  any 
southern  painters 
attain  the  brilli- 
ance and  delicacy 
native  to  the  trans- 
alpine schools.  In- 
deed, the  almost 
enamel-like  per- 
fection and  dura- 
bility of  a  van 
Eyck  is  unique. 

At  the  same  time 
it  should  be  noted 
that,     apparently 
derived  from  mis- 
sal    illumination, 
the  technique  and 
style  of  the  Flem- 
ish were  unsuited 
to  the  large  issues 
of  wall  decoration 
which      engrossed 
the  Italian  paint- 
ers.     Only   Brue- 
ghel   attained     a 
mural   largeness 
of  style.    Even  in 
recent    times    the 
influence    of     the 
Flemish   Primi- 
tives has  reassert- 
ed itself.     For  in- 
stance,   the    Eng- 
lish school  of  Pre- 
Raphaelites   owed 
much  of  its  tech- 
nique   and   vision 
to  the  masters  of 
whom  R  o  s  s  e  1 1  i 
and  Holman  Hunt 
became  aware    in 
Belgium  in   1849. 
Commercially 
speaking,      the 
Primitives  are  gilt- 
edged     securities. 
Only  within  a  com- 
paratively     short 
time    have    these 
masters  met  with 
this  desirability  in 
collectors'    eyes. 
See    Art ;    Dutch 
Art;  Painting. 

C.  H.  Collins 


Flemish  Art.    Barbara  van  Vlander- 
berghe,  by  Hans  Memlinc  (c.  1430-94) 

Alusee  Royal,  Brussels 

Bibliography.  The  Flemish  School 
of  Painting,  A.  J.  Wauters,  Eng. 
trans.  H.  Rossell,  1885;  Anciens 
Arts  de  Flandre,  E.  Durrand- 
Greville,  1905;  La  Peinture  en 
Belgique,  H.  Fierens-Gevaert,  1909; 
Art  in  Flanders,  M.  Rooses,  1914. 

Flensburg.  Seaport  of  Slesvig, 
Germany.  It  lies  at  the  S.  ex- 
tremity of  the  Flensburg  Fiord, 
about  23  m.  N.  of  Slesvig  town. 
Beautifully  situated  on  the  steep 
shores  of  the  land-locked  fiord,  it 
has  a  good  harbour,  with  ship- 
yards, foundries,  and  breweries  as 
the  chief  industries.  Whaling 


Flemish  Art.   Madonna  and  Child  Enthroned,  by  Dierick 
Bouts  (c.  1410-75) 

National  Gallery,  London 


FLERS 

vessels  leave  annually  for  the 
Greenland  fisheries.  Originally 
founded  during  the  12th  century, 
Flensburg  has  several  fine  old 
buildings,  notably  the  churches  of 
S.  Nicholas  (14th  century)  and  S. 
Mary  (15th  century).  Formerly  a 
Danish  town,  it  was  entered  by 
German  troops  Feb.  7,  1864,  and 
annexed  with  Slesvig.  During  the 
Slesvig-Holstein  plebiscite  after 
the  Great  War,  there  were  serious 
disturbances  in  the  town  in  Sept., 

1919.  The  subsequent  voting  re- 
sults showed  a  large  majority  for 
German  rule.    Pop.  60,922. 

Flers.  Town  of  France,  in  the 
dept.  of  Orne.  It  stands  on  the 
Vere,  40  m.  from  Caen.  It  has  a 
16th  century  chateau,  and  cotton 
spinning,  bleaching,  and  dyeing 
works.  Pop.  13,600.  Pron.  Flare. 
Flers.  Village  of  France,  in  the 
dept.  of  Somme.  It  is  3  m.  N.  of 
Guillemont  and  5  m.  E.  of  the 
Albert-Bapaume  road.  It  was 
prominent  in  the  battle  of  the 
Somme,  being  captured  by  the 
41st  and  New  Zealand  divisions  on 
Sept.  15,  1916,  on  which  day  the 
tanks  were  first  used.  Retaken  by 
the  Germans  in  their  spring  offen- 
sive, 1918,  it  was  regained  by  the 
Allies  at  the  end  of  Aug., 1918.  See 
Somme,  Battles  of  the. 

Flers,    ROBERT   DE    (b.    1872). 
French  dramatist  and  writer.  Born 
at  Pont-1'Eveque,  Nov.  22,  1872, 
^^^^^^^^^_  and  educated  at 
H  Paris,  he  made 
,|||     :,  his     reputation 
H  as  collaborator 
•  with  G.  A.   de 
8  Caillavet    in    a 
Si  series   of    light 
and  witty  come- 
dies.    Among 
them    are    Les 
Robert  de  Flers,      Travauxd'Her- 
French  dramatist     cu]e>     19Q1; 

Primerose, 

1911 ;  L'Habit  Vert,  1912  ;  La  Belle 
A  venture,  1913.  Also  a  well-known 
journalist,  he  became  assistant 
editor  of  Le  Figaro  under  Gaston 
Calmette,  in  April,  1914,  succeed- 
ing him  as  editor,  with  Alfred Capus, 
in  June.  He  resigned  this  post  in 

1920,  rejoining  the  paper  in  1922. 
Fleshly  School  of  Poetry,  THE. 

Derisive  name  given  to  certain 
19th  century  poets,  chiefly  D.  G. 
Rossetti  and  A.  C.  Swinburne.  It 
originated  in  an  article  in  The 
Contemporary  Review,  entitled 
The  Fleshly  School  of  Poetry  and 
Other  Phenomena  of  the  Day,  by 
Thomas  Maitland  (Robert  Bu- 
chanan), which  was  afterwards 
published  as  a  pamphlet,  1872. 
Swinburne  replied  in  Under  the 
Microscope,  1872.  Buchanan  later 
made  a  full  amende  honorable  in 
regard  to  Rossetti's  work. 


3199 

Flesquieres.  Village  of  France 
in  the  dept.  of  Nord.  It  is  S.  of 
Bourlon  Wood,  1£  m.  S.  of  the 
Bapaume-Cambrai  road,  and  2  m. 
W.  of  Marcoing.  Here  on  Nov.  20, 
1917,  in  the  first  battle  of  Cambrai 
the  British  encountered  stubborn 
German  resistance.  Taken  by  the 
British,  Nov.  21,  it  was  evacuated 
in  March,  1918,  and  regained  at 
the  end  of  Sept.,  1918.  See  Cam- 
brai, Battles  of. 

Fletcher,  ANDREW,  OP  SALTOTTN 
(1655-1716).  Scottish  politician. 
Born  at  Saltoun  (now  Salton), 
East  Lothian, 
he  was  educat- 
ed by  the  par- 
i  s  h  minister, 
Gilbert  Burnet, 
afterwards 
bishop  of  Salis- 
bury. He  sat 
as  a  commis- 
sioner in  the 
Scots  conven- 
tion of  estates 
in  1678,  and 
opposed  the  govem- 


Andrew  Fletcher, 
Scottish  politician 

After  Aikman 


vigorously  ^  x 
ment.  In  1685  he  joined  Mon- 
mouth's  expedition  to  England, 
but,  having  killed  a  man  in  a 
private  quarrel,  fled  to  Spain.  He 
returned  in  1688  with  William  of 
Orange,  and  became  a  determined 
opponent  of  the  Union.  He  is  re- 
membered by  the  remark  from  his 
Account  of  a  Conversation,  "I  knew 
a  very  -wise  man,  so  much  of  Sir 
Christopher's  (Sir  Christopher  Mus- 
grave's)  sentiment,  that  he  believed 
if  a  man  were  permitted  to  make  all 
the  ballads,  he  would  not  care  who 
should  make  the  laws  of  a  nation." 
Fletcher,  ALFRED  EWEN  (1841- 
1915).  British  journalist.  Born  at 
Long  Sutton,  Lincolnshire,  and 
educated  a  t 
Owens  College 
and  Edinburgh 
University,  h< 
was  for  a  few 
years  engaged 
in  the  teaching 
profession.  In 
1872  he  en- 
tered journal- 
ism, and  in 
1878  became 
leader  writer 
on  The  Daily  Chronicle,  which  he 
edited  from  1890  until  he  resigned 
in  1895.  He  contested  Greenock  as 
an  independent  radical  in  1895,  and 
the  Camlachie  division  of  Glasgow 
as  a  radical  and  labour  candidate  in 
1900.  He  edited  Sonnenschein's 
Cyclopedia  of  Education,  1889,  con- 
tributed a  monograph  on  Gains- 
borough to  the  Makers  of  British 
Art  series,  and  published  The 
Sermon  on  the  Mount  and  Prac- 
tical Politics,  1911.  He  died  Nov. 
14,  1915. 


Alfred  E.  Fletcher, 
British  journalist 

Elliott  &  Fry 


FLETCHER 

Fletcher,  BANISTER  FLIGHT 
(b.  1866).  British  architect  and 
author.  Born  in  London,  Feb.  15, 
1866,  he  studied  at  the  R.A.,  and 
elsewhere.  A  barrister  and  a  trav- 
eller, he  practised  also  as  an  archi- 
tect, and  lectured  on  architecture. 
His  books  include  A  History  of 
Architecture  on  the  Comparative 
Method,  5th  ed.  1905,  A  Life  of 
Palladio,  1902,  and  other  works. 

Fletcher,  GILES  (c.  1588-1623). 
English  poet.  Brother  of  Phineas 
and  cousin  of  John  Fletcher,  the 
dramatist,  he  was  educated  at 
Westminster  and  Cambridge,  and 
died  rector  of  Alderton,  Suffolk. 
His  principal  work,  an  allegorical 
poem  entitled  Christ's  Victory  and 
Triumph,  1610,  was  modelled  on 
Spenser's  Faerie  Queene,  and  in- 
fluenced Milton. 

Fletcher,    JOHN    (1579-1625). 
English  poet  and  dramatist.  Son  of 
Dr.  Richard  Fletcher,  he  was  born 
at  Rye,  Sussex, 
and     educated 
at  Bene't  (Cor- 
pus   Chris  ti) 
College,    Cam- 
bridge.   On  his 
father's    death, 
being  left  with- 
out means,   he 
took  to  writing 
for    the    stage,       John  Fletcher, 
c  ol laborating     English  dramatist 

With      Francis     from  an  old  engraving 

Beaumont  and  others  in  plays 
which  introduced  tragi -comedy  to 
the  English  theatre.  Independently 
he  wrote  fifteen  plays,  including 
The  Faithful  Shepherdess  (a  beau- 
tiful pastoral  play),  Valentinian, 
The  Wild-Goose  Chase,  Monsieur 
Thomas,  Woman's  Prize  (a  sequel 
to  The  Taming  of  the  Shrew),  A 
Wife  for  a  Month,  and  The  Chances. 
He  also  collaborated  with  Mas- 
singer,  Middleton,  Rowley,  Field, 
and  Daborne. 

To  what  extent  Fletcher  was 
responsible  for  The  Two  Noble 
Kinsmen  and  Henry  VIII  remains 
a  vexed  question.  He  wrote  beauti- 
ful lyrics  and  some  of  the  raciest 
dialogue  in  English  dramatic  litera- 
ture, and  the  free  movement  of  his 
blank  verse  is  a  clue  to  his  contribu- 
tions to  plays  partly  written  by 
others.  He  died  of  the  plague  and 
was  buried  in  S.  Saviour's,  South- 
wark.  See  Beaumont;  consult  also 
John  Fletcher,  0.  L.  Hatcher,  1905; 
Works  of  Beaumont  and  Fletcher, 
ed.  A.  Dyce,  1843^6;  A.  Glover 
and  A.  R.  Waller,  1905-12. 

Fletcher,  JOSEPH  SMITH  (b. 
1863).  British  author.  Born  at 
Halifax,  and  educated  at  Silcoates 
School,  he  wrote  much  for  York- 
shire and  other  papers,  signing 
many  of  his  contributions,  Son  of 
the  Soil.  His  many  books  include 


FLETCHER 

works  of  topography,  novels,  etc.  ; 
among  them  A  Picturesque  History 
of  Yorkshire,  1899-1903  ;  A  His- 
tory  of  the  St.  Leger  Stakes,  1902 ; 
The  Threshing  Floor,1905;  Mothers 
in  Israel,  1908  ;  Recollections  of  a 
Yorkshire  Village,  1910 ;  Memories 
of  a  Spectator,,  1912  ;  Ferris  of  the 
Cherry  Trees,  1913,;  The  Annexa- 
tion Society,  1916 ;  Scarhaven 
Keep,  19^0;  Exterior  to  the  Evi- 
dence, 1920. 

Fletcher,  SIR  LAZARUS  (1854- 
1921).  British  scientist.  Born  at 
Salford,  Mar.  3,  1854,  he  was  edu- 
cated at  Manchester  Grammar 
School  and  Balliol  College,  Oxford. 
Having  taken  a  very  good  degree 
in  science  and  mathematics,  he  was 
appointed  a  demonstrator  in  the 
Clarendon  Laboratory  at  Oxford, 
and  chosen  fellow  of  University 
College.  He  remained  lecturing  in 
Oxford  until  1890,  when  he  was  ap 
pointed  keeper  of  minerals  in  the 
natural  history  department  of  the 
British  Museum.  He  was  promoted 
to  be  director  of  the  department  in 
1909,  and  he  resigned  in  1919.  In 
1916  Fletcher  was  knighted,  and 
his  many  honours  include  an  F.R.S. 
From  1888  to  1909  he  was  secretary 
of  the  Mineralogical  Society.  His 
published  works  include  Introduc- 
tion to  the  Study  of  Minerals,  1884 ; 
Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Rocks. 
1895.  He  died  Jan.  6,  1921. 

Fletcher,  PHINEAS  (1582-1650). 
English  poet.  Phineas  was  brother 
of  Giles  Fletcher,  and,  like  him,  an 
imitator  of  Spenser.  He  died  rector 
of  Hilgay,  Norfolk.  His  works  have 
been  edited  by  Grosart,  1868,  the 
most  important  being  a  poem  of 
4,800  linesr  entitled  The  Purple 
Island,  an  'extraordinary  allegory 
of  the  human  body. 

Fletchers'  Company,  THE. 
City  of  London  livery  company.  Of 
ancient  origin  and  associated  with 
the  Bowyers,  the 
Fletchers 
(Fr.  fleche,  an 
arrow)  is  a  com- 
pany by  prescrip- 
tion, not  charter, 
was  granted  arms 
in  1467,  and  pos- 
sessed a  hall  in 
Fletchers'  St.  Mary  Axe. 
Company  arms  The  old  records 
have  been  lost,  the  earliest  extant 
being  dated  1775.  The  offices 
are  at  4,  Broad  Street  Place,  B.C. 
Fleur-de-Lis  (Fr.,  lily-flower). 
In  heraldry,  an  extremely  ancient 
symbol.  Found  among  Egyptian 
hieroglyphics  and  used  by  the 
Anglo-Saxon  kings,  it  was  probably 
a  conventional  representation  of 
some  such  flower  as  the  lotus,  river 
side  flags,  or  the  iris.  «It  consists  of 
a  central  bulbous  petal  and  two 
side  curving  petals,  a  fillet  and  a 


3200 

stalk,  usually  triparted.  The  fleur- 
de-lis  was  early  assumed  as  a  cog- 
nizance by  the  Carlovingian  kings 
and  so  became 
identified  with 
the  royal 
houses  of 
France,  who 
bore  the  golden 
flowers  on  a 
blue  shield. 

At  first  the 
shield  was 
strewn  with 
the  lis,  but  occasionally  only  three 
appeared,  some  say  in  allusion 
to  the  Holy  Trinity,  a  fashion 
which  became  permanent  under 
Charles  VI.  The  French  arms 
(azure,  semee  de  lis  d'-or)  was  quar- 
tered with  the  arms  of  England  by 
Edward  III ;  Henry  IV  reduced  the 
number  of  lis  to  three,  and  after  the 
treaty  of  Amiens  arid  the  Union 
with  Ireland  in  1801,  the  French 
quartering  was  omitted  from  the 
arms  of  the  English  royal  family. 
Pron.  Fler-de-leess.  See  illus.p.  1549. 
Fleurus.  Town  of  Belgium, 
in  the  prov.  of  Hainault.  It  stands 
in  a  plain,  8  m.  N.E.  of  Charleroi, 
and  is  a  junction  for  the  rly.  to 
Gembloux,  Landen,  and  Nivelles. 
There  is  a  steam  tramway  to  Na- 
mur.  Four  important  battles  have 
been  fought  near  this  small  Bel- 

§'an  town.  In  the  first  the  duke  of 
runswick  defeated  the  Spaniards 
under  Cordova,  Aug.  29,  1622. 
Under  Marshal  Luxembourg  the 
French  gained  a  victory  over  the 
allied  Spanish,  Dutch,  and  Ger- 
mans, July  1,  1690.  On  June  26, 
1794,  the  French  inflicted  a  crushing 
defeat  upon  the  Austrians  and 
forced  them  to  evacuate  Flanders. 
Finally,  Napoleon  here  defeated 
the  Prussians,  June  16,  1815,  in 
the  battle  usually  known  as  the 
battle  of  Ligny  (q.v.).  Pop.  6,100. 
Fleury,  FLORY,  OR  FLOWERY.  In 
heraldry,  any  charge  decorated 
with  fleurs-de-lis.  Examples  are 
crosses  at  the 
ends  of  the 
limbs  or  in  the 
angles,  on  the 
tressure,  and 
on  sceptres,  etc. 
See  illus.  p. 
2375. 

Fleury,  AN- 
Fleury,  in  heraldry    DEB     HERCULE 

DE(  1653-1743).  French  statesman. 
Born  at  Lodeve,  Herault,  June  22, 
1653,  he  was  educated  at  Paris, 
took  holy  orders,  and  became  chap- 
lain to  Louis  XIV,  who  made 
ihim  bishop  of  Frejus  in  1698,  and 
tutor  to  the  future  king  Louis  XV 
An  1715. 

/  In  1726  he  became  chief  minister 
and  was  appointed  cardinal.  His 
administration  was  upright  and 


FL1EGENDE      BLATTER 


After  Rigaud 


strictly  economical,  but  he  did 
nothing  to  check  the  early  dissipa- 
tions of  the  king  or  the  abuses  of 
the  farmers  -general.  His  foreign 
policy  was  directed  chiefly  towards 
ensuring  peace,  and  to  this  end  he 
worked  closely  with  the  English 
minister  Walpole.  The  French  in- 
tervention in  Polish  affairs  in  1733 
was  undertaken  against  his  better 
judgement,  but  he  failed  to  prevent 
France  from  being  involved  in  the 
war  of  the  Austrian  Succession, 
1740,  and  died  discouraged  and  in 
ill-favour,  Jan.  29,  1743. 

Fleury,  CLAUDE  (1640-1723). 
French  church  historian.  Born 
Dec.  6,  1640,  at  Paris  and  educated 
there,  he  practised  for  nine  years 
as  an  advocate,  and  then  devoted 
himself  to  theology.  In  1672  Louis 
XIV  entrusted  him  with  the  edu- 
cation of  the  young  princes,  &nd 
he  became  nominally  the  abbot  of 
Loc-Dieu  and  later  prior  of  Argen- 
teuil.  From  1691  onwards  he  was 
writing  his  Ecclesiastical  History  in 
20  volumes.  He  died  July  14,  1723. 

Flexner,  SIMON  (b.  1863).  Ameri- 
can pathologist.  Born  March  25, 
1863,  at  Louisville,  Kentucky,  he 
took  his  medical  degree  in  1889 
and  studied  in  Germany.  Professor 
of  pathological  anatomy  at  Johns 
Hopkins  University,  1891-99,  he 
was  from  1899-1904  professor  of 
pathology  at  Pennsylvania  Univer- 
sity. In  1903  he  was  given  charge  of 
the  laboratories  of  the  Rockefeller 
Institute  for  Medical  Research, 
where  his  researches  added  largely 
to  our  knowledge  of  the  causes  of 
infantile  paralysis. 

Flibbertigibbet  OR  DICKIE 
SLUDGE.  In  Scott's  novel  Kenil- 
worth  (q.v.),  a  mischievous  but 
ambitious  dwarf,  in  league  with 
Wayland  Smith  in  deceiving  the 
Berkshire  villagers.  Nj 

Fliegende  Blatter,  DIB  (Fly- 
ing Leaves).  German  weekly  illus- 
trated comic  paper.  Established 
in  1844,  it  is  published  in  Munich. 


FLIGHT 


32C1 


FL-IGHT 


FLIGHT:    IN    THEORY   AND    PRACTICE 

J.  Laurence  Pritchard,  Editor,  The  Aeronautical  Journal 

In  this  article  are  described  the  main  underlying  principles  that 

have  made  possible  the  conquest  of  the  air.     For  the  history  of  flight 

and  aviation  consult  Aeronautics.      See  also  Aeroplane;  Airship; 

and  the  articles  on  the  various  types  of  machine 


particular  angle  at  which  the  wings 
are  set.  If  the  speed  of  the  aero- 
plane is  increased,  then  the  angle  of 
the  wings  must  be  altered  to  satisfy 
this  principle.  The  curved  wing 
has  the  great  advantage  over  the 
flat  wing  that  its  resistance  is 
Though  for  many  centuries  freedom  to  alter  the  shape  of  its  relatively  much  smaller  at  the 
attempts  have  been  made  to  dis-  wings  as  the  bird  has.  In  place  of  usual  flying  speeds, 
cover  the  principles  of  flight,  it  was  flapping  wings  we  find  the  airscrew,  There  is  one  important  aspect  of 
not  till  Langley  in  America  made  and  a  vertical  fin  and  rudder  for  mechanical  flight  which  is  rela- 
his  experiments  on  a  scientific  basis  steerage  and  control  purposes,  not  tively  unimportant  in  bird  flight, 
in  1890-1900  that  any  real  ad-  observable  in  the  bird.  But  the  and  that  is  flying  at  great  heights. 

aeroplane    has    flown    to    a 
eight  of  5  m.,  and  the  conditions 

An  aeroplane  flies  as  a  result  of    of  flight  at  such  a  height,  where  the 

through  the  air  at  a  certain  angle,     the    support   given   to   it   by   its    mercury  stands  at  10  ins.  instead 
and  at  a  certain  speed.     He  an-     wings  when  the  latter  are  being    of  30  ins.,  are  very  different  from 

driven  through  the  air.      As  the    those  on  the  ground.  Here  another 
aeroplane     moves     forward,     the    principle  is  enunciated,  namely  at 


vance  was  made.    Langley  showed    principles  of  bird  flight  and  human    An 
that  a  flat  plate  of  material  could     flight  remain  identical.  heis 

be  made  to  support  itself  if  forced 


nounced  that  a  weight  of  750  Ib. 
could  be  lifted  by  an  engine  of  25 


in 

tp 

r  %                  •  •  r 

h.p.   The  experiments  of  Lilienthal    wings,  owing  to  their  curved  shape,  the  same   altitude   and   speed   of 

drive     downwards  flight  of  the  aeroplane  the  air  force 

the   air   through  is  proportional  to  the  air  density, 

which    they   pass.  The  problem  is  further  complicated 

Galled  by  Lord  by  the  fact  that  the  power  of  an 

Rayleigh     the  engine  decreases  more  rapidly  than 

"  sacrificial  "  prin-  the  density  of  the  atmosphere, 
ciple,     this     prin-        The  general  laws  of  flight  are 

ciple  of  flight  is  an  simple,  but  their  detailed  applica- 

expression    of    the  cations  often  present  insuperable 

fact  that  if  you  do  theoretical  difficulties   which  can 

not   want   to    fall  only  be  solved  by  experiment  on 

yourself  you  must  model  or  full-sized  aeroplanes.    In 

make    something  steady  horizontal  flight  the  lifting 

else  fall.     It  is  the  force  on  the  wings  is  equal  to  the 

constant  falling  of  total  weight  of  the  aeroplane,  in 


Flight.  Diagram  of  the  forces  acting  on  an  aeroplane 
in  horizontal  flight.  T,  the  thrust  of  the  propeller  ; 
L,  the  lift  on  the  wings  ;  W,  the  weight  of  the  aeroplane  ; 
D,  the  resistance  or  drag  ;  and  P,  the  force  on  the  tail 
plane  to  maintain  equilibrium 


and  others  added  that  curved  sur-  the  air,  as  it  were,  which  gives  climbing  flight  it  is  greater,  and  in 
faces  were  better  than  flat  ones  for  that  support  necessary  for  flight  to  diving  flight  it  is  less.  These  are 
flying  purposes. 


the  aeroplane.  Exactly  how  the  air  simple  laws,  but  to  calculate 

Air  resists  the  rapid  passage  of  is  made  to  move  downwards  by  the  exactly  how  much  greater  the 

any  body  through  it,  and  this  re-  curved  wings  of  an  aeroplane  is  a  lifting  force  is  under  certain  con- 

sistance  is  proportionately  less,  matter  of  experiment,  the  theo-  ditions,  in  order  to  find  out  how 

compared  with  lifting-power,  in  retical  solution  of  the  problem  being  fast  an  aeroplane  will  climb,  is  not 

beyond  the  power  of  present-day  nearly  so  simple.    The  calculations 

mathematics. 


certain  curved  surfaces  than  n 
flat  surfaces.  But  though  the  sur- 
face was  discovered,  the  next  step 


are   complicated   by   the   varying 
It  was  early  discovered  that  the    density    of    the    atmosphere    and 


forward,  that  of  the  discovery  of  air  is  forced  downwards  in  a  way  consequent  varying  efficiency  of  the 
the  engine  which  could  force  it  depending  upon  the  angle  at  which  engine.  The  solution  of  these  corn- 
through  the  air  at  the  necessary  the  wings  are  set 

speed,  remained  in  abeyance  till    to    the     air,     and 
the  invention  of  the  petrol  engine,    also  the    speed   at 

which      they     are 


though  Sir  Hiram  Maxim  actually 

lifted   10,000  Ib.    off  the  ground,    forced  through  the 

using  a  steam  engine.     With  the    air.       With  the 

advent  of  the  internal  combustion    wings   set  at    any 

engine  and  the  experiments  result-    particular  angle  it 

ing  in  the  present-day  curved  or    was     found     that 

cambered    wing,     flying    became    the    lifting   power 

possible.  increases     as    the 

The  study  of  the  flight  of  birds    square    of    the 

has  had  a  marked  result  on  the    speed.      But  with 

ultimate  methods  of  flight  adopted    the     increase      of 

by  man,  with  certain  differences    speed  there  natur- 

largely  due  to  mechanical  difficul-    ally   comes    in- 

ties.     The  aeroplane  has  its  wings    crease    of     resist - 

and  balancing  tail,  and  a  certain    ance     to     forward 

motion,  requiring  increased  plications  depends  upon  a  very 
engine  power  to  overcome  it,  large  number  of  experiments  car- 
and,  therefore,  increased  ried  out  in  the  wind  tunnels  at  the 
weight,  so  complicating  the  National  Physical  Laboratory,  and 
problem.  The  principle  which  practical  flying  experiments  at  the 
may  be  stated  here  is  that  in  Royal  Aircraft  Establishment  and 
any  given  aeroplane  there  is  at  Martlesham,  as  well  as  corre- 
only  one  speed  of  flying  for  a  sponding  experiments  in  America, 


Flight.  Diagram  showing  how  the  stream  of  air  is 
deflected  by  the  curved  wing,  shown  in  section  in 
black,  of  an  aeroplane.  The  air  is  forced  downwards 
at  the  rear  or  trailing  edge  of  the  wing,  and  a  partial 
vacuum  is  created  above  the  wing  with  increased  pres- 
sure below  it,  so  making  it  lift 


Flight.  Diagram  representing  the  difference 
of  air  flow  past  a  round  body  and  a  stream- 
line body 


IK    4 


Flight.    Diagrams  illustrating  the  flight  of  a  pigeon  viewed  from  three  standpoints ; 

side;  C,  obliquely  from  side  and  front 

E.  J.  Marty  in  "  Movement,"  by  permission  of  Wm.  Heinema 


from  above;  B,  from  the 


France,      Italy, 


After  the  diagrai 

Germany,    and 


pushes  the  joy  stick  forward,  and   in  contradistinction  to  the  forcing 


Russia.    Many  problems  await  an    the  aeroplane  tends  to  dive  ;   he    of  the  air  past  a  curved  surface  and 


answer,  but  in  the  main  it  may 
be  stated  that  the  great  problem 
of  safe  flight  has  been  solved. 


moves  back,  pulling  the  joy  stick    so  downwards  by  means  of  an  air- 
back,  and  the  aeroplane  puts  its    screw  as  in  the  aeroplane, 
nose  up.    Moving  the  joy  stick  to        Soaring    flight    calls  for    some 


The  problem  of  stability  in  flight    the  right  makes  the  aeroplane  roll    attention  here.      It  is  well  known 


is  one  which  has  been  for  all  practi- 
cal purposes  solved,  though  the 
actual  mechanical  contrivances  for 
maintaining  that  stability  have  not 


to  the  right,  and  conversely  for  a  that  certain  birds,  as  the  albatross, 

left-hand  movement.     The  rudder  are  able  to  keep  in  the  air  for  long 

bar  is   worked   by  the  feet,   and  periods   without   any   appreciable 

pressure  on  it  with  the  right  foot  flapping  of  their  wings.    This  soar- 


yet  reached  the  state  of  perfect    causes  the  aeroplane  to  move  to   ing  flight  is  not  peculiar  to  birds  or 


automatic  response  found  in  birds. 
The  problem  is  complicated  in 
that,  though  the  surfaces,  both 
main  and  control,  may  be  sufficient 
to  maintain  equilibrium  for  a  par- 


the   right,    and   conversely.      The  insects,   aeroplanes  soaring  in  an 

joy  stick  is  connected  by  wiring  to  exactly  similar  way.   Soaring  flight 

the  ailerons  and  elevators,  and  the  is  possible  where  there  are  currents 

rudder  bar  similarly  to  the  rudder,  of   air  moving  upwards,  as   Lord 

FLIGHT  IN  NATURE.     In  nature  Rayleigh_and  Prof.  Langley  have 


ticular  speed  of  flight,  they  are  not  the  power  of  flight  is  possessed  by  shown.  These  currents  act  as  the 
sufficient  at  some  other  speed.  mOst  birds,  most  insects,  and  all  necessary  source  of  energy  to  sup- 
Many  of  the  aeroplanes  used  during  the  bats.  The  flying  fish  springs  Port  tne  bird  or  tne  aeroplane, 
the  Great  War,  for  example,  were  out  of  the  water  and  skims  along  though  naturally  they  must  be 
stable  at  some  flying  speeds,  but  for  some  distance  by  the  aid  of  its  much  stronger  for  the  latter.  Such 
not  at  others.  The  rudder  of  an  winglike  fins,  but  it  is  very  doubt-  upward  currents,  usually  very  local, 
aeroplane  is  used  to  give  directional  ful  if  any  true  propulsive  move-  exist  round  coasts,  mountainous 
control,  i.e.  for  turning  ;  the  ment  is  made  by  them.  The  so-  country,  hot  ground,  etc.,  and  an 
ailerons  or  wing-flaps  to  bank  called  flying  squirrels,  lemurs  and  upward  wind  of  5  m.  an  hour  is  not 
the  aeroplane  when  turning  in  lizards  do  not  really  fly.  Thev  are  uncommon.  Soaring  flight  is, 
order  to  prevent  it  side-slipping;  merely  able  to  stretch  out  the  loose  however,  only  possible  for  short 
the  elevators  for  altering  the  8kin  of  their  sides  to  form  a  kind  distances  in  aeroplanes.  The  speed 
incidence  of  the  main  planes  and  of  parachute  by  the  help  of  which  of  an  upward  current  for  soaring 
so  altering  the  speed  of  flight.  If  they  are  able  to  take  long  flying  fli8ht  is  proportional  to  the  speed 
all  or  any  of  these  control  surfaces  leaps  through  the  air  from  one  tree  of  fllgnt  of  the  aeroplane  or  bird, 
are  insufficient,  the  aeroplane  will  to  another.  The  principles  of  flight  so  that  the  latter  with  their  slower 
be  unstable  or  uncontrollable  at  in  birds,  bats,  and  insects  are  iden-  flying  speeds  are  able  to  soar  where 

tical  with  those  of  the  aeroplane, 


some  particular  speed. 

The  control  system  of  the 
modern  aeroplane  is  so  arranged 
that  the  natural  movements  made 
by  the  pilot  are  those  which  make 
the  aeroplane  manoeuvre  as  he 
would  expect  from  those  move- 
ments. He  leans  forward  and 


an  aeroplane  cannot. 


though     manifested     in     different  Bibliography.  Military  Aeroplanes, 

ways.    In  all  there  is  the  cardinal  G.L.Loening,  19 18;  Aeroplane  Struc- 

principle  that  air  is  forced  down-  g^/ ^  f >%$£*££. 

wards  in   order  that  the   bird  or  namics>   L    Bairstow.    1020  |  Aero- 

insect  may  sustain  itself  in  flight.  nautics  in  Theory  and  Experiment, 

This  forcing  down  of  air  is  accom-  w.    L.    Cowley   and    J.    H.  Levey, 

plished  by  the  beating  of  the  wings,  2nd  ed.  1920. 


PLIGHT     LIEUTENANT 


3203 


FLINT 


Flight  Lieutenant.  In  the 
R.N.A.S.,  the  rank  equivalent  to 
that  of  lieutenant  in  the  R.N.  and 
of  captain  in  the  army,  and  origin- 
ally confined  to  pilot  officers.  In 
the  Royal  Air  Force  the  title  has 
been  revived  for  the  equivalent 
rank,  but  it  has  been  extended 
to  all  officers  of  that  rank  in  that 
force.  See  Air  Force,  Royal ;  Naval 
Air  Service,  Royal. 

Flight  Path.  The  line  which 
represents  the  course  of  an  air- 
craft in  flight.  See  Aeronautics. 

Flinck,  GOVAEBT  (1615-60). 
Dutch  painter.  Born  at  Cleves, 
Jan.  25,  1615,  he  was  one  of  Rem- 
brandt's most  successful  pupils. 
His  earlier  work,  painted  under 
the  influence  of  the  master,  is  of 
greater  value  than  his  later  Itali- 
anate  style  of  court  painting.  Not- 
able works  are  The  Annunciation 
to  the  Shepherd,  Louvre ;  The 
Grey  Bearded  Man,  Vienna;  The 
Expulsion  of  Hagar,  Berlin,  painted 
for  the  elector  of  Brandenburg,  and 
The  Civic  Guard  Fete,  Amsterdam. 
He  died  at  Amsterdam,  Feb.  2, 1660. 

Flinders.  River  of  Queens- 
land, Australia.  It  issues  from 
the  N.  extremity  of  Lake  Neelia 
in  Rupert  co.,  and  flows  a  generally 
N.W.  course  of  about  220  m.  to 
discharge  into  the  Gulf  of  Car- 
pentaria, 10  m.  S. W.  of  Kimberley. 
It  was  named  after  Matthew 
Flinders  (1760-1814),  the  navi- 
gator and  hydrographer,  who  sur- 
veyed the  coast  of  Australia. 

Flinders,  MATTHEW  (1774- 
1814).  British  sailor.  Born  March 
16,  1774,  the  son  of  a  surgeon,  in 
1790  he  went 
to  transplant 
bread-fruit 
trees  from  the 
South  Sea 
Islands  to  the 
W.  Indies.  Re- 
turning in  1793, 
he  was  posted 
to  the  Bellero- 
phon,  saw 
action  on  the  "i 
Glorious  First  Fr 
of  June  (1794),  and  sailed  hi  the 
Reliance  to  New  South  Wales, 
where  he  began  a  series  of  ex- 
plorations lasting  until  1799,  cir- 
cumnavigating Tasmania,  which 
was  hitherto  supposed  to  be  part 
of  the  mainland. 

In  1800  Flinders  was  appointed 
to  the  Investigator,  and  again 
sailed  (1801)  for  Australia,  where 
he  charted  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria, 
and  surveyed  the  coast  of  New 
Holland.  On  his  voyage  home,  un- 
aware that  Britain  and  France  were 
at  war,  he  was  detained  by  the 
French  at  Mauritius,  and  im- 
prisoned, 1803.  In  June,  1810,  he 
was  released  and  made  his  way  to 


England,  where  he  wrote  an  ac- 
count of  his  discoveries.  He  died 
July  19,  1814. 

Flindersia.  Small  genus  of 
evergreen  trees  of  the  natural  order 
Meliaceae.  Natives  of  Australasia 
and  the  Moluccas,  they  have  hard, 
close-grained  wood  of  a  yellow 
tint,  useful  for  many  purposes. 
F.  australis  (Crow's  Ash),  found  in 
Queensland  and  New  South  Wales, 
grows  to  a  height  of  60  ft.,  with 
smooth,  flaking  bark,  and  alter- 
nate leaves  broken  into  three  to 
six  oblong  leaflets.  The  numerous 
small  white  flowers  are  in  dense 
clusters.  The  wood  is  very  durable. 
The  trees  are  named  after  Matthew 
Flinders  (q.v.). 

Flint.  Crystalline  mineral  com- 
posed mainly  of  silica ;  a  variety 
of  chalcedony.  It  is  compact, 
almost  opaque,  usually  dark  grey 
or  brown,  somewhat  harder  than 
steel,  and  breaks 
with  a  shell-like 
fracture,  forming 
sharp -cutting 
edges.  When  first 
unearthed  it  is 
brittle,  becoming  | 
toughened  by  ex-  HHHH|HH 
posure.  Chert  and  I 
hornstone  are  ^^^H 
coarser  forms. 

In  Great  Britain  Flmt«  Wales" 
and  W.  Europe  flint  occurs  mainly 
in  the  middle  and  upper  chalk 
formations,  where  it  forms  irregu- 
lar nodules,  tabular  masses,  and 
veins.  It  is  also  scattered 
through  tertiary  gravels  and 
alluvial  soils,  sometimes  in  great 
numbers,  derived  from  disin- 
tegrated chalk  rock.  The  nodules, 
sometimes  several  feet  across,  are 
often  the  silicified  remains  of 
sponges,  or  are  hollow  shells  formed 
by  the  concretion  of  gelatinous 
silica  around  urchins,  sponges,  and 
other  marine  organisms.  When 
this  dense,  non-crystalline  con- 
stituent, the  cause  of  black  flint, 
is  removed,  white  flint  results. 
The  veins  were  deposited  in  joints 
and  fissures  in  chalk  rock,  car- 
bonate of  lime  being  displaced  by 
dissolved  silica  of  organic  origin. 

The  cutting  edge  produced  by 
flaking  enabled  palaeolithic  man  to 
invent  edged  tools,  prior  to  the  in- 
troduction of  metallurgy.  Utilis- 
ing at  first  water -worn  pebbles  or 
cliff-exposed  nodules,  this  industry 
led  to  flint-mining.  The  discovery 
that  sparks  are  produced  when 
flint  is  struck  with  iron  pyrites 
brought  about  the  percussive 
method  of  fire-making.  In  medie- 
val E.  Anglia  flint  was  largely  used 
in  church-building,  walls  being 
made  of  undressed  or  split  flints, 
and  porches  and  battlements 
panelled  with  squared  flints,  some- 


times in  beautiful  colour  zones.  As 
road  metal  it  is  unsatisfactory  be- 
cause of  its  readiness  to  pulverise. 
This  quality  is  utilised  for  pottery 
and  optical  or  flint-glass.  A  snow- 
white  quartz  powder  is  obtained 
by  heating  flints  and  throwing 
them  into  cold  water.  In  France 
they  are  crushed 
between  chert 
blocks  and  ex- 
ported to  Great 
Britain  and 
America.  In  Es- 
sex and  the  home 
counties  S.  of  the 
Flint  arms  Thames  there  is 
a  normal  annual  output  of  30,000 
tons,  and  a  similar  output  in  Bel- 
gium. See  Chalk;  Flint  Implements. 
Flint.  Mun.  bor.,  formerly  the 
county  town  of  Flintshire,  Wales. 
It  stands  on  the  S.  shore  of  the 
Dee  estuary,  12m.  N.W.  of  Chester 


Ruins  of  the  castle  built  by  Edward  I 


on  the  L.  &  N.W.R.  In  earlier 
times  an  important  harbour,  the 
accumulation  of  sand  in  the  estuary 
now  keeps  the  tidal  waters  away 
from  the  town.  Hundreds  of  acres 
of  marshland  in  the  estuary  could 
be  profitably  reclaimed.  Artificial 
silk  is  made  here.  There  are  alkali 
and  copper  works,  and  lead  and 
coal  mines  in  the  neighbourhood. 
The  castle,  built  by  Edward  I,  was 
the  scene  of  the  meeting  between 
Richard  II  and  Bolingbroke,  de- 
scribed by  Shakespeare,  and  was 
twice  captured  by  the  Parliament- 
arians and  dismantled  in  1647.  It 
was  taken  over  by  the  office  of 
works  in  1920.  Market  day,  Sat. 
Pop.  (1921)  6,302. 

Hint.  City  of  Michigan,  U.S.A., 
the  co.  seat  of  Genesee  co.  It 
stands  on  Flint  river,  70  m.  by  rly. 
N.  by  W.  of  Detroit,  and  is  served 
by  the  Grand  Trunk  Western  and 
the  Pere  Marquette  rlys.  It  con- 
tains a  Federal  building,  a  state 
asylum  for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  a 
city  hall,  a  high  school,  and  a 
puttie  library.  It  is  a  centre  for 
the  manufacture  of  motor- vehicles, 
wagons,  and  carriages,  and  has  wool- 
len, flour,  cigar,  and  lumber  indus- 
tries. Settled  in  1820,  it  received  a 
city  charter  in  1855.  Pop.  70,100. 

Flint.  River  of  Georgia,  U.S.A. 
Rising  in  the  N.  part  of  the  state, 
it  flows  350  m.  generally  S.W.  to 
unite  with  the  Chattahoochee  in 


FLINT    IMPLEMENTS 


3204 


FLITE 


forming  the  Apalachicola.  Large 
vessels  ascend  to  Bainbridge,  50  m. 
up,  and  for  smaller  craft  it  is 
navigable  for  a  further  100  m. 

Flint  Implements.  Primitive 
tools  and  weapons  made  of  flint. 
The  term  popularly  includes  quartz- 
ite,  chalcedony,  felsite,  chert,  horn- 
stone,  and  other  siliceous  stones. 
Perhaps  originating  in  N.  Africa, 
and  traceable  in  a  rudimentary 
form  in  the  dawn  of  prehistoric 
Europe,  they  reached  a  high  level 
of  development  during  the  Stone 
Age.  When  flint  is  broken  up  by 
percussion  or  pressure  a  conchoidal 
or  shell-like  fracture  results,  with  a 
bulb  of  percussion  where  the  blow 
falls.  The  products  are  classed  as 
nodules,  cores,  flakes,  chips,  and 
splinters.  Prolonged  exposure  causes 
a  characteristic  tinting  or  patina. 

Palaeolithic  workshops — with 
anvil-stones,  discarded  cores,  and 
spoiled  implements — are  plentiful, 
as  at  Crayf  ord,  Kent,  and  Cadding- 
ton,  Beds.  The  early  neolithic  in- 
dustry is  revealed  at  Campigny  and 
Grand  Pressigny,  France ;  later 
British  factories  are  Grovehurst, 
Kent ;  Skelmuir,  Aberdeenshire. 
Early  flint  mines  have  been  localised 
at  Spiennes,  Belgium,  Cissbury  Hill, 
and  Grime's  Graves.  The  last  flint- 
knapping  for  gun-flints  and  strike- 
a-lights  survived  at  Brandon,  Suf- 
folk, until  1917.  English  flints 
are  sometimes  9  ins.  long ;  the 
finest,  sometimes  14  ins.  long, 
come  from  predynastic  Egypt  and 
from  Denmark,  with  exquisite 
ripple -markings. 

Implements  of  remote  date  are 
found  in  S.  and  W.  Africa,  Somali- 
land,  Palestine,  India,  Burma,  and 
America  ;  their  production  survives 
in  various  parts  of  the  world,  e.g. 
in  Australia.  Pygmy  flints,  TSF  in. 
to  f  in.  long,  traceable  in  the  upper 
palaeolithic  age,  became  commoner 
in  the  mesolithic  Tardenoisian ; 
they  range  from  Britain  (E.  Lan- 
cashire ;  Scunthorpe,  Lines.)  across 
Europe  to  Egypt  (Helwan),  and 
thence  to  India  in  the  Vindhya 
hills.  See  Celt;  Eolith;  Neolith; 
Palaeolith ;  Tomahawk;  also  An- 
thropology and  Aztec,  illus. 

Bibliography.  Ancient  Stone  Im- 
plements, J.  Evans,  2nd  ed.  1897  ; 
Stone  Implements  of  S.  Africa,  J.  P. 
Johnson,  1910;  Stone  Age  Guide, 
British  Museum,  1911;  Handbook  of 
American  Aboriginal  Antiquities  : 
The  Lithic  Industries.W.  H.  Holmes, 
1919. 

Flint  Lock.  Musket  in  which 
ignition  of  the  powder  is  obtained 
by  a  mechanical  device  causing  a 
piece  of  flint  to  be  struck  on  a 
steel  hammer  when  the  trigger  is 
pulled.  Chiefly  owing  to  the  fact 
that  this  type  of  lock  is 'also  known 
as  a  Snaphaunce,  from  the  Dutch 
woi*d  for  poultry  thief,  the  inven- 


tion has  been  as- 
cribed to  a  Dutch 
source.  A  Spanish 
origin  has  also 
been  suggested, 
but  it  is  not  im- 
probable that  the 
idea  was  first  ob- 
tained by  Portu- 
guese traders 
from  Japanese 
tinder  boxes. 

A  piece  of  flint 
is  held  in  the 
jaws  of  the  cock, 
whilst  the  ham- 
mer is  so  arranged 
that  it  also 
serves  as  a  cover 
for  the  flash-pan, 
preventing  the 
priming  falling 
out  or  getting  wet , 
being  held  in 
position  by  an 


Flintshire.    Map  of  the  county  showing  the  detached 
portion  between  Cheshire  and  Shropshire 


external   spring. 

In  the  illustration  the  lock  is  at  half- 
cock,  and  is  unaffected  by  pressure 
on  the  trigger.  When  the  cock 
is  pulled  farther  back  the  piece  is 
ready  to  fire,  and  on  pressing  the 
trigger  the  cock  flies  forward,  the 
flint  knocking  the  hammer  back 
and  allowing  the  shower  of 


Flint  Lock.     Mechanism  of  firing 

device  of  a  17th  century  musket 
to  fall  in  the  flash -pan  and  ignite 
the  priming. 

The  early  flint  locks  were  not  very 
reliable,  and  a  match-lock  was  fre- 
quently fitted  in  addition.  Flint  lock 
weapons  became  common  about 
1630,  and  were  introduced  to  Eng- 
land in  the  reign  of  William  III, 
and  gradually  became  the  favourite 
weapon,  until  the  use  of  percussion 
caps  displaced  them.  Flint  lock 
weapons  were  the  standard  equip- 
ment of  the  British  army  until  1840. 
See  Gun ;  also  Brown  Bess,  illus. 

Flintshire.  Northern  maritime 
and  the  smallest  co.  of  Wales.  It 
lies  to  the  W.  of  the  Dee  estuary, 
..  with  a  detached 

rtion  situated 
of  Denbigh- 
shire ;  area,  255 
sq.  m.  A  hill 
range  partly 
crosses  the  co. 
parallel  to  the 
Dee  estuary, 
which  at  low 
tide  is  a  sandy 


Flintshire  arms 


waste.  The  co.  contains  the  lower 
courses  of  the  Dee  and  Clwyd;  there 
are  several  valleys  of  considerable 


beauty,  and  in  these  the  soil  is  fer- 
tile and  under  cultivation.  Butter 
and  cheese  are  produced  in  fair 
quantities.  Coal,  lead,  iron,  and 
other  minerals  are  worked.  There 
are  ironworks  along  the  Dee 
estuary ;  artificial  silk,  flannel,  and 
cemeat  are  manufactured.  The 
L.  &  N.W.  is  the  chief  rly.  Mold, 
the  county  town,  Rhyl,  Flint, 
Buckley,  Connah's  Quay, and  Holy- 
well  are  the  largest  towns.  One 
member  is  returned  to  Parliament 
for  the  county.  Pop.  (1921)106,466. 

Bibliography.  Historical  Notices, 
etc.,  of  the  Borough  of  Flint, 
H.  Taylor,  1883  ;  History  of  the 
Diocese  of  St.  Asaph,  D.  R. 
Thomas,  1908-13  ;  Ancient  Monu- 
ments in  Wales  and  Monmouth, 
vol.  2,  The  County  of  Flint,  publ. 
Royal  Commission,  1912;  and  pub- 
lications of  the  Flintshire  Historical 
Society. 

Flintshire  Lead  Process.  Air 
reduction  process  which  has  been 
used  from  very  remote  times  in  N. 
Wales.  Pure  ores  obtained  from 
limestone  formations  are  used. 
The  furnace  is  of  the  reverberatory 
type,  having  the  hearth  sloping  to 
a  central  well,  from  the  bottom  of 
which  a  tap  hole  leads  to  a  pot 
outside.  A  preliminary  roasting 
of  the  charge  on  the  hearth  is 
followed  by  a  raising  of  the  tem- 
perature till  the  lead  begins  to  run 
freely,  then  by  a  further  rise  to 
melt  the  charge  down,  the  intro- 
duction of  lime,  stirring  and  mix- 
ing, a  further  roasting,  draining, 
the  introduction  of  a  little  coal 
slack  to  finish,  and  the  tapping  out 
of  the  metal.  See  Lead. 

Flite,  Miss.  Character  in  Dick- 
ens's  Bleak  House.  One  of  the 
victims  of  the  law's  delays,  she 
is  a  little  mad  old  woman  who  is 
always  in  court,  and  who,  though 
she  has  lost  her  reason,  still  retains 
her  tenderness  of  heart. 


Float.  Raft  or  a  quantity  of 
timber  secured  together  for  float- 
ing or  towing  through  water.  It 
also  means  a  float  board  of  a 
paddle  steamer  or  water  wheel ; 
a  piece  of  wood  or  a  closed,  water- 
tight, metal  case  which  floats, 
used  for  various  purposes  such  as 
actuating  cistern  valves,  indicating 
depth  of  water  in  tanks  and 
reservoirs,  and  gauging  the  velocity 
of  streams;  an  angler's  accessory; 
and  a  plasterer's  tool  for  floating 
or  rendering  smooth  a  surface  of 
cement,  mortar,  or  plaster.  The 
word  is  also  used  for  the  light  hol- 
low vessel  or  cork  body  used  in  the 
engine  carburetter. 

Floating  Battery.  Obsolete 
method  of  carrying  big  guns  for  use 
afloat.  Floating  batteries  as  such 
were  used  in  the  Crimean  War. 

Floating  Debt.  Name  given  in 
the  United  Kingdom  to  that  part 
of  the.  national  debt  which  is  not 
funded.  It  consists  mainly  of 
treasury  bills,  but  also  of  advances 
made  by  the  Bank  of  England  and 
by  government  departments.  On 
June  12,  1920,  the  floating  debt 
amounted  to  £1,301,020,000. 

In  1919  and  1920  the  enormous 
amount  of  the  floating  debt  was 
considered  to  be  one  of  the  chief 
reasons  of  the  rise  in  prices.  The 
idea  behind  this  theory  was  that  the 
creation  of  treasury  bills  gives  their 
holders  borrowing  powers  and  so 
increases  the  demand  for  money, 


3205 

thus  leading  to  higher  prices.  If 
this  debt  were  not  floating  but 
funded,  it  would  be  held  in  the 
main  by  genuine  investors  who 
would  not  raise  money  on  their 
securities.  See  Credit ;  National 
Debt;  National  Finance. 

Floating  Island.  Floating  mass 
of  peaty  vegetable  materials.  Such 
materials  collect  in  the  shallower 
parts  of  the  floor  of  a  lake,  and  are 
probably  made  temporarily  buoy- 
ant by  the  formation  of  gases  pro- 
duced by  their  decomposition. 

Floating  Kidney.  Condition  in 
which  the  kidney  is  abnormally 
mobile  and  can  be  freely  moved 
within  the  abdomen  by  manipula- 
tion. Lesser  degrees  of  the  con- 
dition are  known  as  palpable 
kidney  and  movable  kidney.  The 
causes  of  floating  kidney  are  re- 
peated pregnancies,  tight  lacing, 
displacement  of  the  organ  by 
tumours,  and  a  general  sagging 
down  of  the  viscera  known  as 
enteroptosis.  Mild  cases  can  be 
treated  by  suitable  padding  and 
bandaging  of  the  abdomen. 

Float  Seaplane.  Type  of  air- 
craft capable  of  rising  from  and 
alighting  on  water  by  means  of 
floats.  Except  for  the  floats,  which 
replace  the  ordinary  wheeled  type 
of  undercarriage  of  the  land  aero- 
plane, the  construction  of  the  float 
seaplane  follows  that  of  other 
heavier-than-air  craft.  Float  sea- 
planes, as  the  Short,  Fairey,  etc., 


FLODDEN 

were  extensively  used  during  the 
Great  War.  See  Fairey;  Flying 
Boat;  Short. 

Flocculi  (Lat.  floccus,  a  lock  of 
wool).  Bands  of  bright  woolly 
matter  parallel  to  the  sun's  equator 
which  appear  upon  certain  types 
of  solar  photographs.  See  Sun. 

Flock  (Lat.  floccua,  a  lock  of 
wool).  Stuffing  for  beds  and  up- 
holstery, a  by-product  in  woollen 
manufacture.  Short  and  more  or 
less  curled  fibre  is  brought  away 
from  woollen  piece  goods  in  the 
course  of  finishing,  notably  in 
scouring,  milling,  and  shearing  the 
face  of  cloth.  Again  flocks  are 
generated  in  pulling  well-worn 
woollen  rags  to  their  constituent 
fibre.  In  Great  Britain,  under  the 
Rag  Flock  Act  of  1911,  a  test  stan- 
dard of  cleanliness  has  been  set  up 
which  applies  both  to  flocks  pro- 
duced from  new  cloth  and  to  rag 
flock.  See  Wool. 

Flock  Book.  Register  of  sheep. 
Special  societies,  dealing  with 
almost  every  variety  of  sheep, 
publish  a  flock  book  in  which  all 
pure-bred  animals  belonging  to 
members  are  registered  and  the 
points  of  the  breed  laid  down 
officially.  See  Sheep. 

Flodden,  BATTLE  OF.  Fought 
between  the  English  and  the  Scots, 
Sept.  9,  1513.  Flodden  is  a  ridge  of 
the  Cheviots  on  the  English  side  of 
the  border.  It  is  3  m.  S.E.  of  Cold- 
stream,  and  nearer  is  the  village  of 


Flodden.    The  Morning  oi  Flodden.  James  IV  of  Scotland  receives  news  of  the  strength  of  the  English  forces  under  the 
earl  of  Surrey.    From  the  picture  by  John  Faed,  R.S.  A. 


FLOGGING 


3206 


FLOOR 


Branston.  Along  it  tuns  the  road 
to  Scotland,  and  near  is  the  Till, 
flowing  to  join  the  Tweed. 

Suddenly  renewing  the  war 
with  England,  James  IV  crossed 
the  border  on  Aug.  22  with  a  large 
army  and  besieged  Nor  ham  Castle. 
Surrey  collected  an  army  and 
marched  N.,  for  Henry  VIII  was 
fighting  in  France,  learning  on  the 
way  that  Norham  and  other  castles 
had  fallen  to  the  invader.  On 
Sept.  7  the  two  forces  were  only  a 
few  miles  from  each  other.  Surrey, 
by  a  circuitous  march,  placed  his 
vanguard  between  the  enemy  and 
their  line  of  retreat.  The  rest  of 
the  army  moved  on  an  interior 
line,  and  on  the  afternoon  of  the 
9th  were  ascending  the  ridge  where- 
on the  Scots  stood — but  from  the 
N.,  not  from  the  S. 

Seeing  the  enemy,  James  led  his 
men  down  the  ridge  to  meet  them, 
and  the  battle  was  joined  at  once. 
Gradually  the  English  gained  the 
upper  hand,  and  the  Scots  on  the 
wings  were  soon  in  flight.  On  both 
sides  the  centre,  picked  soldiers 
under  James  and  Surrey  respec- 
tively, stood  to  fight  it  out.  It 
was  an  unequal  duel,  for  other 
bodies  of  English  closed  round  the 
Scots,  who  were  charged  by  horse- 
men from  the  rear,  and  when  their 
king  was  killed  they  had  definitely 
lost  the  battle. 

The  losses  of  the  Scots  have 
been  placed  at  11,000  out  of  40,000 
engaged,  but  both  figures  are  too 
high.  Certain  it  is  that  they  lost 
heavily,  especially  among  the 
nobles,  who  fought  to  the  last 
around  the  king,  and  it  is  this  that 
made  the  day  so  sad  to  Scottish 
memories.  The  English  losses  were 
perhaps  1,000.  The  best  known 
reference  in  song  is  the  descrip- 
tion in  Marmion.  A  monument 
marks  the  spot  where  James  is 
supposed  to  have  been  killed. 

Flogging.  A  punishment  for 
crime.  It  is  only  applicable  in 
English  law  (a)  to  young  male 
offenders,  by  birching ;  (b)  to 


persons  convicted  of  stealing  from 
the  person  with  violence  ;  and  (c) 
to  certain  male  offenders  under  the 
Criminal  Law  Amendment  Act, 
1912,  i.e.  men  who  live  on  the 
immoral  earnings  of  women  or  who 
procure  girls  for  immoral  purposes. 

Flong.  Technical  name  for  the 
matrices  of  prepared  paper  used  in 
stereotyping.  See  Autoplate  ;  Mul- 
tiplate  ;  Printing  ;  Stereotyping. 

Flood.  Submersion  of  land  by 
overflow  of  water.  After  extra 
heavy  or  prolonged  rainfall,  or  in 
spring  and  summer,  when  snow 
and  ice  fields  melt,  great  quan- 
tities of  surface  water  drain 
directly  into  rivers.  The  banks 
cannot  contain  all  the  water, 
which,  overflowing,  submerges  the 
low-lying  parts  of  the  valley. 
Many  parts  of  the  world  have 
clearly  marked  wet  and  dry  sea- 
sons. In  such  places  heavy  rains 
during  the  wet  season  cause  floods, 
while  the  same  rivers  during  the 
dry  season  are  merely  dry  courses 
containing  small  lakes  in  the 
deepest  parts  of  the  bed. 

Egypt  is  aptly  called  "  the 
Gift  of  the  Nile,"  for  in  that  land 
occurs  the  phenomenon  of  ex- 
tensive floods  in  a  land  of  little 
or  no  rainfall.  The  Nile  rises  in 
great  lakes,  situated  in  a  region 
where  rain  falls  at  all  seasons,  thus 
ensuring  a  steady  current  of  water. 
But  tributaries  like  the  Sobat, 
Blue  Nile,  and  Atbara  have  their 
sources  in  regions  of  heavy  sum- 
mer rainfall,  and  the  summer 
water  they  bring  down  causes  floods 
along  the  lower  course  of  the 
main  stream.  But  for  these  flood 
waters  Egypt  would  be  a  desert. 

The  character  of  the  soil  may  also 
aid  floods.  Large  areas  of  N. 
England  and  Scotland  are  com- 
posed of  hard  or  impervious  rocks, 
from  which  the  water  is  rapidly 
drained  into  the  rivers,  so  that  the 
latter  are  quickly  in  flood  during 
heavy  rains  and  very  low  during 
dry  weather.  Where  limestone  or 
other  perviou?  rooks  are  found. 


rain  sinks  into  the  ground  and 
the  rivers  maintain  a  steady  flow 
even  in  dry  weather. 

The  most  disastrous  floods  of 
recent  years  were  experienced  in 
the  basin  of  the  Mississippi  river, 
but  especially  in  the  basin  of  the 
Ohio,  in  March,  1913.  See  Deluge. 
Flood,  HENRY  (1732-91).  Irish 
statesman  and  orator.  Educated 
at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and 
Christ  Church,  Oxford,  he  entered 
the  Irish  House  of  Commons  in 
1759  as  member  for  Kilkenny.  His 
closely  reasoned  oratory  and  his 
mastery  of  parliamentary  tactics 
made  him  leader  of  the  national 
party,  and  in  1775  he  was  made  a 
privy  councillor  and  vice -treasurer 
of  Ireland.  His  opposition  to 
Henry  Grattan  (q.v.)  on  the  "  simple 
repeal "  ques- 
tion  led  to 
their  famous 
quarrel,  Flood 
urging  the  re- 
nunciation by 
England  of  all 
claims  to  in- 
fluence Irish 
legislation.  In 
1783  Flood  was 
returned  to  the 
British  House 
of  Commons  as  one  of  the  members 
for  Winchester.  HediedDec.  2, 1791. 
Floor.  The  lower  horizontal 
surface  in  the  interior  of  a  building 
or  part  of  a  building.  A  floor  is 
constructed  either  in  a  solid  mass 
of  some  material  such  as  concrete, 
or  of  assembled  pieces  such  as 
boards  or  blocks  of  wood  called 
parquet,  or  by  the  combination 
of  both.  A  double  floor  is  one 
in  which  large  principal  joists, 
called  binders,  carry  the  actual 
floor  joists  above  them,  and  the 
joists  of  the  ceiling  below.  Fire- 
proof floors  are  composed  of  slabs 
of  concrete,  reinforced  with  metal 
rods  or  wires.  Floors  of  tiles,  stone, 
etc.,  vised  in  the  ground  storey  of 
a  building,  are  generally  called 
pavements.  See  Building  ;  House. 


Henry  Flood, 
Irish  statesman 

After  Comerford 


Flora  Day.     Dancing,  or  faddying,  on  Furry  Day  through  the  streets  and  gardens  of  Helston,  Cornwall.     An  ancient 
ceremony  performed  every  year  in  the  month  of  May 


FLOORCLOTH 

Floorcloth.  Material  used  as  a 
substitute  for  carpets.  A  prepara- 
tion of  indiarubber  and  ground  cork 
was  patented  in  1844  under  the 
name  of  kamptulicon,  but  was  too 
dear  to  become  popular.  The 
principal  floorcloth  in  use  is  oilcloth 
composed  of  coarse-textured  canvas 
to  which  coats  of  oil-paint  have 
been  thickly  applied.  Linoleum  is 
a  preparation  of  ground  cork  and 
oxidised  linseed  oil.  It  was  in- 
vented by  F.  Walton  in  1860,  and 
has  had  many  imitations.  See 
Linoleum  ;  Oilcloth. 

Floors  OB  FLETTRS  CASTLE.  Seat 
of  the  duke  of  Roxburgh.  It  stands 
on  the  Tweed  just  outside  Kelso. 
The  Kers  had  long  had  a  resi- 
dence here  when  in  1718  Sir  John 
Vanbrugh  planned  a  new  house  for 
the  duke  of  Roxburgh.  In  the 
middle  of  the  19th  century  it  was 
largely  rebuilt,  being  made  into  a 
magnificent  building  in  the  Tudor 
style.  It  has  large  gardens,  and 
commands  extensive  views. 

Floquet,  CHARLES  THOMAS 
(1828-96).  French  statesman. 
Born  at  St.  Jean-Pied-de-Port, 
Basses  Pyre- 
nees, Oct.  2, 
1828,  he  be- 
came  an  advo- 
cate at  Paris, 
and  early 
joined  the  Re- 
publican party. 
He  was  active 
in  the  over- 
Charles  T.  Floquet,  throwing  of 
French  statesman  Napoleon  III, 
and  sat  as  deputy  for  the  Seine 
dept.  in  the  national  assembly, 
Feb.  8,  1871.  Suspected  of  deal- 
ings with  the  communists,  he  was 
imprisoned  by  Thiers's  government, 
but  returned  to  the  chamber  as  one 
of  the  deputies  for  Paris,  1876. 

President  of  the  chamber  1885- 
88,  he  became  president  of  the 
council,  and  formed  a  radical 
ministry,  April  3,  1888.  On 
July  12  General  Boulanger  de- 
manded a  dissolution,  and  his  ac- 
cusations of  falsehood  against 
Floquet  led  to  their  fighting  a  duel 
next  day,  in  which  both  were 
wounded.  His  ministry  began  to 
lose  favour  after  his  introduction 
of  a  constitutional  reform  bill, 
Oct.,1888,  and  he  resigned  Feb.  14, 
1889.  Re-elected  president  of  the 
chamber  in  Nov.,  1889,  he  held 
this  post  until  his  implication  in 
the  Panama  scandal,  when  it  was 
shown  that  he  had  received  about 
£11,500  from  the  company  for  the 
use  of  his  party.  This  forced  his 
resignation,  Nov.,  1892,  though 
he  made  a  full  statement  of  defence 
at  the  trial  of  those  more  culpably 
involved,  March  10, 1893.  He  died 
Jan.  18,  1896. 


32O7 

Flora.  List  of  the  species  of 
plants  growing  naturally  in  any 
district  or  country,  e.g.  the  flora 
of  Wales.  They  are  arranged  ac- 
cording to  the  laws  of  botanical 
classification. 

Flora.  In  Roman  mythology, 
the  goddess  of  flowers.  She  had  a 
temple  near  the  Circus  Maximus, 
and  a  festival  called  Floralia  was 
held  in  her  honour  every  year 
from  April  28  to  May  1. 

Flora  Day  OB  FURRY  DAY. 
Holiday  observed  at  Helston,  Corn- 
wall, on  May  8.  The  custom,  lately 
revived,  may  be  a  survival  of  the 
Roman  Floralia,  or  may  be  of 
Celtic  origin.  The  day  is  given  over 
to  revelry,  any  person  found  work- 
ing being  made  to  leap  the  river. 
Boughs  of  flowering  hawthorn  are 
gathered,  the  ancient  Furry  Day 
Song  is  sung,  and  long  lines  of  re- 
vellers, with  hands  joined,  "faddy" 


FLORENCE 

(dance)  through  the  streets  and 
through  the  open  houses.  The 
festival  attracts  many  visitors. 

Floreal.  Eighth  month  in  the 
year  as  rearranged  by  the  authors 
of  the  French  Revolutionary  cal- 
endar. It  begins  on  the  20th  or 
21st  of  April,  and  the  word  means 
the  month  of  flowers. 

Florence.  Prov.  of  north-central 
Italy.  It  lies  S.  of  Bologna,  and 
N.  of  Siena  and  Arezzo,  midway 
between  the  Adriatic  and  the  Li- 
gurian  seas.  Area,  2,261  sq.  m.  The 
surface  is  hilly,  and  occupies  part 
of  the  basin  of  the  Arno.  The  soil 
is  fertile,  olives  and  grapes  growing 
in  profusion.  Much  wine  is  made, 
and  silk  is  manufactured.  Sheep 
are  reared  on  the  grassy  uplands. 
The  capital  is  Florence ;  other 
towns  of  importance  are  Pistoja, 
Empoli,  Fiesole,  and  Figline.  Pop. 
1,028,740. 


FLORENCE:  ITS  HISTORY  &  TREASURES 

Cecil  Headlam,  Author  of  Venetia  and  Northern  Italy 

The  city  and  its  buildings  are  here  described,  and  the  history  of  the 
state  that  grew  up  around  it  is  outlined.  See  Tuscany ;  M  edict ;  and 
biographies  of  Savonarola,  Macchiavelli,  and  other  great  Floren- 
tines;  also  Italy :  History,  Literature,  Art;  Guelphs  and  Ghibellines 


Florence,  called  by  the  Italians 
Firenze,  lies  on  both  banks  of  the 
Arno.  The  river  is  spanned  by  six 

, ,  bridges,  and  lined 

by  modern  quays 
(Lung' ar  no). 
Broad  boulevards 
mark  the  line  of 
the  old  walls  on 
the  right  bank. 
Across  the  river 
(Oltr'arno),  the 
walls  and  gate- 


Florence  arms 


ways  begun  by  Arnolf  o  di  Cambio, 
1285,  in  succession  to  the  smaller 
circuit  of  1173,  and  still  earlier 
Roman  square,  remain  intact.  Set 
in  a  valley  among  the  foothills  of  the 
Apennines  and  the  Monti  di  Chianti, 
Florence  owes  to  the  proximity  of 
mountains  and  sea  a  variable  and 
trying  climate,  to  which,  however, 
may  be  ascribed  in  part  the  intel- 
lectual pre-eminence  of  her  citizens. 
The  site  and  development  of  the 
city  were  determined  by  a  natural 
crossing  point  in  the  Arno,  where, 
narrowed  by  the  hill  of  San  Giorgio 
and  deepened  by  the  tributary 
Mugnone,  its  navigable  course  be- 
gins soon  after  it  turns  W.  towards 
Pisa  and  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea.  Here, 
at  a  point  indicated  by  the  re- 
cently destroyed  Mercato  Vecchio, 
or  old  forum,  now  the  Piazza 
Vittorio  Emanuele,  and  the  pic- 
turesque Ponte  Vecchio,  designed 
by  Taddeo  Gaddi  in  1365,  successor 
to  a  Roman  bridge,  the  Roman  road 
to  the  N.  probably  crossed  an  older 
Etruscan  road  running  E.  and  W. 
Etruscan  walls  at  Fiesole  and 


Etruscan  antiquities  in  the  Museo 
Archeologico  recall  the  original 
settlers. 

Roman  remains  include  a 
theatre  at  Fiesole,  and  in  Florence, 
baths  (Via  delle  Terme),  and  an 
amphitheatre  (Piazza  Peruzzi).  A 
great  temple  of  Mars  is  represented 
in  its  Christianised  form  by  the 
baptistery  of  San  Giovanni  (Battis- 
tero),  with  its  superb  bronze  gates 
by  Pisano  and  Ghiberti.  The 
Tuscan-Romanesque  churches  of 
S.  Apostoli  and  San  Miniato  mark 
the  rise  of  Florence  in  the  llth 
century.  They  inspired  the  Re- 
naissance churches  of  Brunelleschi, 
San  Spirito,  and  San  Lorenzo.  The 
latter,  near  the  palace  of  the  Medici, 
has  always  been  closely  connected 
with  that  family.  Here,  besides 
the  domed  mausoleum  added  by 
Cosimo  I,  is  the  new  sacristy  built 
by  Michelangelo  for  Pope  Clement 
VII  (1524),  where  that  artist's  won- 
derful statues  of  Day  and  Night, 
Evening  and  Dawn,  guard  the  mon- 
uments of  Lorenzo  and  Giuliano 
de'  Medici.  Here,  too,  is  the 
Biblioteca  Laurenziana,  the  price- 
less library  of  books  and  manu- 
scripts collected  by  Cosimo  and 
Lorenzo  il  Magnifico,  and  housed 
by  Michelangelo. 

In  the  13th  century  Florence 
became  a  veritable  forest  of  towers, 
built  by  turbulent  nobles,  as  in  the 
Borgo  Santissimi  Apostoli.  She 
was  now  to  be  adorned  with  vast 
Gothic  churches  and  splendid 
public  buildings,  such  as  the  palace 
of  the  Podesta,  the  BargaUo, 


FLORENCE 

which  enshrines  the  National 
Museum,  and  the  Palazzo  Vecchio, 
with  its  soaring  tower  and  project- 
ing battlements,  designed  (1298) 
by  Arnolfo  di  Cambio,  for  the  safe 
housing  of  the  Priori.  The  adjoin- 
ing open-vaulted  Loggia  dei  Priori 
(or  Lanzi)  was  begun  in  1376. 
The  captain  of  the  people  resided 
at  the  Badia,  a  Benedictine  Abbey 
founded  by  the  mother  of  Count 
Hugo  of  Tuscany,  whose  graceful 
campanile  dates  from  1300. 

The  first  great  period  of  Flor- 
entine art  coincided  with  the  estab- 
lishment of  democratic  government. 
Niccolo  and  Giovanni  Pisano  in 
sculpture,  and  in  painting,  Cima- 
bue,  his  pupil  Giotto,  and  Andrea 
Orcagna  led  the  way  in  the  great 
era  of  artistic  freedom  and  grace, 
inspired  by  that  same  passionate 
interest  in  life  as  Dante  and  Boc- 
caccio exhibit  in  verse  and  prose. 
In  architecture,  Arnolfo  di  Cambio, 
besides  the  city  walls  and  the 
Palazzo  Vecchio,  built  Santa  Croce 
for  the  Franciscans  (1297).  Here, 
as  in  the  building  of  the  Duomo,  he 
was  succeeded  by  Giotto  and  Fran- 
cesco Talenti.  In  1420  the  great 
dome  of  this,  the  fourth  largest 
church  in  Europe,  was  begun  by 
Filippo  Brunelleschi.  Giotto's 
lovely  campanile,  with  its  four 
storeys  of  marble,  was  begun,  1334, 
and  completed  by  Andrea  Pisano 
and  Francesco  Talenti,  1387. 
Church  Architecture 

S.  of  the  Piazza  del  Duomo  is  the 
graceful  little  Loggia  del  Bigallo 
(1352),  resembling  in  style  Andrea 
Orcagna' s  more  gorgeous  tabernacle 
in  that  splendid  sanctuary  of  the 
guilds,  Or  San  Michele,  begun  in 
1337.  The  Dominican  church  of 
Santa  Maria  Novella  was  begun  in 
1278.  The  facade  is  by  Leo 
Battista  Alberti,  the  lovely  arcade 
by  Brunelleschi,  and  the  exquisite 
Spanish  chapel  by  Fra  Jacopo 
Talenti.  The  much  modernised 
church  and  convent  of  San  Marco 
fascinates  both  by  the  art  of  Fra 
Angelico  and  Fra  Bartolommeo, 
and  its  memories  of  Savonarola. 
The  great  14th  century  church  of 
the  Santissima  Annunziata  has 
also  been  much  altered,  but  con- 
tains some  of  the  finest  work  of 
Andrea  del  Sarto. 

The  story  of  Florentine  art,  as  it 
developed  through  Masolino  and 
Masaccio,  Fra  Angelico,  Lippi, 
Andrea  del  Castagno,  to  Andrea 
Verrocchio,  Sandro  Botticelli,  Dom- 
enico  Ghirlandaio  and  Leonardo 
da  Vinci,  Michelangelo  Buonarroti 
and  Raphael,  and  a  host  of  other 
great  artists,  including  Luca  and 
Andrea  della  Robbia,  Vasari,  Ben- 
venuto  Cellini,  and  Gian  di  Bologna, 
can  be  followed  in  these  and  other 
churches,  as  well  as  in  the  great 


3208 

galleries,  the  Academy  of  Fine  Art, 
the  Uffizi  Palace,  government 
offices  constructed  by  Vasari  for  the 
grand  duke  Cosimo  I,  and  the 
Pitti  Palace.  The  latter,  like  the  Pal- 
azzo Strozzi  and  Palazzo  Rucellai 
(Alberti),  is  a  typical  Renaissance 
palace,  and  was  begun  by  Luca 
Pitti,  the  opponent  of  Lorenzo  the 
Magnificent,  and  afterwards  occu- 
pied by  his  successors. 

HISTORY.  Florence  was  founded 
by  the  Etruscans.  They  had  first 
settled  at  Fiesole,  about  700  B.C., 
upon  a  rocky  height  to  the  N., 
commanding  the  way  across  the 
neighbouring  Apennines  to  the 
Adriatic  coast.  Tempted  down  to 
the  banks  of  the  Arno  by  the  com- 
mercial advantages  of  plain  and 
river,  they  were  presently  sup- 
planted by  the  Romans,  whose 
quadrangular  castrum  is  described 
as  municipium  splendidissimum  in 
the  time  of  Sulla. 

Saved  from  the  Goths  by  the 
legions  of  Stilicho  and  the  prayers 
of  Zenobius,  a  saintly  bishop  whose 
miracles  often  figure  in  Florentine 
art,  the  inhabitants  fled  later  for 
refuge  to  Fiesole  before  the  Lom- 
bards, but  prosperity  returned  to 
their  city  under  Charlemagne.  The 
great  power  of  the  margraves  of 
Tuscany  delayed  the  rise  of  the 
Tuscan  towns  ;  but  under  the  pro- 
tection of  Matilda,  countess  of  Tus- 
cany, and  after  her  death  in  1115, 
while  Papacy  and  Empire  were 
fighting  for  her  heritage,  Florence 
developed  into  a  powerful,  inde- 
pendent burgher  city.  Members  of 
the  chief  families  who  had  ad- 
ministered Florence  in  Matilda's 
name,  now  became  consuls  of  the 
commune,  annually  elected,  two 
for  each  sestiere,  and  were  advised 
by  a  senate  of  100  drawn  mainly 
from  the  trade  guilds.  They  led  the 
burgher  forces  in  their  struggle 
against  imperial  vicars  and  feudal 
nobles.  For  the  surrounding  coun- 
try, called  the  contado,  bristled 
with  castles,  whence  barons,  of 
Teuton  origin  and  adherents  of  the 
Empire,  harried  the  pack-trains  of 
the  citizens. 

Growth  of  the  Commune 

As  the  commune  made  herself 
mistress  first  of  Fiesole  (1125), 
and  then  of  the  contado,  she 
compelled  these  barons  to  take  up 
their  residence  within  the  city. 
There  they  joined  with  other 
citizen-nobles  of  aristocratic  ten- 
dencies and  fortified  themselves 
in  lofty  towers.  Against  these 
societies  of  the  towers,  and  the 
domination  of  an  alien  power,  the 
burghers  of  the  commune,  a  com- 
mercial democracy  of  Latin  de- 
scent, grouped  into  trade  guilds, 
strove  unceasingly.  This  is  the 
form  which  the  feud  betwixt 


FLORENCE 

Guelph    and    Ghibelline    took    in 
Florence. 

Her  interest  as  a  growing  bank- 
ing and  carrying  community  on 
the  trade-route  from  Rome  natur- 
ally inclined  Florence  to  the  side 
of  the  Church,  while  involving  her 
in  commercial  rivalry  with  Pisa, 
which  barred  her  free  communica- 
tion with  the  sea  ;  with  Siena,  the 
leading  city  between  her  and 
Rome ;  Pistoia,  and  other  Ghibel- 
line cities.  For  centuries  she  waged 
deadly  trade  wars  with  these  rivals 
until  she  finally  reduced  them  to 
subjection.  The  murder  of  one  of 
the  Buondelmonti,  leaders  of  the 
democratic  party,  accentuated  the 
bitterness  of  party  faction. 

Beneath  the  mask  of  family 
feuds,  the  Florentine  commune  was 
always  striving,  through  successive 
changes  in  the  constitution,  and  in 
spite  of  frequent  reactions,  towards 
the  completest  form  of  democratic 
liberty  known  to  the  Middle  Ages. 
The  lower  class  of  artisans  and  the 
populace  had  as  yet  no  share  in  the 
government  (Signoria),  except  as  a 
parliament  (Arengo),  assembled  in 
the  city  square  to  shout  a  decision 
upon  momentous  matters.  But  the 
struggle  between  people  and  pat- 
rician magnates  by  this  time  had 
already  begun. 

Democratic  Developments 

The  Guelph  magnates  remained 
in  power,  leading  the  Carroccio  and 
red  and  white  banner  (gonfalone) 
of  the  commune  to  victory  against 
their  neighbours  until,  in  1249,  the 
Uberti,  aided  by  the  Emperor's 
German  troops,  thrust  them  into 
exile.  On  the  death  of  Frederick 
II  in  1250,  however,  the  people 
rose  and  established  the  first  demo- 
cratic constitution.  Twelve  elders 
(anziani)  and  thirty-six  corporals 
(caporali)  were  appointed  as  a 
central  government.  A  popular 
militia  was  formed,  and  a  foreign 
Guelph  noble,  assisted  by  a  special 
and  a  general  council,  was  annually 
elected  as  "  captain  of  the  people  " 
to  champion  their  cause  against 
the  Podesta  (1250). 

This  officer,  also  an  annually 
elected  foreign  noble,  had  replaced 
the  consuls  about  1200,  and  became 
the  representative  of  the  Ghibelline 
aristocrats  and  of  imperial  claims. 
He,  too,  presided  over  two  councils; 
so  that  there  were  now  two  political 
organizations,  that  of  the  nobles 
and  that  of  the  people,  within  the 
Republic.  Ten  years  later  the  ex- 
iled Ghibellines,  rallying  at  Siena, 
and  reinforced  by  the  German  mer- 
cenaries of  Manfred  of  Sicily,  de- 
feated the  Guelphs  at  Montaperti. 

The  coming  of  Charles  of  Anjou, 
after  the  battle  of  Benevento,  put 
an  end  to  the  domination  of  Ghibel- 
line and  German  (1266).  The 


i.  Palazzo  Vccchio,  1298-1314,  used  as  the  town  hallsin.ce 
1871.  2.  View  from  the  church  of  S.  Spirito,  showing 
Giotto's  campanile  and  dome  of  the  cathedral.  3.  Church 
of  S.  Croce,  begun  in  1294.  The  new  facade  built  1857-63. 
4.  Pitti  Palace,  begun  in  1440,  containing  the  famous 
picture  gallery.  5.  The  Baptistery,  c.  1200.  6.  Palazzo 


Vecchio,  the  Renaissance  courtyard  built  in  the  i6th  cen- 
tury. 7.  Cathedral  of  S.  Maria  del  Fiore,  crowned  with 
Brunelleschi's  dome,  1420—34.  8.  Portico  of  the  Uffizi 
Palace,  1560-74,  containing  Art  Galleries  and  National 
Library.  9.  Ponte  Vecchio,  the  bridge  across  the  Arno, 
built  in  1345,  with  shops  and  a  covered  passage-way 


FLORENCE:     ITALIAN    CITY    FAMOUS   IN   LITERATURE   AND    ART 


FLORENCE 


321O 


Florence. 


Plan  of  the  centre  of  the  city,  showing  the  principal  buildings  and 
bridges 


Florentine  Guelphs  acknowledged 
Charles's  suzerainty  as  king  of 
Naples  and  Sicily.  An  organization 
(Parte  Guelfa)  was  formed  to  per- 
secute Ghibellines,  and  a  new  con- 
stitution (Secondo  Popolo)  similar 
to  the  first,  but  of  a  more  demo- 
cratic character,  was  set  up. 

In  1293  the  famous  ordinances  of 
justice  were  enacted,  intended  to 
restrain  the  reviving  power  of  the 
nobles,  and  barring  them  alto- 
gether from  the  Signoria.  In  1300 
a  new  officer  of  justice,  the  Gon- 
faloniere,  or  standard-bearer  of  the 
people,  was  added.  Under  this 
republic  of  merchants  ( Villari)  the 
great  "  Trecento  "  era  of  art  and 
literature  blossomed  forth. 
Commercial  Prosperity 

The  commercial  prosperity  of 
Florence  was  now  great.  Her  mer- 
chants dealt  in  the  wool  of  Latium 
and  Lombardy,  the  oil  and  wine  of 
Tuscany,  the  spices,  silks,  and  dyes 
of  the  East ;  the  craftsmen  of  the 
Calimala  guild  dressed  and  dyed 
foreign  cloth  into  artistic  fabrics, 
which  were  prized  throughout 
Europe  ;  while  her  bankers  with 
their  standard  golden  "  florin," 
first  corned  1252,  provided  the 
necessary  medium  of  exchange, 
and  extended  her  financial  influence 
far  and  wide. 

Head  of  the  Guelphic  League, 
Florence  was  now  the  chief  power 
in  Tuscany.  At  Campaldino 
(1289)  she  had  shattered  the  re- 
maining forces  of  the  Tuscan 
Ghibellines.  The  Guelphs,  how- 
ever, soon  split  into  factions,  Neri 


and  Bianchi,  headed  by  the  Do- 
nati  and  Cerchi  families.  Dante, 
an  adherent  of  the  Bianchi,  was 
banished  when  Charles  of  Valois, 
in  alliance  with  the  Neri,  sacked 
the  city,  1301.  Nevertheless,  the 
merchant  republic  succeeded  in 
forming  what  was  practically  a 
confederation  of  all  Italy. 

The  victorious  Neri  soon  split 
into  factions,  Florence  then  fell  a 
prey  to  the  exactions  of  the 
Angevin  sovereigns  of  Naples,  and 
the  tyranny  of  a  French  soldier  of 
fortune,  Walter  de  Brienne,  duke 
of  Athens.  After  his  fall  the 
people  rose  and  annihilated  the 
magnates,  1343. 

Dawn  of  the  Renaissance 

The  struggle  for  political  power 
was  henceforth  between  the  rich 
burgher  aristocracy  (Ottimati)  of 
the  greater  guilds  and  popolo 
minuto,  the  rest  of  the  unen- 
franchised guilds  and  people,  typi- 
fied by  a  rising  of  the  latter 
(Ciompi),  led  by  Michele  di  Lando, 
a  patriotic  wool-comber.  The  dawn 
of  the  Renaissance  found  Florence 
full  of  artists  and  scholars  patro- 
nised by  the  Ottimati.  Fierce 
wars  were  waged  with  Milan  and 
other  cities  by  mercenaries,  such  as 
those  led  by  the  English  captain 
Hawkwood,  and  the  dominion  of 
Florence  was  extended  over  Pisa 
(1406),  Arezzo,  Cortona,  and  Leg- 
horn. But  the  divisions  of  the  Re- 
public finally  placed  it  at  the  mercy 
of  Cosimo,  son  of  Giovanni  de' 
Medici,  the  richest  banker  in  Italy. 
Returning  from  exile,  he  took  his 


FLORENCE 

place  as  Despot  of  Florence  (1443). 
The  outward  forms  of  the  old 
constitution  were  retained,  while 
Cosimo  controlled  the  elections  and 
broke  the  power  of  the  Ottimati. 
At  home  he  patronised  artists 
(Brunelleschi,  Michelozzo,  Dona- 
tello,  Fra  Lippo  Lippi,  Fra  Ange- 
lico),  and  encouraged  the  Neo- 
Platonism  of  the  Renaissance  by 
his  Platonic  Academy.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Piero  (1464)  and 
his  grandson  Lorenzo  il  Magnifico. 
Lorenzo  and  Savonarola 

Lorenzo  maintained  the  balance 
of  power  among  the  five  Italian 
states,  and  was  treated  as  an  equal 
by  foreign  potentates.  At  home, 
Florence,  beautified  by  artists 
sprung  from  the  people,  became  the 
brilliant  world-centre  of  the  re- 
vival of  Greek  culture.  But  be- 
fore Lorenzo's  death  Fra  Girolamo 
Savonarola,  denouncing  the  tyranny 
and  corruption  of  state  and  church, 
had  prepared  the  way  for  Repub- 
lican reaction.  Roused  by  Piero 
II' s  surrender  to  the  French  in- 
vaders, the  people  expelled  the 
three  sons  of  Lorenzo.  Charles 
VIH  entered  the  city,  Nov.  17, 
1494,  and  took  the  Republic  under 
his  protection.  A  brief  period  of 
political  and  spiritual  reform,  in- 
spired by  the  prophetic  fervour  of 
Savonarola,  was  followed  by  the 
excommunication  and  burning  of 
the  monk  (May  23, 1498). 

The  Gonfaloniere,  Piero  Soderini 
(1502),  with  Niccolo  Macchiavelli 
for  secretary  of  state,  maintained 
the  Republic  until  the  Medici  were 
restored  by  the  Spanish  invaders 
(1512).  Republicanism  made  one 
last  glorious  effort  under  Niccolo 
Capponi  (1527).  But  the  emperor 
Charles  V,  in  alliance  with  Pope 
Clement  VII,  who  had  ruled 
Florence  as  Cardinal  Giulio  de' 
Medici,  reduced  the  town  after  a 
siege  of  eleven  months. 

Charles  appointed  Alessandro, 
illegitimate  son  of  Lorenzo,  son  of 
Piero  II,  duke  of  Florence.  Ales- 
sandro suppressed  the  ancient 
Signoria  for  ever.  He  was  mur- 
dered in  the  Palazzo  Medici  by  his 
kinsman,  Lorenzino,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Cosimo  I  de'  Medici,  "the 
Great"  (1537).  Allying  himself  with 
Spam  and  the  Papacy,  and  making 
himself  master  of  the  surrounding 
country,  while  he  patronised  the 
artists  of  the  late  Renaissance, 
Cosimo  founded  a  long  line  of 
grand  dukes  of  Tuscany  (1569). 

Florence  remained  the  capital 
of  Tuscany  when,  in  1737,  the 
Medici  line  having  become  ex- 
tinct, the  duchy  was  annexed  by 
the  emperor  and  became  an  ap- 
panage of  the  House  of  Austria. 
After  the  Napoleonic  interludes  of 
the  republic  and  kingdom  of 


FLORENCE      OF     WORCESTER 


Etruria,  1801-7,  Tuscany  joined 
the  growing  Kingdom  of  Italy  by 
a  plebiscite  of  March,  1860,  and 
Florence  became  the  first  capital 
of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Italy 
(1865-71).  See  Door  illus. 

Bibliography.  Storia  della  Re- 
pubblica  di  Firenze,  1875;  Histoire 
de  Florence,  F.  T.  Perrens,  Eng. 
trans.  H.  Lynch,  1892;  The  Two 
First  Centuries  of  Florentine  His- 
tory, P.  Villari,  Eng.  trans.  L.  Villari, 
1901 ;  The  Story  of  Florence,  E.  G. 
Gardner,  4th  ed.  1902;  Florence, 

A.  J.  C.  Hare,  1904;  Florentine  His- 
tory,  N.  Macchiavelli,  Eng.  trans. 
N.  H.   Thomson,    1906;     Florence, 
G.  Allen,  1906. 

Florence  of  Worcester  (d. 
1118).  English  chronicler.  A  monk 
at  Worcester,  he  lived  in  the  time 
of  William  II  and  Henry  I  and  died 
in  July,  1118.  His  chronicle  of  Eng- 
lish history  begins  with  the  Creation, 
is  filled  with  stories  and  legends 
from  earlier  writings,  and  is  only 
valuable  for  the  period  covered  by 
the  author's  life.  The  work  was 
continued  to  1141  by  John  of 
Worcester.  See  Eng.  trans.,  ed. 

B.  Thorpe,  1848. 

Florence  Station.  Hamlet  of 
Tennessee,  U.S.A.,  in  Rutherford 
co.  It  is  situated  26  m.  S.E. 
of  Nashville,  and  has  a  small  ex- 
port trade  in  grain  and  cotton. 
Near  here,  Dec.  31,  1862,  to  Jan. 
2,  1863,  was  fought  the  battle  of 
Stone  River. 

Flores.  Island  of  the  Azores, 
in  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  It  is  the 
most  westerly  of  the  group.  The 
surface  is  mountainous,  and  sheep 
are. reared  on  the  grassy  slopes. 
The  soil  is  fertile,  and  fruit  and 
vegetables  are  cultivated.  The 
chief  town  is  Santa  Cruz.  Off 
Flores,  in  1591,  took  place  the 
naval  action  between  Sir  Richard 
Grenville  in  the  Revenge  and 
several  Spanish  vessels.  Pop.  8,250. 

Flores.  Island  of  the  Dutch 
East  Indies,  in  the  Sunda  group 
of  the  Malay  Archipelago.  A  de- 
pendency of  Timor,  it  lies  S.  of 
Celebes,  from  which  it  is  separated 
by  the  Flores  Sea,  midway  be- 
tween Java  and  Timor.  Oblong  in 
shape,  it  is  230  m.  from  W.  to  E., 
with  an  average  breadth  from  N.  to 
S.  of  28  m.,  and  an  area  of  5,860 
sq.  m.  The  chief  products  include 
sandalwood,  cotton,  edible  birds' - 
nests,  dyewoods,  tortoiseshell,  and 
beeswax,  while  rubber  culture  is 
making  progress.  Pop.  250,000. 

Flores.  Department  of  S.W. 
Uruguay.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N. 
by  Durazno  and  on  the  S.  by  San 
Jose.  It  is  hilly,  with  good  pastur- 
age ;  agriculture  and  stock-raising 
are  the  principal  industries.  It  is  tra- 
versed by  the  rly.  running  N.  from 
Montevideo.  The  capital  is  Trini- 
dad. Area  1,744  sq.  m.  Pop.  22,079. 


321  1 


FLORIDA      KEYS 


Flores  Sea.  Part  of  the  S. 
Pacific  Ocean,  it  lies  between  the 
island  of  Flores  on  the  S.  and 
Celebes  on  the  N.,  E.  of  the  Sunda 
Sea  and  W.  of  the  Banda  Sea. 
There  are  many  islands  and  coral 
atolls  in  this  sea. 

Floret  (Fr.  fleurette,  little  flower). 
Term  used  to  denote  a  number  of 
small  flowers  gathered  closely  to- 
gether, presenting  in  the  aggregate 
the  appearance  of  one  large  flower. 
This  is  especially  the  case  in  the 
large  natural  order  Compositae, 
In  the  common  daisy  (Bellis 
perennis)  what  is  popularly  called 
the  flower  is  a  closely  packed  head 
(capitulum)  of  about  250  florets, 
of  which  four-fifths  are  short, 
yellow-coloured  tubes,  constituting 
the  disk.  Around  the  disk  is  an 
outer  series  in  which  the  tube  has 
been  split  into  a  much  larger  white 
strap.  These  ray-florets,  as  they 
are  called,  contain  no  stamens ; 
their  principal  purpose  is  to  make 
the  flower-head  conspicuous  and 
attract  insects  to  effect  cross -pol- 
lination. Groundsel  (Senecio  vul- 
garis)  has  all  its  florets  without 
rays,  while  in  dandelion  (Taraxa- 
cum officinale)  they  are  all  rayed. 

Florian,  JEAN  PIERRE  CLARIS 
DE  (1755-94).  French  author  and 
academician.  Born  March  6,  1755, 
he  obtained  an  appointment  in  the 
household  of  the  duke  of  Pen- 
thievre,  and  afterwards  held 
a  commission  in  a  cavalry  regi- 
ment. He  was  imprisoned  when 
the  Revolution  broke  out,  and 
died  Sept.  13,  1794,  soon  after  his 
release.  Author  of  several  comedies, 
romances,  and  pastorals,  he  was 
elected  to  the  French  Academy  in 
1788.  He  is  remembered  chiefly  for 
his  Fables,  1792. 

Florianopolis.  New  name  for 
the  capital  of  the  state  of  Santa 
Catharina,  Brazil,  more  commonly 
known  as  Desterro  (q.v.). 

Florida.  State  in  the  extreme 
S.E.  of  the  U.S.A.  Its  area  is  54,861 
sq.  m.,  excluding  the  water  area, 
slightly  larger  than  that  of  England 
and  Wales.  It  is  designated  the 
"  Peninsular  State "  from  its 
shape,  and  the  "  Everglade  State  " 
on  account  of  the  large  swamp  or 
lake  in  the  S.  containing  hundreds 
of  thickly  wooded  islets.  Of  many 


Florida.    Map  of  the  Everglade  State 
of  N.  America 

navigable  rivers  the  Apalachicola 
and  Suwanee  are  the  chief,  and 
the  largest  lake  is  the  Okeechobee  ; 
around  the  coast  are  several  good 
harbours.  Pineapples,  oranges, 
various  cereals,  cotton  and  to- 
bacco are  cultivated  ;  phosphate 
rock  is  the  chief  mineral. 

Manufactured  products  are  to- 
bacco, lumber,  turpentine,  tar, 
and  resin.  There  are  a  state 
university  at  Gainsville,  and 
a  state  college  for  women  at  Talla- 
hassee. More  than  4,900  m.  of 
railroad  are  worked.  Two  senators 
and  four  representatives  are  re- 
turned to  Congress.  Tallahassee  is 
the  capital.  Pop.  920,181,  of  whom 
one -third  are  negroes.  Florida 
derived  its  name  from  the  day 
in  1513  on  which  it  was  discovered 
by  Ponce  de  Leon — Easter  Day 
(Spanish,  Pascua  Florida  or  Feast 
of  Flowers) — and  was  by  turns  in 
the  possession  of  Spain,  France,  and 
Great  Britain  till  1819.  The  state 
was  admitted  to  the  union  in  1845. 

Florida.  Central  dept.  of  Uru- 
guay. The  surface  consists  of  undu- 
lating grassy  tracts,  watered  by  the 
Yi  river,  upon  which  are  reared  vast 
herds  of  cattle.  Area,  4,673  sq.  m. 
Pop.  62,666.  The  capital  is  Florida, 
70  m.  by  rly.  N.  of  Montevideo. 

Florida  Bay.  Arm  of  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico.  It  separates  Florida 
state,  U.S.A.,  from  Florida  Keys. 

Florida  Keys.  Curved  chain  of 
reefs  off  the  S.  coast  of  Florida, 
U.S.A.  They  extend  from  Soldier 
Key,  near  Miami,  in  a  S.W. 


FLORIDA      STRAITS 

direction  to  Key  West,  a  distance 
of  about  140  m.  These  low-lying 
islands,  principally  coralline,  are 
traversed  by  the  Florida  Coast  rly. 
from  Key  West  to  Key  Largo,  where 
it  joins  with  the  mainland. 

Florida  Straits  OR  CHANNEL. 
Coastal  waters  off  Florida,  U.S.A., 
alternately  known  as  the  New 
Bahama  Channel.  They  separate 
the  S.E.  extremity  of  Florida  and 
the  Florida  Keys"  from  Cuba  and 
the  Bahama  Islands.  The  channel 
is  some  300  m.  long,  has  a  mean 
breadth  of  80  m.,  and  a  greatest 
depth  of  6,000  ft.  It  is  traversed 
by  the  Gulf  Stream. 

Florideae  OR  RHODOPHYCEAE. 
Class  of  Algae  or  seaweeds.  In 
them  the  chlorophyll,  or  green 
colouring  matter,  is  masked  by  a 
red  pigment  (phyco-erythrin). 
They  have  no  true  roots,  but  are 
attached  to  their  supports  by 
suckers,  the  absorbent  function  of 
roots  being  carried  on  by  the  sur- 
face cells  of  the  entire  plant. 

Floridia.  Town  of  Sicily,  in  the 
prov.  of  Syracuse.  It  stands  on  the 
river  Ciani,  7|  m.  W.  of  Syracuse,  in 
a  fertile  district  producing  cereals, 
vines,  and  olives,  and  trades  in  grain, 
wine,  and  oil.  Pop.  12,522. 

Florin.  Name  of  several  gold 
and  silver  coins  of  various  Euro- 
pean currencies.  A  gold  coin  struck 


Florin.     Gold  coin  of  Edward  II!  ; 
above,  silver  florin  minted  in  1918 

Aclual  diameter  of  Edward  III  florin,  l^ins.; 
of  George  V  florin,  1 J  int. 

at  Florence  in  1252  bore,  obverse, 
the  figure  of  S.  John  Baptist,  re- 
verse, the  Florentine  lily,  whence 
came  the  name  florin  (Ital.  fiorino, 
little  flower).  Similar  pieces  ap- 
peared in  various  parts  of  Italy  as 
a  result  of  its  wide  circulation. 
Gold  florins  were  also  minted  by 
Charles  I  of  Anjou,  c.  1335,  and  by 
John  of  Luxembourg  c.  1340.  The 
English  gold  florin,  of  approximate 
value  six  shillings,  issued  by 
Edward  III  in  1343,  was  with- 
drawn in  1344. 

The  British  silver  <florin,  value 
two  shillings,  weighs  174*55  grains. 
It  was  issued  in  1849,  and  is  still 


3212 

minted.  It  was  at  first  dubbed  the 
"  graceless  florin,"  as  the  customary 
D.G.  (Dei  Gratia)  did  not  appear  on 
the  issues  between  1849-52.  The 
life  of  a  florin  in  circulation  is  esti- 
mated at  about  45i  years.  A  double 
florin,  or  four-shilling  piece,  was 
minted  from  1887-90,  but  proved 
inconvenient.  The  Australian  florin 
has  the  same  value  as  the  British. 
but  a  different 
design.  Among 
modern  continental 
florins,  the  Austrian 
florin  issued  in  1857, 
and  the  silver  florin 
struck  by  Louis 
Napoleon,  king  of 
Holland,  1807,  are 
notable,  the  latter 
becoming  the 
Dutch  gulden. 

Fiorina.     Town 
of  Greece,  in  Mace- 
donia, formerly  in 
Turkey-  in  -  Europe. 
It  is  about   15   m. 
S.S.E.  of  Monastir, 
and  was  one  of  the 
towns  in  the  tract 
of  territory  acquired 
by  Greece  as  a  result  of  the  Balkan 
wars,  1912-13.       Pop.  10,155.      It 
came  into  prominence  during  the 
Great  War.  Captured  by  the  French 
in  April,  1916,  it  was  retaken  by  the 
Bulgarians,  Aug.  20,  1916,  and  re- 
taken  by  Franco-Russian  troops, 
Sept.  18,  1916.     See  Salonica,  Ex- 
pedition to  ;  Serbia,  Conquest  of. 

Florio,    JOHN    (c.    1553-1625). 
Author  and  translator.      Born  in 
London,  his  father  was  an  Italian, 
who,  being  a  Protestant,  had  left 
his    own    country    for    England, 
where    he     became     minister    to 
a    congregation    of    Italians   who 
shared  his  religious  opinions.    The 
son  was  educated 
at   Magdalen 
College,  Oxford, 
became  a  teach- 
er of  French  and 
Italian    in    the 
university,    and 
held    various 
offices  at  court, 
including  that  of 

tutor  to  Prince  f onn  FJorio,  trans- 
Henry,  son  of  lator  of  Montaig°e 
James  I.  In  1598  appeared  his 
Italian-English  dictionary,  A  World 
of  Words,  and  in  1603  his  famous 
translation  of  Montaigne's  Essays, 
on  which  his  reputation  rests.  He 
compiled  two  collections  of  pro- 
verbs, sayings,  etc.  Florio  died 
of  the  plague  at  Fulham.  Ben 
Jonson  was  one  of  his  friends. 

Florist.  Cultivator  or  vendor  of 
plants  and  flowers.  The  florist  in 
large  towns  deals  largely  in  exotic 
flowers  raised  under  glass,  and  also 
imports  flowers  from  milder  cli- 


FLOSCULARIA 

mates.  The  Scilly  Islands  and  the 
S.  of  Europe  furnish  many  of  the 
flowers  sold  by  London  florists. 
Floral  Hall,  in  Covent  Garden 
market,  is  devoted  to  the  sale  of 
flowers.  See  Flower  Farming. 

Florizel.  Character  in  Shake- 
speare's A  Winter's  Tale.  He  is 
the  son  of  Polixenes,  king  of  Bo- 
hemia, and  falls  in  love  with  Per- 


Florizel,  in  Shakespeare's  A   Winter's    Tale,  watches 
Perdita  offering  flowers  to  her  disguised  enemies 

From  the  picture  by  C.  R.  Leslie,  fi.A. 

dita,  who,  brought  up  by  a  Bohe- 
mian shepherd,  is  the  lost  daughter 
of  Leontes,  king  of  Sicily.  The 
name  was  applied  to  the  Prince 
Regent  (George  IV)  on  his  amour 
with  the  actress  "  Perdita  "  (Mary) 
Robinson,  whom  he  first  saw  play- 
ing in  A  Winter's  Tale. 

Florodora.  Musical  comedy 
written  by  Owen  Hall  (James 
Davis)  and  composed  by  Leslie 
Stuart.  It  was  produced  Nov.  11, 
1899,  at  the  Lyric  Theatre,  London, 
where  it  ran  for  455  continuous 
performances. 

Florus  (2nd  century  A.D.).  Ro- 
man historian.  Nothing  is  known 
of  him  except  that  he  lived  during 
the  reign  of  Hadrian.  His  work, 
called  an  Epitome,  treats  of  the 
military  history  of  Rome  from  the 
regal  period  down  to  the  reign  of 
Augustus.  It  was  written  in  a  florid 
and  poetical  style,  a  glorification  of 
Rome  rather  than  a  history,  and 
notwithstanding  its  inaccuracies, 
was  much  used  by  later  historians 
and  the  chroniclers  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  The  title  of  the  work  and  the 
author's  name  are  variously  given. 
By  some  he  is  identified  with  Pub- 
lius  Annius  Florus,  African  by  birth, 
a  poet  and  friend  of  Hadrian.  An- 
other Florus  (Julius)  was  a  friend 
of  Horace,  who  addressed  two 
epistles  to  him. 

Floscularia,  OR  FLOWER  ANI- 
MALCULE. Group  of  rotifers,  com- 
mon in  most  ponds.  The  body  is 
supported  on  a  slender  stalk  con- 
tained in  a  gelatinous  tube,  and 
the  wheel-disk  is  provided  with 
long,  bristle-like  processes  which 


FLOTATION 


3213 


FLOUR    MILL 


serve  to  entangle  the  minute  par- 
ticles on  which  the  animal  feeds.  It 
is  just  visible  to  the  naked  eye. 

Flotation.  When  a  body  is 
placed  in  a  fluid,  an  upward  force 
acts  on  it,  equal  to  the  weight  of 
fluid  displaced  and  due  to  the 
pressure  of  the  fluid.  If  the  quan- 
tity of  fluid  displaced  weighs  less 
than  the  body,  the  latter  sinks  ; 
otherwise  the  body  floats.  Thus 
when  a  solid  floats,  the  weight  of 
the  volume  of  liquid  displaced  is 
exactly  equal  to  the  weight  of  the 
whole  body.  A  balloon  in  the  air 
will  continue  to  rise  till  the  density 
of  the  air  hi  which  it  floats  is  such 
that  the  amount  of  it  displaced  by 
the  balloon  is  equal  in  weight  to 
that  of  the  balloon  and  its  contents. 
See  Hydrostatics ;  Metacentre. 

Flotilla  (Span.,  small  fleet).  In 
the  tactical  organization  of  a  fleet, 
usually  a  number  of  destroyers 
grouped  under  a  commodore  or  a 
captain  and  intended  to  be  worked 
as  a  whole.  The  senior  officer 
is  accommodated  in  a  fast  light 
cruiser  or  flotilla  leader,  and  the 
flotilla  itself  generally  consists  of 
20  boats  representing  four  or  five 
tactical  units.  Submarines  are  nor- 
mally organized  in  flotillas,  though 
they  usually  work  as  independent 
units.  A  number  of  mine-sweeping 
trawlers  or  anti-submarine  drifters 
working  together  is  sometimes  re- 
ferred to  as  a  flotilla.  See  Navy. 

Flotilla  Leader.  Ship  between 
a  light  cruiser  and  a  destroyer  in 
size  and  intended  for  service  as 
senior  vessel  of  a  destroyer  flotilla. 
Dimensions  vary,  but  the  leaders 
all  displace  about  2,000  tons,  have 
a  speed  of  approximately  35  knots, 
and  are  armed  with  4 -in.  guns  and 
18 -in.  torpedo  tubes. 

Flotsam  and  Jetsam  (low  Lat. 
flottare,  to  float ;  Lat.  jactare,  to 
cast).  English  law  term.  Goods 
found  floating  up  on  the  sea  are 
flotsam.  Jetsam  means  goods  jetti- 
soned, cast  overboard  in  a  storm, 
or  washed  upon  shore  after  a 
wreck.  They  become  the  property 
of  the  crown  unless  claimed  by  the 
rightful  owners  ;  hence  people  find- 
ing them  must  hand  them  over  to 
the  receiver  of  wrecks. 

Flounder  (Pleuronectes  fiesus}. 
Small  species  of  flatfish,  common 
in  the  sea  and  the  lower  reaches  of 
rivers.  It  belongs  to  the  same 


Flounder,  a  small  flatfish  found  round 
tbo  coasts  of  the  British  Isles 


genus  as  the  plaice,  but  is  smaller, 
being  seldom  12  ins.  long.  It  has 
dark  mottlings,  and  lacks  the 
orange -coloured  spots  of  the  larger 
fish.  The  flounder  is  very  prolific 
and  produces  from  one  to  two  mil- 
lion eggs.  Its  flesh  is  delicate,  but 
its  small  size  makes  it  unimportant 
as  a  food  fish. 

Flour.  Term  denoting  espe- 
cially the  ground  contents  of  the 
wheat  berry  freed  from  its  dermal 
envelopes.  The  corresponding  pro- 
duct of  some  other  grains,  par- 
ticularly maize  and  rice,  is  called 
cornflour.  Similar  starchy  meals 
are  yielded  by  other  cereal  grasses, 
buckwheat,  pulses,  and  banana ; 
sago-palm  pith,  and  tapioca,  ar- 
rowroot, potato,  and  other  roots 
and  tubers. 

The  stone  pounders  used  in  neo- 
lithic times  gave  rise  to  handmills 
or  querns,  wherein  wheat-meal 
was  ground  between  two  stone 
disks.  In  the  early  metal  age  the 
upper  millstones  were  rotated  by 
slave  or  cattle  power,  in  classical 
Greece  and  republican  Rome  by 
geared  water  -  wheels,  later  by 
windmills,  and  since  1784  by 
steam.  As  the  19th  century  ad- 
vanced flour  manufacture  was  re- 
volutionised by  the  invention  of 
roller-mills. 

The  wheat  berry  comprises  four 
dermal  coats,  weighing  5  p.c.,  the 
germ  and  the  embryo  membrane, 
5  p.c.,  and  the  kernel  or  endo- 
sperm, 90  p.c.  It  is  composed  of 
carbohydrates,  71'2  p.c.,  cellulose, 
2*2  p.c.,  proteins,  11  p.c.,  fats, 
T7  p.c.,  mineral  salts,  T9  p.c.,  and 
water,  1 2  p.  c.  Of  the  four  proteins, 
gliadin  and  glutenin,  forming  four- 
fifths  of  the  whole,  are  collectively 
called  gluten.  Besides  their  flesh- 
forming  value,  their  sticky  nature 
confines  the  carbonic  acid  gas 
which  yeast  generates  in  dough 
within  tiny  cavities  whose  ex- 
pansion causes  the  spongy  light- 
ness of  bread. 

The  innermost  core  of  the  endo- 
sperm yields  fine,  white,  weak, 
starch  flour  ;  that  from  the  outer 
kernel  is  strong,  granular,  and  glu- 
tinous. Outside  this  come  the 
middlings,  comprising  fine  sharps 
or  seconds,  and  coarse  sharps  or 
thirds.  The  outer  envelopes  yield 
fine,  coarse,  and  long  brans. 
Flour  is  graded  into  patents,  50-70 
p.c.  ;  supers,  20-30  p.c.  ;  bakers, 
from  the  lower  grades,  sometimes 
bleached ;  and  households,  the 
lowest  of  all.  When  all  grades  are 
mixed  together  straight-run  flour 
results.  Roller-milling  produces 
about  70  p.c.  of  stock  flour;  when 
10  p.c.  of  sharps  is  added  the  pro- 
duct is  80  p.c.  or  standard  flour. 
Besides  its  use  in  bread-making, 
wheat  flour  is  also  made  into 


semolina,  macaroni,  and  vermicelli. 
It  is  a  thickening  agent  in  textile 
printing,  and  the  base  of  some 
violet  powders. 

The  imports  of  meal  and  flour 
into  the  United  Kingdom  in  the 
year  ended  August  31,  1915, 
amounted  to  3,529,573  qrs.,  be- 
sides 22,483,587  qrs.  of  wheat. 
Out  of  its  1917-18  crop  Canada 
exported  to  the  Allies,  besides 
unmilled  wheat,  10,000,000  barrels 
of  flour.  See  Bread  ;  Wheat ;  con- 
sult also  Processes  of  Flour  Manu- 
facture, P.  A.  Amos,  1912. 

Flourens,  GUSTAVE  (1838-71). 
French  politician.  The  son  of  the 
physiologist,  Marie  J.  P.  Flourens 
(1794-1867),  known  as  the  asso- 
ciate of  Cuvier,  he  was  born  in 
Paris,  Aug.  4,  1838.  He  began  life 
as  a  lecturer  and  writer,  but  was 
soon  associating  with  revolution- 
aries in  Italy  and  elsewhere.  In 
Feb.,  1870,  he  headed  a  futile  rising 
against  Napoleon  III,  and  after  the 
abdication  of  the  emperor  he  was 
one  of  the  leaders  of  the  commune. 
He  was  killed  during  the  fighting, 
April  3,  1871. 

Flour  Mill.  Building  equipped 
for  grinding  grain,  especially  wheat, 
into  flour.  The  application  of 
steam-power  to  millstone  grinding 
in  1784  led,  not  only  to  improved 
methods  of  direct  reduction,  but 
also  to  the  invention  of  systems  for 
gradual  reduction  by  means  of  rolls. 
Millstones  are  still  used  for  whole 
wheatmeal,  oatmeal,  and  other 
grains  and  pulses.  The  stones — 
French  burrs,  Derbyshire  peaks, 
or  composition  disks — are  usually 
1  ft.  thick  and  4  ft.  or  4£  ft.-  in 
diam.,  scored  with  straight  furrows 
tapering  to  J  in.  in  depth.  The 
upper  stones  rotate  at  a  maximum 
of  150  r.p.m. 

Although  small  hand- turned 
roller-mills  were  produced  casually 
from  the  16th  century  onwards,  it 
was  not  until  1837  that  Sulzberger, 
A  Swiss  engineer,  founded  the 
modern  iron-roller  system.  Porce- 
lain rolls,  introduced  in  1870,  and 
popular  for  a  time,  are  still  pre- 
ferred here  and  there.  Roller  mills 
were  erected  in  Glasgow  in  1872, 
and  in  Dublin  in  1878.  For  some 
years  stones  and  rolls  were  em- 
ployed in  the  same  mills.  But  after 
1881,  when  an  exhibition  was  held 
in  Islington,  British  millers  rapidly 
adopted  the  roller  system,  which 
to-day  deals  with  all  but  a  minute 
fraction  of  the  merchant  flour- 
milling  of  the  world.  Duiing  the 
Great  War  a  large  Chinese  roller- 
mill  was  erected  at  Wusih,  near 
Soochow. 

Roller-mills  are  equipped  with 
silos  or  granaries,  containing  capa- 
cious storage  bins.  These  origin- 
ated in  N.  America,  where  they  are 


FLOW 


3214 


FLOWER  FARMING 


called  elevators.  They  are  fed  in 
bulk  through  wall  hoppers  direct 
from  truck  or  ship's  hold  by  con- 
veyer bands  or  pneumatic  suction. 
At  this  stage  or  afterwards,  dry 
cleaning  is  effected  by  means  of 
warehouse  separators.  These  are 
systems  of  sieves  utilising  differ- 
ences of  size,  arid  of  air  currents 
operating  upon  differences  of 
weight,  some  screen  surfaces 
being  magnetised  for  extracting 
nails  and  the  like.  Cockle  and 
barley  cylinders  are  furnished  with 
depressions  and  apertures  for 
catching  smaller  and  rejecting 
longer  seeds  respectively.  Scourers 
fitted  with  rotating  beaters  and 
polishing  brushes  were  formerly 
used  before  storage,  but  this  purifi- 
cation is  now  often  deferred  until 
reduction  is  actually  in  progress. 
Wet  cleaning  is  needed  by  some 
descriptions ;  some  require  con- 
ditioning by  heat. 

Breaking  is  effected  in  four  or 
five  4-roller  mills,  rotating  at  differ- 
ential speeds.  The  chilled  iron 
rolls,  preferably  set  diagonally,  are 
furnished  with  saw-tooth  groov- 
ing, ranging  from  10  to  26  per  inch. 
The  rolls  may  be  8  ins.  to  10  ins.  in 
diam.,  and  15  ins.  to  60  ins.  long,  the 
speed  of  the  longest  fast  or  cutting 
rolls  being  350  r.p.m.  The  berry 
being  sheared  open,  the  kernel  is 
broken  up  into  angular  particles 
graded  into  semolina,  middlings, 
and  dunst.  Various  appliances 
blend  different  kinds  of  grain,  and 
extract  light  offal  or  bran  and 
dust ;  smooth  rolls  crack  the  gran- 
ules and  flatten  the  germ  ;  and  the 
floury  stock  is  then  dressed  and 
sacked.  Plansifters  are  horizontal 
sieves  which  replace  or  eliminate 
some  of  the  older  methods.  The 
whole  process,  from  the  crude  berry 
to  the  sack  of  finished  flour,  is  auto- 
matic throughout.  See  Milling  ; 
consult  also  Processes  of  Flour 
Manufacture,  P.  A.  Amos,  1912  ; 
Wheat  and  its  Products,  A.  Millar, 
1916  ;  Flour  Milling,  P.  A.  Kosmin, 
trans.  M.  Falkner  and  T.  Fjelstrup, 
1917. 

Flow.  Term  used  in  metallurgy. 
Metals  are  usually  considered  as 
typical  of  rigidity  and  hardness  ; 
nevertheless  they  can  all  be  made 
to  flow  while  in  the  solid  state. 
Thus  a  block  of  malleable  iron  or 
copper  may  be  hammered  out  into 
a  thin  sheet.  Other  examples  of  the 
"  flowing  "  of  a  metal  are  provided 
by  the  drawing  and  rolling  of  a 
billet  into  a  bar  or  plate,  and  by 
the  drawing  of  a  tube  or  wire. 

These  operations  are  usually 
made  on  metals  while  at  tempera- 
tures raised  more  or  less  above  the 
normal,  but  the  temperature  is 
always  much  below  that  of  fusion. 
Every  instance  of  the  forging  of  a 


metal  object  is  one  of  flow,  but 
metals  may  be  made  to  flow  while 
solid  and  cold  in  a  still  more  strik- 
ing fashion.  All  that  is  necessary  is 
to  provide  sufficient  pressure  and 
to  give  time.  Solid  lead  may  be 
readily  made  to  flow  through  a  hole 
as  a  solid  pencil ;  while  harder 
metals  will  behave  in  a  similar 
fashion  under  suitable  conditions. 
See  Metallurgy. 

Flower  (Lat.  flos  ;  stem,  flor-, 
flower).  Part  of  a  plant  containing 
the  organs  of  reproduction.  In  the 
complete  flower  it  consists  of  four 
distinct  whorls  of  organs,  which 
differ  hi  form  and  number  in  differ- 
ent species  ;  in  some  cases  one  or 
more  of  the  sets  of  organs  being 
absent.  The  lower  or  outer  set 
are  the  calyx-leaves,  which  form 
the  bud  of  the  unopened  flower  ; 
separately  they  are  known  as 
sepals,  and  are  usually  green.  The 
second  series  are  corolla-leaves, 
mostly  brightly  coloured,  separ- 
ately, known  as  petals.  The  third 
series  are  stamens,  consisting  of  a 
stalk  or  filament  and  the  anther, 
the  latter  containing  pollen — the 
male  element.  The  fourth  series  is 
the  pistil,  which  consists  of  the 
ovary,  containing  ovules  or  seed- 
eggs,  surmounted  by  a  stigma  or 
stigmas  which  may  be  supported 
by  stalks  or  styles.  Grains  of  pollen 
caught  by  the  sticky  or  rough  sur- 
face of  the  stigma  send  out  shoots 
which  penetrate  the  style  and  fer- 
tilise the  ovules,  which  then  de- 
velop into  fertile  seeds. 

Sometimes  the  sepals  are  all 
joined  together  and  can  only  be 
spoken  of  as  the  calyx.  Similarly, 
the  petals  may  be  united  to  form  a 
tube,  and  be  funnel-shaped,  bell- 
shaped,  urn-shaped,  etc.  Where 
there  is  no  distinction  between 
sepals  and  petals  (as  in  the  Crocus 
and  Daffodil)  the  floral  envelope 
is  termed  the  perianth.  In  the 
Gymnosperms  (Conifers)  there  are 
neither  sepals  nor  petals;  and  in 
other  forest  trees  these  organs  are 
often  very  small  and  inconspicuous, 
because  the  pollen  is  carried  by  the 
wind.  As  a  general  rule,  where  the 
petals  are  brightly  coloured  the 
pollinating  agents  are  insects — 
mainly  bees,  butterflies,  and  moths. 
All  flowers  of  special  shapes  have 
been  thus  adapted  to  fit  particular 
insects  or  groups  of  insects. 

In  the  majority  of  such  specialised 
flowers  nectar-producing  glands  are 
sj  placed  as  to  make  certain  the 
transfer  of  pollen  from  one  flower  to 
the  stigma  of  another  by  insect 
agency.  So  also  the  streaks,  or 
lines  of  dots,  of  a  second  colour  on 
the  petals  point  to  the  position  of 
the  nectar.  The  long  tubes  of 
certain  flowers  (tobacco,  convol- 
vulus, etc.)  are  related  to  the  long 


probosces  of  the  larger  moths  and 
butterflies ;  broad,  open  flowers  like 
buttercups  to  beetles,  etc.  The 
perfume  emanating  from  flowers 
attracts  insects — bees,  butterflies, 
and  moths.  On  the  other  hand, 
some  flowers,  such  as  those  of  the 
stapelias,  arum  family,  etc.,  emit 
fetid  odours  attractive  only  to  flies, 
which  are  their  pollinating  agents. 

Edward  Step 

Flower  Farming.  Branch  of 
market  gardening.  It  includes 
growing  flowering  plants  for  the 
sake  of  marketing  their  cut  blooms, 
and  raising  annual  and  perennial 
plants  in  vast  quantities  for  bed- 
ding out  purposes,  or  in  pots  for 
decorative  uses.  The  daffodil  fields 
of  the  Scilly  Isles,  and  the  gardens 
under  glass  of  Worthing,  Swanley, 
Mitcham,  and  various  districts  in 
the  North  of  London,  are  variations. 

Flower  farming  is  carried  on 
by  the  mixed  system,  where  the 
flowers  are  grown  indiscriminately 
between  standard  and  bush  trees ; 
the  distinct  method,  where  sep- 
arate plots  are  allotted  to  vege- 
tables, fruit,  and  flowers  ;  or  the 
alternate  system,  where  all  crops 
are  grown  in  rotation.  The  last  is 
found  to  have  the  fewest  defects, 
and  the  ordinary  methods  of  culti- 
vation are  applicable. 

Markets  and  Prices 

The  most  profitable  and  popular 
subjects  for  market  are  forced 
daffodils,  hyacinths,  and  tulips  in 
pots ;  cut  violets,  roses,  lilies,  white 
flowers  of  all  sorts  for  wedding  and 
funeral  purposes ;  chrysanthemums, 
and  all  fine  foliage  plants.  Blos- 
soms of  good  bright  simple  colours 
find  a  readier  market  than  those  of 
fancy  or  bizarre  hue.  Flowers  for 
marketing  should  be  cut  when  only 
half  expanded,  put  in  water,  and 
kept  in  a  cool,  dark  place  until  they 
can  be  packed.  They  should  be 
gathered  for  preference  early  in 
the  morning  of  the  day  upon  which 
they  are  to  travel,  and  with 
stems  as  long  as  possible,  although 
cutting  into  the  hard  wood  of  the 
parent  plant  should  be  carefully 
avoided.  Flowers  are  consigned  to 
market  salesmen  for  disposal  on 
commission.  The  rate  varies  from 
5  to  10  p.c.,  7£  p.c.  being  a  fair  and 
usual  basis  of  remuneration. 

The  board  of  agriculture  issues 
a  weekly  return  of  prices  prevailing 
in  the  nine  big  markets  in  the 
British  Isles:  Birmingham,  Bristol, 
Evesham,  Glasgow,  Leeds,  Liver- 
pool, London,  Manchester,  Wolver- 
hampton. 

The  contents  of  all  boxes  of 
flowers  should  face  towards  the  top, 
as  the  flowers  are  usually  sold 
direct  in  the  box  as  they  arrive  at 
the  market,  or  at  the  place  of 
retail  sale. 


Campanulate  or  bell 
shaped  :  harebell 


Rotate  or  wheel-shaped  ; 
periwinkle 


Salver-shaped  :   primrose 


Regular :    wild  rose 


Labiate  or  two- 
lipped:  dead-nettle 


Funnel-shaped:  bindweed 


Apetalous  or  with 
out  petals:    ash 


Trumpet-shaped  :    honeysuckle 


Personate  or 
masked  :  snap- 
dragon 


Papilonaceous  or  butterfly- 
shaped  •  sweet  pea 


Flower  of  pink.    P.,  petal ; 

C.,  calyx,  showing  economy 

of  hidden  parts 


Diagrammatic  section  of  flower 
An.,  anther ;  Fil.,  filament ;  Ov. 
ovary.;  Pe.,  petals  ;  Pi.,  pistil 
Re.,  receptacle ;  S.  and  C. 
sepals  (calyx)  ;  Sta.,  stamen 
Sti.,  stigma  ;  Sty.,  style 


Dioecious  or  unisexual 

willow;  left,  male;  right 

female 


Trumpet-shaped :  daffodil. 
C.,  corona  ;  S.,  spathe 


Section  of  composite  flower  with  florets    Superior  ovary  : 
crowded  on  disk  ;  F.,  floret  primrose 


Inferior  ovary :    apple 


FLOWER  :   DIAGRAMS   OF   THE   STRUCTURES   OF   FLOWERS   AND   THEIR  PRINCIPAL   PARTS 


FLOWER 


3216 


FLOELA 


Flower,  SIR  WILIJAM  HENRY 
(1831-99).    British  zoologist.   Born 
at    Stratford-on-Avon,    Nov.    30, 
1831,  and  edu- 
cated   for    the 
medical  profes- 
sion, he  served 
as    a    surgeon 
in  the  Crimean 
War,  and    be- 
I    came     curator 
I    of  the  museum 
•BBBl^BI    of    the    Royal 
Sir  W.  H.  Flower,      College  of  Sur- 
British  zoologist       geons  in  186]> 

Elliott  &  Fry  He       wag       ftp. 

pointed  director  of  the  natural 
history  department  of  the  British 
Museum  at  South  Kensington,  in 
1884,  which  position  he  held  till 
retirement  at  the  age  limit.  He 
was  the  author  of  various  books 
on  anatomy,  zoology,  and  other 
natural  history  subjects.  He  died 
in  London,  July  1,  1899. 

Flowering  Rush  (Butomus  um- 
bellatus).  Perennial  marsh  herb  of 
the  natural  order  Alismaceae.  A 
native  of  Europe  and  Asia,  it  has  a 
stout,  creeping  rootstock,  from 
which  the  slender  leaves  rise 
erectly  to  a  height  of  3  ft.  or  4  ft. 
The  tall  flower-scape  is  leafless,  and 
bears  at  its  summit  an  umbel  of 
many  rose-red  flowers,  each  1  in. 
across,  of  which  only  a  few  open 
at  one  time. 

Flower  of  Jove  (Lychnis  flos- 
jovis).  Perennial  herb  of  the 
natural  order  Caryophyllaceae.  A 
native  of  Europe,  it  is  covered  with 
white,  silky  hairs,  and  has  lance- 
shaped,  stem-clasping  leaves  in 
pairs.  Each  branch  of  the  stems 
ends  in  a  small  cluster  of  purple  or 
scarlet  flowers  of  the  campion  type. 
See  Campion. 


/ 


Flower  of  Jove.     Leaves  and  flower 
spray  with,  right,  detached  flower 

Flower-Pot.  Common  garden 
utensil  of  potter's  clay,  usually 
manufactured  unglazed  for  poros- 
ity. The  top  surface  of  the  accom- 
panying saucer  should,  however, 
always  be  glazed  in  ftrder  to  retain 
the  water  which  reaches  it  through 
the  medium  of  the  soil  in  the  pot 


and  conserve  moisture.  The  out- 
sides  of  pots  should  be  scrubbed  at 
intervals,  and  thoroughly  washed 
out  when  the  contents  are  knocked 
out  and  the  utensils  are  to  be  used 
for  other  purposes.  See  Gardening. 
Flowers,  LANGUAGE  OF.  Custom 
said  to  derive  from  the  East,  by 
which  a  particular  sentiment  is  at- 
tributed to  every  flower,  so  that  a 
bloom  or  posy  may  convey  a  mes- 
sage. Little  volumes  in  which  the 
language  of  flowers  was  set  out 
were  popular  in  England  in  the  mid- 
part  of  the  19th  century.  Gorse, 
for  example,  indicates  enduring 
affection ;  jonquil,  reciprocated 
affection;  eglantine,  I  wound  to 
heal,  etc. 


Flowering  Rush.   Foliage,  buds,  and 
flowers  of  Butomus  umbellatus 

Flower  Show.  Horticultural 
exhibition,  held  for  the  purpose  of 
encouraging  the  cultivation  of 
flowers,  fruit,  and  vegetables. 
Local  shows  to  stimulate  interest 
in  cottage  gardens  and  allotments 
are  held  in  many  parts  of  the 
United  Kingdom.  The  judges 
should  be  three  in  number,  a 
local  amateur,  a  professional  gar- 
dener, both  non- competitive,  and  a 
stranger.  The  Royal  Horticultural 
Society  will  often  send  down  a 
competent,  impartial  judge. 

Rules  governing  shows  vary  much 
under  differing  local  conditions, 
but  it  is  necessary  to  insist  upon  a 
written  guarantee  that  all  exhibits 
are  the  absolute  property  of  the 
competitor,  and  have  been  grown  by 
him  for  a  period  of  not  less  than  six 
consecutive  months  immediately 
preceding  the  date  of  the  show. 
This  stipulation  should  be  em- 
bodied in  a  printed  list  of  simple 
rules  as  to  date  of  entry,  number 
of  classes,  etc.,  which  every  en- 
trant is  requested  to  sign. 

Good  judges  of  flowers,  will  look 
out  for  a  combination  of  good 
colour,  size,  form,  and,  where  it 
exists,  perfume. 

Fruit  is  judged  by  size,  colour, 
flavour,  and  •  shape.  Vegetables 
must  necessarily  be  judged  en- 
tirely by  appearance,  and  must 


be  smooth,  straight,  well  coloured, 
and  of  even  size.  Good  judges  will 
ignore  root  crops  that  are  crooked 
or  tap-rooted,  no  matter  how  large 
they  are.  Crooked  cucumbers  will 
not  win  prizes,  neither  will  stringy 
beans,  even  if  of  great  length,  soft 
or  loose-hearted  cabbages  and 
lettuces,  deep -dyed  potatoes,  or 
spongy  radishes.  Root  crops  and 
celery  are  often  injured  for  the 
show  table  by  being  scrubbed  and 
scratched  by  a  hard  brush  to  get 
the  dirt  off,  instead  of  being 
washed  with  a  cloth. 

All  flower  show  schedules  should 
state  whether  flowers  are  to  be 
staged  with  foliage,  or  bare.  The 
same  remark  applies  to  dressing 
vegetables  with  parsley.  The 
most  important  flower  show  in 
the  kingdom  is  the  annual  exhibi- 
tion in  May  by  the  Royal  Horti- 
cultural Society,  in  the  grounds  of 
the  Royal  Hospital  at  Chelsea.  It 
was  formerly  known  as  the  Temple 
show,  because  it  was  held  in  the 
Temple  Gardens,  London. 

F.L.S.  Abbrev.  for  Fellow  of 
the  Linnaean  Society. 

Fludd  OR  FLUD,  ROBERT  (1574- 
1637).  English  physician  and 
mystic.  Born  at  Milgate  House, 
Bearsted,  Kent,  son  of  Sir  Thomas 
Fludd,  he  was  educated  at  S. 
John's  College,  Oxford,  and  took 
his  degree  of  M.D.  at  Christ  Church. 
He  studied  chemistry  abroad, 
where  he  became  acquainted  with 
the  writings,  and  adopted  many  of 
the  views,  of  Paracelsus  (q.v.).  Re- 
turning to  England  in  1605,  he 
became  a  fellow  of  the  College  of 
Physicians. 

Known  as  "  the  Searcher,"  under 
the  name  of  Robertus  de  Fluc- 
tibus  he  wrote  many  works  in 
Latin,  engaged  in  controversy 
with  Gassendi,  Kepler,  and  Mer- 
senne,  and  is  believed  by  some 
to  be  the  inventor  of  the  baro- 
meter. As  the  supposed  author  of 
the  Summum  Bonum,  1629,  and 
an  apology  for  Rosicrucianism, 
1617,  he  is  credited  by  De  Quincey 
with  being  "  the  immediate  father 
of  Freemasonry."  He  founded  a 
philosophy  on  the  Hebrew  scrip- 
tures. He  died  in  London,  Sept. 
8,  1637.  See  Freemasonry  ;  Rosi- 
crucians  ;  consult  also  Athen. 
Oxon.,  A.  Wood,  1691-92  ;  Works, 
De  Quincey,  vol.  xiii,  p.  421,  1890  ; 
Robert  Fludd,  Life  and  Writings, 
J.  B.  Craven,  1902. 

Fluela.  Mt.  pass  of  Switzerland, 
in  the  canton  of  Grisons.  It  ex- 
tends between  the  Schwarzhorn 
and  the  Weisshorn,  on  the  carriage 
road  from  Davos  to  Sus.  On  the 
latter  mt.,  at  an  alt.  of  7,835  ft.,  is 
the  Fluela  hospice.  The  road  has 
refuge  galleries,  used  for  shelter  in 
winter. 


FL.UELEN 


3217 


FLUORINE 


Fliielen.  Village  of  Switzerland, 
in  the  canton  of  Uri.  It  stands  at 
the  head  of  Lake  Uri,  a  S.E.  exten- 
sion of  Lake  Lucerne,  2  m.  N.N.  W. 
of  Altdorf  on  the  St.  Gothard  Rly. 
The  port  for  Altdorf,  it  is  the  ter- 
minus for  lake  steamers.  The 
Axenstrasse  carriage  road,  con- 
structed in  1863-65,  leads  from 
here  to  Brunnen.  The  village  has 
a  chateau  and  several  hotels. 
Pop.  1,010. 

Fluellen.  Character  in  Shake- 
speare's Henry  V,  a  Welsh  officer 
in  the  king's  army.  Of  hasty  tem- 
per and  verbose  speech,  he  is  ever 
ready  to  compare  the  fighting  of 
his  day  with  that  of  the  ancients. 

Flugel  Horn.  Brass  instru- 
ment. It  is  similar  to  the  cornet, 
but  of  wider  bore,  like  the  bugle, 
and  of  mellow,  horn-like  tone.  It 
is  a  modern  improvement  of  the 
key  bugle.  The  soprano  instru- 
ment is  the  most  usual.  The  term 
means  wing  horn.  See  Cornet. 

Fluid.  That  form  of  matter 
which  is  unable  to  resist  perman- 
ently any  shear  stress,  however 
small.  Matter  is  solid,  liquid  or 
gaseous.  Fluids  are  liquids  or  gases 
and  they  are  distinguished  from 
solids  in  that  they  owe  their  shape 
at  any  particular  time  to  a  con- 
taining vessel  or  restraining  forces. 
The  line  of  demarcation  between  a 
solid  and  a  liquid  is  one  which  can- 
not easily  be  drawn.  Many  solids 
flow  like  liquids,  e.g.  a  glacier  down 
a  mountain  side,  though  at  a  con- 
siderably slower  rate,  while  even 
solids  like  lead  can  be  made  to  flow 
under  the  action  of  suitable  forces. 
See  Flow;  Hydrodynamics;  Hydro- 
statics; Gas;  Liquid. 

Fluid  Measures.  Nearly  all 
fluid  measures  have  been  derived 
from  corresponding  measures  of 
length  or  weight  and  suffer  all  the 
variations  of  the  latter  which  were 
taken  from  parts  of  the  human 
body.  It  is  only  within  compara- 
tively recent  times  that  fluid  meas- 
ures have  become  standardised  by 
law  in  different  countries.  In  the 
United  Kingdom  the  gallon  is  the 
unit  measure  for  fluids,  and  in 
countries  where  the  metric  system 
is  standardised  the  litre  is  the 
unit.  A  gallon  contains  a  little 
over  four  and  a  half  litres.  See 
Weights  and  Measures. 

Fluke.  Group  of  trematode 
worms  of  parasitic  nature,  usually 
leaf-shaped.  One,  the  liver  fluke 
(Fasciola  hepatica),  in  its  adult 
condition  lives  in  and  devours  the 
liver  of  the  sheep,  causing  the 
much-dreaded  "rot."  The  eggs 
pass  out  of  the  body  of  the  sheep 
with  the  dung,  and  if  they  fall  in  a 
wet  place  hatch  out  into  tiny 
ciliated  embryos  that  swim  about 
in  search  of  a  small  water  snail 


(Limnaea  truncatula),  perishing  in 
about  eight  hours  if  unsuccessful. 
Within  the  body  of  such  a  snail 
other  stages  of  life  are  passed,  un- 
til finally  one  shaped  like  a  minute 
tadpole  is  attained  (cercaria).  This 
leaves  the  snail  and  swims  to  a 
stem  or  leaf  of  grass,  to  which  it 
attaches  itself,  and  passes  into  an 
encysted  or  dormant  stage.  Its  tail 
has  gone,  it  is  covered  by  a  limy 
coat,  and  resembles  the  adult  fluke 
except  in  size. 

Should  a  sheep  swallow  one  of 
these  capsules  or  cysts,  the  limy 
covering  is  dissolved  by  the  gastric 
juice,  and  when  it  passes  into  the 
small  intestine  the  tiny  fluke 
makes  its  way  up  the  bile-duct  into 
the  liver  of  its  victim,  there  to  in- 
crease in  size  and  become  sexually 
mature.  The  disease  may  be  en- 
tirelv  prevented  by  keeping  sheep 


Flugel  Horn.     Improved  model  of 
B  flat  horn 

'         By  courtesy  of  Satakes  &  Son 

away  from  damp,  ill-drained  land. 
As  there  is  no  cure  for  the  disease, 
sheep  showing  signs  of  rot  should 
be  slaughtered  as  soon  as  possible. 
See  Sheep. 

FluorantheneoR  IDRYL(C15H1Q). 
Substance  found  in  coal-tar  and  in 
the  residue  known  as  "  stuppfett  " 
obtained  after  the  distillation  of 
mercury  ores.  Crude  pyrene  from 
coal -tar  is  converted  into  the 
picric  acid  compound,  whence  the 
fluoranthene  is  obtained  in  the 
free  state  and  recrystallised. 

Fluorescence.  Absorption  of 
light  of  certain  colour  or  wave- 
length, and  radiation  or  emission 
of  light  of  other  wave-lengths  by 
certain  bodies.  A  solution  of  the 
green  colouring  matter  of  plants, 
chlorophyll,  placed  in  a  dark  room 
where  a  beam  of  white  light  reaches 
it,  becomes  luminous  and  emits  a 
red  light  from  the  portions  of  the 
liquid  on  which  the  white  light 
falls.  Paraffin  oil,  solutions  of 
quinine,  of  some  of  the  coal-tar 
dyes  such  as  the  red-ink  cosine, 
and  of  salts,  such  as  barium  or 
potassium  plat  ino -cyanide,  act 
similarly.  Beams  of  coloured  light 
do  not  always  excite  fluorescence. 

For  example,  although  red, 
yellow  or  green  fail,  blue  or  violet 
light  will  at  once  provoke  in  a 
solution  of  quinine  the  character- 
istic pale  blue  fluorescence.  The 
solution  of  chlorophyll,  on  the 
other  hand,  retains  its  red  fluores- 
cent light  when  exposed  to  most 


kinds  of  light,  though  in  violet 
light  the  glow  becomes  brownish. 
The  light  emitted  by  a  fluorescent 
body  is  found  spectroscopically  not 
to  be  light  of  one  colour  or  of  one 
wave-length  only,  but  to  comprise 
light  of  various  colours,  with  a 
wave-length  always  greater  than 
the  wave-length  of  the  light  which 
causes  the  fluorescence.  Thus  when 
a  beam  of  sunlight  passes  through 
a  solution  of  quinine,  it  is  deprived 
of  its  invisible  ultra-violet  rays, 
which  the  quinine  converts  into 
blue  and  violet  rays  of  longer  wave 
length,  visible  to  the  eye. 

The  emission  of  the  fluorescence 
stops  as  soon  as  the  light  which 
causes  it  is  cut  off.  But  some  sub- 
stances, particularly  the  sulphides 
of  barium,  calcium  and  strontium, 
continue  to  emit  light  after  the 
exciting  cause  has  been  cut  off. 
Thus,  after  exposure,  they  glow  in 
the  dark.  This  glow  is  called  phos- 
phorescence, although  the  glow  of 
phosphorus  itself  is  not  due  to 
these  causes,  but  to  slow  chemical 
action.  See  Phosphorescence. 

Fluorescein.  An  aniline  dye 
formed  by  heating  five  parts  of 
phthalic  anhydride  with  seven 
parts  of  resorcin  at  a  temperature 
of  200°  C.  in  an  enamelled  cast-iron 
pot.  When  the'  reaction  has  taken 
place  the  mass  becomes  solid  and 
forms  a  dark-brown  cake.  The 
solution  in  alcohol  or  alkalies 
exhibits  a  brilliant  yellow -green 
fluorescence  from  which  the  sub- 
stance takes  its  name.  It  is  used  for 
dyeing  silk  and  also  for  preparing 
the  liquid  in  druggists'  show  bottles. 

Fluorine.  Gaseous  element  of 
greenish-yellow  colour,  first  isolated 
by  Moissan  in  1886.  Its  chemical 
symbol  is  F.  Derbyshire-spar  or 
"  blue- John  "  is  calcium  fluoride. 
Cryolite,  a  double  fluoride  of  alu- 
minium and  sodium,  is  found  in 
Greenland,  and  the  element  occurs 
widely  throughout  the  mineral 
kingdom,  but  only  in  small  amounts. 
Scheele  in  1771  first  recognized  that 
fluorspar  is  a  fluoride  of  calcium 
and  prepared  hydrofluoric  acid,  but 
all  attempts  to  prepare  fluorine  were 
unsuccessful  before  1886.  It  was 
liquefied  in  1897  and  solidified 
in  1903. 

The  difficulties  in  preparing 
fluorine  are  very  great  on  account 
of  the  extremely  active  chemical 
affinity  it  has  for  glass  and  most 
metals.  Traces  of  the  gas  are  very 
irritating  to  the  mucous  membrane, 
and  if  brought  into  contact  with 
the  skin  the  gas  causes  a  bad  burn. 
Alcohol,  ether,  benzene  and  tur- 
pentine take  fire  on  contact  with 
fluorine.  Moissan  isolated  the 
element  by  the  electrolysis  of 
anhydrous  hydrofluoric  acid  to 
which  acid  potassium  fluoride  had 

1L    4 


FLUORIDES 


3218 


FLUTING         t 


been  added  in  order  to  make  the 
liquid  conduct  the  electric  current. 
One  compound  of  fluorine  and 
hydrogen  is  known,  but  no  oxide 
has  been  prepared.  Although 
fluorine  is  akin  to  chlorine  in  many 
properties,  there  are  no  fluorine 
compounds  corresponding  to  hypo- 
chlorites  and  chlorates. 

Fluorides.  Salts  of  hydro- 
fluoric acid.  They  are  prepared  by 
acting  on  a  metal,  or  its  oxide 
hydroxide  or  carbonate,  with 
hydrofluoric  acid.  Calcium  fluoride 
(CaF2)  occurs  native  as  fluorspar 
or  "  blue-John,"  and  from  it  most 
of  the  preparations  of  fluorine  are 
made.  The  fluorides  of  the  alkalis 
are  soluble  in  water  and  are 
employed  with  mineral  acids  or 
acetic  acid  in  the  processes  of 
etching  glass.  Some  of  the  fluor- 
ides are  gaseous  at  ordinary 
temperatures,  but  most  of  them 
are  stable  bodies,  and  are  not  de- 
composed by  heat.  A  series  of 
double  fluorides  is  known.  Fluor- 
ides are  recognized  by  the  evolu- 
tion of  hydrofluoric  acid  on  heating 
with  sulphuric  acid. 

Fluorspar.  Common  mineral 
widely  distributed  in  rock  crevices. 
It  is  a  compound  of  calcium  and 
fluorine  and  is  iiiiiiiimim 

used  as  a  source 
o  f  hydrofluoric 
acid  and  as  a 
metallurgical  flux. 
When  colourless 
and  transparent  it 
is  used  for  lenses ; 
amethyst,  purple, 
green,  or  yellow 
specimens  yield 
"false"  amethysts, 
sapphires,  etc. ,  for 
cheap  jewelry. 
Derbyshire  "  blue- 
John  "  is  made  into 
ornamental  vases. 
The  mineral  is 
also  found  in  Cornwall  and  Cum- 
berland. In  1920  a  new  field  for 
the  supply  of  fluorspar  was  found 
near  Wirksworth,  Derbyshire. 

Flushing  (Dutch,  Vlissingen). 
Seaport  of  Holland.  On  the  S.  coast 


of  the  island  of  Walcheren,  it  lies 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Schelde,  hi  the 
province  of  Zeeland.  It  is  now 
chiefly  noted  as  the  port  for  com- 
munication with  the  ports  of 
Queenborough  and  Folkestone, 
Kent  (S.E.  &  C.  Rly.),  with  through 
rly.  connexion  to  Rotterdam,  Am- 
sterdam, and  the  N.  of  Europe 
generally.  Except  for  shipbuild- 
ing and  some  rly.  workshops,  the 
town  has  little  trade,  but  it  is  of 
considerable  strategic  importance, 
and  new  fortifications  are  planned. 
It  had  also  developed  before  the 
Great  War  as  a  sea-bathing  resort. 

In  the  history  of  the  Netherlands 
Flushing  was  often  prominent, 
especially  as  a  naval  base.  It  was 
the  birthplace  of  Admiral  Buyter, 
1607,  and  there  is  a  monument  to 
him  in  the  town.  The  town  was 
severely  bombarded  by  an  English 
fleet  under  Lord  Chatham  hi  the 
Walcheren  expedition  of  1809,  but 
the  subsequent  attempt  to  capture 
Antwerp  from  there  failed  com- 
pletely. Pop.  21,878. 

Flushing.  Suburb  of  the 
borough  of  Queens,  New  York, 
U.S.A.  Formerly  a  village  of 
Queens  co.,  it  stands  on  Flushing 
Creek.  Long  Island,  and  was  incor- 


Flute.    1.  Boehm   concert   flute,   26   ins.     2.    8-keyed 

concert  flute,  26  ins.,  17th-19th  centuries.      3.  Military 

flute  in  F,  19  J  ins.     4.  Military  fife  in  B  flat,  15  ins.    5. 

Piccolo  or  octave  flute,  12  ins. 


Flushing,  Holland. 


porated  with  the  borough  in  1908. 
It  contains  schools  and  a  public 
library,  and   manufactures  chemi- 
cals    and     cinematograph     films. 
Settled  hi  1643,  it  later  became  the 
residence  of  many  Quaker  families. 
Flustra.  Group 
;    of  polyzoa.     Usu- 
ally known  as  sea- 
j^g^jgtegHf    mats,  they  resem- 
ble   small    brown 
^.-jjj     seaweeds.      They 
BfjHf  are      common 

around  the  British 
'  J^SrSMfil  coasts,  and  con- 
sist of  a  horny, 
leaf-like  skeleton, 
containing  vast 
numbers  of  tiny 
cells.  Each  of 
these  is  occupied 
by  a  tiny  flower- 
General  view  ol  the  quays  and  port  -  like  polyp  with  a 


row  of  tentacles  which  can  be  pro- 
truded from  the  cell  in  search  of 
food. 

Flute  (Lat.  flatus,  blast).  Family 
name  of  many  wind  instruments  of 
the  whistle  type,  whether  blown 
vertically  through  a  mouthpiece  or 
transversely  through  a  side  hole. 

Down  to  the  end  of  the  18th 
century  the  number  of  flutes  em- 
ployed in  the  orchestra  was  uncer- 
tain, and  on  account  of  their  weak 
tone  several  of  them  were  often 
used  hi  unison ;  but  the  modern 
instruments  are  so  much  improved 
that  it  is  now  customary  to  employ 
them  singly,  and  the  two  (or  occa- 
sionally three)  flutes  of  the  modem 
orchestra  play  independent  parts. 
Flutes  have  been  made  at  various 
pitches,  but  the  scale  of  the  open 
finger-holes  is  always  called  D.  The 
transposing  of  flutes,  other  than  the 
concert  flute  of  ordinary  pitch,  has 
been  usually  reckoned  from  D  in- 
stead of  from  C.  Originally,  the  six 
finger-holes  were  the  only  means  of 
obtaining  a  scale,  and  chromatic 
notes  had  to  be  made  by  cross- 
fingerings,  half  stops,  and  other  un- 
satisfactory means  ;  but  key  after 
key  has  been  added  until  now  all  the 
semitones  are  producible,  in  good 
tune  and  with  even  tone.  The  conve- 
nient compass  of  the  concert  flute 
is  as  shown, 

andthree  A 

semitones  -O. 

higher  are  pos- 
s  i  b  1  e.     The 
flute  is   the 
most   agile    of 
the    wind    in-     ^       ~*=f 
struments, 
modern  mech- 
anism having  reduced  finger  diffi- 
culties  to    a  minimum.     Flute   is 
also  the  name  of  an  organ  stop  imi- 
tating the  tone  of  the  orchestral 
instrument  of  the  same  name.    See 
Fife  ;  Flageolet ;  Organ ;  Recorder ; 
consult  also  History  of  the  Boehm 
Flute, '1896;  Six  Lectures  on  the 
Recorder,  C.  Welch,  1911. 

Flute-a-bec.  Beaked  flute,  or 
flute  with  a  mouthpiece,  played 
vertically.  See  Flageolet ;  Flauto 
Traverso  ;  Recorder. 

Fluting.  In  architecture,  the 
grooves  in  a  column,  separated  by 
fillets.  The 
elliptical  chan- 
nels in  Doric 
columns  are, 
however,  not 
called  flutes. 
Fluting  is 
generally  ver- 
t  i  c  a  1,  but 
spiral  fluting 
occurs  in  Nor- 
man architec-  

ture.  See  Fluting  of  column  in 
Architecture.  Canterbury  Cathedral 


!  ^ 


FLUX 

Flux.  Term  used  in  metallurgy. 
Comparatively  few  metals  present 
themselves  in  nature  in  the  metallic 
form,  or  native,  to  use  the  metal- 
lurgical term  ;  most  are  combined 
with  other  elements,  the  combina- 
tion forming  an  ore.  These  ores  are 
often  difficult  to  melt,  and  are 
smelted  by  the  aid  of  fluxes. 

The  chief  fluxes  are  lime  or 
limestone,  common  salt,  sodium 
carbonate,  clay,  silica,  borax 
litharge,  nitre,  carbon,  argol  or  bi- 
tartrate  of  potash,  flour,  starch,  and 
potassium  cyanide,  while  argol  and 
nitre  are  used  in  combination toform 
"black"  and  "white"  fluxes.  See 
Metallurgy;  Smelting. 

Fluxion.  Term  used  by  Sir 
Isaac  Newton  to  signify  the  rate  or 
proportion  at  which  a  variable  (or 
flowing)  quantity  increased  its 
magnitude  The  fluxion  is  now 
usually  regarded  as  the  differential. 
See  Differential  Calculus ;  Newton. 
Fly.  Insect  of  the  order  known 
as  Diptera  from  being  charac- 
terised by  the  possession  of  only 
two  wings. 
The  fore 
wings  alone 
remain  as 
flying  or- 
gans, the 
hind  ones 
having  b  e- 
c  o  m  e  r  e- 
duced  to  two 
small  balan- 
cers resem- 
bling drum- 
sticks and  known  as  halleres,  upon 
which  depends  the  insect's  power  of 
balancing  itself  in  the  air ;  if  they 
are  removed,  the  flight  at  once  be- 
comes unsteady. 

The  wings  are  without  scales  and 
usually  hairless,  but  strongly 
veined.  The  buzzing  sound  is  pro- 
duced by  the  rapid  vibration  of  the 
wings  in  flight,  which  often 
amounts  to  600  beats  in  a  second. 
The  jaws  have  been  modified  to 
form  piercing  or  sucking  instru- 
ments or  both,  and  the  insect  feeds 
entirely  on  fluids.  In  the  biting 
species,  as  gnats  and  horse-flies,  the 
mouth  is  provided  with  a  pair  of 
sharp  lancets  contained  in  the  pro 
boscis.  The  feet  of  many  flies  have 
pads  covered  with  minute  sucker- 
like  hairs,  with  which  they  can 
walk  upside  down  or  ascend  the 
glass  of  window-panes. 

Flies  pass  through  a  complete 
series  of  metamorphoses.  The  eggs 
are  usually  deposited  in  situations 
where  the  young  may  find  a  supply 
of  food  ready  to  hand,  and  the 
larvae  are  in  many  cases  small 
white  maggots  without  apparent 
head,  as  those  of  the  house-fly  and 
the  blue-bottle.  In  other  species,  as 
the  gnats,  they  are  aquatic  and  are 


L..J 

Fly.  Foot  of  house- 
fly highly  magnified 


Fly.  1  and  2.  House  tiy.  Musca  domestica.  3.  Girdled  drone  fly,  Volucella 
inanis.  4.  Gold-girdled  fly,  Cbrysotoxum  bicinctum.  5.  Dung  fly,  Scatophaga 
stercoraria.  6.  Humble-bee  fly,  Bombylius  major.  7.  Bacon  fly,  Policies 
lardarius.  8.  Humble-bee's  drone  fly,  Volucella  bombylans.  9.  Noontide  fly, 
Mesembrina  meridiana.  10.  Hornet  fly,  Asilus  crabroniformis.  11.  Hump- 
backed fly,  Ogcodes  gibbosus.  12.  Great  Bristly  fly,  Tachina  grossa.  13.  Pupae 
and,  14,  maggots  of  house-fly 

1,  Nat.  Hitt.  Mut.,  S.  Kensington;  13  and  14,  Pub.  Health  Dept.,  Liverpool 


variously  modified  to  suit  their 
mode  of  life.  In  a  few  species  the 
larvae  are  parasitic  and  live  in  the 
bodies  of  their  hosts.  See  Insect ; 
also  Bot-fly,  illus. 

Fly.  Word  used  for  a  hackney 
cab,  presumably  on  account  of  the 
fact  that  its  speed,  when  intro- 


Fly-agaric.    the     large    toadstool. 
Amanita  inuscaria 


duced,  was,  comparatively  speak- 
ing, considerable.  The  space  above 
the  proscenium  in  a  theatre,  from 
which  the  scenes,  etc.,  are  con- 
trolled, is  called  the  flies.  See  Cab ; 
Theatre. 

Fly.  Largest  known  river  of 
New  Guinea  or  Papua.  It  rises 
among  the  Victor  Emmanuel  Mts. 
in  the  E.  part  of  the  island,  and 
flows  S.W.  and  then  S.E.  to  dis- 
charge its  waters  into  the  Gulf  of 
Papua  by  a  long,  wide  estuary. 
For  part  of  its  course  it  forms  the 
frontier  between  Dutch  and  British 
New  Guinea.  It  has  a  length  of 
about  620  m.,  and  is  navigable 
for  small  craft  for  nearly  the 
whole  of  its  course.  The  principal 
affluents  are  the  Alice  and  Strick- 
land rivers. 

Fly-agaric  (Amanita  inuscaria). 
Large  toadstool  of  the  family 
Agaricinae.  It  has  a  creamy -white 
stem  and  gills,  the  former  with  a 
broad  soft  frill  around  its  upper 


FLY     CATCHER 


3220 


FLYING      CORPS 


part.  The  upper  side  of  the  cap  is 
orange-scarlet,  flecked  with  ir- 
regular >  par  tides  of  white — the 
remains  of  an  outer  envelope. 
Well  known  as  a  poisonous  species, 
it  was  formerly  employed  for 
poisoning  fly-papers.  It  has  also 
intoxicating  properties,  and  is  used 
in  Kamchatka  in  preparing  vodka. 

Fly  Catcher  (Muscicapa).  Small 
bird  of  a  family  including  nearly 
300  species.  All  feed  upon  insects, 
which  they  usually  catch  on  the 
wing.  The  tail  is  in  most  species 
considerably  shorter  than  the  wing, 
and  while  the  European  species  are 
plainly  clad  in  sombre  hues,  some 
of  the  tropical  ones  are  extremely 
gorgeous.  The  pied  fly  catcher  ( M . 
atricapilla)  comes  to  Great  Britain 
in  the  spring,  the  spotted  fly  catcher 
(M.  grisola]  late  in  summer,  and  the 
red-breasted  fly  catcher  (M .  parva) 
is  occasionally  seen  in  autumn.  See 
Egg,  colour  plate. 

Fly  Fishing.  Fishing  with  an 
artificial  fly.  The  flies  are  made  of 
feathers,  silk,  tinsel,  fur,  and  other 
materials.  Trout-flies,  especially 
those  used  in  the  dry-fly  method, 
are  made  to  resemble  as  closely  as 
possible  some  form  of  fly  or  other 
aquatic  insect. 

The  fly,  which  is  attached  to 
the  line  by  a  cast  of  gut  of  a  thick- 
ness varying  with  the  shyness  of 
the  fish,  the  colour  of  the  water, 
and  other  conditions,  may  be 
either  sunk  deeply  in  the  water,  or 
fished  wet  near  the  surface,  or 
floating.  The  opinions  of  experts 
differ  about  the  value  of  colour  in 
artificial  flies,  as  compared  with 
their  size  and  form,  but  all  agree 
that  the  principal  factor  in  success 
is  the  way  in  which  the  fly  is  pre- 
sented to  the  view  of  the  fish. 
Recent  experiments  in  under- 
water photography  have  done 
much  to  confirm  the  view  that, 
when  fished  "  dry "  or.  floating, 
the  important  factor  in  an  attrac- 
tive fly  is  its  silhouette  as  seen 
against  the  light. 

It  is  esoential  in  fly  fishing  for 
the  angler  to  keep  himself  and  his 
rod  out  of  sight  of  the  fish,  and 
this  condition  is  usually  ensured 
by  keeping  low  when  fishing  up 
or  across  a  stream,  and  by  using 
a  long  line  when  fishing  down 
stream  or  casting  over  a  loch. 
Correct  casting  requires  skill  which 
can  be  attained  only  by  practice. 
Where  the  surroundings  permit, 
the  rod  can  be  kept  up  and  the  cast 
made  overhead ;  it  can  also  be 
made  underhand,  or  the  line  can  be 
got  out  by  the  Spey  throw  or  other 
such  methods,  such  as  the  down- 
ward cut  employed  against  the 
wind.  The  best  sport  to  fishermen 
with  the  fly  in  the  United  Kingdom 
is  given  by  salmon,  sea-trout,  and 


Fly  Catcher.   The  pied  fly  catcher,  a 
spring  visitor  to  Great  Britain 

brown  trout  of  different  species, 
and  grayling. 

Fly  fishing  with  natural  flies  is 
another  method,  but,  owing  to  the 
difficulty  of  keeping  them  on  the 
hook  when  casting,  the  method  of 
dapping  is  employed.  The  fly  is 
dropped  on  the  water  and  raised 
again  with  a  short  line,  or  a  long  rod 
is  used  with  a  light  blow -line,  taken 
out  by  the  wind.  See  Angling. 

Flygare-Carlen,  EMILIE  SMITH 
(1807-92).  Swedish  novelist.  Born 
at  Stroemstad,  Aug.  8,  1807,  in 
1 827  she  married  Axel  Flygare,  and 
was  left  a  widow  in  1833.  She  pub- 
lished her  first  novel,  Vladimir 
Klein,  in  1838,  under  the  pseudo- 
nym "Fru  F."  In  1841  she 
married  John  Gabriel  Carlen, 
lawyer  and  man  of  letters,  and 
continued  to  write  many  stories, 
largely  concerned  with  the  life  of 
the  Norwegian  coast.  She  died  at 
Stockholm,  Feb.  5,  1892.  Many  of 
her  novels  have  been  translated 
into  English,  including  The  Rose  of 
Tistelon,  1844;  The  Birthright, 
1851  ;  The  Guardian,  1865.  Her 
collected  novels  were  published  in 
31  vols.,  1869-75.  See  her  Remin- 
iscences, 1878. 

Flying  Boat.  Aeroplane  the 
body  of  which  is  of  boat  formation. 
The  flying  boat  is  exactly  what  its 
name  implies.  In  the  hull  of  the 
boat  space  is  provided  for  passen- 
gers, pilot,  petrol  supply,  and  cargo. 
The  engine  is  usuallyplaced  between 
the  wings,  which  are  attached  di- 
rectly to  the  boat.  The  boat  itself 
is  capable  of  being  anchored  out  in 
harbour  in  exactly  the  same  way 
as  the  ordinary  boat,  and  it  can,  if 
necessary,  move  under  its  own  power 
on  the  water  without  rising.  Flying 
boats  are  among  the  heaviest  types 
of  aircraft.  The  N.C.  4  type,  for 
example,  which  flew  the  Atlantic  in 
1919,  weighed  over  11  tons  in  flight. 
During  the  Great  War  flying 
boats,  especially  the  A.D.  flying 
boat  and  the  large  Felixstowe  boats 
built  by  Commander  J.  C.  Porte, 
were  employed  extensively  on 
patrol  work  and  submarine  spot- 


ting. Flying  boats  are  invaluable 
for  all  coastal  work,  while  for  cross 
ocean  transport,  types  have  been 
constructed  to  alight  with  equal 
facility  on  either  land  or  water. 
See  Seaplane. 

Flying  Buttress.  In  architec- 
ture, a  half  arch  used  to  transmit 
the  thrust  or  pressure  of  a  struc- 
ture, usually  a  vault,  to  a  main 
buttress  or  solid  foundation.  Fly- 
ing buttresses  were  first  used  in 
France  in  the  12th  century,  and 
formed  a  principal  decoration  of 
the  exterior  of  French  cathedrals. 
There  are  fine  examples  at  West- 
minster Abbey.  See  Buttress. 

Flying  Column.  Body  of 
lightly  equipped,  self-supporting 
troops  which  operates  for  short 
periods  at  &  distance  from  its  base. 
Such  bodies  are  necessary  when 
regular  armies  are  engaged  in 
putting  down  guerrillas.  The  term 
has  also  been  applied  to  large  forces 
like  those  of  Sir  Donald  Stewart 
and  Sir  Frederick  (later  Earl) 
Roberts,  which  during  the  Afghan 
War  of  1878  abandoned  their  com- 
munications in  order  to  march  to 
the  relief  of  a  beleaguered  garrison. 
Flying  Corps,  ROYAL.  Former 
branch  of  the  British  army.  Early 
military  aviation  in  the  British 
army  was  in  the 
hands  of  the  bal- 
loon section  o  f 
the  Royal  Engin- 
eers, a  branch 
formed  when  the 
value  of  observa- 
tion balloons  was 
first  recognized. 

Flying  Cor^s  badge  Jt  x  subsequenly 
controlled  the 
service  airships  and,  later,  aero- 
planes, but  little  encouragement 
was  offered  officially.  In  1912  the 
Royal  Flying  Corps  was  formed, 
being  mainly  constituted  of  officers 
convinced  of  the  value  of  the  new 
arm  who  had  become  pilots  pri- 
vately at  their  own  expense.  It 
incorporated  a  Naval  Wing,  though 
this  was  controlled  from  the  air 
department  at  the  admiralty  and 
became  independent  in  1914  as 
the  R.N.A.S. 

The  R.F.C.  was  much  handi- 
capped by  inefficient  equipment 
and  lack  of  official  foresight,  and  at 
the  outbreak  of  the  Great  War  had 
a  total  personnel  of  approximately 
2,000  and  only  82  aeroplanes  in  fit 
condition  to  send  overseas.  In- 
domitable courage  and  individuality 
enabled  many  difficulties  to  be 
overcome,  and  the  services  ren- 
dered in  the  early  stages  of  the 
war  were  invaluable,  but  the 
equipment  was  never  superior  to 
that  of  the  enemy  until  the  De 
Haviland  and  F.E.  machines  were 
introduced  to  counteract  the 


FLYING     DUTCHMAN 


3221 


FOAL 


German  Fokkers.  The  corps  was 
greatly  expanded  until  April,  1918, 
when  it  was  merged  into  the  Royal 
Air  Force,  the  officers  being 
granted  the  option  of  remaining  in 
the  army.  The  badge  of  the  corps 
was  R.F.C.  as  a  monogram  within 
a  wreath  surmounted  by  a  crown. 
See  Air  Force,  Royal. 

Flying  Dutchman,  THE.  Spec 
tral  ship  traditionally  haunting 
various  seas.  It  is  generally  associ- 
ated with  the  latitude  of  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  about  which  it  was 
said  to  be  ever  moving  under 
crowded  canvas,  unable  to  reach 
port.  The  vessel  was  supposed  to 
be  thus  doomed  owing  to  the 
abominable  acts  of  her  crew  headed 
by  their  captain,  Vanderdecken. 
Her  appearance  is  deemed  a  por- 
tent of  disaster.  The  legend  was 
dramatised  in  The  Flying  Dutch- 
man by  Douglas  Jerrold,  1829,  and 
later  by  Edward  Fitzball ;  Captain 
Marryat  founded  his  story,  The 
Phantom  Ship,  on  it,  1839;  and  it 
inspired  Richard  Wagner's  opera, 
The  Flying  Dutchman,  1844. 

Flying  Fish  (Exocoetus).  One 
of  a  group  of  tropical  fishes.  It 
includes  over  forty  species  which 
have  the  pectoral  fins  so  lengthened 
as  to  resemble  wings.  They  are  in 
the  habit  of  leaping  out  of  the  water 
to  escape  their  enemies,  and  taking 
long  skimming  flights  above  the 
surface,  supported  by  their  dis- 
tended fins,  which  are  not  used  as 
propelling  instruments. 

Flying  Fox.  Erroneous  name 
for  the  fruit  bat,  of  the  genus 
Pteropiis.  It  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
its  head  slight- 
ly resembles 
that  of  a  fox. 
Unlike  other 
bats,  which  it- 
great  ly  sur- 
passes in  size, 
it  feeds  entirely 
on  flowers  and 
fruit.  It  is 
ij  found  in  S. 
A  Asia,  the  E. 

H  I  Indies,  Mada- 
gascar, Aus- 
tralia, and 
some  of  the 
Pacific  islands. 
The  largest 
species,  that  of 
Malaya,  Ptero- 
piis edulis, 
measures  over 
5  ft.  between 
the  tips  of  the 
wings,  and  is  considered  a  great  deli- 
cacy. The  fruit  growers  of  Aus- 
tralia suffer  much  from  its  depre- 
dations, and  in  1920  the  Queensland 
dept.  of  agriculture  made  the  ex- 
periment of  employing  flame  pro- 
jectors against  it.  See  Bat. 


Flying      Fox.        The 

Malayan  flying    fox, 

the  largest  bat 


Flying  Lemur  (Galeopithecus). 
Popular  name  for  the  colugo  of 
Malaya.  The  loose  skin  along  the 


Flying  Lemur,  Galeopithecus,  with 
skin  distended  for  gliding 

sides  of  the  body  and  neck  spreads 
into  a  kind  of  parachute  when  the 
animal  launches  itself  into  the  air, 
enabling  it  to  cover  at  one  boiind 
as  much  as  70  yds.  from  tree  to  tree. 
It  feeds  chiefly  on  leaves. 

Flying  Machine.  Any  heavier- 
than-air  machine  designed  for 
mechanical  flight.  The  term  is 
now  usually  applied  to  an  aeroplane 
in  contradistinction  to  an  airship. 
See  Aeroplane. 

Flying  Officer.  Royal  Air 
Force  title  for  officers,  other  than 
those  who  have  specialised  as 
observers.  Officers  of  equal  rank 
who  are  employed  as  observers, 
having  specialised  in  this  branch, 
are  known  as  observer  officers. 

Flying  Phalanger  (Petaurus). 
Small  squirrel-like  opossum,  of 
which  there  are  three  species,  found 


Flying   Phalanger,    a   squirrel-like 
marsupial 

only  in  Australia  and  New  Guinea. 
It  is  able  to  take  long  gliding  leaps 
through  the  trees,  partly  supported 
by  a  membranous  extension  of 
skin.  It  feeds  upon  insects,  fruit, 
and  blossoms. 

Flying  Speed.  Normal  speed 
which  an  aeroplane  must  maintain 
in  order  to  remain  in  the  air,  or  the 
actual  air  speed  of  a  machine  neces- 
sary for  its  support  in  the  air.  This 
must  not  be  confused  with  the  ap- 
parent or  ground  speed  of  the 
machine.  See  Air  Speed. 


Flying  Squid  (Ommastrephes 
sagittatus).  Species  of  squid  or 
cuttle  fish. 
Long  and  nar- 
row in  shape, 
it  is  common 
in  the  open 
seas,  and 
forms  an  im- 
portant part 
of  the  food  of 
the  sperm 
whale.  It  is 
often  called 
the  sea  arrow, 
from  its  habit 
of  darting 
backwards  out 
of  the  water 
for  a  consider- 
able height. 

Flying  Squirrel  (Pteromys). 
Squirrel  found  in  N.  America,  Asia, 
and  E.  Europe.  Members  of  this 
group  are  able  to  simulate  flying 


Flying    Squid,    a 

cuttle  fish  which 

springs    oat     of 

the  water 


Flying  Squirrel  of  North  America 
by  the  extension  of  the  loose,  lateral 
folds  of  their  skin.  There  are  a  large 
number  of  species,  varying  consider- 
ably in  size  and  colour,  and  all  are 
nocturnal  in  habit.  See  Squirrel. 

Flysch.  Geological  formation. 
It  consists  of  enormously  thick 
series  of  sandstones  and  shales, 
occurring  in  the  Alps,  Apennines, 
Carpathians,  Istria,  Dalmatia,  Bos- 
nia, Greece,  Asia  Minor,  Caucasus, 
stretching  through  S.  Asia  and 
still  further  East.  Their  exact  age 
is  uncertain,  but  varies  from  lower 
Cretaceous  to  middle  Tertiary. 
They  represent  a  phase  of  de- 
position of  sediments  of  long  dura- 
tion and  great  geographical  extent. 

Fly-wheel.  Large,  heavy -rim- 
med wheel  mounted  on  a  shaft 
which  is  subjected  to,  or  has  to 
exert,  a  turning  effort  more  or  less 
intermittently.  By  virtue  of  its 
inertia  it  acts  as  a  reservoir  of 
energy  and  has  a  powerful  steady- 
ing effect.  A  fly-wheel  is  essential 
on  any  crankshaft  driven  by  reci- 
procating engines  which  by  them- 
selves would  not  keep  the  shaft  in 
continuous  motion,  to  help  the 
crank  or  cranks  over  their  dead 
centres  (q.v.),  and,  even  where 
there  is  continuous  motion,  to 
prevent  it  being  spasmodic  through 
sudden  fluctuations  of  load,  or,  in 
the  case  of  the  internal-combustion 
engine  especially,  of  turning  forc<j. 
See  Steam  Engine. 

Foal.  Young  of  the  horse  and 
of  the  ass,  of  either  sex.  The  term 
colt  has  come  to  be  appropriated 
to  the  young  male  animal ;  filly,  a 


F.O.B. 

diminutive  of  foal,  to  the  young 
female,  but  formerly  the  distinction 
was  less  rigid.  The  word  is  con- 
nected ultimately  with  Gr.  polos, 
foal,  and  Lat.  pulhis,  young  animal. 

F.O.B.  Abbrev.  for  free  on 
board.  When  goods  are  sold  f.o.b. 
it  means  that  the  price  quoted 
covers  all  charges  until  they  are 
placed  on  board  ship. 

Focal-plane  Shutter.  Ap- 
pliance for  very  rapidly  uncovering 
and  re-covering  the  photographic 


3222 

plate  in  photographing  quickly 
moving  objects.  It  is  an  opaque 
flexible  blind  mounted  on  spring 
rollers  close  in  front  of  the  plate, 
and  having  in  it  either  several 
slits  of  different  widths  or  one 
slit  the  width  of  which  can  be 
altered.  The  plate  can  thus  be 
exposed  for  a  time  ranging  from 
j\jth  to  T^o-Q-th  °f  a  second,  accord- 
ing to  the  width  of  the  slit  and  the 
tension  at  which  the  spring  is  set 
See  Photography. 


FERDINAND  FOCH  :    FRENCH  SOLDIER 

Sir  W.  Beach  Thomas,  K.B.E.,  Special  Correspondent  of  The  Daily  Mail 

This  biographical  sketch  should  be  supplemented  by  the  articles  on 

the  various  battles  of  the  Great  War,  especially  those  of  1918  when 

Foch  broke  down  the  German  resistance.     See  Clemenceau ;  French  ; 

Haig ;  Petain 


Ferdinand  Foch  bears  a  surname 
probably  derived  from  fioch,  a 
local  word  meaning  fire.  The  Foch 
family  belonged  to  Valentine,  a 
town  in  the  Haute  Garonne,  and 
Foch,  like  Joffre,  is  of  southern 
stock,  both  on  his  mother's  and 
father's  side.  His  father,  Bertrand 
Jules  Napoleon,  left  his  ancestor's 
woollen  trade  to  become  a  civil 
servant.  Ferdinand  Foch  was  born 
at  Tarbes  on  Oct.  2.  1851.  A 
younger  brother,  Germain,  became 
a  Jesuit,  a  fact  of  cardinal  im- 
portance in  Foch's  career. 

Ferdinand  was  a  studious  boy. 
At  12  years  old  his  favourite  read- 
ing was  Thiers'  History  of  the  Con- 
sulate and  Empire,  and  he  always 
earned  high  commendation  from 
his  instructors.  He  was  educated 
wherever  his  father's  movements 
dictated  :  first  in  Valentine,  then 
in  St.  Etienne,  at  the  College  S. 
Michel,  which  was  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Jesuits.  After  taking  his 
degree  there  he  was  sent  to  the 
College  de  S.  Clement  at  Metz. 
In  1870  the  Franco -Prussian  War 
broke  out,  and  Foch  enlisted. 

After  the  war  he  at  once  returned 
to  Metz,  but  at  the  end  of  a 
year  entered  by  request  the  en- 
gineering and  artillery  establish- 
ment at  Fontainebleau,  which  he 
left  as  2nd  lieutenant  in  1874.  He 
was  first  attached  to  the  42nd 
regiment  of  artillery  stationed  at 
Tarbes.  Two  years  later  he  took. 
a  course  at  the  cavalry  school  at 
Saumur,  and  in  1878  was  made 
captain  of  the  10th  regiment  of 
artillery.  He  was  one  of  the 
officers  picked  for  the  school  of 
war  in  1885,  and  on  leaving  it  was 
put  on  the  staff  of  a  division.  He 
was  appointed  to  the  general  staff 
in  1894,  a  year  later  appointed 
associate  professor,  and  later  full 
professor,  of  military  history, 
strategy,  and  applied  *  tactics  at 
the  Ecole  Superieure  de  Guerre,  or 
staff  college. 


Foch's  lectures  there  made  his 
name,  first  in  France,  then  out- 
side. The  bulk  of  them  were 
collected  in  two  books,  The  Con- 
duct of  War  and  The  Principles  of 
War,  the  latter  translated  by  H. 
Belloc,  1918;  both  have  become 
classics.  They  are  not  narrow 
military  treatises.  Much  space  is 


devoted  to 
will  power 
and  moral  "-" 
force.  The 
general  argument  is  that,  though 
the  art  of  war  is  simple,  few  can 
acquire  it,  for  its  execution  is 
complicated  and  it  demands  the 
highest  will,  purpose,  and  strength 
in  a  commander  who  can  impart 
them  to  his  soldiers. 
•  In  1901  Foch  was  sent  to  com- 
mand a  regiment.  It  was  generally 
held  that  his  religious  belief,  and 
the  fact  that  a  brother  of  his  was 
a  Jesuit,  were  the  causes  of  this 
transference,  which  seemed  to  in- 


FOCH 

volve  a  great  setback  in  his  career' 
In  1903  he  was  appointed  full 
colonel,  in  1905  chief  of  staff  to  the 
5th  Army  Corps,  in  1907  brigadier- 
general  with  a  position  on  the  gen- 
eral staff.  Clemenceau  had  just 
become  prime  minister,  and  offered 
General  Foch  the  command  of  the 
Ecole  de  Guerre.  His  4|  years  in 
that  position  were  invaluable  to 
France.  He  made  good  officers,  and 

His  work  was  done  when  in  1911 
he  became  general  of  division,  in 

1912  of  the  8th  Army  Corps,  and  in 

1913  took  command  of  the  20th 
Army  Corps  at  Nancy. 

On  four  critical  occasions  dur- 
ing the  Great  War,  before  he  was 
appointed  generalissimo,  Foch 
proved  his  principles  in  action, 
first  in  the  defeated  French  offen- 
sive, and  the  subsequent  defence 
of  Nancy  in  Aug.,  1914;  secondly, 
at  the  battle  of  the  Marne  in 
Sept. ;  thirdly,  with  the  British  at 
Ypres  in  Oct.  of  the  same  year  ; 
and  fourthly,  on  the  British  right 
flank  in  the  battle  of  the  Somme, 
which  began  on  July  1,  1916.  As 
soon  as  Nancy  was  saved,  largely 
through  the  20th  corps  under  Foch, 
Joffre  called  on  him  to  form  and 
command  a  new  army,  the  9th. 

This  was  Aug.  24.  The  work 
was  done  with  amazing  speed  and 
thoroughness,  and  on  Sept.  5  the 
battle  of  the  Marne  began,  Foch 
having  his  headquarters  at  La  Fere. 
The  turn  of  the  tide  was  marked 
by  a  dispatch  from  Foch  that  will 
always  be  famous  :  "I  am  heavily 
pressed  on  my  right ;  my  centre 
is  giving  way  ;  I  cannot  redistri- 
bute my  forces.  The  situation  is 
excellent,  and  I  shall  attack."  He 
attacked  and  won. 

Again  on -July  1,  1916,  Foch 
shared  in  one  attack,  taking  the 
right  wing  on  both  sides  of  the 
river  Somme.  His  artillery  work 
was  so  perfect  that  the  first  ad- 
vance of  the  infantry  were  sin- 
gularly bloodless,  and  the  success 
overwhelming  at  every  point.  On 
Sept.  30,  1916,  Foch  reached  the 
age  limit.  He  was  given  the  mili- 
tary medal,  kept  on  the  active  list, 
but  taken  from  any  particular 
command.  On  Dec.  13  he  be- 
came director  of  a  new  bureau  for 
the  study  of  inter- Allied  questions. 

He  soon  began  to  press  for  the 
creation  of  a  strong  Allied  reserve, 
and  it  was  decided  early  in  1918 
to  give  the  command  of  it  when 
formed  to  Foch.  But  other 
counsels  began  to  prevail,  and 
against  his  earnest  protest  the 
inter- Allied  reserve  was  whittled 
down.  Then  came  the  very  critical 
German  offensive  on  March  21, 
1918.  The  way  to  Paris  lay 
open,  a  wedge  was  driven  between 


FOCHABERS 

French  and  British,  and  the  immin- 
ence of  the  danger  brought  every- 
one round  to  the  principle  of  unity 
of  command. 

A  momentous  inter-Allied  con- 
ference took  place  at  Doullens  on 
March  26,  as  the  result  of  which 
Foch  became  "  Generalissimo  of 
the  French,  British,  American,  and 
Belgian  forces  fighting  upon  the 
western  front."  After  checking 
the  final  German  offensive  opened 
between  Reims  and  Soissons  on 
July  15,  Foch  on  July  18  launched 
his  decisive  counter-offensive  on 
the  Marne,  the  result  of  which  was 
seen  when  on  Oct.  28  the  German 
message  agreeing  to  an  armistice  on 
the  basis  of  President  Wilson's 
Peace  note  came,  and  on  Nov.  11 
the  armistice  was  signed.  General 
Foch,  who  was  elected  marshal  of 
France  on  Aug.  6,  showed  his  great 
qualities  in  the  peace  as  in  the  war. 
He  was  the  chief  cause  of  the 
acceptance  of  the  German  offer, 
and  largely  framed  the  preliminary 
terms  of  peace.  He  had  indeed 
"  deserved  well  of  his  country,"  as 
the  deputies  unanimously  voted  on 
Nov.  11,  1918. 

But  he  had  yet  much  to  do :  the 
organization  of  the  advance  to  the 
Rhine  and  the  bridgeheads,  re- 
peated conferences  at  Spa  and 
Treves  with  the  Germans  and 
Allied  leaders.  In  every  act  of  a 
continuously  strained  situation  his 
opinion  was  the  master  opinion. 

Throughout  all  this  strain 
Marshal  Foch,  in  spite  of  illness, 
and  even  when  his  son  was  killed, 
lost  none  of  his  calm,  and  at  every 
juncture  gave  those  who  met  him 
the  sense  of  a  man  who  possessed 
in  himself  an  inexhaustible  re- 
serve of  quiet  confidence,  founded 
on  force  of  will  and  clearness  of 
intellect  in  effective  combination. 
See  Marshal  Ferdinand  Foch,  A. 
H.  Atteridge,  1919;  Foch,  His 
Character  and  his  Leadership, 
Raymond  Recouly,  1920. 

Fochabers.  Village  and  tourist 
resort  of  Elginshire,  Scotland.  It 
stands  on  the  Spey,  8  m.  S.E.  of 
Elgin,  and  is  the  trading  centre  for 
the  surrounding  district.  Near  is 
the  duke  of  Richmond's  seat, 
Gordon  Castle.  Pop.  972. 

Focsani,FocsHANiOB  FOKSHANI. 
Town  of  Moldavia,  Rumania.  It  is 
90  m.  N.E.  of  Bukarest,  about  4  m. 
from  the  river  Sereth,  and  was  in 
normal  times  a  prosperous  agricul- 
tural centre,  with  a  considerable 
grain  trade.  Fortified,  it  formed 
a  bridgehead  on  the  Sereth  line 
during  the  Great  War ;  it  was  the 
scene  of  very  bitter  fighting  in  the 
first  week  of  Jan.,  1917,  falling  on 
Jan.  8  to  the  Germans.  Pop.  25,000. 
See  Rumania,  Conquest  of  ;  Sereth, 
Battles  of  the. 


3223 

Focus  (Lat.,  hearth).  Primarily 
the  point  at  which  converging  lines 
or  rays  meet,  but  usually  any 
point  through  which  rays  of  light, 
heat,  etc.,  or  lines  pass. 

In  mathematics  a  focus  is  a  point 
from  which,  if  lines  are  drawn  to 
any  points  on  a  curve,  the  lengths 
of  these  lines  are  connected  by  some 
law,  e.g.  in  a  parabola  any  point 
on  the  curve  is  equidistant  from  the 
focus  and  a  fixed  straight  line. 


Focus.  In  the  diagram  C  A  B  is 
part  of  a  spherical  mirror  whose 
centre  is  0.  A  ray  of  light  from  U 
strikes  the  mirror  at  P,  and  is 
reflected  along  P  V.  The  angle 
U  P  0  is  equal  to  0  P  V 

In  optics,  sound,  heat,  etc., 
where  rays  or  waves  are  considered, 
the  focus  is  the  point  to  which  the 
rays  are  brought  after  reflection 
from  a  curved  surface  or  after  re- 
fraction through  a  lens.  See  Conic 
Sections ;  Concave  Mirror  and  Lens ; 
Convex  Mirror  and  Lens  ;  Lens. 

Fodder.  Name  applied  to  the 
bulky  part  of  the  food  of  stock.  It 
may  be  either  green  and  succulent, 
or  dry,  like  hay  or  straw.  The  first 
of  the  four  chambers  of  the  stomach 
of  cud-chewing  animals,  such  as  the 
ox,  sheep,  and  goat,  is  very  large, 
and  digestion  cannot  go  on  properly 
unless  it  is  well  filled.  Fodder  is,  of 
course,  more  or  less  nutritious,  but 
it  is  rendered  bulky  by  the  presence 
of  a  large  amount  of  fibre,  only  a 
small  part  of  which  can  be  digested. 
Fodder  thus  contrasts  strongly 
with  grain  and  artificials,  such  as 
the  different  kinds  of  cake,  which 
contain  nutriment  in  a  highly  con- 
centrated form. 

Foetus  (Lat.,  offspring).  Bio- 
logical term  meaning  the  young  of 
an  animal,  usually  with  reference 
to  a  visible  embryo  either  in  an  egg 
or  within  the  womb.  The  term  is 
applied  to  that  stage  of  the  develop- 
ment of  the  embryo  after  its  various 
parts  can  be  distinctly  distinguished 
up  to  the  period  of  birth.  See 
Embryology. 

Fog.  Clouds  either  close  to  or  in 
contact  with  the  ground.  The  con- 
ditions for  the  formation  of  clouds 
are  the  presence  of  dust  and  water 
vapour  in  the  atmosphere,  and  the 
falling  of  the  temperature  of  the 
air  below  dew  point,  i.e.  that  tem- 
perature at  which  the  atmosphere 
is  incapable  of  holding  its  invisible 
water  vapour  without  condensa- 
tion. If  these  conditions  are  ful- 
filled, each  particle  of  dust  receives 
a  thin  coating  of  water.  In  the 


FOG 

country,  fog  is  usually  white,  but  in 
large  towns  and  cities  it  is  some- 
times dense  and  black. 

Extensive  fogs  are  also  produced 
where  currents  of  air  of  different 
temperatures  come  in  contact  with 
each  other.  Thus,  off  Newfound- 
land, the  warm  air  from  over  the 
Gulf  Stream  Drift  meets  the  air 
chilled  by  the  cold  Labrador  cur- 
rent, and  the  region  is  probably  the 
foggiest  in  the  world.  Valley 
bottoms  and  low -lying  meadows 
frequently  experience  light  fogs 
or  mists  due  to  the  chilling  of  the 
lower  atmosphere  during  the  night, 
but  such  fogs  are  usually  dispersed 
by  the  morning  sunshine,  except  in 
winter,  when  the  sun's  rays  may  be 
of  insufficient  strength.  Extensive 
fogs  are  prevalent  over  lowlands 
during  spells  of  cold  but  quiet 
weather.  See  Cloud. 

FOG  SIGNALS.  Warning  or  infor- 
mation given  by  various  contri- 
vances, usually  for  producing 
sound,  when  visual  signals  are  ob- 
scured by  atmospheric  conditions. 

On  the  roads  horsed  vehicles 
sometimes  use  bells,  motor  vehicles 
their  normal  horn  equipment.  On 
railways  detonators  clamped  to  the 
rails  and  exploded  by  the  ap- 
proaching engine  warn  its  driver 
of  danger.  Fogmen  exhibit  red 
flags  or  lamps,  subsequently  noti- 
fying the  all-right  position  by 
changingtogreen.  Various  mechani- 
cal and  electrical  devices  for  com- 
municating these  signals  from  signal- 
box  to  driver  have  been  proposed. 

On  the  sea,  in  fog,  mist,  snow,  or 
heavy  rainstorm,  board  of  trade 
regulations  require  vessels  at  an- 
chor to  ring  bells,  steamships  under 
way  to  sound  whistles  or  sirens, 
sailing  vessels  foghorns,  fishing 
craft  bells  and  horns  alternately, 
all  according  to  a  prescribed  code. 

The  prototype  of  modern  coast- 
siguals  was  the  medieval  bell,  as  on 
the  Inchcape  Rock  (q.v.).  Bell- 
buoys  are  numerous  in  Great 
Britain,  whistling  buoys  in  the 
U.S.A.  In  pierhead  and  break- 
water bells  the  clappers  are  oper- 
ated by  clockwork,  sometimes 
motor-driven.  Two-ton  bells,  with 
a  14-m.  range,  have  been  used. 
Some  ports  and  harbours  have 
reed -horns,  some  light houses  Mait- 
land  bell-mouth  guns.  Guncotton 
rockets,  introduced  in  1878,  are 
now  superseded,  especially  on  rock 
stations  such  as  Eddystone,  by 
explosive  signals,  usually  tonite 
cartridges  on  iron  jibs,  'detonated 
electrically  at  fixed  intervals. 
Unattended  acetylene  fog-guns  in 
the  Clyde  are  switched  on  by  wire- 
less energy  transmitted  from  aerials 
on  Gourock  pier.  Steam  or  air 
whistles,  general  in  N.  America,  are 
sometimes  fitted  with  megaphones. 


FOGARAS 


3224 


Fog  Signal.    Left  to  right:  explosive  cap  with  flanges  folded,  as  kept  in 
store;  flanges  opened  for  adjustment  to  rail  ;  cap  attached  to  rail 


The  most  powerful  contrivances 
are  trumpets — 22  ft.  long  at  St. 
Catherine's  Point — attached  to 
compressed-air  sirens.  -  These 
usually  comprise  two  slotted  disks 
or  cylinders.  In  Canada  single  - 
cylinder  diaphones  have  slots  alter- 
nately covered  and  uncovered  by 
piston -strokes.  Mushroom  trum- 
pets, as  on  the  Caskets,  distribute 
sound  all  round  the  horizon.  The 
siren  at  Platt  Fougere,  Guernsey, 
has  been  heard  33  m.  away.  Sound- 
direction  is  attempted  in  America 
by  megaphones  rotating  singly,  or 
by  eight  megaphones  fixed  radially, 
short  and  long  blasts  of  Morse- 
signal  type  being  sounded  accord- 
ing to  the  compass  direction.  Topo- 
phones  are  double-trumpet  re- 
ceivers with  ear-pieces,  for  direc- 
tion-finding. 

Under  certain  atmospheric  con- 
ditions soundless  zones  are  inter- 
posed between  near  and  distant 
audible  zones.  Hence  the  utility  of 
submarine  bells,  placed  on  sea- 
floors,  buoys,  and  light-vessels,  and 
audible  to  ships  fitted  with  ears 
having  a  10  m.  range,  and  con- 
nected with  telephone  receivers  on 
the  bridge.  In  Oct.,  1920,  it  was  de- 
cided to  lay  down  in  French  ports 
submarine  cables  emitting  during 
fog  musical  sounds  audible  through 
similar  telephone  receivers.  In 
1910  the  United  Kingdom  had 
308  coast-signals  ;  Canada,  216  ; 
France,  48  ;  U.S.A.,  407. 

As  to  aircraft,  aviation  sound - 
signalling  is  in  its  infancy.  Owing 
to  the  dominating  noise  of  the  pro- 
pellers, bells,  horns,  and  whistles 
are  practically  ineffective.  Air- 
ships at  rest,  when  hearing  the  pro- 
pellers of  an  invisible  neighbour, 
sometimes  fire  pistol-shots.  Under 
suitable  conditions  aircraft  and 
aerodromes  use  Very  lights  and 
directional  wireless  to  facilitate 
landing  in  fog.  The  crashing  of  an 
American  dirigible  against  a  Cali- 
fornian  mountain-peak  in  fog  on 
Sept.  30,  1920,  shows  that  com- 
plete immunity  from  f6g  perils  is 
unattainable  by  external  signalling 
alone.  See  Foghorn ;  Siren. 


Fogaras.  Former  county  of 
Austria-Hungary,  in  Transylvania, 
now  belonging  to  Rumania.  It  is 
traversed  by  the  Fogaras  Mts., 
which  constitute  part  of  the  Tran- 
sylvanian  Alps,  the  loftiest  peak 
being  Szkara,  which  reaches  an  alt. 
of  7,570  ft.  The  capital  is  Fogaras. 
Fogaras.  Town  of  Rumania,  in 
Transylvania,  formerly  in  Austria- 
Hungary.  It  is  on  the  river  Aluta, 
55  m.  E.  of  Hermannstadt,  and 
N.W.  of  Kronstadt  (Brasso),  and 
is  the  capital  of  the  county  of 
Fogaras.  Taken  by  the  Rumanians 
in  their  campaign  against  Austria, 
Sept.,  1916,  it  was  evacuated  by 
them  Oct.  4—5,  when  the  Rumanian 
second  army  retreated  towards 
Kronstadt,  yielding  up  the  Fogaras- 
Vladeni  sector.  See  Rumania, 
Conquest  of. 

Fogazzaro,  ANTONIO  (1842- 
1911).  Italian  poet  and  novelist. 
He  was  born  at  Vicenza,  March  25, 
1842.  His  first 
poems,  1863, 
were  followed 
by  a  poetic 
romance,  Mir- 
anda, 1874, 
and  a  volume 
of  lyrics,  Val- 
s  o  1  d  a,  1876, 
which  estab- 
1  ished  his  repu- 
tation  as  a 
poet.  These 
were succeeded 
by  the  stories,  Malombra,  1882,  and 
Daniele  Cortis,  1885.  In  1888  came 
his  first  considerable  success,  the 
idyllic  Mistero  del  Poeta  ;  then  the 
notable  trilogy,  Piccolo  Mondo 
Antico,  1895  ;  Piccolo  Mondo  Mo- 
derno,  1901  ;  and  II  Santo  (The 
Saint),  1906  ;  the  last  of  which,  his 
most  famous  work,  was  translated 
intj  most  European  languages.  A 
staunch  Roman  Catholic,  Fogaz- 
zaro sought  to  reconcile  the  theory 
of  evolution  with  the  teaching  of 
his  church  ;  he  has  been  described 
as  Italy's  modern  poet  of  hope  and 
faith.  He  died  March  7,  1911.  See 
Study  (in  French)  by  L.  Gonnari, 
2nd  ed.  Paris..  1918. 


FOGHORN 

Fog-bow.  White-coloured  rain- 
bow sometimes  seen  in  a  thick  fog. 
It  is  due  to  the  extreme  smallness 
of  the  floating  drops  of  water 
which  constitute  the  fog. 

Fog  Crystal.  Phenomenon  ob- 
servable during  fog  and  frost.  Fog 
crystals  are  usually  formed  by  par- 
ticles of  ice  on  surfaces  in  a  fog,  in 
frosty  weather,  as  the  fog  is  driven 
over  those  surfaces.  These  crystals, 
most  common  in  hilly  districts,  are 
feathery  in  appearance,  often  reach 
several  feet  in  thickness,  and  form 
with  great  rapidity  in  favour- 
able conditions.  See  Frost ;  Snow 
Crystal. 

Foggia.  Prov.  of  S.E.  Italy, 
formerly  known  as  Capitanata. 
Bounded  N.  and  E.  by  the 
Adriatic  Sea,  it  has  an  area  of 
2,683  sq.  m.  Mountainous  in  the 
N.E.  and  W.,  the  central  part  is 
occupied  by  the  fertile  plain  of 
Apulia.  The  coast  is  low  and  flat, 
and  the  climate  hot  and  dry. 
There  are  numerous  rivers,  the 
chief  of  which  is  the  Candelaro, 
with  many  tributaries.  The  lakes 
of  Lesina  and  Varano  lie  in  the  N. 
of  the  prov.,  and  the  Lake  di  Salpi 
in  the  S.E.  The  highest  point  is 
Monte  Calvo,  which  has  an  eleva- 
tion of  3,460  ft.  Vast  flocks  of 
sheep  are  pastured  on  the  plain. 
Pop.  484,557.  Pron.  Foj-ja. 

Foggia.  City  of  Italy,  capital 
of  the  prov.  of  Foggia.  It  stands  in 
the  centre  of  the  Apulian  plain,  78 
m.  E.N.E.  of  Naples,  and  20  m.  W. 
of  Manfredonia,  a  junction  of  the 
coast  rly.  and  the  lines  to  Bene- 
vento  and  Potenza.  The  12th  cen- 
tury Gothic  cathedral  was  partly 
destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in 
1731,  and  rebuilt.  An  important 
fair  is  held  every  May  for  the  sale 
of  sheep,  wool,  corn,  capers,  and 
cheese. 

An  ancient  city,  Foggia  was  a 
favourite  residence  of  the  emperor 
Frederick  II,  whose  English  wife, 
the  daughter  of  King  John,  died 
here.  Three  miles  N.  of  the  city 
are  traces  of  the  ancient  town  of 
Arpi,  or  Argyripa,  reputed  to  have 
been  founded  by  the  great  hero, 
Diomedes.  Pop.  79,213. 

Foghorn.  Instrument  carried 
by  ships  to  indicate  their  presence 
to  other  vessels  during  a  fog  at  sea. 
Foghorns  differ  in  shape.  A  com- 
mon type  looks  like  a  chimney 
cowl.  Board  of  Trade  regulations 
require  sailing  vessels  under  way, 
and  vessels  towed,  to  sound  fog- 
horns at  one-minute  intervals. 
They  may  be  operated  by  mouth, 
hand,  or  mechanical  power,  and 
make  a  raucous  sound  in  monotone, 
of  uniform  or  varying  intensity. 
...  The  types  designed  for  shore  use 
are  especially  employed  for  port 
and  harbour  signals.  The  note  is 


FOGO 


Foghorn  installed  on  the  Bass  Rock 

usually  produced  in  reeds  with 
metal  tongues  like  organ -pipes, 
which  may  be  manual  or  engine- 
driven.  The  more  powerful  horn 
installations  used  on  steam  vessels, 
and  some  coast  stations,  are  tech- 
nically called  sirens. 

Fogo  (Port.,  fire).  Volcanic 
island  of  the  Cape  Verde  archipel- 
ago. Circular  in  shape,  and  moun- 
tainous in  character,  it  has  an  area 
of  about  190  sq.  m.  The  loftiest 
point,  the  Pico  do  Lano,  nearly 
10,000  ft.,  has  often  been  in  erup- 
tion, notably  in  1847,  when  it 
caused  immense  damage.  Fertile 
in  the  N.,  where  coffee,  sugar, 
maize,  and  fruit  are  produced,  it  is 
almost  barren  in  the  S.  The  chief 
town  and  port  is  Sao  Filippe,  or 
Nostra  Senhora  da  Luz — our  Lady 
of  Light.  Pop.  16,500. 

There  is  another  island  of  this 
name  off  the  N.E.  coast  of  New- 
foundland in  lat.  49°  40'  N.  and 
long.  54°  10'  W. 

Fohn  (Ger.).  Warm,  dry  wind 
experienced  in  Alpine  valleys.  In 
the  circulation  of  the  atmosphere 
air  is  caused  to  descend  mountain 
slopes.  During  its  descent  it  is 
heated  by  compression,  and  being 
thus  enabled  to  hold  more  mois- 
ture, it  descends  as  a  warm,  drying 
wind,  which  in  a  few  hours  clears 
away  more  snow  than  many  dajw  of 
bright  sunshine,  and  uncovers  the 
upland  pastures. 

In  some  valleys  the  early 
sowings  are  entirely  dependent 
upon  this  wind,  whilst  in  others  it 
is  relied  upon  to  ripen  the  grapes 
in  autumn.  Strictly  the  term 
should  not  be  used  of  a  wind,  but 
merely  of  the  effect  of  descent  upon 
a  wind.  The  fohn  effect  may  be 
recognized  in  most  mountainous 
areas  in  temperate  latitudes. 

Fdhr.  Island  in  the  North  Sea, 
one  of  the  N.  Frisian  group,  belong- 
ing to  Germany.  It  lies  off  the  W. 
coast  of  Slesvig,  opposite  Dagebiill 
on  the  mainland,  and  has  an  area 
of  32  sq.  m.  Largely  marshland, 
protected  in  the  N.  by  dykes,  it  is 
elsewhere  elevated  and  timbered, 
with  fertile  soil.  The  inhabitants 


3225 

live  by  wild-fowling,  fishing,  and 
sea-faring.  The  chief  town  is  Wyk, 
which  is  a  resort  on  the  E.  coast. 
Pop.  4,500. 

Foie-gras  (Fr.,fat  liver).  Livers 
of  geese  enlarged  abnormally  by 
keeping  the  birds  in  a  heated  com- 
partment, and  made  into  the  paste 
known  as  pate  de  foie-gras.  The 
Strasbourg  variety  is  well  known. 
See  Goose. 

Foil.  Weapon  used  in  fencing, 
[t  is  a  very  slender,  four-sided 
steel  blade,  with  a  handguard  to 
the  hilt,  and  «^E^nS«H 
a  button  on  f 
the  tip,  the  ob-  | 
j  e c t  of  the 
fencer  being  to 
touch  some  f 
part  of  his  op- 
ponent's body 
with  that 
button.  See 
Fencing. 

Foil.        I  n 
metallurgy,    a 
thin    form    of 
metal,     which 
may  be  said  to 
occupy  a  posi- 
tion   interme- 
diate between  I  ^^K^  f 
a  leaf,  as  gold   I 
leaf,  and  sheet  j  |/ ! 
metal.    A  very   |                  f. 
thin  tinfoil  is   |i         . 
made       for    !Foii,  fencing  weapon,' 
chemical    and    showing    method    of 
electrical  uses,              holding 
and  for  backing  mirrors  ;  tinsel  is 
a  rather  thicker  foil  much  used  for 
theatrical  purposes;  Dutch  foil  is 
specially  prepared  for  the  backing 
of  artificial  gems,  being  made  very 
thin,  and  coloured    by   means   of 
Prussian  blue  and  other  pigments. 
Gold  foil  is  used  by  dentists  for 
stopping  teeth. 

Ordinary  commercial  tinfoil, 
largely  used  for  wrapping  tobacco, 
chocolates  and  other  sweets,  and 
toilet  articles,  is  made  of  lead 
coated  on  one  or  both  sides  with 
tin,  the  two  metals  being  rolled  to- 
gether so  that  they  become  quite 
inseparable.  The  tin  surface  may 
have  merely  an  infinitesimal  thick- 
ness, yet  it  is  sufficient  to  prevent 
contact  with  lead.  The  latter 
metal  contributes  the  substance 
and  the  flexibility  to  the  foil ;  the 
tin,  which  is  much  the  more  ex- 
pensive metal,  provides  the  non- 
poisonous  surface. 

Attempts  have  been  made  to 
substitute  aluminium  in  the  manu- 
facture of  foil,  on  account  of  its 
light  weight,  but  so  far  without 
much  success.  A  beautiful  varie- 
gated foil,  which  we  owe  to  the 
Japanese,  is  made  by  soldering  to- 
gether by  their  edges  30  or  40  thin 
sheets  of  gold,  silver,  copper,  and 


FOIX 

various  alloys  ;  punching  or  cutting 
a  pattern  through  these  sheets,  tho 
holes  going  to  varying  depths,  then 
rolling  down  the  "  book  "  of  sheets 
to  the  desired  thinness.  The  holes 
entirely  disappear  in  the  finished 
product. 

Foix.  Town  of  France,  capital 
of  the  dept.  of  Ariege.  It  stands 
between  the  rivers  Ariege  and 
Arget,  46  m.  S.  of  Toulouse.  Its 
interest  is  mainly  historical.  The 
capital  of  the  county  of  Foix,  the 
powerful  counts  of  Foix  lived  in  its 
castle,  of  which  there  are  some 
remains  on  the  rock,  round  which 
the  older  part  of  the  town  clusters. 
The  church  of  S.  Volusien  dates 
from  the  14th  century.  There  are 
some  small  industries,  and  the 
town  is  the  commercial  and  ad- 
ministrative centre  for  a  large 
district.  The  county  of  Foix  varied 
in  extent  from  time  to  time.  It  was 
ruled  by  its  counts,  vassals  of  the 
king  of  France,  and  was  one  of  the 
pro  vs.  into  which  France  was  di- 
vided before  the  depts.  were  created. 
Pop.  6,806.  Pron.  Fwah. 

Foix.  French  family,  rulers  of 
the  county  of  Foix,  between  about 
1000  and  1500.  A  Roger,  a  de- 
scendant of  the  count  of  Carcas- 
sonne, first  assumed  this  title 
when  he  inherited  the  lordship  of 
the  town  and  the  surrounding 
lands.  A  succession  of  counts  fol- 
lowed, who,  like  other  nobles  of  the 
time,  went  on  crusades ;  fought 
with  neighbouring  rulers  ;  at  times 
defied  the  king  ;  frequently  quar- 
relled with  the  Church;  and  had 
their  own  special  feud  with  the 
family  of  Armagnac. 

About  1300  one  count  married 
the  daughter  of  Gaston,  viscount 
of  Beam,  and  this  union  brought 
to  the  family  the  name  of  Gaston, 
and  also  the  district  of  Beam.  The 
counts  were  now  much  more  power- 
ful than  formerly,  and  this  culmi- 
nated in  the  career  of  Gaston 
Phoebus,  whose  splendid  court  is 
so  vividly  described  by  his  guest, 
Froissart.  For  forty  years  he  was 
almost  constantly  at  war,  but  he 
found  time  for  the  things  of  the 
mind.  He  died  in  1391,  leaving  to 
Charles  VI  his  possessions  of  Foix 
and  Beam. 

Charles  gave  these  to  a  descend- 
ant of  one  of  the  earlier  counts,  and 
a  second  ruling  family  arose,  to 
play  the  part  of  great  French  nobles 
for  another  century.  They  married 
into  the  royal  families  of  France 
and  Navarre,  and  in  1479  one  of 
them,  Francis  Phoebus,  became 
king  of  Navarre.  He  left  no  sons, 
so  the  county  passed  to  his  sister, 
the  wife  of  Jean  d'Albret,  and 
thence  to  the  family  of  Bourbon 
(g.v. ).  Henry  IV,  on  becoming  king 
of  France  in  1589,  added  Foix  to 


FOKCHANY 


3226 


FOLIGNO 


the  royal  domain.  A  member  of  a 
younger  branch  of  the  family  was 
the  famous  soldier  Gaston  de  Foix 
(1489-1512).  An  earlier  member 
was  Peter,  a  cardinal  and  arch- 
bishop of  Ailes. 

Fokchany  .Alternative  spelling  of 
the  Rumanian  town  Focsani  (q.v.). 

Fo-Kien  OB  Fu-KiEN.  Coast 
prov.  of  China,  lying  almost  en- 
tirely between  lat.  24°  and  28°  N. 
Area,  46,332  sq.  m.  The  prov.  is 
mountainous,  comprising  a  series 
of  ranges  running  parallel  with  the 
coast.  The  chief  Waterway  is  the 
river  Min,  260  m.,  which  flows  into 
the  sea  below  Foochow,  the  capital. 
Fo-Kien  is  noted  for  its  tea  and 
timber,  but  the  value  of  the  tea 
trade  has  steadily  diminished. 
Minerals  abound,  but  have  not  been 
worked.  Fishing  is  an  active  in- 
dustry. Amoy  is  an  important 
town.  Pop.  8,560,000. 

Fokker.  German  type  of  aero- 
plane (q.v. ).  It  secured  much  notori- 
ety during  a  stage  of  the  Great  War. 
A.  H.  S.  Fokker  was  a  Dutch  avi- 
ator who  just  before  the  outbreak 
of  war  was  building  monoplanes  in 
Germany.  For  war  purposes  he 
evolved  a  very  fast  biplane  with 
which  the  Germans  gained  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  success  until 
they  -were  met  by  better  pilots  and 
machines.  Fokker  also  produced  a 
triplane  which  in  many  respects 
was  a  copy  of  the  Sopwith  triplane. 

Fold.  In  geology,  the  curvature 
of  strata  induced  subsequent  to 
their  deposition  in  more  or  less  hori- 
zontal layers.  The  result  of  lateral 
compression  due  to  movements  of 
the  earth's  crust,  it  varies  in  com- 
plexity. The  simplest  form  of 
flexure  is  in  one  direction,  mono- 
cline ;  folding  round  a  dome  is 
termed  quaquaversal ;  that  form- 
ing a  basin  centroclinal.  Symmet- 
rical folding  about  an  axis  may  re- 
sult in  production  of  troughs  (syn- 
clines)  or  of  arches  (anticlines). 
Doubling  over  of  beds  forms  over- 
folds,  which  are  termed  recumbent 
when  the  axial  plane  is  nearly  hori- 
zontal. Irregular  complex  folding 
results  in  contortion.  See  Earth- 
movement  ;  Geology  ;  Rocks. 

Folding  Machine.  Machine 
primarily  in  use  in  printing  to  con- 
vert into  sections  the  flat  sheet  of 
printed  paper  as  it  comes  from  the 
press.  Before  its  adoption  these 
flat  sheets  were  folded  by  hand. 

Each  class  of  machine  varies  in 
its  action,  but  generally  the  folded 
sheets  are  automatically  fed  up  to  a 
side-gauge  on  the  machine  bed,  and 
then  brought  to  the  correct  posi- 
tion by  an  automatic  device  to  en- 
sure accurate  folding.  A  descend- 
ing blade  then  presses  the  sheet  be- 
tween two  revolving  rollers  through 
which  the  sheet  passes,  thus  mak- 


ing the  first  fold. 
The  sheet  then 
travels  to  the 
second  pair  of  rol- 
lers, set  at  right 
angles  to  the  first 
pair,  where  a  simi- 
lar action  is  per- 
formed, and  so  on 
for  each  succeed- 
ing fold. 

Some    machines 
are   made   for 
parallel  folding, 
i.e.      folding      the 
sheet   over   and 
over  in   the   same 
direction    by    blades    and    rollers 
parallel  with  each  other  operating 
consecutively.      Imagine  the  first 
fold  down  the  centre  of  one  way  of 
the  sheet  and  the  second  fold  paral- 
lel with  the  first ;  we  then  have  the 
sheet  the  original  length  one  way, 
and  one -fourth  the  original  length 
the  other  way  ;    a  third  parallel 
fold   is   then   made,   and    as   this 
enters  the  delivery  it  is  slit  into 
sections  by  slitting  disks.    Thus  a 


Folding  Machine.  Diagram  illus- 
trating mechanism  of  folder  section 
of  newspaper  press.  A.  Endless 
paper  web.  B.  Main  frame  of 
machine.  C.  Rotary  knife  to  slit 
paper.  D.  Paper  over  V  plate. 
E.  Rollers  to  bend  paper.  F.  Fold- 
ing cylinder.  G.  Folding  roller. 
H.  Copies  ready  folded 

work,  1 28  pages,  of  the  same  size  as 
the  Universal  Encyclopedia  would 
consist  of  8  sections  of  16  pages 
folded  in  the  manner  last  described, 
2  sheets  each  40  ins.  by  54  ins.  being 
converted  into  4  sections  10  ins.  by 
6f  ins.  This  principle  of  parallel 
folding  is  adapted  to  printing  ma- 
chines producing  magazines.  For 
example,  The  London  Magazine  is 
printed  and  folded  in  96  pages  at 
one  operation  and  delivered  in  six 
sections  of  16  pages. 

In  all  the  latest  styles  of  folding 
machines  the  sheets  are  fed  in  auto- 


Folding  Machine.  Double  sixteen  book-folding  machine, 
constructed  to  fold  a  sheet  into  two  lots  of  16  pages, 
one  lot  inserted  in  the  other,  to  make  a  section  of  32  pages 

matically,  and  in  some  instances 
sheets  are  supplied  from  piles, 
folded,  gathered,  stabbed,  and  the 
covers  glued  on  before  delivery. 

The  uninitiated  have  probably 
been  puzzled  as  to  the  reason  of 
letters  in  the  bottom  margin  of  a 
book ;  these  are  identification 
marks,  and  indicate  the  sections  in 
which  the  book  is  folded,  thus,  the 
first  page  of  the  first  section  of  16 
pp.  or  32  pp.  will  be  marked  A  and 
the  first  page  of  the  second  section 
B  and  so  on.  These  letters  enable 
the  sections  to  be  collected  in  their 
right  sequence  instead  of  by 
pagination. 

Newspapers  are  folded  by  means 
of  an  auxiliary  part  of  the  printing 
press.  The  endless  web  of  paper 
travels  over  a  V-shaped  plate, 
forming  the  first  fold  or  spine  of  the 
newspaper  ;  the  web  continues  its 
course  (now  in  page  size)  until  it 
reaches  another  section  of  the  ma- 
chine, the  next  fold  being  then  ac- 
complished by  means  of  a  turning 
blade  which  is  attached  to  and  ro- 
tates in  a  cylinder.  There  are  many 
types  of  folding  machines  for  box- 
making,  notepaper  folding,  etc. 

A.  B.  Blayney 

Foleshill.  Parish  and  village  of 
Warwickshire,  England.  It  is  3  m. 
N.E.  of  Coventry  and  is  really  an  in- 
dustrial suburb  of  that  city,  having 
manufactures  of  the  same  kind, 
while  around  are  collieries.  The 
church  of  S.  Lawrence  was  restored 
in  1889.  Foleshill  has  a  station  on 
L.  &  N.W.R.  Pop.  7,780. 

Foliation.  In  geology,  a  struc- 
ture characteristic  of  metamorphic 
rocks,  particularly  of  schists.  It 
consists  of  the  arrangement  of  the 
rock-material  in  more  or  less  par- 
allel, sometimes  lenticular,  and  fre- 
quently undulating  layers.  Split- 
ting usually  takes  place  readily 
along  these  layers.  See  Rock. 

Foligno  (anc.  Fulginium).  City 
of  Italy,  in  the  prov.  of  Perugia.  It 
stands  in  a  beautiful  valley,  on  the 
river  Topino,  23  m.  by  rly.  S.E.  of 
Perugia,  and  is  enclosed  by  medie- 
val walls.  It  has  a  12th  century 


FOLIO 


3227 


FOLKLORE 


cathedral,  which  has  been  modern- 
ised, several  old  palaces,  and  a  pic- 
ture gallery.  There  is  trade  in 
paper,  leather,  parchment,  silk, 
and  soap.  An  ancient  city,  it 
became  a  place  of  considerable  im- 
portance, but  was  razed  to  the 
ground  in  the  wars  of  the  13th  cen- 
tury. Rebuilt,  it  was  greatly  dam- 
aged by  earthquakes  in  1831  and 
1832.  Pop.  28,373. 

Folio  (Lat.  folium,  leaf).  In 
bibliography,  a  book  of  the  largest 
size,  the  sheets  of  which  are  folded 
once  into  two  leaves,  making  four 
pages.  For  convenience  in  binding, 
two  or  more  sheets  are  inserted  into 
each  other.  In  all  but  modern 
books  the  watermark  of  the  paper 
is  seen  in  the  centre  of  the  page  if 
the  work  is  a  folio  ;  if  in  the  middle 
of  the  inner  margin,  divided  by  the 
fold  at  the  back  of  the  book,  with 
the  chain  lines  horizontal,  the  book 
is  a  quarto  (q.v.). 

The  word  folio  is  applied  to  the 
numerical  mark  on  each  page  of  a 
printed  work  or  each  leaf  of  MS. 
It  is  used  to  indicate  the  number  of 
words  in  a  page  of  law  writing,  or 
report  of  parliamentary  proceed- 
ings, to  a  case  for  holding  music, 
and,  in  book-keeping,  to  the  two 
facing  pages  of  a  ledger  or 
account  book  containing  respec- 
tively the  creditor  and  debtor 
accounts.  In  16th  century  English 
the  word  was  used  to  mean  "on 
a  large  scale."  See  Book  ;  Paper. 
Sizes  of. 

Folkestone.  Mun.  bor.,  water- 
ing-place, and  market  town  of  Kent. 
It  stands  on  the  English  Channel 
71  m.  S.E.  of 
London  by  the 
S.E.  &C.R.  For 
visitors  the  at- 
tractions include 
the  Leas — a  fine 
promenade  on  the 
top  of  the  W. 
cliff,  command- 
ing a  splendid 


there  are  tennis  courts,  golf  links  and 
a  racecourse.  The  bathingis  good. 
Between  Folkestone  and  Dover  is 
a  large  open  space  called  the  War- 
ren, an  extensive  landslide,  in  which 
numerous  fossils  are  found.  In  1920 
this,  with  the  east  cliff,  was  given 
to  the  town  by  the  earl  of  Radnor. 

Folkestone  consists  of  an  old 
town  in  a  valley,  now  the  fishing 
and  shipping  quarter,  and  a  newer 
town  on  the  hills  around,  where 
are  spacious  roads  and  buildings. 
The  chief  church  is  dedicated  to 
S.  Mary  and  S.  Eanswith ;  it  is  an 
Early  English  building,  with  a  fine 
tower,  much  restored.  There  are  also 
modern  churches  and  several  fine 
hotels.  The  town  has  a  17th  cen- 
tury grammar  school,  a  technical 
school,  a  public  library  and  mu- 
seum, hospitals,  etc.  Many  schools 
are  located  here.  As  a  seaport 
Folkestone  has  been  much  improved 
during  the  20th  century,  both  har- 
bour and  pier  having  been  enlarged. 
It  is  one  of  the  chief  ports  for 
the  service  to  France  and  Holland, 
there  being  a  regular  connexion 
with  Boulogne  and  Flushing.  The 
herring  and  mackerel  fisheries  are 
important. 

During  the  Great  War  it  was  a 


tt  suffered  from  air  raids,  the  most 
serious  being  one  by  17  aeroplanes 


FOLKLORE 


on  May  26,  1917.  Folkestone  was 
in  existence  before  the  Norman 
Conquest.  It  became,  and  still 
is.  a  member  of  the  Cinque  port  of 
Dover,  and  was  early  a  corporate 
town.  There  was  a  monastery  here 
from  about  1095  until  the  time  of 
Henry  VIII,  and  also  a  castle.  It 
is  now  governed  by  a  mayor  and 
corporation.  The  council  still  de- 
rives a  considerable  income  from 
the  coal  dues  collected  in  the  port. 
There  are  memorials  to  William 
Harvey,  who  was  born  here,  and 
in  the  neighbourhood  is  Shorn- 
cliffe  camp.  Much  of  the  land  be- 
longs to  the  earl  of  Radnor,  whose 
eldest  son  is  called  Viscount  Folke- 
stone. Pop.  (1021)  37,571. 

Folkland.  Name  given  in  Eng- 
land in  Anglo-Saxon  times  to  the 
land  that  was  held  by  folk  or  com- 
mon right  and  subject  to  certain 
established  burdens.  Until  1893 
the  prevailing  idea  was  that  it  was 
the  common  land  of  the  nation,  as 
opposed  to  bocland,  which  was  in 
the  nature  of  private  property ; 
but  in  that  year  Prof.  Vinogradoff 
established  the  modem  theory. 
This  assumed  that  practically  all 
the  land  of  the  country  was  folk- 
land,  although  the  king  could  by 
grant  convert  it  into  bocland.  See 
Domesday  Book  and  Beyond,  F. 
W.  Maitland,  1897. 


Folkestone  arms 


view  of  the  sea — pleasure  gardens, 
a  theatre,  and  a  pier.  Radnor  Park 
is  a  public  pleasure  ground,  and 


Folkestone. 


ITS    ORIGINS    AND     STUDY 

E.  S.  Hartland,  Autbor  of   The   Science    of   Fairy   Tales 

There  are  in  this  work  articles  on  the  various  characters  in  folklore, 

among  them   Cinderella ;  Fairy ;   Genie ;    Roc ;   Valkyrie ;    Witch. 

See  also  Legend ;  Mythology 

those  of  modern  savages ;  resemble 
them  in  particular  in  the  one  essen- 
tialf  eature  that  they  are  traditional ; 
and  may  reasonably  be  supposed  to 
be  ultimately  derived  from  a  social 
condition  represented  by  many 
tribes  who  are  still  living  in  a  low 
state  of  culture. 

Accordingly  in  the  second  edition 
of  The  Handbook  of  Folk  Lore,issued 
by  the  society  in  1914,  the  definition 
adopted  for  the  term  folklore  was 
"  the  generic  term  under  which  the 
traditional  beliefs,  customs,  stories, 
songs  and  sayings  current  among 
backward  peoples,  or  retained  by 
the  uncultured  classes  of  more  ad- 
vanced peoples,  are  comprehended 
and  included."  The  same  term  is 
used  for  the  scientific  study  of  these 
objects  ;  and  folklore  as  a  science 
may  be  more  succinctly  and  exactly 
defined  as  the  study  of  tradition. 

To  quote  the  handbook  again : 
"  Folklore  is  the  expression  of  the 
psychology  of  early  man,  whether 
in  the  fields  of  philosophy,  religion, 
science  and  medicine,  in  social 
organization  and  ceremonial,  or 
in  the  more  strictly  intellectual 
regions  of  history,  poetry  and  other 


The  term  folklore  was  suggested 
by  W.  J.  Thorns,  the  antiquary,  in 
1 846,  to  replace  the  more  cumbrous 
title  of  popular  antiquities,  hitherto 
employed  for  the  traditional  tales, 
songs  and   sayings,    customs   and 
superstitions     of    the     peasantry. 
On  the  foundation  in  1878  of  The 
Folk-Lore  Society,  it  was  adopted 
and  incorporated   into   the  name 
of  the  society.    But  researches  and 
inquiries  have  since  compelled  a 
broader   view.      All  the  evidence 
went  to  show  that 
the     traditional 
customs  and  in- 
stitutions, songs, 
tales,  and  amuse- 
in  e  n  t  s,    beliefs, 
leechcraft,  and  so 
forth    of    the 
peasantry  in  civil- 
ized countries  are 
survivals    of    an 
indefinite   past, 
and  for  the  nrost 
part  bear  the  mi- 
press    of    a    far 
ruder  age ;    they 
present  innumer- 
The  Leas,  looking  westward  able  analogies  to 


FOLKLORE 

literature."  It  thus  embraces  the 
whole  outlook  of  uncultured  man 
upon  the  world,  his  beliefs  concern- 
ing his  own  nature  and  destiny,  his 
relation  to  other  beings,  whether 
objective  or  imaginary,  whether 
human  or  non-human,  the  rites  and 
customs  which  are  the  outcome  of 
his  beliefs  and  the  expression  of 
these  varied  relations,  and,  finally, 
the  amusements  of  his  vacant  hours. 

The  English  use  of  the  word 
folklore  does  not  include,  as  the 
corresponding  German  word  Yolks- 
kunde  does,  the  technology  of  the 
arts  and  industries  practised  either 
by  the  unlearned  classes  of  civil- 
ized peoples  or  by  the  uncivilized 
or  semi-civilized  peoples  of  distant 
regions.  The  English  student  of 
folklore  is  concerned  rather  with  the 
non-technical  rules  which  govern 
the  employment  of  implements, 
and  with  the  ceremonies  and 
taboos  observed  in  relation  to  them, 
for  these  reveal  the  deeper  thoughts 
of  the  community  and  the  direc- 
tion of  its  mental  and  spiritual  life. 
Old  Devonshire  Customs 

Folklore  may  be  said  to  be  the 
deposit  left  by  successive  waves  of 
culture  on  the  minds  of  the  com- 
munity. The  record  is  usually  far 
too  fragmentary  to  present  any- 
thing like  a  history.  What  is  pre- 
served is  that  which — whether  tale, 
institution,  rite,  or  custom — has 
most  deeply  entered  into  the  popu- 
lar mentality.  At  the  village  of 
Holne,  on  Dartmoor,  on  May-morn- 
ing before  daybreak  a  ram-lamb 
used  to  be  hunted  down  by  the 
young  men,  fastened  to  a  monolith, 
killed,  and  roasted  whole.  At  mid- 
day a  struggle  took  place  for  a  slice 
of  the  animal,  which  was  supposed 
to  confer  luck  for  the  ensuing  year 
on  the  fortunate  person  who  ate  it. 

At  King's  Teignton,  on  Whit- 
Monday,  a  lamb  is  drawn  about 
the  parish  in  a  cart  covered  with 
garlands.  On  the  following  day  it 
is  killed  and  roasted  whole  in  the 
middle  of  the  village  ;  and  slices 
are  sold  to  the  poor  at  a  cheap  rate. 
The  custom  is  said  to  date  back  to 
heathen  days,  and  to  owe  its  origin 
to  a  drought,  in  which  the  inhabit- 
ants prayed  for  water.  Their 
wants  were  supplied  in  answer  to 
the  prayer  by  the  bursting  forth 
of  a  spring,  which  even  now  is  ade- 
quate in  a  dry  summer  to  work 
three  mills.  The  sacrifice  of  the 
lamb  is  said  to  be  a  votive  thank- 
offering  (Sir  Laurence  Gomme, 
Ethnology  in  Folklore,  1892). 

In  these  two  Devonshire  cus- 
toms it  is  impossible  to  avoid  re- 
cognizing a  survival  from  very 
ancient  times  of  a  sacrificial  cere- 
mony. It  is  a  striking  and  pic- 
turesque rite  ;  but  from  our  point 
of  view  this  is  by  no  means  essen- 


3228 

tial  to  its  preservation.  Thousands 
of  traditional  observances  are  of  a 
common-place  character,  some 
even  disgusting  ;  and  it  is  difficult 
to  say  what  quality  in  them  caused 
them  to  survive.  The  prohibition, 
for  luck,  to  put  both  shoe  and 
stocking  on  one  foot  before  the 
stocking  is  put  on  the  other,  has  no 
striking  or  picturesque  features, 
but  the  importance  it  attaches  to  a 
trifling  detail  in  the  order  of  dress- 
ing indicates  that  it  descends  from 
so  remote  a  past  that  the  original 
reason  seems  undiscoverable. 

The  belief  that  it  is  a  bad  omen 
if  a  child  do  not  cry  at  its  baptism, 
the  prohibition  in  Scotland  to  give 
fire  out  of  the  house  on  New  Year's 
Day,  and  many  other  precepts  and 
beliefs  obviously  derive  their  origin 
from  a  much  lower  stage  of  culture. 
Of  such  survivals  it  may  very  often 
be  said,  in  Sir  Arthur  Mitchell's 
words,  that  "  they  show  the  "con- 
tinuance among  a  people  long 
Christianised  of  ceremonies  and 
practices  emphatically  pagan." 
Where  they  cannot  be  said  to  be 
"  emphatically  pagan  "  they  are 
alien  in  spirit  from  modern  thought. 

From  time  to  time  it  has  been 
sought  to  disentangle  and  classify 
such  survivals,  so  as  to  show  the 
ethnic  elements  of  which  they  are 
composed.  Thus,  Sir  Laurence 
Gomme  argued  that  the  sacrifice 
of  the  lamb  in  Devonshire  was  an 
inheritance  from  a  pre-Aryan 
society  and  a  pre-Aryan  culture. 
W.  H.  R.  Rivers  instituted  an 
elaborate  inquiry  into  the  different 
strata  of  the  institutions  and  cus- 
toms obtaining  in  the  Melanesian 
islands  of  the  South  Pacific 
(History  of  Melanesian  Society,  2 
vols.,  1914).  He  arrived  at  some 
very  interesting  results,  but  the 
questions  raised  are  so  complex, 
the  influences  are  so  numerous  and 
varied,  and  many  of  them  so 
hypothetical,  that  it  cannot  be 
said  that  the  possibility  of  assign- 
ing the  different  elements  of  folk- 
lore to  their  original  ethnic 
source  has  anywhere  yet  been 
demonstrated. 

Folklore  and  the  Historian 

The  value  of  folklore  as  a  record 
of  facts  and  of  the  succession  of 
events  is  much  more  limited. 
Ancient  historians — for  instance, 
Herodotus — necessarily  relied  to 
a  great  extent  on  tradition.  All 
through  the  Middle  Ages,  and  even 
more  recently,  it  was  treated  as 
authoritative.  Modern  historians 
have  become  more  sceptical ;  and 
the  untrustworthiness  of  oral  tra- 
dition, in  comparison  with  the 
more  certain  evidence  of  written 
documents  or  the  statements  of 
eye-witnesses,  has  been  generally 
regarded  as  axiomatic. 


FOLKLORE 

In  the  lower  zones  of  culture, 
however,  documentary  evidence  of 
events  long  past  is,  of  course,  un- 
procurable. The  evidence  of  tradi- 
tion is  the  only  direct  evidence  pos- 
sible. In  these  circumstances  some 
anthropologists  have  been  disposed 
to  rely  on  it  for  such  matters 
as  the  origin  and  migrations  of  a 
people,  the  pedigree  of  its  chiefs 
and  rulers,  the  beginnings  of  its 
institutions,  and  the  vicissitudes  of 
its  history. 

Subjects  of  Tradition 

Careful  examination  shows  that 
this  reliance  is  hardly  justified. 
Illiterate  persons  certainly  develop 
a  greater  strength  of  memory  than 
those  who  habitually  depend  on 
books  and  written  memoranda. 
But  both  individuals  and  com- 
munities differ  widely  in  this 
respect :  all  are  not  gifted  alike. 
Much  depends,  also,  on  the  sub- 
ject. Pedigrees  may  be  remem- 
bered because  they  appeal  to  the 
vanity  of  a  family,  or  because  they 
are  important  in  relation  to  the 
descent  of  property,  or  the  head- 
ship of  a  clan.  The  interest  thus 
aroused  tends  to  preserve  tradition. 
On  the  other  hand  it  almost  in- 
evitably deforms  it.  Whether  it 
be  material  prosperity,  or  only 
pride  in  the  doings  of  ancestors,  or 
the  position  of  a  family,  what  is 
sure  to  be  insisted  on  is  the  glory 
and  advantage  of  the  carriers  of 
the  tradition,  and  the  depreciation 
or  the  misdoings  of  their  oppon- 
ents ;  and  where  there  is  no  precise 
record,  there  is  no  conclusive 
answer  to  their  claims.  These  are, 
in  a  sense,  private  traditions. 

Where  a  tradition  is  not  so  closely 
related  to  the  interest  of  the  in- 
dividual, or  of  a  close  corporation, 
it  is  liable  to  become  less  definite, 
the  details  will  be  speedily  for- 
gotten, and  though  outstanding 
facts  will  continue  to  be  longer  re- 
membered, they  will  remain  iso- 
lated and  unexplained.  Ulti- 
mately they  will  pass  out  of 
memory,  unless  an  effort  to  ex- 
plain and  account  for  them  be 
made.  For  this  explanation  the 
imagination  must  be  drawn  on. 
Without  any  real  historical  sense, 
the  story  can  only  be  reconsti- 
tuted as  the  carriers  of  the  tradi- 
tion think  it  ought  to  have  been, 
in  accordance  with  their  ignorance, 
their  mental  condition,  and  their 
consequent  sense  of  the  fitness  of 
things.  The  result  is  a  mere 
travesty  of  the  facts,  and  often- 
times, indeed,  is  a  complete 
reversal  of  them. 

It  might  be  thought  that  bare 
lists  of  kings  or  genealogies  would 
be  easily  remembered  by  the  aid 
of  a  fair  memory,  and  would  lend 
themselves  but  'little  to  freaks  of 


FOLK-LORE      SOCIETY 


3229 


FOLK-SONG 


imagination.  In  practice  this  is 
not  so.  Apart  from  the  constant 
occurrence  at  the  head  of  such 
lists  of  eponymous  heroes  whose 
former  existence  is  a  mere  postu- 
late to  account  for  the  name  of  a 
tribe  or  clan,  a  single  example  of 
the  untrustworthiness  of  genealo- 
gies may  be  taken  from  the  pedi- 
grees of*  the  chiefs  of  various  sec- 
tions of  the  great  Thonga  tribe  in 
South  Africa.  It  by  no  means 
follows  that  the  names  given  in 
these  pedigrees  represent  succes- 
sive steps  iri  the  genealogy. 

A  step  may  be  omitted  because  in 
the  native  mind  for  this  purpose 
the  distinction  between  a  son  and 
a  grandson  is  immaterial.  Steps 
may  be  duplicated,  because  a 
brother  may  have  succeeded  a 
brothe-  in  the  chieftainship.  Or  a 
longer  gap  may  intervene  between 
two  names  represented  as  those  of 
father  and  son.  All  these  errors 
and  others  occur  in  the  pedigrees 
in  question,  and  the  native  deposi- 
tories of  tradition  do  not  agree 
among  themselves  on  the  subject. 
The  lists  do  not  affect  to  contain 
the  names  of  more  than  eight  or 
ten  generations,  going  back  at  the 
most  from  200  to  250  years.  Yet 
a  Portuguese  document  dated  in 
1554:  already  mentions  several  of 
the  names,  some  of  which  were 
then  probably  the  names  of  clans 
rather  than  of  persons,  and  two  of 
them  are  in  the  document  ex- 
pressly stated  to  be  the  names  of 
rivers  (Junod,  Life  of  a  South 
African  Tribe,  i,  24-26). 
A  Typical  Legend 

A  legend  very  widespread  in  Eng- 
land and  other  parts  of  the  W.  of 
Europe  concerns  the  position  of  a 
church.  It  asserts  that  the  church, 
generally  a  parish  church,  was  in- 
tended to  be  built  elsewhere  than 
on  its  actual  site,  but  that  the 
materials  and  the  building  so  far 
as  erected  were  nightly  removed 
by  invisible  powers,  and  that  the 
builders  were  ultimately  compelled 
to  accept  the  site  thus  supernatur- 
ally  chosen. 

Two  examples,  both  taken  from 
Gloucestershire,  will  show  how  tra- 
nJition  may  disguise,  and  in  one  case 
entirely  reverse,  the  facts.  The 
story  of  Bisley  church  is  that  it 
was  to  have  been  built  in  a  certain 
spot  definitely  pointed  out,  but  the 
stones  were  removed  at  night  by 
the  devil  to  its  present  site.  Actu- 
ally, the  place  pointed  out  as  the 
intended  site  was  the  site  of  a 
Roman  villa,  from  the  ruins  of 
which  the  materials  for  the  church, 
or  some  of  them,  were  obtained. 
When  the  church  was  restored  in 
the  19th  century,  portions  of  the 
villa,  including  an  altar  of  the 
Penates,  were  found  embedded  in 


the  walls  (Gloucestershire  N.  &  Q., 
i,  390).  Of  Churchdown  church,  a 
few  miles  away,  on  the  top  of  an 
isolated  hill,  the  tradition  re- 
corded is  that  it  was  begun  "  on  a 
more  convenient  and  accessible 
spot  of  ground,  but  that  the 
materials  used  in  the  day  were  con- 
stantly taken  away  at  night  and 
carried  to  the  top  of  the  hiU,  which 
was  considered  as  a  supernatural 
intimation  that  the  church  should 
be  built  there." 

The  fact  is  that  the  hill-top  was 
fortified  probably  from  prehistoric 
times  (the  rampart  is  still  to  be 
seen),  and  the  original  village  was 
there  with  its  church,  but  that  some 
time  before  1170,  doubtless  in  con- 
sequence of  the  greater  security  of 
the  country,  the  village — but  not 
the  church — was  removed  down 
to  the  side  of  the  hill,  and  the  top 
subsequently  became  deserted.  The 
tradition,  now  comparatively  old, 
could  not  have  originated  until  the 
history  of  the  village  had  been 
forgotten. 

Vagueness  of  Tradition 

It  may  be  said  in  general  terms 
that  the  exact  facts  cannot  be  re- 
covered from  tradition  after  a  cen- 
tury, or  at  most  two.  Subsequent 
to  that  they  become  vague,  con- 
fused, and  at  length  fade  out  of  re- 
collection. In  France  memory 
hardly  goes  beyond  the  Revolu- 
tion. It  is  "  a  sort  of  chronological 
landmark,  the  only  one,  beside  the 
reigns  of  some  modern  sovereigns 
and  the  war  of  1870,  which  the 
people  really  knows "  (Sebillot, 
Folklore  de  France,  1904-7,  iv. 
379).  All  beyond  is  vague  or  for- 
gotten. "  Before  the  Revolution  " 
conveys  the  utmost  antiquity. 

Some  American  Indian  traditions 
go  back  to  the  events  of  the  17th 
century.  They  are  generally  pre- 
sented under  more  or  less  romantic 
guise,  and  they  cannot  be  depended 
on.  The  Wyandots  suffered  a  very 
great  disaster  about  the  years 
1648-50 :  they  were  massacred, 
and  the  tribe  was  almost  totally 
extinguished  by  the  Iroquois.  It 
might  be  supposed  that  so  terrible 
an  experience  would  have  been 
deeply  impressed  on  the  minds  of 
the  people.  So  far,  however,  is  this 
from  being  the  case  that  "  practi- 
cally nothing  seems  to  have  been 
remembered "  (Bar beau,  Huron 
and  Wyandot  Mythology,  1915). 

Instances  like  those  cited  might 
be  multiplied  indefinitely.  They 
render  it  impossible  to  rely  upon 
folklore  to  transmit  a  know- 
ledge of  events.  What  it  does 
transmit  is  a  record  of  the  men- 
tality of  past  generations  and  of 
earlier  stages  of  civilization.  Such 
a  record  is  transmitted  not  merely 
by  tale  and  song  and  saying,  but 


also — and  perhaps  still  better — by 
game,  institution,  periodical  ob- 
servances, and  the  more  intimate 
doings  and  cautions  of  daily  and 
family  life,  as  well  as  by  the 
shapes  taken  by  the  beliefs  in  the 
supernatural  and  the  uncanny.  The 
problem  for  students  of  folklore  is 
to  unravel  them,  to  compare 
them  with  familiar  phenomena 
elsewhere,  and  to  assign  to  each  of 
them  its  place  and  meaning  in 
human  evolution.  See  The  Hand- 
book of  Folklore,  new  ed.,  by  Miss 
C.  S.  Burne,  1914,  and  the  works 
there  enumerated  in  Appendix  D. 

Folk-Lore  Society.  British 
society  formed  with  the  object  of 
collecting  and  preserving  the  relics 
of  folklore.  It  was  founded  in' 
1878,  and  publishes  a  quarterly 
journal,  Folk-Lore,  and  also  occa- 
sional volumes  and  periodical 
Transactions.  It  meets  at  Univer- 
sity College,  Gower  Street,  W.C., 
and  the  address  of  the  secretary  is 
4,  New  Square,  Lincoln's  Inn,  W.C. 

Folkmoot.  Name  given  to  a 
moot  or  meeting  of  the  folk  or 
people.  There  were  moots  of  var- 
ious kindsin  medieval  times,  e.g.  the 
shiremoot.  Theoretically  all  free- 
men could  attend,  but  practically 
nothing  is  known  of  the  matter 
except  that  among  the  Teutonic 
tribes  there  were  meetings  of  this 
kind.  In  England,  according  to  one 
theory,  there  was  a  f  olkmoot  in  each 
of  the  little  kingdoms  until  these 
were  united  and  the  witan  became 
the  dominant  assembly.  See  Moot ; 
Witenagemot ;  consult  Primitive 
Folkmoots,  G.  L.  Gomme,  1880. 

Folk-Song.  Song  created  by 
the  common  people,  those  whose 
cultural  development  has  been 
effected,  not  by  any  formal  system 
of  training  or  education,  but 
through  the  unconscious  and  intui- 
tive exercise  of  natural  and  inborn 
faculties.  Albeit  folk-music  is  the 
creation  of  unlettered  and  techni- 
cally unskilled  musicians,  it  is  not 
on  that  account  embryonic,  i.e. 
undeveloped  or  inferior  music. 
The  difference  between  the  music  of 
the  people  and  that  of  cultivated 
musicians  is  one  of  kind,  not  of  de- 
gree, akin  rather  to  the  difference 
between  the  wild  and  the  garden 
flower — neither  of  which  can  be 
said  to  be  incomplete  or  imperfect. 

Folk-music  ordinarily  consists  of 
melody  only ;  it  is  very  seldom — 
e.g.  among  the  peasants  of  Great 
Russia — that  it  has  been  carried 
as  far  as  the  harmonic  stage.  Tech- 
nically, the  folk -tune  is  essentially 
non -harmonic  in  construction  and 
implication,  being  devised  by  those 
in  whom  the  harmonic  sense  is 
dormant.  It  is  frequently  cast  in 
one  or  other  of  the  diatonic  modes, 
more  rarely  of  the  chromatic, 


POLLEN 


3230 


FOMOR1AN 


and  occasionally  in  the  major, 
but  never  in  the  minor  mode  ;  and 
it  is  free  in  its  rhythm,  metrically  ir- 
regular, often  in  five-time  and  other 
compound  measures.  Aesthetically, 
the  characteristic  of  the  folk-tune  is 
its  transparent  sincerity,  freshness, 
spontaneity,  naivete,  and  directness 
of  statement. 

These  considerations,  coupled 
with  the  fact  that  folk-tunes  are 
invariably  anonymous,  have  led 
to  speculative  theories  concerning 
their  derivation.  Some  experts 
maintain  that  folk-songs,  like 
other  songs,  were  composed  in 
the  past  by  individuals,  and  have 
been  handed  down  more  or  less  in- 
correctly by  oral  tradition,  i.e.  that 
the  folk-song  is  not  a  genuine  wild 
flower,  but  merely  a  garden  escape. 
Others  contend  that  folk-songs  are 
the  creation,  not  of  individuals,  but 
of  homogeneous  groups  or  com- 
munities ;  that  the  process  of  oral 
tradition  has  been  responsible,  not 
only  for  their  preservation,  but  for 
the  course  of  their  development, 
and,  in  a  sense,  for  their  actual 
creation  ;  that  the  alterations  un- 
consciously made  by  individual 
singers  have  at  every  stage  of  the 
evolution  of  the  folk-song  been 
weighed  and  tested  by  the  com- 
munity and  accepted  or  rejected 
by  their  verdict ;  and  that  the  life- 
history  of  the  folk-song  has,  there- 
fore, been  one  of  continuous 
growth  ever  approximating  to  a 
form  congenial  to  the  taste  of  the 
community  and  expressive  of  its 
feelings,  aspirations,  and  ideals. 

The  weakness  of  the  individual- 
istic theory  is  that  it  fails  to  ac- 
count not  only  for  the  anonymity 
of  the  folk-song,  but  also  for  its 
distinctive  national  flavour,  which 
is,  perhaps,  the  most  characteristic 
and  most  valuable  of  its  many 
peculiar  qualities.  It  is  because 
folk-song  is  pre-eminently  a 
national  utterance  that  its  preser- 
vation is  essential  to  the  musical 
well-being  of  the  nation  of  which  it 
is  the  natural  musical  expression. 
No  nation  has  suffered  more  than 
England  through  the  failure  to 
realize  the  necessity  of  maintaining 
a  close  connexion  between  its  folk 
and  its  art  music,  as  may  be  seen 
by  contrasting  the  foremost  posi- 
tion which  the  country  held  in 
musical  Europe  prior  to  Purcell, 
with  the  humble  place  to  which  ?t 
has  since  been  relegated. 

Fortunately  for  the  future 
history  of  English  music,  the 
efforts  that  have  been  made  since 
the  beginning  of  the  century  to 
collect  and  record  its  popular  music 
have  been  attended  with  a  success 
far  greater  than,  in  the  circum- 
stances, could  have  been  expected. 
In  this  all-important  work  the 


English  Folk  Song  Society,  founded 
in  1898,  has  played  a  leading  part, 
having  already  recorded  in  its 
Journal  several  thousand  authentic 
folk-songs.  In  addition,  several 
selections  of  harmonised  folk-songs 
have  been  published  by  musicians 
and  collectors,  e.g.  Lucy  Broad- 
wood,  Ralph  Vaughan  Williams, 
George  Butterworth,  and  Cecil 
Sharp.  Cecil  J.  Sharp 

Follen,  KARL  (1795-1840). 
German  poet.  Born  at  Ramrod, 
Hesse,  Sept.  5,  1795,  his  father 
was  a  lawyer.  He  was  educated  at 
the  university  of  Giessen  and 
became  a  teacher  of  law,  but  his 
revolutionary  ideas  made  it  neces- 
sary for  him  to  betake  himself  to 
Switzerland  and  then  to  the  U.S.A. 
He  became  a  professor  of  German 
at  Harvard  and  later  a  Unitarian 
minister  at  Lexington.  In  Jan., 
1840,  he  lost  his  life  when  on  a 
burning  steamer.  He  is  known  by 
his  patriotic  songs.  His  brother, 
August  Ludwig  Follen  (1794-1855), 
was  also  a  poet. 

Follicle  (Lat.  folliculus,  little 
bag).  In  anatomy,  a  minute  gland 
or  sac  such  as  the  hair-follicles  of 
the  skin.  In  botany,  a  dry 
dehiscent  seed  case,  consisting  of 
one  carpel,  which  opens  along  the 
ventral  suture. 

Follies,  THE.  Pierrot  troupe 
which  achieved  popularity  in 
London  between  1907  and  1912. 
The  Follies  owed  their  success 
largely  to  the  personality  of 
H.  G.  Pelissier,  "  an  admirable 
parodist,  not  only  of  words,  and  of 
actions,  but  above  all  of  music." 
Potted  Plays,  a  series  of  burlesques 
of  contemporary  productions,  were 
a  popular  feature. 

Folio  wing-- up  System.  Name 
given  in  business  to  the  method  by 
which  possible  buyers  have  the 
merits  of  goods  brought  before 
them  more  than  once,  by  means  of 
the  post.  It  was  developed  in  the 
United  States,  where  the  selling  of 
goods  through  the  post  is  on  a  very 
large  scale,  and  was  soon  taken  up 
in  Great  Britain.  The  system  is 
worked  from  a  card  index  con- 
taming  the  names  of  possible  cus- 
tomers ;  these  receive  a  first  letter ; 
after  a  time  another  follows,  and 
then  possibly  others,  until  business 
results  or  the  name  is  crossed  off 
as  hopeless.  See  Advertising. 

Folly.  Name  given  generally  to 
a  building  for  which  there  appears 
to  be  no  particular  use  or  reason. 
The  term  is  of  twofold  origin  and 
derives  from  both  the  French  word 
folie — meaning  a  pleasance,  a 
delight,  or  a  whimsical  phantasy, 
and  as  a  rule  applied  to  garden - 
pavilions,  belvederes,  or  look-out 
towers — and  from  a  castle  built  in 
the  Welsh  marches  by  Hubert  de 


Burgh.  He  had  scarce  completed  it 
when,  under  the  terms  of  a  treaty 
with  the  Welsh,  he  was  obliged  to 
demolish  the  fortress.  This  futility 
was  styled  "Hubert's  Folly." 

A  typical  instance  of  what  the 
rustic  calls  a  folly  is  the  Folly  Gate 
of  Brookmans  Park,  near  Hatfield, 
an  embattled  red-brick  structure  of 
imposing  design,  thought  to  have 
been  erected  by  Sir  Jeremy 
Sambrooke  in  the  18th  century. 
"  Roebuck's  Folly  "  in  the  grounds 
of  Midford  Park,  near  Bath,  is  said 
to  have  been  built  in  1700  to  com- 
memorate the  winning  of  a  fortune 
by  the  ace  of  clubs.  The  Farmers' 
Folly,  a  pillar  erected  at  Alnwick 
in  1816  by  the  tenants  of  the  duke 
of  Northumberland,  to  testify  to 
their  appreciation  of  him,  was  com- 
pleted by  the  duke  at  his  own 
expense.  Sham  Castle,  or  "  Allen's 
Folly,"  overlooking  Bath,  was 
built  in  1760  by  Ralph  Allen.  The 
palatial  building  erected  at  Font- 
hill,  Wiltshire,  by  the  author  of 
Vathek,  is  sometimes  referred  to 
as  Beckford's  Folly. 

Folquet  of  Marseilles  (c.  1150- 
1231).  Provencal  troubadour.  He 
was  the  son  of  a  merchant  from 
Genoa  settled  at  Marseilles.  His 
few  surviving  poems  show  his 
amorous  and  passionate,  disposi- 
tion ;  his  verses  won  him  the 
admiring  friendship  of  distin- 
guished men  and  gained  him  a 
place  in  Dante's  Paradise  (Book 
ix).  He  became  abbot  of  Le 
Toronet,  Provence,  in  1198,  and 
seven  years  later  was  made  bishop 
of  Toulouse.  With  Simon  de 
Montf ort  he  fanatically  persecuted 
the  Albigenses. 

Fomalhaut  (Arab,  fum  al  hut, 
mouth  of  the  fish).  Star  Alpha  in 
the  constellation  of  Piscis  Austra- 
lis,  the  southern  fish.  It  is  a  star 
of  the  first  magnitude,  and  one  of 
the  four  ancient  royal  stars.  It 
can  be  seen  low  down  the  southern 
horizon  in  Great  Britain  in  Sept. 
Pron.  Fo-ma-16. 

Fomentation  (Lat.  fovere,  to 
warm).  Fold  of  boracic  lint  or  simi- 
lar material,  wrung  out  in  boiling 
water  and  applied  to  relieve  pain  or 
inflammation,  or  to  assist  the  dis- 
charge of  pus.  It  should  be  covered 
with  jaconette,  or  oil  silk,  and 
cotton  wool,  in  order  to  retain  the 
heat  as  long  as  possible,  and  re- 
newed every  three  or  four  hours . 

Fpmorian  (Goidelic,  sea-people, 
or  giants).  Legendary  name  of  an 
early  Irish  race.  They  are  claimed 
by  some  as  Gaelic  spirits  of  dark- 
ness and  the  sea,  by  others  as  an 
echo  of  the  Viking  age.  Archaeo- 
logy, however,  points  to  early 
arrivals  of  Nordic  "  giants  "  from 
the  Hebrides,  and  of  early  voyagers 
from  the  Mediterranean. 


FONCK 


3231 


FONT 


Fonck,  LIEUTENANT  (b.  1890). 
French  airman.  During  the  Great 
War  he  became  known  by  his 
exploits  in  bringing  down  German 
aeroplanes.  He  took  up  flying  in 
1912,  began  his  career  as  a  military 
airman  in  the  observation  service, 
and,  having  transferred  to  the 
battleplane  service,  brought  down 
his  first  German  aeroplane  on  Aug. 
6,  1916.  On  May  9,  1918,  in  the 
region  of  Montdidier,  he  brought 
down  six  German  biplanes.  This 
success  carried  him  to  the  head  of 
the  fighting  arm  of  the  French 
flying  service,  displacing  Nun- 
gesser.  He  fought  with  the  British 
airmen  in  Flanders  and  was 
awarded  the  D.C.M.  and  M.C.  Just 
before  the  armistice  he  had  brought 
down  in  all  75  German  aeroplanes. 

Fond  du  Lac.  City  of  Wiscon- 
sin, U.S.A.,  the  co.  seat  of  Fond 
du  Lac  co.  At  the  head  of  Lake 
Winnebago,  59  m.  N.N.W.  of  Mil- 
waukee, it  is  served  by  the  Chicago, 
Milwaukee  &  St.  Paul  and  other 
rlys.  It  contains  the  Grafton 
Hall  girls'  school,  a  state  women's 
reformatory,  a  public  library,  and 
two  parks.  The  industries  include 
tanning,  and  the  manufacture  of 
machinery,  lumber  products, 
motor-cars,  carriages,  and  flour. 
Settled  about  1836,  it  received  a 
city  charter  in  1852.  Pop.  21,485 

Fondi  (anc.  Fundi).  City  of 
Italy,  in  the  prov.  of  Caserta.  On 
the  Appian  Way,  11  m.  N.E.  of 
Terracina,  it  is  enclosed  by  crumb- 
ling walls.  Among  its  buildings  are 
a  cathedral,  and  a  Dominican  con- 
vent in  which  Thomas  Aquinas 
dwelt.  Fundi  was  a  Volscian  town 
of  some  importance.  It  came  under 
the  sway  of  the  popes  in  the  8th 
century,  and  suffered  at  the  hands 
of  Barbarossa  in  1534.  Fondi  lies 
in  a  fertile  district,  and  in  ancient 
times  was  celebrated  for  its  wine. 
Pop.  11,378. 

Fonsagrada  (Sp.,  sacred  foun 
tain).  Town  of  Spain,  in  the  prov 
of  Lugo.  It  stands  on  the  slopes  of 
the  Cantabrian  Mts.,  at  an  alt.  of 
3,166  ft.,  26  m.  N.E.  of  Lugo.  It 
is  a  mart  for  local  agricultural  pro- 
duce, and  carries  on  flour-milling 
and  the  manufacture  of  frieze  and 
linen.  Pop.  19,219. 

Fonseca.  Gulf  or  arm  of  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  It  penetrates  inland 
to  a  depth  of  40  m.  between  Hon 
duras,  Salvador,  and  Nicaragua. 
Two  volcanoes — Conchagua  and 
Coseguina — stand  on  either  side  of 
its  entrance,  which  is  21  m.  wide. 
On  the  small  island  of  Tigre  in  the 
gulf  is  the  port  of  Amapali,  a 
name  by  which  the  gulf  is  some- 
times called. 

Fonseca,  MANGEL  DEODORO  DA 
(1827-92).  First  president  of 
Brazil.  Born  at  Alagoas,  Brazil, 


Aug.  5,  1827,  he 
joined  the  army 
in  1849.  He  was 
engaged,  1864- 
70,  in  the  fight- 
ing  against 
Montevideo  and 
Paraguay,  and 
rose  to  the  rank 


Manoel  da  Fonseca.       , 

Brazilian  president     1  hough    sym- 
pathetic     with 

the  republican  party  he  was  a  per- 
sonal friend  of  the  emperor,  Dom 
Pedro,  and  was,  188G,  appointed 
governor  of  the  province  of  Rio 
Grande  do  Sul.  Becoming  more 
closely  identified  with  the  repub- 
lican movement,  he  was  recalled ; 
he  headed  the  insurrection  whicli 
was  followed  by  the  establishment 
of  the  republic  of  Brazil.  He  was 
appointed  its  first  president  in  Feb., 
1891,  but  resigned  in  Nov.  He  died 
on  Aug.  23,  1892. 

Font  (Lat./ows,  stem  font-,  foun- 
tain). In  eccles.  architecture,  the 
basin  for  the  rite  of  baptism.  Con- 
structed of  either  marble,  stone, 
or  lead,  it  was  placed  in  a  part  of 
the  church  reserved  for  the  pur- 


pose, or  in  a  separate  baptistery. 
Since  total  immersion  was  cus- 
tomary in  the  early  Christian 
baptism,  fonts  were  of  consider- 
able size.  Gothic  fonts  were  often 
covered  by  a  lid  of  elaborate  con- 
struction. The  church  of  Notre 
Dame  at  Hal,  Belgium,  retains  a 
font  with  a  heavy  brass  cover  of 
this  type,  which  is  removable  by 
a  crane  attached  to  the  wall. 

Norman  fonts  are  square  or 
round,  with  massive  pedestals,  and 
are  often  ornamented  with  sculp- 
tured figures  or  other  decoration; 
there  were  few  sculptured  fonts 
before  this  period,  the  Saxon 
examples  being  mostly  plain  tub- 
shaped  structures  made,  in  the 
early  stages,  of  wood.  A  few  pre- 
Norman  fonts,  however,  are  rudely 
sculptured.  During  the  Gothic 
period  fonts  followed  the  line  of 
general  architectural  development. 
Thus  the  pedestals  in  the  13th 
century  are  often  made  up  of 
clustered  shafts.  Most  of  the  ex- 
tant font  covers  in  Great  Britain 
belong  to  the  17th  century,  but  a 
few  very  beautiful  covers  were 
added  to  existing  fonts  during  the 


Font  1  Carved  Norman  example  in  Hereford  Cathedral.  2.  Font  in  Henry 
VII's  Chapel,  Westminster  Abbey.  3.  Marble  font,  1425-32,  with  bronze 
figures  by  Jacopo  della  Quercia,  baptistery  of  S.  Giovanni,  Siena.  4.  Marble 
font,  1546,  and  bronze  cover  with  statue  of  S.  John  Baptist  by  F.  Segala,  1565, 
S.  Mark's,  Venice 


3232 


Georgian  era.  Such  is  the  canopy  to 
the  13th  century  font  at  Beverley 
Minster,  which  is  fashioned  in  the 
Renaissance  manner  with  cherub 
heads  and  other  ornament. 

Fontainebleau.  Town  and 
commune  of  France,  in  the  dept. 
of  Seine-et-Marne.  Lying  37  m. 
S.E.  of  Paris  on  the  Paris-Lyons 
rly.,  and  about  If  m.  from  the  left- 
bank  of  the  Seine,  it  is  famed 
chiefly  for  its  palace  and  for  the 
forest  of  Fontainebleau  which 
surrounds  it.  The  town  has  manu- 
factures of  porcelain  and  gloves, 
paving-stone  quarries,  and  grows 
a  fine  type  of  dessert  grapes.  A 
favourite  Parisian  resort  during  the 
summer  season,  it  has  an  important 
school  of  military  engineering  and 
artillery.  Pop.  14,700. 

The  palace  of  Fontainebleau 
was  founded  probably  by  Robert 
II  of  France  about  998,  and  re- 
built by  Louis  VII.  His  building 
was  demolished  by  Francis  I,  who 
built  a  new  palace  on  the  same 
site,  which  was  in  turn  expanded 
and  ornamented  by  almost  each 
successive  monarch,  and  became 
the  favourite  dwelling-place  of 
Napoleon  I.  It  was  also  much 
altered  and  decorated  by  Louis 
Philippe  between  1837-40.'  It  re- 
mains one  of  the  finest  buildings 
in  France,  no  less  for  its  internal 
than  its  external  and  garden 
beauty.  There  are  four  principal 
courts  forming  the  main  structure 
the  Cour  du  Cheval  Blanc,  Cour 
de  la  Fontaine,  Cour  Ovale,  Cour 
d' Henri  IV.  The  staircase  of 
Louis  XIII,  the  gallery  of  Francis 
I,  the  banqueting  hall,  and  many 
paintings  and  tapestries  are  nota- 
ble. The  palace  has  seen  many 
historic  events,  including  the  sig- 
nature of  the  revocation  of  the 
edict  of  Nantes,  1685,  and  the 
abdication  of  Napoleon  I,  1814. 

The  forest,  which  is  a  state  pro- 
perty, has  an  area  of  some  42,500 
acres,  and  a  circumference  of 
nearly  57  m.  Its  beautiful  mixed 
woods,  covering  broken  and  often 
rugged  ground,  have  attracted 
many  artists  to  the  smaller  vil- 


FONTANELLES 

Fontana,  DOMENICO  (1543- 
1007).  Italian  architect,  Born  at 
Mili,  Lake  Como,  he  studied  at 
Rome,  where  he  obtained  the 
patronage  of  Cardinal  Montalto 
(Pope  Sixtus  V),  -becoming  ponti- 
lical  architect  under  him  in  1585. 
His  works  included  the  Lateran 
Palace,  the  N.  transept  of  S.  John 
Lateran,  Rome,  and  the  lantern  of 
the  main  dome  of  S.  Peter's  (ac- 
cording to  Michelangelo's  design). 
After  Sixtus's  death,  1590,  he 
became  royal  architect  at  Naples, 
where  he  built  the  Palazzo  Reale. 
and  where  he  died.  » 

Fontane,  THEODOB  (1819-98). 
German  novelist  and  poet.  He  was 
born  at  Neu  Ruppin,  Brandenburg, 
Dec.  30,  1819.  He  first  attracted 
notice  by  his  romantic  ballads : 
later,  as  novelist,  he  was  known 
as  an  uncompromising  realist. 
Some  of  Fontane's  more  notable 
stories  were  Vor  dem  Sturm,  1878  ; 
Stine,  1890;  Der  Stechlin,  1899; 
and  Cecile,  1900.  Having  visited 
Britain  three  times,  he  wrote  Ein 
Sommer  in  London,  1854,  and  in 
1860  two  vols.  of  letters  and 
sketches  concerning  England  and 
Scotland.  He  acted  as  war  corre- 


Fontainebleau.    1.  Napoleon's  throne.     2.  Bedroom  of  the  Empress  Josephine. 

3.  Gallery  of  Henry  II,  or  ballroom,  18th  century.     4.  Cour  du  Chevai  Blanc, 

where  Napoleon  bade  farewell  to  men  of  the  Old  Guard,  April  20,  1814 


lages  in  and  near  them,  notably  to 
Barbizon  (q.v. ).  It  suffered  severely 
trom  fires  in  1895  and  1911. 

Fontainebleau  Sandstone. 
Division  of  the  Oligocene  system 
of  rocks  developed  near  Paris.  It 
is  notable  on  account  of  the  re- 
markable purity  of  the  sands, 
which  are  composed  almost  en- 
tirely of  water-clear  quartz,  with 
high  silica-content  (over99'65  p.c.), 
and  of  great  value  in  glass -making. 

Fontaine  Notre  Dame.  Village 
of  France,  in  the  dept.  of  Nord. 
It  is  on  the  Bapaume-Cambrai  road, 
2£m.  W.  of  Cambrai.  Captured  on 
Nov.  21,  1917,  by  the  British  in 
the  first  battle  of  Cambrai,  it  was 
recaptured  by  the  Germans  in 
their  counter-attack,  and  finally 
regained  by  the  British  in  Sept., 
1918.  See  Cambrai,  Battles  of. 


spondent  in  the  Slesvig-Holstein 
campaign  and  in  the  Franco-Prus- 
sian War.  He  published  his  auto- 
biography in  1898,  and  died  at 
Berlin,  Sept.  20,  1898.  See  Theo- 
dor  Fontane :  A  Critical  Study, 
Kenneth  Hayens,  1920. 

Fontanelles  (Fr.,  little  foun- 
tains). Soft  spaces  present  in  the 
skull  of  the  infant.  The  an- 
terior fontanelle,  the  largest,  is  a 
quadrilateral  area  occupying  the 
place  where  later  the  angles  of  the 
two  frontal  and  the  two  parietal, 
or  side,  bones  of  the  head  will  unite. 
The  posterior  fontanelle  lies  be- 
tween the  posterior  angles  of  the 
parietals  and  the  occipital  bone 
which  forms  the  back  part  of  the 
skull.  The  lateral  fontanelles,  two 
on  each  side,  are  small  and  irregular 
in  shape.  The  anterior  fontanelle 


FONTANES 


3233 


FONTEVRAULT 


does  not  completely  ossify  until  a 
year  or  more  after  birth  ;  the  others 
close  shortly  before  or  after  birth. 

Fontanes,  Louis,  MAKQUIS  DE 
(1757-1821).  French  politician 
and  poet.  Born  at  Niort,  March  6, 
1757,  he  was  prominent  as  a  jour- 
nalist during  the  Revolution.  Later 
he  became  an  ardent  supporter  of 
Napoleon,  but  ultimately  went 
over  to  the  Bourbons.  His  poetry 
belongs  to  the  classic  school,  but  is 
not  lacking  in  premonitions  of 
romanticism.  He  died  in  Paris, 
March  17,  1821. 

Font  de  Gaume.  Palaeolithic 
cave,  165  yds.  long,  in  Dordogne, 
France.  It  contains  many  mural 
paintings,  monochrome  and  poly- 
chrome, of  the  Magdalenian  period, 
some  of  them  masterpieces  of  pre- 
historic art.  The  bison,  horse, 
reindeer,  mammoth,  and  rhino- 
ceros are  depicted,  besides  a  human 
face  and  hands,  and  designs  of  huts. 

Fontenay  le  Comte.  Town  of 
France,  in  the  dept.  of  Vendee. 
It  stands  on  the  river  Vendee,  30  m. 
from  La  Rochelle.  The  chief  build- 
ings are  the  churches  of  Notre 
Dame  and  S.  Jean,  and  there  are 
also  some  fine  old  houses.  There 
are  some  manufactures,  and  also  a 
trade  in  horses,  cattle,  and  agri- 
cultural produce,  the  fairs  being 
important.  An  old  town,  Fontenay 
was  in  Poitou  during  the  Middle 
Ages.  A  fortified  town,  it  was 
several  times  taken  and  retaken, 
and  there  was  also  fighting  here 
during  the  Revolution.  Pop.  9,750. 

Fontenay-sous-Bois.  Town 
of  France,  really  a  suburb  of  Paris. 
In  the  department  of  the  Seine,  it 
is  5  m.  from  the  capital,  with  which 
it  is  connected  by  tramways.  It 
lies  to  the  N.E.  of  the  Bois  de 
Vincennes.  Market  gardening  em- 


ploys many  of  the  inhabitants, 
but  the  town  is  chiefly  residential. 
Pop.  15,200. 

Fontenelle,  BERNARD  LE  BOVIER 
DE  (1657-1757).  French  author 
and  academician.  He  was  born  at 
Rouen,  Feb.  11,  1657,  living  there 
till  1687,  when  he  went  to  Paris, 
where  he  remained  till  his  death, 
Jan.  9,  1757.  His  best  work  is  to 
be  found  in  his  books  of  popular- 
ised science,  Entretiens  sur  la 
Pluralite  des  Mondes,  1686,  and 
Histoire  des  Oracles,  1687,  and  in 
his  eulogies  on  deceased  members 
of  the  Academy.  His  plays  were 
failures,  and  his  Poesies  Pastorales, 
1688,  have  little  merit. 

Fontenoy,  BATTLE  OP.  Fought 
May  11,  1745,  between  the  British, 
Dutch,  and  some  Germans  on  the 
one  side  and  the  French  on  the 
other.  The  Allies'  object  was  to 
relieve  Fontenoy,  a  fortified  village 
about  5  m.  S.E.  of  Tournai,  Bel- 
gium, then  besieged  by  the  French. 

The  French  under  Marshal  Saxe 
were  drawn  up  across  the  road 
from  Mons  along  which,  coming 
from  the  S.,  the  Allies  had  to  ad- 
vance. Obstacles  had  been  placed 
in  front,  while  on  their  right  was 
the  S^elde  and  the  fortified  village 
of  Antoing  ;  on  their  left  was  the 
wood  of  Barri.  The  Allies  under 
the  duke  of  Cumberland  arrived 
before  this  strong  position  on  the 
10th,  and  early  on  the  llth  were 
ready  for  battle.  Allied  attacks 
were  repulsed,  the  Dutch  in  the 
centre  failing  to  take  Fontenoy. 

After  some  delay  the  British  and 
Hanoverian  infantry  made  their 
advance.  Lord  Charles  Hay  of 
the  Guards  greeted  the  enemy  with 
lively  taunts,  and  the  two  lines 
opened  fire.  At  closer  quarters 
the  fight  was  continued,  and  the 


cavalry  were  drawn  into  it.  The 
British  and  Hanoverians  had  closed 
into  a  square,  but  after  repelling 
the  first  attacks  they  were  at  length 
overwhelmed  in  the  general  mObe. 
More  French  infantry  were  brought 
up  ;  the  artillery  fire  became  more 
intense,  and,  most  vital  of  all,  a 
brigade  of  Irish  bore  down  upon 
the  Allies.  The  square  was  broken, 
but  they  withdrew  from  the  field 
in  good  order,  although  they  left 
behind  some  of  their  guns.  The 
losses  were  about  equal,  something 
like  7,000  on  each  side.  The  British 
and  their  allies  had  about  45,000 
men  engaged ;  the  French  somewhat 
more.  A  monument  at  the  village 
commemorates  the  Irish  brigade. 

Fontes villa.  Township  of  Por- 
tuguese E.  Africa,  in  the  territory 
of  the  Mozambique  Company. 
Now  known  as  the  Ponte  do  Pun- 
gue,  it  stands  near  the  mouth  of 
the  Pungue  river,  36  m.  N.W.  of 
Beira,  and  is  served  by  the  Beira- 
Mashonaland  Rly.  The  Pungue 
river  is  here  crossed  by  a  rly. 
bridge  about  420ft.  long. 

Fontevrault  OR  FONTEVBAUD 
(Well  of  S.  Evrault).  Town  of 
France,  in  Maine-et-Loire  dept.  It 
is  on  the  Vienne,  10  m.  S.E.  of 
Saumur.  Here,  in  1099,  Robert 
d'Arbrissel  (1047-1117)  founded  a 
great  Benedictine  abbey  and  an 
order  after  which  it  was  named. 
The  abbey,  which  at  one  time 
housed  300  nuns  and  200  monks 
under  the  rule  of  an  abbess,  existed 
down  to  the  time  of  the  Revolu- 
tion. The  church,  consecrated  by 
Calixtus  II  in  1119,  contains  re- 
cumbent statues  of  Henry  II  of 
England  and  his  queen  Eleanor 
of  Aquitaine,  Richard  Coeur  de 
Lion,  and  Isabella  of  Angouleme, 
widow  of  King  John.  In  1804  the 


Fontenoy.    The  French  and  the  Allies  confronting  each  other  before  the  battle.   From  a  rainting  by  F.  Philippoteaux 

South  Kensington  Museum 


1M     4 


FONTHILL 


3234 


FOOD 


abbey  buildings  were  converted  into 
a  prison.  In  1910,  when  the  abbey 
church  was  restored,  the  tomba  of 
Henry  II  of  England,  his  wife 
Matilda,  and  his  son  Richard  I 
were  discovered.  See  Fontevrault, 
son  Histoire  et  ses  Monuments. 
L.  A.  Bosseboeuf,  1890. 


Fontevrault.     Opened  vaults  in  which 

the  remains  of  two  English    kings 

were  discovered  in  1910 

Fonthill  OB  FONTHILL  GIFFARD. 
Parish  and  village  near  Hindon, 
Wiltshire,  England,  1  m.  N.E.  of 
Hindon.  William  Beckford  (q.v.), 
who  settled  here  in  1796,  built 
Fonthill  Abbey  at  a  cost  of  over 
£250,000,  and  disposed  of  it  and 
the  greater  part  of  its  contents  in 
1822  for  £330,000.  A  second 
Fonthill  Abbey  was  built  on  the 
same  site  by  the  2nd  marquess  of 
Westminster.  The  church  of  Holy 
Trinity,  built  1866,  replaced  that 
erected  by  Beckford  in  1748. 

Fonvielle,  WILFRID  DE  (1824- 
1914).  French  aeronaut  and 
author.  Born  in  Paris,  July  24, 
1824,  he  early  showed  a  genius 
for  mathematics,  and  became  a 
teacher.  His  opposition  to  Louis 
Napoleon  during  the  revolution  of 
184S  caused  his  banishment  to 
Algeria  after  the  coup  d'etat  of 
1851,  but  he  returned  at  the  am- 
nesty (1859),  engaged  in  politics, 
and  studied  aeronautics.  His  two 
days'  balloon  ascent  of  1868  in- 
augurated a  series  of  ascents,  in 
many  of  which  he  was  associated 
with  Tissandier.  During  the  siege 
of  Paris,  1870,  he  made  his  escape 
in  a  balloon,  and  went  to  London, 
where  he  gave  political  lectures. 
He  died  April  29,  1914. 

Foochow  OR  FUCHOW.  Treaty 
port  of  China,  capital  of  the  prov. 
of  Fo-Kien.  It  stanols  hi  a  plain 
surrounded  by  hills  on  the  river 
Min,  36  m.  from  its  mouth.  The 


Foochow.    General  view  of  the  town  and  river  Min,  from  above  the  European 
quarter  on  the  island  of  Nan-tai 


town  is  enclosed  by  old  and  crumb- 
ling walls,  pierced  by  seven  gate- 
ways crowned  by  towers.  The 
suburbs  lie  outside  the  walls,  and 
are  almost  as  extensive  as  the  town 
itself.  The  river  is  spanned  by  the 
bridge  of  Ten  Thousand  Ages, 
which  is  supported  by  stone  pillars, 
and  is  a  marvellous  example  of 
Chinese  engineering ;  it  connects 
with  the  island  of  Nan-tai,  the 
European  quarter.  The  bridge  is 


supposed  to  be  over  800  years  old. 
There  are  shipbuilding  yards,  an 
arsenal,  a  dry  dock,  numerous 
wharves,  and  a  school  of  naviga- 
tion. The  leading  industries  are 
connected  with  cotton  goods,  tim- 
ber, tea,  paper,  matches,  spices, 
cereals,  and  ores,  while  there  is  a 
large  trade  with  Japan  and  the 
maritime  provinces  of  China.  Foo- 
chow was  opened  to  foreign  trade 
in  1842.  Pop.  624,000. 


FOOD:  ITS  VARIETIES  AND  VALUES 

W.  A.  Brend,  M.D..  Author  of  Health  and  the  State 

The  article  Diet  deals  with  another  aspect  of  this  question.     See  also 

Better ;  Cheese ;  Mutton ;  Pork,  and  the  articles  that  follow  on  Food 

Inspection  and  Food  Control ;  Digestion 


Food  is  the  term  applied  to  the 
nutritive  matter  taken  by  animals 
of  all  kinds  to  sustain  life.  The 
various  classes  of  food  vary  very 
much  in  their  constituents  and  in 
their  value  as  nourishment.  The 
principal  nutritive  constituent  of 
meat  is  protein,  the  percentage 
varying  hi  different  kinds  of  meat, 
and  also  with  the  amount  of  fat. 
The  percentage  composition  of 
lean  beef,  according  to  Bischoff  and 
Voit,  is  as  follows  : 
Protein  .  18-4 

Gelatin  1-6 

Fat    ..  0-9 

Extractives  1-9 

Ash  ..  1-3 

Water  75-9 

In  bacon,  on  the  other  hand,  there 
is  65  p.c.  of  fat,  and  only  about 
8  p.c.  of  protein.  The  digesti- 
bility of  meat  on  the  whole  is 
lessened  by  cooking,  hence  under- 
done meat  is  often  the  most  ap- 
propriate form  for  dyspeptics.  The 
breast  of  chicken  is  the  most  diges- 
tible form  of  meat.  Veal  is  not  so 
digestible  as  beef  or  mutton,  and 
pork  is  still  less  digestible.  Tripe 
is  a  valuable,  readily  digested  food. 
Gelatin  is  not  capable  of  forming 
new  tissues,  but  is  a  source  of  heat 
and  energy. 

In  fish  the  chief  nutrient  con- 


stituents are  protein  and  fat, 
which  vary  largely  in  amount  and 
proportion  in  different  fish.  Boiled 
herring  contains  about  26  p.o.  of 
protein  and  10  p.c.  of  fat,  eels 
contain  17  p.c.  of  protein  and  17 
p.c.  of  fat,  mackerel  about  17  p.c. 
of  protein  and  7  p.c.  of  fat,  cod 
22  p.c.  of  protein  and  0'3  of  fat. 
Thin  soups,  beef-tea,  meat  ex- 
tracts, and  similar  preparations 
contain  chiefly  the  flavouring  con- 
stituents of  meat,  and  very  little 
nutritive  material.  They  possess 
dietetic  value,  inasmuch  as  they 
stimulate  the  flow  of  the  gastric 
juices,  and  experience  has  shown 
that  a  warm  drink  containing  a 
meat  extract  possesses  a  certain 
amount  of  stimulating  power 
when  a  person  is  fatigued  and  cold. 
The  average  percentage  of  com- 
position of  milk  is  as  follows  : 
Water  ..  ..  87  to  88 

Protein     ..     ..  3  to  3'5 

Sugar       . .     . .  4  to  5 

Fat 3*5  to  4'5 

Mineral  matters  0-7 

We  see  from  this  table  that  milk 
contains  a  certain  amount  of  all 
the  essential  constituents.  It  is 
easily  digested,  and  is  therefore 
appropriate  for  invalids,  for  whom 
it  may  often  with  advantage  be 
diluted  with  lime  or  barley-water. 


FOOD 

3235                                                                                         FOOD 

Milk  straight  from  a  healthy  cow 

dospenn,    some    being    richest   in     half  its  weight  of  wheat  flour,  can 

is  a  sterile  fluid,  but  during  the 

starch   ("whites"),   while   others     be  made  into  good  loaves.    Rice  is 

process  of  transit  and  distribution 

("seconds")     contain    a     higher     poor  in  protein,  fat,  and  mineral 

from    the    country   to    the    town 
consumer,    there    is    considerable 

percentage    of    gluten,    a   protein     matter.   It  contains  little  cellulose, 
found  within  the  endosperm.     In     and  for  this  reason  is  very  corn- 

risk  of  it  becoming  contaminated 

some  flours,  special  processes  are     pletcly  absorbed  in  the  intestine, 

with  dirt  and,  in  unsanitary  sur- 

employed by  which  the  germ  is     which  renders  it  a  valuable  form  of 

roundings,    infected    with    micro- 

retained and   the  nutritive  value     food  in  some  diseases. 

organisms.  Milk  may  thus  spread 

of  the  bread  increased  ;   in  others,         Peas,  beans  and  lentils  are  rich 

epidemics  of  diphtheria,  typhoid, 

certain  nutritive  elements  in  the     jn  nitrogenous  material,  95  p.c.  of 

and    other   diseases.       It   can    be 

bran  are  also  extracted.      Flour,     which  is  in  the  form  of  protein. 

sterilised  by  boiling,  but  this  tends 

mixed    with    water    and    baked,     They  contain  a  large  amount  of 

to    diminish    its    nutritive    value. 

forms  ship's  biscuit.     This,  how-     carbohydrate,  but  are  poor  in  fat. 

Pasteurisation,  by  which  the  milk 

ever,  is  hard,  difficult  to  masticate,     The  nutritive  value  of  these  foods 

is  kept  at  a  temperature  of  about 

and     not    very    digestible.       By     is  high,  but  they  are  not  readily 

70°  C.  for  20  to  30  mins.,  destroys 

fermenting  dough  with  yeast,  gas     digested.     Potatoes  are  very  rioh 

most  forms  of  bacteria,  but  is  not 

is  developed  in  the  mass,  and  thus     in  starch,  and  are  most  digestible 

so  certain  a  method  of  sterilisa- 

the bread  when  baked  is  light  and     when  eaten  in  the  form  of  a  puree. 

tion  as  boiling. 

spongy  in  texture,  and  much  more     Green  vegetables,  such  as  cabbage, 

Cream    and    butter    constitute 

readily  digested.     The  percentage     spinach,  etc.,  contain  only  a  small 

easily  digested  forms  of  fat.    Mar- 

composition    of     wholemeal    and     proportion   of  nutritive   material, 

garine  is  prepared  from  animal  fat, 
and  from  vegetable  fats   derived 

whitemeal  bread,  given  by  Robert     but   play    an   important    part   in 
Hutchison,  is  as  follows  :                      digestion,   in   stimulating  the  in- 

from  nuts  and  seeds.     It  contains 

White    Wholemeal     testinal  movements,  and  also  are 

82  p.c.  of  fat,  and  is  an  excellent 

Water  ..     .             400            45-0         valuable   as   a  source   of   mineral 

digestible  nutrient  substitute  for 

Protein..     .                6-5              6-3          salts> 

butter.    It  is  considerably  cheaper 

Starch  sugar  and                                        Some  fruits,   such  as   bananas, 

than    butter,    and    there    are    no 

dextrin     .             51-2            44-8         dried  dates,  prunes,  currants,  and 

scientific     grounds     for     popular 
prejudice  against  its  use.     Cheese 

Cellulose      .               0-3              1-5         raisins,     contain     a     considerable 
Mineral  matter             1-0              1-2          amount   of   carbohydrate,    mostly 

consists  chiefly  of  the  casein  and 

The   digestibility   of   bread   de-     in  the  form  of  fruit  sugar.  They  are 

fat  of  milk.    It  is  highly  nutritive 

pends    to    a    considerable    extent     of  value  owing  to  the  presence  of 

but    somewhat    indigestible,    and 

upon  the  completeness  with  which     mineral  constituents.    Nuts  are  of 

not    suited    therefore    to    persons 

it  is  chewed  and  ground  up,  so  as     very  considerable  nutritive  value, 

with  dyspeptic  tendencies. 

to   be   easily   acted  upon   by   the     but  are  not  readily  digested. 

The  constituents  of  eggs  are  as 

saliva  and  other  digestive  juices  in         Besides  the  essential  foodstuffs 

follow  : 

the  alimentary  canal.   Bread  is  not     described     above,     certain     other 

bodies,  which  occur  onlv  in  small 

Other  Non-                             amounts  arc  necessary  in  order  to 

Water       Protein 

Fat          ^rogenous             Mineral       maintain\ealth.  These  substances, 

known  as  vitamines   have  not  yet 

White    .  ,     .  .     .  .       85-7     i       12-6 

0-25                                    0-59          been  fully  investigated.  There  are, 

Yolk      50-9           16-2 

31-75                                                      however,  several  different  forms  of 

..            •                       I     •!_     -       -fl-,.0.    a"Kc£iTin£»    /"if 

Eggs  are  highly  nutritive,  and  are 
most  digestible  when  lightly  boiled. 
Vegetable  foods  contain  a  large 

so  easily  chewed  when  moist  ;  hence     these  bodies  which  gives  rise  to 
new  bread  is  less  digestible  than     scurvy,     beriberi,     and     possibly 
stale    bread,    and    toast    is    more     rickets.    The  vitamine  which  pre- 

proportion  of  carbohydrates,  usu- 
ally present  is  the  form  of  starch 
or  sugar.       They  contain  a  little 

easily  digested  than  ordinary  bread,     vents  scurvy  is  particularly  abun- 
Bread  is  a  highly  nutritious  but     dant  in  fruit  juices  and  green  vege- 
by  no  means  perfect  food,  since  it     tables.     The  vitamine  which  pre- 

protein  and  fat. 

oontams  so  small  a  proportion  of     vents  beriberi  occurs  in  the  pen- 

A  grain  of  wheat  consists  of  a 

protein,                                                    carp  of  rice.      Wheat,  eggs,   and 

minute    germ   or  embryo,   which 
would  eventually  grow  into  a  new 
plant  ;      a  kernel   or  endosperm, 
which   makes  up   85   p.c.    of   the 
grain,    and    consists    of    nutritive 
material   for   the   growth    of    the 
young  plant  ;    and  bran,  the  outer 
protective  covering  of  the  grain, 
which  consists  mainly  of  cellulose. 

Of  other  cereals,  oats  are  rich  In     other      food      contain       varying 
nitrogenous  matter,   and   particu-     amounts  of  vitamines.    These  sub- 
larly  rich  relatively  in  fat.     The     stances  are  destroyed  or  rendered 
husk  of  oats,  however,  is  not  easily     les«  active  by  boiling  or  preserving 
removed     completely     from     the     food  ;    hence  the  importance  of  a 
kernel  :    hence,  oatmeal  is  apt  to     certain  amount  of  uncooked  food, 
contain  a  good  deal  of  cellulose,     in  the  form  of  fruit  or  vegetables, 
which  mav  act  as  a  stimulant  to     in   the   diet     See  Food   and   the 
the  intestine  where  the  movements     principles     of     Dietetics,     Robert 

The  process  of  grinding  or  milling 
is  to  reduce  the  grain  to  flour  before 
it    can  be   made  up   into  bread. 

of  the  bowel  are  sluggish,  but  is     Hutchison,  4th  ed.  1J 
apt  to  be  irritating  to  some  per-         Food,  INSPECTION  OF.    Purity  of 
sons.     Oatcake  eaten  with  butter,     the  food  supply  is  of  manifest  im- 

The  germ,   which  is  tough,   does 
not    become    broken    up,    but    is 

and  porridge  with  milk,  make  valu-     portance   to   the   well-being   of   a 
able  and  nutritious  foods.     Maize     community,  and  the  duty  of  look- 

flattened   out   by   rolling,   and   is 

also  is  as  nutritious  as  wheat,  and     ing  after  this  aspect   of  the  public 

subsequently  removed  as  "  offal," 
and  the  outer  coat  is  removed  as 
"  bran,"     "  sharps,"    and    "  mid- 
dlings," the  "  flour  "  being  derived 
only  from  the  endosperm.      Dif- 
ferent forms  of  flour  are  obtained 
from   different  layers  of   the  en- 

richer  in  fat.      Meal  made  from     health  plays  a  great  part  in  the 
maize    is    highly    nutritive    and     activities   of   various  government 
economical.       Barley    is    rich    in     departments.   In  the  United  King- 
mineral  matter,  but  comparatively     dom  there  is  a  regular  system  of 
poor  in  protein.    It  contains  little     administration  in  food  inspection 
cluten,  and  hence  does  not  make     duties  which  begins  with  Parlia- 
good  bread,  but,  when  mixed  with     ment    and    ends    with    a    local 

FOOD 

inspector  in  a  town  or  county.  The 
duties  and  powers  of  those  ap- 
pointed to  look  after  food  inspec- 
tion are  laid  down  in  various  Acts 
of  Parliament,  and  administered 
in  the  first  place  by  the  ministry  of 
health  and  the  Scottish  board 
of  health. 

The  ministry  of  health  for 
England  and  Wales  may  be 
taken  as  the  typical  department 
responsible  for  this  phase  of  ptiblic 
health  work.  It  has  a  chief  in- 
spector of  foods,  who  is  respon- 
sible for  administration.  Under 
him  are  a  number  of  other  in- 
spectors, medical  men,  largely 
travelling  inspectors,  whose  duty 
is  to  keep  in  touch  with  the  differ- 
ent parts  of  England.  They  also 
supervise  the  inspection  of  foreign 
foodstuffs  arriving  at  different 
parts.  All  these  officials  report  to 
the  chief  inspector  of  foods,  who 
in  his  turn  reports  to  the  head  of 
the  department.  Then,  outside  the 
Government  share  of  the  work, 
there  is  the  whole  army  of  public 
health  and  sanitary  officials  em- 
ployed by  counties,  towns,  or  other 
administrative  areas. 

In  a  large  town  the  official  re- 
sponsible to  the  corporation  for 
the  inspection  of  food  is  the 
medical  officer  of  health,  or,  by 
arrangement,  the  chief  sanitary 
inspector.  With  him  will  be 
possibly  a  qualified  veterinary 
surgeon,  who  inspects  particularly 
the  abattoirs,  dairies,  cowsheds, 
meat,  and  milk.  In  addition  there 
will  be  a  staff  of  expert  food 
inspectors,  who  visit  the  vaxious 
food  shops  periodically,  take 
samples  for  analysis,  and  re- 
port on  the  general  conditions  of 
their  area.  In  a  smaller  town,  all 
these  multifarious  duties  are  sup- 
posed to  be  carried  out  by  the 
medical  officer  of  health.  Large 
cities  have  a  specially  appointed 
analyst  for  checking  adulteration 
of  foodstuffs,  and,  in  smaller  towns 
or  scattered  areas,  a  number  of 
local  authorities  may  combine  in 
order  to  seciire  the  services  of  one 
analyst  between  them.  In  this  way 
there  is  a  fairly  thorough  inspection 
of  all  the  different  kinds  of  foods 
throughout  the  whole  country. 
Imported  Foodstuffs 

Special  attention  is  paid  to  im- 
ported foodstuffs.  Food  inspection 
at  the  ports  is  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  medical  officer  of 
health  of  the  port  in  question,  who 
is  assisted  by  other  expert  tech- 
nical inspectors.  It  is  their  busi- 
ness to  see,  not  merely  that  all 
foods  arriving  in  this  country  are 
in  a  condition  fit  for  human  con- 
sumption, but  also  that  only  such 
foodstuffs  come  in  as  are  per- 
mitted by  the  foreign  meat  regula- 


3236 

tions  and  other  laws  affecting  im- 
ports. In  this  latter  part  of  their 
work  the  food  inspectors  are  as- 
sisted by  H.M.  Customs. 

A  food  inspector,  apart  from 
the  heads  of  departments,  who  are 
usually  qualified  medical  men  or 
veterinary  surgeons,  requires  a 
special  training.  The  royal  com- 
mission on  tuberculosis"  recom- 
mended in  1898  that  no  person  be 
permitted  to  act  as  a  meat  in- 
spector until  he  had  passed  a 
qualifying  examination  before  such 
authority  as  may  be  prescribed  by 
the  local  government  board  or 
the  board  of  agriculture.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  in  recent  years  all 
inspectors  in  important  districts 
have  been  required  to  pass  the 
examinations  of  one  or  other  of 
the  institutions  which  teach  for 
this  purpose. 

Apart  altogether,  however,  from 
his  technical  training,  the  food 
inspector  must  have  certain  quali- 
ties, without  which  he  is  use- 
less. Outstanding  amongst  these 
is  that  of  transparent  honesty. 
Acting  in  the  interests  of  the 
public  as  he  does,  he  must  be 
fair  to  the  consumer,  producer, 
and  vendor,  and  for  this  reason  it 
is  extremely  important  that  the 
food  inspector  should  be  a  whole- 
time  official. 

Statutory  Powers 

Before  the  Great  War  the  in- 
spection of  food  in  the  United 
Kingdom  was  carried  out  under 
certain  statutory  powers  com- 
prised chiefly  in  the  Public  Health 
Act,  1875  ;  the  Public  Health  Acts 
Amendment  Act,  1890  ;  the  Public 
Health  (London)  Act,  1891  ;  the 
Sale  of  Horseflesh  Regulation  Act, 
1899;  the  Markets  and  Fairs 
Clauses  Act,  1847 ;  the  Towns 
Improvement  Clauses  Act,  1847  ; 
and  the  Foreign  Meat  regulations. 
These  various  Acts  or  sections  of 
Acts  set  forth  the  statutory  powers 
of  local  authorities,  medical  offi- 
cers, and  inspectors,  as  well  as 
dealing  with  definitions  and  the 
procedure  in  courts. 

In  addition,  a  considerable 
number  of  Acts  have  been  passed 
with  reference  to  the  adulteration 
of  food.  They  are  especially  the 
Bread  Act,  1836  ;  the  Sale  of  Food 
and  Drugs  Act.  1875,  amended  in 
1879  and  1899 ;  the  Margarine 
Act,  1887;  the  Butter  and  Mar- 
garine Act,  1907 ;  the  Public 
Health  (Regulations  as  to  Food) 
Act,  1907 ;  and  the  regulations  as 
to  unsound  food  and  foreign  meat. 

It  should  be  mentioned  that  it 
is  no  part  of  the  duty  of  a  medical 
officer  of  health  to  make  analyses 
of  food  or  of  drugs  in  order  to  de- 
tect any  adulteration  that  may  be 
present.  He  may  be  appointed  by 


a  local  authority  for  this  purpose, 
or  they  may  appoint  the  inspector 
of  nuisances  as  an  inspector  under 
the  Sale  of  Food  and  Drugs  Acts, 
and  this  is  not  infrequently  done. 
As  a  rule,  however,  all  the  analyses 
for  local  authorities  are  carried  out 
by  borough  or  county  analysts 
appointed  for  the  purpose. 

During  the  Great  War  a  large 
number  of  orders  were  issued  by 
the  ministry  of  food,  all  of  which 
superseded,  as  long  as  they  were 
in  existence,  the  operation  of  the 
various  Acts  mentioned  above,  so 
far  as  the  special  foodstuffs  dealt 
with  were  concerned.  These  orders, 
however,  mainly  dealt  with  ques- 
tions of  prices,  or  methods  of  dis- 
tribution, and  not  as  a  rule  with 
quality,  so  that  they  did  not 
materially  affect  the  duties  of 
food  inspectors  as  before  defined. 
Foreign  Systems  of  Inspection 

In  most  civilized  countries  food 
inspection  proceeds  very  much 
along  the  lines  indicated  above. 
The  U.S.A.  have  a  very  thorough 
system  of  meat  inspection,  termed 
the  federal  meat -inspection  ser- 
vice. The  inspectors  must  com- 
plete a  three  years'  course  at  a 
veterinary  college,  and  the  meat 
inspector  is  required,  in  addition, 
to  be  an  expert  in  pickling,  salting, 
smoking,  and  otherwise  curing 
meat.  Experienced  inspectors 
travel  through  Country  districts 
and  submit  their  reports  to  Wash- 
ington. In  addition,  the  various 
States  issue  their  own  regulations 
under  their  health  departments. 

In  the  British  colonies  and 
dominions  a  similar  system  is  in 
force  to  that  of  the  mother  country, 
but  in  addition  special  veterinary 
inspectors  are  appointed  to  exa- 
mine all  the  carcasses  in  the  great 
freezing  works,  such  as  those  of 
New  Zealand  and  Australia,  and 
every  carcass  coming  into  Great 
Britain  bears  a  ticket  upon  which 
is  the  name  of  the  inspector  who 
examined  it.  In  France  veterinary 
supervision  of  abattoirs  dates  from 
1882,  and  is  now  under  the  general 
supervision  of  the  ministry  of  agri- 
culture. In  Germany,  where  tuber- 
culosis in  cattle  is  extremely 
common,  the  meat-inspection  law 
obtains  throughout  the  empire, 
and  covers  even  the  smaller 
slaughterhouses.  In  Scandinavia, 
Denmark,  and  Holland  meat  in- 
spection is  very  carefully  carried 
out  by  well-trained  officials. 

Q.  Leighton.M.D. 

Bibliography.  The  Meat  Industry 
and  Meat  Inspection,  Leighton  and 
Douglas,  1910:  The  Food  In- 
spector's Handbook,  F.  Vacher, 
1913 ;  Bell's  Sale  of  Food  and  Drugs, 
C.  F.  Lloyd,  1914;  Practical  Meat 
and  Food  Inspection,  W.  Robertson, 
1908. 


FOOD  CONTROL 


3237 


FOOD     CONTROL 


Food  Control.  Organization 
and  husbanding  of  supply  and  an 
equitable  distribution  of  essential 
foods.  The  outbreak  of  the  Great 
War  involved  all  the  Powers  en- 
gaged in  serious  difficulties  with 
regard  to  food  supplies.  As  the  Al- 
lied blockade  proved  more  effec- 
tive, it  became  clear  that  Germany 
and  Austria  must  depend  on  their 
internal  resources,  and  that  these, 
insufficient  even  to  meet  a  normal 
demand,  must  inevitably  diminish 
as  time  went  on.  As  early  as  1916 
central  offices  existed  for  their 
effective  control.  * 

As  soon  as  scarcity  developed,  it 
became  extremely  difficult  to  in- 
duce the  peasants  to  part  with  the 
food  they  produced,  and  in  spite  of 
the  most  drastic  administrative 
measures  the  German  country  dis- 
tricts fared  better  than  the  towns. 
Milk  was  throughout  the  war  an 
urgent  problem,  the  farmers  being 
reluctant  to  submit  to  strict  ration- 
ing of  that  commodity  and  to  regu- 
lations that  laid  down  the  propor- 
tion that  might  be  converted  into 
butter  and  cheese. 

In  Britain  the  problem  was 
different,  because  that  country  de- 
pends more  on  imported  foods"  In- 
crease in  the  area  of  arable  land  and 
close  supervision  of  agriculture 
with  a  view  to  increased  production 
were  an  essential  part  of  policy, 
but  the  real  danger  was  that  the 
submarine  campaign  might  cut  the 
country  off  from  oversea  supplies. 
The  first  crisis  arose  in  connexion 
with  sugar.  The  production  of  beet 
sugar  in  Germany,  Austria,  Russia, 
and  other  countries  to  a  large  ex- 
tent ceased,  thus  making  Britain 
and  the  importing  countries  almost 
entirely  dependent  upon  cane 
sugar.  A  sugar  commission  was 
therefore  formed  for  its  collective 
purchase.  National  security  de- 
pended on  bread,  and  the  responsi- 
bility for  the  purchase  of  wheat, 
flour,  and  other  essential  cereals 
was  placed  upon  the  royal  com- 
mission on  wheat  supplies,  which 
bought  in  the  country  of  origin. 
The  Submarine  Campaign 

As  the  submarine  campaign 
developed,  the  situation  became 
more  grave.  Ships  had  to  be  used 
as  economically  as  possible,  and  it 
gradually  became  a  question  of 
limiting  the  import  of  foodstuffs  to 
essentials,  and  of  buying  food  from 
the  nearest  sources.  Thus,  on  ac- 
count of  the  shortness  of  the 
journey  many  foods  had  to  be  pur- 
chased from  America  which  could 
have  been  more  economically  pur- 
j  chased  in  Australia  and  New  Zea- 
'  land,  and  Australian  wheat,  pur- 
chased by  the  Government,  re- 
mained on  the  quays  at  Sydney. 
This  position  only  developed 


slowly,  and  it  was  not  until  the  end 
of  1917  that  drastic  steps  for  the 
control  of  food  were  taken. 

A  food  controller,  with  extensive 
powers  under  the  Defence  of  the 
Realm  Act,  was  appointed  at 
Christmas,  1916,  but  the  main 
energies  of  his  department  were  at 
first  devoted  to  exhortations  to 
economy.  By  the  following  sum- 
mer it  was  evident  that  more  was 
required,  and  Lord  Rhondda  took 
office  with  instructions  to  tackle 
the  question  at  the  root. 

The  fundamental  principles  on 
which  he  worked  formed  the  basis 
not  only  of  his  own  policy  but  of 
that  of  his  successors.  They  were  : 
(1)  to  secure  essential  bulk  sup- 
plies, if  necessary  by  Government 
purchase  ;  (2)  to  secure  priority  of 
tonnage  for  essential  foods ;  (3) 
to  prevent  an  undue  rise  in  prices 
by  fixing  maximum  prices  at  each 
stage  between  the  producer  or  im- 
porter and  the  consumer  of  all 
essential  foodstuffs,  allowing  a 
reasonable  profit  based  on  pre-war 
figures  to  producers  and  distribu- 
tors ;  (4)  the  elimination  of  specu- 
lators and  unnecessary  middlemen, 
and  the  supervision  of  local  distri- 
bution by  local  authorities. 
Securing  Supplies 

The  first  and  most  urgent  ques- 
tion was  the  securing  ot  sufficient 
supplies,  leaving  a  margin  for  acci- 
dents, such  as  the  sinking  of  a  food 
cargo  or  the  destruction  of  a  food 
store  by  aircraft  or  by  fire.  Then 
the  price  paid  overseas  for  these 
supplies  had  to  be  kept  down  in 
spite  of  feverish  bidding  from  other 
countries.  Happily  the  American 
food  administration  was  very 
efficient,  and  by  its  efforts  Ameri- 
can production  was  enormously  in- 
creased. The  British  Government 
themselves  purchased  Australian 
and  New  Zealand  meat,  the  greater 
part  of  which  was  used  for  the 
army  and  navy,  and  at  one  time 
took  the'  whole  output  of  New 
Zealand  butter  and  Canadian 
cheese,  handing  over  the  quantities 
not  required  for  the  forces  for  dis- 
tribution to  recognized  traders. 
The  purchase  of  wheat  and  sugar 
by  the  wheat  and  the  sugar  com- 
missions steadied  markets  and  en- 
sured supplies.  The  board  of  trade 
bought  meat  and  cheese  for  the 
army  and  navy.  The  oilseeds  trade 
was  organized  so  that,  although  a 
large  proportion  of  the  small 
amount  of  margarine  consumed 
had  previously  been  imported,  it 
was  possible  to  provide  a  full  ration 
of  home-produced  margarine. 

All  this  necessitated  some  re- 
strictions on  traders,  most  of 
whom  were  licensed  by  the  ministry 
of  food  and  had  to  act  under 
orders.  There  were  two  possible 


methods  :  (1)  to  set  up  a  bureau- 
cratic control  regulating  every  de- 
tail of  import  or  purchase  and  dis- 
tribution ;  (2)  to  constitute  trade 
organizations  representing  various 
sections  of  the  trade,  and  to  en- 
trust the  carrying  out  of  the 
necessary  regulations  to  trade 
committees.  The  latter  method,  or 
a  compromise  between  the  two, 
was  adopted  as  the  exigencies  of 
each  case  dictated.  Generally 
speaking,  it  was  found  that  the 
price  to  the  consumer  could  not  be 
regulated  without  having  some 
form  of  control  reaching  back  to 
the  original  sources  of  supply. 
Government  Purchase 

This  was  the  reason  for  the 
Government  purchase  of  some 
foods,  and  the  unified  purchase  of 
others  by  trade  committees  acting 
under  Government  instructions. 
For  the  very  extensive  purchases 
made  in  the  U.S.A.  it  was  found 
necessary  to  set  up  Allied  com- 
missions for  buying  to  prevent  the 
forcing  up  of  prices  by  Allied  bid- 
ding, and  to  meet  the  difficulty  of 
financing  purchases  hi  America. 

But  the  world  shortage  of  sugar 
made  the  continuance  of  sugar  con- 
trol essential,  and  the  world  sup- 
plies and  price  of  wheat  made  it 
necessary  to  continue  this  control 
also.  In  the  case  of  wheat,  the  im- 
ported price  had  risen  from  36s.  4d. 
in  1912  to  55s.  or  60s.  in  1920; 
while  home-produced  wheat,  or- 
dinarily sold  at  about  2s.  below  im- 
ported wheat,  stood  at  over  70s. 
In  1917  the  loaf  was  artificially  re- 
tained at  9d.  for  political  reasons  at 
the  cost  of  a  subsidy  varying  from  30 
to  50  millions  sterling.  It  was  there- 
fore impossible  to  relinquish  the 
control  of  wheat  and  of  wheat  sup- 
plies unless  the  Government  were 
prepared  to  see  the  loaf  rise  in  pro- 
portion to  the  price  of  wheat.  In 
April,  1920,  this  subsidy  was  re- 
duced, not  abolished,  and  after  that 
date  bread  was  not  subject  to  a 
controlled  maximum  price.  The 
result  was  the  4  Ib.  loaf  costing 
Is.  In  October,  1920,  the  subsidy 
was  further  reduced,  thus  raising 
the  cost  of  the  loaf  to  Is.  4d.  In 
Dec.  the  price  was  reduced  by  $d. 

In  Germany  and  Austria  ex- 
treme scarcity  had  brought  into 
being  an  army  of  people  who  made 
it  their  business  to  evade  the  food 
regulations.  In  the  United  King- 
dom the  numerous  rules  and  regu- 
lations were,  on  the  whole,  faith- 
fully observed,  and  food  remained 
accessible  to  the  poor.  In  France 
there  was  not  the  same  willingness 
on  the  part  of  merchants,  shop- 
keepers, and  the  general  public  to 
submit  to  regulations,  so  control 
was  less  effective.  See  Rationing. 
Margaret  Bryant 


FOOD      CONTROLLER 

Food  Controller.  Name  given 
in  Great  Britain  to  the  official 
responsible  for  carrying  out  the 
Government's  scheme  to  exercise 
control  over  the  food  supplies.  The 
post  was  created  by  the  exigencies 
of  the  Great  War,  and  something 
of  the  kind  existed  in  Germany  and 
other  countries  besides  Great 
Britain.  From  Dec.,  1916,  to 
June,  1917,  Viscount  Devonport 
was  the  controller.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Lord  Rhondda,  who 
occupied  the  position  until  his 
death  in  July,  1918,  when  J.  R. 
Clynes  (q.v.)  was  appointed.  He 
held  it  until  Nov.,  1918,  and  was 
succeeded  by  G.  H.  Roberts,  who 
was,  in  turn,  succeeded  by  C.  A. 
McCurdy,  March,  1920.  His  depart- 
ment was  known  as  the  ministry 
of  food,  which  was  wound  up  in 
March,  1921. 

Food  Preservation.  Food  that 
is  preserved  in  some  manner  or 
another  enters  very  largely  into 
the  dietary  of  modern  civilized 
communities.  Doubtless  for  ages 
past  there  have  been  methods  on  a 
small  scale  of  preserving  food,  used 
chiefly  by  those  who  produced  it 
in  order  to  tide  them  over  the 
winter  seasons. 

Modern  bacteriological  know- 
ledge has  revealed  the  meaning  of 
putrefaction  and  decomposition, 
and  the  secrets  of  the  life  histories 
of  the  organisms  upon  which  these 
processes  depend.  By  taking  steps 
to  prevent  those  conditions  being 
present,  the  organisms  themselves 
cannot  live.  For  example,  if  a 
fresh  potato  be  sliced  and  the 
slices  left  open  in  an  ordinary  at- 
mosphere, in  a  day  or  two  the 
surface  of  these  slices  will  become 
mouldy  from  the  growth  of  an 
organism,  and  the  potato  as  a  food- 
stuff will  be  rapidly  spoiled.  This 
mouldiness  is  the  growth  of  a 
living  organism,  which  for  its 
success  in  life  depends  upon  the 
presence  of  moisture  and  a  favour- 
able temperature.  If,  then,  the 
sliced  potato  is  treated  in  such  a 
way  that  all  the  moisture  or  water 
is  driven  out  of  it,  and  it  is  then 
packed  in  a  tin  hermetically  sealed 
so  that  no  moisture  or  organism 
can  gain  access  to  it,  there  is  no 
apparent  reason  why  that  potato 
should  not  keep  indefinitely. 

As  a  matter  of  fact  that  actual 
process  is  carried  out,  and  sliced 
dried  potatoes  prepared  in  Great 
Britain  have  been  sent  to  British 
troops  all  over  the  world,  to  be  eaten, 
after  having  been  resoaked,  as  still 
fresh  potatoes.  In  the  same  way  a 
very  large  quantity  of  fish  is  pre- 
served by  drying.  The  fish  are 
cleaned,  the  heads  removed,  they 
are  exposed  either  to  the  sun  or 
to  artificial  heat,  packed  so  that 


3238 

they  are  kept  dry,  and  sent 
thousands  of  miles,  perhaps,  before 
they  are  consumed.  Organisms  of 
decay  cannot  flourish  in  low  tem- 
peratures. If  a  sheep,  therefore, 
be  killed  in  New  Zealand  and  sub- 
jected to  a  process  of  freezing  while 
still  fresh,  it  can  be  sent  all  over 
the  world  in  that  fresh  condition 
so  long  as  it  is  kept  cold  enough. 
Borax  and  Boracic  Acid 

There  are  various  substances 
which  can  be  added  to  foodstuffs 
without  injuring  their  nutritive 
properties,  to  preserve  them  from 
decay.  Salt  or  saltpetre  enter  into 
many  forms  of  pickling  solutions. 
But  by  far  the  most  important  of 
the  chemicals  used  in  this  way  is 
boracic  acid,  or  borax,  which  ful- 
fils the  requirements  of  a  food 
preservative,  in  that  while  it 
possesses  distinct  antiseptic  pro- 
perties it  can  be  consumed  by 
human  beings  in  small  quantities 
without  harm.  A  half  p.c.  solution 
of  boracic  acid  is  as  effective  from 
a  preserving  point  of  view  as  a 
4  p.c.  solution  of  common  salt. 
Furthermore,  it  does  not  un- 
pleasantly affect  the  taste  of  the 
food  to  which  it  is  added,  nor  has 
it  any  smell  or  other  objectionable 
character.  Precisely  how  much 
per  cent,  of  borax  should  be  used 
in  this  way  is  a  question  for  ex- 
perts ;  but  of  its  general  value  as 
a  food  preservative  there  can  be 
no  question.  It  has  been  used  for 
preserving  fresh  milk  which  has 
to  be  transported  a  long  distance 
before  delivery,  but  this  applica- 
tion is  largely  being  superseded  by 
the  process  of  cooling.  Fresh  un- 
salted  butter  can  likewise  be 
treated  with  borax. 

The  whole  question  of  food  pre- 
servatives was  carefully  investi- 
gated by  a  parliamentary  com- 
mittee, whose  report  was  issued  in 
1901.  This  committee  recom- 
mended that  formalin  should  be 
absolutely  prohibited  as  a  preser- 
vative of  food  or  drinks,  and  that 
the  only  preservative  which  should 
be  lawful  for  use  in  cream,  butter, 
or  margarine  should  be  boracic  acid 
or  mixtures  of  that  with  borax. 
They  recommended  that  the  use  of 
copper  salts  should  be  prohibited, 
and  that  no  chemicals  should  be 
added  to  any  dietetic  preparation 
intended  for  infants  or  invalids. 
See  Canning ;  Refrigeration. 

Fool  ( Lat.  foil  is,  wind-bag).  Re- 
tainer kept  in  the  medieval  period, 
and  up  to  the  17th  century,  by 
kings  and  nobles  for  their  enter- 
tainment. He  was  licensed  in  the 
exercise  of  his  antic  buffoonery,  his 
fooling  and  the  shrewdness  of  his 
tongue,  and  is  scarcely  to  be  differ- 
entiated from  the  jester.  Shake- 
speare's Touchstone  (q.v.)  is  the 


FOOLSCAP 


typical  fool.  The  fool  wore  a  special 
parti-coloured  dress,  and  a  cap 
shaped  like  a  cock's  comb  with  ass's 


Fool.    The  court  fool  of  ancient  times 
attired  in  bis  motley 

After  A.  Lanibron 

ears,  and  carried  a  mock  sceptre 
with  a  fool's  head  carved  on  it,  and 
a  bladder  at  the  end  of  a  string. 

Fools,  FEAST  OF.  Medieval  bur- 
lesque religious  festival.  A  survival 
of  the  Roman  Saturnalia  (q.v.), 
it  was  originally  celebrated  on  the 
first  day  of  the  year.  The  Church, 
although  originally  opposed  to  it, 
eventually  allotted  special  days  for 
its  observance.  The  chief  charac- 
teristic was  at  first  the  inversion 
of  rank.  A  boy  or  young  man, 
known  by  such  names  as  the 
boy  bishop  (q.v.)  or  the  abbot  of 
unreason  (q.v.),  was  chosen  to 
conduct  the  ritual ;  but  the  cere- 
monies quickly  degenerated  into 
buffoonery. 

The  ass,  representing  Balaam's 
ass,  the  ass  which  stood  by  the 
manger,  that  on  which  the  Virgin 
and  Child  fled  to  Egypt,  or  that  on 
which  Christ  rode  into  Jerusalem, 
often  played  a  part.  In  some  places 
there  was  a  special  Feast  of  the 
Ass,  e.g.  at  Beauvais,  where  the 
flight  into  Egypt  was  represented 
by  a  girl  carrying  a  baby  or  doll 
and  mounted  on  an  ass,  and  the 
priest  dismissed  the  congregation 
by  braying  three  times,  the  people 
responding  in  the  same  fashion. 
The  Feast  of  Fools  survived  until 
the  Reformation,  and  as  late  as 
1644  at  Antibes  in  France. 
^  Foolscap.  Properly,  the  cap 
worn  by  fools  and  jesters,  usually 
conical  in  shape  with  bells  fastened 
to  it.  It  is  also  the  common 
name  for  a  sheet  of  paper,  strictly 
17  ins.  by  13£  ins.,  but  frequently 
smaller.  This  is  so  called  because 
it  had  formerly  a  fool's  cap  and 
bells  for  its  watermark. 


FOOL'S     PARSLEY 


3239 

the  patient  walking  mainly  on  the 
outer  side.  In  talipes  valgus  the 
foot  is  everted,  and  the  patient 
walks  on  the  inner  side.  These 
deformities  may  be  more  or  less 
corrected  by  massage,  manipula- 
tion, the  use  of  suitable  splints  or 
other  apparatus,  forcible  wrench- 
ing, and  in  some  cases  operation. 
In  claw  foot,  or  pes  cavus,  there  is 
an  increased  concavity  in  the  arch 
of  the  foot.  See  illus.  Anklet. 

Foot.  One  of  the  oldest  and 
commonest  measures  of  length, 
based  upon  that  of  a  man's  foot, 


Fool's  Parsley.  Leaves  and  Sowers  of 

Aethusa  cynapium 

Fool's  Parsley  (Aethusa  cyna- 
pium). Annual  herb  of  the  natural 
order  Umbelliferae.  It  is  a  native 
of  Europe  and  Siberia,  growing 
chiefly  in  cultivated  ground.  It 
has  a  spindle-shaped  root  and  a 
smooth  stem  about  2  ft.  high.  The 
large,  wedge-shaped  leaves  are 
much  divided  into  small,  thin  seg- 
ments. The  minute  white  flowers 
are  massed  in  compound  umbels. 
Though  somewhat  like  parsley,  it 
is  considered  that  its  nauseous 
odour  would  prevent  any  but  "  a 
fool "  from  being  imposed  upon 
by  the  resemblance. 

Foot.  Lower  extremity  of  the 
leg  on  which  man  stands  or  walks. 
The  bones  fall  into  three  groups  : 
(1)  seven  forming  the  tarsus  or 
posterior  part  of  the  foot,  which 
correspond  to  the  bones  of  the 
wrist;  (2)  the  five  metatarsal 
bones ;  and  (3)  the  fourteen  pha- 
langes, forming  the  toes.  The 
tarsus  consists  of  the  os  calcis, 
which  is  the  largest  bone  of  the 
foot  and  forms  the  heel ;  the  astra- 
galus, which  articulates  with  the 
tibia  and  fibula,  the  two  smaller 
bones  of  the  leg,  to  form  the  ankle 
joint ;  and  five  smaller  bones — the 
scaphoid,  three  cuneiform  bones, 
and  the  cuboid  bone.  The  meta- 
tarsal bones  are  elongated,  and 
articulate  behind  with  the  tarsus 
and  in  front  with  the  phalanges. 

The  phalanges  are  fourteen  in 
number,  three  in  each  of  the  four 
outer  toes  and  two  in  the  big  toe. 
The  foot  is  arched  in  the  centre, 
the  posterior  pier  of  the  arch  being 
formed  by  the  heel  and  the  anterior 
by  the  heads  of  the  metatarsal 
bones.  The  dropping  of  the  arch  of 
the  foot  produces  the  condition 
known  as  flat  foot  (q.v.\  Club  foot 
or  talipes  is  a  deformity  which  may- 
be present  at  birth  or  acquired 
during  later  life.  In  talipes  equinus 
the  heel  is  drawn  up  and  the 
patient  walks  on  his  toes.  In 
talipes  calcaneus  the  toes  are 
raised  from  the  ground.  In  talipes 
varus  the  foot  is  inverted,  the  inner 
side  of  the  foot  being  raised,  and 


Foot.     Diagrams  showing  the  bones 

of  the  human  foot,  seen  from  above 

and  from  the  side 

traditionally    the    king's.        The 
English  statute  foot  is  divided  into 


FOOTBALL 

12  ins.  In  prosody,  foot  is  the  term 
applied  to  a  group  of  syllables,  one 
of  which  is  stressed  to  mark  the 
rhythm  that  forms  a  constituent 
part  of  a  verse. 

Foot  -  and  -  Mouth  Disease . 
Fever  mainly  affecting  cattle, 
sheep,  and  pigs,  though  other 
animals,  including  man,  are  also 
liable.  The  disease  is  only  noted 
periodically  in  Great  Britain,  and 
is  then  the  result  of  imported  in- 
fection. When  there  is  an  out- 
break, the  district  in  which  it 
appears  is  isolated  by  forbidding 
the  movement  of  cattle,  sheep,  etc., 
in  or  out  of  it,  and  the  affected 
animals  are  liable  to  be  slaughtered, 
compensation  being  paid. 

It  is  very  contagious,  spreading 
from  one  animal  to  another  and 
from  one  place  to  another  with 
great  rapidity,  the  infection  being 
readily  carried  by  various  methods. 
As  a  rule,  adult  animals  are  not 
fatally  affected,  but  a  large  number 
of  the  younger  ones  may  die.  The 
cattle,  however,  lose  condition,  and 
the  milk  must  not  be  sold.  The 
symptoms  are  those  of  a  fever, 
with  eruptions  occurring  in  the 
mouth  or  feet,  or  both ;  hence  the 
name.  The  animal  at  one  stage 
presents  a  characteristic  appear- 
ance in  the  smacking  of  the  lips, 
from  which  a  thick  discharge 
issues.  See  Bacteriology. 


FOOTBALL:     ASSOCIATION    AND     RUGBY 

F.  B.  Wilson,  of  The  Times  Sporting  Department 

This  article  describes  the  growth  of  this  popular  game  and  the  way 

its    two    main  forms    are   played.     See   also    Cricket;    Hockey; 

Rackets ;  Tennis,  and  articles  on  other  sports 


A  form  of  football  was  known 
and  practised  in  Derby  and  Chester 
as  far  back  as  A.D.  217,  but  in  all 
probability  it  was  then,  and  for 
long  afterwards,  merely  an  un- 
organized amusement,  indulged  in 
on  occasions  of  public  rejoicing  by 
factions,  irrespective  of  numbers, 
the  only  object  aimed  at  being 
the  driving  of  the  ball  by  one 
faction  into  a  district  defended  by 
another. 

In  the  12th  century  the  game 
appears  to  have  been  an  after-dinner 
diversion  of  London  school-boys. 
Many  proclamations  forbidding 
football  were  issued  in  the  14th, 
15th,  and  16th  centuries.  In  Scot- 
land James  III  decreed  that  "  foot- 
ball should  be  utterly  cryed  down." 
Various  municipal  authorities  con- 
tinued to  legislate  against  the  game, 
which  in  those  days  appears  to  have 
been  a  riot  rather  than  a  sport,  up  to, 
and  possibly  later  than,  1700.  Not 
until  1800  was  any  attempt  made 
to  limit  the  number  of  players,  or  to 
secure  numerical  equality  of  sides. 

For  many  years  football  was 
almost  exclusively  confined  to  the 


public  schools,  where  the  first  re- 
corded game  tdok  place  in  1710. 
The  Rugby  game,  with  its  tackling, 
throwing,  and  charging,  takes  its 
name  from  the  school  where  it 
originated,  which  had  a  grass  field ; 
and  the  flagged  courts  of  the 
Charterhouse  no  doubt  brought  into 
existence  what  afterwards  became 
known  as  the  Association  game. 

Westminster  was  probably  the 
first  to  develop  football  in  an 
orderly  manner.  Other  schools 
gradually  followed  the  example, 
although  certain  schools  still  use 
their  own  rules.  The  wall  game 
at  Eton  would  hardly  be  called 
football  by  an  outsider.  Eton  also 
plays  the  field  game,  a  hard  and 
very  fast  game  of  football  which 
furnishes  excellent  training  for 
dribbling.  Harrow  has  a  game  of 
its  own  played  with  a  big,  clumsy 
ball  like  a  footstool.  Winchester 
has  yet  another  puzzling  varia- 
tion, in  which  vropes  and  netting 
or  "canvas"  form  a  part.  Both 
Eton  and  Winchester,  however, 
have  turned  out  many  brilliant  ex 
ponents  of  the  Association  game. 


FOOTBALL 


324O 


I 


Football.     The  Association  game.     1.  Scoring  a  goal.    2.  Breasting.     3.  Head- 
ing.   4.  Dribbling  down  the  wing.    5.  Goal-keeper  saving  a  good  shot.     6.  Over- 


head clearance.     7.  A  throw  in. 

THE  ASSOCIATION  GAME.  The  es- 
tablishment of  something  like  a 
regular  set  of  rules  for  the  Asso- 
ciation game  dates  from  1863, 
when  a  committee,  consisting  of 
representatives  of  Eton,  Harrow, 
Marlborough,  Rugby,  Shrewsbury, 
Westminster,  Charterhouse,  and 
other  clubs,  drew  up  rules,  and 
from  this  moment  Association  and 
Rugby  football  were  two  different 
games.  The  rules  of  the  Football 
Association,  which  thus  came  into 
existence,  were  brief  and  simple  in 
character.  In  1867  the  off-side  rule 
was  changed ;  up  to  that  time  it  had 
been  virtually  the  same  as  it  is  in 
Rugby  football  to-day. 

In  1871  a  resolution  was  passeJ 
by  the  Football  Association 
"That  it  is  desirable  that  a 
challenge  cup  should  be  established 
in  connexion  with  the  Association, 
for  which  all  clubs  should  be 
invited  to  compete."  «  The  Wan- 
derers, composed  chiefly  of  old 
public  school  boys,  won  the  cup  in 


8.  Combination.  9.  Punching  clear 
1871-72,  1872-73,  1875-76,  1876- 
77,  and  1877-78.  They  thus  made 
the  cup  their  absolute  property, 
but  returned  it  to  be  retained  as  a 
perpetual  trophy.  Later,  in  1882- 
83,  and  the  two  succeeding  years, 
Blackburn  Rovers  won  the  cup, 
and  they  were  presented  with  a 
special  shield  by  the  Association. 

The  Wanderers  and  Blackburn 
Rovers  have  each  won  the  cup  five 
times  in  all.  When  Aston  Villa 
won  it  in  1919-20,  however,  their 
number  of  victories  was  brought  up 
to  six.  No  southern  team  won  the 
cup  after  1882  until  1900-1,  when 
Tottenham  Hotspur  beat  Sheffield 
United  at  Bolton,  after  a  drawn 
game  at  the  Crystal  Palace. 

In  1873  the  Scottish  Football  As- 
sociation cup  competition  was  in- 
augurated, the  first  winners  being 
Queen's  Park,  an  amateur  organi- 
zation, which  has  altogether  been 
successful  in  ten  final  ties.  Their 
record  is  almost  equalled  by  Celtic, 
who  have  won  the  cup  nine  times. 


FOOTBALL 

The  Welsh  Football  Association 
cup,  first  played  for  in  1877-78,  has 
been  won  twelve  times  by  Wrex- 
ham  and  seven  times  by  Druids  : 
and  the  Irish  cup,  first  competed 
for  in  1880-81,  has  fallen  to  Linfield 
eleven  times,  while  Distillery  and 
Cliftonville  have  secured  it  eight 
and  seven  times  respectively.  The 
Football  Association  amateur  cup, 
open  to  all  English  amateur  clubs, 
dates  from  1 893-94.  in  which  season 
the  Old  Carthusians  defeated  the 
Casuals  in  the  final  at  Richmond  by 
two  goals  to  one. 

In  1872  the  first  official  Associa- 
tion international  was  played  be- 
tween England  and  Scotland,  and 
ended  in  a  draw.  Since  then  the 
match  has  been  an  annual  one, 
played  alternately  in  Scotland  and 
England,  with  the  exception  of  one 
year  when  it  was  played  at  Bir- 
mingham instead  of  in  Scotland. 
During  the  war  the  match  was 
discontinued,  but  it  was  revived 
in  1920. 

Prior  to  1883-84  the  England  and 
Scotland  match  decided  the  inter- 
national championship,  but  in  that 
season  Ireland  and  Wales  entered 
the  lists,  and  the  championship  is 
now  determined  on  points,  each 
country  meeting  the  others  once, 
two  points  being  allotted  for  a  win 
and  one  for  a  draw.  Scotland  have 
been  successful  24  times,  England 
22,  and  Ireland  and  Wales  twice 
each,  these  figures  including  ties. 
International  teams  are  selected 
from  both  amateur  and  profes- 
sional players,  but  in  recent  years 
they  have  been  almost  entirely 
composed  of  paid  players.  Inter- 
national matches  restricted  to 
amateurs  were  instituted  in  1906. 
English  amateurs  met,  in  addition 
to  teams  chosen  to  represent  Ire- 
land and  Wales,  several  Continen- 
tal elevens,  and  almost  invariably 
proved  successful.  Great  improve- 
ment has,  however,  been  made  by 
foreign  countries  since  the  out- 
break of  the  Great  War,  as  was 


Half  Way    tfffiSi\    tine 


PenalLyArea 


Football.  Diagram  showing  lines  and 

dimensions  of  Association  football 

ground 


FOOTBALL 

evidenced  in  1920,  when  Belgium 
defeated  England  at  Brussels,  and 
again  in  the  Olympic  Games  the 
same  year,  when  Norway  gained  a 
surprise  victory  over  England. 

After  the  inauguration  of  the  Cup 
and  the  first  international,  the  popu- 
larity of  the  game  increased  enor- 
mously, and  in  1882,  to  check  the 
increase  of  professionalism,  a  new 
rule  was  added  making  it  illegal  for 
any  player  to  receive  remuneration 
or  consideration  of  any  sort  above 
his  actual  expenses  and  any  wages 
lost.  In  1885,  in  spite  of  much  op- 
position, professionalism  was  legal- 
ised. In  1888  the  Football  League 
(q.v.)  was  founded.  This  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  formation  of  the  Scot- 
tish League  and  the  Irish  League 
in  1890,  and  the  Southern  League 
in  1894. 

In  1891-92  the  first  of  the  inter- 
league  games  between  the  Football 
League  and  the  Scottish  League 
was  played  at  Bolton,  and  two 
years  later  the  Irish  League  joined 
in  these  games.  From  1910- 
11  to  1914-15  all  four  leagues  met 
in  opposition,  the  Football  League 
and  Scottish  League  each  winning 
two  of  the  contests,  and  the  South- 
ern League  the  other.  The  latter 
took  no  part  in  the  191 9-20  matches 
when  the  Football  League  headed 
the  table.  Among  the  principal 
minor  leagues  devoted  to  the  As- 
sociation game  are  the  Midland 
League,  Birmingham  League,  Cen- 
tral League,  London  Combination, 
London  League,  Isthmian  League, 
and  Athenian  League,  the  two 
last  named  being  for  amateur 
clubs  only. 

In  1900  the  Football  Association 
passed  a  resolution  to  the  effect 
that  wages  paid  to  a  player  should 
be  limited  to  £4  a  week,  or  £208  a 
year.  This  rule,  in  spite  of  great 
opposition,  held  good  to  the  sea- 
son of  1909-10,  when  it  was  re- 
moved. In  1907  came  the  unfor- 
tunate split  which  resulted  in  the 
formation  of  the  Amateur  Football 
Association  as  distinct  from  the 
Football  Association,  but  in  1914 
the  dispute  was  settled  and  the 
Amateur  Football  Association 
affiliated  to  the  governing  body. 

As  regards  the  laws  of  the  game, 
the  chief,  somewhat  abridged,  are 
as  follows :  The  game  shall  be 
played  by  11  players  on  each  side. 
These  are  one  goal-keeper,  two  full- 
backs, three  half-backs,  and  five 
forwards,  known  as  outside-right, 
inside  -  right,  centre,  inside  -  left, 
outside -left. 

The  dimensions  of  the  field  of 
play  shall  be:  maximum  length 
130  yds.,  minimum  length  100  yds., 
maximum  breadth  100  yds.,  mini- 
mum breadth  50  yds.  The  field  of 
play  shall  be  marked  by  boundary 


•V  -1 

J& 


Football.     The  Eugby  game. 
3.  A  drop  kick. 

for  a  try.    8.  Making  a  mark.     9.  A  scrum 


1.  Passing  on  being  tackled.     2.  Taking  a  pass. 
4.  A  tackle.     5.  Scoring  a  try.     6.  Place  kicking.     7.  A  dash 


lines.  The  goals  shall  be  upright 
posts  fixed  on  the  goal-lines,  equi- 
distant from  the  corner-flag  staffs, 
8  yds.  apart,  with  a  bar  across 
them  8  ft.  from  the  ground.  The 
circumference  of  the  ball  shall  not 
be  less  than  27  or  more  than  28  ins. 
The  casing  of  the  ball  must  be  of 
leather  and  no  material  shall  be 
used  in  its  construction  which 
would  constitute  a  danger  to  the 
players. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  game 
the  weight  of  the  ball  shall  be  from 
13  to  15  oz.  The  duration  of  the 
game  shall  be  90  mins.  unless 
otherwise  mutually  agreed  upon. 
The  winners  of  the  toss  shall  have 
the  option  of  kick-off,  or  choice  of 
goals.  Ends  shall  only  be  changed 
at  half-time.  The  interval  at  half- 
time  shall  not  exceed  5  mins.  ex- 
cept by  the  consent  of  the  referee. 
The  goal-keeper  may,  within  his 
own  penalty  area,  use  his  hands, 
but  may  not  take  more  than  two 
steps  while  holding  the  ball.  The 


goal-keeper  may  not  be  charged, 
except  when  holding  the  ball  or  ob- 
structing an  opponent,  or  when  he 
is  outside  the  penalty  area.  Trip- 
ping, kicking,  striking,  or  jumping 
at  an  opponent  are  not  allowed,  or 
the  intentional  handling  of  the  ball. 
Holding  or  pushing  with  the  hands 
is  not  allowed.  Charging  is  per- 
missible, as  long  as  it  is  not 
dangerous. 

A  referee  is  sole  judge  of  fair  and 
unfair  play,  and  can  award  a  free 
kick  or  a  penalty  kick  for  infringe- 
ment of  the  rules,  and  may  even 
order  a  player  or  players  off  the 
field.  In  the  case  of  a  penalty  kick, 
the  ball  is  placed  on  a  mark  1 2  yds. 
from  and  opposite  the  centre  of 
goal.  All  players,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  player  taking  the  pen- 
alty kick  and  the  opponents'  goal- 
keeper, must  be  outside  the  penalty 
area,  and  the  goal-keeper  must  not 
come  out  beyond  his  goal-line.  A 
free  kick  is  a  luck  at  the  ball  in 
any  direction  a  player  pleases  when 


FOOTBALL 

it  is  lying  on  the  ground.  A  free 
kick  or  a  penalty  kick  must  not 
be  taken  until  the  referee  has  given 
a  signal  for  the  same. 

Touch  is  that  part  of  the  ground 
on  either  side  of  the  field  of  play. 
When  the  ball  is  kicked  or  headed 
into  touch  the  opposing  team  is 
awarded  a  throw-in.  The  thrower 
must  keep  part  of  both  feet  on  the 
touch-line  and  throw  the  ball  from 
above  his  head  with  both  hands 
from  the  point  on  the  touch-line  at 
which  the  ball  left  the  field  of  play. 
If  the  ball  be  thrown  in  any  other 
manner  it  is  a  foul  throw,  and  the 
opposing  team  is  awarded  a  free 
kick,  to  be  taken  from  the  same 
point  on  the  touch-line.  A  goal  can 
be  scored  directly  from  a  free  kick 
only  when  it  has  been  awarded  for 
an  infringement  of  law  9,  which  re- 
lates to  tripping,  kicking,  handling, 
etc.  When  [a  free  kick  has  been 
awarded  opponents  may  not  ap- 
proach within  ten  yards  of  the  ball 
before  the  kick  is  taken,  unless  they 
be  on  their  own  goal-line. 
The  Law  of  Offside 

The  law  dealing  with  offside  is  the 
one  most  frequently  infringed  and 
least  understood.  A  player  is  onside 
at  all  times  when  there  are  three  or 
more  opponents  between  him  and 
the  opponents'  goal-line.  A  player 
cannot  be  offside  from  a  corner- 
kick,  a  throw-in  (amendment  made 
to  law  in  1920),  a  goal-kick  from 
either  goal,  a  backward  pass,  or 
when  the  ball  is  last  played  by  an 
opponent.  It  is  important  to  realize 
that  a  player  is  adjudged  on  or  off 
side  according  to  his  position  at  the 
time  the  ball  was  last  played.  Pro- 
viding he  is  not  attempting  to  play 
the  ball,  or  is  not  in  any  way  inter- 
fering with  an  opponent,  a  player 
can  be  in  any  position  on  the  play- 
ing field  and  not  be  ruled  offside. 

RUGBY  FOOTBALL.  Running 
with  the  ball,  the  distinctive  fea- 
ture of  Rugby  football,  was  once 
unknown  at  Rugby.  It  came  into 
vogue  as  the  result  of  the  spirit  of 
enterprise  and  audacitv  shown  by 
one  William  Webb  Ellis.  In  the 
school  play  it  was  customary  for  a 
boy,  having  caught  the  ball  from 
an  opponent's  kick,  to  step  back 
and  punt,  or  drop-kick,  or  place  it 
for  another  of  his  side  to  kick.  In 
1823  Ellis  astonished  his  fellow 
players,  after  having  caught  the 
ball,  by  running  with  it  in  the 
direction  of  his  opponents'  goal. 
This  innovation  was  not  recognized 
in  the  school  rules  until  1841,  and 
then  only  with  certain  limitations. 

Rugby  school  boys  took  their 
game  to  Oxford  and  Cambridge, 
and  also  founded  clubs.  The  oldest 
of  these,  the  Blackheath  Club,  was 
founded  in  1860.  Those  were  the 
days  of  hacking  and  tripping.  The 


3242 

Blackheath  rules  stated,  "  No 
player  may  be  hacked  and  held 
at  the  same  time  ;  hacking  above 
or  on  the  knee,  or  from  behind, 
is  unfair.  No  player  can  be  held 
or  hacked  unless  he  has  the  ball 
in  his  hands.  Although  it  is 
lawful  to  hold  a  player  in  the 
scrummage,  this  does  not  include 
attempts  to  throttle  or  strangle, 
which  are  totally  opposed  to  the 
principles  of  the  game.  A  goal 
must  be  a  kick  through,  or  over, 
and  between  the  poles,  and,  if 
touched  by  the  hands  of  one  of  the 
opposite  side  before  or  whilst  going 
through,  it  is  no  goal." 

Rugby  football  found  its  way  to 
Edinburgh  and  Glasgow,  and  in 
1873  the  Scottish  Football  Union 
was  founded  to  encourage  football 
in  Scotland,  to  cooperate  with  the 
English  Rugby  Union,  and  to 
select  international  teams.  The 
Irish  Union  came  into  existence  in 
1874,  the  Welsh  Union  in  1880. 

Originally  there  were  20  players 
a  side,  and  a  set  of  59  rules  was 
compiled.  Hacking  and  tripping 
were  abolished.  A  player,  being  off- 
side, was  placed  onside  when  one  of 
his  own  side  had  run  in  front  of 
him  with  the  ball,  or  kicked  it 
when  the  offside  player  was  behind 
him.  A  try  having  been  gained, 
the  ball  was  brought  straight  out 
from  a  mark  made  on  the  goal-line 
opposite  to  the  spot  where  it  was 
touched  down.  It  was  also  pro- 
vided that  captains  should  arbi- 
trate on  all  disputes. 

Point  Scoring  in  Rugby 

In  the  course  of  time  these  rules 
came  to  be  considerably  altered,  a 
system  of  penalties  exacted,  and 
scoring  was  revolutionised.  In  the 
early  days  a  goal  beat  any  number 
of  tries.  Subsequently  it  was  re- 
solved that  if  no  goal  was  kicked 
a  match  could  be  decided  by  a 
majority  of  tries.  A  system  of 
points  was  instituted  later.  The 
goal  kicked  from  a  try  (the  try  not 
counting)  is  now  valued  at  5  points, 
the  dropped  goal  4  points,  the  pen- 
alty goal  3  points,  the  goal  from  a 
mark  3  points,  and  a  try  3  points. 

In  a  few  years,  however,  for- 
ward play  became  faster  and  more 
open.  The  arrangement  of  the 
backs  in  the  field  was  altered,  the 
greater  part  of  the  offensive  work 
falling  upon  the  half-backs,  and  of 
the  defensive  upon  the  full  backs 
alone.  The  original  notion  was  to 
have  only  two  classes  of  players 
behind  the  scrummage,  half-backs 
and  backs,  there  being  two  half- 
backs, three  backs,  and  ten  for- 
wards. The  earliest  development 
of  the  game  was  to  put  the  centre 
back  in  front  of  the  two  backs  at 
the  sides  to  enable  him  occasion- 
ally to  get  away  on  a  run  after  a 


'  FOOTBALL 

drop  kick  from  the  back  ranks  of 
the  other  side. 

Forwards  continued  to  shove 
vigorously,  while  the  backs  had  the 
more  showy  part,  the  running  and 
tackling.  "Half-backs  of  fine  in- 
dividual powers  came  on  the 
scene,  and  meanwhile  captains  had 
begun  to  realize  that  more  was 
required  from  forwards  than  mere 
shoving.  In  1882  H.  Vassall  intro- 
duced running  and  passing  among 
the  Oxford  forwards.  From  that 
time  the  game  became  more  and 
more  open.  A  further  alteration 
was  made  in  the  composition  of  the 
side,  and  the  new  placing  con- 
sisted of  one  full  back,  three  three- 
quarters,  two  half-backs,  and  nine 
forwards.  Wales,  pursuing  the 
principle  of  running  and  passing, 
tried  the  experiment  of  only  eight 
forwards,  putting  the  extra  man  in 
the  three-quarter  line,  and  this 
innovation  became  general. 
International  Matches 

The  first  international  match 
was  played  between  England  and 
Scotland  at  Edinburgh  in  the 
season  of  1870-71,  and  was  won  by 
Scotland  by  a  goal  and  a  try  to  a 
try.  The  first  match  between  Eng- 
land and  Ireland  was  played  at  the 
Oval  in  1874-75,  and  won  by  Eng- 
land by  2  goals  and  a  try  to  nfl. 
The  first  international  between 
England  and  Wales  took  place  at 
Blackheath  1880-81,  and  won  by 
England  by  8  goals  (one  dropped) 
and  6  tries  to  nil.  The  first  inter- 
national between  England  and 
France  was  played  in  Paris,  in 
1905-6,  and  England  won  all  the 
ten  matches  played  to  1919. 

The  series  of  matches  between 
England  and  Scotland  was  inter- 
rupted in  the  season  1884-85,  owing  j 
to  a  dispute  over  a  try  scored  by   j 


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Football.     Plan  of  Rugby  football 
ground 


FOOTBALL 

R.  S.  Kindersley  in  the  match  of 
the  previous  year.  Again,  owing  to 
a  controversy,  no  matches  were 
played  between  England  and  Scot- 
land in  the  seasons  1887-88, 1888- 
89.  The  controversy  occurred  wi th 
regard  to  the  constitution  of  the 
international  board.  After  con- 
siderable negotiation  in  1890  an 
international  board  of  twelve  re- 
presentatives, since  reduced  to  10, 
four  from  the  English  Rugby  Union, 
and  two  each  from  the  Scottish, 
Irish,  and  Welsh  Unions,  was  set 
up  : — (i)  To  frame  the  laws  for 
international  matches.  (ii)  To 
settle  all  questions  connected  with, 
or  arising  out  of,  an  international 
match,  but  without  jurisdiction 
over  the  game  as  played  in  the 
separate  countries. 

After  this  the  question  of  money 
began  to  creep  in.  In  Yorkshire 
and  Lancashire  the  game  had  be- 
come a  popular  spectacle ;  feeling 
ran  high,  aided,  as  it  was,  by  cup- 
ties.  While  old  public  school  boys 
were  content  to  play  for  the  love 
of  the  game,  clubs  and  committees 
began  to  hold  out  certain  induce- 
ments to  promising  young  players 
of  other  classes. 

Eventually  those  who  favoured 
the  idea  of  payment  seceded  and 
founded,  in  1895,  the  Northern 
Union,  with  a  separate  code  of 
laws,  and  a  system  of  scoring 
different  from  that  of  the  Rugby 
Union.  For  some  years  Northern 
Union  Rugby  was  played  by  15 
a  side,  but  subsequently  the  sides 
were  reduced  to  1 3.  While  the  new 
game  gained  few  converts  in  the 
south  of  England,  some  Australians 
saw  that  the  Northern  Union  game, 
with  its  spectacular  openness,  its 
quickness,  and  its  scope  for  the 
individuals,  held  propositions  not 
to  be  neglected,  and  in  New  South 
Wales  a  league  plays  this  game. 
New  Zealand  Rugby 

Rugby  football  was  degenerating 
throughout  Great  Britain,  in  Eng- 
land especially,  when  the  New 
Zealand  team  of  1905-6  came  over. 
They  came  ostensibly  to  learn,  but 
from  their  first  match  overran 
even  the  best  club  sides.  They 
brought  an  innovation  in  the  shape 
of  a  wing-forward,  whose  play  was 
merely  that  of  an  obstructionist, 
and  against  the  spirit  of  the  game. 
The  New  Zealanders  beat  Scotland, 
Ireland,  and  England,  but  were 
beaten  by  a  try  to  nothing  in 
Wales.  A  South  African  team  came 
over  in  the  following  year.  The 
South  Africans  were  beaten  by 
Scotland,  drew  with  England,  just 
beat  Ireland  and  beat  Wales  de- 
cisively. These  two  sides  had  a 
great  effect  on  British  football. 

It  was  largely  in  consequence  of 
the  lessons  learned  from  the  New 


3243 

Zealanders  and  South  Africans 
that  A.  D.  Stoop  brought  a  new 
spirit  of  football  into  play,  first  to 
the  Harlequins,  and  secondly  to 
England.  He  brought  together 
enterprise,  individuality,  and  com- 
bination, himself  setting  the  ex- 
ample of  all  three.  In  the  season 
1909-10,  England  beat  Wales  at 
Twickenham  for  the  first  time  in 
11  years.  Wales  kicked  off  and 
Stoop  caught  the  ball.  Instead  of 
kicking  into  touch,  as  had  been  the 
custom  from  time  immemorial, 
Stoop  ran  with  the  ball  and  started 
a  passing  movement  which  re- 
sulted in  a  try  for  England  in  the 
first  half -minute. 

In  1912-13  the  South  Africans 
sent  over  another  team,  which  won 
all  its  internationals.  The  Sotith 
Africans  were  tremendously  heavy 
and  fast  forward,  and  wore  down 
every  pack  they  played  against. 

Rugby  Rules 

The  Rugby  game  should  be 
played  by  15  players  on  each 
side.  The  field  of  play  shall  not  ex- 
ceed 110  yds.  in  length  nor  75  in 
breadth,  and  should  be  as  near  these 
dimensions  as  practicable.  The 
lines  defining  the  boundary  of  the 
field  of  play  shall  be  suitably 
marked,  and  shall  be  called  the 
goal-lines  at  the  ends,  and  the 
touch-lines  at  the  sides.  On  each 
goal-line  and  equidistant  from  the 
touch-lines  shall  be  two  upright 
posts,  called  goal-posts,  exceeding 
11  ft.  in  height,  placed  18  ft.  6  in. 
apart  and  joined  by  a  crossbar  10ft. 
from  the  ground.  The  object  of  the 
game  shall  be  to  kick  the  ball  over 
thiscrossbar  and  between  the  posts. 
The  game  shall  be  played  with  an 
oval  ball,  as  nearly  as  possible 
1 1  ins.  to  1 1  £  ins.  in  length ;  circum- 
ference, 30  ins.  to  31  ins.  ;  width 
(circumference),  25-1  ins.  to  26  ins. ; 
weight,  13  oz.  to  14£  oz. 

The  following  are  the  chief  terms 
employed  in  the  game.  A  drop- 
kick  is  made  by  letting  the  ball  fall 
from  the  hands,  and  kicking  it  as 
it  rises  ;  a  place-kick  by  kicking 
the  ball  after  it  has  been  placed  on 
the  ground  for  the  purpose  ;  a  punt 
by  letting  the  ball  fall  from  the 
hands  and  kicking  it  before  it 
touches  the  ground  ;  a  tackle  is 
when  the  holder  of  the  ball  is  held 
by  one  or  more  players  of  the 
opposite  side  so  that  he  cannot  at 
any  moment,  while  he  is  so  held, 
pass  or  play  it. 

A  scrummage  is  formed  by  the 
forwards  from  each  side  closing 
round  the  ball  when  it  is  on  the 
ground,  or  by  closing  up  in  readi- 
ness to  allow  the  ball  to  be  put 
on  the  ground  between  them.  A 
try  is  gained  by  the  player  who 
first  puts  his  hand  on  the  ball  in 
his  opponents'  in -goal.  A  goal  is 


FOOTBALL 

obtained  by  kicking  the  ball  from 
the  field  of  play  by  any  place-kick 
except  a  kick-off,  or  by  any  drop- 
kick  except  a  drop-out,  without 
touching  the  ground  or  any  player 
of  either  side,  over  the  opponents' 
crossbar,  whether  it  touches  such 
crossbar  or  either  goal-post  or  not. 
A  kicker  and  a  placer  must  be  dis- 
tinct persons,  and  the  kicker  must 
not  under  any  circumstances 
touch  the  ball  when  on  the  ground, 
even  though  the  charge  has  been 
disallowed.  A  fair  catch  is  a 
catch  made  direct  from  a  kick  or 
knock-on,  or  throw  forward  by  one 
of  the  opposite  side;  the  catcher 
must  at  once  claim  the  same  by 
making  a  mark  with  his  heel  at  the 
spot  where  he  made  the  catch. 

Free  kicks  by  way  of  penalties 
shall  be  awarded  if  any  player: 
intentionally  either  handles  the 
ball  or  falls  down  in  a  scrummage, 
or  picks  the  ball  out  of  a  scrum- 
mage, either  by  hands  or  legs ; 
does  not  immediately  put  it  down 
in  front  of  him  on  being  tackled  ; 
being  on  the  ground,  does  not  im- 
mediately get  up  ;  prevents  an  op- 
ponent getting  up  or  putting  the 
ball  down ;  illegally  obstructs 
an  opponent ;  or  wilfully  puts  the 
ball  unfairly  into  a  scrummage,  or, 
the  ball  having  come  out,  wilfully 
returns  it  by  hand  or  foot  into 
the  scrummage.  The  referee  shall 
be  sole  judge  in  all  matters  of 
fact,  but  in  matters  of  law  there 
can  be  an  appeal  to  the  union. 

New  Rules  Added 

At  the  beginning  of  the  season 
1920-21,  several  new  rules  were 
passed  by  the  governing  body.  The 
two  most  important  were  :  that 
after  a  try  has  been  scored,  and  the 
kick  at  goal  has  failed,  the  game 
shall  be  restarted  from  mid-field 
instead  of  being  dropped  from 
the  25-yard  line  ;  that  any  player 
who  has  made  a  fair  catch  must 
take  the  resulting  kick  himself.  The 
first  rule  neutralises,  to  an  extent,  a 
too  heavy  wind  ;  the  second  en- 
courages every  individual,  and  is 
directed  against  undue  specialising. 
See  Corinthian  Football  Club, 
illus. 

Bibliography.  Football :  its  history 
for  5  centuries,  J.  E.  Vincent,  1885  ; 
Football :  the  Rugby  Union  Game, 
F.  Marshall,  1892;  Football:  the 
Badminton  Library,  1904;  Foot- 
ball: Montague  Shearman,  1904; 
Football:  the  Rugby  Game,  H. 
Vassall  and  A.  Budd,  1909 ;  The  En- 
cyclopaedia of  Sport,  1911  edition; 
The  Complete  Association  Foot- 
baller, B.  S.  Evers  and  C.  E.  H. 
Davies,  1912 ;  The  Science  of  Soccer, 
F.  Davison  Currie,  1919;  Associa- 
tion Football,  K.  R.  G.  Hunt,  1920; 
The  "  Green  Book "  Association 
Football  Annual  (edited  by  Alfred 
Davis  and  H.  R.  McDonald) ; 
The  Rugby  Football  Annual. 


FOOTBALL     ASSOCIATION 

Football  Association.  Govern- 
ing body  of  English  amateur  and 
professional  association  football. 
It  was  founded  in  1863  to  establish 
a  definite  set  of  rules  to  govern 
both  Rugby  and  Association  foot- 
ball, but  at  a  preliminary  meeting 
the  representatives  of  the  Rugby 
clubs  objected  to  the  proposal  to 
make  hacking  illegal,  and  with- 
drew. The  F.A.  is  responsible  for 
all  legislation  under  the  dribbling 
code,  and  all  clubs  on  its  register 
must  abide  by  its  rulings.  In  1871 
the  F.A.  promoted  a  cup  competi- 
tion open  to  all  clubs,  and  in  1872 
sanctioned  the  playing  of  inter- 
national matches.  The  F.A.  was 
formed  into  a  limited  liability 
company  in  1903.  Its  council 
consists  of  the  president,  six  vice- 
presidents,  the  hon.  treasurer,  ten 
divisional  representatives,  and  one 
representative  of  each  affiliated 
association  with  membership  of  at 
least  50  clubs.  See  Association  Cup. 

Football  League.  Union  of 
Association  football  clubs  for  the 
purpose  of  playing  matches  against 
each  other.  The  main  principle  is 
that  every  club  in  a  league  shall 
play  every  other  club  twice  during 
the  football  season,  once  at  home 
and  once  away. 

The  idea  was  borrowed  from 
the  U.S.A.,  where  it  was  practised 
by  baseball  clubs,  and  was  sug- 
gested to  certain  football  clubs 
by  W.  McGregor  of  Birmingham 
in  1888.  The  first  league,  the  Foot- 
ball League,  was  then  formed,  and 
consisted  of  twelve  of  the  leading 
English  professional  clubs.  Each 
was  to  play  every  other  twice  during 
the  season  ;  a  win  was  to  count  two 
points  and  a  draw  one.  so  a  club 
could  make  a  maximum  of  44 
points.  The  club  totalling  the  great- 
est number  of  points  was  declared 
champion  of  the  League.  The  num- 
ber of  clubs  in  the  League  was  raised 
to  14,  16,  18,  20,  and  then  to  22. 

To  maintain  the  high  standard 
of  the  League  clubs  a  system  was 
adopted  by  which  the  four  lowest  on 
the  list  were  liable  to  be  dropped  in 
favour  of  other  clubs  from  outside, 
the  matter  being  decided  by  the 
governing  body  of  the  League.  In 
1892  a  second  division  of  12  clubs, 
later  increased  to  22,  was  added, 
and,  down  to  1895,  when  the  num- 
ber was  altered  to  two,  the  practice 
prevailed  of  the  three  lowest  clubs  in 
the  first  division  playing  the  three 
highest  in  the  second  for  entrance 
into  the  former  during  the  follow- 
ing season.  These  test  matches 
were,  however,  abandoned  in  1898, 
since  when  the  two  lowest  clubs 
in  the  first  division  and  the  two 
highest  in  the  second  division  have 
automatically  changed  places.  At 
various  times  proposals  were  made 


Sir  Edward  Foote, 
British  sailor 


for  the  formation  of  a  third  division, 
and  in  1920  it  was  arranged  that  the 
Southern  League  should  become 
the  third  division  of  the  League. 

Footboard.  Continuous  step 
running  along  the  side  of  a  rly. 
carriage  a  few  inches  below  the  floor 
level.  It  is  also  the  longitudinal 
step  on  either  side  of  a  motor-car. 

Foote,  SIR  EDWARD  JAMES(1767- 
1833).  British  sailor.  Born  at  Bish- 
opsbourne,  Kent,  April  20,  1767, 
he  entered  the 
navy  at  the  age 
of  12,  was  in 
the  action  on 
the  Dogger 
Bank,  1781. 
and  at  Domin- 
ica, 1782.  Lieu- 
tenant in  1785, 
he  went  to  the 
East  Indies, 
was  made  com- 
mander in  1791,  and  post-captain  in 
1794.  In  1797  he  was  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean under  Sir  John  Jervis,  and 
the  following  year  served  under 
Nelson,  who,  in  1799,  appointed 
him  senior  officer  in  Naples. 
Rear-admiral  in  1812,  he  became 
second  in  command  at  Portsmouth 
in  1814,  and  vice-admiral  in  1821. 
He  was  knighted  in  1831,  and  died 
at  Southampton,  May  23,  1833. 

Foote,  SAMUEL  (1720-77).  Eng- 
lish actor  and  dramatist.  Born  at 
Truro,  1720,  he  was  educated  at 
Worcester  Col- 
lege, Oxford.  He 
joined  the  bar, 
but  gave  up  a 
legal  career  to 
go  on  the  stage. 
He  was  a  skilful 
mimic  and 
brought  out  at 
The  Haymarket 
in  1747  a  suc- 
cessful enter- 
tainment  called 
The  Diversions  of  the  Morning,  in 
which  he  burlesqued  well-known 
living  persons.  The  magistrates 
having  prohibited  its  performance, 
he  defied  them  by  issuing  a  general 
invitation  to  his  friends  to  "  take  a 
dish  of  tea  with  him,"  tickets  for 
which  could  be  obtained  at  George's 
Coffee  House,  Temple  Bar. 

With  The  Haymarket,  rebuilt  by 
him  in  1767,  he  remained  connected 
till  1777,  playing  many  parts  and 
producing  there  several  of  his  cari- 
cature comedies,  the  best  of  which 
are  Taste,  The  Minor,  The  Orators, 
The  Mayor  of  Garratt,  The  Devil 
upon  Two  Sticks,  and  The  Capu- 
chin. He  died  suddenly  at  Dover, 
Oct.  21,  1777,  and  was  buried  in 
Westminster  Abbey. 

Footpath.  Narrow  path,  used 
by  pedestrians  only.  In  the  United 
Kingdom  the  preservation  of  public 


Samuel  Foote, 
English  dramatist 

AfterSirJ.  Reynolds 


FOOT      ROT 

right  of  way  over  footpaths  is  a 
matter  of  general  interest.  Such  a 
right  is  in  the  nature  of  an  easement. 
It  may  be  acquired  by  grant  made 
by  some  person,  such  as  the  free- 
holder, who  had  power  to  grant ; 
or  by  user.  In  the  latter  case,  after 
20  years'  uninterrupted  enjoyment, 
the  law  presumes  a  grant  made 
before  the  user  commenced  ;  after 
40  years  the  right  is  deemed  abso- 
lute, unless  enjoyed  by  some  con- 
sent expressed  by  deed  or  other 
evidence  in  writing. 

Obstructions  placed  in  &  footpath 
may  be  removed  by  anyone  enjoy- 
ing the  right  to  use  it.  The  safe- 
guarding of  the  public  right  to  use 
footpaths  is  now  entrusted  to  the 
parish  and  district  councils,  without 
whose  consent  no  public  right  of 
way  may  be  diverted  or  stopped. 
The  right  is  also  made  the  object 
of  solicitous  attention  by  the  Com- 
mons and  Footpaths  Preservation 
Society,  25, Victoria  Street,  London. 
S.W.  See  Commons ;  Right  of  Way! 

Footplate.  Metal  plate  on  a 
locomotive  which  covers  the  floor 
where  the  driver  stands  and  ex- 
tends along  both  sides  of  the  engine 
and  in  front  of  the  boiler.  It  is  also 
a  metal  floor-plate  secured  to  the 
end  of  a  railway  corridor  carriage, 
which  rests  and  is  free  to  slide  upon 
the  end  of  the  next  carriage,  so  as 
to  form  a  floor  to  the  gangway 
between  the  carriages.  See  Steam 
Engine. 

Foot  Pound.  Work  done  in 
raising  one  pound  through  a  dis- 
tance of  one  foot  in  lat.  45°  and  at 
sea  level.  See  Horse-power. 

Footprint.  Fossil  record  of  the 
impressions  of  the  feet  of  extinct 
reptiles  or  amphibians.  Alluvial 
deposits  must  at  all  periods  retain 
footmarks  for  a  short  time  ;  some 
of  these  have  been  accidentally 
preserved  by  later  solidification  of 
the  silt. 

Foot  Rot.  Term  usually  applied 
to  a  disease  affecting  the  feet  of 
sheep.  The  animal  suffers  great 
pain  from  an  acute  inflammation  of 
certain  structures  of  the  foot, 
caused  by  a  microscopic  organism 
which  infects  low  and  damp  pas- 
tures. The  disease  is  readily 
noticed,  for  infected  animals  adopt 
a  kneeling  position  when  grazing. 

Affected  animals  must  be  re- 
moved at  once  to  a  dry  yard  or 
shed.  Dryness  is  absolutely  essen- 
tial, and  if  the  animals  are  allowed 
to  stand  for  a  short  time  daily  on  a 
floor  covered  with  slaked  lime;  the 
healing  process  is  considerably 
hastened.  Foot  rot  is  highly  con- 
tagious, and  since  it  takes  three 
weeks  to  develop,  newly  purchased 
sheep  should  be  kept  apart  from  the 
rest  for  twenty  to  thirty  days. 


FOOT'S   CRAY 


3245 


FORBES 


Foot's  Cray.  Urban  dist.  and 
parish  of  Kent,  England.  One  of 
the  four  contiguous  parishes  on  the 
riverCray— St.  Mary  Cray,  St.Paul's 
Cray,  Foot's  Cray,  and  North  Cray 
— it  is  2  m.  S.  of  Sidcup  station  on 
the  S.E.  &  C.R.  Its  name  is  de- 
rived from  that  of  its  owner  in  the 
time  of  Edward  the  Confessor, 
Godwin  Foot ;  but  is  sometimes 
found  written  Votes'  and  Foet's 
Cray.  N.  of  the  village  is  the 
Early  English  church  of  All  Saints. 
In  the  time  of  Henry  VIII  Foot's 
Cray  belonged  to  the  Walsingham 
family.  In  1920  the  official  name 
was  changed  to  Sidcup.  Pop.  8,493. 

Footscray.       Suburb    of    Mel- 
bourne, Victoria,  Australia.     It  is 
intersected  by  the  Saltwater  river, 
and  is  4  m.   by 
rly.  S.W.  of  the 
capital.    There  is 
a  dry  dock  here. 
Pop.  23,643. 

Foppa,  VIN- 
CENZO  (c.  1425- 
1516 ).  Italian 
painter.  Born  at 
Brescia,  he  stud- 
ied, probably 
with  Squarcione, 
at  Padua.  About 
1450  he  returned 
to  Brescia,  but  a 
few  years  later 
settled  at  Pavia. 
He  exercised  an 
enormous  influ- 
ence on  the  Mil- 
anese school,  and 
the  best  collec- 
tion of  his  paint- 
ings is  at  Milan. 
The  National 
Gallery  possesses 
an  Adoration  of  the  Magi  by  him. 

Forage  OR  FODDER  CROPS. 
Plants  grown  for  the  use  of  their 
stems  and  leaves  as  provender. 
Grasses,  etc.,  cultivated  for  hay  or 
grazing,  and  such  things  as  kohl- 
rabi and  cabbage,  are  classified 
as  root  crops.  Forage  crops  are 
often  taken  as  catch  crops  in  S. 
Britain,  and  may  either  be  cut 


satirical  talent  at  its  best  in  the 
Courrier  Fran9ais  and  Le  Rire,  and 
later  in  the  Past !,  an  anti-Drey- 
fusard  sheet  founded  by  himself 
and  Caran  d'Ache.  He  is,  above  all, 
the  interpreter  and  castigator,  in 
exquisite  draughtsmanship,  of  the 
seamy  side  of  Paris  life,  but  his  im- 
pressionist paintings  are  interesting. 
Foraminifera  (Lat.  foramen, 
small  hole).  Minute  creatures  of 
low  organization,  belonging  to  the 
sub-kingdom  Protozoa.  Many  of 
them  are  scarcely  visible  to  the 
naked  eye.  Most  of  them  are 
marine.  They  secrete  a  limy  or 
membranous  shell,  usually  per- 
forated with  minute  holes  through 
which  thread-like  processes  of  the 
body  protoplasm  can  be  extruded. 


Foraminifera.  1.  Frondicuiaria  Goldfnssi,  Cretaceous, 
Bohemia.  2.  Spiroloculina  badensis,  Miocene,  Baden, 
Vienna.  3.  Quinqueloculina  saxorum,  Eocene,  Paris. 
4.  Cornuspira  polygyra,  Oligocene,  Hungary.  5.  Textu- 
laria  globifera,  Upper  Cretaceous,  Traunstein,  Tyrol.  6. 
Nodosaria  spinicosta,  Miocene,  Vienna.  7.  Dentalina 
elegans,  Miocene,  Vienna.  8.  Cristelaria  rotulata,  Creta- 
ceous, Bohemia.  9  and  11.  Rotalia  Beccarii,  Pliocene, 
Siena.  10.  Globigerina  conglomerata,  Pliocene,  Car- 
Nicobar,  Bay  of  Bengal 

With  the  aid  of  these  pseudopodia 
(false  feet)  the  animal  is  able  to 
creep  about  and  to  secure  the  par- 
ticles of  organic  matter  on  which  it 
feeds.  The  ooze  of  the  ocean  beds, 
and  the  vast  deposits  of  limestone 
which  form  so  large  a  portion  of  the 
earth's  crust,  are  largely  composed 
of  the  dead  shells  of  foraminifera. 
For  bach.  Town  of  France,  in 


green  or  fed  on  the  land.     On  the     Lorraine.    It  is5£m.  S.W.  of  Saar- 
whole,  they  increase  fertility  and     briick,  and  33  m.  E.  by  N.  of  Metz. 


help  to  keep  down  weeds,  but  are 
only  available  for  a  short  time.  The 
chief  forage  crops  are  cereals  and 
grasses  :  barley,  winter  oats,  and 
rye,  as  catch  crops ;  Italian  rye- 
grass  (cut  green)  ;  cruciferous 
forms  :  rape  and  mustard  ;  legu- 
minous forms :  gorse,  lucerne, 
lupins,  sainfoin,  trifolium,  and 
trefoil.  See  Agriculture  ;  Crops. 

Forain,  JEAN  Louis  (b.  1852). 
French  artist.  Born  at  Reims,  he 
studied  under  Gerome  at  the 
Beaux  Arts.  After  contributing  to 
the  Monde  Parisien  and  other  illus- 
trated journals,  he  expressed  his 


The  French  were  defeated  at  the 
battle  of  Spicheren  on  the  hills 
near  by  (Aug.  6,  1870),  and  the 
Germans  occupied  the  town.  It 
was  returned  to  France  with  Alsace- 
Lorraine  in  1919.  Pop.  10,100. 

Forbes.  Town  of  New  South 
Wales,  Australia.  It  stands  on  the 
Lachlan  river,  290  m.  W.  of  Sydney. 
It  is  an  important  centre  of  sheep 
and  horse  breeding.  Pop.  4,654. 

Forbes,  ALEXANDER  PENROSE 
(1817-75).  Scottish  divine.  Born 
at  Edinburgh,  June  6,  1817,  and 
educated  there  and  at  Glasgow,  in 
1836  he  entered  the  Indian  civil 


service.  His  health  failing,  he  re- 
turned to  England  and  won  a 
Sanskrit  scholarship  at  Brasenose 
College,  Oxford.  Ordained  in  1844, 
he  became  in  turn  incumbent  of 
Stonehaven  and  vicar  of  S. 
Saviour's,  Leeds.  He  was  ap- 
pointed bishop  of  Brechin  in  1848. 
A  prominent  high  churchman, 
he  was  tried  in  the  ecclesiastical 
courts  on  a  charge  of  heresy,  arising 
out  of  the  statement  of  his  views 
on  the  Eucharist  contained  in  his 
primary  charge,  and  was  censured. 
He  was  the  author  of  numerous 
commentaries  and  liturgical  works. 
He  died  in  Dundee,  Oct.  8,  1875. 
Forbes,  ARCHIBALD(  1838-1900). 
British  war  correspondent.  Born  in 
Elginshire,  April  17.  1838,  and 
educated  at 
King's  College, 
Aberdeen,  he 
broke  off  his 
u  ni ve  r  s  i  ty 
course  to  enlist 
in  the  Royal 
Dragoons,  and, 
while  still  a 
trooper,  contri- 
buted articles 
to  the  papers. 

In  the  Franco-  ^ " 

Prussian    War 

of  1870-71  he  made  his  reputationas 
correspondent,  first  of  The  Morning 
Advertiser  and  then  of  The  Daily 
News.  He  saw  much  subsequent 
service  as  a  war  correspondent, 
notably  in  the  Russo-Turkish  and 
Zulu  Wars,  being  able  in  the  latter 
to  give  Britain  the  first  news 
of  the  battle  of  Ulundi.  Between 
campaigns  Forbes  lectured.  He 
wrote  Memories  and  Studies  of  War 
and  Peace,  1895,  and  died  in 
London,  March  30,  1900. 

Forbes,  DUNCAN  (1685-1747). 
Scottish  lawyer.  Born  near  Inver- 
ness, Nov.  10,  1685,  he  studied  law 
at  Leiden,  was 
admitted  ad- 
vocate and  ap- 
pointed sheriff 
of  Midlothian 
in  1709,  and, 
for  his  services 
in  suppressing 
the  rebellion 
of  1715,  was 
made  deputy- 
advocate.  Re- 
From  an  engraving  turned  to  Par- 
liament for  the  Inverness  burghs 
in  1722,  he  was  appointed  lord 
advocate  in  1725  and  lord  presi- 
dent of  the  court  of  session  in 
1737.  In  the  rebellion  of  1745  he 
strove  hard  to  keep  the  rebels  in 
check,  but  his  services  were  coldly 
received  by  the  Government.  He 
originated  the  idea  of  raising  High- 
land regiments,  later  adopted  by 
Pitt.  He  died  Dec.  10,  1747. 


Duncan' Forbes, 
Scottish  lawyer 


FORBES 


3246 


FORCED   LOAN 


Forbes,  EDWARD  (1815-54). 
British  naturalist.  Born  at  Doug- 
las. Isle  of  Man,  Feb.  12,  1815,  he 
was  appointed  in  1843  to  the  chair 
of  botany  at  King's  College,  Lon- 
don, and  became  curator  of  the 
Geological  Society.  In  1853  he  be- 
came professor  of  natural  history 
at  Edinburgh.  He  is  chiefly  known 
by  his  work  on  the  starfishes,  1841, 
and  British  mollusca  (with  Han- 
ley),  1853.  He  died  near  Edin- 
burgh, Nov.  18,  1854. 

Forbes-Robertson,  SLR  JOHN- 
STON (b.  1853).  British  actor.  Born 
in  London,  Jan.  16,  1853,  eldest 
son  of  John  Forbes-Robertson,  art 
critic  and  journalist,  of  Aberdeen, 
and  educated  at  the  Charterhouse 
and  Rouen,  he 
studied  art 
at  the  R.A. 
school,  and 
elocution  un- 
der Samuel 
Phelps.  He 
made  his  stage 
debut,March  5, 
1874,  at  The 


Princess's,  London,  as  Chastelard, 
in  Mary  Queen  of  Scots.  In  the 
same  year  he  appeared  with  Ellen 
Terry  at  Astley's.  Associated  in 
turns  with  Charles  Calvert,  the  Ban- 
crofts, Henry  Irving,  Wilson  Bar- 
rett, and  John  Hare,  he  achieved 
his  first  notable  success  as  Geoffrey 
Wynyard  in  Dan'l  Druce,  at  The 
Haymarket,  Sept.  11,  1876.  His 
first  venture  as  an  actor-manager 
was  at  The  Lyceum,  Sept.  21,  1895, 
when  he  appeared  as  Romeo  to  the 
Juliet  of  Mrs.  Patrick  Campbell. 
His  farewell  season  in  London  was 
opened  at  Drury  Lane,  March  22, 
1913,  and  closed  on  June  6  follow- 
ing. In  this  year  he  was  knighted. 

Gifted  with  a  magnetic  person- 
ality and  exceptional  elocutionary 
ability,  he  was  one  of  the  most 
popular  actors  of  his  time.  Of  the 
many  parts  he  played,  his  Hamlet, 
the  title-role  in  The  Passing  of  the 
Third  Floor  Back,  and  Dick  Heldar 
in  The  Light  That  Failed,  were 
memorable. 

He  toured  in  the  U.S.A.  in 
1885,  1891,  1903-4,  1906,  1909-10, 
1911,  1914,  and  1915 ;  and  in 
Germany  in  1898.  His  brother, 
whose  stage  name  is  Norman 
Forbes  (b.  1859),  also  won  dis- 
tinction as  an  actor ;  and  his 
sister,  Frances  Forbes-Robertson, 
was  the  author  of  several  novels. 

In  1900  Sir  Johnston  married 
May  Gertrude,  sister  of  Maxine  El- 
liott (q.v. )  and  daughter  of  Thomas 
Dermot,  of  Oakland,  California, 
who,  as  Gertrude  Elliott,  made  her 


Sir  J.  Forbes-Robertson  in  character  as,  left,  The  Stranger,  in  The  Passing  of 
the  Third  Floor  Back  ;  right,  Hamlet 


The  British  unit  of  force,  called 
a  poundal,  is  a  force  which  produces 
in  one  second  a  speed  of  one  foot 
per  second  to  a  mass  of  one  pound. 
In  the  centimetre,  gramme,  second 
system  of  measurement,  the  unit 
of  force,  called  a  dyne  (q.v. ),  is  the 
force  which  produces  in  one  second 
a  speed  of  one  centimetre  per 
second  in  a  mass  of  one  gramme. 

The  word  force  is  also  used  of 
a  body  of  men,  e.g.  police  force ; 
in  card  playing  for  the  forced  pro- 
duction of  certain  cards  ;  in  horti- 
culture for  the  forcing  of  plant 
growth ;  and  for  the  power  exerted 
by  an  explosion. 

Forced  Landing.  Aeronautical 
term  for  the  coming  to  earth  of  an 
aircraft  through  some  cause  over 
which  the  pilot  has  no  control. 

Forced  Loan.  MSney  taken  by 
kings  and  other  rulers  from  their 
subjects  by  compulsion,  but  with 
the  promise  of  repayment,  thus 
differentiating  it  from  taxation 
proper.  Something  of  this  kind  has 
been  done  almost  as  long  as  society 
has  existed,  but  in  England  it  first 
became  prominent  in  the  time  of 
Charles  I.  In  1626  Charles  re- 
sorted to  the  device  of  a  forced 
loan.  He  dismissed  Coke  from  the 
chief  justiceship  for  denying  its 
legality,  and  he  punished  those 
who  refused  to  pay  by  billeting 
soldiers  upon  them  and  in  other 
ways.  The  question  was  tested 
in  the  courts  of  law  by  the  Five 
Knights'  Case ;  in  this  the  judges' 
decision  implied  that  the  king  alone 
could  decide  whether  or  not  a  loan 
was  illegal.  To  this  the  parliament 
replied  by  the  Petition  of  Right, 
which  declared  the  exaction  of 
"  any  gift,  loan,  benevolency  or 
tax  without  common  consent  by 
Act  of  Parliament  to  be  illegal." 
During  the  Great  War  suggestions 
were  made  from  time  to  time  that 


tirst  appearance  on  the  American 
stage  in  1894,  and  later  won  much 
public  favour  as  Peggy,  in  Mice  and 
Men;  Ophelia;  Desdemona;  Portia; 
Cleopatra,  in  Caesar  and  Cleopatra; 
Maisie,  in  The  Light  That  Failed  ; 
Stasia,  in  The  Passing  of  the  Third 
Floor  Back  ;  and  other  parts. 

Forcados.  River  and  town  of 
Nigeria,  W.  Africa.  The  river  forms 
the  most  important  deltaic  arm  of 
the  Niger,  discharging  into  the 
Bight  of  Benin.  Vessels  proceed- 
ing to  Burutu,  the  headquarters  of 
the  Niger  Company,  and  all  ships 
proceeding  to  the  ports  of  Warri, 
Kokotown,  and  Sapele  enter  here. 
The  town  is  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Forcados  river,  near  the  coast, 
with  a  commodious  harbour.  It  is 
60  m.  S.S.W.  of  Benin.  Pop. 
3,189,  including  33  Europeans. 

Force  (Lat.  fortis,  strong).  Fun- 
damental conception  defined  by 
Newton  as  that  which  changes  or 
tends  to  produce  change  of  motion 
in  a  body  on  which  it  acts.  Origin- 
ally a  muscular  conception,  it  now 
incorporates  electrical  and  mag- 
netic manifestations,  e.g.  the  power 
of  a  magnet  to  attract  iron,  etc., 
the  attraction  of  the  earth,  sun, 
etc.,  i.e.  gravitational  force,  etc. 
Force  has  been  defined  also  as  the 
rate  per  unit  of  length  at  which 
energy  is  transferred  or  trans- 
formed, so  avoiding  the  conception 
that  force  is  a  thing  of  itself,  or  that 
it  can  exist  without  the  presence 
of  matter.  Certainly  the  existence 
of  force  without  matter  is  unknown. 

In  dynamics  force  is  measured 
by  the  rate  of  change  of  momentum 
(q.v. ),  and  is  usually  represented  by 
lines  of  definite  length  and  direc- 
tion, and  the  resultant  of  two 
forces  can  be  represented  as  the 
diagonal  of  a  parallelogram,  the 
sides  of  which  represent  the  forces. 
(See  Composition  of  Forces.) 


FORCEPS 


3247 


FORE      AND      AFT      RIO 


money  should  be  raised  by  a  com- 
pulsory loan,  but  nothing  was  done 
in  this  direction. 

Forceps.  Instrument  consisting 
of  two  blades  for  grasping  or  com- 
pressing tissues  or  objects.  The 
midwifery  forceps,  used  for  assist- 
ing delivery  with  difficult  labour, 
is  one  of  the  most  beneficial  in- 
struments ever  invented.  There  is 
some  evidence  that  forceps  of  a 
kind  were  used  in  childbirth  at 
Pompeii,  and  in  the  10th  century 
by  Arabian  physicians.  The  know- 
ledge was,  however,  entirely  lost, 
and  was  rediscovered  about  the 
beginning  of  the  17th  century  by 
Peter  Chamberlen,  a  Huguenot 
refugee,  who  fled  to  England. 
Chamberlen  and  his  sons  and  grand- 
sons kept  the  secret  in  their  family 
for  nearly  one  hundred  years,  and 
it  was  not  until  1733  that  Chapman 
published  a  f  all  description  of  the 
midwifery  forceps.  The  word  for- 
ceps meant  an  instrument  for  hold- 
ing hot  iron  (Lat.  formus,  hot; 
caper e,  to  grasp ).  A  form  of  forceps 
is  employed  in  nearly  all  surgical 
operations,  and  by  dentists,  watch- 
makers, etc.  See  Dentistry,  illus. 

Forcible  Entry.  Term  used  in 
English  law.  By  a  statute  of 
Richard  II,  it  is  forbidden  for  any- 
one claiming  land  to  make  a  forcible 
entry  on  it.  However  good  his 
title  may  be,  he  must  not  assert  it 
by  force,  or  he  will  be  guilty  of  a 
breach  of  the  peace,  and  be  liable 
to  a  fine. 

Forcible  Feeding.  Adminis- 
tration by  force  of  food  to  a  person 
who  refuses  to  take  it.  Liquid  food 
is  introduced  into  the  stomach 
through  a  tube  passed  down  the 
throat,  or  sometimes  through  the 
nostril.  The  procedure  is  occasion- 
ally necessary  in  the  case  of  luna- 
tics, and  was  resorted  to  in  order 
to  keep  alive  imprisoned  women 
suffragists  during  the  agitation  for 
women's  suffrage  in  Great  Britain, 
about  1910-13. 

Forcing.  Art  of  bringing  flowers, 
fruit,  and  vegetables  to  a  state  of 
maturity  at  an  earlier  date  than 
in  ordinary  circumstances.  Any 
heated  greenhouse  can  be  used  as  a 
forcing  house,  but  where  this  is  not 
available,  fresh  stable  manure  may 
be  spread  at  the  bottom  of  a  pit, 
about  3  ft.  in  depth,  and,  when  the 
rank  steam  has  escaped,  covered 
with  a  thick  layer  of  good,  rich 
loam,  a  cold  frame  or  a  series  of 
portable  hand-lights  .being  placed 
over  it.  The  decaying  manure  will 
create  a  high  temperature,  and  the 
frames  can  be  used  for  starting  all 
half-hardy  plants,  and  when  the 
temperature  of  the  decaying 
manure  falls,  the  frames  will  serve 
to  grow  rhubarb,  seakale,  and  some- 
times mushrooms.  If  the  tempera- 


ture falls  too  rapidly,  it  must  be 
renewed  by  the  addition  of  fresh 
manure  and  litter.  See  Gardening. 

For  cite.  Term  used  for  certain 
explosives  in  the  U.S.A.  and  in 
Belgium.  In  the  U.S.A.  it  is 
frequently  used  to  designate  blast- 
ing explosives,  prepared  by  mix- 
ing gelatinised  nitroglycerine  with 
sodium  nitrate  (76),  wood  tar  (20), 
sulphur  (3),  and  wood  pulp  (1). 
The  best  known  explosives  under 
this  name,  however,  are  those 
which  are  manufactured  at  Baelen- 
sur-Nethe,  in  Belgium,  in  which  40 
to  67  p.c.  of  gelatinised  nitroglycer- 
ine is  mixed  with  wood  meal  and 
sodium,  potassium,  or  ammonium 
nitrate. 

Ford  (Anglo-Saxon).  Point  in 
a  river  or  lake  at  which  man  or 
beast  can  cross  on  foot.  Fords  and 
bridging  facilities  have  fixed  the 
site  of  all  important  riverine  towns. 
Modern  London  includes  the  old 
city,  built  at  the  then  best  bridging 
point  nearest  the  sea,  and  West- 
minster, founded  where  the  Thames 
could  be  forded  before  London 
Bridge  was  built. 

Ford,  EDWARD  ONSLOW  (1852- 
1901).  British  sculptor.  Born  at 
Islington,  he  studied  at  Antwerp 
^  and  Munich. 

fn    ]H7r>  he 

1    first  exhibited 

9   at   the   R>A-' 

became  A.R.A. 


E.  Onslow  Ford, 
British  sculptor 

Elliott  &  Fry 

Khartum ;     the 


Among  his 
workg  are  the 
Gordon  group, 
1890,  of  which 
replicas  are  at 
Chatham  and 
Queen  Victoria 

Memorial,  Manchester,  1901  ;  Folly 

(Tate    Gallery).     His    many   por- 

trait busts  are  marked  by  delicate 

modelling  and  truth   of   likeness. 

He   died    at    St.    John's    Wood, 

London,  Dec.  23,  1901. 
Ford,  HENRY  (b.  1863).   Ameri- 

can manufacturer.   Born  at  Green- 

field, Michigan,  July   30,  1863,  he 

began  to  work 

when  a  boy  hi 

an  engineering 

shop    at     De- 

troit.   He  rose 

to    be    chief 

engineer  at  the 

Edison  Illu- 

minating   Co., 

and    in    1903 

founded  a  busi- 

ness of  his  own 

at  Detroit.    This  became  the  Ford 

Motor  Co.,  and  under  his  presidency 

the  largest  maker  of  automobiles 

in  the  world,  turning  out  3,000  a 

day,  and  employing  50,000  hands. 

Ford  also  turned  his  attention  to 


/*• 


Henry  Ford,  Ameri- 
can manufacturer 


farm  tractors,  and  these,  known  as 
Fordsons,  were  produced  in  great 
numbers. 

In  1914  he  instituted  a  scheme 
of  profit-sharing  for  his  employees, 
and  as  regards  wages  and  hours  of 
labour  his  firm  was  always  most 
liberal.  In  Dec.,  1918,  he  announced 
his  intention  of  retiring  in  favour 
of  his  son,  one  of  his  new  interests 
being  a  weekly  periodical,  The 
Dearborn  Independent.  In  1915 
Ford  brought  a  party  of  Americans 
to  Europe  in  the  hope  of  ending  the 
Great  War.  But  later  he  was  con- 
vinced of  the  futility  of  this  policy, 
and  when  his  country  became  a 
belligerent  he  placed  his  resources 
at  its  disposal,  produced  war 
material  on  a  vast  scale,  and  sub- 
scribed £1,000,000  to  the  U.S.A. 
Liberty  Loan. 

Ford,  JOHN  (1586-C.1639).  Eng- 
lish dramatist.  Born  at  Ilsington, 
Devon,  April  17,  1586,  he  spent  a 
year  at  Exeter  College,  Oxford, 
and  then  entered  the  MiddleTemple. 
His  reputation  rests  on  his  tragedies, 
'Tis  Pity  She's  a  Whore,  1626 ;  The 
Broken  Heart,  1629;  and  the  histori- 
cal drama  of  Perkin  Warbeck,  1634. 
He  collaborated  vith  Dekker, 
Rowley,  and  Webster,  with  the 
two  first  in  The  Witch  of  Ed- 
monton, c.  1621  ;  with  the  last  in  a 
lost  play,  called  A  Late  Murder  of 
the  Son  upon  the  Mother.  Charles 
Lamb  placed  Ford  in  "  the  first 
order  of  poets,"  though  his  genius 
was  peculiarly  sombre.  W.  Gif- 
ford's  edition  of  his  works,  1827, 
was  revised  by  A.  Dyce,  1869,  and 
by  Hartley  Coleridge,  1840. 

For  dun,  JOHN  OP  (d  c.  1384). 
Scottish  chronicler.  He  wrote 
the  Chronica  Gentis  Scotorum, 
which  make  up  the  first  five  books 
of  Walter  Bower's  Scotichronicon. 
and  the  Gesta  Annalia,  which  carry 
this  work  from  1153  to  1383,  and. 
as  completed  by  Bower,  to  1437. 
He  was  probably  a  chantry  priest 
in  Aberdeen  Cathedral. 

Fordwich.  Parish  and  village 
of  Kent,  England.  It  is  2  m.  N.E. 
of  Canterbury,  and  was  once  a 
place  of  importance.  In  the  Middle 
Ages  and  later,  the  Stour,  which 
flows  by  here,  was  navigable,  and 
Fordwich  was  a  port,  serving  as 
the  port  of  Canterbury,  and  a  cor- 
porate member  of  the  Cinque  port 
of  Sandwich.  It  has  an  old  church, 
S.  Mary's,  with  a  Norman  shrine 
and  other  features  of  interest.  The 
old  sessions  house  still  stands,  and 
there  are  remains  of  the  port.  It 
was  a  borough  until  1884,  when 
it  lost  its  mayor  and  corporation 
under  the  Act  of  1883.  Pop.  254. 

Fore  and  Aft  Rig.  Sails  set 
towards  bow  and  stern  of  a  vessel, 
as  in  a  cutter's  rig.  A  vessel  is 
square-rigged  when  her  sails  are 


FORECASTLE 


3248 


FOREIGN      PRESS      ASSOCIATION 


set  athwart  the  beam  or  across  the 
decks.  In  the  Royal  Navy  fore 
and  aft  rig  is  colloquially  used  for 
the  uniform  worn  by  chief  petty 
officers,  or  any  other  uniform  of 
which  peaked  cap  and  monkey- 
jacket  form  a  part. 

Forecastle  OB  FO'C'SLE.  For- 
ward part  of  a  ship  where  the  crew 
live.  The  term  is  reputedly  de- 
rived from  the  forecastle  which 
used  to  stand  here  in  the  fighting 
ships  of  medieval  days.  A  monkey 
forecastle  is  a  small  deck  below 
the  level  of  the  forecastle  proper. 

Foreclosure  (old  Fr.  forclos, 
shut  out).  Term  used  in  English 
law.  When  a  mortgagor  has 
failed  to  pay  the  debt  in  accord- 
ance with  his  covenant,  the  mort- 
gagee may  take  possession  of  the 
land  or  other  security ;  but  the 
mortgagor  has,  at  any  time,  the 
right  to  come  and  say,  "  Here  is 
your  money  and  interest,  give  me 
back  my  security."  This  right  is 
called  an  equity  of  redemp/.ion.  If 
the  mortgagee  desires  to  exclude 
the  mortgagor  from  this  equity,  he 
must  bring  an  action  to  foreclose, 
when  the  court  orders  that  if  the 
mortgagor  does  not  redeem  within  a 
certain  time,  generally  six  months, 
the  equity  shall  expire,  and  the 
mortgagee  shall  become  the  owner 
of  the  security.  See  Mortgage. 

Foreign  Bondholders,  COK- 
POBATION  OF.  British  association 
to  protect  the  interests  of  those 
who  have  lent  money  to  foreign 
countries.  Founded  in  1868  and 
incorporated  in  1898,  it  consists 
of  a  president,  vice-president,  and 
council.  The  corporation  is  es- 
pecially concerned  with  bringing 
pressure  upon  states,  e.g.  Hon- 
duras, which  have  failed  to  pay 
interest  on  their  bonds,  and  nego- 
tiates with  such  in  order  to  get 
something  for  the  bondholders.  It 
has  been  successful  in  many  nego- 
tiations of  this  kind.  Its  offices  are 
17,  Moorgate  Street,  London,  E.G. 

Foreign  Enlistment  Act. 
British  Act  of  Parliament.  There 
are  two  such  Acts,  the  first  passed 
in  1819  and  the  second  in  1870.  The 
substance  is  that  British  subjects 
must  not  take  military  service 
under  a  foreign  state  without  the 
royal  licence,  nor  equip  ships  to 
be  used  against  any  foreign  state 
with  which  the  country  is  at  peace. 
In  1835  the  Act  was  suspended  in 
order  to  allow  a  legion  to  be  raised 
to  serve  against  the  Carlists  in 
Spain,  and  it  was  evaded  during 
the  struggle  for  Italian  freedom. 
This,  but  more  especially  the  event 
of  the  American  Civil  War,  made 
necessary  the  stronger  Act  of 
1870,  which  inflicts  heavy  penal- 
ties on  those  who  fit  out  ships  for 
raiding  purposes  on  neutral  ports 


and  shipping.  It  was  under  this 
Act  that  Dr.  Jameson  was  tried  in 
1896.  See  Jameson  Raid. 

Foreign  Jurisdiction  Act, 
1890.  Statute  providing  for  the 
exercise  of  jurisdiction  over  British 
subjects  in  certain  countries. 
These  are  where  the  British  crown 
has  acquired  such  rights  by  con- 
quest or  cession,  e.g.  certain  parts 
of  China,  and  where  there  is  no 
settled  government.  It  also  em- 
powers the  crown  to  make  laws  for 
the  ordering  of  British  subjects  in 
ships  in  eastern  waters  within  100 
miles  of  the  Chinese  and  Japanese 
coasts.  See  International  Law. 

Foreign  Law.  English  law 
treats  foreign  law  solely  as  a  matter 
of  fact.  If  an  English  court  has 
before  it  a  case  that  turns  on  a 
question  of  foreign  law,  it  will  not 
refuse  to  decide  the  dispute.  For 
its  satisfaction,  therefore,  quali- 
fied lawyers  of  the  country  in 
question  must  prove  in  evidence 
what  the  law  is,  and  on  that  the 
ease  will  be  decided. 

Foreign  Legion  (Fr.  legion 
etrangere).  French  corps  in  which, 
previous  to  1919,  Alsatians  and 
Lorrainers  who  were  born  under 
German  rule  could  enlist  volun- 
tarily. It  also  included  men  of 
other  nationalities  who  had  French 
sympathies,  or  desired  a  life  of 
adventure.  In  peace  time  it  gar- 
risons a  French  colony,  and  in 
recruiting  for  the  Legion  the 
authorities  are  not  particular  as  to 
age  or  character.  The  Legion  has  a 
great  reputation  as  a  fighting  force. 

The  Legion  consists  of  two  regi- 
ments of  four  battalions,  whose 
headquarters  are  in  Algiers,  and  is 
officered  chiefly  by  Frenchmen. 
Connected  with  the  Legion  are 
certain  battalions  known  as  the 
Zephyrs,  which  are  in  fact  disciplin- 
ary units,  the  conscripts  drafted 
into  them  as  a  punishment  serving 
in  the  unhealthiest  French  colo- 
nies. The  Legion  greatly  distin- 
guished itself  in  France  in  the 
Great  War.  In  Aug.,  1920,  it  was 
announced  that  the  Legion  was  to 


Foreign  Office,  London,  seen  from  St. 


Foreign  Legion.     Officer  and  men 

of  the  First  Foreign  Legion  with 

their  colours 

be  reinforced  and  its  scope  con- 
siderably widened.  A  regiment  of 
cavalry  and  of  artillery  and  an 
engineers'  battalion  were  to  be 
added. 

Foreign  Office .  British  govern- 
ment department.  Its  head,  the 
secretary  of  state  for  foreign 
affairs,  has  charge  of  all  business 
affecting  the  relations  of  Great 
Britain  with  foreign  powers.  He 
appoints,  sends  out,  and  super- 
vises ambassadors,  consuls,  and 
other  diplomatic  agents,  and  by 
various  means,  not  excluding  the 
use  of  secret  agents,  keeps  him- 
self acquainted  with  the  course  of 
affairs  abroad.  Much  of  the  work 
is  of  a  confidential  character,  and 
the  staff  is  recruited  by  a  different 
system  from  the  rest  of  the  civil 
service. 

Until  Sir  Edward  Grey  became 
foreign     secretary    in     1905     the 
position    was    almost    invariably 
filled  by  a  peer,  among  the  holders 
being  Lords  Palmerston,    Claren- 
don,    Salisbury,    'Rosebery,     and 
Lansdowne.    Before  1782,  when  the 
foreign   secretary   first  came   into 
existence,   the   control   of  foreign 
affairs  was  divided  between  the  two 
principal  s  e  c  r  e  - 
|    taries  of  state, 
j    The    secretary   is 
!    assisted  by  a  par- 
liamentary and  a 
permanent  under- 
secretary, and  his 
office,    entered 
from     Downing 
Street,    overlooks 
St.  James's  Park. 
Foreign  Press 
Association. 
London  society 
for  the  promotion 
o  f    the    interests 
of     editors     and 
James's  Park         correspondents  of 


FORELAND 

foreign  newspapers,  periodicals, 
and  news  agencies,  living  in  the 
United  Kingdom. 

Foreland,  NORTH  AND  SOUTH. 
Two  chalk  headlands  on  the  coast 
of  Kent,  England.  The  North 
Foreland,  about  2£  m.  S.E.  of 
Margate,  is  theCantium  of  Ptolemy, 
and  has  a  lighthouse  188  ft.  above 
sea  level,  with  a  light  visible  at 
20  m.  The  South  Foreland,  3  m. 
N.E.  of  Dover,  has  two  light- 
houses respectively  375  ft.  and 
275  ft.  above  sea  level,  and  visible 
at  26  m.  and  23  m. 

Foreman.  First  or  chief  man. 
The  word  has  two  main  senses.  It 
means  the  one  who  speaks  for  his 
colleagues,  the  foreman  of  a  jury. 
It  is  also  used  in  industrial  life  for 
oue  who  supervises  constantly  and 
in  person  the  work  of  others.  In 
factories,  works,  and  building 
operations  the  workers  are  con- 
trolled by  foremen. 

Foreshore.  Part  of  a  beach  or 
seashore  which  lies  between  the 
extreme  limits  of  high  and  low 
water  marks,  i.e.  is  covered  at  high 
tide  and  uncovered  at  low  tide. 
The  extent  of  the  foreshore  depends 
partly  upon  the  slope  of  the  ground 
and  partly  upon  the  height  of  the 
tides.  The  boundary  has  been 
fixed,  by  a  decision  of  English  law, 
as  the  mean  between  the  high  and 
the  low  water  mark.  Foreshore  is 
vested  in  the  crown.  See  Coast. 

Foreshortening.  Technical 
term  in  perspective  drawing.  An 
object  is  represented  as  diminish- 
ing in  extent  according  to  the 
angle  from  which  it  is  viewed, 
while  at  the  same  time  its  real 
length  must  be  adequately  sug- 
gested. Thus,  in  a  portrait,  an  arm 
represented  as  pointing  at  full 
length  directly  towards  the  on- 
looker occupies  less  space  than  it 
would  fill  were  it  shown  as  point- 
ing to  one  side ;  yet  the  perspective 
must  be  so  managed  as  clearly  to 
indicate  that  the  length  of  the 
arm  is  the  same.  Faulty  drawing 
might  suggest  an  outstretched 
hand  without  proper  support,  or 
there  might  be  some  other  defect. 
See  Drawing.  ^ '; 

Forest.  Term  originally  applied 
to  a  royal  demesne  set  apart  for 
the  preservation  of  beasts  of  the 
chase  and  to  afford  the  sovereign 
facilities  for  hunting.  Not  neces- 
sarily wooded  or  uncultivated,  it 
was  frequently  so  called  only 
because  forest  law  was  applied  to 
it.  The  word  forest  (late  Lat. 
foresta),  ultimately  derived  from 
Lat.  foris  (out-of-doors),  in  modern 
times  came  to  be  more  particularly 
associated  with  such  uncultivated 
tracts  as  were  thickly  wooded. 
Even  yet  in  Scotland  the  term 
deer-forest  is  used  to  describe  an 


3249 


cial  value,  are  now 
used  for  the 
manufacture  o  i 
wood-pulp  for 
paper-making.  In 
Nova  Scotia  and 
British  Columbia 
especially,  the 
lumber  industry 
constitutes  the 
taple  of  wealth, 
although  in  the 


extensive  region 
quite  devoid  of 
timber.  A  forest 
consisted  of  vert 
and  venison.  The 
former  comprised 
the  high  wood, 
underwood,  and 
turf ;  the  latter 
the  beasts  of  the 
forest,  chase,  and 
warren. 

The    most    ex- 
tensive    forest 
areas    in   the 
British   Empire,   and,   indeed,   in 
the  world,  are   those  of  Canada, 
which  cover  between  500  and  600 
million   acres,    about   one-half   of 
which  are  planted  with  commercial 
timber.  Extensive  reserves  for  the 
permanent  supply  of  timber  have 
been    created    by    the   Dominion 


Foreland.     The  lighthouses.      Above,  that  of  the  South 
Foreland;  below,  of  the  North  Foreland 

former  colony  a  rather  rigorous 
protective  policy  has  been  in 
vogue  for  some  years.  Still,  spruce 
deals  are  exported  and  the  manu- 
facture of  wood-pulp  is  carried  on. 
British  Columbia,  on  the  other 
hand,  with  its  15,000,000  acres  of 
marketable  timber,  possesses  an 


Parliament  since  1887,  and  those  almost  inexhaustible  quantity  of 
provincial  governments  which  have  paper-making  woods,  especially 
forestry  iurisc" 


forestry  jurisdiction  have  adopted 
a  similar  policy,  with  the  result 
that  the  total  forestry  reserves  of 
Canada  have  increased  from 
7,413,760  in  1901  to  152,833,955 
acres  in  1918.  Certain  depleted 
areas  have  also  been  re-afforested. 
In  Ontario  spruce  and  other  trees, 
which  had  previously  no  commer- 


Foreshortening.      Example  of  fore- 
shortening of  an  arm,  from  a  re- 
cruiting  poster  issued  during  the 
Great  War 

Courtesy  of  London  Opinion 


Douglas  fir,  yellow   cedar,  white 
pine,  and  arbor  vitae. 

British  Guiana,  perhaps,  pos- 
sesses the  rarest  and  most  exten- 
sive variety  of  timbers.  Its  forests 
are  estimated  to  cover  78,500  sq.m. 
of  country,  but  at  present  the 
workable  area  is  confined  to  11,000 
sq.  m.  situated  in  the  more  access- 
ible parts  extending  from  the  sea- 
coast  to  where  the  large  rivers  are 
broken  by  rapids  and  falls  which 
do  not  permit  of  the  water-carriage 
of  timber.  The  woods  chiefly 
grown  are  mangrove,  courida, 
kakaralli,  wallaba,  bullet  tree, 
crabwood  and  hard-wood  such  as 
purple-heart,  locust  and  suradanni, 
most  of  which  are  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  furniture. 

Forests  occupy  a  very  small 
portion  of  the  Union  of  South 
Africa.  The  largest  are  those  in  the 
Knysna  and  Humansdorp  districts 
of  the  Cape,  on  the  southern  slopes 
of  the  Outeniqua,  Longkloof,  and 
Zitzikamma  mountains. 

In  N.  America  the  northern 
forests  of  Maine  are  remarkable 
for  density  and  volume  of  growth, 
maple,  birch,  beech,  and  pine  pre- 
dominating. The  forests  of  the 

IX 


FORESTALLING 


3250 


FOREST   ROW 


Southern  states  are  by  no  means 
so  thick,  and  produce  oaks,  pines, 
cypresses,  gums,  and  cedars.  The 
central  states  are  rich  in  hard- 
wood forests,  growing  chestnuts, 
hickories,  and  ashes.  W.  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  the  forests  of 
the  Pacific  coast  produce  trees  of 
immense  size,  chiefly  redwood, 
hemlock,  spruce,  and  fir,  and  what 
is  known  as  the  "  big  "  tree.  The 
Rocky  Mountains  are  in  places 
covered  with  pine  and  spruce. 
Valuable  stretches  of  timber  exist 
in  Alaska,  especially  along  the 
river  courses  and  on  the  lower 
slopes  of  the  hills. 

In  S.  America  dense  tropical 
forests  prevail  in  the  regions  of  the 
Amazon  and  Maranon,  but  because 
of  the  thick  undergrowth  and  the 
numerous  wild  animals  and  reptiles 
which  dwell  therein,  they  are  well- 
nigh  impenetrable. 

Thickly  wooded  areas  still 
occupy  a  considerable  proportion 
of  the  European  continent.  In 
France,  where  one-sixth  of  the 
afforested  areas  of  2,500,000  acres 
is  state  property,  the  forests  of 
Ardennes,  Orleans,  Fontainebleau, 
Compiegne,  and  Rambouillet  are 
administered  by  official  agency.  In 
Germany  the  Black  Forest  and 
those  in  Franconia  and  Thuringia 
are  similarly  managed.  Russia  has 
about  500,000,000  acres  under 
timber,  most  of  which  is  of  small 
commercial  value. 

Forestalling.  Commercial  term 
denoting  interference  with  public 
trade  by  buying  up  merchandise 
on  its  way  to  a  market,  or  keep- 
ing other  people's  goods  off  the 
market,  or  making  a  ring  in  a  mar- 
ket, all  agreeing  to  charge  the  same 
high  price.  It  was  similar  to  the 
modern  profiteering.  Originally  an 
offence,  it  was  taken  away  from 
this  category  by  an  Act  of  1844. 
I  See  Engrossing. 

Forest  Bed.  Series  of  deposits 
formed  above  the  Pliocene  Wey- 
bourne  Crag  and  occurring  beneath 
the  glacial  boulder-clay  cliffs  on 
the  Norfolk  coast.  It  comprises  a 
lower  fresh-water  bed  of  clayey 
silt,  an  estuarine  forest-bed  (20  ft. ) 
above,  with  stumps  of  trees  and 
bones  of  mammals,  and  an  upper 
bed  of  sand  and  blue  clay  (2-7  ft.), 
containing  fresh-water  shells.  See 
Pliocene. 

Forest  Cantons.  Four  cantons 
of  Switzerland,  enclosing  the  Lake 
of  Lucerne  (Ger.  Vierwaldstatter 
See).  They  are  Unterwalden,  Uri, 
Schwyz,  and  Lucerne. 

Forest  Court.  Special  courts  of 
restricted  jurisdiction  formerly 
held  in  England.  '  According  to 
Blackstone,  they  were  instituted 
"  for  the  government  of  the  royal 
i  forests  in  different  parts  of  the 


kingdom,  and  for  the  punishment 
of  all  injuries  done  to  the  king's 
deer  or  venison,  to  the  vert  or 
greensward,  and  to  the  covert  in 
which  such  deer  are  lodged." 

There  were  the  court  of  attach- 
ments, held  before  the  verderers 
every  forty  days  to  inquire  into 
offences  against  vert  and  venison ; 
the  court  of  regard,  or  survey  of 
dogs,  held  every  third  year,  for 
the  lawing  or  expeditation,  by  cut- 
ting off  the  claws  and  ball,  or 
pelote,  of  the  forefeet  of  mastiffs, 
the  only  dogs  permitted  within  the 
forest  precincts,  to  prevent  them 
chasing  the  deer ;  the  court  of 
sweinmote,  held  thrice  a  year 
before  the  verderers  as  judges, 
with  the  sweins  or  freeholders 
within  the  forest  as  jurors,  to 
inquire  into  oppressions  com- 
mitted by  the  officers  of  the  forest, 
and  also  to  try  cases  presented  by 
the  court  of  attachments  ;  and  the 
court  of  justice-seat,  a  court  of 
record,  held  every  third  year 
before  the  chief  itinerant  judge  to 
hear  and  determine  all  pleas  and 
causes  whatsoever  arising  within 
the  forest.  The  last  court  of 
j  ustice  -seat  was  heldpro  forma  only , 
shortly  after  the  Restoration,  and 
since  the  Revolution  of  1688  the  for- 
est laws,  and  with  them  the  forest 
courts,  have  fallen  into  desuetude. 
Forester,  BARON.  British  title 
borne  since  1821  by  the  family  of 
Forester.  A  Shropshire  gentleman, 
Cecil  Weld  Forester,  1767-1828, 
was  first  holder,  and  the  title 
passed  to  his  sons,  the  second  being 
M.P.  for  Wenlock  1828-74,  and 
comptroller  of  the  royal  household. 
A  third  brother  succeeded,  and 
from  him  the  present  baron  is 
descended.  His  estates  are  in 
Shropshire,  where  he  has  a  seat, 
Willey  Park,  Broseley. 

Foresters,  ANCIENT  ORDER  OF. 
British  friendly  society.  Founded 
in  1834  to  provide  its  members  and 
their  dependents 
with  weekly  al- 
lowances during 
sickness,  old  age, 
or  widowhood,  it 
has  always  been 
one  of  the  most 
progressive  in  in- 
troducing new 
Foresters' arms  benefits  8in  the 

way  of  endowment  insurance,  etc. 
The  society,  to  which  an  initiation 
ceremony  must  be  undergone, 
though  the  mystic  ritual  has  been 
largely  abandoned,  is  organized  in 
courts  and  districts  which  owe  al- 
legiance to  a  central  headquarters. 
Contributions  vary  according  to 
the  benefits  desired.  The  order  has 
spread  to  America  and  the  British 
Dominions  overseas.  See  Friendly 
Societies. 


Forest  Gate.  District  of  Essex, 
England,  and  an  E.  suburb  of 
London.  It  is  5J  m.  N.E.  of  Liver- 
pool Street  station  on  the  G.E.R. 
There  are  chemical  and  other  in- 
dustries. It  is  mostly  included  in 
W.  Ham  and  E.  Ham. 

Forest  Hill.  Residential  dist. 
and  ward  in  the  metropolitan 
borough  of  Lewisham,  London, 
England.  It  is  5  \  m.  S.E.  of  Lon- 
don Bridge  station,  on  the  L.B.  & 
S.C.R.  The  Horniman  Museum, 
standing  in  a  public  park,  and  built 
at  a  cost  of  £40,000,  was  opened  to 
the  public  in  1901.  Pop.  20,804. 

Forest  Marble .  Name  of  a  geo  - 
logical  formation  comprising  shelly 
and  flaggy  limestones.  Alternating 
with  layers  of  clay  or  marl,  it  is  one 
of  the  Great  Oolite  group  of  Jurassic 
stratified  rocks,  and  occurs  in  Dor- 
set, Somerset  ( 135  ft.  in  thickness), 
Wiltshire,  through  Oxfordshire  into 
Buckinghamshire,  where  limestone 
thins  out  and  is  thence  represented 
by  clays.  The  formation  is  named 
after  Wychwood  Forest,  Oxford- 
shire, where  it  was  formerly  quar- 
ried for  building  stone. 

Forest  Pig.  Genus  of  huge 
black  wild  swine  discovered  in  1904 
in  the  Ituri  and  Nandi  forests  of 
Central  Africa.  They  have  enor- 
mous heads,  with  conspicuous 
curved  tusks ;  and  there  are  large 
warty  growths  on  the  face.  The 
animal  has  rarely  been  seen  alive 
by  Europeans. 

Forest  Reserves.  Name  given 
in  the  United  States  to  areas  re- 
served for  purposes  of  conserving 
the  trees,  and  now  known  also  as 
National  forests.  In  1896  the 
National  Academy  of  Sciences  was 
asked  to  outline  a  rational  forest 
policy,  and  in  1897  a  further 
21,000,000  acres  were  added  to  the 
existing  reserves  of  18,000,000. 
On  June  30,  1917,  there  were  152 
national  forests  with  an  acreage  of 
155,000,000. 

Canada  also  has  large  forest  re- 
serves, something  over  150,000,000 
acres  having  been  set  apart.  Of 
these,  107,000,000  acres  are  in  the 
province  of  Quebec.  In  Alberta,  on 
the  E.  slope  of  the  Rockies,  there  is 
a  reserve  nearly  14,000,000  acres 
in  extent.  There  are  also  extensive 
forest  reserves  in  India.  Under  the 
state  forest  department  these  com- 
prised 101,000  sq.  m.  in  1917-18. 

Forest  Row.  Parish  and  village 
of  Sussex,  England.  It  is  3  m.  S.E. 
of  East  Grinstead,  on  the  L.B.  & 
S.C.R. ,  and  a  convenient  starting- 
point  for  a  visit  to  Ashdown 
Forest.  Between  Forest  Row  and 
East  Grinstead  are  the  ruins  of 
Brambletye  House,  once  the  home 
of  the  Lewknor  family,  and  the 
theme  of  a  romance  by  Horace 
Smith.  Pop.  3,035. 


FORESTRY 


3251 


FORESTRY:    PRINCIPLES  AND    PRACTICE 

J.  B.  Ainsworth-Davis,  Late  Principal,  Royal  Atfrio.  Coll.,  Cirencester 

The  article  Afforestation  deals  with  another  branch  of  this  subject.  See 

also  Timber  and  the  articles  on  the  various  forest  trees  e  e  Beech ; 

Birch;   Oak;  Pine,  etc. 


Forestry  is  the  science  of  culti- 
vating trees,  especially  for  pro- 
viding timber. 

Apart  from  the  chemical  compo- 
sition of  the  soil,  the  amount  of 
moisture  it  contains  is  a  question 
of  vital  importance  in  the  proper 
maintenance  of  a  wood  or  forest. 
Climate  is  altered  by  the  establish- 
ment of  woods  and  forests.  Within 
a  wood  the  air  is  cooler  in  the 
summer  time  than  it  is  in  the  open 
air,  but  the  opposite  is  the  case  in 
winter  time.  This  is  due  to  evapor- 
ation, which,  in  the  active  growing 
season,  is  more  abundant  than  in 
the  winter  time,  when  growth  is  at 
a  standstill  and  sap  is  stagnant. 
Problems  of  Soil  and  Climate 

It  is  mainly  on  the  selection  of 
the  suitable  trees  for  the  proper 
soil  that  successful  forestry  de- 
pends. No  hard  and  fast  rules  can 
be  laid  down,  but  it  is  certain  no 
trees  will  really  thrive  in  a  soil  that 
is  waterlogged,  that  is  to  say, 
where  stagnant  moisture  is  present 
in  large  quantities.  On  moist  soils, 
such  as  are  found  at  the  sides  of 
natural  water-courses,  but  where 
the  water  is  in  circulation  and  per- 
colating through  the  soil,  the  wil- 
low, alder,  spruce  fir,  and  poplar 
may  be  planted  with  reasonable 
hopes  of  success.  On  chalky  soils 
larch,  Scots  pine,  beech,  oak,  ash, 
and  sycamore  are  the  best.  On 
the  ordinary  rich  loam  any  British 
timber  tree  will  flourish.  On 
sandy  soil,  only  the  coniferous 
trees,  such  as  the  pines,  firs,  and 
spruces,  may  be  expected  to  pro- 
duce profitable  results  ;  wl-ile  on 
the  heavy  clay  lands  the  British 
oak  is  the  only  tree,  with  perhaps 
the  solitary  exception  of  the  horn- 
beam, which  is  likely  to  repay  the 
trouble  of  planting  and  upkeep. 

The  most  generally  practised 
system  of  forestry  is  that  of  utilis- 
ing old  pasture  or  waste  lands,  and 
planting  one-  or  two -year-old  trees 
upon  it.  These  young  trees  are 
roughly  but  simply  planted  by  the 
process  of  cutting  a  triangular  or 
tongue-shaped  piece  of  turf  up 
with  a  spade,  splitting  the  tongue 
in  the  middle,  loosening  the  soil 
underneath,  placing  the  young 
tree  in  position,  and  then  pressing 
down  hard  upon  it  the  two  half 
tongues  of  turf.  Such  young  trees 
are  usually  planted  about  5  ft. 
apart  every  way.  In  bleak  and  ex- 
posed situations  it  is  sometimes 
the  practice  to  harrow  the  surface 
of  the  ground  before  planting,  and 


to  sow  seed  of  the  common  gorso 
or  furze,  which,  being  aquick-grow- 
ing  subject,  will  act  as  a  "mother" 
for  three  or  four  years  to  the 
young  trees,  until  they  have  fully 
established  themselves.  Some- 
times, however,  when  the  soil  hap- 
pens to  be  rather  more  fertile  than 
was  originally  imagined,  the  gorse 
will  obtain  such  a  hold  upon  the 
place  that  it  will  probably  strangle 
all  the  trees  it  is  intended  to 
"  mother,"  and  render  replanting 
necessary. 

Owing  to  the  vagaries  of  the 
British  climate,  the  establishment 
of  a  forest  or  wood  from  seed 
rarely  proves  successful.  But 
where  prime  cost  is  a  matter  of  con- 
sideration, even  if  only  one  in  four 
of  the  trees  sown  turns  out  to  be 
fertile,  the  results  will  be  found 
eminently  satisfactory  financially. 
In  establishing  a  forest  from  seed 
the  surface  of  the  ground  must  first 
of  all  be  broken  up.  This  can  be 
done  by  a  harrow  or,  in  the  case  of 
stiff  clay  lands,  by  the  plough.  It 
is  well  to  sow  seed  with  a  liberal 
hand,  as  losses  from  dead  seed,  the 
ravages  of  vermin,  and  bad  weather 
are  enormous.  The  following  quan- 
tities of  seed  are  ample  for  sowing 
one  acre  of  ground :  Beech,  8 
bushels  ;  elm,  15  Ib.  ;  larch,  15  lb.; 
oak,  9  bushels  ;  silver  fir,  30  lb.  ; 
Scots  pine,  8  lb. 

Acorns  and  beech-mast  are,  of 
course,  much  more  bulky  than  the 
seed  of  other  native  British  forest 
trees.  A  pound  of  Scots  pine 
seed  consists  roughly  of  60,000 
seeds,  and  larch  bulks  about  the 
same.  Ten  thousand  acorns  fill  a 
bushel  measure,  which  would  hold 
50,000  beech  nuts. 

Depredations  by  Rabbits 

Rabbits  constitute  a  grave  dan- 
ger in  all  newly  made  plantations, 
and  the  only  effectual  method  of 
guarding  against  their  depredations 
is  wire  netting  well  pegged  down 
and  sunk  into  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  Several  instances  are 
recorded  in  which,  during  a  hard 
winter,  rabbits  have  disturbed  and 
destroyed  a  whole  plantation  of 
young  firs  by  gnawing  away  the 
bark  of  the  trees,  and  leaving  the 
stems  exposed  to  the  frost.  Where 
sufficient  labour  is  available,  it  is 
well  to  cut  a  niche  some  6  ins.  or  a 
foot  below  the  level  of  the  ground 
and  bury  or  plant  the  wire  netting 
to  that  depth. 

.  It  is  only  to  be  expected  that 
young  trees  raised  from  seed  sown 


FORESTRY 

thickly  and  indiscriminately  will 
die  down  right  and  left,  especially 
in  dry  and  exposed  situations.  In 
the  S.W.  of  England,  the  sandy 
heaths  of  Surrey  and  Hampshire, 
and  tke  moist  districts  of  Ireland, 
plantations,  especially  of  conifers, 
will  quickly  establish  themselves. 
At  the  end  of  three  years  a  fir  plan- 
tation may  be  considered  to  be  a 
commercial  proposition,  and  the 
young  trees  will  have  attained 
sufficient  strength  to  carry  on  until 
thinning  is  requisite.  It  should  be 
borne  in  mind  that  conifers  and 
beeches  prefer  shady  situations, 
while  the  ash  and  the  oak  are  better 
in  broad  sunlight. 

Guarding  against  Decay 

One  of  the  chief  difficulties  in 
forming  a  new  wood,  or  clearing  up 
and  rejuvenating  an  old  one,  is 
usually  the  presence  of  old  and  un- 
healthy timber.  All  dead  and 
dying  trees,  ragged  and  tangled 
undergrowth,  and  other  unprofit- 
able stuff  must  be  promptly  cleared 
away  in  order  to  afford  room  for 
new  seedlings,  which  require  light, 
air,  and  sun.  A  competent  forester 
will  watch  keenly  for  signs  of  decay 
among  the  trees  under  his  care. 

Decay  begins  to  take  place  as  soon 
as  a  tree  has  attained  full  maturity, 
and  ceases  to  put  forth  fresh 
branches  and  vigorous  leaves.  It 
has  reached  the  zenith  of  its  power 
and  should  be  at  once  cut  down 
and  sold.  If,  for  sentimental 
reasons,  the  tree  is  allowed  to  stand 
and  continue  to  decay,  it  will 
spread  that  decay  to  other  trees, 
and  thus  bring  a  plague  upon  the 
whole  plantation.  The  grand  old 
oaks,  yews,  and  other  trees  which 
are  supposed  to  have  existed  at  the 
time  of  the  Norman  conquest,  and 
still  continue  to  exist,  are  ex- 
amples of  splendid  sentiment  but 
bad  forestry,  and  it  is  well  that 
they  are  chiefly  found  in  isolated 
specimens,  and  not  in  groves  or 
forests,  where  they  would  cause  an 
incredible  amount  of  damage. 

The  question  of  thinning  timber 
is  a  vexed  one.  In  the  case  of 
larch,  ash,  and  other  close-growing 
woods,  thinning  may  be  carried  out 
almost  with  impunity,  for  the 
young  poles  find  a  ready  and  re- 
munerative market.  This  does  not 
apply  to  the  oak,  beech,  or  other 
trees  where  girth  is  a  greater  con- 
sideration than  height.  The  ideal 
wood  or  plantation  is  the  one 
where  the  trees  exhibit  long  and 
straight  trunks,  with  the  minimum 
number  of  side  branches.  Where 
planting  has  been  carried  out 
sufficiently  closely,  these  side 
branches  die  off  naturally  for  want 
of  light  and  air,  and  this  process  or 
operation  is  called  natural  pruning. 
Pines  and  firs  lend  themselves 


FORESTRY 

most  readily  to  close  planting,  and 
such  plantations  are  naturally  the 
most  easy  of  management. 

Dealing  with  the  timber  trees  in 
the  degrees  of  importance,  pride  of 
place  must  be  given  to  the  oak, 
which  for  timber  purposes  may  be 
planted,  in  the  case  of  J7onng  trees, 
within  3  ft  of  each  other,  so  as  to 
destroy  the  chance  of  lateral 
branches  asserting  themselves  and 
destroying  the  strength  of  the  main 
trunk.  Even  when  thinned  the 
trees  in  an  oak  plantation  should 
never  be  more  than  12  ft.  from 
each  other. 

The  beech,  the  best  tree  for  a 
calcareous  or  chalky  soil,  is  not  of 
great  value  as  a  timber  tree.  The 
wood  is  best  if  cut  in  the  middle  of 
winter,  when  the  vitality  of  the 
tree  is  at  its  lowest  ebb,  and  is  use- 
ful for  brush  handles,  dairy  utensils, 
chairs,  and  other  purposes  not  of 
the  first  importance. 

Spruce,  Pine  and  Fir  Planting 

If  planting  for  the  present 
generation,  and  not  for  posterity,  is 
the  object  to  be  considered,  the 
most  remunerative  plantations  to 
lay  down  are  these  of  spruce,  pine, 
and  fir.  These  will  thrive  in  com- 
paratively poor  soils,  cost  less  to 
establish  than  woods  of  any  other 
kind,  show  a  cash  return  from 
thinnings  at  an  earlier  date,  and 
attain  maturity  sooner.  British 
forests  have  been  denuded  of  coni- 
ferous timber  to  an  unparalleled 
extent  by  the  demands  of  the  Great 
War,  and  both  in  Britain  and  on 
the  Continent  the  prices  which 
obtain  on  the  market  will  be  un- 
precedented for  many  years.  Larch 
is  always  a  good  marketable  timber, 
and  there  is  a  level  demand  for 
ash  in  the  furniture  trade,  but  it 
is  doubtful  if  ash,  sycamore  or 
chestnut  will  command  the  prices 
they  have  clone  in  the  past.  v 

For  the  first  few  years  after  plant- 
ing, young  trees,  except  conifers, 
need  very  little  in  the  way  of 
attention.  Plantations  of  spruce, 
pine,  and  fir  should  be  gone  over 
carefully  to  look  for  the  defect 
generally  known  as  pronging. 
Pronging  is  the  presence  and 
growth  of  a  superfluous  side  shoot 
near  the  top  of  the  main  stem, 
dividing  the  stem  at  the  apex  into 
two  false  heads,  like  the  prongs  of  a 
catapult.  The  continued  exist- 
ence of  this  secondary  stem  will 
prove  fatal  to  the  tree  both  from  an 
ornamental  and  useful  point  of 
view,  and  therefore  it  is  necessary 
to  cut  it  ruthlessly  and  promptly 
away,  otherwise  the  symmetry  of 
the  tree  will  be  destroyed.  Some 
foresters  merely  break  \he  second- 
ary stem  away  from  the  main  trunk 
and  leave  it  hanging  on  the  tree 
to  die. 


3252 

The  common-sense  object  of 
practical  forestry  is  to  obtain  the 
heaviest  yield  of  timber  possible 
per  acre,  consistent  with  profitable 
marketable  quality  ;  hence  it  is  a 
golden  rule  in  sowing  or  planting 
to  err  rather  on  the  generous  side 
as  regards  the  quantity  of  seeds  or 
young  trees  established  per  acre. 
It  is  always  possible,  and,  indeed, 
beneficial,  to  thin  plantations  which 
are  overloaded  with  young  timber. 
It  is  not  so  easy  to  make  up  a  plan- 
tation which,  for  reasons  of  false 
economy,  has  been  thinly  planted, 
and  in  which  for  want  of  mutual 
support  the  young  trees  are  weedy 
and  leggy.  Naturally,  the  closer 
trees  are  planted  together,  the 
longer,  straighter,  and  more  valu- 
able will  be  the  timber. 

Thinning  of  woods  should  be  in 
exact  proportion  to  the  amount  of 
exposure  to  which  they  are  sub- 
jected. For  instance,  a  plantation 
upon  a  bleak  hillside  in  Scotland 
needs  less  attention  than  one  in  the 
Lowlands.  Thinning  should  also  be 
carried  out  with  a  lighter  hand  on, 
and  towards  the  edge  of,  the  wood 
which  faces  the  direction  of  the  pre- 
vailing winds,  since  the  outer  belt 
of  trees  will  afford  some  protection 
from  the  violence  of  tempests. 

In  old  and  neglected  woods, 
where  thinning  has  not  been  carried 
out  for  some  time,  the  operation 
should  be  spread  over  a  number  of 
years,  otherwise  the  sudden  ex- 
posure of  the  whole  plantation  to 
wind  and  weather  may  cause  seri- 
ous and  permanent  injury.  The 
tops  of  growing  trees  should  not  be 
opened  too  freely  with  the  idea  of 
admitting  light  and  air.  This  only 
checks  their  growth,  and  is  better 
deferred  until  the  trees  have  nearly 
attained  their  full  height.  In  addi- 
tion, when  young  trees  are  very 
thin  in  the  trunk  in  proportion  to 
their  height,  to  tamper  with  their 
heads  will  tend  to  cause  the  trees 
to  grow  crooked. 

Thinning  Mixed  Plantations 
When  thinning  an  old  wood  in 
which  there  is  no  undergrowth  or 
coppicing,  it  is  necessary  to  pre- 
serve a  canopy  overhead,  that  is  to 
say,  a  complete  covering  of  foliage, 
in  order  to  protect  the  roots  and 
conserve  moisture.  Where,  how- 
ever, the  wood  is  liberally  planted 
with  underwood  this  is  not  neces- 
sary, as  the  coppice  will  form  a 
screen.  Indeed,  in  dealing  with 
these  mixed  plantations  it  is  often 
better  to  thin  the  older  timber  with 
a  free  hand  in  order  to  admit  plenty 
of  light  and  air  to  the  coppice, 
which  may  prove  to  be  the  most 
profitable  part  of  the  plantation. 
During  the  first  seventy  years  of  its 
existence  an  oak  plantation  needs 


FORESTRY 

to  be  thinned  approximately  once 
every  ten  years,  according  to  soil 
and  situation.  At  the  end  of  that 
period,  once  in  every  twenty  years 
is  sufficient.  Pines  and  other  tim- 
bers, being,  generally  speaking,  of 
more  rapid  growth,  require  thin- 
ning at  more  frequent  intervals. 

The  quality  of  timber  depends 
upon  its  weight,  toughness,  and 
durability  or  hardness.  Where  the 
tissues  are  closely  compressed  and 
the  structure  is  dense,  the  wood 
will  be  heavy,  but  timber  which 
contains  much  watery  sap  shrinks 
rapidly,  and  decays  quickly  when 
exposed,  owing  to  excessive  evap- 
oration. Oak  and  pine  shrink 
very  little,  and  slowly ;  elm, 
poplar,  and  willow  very  rapidly.  As 
a  general  rule  those  trees  which 
take  the  longest  time  to  attain 
maturity  yield  the  hardest  tim- 
ber, e.g.  box,  yew,  and  ebony, 
although  the  last  is  not  a  British 
timber  tree.  Oak  is  hardest  when 
grown  in  loam  upon  a  subsoil  of 
blue  clay,  which  renders  the  ground 
ferruginous,  i.e.  impregnated  with 
oxide  of  iron.  Soil  of  this  nature 
improves  the  quality  of  the  timber, 
but  at  the  same  time  retards  the 
full  development  of  the  tree. 

Use  of  Axe  and  Saw 

The  axe  is  by  no  means  the  best 
implement  to  employ  where  econ- 
omy of  timber  is  desirable.  The 
simplest  form  of  felling,  as  prac- 
tised in  Britain,  is  "  grubbing." 
This  consists  of  clearing  away  the 
soil  from  around  the  roots  of  the 
trees,  so  that  they  are  exposed,  and 
then  attacking  them  with  axe  and 
pick.  As  its  supports  are  loosened 
the  tree  readily  falls  by  its  own 
weight,  and  though  the  remaining 
attached  roots  must  be  severed 
afterwards,  this  method  has  the 
advantage  of  leaving  no  stump  in 
the  ground,  which  saves  consider- 
able time  and  trouble  where  it  is  in- 
tended to  follow  with  the  plough, 
or  to  replant  with  timber.  The 
use  of  the  double-handed  saw  is, 
perhaps,  the  most  general  method 
of  tree  f  elling,  though  this  as  a  rule 
necessitates  the  employment  of  the 
time  of  three  men,  two  to  saw  and  a 
third  to  wedge  the  cut  with  an  iron 
wedge  and  sledge  hammer,  in  order 
to  prevent  the  weight  of  the  trunk 
gripping  the  sawblade  in  the  cut. 

The  simplest,  quickest,  and 
cleanest  method  of  tree-felling, 
where  a  considerable  quantity  of 
timber  has  to  be  dealt  with,  is  to 
use  a  patent  steam  tree  feller,  a 
machine  invented  in  the  19th  cen- 
tury. With  the  huge  demand  for 
timber  in  Britain,  it  was  freely  em- 
ployed, notably  at  the  felling  of  the 
Ercall  Woods,  near  Newport,  in 
Shropshire.  It  consists  of  a  simple 


i.  An  outward  symptom  of  internal  disease:  red-rot 
fungus,  Fomes  annosus,  on  Scots  pine.  2.  Sulphur-tuft 
fungus,  Polyporus  sulphureus,  on  oak.  3.  Larva  of  saw- 
fly,  Lophyrus  pini,  attacking  young  pine  shoots.  4.  Yew 
forest  on  Surrey  chalk  hills.  5.  Wood  of  Scots  pine  grow- 


ing in  Surrey.  6.  Horntail  wasp,  Sirex  gigas,\vthose  grub 
spends  several  years  mining  the  solid  wood.  7.  Self-sown 
pine  wood  on  a  Surrey  heath.  8.  A  Surrey  beech  wood. 
9.  Neglected  oak  trees,  Quercus  robur,  with  much  wood 
but  yielding  little  serviceable  timber 


FORESTRY:  BRITISH   FOREST  TREES  AND  SOME  PESTS  WHICH  THREATEN  THEIR  GROWTH 


FORESTRY      CORPS 


3254 


FORFARSH1RE 


form  of  horizontal  engine,  the  pis- 
ton-rod of  which  projects  from  the 
cylinder  in  the  form  of  a  saw  blade. 
The  machine  is  clamped  at  the  foot 
of  a  tree,  and  steam  at  80  Ib.  pres- 
sure is  admitted  direct  to  the  cylin- 
der through  a  hose  pipe  connected 
with  a  stationary  vertical  boiler. 

The  saw  works  to  and  fro  as  a 
piston-rod  would  do,  and  will  cut 
through  the  trunk  of  an  average 
fir,  level  with  the  ground,  in  one 
minute,  or  through  a  large  tree  in 
three  minutes.  The  boiler  is  fed 
with  waste  wood,  and  the  machine 
can  be  carried  from  tree  to  tree  by 
two  men.  The  area  that  can  be 
cleared  without  the  necessity  for 
moving  the  boiler  is  only  limited, 
within  reason,  by  the  length  of  the 
connecting  hose  pipe.  The  machine, 
run  by  a  couple  of  men,  will  ac- 
count for  fifty  trees  a  day. 

The  detection  of  decay  in  grow- 
ing timber  is  impossible  to  anyone 
but  a  trained  expert,  and,  unless  it 
has  reached  nearly  to  the  bark,  and 
is  outwardly  visible,  its  existence 
is  usually  unsuspected  unless,  as 
occasionally  happens,  it  manifests 
itself  in  poverty  of  foliage.  In  a 
felled  and  stripped  log  or  trunk, 
however,  soundness  may  be  ascer- 
tained in  a  simple  manner.  The 
ear  should  be  placed  close  to  one 
end  of  a  log,  and  a  person  at  the 
opposite  end  of  the  log  should 
deliver  a  series  of  sharp  blows  with 
a  hammer  or  mallet  upon  the  wood. 
If  only  a  number  of  dull  thuds  re- 
sults it  may  safely  be  assumed  that 
the  wood  is  bad  and  decayed,  but  if 
the  blows  ring  loud,  clear,  and  con- 
tinually resonant,  it  is  sound. 

Bibliography.  Elementary  For- 
estry, C.  E.  Curtis,  1905  ;  Manual  of 
Forestry,  W.  Schlich,  1911 ;  Forestry 
Work,  W.  H.  Whellens,  1919  ;  Com- 
mercial Forestry  in  Britain,  E.  P. 
Stebbing,  1919. 

Forestry  Corps.  Unit  of  the 
British  army  during  the  Great  War. 
To  secure  an  adequate  supply  of 
timber  for  the  various  purposes  of 
the  Great  War,  Britain  decided  to 
request  help  from  Canada.  Men 
were  at  once  enrolled  there,  and 
the  first  draft  reached  England  in 


April,  1916,  and  proceeded  to  the 
extensive  woods  around  Virginia 
Water,  near  Windsor.    Two  other 
drafts  soon  followed,  bringing  the 
strength  up  to  1,609  of  all  ranks. 

The  corps  did  not  wait  for  the 
delivery  of  their  own  machinery, 
but  adapted  whatever  they  could 
get,  both  in  England  and  Scotland. 
The  development  of  these  lum- 
ber battalions  from  Canada  into  a 
distinct  Forestry  Corps  took  place 
in  Oct.,  1916,  Colonel  MacDougal 
being  made  its  brigadier-general. 
By  Jan.,  1917,  it  was  found  neces- 
sary to  provide  a  base,  training  and 
mobilisation  camp  in  England,  and 
by  June  of  that  year  the  corps  in 
England     and     France     totalled 
15,000,  and  by  Jan.,  1918,  it  had 
grown  to  18,000.    In  Britain  there 
were  38  camps  or  establishments 
and  in  France  about  70. 

Forez,    MONTS  DU.      Wooded 
range  of  mts.  in  the  dept.  of  Loire, 
France.   They  lie  in  the  W.  of  the 
dept.,  and  divide  the  basins  of  the 
Allier  and  the  Loire.    The  loftiest 
summit  is  Pierre-sur-Haute,  5,380 
ft.  The  range  is  also  known  as  the 
Monts  de  la  Madeleine  and  the 
Bois  Noirs.     The  old  division  of 
Forez,  in  the  prov.  of  Lyonnais,  is 
now  included  in  the  dept.  of  Loire. 
Forfar.      Parl.,  royal  and  num. 
burgh,  and   the   county   town   of 
Forfarshire,  Scotland.  It  stands  in 
%.iLM.....i...m.......t.jii....J.M.»  the    Howe    of 

Angus,  21  m. 
N.E.  of  Dun- 
dee, on  the  Cal. 
Rly.  The  chief 
buildings  are 
the  county  hall, 
town  hall,  court 
house,  and  Meff  an 
Institute.  A 


Forfar  arms 


public  hall  and  a  park  were  given  by 
Peter  Reid,  a  merchant  here.  The 
chief  industries  are  the  manufac- 
ture of  linen  and  jute;  others  are 
tanning,  bleaching,  and  rope-mak- 
ing. It  is  also  a  rly.  junction.  The 
burgh  is  governed  by  a  provost  and 
council,  and  the  corporation  owns 
the  gas  and  water  supplies. 

Forfar  was  a  royal  residence  of 
Malcolm  Canmore,  whose  castle  on 


a  hill  to  the  N.  of  the  town  was 
taken  and  destroyed  by  Bruce  in 
1308 ;  its  site  is  marked  by  a 
cross  erected  in  1648.  It  was 
made  a  burgh  in  the  13th  century. 
Forfar  is  one  of  the  five  Montrose 
burghs  which  jointly  return  a 
member  to  Parliament.  Market 
day,  Sat.  Pop.  (1921),  9,585. 

Forfarshire  OR  ANGUS.  Eastern 
maritime  county  of  Scotland. 
1C;  is  bounded  S.  by  the  Firth 
of  Tay,  and  has  an  area  of 
873  sq.  m.  It  has  a  grandly 
varied  surface,  falling  into  four 
natural  divisions — the  Braes  of 
Angus,  belonging  to  the  Grampians 
and  scored  by  several  picturesque 
glens,  in  the  N.W.  ;  the  Howe  of 
Angus,  a  part  of  Strathmore,  in 
the  centre  ;  the  Sidlaw  Hills  in  the 
S.W.,  and  the  fertile  plain  in  the 
S.E.  Glas  Meal  (3,502  ft. ),  in  the 
N.W.,  is  the  loftiest  summit.  The 
N.  and  S.  Esks  and  the  Isla  are  the 
main  streams,  and  of  several  small 
lakes  Loch  Lee  is  the  largest.  Agri- 
culture and  cattle-rearing  are 
prominent,  and  jute  and  flax 
manufactures  occupy  many  people, 
but  the  minerals  are  of  little 
economic  value.  Montrose  and 
Dundee  are  fishing  centres;  Dun- 
dee, Montrose,  and  Arbroath  are  the 
chief  ports. 

The  Cal.  and  N.B.  rlys.  serve 
the  county.  Forfar,  the  county 
town,  Dundee,  Arbroath,  Brechin, 
and  Montrose  are  the  principal 
towns.  One  member  is  returned 
to  Parliament.  Pop.  270,950. 
Evidences  of  Roman  occupation 
include  camps ;  among  other  an- 
tiquities are  the  castle  ruins  of 
Edzell  and  Melgund,  and  the  round 
tower  at  Brechin. 

LITERARY  ASSOCIATIONS.  At  Dun- 
dee in  1465  was  born  Hector  Boece 
(q.v.),  and  nearly  two  centuries 
later,  at  Baldovie,  the  classical 
scholar  and  educational  reformer, 
Andrew  Melville.  Among  the 
Forfar  poets  are  Alexander  Ross, 
the  Lochlee  schoolmaster  who 
wrote  Woo'd  an'  Married  an'  A'; 
William  Thorn,  the  weaver,  who 
lived  for  some  years  in  Dundee, 
and  is  buried  there  ;  and  James 


FORFEITURE 


3255 


FORGING 


(       r^0^^1;;:; 

%GJMeal  X«e8&: 

Jffi^  ^r  Tfe5 
K^ .  ft  v  d§ffrh 


Forfarshire,  Scotland.     Map  of  the  east  coast  county  which  includes  the  old 
district  of  Angus 

Tytler,     the    dialect    poet,     who     and  forfeit  the  lease.     Courts  of 
edited  the  second  and  third  edi-     equity,  however,  would  always  and 


tions  of  The  Encyclopaedia  Britan- 
nica,  and  who  was  born  at  Brechin. 
Thomas  Dick,  writer  and  lecturer 
on  popular  science,  was  born  at 
Dundee  and  died  at  Broughty 
Ferry.  James  Mill,  the  utilitarian 
philosopher,  was  born  at  North- 
water  Bridge,  Logie  Pert,  and 
Sir  Charles  Lyell  at  Kinnordy, 
near  Kirriemuir.  At  Kirriemuir 
itself  was  born  Sir  James  M. 
Barrie,  who  has  made  his  birth- 
place famous  as  Thrums. 

Forfeiture  (late  Lat.  forisfac- 
tum,  something  done  outside).  De- 
privation of  lands,  goods,  or  other 
property,  usually  in  consequence 
of  a  sentence  passed  by  a  court 
of  law,  or  some  breach  of  the 
law.  In  English  law  a  person  con- 
victed of  felony,  treason,  felo  de 
se,  and  certain  other  offences,  in- 
cluding striking  a  judge,  forfeited 
all  his  lands  and  goods  to  the 
crown.  This  was. abolished  by  the 
Forfeiture  Act,  1870.  At  common 
law,  also,  an  illegal  conveyance  of 
land,  e.g.  to  an  alien,  before  the 
Naturalisation  Act,  1870,  or  to  a 
corporation  in  mortmain,  was 
similarly  punished. 

The  most  common  instance  of 
forfeiture  is  in  the  case  of  lease- 
holds. Leases  very  generally  con- 
tain conditions  that  if  the  tenant 
shall  not  pay  his  rent,  or  perform 
the  convenant  of  the  lease,  e.g.  to 
keep  the  premises  in  repair,  the 
landlord  may  re-enter  the  premises 


still  do  relieve  against  the  for- 
feiture, and  allow  the  tenant  to 
keep  his  lease  if  he  comes  and 
offers  to  make  good  his  default 
and  repay  the  landlord  any  ex- 
pense he  has  been  put  to.  On 
breach  of  any  covenant,  except  a 
covenant  for  payment  of  rent  or  a 
covenant  not  to  assign  or  underlet, 
a  landlord  cannot  begin  proceed- 
ings to  enforce  a  forfeiture  without 
giving  the  tenant  notice  to  make 
good  the  breach.  No  notice  is  re- 
quired or  relief  given  where  there 
is  condition  for  forfeiture  on  the 
tenant's  bankruptcy. 

Forge  (Lat.  fabrica,  workshop). 
In  metallurgy,  term  with  a  wide 
meaning.  It  covers  the  simple 
hearth  of  the  blacksmith,  early  fur- 
naces suchastheCatalanforge^.v.), 
in  which  malleable  iron  was  pro- 
duced in  Europe  for  a  long  period, 
and  the  modern  extensive  plant 
comprising  furnaces,  cranes,  ham- 
mers, rolling  mills,  presses,  engines, 
or  motors  and  boilers,  which  make 
up  a  modern  iron-manufacturing 
works,  it  always  relates,  however, 
to  the  working  of  iron  from  a  crude 
or  semi-manufactured  form,  to  a 
higher  order,  as  distingirshed  from 
melting  and  casting.  See  Iron; 
Metallurgy;  Steel. 

Forgery  (Lat.  fabricari,  to 
frame).  English  law  term  for 
making  or  altering  a  written  in- 
strument which  purports  to  be 
valid  on  the  face  of  it,  with  intent 


to  defraud.  The  common  notion 
that  forgery  always  consists  in 
signing  a  false  name,  or  imitating 
somebody's  signature,  is  wrong. 
Thus,  to  alter  the  date  or  amount 
on  a  cheque,  account,  or  receipt, 
though  the  signature  is  genuine,  is 
forgery,  if  the  alteration  be  made 
with  intent  to  defraud.  On  the 
other  hand,  merely  to  subscribe  a 
false  name  on  a  note  or  cheque  may 
not  be  forgery  at  all  if  there  is  no 
fraudulent  intent.  The  law  on 
the  subject  is  dealt  with  by  the 
Forgery  Act,  1913. 

Forget-Me-TTot.  Hardy  peren- 
nial plant  of  the  natural  order 
Boraginaceae,  genus  Myosotis.  Na- 


Forget-Me-Not.     Leaves  and  flowers 
of  the  perennial  plant 

tives  of  Britain,  their  height  is 
from  7  ins.  to  18  ins. ;  the  flowers  are 
blue  and  yellow.  Several  culti- 
vated varieties  are  raised  from  seed 
planted  out  of  doors  in  spring,  and 
transplanted  to  their  permanent 
positions  in  the  autumn,  when 
they  will  flower  in  the  spring  and 
summer  of  the  following  and  suc- 
cessive years.  The  best  position 
is  a  moist  corner  of  the  rock  garden. 
The  well-known  blue  variety  is  M . 
palustris,  which,  though  found 
naturally  by  the  sides  of  brooks 
and  streams,  will  thrive  equally 
well  in  the  garden  as  an  edging,  or 
in  small  beds  or  borders  in  moist 
peaty  soil.  A  rarer  natural  spe- 
cies is  M .  palustris  alba,  which  has 
white  flowers. 

Forget-Me-Not.  Drama  by 
Herman  Merivale  and  F.  C.  Grove. 
It  was  produced  at  The  Lyceum, 
Aug.  21, 1879,  by  Genevieve  Ward, 
who  acted  in  the  piece  all  over 
the  world. 

Forging.  Production  of  articles 
of  iron  or  steel  or  other  metal  by 
hammering,  pressing,  rolling,  or 
otherwise  shaping  the  metal  while 
headed  but  not  in  a  molten  condi- 
tion. It  is  distinguished  from  cast- 
ing by  the  fact  that  the  metal  is 
never  raised  to  a  temperature 
sufficiently  high  to  melt  it. 

It  is  almost  certainly  the  most 
ancient  branch  of  the  whole  art 
of  metallurgy,  and  was  first  prac- 
tised by  primitive  man  in  shaping 


FORGING   PRESS 


3256 


FORK 


pieces  of  native  copper  into  rough 
weapons  or  implements.  It  de- 
pends upon  the  property  which 
metals  possess,  some  more  eminent- 
ly than  others,  according  to  which 
they  "  flow  "  under  pressure  while 
in  the  solid  state.  In  its  broad 
sense  it  embraces  all  the  operations 
of  shingling,  cogging,  and  rolling 
by  which  "  merchant  "  bars  and 
plates  are  produced  ;  the  works  in 
which  such  operations  are  carried 
out,  while  frequently  styled  rolling 
mills  to-day,  were  originally 
termed  forges,  and  the  term  is 
still  largely  retained. 

These  processes  involve,  first,  the 
proper  heating  of  the  crude  mass 
of  metal  to  the  requisite  tempera- 
ture ;  and,  secondly,  the  use  of 
tools  specially  adapted  to  impart 
the  desired  shape  to  the  heated 
mass  of  metal.  They  are  modified 
more  or  less  according  to  the  metal 
which  is  to  be  operated  upon — 
iron,  steel,  copper,  aluminium, 
Muntz  metal.  Delta  metal,phosphor 
bronze,  gold  or  silver.  The  forging 
proper  will  nearly  always  begin 
with  a  reducing  operation,  "  draw- 
ing down  "  a  piece  of  metal  to  a 
smaller  size. 

Thus,  in  the  production  of  an  ord- 
inary stonecutter's  chisel,  a  round 
or  a  six-sided  bar  of  steel  of  the 
desired  thickness  will  be  taken.  The 
end  of  this  bar  will  be  heated  in 
the  smith's  fire,  and  as  soon  as  the 
right  temperature  has  been  reached 
the  bar  will  be  withdrawn,  the 
heated  end  laid  on  the  smith's 
anvil  and  hammered  out — drawn 
down — until  it  has  assumed  the 
required  chisel  shape.  If  the  chisel 
is  a  small  one  the  whole  operation 
so  far  may  be  done  by  the  smith 
himself  with  his  hand  hammer. 
Principal  Operations  of  Forging 

Otherwise  the  chisel  will  be  fin- 
ished by  the  use  of  a  "swage,"  which 
in  this  case  will  be  a  flat-faced  tool 
held  in  a  handle  made  of  twisted 
iron  rod.  The  smith  will  lay  the 
face  of  this  swage  on  the  end  of  the 
chisel  and  his  helper  or  striker  will 
strike  it  with  his  sledge-hammer, 
thus  producing  a  finished  surface 
of  the  desired  shape,  free  from 
hammer  marks.  The  end  of  the 
bar  will  then  be  notched  by  means 
of  a  smith's  chisel  at  a  distance 
up  the  bar  corresponding  to  the 
length  of  the  chisel  desired,  and  the 
piece  broken  off.  It  is  not  yet 
finished,  however ;  it  will  be  desired 
to  flatten  out  and  round  off  the 
blunt  end  of  the  chisel.  That  end 
is  therefore  heated  again,  the 
chisel  is  then  withdrawn,  and  the 
end  hammered  or  knocked  upon  the 
anvil,  when  it  will  be  broadened 
out  more  or  less,  as  required.  This 
operation  iscalled "upsetting."  The 
production  of  this  simple  article 


thus  illustrates  four  principal  oper- 
ations of  forging — heating,  draw- 
ing down,  cutting  off,  and  upsetting. 

Other  principal  operations  are 
bending,  holing,  and  welding.  In 
the  production  of  a  great  pro- 
peller or  engine  shaft  which  may 
weigh  100  tons,  or  of  a  100-ton  gun, 
the  operations  are  essentially  the 
same. 

Drop  or  Die  Forging 

In  the  modern  system  of  drop 
or  die  forging,  the  heated  piece  of 
metal  is  pressed  into  a  die,  a 
hardened  steel  form,  by  a  hammer 
falling  or  dropping  repeatedly  upon 
the  die.  The  hammer  is  worked 
mechanically,  its  weight  amount- 
ing in  large  machines  to  3,000  Ib. 
Many  of  the  parts  of  motor-cars, 
motor-cycles,  bicycles,  and  in- 
numerable other  articles  in  iron 
or  steel  are  now  made  by  drop 
forging.  Bolts  and  nuts,  screw 
blanks  and  rivets  are  now  made 
chiefly  by  machine  forging,  in 
which  the  machine  takes  a  heated 
bar  of  iron  or  steel,  cuts  off  a 
definite  length,  shapes  the  latter 
to  the  form  required,  and  ejects 
it  automatically.  See  Casting  ; 
Metallurgy  ;  Welding. 

Forging  Press.  Instrument 
used  in  metallurgy.  The  increasing 
sizes  and  complexity  of  articles  in 
malleable  iron  and  steel  required  in 


Forging  Press.  A,  A'.  Base  and  head 
connected  by  columns,  a,  a',  a".  B. 
Stand  attached  to  base  and  to  upper 
part  of  which  tables  and  dies  are  at- 
tached. C.  Inverted  platen  attached 
to  ram,  D,  which  works  up  and  down 
under  hydraulic  pressure.  Platen 
slides  up  and  down  columns.  E,  E'. 
Retractor  rams  which  pull  up  the 
platen  after  each  downward  stroke. 
F.  Intensifier  which  puts  final  extra 
pressure  on  ram,  D,  and  articles  being 
made.  G.  Hydraulic  pumps  working 
rams.  H.  Flanged  tire  of  small 
railway  truck  wheel  receiving  finish- 
ing press.  Ram,  D,  may  make  from 
30  to  80  strokes  per  minute,  each 
pressing  article  a  little  nearer  final 
shape.  J,  J',  J".  Hydraulic  con- 
nexions conveying  pressure  to  the 
various  rams 


engineering  particularly,  such  as 
heavy  flanged  plates,  cranks,  and 
crank  shafts,  began  to  make  their 
production  by  means  of  the  steam- 
hammer  difficult.  Attention  wa? 
therefore  directed  to  the  hydraulic 
press  as  likely  to  prove  a  more 
effective  appliance,  and  such  objects 
are  now  largely  produced  by  its  aid. 
Very  powerful  presses,  capable  of 
exerting  a  total  pressure  of  10,000 
tons,  have  been  built  for  forging 
purposes.  The  illustration  shows  a 
press  of  this  character  with  its 
pumps  and  control  valve.*,  adapted 
as  it  stands  for  the  production  of 
flanged  wheels  and  other  heavy 
flanged  plates  by  direct  pressure. 

Forisfamiliation  (Lat.  for  is, 
outside ;  familia,  family).  In 
Scots  law,  the  alienation  of  a 
child  from  his  father  and  exclusion 
from  further  inheritance,  by  mar- 
riage, by  provision  made  for  him 
by  his  parents  in  ante-nuptial 
settlement  or  other  portioning,  or 
by  his  own  renunciation  of  his 
legal  right  to  legitim  (q.v. ).  The 
custom  is  derived  from  the  Roman 
law  of  emancipation  of  a  son  from 
his  father's  power  by  fictitious  sale 
and  manumission,  by  imperial 
rescript,  or  by  formal  declaration, 
after  which  the  son  became  inde- 
pendent (sui  juris),  quitted  the 
family  to  which  he  formerly  be- 
longed, and,  as  a  general  rule,  lost 
the  rights  of  agnation. 

Fork  (Lat.  furca).  Instrument 
for  holding  or  lifting.  It  consists 
of  a  handle,  terminating  in  two  or 
more  prongs.  An  example  is  the 
table -fork  of  silver  or  other  metal. 
A  tuning  fork  (q.v. )  is  a  two-pronged 
steel  instrument  which  when  struck 
gives  a  fixed  and  definite  note, 
used  to  determine  musical  pitch. 
By  analogy  the  word  is  used  for 
something  (e.g.  a  road)  which 
divides  into  two. 

The  farm  implement  of  this  name 
has  a  wooden  handle  and  two  or 
more  steel  tines.  The  two-tined 
kind,  when  large,  is  known  as  a 
pitchfork,  used  for  loading  hay  or 
grain.  Short,stout,  emptying  forks, 
of  similar  pattern,  serve  for  unload- 
ing, while  turning  and  collecting 
forks  are  still  smaller,  but  with  the 
same  number  of  tines.  Digging 
forks  possess  three  to  five  tines, 
which  maybe  round,  square,  or  flat. 
Additional  leverage  is  given  by  a 
sharply  bent  neck,  and  a  short 
handle  is  preferred.  Dung  forks, 
for  dealing  with  farmyard  manure 
and  litter,  usually  have  three  or 
four  curved  tines  of  circular  sec- 
tion. Caving,  cocking,  or  pooking 
forks,  for  collecting  and  loading 
short  material,  are  somewhat 
similar,  but  the  tines  are  long  and 
wide  apart,  while  they  are  con- 
tinued backwards  above  the  neck 


FORLI 


3257 


FORMAN 


and  connected  by  a  cross-bar,  so 
as  to  prevent  the  forked-up  stuff 
from  falling  off  again. 

Forli.  Prov.  of  N.E.  Italy. 
Bounded  E.  by  the  Adriatic  Sea 
and  N.  by  the  prov.  of  Ravenna, 
its  area  is  730  sq.  m.  The  surface  is 
flat  and  low-lying,  and  the  soil  fer- 
tile. The  chief  products  are  wine, 
grain,  silk,  and  sulphur.  Pop. 
316,420.  Prow.  For-lee. 

Forli.  City  of  Italy,  the  ancient 
Forum  Livii.  The  capital  of  the 
prov.  of  Forli,  it  stands  in  a  fertile 
plain,  intersected  by  the  rivers 
Montone  and  Ronco,  40  m.  by  rly. 
S.E.  of  Bologna  by  the  main  line 
from  Bologna  to  Brindisi.  A  walled 
town,  it  contains  a  cathedral  (re- 
built), a  citadel,  1361,  utilised  as  a 
jail,  a  lyceum,  technical  insti- 
tute, a  municipal  art  gallery,  a 
town  hall,  a  good  library,  and  a 
hospital.  The  churches  contain 
pictures  and  frescoes  by  local  mas- 
ters. A  thriving  trade  is  carried 
on  in  cattle,  cereals,  wine,  silk,  and 
hemp,  while  the  manufactures  in- 
clude furniture,  earthenware,  ma- 
chinery, head  gear,  shoes,  and  silk 
goods.  Founded  about  200  B.C., 
in  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  part  of 
the  exarchate  of  Ravenna.  It  ex- 
perienced many  vicissitudes  dur- 
ing the  quarrels  of  the  Guelphs  and 
the  Ghibellines,  and  fell  to  the 
papacy  in  1504.  Pop.  48,943. 

Forlorn  Hope  (A.S.  fore-lioran, 
to  send  forward,  hauife,  a  troop). 
Military  expression  once  signifying 
troops  sent  forward.  The  implica- 
tion that  they  are  to  carry  out  a 
specially  dangerous  enterprise  is  a 
comparatively  modern  use  of  the 
expression.  The  French,  Dutch, 
and  German  equivalents  are 
enfants  perdus,  lost  children,  ver- 
loren  hoop,  lost  troop,  and  verlorner 
Posten,  lost  post.  In  hunting 
phraseology,  a  hound  that  follows 
the  chase  in  front  of  the  rest  of  the 
pack  is  referred  to  as  a  forlorn  or 
forloyne  hound.  In  ordinary  lan- 
guage forlorn  hope  is  used  of  any 
hopeless  undertaking,  hope  being 
erroneously  identified  with  hope 
meaning  expectation,  a  word  of  an 
entirely  different  etymology. 

Form  (Lat.  forma).  Word  liter- 
ally meaning  shape.  It  denotes  the 
manner  in  which  the  matter  or 
parts  of  a  whole  are  combined. 
Thus,  a  table  or  a  chair  may  be 
made  of  pieces  of  wood,  but  the 
form  of  a  table  differs  from  that  of 
a  chair  in  the  arrangement  of  the 
materials.  '  Aristotle  lays  down 
four  causes  or  principles  of  being — 
the  material,  the  formal,  the 
efficient,  and  the  final.  The  three 
last-named  on  examination  will  be 
found  to  run  into  one  another,  leav- 
ing only  the  opposition  of  Form 
and  Matter.  Matter  is  possibility 


or  potentiality  (dynamis)  which 
becomes  actuality  (energeia)  by  its 
conversion  from  indeterminateness 
into  something  definite.  As  an 
adaptation  of  the  Platonic  idea, 
form  is  the  realization  of  the  ideal, 
e.g.  of  a  perfect  table,  that  the 
carpenter  has  in  mind.  See  Matter. 

Form.  In  music,  the  plan  of 
construction,  or  the  arrangement 
of  phrases,  sections,  and  move- 
ments. There  is  no  limit  to  the 
possible  varieties  of  musical  form, 
but  a  few  outstanding  classes  may 
be  named.  Binary  form  has  two 
main  divisions,  as  exemplified  in 
the  old  air  Barbara  Allen  ;  ternary 
form  has  three  divisions,  ^s  in 
Charlie  is  My  Darling.  From  these 
two  germs  most  of  the  larger 
specific  forms  have  been  evolved, 
such  as  the  rondo,  the  sonata,  and 
all  their  derivatives.  The  fugue  is 
essentially  a  contrapuntal  move- 
ment of  continuity,  but  it  has  an 
underlying  basis  of  sectional  form. 

Many  compositions  bearing  other 
generic  names  are  also  referable  to 
these  forms  ;  e.g.  many  songs  and 
short  instrumental  pieces  are  in 
simple  ternary  form,  called  also 
primary,  song,  or  lied  form  ;  many 
marches  are  in  rondo  form  ;  the 
minuet  and  trio,  in  a  suite,  or  so- 
nata symphony,  are  each  in  either 
binary  or  ternary  forms,  while  to- 
gether, with  the  recapitulation  of 
the  minuet,  they  constitute  a 
larger  ternary  form.  See  Minuet ; 
Suite  ;  Symphony  ;  Trio. 

Formalin  OB  FORMALDEHYDE 
(HCOH).  Pungent  gaseous  com- 
pound first  prepared  in  1867  by 
Hof  mann  by  passing  methyl  alcohol 
vapour  and  air  over  a  heated 
platinum  spiral.  A  40  p.c.  solution 
of  formaldehyde  is  known  as  for- 
malin, and  is  the  form  in  which 
the  gas  is  obtainable  in  commerce. 
A  current  of  air  drawn  by  an 
aspirator  is  passed  over  methyl 
alcohol  and  in  contact  with  copper 
gauze,  formaldehyde  being  formed. 
The  gas  is  made  to  pass  through 
a  series  of  receivers  containing 
water,  until  the  water  is  saturated 
with  the  gas.  Formalin  is  em- 
ployed as  a  preservative  and  anti- 
septic. Combined  with  ammonia, 
formaldehyde  yields  hexa-methy- 
lene-tetramine,  which,  under  the 
name  of  urotropine,  is  extensively 
used  in  medicine  as  an  internal 
antiseptic. 

Formalin  is  a  powerful  caustic  ; 
when  mixed  with  ten  times  its 
volume  of  water  it  may  be  used 
for  removing  corns.  A  30  p.c. 
solution  may  be  employed  for  the 
treatment  of  ringworm  of  the  scalp, 
and  a  solution  of  1  in  500  may  be 
used  as  a  mouth -wash.  Formalin  is 
not  much  used  in  surgery  as  an 
antiseptic,  as  it  tends  to  retard 


healing.  It  is  a  powerful  disinfect- 
ant and  has  the  advantage  that  it 
does  not  injure  coloured  fabrics. 

Formalism.  In  philosophy,  the 
tendency  to  consider  mere  form  or 
externalities  as  the  only  valuable 
part  of  anything.  Thus,  the  adher- 
ence to  cut-and-dried  rules,  like 
those  of  formal  logic,  is  formalism. 
The  same  applies  to  the  rules  of 
composition  in  sculpture  or  paint- 
ing. The  term  is  specially  used  of 
strict  adherence  to  religious  forms 
and  dogmas  characterised  by  the 
.  absence  of  a  genuine  religious  feel- 
Ing.  Formulism  is  rather  the 
reduction  of  such  forms  and 
dogmas  to  a  written  system. 

Forman,  HAHRY  BUXTON  (1842- 
1917).  British  author.  Born  in 
London;  he  was  from  1860  to  1907 
in  the  Civil  Service,  rising  to  be 
second  secretary  to  the  general 
post  office^jjflid  controller  of  packet 
services,  iji  addition  to  his  Letters 
of  John  K3Jats  to  Fanny  Brawne, 
1878,  his  Elizabeth  Barrett  Brown- 
ing and  Her  Scarcer  Books,  1896, 
and  his  B4oks  of  William  Morris, 
1897,  Forman  edited  the  standard 
edition,  1876-80,  of  Shelley's  works. 
He  collected  Trelawny's  Letters, 
1910,  deciphered  Shelley's  Note 
Books,  1911,  and  enlarged  Med- 
win's  Life.  His  industry  and  dis- 
crimination were  of  great  value  to 
students  of  Shelley  and  his  work. 
He  died  June  15,  1917. 

Forman,  SIMON  (1552-1611). 
English  astrologer  and  quack 


doctor.  Born 
Hampshire, 
Dec.  30,  1552, 
and  left  desti- 
tute as  a  boy, 
he  entered 
Magdalen  Col- 
lege, Oxford, 
as  a  poor 
scholar,  1573. 
After 


Quidhampton, 


s  o  m  c 


Simon  Forman, 
English  astrologer 


years  experi- 
ence as  anusher 
in  small  country  schools  he  claimed 
miraculous  powers,  and  in  1580 
professed  to  be  able  to  curediseases. 
He  studied  medicine  and  astrology 
in  Holland,  and  in  1583  started 
practice  in  London,  wrote  treatises 
on  mathematics  and  medicine,  and 
began  to  seek  the  philosopher's 
stone.  Though  frequently  arrested 
at  the  instance  of  the  College  of 
Physicians  and  other  authorities, 
he  worked  among  the  poor  in 
plague-stricken  areas  and  obtained 
a  large  and  far  less  honourable 
practice  among  court  ladies  ;  e.g. 
his  aid  was  sought  by  Lady  Essex 
to  alienate  the  love  of  her  husband 
and  influence  the  affection  in  her 
favour  of  Somerset. 

Cambridge  granted  him  a  licence 
to    practise     medicine    in    1603. 


FORMATION 


3258 


FORMOSA 


Forme. 


Four  pages  of  type  locked   up  in   a   chase, 
making  a  forme  ready  for  printing 


Richard    Nicolas,    in    Overbury's 
Vision,  1616,  thus  refers  to  him  : 

Forman  was  that  (lend  in  human  shape 
That  by  his  art  did  act  the  devil's  ape. 

His  philtres  are  alluded  to  in 
Jonson's  Epicoene  (iv,  1),  and  his 
career  suggested  much  in  Jonson's 
play,  The  Alchemist.  He  died 
Sept.  11,  1611,  and  was  buried  in 
S.  Mary's  Church,  Lambeth.  His 
MSS.,  which  came  into  the  pos- 
session of  Elias  Ashmole,  included 
a  diary,  1564-1602,  publ.  1849; 
Notes  on  Chemistry,  Astrology, 
Alchemy,  and  Geomancy ;  and  a 
Booke  of  Plaies. 

Formation.  In  geology,  an  old 
term  used  to  denote  a  group  of 
strata  or  rock-beds.  They  are  dis- 
tinguished by  common  lithological 
characters,  such  as  the  Upper 
Greensand  formation  (sandstone) 
and  Gault  ( clay ).  Modern  divisions 
of  stratified  rocks  are  based  on 
fossils  enclosed,  which  often  prove 
strata  of  different  lithological  as- 
pect to  be  of  same  age.  For  these 
divisions  "  stage  "  names  are  ap- 
plied, e.g.  Selbornian  stage,  which 
includes  both  Upper  Greensand 
and  Gault  formations. 

Formby.  Urban  district,  mar- 
ket town,  and  watering-place  of 
Lancashire.  It  is  7  m.  S.W.  of 
Southport,  and  has  a  station  on  the 
L.  &  Y.R.  It  is  really  a  residential 
suburb  of  Liverpool.  Near  are  the 
Altcar  Flats,  on  which  the  Water- 
loo Cup  is  decided.  Pop.  5,950. 

Forme.  In  printing,  a  page  or 
number  of  pages  of  type,  or  stereo- 
plates,  arranged  or  "imposed"  for 
printing  and  secured  or  "  locked 


up"  in  a  metal 
frame  called  a 
chase.  See 
Printing. 

Formentera. 
One  of  the  Bale- 
aric Islands,  in 
the  W.  Mediter- 
ranean Sea,  be- 
longing to  Spain, 
ft  is  the  smallest 
and  most  south- 
erly of  the  group, 
and  lies  7  m.  S. 
of  Iviza.  Area  37 
sq.  m.  Fishing 
and  salt -working 
are  engaged  in . 
I 'op.  2,600. 

Formia.  Town 
of  Italy,  in  the 
prov.  of  Caserta, 
until  recently 
called  Mola  di 
Gaeta.  Situated 
on  the  N.  side  of 
the  Gulf  of  Gaeta, 
48  m.  by  rly. 
W.N.W.  of  Caser- 
ta, it  is  a  seaside 
resort.  AVolscian 
town,  known  as  Formiae,  it  stood 
on  the  Appian  Way  and  was  a 
residential  district  for  wealthy 
Romans,  remains  of  whose  villas 
stud  the  coast.  Here  Cicero  lived, 
and  met  his  death,  near  his  villa, 
Dec.  7,  43  B.C.  The  town  has  a  little 
trade  in  olive  oil  and  earthenware, 
and  the  surrounding  districts  yield 
an  abundance  of  fruit.  Pop.  8,734. 
Formic  Acid  (Lat.  formica, 
ant).  The  lowest  in  the  important 
series  of  fatty  acids.  Its  chemical 
formula  is  CH2O2.  It  was  first  ob- 
tained by  John  Ray  in  1670  by 
distilling  red  ants  with  water,  his 
observations  being  printed  in  the 
Philosophical  Transactions  of 
that  year.  Formic  acid  occurs  in 
other  animal  and  vegetable  sub- 
stances, but  is  now  made  by:  (1) 
heating  to  60°  C.  in  a  retort  a  mix- 
ture of  sugar,  water,  manganese 
peroxide,  and  sul- 
phuric acid;  (2)  f 
by  heating  equal 
parts  of  a  n- 
hydrous  glycerine 
with  oxalic  acid 
and  distilling  the 
product.  The 
liquid  acid  is 
colourless,  and 
hd,s  a  pungent, 
sour  taste  and 
odour. 

Formicivora 
(Lat.  formica, 
ant ;  vorare,  to 
devour).  Genus 
o  f  passerif  orm 
birds  of  the 
family  Fonni- 


cariidae  —  Ant-birds  —  natives  of 
South  and  Central  America.  They 
have  long,  compressed  and  hooked 
beaks;  the  foot  (metatarsus)  is  short 
and  thick,  and  the  outer  and  middle 
toes  are  joined  towards  their  base. 

Formidable.  British  battle- 
ship, the  first  of  her  class  sunk  by 
a  submarine  in  the  Great  War.  She 
was  launched  at  Portsmouth  in 
1898  and  completed  in  1901,  her 
principal  characteristics  being : 
length  400  ft.,  beam  75  ft.,  dis- 
placement 15,000  tons,  speed  18 
knots,  with  an  armament  of  four 
12-in.,  twelve  6-in.,  and  18  12- 
pounder  guns.  She  was  torpedoed 
in  the  English  Channel  on  Jan.  1, 
1915.  About  600  lives  were  lost, 
and  71  officers  and  men  were  saved. 

Formigny ,  BATTLE  OF.  Fought 
between  the  English  and  the 
French,  Apl.  15, 1450.  To  strengthen 
the  English  eause  in  France  a 
force  under  Sir  Thomas  Kyriel  was 
sent  to  Cherbourg.  About  2,500 
strong,  it  was  joined  in  Normandy 
by  another  1,000  men,  and  this 
army,  having  taken  Valognes, 
moved  to  Formigny,  not  far  from 
Bayeux.  There  it  was  met  by  a 
French  force,  and  the  English  were 
routed. 

Form  Letter.  Letter  of  which 
many  copies  are  made,  generally 
used  for  advertising  purposes. 
Frequently  they  are  printed  so  as  to 
resemble  a  typewritten  letter,  the 
name  and  address  being  inserted 
afterwards,  as  far  as  possible  in  the 
same  type  and  ink  as  the  form 
letter.  See  Advertising ;  Mail  Order. 

Formocyanine.  Name  given  to 
a  British  dye  discovered  in  1916. 
Researches  were  carried  out  by  the 
university  of  Leeds,  and  two  dyes, 
formocyanine  and  tolucyanine, 
were  prepared,  both  of  which  are 
used  in  colour  printing.  See  Colour 
Printing ;  Dyes. 

Formosa.  Island  in  the  W. 
Pacific  Ocean.  It  is  "the  beauti- 
ful island"  of  the  Portuguese  far- 
eastern  navigators  of  the  16th 


H.M.S.  Formidable.    The  last  photograph  of  the  vessel. 
taken  during  the  naval  review,  July  20,  1914 


Vribb,  Southsea 


FORMOSA 


3259 


FORRES 


Formosa.     Map  of  the  island  sur- 
rendered by  China  to  Japan  in  1895 

century,  called  by  the  Japanese 
Taiwan  or  Terrace  Bay.  It  is  244  m. 
in  length  with  a  maximum  width 
of  76  m.  Separated  from  the  main- 
land of  China  by  the  storm-swept 
Strait  of  Formosa,  it  is  crossed  by 
the  tropic  of  Cancer. 

An  island  of  wonderful  fertility 
and  great  natural  beauty,  it  is 
sharply  divided  into  two  nearly 
equal  portions.  The  western  side, 
facing  China,  consists  of  highly 
cultivated  plains  ;  the  eastern,  of 
lofty  forest-clad  mountain  ranges, 
which  extend  to  the  E.  coast,  where 
the  island  faces  the  open  Pacific, 
with  steep,  perpendicular  cliffs, 
rising  to  a  height  in  some  places 
of  6,000  ft.  The  mountains  are  in- 
habited by  tribes  of  fierce  savages 
of  Malay  or  Negrito  origin,  who, 
since  the  island  was  surrendered  by 
China  to  the  Japanese  after  the  war 
of  1894-95,  are  being  gradually 
brought  into  subjection.  The 
western  half  is  inhabited  by 
Chinese  agricultural  and  industrial 
settlers,  and  their  descendants,  and 
by  Japanese,  the  total  population 
of  the  island  being  3,698,918. 

The  chief  products  are  rice,  tea, 
sugar,  salt,  rattans,  sweet  potatoes, 
hemp,  jute,  indigo,  and  camphor. 
Its  minerals  are  gold  (alluvial), 
silver,  coal,  copper,  petroleum,  and 
sulphur.  Economic  timber,  as  yet 
almost  untouched,  may  be  said  to 
be  inexhaustible.  It  is  the  prin- 
cipal source  of  the  camphor  supply 
of  the  world.  The  climate  is  hot, 
damp,  and  malarious.  In  the  N. 
there  is  a  very  heavy  rainfall,  and 
violent  typhoons  are  frequent.  The 
trunk  rly.  starts  at  Keelung,  the 
chief  harbour,  passes  Taihoku,  the 
capital,  Taichu,  Tainan,  the  oldest 
city,  and  Takow  to  reach  Hozan. 


Formosa.  Territory  of  Argen- 
tina, in  the  N.E.  of  the  republic. 
It  lies  between  the  rivers  Pilcomayo 
and  Bermejo,  with  Paraguay  on 
the  E.,  the  Gran  Chaco  on  the  S., 
and  the  prov.  of  Salta  on  the  W. 
It  includes  part  of  the  Gran  Chaco. 
The  interior  contains  forests  and 
swamps,  abounding  in  game.  Area, 
41,402  sq.  m.  The  capital  is  For- 
mosa, on  the  river  Paraguay,  a 
centre  for  agricultural  produce,  as 
well  as  for  cattle,  tobacco,  and 
sugar.  It  has  a  port  and  a  wire- 
less station.  Indians  inhabit  the 
interior.  Pop.  20,458. 

Formosa.  Strait  or  channel 
separating  the  island  of  Formosa 
from  China.  It  is  about  150  m. 
broad  and  contains  the  12  Pesca- 
dores Islands,  the  largest  of  which  is 
Hokoto. 

Formula  (Lat.  forma,  little 
form).  Prescribed  form  of  any- 
thing. In  mathematics  formulae 
are  the  general  expressions  used 
in  solving  problems  ;  thus  a*— 
b2  =  (a— b)  (a+6)  is  a  formula. 
The  word  is  most  commonly  used 
perhaps  in  chemistry.  A  collection 
of  formulae  in  a  book  is  called 
a  formulary. 

Chemical  formulae  are  symbolical 
representations  of  the  arrangement 
of  the  atoms  within  the  molecule, 
the  modes  of  the  formation  and  de- 
composition of  a  compound,  or  the 
relation  which  the  allied  com- 
pounds bear  to  one  another. 
Dalton,  in  1808,  devised  a  system 
of  circles  to  represent  atoms, 
grouping  them  together  to  show 
how  compounds  are  made  up. 
Later  Berzelius 
employed  a  sys- 
tem based  on  the 
atomic  theory 
from  which  the 
modern  usage  has 
developed,  owing 
to  the  need  of 
devising  means  oi 
expressing  such 
facts  as  the  rela- 
tion of  the  atoms 
which  enter  into 
the  composition 
of  the  molecules. 

The  various 
kinds  of  chemical 
formulae  are  best 
illustrated  by 
reference  to  acetic 
acid.  The  mole- 
cular formula  is 
C2  H4  O2,  indicat- 
ing the  atoms 
of  which  the 
molecule  is  com- 
posed. The  em- 
pirical or  rational 
formula  is 
HC2HSO2,  which 
emphasises  the 


replaceable  hydrogen  of  the  acid. 
The  following  examples  are  con- 
stitutional or  structural  formulae  : 


^ 
(1)     OC<. 


OH 


(2)     CH.-CO-OH 
H    OH 


(3) 


H,C 


— C— O— ] 


(4)H  —  C  —  C=O 

i 

These  are  intended  mainly  to 
express  the  relations  or  linkage 
between  the  bonds  which  deter- 
mine the  behaviour  of  the  sub- 
stance. No.  2  indicates  that  acetic 
acid  is  composed  of  the  two  com- 
pound radicals,  methyl  and  car- 
boxyl.  Constitutional  formulae 
are  determined  by  experiment  and 
indicate  properties  which  a  com- 
pound may  be  expected  to  possess. 
See  Chemical  Signs. 

Fornax.  One  of  Lacai  He's 
southern  circumpolar  constella- 
tions. Its  name  means  the  chemi- 
cal furnace.  See  Constellation. 

Forres.  Royal  burgh  and  mar- 
ket town  of  Moray  or  Elginshire, 
Scotland.  It  stands  on  the  river 
r.  .  ...,..„-.,,  Findhorn,  near 
the  Moray  Firth, 
12  m.  S.W.  of 
Elgin.  The  prin- 
cipal buildings 
are  the  town 
hall,  Falconer 
Museum,  Ander- 
son's Institution, 
and  Mechanics' 


Forres  arms 


Institute.  An  ancient  monolith, 
named  Sueno's  stone,  is  said  to 
have  been  placed  here  early  in  the 
10th  century.  On  Castle  Hill  was 


Formosa.     Natives  of  the  Paiwan  group.     Above,  man 
and  woman  of  the  Tsuo  group  in  elaborate  head-dresses 


Forres,  Scotland.    The  High  Street,  with  the  Court  House, 
built  1839,  and,  in  front  of  it,  the  Market  Cross,  1844 

Valentine 

a  royal  residence  in  the  12th  cen- 
tury. Footwear,  woollen  goods,  and 
chemical  manures  are  manufac- 
tured. Forres  is  in  a  sheltered  posi- 
tion at  the  foot  of  the  Cluny  Hills, 
and  near  by  is  the  Cluny  Hill 
hydropathic.  Pop.  4,932. 

Forrest,  JOHN  FORREST,  BARON 
(1847-1918).  Australian  states- 
man and  explorer.  Born  near  Bun- 
bury,  W.  Aus- 
tralia, Aug.  22, 
1847,  and  edu- 
cated at  Perth, 
he  became  a 
state  surveyor, 
1865,  and  ex- 
plored the  in- 
terior of  the 
continent.  Sur- 
veyor-general 
of  W.  Australia 
in  1883,  he 


3260 

Kent,  and  was  a 
lord  commis- 
sioner  for  the 
treasury,  1902-5. 
In  1915  he  be- 
came financial 
secretary  to  the 
war  office  in  the 
Coalition  govern- 
ment, in  1917  a 
privy  councillor, 
and  in  Dec., 
1919,  when  he 
resigned,  was 
created  a  baron. 
He  had  sat  for 
Bromley  since 
1918.  In  June, 
1920,  he  was  appointed  governor- 
general  of  Australia. 

Forster,  JOHN  (1812-76).  Bri- 
tish    historian     and     biographer. 
Born  at  Newcastle,  April  2,  1812, 
fMj^MBMB^HBHM    an<^    educated 
1    at     Newcastle 
I    grammar 
I    school  and  Uni- 
1    versity  College, 
I    London,  he  be- 
came, in  1833, 
the  literary 
and    dramatic 
critic   of   The 
Examiner,  and 
edited     The 
Daily     News 


John  Forster, 
British  historian 


Baron  Forrest, 
Australian  statesman 


Elliott  &  Fry 

became  its  first  premier  in  1890,  a 
post  which  he  held  until  1901.  He 
was  knighted  in  1891.  He  took 
part  in  the  negotiations  leading  to 
the  formation  of  the  Common- 
wealth, and  in  1901  became  its  first 
postmaster-general.  He  was  min- 
ister of  defence,  1901-3,  of  home 
affairs,  1903-4,  and  treasurer  for 
four  periods.  He  resigned  in  1918, 
and  was  created  a  peer,  the  first 
Australian  so  honoured.  His  title 
lapsed  on  his  death,  Sept.  3,  1918. 

Forst.  Town  of  Prussia,  in 
Brandenburg.  It  stands  on  the 
Neisse,  44  m.  S.  of  Frankfort- on- 
Oder.  The  main  industry  is  the 
weaving  of  cloth.  Pop.  33,875. 

Forster,  HENRY  WILLIAM  FORS- 
TER, IST  BARON  (b.  1866).  British 
politician.  Born  Jan.  31,  1866,  he 
was  educated 
at  Eton  and 
New  College, 
Oxford,  and 
represente 
both  schoc 
and  university 
at  cricket.  In 
1892  he  was 

feorCSedven^aks      ^^oSSS* 
division   of  Russell 


After  C.  E.  Perugini 

during  1846.  From  1847-55  he 
edited  The  Examiner,  resigning 
this  post  on  his  appointment  as 
secretary  to  the  commissioners  of 
lunacy.  From  Nov.,  1861,  to  1872, 
he  was  commissioner  of  lunacy. 

In  addition  to  the  two  works  by 
which  he  is  best  known,  The  Life 
and  Times  of  Oliver  Goldsmith, 
1848,  and  The  Life  of  Dickens  (with 
whom  he  was  most  intimate), 
1872-74,  he  wrote  Lives  of  the 
Statesmen  of  the  Commonwealth, 
1836-39,  Arrest  of  the  Five  Mem- 
bers, 1860,  a  Life  of  Sir  John 
Eliot,  1864,  and  vol.  i  of  a  Life  of 
Swift,  1875.  His  collection  of  MSS., 
books,  and  pictures  forms  the  For- 
ster bequest  at  the  S.  Kensington 
Museum.  He  died  Feb.  1,  1876. 

Forster,  WILLIAM  EDWARD 
(1818-86).  British  politician.  Born 
at  Bradpole,  Dorset,  July  11,  1818, 
his  parents 
were  Quakers, 
and  he  was 
educated  at  a 
Quaker  school 
at  Tottenham. 
He  entered 
business  in 
Bradford  and 

soon  became  a         w.  E.  Forster, 
successful       British  politician 
woollen   manufacturer  there.     He 
found  time  also  for  public  work ; 
writing   and  lecturing  made   him 
known,  and  in  1859  he  was  par- 


FORT 

liamentary  candidate  for  Leeds. 
He  was  unsuccessful,  but  in  1861 
he  was  returned  as  Liberal  M.P. 
for  Bradford.  He  retained  the 
seat  throughout  his  life. 

In  1865  Forster  joined  the  Libe- 
ral ministry  as  under-secretary  for 
the  colonies,  but  he  was  soon  in 
opposition.  In  1868  he  became 
vice-president  of  the  council  in 
Gladstone's  first  ministry.  He  had 
already  shown  a  lively  interest  in 
popular  education,  and  it  fell  to  him 
to  frame  and  introduce  the  impor- 
tant Education  Act  of  1870.  He 
showed  great  perseverance  in  get- 
ting it  through  the  Commons,  for 
the  religious  question  aroused  acute 
controversies  and  both  sides  criti- 
cised him  for  steering  a  middle 
course.  He  remained  in  office  until 
1874,  and  in  1880  returned  thereto, 
this  time  to  the  difficult  position  of 
chief  secretary  for  Ireland.  He 
introduced  a  Coercion  Act,  and 
though  his  life  was  constantly  in 
danger  carried  on  his  duties  with 
absolute  fearlessness. 

In  1882  he  resigned,  as  Gladstone 
released  the  political  prisoners  from 
Kilmainham.  Henceforward  his 
attitude  towards  Irish  policy  was 
critical,  and  it  was  not  surprising 
when  he  declared  against  Home 
Rule.  On  April  6,  1886,  he  died  at 
his  London  residence. 

Forster  was  a  convinced  but  in- 
dependent radical,  early  urging 
reforms  afterwards  adopted,  but 
he  was  never  very.docile  in  follow- 
ing others.  He  was  something  of  an 
imperialist,  and  was  never  afraid  of 
expressing  his  views.  He  married, 
in  1850,  Jane  Martha,  eldest 
daughter  of  Dr.  Arnold,  and  he 
adopted  four  children,  his  wife's 
nephews  and  nieces,  who  were 
known  as  Arnold-Forster.  See  Life, 
Sir  T.  Wemyss  Reid,  1888. 

Forsterite.  Light  -  coloured 
variety  of  mineral  olivine.  It  con- 
tains a  small  proportion  of  silicate 
of  lime,  and  occurs  in  limestones 
altered  by  intrusion  of  igneous  rock. 
See  Olivine. 

Forsythia.  Genus  of  shrubs  of 
the  natural  order  Oleaceae.  Natives 
of  Japan  and  China,  they  have 
smooth,  simple,  or  trefoil  leaves, 
and  scattered  yellow  flowers, 
abundantly  produced  in  early 
spring,  which  makes  the  two 
species,  F.  suspensa  and  F.  virid- 
issima,  favourites  in  European 
gardens.  The  genus  is  named 
after  William  Forsyth,  an  18th 
century  gardener. 

Fort  (Lat.  fortis,  strong).  Dim- 
inutive of  fortress.  It  was  com- 
monly used  for  fortified  trading 
stations,  and  there  were  hundreds 
of  these  in  N.  America.and  in  India. 
Some  of  these,  e.g.  Fort  Duquesne, 
still  retain  the  prefix,  but  others. 


3261 


FORT    DUQUESNE 


e.g.  Ticonderoga,  have  lost  it.  Some 
rough  shelter  and  protection  was 
thrown  up,  and  the  fort  served  as  a 
storehouse  and  rendezvous  for  the 
traders,  being  also  in  cases  of 
attack  a  refuge  for  them.  During 
the  war  between  England  and 
France  the  existing  forts  were 
strengthened  and  new  ones  erected, 
and  many  attacks  made  on  them. 
The  modern  sense  of  fort  is  rather 
that  of  a  part  of  a  fortress.  Thus 
Verdun  and  Liege  were  defended 
by  rings  of  forts,  each  one  having 
a  distinctive  name.  See  Fortifica- 
tion ;  Fortress. 

Fort,  PAUL  (b.  1872).  French 
poet.  Born  at  Reims,  he  early  mi- 
grated to  Paris,  where  he  founded 
the  Theatre  des  Arts,  producing 
modern  plays,  and  becoming  a 
centre  of  the _jSymbolist  poets. 
Issuing  his  early  ballads  as  pamph- 
lets, he  published  his  first  volume 
of  Ballades  frangaises  in  1897,  and 
thenceforth  produced  one  or  more 
volumes  annually,  maintaining  a 
remarkably  high  level.  Pron.  For. 

Though  master  of*  varied  lyric 
metres,  he  printed  each  verse  as 
though  it  was  a  prose  passage.  His 
later  volumes  include  Chansons 
pour  me  consoler  d'etre  heureux, 
1913;  Poemes  de  France,  1915; 
Que  j'ai  de  Plaisir  d'etre  fran£ais, 
1917 ;  Chansons  a  la  Gauloise, 
1919 ;  Les  Enchanteurs,  1919 ; 
Barbe  Bleu,  Jeanne  d'Arc  et  Mes 
Amours,  1919.  See  Six  French 
Poets,  A.  Lowell,  1915. 

Fortaleza.  Seaport  of  Brazil, 
capital  of  the  state  of  Ceara.  It 
stands  on  an  open  bay,  near  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Ceara,  350  m. 
N.W.  of  Pernambuco,  with  an 
anchorage  two  miles  out.  Although 
the  harbour  has  been  much  im- 
proved in  recent  years,  cargo  has 
to  be  taken  off  the  vessels  in  the 
roadstead  and  landed  on  the 
beach  in  surf  boats.  There  is 
a  trade  in  rubber,  cotton,  coffee, 
animal  products,  sugar,  and  drugs. 
Previous  to  1823  it  was  called 
Ceara.  Pop.  70,000. 

Fort  Augustus.  Parish  and 
village  of  Inverness-shire,  Scot- 
land. It  is  finely  situated  at  the 
head  of  Loch  Ness,  on  the  Cale- 
donian Canal,  and  is  connected  with 
Spean  Bridge,  24  m.  S.,  by  a  branch 
of  the  Highland  Rly.  The  fort,  built 
originally  in  1716  and  enlarged  in 
1730,  was  taken  by  the  Jacobites 
in  1745,  and  recaptured  a  year 
later  by  William  Augustus,  duke 
of  Cumberland,  in  whose  honour  it 
was  named.  Purchased  by  Lord 
Lovat  in  1857,  it  was  presented  by 
him,  in  1876,  to  the  Benedictines, 
who  transformed  it  into  a  monastery 
with  college,  hospital,  and  scrip- 
torium, which  in  1882  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  an  abbey. 


Fort  Beaufort.  Town  of  Cape  rly.  N.N.W.  of  the  city  of  Des 
Province,  S.  Africa.  It  is  on  the  Moines,  it  is  served  by  the  Chicago 
Kat  river,  63  m.  by  rly.  W.N.  W.  of  Great  Western  and  other  rlys.  It 
King  William's  Town,  and  is  an  contains  Tobin  College  and  other 
important  ostrich-farming  centre,  educational  institutions,  a  public 
Pop.  4,312.  library,  and  several  parks.  In  the 

Name  given  to  neighbourhood  gypsum,  glass  sand, 
limestone,  and  coal  are  worked. 
The  city's  charter  dates  from  1869. 
Pop.  21,040. 

Fort  Donelson,  BATTLE  OF. 
Federal  victory  in  the  American 
Civil  War,  Feb. ,  1 862.  Fort  Donel- 
son and  Fort  Henry,  situated  12  m. 
apart  on  the  Kentucky-Tennessee 
border,  were  the  two  most  import- 
ant defences  of  the  West.  Occupied 
by  the  Confederates  in  1861, 
Grant  immediately  recognized  the 
necessity  of  capturing  them,  and 
in  Feb.,  1862,  succeeded  in  seizing 


Fort  Chabrol. 

a  house  in  the  Rue  de  Chabrol, 
Paris,  which  was  the  scene  of  a 
remarkable  siege  in  1899.  During 
the  trial  of  Alfred  Dreyfus  (q.v.), 
Nationalists,  Royalists,  and  Anti- 
Semites  sought  the  opportunity  for 
a  rising,  and  Jules  Guerin,  an 
Anti-Semite  leader,  with  20  armed 
compatriots  barricaded  the  Anti- 
Semite  club  in  the  Rue  de  Chabrol, 
and  defied  the  authorities  to 
capture  them.  Each  man  had  a 
magazine  rifle,  revolver,  and  300 
rounds,  and  the  house  was  pro 


vided  with  bullet-proof  doors  and    Fort  Henry,  although  most  of  its 


shutters.       The    siege    became 
farce.      The   French   government 
decided  to  reduce  the  garrison  by 


defenders    had    escaped    to    Fort 
Donelson. 

Moving  against  the  latter  with  a 


starvation,  and   "  Fort  Chabrol  "     combined  naval  and  military  force, 


was  surrounded  by  a  battalion  of 
the  Republican  Guard.  No  one 
but  doctors,  who  attended  the 
garrison,  were  allowed  to  pass 
down  the  street ;  the  water  supply 
was  cut  off,  and  sewermen  blocked 


Grant  received  a  serious  check,  and 
on  Feb.  15  the  Confederates  made 
an  attempt  to  retreat  to  Nashville, 
but  were  stopped  by  Grant.  The 
following  day  Buckner,  in  com- 
mand of  the  fortress,  asked  for  an 


up    the    drains    to    prevent    the    armistice  in  which  to  settle  terms 
garrison   digging   their   way   out.     of  capitulation.     Grant  demanded 
After  38  days  the  "fort"  capitu-    unconditional  and  immediate  sur- 
render, to  which  Buckner  agreed. 
This  reply  of  the  Federal  general 
and  the  play  upon  the  initials  of  his 
Christian  names,  U.  S.,  gave  him 
the    sobriquet    of    Unconditional 
Surrender  Grant. 
Fort  Duquesne.      Eighteenth 


!fort"  capitu- 
lated without  anyone  being  killed 
or  injured. 

Fort-de-France.  Town  of  Mar- 
tinique, French  W.  Indies,  form- 
erly known  as  Fort  Royal.  On  the 
W.  coast,  15  m.  S.E.  of  St.  Pierre,  it 
is  the  capital  and  chief  commercial 


of    the    Monongahela    and    Alle- 
gheny  rivers.     During  the  French 


centre  of  the  colony.    Its  commo-  century  stronghold  at  the  junction 

dious  harbour  is  fortified,  and  it  - 
has  an  arsenal,  a  college,  a  library, 

and  several  hospitals.  It  is  the  seat  and   English   disputes   about   the 

of    the    governor-general    of    the  sovereignty  of  the  land  W.  of  the 

French  West  Indies.    In  the  chief  Alleghenies,    George    Washington 

square   there   is   a   statue   of   the  recommended  the  spot  as  a  suitable 

Empress  Josephine.  In  Aug.,  1891,  site  for  a  fort,  and    in  1754  the 


the  town  was  laid  in  ruins  by  a 
cyclone.     Pop.  26,399. 

Fort  Dodge.  A  city  of  Iowa, 
U.S.A.,  the  co.  seat  of  Webster  co. 
On  the  Des  Moines  river,  86  m.  by 


Fort  Augustus,  Inverness-shire.   The  abbey  and  college 
of  S.  Benedict  on  the  shore  of  Loch  Ness 


English  began  to  construct  one. 
The  French  drove  them  away  and 
themselves  completed  the  work, 
calling  it  Fort  Duquesne,  after  the 
French  governor  of  that  name. 
Attempts  by  Wash- 
ington, and  in  1755 
by  General  Brad- 
dock,  failed  to 
recover  it;  but  in 
1758  General  John 
Miles  succeeded. 
He  arrived  there  to 
find  that  it  had 
been  abandoned 
and  destroyed  by 
the  French.  The 
English  then  began 
to  build  a  new  fort, 
and  this,  named 
Fort  Pitt,  grew  into 
Pittsburg,  the  great 
steel-working  cen- 
tre of  Pennsylvania. 


FORTE 


3262 


FORTH 


Forte.  Italian  term  used  in 
music,  meaning  strong  or  loud.  It 
is  sometimes  represented  by  the 
abbreviations  for.,  or  /  Its  super- 
lative, meaning  very  loud,  is  fort- 
issimo, shortened  to  ff  or  ///,  or 
very  rarely  ////.  See  Musical  Terms. 

Fortes  cue.  River  of  W.  Aus- 
tralia. It  rises  in  the  Hammersley 
Range,  flows  in  a  N.W.  course  of 
250  m.,  and  discharges  into  the 
Indian  Ocean  in  lat.  21°  10'  S.,  a  few 
miles  below  Cape  Preston. 

Fortescue,  EARL.  British  title 
borne  since  1789  by  the  family  of 
Fortescue.  In  1 72 1 ,  Sir  Hugh  For- 
tescue, a  member  of  an  old  Devon 
family,  obtained  the  barony  of 
Clinton,  and  was  made  Baron 
Fortescue  and  earl  of  Clinton. 
When  he  died,  in  1751,  his  brother 
Matthew  became  Baron  Fortescue, 
and  Matthew's  son,  Hugh,  the  3rd 
baron,  was  made  Viscount  Ebring- 
ton  and  Earl  Fortescue  in  1789. 
The  2nd  earl  was  lord-lieutenant 
of  Ireland  from  1839-41,  and  the 
3rd  earl  held  minor  offices  in  the 
Liberal  ministry  between  1846  and 
1851.  The  earl's  estates  are  in 
Devonshire,  and  his  eldest  son  is 
called  Viscount  Ebrington. 

Fortescue,  GRANVILLE  ROLAND 
(b.  1875).  American  soldier  and 
journalist.  Born  in  New  York, 
Oct.  12,  1875,  and  educated  at  the 
university  of  Pennsylvania,  he 
served  with  the  Rough  Riders  in 
Cuba,  1898  ;  as  lieutenant  of 
volunteer  infantry  in  the  Philip- 
pines, 1899-1901  ;  in  the  cavalry, 
1902,  and  graduated  at  the  U.S. 
Staff  College  in  1904.  Retiring 
from  the  U.S.  army  in  1906,  he 
acted  as  The  Standard's  special 
correspondent  with  the  Spanish 
army  in  the  Riff  War,  1909  ;  and 
in  the  Great  War  as  correspondent 
of  The  Daily  Telegraph  on  the 
western  front.  He  is  the  author  of 
At  the  Front  with  Three  Armies, 
1915  ;  Russia,  The  Balkans,  and 
The  Dardanelles,  1915  ;  and  What 
of  The  Dardanelles  ?,  1915. 

Fortescue,  SIR  JOHN  (c.  1394- 
1476).  English  judge  and  writer. 
The  son  of  another  Sir  John  For- 
tescue, he  belonged  to  the  Devon 
family  of  that  name.  Born  at 
Norris  in  Somerset,  he  was  edu- 
cated at  Exeter  College,  Oxford, 
and  became  a  lawyer  in  London. 
In  1442  he  was  made  chief  justice 
of  the  king's  bench,  and  he  held 
the  post  until  Henry  VI  lost  his 
throne  in  1461.  He  went  abroad 
with  Queen  Margaret  of  Anjou  in 
1463,  and  was  with  her  and  her 
son  Edward  for  some  time,  but  in 
1471  he  was  pardoned  by  Edward 
IV.  Fortescue  is  best  known  by 
his  writings.  His  treatise  on  the 
laws  of  England  (Be  Laudibus 
Legum  Angliae)  was  published 


Sir  John  Fortescue. 
English  judge 

After  W.  Faithorne 


after  his  death,  and  several  times 
since.  He  also  wrote  a  book,  the 
earliest  of  its  kind,  now  known  as 
The  Govern- 
ance of  Eng- 
land. This 
was  first  pub- 
lished in  1714 
as  The  Differ 
ence  Between 
an  Absolute 
and  a  Limited 
Monar  c  h  y, 
and  under  its 
other  title, 
with  an  intro- 
duction by  C.  Plummer,  in  1885. 
Fortescue,  JOHN  WILLIAM  (b. 
1859).  British  military  historian. 
Born  Dec.  28,  1859,  a  younger  son 
of  the  3rd  Earl  Fortescue,  he  was 
educated  at  Harrow  and  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge.  He  was  pri- 
vate secretary  to  the  governor 
of  New  Zealand,  and  a  captain  in 
the  Devon  Yeomanry,  but  devoted 
much  time  to  military  history.  In 
1899  appeared  the  first  volume  of 
his  History  of  the  British  Army, 
and  eight  other  volumes  appeared 
at  intervals  until  1920,  the  story 
being  then  taken  down  to  1815. 

This  is  the  most  complete  his- 
tory of  its  kind,  a  careful  survey 
of  the  subject  from  the  earliest 
times,  and  particularly  valuable 
for  the  18th  century.  In  1905 
Fortescue  was  made  librarian  at 
Windsor  Castle.  He  also  wrote  a 
History  of  the  17th  Laneers,  1895, 
some  novels,  an  animal  study,  The 
Story  of  a  Red  Deer,  1897,  and 
wrote  the  article  on  The  British 
Army  in  this  work.  He  was  lecturer 
on  military  subjects  at  the  univer- 
sities of  Oxford,  Cambridge,  and 
London.  See  port.,  p.  xxi,  vol.  i. 

Fortescue,  Miss  Stage  name 
of  May  Finney,  British  actress. 
She  made  her  stage  debut  as  Lady 
Ella,  in  Patience,  at  The  Opera 
Comique,  London,  April  23,  1881. 
A  notable  Celia  in  lolanthe,  at 
The  Savoy,  1882,  she  appeared  as 
Dorothy  in  Dan'l  Druce,  at  The 
Court,  1884. 
Among  other 
parts  in  which 
she  played  were 
those  of  Mary 
Melrose  in  Our 
1  Boys,  at  The 
JP  I  Strand,  1884 
•«*«3*  (after  which 
date  she  organ- 
ized a  touring 
company  of 
her  own,  which 
she  ran  for 
some  years) ; 
Julia  in  The 
Hunchback; 
Miss  Fortescue  as  p  «,  «  1  i  n  «  in 
Julia  in  the  Hunch-  £»  u  ^  n,e 

back  The    Lady   of 


Lyons;  Galatea  in  Pygmalion 
and  Galatea;  Juliet;  Rosalind; 
Lady  Teazle  in  The  School  for 
Scandal;  Fedora;  Hypatia;  the 
duchess  of  Strood  in  The  Gay 
Lord  Quex;  Lady  Faringford  in 
The  Return  of  the  Prodigal;  the 
duchess  of  Braceborough  in  Mr. 
Hopkinson;  Mrs.  J.  K.  Rotterford 
:n  Billy's  Bargain ;  Lady  Bagley 
in  Our  Mr.  Hepplewhite,  Lady 
Emily  in  Humpty  Dumpty  ;  Mrs. 
Devlin  in  Betty  at  Bay ;  appearing 
also  at  Drury  Lane  in  the  Best  of 
Luck.  She  visited  the  U.S. A  in 
1886,  and  Germany  in  1909. 

Fort  Garry.  Former  post  of 
the  Hudson  Bay  Co.,  erected  1835, 
on  the  site  of  which  Winnipeg 
grew  up.  In  1873  the  city  was 
incorporated  under  the  latter 
name.  Old  Fort  Garry  Gate,  a 
castellated  gate  at  the  end  af 
Broadway,  is  all  that  remains  of 
the  fort.  A  mounted  unit  of  the 
Canadian  army  known  as  the 
Fort  Garry  Horse  distinguished 
itself  at  Cambrai,  Nov.  20,  1917. 
See  Winnipeg. 

Fort  George.  Fortress  of  In- 
verness-shire, Scotland.  It  stands 
on  Moray  Firth,  12  m.  N.E.  of  In- 
verness, and  was  erected  after  the 
rebellion  of  1745  to  accommodate 
2,000  men.  There  is  ferry  com- 
munication with  Fortrose  on  the 
opposite  shore  of  the  Firth. 

Forth.  River  of  Scotland, 
which,  flowing  into  the  N.  Sea, 
forms  as  its  estuary  the  Firth  of 
Forth.  The  meeting  of  the  hill 
streams  Duchray  Water  and  Avon- 
dhu,  near  Aberfoyle,  in  Perthshire, 
forms  the  Forth,  which  flows 
through  Perthshire,  Stirlingshire, 
and  Clackmannanshire,  mainly  in 
an  easterly  direction.  The  total 
length  as  far  as  Alloa  is  about  53 
m.  Tidal  to  a  point  about  four  m. 
above  Stirling,  the  river  is  navi- 
gable for  300-ton  vessels  as  far  as 
Alloa,  for  100  tons  to  Stirling.  Its 
chief  tributaries  are  the  rivers 
Teith  and  Devon  and  Allan  Water. 
In  the  Carse  of  Stirling  its  course 
is  extraordinarily  sinuous,  forming 
the  so-called  Links  of  Forth. 

Forth,  FIRTH  OF.  Name  given  to 
the  estuary  of  the  river  Forth,  on 
the  E.  coast  of  Scotland.  The  Firth 
begins  at  Alloa,  and  stretching 
to  a  line  drawn  S.  from  Fife  Ness, 
being  thus  about  51  m.  long  and 
varying  in  width  from  one  to  17 
m.  The  chief  islands  are  Inchkeith, 
Inchcolm,  Cramond  Island,  and 
the  Bass  Rock,  and  Leith,  Granton, 
Grangemouth,  Alloa,  Burntisland, 
and  Methel  are  the  chief  harbours 
and  fishing  ports  along  both  coasts. 
The  Firth  is  spanned  at  Queensf  erry 
by  the  Forth  Bridge,  but  a  ferry 
service  is  maintained  there  and 
between  Granton  and  Burntisland. 


FORT      HALL 


3263 


FORTIFICATION 


The  Firth  has  great  strategic  im 
portance.  During  the  Great  War 
it  was  a  base  of  the  Grand  Fleet ; 
many  defences,  forts,  protective 
booms,  etc.,  were  constructed,  and 
in  the  Firth  off  Inchkeith  the  Ger- 
man fleet  surrendered,  Nov.,  1918. 
See  Rosyth. 

Fort  Hall .  Settlement  in  Kenya 
Colony,  E.  Africa.  It  is  situated  be- 
tween Nairobi  and  Mount  Kenya, 
and  is  4,500  ft.  above  sea  level.  A 
branch  line  from  the  Uganda  Rly. 
has  reached  the  Thika  river  (32  m. ) 
and  is  to  be  continued  to  Fort  Hall. 

Forth  and  Clyde  Canal. 
Waterway  extending  from  Grange- 
mouth,  on  the  Forth,  to  Bowling, 
on  the  Clyde.  It  was  constructed 
between  1768-90  at  »  cost  of 
£330,000,  and  has  a  length  of 
39  m.  Since  1867  it  has  been  the 
property  of  the  Cal.  Rly,  but  no 
great  volume  of  traffic  uses  the 
canal  regularly. 

Forth  Bridge.  Railway  bridge 
in  Scotland,  begun  in  1882  and 
opened  for  traffic  in  1890.  By  its 
construction  across  the  Firth  of 
Forth  a  long  detour  of  the  rly. 
westward  was  obviated  and  direct, 
connexion  between  Edinburgh  and 
the  N.  side  of  the  Firth  established, 
while  its  clear  height  of  150  ft. 
and  long  spans  enable  vessels  of 
any  size  or  type  to  pass  below  it. 

From  the  engineer's  point  of 
view,  it  marked  an  epoch  in  the 
history  of  bridge  building.  Its 
enormous  clear  spans  of  1,710  ft. 
between  supports  were  rendered 
possible  by  the  use  of  steel  and  by 
the  cantilever  design  of  the  super- 
structure. The  bridge,  which  carries 
two  railway  tracks,  is  slightly  over 
1}  miles  in  length.  There  are 
three  main  piers  from  which  the 
six  cantilever  arms  rise  and  project, 
the  ends  of  which,  in  the  main 
spans,  support  and  are  connected 
by  long  girder  spans.  The  height  of 
the  cantilevers,  over  the  piers, 
above  water  level  is  361  ft.  The 
main  compression  members  of  the 
cantilevers  consist  of  steel  tubes  in 
some  cases  12  ft.  in  diameter. 

The  extremities  of  the  end  canti- 
levers rest  upon  masonry  piers 
whence  the  rly.  is  carried  to  the 
shore  on  approach  viaducts  com- 
prising a  number  of  comparatively 
small  steel  bridge  spans  and  ma- 
sonry arches.  Each  main  river  pier 
consists  of  four  circular  masonry 
supports  resting  upon  caissons  70  ft. 
diameter,  and  sunk  to  a  depth  of 
from  70  ft.  to  90  ft.  below  water 
level.  The  structure,  designed 
by  John  Fowler  and  Benjamin 
Baker,  comprises  51,000  tons  of 
steelwork  and  142,000  cubic  yds. 
of  masonry,  cost  nearly  £3,000,000, 
and  occupied  seven  years  to  con- 
struct. See  Bridge,  illus.  and  plate. 


FORTIFICATION  :      PAST    AND     PRESENT 

Sir  George  O.  Aston,  K.C.B.,  Author  o«  War  Lessons,  New  and  Old 

The  principles   of  fortification  are  here   outlined.      The    article 
Fortress  should  also  be  read,  as  well  as  those  on  Strategy,  Tactics, 
and  War.     See  also  Artillery  and  articles  on  Antwerp  :  Mctz ; 
Verdun,  and  the  great  fortresses  of  the  past 


From  the  siege  of  Troy  the  history 
of  the  world's  wars  is  filled  with 
heroic  tales  of  human  ingenuity 
displayed  in  the  attack  and  defence 
of  fortified  places.  Fortifications 
confer  the  power  of  prolonged  re- 
sistance upon  forces  which  are  in- 
ferior in  numbers,  mobility,  equip- 
ment, or  moral  to  their  enemies. 
Thus  Wellington  in  the  Peninsula 
took  shelter  behind  the  celebrated 
lines  of  Torres  Vedras  when  his 
army  required  a  safe  refuge  for  re- 
cuperation, and  in  the  Great  War 
of  1914-18  both  sides  made  use  of 
the  art  of  the  engineer  to  enable 
their  armies  to  hold  their  own  on 
the  defensive  while  collecting  men 
andmunitionsf  or  aaerious  offensive. 

The  advantages  conferred  upon 
armies  by  fortifications  are  tem- 
porary. Francis  Bacon  wrote  truly 
that  "  walled  towns,  stored  ar- 
senals, and  armouries  .  .  .  ordnance, 
artillery,  and  the  like,  all  this  is  but 
a  sheep  in  a  lion's  skin,  except  the 
breed  of  the  people  be  stout  and 
warlike."  It  is  not  fortifications 
but  men  that  decide  the  fate  of 
nations.  Fortifications  which  af- 
ford all-round  defence  to  their 
garrisons  are  called  fortresses. 
While  these  can  be  of  great  value  if 
skilfully  applied,  they  sometimes 
have  a  harmful  effect  upon  the 
commanders  of  field  armies.  Ba- 
zaine's  army,  sheltering  behind  the 


provisions  were  scarce  and  means  of 
communication  bad,  the  issue  of  a 
war  was  often  determined  by  the 
attack  and  defence  of  fortified 
places,  and  the  history  of  war  be- 
came a  history  of  sieges.  Large 
quantities  of  foodstuffs  were  col- 
lected in  great  fortresses  where  the 
people  took  refuge  while  the  at- 
tackers tried  to  pass  the  fortified 
lines  in  order  to  reach  them.  If 
surprise,  assault  or  bombardment 
failed,  the  attacking  forces  were 
obliged  to  resort  to  regular  siege, 
approaching  by  cunningly  devised 
forms  of  entrenchment  called 
"  parallels  "  and  "  saps,"  and  by 
mining  galleries,  at  the  same  time 
"  investing "  the  place  to  starve 
out  the  garrison. 

When  the  mobility  of  armies 
was  increased  by  improvements  in 
roads  and  wheeled  transport,  a 
complete  change  came  over  the 
nature  of  land  warfare,  and  the 
value  of  fortresses  now  lies  in  the 
influence  they  can  exert  upon  the 
operations  of  field  armies.  If  placed 
where  important  roads  and  rlys., 
needed  by  an  invading  army,  con- 
verge towards  the  crossings  of  ob- 
stacles such  as  rivers  or  marshy 
country,  a  well-placed  fortress  can 
delay  an  invader's  advance.  The 
delay  imposed  upon  von  Kluck's 
army  by  the  forts  of  Liege  in  1914 
was  one  of  the  factors  enabling 


active  part  in  the  Franco-Prussian 
War,  and  Sir  John  French  was 
sorely  tempted  to  seek  the  protec 


defences  of  Metz,  took  no  further  Manoury's  army  to  assemble  N.  of 

Paris  in  time  to  play  an  important 
part  in  the  victory  of  the  Marne. 
Again,  the  need  to  detach  forces 

tion  'of  the  fortress  of  Maubeuge  to  guard  the  communications  of  an 

invading  army  against  the  garri- 
sons of  fortresses  may  seriously  re- 
duce its  strength  in  decisive  battle. 
Von  Kluck  and  von  Bulow,  having 
detached  forces  to  watch  the  Bel- 
gian army  in  Antwerp  and  the  gar- 
rison of  Maubeuge,  were  too  weak 
to  perform  their  task  in  France. 


after  the  battle  of  Mons. 

Fortifications  may  take  the  form 
of  "  permanent  "  works,  erected 
in  time  of  peace,  or  of  tempo- 
rary "  field  "  defences,  constructed 
when  and  where  they  may  be  re- 
quired in  time  of  war.  At  certain 
periods  in  European  history,  when 


Firth  of  Forth.     Layered  map  showing  the  heights  ot  the  surrounding  hills 


While  the  functions  performed 
by  fortifications  in  land  war  re- 
main fairly  constant,  their  nature 
has  changed  with  the  increased 
mobility  of  heavy  ordnance  used 
in  the  attack.  In  the  days  of  bows 
and  arrows  a  high  wall  was  a  for- 
midable obstacle.  With  the  intro- 
duction of  ordnance  the  steep- 
sided  revetted  ditch  replaced  the 
exposed  wall,  and  various  devices — 
"  bastions,"  "  caponiers,"  and  the 
like — were  introduced  to  bring  a 
flanking  fire  to  bear  upon  assailants 
who  might  effect  a  lodgment  in  the 
ditch.  The  garrisons  were  pro- 
tected by  large  mounds  of  earth 
called  "  ramparts "  and  "  tra- 
verses," under  which  they  found 
shelter  in  "  casemates  "  when  not 
holding  the  lines  of  "  parapet " 
surmounting  the  ramparts. 

With  the  increased  range  and 
rapidity  of  fire  of  weapons  of 
defence,  barbed  wire  entangle- 
ments, which  give  full  play  to  such 
weapons,  replaced  deep  ditches  as 
obstacles.  Then  came  the  tank 
for  crossing  barbed  wire,  and  so 
the  competition  proceeds,  and  will 
proceed,  between  inventions  for 
defence  and  attack.  Invisibility, 
from  the  ground  surface  or  from 
the  air,  affords  better  protection 
to  garrisons  than  earthworks  or 
armour,  and  underground  "  dug- 
outs "  have  replaced  conspicuous 
ramparts  of  earth  piled  up  above 
the  surface.  Heavy  ordnance  is  no 
longer  considered  secure  if  mounted 
in  visible  fixed  positions,  and  the 
tendency  in  modern  fortification 
is  to  meet  the  mobility  of  siege 
ordnance  by  similar  mobility  in  the 
ordnance  of  the  defence. 

The  functions  performed  by 
fortification  in  sea  warfare  differ 
materially  from  its  functions  in  war 
on  land.  Only  in  exceptional  cases, 
such  as  in  narrow  straits  like  the 
Dardanelles  or  in  sea  canals  like 
that  of  Panama,  can  ordnance 
mounted  in  forts  exercise  any 
direct  effect  upon  the  movements 
of  the  war  vessels  which  decide  the 
issue  of  a  naval  war.  War  vessels, 
especially  those  of  a  weaker  naval 
power  or  of  a  stronger  power  com- 
pelled to  maintain  detached  forces 
in  distant  seas,  require  defended 
harbours  as  bases  from  which  to 
work,  and  fortification,  so  applied, 
may  exercise  a  strong,  though  in- 
direct, influ/nce  upon  the  issue  of 
a  sea -war. 

War  vessels  being  built  to  fight 
each  ot<ier,  not  to  fight  forts,  and 
ships  being  conspicuous  targets, 
guns  mounted  on  fixed  platforms 
on  shore  have  so  many  advantages 
over  those  mounted  on  moving 
platforms  at  sea  that  no  fortress 
on  the  sea  coast  has  fallen  to  sea 
attack  in  modern  times.  Port 


3265 

Arthur  in  1894,  Wei-Hai-Wei  in 
1895,  Santiago  de  Cuba  in  1898, 
Port  Arthur  again  in  1905,  and 
Kiao-Chau  in  1914  were  all  taken 
by  armies. 

Commercial  harbours  are  some- 
times fortified  as  places  of  refuge 
for  merchant  shipping,  but  safety 
at  sea,  rather  than  in  harbour,  is 
the  condition  needed  for  the  se- 
curity of  the  vessels  carrying  the 
trade  of  a  community  depending 
upon  sea  commerce  for  existence. 
See  Text  Book  of  Fortification, 
Royal  Military  Academy,  1893 ; 
Fortification,  Sir  G.  S.  Clarke, 
1907.  See  also  Bangalore  and 
Cupola,  illus. 

Fortin  (Fr.,  little  fort).  Small 
detached  fort.  It  may  be  either  one 
of  a  group  or  part  of  a  general 
fortification. 

Fort  Jameson.  Settlement 
in  N.E.  Rhodesia.  On  the  Tan- 
ganyika plateau,  it  is  about  300  m. 
N.  of  Tete  by  road  and  125  m.  W.  of 
Lake  Nyasa.  It  was  until  1910  the 
headquarters  of  the  administration 
of  N.E.  Rhodesia. 

Fort  Johnston.  Settlement  of 
Nyasaland,  Central  Africa.  It 
stands  6  m.  south  of  Lake  Nyasa, 
and  about  the  same  distance  from 
Lake  Malombe  or  Pamalombe. 

Fort  Mruli.  Town  of  Uganda, 
Central  Africa,  the  former  capital 
of  the  district  of  Unyoro.  It  stands 
on  the  Nile,  200  m.  N.N.E.  of 
Entebbe,  at  an  alt.  of  3,500  ft. 

Fortnightly  Review,  THE. 
London  monthly  review  first  pub- 
lished as  a  fortnightly,  May,  1865, 
under  the  editorship  of  George 
Henry  Lewes.  John  Morley  be- 
came editor  in  1867,  and  made  it  a 
monthly.  He  was  succeeded  by 
T.  H.  S.  Escott  (1882-88),  Frank 
Harris  (1888-93),  and  W.  L. 
Courtney.  Its  contributors  have 
included  Tyndall,  Herbert  Spencer, 
Huxley,  Leslie  Stephen,  Walter 
Pater,  F.  Brunetiere,  Tolstoy, 
Edmund  Gosse,  Swinburne,  Fre- 
deric Harrison,  Prof.  Dowden,  J. 
L.  Garvin,  and  H.  G.  Wells. 

Fort  Pearson.  Fort  erected  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Tugela  river, 
Natal,  during  the  Zulu  War  of  1879. 

Fort  Portal.  Chief  centre  of 
the  Toro  district,  Uganda.  It  is 
an  important  missionary  station 
and  native  town  situated  about 
25  m.  N.W.  of  Mt.  Ruwenzori. 
Pop.  25,000,  of  whom  about  50 
are  Europeans. 

Fortress  (Lat.  fortis,  strong). 
Military  position,  sited  and 
equipped  so  as  to  provide  a  point 
of  resistance  in  case  of  attack,  and 
act  as  a  rallying  point  for  troops 
who  may  be  compelled  to  fall  back 
from  more  exposed  positions. 
Fortresses  have  been  a  feature  of 
all  warlike  operations  from  the 


FORTRESS 

earliest  times,  the  simplest  being 
merely  enclosed  by  a  palisade  or 
zareba  such  as  are  still  found 
among  aboriginal  peoples.  The 
baileys  of  the  Saxons  were  usually 
of  this  nature,  generally  situated 
on  a  hill  or  artificially  constructed 
mound  and  enclosing  the  huts  in 
which  the  inhabitants  lived.  Dwel- 
lers in  the  surrounding  country  re- 
paired to  these  strong  points  in 
time  of  war.  The  Romans  usually 
employed  concentric  mounds  and 
ditches  to  protect  their  camps,  and 
in  many  instances  the  Saxon  baileys 
utilised  these  older  defences  as  out- 
posts to  the  palisaded  camp. 

With  the  coming  of  the  Normans 
the  fortress  was  elaborated,  but 
wood  remained  the  chief  material 
employed  in  the  construction  for 
something  like  a  century,  when 
stone  became  the  general  material. 
The  Norman  castle  usually  con- 
sisted of  a  large  walled  space — 
protected  by  a  moat  in  suitable 
localities — which  could  only  be  en- 
tered through  a  strongly  defended 
gate.  Its  general  plan  was  main- 
tained for  many  centuries,  improve- 
ments in  detail  being  made  as 
military  science  progressed,  as  in 
the  provision  of  corner  towers  to 
bring  flanking  fire  to  bear  along 
the  walls,  machicolation  of  the 
latter  and  generally  strengthened 
construction. 

With  the  advent  of  artillery  as 
an  effective  weapon,  the  use  of 
fortresses  of  this  nature  became 
practically  obsolete,  although  they 
played  a  part  in  the  Wars  of 
the  Roses  and  even  in  the  English 
Civil  War.  During  this  period  it 
had  become  the  practice  to  fortify 
important  towns  by  walling  them 
in,  the  walls  being  similarly  con- 
structed to  those  of  the  courts  of 
castles.  To  enable  such  fortresses 
to  withstand  artillery  fire,  the 
walls  were  faced  and  backed  up 
with  mounds  of  earth,  but  the 
progress  in  gun  construction  and 
the  use  of  explosives  in  mining 
and  sapping  rendered  them  only 
capable  of  temporary  resistance. 
The  general  principle  of  con- 
struction, that  is,  a  line  of  ram- 
parts closely  encircling  the  position 
to  be  defended,  persisted  until 
towards  the  close  of  the  18th 
century,  when,  in  addition,  an 
outlying  circle  of  forts  was  con- 
structed in  such  a  way  that  the 
intervening  country  could  be  kept 
under  fire  from  their  guns. 

In  modern  practice  it  is  usual  to 
equip  as  fortresses  the  centres  of 
national,  industrial,  and  military 
resources  if  liable  to  attack,  strate- 
gic centres,  lines  of  communication 
where  they  cross  frontiers,  im- 
portant river  crossings  and  railway 
junctions.  The  girdle  of  forts 

10     4 


il 


«    u 

" 


H  & 


FORTROSE 


3267 


FORTUNE-TELLING 


should   be   sufficiently   distant   to 

Kre vent  the  enemy  from  bom- 
arding  the  defensive  point, 
which  becomes  essentially  a  mili- 
tary camp.  The  forts  themselves 
should  be  constructed  of  reinforced 
concrete  not  less  than  12  ft.  thick, 
and  the  surrounding  ground  con- 
structed as  glacis  so  that  an 
infantry  attack  will  find  no  cover  in 
the  immediate  vicinity.  Search- 
lights form  an  essential  part  of 
the  equipment,  and  only  light 
guns  are  mounted  in  the  forts,  the 
heavier  armament  being  in  masked 
batteries  some  distance  away.  The 
general  arrangement  should  be 
such  that  if  one  fort  in  the  girdle 
is  taken  the  neighbouring  ones 
can  sweep  the  intervening  ground, 
and  prepared  infantry  positions 
should  be  arranged  between  the 
forts.  An  enceinte  nearer  the 
central  position  is  desirable,  but  it 
cannot  be  regarded  as  a  line  of 
resistance,  but  in  the  event  of  a 
break  through  may  delay  the 
enemy  whilst  the  centre  is  evacu 
ated.  See  Castle. 

Fortrose.  Royal,  mun.  and  sea 
port  town  of  Ross  and  Cromarty, 
Scotland.  It  stands  on  the  Moray 
Firth,  9  m.  N.E.  of  Inverness,  on 
a  branch  of  the  Highland  Rly. 
There  is  a  good  harbour,  and  the 
fine  scenery,  bathing  facilities,  and 
golf  links  attract  many  visitors. 
Fortrosewasf  onnerly  the  seat  of  the 
bishops  of  Ross,  but  the  episcopal 
palace  and  cathedral  were  de- 
stroyed by  Cromwell,  who  built  his 
fort  at  Inverness  with  the  stones. 
There  is  ferry  communication  across 
the  firth  with  Fort  George.  Market 
day,  Friday.  Pop.  976. 

Fort  Rosebery.  Settlement  of 
N.  Rhodesia.  It  is  situated  about 
45  m.  W.  of  Lake  Bangweulu.  A 
former  settlement  of  this  name  was 
on  the  Luapula  river,  about  60  m. 
N.W.  of  the  new  township  and 
50  m.  N.  of  the  Johnston  Falls,  in 
the  S.E.  of  the  Belgian  Congo. 

Fort  Royal.  Former  name  of 
the  town  of  Martinique,  French  W. 
Indies,  now  known  as  Fort-de- 
France  (q.v.). 

Fort  St.  David.  Ruined  fort  of 
Madras,  India,  in  the  S.  Arcot 
district.  It  is  on  the  Coromandel 
coast,  less  than  2  m.  E.  of  Cudda- 
lore  New  Town.  At  one  time  the 
site  of  Dutch  and  French  settle- 
ments, the  fort  was  bought  by  the 
English  in  1690,  together  with  the 
land  within  the  radius  of  a  "  ran- 
dome  shott  of  a  great  gun."  The 
gun  was  actually  fired,  the  shot 
indicating  the  extent  of  the 
boundaries.  The  name  is  supposed 
to  have  been  given  to  the  fort  by  a 
Welsh  governor.  The  fort  was 
captured  by  the  French  in  1758, 
who  demolished  the  fortifications, 


but,  after  changing  hands  again 
twice,  it  was  finally  restored  to  the 
English  in  1785. 

Fort  Smith.  City  of  Arkansas, 
U.S.A.,  one  of  the  co.  seats  of 
Sebastian  co.  It  stands  on  a  great 
bend  of  the  Arkansas  river  where 
it  forms  the  W.  frontier  of  the 
state,  and  is  served  by  the  St. 
Louis  and  San  Francisco  and  other 
rlys.  It  contains  a  fine  court  house, 
a  public  school  and  other  educa- 
tional establishments,  and  a  public 
library.  Standing  in  an  agricul- 
tural, coal,  and  natural  gas  region, 
it  is  a  trading  centre  for  coal, 
cotton,  livestock,  and  corn,  and 
manufactures  furniture,  cotton 
goods,  bricks,  refrigerators,  and 
lumber  products.  Settled  in  1838, 
it  was  incorporated  in  1842  and 
became  a  city  in  1 886.  Pop.  29,390. 

Fort  Sumter.  Fort  in  S.  Caro- 
lina. U.S.  A  It  stands  on  an  island 


print  in  a  German  form  in  1509. 
Fortunatus  is  possessor  of  an  inex- 
haustible purse,  a  wishing  cap,  and 
other  marvels  in  different  variants 
of  the  tale.  The  moral  goes  to 
show  the  little  value  to  be  put  upon 
material  treasures.  The  story  was 
dramatised  in  Germany  by  Hans 
Sachs,  1553,  and  in  England  by 
T.  Dekker,  1600.  One  named  For- 
tunatua  succoured  the  Apostle  Paul. 
Fortunes  of  Nigel,  THE.  Fif- 
teenth of  the  Waverley  novels, 
published  in  May,  1822.  In  it  Sir 
Walter  Scott  followed  his  masterly 
portraits  of  Mary  Stuart  and  Eliza- 
beth Tudor  with  an  equally  bril- 
liant character- study  of  James  I, 
and  supplied  vivid  pictures  of  early 
17th  century  London,  from  Alsatia 
to  the  Court.  Nigel  Olifaunt,  Lord 
Glenvarloch,  the  young  Scottish 
nobleman  who  comes  south  to 
petition  the  king  ;  his  devoted  ser- 


Fort  Sumter. 


The  island  fortress  at  the  entrance  to  Charleston  Harbour,  the 
scene  of  fighting  in  the  American  Civil  War 


at  the  entrance  to  Charleston 
harbour,  3  m.  S.E.  of  Charleston. 
It  was  bombarded  by  the  Con- 
federates, April  12,  1861,  and  sur- 
rendered  the  following  day,  the 
action  immediately  leading  to  the 
opening  of  the  Civil  War.  In  April, 
1863,  it  was  violently  bombarded 
by  the  Federal  fleet  and  rendered 
practically  untenable. 

Fortuna.  In  Roman  mythology, 
the  goddess  of  chance  or  good  luck. 
There  were  several  temples  in 
Rome  erected  in  her  honour,  but 
the  most  famous  seats  of  her 
worship  were  Antium  and  Praen- 
este.  She  is  sometimes  called  Fors 
Fortuna.  In  art  she  is  represented 
with  a  rudder  as  symbol  of  her  guid- 
ance of  things,  also  with  a  cornu- 
copia as  a  symbol  of  the  prosperity 
she  brought  to  mankind. 

Fortunate  Isles.  Alternative 
name  for  the  Islands  of  the  Blessed, 
or  the  Elysian  Fields,  of  early  Greek 
mythology.  They  were  supposed 
to  be  at  the  edge  of  the  earth,  and 
were  vaguely  spoken  of  as  beyond 
the  Pillars  of  Hercules,  i.e.  the 
Straits  of  Gibraltar.  It  has  been 
generally  accepted  that  the  Canary 
Isles  are  the  Fortunate  Isles  of  the 
ancients.  Ben  Jonson  produced  a 
masque  entitled  The  Fortunate 
Isles  in  1626.  See  Elysium. 

Fortunatus.  Character  of  a 
folk-tale  found  among  many  differ- 
ent races.  It  first  appeared  in 


vitor,  Richie  Moniplies ;  the  pro- 
fligate Lord  Delgarno ;  the  crabbed 
old  courtier  Sir  Mungo  Malagrow- 
ther  ;  "  Jingling  Geordie  "  Heriot, 
the  wealthy  goldsmith  ;  Margaret 
Ramsay,  the  modest  but  coura- 
geous heroine,  and  the  unhappy 
ship-chandler,  John  Christie,  are 
memorable  characters  in  the  work. 

Fortune-telling.  Revelation 
by  non-rational  processes  of  what  is 
to  befall  a  person  in  the  future.  As 
one  of  the  principal  aims  of  divina- 
tion it  is  traceable  from  its  first 
recorded  manifestations  in  ancient 
Babylonia  into  early  China  and 
India.  Thence  it  was  brought 
across  medieval  Europe  by  the 
gypsies,  who  are  recorded  by  Pepys 
to  have  practised  the  art  at  Lam- 
beth under  society  patronage  in 
1688.  As  a  modern  superstitious 
survival  it  is  associated  with 
palmistry,  astrology,  crystal-gaz- 
ing, lot- casting  by  cards  or  other- 
wise, and  subjective  processes. 

The  alien  origin  of  fortune- 
telling  in  Britain  is  confirmed  by 
the  fact  that  it  is  not  a  common- 
law  offence.  Its  punishment  as  a 
form  of  witchcraft  by  death,  under 
a  statute  of  1563,  was  reduced  by 
the  Witchcraft  Act,  1735?  to  im- 
prisonment for  one  year  and  the 
pillory.  Under  the  Vagrancy  Act, 
1824,  any  person  who  undertakes 
to  tell  fortunes,  or  uses  any  subtle 
craft,  means  or  device,  by  palmistry 


FORTUNY      Y      CARBO 


FORUM      APPI1 


Fort  William,  Scotland.     The  town,  with  Ben  Nevis 
the  background,  viewed  from  Loch  Eil 

Bardie 

or  otherwise,  to  deceive  and  im- 
pose upon  any  person,  is  liable  to 
imprisonment  as  a  rogue  and  vaga- 
bond. This  Act  was  extended  to 
Scotland  in  1870,  and  the  first  con- 
viction there,  in  1877,  was  quashed 
on  the  ground  that  the  plaint  did 
not  set  forth  that  the  pretence  was 
with  intent  to  deceive.  In  the 
United  States  fortune-tellers  are 
usually  classed  by  statute  as  dis- 
orderly persons,  liable  to  arrest  and 
summary  examination.  See  Divi- 
nation; Palmistry. 

Fortuny  y  Carbo,  MARIANO 
Josfc  MARIA  (1838-74).  Spanish 
painter.  Born  at  Reus,  Catalonia, 

June   11,    1838, 

he    studied    at 

Barcelona  Aca- 
demy   and    at 

Rome.    In  1859 

he  accompanied 

General  Prim  in 

h  i  s     Moroccan 

expedition,  and 

painted  a  large 

picture   of   The 

Battle      of 

Tetuan ;  but  most  of  his  life  was 
passed  at  Rome  or  Paris.  Through 
the  firm  of  Goupil  Bros.,  he  ob 
tained  a  large  clientele  for  his 
pictures  of  Spanish  and  Moorish 
genre.  He  died  Nov.  21,  1874. 

Fort  Wayne.  City  of  Indiana, 
U.S.A.,  the  co.  seat  of  Allen  co.  At 
the  confluence  of  the  St.  Joseph 
and  St.  Mary  rivers,  which  here 
merge  into  the  Maumee  river,  it  is 
105  m.  N.E.  of  Indianapolis  and  is 
served  by  the  Lake  Shore  and 
Michigan  Southern  and  other  rlys. 
It  contains  a  fine  court  house,  a 
U.S.A.  government  building,  Con- 
cordia  College,  a  state  school  for 
weak-minded  youths,  5  public 
library,  and  several  hospitals  and 
parks.  An  important  rly.  and 
trading  centre,  it  has  rly.  workshops, 
flour  mills,  foundries,  and  ma- 
chinery, chemical,  piano,  and  soap 
factories.  On  the  site  of  a  fort 
built  in  1794,  Fort  Wayne  received 
a  city  charter  in  1839.  Pop.  75,220. 


Fort  William. 

Town,    police 
burgh,  and  tourist 
resort    of    Inver- 
ness-shire,  S  c  o  t- 
land.   It  stands  on 
the    E.    shore    of 
Lower  Loch  Eil,  at 
the    foot    of    Ben 
Nevis,  65  m.  S.W. 
of  Inverness,  on  a 
branch  of  the  N.B. 
Rly.       The    fort, 
erected  by  General 
Monk  in  1655  and 
rebuilt  by  General 
Mackay    in    1690, 
successfully   with- 
stood  a    siege  by 
the  Jacobites  in  1715  and  1746 ;    it 
was  dismantled  in  1860.    Fort  Wil- 
liam is  a  starting    point  for  the 
ascent  of  Ben  Nevis  (q.v.).     The 
chief  industry  is  distilling.     Pop. 
2,002. 

Fort  William.  Port  and  city  o. 
Ontario,  Canada,  in  Algoma  disk 
It  stands  at  the  head  of  Lake 
Superior,  on  the  left  side  of  the 
Kaministiquia  river,  its  importance 
being  due  to  its  position  between 
E.  and  W.  Canada.  It  is  420  m. 
E.S.E.  of  Winnipeg,  and  is  served 
by  three  transcontinental  lines  of 
rly.— C.P.R.,  G.T.P.R.,  and  C.N.R. 
It  has  a  street  rly.  which  goes  to  Port 
Arthur,  4  m.  away.  Steamers  ply 
from  here  to  the  ports  on  the  Great 
Lakes  and  the  St.  Lawrence,  and 
there  are  immense  elevators  to 
handle  grain  brought  from  the  W. 

" 


Fortuny  y  Carbo, 
Spanish  painter 


Fort  William,  Ontario.     Kaministiquia  river,  looking 
east  from  the  C.P.R.  passenger  docks 

In  addition  to  its  shipping,  for 
which  there  is  28  m.  of  deep-water 
frontage,  the  city  has  flour  mills, 
iron  foundries,  and  other  indus- 
tries. Fort  William  has  electric 
light,  and  water  power  in  abun- 
dance, churches,  schools,  hospitals, 
several  hotels  and  public  parks,  a 
city  hall  and  a  court  house.  It  was 
founded  in  1801  as  a  Hudson  Bay 
trading  port.  Pop.  16,499. 

Fort  Worth.  City  of  Texas, 
U.S.A.,  the  co.  seat  of  Tarrant  co. 
On  Trinity  river,  173  m.  N.E.  of 
Austin,  it  is  served  by  the  Missouri, 
Kansas  and  Texas  and  other  rlys.  It 
contains  a  number  of  educational 
and  other  institutions,  including 
Texas  Women's  College,  formerly 


the  Polytechnic  College,  the  Fort 
Worth  medical  college,  and  Texas 
Christian  university.  There  are 
besides  a  public  and  other  libraries, 
a  large  number  of  churches,  and  a 
fine  system  of  parks. 

The  centre  of  an  agricultural 
and  stock-rearing  district,  the  city 
has  large  packing  establishments 
and  stockyards,  and  manufactures 
clothing,  cotton,  chemicals,  furni- 
ture, and  carriages.  The  city  occu- 
pies the  site  of  a  fort  erected  in 
1849,  and  was  incorporated  in  1873. 
Pop.  109,595. 

Forum.  Among  the  ancient 
Romans,  any  open  space  used  for 
public  business.  More  particularly 
the  term  was  applied  to  the  open 
space  in  Rome,  an  irregular  oblong 
in  shape,  lying  between  the  Palatine 
and  Capitoline  hills,  known  as  the 
Forum  Romanum.  Here  the  as- 
sembly of  the  people  met ;  here 
magistrates  and  others  addressed 
them  from  the  tribunal  or  rostra. 
Adjoining  were  the  Curia  or  senate 
house,  the  Basilica  Julia  and  Basil- 
ica Aemilia,  the  temples  of  Julius 
and  Vesta.  Along  one  side  the  Sacra 
Via  led  to  the  Capitol  (q.v.). 

With  the  growth  of  the  city  other 
fora     were     added ;      the     Forum 
Julium     by    Julius    Caesar,     the 
Forum  Augustum,  and  the  Forum 
Pacis,  where  Vespasian  erected  a 
temple  of  Peace,  containing  spoils 
from  the  temple  of  Jerusalem.  The 
Forum  Trajanum,  erected  by  the 
emperor  Trajan, surpassed  all  others 
in  size  and  splendour,  and  remains 
,    the  greatest  monu- 
;    ment    of    Roman 
j    architecture.     Its 
most   conspicuous 
feature    was     the 
column  of  Trajan, 
erected  by  the  em- 
peror   in    comme- 
moration of  his  vic- 
tories.   See  Rome ; 
consult    also    The 
Roman  Forum,  C. 
Hiilsen,Eng.  trans. 
J.  B.  Carter. 

Forum,  THE.  New  York  quar- 
terly review  of  politics,  finance, 
science,  literature,  and  education. 
Founded  as  a  monthly  in  1886,  to 
afford  publicity  to  rival  opinions, 
it  became  a  quarterly  in  1902. 
Under  the  editorship  (1897-1907) 
of  J.  M.  Rice,  founder  of  the  Ameri- 
can Society  of  Educational  Re- 
search, it  promoted  reforms  in  the 
American  educational  system. 

Forum  Appii  (mod.  Foro  Ap- 
pio).  Ancient  town  of  Latium,  on 
theAppian  Way  (q.v.).  It  stood  amid 
the  Pontine  Marshes,  42  m.  S.E. 
of  Rome,  and  near  a  canal  which 
extended  S.  to  near  Terracina. 
The  apostle  Paul  passed  through 
the  town  on  his  way  to  Rome. 


The  ruined  Forum  as  it  is  at  the  present  day,  looking  north-west  towards  the  Capitol.      Above,  the  same  view 

with  the  buildings  reconstructed  as  they  appeared  in  Imperial  times,  showing  a  religious  procession  passing  the 

temple  of  Castor  and  Pollux.     Beyond  the  temple  on  the  left  is  the  Basilica  Julia 

FORUM:    THE    CENTRE    OF    THE   LIFE    OF    ANCIENT    ROME 


Francesco  Foscari, 
Doge  of  Venice 

title  Bellini 


FOSCARI 

Foscari,  FRANCESCO  (1373- 
1457).  Doge  of  Venice.  After  hold- 
ing various  offices  in  the  republic 
lie  was  elected 
doge  in  1423. 

>•*»  Ambitious      t  o 
•  extendVenetian 
I  power,  he  took 
^  an  active   part 
J  in    the    politics 
||  of  the  mainland, 
entering  aleague 
against  the  Vis- 
conti    of   Milan 
in  1426,  thereby 

After  OenlileSellini      acquiring      Ber- 

gamo,  Brescia,  and  Cremona.  In 
1441  Velaggio,  Peschiera,  and 
Lonato  were  added  to  the  Venetian 
territories.  The  misdeeds  of  hi? 
son,  Giacopo,  brought  about  the 
doge's  deposition,  Oct.  24,  1457, 
and  he  died  Nov.  1,  1457.  Byron's 
tragedy,  The  Two  Foscari,  is 
founded  on  the  lives  of  Francesco 
and  his  son. 

Foscolo,  UQO  (1778-1827).  Ital- 
ian poet,  romancer,  and  patriot. 
Born  at  Zante,  Jan.  26,  1778,  of 
Venetian  and 
Greek  descent, 
and  christened 
Niccolo,  he 
changed  his  first 
name  to  Ugo. 
His  story,  Let- 
tere  di  Jacopo 
Ortis,  1798,  re- 
flects the  melan- 
choly of  the  ro- 
mantic period, 
and  his  best  known  poem,  I  Sepol- 
cri,  1807,  was  inspired  by  the  re- 
verence due  to  the  tomb  and  the 
immortality  of  the  memories  of  the 
great.  Foscolo  served  for  a  time  in 
the  French  army,  but,  disillusioned 
as  to  Napoleon's  intentions,  sought 
refuge  in  England  when  the  Aus- 
trians  took  Milan.  He  died  at 
Turnham  Green,  Oct.  10,  1827. 
Buried  at  Chiswick,  his  remains 
were  removed  to  Florence  in  1871. 

Fossa  OR  FOUSSA  (Cryptoprocta 
ferox).  A  carnivorous  mammal, 
found  only  in  Madagascar,  and 
placed  by  most  zoologists  between 
the  cat  and  the  civet.  It  is  about 
5  ft.  long,  including  the  tail,  which 
is  nearly  as  long  as  the  body.  The 
fur  is  pale  brown  in  colour,  and  the 
claws  retractile  like  those  of  a  cat. 

Fossano.  City  of  Italy,  in  the 
prov.  of  Cuneo.  It  stands  on  a  hill, 
overlooking  the  river  Stura,  40  m.  by 
rly.  S.  of  Turin,  and  possesses  a  14th 
century  castle.  Paper,  silk,  hemp, 
and  leather  are  manufactured.  The 
French  and  Austrians  fought  here 
in  1796  and  1799.  Pop.  18,731. 

Fosse  (Lat.  fossa*  ditch).  Ex- 
cavation outside  the  ramparts  or 
outer  walls  of  a  fort.  Its  purpose 
was  to  hinder  the  advance  of  an 


Ugo  Foscolo, 
Italian  poet 


3270 

enemy,  and  make  it  impossible  for 
him  to  find  ground  upon  which  to 
erect  scaling  ladders.  Frequently 
filled  with  water,  its  effectiveness 
was  also  occasionally  increased  by 
its  being  planted  with  pointed 
stakes  and  palisades.  Bar  bed- wire 
entanglements  may  also  be  placed 
in  it.  See  Castle  ;  Fortification. 

Fosse  Way.  Early  English  name 
for  an  ancient  British  highway 
from  Axminster  to  Lincoln.  Incor- 
porated in  the  Romano-British 
road  system,  no  part  of  its  182  m. 
deviates  more  than  6  m.  from  a 
straight  line  between  these  places. 
It  runs  through  Bath,  Cirencester, 
High  Cross,  and  Leicester.  Men- 
tioned in  an  Anglo-Saxon  charter, 
744,  it  ranked  as  one  of  Edward 
the  Confessor's  four  royal  roads. 
See  Britain. 

Fossils  (Lat.  fossilis,  dug  up). 
Term  applied  to  traces  of  plants  or 
animals  found  in  the  earth's  crust. 

Early  Greek  philosophers  re- 
cognized that  the  sea  had  at  times 
encroached  upon  the  land,  and 
the  discovery  of  marine  shells 
among  the  mountains  seemed  on 
this  ground  natural  enough.  In 
the  16th  and  17th  centuries  a  con- 
troversy arose  as  to  whether  such 
objects  were  due  to  the  entomb- 
ment of  animals  in  muds,  which 
afterwards  consolidated  round 
them  as  firm  rocks,  or  whether  they 
were  mere  imitations  of  organic 
structures  naturally  produced. 

Field  observation,  notably  in 
Italy,  showed  that  marine  beds 
had  been  raised  above  the  sea,  that 
large  areas  had  been  at  one  time 
submerged,  and  that  "  organized 
fossils  "  could  in  consequence  be 
utilised  in  reading  the  past  history 
of  the  earth.  For  a  time  there 
was  a  tendency  to  refer  all  the  re- 
mains of  marine  animals  entombed 
in  rocks  to  the  Noachian  deluge, 
or  to  a  succession  of  such  deluges 
sweeping  round  the  globe;  but  the 
great  variety  of  these  remains, 
and  the  orderly  succession  of  the 
beds  in  which  they  occur,  gradu- 
ally led  to  the  acceptance  of  more 
rational  views. 

According  to  the  influences  to 
which  they  have  been  subject, 
and  to  a  large  extent  according 
to  their  age,  fossil  plants,  shells, 
and  bones  become  altered  in  con- 
stitution, losing  some  of  their 
chemical  constituents  and  perhaps 
gaining  others  by  substitution. 
The  passage  from  wood-fibre  into 
coaly  matter  by  the  giving 
off  of  gases  and  the  retention  of 
a  large  part  of  the  carbon  is  a 
familiar  example.  Fossils  may 
suffer  complete  solution,  but  at 
the  same  time  some  other  sub- 
stance may  be  deposited  from  the 
solvent  which  preserves  the  origi- 


FOSS1LS 

nal  form  and  structure.  Corals  or 
shells  of  molluscs  may  be  replaced 
in  this  way  by  iron  carbonate  or 
by  silica. 

Frequently,  however,  the  fossil 
is  dissolved  away,  leaving  only  a 
mould,  an  external  cast,  in  the  en- 
casing rock.  Shells  or  sea-urchins, 
with  their  central  cavities,  which 
were  originally  occupied  by  the 
organism,  become  filled  with  mud 
or  some  deposited  mineral,  and  are 
represented  after  solution  by  in- 
ternal casts,  on  which  any  per- 
forations or  patternings,  or  the 
impressions  of  muscular  attach- 
ments, can  be  identified  in  reversed 
relief.  The  original  colour  is  rarely 
preserved  in  a  fossil  state,  and 
the  sheen  and  iridescence  of  many 
specimens  is  due  to  the  deposit 
of  some  chemical  substance  as  a 
thin  film,  sometimes  on  the  surface 
of  a  mere  internal  cast. 

The  accumulation  of  calcium 
phosphate  in  and  around  the  fossils 
in  certain  beds  has  led  to  their 
being  utilised  as  chemical  manures. 

It  was  not  until  the  close  of  the 
18th  century  that  it  was  realized 
that  strata  could  be  "  identified 
by  organized  fossils."  This  phrase 
is  due  to  the  English  land  sur- 
veyor, William  Smith,  the  great 
pioneer  of  stratigraphical  geology, 
who  showed  conclusively  that 
successive  deposits  contained  suc- 
cessive types  of  animal  remains. 
Hence,  when  a  sequence  has  been 
established  by  observation,  it  is 
possible  to  determine  from  the 
fossil  contents  the  relative  age  of 
a  deposit.  Fossils  thus  become  the 
great  clue  to  prehistoric  times. 
A  New  Meaning 

At  first  it  was  taken  for  granted 
that  the  various  associations  of 
life-forms  represented  independent 
creations,  one  group  of  plants 
and  animals  being  swept  away 
and  another  substituted.  The 
nobler  view  that  is  provided  by  the 
theories  of  organic  evolution  has 
given  a  new  meaning  to  fossils 
and  a  new  zest  to  palaeontology, 
the  study  concerned  with  their 
description.  Indeed,  the  discovery 
of  numerous  links  between  one 
type  and  another  ;  of  animals  like 
the  early  reptiles,  which  unite 
in  themselves  the  characters  of 
groups  now  far  apart ;  and  of  a 
general  specialisation  of  life-forms, 
sometimes  by  simplification,  to- 
wards those  now  prevalent  on  the 
earth  has  raised  the  study  of  past 
forms  of  life,  as  revealed  in  fossils, 
into  one  of  the  highest  branches  of 
natural  philosophy.  See  Geology ; 
Consult  also  An  Introduction  to 
Palaeontology,  A.  Morley  Davies, 
1920;  Invertebrate  Palaeontology, 
H.  L.  Hawkins,  1920. 

Orenville  A.  J.  Cole 


Skeleton  of   Ichthyosaurus  intermedia,   about  9    ft. 
long,  Lower  Lias,  Somerset.     2.  Fossil  flower  of  For  ana 


shales  were  formed.     3-  Slab  of  Uas  shale,  with  remains  oi 
crinoid,  Pentacnnus  k"'™"^™™"*™ 
fly,  Florissant.    5.  Horsefly,  Florissant. 


, 

tenuis.     This  flower  now  only  grows  in  Asia,  and  its          y,     orissan.      .  ,  .     .  ^ 

appearance  in  the  Florissant  shtles,  Colorado,  suggests       from  Lower  Lias  nearYeovil,fuUo  ammonites.     7.  Leaf 
continuity  of   land   between   the  continents  when  the        of  mulberry,  Morus  symmetnca,  FL 

FOSSIL:     RECORDS   OF    NATURE  BEFORE  THE   APPEARANCE  OF   MAN 
2,  4.  5,  and  7,  American  Jfttieum  Journal.      8  and  6.  Britiih  Muteum 


FOSSOMBRONE 


3272 


FOUCHt 


m 

'?;.*p<*f 

R.  E.  Foster, 
English  cricketer 


Fossombrone.  City  of  Italy, 
in  the  prov.  of  Pesaro  e  Urbino. 
The  ancient  Forum  Sempronii,  it 
stands  on  the  Metauro,  here 
spanned  by  a  handsome  modern 
bridge,  10  m.  E.N.E.  of  Urbino. 
It  has  a  castle  and  a  cathedral 
rebuilt  in  the  18th  century.  There 
are  silk  factories  and  mineral 
springs.  Ruins  of  the  Roman 
city,  destroyed  by  the  Goths  and 
Lombards,  lie  about  2  m.  N.E.  of 
the  town,  which  had  a  bishop  in 
the  6th  century.  Pop.  9,701. 

Foster.  Famous  family  of  Eng- 
lish cricketers.  The  sons  of  the 
Rev.  Henry  Foster,  a  master  at 
Malvern  College 
until  his  retire- 
ment in  1915, 
they  were  there 
educated.  Their 
names  are  as 
follow  :  H.  K. 
Foster,  Capt. 
W.  L.  Foster, 
D.S.O.,  who 
won  this  honour 
in  Somaliland, 
R.  E.  Foster, 
B.  S.  Foster,  G.  N.  Foster,  and  M. 
J.  A.  Foster.  All  played  for  Mal- 
vern and  Worcestershire,  which 
was  sometimes  called  on  this  ac- 
count Fostershire.  H.  K.,  R.  E., 
and  G.  N.  Foster  gained  their  blues 
at  Oxford.  R.  E.  Foster,  who  died 
in  1914,  was  the  finest  batsman  and 
fielder  of  the  brothers.  At  Lord's  in 
1900  he  scored  a  century  in  each 
innings  for  the  gentlemen  against 
the  players,  and  at  Sydney  in 
Dec.,  1903,  he  scored  287  against 
Australia,  a  record  for  a  test  match. 
He  was  a  great  fielder  at  slip. 

Foster,  SIR  GEORGE  EULAS  (b. 
1847).  Canadian  statesman.    Born 
in  New  Brunswick,  Sept.  3,  1847, 
he  was  educat- 
ed at  the  uni- 
versity    there, 
and  afterwards 
at     Edinburgh 
and    Heidel- 
berg.    From 
1872-79  he  was 
professor  of 
classics  at  New 
Sir  George  E.  Foster,  Brunswick.    In 
Canadian  statesman    1882  he  entered 
Russeii  parliament  for 

Kings,  New  Brunswick.  In  1885 
he  was  minister  of  marine  and  fish- 
eries under  Sir  John  Macdonald. 
He  became  minister  of  finance  in 
1888,  and  remained  in  the  cabinet 
until  1896. 

In  1911  he  took  office  as  minister 
of  trade  and  commerce  under  Sir, 
Robert  Borden,  and  acted  as 
premier  during  his  chiefs  absence 
from  Canada  on  imperial  business. 
He  was  made  a  G.C.M.G.  in  1918, 
was  one  of  Canada's  representa- 


tives at  the  Peace  Conference  in 
Paris,  1919,  and  was  head  of  the 
Canadian  delegation  to  the  As- 
sembly of  the  League  of  Nations 
at  Geneva  in  1920. 

Foster,  JOHN  (1770-1843).  Bri 
tish  essayist.  Born  near  Halifax, 
Yorkshire,  Sept.  17,  1770,  the  son 
of  a  yeoman 
weaver,  he 
spent  some  of 
his  early  years 
at  the  loom.  At 
the  age  of  17  he 
joined  the  Bap- 
tists, and,  after 
study  at  Brier- 
ly  Hall  and  the 
BaptistCollege  John  Foster, 

at  Bristol,  he  Britisb  essayist 
was  inducted  into  his  first  charge  at 
Newcastle- on-Tyne,  1792.  After 
filling  pastorates  in  Dublin,  Cork, 
Chichester,  Downend,  and  Frome, 
he  resigned  in  1806  owing  to 
throat  trouble. 

In  1805  appeared  his  Essays,  by 
which  he  is  chiefly  remembered, 
and  in  the  same  year  he  became 
one  of  the  principal  contributors 
to  The  Eclectic  Review.  He  died 
at  Stapleton,  near  Bristol,  Oct.  15, 
1843.  A  friend  of  Robert  Hall, 
and  a  man  of  remarkable  force  of 
mind,  Foster  achieved  success 
neither  as  preacher  nor  lecturer, 
but  as  a  writer  he  was  one  of  the 
masters  of  modern  English  prose. 
His  Essays,  particularly  that  On 
Decision  of  Character,  are  distin- 
guished by  imagination,  depth, 
eloquence,  and  sincerity.  See  Life 
and  Correspondence,  J.  E.  Ryland, 
1852 ;  Historical  and  Biogra- 
phical Essays,  1859. 

Foster,  MYLES  BIRKET  (1825- 
99).  British  artist.  Born  at  N. 
Shields,  Feb.  4,  1825,  of  Quaker 
parentage,  h  e 
studied  under 
Ebenezer  Lan- 
dells,  wood  en- 
graver,  for 
whom  he  drew 
many  illustra- 
tions on  the 
blocks.  Starting 
on  his  own  ac- 
count in  1846, 
h  e  illustrated 
in  black  and  white  many  poetical 
publications,  and  in  1859  turned 
to  water-colour,  painting  especially 
idyllic  landscapes  in  Surrey  and 
other  home  counties.  He  became 
associate  of  the  Royal  Water 
Colour  Society  in  1860  and  mem- 
ber in  1861.  He  died  at  Wey- 
bridge,  March  27,  1899. 

Fosterage.  Term  used  for  the 
nursing  and  bringing-up  of  children 
by  others  than  their  parents.  The 
custom  prevailed  in  ancient  Ireland, 
where  the  ties  of  fosterage  were 


M.  Birket  Foster, 
British  artist 


almost  as  close  as  those  of  blood 
relationship.  Fosterage  was  under- 
taken either  for  payment  or  from 
affection,  and  lasted  until  the  age 
of  13  for  girls  and  17  for  boys. 
Apparently  the  mother  paid  for 
the  fosterage  of  the  boys  and  the 
father  for  that  of  the  girls.  A 
child  was  obliged  to  provide  for  the 
foster-parent  in  old  age.  See 
Family;  Kinship. 

Fotheringhay.  Parish  and 
village  of  Northamptonshire,  Eng- 
land. It  stands  on  the  Nene,  4  m. 
N.E.  of  Oundle.  Few  traces  re- 
main of  its  llth  century  castle, 
famous  as  the  scene  of  the  im- 
prisonment, trial,  and  execution  of 
Mary  Queen  of  Scots  in  1587,  and 
as  the  birthplace  of  Richard  III 
in  1452.  Pop.  200. 

Foucault,  LEON  (1819-68). 
French  physicist.  Born  Sept.  18, 
1819,  and  educated  privately,  he 
became  physicist  to  the  Paris 
Observatory,  where  he  constructed 
various  instruments,  of  which  the 
gyroscope  and  the  polariser  which 
bear  his  name  were  the  most 
notable.  He  determined  the  rela- 
tive velocities  of  light  in  air,  in 
water,  and  in  a  vacuum ;  but  is  best 
remembered  by  "  Foucault's  pen- 
dulum." From  the  roof  of  the 
Pantheon  in  Paris  he  hung  a 
pendulum  200  ft.  long,  free  to 
oscillate  in  any  direction.  The 
pendulum  never  retraced  its  path, 
but  always  deviated  to  the  right, 
showing  that  the  floor  was  moving 
and  the  earth  rotating.  Foucault 
died  at  Paris,  Feb.  11,  1868. 

Foucault  Currents.  Currents 
induced  in  solid  iron  cores  by 
alternating  current  passing  through 
coils  wound  thereon,  and  by  ro- 
tation in  a  magnetic  field.  See 
Electricity ;  Magnetism. 

Fouche,  JOSEPH  (1759-1820). 
French  politician.  Born  near 
Nantes,  May  21,  1759,  he  was 

educated  by  the  (_ 

Oratorians  i  n 
Paris.  Ordained 
priest,he  became 
a  teacher,  and 
rose  to  be  prin- 
cipal of  Nantes 
College  in  1790. 
Throwing  in  his 
lot  with  the  Re- 
volution, he  sat 
in  the  National 
Convention  (1792),  became  a  Ja- 
cobin, and  vehemently  advocated 
the  execution  of  Louis  XVI.  Hav- 
ing renounced  his  orders,  he  was  the 
moving  spirit  in  the  mummeries 
of  the  worship  of  reason  and  the 
spoliation  of  the  churches. 

Instrumental  in  the  fall  of 
Robespierre,  Fouche  occupied 
various  positions  in  the  succeeding 
government,  becoming  minister  of 


Joseph  Fouche, 
French  politician 


FOUGASSE 


3273 


FOUNDATION 


police  in  1799.  Under  Napoleon 
he  retained  this  position,  was 
raised  to  the  senate,  and,  under 
the  empire,  was  also  minister  of 
the  interior.  He  was  made  duke 
of  Otranto  in  1808  and  governor  of 
Illyria  in  1813.  After  Leipzig, 
seeing  that  Napoleon's  power  was 
on  the  wane,  he  prepared  the  way 
for  deserting  to  the  Bourbons, 
under  whom,  after  1815,  he  again 
became  minister  of  police.  He  was, 
however,  exiled  as  a  regicide  in 
1816,  and  died  in  Trieste,  Dec.  25, 
1820  It  was  Fouche  who  said  of 
the  murder  of  the  due  d'Enghien, 
"  It  was  worse  than  a  crime  ;  it 
was  a  blunder." 

Fougasse  (Fr.).  Military  mine 
originally  placed  under  the  glacis 
or  ditch  of  a  fortress.  It  is  some- 
times used  to  defend  a  defile  or 
other  approach  by  throwing  a 
shower  of  stones  upon  the  enemy. 
An  excavation  is  made,  the  axis  of 
which  is  inclined  at  an  angle  of 
about  40°  to  the  horizon ;  it  is 
about  4  ft.  deep,  in  the  form  of  a 
frustum  of  a  cone,  5J  ft.  at  the 
surface.  In  a  recess  at  the  bottom 
is  placed  a  square  box  of  gun- 
powder, inclined  to  the  horizon  at 
40°,  and  on  the  box  a  wooden 
shield  about  6  ins.  thick.  The 
excavation  is  filled  up  with  stones, 
the  excavated  earth  being  placed  in 
a  mound  in  a  line  with  the  powder 
box  to  increase  the  resistance 
upwards,  and  so  ensure  the  effect 
of  the  explosion  upon  the  stones 
at  the  required  angle  ;  the  fuse  is 
led  up  from  the  box  over  the 
mound.  With  a  charge  of  30  Ib.  of 
gunpowder  the  explosion  will  hurl 
three-quarters  of  a  ton  of  stones  a 
distance  of  200  yds.,  spreading 
them  over  a  surface  90  yds.  wide. 

Fougeres.  Town  of  Brittany, 
France.  It  stands  on  the  Nancon; 
in  the  dept.  of  Hie  et  Vilaine,  30  m. 
from  Rennes  and  23  m.  from  S. 
Malo.  The  chief  buildings  are  the 
churches  of  S.  Sulpice  and  S. 
Leonard,  both  of  the  15th  century, 
while  there  are  remains  of  the 
castle  and  other  fortifications  built 
to  protect  the  town  in  the  Middle 
Ages.  The  castle,  standing  on  a 
rock,  was  partially  restored  in  the 
20th  century.  Its  eleven  battle- 
mented  towers  give  an  idea  of  its 
original  size  and  strength.  The 
hotel  de  ville  dates  from  the  15th 
century,  and  there  are  some  old 
houses.  The  town  is  now  a  market 
for  agricultural  produce  and  a 
centre  of  tanning  and  other  indus- 
tries connected  with  the  manufac- 
ture of  boots  and  shoes.  Granite  is 
found  in  the  vicinity.  Fougeres 
was  long  one  of  the  strong  places 
of  Brittany,  and  was  more  than 
once  taken  by  the  English.  Pop. 
23,500. 


Achille  Fould, 
French  statesman 

After  Philippoteaux 


Foula.  One  of  the  Shetland 
Islands,  Scotland.  It  lies  16  m. 
to  the  S.W.  of  the  mainland,  and 
is  frequented  by  numerous  sea- 
fowl.  It  is  a  thriving  fishing  centre. 
Its  length  is  3  m.,  breadth  1£  m., 
and  highest  point  1,370  ft.  Pop?  184. 
Foulard  (Fr.).  Soft,  thin, 
flexible  fabric  made  of  silk  or  silk 
and  cotton,  usually  printed  in 
colours  on  a  light  or  dark  ground. 
The  name  was  formerly  applied  to 
a  gauze  ribbon  material  manu- 
factured in  France. 

Fould,  ACHILLE  (1800-67). 
French  statesman.  Born  in  Paris 
of  a  wealthy  Jewish  family,  Nov. 

17,  1800,   he    -       

succeeded  his 
father  in  the 
direction  of  his 
bank,  and  was 
elected  to  the 
chamber  as 
deputy  for 
Hautes  Pyre- 
nees, 1842. 
Throughout 
Napoleon  Ill's 
career  as  presi- 
dent and  emperor,  his  financial 
abilities  made  him  a  prominent 
administrator.  He  was  finance 
minister  almost  continuously  be- 
tween 1849-52,  minister  of  state 
and  of  the  imperial  household, 
1852-60,  and  minister  of  finance, 
Nov.  14,  1861,  to  Jan.  19,  1867. 
He  extricated  the  national  finances 
from  a  difficult  position  by  his 
reduction  of  the  4£  p.c.  stock 
to  3  p.c.,  by  additional  taxes  and 
stamp  duties,  1862,  and  by  floating 
a  successful  loan,  1863.  He  re- 
signed office  on  Napoleon's  con- 
cessions to  liberal  reform  schemes, 
being  succeeded  by  Rouher,  and 
died  Oct.  5,  1867. 

Foulis,  ROBERT  (1707-76). 
Founder  of  the  Foulis  Press  at 
Glasgow.  Born  at  Glasgow,  April 
20,  1707,  while 
a  barber's  ap- 
prentice he  at- 
tended  the 
university  lec- 
tures of  Francis 
Hutcheson,  on 
whose  advice 
he  started  busi- 

Robert  Foulis,         ness  as  a  printer 
Scottish  publisher 

From  a  medallion  by       and    bookseller 
J.  Tasiie  in   1741.        TWO 

years  later  he  was  appointed 
printer  to  Glasgow  University,  and 
in  1744  took  his  brother  Andrew 
(1712-76)  into  partnership.  After 
the  death  of  the  two  brothers  the 
business  was  continued  by  Robert's 
son,  Andrew  (d.  1829). 

The  Foulis  Press  issued  more 
than  550  vols.,  reprints  of  Greek, 
Latin,  and  British  classics,  remark- 
able for  beauty  of  type,  format, 


and  textual  accuracy.  They  in- 
cluded the  "  immaculate  "  Horace, 
1744  ;  the  fine  Homer,  in  four  folio 
vols.,  1756-58  ;  a  folio  edition  of 
Paradise  Lost,  and  the  poems  of 
Gray  and  Pope.  A  collection  of 
Foulis  books  is  in  the  Mitchell 
Library,  Glasgow.  Pron.  Fowls. 

Foundation  (Lat.  fundare,  to 
lay  the  bottom  of,  found).  Liter- 
ally, the  base  of  a  building,  or  that 
upon  which  a  structure  rests.  His 
freely  used,  however,  for  a  society, 
such  as  a  college  or  school,  hospital 
or  monastery,  which  is  endowed, 
and  so  founded  or  set  up  on  a  per- 
manent basis.  The  money  given 
for  this  purpose  and  the  conditions 
for  which  the  society  exists  are 
the  foundation,  the  work  of  the 
founder. 

Those  on  the  foundation  of  a 
college  at  Oxford  or  Cambridge,  or 
of  a  school  such  as  Winchester  and 
Eton,  are  those  scholars  and  others 
who  receive  money  from  the  college 
funds,  under  the  conditions  laid 
down  by  the  statutes.  Permanent 
charities,  such  as  an  almshouse  or 
a  hospital,  are  also  known  as  foun- 
dations, as  are  cathedrals.  The 
chapters  of  the  English  cathedrals 
are  divided  into  old  foundations 
and  new  foundations.  The  former 
are  those  which  were  unchanged 
at  the  Reformation  ;  the  latter 
those  which  being  then  com- 
posed of  monks,  were  pro- 
vided with  new  chapters.  See 
Cathedral. 

Foundation.  In  building  opera- 
tions solid  rock  of  a  tough  char- 
acter is  an  ideal  foundation.  Gravel 
also  is  excellent,  and  the  same  may 
be  said  of  dry  sand,  provided  there 
be  a  fair  depth  of  the  material.  Wet 
sand,  clay,  and  alluvial  deposits 
give  a  less  trustworthy,  uncertain 
support.  When  soft  ground  has  to 
be  dealt  with,  several  alternatives 
are  open  to  the  engineer.  He  may 
prefer  to  distribute  the  weight  over 
a  large  area  by  means  of  a  wide 
platform  of  concrete  or  ferro-con- 
crete  ;  or  to  make  the  foundations 
comparatively  narrow,  but  deep, 
and  utilise  the  friction  between 
them  and  the  ground.  If  water  be 
present,  it  may  be  necessary  to 
drive  piles  down  close  together  till 
the  surface  friction  offers  a  suffi- 
ciently high  resistance:  or  until 
they  strike  rock  or  other  firm  ma- 
terial. Wooden  piles  will  stand 
loading  up  to  100  tons  per  square 
foot  of  head  area,  and  make  an  ex- 
cellent substitute  for  rock,  when 
they  actually  rest  upon  it  or 
gravel.  The  heads  of  the  piles  are 
connected  by  crossbeams,  which  in 
turn  support  a  platform  of  concrete 
or  wood  which  constitutes  the 
bearing  surface. 

Where    the   foundation    site   is 


FOUNDATION      SACRIFICES 


3274 


FOUNDLING      HOSPITAL 


large  and  covered  by  water,  and  ex- 
cavation will  not  be  deep,  the  area 
is  enclosed  by  an  artificial  water- 
tight wall,  or  cofferdam,  and  dried 
by  pumping,  after  which  work 
proceeds  as  on  dry  land.'  In  soft 
ground  a  cofferdam  is  usually 
formed  by  driving  down  two 
parallel  rings  of  sheet  piling,  a  few 
feet  apart,  and  filling  in  the  space 
between  them  with  water-tight 
clay  puddle.  On  rock,  steel  plates, 
cut  to  fit  the  contour  of  the  sur- 
face, are  used  instead  of  piles,  and 
the  joint  is  made  tight  by  concrete 
and  clay  packed  outside.  A  coffer- 
dam is,  as  a  rule,  removed  when 
the  work  inside  has  been  completed. 
Use  of  Caissons 

Deep  foundations  in  water- 
logged and  water-covered  ground 
are  put  in  by  means  of  cylindrical 
or  box  caissons  (q-v.),  which  are 
sunk  by  excavating  the  ground 
inside  and  remain  in  their  final 
position  as  part  of  the  structure. 

If  a  water-tight  joint  between 
caisson  and  ground  be  obtained, 
the  interior  is  pumped  dry  and 
hand  labour  is  used  to  excavate 
the  space  inside  the  caisson,  the 
sides  of  which  are  raised  as  sinking 
proceeds.  When  a  sufficient  depth 
has  been  reached,  the  caisson  is 
filled  with  masonry  or  concrete  to 
above  high -water  level.  Should 
water  find  its  way  in,  grabs  and 
dredges  do  the  excavating  and 
concrete  is  lowered  through  the 
water  to  displace  it.  Open  caisson 
foundations  have  been  carried  to 
depths  exceeding  150  feet. 

For  deep  bridge  foundations  the 
closed  or  pneumatic  caisson  is  gen- 
erally preferred  to  the  open.  Such 
a  caisson  has  a  horizontal  air-tight 
floor  seven  or  eight  feet  above  the 
cutting  edge  ;  and  the  working 
space  below  the  floor  is  filled  with 
air  at  a  pressure  sufficient  to  ex- 
clude the  water  outside.  Air-locks 
and  shafts  are  provided  for  the  pas- 
sage of  men  and  material. 

Remarkable  Feat  at  St.  Louis 

In  1854  the  younger  Brunei  used 
a  pneumatic  cylinder  for  the 
central  pier  of  the  Saltash  Bridge, 
which  is  founded  on  rock  88  feet 
below  high  water.  •  Twenty  years 
later  Eads  sank  two  piers  of  the  St. 
Louis  Bridge  to  117  and  119  feet 
beneath  the  surface  of  the  Missis- 
sippi on  box  caissons,  building  up 
the  masonry  as  the  caissons  sank. 
This  was  a  remarkable  feat,  since 
the  air  pressure  required  to  keep 
the  water  out  rose  to  nearly  50  Ib. 
per  square  inch,  and  the  working 
conditions  were  extremely  exhaust- 
ing. More  recently,  the  foundations 
of  the  Forth  Bridge  and  of  the  three 
great  suspension  bridges  of  New 
York  were  constructed  in  this  way. 

When     a     pneumatic     caisson 


reaches  its  final  level  the  chamber 
under  the  floor  is  filled  with  con- 
crete, the  men  backing  out  through 
the  shaft  left  in  the  masonry  above, 
and  the  shaft  itself  is  then  closed. 

Cast-iron  cylinders,  sunk  either 
as  open  or  pneumatic  caissons,  are 
commonly  used  to  support  the  piers 
of  railway  bridges.  Charing  Cross 
Bridge  is  an  example  in  point.  The 
cylinders  are  14  feet  in  diameter, 
and  penetrate  the  bed  of  the  river 
20-50  feet.  Some  of  the  steel 
"  skyscrapers  "  in  New  York  are 
built  upon  cylinders  sunk  to  rock. 
The  Singer  building  rests  on  34 
caissons  carried  down  200  feet.  In 
such  cases  the  piers  may  be  re- 
garded as  gigantic  piles.  See  Build- 
ing ;  Caisson  ;  Shaft-sinking  ;  con- 
sult also  Practical  Treatise  on 
Foundations,  W.  M.  Patton,  1900. 

Foundation  Sacrifices.  Ritual 
immolation  at  the  foundation  of  a 
building  or  settlement.  Human 
skeletons  are  found  beneath  corner 
stones  in  early  Palestine,  as  at 
Gezer  and  Megiddo.  When  Man- 
dalay  was  built,  1860,  52  human 
victims  were  buried  alive.  Legends 
of  living  burial  are  recorded  of  S. 
Columba's  Cathedral,  lona;  S. 
Patrick's  monastery,  Clonmac- 
noise.  Animal  bones  were  un- 
earthed beneath  old  S.  Paul's  and 
Blackfriars  Bridge,  London.  The 
Scandinavian  kirk-grim  was  the 
spirit  of  the  foundation  victim.  Ani- 
mal  slaughter  as  a  foundation  rite 
survives  from  W.  Africa  through 
Coptic  Egypt  and  Moslem  Syria  to 
Borneo.  The  interment  of  statues  in 
ancient  Rome  and  effigies  in  medie- 
val Europe  points  to  an  anterior 
custom  of  actual  blood-shedding. 

Founder.  Disease  affecting 
horses,  cattle,  sheep,  and  pigs. 
Known  in  veterinary  science  as 
laminitis,  it  is  a  painful  inflamma- 
tion of  the  laminae,  or  tissues  con- 
necting the  hoof  with  the  bones  of 
the  foot.  It  is  caused  by  bad 
management  and  careless  feeding, 
horses  that  have  much  corn  and 
little  exercise  being  very  apt  to  de- 
velop it  suddenly.  Certain  foods, 
such  as  Indian  corn,  beans,  peas, 
and  barley,  undoubtedly  predis- 
pose to  this  form  of  fever.  Treat- 
ment consists  in  strong  purgative 
medicines  and  blood-letting,  and 
frequent  warm  bran  poultices.  The 
animal  may  be  slung,  in  order  to 
take  its  weight  off  its  feet,  and  if 
the  pain  is  very  severe  cocaine  may 
be  administered. 

Founders'  Company,  THE. 
London  city  livery  company. 
It  was  sometimes  called  Copper- 
smiths. Established  as  a  fraternity 
in  the  14th  century,  and  incorpor- 
ated in  1614,  it  had  power  of  search 
over  all  brass  weights  and  brass  and 
copper  wares  in  the  city.  The  hall 


in  Lothbury, 
E.G.,  built  1531, 
burnt  1666,  and 
for  a  time  let  as 
a  chapel,  is  now 
occupied  by  the 
G.P.O.  The  pres- 
ent hall,  13,  St. 
Swithin's  Lane, 
E.G.,  dates  from 
1877.  See  Annals  of  the  Com- 
pany of  Founders,  W.  M.  Williams, 
1867. 

Founder's  Share.  Class  of 
share  granted  to  the  originators 
of  a  joint  stock  company,  or  to 
others  who  have  rendered  services 
to  it.  They  are  usually  few  in 
number,  and  for  very  small 
amounts,  Is.  perhaps  ;  but  some- 
times they  become  very  valuable 
because  they  participate  in  the 
profits  after  a  certain  fixed  amount 
has  been  reached.  The  fact  that 
their  total  amount  is  small  enables 
a  successful  business  to  pay  an 
enormous  percentage  on  such 
shares.  This  class  of  share  is  rarely 
issued  now,  and  in  some  cases 
those  issued  earlier  have  been 
bought  out  and  cancelled.  See 
Company  Law. 

Foundling  Hospital.  Institu- 
tion originally  founded  to  prevent 
the  murder  or  exposure  of  newly 
born  children.  Such  institutions 
appear  to  have  been  coincident 
with  the  development  of  civilized 
society,  and  they  undertake  the 
education  and  training  of  children 
until  the  latter  reach  maturity. 
The  first  step  towards  avoiding  the 
crime  of  child  murder  was  the  ex- 
posure or  abandonment  of  an  in- 
fant in  a  public  place  in  the  hope 
that  it  would  be  cared  for  by  some- 
one other  than  the  parents.  The 
earliest  recorded  case  of  exposure 
seems  to  be  that  of  Moses  (Exodus 
2).  Foundlings  thus  exposed  were 
assigned  as  property  to  those  who 
took  them  under  their  protection, 
and  provision  was  made  in  ancient 
Greece  and  Rome  for  the  upbring- 
ing of  unadopted  infants  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  State,  an  example  fol- 
lowed by  the  French  in  1790. 

At  Treves  Cathedral,  in  the  6th 
century,  foundlings  were  received 
and  arrangements  made  for  their 
care  under  the  supervision  of  the 
archbishop.  The  first  foundling 
hospital  of  which  there  is  authentic 
record  was  that  at  Milan  towards 
the  end  of  the  8th  century.  The 
Order  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  founded 
at  Montpellier  in  the  12th  century, 
made  the  care  of  foundlings  «a 
special  duty.  The  Spedale  degli  In- 
nocenti,  or  Foundling  Hospital,-at 
Florence,  dates  from  1419-51. 
The  Ospedale  di  S.  Spirito,in  Rome, 
founded  by  Innocent  III.  included 
a  foundling  institution.  In  1536 


3275 


FOUNTAINS    ABBEY 


Foundling  Hospital,  London.     Children  singing  carols 
in  the  chapel  at  Christmas 


Marguerite  of  Valois  instituted  a 
foundling  hospital  which  was  incor- 
porated with  the  great  Foundling 
Hospital  in  Paris,  started  in  1670. 
Foundling  hospitals  now  exist  in 
all  the  great  capitals  of  the  world, 
though  the  word  foundling  does  not 
correctly  describe  them  all. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  of 
these  institutions  is  that  in  London. 
Its  founder,  Thomas  Coram  (c. 
1668-1751),  a  captain  in  the  mer- 
chant service,  and  a  man  of  com- 
paratively humble  means,  advo- 
cated his  project  for  nearly  20  years 
before,  in  1739,  it  was  realized. 
A  house  was  taken  in  Hatton  Gar- 
den, and  opened  March  25,  1741, 
for  the  admission  of  20  infants. 
The  existing  building  in  Guilford 
Street,  Bloomsbury,  dates  from 
1754,  when  it  had  600  inmates, 
supported  at  an  expenditure  of 
five  times  the  income.  Parliament 
voted  a  grant  of  £10,000,  but  stipu- 
lated for  indiscriminate  admission, 
which  had  to  be  abandoned.  Since 
1760  admission  has  been  limited  to 
illegitimate  children  who  have  been 
deserted  by  the  father,  but  whose 
mothers  can  prove  previous  good 
character.'  In  1920  there  were 
about  700  inmates.  Hogarth,  one 
of  the  earliest  governors,  began  an 
art  exhibition  in  its  rooms  which 


tal  has  had  a  high 
musical  reputa- 
tion. Its  removal 
to  the  country  and 
rebuilding  was  an- 
nounced in  Nov 
1924. 

The  boarding 
out  of  infants  in 
suitable  homes 
before  they  become 
regular  inmates  of 
foundling  hospitals 
has  proved  bene- 
ficial. The  mortal- 
ity in  these  insti- 
tutions has,  how- 
ever, taxed  the 
best  energies  of 
philanthropy  and 
medicine,  but  in 
London  and  Paris 
in  recent  years 
much  improve- 
ment has  been 
effected.  See  Baby 
Farming ;  Child 
Welfare;  Infanti- 
cide; Orphanage; 
consult  also  His- 
toire  des  Enfants 
abandonnes,  Sen- 
nichon,  1880. 

Foundry   (Lat. 
fundere,  to  pour), 
id- 


Word  used  for  (1)  the  art  of  foun( 
ing  or  casting  in  metals,  and  (2)  an 
establishment  wherein  metal  is  cast. 
See  Casting  ;  Iron ;  Steel. 

Fount.  In  printing,  a  term  for 
a  supply  of  type  of  one  size  and 
face,  with  a  distinctive  nick.  The 
quantity  is  ordered  according  to 
the  number  of  compositors  em- 
ployed and  the  class  of  work  for 
which  it  is  required.  For  news- 
papers, an  extra  quantity  of  capi- 
tals and  figures  is  necessary.  With 
this  proviso,  a  fount  will  contain 
a  standard  number  of  all  the 
letters  of  the  alphabet,  graded  in 
bulk  according  to  the  occurrence  of 
the  letters  in  the  language  in 
which  the  type  is  cast.  In  the 
U.S.A.  the  word  is  spelt  font.  See 
Printing  ;  Typefounding. 

Fountain  (late  Lat.  fontana). 
Term  applied  to  any  construction 
for  the  supply  of  water,  from  a  sim- 
ple spring  to  an  elaborate  artificial 
basin  with  ornamental  jets.  The 
need  of  fountains  was  experienced 
in  Oriental  countries  at  a  very  early 
date.  Traces  of  their  employment 
have  been  found  among  the  relics 
of  the  Chaldaean  civilization ;  Pau- 
sanias  mentions  Hellenistic  exam- 
ples ;  and  in  ancient  Rome  they 
were  fully  developed  as  a  means  of 
distributing  the  water  brought  to 


led  to  the  foundation  of  the  annual  .the  city  by  the  aqueducts.    Pliny 

exhibitions  of  the  Royal  Academy,  the  Elder  notes  the  construction  or 

Handel  was  another  tireless  bene-  repairing  of  more  than  1,200  foun- 

factor,  and  since  his  day  the  hospi-  tains  in  Rome  alone. 


The  treatment  of  fountains  was 
at  first  purely  utilitarian.  During 
the  Renaissance,  however,  the 
ornate  fountain  was  rapidly  devel 
oped.  The  fountains  of  Berne,  each 
dignified  with  a  name  of  its  own — 
The  Bear,  The  Ogre,  Justice— and 
the  Fountain  of  the  Innocents  in 
Paris  (dated  1550)  are  imposing 
architectural  structures.  The  com 
mon  type  of  Renaissance  fountain 
was  a  shallow  basin,  with  a  pillar 
of  marble  often  surmounted  by  a 
statue  of  stone  or  bronze  in  the 
centre,  from  which  projected  jets 
that  supplied  the  running  water. 
The  more  primitive  type  was  re 
presented  by  the  drinking  fountains 
at  street  corners.  In  France,  the 
zenith  of  fountain-construction  was 
reached  under  Louis  XIV;  one 
may  cite  the  elaborate  fountains  at 
Versailles,  with  their  thousands  of 
jets.  When  the  practice  of  install- 
ing a  water  supply  in  individual 
houses  was  introduced  towards  the 
end  of  the  18th  century,  utilitarian 
fountains  became  rare.  But  bodies 
like  the  Metropolitan  Drinking 
Fountain  Association,  formed  in 
London  in  1859,  proved  that  the  de- 
mand for  this  type  still  exists.  Nota- 
ble ornamental  fountains  of  modern 
times  are  the  Fontana  di  Trevi  at 
Rome,  and  the  fountains  in  the 
Place  delaConcorde,  Paris.  Seettlus. 
Fountain  Pen.  Pen  in  which 
ink  from  a  reservoir  in  the  holder 
is  fed  automatically  to  the  nib. 
One  or  more  feeders,  fitted  above 
or  below  the  nib,  regulate  the 
supply  of  ink,  which  flows  by  capil- 
larity. The  nibs  are  made  of  gold 
to  prevent  corrosion,  and  have  iri- 
dium-osmium  points. 

Self -filling  fountain  pens  are  sup- 
plied with  ink  other  than  by  pour- 
ing. One  type  has  in  the  holder 
a  long  flexible  reservoir  from  which 
the  air  is  expelled,  before  filling,  by 
a  plate,  actuated  by  a  small  outside 
lever  pressing  the  reservoir  tightly 
against  the  inner  wall  of  the  holder. 
When  the  air  has  been  expelled, 
the  nib  is  immersed  in  ink  ;  the 
lever  is  turned  back  into  its  original 
position  flush  with  the  holder  and 
the  ink  rises  into  the  reservoir. 
Another  type  is  fitted  with  a  small 
plunger,  the  pumping  action  of 
which  charges  the  reservoir.  In  a 
third  type,  the  filling  is  effected  by 
the  pumping  action  of  a  rubber 
dome  fitted  to  a  bottle  containing 
ink,  the  nib-end  of  the  pen  being 
inserted  in  a  neck  on  the  dome. 

Fountains  Abbey.  Ruined 
abbey  in  Yorkshire,  England.  It 
stands  near  the  little  river  Skell, 
3  m.  S.W.  of  Ripon  ;  it  is  in  the 
grounds  of  the  mansion  of  Stud- 
ley  Royal,  while  near  it  is  a  man- 
sion dating  from  Stuart  times, 
Fountains  Hall.  The  ruins  are 


FOUQUE 


3276 


FOURIER 


Baron  de  la  Motte 

Fouque,  German 

author 


extensive,  including  those  of  the 
church  with  its  tower,  the  former 
being  380  ft.  long,  the  chapter 
house,  the  magnificent  cloisters, 
and  other  parts.  They  are  perhaps 
the  most  complete  in  England  and, 
with  the  possible  exception  of  Tin- 
tern,  the  most  beautifully  situated. 
The  abbey,  a  Cistercian  house,  was 
a  long  time  in  building.  Begun 
about  1140,  it  was  only  completed 
200  years  later.  The.  monks  came 
from  S.  Mary's  Abbey,  York.  The 
house  was  dissolved  by  Henry 
VIII  and  the  ruins  and  lands  were 
sold.  See  Abbey ;  Cloister,  illus. 

Fouque,  FKIEDRICH  HEINRICH 
KARL,  BARON  DE  LA  MOTTE  (1777- 
1843).  German  author.  Born  at 
Brandenburg, 
-**^>-  ;  •  Feb.  12,  1777, 
of  Huguenot 
origin,  he  took 
part  as  a 
cavalry  officer 
in  the  Prus- 
s  i  a  n  c  a  m- 
paigns  of  1794 
and  1813,  but 
literature  oc- 
cupied most  of 
his  time.  For 
a  while  he  was  the  most  popular  of 
German  story-tellers,  but  his  de- 
pendence upon  the  supernatural 
militated  against  a  permanent 
popularity.  He  is  chiefly  remem- 
bered for  his  tale  of  Undine,  1811. 
while  Aslauga's  Knight,  and  Sin- 
tram  and  his  Companions,  which 
have  been  translated  into  English, 
still  find  readers.  He  died  in  Ber- 
lin, Jan.  28,  1843. 

Fouquet  OR  FOUCQUET,  NICO- 
LAS, Marquis  de  Belle  Isle,  Vi- 
comte  de  Melun  et  de  Vaux  (1615- 
80).  French 
statesman. 
Born  of  a  noble 
family,  he  held 
various  posts 
in  the  parlia- 
ment of  Paris 
while  still  a 
youth,  becom- 
ing procura- 
tor-general in  Nicolas  Fouquet, 
1650.  In  1653  French  statesman 
Mazarin  made  him  superintendent 
of  finances,  and  Fouquet  used  his 
position  to  make  himself  one  of 
the  wealthiest  men  in  France.  He 
worked  to  succeed  Mazarin,  1661, 
as  the  king's  chief  minister,  but 
Louis  XIV,  on  Colbert's  advice, 
passed  him  over. 

Fouquet  built  himself  a  luxuri- 
ous palace  at  Vaux,  entertaining 
lavishly  and  patronising  the  arts 
and  letters.  But  Louis,  exas- 
perated by  his  long  t  mismanage- 
ment of  the  finances  and  his  over- 
weening ambition,  had  him  ar- 
rested at  Nantes,  Sept.,  1661.  His 


trial,  1661-64,  ended  in  his  im- 
prisonment for  life  at  Pignerol, 
Piedmont,  where  he  died,  March 
23,  1680.  The  theory  that  Fou- 
quet was  the  Man  in  the  Iron  Mask 
(q.v. )  has  been  proved  untenable. 

Fouquier-Tinville,  ANTOINE 
QUENTIN  (1747-95).  French  Revo- 
lutionist. Born  at  Herouel,  Aisne, 
and  trained  for 
the  law,  h  e 
came  to  Paris 
and  entered 
the  secret 

rlice  in  1783. 
violent 
|  democrat,  h  e 
joined  the  ex- 
tremist party 

A.  Q.  Fouquier-        m    tne    Revo- 

Tinville,  French  lution,  and  was 
Revolutionist  appointed  by 
From  a  sketch  Robespierre 

public  prosecutor  of  the  Revolu- 
tionary Tribunal,  1793.  Utterly 
inhuman,  he  sent  men  and  women 
of  all  ages  and  parties  to  the  guillo- 
tine, Bailly,  Danton,  Robespierre, 
and  St.  Just  amongst  them,  but 
in  the  reaction  from  the  Reign  of 
Terror  he  himself  was  convicted 
and  guillotined  on  May  7,  1795. 

Four beries  de  Scapin,  LES 
(The  Tricks  of  Scapin).  Three-act 
comedy  by  Moliere.  Derived  partly 
from  classical  and  partly  from 
Italian  sources,  its  scene  is  laid  in 
Naples.  Scapin,  a  servant,  a  char- 
acter acted  by  the  author,  plays  a 
series  of  tricks  on  two  fathers,  so 
that  their  sons  may  marry  the  two 
girls  with  whom  they  have  fallen 
in  love.  The  girls  prove  to  be  the 
brides  whom  the  duped  fathers  had 
originally  had  in  view. 

The  play,  which  has  been  de- 
scribed by  Brander  Matthews  as  a 
Punch-and-Judy  piece  for  grown- 
ups, was  first  produced  at  the 
Palais-Royal,  Paris,  May  24,  1671. 
Otway  wrote  an  English  version, 
The  Cheats  of  Scapin,  1677. 

Fourcroy,  ANTOINE  FRANCOIS 
(1755-1809).  French  chemist.  Born 
in  Paris,  June  15,  1755,  he  was 
appointed  in  1784  to  the  chair  of 
chemistry  at  the  Jardin  du  Roi. 
At  the  Revolution  he  became  a 
member  of  the  committee  of  public 
safety,  and  to  his  indifference  is  at- 
tributed the  execution  of  Lavoisier. 
Among  his  discoveries  are  adipo- 
cere,  cholesterin,  the  double  salts 
of  magnesium  and  ammonium,  and 
pure  baryta.  He  died  Dec.  16, 1809. 

Four  Hundred,  TYRANNY  OF 
THE.  Oligarchy  of  nobles  estab- 
lished in  Athens  for  four  months 
in  411  B.C.  The  prime  author  of  the 
change  of  government  was  the 
exiled  Alcibiades  (q.v. ),who  knew  he 
could  not  return  to  Athens  so  long 
as  a  democratic  government  was  in 
power  ;  the  chief  conspirator  was 


F.  C.  Fourier, 
French  Socialist 


Pisander.  A  reign  of  terror  en- 
sued and  the  Four  Hundred  made 
peace  overtures  to  Sparta.  The 
main  Athenian  army  at  Samos  was 
furious,  and  the  people  at  home, 
disgusted  with  the  oppressive 
measures  and  pro-Spartan  sympa- 
thies of  the  Four  Hundred,  took 
matters  into  their  own  hands,  and 
with  a  surprisingly  small  amount 
of  bloodshed  restored  the  demo- 
cracy. See  Greece  :  History. 

Fourier,  FRANQOIS  CHARLES 
MARIE  (1772-1837).  French  So- 
cialist. Born  at  Besancon,  April  7, 
1772,  the  son 
of  a  well-to-do 
tradesman, 
having  lost  his 
inheritance  in 
business,  h  e 
served  two 
years  in  the 
Revolutionary 
army,  and 
then  became 
a  commercial 
traveller.  He  set  himself  to  evolve  a 
new  social  system  in  a  series  of 
works,  the  chief  of  which  are 
Theory  of  the  Four  Movements, 
1808,  and  The  New  Industrial 
World,  1829. 

Fourier's  ideas  attracted  little 
attention  during  his  lifetime,  but 
were  much  discussed  in  the  U.S.A. 
from  1840-50.  Several  communi- 
ties, notably  those  of  Brook  Farm 
(g.v.)  and  Red  Bank,  were  estab- 
lished to  put  them  into  practice, 
but  met  with  little  success. 

Fourier's  theory  was  that,  man 
being  essentially  a  gregarious 
animal,  the  population  should  be 
redistributed  in  a  number  of  new 
social  units,  to  which  he  gave  the 
name  of  phalanges.  Each  phalange 
was  to  consist  of  1,500  to  1,800 
people,  housed  in  a  common  build- 
ing or  phalanstere,  with  a  square 
league  of  land  attached,  was  to  be 
industrially  complete  in  itself  and 
self-governing.  Each  worker  was 
to  receive  a  minimum  wage,  and 
the  surplus  was  to  be  distributed 
thus :  five-twelfths  to  labour, 
three-twelfths  to  talent,  four- 
twelfths  to  capital.  Fourier  died 
at  Paris,  Oct.  8,  1837. 

Fourier,  JEAN  BAPTISTE  JOSEPH 
(1768-1830).  French  mathemati- 
cian and  physicist.  Born  at  Aux- 
erre,  March  21, 
1768,  he  took 
an  active  part 
in  the  Revolu- 
tion in  that  dis- 
trict. Later  he 
accompanied 
Napoleon  o  n 
his  Egyptian 
expedition, 
J.  Baptiste  Fourier,  i |wfl<,  made 

French  mathe- 
matician governor       o  f 


i.  Neptune  fountain  at  Bologna,  by  Giovanni  da  Bologna, 
1563-67.  2.  Buffet  cascade,  Grand  Trianon  Gardens, 
Versailles,  by  Hardouin-Mansart,  c.  1688.  From  an  old 
painting.  3.  Fountain  of  Falling  Waters,  Mexico  City, 
1755.  4.  Fountain  in  Piazza  Navona,  Rome,  by  Bernini, 


c.  1650.  5.  Grande  Cascade,  St.  Cloud,  c.  1690.  6.  Medina 
fountain,  Naples,  1 7th  cent.  7.  Marble  fountain  in  the  gar- 
dens of  the  Paseo  Colon,  Buenos  Aires.  8.  Hercules  foun- 
tain, Villa  Reale  di  Castello,  Florence,  by  N.  Tribolo  (1485- 
1550).  9.  Basin  of  Apollo,  Versailles,  by  Lebrun,  c.  1680 


FOUNTAIN  :    ARTISTIC  EXAMPLES   FROM  GREAT  CITIES  OF   EUROPE   AND   AMERICA 


FOURIER     SERIES 


3278 


FOWKE 


Lower  Egypt.  On  his  return  to 
France  he  carried  out  experiments 
on  the  propagation  of  heat.  His 
The"orie  analytique  de  la  Chaleur, 
1822,  was  based  on  Newton's  Law 
of  Cooling,  and  contains  an  account 
of  the  mathematical  series  by  which 
he  is  chiefly  remembered.  He  died 
at  Paris,  May  16,  1830. 

Fourier  Series.  A  trigono- 
metrical series,  involving  sines  and 
cosines  of  simple  multiples  of  a 
variable  which  is  restricted  in  pos- 
sible value  between  definite  limits. 
Such  a  series,  named  after  J.  B.  J. 
Fourier,  is  of  value  in  the  solution 
of  many  problems  in  physics. 

Four-in-Hand  Club.  English 
club  founded  in  1856  to  preserve 
the  sport  of  driving  four-horsed 
coaches.  It  succeeded  the  Bensing- 
ton  Driving  Club  (1807-52),  and  is 
as  exclusive.  The  Coaching  Club, 
founded  in  1870,  received  as  mem- 
bers gentlemen  for  whom  no 
vacancy  offered  in  the  older  club. 
The  annual  meet  of  the  Four-in- 
Hand  Club  at  the  Magazine  in  Hyde 
Park  is  one  of  the  social  events  of 
the  London  season.  See  Driving ; 
also  Coaching,  illus. 

Four  Lakes.  Name  given  to  a 
series  of  four  lakes  in  Wisconsin, 
U.S.A.  They  are  the  Mendota, 
Monona,  Waubesa,  and  Kegonsa, 
and  are  situated  in  the  S.  part  of 
the  state.  Occupying  an  area  of 
225  sq.  m.,  they  are  drained  to  the 
Rock  river,  by  the  Yahara  river, 
and  are  navigable  by  steamers. 
Madison,  the  state  capital,  stands 
between  Monona  and  Mendota. 

Fourmies.  Town  of  France. 
In  the  dept.  of  Nord,  it  is  38J  m. 
S.E.  of  Valenciennes.  An  industrial 
town,  it  had  before  the  Great  War 
manufactures  of  woollen,  cloth, 
glass,  and  iron  goods.  The  glass 
works  date  from  about  1600.  The 
town  is  a  rly.  junction,  and  during 
the  Great  War  it  was  in  the  occupa- 
tion of  the  Germans.  Pop.  13,800. 
Four  net,  D' AETIQE  DU  (b.  1856). 
French  sailor.  He  saw  service  in 
the  East,  taking  part  in  the  Tong- 
k  i  n  g  War, 
1883,  and  the 
Chinese  cam- 
paign, 1885, 
when  he  was 
awarded  the 
cross  of  the 
Legion  of 
Honour.  In 
1893  he  com- 
manded the 
Comete  in  the 
Siam  War,  forcing  the  passage  of 
the  Menam  and  reaching  Bangkok. 
Becoming  rear-admiral  in  1900,  he 
commanded  the  French  squadron  in 
the  international  naval  demonstra- 
tion during  the  Balkan  War. 

At   the   outbreak   of  the  Great 


BBH 

D'  Artige  du  Fournet, 
French  sailor 


War,  as  vice-admiral  he  com- 
manded the  Flotte  du  Levant  off 
Syria,  and  later  the  Dardanelles 
fleet.  In  Oct.,  1915,  he  was 
appointed  commander-in-chief  of 
the  French  navy  with  supreme 
command  over  the  Allied  fleets 
in  the  Mediterranean,  obtaining 
the  surrender  of  the  Greek  navy  in 
Oct.,  1916.  He  retired  in  Dec.,  1916. 

Fourth.  Musical  interval  which 
includes  four  consecutive  scale 
names,  as  C,  D,  E,  F.  The  interval 
between  C  and  F  n 

is  called  a  fourth,  CZJZI :I==n 

and  as  F  is   the  r/(T\ 

fourth   degree    of  CW — ^i— 

the  scale  of  C  this 

is  called  a  perfect  fourth,  and  by 

some  a  major  fourth.    See  Interval. 

Fourth  Dimension.  Term 
used  for  hyper  space  next  to  the 
three-dimensional  space  in  which 
we  live.  A  line  has  only  one  dimen- 
sion, length  ;  a  surface  two,  length 
and  breadth  ;  a  solid  three,  length, 
breadth,  and  thickness.  A  fourth 
dimensional  body  would  have  the 
last  three  and  one  other  which  may 
be  argued  about  from  a  mathemati- 
cal point  of  view  and  provides  a 
plausible  answer  to  many  of  the 
problems  of  physics,  as  for  ex- 
ample the  explanation  of  gravity 
and  the  fact  that  there  are  only  a 
finite  number  of  kinds  of  matter. 

The  idea  of  a  fourth  dimensional 
space   springs   logically   from   the 
algebraic  expression  of  geometrical 
forms.     If    a   quadratic    equation 
can  be  made  to   , 
express  any  geo- 
metrical     figure 
on  a  plane  sur- 
face,  a  cubic    ; 
equation,      the 
geometric     rela- 
tions of  a  solid, 
then  an  equation 
of  higher  powers 
might     be    held 
to  represent  the 
relations     of 
points,     lines, 
surfaces,   and 
solids,  or  super-- 
solids   in    space 
of   more  than 
three  dimensions. 

The  Italian  geometer  Veronese 
wrote  a  work  on  geometry  of  n 
dimensions,  and  the  theorem  was 
considered  by  mathematicians  such 
as  Cayley,  Riemann,  and  Clifford  in 
the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury. See  Mathematics;  consult 
also  Scientific  Romances,  1884-88 ; 
The  Fourth  Dimension,  1904,  both 
by  C.  H.  Hinton. 

Fourth  Estate.  Term  some- 
times applied  to  the  press  to  em- 
phasise its  importance  in  the  state, 
the  three  estates  of  the  realm 
according  to  the  constitution  being 


the  lords  spiritual,  lords  temporal, 
and  commons.  The  term  was  first 
used  by  Edmund  Burke.  See 
Estates ;  Journalism. 

Fourth  Party.  Name  given 
about  1880  to  a  small  independent 
and  irresponsible  body  of  Conserva- 
tive politicians.  They  were  Lord 
Randolph  Churchill,  Sir  H.  Drum- 
mond  Wolff,  Sir  John  E.  Gorst, 
and  at  times  A.  J.  Balfour. 
Throughout  the  Parliament  of 
1880-85  they  frequently  opposed 
and  annoyed  their  leader,  Sir  Staf- 
ford Northcote. 

Foveaux.  Strait  or  channel 
separating  Stewart  Island  from 
South  Island,  New  Zealand.  It  is 
about  25  m.  across. 

Foweira.  Village  of  Uganda.  It 
stands  on  the  Victoria  Nile,  62  m. 
below  Lake  Kioga  and  160  m.  from 
Namasagli.  The  Nile  is  navigable 
from  Lake  Kioga  to  Foweira,  but 
here  occur  some  50  m.  of  rapids. 

Fowey.  Seaport,  market  town, 
and  watering-place  of  Cornwall, 
England.  It  stands  on  the  W.  shore 
of  the  Fowey  estuary,  10  m.  S.  by 
E.  of  Bodmin,  on  the  G.  W.R.  It  has 
a  fine  harbour,  formerly  protected 
by  three  forts  now  in  ruins,  is  a 
favourite  yachting  station,  and  is 
largely  occupied  in  the  pilchard- 
fishing  industry.  An  important 
port  in  the  Middle  Ages,  it  sup- 
plied nearly  50  vessels  for  the 
blockade  of  Calais  in  1346.  There 
is  a  trade  in  china  clay.  Market 
day,  Sat.  Pop.  2,276.  Pron.  Foy. 


Fowey. 


The  town  and  river  estuary  looking   towards 
the  sea 

Fowke,  SIB  GEORGE  HENRY  (b. 
1864).  British  soldier.  Born  Sept 
10, 1864,  he  en- 
tered the  Royal 
Engineers  i  n 
1884,  and  took 
part  in  the  S. 
African  War. 
A.A.G.  for  the 
R.E.attheWar 
Office,  1910-13, 
he  was  inspec- 
t or  of  the 
R.E.  in  1913, 
which  post  he 


i.   Houdans.      2.  Salmon    Faverolles.      3.  Buff    Orping-        Bantams.        10.    Spangled     Old 
tons.      4.  Dark  Dorkings.      5.  Silver  grey  Dorking  hen.        Modern  Langshans.       12.  Wyandon<  k   ami 

6.  Silver  Duckwing  Yokohama    cock.      7.  Silver    Cam-        white  hen.       13.   Hamburghs,   black   cock    and    golden 
pines.       8.  Brown     Leghorns.       9.  Golden     Seabright        pencilled  hen.       14.  Anconas.       15.  Wyandottes,  Mlv.-r 
laced  cock  and  golden  laced  hen.    16.  Partridge  Cochins 

FOWL:    COMMON    VARIETIES   AND    FANCY    BREEDS 

Specially  drawn  for  Harmsworlh't  Universal  Encyclopedia  by  J.  F.  Campbell 
To  face  page  3278  [See  oyer 


17.  Andalusians.     18.  Leghorns,    white    cock    and    l.mf  *£k  ^eolSn^Dani 

hen       10.   Polish  Silver  Spangled.      20.   Duckwmg  game  cock   am  rien   s,pan, 

cock.     21.   Barred    Plymouth    Rocks    and  white    Rock  *7.  &pamsQ  i 
hen.      22.   Rhode  island  Red,      23.  £*g;^ 

FOWL-    FAVOURITE   BRITISH    AND    FOREIGN    BIRDS 

Specially  drawn  for  Barmworth's  Universal  Encyclopedia  by  J.  F.  Campbell 


Dark    Brahmas. 


FOWL 


3279 


FOWLER 


held  until  the  outbreak  of  the 
Great  War,  when  he  was  appointed 
engineer-in-chief  of  the  expedi- 
tionary force,  becoming  adjutant- 
general  in  France  in  1916.  He  be- 
came lieutenant-general  in  Jan.,. 
1919,  and  was  created  K.C.B.  in 
1916  and  K.C.M..G.  in  1918. 

Fowl  (A.S.  fugol,  bird).  Name 
loosely  applied  to  the  various 
species  of  the  genus  Gallus  of  the 
pheasant  family  of  the  zoological 
owler  Gallinae,  to  which  the  game 
birds  generally  belong.  Most  of 
them  have  handsome  plumage,  and 
are  provided  with  strong  legs,  being 
better  adapted  for  running  than 
for  flight.  They  range  in  size  from 
the  quail  to  the  turkey,  are  mixed 
feeders,  and  are  all  valued  for 
purposes  of  the  table. 

Undoubtedly  all  the  many  va- 
rieties of  the  domestic  fowl  are 
descended  from  the  wild  jungle 
fowl  of  India.  The  jungle  fowl, 
which  flourishes  well  in  captivity, 
breeds  freely  with  the  domestic 
varieties,  and  the  hybrids  are 
always  fertile.  There  is  no  record 
of  the  original  domestication  of  the 
jungle  fowl.  It  is  very  improbable 
that  it  was  at  first  used  by  the 
ancient  inhabitants  of  India  for 
cock-fighting  (q.v.).  It  is  far  more 
likely  that  the  bird  was  caught  in 
greater  numbers  than  were  required 
for  food  at  the  moment,  and  that  it 
was  then  found  possible  to  keep  it 
for  a  time  in  captivity,  where  it 
bred  and  thus  suggested  a  means 
of  multiplying  and  maintaining  a 
supply  of  food  always  at  hand. 
Early  Domestication 

The  bird  is  entirely  absent  from 
the  remains  of  birds  and  animals 
found  in  the  kitchen  middens  of  the 
neolithic  period,  and  it  does  not 
appear  to  have  been  known  to  the 
Greeks  of  the  Homeric  age.  But  it 
is  mentioned  in  a  Chinese  encyclo- 
pedia compiled  about  1400  B.C., 
though  it  is  not  clear  if  the  wild  or 
domesticated  bird  is  meant.  There 
are,  however,  records  in  the  Code  of 
Manu  of  cock-fighting  in  India 
about  1000  B.C.,  and  this  makes  it 
probable — though  not  certain — 
that  domestication  had  taken  place 
at  an  earlier  date.  It  is  curious 
that  the  spread  of  the  domesticated 
fowl  westwards  was  due  to  the  love 
of  cock-fighting  rather  than  to  any 
appreciation  of  the  value  of  the 
bird  as  an  article  of  food.  Aristotle 
in  his  History  of  Animals  mentions 
the  domestic  fowl  and  gives  various 
details  of  its  habits  and  laying 
powers  ;  but  there  is  no  mention  of 
domestic  fowls  in  the  Bible  until 
New  Testament  days. 

When  the  bird  first  reached 
Great  Britain  is  unknown,  the 
statement  that  it  was  brought  by 
the  Phoenicians  when  they  visited 


Cornwall  to  obtain  tin  being  pure 
speculation.  It  is  thought  that  the 
breed  now  known  as  Dorkings  was 
introduced  by  the  Romans,  but 
here  again  decisive  evidence  is 
lacking.  But  it  is  known  that  cock- 
fighting  was  popular  in  Britain 
many  centuries  back.  The  earliest 
definite  record  dates  from  the  reign 
of  Henry  II,  when  William  Fitz- 
Stephen  wrote  an  account  of  the 
cock-fights  that  took  place  in 
schools  on  Shrove  Tuesday. 
Size  and  Laying 

By  selection  in  crossing,  the  little 
jungle  fowl,  which  only  weighs  3  lb., 
has  developed  into  heavy  breeds 
such  as  the  Brahma,  the  Cochin, 
and  the  Houdan.  The  attention 
of  breeders  has  been  variously 
directed  in  the  interests  of  egg  pro- 
duction, table  qualities,  or  merely 
ornamental  character ;  it  is  seldom 
practicable  to  combine  the  three 
qualities  in  any  high  degree  of  ex- 
cellence in  the  same  bird.  Ob- 
viously, a  hen  which  lays  freely  can- 
not put  on  much  flesh  at  the  same 
time,  as  the  food  consumed  goes 
in  the  production  of  eggs.  Thus  it 
will  be  noticed  that  the  most  pro- 
lific laying  strains  all  tend  in  the 
direction  of  smallness.  Even  in  the 
same  breed  it  will  usually  be  found 
that  the  small  hen  is  the  best  layer, 
though  it  does  not  follow  that  she 
will  make  a  good  sitter.  A  good  layer 
seldom  reaches  a  weight  of  7  lb. 

Of  the  domestic  laying  breeds, 
the  best  one  of  British  origin  is  the 
Hamburg,  an  exceptionally  hand- 
some bird,  with  either  black  or  gold 
or  silver  spangled  plumage.  Its 
egg-laying  proclivities  are  extra- 
ordinary, but  the  eggs  are  rather 
small.  The  Eedcap  resembles  the 
Hamburg  in  plumage,  but  is  larger. 
It  has  the  advantage  of  producing 
larger  eggs  and  does  best  in  hilly 
districts.  The  Scottish  Grey  from 
north  of  the  Tweed  is  long  in 
the  leg,  with  barred  grey  fea- 
thers, and  is  a  capital  layer.  Other 
excellent  laying  strains  are  the  Leg- 
horn, which  came  from  Italy  ;  the 
Minorca,  a  fairly  large  Spanish 
bird  which  lays  eggs  of  unusually 
large  size  ;  the  Houdan,  of  French 
origin,  both  a  table  bird  and  a  good 
layer;  and  the  Polish,  of  doubtful 
nationality,  which  lays  well  but  is 
difficult  to  rear. 

Among  British  table  birds,  the 
Dorking,  which  is  one  of  the  oldest 
breeds  known,  stands  pre-eminent, 
but  will  not  do  well  on  a  damp  soil. 
The  various  game  fowl,  which  are 
modifications  of  the  old  fighting 
breed,  make  excellent  table  birds  ; 
the  Sussex  birds  are  famous  every- 
where under  the  misleading  name 
of  Surrey  fowls. 

In  addition  to  these  distinctively 
egg-laying  and  table  birds,  there 


are  several  breeds  which  may  be 
described  as  of  the  general  utility 
order.  Most  of  them  are  compara- 
tively new  varieties,  and  have  been 
bred  as  all-round  birds.  They  lay 
freely  and  sit  well ;  their  eggs  are 
of  good  size  and  colour  ;  and  their 
table  qualities  are  excellent.  They 
are  favourites  with  poultry  keepers 
who  do  not  specialise  in  breeds, 
and  are  the  birds  for  the  small  man. 
The  Orpington  breed  is  a  com- 
paratively late  one,  but  is  already 
one  of  the  most  popular.  The  birds 
are  large  and  deep  in  body,  and  the 
plumage  may  be  white,  buff,  or 
spangled.  They  lay  well  in  winter, 
their  eggs  are  of  the  popular  tint, 
and  they  mature  very  rapidly. 

The  Wyandotte  is  one  of  the 
handsomest  breeds,  yielding  well 
for  the  table  and  laying  well 
through  the  winter  months.  The 
Plymouth  Rock  is  exceptionally 
hardy  and  flourishes  under  adverse 
conditions.  The  Brahmas  and  the 
Cochins  are  both  Asiatic  birds,  of 
large  size  and  heavily  feathered 
down  the  legs.  Formerly  popular 
for  their  great  size,  they  do  not  pay 
to  keep  and  are  seldom  bred,  ex- 
cept for  show  purposes. 

Ornamental  Breeds 
Of  the  purely  ornamental  breeds 
little  need  be  said.  They  are  of 
handsome  appearance,  but  since 
bone  and  feather  can  only  be  pro- 
duced at  the  cost  of  flesh,  their 
small  size,  slowness  of  growth,  or 
poor  egg -laying  powers  make  them 
unprofitable  for  market  purposes, 
and  breeders  prefer  to  produce  a 
few  prize  birds  which  will  command 
fancy  prices  at  poultry  shows. 
These  include  the  bantams,  the 
Malayan  fowl,  the  Silkies,  and  a  few 
other  varieties.  They  are  nearly 
all  of  Asiatic  origin.  See  Poultry; 
also  Ancona;  Andalusian;  Ban- 
tam ;  Dorking,  illus. 

Bibliography.  Our  Poultry  and 
All  about  Them,  Harrison  Weir, 
new  edition,  1904;  The  Races  of 
Domestic  Poultry,  E.  Brown,  1906  ; 
Poultrv  for  Prizes  and  Profit,  James 
Long,  1909;  The  Book  of  Poultry, 
L.  Wright,  1910;  Commercial  Poul- 
try Farming,  T.  W.  Toovey,  1919. 

Fowler,  ELLEN  THORNEYCROFT 
(b.  1860).  British  novelist.  Daughter 
of  the  IstViscountWolverhampton, 
she  married  A. 
L.  Felkin  in 
1903.  Her 
novels,  distin- 
guished by  skill 
in  character 
drawing  and  a 
I  turn  for  epi- 
I  gram,  include 
%  I  Concerning 

™?    Isabel       Cam- 

^  Fo^lTr?  «%'    1898 ''    A 

British  novelist        DoubleThread, 
Runeii  1899;    Fuel  of 


FOWLER 


3280 


FOX      LAND 


Sir  John  Fowler, 
British  engineer 


Fire,  1902 ;  Place  and  Power,  1903; 
In  Subjection,  1906 ;  and  The 
Wisdom  of  Folly,  1910.  They  re- 
fleet  mainly  life  in  and  around  a 
midland  town  of  England,  and 
among  Methodist  surroundings. 

Fowler,  SIR  JOHN  (1817-98). 
British  engineer.  Born  July  15, 
1817.  he  became  a  civil  engineer 
and  was  large- 
ly employed  in 
the  many  rail- 
way schemes 
which  accom- 
panied the 
boom  of  1846. 
T  h  e  Pimlico 
Bridge  was 
built  accord- 
ing to  his  de- 
signs in  I860. 
The  same  year  he  was  engaged  in 
the  construction  of  the  Metropoli- 
tan Rly.,  which  was  opened  Jan.  9, 
1863.  In  1869  he  was  consulted  by 
Ismail  Pasha  with  regard  to  en- 
gineering schemes  in  Egypt.  In 
1883,  in  partnership  with  Benjamin 
Baker,  he  designed  the  Forth 
Bridge,  which  was  opened  in  1890. 
For  this  Fowler,  who  had  been 
knighted  in  1881,  was  made  a 
baronet.  He  died  at  Bournemouth, 
Nov.  20,  1898. 

Fowler- Dixon,  JOHN  EDWIN  (b. 
1850).  Athlete  and  writer  on  ath- 
letics. Born  Sept.  3,  1850,  he  de- 
voted himself  to 
athletics,  and 
in  1877  won  the 
50  miles  and  the 
100  miles  ama- 
teur walking  re- 
cords. In  1884 
and  1885  he 
created  50 
in  i  1  e  s  running 
records  of  6 
hrs.  20  mins. 

47  sees,  and  6  hrs.  18  mins.  26  sees, 
respectively.  In  the  former  year 
he  also  made  the  40  miles  running 
record  of  4  hrs.  46  mins.  54  sees., 
which  in  1920  had  not  been 
beaten.  He  was  principal  pro- 
prietor of  The  Athletic  News.  He 


J.  E.  Fowler-Dixon, 
British  athlete 


helped  to  found  the  Amateur 
Athletic  Association,  and  wrote 
Athletes  and  the  War. 

Fowler's  Solution.  Popular 
name  for  liquor  arsenicalis.  It  is  a 
1  p.c.  solution  of  arsenious  acid 
in  water  with  small  amounts  of 
potassium  carbonate  and  com- 
pound tincture  of  lavender.  It  is 
used  occasionally  in  medicine, 
chiefly  in  morbid  conditions  of 
the  blood. 

Fox.  Animal  belonging  to  the 
genus  Vulpes,  probably  consist- 
ing of  only  one  species  including 
several  local  races.  It  differs  from 
other  dogs  in  the  shape  of  its  skull, 
and  in  the  fact  that  the  pupil  of 
the  eye  is  elliptical  instead  of  cir- 
cular. It  is  of  slim  build,  with  long 
bushy  tail  and  rather  long  ears. 

Foxes  feed  upon  small  mammals 
and  birds,  but  also  eat  insects  and 
fruit,  feeding  by  night  and  spending 
the  day  in  burrows,  hollow  trees, 
and  clefts  in  rocks.  They  are  found 
nearly  everywhere  throughout  the 
northern  hemisphere ;  and  the 
common  fox  (Vulpes  canis)  is  a 
well-known  inhabitant  of  Great 
Britain.  It  is  reddish-brown  in 
colour,  with  white  beneath  ;  but 
the  hue  varies  considerably  in  local 
races,  as  in  the  so-called  grey- 
hound fox  of  the  Lake  District.  It 


sometimes  makes  its  own  burrow, 
though  it  usually  adapts  that  of 
the  badger  or  rabbit.  In  the 
summer  it  often  sleeps  in  a  dry 
ditch,  and  has  been  known  to 
make  its  abode  in  a  straw  rick.  The 
young,  usually  four  or  five  in 
number,  are  born  about  April. 

The  fox  is  valued  for  its  fur, 
especially  that  of  the  black  and 
silver  varieties.  It  is  a  favourite 
animal  for  hunting,  while  on  the 
other  hand  it  often  works  havoc 
in  the  game  preserve  and  the 
poultry  yard.  It  would  have 
become  extinct  in  Britain  long 
ago  but  for  its  preservation  by 
the  "  hunts."  See  Fur. 

Fox  OR  NEENAH.  River  of  Wis- 
consin, U.S.A.  Rising  in  the  S.  part 
of  the  state,  it  flows  S.W.,  N.,  and 
N.E.  to  Lake  Winnibago.  Emerg- 
ing from  the  N.  end  of  that  lake,  it 
follows  a  N.  W.  course  to  Green  Bay, 
a  branch  of  Lake  Michigan.  In  its 
upper  reaches,  near  Portage,  it  is 
connected  by  a  canal  with  Wis- 
consin river.  It  is  250  m.  long,  and 
navigable  for  the  greater  part  of  its 
course. 

Fox  OR  PISHTAKA.  River  of  the 
U.S.A.  Rising  in  Wisconsin,  it 
flows  225  m.  generally  S.  and  S.W., 
and  passes  through  Illinois  to  unite 
with  the  Illinois  river  at  Ottawa. 

Fox.  Channel  of  N.  America. 
It  lies  to  the  N.  of  Hudson  Bay, 
separating  Baffin  Island  on  the 
E.  from  Melville  Peninsula  and 
Southampton  Island  on  the  W.  It 
communicates  by  Hudson  Strait 
with  the  Atlantic,  and  by  Fury 
and  Hecla  Strait  with  the  Arctic. 
Luke  Fox,  English  navigator,  ex- 
plored it  in  1631. 

Fox  Islands.  Variant  name 
given  to  the  Aleutian  Islands  (q.v.). 
It  is  more  specifically  confined  to 
the  extreme  E.  group,  consisting  of 
Unalaska,  Unimak,  Umnak,  and  a 
number  of  smaller  islands. 

Fox  Land.  Desolate  region  in 
the  S.W.  of  Baffin  Island,  British 
N.  America.  It  lies  between  Fox 
Channel  on  the  N.W.  and  Hudson 
Strait  on  the  S.E. 


Fox.     1.  Fox  emerging  from  its  earth.     2.  Common  fox,  Vulpes  canis.     3.  Arctic  fox  in  winter  coat 


1.  Simple  run  made  with  wood  frame  and  wire  netting.  8.    Movable  poultry  house.     9.  House  for  small  pens. 

2.  House  20  ft.  by  15  ft.  to  accommodate  100  birds,  ro.  Fattening  pen.     n.  House  suitable  for  a  cock  and 
and  3,  interior.     4.  Broody  coop.     5  and  6.  Coops  for  10  hens.    12.  Another  form  of  coop.     13.  Cold  brooder 
chicken  rearing.     J.   House    for     birds   of    12    weeks.  14.   House  and  run  for  placing  against  a  wall 

FOWL:    COOPS   AND    RUNS   USED   IN   MODERN   POULTRY   KEEPING 

By  courtesy  of  Eoulton  &  Paul,   Norwich 


IP    4 


Fox,  SIB  CHABLES  (1810-74). 
British  engineer.  The  son  of 
Francis  Fox,  M.D.,  he  was  born  at 
Derby,  March  11,  1810.  Having 
shown  a  distinct  gift  for  mechanics, 
he  was  articled  to  an  engineer,  and 
was  soon  associated  with  Robert 
Stephenson  and  other  pioneers  of 
the  steam  engine.  He  did  en- 
gineering work  on  various  rlys., 
especially  the  London  and  Bir- 
mingham, and  the  firm  of  whicli 
he  became  a  partner  began  to  make 
rly.  stock,  introducing  therein 
various  improvements  suggested 
by  him.  Fox  built  the  Crystal 
Palace  in  Hyde  Park  and  after- 
wards at  Sydenham,  and  was  very 
successful  with  his  bridges.  An 
enormous  length  of  rly.  line,  almost 
in  every  part  of  the  world,  was 
undertaken  by  his  firm,  as  well  as 
tunnels,  stations,  among  them 
Waterloo,  Paddington,  etc.  In 
1851  he  was  knighted.  He  died 
June  14,  1874,  leaving  his  two 
elder  sons  to  carry  on  the  business 
of  Sir  Charles  Fox  &  Sons. 

Fox,  SIB  CHABLES  DOUGLAS 
(1840-1921).  British  engineer.  Born 
Mayl4,1840,  educated  at  Cholmon- 
deley  School 
and  King's 
College,  Lon- 
don, he  joined 
his  father,  Sir 
Charles  Fox, 
in  business  in 
1861.  Associ- 
ated with  him 
in  railway  and 
otherengineer- 
ing  work,  he 
soon  came  to 
the  front.  He  was  president  of 
the  Institute  of  Civil  Engineers, 
and  in  1886  was  knighted.  His 
brother,  Sir  Francis  Fox  (b.  1844), 
followed  a  like  career.  He,  too, 
joined  the  firm  of  Sir  Charles  Fox  & 
Sons  in  1861,  and  was  knighted  in 
1912.  Sir  Francis  was  called  in  to 
advise  on  the  restoration  of  Win- 
chester Cathedral,  and  was  one  of 
the  experts  consulted  about  the 
construction  of  the  Simplon  Tunnel. 
His  published  books  include  The 
Mersey  Tunnel  and  The  Simplon 
Tunnel.  He  died  Nov.  13,  1921. 

Fox,  CHABLES  JAMES  (1749- 
1806).  British  statesman.  Born  in 
London,  Jan.  4,  1749,  he  was  a 

Smnger  son  of  Henry  Fox,  Lord 
olland  ;  his  mother  was  a  daugh- 
ter of  the  duke  of  Richmond,  j  He 
was  educated  at  a  school  at  Wands- 
worth,  at  Eton,  and  at  Hertford 
College,  Oxford.  He  read  widely, 
and  his  industry,  coupled  with  his 
great  natural  abilities,  made  him 
a  scholar.  In  addition  to  a  know- 
ledge of  the  classics,  he  was  a  good 
French  scholar  and 'read  Italian 
well.  He  was  only  a  boy  when, 


Sir  C.  Douglas  Fox, 
British  engineer 

Russell 


After  Reynolds 

encouraged  by  his  father,  he  began 
his  career  as  a  gambler  and  shared 
the  other  pleasures  of  his  dissolute 
elders.  In  1769  he  entered  Parlia- 
ment as  M.P.  for  Midhurst,  his 
father's  pocket  borough,  and  in 
1770  he  was  made  a  junior  lord  of 
the  admiralty  under  Lord  North. 
In  1772  he  resigned  owing  to  his 
opposition  to  the  court,  but  in 
1773-74  he  was  again  in  office  as  a 
junior  lord  of  the  treasury. 

Fox's  career  as  a  Whig  leader 
may  be  dated  from  1775.  By  then 
he  had  won  the  friendship  of  Burke, 
and  had  shown,  in  the  case  of  the 
American  colonies,  for  instance, 
that  attachment  to  the  cause  of 
popular  liberty  which  is  the  out- 
standing feature  of  his  political 
career.  He  acted  with  the  Whigs, 
then  led  by  Lord  Rockingham, 
but  in  many  matters  he  was  more 
advanced  than  they.  His  creed 
included  parliamentary  reform  and 
purity  in  financial  affairs,  while, 
like  many  others,  he  saw  a  danger 
to  the  state  in  the  undue  influence 
of  the  crown.  Soon  came  his  advo- 
cacy of  the  repeal  of  Roman 
Catholic  disabilities  and  of  the 
causes  of  Ireland  and  the  slave.  ) 
In  1782  Fox  entered  the  cabinet 
of  Lord  Rockingham  as  secretary 
of  state,  but  in  a  few  months  the 
premier  died,  and,  refusing  to  serve 
under  Lord  Shelburne,  he  joined 
Burke  and  Sheridan  in  a  Whig 
secession  which  in  1783  resulted  in 
the  extraordinary  coalition  be- 
tween Fox  and  Lord  North.  In 
this  the  former  was  again  a  secre- 
tary of  state,  but  this  ministry  had 
but  a  brief  life.  It  was  dismissed 
by  the  king  as  soon  as  the  House  of 
Lords  had  rejected  Fox's  India  Bill. 
Fox,  who  in  1784  had  fought  at 
Westminster — for  which  constitu- 
ency he  had  been  first  returned  in 
1780 — one  of  the  most  fiercely  con- 


tested battles  in  electoral  history, 
now  appeared  as  a  leading  oppo- 
nent of  Pitt's  ministry,  although  on 
some  matters — the  impeachment 
of  Hastings,  for  instance — he  was 
in  agreement  with  the  premier.  In 
1789  came  his  famous  declaration 
of  welcome  to  the  French  Revolu- 
tion, an  encomium  on  the  fall  of  the 
Bastille,  and  in  1791  his  long 
friendship  with  Burke  came  to  an 
end  on  this  issue.  By  1792  the 
majority  of  the  Whigs  had  ceased 
to  hail  the  Revolution  with  rap- 
ture, regarding  it  rather  as  a 
tyranny  ;  but  Fox,  almost  alone, 
continued  to  support  it.  He  de- 
clared against  the  war  with  France, 
but  by  now  he  had  few  followers, 
and  after  1797  he  ceased  for  a  time 
to  attend  parliament.  In  1798,  for 
declaring  publicly  for  the  sove- 
reignty of  the  people,  his  name  was 
removed  from  the  list  of  privy 
councillors. 

About  1802  Fox  returned  to 
public  life.  He  remained  in  oppo- 
sition until  -the  death  of  Pitt  in 
1806,  when  he  again  became  a 
secretary  of  state,  this  time  in  the 
ministry  of  all  the  talents.  He  then 
endeavoured  to  negotiate  a  peace 
with  France,  but  he  soon  realized 
that  he  had  misread  Napoleon's 
character.  His  health  was  already 
failing,  and  on  Sept.  13,  1806,  he 
died  at  Chiswick.  He  is  buried  in 
Westminster  Abbey. 

The  vices  and  the  virtues  of  Fox 
were  both  on  the  large  scale.  A 
leading  member  of  the  dissolute 
circle  that  surrounded  the  Prince 
Regent,  he  lost  an  ample  fortune  at 
cards,  and  was  more  than  once 
bankrupt,  dependent  upon  the 
charity  of  his  friends.  He  showed, 
as  did  others,  a  lack  of  consistency 
between  words  and  deeds,  while 
he  was  capable  of  carrying  his 
private  animosities  into  public  life. 
For  constructive  statesmanship  he 
showed  no  ability  whatever.  On 
the  other  hand,  he  was  a  great 
orator  and  a  greater  debater.  To 
the  last  his  mind  maintained  its 
freshness  by  contact  with  the 
masterpieces  of  literature.  He 
possessed  a  really  generous  nature, 
while  his  sympathy  with  the  op- 
pressed was  the  outcome  of  genuine 
feeling.  He  was  long  the  idol  of  the 
Whigs,  among  whom  his  is  un- 
doubtedly the  greatest  name.  In 
1785  he  married  his  mistress,  Mrs. 
Armistead,  and  his  later  life  was 
passed  at  St.  Anne's  Hill,  near 
Chertsey.  He  began  a  life  of  James 
II,  was  something  of  a  sportsman, 
and  had  fought  a  duel.  See  Pitt, 

A.  W.  Holland 

Bibliography.  Memoirs  and  Cor- 
respondence of  C.  J.  Fox,  1853-57 ; 
Life  and  Times  of  C.  J.  Fox,  Lord  J. 
Russell,  1859-66  ;  Early  History  of 


FOX 

C.  J.  Fox,  Sir  G.  Trevelyan,  1880  ; 
Charles  James  Fox,  J.  le  B.  Ham- 
mond, 1903;  and  The  Holland  House 
Circle,  Lloyd  Sanders,  1908. 

Fox,  GEORGE  (1624-91).  Founder 
of  the  Society  of  Friends  (q.v. ).  He 
was  born  at  Drayton-in-the-Clay 
(now  Fenny 
Dray  ton),  Lei- 
cestershire, in 
July,  1624,  son 
of  Christopher 
Fox,  a  weaver, 
called  by  his 
neighbours 

"righteous  MiMiSSMW™ 
Christer."  His 
early  bent  to-  George  Fox, 
wards  religious  English  Quaker 
study  suggested  to  his  relatives 
that  he  should  be  made  a  priest. 
He  was,  however,  apprenticed  to  a 
shoemaker  and  grazier  in  Notting- 
ham. At  the  age  of  19  he  began  a 
series  of  solitary  wanderings  in 
which  he  sought  peace  of  mind 
from  both  churchmen  and  non- 
conformists, finally  to  decide  that 
the  one  great  qualification  for  the 
ministry  was  the  presence  of  God 
in  the  heart — the  inspiration  of  the 
Inward  Light. 

In  1648  he  began  to  preach  in 
public,  adopting  the  terms  "  thee  " 
and  "  thou,"  opposing  many  social 
conventions  as  well  as  ecclesi- 
astical formalism,  refusing  to  take 
oaths,  condemning  war,  and  advo- 
cating a  rigid  simplicity  of  dress. 
By  1658  communities  of  his  fol- 
lowers were  established  in  all  parts 
of  England.  Founder  and  followers 
were,  however,  bitterly  persecuted. 

In  1669  he  married  Margaret 
Fell,  of  Swarthmore  Hall,  one  of  his 
early  converts.  He  visited  Scot- 
land, 1657;  Ireland,  1669;  North 
America  and  the  West  Indies, 
1671-72;  and  Holland,  with  Penn 
and  Barclay,  1677  and  1684. 
Shortly  after  a  meeting  at  the 
Friends'  Meeting  House,  Grace- 
church  Street,  London,  he  died 
close  by  at  the  house  of  Henry 
Gouldney,  in  White  Hart  Court, 
Jan.  13,  1691,  and  was  interred  in 
the  Friends'  Burial  Ground,  White- 
cross  Street,  Bunhill  Row.  / 

A  man  of  sterling  character 
whose  practical  gifts  were  dis- 
played in  the  organization  he 
gave  to  the  society  he  founded, 
his  voluminous  writings  are  now 
seldom  read,  with  the  exception 
of  his  Journal,  which,  revised  by  a 
committee  under  the  superintend- 
ence of  Penn,  first  appeared  in!694. 
The  MS.  was  sold  at  Sotheby's, 
July  26,  1920,  for  £1,750,  and 
is  now  in  the  possession  of  the 
Society  of  Friends.  See  Life, 
T.  Hodgkin,  1896 ;  The  Fells  of 
Swarthmore  Hall  and  their  Friends, 
M.  Webb,  1865 ;  Fox  and  the  Early 
Quakers,  A.  C.  Bickley,  1884. 


3283 

Fox,  Sm  STEPHEN  (1627-1716). 
English  courtier  and  founder  of  the 
family  of  Fox.  Born  at  Farley. 
Wiltshire,  March  27,  1627,  he  came 
into  touch  with  Charles  II  through 
the  Percy  family,  hi  whose  service 
he  was.  He  was  very  useful  to  the 
king  in  managing  his  personal 
affairs  during  his  exile,  and  after 
the  restoration  many  offices  were 
given  to  him.  In  1661  he  entered 
Parliament  as  M.P.  for  Salisbury, 
and  he  remained  therein  during  the 
greater  part  of  his  life,  holding 
offices  also  under  James  II, 
William  III,  and  Anne.  For  long 
Fox  was  paymaster-general,  and 
the  profits  of  this  office  made  him 
very  rich.  Some  of  his  wealth  was 
spent  in  building  churches  and 
almshouses,  but  the  bulk  of  it 
passed  to  his  sons.  He  died  at 
Chiswick,  Oct.  28,  1716.  Fox  was 
the  father  of  the  1st  Lord  Holland 
and  of  Stephen,  who  was  created 
earl  of  Ilchester,  and  the  grand- 
father of  Charles  James  Fox.  See 
Holland,  Baron ;  Ilchester,  Earl  of. 

Fox  OR  FOXE,  RICHARD  (c.  1448- 
1528).  English  statesman  and  pre- 
late. Born  at  Ropesley,  Lines,  the 
son  of  a  yeoman,  he  was  for  a 
time  at  both  Oxford  and  Cambridge. 
In  1485,  in  France,  he  entered  the 
service  of  Henry  VII.  He  began  as 
the  king's  secretary,  but  was  soon 
lord  privy  seal.  Already  ordained, 
and  vicar  of  Stepney,  he  was  made 
bishop  of  Exeter  in  1487  ;  in  1492 
he  was  translated  to  Bath  and 
Wells,  and  in  1494  to  Durham. 
From  1501  until  his  death  he  was 
bishop  of  Winchester. 

Fox  was  Henry's  chief  adviser, 
and  most  of  the  diplomatic  work 
passed  through  his  hands,  includ- 
ing the  momentous  marriage  and 
commercial  treaties  of  this  reign. 
Soon  after  the  accession  of  Henry 
VIII,  however,  he  lost  his  power. 
He  was  too  steeped  in  the  peaceful 
traditions  of  Henry  VII  to  ap- 
prove of  the  spirited  foreign  policy 
of  the  new  era.  Wolsey  was  too 
strong  for  him,  and  he  resigned  the 
privy  seal  in  1516.  He  died  at 
Winchester,  Oct.  5,  1528,  being 
buried  in  the  cathedral.  Fox's  great 
work  was  the  foundation  of  Corpus 
Christi  College,  Oxford.  At  Cam- 
bridge he  was  chancellor  and 
master  of  Pembroke  HalL 

Foxe,  JOHN  (1516-87).  English 
martyrologist.  Born  at  Boston, 
Lines,  and  educated  at  Oxford,  he 
was  a  fellow  of  Magdalen,  1539-45. 
He  was  a  tutor  in  the  Lucy  family 
at  Charlecote,  and  in  the  Howard 
family  at  Reigate.  During  Mary's 
reign  he  lived  on  the  Continent, 
where  he  met  Knox  and  other  re- 
formers, publishing  in  Latin  at 
Strasbourg  the  first  draft  of  his 
Acts  and  Monuments,  familiarly 


FOXGLOVE 

known  as  Foxe's  Book  of  Martyrs. 
On  Elizabeth's  accession  Foxe 
returned  to  England,  was  ordained 
priest  by 
Grindal,  lived 
in  Grub  Street, 
where  he 
worked  on  his 
Acts  and 
Monuments, 
published  in 
folio  by  John 
Daye,  1562- 

63.       Hebe-  ,0ho  Fo.e, 

came  prebend  English  martyrologiat 
of  Salisbury 

and  vicar  of  Skipton,  1563;  and 
preached  at  Paul's  Cross.  He 
died  April  18,  1587,  and  was 
buried  at  S.  Giles's,  Cripplegate. 
His  principal  work  was  a  great 
favourite  with  Bunyan,  greatly  in- 
fluenced the  progress  of  Protestant- 
ism in  England,  and,  although 
bitterly  prejudiced,  is  an  example 
of  vivid  prose. 

There  have  been  a  large  number 
of  editions  of  the  Book  of  Martyrs, 
and  copies  of  the  early  ones  are 
very  valuable. 

Foxglove.  Hardy  biennial  and 
perennial  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Scrophulariaceae  and  genus 
Digitalis.  Only 
one  is  a  native 
of  Great  Bri- 
tain, although 
there  are  a 
nu  mber  of 
other  species, 
the  majority 
being  of  bo- 
tanical value 
only,  which 
were  intro- 
duced from 
Western  Asia 
and  Southern 
Europe.  Their 
height  is  from  2 
ft.  to  5  ft.,  and 
their  flowers 
are  purple, 
pink,  white,  yel- 
low, or  brown. 
Foxgloves  are 
raised  from 
seed  sown  in 

Foxglove.    Flower     gentle  heat  in 
of    Digitalis   pur-     May,  the  plants 
purea  being  moved  to 

the  open  air  as  soon  as  they  are 
large  enough  to  be  shifted  with 
safety.  In  sheltered  shrubberies 
and  copses  a  little  seed  may  be 
sown  annually  in  the  open  air  at  the 

rt  where  it  is  desired  to  cultivate 
plants.  •  In  mixed  borders  fox- 
gloves should  be  placed  at  the  back, 
in  association  with  delphiniums, 
hollyhocks,  sunflowers,  and  other 
tall-growing  subjects.  The  wild 
purple  foxglove  of  our  lanes  and 
woods  is  D.purpurea.  See  Digitalis. 


FOXHOUND 


3284 


FOX     HUNTING 


Foxhound.  Breed  of  hound 
specially  maintained  for  hunting 
the  fox.  Of  mixed  origin,  it  is 
generally  believed  to  be  descended 
from  the  old  type  of  bloodhound 


Foxhound.    Hound  from  the  kennels 
of  the  Oakley  foxhounds 

and  the  pointer,  with  perhaps  a 
dash  of  the  bulldog  strain. 

Fox  hunting  dates  from  the  days 
of  Edward  I,  but  the  dogs  then 
used  were  entirely  different  from 
the  present  breed  of  hounds,  which 
is  probably  not  more  than  300 
years  old.  The  breed  has  received 
much  attention,  and  such  packs  as 
the  Belvoir  and  the  Quorn  are  of 
world-wide  fame. 

The  foxhound  is  notable  for  its 
speed  and  for  its  endurance, 
having  been  known  to  follow  the 
fox  for  ten  hours.  A  good  foxhound 
should  stand  about  24  ins.  high  at 
the  shoulder,  but  the  females  are 
usually  3  ins.  shorter.  The  head 
should  be  large  and  full,  the  nostrils 
wideopen.  The  short,  rounded  shape 
of  the  ear  is  the  result  of  cropping 
when  a  puppy,  and  is  intended 
to  prevent  the  ears  from  being 
torn  when  going  through  thick 
cover.  The  back  and  shoulders 
should  be  strong  and  muscular, 
the  hind  quarters  well  formed,  and 
the  legs  straight.  The  coat,  which 
is  always  parti-coloured,  should  be 
short,  thick,  and  smooth.  See  Dog. 

Fox  Hunting.  Popular  English 
sport.  Fox  hunting,  as  carried  on 
in  the  20th  century,  is  a  compara- 
tively modern  sport.  The  old  time 
sportsmen  went  out  early  in  the 
morning,  they  hit  on  the  drag  of  the 
fox,  and  the  pack  hunted  steadily 
up  to  his  kennel,  where  the  fox  had 
laid  up  for  the  day.  Then  began 
a  chase  which  might  often  last  for 
an  hour  or  more.  The  hounds 
worked  out  the  fox's  line  and  wore 
him  to  death.  But  about  1750,  the 
modern  system  of  hunting  was 
introduced  in  the  Quorn  country 
by  Meynell  and  by  Lord  Spencer 
in  the  Pytchley  Hunt.  Hounds 
and  horses  were  bred  for  speed, 
and  the  foxchase  became,  in  the 
words  of  Beckford,  "  short,  sharp, 
and  decisive."  The  <stud  records 
of  the  Earls  Spencer  show  that  in 
breeding  their  hunters  they  tried 


for  speed,  using  the  very  best  racing 
blood  of  their  time.  A  number  of 
hard-riding  men  of  all  classes  were 
attracted  to  the  sport. 

The  ideal  hunt  was  one  lasting 
about  15  or  20  minutes.  The  fox 
was  raced,  not  hunted  to  death. 
It  required  a  good  horse  to  live 
with  the  pack  even  for  this  short 
time,  but  it  was  not  only  the  horses 
and  hounds  that  were  the  faster ; 
the  huntsman  was  quicker  in  his 
methods.  The  older  school  would 
wait  when  the  fox  broke  until  all 
the  pack  were  collected  ;  the  hunts- 
men of  the  new  school  went  away 
with  three  couples,  leaving  the  rest 
to  come  as  they  could,  or  trust- 
ing to  the  whippers-in  to  bring 
them  on.  In  the  same  way  the  new 
school  of  huntsmen  would  not  per- 
severe after  a  fox  if  he  was  lost. 
They  went  on  to  find  another. 
This  rapid  style  of  hunting,  and 
the  taste  for  short,  sharp  bursts 
remains,  but  it  flourishes  chiefly  in 
those  hunting  countries  which  con- 
sist of  wide,  spreading  grass  fields, 
of  from  50  to  100  acres,  and  where 
the  coverts  are  rarely  above  40 
acres  in  extent,  and  in  many  cases 
are  little  spinneys  or  gorses,  like 
Norton  Gorse,  or  Sheepthorns,  in 
the  South  Quorn  country,  of  about 
three  or  four  acres. 

It  is  clear  that  where  there  are 
large  woodlands,  wide  heather-clad 
moorland,  or  where  the  enclosures 
are  small,  these  methods  of  hunting 
must  be  modified,  and  while  in  the 
most  fashionable  countries,  or  in 
parts  of  them,  the  ideal  of  a  short 
and  fast  gallop  remains,  there  are 
many  hours  of  steady,  slow  hunting. 
One  of  the  charms  of  hunting  is  its 
infinite  variety,  and  riding  to 
hounds  is  not  its  only,  not  indeed, 
for  many  men,  its  chief  charm. 


This  is  shown  by  the  fact  that 
hunting  flourishes,  not  only  in  the 
Midlands  and  in  grass  countries, 
but  also  in  the  rougher,  colder 
scenting  districts,  where  wood- 
land and  ploughland  abound. 

Many  men  find  their  chief 
pleasure  in  the  working  of  the  pack, 
and  there  is  also  great  interest 
in  the  woodcraft  required  to  find 
and  kill  a  fox.  For  example,  a 
good  woodland  huntsman,  in  coun- 
tries where  the  woods  extend  from 
1,500  to  3,000  acres  or  more,  knows 
that  it  is  useless  to  look  for  a  fox 
in  all  parts  of  the  wood,  but  leads 
his  hounds  to  those  spots  which 
his  experience  or  observation  tells 
him  are  likely  haunts.  In  the  same 
way  a  good  huntsman  learns  the 
run  of  his  foxes,  i.e.  the  course 
usually  taken  by  individual  foxes, 
and  is  thus  able  to  help  his  pack 
at  critical  moments. 

The  great  popularity  of  hunting 
may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that 
there  are  about  240  fox-hunting 
establishments  in  Great  Britain. 
The  cost  of  hunting  is  met  by  those 
who  hunt.  In  most  cases  the  master 
finds  from  half  to  two-thirds  of  the 
money  required,  which  is  roughly 
estimated  somewhere  near  £1,000 
per  annum  for  each  day  in  the 
week  hounds  are  out.  Thus  a  pack 
going  out  two  days  in  a  week  would 
cost  £2,000  a  year, four  days  £4,000, 
and  so  on.  Some  country  packs 
might  cost  less,  but  the  Quorn  and 
Pytchley,  Badminton  or  Belvoir, 
for  example,  would  require  £8,000 
or  £9,000  a  year  at  least. 

This  money  is  spent  on  wages  for 
the  huntsman,  two  whippers-in, 
two  second  horsemen,  a  stud  groom, 
a  feeder,  and  two  or  more  kennel 
men  or  boys,  according  to  the 
number  of  hounds  kept  in  kennel, 


Fox  Hunting.  Scene  with  the  Quorn  hunt  at  Twyford  Brook;  the  pack  in  full  cry 

After  A.  C.  Httvell.  by  eourtety  of  Forei 


FOXTAIL 


3285 


FOYLE 


ranging  say  from  20  to  75  couples, 
or  even  more.  Then  there  is  oat- 
meal and  horseflesh  for  the  hounds, 
and  oats  and  hay  for  the  horses. 
Another  portion  of  the  money  goes 
into  the  pockets  of  local  artificers 
and  tradesmen,  while  large  sums 
are  distributed  to  farmers  and 
others,  as  compensation  for  damage 
to  fences  or  the  loss  of  poultry. 

One  of  the  beneficial  results  of 
hunting  is  that  the  sums  of  money 
spent  in  recreation  are  distributed 
in  districts  which  would  otherwise 
receive  none.  If  to  the  actual 
expenses  of  the  hunt  are  added  the 
sums  paid  by  those  whom  hunting 
attracts  to  the  neighbourhood,  it 
will  be  seen  that  hunting  causes 
the  distribution  of  a  very  large  sum. 
But  this  is  not  all. 

Hunting  and  Horse  Bleeding 

Great  Britain  is  largely  de- 
pendent for  its  horses  on  hunting 
people,  who  support  the  market 
for  breeders  of  the  best  sort  of 
riding  horses,  and  thus  keep  a 
large  horse  reserve  at  no  expense 
to  the  nation.  English  hunters  are 
the  best  riding  horses  in  the  world, 
and  are  eagerly  sought  for  by 
foreign  and  colonial  buyers.  The 
needs  of  the  hunting  man  or 
woman  practically  regulate  the 
type  of  the  hunter  which  breeders 
strive  to  raise,  and  thus  there  is  a 
large  export  trade  in  riding  horses 
which  rests  on  hunting.  _But  hunt- 
ing requires  hounds,'  and  the 
English  foxhound  is  the  greatest 
triumph  of  the  breeders.  There  are 
many  different  breeds  of  hounds 
hunting  by  scent  in  Europe  and 
America,  but  the  English  foxhound 
in  make,  shape,  nose,  and  pace 
beats  them  all.  In  England  fox- 
hounds hunt  all  the  three  kinds  of 
deer,  the  fox,  the  hare,  and  the 
otter.  In  France  many  packs  are 
wholly  pure  foxhound,  or  'the 
native  breeds  are  largely  crossed 
with  foxhound  blood. 

The  fox  is  a  small  animai,  which 
in  England,  except  in  the  Fell 
countries  where  19  or  20  Ib.  is  not 
unusual,  averages  about  10  Ib. 
to  12  Ib.  weight,  which  can  crawl 
down  a  9-in.  drain.  The  fox's 
great  quality  as  a  beast  of  chase  is 
its  wildness.  Wild  foxes  are  neces- 
sary, and  for  these  the  goodwill  of 
covert  owners  and  farmers  has  to 
be  depended  on.  In  spite  of  some 
grumbling,  people  recognize  the 
value  of  hunting  in  encouraging  the 
breeding  of  horses  and  the  training 
of  men.  Fox  hunting  is  not  only 
or  c'.iiefly  a  rich  man's  sport,  but 
gives  pleasure  and  profit  in  England 
and  Ireland  to  people  of  all  classes. 
See  Life  of  a  Fox,  Thos.  Smith, 
1920;  Hunting  the  Fox,  Lord 
Willoughby  de  Broke,  1920. 

T.  P.  Dale 


Foxtail.  Means  of  preventing  a 
bar  of  wood  or  metal  bolt  from  being 
withdrawn  from  a  hole.  The  enter- 
ing end  is  split,  the  point  of  a  wedge 
is  inserted,  and  the  bar  is  driven 
home,  the  wedge  expanding  the  ma- 
terial against  the  sides  of  the  hole. 

Foxtail  Grass  (Alopecurus  pra- 
tensis).  Perennial  grass  of  the 
natural  order  Gramineae.  It  is  a 
native  of  Eu- 
rope, N.  Africa, 
and  Asia.  It 
sends  out  run- 
ners from  the 
roots,  and  has 
flowering  stems 
from  1  ft.  to  3 
ft.  high.  The 
leaves  are 
rough  and  flat ; 
the  flowers 
form  a  soft, 
cylindric  pan- 
icle. It  is  a 
most  valuable 
meadow-grass, 
and  of  high 
nutritive 
value. 

Fox  Terrier. 
Small  breed  of 
terrier.  It  was 
formerly  used 
in  the  hunt  for 
unearthing  the 
fox.  To  some 
extent  it  is  still 
used  for  this 
purpose,  and 
is  used  for 
ratting.  It  is 
deservedly 
popular  as  a 
companion  for 
man  and  as  a 
house  dog,  for 
which  it  is 
eminently 
qualified  by  its 

Foxtail  Grass,  intelligence 
Alopecurus  pratensis  a  n  d  friendly 
disposition.  No  breed  looks  quite 
as  smart  and  alert  as  a  good  fox 
terrier,  and  no  other  dog  seems 
to  be  in  such  complete  sym- 
pathy with  its  master.  It  is  -affec- 
tionate to  the  degree  of  being  some- 
times troublesome ;  readily  learns 


Fox  Terrier.    A  prize  winner  in  the 
London  Fox  Terrier  Clubs'  Champion- 
ship show 


to  obey  orders,  and  often  displays 
an  intelligence  almost  human. 

There  are  two  breeds,  the  smooth 
and  the  rough  coated.  The  former 
is  perhaps  the  favourite  as  a  com- 
panion, but  the  latter  possesses  the 
better  hunting  instincts.  To  judge 
by  the  show  records,  the  smooth 
variety  came  into  favour  with 
breeders  earlier  than  the  other.  In 
colour  the  fox  terrier  should  be 
black,  white  and  tan  ;  specimens 
that  show  liver-coloured  markings 
should  be  avoided.  Of  recent  years 
there  has  been  a  tendency  to  in- 
troduce a  bulldog  strain  into  the 
breed  with  a  view  to  develop  a 
stronger  jaw,  but  the  wisdom  of 
this  is  still  a  matter  of  controversy. 
In  everything  except  coat,  the  two 
varieties  are  identical.  See  Dog  and 
illus.  on  colour  plate  ;  Mammal. 

Fox-trot.  American  dance.  It 
originated  in  a  dance,  consisting  of 
alternate  slow  and  rapid  move- 
ments, performed  by  a  music-hall 
artist.  To  this  he  gave  the 
name  Fox-trot.  It  seized  upon  the 
imagination  of  the  audience,  was 
adopted  as  a  social  dance  for  two  : 
and  was  brought  to  France  and 
England  early  in  the  20th  cen- 
tury, with  many  variations. 

Foy,  MAXIMILIEN  SEBASTIEN 
(1775-1825).  French  soldier.  En- 
tering the  army  in  1791,  he  first 
saw  service  un- 
der Dumouriez. 
Distinguishing 
himself  in  Italy, 
1801,  and  in  the 
Austrian  cam- 
paign, 1805,  he 
was  sent  by 
Napoleon  in 
1807  with  a 
small  force  to 
Turkey  to  assist 
the  sultan  against  the  Russians 
and  British.  In  1808  he  was  in 
Spain,  and  fought  in  the  Peninsular 
War,  being  made  a  divisional  gen- 
eral in  1810.  He  held  a  command 
at  Waterloo.  After  1815  he  made 
his  peace  with  the  new  regime  and 
sat  in  the  French  Chamber.  He 
died  at  Paris,  Nov.  28,  1825.  His 
History  of  the  Peninsular  War  was 
published  in  1827. 

Foyers.  Two  cascades  (40  ft. 
and  165  ft.)  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Foyers  river,  on  the  E.  side  of  Loch 
Ness,  Inverness-shire,  Scotland. 
Since  1895  they  have  been  used  by 
the  British  Aluminium  Company 
for  generating  electricity. 

Foyle.  Lough  or  inlet  between 
cos.  Donegal  and  Londonderry,  Ire- 
land, into  which  drains  the  river 
Foyle,  16  m.  long.  It  is  18  m.  long 
and  has  a  width  of  1  m.  at  the 
entrance,  and  an  extreme  width  of 
10  m.  Dangerous  shoals  obstruct 
navigation  on  the  W.  side. 


Maximilien  Foy, 
French  soldier 


3286 


FRA      DIAVOLO 


F.P.    Abbreviation  for  fire  plug. 

Fraction  (Lat. /radio,  from/ran- 
gere,  to  break).  Arithmetical  ex- 
pression of  the  relation  of  a  part 
to  the  whole.  The  simplest  frac- 
tions express  this  relationship  in 
the  case  where  the  whole  contains 
the  part  an  exact  number  of  times ; 
e.g.  if  there  are  seven  equal  parts 
each  part  is  a  seventh  of  the  whole. 
The  next  step  is  the  adding  together 
of  several  such  simple  parts,  to 
form  a  fraction  like  three-sevenths. 
Simple  as  this  step  may  seem  to  the 
modern  reader,  it  was  beyond  the 
mental  grasp  of  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians, who  could  realize  this  type  of 
fraction  only  in  the  easy  cases  of 
two-thirds  and  three-quarters. 

The  handling  of  such  fractions  is 
greatly  facilitated  by  their  expres- 
sion, in  the  Arabic  notation,  by 
two  numbers  separated  by  a  bar  ; 
thus,  three -sevenths  is  written  %  ; 
3  is  technically  called  the  numera- 
tor and  7  the  denominator.  Such  a 
fraction  as  f  is  called  a  vulgar  frac- 
tion, in  contrast  with  a  decimal 
fraction,  the  denominator  of  which 
is  either  ten  or  a  power  of  ten.  This 
denominator,  being  understood, 
may  be  suppressed ;  thus  '39  is 
interpreted  to  mean  •&$.  The  deci- 
mal system  affords  great  advantage 
in  the  comparison  of  fractions  with 
different  denominators  (e.g.  it  is 
not  immediately  obvious  thatT7Tis 
greater  than  f ,  but  when  expressed 
decimally  as  '63  and  '625  respec- 
tively, the  fact  is  at  once  evident), 
and  in  computations  where  exact 
accuracy  is  not  required,  but  it  has 
the  disadvantage  of  being  cumbrous 
for  the  exact  expression  of  some  of 
the  commonest  fractions,  such  as 
one-third,  which  is  expressed  as 
*3,  one-eleventh  '09,  or  one-seventh 
•142857.  Thus  it  is  impossible 
to  divide  a  dollar  or  a  franc  into 
three  equal  parts.  See  Arithmetic  ; 
Decimal  System. 

Fracture  (Lat.  fractura).  Word 
meaning  breakage,  but  specially 
applied  to  breakages  of  the  bones. 
These  are  usually  caused  by  ex- 
ternal violence,  which  may  be  direct 
or  indirect.  A  fracture  caused 
by  direct  violence  occurs  at  that 
part  of  the  bone  lying  beneath  the 
tissues  which  are  actually  struck. 
Indirect  violence  breaks  the  bone 
at  some  other  part.  For  instance, 
a  blow  on  the  side  of  the  chest  will 
break  the  ribs  at  the  spot  actually 
struck  and  drive  the  fractured  ends 
inwards  ;  but  if  a  cartwheel  passes 
over  the  chest  of  a  person  lying  on 
his  back  on  the  ground,  the  ribs 
break  by  indirect  violence  at  the 
point  of  maximum  curvature,  and 
the  fractured  ends  fcnd  to  turn 
outwards.  Powerful  muscular 
effort  will  sometimes  fracture  a 


bone.  Thus  the  effort  made  by  a 
person  who  stumbles  to  save  him- 
self from  falling,  sometimes  frac- 


to  prevent  contraction  of  the  liga- 
ments and  stiffness  in  the  joints. 
With  single  fractures  in  which 


tures  the  patella  or  knee-cap ;  and    the  bones  are  readily  maintained 
the    upper    arm    bone    has    been    in  good  position  these  methods  are 

usually    sufficient, 


broken  by  the  vigorous  throwing 
of  a  cricket  ball. 

Conditions  predisposing  to  frac- 
ture are  diseases  which  cause 
atrophy  or  weakness  of  the  bones, 
such  as  rickets.  In  certain  forms 
of  lunacy  the  bones  may  be  so 
weakened  as  to  fracture  from  a 
slight  effort  or  accident,  a  condi- 
tion which  has  several  times 
given  rise  to  groundless  accusations 


but   for   more 

complicated  fractures,  and  when 
there  is  much  displacement,  opera- 
tive measures  are  often  desirable, 
the  fragments  of  bone  being  bound 
together  by  silver  wire  or,  in 
appropriate  cases,  united  by  metal 
plates.  Compound  fractures  de- 
mand thorough  cleaning  of  the 
injured  tissues  and  removal  of  all 
loose  fragments  of  bone,  which  are 


of  ill-treatment.  In  a  simple  frac-  &pt  to  undergo  necrosis  if  left  in 
ture  there  is  no  communication  the  wound.  If  suppuration  has 
between  the  seat  of  fracture  and  occurred,  the  insertion  of  drainage 
the  external  air ;  in  a  compound  tubes  is  generally  necessary.  Plat- 
fracture  the  skin  or  mucous  mem-  ; -•-•--• 

brane  is  so  torn  or  injured  as  to 
bring  about  this  communication.  In 
a  comminuted  fracture  the  bone  is 
broken  into  more  than  two  pieces, 
and  in  an  impacted  fracture  the 
ends  of  the  bones  are  driven  into 
each  other.  A  fracture  which  does 
not  completely  break  the  bone, 
but  bends  and  splits  it,  is  termed  a 
green -stick  fracture,  and  is  most 
often  seen  in  young  children  whose 
bones  are  relatively  soft.  A  frac- 
ture of  the  skull  which  has  resulted  In  1806  he  made  a  similar  attempt, 
in  the  driving  in  of  a  piece  of  bone  but  was  caught  and  hanged  in 
is  a  depressed  fracture. 


ing  or  wiring  is  not  as  a  rule  desir- 
able in  these  cases.  See  First 
Aid;  Surgery. 

FraDiayolo(  1771-1806).  Nick- 
name of  Michele  Pezza,  an  Italian 
brigand.  Originally  a  monk,  he 
became  an  outlaw  chieftain  in 
the  mountains  of  Calabria,  where 
his  atrocities  earned  him  his  nick- 
name (Brother  Devil).  Ferdinand 
of  Naples  made  him  a  colonel,  and 
with  Cardinal  Ruffo  he  raised  a 
revolt  against  the  French  in  1799. 


The  general  treatment  of  a  frac- 
ture consists  in  first  setting  the 
broken  bone,  i.e.  bringing  the 
broken  ends  into  opposition  with 
each  other  in  the  normal  position. 
This  is  done  by  manipulation,  and 
as  the  process  may 
be  very  painful,  and 
muscular  spasm 
may  hinder  the  re- 
placement, it  is 
often  desirable  to 
place  the  patient 
under  an  anaes- 
thetic. The  broken 
bone  is  next  secured 
in  normal  position 
by  means  of  band- 
ages, splints,  and, 
in  appropriate 
cases,  plaster  of 
Paris.  The  limb 
must  be  kept  at 
rest  while  re-union 
is  occurring,  but  as 
disuse  leads  to  con- 
siderable weaken- 
ing and  atrophy  of 
the  muscles,  the 
limb  should  be  mas- 
saged daily,  usually 
within  a  period  not 
longer  than  a  fort- 
night after  the  in- 
jury. Gentle  pas- 
sive movements  of 
the  limb  are  also 
begun  early  in  order 


Naples  as  a  bandit,  Nov.  10,  1806. 
Fra  Diavolo.  Opera  by  D.  F. 
Auber,  nominally  founded  on  the 
misdeeds  of  the  brigand  of  that 
name.  The  full  title  of  the  opera 
is  Fra  Diavolo,  ou  I'Hotellerie  de 
Terracine ;  the  libretto  was  bv 


Fragonard.     The  Swing,  one  of  the  artist's  most  deli- 
cately executed  masterpieces,  painted  about  1769 

Wallace  Collection,  London 


FRAGONARD 


3287 


FRAME 


Scribe,  and  it  was  first  produced 
at  the  Opera  Comique,  Paris,  on 
Jan.  28,  1830. 

Fragonard,      JEAN      HONOBE 
(1732-1806).     French  painter  and 
engraver.    Born  at  Grasse,  in  Pro- 
vence, April 
5,    1732,   he 
studied  under 
Boucher    and 
Chardin,  and, 
having    won 
the    Grand 
Prix  in   1752 
at    Rome,    in 
1763   he   re- 
J.  H.  Fragonard,        turned    to 
French  painter          Paris,  was  re- 

After  Gerard  C  6  i  V  6  d    into 

the  Academy  in  1765,  and  shortly 
afterwards  abandoned  classical 
painting  for  the  freer  style  appre- 
ciated by  the  Court.  During  the 
Revolution  he  retired  to  Grasse, 
where  he  completed  the  five 
paintings  of  The  Lover's  Progress, 
now  in  the  Pierpoint  Morgan 
collection  and  exhibited  at  the 
Guildhall  in  1902.  He  returned  to 
a  changed  Paris,  and  died  there 
poor  and  neglected,  Aug.  2,  1806. 
Apart  from  the  Grasse  pictures, 
his  most  famous  works  are  in  the 
Louvre  and  the  Wallace  Collec- 
tion: Coresus  and  Callirrhoe,  The 
Music  Lesson,  and  The  Storm, 
in  the  Louvre,  and  The  Swing, 
in  the  Wallace  Collection.  His 
crayons  and  water-colours  are 
charmingly  facile. 

Fragspn,  HAKBY.  Stage  name 
of  the  British  comedian,  Leon  Pott, 
(1870-1914).  Born  at  Brixton, 
after  a  few 
years  in  busi- 
ness at  Rich- 
mond he  went 
on  the  stage 
and  gave  imi- 
tati  on  s  of 
Paulus,  then  a 
well-known 
star  of  the  Paris 
music  halls. 
Meeting  with 
little  success  in  London,  he  moved 
to  Paris,  and  after  living  in  poverty 
made  a  success  with  his  Ronde 
des  Petits  Cochons.  By  this  time 
he  had  learned  French  perfectly. 
He  soon  gained  popularity  in 
France,  and  in  1904  appeared  in 
pantomime  at  Drury  Lane,  where  he 
made  a  success  with  his  Love,  love, 
whispers  of  love.  Equally  versatile 
in  English  and  French,  he  was  at 
the  height  of  his  popularity  in  both 
countries  when  he  was  murdered 
by  his  father,  Jan.  1,  1914. 

Fraizer,  A  LEX  AND  EB  (c.  1610- 
81 ).  English  physician.  Of  Scot- 
tish ancestry,  he  received  his 
medical  education  at  Montpelier. 
Having  settled  in  London,  he  be- 


Harry  Fragson, 
British  comedian 


came  known  at  court,  and  when 
Charles  II  went  abroad,  after  the 
execution  of  his  father  in  1649, 
Fraizer  went  with  him  in  a  pro- 
fessional capacity.  He  mixed  also 
in  the  politics  and  intrigues  that 
surrounded  the  exiled  king.  He 
returned  to  England  at  the  Restora- 
tion, and  remained  in  attendance 
on  the  royal  family  until  his  death, 
May  3,  1681.  An  incident  in  his 
career  was  his  arrest  for  debt  at  the 
instance  of  Sir  E.  B.  Godfrey,  this 
being  resented  by  the  king  to  the 
extent  of  putting  Godfrey  in  prison 
and  punishing  the  bailiffs  who 
carried  out  the  order. 

F.R.A.M.  Abbrev.  for  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music. 

Fram  (Norweg.,  forward).  Three- 
masted  schooner  of  402  tons 
built  in  1892  for  Nansen's  Arctic 


Fram.     The  polar  exploration  ship  after  she  had  been 
converted  from  steam  to  oil  for  Amundsen's  expedi- 
tion in  1910 

expedition.  She  was  117  ft.  in 
length,  with  triple  external  plank- 
ing ranging  from  24  ins.  to  28  ins. 
in  thickness,  and  auxiliary  engines 
driving  a  screw  propeller.  Nansen 
sailed  in  her  in  Aug.,  1893,  and 
entering  the  ice  at  the  new  Siberia 
Islands,  drifted  northward.  In 
June,  1895,  he  left  the  ship  and 
marched  north  as  far  as  86°  13.6'. 
In  May,  1897,  he  fell  in  with  the 
Jackson-Harmsworth  expedition, 
with  whom  he  returned  in  the 
Windward  to  Norway,  whither  the 
Fram  also  returned  safely.  In 
1899  the  ship  was  used  by  Sverdrup 
in  his  exploration  of  Jones  Sound, 
in  the  N.  of  Baffin  Bay. 

In  Aug.,  1910,  Captain  Roald 
Amundsen  (q.v.)  left  Norway  in  the 
Fram,  intending,  like  Nansen,  to 
drift  across  the  North  Polar  basin, 
but,  changing  his  programme, 
made  his  way  from  Madeira  to  the 
Antarctic  regions.  The  ship  was 
next  heard  of  in  the  Bay  of  Whales, 
where  Captain  Scott  discovered 
her  while  cruising  along  the  Ice 


Tasmania,  March  7,  1912,  and  later 
returned  to  Norway.  See  Nansen. 
Framboesia  OB  YAWS  (Fr. 
framboise,  raspberry).  Infectious 
and  contagious  disease  caused  by 
infection  with  a  minute  spiral - 
shaped  organism,  Treponema  per- 
tenue,  discovered  by  Castellani  in 
1905.  The  disease  is  almost  con- 
fined to  tropical  and  sub-tropical 
regions,  being  most  prevalent  on 
the  W.  coast  of  Africa,  in  Tripoli, 
the  Malay  Peninsula,  Assam,  Java, 
Ceylon,  the  West  Indies,  Samoa, 
and  Fiji. 

Three  stages  are  recognized. 
The  primary  stage  usually  begins 
with  symptoms  of  general  ill- 
health,  headache,  rheumatic  pains, 
and  a  rise  of  temperature.  In  from 
two  to  four  weeks  after  inoculation 
a  papule  appears  on  the  skin  at 
the  point  where  the 
i  organism  has  en- 
tered the  body, 
/w  which  may  be  an 

/  %.  old    ulceration,    a 

/  scratch,  or  even  an 

insect  -  bite.      The 
papule   may  de- 
velop into  a  large 
nodule,  or  become 
____          :  ulcerated  and  sub- 
sequently  heal. 
The    second   stage 
usually  begins  be- 
tween  one   and 
three  months  after 
the  primary  lesion 
has  appeared,  and 
is  characterised  by 
the  eruption  of  papules  more  or 
less   all   over  the   body,   some   of 
which   develop   into  large  granu- 
lomatous  nodules,  which  may  later 
become  hard  and  wart-like. 

In  most  cases  these  disappear 
within  a  year,  and  the  patient  re- 
covers. In  some  instances,  how- 
ever, the  third  stage  develops. 
Nodules  may  appear  in  any  of  the 
tissues,  and  deep  ulcers  may  be 
formed.  Contractions  of  groups  of 
muscles  are  frequent,  and  painful 
nodes  may  develop  on  the  bones. 
The  disease  is  rarely  fatal,  but  it 
is  a  cause  of  much  sickness.  Treat- 
ment by  injection  of  salvarsan 
has  been  found  very  effective, 
and  is  now  widely  adopted.  The 
disease  is  quite  distinct  from 
syphilis,  with  which  it  was  at  one 
time  confused. 

Frame.  •  Border  or  case  in 
which  a  picture  is  set  for  exhibi- 
tion on  a  wall.  It  may  be  made  of 
various  materials,  and  should  have 
some  regard  for  the  character  of 
the  picture.  An  oil  painting,  being 


Barrier.    Amundsen  wintered  near    in  a  strong  medium,  will  tolerate 
King  Edward  VII  Land,  and  hav-    a  heavy  gilt  frame  which  would 

"  kill  "  a  slighter  medium,  such  as 
a    water-colour.     Engravings    are 


ing  accomplished  his  march  to  the 
South  Pole,  rejoined  the  Fram, 
aboard  which  he  arrived  at  Hobart, 


framed    in    oak,    walnut,    maple, 


FRAME 


FRANCAVILLA   FONTANA 


rosewood,  and  gold  ;  but  etchings 
and  all  prints  in  which  the  work  is 
light,  sketchy,  or  delicate  should 
be  framed  in  a  plain  and  simple 
strip  of  black  or  dark  wood.  Fine 
prints  are  better  unframed  and 
kept  in  special  portfolios. 

Frame.  Term  used  in  en- 
gineering for  a  structure  built  up 
of  members  which  are  joined  to- 
gether. The  theory  of  frames, 
which  deals  with  the  least  number 
of  members  necessary  to  keep 
them  rigid,  and  with  the  strengths 
of  the  individual  members,  is  one 
of  great  importance  in  engineering. 
In  a  printing  office  the  wooden 
structure  on  which  are  placed  the 
cases  at  which  a  hand  compositor 
works  is  called  a  frame.  See 
Mechanics. 

Framework  Knitters'  Com- 
pany. London  city  livery  com- 
pany. It  came  into  existence  with 
the  invention  of 
silk  stockings,  and 
was  granted  its 
first  charter  by 
Cromwell  in  1657. 
A  second  charter 
was  granted  by 
Charles  II  in  1663 
to  "  the  wardens, 
assistants  and  so- 
ciety of  the  art  and 
mystery  of  Framework  Knitters 
in  the  cities  of  London  and  West- 
minster, the  kingdom  of  England, 
and  the  dominion  of  Wales."  The 
powers  were  limited  by  Parliament 
in  1753,  the  hall  in  Red  Cross 
Street,  E.G.,  was  sold  in  1821,  and 
the  plate  in  1861,  the  proceeds 
being  devoted  to  the  Bourne  alms- 
houses  in  Kingsland  Road.  Cor- 
porate income,  £310 ;  trust  in- 
come, £352;  offices,  18,  Essex 
Street,  W.C.  See  The  Framework 
Knitters,  H.  C.  Overall,  1879. 

Framlingham.  Market  town 
of  Suffolk,  England.  It  is  a  station 
on  the  G.E.  Rly.,  22  m.  N.E.  of 
Ipswich  and  90  m.  N.E.  of  London. 
S.  Michael's  Church,  with  a  tower 
95  ft.  hicrh.  contains  tombs  of  some 


Framework  Knit- 
ters' Company 
arms 


Franc. 


Framlingbam,  Suffolk.     Walls  o!    the    ruined   castle, 
with  the  workhouse  built  when  the  castle  was  dis- 
mantled in  the  17th  century 

Frith 


of  the  Howards,  including  that  of 

the  earl  of  Surrey,  the  poet.    The 

castle  is  a  fine  ruin.     The  remains 

include    a 

gateway, 

the     outer 

walls,   13 

towers,  and 

a  moat;  it 

was     the 

strongh  old 

of   the    Bi- 

gods,    and 

later  of  the 

Howards,  both  families  holding  the 

earldom  of  Norfolk,  in  the  lands  of 

which  the  place  lay. 

Framlingham      College      is      a 

Sablic  school  in  large  grounds, 
uilt  to  commemorate  the  Prince 
Consort,  it  was  opened  in  1865 
as  the  Albert  Memorial  College. 
Framlingham  is  an  old  place, 
having  existed  before  Roger  Bigod 
built  a  castle  here  about  1100. 
Its  history  is  really  that  of 
the  castle,  which  was  more  than 
once  forfeited  by  the  Howards,  but 
restored  to  them.  They  lost  it 
finally  in  the  17th  century.  Market 
day,  Sat.  Pop.  2,400. 

Frampton,  SIR  GEORGE  JAMES 
(b.  1866).      British  sculptor.      He 
studied   under  W.   P.    Frith,   and 
at   the    R.A. 
schools;  later, 
under  P.  Mer- 
cie   and    Dag- 
nan  -  Bouveret 
in    Paris.     He 
first  exhibited 
at    the   R.A. 
in    1884,    was 
elected  A. R.A. 
1894,  and  R.A. 
1902,      and 

knighted  in  1908.  As  a  decorative 
sculptor  he  is  in  the  front  rank,  ex- 
celling in  polychromatic  figure  work 
and  architectural  skill.  Among  his 
works  are  the  bronze  memorial 
to  Charles  Mitchell,  1898;  S.George, 
1899;  statue  of  Queen  Victoria, 
Calcutta,  and  the  Edith  Cavell  (q.v.) 
memorial  in  London,  1919. 

Franc.  French 
silver  coin,  the 
unit  of  the  French 
decimal  monetary 
system.  The  name 
comes  from  the  in- 
scription Franco - 
rum  Rex,  king  of 
the  Franks,  on  the 
obverse  of  the  gold 
coin  issued  by  John 
II  in  1360.  It  was 
then  the  equivalent 
of  the  livre,  and 
consisted  of  20  sols. 
Gold  francs  were 
also  coined  by 
Charles  V  of  France, 
and  in  1575  Henry 


III  issued  silver  francs.  In  1641 
Louis  XIII  substituted  the  silver 
louis,  but  the  name  of  the  franc 


Left  to  right,  reverse  sides  of  French,  Belgian,  and  Swiss 
francs,  actual  size 

survived  the  actual  coin  and  was 
long  synonymous  with  the  livre.  In 
"1795  the  franc  was  again  estab- 
lished, superseding  the  livre,  and, 
consisting  of  100  centimes,  remains 
the  unit  of  French  currency,  the 
standard  being  the  gold  piece  of 
20  francs. 

An  integral  part  of  the  metric 
system  of  weights  and  currency, 
its  weight  is  exactly  5  grammes 
(78  grains),  and  it  is  the  standard 
of  the  Latin  Monetary  Union  (q.v.), 
which  adopted  it  in  1865.  The 
coin  has  the  same  name  in  Belgium 
and  Switzerland.  20-  and  10-franc 

Ees  are  of  gold,  5-,  2-,  1-,  and 
me  pieces  are  of  silver.  French 
cs  are  nominally  reckoned  at 
25  to  the  £  sterling,  but  the  Great 
War  caused  great  fluctuations  of 
value.  See  Coinage. 

Francais,  ANTOINE  (1756-1836). 
French  politician.  He  was  born  at 
Beaurepaire  and  sat  in  the  legis- 
lative assembly  of  1791,  noted  as  a 
bitter  anti-clerical.  Under  the  con- 
sulate he  was  prefect  of  Charente- 
Inferieure,  and  held  high  fiscal 
positions  ;  he  was  made  count  by 
Napoleon,  and  died  March  7,  1836. 

Francais,  FRANCOIS  Louis  (1814 
-97).  French  painter.  Born  at 
Plombieres,  Vosges,  Nov.  17,  1814, 
he  studied  art  under  Corot  and 
Jean  Gigoux.  Among  his  works  are 
A  Song  under  the  Willows,  with 
figures  by  Baron,  In  the  Park  of 
St.  Cloud,  with  figures  by  Meis- 
sonier,  An  Italian  Sunset,  in  the 
Luxembourg,  and  decorations  in 
the  Church  of  the  Trinity.  He  died 
at  Paris,  May  28,  1897. 

Francatelli,  CHARLES  ELME 
(1805-76).  British  cook.  Born  in 
London  of  Italian  parentage, 
Francatelli  became,  in  turn,  cook 
to  several  noblemen,  to  Crockford's 
Club,  and  to  Queen  Victoria.  His 
fame  as  a  cook  of  the  highest  skill 
was  widespread,  and  he  published 
The  Modern  Cook,  1845;  The 
Plain  Cookery  Book  for  the  Work- 
ing Classes,"  1861  ;  and  other 
works.  He  died  Aug.  10,  1876. 

Franca  villa  Fontana.  Town  of 
Italy,  in  the  prov.  of  Lecce.  It  is 
22  m.  by  rly.  E.N.E.  of  Taranto 
and  trades  in  oil,  wine,  and  leather 
goods.  Pop.  21,527. 


Sir  George  Frampton, 
British  sculptor 


FRANCE 


3289 


France.     Arms 
of  the  Republic 


FRANCE:   ITS    HISTORY  AND  CULTURE 

HAMILTON  FYFE,  W.  H.  HUDSON  and  F.  J.  MACLEAN 

The  various  sections  of  this  article  are  each  supplemented  by  shorter  entries,  e.g.  those  on  the  cities,  towns,  and 

rivers  of  France,  those  on  the  kings  and  statesmen,  and  those  on  its  artists  and  men  of  letters.     See  also 

Franks;  French  Revolution;  Hundred  Years'  War;  Architecture;  Furniture 

through  the  provinces  which  more 
than  any  other  contributed  to  the 
formation  and  development  of  the 
French  nation,  the  country  of 
Touraine.  Its  course  continues 
amid  fertile  fields  and  orchards  as 
far  as  Nantes,  where  the  estuary 
begins  and  carries  it  out  to  the 
ocean.  Next  in  length  comes  the 
Rh6ne  (507  m.),  which  flows  from 
St.  Gotthard  range  in  Switzerland 
down  into  the  Lake  of  Geneva.  At 
Lyons  it  receives  the  Saone  and 
then  flows  due  S.  in  a  delightful 
valley  through  vineyards,  until  it 
becomes  sandy  and  shallow,  and 
with  a  number  of  smaller  streams 
makes  the  wide  delta  which  gives 
its  name  to  the  dept.  of  Bouches- 
du-Rhone. 

Seine,  Garonne,  and  Somme 

The  Seine  rises  in  the  E.  of 
France  and  takes  its  course  of 
485  m.  almost  entirely  through 
plains.  It  is,  therefore,  sinuous,  but 
otherwise  excellent  for  navigation. 
From  Havre,  where  it  runs  into 
the  sea,  up  to  Paris,  there  is  a  large 
traffic.  Rouen  owes  its  importance 
to  the  Seine.  Fourth  among  the 
great  rivers  comes  the  Garonne 
(378  m.),  which  is  joined  by  the 
Dordogne  near  the  ocean,  the  two 
forming  the  estuary  of  the  Gironde. 
Here  are  the  vineyards  which  pro- 
duce the  famous  Bordeaux  wines, 
most  of  them  in  the  Medoc  region. 
The  Somme  and  the  Marne  are 
both  in  the  Seine  basin,  though 
the  former  has  its  own  outlet  to  the 
sea  not  far  from  Abbeville. 

Except  for  the  lakes  of  Geneva, 
Bourget,  and  Annecy,  France  has 
no  large  inland  bodies  of  water. 
Her  sea  coasts,  on  the  other  hand, 
are  of  great  length  and  value. 
Along  the  Mediterranean  she  has 
made  of  the  C6te  d'Azur  a  winter 
holiday  ground  for  the  people  of 
all  nations.  On  the  Channel  coast, 
in  Brittany,  and  that  part  of  Nor- 
mandy which  fronts  the  Atlantic, 
there  are  numerous  plages  ( beaches), 
which  in  summer  are  thronged  by 
visitors. 

Various  parts  of  the  coast  of 
France  support  fishing  industries 
of  considerable  importance.  The 
chief  fishing  ports  are  S.  Malo, 
Boulogne,  Fecamp,  Groix,  and  La 
Rochelle  ;  among  the  lesser,  Paim- 
pol,  Dieppe,  Douarnenez,  Lorient, 
Yeu,  Dunkirk,  and  Arcachon. 
From  the  ports  of  the  Nord,  Pas- 
de-Calais,  Somme,  and  Seine- 
Inf  erieure,  mackerel  are  sought ; 
from  those  of  the  Atlantic  sea- 


France  is  a  country  of  vast 
plains,  for  the  most  part  of  great 
fertility ;  of  high,  inhospitable 
plateaux;  of 
noble  rivers ;  and 
of  mountain 
ranges  which 
serve  as  land 
frontiers.  Its 
area  is  212,659 
sq.  m.,  including 
the  territories  re- 
stored as  a  result 
of  the  Great  War. 

The  districts  of  Lower  Alsace, 
Upper  Alsace,  and  Lorraine  are 
now  the  depts.  of  Bas-Rhin  (area 
1,848  sq.  m.),  Haut-Rhin  (1,354 
sq.  m.),  and  Moselle  (2,403  sq.  m.). 
With  the  English  Channel  on  the 
N.,  the  Atlantic  on  the  W.,  and  the 
Mediterranean  washing  the  E.  half 
of  its  southern  side,  the  country- 
is  well  provided  with  harbours. 
The  ports  of  greatest  commercial 
importance  are  Havre,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Seine,  Brest,  St. 
Nazaire,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Loire, 
La  Rochelle,  Bordeaux,  on  the  Gar- 
onne above  the  estuary  of  the 
Gironde,  Marseilles,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Rhone,  and  Toulon. 

The  mountain  ranges  which  di- 
vide France  from  Switzerland,  Italy 
and  Spain  are  the  Jura,  the  Alps, 
and  the  Pyrenees.  The  Vosges, 
which,  until  the  restoration  of 
Alsace  and  Lorraine,  served  as  fron- 
tier between  France  and  the  Ger- 
man Empire,  are  not  high.  At  the 
S.  end  of  the  Vosges  is  the  Trouee 
de  Belf  ort,  through  which  invaders 
have  passed  many  times.  It  is 
literally  a  "  hole "  between  the 
Vosges  and  the  Jura  ;  through  it 
runs  a  canal  connecting  the  Saone 
with  the  Rhine,  also  the  rly.  into 
Germany  and  Switzerland. 

The  Jura  and  Alps 

The  Jura  forms  an  extensive 
limestone  plateau,  well  populated 
and  productive.  The  hills,  of  no 
great  height,  are  wooded,  and  the 
sheltered  valleys  between  them  are 
both  cultivated  and  valuable  for 
cattle-raising. 

S.  of  the  Jura  begin  the  Alps, 
with  Mont  Blanc  as  the  first  of  the 
giants ;  its  northern  approaches 
have  been  on  French  territory  since 
Savoy  was  taken  by  France  from 
Italy  in  1860.  Extending  S.  from 
Savoy,  the  Alps  run  almost  to  the 
sea  behind  Cannes  and  Nice,  while 
in  a  W.  direction  they  become  the 
Alps  of  Provence,  and  stretch 
nearly  to  the  Rhone.  Around  the 


France.     Flag 
of  the  Republic 


Gulf  of  the  Lion,  often  incorrectly 
called  the  Gulf  of  Lyons,  which 
takes  its  name  from  the  likeness  of 
its  shape  to  a  lion  asleep,  there  is 
flat  land  for  some  distance  inland  ; 
but  at  the  extreme  S.W.  point  of 
the  gulf  the  Pyrenees  begin. 

On  French  soil  the  Pyrenees  run 
eastward  for  230  m.,  several  of  the 
peaks  reaching  heights  of  nearly 
10,000  ft.  Without  the  grandeur 
of  the  Alps,  lacking  vast  glaciers 
and  fields  of  eternal  snow,  they  are 
preferred  by  most  French  people, 
and  holiday  resorts,  such  as  Lu- 
chon  and  Cauterets,  are  full  all 
summer  and  autumn.  Pau,  whence 
the  best  view  of  the  chain  of  the 
Pyrenees  is  obtained,  is  more  fre- 
quented by  English  visitors.  No 
rly.  cuts  the  Pyrenees,  owing  to 
the  height  of  the  passes.  The 
lines  run  by  the  Gulf  of  the  Lion  at 
one  end  and  along  the  Atlantic 
coast  at  the  other.  In  many  parts 
of  the  Pyrenees 
the  inhabitants 
are  almost  a  s 
much  Spanish  as 
French. 

Thus,  if  France 
be  regarded  as  a 
rough  square,  it 
is  seen  to  have 

mountains  on  its  E.  and  S.  sides, 
while  on  the  W.  and  N.  its  frontier 
is  the  sea.  There  is,  however, 
another  French  mountain  system 
independent  of  the  others,  and 
separated  from  them  by  later  geo- 
graphical formations.  This  in- 
cludes the  high  central  plateaux, 
somewhat  to  the  S.  of  the  exact 
centre  of  the  country ;  it  consists 
of  the  Cevennes  mountains,  those 
of  Auvergne  (the  Margeride),  the 
Monts  Dore,  the  Puy-de-D6me, 
and  the  Gausses,  which,  although 
barren  and  monotonous,  reveal  the 
most  picturesque  valleys  of  the 
entire  region.  In  general,  it  is  hard 
to  cultivate  successfully.  The  win- 
ters are  long  and  cold,  pasturage  is 
poor,  and  most  of  the  forests  have 
disappeared.  There  are  ranges  of 
hills  in  Brittany  and  Normandy, 
there  are  the  French  Ardennes  to- 
wards the  Belgian  frontier,  but 
nothing  in  the  N.  or  W.  can  be 
called  a  mountain. 

Of  the  rivers  the  Loire  is  the 
longest  (650  m.).  Rising  on  Mont 
Gerbier-de-Jonc,  in  the  dept.  of 
Ardeche,  for  a  long  distance  it 
flows  through  the  rocky  defiles  of 
the  central  plateau.  Then,  joined 
by  the  Allier,  it  sweeps  onwards 


FRANCE 


3290 


FRANCE 


France.     Map  showing  the  departments,  principal  railway  lines,  and  the  frontier  as  determined  by  the  Treaty  of  Versailles, 

1919.     Inset,  the  island  of  Corsica 


board,  tunny-fish  and  sardines ; 
Boulogne  and  Fecamp  have  heavy 
herring-catches  ;  cod  fleets  go  out 
to  the  N.  Sea  and  Atlantic  from 
several  Channel  ports. 

The  N.  and  N.E.  are  the 
most  fertile  parts  of  the  country. 
Most  of  the  cultivation  is  done  by 
peasant  proprietors.  The  average 
size  of  the  holdings  is  well  under 
25  acres,  and  only  2i  p.c.  of  the 
total  number  of  farms"  are  over  100 
acres.  At  the  same  time  it  must 
be  noticed  that  nearly  half  the 
total  amount  of  land  is  owned  by 
large  holders.  Since  about  1870 
the  number  of  small  farms  which 
could  support  an  owner  and  his 
family  has  shrunk  ;  the  number  of 
peasants  with  holdings  of  an  acre 
or  two,  who  are  obliged  to  hire 


themselves  out  as  labourers,  has 
been  increasing.  Eighty  p.c.  of 
those  engaged  in  agriculture  own 
their  land  ;  of  the  remainder  more 
than  two-thirds  pay  rent,  while 
the  others  work  on  the  metayer 
system,  which  divides  the  produce 
between  the  cultivator  and  the 
owner  of  the  land. 

More  wheat  is  grown  than  any 
other  cereal ;  oats  come  next,  then 
rye,  which  used  to  be  the  staple 
food  of  the  people  until  wheat  took 
its  place.  French  farmers  do  not 
raise  enough  cattle  and  sheep  to 
supply  the  national  demand  for 
meat,  nor  are  their  breeds  of  these 
animals  exceptional.  Horse-breed- 
ing is  a  national  industry,  and  for 
heavy  breeds  of  horses  France  is 
famous.  The  Percheron  and  some 


Flemish  stocks  are  unrivalled.  In 
the  S.,  however,  there  are  few  horses 
on  farms.  Hay  is  scarce,  owing  to  the 
climate  and  the  nature  of  the  soil. 
Oxen  are,  therefore,  used  as  draught 
animals,  as  in  Italy  and  Spain.  They 
are  bred  specially  for  this  purpose, 
but  generally  end  by  being  eaten. 
In  many  mountainous  regions  the 
goat  supplies  most  of  the  milk  and 
a  large  proportion  of  the  meat. 

France  still  enjoys  its  reputation 
as  the  land  of  good  wine.  Vine- 
growing  is  a  form  of  cultivation 
employing  large  numbers  and 
adding  much  to  the  country's 
prosperity,  though  the  amount  of 
land  devoted  to  it  has  diminished, 
owing  chiefly  to  the  harm  done  by 
fungus  and  phylloxera.  This  in- 
sect did  so  much  damage  that  it  was 


FRANCE 


3291 


FRANCE 


found  necessary  to  import  Ameri- 
can vines  and  graft  the  famous 
French  varieties  on  to  them. 

Vast  quantities  of  fruit  are  pro- 
duced in  all  parts — cherries,  pears, 
apples,  plums,  and  peaches,  and 
in  the  S.  oranges  and  lemons  as 
well.  Chestnuts  and  walnuts  also 
yield  large  and  profitable  crops. 
Market-gardening  is  widely  carried 
on,  aided  by  the  fertile  soil  and  the 
high  pitch  to  which  intensive 
methods  of  culture  have  been 
brought ;  many  families  in  the 
smaller  towns  and  in  country  dis- 
tricts make  a  useful  addition  to 
their  incomes  out  of  small  patches 
of  garden-land. 

Forests  are  well  kept  up,  some  by 
individuals,  some  by  public  author- 
ities. Beeches  and  horse  chestnuts 
are  the  trees  most  common,  though 
in  some  parts  oaks  grow  well.  On 
the  sandy  soil  of  Landes,  in  the 
S.W.,  the  fir  flourishes. 

These  marshy  districts  are  the 
poorest  in  the  republic,  excepting 
the  mountains.  The  people  form  a 
race  apart,  the  Basques,  of  Spanish 
origin,  with  language  and  customs 
differing  from  those  of  the  rest 
of  the  population.  They  are  quite 
unlike  the  other  people  of  the 
S.,  who  have  more  in  common 
with  Italians,  being  dark-haired, 
dark-skinned,  dark-eyed,  and  of 
medium  height.  The  northern 
French  are  much  lighter  hi  complex- 
ion. Pure  Celts  are  still  to  be  found 
in  the  Cevennes  and  in  the  central 
plateau  as  well  as  in  Brittany. 
Climate  and  Character 

But  although  they  are  often 
classed  with  the  Latins,  the  French 
have  not,  as  a  nation,  the  charac- 
teristics of  a  Latin  race.  To 
a  certain  degree  they  are  affected 
by  the  climate.  There  is  a  great 
deal  of  difference  between  the  hard 
winters  of  the  E.  provinces  and  the 
genial  sunshine  of  the  S.  The  N. 
is  affected  by  the  Atlantic  ;  it  has 
changeable,  often  damp,  wea,ther  ; 
in  the  centre,  the  winters  are  long 
and  hard,  in  the  W.  they  are  short 
and  mild.  Thus  the  S.  and  S.W. 
people  are  more  expansive  than  the 
rest ;  they  are  great  talkers,  quick- 
tempered, small  eaters  and  sober. 

One  feature  of  the  French  char- 
acter is  much  the  same  in  all 
parts — they  are  all  hard  workers 
and  their  love  of  independence 
makes  them  thrifty.  The  small 
peasant  farmers  ai\>  the  closest- 
fisted;  they  grudge  any  expenditure 
even  on  their  own  comfort.  French 
housewives  are  good  managers  and 
can  make  a  little  go  a  long  way. 
And  the  French  woman  is  her  hus- 
band's adviser  and  partner,  often 
she  understands  his  business,  often 
she  carries  on  a  business  herself.  In 
all  domestic  economy  hers  is  the  de- 


ciding voice.  The  manual  labourer's 
wife  does  not  have  to  ask  him  for 
money;  she  takes  his  wages  and 
allows  him  so  much  out  of  them. 
One  result  of  this  is  that  women 
have  more  influence  on  the  national 
life  than  hi  any  other  country,  and 
as  they  are  usually  more  cautious 
and  provident  than  men,  the  habit 
of  looking  after  the  pennies  has 
become  engrained  in  the  national 
character. 

TRADE  AND  INDUSTRY.  In  in- 
dustry and  commerce,  the  French 
are  averse  from  taking  large  risks. 
Their  inventors  are  clever,  and  often 
take  the  lead  when  some  fresh  de- 
velopment of  manufacture  begins, 
as  in  the  motor-car  business  and 
later  with  aeronautics.  But  they  do 
not  keep  their  pre-eminence ;  they 
let  others  who  are  more  enterpris- 
ing get  ahead  of  them.  French 
work  is  notable  for  its  high  finish 
and  artistic  quality.  The  articles 
produced  for  export  are  mostly 
luxuries.  First  among  their  in- 
dustries is  the  fine  textile,  and 
the  French  have  a  reputation  all 
over  the  world  for  fine  silks,  fine 
linen,  and  fine  cloths.  In  metal- 
work  they  are  famous  for  things  of 
daily  use,  for  much  of  their 
machinery  they  are  dependent 
upon  other  countries.  This  is 
partly  because  France  had  not, 
until  after  the  Great  War,  coal  and 
iron  near  together  in  large  quanti- 
ties. Around  Le  Creusot  they  are 
found  together,  and  that  became 
one  of  the  principal  homes  of  the 
iron  and  steel  industry.  The 
normal  output  of  coal  is  about 
40,000,000  metric  tons  a  year ;  of 
iron  about  20,000,000.  No  other 
metals  are  found  in  any  great  bulk. 
Their  technical  skill  has  given  the 
French  their  reputation.  Their 
jewelry  is  unrivalled.  In  china 
and  porcelain  they  keep  up  their 
old  reputation  ;  also  in  perfumes 
and  women's  dress. 

Production  of  Luxury  Wares 

By  far  their  largest  export  is 
manufactured  silk.  Raw  silk  also 
figures  high  up  in  the  list.  Wine 
is,  of  course,  prominent,  but  it  is 
surprising  to  find  that  much  more 
is  imported  than  exported.  This 
is  mostly  Spanish  and  Italian  wine 
which,  being  mixed  with  French, 
becomes  Burgundy  or  Medoc.  The 
bulk  of  coal  imported  is  large.  The 
French  coal  mines,  of  which  the 
most  productive  are  in  the  N.,  do 
not  yield  nearly  enough  for  the 
manufacturer's  needs.  In  their 
houses  the  French  burn  mostly 
wood,  so  the  domestic  demand  is 
not  heavy. 

Soap  is  manufactured  hi  vast 
quantities,  hi  all  degrees  of  refine- 
ment. Cheese-making  is  practised 
where  there  is  good  pasture  ;  it  is 


enough  to  mention  Camembert, 
Pont  L'Eveque,  Brie,  and  Roque- 
fort. Sugar-making  from  beets  is 
carried  on  extensively  in  the  N.  In 
and  around  Paris  are  the  principal 
producers  of  luxury  wares,  but 
outside  that  region  there  are  found 
many  trades  attached  for  some 
reason  to  certain  localities,  such  as 
clock-making  at  Besanson.women's 
hat-making  and  hosiery  at  Troyes, 
porcelain  at  Limoges,  tulle  at 
Calais,  table-glass  at  Baccarat, 
lace  at  Puy,  Valenciennes,  and  else- 
where. As  in  most  countries  of 
Europe,  the  N.  is  more  occupied 
with  manufacture  than  the  S., 
though  Marseilles  is  an  industrial 
centre  as  well  as  a  large  port,  and 
Lyons  has  grouped  round  it  pro- 
bably the  largest  produce  of  silk, 
and  has  made  itself  the  chief  mar- 
ket for  that  important  product. 
State  Monopolies 

The  State  enjoys  several  manu- 
facturing and  industrial  monopo* 
lies.  That  of  tobacco,  established 
by  decree  of  1810  and  reorganized 
in  1916,  is  controlled  by  the  ad- 
ministration of  manufactures, 
which  buys  all  French-grown  to- 
bacco and  imports,  when  possible, 
the  remainder  called  for.  The 
match  monopoly  dates  from  1889, 
there  being  six  national  factories. 
Certain  explosives,  but  not  dyna- 
mite or  nitro-glycerine,  are  state 
products,  and  the  artistic  manu- 
factures of  Sevres  porcelain,  and 
Gobelin  and  Beauvais  tapestries 
are  famed  for  a  higher  quality  than 
are  the  first-named  monopolies. 

The  chambers  of  commerce  per- 
form useful  functions  in  the  com- 
mercial and  industrial  life  of  the 
country.  Numbering  about  150, 
they  are  regulated  by  the  law  of 
1898,  advising  the  central  govern- 
ment on  commercial  matters 
through  the  ministry  of  commerce, 
and  organizing  various  commercial 
services  of  transport,  etc.  Since 
1918  they  have  been  associated  in 
regional  groupings,  and  during  the 
Great  War  were  responsible  for  the 
issue  of  local  monetary  notes. 
Another  commercial  centre  of 
organization  is  found  in  the  great 
fairs  held  at  Lyons  and  Bordeaux, 
the  former  one  of  the  most  repre- 
sentative markets  of  all  Europe. 

POPULATION.  Notwithstanding 
its  fertile  soil  and  many  productive 
industries,  France  has  a  small  popu- 
lation (41,475,523).  No  state  in 
Europe  has  increased  so  little  the 
number  of  its  inhabitants  during 
the  past  century.  For  half  a  cen- 
tury the  population  has  been  about 
the  same.  Economists,  political 
thinkers,  and  religious  teachers 
have  all  preached  the  dangers  of 
this,  but  without  effect.  The  mass 
of  the  French  people  are  too 


FRANCE 


France.    Map  showing  the  main  railway  lines  and  the  principal  canals  of 
the  country 


cautious  and  too  comfortable  to 
have  large  families.  The  proportion 
of  marriages  which  yield  only  one 
child  is  very  high.  Even  the  pea- 
sant farmers,  who  use  the  labour  of 
sons  and  daughters,  are  affected  by 
the  system  which  divides  up  landed 
property  among  all  the  children 
upon  the  father's  death. 

As  a  consequence  of  the  small- 
ness  of  the  population  in  relation 
to  the  size  of  the  country,  French 
rlys.  are  imperfectly  developed. 
The  republic  is  well  provided  with 
trunk  lines,  but  in  most  parts 
of  the  country  local  communi- 
cations leave  much  to  be  desired. 
The  total  length  of  rlys.  is  between 
25,000  and  26,000  m.,  not  much 
greater  than  the  length  of  the  rlys. 
in  the  U.K.,  although  the  area  of 
France  is  nearly  double  that  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  They 
are  mostly  in  the  hands  of  private 
owners.  One  has  been  worked  for 
a  long  time  by  the  state  (the  Etat 
line),  and  more  recently  the  west- 
ern system  was  bought  by  the 
government.  But  this  only  gives 
the  state  between  5,000  m.  and 
6,000  m.,  whereas  the  companies, 
Paris-Lyons-Mediterranee,  Nord, 
Est,  Orleans,  and  Midi,  have  nearly 
20,000  m.  between  them.  There  has 
been  some  agitation  |or  national- 
isation of  all  the  systems,  and  in 
1920  a  strike  was  declared  which 
had  nationalisation,  not  for  its 


avowed,  but  for  its  real  object.  It 
was,  however,  a  failure. 

The  canals  of  France  are  a  most 
valuable  auxiliary  to  the  rlys.,  and 
are  used  regularly  for  the  carriage 
of  various  merchandise.  There  are 
over  3,052  m.  of  them  actually  navi- 
gated out  of  3,620  m.  in  existence. 
French  roads  are  excellent.  Those 
of  the  first  class,  national  roads, 
are  looked  after  by  the  state.  In 
the  second  class  come  the  depart- 
mental roads,  kept  up  by  the  local 
government  authorities ;  and  in 
the  third  class  district  roads  under 
the  district  councils. 

CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERN- 
MENT. The  local  affairs  of  the 
country  are  entrusted  in  the  first 
place  to  bodies  elected  by  the  in- 
habitants of  each  department. 
Their  power  is,  however,  limited  ; 
they  have  not  the  same  authority 
as  county  councils  in  the  U.K., 
because  anything  they  decide  can 
be  ignored  by  the  prefect  of  the 
department,  an  official  appointed  by 
the  government.  There  are  also  sub- 
prefects  whose  duties  are  confined 
to  smaller  districts  known  as  arron- 
dissements.  These  also  have  coun- 
cils representing  the  cantons  under 
the  control  of  sub-prefects. 

A  canton  usually  consists  of 
twelve  communes  ;  communes  may 
be  either  small  villages  or  great 
cities.  The  commune  is  the  basis  of 
French  local  government.  Its  voters 


FRANCE 

elect  a  municipal  council,  whose 
decisions  are  subject  to  approval 
by  the  prefect,  and  sometimes  by 
higher  authorities.  The  head  of 
the  municipal  council,  the  mayor, 
has  control  of  the  police,  except  in 
Paris  and  in  Lyons,  where  they  are 
under  prefects.  The  largest  com- 
munes are  divided  into  cantons, 
which  serve  to  link  the  commune 
and  the  arrondissement.  Although 
in  French  local  affairs,  therefore, 
the  people  do  not  directly  rule,  yet 
the  system  works  well  on  the  whole. 

The  prefect  is  a  figure  of  con- 
siderable importance  in  French 
affairs.  Appointed  by  the  president 
of  the  republic  on  the  recommenda- 
tion of  the  minister  of  the  interior, 
he  is  held  generally  responsible  for 
the  government  of  his  department, 
controls  the  administrative  depart- 
ments therein  and  their  financial 
requirements,  and  acts  as  its  legal 
representative.  He  is  advised  by 
the  council  of  the  prefecture.  The 
general  council  of  the  department 
meets  twice  a  year,  with  a  depart- 
mental commission  of  certain  mem- 
bers meeting  at  least  once  a  month, 
and  votes  the  annual  budget  and 
deals  with  questions  of  local  taxa- 
tion and  departmental  properties. 
The  council  of  the  arrondissements 
also  deal  with  assessments  of  taxa- 
tion and  related  subjects. 

The  National  Legislature 

The  national  government  is 
carried  on  by  a  president,  a  senate, 
and  a  chamber  of  deputies.  There 
are  314  senators,  mostly  repre- 
senting departments,  who  cannot 
be  elected  before  the  age  of  40. 
Their  term  of  office  is  nine  years  ; 
every  third  year  one-third  of  their 
number  retires,  and  elections  are 
made  by  a  body  composed  of  the 
deputies,  the  departmental  coun- 
cillors, the  arrondissement  coun- 
cillors, and  representatives  of  the 
municipal  councils.  The  interest 
taken  in  the  senate  is  not  very 
great;  it  is  the  chamber  of  depu- 
ties which  attracts  and  holds  popu- 
lar attention,  which  makes  and 
overthrows  ministries,  and  which 
decides  home  and  foreign  policy. 
In  1914  there  were  602  members; 
there  have  since  been  added  22 
representatives  of  the  recovered 
territories,  Alsace  and  Lorraine. 

All  French  subjects  over  21  can 
vote  at  parliamentary  elections, 
after  six  months'  residence  in  an 
electoral  district.  No  one  can  be 
elected  under  the  age  of  25.  The 
elections  are  made  by  a  form  of 
proportional  representation,  which 
was  adopted  in  1919,  but  has  not 
proved  altogether  satisfactory. 
Both  deputies  and  senators  are  paid 
15,000  francs  a  year  and  can  travel 
almost  free  on  the  rlys.,  making  a 
small  payment  for  their  passes. 


FRANCE 

The  term  for  which  each  Cham- 
ber of  Deputies  is  elected  is  four 
years.  Instead  of  there  being  two 
parties,  corresponding  to  Conser- 
vatives and  Liberals,  there  are  a 
number  of  groups.  From  the  form 
of  the  hall  in  which  the  deputies 
originally  sat  the  main  divisions  of 
the  Chamber  are  known  as  right, 
right  centre,  left  centre,  left,  ex- 
treme left,  and  so  on,  those  who 
hold  advanced  opinions  having 
their  places  on  the  left  of  the 
president  and  those  whose  views 
are  moderate  or  reactionary  on 
his  right.  Combinations  of  groups 
are  continually  forming  and  dis- 
solving for  the  purpose  of  passing 
certain  measures  or  driving  minis- 
ters out  of  office.  Ministries  are 
seldom,  therefore,  long-lived.  Nor 
are  they,  as  a  rule,  composed  of 
politicians  agreed  as  to  principles 
or  strengthened  by  party  discipline. 
The  aim  of  a  prime  minister  in 
forming  a  cabinet  is  to  include  the 
spokesmen  of  as  many  groups  as 
possible  and  thus  to  secure  the 
support  of  their  members.  There 
is  now  no  group  opposed  to  the 
republican  form  of  government. 
A  few  supporters  of  the  monarchy 
or  the  empire  may  be  elected,  but 
have  little  immediate  influence. 
Powers  of  the  President 

With  the  idea  of  preventing 
their  presidents  from  exercising 
real  power  and  so  being  tempted 
to  make  themselves  tyrants,  the 
French  have  made  the  office  of 
first  citizen  almost  entirely  orna- 
mental. The  president  of  the 
republic  is  elected  for  seven  years. 
The  electors  are  the  senators  and 
deputies.  They  meet  for  the  elec- 
tions at  Versailles.  The  president 
can  do  nothing  on  his  own  au- 
thority. Every  decision  he  takes 
must  be  countersigned  by  a 
minister  before  it  is  put  into  opera- 
tion. War  cannot  be  declared 
without  the  consent  of  both  Senate 
and  Chamber,  which  bodies  must 
also  approve  of  treaties  with 
foreign  powers.  The  president  has 
theoretically  the  choice  of  ministers, 
but  in  practice  the  Chamber  dic- 
tates to  him  as  to  who  shall  be  asked 
to  form  cabinets,  and  whoever  is 
asked  to  do  so  selects  his  colleagues. 
The  president  receives  £40,000  a 
year,  half  of  which  is  allowed  for 
the  expenses  of  keeping  up  the 
office.  Another  institution  is  the 
Conseil  d'Etat  (council  of  state),  a 
body  of  high  officials  and  experts 
who  assist  in  the  details  of  ad- 
ministration. 

Legal  System 

The  legal  system  separates  civil 
from  criminal  jurisdiction.  Crimes 
are  dealt  with  by  juges  de  paix 
(justices  of  the  peace)  and  police- 
courts  ;  by  correctional  tribunals 


3293 


FRANCE 


FRANCE 

(INDUSTRIAL) 

English  Miles 


CATTLE 

HORSES 

LEMONS 

LINEN 

OATS 

PLUMS 

RYE 

SHEEP 

SILK 

SUGAR 

WHEAT 

COAL 

IKON 


£J?A    \ 
France.  Map  indicating  the  areas  devoted  to  the  principal  industries  and  occupations 


which  try  persons  charged  with 
more  serious  offences;  by  the 
court  of  assizes,  and  by  the  courts 
of  appeal  and  cassation.  Before  an 
accused  person  is  brought  before 
the  three  judges  who  comprise  a 
correctional  tribunal,  the  case  is 
inquired  into  by  a  juge  ff  instruc- 
tion (examining  magistrate).  This 
official  does  all  he  can  to  induce  the 
prisoner  to  admit  guilt. 

Presumption  of  Guilt 
The  juge  d*  instruction  has  power 
to  order  the  release  of  a  prisoner  if 
there  does  not  seem  to  him  to  be  evi- 
dence enough  to  support  a  charge. 


to  obtain  convictions,  for  French 
law  presumes  the  guilt  of  anyone 
in  the  dock  until  he  can  prove  his 
innocence.  Women  are  allowed  to 
plead.  All  courts  and  prisons  are  in 
charge  of  the  minister  of  justice. 
Those  who  are  serving  one  year  and 
less  occupy  departmental  prisons. 
Those  sentenced  to  hard  labour, 
and  habitual  offenders  are  sent  to 
the  penal  settlements — New  Cale- 
donia and  Guiana,  or  sometimes  to 
the  Devil's  Island. 

RELIGION  AND  EDUCATION.  There 
is  in  France  no  established  religion. 
It  is  a  Roman  Catholic  country, 


In  the  court  of  assizes  prisoners  are    and  by  far  the  greater  number  of 
tried  before  juries  of  12,  which  con-    its  inhabitants  profess  that  faith. 

Since  1905  church  and  state  have 


vict  or  acquit  by  a  majority.  The 
court  of  cassation  revises  cases 
which  have  been  tried  by  juries  and 
deals  only  with  points  of  law.  The 
courts  of  appeal  rehear  cases  in 
which  juries  have  not  pronounced 
upon  the  evidence,  and  in  which 
appeal  may  be  lodged,  on  the  ground 
that  the  decision  of  judges  were  not 
in  accordance  with  the  facts. 

Civil  cases,  if  the  sums  involved 
are  small,  come  before  arrondisse- 
ment  courts ;  tribunals  of  com- 
merce, or  courts  of  prud1 homines 
(experts)  also  deal  with  commercial 
disputes.  The  courts  of  cassation 
and  appeal  are  also  open  to  civil  would  not  a 
suitors.  Speeches  designed  to  affect  and  were  ref- 
the  emotions  of  jurors,  and  even 
judges,  are  not  uncommon.  It  is 
usual  for  the  judges  to  side  against 
accused  persons  and  do  their  best 


been  separated.  Actually  the 
changes  made  by  the  law  of  separa- 
tion were  not  very  great.  Churches 
were  allowed  to  be  taken  over  by 
the  ecclesiastical  authorities,  pen- 
sions were  granted  to  priests  with 
a  certain  length  of  service.  Mass 
continued  to  be  performed  as  usual, 
congregations  were  as  large  as  be- 
fore. The  separation  had  a  visible 
effect,  however,  upon  the  religious 
orders  and  communities  (friars, 
monks  and  nuns).  It  was  required 
of  all  these  that  they  should  apply 
for  legal  authority  to  exist.  Some 
others  applied 
Of  the  30,000 

men  and  130,000  women  who  were 
under  vows  a  large  number  left 
France  ;  many  had  their  establish- 
ments  broken  up. 


FRANCE 

1461  - 1598 

English  Miles 

0         ZO       <K>       60       80       \00 

Extent  of  English  flosses 

In  f ranee  at  time  of  Henry  H.m  m  _ 
Boundary  of  the  Kingdom  of 
France  1461  — 

Royal  Domain  In  1461 
Acquisitions  to  1498 
Acquisition    A>  ISIS 
Boundary  of  the  Kingdom  of 
France  1598          — 


VN|  G    L    A    N|D 


FRANCE:    MAPS   ILLUSTRATIVE    OF   THE   HISTORICAL   DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE   COUNTRY 


FRANCE 


3295 


FRANCE 


In  the  state  elementary  schools, 
the  teachers  must  not  be  priests, 
monks,  or  nuns.  These  schools  are 
free,  and  children  between  6  and  13 
are  compelled  to  attend  them  or 
others.  For  boys  and  girls  over  13 
there  are  state  lycees  and  high 
schools  provided  by  communes,  as 
well  as  private  establishments. 
Then  there  are  a  number  of  state 
universities,  a  number  of  technical 
colleges,  schools  of  fine  arts,  and 
conservatoires  of  music  and  drama, 
all  state  institutions.  The  numer- 
ous technical  schools  do  much  to 
keep  up  the  high  standards  of 
French  workmanship.  There  is  a 
good  system  of  training  teachers. 
Training  of  School  Teachers 

Free  instruction  with  board  and 
lodging  are  provided  in  what  are 
called  normal  schools  ;  no  post  can 
be  obtained  without  a  certificate 
from  one  of  these,  and  all  who 
obtain  posts  undertake  to  remain 
teachers  for  10  years.  If  they  de- 
vote all  their  lives  to  teaching,  they 
retire  on  pensions.  Salaries  are 
paid  to  them  according  to  pro- 
ficiency in  their  profession,  not 
according  to  whether  they  are  in 
populous  or  small  places.  Their 
proficiency  is  decided  by  the  in- 
spectors of  schools.  These  inspec- 
tors are  also  trained  so  that  they 
may  understand  thoroughly  the 
responsibilities  of  their  position. 
French  education,  as  far  as  it  goes, 
is  good.  It  helps  to  keep  up  the 
standard  of  intelligence  among 
what  has  been  called  the  most  in- 
telligent population  in  the  world. 
Much  is  done  also  in  the  home. 
French  children  are  encouraged  to 
ask  questions,  to  raise  objections, 
to  use  their  intellects.  They  are 
treated  as  reasoning  creatures. 

The  state  does  much  for  the  sick 
and  poor,  though  it  does  not  ac- 
knowledge any  obligation  to  pro- 
vide relief.  There  is  an  old-age 
pension  system  upon  contributory 
lines.  Special  care  is  taken  of  chil- 
dren who  are  abandoned  or  ill- 
treated.  These  are  mostly  placed 
with  peasant  foster-parents,  and 
when  they  are  of  an  age  to  begin 
work  are  given  the  opportunity,  by 
apprenticeship  or  technical  train- 
ing, to  enter  a  trade.  Lunatics  are 
well  looked  after  at  the  expense  of 
public  funds.  There  is  also  wide- 
spread organization  of  charity 
through  the  bureaux  de  bienfais- 
ance  (alms -giving  committees), 
which  exist  in  all  large  communes 
under  the  presidency  of  the 
mayors.  The  funds  at  their  dis- 
posal come  partly  from  private 
sources,  partly  from  taxes  upon 
entertainments  and  special  grants. 
Outdoor  relief  is  given,  hospitals 
are  kept  up,  and  medical  attend- 
ance is  provided  for  the  sick  in  their 


homes.  The  idea  has  grown  in 
the  French  mind  that  it  is  right  and 
proper  for  the  state  and  other 
authorities  to  look  after  those  who 
need  the  community's  help.  The 
idea  of  dependence  upon  the  au- 
thorities, and  of  liability  to  serve 
the  general  interest,  is  noticeable 
in  many  directions. 

Thus  there  has  never  been  any 
objection  raised  to  military  service 
as  an  obligation  upon  all  men. 
Liability  to  this  service  begins  at 
20  and  does  not  end  until  48. 
Before  1913  the  term  spent  with 
the  active  army  was  two  years, 
then  it  was  raised  to  three.  In  Dec., 
1920,  it  was  reduced  to  eighteen 
months.  From  23-34  the  French- 
man belongs  to  the  reserve,  then 
for  seven  years  he  is  in  the  terri- 
torial army ;  his  last  seven  years 
of  service  he  passes  in  the  terri- 
torial reserve.  Twice  during  his 
reserve  period  he  may  be  called 
upon  for  a  month's  training  in 
camp  or  barracks  ;  once  while  he  is 
a  territorial  he  is  liable  to  a  fort- 
night's resumption  of  soldiering. 
Military  Traditions 

Since  the  period  of  Napoleon  the 
French  have  prided  themselves 
upon  being  a  military  race,  and  have 
been  easily  moved  by  the  prospect 
of  la  gloire.  They  have  never  had 
in  their  army,  however,  anything 
approaching  either  the  caste  sys- 
tem or  the  brutal  Prussian  methods 
of  training.  French  officers  are 
drawn  from  the  middle  as  well  as 
from  the  upper  class.  There  is  no 
gulf  fixed  between  them  and  their 
men ;  indeed,  it  often  happens  that 
a  private  is  a  very  rich  man,  a 
scholar,  or  a  man  of  famous  lineage, 
while  his  officer  is  none  of  these 
things.  The  system  of  universal 
service  gave  the  country  a  force 
in  the  field  of  3,781,000  men  with 
92,000  officers,  a  fortnight  after  the 
declaration  of  war  in  1914.  In  the 
last  year  of  war  it  had  risen  to 
5,000,000  men  and  128,000  officers. 

Universal  service  applies  also 
to  the  navy,  but  there  is  also 
voluntary  enlistment.  Those  who 
are  obliged  to  serve  are  the  men 
of  the  seafaring  class  between  18 
and  50.  The  French  navy  has 
suffered  much  from  the  faulty 
management  of  politicians,  but  it 
showed  in  the  war  that  it  had  over- 
come this  handicap,  and  its  work  in 
the  Mediterranean  was  excellent. 

The  finance  of  France,  like  that 
of  most  other  nations,  was  meta- 
morphosed by  the  war.  Even 
before  1914  the  public  debt  was 
considered  very  large,  amounting 
to  between  13  and  14  hundred 
millions  of  pounds.  In  1920  it  had 
swollen  to  the  immense  figure  of 
9,500  millions,  and  the  payment 
of  interest  abroad  was  made  all  the 


more  burdensome  by  the  fall  in  the 
exchange  value  of  the  franc.  The 
system  of  raising  revenue  has 
always  made  the  indirect  taxes 
large  in  proportion  to  the  direct. 
The  ratio  was  usually  about  four 
to  one.  Sugar,  wines  and  other 
liquors,  salt,  candles,  vinegar  were 
all  subject  to  duty  by  the  excise ; 
railway  tickets  were  taxed  before 
the  war,  and  the  high  cost  of 
tobacco  and  matches,  due  to  the 
state  monopoly  of  these  articles, 
was  really  a  tax.  The  proposal  to 
establish  an  income-tax  has  always 
been  opposed,  and  even  in  the 
urgent  need  of  revenue  which 
followed  the  war  no  really  severe 
demand  was  made  for  direct  con- 
tributions. For  a  time  it  was  hoped 
that  enough  would  be  extracted 
by  way  of  indemnity  from  the 
Germans.  As  that  hope  faded  the 
prospect  of  an  unavoidable  re- 
course to  income-tax  or  capital 
levy  faced  each  minister  of  finance 
in  turn,  but  each  in  turn  refused 
to  look  at  it. 

France  was  a  very  rich  country 
before  the  war,  and  still  has  vast 
reserves  of  wealth,  both  existing 
and  possible  of  development. 
Owing  to  the  saving  instincts  of 
the  mass  of  the  population  it 
was  able  to  lend  money  on  a  vast 
scale  abroad.  For  many  years 
France  stood  next  to  Britain  as  a 
holder  of  foreign  investments,  and 
these  two  countries  were  easily 
ahead  of  all  the  rest.  The  difference 
between  them  was  that,  while  the 
British  investments  were  the  pro- 
perty of  a  small  number  of  well-to- 
do  people,  the  French  holdings 
were  spread  over  a  large  part  of 
the  nation.  Special  opportunities 
were  offered  to  the  small  investor. 
The  Small  Investor 

He  could  buy  small  quantities  of 
loan  scrip  at  shops  which  sold  it 
for  cash  across  the  counter.  In- 
vestment thus  became  a  regular 
weekly  or  monthly  habit  with 
large  numbers  of  people  earning 
small  incomes.  As  a  consequence 
of  the  support  given  by  the  French 
capital  to  all  kinds  of  foreign  and 
home  enterprises,  Paris  became  an 
important  centre  of  finance.  The 
big  French  banks,  the  Credit 
Foncier,  the  Credit  Lyonnais,  the 
Societ6  G6n6rale,  and  others,  trans- 
acted enormous  business. 

Speculative  finance,  however, 
became  at  one  period  a  positive 
canker  on  the  moral  health  of  the 
nation.  The  Panama  scandals 
which  were  brought  to  light  in  1892 
showed  an  ugly  phase  of  the  pro- 
cess by  which  many  were  becoming 
rich.  Even  when  the  offensive 
growth  had  been  probed  and  a 
number  of  persons  tried,  there  re- 
mained an  uneasy  feeling  that  all 


FRANCE 

had  not  been  revealed,  and  a  dis- 
trust of  politicians  who  had  come 
badly  out  of  the  investigation. 

HISTORY.  Little  is  known  of  the 
Gallic  tribes  who  inhabited  the 
greater  part  of  France  before  the 
Romans  conquered  it  in  the  1st 
century  A.D.  They  were  Celts  who 
came,  it  is  conjectured,  from  the 
Danubian  plains  in  the  6th  century 
B.C.  Tall,  red-haired,  with  blue 
eyes  and  fair  complexions,  they 
drove  the  earlier,  darker  inhabi- 
tants before  them  and  dwelt  in 
loosely  organized  communities, 
mostly  under  chieftains. 

The  Influence  of  Rome 

Caesar,  who  gives  an  account  of 
them  in  his  Gallic  War,  managed 
to  bring  them  under  the  authority 
of  the  Roman  empire.  For  several 
centuries  the  French  were  proud 
to  belong  to  that  empire,  and 
Rome  showed  that  they  interested 
her  by  planting  among  them  the 
elements  of  her  civilization.  In 
those  centuries  the  character  of 
the  race  was  fixed.  Although 
not  Latin  by  descent,  it  became 
Latin  by  adoption.  The  Roman 
love  of  military  prowess,  the  hard 
Roman  tone  of  authority  used  by 
officials,  the  preference  for  the 
concrete  and  for  prose  over  ab- 
stractions and  poetry,  were  all 
absorbed  by  the  French  mind. 

During  the  decline  and  fall  of 
the  Roman  empire  France  suffered 
in  common  with  all  its  provinces. 
It  was  almost  a  relief  when  some- 
thing like  stable  government  was 
established  by  the  chiefs  of  a  tribe 
from  Germany  known  as  the 
Franks.  This  marks  the  intro- 
duction of  the  name  which  replaced 
Gaul.  These  Franks  founded  the 
Merovingian  dynasty,  called  after 
a  certain  Merovech  (Merwig), 
which  lasted  until  half-way  through 
the  8th  century.  Almost  from  the 
first  the  Merovingians  fought 
among  themselves,  considered  the 
country  as  their  private  estate, 
and  fell  into  subjection  to  the 
powerful  officials  known  as  mayors 
of  the  palace. 

In  course  of  time  the  kings  be- 
came mere  figures  of  ceremony, 
and  eventually  a  mayor  of  the 
palace  became  himself  king.  His 
name  was  Pepin,  and  his  family 
was  called  Carolingian  because  it 
was  founded  by  his  father,  Charles 
Martel  or  Charles  the  Hammer,  a 
man  of  vigorous  personality  who 
ruled  for  years  in  the  name  of 
shadowy  monarchs  seldom  even 
seen.  The  grandson  of  Charles  . 
Martel  inherited  his  genius  and 
surpassed  his  exploits.  His  name 
was  Charlemagne,  ajid  he  suc- 
ceeded in  bringing  almost  the 
whole  of  Europe  under  his  rule. 
He  strove  to  fit  himself  for  the 


3296 

exercise  of  his  vast  responsibilities 
by  submitting  himself  to  teachers 
long  after  he  had  reached  man's 
estate.  He  kept  on  good  terms 
with  the  Church,  and  when  he 
determined  to  declare  himself 
emperor  was  solemnly  crowned  by 
the  pope  in  S.  Peter's  at  Rome. 
Thus  he  revived  the  empire  of  the 
West,  which  had  been  crushed  by 
the  barbarian  invaders  after  the 
setting  up  at  Constantinople  of  an 
empire  of  the  East,  and  this  empire 
survived  nominally  in  a  truncated 
and  decrepit  form  until  the  Great 
War  swept  away  the  Hapsburgs 
and  the  last  remains  of  Charle- 
magne's dominion. 

After  his  death  there  followed 
the  same  family  feuds  which  had 
ruined  the  Merovingians.  For 
nearly  200  years  what  passes  for 
the  history  of  France  is  a  monoton- 
ous record  of  struggles  between 
men  greedy  for  power.  Then  the 
descendants  of  Charles  Martel  dis- 
appeared, and  the  Capet  family 
came  upon  the  scene.  By  this  time 
France  had  fallen  under  the  feudal 
system,  which  soon  took  root  in 
England  also.  The  conquest  of 
England  by  William,  duke  of  Nor- 
mandy, a  rival  prince  to  the  kings 
of  France,  brought  England  and 
France  into  a  conflict  which  con- 
tinued on  and  off  for  700  years.  The 
kings  of  England,  being  foreigners, 
and  having  interests  in  France  no 
less  dear  to  them  than  their 
English  possessions,  were  fre- 
quently moved  to  defend  those 
interests,  or  to  encroach  upon  those 
of  French  rulers.  The  throne  had 
little  territory  or  power.  The 
country  was  parcelled  out  among 
small  feudal  chieftains,  despotic, 
and  actively  jealous  of  each  other. 
8.  Louis  and  the  Crusades 

With  these  independent  rivals 
the  kings  of  France  struggled,  until 
at  the  beginning  of  the  13th  cen- 
tury Philip  Augustus  managed, 
partly  by  force,  partly  by  skilful 
negotiation,  to  bring  the  whole 
country  under  his  sovereignty. 
His  son,  Louis  IX  (S.  Louis),  tried 
to  do  for  Europe  what  his  father 
had  done  for  France.  He  was  an 
idealist  whose  mind  was  set  upon 
a  crusade  to  free  the  Holy  Sepul- 
chre from  the  infidels  ;  he  dreamed 
of  seeing  all  the  monarchs  and  their 
peoples  unite  for  this  sacred  end. 
Under  his  successor  many  circum- 
stances were  brought  to  light 
which  helped  to  explain  the  Cru- 
sades, and  the  real  object  with 
<which  they  were  undertaken.  The 
Order  of  Knights  Templars  had 
taken  a  prominent  part  in  the 
Crusades.  It  had  grown  immensely 
rich.  It  lent  money  to  the  crusaders 
and  profited  by  the  opening  up  of 
trade  routes,  and  by  pillage  from 


FRANCE 

the  Saracens.  Philip  the  Fair  set 
covetous  eyes  upon  the  Templars' 
riches,  and  induced  the  Holy  In- 
quisition to  enquiry  into  their  con- 
duct. The  inquiry  revealed  many 
startling  facts  not  known  by  King 
Louis  and  the  enthusiastic  be- 
lievers in  the  Crusades. 

Early  in  the  14th  century  the 
last  of  the  direct  male  Capets  died, 
and  a  younger  branch  of  the  family, 
the  Valois,  took  up  the  burden  of 
rule.  War  broke  out  in  1337  be- 
tween Edward  III  of  England  and 
Philip  VI  of  France.  Edward 
thought  he  was  being  cheated  of 
his  right  to  the  French  throne,  and 
used  this  as  a  pretext  for  the  war, 
which  was  really  caused  by  the 
rival  trade  interests  of  France  and 
England  in  Flanders.  For  a  long 
time  the  tide  of  success  ran  strongly 
in  Edward's  favour.  He  marched 
far  into  France  and  gained  the  day 
at  Crecy.  Calais  remained  in 
English  hands.  France  lost  heavily 
again  at  Poitiers,  and  the  king  had 
to  surrender  to  save  his  life.  Power 
then  passed  nominally  into  the 
hands  of  the  young  heir,  Charles, 
the  king  remaining  in  captivity 
until  his  death.  An  attempt  was 
being  made  to  put  the  government 
upon  a  more  popular  basis  by 
limiting  the  royal  authority.  The 
reformers,  led  by  a  merchant 
named  fitienne  Marcel,  frightened 
the  young  prince  from  Paris.  But 
they  had  no  constructive  pro- 
gramme, and,  lacking  the  support 
of  the  nobles,  they  failed,  and  the 
chance  of  reforms,  which  might 
have  made  unnecessary  the  Re- 
volution of  four  centuries  later, 
slipped  away. 

In  the  years  of  peace  which  fol- 
lowed, no  attempts  were  made  to 
restore  prosperity  and  order  ;  the 
same  struggle  for  power  went  on, 
for  the  opportunity  to  rule  in  the 
name  of  another  young  and  feeble 
boy-king.  The  country  was  di- 
vided ;  civil  war  raged.  At  the 
height  of  the  misery  and  disruption 
Henry  V  of  England  saw  his  oppor- 
tunity and  renewed  the  war.  At 
Agincourt  he  won  an  easy  victory. 
S.  Jeanne  d'Arc 

The  French  nobility  could  offer  no 
serious  resistance.  From  one  suc- 
cess the  English  armies  went  on  to 
others,  and  by  1428  they  had  sub- 
dued the  greater  part  of  France. 
At  this  time  the  French  king  was 
a  wretched  creature  who  had  no 
stomach  for  fighting,  no  head  for 
affairs.  The  country  seemed  des- 
tined to  remain  a  dependency  of 
England,  and  for  some  time  it 
must  have  done  so  had  not  Jeanne 
d'Arc  appeared  and  put  fresh  heart 
into  the  French  people. 

Jeanne,  deeply  religious  by 
temperament,  believed  that  she 


FRANCE 


3297 


FRANCE 


heard  voices  telling  her  how  to 
save  her  country  from  the  English, 
and  restore  her  king  to  his  throne. 
She  gained  access  to  the  author- 
ities, and  informed  them  that  she 
would  lead  the  army,  raise  the 
siege  of  Orleans,  and  have  the 
king  crowned  in  Reims.  What  she 
promised  to  do  she  accomplished. 

The  king  was  crowned,  but  when 
she  would  have  pressed  on  to 
Paris  the  king's  counsellors  said 
that  compromise  was  now  the  best 
hope  for  France.  The  generals  were 
jealous  of  Jeanne's  influence  over 
the  soldiers.  Time  was  wasted  and 
intrigues  became  more  complicated, 
until  certain  French  troops,  acting 
in  collusion  with  the  English, 
captured  Jeanne  and  shamefully 
sold  her  to  be  put  to  death.  The 
English  had  counted  upon  this  as 
likely  to  benefit  them,  but  from 
that  moment  they  fared  worse  and 
worse.  Even  the  king  played  a 
man's  part  under  the  guidance  of 
more  honourable  counsellors.  Bur- 
gundy, which  had  been  divided 
from  royal  France  for  many  years, 
and  had  sided  with  England 
became  reconciled.  The  French, 
united  at  last,  drove  their  enemies 
off  all  their  territory,  except  Calais, 
which  remained  English  for  two 
centuries  longer. 

After  the  Hundred  Years'  War 

The  condition  of  France  at  the 
end  of  the  Hundred  Years'  War 
was  pitiful.  The  land  had  been 
ravaged  by  successive  invasions 
and  by  civil  war.  The  nation,  worn 
out  by  suffering,  had  no  energy 
left  to  resist  the  increase  of  the 
powers  of  the  monarchy,  and  so 
another  step  was  taken  towards  the 
Revolution.  For,  while  the  mon- 
archy under  Louis  XI  did  much  to 
unite  the  French  people,  yet  it  set 
obstacles  in  the  way  of  their  gov- 
erning themselves,  and  made  the 
government  autocratic. 

Under  Louis  XI  the  claim  of 
Burgundy  to  be  a  separate  state 
was  finally  defeated.  Nicknamed 
the  "  universal  spider,"  he  stands 
out  in  history  as  a  type  of  cunning, 
cruel  despotism.  But  he  left  his 
country  well  on  the  way  to  become 
the  great  power  which  it  was  under 
Louis  XIV.  More  was  done  to 
build  up  royal  authority  by  Francis 
I.  Francis  involved  the  country  in 
wars  provoked  largely  by  his  am- 
bition and  intrigues.  Soon  there 
was  to  be  another  cause  for  war, 
this  time  civil  war,  accompanied 
by  assassination  and  massacre. 

The  Reformation  began  in  Ger- 
many, and  its  echoes  were  heard  in 
all  lands.  At  first  the  demand  for 
the  purging  of  the  Church  from 
scandals  was  made  in  France, 
purely  in  the  interest  of  religion. 
As  time  went  on,  social  and  eco- 


nomic grievances  were  added  to 
those  against  the  Church,  and  so 
the  Reformers  or  Protestants  be- 
came in  France,  as  in  England,  a 
political  party.  Known  as  the 
Huguenots,  their  leaders  were  men 
of  high  position,  such  as  the  prince 
of  Conde  and  Admiral  Coligny.  On 
the  other  side  were  the  Guises,  un- 
principled and  self-seeking,  and 
Catherine  de'  Medici,  an  Italian 
princess  with  a  passion  for  power 
and  a  genius  f  orunscrupulous  diplo- 
macy, who  was  now  queen-mother, 
ruling  in  the  name  of  her  son.  The 
struggle  was  really  one  for  the  con- 
trol of  the  government.  Religious 
toleration  had  little  to  do  with  it. 
At  one  moment  liberty  of  con- 
science and  worship  was  conceded, 
but  soon  after  that  came  the  ap- 
palling crime  of  the  massacre  of 
S.  Bartholomew's  Day,  1572. 
Henry  of  Navarre 

At  last  an  end  was  put  to  the 
savage  religious  wars  by  Henry  IV, 
king  of  Navarre,  a  Bourbon.  He 
was  a  good  soldier  and  an  honest 
man,  who  sincerely  desired  his 
country's  advantage.  A  Protes- 
tant, he  saw  that  the  feeling  of  the 
people  favoured  the  old  Church,  so 
he  decided  to  become  a  Catholic  for 
the  sake  of  peace.  "  Paris,"  he 
said,  with  jovial  cynicism,  "  is  well 
worth  a  Mass."  So  he  went  to 
Mass,  but,  at  the  same  time,  he 
made  an  agreement  called  the 
Edict  of  Nantes,  which  gave  the 
Protestants  full  freedom  to  follow 
and  teach  their  faith,  to  have 
their  ministers  paid  out  of  state 
funds,  and  to  be  admitted  to  all 
employments  equally  with  Catho- 
lics. Henry  and  his  minister,  Sully, 
tried  to  restore  prosperity  to  a  land 
terribly  damaged  by  discord  and 
dishonest  governors.  But  all  that 
they  did  was  on  the  old  unsatis- 
factory lines.  All  power  was  kept 
in  the  king's  hands.  Such  re- 
presentative bodies  as  did  exist 
were  weakened  and  confused.  The 
iniquity  of  throwing  the  burden 
of  taxation  upon  working  folk, 
and  letting  off  the  nobility  and  the 
official  class,  was  not  altered. 

After  Henry  IV  died  another 
Italian  princess  became  ruler  of 
the  unhappy  kingdom.  This  was 
Marie  de'  Medici,  the  king's  second 
wife,  who  became  regent  during 
the  youth  of  her  son.  Her  chief 
adviser  was  the  cardinal  de  Riche- 
lieu, who  continued  to  be  the 
minister  of  Louis  XIII  until  his 
death  in  1642.  His  methods  were 
disastrous  for  the  people  of  France. 
His  aim  was  to  make  the  king's 
authority  supreme,  and  he  be- 
lieved he  could  best  accomplish 
this  by  safeguarding  the  privi- 
leges of  the  noble  and  wealthy.  He 
was  a  man  of  narrow  vision,  but  he 


perfected  the  autocratic  system 
which  Louis  XIV  inherited  and 
used  according  to  the  motto 
UEtat,  c'est  moi.  It  was  Richelieu 
who  made  the  Revolution  inevit- 
able. He  was  followed  by  another 
cardinal,  Mazarin  the  Sicilian.  The 
widow  of  Louis  XIII,  appointed 
regent  for  her  son,  Louis  XIV,  was 
the  mistress  of  the  cardinal,  and 
made  him  the  ruling  power.  So 
hardly  did  he  drive  the  people 
that  he  provoked  rebellion. 
The  Glory  of  Louis  XIV 

For  four  years  the  wars  of  the 
Fronde  devastated  the  country, 
and  sowed  bitter  seeds  of  hatred 
among  the  population.  Their  only 
result  was  that  when  Louis  XIV 
took  upon  himself  the  ruling  power 
he  inherited  a  method  of  govern- 
ment which  was  fated  to  bring 
about  its  own  downfall.  This 
king,  whose  reign,  beginning  no- 
minally in  1643  (actually  about  16 
years  later),  lasted  until  1715,  has 
been  made  to  stand  out  as  a  com- 
manding figure  in  history,  and, 
much  as  historians  have  exag- 
gerated his  force  of  intellect  and 
personality,  it  is  impossible  not  j 
to  recognize  in  him  a  man  who 
would  have  made  a  name  for  him- 
self, no  matter  what  his  birth. 

Brought  up  to  believe  that  he  was 
different  from  all  other  children, 
flattered  as  he  grew  by  those  who 
persuaded  him  that  he  was  the 
representative  of  God  upon  earth, 
he  lost  all  sense  of  reality.  He  held 
it  to  be  indisputable  that  he  was 
infinitely  wiser  than  his  subjects, 
that  it  was  his  right  to  give  them 
laws  and  their  duty  to  obey.  He 
spent  incredible  sums  upon  the 
palace  of  Versailles,  where  he  kept 
up  a  state  never  dreamed  of  by 
earlier  kings.  A  whole  literature 
of  gossip  and  fiction  has  grown 
up  round  the  court  of  the  Grand 
Monarch.  It  was  an  age  of  splen- 
dour on  the  surface  and  of  misery 
and  corruption  beneath.  While  the 
formalities  of  Racine  and  the 
satirical  comedies  of  Moliere  were 
delighting  the  well-to-do,  while 
preachers  like  Bossuet  were  draw- 
ing crowded  congregations,  while 
architecture  was  raising  monu- 
ments which  are  still  marvelled  at, 
and  triumphs  of  engineering,  both 
civil  and  military,  were  being  won, 
the  mass  of  the  French  people  were 
struggling  under  the  burden  of 
taxation,  were  being  swept  off  by 
epidemics  due  to  unhealthy  con- 
ditions, were  the  prey  of  tyranny 
in  its  most  odious  forms. 

The  aims  of  Louis  were  to  make 
himself  greater  both  at  home  and 
abroad.  For  these  ends  he  waged 
war,  maintained  spies,  and  put  the 
royal  intendants  in  a  position  to 
dragoon  the  nation.  He  renewed 

1Q    4 


FRANCE 

the  persecution  of  the  Huguenots, 
good  and  useful  citizens,  and 
revoked  the  Edict  of  Nantes.  This 
reduced  Protestantism  in  France 
to  negligible  dimensions  and  shut 
her  out  from  the  current  of  in- 
vigorating mental  atmosphere 
which  was  then  passing  through 
other  lands.  In  the  Cevennes, 
professors  of  the  reformed  faith 
were  exterminated.  Even  those 
within  the  boundaries  of  the 
Church  who  ventured  to  embrace 
new  doctrines  were  severely  re- 
pressed. Thus  the  Jansenists 
were  made  victims  of  royal  vanity 
and  impatience. 

France  and  the  Netherlands 

The  wars  of  Louis  were  equally 
due  to  his  defects  of  character. 
His  most  dangerous  opponent  was 
the  prince  of  Orange,  later  Wil- 
liam III  of  England.  Louis  at- 
tempted to  crush  the  government 
of  the  United  Provinces  of  the 
Netherlands  which  had  freed 
themselves  from  the  dominion  of 
Spain.  He  hoped  to  annex  them, 
but  he  was  beaten  by  the  obstinate 
spirit  of  the  Dutch.  The  prince 
of  Orange  stiffened  their  resistance 
at  a  moment  when  all  seemed  lost, 
and  from  that  time  onward  he 
spared  no  efforts  to  make  Louis  re- 
gret his  attempt  to  subdue  a  liberty- 
loving  race.  Turenne  was  a  general 
of  ability,  Vauban  a  master  of 
fortification,  but  the  obstinacy  of 
William  and  the  genius  of  Marl- 
borough  brought  disaster  on  the 
French  armies,  and,  after  William's 
death,  the  pride  of  Louis  was 
humbled  by  defeats  at  Ramillies, 
Oudenarde,  and  Malplaquet. 

The  end  of  this  "  magnificent " 
reign  was  pitiful,  yet  such  as  might 
have  been  foreseen.  The  best 
minds  in  France  saw  that  the  king 
had  brought  ruin  upon  the  coun- 
try. The  national  finances  were 
worse  than  ever  before.  The  minis- 
ter Colbert  had  done  his  best  to 
bring  them  into  some  kind  of  order. 
He  tried  to  give  an  impetus  to  in- 
dustry .and  to  colonial  expansion, 
and  he  built  a  navy  to  defend  the 
new  possessions.  For  a  time  France 
seemed  to  be  on  the  way  to  be- 
come a  greater  colonial  Power 
than  England.  In  India,  Canada, 
the  W.  Indies,  Louisiana,  and 
W.  Africa  the  French  established 
themselves.  But  the  settlers  and 
the  generals  commanding  the 
French  forces  never  received  full 
support  from  home.  One  by  one 
their  greater  colonial  possessions 
fell  into  British  hands. 

Colbert  might  possibly  have 
rescued  France  from  her  desperate 
financial  sickness  ift  he  had  been 
allowed  a  free  hand,  but  he  had  to 
provide  continually  huge  funds  for 
the  carrying  on  of  unsuccessful 


3298 

wars,  and  he  failed  completely  to 
improve  conditions  for  the  mass  of 
the  people.  They  felt  resentment 
which  they  were  afraid  to  utter, 
until  the  death  of  the  king  gave 
their  tongues  freedom.  Then  they 
openly  rejoiced. 

The  new  sovereign,  Louis  XV, 
began  with  everything  in  his  favour 
so  far  as  popular  feeling  was  con- 
cerned. He  was  no  more  than  a 
child,  and  the  kingdom  was  placed 
under  a  regent,  the  duke  of  Orleans. 
But  from  the  first  all  went  awry. 
Cardinal  Fleury,  who  became  chief 
minister,  brought  France  low 
through  unsuccessful  wars.  The 
finances  showed  no  improvement. 
At  one  time  it  was  hoped  to  restore 
them  by  adopting  the  scheme  of  a 
Scottish  banker  named  John  Law, 
who  blew  the  Mississippi  Bubble. 
After  an  orgy  of  wild  speculation, 
he  failed  ignominiously,  and  left 
things  more  disordered  than  he 
found  them.  Louis  XV  was  weak 
both  in  character  and  in  intellect. 
He  caused  scandals  by  his  love 
affairs,  which  smirched  royalty  in 
the  eyes  of  the  nation.  His  most 
notorious  mistress  was  Madame  de 
Pompadour,  who  governed  him  in 
everything. 

Decadence  of  the  Court 

The  result  was  catastrophic. 
Abroad  France  became  more  and 
more  contemptible.  At  home  there 
was  distress  and  even  famine.  Yet 
the  court  and  the  fashionable  world 
kept  up  a  round  of  pleasure,  poured 
out  the  money  wrung  from  tenants 
and  taxpayers,  and  danced  to  the 
tune  of  "After  us  the  Deluge." 
Under  the  sway  of  Madame  du 
Barry  the  king  fell  into  even  worse 
ways.  The  consequence  was  that 
when  he  died  the  same  feeling  of 
relief  was  experienced  as  on  the 
death  of  Louis  XIV. 

There  was  hope  that  the  new 
king  would  do  better.  Hopeful- 
ness was  the  keynote  to  the  phil- 
osophy of  the  age,  and  in  that  age 
philosophy  was  the  common  read- 
ing of  all  educated  men  and  women. 
The  philosophers,  Rousseau,  Vol- 
taire, Diderot,  and  the  contributors 
to  the  great  Encyclopedic,  which 
was  put  together  during  the  18th 
century  with  the  object  of  making 
knowledge  supreme  over  supersti- 
tion, wrote  in  a  popular  style. 
They  saw  that  France  was  in  a  sad 
plight,  but  they  held  out  the  hope 
that  all  could  soon  be  improved 
upon  by  "  a  return  to  Nature." 
There  was  little  writing  which 
could  be  called  revolutionary  in  the 
political  sense,  yet  all  that  was 
written  of  a  serious  kind  prepared 
the  way  for  revolution.  A  new 
spirit  of  human  brotherhood,  a 
fresh  desire  for  simplicity  and  fair 
dealing,  a  readiness  to  consider 


FRANCE 

great  changes  as  inevitable  and 
desirable,  were  found  in  the  most 
unlikely  quarters. 

The  young  Louis  XVI  and  his 
queen,  Marie  Antoinette,  began 
their  reign  under  favourable  omens, 
at  any  rate  on  the  surface.  The 
king  was  an  ignorant,  well-mean- 
ing, self-indulgent  young  fellow, 
who  preferred  his  hobby  of  lock- 
making  to  looking  into  state 
business.  The  queen  was  an 
attractive,  high-spirited  young 
woman,  devoting  herself,  body  and 
soul;  to  the  pleasures  of  an  ex- 
travagant and  licentious  society ; 
she  was  inexperienced,  injudicious, 
ill-advised.  But  no  one  told  them 
that  they  were  in  the  utmost 
danger.  Unfortunately,  the  queen 
took  to  advising  her  weak  husband 
as  to  his  choice  of  ministers.  Her 
advice  was  mostly  bad,  partly  be- 
cause others  made  her  the  tool  of 
their  private  interests.  Thus,  she 
was  persuaded  to  take  part  in  over- 
throwing the  one  statesman  who 
might  have  saved  the  monarchy. 

This  was  Turgot,  who  saw  that 
more  was  required  than  tinkering 
with  finance.  He  set  to  work  to 
cut  down  expenses  and  introduce 
social  reforms.  He  proposed  to  let 
the  people  have  some  share  in 
governing  themselves.  After  he 
had  been  dismissed  at  the  bidding 
of  the  queen,  came  Necker,  a  Swiss 
banker,  who  pleased  nobody,  and 
after  him  the  queen  secured  the  ap- 
pointment of  Calonne,  whose  im- 
becile methods  made  it  impossible 
for  the  king  to  carry  on  any  longer. 
He  was  compelled,  now,  to  ask  for 
guidance  from  a  body  known  as  the 
Assembly  of  Notables,  the  so- 
called  parliament,  which  for  a 
short  time  exercised  more  power 
than  the  monarch.  But  its  place 
was  quickly  taken  by  the  States- 
General,  a  representative  body  of 
ancient  institution,  elected  by  the 
nation,  which  met  after  a  long 
period  of  inaction  on  May  5,  1789. 
The  States-General,  1789 

The  three  estates  of  the  realm 
WsBre  the  king,  the  privileged  classes, 
and  the  people.  Very  soon  the 
Third  Estate  claimed  to  act  as  the 
nation,  and  demanded  that  hence- 
forth no  taxes  should  be  imposed 
without  their  consent.  This 
brought  them  into  conflict  with 
the  monarchy,  and  on  July  14  the 
Revolution  began  by  the  taking  of 
the  Bastille  by  an  enthusiastic, 
mostly  unarmed  crowd. 

At  once  there  followed  out- 
breaks of  violence  all  over  the 
country.  The  peasants,  infuriated 
by  heavy  taxation  and  by  their 
liability  to  be  forced  to  work  for 
the  benefit  of  the  indolent  and 
luxurious  rich,  attacked  the  houses 
of  the  aristocracy,  refused  to  pay 


FRANCE 

further  taxes,  and  seized  the  land. 
There  was  still,  however,  no  at- 
tempt to  upset  the  monarchy.  So 
long  as  the  king  agreed  to  the  de- 
cisions of  the  States-General  he  was 
acclaimed  as  a  "  patriot."  The 
power  was  exercised  by  the  middle 
class,  which  had  been  captivated 
by  the  doctrines  of  the  philoso- 
phers, but  did  not  consider  that 
any  violent  change  of  system  was 
necessary.  The  people  were  not  so 
patient.  As  they  learned  more 
about  the  state  of  the  kingdom, 
and  as  they  felt  their  power,  they 
became  resolved  that  they  would 
not  be  deceived  again.  The  king, 
they  said,  must  be  in  Paris.  At 
Versailles  there  were  military 
plotters  against  the  Revolution. 
So  they  brought  the  royal  family 
by  force  to  Paris,  and  the  States- 
General  went  to  the  capital  also, 
and  the  first  act  closed. 

In  the  next  act  the  chief  of  the 
new  performers  was  Mirabeau,  an 
aristocrat  who  threw  in  his  lot 
with  the  people,  yet  aimed  at 
saving  the  monarchy.  If  Mirabeau 
had  lived  he  might  have  saved 
France.  After  his  death  the  voices 
which  controlled  the  new  Legisla- 
tive Assembly  were  those  of  Dan- 
ton,  Robespierre,  and  Marat.  All 
three  belonged  to  the  middle  class, 
and  were  men  of  ability,  but  failed 
because  they  could  not  dominate 
the  passions  of  the  Paris  mob.  At 
last  the  mob  broke  into  the  Tuile- 
ries  palace,  carried  off  the  king  and 
his  family,  and  put  them  in  prison. 
The  National  Convention 

In  the  third  phase  the  National 
Convention  comes  into  being  and, 
more  important,  the  National 
Army,  which  was  to  sweep  away 
the  Revolution  altogether  for  a 
time  and  make  Napoleon  supreme. 
This  army  was  raised  as  a  reply  to 
the  threat  that  the  other  Jungs 
and  emperors  of  Europe  would 
avenge  their  brother,  Louis  XVI, 
who  had  been  executed  in  January, 
1793.  Another  consequence  of  this 
interference  was  the  Reign  of 
Terror.  Everyone  suspected  every- 
one else  of  plotting  against  the 
Revolution.  Upon  flimsy  pretexts 
men  and  women  were  arrested  and 
guillotined.  The  Terror  affected 
those  who  carried  on  the  butchery 
not  less  than  those  who  were  its 
victims.  The  leaders  were  am- 
bitious, and,  jealous  of  each  other, 
struck  wildly  at  any  who  stood 
in  their  way.  Yet  amid  all  the 
horrors  and  uproar  there  went  on 
the  work  of  creating  a  new  machine 
of  government.  Officials  sat  in 
their  rooms  day  after  day  dis- 
regarding the  turmoil  and  the 
bloodshed.  The  life  of  the  country 
went  on.  The  new  army  went  on 
from  triumph  to  triumph. 


3299 

Gradually  from  these  victories 
arose  the  star  of  Bonaparte.  He 
had  impressed  the  order-loving  ele- 
ments by  his  "  whiff  of  grape-shot" 
which  ended  a  rising  in  1795.  Then 
followed  his  Italian  victories.  In 
1799  Bonaparte  overthrew  the 
Directorate,  proclaimed  himself 
First  Consul  (there  were  three,  but 
the  other  two  were  shadows),  and 
began  his  vigorous  and  in  many 
ways  admirable  rule.  It-was  so 
productive  of  results  that  in  1804 
he  became  emperor.  From  now  on 
he  governed  not  less  despotically 
than  Louis  XIV,  and  by  much  the 
same  methods,  such  as  a  wide- 
spread spy  system  and  the  crushing 
of  all  ideas  which  did  not  suit  him. 
The  Genius  of  Napoleon 

Yet  there  was  one  immense 
difference  between  Napoleon  and 
Louis  XIV  :  he  was  a  man  of  ex- 
ceptional ability.  His  mind  was 
capable  of  vast  and  beneficent  con- 
ceptions, and  he  could  think  out  his 
plans  with  accuracy  and  harmony 
down  to  small  details.  He  had  the 
knack  of  enforcing  men  to  enjoy 
obeying  him,  to  sacrifice  themselves 
for  him  willingly.  All  this  increased 
his  vanity,  took  away  his  sense  of 
proportion,  shook  the  balance  of 
his  reason,  brought  him  to  ruin  in 
the  end.  He  was  not  great  as  a 
man,  for  his  human  qualities  were 
conditioned  by  his  colossal  selfish- 
ness ;  but  he  possessed  a  great 
capacity,  an  intellect  of  the  rarest 
temper  and  usefulness,  a  person- 
ality which  has  never  been  sur- 
passed in  its  power  to  influence  the 
world's  imagination  and  create 
that  legend  which  alone  can  secure 
popular  support.  Partly  because 
he  was  an  ambitious  soldier,  partly 
because  the  other  sovereigns  re- 
sented his  appearance  among  them, 
he  was  perpetually  occupied  in 
making  war. 

Combinations  were  formed 
against  him  time  after  time,  yet 
his  power  still  increased.  His  in- 
vasion of  Russia  in  1812,  however, 
led  to  disaster,  and  encouraged  all 
the  Great  Powers  to  combine 
against  him.  His  armies  retreated 
further  and  further ;  one  after 
another  the  territories  he  had  con- 
quered had  to  be  given  up.  In 
March,  1814,  Paris  was  taken  by 
the  Allies,  and  the  emperor  re- 
signed the  throne.  Sent  to  Elba,  he 
refused  to  accept  defeat.  The  old 
monarchy  had  been  restored, 
Louis  XVIII  was  king,  but  as  soon 
as  Napoleon  returned  to  France 
there  was  a  hurried  flight  of  royalty 
and  the  emperor  was  once  more  at 
the  head  of  affairs.  But  at  Water- 
loo his  strength  was  broken.  The 
restored  monarchy  lasted  15  years. 
Then  it  was  swept  away  by  a  Re- 
publican rising,  which  did  not,  how- 


FRANCE 

ever,  result  in  a  restored  Republic. 
The  opportunity  was  seized  to 
put  on  the  throne  Louis  Philippe, 
a  prince  of  the  Orleans  branch  of 
the  reigning  family,  who  kept  his 
uneasy  seat  for  18  years  and  was 
driven  out  to  make  room  for  the 
Second  Republic  in  the  year  of 
revolutions,  1848.  The  first  presi- 
dent of  the  new  republic  was  the 
holder  of  the  great  name  of  Napo- 
leon, a  nephew  of  the  emperor,  a 
man  of  small  capacity,  but  of  un- 
bounded faith  in  himself.  He  had 
lived  in  England  as  an  exile.  He 
had  been  imprisoned  in  France  for 
a  theatrical  violation  of  the  law 
excluding  him  from  the  country. 
Now  he  was  elected  president  by 
an  immense  majority,  which  was 
repeated  in  1851,  when  he  seized 
supreme  power  and  prepared  the 
way  for  his  "  acceptance  "  of  the 
title  of  emperor  at  the  end  of  1852. 
Once  again  the  French  people  were 
under  the  domination  of  a  tyranny. 
All  institutions  which  aimed  at 
keeping  alive  the  spirit  of  freedom 
were  suppressed.  No  criticism 
upon  the  doings  of  the  government 
was  permitted.  Yet  on  the  whole 
the  nation  was  not  dissatisfied. 
There  was  material  prosperity  to 
console  it  for  the  loss  of  liberty,  if 
indeed  liberty  had  ever  really  been 
either  its  possession  or  its  desire. 
The  second  of  the  "  great  exhibi- 
tions" held  in  Paris  in  1855  seemed 
to  most  observers  to  be  evidence 
that  the  country  was  contented  as 
well  as  prosperous,  and  that  the 
revival  of  the  Empire  was  likely 
to  endure. 

The  Wars  of  Napoleon  III 

It  has  been  said  of  Louis  Napo- 
leon that  he  spoke  of  its  endurance 
as  contingent  upon  "  a  war  every 
four  years."  Whether  he  used  the 
words  or  not,  he  skilfully  carried 
out  the  policy  they  suggest.  He 
drew  England  into  the  Crimean 
War  for  the  defence  of  the  Turkish 
Empire  ;  he  fought  Austria  for  the 
supposed  purpose  of  liberating 
Italy ;  he  sent  an  expedition  to 
Mexico  to  bolster  up  an  empire 
there.  Finally,  he  was  foolish 
enough  to  try  to  humiliate  Prussia, 
and  so  gave  Bismarck  the  oppor- 
tunity he  wanted  for  war  with 
France  and  for  consolidating  the 
German  Empire. 

Bismarck  was  only  too  glad  to 
take  up  the  challenge  rashly 
thrown  down,  and  France  alone  had 
to  face  the  armies  of  Prussia, 
Bavaria,  Saxony,  and  Wurttem- 
burg.  Europe  looked  in  amazement 
while  the  Germans  gained  victory 
after  victory,  and  in  the  early 
autumn,  with  the  emperor  a 
prisoner  in  their  hands,  encamped 
round  Paris.  The  siege  was  gal- 
lantly endured,  but  at  the  close  of 


FRANCE 

Jan.,  1871,  the  city  capitulated, 
and  peace  was  made.  France  sur- 
rendered Alsace  and  part  of  Lor- 
raine, and  paid  an  indemnity  of 
£200,000,000. 

France,  however,  recovered 
quickly,  after  the  bloody  episode  of 
the  Paris  Commune.  The  republi- 
can form  of  government  was  tried 
for  the  third  time,  and  to  that  form 
the  country  has  remained  constant 
ever  since.  Yet  it  was  not  for  many 
years  that  the  Third  Republic  could 
be  considered  stable.  The  monarch- 
ist party  kept  up  unceasing  efforts 
to  upset  it.  Fortunately  the  royal 
pretenders  to  the  throne  which  had 
been  abolished  were  such  poor  crea- 
tures that  they  were  never  able  to 
gain  a  serious  following. 

In  France  the  Republic  was  ac- 
cepted not  so  much  because  it  was 
liked  as  because  it  seemed  to  offer 
the  best  hope  of  internal  quiet. 
Under  it  the  nation  worked  hard, 
paid  off  the  indemnity  much  sooner 
than  was  expected,  and  reached  a 
higher  degree  of  general  well-being 
than  it  had  ever  reached  before. 
Political  strife  was  unceasing  and 
fierce,  but  the  mass  of  people  paid 
small  attention  to  it.  So  long  as 
they  could  go  about  their  business 
with  confidence,  and  so  long  as  there 
was  no  danger  of  France  being 
embroiled  in  foolish  foreign  adven- 
tures, they  let  the  politicians  talk. 
Boulanger  and  Dreyfus 

The  moment  of  greatest  danger 
through  which  the  Republic  has 
passed  occurred  in  1889,  when 
General  Boulanger  reached  the  pin- 
nacle of  his  curious,  meteoric  career. 
If  Boulanger  had  been  anything 
more  than  a  popularity- hunter,  he 
might  have  caused  a  revolution. 
But  when  it  was  rumoured  that  the 
government  intended  to  order  his 
arrest,  he  fled. 

A  decade  later  France  was  again 
divided  into  two  camps  by  the  case 
of  Alfred  Dreyfus  (q,v. ).  In  the  end 
Dreyfus  was  pardoned  and  Ester- 
hazy,  the  wretched  creature  who 
was  proved  to  be  the  forger  of  the 
evidence  against  Dreyfus,  became 
the  obj  ect  of  popular  detestation  in 
his  place. 

For  all  these  years  the  affair  had 
coloured  politics,  and  its  result  was 
to  weaken  once  more  the  parties  of 
intolerance  and  reaction.  That 
there  was  still  life  left  in  them, 
however,  was  the  belief  of  those 
who  resolved  early  in  the  century 
upon  the  separation  of  Church  and 
State,  and  the  suppression  of  the 
religious  orders.  All  who  held 
anti-clerical  opinions  maintained 
that  Clericalism  had  been  strongly 
against  the  innocent  Dreyfus.  The 
politicians  who  were  taking  turns 
at  holding  office  saw  that  a  favour- 
able opportunity  had  come  for 


3300 

weakening  the  influence  of  the 
Church.  There  was  much  agitation 
against  the  new  laws,  and  some  dis- 
turbances. There  was,  however,  no 
general  protest,  which  was  taken  to 
show  that  the  Church  had  no  great 
hold  upon  the  Frenchman  of  the 
twentieth  century.  At  the  same 
time  there  were  many  young  men 
of  sincere  religious  conviction  in 
the  forefront  of  the  forward  move- 
ment which  began  to  be  noticeable 
within  politics  and  literature  about 
1911.  This  had  for  one  of  its 
objects  the  freeing  of  France  from 
the  pin-pricks  of  Germany.  When 
Germany  set  about  putting  itself 
into  a  state  of  greater  readiness  for 
war,  the  reply  of  France  was  to  in- 
crease the  term  of  military  service 
from  two  years  to  three. 

For  a  long  time  there  had  been 
an  alliance  between  republican 
France  and  the  Russian  autocracy. 
The  tsar  had  borrowed  enor- 
mously from  the  thrifty  French 
peasants,  and  had  undertaken  in 
return  that  France  should  not 
again  be  isolated  as  in  1870. 

For  some  years  also  Britain 
had  encouraged  the  Dual  Alliance 
to  look  to  her  for  support  if  it 
should  be  attacked.  Yet  when  the 
attack  came  in  1914  the  French 
people  showed  no  enthusiasm  for 
war  ;  they  did  not  trust  their  poli- 
ticians ;  they  did  not  feel  at  all  sure 
how  things  would  go.  Until  the 
first  battle  of  the  Marne  their  un- 
easiness grew.  After  this  they  stif- 
fened into  that  solidity  of  resist- 
ance which  carried  them  through 
the  long  ordeal  of  Verdun.  During 
the  later  stages  they  were  less 
troubled  by  misgivings  because 
they  had  put  into  power  a  man 
who  ruled  energetically  and  made 
them  feel  that  all  was  going  well. 
This  man  was  Clemenceau.  Amid 
the  throng  of  doubters  and  dissem- 
blers which  filled  the  political  stage 
the  figure  of  the  aged  "  Tiger" 
caught  the  popular  imagination. 
He  came  into  power  as  leader,  not 
of  a  party,  but  of  the  nation. 
Influence  of  Clemenceau 

Clemenceau  was  a  world  cele- 
brity during  1918-19.  His  influ- 
ence was  stronger  than  that  of  any 
other  statesman  in  moulding  the 
conditions  of  peace.  So  secure  did 
his  position  seem  that  it  was  con- 
sidered almost  certain  he  would  be 
elected  president  of  the  Republic  hi 
January,  1920,  but  the  choice  fell 
on  a  man  of  much  less  vigorous  per- 
sonality, and  Clemenceau  retired. 
The  arrangement  made  by  Clemen- 
ceau for  an  alliance  between  France, 
Britain,  and  the  U.S.A.  (in  spite  of 
the  clause  forbidding  such  alliances 
in  the  League  of  Nations  Covenant) 
broke  down  when  the  U.S.A. 
washed  its  hands  of  European  re 


FRANCE 

sponsibility.  This  completed  the 
circle  of  change  in  French  feelings 
towards  the  American  people. 

When  in  1917  the  Americans  de- 
clared war,  the  French  recovered 
suddenly  from  a  fit  of  severe  depres- 
sion, and  for  awhile  extolled  them  to 
the  skies.  By  degrees  this  admira- 
tion altered  to  coldness,  and  at  last 
to  positive  dislike.  Indeed,  the 
period  which  followed  the  end  of  the 
war  saw  France  in  a  dissatisfied, 
uncomfortable  frame  of  mind.  The 
terms  of  peace  had  been  made  as 
severe  almost  as  her  leaders  wished, 
yet  the  result  was  not  what  had 
been  anticipated.  The  French  are 
by  nature  more  sceptical  than  the 
English ;  they  had  not,  therefore,  ex- 
pected quite  so  much  in  the  way  of 
"  a  new  heaven  and  a  new  earth." 
Yet  there  had  been  signs  of  a  new 
idealism,  of  new  spiritual  horizons. 
Disillusion  was  felt  there  as  else- 
where. When  President  Wilson  de- 
clared that  the  government  was 
controlled  by  "  militarists  "  there 
was  a  loud  outcry,  but  under  their 
breath  a  good  many  French  people 
were  saying  the  same  thing. 
After  the  Great  War 

The  mass  of  Frenchmen  approved 
the  effort  of  their  government  to 
crush  Germany.  When  the  presi- 
dent, Deschanel,  was  forced  by 
bad  health  to  resign,  the  premier, 
Millerand,was  elected  in  Sept.,  1920. 
The  Leygues  government  resigned, 
Jan.  12,  1921,  and  A.  Briand  be- 
came premier,  but  was  forced  to 
resign  in  Jan.,  1922,  owing  to  the 
unpopularity  of  his  foreign  policy. 
A  new  ministry  was  formed  by  R. 
Poincare,  under  whom  an  inten- 
sive policy  of  pressure  on  Germany 
was  undertaken,  culminating  in 
the  French  occupation  of  the  Ruhr. 
The  question  of  German  repara 
tions  was  the  chief  pre-occupation 
of  French  politics  from  1922-24 
See  Germany  ;  Reparations  ;  Ruhr. 

Hamilton  Fyfe 

Bibliography.  France,  J.  E.  C. 
Bodley,  2nd  ed.  1902;  The  French 
People,  A.  Hassall,  1902  ;  France 
and  the  French,  C.  Dawbairn,  1911  ; 
The  New  France,  W.  S.  Lilley, 
1913  ;  France  (Making  of  the  Na- 
tions series),  C.  Headlam,  1913  ; 
How  France  is  Governed,  R.  Poin- 
care, 1915  ;  France  To-day,  L.  Jer- 
rold,  1916  ;  The  Story  of  France,  J. 
L.  Beaumont -James,  1916  ;  Political 
History  of  France,  1789-1910,  M.  O. 
Davis,  1916  ;  Twentieth  Century 
France,  M.  Betham -Ed wards,  1917  ; 
Short  History  of  France,  V.  Duruy, 
1917  ;  Short  History  of  France,  from 
Caesar's  Invasion  to  the  Battle  of 
Waterloo,  A.  M.  F.  Duclaux,  1918  ; 
Facts  about  France, E.  Saillens,  1918; 
France,  Mediaeval  and  Modern,  A. 
Hassall,  1918  ;  History  of  Modern 
France,  E.  Bourgeois,  1919  ;  My 
Second  Country,  France,  R.  Dell, 
1920. 


FRANCE 

LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE.  One 
of  the  Romance  family  of  languages, 
French  had  its  origin  in  the  popular 
Latin  (sermo  plebeius  or  rusticus) 
spoken  by  the  Roman  soldiers, 
merchants,  and  colonists  in  Gaul. 
Scarcely  affected  by  Celtic  influ- 
ences, this  popular  Latin  tongue, 
one  distinguishing  feature  of  which 
was  the  substitution  of  analytical 
forms  for  the  elaborate  case  and 
verbal  inflections  of  literary  Latin, 
had  already  established  itself  by  the 
end  of  the  first  century  of  the 
Christian  era. 

As  they  amalgamated  with  the 
Gallo-Roman  people,  the  Prankish 
conquerors  adopted  it  in  their  turn, 
adding  to  its  vocabulary  a  small 
infusion  of  words  chiefly  of  political 
or  military  significance,  e.g.  vassal, 
fief,  haubert  (halsberc),  heaume 
(helm),  guerre  (werra),  but  contri- 
buting little  to  its  phonetic  or  syn- 
tactical development.  By  the  7th 
century  this  lingua  romana  rustica, 
spoken  by  all  classes  and  accepted 
by  the  Church,  though  not  yet 
committed  to  writing,  had  passed 
into  a  form  which  can  be  recog- 
nized as  emb^onic  French. 

The  character  of  this  transitional 
tongue  may  be  judged  from  the 
first  important  monument  of  it, 
the  Strasbourg  Oath,  by  which,  in 
842,  Louis  the  German  entered 
into  alliance  with  his  brother 
Charles  the  Bald  :  Pro  Deo  amur 
et  pro  Christian  poblo  et  nostro 
coinmun  salvament,  d'ist  di  en 
avant,  in  quant  Deus  savir  et 
podir  me  dunat,  et  salvarai  eo  cist 
meon  fradre  Karlo,  et  in  adjudha 
et  in  cadhuna  cosa,  si  cum  on  per 
dreit  son  fradra  salvar  dift,  in  o 
quid  il  mi  altresi  fazet.  In  modern 
French  this  is  :  Pour  1' amour  de 
Dieu  et  pour  le  salut  du  peuple 
chretien  et  notre  commun  salut,  de 
ce  jour  en  avant,  autant  que  Dieu 
me  donne  savoir  et  pouvoir,  je 
soutiendrai  mon  frere  Charles  et 
en  aide  et  en  chaque  chose,  ainsi 
qu'on  doit,  selon  la  justice,  sou- 
tenir  son  frere,  a  condition  qu'il 
m'en  fasse  autant. 

Langue  d'Oc  and  Langue  d'Oil 

But  though  now  the  common 
language  of  the  country,  the  pre- 
vailing feudal  confusion  was  fatal 
to  its  uniform  development,  and 
for  a  time  it  was  broken  up  into 
a  number  of  independent  dialects. 
The  principal  division  was  into  the 
langue  cToc  of  the  south,  which 
approximated  to  the  Italian  and 
Spanish  modifications  of  the  Ro- 
mance stock,  and  the  langue  (Toil 
of  the  north,  the  parent  of  mod- 
ern French ;  but  in  the  langue. 
d'oil  itself  there  were  four  well- 
marked  varieties — those  of  Nor- 
mandy, Picardy,  Burgundy,  and 


33O1 

the  He  de  France.  But  the  election 
to  the  monarchy  of  Hugh  Capet, 
duke  of  France,  in  987,  made  Paris 
the  capital  of  the  kingdom  and 

five  the  dialect  of  the  He  de 
ranee,  or  French  as  it  was  specifi- 
cally called,  an  enormous  advan- 
tage over  its  rivals,  and  with  the 
steady  political  unification  of  the 
country  from  the  12th  century  on- 
ward this  gradually  became  the 
official  language  of  the  entire 
people.  The  other  dialects  of  the 
north,  and  later  the  langue  floe  or 
provencal,  sank  into  the  condition 
of  mere  patois.  It  was  not,  how- 
ever, till  the  15th  century  that 
the  triumph  of  the  French  tongue 
was  complete  and  its  stability  and 
uniformity  definitely  assured.  By 
this  time  the  case-endings  and 
other  synthetic  features  of  the 
lingua  romana,  which  had  lingered 
in  Old  and  Middle  French,  had 
entirely  disappeared. 

Evolution  from  Latin 

Philology  has  established  the 
fact  that  the  evolution  of  French 
out  of  Latin  was  governed  by  cer- 
tain fundamental  laws,  of  which 
the  most  important  are:  (1)  the 
persistence  of  the  Latin  tonic 
accent ;  thus  amdre  became  aimer, 
porticus,  porche ;  (2)  the  contrac- 
tion or  loss  of  the  Latin  termina- 
tion, as  in  the  examples  just  given  ; 
(3)  the  disappearance  of  the  short 
vowel  immediately  preceding  the 
stressed  syllable;  e.g.  bonitdtem= 
bonte,  claritdtem=clarte,  septimana 
—  semaine  ;  (4)  the  suppression  of 
the  medial  consonant :  e.g.  maturus 
=maurus  —  mur,  confidential 
confiance.  These  morphological 
rules,  however,  apply  only  to  the 
natural  and  spontaneous  evolu- 
tion of  the  language  and  lapse 
entirely  in  respect  of  that  large 
portion  of  the  modern  vocabulary 
which  consists  of  words  afterward 
imported  from  the  Latin  by  scholars 
and  writers  (mots  savants).  Hence 
we  can  at  once  decide  in  the  case 
of  the  many  existing  doublets,  or 
words  slightly  differing  in  form 
though  ultimately  derived  from 
the  same  sources,  e.g.  hotel  and 
hopital,  confiance  and  confidence, 
Her  and  liguer,  which  belong  to  the 
primitive  and  popular  founda- 
tions of  the  language  and  which 
are  of  later  and  artificial  origin. 

LITERATURE.  Though  a  few  reli- 
gious poems  of  earlier  date  have 
come  down  to  us,  French  literature 
really  begins  with  the  epic  poetry 
of  the  llth,  12th,  and  13th  cen- 
turies. This  poetry,  which  is  full 
of  the  chivalrous  spirit  and  is  essen- 
tially aristocratic  in  character, 
falls  roughly  into  two  divisions : 
the  chansons  de  geste  and  the 
romans  epiques.  Of  the  former, 


FRANCE 

largely  concerned  with  the  fabu- 
lous exploits  of  Charlemagne  and 
his  paladins,  the  most  famous 
example  is  the  Chanson  de  Roland, 
dating  from  the  second  half  of  the 
llth  century.  Such  chansons  are 
supposed  to  rest  upon  slight  his- 
torical bases  ;  the  romans  epiques 
were  legend  or  fiction. 

The  Arthurian  Cycle 

Most  of  these  belong  to  the 
Celtic  legend-cycle  of  Arthur  and 
the  Round  Table,  e.g.  the  poems  of 
Chretien  de  Troyes,  of  the  second 
half  of  the  12th  century.  Others 
deal,  albeit  in  a  most  extravagant 
way,  with  classical  antiquity  (ro- 
mans antiques) :  e.g.  the  Roman 
d' Alexandra  of  the  12th  century, 
which  is  specially  interesting  be- 
cause it  introduced  the  twelve- 
syllable  verse,  later  the  standard 
measure  of  French  poetry  and 
hence  called  the  alexandrine. 

After  this  epic  poetry  the  most 
important  branch  of  medieval 
French  literature  is  the  allegorical- 
didactic  poetry  which  reached  its 
culmination  in  the  Roman  de  la 
Rose,  the  first  part  of  which,  writ- 
ten c.  1237  by  Guillaume  de  Lorris, 
contains  a  courtly  "  art  of  love  "  ; 
while  the  second,  written  by  Jean 
de  Meung,  some  forty  years  later, 
with  its  bold  satire  upon  contem- 
porary society,  illustrates  the 
rising  reaction  of  the  practical  bour- 
geois spirit  against  the  fantastic 
idealism  of  the  aristocratic  classes. 
This  reaction  further  appears  in  the 
fabliaux,  or  short  humorous  stories 
in  verse,  of  the  13th  and  14th  cen- 
turies, but  its  fullest  expression  is 
to  be  found  in  the  Roman  du 
Renard  (12-1 4th  centuries),  which 
is  indeed  a  kind  of  anti-romance 
or  burlesque  of  the  fashionable 
chansons  de  geste. 

Although  in  the  N.  narrative 
and  didactic  poetry  flourished  most, 
lyrical  verse  was  cultivated  in 
the  S.,  notably  by  the  Provencal 
troubadours,  who  sang  of  courtly 
love  in  elaborate  and  intricate 
stanza-forms  ;  but  as  the  old  chiv- 
alrous sentiments  waned  the  poetry 
of  the  latter  became  increasingly 
vapid  and  unreal.  The  note  of 
sincerity  was  however,  struck  by 
Rutebeul  (d.  c.  1280)  and  200  years 
later  by  the  great  Fran9ois  Villon. 
Concurrently  the  drama,  which  in 
origin  was  the  offspring  of  the 
liturgy  of  the  Church,  evolved 
through  miracle,  mystere  and 
moralite  into  two  popular  forms  of 
secular  play — the  sottie,  a  short 
satiric  piece  resembling  the  mor- 
alite in  its  allegorical  machinery 
and  didactic  intention,  and  the 
farce,  which  may  be  broadly  de- 
fined as  dramatised  fabliau.  Mean- 
while prose  developed  slowly,  and 
it  was  not  until  the  13th  century 


FRANCE 

that  with  Villehardouin's  Conquete 
de  Constantinople  it  began  to  dis- 
place Latin  in  the  writing  of  his- 
tory. Of  the  many  other  chroni- 
clers of  the  Middle  Ages  three  are 
particularly  noteworthy :  Join- 
ville  with  his  Histoire  de  St. 
Louis,  written  1305-9;  Froissart 
with  his  Chroniques,  written  c. 
1373-1400;  and  Commines  with 
his  Memoires,  written  c.  1488- 
1500.  Prose  was  also  employed 
for  fiction,  as  by  Antoine  de  la 
Salle.  The  exquisite  chantefable, 
Aucassin  et  Nicolette,  of  the  later 
12th  century,  is  an  interesting  con- 
necting link  between  the  verse  and 
the  prose  roman. 

Renaissance  Influence 

In  the  IGth  century  French  lit- 
erature, thus  far  thoroughly  medie- 
val in  character,  was  transformed 
by  all  the  liberalising  influences  of 
the  Renaissance  and  especially  by 
the  revived  study  of  the  literatures 
of  Greco-Roman  antiquity,  to 
which  the  new  writers  turned  for 
their  inspiration  and  models.  In 
poetry  the  transition  is  marked  by 
Marot,  and  soon  after  his  death 
the  revolution  was  completed  by  a 
group  of  writers,  collectively  called 
La  Pleiade,  whose  leading  spirit 
was  Ronsard.  The  manifesto  of 
this  brotherhood  is  contained  in 
La  Deffense  et  Illustration  de  la 
Langue  Fran9oyse  (1549),  the 
author  of  which,  Du  Bellay,  ad- 
vocates the  enrichment  of  French 
by  the  free  importation  of  words 
and  idioms  from  various  sources 
and  particularly  from  the  classic 
tongues.  In  regard  to  literature, 
he  insists  that  the  poet  should 
abandon  entirely  all  the  older 
native  forms  of  verse  and  devote 
himself  to  the  production  of  ec- 
logues, epics,  elegies,  dramas,  etc., 
in  the  classic  style. 

Ronsard  himself  attempted  to 
naturalise  some  of  the  "  great 
types  "  of  ancient  poetry  in  his 
Odes,  1550-53,  and  his  unfinished 
epic,  La  Franciade  ;  and  Pleiade 
principles  were  also  adopted  by  an 
outsider,  the  protestant  Du  Bartas, 
in  his  Biblical  epics,  Judith  (1573) 
and  La  Semaine  (1578).  The  dra- 
matic part  of  the  Pleiade  pro- 
gramme was  carried  out  by  Ron- 
sard's  young  disciple,  Etienne  Jo- 
delle.  His  comedy,  Eugene,  1552, 
has  little  historical  importance ; 
but  in  his  two  tragedies,  Cleo- 
patre  captive  and  Didon  se  sacri- 
fiant,  he  laid  the  foundations  of 
that  Senecan  or  classic  type  of 
tragedy  which  was  to  flourish  in 
France  for  nearly  300  years.  His 
lead  was  followed  by  other  writers, 
notably  Gamier,  while  Larivey, 
influenced  by  his  Kalian  models, 
made  a  significant  innovation  by 
the  substitution  of  prose  for  verse. 


3302 

Meanwhile  prose  literature, 
hitherto  little  more  than  experi- 
mental, developed  rapidly  in  many 
directions.  Calvin's  Institution  de 
la  Religion  Chretienne  (1st  French 
ed.  1541),  though  in  subject- 
matter  interesting  only  to  the  theo- 
logical student,  and  Amyot's  ver- 
sion of  Plutarch  (1559),  though  a 
mere  translation,  deserve  mention 
among  the  monuments  of  the  new 
prose.  This  was  now  freely  used  for 
biography  and  history  (e.g.  Blaise 
de  Montluc's  Commentaires,  writ- 
ten 1570-77),  and  for  political  pur- 
poses (e.g.  La  Boetie's  Discours 
de  la  Servitude  Volontaire,  first 
printed  1576,  and  the  Menippee  sa- 
tire, 1594,  by  Pithou,  Passer  at,  and 
others).  But  in  general  literature 
the  two  outstanding  names  are 
those  of  Rabelais  and  Montaigne, 
both  of  whom,  despite  their  funda- 
mental differences,  are  representa- 
tive exponents  of  the  emancipated 
spirit  of  the  Renaissance. 

With  the  17th  century  we  pass 
into  what  French  historians  call 
le  grand  siecle,  during  which  the 
consolidation  of  the  power  of  the 
crown,  begun  by  Richelieu,  was 
completed  by  Mazarin  and  abso- 
lute monarchy  finally  established 
by  Louis  XIV.  In  literature  the 
triumph  of  classicism  was  the  con- 
comitant and  in  large  measure  the 
result  of  this  culmination  in  politics 
of  the  principles  of  centralization 
and  autocracy. 

The  Classic  Period 

Under  the  influence  first  of  the 
salons  and  then  of  the  Academy, 
founded  in  1635,  and  the  court, 
literature,  too,  was  reduced  to  law 
and  order  ;  the  individualistic  ten- 
dencies of  the  16th  century  were 
checked,  and  general  standards  of 
judgement  and  taste  were  pre- 
scribed ;  with  the  result  that, 
while  an  artificial  unity  and  great 
brilliancy  and  polish  were  at- 
tained, they  were  attained  only  at 
the  cost  of  originality  and  inde- 
pendence. In  poetry  the  classical 
movement  was  initiated  by  Mal- 
herbe,  who  set  out  to  clear  the  lan- 
guage of  the  archaisms  of  the 
Pleiade  and  the  conceits  which  had 
more  recently  been  introduced 
from  Italy,  and  to  regulate  versifi- 
cation by  the  severest  rules  of 
technique. 

But  while  Malherbe  thus  laid 
down  the  lines  which  poetry  was  to 
follow  for  the  next  200  years,  the 
••eal  master  of  the  classic  school  was 
Boileau,  whose  L'Art  Poetique 
(1674)  was  long  accepted  as  its 
authoritative  text-book.  Only  a 
few  writers,  one  the  satirist 
Regnier,  were  bold  enough  to  re- 
sist the  new  tendencies.  But  one 
great  poet  of  the  century,  the 
inimitable  fabulist  La  Fontaine, 


FRANCE 

though  claimed  by  the  classicists, 
occupies  a  place  apart.  While 
under  the  dictatorship  of  Malherbe 
and  Boileau  pure  poetry  declined, 
the  drama,  on  the  other  hand, 
flourished  in  great  splendour. 
After  Jodelle  and  Gamier  little 
progress  had  been  made  in  tragedy, 
though  the  prolific  Alexandre 
Hardy  had  done  something  to 
popularise  it ;  but  the  classic  type 
now  reached  perfection  in  Corneille 
and  Racine,  with  whom  we  may 
also  mention  the  minor  writers, 
Rotrou,  Thomas  Corneille,  and 
Quinault.  At  the  same  time  the 
comedy  of  manners  and  social 
satire,  which  had  slowly  been 
emerging  out  of  the  popular  farce, 
assumed  its  most  brilliant  form  in 
the  work  of  the  greatest  comic 
playwright  of  the  modern  world, 
Moliere,  among  whose  numerous 
followers  two — Regnard  and  Dan- 
court — have  substantial  claims  to 
distinction. 

In  the  general  prose  of  the  cen- 
tury the  foremost  names  are  those 
of  the  moralists,  La  Rochefou- 
cauld, Pascal,  and  La  Bruyere ; 
and  of  the  preachers  and  religious 
writers,  Bossuet,  Bourdaloue,  Mas- 
sillon,  and  Fenelon.  But  letter- 
writing  and  memoir-writing  were 
also  cultivated  with  great  success  ; 
the  former  in  particular  by  the 
incomparable  epistolaire,  Mme.  de 
Sevigne  :  the  latter,  e.g.,  by  the 
two  famous  chroniclers,  De  Retz 
and  Saint-Simon. 

To  the  17th  century  also  belong 
the  beginnings  of  the  novel.  For  its 
first  75  years  indeed  prose  fiction 
was  mainly  represented  by  the  pro- 
lix and  hopelessly  unreal  pastoral 
romance,  typified  in  L'Astree.  1(510, 
of  Honore  d'Urfe,  and  by  such 
romans  precieux  as  Gomberville's 
Polexandre,  1638-41  :  La  Calpre- 
nede's  Cleopatre,  1647,  and  Mile,  de 
Scudery's  Grand  Cyrus,  1649-53. 
But  a  bourgeois  reaction  against 
these  fantastic  products  of  the 
aristocratic  salons  soon  appeared 
in  Charles  S Orel's  burlesque,  Le 
Berger  Extravagant,  1627  ;  and 
in  the  same  writer's  earlier  Fran- 
cion,  1622  ;  in  Scarron's  Roman 
Comique,  1651-57  ;  in  Furetiere's 
Roman  Bourgeois,  1666  ;  and  in  a 
different  way  in  Mme.  de  la 
Fayette's  Princesse  de  Cleves, 
1678,  we  mark  the  emergence  of 
the  novel  in  its  modern  form. 
The  Eighteenth  Century 

While  not  altogether  unchal- 
lenged, the  classic  ideal  held  sway 
until  the  death  of  Louis  XIV  in 
1715.  In  the  period  of  gro  wing 
political  and  intellectual  unrest 
which  followed,  though  the  estab- 
lished theories  were  maintained, 
the  fundamental  character  of 
French  literature  underwent  an 


FRANCE 

entire  transformation,  to  which  the 
popularity  of  English  literature, 
especially  among  the  bourgeoisie, 
greatly  contributed.  In  particular, 
under  the  influence  of  the  critical 
and  utilitarian  tendencies  of  the 
age,  literature  came  to  be  valued 
less  for  its  aesthetic  qualities  than 
as  a  means  for  diffusing  ideas,  and 
for  this  reason  the  representative 
masterpieces  of  the  century  belong 
rather  to  the  literature  of  polemical 
and  propagandist  purpose  than  to 
that  of  creative  imagination.  In 
prose  the  transition  is  marked  by 
Bayle,  Fontenelle,  and  Montes- 
quieu. But  as  early  as  1718  the 
most  brilliant  exponent  of  the 
18th  century  spirit,  Voltaire,  had 
already  opened  his  long  career  of 
prodigious  activity  and  striking 
success  in  almost  every  field.  Vast 
as  was  his  influence,  however,  it 
was  less  profound  than  that  ex- 
erted by  Rousseau,  who  passion- 
ately attacked  all  the  dominant 
ideals  of  his  age,  and  who,  in  his 
subjectivity,  sentimentalism,  and 
love  of  nature,  may  be  regarded  as 
the  first  great  precursor  of  ro- 
manticism. After  these  two  the 
foremost  prose  writer  of  the  cen- 
tury is  Diderot.  ^. 

Meanwhile,  in  this  uncongenial 
atmosphere,  poetry  languished ; 
Voltaire's  epic  LaHenriade,  1728  ; 
the  didactic  verse  of  Louis  Racine  : 
the  descriptive  poems  of  Saint- 
Lambert,  Roucher,  and  Delille  ; 
and  the  odes  of  Jean-Baptiste 
Rousseau  adding  little  of  interest 
to  the  possessions  of  French  litera- 
ture. Some  excellent  light  verse  is 
indeed  to  be  found  in  the  minor 
poems  of  Voltaire ;  in  J.  B.  L. 
[  Cresset ;  and  in  the  Fables  of 
\  Florian;  but  in  its  higher  forms 
18th  century  poetry  had  only 
one  acknowledged  master,  Andre 
Chenier,  the  last  great  product  of 
the  classic  school.  Tragedy,  repre- 
sented at  its  best  by  Crebillon  and 
Voltaire,  suffered  from  a  similar 
dry  rot ;  but  comedy,  on  the  other 
hand,  maintained  its  vitality  in  the 
plays  of  Destouches,  Piron,  Mari- 
vaux,  and  Beaumarchais. 

Innovations  in  Drama 
The  most  significant  feature  in 
the  history  of  the  18th  century 
drama  is  the  appearance  of  a  new 
type  of  serious  play,  the  tragedie 
bourgeoise  or  drame,  in  which  the 
conventions  of  classic  tragedy  were 
repudiated  and  the  truth  of  nature 
was  sought.  The  way  for  this  had 
been  prepared  by  Marivaux  and 
by  the  comedie  larmoyante  of  La 
Chaussee,  but  its  founders  were 
Diderot  and  Sedaine.  This  inno- 
vation was  closely  connected  with 
the  progress  of  the  democratic 
movement,  the  influence  of  which 
is  also  conspicuous  in  the  further 


3303 

development  of  the  novel  in  the 
hands  of  Le  Sage,  Marivaux, 
Prevost,  Jean  Jacques  Rousseau, 
and  Bernardin  de  Saint-Pierre. 

While  the  Revolution  overthrew 
the  old  social  order,  it  did  not  at 
once  destroy  its  art,  and  the  litera- 
ture of  the  revolutionary  period 
represents  in  the  main  the  final 
exhaustion  of  classicism.  Two 
great  writers,  however — Mme.  de 
Stael  and  Chateaubriand — herald 
the  romantic  movement  of  the 
second  quarter  of  the  19th  century. 
Romanticism,  defined  by  Hugo  as 
"  liberalism  in  literature,"  was  at 
bottom  the  result  of  the  extension 
to  art  of  the  revolutionary  princi- 
ples of  freedom  and  individuality  ; 
whence  its  rejection  of  classic  con- 
vention and  all  external  authority, 
its  assertion  of  the  right  of  genius 
to  be  a  law  unto  itself,  its  extreme 
subjectivity,  and  its  frequent 
extravagances  ;  while  the  medie- 
valism, picturesqueness,  and  emo- 
tionalism by  which  it  was  also 
characterised  arose  from  a  sweeping 
reaction  against  the  scepticism  and 
aridity  of  the  18th  century. 

The  new  note  in  poetry  was  first 
clearly  struck  by  Lamartine,  but 
most  powerfully  by  Hugo,  the 
paramount  personality  of  the 
entire  movement.  Vigny,  Musset, 
and  Gautier  were  also  pre-eminent. 
The  Rise  o!  Romanticism 

Moribund  classic  tragedy  was 
now  displaced  by  a  drama  of  the 
free  romantic  or  Shakespearean 
type.  Here  the  real  pioneer  was 
Dumas,  but  its  principles  were 
formulated  by  Victor  Hugo  in  his 
preface  to  Cromwell  (1827),  the 
first  great  trumpet-call  of  roman- 
ticism, and  it  was  his  Hernani 
(1830)  which  assured  its  triumph 
on  the  stage.  While,  however,  the 
glorified  melodrama  of  Dumas  had 
all  the  qualities  which  make  for 
popularity,  the  finest  art  of  the 
romantic  drama  must  be  sought  in 
the  plays  of  Vigny  and  Musset. 

In  fiction  the  historical  romance, 
inaugurated  by  Vigny  and  Merimee, 
attained  enormous  success  with 
Hugo,  Dumas,  and  a  host  of  others, 
and  side  by  side  with  this  appeared 
the  idealistic  novel  of  George  Sand 
in  direct  line  from  Rousseau's 
Nouvelle  Heloise,  and  the  realistic 
novel  founded  by  Balzac  and 
Stendhal.  Among  the  critics, 
Nisard  held  tenaciously  to  classical 
standards  and  methods,  but  the 
quickening  and  broadening  influ- 
ences of  the  time  are  clearly  seen 
in  Villemain  and  the  greatest  of 
all  French  critics,  Sainte-Beuve. 
The  period  was  also  rich  in  religious 
and  philosophical  literature,  e.g. 
Joseph  de  Maistre,  Lamennais, 
Cousin,  and  Comte ;  and  in  history, 
e.g.  Thierry,  Guizot,  and  Thiers. 


FRANCE 

By  the  middle  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury romanticism  had  spent  its 
force ;  the  pendulum  of  taste 
swung  in  the  opposite  direction, 
and  in  response  to  new  social  and 
intellectual  tendencies  and  the 
rapid  spread  of  the  scientific  spirit, 
literature  became  for  a  time  pre- 
dominantly anti-romantic  and 
realistic.  The  change  is  shown  in 
the  drama  by  the  comedie  de 
moeurs  (a  descendant  of  the  later 
18th  century  drama)  of  Augier 
and  the  younger  Dumas  ;  and  the 
drame  naturaliste  of  Becque  ;  in 
fiction  by  the  roman  realiste  of 
Flaubert  and  the  brothers  Edmond 
and  Jules  de  Goncourt ;  and  by 
the  roman  naturaliste  of  Zola, 
Fabre,  Maupassant,  and  Daudet. 

A  few  novelists,  like  Octave 
Feuillet,  opposed  the  prevailing 
realism,  while  others,  like  C.  A.  A. 
Theuriet,  were  only  in  part 
affected  by  it.  Outside  fiction, 
much  of  the  prose  of  this  period 
belongs  to  the  literature  of  the 
particular  subjects  dealt  with 
rather  than  to  general  literature, 
and  need  not,  therefore,  be  con- 
sidered here  ;  but  in  some  cases, 
as  in  those  of  Renan  and  Taine, 
even  specialised  history  was  by  the 
technical  qualities  of  form  and 
style  raised  to  the  highest  level  of 
art.  Another  noteworthy  feature 
of  the  time  was  the  immense 
development  of  criticism  by  many 
writers  of  striking  merit,  as  e.g. 
Taine,  Brunetiere,  Scherer,  Faguet, 
and  Lemattre. 

Parnassians  and  Symbolists 

Poetry  meanwhile  passed  through 
several  well-defined  phases  largely 
associated,  in  consonance  with  the 
sysfcematising  habit  of  the  French 
mind,  with  recognized  schools.  Two 
of  Gautier's  disciples,  Banville  and 
Baudelaire,  mark  the  transition 
from  the  ideas  of  the  romantics 
to  those  of  the  Parnassiens — 
Leconte  de  Lisle,  Heredia,  Sully- 
Prudhomme,  and  others,  who  were 
broadly  neo -classic  in  principle ; 
and  these  in  turn  were  succeeded 
by  the  Symbolistes — Mallarme, 
Verlaine,  and  others,  in  whom  may 
be  detected  the  reawakening  of  the 
romantic  spirit  under  fresh  forms. 
Other  poets  of  the  time,  however, 
notably  Richepin.  Moreas,Regnier, 
and  Francis  Jammes,  cannot 
strictly  be  connected  with  either 
of  these  special  groups.  Jammes 
is  one  of  the  younger  generation  of 
writers  who,  carrying  forward  the 
movement  initiated  by  Verlaine, 
have  undertaken  a  fundamental 
revolution  in  the  prosodial  charac- 
teristics of  French  poetry.  In  the 
evolution  of  poetry  may  be  noted 
the  renaissance  of  the  idealistic 
spirit,  and  after  1870,  though  the 
realists  still  held  their  ground,  this 


FRANCE 

became  increasingly  apparent  in 
other  fields  of  literature  ;  as  in  the 
revival  of  the  poetic  drama  with 
Bornier,  Coppee,  and  Rostand. 
Liberated  from  the  cramping 
theories  of  pseudo-scientific  real- 
ism, all  French  literature  indeed 
has  since  developed  with  healthy 
freedom  along  many  independent 
lines.  In  two  departments  in  par- 
ticular France  still  keeps  her  high 
place  :  in  the  drama,  as  in  the  plays 
of  Lemaitre,  Hervieu,  Brieux, 
Donnay,  Bataille,  and  Bernstein  ; 
in  fiction,  as  in  the  novels  of 
Anatole  France,  Loti,  Bourget, 
Bazin,  Prevost,  Barres,  Boylesvo, 
and  Bordeaux.  w.  H.  Hudson 

Bibliography.  Histoire  de  la 
Litterature  Fran9&ise  du  Moyen 
Age  aux  Temps  Modernes,  E. 
Geruzez,  1857  ;  Histoire  de  la 
Litterature  Franchise  Depuis  ses 
Origines  Jusqu'a  la  B.evolution,  E. 
Geruzez,  1861  ;  Histoire  de  la 
Langue  Fran£aise,  M.  P.  E.  Littre, 
1863  ;  History  of  French  Literature, 
H.  Van  Laun,  1876-77  ;  Historical 
Grammar  of  the  French  Tongue,  A. 
Brachet,  Eng.  ed.  P.  Toynbee,  1896  ; 
A  History  of  French  Literature, 
E.  Dowden,  1897  ;  Histoire  de 
la  Langue  et  de  la  Litterature 
Francaise,  ed.  L.  Petit  de  Jxilleville, 
1896-99  ;  Manual  of  the  History  of 
French  Literature,  F.  Brunetiere, 
Eng.  trans.  R.  Derechet,  1898  ; 
Histoire  de  la  Litterature  Fran«;aise, 
G.  Lanson,  llth  ed.  1910;  A  Short 
History  of  French  Literature, 
G.  E.  "B.  Saintsbury,  7th  ed.  1917. 

ART.  It  is  generally  conceded 
that  French  art,  more  than  that 
of  any  other  country,  reflects  the 
national  aesthetic  judgement  and 
feeling.  Just  as  a  Frenchman  can 
be  identified  as  such  before  he 
begins  to  speak,  so  is  a  French 
painting  or  piece  of  sculpture  un- 
mistakable by  its  particular  quali- 
ties. For  a  long  time,  indeed,  in 
the  fine  arts  at  any  rate,  the 
national  quality  overshadowed  the 
personal ;  and  though  of  late  years 
the  cosmopolitan  spirit  has  affected 
French  art  like  everything  else,  it 
is  still  true  that  the  idiosyncrasies 
of  individual  French  artists  are 
much  less  remarkable  than  their 
mutual  affinities. 

The  Classic  Tradition 

The  outstanding  characteristic  of 
French  art  is  its  high  standard 
of  competence.  Nowhere  in  the 
world  is  so  high  a  level  of  accom- 
plishment reached.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  predominant  element  in 
that  competence  is  an  intellectual 
one  ;  and  this  leaves  little  room  for 
spirituality  such  as  is  found  in  the 
best  Italian  work,  or  for  the  poetry 
inherent  in  a  good  deal  of  British 
art.  The  intellect  of  the  French- 
man is  clear  cut,  extremely  logical, 
almost  untouched  by<sensuousness, 
and  his  art  is  endowed  with  pre- 
cisely parallel  qualities. 


3304 

Hence  comes  his  devotion  for 
classicism.  The  main  stream  of 
French  art  has  always  been  classic, 
whatever  sporadic  manifestations 
there  may  have  been  of  other  ten- 
dencies, romantic,  impressionist, 
expressionist,  and  so  forth.  In 
no  phase  is  the  strength  of  the 
classic  ideal  more  clearly  shown 
than  in  architecture.  French 
Gothic  certainly  had  its  own 
character  and  beauty,  but  it  was 
a  style  imposed  on  France  by  the 
religious  orders,  and  fostered  by 
a  temporary  religious  exaltation, 
rather  than  the  product  of  the 
national  genius.  The  great  French 
cathedrals  began  to  be  built  in  the 
second  quarter  of  the  12th  century ; 
but  though  these  still  remain  as 
monuments  to  the  period,  Gothic, 
as  a  building  style  in  France,  had 
exhausted  its  strength  before  the 
end  of  the  15th  century,  and  was 
virtually  extinct  by  the  middle  of 
the  16th — never  to  be  revived. 
The  French  Renaissance 

The  classic  revival,  spreading  out 
of  Italy,  appealed  at  once  to 
French  national  aspirations,  and, 
first  introduced  into  the  country 
by  Italian  workmen,  was  quickly 
assimilated  by  the  French  builder- 
architects.  This  "  French  Re- 
naissance "  was  the  foundation  of 
the  classic  style  of  building  that 
has  held  the  field  in  France,  vir- 
tually without  interruption,  up  to 
the  present  day,  and,  lasting  from 
about  the  reign  of  Charles  VIII  (d. 
1498)  to  the  end  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury, was  an  era  of  splendid  accom- 
plishment. The  16th  century  saw 
De  L'Orme  and  Jean  Bullant  at 
work  on  the  Tuileries,  the  1 7th  the 
building  of  the  Royal  Palace  at 
Versailles,  and  the  completion  of 
the  Louvre  by  Lemercier,  as  well 
as  the  career  of  Fra^ois  Mansart, 
one  of  the  most  individual  geniuses 
of  French  and  world  classicism. 

If  the  neo-Renaissance  buildings 
of  modern  Paris  seem  paltry  com- 
pared with  the  older  master- 
pieces, it  is  not  the  less  true  that 
French  architecture  continues  to 
exercise  an  immense  influence  on 
the  building  of  other  countries. 
The  tradition  of  classicism,  bal- 
ance, perfection  of  form,  justness 
of  proportion,  persists  very  palpa- 
bly in  this  phase  of  French  artistic 
expression,  and  no  survey  of  other 
phases  would  be  complete  without 
reference  to  the  general  principles 
it  so  clearly  embodies.  The  same 
principles  reappear  in  the  more 
permanent  examples  of  French 
painting  and  sculpture. 

French  painting  owed  its  be- 
ginnings to  Flemish  and  Italian 
artists,  in  the  same  way  as  French 
architecture  was  indebted  to  the 
Italian  craftsmen.  An  attempt  has 


FRANCE 

been  made  by  patriotic  French 
critics  to  establish  the  existence  of 
an  important  national  school  at 
Moulins  towards  the  end  of  the 
15th  century,  and  the  identity  of 
the  "  Maitre  de  Moulins,"  the 
painter  of  a  well-known  triptych  at 
that  town,  with  Jean  Perreac,  a 
contemporary  artist  of  French 
nationality.  But  apart  from  the 
uncertainty  surrounding  the  per- 
sonality of  this  Primitive  and 
others,  it  is  difficult  to  trace  any 
material  difference  between  their 
work  and  that  of  the  Flemings  of 
the  same  time. 

Even  Jean  Fouquet,  the  illu- 
minator of  the  Chantilly  Book  of 
Hours,  is  identified  with  several 
paintings  that  are  Flemish  or  Ger- 
man in  character,  and  the  School 
of  Tours,  in  which  he  was  the  out- 
standing figure,  seems  to  have  been 
almost  entirely  directed  bynorthern 
masters.  In  the  art  of  Nicholas 
Froment,  of  the  School  of  Avignon, 
who  flourished  in  the  third  quarter 
of  the  15th  century,  Italianate 
influences  manifest  themselves  as 
well  as  those  of  the  Low  Countries. 
Jean  Clouet  (d.  c.  1540)  and  his 
son  Fran9ois  (d.  c.  1572)  were 
Netherlander  domiciled  at  Tours. 
Both  became  court  painters  and 
helped  to  carry  on  the  Flemish 
manner  as  opposed  to  the  Italian 
manner  which  was  then  being  fos- 
tered by  Rosso  and  Primaticcio 
in  the  decoration  of  the  royal 
buildings  at  Fontainebleau.  The 
most  notable  "  French  "  artist  of 
the  Fontainebleau  group  was  Jean 
Cousin  (d.  c.  1584),  called  "  The 
French  Michaelangelo."  Modern 
criticism,  however,  has  dubbed  him 
a  mediocre  follower  of  Primaticcio. 
Poussin  and  Lorrain 

The  Fontainebleau  decorative 
school  died  rapidly,  and  shortly 
after  the  dawn  of  the  17th  century 
French  painting  had  passed  out  of 
the  stage  of  apprenticeship  and 
was  evolving  on  vigorous  and  char- 
acteristic lines  of  its  own.  The 
principal  foreign  impulse  came 
from  Rome.  It  was  there  that 
Nicholas  Poussin  (d.  1665),  the  real 
founder  of  the  Classical  school  of 
French  painting,  found  his  in- 
spiration. Poussin's  art,  neverthe- 
less, represents  the  most  typical  ex- 
pression of  the  purely  intellectual 
side  of  French  genius.  Based  on  a 
definite  theory  of  design  and  com- 
position, it  is  coldly  classical, 
wholly  unemotional.  Even  his 
landscapes  testify  his  devotion  to 
the  severely  classical  ideal,  though 
they  also  show  a  genuine,  if  aus- 
tere, love  of  nature.  In  landscape, 
however,  he  was  easily  surpassed 
by  his  great  contemporary  Claude 
Lorrain,  who,  adopting  the  same 
classical  model  in  his  combinations 


FRANCE 


3305 


FRANCE 


of  both  architectural  and  land- 
scape elements,  clothed  his  work  in 
light  and  atmosphere.  Ruskin  said 
of  him  that  he  effected  a  revolu- 
tion in  art,  which  revolution  "  con- 
sisted mainly  in  setting  the  sun  in 
the  heavens  "  ;  and  in  this  respect 
he  was  the  founder  of  modern 
French,  and,  indeed,  of  all  modern 
landscape  art. 

A  variant  on  the  severe  classic- 
ism of  Poussin  and  Lorrain  was  in- 
troduced by  Simon  Vouet  (d.  1649) 
in  the  form  of  a  naturalism  based 
on  that  of  Caravaggio ;  and  his 
pupil  Charles  Le  Brun  (d.  1690) 
succeeded  in  imposing  on  French 
painting  a  pompous  character  that 
checked  for  a  time  the  growth  of 
independent  genius.  This  was  the 
fruit  of  the  minister  Colbert's 
avowed  policy,  of  which  Le  Brun 
was  the  instrument,  of  directing 
French  art  into  industrial  and  de- 
corative channels  ;  and  it  was  fol- 
lowed, in  the  18th  century,  by  a 
not  unwholesome  reaction. 

Chardin,  Fragonard,  Watteau 

Meanwhile,  the  genre  painting  of 
the  brothers  Le  Nain,  who  flour- 
ished in  Paris  during  the  first  half 
of  the  17th  century,  had  kept  alive 
an  older  and  simpler  tradition  than 
the  Italian  one.  They  painted  the 
daily  life  of  the  people,  very  much 
in  the  manner  of  contemporary 
Dutch  and  Flemish  schools,  but 
with  a  certain  southern  grace  in 
their  realism.  In  much  the  same 
way  Jean  Simeon  Chardin  (d. 
1779),  an  isolated  figure  among  his 
flamboyant  and  sentimental  con- 
temporaries, concerned  himself 
only  with  the  aesthetic  aspect  and 
significance  of  the  humble  life  he 
painted,  and  relied  on  delicacy  of 
treatment  and  beautiful  pigment 
to  achieve  beauty.  French  18th 
century  painting,  however,  as 
shown  by  Fragonard,  Lancret,  Pa- 
ter, Boucher,  and  others,  is  essen- 
tially the  mirror  of  the  artificial 
mode  of  life  and  thought  that  had 
followed  the  heaviness  of  Louis 
XIV's  reign.  J.  B.  Greuze  painted 
genre  with  a  certain  naturalness 
that  did  not  enter  into  the  sham 
shepherd  and  shepherdess  composi- 
tions of  the  rest ;  but  even  he  is 
not  free  from  the  charge  of  senti- 
mental affectation.  Watteau's  tem- 
perament gave  a  seriousness  to  his 
Fetes  Galantes,  which  renders  them 
unique  of  their  kind. 

The  basis  of  this  irresponsible 
and  momentarily  charming  art  was 
Classicism.  But  it  was  covered 
with  a  pseudo-romantic  veneer. 
The  sculpture  of  the  time  partook 
of  the  same  character ;  that  is  to 
say,  its  aim,  first  and  last,  was  to 
please.  French  sculpture  in  the 
Gothic  period  was  entirely  subor- 
dinate to  architecture.  The  Renais- 


sance emancipated  it,  only  to  con- 
fine it  once  more  within  the  rigid 
classicism  of  the  17th  century. 
Then  came  the  Bernini  influence, 
and  a  host  of  rococo  imitations  of 
that  Italian  master.  Seemingly  the 
Revolution  was  needed  to  bring 
about  a  further  emancipation  both 
in  painting  and  sculpture.  For  the 
first,  this  event  produced  Jacques 
Louis  David  ;  for  the  second,  Hou- 
don.  David's  classical  formula  was 
cold  and  repellent,  and  his  histori- 
cal compositions  are  bombastic  ; 
but  the  famous  unfinished  Mme. 
Recamier  reveals  the  artist  un- 
chained from  his  conventions. 
Houdon  was  the  first  of  a  long  line 
of  French  sculptors  who,  while 
working  at  first  on  the  Greek  and 
later  the  Renaissance  models,  de- 
signed with  personal  freedom  and 
feeling.  David  d' Angers,  Rude, 
Carpeaux,  and  Barye  are  names 
that  most  readily  occur  in  this  dis- 
tinguished sequence,  which,  lasting 
throughout  the  19th  century,  was 
only  interrupted — roughly,  per- 
haps— by  the  advent  of  Rodin. 

In  painting,  the  dull  and  lifeless 
classicism  of  David  and  his  school 
waned  in  the  early  years  of  the 
19th  century.  The  Romantic 
movement  of  1830  virtually  de- 
molished it.  Romanticism,  of 
course,  was  not  confined  to  France, 
and  was  as  much  a  literary  move- 
ment as  an  artistic  one ;  but  it 
exercised  an  enormous  influence  on 
the  future  development  of  French 
painting.  Headed  by  Eugene  Dela- 
croix and  Theodore  Gericault,  it 
took  the  form  of  a  revolt  against 
the  abstract  and  impersonal  char- 
acter of  Classicism. 

The  Barbizon  Group 

It  was  an  awakening  to  the 
objects  of  the  external  world,  to 
the  relations  of  those  objects  to 
each  other  and  to  their  environ- 
ment. In  pure  landscape  it  made 
possible  the  emergence  of  the 
Barbizon  group,  of  Corot,  Rous- 
seau, Daubigny,  Millet,  and  the 
rest,  who  in  their  turn  became 
the  forerunners  of  the  Impres- 
sionists, Romanticism,  in  short, 
was  the  beginning  of  the  sharp 
cleavage  between  academic  and 
independent  art  which  still  per- 
sists. J.  A.  D.  Ingres  and,  in  a 
different  way,  Puvis  de  Chavannes, 
were  the  principal  stalwarts  of  the 
Classical  reaction  that  made  itself 
felt  from  time  to  time  during  the 
century  ;  on  the  other  side,  Manet, 
Degas,  and  their  Impressionist  fol- 
lowers bore  the  brunt  of  an  official 
persecution  bitter  enough  to  act  as 
a  tonic  to  men  with  new  ideas. 

As  the  century  drew  to  a  close, 
the  development  of  French  inde- 
pendent painting  accelerated  its 
pace.  Claude  Monet,  once  ac- 


claimed as  the  last  word  in  modern 
art  doctrine,  lost  his  supremacy, 
through  the  rise  of  a  now  group — 
the  Post-Impressionists.  This 
movement,  commonly  attributed 
to  Paul  Cezanne,  Vincent  van 
Gogh,  and  Paul  Gauguin,  is  de- 
scribed under  a  separate  heading; 
here  it  need  only  be  said  that  its 
importance  lay  in  the  fact  of  its 
being  the  source  of  a  series  of  re- 
volts that  still  continue  to  agitate 
art  circles.  These  also,  viz.  Cubism, 
Futurism,  Vorticism,  will  be  found 
described  elsewhere.  No  one  of 
them  is  an  exclusively  French 
movement ;  but  all  have  attracted 
their  French  enthusiasts.  An  at- 
tempt has  been  made  to  group  a 
number  of  these  ultra-modernists 
under  the  common  title  of  expres- 
sionists. One  recent  result  of  their 
rise,  and  of  the  cold-shouldering 
which  the  official  salons  continue 
to  administer  to  the  more  extreme 
exponents  of  these  cults,  has  been 
the  vast  accumulation  in  Paris  of 
small  "  independent  "  galleries. 
The  Modern  Movement 

Expressionism  has  invaded 
French  sculpture  of  to-day,  though 
to  a  necessarily  limited  extent ;  but 
in  painting  it  provides,  for  a  nation 
of  critics,  the  sensation  of  the  hour. 
Maurice  Denis,  famous  as  one  of 
the  earlier  Post-Impressionists,  is 
among  the  most  inventive  and 
capable  of  the  moderns ;  the  idols 
of  les  Jeunes,  however,  are  Henri 
Matisse  and  Derain.  Side  by  side 
with  these  recent  ebullitions  the 
stream  of  traditional  French  art, 
informed  by  the  classic  spirit,  con- 
tinues to  run  its  course ;  and  if  this 
outside  movement  appears  to  be 
even  stronger  in  France  than  else- 
where, it  derives  a  good  deal  of  its 
strength  from  the  very  tradition 
of  high  accomplishment  from 
which  it  seeks  to  break  away. 

French  art  has  reached  a  stage 
at  which  an  astonishingly  high 
standard  of  technical  proficiency 
no  longer  suffices,  and  there  is  a 
psychological  reaction  against  the 
cool  intellectualism  of  the  older 
school.  1  ut  even  this  is  unlikely  to 
disturb  seriously  the  main  tradition 
which  is  so  firmly  embedded  in  the 
roots  of  French  character. 

F.J.Maclean 

Bibliography.  Claude  Lorrain  : 
painter  and  etcher,  G.  Grahanie, 
1895  ;  French  Painters  of  the  18th 
Century,  Lady  Dilke,  1899;  French 
Engravers  and  Draughtsmen  of  the 
18th  century,  Lady  Dilke,  1902  ; 
The  Great  French  Painters  and  the 
Evolution  of  French  Painting  from 
1830  to  the  Present  Day,  C.  Mau- 
clair,  Eng.  trans.  P.  G.  Konody, 
1903  ;  French  Painting  in  the  16th 
Century,  L.  Dimier,  Eng.  trans. 
H.  Child,  1907  ;  Watteau  and  His 
School,  J.  Edgcumbe  Staley,  1907; 


FRANCE 

Boucher  :  the  man,  his  times,  his 
art,  and  his  significances,  Haldane 
Macfall,  1908;  The  French  Pas- 
tellists  of  the  18th  Century,  Haldane 
Macfall,  ed.  T.  Leman  Hare,  1909; 
Manet  and  The  French  Impression- 
ists, T.  Duret,  Eng.  trans.  J.  E. 
Crawford  Flitch,  1910;  The  History 
of  Painting,  Haldane  Macfall,  vols. 
vi  and  viii,  1911. 

France,  BANK  OF.  Chief  banking 
institution  of  France.  Founded 
Feb.  13,  1800,  by  Napoleon  I,  it 
was  granted  the  privilege  of  issuing 
bank  notes  in  1803.  This  privilege 


Bank  of  France.     The  head  offices  in  Paris 


became  its  monopoly  in  1848..  Al- 
though a  private  joint  stock  bank, 
it  is  subject  to  state  control,  hold- 
ing its  peculiar  privileges  for  de- 
finite periods.  They  were  last 
renewed  on  Dec.  11,  1917,  for  a 
period  ending  Dec.  31,  1945.  With 
branches  .all  over  France,  it  per- 
forms important  clearing-house 
functions  as  well  as  ordinary  bank- 
ing business.  Its  capital  is  fixed 
at  172  million  francs.  The  maxi- 
mum note  issue  at  the  outbreak  of 
the  Great  War  was  6,800  million 
francs  ;  by  Sept.,  1917,  it  had  risen 
to  24,000  million,  and  in  July, 
1919,  stood  at  40,000  million.  Its 
head  offices  are  in  the  Rue  de  la 
Vrilliere,  Paris. 

France,  ANATOLE  (1844-1924; 
Pen-name  of  Jacques  Anatole 
Thibault,  French  author.  Born  in 
Paris,  April  16, 
1844,  he  was 
the  son  of  a 
bo  o  kseller, 
whose  shop  was 
much  frequent- 
ed by  literary 
men.  Educated 
at  the  College 
Stanislas,  Par- 
is,  he  early  de- 
voted  himself 
tt  &  Fry  I  to  literature, 
publishing  his  £  first  book,  "a 
study  of  Alfred  de  Vigny,  in 
1 868.  After  producing  two  volumes 
of  poems  in  1873  and  1876,  he 
turned  to  prose  work  w\th  the  tales, 
Jocaste  et  le  Chat  Maigre,  1879.  >. 
Out  of  the  long  succession  of 


33O6 

works  of  fiction,  satire,  and  criti- 
cism which  France  has  since  pro- 
duced, the  following  are  the  most 
noteworthy :  Le  Crime  de  Syl- 
vestre  Bonnard,  1881  ;  Le  Livre 
de  mon  Ami,  1885 ;  Balthasar, 
1889;  Thais,  1890;  La  Vie  Lit- 
teraire,  a  series  of  reprinted  essays, 
1888-92 ;  La  Rotisserie  de  la 
Reine  Pedauque,  1893  ;  Les  Opin- 
ions de  M.  Jerome  Coignard,  1893, 
and  M.  Bergeret  a  Paris,  1901,  two 
satiric  studies  of  contemporary 
French  affairs;  Pierre  Noziere,  1899; 
Crainquebille, 
1902;  Histoire 
Comique,  1903;  the 
sceptical  but  bril- 
liantly written  his- 
tory of  Jeanne 
d'Arc,  1908 ;  the 
satirical  survey  of 
modern  French  his- 
tory, L'lle  des  Pin- 
gouins,  1908 ;  Les 
Dienx  ont  Soif,  a 
story  of  the  Re- 
volution,1912  ;  and 
another  great 
satire,  La  Re  volte 
des  Anges,  1914. 
Many  of  his  books 
have  been  translated  into  English. 
Anatole  France  was  a  staunch 
supporter  of  Zola  in  the  Dreyfus 
affair,  and  a  prominent  supporter 
of  socialist,  radical,  and  anti-mili- 
tarist causes.  He 
was  elected  a  mem- 
ber of  the  French 
Academy  in  1896, 
and  is  an  officer  of 
the  Legion  of  Hon- 
our. He  visited 
England  in  1913. 
He  strongly  sup- 
ported his  coun- 
try's entry  into  the 
Great  War,  even 
offering  himself  as 
a  volunteer  in  1914, 
and  strove  always 
to  upholdthe  ideal- 
ism of  the  French 
cause,  publishing 
a  striking  appeal 
to  this  end,  full  of 
his  old  vigour,  in  August,  1920. 

At  once  erudite  and  keenly  in- 
terested in  actuality,  he  is  perhaps 
the  leading  figure  in  contemporary 
French  letters.  It  is  hardly  fair  to 
call  Anatole  France  a  novelist ; 
rather  is  he  a  kindly  satirist,  using 
the  novel — -the  recit,  as  he  would 
style  it — as  his  medium  for  dis- 
sertation and  analysis.  A  master 
of  the  impersonal  and  almost 
wholly  impartial  method  which 
only  a  few  of  the  greatest  French 
writers  have  successfully  com- 
passed, he  takes  history  ancient 
and  modern  as  his  theme  ;  but  his 
delight  is  in  turning  ancient  or 


1    personality    he    puts 
He  is  a  master  of  the 


FRANCESCA 

legendary  tales  inside  out  and 
showing  us  the  modernity  inherent 
in  all  humanity.  In  a  sense  he 
resembles  Bernard  Shaw,  or  even 
Wells  ;  but  he  is  less  ruthless  and 
restless  than .  either,  perhaps  be- 
cause he  does  not  indulge  either  in 
destruction  or  in  reformation. 

On  the  whole  his  work  leaves  us, 
not  the  somewhat  acid  taste  of 
exposure  or  disillusion,  but  the 
pleasant  conviction  that  we  now 
know  the  humorous  as  well  as 
the  conventional  side  of  whatever 
subject  or 
before  us. 
old  as  well  as  of  modern  French 
tongue,  and  uses  it  freely.  He  died 
Oct.  13,1 924.  See  Anatole  France . 
L  P  Shanks,  1919. 

Francesca,  PIERO  BELLA  (c. 
1416-92).  Italian  painter.  He  was 
born  at  Borgo  san  Sepolcro,  where 
he  died.  In  1439  he  was  employed 
by  Domenico  Veneziano  on  the 
frescoes  of  Sant'  Egidio,  Florence. 
Later  he  collaborated  with  Bra- 
mantino  at  the  Vatican,  and  in 
1469  entered  the  service  of  duke 
Federigo  at  Urbino.  The  master 
of  Perugino  and  Luca  Signorelli, 
he  was  learned  in  the  laws  of  per- 
spective and  introduced  some  im- 
provements in  oil-colours. 

Francesca  DA  RIMINI.  Heroine 
of  a  famous  Italian  love-story. 
Giovanni  Malatesta  of  Rimini 


Francesca  da  Rimini.     The  fatal  end  of  the  love-story 
of  Paolo  and  Francesca,  as  depicted  by  A.  Cabanel 

Luxembourg,  Paris 

(nicknamed  Scianciato,  the  lame) 
obtained  her  in  marriage  from  her 
father,  Guido  da  Polenta,  lord  of 
Ravenna,  and  sent  his  brother 
Paolo  to  fetch  her.  Francesca  and 
Paolo  fell  in  love  and  were  caught 
together  and  slain  by  Giovanni. 
1285.  The  story  was  told  by  Dante 
in  the  Inferno ;  it  has  also  been 
used  by  Leigh  Hunt,  1816,  Silvio 
Pellico,  1818,  Stephen  Phillips, 
1899,  and  D'Annunzio,  1901. 
Ingres,  1819,  Cabanel,  1870,  and 
G.  F.  Watts,  1879,  have  shown  the 
story  in  paintings,  and  several 
operas  have  been  founded  on  it. 
See  Dante  ;  Rimini. 


FRANCEVILLE 

Franceville.  Military  station 
in  the  Gabun  colony  of  French 
Equatorial  Africa.  It  is  situated 
on  the  Passa,  an  affluent  of  the 
Ogowai  (Ogoue)  river. 

Franche  Comte.  District  of 
Europe ;  in  full,  the  free  county  of 
Burgundy.  It  was  first  an  in- 
dependent state,  then  part  of  the 
duchy  of  Burgundy,and  finally  part 
of  France.  Its  early  capital  was 
D61e,  but  after  1678  Besangon  ;  it 
lay  between  Lorraine  and  Switzer- 
land, while  through  it  ran  the 
Saone.  After  the  dissolution  of  the 
Frankish  Empire  the  free  county 
was  one  of  the  many  little  states 
which  arose  on  its  ruins.  It  had 
its  own  counts,  who  retained  a 
practical  independence,  in  spite 
of  occasional  interference  from  the 
kings  of  France  and  Germany,  until 
the  14th  century,  when  it  was  in- 
cluded in  the  duchy  of  Burgundy. 

In  1477,  on  the  death  of  Charles 
the  Bold  of  Burgundy,  it  was 
seized  by  Louis  XI  of  France,  but 
a  few  years  later  it  was  regained 
by  the  emperor  Maximilian,  the 
son-in-law  of  Charles.  From  Maxi- 
milian it  passed  to  Charles  V  and 
Philip  II  of  Spain,  and  then  in 
1668  it  was  conquered  by  Louis 
XIV  of  France,  who  formally  se- 
cured it  by  the  Treaty  of  Nimwegen 
in  1678.  The  last  remains  of  its 
independence  were  then  extin- 
guished, and  since  then  it  has 
been  part  of  France.  Since  the 
Revolution  it  has  been  divided,  and 
now  forms  the  depts.  of  Haute 
Saone,  Jura  and  Doubs,  and  part 
of  the  dept.  of  Ain.  See  Burgundy. 

Franchet  d'Esperey,  Louis 
(b.  1856).  French  soldier.  Born 
at  Mostaganem,  Algeria,  and  edu- 
cated privately  ^^M 
and  at  St.  Cyr,  | 
he  entered  the 
army  in  Oct., 
1876.  He  took 
part  in  the  Tu- 
nis operations, 
1881-82,  in  the 
Tongking  expe- 
dition, 1885-87, 
and  served  in  Franchet  d'Esperey, 
China,  1900-1.  French  soldier 
He  next  saw  active  service  in 
Morocco,  1912-13,  and  in  1914  was 
in  command  of  the  1st  Army  Corps 
at  Lille. 

During  the  Great  War  he  was 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  French 
Fifth  Army,  succeeding  Lanrezac 
after  the  battle  of  Charleroi,  Aug., 
1914.  He  fought  on  the  right  of 
the  British  in  the  1st  battle  of 
the  Marne,  and  gained  a  victory 
at  Montmirail,  Sept.,  1914.  Later 
he  succeeded  in  holding  the  Aisne 
bridgeheads.  In  April,  1916,  he  was 
placed  in  command  of  a  group  of 
the  armies  of  the  East  in  France, 


3307 

and  in  Jan.,  1917,  of  the  group  of 
the  armies  of  the  North,  which  ho 
held  till  June,  1918,  when  he  was 
given  supreme  command  of  the 
Allied  armies  of  the  Orient,  re- 
ceiving the  surrender  of  Bulgaria, 
Sept.,  1918.  He  was  in  command  in 
Turkey-in-Europe  until  Nov.,  1920, 
and  was  created  marshal,  1921. 

Franchise  (late  Lat.  francus, 
free).  Originally  something  to  which 
the  idea  of  freedom  was  attached, 
i.e.  the  free  grant  of  a  privilege.  It 
is  now  used  in  two  narrower  senses, 
one  hi  law  and  the  other  in  poli tics. 
In  law,  a  franchise  is  a  privilege 
granted  by  the  crown  to  an  indi- 
vidual, or  more  usually  to  a  cor- 
poration, such  as  the  right  to  hold 
a  market  or  fair,  or  rights  of  fishing. 
This  use  of  the  term  persists  in 
the  United  States,  where  franchises 
are  public  rights  handed  over  to 
private  or  semi -private  bodies. 

In  politics,  the  franchise  is  the 
right  to  vote,  especially  the  right 
to  vote  at  elections  of  members  of 
parliament.  It  varies  in  different 
countries,  but  the  tendency  at 
present  is  to  bestow  it  upon  all 
adults,  men  and  women  alike.  In 
Australia,  New  Zealand,  and  the 
greater  part  of  Canada  the  fran- 
chise is  on  these  lines,  as  it  is  in 
the  states  of  the  U.S.A.,  in  Ger- 
many, and  in  several  other  coun- 
tries. Acts  of  Parliament  bestowing 
the  vote  on  fresh  classes  of  the 
population  are  frequently  known 
as  Franchise  Acts. 

In  England  the  franchise  was  at 
first  the  privilege  of  all  freeholders, 
who  voted  in  the  county  court ; 
but  by  an  Act  of  1430  it  was  re- 
stricted, as  far  as  the  counties  were 
concerned,  to  those  whose  free- 
holds were  worth  40s.  or  more.  In 
the  towns  the  franchise  varied  very- 
much,  each  borough  having  its 
own  custom,  usually  conveyed  to 
it  by  royal  charter.  There  were 
variations,  too,  in  the  franchise  in 
Scotland  and  Ireland.  Uniformity 
was  first  introduced  by  the  Reform 
Act  of  1832.  In  England,  in  the 
counties,  it  was  given,  in  addition 
to  the  existing  freeholders,  to  copy- 
holders and  those  renting  land 
worth  £50  a  year.  In  the  boroughs 
a  uniform  franchise  was  introduced , 
the  vote  being  given  to  all  house- 
holders whose  premises  were  worth 
£10  a  year  and  upwards.  In  1867 
a  second  Reform  Act  reduced  the 
qualifications  in  the  counties  to  the 
holders  of  land  worth  £12  a  year, 
and  in  the  boroughs  gave  it  to  all 
householders.  In  addition  a  lodger 
franchise  was  introduced.  For 
Scotland  and  Ireland  there  were 
also  Reform  Acts,  the  main  princi- 
ples being  the  same  as  in  England. 
•t  In  1884  a  Reform  Act  introduced 
uniformity,  not  only  between 


FRANCIA 

county  and  borough,  but  between 
England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland. 
All  householders  were  given  the 
franchise,  as  were  lodgers  hi  coun- 
ties as  in  boroughs.  Certain  classes 
were  disqualified  as  before,  e.g. 
aliens  and  criminals,  and  women 
were  still  excluded.  In  addition 
there  was  still  a  university  fran- 
chise, based  on  the  possession  of  a 
degree.  In  1867  proposals  for 
what  were  called  fancy  franchises 
were  made,  but  were  not  passed 
into  law. 

The  important  Act  of  1918  con- 
ferred the  franchise  on  women, 
giving  the  vote  to  all  adult  males 
and  to  women  over  30  years  of  age, 
six  months'  residence  or  occupa- 
tion of  business  premises  of  the 
value  of  £10  a  year  or  over  being 
necessary  in  the  case  of  men. 

In  addition  to  the  parliamentary 
franchise  there  has  been  in  the 
United  Kingdom  a  uniform  munici- 
pal franchise  since  1835,  in  which 
women  have  been  included.  Other 
franchises  are  the  right  to  vote 
at  elections  for  county  coun- 
cillors, introduced  in  1888,  and  the 
right  to  vote  at  elections  for  urban 
and  rural  district  councillors,  dat- 
ing from  1894.  From  this  use  of 
the  word  comes  enfranchise,  to 
bestow  the  vote,  or,  as  frequently 
used,  to  give  a  place  the  right  of 
representation  in  Parliament ;  and 
disfranchise,  to  take  it  away.  See 
Election ;  England ;  Local  Govern- 
ment ;  Parliament ;  Reform  Acts ; 
Representation ;  Vote. 

Francia,  FRANCESCO  (c.  1450- 
1517).  Italian  painter.  He  was 
born  at  Bologna,  his  real  name 
being  Francesco  Raibolini,  and  was 
apprenticed  to  a  goldsmith.  He 
achieved  distinction  as  a  worker  in 
metal,  in  niello,  and  in  type-found- 
ing, but  shortly  after  the  coming 
of  Lorenzo  Costa  to  Bologna,  1483, 
he  became  a  painter.  Costa  and 


Francia.  Madonna,  Infant  Jesus, 
and  S.  John,  an  example  of  the 
artist's  work  in  the  Dresden  Gallery 


FRANCIA 


3308 


FRANCIS    OF    ASSIS1 


Francia  were  associated  in  an  altar- 
piece  for  the  Church  of  the  Miseri- 
cordia,  Bologna,  Francia's  earliest 
dated  work.  Though  at  first  he 
followed  Costa's  style  he  quickly 
surpassed  that  master  in  power  of 
conception  and  colour.  The  Ma- 
donna and  Saints,  with  S.  Anne  en- 
throned, in  the  National  Gallery, 
London,  is  one  of  his  masterpieces, 
but  he  is  best  studied  at  Bologna. 

His  famous  Baptism  of  Christ  is 
at  Dresden.  Among  his  portraits 
are  those  of  Bartolommeo  Bian- 
chini  (Salting  collection),  The 
Marchese  Bovio  (Lichtenstein  Gal- 
lery, Vienna),  Prince  Federigo  Gon- 
zaga  (Leatham  collection).  In 
fresco  two  episodes  from  the  life  of 
S.  Cecilia  survive  in  the  chapel  of 
that  saint  at  Bologna.  He  died 
at  Bologna,  Jan.  6, 1517.  See  Life, 
G.  C.  Williamson,  1901. 

Fraucia,  Jos£  GASPAR  RODRI- 
GUEZ (1757-1840).  Dictator  of 
Paraguay.  Born  at  Asuncion,  of 
Portuguese  origin,  and  educated  at 
the  university  of  Cordoba  de  Tucu- 
man,  he  first  studied  theology,  but 
after  taking  his  degree  practised 
law.  In  1811  Paraguay  declared 
itself  independent  of  Spain,  and 
Francia,  the  ablest  of  its  revolu- 


tionary leaders,  became  secretary 
of  the  national  junta,  joint  dicta- 
tor, 1813,  joint  dictator  for  three 
years,  1814,  and  sole  dictator  for 
life,  1816.  In  1816  he  dissolved  con- 
gress, and  for  the  rest  of  his  life  ruled 
tyranically  but  beneficially.  His 
vigorous  opposition  to  intercourse 
with  other  countries  resulted  in 
the  development  of  Paraguay's  re- 
sources. He  died  Sept.  20,  1840. 

Franciade.  Name  given  to  each 
period  of  four  years  in  the  new 
calendar  set  up  by  the  authors  of 
the  French  Revolution  in  1793. 
The  idea  and  form  of  the  word  were 
derived  from  the  Greek  Olympiad. 
See  Calendar. 

Francis.  Christian  name,  used 
by  both  males  and  females.  It  is 
derived  from  the  word  frank,  free, 
and  was  first  used  in  France  in  the 
form  Fran9ois.  It  passed  over  to 
England  about  the  time  of  Henry 
VIII,  in  the  form  of  Francis. 
In  the  18th  century  the  form 
Frances  began  to  be  used  for  girls. 
Frank  is  a  variant.  The  German 
equivalent  is  Franz,  a  popular  name 
in  that  country,  and  the  Italian 
is  Francesco.  Francesca  is  the 
Italian  feminine,  and  Franziska 
the  German. 


FRANCIS:    THE    SAINT   OF    ASSISI 

Cr.  G.  Coulton,  Author  of  From  St.  Francis  to  Dante 

The  life  and  work  of  this  saint  is  a  necessary  introduction  to  the 
articles  on  Monasticism  ;  Franciscans;  and  on  the  other  religious  orders 


Francis  of  Assisi  was  born  in  or 
about  the  year  1182.  His  father, 
Pietro  di  Bernardone,  was  a  cloth 
merchant,  and  belonged  to  the 
commercial  aristocracy  of  Assisi. 
Pietro  was  travelling  in  France 
when  the  son  was  born  to  whom 
on  his  return  he  gave  the  then 
unusual  name  of  Francesco.  The 
saint's  youth  was  marked  by  a 
love  of  pleasure,  society,  and  song ; 
all  his  life  he  retained  a  strong 
affection  for  the  French  language 
— then  the  literary  language  of 
Europe — though  he  could  never 
speak  it  well.  As  he  grew  up  he 
began  to  repent  of  his  irregularities, 
which  had  always  been  those  of  a 
generous  and  refined  nature. 

In  1202  Francis  was  taken  pri- 
soner in  battle  against  the  Peru- 
gians,  and  remained  in  captivity 
for  a  year,  during  which  he  was 
noted  for  his  gaiety  and  his  for- 
bearance towards  his  fellow -pri- 
soners. Returning  to  his  former 
dissipations,  he  fell  seriously  ill, 
and,  in  a.  moment  of  convalescence, 
gazing  out  upon  the  landscape 
beneath  the  walls  of  Assisi,  he 
found  that  "neither  the  beauty  of 
the  fields,  the  pleasantness  of  the 
vineyards,  nor  anything  that  is 


sort  to  hold  in  contempt  what  he 
had  admired  and  loved  before ; 
yet  not  altogether,  for  he  had  not 
yet  been  loosed  from  the  bonds 
of  vanity."  He  dreamed  of  mili- 
tary fame,  and  had  actually  started 
on  an  expedition  to  Apulia  when 
a  vision  recalled  him.  His  gaiety 
now  became  more  fitful ;  he  was 
penetrated  with  a  deeper  pity  for 
the  poor,  and  especially  for  lepers  ; 
the  self-conquest  which  first  en- 
abled him  to  kiss  a  leper  marked  a 
fresh  step  in  his  spiritual  life. 

A  Religious  Knight-errant 
Francis  now  spent  much  time 
in  solitary  prayer,  and  at  one  of 
these  moments,  in  the  little  half- 
ruined  church  of  S.  Damiano,  the 
crucifix  seemed  to  speak  to  him 
with  an  articulate  voice  :  "  Fran- 
cis, go  repair  My  House,  which  as 
thou  seest  is  wholly  falling  into 
ruin."  Taking  these  words  too 
literally,  he  sought  to  assist  the 
reparation  of  S.  Damiano  by 
selling  one  of  his  father's  horses 
with  a  load  of  valuable  cloth.  The 
result  was  a  complete  rupture 
between  him  and  his  father,  and 
the  saint  went  forth  naked  into 
the  world.  "  Henceforth  I  may 
say  freely  '  Our  Father  which  art 


fair  to  see  could  in  anytwise  delight     in  heaven,'  and  no  longer  '  father 

him. .  .  .    And  from  that  day  he  be-     Pietro  di  Bernardone.'  " 

gan  to  despise  himself,  and  in  some         This  was  in  1207.    Francis  then 


began  a  life  of  religious  vaga- 
bondage —  or  rather,  knight-er- 
rantry. We  find  him  repairing  S. 
Damiano  with  his  own  hands,  tend- 
ing the  lepers  and  living  among 
them,  preaching  in  the  streets  and 
public  squares,  and  often  treated 
as  a  madman.  At  last,  apparently 
on  Feb.  24,  1209,  the  gospel  for  the 
day  suggested  a  more  definite  rule 
of  life  (Matt,  x,  7-10).  Thence- 
forward he  took  as  his  ideal  the 
literal  imitation  of  Christ,  and 
became  perhaps  the  most  Christ- 
like  of  all  the  figures  in  Church 
history. 

Foundation  of  His  Order 

At  the  end  of  1209,  or  more  prob- 
ably in  1210,  having  already  a 
small  group  of  disciples,  he  went  to 
Rome  and  begged  Innocent  III  to 
confirm  a  brief  rule  which  he  had 
drawn  up,  and  thus  to  authorise 
a  new  religious  order.  The  monks 
were  individually  poor,  but  held 
corporate  endowments.  The  friar 
was  to  be  moneyless,  not  only  in- 
dividually but  also  in  the  mass  ; 
he  was  to  live  by  the  labour  of  his 
hands  if  possible,  and,  where  that 
failed,  by  begging.  The  pope, 
after  some  natural  hesitation, 
consented.  The  new  order  multi- 
plied rapidly,  thanks  to  the  per- 
sonal influence  of  Francis  and  to 
the  crying  need  of  the  times. 

Many  reformers,  in  the  latter  half 
of  the  12th  century,  had  aimed  at 
a  return  to  apostolic  life  ;  but, 
sooner  or  later,  all  of  these  came 
into  conflict  with  the  Church. 
S.  Francis  combined  the  most  ex- 
traordinary religious  zeal  and 
charity  with  a  spirit  of  complete 
devotion  to  the  hierarchy,  and 
was  thus  able  to  renew  religious 
life  in  Europe  without  breaking 
with  the  Church.  There  can  be 
little  doubt  that  he  and  his  fol- 
lowers postponed  the  religious 
revolution  of  the  16th  century  by 
several  generations.  Yet  this  re- 
conciliation was  not  effected  with- 
out considerable  sacrifices  of  ideal. 
Suffering  and  Self-Sacrifice 

As  time  went  on  S.  Francis  rose 
to  even  greater  heights  of  suffering 
and  self-sacrifice,  but  he  lacked 
the  more  ordinary  qualities  re- 
quired in  the  general  of  a  religious 
order.  Here  his  zeal  for  conver- 
sions actually  stood  in  his  way. 
Apart  from  his  frequent  mission- 
ary journeys  in  Italy,  he  planned 
others  abroad.  In  1212  he  started 
for  Palestine,  but  was  driven  by 
storms  to  the  N.E.  coast  of  the 
Adriatic.  In  1214  he  went  to 
preach  in  Spain;  in  1217  he  was 
with  difficulty  restrained  from  a 
similar  journey  to  France.  In  1219 
he  at  last  found  his  way  to  Syria 
and  Palestine,  and  was  away  more 
than  a  year. 


FRANCIS 


FRANCIS 


During  his  absence  in  Palestine, 
his  vicars  joined  with  other  not- 
ables in  a  policy  which  tended  to 
bring  the  Franciscans  into  line  with 
the  older  orders.  At  this  news  he 
suddenly  returned  (summer  of 
1220),  but  was  unable  entirely  to 
check  the  movement,  which  had 
considerable  support  from  the 
papal  court.  Recognizing  his  own 
want  of  strictly  business  qualities, 
he  resigned  the  direction  of  the 
Order  to  Pietro  dei  Cattani  as  vicar- 
general,  and  from  this  time  forward 
could  only  protest  against  the  for- 
malism which  was  creeping  steadity 
into  his  Order.  The  rest  of  his  life 
was  spent  in  missionary  journeys 
about  Italy,  and  in  remote  her- 
mitages where  he  gave  himself  up 
increasingly  to  the  contemplation 
of  Christ's  passion.  At  one  of  these 
(La  Vernia,  Sept.,  1224)  he  is  said 
to  have  miraculously  received  the 
Stigmata,  or  five  wounds  of  Christ. 
He  died  Oct.  3,  1226.  See  Assisi. 
illus. 

Bibliography.  The  Mirror  of  Per- 
fection, ascribed  to  Leo  of  Assisi, 
Eng.  trans.  S.  Evans,  1898 ; 
The  Little  Flowers  of  St.  Francis, 
Eng.  trans.  T.  W.  Arnold,  1908; 
Lives,  Paul  Sabatier,  Eng.  trans. 
L.  S.  Houghton,  1894 ;  Thomas 
of  Celano,  Eng.  trans.  A.  G.  Ferrers 
Howell,  1908  ;  J.  Jorgensen,  Eng. 
trans.  T.  O'Conor  Sloane,  1912  ; 
Father  Cuthbert,  1912  ;  A  Guide  to 
Franciscan  Studies,  A. G.  Little,  1920. 

Francis  OF  PAOLA  (c.  1416- 
1507).  Saint  and  founder  of  the 
Order  of  Friars  Minims.  Born  at 
Paolo,  of  poor  parents,  when  15 
years  old  he  became  a  hermit.  Being 
soon  joined  by  others,  he  founded 
an  order  in  1436.  Their  first 
monastery  was  built  in  1454,  and 
the  new  order  was  authorised  by 
Pope  Sixtus  IV  in  1474.  Other 
monasteries  were  founded  in  Italy, 
Sicily,  France,  and  Germany,  be- 
fore Francis's  death  at  Plessis-les- 
Tours,  April  2,  1507. 

Francis  DE  SALES  (1567-1622). 
Saint  and  writer.  Born  of  a  noble 
family  at  Annecy,  Savoy,  Aug.  21, 
im^^HE >;?i  1567,  he  was 
educated  at 
Paris  and 
Padua.  He 
was  a  great 
champion  of 
the  Roman 
Catholic  faith, 
had  several 
friendly  but 
fruitless  d  i  s  - 
cussions  with 
Beza,  and  won  many  Protestants  to 
his  own  church,  especially  by  his 
preaching  in  the  Calvinist  province 
of  Chablais,  1594-98,  and  in  Paris, 
1602.  In  Sept.,  1602,  he  became 
bishop  of  Geneva.  In  1610  he 
founded  the  order  of  Nuns  of  the 


Francis  de  Sales, 
French  saint 


S.  Francis  of  Assisi,  when  dying,  carried  upon  a  litter  to  bless  the  town 
ol  Assisi.     From  a  painting  by  L.  Benonville 


Visitation.  He  was  a  man  of  saintly 
life.  His  Introduction  to  the 
Devout  Life,  1609,  is  translated 
into  many  languages,  and  highly 
esteemed  by  Christian  people  gener- 
ally. He  died  at  Lyons,  Dec.  28, 
1622.  was  canonised  in  1665,  and 
adopted  as  the  patron  saint  of 
writers  and  journalists  in  1923, 
See  works,  ed.  H.  B.  Mackey  (An- 
necy), 1892,  etc. ;  Lives,  H.  L.  Lear, 
1871,  M.  M.  M.  Scott,  1913  ;  The 
Spirit  of  St.  Francis  de  Sales,  J. 
P.  Camus,  ed.  Archbp.  of  West- 
minster, 1910. 

Francis  I  (1708-65).  German 
king  and  Roman  emperor.  The  son 
of  Leopold,  duke  of  Lorraine,  and, 

eai^^Bnmsa^aBHe!^     through        his 

mother,  a 
grandson  of 
Philip,  duke 
of  Orleans,  he 
was  born 
Dec.  8,  1708. 
Related  to  the 
Hapsburgs,  he 
was  educated 
in  the  court  cir- 
cle at  Vienna, 
and  a  marriage  was  arranged  be- 
tween him  and  the  future  empress, 
Maria  Theresa.  In  1729  he  became 
duke  of  Lorraine,  but  in  1735  he  ex- 
changed that  duchy  for  Tuscany,  of 
which  he  became  grand  duke  when 
the  last  Medici  ruler  died  in  1737, 
having  in  the  meantime  (1736) 
been  married  to  Maria  Theresa.  In 
1740  his  father-in-law,  the  emperor 
Charles  VI,  died,  and  the  war  of  the 
Austrian  succession  began.  In  the 
struggle  against  Frederick  the 
Great,  Maria,  not  her  husband,  was 
the  dominant  figure,  and  her  efforts 
resulted  in  1745  in  the  election  of 
Francis  as  emperor.  He  died  at 
Innsbruck,  Aug.  18,  1765,  having 
been  merely  the  assistant  of  his 
wife.  From  the  pair  the  existing 
Hapsburgs  are  descended,  hence 
the  family  is  known  as  Hapsburg- 
Lorraine.  See  Maria  Theresa. 


Francis  I, 
German  king 


Francis  II  (1768-1835).     Em- 
peror of  Austria  and  last  ruler  of 
the  Holy  Roman  Empire.    Born  in 
,    Florence,  Feb. 
5    12,    1768,    he 
was    educated 
there    and    in 
Vienna.       His 
father,  hither- 
to grand  duke 
of  Tuscany,  be - 

l<        ferfi'i^B.     .  came    Roman 
emperor  as 
Francis  II,  Leopold  II  in 

Emperor  of  Austria     i  nan 

i/i/v/j  ctnci  two 

years  later  (March  1,  1792)  Francis 
succeeded  him.  A  little  earlier  the 
French  Revolution  had  begun. 
Francis's  aunt  was  Marie  Antoin- 
ette, and  on  both  public  and 
private  grounds  he  was  soon  com- 
mitted to  the  war  against  France. 
One  disaster  followed  another.  He 
was  forced  to  make  the  treaty  of 
Campo  Formio,  and  later  that  of 
Pressburg.  The  Netherlands  were 
in  revolt :  Russia  and  Turkey  were 
willing  to  take  advantage  of  his 
difficulties.  The  states  of  Germany 
lost  their  last  vestiges  of  unity,  and 
in  1804  Francis  took  the  title  of 
emperor  of  Austria,  thus  seeking 
to  unite  more  closely  the  various 
lands,  Hungary  and  Bohemia 
among  them,  over  which  he  really 
ruled.  In  1806  the  Holy  Roman 
Empire,  of  which  he  was  the 
nominal  head,  ceased  to  exist.  . 

Although  he  had  Metternich  for 
his  minister,  Francis  took  a  leading 
part  in  controlling  the  policy  of 
Austria,  both  domestic  and  foreign. 
He  came  to  terms  with  Napoleon, 
giving  him  his  daughter  in  mar- 
riage; but  in  1813  he  joined  the 
Allies,  and  his  armies  assisted  in 
Napoleon's  defeat.  He  died  March 
2,  1835.  He  was  four  times 
married,  and  left  his  successor, 
Ferdinand  I,  and  other  children, 
one  being  the  father  of  the  em- 
peror Francis  Joseph.  See  Europe : 
History  ;  Vienna,  Congress  of. 


FRANCIS     I 


3310 


FRANCIS 


Francis  I  (1494-1547).  King  of 
France.  Son  of  Charles  of  Valois, 
he  was  born  at  Cognac,  Sept.  12, 
1494,  and  in 
1515  succeed- 
ed his  cousin 
Louis  XII, 
whose  daugh- 
ter he  had 
married  in 
1512.  He  in-, 
vaded  Italy 
and  defeated 
the  duke  of 
Milan  at 
Marignano  in 
1515.  In  1519 
he  made  an 
u  n  successful 
bid  for  the 
imperial 
crown,  which 

From  a  portrait  Q^te  V  Ob- 

tained, and  the  famous  rivalry  of 
the  two  monarchs  began.  Francis's 
attempted  alliance  with  Henry 
VIII  of  England,  at  the  Field 
of  the  Cloth  of  Gold,  1520,  came 
to  nothing,  but  he  again  invaded 
Italy,  1525 ,  and  was  captured 
at  Pavia,  Feb.  25.  Kept  prisoner 
at  Madrid,,  he  was  set  free  in 
1526  on  surrendering  Burgundy 
and  abandoning  various  claims  in 
favour  of  Charles.  Once  free,  how- 
ever, he  renewed  hostilities,  and 
won  certain  modifications  from 
Charles  in  1529,  whose  sister  Mar- 
garet he  married,  1530. 

The  struggle  was  resumed  in 
1536,  Francis  making  useful  alli- 
ances with  the  German  Protestant 
princes,  and  with  the  sultan  Soly- 
man  I  (1542),  but  had  reached  no 
definite  conclusion  on  his  death 
at  Rambouillet,  March  31,  1547. 
Despite  the  jealousies  and  vacilla- 
tions of  his  foreign  policy,  Francis 
greatly  strengthened  the  royal 
power.  He  secured  for  himself  the 
nomination  of  bishops,  reduced  the 
judiciary  powers  of  the  nobility, 
strengthened  provincial  adminis- 
tration, reformed  the  national  ex- 
chequer, and  reconstituted  the  per- 
manent army.  A  patron  of  many 
notable  artists  and  writers  of  the 
Renaissance,  he  founded  the  Col- 
lege de  France,  1530. 

Francis  II  (1544-60).  King  of 
France.  Born  at  Fontainebleau, 
Jan.  19,  1544,  he  was  the  eldest  son 
of  Henry  II. 
He  was  married 
to  Mary  Stuart, 
Queen  of  Scots, 
1558,  and  be- 
came king  on 
his  father's 
murder  in 
April,  1559.  His 
reign  only 
lasted  for  a  year  Francis  II, 

and    a    half.       King  of  France 


and  during  that  time  the  govern- 
ment was  conducted  by  his  mother, 
Catherine  de'  Medici,  and  his  kins- 
men, the  Guises.  He  died  suddenly 
at  Paris,  Dec.  5,  1560.  See  Chenon- 
ceaux,"  illus. 

Francis  I  (1777-1830).  King  of 
the  Two  Sicilies.  Son.  of  Ferdinand 
I,  he  was  born  in  Naples,  Aug.  19, 
1777.  In  1812  his  father  made  him 
regent  of  Sicily  and  in  1820  regent 
of  Naples.  He  came  to  the  throne 
in  1824  and  placed  himself  under 
the  tutelage  of  Austria,  inaugurat- 
ing an  era  of  oppression  and  cor- 
ruption which  reduced  his  subjects 
to  despair.  An  insurrection  in  1 828 
was  put  down  with  unexampled 
cruelty,  the  commune  of  Bosco 
being  razed  to  the  groxind.  His 
alarm  at  the  French  revolution  of 
1830,  and  the  fear  of  the  vengeance 
of  his  own  people,  caused  his 
death,  Nov.  8,  1830. 

Francis  II  (1836-94).  King  ol 
the  Two  Sicilies.  Son  of  Ferdinand 
II  (Bomba),  he  was  born  Jan.  16, 
1836,  and  ascended  the  throne  in 

1859.  Characterless  and  weak,  he 
rejected   all   proposals    of   reform 
until  Garibaldi's  invasion  of  Sicily, 

1860,  when  his  tardy  offer  of  a 
constitution  was   rejected   by  his 
people.  He  fled  to  Capua  and  thence 
to  Gaeta,  which,  after  a  brief  siege, 
surrendered,  Feb.  12,  1861.     The 
kingdom    was    incorporated    with 
Italy  and  Francis  took  refuge  in 
Rome.     After  1870,  Francis  lived 
in  Germany  and  Austria,  dying  at 
Arco,  Dec.  27,  1894. 

Francis,  JOHN  (1811-82).  Pub- 
lisher of  The  Athenaeum.  Born  in 
Bermondsey,  July  18,  1811,  and 
apprenticed  to  a  London  news- 
paper agent,  he  entered  The  Athe- 
naeum office  as  a  clerk,  Sept.,  1831, 
and  became  business  manager  and 
publisher  of  thatpaper  in  Oct. ,  1 832. 
He  retained  this  post  for  nearly  50 
years,  also  supervising  the  commer- 
cial side  of  Notes  and  Queries  from 
1872.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the 
campaign  for  the  repeal  of  the 
advertisement,  stamp,  and  paper 
duties,  1853-61.  He  died  April  6, 
1882,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
eldest  son,  John  Collins  Francis  (d. 
1916),  who  wrote  a  memoir  of  his 
father,  1888. 

Francis,  MARY  E.  Pen-name  of 
Mary  E.  Blundell,  British  novelist. 
Born  at  Killi- 
ney  Park,  Dub- 
lin, a  daughter 
of  Michael 
James  Sweet- 
man,  she  mar- 
r  i  e  d  Francis 
Nicholas  Blun- 
dell in  1879. 
Having  early 


achieved     suc- 
cess   with    her 


Mary  E.  Francis, 
British  novelist 


stories  of  North  Lancashire  life 
and  character,  she  enhanced  her 
reputation  by  studies  of  Dorset 
life.  Her  books  included  Whither  ?, 
1892  ;  In  a  North  Country 
Village,  1893;  A  Daughter  of 
the  Soil,  1895 ;  Pastorals  of 
Dorset,  1901  ;  The  Manor  Farm, 
1902;  Dorset  Dear,  1905;  The 
Story  of  Mary  Dunne,  1913  ; 
A  Maid  o'  Dorset,  1917;  and 
Beck  of  Beckford,  1920.  She 
also  wrote  some  plavs,  The  Widow 
Woos,  1904  (intro.  Sydney  Valen 
tine) ;  The  Third  Time  of  Asking, 
1906  ;  and  Fiander's  Widow  (in 
collaboration  with  Sydney  Valen- 
tine), 1907. 

Francis,  Sra  PHILIP  (1740- 
1818).  Supposed  author  of  The 
Letters  of  Junius  (g.v. ).  The  only 
son  of  Philip 
Francis  (c. 
1708-73),  the 
translator  of 
Horace,  he 
was  born  in 
Dublin,  Oct. 
22,  1740. 
Educated  in 
Dublin  and  at 
S.  Paul's 
School,  Lon- 
don, where 
H.  S.  Wood- 

fall  and  P.  Rosenhagen  were  his 
friends,  he  filled  several  minor 
government  appointments  and  was 
first  clerk  at  the  war  office,  1702- 
72.  He  married  in  1762  a  Miss 
Macrabie  (d.  1806). 

A  member  of  the  council  of 
Bengal,  1774-81,  he  quarrelled  with 
Warren  Hastings,  who  wounded 
him  in  a  pistol  duel,  1779.  He 
paid  50,000  rupees  as  defendant 
in  a  marital  action  brought  by 
G.  F.  Grand,  an  officer  in  the  East 
India  Company's  service,  whose 
young  wife,  after  living  for  a  time 
under  the  protection  of  Francis, 
became  in  1801  the  wife  of  Talley- 
rand, and  returned  to  England  with 
a  large  fortune.  He  was  M.P.  for 
Yarmouth,  I.W.,  1784  ;  Bletching- 
ley,  1790;  and  Appleby,  1802; 
assisted  Burke  in  impeaching 
Warren  Hastings;  incurred  the 
enmity  of  William  Pitt ;  became  an 
intimate  of  the  Prince  Regent ; 
and  supported  Wilberforce  against 
the  slave  trade.  In  1793  he  founded 
the  Society  of  Friends  of  the 
People  ;  received  in  1806  a  K.C.B. 
instead  of  the  coveted  office  of 
governor-general  of  India,  and 
in  1814  married  Emma  Watkins, 
whom  he  encouraged  in  her  belief 
that  he  was  the  author  of  the 
Junius  Letters.  ,-  He  died  in 
London,  Dec.  22,  1818.  See  Me- 
moirs, J.  Parkes  and  H.  Merivale, 
1867  ;  Echoes  from  Old  Calcutta, 
H.  E.  Busteed,  3rd  ed.  1897. 


FRANCIS   FERDINAND 


331  1 


FRANCK 


Francis     Ferdinand     (1863- 
1914).   Austrian  archduke.   Son  of 
the   archduke   Charles   Louis   and 
nephew   of  the 
emperor    Fran- 
cis  Joseph,    he 
was      born     at 
Graz,   Dec.   18, 
1863.     After 
inheriting,  in 
1875,  the  wealth 
Z  and  titles  of  the 
house  of  Haps- 
Francis  Ferdinand,     burg-Este,    for- 
Austrian  archduke    merlv  dukes  of 

Modena,  he  became,  by  the  suicide 
of  the  crown  prince  Rudolf  in  1889, 
heir-apparent  to  the  crown  of 
Austria-Hungary.  On  his  morgana- 
tic marriage  in  1900  to  the  Coun- 
tess Sophia  Chotek,  who  was 
created  Princess  Hohenberg,  he  re- 
nounced for  the  children  the  right 
of  succession,  but  his  own  position 
remained,  and  for  the  next  fourteen 
years  he  was  one  of  the  directors  of 
the  policy  of  Austria -Hungary.  He 
was  making  a  tour  in  Bosnia  when 
he  was  assassinated  at  Sarajevo, 
June  28,  1914,  a  crime  which  pre- 
cipitated the  Great  War. 

Francis  Joseph  I  (1830-1916). 
Emperor  of  Austria.  The  eldest  son 
of  the  archduke  Francis  and  a 
grandson  of  the  emperor  Francis  IT, 
he  was  born  at  Vienna,  Aug.  18, 
1830.  He  was  educated  carefully 
but  narrowly,  as  all  the  Hapsburgs, 
and  owed  much  to  the  strong 
character  of  his  mother,  Sophia, 
daughter  of  Maximilian  I  of 
Bavaria.  In  1848  the  shaking 
throne  was  occupied  by  Ferdinand, 
a  childless  imbecile.  The  hopes  of 
the  Hapsburgs  were  therefore 
centred  on  Francis  Joseph,  his 
nephew,  and  it  was  decided  that 
he,  who  came  of  age  Aug.  18,  1848, 
should  be  placed  upon  the  throne. 

Francis  Joseph  reigned  from 
Dec.  2,  1848,  until  Nov.  21,  1916, 
one  of  the  longest  reigns  in  the 
world's  history.  But  its  interest  is 
not  so  much  in  its  length  as  in  its 
vicissitudes.  He  saw  Austria  lose 
her  possessions  in  Italy,  1859,  and, 
defeated  by  Prussia,  1866,  driven 
from  the  German  confederation. 
He  saw  the  results  of  a  hated  rule 
in  continuous  discontent  in  Hun- 
gary and  Bohemia.  The  acquisition 
of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  1908, 
hardly  compensated  for  endless 
difficulties  with  the  Balkan  states, 
for  the  growing  suspicions  of 
Russia,  or  for  disorder  in  the 
national  finances,  while  Austria's 
adhesion  to  the  Triple  Alliance 
made  her  more  than  ever  sub- 
ordinate to  Prussia. 

His  private  life  was  even 
more  tragic.  His  wife  Elizabeth, 
daughter  of  Maximilian  Joseph, 
duke  of  Bavaria,  was  assassinated 


at  Geneva  in  1897  ;  his  only  son, 
Rudolph,  committed  suicide,  or 
was  killed,  in  1889  ;  his  nephew 
and  heir,  the  archduke  Francis 
Ferdinand,  was  murdered  at  Sara- 
jevo, June  28,  1914,  with  the 
most  momentous  consequences. 

The  emperor  took  a  real  part  in 
ruling  his  empire  with  its  warring 
races  and  inherited  difficulties,  and 
but  for  him  it  is  probable  that  it 
would  have  fallen  to  pieces  before 
it  did.  He  was  diligent  and  up  to  a 
point  capable,  but  his  outlook  was 
narrow,  and  he  could  hardly  be 
expected  to  understand,  still  less 


After  L.  Horowitz 

to  sympathise  with,  the  liberal 
movement  that  shook  Europe 
during  his  earlier  years.  His 
policy  and  actions,  which  have 
been  described  as  opportunist, 
show  little  trace  of  consistency. 

His  earliest  troubles  were  with 
Hungary  ;  it  was  not  until  1867 
that  he  was  there  recognized  as 
king.  His  life  story  is  that  of 
Austria-Hungary,  and  to  a  large 
extent  that  of  Europe,  including 
Germany,  which  before  the  war 
of  1866  he  tried  hard  to  unite  under 
his  own  overlordship.  He  died 
Nov.  21,  1916,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  grand  nephew,  the  arch- 
duke Charles,  who  abdicated,  Nov. 
1918.  His  surviving  family  con- 
sisted of  two  daughters.  See 
Austria  -  Hungary  ;  Hapsburg  ; 
consult  also  Lives,  R.  P.  Mahaffy, 
1908;  F.  H.  Gribble,  1914;  The 
Real  Francis  Joseph,  H.  de 
Weindel,  Eng.  trans.  P.  W. 
Sergeant,  1909. 

Franciscans.  Order  of  friars, 
also  known  as  Friars  Minor  or 
Minorites,  or  Grey  Friars,  founded 
in  1209  by  S.  Francis  of  Assisi(f/.r. ). 


Franciscan.  Dress 
of  the  order 


The  first  general  chapter,  in  1219, 
was  attended  by  upwards  of  5,000 
members.  The  rule  was  solemnly 
r  a  t  i  f  i  e  d  by 
HonoriusIIIin 
1223.  A  year 
later  the  order 
was  established 
in  England,  at 
Canterbury. 
Following  a  re- 
taxation  of  the 
strict  rule  of 
poverty,  the 
order  was  di- 
vided into  Con- 
ventuals,  who 
lived  in  large 
convents  under 
modified  con- 
ditions; and 
Observantines, 
who  adhered  to 
the  original 
rule.  Known 
in  France  as  Cordeliers,  the  Obser- 
vantines subsequently  divided  into 
Observants,  Reformed,  Discalced, 
Recollects,  and  Capuchins. 

In  1897,  as  a  result  of  the  efforts 
of  Leo  XIII,  while  the  Conventuals 
and  Capuchins  remained  distinct, 
the  other  branches  or  families  of 
the  order  were  united  under  the 
name  of  Ordo  Fratrum  Minorum, 
or  Friars  Minor.  The  original  dress 
of  the  order  consisted  of  a  coarse 
grey  cloth  habit,  with  pointed 
hood,  under-tunic,  drawers,  and 
waistcord.  Five  popes  and  more 
than  50  cardinals  have  belonged 
to  the  order,  which  numbered 
among  its  members  Cardinal 
Ximenes,  S.  Bonaventure,  Duns 
Scotus,  Alexander  of  Hales,  Roger 
Bacon,  and  William  of  Ockham. 
Allied  to  it,  as  a  second  order, 
were  the  Poor  Clares,  and,  as  a 
third  order,  the  Tertian  es.  In 
the  second  half  of  the  14th  century 
its  monasteries  were  computed  at 
1,500  with  90,000  friars.  At  the  dis- 
solution the  houses  in  England  num- 
bered 64.  See  Monasticism  ;  Poor 
Clares ;  Tertiaries ;  consult  also 
Annales  Minorum,  L.  Wadding, 
1625-54;  republ.  with  additions, 
Rome,  1731-1887.  See  Cowl,  illus. 

Francistown.  Town  of  the 
Bechuanaland  Protectorate,  S. 
Africa.  In  the  Tati  Concession,  it 
stands  near  the  Shashi  river,  50  m. 
N.W.  of  Tati,  and  near  the  border 
of  S.  Rhodesia. 

Franck,  C£SAR  AUQDSTE  (1822- 
90).  French  music  composer. 
Born  at  Liege,  Dec.  10,  1822,  he 
studied  at  the  Conservatoire  there, 
and  at  Paris.  After  teaching  for 
two  years  in  Belgium,  he  settled  in 
Paris  in  1844,  and  devoted  himself 
to  teaching  and  composition.  In 
1858  he  became  organist  at  the 
church  of  S.  Clotilde,  and  in  1872 


FRANCK 


3312 


FRANCO-PRUSSIAN  WAR 


professor  of  the  organ  at  the  Con- 
servatoire. He  composed  a  large 
amount  of  music  of  varying  merit, 
chiefly  the  oratorio  Les  Beatitudes, 
orchestral  works,  including  Ruth, 
Redemption,  and  Rebecca,  and 
chamber  music,  notably  a  quintet 
for  piano  and  strings,  and  a  string 
quartet.  He  died  Nov.  8,  1890. 
Franck' s  influence  upon  his  pupils 
was  great,  and  he  has  been  described 
as  the  greatest  of  modern  French 
teachers,  and  probably  the  greatest 
of  church  organists  and  composers 
since  Bach.  See  Life,  V.  d'Indy, 
Eng.  trans.  R.  Newmarch,  1910. 

Franck,  SEBASTIAN  (c.  1499- 
1542).  German  writer.  Born  at 
Donauworth,  he  was  trained  for 
the  priesthood  at  Ingolstadt  and 
Heidelberg.  He  had  already  taken 
orders  when,  about  1525,  he  be- 
came a  Protestant.  He  was  ban- 
ished from  Strasbourg  on  account 
of  his  opinions  in  1531,  and 
settled  at  Ulm  ;  but  the  publica- 
tion of  his  Guldin  Arch,  1538,  led 
to  his  expulsion  therefrom  in  1539. 
He  then  went  to  Basel,  and  died 
there.  His  collection  of  German 
Proverbs,  1541,  enjoyed  a  long 
popularity.  His  other  writings  are 
all  remarkable  for  their  freedom 
of  thought,  in  which  Franck  was 
a  pioneer. 

Francke,  AUGUST  HERMANN 
(1663-1727).  German  education- 
ist. Born  at  Liibeck,  March  23, 
1663,  he  was  trained  at  Erfurt  and 
Kiel,  and  studied  Hebrew  at  Ham- 
burg. Settling  at  Leipzig,  he  estab- 
lished a  kind  of  literary  club,  under 
the  name  of  Collegium  Philobibli- 
cum.  He  taught  Greek  and  Oriental 
languages  at  Halle  University, 
where  he  established  a  paedogog- 
ium  and  orphans'  house  (1698),  the 
success  of  which  attracted  much 
attention  among  philanthropists  in 
England.  Francke  became  famous 
through  his  lectures  on  the  Bible. 
He  wrote  much  on  Biblical  and 
educational  subjects.  See  Faith's 
Work  Perfected  (Eng.  trans,  of 
Francke's  Pietas  Hallensis),  ed. 
W.  L.  Gage,  1867. 

Francolin  OB  SPUR  -  LEGGED 
PARTRIDGE  (Francolinus).  Group 
of  game  birds,  of  which  over  forty 
species  are  recognized.  Most  of 
them  are  mottled  with  black, 
brown,  and  white  ;  they  are  found 
in  Africa  and  S.  Asia,  and  one 
species  formerly  occurred  in  Sicily, 
but  appears  to  be  extinct  there 
now.  They  live  among  the  high 
grass  in  the  valleys. 

Franconia  (LAND  OP  THE 
FRANKS).  Name  given  in  the  9th  and 
10th  centuries  to  one  of  the  great 
duchies  into  which  Germany  was 
divided.  It  was  the  one  founded 
and  inhabited,  as  the  people  be- 
lieved, by  the  Franks.  The  west- 


central  part  of  Germany,  it  was  the 
district  through  which  the  Main 
runs,  although  a  portion  of  it,  in- 
cluding the  cities  of  Mainz,  Worms, 
and  Spires,  was  on  the  W.  side  of 
the  Rhine.  Its  capital  was  Frank- 
fort. 

The  duchy  had  only  a  short  life, 
as  a  few  years  after  1024,  when  its 
duke,  Conrad  II,  became  German 
king,  it  was  broken  up  among  vari- 
ous princes,  especially  the  arch 
bishop  of  Mainz,  and  the  bishops 
of  Worms,  Spires,  and  Wiirzburg. 


The  name,  however,  remained  in 
use  for  the  eastern  part  of  the  old 
duchy,  that  on  the  E.  of  the  Rhine. 
It  was  given  in  1500  to  one  of  the 
circles  into  which  Germany  was 
divided,  and  for  over  300  years 
before  1802  the  bishops  of  Wiirz- 
burg called  themselves  dukes  of 
Franconia.  The  Bavarian  portion 
of  old  Franconia  is  now  divided 
into  three  parts  :  Franconia,  cap- 
ital Baireuth  ;  Middle  Franconia, 
capital  Ansbach  ;  and  Lower  Fran- 
conia, capital  Wiirzburg. 


FRANCO-PRUSSIAN   WAR,    187O-71 

J.  Markham  Rose,  D.S.O.,  late  Instructor,   R.  Mil.  Academy,  Woolwich 

In  addition  to  this  general  sketch  there  are  articles  on  Metz,  Sedan,  and 

the  other  great  battles  of  the  war.  See  also  Bazaine ;  Bismarck  ;  Moltke  ; 

Napoleon  III ;    William  I ;  and  the  articles  France ;  Germany 


Prussia,  desiring  to  lead  the 
movement  towards  German  unity, 
had  an  ambitious  king  in  William 
I ;  a  clever  and  not  too  scrupulous 
statesman  in  Bismarck ;  a  great 
strategist  in  Moltke ;  and  a  sound 
military  organizer  in  Roon.  The 
short  campaign  of  1864,  in  which 
Austria  and  Prussia  overwhelmed 
Denmark  and  robbed  her  of 
Slesvig-Holstein,  served  Prussia  as 
a  practical  lesson  in  her  scheme  of 
mobilisation,  which  she  now  lab- 
oured to  improve.  Two  years  later 
she  showed  Austria  how  much  she 
had  benefited  by  the  experience, 
and  taught  the  rest  of  Germany  to 
look  to  Prussia  as  their  head.  The 
four  great  leaders  of  Prussia  again 
used  this  war  of  1866  as  a  training 
ground  for  perfecting  their  military 
organization,  and  prevailed  upon 
the  other  German  states,  secretly, 
to  place  their  troops  under  Prussian 
control. 

France  was  ruled  by  Napoleon 
III,  who  had  gained  a  small  military 
reputation  through  the  Crimean 
War,  and  his  campaign  in  Italy  in 
1859  ;  but  the  world  generally,  and 
Bismarck  in  particular,  had  dis- 
covered that  he  was  not  a  great 
general.  In  pursuit  of  his  ambition, 
he  wished  to  push  the  French  fron- 
tier to  the  Rhine,and  hoped  by  mili- 
tary glory  to  remove  his  subjects' 
growing  dissatisfaction  with  his 
inefficiency  as  a  ruler.  He  further 
thought  that  Austria  would  join 
him  to  revenge  1866,  and  that  Italy 
might  also  help  him. 

Declaration  of  War 

Thus  there  were  the  makings  of 
war  if  anything  occurred  to  start 
it.  On  July  3, 1870,  Prince  Leopold 
of  Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen  was 
selected  for  the  vacant  throne  of 
Spain.  Napoleon  feared  a  Prussian- 
ised state  on  his  Spanish  frontier, 
and  demanded  that  the  idea  should 
be  abandoned.  Bismarck  knew 
that  Germany  was  ready  for  war, 
and  that  France  was  not  as  ready 


as  Napoleon  believed,  and  by  a  tele- 
gram, which  did  not  truly  repre- 
sent King  William's  words,  sent 
French  feeling  to  fever  point. 
Rulers  on  both  sides  desired  war, 
and  war  was  declared  on  July  19. 
Both  Austria  and  Italy  declined  to 
intervene.  Napoleon  believed  his 
ministers'  assurance  that  his  army 
was  "  ready  to  the  last  gaiter- 
button,"  whereas  in  reality  it  was 
badly  trained  and  badly  found,  and 
the  mobilisation  plans  were  most 
imperfect ;  he  showed  his  inability 
as  a  strategist  in  that  his  initial 
plan  was  to  cross  the  Rhine  and 
endeavour  to  separate  the  South 
German  states  from  the  Prussians, 
whom  he  could  not  believe  they 
really  loved.  This  was  true  in  part, 
and,  could  he  have  been  ready  first, 
it  was  a  possibility  that  a  separated 
South  Germany  would  not  have 
proved  such  loyal  allies  to  Prussia 
as  they  afterwards  turned  out  to  be. 
Organization  of  Prussian  Army 

The  Germans  were  organized  in 
three  armies.  The  first  or  northern 
one,  under  Steinmetz  ;  the  second, 
under  Prince  Frederick  Charles, 
the  "  Red  Prince  "  ;  the  third  or 
southern  army,  under  the  Crown 
Prince.  The  first  actual  conflict  of 
forces  larger  than  reconnoitring 
parties  took  place  at  Sarrebruck  on 
Aug.  2,  when  the  French  drove 
back  a  few  battalions  and  crossed 
the  frontier.  This  fight  was  given 
undue  prominence  as  a  French 
victory,  because  it  was  the  bapteme 
defeu  of  the  little  Prince  Imperial. 

The  positions  of  the  opposing 
forces  on  Aug.  4  were  as  follows  : 
The  French  were  strung  out  along 
the  frontier  in  Alsace-Lorraine, 
from  Strasbourg  in  the  S.  to  Sarre- 
bruck in  the  N.  ;  perhaps  150,000 
E.  of  Metz;  but  the  mobilisation 
was  so  incomplete  and  so  confused 
that  not  even  the  French  High 
Command  knew  where  battalions 
were,  or  the  precise  number  of 
troops  in  any  division.  Strasbourg 


FRANCO-PRUSSIAN    WAR 


3313 


FRANCO-PRUSSIAN    WAR 


and  Metz  were  important  fort- 
resses, which  should  have  been 
well  supplied  for  a  siege. 

The  crown  prince's  army  was  S. 
of  Landau,  assembled  for  the  march 
which  carried  it  over  the  frontier. 
The  second  army  was  marching 
through  the  Haardt  Wald  by 
Kaiserslautern.  The  first  army, 
held  back  by  von  Moltke,  was 
cantoned  between  Neunkirchen, 
Tholey,  and  Lebach,  making  alto- 
gether a  total  of  some  450,000  men. 
On  Aug.  6  came  the  first  real 
clash  of  arms.  To  the  S.  the  crown 
prince's  army,  which  had  driven  in 
MacMahon's  outposts  from  Wis- 
sembourg  on  Aug.  4,  defeated  him 
severely  on  this  day  at  Worth,  and 
drove  his  force  headlong  from  the 
field.  On  the  same  day  there  was 
an  important  battle  near  Spicheren, 
where  the  advanced  guards  of  the 
first  and  second  armies  forced  back 
Frossard.  So  severe  were  these 
blows  that  nothing  remained  for 
Napoleon  but  to  form  "  the  army 
of  the  Rhine  "  round  Metz,  under 
Bazaine,  while  MacMahon  gathered 
together  fragments  into  another 
army  at  Chalons  ;  thus  abandoning 
the  whole  of  Alsace-Lorraine,  ex- 
cept the  fortresses,  to  the  enemy. 

Disaster  of  Sedan 

The  Germans,  not  entirely  un- 
touched by  the  two  battles,  for  the 
French  soldiers  had  fought  well, 
and  confronted  by  the  new  situa- 
tion, paused  for  a  moment  before 
they  pressed  forward  in  overwhelm- 
ing strength.  By  Aug.  14  the 
German  advanced  guards  inter- 
rupted a  commencing  retreat  of 
Bazaine's  troops  from  the  E.  of 
Metz,  and  brought  about  the  battle 
of  Colombey-Nouilly,  which  seri- 
ously interfered  with  French  plans. 
Two  days  later  the  second  army, 
which  had  crossed  the  Meuse  S.  of 
Metz,  again  interfered  with  the  pro- 
posed retreat  on  Verdun,  by  the 
battle  of  Vionville-Mars-la-Tour, 
and  compelled  Bazaine,  on  Aug. 
18,  to  fight  the  battle  of  Gravelotte. 
Unsuccessful  in  this,  he  was  driven 
inside  the  Metz  fortifications. 

With  these  reverses  the  second 
empire  was  tottering  to  its  fall. 
The  moral  of  the  French  troops 
was  infected  by  the  cry  of  "  We 
are  betrayed,"  and  this  feeling  had 
its  reflection,  or  its  origin,  in  Paris. 
The  emperor  was  with  the  army, 
doing  little  to  save  the  situation  ; 
while  the  empress  Eugenie  in  Paris 
was  doing  her  best  in  a  falling  cause. 
MacMahon  was  now  directed  to 
effect  the  relief  of  Metz,  and  com- 
menced the  desperate  march  N. 
and  E.  which  ended  at  Sedan. 

The  Germans,  well  informed  of 
French  movements,  had  left  a 
sufficient  investing  force  to  hold 
Bazaine,  and  so  liberated  a  for- 


midable army  to  deal  with  Mac- 
Mahon. Caught  up  at  Beaumont 
on  Aug.  28,  and  forced  back  on 
Sedan  with  the  Belgian  frontier 
behind  him,  MacMahon  fought  a 
desperate  losing  action  on  Aug.  31 
and  Sept.  1.  MacMahon  was 
wounded,  and  on  Sept.  2  de 
Wimpffen  signed  the  surrender  of 
the  last  imperial  army  in  the  field. 
Napoleon  was  present  and  became 
a  prisoner  of  war.  On  Aug.  31 
Bazaine  made  a  desperate  attempt 
to  break  out  of  Metz,  but  was 
driven  back  under  the  guns  of  the 
place,  where  he  remained  until  the 
surrender  of  his  whole  army  on 
Oct.  27.  Strasbourg,  after  a  fero- 
cious bombardment,  had  undergone 
a  regular  siege.  Its  commander, 
General  Uhrich,  held  out  until  the 
inhabitants  were  in  a  state  of  star- 
vation and  his  defences  were 
pierced.  He  surrendered  to  General 
Werder  on  Sept.  27. 

On  Sunday,  Sept.  4,  the  empress 
fled  from  the  Tuileries,  and  on  the 
5th  a  republic  was  proclaimed, 
with  General  Trochu  as  president 
and  governor  of  Paris,  with  full 
military  powers  for  national  de- 
fence ;  Jules  Favre  became  min- 
ister of  foreign  affairs  and  Gam- 
betta  minister  of  the  interior. 
Energetic  measures  were  taken  for 
the  defence  of  the  capital  and  for 
the  formation  of  a  national  army, 
but  there  were  enormous  diffi- 
culties to  contend  with.  The 
German  forces  were  moving  for- 
ward practically  unresisted  to  in- 
vest Paris,  and  probably  at  this 
time  an  opportunity  was  lost 
which  would  have  saved  both 
nations  a  vast  amount  of  suffering 
and  expense.  On.  Sept.  19  nego- 
tiations for  an  armistice  were 
almost  concluded  by  Bismarck 
and  Jules  Favre,  but  the  chancellor 
demanded  the  surrender  of  Stras- 
bourg, Toul,  and  Verdun ;  and 
these  conditions  the  provisional 
government  would  not  accept. 

The  Siege  of  Paris 
The  French  position  was  practi- 


it  is  no  easy  task  hastily  to  impro- 
vise armies,  however  many  high- 
spirited  men  may  be  available. 
There  were  no  great  generals,  no 
trained  officer  corps ;  arms  and 
stores  were  lacking.  An  army  of 
the  north  was  formed  about 
Soissons  and  Amiens  under  Faid- 
herbe,  and  a  numerically  stronger 
Loire  army  about  Orleans.  By  the 
beginning  of  December  the  Ger- 
mans had  the  northern  half  of 
France  in  their  grasp.  They  had 
taken  the  large  and  important 
fortified  towns  of  Nancy,  Stras- 
bourg, Metz,  Reims,  Dijon,  Laon, 
Soissons,  Orleans,  and  Rouen,  and 
were  operating  under  the  able  di- 
rection of  von  Moltke»with  well- 
found  armies  in  every  direction. 
The  army  of  the  Loire  was  driven 
from  Orleans  on  Dec.  3,  and  from 
that  time  became  a  negligible 
factor  for  the  relief  of  Paris. 

An  army  had  been  formed  in  the 
Vosges  under  the  leadership  of 
Garibaldi,  and  fighting  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Dijon  afforded  a 
little  distraction,  but  no  real  effect. 
The  army  of  the  north  was  severely 
defeated  early  in  Jan.,  1871.  In  the 
S.E.  General  Bourbaki  had  col- 
lected a  considerable  force  to  raise 
the  siege  of  Belfort,  but  equal 
failure  attended  its  efforts  ;  and 
early  in  Feb.  his  army  was  com- 
pelled to  retreat  over  the  Swiss 
frontier  and  give  up  its  arms. 

Germany's  Peace  Terms 
It  was  a  terribly  severe  winter 
and  the  sufferings  of  the  ill-found 
French  soldiers  were  appalling, 
while  the  Germans  were  able  to 
fight  in  comparative  comfort.  Paris 
during  January  was  being  regularly 
bombarded,  and  in  addition  was 
enduring  the  pangs  of  hunger. 
Disease  and  death  were  rampant, 
and  the  necessity  for  capitulation 
had  become  evident.  General 
Trochu  resigned,  and  Jules  Favre 
was  sent  to  arrange  terms  of  sur- 
render at  Versailles,  where  William, 
now  crowned  as  German  emperor, 
taken  up  his  headquarters. 


s 


might  to  hold  out  for  a  long  siege. 
The  fortifications  were  formidable, 
but  so  were  the  German  forces.  The 
defence  of  a  large  town  is  no  easy 
problem,  since  starvation  is  such 
an  invaluable  ally  to  the  besiegers, 
yet  Paris  had  a  great  spirit,  and 
hoped  greatly  for  relief  from 
newly  formed  armies. 

Gambetta  escaped  from  Paris 
in  a  balloon,  apd  from  Tours 
roused  the  country  to  arms  ;  but 


.  !,ng.  tra 
1874-84  ;  French  Official  Account, 
1901,  etc. ;  The  Campaign  of  Sedan, 
G.  Hooper  (1887),  repr.  1914;  La 
Guerre,  1870-71,  A.  Chuquet,  1895  ; 
Bibliographie  G6nerale  de  la  Guerre 
de  1870-71,  B.  E.  Palat,  1896; 
Saarbruck  to  Paris,  1870,  a  strate- 
gical sketch,  S.  C.  Pratt,  1904 ; 
The  Franco -German  War,  1870-71, 
F.  B.  Maurice,  1909  (in  Camb. 
Modem  History,  vol.  11). 

IB    4 


FRANC-T1REUR 


331  4 


FRANK EN WALD 


Franc-tireur  (Fr.,  free  shooter). 
Term  employed  to  designate  the 
bands  of  men  who,  though  uncon- 
nected in  any  way  with  the  regular 
troops,  greatly  harassed  the  Ger- 
mans during  the  Franco-Prussian 
War.  These  bands  wore  no  uniform, 
and,  if  detected,  posed  as  civilians. 
Despite  the  fact  that  if  caught 
they  were  immediately  hanged, 
many  alien  French  sympathisers 
served  the  country  in  this  way,  and 
it  is  estimated  that  not  less  than 
35,000  men  were  so  employed.  The 
term  francs-tireurswas  also  applied 
to  organized  bodies  of  volunteers, 
notably  the  Gardes  Mobiles  and  an 
Italian  contingent  who  cooperated 
with  the  I^ench  troops  round  Or- 
leans in  1870.  At  the  best,  francs- 
tireurs  are  therefore  organized 
corps  of  irregular  troops,  acting 
under  a  permanent  leader,  who 
wear  some  kind  of  uniform,  if  only 
a  brassard,  and  who  conform  to 
the  usages  of  war;  while  at  their 
worst  they  are  merely  bands  of 
tolerated  assassins,  whose  conduct 
exasperates  trained  troops  and 
results  in  innocent  civilians  suffer- 
ing for  their  deeds.  During  the 
Great  War  the  Germans  made 
many  accusations,  more  especially 

Xinst  the  Belgians,  of  the  em- 
yment  of  francs -tireurs  against 
their  invading  armies. 

Franeker.  Town  of  Holland.  In 
the  province  of  Friesland,  it  is  10  m. 
W.  of  Leeuwarden,  and  is  served 
by  both  rly.  and  canal.  It  has 
a  celebrated  school,  the  successor 
of  the  university  that  flourished 
here  from  1585  to  1811.  S.  Mar- 
tin's, a  15th  century  building,  is  the 
chief  church.  There  is  a  16th  cen- 
tury town  hall  and  an  observatory. 
The  town  has  small  manufactures 
and  a  trade  in  agricultural  pro- 
duce. Pop.  7,642. 

Frangip^ni.  Name  of  a  power- 
ful Roman  family.  It  arose  in  the 
llth  century,  and  was  conspicuous 
in  the  struggles  of  Guelph  and  Ghi- 
belline  in  the  two  following  cen- 
turies. Members  of  it  still  exist  in 
Italy.  Frangipani  is  also  the  name 
of  a  powerful  scent,  and  of  a  kind 
of  sweetmeat. 

Frank  Almoign.  Term  of 
French  origin,  meaning  free  alms. 
It  is  used  for  the  kind  of  land 
tenure  by  which  religious  houses 
and  corporations  held  their  lands, 
and  to  some  extent  do  so  still. 
The  idea  behind  it  is  that  the 
land  is  held  on  the  condition  that, 
instead  of  military  service,  religious 
offices  shall  be  performed.  '.This 
form  of  tenure  is  very  old,  and  was 
not  confined  to  England.  There  it 
was  largely  stopped  by  the  famous 
Act  of  1290,  which,  forbade  any 
such  tenures  to  be  created  save 
by  the  king.  See  Land  Laws ;  Quia 


Emptores  ;  Tenure ;  consult  also 
History  of  English  Law,  Pollock 
and  Maitland,  2nd  ed.  1898. 


Gilbert  Frankau, 
British  author 


9th     E.     Surrey 


Frankau,GiLBERT(b.l884).  Brit- 
ish author.  Born  April  21, 1884,  the 
son  of  Arthur  and  Julia  Frankau,  he 
was  educated 
at  Eton  and 
spent  some 
years  in  busi- 
ness before 
turning  to 
literature.  He 
travelled  round 
the  world,  1912 
--14,  and  in 
Oct.,  1914,  re- 
ceived a  com- 
mission in  the 
regiment.  In 

1915  he  transferred  to  the  R.F.A., 
fighting  at  Loos,  Ypres,  and  on  the 
Somme.  He  was  promoted  staff 
captain  for  special  duty  in  Italy, 
Oct.,  1916,  and  in  Feb.,  1918,  was 
invalided  from  the  army.  His  pub- 
lications include  One  of  Us,  1912  ; 
The  Guns,  1916  ;  The  City  of  Fear, 
1917;  One  of  Them,  and  Peter 
Jackson,  Cigar  Merchant,  1919; 
Life— and  Erica,  1925. 

Frankau,  JULIA.  British  novel- 
ist, whowrote  under  the  pseudonym 
of  Frank  Danby  (q.v.). 

Frankenau,  BATTLE  OF.  Fought 
between  the  Germans  and  the  Rus- 
sians, Aug.  23-24, 1914.  While  the 
Russian  army  of  the  Niemen,  under 
Rennenkampf,  was  advancing  in 
Aug.,  1914,  into  East  Prussia  from 
the  N.,  the  army  of  the  Narev,  led 
by  Samsonoff,  invaded  that  prov. 
from  the  S.  by  three  routes.  One 
was  along  the  rly.  from  Warsaw  to 
Mlava  and  Soldau,  on  the  opposite 
sides  of  the  frontier  ;  the  second 
was  by  way  of  the  rly.  from 
Ossoveitz  to  Lyck  ;  and  the  third 
lay  across  country  to  Lyck,  whence 
Samsonoff  struck  S.  of  the  Masu- 
rian Lakes  to  Johannisberg. 

His  advance  was  rapid.  Soldau 
and  Niedenburg  were  quickly  in 
his  hands,  and  he  then  captured 
Allenstein,  the  headquarters  of  the 
20th  German  Army  Corps,  which 
had  taken  up  a  strong  position  be- 
tween Frankenau  and  Orlau,  N.W. 
of  the  Masurian  Lakes.  Samsonoff 
attacked  it  on  Aug  23,  1914,  and 
heavy  fighting  continued  all  day 
without  a  decision.  The  frontal 
attacks  of  the  Russians  failed,  but 
next  day  the  German  line  was  out- 
flanked on  its  right,  and  this 
threat,  coupled  with  a  determined 
renewal  of  the  frontal  attacks, 
forced  the  enemy  to  retire  hurriedly 
on  Osterode.  Samsonoff's  cavalry 
advanced  N.,  and  came  within  a 
few  miles  of  KSnigsberg  and  also  of 
Rennenkampf's  troops,  seeming  to 
promise  an  early  occupation  of  E. 
Prussia.  See  Tannenberg,  Battle  of. 


Frankenberg.  Town  of  Ger- 
many, in  Saxony.  It  stands  on  the 
Zschopau,  an  affluent  of  the  Mulde, 
32  m.  S.W.  of  Dresden.  It  is  a 
manufacturing  centre,  and  among 
its  products  are  cotton,  woollens, 
and  silk-stuffs.  Its  dyeworks,  of 
more  than  local  renown,  languished 
somewhat  in  the  20th  century. 
Pop.  13,576. 

Frankenhausen.  Town  of  Ger- 
many, in  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt 
(Thuringia).  It  stands  on  a  branch 
of  the  Wipper  at  the  foot  of  the 
Schlachtberg,  27  m.  N.  of  Erfurt. 
It  has  extensive  natural  deposits 
and  salt  springs  celebrated  for 
the  cure  of  rheumatic  complaints, 
which  are  employed  locally  for 
thermal  baths  and  exported  for 
use  as  the  basis  of  laxative  salts. 
The  buildings  include  a  palace  and 
a  large  secondary  school.  There 
is  a  local  market  for  undressed 
wool,  and  several  dye  and  glue 
works.  Near  here  the  rebellious 
peasants  under  Miinzer  \*ere  de- 
feated in  one  of  the  last  battles  of 
the  Peasants'  War  (1525).  A  cave 
in  which  Barbarossa,  surrounded 
by  his  warriors,  is  said  to  sleep,  is  in 
the  neighbourhood.  Pop.  6,600. 

Frankeniaceae.  Small  natural 
order  of  herbs  and  small  shrubs. 
Natives  of  temperate  and  warm 
regions,  they  are  chiefly  seashore 
plants.  They  bave  jointed  bran- 
ches, small,  opposite  leaves,  and 
small,  solitary,  regular  flowers. 
The  familiar  sea  heath  (Frankenia 
laevis)  of  salt-marshes  is  a  type 
of  the  order. 

Frankenstein.  Novel  by  Mary 
Wollstonecraft  Shelley,  first  pub- 
lished anonymously  in  1818,  with 
the  title  Frankenstein,  or  the  Mod- 
ern Prometheus.  It  is  the  story  of 
a  man  who  succeeds  in  making  a 
monster,  and  giving  it  life,  and  of 
the  awful  consequences.  Franken- 
stein is  the  name  of  the  man,  not  of 
the  monster  he  creates. 

Frankenthal.  Town  of  Ger- 
many, in  Bavaria.  It  stands  on  the 
Isenach,  7  m.  S.W.  of  Worms.  It 
received  a  charter  of  township  in 
1577.  It  has  a  communication  by 
canal  with  the  Rhine,  3i  m.  distant. 
The  place  is  distinguished  by  the 
width  and  regularity  of  its  streets 
and  its  imposing  public  buildings, 
which  include  a  handsome  town 
hall.  It  has  a  considerable  trade 
in  wine  and  paper,  linen  and  iron 
are  manufactured,  and  its  light  beer 
is  famous.  Ironfounding  and  the 
manufacture  of  machinery,  boilers, 
and  toys  are  carried  on.  Pop.  18,779. 

Frankenwald.  North-western 
group  of  the  Fichtelgebirge  Mts.  in 
Bavaria,  situated  between  the 
rivers  Saale  and  Main.  The  highest 
peak  is  the  Dobraberg  (2,605  ft.). 
See  Fichtelgebirge. 


FRANKFORT 


3315 


FRANKFORT- ON-MAIN 


Frankfort.  City  of  Kentucky, 
U.S.A.  It  is  capital  of  the  state  and 
the  co.  seat  of  Franklin  co.  On  the 
Kentucky  river,  here  spanned  by  a 
fine  suspension  bridge,  55  m.  E.  of 
Louisville,  it  is  served  by  the 
Chesapeake  and  Ohio  and  other 
rlys.  In  addition  to  the  capitol, 
there  are  several  state  buildings, 
including  an  arsenal,  penitentiary, 
library,  a  home  for  feeble-minded 
children,  and  a  coloured  normal 
school.  A  busy  trade  centre, 
Frankfort  manufactures  lumber 
products,  carriages,  glass,  tobacco, 
flour,  and  shoes.  The  city  dates 
from  1786,  and  became  the  state 
capital  in  1792.  Pop.  11,180. 

Frankfort-on-Main.  City  of 
Germany,  called  by  the  Germans 
Frankfurt.  It  stands  on  the  Main, 
the  city  proper  be- 
ing on  the  right  or 
N.  bank,  24  m. 
from  its  junction 
with  the  Rhine 
and  in  the 
Prussian  pro- 
vince of  Hesse - 
Frankfort  arms  Nassau.  On  the 
left  bank  is  Sachsenhausen,  a 
suburb  with  a  history,  while  the 
city  also  includes  Bockenheim, 
until  1895  a  separate  municipality, 
and  populous  modern  suburbs  all 
around.  The  city's  population 
is  350,000,  about  32,000  being 
Jews,  who  have  always  been 
numerous. 

The  interest  of  Frankfort  is  in  its 
buildings  and  historical  associa- 
tions on  the  one  hand  and  in  its 
banking  and  commercial  interests 
on  the  other.  It  was,  moreover,  the 
birthplace  of  Goethe,  while  from 
it  came  the  Rothschilds.  In  the 
centre  of  the  old  town,  with  its 
narrow  streets,  is  the  Romerberg  or 
market  place.  The  Zeil  is  the  chief 
business  street ;  the  Markt  contains 
the  Goldene  Wage,  a  15th  century 
house,  and  other  historic  buildings. 
Beyond  the  old  town  is  the  com- 
paratively new  town,  begun  in  the 
14th  century.  Beyond  that  are 
the  Anlagen.  or  promenades,  laid 


out  early  in  the 
19th  century 
when  thecity  walls 
were  pulled  down. 

Of  the  many 
churches,  the 
cathedral  was 
founded  in  th e 
9th  century. 
Much  of  the 
present  edifice 
dates  from  the 
14th  century,  but 
it  was  thoroughly 
restored  in  the 
19th  century  after 
a  fire.  In  it  the 
German  kings 
were  crowned 
after  the  pope 
ceased  to  perform 
that  ceremony  in 
Rome.  Other 
churches  are  S. 
Leonard's,  with 
two  13th  century 
Rom  ane  s  q  u  e 
towers;  S. 
Nicholas;  the 
church  of  Our 
Lady;  S.  Peter's, 
with  a  fine  in- 
terior ;  S.  Paul's, 
and  several 
synagogues.  The 
town  hall,  called 
the  Romer,  which  stands  on  the 
Romerberg,  consists  of  a  num- 
ber of  old  houses  linked  together 


Frankfort-on-Main.      The  Romer  or  town  hall,  containing 
the  famous  Kaisersaal 


Frankfort-on-Main.       The  Central 
railway  station 

into  one  large  building,  to  which 
modern  additions  have  been  made. 
In  it  are  two  historically  interesting 
)   apartments,  the 
!   election    cham- 
|    ber,  where  the 
!    electors  met  to 
choose  the  Ger- 
man  king,  and 
the   Kaisersaal, 
where      the 
coronation 
feast,  described 
by  Schiller,  was 
held.      The 
latter,    now 
thoroughly    re- 
stored, contains 
paintings  of 
the    emperors 
and  kings. 


Frankfort-on-Main,      The  14th  century   cathedral   of 
S.  Bartholomew,  to  which  the  tower  was  added  in  1414 

Other  buildings  include  the  Saal- 
hof,  which  has  a  Romanesque 
chapel,  the  oldest  edifice  in  Frank- 
fort. The  hall  of  the  linen  drapers 
still  stands.  The  palace  of  the 
prince  of  Thurn  and  Taxis,  where 
the  federal  parliament  sat  from 
1816  to  1866,  is  now  part  of  the 
post-office  pile.  The  opera  house 
is  a  magnificent  building  of  the  19th 
century,  while  there  are  several 
theatres  and  many  other  places  of 
amusement.  The  law  courts  is  a 
fine  modem  building,  and  there  is  a 
new  exchange  or  bourse  and  a  fine 
central  station. 

Of  the  museums  the  chief  is  the 
Stadel  Institution  in  Sachsen- 
hausen. Tliis  has  some  rare  trea- 
sures, as  well  as  a  fine  collection  of 
paintings  and  antiquities.  The 
linen  drapers'  hall  houses  the  muni- 
cipal museum  of  paintings  and  an- 
tiquities. Other  museums  are  the 
Bethmann  Museum  and  the  mu- 
seum of  ethnology.  The  house  of 
the  Goethe  family  now  contains 
relics  of  the  poet  and  a  large  library 
of  Goethe  literature.  The  Roth- 
schild house  still  stands,  this  being 
the  only  existing  remains  of  the 
Jews'  quarter.  Another  museum  is 
named  after  J.  C.  Senckenberg,  one 
of  Frankfort's  benefactors,  who 
also  founded  a  hospital  and  an 
almshouse. 

Several  bridges  cross  the  Main. 
The  most  notable  is  the  old  bridge 


FRANKFORT-ON-ODER 


3316 


FRANKINCENSE 


dating  from  the  14th  century.  On 
it  are  the  mill,  a  statue  of  Charle- 
magne, and  a  crucifix  crowned  with 
a  cock.  The  memorials  include  a 
fine  one  to  Gutenberg  and  the  early 
printers  on  the  Rossmarkt,  one 
to  the  Hessians  who  fell  round 
the  city  in  Dec.,  1792,  and  one 
to  Goethe  on  the  Goethe  Platz. 
The  city  has  a  zoological  garden, 
and  of  its  public  grounds  the  finest 
is  the  palm  garden.  On  the  Rom- 
erberg  is  the  Justitia  Fountain 
dating  from  1543  and  restored  in 
1887.  The  Eschenheimer  Tor,  a 
gateway  with  a  tower,  is  one  of  the 
few  remains  of  the  fortifications. 

For  centuries  Frankfort  has  been 
a  great  commercial  centre.  It  is 
now  served  by  a  network  of  railway 
lines,  while  the  river  adds  to  its 
facilities  for  transport.  It  has  al- 
ways been  noted  as  a  banking 
centre,  while  some  of  the  earliest 
printing  was  done  here.  Two  great 
fairs  are  held  every  year.  Clothing, 
soap,  chemicals,  glass,  leather,  ma- 
chinery, fancy  goods,  and  other 
articles  are  manufactured  in  large 
quantities.  There  is  a  large  trade  in 
leather  and  other  articles.  News- 
papers include  the  influential 
Frankfurter  Zeitung. 

Frankfort,  the  ford  of  the  Franks, 
was  a  Roman  and  afterwards  a 
Franki  sh  settlement.  Charlemagne 
and  his  successors,  notably  Louis 
the  German,  resided  here  and  called 
here  many  of  their  diets.  From  the 
12th  century  the  German  kings 
were  elected  here,  and  the  Golden 
Bull  of  1356  declared  it  to  be  the 
regular  place  for  such  elections.  By 
this  time  it  had  taken  a  place 
among  the  free  cities,  and  in  the 
Reformation  period  the  wealth  and 
independence  of  the  citizens  were 
abundantly  manifest. 

The  free  city  accepted  the  re- 
formed teaching,  joined  the  league 
of  Schmalkalden,  and  was  besieged 
by  the  forces  of  the  emperor  Charles 
V.  The  Swedes  held  it  for  a  time 
during  the  Civil  War.  In  1806 
Napoleon  put  an  end  to  the  privi- 
leges of  the  free  city,  but  at  the 
settlement  of  1815  these  were  re- 
stored. It  was  the  capital  of  a 
grand  duchy  (1810-14),  the  meeting 

?lace  of  the  national  parliament  of 
848,  and  the  seat  of  the  diet  of  the 
German  Confederation.  In  1866 
Frankfort  fought  on  the  side  of 
Austria,  and  as  the  penalty  of  de- 
feat was  incorporated  in  the  king- 
dom of  Prussia.  v  A  university  was 
founded  here  in  1914.  Frankfort 
was  several  times  bombed  during 
the  Great  War  and  after  its  con- 
clusion was  occupied  by  the  French 
April-May,  1920,  during  the  tem- 
porary invasion  of  the  Ruhr  area 
by  the  German  military  party. 
They  evacuated  it,  however,  on 


May  17,  as  soon  as  the  number  of 
German  troops  in  the  district  had 
been  reduced  to  that  laid  down  by 
the  treaty  of  Versailles. 

Frankfort- on- Oder.  Town  of 
Germany,  in  the  Prussian  prov.  of 
Brandenburg.  It  stands  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Oder,  with  the 
suburb  of  Damm  on  the  right. 
It  is  about  50  m.  E.  of  Berlin.  Of 
its  old  buildings  the  chief  are  the 
13th  century  church  dedicated  to 
S.  Mary,  and  the  town  hall.  Its 
numerous  more  recent  buildings 
give  it  the  appearance  of  a  modern 
city.  Frankfort  has  manufactures  of 
machinery,  chemicals,  etc.,  but  its 
prosperity  is  chiefly  due  to  its  trade. 
It  is  a  port  on  the  Oder,  and  also  a 
big  rly.  junction  ;  Frankfort  was 
settled  by  merchants  from  Fran- 
conia  in  the  13th  century.  It  was 
then  part  of  the  electorate  of 
Brandenburg,  and  for  a  time  was  a 
member  of  the  Hanseatic  League. 
Its  situation  has  brought  many 
sieges  and  sufferings  upon  it,  and 
made  it  an  important  military 
centre  before  the  Great  War.  From 
1506  to  1811  there  was  a  university 
here.  Pop.  68,230. 

Frankfort  Parliament.  Meet- 
ing of  representatives  of  the  Ger- 
man people  at  Frankfort-on-Main 
in  1848.  In  that  year  there  was 
general  unrest  in  Europe,  and  the 
idea  of  a  closer  union  of  the  various 
German-speaking  peoples  was  gain- 
ing strength.  Certain  prominent 
Germans  met  at  Heidelberg  and  in- 
vited past  and  present  members  of 
the  various  diets  and  other  impor- 
tant personages  to  meet  at  Frank- 
fort. About  500  responded  and 
made  arrangements  for  calling  an 
assembly  that  should  be  truly 
national  and  representative.  It 
was  agreed  that  each  50,000  per- 
sons should  send  one  member 
chosen  by  universal  suffrage.  The 
diet  of  the  German  Confederation 
gave  its  assent,  and,  although  the 
various  governments  were  more  or 
less  hostile,  the  elections  went 
through. 

The  parliament  met  on  May  18, 
and  after  much  discussion  decided 
that  for  the  present  united  Ger- 
many should  be  ruled  by  a  regent 
who  should  choose  his  own  mini- 
sters. The  archduke  John  of 
Austria  was  elected  to  this  office, 
and  then  the  assembly  began  to 
discuss  the  fundamental  laws  of 
the  proposed  empire.  Meanwhile 
Prussia  and  Denmark  had  come  to 
blows  ;  the  parliament  ordered  the 
Prussians  to  withdraw  from  Sles- 
vig,  but  had  no  power  to  enforce 
this  decree.  The  quarrel  became 
so  acute  that  civil  war  broke  out 
in  the  streets  and  further  meetings 
were  only  possible  owing  to  the  pro- 
tection given  by  Prussian  soldiers. 


Discredited  but  not  yet  de- 
stroyed, the  parliament  decided  on 
the  fundamental  laws  and  then 
turned  to  constitutional  matters. 
Here  trouble  arose  over  theposition 
of  Austria,  with  its  large  non- 
German  population.  The  majority 
were  against  admitting  them  to  the 
new  union,  but  Austria  protested, 
and  an  alternative  proposal  was 
accepted — that  the  whole  of  the 
Austrian  empire  should  be  excluded 
and  its  relations  to  the  rest  of  Ger- 
many specially  regulated.  Austria 
again  protested,  but  this  time  in 
vain,  for  the  idea  found  strong  sup- 
port in  Prussia.  Eventually  it  was 
decided  to  offer  the  crown  to  a 
German  prince,  who  should  be 
called  German  emperor.  Austria 
and  Bavaria  objected,  but  the 
counter  plan  of  an  imperial  vicar, 
an  Austrian  and  a  Prussian  to  fill 
the  place  alternatively,  was  re- 
jected, and  the  majority  chose 
Frederick  William  IV  of  Prussia 
as  head  of  united  Germany,  the 
honour  to  be  hereditary  in  his 
house.  Realizing  the  strong  op- 
position, he  refused  it. 

The  parliament,  however,  strug- 
gled on  and  tried  to  work  the  new 
constitution,  although  Prussia,  fol- 
lowing the  example  of  Austria, 
soon  withdrew  her  representatives. 
Many  others  resigned  in  May, 
1849,  and  the  few  that  remained 
went  to  sit  at  Stuttgart  until  they 
were  ejected,  June  18,  1849.  The 
idea  of  a  united  Germany  failed 
owing  to  the  impossibility  of  ad- 
justing the  rival  claims  of  Austria 
and  Prussia,  a  knot  cut  by  the  war 
of  1866.  See  Germany  :  History. 

Frankfurter  Zeitung  (Frank- 
fort Gazette).  Founded  in  1856  as 
the  Frankfurter  Handelszeitung 
(Trade  Gazette)  by  Leopold  Sonne- 
mann,  it  became  the  first  paper  in 
the  German  empire  in  authority 
and  influence,  the  leading  financial 
organ,  and  on  foreign  affairs  a 
mouthpiece  of  the  foreign  office  in 
Berlin. 

Frankincense  (old  Fr.  franc  en- 
cens,  true  incense).  Fragrant  gum 
exuded  from  several  trees  of  the 
genus  Boswellia.  It  is  abundant  on 
the  Somali  coast  and  in  South 
Arabia.  A  cut  is  made  in  the  tree 
trunk,  and  the  weeping  resin  co- 
agulates in  breast-shaped  globules 
which  are  scraped  off  and  shipped 
to  Bombay.  Here  the  commodity 
is  graded  and  re-exported  to  the 
various  markets. 

The  ceremonial  religious  use  of 
frankincense  is  of  great  antiquity, 
having  been  practised  by  the 
Egyptians,  Persians,  Babylonians, 
and  Assyrians;  by  the  Jews  as  a 
constituent  of  the  incense  of  the 
sanctuary  (Ex.  xxx,  34),  and  by 
the  Greeks  and  Romans.  It  was 


FRANKING 


331  7 


FRANKLIN 


Sir  E.  Frankland, 
British  chemist 


long  employed  in  the  East  as  an  ex- 
ternal application  for  tumours  and 
sores,  and,  in  China,  as  an  internal 
remedy  for  leprosy  and  other 
diseases.  See  Incense. 

Franking  (Fr.  franc,  free).  Free 
use  of  the  postal  service.  To  the  ex- 
tent of  sending  ten  letters  a  day 
and  receiving  fifteen,  it  was  a  privi- 
lege granted  to  both  the  House  of 
Lords  and  the  House  of  Commons 
in  1764.  With  the  introduction  of 
penny  postage  in  1840  it  was 
abolished,  but  letters  are  still 
franked  by  the  public  departments, 
and,  if  so  franked,  can  be  sent 
thereto  free  of  charge.  See  Post 
Office. 

Frankland,  SIR  EDWARD  (1825- 
99).  British  chemist.  He  was  born 
at  Churchtown ,  Lancashire,  Jan.  1 8, 
1825,  and  edu- 
cated at  Lan- 
caster gram- 
mar school, 
Royal  School 
of  Mines,  Lon- 
don, and  the 
universities  of 
Marburg  and 
Giessen.  In 
1850  he  dis- 
covered the 
zinc  compounds  of  methyl  and 
ethyl,  and  next  year  was  appointed 
professor  of  chemistry  at  Owens 
College,  Manchester. 

He  was  professor  of  chemistry  at 
S.  Bartholomew's  hospital,  London, 
1857-63,  and  at  the  Royal  Institu- 
tion, 1863-67.  His  chief  work  was 
done  as  a  member  of  the  royal 
commission  on  the  Pollution  of 
Rivers,  in  a  laboratory  provided  by 
the  government.  He  died  in  Nor- 
way, Aug.  9,  1899. 

Franklin  (late  Lat.  francus, 
free).  A  freeman.  The  word  was 
used  in  medieval  England  as  a  mark 
of  distinction,  though  without  any 
exact  meaning.  It  seems  to  have 
referred  primarily  to  a  class  of 
landholders  between  the  noble  and 
the  more  or  less  unfree  ;  the  coun- 
try squires  of  a  later  day.  Such 
doubtless  was  the  franklin  in  The 
Canterbury  Tales. 

Franklin,  BATTLE  OF.  Fought 
in  the  American  Civil  War  (q.v.), 
Nov.  30,  1864.  General  Schofield, 
with  25,000  Federal  troops,  was 
retreating  to  Nashville,  Tennessee, 
when,  as  he  was  crossing  the  Har- 
peth  river  at  Franklin,  he  was 
attacked  by  a  Confederate  army 
of  40,000  men  under  Hood.  At 
first  thrown  into  confusion,  the 
Federals  rallied,  and,  after  a  furious 
resistance,  Schofield  succeeded  in 
withdrawing  his  men  across  the 
river.  In  no  battle  of  the  Civil 
War  was  greater  determination  or 
resistance,  shown  on  either  side. 
The  losses  were  very  heavy  ;  those 


of  the  Federals  being  2,326  killed, 
wounded,  and  missing,  those  of 
the  Confederates  more  than  6,000. 
Franklin,  BENJAMIN  (1706-90). 
American  statesman  and  scientist. 
The  son  of  an  English  immigrant, 
a  tallow  chandler,  Benjamin  Frank- 
lin was  born  at  Boston,  Mass., 
Jan.  17,  1706,  and  was  appren- 
ticed in  1719  to  his  eldest  brother, 
a  printer.  He  moved  to  Phila- 
delphia in  1723,  and  while  working 
there  as  a  compositor  attracted 
the  attention  of  the  governor  of 
Pennsylvania,  Sir  William  Keith 
(1680-1749),  who  encouraged  him 
to  go  to  England  to  buy  printing 
materials  wherewith  to  set  up  in 
business.  Franklin  accordingly 
made  his  way  to  London  in  1725, 
but  Keith's  promises  proved 
illusorj'  and  he  had  to  take  em- 
ployment as  a  compositor.  After 
a  troubled  eighteen  months  in 
London,  he  returned  to  Philadel- 
phia, again  as  a  printer's  assistant. 


After  J.  H.  Duplegtit 

In  1729  he  purchased  a  weekly 
journal,  The  Pennsylvania  Gazette. 
Three  years  later  he  issued  his 
Poor  Richard's  Almanack,  which 
continued  to  appear  for  25  years, 
and  was  widely  popular  for  its 
wealth  of  prudent  maxims  on 
industry  and  thrift.  He  became 
postmaster  of  the  city  in  1737, 
clerk  to  the  General  Assembly 
from  1736-61,  and  a  member  from 
1751-64,  attracting  notice  by  his 
scheme  for  intercolonial  union  at 
the  Albany  Convention,  1754. 

Meanwhile  Franklin  had  added 
scientific  research  to  his  many 
activities.  About  1746  he  began  to 
investigate  problems  connected 
with  electricity,  his  work  leading 


to  the  invention  of  the  lightning 
conductor  in  1749.  Earthquakes, 
meteorology,  stoves  and  chimneys, 
ocean  currents  and  navigation 
were  all  among  the  many  subjects 
of  his  inquiries  during  these  years  ; 
his  experiments  with  the  pouring 
of  oil  on  stormy  water  and  with 
agricultural  fertilisers  showed  the 
versatility  of  his  mind. 

In  1757  he  once  again  crossed 
to  England;  this  time  as  the 
agent  of  Pennsylvania  in  the  colo- 
nial dispute  with  the  Pennsylvanian 
proprietors.  Franklin  was  widely 
welcomed,  became  known  to  many 
distinguished  figures  in  political 
and  literary  life,  and  received 
degrees  from  the  universities  of 
Oxford,  Edinburgh,  and  St.  An- 
drews. In  1762  he  went  back  to 
America,  but  1764  found  him  again 
in  London  in  his  former  capacity. 
In  1766  he  gave  evidence  before 
the  House  of  Commons  which  was 
largely  instrumental  in  the  repeal 
of  the  notorious  Stamp  Act.  The 
unfortunate  publication  of  certain 
letters  entrusted  to  him  for  private 
circulation  led  to  difficulties  in 
London,  and  he  returned  to  Phila- 
delphia in  the  spring  of  1775.  \ 

His  old  affection  for  the  English 
connexion,  weakened  perhaps  by 
this  rebuff,  turned  into  an  active 
sympathy  with  the  separationist 
policy.  He  was  one  of  the  five 
members  commissioned  to  draft 
the  Declaration  of  Independence 
in  1776,  and  in  that  year  he 
went  to  Paris  as  commissioner 
for  the  colonies.  He  negotiated 
the  alliance  between  America  and 
France,  and  was  then  appointed 
plenipotentiary  in  Paris,  where 
he  remained  throughout  the  war, 
negotiating  the  treaty  of  peace 
finally  signed  in  1783.  He  returned 
to  America  in  1785  and  took  some 
part  in  framing  the  new  constitu- 
tion of  the  United  States,  retiring 
from  public  life  in  1788.  He  died 
at  Philadelphia,  April  17,  1790. 

J.    E.    Miles 

Bibliography.  Complete  Works, 
including  his  Correspondence  and 
unmutilated  Autobiography,  ed.  J. 
Bigelow,  10  vols.,  1887-88;  Writ- 
ings, ed.  with  Life  and  Introd.,  A. 
H.  Smyth,  10  vols.,  1905-7  ;  Lives, 
J.  T.  Morse,  1890  ;  J.  Parton,  1892  ; 
Benjamin  Franklin  as  an  Economist, 
W.  A.  Wetzel,  1895  ;  Franklin  and 
his  Press  at  Passy,  L.  S.  Livingston, 
1914  ;  Benjamin  Franklin,  Printer, 
J.  C.  Oswald,  1917  ;  Benjamin 
Franklin  Self -revealed,  W.  C. 
Bruce,  1917. 

Franklin,  SIR  JOHN  (1786-1847). 
British  explorer.  Born  at  Spilsby, 
Lincolnshire,  April  16,  1786,  and 
educated  at  Louth  grammar 
school,  he  entered  the  navy  as  a 
midshipman  in  1801,  being  present 
at  the  battle  of  Copenhagen.  He 
distinguished  himself  in  the  service 


FRANKLIN1TE 

u_^BHn_»«.«_«l 

and  took  part,  between  1818  and 

1827,  in  three  Arctic  expeditions. 

during  which   he   surveyed   many 

^^^— p-,,^^^^    thousand  miles 

|    of     Arctic- 

1    American 

I    coast-line  and 

*ljj    the  Saskatche- 

1    wan,     Copper- 

\    mine  and  Mac- 

I    kenzie    river 

•Blk^y ^  itfjS^n     basins.    For 

•KliiL    JBJHI    these    services 

^    _  he    was     pro- 

'j2£a^+*&*t*j££-  moted     cap- 

"*         tain,  knighted, 

1829,  and  awarded  various  scientific 

distinctions  at  home  and  abroad. 

From  1836-43  he  was  governor  of 

Van  Dieman's  Land  (Tasmania). 

A  new  British  expedition,  con- 
sisting of  the  ships  Erebus  and 
Terror,  with  Franklin  in  command, 
intended  to  explore  the  N.W. 
Passage,  sailed  from  the  Thames 
on  May  19,  1845.  The  vessels  were 
last  sighted  in  Baffin  Bay. 
Franklin  had  proposed  to  return 
in  1847,  and,  no  tidings  being  re- 
ceived from  him,  no  fewer  than  39 
expeditions,  four  at  Lady  Frank- 
lin's expense,  were  sent  forth  from 
Great  Britain  and  America  be- 
tween 1847  and  1857,  in  hope  of 
rescuing  the  explorers.  Some 
traces  of  them  were  found  by 
Captains  Ommanney  and  Penny, 
and  Dr.  Rae.  In  1857  Lady  Frank- 
lin equipped  the  yacht  Fox  and 
dispatched  it  to  N.E.  America 
under  Captain,  afterwards  Sir, 
Leopold  McClintock.  Two  years 
were  spent  in  search,  and  in  June, 
1859,  a  cairn  was  found  at  Point 
Victory  in  which  was  a  record  of 
Franklin's  expedition  down  to 
April  25,  1848,  with  definite  proof 
that  he  had  discovered  the  N.W. 
Passage,  and  that  he  had  died  on 
June  11,  1847.  Parliament  voted 
£2,000  for  the  statue  in  Waterloo 
Place,  London,  and  Lady  Franklin 
erected  the  monument  in  West- 
minster Abbey.  See  Arctic  Ex- 
ploration. 

Bibliography.  Franklin's  Narra- 
tive of  a  Journey  to  the  Shores  of 
the  Polar  Sea  in  the  years  1819, 
20,  21  and  22,  1823  ;  his  Narrative 
of  a  2nd  Expedition,  1825,  26  and 
27,  1828  ;  The  Career,  Last  Voyage, 
and  Fate  of  Sir  John  Franklin,  S. 
Osborn,  1860  ;  The  Polar  Regions, 
John  Richardson,  1861  ;  The  Voyage 
of  the  Fox  in  Arctic  Seas  in  Search 
of  Franklin  and  his  Companions, 
Sir  F.  L.  McClintock,  pop.  ed.  1908; 
Lives,  A.  H.  Beesly,  1881  ;  A.  H. 
Markham,  1891  ;  H.  D.  Traill,  1896. 
Franklinite.  Sometimes  con- 
sidered an  ore  of  zinc,  but  more 
properly  an  ore  of  iron.  Its  normal 
composition  is  peroxide  of  iron, 
67  p.c. ;  sesquioxide  of  manganese, 
16  p.c. :  oxide  of  zinc,  17  p.c.  It 


3318 

•MH^HMM 

occurs  in  coarse,  granular,  massive 
(form  and  in  brilliant  crystals  fre- 
'quently  of  large  size.  It  is  brittle 
and  slightly  magnetic,  but  blacker 
than  magnetic  iron  ore,  which  it 
resembles.  First  recognized  in 
deposits  near  the  Franklin  furnace 
at  Hamburg,  New  Jersey,  it  is 
used  in  the  manufacture  of 
Bessemer  steel. 

Frank- marriage.  In  English 
law,  a  form  of  entailing  land,  now 
obsolete.  It  referred  to  land 
granted  by  a  man  to  his  daughter 
and  her  husband.  This  was  free 
or  franked  from  the  usual  feudal 
dues,  except  that  of  fealty,  and  so 
remained  until  the  holder  was 
removed  more  than  four  degrees  of 
relationship  from  the  overlord. 
See  Land  Laws. 

Frankpledge.  System  by  which 
a  group  of  men  were  held  re- 
sponsible by  the  state  for  each 
other's  misdeeds.  The  Anglo- 
Saxons  called  these  associations 
frithborhs,  and  membership  was 
imposed  by  law  upon  all  freemen. 
William  the  Conqueror  ordered 
every  freeman  to  be  in  a  frank- 
pledge,  which  appears  to  have  con- 
sisted of  ten  or  twelve  men,  and 
later  kings  made  like  regulations. 
Sheriffs  held  periodical  "  views  " 
of  frankpledge,  i.e.  courts  to  see 
that  the  law  was  being  obeyed. 
After  a  time  the  unfree  were  ad- 
mitted to  membership,  and  the 
free  dropped  gradually  out.  The 
system  was  by  then,  say  the  14th 
century,  showing  signs  of  decay, 
and  it  did  not  survive  the  advent 
of  the  Tudors,  although  courts  for 
the  view  of  frankpledge  remained 
for  some  time  longer,  and  in 
manorial  court  leets  have  one  or 
two  survivals  to-day.  See  Jury. 

Franks  (lateLat.  /rawcw.s,free). 
Group  of  tribes  dwelling  in  Europe 
in  the  3rd  century,  who  founded 
the  kingdom  of  France,  to  which 
they  gave  their  name.  They  are 
first  mentioned  in  writing  in  refer- 
ence to  a  victory  obtained  by 
Aurelian  over  some  of  them  near 
Mogontiacum  (Mainz)  in  241. 

The  Frankish  tribes  were  of  Teu- 
tonic origin  and  were  first  [found 
in  what  is  now  N.W.  Germany 
and  the  Netherlands.  They  bore 
various  names  until  by  one  of  the 
accidents  of  history  that  of  Franks 
began  to  prevail  over  the  others 
and  gradually  supplanted  them. 

In  the  4th  century  or  a  little  later 
the  Franks  were  divided  into  two 
irain  branches  :  the  Salian  Franks 
around  the  mouth  of  the  Rhine 
and  the  Ripuarian  Franks  higher 
up  the  river.  They  were  first 
enemies  and  then  tributaries  of  the 
Romans,  and  the  decay  of  the 
Roman  empire  was  their  hour. 
The  man  to  use  it  was  Clovis, 


FRANKS 

————.. 

descendant  of  one  Chlodio,  who  had 
led  the  Salian  Franks  into  what  is 
now  France  and  had  made  Tournai 
his  capital.  Thirty  years  before  he 
became  king  in  481  his  tribe  had 
sent  warriors  to  that  vast  host 
that  defeated  the  Huns  in  451. ' 

Clovis  united  many  of  the  Salian 
Franks  under  his  rule,  and  con- 
quered much  of  Gaul.  He  made  the 
Ripuarians,  who  had  spread  up 
the  Rhine  as  far  as  Alsace,  own  his 
authority,  and  when  their  own 
king  was  murdered  they  took  the 
Salian  in  his  stead.  Clovis  was 
baptized  as  a  Christian,  and  nomi- 
nally at  least  the  Franks  were  no 
longer  pagans.  His  sons  continued 
his  career  of  conquest,  and  soon 
Frankland  was  a  great  district 
lying  on  both  sides  of  the  Rhine,  the 
name  being  perpetuated  in  the 
German  district  of  Franconia.  Like 
Anglo-Saxon  England,  it  was 
divided  into  more  or  less  indepen- 
dent kingdoms,  such  as  Austrasia 
and  Neustria,  but,  in  spite  of  civil 
wars,  there  was  a  certain  brother- 
hood between  them  which  facili- 
tated the  combination  of  several 
into  one. 

This  union  of  Frankish  tribes 
under  Clovis  and  his  descendants 
formed  that  Frankish  realm  which 
has  so  greatly  influenced  European 
history.  It  existed  in  one  form  or 
another  from  about  500  to  about 
900,  reached  its  height  in  the  great 
but  transient  empire  of  Charle- 
magne, and  from  its  ruins  both 
France  and  Germany  arose.  It 
included  parts  of  both,  but  soon  a 
cleavage  showed  itself  between  E. 
and  W.  Franks,  and  early  in  the 
9th  century  the  one  folk  could  not 
understand  the  speech  of  the  other. 
A  definite  division  was  made  in 
817  and  soon  afterwards  the  E. 
Franks  became  Germans  and  the 
W.  Franks  became  French.  The 
boundary  between  them  was  not 
easily  drawn  ;  indeed,  it  may  be 
said  to  have  been  a  prime  cause  of 
a  thousand  years  of  intermittent 
European  warfare.  France  added 
Celtic  elements  from  the  S.  and  W. 
to  her  Franks  ;  Germany  added 
Slavonic  ones  from  the  E.  to  hers, 
and  for  this  and  other  reasons  the 
two  developed  into  distinct  nations. 
Gregory  of  Tours,  the  chief  au- 
thority for  the  early  history  of  the 
Franks,  and  other  writers,  describe 
the  customs  and  habits  of  these 
people  in  peace  and  war,  which  do 
not  seem  to  have  differed  very  much 
from  those  of  other  Teutonic  tribes. 
See  France. 

Franks,  SIR  AUGUSTUS  WOLLAS- 
TON  (1826-97).  British  antiquary. 
Born  at  Geneva,  March  20,  1826, 
he  was  educated  at  Eton  and 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  After 
being  assistant  in  the  department 


FRANTZ 

of  antiquities  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum, he  became  keeper  of 
medieval  antiquities  and  ethno- 
graphy, 1866.  He  was  fellow,  1853, 
director,  1858-67,  1873-80,  and 
president,  1891-97,  of  the  Society 
of  Antiquaries,  was  made  F.R.S., 
1874,  and  K.C.B.,  1894.  He  applied 
large  private  means  to  purchasing 
porcelain  and  other  objects  of 
Oriental  and  medieval  art,  and  en- 
larging the  Henry  Christy  ethno- 
graphical collection.  His  own  ac- 
quisitions were  mostly  presented  or 
bequeathed  to  the  British  Museum. 
He  died  in  London,  May  21,  1897. 

Frantz,  KOHSTANTIN  (1817-91). 
German  publicist.  From  1852-56 
he  was  in  the  Prussian  diplomatic 
service,  but  he  retired  in  the  latter 
year  and  turned  his  attention  to 
the  study  of  sociology  and  political 
economy.  He  advocated  a  union 
of  the  Central  European  powers 
against  the  rest  of  the  world,  and 
considered  the  future  of  the  world 
to  rest  largely  with  Germany.  His 
principal  works  are  Der  Foederalis- 
mus  als  das  leitende  Princip  fur  die 
soziale,  staatliche  und  intemation- 
ale  Organisation,  1879  ;  Die  Welt- 
politik,  1882-83  ;  and  a  contribu- 
tion to  Schuchardt's  Die  Deutsche 
Politik  der  Zukunft,  1899. 

Franzen,  FBANS  MffiAEL(1772- 
1847).  Swedish  poet.  Born  at 
Uleaborg,  Finland,  Feb.  9,  1772, 
and  educated  at  Abo  University, 
where  he  was  later  a  professor  of 
history,  he  left  Finland  in  1811, 
after  the  country  had  passed  into 
the  hands  of  Russia.  He  was  for 
many  years  rector  of  a  parish  in 
Stockholm,  and  in  1834  was  made 
bishop  of  Hernosand.  He  was  one 
of  the  most  widely  appreciated  of 
Swedish  hymn -writers,  and  his  ode 
to  Count  C.  P.  Creutz,  the  Finnish 
poet,  was  crowned  by  the  Swedish 
Academy.  He  died  Aug.  14,  1847. 

Franzensfeste ,  An  old  fortress, 
one  of  a  line  of  fortifications  con- 
structed to  defend  the  Austrian 
frontier  in  Tirol.  It  commanded 
the  railway  line  which  passes  be- 
tween Innsbruck  and  the  Brenner 
Pass  and  through  the  valley  of  the 
Puster  to  Klagenfurt. 

Franz  Josef.  Glacier  in  the 
Southern  Alps  of  New  Zealand. 
It  flows  to  within  600  ft.  of  sea 
level  and  discharges  into  the  Waiho 
river  only  15  m.  from  the  sea.  It 
is  8J  m.  long. 

Franz  Josef  Land.  Archipelago 
in  the  Arctic  Ocean,  lying  N.  of 
Novaia  Zemlia  and  N.E.  of  Spits- 
bergen in  lat.  80°  to  82°  N.  and 
long.  42°  to  64°  E.  The  archipe- 
lago consists  of  about  100  small 
islands,  the  chief  of  which  are 
Graham  Bell  Land,  Wilczek  Land, 
McClintock Island,  Alexandra  Land 
and  Crown  Prince  Rudolf  Land. 


3319 

They  are  mountainous,  of  volcanic 
origin,  and  largely  glacier-covered; 
but  on  the  shores  and  other  fav- 
oured spots,  mosses,  poppies,  saxi- 
frages and  other  Arctic  plants  grow. 
The  loftiest  point  rises  to  2,800  ft. 
Bears,  walruses,  seals,  foxes,  and  a 
large  variety  of  birds  inhabit  the 
islands. 

Discovered  by  the  Austrian  ex- 
plorers, Payer  and  Weypreoht,  in 
1872-73,  the  islands  were  further 
explored  by  Leigh  Smith  in  1881- 
82,  the  Jackson -Harmsworth  ex- 
pedition in  1895-96,  and  by  the 
duke  of  Abruzzi's  expedition  in 
1899-1900.  The  sea,  on  the  N.  is 
called  Queen  Victoria  Sea ;  the 
wide  opening  S.  of  it  is  known  as 
the  British  Channel,  and  its 
westernmost  point  is  Cape  Mary 
Harmsworth.  The  islands  are  un- 
inhabited. 

Frauzos,  KARL  EMIL  (1848- 
1904).  German  novelist.  He  was 
born,  the  son  of  a  Jewish  doctor,  in 
Podolia,  Oct.  25,  1848.  Having 
educated  himself,  he  entered  the 
legal  profession,  but  left  it  for 
journalism.  After  living  for  some 
years  in  Vienna,  he  settled  in  Ber- 
lin, where  he  founded,  in  1886, 
the  fortnightly  review,  Deutsche 
Dichtung.  His  many  works  of 
fiction  deal  largely  with  the 
Jewish  life  of  the  country  of  his 
upbringing,  and  abound  with  pa- 
thetic incidents.  Notable  among  his 
novels  are  The  Jews  of  Barnow, 
1877,  Eng.  trans.  1882  ;  For  the 
Right,  1882,  Eng.  trans.  1887  ;  and 
Der  Prasident,  1884,  Eng.  trans., 
The  Chief  Justice,  1890.  In  his 
Aus  Halb-Asien,  1876,  are  many 
sketches  of  life  in  S.  Russia  and 
Rumania.  He  died  Jan.  28,  1904. 

Frascati.  City  and  summer 
resort  of  Italy.  In  the  prov.  of 
Rome,  it  stands  on  the  slopes  of  a 
wooded  hill,  at  an  elevation  of 
about  1,000  ft.,  15  m.  by  rly.  S.E. 
of  Rome.  The  cathedral,  founded 
in  1700,  contains  a  tablet  to  the 
Young  Pretender, 
interred  here  in 
1788.  Among  the 
many  magnificent 
residences  are  the 
villas  Aldobrand- 
ini,  Ruffinella, 
Torlonia,  Lance- 
lotti  andBorghese. 
In  the  neighbour- 
hood are  the  re- 
mains of  numerous 
ancient  villas,  an 
amphitheatre,  a 
theatre,  and  a  re 
servoir  belonging 
to  the  town  of 
Tusculum,  which 
was  destroyed  in 
1191.  Between 
the  ruins  of  the 


PHASER 

ancient  city  and  Frascati,  the 
villa  of  Cicero  once  stood,  and 
on  its  site  some  monks  in  the  llth 
century  built  a  convent.  Frascati  is 
famous  for  its  wine.  Pop.  10,577. 

Fraser.  River  of  Canada,  in 
the  prov.  of  British  Columbia. 
Rising  in  the  Yellow  head  Pass  in 
two  branches,  it  flows  N.W.  for  the 
first  160  m.  of  its  800  m.  course ;  it 
then  takes  a  hairpin  bend  round 
the  head  of  the  Cariboo  Mte.,  re- 
ceiving the  waters  of  the  Nechaco 
at  Fort  George,  and  flows  almost 
due  S.  until  it  reaches  Hope,  after 
which  it  flows  W.  to  its  outlet  in 
the  Strait  of  Georgia  at  New  West- 
minster. Important  tributaries  are 
the  Thompson,  Stuart,  Nechaco, 
Chilcotin,  Bridge,  and  Blackwater ; 
among  the  lakes  drained  are  the 
Stuart,  Fraser,  Fran9ois,  and  Ques- 
nel.  It  is  notable  for  the  salmon 
fisheries  and  hatcheries.  It  is  navig- 
able for  only  80  m.  from  its  mouth. 
Theareaof  the  basinis!38,000sq.m. 

Fraser.  Name  of  a  famous 
Scottish  family.  It  is  supposed  to 
be  a  corruption  of  Frisel  and  to  be 
of  Norman  origin.  Early  Frasers 
settled  in  the  south  of  Scotland  in 
the  12th  century,  but  soon  they 
moved  northwards  and  established 
themselves  in  the  shires  of  Inver- 
ness and  Aberdeen.  They  became 
very  numerous,  being  one  of  the 
most  powerful  of  the  Scottish  clans. 
Among  the  places  owned  by  the 
Frasers  was  Lovat,  and  one  of 
them,  Hugh  Fraser,  was  made  Lord 
Lovat  about  1430.  He  was  a  grand- 
son of  Sir  Simon  Fraser,  sheriff  of 
Tweeddale,  and  from  him  are  de- 
scended the  later  lords  Lovat  and  a 
number  of  other  branches  of  Fra- 
sers. Another  branch  of  Frasers  is 
now  represented  by  Lord  Saltoun, 
whose  family  name  is  commem- 
orated in  Fraserburgh.  See  Lovat, 
Lord  ;  Saltoun,  Lord. 

Fraser,  JAMES  (1818-85).  Brit- 
ish prelate.  Born  at  Prestbury, 
Gloucestershire,  Aug.  18,  1818,  the 


Frascati,  Italy.  Colonnade  and  cascade  in  the  gardens  of 
the  Villa  Aldobrandini 


James  Eraser, 
British  divine 


FRASERBURG 

son  of  a  merchant,  he  was  edu- 
cated at  Shrewsbury  School  and 
Lincoln  College,  Oxford.  His 
scholars  hip 
won  for  him  a 
fellowship  at 
Oriel,  and 
having  served 
for  a  time  as 
tutor  there,  he 
was  ordained 
in  1846.  He 
held  livings  in 
Wiltshire  and 
Berkshire,  and 
was  chancellor  of  Salisbury.  In 
1870  he  was  chosen  bishop  of 
Manchester,  and  he  worked  in  that 
diocese  until  his  death  there  on 
Oct.  22,  1885. 

He  was  the  real  founder  of  the 
diocesan  organization,  was  chosen 
as  arbitrator  in  several  industrial 
disputes,  and  was  unwillingly  the 
defendant  in  a  case  arising  out  of 
ritualistic  practice.  Specially  in- 
terested in  education,  Fraser  had 
studied  this  subject  thoroughly  as 
an  assistant  commissioner  in  the 
diocese  of  Salisbury,  and  in  1868 
he  had  reported  in  an  official  ca- 
pacity on  education  in  Canada 
and  the  U.S.A.  See  Memoir,  T. 
Hughes,  1887  ;  Lancashire  Life  of 
Bishop  Fraser,  J.  W.  Diggle,  4th 
ed.,  1890. 

Fraserburg.  Village  of  the 
Cape  Province.  It  is  84  m.  N.  W.  of 
Fraserburg  Road,  a  station  on  the 
rly.  from  Cape  Town  to  De  Aar, 
and  is  a  sheep-farming  centre. 
Pop.  800. 

Fraser  burgh.  Police  burgh, 
seaport  and  fishing  town  of  Aber- 
deenshire,  Scotland.  It  stands  on 
the  W.  shore  of  Fraserburgh  Bay, 
and  on  the  S.  side  of  Kinnaird's 
Head,  47  m.  N.  of  Aberdeen,  on 
the  G.N.S.R.  It  is  the  chief  centre 
of  the  Scottish  herring  fishery,  and 
exports  agricultural  produce  and 
imports  coal.  It  has  a  large  and 
good  harbour,  with  piers  and  a 
breakwater.  There  are  remains  of 
the  castle  of  the  Frasers,  while  the 
town  cross  is  worthy  of  notice. 
The  town  was  named  from  Sir 
Alexander  Fraser,  who,  in  1613, 
made  it  into  a  burgh.  He  also  ob- 
tained permission  to  found  a 
university  here,  and  the  buildings 
were  begun,  a  tower  erected  for 
this  purpose  still  standing.  The 
Council  owns  the  gas  and  water 
works,  an  isolation  hospital,  public 
abattoir  and  a  free  library.  Market 
day,  Tues.  Pop.  10,574. 

Fraserville.  Town  and  water- 
ing place  of  Quebec,  Canada, 
known  also  as  Riviere  du  Loup. 
In  Temiscouata  co.,  it  stands  on 
the  Riviere  du  Loup,  near  the 
junction  of  that  river  with  the  S. 
Lawrence,  110  m.  N.E.  of  Quebec. 


3320 

Here  are  the  Fraser  Institute, 
churches,  schools,  etc.  The  town 
is  on  the  Inter-colonial  Rly.  and  is 
the  terminus  of  the  Temiscouata 
Rly.  Its  industries  include  pulp 
mills,  and  the  making  of  furniture, 
bricks,  etc.  The  town  is  also  a 
pleasure  resort,  trout  fishing  and 
caribou  hunting  being  attractions 
for  sportsmen,  while  steamers  call 
here.  Pop.  6,774. 

Fraticelli  (dim.  of  Ital.  /rate, 
brother).  Group  of  religious  orders 
in  medieval  Italy.  Originating  in 
the  Franciscan  order  in  the  13th 
century,  when  the  more  zealous 
members  of  that  order  discoun- 
tenanced the  possession  of  money 
or  property,  it  took  a  powerful 
hold  on  the  popular  imagination 
and  gained  many  recruits.  Carried 
away  by  their  zeal,  they  regarded 
themselves  as  the  true  representa- 
tives of  the  Catholic  church  and 
elected  popes,  thereby  bringing 
upon  themselves  the  heavy  hand 
of  the  Inquisition.  Persecutions 
increased  until  1449,  when  the 
constant  imprisonments  and  exe- 
cutions deprived  them  gradually  of 
their  leaders,  and  the  Fraticelli 
died  out.  See  Hist,  of  the  Inquisi- 
tion of  the  Middle  Ages,  H.  C.  Lea, 
vols.  ii  and  iii,  repr.  1906. 

Fratricide  (Lat. /rater,  brother ; 
caedere,  to  kill).  Killing  a  brother 
or  sister.  In  English  law  it  is  on  the 
same  footing  as  any  other  homicide, 
but  in  some  ancient  systems  was  a 
special  species  of  crime,  punishable 
more  severely  than  killing  a  stran- 
ger in  blood.  See  Murder. 

Fratta  Maggiore.  Town  of 
Italy,  in  the  prov.  of  Naples.  It  is 
8J  m.  N.  of  Naples,  and  is  a  favour- 
ite residential  district  of  wealthy 
Neapolitans.  The  vineyards  in  the 
neighbourhood  produce  an  excel- 
lent wine,  silkworms  are  reared, 
and  rope  made.  Pop.  13,720. 

Fratton.  District  within  the 
borough  of  Portsmouth.  It  has 
a  station  of  the  L.B.  &  S.C.  and 
L.  &  S.W.  Rlys.,  known  as  Fratton 
and  Southsea.  See  Portsmouth. 

Fraud  (Lat.  fraus,  deceit). 
English  law  term,  for  which  no 
comprehensive  definition  exists. 
The  essence  of  the  matter  is  deceit 
— some  statement  or  suppression 
of  fact  in  word  or  deed  with  in- 
tent to  deceive.  When  a  man  sues 
on  the  ground  of  fraud,  or  claims 
property  fraudently  withheld  from 
him,  his  right  of  action  begins  to 
accrue  from  the  time  he  discovers 
the  fraud,  and  not  from  the  time  it 
was  perpetrated  upon  him.  Some 
frauds  are  criminal,  but  not  all. 
But  a  conspiracy  to  defraud  is  al- 
ways criminal.  If  a  person  has  been 
induced  to  enter  into  a  contract,  or 
to  transfer  property  by  fraud,  he 
can  always,  on  discovering  it,  have 


FRAUENBURG 

the  contract  or  transfer  set  aside ; 
but  he  must  be  careful  to  take  steps 
immediately.  And  he  cannot  re- 
cover his  property  as  against  some 
innocent  purchaser  who  has  bought 
it  without  notice  of  the  fraud. 

Frauds,  STATUTE  OF.  English 
law  passed  in  1676.  Its  design  was 
to  substitute  written  for  verbal 
evidence  in  large  classes  of  trans- 
actions, and  so  diminish  liability 
to  fraud  and  perjury.  Conveyances, 
wills  and  leases  of  land,  except  ten- 
ancies of  less  than  three  years,  were 
required  to  be  in  writing  and  signed 
by  the  party  or  his  agent.  It  was 
also  enacted  that  no  action  should 
be  brought  upon  certain  agree- 
ments unless  the  plaintiff  could 
prove  the  agreement  by  writing 
duly  signed  by  the  defendant  or 
his  agent. 

These  agreements  were:  (1)  A 
promise  by  an  executor  or  adminis- 
trator to  pay  the  deceased's  debt 
or  damages  out  of  his  own  pocket  ; 
(2)  a  guarantee  ;  (3)  an  agreement 
in  consideration  of  marriage  ;  (4) 
a  contract,  sale  of  lands,  or  tene- 
ments or  hereditaments,  or  any  in- 
terest in  or  concerning  them  ;  (5) 
an  agreement  not  to  be  performed 
within  a  year  from  the  making 
thereof.  As  to  (3)  it  was  soon  held 
not  to  include  a  promise  to  marry ; 
the  consideration  for  which  is  not 
marriage,  but  a  promise  to  marry 
by  the  other  party.  The  section 
dealing  with  contracts  for  the 
sale  of  goods  of  the  value  of  £10 
and  upwards  has  been  repealed 
and  almost  re-enacted  by  the  Sale 
of  Goods  Act,  1893  ;  and  other 
sections,  which  made  writing  neces- 
sary for  a  will  of  lands,  have  also 
been  repealed,  and  the  subject  of 
wills  generally  dealt  with  by  the 
Wills  Act,  1837. 

The  statute  and  its  policy  have 
led  to  much  litigation  and  differ- 
ence of  opinion.  No  doubt  it  was 
advisable  to  make  written  instru- 
ments and  evidence  compulsory,  at 
any  rate  for  wills,  guarantees, 
leases  and  conveyances  of  land. 
It  is  questionable  whether  it  was 
politic,  having  regard  to  mercan- 
tile usages,  to  include  sales  of  goods 
within  the  purview  of  such  a 
statute.  Yet,  as  we  have  seen, 
this  very  section  has  been  re- 
enacted  in  modern  times.  It  may 
be  said,  however,  that  in  the  Com- 
mercial Court  the  defence  is  very 
rarely  set  up  that  the  contract  is 
not  evidenced  by  writing. 

Frauenburg.  City  and  port  of 
E.  Prussia,  Germany.  It  stands 
where  the  Bande  falls  into  the 
Frisches  Haff,  in  the  district  of 
Konigsberg,  by  rly.  42  m.  S.W.  of 
Konigsberg.  Its  interest  is  in  its 
Gothic  cathedral  and  its  associa- 
tions. This,  the  cathedral  of  the 


FRAUENFELD 

bishops  of  Ermeland,  was  built  in 
the  14th  century,  and  has  a  fine  W. 
front.  Copernicus  was  a  canon  here 
when  he  died  in  1543.  Pop.  2,522. 

Frauenfeld.  Town  of  Switzer- 
land, capital  of  the  canton  of 
Thurgau.  It  stands  on  an  eminence 
overlooking  the  river  Murg,  near  its 
confluence  with  the  Thur,  26  m. 
by  rly.  N.E.  of  Zurich.  Its  old 
castle  has  a  10th  century  keep, 
and  its  parish  church  dates  from 
the  13th  century.  A  prosperous 
town,  it  has  iron  industries,  manu- 
factures of  machinery,  firearms, 
leather,  cotton  fabrics,  and  gloves, 
besides  a  thriving  trade  in  farm 
products,  wine,  and  fruit.  From 
1712-98  it  was  the  capital  of  Swit- 
zerland, and  its  abbot  retained 
manorial  rights  until  1803.  The 
town  was  in  the  hands  of  the  French 
and  Austrians  in  1799.  The  inhabi- 
tants are  German-speaking  and 
largely  Protestants.  Pop.  8,105. 

Frauenlob.  Nickname  by  which 
Heinrich  von  Meissen  (c.  1250- 
1318),  German  poet,  came  to  be 
known.  He  is  sometimes  described 
as  a  minnesinger,  and  also  as  the 
founder  of  the  Meistersingers  at 
Mainz.  He  died  at  Mainz,  and  was 
carried  to  the  grave  by  women  of 
that  city.  He  is  supposed  to  have 
been  called  Frauenlob  (praise  of 
women)  from  his  using  the  word 
Frau  for  woman  rather  than  Weib. 

Fraunhofer,  JOSEPH  VON  (1787- 
1826).  German  optician  and  physi- 
cist. Born  at  Straubing  in  Bavaria, 
the  son  of  a  glazier,  he  was  appren- 
ticed to  a  glass  polisher,  and  even- 
tually set  up  for  himself  as  a  maker 
and  polisher  of  achromatic  lenses. 
While  working  at  this  craft,  at 
which  he  attained  great  skill,  he 
taught  himself  mathematics  and 
optics.  In  1806  Fraunhofer  was 
appointed  optician  in  the  mathe- 
matical institute  at  Munich,  and 
later  became  the  manager  of  an- 
other such  institute,  which  he  had 
helped  to  found.  He  died  there, 
June  7,  1826. 

Fraunhofer  was  responsible  for 
great  advances  in  the  manufacture 
of  lenses  for  telescopes  and  micro- 
scopes, while  at  the  same  time  by 
his  invention  of  the  diffraction 
grating  he  opened  up  a  new  and 
fertile  field  of  development  for 
theoretical  optics.  But  the  dis- 
covery that  has  immortalised  the 
name  of  Fraunhofer  was  that  of 
the  Fraunhofer  lines.  These  lines 
had  previously  been  noted  by  the 
English  physicist  Wollaston,  but 
Fraunhofer  not  only  discovered 
them  independently,  but  studied 
them  deeply,  mapping  several  hun- 
dreds of  them,  and  assigning  to 
the  seven  most  prominent  lines  the 
letters  A  to  G,  by  which  they  are 
still  known.  He  also  mapped  the 


3321 

lines  which  he  found  in  the  spectra 
of  several  of  the  fixed  stars,  and 
from  the  fact  that  in  no  two  cases 
were  the  lines  exactly  the  same, 
he  concluded  that  they  must  corre- 
spond to  some  definite  property  of 
the  sun  or  star,  and  that  they  were 
not  due  merely  to  the  effect  of  the 
earth's  atmosphere.  Fraunhofer 
thus  became  the  founder  of  the 
science  of  spectroscopy  (q.v.). 

Fraunhofer  Lines.  Lines  dis- 
covered by  Fraunhofer.  When  a 
beam  of  sunlight  that  has  been 
admitted  through  a  thin  slit  is 
passed  through  a  prism,  so  as  to 
be  drawn  out  into  a  spectrum,  and 
this  spectrum  is  examined  through 
a  telescope,  it  is  found  to  be  crossed 
by  a  multitude  of  dark  lines.  Care- 
ful investigation  has  revealed  the 
existence  of  some  10,000  lines  in 
place  of  the  600  originally  counted. 
The  position  of  each  line  corres- 
ponds to  a  definite  angle  of  refrac- 
tion of  the  light,  and  thus  to  a 
definite  wave-length,  and  the  pre- 
sence of  any  given  dark  line  implies 
that  light  of  that  wave-length  has 
failed  to  reach  us.  The  reason  for 
this  failure  in  many  cases  is  the 
absorption  of  a  particular  wave- 
length by  some  element  in  the 
sun's  atmosphere. 

It  was  established  by  the 
physicist  Kirchhoff  that  the  char- 
acteristic wave-lengths  of  light 
which  an  element  gives  out  when 
heated  to  incandescence  are  just 
those  which  it  absorbs  when 
cooler.  For  example,  the  flame  of 
burning  sodium  examined  through 
a  spectroscope  shows  a  bright 
double  line,  which  corresponds  in 
position  to  the  dark  double  line  in 
the  solar  spectrum  known  as  the 
"  D  "  line.  The  presence  of  the 
"  D  "  line  in  the  solar  spectrum 
thus  indicates  the  existence  of 
sodium  vapour  in  the  sun's  atmo- 
sphere. See  Spectroscopy. 

Fraustadt  (Polish,  Wszowa). 
Town  of  Poland.  It  is  14  m.  N.E, 
of  Glogau,  formerly  in  Prussian 
Poland.  It  is  an  important  com- 
mercial centre  where,  sugar  refin- 
ing, tanning,  dyeing,  and  milling  are 
carried  on,  and  the  nucleus  of  a 
mining  district.  A  feature  of  the 
landscape  is  the  number  of  wind- 
mills. Fraustadt  is  divided  into  a 
new  and  an  old  town.  In  the  vicin- 
ity King  Augustus  of  Poland  was 
defeated  by  Charles  XII  of  Swe- 
den (Feb.  13, 1706). 

Fray  Bentos.  River  port  of 
Uruguay  and  capital  of  the  dept. 
of  Rio  Negro.  It  stands  on  the 
Uruguay  river,  172  m.  direct  N.W. 
of  Montevideo.  It  is  a  pleasant 
modern  town,  laid  out  in  1859, 
with  wide  thoroughfares  and  fine 
public  buildings  and  abattoirs.  In 
the  centre  of  a  stock-raising  dis- 


FRECKLES 

trict,  it  has  a  large  export  trade  in 
extract  of  meat  and  animal  pro- 
ducts, and  contains  the  chief  fac- 
tory of  the  Laebig  Extract  of  Meat 
Co.  Pop.  10,000.  Its  official  name 
is  Independencia. 

Frazer  OR  GREAT  SANDY.  Island 
off  the  E.  coast  of  Queensland, 
Australia.  It  lies  between  Hervey 
and  Wide  bays,  is  barren,  but  has 
excellent  fishing. 

Frazer,  SIR  JAMES  GEORGE  (b. 
1854).  British  anthropologist. 
Born  in  Glasgow,  he  was  educated 
privately  and  early  devoted  him- 
self to  researches  into  the  social 
institutions,  mythology  and  folk- 
lore of  mankind  in  all  ages.  His 
main  work  is  embodied  in  The 
Golden  Bough,  first  published  in 
1890,  of  which  revised  and  ex- 
panded editions  have  since  ap- 
peared. It  forms  the  most  com- 
plete work  on  comparative  religion 
yet  written.  His  other  books  in- 
clude Studies  in  the  History  of 
Oriental  Religion,  1906 ;  The 
Scope  of  Social  Anthropology, 
1908  ;  Totemism  and  Exogamy, 
1910  ;  and  Folk-lore  in  the  Old 
Testament,  1918.  He  translated 
Pausanias's  Description  of  Greece, 
1898  ;  and  edited  Addison's  Es- 
says, 1915.  Long  a  fellow  of  Trin- 
ity College,  Cambridge,  he  was 
made  professor  of  social  anthro- 
pology, Liverpool,  1907,  in  1914 
was  knighted,  and  made  O.M.,  1925. 

F.R.C.O.  Abbrev.  for  Fellow  of 
the  Royal  College  of  Organists. 

F.R.C.P.  Abbrev.  for  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians. 

F.R.C.P.E.  Abbrev.  for  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians, 
Edinburgh. 

F.R.C.P.I.  Abbrev.  for  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians, 
Ireland. 

F.R.C.S.  Abbrev.  for  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons. 

F.R.C.S.E.  Abbrev.  for  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons, 
Edinburgh. 

Frechette,  Louis  HONORE  (1839- 
1908).  French-Canadian  poet.  He 
was  bom  at  Levis,  Quebec,  Nov.  16, 
1839,  studied  for  the  law  and 
became  a  member  of  the  Dominion 
Parliament  in  1874.  He  was  a 
busy  journalist,  and  wrote  several 
prose  works,  including  Christmas 
in  French  Canada,  1899  ;  but  his 
reputation  rests  chiefly  on  his 
poems,  Mes  Loisirs,  1863  ;  La  Voix 
d'un  Exile,  1869;  Pele-Mele,  1877; 
Les  Oiseaux  de  Neige,  1879  ;  Les 
Oublies,  1886  ;  Po&des  Canadien- 
nes  :  and  Feuilles  Volantes,  1891. 
He  died  June  1,  1908. 

Freckles.  Rounded  or  irregular 
spots  of  yellowish  or  brownish 
pigment  in  the  deeper  layers  of 
the  epidermis,  most  common  in  fair 
and  red-haired  persons.  Freckles 


FREDEGOND 

are  permanent  in  some  people, 
but  in  many  they  appear  in  the 
summer  months,  following  ex- 
posure to  sun,  and  disappear  in  the 
winter.  Persons  desirous  of  avoid- 
ing the  condition  should  wear  veils 
in  strong  sunshine.  Freckles  may 
be  removed  or  lessened  by  appli- 
cation of  a  dilute  solution  of  per- 
chloride  of  mercury,  but  only  under 
medical  advice. 

Fredegond  OB  FREDEGHNDE 
(d.597).  Prankish  queen.  Of  humble 
birth,  she  attracted  the  attention  of 
Chilperic  I  of  Neustria,  who  mur- 
dered his  wife,  probably  at  her  in- 
stigation, in  order  to  marry  her.  A 
forceful  character,  she  dominated 
her  husband,  had  his  sons  mur- 
dered in  order  to  make  a  future 
for  her  own  boy,  and  carried  on  a 
relentless  feud  with  Brunhild, 
queen  of  Austrasia.  In  584  Chil- 
peric died,  murdered  probably  by 
his  faithless  wife,  who  became  the 
ruler  of  Neustria  in  the  name  of 
her  younger  son,  Clothaire  II.  By 
wars  she  had  added  something  to 
its  area  when  she  died  in  .597. 

Frederic,  HAROLD  (1856-98). 
American  novelist  and  journalist. 
Born  Aug.  19,  1856,  he  became  a 
journalist,  and 
|  was  London  cor- 
I  respondent  of 
I  The  New  York 
I  Times  from 
I  1884  till  his 
|  death,  Oct.  19, 
1  1898.  His  fame 
I  rests  chiefly  on 
m  his  novel,  Illu- 
Harold  Frederic,  mination,  1896 
Amencan  novelist  (published  in 
America  as  The  Damnation  of 
Theron  Ware),  a  keenly  analytical 
study  of  American  religious  life  as 
seen  by  an  agnostic  and  a  Roman 
Catholic  priest.  Other  works  are 
The  Copperhead,  1894 ;  and  March 
Hares,  1896. 

Fredericia.  Seaport  of  Den- 
mark, in  the  S.E.  of  Jutland.  It 
stands  on  the  Little  Belt,  at  its 
N.W.  entrance,  14  m.  N.E.  of 
Kolding,  and  is  connected  with 
that  town  and  Esbjerg  by  rly.,  and 
with  Middelfart  in  Funen  by  steam 
ferry.  It  manufactures  cotton 
goods,  hats,  tobacco,  and  chicory, 
and  exports  eggs,  meat,  and  fish. 
Founded  in  1652  by  Frederick 
III,  Fredericia  was  destroyed  by 
the  Swedes  in  1657  ;  re-fortified  in 
1709,itwas  besieged  in  1848-49 and 
1864,  when  it  was  again  partly 
destroyed.  A  statue  commem- 
orates the  Danish  victory  over  the 
Slesvig-Holstein  army  in  1849. 
Pop.  14,228 

Frederick.  City  of  Maryland, 
U.S.A.,  the  co.  seat  of  Frederick  co. 
It  is  46  m.  N.W.  of  Washington, 
and  is  served  by  the  Pennsylvania 


332.2. 

and  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Rlys. 
It  contains  a  state  school  for  deaf 
mutes, a  women's  college,  andits  in- 
dustrial establishments  inelude  can- 
neries, brush,  leather,  and  tobacco 
factories,  foundries  and  planing 
mills.  It  was  settled  in  1745,  and 
incorporated  in  181 7.  Pop.  11,225. 

Frederick.  Christian  name  of 
Teutonic  origin.  It  means  rich  in 
peace,  and  Friedrich,  the  German 
form,  has  been  long  a  favocrrite 
name  in  Germany,  borne  by  many 
rulers.  From  Germany  it  passed 
into  England  in  the  time  of  the 
Georges,  although  similar  names, 
formed  from  the  Anglo-Saxon 
frith,  peace,  had  been  in  use  in 
early  times,  e.g.  Frideswide.  The 
Italian  form  is  Federigo. 

Frederick  I  (c.  1124-90).  Ger- 
man king  and  Roman  emperor, 
known  from  the  redness  of  his 
beard  as  Barbarossa.  Son  of  the 
duke  of  Swabia,  nephew  of  the  Ger- 
man king  Conrad  III,  and  a  mem- 
ber of  the  family  of  Hohenstaufen, 
Frederick  became  duke  of  Swabia 
in  1 147  and  was  chosen  king  on  his 
uncle's  death  in  1152.  Three  years 
later  he  was  crowned  emperor  by 
the  pope  at  Rome.  His  empire 
included  Germany  and  parts  of 
Italy  ;  the  kings  of  Poland,  Bohe- 
mia, and  Hungary  at  one  time  or 
another  recognized  him  as  their 
superior  ;  and  by  his  marriage  he 
added  Franche  Comte  to  the  lands 


FREDERICK     I 

inherited  from  his  father  and  uncle. 
In  Germany  Frederick  showed  him- 
self a  strong  and  able  ruler.  He 
would  tolerate 
no  rival  to  his 
own  power,  and 
easily  crushed 
the  rebellions 
engineered  by 
turbulent 
princes.*  The 
dukeof  Bavaria 
washumiliated, 
and  so,  in  1181, 
was  the  power- 
ful duke  of  Sax- 
ony, Henry  the 
Lion,  his  duchy 
being  broken 
up  and  he  him- 
self sent  into 
exile.  A  little 
later  the  pope 
instigated  some 
of  the  German 
prelates  to  re- 
bel, but  again 
the  emperor 
was  too  strong 
for  them. 

The  eventful 
years  of  Fred- 
erick's life,  however,  were  spent  in 
'Italy,  where  he  came  into  conflict 
with  the  rich  cities  of  Lombardy. 
In  1158  began  his  long  quarrel 
with  Pope  Alexander  III.  In  1160 
the  emperor  was  excommunicated, 


Frederick  I, 
German  king,  from 
a  relief  at  Reichen- 

faall,  Bavaria 


Frederick  L     The  delegates  of  the  Doge  and  Pope  Alexander  III  appearing 

before  Frederick  Barbarossa  to  resist  his  claims.    From  the  picture  in  the  ducal 

palace,  Venice 


FREDERICK    11 


3323 


FREDERICK 


but  he  set  up  one  anti-pope  after 
another,  and  once  entered  Rome 
with  an  army  and  secured  the 
coronation  of  his  nominee.  This 
success,  however,  was  transitory, 
and  soon  his  army  was  destroyed 
and  he  himself  became  a  fugitive. 
To  cow  the  cities  he  placed  his  own 
officials  therein,  and  in  1162 
stormed  and  humiliated  Milan, 
hut  a  few  years  later  came  the 
central  disaster  of  his  reign.  The 
cities  formed  against  him  the  Lom- 
bard League,  an  association  blessed 
by  the  pope,  and  on  May  29,  1176, 
the  rival  armies  met  at  Legnano. 

Frederick  was  totally  defeated 
and  fled  from  the  field,  after  which 
no  alternative  was  left  to  him  but 
to  sue  for  peace.  A  truce  with  the 
league  became  permanent  a  few 
years  later,  and  in  1177  he  signed 
the  treaty  of  Venice  with  Alex- 
ander III.  He  had  various  dis- 
putes with  Alexander's  successors, 
but  his  power  in  Italy  was  never 
the  same  again.  In  1189  he  set 
out  on  a  crusade,  and  on  June  10, 
1190,  was  accidentally  drowned  in 
a  river  in  Cilicia. 

Frederick  was  a  commanding 
personality  with  marked  ability 
and  generous  instincts,  fearless, 
just,  and  devout,  and  his  memory 
was  long  cherished  by  the  Germans. 
But  his  reign  was  unfortunate  for 
the  Empire,  and  .his  costly  cam- 
paigns in  Italydidmuch  to  reduce  it 
to  impotence.  See  Empire  ;  Papacy. 

A.  W.  Holland 

Frederick  II  (1194-1250).  Ger- 
man king  and  Roman  emperor.  Son 
of  the  emperor  Henry  VI  and 
grandson  of  Frederick  I,  Frederick 
was  born  in  Italy,  Dec.  26,  1194, 
heir  to  the  splendid  Hohenstaufen 
inheritance  and  to  that  of  his 
mother,  Constance,  the  heiress  of 
Sicily.  Educated  with  more  than 
usual  care,  his  varied  abilities 
earned  for  him  the  designation  of 
stupor  mundi,  the  wonder  of  the 
world.  In  1196  he  was  chosen 
German  king,  and  when  his  father 
died  two  years  later  he  became 
king  of  Sicily  and  a  ward  of  Pope 
Innocent  III. 

In  1212,  following  an  invitation 
from  some  of  the  princes,  Frede- 
rick left  Italy  to  supplant  Otto  IV 
in  Germany,  and  was  there 
crowned  king  by  his  partisans. 
After  six  years  the  old  struggle 
between  Welf  and  Hohenstaufen 
ended  in  his  favour  with  Otto's 
death  in  1218.  In  1220  he  was 
crowned  emperor  at  Rome,  and 
after  spending  some  years  in 
governing  Sicily  and  fighting  in 
Italy  he  tardily  fulfilled  his  pro- 
mise to  go  on  crusade.  In  1228  he 
reached  the  Holy  Land,  and,  hav- 
ing already  taken  the  title  of  king 
of  Jerusalem,  was  crowned  there  as 


soon  as  he  had  obtained  possession 
of  the  city  and  its  neighbourhood. 
Returning  to  Europe,  Frederick 


Frederick  II.     The   emperor's  seal 
as  king  of  Jerusalem 

was  faced  again  with  the  hostility 
of  the  pope.  Beginning  soon 
after  1214,  this  was  due  chiefly 
to  the  emperor's  evident  intention 
of  uniting  Sicily  and  Germany,  a 
course  strongly  resented  by  the 
papal  court.  Frederick  was  strong 
enough  to  force  the  peace  of  San 
Germano  on  Gregory  IX  in  1230, 
after  which  he  brought  Sicily 
completely  under  his  personal  rule. 
In  Germany  he  pursued  a  contrary 
policy,  for  there,  by  the  privilege 
of  Worms,  1231,  he  gave  the 
princes  a  charter  of  independence. 

The  concluding  years  of  Fred- 
erick's reign  were  sad  and  unfor- 
tunate, not  unlike  those  of  Henry 
II  of  England.  In  1231,  and  again 
somewhat  later,  his  eldest  son 
Henry  had  revolted  ;  these  risings 
were  easily  suppressed,  and  his 
second  son,  Conrad,  was  named  as 
his  successor.  About  1239,  how- 
ever, began  his  last  and  greatest 
quarrel  with  the  papacy.  Ex- 
communication he  faced  with  a 
smile  of  contempt,  but  it  was  more 
serious  when  the  pope  allied  him- 
self with  the  Lombards  and  worked 
upon  the  turbulent  princes  of  Ger- 
many. War  broke  out  both  in 
Germany  and  Italy.  In  the  for- 
mer anti-kings  were  found  and 
crowned  ;  in  the  latter  the  em- 
peror's troops  were  utterly  routed 
at  Parma  in  1248.  Struggling 
to  the  last  against  a  ring  of  foes, 
Frederick  died  at  Fiorentino,  Dec. 
13,  1250.  His  splendid  tomb  is  in 
the  cathedral  at  Palermo. 

Frederick  was  thrice  married. 
His  second  wife  was  Yolande,  the 
heiress  of  Jerusalem,  and  his  third 
was  Isabella,  a  daughter  of  John 
of  England.  Besides  his  lawful 
children,  he  had  several  illegiti- 
mate ones,  notably  Enzio,  king  of 
Sardinia,  and  Manfred.  The  em- 
peror, who  wore  six  crowns,  made 
a  great  impression  on  his  age  ;  his 
court  in  Sicily  was  an  intellectual 


centre  ;  in  religious  affairs  he  was 
tolerant,  and  in  most  other  matters 
also  in  advance  of  his  age.  See 
Hist,  of  Frederick  II,  Emperor  of 
the  Romans,  T.  L.  Kington- 
Oliphant,  1862;  Stupor  Mm..ii. 
Life  and  Times  of  Frederick  1 1 . 
L.  Allsho.ro,  1912.  A.  w.  Holland 

Frederick  HI  (1415-93). 
man  king  and  Roman  emperor.  A 
prince  of  the  house  of  Hapsburg, 
Frederick  was  chosen  German  king 
in  1440,  and  was  nominal  ruler  of 
the  country  for  over  50  years.  He 
was  lethargic  and  indifferent,  and 
under  him  the  Empire  lost  what 
power  and  prestige  it  had  retained. 
His  feeble  attempts  to  secure  the 
kingdom  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia 
failed,  and  he  was  for  a  time  de- 
prived of  Austria,  and  was  un- 
able to  check  the  Turkish  inroads. 
For  some  time  before  his  death,  on 
Aug.  19, 1493,  he  had  ceased  to  take 
any  part  in  the  government  of  the 
country,  which  he  left  to  his  son 
Maximilian  I,  he  himself  being  im- 
mersed in  study  and  contemplation 
of  the  future  greatness  of  his  family. 
Frederick  was  the  last  emperor  to 
be  crowned  in  Rome,  1452. 

Another  and  earlier  German  king 
is  sometimes  called  Frederick  III. 
A  son  of  King  Albert  I,  he  was  a 
Hapsburg.  In  1314  a  minority  of 
the  electors  chose  him  as  German 
king,  and  at  once  he  was  involved 
in  war  with  the  other  king,  Louis 
of  Bavaria.  He  was  defeated  and 
taken  prisoner,  being  released  on 
acknowledging  his  rival.  On  this 
account  he  is  not  usually  reckoned 
in  the  succession  of  German  kings. 
He  died  Jan.  13, 1330.  See  LouisIV. 

Frederick  (1831-88).  German 
emperor.  Son  of  the  emperor  Wil- 
liam I,  he  was  born  at  Potsdam, 
Oct.  18,  1831. 
After  studying 
at  Bonn  he  tra- 
velled, and  in 
1855  was  be- 
trothed to 
Victoria,  prin- 
cess royal  of 
England,  whom 
he  married  in 
1858.  In  politics 
he  strongly 
opposed  Bismarck.  In  the  Austrian 
war,  1866,  he  commanded  an  army 
at  Sadowa.  In  command  of  an 
army  in  the  war  of  1870,  he  fought 
afc  Worth  and  Sedan,  and  took 
part  in  the  siege  of  Paris. 

Frederick  was  a  strong  advocate 
for  the  establishment  of  the  Ger- 
man Empire,  though  bis  ideals  dif- 
fered considerably  from  those  of 
Bismarck.  The  Liberal  party  hoped 
great  things  when  he  came  to  the 
throne,  but  he  was  attacked  by 
cancer  of  the  throat,  and  was 
obliged  to  go  to  Nice  in  1887.  On 


L 

Frederick, 
German  emperor 


FREDERICK 


FREDERICK   THE   GREAT 


the  death  of  his  father  in  March, 
1888,  he  succeeded  to  the  throne, 
which  he  had  only  occupied  for 
ninety-nine  days  when  he  died  at 
Potsdam,  June  15,  1888.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  William  II. 
His  family  consisted  of  two  sons 
and  four  daughters.  The  former 
were  William  II  and  Prince  Henry 
of  Prussia  ;  the  latter  were 
Charlotte,  the  wife  of  Albert,  duke 
of  Saxe-Meiningen  ;  Victoria,  the 
wife  of  Adolf,  prince  of  Schaum- 
burg-Lippe  ;  Sophia,  wife  of  Con- 
stantine,  king  of  Greece ;  and  Mar- 
garet, wife  of  Prince  Frederick 
Charles  of  Hesse.  He  is  sometimes 
known  as  Frederick  III  because  he 
is  the  third  Frederick  among  the 
Prussian  kings.  See  Frederick, 
Crown  Prince  and  Emperor,  R. 
Rodd,  1888,  and  Life  of  Emperor 
Frederick,  S.  Whitman,  1901. 

Frederick.  Name  of  eight  kings 
of  Denmark.  Several  of  them  were 
comparatively  unimportant  per- 
sonages, but  the  more  important 
are  noticed  separately  below. 

Frederick  III  ( 1 609-70 ).  King 
of  Denmark  and  Norway.  Second 
son  of  Christian  IV,  he  succeeded 
his  father  in  1648,  having  pre- 
viously been  bishop  of  Bremen  and 
Verden.  In  war  with  Sweden,  1657 
-60,  Denmark  lost  many  islands 
and  her  territory  on  the  Swedish 
part  of  the  peninsula.  In  1660  the 
people  granted  him  absolute  powers 
and  made  the  monarchy  hereditary 
instead  of  elective.  He  died  in 
Copenhagen,  Feb.  6,  1670. 

Frederick  IV(  1671-1730 ).  King 
of  Denmark.  Son  of  Christian  V, 
he  succeeded  his  father  in  1699. 
His  reign  was  marked  by  successive 
wars  against  Sweden,  but  he  was 
forced  to  sign  peace  when  Charles 
XII  besieged  Copenhagen,  1700. 
In  1709  he  again  went  to  war,  cap- 
turing Stralsund  and  Tonningen. 
By  the  Peace  of  Copenhagen,  1720, 
he  had  to  surrender  his  gains  for 
a  money  payment,  and  his  last 
years  were  spent  in  the  work  of 
carrying  out  many  much  needed 
internal  reforms. 

Frederick  VI (1768-1 839).  King 
of  Denmark  and  Norway.  Son 
of  the  insane  Christian  VII,  he 
acted  as  regent  from  1784,  and  be- 
came king  in  1808.  His  part  in  the 
maritime  confederation  of  Den- 
mark, Russia,  and  Sweden  led  to 
the  destruction  of  his  fleet  by  Nel- 
son at  the  battle  of  the  Baltic,  1801. 
His  unsatisfactory  attitude  to- 
wards Napoleon  caused  the  bom- 
bardment of  Copenhagen  and  cap- 
ture of  the  Danish  fleet  in  1807. 
His  alliance  with  Napoleon  brought 
about  the  loss  of  Norway  in  1814.V, 
Denmark  became  bankrupt  and 
did  not  recover  for  some  years. 
Himself  not  free  from  the  taint 


of  insanity,  Frederick  had  capable 
ministers,  and  his  reign  was  marked 
by  political  and  legal  reforms. 

Frederick  VII  (1808-63).  King 
of  Denmark.  Son  of  Christian  VIII, 
he  succeeded  his  father  in  1848. 
,  ,  He  promul- 

gated the  con- 
stitution de- 
signed by  his 
father,  and  re- 
stored parlia- 
mentary  gov 
ernment,  but 
his  tyrannical 
treatment  o  f 
Frederick  VII, 
King  oi  Denmark 


Frederick  I, 
King  of  Prussia 


revolt  of  that  duchy  in  1848. 
Frederick  was  the  last  king  of  the 
Oldenburg  dynasty.  He  died  Nov. 
15,  1863. 

Frederick  VIII  (1843-1912). 
King  of  Denmark.  Son  of  Christian 
IX,  he  was  educated  at  a  Danish 
grammar  B^^^M«WI^^^^ 
school,  and  at 
Oxford.  He 
took  part  in 
the  war  against 
Prussia  and 
Austria  over 
Slesvig-Hol- 
stein,  1864.  In 
1869  he  married 
Louisa,  daugh- 
ter of  Charles 


Frederick  VIII, 
King  of  Denmark 


XV  of  Sweden.  He  succeeded  his 
father  in  1906  and  died  suddenly 
at  Hamburg,  May  14,  1912.  In 
1905  his  second  son  became  king  of 
Norway  as  Haakon  VTI. 


Frederick  I  (1657-1713).  King 
of  Prussia.  The  son  of  Frederick 
William,  elector  of  Brandenburg 
and  through  ,^__.^ 
his  mother  re-  p 
lated  to  the  jm 
Orange  family,  |^H 
he  was  born  at 
Konigsberg, 
July  11,  1657. 
His  father 
married  again, 
and  there  was 
some  jealousy 
between  Fred- 
erick and  his 
stepmother  and  tier  offspring  ;  the 
affair  led  to  the  voluntary  exile  of 
the  young  prince,  while  his  father 
bequeathed  parts  of  his  lands  to  his 
younger  sons.  In  1688  Frederick 
became  elector,  and  by  a  judicious 
use  of  money  he  persuaded  his  half- 
brothers  to  give  up  their  shares, 
thus  securing  the  whole  of  the 
electorate. 

The  central  incident  of  the  reign 
was  the  elector's  elevation  to  the 
rank  of  king.  Taking  advantage  of 
the  emperor's  military  needs,  he 
won  from  him  this  grant,  and  on 
Jan.  18,  1701,  he  crowned  himself 
king  of  Prussia  at  Konigsberg. 
His  troops  fought  for  several  years 
against  France,  and  this  and  other 
reasons  threw  the  finances  of  the 
country  into  disorder.  He  died 
Feb.  25,  1713,  leaving  an  only  son, 
Frederick  William  I,  who  was  the 
father  of  Frederick  the  Great.  The 
second  of  his  three  wives  was  So- 
phia Charlotte,  sister  of  George  I. 


FREDERICK  THE   GREAT  OF   PRUSSIA 

Major  G.  W.  Redway,  Author  of  The  War  of  Secession 

With  this  article  may  be  read  those  on  Prussia;  France;  Germany; 

those  on  Frederick's  battles,  e.g.  Leuthen,  Prague,  Rossbach,   and 

those  on  his  contemporaries,  e.g.  Catherine  of  Russia,  the  Emperor 

Joseph  II,  and  Voltaire.      See  also  Europe ;   Seven  Years'  War 

Born  at  Berlin,  Jan.  24,  1712, 
Frederick  II  of  Prussia,  known  as 
Frederick  the  Great,  was  the  son  of 
Frederick  William  I. 
did  not  share  his  father's  military 
proclivities,  and  broke  away  from 
the  parades  of  a  cadet  company  of 
young  noblemen  which  had  been 
established  for  him  to  drill,  in  order 
to  study  music  and  philosophy. 

He  was  to  have  married  in 
his  teens  the  Princess  Amelia  of 
England,  but  the  influence  of 
Austria  prevailed  with  his  father, 
who  mated  him  in  1733  with  the 
princess  of  Brunswick-Bevern. 
Meanwhile,  Frederick,  harassed 
at  home  by  his  royal  father,  who 

at  table  would  spit  in  the  dish  to  daughter  Maria  Theresa,  who  de- 
prevent  his  children  eating  their  clined  to  recognize  Frederick's 
fill,  and  once  attempted  to  strangle  claim  to  Silesia,  arising  out  of 
Frederick  for  refusing  to  resign  his  political  bargains  made  by  his 
rights  to  the  succession,  ran  away  great-grandfather,  Frederick  Wil- 
from  court.  He  hoped  to  escape  Ham,  called  the  "  Great  Elector. 


to  Paris,  but  was  caught,  tried  by 
court-martial,  and  sentenced  to 
death.  His  companion  Katte  was 
As  a  boy  he  actually  beheaded,  Frederick  faint- 
ing at  the  sight. 

The  year  after  his  marriage 
Frederick  joined  Prince  Eugene  in 
his  last  campaign  on  the  Rhine. 
Then  he  entered  into  correspond- 
ence with  Voltaire,  and  wrote  the 
Anti-Machiavel,  in  which  he  set 
forth  the  duties  of  a  sovereign  as 
"  the  first  servant  of  his  people." 
He  had  become  reconciled  to  his 
father,  after  whose  death — May  31, 
1740— he  ascended  the  throne. 
In  the  same  year  the  emperor 
Charles  VI  was  succeeded  by  his 


FREDERICK 

The  new  king  of  Prussia  at  once 
went  to  war.  Marching  up  the 
Oder,  he  took  Breslau  in  December, 
placed  his  army  in  winter  quarters, 
and  in  the  spring  of  1741  met  the 
Austrians  near  Brieg.  At  the 
battle  of  Mollwitz  (April  10,  1741) 
the  Austrian  cavalry  drove  the 
Prussian  horse  off  the  field,  and 
the  king  took  flight  with  them  ; 
but  Marshal  Schwerin  had  60  guns 
and  solid  infantry  with  a  superior 
musket,  and  at  sundown  the  Aus- 
trian general,  Neipperg,  ordered 
a  retreat  southwards  to  Niesse. 
Frederick  was  thus  left  in  posses- 
sion of  Silesia.  Meanwhile,  France, 
Bavaria,  and  Saxony  had  sided 
with  Frederick,  and  their  armies 
joined  him  in  Moravia.  The 
Austrian  army,  however,  had  not 
been  disposed  of,  and  on  May  17, 
1742,  Prince  Charles  of  Lorraine 
brought  the  Prussians  to  action  at 
i  Chotusitz,  S.W.  of  Koniggratz. 
i  Frederick  won  the  battle  by  a 
'  resolute  advance  with  his  right 
wing  after  his  left  had  been  de- 
feated, and  so  initiated  those  en- 
veloping movements  that  have 
characterised  Prussian  tactics. 

Frederick  now  hoped   to  settle 
i   down  to  enjoy  his  possessions,  his 
i   flute-playing    and    literary  corre- 
I    spondence,    and    to    improve    his 
army.     He  rose  at  4  a.m.  and  put 
|   on   uniform   and   the   high   boots 
I   which  he   only  discarded   once   a 
|   year — at  his  wife's  court  on  her 
i   birthday.     By    9    a.m.     he    had 
j   finished  work  with  his  secretaries, 
j   and  then  gave  axidience  to  aides- 
j   de-camp  and  private  individuals. 
He  dined  at  twelve,  keeping  cooks 
of    different    nations    to    prepare 
special  dishes,  and  drinking  cham- 
pagne.    Then  he  walked  rapidly 
till  4,  when  he  dealt  with  state  and 
education  matters,  and  at  6  held 
a  concert.  By  1 1  the  king  was  abed. 
Meanwhile,      Austria,      having 
drawn   to   her  side   England   and 
Hanover,    was    making    headway 
against  France,  but  the  Austrian 
successes  were  inimical  to  Prussia, 
and  Frederick,  in  support  of  his 
ally,  moved  an  army  into  Bohemia. 
Marching    up    the    Elbe    through 
!   Saxony,  he  captured  Prague  (Sept. 
8,  1742),  but  was  outmanoeuvred 
by    Prince    Charles    and    Marshal 
Traun,   and  compelled  to  retreat 
into  Silesia.    But  on  June  4,  1745, 
at  Hohenfriedberg,  he  attacked  the 
Austrians    under   Prince    Charles, 
and    threw    them    back   into    the 
Riesengebirge.       On      Sept.  ..  30 
Frederick  met  Prince  Charles  again 
at  Soor  on  the  Elbe,   and  again 
drove  the  Austrians  westward.    In 
Dec.  he  concerted  the  measures  by 
which    Prince   Leopold    beat   the 
Austro-Saxons  &t  Kesselsdorf,  and 
then  Frederick  Altered  the  Saxon 


3325 

capital,  where  a  treaty  was  signed 
on  Christmas  Day,  1745,  by  which 
Austria  resigned  all  claim  on 
Silesia.  But  in  the  autumn  of 
1756  Frederick  was  compelled  to 
draw  the  sword  against  a  coalition 
of  all  the  continental  powers,  and 
begin  the  contest  known  as  the 
Seven  Years'  War. 

The  state  of  Prussia  at  the  close 
of  the  struggle  in  1763  has  been 
painted  by  Macaulay  in  his  well- 


AflerC.  Vanloo 


known  essay  on  Frederick  the 
Great.  The  king  set  about  the  work 
of  reconstruction  with  his  accus- 
tomed vigour.  He  was  now  fifty, 
but  was  to  reign  for  another  23 
vears  as  a  benevolent  despot. 
No  department  of  church  or  state 
was  immune  from  his  interference. 
He  would  clap  a  judge  into  jail,  or 
appoint  a  cardinal  for  his  Roman 
Catholic  subjects,  or  keep  a  general 
in  arrest  for  weeks.  He  set  up  loan 
offices,  built  an  opera-house,  and 
put  his  artillery  horses  to  the 
plough,  in  the  intervals  of  instruct- 
ing ambassadors  and  publishing 
poetry.  History  has  condemned 
him  for  his  share  in  the  partition  of 
Poland  in  1772,  but  in  fact  all  but 
one -seventeenth  part  of  that  deso- 
lated country  went  to  his  two  neigh- 
bours, and  for  years  Poland  had 
been  virtually  a  province  of  Russia. 
In  1779  Frederick  took  the  field 
for  the  last  time,  for  Austria  was 
now  ruled  by  Joseph  I,  who  was 
bent  on  reviving  the  old  claim  to 
Silesia.  Frederick  and  his  brother 
Henry  attempted  an  invasion  of 
Bohemia,  but  the  Austrians  under 
Loudon  and  Lacy  had  entrenched 
50  m.  of  country  so  that  the  two 
Prussian  armies  could  not  unite. 
The  campaign  came  thus  to  an 
inglorious  end  through  the  medi- 
ation of  Catherine  of  Russia.. 


FREDERICK     I 

Frederick  attended  manoeuvres 
in  1785,  and  caught  a  chill  from 
which  he  never  recovered.  He 
died  childless  at  his  palace  of 
Sanssouci,  Aug.  12,  1786,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  nephew,  Frederick 
William  II. 

Bibliography.  History  of  Fred* 
erick  II  of  Prussia,  Thomas  Car- 
lyle,  6  vols.,  1858-65  ;  abridged  ed- 
A.  M.  D.  Hughea,  1916  ;  Life,  F.  T. 
Kugler,  Eng.  trans.  E.  A.  Moriarty, 
repr.  1877  ;  Hist,  of  Prussia  (1134- 
1757),  H.  Tuttle,  1884-96;  Frederick 
the  Great  on  Kingcraft  (i.e.  I^es 
Matinees  du  roi  de  Prusse  :  French 
original  with  Eng.  trans.),  ed.  J.  W. 
Whittnll,  1901  ;  Frederick  the 
Great  and  the  Rise  of  Prussia,  W.  F. 
Reddaway,  1904;  Life  of  Frederick 
the  Great,  N.  Young,  1919. 

Frederick.  Name  of  five  elec- 
tors palatine  of  the  Rhine.  They 
belonged  to  the  family  of  Wittels- 
b&ch  (q.v.).  Frederick  I  ruled  from 
1451  to  1476  ;  Frederick  II,  called 
the  Wise,  ruled  from  1544  to  1556, 
having  before  his  accession  been 
prominent  in  German  affairs ; 
Frederick  III,  elector  from  1559  to 
1576,  made  Calvinism  the  domin- 
ant faith  in  his  electorate  ;  Fred- 
erick IV  ruled  from  1583  to  1610. 

Frederick V(  1596- 1632).  Elec- 
tor palatine  of  the  Rhine  and  nom- 
inal king  of  Bohemia.  A  son  of  the 
elector  Frede-  vam^^^^^^^m 
rick  IV,  and 
grandson  of 
William  the 
Silent,  Frede- 
rick became 
elector  in  1610 
and  married, 
1613,  Eliza- 
beth, daughter 
of  James  I  of  Frederick  V,  Elector 
Great  Britain,  palatine  of  the  Rhine 
By  descent  and  training  Frederick 
was  a  leader  among  the  Protest- 
ants, and  as  their  nominee  was 
chosen  king  of  Bohemia,  Nov.  4, 
1619.  His  rival,  the  emperor  Fer- 
dinand II,  was,  however,  too 
strong,  and  the  first  stage  of  the 
Thirty  Years'  War  was  marked  by 
Frederick's  defeat  near  Prague, 
Nov.  8,  1619. 

He  was  driven  from  Bohemia, 
the  Palatinate  was  taken  from  him, 
and  he  was  deprived  of  his  position 
as  an  elector.  From  1623  until  his 
death,  Nov.  29,  1632,  Frederick 
remained  an  exile.  He  was  the 
father  of  Sophia,  electress  of 
Hanover,  and  of  the  cavalier, 
Prince  Rupert.  On  account  of  his 
short  stay  in  Bohemia  he  is  often 
called  the  Winter  King.  . 

Frederick  I  (1369-1428).  Elec- 
tor of  Saxony.  About  1388,  when 
he  succeeded  to  some  part  of  the 
family  lands  in  central  Germany, 
Frederick  began  to  take  a  leading 
part  in  the  affairs  of  the  country, 


FREDERICK    111 


FREDERICK     WILLIAM 


and  assisted  the  Emperor  Sigis- 
raund  against  the  Hussites.  For 
these  services  he  received,  in  1423, 
the  duchy  of  Saxe-Wittenberg,  the 
modern  Saxony,  and  the  attached 
dignity  of  an  elector,  a  connexion 
of  great  importance  both  for 
Saxony  and  for  Frederick's  de- 
scendants. He  died  Jan.  4,  1428, 
his  successor  being  his  son, 
Frederick  II,  a  comparatively  un- 
important person,  who  reigned'from 
1428  until  his  death,  Sept.  7,  1464. 
Frederick  III  (1463-1525) 
Elector  of  Saxony,  known  as  the 
Wise.  Beginning  his  reign  in  1486, 
Frederick  soon  became  prominent 
in  German  politics,  and  might  have 
succeeded  Maximilian  I  as  emperor 
in  1519  had  he  so  desired.  He  was 
anxious  to  improve  the  methods 
of  governing  Germany,  but  is  best 
known  for  his  friendship  with  Lu- 
ther, whom  he  appointed  to  a  chair 
in  his  own  university  at  Witten- 
berg. After  Luther's  memorable 
defiance  of  the  Church,  the  elector 
protected  him  from  his  enemies. 
Frederick  died  May  5,  1525. 

Frederick  (1707-51).  Prince  of 
Wales.     The  eldest  son  of  George 
II,  he  was  born  Jan.  6,  1707,  his 
father    being 
then     crown 
prince  of  Han- 
over.     From 
1714,  when  his 
grandfather 
became   king 
as    George    I, 
until   in    1729 
he   was    made 
Frederick,  prince      of 

Prmce  of  Wales        Wale3j  he  was 

called  duke  of  Gloucester.  Frede- 
rick is  important  only  as  the  centre 
of  the  opposition  to  George  II, 
and  as  the  father  of  George  III. 
He  and  his  father  were  constantly 
at  variance  on  financial  and  other 
matters,  and  in  1737  the  prince 
was  banished  from  court.  He  re- 
plied by  setting  up  a  court  of  his 
own  at  Norfolk  House,  St.  James's 
Square,  and  this  became  the  resort 
of  all  who  were  opposed  to  George 
II  and  Sir  Robert  Walpole.  He 
died  March  20,  1751.  In  addition 
to  George  III  he  left  four  sons  and 
two  daughters  by  his  wife,  Augusta, 
daughter  of  Frederick,  duke  of 
Saxe-Gotha,  who  lived  until  1772. 
The  sons  were  Edward,  duke  of 
York  (1739-67),  William,  duke  of 
Gloucester  (1743-1805),  Henry, 
duke  of  Cumberland  (1745-90),  and 
Frederick  (1750-65).  See  Memoirs 
of  the  Reign  of  George  II,  Horace 
Walpole,  1847 ;  A  Forgotten  Prince 
of  Wales,  H.  Curteis,  1912. 

Frederick  Augustus  I  (1^50- 
1827).  First  king  of  gaxony.  Son 
of  the  elector  Frederick  Christian, 
he  was  born  at  Dresden,  Dec.  23, 


Frederick  Augustas  I, 
King  o!  Saxony 


1750.  In  1763  he  became  elector, 
and  in  1769  began  personally  to 
rule.  His  early  years  were  marked 
by  a  wise  and 
just  conduct 
of  affairs,  lead- 
ing to  a  pros- 
perity which 
was  inter- 
rupted  by  the 
French  Revo- 
lution. He  had 
gained  some- 
thing by  a 
short  war 
against  Austria  in  1778,  but  he  kept 
neutral  on  other  occasions  until  in 
1793,  as  a  German  prince,  he  joined 
in  the  war  on  France.  He  was  out 
of  it  from  1796  to  1806,  when,  after 
Prussia's  defeat  at  Jena,  he  made 
peace  with  Napoleon,  and  in  1806 
he  took  the  title  of  king. 

As  an  ally  of  Napoleon,  his 
Saxons  were  in  arms  from  then  until 
the  end,  for  which  action  a  high 
price  was  paid.  The  king  was  pre- 
sent at  the  battle  of  Dresden,  and 
after  Leipzig  his  capital  and  king- 
dom were  in  the  power  of  the  allies 
and  he  himself  their  prisoner.  The 
congress  of  Vienna  took  from  him 
a  large  part  of  Saxony,  about  7,800 
sq.  m.,  but  he  kept  the  title  of  king. 
Until  his  death,  May  5, 1827,  he  did 
his  best  to  help  his  people  to  recover 
from  the  ravages  of  war. 

Frederick  Charles  (1828-85). 
German  soldier,  known  as  the  Red 
Prince.  A  son  of  Prince  Charles  of 
Prussia  and  a 
grandson  of 
F  r  e  d  e  rick 
William  III,  he 
was  therefore 
a  nephew  o  f 
the  emperor 
William  I. 
Born  March  20, 
1828,  he  was 
trained  from  a 
child  for  the 
army,  both  at  Bonn  and  with  his 
regiment.  He  served  Prussia  against 
the  Danes  in  1848,  and  was  with  the 
Prussian  force  that  invaded  Baden 
in  1849,  being  there  wounded.  In 
1864  he  led  a  corps  into  Denmark 
and  was  in  supreme  command 
during  the  later  stage  of  the 
struggle  against  the  Danes. 

A  scientific  soldier  and  keen  on 
his  profession,  the  prince  was 
closely  associated  with  Moltke  and 
his  work.  He  rose  from  one  com- 
mand to  another,  and  from  1860 
to  1870  he  was  at  the  head  of  the 
iron  corps  of  Brandenburg,  which 
attained  under  him  its  later  repu- 
tation. In  1866  he  was  chosen  to 
command  an  army  in  the  war 
against  Austria,  and  was  largely 
responsible  for  the  Prussian  vic- 
tory at  Sadowa.  In  1870  he  was 


Frederick  Charles, 
German  soldier 


put  in  charge  of  one  of  the  three 
armies  that  marched  into  France. 
He  had  a  considerable  share  in 
bringing  about  the  surrender  of 
Bazaine  and  the  fall  of  Metz,  after 
which  he  conducted  the  operations 
against  the  French  on  the  Loire, 
his  great  success  here  being  at  Le 
Mans.  Made  field-marshal  in  1870, 
his  last  post  was  that  of  inspector 
of  cavalry.  He  died  June  15,  1885. 

The  prince  was  a  soldier  of  great 
energy,  sparing  neither  himself  nor 
his  men  in  his  efforts  to  improve 
the  condition  of  the  Prussian  army. 
He  appears  to  have  been  some- 
what difficult  to  work  with  and  his 
relations  with  his  royal  kinsfolk 
were  not  always  harmonious.  He 
married  a  princess  of  Anhalt,  and 
one  of  his  daughters  became  the 
duchess  of  Connaught.  He  owed 
his  nickname  to  the  colour  of  the 
uniform  he  habitually  wore. 

Frederick  William  (1620- 
1688).  Elector  of  Brandenburg, 
known  as  the  Great  Elector.  Born 
in  Berlin,  Feb. 
16,  1620,  the 
son  of  the 
elector  George 
William,  he 
passed  much 
of  his  youth  in 
the  Nether- 
lands, a  stay 
that  was  re- 
sponsible for 
his  marriage 
with  Louise,  a 
princess  of  Orange,  1646.  In  1640 
he  became  elector,  and  his  first 
duty  was  to  free  Brandenburg  from 
the  horrors  of  the  Thirty  Years' 
War.  He  did  this,  and  from  the 
peace  of  1648  to  his  death  he  saw 
his  land  growing  in  prosperity. 

He  organi/^d  the  army,  founded 
the  navy,  v/elcomed  industrious 
immigrants,  started  colonies  in 
Africa,  and  encouraged  trade.  He 
had  great  influence  in  European 
affairs,  and  helped  William  of 
Orange's  invasion  of  England  in 
1688.  He  added  to  his  land  both 
east  and  west.  The  peace  of  1648 
gave  him  part  of  Pomerania, 
Prussia  was  firmly  joined  to  Bran- 
denburg atid  Cleves,  and  Jii!ich 
was  secured.  He  died  at  Potsdam, 
May  9,  1688,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Ms  son  Frederick,  1st  king  of 
Prussia. 

Frederick  William  was  the  real 
founder  of  Prussia,  for  which  his 
reign,  autocratic  though  it  was,  was 
wholly  beneficial.  He  was  a  Pro- 
testant and  a  supporter  of  the  Em- 
pire, but  neither  sympathy  was 
allowed  to  stand  in  the  way  of  his 
main  ambitions.  See  The  Origins 
of  the  Kingdom  of  Prussia,  A. 
W.  Ward,  1908  (in  Camb.  Modern 
Hist.,  vol.  v). 


Frederick  William, 
Elector.of  Branden- 
burg 


FREDERICK  WILLIAM   i 


3327 


FREDERICKSBURO 


Frederick  William  I, 
King  of  Prussia 


Frederick  William  I  (1688- 
1740).  King  of  Prussia.  Bora  Aug. 
15,  1688,  he  was  a  son  of  Frederick 
I,  and  related 
through  hia 
mother  to 
George  I  of 
Great  Britain. 
In  Feb.,  1713, 
after  a  some- 
what strict 
upbringing,  he 
became  king  of 
Prussia.  In 
the  name  of 
economy,  he  was  continually  cut- 
ting down  expenses,  although  he 
spent  much  on  the  celebrated  col- 
lection of  giants  for  his  army, 
which  he  raised  to  a  high  state  of 
efficiency. 

Frederick  was  a  successful  ruler, 
and  greatly  improved  the  condition 
of  Prussia.  He  provided  a  more 
efficient  administration  ;  and  with 
an  increased  revenue  old  debts 
were  paid  off.  Trade  was  en- 
couraged by  restricting  manufac- 
tured imports,  and  by  other 
methods  in  harmony  with  current 
theories,  while  E.  Prussia  was 
peopled  with  industrious  settlers. 
He  secured  Pomerania  from  Swe- 
den, and  was  concerned  in  the 
various  European  alliances  of  the 
period.  He  founded  a  number  of 
schools  and,  in  a  somewhat  ortho- 
dox way,  was  a  friend  of  learning. 
He  died  May  31,  1740.  His  wife 
was  a  princess  of  Hanover,  and  his 
son  was  Frederick  the  Great,  and, 
although  the  king  was  by  no  means 
a  wise  parent,  the  wealth  and  the 
army  that  he  left  laid  the  founda- 
tions of  his  son's  successes.  See 
History  of  Prussia,  H.  Tuttle,  1884. 
Frederick  William  II  (1744- 
97).  King  of  Prussia.  Born  in 
Berlin,  Sept.  25,  1744,  he  was  a 
grandson  of  Frederick  William  I, 
and  a  nephew  of  Frederick  the 
Great.  In  1757  his  father,  Prince 
Augustus  William,  died,  and  for  the 
next  29  years  he  was  the  heir  to  the 
Prussian  throne.  Well  educated, 
he  passed  this  period  occupied 
with  his  pleasures,  chiefly  music, 
troubling  little  about  affairs  of 
state.  In  Aug.,  1786,  he  became 
king.  In  external  affairs,  Prussia 
was  engaged  in  watching  the  pro- 
gress of  the  revolution  in  France, 
and  from  1792-95  in  fighting 
against  that  country,  not,  how- 
ever, with  any  great  determination. 
A  share  of  Poland  was  acquired, 
and  there  was  a  campaign  against 
Holland.  But  in  these  matters  the 
king  was  not  the  leading  spirit,  nor 
even  the  head  of  the  army. 

Before  his  accession  he  had  be- 
come a  Rosicrucian,  and  it  was  a 
member  of  this  curious  fraternity, 
Johann  Christof  Wollner,  who 


Frederick  William  III, 
King  of  Prussia 


really  ruled  Prussia,  his  chief  as- 
sistant being  another  Rosicrucian, 
Johann  Rudolf  Bischoffswerder. 
These  men  spared  no  efforts  to 
crush  liberty  of  thought,  ostensibly 
in  the  interest  of  the  Christian 
faith,  and  in  so  doing  they  counter- 
acted the  popularity  gained  when 
the  king  ordered  the  abandonment 
of  some  of  the  French  ideas  intro- 
duced by  Frederick  the  Great. 
Frederick  William,  who  died  Nov. 
16,  1797,  was  twice  married,  and 
had  several  mistresses.  See  A 
Mystic  on  the  Prussian  Throne, 
G."  Stanhope,  1912. 

Frederick  William  III  (1770- 
1840).  King  of  Prussia.  Born  Aug. 
3,  1770,  he  was  the  eldest  son  of 
Frederick  William  II  by  his  second 
wife,  a  princess  of  Hesse-Darm- 
stadt. He  was 
well  educated 
and  had  served 
in  the  field 
when  he  be- 
came king  in 
1797.  He  suf- 
fered the  hu- 
miliation of 
Jena  and  of 
the  surrender 
of  much  of 
Prussia  to  Napoleon.  But  in  1812 
he  called  upon  his  people  to  rise, 
and  saw  the  victories  and  enthusi- 
asms of  the  war  of  liberation.  He 
took  part  in  the  European  confer- 
ences of  1815  and  after,  but,  as  a 
rule,  merely  as  an  echo  of  the  tsar 
Alexander  I. 

At  home  he  showed  a  dislike  for 
the  current  liberal  movements,  but 
died  before  Prussia  had  been 
seriously  disturbed  by  them.  He 
did  something,  however,  to  im- 
prove the  administration  of  his 
lands,  especially  those  acquired  in 
1815.  He  died  June  7,  1840.  His 
wife  was  Louise,  a  princess  of  Meck- 
lenburg-Strelitz,  and  it  was  she 
who,  more  than  the  king  himself, 
helped  the  ministers  to  free  the 
country  from  the  misfortunes  of 
1807.  She  died  in  June,  1810. 

Frederick  William  IV  (1795- 
1861).  King  of  Prussia.  The 
eldest  son  of  Frederick  William  III, 
he  was  born 
Oct.  15,  1795. 
He  saw  a  little 
military  ser- 
vice in  1814, 
but  his  main 
interest  was  in 
arts  and  cul- 
ture generally. 
He  had  been 
well  and  care- 
fully educated, 
and  showed  a  After  j.o.  out 
real  liking  for  the  society  of  scholars. 
In  1840  Frederick  came  to  the 
throne.  Although  he  had  some 


Frederick  William  IV, 
Kin*  o!  Prussia 


'sympathy  with  the  liberal  move- 
ments of  the  age,  he  was  a  strong 
believer  in  maintaining  the  old 
order,  including  the  divine  right  of 
his  own  position.  He  showed  sense 
in  acting  with  much  more  tolora- 
tion  than  his  father. 

In  1848,  during  the  rising  in 
Berlin,  Frederick  William  appeared, 
with  some  loss  of  dignity,  as  an 
enthusiast  in  the  popular  cause,  but 
this  was  a  passing  phase.  He  re- 
fused, probably  wisely,  the  new 
crown  offered  to  him  by  the  Ger- 
man princes,  and  the  union  was  de- 
layed until  1871.  Next  followed 
a  return  to  the  policy  of  hostility 
to  Austria,  but  when  this  meant 
war  he  drew  back,  preferring  rather 
to  give  way  in  the  convention  of 
Olmutz.  Later  he  carried  forward 
a  little  the  plan  of  constitutional 
reform  in  Prussia  and  was  con- 
cerned in  the  international  matters 
of  his  time.  In  1857  the  king's  mind 
became  deranged,  and  until  his 
death,  Jan.  2,  1861,  his  brother 
acted  as  regent. 

Frederick  William  (b.  1882). 
German  prince.  The  eldest  son  of 
the  ex-Kaiser  William  II,  he  was 
born  May  6, 
1882,  and  in 
1888,  on  his 
father's  ac- 
cession, became 
crown  prince. 
H  e  was  edu- 
cated for  the 
throne,  served 

in    the    army, 

Frederick  William,  and  was  loaded 
ex-Crown  Prince  with  honours, 
of  Germany  When  the  Great 
War  broke  out  he  was  given  a  high 
command  and  was  nominally  the 
head  of  a  group  of  armies  on  the 
west  front.  He  did  not  in  any  way 
distinguish  himself,  although  from 
time  to  time  his  name  was  men- 
tioned in  official  accounts  of  vic- 
tories. On  the  collapse  of  Germany 
in  1918  the  crown  prince  associated 
himself  with  his  father's  abdication 
and  took  refuge  in  Holland.  In 
1903  he  was  married  to  Cecile, 
duchess  of  Mecklenburg.  He  pub- 
lished his  Memoirs  in  1922,  and  in 
Nov.,  1923,  returned  to  liis  estate  in 
Silesia 

Fredericksburg.  City  of  Vir- 
ginia, U.S.A.,  in  Spottsylvania  co. 
On  the  Rappahannock  river,  60  m. 
N.  of  Richmond,  it  is  served  by 
the  Potomac,  Fredericksburg,  and 
Piedmont,  and  other  rlys.  It  con- 
tains Fredericksburg  College,  a 
state  Normal  school,  two  public 
libraries,  and  a  monument  to  the 
mother  of  Washington.  Water- 
power  is  obtained  for  industrial 
purposes  from  a  dam  300  yards  long 
just  above  the  city.  Flour,  woollen 
and  silk  goods,  carriages,  leather, 


FREDERICKSBURG 


Fredericksburg.   Map  showing  the  disposition  of  forces 
in  the  American  battle  of  Dec.  11-15,  1862 


shoes,  and  cigars  are  among  the 
manufactures.  The  town,  incor- 
porated in  1782,  was  the  scene  of 
an  important  battle  during  the 
American  Civil  War.  Pop.  5,874. 
Fredericksburg,  BATTLE  OF. 
Fought  in  the  American  Civil  War, 
Dec.  11-15,  1862,  between  the 
Federals  under  Burnside  and  the 
Confederates  under  Lee.  It  took 


3328 

Lee's  artillery  con- 
sisted of  "rifled 
guns,  Napoleons, 
and  smooth  bores. 
The  Federal  grand 
divisions  were 
composed  of  six 
army  corps,  those 
under  Couch  (2nd) 
and  Willcox  (9th) 
constituting  Sum- 
ner's  command ; 
those  of  Stoneman 
(3rd)  and  Butter- 
field  (5th)  were 
under  Hooker; 
those  of  Reynolds 
(1st)  and  Smith 
(6th)  under 
Franklin. 

The  Federal 
generalissimo 
might  have  rein- 
forced these  six 
corps  by  post- 
poning his  attack, 
for  Siegel's  (llth) 
and  Slocum's 
(12th)  corps  were 
on  thei  r  way  to  j  oin 


him.  For  nearly  a  month  the  two 
armies  had  been  face  to  face,  and 
most  careful  preparations  had  been 
made  on  both  sides,  but  since  Lee 
could  not  be  certain  where  the  Rap- 
pahannock  would  be  crossed,  he  kept 
Jackson's  corps  some  20  m.  down 
the  river  \mtil  Dec.  12,  when  the 
enemy,  having  completed  his  pon- 
toon bridges,  crossed  and  seized  the 


place  on  the  S.  bank  of  the  Rappa-  town,  driving  out  the  small  Con- 
hannock,  near  Fredericksburg.  The  federate  garrison.  On  Dec.  13  the 
object  of  the  Federals,  who  were  on  Federals  were  on  the  right  bank, 
the  N.  bank  of  the  river,  was  to  In  the  result  Franklin's  two  corps 
cross  and  gain  the  road  to  Rich-  assailed  Jackson's  corps  and 
mond,  the  Confederate  capital,  but  Stuart's  cavalry,  Sumner's  two 
the  Confederates  barred  the  way.  corps  afterwards  attacking  Long- 
The  Federals  numbered  125,596  street's  corps,  while  Hooker's 
against  the  Confederates  85,175,  an 
insufficient  majority  for  attack ; 
moreover,  the  Confederates  had  a 
better  supply  of  officers. 

General  Lee's  army  was  organ- 


ized in  two  corps  under  Longstreet 


command    assisted   Franklin    and 
Sumner  in  turn. 

The  left  attack  under  Franklin 
employed  two  divisions,  or  seven 
brigades,  against  six  Confederate 
brigades  drawn  from  the  divisions 


(1st)  and  Jackson  (2nd)  respec-  of  A.  P.  Hill,  Ewell,  and  Hood 
tively,  and  a  cavalry  division  under  (Jackson's  corps).  The  right  at- 
Stuart.  Burnside  had  formed  his  tack  W.  of  the  town  was  delivered 
army  in  three  grand  divisions  under 
Sumner  (right),  Hooker  (centre), 


and  Franklin  (left).    A  bend  of  the 


mainly  by  Couch's  2nd  corps,  and 
was  crushed  by  four  Confederate 
brigades  from  the  divisions  of  Ran- 


river  enabled  the  Federals  to  bring    some    and   McLaws    (Longstreet's 
under  the  fire  of  their  heavy  guns    corps).  The  attackers  on  this  front, 
on  Stafford  Heights  a  considerable 
part  of  the  opposite  bank,  including 
the  town  of  Fredericksburg,  which 
caused  the  Confederates  to  with- 
draw to  a  range  of  low  hills  about 
2  m.  from  the  river,  where  Lee,  on 
a  front  of  7  m.  or  8  m.,  constructed 


although  reinforced  by  four  bri- 
gades from  Butterfield's  5th  corps, 
failed  to  reach  the  Confederate  de- 
fences. On  the  left  Lee's  defences 
were  never  in  actual  danger,  for 
the  attackers  who  escaped  the  fire 
of  Longstreet's  artillery  were  shot 


defence  works  and  emplaced   his    down  at  musket  range. 


guns  to  sweep  all  the  approaches. 
On  the  extreme  right* was  Stuart's 
cavalry,  in  the  centre  Jackson's 
corps,  and  on  the  left  Longstreet's. 


On  the  right  the  encounter  was 
less  one-sided,  for  the  Federals  con- 
trived to  break  through  Jackson's 
line  at  "  a  point  of  woods  "  form- 


FREDERICTON 

ing  a  salient  where  the  ground  in 
rear  had  been  deemed  impene- 
trable through  a  deep  ravine  and 
thick  undergrowth.  This  obstacle, 
however,  was  overcome  by  Meade's 
division,  which  got  in  rear  of  Lane's 
and  Archer's  brigades,  and  cap- 
tured part  of  the  supporting  bri- 
gades under  Gregg  and  Thomas. 

In  military  history  this  battle  is 
remarkable  as  exhibiting  the  power 
of  passive  defence  when  time  has 
been  allowed  for  entrenching.  It 
shows  the  natural  results  of  a  suc- 
cession of  vague  orders  and  the 
lack  of  resolution,  and  the  danger 
of  frontal  attacks  was  once  again 
exemplified.  It  has  been  said  that 
the  defending  general  missed  his  op- 
portunity for  a  decisive  counter-at- 
tack, but  according  to  Jackson,  the 
Federal  artillery  completely  domin- 
ated the  plain  over  which  the  Con- 
federates would  have  to  advance 
towards  the  river.  The  Federals, 
therefore,  were  suffered  to  remain 
on  the  south  bank  for  two  days, 
under  the  fire  of  skirmishers. 

After  the  battle  Lee's  defences 
were  strengthened  and  his  troops 
redistributed  to  meet  any  further 
attack.  But  Burnside  withdrew  his 
forces  (113,000  men)  just  when  the 
arrangements  had  been  made  by 
the  naval  authorities  to  support  him 
by  a  feint  attack  with  gunboats  at 
Port  Royal ;  he  recrossed  the  river 
on  the  night  of  Dec.  15.  Thus 
Lee's  army  was  left  in  peace  for  the 
winter,  for  the  attempt  known  as 
the  Mud  March,  a  month  later,  to 
move  round  his  left  flank  and  cross 
the  river  above  the  town,  collapsed. 
Violent  quarrels  ensued  between 
Burnside  and  his  subordinates, 
some  of  whom  he  dismissed;  but 
in  the  end  Burnside  himself  was 
relieved  of  his  command.  See 
American  Civil  War  ;  Lee. 

Fredericton.  City  and  capital 
of  New  Brunswick,  Canada.  It 
stands  on  the  river  St.  John,  84  m. 
from  its  mouth,  and  68  m.  N.N.W. 
of  the  city  of  St.  John.  It  is  a 
station  on  the  C.P.R.  and  Inter- 
colonial Rly.,  while  steamers  ply 
the  river  to  St.  John.  The  chief 
buildings  are  those  of  the  provin- 
cial legislature  and  the  government 
offices,  Government  House,  the 
city  hall,  the  barracks,  an  Anglican 
cathedral,  and  several  churches ; 
also  the  university  of  New  Bruns- 
wick, colleges,  and  schools. 

Fredericton  is  the  centre  of  a 
lumbering  district  and  its  chief  in- 
dustries are  boat-building,  canning, 
tanning,  and  the  making  of  boots 
and  shoes.  The  city  was  founded 
about  1740,  and,  although  not  the 
largest  town,  was  made  the  capital 
in  1788  because  it  was  less  exposed 
to  attack  than  St.  John.  Its  first 
name  was  St.  Ann's.  Pop.  7,208. 


FREDERIKSBERG 


3329 


FREE  CHURCH  OF  SCOTLAND 


v  Frederiksberg.  Residential 
suburb  in  the  S.W.  of  Copenhagen. 
The  royal  palace,  erected  by  Fred- 
erick IV,  on  a  commanding  emin- 
ence, is  now  utilised  as  a  military 
college.  There  are  a  fine  park,  zoo- 
logical gardens,  museum,  and  pic- 
ture gallery.  It  is  the  seat  of  the 
royal  porcelain  factory,  and  there 
are  also  extensive  breweries.  Pop. 
97,237.  See  Copenhagen. 

Frederiksborg.  Royal  palace 
of  Denmark.  It  is  built  on  a  group 
of  small  islands  in  a  lake  near 
Hillerod,  in  the  district  of  Frede- 
riksborg, in  Zealand,  21  m.  by  rly. 
N.N.W.  of  Copenhagen.  Erected 
in  the  17th  century  by  Christian 
IV  on  the  site  of  an  older  castle, 
it  was  restored  and  embellished 
after  a  fire  in  1859,  and  now  houses 
a  national  historical  museum. 
Several  Danish  monarchs  have 
been  crowned  in  the  chapel. 

Frederikshald  (formerly  Hal- 
den).  Seaport  of  Norway,  in  the 
fy Ike  or  co.  of  Olstf old.  It  stands  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Tistedal  river,  at 
its  junction  with  the  Ide  Fiord, 
58  m.  direct  and  85  m.  by  rly.  S.S.E. 
of  Christiania.  Twice  burnt  down, 
it  has  been  rebuilt  in  modern  style. 
A  great  timber  depot,  it  also  exports 
wood  pulp,  marble,  granite,  and 
fish.  It  has  sugar  refineries  and  to- 
bacco and  boot  factories.  The  har- 
bour is  safe  and  commodious. 

The  town,  which  was  besieged  by 
the  Swedes  for  two  years  (1658-60), 
is  defended  by  two  fortresses,  the 
famous  Frederiksten,  founded  by 
Frederick  III  in  1661,  and  the  Gyl- 
denlove,  near  which  Charles  XII  of 
Sweden  was  killed  by  a  musket  ball 
while  besieging  the  town  in  1718. 
It  was  surrendered  to  Bernadotte 
in  1814.  Pop.  12,000. 

Frederikshavn.  Seaport  of 
Denmark,  on  the  N.E.  coast  of  Jut- 
land. It  stands  on  the  Cattegat,  23 
m.  by  rly.  E.  of  Hjorring,  and  its 
fine  ice-free  port,  the  second  best 
port  in  Jutland,  is  a  harbour  of 
refuge.  Its  exports  include  butter, 
bacon,  eggs,  cattle,  pigs,  meat,  and 
fish.  It  is  connected  by  regular 
sailings  with  Sweden  and  England. 
A  mere  fishing  hamlet  in  1818,  its 
population  in  1 920  was  7 ,9 1 6.  The 
former  name  was  Fladstrand. 

Frederiksstad.  Seaport  of  Nor- 
way. It  stands  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Glommen  river,  58  m.  by  rly.  S.E. 
of  Christiania.  A  centre  of  the 
timber  trade,  it  exports  pit-props, 
planks,  bricks,  tiles,  nails,  and 
granite.  There  are  shipbuilding 
yards  and  rly.  and  chemical  works. 
The  old  town  was  built  by 
Frederick  II  in  1570  and  strongly 
fortified.  Pop.  15,626. 

Freebench.  Term  used  in  Eng- 
lish law.  It  is  the  dower  to  which  a 
widow  is  entitled,  by  the  custom  of 


varies  according  to  the  custom  of 
the  manor.  Sometimes  the  widow 
takes  the  whole  of  the  copyholds 


the  manor,  out  of  her  deceased  hus-        Free  Church  of  England.  Title 
band's   copyholds.      The   amount     assumed  at  various  times  by  con- 

'  gregations  which  have  separated 
from  the  Church  of  England  on 
doctrinal  or  other  grounds.  It  is 
for  her  life,  occasionally  half.  The  more  especially  applied  to  a  small 
general  rule  is  one-third;  but  it  sect  which  originated  about  1844  in 
may  be  less.  In  most  manors  the  Devonshire  as  a  protest  against  the 

OxfordMovement. 
It  has  bishops, 
who  derive  their 
succession  from 
Bishop  Greig,  who 
seceded  from  the 
American  Church. 
Its  doctrines  are 
ultra-Low  Church, 
and  it  uses  a 
slightly  modified 
version  of  the 
Book  of  Common 
Prayer  It  is  now 
almost  extinct  in 
Great  Britain. 

Free     Church 
of  Scotland. 
Name   adopted 
originally  by  those 
members  of  the  Established  Church 
of    Scotland   who   severed    them- 
selves from  that  body  in  1843.  It  is 
now  that  of  a  church  dating  from 
1900,    and    claiming    to    be    the 


Frederiksborg,  Denmark.    Courtyard  of  the  royal  palace, 
rebuilt  after  the  fire  of  1859 


widow  forfeits  her  free  bench  upon 
re-marriage,  and,  in  some,  by  un- 
chastity. 

Freeboard.  The  part  of  a 
vessel's  side  above  her  water-line 
or  line  of  flotation. 

Free  Church.  Term  adopted 
for  the  various  denominations  for-  century  a  controversy  arose  in  the 
merly  known  as  dissenters.  They  Established  Church  of  Scotland, 
claim  to  possess  entire  freedom  in  The  outstanding  points  at  issue 
choice  of  doctrine,  church  govern-  were  patronage  and  liberty  of  in- 
ment,  and  the  appointment  of 


original  Free  Church. 

In  the  third  decade  of  the  19th 


ministers  ;  but  most  of  them  are 
more  or  less  controlled  by  the 
terms  of  the  title  deeds  to  their 
property. 

Free  Church  Council.  Central 
organization  in  England  and  Wales 
the  object  of  which  is  to  federate 
the  various  Free  Churches.  Offici- 
ally styled  the  National  Council  of 
Evangelical  Free  Churches,  it  pro- 
motes united  efforts  in  the  evange- 
lisation of  the  people,  and  strives  to 
prevent  overlapping.  It  originated 
shortly  before  1892  in  a  Free 
Church  Congress  held  in  Man- 
chester, and  numerous  congresses 
and  annual  gatherings  have  been 
held  since.  The  Free  Church 
Council  has  been  conspicuous  in 
connexion  with  many  religious  and 
social  movements.  It  has  orga- 


dividual  congregations  to  reject 
ministers  presented  to  livings.  A 
Veto  Act  was  passed  in  1834  by  the 
General  Assembly,  satisfying  the 
objectors  on  these  two  questions. 
The  famous  Auchterarder  case, 
decided  in  the  Court  of  Session, 
1838,  and  confirmed  by  the  House  of 
Lords,  1839,  deprived  congregations 
of  their  right  to  reject  a  presentee. 
The  controversy  then  became 
acute.  Petitions  and  appeals  were 
made  without  any  result. 

The  dissatisfied  group,  known  as 
the  non-intrusion  party,  meeting  at 
the  annual  assembly  in  Edinburgh, 
May,  1843,  decided  to  withdraw 
from  the  gathering  and  marched  to 
Tanfield  Hall  at  Canonmills.  There 
they  formed  the  first  Free  Church 
Assembly,  electing  Rev.  Thomas 
Chalmers  as  moderator.  This  con- 


nized  district  councils  or  federa-    stituted  what  is  termed  the  disrup- 


tions all  over  England  and  Wales 
and  has  employed  evangelists  to 
conduct  missions  throughout  the 
country,  the  most  notable  being 
Gipsy  Smith  (q.v. ).  Delegates  to  its 
annual  conference  are  chosen 
locally  by  the  Free  Churches.  A 
body  known  as  the  federal  council 
of  free  churches  was  proposed  in 
1919.  The  headquarters  are  at  the 
Memorial  Hall,  London,  E.G.  See 
Nonconformity. 


tion.  In  the  same  month  396  minis- 
ters and  professors  signed  an  act  of 
separation,  renouncing  all  claims  to 
the  benefices  held  under  the  Estab- 
lished Church.  The  signatures 
ultimately  numbered  474.  This  act 
of  demission  represented  a  voluntary 
surrender  of  an  aggregate  annual 
income  of  something  like  £100,000. 
The  new  Free  Church  started  a 
sustentation  fund,  erected  new 
churches,  and  before  long  became  a 

IS    4 


FREE   CITY 


3330 


FREEDOM   OF   THE   SEAS 


strong  body,  numerically,  finan- 
cially, and  in  foreign  mission  work. 
In  1900  it  was  amalgamated  with 
the  United  Presbyterian  Church  in 
Scotland,  and  was  thenceforward 
known  as  the  United  Free  Church 
of  Scotland.  The  present  Free 
Church  of  Scotland  consists  of 
those  members  of  the  original  Free 
Church  who  refused  to  unite  with 
the  U.P.  Church  in  1900.  They  are 
larly  known  as  the  "Wee 


After  the  union  of  1900  the  Free 
Church  made  legal  claim  to  the  en- 
tire property  of  the  original  Free 
Church.  This  claim  led  to  the  famous 
ecclesiastical  law  case  of  Bannatyne 
v.  Overtoun.  It  was  argued  in 
the  court  of  session,  when  judge- 
ment was  given  in  favour  of  the 
United  Free  Church.  The  small 
Free  Church  party  then  appealed 
to  the  House  of  Lords,  and  judge- 
ment was  given  in  their  favour  in 
1904.  An  amazing  situation  was 
thus  created,  for  a  handful  of  mem- 
bers were  given  all  the  property, 
churches,  manses,  colleges,  and 
funds  of  the  original  Free  Church. 
In  1905  an  Act  of  Parliament 
was  passed  to  alter  this.  A  royal 
commission  allocated  the  property 
between  the  two  bodies,  and  gener- 
ally regularised  the  position.  The 
Free  Church  of  Scotland  is  strong- 
est in  the  Highlands,  and  at  one 
time  had  about  180  congregations, 
but  is  on  the  decline.  See  Presby- 
terianism  ;  Scotland,  Church  of  ; 
United  Free  Church;  United 
Presbyterian  Church  ;  Chalmers, 
Thomas;  Rainy,  Robert. 

Free  City.  City  that  is  inde- 
pendent of  any  save  the  highest 
authority.  The  free  cities  of  the 
Middle  Ages  were  under  the  rule 
of  none  save  the  emperor  himself, 
being  in  practice  little  republics, 
each  with  its  own  form  of  govern- 
ment. The  modern  free  city, 
Danzig  (q.v.),  is  under  that  of  the 
League  of  Nations  only. 

The  first  free  cities  were  towns 
standing  on  land  ruled  by  the  em- 
peror, but  their  numbers  were 
augmented  when  the  privilege  was 
found  to  be  a  valuable  one.  Some 
bought  it,  to  others  it  was  given ; 
while  on  the  other  hand  some 
were  deprived  of  it — an  instance  of 
this  being  Donauworth  in  1607. 
The  free  cities  were  represented  in 
the  imperial  diet  from  about  1490, 
and,  as  constituted  later,  one  of  its 
colleges  was  composed  of  their 
representatives.  They  were  divided 
into  two  groups,  Rhenish  and 
Swabian,  and  played  a  considerable 
part  in  the  affairs  of  Germany. 
Some  of  them  had  considerable 
forces,  many  had  a  good  deal  of 
wealth,  so  their  help  was  fre- 
quently sought  by  emperors  and 


other  rulers,  especially  in  times  of 
war.  The  hostility  of  the  free  cities 
was  feared  by  the  most  powerful ; 
their  support  kept  kings  on  their 
thrones.  Their  number  varied  ; 
in  1521  a  list  gave  84  of  them,  after 
which  there  was  a  decrease. 

With  the  changes  caused  by  the 
French  Revolution  many  of  the 
cities  lost  their  freedom,  and  in 
1803  six  only  were  recognized. 
They  were  Hamburg,  Liibeck, 
Bremen,  Augsburg,  Frankfort,  and 
Nuremberg.  In  1806  Bavaria 
secured  Augsburg  and  Nuremberg, 
but  the  other  four  lasted  until 
1866,  when  Frankfort,  having 
fought  against  Prussia,  lost  its 
independence.  As  free  cities  the 
other  three  entered  the  German 
empire  in  1871,  and  remained 
therein  after  the  changes  of  1918. 
See  Germany  :  History ;  Town. 

Freedmen's  Bureau.  Public 
department  in  the  U.S.A.  charged 
with  the  duty  of  looking  after  the 
freed  slaves.  It  was  established 
in  1865  and  continued  in  existence 
until  1872,  although  only  intended 
to  last  one  year.  The  work  was 
chiefly  in  the  southern  states,  and 
took  the  form  of  providing  for  the 
maintenance  and  education  of  the 
freed  slaves,  regulating  the  con- 
ditions under  which  they  were 
employed  and  administering  justice 
to  them.  It  also  controlled  the 
confiscated  lands.  Many  of  the 
officials  acted  very  unwisely,  and 
the  bureau  was  used  for  political 
purposes.  It  fell  into  disrepute, 
doing,  it  was  argued,  more  harm 
than  good,  and  was  ended  in  1872. 

Freedom  of  the  Press.  Liberty 
to  print  and  publish  without 
official  licence.  By  the  Press  is 
usually  meant  the  newspapers,  but 
the  term  includes  printing  gener- 
ally. Before  the  introduction  of 
the  military  censorship  in  1914 
the  British  press  had  enjoyed  this 
liberty  since  1694,  save  for  re- 
strictions imposed  by  the  paper 
duty,  1694-1861  ;  stamp  duty, 
1711-1855 ;  advertisement  tax, 
1712-1853  ;  and  libel  laws  which 
unfairly  shackled  expression  of 
opinion  until  the  middle  of  the  19th 
century,  even  to  the  restriction  of 
references  to  foreign  rulers.  » 

Partial  reports  of  parliamentary 
proceedings  began  to  appear  in 
print  in  1729,  but  were  regarded 
as  a  breach  of  privilege  for  which 
summary  punishment  was  in- 
flicted. White  this  parliamentary 
privilege  is  still  nominally  pre- 
served, reporters  have  been  ad- 
mitted to  parliament  since  1835. 

From  the  15th  century  in  Roman 
Catholic  countries  the  Inquisition 
or  the  bishops  acted  as  censors 
of  the  press.  At  the  Reformation 
Henry  VIII  assumed  this  control, 


and  it  was  exercised  by  the  Star 
Chamber  till  1640.  In  1640-43 
the  press  was  virtually  free.  In 
June,  1643,  parliament  revived  the 
censorship  ;  Milton's  Areopagitica, 
or  Speech  for  the  Liberty  of  Un- 
licensed Printing,  was  published 
in  1644.  The  office  of  Licenser  of 
the  Press  was  operative  in  1655-79 
and  1685-94.  The  later  struggles 
for  a  free  press  in  Great  Britain 
were  carried  on  largely  on  political 
grounds,  and  the  struggle  has 
followed  similar  lines  in  all  con- 
stitutional countries.  See  Censor- 
ship ;  Defoe  ;  Journalism  ;  Libel ; 
Marprelate ;  Newspaper ;  Press 
Bureau  ;  Wilkes,  John. 

Freedom  of  the  Seas.  Term 
used  in  international  law.  Grotius, 
in  his  work  Mare  Liberum  (the 
free  sea),  in  1609,  advanced  the 
theory  that  the  waters  of  the  ocean 
are  free  and  open  to  all  traffic, 
in  peace,  though  he  admitted  that 
in  war  the  goods  of  an  enemy 
in  a  neutral  ship  could  be  seized 
and  confiscated.  His  doctrine  of 
the  freedom  of  the  seas  was  gradu- 
ally extended  to  mean  the  com- 
plete immunity  of  neutral  and  even 
hostile  shipping  in  war  from  all 
action  by  a  belligerent  navy,  thus 
depriving  a  combatant  fleet  of  the 
right  to  blockade  and  to  seize 
hostile  goods  and  contraband.  In 
this  form  it  became  the  second  of 
President  Wilson's  14  points  of 
peace,  laid  down  in  his  speech  of 
Jan.  8,  1918,  which  required  : 

"  Absolute  freedom  of  naviga- 
tion upon  the  seas  outside  terri- 
torial waters  alike  in  peace  and  in 
war,  except  as  the  seas  may  be 
closed  in  whole  or  in  part  by  inter- 
national action  for  the  enforce- 
ment of  international  covenants." 

Had  this  doctrine  formed  part 
of  international  law — it  was  always 
rejected  by  British  authorities — 
then,  in  the  American  Civil  War 
of  1861-65,  the  S.  states  could 
never  have  been  defeated  by  the 
ruthless  blockade  imposed  by  the 
United  States.  In  the  Napoleonic 
wars  Napoleon  would  have  tri- 
umphed. In  the  Great  War 
Germany  would  have  been  free  to 
import  arms,  munitions,  and  food, 
and  British  sea-power,  which 
eventually  brought  about  her  de- 
feat, would  have  been  paralysed. 

The  Allied  governments,  in  a 
note  to  the  U.S.A.  in  Oct.,  1918, 
pointed  out  "that  clause  2  (of 
the  14  points),  relating  to  what  is 
usually  described  as  the  freedom 
of  the  seas,  is  open  to  various 
interpretations,  some  of  which  they 
could  not  accept.  They  must 
therefore  reserve  to  themselves 
complete  freedom  on  this  subject 
when  they  enter  the  peace  con- 
ference." There  is  no  reference  to 


FREEHOLD 


3331 


FREEMAN'S   JOURNAL 


the  freedom  of  the  seas  in  the 
treaty  of  Versailles  or  the  covenant 
of  the  League  of  Nations. 

Such  a  doctrine,  if  generally 
accepted,  would  deprive  sea  powers 
of  a  right  which  they  have  almost 
without  exception  asserted  in  past 
wars,  and  would  confer  an  enor- 
mous advantage  on  land  powers. 
Armies  on  land  can  seize  hostile 
property  and  interfere  in  any  way 
they  like  with  neutral  trade. 
Fleets  at  sea  would  be  forbidden 
to  exercise  similar  authority. 
Germany,  during  the  war,  declared 
her  acceptance  of  the  new  doctrine 
— precisely  as  she  had  accepted 
and  guaranteed  before  the  war  the 
neutrality  of  Belgium ;  but  what 
the  German  government  meant  by 
it  was  thus  stated  by  Count  Re- 
ventlow  in  March,  1917 :  "  that 
Germany  should  possess  such 
maritime  territories  and  such  naval 
bases  that,  on  the  outbreak  of  war, 
she  would  be  able  with  her  navy 
reasonably  to  guarantee  herself 
the  command  of  the  seas."  By 
indiscriminately  sowing  mines, 
without  any  warning,  outside  terri- 
torial waters  on  Aug.  25-26,  1914, 
in  the  North  Sea,  and  on  the  main 
^.  Atlantic  trade  route  in  Oct., 
1914,  at  the  very  outset  of  the  war 
the  German  navy  showed  its 
complete  disregard  of  the  doctrine 
which  the  German  government 
professed  to  uphold.  See  Sea  Power. 

H.  W.  Wilson 

Freehold.  Term  used  in  English 
law  for  land  which  is  free  from 
all  charges  save  those  to  the  state. 
The  essence  of  it  is  that  it  cannot 
be  held  for  a  definite  term  of 
years,  however  long  ;  it  must  be 
indefinite.  It  is  the  best  kind  of 
tenure  known  to  English  law,  being 
superior  to  both  copyhold  and 
leasehold.  It  began  as  land  held  by 
a  freeman  on  a  free  tenure,  and  is 
now  the  most  common  form  of 
landholding.  What  is  called  a 
customary  freehold  is  a  kind  of 
copyhold.  See  Land  Laws. 

Freelance  (Ger.  freier  Lands 
kneckt,  free  land  trooper).  Term 
originally  applied  in  Germany,  and 
afterwards  in  other  countries,  to 
one  who  sold  his  military  service 
to  whom  he  pleased.  This  usually 
meant  to  the  highest  bidder,  with- 
out regard  to  more  than  inclina- 
tion or  pay.  In  the  later  Middle 
Ages,  and  for  some  time  after- 
wards, freelances  were  very  numer- 
ous in  Italy  and  France,  and  spread 
over  the  rest  of  Europe.  Some- 
times called  a  soldier  of  fortune, 
sometimes  a  mercenary,  he  wan- 
dered from  place  to  place,-  if  a 
noble,  with  a  following  of  men-at- 
arms,  or  in  company  with  a 
number  of  others  like  himself. 
Captain  Dugald  Dalgetty,  in  Scott's 


Legend  of  Montrose,  was  a  soldier  of 
this  type.  The  English  form  free- 
lance comes  from  confusion  with 
Lanzknecht  (lance  trooper).  See  Con- 
dottieri ;  Frano-tireur ;  Mercenary. 
In  a  modern  sense  the  term  is 
applied  to  anyone  who  in  politics, 
or  any  form  of  contest,  preserves 
his  independence  of  party  or  asso- 
ciation. In  journalism  a  freelance 
is  a  writer  who  earns  a  livelihood 
by  contributing  to  newspapers  and 
periodicals  without  being  attached 
to  the  regular  staff  of  any  one  of 
them.  The  Free-Lance  was  a 
London  weekly  paper  started  by 
Clement  Scott  (q.v. )  in  1900. 

Freeman.  One  who  is  free, 
i.e.  one  who  is  not  a  slave.  The 
distinction  between  the  two  classes, 
bond  and  free,  is  an  old  one.  It 
was  found  among  the  Greeks  and 
earlier.  In  Rome  there  were  two 
classes  of  freemen,  those  who  were 
born  free  and  those  who  were  freed. 
Among  the  Teutonic  tribes  of 
Europe,  including  the  Anglo- 
Saxons,  the  freeman  was  the  one 
who  enjoyed  political  power  and 
other  privileges,  who  fought,  held 
land,  and,  in  general,  formed  the 
dominant  class. 

The  freeman  of  to-day  is  one  who 
possesses  the  freedom  of  a  city  or 
borough,  e.g.  London,  this  being  in 
former  days  the  right  to  share  in 
its  government  and  to  enjoy  cer- 
tain material  privileges.  In  Eng- 
land this  freedom  is  now  regulated 
under  the  Acts  of  1835  and  1882. 
By  these  acts  freemen  by  purchase 
or  gift  were  abolished,  the  right 
being  confined  to  birth,  servitude, 
and  marriage.  Honorary  freedom 
of  a  city  or  borough  is  a  privilege 
granted  to  persons  of  distinction. 
Freemen  of  the  City  of  London 
play  an  important  part  in  the 
election  of  the  sheriffs.  See  City 
Companies  :  Slavery. 

Freeman,  EDWARD  AUGUSTUS 
(1823-92).  British  historian.  Born 
at  Harborne,  Aug.  2,  1823,  he  was 
educated  a  t 
private 
schools.  As 
a  boy  he 
showed  mark- 
ed ability, 
and  in  1841 
entered  Trin- 
ity College, 
Oxford,  as  a 
scholar.  Four 
years  later  he 
was  elected  a 
fellow  of  Trinity.  Having  married, 
he  settled  down  in  the  country  to 
the  career  of  a  writer,  making  his 
home  from  1860  at  Somerleaze,  near 
Wells.  His  first  book  was  A  His- 
tory of  Architecture,  1849.  He 
also  wrote  a  great  deal  for  the  re- 
views, especially  The  Saturday 


Edward  A.  Freeman, 
British  Historian 

Elliott  &  Fry 


Review,  and  travelled  much  abroad. 
Freeman's  historical  works  place 
him  in  the  front  rank  of  British 
historians,  and  are  based  upon  an 
exhaustive  study  of  original  author- 
ities. The  first  was  an  unfinished 
History  of  Federal  Government, 
1863,  followed  by  the  History  of 
the  Norman  Conquest,6  vols.,1867- 
99,  which  remains  the  chief  author- 
ity for  the  period,  although  later 
scholarship  has  declared  against 
some  of  its  theories. 

In  1884  Freeman  was  appointed 
regius  professor  of  modern  history 
at  Oxford,  a  post  he  had  desired  in 
1858,  but  his  best  work  was  already 
done.  He  delivered  the  statutory 
lectures,  but  his  health  was  bad, 
and  he  died  at  Alicante,  Spain, 
March  16,  1892.  A  man  of  strong 
and  outspoken  views,  he  attained 
some  eminence  as  a  Liberal  politi- 
cian, but  failed  to  enter  Parliament. 
He  denounced  the  iniquities  of  the 
Turks,  and  showed  warm  sym- 
pathy for  the  Greeks.  His  minor 
works  include  Historical  Essays, 
1871-92  ;  The  Reign  of  Rufus  and 
Accession  of  Henry  I,  1882  ;  His- 
tory of  Sicily,  1891-4  (completed  by 
A.  J.  Evans).  See  Life  and  Letters, 
W.  R.  W.  Stephens,  1895. 

Freeman,  MARY  ELEANOR  WIL- 
KENS  (b.  1862).  American  novelist. 
Born  at  Randolph,  Mass.,  and  edu- 
cated at  Mount  Holyoke  seminary, 
she  contributed  short  stories  to  the 
leading  periodicals,  and  published 
her  book,  The  Adventures  of  Ann, 
in  1886.  In  1887  she  won  wide 
popularity  with  A  Humble  Ro- 
mance. She  gained  valuable  liter- 
ary experience  by  her  long  work 
as  secretary  to  Oliver  Wendell 
Holmes.  Her  work  shows  sympa- 
thy and  quiet  humour  in  presenting 
country  types  of  the  New  England 
villages.  Later  works  included 
A  New  England  Nun,  1891  ;  Jane 
Field,  1892;  Madelon,  1896 
Silence,  1898  ;  Jamesons,  1899 ; 
The  Shoulders  of  Atlas,  1908 ;  The 
Copy-Cat,  1914. 

Freeman's  Journal,  THE.  Dub- 
lin daily  newspaper.  Started  as 
The  Public  Register,  or  Freeman's 
Journal,  a  bi-weekly  sheet,  Sept. 
10,  1763,  it  dropped  its  first  title 
in  July,  1807.  In  the  opening  part 
of  the  19th  century  it  became 
the  organ  of  the  Irish  Nationalists. 
From  1879  to  1902  it  was  the 
official  organ  of  Dublin  Castle. 
Henry  Grattan  is  said  to  have 
written  first  for  The  Freeman's 
Journal  his  character  of  Lord 
Chatham.  The  paper  was  tempor- 
arily suspended  in  Dec.,  1918,  by 
the  military  authority  because  of 
alleged  publications  calculated  to 
create  disaffection  ;  and,  on  a 
similar  charge,  was  the  subject 
of  two  courts-martial  in  1920.  N.  V. 


FREEMASONRY 


3332 


FREEMASONRY:  ITS  ORIGIN  &  HISTORY 

Dudley  "Wright,  Assistant  Editor  of  The  Freemason 

This  article  gives  some  idea  of  the  extent  to  which  freemasonry  has 

spread  throughout  the  United  Kingdom  and  over  the  civilized  world. 

See  also  Guild 


The  origin  of  freemasonry  cannot 
be  traced  with  certainty.  Many  of 
its  ceremonies  and  practices  have 
a  striking  affinity  with  the  cere- 
monies and  ritual  of  the  Eleusinian. 
Samothracian,  Dionysian,  and 
other  ancient  mysteries,  as  well  as 
with  the  most  ancient  religious 
ceremonies  known,  particularly  the 
initiatory  rites  and  ceremonial 
proved  to  have  prevailed  among 
Indian  races,  the  Druids,  etc. 
Even  the  origin  of  the  word  free- 
mason cannot  be  stated  with 
precision.  Legend  ascribes  it  to  an 
incident  connected  with  the  erec- 
tion of  Solomon's  Temple,  but 
O'Brien,  in  his  Bound  Towers  of 
Ireland,  says  that  the  word  must 
be  traced  to  Goban-Saer,  the  sup- 
posed architect  of  those  towers, 
that  the  word  Saer  means  Free- 
mason, and  that  those  towers  were 
masonic  edifices,  exclusively  ap- 
propriated to  the  worship  of  the 
Great  Architect  of  the  universe. 
The  existing  masonic  constitution 
is  also  akin  to  that  prevailing  in 
the  ancient  trade  guilds  of  England 
and  other  countries. 

Early  British  Lodges 

The  oldest  masonic  records  in 
the  British  Isles  are  in  Scotland. 
Edinburgh  Lodge,  No.  1,  the  oldest 
Scottish  lodge,  possesses  record 
books  from  1599,  but  these  do  not 
record  the  beginnings  of  that 
ancient  organization.  The  famous 
Kilwinning  Lodge  is  also  claimed 
to  have  been  in  existence  at  that 
date  as  a  governing  body,  but  its 
minute  books  date  only  from  1642. 
There  is  a  traditional  list  of  grand 
masters  in  England,  dating  from 
A.D.  290,  beginning  with  Albanus, 
and  ending,  before  the  historical 
period,  with  the  names  of  Charles 
Lennox,  the  first  duke  of  Rich- 
mond, and  Sir  Christopher  Wren. 
But  the  historical  foundation 
even  for  these  names,  it  must  be 
admitted,  is  slender. 

The  first  freemason  to  be  initi- 
ated on  English  soil,  so  far  as  the 
records  show,  was  Sir  Robert 
Moray,  who  was  also  one  of  the 
founders  and  first  president  of  the 
Royal  Society.  He  was  initiated 
at  Newcastle-on-Tyne,  May  20, 
1641,  the  entry  being  ratified  by 
the  signatures  and  masonic  marks 
of  four  brethren,  including  General 
Hamilton.  Elias  Ashmole,  also  one 
of  the  original  members  of  the 
Royal  Society,  was  initiated  at 
Warrington  five  years  Ifeter.  Some 
founders  of  the  Royal  So'ciety  and 
its  principal  officers  and  members 


for    several    years    were    leading 
members  of  the  masonic  order. 

The  organization  of  the  grand 
lodge  of  England  was  effected 
June  24,  1717,  by  the  union  of 
four  lodges  then  meeting  in  London 
three  of  which  are  still  in  existence, 
and  since  that  date  140  other  grand 
jurisdictions  in  various  parts  of 
the  world  have  been  formed,  all  of 
which  owe  their  parentage,  directly 
or  indirectly,  to  the  grand  lodge 
of  England.  Of  these  49  are  in  the 
U.S. A".  ;  34  in  Europe ;  21  in 
Central  America ;  15  in  South 
America  ;  nine  in  Canada  ;  eight 
in  Australasia ;  three  in  Africa  : 
and  one  in  Oceania.  The  grand 
lodge  of  Ireland  was  formed  in 
1729  and  the  grand  lodge  of 
Scotland  in  1736. 

Grand  Lodge  of  England 

In  the  grand  lodge  of  England 
two  offices  only  are  elective,  viz. 
grand  master  and  grand  treasurer, 
the  remaining  offices  being  in  the 
appointment  of  the  grand  master, 
a  similar  custom  pertaining  to  the 
grand  lodges  of  Ireland  and  Scot- 
land. The  practice  varies  in  the 
U.S.A.  and  other  countries,  but 
most,  and  in  some  jurisdictions  all, 
officers  are  elected  by  the  members 
of  the  grand  lodges. 

In  England  when  a  prince  of  the 
blood  royal  is  elected  grand 
master,  a  pro  grand  master  may 
be  appointed.  The  head  of  the  craft 
in  Scotland  is  known  as  the  grand 
master  mason.  In  private  or  sub- 
ordinate lodges,  the  master,  treas- 
urer, and  tyler  are  elected  by  the 
members,  but  it  is  essential  that 
the  master  should  first  have  served 
one  complete  year  as  warden. 

In  1813  the  designation  united 
grand  lodge  of  England  was 
adopted  as  the  official  title,  on 
the  occasion  of  the  union  with 
some  rivals  of  the  original  body, 
who,  in  1751,  had  formed  an  inde- 
pendent grand  lodge,  known  as  the 
"  Ancients,"  and  who  eventually 
secured  as  grand  master  the  duke 
of  Kent,  father  of  Queen  Victoria. 
He,  however,  reigned  over  that 
body  for  one  month  only  with  the 
object  of  bringing  about  the  union. 
The  duke  of  Sussex  then  became 
grr.nd  master  of  the  united  body, 
holding  the  office  until  1843,  since 
which  date  there  have  been  but 
four  grand  masters,  viz.  the  2nd 
earl  of  Zetland,  the  marquess  of 
Ripon,  the  prince  of  Wales  (King 
Edward  VII),  and  the  duke  of 
Connaught.  In  1908  Lord  Ampthill 
became  pro  grand  master,  and  in 


FREEMASONRY 

1903  Sir  Frederick  Halsey,  Bart., 
was  appointed  deputy  .  grand 
master. 

The  grand  lodge  of  England 
has  within  its  jurisdiction  46 
provincial  grand  lodges  in  England 
and  Wales  and  35  district  grand 
lodges  overseas.  There  is  not, 
however,  inter-visitation  between 
all  the  major  grand  jurisdictions, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  a  few 
have  ceased  to  regard  it  as 
obligatory  on  the  part  of  candi- 
dates for  initiation  to  declare  a 
belief  in  the  existence  of  a  Supreme 
Being  and  the  doctrine  of  immor- 
tality, two  of  the  most  ancient 
landmarks  of  the  craft,  set  forth 
in  the  earliest  Book  of  Constitu- 
tions, published  in  England  in 
Jan.,  1723.  This,  by  the  way, 
speaks  of  Inigo  Jones,  one  of  the 
names  mentioned  in  the  traditional 
list,  as  "  our  great  master  mason." 
The  discussion  of  religious  and 
political  subjects  also  is  strictly 
forbidden  in  British,  American,  and 
Asiatic  lodges,  although  it  enters 
largely  into  Continental  masonry. 

The  growth  of  freemasonry  in  all 
countries,  with  one  solitary  excep- 
tion— that  of  Germany,  which  has 
nine  grand  lodges — has  been  extra- 
ordinary, particularly  since  1914. 
To-day  the  grand  lodge  of  England 
has  at  least  3,600  lodges  within  its 
control,  while  the  lodges  through- 
out the  world  number  between 
27.000  and  28,000,  with  an  aggre- 
gate membership  of  approximately 
four  millions. 

Benevolent  Activities 

Freemasonry  the  world  over  is 
noted  for  its  benevolent  activities. 
In  England  there  are  three  well- 
known  institutions,  viz.  the  Royal 
Masonic  Institution  for  Girls, 
founded  in  1788,  which  has  a 
senior  school  at  Clapham  Junction, 
with  a  junior  school  and  convales- 
cent home  at  Weybridge,  opened 
in  Aug.,  1918,  with  nearly  800 
girls  receiving  benefits ;  the  Royal 
Masonic  Institution  for  Boys  at 
Bushey,  Herts,  founded  in  1798, 
with  nearly  900  boys  receiving 
benefits  ;  and  the  Royal  Masonic 
Benevolent  Institution  for  Aged 
Freemasons  and  the  Widows  of 
Freemasons  at  Croydon,  founded 
in  1836,  which  has  nearly  15,500 
annuitants  on  its  register. 

The  war  brought  into  existence 
the  Freemasons'  War  Hospital  in 
Fulham  Road,  the  outcome  of  the 
original  scheme  for  the  establish- 
ment of  a  masonic  nursing  home 
and  hospital,  to  which  it  has 
reverted,  the  institution  being 
founded  on  an  endowment  fund 
provided  by  subscription.  The 
income  of  the  three  first-named 
institutions,  collected  at  the  annual 
festivals,  amounts  approximately 


i  and  2.  Master  Masons'  aprons  :  i,  Enylisii  .  6.  Charity  jewel.  7.  English  Past  Master's  jewel  on 
2,  Scottish.  3.  Plumb  rule,  warden's  badge  oi  office.  collar.  8.  Apron  of  London  rank,  also  of  District 
4.  Apron,  collar,  and  gauntlets  of  Provincial  and  District  and  Provincial  Grand  Lodges.  9.  Apron  of  English 
Grand  Master.  5.  Scottish  Past  Master's  jewel.  Royal  Arch  degree 

FREEMASONRY:  JEWELS   AND    CLOTHING   OF   THE    ANCIENT   CRAFT 

By  courtesy  oj   George   Kenning   <t   A'ow 


FREE     PORT 

to  £250,000  per  annum.  In  ad- 
dition to  these  central  institutions 
every  English  province  and  nearly 
every  district  has  one  or  more 
funds  for  local  relief.  Ireland  and 
Scotland  also  have  their  institu- 
tions and  benevolent  funds,  whilst 
all  the  American  jurisdictions  have 
established  various  hospitals, 
creches,  and  other  institutions. 

The  term  freemasonry  is  applied 
strictly  only  to  what  is  known  as 
Craft  Masonry.  Outside  this  parent 
stock  there  are  several  branches. 
Royal  Arch  Masonry  is  governed 
in  England  by  the  Supreme  Grand 
Chapter,  Mark  Masonry  (including 
the  Royal  Ark  Mariner  degree)  by 
the  Grand  Mark  Lodge,  both  of 
which  bodies,  as  well  as  the  Craft, 
have  the  duke  of  Connaught  as 
Grand  Master.  The  next  largest 
masonic  body  is  that  of  the  Antient 
and  Accepted  Scottish  Rite,  fol- 
lowed by  the  Knights  Templar,  of 
which  bodies  the  duke  of  Con- 
naught  is  respectively  Grand 
Patron  and  Grand  Master.  Other 
branches  are  the  Allied  Masonic 
Degrees,  the  Royal  and  Select 
Masters,  the  Order  of  Malta,  the 
Knights  of  the  Red  Cross  of  Con- 
stantine,  the  Royal  Order  of  Scot- 
land, the  Order  of  the  Secret 
Monitor,  and  the  Societas  Rosi- 
cruciana.  Initiation  into  Craft 
Masonry  is  indispensable  for  ad- 
mission into  any  of  these  sub- 
sidiary degrees. 

Bibliography.  Hist,  of  Free- 
masonry, G.  J.  G.  Findel,  2nd  Eng. 
ed.  1869;  Hist,  of  Freemasonry,  R. 
F.  Gould,  6  vols.,  1884-87;  Lexicon  of 
Freemasonry,  A.  G.  Mackey,  7th  ed. 
1884 ;  Ars  Quatuor  Coronatoruni, 
being  the  Transactions  of  the  Lodge 
Quatuor  Coronati,  W.  J.  Songhurst, 
1887,  etc.  ;  Encyclopedia  of  Free- 
masonry, A.  G.  Mackey,  7  vols., 
1898-1900  ;  A  Concise  Cyclopaedia 
of  Freemasonry,  E.  L.  Hawkins, 
1908;  The  Grand  Lodge  of  Eng- 
land, 1717-1917,  A.  F.  Calvert, 
1917;  The  Builders,  J.  Fort  Newton, 
1918  ;  The  Origin  and  Evolution  of 
Freemasonry,  A.  Churchward,  1920  ; 
Masonic  Legends  and  Traditions, 
D.  Wright,  1921. 

Free  Port.  Port  at  which  no 
customs  or  other  duties  are 
charged  on  goods.  In  the  Middle 
Ages  there  were  a  number  of  these 
ports,  some  being  in  Italy,  others 
in  Germany  and  elsewhere.  Their 
existence  made  it  much  easier  for 
merchants  to  exchange  their  wares 
than  would  have  been  the  case  if 
duties  had  to  be  paid  before  this 
could  be  done. 

A  modern  substitute  for  the  free 
port  is  the  bonded  warehouse  sys- 
tem, although  some  free  ports  still 
exist,  e.g.  Hong  Kong  and  Singa- 
pore. In  other  cases  a  free  port  and 
an  unf  ree  one  are  side  by  side  in  the 
same  seaport.  Thus  Hamburg  and 


3334 

Copenhagen  have  each  a  free  port, 
as  well  as  the  ordinary  one  for  the 
import  of  goods.  The  former  is  used 
for  the  receipt  of  merchandise  that 
is  not  for  sale  in  the  country  itself, 
but  is  being  transhipped  for  sale 
elsewhere.  The  free  ports  of  modern 
China  are  such  in  a  different  sense ; 
they  are  ports  open  to  foreign  trade. 
See  Bonded  Warehouse. 

Freeport.  City  of  Illinois, 
U.S.A.,  the  co.  seat  of  Stephenson 
co.  On  the  Pecatonica  river,  112 
m.  W.N.W.  of  Chicago,  it  is  served 
by  the  Chicago  and  North -Western 
and  other  rlys.  Here  in  1858 
occurred  the  celebrated  debate 
between  Douglas  and  Lincoln,  in 
which  the  former  proclaimed  the 
Freeport  doctrine.  Settled  in  1835, 
it  was  incorporated  in  1850,  and 
became  a  city  in  1855.  Pop.  19,845. 

Free  Reed.  In  musical  instru- 
ments in  which  the  sound  is  due  to 
the  vibrations  of  a  reed  or  tongue 
the  reed  is  termed  free  when  it  is 
just  small  enough  to  pass  through 
the  frame  on  which  it  is  fitted. 
When  it  is  a  little  larger  and  beats 
against  the  sides  of  the  opening, 
as  in  organ  trumpet  pipes,  it  is 
called  a  Beating  Reed  or  Striking 
Reed.  Most  of  the  tongues  used  in 
the  harmonium  and  American 
organ  are  free  reeds.  See  Organ. 

Freesia.  Small  genus  (two 
species  only)  of  bulbous  herbs  of 
the  natural  order  Iridaceae.  They 
are  natives  of  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  They  have  long,  narrow, 
grass-like  leaves  and  large  funnel- 
shaped  white  or  yellow  flowers. 
F.  leichtlinii  has  yellow  or  cream- 


FREETHOUGHT 

coloured  flowers,  and  F.  refracta 
pure  white  blossoms,  marked  with 
violet  lines  and  sweetly  scented. 

Free  Soil.  Name  given  in  the 
U.S.A.,  before  the  total  abolition 
of  slavery  there,  to  soil  on  which  it 
was  not  permitted.  Early  in  the 
19th  century  the  Union  consisted 
of  an  equal  number  of  slave  and 
free  states,  each  entry  of  a  new 
slave  state  being  balanced  by  the 
entry  of  a  new  free  soil  state. 

In  1847,  the  anti-slavery  cause 
having  strengthened,  it  was  pro- 
posed to  make  slavery  illegal  in  all 
the  territories,  particularly  the  dis- 
trict recently  secured  from  Mexico, 
and  so  confine  slavery  to  the  exist- 
ing slave  states.  To  support  this  the 
Free  Soil  party  was  formed.  It  con- 
sisted of  bothDemocrats  and  Whigs, 
seceders  from  their  own  parties,  and 
was  strong  enough  to  secure  the 
nomination  of  its  own  candidate, 
Martin  van  Buren,  for  the  presi- 
dency. He  failed,  however,  and 
they  were  equally  unsuccessful  in 
1852,  but  they  sent  members  to 
Congress  and  were  influential  until 
1856,  when  they  gave  up  their 
separate  organization  and  became 
merged  in  the  Republican  party. 
The  party  motto  was  free  soil,  free 
speech,  free  labour,  and  free  men. 
See  Republican;  Slavery;  United 
States:  History. 

Freestone.  Sedimentary  rock 
usually  sandstone,  but  sometimes 
limestone,  which  can  be  easily 
worked  with  the  chisel  and  lacks 
the  usual  tendency  to  split  along 
certain  planes.  It  is  extensively 
used  in  architecture  for  mouldings. 


FREETHOUGHT    AND     FREETHINKERS 

Right  Hon.  J.  M.  Robertson,  Author  of  History  of  Free  Thought 

The  point  of  view  of  the  freethinker,  as  that  of  believers  in  the  various 

religions,  is  the  subject  of  an  article  in  this  Encyclopedia.    See  also 

Apologetics;  Christianity;  Dogma;  Rationalism;  Renaissance 


Though  the  appellation  "  free- 
thinker "  has  not  entirely  lost  the 
aspersive  sense  which  generally 
attached  to  it  among  Christians 
from  the  time  of  its  coming  into 
common  use  (c.  1700),  the  term 
"free  thought"  may  now  be  re- 
garded as  a  scientific  label  for  the 
attitude  of  mind  which  challenges 
all  demands  for  belief  on  grounds 
of  traditional  'or  documentary 
authority.  Broadly  considered,  this 
attitude  reacts  hi  the  same  way 
against  historical  and  other  pro- 
positions as  against  religious  dog- 
mas and  narratives ;  but  inasmuch 
as  the  latter  have  always  made 
the  most  menacing  claim  to  un- 
critical acceptance,  it  is  to  the 
critical  refusal  of  acceptance  in 
their  case  that  the  term  has 
always  been  commonly  applied. 

On  a  wide  survey  it  becomes 
certain  that  while  the  normal 


attitude  of  the  untrained  mind 
towards  all  serious  or  minatory 
assertion  concerning  the  unknown 
is  one  of  credulity,  there  has 
occurred  at  all  stages  of  human 
development  some  amount  of 
variation  towards  rational  doubt. 
Alike  among  savages,  among  bar- 
barians, and  among  the  more 
civilized  peoples  of  all  times  and 
countries,  there  has  always  been  a 
varying  minority  of  minds  who 
spontaneously  doubted  more  or 
less  the  truth  of  current  myths, 
legends,  and  dogmas.  The  "  scep- 
tical "  attitude  is  thus  a  natural 
variation,  like  another,  and  it 
depends  for  its  spread  upon  the 
totality  of  the  circumstances  which 
check  or  make  for  free  discussion. 
These  may  be  simply  economic,  or 
largely  cultural  or  political.  ' 

Inasmuch  as  religious  systems 
are  readily  able  to  employ  all  three 


FREETHOUGHT 

factors,  the  assailing  doubt  gener- 
ally suffers  from  that  disadvan 
tage ;  but  even  in  a  primitive  com- 
munity the  economic  factor  may 
at  times  be  negatively  on  the  side 
of  freedom,  as  when  a  series  of 
famines  may  lead  to  the  extinction, 
as  impostors,  of  all  the  "  rain- 
makers "  of  an  African  people. 
The  primary  bias  to  doubt,  how- 
ever, being  by  far  less  common 
than  the  contrary,  freethought  in 
progressive  conditions  is  always 
a  matter  of  resort  to  methods  of 
rational  appeal  (whether  well  or 
ill  conducted)  as  against  the  com- 
mon bias  to  belief  reinforced  by 
"  authority  "  on  social,  political, 
and  economic  lines. 

That  both  attitudes  are  in  some 
degree  primarily  temperamental  is 
indicated  by  the  significant  fact 
that  many  adherents  of  a  modern 
orthodoxy  are  found  to  show  a 
spontaneous  animus  against  an- 
cient "  freethinkers "  as  such, 
though  the  beliefs  which  those 
doubters  rejected  as  false  are  also 
rejected  as  false  by  their  modern 
assailants,  and  often  described  by 
them  as  pernicious. 

Historically  speaking,  it  is 
broadly  certain  that  freethought 
spreads  in  the  ratio  of  the  culture 
contacts  of  peoples,  whether  by 
way  of  simple  intercourse  or  of 
literary  communication.  The  mere 
differences  of  early  religious  beliefs, 
being  so  marked  and  so  innumer- 
able, constitute  a  propulsion  to 
doubt  when  they  are  simply  noted. 
Where  the  doubt  has  most  intel- 
lectual elbow-room  it  will  be  most 
developed. 

Ancient  Times 

Thus,  while  doubt  concerning 
the  gods  can  be  seen  among  the 
priestly  circles  of  ancient  India, 
Babylonia,  and  Egypt,  to  lead  to  a 
compromise  on  the  lines  of  a 
pantheism  which  conserved  the 
old  cults  upon  economic  motives, 
in  the  freer  world  of  republican 
Greece,  which  enjoyed  the  maxi- 
mum of  culture  contact  and  free 
discussion,  and  had  the  smallest 
development  of  priestly  organiza- 
tion, the  critical  process  was  both 
more  general  and  more  searching. 
Josephus,  in  his  diatribe  Against 
Apion,  expressly  reproaches  the 
Greeks  with  the  multiplicity  and 
divergence  of  their  historical  re- 
constructions as  contrasted  with 
the  unquestioned  uniformity  of 
tradition  among  his  own  race. 

The  very  fact  that  that  tradition 
had  undergone  much  priestly 
manipulation  in  the  historic  past 
had  passed  out  of  orthodox  Jewish 
knowledge  ;  the  Jewish  community 
having  come  to  represent  a  selec- 
tion or  survival  of  conformists  and 
devout  believers  from  among  a 


3335 

race  which  had  parted  with  multi- 
tudes of  its  doubters. 

In  that  case  the  retaining  power 
had  been  the  successfully  estab- 
lished cult  of  the  Sacred  Book.  In 
Greece  there  was  neither  Sacred 
Book  nor  centralized  priesthood. 
And  the  subsequent  history  of 
freethought  turns  mainly  on  the 
faith-commanding  power  of  Sacred 
Books,  whether  in  subordination  to 
or  in  alliance  with  other  factors. 
Roughly  speaking,  the  history  of 
the  Catholic  Church  down  to  the 
Reformation  consisted  in  the  sub- 
ordination of  the  authoritarian 
claims  of  the  Sacred  Book  to  those 
of  the  hierarchy,  the  former  having 
been  found  to  involve  constant 
risks  of  destructive  schism. 
Protestantism  and  Schism 

This  was  freshly  illustrated  in 
the  schisms  which  rapidly  overtook 
Protestantism,  when  that  move- 
ment erected  the  claims  of  the 
Sacred  Book  to  belief  above  all 
others  ;  and  to  such  schism  the 
Catholic  hierarchy  were  able  to 
point  as  discrediting  Protestantism 
from  the  point  of  view  of  the 
general  bias  of  faith. 

Since  the  Reformation,  the 
history  of  western  freethought 
has  been  one  of  more  or  less  con- 
tinuous gain  in  intellectual  pres- 
tige as  against  the  authority  of  the 
Sacred  Book  in  Protestant  coun- 
tries and  that  of  the  hierarchy  in 
others,  the  lines  of  advance  being 
those  of  science,  historical  criticism, 
ethics,  and  democratic  politics.  The 
bias  of  faith  may  often  be  found 
still  subsisting  in  promoters  of  all 
of  those  movements  ;  but  the  col- 
lective result  is  a  growing  proclivity 
to  the  critical  method,  broadly 
known  as  that  of  rationalism. 

Perhaps  the  most  generally  dis- 
integrating process  is  that  which 
systematically  develops  the  early 
factor  of  culture-contacts  by  the 
scientific  comparative  study  of  all 
the  primitive  forms  of  religion, 
from  which  the  later  are  now 
generally  recognized  to  derive.  Re- 
ligious beliefs  are  thus  themselves 
in  a  state  of  increasingly  rapid 
change,  even  among  biased  be- 
lievers ;  and  the  critical  process, 
grounded  on  the  sciences  and 
rationalistic  ethics,  becomes  in- 
creasingly confident,  even  while 
growing  less  polemical. 

The  historic  process  has  been,  as 
regards  the  more  educated  classes 
or  sections,  one  of  action  and  re- 
action. In  post-medieval  and  Re- 
naissance Italy,  clerical  abuses 
promoted  freethought ;  and  in 
France  and  England  after  the  Re- 
formation it  advanced  consider- 
ably after  periods  of  religious 
strife,  being  active  in  the  later 
years  of  Elizabeth,  and  again  after 


FREETHOUGHT 

the  Restoration.  Yet  again,  as  a 
result  of  both  scientific  and  scholar- 
ly progress,  it  spread  greatly, 
under  the  form  of  Deism,  in  the 
England  of  the  first  half  of  the 
18th  century. 

Commercial  and  imperial  ex- 
pansion and  the  Methodist  Re- 
vival later  weakened  the  intellec- 
tual activity,  which,  however,  was 
taken  up  in  France,  then  ripening 
for  the  Revolution ;  whereafter 
political  reaction  in  both  countries 
produced  a  reign  of  conformity  in 
the  middle  and  upper  classes,  leav- 
ing the  new  democratic  freethought 
partly  at  work  among  the  lower, 
in  so  far  as  they  were  accessible  to 
propaganda. 

An  organized  freethought  pro- 
paganda, mainly  democratic,  is  a 
notable  feature  of  the  second  half 
of  the  19th  century,  alike  in  Bri- 
tain, the  U.S.A.,  France,  Ger- 
many, and  other  European  coun- 
tries. Proceeding  as  it  did  on  the 
subversive  criticism  alike  of  science 
and  scholarship  as  against  the 
Sacred  Book,  it  was  most  active  in 
the  period  of  active  religious 
resistance  to  such  criticism,  flagging 
as  a  specific  activity  when  the 
Churches  in  general  began  to  accept 
that  criticism,  thereby  weakening 
their  own  foundations  and  turning 
belief  into  a  passive  rather  than 
an  active  force. 

Influence  of  Freethought 

The  relative  subsidence  of  spe- 
cific freethought  propaganda  is 
thus  a  mark  of  its  success,  the 
educative  process  being  thence- 
forth carried  on  by  the  specific 
activities  of  science  and  ethics  and 
general  truth-seeking  research. 
Churches  which  a  few  centuries  ago 
were  shedding  blood  for  super- 
naturalist  doctrines  of  sacraments, 
and  later  were  battling  against 
Deism  for  the  divinity  of  Christ, 
are  now  concerned  to  prove  His 
mere  historicity. 

Throughout  civilized  Europe, 
while  a  measure  of  social  ostracism 
still  falls  in  some  countries  upon 
those  who  openly  reject  the  whole 
body  of  traditional  religion,  the 
shifting  of  the  religious  ground  has 
greatly  weakened  the  power  of 
the  Churches  to  resort  to  forcible 
suppression  of  criticism,  and  the 
economic  and  cultural  obstacles  to 
freethought  are  really  the  more 
powerful.  In  Great  Britain  it  has 
been  gradually  recognized  that 
persecution  merely  multiplies  the 
assault,  giving  it  new  economic  re- 
sources through  popular  interest 
and  sympathy.  Alike  in  the  time 
of  Thomas  Paine  and  in  that  of 
Charles  Bradlaugh,  persecution 
greatly  strengthened  the  popular 
movement.  At  the  same  time,  grow- 
ing knowledge  of  all  kinds  weakens 


FREETOWN 


3336 


"    Freetown,  Sierra  Leone.     The  sea  front  and  harbour  of  the  W.  African  port 


both  the  temper  and  the  social 
basis  of  persecution  ;  and  Churches 
whose  clergy  are  in  most  cases 
pronounced  heretics  from  the  point 
of  view  of  their  own  official  creeds 
are  largely  incapacitated  for  sup- 
pressive  measures.  Many  eminent 
literary  men  of  the  last  generation 
having  committed  technical  "  blas- 
phemy "  in  a  supreme  degree,  that 
offence  is  now  never  prosecuted  in 
this  country  save  when  accom- 
panied by  contravention  of  ordin- 
ary police  regulations. 

Bibliography.  Hist,  of  the  War- 
fare of  Science  with  Theology  in 
Christendom,  A.  D.  White,  1896; 
The  History  of  English  Rationalism 
in  the  Nineteenth  Century,  A.  W. 
Benn,  1906  ;  The  Censorship  of 
i  the  Church  of  Rome,  G.  H.  Putnam, 
1906-7  ;  Hist,  of  the  Rise  and  In- 
fluence of  the  Spirit  of  Rationalism 
in  Europe,  W.  E.  H.  Lecky,  1865, 
repr.  1910;  A  History  of  Freedom  of 
Thought,  J.  B.  Bury,  1914  ;  A 
Short  Hist,  of  Freethought,  J.  M. 
Robertson,  3rd  ed.  1915. 

Freetown.  Port,  coaling  station 
and  capital  of  Sierra  Leone,  British 
W.  Africa.  The  city  is  situated  on 
the  Sierra  Leone  river,  with 
wooded  mountains  to  the  S.  and 
E.,  at  the  N.W.  extremitv  of  the 


Sierra  Leone  peninsula.  The  cli- 
mate was  unhealthy  for  Europeans, 
but  now  that  the  malarial  marshes 
are  drained  and  the  principal 
European  residences  built  on  the 
highlands,  reached  by  the  moun- 
tain rly.,  the  conditions  have  been 
much  improved.  Freetown  was 
founded  as  Granvilletown  in  1788 
as  a  residence  for  freed  African 
slaves. 

The  harbour  is  the  best  on  the 
W.  coast  of  Africa,  and  is  con- 
nected with  the  interior  by  a  nar- 
row-gauge rly.,  running  in  one 
direction  towards  the  N.E.  of  the 
Protectorate,  and  in  the  other 
towards  the  S.E.,  near  the  frontiers 
of  Liberia  and  French  Guinea. 
Should  the  proposed  western 
branch  of  the  Trans-Sahara  Rly.  be 
built,  Freetown,  as  one  of  the 
nearest  points  to  S.  America, 
would,  if  joined  to  this  Rly.,  be- 
come of  great  importance  as  a 
through  route.  The  town  possesses 
a  cathedral  and  several  educa- 
tional establishments.  The  chief 
exports  through  the  port  are  palm- 
kernels  and  oil,  kola  nuts,  rubber, 
gums,  and  ginger.  There  is  a  wire- 
less station.  Pop.  34,090,  includ- 
ing 558  Europeans. 


FREE  TRADE :  THE  THEORY  &  ITS  GROWTH 

Harold  Cox,  Editor  of  The  Edinburgh  Review 

With  this  article  should  be  read  those  on  Protection  and  Tariff  Reform, 
the  two  sides  of  the  question  being  thus  brought  together.  See  Smith, 
Adam;  Wealthof  Nations;  also  Political  Economy,  Wages,  and  articles 
on  other  economic  questions:  Industrial  Revolution;  Mercantile  System 


Free  trade  is  a  term  meaning,  in 
general,  the  absence  of  restrictions 
of  any  kind  on  trade.  In  modern 
speech  it  refers  particularly  to  the 
system  by  which  goods  are  allowed 
to  enter  one  country  from  another 
without  paying  customs  duty  for 
the  protection  of  home  producers. 

The  intellectual  revolt  against 
protection  began  with  the  publica- 
tion of  Adam  Smith's  Wealth  of 
Nations  in  1776.  Pitt  was  con- 
verted by  Smith's  arguments,  and 
England  was  beginning  to  move 
in  the  direction  of  freer  trade  with 
France  when  the  outbreak  of  war 
in  1793  put  a  stop  to  all  legitimate 
trade  between  the  two  countries. 
It  was  not  until  after  Waterloo 
that  the  agitation  against  protec- 


tion was  revived.  In  1820  a  notable 
statement  of  the  free  trade  case 
was  drawn  up  by  the  .merchants 
of  the  cities  of  London  and  Edin- 
burgh. The  proposals  embodied  in 
this  document — popularly  known 
as  the  Merchants'  Petition — 
formed  the  basis  of  reforms  in  the 
direction  of  free  trade  carried  out 
by  Huskisson  in  1823  and  the 
years  immediately  following.  But 
the  most  drastic  reforms  were 
effected  in  the  'forties.  In  1842  a 
large  number  of  protective  duties 
were  swept  away ;  in  1846  the 
Corn  Laws  were  abolished  ;  and  in 
1849  the  Navigation  Acts  were  re- 
pealed. The  victory  of  the  free 
traders  was,  by  the  end  of  the 
'forties,  so  complete  that  political 


FREE     TRADE 

controversy     on     tariff     questions 
died  down. 

Fifty  years  went  by  before  any 
renewed  attempt  was  made  to 
disturb  free  imports.  During  these 
years  the  population  of  the 
United  Kingdom  increased  from 
28,000,000  in  1851  to  42,000,000  in 
1901  ;  its  total  overseas  trade  per 
head  of  the  population  increased 
from  £6  10s.  in  1850  to  £21  6s.  5d. 
in  1900  ;  the  yield  of  a  penny  in 
the  income  tax  increased  from 
£1,200,000  in  1861  to  £2,500,000  in 
1901  ;  merchant  shipping  regis- 
tered in  the  United  Kingdom  in- 
creased from  3,600,000  tons  in  1850 
to  9,600,000  tons  in  1901.  During 
the  same  period  immense  additions 
were  made  to  the  Empire  and  its 
unity  was  demonstrated. 

During  the  twelve  years  that 
elapsed  between  1902  and  the  out- 
break of  the  Great  War  the  com- 
mercial progress  of  the  kingdom 
was  in  many  respects  relatively 
even  more  rapid  than  in  the  pre- 
vious half  century,  and  in  1914  the 
spontaneous  action  of  the  Do- 
minions finally  disposed  of  the  sug- 
gestion that  their  loyalty  was 
dependent  on  tariff  favours. 

These  broad  historical  facts  show 
that  since  the  free  trade  theory 
has  been  put  into  practice  England 
has  had  little  reason  to  be  dis- 
satisfied with  the  results. 
British  Free  Trade 

Concisely  stated,  the  free  trade 
theory  is  that  the  prosperity  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland  and  the 
unity  of  the  British  Empire  are 
best  advanced  by  leaving  the  ports 
of  the  United  Kingdom  open  to 
the  goods  and  the  shipping  of  all 
the  world,  subject  only  to  such 
charges  as  may  be  imposed  for 
revenue  purposes,  and  to  such 
measures  as  may  be  necessary  to 
guard  the  country  against  injury 
at  the  hands  of  an  actual  or  a  po- 
tential enemy.  That  a  similar  pro- 
position is  true  for  other  countries 
most  other  countries  have  denied. 

It  was  no  mere  accident  that 
brought  England  to  adopt  the 
policy  of  free  imports  while  most 
other  nations  remained  protec- 
tionist. There  are  both  mental  and 
material  causes  for  the  difference. 
The  principal  mental  cause  is  the 
long  English  tradition  of  individ- 
ual liberty.  That  tradition  makes 
government  interference  less  toler- 
able to  Englishmen  than  to  other 
peoples.  Americans  share  this 
English  mentality,  but  their  mater- 
ial circumstances  are  different. 

The  U.S.A.  is  a  vast  area  con- 
taining within  its  confines  most  of 
the  requisites  for  civilized  human 
life  ;  it  is,  therefore,  possible  for  its 
citizens  to  live  and  flourish  with  an 
external  trade  which  is  very  small 


FREE      WHEEL 


3337 


FREE      WILL      BAPTISTS 


in  comparison  with  the  internal 
trade  of  their  continent.  Conse- 
quently, if  that  external  trade  is 
subject  to  protective  duties,  the 
effect  on  the  general  body  of  the 
people  is  relatively  unimportant. 

Britain  and  Free  Trade 
In  the  case  of  Great  Britain  the 
situation  is  entirely  different.  The 
country  is  not  very  large ;  its 
natural  resources,  except  in  the 
matter  of  coal  and  good  pasturage, 
are  extremely  limited.  If  the 
people  of  Great  Britain  attempted 
to  "keep  themselves  to  themselves" 
they  would  have  a  very  poor 
life  indeed. 

England's  success  in  the  world 
had  its  origin  in  the  sea-going 
instinct  of  the  English  race  which 
a  long,  indented  coast-line  further 
developed.  To-day  the  industrial 
energies  of  Great  Britain  are 
devoted  largely  to  the  production 
of  goods  for  export.  But  if  a 
country  is  to  carry  on  successfully 
a  very  large  export  trade  against 
the  competition  of  other  countries, 
and  often  against  the  handicap 
of  hostile  tariffs,  it  must  produce 
cheaply.  One  of  the  most  im- 
portant elements  in  cheap  pro- 
duction is  the  cheapness  of  the 
materials  and  of  the  instruments 
employed  in  the  processes  of  manu- 
facture. Any  tariff  that  is  im- 
posed to  give  protection  to  pro- 
ducers for  home  consumption 
almost  inevitably  injures  pro- 
ducers for  export.  If,  for  example, 
a  duty  be  imposed  on  imported 
steel  bars  in  order  to  give  protec- 
tion to  the  producers  of  steel,  it  will 
injure  the  shipbuilding  industry, 
the  locomotive  industry,  and  al- 
most every  branch  of  engineering. 

These  illustrations  show  that  in 
a  country  with  a  highly  developed 
and  complicated  export  trade  it 
does  not  suffice  to  exempt  from 
taxation  what  are  sometimes  called 
raw  materials,  for  that  term  cer- 
tainly could  not  be  applied  to  such 
highly  manufactured  articles  as 
steel  bars  or  cotton  yarn.  Almost 
every  important  manufactured 
article  is  indeed  itself  the  material 
for  some  further  manufacturing  or 
industrial  process.  If  a  tariff  were 
confined  to  those  imported  articles, 
say  French  motor-cars  or  Austrian 
gloves,  which  were  ready  for  imme- 
diate use  by  the  ultimate  consumer, 
it  would  protect  very  few  industries 
and  would  indeed  more  appro- 
priately be  described  as  a  luxury 
tax  than  a  protective  tariff  In 
fact,  in  the  United  Kingdom  pro- 
tection cannot  be  given  by  means 
of  a  tariff  to  any  of  the  great  staple 
industries  without  injuring  others 
which  may  be  of  equal  or  even 
greater  importance. 

It  is,  of  course,  arguable  that  an 


all-wise  government,  by  picking 
out  the  more  important  industries 
for  encouragement  and  the  less  im- 
portant for  discouragement,  might 
add  to  the  economic  strength  of  the 
nation.  But  even  if  it  were  quite 
easy  to  discover  an  all-wise  govern- 
ment, it  still  would  be  difficult  to 
see  on  what  principle  such  a  govern- 
ment would  proceed.  Among  the 
most  important  industries  of  the 
United  Kingdom  are  cotton  manu- 
facture, coalmining,  andship-build- 
ing.  They  account  together  for  a 
very  large  amount  of  well-paid  em- 
ployment and  for  the  production 
of  a  great  volume  of  wealth.  They 
cannot  be  benefited  by  any  kind  of 
tariff ;  they  would  be  injured  by  al- 
most any  duties  imposed  to  benefit 
other  industries.  Would  an  all-wise 
government  select  these  great  in- 
dustries for  discouragement  and 
some  other  industries  forencourage- 
ment  ?  and  if  so,  what  other  indus- 
tries and  for  what  reasons  ? 
Agriculture  and  Protection 

There  is  indeed  one  industry 
which  on  national  grounds  can 
put  forward  a  plausible  case  for 
protection,  namely  agriculture. 
The  practical  difficulty  is  that, 
if  the  tariff  on  imported  agricultural 
produce  were  low,  it  would  make 
very  little  difference  to  our  home 
agriculture  ;  while  if  the  proposed 
tariff  were  high,  the  urban  popu- 
lation would  resist  its  imposition, 
and  as  against  the  urban  vote  the 
friends  of  agriculture  are  politically 
powerless.  It  is  important,  too,  to 
remember  that  agriculture  itself  is 
not  one  industry,  but  many.  The 
interests  of  the  dairy-farmer  and 
of  the  pig-breeder  are  by  no  means 
identical  with  those  of  the  wheat 
grower. 

These  are  examples  of  the  con- 
siderations which  lead  the  free 
trader  to  argue  that  it  is  better  for 
the  Government  not  to  interfere  in 
matters  of  trade  between  man  and 
man,  between  one  industry  and 
another.  Doubtless  private  enter- 
prise may  sometimes  go  astray. 
The  search  for  individual  profit 
does  not  necessarily  lead  to  the 
highest  national  advantage.  But  in 
the  main  private  enterprise  can 
only  succeed  by  developing  those 
industries  which  are  best  suited  to 
the  character  of  the  people  and  to 
the  natural  resources  of  the  island. 
Where  blunders  are  made  by  private 
enterprise  they  are  quickly  cor- 
rected, for  to  persist  in  an  economic 
blunder  means  bankruptcy.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  State  in  inter- 
fering with  the  course  of  trade  is 
not  necessarily  guided  at  all  by  any 
sound  economic  motive  ;  it  may  be 
compelled  to  action  solely  by  politi- 
cal corruption.  Moreover,  even  if 
the  intentions  of  a  government  are 


honest,  there  is  no  means  by  which 
it  can  constantly  test  the  wisdom  of 
its  policy.  It  may  blunder  along, 
hampering  where  it  intended  to 
help,  pulling  down  instead  of  build- 
ing up,  continuing  the  mischief  un- 
checked for  decades,  until  n«-u 
political  forces  have  grown  RtnuiL' 
enough  to  sweep  away  the  who  I- 
policy.  That  is  why  the  free  trader 
asks  that,  in  matters  of  trade,  politi- 
cians should  leave  the  individual 
free  to  do  his  own  blundering  at 
his  own  expense,  and  free  alpo  to 
achieve  success  for  himself  and  in- 
cidentally for  the  nation  by  his  own 
unhampered  methods. 

liibliography.    The  Commerce  of 
Nations,    C.     F.    Bastable,     1892;    I 
Wealth  of  Nations,  Adam  Smith  ;    \ 
Free  Trade  Movement  and  its  Re-    ; 
suits,  G.  Armitage-Smith,  1903  ;  The 
Life  of  Richard  Co  bden,  John  Mor- 
ley,  1903.     The    Return  to  Protec- 
tion, William  Smart,  2nd  ed.,  1906; 
A    Project    of    Empire,   J.    Shield 
Nicholson,  1909. 

Free  Wheel.  Term  given  to  a  | 
gear  or  pulley  wheel  which  is  pro- 
vided with  a  clutch  or  detent  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  wheel  may 
either  turn  with  the  axle  on  which 
it  is  placed  or  rest  idle  on  the  axle, 
while  the  latter  turns.  In  the 
former  case  the  wheel  is  working, 
in  the  latter  idl?.  A  now  familiar 
example  is  provided  by  the  com- 
mon bicycle  and  another  by  cer- 
tain forms  of  lawn-mowers  in 
which  the  wheel  "works"  when 
the  mower  is  moved  forward,  but  is 
idle  while  the  machine  is  moved 
backwards.  Many  other  varieties 
are  found  in  mechanics.  See  Cycling. 

Free  Will.  Psychologically,  the 
theory  that  men's  actions  are  not 
dependent  on  any  external  force, 
but  are  the  result  of  conscious  mo- 
tives operating  from  within.  Meta- 
physically, free  will  is  the  power 
of  acting  independently  of  any 
cause  whatever,  external  or  inter- 
nal— the  capacity  of  willing  or  not 
willing  the  same  thing  at  the  same 
time.  The  question  of  its  existence 
cannot  be  settled  metaphysically 
by  self -examination.  The  conscious- 
ness that  we  might  have  acted 
differently,  had  we  so  willed  it,  is 
beside  the  point,  which  is,  could  we 
have  so  willed  ?  "  It  is  certain 
that  I  can  act  as  I  will,  but  to  say 
that  I  can  will  as  I  will  is  senseless  " 
(Hobbes).  The  existence  of  free 
will  (metaphysically)  is  denied  by 
determinism  (q.v.),  affirmed  by  in- 
determinism.  See  Calvinism. 

Free  Will  Baptists.  Arminian 
section  of  the  Baptist  denomi- 
nation in  America,  corresponding 
to  the  General  Baptists  in  Great 
Britain.  Originating  about  1780 
through  the  preaching  of  Benjamin 
Randall,  one  of  Whitefield's  con- 
verts who  joined  the  Baptists,  they 


FREEZING      MACHINE 


3338 


FREIBURG- IM-BREISGAU 


separated  from  the  Baptist  body, 
which  at  that  time  was  strongly 
Calvinistic,  and  taught  Arminian 
doctrines.  See  Baptists ;  Calvinism. 

Freezing  Machine.  Double 
pail  for  making  ice-cream.  Ice  and 
salt,  broken  very  small,  are  packed 
into  the  outer  pail  in  layers  of 
three  inches  of  ice  and  one  of  salt 
nearly  to  the  top.  The  cream  mix- 
ture is  poured  into  the  central  pail, 
which  is  provided  with  a  dasher,  its 
handle  passing  through  a  hole  in 
the  top  ;  this  is  turned  until  the 
mixture  is  set.  See  Ice  Cream. 

Freezing  Mixture.  Mixture  of 
two  substances,  usually  ice  or  snow 
and  some  kind  of  salt,  which  pro- 
duces great  cold.  When  common 
salt  is  added  to  snow  which  is  on 
the  point  of  freezing,  its  first  effect 
is  to  lower  the  freezing  point  of 
that  part  of  the  snow  with  which  it 
is  brought  into  immediate  contact ; 
some  of  the  snow  is  accordingly 
melted  and  forms  a  strong  solution 
of  salt.  In  this  solution  the  mole- 
cules of  water  and  of  salt  enjoy 
much  greater  freedom  of  motion 
than  in  the  solid  form,  and  require 
extra  energy,  which  is  provided  in 
the  form  of  great  heat  from  the 
surroundings.  Thus  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  snow  is  reduced  below 
its  normal  freezing-point,  and  at 
the  same  time  the  saline  solution 
melts  more  snow,  this  process  con- 
tinuing until  a  limiting  low  tem- 
perature is  reached  at  which  the 
whole  mixture  freezes.  A  tem- 
perature of  —  20°  C.  can  be  reached 
in  this  way  with  a  mixture  of  snow 
and  common  salt,  but  by  the  use  of 
other  salts  which  dissolve  with 
greater  absorption  of  heat  much 
lower  temperatures  can  be  ob- 
tained. For  example,  calcium 
chloride  in  its  crystalline  form, 
mixed  with  snow  in  the  proportion 
of  10  parts  to  7,  will  produce  a  tem- 
perature of  —  55°  C. 

Freezing  Point.  Temperature 
at  which  a  liquid  assumes  the  solid 
form.  The  freezing  point  of  water, 
that  is,  the  temperature  at  which 
it  changes  into  ice,  is  one  of  the 
fixed  points  on  the  thermometric 
scale  (0°  Centigrade,  32°  Fahren- 
heit). Liquids  may  be  roughly  di- 
vided into  two  classes  as  regards 
the  properties  they  exhibit  in  the 
process  of  freezing ;  water  is  an 
example  of  the  liquids  which  under- 
go crystalline  solidification,  in 
which  there  is  a  change  of  volume, 
and  the  liquid  gives  out  a  definite 
quantity  of  heat,  called  the 
"  latent  heat,"  in  its  abrupt  change 
to  the  solid  form.  On  the  other 
hand,  molten  glass  is  a  liquid 
which  undergoes  "  amorphous " 
solidification ;  as  the  temperature 
falls  the  glass  ceases  to  run  freely, 
and  becomes  viscous,  then  gradu- 


ally hardens  into  a  solid.  The 
second  class  of  liquids  can  hardly 
be  said  to  have  a  definite  freez- 
ing point,  although  the  correspond- 
ing solids  have  a  melting  point, 
namely,  the  temperature  at  which 
they  begin  to  run. 

To  return  to  the  first  type,  in 
which  freezing  is  an  abrupt  change, 
it  is  a  fact  of  great  importance  that 
the  freezing  point  is  not  absolutely 
constant,  but  varies  under  pres- 
sure. Water  expands  when  it 
freezes,  and  the  effect  of  pressure 
is  to  lower  the  freezing  point. 
Paraffin  wax,  on  the  other  hand, 
contracts  in  freezing,  and  here  the 
effect  of  pressure  is  to  raise  the 
freezing  point.  In  other  words, 
those  liquids  which  can  solidify  only 
by  expanding,  are  hindered  from 
freezing  by  external  pressure,  while 
those  which  have  to  contract  in 
order  to  freeze  are  helped  by  ex- 
ternal pressure. 

The  freezing  point  of  a  liquid  is 
lowered  by  the  presence  of  a  salt 
dissolved  in  it.  Thus  a  solution  of 
common  salt  in  water  will  not 
freeze  until  its  temperature  has 
been  lowered  considerably  below 
the  freezing  point  of  pure  water. 
The  reason  for  this  appears  plainly 
from  the  molecular  theory.  Ac- 
cording to  this  theory  the  mole- 
cules of  water,  which  in  the  liquid 
form  have  considerable  freedom  of 
movement,  have 
to  occupy  definite 
relative  positions 
when  the  water 
assumes  the  form 
of  ice.  When  pure 
water  is  cooled  to  ; 
0°  C.,  the  energy 
of  the  molecules  is 
sufficiently  dim- 
inished to  allow 
attractive  forces 
to  come  into  play, 
under  which  the 
molecules  assume 
the  positions  re-  j 
quired  for  freez- 
ing, but  the  pre- 
sence of  particles 
of  salt  in  the 
solution  hinders 
this  process,  and 
the  energy  of 
the  molecules  of 
water  must  be 
diminished  by  a 
further  reduction 
of  temperature  be- 
fore solidification 
can  take  place. 
See  Heat;  Tem- 
perature ;  T  h  e  r  • 
mometer. 

Freiberg.  Town 
of  Germany,  in 
Saxony.  It  stands 
on  the  river  Munz- 


bach,  a  tributary  of  the  Mulde, 
20  m.  S.W.  of  Dresden,  and  is  tho 
mining  centre  of  the  Erzgebirge. 
Around  are  extensive  silver  and 
lead  mines,  while  the  town  itself  has 
an  old  and  celebrated  school  of 
mines.  Other  industries  are  the 
manufacture  of  textiles,  iron  and 
brass  goods,  cigars,  thread,  chemi- 
cals, beer,  and  gunpowder.  The 
chief  building  is  the  12th  century 
Gothic  cathedral,  restored  in  1893, 
and  containing  a  famous  doorway, 
called  the  Golden  Door,  which  has 
some  magnificent  sculptures. 

S.  Peter's  church  is  noteworthy, 
and  there  are  remains  of  the  town 
walls,  parts  of  which  have  been 
turned  into  promenades,  a  museum, 
a  park,  and  several  public  monu- 
ments. The  town  grew  up  around 
the  castle  of  Freudenstein,  which 
became  a  residence  of  the  dukes  of 
Saxony.  One  of  them  rebuilt  it  in 
the  16th  century,  and  this  building 
remains.  The  silver  mines,  to  which 
the  town  owes  its  existence,  were 
opened  about  1250.  Pop.  36,237. 

Freiburg.  Small  country  town 
in  Silesia.  It  is  built  upon  a  hillside, 
36  m.  S.W.  of  Breslau.  There  are 
manufactures  of  linen  and  watch- 
cases.  Pop.  9,800. 

Freiburg-im-Breisgau.  Town 
of  Germany,  in  Baden.  It  stands 
on  the  Dreisam,  near  the  western 
borders  of  the  Black  Forest,  40  m. 


Freiburg-im-Breisgau.     The  early  Gothic  cathedral  with 
famous  13th  century  tower,  386  ft.  high 


FREIGHT 


3339 


FREMONT 


S.  of  Strasbourg.  Its  older  streets 
are  narrow  and  almost  ruinous, 
but  there  are  numerous  handsome 
modern  thoroughfares,  and  some 
fine  public  buildings.  The  Gothic 
cathedral,  known  locally  as  the 
minster,  is  one  of  the  most  com- 
plete specimens  of  its  kind,  and  its 
tower  is  celebrated  for  its  delicate 
beauty  of  outline.  '" 

The  university,  founded  in  1455, 
has  an  excellent  library  ;  there  are 
a  fine  archbishop's  palace,  ducal 
palace,  and  merchants'  house,  and 
spacious  botanical  gardens.  The 
principal  manufactures  are  cotton  - 
thread,  sewing  silk,  paper,  and 
chicory,  and  there  is  a  fairly  ex- 
tensive trade  in  wine  and  timber. 
Long  a  possession  of  the  house  of 
Hapsburg,  the  town  was  on  several 
occasions  ceded  to  France,  notably 
in  the  17th  and  18th  centuries, 
finally  becoming  a  part  of  Baden 
in  1806.  Pop.  83,324. 

Freight.  Word  derived  from 
the  Dutch,  and  meaning  originally 
the  burden  or  cargo  of  a  ship. 
Hence  it  came  to  mean  the  rate 
paid  for  the  carriage  of  goods  by 
sea,  and  in  this  sense  it  is  now 
chiefly  employed.  It  is  used  in  the 
U.S.A.  for  the  carrying  of  goods  by 
land,  and  railway  freights  is  a 
common  term,  while  a  freight  train 
is  the  equivalent  of  the  goods  train 
of  Great  Britain. 

Freiherr.  German  title.  It 
means  free  man  or  free  lord,  its 
origin  being  like  that  of  baron.  At 
first  it  was  given  to  a  man  who  held 
land,  until  in  the  16th  century  the 
emperors  began  to  bestow  it  as 
a  mark  of  favour.  All  German 
sovereigns  until  1918  retained  the 
right  to  create  Freiherren,  who 
rank  after  the  counts  or  Graf  en. 
The  title  is  hereditary.  See  Baron. 

Freiligrath,  FERDINAND  (1810- 
76).  German  poet.  Born  at  Det- 
mold,  Lippe,  June  17, 1810,  his  first 
volume  of  poems  appeared  in  1838. 
Beginning  with  Ein  Glaubensbe- 
kentniss  (A  Confession  of  Faith), 
1844,  he  wrote  some  of  the  finest 
of  Germany's  revolutionary  songs. 
After  the  failure  of  the  revolution, 
he  was  an  exile  in  London,  until 
the  amnesty  of  1866.  He  died 
March  18,  1876. 

Freising.  Town  of  Germany, 
in  Bavaria.  It  stands  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Isar,  18  m.  N.N.E.  of 
Munich,  and  its  chief  industries  are 
the  making  of  agricultural  machin- 
ery, brewing,  and  printing.  Its 
main  interest  is  historic,  as  it  was 
an  important  ecclesiastical  centre 
in  the  Middle  Ages.  The  cathedral, 
parts  of  which  date  from  the 
12th  century,  was  restored  and 
altered  in  the  17th  century.  There 
are  several  churches,  including 
S.  Benedict's,  a  Rathaus,  and  the 


palace  of  the  bishops,  now  a  college. 
Near  the  town  was  a  Benedictine 
abbey.  Otto  of  Freising,  the 
chronicler,  was  bishop  here  in  the 
12th  century.  Pop.  14,946. 

Frejus  (anc.  Forum  Julii)\ 
Town  of  France  in  the  dept.  of  Var. 
It  stands  on  the  Gulf  of  Fr6jus, 
22  m.  S.W.  of  Cannes,  and  is  an  old 
Roman  station  containing  many 
Roman  remains.  It  has  been  an 
episcopal  see  since  the  4th  century, 
and  parts  of  the  cathedral  date 
from  the  12th  century.  A  sea- 
port of  some  importance  in  ancient 
times,  the  silting  of  the  river 
Argens  has  now  filled  the  harbour, 
and  the  town  is  a  mile  from  the 
coast.  Pop.  4,200. 

Fremantle.  Seaport  of  W.  Aus- 
tralia. It  stands  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Swan  river,  12  m.  S.W.  of 
Perth,  with  which  it  has  rly.  and 
river  communication.  It  has  a 
deep  and  well-equipped  harbour, 
and  is  a  port  of  call  for  European 
mail  boats.  Among  the  chief  build- 


From  1888-91  he  was  commander- 
in-chief  in  the  E.  Indies ;  from 
1892-95  in  China,  and  from  1896- 
99  at  Plymouth.  In  1889  he  was 
knighted,  and  he  retired  with  the 
rank  of  admiral. 

Fremantle,  SIR  SYDNEY  ROBERT 
(b.  1867).  British  sailor.  The 
eldest  son  of  Admiral  Sir  E.  R. 
Fremantle,  he 
was  born,  Nov. 
16,  1867.  In 
1881  he  entered 
the  navy  and 
in  1903  became 
a  captain.  In 
1915  he  served 
in  the  Darda- 
nelles, being  in 


command  of 
the  Russell 
when  she  was 
s  u  n  k.  After- 
wards he  was 
the  naval  staff 


Sydney    R. 
Fremantle, 
British  sailor 
Photo.  Butitll 

'chief  of 
was 


made  deputy  chi< 
F,  from  which  he 


Fremantle,  Western  Australia.      The  entrance  to  the 
harbour 

ings  are  a  fine  town  hall,  institute, 
public  library,  and  an  asylum.  Its 
industries  comprise  smelting,  iron 
founding,  sawmilling,  and  boat 
building,  and  there  are  flour  mills, 
breweries,  tanneries,  and  leather 
manufactures.  Wheat  is  largely 
exported.  The  town  is  divided  into 
three  districts.  Pop.  21,670. 

Fremantle,  SIR  EDMUND  RO- 
BERT (b.  1836).  British  sailor. 
Born  in  London,  June  15,  1836,  he 

was  a  younger 

son  of  the  1st 

Lord     Cottes- 

loe.    Educated 

at      C  h  e  a  m 

School,  he  en- 
tered the  navy 

in    1849,    and 

saw    a     good 

deal     of    ser- 
vice.    He  was 

in    Burma    in 

1852,  in   New 

Zealand  1864- 

66,  and  in  Ashanti,  where  he  was 
severely  wounded,  in  1873-74.  In 

1885  he  became  a  rear-admiral ;   in 

1886  he  was  made  second  in  com- 
mand of   the  Channel  Squadron. 


Sir  Edmund   Fre- 
mantle, 
British  sailor 

Photo.  Rustell 


transferred  in  1919  to  command  a 
battle  squadron    of    the   Atlantic 
Fleet.       He    was 
I   then  a  rear-ad  mi - 
j   ral.     In    1919  he 
was  knighted,  and 
he  has  written  on 
the  science  of  his 
profession. 

Fremitus  (Lat. 
roaring  noise).  Vi- 
brations produced 
in  the  chest  when 
the      patient 
speaks,     and     in 
certain   abnormal 
conditions,     such 
as  some  forms  of 
pleurisy    or    catarrh,    simply    by 
breathing.     They  are  detected  by 
placing  the  palm  of  the  hand  flat 
upon  the  chest,  and  their  presence 
or  absence  may  form  useful  diag- 
nostic signs  of  disease. 

Fremont,  JOHN  CHARLES  (1813- 
90).  American  explorer.  Of  French 
extraction,  he  was  born  at  Savan- 
nah, Georgia, 
Jan.  21,  1813. 
Graduating  at 
Charlestown 
College,  1836, 
he  accom- 
panied a  rly. 
survey  party 
through  Geor 
gia,  N.  Caro- 
lina and  Ten- 
nessee in  1837. 

and  surveyed  Nebraska,  Dakota, 
Minnesota,  and  Iowa,  1838-40. 
From  1842-54  he  explored  Oregon, 
California,  and  New  Mexico,  in 
which  states  he  made  rly.  surveys 
and  did  much  to  open  up  the  far 
west  to  settlers. 

A  senator  in  1850,  he  was  nomi- 
nated Republican  candidate  for  the 
presidency  in  1856,  but  his  anti- 


FREMONT'S   PEAK 


3340 


FRENCH 


slavery  sentiments  angered  the 
Southern  states  and  he  was  de- 
feated by  Buchanan.  In  the  Civil 
War,  1861,  he  was  major-general  in 
command  of  the  W.  division  at  St. 
Louis.  The  rly.  crisis  of  1873 
ruined  him  financially,  but  he  was 
governor  of  the  territory  of  Arizona, 
1878-82.  He  died  in*  New  York, 
July  13,  1890. 

Fremont's  Peak.  Mountain  of 
the  Rocky  Mts.,  U.S.A.  In  Wyo- 
ming, it  is  the  highest  point  in  the 


Wind  River  Mts.,  being  13,790  ft. 
high.  It  was  ascended  in  1842  by 
John  C.  Fremont,  hence  its  name. 
Fremont's  Pass  is  in  Colorado  in 
the  Rocky  Mts.  It  is  11,300  ft.  high. 
French.  River  of  Ontario, 
Canada.  It  has  its  source  in  Lake 
Nipissing,  and  flows  nearly  due  W. 
to  Georgian  Bay,  Huron  Lake.  Its 
length  is  60  m.,  and  it  forms  part 
of  a  projected  scheme  to  connect 
this  lake  with  the  St.  Lawrence 
river.  See  Georgian  Bay  Canal. 


J.  D.  P.  FRENCH:   EARL  OF  YPRES 

Sir  W.  Beach  Thomas.  K.B.E.,  Special  Correspondent  of  The  Daily  Mail 

This  is  one  of  the  biographies  of  the  military  leaders  in  the  Great 

War.    See  also  Foch ,   Haig  ;  Joffre  ;  Pttain  ;  Raivlinson  ;  Mons  ; 

Ypres,  and  others  of  French's  battles ;  also  War,  Great 


John  Denton  Pinkstone  French 
was  born  at  Ripple,  Kent,  Sept.  28, 
1852,  the  only  son  of  Captain 
French,  R.N.,  member  of  a  well- 
known  Irish  family,  and  of  Mar- 
garet, daughter  of  William  Eccles. 
At  the  age  of  14  he  entered  the 
Britannia,  but  the  navy  did  not 
appeal  to  him,  and  after  four 
years  as  cadet  and  midshipman 
he  left  to  join  the  militia  ;  and  in 
1874  obtained  a  commission  in 
the  8th  Hussars,  but  soon  trans- 
ferred to  the  19th.  He  became  cap- 
tain in  1880,  in  which  year  he  mar- 
ried Eleanora  AnnaSelby-Lowndcs. 
He  received  his  majority  in  1883. 

In  1884  French  saw  active  ser- 
vice for  the  first  time.  Proceeding 
to  Egypt,  he  was  attached  to  the 
force  that  was  to  relieve  Gordon, 
started  with  the  desert  column  in 
Dec.,  1884,  fought  at  Abu  Klea, 
pushed  through  the  Dervish  army 
at  Metemma ;  and  after  the  death 
of  Gordon  endured  the  painful  re- 
treat across  the  Bayuda  desert, 
Feb. -Mar.,  1885.  Promotion  came 
steadily.  He  was  lieutenant-col- 
onel in  1885,  and  in  1889  obtained 
command  of  the  19th  Hussars, 
which  he  left  after  four  years  to 
take  up  duties  as  assistant  adju- 
tant-general of  cavalry.  In  1897 
he  was  given  command  of  the  2nd 
cavalry  brigade  at  Aldershot  and 
was  transferred  in  1899  as  tem- 
porary major-general  to  the  com- 
mand of  the  first  cavalry  brigade. 
,  In  the  South  African  War  French 
was  given  the  command  of  the 
cavalry  division  in  Natal  with  the 
full  rank  of  major-general,  and  was 
one  of  the  few  officers  who  made  a 
name  in  the  war.  In  one  of  the 
earliest  actions  he  drove  the  Boers 
from  the  station  at  Elandslaagte 
and  fought  the  successful  battle  of 
that  name.  After  several  cavalry 
actions  he  saw  that  Ladysmith 
would  be  surrounded,  and  escaped 
by  the  last  train.  Thr6ugh  a  great 
part  of  the  war  he  kept  the  Orange 
Free  State  troops  at  bay  in  their 


attempt  to  invade  Cape  Colony, 
and  did  wonders  with  a  handful  of 
troops  and  a  few  guns.  As  soon  as 


Lord  Roberts  came  out  he  gave 
French  5,000  men  for  the  relief 
of  Kimberley,  which  the  force 
entered,  after  perhaps  the  most 
romantic  gallop  of  the  war.  From 
Kimberley  he  galloped  again  with  a 
tired  remnant  to  cut  off  Cronje  as 
he  escaped  from  Paardeberg.  He 
commanded  the  cavalry  in  the 
operations  that  ended  in  the  cap- 
ture of  Bloemfontein  and  Pretoria, 


and  the  left  whig  in  the  battles  east 
of  Pretoria,  June  10-12,  1900,  and 
was  in  charge  of  the  operations  in 
the  eastern  Transvaal  until  the 
war  ended  in  1902. 

French  received  a  K.C.B.  and 
K.C.M.G.,  and  in  Sept.,  1902,  was 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
general  with  the  Aldershot  com- 
mand, which  he  retained  till  1907. 
He  became  known  as  a  worker  who 
spared  neither  himself  nor  his  men. 
At  the  age  of  55  he  became  full 
general,  and  in  Dec.,  1907,  suc- 
ceeded the  duke  of  Connaught  as 
inspector-general.  He  became 
A.D.C.  to  the  king  in  1911,  and  in 
March,  1912,  succeeded  Sir  William 
Nicholson  as  chief  of  the  imperial 
general  staff,  an  appointment  that 
caused  some  comment  on  the 
ground  that  General  French,  like 
his  predecessor,  had  not  been 
through  the  staff  college.  In  1913 
ho  was  made  field-marshal.  His 
reputation  had  grown  even  on  the 
Continent,  where  he  had  repeatedly 
studied  military  operations. 
The  Expeditionary  Force 

French's  career  seemed  to  end  in 
1914,  when  he  resigned,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  Government's  action 
over  the  resignation  of  British 
officers  at  the  Curragh  Camp  in 
connexion  with  the  trouble  in 
Ulster.  On  the  first  hint  of  the 
German  threat,  however,  he  was 
selected  to  lead  the  expeditionary 
force.  Embarking  with  his  staff  on 
Aug.  14,  he  reached  his  own  H.Q.  j 
at  Le  Gateau  on  Aug.  17.  On  Aug. 
23  he  was  in  contact  with  the 
enemy,  the  battle  of  Mons  was 
fought,  and  the  famous  retreat 
began.  It  ceased  on  Sept.  5,  and  on 
Sept.  7  French  ordered  the  advance 
across  the  Grand  Morin  river.  The 
pursuit  to  the  Aisne  began  and  the 
armies  there  became  static. 

On  Sept.  16  French  deliberately 
came  to  the  decision  that  frontal 
attack  was  hopeless,  and  began 
to  urge  the  march  to  Belgium, 
as  he  wanted  to  prevent  the 
Germans  from  capturing  the 
Channel  ports.  His  views  slowly 
prevailed,  though  not  in  their 
entirety,  and  the  terrible  battle 
of  Ypres  opened  on  Oct.  10, 
ending  successfully  on  Nov.  21. 
when  the  British  troops  defeated 
the  German  attempt  to  capture 
the  salient.  All  this  time  and 
up  to  the  close  of  the  battle  of 
Festubert  in  May,  1915,  French 
had  urged  the  supply  of  more  and 
more  ammunition,  especially  high 
explosive  shells.  He  recorded  the 
facts  in  his  rather  controversial 
autobiographical  book  entitled 
"  1914."  He  saw  the  battle  from  a 
ruined  tower,  and  was  so  over- 
whelmed by  the  contrast  of  ammu- 
nition supply  of  the  contending 


FRENCH      EQUATORIAL      AFRICA 


3341 


FRENCH      POLISH 


armies  that  he  told  the  whole  story 
to  Colonel  Repington,  military  cor- 
respondent of  The  Times,  whose 
dispatch  caused  in  the  sequel  the 
fall  oi  Asquith's  government,  and, 
in  French's  words,  "  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  nation's  industrial  re- 
sources upon  a  stupendous  scale." 

French's  military  career  had  now 
reached  its  climax.  He  surrendered 
his  command  to  Haig  on  Dec.  15, 
and  in  1916  a  viscounty  was  con- 
ferred on  him.  He  became  Vis- 
count French  of  Ypres  and  High 
Lake,  Roscommon,  the  residence  of 
his  ancestors  since  the  opening  of 
the  17th  century.  He  took  com- 
mand of  the  forces  in  Britain  until, 
in  1918,  he  was  appointed  viceroy 
of  Ireland.  He  remained  there 
through  the  troubled  years  following 
1918,  though  rumours  of  his  resig- 
nation were  frequent,  retiring  in 
1921.  He  was  created  an  earl  and 
took  the  title  of  Earl  of  Ypres.  His 
heir  is  his  elder  son,  Hon.  John 
R.  L.  French  (b.  1881).  His 
younger  son  was  wounded  in  1917. 
French's  many  honours  include 
the  O.M.  and  the  K.P. 

French  Equatorial  Africa. 
Term  including  the  three  provs. 
of  Gabun,  Middle  Congo,  and 
Ubangi-Shari-Chad.  The  colony 
is  bounded  by  the  Cameroons  on 
the  W.,  the  Anglo -Egyptian  Sudan 
on  the  E.,  the  Belgian  Congo  on 
the  S.,  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean  on 
the  S.  W.  French  Equatorial  Africa 
is  administered  by  a  governor- 
general,  with  headquarters  at 
Brazzaville,  and  the  three  provinces 
are  administered  by  lieutenant- 
governors  residing  at  Libreville, 
Bangui,  and  Fort  Lamy  respec- 
tively. Each  province  has  adminis- 
trative autonomy  and  a  separate 
budget,  but  there  is  also  a  general 
budget  for  the  whole  colony. 

The  resources  of  the  colony  are 
almost  undeveloped,  but  it  is  ex- 
tremely rich  in  forestal  and  tropical 
products,  and  in  the  far  N.  there 
are  great  cattle-grazing  grounds. 
Communications  are  mainly  along 
the  waterways,  the  chief  of  which 
are  the  Congo,  Ubangi,  and  Shari 
rivers,  but  native  porterage  is  ne- 
cessary on  the  connecting  tracks. 
The  area,  exclusive  of  those  por- 
tions allotted  to  the  Germans  in 
1911  and  now  again  French  terri- 
tory, is  about  900,000  sq.  m.  Pop. 
about  6,000,000,  of  whom  about 
2,000,000  are  in  the  Chad  military 
territory  and  about  1,500,000  in  the 
rest  of  the  Ubangi-Shari-Chad  pro- 
vince. See  Gabun ;  Middle  Congo ; 
Ubangi-Shari-Chad. 

French  Horn.  Most  important 
brass  instrument  used  in  the  or- 
chestra. It  is  of  tenor  compass, 
and  of  mellow,  vocal  tone.  See 
Horn ;  Orchestra. 


French  Equatorial  Africa.     Map  of  the  French  Colony  between  the  Congo  and 

Lake  Chad,  with  the  territory  ceded  to  Germany  in  1911,  and  since  regained 

as  part  ol  Cameroons 


French  Polish.  Solution  of 
gums  or  gum-resins  employed  to 
give  a  polish  to  wood.  The  process 
of  producing  the  polish  on  the 
wood  is  known  as  french  polishing. 
The  composition  of  french  polish 
varies  according  to  the  preference 
of  the  worker.  Shellac  is  always 
the  main  ingredient,  and  the  sol- 
vent is  alcohol  (spirits  of  wine, 
methylated  spirit  or  finish).  Finish 
is  spirit  denaturised  by  the  addi- 
tion of  shellac  (3  ozs.  to  a  pint),  so 
that  it  can  be  sold  duty  free  and 
without  the  seller  being  licensed. 

The  simplest  form  of  polish  con- 
sists of  a  solution  of  6  ozs.  of  shel- 
lac in  a  pint  of  spirit,  but  when 
other  ingredients,  such  as  mastic, 
sandarac,  elemi,  thus  or  benzoin 
are  included  in  the  formula,  the 
quantity  of  shellac  is  correspond- 
ingly reduced.  The  gums  and 
gum-resins  mentioned  are  soluble 
in  spirit  if  time  be  allowed,  and  if 
the  bottle  that  contains  the  ingre- 
dients be  kept  in  a  warm  place. 
Polishing  Process 

The  process  of  french  polishing 
is  really  a  series  of  operations  con- 
sisting of  (1 )  the  preparation  of  the 
wood  ;  (2)  the  polishing  ;  and  (3) 
the  finishing.  The  surface  of  the 
wood  is  made  as  smooth  as  possible 
by  glass-paper  and  sand-paper,  and 
is  then  subjected  to  a  process  of 


filling  in  the  pores  of  the  wood  with 
a  creamy  paste  of  plaster  of  Paris 
or  whiting  and  linseed  oil.  The 
filler  is  coloured  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  wood,  using  rose- 
pink  for  mahogany,  brown  umber 
for  walnut,  and  yellow  ochre  for 
oak  and  other  light  woods.  The 
colour  of  the  wood  is  also  dark- 
ened at  this  stage  if  desired  by 
applying  suitable  colouring  matters. 
The  surface  of  the  wood  is  again 
smoothed  with  sand-paper  and  the 
french  polish  applied.  A  pledget  of 
woollen  rag  or  cotton  wool  is 
saturated  with  the  polish  and  en- 
closed in  a  piece  of  close-textured 
cotton  fabric,  so  as  to  make  a 
smooth,  hard  surface.  A  few  drops 
of  linseed  oil  and  of  polish  are 
applied  to  the  pad  and  rubbed  on 
to  the  wood  with  a  free,  continuous 
and  circular  movement,  taking 
care  not  to  treat  too  large  a  surface 
at  one  operation. 

The  spirit  evaporating  during 
the  polishing  leaves  a  hard  surface 
of  shellac  on  the  wood.  The  first 
polish  is  generally  rubbed  down 
with  sand-paper,  and  the  polishing 
repeated  until  a  uniform  surface  is 
obtained.  This  is  allowed  to  re- 
main for  a  few  days  when  the 
finishing  process  is  carried  out,  i.e. 
wiping  the  surface  with  a  small 
quantity  of  spirit 


FRENCH  REVOLUTION 


FRENCH  REVOLUTION 


FRENCH  REVOLUTION,    1789-1795 

A.  D.  Innes,  Author  of  A  General  Sketch  of  Political  History 

This  article  deals  with  a  special  movement  in  French  and  European 
history.  See  the  articles  on  Mirabeau ;  Robespierre,  and  the  great 
figures  of  the  Revolution ;  those  on  Directory  ;  Feuillants  ;  Girondists ; 
Jacobins,  etc.  See  also  Europe;  France;  Louis  XVI ;  Napoleon 


The  French  Revolution  is  the 
name  given  to  that  period  of  vol- 
canic upheaval  in  France,  usually 
reckoned  as  beginning  with  the 
meeting  of  the  States-General  in 
May,  1789,  and  closing  with  the 
establishment  of  the  Directory  in 
Oct.,  1795.  Its  ideal  was  set  forth 
in  the  three  wordsLiberty,  Equality , 
Fraternity.  In  form  it  was  a  terrific 
convulsion;  its  methods  trampled 
its  principles  in  the  mire ;  it  issued, 
not  in  democracy,  but  in  Caesarism. 
Nevertheless  it  undermined  the 
foundations  of  the  old  order  of 
privilege,  and  inaugurated  the  long 
struggle  for  the  political,  social, 
and  economic  emancipation  of  the 
masses  of  the  European  population. 

France  in  1788  had  reached  the 
stage  at  which  drastic  reforms  had 
become  a  sheer  necessity  ;  failing 
reforms,  the  only  possible  alterna- 
tives were  a  stormy  revolution  or 
the  establishment  of  an  irresistible 
tyranny.  Her  political  system, 
consummated  under  Louis  XIV, 
was  an  uncompromising  absolutism 
which  allowed  the  people  no  share 
whatever  in  the  government.  The 
king  ruled  through  ministers  whom 
he  appointed  or  dismissed  at  his 
own  pleasure — ministers  nearly 
always  chosen  from  the  aristocracy. 


and  responsible  to  no  one  save  to 
the  king  himself.  Socially,  the 
population  was  divided  into  rigid 
castes,  forming  primarily  three 
groups,  the  noblesse  or  aristocracy 
of  birth,  the  clergy,  and  the  com- 
mons. In  France  all  the  members 
of  a  noble  family  remained  of  the 
noblesse,  not  commoners  at  all, 
from  generation  to  generation.  The 
clergy  were  separated  from  the  rest 
not  by  birth,  but  by  the  rule  of  celi- 
bacy and  by  their  sacred  functions. 
In  the  towns  there  was  a  middle 
class — the  bourgeoisie,  professional 
men  and  traders — and  a  working 
class  ;  in  the  country  districts  the 
peasantry  were  virtually  the  serfs 
of  the  seigneurs,  the  landed  pro- 
prietors who  owned  the  soil,  to 
whom  they  were  legally  bound  to 
render  payments  and  unpaid  ser- 
vices, and  who  exercised  a  broad 
jurisdiction  over  them.  Economi- 
cally, noblesse  and  clergy  were  al- 
most exempt  from  taxation.  The 
whole  burden  of  providing  the 
national  revenue,  the  cost  of  the 
court,  of  war,  of  administration, 
was  on  the  shoulders  of  the  com- 
mons, and  pressed  most  heavily 
upon  the  peasantry  who  were  least 
able  to  bear  it.  There  was  no 
liberty  of  the  individual. 


But  the  seeds  of  change  had  been 
sown  by  the  "  intellectuals."  The 
mockery  of  Voltaire  had  shattered 
the  sense  of  reverence  for  conven- 
tions. The  writers  in  the  Grande 
Encyclopedic,  D'Alembert,  Dide- 
rot, and  others,  had  challenged  all 
the  principles  upon  which  the  social 
and  political  structure  was  based. 
Jean  Jacques  Rousseau  had  pro- 
pounded palpably  revolutionary 
doctrines,  notably  in  his  Contrat 
Social,  teaching  that  the  organiza- 
tion of  society  rested  upon  an 
original  contract  imposed  by  the 
strong,  for  their  own  interest,  upon 
the  weak,  claiming  that  the  ulti- 
mate authority  is  the  Will  of  the 
People,  and  insisting  upon  "  natu- 
ral rights,"  the  Rights  of  Man. 

With  a  light  heart  France,  in 
order  to  injure  England,  had  taken 
the  part  of  the  Americans,  and 
French  aristocrats,  unconscious 
that  they  were  sporting  on  the 
crater  of  a  volcano,  played  gaily  at 
advocating  those  same  revolution- 
ary ideas.  Meanwhile,  France  was 
rushing  towards  bankruptcy,  the 
result  of  accumulated  expenditure 
upon  wars  of  aggression  from  which 
there  had  been  but  very  brief  re- 
spites during  the  last  century  and 
a  half. 

The  immediate  cause  of  the  cata- 
clysm was  this  financial  chaos.  The 
crushing  burden  of  taxation  and 
forced  labour  imposed  upon  the 
unprivileged  classes,  the  obvious 
need  for  reorganization,  the  oppo- 
sition persistently  offered  to  any 


French  Revolution.    The  mob  invading  the  Tuileries  palace  in  an  attempt  to  intimidate  the  king  and  queen,  June  20. 1792 


:  drawing  in  the  Louvre,  Paris 


FRENCH      REVOLUTION 


3343 


FRENCH      REVOLUTION 


reorganization  by  the  privileged 
classes,  the  disastrous  failure  of  a 
succession  of  incompetent  ministers 
to  discover  any  remedy  for  the 
chaos,  led  to  the  suggestion  that 
the  Government  should  consult  the 
nation  by  summoning  an  Assembly 
of  the  three  estates,  noblesse,  clergy 
and  commons,  an  obsolete  form  of  a 
National  Assembly  which  had  not 
been  called  together  for  the  best 
part  of  two  centuries. 

In  Jan.,  1789,  the  States-General 
was  summoned.  At  the  beginning 
of  May  it  assembled,  the  Third 
Estate,  or  commons,  appearing  by 
its  elected  representatives,  among 
whom  were  included  a  sprinkling  of 
aristocratic  sympathisers.  It  was 
apparent  that,  if  the  three  estates 
voted  as  separate  chambers,  as 
the  government  intended,  the  two 
privileged  chambers  would  be  in 
permanent  agreement,  resolved  to 


French  Revolution.      Enrolling  volunteers  to  serve  in  the  Revolutionary  armies 

From  a  picture  by  Vinchon,  at  VeriaiUet 

14    the    mob    marched    upon    the    Armed  Paris  organized  itself  as  the 


upon 
Bastille,  the  fortress-prison  which 


French  Revolution.     Roll  call  of  the  last  victims  of  the  Reign  of  Terror,  1794. 

The  seated  figure  in  the  centre  is  Andre  de  Chenier,  who  wrote  his  most  famous 

poems  in  the  pr  ison  of  Saint-Lazare 

From  a  picture  by  C.  L  Muller,  at  Versailles 


surrender  no  fraction  of  the  privi- 
leges which  in  their  view  consti- 
tuted the  safeguards  of  society. 
The  voice  of  the  Third  Estate  would 
count  for  nothing  unless  all  the 
chambers  voted  together,  giving 
the  preponderant  voting  power  to 
the  preponderant  numbers  of  the 
Third  Estate. 

This  was  the  first  battle-ground, 
and  the  fight  was  won  by  the  Third 
Estate,  led  by  the  aristocrat  Mira- 
beau.  Its  delegates  assumed  the 
title  of  the  National  Assembly, 
and  were  joined  by  many  of  the 
representatives  of  the  lower  clergy. 
The  sympathies  of  the  whole  popu- 
lation of  Paris  and  the  whole  rank 
and  file  of  the  soldiery  were  with 
them.  An  appeal  to  force  was  too 
dangerous  to  be  attempted ;  the 
government  gave  way  and  the 
Estates  were  constituted  as  a 
single  chamber. 

The  court  sought  to  save  itself 
and  to  overawe  Paris  by  means  of 
mercenary  regiments,  Germans  and 
Swiss.  Paris  armed  itself  ;  on  July 


stood  as  the  material  embodiment 
of  the  old  system,  and  stormed  it. 


National  Guard.  The  fall  of  the 
Bastille  was  hailed  as  typifying  the 
fall  of  the  old  order.  The  National 
Guard  was  placed  under  the  com- 
mand of  the  popular  nobleman 
Lafayette ;  it  adopted  the  tri- 
colour for  its  colours.  All  over 
the  country  mobs  rose,  and  the 
down-trodd'en  peasantry  turned 
their  fury  upon  the  chateaux  of  the 
seigneurs,  while  payment  of  taxes 
was  refused.  The  whole  machinery 
of  government  had  broken  down, 
though  some  semblance  of  order 
was  preserved  by  the  efforts  of  the 
middle  classes  and  by  the  organiza- 
tion in  the  provinces  of  National 
Guards  after  the  Paris  model. 

On  the  other  hand  the  king, 
Louis  XVI,  a  man  hopelessly  lack- 
ing in  insight,  but  with  the  best  of 
intentions  and  abundant  personal 
courage,  won  a  moment's  popu- 
larity by  boldly  presenting  himself 
in  Paris,  obviously  at  the  risk  of 


French  Revolution.    The  arrest  of  Robespierre  amidst  the  turmoil  and  strife 
of  the  night  of  9-10  Thermidor,  1794 

From  a  contemporary  print 


FRENCH       REVOLUTION 


3344 


FRENCH      REVOLUTION 


his  life,  and  mounting  the  tricolour 
cockade.  Popular  hostility,  how- 
ever, was  directed  not  against  him 
but  against  the  arrogance  and  the 
privileges  of  the  noblesse.  These,the 
enthusiasts  declared,  were  at  the 
root  of  the  woes  of  France  ;  and 
on  Aug.  4  the  National  Assembly 
decreed  the  abolition  of  the  whole 
mass  of  the  obnoxious  privileges  ; 
after  which  it  set  about  formulating 
a  constitution,  taking  to  itself  the 
title  of  the  Constituent  Assembly. 

While  the  Assembly  continued 
its  work  of  wholesale  abolition  and 
wholesale  reconstruction,  the  king 
was  kept  virtually  a  prisoner  in 
Paris ;  numbers  of  the  nobility 
were  fleeing  or  had  already  fled 
into  a  voluntary  exile  in  the  hope 
of  eventually  recovering  their  lost 
privileges  by  force  ;  and  outside  the 
Assembly  was  organized  the  politi- 
cal association  of  reformers  known 
as  the  Jacobin  Club,  which  derived 
its  name  from  its  meeting  place, 
the  Dominican  or  Jacobin  convent 
of  the  Rue  S.  Jacques.  The  club, 
affiliating  to  itself  similar  clubs  all 
over  the  country,  became  a  great 
political  power. 

Death  of  Mirabeau 

It  is  conceivable  that  Mirabeau, 
if  the  court  party  had  placed  itself 
unreservedly  in  his  hands,  might 
have  succeeded  in  effecting  a  re- 
construction combining  a  monar- 
chical executive  with  a  democratic 
legislature,  capable  of  providing  a 
strong  government  with  popular 
sympathies;  but  the  court  party 
had  few  ideas  apart  from  striving 
to  paralyse  the  activities  of  the 
Assembly,  in  which  they  were 
aided  by  the  extremists  of  the 
other  wing.  The  last  chance,  such 
as  it  was,  perished  with  the  death 
of  Mirabeau  on  April  2,  1791.  The 
king,  finding  himself  helpless, 
resolved  upon  flight.  He  attempted 
to  execute  the  design  (June),  but 
was  detected  and  stopped  at 
Varennes  as  he  was  nearing  the 
frontier,  and  was  brought  back. 

The  flight  to  Varennes  and  the 
documents  which  Louis  had  left 
behind  made  it  clear  that  the  king 
was  antagonistic  to  the  constitu- 
tion which  had  been  designed,  also 
that  it  was  probable  he  would  seek 
to  evade  it  or  overturn  it.  There 
was  more  than  excuse  for  the 
suspicion  that  he  and  his  wife, 
Marie  Antoinette,  if  they  had 
crossed  the  border,  intended  to 
appeal  to  the  crowned  heads  of 
Europe  and  more  particularly  to 
the  queen's  brother,  the  emperor 
Leopold  II.  The  emigres,  the  fugi- 
tive noblesse,  notable  among  whom 
was  the  king's  brother,  the  count 
of  Artois  (afterwards  Charles  X), 
were  already  clamouring  for  armed 
intervention  from  abroad. 


Leopold,  in  conjunction  with  the 
king  of  Prussia,  issued  the  declara- 
tion of  Pilnitz — a  warning  that  the 
Powers  could  not  recognize  the 
existing  French  government  until 
the  reinstatement  of  the  king,  and 
threatening  intervention  should 
the  Powers  be  unanimous — a  per- 
fectly safe  threat,  since  Leopold 
knew  that  the  Powers  would  not 
be  unanimous.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  declaration  was  calculated  to 
silence  the  emigres. 

The  Legislative  Assembly 

Meanwhile  in  France  the  more 
advanced  democrats  were  calling 
for  the  deposition  of  the  king,  even 
for  the  declaration  of  a  republic. 
Moderates  like  Lafayette,  men 
who  two  years  before  had  been 
regarded  as  the  leaders  of  the 
advance  guard,  rallied  to  the 
monarchy  and  urged  on  the  king 
the  adoption  of  the  constitution 
promulgated  by  the  Assembly. 
His  acceptance  reinstated  him  as 
king,  with  limited  powers.  The 
constitution  provided  for  the 
appointment  of  a  new  Legislative 
Assembly  in  which  all  members  of 
the*  National  Assembly  were  pro- 
hibited from  sitting. 

The  members  of  the  National 
Assembly  had  at  least  attained 
some  experience  of  administrative 
functions ;  the  members  of  the 
new  Legislative  Assembly  were 
without  experience  at  all,  and 
were  for  the  most  part  doctrinaire 
republicans.  On  the  reinstate- 
ment of  the  monarchy  the  declara- 
tion of  Pilnitz  was  withdrawn. 
But  it  had  had  a  fatal  effect  upon 
which  Leopold  had  not  calculated. 
Its  subtle  intention  was  mis- 
understood in  France,  and  it  was 
regarded  simply  as  an  insolent 
attempt  on  the  part  of  foreign 
Powers  to  dictate  to  France  on  a 
domestic  question  with  which  they 
had  no  concern. 

In  the  Assembly  there  were  three 
main  groups  besides  the  infinitesi- 
mal sprinkling  of  thorough -going 
royalists  :  the  Feuillants  or  Con- 
stitutionalists, the  Girondins,  who 
came  from  the  department  of  the 
Gironde  and  may  be  described  as 
literary  republicans ;  and  the  ultra- 
democrats,  now  identified  with  the 
Jacobins.  The  Feuillants  and  the 
Girondins  were  both  disposed  to 
adopt  a  highly  aggressive  attitude 
towards  the  foreign  Powers  and 
the  emigres.  Louis  found  himself 
forced  to  discard  his  royalist 
ministers  and  put  Girondins  in 
their  places.  Though  the  Jacobins 
held  aloof,  for  which  the  leaders 
outside,  Danton  and  Robespierre 
and  Marat,  had  their  own  reasons, 
Louis  was  compelled  to  declare 
war  upon  Austria  at  the  moment 
when  the  emperor  Leopold  died 


and  was  succeeded  by  Francis  II 
(March,  1792). 

Dumouriez,  the  new  war  minis- 
ter, had  again  developed  Louis 
XIV's  conception  that  the  borders 
of  France  should  be  extended  to  her 
"  natural  boundaries,"  the  Rhine, 
the  Alps,  and  the  Pyrenees. 
Patriots  hastened  to  join  the  as  yet 
ill -organized  armies  OTI  the  frontiers. 
Ill-success  was  attributed  to  the 
aristocratic  officers.  Riots  broke 
out  in  Paris,  the  mob  invaded  the 
Tuileries  and  insulted  the  king  and 
the  royal  family.  Prussia  declared 
war  in  alliance  with  Austria — it 
must  be  remembered  that  at  this 
time  the  Netherlands  belonged  to 
Austria,  and  the  modern  Belgian 
frontier  was  then  the  Austro- 
French  frontier.  The  duke  of 
Brunswick,  on  behalf  of  Prussia, 
issued  a  threatening  manifesto 
which  filled  Paris  with  wrath.  The 
Jacobins  had  captured  the  Com- 
mune (the  government  of  Paris), 
and  virtually  dominated  the  Legis- 
lative Assembly. 

The  Victory  of  Valmy 

The  prisons  were  crowded  with 
suspects,  persons  supposed  to  be 
under  suspicion  of  collusion  with 
the  emigres.  The  advance  of  the 
Prussians  created  a  panic;  there 
was  a  widespread  belief  that  there 
was  a  royalist  plot  for  a  royalist 
insurrection  in  Paris.  The  Com- 
mune organized  a  visitation  of  the 
prisons,  and  in  the  September 
Massacres  hundreds  of  captives 
were  slaughtered.  Simultaneously 
came  the  news  that  the  Prussians 
had  been  checked  in  an  engage- 
ment at  Valmy.  From  that  time 
the  armies  of  the  Republic  habitu- 
ally proved  themselves  more  than 
a  match  for  then-  enemies. 

With  the  close  of  Sept.  the 
Legislative  Assembly  gave  way  to 
a  new  National  Convention,  part 
Girondist,  part  Jacobin,  and  alto- 
gether Republican.  It  proceeded 
at  once  to  declare  that  the  monar- 
chy was  abolished  and  a  Repub- 
lic established,  and  all  populations 
in  districts  occupied  by  French 
troops  were  proclaimed  freed  from 
the  monarchies  under  which  they 
were  supposed  to  have  groaned. 
The  French  Republic  had  assumed 
the  character  of  an  aggressive 
champion  of  the  Liberty  which  it 
was  determined  to  impose  upon  the 
peoples  of  Europe  in  a  general  war 
against  monarchy.  It  clinched  its 
position  by  repudiating  treaties, 
finally  challenging  England  by 
declaring  the  opening  of  the  navi- 
gation of  the  Schelde  and  by 
throwing  down  the  head  of  a  king 
as  its  gage  of  battle  to  the  kings  of 
Europe.  Louis  was  brought  to  a 
sort  of  trial,  and  was  beheaded 
Jan.  21,  1793. 


FRENCH    SIXTH 


3345 


FRENSSEN 


Then,  while  French  armies  were 
achieving  successes  against  their 
enemies  beyond  the  frontier,  the 
parties  in  Paris  fell  to  devouring 
each  other.  The  Girondins  had 
now  become  the  party  of  modera- 
tion ;  the  Jacobins  won  the  supre- 
macy, drove  them  from  office,  and 
sent  many  of  them  to  the  guillotine. 
A  Committee  of  Public  Safety  was 
organized  which  wielded  despotic 
power  ;  its  emissaries  accompanied 
the  armies,  and  were  scattered  all 
over  the  country,  none  daring  to 
dispute  their  behests.  While  one 
of  the  members,  Carnot,  was 
sufficiently  occupied  as  the  war 
minister  organizing  victories,  the 
Reign  of  Terror  was  instituted,  and 
the  guillotine  devoured  its  victims 
in  numbers  that  increased  week  by 
week  from  scores  to  hundreds.  On 
July  13  Marat  was  slain  by  Char- 
lotte Corday,  but  his  death  made  no 
difference.  The  mere  accusation  of 
being  well  affected  to  the  aristocrats 
was  the  almost  unfailing  precursor 
of  imprisonment  and  death. 

On  Oct.  16,  1793,  Marie  Antoin- 
ette, the  widow  of  Louis,  who  had 
died  with  kingly  calm  and  dignity, 
followed  her  husband  to  the 
scaffold.  A  month  later  the  guillo- 
tine claimed  among  its  victims 
Marie  Roland,  the  heroine  of  the 
Girondists.  Day  by  day  the 
tumbrils  rolled  through  the  streets 
of  Paris ;  in  the  provinces  like 
scenes,  and  scenes  even  more 
repulsive,  were  enacted. 
The  Fall  of  Danton 

Danton  the  inexorable,  who 
shrank  from  nothing  when  he 
deemed  that  the  cause  of  Liberty 
would  be  furthered  by  f  rightf  ulness, 
sickened  of  the  purposeless  slaugh- 
ter ;  even  Robespierre  was  nause- 
ated by  the  vulture  flock  that  was 
headed  by  the  detestable  Hebert. 
Suddenly  he  turned  on  them,  and 
on  March  24,  1794,  Hebert's  own 
head  fell.  But  Robespierre  was 
minded  for  no  more  concessions 
to  the  Indulgents,  the  group  of 
whom  Danton,  weary  of  bloodshed, 
was  the  leader  ;  his  own  ascendancy 
was  at  stake  ;  on  April  5  the  great 
Tribune  was  struck  down.  But 
the  carnival  of  blood  was  no  longer 
to  be  endured.  A  conspiracy  was 
organized.  Suddenly,  on  July  27, 
Robespierre  himself  was  seized, 
and  on  the  following  morning  he 
was  beheaded.  With  his  death  and 
the  execution  of  his  partisans  which 
immediately  followed,  the  Reign 
of  Terror  was  ended. 

It  remained  to  evolve  one  more 
constitution,  a  constitution  which 
was  to  place  the  administration 
in  the  hands  of  a  Directory  of  five, 
while,  legislation  was  to  be  en- 
truste4  to  two  Assemblies.  This 
soheine,  arrived  at  a  year  after 


the  fall  of  Robespierre,  did  not 
command  universal  assent,  especi- 
ally in  Paris.  But  the  government 
were  prepared  for  an  insurrection, 
and  when  it  came  they  had 
entrusted  the  arrangements  for  its 
suppression  to  a  young  officer  of 
artillery,  Napoleon  Bonaparte.  His 
success  was  complete.  The  Direc- 
tory was  established  by  the  coup 
d'etat  of  Vendemiaire  (Oct.  5, 
1795),  and  Bonaparte  was  re- 
warded with  the  command  of  the 
armies  of  the  Republic  in  N. 
Italy.  Four  years  were  to  pass 
before  another  coup  d'etat  made 
the  young  general  First  Consul, 
and  in  effect  transformed  the 
French  Republic  into  a  military 
monarchy.  Not  till  1871  was  a 
republic  to  be  permanently  estab- 
lished in  France. 

Results  of  the  Revolution 

But  the  meaning  of  the  French 
Revolution  is  not  to  be  tested  by 
its  success  or  its  failure  in  es- 
tablishing republican  institutions. 
Republicanism  was  only  one  of  its 
accidents  ;  the  basic  principles  on 
which  it  rested  are  no  less  com- 
patible with  a  constitutional 
monarchy  than  with  a  republic. 
Essentially,  its  political  demand 
was  for  the  "  government  of  the 
people  for  the  people  by  the 
people";  the  movement  assumed 
its  terrific  character  because  it 
arose  when  nearly  all  the  peoples 
of  Europe  were  governed  mainly 
in  the  interests  of  particular 
classes  by  absolute  rulers.  It  did 
not  succeed  in  establishing  any- 
where the  practice  of  "  govern- 
ment by  the  people  ";  in  Europe 
generally  the  force  wielded  by 
governments,  not  by  the  people, 
was  too  strong  for  them  to  be 
readily  overthrown,  and  the  actual 
excesses  perpetrated  in  France 
checked  for  the  time  the  moral 
forces  which  would  naturally  have 
been  thrown  into  the  scale  on  the 
side  of  Liberty.  But  a  spirit  had 
been  aroused  which,  though  it 
might  be  sternly  repressed,  could 
never  again  be  completely  allayed. 

If  the  French  people  were  still 
willing  to  submit  themselves  com- 
pletely to  a  master  who  could  be 
idealised  as  a  hero,  it  had  yet  be- 
come impossible  after  the  Revolu- 
tion to  lay  upon  them  the  old 
yoke,  to  subject  them  to  the 
absolutism  of  an  hereditary  prince 
or  the  domination  of  an  hereditary 
caste.  Everywhere  the  Revolution 
forced  upon  privileged  and  un- 
privileged classes  alike  the  con- 
sciousness that  the  unprivileged 
have  rights  which  cannot  altogether 
be  ignored,  that  revolution  will 
always  lurk  under  the  throne  of 
tyranny;  the  peoples  of  Europe  owe 
it  to  the  French  Revolution  that, 


however  slowly  and  gradually, 
they  have  yet  won  in  a  greater  or 
less  degree  a  hearing  for  them- 
selves in  their  own  governments. 

The  French  Revolution  was  the 
direct  cause  of  the  great  movement 
which  has  turned  South  America 
into  a  group  of  self-governing 
states  instead  of  a  congeries  of 
provinces  administered  as  the 
estates  of  an  absolute  monarch. 
Politically,  the  feudal  system  of  the 
Middle  Ages  had  perished  long 
before  ;  as  a  social  system  it  had 
remained  rampantly  dominant. 
As  a  social  system  the  Revolution 
shattered  it — utterly  among  the 
Latin  peoples,  though  not  so 
completely  elsewhere.  However 
we  may  shudder  at  the  methods 
which  the  Revolution  employed, 
at  a  time  when  elemental  forces 
broke  loose  which  no  man  could 
control,  its  fundamental  principles 
have  become  part  and  parcel  of  the 
creed  of  civilized  humanity.  See 
Bastille,  illus. 

Bibliography.  The  French  Revo- 
lution, Thomas  Carlyle,  1837,  and 
since  frequently  re-edited ;  The 
French  Revolution,  B.  M.  Gardiner, 
1883  ;  Hist,  of  the  French  Revolu- 
tion. H.  Morse  Stephens,  1886,  etc.  ; 
The  Revolutionary  and  Napoleonic 
Era,  J.  H.  Rose,  6th  ed.  1907  ;  The 
French  Revolution,  H.  Belloc, 
1911  ;  The  Relations  of  French  and 
English  Society,  1763-1793,  C.  H. 
Lockitt,  1920. 

French  Sixth.  In  music, 
chromatic  chord  consisting  of  a 
bass  note  with  a  major  third, 
augmented  fourth,  and  augmented 
sixth  above  it : 

It     belongs    H) rr 

to  the  key  of 

its  major  third 

— in  this  case 

C — but  it  can 

be  used  also  in  other  keys.     The 

origin  of  the  name  is  uncertain. 

See  Chromatic ;  Interval. 

Frensham.  Village  and  parish 
of  Surrey,  England.  It  is  3A  m.  S.  of 
Farnham,  and  is  noted  for  its  two 
lakes  or  ponds.  The  larger  of 
them  covers  90  acres  and  is  visited 
for  boating  and  fishing.  The  church 
of  S.  Mary,  restored  in  1866,  has 
some  interesting  features,  parts  of 
it  being  Early  English.  Frensham 
Common  is  a  large  open  space, 
used  by  the  military  for  manoeu- 
vres and  the  like.  Pop.  3,272. 

Frenssen,  GUSTAV  (b.  1863). 
German  novelist.  Entering  the 
Church  as  a  young  man,  he  became 
a  country  pastor.  His  first  work, 
Die  Sandgrafin,  appeared  in  1896, 
and  was  followed  two  years  later 
by  Die  drei  Getreuen.  Jora  Uhl, 
1901,  was  a  great  success  and  was 
followed  by  a  series  of  novels. 
After  1902  he  gave  up  his  cure  and 
devoted  himself  to  literature. 


IT 


TO 


John  Hookham  Frere, 
British  diplomatist 

After  J.  Boppner 


FREQUENCY 

Frequency  OR  PERIODICITY. 
The  number  of  complete  double 
reversals  per  second  of  an  alternat- 
ing electric  current.  It  ranges  from 
10  to  100,000  or  more  in  differ- 
ent kinds  of  apparatus.  See  Gen- 
erator ;  Induction  Coil ;  Wireless 
Telegraphy. 

Frere,  JOHN  HOOKHAM  (1769- 
1846).  British  diplomatist  and 
translator  Born  in  London,  May  21, 
1769,  eldest 
son  of  John 
Frere  (1740- 
1807),  the  an- 
tiquary,  he 
was  educated 
at  Eton,  where 
he  began  his 
friendship  and 
literary  colla- 
boration with 
George  C  a  n  - 
ning,  and  at 
his  father's  college  (Caius)  at  Cam- 
bridge, of  which  he  was  fellow  1793- 
1816.  He  entered  the  foreign  office, 
and  in  1796-1802  represented  West 
Looe  in  the  House  of  Commons.  He 
was  foreign  under-secretary,  1799  ; 
envoy  to  Lisbon,  1800-2  ;  minister 
at  Madrid,  1802-4 ;  privy  coun- 
cillor, 1805  ;  and  minister  to  Spain 
again,  1808-9,  being  recalled  after 
the  retreat  of  Moore  to  Corunna.  He 
settled  in  1818  at  Malta,  where  he 
died, Jan. 7, 1846,  being  buried  in  the 
English  cemetery  beside  his  wife. 
Frere,  who  twice  refused  a  peer- 
age, as  a  writer  sought  more  the 
critical  approval  of  the  few  than 
the  applause  of  the  public  for  his 
work.  While  at  Eton  he  joined 
Canning  and  others  in  promoting 
The  Microcosm,  1786-87  ;  and  dis- 
played a  remarkable  power  of 
writing  in  the  style  of  the  ancient 
ballads.  He  was  one  of  the  found- 
ers  of  The  Quarterly  Review.  His 
pungent  wit  and  metrical  facility 
show  to  advantage  in  his  render- 
ings of  The  Acharnians,  Knights, 
Birds,  and  Frogs,  of  Aristophanes, 
1840.  Byron  was  indebted  to  him 
for  the  ottava  rima  of  Beppo. 
See  Works,  with  memoir  by  W.  E. 
and  Sir  Bartle  Frere,  1872;  the 
Translations  of  Aristophanes,  with 
intro.  by  W.  W.  Merry,  1907. 

Frere,  SIR  HENRY  BARTLE 
EDWARD  (1815-84).  British  ad- 
ministrator. Born  at  Clydach, 
Brecknock- 
shire, March 
29,  1815,  and 
educated  a  t 
Bath  Gram- 
mar School 
and  Hailey 
bury,  he  en- 
t^red  the 
Bombay  civil 

Sir  Bartle  Frere        service      in 
British  administrator    1834.     For  his 


3346 


FRESHFIELD 


services  during 
the  Mutiny  he  re- 
ceived the  thank? 
o  f  both  Houses 
o  f  Parliament, 
and  was  created 
K.C.B.  He  was 
governor  of  Bom- 
bay from  1862-67, 
and  after  accom- 
panying the 
Prince  of  Wales  to 
India,  received  a 
baronetcy  in  1876. 
In  1877,  he  was 
appointed  gover- 


m 


Fresco.  The  Crucifixion,  and,  above, 

Christ  received  by  two  Dominican 

monks,  painted  in  fresco  by  Fra 

Angelico  in  S.  Mark's,  Florence 

nor  of  the  Cape,  and  high  com- 
missioner for  the  settlement  of 
native  affairs  in  S.  Africa,  with 
a  view  to  the  confederation  of  the 
S.  Africa  colonies.  His  action  in 
relation  to  the  Zulu  War  was  cen- 
sured by  the  Government,  his  con- 
duct of  affairs  in  India  and  Africa 
was  violently  assailed  by  Gladstone 
in  the  Midlothian  campaign,  and 
he  was  recalled  in  1880.  The  justi- 
fication of  his  action  is  contained 
in  his  Correspondence  relating  to 
the  Recall  of  Sir  Bartle  Frere,  1880, 
and  in  Afghanistan  and  South 
Africa  :  a  Letter  to  the  Right  Hon. 
W.  E.  Gladstone,  1881.  He  died, 
May  29,  1884,  and  was  buried  in 
S.  Paul's.  A  monument  to  him, 
on  the  Thames  Embankment,  was 
unveiled  by  the  Prince  of  Wales 
in  1888,  and  a  "  house  "  at  Hailey- 
bury  College  was  named  "Bartle 
Frere"  in  his  honour.  See  Life 
and  Correspondence,  John  Mar- 
tineau,  1895. 

Frere-Orban,  HUBERT  JOSEPH 
WALTER  (1812-96).  Belgian  states- 
man. Born  at  Liege,  April  24, 
1812,  he  adopted  the  legal  profes- 
sion, and  in!847  was  elected  deputy 
for  his  native  city.  Minister  of 


I 


K nance,  1848-52,  he  introduced 
various  reforms,  reduced  postal 
rates  and  advocated  free  trade.  He 
was  prime  minister,  1868-70,  and 
was  again  in  power  from  1878-84, 
carrying  through  many  educational 
reforms.  Leader  of  the  opposition 
until  1894,  he  died,  Jan.  2,  1896. 

Frere  Town.  Settlement  of 
Kenya  Colony.  It  stands  on  the 
mainland,  opposite  Mombasa,  and 
was  named  after  Sir  Bartle  Frere. 
Here  is  a  station  of  the  Church 
Missionary  Society,  founded  in 
1874,  with  schools  and  hospital. 

Fresco  (Ital.,  fresh).  Method  of 
painting  in  water  colour  upon  fresh 
mortar.  It  was  the  favourite  pro- 
cess of  mural  decoration  before  the 
introduction  of  oil  painting.  The 
plaster  must  be  fresh  in  order  to 
absorb  the  colour,  and  since  it  dries 
rapidly,  the  artist  must  work  with 
great  dexterity,  decision, and  speed. 
The  wall  must  be  free  of  saltpetre, 
and  only  such  colours  can  be  em- 
ployed as  are  not  affected  by  lime 
— a  limitation  which  excludes 
certain  of  the  most  brilliant  greens, 
reds,  and  yellows. 

The  artist  first  of  all  drew  a 
cartoon  (q.v.),  and  then  transferred 
it  piecemeal  to  as  much  fresh 
plaster  as  he  could  cover  "  at  a 
sitting."  The  palette  was  dis- 
pensed with  because  it  could  not 
hold  enough  colours,  and  pots  of 
different  colours  were  used  instead. 
Though  regarded  as  a  process  of 
water-colour  painting  without 
agglutinantSj  size,  or  white  or  yolk 
of  egg  was  required  to  fix  certain 
colours.  Theoretically,fresco should 
last  as  long  as  the  wall  which  it 
adorns,  but  meteorological  con- 
ditions are  vital,  a  damp  climate 
being  fatal.  See  Painting. 

Freshfield.  Cape  or  promontory 
on  the  coast  of  King  George  V 
Land  (q.v. ),  Antarctica.  It  is  in  lat. 
68°-69°  S.,  and  long.  151°  E.,  and 
separates  Cook  Bay  from  Deakin 
Bay.  Discovered  by  the  Mawson 
Expedition  of  1911-14,  it  was 
named  after  the  English  explorer 
and  mountaineer,  D.  W.  Freshfield. 


FRESHFIELD 


3347 


FRETWORK 


D.  W.  Freshfield, 
British  traveller 


Freshfield,  DOUGLAS  WILLIAM 
(b.  1845).  British  traveller.  Born 
April  27,  1845,  and  educated  at 
Eton  and  Uni- 
v  e  r  s  i  t  y  Col- 
>go,  Oxford, 
lie  was  called 
to  the  Bar  in 
1870.  An  ar- 
dent moun- 
taineer,in!869 
he  was  the  first 
to  climb  Mt. 
K  a  s  b  e  k 
(16,545ft.),  in 

«fi<oii«*nr  the   Caucasus. 

In  1899  he  made  an  expedition  to 
Sikkim,  and  journeyed  round 
Kangchenjunga.  He  travelled  in 
Uganda,  Syria,  Algiers,  Caucasus, 
Armenia,  etc.  Member  of  the 
Council  of  the  Royal  Geogra- 
phical Society  in  1878,  he  was 
vice-president"  1906-13,  and  presi- 
dent 1914-16.  He  was  president  of 
the  Alpine  Club,  1893-95,  and 
chairman  of  the  Society  of  Authors, 
1908-9.  He  has  published  several 
books  of  travel,  notably  Travels  in 
the  Central  Caucasus  and  Bashan, 
1869;  The  Italian  Alps,  1875; 
Round  Kangchenjunga,  1903. 

Freshwater.  Parish  and  water- 
ing-place of  the  Isle  of  Wight, 
England.  It  stands  on  the  river 
Yar,  1£  m.  S.W.  of  Yarmouth.  It 
is  the  terminus  of  the  I.W.  Central 
Rly.  Its  parish  church,  built  on 
the  site  of  an  older  edifice,  retains 
a  Norman  doorway,  a  12th  century 
arcade,  and  a  memorial  brass  of 
1390.  Lady  Tennyson  was  buried 
here.  Freshwater  cliffs  attain  a 
height  of  nearly  500  ft.  Lord 
Tennyson  resided  for  some  time 
at  Farringford  House,  in  the 
neighbourhood,  and  a  monument  is 
erected  in  his  memory  on  High 
Down.  Pop.  3,192. 

Fresh-water  Deposits.  Rocks 
containing  fossil  remains  of  fresh- 
water organisms,  chiefly  molluscs 
and  plants.  They  occur  most  fre- 
quently in  secondary  and  tertiary 
formations.  In  secondary  rocks 
the  fossil  molluscs  belong  to  types 
still  li ving  in  fresh  waters  (e.g.  Lim- 
neaea,  Planorbis,  Unio).  Remains 
of  land-mammals,  reptiles,  and 
land-plants  are  also  found  in  these 
beds.  The  Old  Red  Sandstone  with 
fossil  mussel-like  shells,  and  fish  of 
ancient  type,  showing  similarities 
to  the  Polypterus  at  present  in- 
habiting the  Nile,  is  a  notable 
example  of  fresh -water  deposits  of 
the  primary  period. 

The  Purbeck  beds,  including  as 
fossils  remains  of  fresh-water  shells, 
ostracods,  and  mammalian  bones 
and  teeth,  are  a  secondary  deposit 
of  this  type.  In  the  Tertiary  (Oligo- 
cene)  rocks  of  Isle  of  Wight  occur 
fossils  of  similar  affinities.  Many 


fresh-water  limestones,  as  in  Isle 
of  Wight,  have  been  formed  by 
action  of  lowly  plants  (Chara), 
which  secrete  lime  contained  in  the 
water.  Fresh-water  deposits  are 
often  of  great  thickness,  but  having 
baen  laid  down  in  lakes  and  estu- 
aries, are  of  limited  extent  in 
comparison  with  the  vast  areas 
of  marine  deposition.  See  Geology ; 
Rocks. 

Fresnel,  AUQUSTIN  JEAN  (1788- 
1827).  French  physicist.  Born  at 
Broglie  on  May  10, 1788,  he  worked 
first  as  an  engineer,  and  later  made 
researches  in  optics,  doing  valuable 
work  in  connexion  with  the  un- 
dulatory  theory  of  light.  He  de- 
duced the  mathematical  results  of 
Thomas  Young's  experiments,  and 
explained  the  interference  of  polar- 
ised as  well  as  ordinary  light.  He 
died  July  14,  1827. 

Fresnes.  Name  of  several  vil- 
lages of  France  prominent  in  the 
Great  War:  (1)  in  dept.  of  Pas- 
de-Calais,  4  m.  S.  of  Drocourt,  not- 
able in  the  third  battle  of  Arras, 
April-May,  1917,  and  captured  by 
the  British,  Oct.  8th,  1918.  (2)  in 
dept.  of  Meuse,  known  also  as 
Fresnes-en-Woevre.  It  is  near  Les 
fiparges  and  N.  of  S.  Mihiel.  It  was 
conspicuous  in  the  French  oper- 
ations in  the  S.  Mihiel  salient,  April, 
1915,  and  was  captured  by  the  4th 
U.S.  div.,  Sept.,  1918;  (3)  in  dept. 
of  Nord,  5£  m.  N.  of  Valenciennes, 
captured  by  the  British, Nov.,  1918 ; 
(4)  in  dept.  of  Somme,  3  m.  N.  of 
Chaulnes,  and  7  m.  S.W. of  Peronne. 
Captured  by  the  French  in  the  spring 
of  1917,  it  was  re-taken  by  the  Ger- 
mans in  the  spring  of  1918,  and 
was  re-captured  by  the  Allies  in  the 
autumn  of  1918.  See  Arras,  Third 
battle  of  ;  Sambre,  Battle  of  the. 

Fresnillo.  Town  of  Mexico,  in 
the  state  of  Zacatecas.  It  stands 
on  the  slopes  of  the  Cerro  del  Pro- 
ano,  about  7,000  ft.  above  sea-level, 
and  is  36  m.  N.W.  of  Zacatecas  by 
the  Mexican  Central  Rly.  The  chief 
industry  is  the  working  of  the 
silver  and  copper  mines,  discovered 
in  the  middle  of  the  16th  cent.  ; 
agricultural  pursuits  and  stock- 
rearing  are  engaged  in.  Pop.  6,750. 

Fresno.  City  of  California, 
U.S.A.,  the  co.  seat  of  Fresno  co. 
It  lies  in  the  valley  of  the  San 
Joaquin,  200  m.  S.E.  of  San  Fran- 
cisco, and  is  served  by  the  Atchison, 
Topeka,  and  Santa  Fe  and  the 
Southern  Pacific  rlys.  Irrigation  is 
largely  resorted  to  in  the  neighbour- 
hood, which  produces  grain  and 
grapes  in  considerable  quantities. 
Petroleum  is  obtained,  and  mining 
and  stock-rearing  are  carried  on. 
The  chief  industrial  establishments 
include  preserved  fruit,  wagon,  and 
macaroni  factories,  flour  mills, 
and  an  oil  refinery.  The  federal 


building,  a  city  hall,  and  a  public 
library  are  notable  buildings. 
Founded  in  1872,  Fresno  received 
a  city  charter  in  1885.  Pop.  28,810. 
Fresnoy.  Village  of  France  in 
the  dept.  of  Pas-de-Calais.  It  is 

4  m.  S.E.  of  Lens,  and  slightly  N. 
of  Oppy.     Captured    by    the   1st 
Canadian  div.,  May  3,  1917,  it  was 
retaken  by  the  Germans  on  May  8, 
and  finally  regained  by  the  British, 
Oct.  6,  1918.     Fresnoy-le-Grand  is 

5  m.  N.E.  of  St.  Quentin   in  the 
dept.  of  Aisne.     It  was  captured 
by  the  Allies  in  the  great  offensive 
of  the  autumn  of  1918.     Fresnoy- 
les-Roye,  near  Roye,  was  the  scene 
of  heavy  fighting  Aug.  13-20,  1918. 
See  Arras,  Third  Battle  of  ;    Le 
Cateau,  Second  Battle  of. 

Fret.  In  heraldry,  inascle  inter- 
laced by  a  cotice  and  a  baton.  A 
shield  fretty  is  covered  with  a 
trellis  or  interlaced  diagonal  bands. 
The  trellis  may  be  nailed  or  cloue. 
See  Ordinary. 

Fret.  Little  ridge  upon  the 
fingerboard  of  some  stringed  in- 
struments to  mark  the  point  at 
which  the  player's  finger  must 
shorten  the  vibrating  length  of 
string  to  produce  a  certain  note. 
On  the  violin  and  its  larger  relatives 
the  fingerboards  are  plain,  and  the 
player's  sense  of  position  and  pitch 
is  his  sole  guide  ;  but  the  older 
viols  had  fretted  fingerboards,  as 
have  also  the  popular  plucked  in- 
struments such  as  the  lute,  man- 
dolin, guitar,  and  banjo.  See 
Fingerboard. 

Fretwork  (O.F.  frete,  trellis 
work).  Carved  woodwork  in  per- 
forated patterns.  The  wood  used 
should  be  of  fine  grain,  such  as 
satinwood,  walnut,  lacewood,  syca- 
more, lime  or  maple.  The  strongest 
is  three-ply,  being  made  of  three 
sheets  of  thin  veneer  rolled  and 
cemented  together,  the  grain  of  the 
middle  sheet  crossing  that  of  the 
others.  The  usual  thickness  is  a 
quarter  inch,  though  inch  thick 
wood  is  used  sometimes.  v 

The  chief  tools  are  a  saw,  drill, 
and  bradawl ;  a  fret-saw  board 
and  carving  board  being  also 
necessary.  The  former  is  a  piece  of 
ordinary  wood  with  a  V-shaped 
opening  at  the  front  which  allows 
the  saw  to  be  moved  freely.  The 
buhl  saw,  chiefly  used,  is  a  three- 
sided  frame  of  steel  or  wood,  of 
which  the  fourth  side  is  formed  by 
the  saw,  often  no  thicker  than  a 
thread.  The  wood  to  be  carved 
being  placed  on  the  sawing-board, 
a  hole  having  been  drilled  through 
it,  the  saw,  detached  at  one  end,  is 
passed  through  the  hole,  then  refast- 
ened  in  its  frame  to  work  from  that 
centre.  A  fret-machine  is  an  elabo- 
ration of  the  saw  and  allows  both 
hands  to  be  free  for  the  necessary 


FREUD 


guidance.  Fretwork  in  wood  became 
popular  for  amateurs  between  1870- 
80;   but  metal  cutting,  a  branch 
of   fretwork,  for  which   the   same 
method  and  tools  are  used,  is  of 
earlier  origin.    In  architecture  fret- 
work is  the  carved  ornament,  con- 
sisting of  intersecting  lines  in  relief, 
used  as  ceiling  decoration.  See  Buhl. 
Freud,  SIGMUND  (b.  1856).  Aus- 
trian scientist.     Born  at  Freiberg, 
Moravia,  May  6,  1856,  he  was  edu- 
^^^^^^^^^^    cated  hi  Vien- 
I    na,   and  after 
I    studying      i  n 
I    Paris  and  else- 
MBI :-^-  I    where,  was  ap- 

1    pointed     pro- 
jjBjf'X      .JBfj   I    fessor   of    the 
I    therapeutics 
mji^Sm       I    of  neurotic 
HlBilkJHHI    diseases   at 
Sigmund  Freud,         Vienna. 
Austrian  scientist  Freud  made 

the  discovery  that  many  neurotic 
affections  such  as  hysteria  were 
due  to  a  conflict  between  the  con- 
scious and  the  unconscious  parts  of 
the  mind,  the  conscious  endeavour- 
ing to  act  in  conformity  with  social 
training  and  the  restraints  of  civili- 
zation, while  the  unconscious  was 
endeavouring  to  find  an  outlet  for 
primitive  tendencies  which  had 
been  suppressed  or  partially  sup- 
pressed by  the  patient.  By 
gradually  bringing  the  suppressed 
material  into  consciousness  so  that 
the  patient  understood  his  mental 
conflict,  the  symptoms  were  found 
to  disappear.  For  this  purpose 
Freud  devised"  the  method  known 
as  psycho-analysis,  a  process  which 
may  be  employed  in  investigation 
of  any  form  of  "fantasy,  but  is  most 
often  applied  to  dreams,  which 
Freud  considers  represent  in  a 
disguised  and  symbolic  manner  the 
gratification  of  suppressed  wishes. 
Freud's  chief  works  which  have 


3348 

been  translated  into  English  are : 
Selected  Papers  on  Hysteria,  1895, 
2nd  ed.  1912 ;  Interpretation  of 
Dreams,  3rd  ed.  191 3 ;  Delusion  and 
Dream,  1917  ;  Psychopathology  of 
Everyday  Life,  1901,  new  ed.  1914 ; 
Three  Contributions  to  the  Theory 
of  Sex,  1905,  3rd  ed.  1918  ;  Totem 
and  Taboo;  1913,  new  ed.  1919. 
See  Dream;  Psycho-analysis. 

Freudenstadt  (Ger.,  town  of 
joy).  Town  of  Wurttemberg,  Ger- 
many. It  stands  on  the  river  Murg, 
40  m.  S.W.  of  Stuttgart.  It  has 


Fretwork.   Treadle  tret-saw.    Above, 
cabinet  made  entirely  of  fretwork 

By  courtesy  of  Hobbies,  Ltd. 

some  small  manufactures  and  a 
trade  in  timber  ;  owing  to  its  mild 
climate  it  is  a  health  resort.  There 
is  a  Rathaus  and  a  remarkable  old 
church  consisting  of  two  naves  at 
right  angles  to  each  other,  restored 
in  the  19th  century.  The  town 
has  a  theatre,  baths,  and  other 
attractions  for  visitors.  It  was 
founded  in  1599  by  the  duke 
of  Wurttemberg  for  Protestants 
driven  from  Salzburg.  Pop.  8,000. 
Freyberg,  BERNARD  CYRIL  (b. 
1890).  British  soldier.  Born  in 
London,  he  was  educated  at  Wel- 
ling  ton  Col- 
lege,  New  Zea- 
land, and  be- 
came a  lieuten- 
ant in  the  N.Z. 
territorial 
army.  On  the 
outbreak  of 
the  Great  War 
he  came  to 
London,  and 
joined  the  R. 
Naval  Division,  serving  at  Antwerp, 
the  Dardanelles,  and  in  France 
(1914-18).  He  won  the  D.S.O.  in 
April,  1915,  in  the  Gulf  of  Xeros, 
and  the  V.C.  for  brilliant  leading 
on  the  Ancre,  Nov.,  1916,  where 
he  organized  the  attack  on  Beau- 
court.  He  was  brigadier-general 
with  the  29th  division,  1917-18. 
See  Beaumont-Hamel. 

Freycinet,  CHARLES  Louis  DE 
SAULCES  DE  (1828-1923).  French 
statesman  and  engineer.  Born  at 


Bernard  C.  Freyberg, 
British  soldier 


C.  L.  de  Freycinet, 
French  statesman 


FREYTAG 

Foix,  Nov.  14, 
1828,  he  be- 
came chief  en- 
gineer for  the 
Midi  Rly.  in 
1856.  Prefect 
of  the  dept. 
of  Tar n-et- 
Garonne,  and 
assistant  to 
Gambetta  at 
the  ministry  of 
war,  1870,  he  retired  after  the  armis- 
tice, but  was  elected  senator  for  the 
Seine  dept.  in  1876.  He  was  minister 
of  public  works  in  two  ministries 
between  1877-79,  president  of  the 
council  and  foreign  minister,  1879- 
80  and  in  1882  and  1886,  foreign 
minister  under  Brisson,  1885-86 
(when  his  life  was  attempted,  Oct. 
29,  1885),  and  minister  of  war  in 
six  different  cabinets  between 
1888-99.  In  1882  he  was  appointed 
inspector-general  of  mines. 

No  statesman  held  office  more 
often  under  the  third  republic,  and 
Freycinet's  record  included  ex- 
tensive reorganization  of  the  rly. 
and  canal  systems  of  France,  and 
reforms  in  the  administration  of 
French  protectorates,  and  in  the 
war  office.  The  author  of  many 
books  on  scientific  and  political 
matters,  he  was  elected  to  the 
French  Academy  in  1890.  He 
died  on  May  15,  1923.  Pron. 
Fraysineh. 

Freyja.  Goddess  of  love  and 
healing  in  Norse  mythology.  Two 
white  cats  drew  her  chariot  and 
she  could  fly  in  a  magic  feather  skin. 
Her  house  in  Asgard  was  Folkvang, 
where  she  received  the  souls  of 
half  the  slain  from  Odin.  She  wept 
tears  of  gold  for  her  absent  hus- 
band, Odr. 

Freyr  OR  FREY.  Norse  god  of 
rain,  sunshine,  and  fruitfulness, 
especially  worshipped  in  Sweden. 
Brother  of  Freyja,  his  house  in 
Asgard  was  Alfheim.  He  possessed 
the  Sword  of  Victory  and  also 
Skidbladna,  a  ship  which  could 
carry  all  the  gods  and  yet  be  folded 
into  his  bag.  He  gave  away  the 
sword  to  win  Gerda,  a  giant 
maiden,  and  thus  was  conquered 
in  the  last  great  fight. 

Freytag,  GTTSTAV  (1816-95). 
German  novelist  and  dramatist. 
Born  at  Kreuzberg,  Silesia,  July 
13,  1816,  he 
studied  philos- 
ophy at  Breslau 
and  Berlin,  and 
taught  for  a 
time  in  Breslau 
University.  Re- 
moving to  Ber- 
lin, he  edited 
D  i  e  Grenzbo- 
ten,  1847-61. 
His  comedy 


Gustav  Freytag, 
German  novelist 


FREYTAG-LORINGHOVEN 


3349 


FRICTION 


Baron  yon  Freytag- 

Loringhoven, 
German  soldier 


Die  Journalisten  (The  Journalists), 
1853,  and  Soil  und  Haben,  1855 
(Eng.  trans.  Debit  and  Credit, 
1857),  dealing  with  middle-class 
life,  established  his  fame. 

In  1864  came  Die  Verlorne 
Handschrift  (The  Lost  Manu- 
script), a  successful  description  of 
the  university  life  of  the  day.  In 
the  six  parts  of  Die  Ahnen  (The 
Ancestors),  1872-80,  he  traced  in  a 
cycle  of  tales  the  evolution  of  the 
German  social  character.  The  first 
part  was  translated  into  English  as 
Our  Forefathers,  1873.  He  died 
at  Wiesbaden,  April  30,  1895. 

Freytag-Loringhoven,  ALEX- 
ANDER, BARON  VON  (b.  1849).  Ger- 
man soldier  and  writer.  Born  at 
Rio  de  Jan- 
eiro, May  5, 
1849,  he  be- 
longed to  an 
o  1  d  Prussian 
family;  his 
father  was  a 
diplomatist. 
He  was  edu  - 
cated  at  the 
universities  of 
D  o  r  p  a  t  and 
Berlin,  entered 
the  army  in  1868,  and  served  in  the 
Franco-Prussian  War.  He  became 
quartermaster-general  in  the  field 
when  Falkenhayn  was  chief  of 
staff  (1915-16).  Later  he  was  ap- 
pointed deputy-chief  of  the  general 
staff  in  Berlin.  In  1917  he  pub- 
lished Deductions  from  the  World 
War.  It  was  a  candid  explanation  of 
the  German  failure  and  mentioned 
the  methods  by  which  Germany 
proposed  to  win  "the  next  war." 

Frezenberg.  Village  of  Belgium, 
in  the  prov.  of  W.  Flanders,  3  m.  E. 
by  N.  of  Ypres.  Conspicuous  in  the 
fighting  in  the  Ypres  salient  in  the 
Great  War,  it  was  the  scene  of  a  big 
German  attack,  May  8-9,  1915.  A 
few  days  before,  the  Allied  line  had 
been  withdrawn  to  the  Frezenberg 
ridge,  which  commanded  all  the 
roads  from  Ypres  by  which  men  and 
stores  were  brought  to  that  part  of 
the  salient.  Yielded  up  to  the 
Germans  in  April,  1918,  it  was 
finally  retaken  in  the  battle  for  the 
Belgian  coast  in  the  autumn  of 
1918.  See  Ypres,  Battles  of. 

F.R.G.S.  Abbrev.  for  Fellow  of 
the  Royal  Geographical  Society. 

F.R.H.S.  Abbrev.  for  Fellow  of 
the  Royal  Historical  Society  and 
Royal  Horticultural  Society,  which 
are  sometimes  written  F.R.Hist.S. 
and  F.R.Hort.S. 

Friar  (Fr.  frere,  brother).  Term 
applied  to  members  of  the  mendi- 
cant orders  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  These  have  included  Fran- 
ciscans, 1209;  Dominicans,  1215; 
Carmelites,  1245 ;  Augustinians, 
1256;  Servites,  1233;  Trinitarians, 


1198;  and  Crutched  or  Crossed 
Friars,  1169.  See  Monasticism  ; 
consult  also  The  Coming  of  the 
Friars,  A.  Jessopp,  1889. 

Friars  Crag.  Hill  overlooking 
Derwentwater,  famous  for  its  view. 
It  is  on  the  E.  side  of  the  lake,  about 
1  m.  from  Keswick.  On  it  is  a 
memorial  to  Ruskin. 

Friar  Tuck.  Character  in  the 
stories  associated  with  Robin  Hood. 
He  is  described  as  chaplain  to  the 
outlaw.  In  the  old  time  morris 
dance  of  the  May  games  he  at- 
tended upon  Robin  and  Marian, 
the  King  and  Queen  of  the  May 

F.R.I.B.A.  Abbrev.  for  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Institute  of  British 
Architects. 

Fribourg  OR  FREIBURG.  Canton 
of  W.  Switzerland.  It  is  S.E.  of  and 
in  parts  touching  Lake  Neuchatel. 


and  hills.  The  13th  century  church 
of  S.  Nicholas  is  famed  for  its  fine 
organ  and  its  15th  century  belfry. 
Fribourg  possesses  a  town  hall, 
university,  college,  lycee,  several 
libraries,  and  a  museum  of  fine  arts. 
Tobacco,  pasteboard,  leather,  and 
art  objects  are  manufactured.  The 
town  was  founded  in  the  12th 
century.  After  passing  to  Savoy, 
it  joined  the  Confederation  in  1481. 
It  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1798. 
Pop.  20,394. 

Fricassee  (Fr.).   Dish  of  boiled 
chicken  or  other  meat,  cut  up  and 
served    in     a    white    sauce. 
Cookery. 

Fri court.    Village  of  France,  in 
the  dept.  of  Somme.    It  stands  on 
the  stream  of  that  name,  5  m.  E. 
of  Albert.  Captured  by  the  British 
July  2,  1916,  it  was  recaptured  by 
the     Germans, 
i    March,   1918,   and 
i    retaken      by     the 
•    Allies  in  the  follow  - 
ing    Aug.       See 
Somme,  Battles  of 
the. 

Friction(Lat.,  a 
rubbing).  Resist- 
ance offered  by  one 
body  to  motion 
over  another.  As 
an  example,  con- 
sider a  body  resting 
on  a  table.  It  re- 
quires a  certain 
force  to  move  it 
along  the  surface  of 
the  table,  and  also 
to  keep  it  moving. 

Chiefly  in  the  The  magnitude  of  this  force  de- 
pends upon  two  things:  (1)  the 
material  of  which  the  substances 
are  made,  and  (2)  the  normal  pres- 


Fribourg,  Switzerland.  The  town  and  suspension  bridge 
across  the  Saane  river 

Area,  644  sq.   m. 
basin  of  the  Aar,  it  is  watered  by 
the  Saane  with  its  tributaries,  and 
the  Broye.    Undulating  in  parts,  it 


is  hilly  in  the  S.E.,  where  it  impinges    sure    between    the    touching   sur 

on  spurs  of  the  Bernese  Alps,  which    ' 

rise  to  8,000  ft.   Mainly  pastoral,  it 

is  noted  for  its  cattle  and  cheese. 

French  is  generally  spoken;  German 

in  the  N.E.  section  of  the  Canton. 

There   are   hot  springs    at    Bonn 

and     Montbarry.        Timber     and 

tobacco  are  produced,  watch  and 

paper-making  are  carried  on,  and 

there    is    a    chocolate    factory    at 


faces.  In  1781  C.  A.  Coulomb 
pointed  out  that  the  friction  was 
independent  of  the  velocity  with 
which  the  surfaces  moved  over  one 
another.  Though  his  statement  is 
now  known  to  be  inaccurate,  it  is, 
nevertheless,  true  for  all  ordinary 
velocities,  though  friction  increases 
when  bodies  are  moving  very 
slowly  over  one  another,  and  de 


Broc.     A  Roman  Catholic  strong-    creases  when  they  are  moving  very 

-  rapidly.  Friction  between  two 
bodies  is  greatly  decreased  by  the 
use  of  lubricants. 

It  is  easier  to  keep  a  body  moving 
on  a  surface  than  it  is  to  start  it 
moving,  and  it  follows  that  what  is 
known  as  statical  friction,  i.e.  fric- 
tion at  rest,  is  greater  than  kinetic 
friction,  or  friction  of  motion.  There 
is  a  third  type  of  friction  usually  re- 


hold,  it  has  many  convents  ;  its 
cantonal  constitution  is  not  so 
democratic  as  that  of  the  other 
cantons.  Fribourg,  the  capital,  is 
the  only  town  of  importance. 
Pop.  144,000. 

Fribourg.  Town  of  Switzer- 
land, capital  of  the  canton  of 
Fribourg.  It  stands  on  the  river 
Saane,  20  m.  by  rly.  S.W.  of  Berne. 


A  lofty   suspension   bridge   spans  cognized.  When  a  wheel  or  cylinder 

the  river  at  the  confluence  with  the  rolls  on  a  surface,  there  is  resistance 

Gotteron  stream.    The  Saane  cuts  to  motion  at  the  point  of  contact, 

the  town  into  two  parts,  that  on  and  this  is  called  rolling  friction, 
the    W.    side    standing    on    level        Friction  is  of  great  importance 

ground,  and  the  other  among  rocks  in  everyday  affairs.    Without  it  it 


FRICTION      TUBE 


3350 


FR1EDRICHSHAFEN 


and  all  movement  would  have  to 
be  by  the  use  of  cog  wheels  or  some 
similar  arrangement.  The  friction 
of  fluids  and  gases  is  properly 
called  viscosity  (q.v.).  See  Force. 
Friction  Tube.  Device  em- 
ployed for  firing  the  charges  in 


would  be  impossible  to  walk,  drive  Friday  is  the  Mahomedan  sabbath. 
a  tram  along  ordinary  rails,  etc..  The  epithet  Black  is  given  to  vari- 
ous disastrous  Fridays,  e.g.  May  11, 
1866,  when  the  failure  of  the  bank- 
ing house  of  Overend,  Gurney  & 
Co.  caused  a  financial  panic.  The 
Fridays  in  the  ember  weeks  are 
called  Golden  Fridays. 

Friday.       Savage    rescued    by 

guns.  It  was  adopted  by  the  British  Crusoe  from  the  cannibals  about  to 
service  in  1853  to  replace  various  sacrifice  him,  and  named  from  the 
adaptations  of  the  flint  lock,  and  day  on  which  he  was  so  rescued, 
mechanisms  utilising  percussion  See  Robinson  Crusoe, 
caps,  for  firing  cannon.  With  the  Frideswide.  English  abbess 
introduction  of  smokeless  powders  and  patron  saint  of  Oxford.  Ac- 
it  was  found  necessary  to  provide  cording  to  tradition,  she  was  the 
some  means  of  preventing  the  daughter  of  Didan,  viceroy  of 
escape  of  propellant  gases  from  Oxford  under  Ethelbald,  and  Sax- 
the  vent,  as  otherwise  serious  frida  his  wife.  At  an  early  age  she 
erosion  occurred,  and  vent -sealing 
tubes  were  introduced.  The  fitting 
is  T-shaped,  and  is  clamped  in  the 
vent  by  the  breech  mechanism. 


The  cross  piece  contains  a  rough- 
ened rod,   embedded  in   a   pellet 


made  a  vow  of  chastity,  and  her 
father  built  and  made  over  to  her 
a  church  at  Oxford,  in  connexion 
with  which  she  founded  a  nunnery, 
and  became  herself  its  first  abbess. 
Persecuted  by  a  Mercian  noble 


of   friction  composition,  provided    named  Algar,  she  took  refuge  for  a 
with  a  looped  end  for  the  attach-    ' 
ment  of  a  lanyard,  and  secured  by 
a  safety-pin. 

The  stem  of  the  tube  has  a  maga- 
zine filled  with  gunpowder,  above 
which  is  a  diaphragm  bored  with 
three     fire     holes, 
communicating 
with   a   tapered 
channel  which  ex- 
tends to  the  fric- 
tion pellet,  a  soft 
copper  ball   being  loose   In 
the  channel.    The  safety-pin 
is   removed  when  the  tube 
is  fitted,  and  when  the  rod 
is  withdrawn  by  pulling  the 
lanyard,  the  friction  compo- 
sition ignites,  and  fires  the 
magazine,  the  bottom  plug 
being   blown    out    and    the 
charge  fired,  while  the  pres- 
wedges    the 


time  at  Binsey,  where  she  built  an 
oratory.  After  her  death,  in  the 
latter  half  of  the  8th  century,  her 
shrine  became  a  centre  of  de- 
votion, as  did  the  well  at  Binsey, 
which  is  said  to  have  originated 

in  answer  to  her 

prayers.  Her 
I  remains  are  be- 
'  lieved  to  rest  in 

Christ      Church 

Cathedral,     one 

of  the  four  chapels  in  which  is 
called  after  her. 

S.  Frideswide's  nunnery  was 
taken  over  by  Austin  Canons  in 
1004,  and  suppressed  in  1525  by 
Wolsey,who  replaced  it  by  Cardinal 
College.  Frideswide  was  canonised 
in  1481,  has  been  regarded  as  Ox- 
ford's patron  saint  since  1180,  and 
her  festival  is  still  kept  at  Oxford 
on  Oct.  19, 

T  tube  used  in  the     though    it    dis- 
appeared    from 


British  army 


friction  tube  has  largely  been  super- 
by  electric  and  percussion 
tubes,  but  is  still  largely  used  by 


copper  balf  against      Friction  Tube, 
the    sides    of    the 

taper  channel  and  the  body  of  the  the  English  Church  calendar  at  the 

magazine  against  the  walls  of  the  Reformation.      In  addition  to  the 

vent,  so  preventing  any  escape  of  church  at  Oxford,  1870-72,churches 

gas.      In  the  British  service  the  at  Frilsham  (Berks),  Poplar,  and  at 

Borny,  near  Boulogne,  are  dedi- 
cated to  her.  See  Christ  Church ; 
Oxford ;  consult  also  Early  History 

other  powers  for  all  guns  except  of   Oxford,  J.  Parker,  1885  ;    The 

quick-firing  ones  which  use  fixed  Story  of  S.  Frideswide,  F.  Goldie, 

ammunition.       See    Ammunition;  1881. 

Artillery;   Ordnance.  Friedland,  BATTLE  OF.  Victory 

Friday.    Sixth  day  of  the  week,  of     Napoleon     over     the     allied 

The  name  comes  from  Frigg,  the  Russians  and  Prussians,  June   14, 

old  northern  goddess  of  love,  and  1807.       The    failure     of    Murat's 

corresponds    to    the    Latin    Dies  attack  on  the  Russian  entrench- 

Veneris,  day  of  Venus  (cf.  French  ments  at  Heilsberg,  June  10,  de- 

vendredi).     The  day  is  regarded  as  termined  Napoleon  to  march  on 

unlucky  from  its  connexion  with  Konigsberg.   Bennigsen  resolved  to 

Christ's  crucifixion,  which  is  speci-  thwart  this  plan,  and  early  onjJune 


ally  celebrated  on  Oood  Friday 
(q.v.).  In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
it  is  a  day  of  abstinence,  except 
when  Christmas  falls  on  that  day. 


14  met  Lannes'  corps  at  Fried- 
land,  on  the  river  Alle,  26  m.  S.E. 
of  Konigsberg.  Owing  to  Lannes' 
stubborn  resistance,  Bennigsen 


could  do  no  more  than  cross  the 
Alle  and  hold  him  in  check  until  the 
arrival  of  Napoleon.  The  Allies 
were  now  in  a  serious  position. 
Behind  them,  in  an  irregular  arc, 
lay  the  Alle,  across  which  their  only 
line  of  retreat  lay  over  the  bridges 
of  Friedland. 

The  battle  began  at  6  p.m.  Ney 
was  ordered  to  attack  Friedland, 
but  his  advance  was  checked  by 
a  furious  charge  of  the  Russian 
cavalry.  Victor  was  hurried  to  his 
assistance,  and  an  artillery  concen- 
tration turned  on  the  Russians, 
which,  seconded  by  an  irresistible 
dragoon  charge,  turned  the  tide  of 
battle.  A  rout  ensued,  and  the 
Russians,  pursued  by  Ney,  fled 
through  Friedland  and  across  the 
river.  The  numbers  engaged  were : 
French,  70,000,  and  Allies,  55,000. 
The  Allies  lost  20,000  killed  and 
wounded,  the  French  little  over 
9,000.  Ten  days  later  Napoleon 
met  the  tsar  Alexander  on  a  raft 
in  the  middle  of  the  Niemen,  and 
the  treaty  of  Tilsit  was  concluded. 

Friedlander,  LUDWIG  (1824- 
1909).  German  scholar.  Born  at 
Konigsberg,  Dec.  16,  1824,  after 
studying  there  and  at  Leipzig,  in 
1858  he  became  professor  of  clas- 
sical philology  and  archaeology  in 
his  native  place.  The  work  which 
established  his  reputation  is  Dar- 
stellungen  aus  der  Sittengeschichte 
Roms  (1862-71,  9th  ed.  1919,  etc.  ; 
Eng.  trans.  Roman  Life  and  Man- 
ners under  the  Early  Empire, 
1908-13),  a  perfect  mine  of  infor- 
mation, but  written  in  an  unattrac- 
tive style.  His  editions  of  Martial, 
Juvenal,  and  Petronius  Cena  Tri- 
malchionis  are  also  of  considerable 
value.  He  died  at  Strasbourg,  Dec. 
24,  1909. 

Friedrich,  JOHANN  (1836-1917). 
German  theologian.  Born  at  Pox- 
dorf,  May  5,  1836,  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  chair  of  theology  at 
Munich  in  1865.  Refusing  to  ac- 
cept the  decree  of  papal  infalli- 
bility, 1869,  he  was  deposed  and 
excommunicated,  1871,  and  sup- 
ported for  a  time  the  Old  Catholic 
movement.  In  1882  he  became 
professor  of  history  at  Munich.  He 
was  the  author  of  many  contro- 
versial works.  He  died  Aug.  11, 
1917. 

Friedrichshafen.  Town  of 
Wiirttemberg,  Germany.  It  stands 
on  the  lake  of  Constance,  and  con- 
sists of  the  two  parts,  Hofen  and 
Buchhorn.  It  has  a  harbour  on  the 
lake,  built  by  Frederick  I,  king  of 
Wurttemberg,  who  united  the  two 
places  and  gave  the  town  its  pre- 
sent name.  The  chief  building  is 
the  palace,  at  one  time  used  by  the 
ex -kaiser  William  II.  It  stands  in 
wooded  grounds  to  the  W.  of  the 
town,  and  has  an  interesting  chapel. 


FRIEDRICHSHAFEN 


335  1 


FRIENDLY      SOCIETIES 


Friedrichshafen.     The  town,  an  important  Zeppelin  depot  during  the  Great 
War,  seen  from  the  harbour  entrance  on  the  Lake  of  Constance 


There  is  a  Rathaus,  a  20th  century 
edifice,  while  the  town  has  a  mete- 
orological station.  Friedrichshafen 


Haabai,  and  Vavau—  and  the  out- 
lying islands  of  Niuatobutabu, 
Taofahi,  and  Niuafoo,  lies  between 


partly  of  volcanic  and  partly  of 
coral  formation,  and  only  one- 
fifth  of  the  150  are  inhabited.  The 
people  are  fair  Polynesians.  Area, 
390  sq.  m.  The  capital  is  Nuku- 
alofa. The  native  produce  consists 
of  copra,  mats,  green  fruit,  and 
fungus. 

The  Friendly  Islands  were  so 
named  by  Cook  in  1773,  on  account 
of  the  courteous  behaviour  of  the 
inhabitants.  Tasman  first  touched 
here  in  1643.  There  are  numerous 
reefs  and  shoals  around  the 
islands,  which  abound  in  cocoa- 
palms  and  a  kind  of  fig  tree  with 
narrow,  pointed  leaves.  There  is 
steamer  connexion  with  Sydney 
and  Auckland  via  Fiji.  British 
coin  is  the  only  legal  tender.  Salote, 


is  a  tourist  resort,  and  steamers  go     lat.  15°  and  23°  30'  S.  and  long,     the  queen,  succeeded  on  April  29, 


by  a  British  high  commissioner, 
with  the  assent  of  the  king  and 
native  chiefs.  The  islands  are 


from  here  to  various  places  on  the  173°  and  177°  W.  It  is  administered 
lake,  but  in  the  20th  century,  and 
especially  during  the  Great  War,  its 
main  interest  was  as  a  Zeppelin 
depot.  In  the  workshops  here  the 
machines  were  put  together  and 
over  the  lake  they  made  their 
trials,  while  for  their  reception  were 
numerous  hangars,  bombed  by 
Allied  airmen  in  1914-15.  The 
building  of  boats  is  another  indus- 
try. Hofen  had  a  Benedictine  mon- 
astery, and  Buchhorn  was  a  free 
city.  Pop.  5,500. 
Friedrichshafen.  German  aero- 


1918,  on  the  death  of  her  father, 
George  II.  There  is  a  pop.  of 
23,121  natives  and  835  other 
nationalities. 


FRIENDLY  SOCIETIES  AND  THEIR  WORK 

John  Freeman,  Liverpool  Victoria  Legal  Friendly  Society 

The  various  types  of  these  societies  are  here  described.     See  also  the 
article  Guilds,  and  those  on  the  various  friendly  societies,  e.g.  Odd- 
fellows, and  insurance  companies,  e.g.  Prudential 

Friendly  societies  are  voluntary     tration,    but    the    advantages   of 


associations  for  the  mutual  relief 
and  maintenance  of  members  in 
sickness,  old  age,  distress,  etc. 


the  Acts  are  not  available  to  un- 
registered societies.  A  registered 
society  can  legally  hold  land,  own 


Roman  origins  have  been  claimed,     property  in  the  names  of  trustees, 

plane.    It  is  a  big  two-engined  bi-     and  it  ^  certain  that  in  various     carry  on  legal  proceedings  in  such 
plane  of  the  Gotha  model,  used  for  •  -    -   - 

bombing     purposes.         Generally 
known  as  the  F.F.,  this  machine 

,y        ,          .      Single        C11V4   ui    uiio    j.  noi   ouiu,    i/uo    n>cgiiu.uug        jjoii/jr.        JLU      tiijujo      iiCTTVivruu       injiu 

landing  wheel  under  the  forepart     of  the  18th  centuries,  but  it  was     income  tax  under  schedules  A,  C, 
of  its  fuselage,  a  fact  which  ren- 
dered the  type  easy  to  recognize. 

Friedrichsruh.  Village  of 
Holstein,  Germany.  It  is  16  m. 
S.E.  of  Hamburg,  and  is  interest 


forms  they  have  existed  for  cen-  names,  and  take  summary  pro 
turies.  In  Great  Britain  certain  ceedings  against  persons  commit- 
societies  were  founded  about  the  ting  an  offence  hi  regard  to  its  pro- 
end  of  the  17th  and  the  beginning  perty.  It  enjoys  freedom  from 


not  until  1793  that  the  movement  and  D  of  the  Income  Tax  Act,  1918. 
became  sufficiently  prominent  to  Its  members  may  legally  insure 
call  for  legislation.  The  first  for  funeral  expenses  on  the  deaths 
Friendly  Societies  Act  was  then  of  wives  and  children,  and  may 
passed,  permitting  an  unlimited  dispose  of  sums  payable  at  death 

ing   because  the  castle   here  was     number  of  persons  to  raise  funds     up  to  £100  by  written  nomination 
Bismarck^residence^  He  died  here     for  mutual  advantage,  make  rules,     without  a  will. 

To  be  registered,  a  society  must 

secured  the  privileges  of  the  Act  have  at  least  seven  members,  and 
by  obtaining  confirmation  of  their  its  work  is  limited  to  its  specified 

objects.  The  total  amount  insured 
on  any  one  life  may  not  exceed 
£300,  whether  issued  by  one  or 
more  than  one  society.  Societies 
must  make  certain  annual  returns 


._„ .„ --.       — -  —  . —     -     ior  mutual  advantage,  maite  ruies, 

in  July,  1898,  and  is  buried  in  the     impose  g^  etc>      Early  societies 


mausoleum.     Pop.  279. 

Friedrichsthal.  Town  of  Ger- 
many, in  the  Rhine  prov.  It  is  11 
m.  N.E.  of  Saarbriick,  with  which 
it  is  connected  by  electric  rly. 
Pop.  10,500.  A  village  of  this 
name  in  Mecklenburg-Schwerin 
stands  near  the  lake  of  Neumuhlen. 
There  is  another  Friedrichsthal, 
this  being  in  the  Black  Forest. 

Friedric  h-  Wilhelmshafen. 
Former  name  of  a  seaport  of  Kaiser 
Wilhelm's  Land,  in  the  former  Ger- 
man colony  of  New  Guinea.  It  was 


rules  from  a  justice  of  the  peace. 

Various  legislation  followed. 
There  were  Acts  in  1793,  1819,  and 
1829,  which  required  an  examina- 
tion of  the  rules  by  a  barrister, 
followed  by  those  of  1834  and 
1846,  when  the  office  of  registrar 


to  the  chief  registrar,   and    must 
make  a  valuation  of   their  assets 

was  created.     In  1896  the  existing     and  liabilities  at  least  once  every 

enactments  were  consolidated  into     five  years. 

two,  affecting  the  main  types  into 

which  the  movement  had  devel- 


Classification  of  Societies 
Societies  generally  may  be  classi- 

oped,  viz.  friendly  societies  proper    fied    according    to   their   purpose 
The     and  the  objects  of  their  benefits. 

Sept?  12, 1914,  and  is  now  adminis-     registry  of  friendly  societies  is  re-     They  can  be  established  for   the 
tered    by    Australia     and    called     sponsible   for   the   application   of     relief    or    maintenance    of    mem- 


occupied  by  an  Australian  force,     and    collecting    societies. 


Madang.     White  pop.  243. 

Friendly  OR  TONGA  ISLANDS. 
Group  of  islands  in  the  S.  Pacific 
Ocean,  a  British  possession.  The 
kingdom,  consisting  of  three 


both  Acts.    The  Friendly  Societies     bers  during  sickness  or  infirmity, 
Act,  1908,  and  the  Assurance  Com-     in  old  age  (i.e.  any  age  after  50), 
panies   Act,    1909,   are    the    chief 
legislation  of  the  20th  century. 


widowhood,  or  distressed  circum- 
stances, when  travelling  in  search 


Registration  is  voluntary.     So-     of  employment,  or  in  such  circum- 


groups     of     islands— Tongatabu,     cieties  may  operate  without  regis-     stances  as  shipwreck,  or  damage  to 


FRIENDLY      SOCIETIES 


3352 


FRIENDLY      SOCIETIES 


boats  or  fishing-nets,  or  of  the  de- 
pendents of  members  in  sickness, 
old  age,  or  widowhood,  or,  if 
orphan  children,  during  minority. 

Others  assure  money  to  be  paid 
on  the  birth  of  a  member's  child, 
or  the  death  of  a  member ;  for  the 
funeral  expenses  of  a  member's 
husband,  wife,  or  child,  or  of  the 
widow  of  a  deceased  member ;  or, 
among  persons  of  the  Jewish  re- 
ligion, as  allowance  during  the 
period  of  confined  mourning. 

Others  insure  against  fire,  up  to 
a  value  of  £15,  the  tools  used  by  a 
member  in  his  calling,  or  endow 
members  or  their  nominees  at  any 
age,  or  guarantee  societies  or 
branches  that  their  officers  and 
servants  perform  their  duties 
properly.  Collecting  societies  may 
also  insure  money  to  be  paid  for  the 
funeral  expenses  of  a  member's 
parent,  grandparent,  grandchild, 
brother,  or  sister. 

A  society  with  branches  com- 
monly gives  sickness  and  mater- 
nity, medical,  funeral,  and  in  some 
cases  unemployment  benefits.  Some 
of  these  benefits  are  for  members 
only,  some  for  wife  or  other  de- 
pendents. Control  is  by  means  of 
delegates  to  an  annual  movable 
conference.  It  operates  through 
local  units,  and  organization  is 
largely  voluntary.  In  many  in- 
stances a  board  of  arbitrators  of 
high  standing  exists  to  settle  dis- 
putes. An  example  of  this  type  of 
society  is  the  Manchester  Unity 
of  Oddfellows,  with  over  4,000 
branches  in  the  United  Kingdom, 
and  about  14,000  in  the  rest  of 
the  British  Empire.  A  centralised 
society  gives  benefits  similar  to  the 
above,  but  it  is  without  branches 
or  local  organizations. 

Another  type  of  society  is  repre- 
sented by  the  National  Deposit 
Friendly  Society.  Deposit  socie- 
ties combine  friendly  society  fea- 
tures with  savings  bank  features. 
The  Friendly  Societies  Act  pro- 
vides that  the  rules  of  a  society 
may  permit  the  accumulation  at 
interest,  for  the  use  of  any  mem- 
ber, of  any  surplus  which  may  re- 
main to  his  credit  in  the  funds 
after  providing  for  liabilities.  Such 
societies  are  exempt  from  valu- 
ation requirements.  Dividing  so- 
cieties which  provide  by  rule  for 
the  periodical  division  of  the  whole 
or  part  of  the  funds  without  regard 
to  actuarial  solvency,  are  likewise 
exempted  from  the  valuation  pro- 
visions of  the  Act. 

COLLECTING  SOCIETIES.  There 
are  in  Great  Britain  about  50  of 
these,  a  few  very  large  and  the  rest 
relatively  small.  They  are  in  the 
main  occupied  with  industrial  in- 
surance, i.e.  insurance  for  in- 
dustrial classes  at  weekly  or  other 


periodical  premiums,  collected  by 
paid  agents  from  insurers.  The 
sums  insured  are  usually  payable 
on  death.  Each  of  these  has 
a  very  large  approved  section  for 
national  health  insurance.  Collect- 
ing societies  are  a  special  develop- 
ment. They  are  extraordinarily 
popular,  and  of  late  have  regarded 
themselves  not  exclusively  as 
offices  insuring  funeral  expenses  ; 
endowments  for  adults  and  juven- 
iles and  life  policies  up  to  £300 
have  grown  in  favour.  Other  types 
of  society  coming  under  the  same 
official  supervision  and  included  in 
the  statement  below,  are  cooper- 
ative and  building  societies,  annuity 
societies,  cattle  insurance  societies, 
etc.  The  following  are  the  figures 
of  the  different  types  of  society : 


Class  of  Society 


Members         Funds 


2,897,434 


£32,557,873 


28,876,538 
14,842,763 


Orders  and   their 

Branches        . . 
Centralised  societiesin- 

chiding  deposit  and 

dividing  societies  . .     3,893,614 
Collecting  societies    . . 

Total 

All  other  types  includ-  j 

ing      trading      and 

building  societies  . .   10,401,466     148,105,646 
Total  of  registered  pro- 

vident  societies      ..  26,889,440  £224.382,820    ^pelncIudTnglndustrial  i^ 

surance  companies. 


16,487,974    £76,277,174 


bill  led  to  friendly  societies  being 
empowered  to  form  associations 
under  the  new  Act.  Collecting 
societies  are  specifically  excluded. 
Over  28,000  societies,  including 
branches,  under  the  Friendly 
Societies  Act,  and  about  8,000 
societies  under  other  Acts,  are 
supervised  by  the  registry.  It  has 
limited  powers,  but  it  is  able  to 
take  proceedings  against  defaulters, 
refuse  improper  rules,  etc.  Thus 
the  registrar  may  appoint  an  in- 
spector to  investigate  a  society's 
affairs,  and  may  call  a  special 
meeting  of  members  ;  he  may  also, 
in  certain  circumstances,  order  the 
dissolution  of  a  society  and  the 
distribution  of  its  funds.  Various 
official  inquiries  have  been  made, 
particularly  into  the  section  trans- 
acting  industrial  life  assur- 
ance. From  1870-74  a  royal 
commission  sat,  and  legisla- 
tion resulted.  Adequate  legis- 
lation, however,  to  prevent 
the  establishment  of  insub- 
stantial societies,  to  which 
the  chief  registrar  has  re- 
peatedly called  attention,  is 
even  now  still  wanting.  The 
last  such  inquiry  was  held  in 
1919,  under  the  chairman- 


ship  of  Lord  Parmoor,   its 


POLITICAL  DEVELOPMENTS.  The 
rapid  progress  of  social  reform  in 
Great  Britain  brought  important 
changes  in  friendly  societies.  The 
National  Health  Insurance  Act, 
1911,  involved  the  cooperation  of 
societies  of  all  types.  Originally 
the  exclusion  of  collecting  societies 
was  intended,  but  the  chancellor  of 
the  exchequer  (D.  Lloyd  George) 
found  it  necessary  to  seek  their  as- 
sistance, fearing  that  in  the  absence 
of  their  extensive  organization  great 
difficulty  would  be  experienced  in 
bringing  the  Act  into  universal 
operation.  Hence  collecting  and 
other  societies  were  alike  specially 
empowered  to  transact  national 
health  insurance,  usually  by  means 
of  separate  sections.  44  p.c.  of 
the  total  insured  population  of  the 
United  Kingdom  is  comprised  in 
the  organizations  created  by  the 
collecting  societies  and  their  kind- 
red institutions,  the  industrial  in- 
surance companies  ;  while  45  p.c. 
are  included  in  other  types  of 
friendly  society. 

A  similar  position  was  reached 
in  the  Unemployment  Insurance 
Act,  1920.  The  original  bill  ex- 
cluded societies  of  all  types  from 
operating  this  Act,  the  intention 
being  that  the  whole  insured  popu- 
lation should  resort  to  a  labour  ex- 
change or  trade  union.  Parliament 
did  not  support  the  government's 
intention,  and  modifications  of  the 


The  friendly  society  movement 
received  its  strongest  impetus  in 
the  earlier  part  of  the  19th  century, 
while  the  opening  years  of  the  20th 
century  brought  singular  difficul- 
ties. Legislation  appeared  to 
threaten  their  existence,  but  they 
have  survived.  Generally  their 
special  characteristics  have  been 
scrupulously  observed,  alike  by 
Parliament  and  the  courts.  For  in- 
stance, legal  provision  has  been 
made  for  the  conversion  of  a  society 
to  a  proprietary  company,  but  the 
courts  in  interpreting  this  decision 
have  made  restrictions 

FRIENDLY  SOCIETIES  ABROAD. 
In  some  parts  of  the  British  Em- 
pire, the  friendly  society  movement 
has  taken  some  root.  *  In  Austral- 
asia affiliated  orders  are  active ;  and 
in  Canada,  also,  various  societies 
are  operating.  Generally  speaking, 
the  state  supervision  of  societies  is 
strict,  and  the  result  of  this  may  well 
be  the  establishment  of  unregistered 
societies.  In  the  U.S.A.  they  are 
mainly  of  more  recent  origin  than 
in  Britain,  and  they  have  been 
stimulated  by  extensive  immigra- 
tion, including  many  members  of 
British  friendly  societies,  and  by 
severe  economic  distress.  A  typical 
illustration  is  the  Widows  and 
Orphans  Benefit  Society,  originally 
founded  when  distress  had  been 
most  severely  felt,  and  the  tra- 
ditional horror  of  pauper  treatment 


FRIENDLY    SOCIETIES 


3353 


FRIGATE 


was  strongest,  to  provide  friendly 
society  benefits,  and  then  con- 
verted into  the  Prudential  Assur- 
ance Company  of  America,  purely 
for  insuring  sums  payable  at  death. 
Hence  the  development  of  other 
industrial  insurance  companies 
upon  British  lines. 

In  France,  voluntary  organiza- 
tions have  long  existed,  and  those 
friendly  societies  which  have  been 
officially  approved  as  distinct 
from  authorised  societies  receive 
state  assistance  towards  the  pay- 
ment of  old-age  pensions  as  one  of 
their  benefits.  Germany  presents 
a  much  more  complete  example  of 
state  domination,  the  voluntary 
organizations  having  being  over- 
shadowed, although  not  neces- 
sarily extinguished,  by  the  schemes 
set  up  under  different  imperial 
statutes  from  1876  onwards,  for 
compulsory  insurance  upon  lines 
which  are  largely  followed  by  the 
British  scheme  of  National  Health 
Insurance,  1911.  Belgium  and 
Holland  have  each  a  considerable 
number  of  friendly  societies. 

Bibliography.  Friendly  Societies 
and  Industrial  and  Provident  Soci- 
eties, F.  Baden-Fuller,  1910  ;  Official 
Guide  Book  of  the  Registry  of 
Friendly  Societies,  1920  ;  Provident 
Societies  and  Industrial  Welfare,  E. 
Brabrook,  1898;  Memorandum  of 
Sickness  and  Invalidity  Insurance  in 
Germany,  H.M.  Stationery  Office, 
1911;  Addresses  and  Papers  on  Life 
Insurance  (America),  John  F.  Dry- 
den,  1909. 

Friendly  Societies  Registry. 
Office  created  in  1846  to  look  after 
the  accounts  of  friendly,  building, 
and  similar  societies  which  do  not 
come  under  the  operation  of  the 
Acts  regulating  public  companies. 
These  make  periodical  returns  to 
the  registrar,  which  are  tabulated 
in  blue-books.  The  chief  registrar 
is  a  member  of  the  four  insurance 
commissions  and  also  of  the  joint 
committee.  His  headquarters  are 
at  Dean  Stanley  Street,  West- 
minster, London,  S.W.,  and  there 
are  branches  of  the  registry  in 
Edinburgh  and  Dublin. 

Friends  of  the  People.  Society 
formed  in  England  in  1 792  by  some 
of  the  more  advanced  Whigs  to 
bring  about  parliamentary  reform. 
Sir  Philip  Francis  was  one  of  its 
founders  and  helped  to  draw  up  its 
original  programme.  The  members 
were  influenced  by  the  French 
Revolution,  but  proposed  to  pro- 
ceed by  constitutional  means.  The 
society  had  a  short  life,  although 
its  supporters  included  Sheridan, 
James  Mackintosh,  and  Erskine. 

Friesland  (Dutch,  Vriesland). 
Province  of  the  Netherlands.  The 
Zuider  Zee  and  North  Sea  form  its 
W.  and  N.  boundaries,  and  it  is  con- 
tiguous on  the  E.,  S.E.,  and  S.  with 


Groningen,  Drente,  and  Overyssel ; 
it  includes  the  three  islands  of 
Terschelling,  Ameland,  and  Schier- 
monnikoog.  The  flat  and  in  parts 
marshy  country  is  mainly  agri- 
cultural, fertile  and  well  watered, 
but  unsatisfactorily  managed.  Con- 
siderable tracts  are  under  sea  level. 
Dairy  farming,  stock  rearing,  horse 
breeding,  and  peat  cutting  are  im- 
portant. At  Sneek  there  is  busy 
trade  in  cheese  and  butter,  and  at 
Franeker  there  was  a  university 
until  1811.  There  are  several  large, 
marshy  lakes,  with  good  fishing, 
notably  the  Fleussen,  Tjeuke, 
Sneeker,  Sloter,  and  Bergumer 
lakes.  There  are  good  communi- 
cations by  rly.,  steam  tramways, 
and  canals.  The  chief  town  is 
Leeuwarden  (q.v.)  ;  other  centres 
are  Bolsward,  Sneek,  Dokkum, 
Harlingen,  Franeker,  Stavoren,  and 
Hindelopen.  The  prov.  sends  four 
members  to  the  lower  chamber, 
and  is  marked  by  the  prevalence  of 
the  old  Frisian  dialect.  In  parts 
the  country  is  pleasant  and  pictur- 
esque. Area,  1,243  sq.  m.  Pop. 
384,779. 

East  Friesland  is  the  name  of  a 
district  in  Hanover,  Germany. 
Lying  between  Groningen  in  the 
Netherlands  and  Oldenburg,  it  is 
also  flat  and  marshy,  and  has  agri- 
cultural and  fishery  interests.  Its 
chief  town  is  Aurich,  others  being 
Emden,  Norden,  and  Leer.  A 
canal  runs  from  Emden  eastwards 
to  Wilhelmshafen.  Area,  1,211 
sq.  m.  Pop.  241,024.  See  Frisians. 

Frieze.  In  architecture,  the 
middle  member  of  the  entablature, 
between  the  cornice  and  architrave. 


veloped  in  Roman  and  Renais- 
sance times,  and  when  domestic 
architecture  assumed  importance 
the  feature  was  applied  both  to 
exterior  and  interior  decoration. 
The  friezes  in  Inigo  Jones's  designs 
are  sometimes  divided  up  by  attic 
windows.  Tudor  doors,  windows, 
and  walls  often  have  classic  en- 
tablatures with  friezes.'  Exterior 
friezes  are  now  mainly  confined  to 
public  buildings,  but  modern  rooms 
are  frequently  decorated  with  a 
wall-paper  frieze,  and  occasionally 
with  a  frieze  pattern  in  low  relief. 
The  word,  Fr.  frise,  Ital.  fregio, 
probably  comes  ultimately  from 
Lat.  Pnrygium  (opus),  Phrygian 
(work).  See  Parthenon. 

Frigate  (Ital.  fregata).  Fore- 
runner of  the  modern  light  cruiser. 
A  fast  vessel  of  from  25  to 


Frigate  of  war  under  full  sail 


50  guns,  she  was  useful  for  either 
the  attack  or  defence  of  commerce 
on  the  high  seas,  and  for  scouting 
duties  with  the  line-of-battle  fleets. 
The  term  was  originally  applied  to 
craft  in  the  Mediterranean  using 
both  oars  and  sails.  The  first 
English  frigate  was  the  Constant 


Frieze.    Example  of  ancient  frieze  from  Trajan's  Forum,  Rome 


The  Greek  frieze  in  its  simple  form 
was  divided  into  panels  or  metopes 
by  triglyphs  or  channelled  blocks, 
the  metopes  being  sometimes 
sculptured  with  a  floral  design,  and 
sometimes,  as  in  the  Parthenon, 
with  figures.  In  the  earliest  temples 
the  metopes  and  triglyphs  were 
composed  of  separate  blocks  of 
stone,  artificially  bonded ;  but  the 
Ionic  and  later  styles  aimed  at 
making  the  frieze  a  continuous  band 
encircling  the  building,  with  the 
joints  concealed  as  much  as  possible. 
Different  varieties  of  frieze  de- 


Warwick,  designed  by  Peter  Pett 
for  the  earl  of  Warwick  for  use  as  a 
privateer,  built  at  Ratcliff,  on  the 
Thames,  in  1646,  and  purchased 
into  the  navy  in  1649.  The  desig- 
nation was  retained  in  the  British 
fleet  for  many  years  after  the  in- 
troduction of  steam,  and  it  was  not 
until  1883  that  it  was  replaced  by 
cruiser.  In  sailing  days  any  war- 
ship other  than  a  stationary  vessel, 
storeship,  or  troopship  was  classed 
as  a  cruiser  ;  but  this  term  is  never 
applied  now  to  any  vessel  built  to 
lie  "  in  the  line."  See  Cruiser. 


FRIGATE     BIRD 


3354 


FRISIAN     ISLANDS 


Frigate  Bird  (Fregata  aquila). 
Sea-fowl  related  to  the  gannet  and 
the  pelican.  It  has  a  long,  slender 


Frigate  Bird.  Specimen  of  the  larger 
species  found  in  tropical  regions 

body,  ending  in  a  forked  tail  re- 
sembling that  of  the  swallow,  and 
the  beak  is  long  and  hooked. 
Found  only  in  the  warmer  seas, 
usually  far  from  land,  it  lives  upon 
the  fish  that  it  catches  or  robs 
from  other  sea-fowl. 

Frightfulness.  Anything  lead- 
ing to  fright  or  terror.  The  word 
came  to  have  a  special  meaning 
during  the  Great  War  as  translating 
the  German  Schrecklichkeit.  The 
German  theory  of  war  taught  that 
the  ends  could  be  most  quickly  se- 
cured by  deliberate  terrorism,  and 
this  policy  of  frightfulness  inspired 
many  of  their  actions  in  Belgium 
and  France.  See  Atrocities. 

Frilled  Lizard  (Ghlamydo- 
saurus).  Australian  lizard.  Mea- 
suring nearly  a  yard  in  length,  it  is 
distinguished  by  a  large  mem- 
branous frill  on  either  side  of  the 
neck.  This  is  usually  folded  back, 
but  can  be  erected  when  the  animal 
is  alarmed,  apparently  for  the  pur- 

Eose  of  frightening  its  enemies, 
b  is  a  harmless  creature,  found 
only  in  sandy  districts. 

Frilling  (old  Fr.  friller,  to 
tremble).  Pleated  edging  for 
dresses  or  undergarments.  In  the 
18th  century,  to  frill  meant  to 
shiver,  and  frilling  was  at  first  an 
edging  of  lace  or  some  material  so 
light  that  it  shook  with  movement. 
Later  it  meant  a  narrow  edging  of 
lace  pleated  into  a  band  and  sewn 
into  the  neck  and  sleeves  of  dresses. 

Frimaire  (Fr.,  the  month  of 
frost).  Third  month  in  the  year 
as  rearranged  during  the  French 
Revolution.  It  began  on  Nov. 
21  or  22.  See  Calendar. 

Frimley.  Urban  dist.  and  vil- 
lage of  Surrey,  England.  It  stands 
on  the  Blackwater,  2  m.  S.  of  Cam- 
berley,  on  the  L.  &  S.W.R.  In 
the  Aldershot  area,  it  is  mainly  a 
residential  district.  A  farm  colony 
of  15  acres  for  sailors  and  soldiers 
suffering  from  tuberculosis  was  or- 
ganized here  in  1920.  Pop.  13,673. 

Fringe.  Strictly,  loose  threads 
forming  an  ornamental  border  to 
anything,  e.g.  the  fringe  of  a  gar- 
ment. The  word  is  also  used  for 
hair  cut  straight  across  the  fore- 


head. It  is  used  by  analogy  for 
anything  on  the  border,  e.g.  the 
fringe  of  empire.  See  Frilling. 

Fringe  Tree  (Chionanthus). 
Genus  of  shrubs  or  small  trees  of  the 
natural  order  Oleaceae.  Natives 


'••••'. 

Fringe  Tree.    Foliage  and  drooping 
flower  of  the  Chinese  shrub 

of  China  and  N.  America,  they 
have  large,  smooth,  magnolia-like 
leaves,  and  white,  sweet-scented 
flowers  which  hang  in  graceful 
clusters  ;  the  corolla  is  cut  into 
narrow  segments,  which  give  it  a 
fringed  appearance.  C.  virginica, 
the  American  species,  is  also 
known  as  snowdrop-tree. 

Frinton- on-Sea.  Urban  dist. 
and  seaside  resort  of  Essex,  Eng- 
land. It  is  2  m.  S.  of  Walton-on-the- 


FriUed  Lizard.  ChU 


i  Kir 


bom  Australia 
Naze,  on  the  G.E.R.,  and  has  good 
bathing  facilities  and  golf  links. 
A  model  garden  town,  its  avenues 
are  wide  and  are  planted  with  trees. 
Sea  walls  and  promenades  have 
been  constructed,  and  a  pleasure 
ground  of  50  acres.  Pop.  1,510. 

Fripp,  SIR  ALFRED  DOWNING 
(b.  1865).  British  surgeon.  Born 
Sept.  12,  1865,  he  was  educated  at 
Merchant  Tay- 
lors'School,  and 
took  his  degrees 
in  medicine  at 
London  Uni- 
versity. He 
served  in  the 
South  African 
War,  where 
he  was  chief 
civilian  medical 
officer  at  the 
Imperial  Yeo- 


Sir  Alfred  D.  Fripp, 
British  surgeon 

Rut  tell 


manry  hospital.  Surgeon  to  Guy's 
and  other  London  hospitals,  he 
was  also  surgeon  to  the  king 
In  1903  he  was  knighted. 

Frisches  Haff.  Lagoon  off  the 
N.  coast  of  Prussia.  It  is  separated 
from  the  Gulf  of  Danzig  by  a  strip 
of  land  40  m.  long  and  about  one 
mile  wide,  called  the  Frische 
Nehrung.  The  lagoon  or  haff  is 
about  50  m.  long  and  of  varying 
breadth ;  it  covers  330  sq.  m. 
The  opening  to  the  outer  sea  is  at 
the  N.E.  end,  where  a  channel  has 
been  dredged  for  traffic.  Before 
1510  the  lagoon  was  entirely  land- 
locked, but  in  that  year  a  storm 
destroyed  a  little  of  the  sand 
barrier.  The  Elbing,  Passarge, 
Pregel,  and  Nagot  flow  into  the 
Haff,  while  the  port  of  Elbing  is 
5  m.  from  it. 

Frise.  Village  of  France,  in  the 
dept.  of  Somme,  9m.W.  of  Peronne. 
Heavy  fighting  took  place  between 
the  French  and  the  Germans  here, 
Jan.-Feb.,  1916.  It  was  captured 
by  the  former  under  Foch,  July  2, 
1916,  retaken  by  the  Germans  in 
March,  1918,  and  finally  recovered 
by  the  Allies  the  following  Aug. 
See  Somme,  Battles  of  the. 

Frisian  Islands.  Chain  of 
islands  extending  from  the  coast  of 
Slesvig-Holstein,  Denmark,  to  the 
southern  mouth  of  the  Zuider  Zee 
in  Holland.  They  are  the  remains 
of  a  former  coast-border  of  Jutland 
and  Holland,  and  their  sandy 
character  and  lack  of  vegetation 
attest  the  process  of  erosion  they 
must  have  undergone  in  the  course 
of  centuries  ;  local  legends  tell  of 
old  villages  now  submerged.  Most 
are  popular  German  sea-bathing 
resorts. 

The  chain  may  be  divided  into 
three  groups,  North  Frisian,  East 
Frisian,  and  Dutch.  The  North 
Frisian  Islands  lie  off  the  W. 
coast  of  Slesvig-Holstein,  from 
which  they  are  separated  by  the 
Watten,  an  arm  of  the  sea. 
Interspersed  among  them  are  the 
Halligen,  low  sandbanks  covered 
with  marine  grass. 

The  principal  member  of  the 
group  and  the  largest  German 
island  in  the  North  Sea  is  Sylt, 
which  has  an  area  of  39  sq.  m. 
and  a  population  of  4,800.  Its 
capita]  is  Westerland  (pop.  2,400), 
situated  on  its  W.  side,  consisting 
of  two  portions,  Alt-Westerland, 
and  the  more  modern  Neu- Wester- 
land,  separated  from  the  sea  by  a 
chain  of  sand-dunes  and  a  stone 
embankment.  Next  in  importance 
is  the  island  of  Fohr,  on  the  E. 
coast  of  which  lies  the  village  of 
Wyk  (pop.  1,800),  which  possesses 
an  interesting  museum  of  Frisian 
antiquities  and  handsome  public 
gardens.  Amrum,  6  m.  long  by 


FRISIANS 

3  m.  broad,  lies  S.  of  Sylt  and  has 
1,000  inhabitants. 

The  East  Frisian  Islands  form  an 
almost  continuous  line  masking  the 
German  coast  between  the  mouths 
of  the  Ems  and  the  Weser.  Nor- 
derney  (pop.  3,400)  is  8  m.  long  by 
1£  m.  broad.  Its  mild  climate  and 
magnificent  stretch  of  sandy  beach 
make  it  a  favourite  summer  resort. 
Borkum  (pop.  3,300),  situated  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Ems,  9  m.  N.  of 
the  Dutch  coast,  is  5  m.  long  by  2£ 
m.  broad,  and  is  perhaps  the  most 
popular  holiday  resort,  and  its  breed 
of  milch-cattle  is  much  esteemed. 
Wangeroog,  5  m.  long  by  1  m. 
broad,  formerly  belonged  to  Olden- 
burg. About  2  m.  W.  of  the  present 
village  are  the  ruins  of  an  older 
inhabited  site  overwhelmed  by  a 
violent  storm.  Spiekeroog,  re- 
garded as  part  of  Prussia,  is  5  m. 
long  by  1J  m.  broad  and  attracts 


3355 

connected  with  the  other  Low 
German  peoples  along  the  coast, 
notably  the  Angles  and  Saxons, 
and  the  old  Frisian  dialect  survives 
in  the  Dutch  and  German  Fries- 
lands  and  in  parts  of  W.  Slesvig, 
especially  in  the  coastal  country 
near  Tondern. 

The  Frisians  were  partially  con- 
quered by  the  Roman  general 
Drusus,  c.  12  B.C.,  but  their  early 
history  is  obscure.  Numbers  of 
them  were  probably  associated 
with  the  Angles  and  Saxons  in  their 
incursions  into  Britain  during  the 
4th  and  5th  centuries.  Friesland 
generally  was  made  tributary  to 
the  Frankish  empire  of  Pepin  II 
in  689,  and  after  a  revolt  was  re- 
conquered by  Charles  Martel  in  736. 
It  fell  to  Charlemagne  in  784.  It 
retained  a  fair  degree  of  inde- 
pendence during  the  Middle  Ages. 
For  a  short  time  in  Saxon  posses- 


FfclTH 


e  particularly  barley,  of  north- 
Europe.     It  is  not  found  in 


more 

ern  Europe. 

Britain,    though    there    its    allied 

species,    C.    taeniopus,   frequently 

attacks  barley. 

Frith,  JOHN  (1503-33).  Eng- 
lish martyr.  The  son  of  a  Kentish 
innkeeper,  he  was  educated  at 
King's  College,  Cambridge,  after- 
wards becoming  a  member  of  Christ 
Church,  Oxford  He  helped  Tyndal 
to  translate  the  Bible,  and  his 
abilities  and  scholarship  soon  made 
him  prominent  among  the  advo- 
cates of  the  reformed  faith.  This 
led  to  his  enforced  departure  from 
England,  and  for  about  six  years  he 
lived  in  Germany  and  Holland. 
Having  returned  to  England,  he 
was  arrested.  In  prison  and  on  ex- 
amination, he  defended  by  pen  and 
word  his  beliefs  ;  consequently  he 
was  burned  to  death  at  Smithneld, 
July  4,  1533. 


William  Powell  Frith.     Bai 


e  Sands,  an  example  of  one  of  the  artist's  larger  compc 
Academy  in  1854  and  purchased  by  Queen  Victoria 


comparatively  few  summer  visitors. 
Langeoog  is  8£  m.  long  by  1  m. 
broad,  and  has  five  thousand  in- 
habitants. 

The  Dutch  Frisian  group,  of 
which  the  most  important  islands 
are  Terschelling,  Vlieland,  and 
Texel,  screens  the  mouths  of  the 
Zuider  Zee.  The  inhabitants  are 
chiefly  concerned  with  agriculture 
and  dairy-farming,  and  though 
honest  and  good-natured,  are  back- 
ward. Frisian,  the  original  speech 
of  these  islands,  bears  a  remarkable 
resemblance  to  the  older  forms  of 
English. 

Frisians.  People  of  Teutonic 
race  originally  inhabiting  the 
country  now  covered  by  the  Dutch 
provinces  of  Friesland  and  Gro- 
ningen  and  the  German  district  of 
East  Friesland.  They  were  closely 


sion,  Friesland  was  ceded  to  tho 
emperor  Charles  V  in  1523,  but 
joined  the  United  Provinces  in 
1579,  remaining  one  of  these  until 
1795,  when  it  was  merged  into  the 
Dutch  territories. 

East  Friesland  became  distinct 
from  the  rest  of  the  Frisian  lands 
in  1430,  when  it  became  a  fief  of 
the  powerful  Cirkensa  family,  by 
whom  it  was  ruled  until  1744,  when 
it  was  incorporated  in  Prussia. 
Transferred  to  Holland  in  1808, 
and  in  French  possession  1810-13, 
it  was  recovered  by  Prussia  and 
ceded  by  her  to  Hanover  in  1815. 

Frit.  Name  popularly  applied  to 
certain  small  dipterous  insects  de- 
structive to  corn  crops.  The  one 
generally  so  named  is  Chlorops  frit, 
a  small  black  fly  which  sometimes 
causes  havoc  among  the  crops, 


Frith,  WILLIAM  POWELL  (1819- 
1909).  British  painter.  Born  at 
Aldfield,  Yorks,  Jan.  9, 1819,  son  of 
an  innkeeper, 
he  studied 
at  Sass ' s 
Academy, 
Bloomsbu  ry, 
and  at  the 
R.A.  schools. 
Founding  his 
style  on  that 
of  Daniel 
Maclise,  h  e 

^£%2£— ^  ^antopaif 

7  /TesfrJu  historical  sub- 

^~1  ^  jects,  his  Mai- 
volio  being 
hung  at  the  R.A.,  1840.  He  was 
elected  A. R.A.  in  1844,  and  R.A. 
in  1852.  He  scored  popular  suc- 
cesses with  Ramsgate  Sands,  1854 ; 


FR1TILLAR1A 


3356 


FROEBEL   SOCIETY 


Derby  Day,  1858;  The  Railway 
Station.  1862;  Private  View  at 
the  R.A.,  1881.  Dickens  was 
among  Frith' s  eariy  friends.  He 
died  in  London,  Nov.  2,  1909.  See 
Ashton,  Lucy ;  Dickens,  illus. 

FritiUaria.  In  zoology,  the  name 
applied  generically  to  certain  As- 
cidians,  commonly  called  sea 
squirts,  of  the  free  swimming  class. 
In  botany  it  is  given  to  a  large 
genus  of  Liliaceae.  (See  Snakes- 
head.)  Fritillary  is  the  name  given 
to  several  species  of  butterfly  of  the 
Argynnis  and  allied  genera.  Sev- 
eral of  these  are  native  in  Great 
Britain.  See  Butterfly,  colour  plate. 
Friuli.  District  of  Italy,  at  one 
time  an  independent  duchy.  It 
lies  around  the  head  of  the  Adriatic 
and  was,  before  1918,  partly  in 
Austria  and  partly  in  Italy.  It  is 
about  3,300  sq.  m.  in  area,  and  has 
a  pop.  of  about  700,000.  The  Isonzo 
and  the  Tagliamento  flow  through 
it,  and  there  was  much  fighting 
here  during  the  Great  War.  The 
adjective  for  Friuli  is  Fuiianian. 

The  district  takes  its  name  from 
the  Roman  settlement  of  Forum 
Julii,  the  later  Cividale  (q.v.).  The 
Lombards  ruled  it  for  some  cen- 
turies, after  which  it  passed  from 
one  ruler  to  another.  Venice  se- 
cured part  ol  it,  while  eastern 
Friuli  was  added  about  1500  to  the 
lands  of  the  house  of  Austria.  In 
1797  Austria  obtained  the  Venetian 
portion,  which  she  retained  in  1815. 
In  1866  the  new  kingdom  of  Italy 
was  given  the  part  that  had 
previously  belonged  to  Venice,  and 
so  matters  remained  until  the 
Great  War.  After  then  Austrian 
Friuli  was  claimed  by  both  Italy 
and  Yugo-Slavia,  but  by  the  treaty 
of  Rapallo  (1920)  the  whole  be- 
came Italian.  The  capital  of  the 
district  is  Udine  (q.v.). 

FrobenoR  FEOBENIUS,  JOHANNES 
(c.  1460-1527).  German  scholar- 
printer.  Born  at  Hammelburg, 
Franconja,  and  educated  at  Basel 
University,  he  opened  at  Basel, 
1491,  a  printing  office,  where  he 
printed  many  of  the  works  of  Eras- 
mus, a  close  friend,  a  Latin  Bible, 
a  Greek  Testament,  edited  by  Eras- 
mus and  illustrated  by  Holbein, 
and  editions  of  the  Latin  Fathers. 
Frobisher,  SIR  MARTIN  (c.1535- 
94).  English  sailor.  Born  in  York- 
shire, he  made  a  voyage  to  Guinea 
in  1564.  and  spent  some  years  in 
voyages  to  the  Levant  and  N. 
Africa.  In  1575  he  was  com- 
missioned by  the  Muscovy  Com- 
pany to  search  for  the  North-West 
Passage,  and  set  out  on  June  7, 
1576,  with  two  ships  of  25  and  20 
tons  respectively,  sighted  Green- 
land, where  he  lost  the  smaller 
vessel,  and  reached  Frobisher  Bay 
in  N.  America. 


Sir  Martin  Frobisher, 
English  sailor 


Returning  to 
England,  Fro- 
bisher repeated 
the  voyage  in 
1577  as  admiral 
of  the  company 
of  Cathay,  and 
brought  back 
200  tons  of 
p  y  r  i  t  i  c  ore, 
which  he  in- 
correctly be- 
lieved con- 
tained gold.  In  1579  he  made  a 
third  voyage,  and  discovered  a 
new  strait,  but  did  not  make  any 
survey.  In  1586  he  was  vice- 
admiral  to  Drake's  expedition  to 
the  W.  Indies,  and,  in  command 
of  the  Triumph,  helped  to  defeat 
the  Armada  (1588).  He  was 
knighted  for  his  gallantry.  He  was 
vice-admiral  to  Sir  John  Hawkins 
in  1590,  being  sent  by  Raleigh  to 
harry  the  Spanish  coast  in  1591. 
Mortally  wounded  in  the  sea  at- 
tack against  Brest,  then  held  by 
the  Spaniards,  he  died  at  Plymouth, 
Nov.  22,  1594. 

Frobisher  Bay.  Inlet  off  the 
coast  of  British  N.  America. 
Long  and  comparatively  narrow, 
it  cuts  into  the  eastern  end  of 
Baffin  Land  from  the  Atlantic. 
Its  length  is  about  250  m.,  and  its 
breadth  about  20.  It  is  about 
200  m.  S.  of  the  Arctic  circle. 

Frock  ( late  Lat.  froccus ).  Word 
used  as  both  noun  and  verb.  In 
the  former  sense  it  is  applied  to  a 
monastic  robe,  with  loose  sleeves, 
reaching  to  the  feet ;  to  a  dress 
worn  by  women  and  girls  ;  to  a 
rough  worsted  garment  (strictly, 
Guernsey  frock)  worn  by  sailors 
over  or  in  place  of  a  shirt ;  and  to 
a  double-breasted,  skirted  coat 
worn  by  men  and  properly  called  a 
frock  coat.  As  a  verb  the  word  to 
frock  means,  figuratively,  to  make 
a  man  a  monk  or  priest.  To  un- 
frock means  to  deprive  monk  or 
ecclesiastic  of  his  privileges  as  such. 
See  Costume  ;  Gown  ;  Smock. 

Froding,  GUSTAF  (1860-1911). 
Swedish  poet.  Born  in  Vaerm- 
land,  Aug.  22,  1860,  and  educated 
at  Karlstad  and  Upsala,  he  after- 
wards joined  the  staff  of  the  Karl- 
stad paper,  and  wrote  occasional 
verse.  Spending  some  time  in 
Germany,  he  studied  English  and 
German  lyrical  poetry,  from  which 
he  made  various  translations.  His 
first  book,  Guitar  and  Concertina, 
1891.  was  an  immediate  success. 
New  Poems,  1894,  and  other  books 
were  issued,  1894-98,  and  in  1901-2 
his  collected  works  were  published. 
Much  of  his  verse  was  written 
in  dialect. 

Froding' s  original  humour  and 
spontaneity,  vivid  portrayal  of 
Swedish  life,  lyrical  perfection, 


and  pithy  language,  which  has 
already  influenced  the  Swedish 
tongue,  have  placed  him  first 
among  modern  Swedish  poets.  His 
last  years  were  spent  mostly  in 
hospital,  but  in  1910  he  published 
a  volume  of  poems,Second  Harvest. 
A  selection  of  Eroding's  poems  was 
translated  by  C.  N.  Stork,  1916. 

Frodsham.  Parish  and  market 
town  of  Cheshire,  England.  It  is 
10  m.  N.E.  of  Chester,  and  has  a 
station  on  the  Chester-Manchestei 
rly.  It  has  a  Norman  church,  dedi 
cated  to  S.  Lawrence,  and  restored 
in  the  19th  century,  a  town  hall, 
and,  formerly,  a  castle.  The  chief 
industries  are  the  manufacture  of 
chemicals,  salt,  and  cotton.  Frods- 
ham Marshes  is  a  low-lying  area  be- 
tween the  Weaver  and  the  Mersey, 
which  rivers  meet  near  here.  Pop. 
3,000. 

Froebel,  FRIEDRICH  WILHELM 
AUGUST  (1782-1852).  German  edu- 
cational  reformer.  Born  at  Ober- 
w  e  i  s  s  b  a  c  h, 
April  2 1,1 782, 
he  spent  his 
youth  in  the 
heart  of  the 
Thuringian 
Forest,  where 
his  long  ob- 
servation o  f 
nature  gave 


him  many  of  the  ideas  which  later 
marked  his  teachings.  He  studied 
at  Jena,  1801,  and  at  Gottingen, 
1811,  teaching  in  the  interval.  In 
1813  he  served  in  the  War  of 
Liberation  in  Liitzow's  corps. 
In  1816  he  opened  a  small  school  at 
Griesheim,  Thuringia,  transferred 
later  to  Keilhau. 

His  book/The  Education  of  Man, 
appeared  in  1826,  and  he  did  im- 
portant work  in  training  teachers 
at  Burgdorf,  Switzerland,  be- 
tween 1833-37.  He  opened  his 
first  kindergarten  (children's  gar- 
den) in  Blankenburg,  near  Keilhau, 
in  1837,  by  which  date  his  prin- 
ciples were  making  headway. 
Lecturing,  writing,  and  teaching, 
Froebel  spent  his  remaining  years 
busily,  and  died  June  21,  1852. 
See  Froebel  System. 

Froebel  Society.  Society 
founded  to  assist  in  the  dissemina- 
tion of  the  Froebel  system  of 
child  education.  It  organizes 
lectures  for  teachers,  students,  and 
all  persons  interested  in  early  edu- 
cation, maintains  a  library,  and 
Fu  Wishes  periodical  proceedings, 
ts  headquarters  are  at  4,  Blooms- 
bury  Square,  London,  W.C.  The 
society  is  represented  on  the 
examination  board  of  the  National 


FROEBEL      SYSTEM 

Froebel  Union,  which  issues  cer- 
tificates to  teachers  of  children 
under  14.  To  obtain  these  cer- 
tificates, which  are  recognized  by 
the  board  of  education,  about 
two  years'  training  is  required, 
colleges  for  which  are  found  in 
most  large  educational  centres  in 
the  United  Kingdom. 

Froebel  System.  Name  given 
to  the  theory  or  plan  of  children's 
education  enunciated  by  Friedrich 
Froebel  (q.v.).  Convinced  of  the 
essential  unity  of  all  things 
human,  natural,  and  divine,  Froe- 
bel held  up  as  the  ideal  of  educa- 
tion the  leading  of  man  to  a  full 
consciousness  of  this  unity  and  the 
teaching  of  the  ways  to  attaining 
it.  Like  Heinrich  Pestalozzi  (q.v.), 
he  believed  that  children  should 
be  allowed  to  develop  naturally, 
in  happy  and  harmonious  sur- 
roundings, and  with  trained  guides 
and  helpers  to  safeguard  the 
natural  process.  His  system  lays 
great  stress  on  the  value  of  play, 
which  is  regarded  as  a  spiritual 
activity,  and  on  the  educational 
value  of  giving  a  free  hand  to  the 
instinctive  sense  of  rhythm  and 
the  natural  creativeness  of  the 
child  mind. 

The  main  part  of  Froebel's 
theories  was  put  into  practice  in 
the  kindergarten  schools,  but 
the  underlying  doctrines  are  meant 
for  all  stages  of  education.  In  the 
kindergartens  the  child's  senses  are 
developed  by  such  means  as  clay- 
modelling,  paper-folding,  work  with 
colour  brushes,  mat-plaiting,  bead- 
threading,  etc.,  and  the  observation 
and  care  of  natural  objects, animals, 
flowers,  etc.,  help  to  encourage  his 
finer  instincts.  See  Education  ; 
Kindergarten ;  Montessori  Method. 

Frog.  Smooth -skinned  mem- 
ber of  the  order  Ecaudata  (tail- 
less), of  the  class  Batrachia.  This 
order  includes  all  the  frogs  and 
toads,  numbering  more  than  1,000 
species,  which  are  distinguished 
from  newts  and  salamanders  by  the 
absence  of  a  tail  in  the  adult  stage. 
The  name  frog  is  restricted  to  the 
family  Ranidae,  of  which  nearly 
200  species  are  known.  The  bony 
structure  of  all  the  frogs  is  pe- 
culiar in  having  the  hinder  half 
of  the  vertebral  column  modified 
into  a  simple  jointless  bone  ;  while 
the  two  bones  usually  found  in  the 
fore  arm  and  lower  leg  of  verte- 
brates are  fused  together.  They 
possess  tongues  whose  base  is  in 
the  front  of  the  mouth  ;  and  have 
teeth  in  the  upper  jaw  and  palate 
only.  T  he  fore  feet  are  not  we  bbed ; 
the  hind  ones  partially  webbed. 

Frogs  are  found  in  all  parts  of 
the  world,  except  in  New  Zealand, 
Papua,  the  extreme  S.  of  South 
America,  and  the  frozen  regions.  As 


3357 


Frog.     Bottom,  the  edible  variety, 

Rana  esculenta.  Top,  cpipmon  frog, 

R.  temporaria 

they  can  only  live  in  damp  places, 
they  are  absent  from  deserts  and  the 
higher  ranges  of  the  mountains. 

Like  all  batrachians,  frogs  pass 
through  a  series  of  metamorphoses. 
The  eggs  are  deposited  in  a  jelly- 
like  mass  in  fresh  water,  and  hatch 
out  as  tadpoles,  consisting  of  an 
oval  body  and  a  long  tail.  During 
this  stage  they  breathe  by  means  of 
gills.  The  tail  and  gills  are  gradu- 
ally absorbed,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  four  limbs  make  their  ap- 
pearance. At  the  completion  of 
this  stage  they  leave  the  water  and 
take  to  a  terrestrial  life,  breathing 
air  by  means  of  lungs.  The  air  is 
taken  in  by  a  kind  of  swallowing 
action,  and  if  the  mouth  is  kept 
open  for  any  length  of  time  the 
animal  will  die  by  suffocation, 
as  it  cannot  inhale  apart  from  the 
action  of  the  mouth,  owing  to  the 
absence  of  ribs.  The  food  con- 
sists of  insects  and  slugs,  which  are 
seized  by  thrusting  out  the  long, 
sticky  tongue.  Frogs  are  therefore- 
valuable  to  the  gardener  and 
should  never  be  destroyed.  The 
winter  months  are  passed  in  a  state 
of  hibernation,  usually  in  the  mud 
of  ponds,  but  occasionally  in  holes 
and  crevices. 

Great  Britain  possesses  two  spe 
cies  of  frogs,  of  which  the  common 
frog  (Rana  temporaria)  is  found 
almost  everywhere.  The  edible 
frog  (R.  esculenta)  is  found  mainly 
in  the  eastern  counties,  and  is  dis- 
tinguished from  the  commoner  spe- 
cies by  its  usually  larger  size  and 
more  mottled  appearance,  especi- 


FROGBIT 

ally  on  the  thighs.  There  is  a  dis- 
tinct fold  along  each  side  of  the 
body,  and  the  males  have  a  con- 
spicuous  round  sac  on  either  side 
of  the  head,  which  is  disUiulnl 
when  croaking.  On  the  Continent 
and  in  N.  America  the  edible  frog  in 
often  used  for  the  table,  the  flesh 
of  the  thighs  resembling  that  of  a 
very  young  chicken  ;  but  it  i« 
rarely  eaten  in  Great  Britain.  See 
Animal;  Embryology,  illus. 

Frog.  In  engineering,  two  short 
lengths  of  rail  spliced  together  and 
forming  part  of  a  railway  crossing. 


Frog  used  in  engineering  as  part  of 
a  railway  crossing 

A  wrecking  frog  is  a  device  with  one 
end  raised  to  form  an  inclined 
plane  by  which  derailed  rolling 
stock  can  be  replaced  on  the  track. 
The  frog  is  laid  alongside  the  rail 
with  the  lower  end  towards  a  wheel 
uf  the  derailed  vehicle ;  by  pulling 
the  latter  the  wheel  mounts  the 
frog,  which  guides  it  on  to  the  rail. 
It  is  also  known  as  a  railway  ramp. 
(See  Railways.)  The  term  is  also 
applied  to  part  of  a  horse's  hoof, 
and  to  that  part  of  a  soldier's 
equipment  which  carries  the  sword 
or  bayonet. 

Frogbit  (Hydrochuris  morsus- 
ranae).  Floating  aquatic  herb,  of 
the  natural  order  Hydrocharideae. 
A  native  of  Europe  and  N.  Asia,  it 
has  long-stalked,  kidney-shaped 
leaves,  reddish  beneath  ;  and  thrce- 
petalled  white  flowers.  It  sends  out 
runners  which  produce  new  plants, 
and  in  autumn  bulbs  which  sink 
to  the  bottom  of  the  ponds  and 
ditches  in  which  it  lives,  where  they 
pass  the  winter  in  the  mud.  In 
spring  they  rise  to  the  surface,  and 
put  out  leaves.  The  male  flowers 
are  in  clusters  of  two  or  three ;  the 
females  solitary. 


Bulbs  rising  to  the  surface, 
developed  into  a  plant  with 
four  leaves 


FROG  HOPPER 


3358 


FROME 


Frog  Hopper.  Name  popularly 
given  to  a  large  family  (Cercopidae) 
of  hemipterous  insects.  Their 
larvae  may  be 
noticed  on 
plants,  where 
they  are 
covered  with 
froth  and  are 
often  known 
as  "cuckoo 
spit."  The 
adult  insects 


Frog  Hopper  of  the  Alder,  Aphro- 
phora  alni.  Above,  spiny-legged 
frog-hopper,  Evacanthus  interruptus 

are    grey     or    greeny,     and    leap 
vigorously  if  disturbed. 

Frog  more.  Royal  residence  of 
Berkshire,  England.  It  is  within 
the  Home  Park,  Windsor,  1  m.  S.E. 


Frogmore,  Windsor.    Royal  Mausoleum 
built  by  Queen  Victoria,  1862  70 

F.  W.  Hardie 

of  the  castle  :  and  was  purchased 
by  Queen  Charlotte  in  1800.  The 
duchess  of  Kent  died  here  in  1861. 
Since  then  it  has  been  used  by 
other  members  of  the  royal  family. 
A  cruciform  structure  surmounted 
by  an  octagonal  lantern  was  erected 
by  Queen  Victoria  over  the  tomb 
of  the  Prince  Consort.  The  re- 
mains of  the  queen  were  buried 
here  in  1901. 

Frogmouth.  Family  of  night- 
flying,  insectivorous  birds.  Re- 
sembling the  nightjar,  they  are 
notable  for  their  very  wide  mouths. 
There  are  numerous  species,  dis- 
tributed over  Australia,  Malaya, 
and  the  eastern  districts  of  India. 

Frogs,  THE.  Comedy  by  Aristo- 
phanes, produced  405*B.c.  The  god 
Dionysos  goes  down  to  Hades  to 
fetch  up  Euripides  from  the  dead. 


A  contest  for  supremacy  takes  place 
between  the  rival  tragedians  Aeschy- 
lus and  Euripides,  in  which  each 
humorously  criticises  the  specimens 
of  style  given  by  his  opponent.  The 
palm  is  awarded  to  Aeschylus,  who 
returns  to  earth  with  Dionysos  to 
offer  the  benefit  of  his  advice  to  the 
Athenians.  The  play  takes  its 
name  from  the  chorus  of  frogs  who 
accompany  the  god  in  his  passage 
over  the  lake  of  the  underworld. 

Frohman,  CHARLES  (1860-1915). 
American  theatrical  manager.  Born 
at  Sandusky,  Ohio,  June  12,  1860, 


au-Mont.  In  1388  Froissart  visited 
Beam,  and  travelled  with  the 
knight  Espaing  de  Lyon,  whose 
stories  gave 
him  much  pic- 
turesque mat- 
ter for  his 
Chronicles,  to 
the  brilliant 
court  of  Gaston 
Phoebus  of 
Foix  at  Orthez. 
In  1395  he  paid 
another  visit  to 


Jean  Froissart, 
French  chronicler 


Charles  Frohman, 

American  theatrical 

manager 


&h  i  c  offices, 
ew  York,  and 
then  as  box- 
office  clerk  at 
Hooley's  Thea- 
tre, Brooklyn. 
In  1893  he 
established 
himself  at  the 
Empire  Thea- 
tre, New  York,  and  later  had 
five  other  theatres  under  his  con- 
trol in  that  city.  In  1897  he  be- 
came lessee  of  the  Duke  of  York's, 
London,  where  he  brought  out  Sir 
James  Barrie's  plays,  The  Admir- 
able Crichton,  1903  ;  Peter  Pan, 
1904  ;  What  Every  Woman  Knows, 
1908 ;  and  experimented  with  a 
repertory  system  in  1910,  produc- 
ing plays  by  Barrie,  Bernard  Shaw, 
John  Galsworthy,  and  Granville 
Barker.  He  was  drowned  in  the 
Lusitania,  May  7, 1915.  See  Charles 
Frohman  :  Manager  and  Man,  I.  F. 
Marcosson  and  D.  Frohman,  1916. 
Froissart,  JEAN  (c.l338-c.!404). 
French  chronicler.  The  son  of 
an  heraldic  painter,  Froissart  was 
born  at  Valenciennes,  and  probably 
started  to  write  the  first  part  of  his 
history  about  1358.  He  became 


England,   and 

he     was     first     died  at  Chimay. 
employed  in        The  Chronicles,  in  four  books, 
The  Daily  Gra-     trace  the  history  of  the  main  events 
England,     Scotland,    Ireland. 


m 

France,  Flanders,  and  Spain, 
well  as  happenings  at  the  papal 
courts  at  Rome  and  Avignon,  be- 
tween 1325  and  1400,  and  form  one 
of  the  greatest  of  medieval  histori- 
cal works.  The  first  book,  much  of 
its  material  borrowed  from  the 
earlier  chronicler  Jean  le  Bel,  views 
the  course  of  events  largely  from 
the  English  point  of  view,  written 
as  it  was  under  English  patronage. 
But  on  the  whole  Froissart  gives  a 
fair  version  of  events  as  he  saw 
them,  or  as  the  witnesses  available 
described  them  to  him.  He  spared 
no  effort  in  the  search  for  reliable 
testimony. 

Modern  research  has  corrected 
errors  of  chronology,  statistics,  and 
topography,  but  Froissart  shows  a 
great  advance  on  most  of  his  pre- 
decessors. He  definitely  presents 
his  picture  as  a  whole,  relating 
cause  and  event  in  due  sequence, 
not  content  merely  to  enumerate 
bald  facts.  But  his  work  is  chiefly 
prized  for  its  vivacious  narrative  of 
the  best  side  of  the  chivalric  age. 
Froissart,  who  also  wrote  some  in- 
ferior verse, was  the  friend  of  several 
notable  poets,  especially  Eustache 


secretary  to  Philippa  of  Hainault,     Deschamps,  and  probably  Chaucer, 
queen  of  Edward  III  of  England,     The  first  dated  edition  of  the  Chron- 


in  1361,  and  while  in  her  service 
visited  the  court  of   David  II  of 
Scotland.     For   a    short   time    he 
returned  to  his  native  Flanders,  but 
in  1366  followed  Edward  the  Black 
Prince   to    Gas-    , 
cony,    and    paid 
visits   to    several 
courts  of  N.  Italy. 
Philippa   died  in 
1369,    and    he 
found   other    pa  - 
trons  in  Count 
Robert  of  Namui . 
Duke    Wenceslas 
of  Brabant,    and 
Guy   de  Blois, 
the   overlord  o  f 
Chimay.     From 
the  last  he  ob- 
tained the   bene- 
fice   of    Lestines-  Frome,  Somerset. 


icles  appeared  in  1504  ;  the  first 
Eng.  trans,  by  Lord  Berners,  1525. 
Frome  OR  FROME  SEIAVOOD. 
Urban  dist.  and  market  town  of 
Somerset,  England.  It  stands  on 


The  market  place  and  cross 


the  Frome,  24  m.  by  rly.  S.E.  of 
Bristol  on  the  G.W.R.  Brewing, 
printing,  and  the  manufacture  of 
cloth  are  the  chief  occupations,  the 
woollen  industry  having  greatly 
declined.  The  parish  church,  a 
Decorated  building  dating  from  the 
14th  century,  was  restored  on  a 
magnificent  scale  in  the  19th.  There 
are  also  a  museum,  market  hall,  and 
grammar  school.  Market  days,Wed. 
and  Sat.  Pop.  10,901.  Pron.  Froom. 

Frome.  Lake  of  S.  Australia.  It 
lies  in  the  Eastern  Plains,  50  m.  E. 
of  the  Flinders  Range.  About  50  m. 
long  from  N.  to  S.,  it  is  25  m.  wide 
from  E.  to  W.  The  Wilpena  river 
issues  from  its  S.  extremity. 

Fromelles.  Village  of  France, 
in  the  dept.  of  Nord.  It  is  6  m. 
N.E.  of  Festubert,  and  came  into 
prominence  during  the  Great  War, 
especially  in  the  Allied  offensive  of 
the  spring  of  1915.  The  British 
attacked  the  Germans  here  on  May 
9.  See  Aubers  Ridge,  Attack  on 
the;  Festubert,  Battle  of. 

Fromentin,  EUGENE  (1820-76). 
French  painter  and  writer.  Born 
near  La  Rochelle,  he  studied  under 
Cabat  and  painted  Algerian  life  and 
landscape.  He  is  better  known, 
however,  as  the  writer  of  A  Sum- 
mer in  the  Sahara,  A  Year  in  the 
Sahel,  both  models  of  the  art  of 
word-painting,  and  of  The  Masters 
of  Past  Time  in  the  Low  Countries, 
a  book  of  descriptive  art-criticism. 
He  died  Aug.  27,  1876. 

Fronde,  THE.  Name  given  to  the 
insurrection  and  civil  war  in  France 
under  the  regency  of  Anne  of  Aus- 
tria and  Cardinal  Mazarin,  1648- 
53.  Its  two  phases  are  known 
respectively  as  the  parliamentary 
Fronde  and  the  Fronde  of  the 
princes.  The  name  comes  from  that 
of  a  small  sling  used  during  the  dis- 
orders in  Paris. 

In  1648  Mazarin  sought  the 
sanction  of  the  parliament  of  Paris 
to  fresh  and  burdensome  taxes  by 
offering  that  body  certain  fiscal 
exemptions.  This  the  parliament 
refused,  and  drew  up  forthwith  a 
series  of  27  articles  of  constitutional 
reform,  forbidding  the  imposition 
of  unauthorised  taxes,  reducing 
certain  imposts,  etc.  After  momen- 
tarily yielding,  the  queen-regent 
suddenly  arrested  the  parliamen- 
tary leaders,  Broussel,  Blancmesnil 
and  Charton.  The  Parisians  raised 
street  barricades  and  the  court 
party  was  alarmed  into  releasing 
the  prisoners  and  granting  the 
required  reforms.  Mazarin,  how- 
ever, strengthened  by  the  adher- 
ence of  Conde,  obliged  the  parlia- 
ment to  sign  the  peace  of  Rueil, 
March  11,  1649,  with  which  the 
first  phase  closed. 

Jealous  of  Mazarin' s  power,  how- 
ever, Conde  turned  against  him, 


3359 

but  was  arrested  and  imprisoned 
with  other  malcontent  nobles. 
Conti  and  Longueville.  Another 
foe  of  the  cardinal,  Paul  de  Gondi, 
a  powerful  ecclesiastic,  stirred  up 
revolt  in  Paris,  forcing  the  minister 
to  release  Cond6  and  to  quit  France- 
early  in  1651.  He  returned  in  Jan., 
1652,  whereupon  Conde,  with 
Spanish  aid,  headed  a  powerful 
movement  against  the  court  party. 
Raising  an  army  in  the  south,  he 
defeated  the  royal  forces  at 
Bleneau,  and,  despite  Turenne's 
able  defence  at  the  Faubourg  S. 
Antoine,  occupied  Paris.  His  un- 
popularity forced  him  to  leave  in 
July,  when  the  court  and  the  cardi- 
nal returned.  By  the  summer  of 
1653  the  Fronde,  in  spite  of  a  deter- 
mined struggle  in  Guyenne,  was 
crushed,  and  this  singularly  un- 
necessary civil  war  had  ended  in 
the  powers  of  the  parliament  of 
Paris  being  severely  curtailed  and 
the  monarchical  power  correspond- 
ingly consolidated.  See  France: 
History;  Mazarin. 

Front.  Military  term.  In  drill 
it  has  been  differently  applied  at 
various  periods,  but  at  present  it 
indicates  the  direction  in  which 
the  troops  face  when  in  line,  ir- 
respective of  whether  the  original 
front  rank  is  in  front  or  in  rear.  In 
war,  the  term  front  is  employed  to 
indicate  that  part  of  the  war  area 
in  which  the  troops  are  in  actual 
fighting  contact  and  so  far  behind 
as  is  occupied  by  the  immediate  ad- 
ministrative services  of  the  fighting 
troops  and  the  reserves. 

In  modern  warfare,  the  depth  of 
the  front  has  greatly  increased 
owing  to  the  much  higher  power 
and  longer  range  of  present-day 
artillery,  the  heavy  guns  often 
being  situated  several  miles  in 
rear  of  the  infantry  units  which 
are  in  contact  with  the  enemy's 
troops.  Consequently  auxiliary 
services  which  previously  were  en- 
tirely employed  on  the  lines  of 
communication  are  now  required 
to  operate  actually  "  at  the  front." 
To  facilitate  organization  a  definite 
sector  of  the  front  is  allocated  to 
each  unit.  See  Flank  ;  Tactics. 

Frontal  Bone.  In  human  beings 
the  bone  which  forms  the  forehead, 
the  upper  margins  of  the  orbits, 
and  the  forepart  of  the  skull.  See 
Anatomy;  Man. 

Frontenac,  Louis  DE  BUADE, 
COMTE  DE  (1620-98).  French  gov- 
ernor of  Canada.  He  belonged  to  a 
noble  family  of  Beam,  and  served 
in  the  French  army  with  distinc- 
tion. In  1672  he  was  sent  out  to 
New  France  as  governor,  and  held 
that  position  until  1682,  and  again 
from  1689-98.  As  a  ruler  he  was 
successful,  but  his  autocratic 
temper  caused  constant  quarrels 


Louis  de  Frontenac,  from  the  statue 

by  P.  Hebert,  Provincial  Parliament 

Buildings,  Quebec 

with  other  high  officials,  especially 
Laval-Montmorency,  bishop  of 
Quebec.  Frontenac  died  at  Quebec, 
Nov.  28,  1698. 

Frontinus,  SEXTUS  JULIUS  (c. 
A.D.  40-105).  Roman  soldier.  While 
governor  of  Britain  from  75-78  he 
gained  a  great  victory  over  the 
Silures  of  S.  Wales.  He  was  the 
author  of  Strategematica,  a  collec- 
tion of  anecdotes  of  famous  mili- 
tary leaders,  and  of  The  Aqueducts 
of  Rome,  an  account  of  their  con- 
struction, arrangement,  and  main- 
tenance, written  after  his  appoint- 
ment as  curator  aquarum  or  super- 
intendent of  the  water-supply  in  97. 

Fronto,  MARCUS  CORNELIUS. 
Roman  rhetorician.  Born  at  Cirta 
in  Africa,  he  flourished  in  the 
reigns  of  Hadrian  and  Marcus 
Aurelius,  with  the  latter  of  whom 
he  was  on  very  friendly  terms.  As 
an  advocate  and  teacher  of  rhetoric 
he  amassed  a  large  fortune,  and  was 
raised  to  the  consulship  A.D.  143. 

A  number  of  Fronto's  letters, 
including  correspondence  with  Mar- 
cus Aurelius,  discovered  by  Cardi- 
nal Mai  at  the  beginning  of  the  19th 
century,  do  not  justify  his  great 
reputation  among  his  fellow- 
countrymen,  although  they  ex- 
hibit him  as  a  man  of  honourable 
and  upright  character. 

His  importance  in  the  history  of 
Latin  Literature  lies  in  the  fact 
that  he  was  the  father  of  what  was 
called  the  elocutio  novella,  "  partly 
a  return  upon  the  style  of  the  older 
(pre- Ciceronian)  Latin  authors, 
partly  a  new  growth  based,  as 
theirs  had  been,  on  the  actual  lan- 
guage of  common  life  "  (Mackail). 
This  elocutio  novella  was  destined 
to  be  the  parent  of  the  Romance 
languages.  Fronto  died  about  170. 


FRONT  RANGE 


3360 


FROUDE 


Front  Range.  'Name  given  to  a 
section  of  the  Rocky  Mts.  It  is  the 
most  eastern  part  of  the  range, 
hence  its  name.  In  the  state  of 
Colorado,  its  chief  peaks  are  Pike's 
Peak  and  Long's  Peak;  both  are 
over  14,000  ft.  high.  See  Rocky  Mts. 

Frosinone.  Town  of  Italy,  in 
the  prov.  of  Rome;  the  ancient 
Frusino.  Built  on  a  hill  overlook- 
ing the  Cosa,  an  affluent  of  the 
Sacco,  54  m.  by  rly.  S.E.  of  Rome, 
the  town  has  many  churches,  holds 
an  annual  fair,  and  is  noted  for  its 
wine.  In  former  times  its  outskirts 
were  infested  by  brigands.  Near 
are  remains  of  the  Volscian  city  of 
Frusino,  conquered  by  the  Romans 
in  304  B.C.  Pop.  11,646. 

Frost.  Term  used  for  the  for- 
mation of  ice  on  ground,  plants, 
etc.,  sometimes  called  hoar  frost  or 
rime.  The  formation  of  hoar  frost 
is  due  to  the  condensation  of  water 
vapour  on  surfaces  which  are  them- 
selves at  a  temperature  of  less  than 
32°  F.  The  frost  consists  of  small 
particles  of  ice,  crystalline  in  struc- 
ture, which  often  form  the  most 
variegated  patterns.  Hoar  frost  is 
in  reality  frozen  dew.  Frost  coming 
in  late  spring  and  early  autumn  is 
often  most  injurious  to  crops,  and 
many  methods  of  frost  protection 
are  in  use.  A  screen  or  light  cover- 
ing of  any  material  helps  to  prevent 
hoar  frost  on  plants  by  lessening 
the  radiation  of  the  plants'  natural 
heat ;  fires,  with  plenty  of  warm 
smoke,  are  effective,  especially  in 
still  air,  when  the  smoke  spreads 
evenly  ;  and  the  ground  itself  may 
be  warmed  by  fires  or  flowing 
water. 

Black  frosts  are  long-continued 
severe  frosts,  generally  with  ab- 
sence of  hoar  or  white  frost,  and 
are  so  called  because  they  kill  or 
blacken  vegetation.  Among  the 
great  frosts  of  recent  years  in  Great 
Britain  are  those  of  1890-91,  lasting 
for  eight  weeks,  most  severe  in 
England  ;  of  Jan.  and  Feb.,  1895, 
the  coldest  Feb.  known  in  Great 
Britain,  when  ice  25  ins.  in  thick- 
ness was  measured  on  many  waters; 
and  that  of  Feb.,  1902.  See  Ice; 
Meteorology. 

Frost,  JOHN  (d.  1877).  English 
Chartist.  Son  of  a  Monmouthshire 
publican,  and  a  tailor  and  draper 
by  trade,  he  was  appointed  mayor 
of  Newport  in  1836,  represented 
Monmouthshire  at  the  Chartist 
convention  of  1839,  and  was  re- 
moved from  the  commission  of  the 
peace  for  seditious  speeches.  Hailed 
as  a  popular  champion,  on  Nov.  4, 
1839,  he  led  an  armed  mob  into 
Newport.  The  rising  was  easily 
suppressed,  and  Froet  was  sen- 
tenced to  be  hanged,  drawn,  and 
quartered,  but  the  sentence  was 
commuted  to  transportation  for  life 


to  Van  Diemen's  Land.  In  1856  he 
received  a  free  pardon  and  returned 
to  England.  He  died  at  Stapleton, 
near  Bristol,  July  29,  1877. 

Frost-bite.  Localised  gangrene 
of  the  tissues  produced  by  exposure 
to  severe  cold.  The  parts  of  the 
body  most  likely  to  be  involved  are 
the  fingers  and  toes,  owing  to  the 
more  sluggish  circulation  of  the 
blood  in  the  extremities,  and  ex- 
posed parts  such  as  the  nose  and 
ears.  The  first  sign  of  frost-bite  is 
a  patch  of  redness  with  slight 
swelling  and  sometimes  severe  pain. 
If  the  exposure  continues  the  part 
becomes  white,  hard,  shrunken, 
and  waxy-looking,  but  without 
pain,  so  that  the  individual  may 
be  quite  unaware  of  what  is  taking 
place.  Ultimately  the  affected  part 
becomes  black  and  ulcerated. 

Treatment  consists  in  very 
gradual  restoration  of  circulation 
in  the  affected  area.  The  patient 
should  be  kept  in  a  cold  room,  the 
temperature  of  which  is  slowly 
raised,  and  the  frozen  part  rubbed 
with  snow  or  bathed  with  cold 
water.  If  actual  gangrene  occurs 
the  part  must  be  kept  carefully 
protected  and  aseptic  until  a  line 
of  separation  forms,  and  the  sub- 
sequent ulceration  heals. 

Frostburg.  Town  of  Maryland, 
U. S. A. ,  in  Allegheny  co.  A  favour- 
ite summer  resort,  it  occupies  an 
elevated  position  about  2,150  ft. 
above  sea  level,  and  is  12  m.  W.  of 
Cumberland,  on  the  Cumberland 
and  Pennsylvania  and  the  West 
Maryland  rlys.  It  contains  a  state 
normal  school,  and  among  its 
industries  are  founding  and  the 
manufacture  of  hosiery,  bricks,  and 
tiles,  but  coal-mining  is  the  leading 
occupation.  Settled  in  1812,  it 
became  a  municipality  in  1870. 
Pop.  6,028. 

Frost  Figure.  Ice  crystal  for- 
mations which  appear  under  cer- 
tain conditions  of  cold  weather. 
Figures,  resembling  ferns  and  often 
over  two  feet  in  length,  are  fre- 
quently formed  by  frost  following 
rain.  See  Snow  Crystals. 

Froude,  JAMES  ANTHONY  (1818- 
94).  British  historian.  Son  of  the 
Rev.  Robert  Hurrell  Froude,  he 
was  born  at 
Dartington, 
Devon,  April 
23,  1818.  Edu- 
c  a  t  e  d  at 
Westminster 
School,  in  1835 
he  entered 
Oriel  College, 
Oxford,  after- 
wards becom- 
ing a  fellow 
of  Exeter.  At  Oxford  Froude  was 
associated  with  the  Tractarians, 
but  he  never  joined  them,  although 


James  A.  Froude, 
British  historian 


he  took  Holy  Orders  in  1844.  In- 
fluenced  by  Carlyle's  books,  he 
broke  with  orthodox  religion.  He 
expressed  his  changed  views  in 
The  Nemesis  of  Faith,  1848,  gave 
up  his  fellowship,  and,  as  soon 
as  the  law  permitted,  became  a 
layman  once  more. 

In  1849  Froude  married.  He 
made  the  acquaintance  of  Charles 
Kingsley,  and,  more  important,  of 
(hrlvle,  and  set  to  work  upon  his 
History  of  England  from  the  Fall 
of  Wolsey  to  the  Spanish  Armada, 
1856-70.  It  was  completed  in 
twelve  volumes  and  is  the  monu- 
ment to  Froude's  life.  No  histori- 
cal work  was  ever  more  deservedly 
or  more  sharply  criticised,  and  yet 
its  merits  are  as  conspicuous  as  its 
faults.  The  style  is  powerful, 
graceful,  and  restrained,  for 
Froude,  like  Burke,  is  "  one  of  the 
great  masters  of  the  high  and  diffi- 
cult art  of  elaborate  composition." 
But  against  this  are  blemishes 
of  partiality  and  worse,  for  critics 
have  asserted  that,  in  pursuance  of 
his  aim,  the  author  did  not  hesitate 
to  misquote  his  authorities.  As 
pendants  to  this  work  Froude  wrote 
The  Divorce  of  Catherine  of  Ara- 
gon,  1891  ;  The  Spanish  Story  of 
the  Armada,  1892  ;  and  Lectures 
on  the  Council  of  Trent,  1896. 

In  other  directions  Froude's 
writings  led  to  acrimonious  criti- 
cism. His  book,  The  English  in 
Ireland  in  the  18th  century,  1871- 
74,  was  resented  by  the  Irish  and 
their  friends.  As  the  sequel  to 
an  intimate  friendship,  Froude  was 
named  as  Carlyle's  executor,  and 
he  published  some  Reminiscences, 
1881,  Mrs.  Carlyle's  Letters,  1882, 
and  Life,  1882-84,  which  gave 
a  markedly  unfavourable  picture 
of  the  relations  between  Carlyle 
and  his  wife.  For  this  Froude  was 
attacked  on  the  ground  of  mis- 
representations, and  he  replied 
with  two  books  :  Carlyle's  Life  in 
London  ;  and  My  Relations  with 
Carlyle.  Another  controversy  arose 
out  of  Froude's  book,  Oceana,  or 
England  and  her  Colonies,  1886. 

Froude  took  an  interest  in  poli- 
tics, and  was  twice  sent  on  missions 
to  S.  Africa  by  Lord  Beaconsfield's 
government.  In  1892  he  succeeded 
Edward  A.  Freeman  as  professor 
of  modern  history  at  Oxford.  He 
died  at  Salcombe,  Devon,  Oct.  20, 
1894.  Froude's  most  delightful 
work  is  in  the  four  volumes  of  Short 
Studies  on  Great  Subjects,  1867- 
82.  He  also  wrote  The  Life  and 
Letters  of  Erasmus,  1894 ;  an 
historical  romance,  The  Two  Chiefs 
of  Dunboy,  1889  ;  and  for  many 
years  edited  Eraser's  Magazine. 
See  Carlyle ;  consult  also  Life 
of  Froude,  Herbert  Paul,  1905. 
Prow.  Frood. 


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