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Harmsworth's 

UNIVERSAL 

ENCYCLOPEDIA 


THE      GREAT      AMERICAN      WHOSE      INVENTIVE      GENIUS      PERFECTED      THE      PHONO- 
,          GRAPH        AND        CINEMATOGRAPH:        THOMAS      ALVA      EDISON        IN        HIS      WORKSHOP 


Frontispiece Vol.    VI. 


a 


Harmsworth's 
UNIVERSAL 

ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Written  by  the  Leading  Authorities 
in  Every  Branch  of  Knowledge  and 

edited  by 

A.  Hammerton 


J- 


\  i 


Special  Edition  in  Twelve  Volumes 
Containing  23,500  Illustrations 

VOLUME  6 

pages   3361-4032 


FROUDE-HOLMES 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  BOOK  CO.  LTD 

17,  New  Bridge  St.  London,  E.G.  4 


HAKMSWORTH'S 

UNIVERSAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA 

VOLUME  6 


Froude,  RICHARD  HURRELL 
(1803-36).  Anglican  divine.  Elder 
brother  of  J.  A.  Froude,  he  was 
born  at  Dartington  and  educated 
at  Eton  and  Oriel  College,  Oxford, 
being  a  pupil  of  John  Keble.  As 
fellow  and  tutor  of  Oriel,  he  brought 
Newman  and  Keble  together,  and 
thus  began  the  Oxford  Movement 
(q.v.).  Ordained  deacon  in  1828 
and  priest  in  1829,  he  resigned  his 
tutorship  in  1830.  While  at  Rome 
with  Newman  he  began  the  Lyra 
Apostolica,  his  contributions  to 
which  are  initialled  /3.  After  visit- 
ing the  West  Indies  for  his  health, 
and  lecturing  there,  1833-35,  he 
died  of  consumption,  at  Darting- 
ton,  Feb.  28,  1836.  His  Remains 
were  ed.  by  Keble  and  Newman, 
part  I,  1838,  and  J.  B.  Mozley, 
part  II,  1839.  See  R.  H.  Froude, 
L.  I.  Guiney,  1904. 

F.R.S.  Abbrev,  for  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society. 

Fructidor  (Fr.,  month  of  fruit). 
The  twelfth  and  last  month  in  the 
year  as  rearranged  during  the 
French  revolution.  It  began  on  the 
18th  or  19th  of  August.  The  18th 
of  Fructidor  is  the  name  given  to 
the  coup  d'etat  of  Sept.  4,  1797, 
when  the  directory  used  military 
force  to  check  the  growing  power 
of  the  royalists.  See  Calendar. 

Fructose  OR  FRUIT  SUGAR. 
Variety  of  sugar  which  occurs  to- 
gether with  dextrose  in  all  sweet 
fruits.  It  is  produced  by  heating 
cane  sugar  with  water  containing 
a  few  drops  of  hydrochloric  acid, 
by  heating  inulin  with  water  to 
100°  C.  for  twenty-four  hours,  and 
by  the  oxidation  of  mannitol. 
Fructose  is  sweeter  than  cane  sugar, 
and  is  not  readily  crystallised.  It 
is  frequently  used  as  a  sweetening 
agent  for  diabetic  patients.  5 

Frue  Vanner.  Machine  devised 
by  Captain  Frue,  of  the  Silver  Islet 
Mine,  Ontario,  in  1874.  Largely 
used  for  the  concentration  of  gold 
ore,  particularly  pulp  and  slimes. 
It  consists  essentially  of  an  endless 
band  of  canvas  or  indiarubber 
stretched  between  horizontal  rollers 
which  continuously  revolve  and  at 
the  same  time  have  a  sidewise 
shaking  motion.  The  lower  part 
of  the  travelling  belt  passes  through 
a  water  trough,  while  the  upper 
part  has  a  slope  of  a  few  inches  in 
its  length  of  about  12  feet  from 
the  front  end  to  the  back.  Ore  and 
water  are  fed  to  the  higher  end, 


the  heavier  and  richer  portions 
adhere  until  they  are  washed  off 
by  the  water  in  the  trough,  and  the 
lighter  "  slimy "  and  worthless 
portions  are  thrown  off  as  the  band 
turns  round  the  lower  roller  and 
pass  away  as  waste.  See  Gold. 

Fruit  (Lat.  fructus,  enjoying). 
General  term  for  that  part  of  a  plant 
which  contains  the  seed.  Many 
fruits  are  edible,  and  with  this  the 
word  is  chiefly  associated — the 
chief  fruits  being  apples,  pears, 
plums,  grapes,  currants,  peaches, 
etc.  Nuts  are  also  fruit.  The  term 
is  also  used  for  any  produce  of  the 
earth.  A  fruiterer  is  a  dealer  in 
fruit,  although  such  are  commonly 
called  greengrocers,  and  a  frui- 
tarian is  one  who  lives  wholly  or 
mainly  on  fruit. 

Fruit,  PRESERVATION  OF.  The 
most  common  method  of  preserving 
fruit  is  boiling  it  with  sugar  until 
it  becomes  jam  (q.v.).  But  it  may 
be  preserved  in  other  ways.  It 
may  be  crystallised,  the  sugar  pre- 
serving it  as  in  jam  ;  it  may  be  put 
through  a  drying  process,  so  that 
the  moisture  is  entirely  evaporated, 
decay  being  thus  prevented ;  or  it 
may  be  hermetically  sealed  in 
vessels  with  syrup  or  water.  The 
natural  flavour  and  colour  are  best 
preserved  by  the  last  method, 
which  may  be  carried  out  on  a  small 
scale  at  home,  quite  as  well  as  in 
the  factory.  That  the  process  was 
employed  by  the  Romans  is  proved 
by  sealed  jars  found  in  the  ruins 
of  Pompeii,  with  the  fruit  intact. 

In  bottling,  the  fruit  may  be  put 
in  the  bottles,  the  vessels  filled  up 
with  water  or  syrup,  and  the  caps 
or  stoppers,  fitted  with  rubber 
rings  to  render  them  airtight, 
screwed  on  before  the  cooking  pro- 
cess. The  bottles  are  then  stood 
upon  slats  of  wood  in  a  copper  or 
pan,  up  to  their  necks  in  cold 
water,  which  is  gradually  brought 
to  the  boil.  The  bottles  are  then 
taken  out  and  allowed  to  cool,  when 
they  are  ready  for  storage.  During 
the  boiling  the  bottles  must  not 
stand  upon  the  bottom  of  the 
copper,  or  they  will  break.  Another 
method  is  to  cook  the  fruit  in  the 
bottles  or  jars  as  described,  but 
with  the  stoppers  or  coverings  off. 
When  the  cooking  is  completed, 
the  bottles  are  taken  out  and  the 
stoppers  screwed  down.  In  both 
methods  it  is  wise  to  clamp  the 
stoppers  in  position  temporarily 


with  iron  clips  sold  for  the  purpose, 
removing  them  when  the  bottles 
are  cool. 

In  preserve  factories,  tins  are 
more  extensively  used  than  bottles, 
being  cheaper,  less  breakable,  and 
more  adaptable  to  mechanical  pro- 
cesses. They  are  specially  prepared 
with  a  lacquer  coating  inside, 
which  effectively  prevents  any  ill 
result  from  the  possible  action  of 
the  fruit  acids  on  the  tin.  The  tins 
are  filled  with  fruit  and  syrup,  the 
lids  rapidly  fastened  on  by  mach- 
inery, and  processed  or  cooked  in 
huge  tanks  of  water  brought  to 
the  necessary  temperature.  After 
cooking,  they  are  allowed  to  cool, 
washed,  and  labelled.  Bottled  fruits 
are  prepared  in  the  same  way,  but 
greater  care  has  to  be  exercised 
owing  to  the  fragile  character  of 
the  glass,  and  there  is  more  manual 
work  in  the  packing,  which  ex- 
plains why  bottled  fruits  are  dearer 
than  tinned.  Tinned  fruits  are  as 
safe  and  wholesome  as  bottled  fruits. 

Properly  preserved  as  described, 
the  fruits  have  almost  the  same 
flavour  as  when  fresh,  and  the 
choicest  orchard  products,  which 
used  to  be  available  for  only  a  few 
weeks  in  the  year,  can  now  be  en- 
joyed during  the  whole  of  the 
twelve  months.  In  addition,  huge 
quantities  of  the  finest  pineapples, 
apricots,  lemon  cling  peaches,  and 
Bartlett  pears  are  now  available  to 
the  most  modest  means.  These  are 
canned  in  the  same  way  as  English 
fruits,  the  cores,  stones,  and  other 
inedible  parts  being  first  removed 
by  machinery.  Canned  or  bottled 
fruit  will  keep  in  a  perfect  con- 
dition for  years,  if  the  sealing  is 
really  hermetic.  Sometimes,  how- 
ever, where  a  joint  is  defective, 
fermentation  sets  up,  and  the  tin 
becomes  "  blown,"  that  is,  the  gases 
developed  inside  cause  the  tin  to 
swell  outwards,  and,  if  left,  alone, 
it  will  eventually  burst. 

Glace  fruits  are  first  boiled  in  a 
strong  syrup,  and  then  dried  in 
a  moderate  oven.  The  syrup  in 
which  the  fruit  was  boiled  is  then 
raised  to  a  temperature  of  about 
233°  F.,  and  when  it  is  cooled  some- 
what, the  fruit  is  dipped  in  until 
it  is  well  coated,  after  which  it  is 
dried.  Crystallised  fruits  are  simi- 
larly treated,  but  when  taken  out 
of  the  syrup  are  rolled  in  crushed 
loaf  sugar,  and  when  dry  are  ready 
for  use. 

1U    4 


FRUIT      BAT 


3362 


FRUIT      FARMING 


The  preparation  of  dried  fruits  is 
an  extensive  business  on  the  Con- 
tinent, but  English  fruits  do  not 
lend  themselves  to  the  process  of 
drying,  as  they  contain  insufficient 
natural  sugar.  The  industry  has 
reached  the  greatest  excellence  in 
France,  and  French  plums  and 
Normandy  pippins  are  known  and 
highly  appreciated  all  over  the 
world.  The  fruits  are  dried  in  much 
the  same  way  as  vegetables.  The 
moisture  is  driven  off  in  graduated 
ovens,  and  the  natural  sugar  acts 
as  a  preservative.  Sometimes  the 
fruit  is  soaked  for  a  time  in  a  light 
syrup  before  being  dried. 
Dried  Fruits 

Certain  dried  fruits  form  a  very 
important  article  of  diet  in  many 
parts  of  the  world,  chief  among 
them  being  the  date,  fig.  raisin,  and 
currant.  The  date  is  to  the  Egypt- 
ian what  rice  is  to  the  Hindu.  Such 
foods  have  been  used  for  thousands 
of  years,  and  drying  is  undoubtedly 
the  most  ancient  of  all  forms  of 
fruit  preservation.  In  tropical  and 
semi-tropical  countries  no  artificial 
heat  is  required,  the  fruit  being 
dried  in  the  sun,  and  in  California 
apricots  are  extensively  treated  in 
this  way.  Dried  figs  form  a  very 
valuable  food,  and  Dr.  Hutchinson, 
the  well-known  authority  on  diet- 
etics, says  that,  weight  for  weight, 


they  are  morenourishing  than  broad. 
For  all  the  forms  of  preserving 
referred  to,  the  fruit  must  be 
gathered  before  it  is  fully  ripe,  and 
while  it  is  firm  to  the  touch. 

O,  Leighton,  M.D. 

Fruit  Bat.  Family  of  bats 
(Pteropodidae).  Much  larger  than 
the  rest  of  the  order,  they  are 
characterised  by  feeding  on  fruits 
instead  of  insects.  The  molar 
teeth  are  modified  in  form  to  suit 
the  change  of  diet.  The  head  is 
somewhat  fox-like,  whence  the 
animals  have  derived  their  popular 
name  of  flying  foxes.  Including 
numerous  species,  they  are  found 
in  S.  Asia,  Australia,  Madagascar, 
and  most  of  the  islands  of  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  See  Flying  Fox. 

Fruiterers'  Company.  Lon- 
don city  livery  company.  First 
mentioned  in  1515,  and  granted  its 
first  charter  in 
1606,  it  took 
part  in  the 
colonisation  of 
Ulster  in  1613, 
and  has  done 
much  to  en- 
courage fruit 
culture  in  Eng- 
land, and  to 


Fruiterers'  Com- 
pany arms 

promote  the  interests  of  the  fruit 
trade.  Its  offices  are  at  40, 
Chancery  Lane,  W.C. 


FRUIT  FARMING:  EXTENSIVE  &  INTENSIVE 

R.  Wellington,  formerly  of  The  Ministry  of  Food 
This  article  belongs  to  the  group  that  includes  Agriculture  ;  Crops  ; 
Dairy  Farming  ;  Market  Gardening.      See  also  the  articles  on  the 
;  Pl 


various  fruits,  e.g.  Apple;  Pear;  Plum 
of;  Jam-making 


also  Fruit,  Preservation 


The  growth  of  apples,  pears, 
plums,  cherries,  apricots,  peaches, 
grapes  and  figs,  together  with  the 
soft  fruits,  strawberries,  rasp- 
berries, gooseberries,  and  red  and 
black  currants,  has  been  carried  on 
in  the  chief  European  countries  on 
a  fairly  extensive  scale  for  many 
centuries  ;  but  it  is  only  since  the 
advent  of  rlys.  and  steamships  that 
an  extensive  international  fresh, 
fruit  trade  has  come  into  existence. 

With  perhaps  the  exception  of 
the  U.S.A.,  no  nation  of  an  in- 
dustrial character  consumes  more 
fruit  per  head  than  Great  Britain. 
The  supplies  grown  at  home  are 
sufficient  neither  in  bulk  nor 
variety  to  meet  the  demand,  and 
the  British  Isles  at  the  present 
tims  is  the  largest  fruit-importing 
nation  of  the  world. 

Source  of  Fruit  Supplies 

Apples  are  obtained  from  the 
U.S.A.,  Canada,  Spain  and  Por- 
tugal, France,  Holland,  Tasmania 
and  Australia ;  oranges  from  Spain, 
Portugal,  Palestine*,  Italy,  Jamaica, 
U.S.A.,  and  South  Africa;  plums 
from  France,  Spain,  Belgium,  Ger- 


many, America,  and  S.Africa;  pears 
from  France,  Holland,  Belgium,  the 
U.S.A.,  and  S.  Africa  ;  grapes  from 
Spain,  Portugal,  Holland,  and  Bel- 
gium; nuts  from  America  (walnuts), 
Spain  (sweet  chestnuts),  Asia 
Minor,  and  Brazil ;  gooseberries, 
cherries,  black  and  red  currants, 
and  strawberries  from  France, 
Holland,  and  Belgium  ;  bananas 
from  Costa  Rica,  the  West  Indies, 
and  the  Canary  Isles. 

Seasons  and  Supplies 
By  drawing  supplies  from  the 
two  hemispheres,  the  markets 
throughout  the  world  can  be  kept 
continually  supplisd.  In  Great 
Britain  home-grown  apples  come 
into  season  during  the  last  week 
in  July,  and  continue  until  the 
middle  or  end  of  February.  Earlier 
s  applies  from  the  second  week  in 
July  are  obtained  from  Spain 
and  Portugal.  Towards  the  middle 
of  August  native  supplies  are  aug- 
mented from  France  and  Holland. 
Then  in  the  middle  of  September 
the  provinces  and  states  of  the 
U.S.A.  and  Canada  bordering  the 
Atlantic  freeboard  export  large 


supplies.  These  are  followed  at 
the  beginning  of  December  until 
well  into  the  spring  by  fruit  from 
the  Pacific  Coast,  from  Oregon, 
Washington,  and  British  Columbia. 
Finally,  in  the  beginning  of  May 
and  throughout  summer,  Tasmania 
and  Australia  furnish  supplies. 

In  respect  of  attractiveness  and 
honesty  in  packing,  the  fruit  which 
comes  from  N.  America  and  Aus- 
tralasia ranks  highest  in  the  British 
market.  The  quality  of  home- 
grown apples  and  also  those  pro- 
duced on  the  Continent  is  gener- 
ally better,  but,  owing  to  faulty 
methods  of  packing  and  distribu- 
tion, the  supplies  from  the  former 
countries  have  captured  nearly  the 
whole  of  the  high-quality  trade, 
not  only  in  Britain,  but  in  France, 
Scandinavia,  and  other  European 
countries. 

Methods  of  Culture 

The  methods  of  culture  adopted 
in  the  various  countries  are  fairly 
similar,  but  generally  speaking 
the  individual  holdings,  and  the 
areas  of  the  districts,  are  smaller 
in  the  European  countries  than 
in  America,  Australia,  and  S. 
Africa,  due  chiefly  to  tb.3  fact  that 
the  soils  and  the  geological  forma- 
tions from  which  they  are  derived 
are  more  mixed  and  diverse.  In 
Europe  it  is  difficult  to  find  large 
tracts  of  land  of  a  similar  character 
with  a  similar  climate  and  situa- 
tion. In  America  the  reverse  is 
the  case.  As  a  result,  the  culture 
on  the  European  continent  is 
less  centralized,  and  organization 
less  highly  developed  than  in  the 
other  countries. 

Fruit  growing  in  Great  Britain 
may  roughly  be  classified  as  exten- 
sive and  intensive. 

By  the  extensive  method  apples 
and  pears  are  grown  in  small  grass 
orchards  of  four  to  five  acres  at- 
tached to  purely  agricultural  hold- 
ings, chiefly  in  the  West  of  England. 
This  method,  which  is  the  oldest 
form  of  fruit  growing  in  the  county, 
is  now  disappearing.  Originally  the 
orchards  were  planted  partly  to 
furnish  a  supply  of  culinary  and 
dessert  fruit  for  the  farmer's  own 
household,  but  mainly  to  provide 
cider  for  the  farm-hands.  This 
custom  of  supplying  cider  to  the 
labourers  as  a  perquisite  in  lieu  of 
wages,  already  declining,  received 
its  deathblow  by  the  orders  pro- 
hibiting the  practice  issued  by  the 
Agricultural  Wages  Board  which 
was  set  up  under  the  Corn  Pro- 
duction Act,  1917. 

Partly  because  the  apples  and 
pear  trees  in  the  farm  orchards 
receive  little,  or  no  attention  as 
regards  general  cultivation  and 
tho  control  of  insect  and  fungus 
pests,  but  also  because  many  of 


Achene, 

cypsela  - 

type —  Nut — acorn  of  oak 

dandelion 


Capsule  —  pimpernel, 
splitting  cleanly  across 


Achene — buttercup 
(section) 


Siliqua — wall 
flower 


Compound  drupes — 
blackberry 


Samara — sycamore 


Capsule — iris,  split- 
ting   into   3    valves 


Capsule  —  poppy     head 

with  apertures  for  escape 

of  seeds 


Follicle— stink- 
ing hellebore 


Berry — gooseberry    in    section 
showing  seeds  in  pulp 


Schizocarp — "  cheese  "  of  mallow 


Drupe — cherry    in    sec- 
tion, with  seed  in  stone 


False  fruit — strawberry,    fleshy    re- 
ceptacle with  numerous  achenes  Pome — apple  in  section  Hypanthodium — figin section 

FRUIT:    EXAMPLES   OF   THE   PRINCIPAL   RECEPTACLES   FOR   SEEDS 


FRUIT    FARMING 


3364 


FRUiT    FARMING 


the  varieties  are  of  poor  quality, 
and  no  care  is  taken  in  picking  and 
packing  the  fruit,  much  of  it  is 
sold  at  very  low  prices,  greatly  to 
the  detriment  of  good  quality 
British  fruit  grown  on  up-to-date 
fruit  farms. 

The  magnitude  of  the  area 
devoted  to  this  type  of  fruit 
growing  may  be  gauged  from  the 
generally  accepted  estimate  that 
of  no  less  than  147,401  acres  de- 
voted to  apple  and  pear  growing 
in  England  and  Wales  alone, 
100,000  acres  consist  of  farm 
orchards  in  greater  or  less  state 
of  dilapidation  and  decaj'.  The 
rate  at  which  these  orchards  are 
disappearing  may  be  estimated 
from  the  board  of  agriculture  re- 
turns of  the  area  devoted  to  apples 
and  pears  in  the  counties  already 
mentioned.  In  1910  there  were 
114,810  acres,  in  1919  there  were 
only  87,310  acres,  a  reduction  of 
27,500  acres  or  24  per  cent,  of  the 
original  area. 

Intensive  Method 

The  intensive  method  is  practised 
on  holdings  devoted  mainly  to  the 
production  of  fruit.  On  these  fruit 
farms  the  percentage  of  land 
devoted  to  fruit  is  always  high. 
Generally  speaking,  however,  the 
individual  holdings  are  small,  and 
range  from  2-50  acres,  though 
some  reach  200-500  acres.  On 
these  specialised  fruit  holdings 
apples,  plums,  pears,  and  cherries, 
which  are  known  as  the  "  top " 
fruits,  and  strawberries,  rasp- 
berries, gooseberries,  red,  black, 
and  white  currants,  and  nuts, 
technically  known  as  the  soft  or 
bush  fruits,  are  either  grown 
separately  or  in  combination. 

Apples  may  be  grown  as  cordons, 
bush-shaped  trees,  half  standards  or 
standards  on  cultivated  ground,  or 
as  standards  in  grass.  Where  bulk 
is  required,  and  quality  is  less 
important,  the  trees  are  grown 
much  larger  either  as  half  standards 
or  standards.  Pears  are  grown  on  a 
similar  basis,  but  with  plums  half 
standards  and  standards  are  the 
more  usual  shapes,  and  as  a  general 
rule  the  land  is  kept  cultivated. 
Cherries,  on  the  other  hand,  thrive 
best  in  grass.  In  the  most  intensive 
forms  of  culture  the  "  bush " 
fruits  are  interplanted  amongst  the 
"  top  "  fruits  whilst  the  latter  are 
young.  All  the  bush  fruits  require 
cultivated  land. 

This  intensive  form  of  fruit 
growing  on  a  large  scale  is  of 
comparatively  recent  date.  A  few 
gardens,  scattered  around  large 
towns,  have  been  in  existence  for 
several  hundred  years,  but  with 
these  exceptions  the  extension  of 
fruit  growing  on  these  lines  only 
became  possible  with  the  advent 


of  rapid  rail  and  road  transport. 
Thus,  at  first,  gardens  were  only 
found  round  London  in  those  parts 
of  Kent,  Middlesex,  and  Essex 
within  easy  horse-cartage  distance 
of  the  central  markets.  Now,  how- 
ever, gardens  are  to  be  found 
throughout  Kent,  Worcestershire, 
Cambridgeshire,  etc. 

British  methods  of  intensive 
culture  are  quite  as  up-to-date  as 
those  to  be  found  in  Continental 
countries,  in  the  British  colonies, 
and  in  the  U.S.A.,  while  in  certain 
respects,  with  regard  to  fungus  and 
insect  pest  control,  the  choice  of 
fruit  tree  stocks,  etc.,  in  particular, 
Great  Britain  leads  the  way. 
British  methods  of  marketing  and 
distribution  are  not  carried  out, 
however,  in  a  manner  befitting  the 
quality  of  the  fruit  produced.  As 
regards  marketing  there  is  still  no 
combination  amongst  growers  or 
salesmen  insisting  on  certain 
standards.  This  is  largely  due  to 
the  fact  that  the  home  grower, 
unlike  the  colonial  or  foreign 
grower,  has  his  market  at  his  door. 
Fruit  Areas  of  England 

There  are  roughly  three  main 
areas  in  which  intensive  fruit  grow- 
ing is  practised  on  a  large  scale  : 

(a)  Throughout  Kent   and   ex- 
tending   into    Middlesex,    Surrey, 
Sussex,  and  Essex.     Here  certain 
areas  specialise  in  certain  kinds  of 
fruit.      Thus,   around  Faversham 
and  Sittingbourne  cherries  are  the 
chief  fruit ;  around  Maidstone  in 
Mid  Kent,  apples,  plums,  and  cob- 
nuts ;    around   Sandwich  in   East 
Kent,  early  strawberries  and  early 
gooseberries. 

(b)  Cambridgeshire,    extending 
into    Norfolk,     Lincolnshire,    and 
Huntingdonshire,  on  the  flat  fen- 
land    around    Wisbech,   Spalding, 
and  St.  Ives.    Here  apples,  plums, 
gooseberries,  and  strawberries  are 
the  chief  crops. 

(c)  Worcestershire,  in  the  Vale 
of  Evesham,  around  Pershore  and 
Evesham,  is  the  largest  area  de- 
voted to  plum  growing. 

Besides  these,  there  are  numer- 
ous other  smaller  areas  which  are 
rapidly  extending.  For  example, 
in  the  Tamar  Valley  the  earliest 
strawberries  and  green  goose- 
berries are  grown.  Around  Cheddar 
in  Somerset,  and  between  South- 
ampton and  Portsmouth  in  Hamp- 
hire,  are  hundreds  of  acres  devoted 
to  early  strawberries.  From  all 
these  areas  special  fast  trains  are 
run  during  the  fruit  season. 

In  Herefordshire,  around  Here- 
ford, Ross,  and  Ledbury,  growers 
specialise  in  apples  for  general 
dessert  and  culinary  purposes,  and 
in  strawberries  and  black  currants 
for  jam.  In  Norfolk,  between 
Norwich  and  the  coast  is  an  area 


specialising  in  apples,  raspberries, 
and  black  currants,  and  many 
other  smaller  districts  scattered 
throughout  the  country  might  be 
mentioned.  Generally  speaking, 
however,  commercial  fruit  growing 
is  situated  S.  of  a  line  drawn  from 
the  mouth  of  the  Humber  on  the  E. 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Mersey  on  the 
W.  Above  this  line  the  climatic 
conditions  are  not  sufficiently 
favourable,  though  the  Blairgowrie 
(Perthshire)  district  in  Scotland 
probably  produces  as  much  as 
half  the  tonnage  of  raspberries  pro- 
duced on  the  whole  of  the  area 
devoted  to  this  particular  fruit  in 
England  and  Wales. 

In     Ireland     commercial     fruit 

growing    is     mainly     confined    to 

apples   and  black    currants   in   a 

small  area  in  co.  Armagh,  Ulster. 

Import  and  Home  Produce 

The  home  industry  in  apple 
growing  has  not  increased  as 
rapidly  as  the  taste  of  the  public 
for  apples,  a  taste  that  can  be 
gauged  by  the  rapid  increase  in 
the  quantity  of  apples  imported 
annually.  This  desire  for  apples 
has  been  due  in  large  measure  to 
the  enterprise  and  advertising 
capacity  of  those  dealing  with 
imported  fruit.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered, however,  that  imported 
apples  came  into  this  country  in 
very  large  quantities,  whilst  the 
bulk  of  first-class  culinary  and 
dessert  apples  produced  in  this 
country  was  extremely  small.  This 
was  before  intensive  fruit  growing 
commenced  to  extend  rapidly. 
Gradually,  however,  as  the  pro- 
ductive area  in  these  islands  has 
extended  more  and  more,  imported 
fruit  has  been  replaced. 

The  intensive  grower  of  this  fruit 
is  faced  with  the  same  difficulties 
which  are  being  experienced  by  all 
industries.  Costs  have  risen  rapidly 
and  in  greater  ratio  to  the  prices 
obtained  for  the  fruit.  It  seems 
certain,  therefore,  that  several  of 
the  methods  now  practised,  which 
were  profitable  when  labour  was 
cheaper,  will  have  to  be  dispensed 
with.  In  fact,  in  future,  cultivated 
plantations  closely  interplanted 
with  "  soft  "  fruit  will  have  to  give 
way  to  plantations  more  easily 
cultivated  or  grass  orchards. 

The  position  with  regard  to 
plums,  cherries,  and  the  "  soft " 
fruits  (gooseberries,  currants,  and 
strawberries)  is  somewhat  differ- 
ent. These  are  of  a  much  more 
perishable  nature  than  apples.  The 
effects  of  high  costs  of  production 
are,  therefore,  felt  even  more 
acutely,  but  besides  this  there  is 
always  the  possibility  of  severe 
foreign  competition  from  France, 
Holland,  or  Germany,  whence 
transport  is  rapid. 


FRUIT    PIGEON 


3365 


FRY 


When  the  British  plum  crop  is 
heavy,  nearly  sufficient  is  produced 
to  satisfy  home  requirements,  and 
in  these  years  "  gluts,"  or  periods 
of  very  low  prices,  often  occur, 
due  often  to  the  fruit  ripening  in 
larger  quantities  than  the  markets 
can  absorb  at  one  time,  but  some- 
times to  large  quantities  arriving 
from  abroad  while  the  markets  are 
already  fairly  well  stocked.  The 
plum  acreage  in  Britain,  notwith- 
standing these  setbacks,  is  ex- 
tending gradually.  ~) 

Gooseberries  and  red  currants 
are  the  other  home-grown  fruits, 
which  are  also  largely  imported, 
and  which  suffer  in  some  years 
from  gluts  due  to  the  supplies 
being  too  heavy  for  the  demand. 

Fruit  Pigeon.  Name  given 
vaguely  to  a  number  of  large,  hand- 
somely coloured  pigeons,  of  the 
«^  ,  -=  family  Treroni- 
dae,  which  feed 
mainly  on  fruit. 
The  beak  is  so 
adapted  that  it 
can  be  widely 
distended  at 
the  base  in 
order  to 
swallow  fruits 
whole.  Found 
throughout  S. 
Asia  and  Aus- 
tralia, these 
birds  do  great 
damage  to 
crops. 

Frundsberg,  GEORG  VON  (1473- 
1528).     German  soldier.     Born  at 
Mindelheim,   of   noble  family,   he 
became   a    sol-    ^^^^^^^^^^^^ 
dier,  and  saw  a 
good     deal    of 
service  in  Ger- 
many and  Italy. 
He    is    chiefly 
known  for   his 
share     in     or- 
ganizing the 
troops     known 
as       Lands-     Georg  von  Frunds- 
knechte,  which    berg«  German  soldier 

he        led       With         From  an  engraving 

conspicuous  success.  '  His  chief 
exploit  was  against  the  French  and 
Venetians  in  Italy.  In  April, 
1522,  he  won  the  battle  of  Bicocca, 
and  he  was  present  at  Pavia  ; 
he  also  served  Charles  V  against 
the  rebellious  duke  of  Wiirttem- 
berg,  and  in  crushing  the.  revolt  of 
the  peasants  in  1525.  He  died 
at  Mindelheim,  Aug.  10,  1528. 

Fry,  CHARLES  BURGESS  (b.  1872). 
Athlete,  cricketer,  and  footballer. 
Born  at  Croydon,  April  25,  1872, 
he  was  educated  at  Repton  and 
Oxford;  A  good,  all-round  ath- 
lete, he  was  particularly  famous  as 
a  cricketer.  He  gained  a  triple 
blue  at  Oxford,  and  was  captain 


Fruit  Pigeon  oJ 
Oceania,  Carpo- 
phaga  oceanica 


Charles  B.  Fry, 
British  athlete 

Lafayette 


of  the  XI  against  Cambridge  at 
Lord's  in  1894,  when  he  scored  a 
century.  He  originally  played  for 
Surrey,  later 
for  Sussex, 
and  in  1909  for 
Hampshire.  In 
1900  he  made 
a  total  of  3,147 
runs,  with  an 
average  of  over 
78  per  innings. 
His  innings  of 
232  not  out  for 
the  Gentlemen 
v.  Players,  in 
1903,  ranks  as  his  best  performance. 
In  the  test  match  against  S.  Africa 
in  1907  he  scored  129,  and  he  was 
England's  captain  in  the  triangular 
test  matches  of  1912.  For  many 
years  Fry  held  the  record  for  the 
long  jump.  He  is  also  an  interna- 
tional at  Association  football.  He 
has  written  books  on  cricket,  foot- 
ball, and  diabolo.  He  was  hon. 
commander,  R.N.R.  See  C.  B.  Fry : 
the  man  and  his  method,  A.  W. 
Myers,  1912. 

Fry,  SIR  EDWARD  (1827-1918). 
British  lawyer.   Born  Nov.  4, 1827, 
of  a  well-known  Quaker  family,  he 
was     educated 
at  Bristol  and 
London     Uni- 
versity.    In 
1854  he  became 
a  barrister,  and 
by  the  aid  of  a 
work  on   Con- 
tracts,  still   of 
high  value, and 
Sir  Edward  Fry,       solid   legal 
British  lawyer        powers,    made 

Elliott  &  Fry  j^      name       fts 

a  chancery  lawyer.  In  1869  he 
became  a  Q.C.,  and  in  1877  a  judge 
of  the  court  of  chancery.  He  served 
on  the  bench  with  distinction 
and  dignity  for  fifteen  years,  first 
in  the  chancery  court,  and  after 
1883  as  a  lord  justice  of  appeal. 

After  his  retirement  in  1892 
he  did  varied  public  work.  Inter- 
ested in  the  question  of  inter- 
national arbitration,  he  was  made 
permanent  member  of  the  Hague 
tribunal,  and  represented  his  coun- 
try at  the  conference  of  1907.  Fry 
Presided  over  two  commissions  on 
rish  affairs,  one  on  land,  in  1897, 
and  one  on  university  education ; 
acted  as  arbitrator  in  trade  disputes, 
and  took  a  leading  part  in  the  cam- 
paign against  secret  commissions 
in  business.  He  died  Oct.  18, 1918. 
Fry,  ELIZABETH  (1780-1845). 
English  prison  reformer.  Born 
at  Gurney  Court,  Norwich,  May 
21,  1780,  a  daughter  of  John  Gur- 
ney, Quaker  and  banker,  she  was 
brought  up  in  cultured  surround- 
ings, and  married  Joseph  Fry, 
another  Quaker,  in  1800.  In  1813 


Mrs.  Fry  paid    her  first   visit  to 

Newgate  prison.     The  horror  and 

filth  she  saw  there  determined  her 

to  devote  her- 

s e 1 f    to    i m- 

proving  the  lot 

of  the  prison-    I 

ers,   especially    I 

the  females,    IKL 

and    the    rest    Ink 

of  her  life  was 

spent    in    this 

cause. 

In  1817  she 
formed  an  as- 
sociation  for 
their  improve-  '  A'ter  c- R- Leslie 
ment,  and,  like  Howard,  extended 
her  interest  to  prisons  in  other  parts 
of  Europe.  So  successful  was  she 
that  in  1818  she  was  called  before  a 
committee  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, and  thanked  for  her  work. 
She  died  at  Ramsgate,  Oct.  12, 
1845,  leaving  several  children.  See 
Memoirs,  1847,  ed.  by  her  daughters, 
and  Life,  by  G.  K.  Lewis,  1910. 

Fry,  JOSEPH  (1728-87).  British 
manufacturer.  Born  at  Sutton 
Benger,  Wiltshire,  he  was  ap- 
prenticed to  a  doctor  at  Basing- 
stoke.  He  settled  in  Bristol,  where 
he  soon  had  a  good  practice,  but 
his  fame  rests  upon  his  business 
enterprises.  He  founded  the  busi- 
ness of  cocoa  and  chocolate  manu- 
facturers, now  the  firm  of  J.  S. 
Fry  &  Sons,  and  also  became  a 
typefounder.  This  concern,  having 
been  transferred  to  London,  be- 
came known  as  Joseph  Fry  & 
Sons,  and  was  responsible  for  some 
useful  typographical  innovations, 
and  printed  some  Bibles. 

Fry  was  also  interested  in  soap 
and  chemical  works.  He  died 
March  29,  1787.  Like  many  of  his 
descendants,  Fry  was  a  member  of 
the  Society  of  Friends.  One  of  his 
grandsons  was  Francis  Fry  (I803- 
86), the  bibliographer.  Other  noted 
members  of  this  family  were  Sir 
Edward  Fry  (q.v.)  ;  Theodore  Fry 
(1836-1912),  an  ironmaster,  who 
was  made  a  baronet  in  1894,  and 
was  M.P.  for  Darlington  from 
1890-95;  and  Lewis  Fry  (1832- 
1921),  M.P.  for  Bristol,  1878-92 
and  1895-1 9CO. 

Fry,  ROGER  EDWARD  (b.  1866). 
British  artist  and  critic.  Son  of  Sir 
Edward  Fry  (q.v:)  he  was  educated 
at  Clifton  and 
Ca  m  br  i  dge, 
where  he  took 
his  degree  in 
science.  He 
then  turned  to 
art.  '.  He  has 
exhibited  fre- 
quently, but  is 
better  known 

Roger  E.  Fry,    -,  „_    _n  priifnr  nf 
British  artist         £f,    c°-edl.tor 
Elliott  &  Fry          The  Burlington 


FRYATT 


3366 


FUCINO 


Magazine,  as  an  authority  on 
Italian  Art,  and  a  vigorous  apolo- 
gist of  post-impressionism.  He  is 
the  author  of  a  study  of  Giovanni 
Bellini,  1899;  Vision  and  Design, 
1920 ;  and  edited  Reynolds1!)  Dis- 
courses, 1905.  In  1908  he  was 
European  Art  Adviser  to  the  Metro- 
politan Museum,  New  York. 

Fryatt,  CHARLES  (1872-1916). 
British  sailor.  Born  Dec.  2,  1872, 
be  entered  the  service  of  the  G.E.R,  j 
as  an  able  sea- 
man. In  1904 
he  became  chief 
officer,  obtained 
his  master's 
c  e  r  t  i  ficate  in 
] 905,  and  in 
1913  was  pro- 
muted  captain. 
When  the  Great 
War  broke  out 
he  was  in  com- 
mand of  the  G.E.R.  steamer 
Brussels,  and  helped  to  maintain 
the  service  between  Holland  and 
England.  He  was  attacked  and 
escaped  from  a  German  submarine 
on  March  3,  1915,  but  on  the  28th 
of  the  same  month  he  was  attacked 
again,  and  succeeded  in  ramming 
the  U-boat,  an  action  for  which  he 
received  the  thanks  of  the  ad- 
miralty. 

Bound  from  Holland  to  Tilbury 
on  June  23,  1916,  he  was  captured 
by  a  German  destroyer,  taken  to 
Zeebrugge  and  thence  to  Ruhleben. 
Removed  to  Bruges,  he  was  tried 
by  a  court-martial  on  July  27,  the 
evidence  of  his  log  for  March  28 
being  produced  against  him,  was 
condemned  as  a  franc -tireur,  and 
shot  the  same  evening.  This  was 
an  obvious  injustice,  as  Fryatt  was 
wearing  uniform  and  was  in  govern- 
ment employ. 

The  matter  was  raised  after  the 
war,  and  considered  by  a  German 
commission  of  inquiry  in  April, 
1919.  It  upheld  the  sentence,  but 
expressed  regret  for  the  haste 
with  which  it  had  been  executed. 
Fryatt's  body  was  brought  to  Eng- 
land and  buried  at  Dovercourt, 
July  9,  1919. 

Fry'dek.  Municipality  in  Silesia, 
formerly  part  of  the  Austrian  Em- 
pire, now  in  Czecho -Slovakia.  The 
town  is  16m.  by  rly.  from  Teschen, 
on  the  boundary  of  Silesia.  The 
people  make  linens  ;  half  of  them 
are  Czechs,  a  third  Germans,  and 
the  rest  Poles  :  most  of  them  are 
Roman  Catholics.  Pop.  9,000.  Its 
old  name  was  Frie<l<-k. 

F.S.A.  Abbrev.  for  Follow  of 
the  Society  of  Antiquaries. 

F.S.S.  Abbrev.  for  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Statistical  Society. 

Fuad  OR  AHMED  FCTAD  PASHA  (b. 
1808).  Sultan  of  Egypt.  Born  in 
Cairo,  March  26,  1868,  he  was  the 


Fuad, 
Sultan  of  Egypt 


Fuchsia.  Leaves  and  flowers  of,  left, 
double  fuchsia,  and  right,  single  fuchsia 

youngest  son  of  the  khedive 
Ismail  Pasha  and  brother  of  the 
first  sultan  of  Egypt,  Hussein 
Kamil,  whom  he  succeeded  Oct.  9, 
1917.  He  was  educated  in  Switzer- 
land and  Italy,  |M|1||| mmi._  ... 

passingthrough 
the  military 
academy  and 
the  artillery 
school  at  Turin, 
and  becoming 
an  officer  of  the 
13th  regt.  of  ar- 
tillery. He  was 
a  candidate 
for  the  new 
throne  of  Al- 
bama,  but  withdrew  in  order  to 
devote  himself  to  Egyptian  in- 
terests. See  Egypt. 

Fuad  Pasha,  MEHEMMED  (1814- 
69).  Turkish  statesman.  Born  at 
Constantinople,  Jan.  17,  1814,  he 
was  trained  as  a  surgeon,  but  en- 
tered the  diplomatic  service  in 
1835.  Having  served  as  secretary 
at  the  London  embassy,  he  was  sent 
to  St.  Petersburg  in  1848,  and  was 
appointed  special  commissioner  in 
Egypt  three  years  later.  On  his 
return  he  became  foreign  minister, 
but  he  served 
with  the  army 
during  the  Cri- 
mean War,  and 
was  delegate  to 
the  Paris  con- 
ference of  1856. 
Grand  vizier  in 
1860,  he  visited 
Europe  with 
Abdul-Aziz  and 
was  received 
in  England,  to 


Fuad  Pasha, 
Turkish  statesman 


with   distinction 

which  country  he  had  always  shown 
great  friendliness.  He  died  at  Nice, 
Feb.  12,  1869. 

Fucecchio.  Town  of  Italy,  in 
the  prov.  of  Florence.  It  stands  on 
the  river  Arno,  24  m  W.  of  Flor- 
ence. Pop.  of  the  commune  about 
13,000.  There  was  a  lake  of  this 
name  in  the  prov.  of  Pisa,  but  it  is 
now  drained. 


Fuchsia.  Hardy  and  half-hardy 
flowering  shrubs,  of  the  natural 
order  Onagraceae.  They  are  na- 
tives of  Central  America,  whence 
they  were  introduced  in  1788. 
Their  colours  are  all  shades  and 
mixtures  of  white,  cream,  pink, 
purple,  crimson,  and  violet.  Green- 
house sorts  rarely  attain  a  height  of 
more  than  2  ft.,  but  in  warm  open 
districts,  notably  Devon  and  Corn- 
wall, hardy  species  frequently  grow 
to  10  ft.-12  ft. 

Greenhouse  kinds  are  propa- 
gated chiefly  by  cuttings  taken  in 
Jan.  or  Feb.,  in  sandy  soil,  in  a 
temperature  of  about  75°,  lowering 
it  to  55°  until  June,  when  the 
plants  may  be  put  out  for  summer 
bedding.  The  open-air  varieties  do 
well  in  any  ordinary  rich  soil 
against  a  wall,  and  may  be  planted 
in  autumn  or  spring.  A  perfectly 
hardy  and  beautiful  fuchsia,  which 
may  be  grown  easily  in  any  town 
garden,  is  Riccarton's  (F.  Riccar- 
toni).  It  has  bright  red  blossoms, 
with  violet  centres.  The  shrub 
takes  its  name  from  the  German 
physician  and  botanist  Leonhard 
Fuchs  (1501-66). 

Fuchsine.  Aniline  dye  of  great 
commercial  importance.  Known 
also  as  magenta  red,  roseine,  ani- 
line red,  rubine,  azaleine,  harma- 
linc,  and  erythro benzine,  it  was 
discovered  by  Natanson  in  1856. 
Hof  mann  in  1 858  and  Verguin  and 
Renard  Freres  et  Franc  of  Lyons 
in  1859  devised  successful  commer- 
cial processes  for  its  manufacture. 
The  two  methods bywhichitismade 
are  (1)  the  "arsenic  acid  melt" 
process,  consisting  of  the  oxidation 
of  a  mixture  of  aniline,  ortho- 
toluidine  and  paratoluidine,  known 
as  "  aniline  for  red,"  with  arsenic 
acid;  and  (2)  the  nitrobenzol  pro- 
cess, in  which  "  aniline  for  red  "  is 
heated  with  nitrobenzene,  ortho- 
nitrotoluene,  and  para-nitrotoluene 
in  the  presence  of  iron  and  hydro- 
chloric acid.  The  second  is  more  fre- 
quently employed  as  the  yield  of 
f  uchsine  is  slightly  larger.  See  Dyes. 
Fucino.  Former  lake  of  Italy, 
in  the  prov.  of  Aquila.  It  is  2  m.  E. 
of  Avezzano  and  is  now  reclaimed, 
being  the  largest  lake  ever  drained 
by  artificial  means.  With  a  circum- 
ference of  about  36  m.,  a  depth  of 
over  60  ft.,  and  an  alt.  of  2,172  ft., 
it  had  no  outlet,  and  was  liable  to 
great  and  dangerous  fluctuations 
in  volume.  To  remedy  this  the 
Emperor  Claudius,  in  A.D.  52,  had  a 
subterranean  tunnel,  3£  m.  in 
length,  cut  so  that  the  water  could 
be  discharged  into  the  river  (!;iri,^- 
liano  (Liris).  This  fell  into  disre- 
pair, but  Trajan  repaired  it. 

In  1854  the  Roman  banker, 
Prince  Giulio  Torlonia,  for  the  con- 
sideration that  the  land  reclaimed 


FUCOID 


3367 


FUEL 


should  become  his  property,  under- 
took to  make  a  new  channel.  This 
he  did  at  an  enormous  expense, 
and  the  lake  was  finally  drained  in 
187G.  The  reclaimed  area  of  40,000 
acres  is  laid  out  in  a  series  of  model 
farms,  mainly  occupied  by  tenants 
of  the  Torlonia  estates. 

Fucoid  (Lat.  fucus,  seaweed; 
Gr.  eidos,  likeness).  Filamentous 
structure  found  in  rocks  of  all 
ages.  They  are  supposed  to  be 
remains  of  seaweed-like  plants,  but 
are  probably  worm-casts  or  totally 
unconnected  with  any  organisms. 
They  are  common  in  Cambrian 
rocks.  See  Cambrian  System. 

Fucus  (Lat.,  seaweed).  Genus  of 
brown  seaweeds  of  the  natural 
order  Fucaceae  (class  Phaeo- 
phyceac).  They  are  abundant  on 
all  rocky  shores  in  shallow  water. 
They  have  long,  leathery  fronds, 
often  exposed  for  hours  at  low 
water,  and  forming  a  large  per- 
centage of  the  seaweed  gathered 
for  manuring  the  land.  Familiar 
examples  are  the  bladder-wrack 
(F.  vesiculosus)  and  the  saw- 
edged  wrack  (F.  serratus). 

Fuegians.  South  American 
Indian  tribes  inhabiting  Tierra  del 
Fuego.  The  primitive  race  are  the 
central  Yahgans,  who  use  rude 
wind-shelters,  skin  aprons,  and  man- 
tles, and  bone  and  shell  imple- 
ments. They  have  no  canoes.  Their 
kitchen-middens  indicate  a  remote 
stone-age  culture.  The  western 
canoe-using  Alakalufs  are  pre- 
Incan  Araucanians.  The  eastern 
Onas  are  Patagonians.  See  Tierra 
del  Fuego. 

Fuego.  Active  volcano  of  Gua- 
temala, Central  America.  It  is  45 
m.  S.W.  of  Guatemala  City  and  21 
m.  W.  of  the  Volcin  de  Agua.  Its 
snow-capped  cone  rears  to  a  height 
of  12,577  ft.,  and  there  was  an 
outburst  in  1880. 

Fuel.  Any  combustible  sub- 
stance burnt  for  the  sake  of  the 
heat  evolved  in  the  process.  All 
common  fuels  contain  carbon  as 
their  chief  constituent,  either  alone 
or  in  combination  with  hydrogen 
(hydrocarbons),  and  the  ultimate 
result  of  their  complete  combus- 
tion is  the  conversion  of  this  carbon 
into  carbon  dioxide,  the  hydrogen 
being  similarly  oxidised  to  water. 

Fuels  may  be  solid,  liquid,  and 
gaseous.  Some  occur  naturally, 
others  are  prepared  or  derived  fuels. 
The  most  important  of  all  fuels  is 
coal ;  other  natural  solid  fuels  are 
lignite,  peat,  wood,  and  vegetable 
materials  such  as  straw.  Coke  is 
the  most  important  derived  solid 
fuel.  Mineral  oil  is  the  chief  liquid 
fuel,  but  though  it  occurs  naturally 
it  is  rarely  used  in  the  natural 
state.  As  obtained  from  the  earth, 
it  contains  a  large  number  of 


Fuegians.      Indian  and  his  squaw 
wearing  costume  of  blanketing 

hydrocarbons  which  differ  in  vola- 
tility, and  it  is  found  more  profit- 
able to  separate  these  into  groups 
or  "  fractions,"  and  to  use  each 
portion  in  different  ways,  than  to 
burn  the  whole  mixture.  This 
separation  is  effected  by  gradually 
heating  the  natural  oil,  when  the 
substances  with  the  lowest  boiling 
points  are  volatilised  first,  followed 
as  the  temperature  is  raised  by 
the  less  volatile.  It  is  possible  to 
separate  a  long  series  of  different 
hydrocarbons,  but  in  practice  the 
process  is  not  carried  to  such 
lengths.  According  to  Engler's 
classification  the  fraction  that  dis- 
tils up  to  a  temperature  of  about 
300°  F.  consists  of  petrol  and  sol- 
vent naphthas;  the  second  fraction, 
up  to  about  570°,  is  kerosene  or 
paraffin  oil ;  while  the  residue  is 
fuel  oil. 

The  distillation  of  coal  and  other 
natural  solid  fuels,  by  heating  them 
in  closed  retorts,  also  yields  oils 
which  vary  in  quantity  and  char- 
acter according  to  the  material  and 
the  methods  employed;  and  simul- 
taneously the  process  yields  gas 
which  similarly  varies  in  grade  and 
quantity.  Gas  issuing  from  the 
earth  as  a  natural  product  is  used 
as  a  fuel  in  America. 

Pulverised  Fuel 

Pulverised  fuel,  consisting  of 
powdered  coal  carried  in  a  stream 
of  air,  behaves  in  many  ways  like 
a  gaseous  fuel ;  it  is  commonly 
used  for  firing  cement-burning 
kilns,  and  has  been  applied  to 
metallurgical  furnaces  and  steam 
boilers.  Another  method  of  using 
powdered  solid  fuel  is  seen  in  col- 
loidal fuel,  to  which  a  good  deal 
of  attention  was  paid  in  America 
during  the  later  years  of  the  Great 
War.  Here  finely  divided  coal  or 
other  carbonaceous  matter  is  sus- 
pended in  heavy  mineral  oil  or  in 
the  tar  or  tar-products  derived 


from  the  distillation  of  coal,  various 
methods  of  treatment  being  em- 
ployed to  secure  that  the  particles 
do  not  settle  out. 

The  two  most  important  natural 
fuels — coal,  which  consists  of  the 
fossilised  or  mummified  remains  of 
vegetation  that  grew  ages  ago ; 
and  mineral  oil,  which  is  generally 
supposed  to  have  been  formed 
from  marine  vegetable  or  animal 
organisms  that  also  lived  in  the 
distant  past — represent  stores  of 
accumulated  energy  derived  from 
the  sun.  There  is  little  or  no 
reason  to  suppose  that  the  forma- 
tion of  either  coal  or  oil  is  going  on 
at  the  present  time,  and  therefore 
in  using  them  we  are  living  on 
capital  that  cannot  be  replaced. 
Some  of  the.  less  important  natural 
fuels,  such  as  wood  and  straw',  do, 
however,  represent  a  present 
means  of  accumulating  solar 
energy,  and  the  same  is  true  of 
alcohol,  which  can  be  made  from 
vegetable  growths  such  as  grain 
and  potatoes,  and  which  in  the 
future  may  play  a  great  part. 
Power  from  Fuel 

Large  quantities  of  fuel  are 
burnt  so  that  the  heat  may  be  con- 
verted into  mechanical  power,  or 
as  a  second  stage  into  electricity. 
The  plan  commonly  adopted  in 
obtaining  power  from  coal  is  to 
raise  steam  in  a  boiler  to  drive  an 
engine  or  turbine.  Some  of  the 
heat  is  lost  up  the  chimney  in  the 
heated  gases  of  combustion — if 
these  gases  were  not  hot  there 
would  be  no  "  natural "  draught, 
though  one  might  be  produced 
mechanically  by  a  fan — but  a  good 
boiler  properly  managed  will  trans- 
fer 80  p.c.,  or  even  more,  of  the 
heat  to  the  water  in  the  boiler.  In 
the  steam  engine  more  heat  is 
necessarily  lost,  and  the  final  re- 
sult is  accounted  good  if  about  20 
p.c.  of  the  original  heat  in  the  coal 
is  obtained  in  the  form  of  power. 

The  manifest  wastefulness  of 
this  method  of  producing  power 
from  coal  has  led  to  the  considera- 
tion of  other  possibilities.  When 
coal  is  carbonised  or  distilled,  its 
decomposition  produces  gas,  coke, 
tar,  and  ammonia — which  are 
either  useful  in  themselves  or  by 
appropriate  treatment  can  be 
made  to  yield  a  great  number  of 
valuable  substances.  In  the  high 
temperature  of  the  furnace  of  a 
steam  boiler  these  products  are 
burnt  up  and  lost.  The  question 
thus  presents  itself  whether  it  is 
possible  to  get  more  out  of  the 
coal  by  conserving  these  products 
while  still  obtaining  power. 

An  ordinary  gasworks  offers  one 
example.  Every  ton  of  coal  put 
through  its  retorts  yields  about 
13  cwt.  of  coke,  and  say  12,000 


FUENTE     OVEJUNA 


3368 


FUERTEVENTURA 


cubic  ft.  of  gas,  from  which  are  ex- 
tracted, before  it  is  passed  into  the 
mains  for  distribution  to  the  con- 
sumer, tar  and  ammonia.  Power 
can  then  be  obtained  from  the  gas 
(and  more  gas  can  be  made  from 
the  coke,  if  desired)  by  using  it  to 
drive  gas  engines,  while  the  other 
products  remain  to  be  worked  up 
into  fertilisers,  dyes,  drugs,  and 
other  things.  In  usual  gasworks 
practice  the  carbonisation  is 
carried  out  at  comparatively  high 
temperatures  (up  to  2,300°  F.),  but 
if  lower  temperatures  are  em- 
ployed (down  to  750°  F.),  the  pro- 
ducts are  different  in  quantity  and 
quality.  The  residue  "soft"  coke, 
containing  more  volatile  matter,  is 
more  suitable  as  a  domestic  fuel 
than  the  hard  coke  from  coke  ovens 
and  gasworks  retorts,  while  there 
are  light  and  heavy  fuel  oils  that  can 
be  used  for  the  production  of  power 
in  internal-combustion  engines. 

Another  plan  is  to  pass  air 
and  steam  over  incandescent  car- 
bon, and  to  use  the  resulting  "  pro- 
ducer "  gas  in  gas  engines.  A 
producer  can  be  fitted  with  appara- 
tus for  recovering  ammonia,  the  sale 
of  which  will  meet  a  substantial  part 
of  the  fuel  bill.  It  is  also  possible 
to  improve  the  result  by  employ- 
ing the  heat  of  the  exhaust  to 
generate  steam  in  a  waste-heat 
boiler,  and  using  this  steam  in  a 
turbine.  In  this  way  the  propor- 
tion of  the  heat  of  the  coal  con- 
verted into  power  may  be  raised 
to  25  p.c.,  but  on  the  other  hand 
the  plant  becomes  more  compli- 
cated and  expensive. 

The  relative  advantages  of  these 
different  methods  must  be  esti- 
mated according  to  the  circum- 
stances of  each  particular  case. 
Economy  of  heat  does  not  neces- 
sarily mean  saving  of  money  ;  the 
cost  of  the  plant  required  to  secure 
the  heat  economy  may  swallow  up 
all  the  advantage.  If  production 
of  power  on  a  large  scale  is  the 
object  in  view,  the  coal-fired  steam 
boiler  with  steam  turbine  is  the 
simplest  arrangement,  and  may  be 
the  cheapest,  even  allowing  for  the 
revenue  derived  from  the  sale  of  the 
products  recovered  with  any  car- 
bonisation process.  See  Coal ;  Oil. 

Fuente  Ovejuna.  Town  of 
Spain,  in  the  prov.  of  Cordova.  It 
stands  on  an  eminence  in  a  fertile 
district,  45  m.  by  rly.  N.W.  of  Cor- 
dova, and  is  encompassed  by 
ramparts.  It  trades  in  honey,  wine, 
fruit,  grain,  and  cattle  ;  and  leather, 
bricks  and  tiles,  preserved  meat, 
and  soap  industries  are  carried  on. 
A  stock  fair  is  held  yearly.  Near 
by  are  silver  and  lead  mines,  and 
stone  quarries.  Fuerlte  Ovejuna  is 
reputed  to  be  the  ancient  Mellaria, 
famed  for  its  honey.  Pop.  13,470. 


Fuenterrabia.  City  of  Spain,  in  decided  upon.' -  The  7th  division 
the  prov.  of  Guipuzcoa.lt  stands  on  crossed  the  river  Turones,  while 
a  peninsula,  near  the  mouth  of  the  the  light  division  resisted  the  on- 

river  Bidassoa,  10    .  ,    „,  ,..,,,,1.^m -  -^-  - 

m.  E.N.E.  of  San 
Sebastian  on  the 
Paris-Madrid  Rly. 
It  is  a  picturesque 
old-walled  town, 
with  a  10th  cen- 
tury castle,  nar- 
row streets,  and 
curious  houses. 
The  modern  part, 
facing  the  estuary, 
is  coming  info 
vogue  as  a  summer 
resort,  with  fishing 

rjters  and  in- 
trial  suburbs. 
Ropes,  fishing 
nets,  and  paper 
are  made,  and  there  are  also  flour 
and  saw  mills. 

Fuenterrabia  was  taken  several 


Fuenterrabia,  Spain.  The  walled  fortress  which  guarded 
the  entrance  to  the  old  city 


coining  foe,  squares  of  infantry 
slowly  retreating  before  surging 
masses  of  horsemen.  At  length  the 

times  by  the  French,  but  its  most     new    line    was    formed    and     an 
noted  siege  was  in  1638,  when  the     artillery  duel  ensued.    Meanwhile, 

1  there  was  a  terrific  battle  in 
Fuentes  itself,  where  the  houses 
were  used  to  good  purpose.  From 
part  of  this  the  few  British  troops 
were  driven,  but,  strongly  rein- 
forced, they  managed  to  keep  to 
some  of  their  positions  until  the 


French  under  Conde  were  defeated 
here.  To  celebrate  this  event  a  festi- 
val is  held  every  year  on  Sept.  8. 
It  was  opposite  Fuenterrabia  that 
Wellington  crossed  the  Bidassoa, 
Oct.  8,  1813.  Pop.  4,976. 


Fuentes  d'Onoro,  BATTLE  OF. 

Fought  in  the  Peninsular  War  be-  evening,  when  the  battle  ended 
tween  the  English  and  the  French,  without  a  decision.  The  English 
May  3  and  5,  1811.  Fuentes  is  a  and  their  Spanish  auxiliaries  lost 
village  in  the  prov.  of  Salamanca,  about  1,500,  including  300  prison- 
Spain.  It  stands  on  a  hill,  near  the  ers  ;  the  French  casualties  were 
Portuguese  frontier,  15  m.  by  rly.  somewhat  less.  See  The  War  in 
The  the 


S.W.  of  Ciudad  Rodrigo. 
battle  was  fought  because  Welling- 
ton was  blockading  that  fortress, 
and  the  French,  under  Massena, 
were  marching  to  relieve  it.  Al- 
though inferior  in  numbers,  Wei- 


Peninsula,    Sir    W.    F.     P. 
Napier. 

Fuero  (Lat.  forum).  Spanish 
word  meaning  a  code  of  laws,  or  set 
of  privileges,  something  like  the 
English  charter.  The  Spaniards 


lington  decided  to  fight,  and  he     had  many  of  these  fueros,  the  most 
drew  up  his  32,000  men  behind  a     important  being  the  Fuero  Juzgo, 
deep 


stream   flowing   through    a 
ravine.     One  French  division  at- 
tacked on  the  3rd,  and  there  was 
some  savage  fighting  around  the 


the  national  code  of  Castile,  taken 
from  the  Visigoths,  but  several 
times  revised.  It  was  not  known 
at  first  as  a  fuero,  for  the  word 


village,  but  at  the  end  of  the  day  only  came  into  use  in  the  10th  or 

practically  no   ground   had    been  llth  century,  the  first  fuero  being 

won  or  lost.  probably  the  one  granted  to  Leon 

A  day  intervened,  and  then,  with  in  1020.    There  were  various  local 

about  40,000  infantry  and  5,000  and   municipal   fueros,    by   which 

cavalry,  Massena  made  his  great  towns  and  provinces  enjoyed  cer- 

attack  on  the  5th.     His  intention  tain  privileges,  such  as  the  right  to 

was  to  turn,  the  British  right,  but,  choose  their  own  overlord.      The 


foreseeing  this,Wellington  extended 
his  front  until  it  was  seven  miles 


three  Basque  provinces  had  fueros 
which    made    them    largely    self- 


long.  There  was  some  fighting,  in-  governing  until  1876,  when  these 
fantry  and  cavalry  mingled  in  a  privileges  were  taken  away.  Portu- 
confused  encounter,  the  British  in  guese  towns  had  also  their  fueros. 
general  being  worsted.  Gradually,  See  Charter. 

Fuerte ventura.  One  of  the 
Canary  Islands.  It  lies  S.W.  of 
Lanzarote  and  N.E.  of  the  Grand 
Canary  ;  area  664  sq.  m.  Moun- 
tainous and  barren,  it  has  only  two 
fresh-water  springs,  and  suffers 


in  spite  of  great  gallantry,  they  were 
forced  back,  and,  as  desired,  the 
right  was  turned,  and  the  7th  and 
light  divisions,  that  had  borne 
the  brunt  of  this  attack,  were 
separated. 

To  prevent,   therefore,   a  more     from  prolonged  periods  of  drought, 
serious  disaster,  a  new  front  was     The  inhabitants  are  mostly  fisher- 


FUGGER 


3369 


FUKUOKA 


folk.  The  capital  is  Santa  Maria 
de  Betancuria,  and  Cabras  is  the 
chief  port.  Pop.  12,960. 

Fugger.  Name  of  a  German 
family  of  merchants.  Johann 
Fugger,  its  founder,  settled  in 
Augsburg  about  1370.  A  weaver 
from  the  neighbourhood,  he  soon 
became  a  merchant  and  a  citizen. 
His  son  and  grandsons  carried  on  his 
business  of  merchants  and  money- 
lenders and  became  very  rich. 

Jacob  Fugger  (1459-1525)  was 
perhaps  the  most  notable  member 
of  the  family.  With  his  brothers  he 
had  mining,  banking,  shipping,  and 
other  interests  nearly  all  over 
Europe,  became  the  banker  of  the 
Hapsburg  family,  and  found  the 
money  which  secured  the  imperial 
throne  for  Charles  V  in  1519.  His 
nephew  Anton  took  advantage  of 
the  discovery  of  America  to  add  to 
his  wealth,  while  the  family,  among 
other  ventures,  farmed  the  silver 
and  the  quicksilver  mines  in  Spain 
that  belonged  to  Charles  V. 

The  succeeding  members  were 
less  interested  in  business,  but  re- 
mained personages  of  wealth  and 
importance.  They  were  divided  into 
various  branches ;  some  entered 
the  Church,  at  least  two  becoming 
bishops ;  others  were  soldiers ; 
others  scholars  and  patrons  of  art. 
Three  branches  of  the  family  exist 
to-day,  and  before  the  changes  of 
1918  the  head  of  each  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Bavarian  Upper  House. 
One  Fugger  was  made  a  prince 
in  1803 ;  the  others  are  counts. 
There  are  several  memorials  of  the 
Fuggers  in  Augsburg,  including  the 
Fuggerei.  See  Augsburg. 

Fugitation  (Lat.  fugitare,  to 
flee).  Term  used  in  Scots  law  for 
the  act  of  declaring  a  person  a 
fugitive  from  justice.  If  a  person 
charged  with  a  crime  fails  to  ap- 
pear to  answer  the  charge,  he 
can  be  declared  outside  the  law. 
His  goods  then  become  the  pro- 
perty of  the  crown. 

Fugitive  Offenders  Act,  1881 
(Lat.  fugitlvus,  runaway).  Law 
operative  throughout  the  British 
empire.  By  it  a  person  accused  of 
having  committed  a  crime  in  any 
part  of  the  king's  dominions  may 
be  arrested  in  any  other  part  and 
sent  back  to  the  place  where  he  is 
wanted.  The  Act  only  applies  to 
offences  punishable  by  imprison- 
ment with  hard  labour  for  12 
months  or  more.  See  Extradition. 

Fugitive  Slave  Laws.  Two 
laws  of  the  U.S.A.  providing  for 
the  recovery  of  runaway  slaves. 
The  first,  passed  in  1793,  enabled 
the  owner  of  a  slave  who  had 
taken  refuge  in  a  non-slave  state 
to  recover  his  property  on  applica- 
tion to  a  magistrate  for  a  warrant. 
As  the  anti-slavery  feeling  grew  in 


intensity  in  the  northern  states 
the  Act  was  evaded  or  nullified 
by  the  passing  of  state  laws  for- 
bidding state  officials  to  assist  in 
enforcing  this  law  of  the  federal 
government.  As  a  result  of  insis- 
tent demands  from  the  slave- 
owning  states,  a  new  law  was  passed 
in  1850,  by  which  the  obligation  was 
imposed  on  federal  officials  to  en- 
force the  law.  Sec.  Slave  Trade. 

Fugleman  (Ger.  Fliigel,  awing). 
Corruption  of  Fliigelmann,  i.e.  a  sol- 
dier on  the  wing  of  a  body  of  troops. 
At  drill  he  advanced  in  front  of 
the  line  to  give  the  time  in  the 
exercises  with  the  musket. 

Fugue  (Fr.  from  Ital.  j'uga, 
flight).  Important  form  of  contra- 
puntal music  akin  to  the  round  and 
canon  (q.v.),  but  much  more  free. 
Here  are  only  given  definitions  of 


Fujiyama.    The  famous  mountain  of  Japan  viewed  from 
Omiya  village 

the  chief  terms  used  in  connexion 
with  fugue-form,  readers  being 
referred  to  musical  works  for  full 
elucidation.  The  subject  is  the 
chief  theme,  announced  by  all  the 
voices  or  parts  in  turn,  but  it  is 
called  the  answer  when  it  has  the 
dominant  as  its  key-centre  instead 
of  the  tonic  ;  the  answer  is  called 
real  when  it  is  an  exact  transposi- 
tion of  the  subject,  or  tonal  when 
certain  modifications  take  place  in 
order  to  avoid  a  too  great  diver- 
gence from  the  original  key.  The 
countersubject  is  the  counterpoint 
which  accompanies  later  entries 
of  subject  and  answer.  The  first 
complete  set  of  entries  of  all  the 
parts  is  the  exposition.  Subjects 
are  sometimes  inverted,augmented, 
or  diminished. 

A  counter-exposition  is  a  further 
set  of  entries  in  a  different  order 

Fugue 


from  that  of  the  exposition.  An 
episode  is  a  free  section  introduced 
as  a  relief  from  the  stricter  portions 
of,  a  fugue.  A  stretto  contains 
entries  of  subject  and  answer  at 
shorter  time-intervals  than  at  first. 
A  pedal,  a  long  sustained  note, 
usually  the  dominant  or  tonic, 
often  accompanies  the  stretto,  and 
is  also  used  independently. 

Bibliography.  Fugue,  and  Fugal 
Analysis,  E.  Prout,  1892  ;  Fugue, 
James  Higgs,  1877;  Dictionary  of 
Musical  Terms,  Stainer  and  Barrett, 
3rd.  ed.  1888. 

Fujiyama,  FUSTYAMA  OR  FUJI- 
SAN.     Loftiest  peak  in  Japan,  on 
the  island  of  Honshiu.  Alt.  12,390  ft. 
A  dormant  volcano,  with  a  beauti- 
ful snow-capped  cone,  it  occupies  a 
position  of  splendid  isolation,  60  m. 
S.W.    of    Tokyo.       According    to 
-    tradition    it    was 
upheaved    during 
one  night  in  285 
B.C.,    and   at    the 
same  time   a   de- 
^    pression     was 
caused     near 
Kioto,     which    is 
now   occupied   by 
Lake  Biwa  (q.v.). 
Its  crater,    nearly 
3    m.    in    circum- 
ference   and    over 
500    ft.    deep,    is 
now    filled    with 
water. 

The  last  re- 
corded eruption 
happened  in 
1707-8.  The  sacred  mountain  of 
Japan,  it  is  annually  visited  by 
thousands  of  Buddhist  pilgrims, 
who  ascend  to  the  summit  to  pray 
at  the  numerous  shrines.  It  is 
frequently  portrayed  on  Japanese 
pottery,  and  is  a  favourite  theme 
with  poets  and  artists.  See  Cone. 
Fukui.  Town  of  Japan,  on  the 
island  of  Honshiu.  It  is  the  seat 
of  the  prefecture  of  Fukui,  and 
stands  on  both  banks  of  the  river 
Ashiwa,  80  m.  N.N.E.  of  Kioto. 
It  has  thriving  silk  and  paper 
industries,  and  is  an  educational 
centre.  There  are  several  other 
towns  of  this  name  in  Japan.  Pop. 
58,100. 

Fukuoka.  Town  of  Japan,  on 
the  island  of  Kiushiu.  It  stands 
at  the  head  of  a  small  stream  on 
the  N.  coast,  86  m.  by  rly.  N.N.E. 
of  Nagasaki.  Its  suburb,  Hakata, 

~4 


Subject. 


Tonal 


FUKUSHIMA 

is  on  the  opposite  shore  of  the 
stream.  There  are  several  good 
streets,  a  citadel,  and  a  public 
garden.  It  is  noted  for  its  silk 
industry.  The  town  is  the  scat  of 
the  prefecture  of  Fukuoka.  This 
name  is  borne  by  several  other 
towns  in  Japan.  Pop.  101,100. 

Fukushima.  Town  of  Japan, 
on  the  island  of  Honshiu.  It  is 
84  m.  S.E.  of  Niigata  and  170  m. 
by  rly.  N.N.E.  of  Tokyo.  Its 
principal  trade  is  connected  with 
silk  and  silkworm  cocoons,  which 
are  exported  in  large  quantities. 
Pop.  31,700. 

Fukushima,  BARON  (1853- 
1919).  Japanese  soldier.  Entering 
the  Japanese  army  as  a  drummer- 
boy,  he  studied  at  Tokyo  Univer- 
sity, and  joined  the  general  staff 
in  1875.  Attache  at  Peking,  1882- 
84,  he  was  transferred  to  Berlin, 
1887-92.  In  1892-93  he  accom- 
plished a  9,000-mile  horseback 
ride  from  Berlin,  to  Vladivostok 
by  way  of  Russia  and  Siberia.  He 
was  sent  on  missions  to  Egypt, 
Turkey,  Persia,  Caucasia,  Arabia, 
India,  Burma,  and  Siam,  1895-97. 
General  staff  officer  in  the  Man- 
churian  army  during  the  Russo- 
Japanese  war  (1904-5),  he  became 
chief  of  the  staff  in  1906.  In  1912 
he  became  governor-general  of 
Kwang-tung.  HediedFeb.18,1919. 

Fukuyama.  Seaport  of  Japan, 
on  the  island  of  Hokkaido.  It 
stands  at  the  S.W.  extremity  of 
the  island,  53m.  S.W.  of  Hakodate. 
Formerly  the  most  important  sea- 
port of  Hokkaido,  its  trade  has 
declined,  and  most  of  its  commerce 
has  been  transferred  to  Hakodate, 
now  the  premier  port.  There  are 
numerous  temples  and  shrines,  and 
the  town  was  once  the  chief  resi- 
dence of  the  lords  of  Matsumai. 
There  is  another  town  of  the  same 
name  on  the  S.  coast  of  Honshiu. 
Pop.  15,000. 

Fula  (Mandingan,  reddish). 
Dominant  African  people  in  the 
W.  Sudan,  the  plural  being  Fulbe 


Fula. 


Women   of   the   Fula   race 
from  Timbuctoo 


3370 

and  the  Hausa  name  Fulani. 
Estimated  at  8,000,000,  and  de- 
scended from  an  early  admixture 
of  Libyan — if  not  pre -Libyan — 
and  negro  stocks,  they  are  hand- 
some, oval-faced,  chestnut-hued, 
straight-nosed,  thin-lipped,  and 
curly-haired,  with  no  negro  odour. 
In  the  7th  century  they  were  still  in 
the  uplands  S.  of  Morocco  ;  by  the 
13th  they  were  cattle-owning  no- 
mads, partly  Islamised,  in  Bornu  ; 
by  the  16th  they  reached  Lake 
Chad,  and,  after  founding  the 
Sokoto  kingdom  (1807-1903),  with 
much  Hausa  intermingling,  are 
now  a  virile  stock,  three-fourths 
Caucasian,  dwelling  from  the 
Atlantic  coast  to  the  Nile  valley. 

They  are  compact  in  Futa- 
Jallon,  dominant  in  Sokoto  and 
Gando,  where  many  have  adopted 
settled  husbandry,  and  colonist  in 
Bornu,  Baghirmi,  and  Wadai.  The 
ruling  Mahometan  aristocracies 
are  aggressive  and  intelligent,  with 
many  mosques  and  schools.  The 
cow-Fulani  or  Bororoje  are  peace- 
able booth-dwelling  nomads.  The 
most  easterly  tribes  are  hostile  to 
Islam.  See  Africa :  Languages. 

Fulcrum  (Lat.  fulcrum,  a  prop). 
Fixed  point  in  the  mechanical 
system  of  a  lever  about  which  the 
lever  can  rotate.  See  Lever. 

Fulda.  City  of  Germany,  in  the 
Prussian  prov.  of  Hesse-Nassau.  It 
stands  on  the  Fulda,  69  m.  N.E.  of 
Frankfort.  The  chief  ecclesias- 
tical building  is  the  cathedral, 
an  18th  century  edifice,  modelled 
on  S.  Peter's  at  Rome,  with  the 
crypt  of  an  older  edifice.  The 
church  of  S.  Michael  is  an  interest- 
ing old  building,  and  there  is  the 
church  of  S.  Severus,  dating  from 
the  15th  century,  and  a  convent, 
now  a  college.  Secular  buildings 
include  the  chateau,  the  town  hall, 
and  the  library,  with  a  large  and 
valuable  collection  of  books  and 
MSS.  There  are  two  squares  and  a 
public  park.  The  industries  include 
the  manufacture  of  textiles,  rly. 
shops,  and  a  trade  in  cattle  and 
agricultural  produce. 

Fulda  is  noted  for  its  abbey, 
round  which  the  town  grew.  This 
was  founded  by  S.  Boniface  in  744, 
and  was  soon  one  of  the  greatest 
Benedictine  houses  in  Germany, 
It  was  very  rich ;  its  abbot  became 
a  prince  and  a  bishop,  ranking  as 
one  of  the  great  prince-bishops  "and 
ruling  a  territory  of  some  size. 
This  was  secularised  in  1802,  and, 
after  belonging  to  various  princes, 
was  divided  between  Hesse -Cassel 
and  Bavaria.  Most  of  it  is  now 
Prussian.  From  1734  to  1804  there 
was  a  university  here.  Pop.  17,500. 

Fulda,  LUDWIG  (b.  1862).  Ger- 
man dramatist.  He  was  born  at 
Frankfort-on-Main,  and  at  the  age 


FULHAM 

of  20  wrote  his 
comedy  Die 
Auf  rich  ten. 
This  was  fol- 
lowed by  other 
similar  works, 
and  in  1893 
he  would  have 
gained  the 
Schiller  prize 
with  Der  Talis- 
man, a  fairy 
tale,  had  not  the  emperor  vetoed 
the  grant.  His  principal  plays  were 
Kaltwasser,  1903;  Aus  der  Werk- 
statt,  1904  ;  Der  Heimliche  Konig, 
1906;  Herr  Aladdin  und  die 
Wunderlampe,  1912. 

Fulgurites  (Lat.  fulgur,  light- 
ning). Tubes  formed  in  sandy  soil, 
and  less  commonly  in  rocks,  by 


Ludwig  Fulda. 
German  dramatist 


I 


Fulgurites.     Specimens  obtained  a 

Maldonado,  Uruguay 
passage  of  lightning.  This  often 
penetrates  to  a  depth  of  many  feet, 
fusing  the  particles  it  encounters. 
The  glassy  lining  often  produced  in 
tubes  varies  in  size  to  more  than  2 
in  s.  in  circumference.  They  are  com- 
mon on  Mt.  Ararat,  the  Alps,  Py- 
renees, and  in  Mexico  and  La  Plata. 

Fulham.  Metropolitan  bor.  and 
parish  of  the  co.  of  London.  On  the 
Middlesex  side  of  the  Thames,  S.E. 
of  Hammersmith,  it  has  been  a  par- 
ish since  1631  and  a  met.  bor.  since 
1899.  Its  oldest  building  is  Fulham 
Palace,  the  ancient  manor  house  of 
the  bishops  of  London,  the  court- 
yard of  which  belongs  to  the  time 
of  Henry  VII.  During  the  bishopric 
of  Frederick  Temple  a  part  of  the 
grounds  now  called  Bishop's  Park 
was  opened  to  the  public.  The 
parish  church  of  All  Saints,  a 
Perpendicular  structure,  rebuilt 
1880-81,  near  Putney  Bridge,  has 
a  14th  century  tower,  an  organ  by 
Jordan,  1700,  a  fine  peal  of  bells, 
and  some  old  monuments. 

Well  served  by  motor-' buses  and 
the  Underground  and  W.  London 
Extension  Rlys.,  Fulham  has  a 
town  hall,  free  library,  an  old 
pottery,  and  contains  the  grounds 
of  the  Chelsea  and  Fulham  foot- 
ball clubs,  and  those  of  the  Hur- 
lingham  club.  Among  eminent 
names  associated  with  the  district, 
which  includes  Parson's  Green  and 
Walham  Green,  are  those  of  Addi- 
son,  Bartolozzi,  Burbago  and  Con- 
dell,  Sir  T.  Bodley,  John  Florio, 


FULHAM      WARE 


3371 


FULLING 


stock  companies 
in  America,  mak- 
ing her  debut  at 
New  York  in  1886. 
Her  first  appear- 
ance on  the  Lon- 
rlon  stage  was 


E.   Burne  -  Jones, 
Lord  Lytton,Theo- 
dore    Hook,    and 
Samuel     Richard- 
son. Two  members 
are     returned     to 
Parliament.     Pop. 
153,284.     See  His- 
tory   of    Fulham, 
T.  Faulkner,  1813; 
A  Walk  from  Lon- 
don    to    Fulham, 
T.  C.  Croker,  I860. 
Fulham  Ware. 
Fine      stoneware 
first    produced    in 
1671      by      John 
Dwight    (q.v.)    at 
Fulham.      It    was 
an  imitation  of  china,  semi-trans- 
parent, with  hard,  close  body  of 
grey  colour.     Jugs,  pots,  bottles, 
butter  dishes,  and  busts  were  pro- 
duced.      The 
enamel      was 
brilliant,    the 
colours  being 
largely   blue 
and  purple. 
The     decora- 
t  i  o  ns        of 
flowers      and 
lea  ves       were 
raised.     Mar- 
bled  pieces 
were    also 
produced. 
Dwight    gave 
up     in    1746, 
and  was  suc- 
ceeded    by 
White      until 
17G2.  The  fac- 
tory   is     still 
carried  on, 
stoneware 
jugs  and  pots 
being     pro- 
duced.        In    1888   William    De 
Morgan    began    the   manufacture 
of  quaintly  shaped  pots  and  pans 
in  lustre  ware. 

Fuller.  Person  whose  occupa- 
tion is  to  full  cloth,  or  carry  out  a 
finishing  process  by  which  cloth  is 
thickened  and  shrunk.  The  term 


Fulham  Ware.   Figure 

of     Jupiter    by    John 

Dwight 

Liverpool  Museum 


Fulham.     Courtyard  of  Fulham  Palace,  in  Tudor  style. 
Above,  part  of  the  18th  century  buildings  of  the  Palace 

in  1889,  when  she  played  the  part 
of  Mercy  Baxter  in  Caprice  at  The 
Globe.  Her  greatest  success  was, 
however,  in  1891  at  the  Columbus 
Theatre,  New  York,  where  she  in- 
troduced the  Serpentine  dance. 
Her  reminiscences,  Fifteen  Years 
of  My  Life,  appeared  in  1908, 
followed  by  Fifteen  Years  of  a 
Dancer's  Life,  1913. 

Fuller,  THOMAS  (1608-61). 
English  divine  and  eccles.  historian. 
Born  at  Aldwinkle,  Northants, 
where  his 
father  was  rec- 
tor, and  edu- 
cated at  Cam- 
b  ridge,  he 
shared  the  re- 
verses of  the 
Royalists  dur- 
ing the  Civil 
War.  In  addi- 
tion to  private  Thomas  Fuller, 
chaplaincies  English  divine 
and  lectureships,  he  held  at  various 
times  the  curacy  of  S.  Bene't's, 
Cambridge,  the  rectory  of  Broad - 
Windsor,  Dorset,  the  curacy  of 
Waltham  Abbey,  and  the  rectory 
of  Cranford,  Middlesex  ;  but  from 
1642  till  his  death  depended  largely 
upon  his  pen  for  subsistence. 

Fuller  was  the  first  to  follow 
Bede  in  attempting  to  write  the 
ecclesiastical  history  of  England,  his 
Church  History  of  Britain,  a  folio 


also  applied  to  a  tool  used  by     of  1,300  pages,  being  published  in 

1655.  His  History  of  the  Worthies 
of  England  was  issued  in  folio  in 
1662.  Witty  and  learned,  he  was 
happily  described  by  A.  Jessopp, 
who  in  1892  published  a  selection 
from  his  writings,  as  the  Sydney 
Smith  of  the  17th  century.  He 


blacksmiths  for   shaping   iron 
forcing  it  into  grooves. 

Fuller,  LOIE.  American  actress 
and  dancer.  Born  at  Chicago,  she 
made  her  first  appearance  on  the 
stage  at  the  age  of  two  and  a  half. 
Later  she  toured  with  various 


J.  A.  Fuller-Maitland, 
Brit'sn  musical  critic 

Rutiel1 


died  in  London,  Aug.  16,  1661, 
and  was  buried  at  Cranford.  See 
Life,  M.  Fuller,  1886. 

Fuller-Maitland,  JOHN  ALEX- 
ANDER (b.  1856).  British  musical 
critic.  Educated  at  Westminster 
School  and  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge, he  became  musical  critic  for 
The  Pall  Mall  Gazette  and  The 
Guardian,  and 
later  served 
The  Times  in 
the  same 
capacity  for 
many  years. 
He  wrote 
several  his- 
torical and 
biographical 
works,  includ- 
ing  Masters  of 
German  Music, 
1894,  and  English  Music  in  the 
19th  Century,  1902,  and  edited 
Grove's  Dictionary  of  Music  and 
Musicians,  1904-10. 

Fuller's  Earth.  Soft,  earthy 
variety  of  clay,  greenish,  brownish, 
oryellow  in  colour.  Chemically  a  hy- 
drous, aluminous  silicate,  it  falls  to 
powder  on  immersion  in  water.  It 
is  found  in  the  Lower  Greensand 
and  in  Jurassic  strata.  The  geo- 
logical stratum  known  as  fuller's 
earth  occurs  between  the  Inferior 
Oolite  and  Great  Oolite  in  Jurassic 
series,  and  extends  from  Dorset  to 
Gloucestershire.  There  are  also 
extensive  deposits  in  N.  America. 
It  is  so  named  from  its  use  by 
fullers  as  a  grease  absorbent,  and 
is  now  used  in  many  cleansing 
preparations  and  soaps  and  in  the 
filtration  of  mineral  oils. 

Fulling.  Process  of  cloth  finish- 
ing also  known  as  milling.  The 
operation,  which  is  one  of  con- 
siderable antiquity,  was  originally 
carried  out  by  treading  on  the 
wet  cloth  with  the  feet,  but  is  now 
conducted  in  a  machine.  The  cloth 
is  saturated  with  soap  and  water, 
twisted  rope-like,  and  passed  be- 
tween vertical  rollers,  the  object 
being  to  shrink  the  cloth  in  the 
direction  of  the  weft.  The  wet 
cloth  is  then  cuttle  d,  i.e.  stored  in 
an  enclosed  space,  when  it  shrinks 
in  the  direction  of  the  warp. 
During  the  process  of  fulling  a 
piece  of  wool  fabric  shrinks  to 
about  half  the  length  and  half  the 
width.  All  resemblance  to  woven 
fabric  is  gone,  the  cloth  assuming 
a  felted  appearance.  The  change  is 
caused  by  the  interlacing  of  the 
wool  fibres. 

Fulling  is  carried  out  on  wool- 
len cloth  to  be  used  for  over- 
coats and  heavy  suits,  and  increases 
the  warmth  of  the  clothing  as  well 
as  rendering  the  cloth  compara- 
tively impervious  to  moisture. 
See  Wool. 


FULL    SCORE 


3372 


FUMIGATION 


Full  Score.  Extended  score  of 
a  musical  composition  showing  the 
parts  for  various  voices  and 
instruments  on  separate  staves, 
for  a  conductor's  guidance  or  a 
student's  information.  Many 
different  arrangements  have  been 
used,  but  the  following  is  the  plan 
of  a  typical  modern  score.  The 
names  in  roman  type  show  the 
instruments  of  the  "classic  orches- 
tra, those  in  italics  are  the  modern 
additions  or  more  rarely  used 
instruments. 

WOODWIND. — Piccolo,  Flutes,  Haut- 
boys, Clarinets,  Bassoons,  Double  Bas- 
soon. 

BRASS. — Horns,  Trumpets,  Cornets, 
Trombones,  Bass  Tuba. 

PERCUSSION.— Kettle  Drum,  Side. 
Drum,  Triangle,  Bass  Drum.  Cymbals. 

STRINGS.— Harp,  Violin  I,  Violin  II, 
Viola  (Voices,  if  any,  on  separate  staves), 
Violoncello,  Double  Bass,  Organ. 

Fulmar  Petrel  (Fulmarusglaci- 
alis).  Sea  bird  common  in  the 
Hebrides  and  St.  Kilda.  These  pet- 
rels are  usually  grey  on  the  back, 
and  white  below,  and  measure 
nearly  20  ins.  in  length.  They 
commonly  follow  whaling  ships  to 
feed  on  the  refuse  blubber,  and  nest 
on  grassy  slopes  among  the  cliffs. 

Fulminate  of  Mercury  (Lat. 
fulminare,  to  lighten,  thunder). 
Sensitive  and  violently  explosive 
compound  used  for  the  initiation  of 
hi^h  explosives.  Discovered  by 
Howard  in  1799,  it  has  the  com- 
position HgC2N202.  Owing  to  its 
sensitive  nature  little  was  done 
with  it  for  some  years,  but  by  1815 
it  was  utilised  for  percussion  caps. 

It  is  manufactured  by  dissolving 
mercury  in  strong  nitric  acid  and 
adding  this  whilst  warm  to  a  large 
quantity  of  ethyl  alcohol  in  a  glass 
flask,  from  which  the  fumes  pass 
to  condensers.  Shortly  after  the 
ingredients  have  been  mixed  reac- 
tion commences,  and  if  it  should  be 
too  violent  is  modified  by  the  addi- 
tion of  more  alcohol.  About  half  an 
hour  after  the  start,  fulminate  is 
deposited  from  the  solution  as  fine 
crystals,  and  when  all  reaction  is 
over  the  liquid  is  decanted  off  and 
the  product  washed  free  from  acid, 
and  stored  under  water  until  re- 
quired for  use.  Occasionally  ful- 
minate is  stored  in  a  moist  condi- 
tion, but  never  dry,  as  it  is  decid- 
edly less  sensitive  when  it  con- 
tains at  least  12  p.c.  of  water. 

Fulminate  of  mercury  is  a  fine 
crystalline  powder,  white  to  grey- 
brown  in  colour,  and  has  a  density 
of  4 -42.  It  has  a  sweetish  metallic 
taste  and  is  very  poisonous.  It  is 
detonated  by  very  moderate  fric- 
tion or  percussion,  by  heating  to 
about  150°  C.  or  by  contact  with 
strong  sulphuric  acid.^If  uncon- 
fined,  small  quantities  burn  vio- 
lently when  ignited,  but  two  sheets 
of  paper  confine  it  sufficiently  to 


cause  violent  detonation.  Its  most 
remarkable  and  useful  property  is 
its  ability  to  cause  the  detonation  of 
other  explosives,  and  it  is  doubtful 
whether  without  the  use  of  fulmi- 
nate such  high  explosives  as  nitro- 
glycerine, guncotton,  picric  acid, 
trinitrotoluene,  etc.,  would  ever 
have  become  commercial  possibili- 
ties. See  Detonator ;  Explosives. 

Fulminic  Acid.  Dibasic  acid 
which  has  not  been  obtained  in  the 
free  state.  It  was  prepared  com- 
bined with  mercury,  as  fulminating 
mercury,  by  Howard  in  1800,  and 


Fulmar   Petrel.     A  native   of  the 
Hebrides  and  north  coast  of  Scotland 

Lie  big  in  1822  showed  that  the 
mercury  iscombined  with  apeculiar 
acid  which  he  named  f  ulminic  acid. 
Fulnek.  Town  of  Czecho- 
slovakia in  Moravia,  formerly 
in  Austria-Hungary.  In  the  ad- 
ministration of  Olmutz,  it  is  17m. 
S.  of  Troppau.  It  has  a  cathe- 
dral church  of  considerable  archi- 
tectural merit  and  a  Capuchin  con- 
vent. It  was  for  many  years  the 
centre  of  the  Moravian  Brother- 
hood, and  in  this  connexion  gave 
its  name  to  Fulneck,  their  settle- 
ment in  the  W.  Riding  of  Yorks. 

Fulton.  City  of  New  York, 
U.S.A.,  in  Oswego  co.  Standing  on 
the  Oswego  river  and  canal,  it  is 
25  m.  N.W.  of  Syracuse,  and  is 
served  by  the  New  York  Central  and 
other  rlys.  Settled  in  1792  and  incor- 
porated in  1835,  it  was  chartered  as 
a  city  in  1902,  when  Oswego  Falls 
was  annexed.  Pop.  13,303. 

Fulton,  ROBERT  (1765-1815). 
American  engineer.  Born  in  Penn- 
sylvania and  poorly  educated,  in 
his  youth  he 
showed  talent 
as  a  painter, 
and  crossed  to 
London,  where 
he  studied 
under  Ben- 
jamin West. 
Abandoning 
art  for  engi- 
ne e  r  i  n  g,  in 
1794  he  inven- 
tedvarious  im- 
provements for  the  canal  systems, 
and  two  years  later  went  to  Paris, 
where  he  turned  his  attention  to 


Robert  Fulton, 
American   engineer 

-After  Benjamin  West 


the  adaptation  of  the  steam  engine 
for  marine  purposes.  f ._;  An  ex- 
periment in  1803  answered  all  his 
hopes,  and  in  1807  he  constructed 
a  larger  vessel,  the  Clermont,  in 
New  York,  whither  he  had  re- 
turned the  previous  year.  This 
vessel  was  followed  by  the  steam 
frigate  Fulton,  in  1814.  He  died 
Feb.  24,  1815.  Though  not  the  in- 
ventor of  marine  engines,  Fulton 
was  the  first  to  apply  steam 
successfully  to  navigation.  See 
Robert  Fulton  and  Steam  Navi- 
gation, T.  W.  Knox,  1886. 

Fulvia.  Mistress  of  Curius,  one 
of  the  ringleaders  in  the  conspiracy 
of  Catiline  against  the  Roman  re- 
public in  63  B.C.  It  was  she  who 
divulged  the  plot  to  the  consul 
Cicero.  She  is  not  to  be  confused 
with  the  Fulvia  who  was  the  wife, 
first  of  Clodius,  and  later  of  Antony. 

Fulwood.  Urban  dist.  of  Lanca- 
shire, England.  It  has  a  station 
on  the  L.  &  Y.  Rly.,  and  bar- 
racks. It  is  within  the  parliamentary 
borough  of  Preston.  Pop.  6,578. 

Fumariaceae  (Lat.  fumus, 
smoke).  Natural  order  of  annual  or 
perennial  herbs.  They  are  natives 
of  temperate  and  warm  regions  of 
the  N.  hemisphere  ;  also  of  S. 
Africa.  They  have  tender  divided 
leaves  and  small  irregular  flowers 
in  sprays  ;  the  four  petals  forming 
two  unequal  pairs.  The  watery 
juice  is  acrid.  See  Fumitory. 

Fumaric  Acid.  Solid  dibasic 
acid  somewhat  widely  distributed 
throughout  the  vegetable  kingdom, 
notably  in  fumitory  (Fumaria  of- 
ficinalis),  Iceland  moss  (Lichen 
islandicus),  and  various  fungi.  It 
is  best  prepared  by  heating  malic 
acid  (q.v.)  at  150°  C.  in  a  current 
of  air  so  long  as  water  distils  over. 
The  residue  is  washed  with  a  little 
water  and  dried  at  100°C.  It  forms 
normal  and  acid  fumarates  with 
the  alkali  metals. 

Fuxnarole  (Lat.  fumariolum, 
smoke-hole).  Vapour-vent  in  vol- 
canic districts,  which  acts  as  a 
funnel  for  the  escape  of  gas.  Many 
are  formed  during  eruption  of  such 
volcanoes  as  Vesuvius  and  Etna. 
They  were  first  studied  by  R.  W. 
Bunsen  in  Iceland.  See  Volcano. 

Fumigation  (Lat.  fumigare,  to 
smoke).  Term  used  for  the  cleans- 
ing or  disinfecting  of  rooms,  cloth- 
ing, furniture,  etc.,  by  means  of 
certain  vapours.  Fumigation  may 
be  for  the  purpose  of  the  removal 
of  objectionable  odours  or  for  pre- 
vention of  contagious  diseases. 

In  gardening,  fumigation  is  the 
process  of  destroying  greenfly  and 
other  greenhouse  pests  by  means  of 
smoke.  Where  the  contents  of  a 
house  generally  are  affected  it  is 
usual  to  ignite  a  quantity  of  to- 
bacco paper,  or  other  proprietary 


FUMING 


3373 


FUNDS 


fumigating  preparations,  in  the  in- 
terior, and  leave  the  house  her- 
metically closed  for  about  an  hour. 
After  the  house  has  been  ventilated 
the  plants  should  be  removed,  and 
the  interior  of  the  house  washed 
with  carbolic  soap,  while  the  plants 
and  pots  should  be  thoroughly 
syringed  in  the  open  air  with  rain 
water  before  being  replaced.  A 
simple  method  of  fumigating  a  few 
plants  is  to  fill  a  pipe  with  strong 
tobacco,  set  it  well  alight,  place  a 
piece  of  muslin  over  the  bowl,  and 
blow  hard  through  the  stem  with 
the  bowl  of  the  pipe  close  to  the  in- 
fested plants.  The  cloud  of  smoke 
thus  produced  will  suffocate  the 
greenfly.  See  Disinfection;  Sani- 
tation. 

Fuming.  Property  possessed  by 
some  liquids  of  emitting  fumes  on 
exposure  to  air.  Fuming  sulphuric 
acid,  a  solution  of  sulphur  trioxide 
in  sulphuric  acid,  gives  off  dense 
white  fumes  when  air  is  admitted 
to  the  bottle  containing  the  acid. 
Libavius's  fuming  liquor  is  solu- 
tion of  tin  tetrachloride,  whilst 
Boyle's  fuming  liquor  contains 
ammonium  polysulphides. 

Fumitory  (Lat.  fumus  lerrae, 
earth-smoke).  Small  genus  (Fu- 
maria)  of  annual  or  perennial  herbs 
of  the  natural  order  Fumariaceae. 
Natives  of  Europe  and  Asia,  they 
hang  on  the  borders  of  cultivation. 
The  leaves  are  much  divided  into 
slender  segments,  and  the  small 
flowers  are  in  terminal  sprays. 
Common  fumitory  (F.  officinalis), 
the  best  known  species,  has  deli- 
cate, much-divided  leaves  and 
small  rosy-purple  flowers.  The 
name  is  variously  explained  as  diie 


Fumitory.     Flowers  and  foliage  of 
Fumaria  officinalis 

to  its  fancied  resemblance  to  smoke 
curling  upwards,  to  its  being  en- 
gendered from  a  coarse  vapour 
rising  from  the  earth,  and  to  the 
irritant  effect  of  the  plant's  juice  on 
the  eyes.  . 

FunabasTii.  Town  of  Japan,  on 
the  island  of  Honshiu.  It  stands  on 
the  Bay  of  Tokyo,  11  m.  E.  of  the 
city  of  Tokyo.  Pop.  12,500. 


Funchal.  Capital  of  Madeira,  an 
island  in  the  Atlantic,  belonging  to 
Portugal.  It  stands  on  Funchal 
Bay,  on  the  gentle  ascent  of  some 
hills  in  the  form  of  an  amphi- 
theatre, and  as  seen  from  the  sea 
is  very  beautiful,  with  its  houses 
of  dazzling  whiteness,  embosomed 
among  tropical  verdure.  The  prin- 
cipal residents  have  their  country 
houses  on  the  encircling  hills. 
Funchal  has  a  salubrious  climate, 
is  well  provided  with  water,  and  is 
a  popular  winter  health  resort.  It 
has  a  cathedral,  Anglican  and 
Presbyterian  churches,  hospitals, 
museum,  theatre,  casino,  meteoro- 
logical observatory,  wireless  tele- 
graphy station,  and  cable  commu- 
nication with  Lisbon,  Fal mouth, 
and  Pernambuco. 

The    streets,   which    are    steep 


when,  for  any  particular  value  of 
one,  there  is  a  corresponding  value 
or  set  of  values  of  the  other.  This 
may  be  made  clear  by  a  simple  ex- 
ample. If  a  train  travels  at  50 
miles  an  hour,  then  the  distance 
travelled  is  a  function  of  the  time, 
i.e.  in  six  hours  the  distance 
travelled  is  6  x  50  miles,  in  10  hours 
10x50  miles,  and  generally  in  n 
hours  50/i  miles. 

This  is  the  simplest  example  of 
a  function,  but  there  occur  many 
complicated  functions  in  mathe- 
matics, and  the  expression  relating 
one  with  another,  or  the  function 
with  its  argument,  as  it  is  called,  is 
generally  given  in  the  form  y=l(x), 
or  w=i  (x,  y,  z),  and  so  on. 

The  term  function  is  due  to 
Liebnitz  (1692),  who  divided  func- 
tions into  algebraic  and  transcen- 


Funchal,  Madeira.      View  of  the  town  and  harbour  from  the  north-east 


and  narrow,  are  electrically  lighted, 
and  have  no  wheeled  traffic,  ox- 
sleds  being  used.  There  is  a  large 
trade  in  wine  and  coal.  In  the 
roadstead  is  a  steep  black  rock 
crowned  by  a  castle.  Funchal  was 
bombarded  by  German  submarines 
on  Dec.  3,  1916,  and  Dec.  12,  1917. 
Pop.  24,687. 

Funck-Brentano,  TH&OPHILE 
(1830-1906).  French  author.  He 
was  born  in  Luxembourg,  and  after 
a  period  of  study  in  law  and  medi- 
cine became  professor  at  the  school 
of  political  science  in  Paris.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  number  of 
works  on  philosophical  subjects,  in- 
cluding La  Civilisation  et  ses  Lois, 
1876 ;  L'Homme  et  sa  destinee, 
1895  ;  and  Les  Sophistes  Fran9ais, 
1905.  His  son  Franz  (b.  1882)  was 
appointed  to  the  chair  of  compara- 
tive legislation  at  the  College  de 
France  in  1900,  has  lectured  in  the 
U.S.A.  and  Canada,  and  has  written 
several  volumes  on  the  romantic 
side  of  French  history,  among 
them  Legendes  et  Archives  de  la 
Bastille,  1898,  of  which  a  5th 
edition  was  issued  in  1902  ;  and  a 
book  on  the  Diamond  Necklace 
(q.v.)  mystery,  of  which  an  English 
translation  appeared  in  1911. 

Function  (Lat.  functio).  Term 
used  in  mathematics.  One  quantity 
i?  said  to  be  a  function  of  another 


dental,  the  former  being  those 
functions  which  may  be  expressed 
by  elementary  algebraic  opera- 
tions, the  latter  the  remainder.  See 
Algebra  ;  Mathematics  ;  consult 
also  Theory  of  Functions,  A.  R. 
Forsyth,  3rd  ed.  1918;  Theory  of 
Functions  of  Real  Variables,  E. 
W.  Hobson,  1907;  Applications 
of  Elliptic  Functions,  A.  G.  Green- 
hill,  1892. 

Functional  Disorders.  Path- 
ological conditions  in  which  the 
functions  of  muscles,  limbs,  or 
organs  are  disturbed  without  any 
apparent  organic  basis,  i.e.  no 
change  can  be  detected  in  the 
anatomical  structure  of  the  muscles 
or  nerves  affected.  See  Hysteria ; 
Neurasthenia. 

Funds  (Lat.  fundus,  bottom). 
Word  meaning  a  sum  of  money  or 
supply  of  credit.  A  fund  is  a  sum  set 
apart  for  some  special  purpose,  e.g. 
an  endowment  fund  or  a  building 
fund.  In  the  plural  the  word 
has  the  special  meaning  of  govern- 
ment securities,  consols,  et<?  -A 
fundholder  is  one  who  possesses 
such,  and  to  fund  part  of  the  na- 
tional debt  is  to  turn  it  from  a  tem- 
porary into  a  permanent  security, 
i.e.  to  turn  treasury  bills  into 
consols  or  war  loan,  which  is  then 
known  as  the  funded  debt.  See 
National  Debt. 


FUNDY 


3374 


FUNGOID   PESTS 


Fundy,  BAY  OF.  Extension  of 
the  N.  Atlantic  Ocean,  dividing 
Nova  Scotia  from  New  Brunswick. 
It  terminates  in  two  branches,  the 
northern  section  being  known  as 
the  Chignecto  Channel,  and  the 
southern  as  Minas  Channel,  which 
leads  to  Cobequid  Bay.  From 
Grand  Manan  Island,  which  stands 
at  the  entrance  of  the  bay,  to  Cape 
Chignecto,  its  length  is  about  100 
m.,  and  its  mean  breadth  35  m. 
Several  rivers  drain  into  the  bay, 
the  chief  of  which  are  the  St.  John 
and  the  St.  Croix. 

Except  for  the  fogs  which  drift 
into  the  bay  in  summer  from  the 
Gulf  Stream,  the  bay  is  easily  navig- 
able, the  coasts  are  rocky,  and  the 
ceaseless  tidal  scour  prevents  the 
accumulation  of  sandbanks;  the 
tides  themselves  are  swift  but  regu- 
lar. Spring  tides  are  high;  they 
range  from  27  ft.  at  St.  John  to 
50  ft.  in  Minas  Channel ;  wherever  a 
river  estuary  is  narrow  the  tide 
makes  a  bore,  usually  from  4  ft.  to 
6  ft.  high. 

Funen  OB  FYEN.  Island  of  the 
Baltic  Sea,  forming  part  of  Den- 
mark. It  lies  between  Jutland  and 
Zealand,  ranking  next  to  the 
latter  in  size,  and  is  separated  from 
Slesvig  by  the  Little  Belt,  and 
bounded  E.  by  the  Great  Belt. 
Length,  52  m.  by  42  wide  ;  area, 
1,133  sq.  m.  Mostly  flat,  and 
much  indented,  it  rises  in  the  S.  W. 
to  some  400  ft.  Well  watered  by 
the  Odense  and  other  streams,  it 
is  very  fertile,  producing  fruits, 
cereals,  flax,  hemp,  timber,  cattle, 
and  horses.  The  chief  towns  are 
Odense  (q-v.),  the  capital,  Svend- 
borg,  and  Nyborg.  Pop.  252,288. 

Funeral  (low  Lat.  funeralia, 
things  belonging  to  a  funeral). 
Comprehensive  term,  at  one  time 
written  in  the  plural,  for  the  cere- 
monies, etc.,  attending  the  con- 
veyance of  a  dead  person  to  grave 
or  tomb.  The  term  obsequies, 
often  used  in  the  same  connexion, 
has  not  quite  the  same  meaning: 
funeral  means  a  mournful  cere- 
mony, especially  the  processional 
part  of  it ;  obsequies,  a  respectful 
valediction.  See  Burial  Customs. 

Funeral  Rites.  Ceremonial  ob- 
servances attending  the  actual  dis- 
posal of  the  dead.  The  time  inter- 
vening between  death  and  the 
funeral  rite  may  be  a  few  hours, 
several  months,  or — as  with  emi- 
nent Burmese  monks — more  than 
a  year.  Interment  often  occurs 
at  night,  as  in  ancient  Greece  and 
Rome,  to  avoid  polluting  the 
sunlight,  or  at  sunset,  to  prevent 
the  ghost  from  capturing  living 
shadows.  Basuto  graves,  dug  after 
dark,  are  filled  in  before  dawn 
awakens  the  children  Salutation 
of  the  corpse  occurs  in  E.  Europe  ; 


in  Hungary,  kissing  of  the  right 
hand  accompanies  appeals  for  for- 
giveness. In  modern  Britain,  the 
dead  are  sometimes  touched  to  pre- 
vent future  haunting; 

The  place  of  sepulture  may  be 
indicated  by  omen  ;  the  Laos  carry 
the  dead  into  the  jungle,  and  halt 
when  sensible  of  increased  weight. 
Bodies  may  be  carried  through 
smoke-holes  or  apertures  in  the 
house  walls.  Carrying  out  feet 
foremost  ranges  from  Torres  Strait 
to  modern  Europe.  Chams  turn  the 
bier  about  and  bear  it  along  zigzag 
paths  to  circumvent  the  ghost  and 
impede  its  return.  Borneo  I  ban 
obliterate  the  bearers'  footprints; 


"»uT"iyt^ 

•C-Scuble 

NORTH  ATLANTIC  OCEA& 


Bay  of  Fundy.     Map  of  inlet  of  the 

Atlantic  between  New    Brunswick 

and  Nova  Scotia 

in  the  Congo  basin  thorns  are 
strewn  after  the  procession.  Cross- 
ing water  is  symbolised  among  the 
Koryak  by  lines  across  the  path, 
leaped  by  returning  mourners. 
Attendants  in  Arctic  lands  pace 
thrice  round  the  body,  and  in  the 
Hebrides  thrice  round  the  church, 
to  protect  the  living  from  the  dead. 

The  last  pilgrimage  is  facilitated 
by  various  observances.  The  face 
may  bs  turned  towards  sunrise, 
sunset,  Mecca,  or  the  tribal  cradle- 
land.  Coins  are  provided  for  the 
ferryman,  honey-cakes  for  Cer- 
berus, passports  for  the  janitor. 
Immolation  of  relatives  and  slave - 
sacrifice,  unknown  in  the  earliest 
culture,  formerly  rife  in  some  bar- 
baric societies,  and  still  extant, 
survives  symbolically  in  the  paper 
effigies  of  attendants  burned  at 
Chinese  graves.  Many  tribes  in 
S.E.  Asia  offer  funeral  honours  to 
symbolic  images,  a  practice  ob- 
served also  in  Brittany  and  Italy. 

Measures  are  taken  to  avoid 
pollution,  as  when  Yakut  inter  the 
mortuary  shovels,  Warundi  the 
earth  baskets.  Baganda  mourners 
cleanse  their  hands  with  plantain 
leaves ;  some  Australian  aborig- 
ines fumigate  themselves;  Fanti 
mourners  wash  in  the  sea.  The 
Semitic  use  of  burned  spices  passed 
into  early  Christianity.  Fear  of  the 
ghost's  return,  which  dictates  the 


Eskimo  custom  of  waving  torches 
behind  the  corpse,  accounts  in  part 
for  the  medieval  use  of  bells  and 
candles.  Corpses  may  be  mutilated, 
or  fires  maintained  on  graves.  In 
some  instances  ghosts  are  deemed 
to  haunt  their  former  homes  until 
flesh  decays.  The  bones  are  then 
disinterred  for  a  final  funeral  rite, 
which  among  the  Hurons  occurred 
every  twelve  years,  with  solemn 
tribal  feasts. 

Funeral  feasts  are  traceable  to 
neolithic  Europe.  The  Gilbert 
Islands  feast  during  three  days  pre- 
ceding the  funeral  is  comparable 
with  the  Irish  wake.  Feasting 
continues  for  several  months  in 
Madagascar,  and  for  a  year  in  Pata- 
gonia. Primitive  cannibalism  is 
perpetuated  in  the  Cocoma  prac- 
tice of  mixing  pulverised  bones 
in  ritual  cups,  and  symbolically 
in  corpse-cakes,  arval  bread, 
and  other  special  viands  provided 
at  ritual  meals.  These,  some- 
times indicating  communion,  are 
largely  displaced  by  food  and 
money  doles.  Danoes,  designed  as 
magical  rites  to  placate  or  scare  the 
ghost,  or  to  stamp  down  the  grave, 
are  associated  with  public  spec- 
tacles, as  in  ancient  Greece  and 
Rome,  or  with  games,  such  as  the 
blindman's-buff  formerly  played 
in  S.  Ireland,  or  the  Sioux  dicing 
for  the  effects  of  the  deceased 
person.  See  Burial,  Death,  and 
Mourning  Customs. 

Fiinfkirchen  (Ger.,  five  chur- 
ches), PECS,  OK  PET-KOSTELY.  Free 
town  in  the  county  of  Baranya, 
Hungary,  105  m.  S.W.  of  Budapest. 
It  lies  in  a  deep  hollow,  and  is  re- 
gularly and  spaciously  built,  the 
four  principal  streets  being  orien- 
tated to  the  four  points  of  the  com- 
pass, and  stretching  in  each  direc- 
tion to  the  gates  of  the  town.  Its 
public  buildings  include  a  fine 
Gothic  cathedral,  a  bishop's  palace, 
several  churches,  and  a  convent  of 
Ursulines.  Its  manufactures  are 
woollens,  leather  goods,  and  to- 
bacco pipes.  Pop.  29,000. 

Fung-hwang.  Fabled  bird  of 
Chinese  mythology.  Generally  de- 
scribed as  a  kind  of  phoenix,  a 
fantastic  representation  of  it  is 
frequently  found  in  the  decorations 
of  Chinese  embroideries  and  porce- 
lain. Its  appearance  was  supposed 
to  be  a  good  omen.  The  word  is 
sometimes  rendered  Fum,  and  is 
thus  given  in  Thomas  Moore's 
satiric  verses,  Fum  and  Hum. 

Fungoid  Pests.  Parasitic 
growths  that  devastate  crops.  All 
parts  of  crops  are  liable  to  be  at- 
tacked by  some  of  the  low  forms  of 
plant  life  known  collectively  as 
fungi,  which  include  mildews, 
moulds,  rusts,  and  many  others. 
A  notable  example  was  the  famine 


FUNGUS 


3375 


FUNGUS 


in  Ireland  in  1845,  due  to  the 
prevalence  of  potato  disease,  which 
had  much  to  do  with  the  repeal  of 
the  Corn  Laws  in  1846. 

In  combating  fungoid  pests, 
much  can  be  done  by  sound  pre- 
ventive measures,  of  which  by  far 
the  most  effective  is  what  may  be 
called  good  farming,  that  aims  at 
producing  healthy,  vigorous  crops, 
since  weakly  plants  are  most  liable 
to  be  attacked.  It  is  particularly 
desirable,  by  judicious  manuring, 
to  carry  a  crop  as  quickly  as  pos- 
sible through  its  critical  early 
stage,  since  tender  seedlings  are  ill 
adapted  to  withstand  these  pests. 
Weeds  often  harbour  destructive 
fungi  and  insects,  and  should, 
therefore,  be  kept  down  as  far  as 
possible,  special  attention  being 
devoted  to  headlands,  hedges,  and 
ditches.  The  danger  of  infection 
is  much  increased  by  growing  a 
crop  continuously  on  the  same 
piece  of  land,  and  this  is  one  reason 
why  proper  rotation  of  crops  is  a 
sound  policy.  The  remains  of  a 
diseased  crop  should  be  burnt,  as 
these  harbour  spores  in  the  resting 
stage,  and  serious  losses  have  often 
resulted  from  the  presence  of  in- 
fected straw  in  dung  used  as  a 
manurial  dressing. 

If  fungoid  pests  .should  appear 
in  spite  of  all  precautions,  they 
can  be  dealt  with  more  or  less 
successfully  by  the  application  of 
fungicides,  i.e.  substances  or  mix- 
tures that  either  kill  or  check  the 
action  of  fungi.  A  cereal  crop  may 
become  diseased  by  the  use  of  in- 
fected seed  corn,  e.g.  the  spores  of 
barley  smut  adhere  to  the  husk 
and  attack  the  .seedlings  when  the 
grains  sprout.  In  such  a  case  the 
clinging  spores  may  be  destroyed 
by  treatment  with  hot  water  (130° 
to  135°  F.)  for  5  minutes,  the  grain 
having  been  previously  soaked  in 
water  for  4  hrs.  Pickling  in  forma- 
lin (1  pint  to  36  galls,  water  per 
40  to  50  bushels)  for  2  hrs.,  or  in  a 
solution  of  copper  sulphate  or 
bluestone  (1  Ib.  to  1  gall,  water  per 
4  bushels)  for  8  to  12  hrs.,  has  also 
been  found  effective,  the  pickled 
grain  being  dried  before  sowing. 

When  the  crop  itself  is  diseased 
it  is  usual  to  apply  various  fungi- 
cide solutions  in  the  form  of  a  spray. 
This  method  is  largely  resorted 
to  in  fruit  culture.  One  of  the 
most  esteemed  spray  fluids  is 
Bordeaux  mixture.  Fungicide 
powders  have  also  found  success- 
ful employment.  See  Black  Scab ; 
Bunt ,  Ergot  ;  Mildew  ;  Potato  ; 
Rust ;  Smut ;  Spraying. 

Fungus.  Enormous  class  of 
cellular  cryptogams  or  flowerless 
plants.  They  are  characterised 
by  a  total  absence  of  chlorophyll 
and  starch.  They  have  no  real 


Fungus.  1.  Inky  mushroom,  Coprinus  atramentarius.  2.  Jew's  ear  fungus, 
Hirneola  auricula-judae.  3.  Lawyer's  wig  mushroom,  Coprinus  comatus. 
4.  Puff  ball,  Lycoperdon  perlatum.  5.  Ivory  cap,  Hygrophorus  virgineus. 
6.  Oyster  mushroom,  Pleurotus  euosmus.  7.  Orange  Elf  cap,  Otidea  aurantia. 
8.  Amethyst  mushroom,  Laccaria  laccatus 


roots,  but  the  creeping  threads 
(mycele)  which  constitute  the  fun- 
gus proper  serve  the  same  purpose. 
For  lack  of  chlorophyll  they  are 
unable  to  decompose  the  carbonic 
acid  of  the  atmosphere,  and  there- 
fore have  to  obtain  organized 
carbon  from  decaying  or  living 
vegetable  or  animal  matter. 
Those  that  attack  living  matter 
are  known  as  parasitic  fungi ; 
those  that  are  content  with  decay- 
ing material  are  saprophytes. 

The  forms  of  fungi  are  multi- 
tudinous, varying  from  the  hard 
or  corky  brackets  that  advertise 
their  attacks  on  trees,  through  the 
mushrooms,  toadstools,  and  puff- 
balls  of  the  woods  and  fields,  to 
the  minute  leaf-moulds,  rusts, 
smuts,  and  mildews,  and  to  the  bac- 
teria. They  are  all  produced  by 
spores,  but  in  some  families  there 
is  a  sexual  process  before  spore 
production. 

POISONING  BY  FUNGI.  The 
common  mushroom,  Agaricus  cam- 
pestris,  sometimes  causes  symp- 
toms of  poisoning  if  eaten  when 


not  fresh.  The  tissues  contain  a 
certain  amount  of  fat  and  albu- 
men, decomposition  of  which 
probably  gives  rise  to  the  forma- 
tion of  ptomaines.  The  more  im- 
portant poisonous  toadstools  are 
the  following  : 

Amanita  phalloides  bears  a  con- 
siderable resemblance  to  the  mush- 
room, for  which  it  has  frequently 
been  mistaken.  It  may  be  distin- 
guished by  the  hollow  stem  in- 
serted into  a  bulb  at  the  base,  and 
the  white  gills  or  fine  laminae  on 
the  under  surface  of  the  top,  those 
of  the  mushroom  being  pink  or 
purplish-black.  It  contains  a 
poisonous  principle  termed  phal- 
h'n.  Amanita  muscaria,  the  fly 
fungus,  has  a  bright  red  top 
studded  with  white  raised  spots, 
and  contains  a  poisonous  alkaloid, 
muscarine.  Eussula  Integra  has  a 
smooth  red  top  and  thick  fragile 
trills,  and  contains  muscarine. 
The  suspected  Bolettis  luridus  has 
a  thick  fleshy  cap  on  whose  lower 
surface  a  series  of  tubes  with 
red  openings  are  exposed.  The 


FUNIS 

broken  fleshy  tissue  quickly  turns 
blue  when  exposed  to  air. 

The  symptoms  of  poisoning 
appear  six  or  eight  hours  after  the 
fungus  has  been  eaten.  They  are 
not  uniform  in  character.  In 
some  cases  there  is  marked  gastro- 
intestinal irritation  with  vomiting, 
colicky  pain  in  the  abdomen,  and 
diarrhoea.  In  others,  nervous 
symptoms  are  more  prominent, 
such  as  headache,  giddiness,  de- 
lirium, muscular  twitchings  or 
convulsions,  and  coma.  These 
may  be  followed  by  signs  of  gastro- 
intestinal irritation.  Death  may 
occur  in  a  few  hours,  or  may  be 
delayed  for  two  or  three  days. 
Treatment  consists  in  giving  an 
emetic,  though,  as  much  of  the 
fungus  may  have  passed  into  the 
bowel  before  the  symptoms  appear, 
this  may  not  be  of  much  avail.  A 
dose  of  castor  oil  should  be  given 
to  clear  the  bowels.  Atropine  is 
recommended  as  an  antidote  to 
muscarine,  and  digitalis  may  be 
useful.  Persistent  diarrhoea  may 
be  checked  by  the  administration 
of  opium.  See  Mycology. 

Funis  (Lat. ).  Cord  consisting 
of  blood-vessels  which  unites  the 
infant  in  the  womb  with  the 
placenta.  See  Umbilical  Cord. 


3376 

Funny  Bone.  Popular  term  for 
the  groove  between  the  olecranon 
process  of  the  ulna  and  the  internal 
condyle  of  the  humerus  on  the  inner 
side  of  the  elbow.  The  ulnar  nerve 
passes  along  this  groove,  and  a  blow 
on  the  nerve  at  this  point  produces 
the  familiar  sensation  of  "  pins 
and  needles."  See  Elbow. 

Funs  ton ,  FREDERICK  (1865- 
1917).  American  soldier.  He  was 
born  at  New  Carlisle,  Ohio.  After 
working  as  a  rly.  employee,  re- 
porter, etc.,  in  1896  he  joined  the 
insurgents  in  Cuba  under  Garcia. 
In  the  Spanish  War  he  served  as 
colonel  of  volunteers  in  the  Philip- 
pines, where  in  1901  he  captured 
the  insurgent  leader  Aguinaldo. 
He  became  regular  brigadier- 
general,  1901,  and  major-general, 
1915.  He  led  the  expedition  to 
Vera  Cruz  in  1914,  and  was  mili- 
tary governor  of  that  city  during 
the  American  occupation.  In 
March,  1916,  he  was  in  general 
command  of  the  U.S.  forces  on  the 
Mexican  border,  and  had  charge  of 
the  operations  against  Gen.  Villa. 
After  the  earthquake  at  San  Fran- 
cisco in  1906,  Funston  was  con- 
spicuous in  the  organization  and 
rehabitation  of  the  city.  He  died 
at  San  Antonio,Texas,Feb.  19,1917. 


FUR:   ITS   SOURCES  AND  TREATMENT 

John  C.  Sachs,  Fur  Trade  Expert 

This  is  a  sketch  of  the  history  of  the  wearing  of  furs,  and  the  way 
they  are  prepared  for  the  market.   See  the  articles  on  the  various  fur- 
bearing  animals  :  Fox ;  Marten,  etc.  ;  also  Costume 


Fur  (old  Fr.  forre,  sheath)  may 
be  defined  as  the  skin  of  certain 
mammals  which,  after  preparation, 
is  worn  by  men  and  women  for 
warmth.  The  Tabernacle  of  the 
Israelites  had  an  outer  covering  of 
badgers'  skins  (Exod.  xxvi,  14)  and 
an  inner  one  of  rams'  skins  dyed 
red  (Exod.  xxxv,  7).  The  Chinese 
claim  to  have  employed  furs  for 
some  3,000  years,  but  their  methods 
of  preparing  the  skins  have  stood 
still  for  centuries,  and  the  same  re- 
mark applies  to  other  Asiatic  coun- 
tries. The  Assyrians,  Greeks,  and 
Romans  all  made  lavish  use  of  furs. 
The  practice  is  mentioned  by  Hero- 
dotus, and  Hercules,  we  are  told, 
used  the  skin  of  the  Nemean  lion 
as  a  garment. 

The  Romans  learnt  the  orna- 
mental use  of  furs  from  the  Greeks, 
who  owed  their  knowledge  of  them 
to  their  campaigns  in  Asia  Minor 
and  elsewhere  against  the  Medes 
and  Persians.  The  legend  of  Jason 
and  the  Golden  Fleece  was  proba- 
bly the  allegorical  description  of 
the  voyage  of  a  Greek  fur  trader 
who  sailed  into  the  Black  Sea  and 
collected  large  stacks  of  valuable 
furs  from  what  are  now  southern 
Russia  and  Armenia.  Skins  were 


worn    by    the    ancient    Britons, 
Saxons,  Danes,  and  Norsemen,  but 
women  made  comparatively  little 
use  of  furs  until  the  Middle  Ages. 
Ceremonial  Fur  Wearing 

With  the  march  of  civilization, 
the  number  and  variety  of  fur- 
bearing  animals  slaughtered  for 
their  skins  greatly  increased,  and 
many  edicts  were  promulgated 
forbidding  the  use  of  various  fine 
furs  by  the  commoners.  Thus  the 
wearing  of  ermine  early  became  a 
badge  of  nobility,  and  miniver,  or 
ermine  powdered  with  black  spots, 
was  regal  wear,  and  to  this  day 
figures  in  the  coronation  robes  of 
kings.  Men  wore  heavily  furred 
garments  during  the  York  and  Lan- 
caster period,  and  both  sexes  dis- 
played furs  freely  in  the  time  of  the 
Tudor  sovereigns.  Henry  VIII  is 
portrayed  almost  swathed  in  furs. 

Furs  fell  into  disuse  in  Britain 
during  the  Stuart  period,  but  a 
most  important  event  with  regard 
to  the  trade  happened  after  the 
Restoration,  when  Prince  Rupert 
founded  a  company  to  trade  for  furs 
in  Hudson  Bay,  1670.  From  this 
really  dates  the  commencement  of 
the  British  fur  trade.  It  did  not 
start  under  the  happiest  auspices  ; 


FUR 

the  first  company  was  a  failure ; 
the  wearing  of  furs  was  objected  to 
by  the  Puritans  as  savouring  of 
vanity,  and  the  elegant  dress  of 
the  cavalier,  although  eminently 
suitable  for  the  display  of  ribbon, 
velvet,  and  lace,  was  not  adaptable 
to  the  employment  of  the  furriers' 
art.  Up  to  this  period,  and  indeed 
long  afterwards,  the  chief  fur  mar- 
kets of  the  world  were  on  the  Euro- 
pean continent.  Constantinople — 
for  over  1,000  years — Nijni  Nov- 
gorod, Venice,  and  Genoa  may  be 
mentioned,  and  smaller  markets 
were  held  at  Nuremberg  andLeipzig. 

Furs  were  but  little  worn  in 
England  or  France  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  18th  century, 
but  there  was  a  gorgeous  display  of 
them  at  the  coronation  of  Napoleon, 
and  in  the  old  caricatures  of  Row- 
landson  may  be  seen  those  enor- 
mous muffs  that,  in  the  ever  re- 
volving wheel  of  fashion,  were 
reproduced  in  the  20th  century. 
Queen  Victoria's  coronation  robes 
were  trimmed  with  ermine,  and 
Dickens's  Arabella  Allen  wore 
boots  with  "  fur  round  the  tops." 
Canadian  and  Siberian  Furs 

The  two  great  fur-producing 
countries  of  the  world  are  Canada 
and  Siberia.  The  colder  the  coun- 
try the  better  the  fur,  hence  the 
covering  of  the  animals  produced 
in  the  high  latitudes  of  Canada  and 
Russia  is  particularly  thick  and 
warm.  From  Canada  and  Siberia 
come,  among  others,  the  sable 
and  American  marten,  mink, 
ermine,  fisher,  red  and  silver  fox, 
lynx,  wolf,  beaver,  musquash,  otter, 
bear,  squirrel,  wolverine,  elk,  and 
musk  ox  ;  while  within  the  Arctic 
circle  are  found  the  polar  bear, 
white  fox,  seal,  and  hair  seal. 
Skunk,  raccoon,  and  opossum  come 
largely  from  the  U.S.A.  Australia 
produces  opossum,  wallaby,  and 
vast  quantities  of  rabbit ;  the  beau- 
tiful chinchilla  comes  from  Peru 
and  Argentina;  and  Armenia  gives 
its  name  to  the  ermine,  though  its 
habitat  is  farther  north.  Astrakans, 
slinks,  caracul,  tigers,  sheep,  goats, 
and  bears  are  natives  of  Central  Asia* 

The  transfer  of  these  skins  from 
the  wilds  to  the  ultimate  wearers 
necessitates  an  immense  organiza- 
tion. The  great  fur  companies  have 
their  main  depots  around  Hudson 
Bay,  which  is  closed  to  navigation 
by  ice  for  over  nine  months  every 
year  :  hence  a  vast  amount  of  work 
has  to  be  done  during  the  short 
time  that  the  bay  is  open.  The 
modus  operandi  is  briefly  as  follows. 
As  soon  as  the  ice  breaks  up  the 
steamers  make  for  the  depots,  and 
on  arrival  discharge  their  cargoes, 
consisting  of  food,  clothing,  rifles, 
ammunition,  axes,  etc.  The  empty 
holds  are  at  once  refilled  with  furs 


FURETIERE 


FURLOUGH 


which  have  been  brought  from  the 
base  posts  to  the  depots  to  await 
the  arrival  of  the  ships. 

Smaller  steamers  convey  the 
stores  to  the  base  posts,  which  in 
their  turn  make  use  of  sailing  barges 
or  scows  as  a  means  of  communica- 
tion with  the  ordinary  posts.  These 
get  in  touch  with  the  outposts  or 
flying  posts  by  canoe  or  sledge,  and 
the  flying  posts  are  open  at  agreed 
times  during  the  year,  to  receive 
visits  from  the  hunters  and  trap- 
pers, obtain  their  catches,  and  fur- 
nish them  with  necessities. 

European  agents  are  located  at 
base  posts — where  are  collected 
provisions  for  the  ordinary  posts, 
as  well  as  their  accounts  and  their 
collections  of  skins — and  these  offi- 
cials have  under  tb«dr  orders  ran- 
gers, who  are  fast  dying  out,  half- 
breeds,  Indians,  and  Eskimos. 
Indians  obtain  skins  up  to  about 
55°  N.  latitude — the  far  northern 
regions  are  worked  by  Eskimos. 
As  the  skins  of  the  fur-bearing 
animals  are  at  their  best  in  winter, 
it  is  then  that  the  trapper  sets  out 
on  his  journey,  running  into  hun- 
dreds of  miles.  Equipped  with  a 
sled,  sleeping-bag,  flour,  bacon, 
pemmican,  matches,  rifle  and  am- 
munition, knife  and  traps,  he 
leaves  the  frontiers  of  civilization, 
and  may  not  see  another  human 
being  for  months.  At  each  halt  he 
lays  his  traps — a  process  which 
may  take  him  days — visits  and 
takes  them  up  after  a  suitable  in- 
terval, skins  the  animals,  packs  the 
skins  on  his  sled  and  moves  on.  He 
plans  his  journey  so  that  he  may 
arrive  at  an  outpost  when  his  food 
supply  is  getting  low.  The  cold  in 
these  regions  is  intense — 100°  of 
frost  being  often  registered. 
Tbe  London  Market 

London,  although  its  supremacy 
has  been  recently  challenged  by  St. 
Louis,  U.S.A.,  is  still  the  premier 
fur  market  of  the  world,  and  to 
London  the  bulk  of  the  raw  skins 
is  consigned.  They  are  lotted  and 
sold  at  College  Hill  sale  rooms  to 
buyers  from  all  over  the  world,  in 
Jan.,  March,  and  Oct. 

Experts  sort  and  value  the  skins, 
which  are  then  fleshed,  i.e.  cleaned 
of  fat,  etc.,  by  round  revolving 
knives.  Next  they  are  placed  in  a 
bed  of  grease,  oil,  yolk  of  egg, 
butter  or  some  greasy  substance, 
and  subsequently  pounded  in  a 
treading  vat,  which  causes  the 
grease  to  enter  the  pores  of  the 
leather.  After  this,  hot  sawdust  of 
beech  or  mahogany  is  rubbed  in, 
with  the  resultant  effect  of  drying 
the  grease.  -Machines  are  then 
utilised  to  unhair  certain  skins,  i.e. 
take  away  the  long  coarse  hairs, 
leaving  only  the  soft  and  silky 
down.  .  Thereafter  such  as  are 


intended  for  dyeing  are  immersed 
in  dyeing  vats.  Finally  skilled 
craftsmen  deal  with  the  skins, 
which,  when  manufactured  into 
garments,  become  furs. 

Of  these  craftsmen,  the  first  and 
most  important  is  the  assorter,  a 
highly  trained  specialist.  His  task 
is  to  select  such  skins  as  will  work 
up  together.  Colour,  length  of  hair, 
quality,  texture,  grounding,  leather, 
and  cost — all  must  be  considered, 
and  to  get  a  perfect  match  he  fre- 
quently rejects  hundreds  of  skins. 
The  selected  skins  are  sent  to  the 
cutter,  with  whom  work  one  or 
more  nailers,  men  who  with  knives 
and  nails  skilfully  work  the  skins  to 
the  pattern  accompanying  the 
order.  Sewers,  using  a  variety  of 
machines,  and  subsequently  liners 
and  finishers  are  employed,  and  de- 
signing goes  on  incessantly.  Moth, 
the  great  enemy,  is  kept  under  by 
beating  the  furs  with  a  light  cane, 
or  by  cold  storage,  which  is  the 
more  effectual. 

London  Fur  Sales 

To  combat  the  gradual  disap- 
pearance of  many  fur-bearing 
animals,  amongst  which  may  be 
mentioned  the  sable,  seal,  chin- 
chilla, beaver,  and  silver  fox,  nu- 
merotis  animal  farms  have  been 
established  with  a  very  fair  amount 
of  success.  The  following  quantities 
of  skins  were  offered  at  the  London 
fur  sales  held  Oct.,  1920. 


Mole 

American  Opossum 

Musquash 

Skunk     . . 

White  Hare 

White  Babbit 

Wallaby 

Squirrel  . . 

Grey  Goat 

Red  Fox 

Australian  Opossum 

Ermine   .. 

Tibet 

Mink 

Beaver    . . 

American  Marten . . 

Seal 

Russian  Sable 
Silver  Fox     . . 


Skins 

1,247,393 

864,429 

800,841 

627,824 

433,676 

302,171 

263,356 

229,972 

168,251 

144,050 

129,177 

126,811 

91,632 

23,644 

22,158 

13,983 

3,241 

1,625 

943 


Furetiere,  ANTOINE  (1619-88). 
French  writer  and  satirist.  Born 
at  Paris,  Dec.  28,  1619,  he  entered 
the  Church,  becoming  abbe  of 
Chalivoy  and  prior  of  Chuines.  He 
wrote  a  number  of  satirical  poems, 
a  versified  set  of  Gospel  parables,  a 
book  of  fables,  1673,  and  is  chiefly 
remembered  for  his  humorous 
story,  Le  Roman  Bourgeois,  1666, 
written  to  cast  ridicule  on  the 
romances  of  aristocratic  gallantry 
then  in  vogue.  He  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  French  Academy  in 
1662,  but  was  expelled  in  1685  for 
preparing  a  dictionary,  a  work 
which  the  academy  regarded  as  its 
exclusive  privilege.  He  died  May 
14,  1688,  his  dictionary  being 
published  in  1690. 


Furfurane  OR  FTJBANE.  Com- 
pound produced  by  distilling  bar- 
ium pyromucate  with  soda-lime. 
It  is  also  known  as  tetrol,  tetraphe- 
nol,  and  tetrane.  It  is  contained 
among  the  distillation  products  of 
pinewood  tar.  By  the  action  of 
acids  furfurane  is  converted  into 
pyrrol -red. 

Furies  (Lat.  Furiae).  In  clas- 
sical mythology,  the  name  under 
which  the  Romans  knew  the 
Eumenides  (q.v.). 

Furka.  Mt.  road  of  Switzer- 
land, in  the  Valaisian  Alps.  It  runs 
between  the  upper  Rhone  valley 
and  that  of  the  Reussau,  leading 
past  the  Rhone  glacier  to  Ander- 
matt,  in  canton  Uri.  Its  maxi- 
mum height  is  7,991  ft. 

Furlong  (O.E.  furlang,  furrow- 
long).  British  measure  of  length, 
one-eighth  of  a  mile,  or  220  yds. 
The  name  is  derived  from  the  old 
English  furrow  length.  A  square, 
each  side  of  which  was  a  furrow 
220  yds.  long,  contained  10  acres. 
See  Acre. 

Furlo  Pass  (anc.  Intercisa  or 
Petra  Pertusa).  Tunnel  through  the 
Apennines  in  Perugia.  It  is  on  the 
road  from  Rome  to  Ariminum,  the 
ancient  Via  Flaminia.  It  is  about 
40  yds.  long,  14  ft.  high,  and  17  ft. 
wide,  and,  according  to  an  inscrip- 
tion cut  in  the  rock,  was  made  by 
the  orders  of  the  emperor  Vespasian 
in  A.D.  77. 

Furlough  (Dutch  ver  lof,  for 
leave,  or  oorlof,  permission,  sanc- 
tion). Army  term  designating  the 
absence  from  duty  of  N.C.O.'s  and 
men,  for  periods  in  excess  of  six 
days,  with  the  permission  of  the 
commanding  officer.  The  term  was 
also  formerly  applied  to  officers' 
leave,  but  now  only  in  the  Indian 
army,  and  it  is  occasionally  em- 
ployed in  the  same  sense  in  civilian 
and  official  life. 

Furlough  is  granted  at  the  dis- 
cretion of  the  commanding  officer, 
and  in  normal  times  it  is  usual  for 
approximately  a  quarter  of  the 
strength  of  regiments  to  be  on  fur- 
lough on  full  pay  from  Oct.  1  to 
Feb.  1,  each  man  usually  being 
granted  a  month  at  a  time,  but 
possibly  longer  if  he  resides  a  long 
distance  from  the  station.  A 
soldier  is  usually  granted  two 
months'  furlough  prior  to  discharge, 
so  that  he  may  secure  employment 
while  still  in  receipt  of  army  pay. 
A  soldier  on  furlough  is  not  per- 
mitted to  leave  the  United  King- 
dom, and  his  pass  may  be  endorsed 
with  the  permission  to  wear  civilian 
clothes.  During  the  Great  War  an 
innovation  was  made  in  active 
service  conditions  by  granting 
furlough  to  men  in  the  line,  as 
regiilarly  as  the  exigencies  of  the 
campaign  permitted. 

IX    4 


FURNACE 


3378 


FURNACE 


Furnace  (Lat.  fornax,  a  furnace). 
Term  applied  to  structures  in  which 
heat  is  developed  or  utilised,  in- 
cluding those  used  for  steam 
raising  and  certain  chemical  opera- 
tions. Its  most  general  and  im- 
portant application,  however,  is  to 
the  structures  used  for  the  extrac- 
tion of  metals  from  their  ores,  or  for 
the  refining  or  working  of  metals. 
Some  reference  to  the  earliest  forms 
of  furnaces  will  be  found  under  the 
heading  Metallurgy.  Modern  fur- 
naces may  conveniently  be  divided 
into  five  types,  each  of  which  again 
may  be  sub-divided  into  classes  ; 
while  one  type  will  here  and  there 
shade  off  into  another. 

Hearths,  the  first  type,  are  very 
largely  used  for  the  preliminary 
metallurgical  operation  of  roasting 
ores  to  drive  off  sulphur,  arsenic,  or 
other  volatile  elements.  Such 
roasting  hearths  are  the  simplest 
forms  of  furnace,  consisting,  in 
some  cases,  of  nothing  more  than  a 
prepared  piece  of  ground  on  which 
the  ore  is  stacked  in  a  pile  or  heap  ; 
more  advanced  forms  are  seen  in 
the  stall,  pit,  and  kiln,  and  in  the 
hearth  used  for  the  liquation  of 
argentiferous  copper.  All  these  are 
worked  by  natural  draught.  In 
the  common  blacksmith's  hearth 
and  the  iron  refinery,  we  have  a  type 
of  hearth  worked  by  forced  draught. 

The  second  type  of  furnace  is  the 
shaft,  worked  by  natural  or  forced 
draught.  Some  are  in  height  less, 
or  little  more,  than  in  breadth,  and 
in  others  the  height  considerably 
exceeds  the  breadth  or  diameter. 
In  the  former  case  we  have  the 
iron  ore  calciner,  and  various  kilns, 
and  in  the  latter  the  blast  furnace, 
the  cupola  and  special  modifica- 
tions of  the  blast  furnace,  such  as 
the  Pilz  and  the  Raschette. 
The  Reverberatory  Furnace 

The  third  type  is  the  reverber- 
atory,  which,  while  it  may  be 
worked  either  by  natural  or  forced 
draught,  is  always  distinguished  by 
a  particular  principle  indicated  by 
its  title.  Whatever  metal  is  being 
treated  in  this  furnace,  it  is  not 
normally  in  contact  with  solid  fuel, 
but  is  smelted  of  treated  by  causing 
the  heat  to  reverberate,  or  to  be 
thrown  from  the  crown  or  sides  of 
the  furnace  on  to  the  metal  below. 
There  are  many  forms  of  this  type 
of  furnace,  including  the  puddling 
and  tube  furnace,  and  forms  asso- 
ciated with  the  names  of  Siemens, 
Hasenclever,  Bruckner,  Pearce, 
Brown,  and  Stetefeldt. 

The  fourth  type  may  be  called 
the  close  chamber  type,  and  may 
be  divided  into  two  classes,  those 
in  which  the  material  under  treat- 
ment is  merely  melted  more  or  less, 
and  those  in  which  the  substance 
is  volatilised.  To  the  former  belong 


the  ordinary  crucible  and  muffle 
furnaces,  and  to  the  latter  the 
retort  furnaces  as  used  for  the  pro- 
duction of  zinc.  The  fifth  type  is  re- 
presented by  the  electrical  furnace, 
which  like  other  types  assumes 
various  forms,  and  may  have 
features  either  of  the  shaft  or 
reverberatory  classes. 

The  classification  of  furnaces 
which  has  just  been  sketched,  while 
not  perfect,  is  perhaps  the  simplest 
thai;  could  be  made, 

though  an-  *f  U.^,  other  useful 
classifica-  aJMf'  tion  might 
be  arranged  H  I  '  based  upon 


exception 
more    ele- 
forms    of 
furnaces 
ally  con- 
two    es- 


Furnace.  Fuinace  of  closed  vessel 
type,  as  used  for  production  of  steel 
for  cutlery,  etc.,  by  cementation  pro- 
cess. A,  firegrate;  B,  furnace  ;  C  C', 
pots  or  boxes  containing  bars  of  iron 
in  carbonaceous  matter  ;  D,  man- 
hole ;  E,  shaft ;  F,  ash-pit 

sential  portions,  an  inner  one, 
which  contains  the  metal,  and  in 
some  forms  the  fuel  also,  and  an 
outer  portion,  the  purpose  of 
which  is  to  give  structural  stability 
to  the  whole.  The  inner  portion 
may  be  detached  as  in  the  crucible 
furnace ;  but  in  any  case,  as  it 
must  withstand  very  high  tem- 
peratures and  also  it  may  be  the 
combined  mechanical  and  scouring 
action  of  the  molten  contents,  it  is 
necessary  to  construct  it  of  re- 
fractory materials.  Again,  where 
it  is  part  of  the  fixed  structure,  as 
it  must  in  course  of  time  wear  away, 
it  is  desirable  to  build  it  so  that  it 
may  be  renewed  without  serious 
disturbance  to  the  outer  structure. 
It  is,  therefore,  usually  made  in 
the  form  of  a  removable  liner.  The 
materials  used  in  the  construction 
of  this  important  inner  section 


comprise  alumina,  silica,  lime,  mag- 
nesia, graphite,  in  the  form  of  fire- 
bricks of  clay,  bauxite,  or  magnesia 
or  lime,  Ganister  and  Dinas  rock, 
and  various  special  preparations. 

As  in  most  modern  furnaces 
large  quantities  of  materials,  ore, 
fuel,  and  fluxes  require  to  be 
handled,  much  ingenuity  has  been 
expended  in  devising  mechanical 
appliances  for  this  purpose  in 
order  to  save  labour  ;  while  gaseous 
fuel  in  the  forms  of  producer  and 
water  gas  has  been  largely  sub- 
stituted for  solid  fuels.  See  Blast 
Furnace ;  Coke ;  Metallurgy ; 
Smelting;  also  Boiler,  illus. 

ELECTKIC  FURNACE.  The  tem- 
peratures attainable  by  gases, 
liquids,  and  solids  when  resisting 
the  passage  of  an  electric  current 
far  exceed  those  of  the  fuel-fired 
furnace,  and  even  of  the  oxy- 
hydrogen  flame,  and  are  ap- 
proached only  by  those  given  by 
the  oxy-acetylene  jet  and  the  com- 
bustion of  powdered  aluminium. 
The  application  of  electric  heating 
to  metallurgical  and  chemical  pro- 
cesses on  a  commercial  scale  began 
as  recently  as  the  year  1800,  but 
has  already  yielded  most  important 
results.  We  owe  to  it  the  possi- 
bility of  manufacturing  in  large 
quantities,  at  a  corresponding  low 
cost,  aluminium,  carbide  of  cal- 
cium, pure  calcium,  carborundum, 
caustic  soda,  phosphorus,  sodium, 
strontium,  and  other  chemicals. 
In  the  old-established  iron  and 
steel  industries  the  electric  furnace 
is  rapidly  becoming  a  dangerous 
rival  to  the  coal  or  gas-fired  fur- 
nace, especially  for  the  production 
of  high-grade  and  alloy  steels. 
Moissan's  Electric  Furnace 

Moissan,  an  eminent  Frenchman, 
first  embodied  the  idea  of  the 
electric  furnace  in  a  practical  form. 
His  furnace  was  made  from  mas- 
sive blocks  of  limestone  hollowed 
out  into  the  form  of  a  crucible,  the 
hollowed  parts  being  lined  with 
magnesia.  Two  carbon  poles  were 
introduced  from  opposite  sides 
just  above  the  hemispherical 
bottom  where  the  material  to  be 
fused  would  lie.  A  powerful  electro- 
magnet was  fixed  on  the  outside 
of  the  furnace  in  such  a  manner 
that  as  an  arc  was  established 
between  the  two  carbon  poles  it 
could  be  deflected  down  on  to  the 
material  in  the  crucible. 

In  this  furnace  a  temperature 
of  3,500°  C.  (6,332°  Fah.)  could 
readily  be  attained,  and  many  sub- 
stances which  had  been  supposed 
to  be  irreducible  could  be  melted. 
Moissan  succeeded  in  isolating 
chromium,  manganese,  molybde- 
num, titanium,  tungsten,  uranium, 
vanadium,  and  zirconium.  Sir 
William  Siemens  made  further 


FURNEAUX 


3379 


FURNESS 


improvements, 
and  in  1882  was 
able  to  melt  10  Ib. 
of  platinum  in  a 
furnace  which 
consisted  of  a 
carbon  crucible 
constituting  one 
pole  of  the  system, 
and  a  vertical  car- 
bon rod  suspended 
in  it  forming  the 
other. 

Electric  fur- 
naces may  be 
grouped  roughly 
under  three  main 
heads :  (1)  those 
in  which  the  heat 
is  derived  from  an 
electric  arc;  (2) 
those  in  which  the 
substance  to  be 
heated  acts  as  a 
resistance  or  is 
in  contact  with 
a  resisting  substance ; 


Furnace.  Sectional  elevation  of  Heroult  Arc  furnace. 
A,  furnace;  a,  steel  plate  casing,  BB',  electrodes;  C,  flexible 
cable  connexion  between  electrodes  and  current  trans- 
former ;  D,  electric  motor  and  supplementary  hand  gear 
for  adjusting  positions  of  electrodes  in  the  furnace ;  E  E', 
racks  for  tilting  furnace ;  F,  hydraulic  pusher  for  tilting 
furnace  to  discharge  molten  contents.  Position  when 
pouring  molten  metal  is  indicated  by  the  broken  lines 


(3)  those 

which  use  arc  and  resistance  heat 
in  combination. 

The  first  class  is  exemplified  by 
the  Moissan  furnace  and  the  Stas- 
sano  iron-smelting  furnace,  with  an 
arc  formed  inside  a  covered  cham- 
ber of  refractory  material  above 
the  substance  treated,  which  re- 
ceives the  heat  directly  by  radia- 
tion and  by  conduction  from  the 
walls  of  the  chamber. 

The  Heroult  Furnace 

The  second  or  resistance  furnace 
is  exemplified  by  the  Heroult  type 
of  steel  furnace,  which  consists 
essentially  of  a  "hollow  bed  of  re- 
fractory material  on  which  the 
charge  to  be  melted  is  placed  and 
one  or  more  carbon  poles  placed 
vertically  above  it  and  provided 
with  means  by  which  they  may  be 
lowered  down  to  the  material  on 
the  hearth.  The  heating  is  de- 
veloped by  numerous  small  arcs 
formed  between  the  poles  and  the 
charge,  which  may  be  steel  scrap 
or  pig  iron.  As  these  arcs  flash 
about  from  point  to  point  of  the 
charge  the  melting  gradually  pro- 
ceeds until  the  charge  is  entirely 
molten.  In  this  type  of  furnace 
the  anode  is  formed  by  adjustable 
carbon  rods,  and  the  cathode  is 
the  hearth  itself  and  its  containing 
casing.  (See  Aluminium,  illus.) 

The  resistance  offered  to  the 
passage  of  the  current  through  the 
mass  of  material  on  the  bed  of  the 
furnace  suffices  to  melt  the  charge, 
but  does  not  decompose  it.  The 
decomposition  is  accomplished  by 
the  electrolytic  action  of  the  cur- 
rent, which  breaks  up  the  ore, 
setting  free  oxygen  which  combines 
with  the  carbon  of  the  anode  and 
escapes  as  carbonic  oxide,  which 
bums  as  it  issues  from  the  furnace. 


The  induction  furnace  is  based 
upon  a  different  principle.    In  the 
Kjellin  iron-smelting  furnace  alter- 
nating high-tension  current,  passed 
through  a  vertical  coil  with  heavy 
iron  core,  induces 
a  low-tension  cur-    < 
rent  in  a  charge  of    \ 
ore  or  metal  which    1 
occupies  an  annu-    \ 
lar  trough  concen-    \ 
trie  with   the   coil    .       4 
and    acts    as    the 
secondary  circuit. 

Indirect     resist- 
ance     heating     is 
used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  carbor- 
undum (carbide  of 
silicon).    A  core  of 
small  lump  coke  is 
the  resistance.    Round  it  is  packed 
a  charge  of  mixed  carbon  powder, 
sand,  sawdust,  and  salt,  covered 
with    a    coating  of    loosely  piled 
bricks.     The  intense  heat  of  the 
core,  which  is  converted  into  pure 
graphite,  causes   the  carbon  sur- 
rounding it  to  combine  with  the 
silicon  of  the  sand  as  carborundum 
to   a  depth   of   a   foot    or   more. 
The  body  of  the  kiln  is  broken  up, 
and  the  partly  combined  material 
used  for  the  next  charge. 

At  the  end  of  1918  there  were  in 
Great  Britain  about  140  electric 
furnaces  in  operation  or  under 
erection,  much  the  greater  number 
being  of  iron  or  steel.  In  the 
U.S.A.  there  were  about  287, 
and  in  Canada  43.  The  great 
advantage  of  the  furnace,  apart 
from  the  facility  with  which  very 
high  temperatures  may  be  reached, 
lies  in  the  greater  purity  of  the 
products  turned  out,  due  partly 
to  the  absence  of  contact  between 
the  metal  and  deleterious  elements 


in  ordinary  solid  or  gaseous  fuel, 
and  partly  to  the  more  regular  and 
higher  temperatures  which  may  be 
employed.  Whether  the  use  of  the 
electric  furnace  for  the  direct  pro- 
duction of  pig  iron  will  much 
extend  and  the  blast  furnace  be 
ultimately  superseded,  it  is  too 
early  to  predict.  Progress  in  this 
direction  will  be  determined  by  the 
relative  costs  of  coke  and  the 
equivalent  in  electrical  energy. 
Where  water-power  is  abundant 
and  cheap,  and  other  conditions 
are  favourable,  there  is  no  doubt 
that  the  electrical  system  will  be 
favoured.  See  Aluminium  ;  Cop- 
per ;  Iron :  Steel ;  Welding,  Electric. 

Furneaux.  Group  of  islands 
between  Tasmania  and  Australia 
in  Bass  Strait.  They  were  dis- 
covered in  1773  by  the  English 
navigator  Tobias  Furneaux.  Flin- 
ders Island,  the  largest,  is  35  m. 
long  and  10  m.  broad.  Pop.  170. 

Furnes.  Town  of  Belgium,  in 
the  prov.  of  W.  Flanders.  It  is 
16  m.  E.  of  Dunkirk,  on  the  rly. 
from  Dunkirk  to  Dixmude.  In 
the  Great  War  it  was  first  bom- 
barded bv  the  Germans,  Oct.  24- 


The  Grand'  Place,  with  the  Hotel  de  Vffle, 
Palais  de  Justice,  and  Church  of  S.  Walburge 

27,  1914,  in  which  month  the 
Allies  evacuated  it.  The  French 
conferred  the  croix  de  guerre  on  it 
in  1920.  Pop.  about  6,000. 

Furness.  District  in  the  N.W. 
of  Lancashire,  England.  It  is  de- 
tached from  the  main  portion  of 
the  county  by  Morecambe  Bay. 
Its  area  is  250  sq.  m.  The  hematite 
iron  ore  in  the  S.  of  the  district 
was  worked  by  the  Romans. 

Furness, CHRISTOPHER  FURNESS, 
IST  BARON  (1852-1912).  British 
shipowner.  Born  April  23,  1852, 
at  West  Har- 
tlepool,  he  was 
educated  pri- 
vately, and  in 
1876  became  a 
shipbroker,  es- 
tablishing soon 
afterwards  the 
Furness  line  of 
steamers.  In 
1885  he  went 
into  partner- 
shipjjwith 


1st  Baron  Furness, 
British  shipowner 


FURNESS     ABBEY 


3380 


FURNISS 


Furness  Abbey.     Rains    of  the  12th  century  monastic  buildings  of  one  of  the  wealthiest  and  most  powerful  abbeys 
in  pre-Reformation  England,  since  1920  the  property  of  the  nation 

Photochrom 


Edward  Withy,  of  Hartlepool, 
the  firm  being  known  as  Furness, 
Withy  &  Co.,  and  soon  estab- 
lished a  huge  business  as  ship- 
builders and  engineers.  He  was 
Liberal  M.  P.  for  Hartlepool, 
1891-95,  contested  York  City  in 
1898,  and  represented  Hartlepool 
in  1900-10.  Knighted  in  1895,  he 
was  raised  to  the  peerage  in  1910  as 
Baron  Furness  of  Grantley.  In 
religion  a  Methodist,  Furness  was 
responsible  for  several  philan- 
thropic schemes  and  started  a  co- 
partnership scheme  among  his  em- 
ployees. He  owned  over  30,000 
acres  in  Yorkshire.  He  died  Nov. 
10,  1912,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Marmaduke  (b.  1883),  who 
was  created  a  viscount  in  1918. 

Furness  Abbey.  Picturesque 
ruins,  1  m.  S.  of  Dalton,  Lanca- 
shire, England.  Situated  on  the 
banks  of  a  small  stream,  in  a 
wooded  valley,  close  to  a  station  on 
the  Furness  Rly.,  the}'  include 
part  of  the  Transitional  Norman 
nave,  Early  English  chapter  house. 
Decorated  transepts,  and  Perpen- 
dicular belfry  and  presbytery.  In 
the  abbot's  chapel  are  two  12th 
century  effigies  of  knights  in 
armour.  The  abbey,  dedicated  to 
S.  Mary,  was  founded  in  1127  by 
Benedictines  from  Normandy, 
under  the  patronage  of  the  earl  of 
Morton,  afterwards  King  Stephen, 
and  became  Cistercian  in  1148.  The 
abbot  had  feudal  powers  over  the 
whole  surrounding  district,  and 
the  foundation  was  richly  endowed. 
In  1920  Furness  Abbey  was  pre- 
sented to  the  nation  by  Lord  R. 
Cavendish.  See  Furness  Past  and 
Present,  S.  Richardson,  1880. 

Furness  Line.  British  steam- 
ship company.  It  was  founded  by 
Sir  C.  Furness,  afterwards  Lord 
Furness,  in  1877,  and  is  the  name 
by  which  the  various  steamers  of 
Furness,  Withy  &  Co. ;  the  Fur- 
ness -Houlder  'Argentine  Lines  ; 
Warren,  Johnston,  etc.,  are  popu- 
larly known.  In  Sept.,  1917,  Fur- 
ness,  Withy  bought  the  fleet  of  14 


Glen  steamers,  representing  70,000 
tons  gross.  In  1917  the  firm  pur- 
chased the  Rushbrooke  dock  pre- 
mises at  Queenstown,  and  in  1920 
Bellamy's  Wharf  and  Dock,  Rother- 
hithe.  The  Compagnie  Furness 
(France)  is  a  subsidiary  concern. 

The  Furness  line  has  regular 
sailings  from  Liverpool  to  Newport 
News  and  Baltimore  ;  from  London 
to  Philadelphia,  Montreal,  and 
Halifax;  Glasgow  to  Philadelphia 
and  Boston ;  Leith  and  Dundee  to 
New  York  and  Philadelphia ;  Leith 
and  Middlesbrough  to  Baltimore  ; 
Bombay  to  Antwerp  ;  Montreal  to 
Antwerp  ;  Newport  News  to  Ant- 
werp ;  New  York  to  Havre,  etc. 
Its  head  office  is  Furness  House, 
Billiter  Street,  London,  E.C. 

Furness  Railway.  English  rly. 
line.  Its  total  mileage  is  428  m., 
and  it  serves  the  rich  mineral  dis- 
trict round  Barrow  -  in  -  Furness. 
First  opened  in  1846,  it  has  been 
considerably  extended  ;  its  work- 
ing connexion  with  the  Midland  and 
L.  &  N.W.  lines  makes  it  a  link 
in  the  route  r,  — 
to  the  Isle  of  I 
Man  and  Ire - 
land.  It 
owns  docks, 
wharves,  | 
etc.,  at  Bar-  I 
row,  where  | 
are  its  head-  | 
quarters  || 
and  works 
steamers? 
the  Ulvers- 

ton  canal.  It  is  now  part  of  the 
London,  Midland  and  Scottish  Rly. 

Furniss,  HARRY  (1854-1925). 
British  caricaturist.  Born  at  Wex- 
ford,  of  Anglo-Scottish  parents,  he 
came  to  London  in  1878.  He  con- 
tributed sketches  to  The  Illus- 
trated London  News  and  other 
journals.  He  joined  the  staff  of 
Punch  in  1880,  at  Burnand's  invi- 
tation, as  illustrator  of  the  Essence 
of  Parliament.  In  this  capacity  he 
created  the  legendary  Gladstone 
collar,  the  traditional  portraits  of 


Sir  W.  Harcourt,  Sir  Richard 
Temple,  J.  G.  Swift  McNeill,  and 
other  mirth-provoking  caricatures. 
His  connexion  with  Punch  lasted 
till  1894,  when  he  started  his  own 
weekly,  Lika  Joko.  He  illustrated 
the  works  of 
Dickens,  1910, 
and  Thacke- 
ray, 1911,  and 
also  wrote 
many  books, 
including  Con- 
fessions of  a 
Caricaturist, 
1901;  Harry 
Furniss  at 
Home,  1903 ; 
Poverty  Bay, 
a  novel,  1905 ;  How  to  Draw  in  Pen 
and  Ink,  1905.  For  some  years  he 
lectured  with  great  success  on  The 
Humours  of  Parliament  through- 
out the  British  Isles,  Australia, 
Canada,  and  the  U.S.A.,  and  later 
wrote  several  plays  for  the  cinema- 
tograph. He  died  Jan.  14,  1925. 
See  Bardell,  Mrs. ;  Caricature. 


Furniss.     One  of  his  famous  carica- 
tures of  Gladstone 


FURNITURE 


3381 


FURNITURE 


FURNITURE:     DEVELOPMENT    &    STYLES 

Percy  Macquoid,  Author  of  A  History  of  English  Furniture 

In  addition  to  this  sketch  of  the  development  of  furniture,  there  are 

articles  on  all  the  forms  of  furniture,  e.g.  Chair ;  Chest ;  Table,  etc.  See 

also  Cabinet-making:  Adam  style;    Chippendale;     Heppleivhite  ; 

Sheraton ;  etc. 


We  must  turn  to  Egypt  for  the 
earliest  known  records  of  domestic 
furniture.  In  bas-reliefs,  dating 
from  4000  B.C.,  beds,  tables,  chairs 
and  stools  are  all  found  represented. 
The  bed  of  the  wealthy  classes  was 
a  horizontal  frame  of  wood  or 
bronze,  terminating  with  heads 
such  as  a  lion  or  hawk,  and  stand- 
ing on  four  legs  in  representation  of 
the  animal.  The  mattress  was  sup- 
ported by  an  interlacement  of 
leather  thongs,  those  of  the  middle 
and  poorer  classes  being  a  wicker 
framework  of  palm  sticks  with  a 
straw  pallet.  The  pillows  were  of 
crescent  form  calculated  to  rest 
the  neck,  and  made  of  Oriental 
alabaster  on  a  grooved  or  fluted 
shaft,  or  rare  polished  woods 
painted  ;  the  poor  being  content 
with  those  of  pottery  and  stone. 
The  couches  were  similar  to  the 
beds,  but  with  one  end  raised  and 
scrolling  over  in  a  graceful  curve, 
and  probably  wers  transformed 
from  one  use  to  the  other  by  dif- 
ferent coverings,  being  chiefly  used 
in  the  day  for  sitting,  as  Egyptians, 
like  early  Greeks  and  Romans,  are 
always  portrayed  sitting  at  their 
meals,  never  reclining. 

Ancient  Furniture 

The  chairs  and  thrones  appear 
to  have  been  fabricated  of  metal, 
ebony,  and  other  rare  woods  inlaid 
with  ivory,  the  state  chairs  repre- 
sented on  the  tombs  of 'the  kings  at 
Thebes  (c.  1800  B.C.)  being  most 
graceful  and  elaborate.  The  legs 
were  invariably  those  of  some  ani- 
mal, the  difference  between  the 
fore  and  hind  leg  being  carefully 
observed ;  the  arms  were  fre- 
quently in  the  form  of  lions  passant 
or  couchant,  carved  and  painted 
or  plated  with  gold,  the  backs  re- 
ceded gradually  and  scrolled  over 
like  the  couches,  with  a  pillow  of 
gold  and  silver  tissue,  painted 
leather  or  coloured  cotton.  Smaller 
chairs  were  also  of  most  interesting 
form,  some  with  the  backs  hol- 
lowed, panelled  and  inlaid  ;  others 
with  splatted  backs,  the  seats  being 
of  wood, interlaced  string  or  leather 
thongs,  and  these  chairs  have 
served  as  models  throughout  the 
world  even  to  the  present  day.  Ex- 
amples can  be  seen  in  the  Cairo, 
British,  and  Leiden  Museums.  At 
Leiden  the  back  of  the  chair  is  17 
ins.  and  the  seat  13  ins.  Stools  are 
far  more  frequently  represented  in 
Egyptian  sculptures  than  chairs  ; 
some  were  of  folding  form,  with 
leather  seats,  some  inlaid  and  like 
the  chairs,  only  without  backs. 


Many  had  solid  sides,  and  others 
three  legs,  but  nearly  all  appear  to 
have  had  stretchers. 

Small  tables  were  round,  on  a 
single,  central  support,  which  was 
often  in  the  form  of  a  captive,  a 
motive  also  much  introduced 
under  chairs.  Larger  tables  were 
four  sided,  with  three  or  four  legs ; 
some  had  solid  sides,  all  varieties 
being  made  in  wood,  stone,  or 
metal.  The  fragments  of  this  furni- 
ture, as  well  as  the  remnants  of 
stands  for  holding  wine- jars,  foot- 
stools, chests,  boxes,  etc.,  that 
have  been  discovered,  prove  the 
wonderful  degree  of  luxury  these 
people  had  attained.  Although  the 
civilization  of  Chaldaea  and  As- 
syria was  later  than  that  of  Egypt, 
the  furniture  of  those  countries  ap- 
pears to  have  been  far  more  crude  ; 
there  were  no  comfortable  curved 
backs  to  the  couches,  chairs,  and 
beds,  and  on  the  bas-reliefs  the 
furniture  portrayed  is  always  rect- 
angular, with  metal  bosses  at  the 
corners,  and  with  heavy  fringes. 

No  record  remains  of  Hebrew 
furniture  beyond  the  Biblical  de- 
scriptions, which  are  very  limited, 
for,  as  a  nation,  they  were  forbid- 
den any  representation  of  social 
life  by  sculpture;  but  we  may 
assume  their  taste  was  based  upon 
that  of  Phoenicia,  Assyria,  and 
Egypt.  Persia,  a  still  later  civiliza- 
tion, was  more  Oriental  than  any  of 
these  nations,  and  its  furniture  con- 
sisted of  low  divans,  cushions  on 
the  ground,  stools,  thrones,  and 
tables  of  Syrian  designs.  No  speci- 
mens of  Greek  wooden  furniture 
are  in  existence,  only  fragments  of 
those  in  marble  or  metal  have  sur- 
vived, but  their  vases  show  that 
very  elegant  forms  existed  and  on  a 
par  with  their  sculpture  of  500  B.C. 
Their  chairs  were  strong-looking 
and  graceful,  with  backs  rounded 
to  accommodate  the  body,  the  legs 
sweeping  outwards  in  fine  curves, 
and  constructed  of  wood  inlaid 
with  ivory  and  coloured  woods,  or 
studded  'with  paterae  in  the 
precious  metals. 

Greek  and  Roman  Couches 

The  couches  and  beds  were  gene- 
rally rectangular,  standing  on 
stout  balustered  legs,  often  over- 
laid with  plates  of  gold  or  silver, 
but  the  head-rest  of  the  Egyptians 
was  soon  discarded  and  replaced 
by  cushions,  the  introduction  of  the 
bedhead  as  part  of  the  structure 
being  distinctly  noticeable.  These 
couches  were  used  by  the  Greeks 
and  Carthaginians  for  reclining 


during  meals,  a  fashion  adopted  by 
the  Romans  towards  the  close  of 
the  Punic  wars. 

The  Romans  quickly  surpassed 
the  Greeks  in  domestic  luxury,  and 
after  the  sack  of  Corinth  by  Mum- 
mius,  146  B.C.,  when  paintings, 
sculptures,  and  works  of  art  arrived 
for  the  first  time  in  Rome  as  part  of 
the  spoils,  these  objects  of  art  were 
at  once  reproduced  by  the  Greek 
craftsmen  who  flocked  to  Rome  for 
employment.  The  furniture  must 
have  remained  in  fashion  over  200 
years,  as  the  ringed  bronze  balus- 
tered chairs,  stools,  and  couches 
discovered  at  Pompeii  are  clearly 
all  evolutions  from  Greek  designs. 
Among  the  fragments  of  Roman 
furniture  preserved  in  museums  are 
portions  covered  with  tortoiseshell, 
silver,  and  mother-of-pearl ;  and 
Commodus,  A.D.  180,  is  known  to 
have  possessed  a  couch  of  ivory 
studded  with  large  opals.  Both 
Greeks  and  Romans  had  chests 
made  of  precious  woods,  ornamen- 
ted with  nails,  masks,  and  heavy 
handles,  the  fronts  being  often 
painted  with  subjects. 

Saxon  and  Norman  Styles 

Wherever  the  Romans  colonised, 
they  introduced  a  certain  amount 
of  furniture,  and  it  is  easy  to  trace 
its  influence  on  both  Saxon  and 
Norman  motives.  Beds  in  the  time 
of  Alfred  the  Great,  except  for  the 
very  wealthy,  consisted  of  a  sack 
filled  with  straw,  laid  on  the  chest 
in  which  it  was  kept  during  the  day 
or  on  boards  placed  in  curtained - 
off  recesses  in  the  living-rooms.  The 
term  bedstead  then  meant  only  the 
locality  ;  the  words  "  bolster  "  and 
"  pyle  "  (pillow)  were  also  Anglo- 
Saxon.  The  sleepers  probably 
wrapped  their  naked  bodies  in 
sheets  and  drew  coverlets  of  bear 
and  other  skins  over  them. 

About  1200  beds  began  to  as- 
sume a  definite  balustered  form, 
with  tester  and  hangings  from  the 
ceiling  beams.  Neckam,  writing  a 
little  later,  in  his  description  of  a 
bedroom,  says  that  beside  the  bed 
should  be  a  chair,  and  at  the  foot  of 
the  bed  a  bench  for  conversation, 
on  which  a  child  or  servant  could 
sleep  at  night ;  there  should  be 
also  a  pole  or  perch  for  the  falcons 
and  another  to  hang  clothes  on.  The 
sheets  were  of  linen  or  silk,  supple- 
mented with  a  cloth  coverlid  and 
heavy  furs  in  winter.  Posts  to  beds 
were  not^  invented  till  the  16th 
century.  ^These  were  elaborately 
carved,  supporting  an  oak-panelled 
tester,  the  backs  to  the  beds  being 
solid  and  often  arcaded  and  inlaid. 

The  earliest  form  of  English 
chair  was  of  turned  oak,  then 
roughly  carved,  but  every  variety 
was  exceedingly  scarce  until  the 
17th  century,  being  only  used  by 


FURNITURE      POLISH 


3382 


FURNIVALL 


the  master  and  mistress  of  the 
house  or  by  important  guests,  ordi- 
nary people  being  seated  on  chests, 
stools,  benches,  and  settles,  or  on 
the  floor,  as  cushions  were  scat- 
tered about  everywhere.  Many  of 
the  settles  had  a  long  chest  for 
storage  beneath  the  seat,  and  high 
backs  as  a  protection  against 
draughts  ;  they  were  of  carved  oak 
and  often  inlaid. 

Chairs  of  X  form  were  intro- 
duced soon  after  1500,  covered  in 
leather,  cloth,  or  velvet,  and  much 
befringed,  late  English  examples  of 
which  are  preserved  at  Knolo 
Park.  Fixed  upholstery  did  not 
exist  in  Great  Britain  until  1600, 
and  oak  carved  panel -back  chairs 
were  the  usual  form  of  chair  from 
1430  to  1650,  their  use  being  con- 
tinued longer  in  England  than 
in  France.  Almost  all  chairs  were 
made  with  arms  until  about  1600, 
when  fardingale  chairs  appeared, 
as  arms  interfered  with  these  huge 
skirts,  and  at  this  same  time  the  set- 
tee and  couch  began  to  replace  the 
oak  settle  of  Gothic  times.  The  legs 
to  all  these  chairs  and  stools  were 
of  straight,  simple  baluster  shape. 
English  Tables 

Round  and  trestle  tables  were 
in  use  from  Saxon  times  until  the 
16th  century,  the  former  supported 
on  one  or  more  legs,  the  latter  with 
solid,  flat  carved  ends  connected 
by  a  long  central  stretcher  ;  about 
1540,  the  oak  "  joyned  "  table  made 
its  appearance,  composed  of  a 
long  top  resting  on  a  frame,  with 
legs  and  stretchers  morticed  at  the 
corners  ;  the  legs  soon  assumed  a 
bulbous  shape  headed  by  capitals, 
the  sides  of  the  frame  being  carved 
and  often  dated.  These,  used  in  the 
great  halls  all  through  the  16th  and 
17th  centuries,  were  also  made  with 
extensiondraw-tops,and  better  and 
smaller  specimens  were  sometimes 
inlaid.  Fine  examples  of  these  are 
preserved  at  Hardwick.  Other  im- 
portant pieces  of  furniture  in  oak 
were  court  cupboards,  buffets,  and 
chests,  the  first  being  an  evolution 
from  the  double  hutch  of  Gothic 
times ;  early  specimens  were  elabo- 
rately carved,  becoming  plainer  as 
the  17th  century  proceeded,  and 
examples  are  found  dated  as  late 
as  1720. 

About  1655  a  great  change  took 
place  in  all  furniture  ;  France  and 
Holland  introduced  a  twist  into  the 
uprights  on  tables  and  chairs  which 
was  soon  copied  in  England,  being 
very  suitable  for  the  walnut  wood 
that  had  lately  come  into  fashion  ; 
tall  backed  chairs  became  popular, 
with  caned  backs  and  seats  and 
carved  uprights,  crestings,  legs, 
and  stretchers  ;  theee  were  often 
made  in  sets,  with  a  day-bed  to 
match,  the  style  lasting  till  about 


1700.       Contemporaneously   with 
these,  soft  wood  furniture,  elabo- 


furniture  of   1840,  when 
clumsy    copies  of  previous   styles 


rately  carved  and  gilt,  first  made  its  were  fabricated  and  all  originality 
appearance  in  England,  emanating 
from  Italy  and  France,  which  even- 
tually, under  the  direct  influence  of 
Daniel  Marot,  who  was  attached  to 
the  court  of  William  III,  led  to 
the  introduction  and  development 
of  the  cabriole  leg. 

Upholstered  Beds 

By  1660  the  beds  of  the  wealthy 
were  most  elaborately  and  extra- 
vagantly draped  with  embroidered 
curtains  and  valances,  and  crested 
with  plumes  ;  in  the  next  century 
they  sometimes  attained  a  height 
of  17  ft.,  and  the  fine  carved  oak 
posts  were  discontinued,  though 
small  plain  oak  beds  still  found 
favour  with  the  middle  classes.  The 
English  lacquer  that  accompanied 
these  upholstered  beds  was  copied 
from  the  Chinese  and  first  intro- 
duced here  from  Holland,  the 
fashion  lasting  for  nearly  100  years. 
By  1720,  the  cabriole  leg  was  firmly 
established,  lending  itself  well  to 
the  new  hard  wood,  mahogany,  and 
was  introduced  whenever  possible 
on  all  furniture,  particularly  chairs, 
the  backs  of  which  had  become  low 
with  hooped  backs  and  with  the 
flat  splats,  which  first  brought 
celebrity  to  Thomas  Chippendale, 
the  inventor  of  their  varied  sub- 
divisions. 

This  master  and  his  school  pro- 
duced every  possible  form  of  ma- 
hogany furniture,  always  pre- 
serving his  own  individuality, 
even  when  deliberately  adopting 
French  models ;  having  exhausted 
all  known  motives,  he  finally  allied 
himself  with  Robert  Adam,  and 
further  influenced  by  Riesener  and 
Piranese,  he  executed  numberless 
pieces  of  inlaid  satin  wood  and 
mahogany  furniture  most  light 
and  elegant  in  treatment.  Hep- 
plewhite  and  Sheraton  continued 
on  these  delicate  lines,  adding  the 
additional  charm  of  painting  to 
their  decorations. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury, a  style  known 
as  "Empire" 
in  France,  arose, 
founded  on  strictly 
classical  lines,  but 
it  was  represented 
in  England  without 
any  of  its  original 
charm,  and  with 
coarse  brassemboss- 
ments  and  brass  in- 
lay on  clumsy  struc- 
tures of  mahogany 
and  rosewood;  this, 
drifting  into  the 
heavy  mahogany 

^frw ,  Furnival's  Inn,  London.     View  of  the  interior  of  the 

tics  of  George  I  Vcul-  inn  bef  ore  its  demoiition 

in  the  pur-  from  Wilkinson's  Londina  llluslrata,  1819 


of  design  on  furniture  gradually 
ceased.  See  Geffrye  Museum  ;  also 
Bureau,  Dresser,  etc.,  illus. 

Bibliography.  Hist,  of  Domestic 
Manners  and  Sentiments  in  England 
during  the  Middle  Ages,  T.  Wright, 
1862  ;  Manners  and  Customs  of 
Ancient  Egyptians,  Sir  J.  G.  Wilkin- 
son, rev.  ed.  1878  ;  History  of 
Furniture,  A.  Jacquemart,  1908  : 
Old  English  Furniture,  G.  O. 
Wheeler,  1909  ;  Furniture  Designs  of 
T.  Chippendale,  J.  M.  Bell,  1910  ; 
Practical  Book  of  Period  Furniture, 
Eberlein  &  MacC.lure,  1914. 

Furniture  Polish.  Liquid  for 
polishing  furniture.  It  may  be  com- 
posed of  1  oz.  of  beeswax,  \  oz. 
white  wax,  |  oz.  finely  shredded 
Castile  soap,  heated  in  a  pint  of 
boiling  water.  When  cold,  J  pint  of 
turpentine  and  \  pint  of  spirits  are 
mixed  with  the  other  ingredients. 

Furnival,  BA.RON.  English  title 
borne  by  several  families  since 
1295.  It  was  created  when  Thomas 
de  Furnivall  was  summoned  to 
Parliament  in  1295,  and  was  held 
by  his  male  descendants  until  the 
4th  baron  died  in  1383.  Thomas 
Neville  and  John  Talbot  in  turn  sat 
in  Parliament  under  this  title,  each 
having  married  an  heiress  of  the 
barony.  Talbot  was  made  earl  of 
Shrewsbury,  and  until  1616  the 
barony  was  held  by  the  earls.  In 
1651,  after  a  period  of  abeyance,  it 
came  to  a  daughter  of  the  7th  earl 
of  Shrewsbury,  through  her  mar- 
riage with  Thomas,  earl  of  Arundel, 
and  was  linked  for  a  time  with  the 
dukedom  of  Norfolk.  This  union 
lasted  until  1777,  when  it  again  fell 
into  abeyance,  to  be  revived  for 
Mary  Frances  Catherine  Petre,  a 
daughter  of  the  14th  baron  Petre. 
She  was  a  descendant  of  the  9th 
baron  Petre  and  his  wife,  who  be- 
longed to  the  duke  of  Norfolk's 
family. 

Furnivall,  FREDERICK  JAMES 
(1825-1910).  British  philologist 
and  editor.  Born  at  Eaham.  Feb. 


FURNIVAL'S      INN 


3383 


FURSTENBUND 


4,  1825,  he  was  educated  at  Uni- 
versity College,  London,  and  Trin- 
ity Hall,  Cambridge,  and  was  called 
to  the    bar  in 
1849.    He  was 
chiefly    known 
for    his    ser- 
vices   to   Eng- 
lish literature. 
The    publica- 
tions  of    the 
Early    English 
Text    Society, 
F.  J.  Furnivall,        founded  by 
British  philologist      himself,    like 

£111011  &  Fry  the   New  ghak- 

spere,  Chaucer,  Wyclif,  Browning, 
and  Shelley  societies,  have  been  of 
great  service  to  students  of  English. 
His  own  most  important  work 
was  an  edition  of  Chaucer.  He 
took  much  interest  in  the  welfare 
of  the  working  classes  and  in  the 
Working  Men's  College.  He  was  a 
keen  oarsman,  and  started  a  row- 
ing club  for  working  girls.  He  died 
July  2,  1910. 

Furnival's  Inn.  Old  London 
Inn  of  Chancery.  It  was  on  the  N. 
of  Holborn,  between  Brooke  Street 
and  Leather  Lane.  It  dated  from 
the  reign  of  Henry  IV,  was  rebuilt 
in  the  16th  century,  and  ceased  its 
career  as  an  inn  in  1818,  when  it 
was  again  rebuilt.  Dickens  wrote 
the  greater  part  of  Pickwick  when 
resident  here.  Its  site  is  approxi- 
mately that  of  the  premises  of  the 
Prudential  Assurance  Co.,  built 
in  1879. 

Furrier.  Name  for  a  dealer  in 
furs.  The  trade  itself  is  sometimes 
known  as  furriery.  See  Fur. 

Furring.  Term  applied  to  the 
deposition  in  kettles  and  boilers  of 
lime  salts  from  the  hard  water 
boiled  in  those  vessels.  Fur  is  ob- 
jectionable because,  being  a  very 
bad  conductor  of  heat,  it  impedes 
the  transmission  of  heat  from  the 
fire  to  the  water.  The  practice  of 
placing  a  marble  in  the  kettle  is 
intended  to  prevent,  by  the  con- 
stant movement  of  the  marble,  the 
deposition  of  a  compact  layer  of 
the  calcium  carbonate  on  the  bot- 
tom and  sides  of  the  kettle.  Fluids 
used  in  preventing  incrustation  in 
large  boilers  contain  caustic  alkalis 
(to  soften  the  water)  and  a  tannin 
containing  material  which  has  the 
property  of  preventing  the  aggre- 
gation of  the  precipitated  lime  salts. 

Furrow.  Trench  or  hollow  made 
by  the  plough.  It  comes  from  an 
Anglo-Saxon  word,  and  has  been 
extended  to  describe  hollows  of 
other  kinds,  such  as  furrows  on  the 
face.  See  Plough. 

Furse,  CHARLES  WELLINGTON 
(1868-1904).  British  painter.  Born 
at  Staines,  the  son  of  the  Rev.  C.  W. 
Furse,  and  educated  at  Hailey- 
bury,  he  studied  art  at  the  Slade 


School  under  Legros,  and  in  Paris 
under  Julien.  In  open-air  por- 
traiture he  achieved  rapid  success, 
notably  in  The  Return  from  the 
Ride,  1903,  and  Diana  of  the  Up- 
lands, 1904,  a  portrait  of  his  wife, 
both  in  the  Tate  Gallery,  Timber 
Haulers  and  Cubbing  with  the  York 
and  Ainstey,  1904.  A  sportsman 
himself,  he  easily  caught  the 
atmosphere  of  country  life,  com- 
posing on  a  robust  scale  in  bold, 
luminous  masses  of  colour.  He  was 
elected  A.R.A.  in  1904,  and  died 
Oct.  17,  1904. 

Furse,  DAME  KATHARINE  (b. 
1875).  British  organizer.  She 
was  born  at  Bristol,  Nov.  23, 1875, 
the  daughter  of 
John  Adding- 
ton  Symonds, 
and  educated  9 
privately  ;  she  m 
married  C.  W.  | 
Furse,  the 
pa  i  n  t  e  r,  in 
1900.  On  the 

outbreak  of  the      Dame  Katharine 
Great  War  she  Furse, 

developed   the      British  organizer 
activities  of  the  Elliott  *  F*y 

Voluntary  Aid  Detachments  estab- 
lished in  1909  in  connexion  with, 
the  Territorial  Force,  and  went  to 
France  to  organize  the  work  there. 
Returning  in  the  spring  of  1915, 
she  became  commandant-in-chief 
of  the  V.A.D.'s.  In  1917  she 
resigned  this  appointment  and 
became  director  of  the  Women's 
Royal  Naval  Air  Service.  She  was 
created  G.B.E.  in  1917. 

Furse,  SIR  WILLIAM  THOMAS  (b. 
1865).    British  soldier.    Born  April 
21,   1865,   he  was  the  son  of  the 
^^^^^^— i    Rev.    C.    W. 
I    Furse,    arch- 
il  deacon     of 
I    Westminster. 
Educated    at 
Eton,   he  en- 
tered the  Royal 
Artillery  in 
1884,    and    in 
1893  became  a 
Sir  W.  T.  Furse,       captain.  In  In- 
British  soldier         dia  he  wag  on 

the  staff  of  Lord  Roberts,  1891-93, 
and  having  passed  through  the 
Staff  College,  he  was  attached  to 
the  headquarters  of  the  army, 
1897-1902.  He  served  also  on  the 
staff  in  S.  Africa,  1900-1,  after 
which  he  was  on  the  staff  at  home 
from  1902-14.  In  1915  Furse 
went  to  France  in  command  of  a 
brigade.  In  1916  he  was  made 
master  of  the  ordnance  and  a 
member  of  the  army  council,  re- 
signing at  the  end  of  1919.  He  won 
the  D.S.O.  in  S.  Africa,  was 
knighted  in  1917,  and  made  a  lieu- 
tenant-general in  1919.  His 
brother,  Michael  Bolton  (b.  1870), 


Max  Fiirstenberg, 
German  prince 


was  bishop  of  Pretoria,  1909-19, 
when  he  was  appointed  bishop  of 
St.  Albans. 

Fiirstenberg.  Name  of  an  old 
German  family.  It  is  taken  from 
Fiirstenberg,  a  place  in  the  Black 
Forest,  where 
the  family  ori- 
ginally resided. 
The  castle  here 
was  built  by 
them  about 
1200,  after  they 
had  inherited 
the  lands  of  the 
Zehringen 
family.  The 
Furstenbergs 
split  up  into  a  number  of  branches, 
of  which  three  were  raised  to  the 
rank  of  princes  of  the  empire.  They 
lost  their  position  as  rulers  in 
1804  when  the  principality  of 
Fiirstenberg  was  mediatised,  but 
the  family  continued  prominent. 
The  family  is  now  represented 
by  three  branches,  one  settled 
a.t  Donauschwingen,  another  at 
Konigshof  in  Bohemia,  and  a  third 
in  Lower  Austria.  Maximilian 
Egon  (b.  1863),  prince  of  Fursten- 
berg,  the  head  of  the  Donau- 
schwingen line,  was  one  of  the 
intimate  friends  of  the  ex-kaiser 
William  II. 

For  several  centuries  Fursten- 
bergs have  been  prominent  in 
public  life  in  Germany  and  Austria, 
whether  as  soldiers,  ecclesiastics, 
or  politicians,  and  most  of  them 
have  borne  the  Christian  name  of 
Egon.  Two  notable  Furstenbergs 
were  bishops  of  Strasbourg.  Franz 
Egon  was  made  bishop  in  1663 
and  held  the  see  until  his  death  in 
1682.  His  brother,  William  Egon, 
succeeded  to  the  bishopric  and  was 
made  a  cardinal.  Both  brothers 
were  soldiers  before  they  became 
prelates.  Those  members  who  are 
not  of  princely  rank  are  known  as 
landgraves. 

Fiirstenbund  (Ger.,  league  of 
princes).  Term  specially  applied 
to  the  league  formed  by  Frederick 
the  Great  in  July,  1785,  to  main- 
tain the  existing  constitution  of 
the  Empire  as  established  by  the 
treaty  of  Westphalia.  The  emperor 
Joseph  II  was  pressing  a  scheme  for 
securing  Bavaria  for  himself  and 
in  exchange  giving  the  Netherlands 
to  the  Bavarian  ruler.  Frederick 
persuaded  the  rulers  of  Saxony  and 
Hanover — George  III  of  Great 
Britain — to  combine  with  him 
against  this  policy,  and  the  league- 
was  joined  by  the  elector  of  Mainz, 
tli3  rulers  of  Brunswick,  Baden. 
Hesse -Cassel,  Mecklenburg,  and 
others.  It  succeeded  in  stopping 
Joseph's  project,  but  did  not  long 
survive  the  death  of  its  mainstay, 
Frederick. 


FORSTENWALDE 

Furstenwalde.  Town  of  Ger- 
many, in  the  Prussian  prov.  of 
Brandenburg^  /It  is  on  the  Spree, 
92  m.  E.S.E.  of  Berlin.  A  bishop's 
seat  until  1571,  its  chief  building 
is  the  cathedral.  One  of  the  richest 
town?  in  the  prov.,  it  owns  a 
forest  of  about  12,000  acres.  The 
making  of  beer,  vinegar,  and 
starch,  and  iron-founding  are  im- 
portant industries.  Pop.  22,626. 

Ftirth.  Town  of  Germany,  in 
Bavaria.  A  rly.  junction,  5  m. 
N.W.  of  Nuremberg,  it  stands  at 
the  confluence  of  the  rivers  Pegnitz 
and  Rednitz.  Its  chief  buildings 
are  S.  Michael's  Church  and  the 
town  hall,  as  well  as  the  ruins  of  a 
castle;  there  are  other  churches 
and  several  schools,  but  nearly  all 
its  edifices  are  modern.  Its  trade 
and  population  grew  considerably 
between  1885  and  1914,  its 
chief  industries  being  printing  and 
attendant  trades,  the  making  of 
machinery,  toys,  and  fancy  goods. 
There  is  also  a  trade  in  agricultural 
produce,  and  an  annual  fair  is  held. 
It  has  a  large  Jewish  population. 
At  one  time,  under  the  burgesses  of 
Nuremberg  and  later  the  bishops 
of  Bamberg,  Fiirth  became  part  of 
Bavaria  in  1806.  Pop.  66,553. 

Furunculus  (Lat. ).  The  acute 
localised  inflammation  of  a  skin 
follicle.  See.  Boil. 

Fury  and  Hecla  Strait.  Narrow 
channel  of  the  Arctic  regions,  sep- 
arating Baffin  Bay  from  Melville 
Peninsula  on  the  S.  It  contains 
numerous  islands  and  communi- 
cates with  the  Gulf  of  Boothia  on 
the  W.,  and  with  Fox  Channel  on 
the  E.  Parry,  the  Arctic  explorer, 
discovered  the  strait  in  1822. 

Furze  OR  GORSE  (Ulex  euro- 
pens).  Shrub  of  the  natural  order 
Lejruminosae.  It  is  a  native  of 


Furze.  Left,  seedling  with  leaves,  Ulex 
europeus.  Right,  dwarf  furze,  U.  minor 

Europe,  the  Canaries,  and  Azores. 
It  varies  in  height  from  2  ft.  to 
8  ft.,  according  to  situation,  and  is 
densely  covered  with  sharp  ever- 
green spines,  which  are  mainly 
transformed  leaves.  Young  seed- 
lings have  trefoil  leaves,  and  a 
single  leaflet  is  sometimes  at- 
tached to  the  long  spines  of  older 
plants.  The  bright  yellow,  scented 


3384 

flowers  are  borne  on  the  larger 
spines,  which  are  twigs.  The  two- 
lobed  calyx  is  yellow,  like  the 
petals,  but  covered  with  short 
black  hairs.  The  black  pods  are 
about  |  in.  long,  and  hairy.  The 
seeds  bear  an  oily  attachment, 
known  as  an  elaiosome,  which  is 
relished  by  ants,  who  convey  the 
seeds  to  their  runs  to  feed  upon  this 
part.  By  this  agency  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  plant  is  effected.  The 
dwarf  furze  (U.  minor),  smaller  in 
all  its  parts,  is  native  only  in  Bel- 
gium, France,  and  Britain. 

Fusagasuga.  Town  of  Colom- 
bia, S.  America,  in  the  dept.  of 
Cundinamarca.  It  stands  at  an 
elevation  of  5,627  ft.,  28  m.  S.W.  of 
Bogota,  and  is  locally  known  as  the 
Cordilleran  Paradise.  A  summer 
resort,  it  is  one  of  the  chief  coffee- 
growing  centres  of  the  country. 
Pop.  13,443. 

Fusan.  Seaport  of  Korea  or 
Chosen,  belonging  to  Japan.  It 
stands  at  the  S.E.  extremity  of  the 
Korean  peninsula,  on  Broughton 
Strait,  7  m.  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Nak-tong  river,  and  is  the  S.  ter- 
minus of  the  rly.  from  Seoul,  dis- 
tant about  280  m.  Old  Fusan  is  the 
.native  town  and  New  Fusan  is 
mostly  inhabited  by  Japanese, 
who  virtually  control  the  trade. 

Fusan  is  a  treaty  port,  opened  to 
foreign  commerce  in  1883.  ~v  The 
harbour  is  sheltered  and  deep,  and 
the  largest  vessels  afloat  can  ap- 
proach the  quay.  Steamers  ply  to 
and  from  Nagasaki,  Port  Arthur, 
Vladivostok,  Shanghai,  Chemulpo, 
and  other  ports,  and  the  town  has 
cable  communication  with  Naga- 
saki. The  trade  is  connected  with 
cotton  fabrics,  raw  silk,  Japanese 
wares,  hides,  rice,  dried  fish,  petro- 
leum, and  beans.  Of  the  fisheries 
the  principal  catch  is  herring  and 
cod.  In  1917  the  Korean  rly. 
system,  some  1,000  m.  in  length, 
was  put  under  the  control  of  the  S. 
Manchurian  Rly.  It  extends  from 
Fusan  to  Changchun  in  the  Kirin 
prov.,  a  junction  for  the  route  to 


FUSE 

Petrograd  via  Harbin.  Since  the 
annexation  of  Korea  by  Japan  in 
1910,  the  Japanese  have  been  im- 
proving the  harbour,  making 
roads,  and  building  water  and 
electricity  works.  Pop.  47,000. 

Fusaro.  Lagoon  of  Italy.  The 
ancient  Acherusia  Palu's,  it  is  in  the 
prov.  of  Naples,  11  m.  W.  of 
Naples,  and  is  separated  from  the 
sea  by  alluvial  sand-hills.  The 
Romans  made  an  outlet  for  it  in 
the  1st  century  A.D.  During  the 
Empire  its  banks  were  studded 
with  villas,  of  which  there  are 
many  remains,  besides  tombs. 
Then,  as  now,  the  lake  was  famed 
for  its  oysters. 

Fuse  (Dim.  of  fusee,  from  Fr./M- 
st7,agun).  Means  employed  to  ignite 
a  detonator  (q.v.).  When  a  charge 
of  explosive  is  to  be  fired  instan- 
taneously the  fuse  is  made  of  quick- 
match.  When  such  delay  as  enables 
the  firing  party  to  get  to  a  safe  dis- 


Fusan,  the  Japanese  port  in  the  south-eastern  extremity 
of  Korea 


Fuse.   Electric  fuse-box  opened  with 
"  cartridge  "  in  place 

tance  is  needed,  a  safety  fuse  of  fine 
gunpowder  is  used.  For  blasting 
purposes  an  electric  fuse  is  some- 
times used.  It  consists  of  a  small 
copper  case  containing  fulminating 
powder,  to  which  the  conductor  ter- 
minals are  secured.  A  fine  wire, 
passing  through  the  detonator,  con- 
nects the  terminals.  When  an 
electric  current  is  switched  on,  the 
thin  wire  is  heated  by  its  passage 
and  ignites  the 
powder.  In  another 
type  the  fuse  wire 
is  omitted  and  the 
ends  of  the  con- 
ductor wires  are 
brought  nearer 
together  within 
the  detonator ;  in 
this  case  the 
current,  leaping 
across  the  gap, 
causes  a  spark 
which  ignites  the 
charge.  ; 

In  the  case  of 
shells,  a  fuse  forms 
part  of  the  pro- 
jectile, and  acts  at 


FUSELAGE 


3385  ! 


FUSHUN 


the  instant  the  shell  grazes  the 
target  (percussion  fuse),  or  it  can 
be  "  set "  to  cause  explosion  of 
the  shell  during  flight  (time  fuse). 
See  Am  munition ;  Detonating  Fuse; 
Explosives ;  Safety  Fuse  ;  Shell ; 
Shrapnel. 

ELECTBIC  FUSE.  The  electric 
fuse  is  an  important  element  in 
the  transmission  and  distribution 
of  electric  current.  In  all  practical 


0. 


Fuse.    1.  Bare  wire  fuse.     2  and  3. 
Asbestos-covered  wires.     4.  "  Car- 
tridge "    variety     (as     shown     in 
opposite  page) 

systems  for  the  distribution  of 
power  it  is  necessary  to  provide 
something  in  the  nature  of  a  relief 
which  will  operate  when  excessive 
local  stress  or  pressure  threatens 
danger  to  the  system.  In  a  steam, 
water,  or  air  system  this  relief  is 
provided  by  safety-valves,  supple- 
mented frequently  in  the  case  of 
steam  by  fusible  plugs. 

In  an  electrical  system  the  relief 
is  mostly  provided  by  fuses  which 
are  designed  to  carry  the  ordinary 
amount  of  current  in  a  particular 
circuit,  and  to  melt  and  break  the 
circuit  automatically  should  the 
current  become  so  great  as  to  heat 
the  other  parts  of  the  circuit  beyond 
the  limit  of  safety.  Hence  the  fuse 
is  made  of  such  materials  and 
dimensions  that  its  resistance  is 
greater  than  that  of  an  equal 
length  of  any  other  part  of  the  cir- 
cuit, and  in  consequence  it  is 
always  when  current  is  passing 
at  a  higher  temperature  than  the 


Fuse.  Porcelain  holder,  in  which 
the  fuse  is  embedded,  so  that  if  the 
latter  melts  there  is  no  danger  of  fire 


rest  of  the  circuit,  while,  its  melting 
point  being  low  as  compared  with 
that  of  the  other  materials  of  the 
circuit,  it  is  ready  to  give  way  first. 

The  material  used  for  fuses  is 
generally  an  alloy  of  tin  and  lead, 
bismuth  being  sometimes  added  to 
lower  still  further  the  melting 
point.  A  fine  copper  wire  is  some- 
times used,  while  various  special 
kinds  of  "  fuse  wire  "  are  prepared 
by  makers.  It  is  important  that  the 
fuse,  whatever  it  is,  should  be  so 
long  that  when  it  goes  there  will  be 
no  risk  of  the  formation  of  a  spark 
across  the  space  formerly  occupied 
by  the  fuse — the  current  must  be 
completely  broken  ;  also  that  the 
material  should  be  such  that  it 
melts  quietly  without  throwing 
splashes  of  molten  metal  where 
they  may  ignite  anything  and  thus 
give  rise  to  a  fire.  Hence  the  fuse 
is  usually  fixed  between  two  hard 
brass  clamps  secured  on  a  small 
slab  of  porcelain.  Frequently  the 
fuse  is  enclosed  bodily  in  a  porce- 
lain tube  or  case,  while  the  space 
about  it  is  packed  with  some  non- 
conducting material  which  will 
effectually  prevent  the  passage  of  a 
spark  or  the  formation  of  an  arc 
between  the  interrupted  terminals 
when  the  fuse  "  blows." 

Fuselage.  Central  body  of  a 
tractor  aeroplane.  It  is  derived 
from  the  French  fusel,  as  the 
original  body  of  this  type  had  a 
certain  resemblance  to  a  gigantic 
shuttle.  The  term  fuselage  is  most 
properly  applied  to  the  clearly  de- 
fined body  of  the  tractor  biplane, 
but  it  is  used  generally  to  describe 
the  centre  part  or  body  of  any 
machine.  See  Aeroplane,  illus. 

Fuseli,  HENRY  (1741-1825). 
Anglo -Swiss  painter.  Born  at 
Zurich,  the  second  son  of  Johann 
Kaspar  Fuess- 
ly,  artist,  and 
educated  for 
the  Church,  he 
had  to  leave 
Zurich  owing  to 
the  enmity  of  a 
public  official 
whom  he  had 
exposed.  He 
came  to  Eng- 
land in  1765» 
and  secured  the  good  offices  of 
Sir  Joshua  Reynolds.  On  his 
advice  Fuseli  studied  in  Italy  from 
1770-88,  and  then  returned  to 
England.  In  1782  he  produced  his 
gruesome  and  notorious  picture, 
The  Nightmare.  Nine  pictures 
for  Boydell's  Shakespeare  Gallery, 
and  47  for  a  Milton  Gallery  of  his 
own,  were  his  only  other  achieve- 
ments. He  became  R.A.  in  1790, 
lecturer  on  painting  in  1799, 
and  keeper  in  1804.  He  died  at 
Putney,  April  16,  1825. 


Henry  Fuseli, 
Anglo-Swiss  painter 


Fusel  Oil  (Ger.,  bad  spirits)  OB 
AMYLIO  ALCOHOL.  Volatile  liquid 
present  in  the  products  of  the  alco- 
holic fermentation  of  saccharine 
liquids,  especially  those  derived 
from  potato  starch.  It  is  a  com- 
plex liquid  and  varies  according  to 
the  source  of  the  alcohol,  and  the 
proportion  obtained  is  influenced 
by  the  activity  of  the  particular 
bacteria  which  form  amylic  alco- 
hol. Fernbach  has  developed  a  pro- 
cess for  increasing  the  yield  of  this 
alcohol,  which  is  required  in  con- 
nexion with  the  manufacture  of 
rubber  by  synthetic  methods.  As 
a  rule,  however,  in  commercial  pro- 
cesses, methods  by  which  the  for- 
mation is  stimulated  are  avoided, 
as  its  presence  in  potable  spirits 
is  undesirable.  To  remove  even 
small  quantities  from  whisky  pro- 
longed storage  in  wooden  casks  is 
needed.  See  Alcohol. 

Fushiki  OB  FUSHIGI.  Seaport  of 
Japan,  on  the  island  of  Honshiu. 
It  stands  on  the  W.  coast,  30  m. 
N.E.  of  Kanazawa.  Since  1889  it 
has  been  a  free  port.  Pop.  19,000. 

Fushimi.  Town  of  Japan,  on 
the  island  of  Honshiu.  It  is  on  the 
river  Ujigawa,  5  m.  S.E.  of  Kyoto; 
and  130  m.  S.W.  of  Niigata.  In 
Jan.,  1868,  a  fierce  conflict  took 
place  here  between  the  Imperialists 
and  the  supporters  of  the  Shogun. 
Pop.  about  20,000. 

Fushimi,  PRINCE  SAVANARU  (b. 
1858).  Japanese  prince  and  soldier. 
Born  April  28, 
1858,  he  was 
head  of  the 
oldest  of  the 
princely  fami- 
lies of  Japan. 
He  served  in 
the  wars  with 
China  and 
Russia.  He  at- 
tended the  fun- 
eral of  King 
Edward  in  1910,  and  was  granted 
the  title  of  marshal  in  1915. 

Fushimi,  PRINCE  YOROHITO  OF 
HIGASHI  (1867-1922).  .Japanese 
prince  and  sailor.  Born  on  Sept.  19, 
1867,  the  son  of  Prince  Kuniiye,  he 
was  educated  partly  in  England, 
attending  lectures  at  the  Royal 
Naval  College  at  Greenwich,  and 
later  at  the  fioole  Navale,  Brest. 
He  saw  active  service  in  the 
Chino- Japanese  War  of  1894  and 
the  Russo-Japanese  War.  In  June, 
1918,  he  was  appointed  to  the 
war  council,  and  died  June  26, 1922. 

Fushuh.  Town  of  Manchuria, 
in  the  prov.  of  Shengking.  It  is 
noted  for  its  coalfields,  which  are 
said  to  be  unparalleled  for  thick- 
ness and  volume  of  seams,  and  are 
estimated  to  contain  800,000,000 
tons.  The  collieries  belong  to  the 
South  Manchuria  Rly.  Co. 


Prince  S.  Fushimi, 
Japanese  soldier 


FUSIBILITY 


3386 


FUST 


Fusibility.  Name  given  to  that 
physical  property  by  virtue  of 
which  matter  may  be  melted  or 
rendered  fluid  if  heated  to  a  suffi- 
ciently high  temperature  under 
suitable  conditions.  It  is  obviously 
a  very  valuable  and  important 
property,  as  it  is  solely  due  to  it 
that  objects  can  be  cast  in  metal. 
It  thus  constitutes  very  largely  the 
foundation  of  the  art  of  metal- 
lurgy. While  all  the  metals  are 
fusible  they  melt  at  very  different 
temperatures,  ranging  all  the  way 
from  =39°  C.  (=70°  F.),  the  melt- 
ing  point  of  solid  mercury,  to 
1,740°  C.  or  3,167°  F.,  the  approxi- 
mate temperature  at  which  plati- 
num melts.  At  whatever  tempera- 
ture the  melting  takes  place  it  is 
always  accompanied  by  the  ab- 
sorption of  heat  which  becomes 
"  latent "  and  a  change  of  volume. 
In  most  cases  this  change  is  one 
of  expansion,  but  bismuth,  for  ex- 
ample, contracts  in  volume  on 
fusion.  See  Liquation ;  Metal. 

Fusible  Metals.  Metal  alloys 
which  melt  at  comparatively  low 
temperatures.  Newton  devised 
such  an  alloy ;  while  one  composed 
of  15  parts  bismuth,  8  lead,  4  tin, 
and  3  cadmium,  known  as  Wood's 
metal,  will  melt  at  155°  F.,  and 
another  (Rose's  metal)  composed  of 
8  parts  bismuth,  8  lead,  and  3  tin 
will  melt  at  203°  F.  Both  these 
metals,  therefore,  will  melt  in  boil- 
ing water.  The  "  magic  spoon  "  of 
the  conjuror  which  melts  in  a  cup 
of  tea  is  made  of  such  a  metal.  By 
varying  the  proportions  of  the  con- 
stituents, alloys  of  tin  and  lead, 
or  tin,  lead,  and  bismuth,  can  be 
made  which  will  melt  at  from 
202°  F.  to  380°  F.  Some  of  these 
have  an  important  use  in  the 
manufacture  of  fusible  plugs  for 
steam  boilers.  These  plugs,  being 
inserted  in  the  furnace  plates  of  a 
boiler,  will  melt  if  the  plate,  owing 
to  any  circumstance — shortness  of 
water  or  scaling — becomes  dan- 
gerously overheated,  and,  by  per- 
mitting the  steam  to  escape,  may 
prevent  a  serious  accident.  They 
are  also  of  use  in  electrotyping  on 
account  of  their  property  of  ex- 
panding on  cooling,  and  so  giving 
clean-cut  impressions  of  moulds. 
See  Alloy. 

Fusil.  French  term  for  the 
infantry  magazine  rifle,  e.g.  the  fusil 
Lebe.l ;  also  a  light  form  of  flint  lock 
musket  formerly  used  in  the  British 
army.  In  1857  a  Serjeant's  fusil 
was  issued  weighing  8  Ib.  10£  oz. 
to  fire  the  Enfield  rifle  ammunition, 
and  in  1858  a  smooth-bore  fusil 
weighing  7  Ib.  12£  oz.  was  issued  to 
Serjeants  of  native  Indian  regi- 
ments. Probably  the  original  was 
the  fusil  mousquet  of  Vauban, 
which  was  so  contrived  that  in  case 


the  flint  did  not  strike  fire,  the 
powder  might  be  ignited  by  means 
of  a  small  match  which  was  fixed 
to  the  breech.  The  word,  derived 
from  late  Lat.  focile,  a  steel  for 
kindling  fire,  originally  had  the 
same  meaning  in  French.  See  Fire- 
arms ;  Flint  Lock ;  Matchlock. 

Fusil.  In  heraldry,  an  elongated 
lozenge.  A  fusil  may  be  pierced.  A 
shield  divided  by  diagonal  lines 
crossing  each  other  so  as  to  form 
acute  pointed  lozenges  is  said  to  be 
"fusily."  See  Lozenge. 

Fusilier.  Formerly  the  designa- 
tion of  special  bodies  of  troops 
equipped  with  a  fusil  or  light  flint 
lock  musket  at  a  time  when  the 
matchlock  was  the  standard 
military  fire-arm.  It  is  now  only 
the  distinctive  regimental  name  of 
certain  corps  of  infantry  who  are 
armed  exactly  the  same  as  inf  antry 
of  the  line. 

The  first  mention  of  fusiliers 
occurs  about  1643,  when  they 
were  organized  as  companies  dur- 
ing the  Thirty  Years'  War.  At 
that  time  they  were  mounted,  and 
only  differed  from  the  carabiniers 
in  that  they  were  armed  with  the 
flint  lock  musket.  Following  the 
lead  set  by  France,  various  Euro- 
pean armies  introduced  these 
troops  of  fusiliers  between  1670 
and  1680  to  act  as  an  escort  for  the 
artillerymen,  who  at  that  time 
were  hired  by  contract  for  the 
campaign,  an  escort  being  con- 
sidered desirable  not  only  to  pro- 
tect them  from  hostile  attack,  but 
also  to  keep  a  close  watch  on  them 
in  case  of  treachery.  As  the  cannon 
were  served  with  loose  powder 
from  open  barrels,  it  was  not  safe 
for  the  escort  to  be  armed  with ' 
muskets  requiring  the  use  of  burn- 
ing match ;  consequently  the 
fusiliers  were  detailed  for  this  duty. 

The  general  adoption  of  the 
flint  lock  musket  as  the  standard 
military  fire-arm  made  unneces- 
sary the  use  of  special  troops  as 
artillery  escort,  and,  owing  to  the 
fusiliers  having  become  accus- 
tomed to  act  as  independent  units, 
the  regiments  were  largely  em- 
ployed as  light  infantry  and  not  as 
line  troops.  The  fusiliers  were  re- 
garded as  corps  d' elite  and  the 
lowest  commissioned  rank  was 
second  lieutenant,  the  junior  of 
whom  took  precedence  of  all  en- 
signs ;  but  at  present  they  enjoy 
no  privileges  other  than  those  of 
the  infantry. 

The  senior  fusilier  regiment  of 
the  British  Army  is  the  Royal  Fusi- 
liers (City  of  London  Regiment), 
formed  in  1685.  The  Scots  Fusi- 
lier Guards  relinquished  the  title 
fusiliers  in  1877  and  became  the 
Scots  Guards.  Other  famous 
British  regiments  of  fusiliers  are 


the  Northumberland,  Lancashire, 
Royal  Scots,  Royal  Welch,  Royal 
Inniskilling,  Royal  Irish,  Mun- 
ster,  and  Dublin  Fusiliers.  The 
distinctive  uniform  of  British 
fusilier  regiments  is  the  bear-skin 
cap  (often  erroneously  termed  a 
busby)  of  similar  design  to,  but 
smaller  than,  those  worn  by  the 
foot  guards.  See  Army,  British ; 
also  colour  plate. 

Fusion  (Lat.  fusio,  fusion).  The 
change  of  state  from  solid  to  liquid 
form  of  a  substance,  occasionally 
spoken  of  as  liquefaction.  The  tem- 
perature at  which  a  solid  melts 
cannot  always  bs  determined  with 
great  accuracy,  especially  in  regard 
to  such  substances  as  pitch,  glass, 
etc.,  which  slowly  change  from  the 
solid  to  the  liquid  state  as  the  tem- 
perature rises.  Though  theoretic- 
ally the  fusion  point  of  a  solid  is 
the  same  as  the  freezing  point  of 
the  liquid  form  of  the  substance, 
the  two  temperatures  do  not 
always  coincide  in  practice,  chiefly 
because  a  substance  may  "  over 
cool  "  before  the  change  of  state 
takes  place.  The  fusion  point  of  a 
solid  varies  only  slightly  with 
variation  of  pressure.  See  Freez- 
ing Point;  Melting  Point. 

Fussen.  Town  of  Germany,  in 
Bavaria.  It  is  situated  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Lech,  about  56  m.  S.  W. 
of  Augsburg.  It  is  a  popular  sum- 
mer resort  and  dates  from  an  early 
period,  the  Benedictine  abbey  of 
S.  Magnus,  it  is  said,  having  been 
founded  here  in  629.  Its  principal 
centre  of  interest  is  the  15th  century 
castle  of  the  bishops  of  Augsburg, 
which  stands  on  an  eminence  over- 
looking the  town.  The  church  of  S. 
Magnus,  dating  from  1701,  was  con- 
structed on  an  older  foundation, 
a  Romanesque  crypt.  Near  by 
istheCalvarienberg  (3,130  ft.). 

Fust    OR    FAUST,    JOHANN   (d. 
1466).    German  printer.     With  Jo- 
hann  Gutenberg,  and  Gutenberg's 
son-in-law,  Peter  Schoeffer,  Fust, 
who  is  not  to 
be  confounded 
with  the  Faust 
I    of     German 
I   legend,    was 
I    prominent     in 
f    the     introduc- 
tion   of    typo- 
graphical 
printing  in  Ger- 
Johann  Fust,         many.  He  was 
German  printer        a  wealthy  gold- 
From  a  print  smith  of  Mainz, 

and  financed  Gutenberg's  printing 
office  there.  He  foreclosed  on  a 
mortgage  and  carried  on  the  busi- 
ness with  Schoeffer,  one  of  the  mas- 
terpieces of  this  partnership  being  a 
LatinPsalter,1457,theinitialletters 
in  which  were  printedin  redand  blue. 
Fust  died  in  Paris  of  the  plague. 


FUSTEL  DE  COULANGES 


3387 


FUTURISM 


Fustel  de  Coulanges,  NUMA 
DENIS  (1830-89).  French  historian. 
Born  and  educated  in  Paris,  he 
studied  for  a  time  in  Greece  and 
then  returned  to  France  to  teach 
and  study  history,  especially  that 
of  the  early  ages.  From  1860-70 
he  was  professor  at  Strasbourg  ; 
after  1870  he  lectured  in  Paris  ;  in 
1878  he  was  made  professor  of 
medieval  history  at  the  Sorbonne, 
and  from  1880  until  his  death  was 
director  of  the  Ecole  Normale.  Fus- 
tel was  probably  the  most  able,  and 
certainly  the  most  uncompromis- 
ing, member  of  the  band  of  histor- 
ians who  combated  the  theory  that 
the  early  institutions  of  France  were 
mainly  of  Teutonic  origin.  In  six 
volumes  he  showed  how  the  influ- 
ence of  Rome  survived  there,  and 
how  the  Teutonic  invaders  did 
little  more  than  fall  under  it.  Fus- 
tel's  best -known  work,  however,  is 
La  Cite  Antique,  published  in  1864. 
The  main  idea  of  this  book  is 
that  religion  was  the  chief  force 
in  the  development  of  the  ancient 
states  of  Greece  and  Italy. 

Fustian.  Thick  short-piled  cot- 
ton fabric,  mostly  used  for  work- 
men's clothes.  The  term  is  applied 
to  clothes  of  the  nature  of  velvet, 
e.g.  velveteen,  moleskin,  and  cor- 
duroy. The  early  fustians  seem  to 
have  been  made  of  cotton  or  of  cot- 
ton weft  and  linen  warp.  The  manu- 
facture of  fustian  was  apparently 
introduced  into  England  in  the 
14th  century  by  the  Flemings,  the 
first  English-made  fustians  being 
woollen.  Spain  and  Italy  were 
noted  for  their  fustians,  those  made 
at  Naples  becoming  so  popular  as 
to  be  specially  described  as  fustian 
of  Naples,  a  term  which  became 
corrupted  into  such  strange  forms 
as  fustian  anapes,  fustian  and  apes, 
fustianapes,  and  fustniapes.  The 
name  fustian  is  said  to  come  from 
Fostat,  near  Cairo,  where  the  stuff 
was  made.  Rum  fustian  is  an  old 
Oxford  University  "  night-cap,"  a 
kind  of  egg  flip.  The  use  of  the 
word  "  fustian "  for  pompous  or 
unseasonably  lofty  language  is  due 
to  the  idea  of  stuffing  or  padding. 

Fustic.  Name  given  to  two 
yellow  dye  materials  known  respec- 
tively as  old  fustic,  obtained  from 
the  wood  of  Morus  tincloria,  and 
young  fustic  from  Rhus  cotinus. 
Both  plants  are  grown  in  the  West 
Indies,  but  young  fustic  is  also 
found  in  southern  Europe.  The 
colouring  matters  from  young  fus- 
tic are  called  fustin  and  fisetin, 
whilst  those  from  Morus  linctoria 
are  morin  and  maclurin.  In  wool 
dyeing  fustic  is  an  important 
natural  yellow  dye. 

Fusulina  Beds.  In  geology, 
great  thicknesses  of  limestone. 
Made  up  to  a  great  extent  of  fossil 


remains  of  chambered  shells  of 
Foraminifera,  including  species  of 
Fusilina,  they  are  well  developed 
in  carboniferous  rocks  of  Russia 
and  Ural  Mts.,  and  in  Japan,  China, 
and  N.  America. 

Futa  Jallon  OB  FOUTA  D.IALLON 
Region  of  French  W.  Africa,  form- 
ing the  N.W.  portion  of  French 
Guinea.  Area,  42,000  sq.  m.  It  is 
a  mountainous  country,  rising  in 
parts  to  over  5,000  ft.,  with  fertile 
valleys,  containing  the  head- 
streams  of  the  Gambia,  Senegal, and 
Niger  rivers.  Cattle,  sheep,  and 
horses  are  raised  in  large  numbers, 
and  cereals,  coffee,  and  cotton  are 
produced.  The  rly.  from  Kankan, 
on  the  Milo  tributary  of  the  Niger, 
and  Karussa  on  the  Niger,  to  the 
port  of  Konakry,  touches  Timbo, 
the  capital,  in  the  S.  part  of  the 
territory.  The  inhabitants  are 
Fulahs,  who  settled  here  in  the 
16th  century.  They  are  Mahome- 
dans,  and  number  about  700,000. 
See  Guinea,  French. 

Futrelle,  JACQUES' (1875-1912). 
American  novelist.  Born  in  Pike 
co.,  Georgia,  Futrelle  had  a  wide 
experience  as  journalist,  and  was 
for  some  years  a  theatrical  manager 
in  America.  He  wrote  a  number 
of  light  novels  and  some  clever 
detective  tales,  among  which  may 
be  mentioned  The  Thinking  Ma- 
chine, 1907  ;  Elusive  Isabel,  1909  ; 
The  Professor  on  the  Case,  1909  ; 
The  Lady  in  the  Case,  1910  ;  The 
Diamond  Master,  1912 ;  and 
Blind  Man's  Buff,  1914.  He  was 
drowned  in  the 
wreck  of  the  Ti- 
tanic April  15,191 2. 

Future  ( L  a  t . 
futurus,  about  to 
be).  In  grammar, 
the  tense  used  to 
indicate  that  some- 
thing will  be  or  will 
take  place.  In 
modern  languages 
it  is  expressed  by 
the  aid  of  auxili- 
aries or  peri- 
phrases :  I  shall  go, 
ich  werde  gehen. 
French  aimerai  is 
really  a  corruption 
of  amare  ftabeo  (T 
have  to  love),  a 
method  of  forma- 
tion which  prob- 
ably underlies 
the  Latin  amabo. 

Future.    Busi 

ness  term  for  goods 
to  be  shipped  at 
some  future  time. 
Merchants  and 
others  speculate  in 
futures,  especially 
of  corn,  cotton, 


hops,  etc.,  variations  in  freight  rates 
and  in  market  conditions  generally 
providing  an  ample  gambling 
element.  The  word  is  confined  in 
practice  to  foreign  produce. 

Futurism.  Name  given  to  an 
art  movement  which  originated  at 
Turin  in  Italy  in  March,  1910.  It 
owed  its  inception  mainly  to  F.  T. 
Marinetti,  the  Italian  poet.  It 
preached  the  renovation  of  Italian 
art.  It  declared  that  art  could  live 
only  by  its  emancipation  from  the 
past.  It  repudiated  tradition, 
academic  training,  museums,  pic- 
ture galleries,  the  art  of  previous 
ages,  and  other  similar  "fetters" 
on  art  progress.  In  literature,  ex- 
periments were  made  by  Marinetti 
and  others  to  convey  emotions 
directly  to  the  reader's  eye  by  the 
use  of  varying  types,  suggestive 
arrangements  of  spacing  and  lines, 
and  other  devices.  An  account  of 
scenes  in  the  Balkan  wars  was 
written  by  Marinetti  and  read 
to  a  phonetic  accompaniment  of 
drums,  crashing  metal  instruments, 
etc.  It  endeavoured  to  introduce 
into  the  art  of  painting  a  "poetry 
of  motion,"  whereby,  for  example, 
the  painted  gesture  should  cease 
to  be  a  fixed  momentary  thing 
and  become  actually  "  a  dynamic 
condition."  The  weakness  of  the 
proposition  lies  in  the  fact  that 
kinetics  cannot  be  realized  by 
static  qualities.  Successive  scenes 
witnessed,  for  instance,  from  a 
train  in  motion  were  depicted  on 
a  canvas  as  though  they  had  been 


Futurism.     La  Modiste  (the  dressmaker),  a  Futurist 
painting  by  Gino  Severini,  exhibited  at  Paris  in  1912 


FYEN 

simultaneous,  the  result  being  con- 
fusion. This  aim  was  further  com- 
plicated by  a  sort  of  psychological 
bias  which  was  expressed  in  the 
Futurists'  effort  to  indicate,  in  the 
painting  of  a  scene,  not  only  the 
state  of  mind  of  the  painter  but 
also  that  of  the  person  or  persons 
depicted  in  the  picture. 

A  picture,  according  to  the  Fu- 
turist manifesto,  "  must  be  a  syn- 
thesis of  what  one  remembers  and 
what  one  sees."  Thus  a  Futurist 
would  paint  not  only  what  he  saw 
before  him,  but  would  combine 
with  it  the  recollection  of  previous 
scenes  which  lingered  in  his  mind, 
and  also  attempt  to  give,  in  the 
same  picture,  some  idea  of  the 
sitter's  sensations.  These  sensa- 
tions were  to  be  represented  by 
"  force  lines  and  rhythms."  Also 
objects  and  personages  were  to  be 
studied  from  all  sides  so  that  all 
aspects  of  things,  visible  and  in- 
visible, front  and  back,  should  be 
painted  in  a  picture.  The  results 
were  frequently  mirth -provoking. 
The  original  Futurists  included 
Marinetti  and  the  Italian  painters 
Boccioni,  Carra,  Russolo,  Balla, 
and  Severini.  The  first  exhibition 
of  Italian  Futurist  painting  was 
held  in  1911  in  Paris,  whence  it 
was  transferred  to  London  in 
March,  1912.  See  Art. 

Fyen.  Variant  spelling  of  the 
island  of  Denmark  more  generally 
known  as  Funen  (q.v.). 

Fyfe,  HAMILTON  (b.  1869). 
British  journalist  and  author. 
Eldest  son  of  J.  Hamilton  Fyfe, 
barrister  and  journalist,  he  was 
educated  at  Fettes  College,  Edin- 
burgh. After  varied  service  on 
The  Times,  he  edited  The  Morning 
Advertiser,  1902-3,  and  The  Daily 
Mirror,  1903-5.  From  1905  until 
1919  he  was  special  correspondent 
of  The  Daily  Mail,  which  he  repre- 
sented, during  the  Great  War,  in 
France,  Russia,  Rumania,  Italy, 
Spain,  Portugal,  and  the  U.S.A. 
He  wrote  one  of  the  famous  Amiens 
dispatches  published  in  The  Times 
of  Aug.  30,  1914,  giving  the  first 
news  of  the  reverse  at  Mons.  He 
was  hon.  attache,  British  war 
mission  to  the  U.S.A.,  1917,  and  in 
charge  of  British  propaganda  in 
Germany,  July-Nov.,  1918.  In 
addition  to  The  New  Spirit  in 
Egypt,  1910;  The  Real  Mexico, 
1914;  and  The  Meaning  of  the 
World  Revolution,  1919,  he  has 
written  several  plays  and  novels, 
including  The  Widow's  Cruse, 
1920.  He  became  editor  of  The 
Daily  Herald,  1922. 

Fyffe,  CHARLES  ALAN  (1845-92). 
British  historian.  Born  at  Black- 
heath,  Dec.  3,  1845,  he  was  the 
son  of  a  doctor.  Educated  at 
Balliol  College,  Oxford,  he  served 


3388 

for  some  years  as  fellow  bursar  of 
University  College.  A  barrister,  he 
acted  as  correspondent  for  The 
Daily  News  in  the  Franco-Prussian 
War,  but  he  is  chiefly  known  by 
his  History  of  Modern  Europe, 
embracing  the  period  from  the 
French  Revolution  to  1878,  3  vols., 
1880-90.  Politically,  he  was  a 
strong  radical.  He  died  Feb.  19, 
1892. 

Fylde.  Name  given  to  the 
district  in  Lancashire  between  the 
estuaries  of  the  rivers  Wyre  and 
Ribble.  It  is  a  flat  area  devoted 
mainly  to  agriculture. 

Fylfot.     In  heraldry,  the  cross 

fammadion,  or  cramponed  cross. 
t  is  celebrated  in  occult  science, 
and  is  a  modi- 
fication of  the 
extremely  an- 
cient Oriental 
Swastika  (q.v.). 
Each  limb  is 
terminated  by 
a  crutch-like 


is  the  lucky  or  beneficent  fylfot  ;  if 
the  projections  are  reversed  it  is  a 
"  black  "  or  evil  sign.  The  word 
is  probably  a  corruption  of  fill- 
foot,  meaning  a  space  in  a  painted 
window  which  fills  the  foot. 

Fyne.  Sea  loch  of  Argyllshire, 
Scotland.  It  extends  S.W.  and  S. 
for  40  m.  from  above  Inveraray  to 
its  mouth  at  the  Sound  of  Bute, 
with  a  breadth  of  from  1  m.  to  5  m. 
Its  arms  are  E.  Loch  Tarbert  (with 
Tarbert  village),  Loch  Gilp  (with 
Lochgilphead,  Ardrishaig,  and  the 
Crinan  Canal),  Loch  Shira,  and 
Loch  Gair. 

Fyrd  (A.S.,  army).  Name  given 
to  the  army,  or  rather  militia,  of 
England  in  Anglo-Saxon  times. 
It  is  first  mentioned  in  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  Chronicle  as  existing  about 
600,  and  consisted  apparently  of 
all  able-bodied  men.  They  were 
called  out  in  times  of  clanger  by 
the  shireman  or  sheriff,  each  shire 
having  its  own  fyrd.  In  the  7th 
century  laws  laid  down  penalties 
for  neglecting  this  duty.  Called 
fyrdwite,  the  fines  varied,  ac- 
cording to  the  rank  of  the  offender, 
from  forfeiture  of  his  land  to  a 
moderate  fine. 

The  fyrd  was  reorganized  by 
Alfred  the  Great  and  was  used  to 
fight  the  Danish  invaders.  It  sur- 
vived the  Norman  Conquest,  but 
was  not  used  abroad,  the  idea  that 
it  was  a  defensive  force  only  being 
very  strong.  It  did  good  work  at 
the  battle  of  the  Standard  and  in 
other  fights  against  the  Scots  and 
Welsh,  but  from  about  the  time  of 
Edward  I  its  place  was  taken  by 
commissions  of  array  and  the 
militia.  See  Militia. 


F.Z.S. 

Fysh,  SIR  PHILIP  OAKLEY  (b. 
1835).  Australian  politician.  Born 
in  England,  March  1,  1835,  he 
settled  in  Tasmania  and  was 
elected  to  the  legislative  council  in 
1866.  Treasurer  in  Kennerley's 
ministry,  1873-75,  he  became 
premier,  1877-78,  and  again,  1887- 
92.  A  delegate  for  Tasmania  to 
the  federal  conventions  of  1891, 
A 1897,  and  1898,  he  held  a  similar 
position  in  the  Federal  Council  of 

Australasia,  ^ 

and  was  one  of    | 

the   delegates    I 

to   London   in    :» 

1900    in    con-    ij-'MK 

nexion    with    p 

the   formation    | 

of    the    Com-    f; 

monwealth    of  ^^ 

Australia.     He 

was     knighted 

mast^enerti 
for  the  Com- 
monwealth, 1903-4,  he  then  be- 
came minister  without  portfolio 
and  retired  in  1910. 

Fyt,  JAN  (1609-61).  Flemish 
painter.  Born  at  Antwerp,  he 
studied  under  Jan  van  Berch.  He 
achieved  great  renown  as  an 
animal  painter  and  was  employed 
by  Rubens,  Jordaens,  and  De 
Crayer  to  introduce  animals,  es- 
pecially dogs,  into  their  pictures. 
Most  of  the  European  galleries 
contain  examples  of  his  art.  He 
died  at  Antwerp. 

Fytton  OR  FITTON.  Name  of  an 
English  family  associated  for  many 
generations  with  Gawsworth  (q.v.), 
Cheshire.  Most  of  the  monuments 
in  the  Norman  church  at  Gaws- 
worth are  to  the  memory  of  mem- 
bers of  this  family.  The  first 
Sir  Thomas  Fytton  lived  in  the 
time  of  Edward  II.  Sir  Edward 
Fytton  (1527-79)  was  lord  presi- 
dent of  Connaught,  1569-72;  since 
the  appearance  of  Thomas  Tyler's 
edition  of  Shakespeare's  Sonnets 
in  1880,  his  grand-daughter  Mary, 
maid  of  honour  to  Queen  Eliza- 
beth and  mistress  of  William  Her- 
bert, 3rd  earl  of  Pembroke,  has 
figured  as  the  Dark  Lady  (q.v.). 

Sir  Edward  Fytton,  who  was  on 
the  side  of  Charles  I  at  Edge- 
hill,  was  killed  at  the  siege  of 
Bristol  in  1643.  Sir  Alexander 
Fytton  became  lord  chancellor  of 
Ireland,  lost  the  Gawsworth  estates 
by  litigation,  was  attainted  after 
the  abdication  of  James  II,  and 
died  at  St.  Germains  in  1699.  See 
Life  of  William  Shakespeare,  S. 
Lee,  revised  ed.  1915;  The  "Dark 
Lady"  of  Gawsworth,  C.  H.  Her- 
ford,  in  The  Manchester  Guardian, 
Feb.  3,  1920.  ~") 

F.Z.S.  Abbreviation  for  Fellow 
of  the  Zoological  Society. 


G  Seventh  letter  of  the  Eng- 
0  lish  and  Latin  alphabets. 
It  is  a  soft  guttural  or 
throat  sound,  the  corresponding 
hard  letter  being  k  (c).  It  was 
a  later  addition  to  the  Latin 
alphabet,  being  a  modified  form  of 
C,  which  had  hitherto  done  duty 
for  the  sounds  of  both  C  and  G. 
In  English  it  has  two  sounds,  the 
one  hard,  as  in  gate,  the  other  soft, 
mostly  before  e,  i,  and  y,  as  in  gen- 
der, ginger,  gypsy.  In  the  word  gaol 
also  it  is  pronounced  as  j.  Before 
n  it  is  mute,  as  in  gnat,  reign,  or 
lengthens  the  preceding  vowel  as 
in  resign.  The  combination  gh, 
when  initial,  corresponds  to  the 
first  value  of  g,  as  in  ghost  ;  when 
medial,  it  is  mute,  as  in  brought. 
and  sometimes  when  final,  as  in 
bough,  though  it  often  has  the 
sound  of  f  as  in  rough,  enough.  See 
Alphabet  ;  C  ;  Phonetics. 

G.   Fifth  note  of  the  major  scale 
of  C.    It  is  a  perfect  fifth  above  C, 
and  is  known  as  the  dominant  of 
the  key  of  C.     The  treble  clef  sign 
was  originally  a 
.  Q      ft      -«.    form  of  the  let-. 


Zealand  Army  Corps,  under  Bird- 
wood,  sailed  from  Mudros,  April  24, 
1915.  Reaching  the  Gallipoli  coast 
early  next  morning,  they  began 
landing  on  the  beach  designated  Z, 
afterwards  called  Anzac,  about  2 
m.  N.  of  Gaba  Tepe.  The  beach  is 
a  narrow  strip  of  sand,  1,000  yds. 
long,  with  small  headlands  at 
either  end,  and  backed  by  high 
cliffs  forming  the  seaward  termina- 
tion of  Sari  Bair  (Bahr),  a  hill,  971 
ft.,  dominating  the  district.  Leap- 
ing from  the  boats,  the  Australians 
of  the  3rd  Brigade,  under  Col. 
Sinclair  Maclagan,  put  the  Turks 
to  flight  with  the  bayonet,  and 
advanced  in  open  order  up  the 
cliffs.  The  1st  and  2nd  Australian 
Brigades  thereafter  disembarked, 


and  by  2  p.m.  12,000  men  and 
two  batteries  of  Indian  mountain 
artillery  were  ashore. 

Confused  fighting  took  place  at 
first,  some  of  the  attackers  advanc- 
ing too  far  inland,  but  a  position 
was  taken  up  extending  from  a 
mile  N.  of  Gaba  Teps  to  the  high 
ground  over  Fisherman's  Hut. 
The  broken  ground  and  thick 
scrub  added  to  their  difficulties. 
The  Turks,  who  had  been  strongly 
reinforced  to  the  extent  of  20,000 
men,  struck  at  this  whole  line 
for  four  hours,  but  were  re- 
pulsed with  great  loss  by  the 
Anzacs,  who  now  included  New 
Zealanders,  and  were  supported  by 
the  fire  of  the  warships.  Deter- 
•  mined  efforts  made  later  by  the 


Vy  J  the  name  G  to 

the  line  of  the 

musical  stave  round  which  its  cen- 
tral curl  passes.  See  Clef  ;  Stave. 

Gabardine.  Textile  fabric  made 
of  wool  or  cotton.  Of  a  somewhat 
finer  texture  than  serge,  it  is  exten- 
sively used  as  a  dress  material, 
and  also,  when  waterproofed,  for 
raincoats. 

Gaba  Tepe,  LANDING  AT.  Aus- 
tralian operation  in  Gallipoli.  As 
part  of  the  Allied  operations  to 
open  the  Dardanelles,  the  force 
known  as  the  Australian  and  New 


Gaba  Tepe,  Gallipoli.     The  hill  which  was  stormed  by  the  Australians  and 
New  Zealanders,  April  25,  1915 


GABBRO 

enemy  against  the  3rd  Brigade  in 
particular  were  beaten  back.  Dur- 
ing the  nights  of  the  25th  and 
26th  the  Turks  delivered  repeated 
assaults,  but  the  Anzac  line 
held  firm.  Meanwhile  the  position 
was  entrenched,  and  ammunition, 
water,  and  supplies  were  brought 
up.  On  April  28  and  29  four  bat- 
talions of  the  Royal  Naval  Divi- 
sion reinforced  the  Anzacs.  See 
Gallipoli,  Campaign  in. 

Gabbro.  Rock,  somewhat  simi- 
lar in  texture  to  granite,  with  a 
speckled  or  mottled  appearance. 
Gabbro  consists  usually  of  plagio- 
clase  felspar,  augite  (q.v. ),  and  often 
olivine  (q.v.),  while  many  common 
varieties  have  varying  proportions 
of  iron  and  magnesium  compounds. 
In  the  Inner  Hebrides,  Sweden, 
Norway,  and  Canada  these  rocks 
are  common. 

Gabelhorner.  Cluster  of  mt. 
peaks,  Switzerland,  forming  part 
of  the  Matte rhorn  group.  The 
Ober-Gabelhorn,  to  the  E.  of  the 
Grand  Cosnier,  rises  13,365  ft.  The 
Unter-Gabelhorn,  near  Zermatt, 
has  an  alt.  of  11,150  ft.,  and  like 
the  Ober-Gabelhorn,  is  difficult  of 
ascent.  See  Alps. 

Gabelle.  French  word  for  an 
indirect  tax,  in  ordinary  use  con- 
fined to  the  tax  on  salt.  Salt  was  a 
state  monopoly,  and  almost  from 
its  imposition  before  1300  to  the 
Revolution  the  tax  on  it  was  most 
oppressive,  every  family  being 
compelled  to  purchase  a  weekly 
minimum  of  salt.  Its  incidence 
varied  from  province  to  province  ; 
one  or  two  were  exempt  from  the 
burden.  In  the  others  the  price  of 
salt  was  fixed  by  royal  officials.  At 
one  period  the  prisons  of  Nor- 
mandy were  filled  with  persons 
unable  to  pay  this  imposition. 
One  of  the  grievances  which  con- 
tributed to  the  Revolution,  it  was 
abolished  in  1790. 

GaberdineoK GABARDINE  (Span. 
gabardina,  smock,  coarse  frock). 
Loose  garment,  usually  of  rough, 
dark  material,  reaching  to  the 

ankles  and  girt 

with  a  cord.  It 
was  worn  in  the 
Middle  Ages  by 
pilgrims  and 
mendicants,  in 
which  con- 
nexion the 
Scots  word 
gaberlunzie,  a 
beggar,  is  note- 
worthy, and 
came  to  be 
iden  t  if ie  d 
chiefly  with 
the  Jews,  who 
wore  flowing 
robes  of  this 
by  Jews  type.  The 


3390 


Gabion.  Interior  slope  of  parapet 
showing  brushwood  gabions  and 
fascines.  Below,  single  gabions  of, 
left,  brushwood  ;  right,  iron  bands 

gaberdine  was  probably  never  a 
compulsory  dress  for  the  Jews. 

Gabes  OR  CABES  (anc.  Syrtis 
minor).  Gulf  of  Tunisia.  On  the 
S.E.  coast,  it  extends  between  the 
Kerkenna  Islands  on  the  N.,  the 
Circinae  Islands  of  the  Romans 
where  Hannibal  and  Marius  took 
refuge,  and  Jerba  (Djerba)  Island 
on  the  S.  The  latter  has  a  pop.  of 
about  60,000  of  Berber  origin,  and 
contains  numerous  ruins,  notably 
of  El-Kantara,  the  ancient  Meninx. 
Sponge-fishing  is  carried  on  in  the 
gulf.  The  chief  towns  on  its  shores 
are  Sfax  and  Gabes,  the  former 
tha  outlet  for  the  phosphate  de- 
posits at  Gafsa. 

Gabes.  Port  and  military  sta- 
tion of  Tunisia.  On  the  Gulf  of 
Gabes,  it  is  the  ancient  Tacape.  It 
is  205  m.  by  rly.  S.  of  Tunis  and  90 
m.  by  rly.  S.S.W.  of  Sfax.  An  ex- 
tension of  the  line  to  Medenine  is 
under  consideration.  The  sur- 
rounding country  is  semi-desert. 
W.  of  Gabes  are  salt  lakes  or 
shats,  extending  for  nearly  250  m. 
to  within  50  m.  of  Biskra.  There  is 
trade  in  dates,  oil,  hides,  and  henna. 
Pop.  about  20,000. 

Gabinius,  AULUS  (d.  c.  47  B.C.). 
Roman  politician.  As  tribune  in 
67  B.C.  he  was  the  author  of  a  law 
conferring  upon  Pompey  supreme 
powers  for  three  years  to  deal  with 
the  pirates  of  the  E.  Mediterranean. 
As  governor  of  Syria,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  desire  of  the  tri- 
umvirs, but  contrary  to  an  express 
decree  of  the  senate,  in  65  he  re- 
stored Ptolemy  Auletes  to  the 
throne  of  Egypt.  On  his  return  to 
Rome  he  was  tried  for  extortion 
during  his  administration  of  Syria 
and  for  high  treason  in  the  matter 
of  Ptolemy.  Defended  by  Cicero,  he 
was  acquitted  on  the  latter  count, 
but  was  condemned  on  the  former 
and  sent  into  exile.  Allowed  to 
return  to  Rome  by  Caesar  in  49, 
and  sent  on  a  mission  to  Illyricum, 
he  was  defeated  by  the  Dalmatians 
near  Salonae,  where  he  died. 


GABLE 

Gabion.  Cylinder  with  an  open 
end  which  was  widely  used  for 
strengthening  military  trenches  and 
preventing  the  walls  giving  way 
in  wet  weather.  Gabions  may  be 
constructed  of  almost  any  material 
capable  of  being  bent  or  woven 
into  cylindrical  shape,  brushwood, 
canvas,  and  wire  netting  being  fre- 
quently employed.  In  the  organ- 
ized trench  warfare  which  became 
such  a  feature  of  the  Great  War, 
the  use  of  gabions  of  this  nature 
was  to  a  large  extent  superseded 
by  wire  netting. 

Gable  (old  Fr.,  fork).  Pointed 
or  nearly  pointed  termination  of  a 
roof  in  the  Gothic  style.  In  classi- 
cal architecture  the  gable  is  known 
as  a  pediment.  The  simplest  form 
of  gable  is  the  triangular.  This 
came  into  vogue  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  as  a  result  of  the  high- 
pitched  roof,  and,  indirectly,  of  the 
vault  which  required  such  a  roof. 


Gable.  Top,  example  from  an  old 
house  in  Salisbury,  c.  1360  ;  below, 
from  Eltham  Palace,  Kent,  c.  1490 

As  Gothic  tended  towards  luxuri- 
ance in  detail,  the  severe  triangular 
gable  was  enriched  with  ornaments 
such  as  crockets  (q.v.)  and  finials 
(q.v.),  and  in  the  16th  century,  the 
transition  period  of  British  archi- 
tecture, the  sides  were  formed  in  a 
succession  of  short  curves.  The 
latter  form  was  adopted  in  the 
Netherlands,  and  is  popularly 
known  as  the  Dutch  gable.  The 
main  fa$ade  of  Holland  House, 
Kensington,  built  early  in  the  1 7th 
century,  is  surmounted  by  a  suc- 
cession of  these  gables,  consisting 
of  two  curves  divided  by  a  rect- 
angular step  on  each  side. 

In  another  variety  the  sides  are 
formed  by  a  sequence  of  rectangu- 
lar steps.  When,  as  in  the  timber, 
or  half  timber,  buildings  of  the 
16th  century,  the  gable  projected 
some  distance  over  the  wall,  the 


GABLONZ 


3391 


GAD      FLY 


edge  or  verge  was  ornamented  with 
a  barge -board.  When  the  "  hipped" 
roof,  i.e.  the  roof  made  to  slope 
back  from  all  sides,  was  introduced 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury, the  gable  ceased  to  exist  ex- 
cept in  farmhouses  and  buildings  in 
which  the  older  architecture  per- 
sisted. Recent  building  has  seen 
a  marked  revival  of  the  gable  for 
small  houses.  See  Architecture ; 
House ;  Barge-board,  illus. 

Gablonz.  Town  of  Czecho- 
slovakia, in  Bohemia.  Situated  on 
the  Neisse,  7  m.  E.S.E.  of  Reichen- 
berg,  in  the  district  of  the  Riesenge- 
birge,  it  is  normally  a  busy  manu- 
facturing and  export  centre,  the 
glass  industry  alone  occupying 
many  thousands  of  hands.  It  also 
possesses  important  printing  and 
lithographic  works.  Other  manu- 
factures include  cotton  and  woollen 
goods,  bronzes,  buttons,  artificial 
pearls,  and  other  jewelry  and 
fancy  articles.  The  town  possesses 
good  educational  facilities — tech- 
nical schools,  in  addition  to  a  gym- 
nasium. There  is  a  service  of  elec- 
tric tramways.  Under  the  Austrian 
regime  Gablonz  was  the  head- 
quarters of  an  administrative  divi- 
sion of  the  same  name,  with  an  area 
of  82  sq.  m.  and  a  pop.  of  90,000, 
nearly  all  German  Roman  Catho- 
lics ;  it  is  part  of  the  German 
district  of  Bohemia.  Pop.  29,605. 

Gaboriau,  EMILE  (1833-73). 
French  novelist.  He  was  bom  at 
Saujon,  Nov.  9,  1833.  An  acknow- 
ledged master  of  detective  fiction, 
his  clever  story  L' Affaire  Lerouge, 
1866,  brought  him  instant  fame. 
This  was  followed  in  rapid  succes- 
sion by  Le  Dossier  No.  113,  1867  : 
Le  Crime  d'Orcival,  1867 ;  and 
other  novels  of  the  same  type, 
which,  though  of  slight  literary 
value,  hold  the  attention  by  their 
skilfully  woven  plots  and  abund- 
ance of  sensational  incident.  He 
has  attained  a  European  reputa- 
tion, despite  these  defects,  as  the 
originator  of  this  type  of  detective 
fiction.  Much  of  his  work  has  been 
translated  into  English.  He  died 
Sept.  28,  1873.  See  Detective. 

Gabriel  (Heb.,  man  of  God). 
Name  in  Biblical  and  post-Biblical 
literature  of  one  of  the  seven  arch- 
angels. He  was  sent  to  Daniel  to  ex- 
plain the  vision  of  the  ram  and  the 
he  goat  (Dan.  viii,  15  ff.),  and  again 
to  instruct  him  as  to  the  "  seventy 
weeks"  (ix,  21  ff.).  In  the  N.T.  he 
is  the  divine  messenger  who  pre- 
dicts to  Zacharias  the  birth  of  a  son 
to  Elizabeth  (Luke  i,  8-20),  and  to 
the  Virgin  Mary  the  birth  of  the 
Saviour  (vv.  26-38).  See  Angel. 

Gabun,  GABON  OR  GABOON. 
Colony  in  French  Equatorial 
Africa.  It  lies  to  the  S.  of  Came- 
roons,  and  is  bounded  W.  by  the 


Atlantic  Ocean,  E.  by  the  French 
Middle  Congo  colony  (Moyen 
Congo),  and  S.  by  the  Belgian 
Congo.  French  occupation  com- 
menced in  the  estuary  of  the  Gabun 
river  in  1841,  and  in  1849  the  settle- 
ment of  Libreville  was  formed  as  a 
place  of  refuge  for  escaped  slaves. 

French  influence  gradually  ex- 
tended along  the  coast  and  into  the 
interior,  largely  through  the  efforts 
of  De  Brazza  and  of  French  mis- 
sions. In  1885  France  took  posses- 
sion of  the  entire  coastal  region  be- 
tween Libreville  and  Brazzaville. 
In  1894  the  boundaries  between 
Cameroons  colony  and  the  French 
Congo  regions  were  determined,but 
in  1911  Germany  demanded,  and 
received,  as  compensation  for  her 
recognition  of  the  position  of 
France  in  Morocco,  a  block  of  terri- 
tory, the  greater  portion  of  which 
was  taken  from  the  Middle  Congo 
and  Ubangi-Shari-Chad  colonies. 

The  present  area  of  the  Gabun 
Colony  is  167,778  sq.  m.  It  is  ad- 
ministered by  a  lieutenant-gover- 
nor, aided  by  an  administrative 
council,  subject  to  the  governor- 
general  of  French  Equatorial  Africa, 
and  contains  vast  forests  and  a 
large  variety  of  tropical  products, 
including  rubber,  palm  kernels,  and 
cocoa.  The  only  rly.  is  a  narrow- 
gauge  line  from  Brazzaville,  the 
chief  town  of  the  Middle  Congo,  to 
Mindpuli ;  but  a  line  is  projected 
from  Brazzaville  to  Pointe  Noire,  a 
port  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  S.  of 
Loango.  Despite  the  lack  of  rly. 
communication  there  is  a  consider- 
able trade  along  the  rivers  and 
through  the  ports  of  Libreville,  the 
capital,  Cape  Lopez,  Sette  Gama, 
Mayumba,  and  Loango.  The 
climate  of  the  colony  is  unhealthy 
in  the  coastal  regions,  sleeping  sick- 
ness prevailing,  but  comparatively 
healthy  in  the  elevated  interior. 
Pop.  259,582  ;  659  are  Europeans. 

Bibliography.  Trente  mois  au 
continent  mysterieux,  Payeur-Dide- 
lot,  1899  ;  L'Expansion  coloniale  au 
Congo  fran£ais,  F.  Rouget,  1906  ; 
Le  Congo  francais  ;  la  question 
Internationale  du  Congo,  F.  Chal- 
laye,  1909. 

Gabun.  Estuary  in  the  N.  of  the 
Gabun  colony  in  French  Equatorial 
Africa.  It  penetrates  40  m.  inland 
and  has  a  width  of  from  6  to  12m. 
On  the  N.  bank  is  Libreville  (q.v.). 
Large  vessels  canascend  theestuary. 

Gad.  Seventh  son  of  Jacob,  by 
Zilpah  the  handmaid  of  his  wife 
Leah  (Gen.  xxx,  10,  11).  He  had 
seven  sons  at  the  time  he  went 
down  to  Egypt  with  his  father  and 
brothers. 

Gad  is  also  the  name  of  a  prophet 
who  acted  as  a  counsellor  to  David 
(2  Sam.  xxiv,  11  ;  2  Chron.  xxix, 
25),  and  wrote  a  history  of  his 
reign  (1  Chron.  xxix,  29)  ;  and  of 


an  Oriental  divinity,  regarded  as 
the  bringer  of  good  fortune. 

Gadag.  Town  and  sub-division 
of  Bombay,  India,  in  the  dist.  of 
Dharwar.  The  area  of  the  sub- 
division is  699  sq.  m.  Gadag  town 
trades  in  cotton  and  silk,  and 
contains  remains  of  temples. 

Gadara.  Ancient  town  of 
Palestine,  included  in  the  Decapo- 
lis.  It  stands  among  the  hills  on 
the  E.  side  of  the  Jordan,  6  m. 
S.E.  of  the  Lake  of  Tiberias. 
Founded  by  Greeks,  it  was  cap- 
tured by  Antiochus  III,  218  B.C., 
and  by  Alexander  Jannaeus,  100 
B.C.,  when  it  was  nearly  destroyed. 
Pompey  rebuilt  it  about  65-63  B.C., 
and  it  became  friendly  to  Rome. 
It  suffered  from  Jewish  aggression 
in  A.D.  66-70.  but  flourished  there- 
after until  the  Mahomedan  con- 
quest. It  is  mentioned  in  Mark  v,  1, 
in  connexion  with  the  Gadarene 
swine.  Extensive  ruins  include  re- 
mains of  two  theatres,  and  a  colon- 
nade ;  the  tombs  in  the  neighbour- 
ing cemetery  are  remarkable. 

Gaddi,  TABDEO  (c.  1SOO-66). 
Italian  painter.  Born  in  Florence, 
hs  studied  first  under  his  father, 
Gaddo  Gaddi,  and  under  his  god- 
father, Giotto.  Few  of  his  works 
survive.  An  altarpiecc,  The  Virgin 
and  Child,  is  in  Berlin,  and  his 
fresco  The  Last  Supper,  in  the 
church  of  Santa  Croce  in  Florence. 
The  Triumph  of  S.  Thomas  Aquinas 
in  Santa  Maria  Novella,  Florence, 
attributed  to  him,  has  been 
ascribed  to  a  Sienese  painter. 
Deeply  imbued  with  the  spirit  of 
Giotto,  Gaddi  maintained  that 
master's  tradition  in  painting. 

Gade,  NIELS  WILHELM  ( 181 7-90). 
Danish  composer.  Born  at  Copen- 
hagen, Feb.  22,  1817,  he  became  a 
violinist  in  the  royal  orchestra.  In 
1840  his  overture  Nachklange  aus 
Ossian  brought  him  into  notice  as 
a  composer.  He  assisted  Mendels- 
sohn in  conducting  the  Gewand- 
haus  concerts  at  Leipzig,  but  in  j 
1848  returned  to  Copenhagen  and  I 
devoted  himself  to  composition 
and  conducting,  being  Kapell- 
meister (director  of  the  court 
orchestra),  and  professor  and 
director  of  the  musical  union.  He 
died  Dec.  21,  1890.  Gade's  com- 
positions include  orchestral  and 
chamber  music,  and  cantatas. 

Gad  Fly  (Tabanus  bovinus). 
Two -winged  fly  nearly  an  inch  in 
length,  exceedingly  troublesome  to 
cattle  and  horses  in  summer-time. 
It  is  frequently  confused  with  the 
bot  fly  (q.v.),  which  is  entirely 
different  in  its  habits.  Tho  bot  fly 
in  its  early  stages  is  an  internal 
parasite,  but  the  larva  of  the  gad 
fly  lives  in  the  soil.  The  bot  fly  in 
its  perfect  state  frequents  beasts 
only  to  deposit  its  eggs  on  them, 


GADGET  * 

for  its  mouth  parts  are  incapable  of 
sucking  blood ;  the  gad  fly,  on  the 
other  hand,  has  no  intention  of 
making  them  hosts  for  its  progeny, 
bu,  the  female  stabs  them  with  her 
proboscis  and  sucks  their  blood. 

Gadget.  Slang  term  for  any 
small  part  of  a  piece  of  machinery, 
of  an  aeroplane,  airship,  etc.,  the 
exact  name  of  which  is  not  known 
by  the  person  speaking. 

Gadolinite.  One  of  the  rare 
earths,  the  first  to  be  discovered. 
Investigated  by  J.  Gadolin,  the 
Swedish  chemist,  in  1794,  it  was 
shown  by  Ekeberg  three  years  later 
to  contain  yttrium  and  by  other 
chemists  a  number  of  other  exceed- 
ingly rare  substances.  It  is  a 
greenish  black  mineral  and  is 
chiefly  found  in  Llano  county, 
Texas,  Ytterby  in  Sweden,  and 
Hittero  and  Risor  in  Norway.  See 
Rare  Earths  ;  Yttrium. 

Gadolinium  (Gd.)  Element  of 
which  the  oxide  associated  with  ter- 
bium was  discovered  by  Marignac  in 
1880.  These  two  rare  elements  are 
found  in  gadolinite,  samarskite  and 
orthite.  The  double  magnesium 
nitrates  of  terbium  and  gadolinium 
are  crystallised  together,  the  gado- 
linium salt  being  the  more  soluble. 

Gadow,  HANS  FRIEDRICH  (b. 
1855).  Zoologist.  Born  in  Pom- 
erania,  Germany,  March  8,  1855, 
he  was  educated  at  Frankfort-on- 
Oder  and  at  the  universities  of 
Berlin,  Jena,  and  Heidelberg.  He 
then  settled  in  England,  became 
naturalised,  married  an  English 
lady,  and  in  1880  secured  an 
appointment  in  the  natural  history 
department  of  the  British  Museum. 
He  left  that  in  1882  and  in  1884 
was  made  Strickland  curator  and 
lecturer  on  zoology  at  Cambridge. 
Gadow's  books  include  A  Classifica- 
tion of  Vertebrata,  1898  ;  Amphibia 
and  Reptiles  in  The  Cambridge 
Natural  History,  1901  ;  Through 
Southern  Mexico,  1908 ;  and,  with 
A.  Newton,  A  Dictionary  of  Birds, 
1893-96. 

Gadsby,  HENRY  ROBERT  (1842- 
1907).  British  music  composer. 
Born  in  London,  Dec.  15,  1842,  he 
became  a  chorister  in  S.  Paul's 
Cathedral.  Largely  self-taught,  in 
1884  he  became  professor  of  har- 
mony at  Queen's  College,  London, 
and  afterwards  at  the  Guildhall 
School  of  Music.  His  compositions, 
which  include  an  orchestral  scene, 
The  Forest  of  Arden,  1886,  several 
overtures,  part  songs,  and  church 
music,  show  a  high  degree  of 
talent.  He  died  Nov.  11,  1907. 

Gadsden.  ,  City  of  Alabama, 
U.S.A.,  the  co.  seat  of  Etowah  co. 
It  stands  on  the  Coosa  river,  57  m. 
N.E.  of  Birmingham,  and  is  served 
by  the  Louisville  and  Nashville  and 
other  rlys.  Lumbering  and  mining 


3392 

are  carried  on  in  the  locality,  and 
the  city  has  foundries,  machine 
shops,  lumber  and  steel  mills,  wagon 
works,  and  door  and  sash  factories. 
Gadsden  was  settled  in  184.3,  and 
incorporated  in  1867.  Pop,  13,325. 

Gadsden,  JAMES  (1788-1858). 
American  soldier  and  politician. 
Born  at  Charleston,  S.  Carolina, 
May  15,  1788,  he  was  educated  at 
Yale  and  entered  the  army.  After 
a  long  and  distinguished  military 
career,  which  began  with  the  war 
of  1812,  he  was  appointed  minister 
to  Mexico,  and  in  1853  successfully 
negotiated  the  treaty  called  the 
Gadsden  Purchase  (q.v.).  He  died 
at  Charleston,  Dec.  25,  1858. 

Another  member  of  this  family 
was  Christopher  Gadsden  (1724- 
1805).  A  prominent  man  in  S. 
Carolina,  he  took  part,  both  in  the 
forum  and  the  field,  in  the  struggle 
for  independence.  After  its  con- 
clusion he  was  one  of  the  leading 
men  in  S.  Carolina  until  his  death, 
Aug.  28,  1805. 

GadsdenFurcliase,THE.  Name 
given  to  territory  which  the  U.S.A. 
obtained  from  Mexico  in  1853. 
The  sale  was  negotiated  by  James 
Gadsden,  and  amounted  to  45,500 
sq.  m.  This  is  now  part  of  New 
Mexico  and  part  of  Arizona,  being 
the  region  bounded  by  the  Gila, 
Rio  Grande,  and  the  Colorado  river. 
The  price  paid  was  £2,000,000. 

Gad's  Hill.  Village  of  Kent, 
famous  as  the  residence  of  Charles 
Dickens.  It  is  2  m.  from  Rochester, 
on  the  road  to  Gravesend.  The 
home  of  the  novelist  was  Gad's  Hill 
Place  (see  Dickens,  illus. ),  a  red  brick 


GAELIC    LANGUAGE 

house  near  the  Sir  John  Falstaff. 
Shakespeare  (1  Henry  IV)  makes 
Falstaff  meet  the  men  in  buckram 
in  the  road  by  here.  Gadshill  is 
the  name  of  a  character  in  the  play. 

Gad  wall  (Chaulelasmus  sire,- 
perus).  Species  of  duck  which  is 
found  in  many  parts  of  Europe, 
Asia,  Africa,  and  North  America.  It 
is  rare  in  Great  Britain,  except 
in  Norfolk,  where  it  is  protected, 
and  breeds  in  fair  numbers.  It 
resembles  the  common  mallard, 
and  is  an  excellent  table  bird.  See 
Duck ;  Mallard. 

Gaea  OR  GE.  In  Greek  mytho- 
logy, the  earth  goddess.  The 
daughter  of  Chaos,  she  was  the 
mother  of  Uranus  (Heaven),  and 
Pontus  (Sea),  and  by  the  former  of 
the  Titans.  She  represented  the 
productive  power  of  earth,  bringing 
forth  from  her  bosom  and  nourish- 
ing all  living  things.  Her  Roman 
counterpart,  Tellus,  was  associated 
with  a  male  divinity,  Tellumo. 

Gaekwar.  Title  borne  by  the 
ruler  of  Baroda.  In  reality  it  is 
the  family  name  of  the  house  that 
has  governed  this  state  since  the 
early  part  of  the  18th  century. 
The  word  is  derived  from  a  native 
word  meaning  a  cow.  See  Baroda. 

Gael.  Name  applied  to  the 
members  of  the  Gaelic  branch  of 
the  Celtic  race,  and  especially  to 
the  Celtic  people  of  the  Scottish 
Highlands.  The  word  in  Gaelic 
itself  is  Gaidheal,  pron.  approxi- 
mately gale,  and  in  an  earlier  form 
was  Goidel ;  contrary  to  old  belief, 
it  is  unconnected  with  Gaul,  or 
Lat.  Galli,  Gauls.  See  Celt. 


GAELIC  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE 

Magnus  Maclean,  Author  of  The  Literature  of  the  Celts 

There  are  articles  on  the  various  languages  akin  to  Gaelic,  e.g. 
Breton  ;  Erse.     Sec  also  Celt ;  Philology  ;  Wales 


Gaelic,  the  language  of  the  Gael 
belongs  to  the  European  branch  of 
the  Indo-European  family.  Philol- 
ogy classifies  the  languages  of 
the  European  branch  into:  (1) 
Greek,  Latin,  and  Celtic  in  the 
middle  and  S.  of  Europe ;  (2)  Eng- 
lish, German,  and  Norse  in  the  N. ; 
and  (3)  Russian  and  Old  Prussian 
in  the  E.  In  Greek  and  Roman 
times  the  Celts  occupied  the  middle 
of  Europe  and  their  language  has 
closer  affinities  with  Greek  and 
Latin  than  with  English,  German, 
or  Norse. 

Celtic  itself  now  stands  as  the 
name  for  two  groups  of  dialects 
distinct  from  each  other,  but 
closely  related — the  Gadhelic  and 
Brythonic,  the  former  comprising 
Irish,  Manx,  and  Scottish  Gaelic  ; 
and  the  latter,  Welsh,  Cornish,  and 
Breton.  They  are  also  known  as 
the  Q  and  P  groups  in  accordance 
with  a  well-marked  linguistic  dis- 


tinction which  differentiates  them. 
Though  Irish,  Manx,  and  Scottish 
Gaelic  are  all  derived  from  the 
ancient  Gaelic,  the  original  name  is 
now  almost  exclusively  restricted  to 
the  Gaelic  spoken  in  the  Scottish 
Highlands. 

For  three  centuries,  from  the  5th 
onwards,  the  language  and  litera- 
ture of  Gaelic  Ireland  and  Gaelic 
Scotland  were  virtually  the  same. 
The  Gaels  had  come  from  Ireland 
into  Scotland.  But  after  the  Norse- 
men began  their  raids,  intei-course 
between  the  two  countries  was 
interrupted,  and  this  in  time,  under 
Pictish  and  Norse  influences,  led 
to  a  divergence  in  the  speech— a 
process  which  the  Reformation  ac- 
centuated, so  that  Irish  and  Gaelic 
are  now  separate  dialects. 

The  beginnings  of  Gaelic  litera- 
ture date  back  to  the  5th  century 
A.D.  But  even  before  then,  in  pagan 
times,  there  existed  the  material- 


3393 


GAETA 


for  its  most  characteristic  pro- 
ductions. There  were  the  rich  and 
abundant  Sagas,  or  prose  romances 
transmitted.,  by  "oral  tradition. 
What  is  known  as  the  Heroic  cycle, 
about  the  opening  of  the  Christian 
era,  was  really  the  golden  age  of 
Gaelic  romance.  Before  this  there 
had  been  a  mythological  cycle,  and 
after,  the  Ossianic  cycle  (3rd  cen- 
tury A.D.),  the  hero  of  which  has 
continued  to  inspire  the  classic 
poetry  of  the  Gael  down  to  the 
modern  days. 

The  first  cycle  deals  with  ancient 
myths ;  the  secoiid  with  the 
famous  Cuchullin  romances,  great- 
est of  which  is  the  Tain  Bo  Chu- 
ailgne  ;  the  third  with  the  tales  of 
Fionn,  his  son  Ossian,  and  the 
Fianna.  The  earliest  records  of 
them  are  to  be  found  in  the  great 
Middle  Age  MSS.,,  Leabhar  na 
h'  Uidhre,  and  the  Books  of  Lein- 
ster,  Ballymote,  Lecain,  and  Lis- 
more.  The  most  valuable  docu- 
ment in  Gaelic  literature  is  this 


Gaelic.  Facsimile  of  a  passage  from  the  Book  of  Leinster, 
a  12th  century  manuscript  in  Trinity  College,  Dublin. 
These  lines  tell  of  the  hunting  of  a  dangerous  boar  at 
Lough  Con,  in  co.  Mayo,  by  the  dogs  of  Manannan  mac 
Lir,  and  the  hounds  from  Mod,  now  Clew  Bay  islands 

Leabhar  na  h'  Uidhre.  Like  its 
famous  contemporary,  the  Liber 
Hymnorum,  a  book  of  ancient 
Latin  and  Gaelic  hymns,  it  belongs 
to  the  llth  century,  and  is  a  com- 

K'lation  from   earlier   books   now 
st.     It  is  the  oldest  exclusively 
Gaelic  MS.  in  existence. 

At  the  dawn  of  letters  among  the 
Gael,  S.  Patrick  figures  as  the 
author  of  two  letters  in  Latin,  the 
Epistola  ad  Coroticum ;  and  a 
lorica,  or  hymn,  in  Gaelic,  still  ex- 
tant, popularly  known  as  S. 
Patrick's  Breastplate.  After  him 
S.  Columba  and  his  followers  in- 
augurated a  period  of  great  lit- 
erary activity,  which  continued  for 
two  centuries.  They  wrote  in  Latin 
and  Gaelic,  using  the  Roman 
script  and  the  Roman  alphabet. 
With  great  assiduity  they  made 
Latin  copies  of  books  of  the  Bible, 
some  of  them  beautifully  decorated 
and  illuminated.  They  also  wrote 
hymns  and  lyrical  poems  having 
nature  for  their  theme.  Many  of 
these,  including  S.  Patrick's  and 
S.  Columba' s,  are  in  the  Liber 
Hymnorum. 


During  this  early  period  the 
Gaels  gave  to  the  Continent 
evangelists  and  professors,  who 
founded  monasteries  and  wrote 
books.  In  later  times  others  fled 
thither  from  the  Norse,  carrying 
their  MS.  treasures.  As  a  result, 
most  of  the  early  documents  are  in 
France,  Italy,  Switzerland,  Hol- 
land, Belgium,  and  Germany.  In 
all,  excluding  scores  of  Latin  ones, 
there  are  56  Gaelic  MSS.  abroad, 
of  dates  ranging  from  the  8th  to 
the  19th  century — the  oldest  at 
Milan  and  Cambrai.  These  also 
are  Latin  books,  but  they  contain 
Gaelic  glosses,  poems,  or  other 
jottings  of  great  interest.  M.  H. 
d'Arbois  de  Jubainville,  in  1881, 
catalogued  the  MSS.  in  England. 
Ireland,  and  on  the  Continent,  and 
Prof.  MacKinnon  did  the  same  for 
those  in  Scotland  The  latter  are 
deposited  in  the  Advocates'  Lib- 
rary, the  Universities  of  Edinburgh 
and  Glasgow,  and  the  library  of 
the  Society  of  Antiquaries. 

The  two  oldest 
books    of    Gaelic 
Scotland   now 
extant     are 
Adamnan's    Vita 
C  o  1  u  m  b  a  e    in 
Schaffhausen,and 
the  Book  of  Deer, 
9th  century,  with 
Scottish  Gaelic 
entries  of  10th  to 
12th,    in    Cam- 
bridge.      After 
the   latter  comes 
the  Book  of  the 
Dean  of  Lismore, 
containing  a  col- 
lection of  pre-Reformation  Gaelic 
poetry  taken  down  from  1512  to 
1526  in  Argyllshire.     It  has  pieces 
from  56  authors,  11,000  lines,  800 
Ossianic.       Similarly  the  Fernaig 
MS.  (Ross-shire),  c.   1688-93,  and 
the  Books  of  Clanranald    (Inver- 
ness-shire)  represent  the   literary 
output  of  the  17th  century. 

From  1600  Scottish  Gaels  led  the 
way  in  a  great  change  which  trans- 
formed the  poetry  of  both  Ireland 
and  Scotland.  Hitherto  most  of 
it  had  been  Ossianic  and  in  the 
ancient  style.  Mary  Macleod  was 
the  first  of  the  modern  Highland 
bards  to  break  away  from  the 
older  order.  She  invented  rhythms 
of  her  own,  and  from  her  time  a 
great  variety  of  new  and  melodious 
metres  appear.  John  Macdonald 
and  some  others  followed,  and  then 
came  the  golden  asre  of  Gaelic 
poetry  around  the  Forty  -five — a 
quick  and  splendid  succession  of 
bards.  In  the  fifty  years  after 
Culloden  are  grouped  nearly  all 
the  greater  names  of  Highland 
poetry  ;  among  the  many,  Alex- 
ander Macdonald,  John  Mac- 


Codrum,  Duncan  Ban  Macintyre, 
Dugald  Buchanan,  Robb  Donn, 
James  Macpherson,  and  William 
Ross.  Greatest  of  all  were  Mac- 
donald and  Macintyre,  their  de- 
scriptive powers  being  unique. 
The  Birlinn  Chlann  Raonuill  of 
the  one,  and  the  Coire  Cheathaich 
and  Ben  Dorain  of  the  other,  rank 
as  the  masterpieces  of  Gaelic  poetry. 

The  19th  century  produced  a 
succession  of  new  bards,  gifted, 
and  of  a  high  order,  from  Maclach- 
lan,  Livingston,  and  Maccoll  on  to 
Neil  Macleod.  It  also  furnished 
books  of  the  choicest  selections  of 
Highland  literature  :  John  Mac- 
Kenzie's  Beauties  of  Gaelic  Poetry, 
1841  ;  J.  F.  Campbell's  Popular 
Tales  of  the  West  Highlands, 
1860-62;  and  Leabhar  na  Feinne, 
1872;  Archibald  Sinclair's  The 
Gaelic  Songster,  1879;  Alex 
Cameron's  Reliquiae  Celticae, 
1892-94;  and  Alexander  Car- 
michael's  Carmina  Gadelica,  1900. 

Gaelic  poetry  is  mainly  lyrical. 
There  are  no  epic  poems  except 
Macpherson's  Ossian.  Songs  of 
love,  nature,  chiefs  and  Prince 
Charlie,  descriptive  poems,  hymns, 
eulogies,  satires,  epitaphs  and 
laments  were  more  in  the  line  of  the 
bards.  The  best  prose  is  represented 
in  the  Gaelic  Bible,  Caraidnan 
Gaidheal,  and  Nicolson's  Proverbs. 

The  great  modern  interest  in  the 
language  and  literature  dates  from 
the  publication  of  J.  C.  Zeuss's 
Grammatica  Celtica  in  1853,  a 
work  which  revolutionised  Celtic 
studies.  Among  Gaelic  gram- 
mars those  of  Alexander  Stewart, 
James  Munro,  H.  C.  Gillies,  and 
Duncan  Reid  are  chiefly  used. 
There  are  large  dictionaries  by 
R.  A.  Armstrong,  The  Highland 
Society  of  Scotland,  Alexander 
Macbain  (etymological),  and  Ewen 
Macdonald  ;  and  a  smaller  one  by 
Neil  Mac  Alpine. 

John  Reid's  Bibliotheca  Scoto- 
Celtica  contains  a  list  of  all  books 
printed  in  Gaelic  before  1832,  the 
first  being  Carewell's  Translation 
of  Knox's  Liturgy,  1567.  Since 
then  Donald  Maclean  has  brought 
the  list  down  to  1914.  Beautiful 
English  renderings  of  Gaelic  poetry 
are  published  in  Selections  from 
the  Gaelic  Bards,  T.  P.  Pattison, 
1866,  and  in  Language  and  Litera- 
ture of  the  Highlands,  J.  S.  Blackie, 
1876.  See  Erse,  illus. 

Gaeta  (anc.  Portus  Caieta). 
Seaport  and  city  of  Italy,  in  the 
prov.  of  Caserta.  It  stands  amid 
beautiful  surroundings  30  m.  N.W. 
of  Capua,  and  74  m.  by  rly.  N.W. 
of  Naples.  A  strongly  fortified 
naval  station,  it  has  an  Angevin 
castle,  a  12th  century  cathedral 
with  belfry,  remains  of  an  amphi- 
theatre and  theatre.  The  town  is 

1Y    4 


GAFF 


3394 


GAILLARDIA 


the  centre  of  considerable  trade, 
coasting,  and  fishing.  Near  it  was 
the  Formian  villa  of  Cicero,  and 
tradition  points  to  the  spot  where 
he  was  murdered. 

On  the  fall  of  the  Roman  Em- 
pire Gaeta  became  an  independent 
centre  of  culture  and  commerce. 
It  held  out  against  the  Austrians 
in  1815  and  1821,  and  afforded  an 
asylum  to  pope  Pius  IX  in  1848- 
49.  The  last  Bourbon  king  of 
Naples  was  besieged  in  the  town  and 
forced  to  surrender  to  Victor  Em- 
manuel, Feb.  13,  1861.  Pop.  5,344. 

Gaff  (Fr.  gaffe}.  A  spar  which 
stretches  out  the  upper  end  of  a 
sail.  The  forked  part  of  the  gaff 
which  fits  upon  the  mast  is  called 
the  jaws.  At  the  back  of  the  mast 
these  jaws  are  joined  by  a  parrel, 
a  cord  or  rope  with  balls  of  wood 
upon  it,  so  that  the  jaws  slide  up 
and  down  the  mast  easily.  The 
other  end  of  the  gaff  is  termed  the 
peak,  and  the  sail  is  attached  to  it 
by  ropes  known  as  halyards.  Sails 
with  which  a  gaff  is  used  are  gaff 
sails.  Gaff  top  sails  are  sails  set 
above  the  mainsail. 

Gaff.  Stick  armed  with  an  iron 
hook  for  landing  large  fish,  especi- 
ally salmon.  The  use  of  the  gaff  is 


Gaff.   1.  With  handle.     2.  For  trout. 
3.  Folding  gaff.    4.  With  point-pro- 
tector.    5.  Telescopic  gaff 

By  courtety  of  S.  Allcock  &  Co. 

prohibited  in  the  Tweed  after  the 
close  of  the  net  fishing,  and  in  the 
Helmsdale  while  kelts  are  in  the 
water.  See  Bone  Implements,  illus. 

Gage  (Fr.,  pledge).  Security 
given  for  the  performance  of  an 
act,  to  be  forfeited  in  the  event  of 
non-performance.  Hence  some- 
thing, such  as  a  gauntlet,  flung 
down  in  token  of  challenge,  the 
challenger  pledging  himself  to  fight 
the  man  who  shall  pick  it  up. 

Gage,  VISCOUNT.  Irish  title 
borne  since  1720  by  the  family  of 
Gage.  In  the  15th  century,  or 


earlier,  it  was  settled  at  Firle  in 
Sussex,    and    its    early    members 
included  Sir  John  Gage  (c.  1479- 
1556),  who  led 
the  English 
forces  when 
they  beat  the 
Scots    at    Sol- 
w  a  y     Moss, 
1542.     Joseph 
Gage  (c.  1678- 
mL~-  i     c.      1754)     be- 

.    ^llwMkJ     came  a  general 

6th  Viscount  Gage      in  the  Spanish 
British  soldier          service   and    a 

swain  grandee     of 

Spain.  At  one  time  he  had  vast 
wealth  in  shares  of  the  Mississippi 
Company,  and  offered  large  sums 
to  become  king  of  Poland  and  then 
of  Sardinia.  His  elder  brother, 
Thomas,  who  inherited  the  baron- 
etcy dating  from  1622,  was  made 
an  Irish  baron  and  viscount  in 
1720,  and  was  a  courtier  in  the 
time  of  George  II.  His  younger 
son  was  the  soldier,  Thomas  Gage 
(1721-87).  The  2nd  viscount  was 
made  a  peer  of  the  United  King- 
dom in  1780,  with  a  remainder 
to  his  nephew  Plenry  (d.  1808), 
ancestor  of  the  6th  viscount  (b. 
1895),  who  succeeded  to  the  title 
in  1912. 

Gage,  THOMAS  (1721-87).  Bri- 
tish soldier  and  administrator. 
Entering  the  army  in  1741,  he  dis- 
tinguished 
himself  in 
Braddock's 
e  xpeditibn 
against  Fort 
D  u  quesne. 
1755.  In  1760 
he  became 
governor  of 
Montreal,  and 
in  1774  was 
appointed 
governor  of  Massachusetts.  Here 
he  lacked  tact  in  dealing  with 
the  admittedly  difficult  situa- 
tion which  led  to  the  collision  be- 
tween his  troops  and  the  colonists 
at  Lexington  on  April  18,  1775. 
This  was  followed  by  the  battle  of 
Bunker's  Hill  on  June  17,  and 
though  Gage  was  appointed  com- 
mander of  the  forces  in  America  in 
Aug.,  he  shortly  afterwards  re- 
signed and  returned  to  England. 
He  died  April  2,  1787. 

Gagern,  HEINRICH  WILHELM 
AUGUST  VON  (1799-1880).  German 
statesman.  The  son  of  a  diplomat, 
he  was  born  at  Baireuth,  Aug.  20, 
1799,  studied  law  at  Gottingen 
and  Jena,  and  became  prominent 
as  a  liberal  in  the  chamber  of 
Hesse.  Elected  president  of  the 
Frankfort  parliament  in  May,  1848, 
and  chief  of  the  imperial  ministry 
from  Dec.,  1848,  to  May,  1849,  he 
stood  for  a  moderate  liberal  con- 


stitution  and  a  united  imperial 
Germany.  An  opponent  of  Prus- 
sian policy,  he  fought  for  Slesvig- 
Holstein  in  1850.  He  died  at 
Darmstadt,  May  22,  1880.  He 
wrote  a  Life  of  his  brother  Fred- 
erick, a  distinguished  soldier. 

Gahnite.  One  of  the  spinel 
group  of  minerals.  An  oxide  of 
zinc  and  aluminium,  it  is  dark 
green  in  colour.  It  is  associated 
with  franklinite  (q.v.).  See  Spinel. 

Gaiety  Theatre.  London 
theatre  at  the  corner  of  the  Strand 
and  W.  Aldwych.  Built  from  de- 


Gaiety  Theatre,  London.    The  main 
entrance  of  the  new  building 

signs  by  Norman  Shaw,  it  was 
opened  by  George  Edwardes  with 
The  Orchid,  Oct.  26,  1903.  It  is 
successor  to  an  older  Gaiety 
Theatre,  an  enlargement  of  the 
Strand  Music  Hall,  opened  Dec. 
21,  1868,  under  the  management 
of  John  Hollingshead  with  On  the 
Cards,  by  F.  C.  Burnand,  and 
Robert  the  Devil,  a  burlesque  by 
W.  S.  Gilbert.  In  the  'eighties  and 
'nineties  the  old  Gaiety  was  famous 
as  the  home  of  burlesque,  with 
Nellie  Farren,  Edward  Terry,  and 
Fred  Leslie  as  the  most  brilliant 
of  its  many  stars. 

Demolished  to  make  room  for 
the  Strand  improvements,  its  cur- 
tain rang  down  finally  July  3,  1903, 
on  The  Linkman.  Under  George 
Edwardes's  control  the  new  Gaiety 
was  devoted  almost  exclusively  to 
musical  comedy.  The  theatre  was 
acquired  in  1920  by  Grossmith  and 
Laurillard.  The  Gaiety  at  Man- 
chester was  run  as  a  repertory 
theatre  by  MissHorniman,  1908-20. 

Gaillardia.  Genus  of  annual 
and  perennial  herbs  of  the  natural 
order  Compositae.  They  are 
natives  of  America.  The  leaves 
are  lance-shaped  and  rough,  the 
flower-heads  yellow  or  purple,  and 
the  ray  florets  broad,  but  cut  at 
the  end  into  three  or  five  teeth. 
Several  of  the  species  are  favourite 
garden  flowers. 


GAINE 


3395 


GA1RDNER 


Gaine.  French  name  for  a 
component  employed  in  high 
explosive  shell.  It  has  been 
adopted  in  English,  where  the  term 
exploder  container  is  also  used 
to  describe  a  similar  fitting.  High 
explosive  shell  must  be  filled  with 
insensitive  explosive  to  prevent 
premature  detonations  under  the 
influence  of  the  shock  of  dis- 
charge, and  these  must  also  be 
compressed  to  high  density  to 
eliminate  the  possibility  of  move- 
ment when  the  shell  is  fired.  The 
increased  density  further  reduces 
the  sensitivity,  and  consequently 
a  fulminate  detonator  is  alone  in- 
sufficient for  the  initiation  of  the 
charge,  and  the  gaine  is  intro- 
duced to  eliminate  this  defect. 

In  modern  high  explosive  shell 
the  gaine  consists  of  a  fairly  stout 
steel  tube,  closed  at  one  end, 
which  is  screwed  into  the  nose  or 
base  of  the  shell  so  that  it  is  em- 
bedded in  the  high  explosive 
charge,  whilst  its  open  end  is 
threaded  to  accommodate  the 
fuse.  The  gaine  is  filled  either 
with  a  more  sensitive  high  ex- 
plosive than  the  charge,  or  with 
the  same  explosive  in  a  loose  con- 
dition. Its  great  sensitivity  and 
the  confinement  of  the  steel  walls 
of  the  gaine  enable  it  to  be  com- 
pletely detonated  by  the  fulminate 
in  the  fuse,  and  to  communicate 
detonation  to  the  main  charge. 
See  Exploder ;  Explosives  ;  Shell. 

Gainesville.  City  of  Florida, 
U.S.A.,  the  co.  seat  of  Alachua  co. 
A  winter  resort  and  busy  rly.  junc- 
tion, it  is  70  m.  S.W.  of  Jackson- 
ville, and  is  served  by  the  Sea- 
board Air  Line  and  other  rlys.  It 
is  the  seat  of  Florida  State  Uni- 
versity, removed  there  from  Lake 
City  in  1905,  and  contains  a  public 
library.  Fertilisers  and  lumber 
products  are  manufactured,  and 
there  are  bottling  works,  wagon 
works,  and  foundries.  Settled 
in  1850,  Gainesville  was  incor- 
porated in  1869,  and  received  a 
city  charter  in  1907.  Pop.  6,183. 

Gainsborough.  Urban  dist., 
market  town,  and  river  port  of 
Lincolnshire,  England.  It  stands 
on  the  Trent,  18  m.  N.W.  of  Lin- 
coln by  the  G.C.  and  the  G.N.  and 
G.E.  Jt.  Rlys.  The  parish  church 
of  All  Saints  has  a  12th  century 
tower,  and  the  Old  Hall  or  manor- 
house  is  a  picturesque  15th  century 
building,  restored  in  1884. 

Gainsborough  is  the  St.  Ogg's 
of  George  Eliot's  Mill  on  the 
Floss.  The  industries  include  ship- 
building, ironfounding,  and  the 
manufacture  of  linseed  oil,  and  a 
large  inland  trade  is  carried  on  by 
means  of  the  canals  connecting  with 
the  Trent.  The  council  owns  the  gas 
and  water  supplies,  and  maintains 


1788,  was  almost 
entirely  concerned 
with  his  genius. 

Of   his   won- 
derful    paintings, 
more    than    200 
were  portraits.  He 
also  practised  the 
art   of   etching 
with  some  success, 
and    produced    a 
few  plates  in  aqua- 
tint.   Some  of  his 
finest  pictures  are 
in   the  National 
Gallery,    Dulwich 
Gallery,   Windsor 
Castle,  Grosvenor 
House,        Buckingham       Palace, 
National    Gallery    at    Edinburgh, 
and  the   Wallace   Collection,  and 
many  are  in  private  American  col- 
lections.    A  man  who   was  much 
beloved,    and     an     accomplished 
musician,  Gainsborough  stands  in 

88).  English  painter.  Bora  at  the  front  rank  of  English  portrait 
Sudbury,  in  Suffolk,  and  baptized  and .landscape  painters.  For  ex- 
quisite beauty  and  vibrant  quality, 
his  portraits  have  never  been  sur- 
passed. Their  grace  and  dignity 
are  unparalleled.  See  Art ;  Char- 
lotte ;  illus.  G.  C.  Williamson 
Bibliography.  Sketch  of  the  Life 
and  Paintings  of  Thomas  Gains- 
borough, P.  Thicknesse,  1788; 
Lives,  G.  W.  Fulcher,  ed.  E.  S. 
Fulcher,  1856;  N.  D'Anvers,  1897; 
Lord  R.  Gower,  1903;  Great  Eng- 

<^^^-*<f^**\  ^   1745    he     lish   Painters,    Allan   Cunningham, 
//K^#*          ^y*     married     rev-  ed-  w-  Sharp,  1893;  Thomas 

Gainsborough,  W.  Armstrong,  rev. 


Gainsborough,  Lincolnshire.     The  Old  Hall,  a  baronial 
structure  rebuilt  1480-1500 

baths,  library,  recreation  grounds, 
markets,  and  corn  exchange.  It 
gives  its  name  to  a  co.  div.  re- 
turning one  member  to  Parliament. 
Four  fairs  are  held  annually.  Mar- 
ket day,  Tues.  Pop.  20,600. 

Gainsborough,  THOMAS  (1727- 


in  May,  1727, 
he  was  sent  to 
London  at  the 
age  of  thirteen, 
and  is  believed 
to  have  studied 
at  the  Acad- 
emy of  Arts  in 
St.  Martin's 
Lane.  In 
£  1745  he 
*  married 


*J«feT^;/*!ft«* 


couple  to  settle  in  Ipswich. 

In  Ipswich  he  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  Thicknesse,  the  governor 
of  Landguard  Fort,  who  advised 
him  to  go  to  Bath  to  try  his  for 


W.  T.  Whitley,1915;  A  Discursive 
Handbook  on  Copying  with  special 
reference  to  the  Lives  and  work  of 
Reynolds  and  Gainsborough,  W.  S. 
Span  ton,  1920,  etc. 

Gairdner.     Salt-water  lake  of 


tune.     This  Gainsborough  did  in     L^tf  ^0  V's  W°  ^f  taS 
Oct.,   1759,  and  his  portraits  at-  ieve1'    9 

tracted  considerable  attention 
there.  On  the  foundation  of  the 
Royal  Academy  he  became  one  of 
its  original  members,  and  in  1774 
left  Bath  for  London  to  reside  at 
Schomberg  House  in  Pall  Mall. 
There  his  reputation  reached  its 
height.  His  studio  was  crowded 
with  sitters,  and,  although  he 
raised  his  prices  several  times,  he 
was  unable  to  keep  pace  with  the 
demands  made  upon  him.  He 
exhibited  yearly  at  the  Royal 
Academy  until  1783,  when  he 
quarrelled  with  the  council  con- 
cerning the  position  allotted  to  his 
portrait  group  of  the  princess  royal 
with  the  princesses  Augusta  and 
Elizabeth.  After  that  he  ceased  to 
exhibit  at  the  Academy.  He  died 
at  Scbomberg  House,  Aug.  2,  178S 
and  was  buried  in  Kew  churchyard 
Sir  Joshua  Reynolds's  14th  Dis 
course,  delivered  to  the  students 
of  the  Royal  Academy,  Dec.  10, 


Thomas  Gainsborough.  His  portrait  of 

Master  Buttall  (e.  1770),  commonly 

called  the  Blue  Boy 


James  Gairdner, 
British  historian 

Runell 


GAIRDNER 

Torrens.  Its  length  from  N.  to  S. 
is  100  m.,  and  its  maximum 
breadth  40  m. 

Gairdner,  JAMES  (1828-1912). 
British  historian.  Born  in  Edin- 
burgh, March  22,  1828,  he  entered 
the  Public  Re- 
cord Office  in 
London  in 
1846,andspent 
nearly  his 
whole  life 
there.  He  was 
made  a  C.B.  in 
1900,  and  died 
Nov.  4,  1912, 
Gairdner' s  re- 
searches were 
mainly  con- 
cerned with  the  early  Tudor  period. 
He  edited  the  Letters  and  Papers 
of  the  Reign  of  Henry  VIII,  from 
vol.  V  onwards,  1880-1910 ;  and 
The  Paston  Letters,  3  vols.,  1872- 
75 ;  while  among  his  writings  are 
Henry  VIII,  1889;  History  of 
Richard  III,  1898;  The  Early 
Tudors,  1902  (Cambridge  Modern 
Hist.  vol.  1 ) ;  and  Lollardy  and  the 
Reformation  in  England,  1908-11. 

Gairloch.  Sea  loch  of  Scotland. 
On  the  W.  coast  of  Ross  and 
Cromarty,  it  is  6  m.  long  and  3 J  m. 
broad  at  the  entrance.  The  name 
is  also  borne  by  a  village  at  the 
head  of  the  loch,  which  has  a  pier 
at  which  steamers  call,  and  golf 
links.  Pop.  3,300. 

Gaiseric  OR  GENSERIC  (c.  395- 
477).  Vandal  king.  The  son  of  a 
king,  he  himself  became  king  on 
the  death  of  his  brother  in  428, 
being  doubtless  chosen  on  account 
of  his  reputation  as  a  fighter.  His 
people  were  then  in  Spain,  but  he 
led  many  of  them  across  to  Africa 
and  made  his  first  conquests  at  the 
expense  of  the  Romans  there.  The 
emperor  Valentinian  III  recog- 
nized the  new  Vandal  kingdom,  of 
which  Carthage  was  the  capital. 
Gaiseric  then  began  a  career  of 
conquest  at  sea,  capturing  Sicily, 
Sardinia,  and  Corsica,  making  his 
hordes  feared  by  the  dwellers  along 
the  Mediterranean  coasts.  His 
greatest  exploit  was  the  sack  of 
Rome,  455.  His  power  remained  un- 
shaken until  his  death,  Jan.  25, 477. 
See  Genseric,  King  of  the  Vandals 
and  First  Prussian  Kaiser,  P. 
Bigelow,  1918. 

Gaisford,  THOMAS  (1779-1855). 
British  scholar.  Born  Dec.  22, 
1779,  at  Iford,  Wiltshire,  the  son  of 
John  Gaisford,  he  was  educated  at 
a  school  near  Winchester.  In  1797 
he  entered  Christ  Church,  Oxford, 
becoming  tutor.  He  was  then  or- 
dained. In  1812  he  was  chosen 
regius  professor  of  Greek,  and  in 
1831  became  dean  of  Christ  Church" 
a  post  he  retained  until  his  death, 
June  2,  1855.  Gaisford  made  a 


3396 

great  reputation  as  a  Greek 
scholar  by  his  edition  of  many 
of  the  Greek  writers.  He  did  useful 
work  in  connexion  with  the  Oxford 
University  Press. 

Gaiters  (Fr.  guftre).  Covering 
of  cloth  for  the  leg,  buttoning  from 
knee  to  ankle,  and  usually  ex- 


T 


Gaiters.     1.  Military,   2nd   half   of 

18th  century.     2.  Bishop's.     3.  As 

worn  in  Highland  regiments.      4. 

Women's  and  men's,  1920 
tending  to  the  instep.  Spatter- 
dashes, or  "  spats,"  both  forms  of 
gaiters,  used  to  form  part  of  a 
military  costume,  and  still  exist 
in  that  of  Highland  regiments. 

Gaius  (2nd  century  A.D.). 
Roman  jurist.  Except  that  he 
lived  during  the  period  from 
Hadrian  to  Marcus  Aurelius, 
nothing  is  known  of  him,  not  even 
his  full  name.  Fragments  of  his 
Institutiones  were  preserved  in 
Justinian's  Digest  and  other  works, 
while  in  1816  the  historian  Nie- 
buhr  discovered,  in  the  library  of 
the  chapter  house  at  Verona,  a 
MS.  of  Jerome,  written  over  an 
almost  complete  copy  of  the  work. 
See  Roman  Law. 

Gala  Beds.  In  geology,  a  group 
of  sedimentary  rocks,  shales,  flag- 
stones, grits,  etc.  Between  3,000 
and  5,000  feet  in  thickness,  they 
are  developed  in  the  S.  of  Scotland. 

Galactorrhoea.  Term  applied 
to  a  disorder  of  lactation  in  which 
there  is  persistent  excess  in  the 
amount  of  milk  secreted,  but  the 
milk  is  thin  and  poor  in  quality. 
It  is  generally  the  result  of  de- 
bility in  the  mother,  and  usually 
renders  weaning  of  the  infant 
desirable. 

Galago.  Group  of  small,  long- 
tailed,  lemuroid  animals,  found  in 
most  parts  of  tropical  Africa.  The 
largest  of  them  is  about  the  size  of 
a  domestic  cat,  while  the  smallest 
is  only  five  inches  long.  They  are 
nocturnal  in  habit,  and  feed  mainly 
on  fruits,  insects,  and  small  birds. 
They  are  readily  distinguished 
from  the  true  lemurs  by  their  very 
large  earp. 


GALAPAGOS 

Galahad.  JKnight  of  Arthur's 
Round  Table,  who  achieved  the 
vision  of  the  Holy  Grail.  Son  of 
Lancelot  and  Elaine,  daughter  of 
King  Pelles,  he  was  brought  up  by 
nuns,  came  to  Camelot  on  the  eve 
of  Pentecost,  and  received  knight- 
hood at  Arthur's  hand.  "  After 
riding  on  many  strange  ad- 
ventures, he  started,  with  Sir  Per- 
cevale  and  Sir  Bors,  on  the  quest 
of  the  Sangreal,  and  was  granted 
the  sight  of  the  mystic  cup  from 
which  Christ  drank  at  the  Last 
Supper.  Thereupon  Galahad  asked 
for  death,  and  when,  in  due  course, 
his  hour  came,  the  Sangreal  was 


Galahad,  the  knight  of  purity.  From 

the  picture  by  G.  F.  Watts,  in  the 

chapel  of  Eton  College 

borne  up  to  heaven  and  never  seen 
of  man  again.  See  Grail;  Morte 
d'  Arthur. 

Galantine  (Fr.).  Dish  of  cold 
meat  covered  with  jelly.  The  name 
is  probably  derived  from  late  Lat. 
galalina,  jelly,  ultimately  from 
Lat.  gelare,  to  freeze.  _f 

Galapagos  OR  TORTOISE  IS- 
LANDS. Group  of  volcanic  islands 
in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  695  m.  W.  of 
Ecuador,  to  which  they  belong. 


Galago.     Specimen  of  the   Maholi 
galago 


GALASH1ELS 

Officially  renamed  the  Colon  Archi- 
pelago in  1892,  the  chief  are  Albe- 
marle,  Indefatigable,  Chatham, 
James,  Hood,  Narborough,  Bar- 
rington,  Charles,  and  Abingdon. 
Albemarle,  by  far  the  largest,  is 
60  m.  long.  The  total  area  of  ths 
archipelago  is  2,400  sq.  m. 

Most  of  the  surface,  which  rises 
from  3,000  ft.  to  3,600  ft.,  is  arid. 
Yet  there  is  a  richly  endemic  flora, 
and  an  interesting  fauna ;  turtles 
of  huge  size  and  giant  tortoises 
are  found.  Domestic  animals  run 
wild ;  cotton,  figs  and  oranges,  and 
tobacco  plants,  introduced  by  early 
colonists,  are  widely  distributed. 
Sulphur  exists  in  large  quantities. 
On  Charles  Island  there  is  a  penal 
settlement.  Pop.  400. 

Galashiels.  Mun.  burgh  and 
parish  of  Selkirkshire,  Scotland. 
It  stands  on  Gala  Water,  near  its 

__ confluence    with 

the  Tweed,  33£ 
m.  S.  by  E.  of 
Edinburgh,  o  n 
the  N.B.R.  The 
chief  seat  of  the 
Scottish  woollen 
industry,  intro- 
duced towards 
the  end  of  the 


Galashiels  aims 


16th  century,  Galashiels  has  im- 
portant tanneries,  dyeworks,  and 
hosiery  manufactories.  Near  by 
are  Abbotsford  and  Ashestiel,  resi- 
dences of  Sir  Walter  Scott.  Mar- 
ket day,  Tues.  Pop.  14,531. 

Galatea.  In  Greek  mythology, 
a  sea  nymph,  one 
of  the  daughters  of 
Nereus.  She  loved 
the  beautiful 
Sicilian  youth  Acis 
(q.v.),  who  was 
slain  by  the  jealous 
C y clops  Poly- 
phemus.  Galatea 
herself  is  the  per- 
sonification of  the 
bright,  calm  sea. 
The  name  has  also 
been  given,  in 
modern  times,  to  a 
statue  endowed 
with  life  by  the 
goddess  Venus  at 
the  prayer  of  the 
sculptor*  Pygma- 
lion (q.v.).  See 
Anderson,  Mary, 
illus. 


Galatea.  Strong, 
coloured,  cotton 
c  1  o  c  h.  Used  for 
children's  suits  or 
working  dresses, 
the  pattern  is  a 
plain  or  fancy 
stripe,  and  the 
weave  a  twilled 
one. 


3397 

Galati  OR  GALATZ.  Town  of 
Rumania,  in  Moldavia.  It  is  situ- 
ated on  an  amphitheatre  of  hills 
rising  on  the  N.  side  of  the  Danube 
about  10  m.  above  its  junction  with 
the  Pruth,  and  nearly  80  m.  N.E.  of 
Bukarest.  Before  the  Great  War  it 
was  a  prosperous  place,  with  a  pop. 
of  more  than  70,000  in  1915,  owing 
to  the  improvement  of  the  naviga- 
tion of  the  Danube  by  the  Danube 
Commission.  One  of  the  best  ports 
on  the  Danube,  it  manufactures 
iron  and  copper,  and  exports  large 
quantities  of  grain  and  timber.  It 
was  the  scene  of  a  defeat  of  the 
Russians  by  the  Turks  in  1789,  and 
was  bombarded  in  1916  by  the 
Germans  and  Bulgarians. 

Galatia.  Territory  in  Asia 
Minor,  comprising  part  of  Phrygia 
and  part  of  Cappadocia.  It  was  so 
called  from  the  name  of  its  inhabit- 
ants, Galatae,  who  were  Gauls 
belonging  to  the  expedition  which, 
under  Brennus,  penetrated  into 
Greece  in  the  third  century  B.C. 
These  Galatian  Gauls  were  an  off- 
shoot from  the  main  host  who 
crossed  the  Hellespont  and  over- 
ran Asia  Minor,  until  checked  by 
Attains  I,  king  of  Pergamum 
(241-197  B.C.  ),  who  compelled  them 
to  settle  within  the  limits  of  the 
country  subsequently  known  as 
Galatia.  The  Galatians  became 
Graecised  in  culture,  but  retained 
their  Gallic  speech.  Under  Aug- 
ustus, Galatia  became  a  Roman 
province. 


Galatea,  the  sea  nymph,  riding  in  her  chariot  of  shell. 
From  the  painting  by  Raphael 

Farnese  Palace,  Rome 


GALBA 

Galatians,  EPISTLE  TO  THE.  One 
of  the  four  principal  Epistles  writ- 
ten by  S.  Paul.  Like  the  Epistle  to 
the  Romans,  it  contains  the  main 
points  of  the  Apostle's  teaching, 
together  with  autobiograpbica} 
matter,  which  supplements  the 
biographical  statements  in  the 
Acts.  The  Epistle  raises  some  diffi- 
cult problems.  The  most  difficult 
is  the  question  of  its  destination. 
Galatia  was  used  in  ancient  times 
to  denote  both  a  northern  district 
of  Asia  Minor  and  also  a  southern 
district,  the  latter  being  the  Roman 
province. 

The  N.T.  does  not  mention  any 
missionary  work  undertaken  in  the 
northern  district.  Hence  some 
scholars  adopt  what  is  called  the 
North  Galatian  theory,  others  what 
is  known  as  the  South  Galatian 
theory.  The  latter  has  the  support 
of  Sir  W.  Ramsay,  and  it  is  more 
natural  to  suppose  that  the  Epistle 
was  addressed  to  the  Church  in 
South  Galatia.  If  this  theory  is 
adopted,  the  Epistle  may  be  sup- 
posed to  have  been  written  from 
the  Syrian  Antioch  about  A.D.  53. 
See  Paul,  Saint. 

Galatina.  Town  of  Italy,  in  the 
prov.  of  Lecce.  It  is  15  m.  by  rly.  S. 
of  Lecce.  It  has  a  fine  14th  cen- 
tury church,  with  sculptures  and 
tombs,  besides  frescoes  by  Francesco 
d' Arezzo.  There  is  trade  in  oil,  wine, 
leather,  and  cotton.  Pop.  15,400. 

Galatz.  Alternative  name  of 
the  Rumanian  town  known  as 
Galati  (q.v.). 

Gala  Water.  River  of  Scotland. 
It  rises  among  the  Moorfoot  Hills, 
and  flows  through  the  counties  of 
Selkirkshire  and  Roxburghshire, 
until  it  falls  into  the  Tweed,  1  m. 
below  Galashiels.  Length,  21m. 

Galaxy  (Gr.  galaxias,  milky). 
Greek  name  for  the  Milky  Way, 
the  great  band  or  zone  of  stars, 
following  a  great  circle  of  the 
heavens.  See  Milky  Way. 

Galba,  SERVIUS  SULPICIUS  (3 
B.C.-A.D.  69).  Roman  emperor.  He 
had  held  several  provincial  gover- 
norships With  pr~ 

credit,  when,  in    I 
June,    68,     he    | 
was  proclaimed    [     Cp&. 
emperor  by  the    I 
legions  in  Gaul,    | 
who  had  risen    k 
in       revolt    [        iffc'm    j 
against     Nero. 
He    proceeded 
to   Rome,   but 
his  reign  lasted 
only    till     the 
following  December,  his  harshness 
and   parsimony   making   him   ex- 
ceedingly unpopular.    As  a  result 
of  a  conspiracy  he  was  murdered 
by  the  soldiery. 


Servius  Galba, 
Roman  emperor 

From  a  bust 


GALBANUM 


3398 


GAL1CIA 


Galbanum.  Gum  resin  used  in 
medicine  for  chronic  catarrh  and 
rheumatism.  Its  origin  is  uncer- 
tain, though  a  consensus  of  opinion 
gives  it  as  a  resin  from  an  umbelli- 
ferous plant,  Ferula  galbaniflva, 
found  hi  Persia.  Galbanum  occurs 
in  the  form  of  tears  or  large  masses, 
yellow  in  colour,  and  possessing  an 
odour  of  balsam  with  a  bitter  taste. 
Galena  (Persian,  boor).  Name 
denoting  several  mountain  tribes 
in  the  Pamir  and  Hindu  Kush  re- 
gion in  Afghanistan  and  Russian 
Turkistan.  The  best  known  are  the 
Shighni  and  Wakhi  near  Badak- 
shan.  They  represent  the  eastern- 
most extension  of  the  round- 
headed,  long-bearded  race  occupy- 
ing the  alpine  axis  westward  to  the 
Pyrenees.  Early  Aryan  admixture 
often  reappears  in  tall,  blond,  red- 
haired,  grey-eyed  descendants. 
Living  in  patriarchal  communities, 
with  no  intertribal  cohesion,  they 
speak  non-Sanskrit  dialects.  See 
Iskasmi. 

Galdos,  BENITO  PEREZ  (1845- 
1920).  Spanish  novelist  and  drama- 
tist. Born  at  Las  Pal  mas,  Canary 
Islands,  he 
studied  law  at 
Madrid,  but 
turnedto  litera- 
ture. In  1871 
he  published 
La  Fontana  de 
Oro,  and  in 
1879  appeared 
the  first  series 
o  f  Episodios 
N  a  c  ionales 
(National  Epi- 
sodes), which  was  to  extend  to 
50  vols.  and  present  in  fiction  form 
the  history  of  19th  century  Spain. 
He  wrote  also  a  large  number  of 
novels,  notably  the  popular  Dona 
Perfecta,  1876  (Eng.  trans.  1880), 
and  novels  of  contemporary  life,  in- 
cluding Nazarin,  1895,  his  greatest 
individual  work.  There  are  English 
translations  of  Gloria,  1879  ;  Tra- 
falgar, 1884  ;  and  Marianela,  1893. 
Of  his  dramas,  Electra,  1901,  is 
the  best  known.  Galdos  sat  as  a 
deputy  in  the  Cortes,  1885,  and 
died  at  Madrid,  Jan.  4,  1920. 

Gale,  NORMAN  ROWLAND  (b 
1862).  British  poet.  Bom  at  Kew, 
he  published  his  earliest  poems 
about  1888,  and  was  soon  noted  for 
his  dainty  lyrics  of  birds  and 
flowers,  h  i  s 
spirited  crick- 
sting  songs, 
and  his 
charming 
verses  ad- 
dressed to 
children.  His 
volumes  of 
poems  include 
A  Country 


B.  Ffetti  Galdos, 
Spanish  novelist 


Muse,  1892  ;  Orchard  Songs,  1983  ; 

Cricket  Songs,   1894  ;     Songs  for 

Little  People,  1896  ;   More  Cricket 

Songs,  1905  ;  A  Book  of  Quatrains, 

1909  ;      Merry-go-Round  of  Song, 

1919.    He  also  wrote  some  stories, 

including  A  June  Romance,  1894. 

Galen  OR  CLAUDIUS  GALENUS  (c 

A.D.    130-200).      Greek  physician 

and  writer  on  medical  philosophy. 

Born    at    Per- 

!|   gamum,     Asia 

I   Minor,     he 

]   studied  at  the 

Wj^^H        |j   chief    semin- 

j   aries  of  Greece 

1   and    Egypt, 

••«^|J  I   and  about  164 

B||  I   went  to  Rome, 

Hj   where    he    be- 

"    Claudius  GalenT       came  famous 

Greek  physician        by  his  wonder- 


Norman  R.  Gale, 
British  poet 


. 

of  which  were 
popularly  attributed  to  magic.  He 
was  intimate  with  Marcus  Aure- 
lius,  and  body  physician  to  his  son 
Commodusduringtheemperor's  ab- 
sence on  the  Danubian  campaign. 
Later  he  returned  to  Pergamum. 

Galen  was  the  author  of  some 
500  treatises  on  medical  and  philo- 
sophical subjects.  Most  of  these 
were  burnt  in  the  Temple  of  Peace 
in  Rome,  where  they  had  been  de- 
posited, but  83  authentic  works 
are  extant,  besides  some  commen- 
taries on  Hippocrates  and  some 
works  of  doubtful  authenticity. 
The  date  and  place  of  his  death 
are  uncertain,  some  authorities 
saying  it  took  place  in  Sicily 
about  200,  others  at  Pergamum 
some  years  later.  As  a  physician 
Galen  ranks  second  only  to  Hip- 
pocrates ;  he  was  great  as  a  prac- 
tical anatomist,  but  as  a  physio- 
logist erred  on  the  side  of  theory. 
He  coordinated  all  the  medical 
knowledge  of  his  predecessors  and 
contemporaries,  and  did  more 
than  any  other  single  man  to 
render  possible  the  development 
of  modern  medicine.  See  Harvey 
and  Galen,  J.  Payne,  1897. 

Galena  OR  LEAD  GLANCE.  The 
most  important  ore  of  lead  and  the 
source  of  most  of  the  lead  of  the 
world.  Widely  distributed  through- 
out the  world  in  granite,  lime- 
stone, argillaceous,  and  sandstone 
rocks,  it  is  often  associated  with 
ores  of  zinc,  silver,  and  copper. 
When  pure  it  contains  86'55  p.c. 
of  lead  and  13*45  of  sulphur,  and 
is  a  sulphide  of  lead.  Galena 
usually  contains  silver,  sometimes 
in  such  proportions  that  it  is 
rather  an  ore  of  silver  than  of  lead. 
See  Lead  ;  Silver. 

Galeopithecus.  Generic  name 
for  the  flying  lemurs  (q.v.).  Natives 
of  Malaya  and  the  Philippines,  they 
eat  leaves  and  fruit.  See  Colugo. 


Galerites  (Lat.  galerus,  a  cap). 
Sea  urchins  of  the  Cretaceous 
system,  with  conical  shaped  shells, 
which  give  them  the  popular  name 
of  sugar-loaves.  The  under  sur- 
face is  flat,  with  a  central  mouth. 

Galerius  VALERIUS  MAXI- 
MIANUS  (d.  311).  Roman  emperor 
A.D.  305-311,  also  known  as  Maxi- 
mianus  II.  At  the  quadripartite 
division  of  the  empire  by  Diocle- 
tian in  293,  Galerius  became  one 
of  the  Caesars  or  junior  rulers, 
with  control  of  the  Danube  pro- 
vinces and  the  Balkans  from 
Sirmium,  and  on  the  abdication  of 
Diocletian  in  305  he  became  senior 
emperor. 

Galesburg.  City  of  Illinois, 
U.S.A.,  the  co.  seat  of  Knox  co. 
It  is  43  m.  E.N.E.  of  Burlington, 
and  is  served  by  the  Chicago,  Bur- 
lington and  Quincy,  and  the  At- 
chison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe  rlys. 
An  educational  centre,  it  contains 
Knox,  Lombard,  and  Corpus  Christi 
colleges,  extensive  rly.  workshops 
and  stockyards,  and  brickmaking, 
ironf ounding,  and  the  manufacture 
of  boilers,  engines,  and  agricultural 
implements  are  carried  on.  Gales- 
burg  was  settled  in  1837,  and 
chartered  as  a  city  in  1857. 
Pop.  24,629. 

Galgacus  OR  CALGACUS.  Cale- 
donian chief.  He  commanded  the 
northern  native  tribes  when  Cale- 
donia was  invaded  by  Agricola 
(q.v.),  and  after  a  determined  re- 
sistance was  defeated  about  A.D. 
85  at  the  battle  of  Mons  Grau- 
pius,  the  modern  Grampians  (q.v.). 
The  site  of  the  battle  is  variously 
placed.  Tacitus  put  into  the  mouth 
of  Galgacus  the  well-known  words 
"  they  make  a  solitude  and  call  it 
peace." 

Galicia.  Former  kingdom  and 
prov.  of  N.W.  Spain,  .now  divided 
into  the  provs.  of  Corunna,  Luco, 
Pontevedra,  and  Orense.  It  lies 
between  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  the 
Atlantic,  and  Portugal,  with  deeply 
indented  coast-line,  and  is  traversed 
by  mts.  and  watered  by  the  Minho 
and  many  smaller  streams.  The 
Galician  people  (Gallegos),  a  rude, 
industrious  race,  retain  their  in- 
dividuality. The  coastal  climate  is 
mild  and  equable,  the  rain  fall  abun- 
dant, and  the  soil  is  productive. 
A  Roman  colony,  a  Suevian  king- 
dom, a  Moorish  possession,  a  part  of 
Castile  or  Leon,  Galicia  has  shared 
fully  in  the  history  of  the  peninsula. 
Its  area  was  nearly  16,000  sq.  m. 

Galicia.  Formerly  the  largest 
prov.  of  Austria,  but  since  the 
Great  War  mostly  within  the  re- 
public of  Poland.  Galicia  extends 
for  rather  more  than  300  m.  along 
the  N.  side  of  the  Carpathian  Mts., 
from  the  common  frontier  of  Po- 
land and  Czecho-Slovakia  in  the 


G  A  L  1  C  I  A 

English  Miles 


Galicia:  Map  of  the  Polish  district,  part  of  the  Austrian  Empire  1772-1918,  and  the  scene  of  important  fighting  during 

the  early  part  of  the  Great  War 


neighbourhood  of  Tsin  (Teschen) 
to  the  frontier  of  Rumania  between 
the  Dniester  and  the  Carpathians. 
The  N.  boundary  of  the  district 
begins  in  the  W.  on  the  N.  side  of 
the  Vistula,  then  follows  the  river 
itself  for  over  100  m.,  passes  up  the 
valley  of  the  San  to  the  E.  of  that 
stream,  crosses  the  Bug  to  Brody, 
and  finally  follows  the  Zbrucz 
affluent  to  the  Dniester. 

The  S.  half  of  Galicia  comprises 
the  foothills  of  the  Carpathians, 
mainly  composed  of  flysch  sand- 
stones. The  heights  stretch  in  long, 
monotonous  ridges  from  E.  to  W., 
except  where  the  granitic  Tatra 
Mts.  present  rugged  Alpine  peaks. 
The  whole  area  is  a  natural  forest 
region,  coniferous  trees  being 
common  on  the  higher  ground. 
The  deeply  cut  valleys  contain 
fertile  alluvium.  The  Jablunkov 
(1,810  ft,),  Lupkov  (1,916  ft.), 
Dukla  (1,650  ft.),  and  Uzok  (2,651 
ft. )  are  the  chief  passes  from  Poland 
to  Czecho-Slovakia.  The  Magyar 
or  Tatar  Gate  (3,300  ft.),  also 
known  as  the  Delatyn  or  Jablonica 
pass  in  the  Forest  Carpathians,  is 
strategically  the  gateway  from 
Russia  to  the  Hungarian  plain. 

The  foothills  contain  deposits  of 
salt  and  petroleum.  The  great  salt 
mines  of  Wieliczka,  near  Cracow, 
have  been  worked  for  centuries, 
and  the  galleries  extend  for  3  m., 
1,000  ft.  below  ground.  Rich  de- 
posits of  salt  are  also  worked  at 
Bochnia,  Sambor,  Drohobycz,  and 
Dolina.  Drohobycz  is  the  chief 
centre  of  the  oil  district. 

The  N.  portion  of  Galicia  com- 


prises three  lowland  areas  :  in  the 
W.  the  narrow  valley  of  the  Vis- 
tula; in  the  middle  the  Galician 
plain  between  the  Vistula  and  its 
affluent  the  San ;  in  the  E.  the  low- 
land between  Podolia  and  the 
Carpathians.  The  Galician  plain 
is  trenched  by  broad  alluvium- 
filled  valleys  made  during  the 'Ice 
Age  in  which  the  modern  rivers, 
all  too  small  for  the  valleys,  flow 
unconformably.  Between  the 
valleys  the  plateaux  rise  from  50  ft. 
to  1 50  ft.  above  valley  level ;  they 
are  covered  with  glacial  deposits 
of  sand  and  clay,  with  many  erratic 
boulders.  The  forest  covering  has 
been  cut  down ;  sand  has  en- 
croached over  the  area  and  de- 
stroyed its  former  fertility.  In  the 
N.  there  are  sand  dunes.  The  rivers 
flood  regularly,  and  prevent  the 
fertile  valley  alluvium  from  being 
well  tilled. 

The  E.  lowland  is  divided  into 
two  parts  by  the  water  parting, 
which  passes  from  W.  to  E.  close 
to  Lembcrg  (Lwow),  between  the 
Baltic  and  the  Black  Sea  drainage. 
Northwards  drains  the  Bug,  one 
of  the  chief  tributaries  of  the  Vis- 
tula, southwards  the  Dniester  and 
its  main  affluent,  the  Sereth,  and 
the  Pruth  drain  to  the  Black  Sea. 
The  N.  portion  is  level  and  mono- 
tonous, with  pinewoods,  peat  bogs, 
and  sand  dunes.  In  the  S.  portion 
the  rivers  have  cut  deep  trenches 
filled  with  alluvium ;  the  spring 
floods  frequently  turn  the  valleys 
into  temporary  lakes. 

Galicia  is  more  densely  peopled 
than  the  rest  of  Poland  to  the  N., 


or  the  former  Hungarian  area  to 
the  S.  The  inhabitants  in  the  W. 
are  Roman  Catholic  Poles,  and  in 
the  E.  Greek  Orthodox  Ruthenes 
or  Little  Russians.  In  the  towns 
there  are  many  Jews.  The  boun- 
dary zone  between  Poles  and 
Ruthenes  is  approximately  the 
valley  of  the  San,  although  the 
districts  round  Lemberg  and  Tar- 
nopol  in  the  E.  contain  more  Poles 
than  Ruthenes.  Historically,  this 
boundary  zone  has  marked  the  E. 
limit  of  the  influence  of  the  Roman 
Church  since  A.D.  1000.  It  con- 
tained the  S.  portion  of  the  E. 
boundary  of  the  kingdom  of  Po- 
land in  A.D.  1200,  although  the 
whole  of  Galicia  was  included 
within  the  kingdom  of  Poland 
during  the  14th,  15th,  and  16th 
centuries.  In  1740  Galicia,  still 
wholly  in  Poland,  was  divided,  the 
W.  belonging  to  the  district  of 
Little  Poland  and  the  E.  to  Red 
Russia.  Galicia  became  Austrian 
in  1772.  That  part  W.  of  the  San 
went  to  Poland  after  the  Great 
War.  and  East  Galicia  to  Poland 
in  1923. 

Galicia,  BATTLES  IN.  Towards 
the  end  of  1915  the  Russians  under 
Ivanoff  undertook  an  offensive, 
the  immediate  objective  of  which 
was  Czernowitz,  but  which  ex- 
tended N.  over  the  earlier  battle- 
fields of  the  Strypa  and  the  Styr. 
This  offensive  had  in  view  possible 
Austro-Gennan  action  against 
Rumania,  and  covered  a  Russian 
offensive  in  the  Caucasus. 

In  S.E.  Galicia  the  Russian  line 
lay  a  short  distance  within  the 


GALIGNANI 


34OO 


GALILEI 


Austrian  frontier,  and  fighting 
began  N.E.  of  Czernowitz. 

Meanwhile  a  considerable  battle 
was  being  fought  in  the  region  of 
the  Styr,  where  Brusiloff  was  in 
command,  his  purpose  being  to  hold 
the  enemy  and  prevent  him  from 
sending  reinforcements  to  the  S. 
On  Dec.  29  a  fierce  struggle  de- 
veloped near  Chartoryisk,  and  on 
Jan.  1,  1916,  the  Russians  forced 
a  passage  across  the  river.  On  Jan. 
7  Brusiloff  captured  Chartoryisk, 
and  next  day  successfully  dealt 
with  a  strong  counter-attack. 

After  sanguinary  encounters  in 
this  area  there  came  a  lull,  followed 
on  Feb.  9  by  the  brilliant  capture 


GALILEE 

(ANCIENT) 

English     Miles 


tinuance   in  1904, 
was  called    The 
Daily  Messenger. 
Galilee.    Prov. 

of  N.  Palestine. 
Little  is  recorded 
of  it  in  O.T.  days, 
but  after  the 
Captivity  it  was 
ceded  by  the  As- 
syrians to  the 
Israelites  and 
soon  became  virtu- 
ally a  separate 
nation,  the  inhabi- 
tants being  chiefly 
Arabs,  Syrians, 
and  Greeks.  They 

were  despised  by 
the  Jews  of  the 
S.,  and  the  fact 
that  Chris t's 
home  was  in  that 
country  was 
made  a  reproach 
to  Him.  Tiberias 
was  its  chief  city, 
and  it  was  a  fer- 
tile and  populous 
district,  but  is 
now  little  better 
than  a  wilderness 
in  many  parts. 

Galilee,  SKA  OF. 
Lake  in  Pales- 
tine, also  called 
the  lake  of  Tiber- 
ias and  the  lake 
of  Gennesareth. 
It  is  formed  by  an 
expansion  of  the 
Jordan,  about  13 
m.  long  by  8  m. 
broad.  Owing  to 
its  situation 
among  steep  hills 
it  is  subject  to 
sudden  and  vio- 
lent storms,  to 
which  allusion 
is  made  in  the 
Gospels.  On  its 
shores  stood 


Galilee,  looking  across  the  sea 


Ti'uerias 


Galilee.     Map  of  the  province  in  New  Testament  times 


various  cities,  in- 
cluding   Tiberias 

by  the  Russians  of  the  Uscieczko  and  Capernaum, 
bridgehead  on  the  Dniester.  There- 
after trench  warfare  supervened, 
with  little  change  in  the  respective 
fronts  until  the  great  offensive 
'A  the  Russians  under  Brusiloff 
which  began  in  June.  See  Lutsk, 
Battles  of. 

Galignani,  GIOVANNI  ANTONIO 
(1752-1821).  Founder  of  a  cele- 
brated family  of  European  pub- 
lishers. Born  in  Brescia,  he  settled 
in  Paris  and  established  an 
English  library  there  in  1800.  In 


to  large  porches  such  as  those  to 
be  seen  at  Ely  Cathedral  and  Lin- 
coln Cathedral.  See  Ely. 

Galilei,  GALILEO  (1564-1642). 
Italian  astronomer.  Born  at 
Pisa,  Feb.  15,  1564,  he  was  the 
son  of  a  Florentine  nobleman, 
who  intended  him  to  adopt  medi- 
cine as  a  pro- 
fession. He  en- 
tered Pisa  Uni- 
versity in  1581, 
but  there  he 
soon  followed 
his  natural  in- 
clinations, and 
while  still  only 
25  he  became 
professor  of 
mathematics, 
o  r  k  i  n  g  on 
dynamics  from 
1589-91. 
Early  distinguished  by  clarity 
and  originality  of  thought,  his  free 
expressions  of  opinion  won  him 
such  unpopularity  that  he  had  to 
resign.  In  1592  he  went  as  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  to  Padua, 
where  he  made  a  series  of  scientific 
discoveries.  A  report  from  Flan- 
ders in  1609  of  the  invention,  by 
Hans  Lippersheym,  of  a  glass 
which  made  remote  objects  appear 
near,  led  to  his  constructing  a  tele- 
scope, and  its  first  application  to 
astronomical  observation. 


Trin.  Coll.,  Camb. 


1814  he  began  the  publication  of 
Galignani's  Messenger,  carried  on 
by  his  descendants  until  1884,  when 
they  disposed  of  the  paper  which 
thenceforward,  until  its  discon- 


the  latter  the  scene 
of  so  much  of 
Christ's  ministry 
that  it  was  known 
as  His  own  city. 
Of  these  cities  only 
Tiberias  remains, 
the  sites  of  the 
others  having 
been  covered  up. 

Galilee.  Term 
i  n  ecclesiastical 
architecture.  Its 
origin  is  obscure. 
It  is  applied  to  a 
chapel  at  the  west 
end  of  Durham  Ca- 
thedral, and  also 


Galilee  cbapcl  in  Durham  Cathedral  looking  south-east 


GALITZIN 


3401 


GALLA     OX 


This  marked  a  revolution  in  as- 
tronomy, and  Galileo's  first  obser- 
vations were  published  in"  Sidereus 
nuncius,  1610.  Specially  notable 
was  his  discovery  of  the  satellites  of 
Jupiter,  confirming  the  planetary 
theory  of  Copernicus  (q*v. ).  In  that 
year  Galileo  moved  to  Florence, 
as  mathematician  to  the  duke  of 
Tuscany,  and  observed  sun-spots 
and  the  formation  of  Saturn.  Dur- 
ing 1613-15  he  was  engaged  in 
controversy  on  the  theological  im- 
plications of  his  discoveries,  and 
of  the  Copernican  theory,  which 
resulted  in  his  being  warned  by 
the  Holy  Office,  in  Feb;,  1616,  not 
to  preach  the  latter  doctrine. 

In  1632  appeared  his  great  work, 
The  Dialogue  of  Two  Systems  of 
the  World,  and  the  controversy  re- 
opened. Summoned  to  Rome,  he 
was  obliged  to  recant  the  doctrine 
that  the  earth  moved  round  the  sun. 
He  returned  to  Florence,  where  he 
spent  his  remaining  years.  Be- 
coming blind  in  1637,  he  died  on 
Jan.  8,  1642. 

Bibliography.  Works,  ed.  E.  Al- 
beri,  16  vols.,  1842-56  ;  ed.  A. 
Favaro,  20  vols.,  1890-1909,  etc.  ; 
Galileo  and  his  Judges,  F.  R.  W. 
Prosser,  1889  :  Galileo  :  his  Life  and 
Work,  J.  J.  Fahie,  1903  ;  Galileo  (in 
Pioneers  of  Progress  Series),  W.  W. 
Bryant,  1918. 

I  Galitzin.  Name  of  a  Russian 
noble  family.  Vasili  Galitzin  was 
its  first  prominent  member,  and 
after  him  came  two  brothers, 
Mikhail  and  Dmitri.  Mikhail 
(1674-1730)  was  a  soldier  who 
assisted  Peter  the  Great  in  his  wars 
with  Sweden;  Dmitri  (d.  1738) 
was  one  of  those  who  helped  Anne 
to  secure  the  throne  in  1730  ;  in 
1731,  however,  he  was  banished, 
and  he  died  in  prison.  Later 
members  included  Dmitri  Alexei- 
vitch  (1738-1803),  ambassador  to 
France  and  to  the  Netherlands. 
He  was  also  a  writer  on  scientific 
subjects,  the  husband  of  Princess 
Galitzin,  and  the  correspondent 
of  Voltaire. 

Galitzin,  ADELHEID  AMALIE, 
PRINCESS  (1748-1806).  German 
pietist.  The  daughter  of  a  Prussian 
general,  she  was  born  at  Berlin, 
Aug.  28,  1748,  and  married  Dmitri 
Galitzin,  Russian  ambassador  to 
Holland  and  France.  Of  literary 
tastes  and  an  extraordinarily  ami- 
able disposition,  she  became  noted 
for  her  piety.  She  established  a 
circle  of  pietists  in  Munster.  She 
died  Aug.  24,  1806. 

Galitzin,  VASILI  VASILIEVITCH 
(1643-1713).  Russian  statesman. 
In  1676  he  was  successful  in  a  cam- 
paign against  the  Dnieper  Cos- 
sacks and  in  1682  became  minister 
of  foreign  affairs.  Regent  during 
the  minority  of  Peter  the  Great,  he 
wielded  great  influence  and  ruled 


Russia  with  a  firm  but  just  hand. 
He  led  two  expeditions  into  the 
Crimea.  In  1689  the  regency  ended, 
and  Galitzin  was  sent  into  exile, 
dying  in  Siberia,  March  13,  1713. 

Galitzin,  NICHOLAS  DMITBIE- 
VITCH,  PRINCE  (b.  1850).  Russian 
statesman.  The  son  of  Prince 
Dmitri  Borisovitch,  he  was  born 
in  March,  1850.  Educated  at  the 
Lycee  Alexander,  he  spent  two 
years  at  the  ministry  of  the  interior. 
He  was  transferred  in  1879  to 
Archangel  as  vice-governor,  and  in 
1887,  after  acting  for  a  brief  period 
as  director  of  the  economic  de- 
partment in  the  ministry  of  the 
interior  and  for  two  years  as 
governor  of  Archangel,  he  was  pro- 
moted full  governor.  In  1893  he 
was  governor  of  Kaluga,  and  in 
1897  was  transferred  in  a  similar 
capacity  to  Tver.  He  later  became 
a  senator  and  member  of  the  council 
of  the  empire,  and  was  appointed 
prime  minister  in  Jan.,  1917,  in 
succession  to  Trepoff. 

Galium.  Genus  of  hardy  annual 
and  perennial  plants  belonging  to 
the  order  Rubiaceae.  Its  common 
name  is  bedstraw  (q.v.). 

Gall.  Word  used  in  different 
senses  according  to  its  etymology. 
( 1 )  The  fluid  secreted  from  the  liver, 
more  generally  known  as  bile  (Gr. 
chole,  Lat.  fel).  The  phrase  gall 
and  wormwood  is  used  to  express 
anything  specially  painful  or  un- 
pleasant. (2)  The  gall-nut  or  oak- 
apple  (Lat.  galla),  a  swelling  on  the 
oak-tree  resulting  from  the  attacks 
of  certain  parasitic  insects.  From 
this  probably  comes  the  meaning  of 
a  soft  tumour  or  sore  on  a  horse's 
back,  the  result  of  rubbing,  the 
verb  to  gall  being  used  in  the  sense 
of  to  chafe. 

The  galls  which  are  on  trees  and 
herbs  are  varied  in  their  nature  and 
origin,  the  majority  owing  their 
existence  to  newly-formed  growths 
caused  by  the  punctures  of  insects 
(gall-flies,  beetles,  etc.)  to  accom- 
modate their  eggs,  this  act  causing 
an  abnormal  development  of  cell- 
tissue  round  the  egg  upon  which  the 
insect  grub  feeds.  Of  this  class 
are  the  familiar  oak-apples,  bullet- 
galls.,  and  leaf -spangles  of  the  oak, 
the  nail-galls  of  the  beech  and  lime, 
and  the  cone -like  galls  on  the  shoots 
of  spruce.  Other  galls,  such  as  the 
"  Witches-broom  "  which  appears 
on  pine  trees,  are  caused  by  fungi. 
See  Gall-fly. 

Gall  (c.  550-645).  Irish  saint. 
Born  in  Ireland,  he  was  educated  at 
Bangor  under  S.  Columban.  In 
585  he  went  to  France,  and  later  to 
the  neighbourhood  of  Lake  Con- 
stance, where  his  preaching  con- 
verted large  numbers  to  Christian- 
ity. In  61 4  he  founded  the  monas- 
tery of  S.  Gall,  on  the  river  Steinach, 


Franz  Josef  Gall, 
German  anatomist 


which  became  a  great  centre  of 
learning.  Offered  the  bishopric  of 
Constance,  616,  he  declined.  He 
died  at  Arbon,  Oct.  16,  645. 

Gall,  FRANZ  JOSEF  (1758-1828). 
German  anatomist  and  founder  of 
phrenology.  Born  at  Tiefenbronn, 
near  Baden, 
March  9,  1758, 
he  studied  med- 
icine at  Stras- 
bourg and  Vi- 
enna. Interest- 
ed by  the  possi- 
bility of  a  con- 

m  ^|  •    nexion     b  e  - 

I  ;  W  Jral  I    tween  the  form 

of  the  skull 
and  mental 
growth  and  characteristics,  he 
gave  lectures  on  this  subject  in 
Vienna  in  1796.  In  1800  Joseph 
Caspar  Spurzheim  (1776-1832) 
became  his  pupil,  and  in  1804  his 
partner  in  research.  They  toured 
Germany  and  Switzerland  lectur- 
ing, and  came  to  Paris  in  1807.  In 
March,  1808,  they  laid  before  a 
committee  of  the  Institute  a  state- 
ment of  their  theories,  which  was 
unfavourably  reported  upon.  After 
Spurzheim  left  France  in  1813, 
Gall  continued  to  work  in  Paris 
till  his  death  at  Montrouge,  Aug. 
22,  1828.  Among  his  works  are 
Anatomic  et  Physiologie  du  Sys- 
teme  Nerveux,  1810-19;  Intro- 
duction au  Cours  de  Physiologie 
du  Cerveau,  1808. 

Galla.  People  of  Hamitic  stock 
W.  of  Somaliland,  in  S.  Abyssinia 
and  the  colony  of  Kenya  (bar- 
barians). First  of  the  Hamites  to 
occupy  the  eastern  horn  of  Africa, 
they  were  driven  inland  by  the 
allied  Somali,  and  their  original 
nomadism  is  now  tempered  by 
settled  agriculture.  Numbering 
3,500,000,  they  breed  horses  in  the 
Christianised  north,  cattle  in  the 
Moslemised  south.  Mingled  with 
Nilotic  negroes,  they  gave  rise  to 
the  Masai;  E.  of  the  great  lakes 
they  became  the  Bahima  herds- 
men of  Uganda  and  the  Unyoro 
aristocracy.  A  negroid  strain  is 
perceptible  in  skin-colour  and  hair, 
in  culture  and  belief.  See  Abyssinia; 
Africa,  illus. 

Gallabat.  Town  of  the  Anglo- 
Egyptian  Sudan.  It  stands  on  a 
tributary  of  the  Atbara,  near  the 
Abyssinian  frontier.  There  is  con- 
siderable trade  with  Abyssinia, 
Gallabat  forming  one  of  the 
frontier  customs  posts. 

Galla  Ox  OR  SANGA.  Domesti- 
cated breed  of  humped  cattle, 
found  only  in  Abyssinia  and  the 
surrounding  country.  It  is  re- 
markable for  its  very  massive 
horns,  and  it  has  been  suggested 
that  it  is  a  descendant  of  the 
Indian  buffalo. 


GALLARATE 


3402 


GALLERY 


Gallarate.  Town  of  Italy,  in 
the  prov.  of  Milan.  It  is  25  m.  by 
rly.  N.W.  of  Milan,  and  a  junction 
for  Laveno,  Arona,  and  Valese. 
It  has  an  llth  century  Roman- 
esque church,  a  technical  school, 
cotton  mills,  and  many  textile 
factories.  Machinery,  buttons,  and 
cabinet  goods  are  made.  At  Viz- 
zola,  6  m.  to  the  W.,  are  electric 
works,  reputed  to  be  the  largest 
in  the  world.  Pop.  15,868. 

Gallas     OR    GALAS,    MATTHIAS 
(1584-1647).        Austrian    soldier. 
He    began   his  military    career   in 
the   Spanish 
service.    When 
the     Thirty 
Years     War 
began    he    en- 
t  e  r  e  d      the 
service   of    the 
Catholic 
League,      and 
bis  courage  and 
talent  soon        Matthias  Gallas, 
carried  him  to        Austrian  soldier 

the         front.  From  a  print 

One  of  Wallenstein's  chief  lieu- 
tenants, he  took  command  of  that 
general's  army  when  its  leader 
was  murdered,  a  crime  in  which 
he  was  concerned.  He  won  a  great 
victory  at  Nordlingen  over  the 
Swedes  in  Aug.,  1634,  and  re- 
mained a  leading  soldier,  but  not 
always  a  victorious  one,  almost 
until  the  end  of  the  struggle.  He 
was  dismissed,  but  was  recalled, 
only,  however,  to  have  his  army 
destroyed,  and  his  final  appearances 
in  the  field  were  also  failures. 
Gallas,  who  became  very  rich  by 
his  plunderings,  founded  the  Aus- 
trian family  of  Clam-Gallas.  His 
titles  included  those  of  count  of 
the  empire  and  duke  of  Lucera. 
His  corpulence  made  him  much 
ridiculed  by  his  enemies.  See 
Caricature,  illus. 

Gallatin  OR  GALLANTIN,  ALBERT 
( 1761  1 849 ).  Swiss- American  states- 
man. Born  at  Geneva,  Jan.  29, 
HMHHHfiffiRi  1761,  he  emi- 
grated to 
America  in 
1780.  For  a 
time  he  was 
not  very  suc- 
cessful, either 
as  a  trader  or 
a  teacher,  but 
fortune  veered 
round,  and  in 
1789  he  was 
able  to  take 
part  in  the  political  life  of  Pennsyl- 
vania. He  was  a  leader  of  the  so- 
called  Whisky  insurrection,  and  a 
member  of  the  state  assembly  for 
some  years.  In  1793  Gallatin  was 
elected  to  the  Senate  of  the  U.S.A., 
but  he  was  declared  ineligible  on 
a  question  of  citizenship.  This 


After  Chappell 


difficulty  removed,  he  took  his  seat         Galleon  (Span,  aaleon).  Spanish 
in  1795.  ship  of  the  15th,  16th,  and  17th 

Soon  prominent  among  the  op-  centuries.  Of  large  size,  sometimes 
ponents  of  the  Federalists  who  with  three  or  four  gun  decks,  it  was 
controlled  the  Government,  he  won  used  both  for  war  and  in  the  Indies 
fame  as  an  authority  on  financial  trade.  Owing  to  their  cumbrous 
matters.  This  led  in  1801  to  his  build,  galleons  were  awkward  to 
appointment  as  secretary  to  the  handle,  and  the  lighter,  quicker 
treasury,  in  which  capacity  he  re-  craft  of  the  British  seamen  were 
duced  the  national  debt,  and  did  able  to  defeat  them  by  their  better 
much  to  improve  the  country's  manoeuvring  powers,  as  was  shown 
financial  position.  Leaving  the  by  the  defeat  of  the  Great  Armada, 
treasury  in  1813,  he  was  a  com-  The  name  is  sometimes  used 
missioner  for  the  treaty  of  Ghent,  loosely  of  any  large  ship.  A  gal- 
1814.  He  was  minister  to  France  leass  was  a  ship  of  the  galleon  type 
1816-23,  and  to  Great  Britain  but  smaller,  and  partly  propelled 
1826-7.  He  retired  from  public  by  oars.  It  had  high  castles  at  stem 
life  in  1828  He  died  at  Astoria,  and  stern  and  was  low  in  the  waist, 
Long  Island,  Aug.  12,  1849.  See  where  sat  the  300  galley  slaves  who 
Life,  H.  Adams,  1879;  J.  A.  rowed  the  vessel. 
Stevens,  1890. 

Gall-bladder. 
Receptacle  on  the 
under  surface  of 
the  liver.  In  it 
bile  is  stored  to  be 
discharged  into 
the  intestine 
during  the  pro- 
cess of  digestion. 
See  Gall-stones. 

Galle  OR  POINT 
DE  GALLE.  Sea- 
port of  Ceylon,  on 
the  S.W.  coast  of 
the  island.  Until 
the  development 
of  the  harbour  at 
Colombo,  Galle 
was  a  port  of  considerable  im-  Gallery  (Fr.  goierie).  Upper 
portance.  Its  harbour  has  the  ad-  floor  extending  over  a  part  only  of 
vantage  of  deep  water  close  to  the  room  below  it.  In  secular  archi- 
the  land,  but  it  lacks  adequate  tecture,  the  use  of  a  gallery  may  be 
shelter  to  make  it  safe  in  rough  traced,  in  Great  Britain,  to  the 
weather.  It  was  founded  as  Punto  Norman  keep  (q.v.),  the  hall  of 

which  was  often 
surrounded  by  a 
gallery  built  into 
the  thickness  of 
the  wall.  Such 
galleries  were 
lighted  by  an 
upper  tier  of 
windows.  As  a 
domestic  feature 
the  gallery  did  not 
attain  importance 


Galleon  of  War  such  as  formed  part  of  the  Spanish  Armada 

From  an  old  print 


Gallo  by  the  Portuguese  in  1518. 
Pop.  (1911)  39,960. 

Galle,  JOHANN  GOTTFRIED 
(1812-1910).  German  astronomer. 
Born  in  Pabsthaus,  near  Witten- 
berg, he  was  appointed  in  1835 
to  the  Berlin  observatory,  and  in 
1851  professor  of  astronomy  and  di- 
rector of  the  Breslau  observatory, 
retiring  in  1897.  He  discovered 
three  comets,  and  was  the  first  to 
detect  Neptune  from  Le  Verrier's 
directions.  See  Neptune. 


Gallery  oi   the  banqueting   hall  in 

Haddon  Hall.  Derbyshire.     Above, 

the  Long  Gallery,  Hatneld  House. 


I 


GALLEY 


3403 


GALLIARD 


till  the  latter  part  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury, when  the  Elizabethan  Long 
Gallery  was  introduced.  The 
earliest  example  is  believed  to  have 
been  that  at  Hampton  Court,  built 
about  1540.  From  this  time  de- 
signers appear  to  have  aimed  at 
elongating  this  apartment  as  much 
as  possible. 

When  it  became  the  fashion  to 
collect  family  portraits  and  other 
works  of  art,  the  gallery  was  ths 
most  suitable  place  for  their  ac- 
commodation ;  hence  the  applica- 
tion of  the  term  to  a  museum  of  art 
treasures.  The  Elizabethan  gallery 
extended  the  whole  length  of  the 
longest  whig  of  the  house,  and  be- 
ing on  the  first  floor  was  ap- 
proached from  the  hall  by  the 
main  staircase.  It  was  lighted 
from  the  sides  as  well  as  the 
ends,  the  walls  were  usually 
panelled,  and  the  plaster  ceiling 
richly  decorated. 

The  minstrels'  gallery  (q.v.),  a 
well-known  feature  of  the  hall  of 
the  fortified  manor  house,  arose 
out  of  the  custom  of  cutting  off  the 
entrance  end  of  the  hall  from  the 
rest  by  a  screen,  the  roof  of  which 
formed  a  platform  where  music 
could  be  performed.  Church  in- 
teriors, in  the  Middle  Ages,  were 
often  fitted  with  galleries,  the  top 
of  the  rood  screen  being  frequently 
used  for  that  purpose.  Galleries  at 
the  west  end  and  along  the  aisles  of 
early  17th  century  churches  were 
common  until  Archbishop  Laud 
was  charged  with  the  duty  of 
abolishing  them.  The  word  is  also 
used  for  a  level  or  drive  hi  a  mine. 

Galley  (late  Lat.  galea).  Six- 
oared  boat  in  a  warship,  used  by 
the  captain  only.  It  is  the  largest 


I 


Galley  of  type  as  set  up  before  making  up  into  pages 


Galley.  In  printing,  a  flat  tray 
made  of  metal  or  wood  used  for 
holding  type  after  it  has  been  set. 
It  is  oblong  or  quarto  in  size  with 
flanges  on  each  side  and  at  one  end. 
On  the  quarto  galley  the  type  is 
made  up  into  page  form  and 
secured  before  it  is  slid  off  on  to  the 
stone.  Impressions  of  the  type 
secured  on  the  oblong  galley  by 
means  of  side-stick  and  quoins,  are 
called  galley  proofs,  and  the  form 
of  press  on  which  the  proofs  are 
pulled  is  known  as  a  galley  press. 
The  term  galley  has  been  used  also 
to  indicate  a  quantity  of  type  set 
hi  newspaper  offices  according  to  a 
prearranged  scale.  See  Printing  ; 
Type -setting. 

Gall  Fly.    Group  of   hymeno- 
pterous     (membrane -winged)     in- 
sects, nearly  related  to  the  wasps, 
and  more  correctly  called  gall  wasps. 
They   are   all   of  very   small  size, 
either  black  or  brown   in  colour, 
and  in  the  majority  of  cases  the 
insect  in  its  larval  stage  is  parasitic 
on  plants.    The  galls  found  on  the 
stems  and  leaves  of  many  trees  are 
often  caused  by  the  attacks  of  these 
insects ;     though   certain    beetles, 
flies,  and  aphides  also  cause  them. 
The  female  gall  fly  pierces  the 
outer  skin  of  the  leaf  or  stem  with 
,    her       ovipositor, 
|    and  leaves  an  egg 
:    in     the     wound. 
;    The    presence  of 
j    this    egg,    or    of 
some  fluid  accom  - 
panying  it,  causes 
;    the    plant    to 
I    develop    an    ab- 
normal-growth 


Galley.      Reconstruction  o!  a  single-tiered  Liburnian 
galley,  founded  on  the  sculptures  on  Trajan's  Column 

single-banked  (i.e.  not  having  two 
oars  abreast)  boat  in  the  ship.  An 
admiral's  boat  is  called  a  barge. 
Large  galleys  were  the  earliest 
form  of  fighting  ship  and  were  so 
used  in  the  Mediterranean  until  late 
in  the  16th  century.  The  last  great 
battle  between  galleys  was  that  of 
Lepanto.  In  modern  vessels  the 
place  where  cooking  is  done  is 
called  the  galley.  See  Boat. 


of  tissue  around 
it,  which  soon 
assumes  the  ap- 
pearance of  the 
familiar  gall.  In 
this  the  larva  lives 
and  feeds,  only 

emerging  as  it  reaches  maturity. 
Each  species  of  gall  fly  affects 
one  particular  plant  and  keeps 
to  it,  and  the  resulting  galls 


which  is  hard  and  spherical ;  but 
there  are  many  other  and  diverse 
forms  found  on  the  oak,  including 
the  oak  apple.  In  the  wild  rose,  the 
gall  takes  the  form  of  a  mossy  out- 
growth, known  as  a  bedeguar, 
which  usually  contains  several 
larvae.  Many  of  the  gall  flies  ex- 
hibit the  phenomenon  of  alterna- 


Gall  Fly.      Formation  on  oak-tree 
by  Cynips  Kollari 

tive  generation,  sexual  propaga- 
tion and  parthenogenesis  taking 
place  in  turn. 

Gallia.  French  fleet  auxiliary. 
Completed  hi  1913,  of  14,966  tons, 
she  was  torpedoed  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean, Oct.  4,  1916,  whilst  carry- 
ing troops.  More  than  1,000  lives 
were  lost. 

Galliard.  Old  dance,  of  a  lively 
character,  in  triple  time.  Some 
writers  have  quoted  it  as  being  of 
an  immodest  character,  but  there 
is  nothing  in  the  music  to  suggest 
this.  One  of  the  supposed  original 
forms  of  God  Save  the  King  is  a 
galliard  by  John  Bull  (1562-1628), 
of  which  the  melody  begins  as 
shown  below. 

The  galliard  was  usually  associ- 
ated with  the  pa  van,  a  stately  dance 


Galliard.     Opening  oJ  melody  by  John  Bull 

are  characteristic  of  both  plant  in  duple  time,  which  it  followed  in 
and  insect.  One  of  the  most  the  suites  of  the  17th  century, 
familiar  is  the  oak  marble  gall,  After  about  1640  the  galliard, 


GALLIC      ACID 


GALLIOT 


in  name,  disappeared,  and  its 
place  was  filled  by  the  minuet  and 
sarabande,  as  representatives  of 
triple  time.  See  Minuet ;  Pa  vane : 
Sarabande  ;  Suite. 

Gallic  Acid  (H3C7H3(VH,0). 
Substance  with  an  astringent  taste. 
It  occurs  naturally  in  small  quan- 
tities in  galls,  sumach,  and  divi 
divi.  It  is  best  prepared  by  Scheele's 
method ;  finely  powdered  gall-nuts 
are  extracted  with  cold  water  and 
the  separated  solution  is  allowed  to 
become  mouldy.  The  fermentation 
thus  set  up  converts,  or  hydro 
lyses,  the  tannin  into  gallic  acid.  It 
is  also  prepared  by  boiling  tannin 
with  dilute  sulphuric  acid.  Gallic 
acid  is  used  in  medicine  as  an 
astringent,  and  in  photography  on 
account  of  its  power  of  reducing 
gold  and  silver  salts. 

Gallican  Church  (Lat.  Gallia, 
Gaul).  National  church  of  France. 
It  arose  under  Irenaeus  towards 
the  close  of  the  3rd  century,  took 
definite  shape  as  a  state  organiza- 
tion under  Charlemagne,  and  was 
consolidated  by  decrees  of  Louis 
IX  in  1226-70,  the  controversies 
between  Philippe  IV  and  Boniface 
VIII,  and  Louis  XIV  and  Innocent 
XI,  and  the  councils  of  Pisa,  Con- 
stance, and  Basel.  At  the  instance 
of  Louis  XIV  its  principles  were 
drawn  up  by  Bossuet  in  a  document 
which  maintained  that  S.  Peter's 
successors  had  power  alone  in 
spiritual  things  and  that  papal 
decisions  were  valid  only  with  the 
consent  of  the  whole  Church. 

This  attitude  of  independence  of 
Rome  became  known  as  Gallican- 
ism  and  had  its  advocates  in  other 
countries.  It  was  opposed  by 
Ultramontanism,  or  defence  of 
Roman  centralization ;  but  the 
Vatican  has  always  regarded  it  as 
representing  a  contest  between 
despotic  rulers  and  corrupt  ecclesi- 
astics for  church  property,  patron- 
age, and  influence,  and  by  the 
definition  of  papal  infallibility  it 
became  a  formal  heresy. 

The  Gallican  church  was  abol- 
ished at  the  Revolution  of  1789, 
re-established  under  Napoleon,  and 
finally  severed  from  the  state  during 
the  Third  Republic.  Its  specific 
Gallicanism  had  become  obso- 
lescent before  it  ceased  to  be  a 
national  church.  See  Bossuet ;  Con- 
cordat ;  Fenelon  ;  France  ;  Jansen- 
ism ;  Jesuits;  Lamennais ;  Ultra- 
montane; consult  also  The  Gallican 
Church  in  the  Revolution,  W.  H. 
Jervis,  1882;  Church  and  State  in 
France,  A.  H.  Galton,  1907. 

Gallieni,  JOSEPH  SIMON  (1849- 
1916).  French  soldier.  Born  at 
S.  Beat,  Haute  Garonne,  April  24, 
1849,  he  entered  the  French  army 
in  1870  as  lieutenant  of  marines, 
taking  part  in  the  Franco-Prussian 


Joseph  S.  Gallieni, 
French  soldier 


War,  and  later  seeing  active  service 
in  the  Sudan  and  Indo-China.  He 
was  governor  of  Madagascar  from 
1896-1905,  organized  the  island  as 
a  French  colony,  and  published  an 
account  of  this  work  in  Neuf  ans  a 
Madagascar,  1908.  In  1908  he  be- 
came a  member  of  the  Conseil  Su- 
perieur  de 
Guerre.  During 
the  Great  War 
he  was  a  p- 
pointed  milit- 
ary governor  of 
Paris,  Aug.  26, 
19 14,  saw  to  its 
fort  ifications, 
and  rendered 
substantial  as- 
sistance to  the 
French  Sixth  Army  under  General 
Manoury.  He  was  named  the 
"  Saviour  of  Paris,"  as  his  plans 
helped  to  decide  the  victory  of 
the  Marne,  Sept.,  1914.  In  Oct., 
1915,  he  was  minister  of  war  in  the 
cabinet  of  M.  Briand,  but  com- 
pelled to  resign  by  ill-health  in 
March,  1916,  he  died"  on  May  27. 
He  was  posthumously  created  a 
marshal  of  France  in  1921. 

Gallienus,  PUBLIUS  LICINIUS 
EGNATIUS.  Roman  emperor  A.D. 
260-268.  He  was  associated  with 
his  father,  Valerian,  in  the  govern- 
ment from  253  onwards,  and  suc- 
ceeded him  on  his  disappearance  in 
the  disastrous  Persian  campaign. 
Vain  and  frivolous,  Gallienus  was 
quite  unfitted  to  rule  in  these  diffi- 
cult times.  During  his  reign  the 
separate  "  Empire  of  the  Gauls  " 
was  created  under  Postumus,  and 
the  prince  of  Palmyra,  followed  by 
his  more  famous  wife  Zenobia, 
formed  what  was,  in  effect,  an  in- 
dependent kingdom  carved  out  of 
the  eastern  portion  of  the  empire. 
Hordes  of  Goths  penetrated  the 
N.E.  frontier,  while  plague  ma- 
terially reduced  the  population 
of  the  empire.  Usurpers  arose 
in  all  parts,  and  while  dealing 
with  one  of  these,  named  Aureolus, 
Gallienus  was  murdered  by  his 
own  soldiery. 


Gaston  Galliffet, 
French  soldier 


Galliot,  a  Dutch  sailing  vessel 


Galliffet,  GASTON  ALEXANDRE 
AUGUSTE,  MARQUIS  DE  (1830-1909). 
French  soldier  and  politician.  Born 
Jan.  21,  1830, 
he  entered  the 
army  in  1848, 
and  saw  service 
in  the  Crimea, 
1854-55;  in 
the  Italian  War, 
1859;  in  Mexico, 
1863  ;  in  Alge- 
ria, 1864-67  , 
and  in  the 
Franco-Prussian 
War,  1870,  when  he  was  taken 
prisoner  at  Sedan.  After  his 
release,  he  was  set  to  crush 
the  Communards  after  the  siege 
of  Paris,  and,  performing  his  un- 
pleasant duty  with  great  severity, 
was  attacked  by  his  political 
enemies  for  the  rest  of  his  life. 
After  another  period  in  Algeria, 
1872-73,  he  saw  no  more  active 
service.  In  1899  he  was  made  war 
minister  in  Waldeck-Rousseau's 
cabinet,  and  died  July  8,  1909. 

Gallinaceous  Birds  (Lat.  gal- 
lus,  a  cock).  Name  applied  to 
game  birds  generally.  It  includes 
such  groups  as  the  pheasants,  par- 
tridges, quails,  and  domestic 
fowls.  They  are  found  in  practi- 
cally all  parts  of  the  world,  and  are 
valued  for  the  table.  See  Fowl ; 
Grouse  ;  Pheasant ;  Poultry. 

Gallic.  Proconsul  of  Achaia  in 
the  middle  of  the  1st  century  A.D. 
He  was  a  brother  of  the  Stoic  phil- 
osopher, Seneca.  Paul  was  brought 
before  him  at  Corinth.  Amiable, 
accomplished,  and  of  mild  disposi- 
tion, he  typified  Roman  impar- 
tiality towards  the  controversies  of 
the  sects  and  parties  around  him. 
The  phrase  "  he  cared  for  none  of 
these  things"  (Acts  xviii,  17) 
seems  to  imply  this  impartiality 
rather  than  to  indicate  either  hos- 
tility or  indifference  to  Paul.  It  is 
commonly  applied  to  anyone  who 
stands  aloof  from  controversy. 

Galliot  (late  Lat.  galeota,  small 
galley).  Type  of  Dutch  trader 
somewhat  akin  to  the  British 

barge,    a  n  d    n  o  \v 

i   almost      obsolete. 
I  The    galliot    is    a 
*1  long,  narrow,  two- 
'  masted  craft  of 
I  about    100    tons 
I   burden.'     She 
carries    a    main 
I   mastandamizzen, 
•^   but  the  sail  on  the 
!  latter  is   of   small 
area  and  used  prin- 
cipally  to  assist  in 
steering  the  vessel. 
The    mainsail    is 
short  at  the  head 
and  very  long  at  the 
foot,  or  bottom. 


GALLIPOLI 


3405 


GALL1POLJ 


Gallipoli.  Seaport  of  Greece, 
formerly  belonging  to  Turkey. 
Situated  at  the  N.E.  end  of  the 
Dardanelles,  on  the  peninsula  of 
the  same  name,  it  is  130  m.  S.  W.  of 
Constantinople.  It  was  the  an- 
cient Kallipolis,  of  which  some 
ruins  remain.  Before  the  Great 
j  War  it  had  a  considerable  trade  in 
wheat,  barley,  maize,  and  linseed, 
produced  in  the  neighbourhood. 
Its  capture  by  the  Turks  in  1354 
gave  them  their  first  foothold  in 
Europe.  There  are  two  good 
harbours,  of  which  the  Allies  made 
full  use  during  the  Crimean  War. 
Pop.  25,000. 

Gallipoli  (Gr.  Kallipolis,  beau- 
tiful city).  Seaport  and  city  of 
Italy,  in  the  prov.  of  Lecce.  It 
stands  on  the  Gulf  of  Taranto,  on 
an  island,  protected  by  a  fort  and 
connected  by  a  bridge  with  the 
mainland,  23  m.  W.  of  Otranto.  It 
possesses  an  Angevin  castle,  and  a 
cathedral  dating  from  1629.  For- 
merly famed  for  its  olive  oil, 
stored  and  clarified  in  rock-cut 
cisterns,  it  exports  wine  and  fruit, 
but  the  output  of  oil  has  declined. 
In  the  vicinity  there  are  stone 
quarries.  Tunny  fishing  is  engaged 
in.  As  the  "  beautiful  city  "  it  was 
founded  by  Greeks,  and  in  Roman 
imperial  times  was  known  as 
Anxa.  Pop.  30,000. 

Gallipoli.  Peninsula  of  Europe. 
Anciently  known  as  the  Thracian 
Chersonesus,  this  tongue  of  land  is 
52  m.  in  length  from  the  isthmus  of 
Bulair  in  the  N.  to  Cape  Helles 
(Helles  Burnu),  its  S.  extremity, 
and  varies  in  width  from  2  m.  to 
12  m.,  its  broadest  part,  from 
Kilid  Bahr,  on  the  W.  side  of  the 
Narrows  of  the  Dardanelles,  to 
Cape  Suvla  (Suvla  Burnu),  being 
measured  from  S.  to  N.  The 
isthmus  of  Bulair  is  3  m.  across, 
with  the  Gulf  of  Saros  on  the  W., 
and  the  S.W.  end  of  the  Sea  of 
Marmora,  above  Gallipoli  Strait, 
on  the  E.  The  isthmus  is  strongly 
fortified  by  the  Bulair  Lines. 

The  E.  shore  of  the  peninsula 
forms  the  W.  side  of  the  Dar- 
danelles, and  is  of  enormous 
strategical  importance.  Its  W. 
shore  fronts  the  Gulf  of  Saros  on 
the  N.,  and  the  Aegean  on  the  S., 
opposite  the  island  of  Imbros, 
about  20  m.  W.  The  peninsula 
is  covered  with  rocky  ridges  and 
hills,  some  of  which,  in  the  Kara- 
man  Dagh,  W.  of  Gallipoli,  the 
Chinar  Dagh,  near  the  hamlet  of 
Karnabili,  about  three  m.  from  the 
Gulf  of  Saros,  and  the  Sari  Bair, 
looking  over  the  Aegean,  rise  to  a 
height  of  nearly  1,000  ft.  Along 
the  coast,  which  has  only  two  good 
openings,  Suvla  Bay  on  the  W., 
and  Morto  Bay  on  the  S.,  are  sandy 
beaches,  that  soon  give  place  to 


craggy  and  precipitous  headlands, 
over  100  ft.  in  height.  From 
Gallipoli  there  is  a  poorly  paved 
road  S.  to  Maidos,  about  2  m. 
above  the  Narrows,  which  is  con- 
tinued to  Kilid  Bahr,  whose  forti- 
fications, with  those  of  Chanak  on 
the  other  side  of  the  Dardanelles, 
command  the  channel,  and  goes  on 
to  Krithia,  near  which  is  the  height 
of  Achi  Baba,  600  ft.  The  other 
roads  are  mere  tracks.  The  popu- 
lation is  sparse,  and  apart  from  the 
town  of  Gallipoli  there  are  only 
some  small  and  squalid  villages. 

The  most  important  place  in  the 
peninsula  is  Kilid  Bahr,  from  its 
military  significance,  at  the  foot  of 


the  Pasha  Dagh,  700  ft.  high. 
Mohammed  II,  the  Conqueror,  who 
took  Constantinople  in  "  1453, 
founded  it,  and  it  came  to  be  termed 
the  castle  of  Europe,  just  as  Chanak 
opposite  it  was  called  the  castle  of 
Asia.  In  the  17th  century  the 
Turks  constructed  fortifications  at 
Sedd-el-Bahr,  at  the  S.  end  of 
Gallipoli,  and  at  Kum  Kale,  on  the 
Asiatic  side,  at  the  entrance  to  the 
Dardanelles  from  the  Aegean.  In 
common  with  the  neighbouring 
shores  of  the  Bosporus  and  Sea  of 
Marmora,  Gallipoli  is  within  the 
zone  of  the  Straits  under  a  com- 
mission appointed  by  the  League  of 
Nations.  See  Achi  Baba,  illus. 


GALLIPOLI:     THE  CAMPAIGN    OF    1915 

H.  W.  Wilson,  Military  and  Naval  Critic  of  The  Daily  Mail 

A  sequence  of  articles  deals  with  Gallipoli  and  its  history.  The 
ports  of  this  name  and  the  peninsula  are  described ;  then  comes  the 
following  article  on  the  campaign  of  1915.  The  landing  and  the 
evacuation  are  next  described  in  detail.  For  the  naval  operations 
see  Dardanelles.  See  also  Hamilton,  Sir  Ian  ;  Krithia  ;  Suvla  Bay 


On  Jan.  2,  1915,  the  Russian 
government  appealed  to  Great 
Britain  for  action  against  Turkey, 
in  order  to  relieve  the  pressure  on 
the  Russian  army  in  the  Caucasus. 
A  promise  was  given  by  the  British 
government  that  a  demonstration 
would  be  made,  and  after  much 
discussion,  and  against  the  advice 
of  Lord  Fisher,  the  point  at  which 
it  was  to  take  place  was  fixed  by 
the  Cabinet  as  the  Dardanelles. 
This  project  gradually  widened 
into  a  campaign  for  reaching  Con- 
stantinople and  opening  the  Black 
Sea,  though  in  January,  1915,  the 
Turkish  forces  in  the  Caucasus 
were  beaten  and  forced  back  upon 
the  defensive,  so  that  the  immediate 
danger  to  Russia  passed.  But  the 
risk  remained  that  she  might  col- 
lapse before  the  German  attack  in 
Poland,  owing  to  the  want  of  muni- 
tions, which  she  could  neither 
manufacture  nor  import ;  and  if 
the  Black  Sea  could  have  been 
opened  her  forces  could  have  been 
increased  by  some  millions,  and 
her  artillery  could  have  been  pro- 
vided with  shells. 

The  first  intention  of  the  British 
was  to  deliver  a  purely  naval 
attack,  but,  even  before  this  had 
opened,  it  was  decided  that  land 
forces  must  be  available,  if  re- 
quired. On  Feb.  19  the  naval 
attack  on  the  Turkish  forts  com- 
manding the  Dardanelles  began 
and  was  prosecuted  as  weather 
permitted  till  March  18,  with  no 
result  to  the  Allies  but  heavy  loss 
in  men  and  ships.  The  Turks  had 
been  given  such  ample  warning — 
possibly  the  Allied  plans  were  be- 
trayed to  them  by  the  Greek  court 


their  defences.  At  the  outset 
Venizelos,  the  Greek  prime  minis- 
ter, was  anxious  to  join  in  the  cam- 
paign, and  offered  the  aid  of  the 
Greek  fleet  and  Greek  troops,  but 
King  Constantine  at  once  repu- 
diated this  offer  and  forced  his 
minister's  resignation.  A  Russian 
corps  was  held  at  Sevastopol  ready 
to  strike  at  Constantinople,  but  at 
the  end  of  April  it  was  withdrawn 
to  meet  the  Austrians  in  Poland. 

Plans  of  Attack 

On  March  12  Sir  Ian  Hamilton 
was  appointed  to  command  the 
Allied  landing  force  which  was  to 
be  held  ready.  He  was  promised 
by  Lord  Kitchener  80,000  men,  of 
whom  about  15,000  would  be 
French.  The  instructions  given  by 
Lord  Kitchener  were  of  a  casual 
character.  He  believed  that  the 
whole  Turkish  defence  system 
would  collapse  if  only  one  British 
submarine  entered  the  sea  of 
Marmora;  he  placed  the  Turkish 
force  at  only  40,000  men ;  he 
thought  that  the  southern  part 
of  the  Gallipoli  peninsula,  which 
was  reported  by  those  on  the  spot 
to  be  very  strongly  entrenched  and 
wired,  was  "  open  to  a  landing  on 
very  easy  terms "  ;  he  declared 
that  the  Turks  were  "  busy  else- 
where "  ;  and  he  appears  at  that 
date  to  have  expected  the  navy  to 
clear  the  passage,  leaving  the  ex- 
peditionary force  only  the  duty  of 
occupying  Constantinople.  His  in- 
structions forbade  operations  on 
the  Asiatic  coast,  which,  according 
to  the  French  ex-military  attache 
at  Constantinople,  was  the  most 
vulnerable  point,  and  he  seems  to 
have  been  responsible  for  the  plan 


— that  they  were  ready,  and,  under  eventually  adopted,  of  landing  at 
the  direction  of  Liman  von  San-  the  tip  of  the  mountainous,  roadless 
ders,  had  thoroughly  organized  and  desolate  Gallipoli  peninsula, 


GALLIPOLI 


3406 


GALLIPOLI 


and  fighting  a  way  over  its  series  of 
rocky  heights,  which  were  covered 
with  thorny  scrub,  and  almost 
waterless  in  summer. 

The  landing  of  the  expeditionary 
force  could  not  be  carried  out 
promptly,  after  the  failure  of  the 


Gallipoli.     General     map     of    the 
district 

naval  attack,  as  the  transports 
had  not  been  loaded  hi  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  permit  a  rapid  disembar- 
cation  on  a  hostile  coast.  Sir  Ian 
Hamilton  had  no  appliances,  and 
his  picked  regular  division,  the 
29th,  had  not  arrived.  He  de- 
cided to  withdraw  the  transports 
to  Egypt,  there  to  reload  them. 
The  First  Landing 

Not  till  April  23  were  they  back 
at  the  Dardanelles,  and  on  April  25 
the  landing  took  place,  with  a 
total  force  of  about  90,000  British 
and  French.  No  attempt  was 
made  to  seize  the  Bulair  isthmus, 
the  most  vital  point  if  Gallipoli 
was  to  be  secured.  Feints  were 
made  by  the  French  on  the  Asiatic 
coast,  and  by  the  British  at  several 
other  points,  but  the  main  landings 
took  place  at  open  beaches  on  the 
Gallipoli  peninsula.  By  great 
heroism,  and  in  spite  of  very  heavy 
losses,  under  cover  of  the  fire  of 
the  fleet,  the  Allies  established 
themselves  ashore. 

They  found  themselves  short  of 
artillery  and  ammunition,  and 
still  shorter  of  water,  confronted 
by  a  superior  Turkish  force  who 
were  well  entrenched,  amply  sup- 
plied with  machine  guns  and  ar- 
tillery, and  protected  by  barbed 
wire,  holding  a  succession  of  six 
parallel  ridges. 

At  the  southern  tip  of  the  penin- 
sula by  May  5  the  Allies  were  less 
than  a  mile  S.  of  Krithia,  but  the 
British  loss  to  that  date  had  been 
13,979,  and  ammunition  was  run- 
ning very  low.  On  May  6  a  second 
French  division  began  to  arrive,  and 
the  second  battle  of  Krithia  opened, 
but  it  brought  only  a  trifling  ad- 
vance, purchased  with  heavy  loss. 
The  Australians,  who  had  been 
landed  at  an  isolated  beach  lacking 
land  communication  with  the  rest 
of  the  Allied  force,  were  violently 
counter-attacked  by  the  Turks  on 
May  10,  and  again  on  May  18-19, 
but  these  attacks  were  repulsed, 
though  not  without  difficulty.  The 


Allies,  in  fact,  were  everywhere 
held  in  a  siege  war  for  which  they 
lacked  the  necessary  ammunition 
and  equipment.  The  appearance 
of  German  submarines  at  the  Dar- 
danelles on  May  25  endangered  the 
whole  expedition,  but,  fortunately, 
the  German  boats  were  very  timidly 
used.  On  June  4  a  general  attack 
was  delivered  on  the  Turkish  de- 
fences at  Krithia,  and  was  repulsed 
with  severe  loss,  though  on  June  21 
the  French  made  a  small  advance. 
A  week  later,  on  June  28,  the  Aus- 
tralians improved  their  position, 
carrying  five  lines  of  trenches. 

On  July  12  the  Allies,  who  had 
now  been  reinforced  by  a  fresh 
British  division,  delivered  a  frontal 
attack  on  the  Turkish  defences  at 
Achi  Baba,  which  was  continued  on 
the  following  day  with  no  result  but 
a  small  gain  of  ground  and  heavy 
losses.  The  British  government 
had  now,  however,  reluctantly  de- 
cided to  send  out  strong  reinforce- 
ments which  would  raise  the  total 


Gallipoli.     Map  showing  the  scene 
of  the  campaign 

strength  of  Sir  Ian  Hamilton's 
army  to  100,000  effective  infantry. 
These  reinforcements  were  to  be 
employed  mainly  in  an  advance 
from  Suvla  Bay,  which,  if  success- 
fully carried  out,  would  turn  the 
Turkish  defences  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  Gallipoli  peninsula,  and 
in  a  vigorous  attack  from  the  Aus- 
tralian positions  on  the  Turkish 
entrenchments  about  Sari  Bair. 

On  Aug.  6  the  Allies  attacked  in 
the  S.  of  the  peninsula  to  hold 
the  Turks,  and  fighting  there  con- 
tinued for  six  days  with  little 
result ;  simultaneously,  the  ad- 
vance was  begun  from  the  Aus- 
tralian front  on  Sari  Bair ;  and  a 
landing  was  successfully  effected 
at  Suvla  Bay,  the  Turks  there 
being  completely  surprised.  But 
at  every  point  the  operations  mis- 
carried. By  Aug.  10  the  Suvla  at- 
tack had  completely  failed  ;  it  was 


renewed  on  Aug.  21  without  a 
gleam  of  success.  Before  this  last 
attack  Sir  Ian  Hamilton  tele- 
graphed a  request  for  45,000  drafts 
and  50,000  new  formation  troops 
in  addition,  which  the  British 
government  was  unable  to  grant. 
Lord  Kitchener's  hope  that  the 
Turks  would  run  when  British  sub- 
marines passed  up  the  Dardanelles 
had  proved  quite  chimerical. 
Recall  of  Sir  Ian  Hamilton 
On  Oct.  11  the  government 
asked  for  an  estimate  of  the  losses 
likely  to  be  involved  in  the 
evacuation  of  the  peninsula,  and 
when  Sir  Ian  Hamilton  replied 
that  "  we  might  have  a  veritable 
catastrophe,"  he  was  recalled  and 
replaced  by  Sir  C.  C.  Monro.  The 
Allied  force  had  fallen  to  50,000  fit 
men  ;  sickness  was  growing  ;  the 
daily  wastage  was  nearly  1,000  ; 
the  enemy  was  being  strongly  re- 
inforced, and  with  the  German 
advance  through  Serbia  there  was 
every  probability  that  at  an  early 
date  heavy  guns  would  reach  the 
Turks  and  blow  the  Allies  out  of 
their  positions.  After  great  hesi- 
tation, on  Dec.  8  the  British  cabi- 
net ordered  the  evacuation  of  the 
Suvla  and  Anzac  positions,  which 
was  carried  out  without  any  loss 
on  Dec.  20,  by  a  most  brilliant 
operation.  On  Dec.  27  the  evacu- 
ation of  the  position  at  Cape 
Helles  was  sanctioned  and  was 
carried  out  on  Jan  8-9,  1916. 

Thus  ended  the  disastrous  Galli- 
poli expedition.  In  it  from  first  to 
last  468,987  men  were  employed  by 
the  British,  with  losses  of  33,522 
killed,  7,636  missing,  and  78,420 
wounded,  in  addition  to  an  enor- 
mous total  invalided.  The  French 
force  employed  was  probably  over 
80,000,  with  proportionate  casual- 
ties. The  causes  of  the  failure  were 
inadequate  strength — for  the  Allied 
forces  were  thrown  in  piecemeal, 
and  there  were  never  more  than 
100,000  infantry  available;  de- 
fective ammunition  supply ;  and 
the  defiance  of  all  principles  of 
naval  and  military  strategy. 
These  operations  had  an  unfor- 
tunate effect  on  the  campaign 
in  France,  diverting  men  and 
munitions  from  it  at  a  critical  time, 
and  they  certainly  encouraged 
Bulgaria  to  throw  in  her  lot  with 
the  Germans.  The  Allies  attacked 


GallipolL    The  Cape  Helles  sector,  where 
the  principal  landings  were  made 


Gallipoli.    The  British  camp  at  Gully  Beach,  a  typical  piece  of  scenery  on  the  Gallipoli  peninsula 


the  Turks  where  they  were  the 
strongest  and  best  prepared.  At 
the  same  time  it  is  true  that  the 
Gallipoli  campaign  prevented  the 
Turks  from  concentrating  against 
Russia,  and  inflicted  upon  them 
very  heavy  losses,  totalling,  accord- 
ing to  Liman  von  Sanders,  66,000 
killed  and  152,000  wounded. 

On  Nov.  8,  1918,  under  the  con- 
ditions of  the  armistice  with 
Turkey,  the  Gallipoli  forts  and 
peninsula  were  occupied  by  British 
troops,  and  on  the  following  day 
the  first  British  ships  since  the 
outbreak  of  war  passed  up  the 
straits  for  Constantinople.  But 
though  the  plans  of  the  mine- 
fields had  been  surrendered  by  the 
Turks,  four  days  passed  before 
Constantinople  could  be  reached — 
a  point  of  importance  in  weighing 
any  possibility  of  success  in  the 
Allied  naval  attacks  of  Feb.  and 
March,  1915. 

Bibliography.  Reports  of  the 
Dardanelles  Commission,  1917-18; 
Gallipoli  Diary,  Sir  Ian  Hamilton, 
1920;  The  Dardanelles,  Sir  C.  E. 
Callwell,  1919;  Fiinf  Jahre  Tiirkei, 
Liman  von  Sanders,  1920;  Life  of 
Lord  Kitchener,  Sir  G.  Arthur,  1920 ; 
British  Campaigns  in  the  Nearer 
East,  E.  Dane,  2nd.  ed.  1919. 

Gallipoli,  LANDING  AT.  British 
operation  which  opened  the  cam- 
paign in  Gallipoli  in  April,  1915. 
After  the  failure  in  March,  1915,  of 
their  naval  efforts  to  force  the  Dar- 
danelles, the  Allies  attempted  to 
open  the  Straits  by  the  capture  of 
Gallipoli.  After  reconnaissances, 
Sir  Ian  Hamilton  had  selected  as 
landing-places  the  beach  at  the 
N.E.  corner  of  Morto  Bay,  de- 
signated S  ;  the  beaches  on  each 
side  of  Cape  Helles,  that  on  the  E. 
being  called  V,  that  on  the  W.  W, 
and  also  Lancashire  Landing  ;  the 
beach  above  Tekke  Burnu,  known 
as  X,  and  also  as  Implacable  Land- 
ing ;  the  beach  due  W.  of  Krithia, 


called  Y  ;  and  the  beach  at  Gaba 
Tepe  called  Z  and  later  Anzac.  The 
covering  force  of  the  29th  Division 
left  Mudros  on  the  evening  of  April 
23,  for  S,  V,  W,  X,  and  Y.  The 
landings  V,  W,  and  X  were  to  be 
the  main  operation,  the  others 
being  intended  to  protect  the  flanks 
and  harass  the  Turks. 

After  concentrating  at  Tenedos 
on  April  24,  the  troops  stood  off 
Cape  Helles  before  dawn  next  day. 
While  the  warships  bombarded  the 
Turks'  defences,  the  attacking 
force  got  into  small  boats  and 
made  for  the  shore.  By  7.30  a.m. 
beach  S  was  captured  by  the  2nd 
South  Wales  Borderers,  at  the 
cost  of  only  50  casualties.  The 
landing  on  beach  Y,  undertaken  by 
the  King's  Own  Scottish  Borderers 
and  the  Plymouth  (Marine)  bat- 
talion, R.N.R.,  was  completely 
successful.  So  difficult  was  the 
terrain  that  the  Turks  had  thought 
it  unnecessary  to  defend  it,  and 
Lieut-Col.  Koe's  men  scaling  the 
precipitous  cliffs  established  them- 
selves on  the  top.  Later  in  the 
day,  however,  they  were  heavily 
attacked  by  the  Turks,  and  on  the 
morning  of  April  26  were  com- 
pelled to  re-embark.  The  with- 
drawal was  safely  accomplished, 
the  wounded,  stores,  and  ammuni- 
tion being  saved.  The  failure  of 
this  landing  was  offset  by  the  fact 
that  the  stout  resistance  of  the 
British  contributed  to  the  success 
of  the  main  operation  by  detaining 
in  the  meantime  large  Turkish 
forces  at  Y. 

Under  cover  of  the  guns  of  the 
Implacable,  the  2nd  Royal  Fusiliers 
landed  on  beach  X  early  in  the 
morning  of  April  25,  and  advancing 
attacked  the  Turks  on  Hill  114, 
between  V  and  W  beaches,  but 
were  driven  back.  Reinforced 
afterwards  by  two  battalions  of 
the  87th  brigade,  they  entrenched 


on  a  line  half  a  mile  round  the 
landing  place,  and  got  into  touch 
with  the  Lancashire  Fusiliers  on  W 
beach. 

W  beach  consisted  of  a  strip  of 
sand,  350  yds.  long,  and  from  15  to 
40  yds.  wide,  flanked  by  high  cliffs, 
but  with  an  easier  approach  over 
dunes  in  the  centre  to  the  main 
ridge.  The  Turks  had  strongly 
fortified  the  place  with  wire  en- 
tanglements and  machine  guns. 
On  the  high  ground  beyond  were 
well-sited  trenches,  and  beyond 
these  two  strong  infantry  redoubts. 
At  6  a.m.  on  April  25  the  1st  bat- 
talion Lancashire  Fusiliers  reached 
the  shore  under  a  murderous  fire, 
and  supported  by  the  warships 
broke  through  the  entanglements 
and,  re-forming,  attacked  the 
enemy.  Undeterred  by  land  mines, 
they  took  three  lines  of  trenches  by 
10a.m.  Half  an  hour  earlier  other 
troops  were  disembarked,  and 
before  noon  a  junction  was 
effected  with  the  force  on  X  beach. 
In  the  afternoon  the  Worcester 
Regiment  stormed  Hill  138  and 
the  redoubt  on  it,  on  the  right  of 
the  advance,  and  an  attempt  was 
made  to  join  hands  with  the  troops 
on  beach  V  who  had  been  unable 
to  make  headway.  As  night  fell 
the  British  in  front  of  beach  W 
held  the  ground  from  east  of  the 
Cape  Helles  lighthouse,  through 
Hill  138  to  Hill  114,  and  during  the 
night  repulsed  several  determined 
counter-attacks. 

Meanwhile  the  attempt  to  land 
on  beach  V  had  not  gone  well.  For 
this  the  collier  River  Clyde  had 
been  specially  prepared  for  the 
disembarcation  of  troops.  She 
had  2,000  men  on  board— Dublin 
Fusiliers,  Munster  Fusiliers,  half  a 
battalion  of  Hampshires,  the  West 
Riding  Field  Company,  and  otjiar 
troops.  The  beach,  *  a  strip  of 
sand  350  yds.  long  and  ten  wide,  is 


GALL1POLI 


3408 


GALLIPOLi 


immediately  W.  of  Sedd-el-Bahr, 
and  the  terrain  rising  from  it  is  a 
natural  amphitheatre  of  grassy 
slopes,  topped  by  a  village  and  the 
ruins  of  the  old  fort  of  Sedd-el-Bahr. 
The  beach  was  protected  by  heavy 
wire  entanglements,  and  above 
these  we/-e  lines  of  well-fortified 
trenches. 

Early  in  the  morning  of  April  25 
three  companies  of  the  Dublin 
Fusiliers  were  to  be  towed  ashore 
and  begin  the  attack  ;  but  the 
River  Clyde  came  into  position  in 
advance  of  the  tows,  and  the 
collier  and  the  tows  beached  at 
the  same  time.  The  Turks  opened 
a  very  heavy  fire,  only  a  small 
number  of  the  Dublin  Fusiliers 
getting  ashore.  Owing  to  a  strong 
current  the  plan  for  the  unloading 
of  the  troops  failed,  and  during  the 
rest  of  the  day  attempts  to  land 
had  to  be  discontinued.  After 
nightfall  the  troops  were  dis- 
embarked. Next  day,  under  cover 


other  material  gradually  during  ten 
successive  nights,  while  the  firing 
lines  apparently  were  held  as 
usual  during  the  day,  but  were 
also  being  gradually  evacuated. 

A  beginning  was  made  on  Dec.  8 
at  Suvla  and  Anzac.  Men,  guns,  and 
stores  were  withdrawn  according 
to  plan,  and  the  hospitals  were  all 
evacuated.  The  bombardment  of 
the  Turkish  lines  was  maintained 
to  as  great  an  extent  as  was  pos- 
sible, and  the  enemy  was  deceived 
still  further  by  bogus  guns  being 
emplaced  in  the  positions  of  the 
real  guns  which  had  been  taken 
away.  The  final  embarcation 
was  "fixed  for  Dec.  18  and  19.  On 
the  latter  day  a  covering  attack 
was  made  by  the  forces  in  the 
Krithia  area,  at  a  cost  of  283 
casualties.  By  5.30  a.m.  on  Dec.  20 
the  last  man  quitted  the  British 
trenches  in  the  Suvla-Anzac  area, 
the  transports  stole  out  of  the  bay, 
and  the  warships  followed  later. 


French  made  use  of  beach  S,  the 
British  of  the  other  beaches.  On 
Dec.  29--31  the  52nd  Division  made 
a  demonstration  to  throw  dust  in 
the  enemy's  eyes,  and  for  some 
days  afterwards  a  fairly  constant 
and  heavy  fire  was  kept  up  all 
along  the  Allied  front.  Two  nights 
were  allotted  to  the  final  embarca- 
tion— Jan.  7  and  8.  Positions 
covering  the  landing-places  were 
got  ready,  and  a  zone  of  em- 
barcation was  occupied,  under 
Major- General  Lawrence,  com- 
manding the  52nd  Division. 

A  period  of  calm,  fine  weather  fol- 
lowed the  great  storm  of  the 
night  of  Dec.  20,  and  was  taken 
full  advantage  of,  but  as  there 
might  be  a  sudden  and  disastrous 
change  the  evacuation  continued 
with  all  possible  speed.  In  the 
afternoon  of  Jan.  7  the  Turks 
suddenly  opened  a  heavy  fire  on 
the  trenches  held  by  the  13th 
Division  and  the  Naval  Division, 


Gallipoli. 


Fiench  camp  at  Sedd-el-Bahr  with  large  ammunition  store.     The  transport  River  Clyde,  which  was  used  in 
the  landing,  is  seen  on  the  beach 


of  the  fire  of  the  warships,  the  at- 
tack was  renewed,  and  by  2  p.m. 
the  Turkish  positions  were  taken 
by  storm.  By  the  evening  of 
April  27  the  British  forces  had 
established  themselves  on  a  line 
about  3  m.  long  from  N.E.  of 
Tekke  Burnu  to  Eski  Hissarlik 
Point.  A  war  memorial  is  to 
be  erected  at  Cape  Tekke  Burnu, 
the  S.W.  extremity  of  the  penin- 
sula. See  Gallipoli  Diary,  Sir  Ian 
Hamilton,  1920. 

Gallipoli,  EVACUATION  OF.  In 
Nov.,  1915,  the  British  Govern- 
ment, acting  on  the  opinion  of 
Gen.  Monro,  who  had  replaced  Gen. 
Hamilton,  and  whose  opinion  was 
endorsed  by(  Lord  Kitchener 
after  a  visit  to  Gallipoli,  decided 
to  evacuate  the  peninsula.  The 
plan  of  the  operation  was  worked 
out  by  Gen.  Birdwood,  the  idea 
being  to  remove  the  guns  and 


The  evacuation  was  absolutely 
successful.  The  Turks  were  com- 
pletely unaware  of  what  had  taken 
place,  and  went  on  bombarding 
the  empty  British  positions. 

The  very  success  of  the  evacua- 
tion of  the  Suvla-Anzac  area  mili- 
tated against  the  chances  of  a  like 
success  in  the  Krithia  or  Cape 
Helles  area.  It  was  not  to  be  ex- 
pected that  the  enemy  would  be 
deceived  a  second  time  in  the  same 
way.  Yet  actually  that  was  what 
happened,  perhaps  because  the 
Turks  never  imagined  that  the 
same  thing  could  be  worked  twice. 
In  the  last  days  of  1915  the  evacua- 
tion began — men,  guns,  and  stores 
being  taken  down  to  the  beaches 
of  Helles,  in  the  same  way  as  at 
Suvla  and  Anzac,  while  the  firing 
lines  of  the  British  appeared  to  be 
maintained  precisely  as  if  nothing 
of  the  sort  was  proceeding.  The 


and  exploded  mines.  For  some 
moments  it  seemed  as  if  a  general 
action  would  have  to  be  fought, 
but  the  enemy  did  not  repeat  his 
effort,  and  in  the  course  of  the 
ensuing  night  the  Scottish  Low- 
landers  embarked.  ! 

Next  day  the  weather  was  fine 
in  the  morning,  but  broke  in  the 
afternoon,  making  the  final  steps 
of  the  evacuation  very  difficult, 
the  landing-stages  and  connect- 
ing piers  being  washed  away. 
Yet  by  5.30  a.m.  on  Jan.  9 
beaches  Y  and  W  were  cleared, 
and  the  last  troops  of  the  29th 
Division  were  all  embarked  by 
3.30  p.m.  The  storm  had  at  least 
the  effect  of  covering  the  final 
withdrawal  from  the  enemy,  who, 
as  at  Suvla-Anzac,  had  no  notion 
that  the  Allies  had  evacuated  Gal- 
lipoli. The  first  intimation  that 
reached  him  was  conveyed  by  the 


GALLIUM 


GALLUS 


Mazing  up  on  the  beaches  of  the 
1  stores  which  had  been  left  behind, 
and  which  had  been  fired  simul- 
taneously by  time -fuses.  Then  he 
heavily  shelled  the  abandoned 
beaches  and  trenches,  nor  did  he 
cease  firing  until  the  sun  rose  and 
revealed  that  the  Allies  had  got 
clear  away.^  The  total  casualties 
incurred  in  the  operation  amounted 
to  one  man  wounded.  The  one 
unequivocal  and  perfect  success  of 
the  Gallipoli  Expedition  was  the 
evacuation  of  the  peninsula. 

Gallium.  Metal  belonging  to 
the  zinc  group.  It  was  discovered 
in  1875  by  Lecoq  de  Boisbaudran, 
the  French  chemist,  in  samples  of 
zinc  blende  obtained  in  the  Py- 
renees. Its  chemical  symbol  is 
Ga. ;  atomic  weight,  69 '8 ;  specific 
gravity,  5 '9.  Its  melting-point  is 
only  86°  F.,  and  once  melted  it 
remains  liquid  like  mercury  even 
at  low  temperatures.  It  is  of  white, 
lustrous  appearance,  does  not  tarn- 
ish in  the  air,  and  is  not  affected 
by  water  at  ordinary  temperatures. 
Gallon.  British  standard  mea- 
sure of  liquid  and  dry  capacity. 
The  exact  volume  of  the  gallon  has 
varied  from  time  to  time,  that  of 
Henry  VII  being  274£  cubic  ins., 
and  the  wine  gallon  of  Queen 
Anne,  1707,  being  231  cubic  ins., 
but  it  became  standardised  by  the 
Act  5,  Geo.  IV,  c.  74,  in  1824,  as 
containing  277'274  cubic  ins.  This 
figure  was  fixed  by  taking  the 
volume  of  10  Ib.  of  distilled  water 
measured  at  barometric  pressure 
30  ins.,  and  temperature  62°  F. 

The  gallon  is  divided  into  four 
quarts  or  eight  pints,  and  equals 
4*54346  litres.  Two  gallons  make 
one  peck.  The  gallon  in  the  U.S.A. 
and  Canada  is  that  of  Queen 
Anne,  231  cub.  ins.  The  word  itself 
is  of  doubtful  origin,  possibly  con- 
nected with  the  French  jale,  bowl, 
the  -on  being  augmentative,  and 
thus  meaning  a  large  bowl. 

Galloon  (Fr.  galon,  Span. 
galon).  Worsted  lace  or  trimming 
of  cotton  or  silk,  or  woven  with  a 
metallic  thread.  It  is  used  on 
uniforms. 

Galloway.  District  of  S.W. 
Scotland.  Comprising  the  counties 
of  Kirkcudbright  and  Wigtown, 
it  is  now  divided  into  three  por- 
tions— Upper,  Lower,  and  the 
Rhinns  of  Galloway.  It  is  noted 
for  a  celebrated  breed  of  horses 
and  hornless  cattle.  It  gives  its 
name  to  a  div.  returning  one 
member  to  Parliament. 

Galloway,  MULL  OF.  Promon- 
tory, the  extreme  S.  point  of  Scot- 
land. It  has  a  lighthouse  (86  ft. 
high),  and  there  are  remains  of 
Scandinavian  defences  and  the 
chapel  of  S.  Medan,  which  was 
erected  around  a  natural  cave. 


Galloway,  EARL  OF.  Scottish 
title  borne  since  1623  by  the 
family  of  Stuart.  The  first  earl 
was  Sir  Alexander  Stewart,  a  con- 
nexion of  the  Stewart  kings  of 
Scotland  and  the  desc.udant  of 
men  who  had  played  a  part  in 
their  country's  history.  In  1607 
he  was  made  Baron  Garlics,  and 
in  1623  earl  of  Galloway.  James, 
the  2nd  earl,  was  a  royalist  during 
the  Civil  War,  and  James,  the 
5th  earl,  was  a  politician  in  the 
time  of  Anne. 

John,  the  7th  earl,  a  member 
of  George  Ill's  household,  was 
made  a  peer  of  the  United  King- 
dom in  1796,  and  his  son  George, 
the  8th  earl,  was  an  M.P.  and  a 
lord  of  the  admiralty.  Randolph, 
the  llth  earl  (1836-1920),  served 
with  the  Black  Watch  in  the 
Crimea  and  the  Indian  Mutiny. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest 
son  (b.  1892),  who  served  in  the 
Great  War  with  the  Scots  Guards, 
and  was  a  prisoner  of  war  in  Ger- 
many for  a  long  time.  The  exten- 
sive family  lands  are  mainly  in 
Kirkcudbrightshire  and  Wigtown- 
shire. The  earl's  eldest  son  is 
known  as  Lord  Garlics. 

Gallowglass  OR  GALLOGLASS. 
Name  given  to  the  members  of  the 
armed  retinues  of  ancient  Irish 
and  Scottish  chiefs.  They  were 
heavy-armed  foot  soldiers,  in  con- 
trast with  the  kernes  or  caterans, 
who  carried  only  light  weapons. 
The  word  is  an  adaptation  of  the 
Gaelic  gall-oglach,  meaning  a 
foreign  servitor. 

Gallows.  Apparatus  used  for 
the  execution  of  criminals.  It 
consists  usually  of  two  posts  with 
a  horizontal  beam,  to  which  is 
fastened  the  execution  rope.  In 
some  forms  of  gallows  there  is  only 
one  upright  post,  with  a  projecting 
beam.  This  form  is  more  generally 
called  a  gibbet,  and  from  them 
were  hung  malefactors  in  chains 
as  a  warning  to  others. 

Till  the  passing  of  the  Act  of 
1868  gallows  were  erected  in 
public,  the  most  notorious  being 
those  at  Tyburn,  and  in  front  of 
Newgate.  The  criminal  was  slowly 
strangled,  the  trap-door  and  drop 
being  modern.  See  Execution  ; 
Gibbet. 

Gall-stones  OR  BILIARY  CAL- 
CULI. Masses  consisting  chiefly  of 
cholesterol  and  bile-pigments  which 
are  formed  in  the  gall-bladder,  and 
much  less  frequently  in  the  sub- 
stance of  the  liver.  In  the  gall- 
bladder the  number  of  calculi  may 
vary  from  a  single  stone,  perhaps 
measuring  as  much  as  four  inches 
across,  to  many  hundreds  of  small 
stones  ;  those  formed  in  the  liver 
are  usually  small  grains.  The 
essential  cause  of  gall-stones  ap- 


pears to  be  catarrhal  inflammation 
of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
gall-bladder,  which  is  probably  set 
up  by  micro-organisms.  In  a  con- 
siderable number  of  cases  the 
condition  has  followed  enteric 
fever.  The  formation  of  gall- 
stones is  rare  in  those  below  25 
years  of  age,  and  most  frequently 
occurs  after  the  age  of  40.  Women, 


Gallows.    Wayside  gibbet  formerly  used 
for  the  execution  of  highway  robbers 

especially  those  who  have  borne 
children,  are  much  more  liable  t& 
the  condition  than  men.  Sedentary 
occupation,  over. eating,  and  con- 
stipation are  predisposing  factors. 

Gall-stones  may  be  present  in 
the  gall-bladder  for  years  without 
causing  any  symptoms.  The  pas- 
sage of  small  stones  and  biliary 
"  sand  "  from  the  gall-bladder  into 
the  intestine  may  give  rise  to 
spasmodic  pain,  generally  attri- 
buted to  indigestion.  The  passage 
of  a  rough  or  larger  stone  may  set 
up  violent  biliary  colic,  with 
agonising  pain,  vomiting,  sweating, 
and  often  a  rise  of  temperature. 
These  symptoms  abate  when  the 
stone  passes  into  the  intestine. 
Sometimes  the  calculus  becomes 
impacted  in  the  common  bile  duct, 
the  channel  leading  from  the  gall- 
bladder to  the  intestine,  and  this 
may  give  rise  to  intense  jaundice, 
followed  by  inflammation  of  the 
liver.  During  an  attack  of  biliary 
colic  the  patient  should  be  given 
copious  draughts  of  alkaline  waters 
and  the  pain  may  be  relieved  by 
hot  baths,  hot  fomentations  over 
the  liver,  and  hypodermic  injec- 
tions of  morphia.  Severe  cases 
may  demand  surgical  treatment. 

Gallus,  GAIUS  CORNELIUS  (d. 
26  B.C.).  Roman  poet,  born  at 
Forum  Julii  (Frejus)  in  Gaul.  His 
distinguished  public  career,  under 
Augustus,  culminating  with  the 


1Z    4 


Trebonianus  Gallus, 
Roman  emperor 


GALLUS 

governorship  of  Egypt,  was  brought 
to  an  abrupt  conclusion  by  his  dis- 
grace and  suicide  at  the  age  of  43. 
His  works,  four  books  of  love 
poems,  are  lost,  but  there  is  no 
doubt  of  his  eminence  in  Latin 
literature.  In  technique  Gallus  was 
ranked  with  Horace  and  Virgil  ; 
he  brought  the  elegiac  couplet  to  a 
high  pitch  of  perfection. 

Gallus,  TREBONIANUS.  Rom^n 
emperor,  A.D.  251-253.  Governor 
of  Lower  Moesia  during  the  cam- 

paign     of     his 

predecessor 
Decius  against 
the  Goths,  it  is 
said  that  his  de- 
liberate failure 
to  effect  a 
junction  with 
Decius  led  to 
the  defeat  and 
death  of  the 
latter  in  the 
marshes  of  the  Dobruja.  Pro- 
claimed emperor,  he  concluded  a 
humiliating  peace  with  the  Goths, 
and  proceeded  to  Rome,  but  in 
253  he  was  defeated  and  slain  at 
the  battle  of  Interamni  (Terni) 
by  the  usurper  Aemilianus. 

Galluzzo.  Village  of  Italy.  It 
is  3  m.  S.W.  of  Florence,  and  in 
the  prov.  of  that  name.  The  Cer- 
tosa,  an  old  Carthusian  monas- 
tery, lies  off  the  high  road  about 
£  m.  beyond  the  village.  It  is 
built  on  the  side  of  a  hill,  and  has 
the  appearance  of  a  medieval  for- 
tress. Within  it  are  some  early 
Renaissance  monuments.  Pop. 
20,000,  of  whom  only  about  one- 
third  live  in  the  village  itself. 

Gallwitz,  MAX  VON  (b.  1852). 
German  soldier.  Born  May  2, 
1852,  at  Breslau,  where  he  was 
educated,  h  e 
became  lieu- 
tenant of  artil- 
lery in  1872, 
and  in  1883-85 
was  attached 
to  the  general 
staff.  In  1901 
he  commanded 
a  n  artillery 
brigade,  and 
in  1911  was 
general  of  artillery  and  inspector- 
general  of  field  artillery.  In  the 
Great  War  he  was  prominent  as 
one  of  Hindenburg's  subordinates 
in  the  battle  of  the  Masurian  lakes 
in  1915. 

In  July,  1915,  he  forced  a  pas- 
sage of  the  river  Nareff,  cooperat- 
ing in  the  general  pressure  that 
compelled  the  Russians  to  evacuate 
Warsaw  early  in  Aug.  In  Oct.  he 
commanded  one  of  the  armies  which 
under  Mackensen  overran  Serbia. 
In  1910  he  fought  in  Galicia  against 
Brusiloff,  and  later  in  that  year 


Max  von  Gallwitz, 
German  soldier 


3410 

had  command  of  an  army  on  the 
Somme.  After  the  battle  of  the 
Somme  he  led  the  German  fourth 
army  in  the  Verdun  area,  but  was 
defeated  there  in  Aug.-Sept.,  1917, 
and  relieved  of  his  command.  He 
commanded  an  army  group  on  the 
W.  front  in  the  spring  of  1918. 

Gaily,  MERRITT  (1838-1916). 
American  inventor.  Graduating  at 
Rochester  University  in  1863,  he 
became  a  Presbyterian  minister. 
Resigning  the  ministry  owing  to 
a  throat  affection,  he  took  up  the 
study  of  mechanics,  and  in  18G9 
patented  the  Universal  Printing 
Press,  a  linotype  machine,  and 
over  100  other  inventions.  He 
died  March  7,  1916. 

Galop  (Fr.).  Dance  popular  in 
England  at  the  end  of  the  19th 
century.  It  is  danced  to  two-four 
time,  the  movements  being  a  quick 
sliding  step  down  the  room  and 
then  one  of  rapid  revolution. 

Gals  ton.  Police  burgh  and 
parish  of  Ayrshire,  Scotland.  It 
stands  on  the  Irvine,  5  m.  E.  by  S. 
of  Kilmarnock  on  the  G.  &  S.W.R. 
The  centre  of  a  colliery  and  agri- 
cultural district,  Galston  has 
muslin,  lace,  and  blanket  factories. 
Market  day,  Wed.  Pop.  5,296. 

Galsworthy,  JOHN  (b.  1867). 
British  novelist  and  dramatist. 
Born  at  Coombe,  Surrey,  he  was 
educated  at  Harrow  and  at  Oxford. 
Called  to  the  bar  in  1890,  he  prac- 
tised little,  but  travelled  exten- 
sively and  devoted  himself  to 
writing,  at  first  under  the  pseu- 
donym of  John  Sinjohn.  His  first 
notable  book  was  a  volume  of  tales, 
The  Villa  Rubein,  1900,  and  from 
that  date  he  produced  a  constant 
succession  of  novels  and  plays. 

The  Island  Pharisees,  1904  ;  The 
Man  of  Property,  1906 ;  The 
Country  House,  1907  ;  The  Free- 
lands,  1915,  are  novels  chiefly  con- 
cerned with  the  contemporary  life 
and  ideas  of  the  English  landed 
classes,  described  with  critical 
shrewdness  but  with  scrupulous 
fairness.  Fraternity,  1909 ;  The 
Patrician,  1911  ;  The  Dark  Flower, 
1913  ;  Saint's  Progress,  1919,  and 
In  Chancery,  1920,  are  also  note- 
worthy studies  of  contemporary 
life. 

As  a  dramatist,  Galsworthy 
takes  a  high  place  in  the  modern 
history  of  the  English  stage,  his 
plays  being  marked  always  by  high 
technical  skill,  sincerity  of  purpose, 
and  intrinsic  interest.  In  them,  as 
in  his  novels,  he  turned  a  searching 
light  on  to  the  accepted  social  and 
moral  conventions  of  contemporary 
society,  on  the  administration  of 
justice,  for  instance,  in  The  Silver 
Box,  1906  ;  on  the  relations  of 
capital  and  labour  in  Strife,  1909  ; 
on  prison  problems  in  Justice, 


GALT 

1910  ;  on  politics  and  principles  in 
The  Mob,  Manchester,  1914;  on 
the  supplanting  of  the  old  ruling 
class  in  rural  life  by  the  new  in  The 
Skin  Game,  1920.  Other  note- 
worthy plays  are  The  Little  Dream, 
1911;  The  Pigeon,  1912;  and  A 
Bit  o'  Love,  1915. 

Galsworthy  has  also  written 
short  stories  and  many  essays  on 
various  subjects.  He  is  widely 
respected  as  a  publicist,  his  genero- 
sity of  temper  and  fine  sense  of 
justice  bringing  him  forward  often 
as  a  champion  of  humanitarian 
causes  or  to  call  public  attention 
to  injustices  of  the  social  system. 
Some  of  his  essays  on  current 
problems  have  been  republished  in 
A  Sheaf,  1916  ;  and  Another  Sheaf, 
1919.  A  collection  of  his  verse  was 
published  as  Moods,  Songs,  and 
Doggerels,  1912.  He  contributed 
an  introductory  study  to  the 
Universal  Encyclopedia  (see  p.  iii). 
In  Jan.,  1918,  Galsworthy  declined 
the  offer  of  a  knighthood,  and 
during  1919  spent  some  months 
lecturing  in  the  U.S.A.  on  Anglo- 
American  friendship  and  kindred 
subjects.  See  John  Galsworthy, 
S.  Kaye  Smith,  1916. 

Gait.  Town  of  Ontario,  Canada, 
in  Waterloo  co.  It  stands  on  the 
Grand  river,  24  m.  N.N.W.  of 
Hamilton.  It  is  served  by  the 
C.P.R.  and  G.T.R.,  and  electric 
rlys.  connect  it  with  Hamilton  and 
other  adjacent  towns.  Gait  is  a 
manufacturing  town,  electric  power 
being  obtained  from  the  Niagara. 
Its  industries  include  the  pro- 
duction of  iron  goods,  woollen 
goods,  clothing,  and  flour,  and 
limestone  quarrying.  Pop.  10,299. 
Gait,  SIR  ALEXANDER  TILLOCH 
(1817-93).  Canadian  statesman. 
Son  of  John  Gait  (q.v.),  he  emi- 
grated to  Canada  in  1835,  and  took 
part  in  the  development  of  Quebec. 
In  1 849  he  entered  the  Canadian 
legislature,  and  from  1858-62  and 
from  1864-67  was  finance  minister. 
^  He  made  the 
I  financial  ar- 
rangements of 
the  dominion 
when  e  s  t  a  b- 
lished  in  1867, 
and  was  its 
first  finance 
minister.  From 
1880-83  Gait 
was  high  com- 
missioner for 
Canada  in  London,  and  died  at 
Montreal  on  Sept.  19,  1893.  See 
Life  and  Times  of  Sir  Alexander 
Tilloch  Gait,  0.  D.  Skelton,  1920. 

Gait,  JOHN  (1779-1839).  Scot- 
tish novelist.  Born  May  2,  1779,  at 
Irvine,  Ayrshire,  he  was  a  clerk  at 
Greenock,  first  in  the  customs  and 
then  in  a  mercantile  house.  In 


Sir  A.  T.  Gait, 
Canadian  statesman 


341  1 


GALVANOMETER 


1809  he  travelled  abroad  on  busi- 
ness, meeting  Byron  on  his  travels. 
In  1813  he  issued  his  Letters  from 
the  Levant,  and 
in'  1821  The 
Annals  of  the 
Parish,  his  best 
known  book. 
There  followed 
The  Entail. 
1  823;  The 
Omen,  1825; 
and  The  Last 
of  the  Lairds, 
1826.  The 
years  1826-29 
he  spent  in  Canada  as  agent  of 
the  Canada  Company.  Later  he 
brought  out  Lawrie  Todd,  1830, 
and  Boyle  Corbet,  1831,  novels  of 
settler  Ufe  in  America,  and  a  Life 
of  Lord  Byron,  1830.  He  died 
April  11,  1839. 

Galton,  SFR  DOUGLAS  STRUTT 
(1822-99).  British  scientist.  Born 
July  2,  1822,  and  educated  at 
Geneva  and 
Rugby,  he 
entered  the 
Royal  Engi 
neers  from 
Woolwich  in 
1840.  After 
serving  in  the 
Mediterranean 
he,  in  1846, 

Sir  Douglas  Galton,     joined  the  ord- 
British  scientist        nance   survey. 

Elliott  A  fry  ^  1847  he  be. 

came  secretary  to  the  rly.  com- 
mission, and  in  1854  secretary  of 
the  rly.  dept.  of  the  board  of  trade. 
From  1860-69  he  was  at  the  war 
office,  being  appointed  assistant 
under-secretary  for  war,  1862. 
Thence  he  was  transferred  to  the 
office  of  works  as  director  of  public 
works  and  buildings,  retiring  in 
1875.  Galton  had  many  interests, 
particularly  in  physical  science, 
Red  Cross  work,  and  education,  but 
he  is  best  remembered  as  an  expert 
on  sanitation  and  hygiene.  He  was 
given  the  K.C.B.  in  1887,  and  died 
in  London,  March  18,  1899. 

Galton,  SIR  FRANCIS  (1822- 
1911).  British  anthropologist  and 
meteorologist.  Born  near  Bir- 

m  i  n  g  h  a  m,    -    -. 

Feb.  16,  1822,    ? 
a  cousin   of    I 
Charles     Dar- 
win,he  studied 
medicine, 
travelled     i  n 
the   Sudan, 
1846,  and  ex 
plored  Dama- 
raland,     1850. 
He  formulated 
the  theory  of  anticyclones  and  new 
methods  of  weather-charting,  em- 
bodied in  Meteorographica,  1863, 
from  which  arose  his  long  associa- 


tion  with  the  Meteorological  Coun- 
cil. His  works,  Hereditary  Genius, 
1869,  and  Inquiries  into  Human 
Faculty,  1883,  established  the 
principles  of  what  he  termed 
eugenics,  in  furtherance  of  which 
he  founded  a  laboratory,  1904, 
bequeathing  £45,000  for  a  chair  in 
London.  He  devised  composite 
portraiture  and  systematised  finger- 
print methods.  He  was  knighted 
in  1909,  and  died  Jan.  17,  1911. 
See  Finger  Print ;  consult  also 
Memories  of  My  Life,  1908. 

Galtonia.  Small  genus  of  bulb- 
ous herbs  of  the  natural  order 
Liliaceae.  Natives  of  S.  Africa, 

~n 


Sir  Francis  Galtou, 
British  scientist 


ttaltoma  leaf  and  truss  of  bell-shaped 
flowers 

they  have  more  or  less  erect  strap- 
shaped  leaves,  about  30  ins.  long. 
They  have  also  a  tall  scape  (4  ft.) 
bearing  at  its  summit  a  loose  truss 
of  drooping  bells  which,  in  the  case 
of  G.  candicans,  the  best  known  of 
the  two  species,  are  pure  white 
and  fragrant. 

Galty  OR  GALTEE.  Range  of  mts. 
in  Ireland.  It  extends  for  15  m. 
in  an  E.  to  W.  direction  through 
the  counties  of  Tipperary  and 
Limerick.  Galtymore,  the  highest 
peak,  attains  3,015  ft. 

Galvani,  LUIGI  (1737-98).  Ita- 
lian physiologist.  Born  at  Bologna, 
Italy,  Sept.  9,  1737,  he  became,  in 
1762,  professor  .  ^.^^,  .^ 
of  anatomy  at  :' 
Bologna  Uni- 
versity, resign- 
ing,for  political 
reasons,  in  ^ 
1797.  By,  Tfr 
v  x  p  e  ri  m  e  n  t,  i^ 
largely  on  I 
frogs,  he  dis-  tE» 
covered  animal 
electricity,  and 
h  i  s  investiga- 
tions are  commemorated  in  certain 
electrical  manifestations  and  terms, 
e.g.  galvanism  and  galvanometer. 
His  work  On  the  Force  of  Elec- 
tricity in  Muscular  Movement  was 
published  in  1791.  He  died  Dec.  4, 
1798.  His  collected  works  were 
published  at  Bologna,  1841-42.  ; 


Galvanic  Battery.  Name  given 
to  a  cell  for  producing  electricity  by 
chemical  action.  The  name  voltaic 
cell  is  now  generally  used  in  place 
of  galvanic  battery.  Both  names 
are  derived  from  those  of  the  elec- 
trical pioneers,  Galvani  and  Volta. 
See  Cell. 

Galvanising.  Method  of  coat- 
ing iron  with  zino.  It  was  devised  by 
Paul  Jacques  Malouin,  the  French 
chemist,  in  1742.  In  galvanising, 
the  zinc  coating  does  not  merely 
lie  on  the  surface  of  the  iron  as  a 
sheet  of  paper  might,  but  actually 
combines  or  alloys  with  the  iron, 
penetrating  the  latter  to  an  appre- 
ciable extent.  The  modern  process 
is  in  all  essentials  as  proposed  by 
Malouin,  the  principal  departure 
being  the  use  of  sal-ammoniac  as  a 
covering  to  the  molten  zinc  and  as 
a  flux,  a  modification  patented  by 
H.  W.  Crawfurd  in  1837. 

To-day  the  process  is  chiefly  ap- 
plied to  the  coating  of  thin  sheets  of 
iron  or  steel  intended  to  be  used  for 
roofing  and  other  building  purposes, 
and  to  wire.  Sheets  are  usually  de- 
livered black  with  the  scale  on 
them  to  the  galvanising  works, 
where  the  scale  is  removed,  then 
dipped  in  a  "  pickle "  of  hydro- 
chloric acid  or  hot  sulphuric  acid, 
withdrawn,  washed  with  water, 
often  rubbed  with  sand,  and  then 
passed  through  a  bath  of  molten 
zinc  covered  with  sal-ammoniac 
As  the  sheets  emerge  they  are 
scrubbed  with  revolving  wire 
brushes.  When  desired,  the  sheets 
are  subsequently  corrugated.  Wire 
for  galvanising  is  reeled  continu- 
ously through  both  the  pickle 
trough  and  the  zinc  bath.  Wire  net- 
ting is  woven  while  black  and  then 
galvanised.  For  the  best  sheets  a 
small  percentage  of  tin — 2  p.c.  to 
3  p.c. — is  added  to  the  zinc.  The 
proportion  of  zino  taken  up  by  the 
metal  may  range  from  25  p.c.  in 
the  case  of  fine  wire  to  6  p.c.  in 
anchors,  chains,  and  other  large 
objects. 

Galvanised  sheets,  though  ex- 
tremely useful,  cannot  be  employed 
in  contact  with  acids  or  caustic 
alkalis  or  for  the  preparation  of 
containers  for  food  products  where 
organic  acids  may  be  present.  Even 
the  ordinary  atmosphere  of  a 
manufacturing  town,  containing, 
as  it  may,  appreciable  quantities 
of  sulphurous  gases  and  moisture, 
will  attack  them.  See  Zinc. 

Galvanometer.  Instrument  for 
detecting  the  passage  of  an  electric 
current,  or,  in  its  refined  form,  for 
measuring  small  electric  currents. 

A  simple  galvanometer  consists 
of  a  light,  magnetised  "needle" 
swinging  freely  on  a  pivot  and  sur- 
rounded by  a  coil  of  insulated 
copper  wire.  If  an  electric  current 


GALVESTON 


341  2 


GALWAY 


Galvanometer.  D'Arsonval  moving 
coil  type.  Left,  the  instrument  with 
case  removed.  Right,  diagram  show- 
ing chief  parts.  A,  permanent 
magnet  ;  B,  coil  ;  C,  soft  iron 
cylinder  concentrating  magnetism 
on  the  coil  ;  D,  mirror  ;  E,  gravity 
damper 

is  passed  through  the  coil  a  mag- 
netic field  is  established  which  acts 
upon  the  permanently  magnetised 
needle  and  causes  it  to  deflect  in  a 
direction  and  to  an  extent  varying 
with  the  direction  and  strength  of 
the  electric  current.  Great  sensi- 
tiveness may  be  obtained  in  the 
"  moving-needle  "  type  of  galvano- 
meter, but  the  magnetic  field  of 
the  instrument  is  easily  disturbed. 
This  defect  may  be  mitigated  by 
employing  two  needles  and  two 
coils,  the  needles  being  so  arranged 
that  the  effect  of  magnetism,  other 
than  that  of  the  coils,  is  neutralised. 

A  less  sensitive,  but  much  used, 
type  of  galvanometer  has  fixed 
permanent  magnets  and  a  moving 
coil.  The  current  is  conducted  to 
the  suspended  coil  through  the  sus- 
pensions, the  stationary  permanent 
magnet  system  producing  a  mag- 
netic field  so  strong  as  to  be  little 
affected  by  external  influences. 

For  delicate  work  the  deflection 
is  enormously  magnified  by  the  use 
of  a  small  mirror,  which  reflects  a 
beam  of  light  on  a  distant  scale. 

The  resistance  to  the  deflection 
of  the  pointer  or  the  mirror,  as  the 
case  may  be,  is  adjusted  by  a  per- 
manent magnet,  by  gravity,  or, 
when  the  moving  portion  is  sus- 
pended on  a  fibre,  by  the  torsion  of 
the  material.  Excessive  swing  of 
the  moving  parts  is  "  damped  "  by 
a  light  vane  of  mica  or  aluminium. 

For  measuring  alternating  cur- 
rents an  ordinary  galvanometer  is 
obviously  unsuitable,  but  alternat- 
ing currents  have  been  indirectly 
measured  by  their  heating  effect  in 
the  coil  which  generates  direct  cur- 
rent in  a  thermo-couple.  One  form 
of  alternating  -  current  galvano- 
meter depends  for  its  action  upon 
the  untwisting  of  a  strip  by  the 
heating  action  of  the  current.  In 
another — the  Einthoven  "  string  " 
galvanometer — a  very  fine  silver 
wire  lies  between  the  poles  of  an 
electro-magnet,  which  is  independ- 
ently excited.  An  alternating  cur- 
rent passing  through  the  wire 


causes  it  to  vibrate  ;  the  amplitude 
of  the  vibrations  is  observed  by  a 
microscope  or  by  luminously  pro- 
jecting an  en- 
larged image 
of  them  upon 
a  screen  or 
photographic 
plate.  See 
Ammeter  ; 
Voltmeter  ; 
Meter,Electric~ 
Galveston. 
City  and  port 
of  entry  of 
Texas,  U.S.A., 
the  co.  seat  of 
Galveston  co. 
Situated  at 
the  N.E.  end 
o  f  Galveston 
Island  at  the 
entrance  to 
Galveston 
Bay,  it  is  49  m. 
S.E.  of  Hous- 
ton, and  is 
served  by  several  rlys.,  including 
the  Galveston,  Houston  and  Hen- 
derson, which  connect  the  city  with 
the  mainland.  Galveston  is  the 
leading  port  of  the  Union  for  the 
exportation  of  cotton,  and  is  a 
flourishing  seaside  resort. 

The  principal  buildings  include 
the  court  house,  city  hall,  Y.M.C.  A. 
building,  custom  house,  post  office, 


Galveston.  Part  of  the  docks  of  the  Texas  seaport 
and  public  library.  Among  the 
educational  institutions  are  S. 
Mary's  University,  the  state  medi- 
cal college,  the  Ball  high  school,  the 
cathedral  school,  the  central  high 
school  for  coloured  students,  the 
Ursuline  convent,  the  Sacred  Heart 
academy,  and  several  public 
schools.  The  city  is  well  provided 
with  benevolent  institutions,  and 
the  government  maintains  a  marine 
hospital  and  quarantine  and  immi- 
gration stations. 

Galveston  has  regular  steamship 
communication  with  Europe ,Asia,S. 
America  and  the  ports  of  the  U.S.A., 
and  its  annual  foreign  trade  is  valued 
at  upwards  of  £60,000,000.  Cotton 
accounts  f  ormore  than  three  -fourths 


of  the  exports,  next  to  which 
come  wheat,  cotton-seed  cake, 
cotton-seed  oil,  and  linseed  cake. 
Other  products  shipped  are  flour, 
machinery,  lumber  products,  and 
agricultural  implements.  The  lead- 
ing imports  are  coffee,  sugar,  corn, 
cattle,  and  bananas.  Pop.  42,650. 

Galveston  was  first  visited  by 
Spaniards  about  1781,  by  whom  it 
was  called  Galveston  probably  in 
honour  of  Bernardo  de  Galvez, 
governor  of  Louisiana.  During  the 
Civil  War  it  was  blockaded  by  the 
Federal  navy,  which  occupied  it  on 
Oct.  8, 1862,  but  capitulated  to  the 
Confederates  on  the  first  day  of  the 
following  year.  In  1885  the  city 
was  badly  damaged  by  fire,  but  a 
far  greater  catastrophe  was  the 
1900  hurricane,  the  city  being  in- 
undated to  a  maximum  depth  of  16 
ft.,  8,000  persons  losing  their  lives, 
and  £4,000,000  damage  being  done 
to  property.  Since  then  a  massive 
sea-wall  and  a  concrete  causeway 
connecting  the  island  with  the 
mainland  have  been  constructed, 
and  the  city  has  been  lifted  in  some 
parts  19  ft.  above  its  original  level. 
In  1901  Galveston  instituted  the 
commission  form  of  local  govern- 
ment, widely  adopted  in  the  U.S.A. 
Galveston  Bay.  Inlet  of  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  Protected  by  the 
island  of  Galveston  and  by  a  nar- 
row promontory  stretching  W.S.W., 
.  it  extends  inland 
for  about  35  m. 

Galvez,    MARI- 
ANO   (1795-1855). 
Guatemalan    poli- 
tician.       Born  in 
Guatemala,  he  be- 
came    an     active 
politician,  being 
one   of    those    re- 
sponsible  for    the 
constitution  of 
1824.     In  1825  he 
was    president    of 
the  first  congress 
of    the    Central 
American  states. 
From  1831  to  1838 
he  was  president  of  Guatemala,  but 
he  lost  his  power  in  1838  and  was 
soon  exiled.   Henceforward  he  lived 
mainly  in  Mexico  and  Peru. 

Gal  way.       County  of  Ireland. 
In  the  province  of  Connaught,  its 
area  is  2,370  sq.  m.,  making  it  the 
second  largest  of 


the  Irish  coun- 
ties. It  has  a 
coast-line  of 
about  400  m.  on 
the  Atlantic, 
where  are  several 
bays  with  excel- 
1  e  n  t  harbours, 
and  off  which 

are  a  number  of  islands ;  the  former 
include     Killary,    Kilkieran,    and 


Calway  arms 


GALWAY 


3413 


GAMBETTA 


Galway.     Map  of  the  second  largest  Irish   county,  with  Galway    Bay  and 
the  adjacent  islands 


Galway ;  the  latter  include  the 
Aran  Islands,  Inishbofin,  Gorumna, 
and  Lettermore. 

The  country  is  one  of  the  wildest 
and  most  beautiful  parts  of 
Ireland,  especially  its  western  por- 
tion. The  eastern  part  is  flat  and 
boggy ;  the  west,  known  as  Conne- 
mara,  contains  the  mountain 
group  of  the  Twelve  Pins.  Joyce's 
Country  is  an  adjacent  moun- 
tainous district,  while  a  third  is 
called  lar  Connaught.  In  the  south 
are  the  Slieve  Aughty  Mts.  and  a 
stretch  of  the  golden  vale  ;  on  the 
north  there  is  another  fertile  area. 

The  Shannon  flows  along  the 
borders  of  the  county,  which  has 
few  other  rivers.  Lough  Corrib 
is  the  most  notable  lake  ;  it  is  4  m. 
from  Galway  and  is  about  50  sq.  m. 
in  area.  On  it  are  a  number  of  in- 
habited islands.  The  chief  indus- 
tries are  the  rearing  of  cattle, 
sheep,  and  poultry,  while  there  are 
many  fishermen  here.  Oats  and 
potatoes  are  grown,  limestone  and 
marble  are  worked,  and  there  are 
some  manufactures  of  linens  and 
woollens.  The  county  is  served  by 
the  M.G.W.  of  Ireland  and  the 
G.S.  and  W.  Rlys.  The  chief 
places  are  Galway,  Ballinasloe, 
Loughrea,  Tuam,  Oughterard,  Clif- 
den,  Athenry,  Portumna,  and  Gort. 
There  are  cathedrals  at  Tuam  and 
Clonfert.  A  number  of  small  places 
are  visited  by  tourists  and  sports- 
men. There  are  some  prehistoric 
remains  on  the  Aran  Islands. 
Pop.  102,200. 

Galway.  Seaport,  market  town, 
and  county  town  of  Galway,  Ire- 
land. It  stands  on  the  N.  side  of 
Galway  Bay,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Corrib,  and  is  130  m.  from  Dublin 
on  the  M.  and  G.W.  Rly.  It  has  a 
good  harbour.  There  are  some  in- 
teresting old  buildings,  several  in 
the  Spanish  style,  and  the  town  is 
divided  into  an  old  town  and  a 


new  town.  In  addition  there  is  the 
Claddagh,  a  district  inhabited  by 
fisherfolk,  who  have  some  curious 
customs  and  are  still  to  some  ex- 
tent a  distinct  community. 

The  chief  church  is  S.  Nicholas, 
an  old  foundation,  which  for  long 
had  a  college  attached  to  it.  S. 
Augustine's  is  modern.  As  the 
chief  town  of  Connaught,  Galway 
has  a  university  college.  This  was 
founded  as  Queen's  College  in  1848. 
The  town  has  fisheries  and  a  con- 
siderable shipping  trade  ;  its  other 
industries  include  flour  mills,  dis- 
tilling, and  marble  polishing.  Ow- 
ing to  its  situation  on  the  most 
westerly  harbour 
of  the  British 
Isles,  it  has  been 
proposed  several 
times  to  make  it 
a  great  Atlantic 
packet  station. 
Market  days, 
Wed.  and  Sat. 
For  purposes  of 
local  government 
Gal  way  is  an 
urban  district. 
Salthill  is  a  suburb  £ 
visited  as  a  plea-  Galway. 

sure  resort.     Pop.  13,250. 

Galway  Bay.  Inlet  on  the  W. 
coast  of  Ireland,  between  cos.  Clare 
and  Galway.  It  is  protected  at  the 
entrance  by  the  Aran  Islands, 
which  form  a  natural  breakwater. 
Its  length  is  30  m.,  and  breadth 
at  entrance  22  m. 

Galway,  VISCOUNT.  Irish  title 
borne  since  1727  by  the  family  of 
Monckton-Arundell.  In  that  year 
John  Monckton,  an  English  M.P. 
(d.  1751),  was  made  an  Irish  peer. 
He  bought  the  estate  of  Serlby, 
Yorks,  since  then  the  seat  of  his 
descendants,  and  his  son,  the  2nd 
viscount,  took  the  additional  name 
of  Arundell.  His  descendants  still 
hold  the  title,  George,  the  7th  vis- 


count,  succeeding  in  1886.  As  Irish 
peers  they  could  sit  in  the  House  of 
Commons,  and  nearly  every  one  of 
them  did  so  until  1887,  when  the 
7th  viscount  was  made  a  peer  of  the 
United  Kingdom  as  Baron  Monck- 
ton.  Pron.  Gaulway. 

Galway  Castle.  Union  Castle 
liner.  Built  at  Belfast  in  1911,  she 
had  a  gross  tonnage  of  7,988.  She 
was  torpedoed  and  sunk  whilst 
outward  bound  to  S.  Africa  on 
Sept.  12, 1918,  when  over  150  lives 
were  lost. 

Gamaliel  (d.  c.  52).  Jewish 
rabbi.  The  grandson  of  Hillel,  he 
was  an  important  member  of  the 
Sanhedrin.  S.  Paul  attended  his 
school  at  Jerusalem,  as  a  youth. 
Famed  for  his  learning,  piety,  and 
tolerance,  he  urged  that  the  early 
preachers  of  Christianity  should 
not  be  interfered  with.  The 
legend  of  his  conversion  to  Chris- 
tianity has  no  foundation. 

Gamba  (ItaL,  leg).  (1)  Abbrev. 
of  viola  da  gamba,  one  of  the 
large  viols,  played  between  the 
knees  of  the  performer.  (2)  Organ 
stop,  usually  of  8  ft.  pitch,  with  a 
reedy  tone  like  that  of  the  stringed 
instrument.  See  Organ  ;  Viol. 

Gambela.  Trading  station  of 
Abyssinia,  in  the  W.  of  the  country. 
It  stands  on  a  tributary  of  the 
Sobat  river,  and  is  an  important 
outlet  for  the  trade  in  the  W.  It  is 
leased  to  the  Sudan  government, 
and  there  is  steamer  communica- 


University  College,  founded  in  1848 
tion  with  Khartum  from  June  to 
Nov.,  via  the  Sobat  river  and  the 
Bahr-el-Abiad  or  White  Nile. 

Gambetta,  L£ON  (1838-82). 
French  statesman.  Born  at  Ca- 
hors,  Lot,  April  2,  1838,  his  father 
being  a  grocer  o?  Genoese  origin 
who  had  settled  there,  he  became 
a  law  student  in  Paris,  and  was 
early  prominent  for  his  repub- 
lican enthusiasm.  Called  to  the  bar 
in  1859,  in  Nov.,  1868,  he  made  a 
deep  impression  by  his  defence  of 
the  republican  journalist,  L.  C. 
Delescluze,  who  had  been  prose- 
cuted for  proposing  a  monument 
to  Charles  Baudin,  killed  in  the 
coup  d'etat  of  1851.  Elected  to  the 
Chamber  in  May,  1869,  he  became 


GAMBIA 


341  4 


GAMBLE 


a  leader  of  the  uncompromising 
an ti -imperialist  party.  A  speech 
attacking  the  Ollivier  ministry  in 
1870  helped  to 
bring  aboutthe 
May  plebiscite 
on  the  pro- 
posed con- 
stitutional 
changes.  When 
the  news  of 
Sedan  a  r- 
rived,  he  pro- 
claimed  pub- 
y  the  es- 
tablishment 
of  the  republic,  and  became  minis- 
ter of  the  interior,  Sept.  4, 1 870.  On 
Oct.  7  he  escaped  from  the  besieged 
capital  in  a  balloon,  and  joined 
the  government  at  Tours  as  minis- 
ter of  war  as  well  as  of  the  interior. 
At  Tours,  and  later  at  Bordeaux; 
aided  principally  by  de  Freycinet, 
he  showed  astounding  energy,  in 
most  adverse  circumstances,  in 
levying  and  equipping  fresh  armies 
and  organizing  plans  of  national 
defence.  Elected  to  the  national 
assembly  for  Strasbourg,  Feb., 
1871,  he  resigned  office  when  the 
surrender  of  Alsace  was  acquiesced 
in,  and  retired  to  Spain. 

In  the  summer  he  returned  to 
politics,  founding  the  newspaper 
La  Republique  Fra^aise  in  Nov., 
1871.  Henceforth  his  energies,  and 
his  popularity  assured  by  his  ora- 
torical gifts,  were  directed  towards 
consolidating  the  new  republic 
against  monarchist  influences,  and 
to  this  end  he  was  a  determined 
opponent  of  MacMahon  during  his 
presidency.  Gambetta  was  elected 
president  of  the  chamber  of  depu- 
ties in  Jan.,  1879,  and  under 
Grevy's  presidency  was  premier 
from  Nov.,  1881,  to  Jan.,  1882,  re- 
signing on  the  defeat  of  his  pro- 
posals for  electoral  reform.  An 
accidental  wound  from  a  pistol 
brought  about  his  death  at  his 
villa  at  Ville  d'Avray,  near  Sevres, 
on  Dec.  31,  1882.  The  Gambetta 
monument  in  the  Place  du  Car- 
rousel, Paris,  by  Boileau  and  Aube, 
was  erected  in  1886.  On  Nov.  11, 
1920,  to  mark  the  jubilee  of  the 
third  French  Republic,  Gambetta's 
heart  was  buried  in  the  Pantheon, 
Paris.  SeeLife,PaulDeschanel,  1920. 
Gambia.  River  of  W.  Africa. 
It  rises  in  Futa-Jallon  in  French 
Guinea,  flows  generally  westward 
for  over  500  m.,  and  falls  into  the 
Atlantic  at  Bathurst.  At  its  estu- 
ary it  is  12  m.  broad,  and  it  is  navi- 
gable for  300  m. 

Gambia.  British  colony  in  W. 
Africa.  It  is  situated  on  both  sides 
of  the  lower  portion  of  the  river 
Gambia,  below  the  Falls  of  Barra 
Kunda,  and  include^  the  colony  of 
St.  Mary's  Island  and  the  five  pro- 


vinces, North  Bank,  South  Bank, 
etc.,  which  form  a  protectorate. 
The  area  of  the  colony  proper  is  4sq. 
m.,  and  that  of  the  protectorate, 
which  extends  250  m.  inland,  is 
about  4,500  sq.  m.  In  1618  James  I 
granted  a  charter  to  a  trading  com- 
pany which  built  Fort  James, and  in 
1631 ,1662,andl783othercompanies 
were  founded.  Formerly  part  of  the 
W.  African  Settlements,  itwas  made 
a  separate  colony  in  1888.  The 
capital  is  Bathurst  (<?.?;.),  on  the 
island  of  St.  Mary.  The  pop.  (about 
200,000)  consists  .  of  Mandingos, 
Jolas,  Sarahulis,  and  Fulas,  four- 
fifths  Mahomedans.  The  exports 
are  chiefly  ground-nuts,  rubber, 
rice,  hides,  wax,  and  palm  kernels. 

Gambler,  GAMBIR  OR  PALE 
CATECHU.  Extract  prepared  from 
the  leaves  and  young  shoots  of 
Uncaria  gambler,  a  climbing  shrub 
which  grows  in  the  Malay  Archi- 
pelago. The  leaves  are  boiled  with 
water,  the  liquid  strained  and  eva- 
porated until  a  soft  extract  is  ob- 
tained. Gambier  is  used  chiefly  for 
tanning,  the  purer  qualities  being 
employed  in  medicine  as  an  as- 
tringent. The  Malays  use  gambier, 
in  combination  with  areca  and 
betel,  for  chewing. 

Gambier.  Group  of  seven  small 
islands  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  be- 
longing to  France.  They  lie  in 
lat.  23°  12'  S:,  and  long.  135°  W. 
Total  land  area,  8  sq.  m.  The 
largest  island  is  Mangareva,  and  all 
are  of  coral  formation.  The  inhabi- 
tants are  mostly  Roman  Catholic 
converts,  with  some  immigrants 
from  Easter  Island.  Pop.  1,533. 

Gambier,  JAMES  GAMBIER, 
BARON  (1756-1833).  British  sailor. 
Born  at  New  Providence,  Oct.  13, 
1756,  he  went  to  sea  at  11  years 
of  age.  In  1778  he  was  captured  by 
the  French  admiral  d'Estaing,  but 
was  released  after  a  few  months, 
and  was  present  at  the  relief  of 
Jersey,  1779,  and  at  the  capture 
of  Charleston,  1780.  In  1794  he 
commanded  the  Defence,  which, 
in  the  battle  of  June  1,  was  the 
first  to  break  through  the  enemy's 
line.  In  1795  he  was  promoted 
rear-admiral  and  a  lord  of  the 
admiralty,  becoming  vice-admiral 
1799.  In  1800  he  was  commander- 
in-chief  at  Newfoundland,  a.nd  in 
1804  returned  to  the  admiraltv. 


~s^Wl? 


where  he  re- 
mained until 
1806.  During 
this  period  of 
officeheordered 
the  discontinu- 
ance of  the 
rule  enjoining 
officers  to  en- 
force the  salute 
from  all  foreign 
vessels  within 
the  king's  seas, 
an  order  in  force  since  the  reign 
of  John. 

In  1805  he  became  admiral,  and 
in  1807  sailed  to  the  Baltic,  bom- 
barding Copenhagen  and  captur- 
ing the  Danish  fleet.  For  this  he 
was  raised  to  the  peerage.  In  1809 
he  commanded  the  Channel  fleet 
when  Lord  Cochrane  attempted  to 
destroy  the  French  fleet  by  fire- 
ship?,  an  operation  of  which  Gam- 
bier disapproved  so  strongly  that  he 
refused  to  help  Cochrane,  and  him- 
self demanded  a  court-martial  for 
his  failure  of  duty.  He  was  ac- 
quitted, and  retained  his  command 
until  1811,  being  promoted  ad- 
miral of  the  fleet  in  1830.  He  died 
April  19,  1833. 

Gambit.  Method  of  opening  a 
game  of  chess  in  which  by  the 
sacrifice  of  a  pawn  or  piece  in  one 
of  the  early  moves  a  player  seeks 
to  obtain  some  advantage  over 
his  opponent.  There  are  vari- 
ous gambits — the  king's  gambit, 
queen's  gambit,  king's  knight's 
gambit,  etc.  On  the  opponent 
declining  to  take  the  piece  offered, 
it  is  called  the  "  gambit  declined." 
The  term  comes  from  the  Italian 
phrase  dare  il  gambetto,  to  trip  up 
(gamba,  leg).  See  Chess. 

Gamble,  SIR  DOUGLAS  AUSTIN 
(b.  1856).  British  sailor.  Born 
Nov.  8,  1856,  he  entered  the  navy 
in  1870.  Lieu- 
tenant, 1879, 
and  captain, 
1899,  he 
reached  the 
rank  of  rear- 
admiral  in 
1908.  From 
1893-96  he  was 

a    member    of 
Sir  Douglas  Gamble,      , , 

British  sailor          tne    naval   m- 

Detenham  telligence    de- 

nartment.  and  naval  adviser  to  the 


^  Y)   X;^£w^{"w>  j 


Gambia.    Map  of  the  British  colony  and  protectorate  bordering  the  W.  African 
river  of  this  name 


GAMBLING 


341  5 


GAME 


Turkish  govt.,  1909-10.  He  com- 
manded the  6th  cruiser  squadron, 
1910-14,  and  during  the  Great 
War  the  4th  battle  squadron.  In 
1917  he  retired  with  the  rank  of 
admiral. 

Gambling.  Staking  money  or 
other  valuable  commodity  upon 
the  as  yet  undecided  issue  of  an 
event,  particularly  of  a  sporting 
event  or  of  a  game. 

The  practice  is  of  undiscoverable 
antiquity,  but  has  always  been  dis- 
countenanced by  the  statute  law 
of  civilized  communities.  Among 
the  Greeks  and  Romans  there 
were  two  principal  games  of  chance, 
both  played  with  dice.  Tesserae 
were  cubes,  the  faces  marked  I  to 
VI  as  in  modern  dice,  the  points 
on  the  opposite  faces  totalling  7  ; 
the  game  was  played  with  3  tes- 
serae shaken  and  thrown  from  a 
turret-shaped  box  upon  the  board  ; 
the  highest  throw,  called  Venus, 
was  of  3  sixes,  the  lowest,  or  dog's 
throw,  of  3  aces.  Tali,  or  knuckle- 
bones, were  oblongs,  with  two  of 
the  long  sides  broader  than  the 
others,  and  numbered  3  and  4,  the 
narrower  pair  marked  1  and  6,  and 
rounded  ends  unmarked. 

Four  tali  were  used,  the  highest 
throw  being  when  all  showed  diffe- 
rent numbers,  the  lowest  when  all 
came  out  the  same.  Odd  and  even, 
heads  and  tails,  and  mora,  and  an 
early  form  of  backgammon  were 
other  games  of  chance  in  classical 
times.  Games  of  chance  were  pro- 
hibited by  law  except  during  the 
Saturnalia  in  December,  but 
gambling  was  rife  in  Rome. 

According  to  Tacitus,  the  ancient 
Germans  were  bewitched  with  the 
spirit  of  play  to  an  exorbitant 
degree.  Their  modern  descendants 
were  not  innocent  of  the  same  vice, 
Wiesbaden,  Homburg,  and  Baden- 
Baden  being  notorious  gaming  cen- 
tres until  their  gambling-houses, 
with  all  the  others  in  Germany, 
were  abolished  in  1872. 

Cards  were  used  for  gambling 
there  as  they  had  been  in  England, 
as  they  were  in  Belgium,  at  Spa, 
and  Ostend,  upon  the  suppression 
of  the  German  houses,  until 
suppressed  there  too  in  1902,  and 
as  they  still  are  in  France  at 
such  resorts  as  Aix-les- Bains, 
Trouville,  and  Biarritz,  and  espe- 
cially in  the  principality  of 
Monaco,  the  Mediterranean  para- 
dise in  which  roulette,  trente-et- 
quarante,  and  rouge-et-noir  are 
the  triple-headed  serpent.  Sys- 
tems innumerable  have  been  de- 
vised by  gamblers  to  render  win- 
ning certain  at  all  the  games  of 
chance,  but  never  one  of  which 
the  fallibility  cannot  be  proved 
mathematically,  or  which  cannot 
be  defeated  by  the  advantages 


reserved  by  the  bank  as  in  fixing 
the  maximum  which  it  will  pay  on 
any  chance  and  in  retaining  the 
re  fait  of  31  at  trente-et-quarante, 
and  in  the  zero  in  roulette. 

In  England  statute  law  against 
gambling  originated  in  desire  to 
protect  the  manlier  sports  of 
archery  and  the  like  from  being 
abandoned  in  favour  of  idle 
games,  but  even  Henry  VIII,  who 
was  responsible  for  one  of  the 
earliest  of  these  moral  enactments, 
was  not  proof  against  the  seduc- 
tion of  the  dice.  That  reformed 
gambler,  Theophilus  Lucas,  who 
wrote  Memoirs  of  Gamesters  as  a 
warning  to  future  generations,  re- 
cords that  Sir  Miles  Partridge  once 
played  at  dice  with  King  Henry 
for  the  four  largest  bells  in  Lon- 
don, and  won  them.  In  the  reign 
of  Charles  II  the  fashionable  vice 
became  a  scandal.  One  statute 
of  this  period  enacted  that  if  any 
person  by  playing  or  betting  lost 
more  than  £100  at  one  time  he 
was  not  compelled  to  pay  the 
sum,  and  the  winner  'forfeited 
treble  the  amount. 

The  respect  shown  to  the  statute 
may  be  gauged  by  the  fact  that 
the  duchess  of  Mazarin  won  1,400 
guineas  in  one  night  from  Nell 
Gwynn  at  basset,  and  more  than 
£8,000  from  the  duchess  of  Ports- 
mouth, and  derived  no  little  finan- 
cial advantage  from  doubtful  play 
with  the  merry  monarch.  Even 
the  more  austere  William  III  is 
said  to  have  lost  £2,500  to  the  pro- 
fessional gamester  Richard  Bour- 
chier,  who  next  proceeded  to  win 
£15,000  from  the  Elector  of  Ba- 
varia, a  sum  immediately  doubled 
by  tossing  double  or  quits. 

As  Blackstone  insists,  gambling 
"  taken  in  any  light  is  an  offence  of 
the  most  alarming  nature  ;  tending 
by  necessary  consequence  to  pro- 
mote public  idleness,  theft,  and  de- 
bauchery among  those  of  the  lower 
class ;  and,  among  persons  of  a 
superior  rank,  it  has  frequently 
been  attended  with  the  sudden 
ruin  and  desolation  of  ancient  and 
opulent  families,  an  abandoned 
prostitution  of  every  principle  of 
honour  and  virtue,  and  too  often 
has  ended  in  self-murder." 

The  gaming  laws  governing  the 
practice  in  Great  Britain,  and  the 
legally  prohibited  games,  ace  of 
hearts,  basset,  dice  (except  back- 
gammon), faro,  hazard,  lotteries 
(except  those  of  art  unions),  and 
roulette,  are  dealt  with  under  those 
separate  headings. 

The  economic  nature  of  gam- 
bling is  that  as  the  result  of  a 
bet  property  is  transferred  from 
one  to  anothe-r  upon  the  occurrence 
of  an  event  which,  to  the  two  parties 
to  the  bet,  was  a  matter  of  com- 


plete chance,  or  as  nearly  so  as 
their  adjustment  of  condition 
could  make  it.  Chance  is  the  prin- 
ciple upon  which  the  transaction  is 
founded,  in  the  mind  at  least  of  one 
of  the  parties.  Chance  enters  into 
every  human  transaction,  but 
the  reason  is  always  exercised  to 
reduce  its  possible  effect  to  the 
minimum.  Into  gambling,  on  the 
contrary,  reason  is  only  introduced 
so  to  adjust  the  element  of  chance  as 
to  make  it  the  determining  principle 
of  the  transfer,  and  the  wrongful- 
ness  of  the  practice  lies  not  in  the 
indulgence  in  an  intrinsically'inno- 
cent  act,  but  in  the  surrender  to 
chance  of  acts  which  ought  to  be 
controlled  by  reason  alone. 

Bibliography.  Memoirs  of  the 
Lives,  Intrigues,  and  Comical  Ad- 
ventures of  the  Most  Famous 
Gamesters  .  .  .  ,  Theophilus  Lucas, 
1714  ;  The  History  of  Gambling  in 
England,  John  Ashton,  1898  ;  The 
Ethics  of  Gambling,  W.  D.  Mac- 
kenzie, new  ed.,  1911  ;  The  Law  of 
Gambling,  W.  Coldridge  and  C.  V. 
Hawksford,  2nd  ed.  1913. 

Gamboge.  Gum  resin  of  a 
rich  brownish  yellow  tint,  ob- 
tained from  Garcinia  Hanburii,  a 
tree  which  grows  in  Siam,  near  the 
S. W.  coast  of  Cambodia,  whence 
the  drug  takes  its  name.  It  is  im- 
ported in  the  form  of  sticks  or 
cylinders,  1  in.  to  2 \  ins.  in  diameter 
and  4  ins.  to  8  ins.  in  length,  the 
shape  being  caused  by  the  liquid 
juice  of  the  tree  being  collected  in 
lengths  of  bamboo  cane.  Gamboge 
is  used  in  medicine  as  a  drastic 
purgative,  the  dose  being  1  gr.  to 
4  grs.  Owing  to  its  brilliant 
colour,  gamboge  is  employed  in 
water-colour  painting. 

Garni  rinus.  Legendary  king  of 
Flanders,  to  whom  Is  ascribed  the 
invention  of  beer.  In  Germanic 
countries  his  name  is  sometimes 
used  as  a  sign  for  beer  halls  and 
cellars,  and  the  king  is  represented 
sitting  across  a  barrel,  holding  in 
his  hand  a  tankard  of  foaming  beer. 

Game.  Name  given  to  certain 
uridomesticated  animals  taken  in 
field-sports  by  coursing  or  shooting, 
and  to  their'  flesh  when  used  for 
food.  Game,  as  defined  by  the 
Night  Poaching  Act,  includes  hares, 
pheasants,  partridges,  black  game, 
red  grouse  and  bustard.  Some  of 
these  are  high  in  flavour,  and  it  is 
the  custom  to  hang  them  in  a  cool 
place  for  several  days  before  eating, 
that  the  flesh  may  become  tender 
or  short.  Gamekeepers  are  servants 
employed  by  landowners  to  rear 
and  preserve  game,  prevent  poach- 
ing, and  check  the  depredations  of 
vermin  and  birds  of  prey.  They  are 
subject  to  the  duty  on  male  ser- 
vants, and  their  licence  only  extends 
to  lands  on  which  their  employer  has 
a  right  to  kill  game.  See  Game  Laws. 


GAME     FOWL 


3416 


GANDERSHEIM 


Game  Fowl.  Breed  of  domestic 
fowls  descended  from  those  used  in 
the  cockpits  for  betting  purposes. 
The  birds  used  for  this  purpose  had 
as  their  ancestors  the  wild  jungle- 
fowl  (Gall us  bankiva)  of  India.  Up 
to  the  beginning  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury the  English  game-fowl  ap- 
pears to  have  been  little  altered  by 
domestication  from  the  wild  birds, 
having  the  strong  beak,  single 
upright  comb,  and  the  very  long, 
sharply  pointed  spur  at  the  back 
of  the  leg.  They  were  sparsely 
built,  and  their  feathers  pressed 
closely  to  the  body.  The  pugna- 
cious disposition'  of  the  cock  was 
shared  by  the  hen  and  the  chickens, 
the  young  cocks  crowing  and  fight- 
ing among  themselves  even  before 
they  had  left  their  mother's  care. 
See'Cockfighting. 

Game  Laws.  In  England,  the 
Acts  which  deal  in  a  special  manner 
with  poaching  and  trespassing  in 
pursuit  of  game ;  and  those  which 
impose  restrictions  on  the  killing  of 
game,  two  very  different  matters. 
Game  includes  hares,  pheasants, 
partridges,  grouse,  heath  or  moor 
game,  black  game,  and  bustards, 
and  for  some  legal  purposes, 
woodcock,  snipe,  quails,  landrails, 
and  rabbits. 

Under  the  Larceny  Act,  1861,  it 
is  a  misdemeanour  to  kill  or  take 
any  hare  or  rabbit  in  a  warren  by 
night,  and  a  fineable  offence  (£5)  to 
do  so  by  day.  By  the  various  Night 
Poaching  Acts  of  1828,  and  other 
years,  it  is  punishable  unlawfully 
to  take  or  destroy  any  game  or  rab- 
bits by  night  hi  any  enclosed  land  or 
road,  highway,  etc.,  adjoining ;  or  to 
enter  any  land,  enclosed  or  not,  with 
gun.netfengine,  or  other  instrument 
for  taking  or  destroying  game.  Arrest 
may  be  effected  by  a  licensed  game- 
keeper. Any  policeman  or  con- 
stable on  any  highway  or  public 
place  may  stop  and  search  anyone 
whom  he  reasonably  suspects  of 
being  in  unlawful  possession  of 
game,  or  to  see  if  he  has  a  gun  or 
other  poaching  instrument.  A 
licence  is  required  to  shoot  or  to 
deal  in  game.  See  Oke's  Game  Laws, 
5th  ed.,  L.  Mead,  1912. 

Games.  Word  of  Teutonic 
origin,  meaning  sports  or  amuse- 
ments. The  Lathi  word  is  ludi, 
hence  the  phrase  used  in  the  public 
schools  of  victor  ludorum.  Both 
Greece  and  Rome  had  their  public 
games,  the  forerunners  of  the 
athletic  meetings  of  to-day.  Among 
the  Greeks  the  chief  games  were 
the  Isthmian,  Nemean,  Olympian, 
and  Pythian.  The  idea  has  been 
revived  in  the  Olympic  Games. 
The  various  games  are  described 
each  under  its  own  title  in  this 
work.  See  Cricket ;  Football,  etc. ; 
Ludi ;  Olympic  Games.  , 


Sairey  Gamp,  the  loquacious  nurse 
in  Dickens's  Martin  Cbuzzlewit 

After  Fred  Barnard 

Gaming.  Term  used  mainly  in 
law,  and  meaning  practically  the 
same  as  gambling.  By  the  Common 
Law  of  England,  a  wagering  con- 
tract or  bet  was  as  legal  as  any 
other.  But  by  the  Gaming  Act, 
1835,  "  All  contracts  or  agreements 

T-A  3    C  V  E   F    G    a    b     . 


Gammarus.  Genus  of  amphi- 
pod  crustaceans.  The  fresh-water 
shrimp,  Gammarus  pulex,  common 
in  brooks,  is  about  half  an  inch  in 
length,  and  feeds  on  dead  fishes. 
See  Amphipoda.  v» 

Gamp,  SAIREY.  Character  in 
Dickens's  novel  Martin  Chuzzlewit. 
A  sick-nurse,  drunken  and  incom- 
petent, she  is  famous  for  her  con- 
stant references  in  conversation  to 
an  imaginary  Mrs.  Harris.  Her 
bulky  umbrella  has  given  the  lan- 
guage the  colloquial  term. 

Gamtoos  OR  CAMTOOS.  River 
of  the  Cape  Province.  It  rises  in 
the  Nieuwveld  mts.  and  falls  into 
St.  Francis  Bay,  about  50  m.  W.  of 
Port  Elizabeth,  after  a  course  of 
about  200  m. 

Gamut.  Musical  scale  of  the 
Middle  Ages  based  upon  hexa- 
chords  or  series  of  six-note  scales. 
The  name  comes  from  gamma-ut, 
the  lowest  note,  so  called  from  the 
Greek  letter  7  or  gamma,  and  ut, 
the  first  note  of  the  Sol-fa  scale, 
later  called  do  or  doh.  This  note  is 
still  called  by  organ  builders  Gamut 
G.  The  complete  gamut  was  : 

cdefgabcde 


Ut  TV  im  -fa  sol  la 

...  by  way  of  gaming  or  wagering 
shall  be  null  and  void  ;  "  and  no 
suit  is  to  be  maintainable  for  re- 
covering any  money  or  other  stake 
alleged  to  be  won  on  a  wager.  This 
does  not  apply  to  a  prize  to  be 
awarded  to  the  winner  of  any  law- 
ful game,  sport,  pastime,  or  exer- 
cise. A  transaction  in  stocks  and 
shares  or  any  article  of  commerce 
is  a  wager,  if  the  contract  between 
the  parties  is  not  really  to  be  a  sale 
and  purchase,  but  only  a  payment 
of  differences  depending  on  the  rise 
or  fall  of  the  market. 

The  Betting  Act,  1853,  makes  it 
illegal  to  keep  or  use  any  house, 
office,  or  other  place  for  the  purpose 
of  betting  or  receiving  money  for 
bets.  Until  the  Gaming  Act,  1892, 
a  commission  agent  who  was  em- 
ployed by  P  to  bet  for  him,  and 
made  himself  personally  liable  for 
the  losses,  could  pay  the  losses, 
although  P  ordered  him  not  to  do 
so,  and  recover  the  amount  from  P. 
By  the  Act  of  1892  the  agent  loses 
this  right.  By  Acts  of  Anne  and 
William  IV,  bills  and  other  se- 
curities given  wholly  or  partly  in 
payment  of  gaming  debts,  or  in 
payment  of  money  lent  to  pay 
gaming  debts,  are  to  be  taken  as 
given  upon  an  illegal  consideration. 
See  Betting. 

Gamma.  One  of  the  earliest 
British  airships  built.  It  was  a  non- 
rigid  ship  of  a  type  now  obsolete. 


The  ut-re-mi- fa-sol-la  series  was 
started  from  each  of  the  notes 
marked  with  an  asterisk. 

Gandak,  GREAT.  River  of  N.E. 
India.  It  rises  in  the  Nepal  Hima- 
layas, and  for  some  30  m.  forms  the 
boundary  between  the  United 
Provinces  and  Bihar  and  Orissa.  It 
flows  generally  S.E.,  and  joins  the 
Ganges  opposite  Patna,  after  a 
course  of  about  400  m. 

Gandak,  LITTLE.  River  of  N.W. 
India.  It  rises  in  the  Nepal  hills, 
flows  parallel  with  the  Great  Gan- 
dak, and  empties  into  the  Gogra  at 
Sunaria. 

Gandamak.  Village  of  Afghan- 
istan. It  was  the  scene  of  the  mass- 
acre of  the  last  survivors  of  General 
Elphinstone's  army  in  1842  in  the 
retreat  from  Kabul.  It  is  about  35 
m.  from  Jellalabad  on  the  road  to 
Kabul.  In  1879  an  agreement 
made  by  Great  Britain  and  Yakub 
Khan  was  known  as  the  treaty  of 
Gandamak. 

Gandersheim.  Town  of  Bruns- 
wick, Germany.  It  stands  on  the 
Gande,  36  m.  S.W.  of  Brunswick, 
and  is  chiefly  famous  for  its  abbey 
or  nunnery.  This  was  founded 
about  850  by  a  duke  of  Saxony, 
one  of  whose  daughters  was  its  first 
abbess.  After  the  Reformation 
the  abbey  passed  over  to  the  Pro- 
testants, who  kept  the  establish- 
ment and  its  privileges  in  being 
until  1803.  Its  estates  were  added 


GANDHARVA 


341  7 


GANGES 


to  Brunswick.  The  abbey  buildings 
are  now  used  by  the  government  of 
Brunswick  and  the  palace  as  law 
courts.  The  church  of  the  abbey 
contains  the  tombs  of  notable 
abbesses.  Pop.  3,200.  i 

Gandharva.  Deity  in  Hindu 
mythology.  The  name  is  also  given 
to  a  class  of  divine  beings  some- 
times vaguely  described  as  beauti- 
ful spirits  of  singing  stars. 

Gandhi,     MOHANDAS     KARAM- 
CHAND  (b.  ]869).     Indian  Nation- 
alist leader.   Born  Oct.  2,  1869,  son 
.  of  a  native  gov- 
ernment     offi- 
cial,   he    prac- 
^J          tised     law     in 
It,         Bombay.    In 
«f*T  1893  in  S.  Africa 

he  organized  an 

^^jl^fct  opposition  to 
Jfcfe^  anti-Asiatic 
k,  .  mmsM  legislation  by 
M.  K.  Gandhi.  passive  resist- 
Indian  leader  ancCj  which  re. 

suited  in  the  Indians'  Relief  Act 

On  the  passing  of  the  Rowlatt 
Act,  1919,  Gandhi  launched  a 
crusade  against  the  British  raj  by 
means  of  civil  disobedience,  cul- 
minating in  riots  at  Amritsar.  In 
1921  there  was  rioting  and  murder 
on  an  increasing  scale  as  the  sequel 
to  Gandhi's  advocacy  of  non-co- 
operation and  the  boycott  of  British 
goods,  though  he  never  ceased  to 
advocate  peaceful  methods.  Gandhi 
was  arrested  in  1922  on  a  charge  of 
promoting  sedition,  and  sentenced, 
March  18,  to  six  years'  imprison- 
ment, being  released  Feb.,  1924. 

Gandhi's  aim  was  to  free  India 
from  contact  with  western  civil- 
ization, and  popular  imagination 
invested  him  with  the  supernatural 
powers  of  a  Mahatma.  See  India. 

Gandia.  Seaport  of  Spam,  in 
the  prov.  of  Valencia.  It  stands  on 
the  river  Alcoy,  2J  m.  from  its 
small  harbour,  Grao,  at  the  mouth, 
and  35  m.  by  rly.  S.S.E.  of  Valen- 
cia. Enclosed  by  ancient  ramparts, 
it  possesses  a  Gothic  church,  an 
old  college,  palaces  of  the  dukes  of 
Borgia  and  of  Osuna,  and  a  Jesuit 
convent.  There  are  several  plazas 
and  fine  boulevards.  Raisins,  or- 
anges, wine,  and  tomatoes  are  ex- 
ported. Pop.  11,659. 

Gando.  Formerly  an  independ- 
ent sultanate  of  Africa.  It  was 
situated  along  the  E.  bank  of 
the  Niger,  N.  of  Borgu,  and  ex- 
tended in  the  middle  of  the  19th 
century  as  far  as  Say.  It  was 
founded  early  in  the  19th  century, 
on  the  death  of  Othman  Dan  Fo- 
dio.  After  the  conquest  of  Sokoto, 
the  portion  of  the  country  within 
the  boundaries  of  Nigeria  was  at- 
tached to  the  province  of  Sokoto. 
Gando,  the  city,  is  50  m.  S.W.  of 
Sokoto  City ;  pop.  12,000. 


Ganesha   OB   HANA-PATI.      In 

Hindu  mythology,  the  god  of  wis- 
dom, represented  as  a  stout  human 
figure  with  the  head  of  an  elephant. 
Ganges.  Most  important  river 
of  India.  It  rises  in  two  head- 
streams — the  Bhagirathi  and  the 
Alaknanda — on  the  southern  slopes 
of  the  Himalayas  in  lat.  30°  53'  N. 
and  long.  79°  8'  E.  The  Bhagirathi 
issues  from  a  glacial  cavern  at  an 
alt.  of  over  14,000  ft.,  near  the 
pilgrim  town  of  Gangotri,  takes  in 
the  Jahnavi  and  the  Alaknanda, 


a  teeming  waterway.  It  is  the  most 
sacred  river  of  India,  and.  special 
sanctity  attaches  to  its  junctions 
with  two  tributaries,  with  the 
Jumna  at  Allahabad  and  with  the 
Gandak  at  Sonpur  ;  a  third  famous 
place  of  pilgrimage  is  Sangor  Island, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Hooghli.  At 
these  places  annual  bathing  festi- 
vals are  held,  and  are  attended  by 
thousands  of  pilgrims  from  all 
parts  of  India. 

Among  the  chief  towns  on  the 
river's  banks  are  Cawnpore,  Mur- 


Ganges.     Map  of  the  river  basin  from  the  rise  of  its  headstreams  to  the  delta 
in  the  Bay  of  Bengal 


and  from  the  junction  of  the  latter 
stream  at  Devaprayag  the  river  is 
known  as  the  Ganges.  Penetrating 
the  mountains  and  flowing  in  a 
S.W.  direction,  it  emerges  from  the 
mountainous  tract  and  enters  the 
plains  close  to  the  sacred  city  of 
Hurdwar.  Thenceforth  it  pursues 
a  S.E.  course  to  Allahabad. 

From  its  source  to  this  point  the 
river  is  only  a  series  of  pools  and 
shoals,  with  occasional  rapids,  but 
during  the  rainy  season  it  becomes 
a  raging  torrent.  At  Allahabad, 
670  m.  from  its  source,  it  receives 
the  waters  of  its  largest  tributary, 
the  Jumna,  and  becomes  a  noble 
stream.  The  course  of  the  river 
now  trends  E.  and  S.E.  through  the 
United  Provinces  and  Bengal,  re- 


shidabad,  Farrukhabad,  Allahabad, 
Mirzapur,  Benares,  Ghazipur,  Pat- 
na,  and  Monghyr,  besides  Calcutta 
on  the  Hooghli  mouth.  The  princi- 
pal mouths  of  the  Ganges  are  the 
Hooghli,  the  most  westerly,  Megh- 
na,  the  most  easterly,  Matla, 
Raimangal,  Malancha,  and  Haring- 
hata.  The  vast  region  embraced 
by  the  deltaic  system  is  a  flat 
alluvial  tract  of  from  80  m.  to  220 
m.  in  breadth.  The  frontal  region, 
or  that  part  which  fringes  the 
ocean,  is  known  as  the  Sundarbans, 
a  mass  of  continually  shifting  mud 
banks  intersected  by  navigable 
channels,  and  notoriously  un- 
healthy. An  immense  amount  of 
silt  is  carried  in  the  water  and  de- 
posited at  the  mouths,  discoloring 


ceiving  other  important  tributaries     the  sea  for  a  distance  of  50  m. 


— the  Gumti,  Gogra,  Son,  Gandak 
and  the  Jamuna,  the  main  stream 
of  the  Brahmaputra — to  fall  into 
the  Bay  of  Bengal  by  a  deltaic  sys- 
tem of  the  most  intricate  character. 
The  length  of  its  course  is  1,557  m. 
The  delta  begins  about  280  m. 
from  the  sea,  and  from  this  point 
onward  the  course  of  the  river 
through  ths  numerous  mouths  is 
subject  to  extensive  changes. 

The  Ganges  is  navigable  as  far  as 
Garmuhtesar,  850  m.  from  the 
sea.  In  the  upper  reaches  the  rly. 
has  led  to  a  diminution  of  water- 
borne  traffic,  but  within  the  presi- 
dency of  Bengal  the  river  remains 


The  Gangetic  Canals 
The  Ganges  forms,  with  its 
tributaries  and  the  Gangetic 
system  of  canals,  the  greatest 
waterway  communication  and  the 
largest  irrigation  system  in  India, 
the  water-borne  traffic  to  and  from 
the  numerous  cities  on  its  banks 
being  prodigious.  The  valley  is 
one  of  the  most  productive  on  the 
earth  ;  it  is  everywhere  cultivated, 
yielding  rice,  sugar,  cotton,  indigo, 
fruit,  and  opium. 

At  Benares,  740  m.  up-stream, 
the  river  has  a  width  of  1,450  ft. 
in  the  dry  months,  nearly  doubled 
in  the  wet  season.  At  500  m.  from 


GANGES 


341  8 


GANOID 


its  mouth  it  is  a  mile  wide.  The 
period  of  flood  begins  in  May  and 
lasts  until  the  end  of  July,  the 
waters  subsiding  in  Aug.  and  Sept. 
The  river  rises  on  the  average 
31  ft.,  and  the  country  overflowed 
is  about  100  m.  in  width.  A  tidal 
bore,  most  noticeable  on  the 
Hooghli,  rushes  up  the  river  at 
nearly  18  m.  an  hour,  sometimes 
causing  an  instantaneous  rise  of 
5  ft.  at  Calcutta.  The  drainage 
area  is  estimated  at  391,100  sq.  m. 
See  Allahabad ;  Benares,  illus. 

Gauges.  British  training  ship. 
She  forms  part  of  the  naval  train- 
ing establishment  at  Shotley  (<?.#.). 

Gangi.  Town  of  Sicily,  in  the 
prov.  of  Palermo.  It  stands  on  a 
mt.  slope,  at  an  alt.  of  3,000  ft., 
19  m.  S.E.  of  Cefalu.  It  has  been 
identified  with  the  ancient  En- 
guium  (Gr.  Engyon),  famed  for  its 
temple  of  the  Great  Mother  of  the 
Gods,  which  was  despoiled  by 
Verres.  Pop.  10,394. 

Gangjam.  Dist.  and  town  of 
India,  in  the  N.  of  Madras  presi- 
dency. The  district  (including  the 
agency),  which  lies  on  the  coast- 
line of  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  has  an 
area  of  8,380  sq.  m.  It  is  traversed 
by  the  E.  Ghats,  which  here  reach 
an  alt.  of  nearly  5,000  ft.  For  ad- 
ministrative purposes  Gangjam  is 
divided  into  five  sub-divisions,  one 
of  which,  the  hill  area,  inhabited 
for  the  most  part  by  backward 
tribes,  is  administered  as  a  separate 
agency  (area,  3,484  sq.  m.),  by  a 
collector  acting  as  agent  to  the 
governor.  The  chief  products  are 
rice,  millet,  and  gram.  Among  the 
industries  are  weaving  and  tan- 
ning, and  there  is  trade  in  sugar 
and  salt.  Gangjam  town,  at  one 
time  the  headquarters  of  the  dis- 
trict, has  declined  in  importance 
since  it  was  superseded  in  1815  by 
Berhampur. 

Ganglion  (Gr.,  tumour  under 
the  skin).  In  physiology,  a  collec- 
tion of  nerve  cells.  Instances  are 
the  spinal  ganglia  on  the  posterior 
roots  of  the  spinal  nerves,  and  the 
gasserian  ganglion  lying  deep  in 
the  temporal  region  of  the  skull. 

In  pathology,  a  cyst-like  swell- 
ing which  forms  in  connexion  with 
a  tendon  sheath  or  joint,  most  fre- 
quently the  tendons  at  the  back  of 
the  wrist  or  the  fingers.  It  may  be 
treated  by  being  struck  a  sharp 
blow  which  ruptures  the  cyst  in- 
ternally and  leads  to  absorption  of 
the  contents.  Perforation  from  the 
exterior  should  be  avoided  if 
possible,  and  only  undertaken  with 
strictest  aseptic  precautions.  See 
Brain ;  Nervous  System. 

Gangpur.  Native  state  of  India, 
tributary  to  Orissa.  Its  area  is 
2,492  sq.  m.  The  sUte  is  a  long 
undulating  tableland  about  700  ft 


above  sea  level,  interspersed  with 
hill  ranges  and  isolated  peaks.  It 
is  watered  by  the  Ib,  the  Sankh, 
and  the  S.  Koel,  the  last  two  unit- 
ing and  forming  the  Brahmani. 
Gangpur  was  transferred  from 
Chota  Nagpur  to  Orissa  in  1905, 
and  the  chief  is  now  subject  to  the 
control  of  the  political  agent  who 
is  also  the  commissioner  of  the 
Orissa  division,  according  to  the 
terms  of  the  sanad  or  charter 
granted  in  1899  and  renewed  in 
1905.  The  principal  crops  are  rice, 
sugar-cane,  and  oil-seeds,  while 
coal,  limestone,  and  iron  are  worked. 

Gangrene  (Gr.  gangraina)  OR 
MORTIFICATION.  Death  of  a  mass 
of  tissue.  The  condition  may  be 
due  to  blocking  of  an  artery  which 
cuts  off  the  supply  of  blood  to  a 
part  (embolic  gangrene) ;  imperfect 
nutrition  of  a  part  in  elderly  people 
(senile  gangrene)  ;  abnormal  con- 
dition of  the  blood,  as  in  diabetes, 
combined  with  a  slight  injury ; 
chronic  poisoning  by  ergot ;  Ray- 
naud's  disease  (q.  v.)  ;  injury 
to  a  limb  (traumatic  gangrene)  ; 
infection  by  certain  organisms 
(wound  phagedena,  hospital  gan- 
grene, gas  gangrene,  cancrum  oris, 
etc.)  ;  frost-bite  ;  and  burning. 
Clinically,  gangrene  is  divided  into 
two  forms  :  dry  gangrene,  in  which 
there  is  little  fluid  in  the  tissues 
and  the  part  becomes  dry,  hard, 
shrunken,  and  black ;  and  moist 
gangrene,  in  which  the  part  is 
swollen  with  fluid  and  is  putrescent. 
The  chances  of  arrest  of  the  pro- 
gress, and  recovery  to  health,  as  well 
as  the  treatment,  depend  upon  the 
cause  of  the  condition  and  the  re- 
cuperative powers  of  the  patient. 

Gangue  (Fr.  gangw,  Ger.  Gang). 
Special  term  used  in  metallurgy 
for  the  earthy,  stony  material,  the 
worthless  vein-stuff  associated 
with  metalliferous  ores,  or  the  ma- 
trix in  which  ores  are  usually  em- 
bedded. The  gangue  appears  in 
many  forms,  from  the  simple, 
earthy,  or  clayey  matter  of  sedi- 
mentary deposits,  such  as  those 
from  which  iron  is  chiefly  obtained, 
to  the  hard,  massive,  resistant 
granite  and  quartz  rock  usually  as- 
sociated with  gold.  See  Mining ;  Ore. 

Ganister.  Local  name  of  a 
siliceous  stone  found  in  the  lower 
coal  measures  of  Yorkshire,  par- 
ticularly in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Sheffield.  It  is  a  close-grained, 
dark-coloured,  argillaceous  sand- 
stone rock,  the  clay  being  present 
in  just  about  the  necessary  pro- 
portions to  permit  the  stone,  when 
ground  and  mixed  with  a  little 
water,  to  be  moulded  into  bricks. 
It  is  highly  refractory  and  largely 
used  for  the  lining  of  metallurgical 
furnaces  of  all  kinds.  See  Blast 
Furnace  ;  Dinas  Rock ;  Furnace. 


Ganja  OR  GANJAH.  Name  ap- 
plied to  the  tops  of  cultivated 
female  plants  of  Cannabis  saliva 
or  Indian  hemp.  The  tops  are  cut 
directly  after  flowering  and  made 
into  bundles  from  2  ft.  to  4  ft. 
long.  The  two  varieties  are  Bengal 
and  Bombay  ganja,  the  superiority 
of  the  former  being  due  to  the  care 
taken  to  eradicate  the  male  plants 
from  the  fields  where  the  tops  are 
collected.  Ganja  is  a  narcotic  and 
anodyne.  See  Hemp. 

Gannet  OR  SOLAN  GOOSE  (Sula 
basso.na).  Group  of  large  sea  fowl, 
rather  goose-like  in  form,  from 
which  they  derive  their  popular 
name.  About  twelve  species  are 
usually  recognized,  and  they  are 
widely  distributed  throughout  the 
world.  The  European  gannefc  is 
common  around  the  British  coasts, 
and  nests  in  vast  numbers  on  the 
Bass  Rock  and  on  the  cliffs  in 
many  of  the  wilder  districts.  '  It 
is  almost  3  ft.  in  length,  and 


Gannet  or  Solan  Goose,  Sula 
bassana 

has  pure  white  plumage  with  the 
exception  of  some  black  feathers 
on  the  wings  and  a  slight  yellowish 
buff  tinge  on  the  head  and  neck. 

The  birds  assemble  in  great 
multitudes  in  the  early  spring  at 
their  nesting  sites,  and  construct 
a  small  heap  of  seaweed  and  grass 
on  the  bare  rock.  Only  one  egg  is 
laid,  and  the  female  sits  so  closely 
that  she  will  often  allow  herself 
to  be  touched  rather  than  leave 
the  nest.  She  generally  sits  with 
her  face  turned  towards  the  cliff. 
Gannets  work  havoc  in  the  herring 
and  pilchard  fisheries,  and  their 
flesh  is  rank. 

Ganoid.  Name  formerly  applied 
to  one  of  the  orders  of  fishes.  They 
are  characterised  by  the  possession 
of  cartilaginous  skeletons  and 
blight  bony  scales  on  the  skin. 
Most  of  the  earlier  fossil  fishes  were 
of  this  type,  and  the  few  still  exist- 
ing genera  include  the  sturgeon, 
American  gar  pike,  bowfinand  poly- 
pterus.  The  majority  of  them  are 
fresh-water  fish  ;  and  some,  like  the 
sturgeon,  attain  a  large  size.  The 
ganoids  were  formerly  regarded  by 
zoologists  as  forming  a  separate 
group  from  the  Teleostei  or  bony 


CANS 


3419 


GAPON 


Zeus  at  the  oeles- 
tial  banquets. 
Later,  he  was 
identified  with 
the  spirit  of  the 
sources  of  the 
Nile,  and  as  such 
was  placed  by 
astronomers 

fishes,  but  a  more  complete  study     among  the  constellations  as  Aquar- 

of  the  fossil  forms  has  shown  so 

many  intermediate  types  that  the 

two  groups  are  now  classed  together 

belonged   to   a 


Ganoid.     The  American  bowfin,  one  of  the  Ganoid  family 


in  the  sub -class  Teleostomi,  or  end 
mouthed  fishes,  and  the  term 
Ganoidei  is  practically  obsolete. 
See  Sturgeon. 

Gans,  EDUARD  (1797-1839). 
German  jurist.  Bora  at  Berlin 
March  22,  1797,  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  law  at  Berlin  University  in 
1825.  A  man  of  wide  culture  and 
liberal  views,  his  great  work  on 
the  world  development  of  inherit- 
ance law  appeared  in  1824-35, 
others  being  The  System  of  Roman 
Civil  Law,  1827,  and  The  Basis  of 
Property,  1 839.  He  died  May  5, 1839. 

Gantang.  Mt.  pass  of  the 
Punjab,  India,  in  Bashahr  state. 
It  leads  over  the  Indian  boundary 
into  Tibet  in  lat.  31°  40'  N.,  long. 
78°  46'  E.,  reaching  an  alt.  of 
18,295  ft.  amid  perpetual  snow. 

Gantok.  Chief  town  of  Sikkim, 
an  Indian  state  in  the  Himalayas. 
It  stands  among  the  mts.  40  m. 
N.E.  of  Darjeeling.  The  inhabitants 
are  allied  to  the  Tibetans  and  are 
Buddhists. 

Gantry  (Lat.  cantherius,  trellis, 
framework).  In  engineering,  an 
overhead  traveller,  but  lighter  in 
construction  and  of  a  lifting  power 
usually  not  exceeding  about  15 
tons.  Used  for  a  variety  of  pur- 
poses, such  as  excavation,  coal 
handling,  and  bridge  erection,  gan- 
tries are  provided  with  a  crab  and 
lifting  apparatus.  A  gantry  crane 
is  a  crane  mounted  upon  a  high 
travelling  staging^  under  which 
vehicles  such  as  railway  rolling 
stock  may  pass.  See  Derrick. 

Ganyxnedes  OR  GANYMEDE.  In 
Greek  mythology,  a  Phrygian 
youth.  He  was  carried  off  to  heaven 
by  an  eagle,  or  by  Zeus  in  the  form 
of  an  eagle,  to  be  the  cup-bearer  of 


ius  or  the  water-carrier. 

Ganz,  WILHELM  (1833-1914). 
German  musician.  Born  at  Mainz, 
Nov.  6,  1833,  he 


Wilhelm  Ganz, 
German  musician 


Gantry. 


Brown  hoisting  gantry  for  loading,  unloading, 
and  stacking  coal  and  other  minerals 


musical  family. 
In  1850  he 
settled  in  Lon- 
don, where  he 
became  accom- 
panist to  Jenny 
Lind,  and  from 
1874-82  con- 
ducted the 
New  Philhar- 
monic and 
Ganz's  orches- 
Rmseii  tral  concertSi 

He  acted  as  accompanist  to  other 
great  singers,  and  was  professor 
of  singing  at  the  Guildhall  School 
of  Music.  Ganz  died  Sept.  12, 
1914. 

Gaol  OR  JAIL.  Place  of 
confinement  for  criminals  and 
offenders  generally.  Hence  come 
the  words  gaoler,  a  keeper  of 
prisons,  and  gaol  bird,  a  slang  term 
for  an  habitual  criminal.  See 
Prison. 

Gap.  In  aeronautics,  the  space 
between  the  upper  and  lower  wings 
of  a  biplane  or  multiplane. 

Gap.  Town  of  France,  capital 
of  the  dept.  of  Hautes-Alpes.  It 
stands  on  the  Luye,  48  m.  S.S.E. 
of  Grenoble.  It  has  a  modern 
cathedral  and  in  the  prefecture  is 
a  valuable  collection  of  manu- 
scripts, as  well  as  a  museum. 
Another  building  is  the  bishop's 
palace.  It  has  some  small  manu- 
factures. Gap  was  a  Roman  settle- 
ment, and  in  the  Middle  Ages  was 
chiefly  famous  as  the  seat  of  a 
powerful  bishop. 

Gapes.  Common  disease  in 
poultry  affecting  young  chickens, 
in  which  it  produces  a  heavy  mor- 
tality. It  is  due  to  the  presence  of 
a  worm,  which  is 
found  sometimes 
:  in  great  numbers 
in  the  windpipe 
of  the  chicken, 
causing  great 
irritation  and 
weakness  conse- 
quent upon  efforts 
to  expectorate  the 
parasite.  Actual 
suffocation  may 
occur.  The 
ground  becomes 
infected  by  the 


Ganymedes  carried  off  by  the  eagle  of 
Zeus,  as  painted  by  Correggio 

Imperial  Gallery,  Vienna 

eggs  of  the  worm  being  scattered 
in  all  directions.  The  poultry  are 
noticed  to  be  gaping,  sneezing, 
running  backwards,  and  finally  to 
be  greatly  exhausted.  Attention 
should  be  paid  to  the  food  and 
water,  and  then  to  the  affected 
ground.  The  chickens  should  be 
put  upon  a  fresh  run,  dressed  with 
lime.  See  Poultry. 

Gapon,  GEORGE  (c.  1870-1906). 
Russian  labour  leader.  Born  of  a 
peasant  family  at  Biliki,  a  village 
in  Poltava,  S.  BH^^BHB^^^H 
Russia,  he 
gained  his  first 
impressions  of 
social  injustice 
from  his  father. 
an  official  of 
the  group  of 
communes. 
Trained  for  the 


came  under  the  influence  of 
Tolstoi's  writings.  Becoming  a 
priest,  he  moved  to  St.  Petersburg. 
Contact  with  the  daily  life  of  the 
poor  convinced  him  that  labour 
organization  was  needed  to  secure 
improved  conditions,  and  the  St. 
Petersburg  Factory  Workers'  So- 
ciety, founded  in  April,  1904,  was 
soon  followed  by  similar  societies. 


CSARABIT 


3420 


CARD 


In  Dec.,  1904,  Gapon  started  a 
propaganda  movement  in  favour  of 
a  general  strike  to  enforce  the 
demands  of  labour,  and  on  Jan.  15, 
1905,  12,000  hands  at  the  Putiloff 
works  came  out.  The  strike  spread, 
and  when  an  attempt  was  made  to 
present  a  petition  at  the  Winter 
Palace  by  an  unarmed  crowd 
Gapon  was  one  of  the  leaders.  He 
escaped  the  massacre  at  the  Narva 
Bridge  (Jan.  22),  and  crossed  the 
frontier,  subsequently  visiting  Swit- 
zerland, Paris,  and  London.  ^On 
April  14,  1906,  his  dead  body 'was 
discovered  in  a  villa  not  far  from 
St.  Petersburg,  the  suggestion  being 
that  he  had  been  assassinated  by 
a  secret  revolutionary  tribunal  as 
an  inf  ormer  and  traitor  to  the  cause. 
See  his  Story  of  my  Life,  1905. 

Garabit.  Town  of  France  in 
the  dept.  of  Cantal.  It  is  81  m. 
by  rly.  from  Clermont-Ferrand, 
and  is  known  on  account  of 
the  remarkable  viaduct  by  which, 
near  here,  the  railway  crosses  the 
Truyere.  Built  in  1881-84,  this 
is  620  yds.  long  and  400  ft.  high, 
with  a  central  span  of  540  ft. 

Garage  (Fr.  garer,  to  shelter). 
French  word,  introduced  into 
English  in  the  19th  century,  de- 
noting an  establishment  for  the 
housing,  repairing,  and  general  up- 
keep of  motor-vehicles.  The  term 
was  used  in  France,  before  motors 
became  general,  for  the  safe  stor- 
age of  boats,  rolling  stock,  etc., 
and  for  the  place  of  such  storage. 
See  Motor-Car. 

Garay,  JANOS  (1812-53).  Hun- 
garian poet.  Born  at  Szegszard, 
Oct.  10,  1812,  he  was  educated  at 
Pest,  where  he  was  professor  of 
Hungarian  language  and  literature, 
1848-49.  Among  his  works  are 
Arpadok,  a  book  of  ballads,  1847  ; 
Arbocz,  1837;  and  Bathori  Erzse- 
bet,  1840;  dramas;  and  Szent 
Laszlo,  a  long  poem  describing 
the  life  of  S.  Ladislaus,  1852.  He 
died  Nov.  5,  1853. 

Garay,  JUAN  DE  (1541-84). 
Spanish  soldier.  Having  settled  in 
Paraguay,  Garay  attained  a  lead- 
ing position  there,  and  in  1573 
founded  the  city  of  Santa  Fe  de 
Vera  Cruz.  As  governor  of  Para- 
guay he  conducted  wars  against  the 
natives,  and  in  1580  founded 
Buenos  Aires,  on  the  site  of  the 
older  settlement  called  Mendoza. 
He  was  killed  by  Indians. 

Garbage.  Term  chiefly  used 
for  kitchen  waste  from  the  pre- 
paration of  food.  It  is  a  word 
more  frequently  used  in  U.S.A. 
than  elsewhere  for  refuse  of  all 
kinds.  See  Refuse ;  Sewage. 

Garborg,  AKNE  (b.  1851). 
Norwegian  author.  Born  Jan.  25, 
1851,  he  was  trained  as  a  teacher, 
and  in  1873  went  to  Christiania 


university.  There  he  became 
known  as  a  writer  and  critic,  his 
essays,  mostly  on  religious  or 
ethical  questions,  being  published 
in  Aftenbladet,  and  other  papers. 
In  1877  he  founded  Fedraheimen, 
a  periodical  published  in  dialect, 
which  he  edited  until  1882.  His 
first  book,  A  Year  of  Free-thought, 
1881,  aroused  great  interest ;  it 
had  previously  appeared  anony- 
mously in  Fedraheimen.  His 
dialect  stories,  Peasant  Students, 
1883;  Tales  and  Legends,  1884; 
Menfolk, 
1886;  At 
Home  with 
Mother,  1890; 
and  Weary 
Folk,  1891, 
placed  him  in 
the  front  rank 
of  Norwegian 
authors. 
Garcia, 

C  A  L  I  X  T  O 

(1836  -98). 
Cuban  pa- 
triot. Born 
at  Holguin, 
Cuba,  Oct.  14, 
1836,  he  early 
took  part  in 
insurrections 
against  Span- 
ish rule.  In 
1880  he  was 
c&ptured,  and 
imprisoned  in 
Spain.  In  1895  he  escaped  to  Paris 
and  thence  to  Cuba,  where  he  at 
once  joined  in  the  rebellion  then 
going  on,  and  won  several  notable 
victories.  In  1898  he  commanded 
a  body  of  his  compatriots  in  the 
Spanish-American  war,  and  died  in 
Washington  while  on  a  mission  to 
President  McKinley,  Dec.  11,  1898. 
Garcia,  MANUEL  DEL  P6roLo 
VICENTE  (1775-1832).  Spanish 
singer  and  composer.  Born  at 
Seville,  Jan. 
22,  1775,  he 
was  a  chorister 
in  the  cathe- 
dral there,  and 
soon  made 
himself  known 
a  s  composer, 
conductor, 
singer,  and 
Manuel  Garcia,  actor.  In  1808 
Spanish  singer  he  became  the 

leading  tenor  in  the  Italian  opera 
in  Paris,  and  in  1812  in  the  royal 
chapel  at  Naples.  After  singing  in 
London  and  Paris  he  went  to  New 
York,  where,  in  1825,  he  estab- 
lished himself  with  a  company  at 
the  Park  Theatre.  He  toured  in 
Mexico  and,  returning  to  Europe, 
opened  a  school  of  singing  in 
London,  and  also  taught  in  Paris. 
Garcia  composed  many  operas, 


including  The  Caliph  of  Bagdad, 
1812  ;  and  The  Death  of  Tasso, 
1821.  He  died  June  2,  1832.  His 
daughters,  Mmes.  Malibran  and 
Viardot,  became  famous  singers. 

His  son  Manuel  (1805-1906),  a 
noted  teacher  of  singing,  for  many 
years  professor  at  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Music,  made  a  scien- 
tific study  of  the  vocal  organs,  one 
result  of  which  was  his  invention  of 
the  laryngoscope.  He  died  on 
July  1,  1906. 

Manuel's  son,  Gustav  (b.  1837), 
had  a  successful  operatic  career  in 
Europe  and  in  England,  making 
his  debut  in  Donizetti's  Don  Se- 
bastiano  at  La  Scala,  in  1862.  In 
1880  he  settled  in  England  as  a 
teacher,  and  was  for  some  years 
professor  at  the  R.A.M..  and  after- 
wards at  the  Royal  College  of 
Music  and  the  Guildhall  School  of 
Music  simultaneously.  He  retired 
in  1911.  His  son  Albert  also  adopted 
a  musical  career  as  baritone  singer 
and  teacher.  He  made  his  debut  in 
1902,  and  is  professor  at  the  Guild- 
hall School  of  Music  and  the  R.  A.M. 

Garcilaso  de  la  Vega  (1503- 
36).  Spanish  poet.  A  native  of 
Toledo,  he  fought  in  the  army  of 
Charles  V  in  Austria  and  Tunisia, 
and  died  at  Nice  from  wounds  re- 
ceived in  action,  Oct.  14,  1536. 
'His  poems,  chiefly  sonnets  or 
eclogues  written  on  Italian  models, 
were  highly  esteemed,  and  strongly 
influenced  his  generation.  Cer- 
vantes called  him  "  the  Prince  of 
Poets."  Works,  Eng.  trans,  with 
Life,  J.  W.  Wiffen,  1823. 

Garcilaso  de  la  Vega,  SE- 
BASTIAN (1495-1559).  Spanish 
soldier.  Known  generally  as  Laso 
de  la  Vega  y  Vargas,  he  went  from 
Spain  to  serve  under  Hernando 
Cortes  in  Mexico.  Later  he  went  to 
Guatemala,  and  thence  to  Peru, 
where  he  settled,  becoming  gov- 
ernor of  Cuzco.  His  son  (1540- 
1616)  wrote  Royal  Commentaries 
of  Peru,  1609-17. 

Gard.  Dept.  of  France.  In  the 
S.E.,  it  formed  part  of  Languedoc. 
Its  eastern  boundary  is  the  Rhone, 
and  in  the  S.  it  borders  the  Med- 
iterranean. Area,  2,270  sq.  m.  It 
consists  of  three  districts,  one 
covered  by  the  Cevennes  in  the  N., 
with  beautiful  mountain  scenery 
and  fruitful  valleys  ;  another  called 
the  Garrigues  in  the  centre,  where 
wheat,  oats,  vines,  and  olives  are 
grown  ;  and  a  marshy  region  in  the 
S.  Other  industries  are  the  rearing 
of  cattle,  horses,  and  sheep,  and 
the  culture  of  silkworms.  Minerals 
include  salt  obtained  from  the 
marshes..  Quarrying  and  fishing 
are  also  carried  on.  Nimes  is  the 
capital ;  other  places  are  Alais  and 
Aigues-Mortes,  while  Le  Vigan. 
although  small,  is  worthy  of 


GARDA 


3421 


GARDEN  AND  GARDENING 


GARDEN 


Garda.    Fishermen  on  the  lake,  the  largest  lake  in  Italy 


mention.  The  Pont  du  Card  is  a 
Roman  aqueduct  crossing  the 
Gard,  near  Remuulins.  The  dept. 
takes  its  name  from  the  Gard,  or 
Gardon,  a  tributary  of  the  Rhone ; 
other  rivers  are  the  Ceze  and  the 
Herault.  Pop.  413,458. 

Garda,  LAGO  m  (Lat.  Lacus 
Benacus).  Lake  of  Italy.  It  is  the 
easternmost  and  largest  of  the 
Italian  lakes,  and  lies  between 
Lombardy  and  Venetia,  running  a 
few  miles  into  Tirol.  Some  34  m. 
long  and  from  3  m.  to  10  m.  broad, 
with  a  maximum  depth  of  1,900  ft., 
it  has  an  area  of  about  180  sq.  m. 
It  is  fed  by  the  Sarca  and  drained  by 
the  Mincio.  Mountainous  on  the  N. 
and  E.,  the  shores  slope  gently  to 
the  S.,  and  on  the  W,  where  the 
climate  is  favourable,  figs  and 
grapes  flourish.  This  part,  called 
La  Riviera,  is  lined  with  charming 
villas.  The  beautiful  promontory 
of  Sermione,  between  Peschiera 
and  Desenzano,  has  many  remains 
of  Roman  and  later  buildings. 

Gardariki.  Name  of  a  region  in 
Russia.  Situated  E.  of  the  Baltic 
Sea,  according  to  the  medieval 
migration  sagas,  it  was  colonised 
by  Odin,  who  made  one  of  his 
brothers  king,  before  going  to 
Scandinavia. 

Gardelegen.  Town  of  Germany, 
in  Prussian  Saxony.  It  is  situated 
on  the  Milde,  25  m.  W.  by  S.  of 
Stendal.  It  came  into  prominence 
during  the  Great  War  on  account 
of  its  prisoners-of-war  camp.  This 
was  about  1$  m.  from  Gardelegen 
station  on  the  rly.  between  Berlin 
and  Hanover,  and  covered  an  area 
of  about  350  by  550  yds.,  divided 
into  eight  compounds,  each  con- 
taining eight  huts. 

The  camp  became  notorious  bv 
reason  of  an  epidemic  which  broke 
out  there  in  Feb.,  1915,  when  it 
contained  about  11,000  prisoners, 
French,  Russian,  Belgians,  and  260 
British.  The  nationalities  were 
mixed  up,  so  that  80  was  the  great- 


Germans  in  their 
treatment  of  the 
prisoners.  There 
was  only  one 
stand-pipe  for 
1 ,200  men  to  wash 
by,  and  the  great 
majority  of  the 
prisoners  were  in- 
fected with  ver- 
min. A  few  pri- 
soners, suffering 
from  typhus,  were 
introduced  into 
the  crowded  camp. 
In  Feb.,  1915, 
the  Germans 
brought  two 
medical  officers  to  the  camp,  with 
a  small  band  of  French  and  Rus- 
sian doctors,  to  release  and  save 
their  own  staff.  In  this  month 
they  removed  all  the  guards  and 
their  own  medical  officers,  leaving 
the  prisoners  to  their  own  fate. 
The  latter  suffered  from 


client  supplies  of  food  and  stores. 
Major  P.  C.  T.  Davy  and  Dr.  Saint 
Hilaire,  the  senior  allied  medical 
officers,  asked  for  drugs  and  milk, 
but  the  German  command  did 
nothing.  Eventually  some  milk 
was  obtained  by  paying  a  German 
non-commissioned  officer  a  com- 
mission to  induce  him  to  purchase 
it  at  the  cost  of  the  British  and 
French  doctors.  The  pestilence 
lasted  four  months,  and  in  that 
time  there  were  2,000  cases. 
Fortunately  the  disease  was  of  a 
mild  type,  but  15  per  cent,  of  those 
attacked  died.  This  example  of 
German  brutality  was  laid  bare 
in  the  report  by  the  British  Govern- 
ment committee  on  the  treat- 
ment by  the  enemy  of  British 
prisoners  of  war,  issued  as  a 
White  Paper  (Cd.  8,351),  Oct.  24, 
1916.  For  his  devotion  to  duty 
Major  Davy  was  awarded  the 
C.M.G.  See  Prisoners  of  War; 
Wittenberg. 

AND    GARDENING 

H.  Havart,  Author  of  The  Back  Garden  Beautiful 

The  information  given  herein  is  supplemented  by  the  articles  on  the 

various  flowers  and  plants  grown  in  gardens,  e.g.  Dahlia  ;  Gardenia  ; 

Flower;  Lobelia ;  Rose ;  Cauliflower;  Potato.     See  also  Annuals ; 

Greenhouse ;  Market  Gardening 


Garden  comes  from  a  Teutonic 
word  meaning  an  enclosure,  and  is 
akin  to  the  less  familiar  garth.  Its 
present  meaning  is  that  of  a  piece 
of  enclosed  ground,  wherein  flowers, 
shrubs,  fruit,  and  vegetables  are 
grown.  There  are  two  main 
divisions  of  gardens,  ornamental 
and  useful,  many  of  the  latter  being 
known  as  market  gardens.  Orna- 
mental or  flower  gardens  are  classi- 
fied according  to  the  way  in  which 
they  are  laid  out,  e.g.  in  the  Dutch 
or  Italian  style,  or  according  to  what 
flowers  and  shrubs  they  contain, 
e.g.  a  rose  garden.  Public  places  of 
amusement,  which  are  ornamented 
with  flowers  and  shrubs,  are  some- 
times called  gardens,  e.g.  the  old 
Cremorne  Gardens,  in  London,  and 
there  are  zoological  gardens  and 
botanical  gardens.  Rows  of  houses, 
especially  in  the  west  of  London, 
are  sometimes  known  as  gardens. 

Gardening  is  the  practice  and 
development  of  plant  cultivation 
which  results  in  the  production  of 
the  best  and  choicest  forms  of 
flowers,  fruit,  and  vegetables.  Ac- 
cording to  Strabo,  the  first  sys- 
tematic attempts  at  horticulture 
in  Britain  were  due  to  the  Romans. 
Probably,  however,  the  so-called 
gardens  were  merely  patches  of 
ground  cleared  and  cultivated  with 
fruits  and  vegetables,  in  which 
little  attempt  at  floriculture,  or 
colour  effect,  was  made. 


that  there  was  no  lack  of  material. 
A  writer  of  the  12th  century  thus 
describes  the  desirable  contents  of 
a  garden.  "  It  should  be  adorned 
on  this  side  with  roses,  lilies,  and 
the  marigold  ;  on  that  side  with 
parsley,  cost,  fennel,  southern- 
wood, coriander,  sage,  savary,  hys- 
sop, mint,  vine,  dettany,  pellitory, 
lettuce,  cresses,  and  the  peony. 
Let  there  be  beds  enriched  with 
onions,  leeks,  garlic,  mellons,  and 
scallions.  The  garden  is  also  en- 
riched by  the  cucumber,  the  sopor- 
iferous  poppy,  and  the  daffodil, 
and  the  acanthus.  Nor  let  pot- 
herbs be  wanting,  as  beetroot, 
sorrel,  and  mallow.  It  is  useful 
also  to  the  gardener  to  have  anice, 
mustard,  and  wormwood.  A  noble 
garden  will  give  you  medlars, 
quinces,  the  pearmain,  peaches, 
pears  of  St.  Regie,  pomegranates, 
citrons,  oranges,  almonds,  dates, 
and  figs."  Many  of  the  subjects  are 
unidentifiable  with  the  familiar 
flowers  and  fruits  known  by  their 
name  to-day. 

Until  the  16th  century,  most  of 
the  practical  horticulture  of  Britain 
was  in  the  hands  of  the  monks,  who 
were  chiefly  concerned  with  the 
culture  of  fruit  and  vegetables  for 
the  table,  and  of  medicinal  herbs, 
rather  than  of  flowers.  In  1510 
the  earl  of  Northumberland,  in  an 
establishment  of  over  150  persons, 
boasted  only  one  gardener,  who 


est  number  of  British  in  one  com-  The  first  park  in  England  was  was  paid  by  the  hour.  Gardening 
pound.  The  greatest  callousness  made  by  Henry  I,  at  Woodstock,  but  made  rapid  strides  hi  the  latter 
and  cowardice  was  shown  by  the  progress  was  slow,  despite  the  fact  half  of  the  16th  century,  and  the 


GARDEN  AND  GARDENING 


3422 


GARDEN  AND  GARDENING 


Tudor  gardens  of  that  period, 
blended  with  the  Dutch  introduc- 
tion of  a  century  later,  form,  per- 
haps, the  basis  of  modem  horti- 
culture. The  Dutch,  or  formal, 
style  of  garden  was  much  in  evi- 
dence until  the  mid-Victorian  era, 
when  William  Robinson  and  other 
practical  gardeners  started  a  vigor- 
ous campaign  in  favour  of  a  less  re- 
strained and  more  natural  arrange- 
ment of  trees,  shrubs,  and  flowers. 
The  ultimate  result  has  been  a 
modification  in  the  art  of  garden 
planning.  To-day  the  best-arranged 
gardens  have  formal  beds  and  bor- 
ders near  the  house,  and  gradually 
fade  away  into  irregularity  as 
thejr  mingle  with  the  landscape. 

COMPONENT  PARTS  OF  A  GARDEN. 
According  to  modern  usage  the 
complete  garden  should  include  an 
exotic  house,  a  temperate  house, 
and  a  cool  greenhouse.  In  addi- 
tion, there  should  be  one  or  two 
houses  for  the  cultivation  of  such 
things  as  grapes  and  tomatoes, 
supplemented  by  a  number  of 
cold  frames.  The  outdoor  arrange- 
ments should  provide  for  a  tennis 
lawn  or  bowling  green,  formal 
beds  and  borders  near  the  house, 
rock  garden,  wild  garden,  water 
garden,  kitchen  garden,  and  shrub- 
bery. Of  gardens  within  gardens 
the  rose  garden  is  the  most  popu- 
lar form,  but  the  vast  range  of 
possibilities  is  shown  by  the  late 
Leopold  de  Rothschild's  Japan- 
ese garden  at  Gunnersbury  House, 
in  which  all  the  inhabitants  are 
Japanese  plants,  and  Memory's 
garden,  where  each  flower  is  said 
to  have  been  planted  for  the 
countess  of  Warwick  by  a  per- 
sonal friend.  In  the  garden  of  what 
was  The  Rookery,  now  an  addition 
to  Streatham  Common,  London, 
is  a  white  garden,  where  every 
blossom  is  of  that  colour.  The 
Golders  Green  extension  to  Hamp- 
stead  Heath,  the  residence  of  the 
late  Sir  Spencer  Wells,  has  a 
Shakespearean  garden,  every  in- 
habitant of  which  is  mentioned  in 
the  works  of  the  poet. 

The  Villa  Garden 

In  gardens .  of  moderate  dimen- 
sions, and  with  a  view  to  the  most 
economical  employment  of  the 
ground,  the  water  garden,  the 
wild  garden,  the  tropical  house, 
and  the  rock  garden  may  be  dis- 
pensed with,  in  the  order  named, 
the  result  being  what  is  techni- 
cally known  as  a  villa  garden. 
When  planning  gardens  of  still 
more*mode8t  dimensions,  the  lawn 
as  a  playground  disappears,  and 
its  surface  is  cut  up  and  studded 
with  flower  beds,  the  shrubbery  is 
dispersed,  and  shrubs  grown  only 
as  specimens.  As  far  as  glass  is 
concerned,  one  heated  house,  sup- 


plemented by  cold  frames,  must 
do  all  that  is  necessary.  Speak- 
ing generally,  it  is  more  profitable 
to  grow  vegetables  than  fruit  in  a 
small  garden.  The  small  back 
garden  of  the  suburban  house  gives 
the  best  results  if  devoted  entirely 
to  the  culture  of  flowers,  unless 
it  is  over  50  ft.  or  60  ft.  in  length, 
when  a  small  part  may  be  used  for 
easily  grown  vegetable  crops. 
The  Ideal  Aspect 

Many  otherwise  good  houses 
have  bad  gardens  for  the  reason 
that  the  builders  have  indifferent 
ideas,  or  none,  concerning  horti- 
culture. The  nature  of  the  ground 
and  the  direction  of  the  prevailing 
winds  have  to  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration, but  the  ideal  site  for  a 
garden  is  one  which  slopes  gently 
in  a  S.  or  S.W.  direction.  The 
pleasure  space  should  be  relegated 
to  the  E.,  or  the  least  favourable 
position.  Such  games  as  tennis, 
bowls,  and  croquet  are  played  only 
in  the  summer  months,  and  it  is  a 
waste  of  space  to  place  a  pleasure 
lawn  in  a  favoured  position.  Dean 
Hole  says  that,  supposing  the 
front  of  the  house  to  have  a  S. 
aspect,  he  would  place  his  garden 
for  the  general  cultivation  of  trees, 
shrubs,  and  flowers  on  the  E.  side, 
and  arrange  upon  the  W.  side  the 
smaller  gardens  for  special  collec- 
tions of  distinct  varieties,  such  as 
the  rose  garden,  the  rock  garden, 
the  water  garden,  and  the  fernery. 

THE  FORMAL  GARDEN.  This  is 
a  combination  of  the  old  Dutch 
system  of  gardening  with  the  early 
and  mid-Victorian  fashion  of  car- 
pet bedding.  It  is  usually  nearest 
to  the  house,  and  is  planned  more 
or  less  geometrically.  Where  it  is 
found  necessary  to  terrace  the 
land,  the  formal  bedding  is  usually 
installed  upon  that  terrace.  It  is 
a  great  mistake,  however,  to  con- 
struct a  terrace  merely  for  the 
sake  of  having  a  formal  garden,  as 
such  a  plan  necessitates  the  em- 
ployment of  a  considerable  quan- 
tity of  brick  or  stone,  neither  of 
which  is  needed  in  a  garden  of 
living  plants,  except  in  the  rock 
garden.  Except  for  an  occasional 
stone  or  rustic  wooden  seat  or  sun- 
dial.the fewer  manufactured  articles 
in  a  garden  the  better.  By  judicious 
management,  formal  beds  will 
present  a  blaze  of  colour  and 
beauty  for  about  nine  months  out 
of  the  twelve.  The  earliest  effects 
are  afforded  by  the  crocus  and  snow- 
drop, from  Feb.  onwards.  These  are 
followed  by  narcissi  and  daffodils, 
wall-flowers,  forget-me-nots,  and 
other  subjects,  including  the  early 
tulips.  Afterwards,  later  tulips  and 
iris  give  way  to  summer  bedding 
plants,  to  be  followed  by  asters, 
dahlias,  and  open-air  chrysanthe- 


mums, until  the  frosts  render  the 
existence  of  anything  but  dwarf 
evergreens  impossible.  It  is  diffi- 
cult, except  at  a  wasteful  expendi- 
ture of  plant  life,  to  keep  all  the  beds 
in  a  formal  garden  at  the  zenith  of 
attractiveness  from  early  spring 
until  late  autumn.  Where,  how- 
ever, plenty  of  glasshouses  and 
cold  frames  are  available,  and  ex- 
pense is  a  secondary  consideration, 
it  may  be  done. 

THE  HOCK  GARDEN.  The 
primary  use  of  a  rock  garden  is  for 
the  establishment  and  collection  of 
plants  from  the  Alpine  and  other 
mountainous  districts  of  the  world. 
Rock  gardening  used  to  be-  one  of 
the  most  abused  forms  of  horti- 
culture, the  real  reason  for  its 
existence  being  either  ignored  or 
misunderstood.  Rock  plants,  in 
natural  conditions,  flourish  upon 
sunny  hillsides,  though,  at  the 
same  time,  they  are  moisture- 
loving  subjects.  The  rocks  or 
stones,  between  whose  crevices 
they  grow,  help  to  protect  the  soil 
underneath  from  the  rays  of  the 
sun,  and  therefore  conserve  the 
necessary  moisture  for  the  nourish- 
ment of  the  plants.  Hence,  in 
order  to  make  a  good  rock  garden, 
it  is  necessary  that  the  stones  or 
rocks  should,  for  the  most  part, 
be  placed  horizontally  upon  the 
ground,  or,  at  all  events,  at  such 
an  angle  as  will  afford  the  maxi- 
mum amount  of  shade  to  the 
Alpine  plants.  Vulgar  fashion  has 
attempted  to  make  an  attractive 
display  of  the  rocks  or  stones, 
giving  a  result  like  a  Liliputian 
cemetery  or  a  miniature  Stone- 
henge,  entirely  ignoring  the  welfare 
of  its  living  inhabitants.  It  is  the 
arrangement  of  the  plants,  and  not 
of  the  stones,  that  makes  a  good 
rock  garden. 

THE  WATER  GARDEN.  This 
popular  feature  in  large  gardens 
is  one  which  can  be  most  easily 
dispensed  with. 

Essentials  of  the  Water  Garden 

The  situation  of  the  water  garden 
is  naturally  at  the  lowest  level  of 
the  garden,  where  it  automati- 
cally receives  the  drainage  from 
the  other  parts  of  the  place.  The 
secret  of  success  is  so  to  arrange 
things  that  the  flow  of  water  is  as 
gentle  as  possible.  Most  water 
flowers,  including  lilies,  nuphars  and 
the  like,  thrive  best  in  water  which, 
although  not  stagnant,  possesses 
only  a  gentle  motion.  Therefore, 
where  a  good  collection  of  water 
plants  is  desired,  artificial  waterfalls 
and  fountains  must  be  avoided. 

THE  WILD  GARDEN.  The  theory 
of  the  wild  garden  is  to  place  per- 
fectly  hardy  exotic  plants  in  situa- 
tions where  they  will  take  care  of 
themselves.  Actually  the  wild 


GARDEN:    DOMESTIC    AND    LANDSCAPE    STYLES    OF    BRITISH    GARDENS 


GARDEN  AND  GARDENING 


3424 


GARDEN  AND  GARDENING 


garden  is  the  coupling  area  be- 
tween cultivated  garden  and  wood- 
land or  park.  Its  aim  is  to  furnish  a 
connecting  link  between  nature 
and  culture,  and  it  is  seldom  a 
success.  The  wild  garden  had  its 
vogue  at  the  end  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury, and  although  it  still  exists  in 
many  country  seats  of  considerable 
dimensions,  and  is  very  beautiful 
if  properly  arranged,  it  too  often 
serves  as  an  excuse  for  idleness  and 
untidiness. 

THE  KITCHEN  GARDEN.  This  is 
that  portion  of  the  garden  devoted 
to  the  culture  of  fruit  and  vege- 
tables. It  should,  if  possible,  have 
a  S.  or  W.  aspect,  but  where  this  is 
not  possible  protection  from  N. 
winds  should  be  furnished  by  a 
wall  or  fence.  Excellent  fruit  has 
been  grown  in  unfavourable  situa- 
tions by  the  erection  of  a  wall 
fashioned  in  the  shape  of  a  horse- 
shoe, with  its  convex  directed  N.E. 
Area  Required 

To  make  the  kitchen  garden  a 
commercial  proposition  it  should 
be  apportioned  at  the  rate  of  one 
acre  of  ground  for  every  four 
persons,  taking  the  cost  of  labour 
as  normal.  A  kitchen  garden  should 
always  be  walled  or  fenced.  The 
dividing  hedge  between  the  kitchen 
garden  and  the  flower  garden  has 
no  justification  except  from  a 
picturesque  point  of  view.  It  robs 
the  soil  of  much  nourishment,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  displaces  a  wall 
or  fence  which  would  afford  shelter 
to  a  considerable  number  of  fruit 
trees.  In  kitchen  gardens  fruit 
trees,  when  established  either  as 
standards,  bushes,  or  espaliers,  are 
left  undisturbed,  but  vegetable 
crops  on  each  particular  plot  of 
land  should  be  varied  year  by  year. 

Before  planting  any  part  of  a 
garden,  it  is  necessary  that  the 
combination  of  colour  and  the 
variations  of  height  which  will 
result  from  the  plants  established 
should  be  considered  from  every 
point  of  view.  It  is  wise  to  map 
out  on  paper  a  scheme  of  colour 
beforehand.  In  any  case  results 
must  not  be  expected  until  at 
least  six  months  have  passed,  ex- 
cept in  the  case  of  annuals. 

DRIVES  AND  PATHS.  In  all 
gardens  of  considerable  dimensions 
a  carriage  drive  of  generous  width 
is  necessary.  Apart  from  this, 
superfluous  paths  and  drives  are  a 
mistake.  Before  definitely  laying 
out  a  garden  it  is  wise  to  study  a 
surveyor's  plan  of  it,  and  draw 
pencil  lines  between  those  points 
which  it  is  thought  desirable  to 
connect.  A  straight  path  is  always 
the  best  path,  and  though,  owing  to 
inequalities  in  the  ground,  and  for 
other  reasons,  some  deviations  will 
be  found  necessary  in  most  cases, 


serpentine  paths  for  ornamental 
purposes  only  are  not  merely  old- 
fashioned,  but  also  waste  a  con- 
siderable area  which  might  be 
devoted  to  cultivation.  The  best 
material  of  which  to  construct 
drives  and  paths  is  gravel,  well 
rolled  and  weeded. 

Asphalt  is  unsightly  and  un- 
necessary in  private  gardens, 
though  the  heavy  traffic  in  public 
parks  sometimes  necessitates  its 
use.  Much  of  the  labour  formerly 
expended  in  weeding  gravel  paths 
can  be  obviated  by  the  judicious 
use  of  a  chemical  weed-killer. 
Grass  walks,  which  are  really  the 
natural  setting  for  flower  beds,  are 
excellent  in  fine  weather,  but,  unless 
perfectly  drained,  possess  disad- 
vantages during  and  after  rains, 
particularly  in  heavy  soils.  Walks 
composed  of  sandstone,  broken 
into  irregular  pieces,  and  arranged 
horizontally  upon  the  ground, 
with  mosses  and  creeping  plants 
between  the  crevices,  are  charming 
and  attractive  when  established. 
The  material,  however,  is  not 
always  easily  procurable. 

TREES  AND  SHRUBS.  In  large 
gardens  trees  and  shrubs  may  be 
planted  freely,  as  specimens,  or  in 
small  groups.  In  many  villa  and 
suburban  gardens,  however,  tree 
planting  is  carried  to  excess,  owing 
to  want  of  thought.  A  man  who 
plants  a  tree  never  lives  to  witness 
the  full  result  of  his  handiwork, 
and,  where  a  sapling  may  fit  into 
the  garden  scheme,  or  landscape, 
with  propriety,  the  full-grown  tree 
of  half  a  century  later  will  quite 
possibly  be  an  eyesore  or  even  a 
positive  danger. 

Tree  Planting 

A  healthy  tree  takes  much 
nourishment  from  the  soil,  with  the 
result  either  that  such  nourishment 
has  to  be  replaced  by  manures  and 
fertilisers,  at  considerable  expense, 
or  that  the  other  inhabitants  of  the 
garden  are  starved.  Moreover, 
large  trees  in  small  gardens  divert 
much  sun,  air,  and  moisture  which 
would  otherwise  be  showered  upon 
the  other  plants  alike ;  while  a 
large  tree  close  to  a  house  is  often 
a  positive  danger  and  a  menace  to 
health.  All  tree  planting  in 
gardens  should,  therefore,  be 
carried  out  with  the  utmost  dis- 
crimination, and  with  an  eye  to 
future  generations.  The  same 
remarks  apply,  to  a  lesser  extent, 
to  shrubs.  The  difficulty  is  more 
easily  removable  in  this  case,  as 
shrubs  do  not  attain  to  a  menacing 
height,  establish  themselves  far 
more  quickly,  and,  when  planted  in 
groups  or  masses,  can  be  thinned 
as  soon  as  they  begin  to  threaten 
the  welfare  of  their  neighbours. 


GARDENING  UNDER  GLASS.  Glass- 
houses are  of  three  different  shapes. 
The  lean-to,  the  simplest  form, 
merely  leans  against  a  high  wall, 
and,  as  a  consequence,  its  inhabi- 
tants can  only  enjoy  the  advan- 
tages of  the  full  rays  of  the  sun  for  a 
portion  of  the  day,  no  matter  in 
what  aspect  it  may  be  situated. 
Commercially  it  is  the  cheapest- 
form  of  glasshouse,  and,  for  this 
reason,  is  the  most  common.  The 
three-quarter  span  house  depends 
upon  a  wall  for  one  of  its  sides,  but 
has  a  short,  sloping  span  project- 
ing some  distance  from  it,  and 
affording  the  benefits  of  sunshine  to 
the  plants  within  for  a  longer 
period  of  the  day  than  the  lean-to. 
The  most  useful  but  the  most 
costly  form  of  glasshouse  is  the 
span,  which  stands  in  the  open 
ground  without  the  aid  or  protec- 
tion of  any  wall.  A  span-roofed 
glasshouse  placed  with  its  ridge 
pointing  N.  and  S.  will  enjoy  the 
sun's  rays  for  the  whole  of  the  day. 
Cleanliness  and  Pests 

Strict  cleanliness  is  necessary  in 
glasshouses,  especially  where  the 
plants  are  grown  in  pots,  and  not 
in  beds  or  borders  within  the  house 
itself.  These  pots  should  be 
periodically  scrubbed  and  the 
shelves  washed  over  once  a  fort- 
night, particular  attention  being 
paid  to  cracks  and  crevices  likely 
to  harbour  insect  pests.  These 
pests  can  be  eradicated  by  means 
of  various  insecticides  (q.v.),  but  it 
is  far  better  to  prevent  them  from 
obtaining  a  footing  in  a  glass- 
house. With  the  same  end  in  view, 
the  interior  of  a  house  should  be 
painted  annually  with  white  paint, 
preferably  during  June  or  July, 
when  the 'usefulness  of  the  structure 
is  at  its  minimum. 

THE  HERB  GARDEN.  Until  the 
outbreak  of  the  Great  War  few 
herbs  were  grown,  except  mint  and 
parsley,  in  Great  Britain,  the  sup- 
ply coming  chiefly  from  abroad. 
It  is  necessary  to  grow  herbs  in 
quantity,  on  a  market-gardening 
scale,  in  order  to  secure  a  pro- 
fitable crop,  but  a  writer  in  The 
Daily  Mail  enumerates  the  follow- 
ing varieties,  the  majority  of  which 
can  be  grown  easily  :  Some  medi- 
cinal herbs  are  wanted  entire, 
others  only  yield  medicine  in  their 
leaves,  roots,  or  flowers.  Among 
the  stalked  plants  we  put  the 
sweet  and  aromatic  herbs,  garden 
mint,  balm  and  marjoram,  tansy, 
agrimony,  sweet  woodruff,  clea- 
vers, meadow-sweet,  yarrow,  pink 
centaury,  and  feverfew  ;  also  the 
leaves  of  foxglove,  elder,  raspberry, 
comfrey,  and  buckbean.  The  petals 
of  red  roses  and  garden  marigolds, 
and  the  flowers  of  lime,  yellow 
mullein,  marshrhallow,  and  camo- 


GARDEN     CITY 


3425 


GARDEN     CITY 


mile  can  be  safely  collected,  as  also 
the  seeds  of  the  meadow  saffron 
or  autumn  flowering  crocus. 

GARDENING  AS  A  PROFESSION. 
No  industry  requiring  wide  know- 
ledge offers  fewer  prizes  than  that 
of  horticulture.  Practical  garden- 
ing is  the  study  of  a  lifetime.  The 
lad  who  wishes  to  become  a 
gardener  will  be  compelled  to  start 
at  the  age  of  fourteen  years  to  pull 
up  weeds,  push  the  lawn  mower, 
and  make  himself  generally  useful. 
The  successive  stages  in  his  career 
will  be  those  of  improver,  journey- 
man, foreman,  and  head,  when  his 
responsibilities  may  include  the 
disposal  of  the  services  of  thirty 
or  forty  men  and  boys. 

In  many  establishments  the 
head  gardener  is  permitted  to  sup- 
plement his  income  by  competing 
for  prizes  at  local  horticultural  ex- 
hibitions and  flower  shows.  This  is 
a  concession  of  doubtful  advantage 
from  the  employer's  point  of  view, 
inasmuch  as  there  is  a  natural 
tendency  on  the  part  of  the  gar- 
dener to  concentrate  his  attention 
upon  the  comparatively  small 
number  of  plants  from  which  he 
hopes  to  derive  personal  benefit, 
and  to  neglect  the  general  routine 
work  of  the  garden.  Before  a  gar- 
dener settles  down  into  what  he 
hopes  will  be  a  permanent  position, 
he  will  be  well  advised  to  have  held 
situations,  and  gained  experience 
in  different  parts  of  the  country. 
Though  the  general  rules  of  horti- 
culture apply  throughout  the 
greater  area  of  the  kingdom,  con- 
ditions in  extreme  latitudes  as,  for 
example,  the  N.  of  Scotland  and 
the  S.  of  Devon,  require  special 
knowledge  and  treatment. 

GARDEN  LITERATURE.  The  num- 
ber of  gardening  books  produced 
annually  is  gnormous,  but  few 
remain  standard  works  of  refer- 
ence for  many  years,  for  the  know- 


ledge of  horticulture  increases 
from  year  to  year.  One  old  classic, 
which  is  still  quoted  when  experts 
differ,  is  :  "  Paradisi  in  Sole  Para- 
disus  Terrestris.  A  garden  of  all 
sorts  of  pleasant  flowers  which  our 
English  ayre  will  permit  to  be 
noursed  up  :  with  a  kitchen  garden 
of  all  manner  of  herbes,  rootes,  and 
fruites,  for  meate  or  sauce  used 
with  us,  and  an  orchard  of  all  sorte 
of  fruitbearing  trees  and  shrubbes 
fit  for  our  land,  together  with  the 
rightorderinge,  planting,  and  pre- 
serving of  them  and  their  uses  and 
vertues,  collected  by  John  Parkin- 
son, apothecary  of  London,  1629." 
This  work  was  reprinted  in  1904. 
Practical  Knowledge  Essential 

No  theoretical  help  from  books 
is  as  good  as  practical  knowledge, 
supplemented  by  the  occasional 
courses  of  lectures  arranged  from 
time  to  time  by  the  various 
authorities  controlled  by  county 
councils  and  horticultural  insti- 
tutions. Many  of  these  institu- 
tions also  possess  useful  libraries. 
The  leading  nurserymen  of  the 
United  Kingdom  issue  annually 
to  customers  elaborate  illustrated 
catalogues  which  are  mines  of  in- 
formation, although,  naturally, 
such  information  is  prepared  with 
a  bias  towards  the  particular 
varieties inwhich  the  firm  specialise. 

Bibliography.  All  about  Garden- 
ing, S.  O.  Beeton,  new  ed.  1895  ; 
Handbooks  of  Practical  Gardening, 
ed.  H.  Roberts,  1901,  etc.  ;  The 
Century  Book  of  Gardening,  Ernest 
T.  Cook,  1903  ;  The  English  Flower 
Garden  and  Home  Grounds,  W. 
Robinson,  12th  ed.  1913  ;  The 
Encyclopaedia  of  Gardening,  T.  W. 
Sanders,  17th  ed.  1919.  Good 
periodical  publications  are  :  The 
Gardener's  Chronicle,  1841,  etc.  ; 
The  Gardener's  Magazine,  1865,  etc.; 
The  Garden,  1871,  etc.  ;  Gardening 
Illustrated,  1879,  etc.  Amateur 
Gardening  Annual  and  Year  Book, 
ed.  T.  W.  Sanders,  1912,  etc. 


GARDEN    CITIES  AND  THEIR   PROGRESS 

C.  B.  Purdom,  Garden  Cities  and  Town  Planning  Association 

Town  planning  is  complementary  to  the  above  article.     See  also 

Hampstcad  Garden  Suburb;   Letchworth,  etc.;  also  Architecture; 

Building  ;  Commons  ;  Hoivard,  Ebenezer  ;  etc. 


The  garden  city  movement  is 
concerned  with  the  improvement 
of  housing  conditions  and  the 
proper  planning  of  towns.  Its 
specific  aim  is  the  development  of 
new  industrial  towns  in  rural  dis- 
tricts, as  a  means  of  restoring  a 
balance  between  town  and  country. 
The  concentration  of  population  in 
great  towns,  and  the  depopulation 
of  rural  districts  is  characteristic 
of  all  countries  in  which  mechani- 
cal industry  has  been  developed. 

In  England  in  1851,  when  the  de- 
velopment of  industry-in  England 
was  far  advanced,  about  half  the 


population  lived  in  the  country 
and  half  in  the  towns;  between 
that  date  and  1911  the  population 
of  the  towns  increased  from  9  to 
over  28  millions,  while  the  rural 
population  declined  by  more  than 
a  million.  Industry  depends  upon 
a  certain  concentration  of  popula- 
tion ;  but  in  England,  as  else- 
where, the  process  has  gone  too 
far;  the  great  towns  have  out- 
grown their  efficiency,  and  the 
congeries  of  towns  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  London,  Manchester, 
and  Glasgow,  for  example,  present 
almost  insoluble  problems  of  local 


government,  traffic,  poverty,  and 
public  health. 

The  garden  city  movement  is 
the  first  serious  attempt  to  divert 
the  stream  of  population.  It  owes 
its  origin  to  Ebenezer  Howard's 
book  To-morrow  :  a  Peaceful  Path 
to  Social  Reform,  published  in  1898. 
The  essence  of  the  idea  was  the 
acquisition  of  large  tracts  of  land 
on  which  towns  could  be  planned 
with  full  industrial  facilities,  in 
order  that  manufacturers  might 
establish  themselves  and  their 
workpeople  under  healthy  and 
economical  conditions.  That  it 
was  practicable  to  establish  mech- 
anical industries  in  rural  surround- 
ings had  been  shown  many  times 
in  the  course  of  the  century,  the 
most  notable  example  being  Bourn- 
ville.  But  Howard  maintained 
that  the  best  results  could  only  be 
got  by  a  combination  of  manufac- 
turers in  a  scheme  large  enough  to 
possess  the  qualities  of  a  real  town. 
The  Rural  Belt 

There  were  two  other  important 
elements  in  the  scheme  ;  one  was 
that  the  land  values  created  by 
the  new  community  should  be 
employed  for  communal  purposes, 
meeting  municipal  expenditure 
normally  paid  out  of  rates  ;  the 
other  was  the  formation  of  closer 
relations  between  urban  and  rural 
life  by  the  retention  of  a  wide  belt 
of  agricultural  land  as  part  of  the 
garden  city  scheme,  the  town  not 
being  allowed  to  extend  beyond  a 
certain  maximum  ;  further  growth 
was  to  take  the  form  of  a  new  ur- 
ban nucleus  beyond  this  agricul- 
tural belt.  In  this  way  agriculture 
was  to  be  in  permanent  association 
with  the  social  life,  business  facili- 
ties, and  mechanical  equipment  of 
the  town.  In  a  national  system  of 
garden  city  development  urban 
centres  would  be  distributed  evenly 
throughout  the  country  to  the 
great  advantage  of  agriculture, 
and  with  far-reaching  effects  upon 
food  production  and  the  increase 
of  the  agricultural  population. 

The  first  attempt  to  build  a 
garden  city  was  made  in  1904 
when  Letchworth  Garden  City  was 
established.  Six  square  miles  of 
land  in  a  purely  agricultural  dis- 
trict in  Hertfordshire,  35  m.  from 
London,  was  bought  by  First 
Garden  City,  Ltd.,  a  joint  stock 
company.  On  this  land  a  town  of 
35,000  inhabitants  was  planned, 
with  industries,  houses,  shops, 
public  buildings,  etc.,  occupying 
about  two  square  miles,  with  a 
permanent  agricultural  belt  round 
it.  The  population  is  now  (1920) 
12,000,  with  about  40  factories.  The 
features  of  the  garden  city  as  ex- 
emplified at  Letchworth  are  that 
the  workers  have  good  houses, 

2A    4 


GARDEN     CITY 


342S 


GARDE     R^PUBLICAINE 


with  adequate  sunlight  and  air- 
space, gardens,  and  allotments ; 
the  factories  are  within  walking 
distance  ;  health  is  improved,  the 
infant  mortality  rate  being  30  per 
1,000  births  in  1918,  and  36  in  1917  ; 
there  are  good  shops  and  schools ; 
an  active  social  and  civic  life ; 
and  the  open  country  is  ten  min- 
utes walk  from  the  centre  of  the 
town.  The  industrial  features  are 
sufficient  space  in  a  specially 
planned  factory  area,  with  sidings, 
roads,  power,  etc.  ;  great  reduc- 
tion of  loss  of  time  among  work- 
men, and  healthy  buildings. 
Development  of  the  Scheme 

The  good  workmen's  housing 
carried  out  at  Letchworth  on  a 
basis  that  showed  a  fair  return 
upon  capital,  and  the  economies 
effected  in  estate  development 
were  recognized  as  great  advances, 
though  often  criticised  in  detail. 
The  result  was  a  powerful  impetus 
to  efforts  to  improve  housing  con- 
ditions throughout  the  country. 
The  garden  city  type  of  land  de- 
velopment became  widely  imitated 
and  a  large  number  of  schemes 
were  started  which  were  incor- 
rectly described  as  garden  cities. 

Public  attention  was  also  di- 
rected to  the  absence  of  town  plan- 
ning legislation  in  Great  Britain, 
and  as  a  consequence  the  Town 
Planning  Act  of  1909  was  passed, 
giving  local  authority  powers  over 
the  development  of  land.  Methods 
of  house  and  site  planning  are, 
however,  merely  incidental  to  the 
garden  city  movement,  while  the 
growth  of  suburbs  and  the  plan- 
ning of  large  housing  estates  on 
the  outskirts  of  great  towns  is  con- 
trary to  the  essential  principles  of 
this  movement. 

In  view  of  the  frequent  misuse 
of  the  term  garden  city,  the  Garden 
Cities  and  Town  Planning  Associa- 
tion, founded  1899,  has  adopted  a 
definition  to  which  all  schemes 
that  claim  the  name  should  be 
made  to  conform. 

A  garden  city  is  a  town  designed 
for  healthy  living  and  industry  ; 
of  a  size  that  makes  possible  a  full 
measure  of  social  life,  but  not 
larger  ;  surrounded  by  a  rural  belt ; 
the  whole  of  the  land  being  in 
public  ownership,  or  held  in  trust 
for  the  community. 

The  development  of  the  garden 
city  movement  is  now  in  the  direc- 
tion of  satellite  towns  around  the 
great  cities.  The  pressure  of  popu- 
lation upon  all  the  great  urban 
areas,  and  the  existence  of  great 
tracts  of  slums  within  them,,  has 
led  to  the  suggestion  of  the  crea- 
tion of  new  towns  at  distances  of 
from  ten  to  thirty  miles  of  the 
existing  areas,  to  which  factories 
could  be  removed  and  new  indus- 


tries established.  These  new  towns, 
planned  as  garden  cities,  with  wide 
belts  of  agricultural  land  surround- 
ing them,  would  accommodate 
large  residential  populations.  They 
would  draw  off  the  surplus  popula- 
tions of  the  existing  overcrowded 
areas,  and  provide  for  industry  in  a 
way  not  possible  elsewhere.  The 
problem  of  daily  transport  of 
workers  from  home  to  work  would 
be  solved,  for  the  residents  in  the 
satellite  towns  would,  for  the  most 
part,  be  within  walking  distance 
of  their  work,  with  a  consequent 
great  saving  of  time  and  money. 
This  proposal  was  commended  by 
the  select  committee  of  the  House 
of  Commons  upon  metropolitan 
traffic  (1919).  The  Chamberlain 
committee  on  unhealthy  areas,  in 
its  report  (April,  1920)  also  made 
the  formation  of  satellite  towns  its 
main  recommendation,  urging  that 
prompt  attention  should  be  given 
to  the  development  of  self-con- 
tained garden  cities  as  a  first  step 
towards  solving  the  slum  problem. 
Expansion  of  London 

Welwyn  Garden  City,  first  of  the 
satellite  towns,  on  the  G.N.  Ely. 
main  line,  21  m.  from  London,  was 
begun  in  May,  1920,  its  object  being 
to  deal  with  the  expansion  of  the 
industries  and  population  of 
Greater  London.  On  an  area  of 
about  four  square  miles,  secured 
from  the  marquess  of  Salisbury 
and  Lord  Desborough,  the  Wef- 
wyn  Garden  City,  Ltd.,  has 
planned  a  town  of  50,000  inhabi- 
tants, with  provision  for  houses  of 
all  classes,  factories,  public  build- 
ings, etc.  The*  estate  consists  of 
fine,  well-wooded  country,  with 
first-class  rly.  and  road  facilities. 

The  application  of  the  garden 
city  principle  to  the  reconstruction 
of  existing  towns  is  recognized  as 
an  important  part  of  the  move- 
ment. Small  towns  upon  sites  that 
are  suitable  for  development  could 
become  the  nuclei  of  garden  cities, 
preserving  their  natural  features 
and  agricultural  belts  around  them 
under  the  provisions  of  town-plan- 
ning schemes.  The  problem  of  the 
great  cities  is  more  complex  ;  but 
there  is  need  for  restricting  industry 
to  specific  areas,  and  for  the  sus- 
pension of  the  old  form  of  suburban 
development.  The  main  effect  of 
the  garden  city  movement  upon 
town  planning  is  the  insistence 
upon  a  limitation  of  town  areas  on 
civic  and  economic  grounds,  and 
the  development  of  the  idea  of  the 
functional  planning  of  towns. 

There  are  garden  city  associa- 
tions hi  France,  Germany,  Austria, 
Poland,  and  Spain.  Hellerau,  near 
Dresden,  begun  in  1908,  is  the 
nearest  approximation  to  a  garden 
city  outside  England.  The  princi- 


ples of  housing  and  estate  develop- 
ment recognized  by  the  movement 
are,  however,  gradually  being 
adopted  in  every  civilized  country. 
In  Germany,  for  example,  the 
movement  has  had  considerable 
effect  upon  public  opinion  in  reli- 
tion  to  the  tenement  dwelling, 
which  is  a  feature  of  German  urban 
life  ;  the  advantage  of  the  single 
family  type  of  house  is  now  be- 
coming generally  recognized. 

Throughout  the  British  Empire 
the  garden  city  movement  has  a 
growing  influence,  particularly  in 
Canada,  Australia,  New  Zealand, 
andSoubh  Africa.  The  International 
Garden  Cities  and  Town  Planning 
Association,  founded  in  1914,  has 
members  and  adherents  in  every 
country.  Its  conferences  have  been 
held  in  Paris  (1914),Brussels  (1919), 
London  (1920).  See  N.V. 

Bibliography.  G  arden  Cities  of  To  - 
morrow,  Ebenezer  Howard,  '2nd  ed. 
1902  ;  The  Garden  City,C.B.Purdom, 
1913  ;  Garden  Cities  and  Canals,  J.S. 
Nettlefold,  1914;  Satellite  Cities. 
G.  R.  Taylor,  1915  ;  Nothing  Gained 
By  Overcrowding,  K.  Umvin,  3rd 
ed.,  1918  ;  also  publications  of  the 
Garden  Cities  and  Town  Planning 
Association. 

Garden  City.  Village  of  New 
York,  U.S.A.,  in  Nassau  co.  Sit- 
uated 20  m.  E.  of  New  York,  and 
served  by  the  Long  Island  rly.,  it  is 
a  model  village  designed  by  A.  T. 
Stewart.  It  contains  the  Cathedral 
of  the  Incarnation,  founded  by  his 
wife,  and  noted  for  its  magnificent 
organ,  and  is  the  see  of  a  Protestant 
Episcopal  bishop.  Pop,  1,200. 

Gardeners'  Company.  London 
city  company.  Incorporated  by 
letters  patent  in  1605,  and  by 
charter  in  1616,  its  motto  is  By  the 
Sweat  of  Thy  Browes  shalt  Thou 
Eat  Thy  Bread.  Offices,  5,  Essex 
Court,  Temple,  E.G.  See  History 
of  the  Gardeners,  C.  Welch,  1900. 

Gardenia.  Genus  of  evergreen 
trees  and  shrubs.  Of  the  natural 
order  Rubiaceae,  they  are  natives 
of  tropical  Asia  and  S.  Africa. 
They  have  opposite  leaves,  and 
sweet-scented,  white  funnel-shaped 
or  salver-shaped  flowers.  The  so- 
called  Cape  Jessamine  (G.  florida) 
is  really  a  native  of  China. 

Garde  Republicaine.  Force 
organized  by  decrees  of  July  5, 
1848,  and  Feb.  1 ,  1849,  as  an  integ- 
ral portion  of  the  national  gen- 
darmerie for  police  duty  in  Paris. 
Officially  styled  the  Legion  de  la 
Garde  Republicaine,  it  is  a  military 
organization  of  approximately 
3,000  men,  in  12  companies  of  in- 
fantry and  4  squadrons  of  cavalry, 
under  the  control  of  a  colonel  or 
commandant,  and  placed  as  a  sup- 
plementary guard  at  the  disposal 
of  the  Prefect  of  Police.  The  mem- 
bers of  the  force,  all  ex-soldiers, 


i  and  2.  Residential  roads  in  New  Earswick,  the  Kowntree  village  near  York.      3.  Norton  Way  South,  a  Letchworth 

thoroughfare.     4  and  5.  Factories  in  Letchworth.     6.  A  road  in  Bournville.     7.  The  shopping  centre  of  Letchworth. 

8.    A  corner  in  Hampstead  Garden  Suburb 

GARDEN    CITY:     TRIUMPHS    OF    MODERN    TOWN    PLANNING    IN    BRITAIN 

By  courtesy  of  The  Garden  Cities   and  Town    Planning  Assoc, 


GARDINER 

wear  a  striking  uniform  and  are 
armed  with  long  swords.  Under  the 
direct  control  of  the  prefect,  the 
legion  guards  the  public  buildings 
and  offices,  controls  the  traffic  at 
certain  points,  and  handles  the 
crowds  on  holiday  occasions,  while 
always  acting  as  a  reserve  force 
which  can  be  brought  to  the  relief 
of  the  regular  police  in  emergency. 
Gardiner,  ALFRED  GEORGE  (b. 
1865).  British  journalist.  Born  at 
Chelrnsford,  he  joined  the  staff  of 
The  Essex 
County  Chron- 
icle, was  as- 
sociated for  15 
years  with  The 
Northern  Daily 
Telegraph, 
Blackburn,  and 
was  editor  of 
The  Daily 
News,  1902- 
19.  President 
of  the  Insti- 
tute of  Jour- 
nalists, 1915- 
16,  he  has 
written  several  books  of  charac- 
ter sketches,  including  Prophets, 
Priests  and  Kings,  1908  ;  Pillars  of 
Society,  1913;  The  War  Lords, 
1915 ;  and  three  volumes  of  essays, 
Pebbles  on  the  Shore,  1917 ;  Leaves 
in  the  Wind,  1918;  Windfalls,  1920. 
Gardiner,  SAMUEL  RAWSON 
(1829-1902).  British  historian. 
Born  at  Ropley,  Hants,  March  4, 
1829,  he  was 
educated  at 
Winchester 
and  Christ 
Church,  Ox- 
ford. Beyond 
a  professorship 
at  King's  Col- 
lege, London, 
he  held  no 
tutorial  posi- 
tions, and 
almost  with- 
out interruption  his  life  was  given 
up  to  historical  studies.  The  period 
to  which  he  devoted  himself  was 
that  of  the  Civil  War  and  the 
Commonwealth,  on  which  he  was 
the  supreme  authority. 

In  ten  volumes  Gardiner  wrote 
the  History  of  England  from  the 
Accession  of  James  I  to  the  out- 
break of  Civil  War,  1883-84 ;  in 
three  others  he  narrated  the  His- 
tory of  the  Great  Civil  War,  1886 
91 ;  and  wrote  three  volumes  on 
the  History  of  the  Commonwealth 
and  Protectorate,  1894-1903  ;  but 
did  not  live  to  complete  the  fourth. 
He  collected  and  edited  Constitu- 
tional Documents  of  the  Puritan 
Revolution,  1889;  wrote  What 
Gunpowder  Plot  Was,  1897; 
Oliver  Cromwell,  1899;  A  Stu- 
dent's History  of  England,  1890- 


Y,      JJLtlllLS,      IV1CILUI1     », 

;  :;  "  :  3 


Samuel  R.  Gardiner, 
British  historian 

Elliott  &  Fry 


Stephen  Gardiner, 
English  prelate 


3428 

91,  new  ed.  taking  the  work  down 
to  1910.  In  1894  he  declined  an  ap- 
pointment as  professor  of  history 
at  Oxford,  and  died  at  Sevenoaks, 
Feb.  14,  1902. 

Gardiner's  work  is  marked  by 
extreme  accuracy  and  fairness,  but 
it  has  the  defects  of  its  qualities 
and  lacks  the  charm  and  emotion 
of  Macaulay  and  Froude. 

Gardiner,  STEPHEN  (c.  1493- 
1555).  English  prelate  and  states- 
man. Son  of  a  Bury  St.  Edmunds 
cloth  worker, 
he  was  edu- 
cated at  Trinity 
Hall,  Cam- 
bridge, of  which 
he  was  elected 
master  in  1525. 
Tn  1528  he  was 
sent  by  Henry 
VIII  to  Rome 
to  conduct  ne- 
gotiations for 
his  divorce 
from  Catherine  of  Aragon,  in  1529 
became  secretary  of  state,  in  1531 
was  appointed  bishop  of  Win- 
chester, and  in  1540  was  elected 
chancellor  of  Cambridge  Univer- 
sity. Under  Edward  VI  iie  spent 
over  five  years  in  prison  for 
his  opposition  to  doctrinal  changes 
and  was  deprived  of  his  see,  but 
on  Mary's  accession  he  was  re- 
stored and  made  lord  chancellor. 
His  actual  responsibility  in  the  per- 
secution of  Protestants  in  Mary's 
reign  is  uncertain.  He  died  in 
London,  Nov.  12,  1555,  and  was 
buried  in  Winchester  Cathedral. 
•See  Typical  English  Churchmen, 
ed.  W.  E.  Collins,  Series  ii,  1909. 

Gardner,  ERNEST  ARTHUR  (b. 
1862).  British  archaeologist.  Born 
in  London,  younger  brother  of 
Percy  Gardner,  he  was  educated  at 
the  City  of  London  School  and 
Caius  College,  Cambridge.  After 
excavating  at  Naucratis,  Egypt, 
1885-86,  he  was  director  of  "the 
British  school  at  Athens,  1887-95, 
conducting  excavations  at  Paphos, 
Megalopolis,  and  other  sites.  Ap- 
pointed Yates  professor  of  archaeo- 
logy, University  College,  London, 
he  was  public  orator  to  the  univer- 
sity, 1910-15.  He  served  at 
Salonica,  1915-17.  Among  many 
publications  are  his  Ancient  Athens, 
1902  ;  Six  Great  Sculptors,  1910  ; 
Religion  and  Art  in  Ancient  Greece, 
1910;  A  Handbook  of  Greek 
Sculpture,  1896-97,  rev.  ed.  1915. 
See  portrait  in  Introduction. 

Gardner,  PERCY  (b.  1846). 
British  archaeologist.  Born  at 
Hackney,  Nov.  24,  1846,  he  was 
educated  at  the  City  of  London 
School  and  Christ's  College,  Cam- 
bridge. Entering  the  British  Mu- 
seum in  1871,  he  produced  several 
coin  catalogues.  In  1880  he  became 


GARFIELD 

Disney  professor  of  archaeology  at 
Cambridge,  and  in  1887  professor  of 
classical  archaeology  at  Oxford. 
He  edited  the 
Journal  of  Hel- 
lenic Studies, 
1880-96.  His 
many  works 
include  Types 
of  Greek  Coins, 
1883;  Manual 
of  Greek  Anti- 

quities,  2nd  ed. 

Percy  Gardner,         1898;      Gram- 
British  archaeologist    mar  of    Greek 
Eiiiott&FrV  Art, '"1905; 

and  Principles  of  Greek  Art,  1914. 
Another  of  his  interests  is  ex- 
emplified by  his  Jowett  lectures, 
Historic  View  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, 1901 ;  and  Religious  Ex- 
perience of  St.  Paul,  191L 

Gardone  Riviera.  Name  of  a 
series  of  eight  villages  of  N.  Italy. 
On  the  W.  shore  of  Lago  di  Garda, 
2m.  N.E.  of  Said,  they  form  a 
winter  resort  for  consumptives  and 
a  spring  and  autumn  one  for  in- 
valids. Pop.  2,230. 

Gare  Fowl.  Common  alterna- 
tive name  for  the  great  auk.  It  is 
the  anglicised  form  of  the  Icelandic 
geirfugl.  See  Great  Auk. 

Gareloch.  Arm  of  the  Firth  of 
Clyde,  Dumbartonshire,  Scotland. 
It  runs  in  a  N.W.  direction  from 
Helensburgh  to  Garelochhead,  being 
about  7  m.  long  and  one  wide. 
There  is  good  anchorage  herein,  and 
around  it  are  pleasure  resorts, 
among  them  Garelochhead,  Rose- 
neath,  and  Shandon. 

Garfield.  Borough  of  New 
Jersey,  U.S.A.,  in  Bergen  co.  Situ- 
ated on  the  Passaic river,  10m.  N.W. 
of  New  York,  it  is  served  by  the  Erie 
rly.  The  manufactures  include  wool- 
len and  knitted  goods,  embroidery, 
chemicals,  and  cigars.  Garfield  was 
incorporated  in  1898.  Pop.  13,070. 
Garfield,  JAMES  ABRAM  (1831- 
81).  American  statesman.  Born 
at  Orange,  Ohio,  Nov.  19,  1831,  in 
humble  circumstances,  and  soon 
left  fatherless,  he  worked  as  a 
labourer  as  soon  as  he  was  old 
enough.  A  desire  for  education 
seized  him,  and  about  1849  he 
managed  to  enter  a  college  at 
Chester,  Ohio.  He  studied  there 
and  elsewhere  for  about  six  years, 
and  in  1856  was  made  lecturer  at 
Hiram  College.  In  1857  he  was 
chosen  its  president  and  in  1861  he 
became  a  barrister.  During  the 
Civil  War  he  commanded  an  in- 
fantry brigade  at  Shiloh  and  else- 
where, and,  as  chief  of  the  staff  to 
Rosecrans,  distinguished  himself 
at  the  battle  of  Chickamauga. 

A  Republican  in  politics,  he 
began  his  active  political  career  in 
1856.  State  senator  of  Ohio,  1859, 
he  was  elected  to  the  House  of 


GAR-FISH 


GARIBALDI 


Representatives  at  Washington  in 

1863/    He  assisted  Lincoln  in  the 

last  difficult  days  of  the  Civil  War, 

and    was   pro-   r^___—1. „«__«_ 

minent  during 

the     next     18 

years,    being 

chairman  of 

the     military 

committee, 

and  a  frequent 

speaker    on 

financial    and 

other    maC 

ters.    He  was 

three  times 

candidate  for  the  office  of  speaker, 

and  in  1880  was  nominated  by  the 

Republicans   for   president,    being 

elected  against  W.  S.  Hancock. 

During  his  brief  term  of  office 
Garfield  showed  want  of  tact  in 
dealing  with  political  opponents, 
and  by  selecting  his  Cabinet  al- 
most entirely  from  his  own  section 
of  the  Republican  party,  incurred 
the  hostility  of  the  "stalwarts,"  or 
supporters  of  Grant,  led  by  Roscoe 
Conkling,  who  resigned  their  places 
in  the  Senate.  He  was  shot  at 
Washington  railway  station,  July  2, 
1881,  but  survived  until  Sept.  19, 
when  he  died  at  Elberon,  New  Jer- 
sey. His  assassin,  who  was  hanged, 
was  Charles  J.  Guiteau,  a  Chicago 
lawyer  of  French  Canadian  extrac- 
tion, who  had  asked  for,  but  failed 
to  obtain,  the  American  consulship 
at  Marseilles. 

Bibliography.  Life,  Speeches,  and 
Public  Services,  R.  H.  Con  well, 
1881  ;  Works,  ed.  B.  A.  Hinsdale, 
2  vols.,  1882-83  ;  Garfield's  Place  in 
History,  H.  C.  Pedder,  1882  ;  Re- 
miniscences of  J.  A.  Garfield,  C.  E. 
Fuller,  1887  ;  From  Lop-Cabin  to 
White  House,  W.  M.  Thayer,  re- 
printed 1914. 

Gar-fish(-BeZone).  Groupof  fishes 
of  long  and  slender  form.  They  have 
the  jaws  produced  to  form  a  sword- 
like  beak,  and  bones  of  a  green 
colour.  They  are  marine  in  habit, 


:., 


Gar-fish.     Specimen  of  Belone  vulgaris 

and  include  about  fifty  species,  of 
which  one  is  quite  common  around 
the  British  coasts. 

Garganey  (Querqtiedula  circia). 
Species  of  wild  duck  similar  to  the 
teal  .v.).^  It  is  found  in  most 


Gargano  (anc.  Garganus  Mons). 
Mountainous  peninsula  of  S.E. 
Italy,  in  the  prov.of  Foggia.  Jutting 
out  some  30  m.  into  the  Adriatic, 
it  rises,  in  Monte  Calvo,  to  an  alt. 
of  3,464  ft. 

Gargantua.  Central  figure  of 
Rabelais's  Les  horribles  faictz  et 
prouesses  espouventables  de  Pan- 
tagruel,  published  under  the 
pseudonym  Alcofribas  in  1535. 
Gargantua,  father  of  Pantagruel, 
is  a  huge  giant  with  a  vast  capacity 
for  eating  and  drinking.  From  his 
name  is  derived  the  adjective 
gargantuan  to  denote  anything 
prodigiously  large.  See  Rabelais. 

Gargles  OR  GARGARISMA.  Fluid 
preparations  used  in  medicine  for 
gargling  the  throat  by  taking  a 
mouthful  of  the  liquid,  throwing 
the  head  back,  and  gently  breath- 
ing air  through  it.  They  are  em- 
ployed chiefly  in  conditions  of 
catarrh  and  slight  inflammation  of 


parts  of  Europe  and  Asia  during  the 
summer,  and  in  winter  around  the 
Mediterranean  and  in  Southern  Asia. 
An  extremely  rapid  flyer,  it  visits 
Great  Britain  in  the  spring,  and 
nests  in  dense  clumps  of  rushes. 


Garhmuktessar.  Town  of 
the  United  Provinces,  India,  in  the 
Hapur  subdivision  of  Meerut  dist. 
It  contains  the  great  temple  of 
Mukteswara  Mahadeo,  from  which 
its  name  is  derived,  and  is  one  of 
the  chief  resorts  of  pilgrims.  There 
is  also  a  mosque  built  in  1283,  and 
an  ancient  fort. 

Garhwal.  District  of  the  United 
Provinces,  India,  in  the  Kumaun 
div.  Its  area  is  4,180  sq.  m. 
It  extends  across  the  Himalayas, 
and  is  chiefly  a  mountainous  re- 
gion. The  cultivated  area  is  small, 
and  is  principally  devoted  to  rice, 
wheat,  and  other  grain  crops.  The 
chief  trade  is  with  Tibet.  Exports 
consist  of  grain,  cloth,  ghi,  and 
chillies,  and  imports  salt,  wool, 
sheep,  and  goats.  The  district 
contains  a  number  of  shrines  held 
sacred  by  the  Hindus,  among  them 
the  temples  of  Badrinath,  Kedar- 
nath,  and  Pandukeshwar,  and  is 


Gargoyle.  Examples  in  church  architecture.  1.  At  S.  Alkmunds,  Derby,  c.  1450. 

2.  Horsley,  Derbyshire,   c.    1450.      3.  Stony  Stratford,   Buckinghamshire, 

c.  1480.     4.  Tower  of  Notre  Dame,  Paris,  Gothic  style 


the  throat.  Gargle  is  from  Fr. 
gargouiller,  to  gargle;  gargarisma 
is  a  Latin  word  meaning  a  gargle, 
Fr.  gargarisme. 

Gargoyle  (Fr.  gargouille,  throat). 
Projecting  spout  attached  to  the 
gutter  of  a  roof  for  shooting  rain- 
water clear  of  the  walls.  In  Gothic 
architecture  it  was  made  of  stone 
fashioned  into  a  grotesque  animal 
or  human  face.  The  term  can  be 
used  of  an  ordinary  lead  trough 
or  rain-water  head.  "  See  Architec- 
ture. 


the  centre  of  a  great  pilgrim 
traffic.  Pop.  300,819.  " 

Garhwal,  TEHRI  OR  TEHRI- 
GARHWAL.  State  of  India,  adjoin- 
ing Garhwal  district,  United  Pro- 
vinces. Its  area  is  4,180  sq.  m. 
The  state  is  in  the  Himalayas,  and 
the  cultivated  area  is  very  small. 
Telitf,  the  capital,  is  the  chief 
commercial  centre.  Pop.  300,819. 

Garibaldi,  GIUSEPPE  (1807-82). 
Italian  patriot.  A  fisherman's  son, 
he  was  born  at  Nice,  July  4,  1807. 
In  1834  he  flung  himself  ardently 


GARIBALDI  ' 

into  the  Young  Italy  movement, 
initiated  by  Mazzini,  joined  in  an 
insurrection,  and  barely  escaped 
from  the  country  with  his  life. 
From  1836-48  he  was  in  S.  America, 
where  he  won  high  reputation  as  a 
leader  both  on  land  and  on  sea, 
fighting  for  the  Montevideans 
against  Rosas,  the  dictator  of 
Buenos  Aires.  In  1848,  when  op- 
pressed peoples  were  everywhere 
rising  against  their  rulers,  he 
returned  to  Italy,  raised  troops  of 
volunteers,  whom  he  inspired  with 
his  own  heroic  courage  and  pas- 
sionate love  of  liberty,  and  per- 
formed brilliant  feats  of  arms.  But 
the  insurrection  collapsed,  and  in 
1849  he  took  refuge  in  New  York. 
In  1854  he  again  returned,  settling 
in  Caprera  under  the  Sardinian 
government. 


From   a  jihoto  about  1860 


On  the  outbreak  of  the  war  in 
1859  between  Austria  and  Sardinia 
(i.e.  Victor  Emmanuel),  supported 
by  Napoleon  III,  he  rendered  bril- 
liant service  to  the  Italian  cause. 
But  when  Napoleon,  after  the  vic- 
tory of  Solferino  (June  24),  imposed 
upon  his  ally  and  his  antagonist  the 
peace  of  Villafranca,  and  Nice,  to 
Garibaldi's  deep  chagrin,  had  been 
handed  over  to  France,  he  lent  his 
unique  genius  as  a  partisan  leader 
to  the  Sicilian  insurgents  against 
the  Bourbon  monarchy  of  Naples. 
Openly  discountenanced,  but  se- 
cretly encouraged  by  Cavour,  he 
gathered  a  small  army  of  volun- 
teers, his  "  red  shirts,"  known  as 
Garibaldi's  Thousand,  threw  him- 
self into  Sicily,  and  cleared  it  of 
the  20,000  Bourbon  regular  troops. 
Passing  over  into  Italy,  he  con- 
ducted what  was  in  effect  a 
triumphal  march  to  Naples,  whence 


3430 

Francis  II  took  flight.  When  Vic- 
tor Emmanuel  entered  Neapolitan 
territory,  Garibaldi  hailed  him  as 
king  of  united  Italy. 

Even  now  his  adventures  in  the 
cause  of  liberty  were  not  ended. 
Believing  his  project  to  be  favoured 
by  the  king,  he  attempted,  in  1802, 
to  wrest  Rome  from  the  pope  ;  but 
the  Italian  government  turned 
against  him,  and  he  was  hopelessly 
defeated  at  Aspromonte,  Aug.  29% 
After  a  temporary  retirement,  he 
again  commanded  the  irregular 
troops  he  loved  in  the  war  with 
Austria,  1866;  and  in  1867,  in 
defiance  of  his  government,  again 
attempted  to  capture  Rome,  but 
was  disastrously  defeated  by  its 
French  defenders  at  the  battle  of 
Mentana,  Nov.  3.  He  was  again 
permitted  to  go  into  retirement, 
but  the  Franco -Prussian  War 
roused  him  once  more,  and,  when 
France  had  discarded  the  emperor, 
he  gave  his  services  to  the  French 
army  in  the  Vosges,  1870.  The  re- 
maining years  of  his  life  he  passed 
as  an  invalid  in  his  home  at  Cap- 
rera, where  he  died  June  2,  1882. 
In  1864  he  paid  his  one  visit  to 
England,  where  he  was  welcomed 
with  immense  enthusiasm. 

Bibliography.  Autobiog.,  Eng. 
trans.  A.  Werner,  with  supple- 
mentary matter  by  J.  W.  Mario, 
1889;  the  Makers  of  Modem  Italy, 
J.  A.  R.  Marriott,  1889;  Garibaldi's 
Defence  of  the  Roman  Republic, 
G.  M.  Trevelyan,  1907,  new  ed. 
1920;  Builders  of  United  Italy, 
R.  S.  Holland,  1908;  Garibaldi  and 
the  Thousand,  1909.  Garibaldi  and 
the  Making  of  Italy,  G.  M.  Tre- 
velyan, 1911,  new  ed.  1920. 

Garibaldi.  Woman's  shirt 
blouse  cut  on  the  lines  of  those 
worn  by  Garibaldi  and  his  men. 
See  Blouse. 

Gariep.  Variant  name  for  the 
river  of  S.  Africa  better  known  as 
the  Orange  (q.v.). 

Garigliano  (anc.  Liris).  River 
of  S.  Italy.  Rising  in  the  Apen- 
nines, W.  of  Lake  Fucino,  it  flows, 
as  the  Liri,  S.  past  Sora,  and  thence 
to  the  Gulf  of  Gaeta.  Its  length  is 
104  m.  Navigable  below  Ponte- 
corvo,  it  abounds  in  fish. 

Garlic.  Pungent  flavoured 
bulbs  of  the  onion  family,  of  the 
natural  order  Liliaceae,  genus 
Allium.  A  native  of  the  East,  pro- 
bably S.W.  Siberia,  it  grows  to  a 
height  of  2  ft.,  bearing  at  the  top 
an  umbel  of  a  few  whitish  flowers 
mixed  with  a  number  of  small 
bulbs.  The  plant  is  cultivated  in 
similar  way  to  the  shallot,  and 
only  the  bulb  part  is  eaten.  It  has 
a  powerful  onion-like  smell  and 
taste,  and  is  used  as  a  condiment 
chiefly  in  S.  Europe.  The  allyl 
sulphide  found  in  garlic  is  reputed 
to  be  a  sure  cure  for  consumption. 


GARNET 


Garlic.   Flowers  and  .oliasje  of  Allium 
Oleraceum 

Wild  garlic,  Allium  oleraceum,  is 
occasionally  used  in  England  as  a 
pot-herb.  A  not  her  variety,  Allium 
vineale,  the  field  garlic  or  wild 
onion  of  America,  grows  exten- 
sively in  the  pasture  lands  of 
U.S.A.,  and  gives  a  disagreeable 
flavour  to  milk,  butter,  and  cheese 
when  eaten  by  cattle. 

Garnet  (Lat.  granatus,  seeded). 
Group  of  precious  stones,  composed 
of  three  molecules  of  silica,  one  of 
sesquioxide,  and  three  of  mon- 
oxide. The  two  last  differ  widely 
in  their  chemical  make-up,  as  the 
great  diversity  in  colours  of  the 
stones  testifies.  The  crystalline 
form  is  cubic  ;  the  specific  gravity 
ranges  from  3 '4  to  4'3  ;  all  are 
fairly  hard.  This  last  quality 
makes  them  of  value  for  technical 
purposes — for  instance,  in  watch- 
making— while  garnet  powder  is 
used  for  polishing  hard  gems. 

Colour  is  always  distributed 
uniformly  in  garnets.  The  red 
garnets  range  in  tone  from  a  pale 
rose-pink  (from  Mexico)  through 
clear  reds,  including  some  of  the 
almandines,  to  deep  blood  red  of 
the  pyrope  and  the  black  melanite 
of  Austria  and  Italy  used  for 
mourning  jewelry.  Hessonite,  a 
calcium-aluminium  variety,  also 
known  as  cinnamon  stone,  and 
sometimes  confused  with  hyacinth 
(zircon),  is  of  a  rich  yellowish  red, 
and  comes  from  Ceylon  and  the 
Swiss  Alps.  The  American  variety 
(spessartite)  is  a  manganese- 
aluminium  compound,  yielding 
fine  gems  of  dark  hue.  Pyrope,  or 
Bohemian  garnet,  is  also  found  in 
N.  and  S.  America.  It  has  a  deep, 
rich  blood-red  colour,  with  a  tinge 
of  yellow,  occasionally  verging  on 
hyacinth  red,  and  probably  is  the 
carbuncle  of  old  writers.  Rhodolite 
is  a  pale  rose-red  stone,  coming 
midway  between  the  almandine 
and  the  pyrope,  and  is  found  in  N. 
America.  Domantoid  is  a  green 
calcium-iron  variety  found  in  the 
Urals.  Grossularite  is  a  brownish- 
green  Siberian  garnet,  and  topazo- 
lite  a  transparent  yellow  Pied- 
montese  stone. 


GARNETT 


3431 


GARRICK 


Henry  Garnett, 
English  Jesuit 


Garnett,  OR  GARNET,  HENRY 
(1555-1606).  English  Jesuit.  Edu- 
cated at  Winchester,  he  joined  the 
Jesuits  in 
1575,  and  in 
1587wasmade 
superior  of 
the  English 
province.  He 
became  in- 
volved in  the 
Gunpowder 
Plot  (q.v.)  and 
after  hiding 
in  H  i  n  d  1  i  p 
Hall,  near  Droitwich,  gave  himself 
up,  maintaining  to  the  end  that 
he  did  not  approve  of  the  plot, 
though  admitting  his  knowledge  of 
it.  He  was  executed  in  S.  Paul's 
churchyard,  May  3,  1606.  On  an 
empty  husk  of  a  blood-stained  straw 
picked  up  near  the  gallows  a  per- 
fect image  of  the  dead  Jesuit's  face 
is  said  miraculously  to  have  ap- 
peared "  as  if  it  had  been  painted," 
and  "  Father  Garnett's  straw  " 
created  a  great  stir. 

Garnett,  RICHARD  (1835-1906). 
British  librarian  and  author.  Born 
at  Lichneld,  Feb.  L'7,  1835.  he 
joined  the 
staff  of  the 
British  M  u  - 
seum  in  1851. 
Becoming  su- 
perintendent 
of  the  Read- 
ing Room  in 
1875,  he  was 
Keeper  of 
Printed  Books 
from  1890-99. 
Awarded  the 
O.B.  in  1895,  he  died  on  April  13, 
1906.  Among  his  many  works  are 
Lives  of  Carlyle,  1887;  Emerson, 
1888;  Milton,  1890;  Twilight  of 
the  Gods,  1888;  various  poems 
and  translations,  and  contribu- 
tions to  the  Dictionary  of  National 
Biography,  the  Encyclopaedia  Bri- 
tannica,  etc. 

Gamier,  ROBERT  (c.  1545- 
c.  1599).  French  dramatist.  Born 
at  Ferte-Bernard,  Gamier  studied 
law  at  Toulouse,  and  afterprac Using 
at  the  Paris  bar,  became  one  of  the 
royal  councillors  for  Le  Maine.  He 
wrote  a  number  of  poems,  mostly 
lost,  and  was  important  in  the 
history  of  the  development  of 
French  classical  tragedy  as  a  fore- 
runner of  Corneille.  Gamier' s 
tragedies  of  Porcie,  1573,  Cornelie, 
1573,  and  Antigone,  1580,  are 
eloquent  but  dull;  but  his  master- 
pieces, widely  acclaimed  in  their 
day,  were  Bradamante,  1582,  and 
Les  Juives,  1583.  These,  though 
their  inherent  interest  is  slight, 
show  considerable  poetic  power 
ai.d  good  dramatic  technique. 
Gamier  died  at  Le  Mans  c.  1599. 


j.  A.  uarmer-Jragss 
French  statesman 


Garnier-Pages,  Louis  ANTOINE 

(1803-78).  •  ^  French  statesman. 
Born  at.  Marseilles,  Feb.  16,  1803, 
he  took  part  in 
the  revolution 
of  1830,  be- 
came an  ad- 
vanced repub- 
lican deputy 
f  o  r  Verneuil, 
1842,  and 
joined  the 
ministry  of 
Dupont  de 
1'Eure  after  the 
revolution  in  1848.  He  was  ap- 
pointed mayor  of  Paris,  Feb.  1848, 
and  minister  of  finance  in  March. 
In  the  constituent  assembly  he  sat 
for  the  Seine  dept.  He 'retired 
from  public  life  in  1871,  and  died  in 
Paris,  Oct.  31,  1878. 

Louis  was  the  half-brother  of 
Etienne  Joseph  Garnier-Pages 
(1801-41),  a  prominent  radical 
and  republican  orator,  who  sat  as 
deputy  for  Jsere,  1831-34,  and  for 
Le  Mans,  1835-41.  Pron.  Garnyay- 
Pazh-ayss. 

Garnish ee  (Old  Fr.  garnir,  to 
warn).  Term  used  in  English  law. 
Tt  is  the  procedure  whereby  a 
judgement  creditor  can  obtain  an 
order  from  the  court  directing  a 
person  who  owes  money  to  the 
judgement  debtor  to  pay  it  over  to 
the  judgement  creditor.  For  ex- 
ample, A  has  a  judgement  for  £100 
against  B.  B  has  £  1 ,000  in  Cout  ts'  s 
bank.  A  can  obtain  an  order 
from  a  master  ordering  Coutts's 
to  pay  him  £100  of  B's  money. 

Garo.  Primitive  tribe  in  the 
Garo  hills,  S.  W.  Assam.  Numbering 
in  1911  187,351,  they  show  kinship 
with  the  plains  Kacharis.  Short, 
dark,  animistic,  they  practise  fowl- 
sacrifice,  matriarchy,  and  tekno- 
nymy — naming  parents  after  their 
children.  Headhunting  has  dis- 
appeared since  British  rule  was 
established,  after  expeditions  from 
1790  to  1873.  American  Baptist 
missions  work  successfully  among 
them.  See  Bodo. 

Garo  Hills.  District  of  S.W. 
Assam.  The  district  mainly  con- 
sists of  hills,  and  is  principally  in- 
habited by  the  Garos  (q.v.),  who 
form  about  three-quarters  of  the 
population.  The  areais3,140sq.m.; 
that  under  cultivation  is  uncertain. 
The  principal  articles  of  imports  are 
rice,  dried  fish,  pigs,  fowls,  goats, 
cattle,  cloth  and  ornaments,  while 
the  exports  consist  of  cotton, 
forest  products,  etc. 

Garonne.  River  of  France.  It 
rises  in  the  Pyrenees  near  Mala- 
detta,  and  is  for  a  few  miles  a 
Spanish  stream.  It  enters  France 
in  the  dept.  of  Haute  Garonne, 
and,  flowing  mainly  N.W.,  reaches 
the  sea  just  below  Bordeaux. 


There  it  receives  the  Dordogne,  and 
the  two  unite  to  form  the  estuary 
of  the  Gironde.  Its  chief  tribu- 
taries are  the  Tarn  and  the  Lot, 
both  on  the  right;  others  are  the 
Ariege,  Save,  Baise,  Gers,  and 
Salat.  Toulouse  and  Agen  stand 
on  it,  and  it  drains  an  area  of  over 
30,000  sq.  m. 

Gar  Pike.  Name  sometimes 
applied  to  the  gar-fish,  but  properly 
belonging  to  Lepidosteus  osseus  and 
of  the  American  lakes. 

Garrauli.  Petty  state  of  the  Cen- 
tral Provinces,  India,  in  Bundel- 
khand.  Its  area  is  25  sq.  m.  Gopal 
Singh,  who  opposed  the  British 
occupation  of  Bundelkhand  in 
1803,  and  caused  much  trouble  to 
the  British  authorities,  received  a 
pardon  and  a  grant  of  this  territory 
in  1812.  Pop.  about  6,000. 

Garrick,  DAVID  (1717-79). 
English  actor.  Born  at  Hereford, 
of  Huguenot  descent,  on  Feb.  19, 
1717,  he  was  educated  at  Lichneld 
grammar  school,  and  later  at 
Samuel  Johnson's  academy  there. 
Becoming  close  friends,  Johnson 
and  Garrick  set  off  for  London  to 
seek  fame  and  fortune  in  March, 
1737,  arriving,  according  to  the 
former,  with  only  fourpence  be- 
tween them.  Until  1741  Garrick 
engaged,  with  scant  success,  in  a 
wine  business,  but  his  main  inter- 
ests were  in  the  stage.  His  play 
Lethe  was  produced  in  1740,  and 
in  March.  1741,  he  made  his  first 
appearance  on  the  stage  as  Harle- 
quin, appearing  at  Goodman's 
Fields  Theatre  in  Oct.  as  Richard 
III.  His  great  success  in  this  part 
led  him  to  withdraw  from  business, 
and  he  became  definitely  an  actor 
under  his  own  name. 

From  1742-45  he  played  at 
Drury  Lane,  and  after  a  season  in 


After  R.  E.  Pine,  Sal.  Port.  Oal. 


GARR1CK      CLUB 


3432 


GARROD 


Dublin  with  Sheridan,  appeared  at 
Covent  Garden  during  1746-47. 
After  this  Garrick  became  the 
chief  proprietor  of  Drury  Lane, 


Garrick  Club,  London.     The  dining  room,  notable,  like 

the  other  rooms  in  the  building,  for  its  collection  of 

theatrical  pictures 

where  he  henceforth  appeared. 
Specially  noteworthy  were  his 
Shakespearean  productions,  which 
marked  a  great  revival  in  the 
popularity  of  Shakespeare's  plays 
and  an  attempt  to  secure  accuracy 
in  costume  and  mounting.  Hamlet, 
Lear,  Macbeth,  and  Richard  III 
were  among  his  most  distinguished 
performances.  After  17(56  Garrick 
only  appeared  occasionally,  except 
for  his  farewell  season  in  1776.  His 
death  on  Jan.  20,  1779,  called  forth 
Johnson's  famous  remark  that  the 
event  had  "  eclipsed  the  gaiety  of 
nations,  and  impoverished  the 
public  stock  of  harmless  pleasure." 
He  was  buried  at  the  foot  of 
Shakespeare's  statue  in  West- 
minster Abbey. 

A  man  of  wit  and  versatility, 
Garrick  enjoyed  the  friendship  of 
many  of  the  most  distinguished 
figures  of  his  day,  to  whom  his 
house  at  Hampton  Avas  well  known, 
and  his  services  to  the  English 
stage  were  inestimable.  His  long 
association  with  the  beautiful 
"  Peg  "  Woffington  ended  in  1749, 
when  he  married  Eva  Maria  Veigel, 
a  German  lady,  who  survived  him 
until  1822. 

Bibliography.  Lives,  James  Smyth, 
1887  ;  P.  H.  Fitzgerald,  rev.  ed. 
1899  ;  David  Garrick,  J.  Knight, 
1894  ;  Garrick  and  His  Circle,  F.  M. 
Parsons  1906  ;  Some  Unpublished 
Correspondence,  ed.  G.  P.  Baker, 
1907  ;  A  Cosmopolitan  Actor  :  David 
Garrick  and  His  French  Friends, 
F.  A.  Hedgcock,  Eng.  trans.  1912. 


Garrick  Club.  London  club.  It 
was  founded  in  1831  by  Francis 
Mills  as  a  society  "  in  which 
actors  and  men  of  education  and 
refinement  might 
meet  on  equal 
terms."  The  origi- 
nal club  house  was 
at  35,  King  Street, 
Covent  Garden  ;  the 
present  premises, 
designed  by  F. 
Marrable,  at  15, 
Garrick  Street, 
S  tran  d  ,  we  re  o  pe  n  c  d 
in  1862.  Nearly  all 
the  leading  actors 
and  many  eminent 
literary  men  are 
among  the  650 
members.  See  The 
Garrick  Club,  P.  H. 
Fitzgerald,  1904. 

Garrick  Theatre. 

London  theatre  in 
Charing  Cross  Road, 
W.C.  It  was  open- 
ed April  24,  1889, 
by  Sir  John  Hare 
with  The  Profligate, 
and  continued  suc- 
cessfully under  his 
management  for 
several  years. 

Garrison  (Fr.  garnison,  from 
garnir,  to  supply).  Armed  force 
ostensibly  employed  to  defend  any 
place,  especially  a  fortress.  Places 
in  the  United  Kingdom  where  the 
R.G.A.  companies  are  stationed 
may  indicate  the  points  where  our 
security  might  be  threatened  by 
an  invader,  but  towns  like  Brighton 
used  to  be  called  garrison  towns 
because  a  regiment  was,  for  the 
sake  of  convenience,  quartered 
there.  See  Fortress. 

Garrison,  LINDLEY  MILLER  (b. 
1864).  American  politician.  Born 


Jers 


at  Camden,  New 

of     the     Rev. 

J.  F.  Garrison, 

he    was    edu- 

cated in  Phila- 

delphia and  at 

Harvard.     He 

became  a  bar- 

rister in  Phila- 

d  e  1  p  h  i  a     in 

1886,  and  two 

years  later  be- 

gan to  practise 

at  Camden.    In  ]  898  he  moved  to 

Jersey  City,   where  for  some   six 

years  he  was  head  of  a  large  firm. 

In  1904  Garrison  was  made  vice- 

chancellor   of    the    state    of    New 

Jersey,  and  in  March,  1913,  Wilson 

appointed  him   secretary    of   war, 

which  position  he   held  until  Feb., 

1916. 

Garrison,  WILLIAM  LLOYD 
(1805-79).  American  abolitionist. 
Born  at  Newburyport,  Massa- 


L.  M.  Garrison, 
American  politician 


W.  Lloyd  Garrison, 
American  abolitionist 


chusetts,  Dec.  12,  1805,  he  was 
apprenticed  to  the  printer  of  Tie 
Newburyport  Herald,  where  he 
gained  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the 
craft  and  considerable  experience 
in  journalism. 
Before  he  was 
20  he  was 
writing  arti- 
cles, under  the 
pseudonym  of 
Aristides,  at- 
tacking the  in- 
stitution of 
s  1  a  v  e  r  y.  In 
1826  he  became 
editor  of  The 
Newburyport  Free  Press,  and  in 
1827  of  The  National  Philan- 
thropist, the  first  paper  founded  in 
America  to  advocate  temperance. 
In  1829  he  joined  the  Quaker,  Ben- 
jamin Lundy,  in  his  work  on  The 
Genius  of  Universal-  Emancipation, 
a  paper  founded  by  Lundy  eight 
years  previously.  Garrison  now  ex- 
pressed views  so  repellent  to  the 
prevalent  opinions  on  the  slavery 
question  that  a  libel  action  against 
him  ended  in  his  imprisonment. 
On  his  release  he  made  a  lecturing 
tour  on  behalf  of  the  cause,  and  in 
1831  started  to  publish  at  Boston 
a  weekly  journal,  The  Liberator. 

In  face  of  great  practical  difficul- 
ties, he  continued  to  produce  his 
paper  until  1865,  having  witnessed 
the  triumph  of  his  cause  in  1863. 
Meanwhile,  he  wrote  Thoughts  on 
African  Colonization,  1832,  and,  by 
lectures  and  the  founding  of  the 
Anti-Slavery  Society  in  Philadel- 
phia in  1843,  worked  indefatigably 
to  rouse  his  countrymen  from  their 
apathy  on  this  subject.  He  visited 
Great  Britain  on  the  same  mission 
in  1833,  1846,  1818,  and  again  in 
1867.  He  died  in  New  York  on 
May  24,  1879. 

Bibliography.  Life,  VV.  P.  and 
F.  J.  Garrison,  1885  ;  The  MoraJ 
(Ji-useder,  Goldwin  Smith,  1892  ; 
W.  L.  Garrison,  Non-Resistant, 
E.  H.  Crosby,  1905  ;  Life,  J.  J. 
Chapman,  1912. 

Garrod,  SIR  ARCHIBALD  EDWARD 
(b.  1857).  British  physician.  Born 
Nov.  25,  1857,  the  son  of  Sir  Alfred 
B.  Garrod,  also 
a  physician 
and  an  F.R.S  , 
he  was  edu- 
cated at  Marl- 
borough  and 
Christ  Church, 
Oxford.  For 
his  medical 
tr  a  i  n  i  n  g  he 
went  to  S. 
Bartholomew  s 
Hospital,  after 
which  he  began  to  practise  as  a 
specialist.  He  became  physician 
to  S.  Bartholomew's  and  to  the 


sir  A.  E.  Garrod, 
British  physician 


GARROS 


3433 


GARSTON 


Roland  Garros, 
French  airman 


Hospital  for  Sick  Children,  while 
his  scientific  writings  earned  for 
him  his  F.R.S.  _  In  1908  he  was 
Croonian  lecturer  at  the  Royal 
College  of  Physicians.  During  the 
Great  War  Garrod  served  with  the 
R.A.M.C.,  being  knighted  in  1918, 
and  in  1920  he  succeeded  Sir  W. 
Osier  as  Regius  professor  of  medi- 
cine at  Oxford. 

Garros,  ROLAND  (1888-1918). 
French  airman.  Born  at  St.  Denis, 
in  the  island  of  Reunion,  he  went  to 
France  and 
studied  music 
at  Nice  and 
Paris.  Avia- 
tion, then  in 
its  infancy, 
attracted  him, 
and  he  learned 
toflyatJuvissy 
in  Santos- 
Dumont's  De- 
moiselle, ob- 
taining his  certificate  in  1910.  In 
1911-12  he  held  several  height 
records,  and  came  to  the  front  as  a 
most  daring  and  expert  flyer.  He 
was  2nd  in  the  races  from  Paris  to 
Madrid,  and  from  Paris  to  Rome, 
and  became  the  idol  of  France  by 
a  successful  flight  of  500  m.  across 
the  Mediterranean  from  San 
Raphael  to  Bizerta.  He  also  won  in 
1912  the  Grand  Prix  of  the  Aero 
Club  of  France  in  a  violent  storm, 
and  in  1914  competed  in  the  race 
from  Hendon  to  Paris  and  back. 

When  the  Great  War  broke  out 
Garros  joined  the  famous  Cigognes 
(Stork)  squadron,  becoming  flight- 
lieut.  at  the  end  of  1914.  Greatly 
feared  by  enemy  airmen,  in  April, 
1915,  when  descending  low  during 
bombing  operations,  his  machine 
was  hit,  and  he  was  forced  to  land 
near  Ingelmunster,  in  W.  Flanders, 
being  eventually  captured.  He  es- 
caped, Feb.,  1918,  and  did  further 
good  work  against  the  enemy  until 
Oct.  5,  1918,  on  which  date  the 
Germans  reported  that  he  had  been 
shot  down  and  killed.  See  Aero- 
plane :  Air  Records,  etc. 

Garrotte  (Span,  gar  rote,  cudgel). 
Spanish  method  of  execution  by 
strangulation.  Originally  the  con- 
demned person  was  seated  in  a 
chair  fixed  at  the  back  to  an  up- 
right post.  A  cord  was  placed 
round  his  neck  and  also  round  the 
post.  Strangulation  was  produced 
by  twisting  the  cord  with  a  stick 
after  the  manner  of  a  tourniquet, 
for  which  a  former  alternative  term 
was  garrot.  Later  on  the  chair  was 
provided  with  a  hinged  iron  collar, 
in  the  back  of  which  was  a  sharp- 
pointed  screw,  or  a  lever.  Death 
was  caused  by  dislocation  of  the 
spinal  column,  or  by  a  blade  which 
on  being  forced  forward  severed 
the  spinal  cord. 


During  the  Inquisition  prisoners 
who  recanted  were  occasionally 
offered  death  by  the  garrotte  as  a 
mark  of  favour,  instead  of  death 
by  actual  burning.  But  the  former, 
in  the  hands  of  a  careless  or  unskil- 
ful executioner,  was  capable  of  in- 
flicting severe  torture  before  the 
end  came.  Possibly  the  garrotte 
came  into  use  in  Spain  as  a  result 
of  the  Moorish  rule  in  the  country, 
for,  as  originally  employed,  it 
closely  resembles  the  use  of  the 
bowstring  in  the  East. 

The  winter  of  1862-63  was 
marked  in  Great  Britain  by  a  seri- 
ous outbreak  of  highway  robbery 
with  violence,  many  victims  being 
attacked  from  behind  and  half- 
strangled  by  a  cord  or  handkerchief 
thrown  over'  their  heads.  The  evil 
became  so  serious  that  in  1863  the 
Garotting  Act  was  passed  author- 
ising the  punishment  of  offenders 
by  flogging,  which  proved  an  effec- 
tive deterrent. 

Garrucha.  Seaport  of  Spain,  in 
the  prov.  of  Almeria.  It  stands  on 
the  Mediterranean,  40  m.  N.E.  of 
Almeria,  and  although  it  has  no 
railway,  it  exports  mineral  ores, 
esparto,  and  fruit.  Pop.  5,000. 

Garry.  Lake  of  Canada,  in  the 
North- West  territories.  It  is  in  lat. 
66°,  and  on  the  borders  of  the  Arc- 
tic circle.  The  Back,  or  Great  Fish, 
river  passes  through  ib,  carrying  its 
waters  to  the  Arctic  Sea.  Its  area 
is  980  sq.  m.  There  is  also  a  Garry 
Island,  this  being  in  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  off  the  mouth  of  the  Mac- 
kenzie river. 

Garrya.  Small  genus  of  ever- 
green shrubs.  They  belong  to  the 
natural  order  Cornaceae,  and  are 


Garrya.  Spray  of  foliage  and  flower 
and  sectional  diagram  of  a  berry 
natives  of  the  warmer  parts  of 
America.  They  have  opposite,  oval 
or  elliptic  leaves,  arid  greenish- 
white  or  yellowish  flowers  in  long 
pendulous  sprays ;  the  males  being 
on  one  plant,  the  females  on  an- 
other. Garrya  elliptica,  a  native  of 
California,  is  frequently  grown  in 
the  warmer  parts  of  Europe. 

Garshin,  VSIKVOLOD  MICHAIL- 
OVITCH  (1855-85).  Russian  novel- 
ist. Known  as  an  infant  prodigy, 


his  Essay  on  Death,  written  when 
he  was  17,  is  a  piece  of  surprising 
realism.  His  short  stories,  which 
form  his  best  works,  showed  him 
at  once  imbued  with  the  spirit  of 
the  romantics,  and  greatly  influ- 
enced by  Tolstoi,  both  in  vivid 
war  scenes  and  in  a  tendency  to 
allegory.  Loathing  war,  he  served 
as  a  soldier,  that  he  might  not  shirk 
what  others  were  compelled  to 
endure.  The  execution  of  a  friend 
drove  Garshin  mad,  and  though  he 
recovered  his  mind  was  unbalanced, 
and  finally  he  committed  suicide. 

Garstang,  JOHN  (b.  1876).  Brit- 
ish archaeologist.  Educated  at 
Blackburn  and  Jesus  College,  Ox- 
ford, he  devoted  himself  to  archae- 
ology, and  excavated  Roman  sites 
at  Ribchester,  Richborough,  etc., 
and  Egyptian  sites,  including  Aby- 
dos,  Beni-Hassan,  and  Negada.  In 
1907  he  became  John  Rankin  pro- 
fessor of  archaeology  in  Liverpool 
University.  He  excavated  the  Hit- 
tite  site  of  Sakjegeuzi,  1908  and 
1911,  and  the  Ethiopian  site  of 
Meroe,  1909-14.  During  the  Great 
War  he  was  engaged  on  Red  Cross 
work  in  France.  Besides  his  official 
reports  he  published  Burial  Cus- 
toms of  Ancient  Egypt,  1907  ;  The 
Land  of  the  Hittites,  1910  ;  Meroe, 
1911  ;  and,  jointly  with  P.  E.  New- 
berry,  Short  History  of  Ancient 
Egypt,  1904.  See  portrait,  Intro- 
duction. 

Garstin,  SIR  WILLIAM  EDMUND 
(1849-1925).  British  engineer. 
Born  Jan.  29,  1849,  be  was  edu- 
cated at  Chel- 
tenham Col- 
1  e  g  e  and 
King's  Col- 
lege, London. 
In  1872  he 
entered  the 
India  public 
works  dept. 
and  was  em- 
ployed for  a 
time  in  Egypt. 
In  1892  he  left  the  dept.  to 
become  inspector-general  of  irri- 
gation in  Egypt,  being  also  under- 
secretary for  pu  blic  works.  He  held 
these  positions  until  1904,  and  was 
responsible  for  the  improvements 
carried  out  under  Lords  Cromer 
and  Kitchener.  Knighted  in  1897, 
in  1904  Garstin  was  appointed  a 
director  of  the  Suez  Canal  Co.  He 
died  Jan.  8,  1925. 

Gars  ton.  Port  and  parish  of 
Lancashire,  now  included  in  the 
city  of  Liverpool.  It  stands  on  the 
Mersey,  6m.  S.E.  of  Liverpool.  Here 
are  the  docks  of  the  L.  &  N.  W.  Rly., 
from  which  coal  is  shipped.  Salt 
is  the  chief  manufacture,  and  there 
are  also  iron  and  copper  works. 
Pop.  23,850.  There  is  a  parish  of  the 
same  name  near  Watford,  Herts. 


Sir  W.  E.  Garstin, 
British  engineer 


GARTER 

Garter,  ORDEK  OF  THE.  British 
order  of  knighthood,  the  most  an- 
cient and  illustrious  in  the  world. 


Garter.    Insignia  of  the  Order.    Top, 

star ;    centre,  the   garter ;    below, 

collar  and  George 

It  was  originally  instituted  as  a 
purely  military  order  by  King  Ed- 
ward III  in  or  about  1348,  but  in 
modern  times  is  more  generally  be- 
stowed on  royal  personages  and  on 
leading  representatives  of  the  Brit- 
ish peerage.  The  first  statutes 
limited  its  number  to  the  sove- 
reign, the  prince  of  Wales,  and  24 
other  knights  companions.  The 
order  was  enlarged  during  the 
reigns  of  George  III  and  William 
IV,  and  now  includes  the  above  26 
knights  as  a  constituent  part  of  the 
original  foundation,  together  with 
such  descendants  of  George  I  as 
have  been  elected,  or  may  be  eli- 
gible to  be  elected,  with  the  addi- 
tion of  those  foreign  rulers  and 
princes  who  may  be  admitted. 

Each  knight  is  allotted  a  stall 
in  S.  George's  Chapel,  Windsor 
Castle,  on  which  is  set  up  a  plate 
engraved  with  his  titles  and  coat  of 
arms.  The  earlier  plates  are  some  of 
the  most  interesting  and  remark- 
able examples  of  heraldic  design  in 
existence.  Above  each  knight's 
stall  are  also  placed,  during  his  life- 
time, his  banner,  sword,  helmet, 
and  crest.  There  was  formerly  a 
special  ceremony  in  the  chapel, 
when  the  new  knight  was  invested 
with  the  habits  and  insignia  of  the 
order  and  conducted  to  his  stall, 
but  in  the  case  of  ordinary  knights 
companions  this  ceremony  has 
been  dispensed  with  for  some  con- 
siderable time,  and  they  are  usu- 
ally invested  by  the  king  person- 
ally. The  prince  of  Wales  was, 
however,  formally  installed  at  a 
special  service  which  was  held  in 
June,  1911. 

Insignia  of  the  Order 

The  habits  and  insignia  of  the 
order  are  the  garter,  mantle,  sur- 


3434 

coat,  hood,  star,  collar,  George 
and  lesser  George.  The  garter, 
of  dark  blue  velvet  inscribed  in 
gold  with  the  motto  of  the  order 
Honi  'Spit  Qui  Mai  Y  Pense  (Evil 
be  to  him  who  evil  thinks),  is  worn 
below  the  left  knee.  The  star 
has  a  buckled  circular  garter,  with 
the  motto,  enclosing  the  cross  of 
S.  George,  the  whole  enamelled  in 
the  proper  colours,  and  surrounded 
by  an  eight-pointed  star  of  silver 
rays ;  it  is  worn  on  the  left  breast. 
The  collar  is  of  gold  and  consists 
of  26  Tudor  roses  (alternately  red 
and  white),  each  within  a  circular 
garter,  and  joined  together  by 
chains  and  interlaced  knots  of  cords. 
The  George,  in  enamelled  gold,  re- 
presenting S.  George  and  the  dragon, 
is  suspended  from  the  collar.  The 
lesser  George  has  the  same  device 
on  an  enamelled  ground  sur- 
rounded by  an  oval  garter.  It  is 
worn  suspended  from  a  broad 
ribbon  of  garter  blue,  which  passes 
over  the  left  shoulder  and  under 
the  right  arm.  On  the  death  of  a 
knight  companion  his  insignia  are 
returned  to  the  sovereign. 

The  original  statutes  provided 
that  on  or  about  the  feast  of  S. 
George  (April  23)  the  knight 
companions  should  meet  at  Wind- 
sor and  attend  a  special  service  in 
S.  George's  chapel.  This  was  car- 
ried out  for  many  years,  but  at 
irregular  intervals,  and  was  finally 
discontinued  in  the  19th  century. 
In  1911,  when  the  prince  of  Wales 
was  installed,  and  again  in  1912- 
13-14,  however,  King  George  V 
revived  this  special  service. 

The  order  has  the  following 
officers  :  prelate,  the  bishop  of 
Winchester  ;  chancellor,  the  bishop 
of  Oxford  ;  registrar,  the  dean  of 
Windsor ;  herald,  garter  king  of 
arms ;  gentleman  usher  of  the 
black  rod ;  and  secretary.  Included 
in  the  order  of  the  garter  under 
the  statutes  are  the  canons  and 
the  military  (formerly  called 
poor)  knights  of  Windsor,  and 
the  lay  clerks  and  choristers  of 
S.  George's  chapel.  See  Heraldry ; 
Knighthood;  Military  Knights  of 
Windsor. 

Bibliography.  The  Institution, 
Laws  and  Ceremonies  of  the  Most 
Noble  Order  of  the  Garter,  E.  Ash- 
mole,  1672,  ed.  T.  Walker,  1715; 
The  History  of  Antiquities  of  Wind- 
sor Castle  .  .  .  and  Ceremonies 
of  the  Order  of  the  Garter,  Joseph 
Pote,  1749 ;  Memorials  of  the 
Order  of  the  Garter,  G.  F.  Beltz, 
1841  ;  History  of  the  Orders  of 
Knighthood  of  the  British  Empire, 
N.  H.  Nicolas,  1841-42. 

Garter  King  of  Arms.  Prin- 
cipal officer  of  the  English  Heralds' 
College.  His  office  was  instituted 
in  1417.  He  is  herald  of  the  order 
of  the  garter. 


GARVICE 

Garth  (Icel.  garthr,  enclosure). 
Enclosed  space  of  ground,  par- 
ticularly the  turf  within  a  cloister, 
known  as  the  cloister-garth.  The 
term  is  also  used  to  describe  a  kind 
of  dam  or  weir  for  fishing  pur- 
poses. See  Close. 

Gartok.  Chief  town  in  W. 
Tibet.  It  is  situated  at  an  altitude 
of  14,656  ft,,  800  m.  W.  of  Lhasa, 
It  was  opened  in  1904  as  a  trade 
mart,  with  a  British  commercial 
agent,  as  a  result  of  the  Young- 
husband  expedition  to  Lhasa. 

Garton  Foundation.  British 
politico-economic  trust.  Itwasfoun- 
ded  by  Sir  Richard  Garton  (b.  1 857 ) 
for  the  purpose  of  scientific  inquiry 
into  political  and  economic  ques- 
tions. The  results  of  the  inquiries 
are  usually  published  from  the 
headquarters  in  London. 

Gartsherrie.  District  of  Scot- 
land. Formerly  an  independent 
municipality,  it  is  now  part  of 
Coatbridge.  It  has  a  station  on 
the  N.B.  Ely.,  and  it  is  also  served 
by  the  Monkland  Canal.  Iron- 
works form  the  chief  industry, 
while  around  are  coal  mines.  Pop. 
16,200.  See  Coatbridge. 

Garua.  Town  of  Cameroons 
Protectorate,  W.  Africa.  In  the 
N.W.,  it  is  situated  on  the  Benue 
river,  which  is  navigable  for  shal- 
low boats  to  this  point  from  June 
to  Dec.  It  is  the  chief  centre  of  the 
Garua  district,  and  an  important 
station  on  the  Benue  route  to 
the  Niger.  It  surrendered  to  the 

Allies,  June  10.      

1915.      Pop.   T  <;f2fc 

530,000.  See  m 
Cameroons,  r 
Conquest  of. 

Garub.  Set-  | 
tlement  of  the 
S.W.  Africa 
Protectorate.  It 
is  a  station  on 
the  line  running, 
inland  from 
Luderitz  Bay 
or  A  n  g  r  a 
Pequena,  about 
70  m.  from  that 
place.  It  was 
seized  by  the 
forces  of  the 
Union  of  S.  Africa  under  Sir 
Duncan  Mackenzie,  Feb.  22,  1915, 
and  at  the  peace  passed  into  British 
possession.  See  South-West  Africa, 
Conquest  of. 

Garumnian.  Local  stage  of  the 
Upper  Cretaceous  series  of  strati- 
fied rocks  reaching  a  thickness  of 
2,500  feet;  it  is  developed  in  Pro- 
vence. It  is  notable  on  account  of  a 
fresh-water  origin,  containing  fresh- 
water and  terrestrial  fossil  shells. 

Garvice,  CHARLES  (d.  1920). 
British  novelist.  He  began  by 
publishing  a  volume,  Eve  and 


Garter   King   oi 
Arms 


GARV1N 


3435 


GAS 


Charles  Garvice, 
British  novelist 

Russell 


Other  Verses,  and  in  1875  pub- 
lished a  three  -  volume  novel, 
Maurice  Durant.  Between  1890- 
1900  his  stories,  mainly  charac- 

,,,:,  -  :,,,- „.,,,,„:.     ,,,      -.,,.,          t   G     T   1   S    C   (1  1)    V 

healthy  senti- 
ment, roman- 
tic h  a  p  p  e  n- 
ings,  and  hap- 
py endings,  be- 
gan to  be  wide- 
ly popular  in 
America.  Sim- 
ilar success 
came  to  him  in 
England  later, 
and  he  wrote  a 
long  succession  of  novels  on  con- 
ventionalised lines.  They  included 
Just  a  Girl,  1899  ;  Her  Heart's  De- 
sire, 1900;  The  Outcast  of  the 
Family,  1901  ;  In  Cupid's  Chains, 
1903;  Love  Decides,  1904;  The 
Gold  in  the  Gutter,  1907  ;  The  One 
Girl  in  the  World,  1916.  He  died 
at  Richmond,  March  1 .  1920. 

Garvin,  JAMES  Louis  (b.  1868). 
British  journalist.  While  in  his 
teens  he  made  his  first  contribu- 
tion to  journal-  _— _|_ _• 
ism  in  The  ft  j 
Eastern  Morn- 
i  n  g  News, 
Hull.  Corre- 
spondent of 
United  Ireland 
in  1890,  he  was 
leader  writer 
on  The  New- 
castle Chroni- 
cle, 1891-99  ; 
joined  the  staff 
of  The  Daily 
Telegraph  in  1899  ;  edited  The  Out- 
look, 1905-6;  The  Pall  Mall  Gazette, 
1912-15 ;  and  became  editor  of  The 
Observer  in  1908.  President  of  the 
Institute  of  Journalists,  1917-18, 
he  is  known  as  a  writer  and  speaker 
on  foreign  and  fiscal  topics,  and 
as  a  student  of  German  history, 
literature,  and  economics. 

Gary.  City  of  Indiana,  U.S.A., 
hi  Lake  co.  At  the  head  of  Lake 
Michigan,  30  m.  S.E.  of  Chicago,  it 
is  served  by  the  Lake  Shore  and 
Michigan  Southern  and  other  rlys. 
The  city  owes  its  prosperity  to  the 
United  States  Steel  Corporation, 
which  in  1906  selected  it  as  the  site 
for  the  establishment  of  its  chief 
works.  The  corporation  owns  most 
of  the  land  on  which  the  city 
stands,  and  also  controls  the  elec- 
tricity, gas,  water,  and  other  public 
utility  undertakings.  Gary  is  the 
greatest  steel -producing  city  in  the 
world,  and  has  important  tin-plate 
and  bridge-building  works,  foun- 
dries, locomotive  and  car  shops, 
and  cement  and  tube  factories. 
The  chief  buildings  are  the  city  hall, 
the  public  library,  and  two  hos- 
pitals. Pop.  16,800. 


Hainct 


GAS:       ITS     NATURE     AND     USES 

A.  J.  Liverseclge  and  Capt.  E.  de  W.  S.  Colver 

A  number  of  articles  deal  with  the  subject  of  gas.  It  is  first  defined 
from  the  theoretical  point  of  view.  A  section  follows  on  gas 
in  mines.  Gas  in  warfare  is  the  subject  of  a  separate  article, 
and  then  follow  a  number  of  entries  dealing  with  this  matter,  e.g. 
Gas  Helmet ;  Gas  Poisoning.  See  also  Gas  Company ;  Gas  Engine  ; 
Gas  Manufacture 


Gas  or  vapour  is  matter  in  a 
perfectly  fluid  state.  Sir  Oliver 
Lodge  differentiated  solids,  liquids, 
and  gases  in  the  statement :  "A 
solid  has  volume  and  shape ;  a 
liquid  has  volume,  but  no  shape  ;  a 
gas  has  neither  volume  nor  shape." 

Oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  nitrogen 
are  common  gases.  Both  solids  and 
liquids  may  change  into  gas  by  the 
application  of  heat,  as  gases  may 
be  transformed  into  liquids  and 
solids  by  cold.  Certain  gases,  e.g. 
hydrogen  and  oxygen,  were  once 
termed  "  permanent  gases  "  on  the 
assumption  that  they  were  not 
liquefiable,  an  assumption  no 
longer  true.  The  distinction  be- 
tween a  gas  and  a  vapour  that  may 
be  drawn  is  that  the  latter  is  more 
readily  made  liquid  by  a  small  de- 
crease of  temperature  or  pressure. 
Boyle,  Dalton,  Charles 

The  study  of  the  properties  of 
gases  and  the  laws  which  govern 
them  is  one  which  has  laid  the 
very  foundations  of  chemistry,  and 
has  advanced  modern  physics 
in  an  incalculable  degree.  The 
general  laws  governing  gases  are 
simple,  and  are  as  follows  : 

Boyle's  Law,  enunciated  by 
Robert  Boyle  in  1662,  states  that  if 
the  temperature  of  a  gas  be  kept 
constant  its  volume  changes  in  a 
definite  way  as  the  pressure 
changes ;  if  the  pressure  P  is 
doubled  the  volume  V  is  halved, 
and  so  on.  This,  an  experimental 
law,  is  not  strictly  accurate,  es- 
pecially under  high  pressures. 

Dalton's  Law  is  dxie  to  John 
Dalton,  who  in  1801  began  to  pub- 
lish his  series  of  important  papers 
on  the  properties  of  gases,  and  he 
enunciated  the  fact  that  if  a 
number  of  gases  are  contained  in 
the  same  vessel  they  mix  homo- 
geneously, and  that  the  pressure  on 
the  sides  of  the  containing  vessel  is 
the  sum  of  the  pressures  of  each  of 
the  gases. 

Charles's  Law  deals  with  the 
effect  of  temperature  on  the  volume 
of  a  gas.  Charles,  Dalton,  and  Gay- 
Lussac  at  about  the  same  time  dis- 
covered that  if  the  pressure  is  kept 
constant  the  volume  of  a  gas  in- 
creases according  to  the  law  v=vl 
(\-\-kt)  where  v  is  the  volume  at 
t°  C.  vl5  that  at  0°  C.  and  k  is  a  con- 
stant. The  importance  of  the  law 
is  that  k  is  the  same  for  all  gases, 
1/273.  This  law  again  is  not  strictly 
accurate,  for  if  it  were  it  would  lead 
to  the  result  that  at— 273°  C.  a  gas 


would  cease  to  have  volume.  At  very 
low  temperatures  the  law  changes, 
but  enough  investigations  have 
not  been  carried  out  to  say  ex- 
actly in  what  way. 

LAWS  OF  DIFFUSION.  Since  a 
gas  tends  to  fill  its  container,  if  two 
containing  vessels  filled  with  gases 
are  joined  together  the  two  will 
mix.  The  rate  of  mixing,  or  diffu- 
sion, depends  upon  their  relative 
densities.  The  law  of  diffusion 
states  that  the  rate  is  inversely 
proportional  to  the  square  root  of 
the  relative  densities.  Because  of 
this  property  of  diffusion  the  pro- 
portion of  nitrogen  and  oxygen  in 
the  air,  for  example,  is  the  same 
in  England  as  Australia,  on  the 
sea  coast  as  on  the  top  of  a  moun- 
tain. The  different  sensation  air 
gives  in  different  places  is  due  to 
temperature,  water  content,  etc., 
and  not  to  any  variation  in  com- 
position of  its  main  gases.  When  a 
gas  is  allowed  to  escape  through  a 
small  hole  it  is  said  to  effuse.  The 
rate  of  effusion  varies  as  diffusion, 
and  this  fact  has  been  made  use  of 
to  discover  the  density  of  one  gas 
in  terms  of  another. 

Avogadro's  Law  states  that  in 
equal  volumes  of  different  gases  at 
the  same  pressure  and  temperature 
there  are  an  equal  number  of 
molecules. 

Absorption  and  Solubility 

Solids  have  the  property  of  con- 
densing gases  in  a  thin  film  on  their 
surfaces  and  of  absorbing  or  oc- 
cluding them.  Palladium,  for  ex- 
ample, under  certain  conditions 
will  absorb  900  times  its  own 
volume  of  hydrogen ;  coconut 
charcoal  170  times  its  own  volume 
of  ammonia.  Gases  are  easily 
soluble  in  many  liquids,  the  quan- 
tity being  dissolved  being  pro- 
portional to  the  pressure.  Gases 
absorb  light  in  different  ways  and 
have  consequently  absorption 
bands  in  the  spectrum.  They  are 
poor  conductors  of  heat,  and  as 
conductors  of  electricity  vary  ac- 
cording to  their  temperature, 
pressure,  etc.  Air,  for  example,  is 
a  conductor  at  normal  pressures, 
and  an  insulator  at  low  pressures. 
,  In  the  kinetic  theory  of  gases 
it  is  assumed  that  the  molecules 
of  a  gas  are  in  constant  motion 
along  "straight  lines  ;  during  such 
motion  they  impinge  upon  other 
molecules,  gaseous,  liquid,  or 
solid,  and  suffer  a  change  of  direc- 
tion and  an  alteration  of  speed. 


GAS 

Consequently  the  speed  of  move- 
ment of  the  molecules  of  a  gas  is 
calculated  as  the  mean  or  average 
speed  of  motion  ;  the  mean  speed 
of  hydrogen  molecules  is  1,859 
metres,'  roughly  2,000  yds.,  a 
second,  i.e.  25  m.  in  22  seconds; 
the  values  for  nitrogen  and  oxygen 
are  492  and  465  respectively.  Under 
similar  conditions  of  temperature 
and  pressure  equal  volumes  of  all 
gases  contain  an  equal  number  of 
molecules.  The  density  of  a  gas  is 
usually  related  to  that  of  hydrogen ; 
in  such  terms  the  densities  are : 
oxygen,  15*96  ;  nitrogen,  14'03  ; 
coal  gas,  about  5.  In  popular 
usage  the  term  gas  implies  "  coal 
gas,"  the  nitrous  oxide  used  by 
the  dentist,  or  "  natural  gas."  See 
Coal  Gas ;  Natural  Gas ;  Lique- 
faction of  Gases  ;  Chemistry  ; 
Molecule. 

GAS  IN  MINES.  The  workings  in 
all  classes  of  mines  are  liable  to 
contain  gas  ;  but  coal  mines  are 
peculiarly  subject  to  this  con- 
tingency. The  chief  gases  which 
occur  are  sulphuretted  hydrogen 
(HoS),  frequently  called  "  stink 
damp,"  which  doubtless  arises 
from  the  decomposition  of  pyrites  ; 
carbon  monoxide  (CO),  "  white 
damp  "  ;  carbon  dioxide  (CO->)  or 
carbonic  acid  gas,  "  choke  damp," 
"  black  damp,"  or  "  after  damp  "  ; 
and  marsh  gas  (CH4),  commonly 
known  as  "  fire  damp."  The  car- 
bon monoxide  and  the  carbonic 
acid  gas  may  be  due  to  natural 
causes  or  be  simply  the  residual 
products  of  the  combustion  of 
explosives  used  in  the  mines.  Both 
are  injurious  to  life,  the  former 
being  a  deadly  poison.  The  most 
important  of  all  these  gases,  how- 
ever, is  the  marsh  gas  or  fire  damp, 
which  is  the  chief  agent  in  the  pro- 
duction of  mine  explosions.  See 
Mining  ;  Explosion. 

Gas.  Term  commonly  used 
collectively  to  describe  the  poison- 
ous and  irritating  chemicals  dis- 
charged against  hostile  troops  as 
one  phase  of  modern  warfare, 
irrespective  of  whether  the  sub- 
stances used  are  actually  gases, 
liquids,  or  solids.  The  method  was 
first  used  in  the  Great  War,  con- 
trary to  the  provisions  of  the 
Hague  Convention,  the  first  attack 
being  that  made  by  the  Germans 
at  Ypres  in  April,  1915. 

The  first  method  employed  was 
to  discharge  clouds  of  gas  against 
the  enemy  from  cylinders  kept  in 
the  trenches,  but  the  utility  of 
this  method  was  not  only  limited 
by  the  restricted  choice  of  gases 
which  are  suitable,  but  also  by  the 
necessity  of  only  making  the  attack 
when  weather  conditions  were 
favourable.  The  method  has  been 
largely  superseded  by  the  use  of 


3436 

shell  charged  with  "  gas  "  which  is 
released  when  the  shell  explodes. 
This  method  was  introduced  on  a 
large  scale  by  the  Germans  in  the 
Somme  battles  of  1916,  and  shell  of 
this  nature  became  part  of  the  stan- 
dard equipment  of  both  the  artillery 
and  trench  mortar  batteries.  Gas 
shell  permit  of  a  much  wider  range 
of  chemicals  being  utilised. 

The  chemicals  used  may  be 
lethal  in  their  effect  or  incapacitate^ 
troops  either  by  a  lachrymatory 
effect  or  by  causing  violent 
sneezing,  the  latter  effect  also 
making  it  impossible  for  troops  to 
fit  or  retain  their  gas  masks,  when 
they  may  be  subjected  to  a  bom- 
bardment with  lethal  gas.  The 
chief  desiderata  in  gas  warfare 
are  :  high  concentration  of  the  gas 
in  the  atmosphere,  surprise  in 
tactics,  and  the  use  of  unexpected 
chemicals.  During  the  Great  War, 
except  in  the  first  unexpected 
attacks,  progress  in  protective  de- 
vices kept  in  advance  of  the  gas 
used,  and  casualties  were  not  ab- 
normal. There  is  no  mechanical 
difficulty  in  using  aeroplane  bombs 
charged  with  gas,  but  so  far  this 
method  has  not  been  employed. 
See  Ammunition  ;  Chemicaf  Shell  ; 
Gas  Cloud;  Gas  Helmet;  Gas 
Poisoning  ;  Gas  Shell  ;  Lachry- 
matory Shell  ;  Mustard  Gas  ; 
Sneezing  Gas  ;  Tear  Shell. 

Gas-bag.  In  aeronautics,  flex- 
ible bag  made  of  fabric,  and  em- 
ployed to  hold  the  gas  in  an  air- 
ship. Gas-bag  is  also  slang  for 
the  airship  itself.  See  Airship. 

Gas  Check.  Device  to  prevent 
or  minimise  the  escape  of  pro- 
pellant  gases  between  the  pro- 
jectile and  walls  of  a  gun  barrel. 
Many  types  of 
c  onstruction 
were  tried  to 
prevent  this 
escape,  includ- 
ing shell  with 
loose  bases,  the 
latter  being 
driven  forward 
by  the  pressure 
of  the  propel  - 
lant  gases,  com- 
pressing a  lead 
or  copper 
washer  against 
the  body  of  the 
shell  and  forc- 
ing  it  into  the 
grooves.  Lead- 
coated  shell 
were  much  used 
with  the  early 
breech-  loaders, 
and  another 
device  was  a 
plate 


Gas  Check.    Sec- 
tional     view     of 


check 


cter    than    the 


GASCOIGNE 

bore,  fixed  to  the  base  of  the  shell, 
this  being  forced  into  the  shape  of 
a  cup  and  the  edges  held  tightly 
against  the  barrel  when  the  piece 
was  fired.  Modern  gas  checks 
employ  a  similar  principle,  but  the 
device  is  incorporated  with  the 
driving  band,  a  lip  being  formed, 
under  which  the  powder  gases  pene- 
trate, holding  the  lip  firmly  against 
the  barrel.  See  Driving  Band;  Shell; 
Windage. 

Gas  Cloud.  Term  employed  to 
define  the  direct  discharge  of 
poison  gas  in  warfare.  Chlorine, 
phosgene,  and  bromine  have  been 
utilised  in  this  way,  the  gases 
being  compressed  into  cylinders 
like  those  used  for  oxygen,  etc. 

Holes  are  dug  in  the  front  walls 
of  the  trenches  and  the  cylinders 
placed  therein,  covered  with  moss 
soaked  in  sodium  carbonate,  and 
then  protected  by  sandbags.  A 
metal  tube  is  connected  to  the  cylin- 
der valve  and  carried  over  the  para- 
pet. When  a  gas  attack  is  to  be 
made  the  valves  of  all  the  cylinders 
on  that  section  of  the  front  are 
opened,  and  the  gas  forms  a  cloud 
which  will  travel  down  hill  or  be 
carried  by  the  wind  if  the  latter  is 
not  too  strong  or  gusty.  Warning  of 
such  attacks  is  generally  given  by 
the  noise  of  the  gas  escaping  from 
the  cylinders,  and  it  is  difficult  to 
obtain  effective  concentration  at 
any  distance.  Gas  clouds  were 
disguised  by  mixing  or  alternating 
them  with  smoke  clouds,  but 
during  the  later  stages  of  the  war 
were  largely  superseded  by  the 
use  of  poisons  in  shell. 

Gascoigne,  GEORGE  (c.  1525- 
77).  English  poet.  Born  at  Car- 
dington,  Bedfordshire,  and  edu- 
_  cated  at  Cam- 
8  bridge  and  the 
Inns  of  Court, 
he  was  M.P. 
for  Bedford, 
fought  in  the 
Low  Countries, 
took  part  in  the 
famous  festival 
at  Kenilworth, 
and  died  at 
Stamford, 
Oct.  7,  1577.  To  him  is  due  the 
first  English  prose  comedy,  The 
Supposes,  1566  (an  English  adapta- 
tion of  Ariosto's  Gli  Suppositi), 
which  supplied  the  underplot  of 
Shakespeare's  The  Taming  of  the 
Shrew.  In  collaboration  with  Fran- 
cis Kinwelmersh  he  wrote  the 
second  English  tragedy,  Jocasta, 
1566  (from  an  Italian  version  of 
Euripides'  Phoenissae) ;  one  of  the 
earliest  English  satires  in  blank 
verse,  The  Steel  Glass,  1576  ;  the 
first  critical  essay  on  English  versi- 
fication, Certain  Notes  of  Instruc- 
tion in  English  Verse,  1575  ;  and 


George  Gascoigne, 
English  poet 


Sir  W.  Gascoigne, 
English  judge 


GASCOIGNE 

Ferdinando  Jeronimi,  1572,  proba- 
bly the  first  English  imitation  of 
the  Italian  novella.  See  Works, 
J.  W.  Cunliffe,  1907,  etc. ;  Life  and 
Writings,  F.  E.  Schelling,  1894. 

Gascoigne,  Sm  WILLIAM  (c. 
1 350-1419 )/  English  judge.  He 
was  made  one  of  the  king's  ser- 
jeants  in  1397, 
and  chief  jus- 
tice  of  the 
king's  bench  in 
1400,  enjoying 
a  high  reputa- 
tion for  impar- 
tiality  and 
fearlessness. 
He  is  said  to 
have  refused 
Henry  I  V's 
request  to  pronounce  sentence  on 
Archbishop  Scrope,  who  was  im- 
plicated in  Hotspur's  insurrection, 
and  is  traditionally  supposed  to 
have  committed  Prince  Hal  to 
prison  for  striking  him  in  court, 
(c/.  Shakespeare's  Henry  IV, 
part  2.) 

Gas  Company.  Limited  liabil- 
ity company  formed  to  supply  the 
public  with  gas,  such  being  under 
some  greater  restrictions  than 
ordinary  Companies.  There  is 
nothing  to  prevent  a  private 
person  making  his  own  gas  supply, 
except  the  risk  of  creating  a  public 
nuisance.  This  involves  such  a 
respect  of  rights  and  easements, 
public  and  private,  that  in  practice 
gas  in  Great  Britain  is  supplied 
only  by  municipal  authorities  and 
commercial  companies. 

The  rights  and  limitations  of  the 
companies  are  governed  by  a  large 
body  of  statutes,  mainly  the  Gas- 
works Clauses  Acts,  1847  and 
1871.  These  restrict  the  profits 
of  commsrcial  gas  supply,  and 
provide  for  the  presentation  of 
accounts  periodically  to  the  local 
authorities. 

The  London  local  authorities 
have  no  power  to  supply  gas  in  the 
metropolitan  district,  and  each  of 
the  metropolitan  companies  has  a 
specific  zone  of  activity  for  which 
it  possesses  the  monopoly. 

Gas  companies  contract  to 
supply  gas  at  prices  fixed  by  special 
statutes,  and  measured  by  meters 
tested  and  stamped  under  the  Sale 
of  Gas  Act.  These  meters  are  the 
property  of  the  company,  which 
must  keep  them  in  repair,  and  they 
cannot  be  taken  hi  distraint  for 
rent.  Users  are  entitled  to  have 
the  meters  tested  by  official  gas 
inspectors.  The  theft  of  gas  can 
be  dealt  with  as  a  larceny,  and  the 
fraudulent  use  of  gas,  or  wilful 
damage  to  fittings,  may  be  pun- 
ished by  police  court  proceedings. 
The  quality  and  purity  of  gas  are 
also  subject  to  official  control. 


3437 

If  the  gas  rent  is  not  paid,  the 
supply  may  be  cut  off  and  the 
meter  removed.  If  a  tenant  re- 
mains within  the  zone  of  the  gas 
company  which  has  cut  off  his  gas 
supply,  the  company  need  not 
restore  it  until  the  arrears  are  paid. 
An  incoming  tenant  is  not  respon- 
sible for  the  arrears  left  unpaid  by 
his  predecessors. 

Gas  companies  are  subject  to 
severe  penalties  for  committing 
nuisances  by  way  of  obstruction  hi 
public  highways,  or  of  pollution  of 
air  or  water,  or  for  the  escape  of 
gas,  under  a  series  of  Acts  re- 
lating to  London  and  other  parts 
of  the  country  respectively. 

Gascony.  One  of  the  old  provs. 
of  France.  Bounded  on  the  W.  by 
the  Atlantic,  Gascony  lay  contigu- 
ous with  Languedoc  and  Foix  on 
the  E.,  with  Navarre  and  Beam  on 
the  S.,  and  with  Guienne  on  the  N. 
Gascon  territory  would  thus  fall 
within  the  modern  depts.  of  Landes, 
Hautes-Pyrenees,  Gers,  and  parts 
of  Haute-Garonne,  Lot-et-Garonne, 
Ariege,  and  Tarn-et-Garonne.  The 
centre  of  government  was  Auch. 

The  name  comes  from  that  of 
the  Iberian  tribe  of  the  Vascones, 
who  invaded  the  Roman  prov.  of 
this  district,  known  as  Novempo- 
pulana,  between  580  and  590,  and 
settled  there  in  considerable  num- 
bers. After  an  unsuccessful  in- 
vasion by  the  Frankish  king  Chil- 
peric,  Gascony  (Vasconia)  was  in- 
vaded by  Thierry  II  of  Burgundy, 
and  Theodebert  of  Austrasia,  in 
602,  and  Duke  Genialis  was  nomi- 
nated over  the  province.  The 
people  retained  a  great  measure  of 
independence,  establishing  a  ducal 
dynasty  of  their  own.  The  Vas- 
cones, under  Duke  Lupus  I,  at- 
tacked Charlemagne  at  Ronces- 
valles,  in  778.  By  819,  however, 
Frankish  dukes  were  ruling.  A 
duke  Totilus  is  mentioned  as  re- 
ceiving Gascony  from  Louis  I  the 
Pious,  and  among  his  successors 
were  Seguin,  William,  and  Arnaud, 
on  whose  death,  in  864,  the  Gascons 
restored  Sanches,  one  of  their 
old  line.  Sanches's  descendants 
held  the  crown  until  c.  1073, 
when  Gascony  became  merged  in 
Aquitaine. 

Eleanor,  daughter  of  William  X, 
duke  of  Aquitaine,  brought  Gas- 
cony as  a  part  of  her  dowry  to 
Prince  Henry  of  England,  later 
Henry  III,  in  1152.  It  thus  be- 
came part  of  the  English  posses- 
sions in  France.  It  was  governed 
for  a  time  by  Henry's  sons,  Richard 
and  John  successively,  but  its 
history  was  thenceforth  closely 
linked  with  that  of  Aquitaine. 
Simon  de  Montfort  was  the  most 
notable  of  the  English  governors, 
1248-52.  There  was  much  internal 


GASELEE 

dissension,  the  Gascon  nobility 
inclining  towards  the  French  al- 
legiance.whiie  the  merchant  classes 
favoured  the  English  connexion. 
The  peace  of  Br6tigny,  1360,  as- 
signed Gascony  definitely  to  Edward 
III,  with  Aquitaine,  and  Ed- 
ward in  return  abandoned  all 
claims  to  the  French  crown.  It 
was  a  storm  centre  of  the  Hundred 
Years'  War,  and  in  1453  returned 
finally  to  union  with  the  French 
kingdom. 

The  Gascon  dialect,  which  is  be- 
lieved to  have  changed  very  little 
from  its  medieval  form,  still  pre- 
vails in  the  district.  It  exercised 
a  considerable  influence  on  the  de- 
velopment of  the  French  language 
during  the  16th  century,  especially 
through  several  distinguished 
writers  of  Gascon  origin,  notably 
Montaigne,  and  by  the  infusion  of 
many  Spanish  and  Proven9al 
words  and  expressions.  The  ex- 
uberant and  vaunting  character  of 
the  Gascon  people  is  proverbial 
throughout  France,  the  term  gas- 
connade  being  applied  to  bragging, 
flamboyant  speeches  or  actions. 
See  Aquitaine  ;  France ;  Hundred 
Years'  War;  consult  also  Histoire 
de  la  Gascogne,  Montezun,  1846- 
50 ;  La  Vasconie,  etude  historique 
et  critique,  Jaurgain,  1898-1902. 

Gascoyne.  River  of  W.  Aus- 
tralia. 1 1  rises  hi  three  headstreams, 
near  the  Carnarvon  Range,  in  the 
N.  W.  division,  and  flows  in  a  gener- 
ally W.  course  of  300  m.,  to  empty 
into  Shark  Bay,  near  Carnarvon. 

Gaselee,  SIR  ALFRED  (1844- 
1918).  British  soldier.  Born  June 
3,  1844.  he  was  educated  at  Fel- 
sted  and  Sand- 
hurst, obtain- 
ing a  commis- 
sion in  the  93rd 
Highlanders  in 
1863.  He 
served  on  the 
Indian  N.W. 
frontier,  1863; 
against  the 
Afridis,  1877- 
78 ;  in  the 
Afghan  War, 
1878-80,  taking  part  in  the  march 
to  Kandahar;  in  the  Zhob  Valley 
expedition,  1884 ;  and  in  nearly 
all  the  frontier  fighting  down 
to  1900,  including  the  Wazaristan 
and  Tirah  campaigns.  A  briga- 
dier and  K.C.B.,  he  commanded 
the  British  forces  in  the  ad- 
vance on  Peking  to  the  relief  of 
the  legations,  1900,  when  his 
leadership  contributed  much  to 
the  success  of  the  Allied  operations. 
In  1906  he  was  promoted  general, 
retiring  in  1911,  after  command- 
ing the  Northern  army  in  India, 
1907-8.  He  died  at  Guildford, 
March  29,  1918. 


Sir  Alfred  Gaselee 

British  soldier 

Lafayette 


GAS  ENGINE 


3438 


GAS  ENGINE 


Gas  Engine.  Instrument  for 
developing  power.  It  is  distin- 
guished from  the  steam  engine  by 
the  fact  that  the  heat  which  is  the 
immediate  source  of  its  power  is 
developed  in  the  engine  cylinder 
behind  the  working  piston,  which 
is  moved  directly  by  the  expansive 
force  which  accompanies  the  de- 
velopment of  the  heat.  That  is  to 
say,  the  fuel — gas — is  burned 
directly  in  the  engine  cylinder,  and 
not  in  a  separate  vessel  such  as  a 
steam  boiler. 

About  1680  the  French  scientist, 
the  Abbe*  d'  Hautefeuille,  arid  the 
Dutch  mathematician,  Christian 
Huygens,  both  suggested  a  form 
of  engine  in  which  the  power  was 
to  be  derived  from  the  explosive 
energy  of  gunpowder.  A  century 
later  an  English  patent  was  granted 
to  John  Barber  for  what  he  called 
an  "  exploder,"  in  which  he  pro- 
posed to  explode  a  mixture  of 
hydrocarbon  gas  and  air,  and  in 
that  way  develop  motive  power ; 
and  in  Barber's  specification  is  the 
first  suggestion  of  the  gas  engine 
of  which  there  is  any  record. 

A  little  later  a  French  engineer, 
Philippe  Lebon,  suggested  the  use 
of  coal  gas  as  a  source  of  power ; 
but  it  was  not  until  1860  that 
another  French  inventor,  Etienne 
Lenoir,  designed  a  practical  engine, 
of  which  several  hundreds  were 
made  both  in  France  and  in  this 
country,  although  it  was  of  only 
very  limited  power,  and  consumed 
much  gas,  over  140  cubic  feet  per 
horse-power  hour.  Two  years  later 


Gas  Engine.  Typical  4-cycle  gas  engine.  Fig.  1.  A,  cylinder;  B,  trunk 
piston;  C,  connecting-rod;  D,  crank;  E,  crank-pin;  F,  crank-shaft ;  G,  fly- 
wheel; H,  framing;  J,  gas  and  air  inlet  valve;  K,  outlet  valve  for  burnt  gases; 
M,  flame  slide  valve;  N,  ignition  gas  flame  ;  0,  water  jacket.  Fig.  2.  First 
stage  of  cycle,  drawing  in  gas  and  air,  a  to  b  in  indicator  diagram.  Fig.  3. 
Second  stage,  compression  of  gases,  b  to  c  in  indicator  diagram.  Fig.  4. 
Firing  oi  gases,  c,  d,  e  of  indicator  diagram.  Fig.  5.  Fourth  stage,  driving  out 
burnt  gases,  e  to  a  of  indicator  diagram.  See  text 


Card1 


ence  to  the  indicator  diagram  and 
Fig.  1.  The  engine  works  on  what  is 
called  a  four-cycle, 
that  is  to  say 
there  is  one  im- 
pulse (explosion) 
in  the  engine  cylin- 
der to  every  four 
strokes  of  the 
piston,  two  for- 
ward and  two  back, 


Gas 


indicator     diagram, 
pressure  of  gases  in  cylinder.    For  explanation,  see  "text 


~b    crank.     The  cycle 
showing    varying       is  made  up  of  the 


(3)  The  mixture  is  exploded,  and 
the  piston  advances  a  second  time, 
driven  forward  by  the  force  of  the 
explosion.    This  movement  is  repre- 
sented   by     the     line     c  d  b,    the 
height    of    d  above    the    line    a  b 
indicating  the  maximum  pressure 
upon  the  explosion  of  the  mixture. 

(4)  Finally  the  piston  returns  from 
B  to  A,  and  drives  out  as  it  moves 
the  waste  gases  resulting  from  the 

or  in  two  complete    combustion  of  the  original  charge. 

revolutions  of  the  The  fact  that  only  one  explosion 
takes  place  in  every  four  strokes 
of  the  piston  or  two  revolutions  of 


another  French  scientist,  Beau  de  ments  :      (1) 

Rochas,  proposed  the  adoption  of  piston  advances 

the   principle   of   compressing   the  from  A  to  B,  dra 

mixture  of  gas  and  air  before  ex-  ' 
ploding  it  in  the  engine  cylinder, 

Cl  _.,__]_    M 


following 
the 


move--  the  crank  results  in  a  vorv  notice- 


and  suggested  the  working  "  cycle, 
which    has    since    been    generally 


adopted.  Improvements  were 
added  to  Lenoir's  design  by  Dr. 
Nicholas  A.  Otto  and  Eugen 
Langen,  and  in  1878  the  former 
embodied  the  principle  of  com- 
pression which  had  been  suggested 
by  Beau  de  Rochas  in  a  design  of 
engine  which  was  the  first  to  at- 
tain real  success. 

The  principle  of  the  Otto  engine    senting  the  degre 
may  be  readily  understood  by  refer-     of  compression. 


ing  in  as  it  moves 
the  mixture  of  gas 
and  air.  (2)  The 
piston  returns  to 
the  other  end  of 
its  stroke,  and  in 
doing  so  com- 
presses the  air  and 
gas.  This  move- 
ment is  represented 
by  the  line  b  c,  the 
height  of  c  above 
the  line  a  b  repre- 


Engine.       Two  to  seven  Brake   Hoise    Power 
(B.H.P.)  horizontal  gas  engine 


GAS   HELMET 


3439 


GAS   HELMET 


blast-furnace  gas 
per  brake  horse- 
power hour.  The 
calorific  values  of 
the  three  gases  are 
roughly  550,  140, 
and  105  B.  Th.  U. 
per  cubic  ft.  re- 
spectively. 

Owing     to      the 
verv    high     tem- 


employcd,  and  in  the  rejected  hot 
gases,  much  heat  is  thrown  away ; 
the  percentage  actually  utilised 
in  developing  useful  power  rang- 
ing from  15  p.c.  to  30  p.c.  It 
has,  therefore,  been  proposed  in 
the  Still  and  other  engines  to 
utilise  this  waste  heat  by  raising 
steam  with  it  and  using  the  steam 
to  drive  a  supplementary  engine. 

A.  Williams 


able  feature  of  the  ordinary  type 
of  gas  engine,  the  heavy  fly-wheels 
employed.  This  excessive  weight 
is  necessary  in  order  to  equalise 
as  far  as  possible  the  turning  move- 
ment of  the  engine  crank,  and  to 
damp  the  effect  of  the  explosion. 
It  will  be  easily  understood  that 
if  an  engine  could  be  designed  in 
which  an  explosion  would  take 
place  every  revolution,  double 
the  power  might  be  obtained  from 
an  engine  of  a  given  size,  and  a 
more  equal  turning  movement 
would  result. 

This  end  was  obtained  by  Mr. 
(now  Sir)  Dugald  Clerk  in  1886  by 
his  invention  of  a  two-cycle  engine, 
in  which  he  introduced  an  extra 
cylinder,  the  purpose  of  which  was 
to  draw  in  and  compress  the 
charge  and  to  sweep  out  the  burnt 
gases  from  the  power  cylinder  by 
a  blast  of  air.  The  principle  of  the 
Clerk  cycle  has  been  embodied  in 
the  large  gas  engines  of  to-day, 
some  of  which  have  an  individual 
rating  of  5,000  h.p.,  a  capacity 
which  it  would  be  difficult  to  reach 
in  engines  of  four-cycle  type. 

Many  varieties  of  gas  engines 
are  now  available,  but  practically 
all  follow  one  or  other  of  the 
cycles  which  have  been  indicated  ; 
while  the  charge  of  gas  and  air  is 
ignited  in  all,  either  by  a  small  gas 
flame  which  is  made  to  enter  for 
an  instant  into  the  cylinder,  or  by 
an  electric  spark  from  a  magneto 
or  battery.  Various  methods  of 
"  governing "  the  engine  are 
adopted  ;  in  some  the  weight  and 
density  of  the  charge  is  varied, 
and  in  others  the  duration  of  the 
period  during  which  the  charge  is 
admitted  to  the  cylinder,  the 
duration  being  extended  and  more 
gas  admitted  as  the  power  re- 
quired increases. 

The  consumption  of  coal  gas  in 
small  engines  has  been  reduced  to 
as  little  as  24  cubic  ft.  per  brake 
horse-power  hour;  on  Mond  gas, 
experiments  have  given  a  consump- 
tion of  66  cubic  ft.  per  brake 
horse-power  hour  in  an  engine  de- 
veloping 750  h.p.  ;  while  a  full 
load  of  1,200  brake  horse -power 
has  been  developed  with  a  con- 
sumption of  102  cubic  ft.  of  waste 


Gas  Engine.     1,500  B.H.P.  gas  engine  with  rope-drive  fly-wheel.     Above, 
seven  600  B.H.F.  Cockerill-Westgarth  gas-driven  blowing  engines 

peratures  reached  by  the  exploded  Gas  Helmet.  Device  for  pro- 
mixture  in  the  engine  cylinder  of  tecting  troops  against  the  effects 
a  gas  engine  it  is  necessary  to  cool  of  lethal  or  irritant  gases  dis- 
the  walls  of  the  cylinder,  and  also  charged  at  them  by  the  enemy, 
in  large  engines  the  piston,  by  cir-  The  gas  helmet  was  developed  by 
culating  water  around  or  through  the  Allies  during  1915,  after  the 
them.  In  the  coolinc  water  thus  German  use  of  clouds  of  chlorine 


4 ! 
it 


Gas  Helmet.  1.  Box  respirator  used  in  the  British  army.  The  wearer  inhales 
through  the  tube  from  the  box  respirator  and  exhales  through  the  little  soft 
rubber  valve  shown  behind  the  tube  in  2,  as  no  gas  can  enter  through  the 
valve.  3.  Tin  box  containing  the  chemicals  which  absorb  the  gas  as  the  air  is 
inhaled.  4.  German,  and  5,  French  gas  masks 


GASKELL 

in  the  first  gas  attack  at  Ypres. 
It  consisted  of  a  flannel  bag  pro- 
vided with  a  mica  window,  and  of 
sufficient  size  completely  to  en- 
velop the  wearer's  head  and  be 
well  tucked  in  round  the  neck 
under  the  tunic.  The  flannel  was 
treated  with  a  solution  of  sodium 
carbonate,  which  combines  with 
free  chlorine  and  thus  purifies  the 
air  that  passes  through. 

Subsequently,  with  the  use  of 
phosgene  gas  by  the  Germans 
helmets  were  impregnated  with 
sodium  thiosulphate  and  sodium 
phenate,  and  fitted  with  a  valve 
through  which  the  exhaled  air  was 
blown,  making  the  helmet  much 
more  comfortable  to  wear.  The 
advent  of  the  use  of  gas  shells  made 
it  necessary  to  provide  protection 
against  higher  concentrations  of  a 
much  wider  range  of  chemicals,  and 
this  could  not  adequately  be  done 
with  impregnated  fabric,  with  the 
result  that  the  box  respirator  orgas- 
mask  was  introduced,  but  the  latest 
type  of  gas  helmet  was  retained  as 
the  reserve  equipment  in  the  British 
Army. 

In  the  box  type  respirators,  a 
close-fitting  mask  on  the  face  is 
connected  by  flexible  tubing  to  a 
box  containing  the  chemicals,  and 
carried  on  the  breast  from  a  strap 
round  the  neck.  The  chemicals  are 
usually  consecutive  layers  of  active 
absorbent  charcoal  and  pumice  im- 
pregnated with  sodium  carbon- 
ate and  hexamethylenetetramine. 
These  will  absorb  all  the  gases  used 
up  to  now.  (See  Gas.) 

Gas  helmet  is  also  the  name 
applied  to  the  breathing  apparatus 
used  by  rescue  parties  when  enter- 
ing a  coal-mine  after  an  explosion. 
This  consists  of  a  head-covering 
which  excludes  air,  fitted  with 
goggles  and  a  valve  through  which 
the  exhaled  air  is  blown,  and  is  fed 
with  oxygen  carried  in  the  com- 
pressed state  in  small  cylinders 
attached  to  the  shoulders.  The  gas 
passes  through  a  reducing  valve  to 
lower  its  pressure,  and  is  mixed 
with  the  exhaled  air  after  the 
latter  has  been  freed  from  carbonic 
acid  gas  by  treatment  with  caustic 
soda  in  a  separate  chamber. 

Gaskell,  ELIZABETH  CLEGHORN 
(1810-65).  British  novelist.  Born 
at  Chelsea,  Sept.  29, 1810,  daughter 
of  T.  Steven- 
son, Keeper 
o  f  Treasury 
Records,  she 
was  brought 
up  at  Knuts- 
ford, Cheshire, 
PXlfcfc.  and  Stratford- 
I  on-Avon.  In 
a  1832  she  mar- 
ried William 
Gaskell,  a 


344O 

Unitarian  minister  and  professor  of 
English  literature  at  Manchester. 
Her  first  novel,  Mary  Barton,  1848, 
met  with  wide  success  and  high 
praise,  and  was  followed  by  Ruth, 
1853,  and  by  her  best  known  work, 
Cranford,  1853,  a  charming  picture 
of  village  life  founded  on  her  recol- 
lections of  Knutsford.  Other  works 
were  North  and  South,  1855, 
Sylvia's  Lovers,  1863,  several  vol- 
umes of  short  stories,  and  the  excel- 
lent life  of  her  friend,  Charlotte 
Bronte,  1857.  Mrs.  Gaskell  died 
near  Alton,  Hants,  Nov.  12,  1865, 
and  was  buried  at  Knutsford.  See 
Mrs.  Gaskell,  C.  K.  Shorter,  1908 ; 
Mrs.  Gaskell :  Haunts,  Homes,  and 
Stories,  Mrs.  Chadwick,  1910. 

Gasket.  Rope  yarn  used  for 
making  joints  in  spigot  and  faucet 
pipes.  The  yarn  is  rammed  well 
into  the  joint,  and  melted  lead  is 
then  poured  in  and  caulked  to 
complete  the  joint.  It  is  also  a 
cord  or  rope,  of  which  the  ends 
of  the  strands  are  plaited,  secured 
to  a  ship's  yard,  to  which  a  sail  is 
fastened.  A  gasket  and  eye  is 
formed  by  looping  the  end  of  a  rope 
and  plaiting  the  loose  ends. 

Gas  Lighting.  The  use  of  gas 
for  illuminating  purposes  was  first 

E ractically  demonstrated  by  Wil- 
am  Murdock  in  1779.  It  was  not 
for  some  years,  however,  that  coal 
ga&  began  to  be  used  to  any  extent. 
In  1798  Murdock  used  gas  as  an 
illuminant  in  a  Soho  factory,  and  a 
few  years  later  he  applied  it  to 
cotton  mills  in  Manchester.  In 
1810  the  Gas  Light  and  Coke  Com- 
pany was  formed ;  three  years  later 
Westminster  Bridge  was  lighted 
with  gas;  and  its  use  gradually, 
though  slowly,  extended  to  street 
and  other  forms  of  lighting.  The 
invention  of  the  gas  mantle,  and 
the  consequent  greatly  increased 
light  obtained,  put  gas  lighting  on 
a  better  basis  to  compete  with 
electric  lighting.  See  Lighting. 

Gaslight  Paper.  Paper,  used 
for  printing  photographs,  of  such 
sensitiveness  to  light  that  the 
exposure  behind  the  negative  and 
the  development  of  the  invisible 
image  thus  produced  can  both  be 
done  by  gaslight  or  equivalent  illu- 
mination. The  exposure  is  made 
a  few  inches  from  the  light ;  the 
development  some  feet  away,  and, 
as  a  measure  of  precaution,  hi 
shadow.  Gaslight  paper  was  in- 
troduced in  America  about  1897. 
See  Photography. 

Gas  Liquor.  Ammoniacal  li- 
quor which  separates  from  coal 
gas  in  the  hydraulic  main.  The 
liquid  is  collected  in  a  well,  and 
contains  practically  the  whole  of 
the  ammonia  yielded  by  the  coal 
in  the  process  of  distillation.  The 
ammonia  is  not  present  in  the  free 


GAS     METER 

state,  but  is  combined  as  sulphide, 
carbonate,  chloride,  sulphate, 
cyanide,  ete.  Sulphuretted  hydro- 
gen, phenols,  and  pyridine  are  also 
present  in  the  gas  liquor.  The 
liquor  is  distilled  to  obtain  the 
ammonia,  which  is  combined  with 
sulphuric  acid  to  form  sulphate  of 
ammonia,  employed  extensively  as 
a  fertiliser.  See  Coal  Gas. 

Gas  Mantle.  Device  for  in- 
creasing the  illuminating  power  of 
coal  gas.  In  1885  Karl  Auer,  Baron 
von  Welsbach,  an 
Austrian  scientist 
who  had  been 
studying  the  rare 
earths,  introduced 
in  Vienna  the  now 
well  -  known  gas 
mantle,  which 
yields  from  four 
to  five  times  the 
amount  of  light 
given  by  the  best 
previous  burners 
for  the  same  con- 
sumption of  gas. 
Previous  to  the  in- 
vention  of  the 
Welsbach  burner 
an  attempt  had 
been  made  to  em- 
body something  of' 
the  same  idea  in 
fine  platinum  wire, 
but  not  with  any 
particular  success. 
While  various  rare 
earths  have  been 


'm  *"%  pro- 

Welsbach  -  Kern    duction   of    gas 
high-p  ressure    mantles,    the 


b,  b',  air  inlets  ;    used   to-day  is 

c,  gas    and  air    oxide     of     thoria, 
mixer;  d,  burner    containing     about 
1  per  cent,  of  the  oxide  of  ceria. 

Gas  Manufacture.  Gases  have 
become  of  rapidly  increasing  im- 
portance in  modern  commerce,  and 
their  manufacture  on  an  extensive 
scale  forms  a  widespread  industry. 
The  actual  processes  of  manu- 
facture are  dealt  with  under  the 
respective  headings  of  the  gases 
concerned,  e.g.  acetylene,  carbon 
dioxide,  coal  gas,  helium,  hydrogen, 
water  gas,  etc.  The  manufacture 
of  hydrogen  and  helium  has  been 
given  a  great  impetus  during  the 
Great  War  for  filling  balloons  and 
airships,  and  undoubtedly  the 
extended  use  of  giant  airships  for 
international  and  inter-  oceanic 
traffic  will  result  in  new  methods 
of  production. 

Gas  Meter.  Instrument  for 
measuring  gas.  Gas  meters  are  of 
two  kinds,  the  wet  and  the  dry. 
The  former  consists  of  two  cylin- 
ders with  their  axes  horizontal  and 
concentric,  one  arranged  to  revolve 
inside  the  other.  The  revolving 


GASOGENE 


3441 


GASPARIN 


cylinder  is  divided  into  four  com- 
partments and  works  in  water 
which  reaches  just  above  the  axle. 
Gas  is  admitted  into  each  com- 
partment in  succession,  and  in 
entering  drives  the  cylinder  round 
and  raises  the  compartment  out 
of  the  water.  The  movement  is 
recorded  by  clockwork  actuated  by 
the  revolving  axle  and  provided 
with  dials  and  clock  hands  which 
indicate  the  number  of  thousand 
feet  of  gas  consumed  in  a  given 
time.  While  this  form  of  meter  is 
retained  at  the  gasworks  them- 
selves for  recording  the  amount  of 
gas  produced,  the  dry  meter  is  now 
more  generally  used  on  the  premises 
of  consumers.  The  dry  meter  con- 
sists of  a  pair  of  bellows  of  cylindri- 
cal shape  filled  and  emptied  alter- 
nately by  the  pressure  of  the  gas 
itself,  the  movements  being  re- 
corded in  the  same  way  as  the 
movement  of  the  wet  meter. 

Gasogene  OB  SELTZOGENE.  Ap- 
paratus for  charging  water  with 
gas,  usually  carbonic  acid  gas  for 


Gasogene.  A,  water  container  ; 
B,  gas  generator  ;  C,  tube  which 
permits  water  from  container  to  be 
poured  upon  the  salts  in  the 
generator  ;  D,  tube  by  which  water 
is  withdrawn  ;  E,  trigger  which 
opens  valve  G  ;  F,  spring  which 
pulls  valve  back  to  its  seat  ; 
H,  finger  stud.  Head  and  central 
tube  can  be  removed  as  shown 

mineral  waters.  It  consists  of  two 
glass  globes  connected  by  a  wide 
glass  tube  which  runs  nearly  the 
whole  diameter  of  the  two  globes. 
Another  tube  leads  from  a  valve 
on  the  upper  globe  through  the 
wide  tube  to  the  bottom  of 
the  lower  globe,  which  is  filled 
with  water. 

The  upper  globe  contains  a  mix- 
ture of  sodium  bicarbonate  and 
tartaric  acid,  for  the  production, 
with  water,  of  carbonic  acid  gas. 
When  the  valve  is  fastened  the 
apparatus  is  tilted  sufficiently  to 


allow  a  little  water  to  enter  the 
upper  globe  and  so  begin  the  pro- 
duction of  the  gas,  which  is  dis- 
solved by  the  water  under  the 
increased  pressure.  This  form  of 
gasogene  has  been  greatly  super- 
seded by  the  substitution  of  steel 
capsules  containing  carbonic  acid 
gas  in  a  high  state  of  compression. 
By  a  needle  and  valve  arrangement 
the  gas  can  be  released  into  a 


Gas  Meter.  Below,  wet  meter  :  a, 
casing  ;  b,  revolving  drum  in  com- 
partments (arrows  show  direc- 
tion of  rotation)  ;  c,  compartment 
filling  with  water  which  is  driving 
out  gas  ;  d,  compartment  just  filled 
with  gas  ;  e,  compartment  begin- 
ning to  be  filled  with  gas  ;  f,  gas 
inlet  ;  g,  gas  outlet.  Above,  dry 
gas  meter  :  a,  casing  ;  b  b',  measur- 
ing compartments  divided  by  dia- 
phragm c,  ;  e  e',  bellows  worked  by 
pressure  of  gas  (e  is  collapsed,  and 
e  is  distended,  movement  then 
beginning  to  be  reversed)  ;  f  f, 
levers  attached  to  bellows,  and 
moving  with  them  to  let  gas  in  and 
out  of  compartments  ;  g  g',  valves  ; 
h,  gas  inlet  ;  j,  gas  outlet 

specially  constructed  vessel  con- 
taining water,  so  aerating  the  latter. 
See  Mineral  Waters. 

Gasolene  OR  GASOLINE.  One  of 
the  products  of  fractional  distilla- 
tion of  petroleum.  The  refined  oil 
boils  at  90°  F.  to  200°  F.  according 
to  composition,  and  is  used  for 
burning  in  vapour  lamps,  as  a  fuel 
in  internal  combustion  motors,  and 
as  a  solvent  for  oils  and  fats.  In 
the  latter  connexion  it  is  much  used 
for  the  extraction  of  oil  from  oil 
seeds.  See  Petroleum. 

Gasometer  OR  GAS  HOLDER. 
Circular  water  tank  in  which  a  cir- 
cular steel  chamber  or  bell  of  al- 
most equal  diameter  and  height, 
closed  at  the  top,  is  able  to  rise  and 
fall.  Gas  is  admitted  under  the 
bell,  which  rises  when  the  pressure 
exceeds  a  very  low  minimum.  The 
hydrostatic  pressure  of  the  water 
above  the  rim  of  the  bell,  even 
when  the  bell  is  in  its  highest  posi- 
tion, is  sufficient  to  prevent  gas 
escaping.  See  Coal  Gas. 


Gasometry  OR  GAS  ANALYSIS. 
Special  branch  of  chemical  analysis. 
It  is  employed  not  only  for  esti- 
mating the  purity  of  simple  gases, 
but  for  testing  the  composition  of 
illuminating  gas,  the  efficiency  of 
pyrites  roasting  furnaces,  and  the 
wholesomeness  of  the  air  of  dwell- 
ing-houses. Carbonic  acid  gas  is 
absorbed  entirely  by  a  fixed  caustic 
alkali  such  as  potassium  hydroxide. 

Automatic  methods  have  been 
devised  for  use  by  the  technical 
chemist  in  analysing  coal  gas.  He 
tests  for  (1)  carbon  dioxide;  (2) 
ethylene  and  benzene ;  (3)  oxygen ; 
(4)  carbon  monoxide  ;  (5)  hydro- 
gen and  methane  ;  (6)  nitrogen. 

A  measured  quantity  of  coal  gas 
is  passed  in  turn  through  (1)  potas- 
sium hydroxide  ;  (2)  bromine  or 
fuming  sulphuric  acid ;  (3)  an  alka- 
line solution  of  pyrogallol.  sodium 
hyposulphite,  or  phosphorus  ;  (4) 
ammoniacal  cuprous  chloride,  fol- 
lowed by  dilute  sulphuric  acid. 
These  processes  remove  the  first  four 
constituents,  and  measurement  of 
the  changes  produced  in  each  case 
enables  the  chemist  to  determine 
the  quantity  of  each  substance  in 
the  sample  of  gas.  The  remainder  of 
the  sample  is  then  tested  for  hydro- 
gen and  methane,  either  by  com- 
bustion with  oxygen  over  palladium 
asbestos  or  by  explosion,  and  the 
final  residue  is  nitrogen. 

Gasparin,  VALERIE  BOISSIER, 
COMTESSE  DE  (1813-94).  French 
writer.  Born  at  Geneva,  she 
married  Count  Agenor  de  Gasparin, 
a  French  politician  prominent  in 
the  French  Protestant  movement, 
whose  views  she  shared.  She  wrote 
a  number  of  books  on  religious  and 
social  themes,  notably  Le  Mariage 
au  Point  de  Vue  Chretien,  1843, 

2B    4 


3442 


GAS     SHELL 


and  H  y  a  des  Pauvres  &  Paris,  1846 
(both  awarded  the  French  Acad- 
emy's Montyon  prize).  Other 
works  are  :  Livre  pour  les  femmes 
mariees,  1845  ;  Les  Horizons  Pro- 
chains,  1858  ;  Les  Horizons  Celes- 
tes, 1859,  in  translations  the  best 
known  of  her  books ;  and  L' Armee 
du  Salut:  lisez  et  jugez,  1883 
(on  the  work  of  the  Salvation 
Army).  She  translated  many  Eng- 
lish works,  including  some  of 
Dickens,  into  French.  She  died  at 
Geneva,  June  29,  1894.  Her  works 
were  widely  translated.  See  Mono- 
graphs (in  French)  by  M.  Dutoit, 
1901  ;  C.  Barbey-Boissier,  1902. 

Gaspe.  Peninsula  forming  the 
eastern  part  of  the  prov.  of  Quebec, 
Canada.  It  lies  between  the  St. 
Lawrence  and  Chaleur  Bay.  The 
interior  is  forest  land  and  on  the 
coast  are  a  few  fishing  villages. 
There  are  several  mountain  ranges 
and  the  district  is  well  watered,  but 
owing  to  the  great  cold  it  is  thinly 
populated.  The  name  is  also  borne 
by  a  cape  and  a  bay  at  the  eastern 
end  ;  on  the  latter  is  Gaspe  Basin, 
a  fishing  centre  where  Jacques 
Cartier  landed  July  24,  1534. 

Gaspe  Sandstone.  Siliceous 
rock  containing  fossil  plants  of 
Devonian  age.  It  is  developed  in 
the  Gaspe  Peninsula,  Quebec. 

Gas  Poisoning.  The  effects  of 
gas  as  employed  by  the  Germans  in 
the  Great  War  varied  with  the  type 
of  gas  used.  In  the  earlier  attacks 
the  gases  employed  were  chlorine 
and  phosgene,  which  acted  mainly 
by  irritating  the  lungs.  Later 
lachrymal  gas  was  employed.  This 
caused  a  profuse  flow  of  tears  and 
smarting  of  the  eyes,  sometimes  so 
extreme  as  to  prevent  the  eyes 
being  opened.  In  July,  1917,  the 
Germans  began  to  use  di-chlor- 
ethyl-sulphide  or  mustard  gas, 
which  caused  burning  of  the  tissues. 

The  immediate  symptoms  of  the 
lung  irritants,  of  which  phosgene 
may  be  taken  as  the  type,  were 
pain  in  the  chest,  cough,  nausea, 
retching,  and  vomiting.  Oedema 
of  the  lung  followed,  leading  to 
difficulty  in  breathing.  Some  cases 
showed  deep  cyanosis  (blueness  of 
the  face  and  skin).  In  others  the 
skin  was  of  an  ashen,  leaden  colour, 
and  signs  of  profound  collapse  were 
present.  In  the  fatal  cases  death 
was  due  to  suffocation  or  collapse. 
In  non-fatal  cases  recovery  com- 
menced within  3  days,  and  the 
great  majority  of  the  sufferers  re- 
covered completely. 

A  certain  proportion  suffered 
from  prolonged  or  permanent  after- 
effects. In  some  cases  there  have 
been  permanent  changes  in  the 
lungs  and  in  others  disturbance  of 
the  functions  of  the  heart,  with 
pain,  difficulty  in  breathing,  and 


persistently  rapid  pulse.  The  ad- 
ministration of  oxygen,  especially 
by  means  of  Haldane's  apparatus, 
proved  the  most  efficacious  form  of 
treatment.  The  effects  of  lachry- 
mal gas  and  of  nasal  irritants,  such 
as  compounds  of  arsine,  were  not 
so  serious,  and  the  symptoms  usu- 
ally disappeared  in  a  short  time. 

The  first  effects  of  mustard  gas> 
were  to  cause  smarting  and  water- 
ing of  the  eyes  followed  by  in- 
flammation of  the  conjunctiva. 
There  was  also  running  from  the 
nose,  followed  by  nausea,  vomiting, 
and  abdominal  pain.  The  throat 
became  dry  and  burning,  and  the 
voice  hoarse.  Inflammation  of  the 
skin  occurred  in  patches  in  various 
parts  of  the  body,  followed  by 
blistering.  The  patient  was  some- 
times practically  blinded  by  in- 
flammation and  swelling  of  the  eye- 
lids. In  severe  cases  bronchitis  or 
broncho  -pneumonia  followed,  with 
involvement  of  the  heart,  and  death 
from  the  second  or  third  day  to  the 
third  or  fourth  week. 

Mustard  gas  clung  to  the  ground 
and  sometimes  rendered  a  position 
untenable  for  as  long  as  a  fortnight. 
It  would  soak  through  leggings  and 
even  the  upper  parts  of  boots,  pro- 
ducing severe  irritation  and  burning 
of  the  skin.  A  certain  proportion  of 
cases  have  suffered  permanently. 
Sometimes  chronic  bronchitis  has 
developed,  and  in  other  cases  neur- 
asthenia or  hysteria  has  followed. 
Gasquet,  FRANCIS  AID  AN  (b. 
1846).  British  cardinal.  Born  in 
London,  Oct.  5,  1846,  and  educated 
at  Downside 
College,  Bath, 
he  was  ordained 
priest  in  1874, 
and  from  1878 
-85  was  prior 
of  Downside. 
In  1886  he 
began  that 
systematic  his- 
torical research 

which  resulted 
Russell  fo  guch  works 

as  Henry  VIII  and  the  English 
Monasteries,  1888;  The  Last  Abbot 
of  Glastonbury,  1895;  The  Eve  of 
the  Reformation,  1900;  and  Mon- 
astic Life  in  England,  1904. 

In  1896  he  was  appointed  a 
member  of  Pope  Leo  XIII's  com- 
mission on  Anglican  Orders.  From 
1900-14  he  was  abbot-president  of 
the  English  Benedictine  Congrega- 
tion. In  1907  he  was  appointed 
president  of  the  commission  for  the 
revision  of  the  Vulgate.  He  was 
created  a  cardinal  priest,  by  the 
title  of  S.  George  in  Velabro,  in 
May,  1914. 

Gassendi,  PIERRE  (1592-1655). 
French  philosopher  and  mathema- 
tician. Professor  of  mathematics 


Francis  A.  Gasquet, 
British  cardinal 


at  the  Royal  College,  Paris,  he 
endeavoured  to  reconcile  the 
Epicurean,  atomistic,  mechanical 
theory  of  the 
origin  of  things 
with  the  doc- 
trines of  Chris- 
tianity. He 
affirmed  the 
immortality  of 
the  eoul  and 
the  existence 
of  an  inde- 
pendent first 
cause.  He 
wrote  many  philosophic  and  contro- 
versial works,  notably  on  Epicurus 
and  against  Descartes,  and  on  as- 
tronomy. He  died  on  Oct.  24, 1655. 

Gasserion  Ganglion.  Mass  of 
nerve  cells  situated  on  the  fifth 
nerve  inside  the  skull.  It  is  some- 
times removed  in  cases  of  severe 
and  intractable  trigeminal  neural- 
gia or  tic  doloureux. 

Gas  Shell.  Projectile  for  dis- 
charge from  guns,  howitzers,  and 
trench  mortars  which  contains  a 
charge  of  some 


Pierre  Gassendi, 
French  philosopher 


Fus, 


chemical  hav- 
ing a  lethal  or 
irritant  effect 
on  human 
beings,  which 
is  ejected  into 
the  atmo- 
sphere by  the 
bursting  of  a 
small  explo- 
sive charge  on 
impact  of  the 
shell.  These 
chemical  fill- 


ings are  popu- 

larly  termed     egffi — »| 


Drirmg  >/S^  =_=~^: 


"gas,"  though 
the  majority 
are  normally 
liquids  and 
some  are 
solids.  Gas 
shell  were  first 
used  in  large 
quantities  by 
the  Germans 
in  the  Somme 
battles,  1916. 

The  lethal 
gases  may  be 
fugitive,  e.g. 
prussic  acid, 
or  persistent, 
e.g.  di-phos- 
gene  and  mus- 
tard gas. 

Xylyl  and 
benzyl  bro- 


Gas  shell  with  explo- 
sive  charge  in  the 
head.  Above,  with 
charge  in  central  tube 

car  bylamine 

chloride,  and   chloro-acetone  were 
employed  in  lachrymatory  shells,  and 


GAS      STOVE 

mustard  gas  also  has  a  lachryma- 
tory effect.  Sneezing  gas  was  used 
in  other  irritant  shell,  diphenyl- 
chlorarsine  being  chiefly  used.  A  gas 
shell  consists  of  two  compartments, 
a  small  one  for  the  high  explosive 
bursting  charge  and  a  large  one  for 
the  "  gas."  They  are  usually  fitted 
with  fuses  designed  to  act  instan- 
taneously on  impact  of  the  projec- 
tile. Gas  shell  are  of  special  impor- 
tance in  trench  warfare,  as  the  gas 
will  penetrate  into  shelters,  gun 
positions,  and  dug-outs  which  are 
quite  safe  against  even  direct  hits 
by  high  explosive  shell.  See 
Chemical  Shell. 

Gas  Stove.  Term  properly  be- 
longing to  apparatus  heated  by 
gas,  used  for  the  warming  of  rooms, 
either  through  the  medium  of  ra- 
diation from  surfaces  made  hot  by 
the  gas  directly,  or  from  surfaces 
heated  by  hot  water.  It  is  used  in 
this  li  mi  ted  sense  in  the  United 
States  and  on  the  continent  of  Eu- 
rope. In  this  country  it  is  now 
applied  to  practically  all  domestic 
apparatus  in  which  gas  is  used  for 
heating  or  cooking,  from  a  simple 
"  gas  ring  "  to  the  most  elaborate 
"  kitchener,"  and  also  to  the  com- 
mon gas-heated  grate.  See  Cook- 
ery ;  Heaters. 

'Gas  Tar  OR  COAL  TAR.  Term 
used  for  the  black,  semi -solid  sub- 
stance which  is  a  by-product  of  the 
destructive  distillation  of  coal.  It 
is  extremely  valuable,  containing 
the  essential  constituents  of  aniline 
dyes,  oils,  etc.  See  Coal  Tar ;  Dyes. 
Gastein.  Valley  and  health 
resort  of  Austria,  in  Salzburg.  It 
lies  at  a  height  of  about  3,000  ft., 
fine  scenery  being  provided  by  the 
two  falls  of  the  river  Ache  which 
flows  through  it.  There  are  several 
villages  in  the  valley,  including 
Hof-Gastein  and  Wildbad-Gastein. 
Wildbad,  with  its  famous  mineral 
springs,  is  the  chief  resort  of  visi- 
tors, for  whose  accommodation 
there  are  a  number  of  hotels,  and 
boarding  houses. 

Gastein,  CONVENTION  OF.  Ar- 
rangement between  Austria  and 
Prussia,  Aug.  14, 1865,  about  the  oc- 
cupation of  the  duchies  of  Slesvig- 
Holstein,  and  Lauenburg.  After  the 
war  with  Denmark  in  1864  these  two 
powers  obtained  theduchiesjointly, 
but  jealousies  developed.  Austria, 
supported  by  a  majority  in  the 
diet  of  the  German  Confederation, 
wished  to  make  Frederick,  duke  of 
Augustenburg,  ruler  of  Holstein. 
Prussia  objected  and  prepared  to 
build  a  naval  harbour  at  Kiel,  but 
a  compromise  was  effected  at 
Gastein.  By  this  Prussia  became 
responsible  for  Slesvig  and  Aus- 
tria for  Holstein,  while  the  former 
country  secured  Lauenburg  for  a 
money  payment.  This  convention, 


3443 

in  Bismarck's  words,  "papered  over 
the  cracks,"  but  they  soon  reap- 
peared, for  in  1866  war  with 
Austria  broke  out. 

Raster,  MOSES  (b.  1856).  Pvu- 
manian  philologist.  Born  at  Bu- 
karest  of  Jewish  parents,  and 
exiled  for  his  advocacy  of  the  cause 
of  his  coreligionists,  he  settled  in 
England,  1885.  He  holds  several 
important  posts  in  connexion  with 
the  Jewish  world,  and  is  also  pre- 
sident of  the  Folklore  society  and 
vice-president  of  the  Asiatic  society. 
His  works  include  a  history  of  Ru- 
manian Literature  in  German. 

Gasteria.  Genus  of  evergreen 
succulent  plants.  Of  the  natural 
order  Liliaceae,  they  are  allied  to 
the  aloe,  natives  of  S.  Africa.  The 
leaves  are  tongue-shaped  or  sword- 
shaped,  forming  a  rosette  or  in 
two  ranks ;  the  flowers  tubular, 
with  some  shade  of  red,  disposed 
in  long  sprays. 

Gasteromyceteae  (Gr.  gaster, 
stomach,  myketes,  fungi).  Large 
natural  order  of  fungi  of  world- 
wide distribution.  The  charac- 
teristic of  the  order  is  that  the 
spore-bearing  surface  is  com- 
pletely enclosed  in  a  continuous 
wall  (peridium)  until  the  spores 
are  fully  developed,  when  the  en- 
velope is  ruptured,  and  the  spores 
set  free.  It  contains  the  families 
Phalloideae  (stinkhorns),  Nidul- 
ariaceae  (bird's-nest  fungi),  Ly- 
coperdaceae  (puff-balls),  etc. 

Gastric  Catarrh.  Inflamma- 
tion of  the  lining  membrane  of  the 
stomach.  It  may  be  chronic  or 
acute,  and  it  gives  rise  to  pain, 
vomiting,  and  often  severe  head- 
aches. Acute  gastric  catarrh  is 
usually  caused  by  excess  of  eating 
or  the  swallowing  of  unsuitable 
foods.  The  cure  is  simple,  that  of 
giving  the  stomach  as  complete 
a  rest  as  possible,  either  by  fasting 
or  the  judicious  selection  of  easily 
digestible  foods.  See  Stomach. 

Gastric  Juice.  Fluid  secreted 
by  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
stomach.  In  the  human  being  it 
consists  of  about  99 '4  per  cent,  of 
water  ;  '3  per  cent,  of  organic  sub- 
stances, chiefly  pepsin  ;  '2  per  cent, 
of  free  hydrochloric  acid  ;  '14  per 
cent,  of  sodium  chloride  (common 
salt),  and  smaller  amounts  of  other 
salts.  The  action  of  gastric  juice 
is  fivefold. 

(1)  It  acts  as  an  antiseptic  in 
virtue  of  its  hydrochloric  acid, 
tending  to  destroy  bacteria  and 
prevent  putrefactive  processes  oc- 
curring in  the  stomach.  (2)  It  acts 
on  cane  sugar  converting  it  into 
simpler  forms.  (3)  It  curdles  milk. 
(4)  It  splits  fat  up  into  simpler 
bodies.  (5)  It  converts  proteid — 
the  principal  nitrogenous  consti- 
tuent of  animal  food — into  pro- 


GASTROCNEM1US 

teoses  which,  after  further  change 
into  peptones,  are  absorbed  in  the 
process  of  digestion.  See  Stomach. 

Gastritis.  Inflammation  of  the 
mucous  membrane  which  lines 
the  interior  of  the  stomach.  Two 
forms  are  recognized,  acute  and 
chronic.  Acute  gastritis  is  a  com- 
mon complaint  most  often  caused 
by  eating  unsound  or  indigestible 
food.  Children,  persons  of  a 
gouty  tendency,  and  those  ad- 
dicted to  alcoholism  are  particu- 
larly prone  to  attacks.  Irritant 
poisons  may  also  give  rise  to  acute 
gastritis. 

The  symptoms  are  those  of 
pain  and  feeling  of  distension  in  the 
stomach,  nausea,  vomiting,  gaseous 
eructations,  and  headache.  In 
severe  cases  there  may  be  a  rise 
of  temperature.  The  tongue  is 
coated,  and  diarrhoea  may  follow. 

The  symptoms  generally  disap- 
pear in  from  one  to  three  days. 
Medicinal  treatment  is  simple.  In 
most  cases  a  purgative  should  be 
given,  castor  oil  being  particularly 
useful  in  children.  No  food  should 
be  taken,  until  the  symptoms  are 
abating,  and  then  only  the  lightest 
diet,  such  as  milk,  or  milk  and 
lime-water  and  a  little  dry  toast. 

Chronic  gastritis  may  follow  the 
persistent  eating  of  unsuitable  or 
indigestible  food,  or  excessive  tak- 
ing of  tea,  coffee,  or  alcohol,  or 
the  habit  of  hastily  taking  meals 
and  bolting  food  which  is  insuffi- 
ciently masticated.  The  condition 
may  also  arise  in  the  course  of 
disease  of  the  stomach  such  as 
ulcer  or  cancer,  and  it  is  frequently 
a  secondary  result  of  constitutional 
disorders  such  as  anaemia,  gout, 
diabetes,  and  tuberculosis. 

The  symptoms  are  pain  in  the 
stomach  and  sensations  of  fulness 
after  eating,  nausea  often  most 
marked  on  rising  in  the  morning, 
flatulence,  eructations,  headache, 
depression,  and  lassitude.  In  pro- 
longed cases  there  may  be  marked 
emaciation.  Treatment  consists  in 
careful  dieting  and  allowing  plenty 
of  time  for  meals.  It  is  often 
desirable  to  drink  only  between 
meals  and  not  with  meals.  Alcohol 
should  be  avoided,  and  the  taking 
of  tea  reduced  to  the  minimum. 

Gastrochaena.  Genus  of  marine 
bivalve  molluscs,  boring  into  lime- 
stone and  sandstone  rocks.  They 
secrete  a  kind  of  tube,  shaped  some- 
what like  a  flask,  which  is  usually 
coated  with  grams  of  sand.  Only 
one  species  occurs  round  the  British 
coasts,  the  flask-shell  (G.  dubia). 

Gastrocnemius  (Gr.  gaster, 
stomach;  knerne,  leg).  Muscle 
which  forms  the  main  part  of  the 
calf  of  the  leg.  It  consists  in  the 
upper  part  of  two  fleshy  masses, 
one  springing  from  the  outer  side  of 


CASTRO-ENTERITIS 


3444 


GASTROPODA 


10 


!3 


IS 


Gastropoda.  1.  Rounded  snail,  Helix  rotundata.  2.  Beautiful  snail,  H. 
pulchella.  3.  Rock  snail,  H.  rupestris.  4.  Prickly  snail,  H.  aculeata.  5.  Cheese 
snail,  H.  obvaluta.  6.  Lapidary  snail,  H.  lapicida.  7.  Plated  snail,  H.  lamel- 
lata.  8.  Bristly  snail,  H.  hispidus.  9.  Ruddy  snail,  H.  rufescens.  10.  Silky 
snail,  H.  granulata.  11.  Green  hairy  snail,  H.  revelata.  12.  Dusky  snail,  H. 
fusca.  13.  Kentish  snail,  H.  cantiana.  14.  Sandhill  snail,  H.  pisana.  15.  Copse 
snail,  H.  arbustorum.  16.  Carthusian  snail,  H.  carthusiana 


the  end  of  the  femur  and  the  other 
from  the  inner  side.  These  heads 
of  the  muscle  gradually  meet  as 
they  pass  down  the  leg,  and  ter- 
minate in  a  broad  tendinous  band 
which  is  continued  as  a  strong 
tendon,  the  tendo  Achillis.  See 
Tendon  of  Achilles. 

Gastro- enteritis.  Inflamma- 
tion of  the  stomach  and  intestines. 
See  Enteritis. 

Gastropoda(  Gr.  gasier,  stomach; 
stem  pod,  foot).  One  of  the  great 
divisions  of  the  sub-kingdom  Mol- 
lusca.  It  includes  those  molluscs 
which  have  the  ventral  or  under  side 
of  the  body  developed  in  a  gliding 
base.  Gastropods  may  be  roughly 
defined  as  comprising  snails  and 
slugs,  terrestrial,  fresh -water,  and 
marine.  The  whelk  is  a  familiar 


example  of  a  marine  gastropod. 
The  underside  of  a  gastropod  is 
its  organ  of  locomotion,  and  its 
mode  of  action  may  be  seen  by 
watching  a  land  snail  crawl  on  the 
window-pane,  or  a  pond  snail  on 
the  glass  front  of  an  aquarium. 
The  body  is  slowly  propelled 
forwards  by  a  peculiar  ripple  or 
wave -like  movement  of  the  foot. 

The  body,  which  lies  above  the 
foot,  consists  of  a  well-defined 
head  and  a  visceral  hump,  covered 
by  an  outer  glandular  layer  known 
as  the  mantle.  In  slugs  this  hump 
is  not  very  noticeable,  but  in  snails 
it  is  long  and  coiled,  and  protected 
by  a  shell  usually  more  or  less 
conical  in  form.  This  visceral 
hump  contains  most  of  the  internal 
organs.  During  development  the 


internal  organs  of  a  gastropod 
undergo  a  kind  of  torsion  or  twist- 
ing, the  result  of  which  is  to  bring 
the  posterior  termination  of  the 
alimentary  canal  towards  the  head 
and  the  left-hand  organs  to  the 
right.  The  nerve  loop  which  in- 
volves the  visceral  organs  thus 
becomes  twisted  into  a  figure  of 
eight.  '  The  original  left-hand 
organs,  now  on  the  right  side, 
become  atrophied,  the  result  being 
that  the  internal  arrangements  of 
a  gastropod  are  not  symmetrical, 
and  there  is  only  one  kidney,  one 
gill,  and  one  auricle  to  the  heart. 

Another  interesting  feature  is 
the  odontophore  or  lingual  ribbon, 
situated  at  the  back  of  the  mouth. 
This  is  a  long,  horny  band,  called 
the  radula,  studded  with  a  vast 
number  of  minute  teeth.  When  a 
gastropod  is  feeding  the  substance 
is  seized  by  the  jaw,  and  the  radula 
moves  backwards  and  forwards 
like  a  rasp,  and  scrapes  off  minute 
particles  which  pass  into  the 
stomach. 

Gastropods  are  divided  into  two 
sub-divisions :  the  Streptoneura, 
in  which  the  twisting  is  well 
marked,  and  the  Euthyneura,  in 
which  the  visceral  hump  appears 
to  be  partly  untwisted.  The  first 
sub-division  contains  two  orders  : 
the  Aspidobranchia,  which  have 
flattened  leaf-like  gill  filaments, 
and  the  Pectinibranchia,  in  which 
the  gill  filaments  are  elongated. 
The  second  sub-division  is  also  sub- 
divided into  two  orders :  the 
Opisthobranchia,  in  which  the 
heart  is  placed  in  front  of  the 
gills,  and  the  Pulmonata,  in  which 
the  gills  are  absent  and  the  mantle 
cavity  serves  as  a  kind  of  lung. 
Most  land  and  fresh-water  gastro- 
pods belong  to  this  order. 

Economically,  certain  marine 
gastropods  are  of  value  as  food  for 
man,  as  the  whelk  and  periwinkle  ; 
and  several  species  of  land  snails 
are  consumed  on  the  Continent, 
and  to  a  small  extent  in  Great 
Britain.  Some  aquatic  gastropods 
do  useful  work  as  scavengers,  while 
many  of  the  terrestrial  ones  do 
great  mischief  in  gardens  by  eating 
the  plants.  (See  Snail.) 

Fossilised  remains  are  found 
throughout  the  stratified  rocks. 
Air-breathing  forms  were  first  met 
with  in  Devonian  rocks,  while 
fresh -water  snails  were  first  found 
in  Purbeck  rocks,  of  much  later 
age.  See  Mollusca. 

Bibliography.  Proceedings  of  the 
Malacological  Society  of  London, 
ed.  B.  B.  Woodward,  1893,  etc.  ; 
Monograph  of  the  Land  and  Fresh- 
water Mollusca  of  the  British  Isles, 
John  William  Taylor,  1894,  etc.  ; 
Shell  Life,  E.  Step,  1901 ;  The  Life  of 
the  Mollusca,  B.  B.  Woodward.  1913. 


GASTROSTOMY 

Gastrostomy  (Gr.  g aster,  stom- 
ach; stoma,  mouth).  Operation  of 
making  a  permanent  artificial 
opening  into  the  stomach  through 
which  food  can  be  administered. 
It  is  performed  when  there  is  a 
stricture  or  obstruction  of  the 
gullet,  as,  for  instance,  by  malig- 
nant disease,  which  prevents  food 
from  being  swallowed.  Gastrotomy 
is  the  operation  of  opening  the 
stomach.  Gastrectomy  is  the 
operation  of  removing  the  stomach. 
See  Stomach.  x  •e 

Gastrula.  Stage  in  the  develop- 
ment of  a  multi -cellular  organism. 
The  single  egg -cell  develops  by  seg- 
mentation into  a  hollow  ball  of 
cells ;  one  side  of  the  ball  next 
becomes  indented,  much  as  an 
indiarubber  ball  may  be  dimpled, 
and  a  thimble -shaped  organism 
results.  This  is  called  the  gastrula, 
and  is  very  important  as  establish- 
ing an  inner  and  outer  germinal 
layer.  In  other  words,  it  is  the  first 
hint  of  an  organism  containing  a 
body  cavity.  See  Embryology. 

Gas  Works.  Establishments 
for  the  production  of  gas.  Gas 
works  are  now  of  two  classes :  first, 
the  familiar  establishments  where 
domestic  gas  is  manufactured,  and, 
secondly,  works  where  gas  is  pro- 
duced specially  for  use  in  metal- 
lurgical operations  and  for  the  de- 
velopment of  power ;  works  of  the 
latter  class  are  also  styled  gas- 
power  stations. 

Apart  from  the  mechanical  ap- 
pliances for  the  handling  of  the 
coal  and  other  materials,  the  plant 
of  a  gas  works  consists  of  the  fol- 
lowing elements.  First  the  retorts, 
long  vessels  of  cylindrical  or  D- 
shape  cross-section,  usually  made 


3445 

of  fireclay,  in  which  the  coal  is 
carbonised  and  the  gas,  with  other 
volatile  products,  driven  out  of  it. 
These  were  formerly  fixed  hori- 
zontally in  "  benches  "  of  six  to 
nine  retorts ;  more  recently  in- 
clined retorts  have  been  intro- 
duced, while  the  most  modern 
plants  have  the  retorts  placed 
vertically,  the  coal  being  intro- 
duced at  the  top  and  the  coke 
removed  from  the  bottom  by  me- 
chanical appliances,  the  heavy 
labour  of  charging  the  horizontal 
form  by  hand  being  thus  elimin- 
ated. Secondly,  the  hydraulic 
main,  which  is  a  large  pipe  running 
across  the  tops  of  the  benches  of 
retorts,  and  is  normally  partly 
filled  with  tar  and  ammoniacal 
liquor.  A  dip  pipe  connected  by  a 
bridge  pipe  with  an  ascension  pipe 
from  each  retort  has  its  outlet  just 
under  the  level  of  the  liquor  in  the 
main,  so  that  the  gas  from  the  re. 
tort  will  bubble  through  the  liquor 
into  the  upper  part  of  the  main. 

From  the  main  the  gas  passes 
through  a  "  condenser,"  usually  of 
cast-iron  pipes,  where  it  is  cooled, 
and  most  of  the  tar  and  water 
which  it  holds  at  this  stage  thrown 
down.  Scrubbers  or  washers  to 
extract  ammonia  and  purifiers  to 
remove  sulphur  and  other  impuri- 
ties succeed  the  condensers. 
Finally,  the  gas  is  driven  by  a  fan 
or  exhauster  into  the  familiar 
gas-holder  or  gasometer,  passing 
on  its  way  through  station  meters 
which  record  the  volume.  An 
important  section  of  many  modern 
gas  works  is  represented  by  the 
water  gas  plant,  in  which  a  mixture 
of  hydrogen  and  carbonic  oxide  is 
produced  bv  passing  steam  through 


GATE 

incandescent  coke ;  this  section 
being  generally  supplemented  by 
an  "  oil  gas  "  plant  in  which  some 
form  of  crude  oil  is  more  or  less 
gasified  and  mixed  with  the  water 
gas  to  form  carburetted  water  gas, 
the  mixed  product  so  produced 
being  used  to  supplement  the  heat- 
ing and  lighting  power  of  other- 
wise poor  coal  gas. 

Gas  works  also  contain  a  con- 
siderable number  of  other  auxiliary 
plant,  particularly  in  connexion 
with  the  recovery  of  by-products. 
See  Coal  Gas  ;  Coal  Tar. 

Gata,  SIERRA  DE.  Mt.  range  of 
Spain.  Lying  between  the  provs. 
of  Caceres  and  Salamanca,  it  is  an 
extension  of  the  Guadarramas  on 
the  E.,  their  W.  continuation  in 
Portugal  being  known  as  the  Serra 
da  Estrella.  The  maximum  eleva- 
tion is  5,695  ft. 

Gate.  Movable  barrier  in  an 
enclosing  wall  or  fence  to  permit 
ingress  and  egress.  The  principal 
material  for  gates  is  wood  or  metal, 
or  their  combinations.  The  utili- 
tarian and  military  value  of  gates 
was  recognized  as  soon  as  man 
began  to  raise  fortified  walls  round 
his  towns  or  encampments  ;  they 
were  part  of  the  defensive  system 
of  every  age.  City  gates  were 
largely  employed  by  the  Romans, 
and  during  the  empire  they  became 
much  more  ornamental,  though 
they  did  not  lose  their  military 
character.  The  monumental  gate- 
ways of  Rome  had  two  passages, 
one  for  entrance  and  another  for 
egress,  and  occasionally  side  pas- 
sages for  pedestrians  only.  These 
were  flanked  by  towers,  square  or 
circular,  and  their  summits  were 
nmchicolated. 


Gas  Works.     Diagram  illustrating  the  arrangement  of  gas  works,  showing  the  course  of  the  gas  from  the  retorts  through 
condensers,  scrubbers,  and  purifiers  to  the  gasometer,  and  the  collection  of  tar  and  ammonia  by-products 


OATEHOUSE 

In  the  Middle  Ages  this  treat- 
ment of  gateways  was  maintained, 
and  extended  to  feudal  castles ; 
bridges  were  fortified  at  both  ends 
by  powerful  gateways  ;  there  was 
frequently  a  third  gate  in  the 
middle  of  the  bridge,  where  toll 
was  exacted.  Architecturally,  they 
conformed  to  the  prevailing  Gothic 
style.  The  14th  century  gate  at 
Dinan  and  the  contemporary  Porte 
Guillaume  at  Chartres  may  be 
cited.  More  modern  gateways  call 
for  no  special  remark,  but  much 
beautiful  ironwork  was  lavished 
on  gates  in  the  18th  century,  the 
military  use  of  the  gateway  having 
then  disappeared. 

Gatehouse.  Structure  above 
and  on  each  side  of  a  gateway.  It 
was  used  to  guard  the  solid  bridge 
or  drawbridge  that  gave  access  to 
the  medieval  castle  or  fortified 
manor  house.  The  Gatehouse  of 
Westminster  was  built  in  1370  bv 
Walter  de  Warfield  within  the  pre- 
cincts of  the  abbey  on  a  site  now 
occupied  by  the  Crimean  Memorial. 
Used  as  a  prison  by  Whitgift  in 
connexion  with  the  eccles.  courts, 
and  by  the  Star  Chamber,  it  was 
here  that  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  spent 
the  night  before  his  execution  and 
that  Sir  John  Eliot,  the  poets  Love- 
lace and  Savage,  and  many  other 
eminent  men,  were  incarcerated. 
After  serving  as  a  debtors'  prison 
the  Gatehouse  was  demolished  in 
1776,  but  one  of  its  walls  remained 
until  1836.  See  Westminster. 

Gate-legged  Table.  Tables 
with  two  flap  leaves  which,  when 
raised,  are  supported  by  a  frame- 


Gate-legged  Table  of  oak  with  the 
flaps  raised 

By  courtesy  of  Waring  &  Oillow 

work  consisting  of  two  perpendicu- 
lar legs,  joined  by  two  horizontal 
bars,  somewhat  resembling  a  gate, 
hinged  to  the  main  framework  of 
the  table.  They  were  introduced  in 
England  soon  after  the  Restoration, 
and  retain  their  popularity. 

Gates,  HORATIO  (1728-1806). 
American  soldier.  Born  at  Maldon, 
Essex,  he  took  part  in  Braddock's 
expedition  against  Fort  Duquesne, 
and  settled  in  Virginia  until  the 
outbreak  of  the  War  of  Independ- 
ence, when  he  joined  the  colonists. 
He  was  chiefly  responsible  for  the 
operations  which  led  up  to  Bur- 
goyne's  surrender  at  Saratoga, 


3446 

1777,  though, 
Schuyler  and 
Arnold  also 
deserve  credit. 
Elated  by  this 
success,  he 
seems  to  have 
entertained  the 
idea  of  ousting 
Washington 
from  his  com- 
mand. After  a 

period  of  retirement  he  took  the 
field  again  to  oppose  Cornwallis's 
invasion  of  the  Central  States,  but 
a  complete  defeat  at  Camden,  1780, 
ended  his  militarv  career.  He  died 
at  New  York,  April  10,  1806. 


Horatio  Gates, 
American  soldier 


GATESHEAD 

_.  the  corporation  maintains  an  asy- 
lum, swimming  baths,  hospital  for 
infectious  diseases,  cemeteries,  an 
art  gallery,  and  recreation  grounds. 
Among  the  recreation  grounds  are 
Saltwell  Park  (52  acres),  with  a  fine 
sheet  of  water  ;  Windmill  Recrea- 
tion Grounds  (11  £  acres); Tyne  Vale 
Park  (1J  acres);  and  the  Sunder- 
land  Recreation  Ground  (2  acres). 
The  industries  resemble  those  of 
Newcastle  and  include  shipbuild- 
ing, iron  and  engineering  works, 
and  the  making  of  glass  and 
chemicals.  The  N.E.R.  has  large 
shops  in  the  town.  There  is  some 
shipping,  coal  being  exported.  The 
town  has  a  service  of  electric 


Gateshead  arms 


Gatehouse,  Westminster,  before  its  demolition  in  1776 

From  an  old  print 

Gateshead.     County  bor.   and     Conqueror, 
seaport  of  Durham,  England.     It 
stands  on  the  S.  bank  of  the  Tvne, 

opposite       New-    ^ — , 

castle,     on     the 
main  line  of  the 
N.E.R.  The  chief 
buildings  are  the 
cruciform  church 
of  S.  Mary,  a  15th 
century     edifice, 
rebuiltinthelSth, 
the    town     hall, 
erected  in  1868,  the  public  librar 
built  in  the  English 
Renaissance  style,    [• 
and     the    Shipley    [ 
Gallery,  a  classical 
building     contain- 
ing a  fine  collection 
of  pictures,  the  gift 
of    Joseph    A.   D. 
Shipley.  The  town 
also    possesses    a 
secondary    school, 
mechanics'      insti- 
tute,   Abbot    me- 
morial    industrial 
school,     children's 

hospital,     and    jjjj^  ^1 

nurses'   home  and    £| 
dispensary,     while  Gateshead,  Durham 


bridges  (one  a 
swing  bridge) 
span  the  river.  In 
the  vicinity,  on 
the  river  Team, 
are  Ravensworth, 
opposite  Gates- 
head  Fell;  Stella 
Hall,  an  Eliza- 
bethan mansion; 
a.nd  the  ruins  of 
Prudhoe  Castle. 

Gateshead  is  an 
ancient  town,  and 
in    Roman    times 
was  called  Gabro- 
stentum.     At  the 
Conquest    it   was 
a    place    of     im- 
portance.   Bishop 
Wale  her,  a  native 
of  Lorraine,  made 
a   bishop   by  the 
!    murdered    here 
in  the  llth  century.     The  town's 
first  charter  dates  from  1164,  and 
it  was  incorporated  in  1661.     It 
was    then,   as  it   had   been  since 
Norman    times,     under    the     au- 
thority of  the  bishop  of  Durham. 
It    became    a     parl.     bor.     under 
the     Reform     Act      of     1832,    a 
num.  bor.  in  1835,  and  a  co.  bor. 
in  1889.     One  member  is  returned 
to  Parliament,  and  it  is  governed 
by    a    mayor    and     corporation. 
Pop-  (1921)  124,514. 


Gateway  at  south  entrance  of  Castle   Ashby,   North-  the    Palazzo   del    Diamanti.    Ferrara,    early    xbth    ccu- 

amptonshire,  built  in  1865.       2.  West  forecourt  gate  of  tury,     showing      facet-like     stones     which      give     the 

elton  House^  near  Grantham,  example  of  i7th  century  palace  its  name.     6.    Late   i5th  century  gateway  and 

work.      3.     The    Old     Gateway,    designed     by    Inigo  bridge    at    Ightham  Mote,    Kent.      7.    The    Cantimpre 

Jones,    at    Keevil    Manor,    Wilts.      4.    Kitchen    garden  Gate,    Cambrai,    showing    slots    for    the    beams    which 

gate    at    Barn    Hall,     Beaconsfield.       5.     Gateway    of  raise  the  drawbridge 

GATE:  TYPES  OF  ORNAMENTAL  AND  FORTIFIED  GATEWAYS,  MEDIEVAL  AND  MODERN 

1,  2,  and  3  by  courtesy  of  Country  Life 


GATH 


3448 


GATdN 


Catling   Gun  of  '3-in.    calibre  on 
trail  mounting 

Gath  (Heb.,  wine-press).  One  of 
the  chief  cities  of  the  Philistines, 
the  site  of  which  is  uncertain.  It 
stood  on  the  borders  of  Judah  and 
was  famed  as  the  birthplace  of 
Goliath.  At  one  time  it  was  under 
the  rule  of  the  Egyptian  kings,  and 
at  another  had  kings  of  its  own, 
for  it  was  with  Achish,  king  of 
Gath,  that  David  took  refuge.  It 
was  conquered  by  Sargon,  king 
of  Assyria.  Still  existing  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  it  was  fortified  by  the 
Crusaders,  captured  by  Saladin  in 
1191,  and  retaken  the  next  year. 

Gatineau.  River  of  Quebec, 
Canada.  It  rises  in  some  lakes  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  prov.,  and 
flows  almost  due  S.  until  it  joins 
the  Ottawa  near  Ottawa.  Its 
length  is  240  m. 

Gatling,  RICHARD  JORDAN  (181 8- 
1903).  American  inventor.  Born 
in  N.  Carolina,  Sept.  12,  1818,  he 
became  a 
doctor,  but 
never  prac- 
tised. He  in- 
vented the  re- 
volving ma- 
chine  gun 
known  by  his 
name.  He  also 
invented  a 
hemp-break- 
ing machine 
and  a  steam 
plough.  He  died  Feb.  26.  1903. 


Gatling  Gun.  Machine  gun  in- 
vented by  R.  J.  Gatling,  of  Chicago, 
in  1862.  It  belongs  to  the  class 
known  as  non-automatic,  since  the 
operations  of  feeding  cartridges, 
firing  and  ejecting  shells  are  effected 
by  the  operation  of  a  crank  by  the 
operator,  and  not  by  the  force  of 
the  explosion  or  recoil.  It  had  six 
barrels  mounted  round  a  central 
axis,  and  behind  these  was  the  re- 
loading mechanism,  consisting  of  a 
cylinder  containing  the  machinery, 
worked  by  a  crank  handle  at  the 
side.  The  cartridges  were  placed 
iu  a  feeding  box  on  the  top,  and 
fell  by  gravity  into  the  gun  as  each 
shot  was  fired. 

When  the  handle  was  turned  the 
six  barrels  and  mechanism  revolved 
round  the  axis,  and  a  cartridge, 
dropping  into  the  gun,  was  pushed 
into  the  barrel  which  at  that  mo- 
ment was  at  the  top,  being  pushed 
home  as  the  barrel  travelled  to  the 


Richard  J.  Gatling, 
American  inventor 


Gatton,  Surrey.     The  House  and  a  stretch   of  the 
magnificent  park 


lowest  position,  at  which  point  the 
shot  was  fired.  Completing  the 
revolution,  the  cartridge  case  was 
ejected  as  the  barrel  rose,  the  latter 
being  empty  by  the  time  it  reached 
the  top  and  ready  to  receive 
another  cartridge.  The  weight  of 
the  gun  and  mounting  prevented 
any  recoil,  and  the  barrels  were 
cooled  by  a  water  jacket  extending 
about  half  their  lenerth.  These  arms 


were  adopted  by  the  British  army 
and  navy  in  1871,  but  soon  after 
the  S.  African  War  they  were  super- 
seded by  automatic  machine  guns 
of  the  Maxim  and  other  types,  which 
gave  a  quicker  rate  of  fire  and 
were  worked  with  less  difficulty. 
See  Artillery ;  Gun  ;  Machine  Gun. 
Gatshina.  Town  of  Russia,  in 
the  govt.  of  Petrograd.  It  is  30  m. 
S.W.  of  Petrograd,  on  a  lake 
formed  by  the  Izhora  and  on  the 
Petrograd-Warsaw-Riga  rlys.  The 
imperial  palace  was  the  favourite 
residence  of  the  tsars  Paul  I  and 
Alexander  III.  Originally  a  farm, 
it  was  presented  by  Catherine  II  to 
Prince  Orloff,  who  built  the  cha- 
teau and  laid  out  the  park  in  1776. 
It  is  now  a  popular  summer  resort. 
Pop.  14,740. 

Gatton.  Parish  and  village  of 
Surrey,  England.  It  is  2  m.  N.E. 
of  Reigate.  It  was  formerly  a 
rotten  borough,  returning  two 
members  to  Par- 
1  liament.  The  small 
I  town  hall  still 
1  stands.  Gatton 
>  Park  is  well 
wooded  and  is 
crossed  by  the  Pil- 
grims' Way.  Gat- 
ton House  was 
built  in  magnifi- 
cent fashion  by 
Lord  Monson,  a 
great  de  al  of 
coloured  marble 
being  used  in  its 
construction.  In 
the  church  are 
magnificent  wood 
carvings  from 
Belgium  and 
Nuremberg,  fine  stained  glass  from 
Aerschot,  and  other  beautiful  Con- 
tinental details.  Pop.  236. 

Gatun.  Town  of  Panama,  in 
the  Panama  Canal  zone,  belonging 
to  the  U.S.A.  It  stands  at  the  con- 
fluence of  the  rivers  Gatun  and 
Chagres,  7  m.  by  rly.  S.  of  Colon  on 
the  Atlantic  coast.  Here  are  locks 
and  a  dam,  part  of  the  canal  works. 
The  dam  is  about  H  m.  lone  bv 


Gatshina, 


The  former  imperial  palace,  built  by 
Prince  Orloff,  1776-81 


Gatiin,  Panama  Canal.    The  lower  and  middle  locks,  looking 
towards  the  Atlantic 


GATWICK 


3449 


GAUL 


2,100  ft.  wide  at  the  base  ;  the 
crest  is  115  ft.  above  sea  level 
and  21  ft.  above  the  normal  level 
of  Lake  Gatun,  and  100  ft.  wide. 

Gatwick.  Racecourse  in  Surrey. 
It  is  6  m.  from  Reigate,  and  several 
meetings  are  held  here  during  the 
voar.  There  is  a  station  on  the 
L.B.  &  S.C.  Rly.,  but  it  is  only  open 
during  the  meetings. 

Gau.  Old  Teutonic  word  mean- 
ing district.  In  the  old  Germanic 
state  it  comprised  several  villages, 
united  for  judicial  and  military 
purposes,  under  the  control  of  a 
count  (Qaugraf),  and  corresponded 
to  the  English  shire  or  county.  It 
lost  its  political  meaning  in  the 
12th  century,  but  the  name  sur- 
vives in  Aargau,  Thorgau,  Ober- 
ammergau,  etc.  See  County. 

Gauchet,  VICE-ADMIRAL  (b. 
1855).  French  sailor.  Having 
entered  the  French  navy,  he  be- 
came a  gun- 
nery specialist. 
When  in  com- 
m  a  n  d  of  a 
battleship  divi- 
sion, with  his 
flag  in  the 
Mirabcau,  he 
organized  o  n 
improved  lines 
Vice- Admiral  Gauchet,  the  gunnery 
French  sailor  practice  of  his 
ships,  and  paid  special  attention  to 
the  development  of  firing  at  long 
ranges.  In  1914  he  was  appointed  a 
member  of  the  naval  board,  being 
responsible  for  the  construction  and 
ordnance  of  the  fleet.  He  succeeded 
Admiral  du  Fournet  (q.v.)  in  the 
Levant  command,  Oct.,  1915,  and 
in  Dec.,  1910,  became  commander 
of  the  Allied  fleet  in  the  Medi- 
terranean. 

Gauche  Wood.  Wood  of  France, 
in  the  dept.  of  Nord.  It  is  H  m.  S. 
of  Gonnelieu  and  slightly  »S.E.  of 
Gouzeaucourt  (q.v. ).  It  was  con- 
spicuous in  the  fighting  around 
Cambrai  in  the  Great  War.  Cap- 
tured by  the  British  in  April,  1917, 
it  was  recaptured  by  the  Germans, 
Dec.,  1917,  but  was  immediately 
regained  by  the  British  after  severe 
fighting.  It  was  the  scene  of  a 
great  stand  by  the  British,  March 
21,  1918,  in  the  German  offensive 
towards  Amiens,  the  British  re- 
tiring from  it  on  March  26,  1918. 
It  was  finally  recovered  by  the 
British  17th  division  in  Sept.,  1918. 
See  Cambrai,  Battles  of. 

Gauchos  (Araucanian,  friends). 
Natives  of  Spanish  paternity  in 
Uruguay  and  the  Argentine  pampas. 
One  strain  claimed  descent  from 
the  Spanish  conquistadores  modi- 
fied in  their  native  environment. 
Another  is  largely  mixed  with 
Guaycuru  blood  in  Uruguay,  with 
Araucanian  on  the  pampas.  Daring 


Gatwick.     Fart  of  the  racecourse  and  the  grand  stand 


horsemen,  wielding  bola  and  lasso, 
they  were  nomad  cattlemen,  dis- 
tinguishable from  the  Pampas 
Indians.  Pron.  Gow-chose.  See 
Argentina ;  Brazil ;  Chile,  illus. 

Gaudeamus.  Title  and  first 
word  of  an  old  German  students' 
song  in  dog-Latin.  The  theme  of  it 
is  "  let  us  rejoice  while  we  are 
young  "  (Gaudeamus  .  .  .  juvenes). 
It  is  also  the  title  of  a  collection  of 
students'  and  school  songs  by  John 
Farmer,  1890,  and  is  included  in 
the  Scottish  Students'  Song-book. 

Gauden,  JOHN  (1605-62).  Eng- 
lish author  and  bishop.  Educated 
at  S.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  he 
became  dean  of  Booking  in  1641, 
having  parliamentary  sympathies, 
which  later  events  modified.  He 
published  several  defences  of  the 
Church  during  the  Commonwealth, 
and  was  made  bishop  of  Exeter  in 
Nov.,  1660,  being  translated  toWor- 
cester,  1662.  He  died  May  23, 1662. 
He  is  remembered  as  claimant  to 
the  authorship  of  Eikon  Basilike 
(q.v. ),  a  controversial  point  still 
undecided. 

Gaugamela,  BATTLE  OF.  Alter- 
native name  for  the  battle  of 
Arbela  (q.v.). 

Gauge  OR  GAGE.  Term  used  for 
various  types  of  measuring  instru- 
ments, e.g.  water  gauge,  pressure 
gauge,  wire  gauge,  and  also  as  a 
standard,  e.g.  railway  gauge. 

There  is  a  great  variety  of  gauges, 
many  of  which  are  fully  described 
under  their  various  headings. 
Among  them  are  wire  gauges,  used 
for  the  measurement  of  the  exter- 
nal diameters  of  wires,  certain  of 
which,  e.g.  the  Birmingham  wire 
gauge,  have  become  standard  in 
Great  Britain  ;  a  marking  gauge,  a 
tool  used  by  carpenters  for  scrib- 
ing a  line  parallel  to  the  edge  of  a 
piece  of  wood,  etc. ;  rain  gauges, 
used  for  measuring  the  rainfall ; 
and  water  and  steam  pressure 
gauges  attached  to  steam  boilers, 
enabling  the  engineer  to  ascertain 
the  quantity  of  water  in  the  boiler 
and  the  head  of  steam.  Railway 
gauge  is  the  width  between  the 
lines  of  a  railroad.  In  Great  Britain 
and  most  countries  of  Europe, 
Canada,  and  the  U.S.A.,  the  stan- 
dard gauge  is  4  ft.  8 \  ins.  A  gauge 


greater  than  this  is  called  a  broad 
gauge,  one  smaller  a  narrow  gauge. 

The  term  gauge  is  also  used  in  a 
nautical  sense  for  the  relative  posi- 
tions of  two  vessels  and  the  wind. 
A  vessel  is  said  to  have  the  weather 
gauge  of  another  vessel  when  on  the 
windward  side  of  it,  and  the  lee 
gauge  when  on  the  lee  side.  In 
Scotland  the  term  gauger  is  used 
for  an  exciseman,  i.e.  one  who 
gauges  or  measures  the  contents  of 
casks.  See  Pressure  Gauge  ;  Rail- 
ways ;  Steam  Gauge  ;  Water  Gauge. 

Gauguin,  PAUL  (1848-1903). 
French  painter.  Born  in  Paris,  he 
was  virtually  self-trained,  declaring 
that  schools  and  study  of  old 
masters  warped  the  artist's  vision. 
Wearying  of  European  life,  he  spent 
his  last  years  in  the  island  of  Tahiti, 
and  died  on  Dominica,  one  of  the 
Antilles.  His  impressionist  paint- 
ings, marked  by  a  vivid  sense  of 
decorative  colour  and  by  striking 
composition,  are  both  characteris- 
tic of  the  man  and  effective  repre- 
sentations of  his  subjects.  Highly 
valued  by  collectors,  they  have 
greatly  influenced  contemporary 
painting. 

Gauhati  OR  GOWHATTY.  Town  of 
Assam,  India,  capital  of  the  Kam- 
rup  district.  Standing  on  the  S. 
bank  of  the  Brahmaputra,  70  m.  E. 
of  Goalpara,  it  is  the  largest  town 
in  Assam  and  an  important  centre 
of  the  river  trade.  The  temple  of 
Kamakhya,  which  stands  on  an 
eminence  in  the  neighbourhood, 
and  the  rocky  islet  of  Umananda  in 
the  Brahmaputra,  are  places  of 
Hindu  pilgrimage.  Formerly  the 
Hindu  capital  of  Kamrup,  many 
ruined  temples  and  quaintly  carved 
slabs  found  on  both  sides  of  the 
river  attest  its  former  greatness. 
There  is  a  high  school  and  a  Persian 
school  here.  Down  to  1874  Gauhati 
was  the  headquarters  of  the  British 
administration,  afterwards  trans- 
ferred to  Shillong.  Pop.  about 
10,000.  => 

Gaul.  Old  name  for  France.  It 
is  derived  from  Gallia,  the  name 
given  to  that  country  by  its  Roman 
conquerors.  This  Gaul  was  some- 
what larger  than  the  modern 
France,  as  it  included  Belgium  and 
parts  of  Germany,  Holland,  and 


GAULOIS 


GAUTIER 


Switzerland.  There  was  also  what 
was  called  Gallia  CisaJpina,  or  nor- 
thern Italy.  Gaul  was  conqxiered  by 
Julius  Caesar  and  organized  under 
Augustus  and  Tiberius.  Its  inhabi- 
tants were  mainly  Celts.  See  France. 

Gaulois.  French  battleship.  She 
was  torpedoed  and  sunk  in  the 
Aegean  Sea,  Dec.  27,  1916.  She 
dated  from  1896,  displaced  11,260 
tons,  and  had  engines  of  14,500 
horse  -power,  with  a  speed  of  ISknots. 

Gault.  Soft,  bluish  clay  of  Cre- 
taceous age.  It  occurs  between 
Lower  and  Upper  Greensand  in  the 
south  of  England.  It  is  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  bricks  and  tiles. 

Gaultheria.  Volatile  oil  used  in 
medicine  for  the  treatment  of  mus- 
cular rheumatism.  iSeeWintergreen. 

Gaunt.  English  variant  of 
Ghent.  It  is  chiefly  known  because 
borne  by  John  of  Gaunt,  duke  of 
Lancaster,  who  was  born  at  Ghent. 
See  Lancaster,  Duke  of. 

Gaunt,  SIR  ERNEST  FREDERICK 

AUGUSTUS  (b.  1865).  British  sailor. 
Bora  March  25,  1865,  he  joined  tho 
navy  in  1878,  was  first  commissioner 
for  Wei-hai-wei,  and  administrator 
of  Liu-kung-tao,  1898-99,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  suppress- 
ion of  Boxer  rising  in  China,  and  in 
operations  in  Somaliland,  1903. 
Rear-admiral  1st  battle  squadron, 
buttle  of  Jutland,  he  was  Com- 
mander-in-chief East  Indies,  1917- 
iy,  and  ot  the  Western  Appmacnea 
1921-22.  He  was  knighted  in  1919. 

Gauntlet  (Fr.  gdntelet,  little 
glove).  In  armour,  a  glove  of 
leather  covered  witli  scale-work  or 
overlapping  metal  plates  which 
permitted  the  hand  to  close.  It  was 
originally  made  without  separate 
fingers,  and  with  a  metal  extension 
over  the  wrist.  Throwing  down  a 
gauntlet  was  a  recognized  form  of 
challenge  which  survives  as  part  of 
the  British  coronation  ceremonial. 

Running  the  gauntlet  was  a  for- 
mer mode  of  punishment  in  which 
the  offender  ran  between  two  rows 
of  men  armed  with  sticks  or  ropes, 
receiving  a  blow  from  each.  Gaunt- 
let here  is  a  corruption  of  the  Swed. 
gatlopp,  lane-run,  first  anglicised  as 
gantlope.  See  Armour  ;  Challenge. 

Gaur  OR  GOUR  (Bos  gaurus). 
Species  of  large,  wild  cattle.  Found 
in  great  herds  in  the  forests  of  India 
and  Burma,  they  are  black  in 
colour,  with  prominent  ears  and 
flattened  horns ;  and  often  as  much 
as  6  ft.  high  at  the  withers. 

Gauss.  Unit  of  measurement 
of  the  intensity  or  flux  density  of 
a  magnetic  field.  A  gauss  is  the 
measure  of  the  intensity  produced 
by  oneweber,  i.e.  one  absolute  line  of 
force  passing  at  right  angles  through, 
an  area  of  one  square  centimetre. 

Gauss,  KARL  FRIFDRICH  (1777- 
1855).  German  mathematician. 


Born  in  Brunswick,  April  30,  1777, 
the  son  of  a  bricklayer,  he  was 
educated  by  the  reigning  duke  of 
Brunswick.  Many  of  his  discoveries 
of  the  theory  of  numbers  were  made 
while  still  a  student  at  Gottingen. 
His  calculation  of  the  elements  of 
the  newly  discovered  planet  Ceres 
placed  him  in  the  highest  rank  of 
theoretical  astronomers  as  well  as 
of  arithmeticians.  Made  director 
of  the  Gottingen  observatory,  1807, 
he  died  there  Feb.  23,  1855. 

Gaussberg.  Mountain  mass  of 
Kaiser  Wilhelm  II  Land,  Ant- 
arctica. It  has  an  alt.  of  1,148  ft., 
and  was  discovered  by  the  explprer 
Drygalski  in  1902  and  surveyed  by 
the  Mawson  Expedition,  Nov.  22, 
1912.  It  lies  between  lat.  67°  8, 


Albertus,  1830,  in  verse,  and  Mile, 
de  Maupin,  1835,  in  prose.  Though 
compelled  to  give  much  of  his 
energy  to  journalism,  his  work  in 
literature  was  voluminous  and 
varied.  In  verse  his  principal  vol- 
umes are  La  Comedie  de  la  Mort, 
1838,  and  Emaux  et  Camees,  1852. 
His  prose  includes  many  tales  and 
stories  (e.g.  Fortunio,  1838,  and 
Jettatura,  1857)  ;  a  remarkable 
piece  of  archaeological  fiction,  Le 
Roman  de  la  Momie,  1856 ;  Le 
Capitaine  Fracasse,  1863,  a  dash- 
ing historical  novel  of  adventure  ; 
some  picturesque  records  of  travel ; 
the  charming  semi-autobiographi- 
cal Paradis  des  Chats  (published 
in  Le  Figaro)  and  Menagerie 
Intime,  1809;  and  numerous 


Gauntlet.    Left,  specimens  of  Italian  work,  early  16th  century, 
gauntlets,  German  16th  century 


Right,  mitten 


and  the  Antarctic  circle,  long.  89°  E. 

Gaussen,  FRANCOIS  SAMUEL 
ROBERT  Lotus  (1790-1863).  Swiss 
Protestant  theologian.  He  became 
pastor  of  the  Swiss  Reformed 
church  at  Satigny,  but  was  deposed 
hi  1832.  In  that  year  he  helped  to 
found  the  evangelical  society,  and 
was  professor  of  theology  in  a  new 
college  at  Geneva,  1836-1857.  He 
died^Tune  18,  1863.  His  works  in- 
cluded Theopneustics  and  Canon 
of  Scripture. 

Gautama  (c.  560-480  B.C.). 
Name  of  Buddha,  founder  of 
Buddhism  (q.v.). 

Gautier,  TH£OPHILE  (1811-72). 
French  author.  Born  at  Tarbes, 
Aug.  31,  1811.  and  admitted  j'oung 
to  Hugo's  cir- 
cle, he  was  an 
enthusiastic 
supporter  of 
the  master  hi 
the  "  battle  of 
Hernani,"  and 
later  gained 
further  notori- 
ety with  two 
brilliant  but 
licentious 
romances,  c 


volumes  on  the  history  of  litera- 
ture and  art  (Les  Grotesques, 
1844  ;  L'histoire  de  1'Art  Theatral 
en  France  depuis  25  Ans,  1860; 
and  the  posthumous  L'histoire  du 
Roman  tisme). 

Gautier  early  outgrew  his  ex- 
treme romanticism,  the  extrava- 
gances of  which  he  satirised  in  Les 
Jeunes -France,  1833;  and  in  his 
poetry,  in  opposition  to  the  prevail- 
ing mode,  he  sought  to  paint  pic- 
tures rather  than  to  analyse  and 
express  his  personal  emotions.  Un- 
like most  of  the  romantics,  too,  he 
was  utterly  indifferent  to  all  philo- 
sophical and  social  interests.  He 
died  Oct.  23,  1872. 

Gautier's  daughter  Judith,  who 
died  in  1917,  wrote  historical 
novels  and  poetry,  and  was  a 
distinguished  Oriental  scholar.  She 
collaborated  with  Pierre  Loti  in 
the  play  La  Fille  du  Ciel,  1912. 

Bibliography.  Works,  Eng.  trans, 
ed.  F.  C.  de  Sumichrast,  1900,  etc.  ; 
Theophile  Gautier :  entretiens, 
souvenirs  et  correspon  dance,  E. 
Bergerat,  1879  ;  French  Poets  and 
Novelists,  Henry  Jarnes,  repr.  1884  ; 
Theophile  Gautier :  Critical  bio- 
graphy, Maxime  Du  Camp,  Eng. 
trans.  J.  E.  Gordon,  1893. 


GAUZE 


3451 


GAWSWORTH 


Gauze.  Thin,  transparent  fabric 
of  silk  or  cotton,  and  either  plain 
or  figured.  True  gauze  is  woven 
in  a  distinctive  manner.  Adjoin- 
ing warp  threads  are  crossed  over 
each  other  by  the  action  of  a 
speoial  harness  in  the  loom.  Spital- 
nelds  and,  later,  Paisley  were  long 
noted  for  their  silk  gauze  manu- 
factures. The  word  is  possibly 
derived  from  Gaza,  in  Palestine, 
whence  it  was  first  introduced. 

Gavami(  1804-66).  French  cari- 
caturist. He  was  born  in  Paris,  Jan. 
13,  1804,  his  real  name  being  Guil- 
laume  iSulpice 
Chevalier.  He 
adopted  the 
pseudonym  of 
Gavami  from 
the  village  of 
G  a  v  a  r  n  i  e , 
Hautes  -  Pyre- 
nees, of  which 
he  showed  a 
drawing  at 
the  Salon, 
1829.  Settling 
in  Paris,  he  soon  became  well 
known  for  his  elegant  drawings  of 
fashionable  women  in  La  Mode, 
started  in  1830  by  Emile  de  Girar- 
din.  Joining  the  staff  of  Charivari, 
however,  he  disclosed  his  remark- 
able talent  for  caricature. 

In  1849  he  visited  England,  pro- 
ducing Gavarni  in  London  for  The 
Illustrated  London  News,  and  his 
lithograph,  The  Highland  Piper, 
his  masterpiece  in  this  style.  He 
died  at  Auteui],  Nov.  24,  1866. 
He  illustrated  Eugene  Sue's  The 
Wandering  Jew,  Balzac's  novels, 
and  other  books. 

Gavarnie.  Village  of  France, 
in  dept.  of  Hautes-Pyrenees.  Lying 
12  m.  S.  of  Luz-S.  Sauveur,  it  is 
famed  for  the  vast  cirque  of  Ga- 
varnie, a  mountainous  amphi- 
theatre with  a  cascade  1,515  ft.  in 
height. 


Gavarni, 
French  caricaturist 


Gavarnie,  France.         Part   oli   the 

Cirque,  showing  the  cascade  1,515  ft. 

in  height 


Gavelkind  (A.S. 
gafol,  tribute,  cynd, 
kind).  English 
name  for  a  form  of 
land  tenure  found 
in  Kent  and  some- 
times  elsewhere. 
Its  main  feature 
is  that  in  cases  of 
intestacy  the  land 
passes  to  all  the  sons 
equally.  This  form 
of  tenure  is  and  has 
been  common  out- 
side England,  and 
was  customary  in 
the  country  before 
the  Norman  Con- 
quest. Land  held  in 
gavelkind  could  be 
disposed  of  by  will, 
and  was  not  for- 
feited by  treason. 
The  widow's  dower 
is  one-half,  not  one- 
third.  One  theory 
is  that  William  the 
Conqueror  granted 
this  privilege  t  o 
the  people  of  Kent 
in  return  for  their  valour.  -See 
Land  Laws ;  Primogeniture. 

Gaveston,  PIERS  (d.  1312). 
Favourite  and  foster-brother  of  Ed- 
ward II  of  England.  Son  of  a  Gas- 
con knight,  he  gained  complete 
ascendancy  over  the  young  prince, 
but  his  insolence  having  alienated 
the  great  barons  he  was  banished 
by  Edward  I.  On  Edward  II's  ac- 
cession in  1307  he  was  recalled  and 
created  earl  of  Cornwall,  and  in 
1308  was  appointed  regent  during 
his  patron's  absence  hi  France. 
After  acting  as  lieutenant  of  Ire- 
land he  was  again  compelled  to 
leave  the  kingdom.  In  1311  he  re- 
turned to  England,  and  in  1312 
surrendered  at  Scarborough,  was 
seized  by  the  earl  of  Warwick,  and 
beheaded  on  Blacklow  Hill,  near 
Warwick,  June  17,  1312. 

Gavial  OR  GHARIAL.  Member  of 
the  crocodile  family,  distinguished 
from  the  others  by  its  very  long 
and  slender  snout.  It  is  common  in 
India,  where  it  sometimes  attains 
a  length  of  twenty  feet,  and  lives  in 
the  larger  rivers.  It  feeds  upon 
fish,  and  is  rarely  known  to  attack 
land  animals,  which  may  possibly 
be  the  reason  why  certain  Hindu 
sects  regard  it  as  sacred.  Remains 
belonging  to  this  family  have  been 
found  in  Tertiary  deposits. 

Gavotte  (Fr.).  Graceful  old 
dance  in  duple  time,  beginning  on 
the  second  half  of  the  bar.  Many 
examples  are  to  be  found  in  the 
suites  (q.v.)  of  Bach  and  other 
18th  century  composers.  There  are 
often  two  gavottes,  the  first  one  to 
be  played  again  after  the  second. 
Sometimes  the  isecond  gavotte  is 


Gavotte.     One  of  the  graceful  steps  in  the  courtly 
•Jance  of  the  16th  and  17th  centuries 


called  a  muse  tte(<7.t>.).  Gavotte  was 
the  dance  of  the  Gavots — or  people 
of  the  Pays  de  Gap.  It  was 
danced  at  the  French  Court  in  the 
16th  century  and  was  more  than 
once  altered  to  suit  new  ideas. 

Gavrelle.  Village  of  France,  in 
the  dept.  of  Pas-de-Calais.  It  is  on 
the  Arras-Douai  road,  9  m.  N.E. 
of  Arras.  Fierce  fighting  took 
place  here  between  the  British  and 
Germans,  April  23-26,  1917,  it 
being  an  important  position  on  the 
N.  side  of  the  Scarpe  between 
Roueux  and  Oppy  (q.v.).  It  was 
retaken  by  the  Germans  in  March, 
1918,  and  recovered  by  the  British 
in  Aug.,  1918.  See  Arras,  Battles  of. 

Gawaine,  SIR.  One  of  the 
Knights  of  the  Round  Table  hi  the 
Arthurian  legend.  He  was  the  son 
of  King  Lot  of  Orkney,  and  nephew 
of  King  Arthur.  He  inadvertently 
slew  a  woman  early  in  his  knight- 
hood, and  was  thereafter  bound 
to  fight  in  woman's  quarrels. 

Gawler.  Town  of  S.  Australia. 
It  is  23m.  N.E.  of  Adelaide, 
and  the  centre  of  a  wheat  and  vine 
growing  area,  yielding  also  gold, 
silver,  lead,  and  copper.  It  con- 
tains engineering  works  and  foun- 
dries, flour  mills,  and  breweries. 
Pop.  4,037. 

Gawsworth.  Village  of  Che- 
shire, England.  It  is  3  m.  S.W. 
of  Macclesfield,  and  formed  part 
of  the  estate  of  Gawsworth  and 
Bosworth,  belonging  to  the  earl  of 
Harrington,  sold  by  public  auction 
at  Macclesfield,  Jan.  28,  1920,  for 
nearly  £250,000. 

The  ruins  of  the  Old  Hall,  a 
building  dating  from  the  14th 


GAY 


3452 


:GAY-LUSSAC 


Gawsworth,    Cheshire.       Tombs  of   members   of  the 
Fytton  family  in  the  parish  church 

century,  and  for  over  400  years  ! 
the  home  of  the  Fytton  or  Fitton 
family,  were  not  included  in  the 
Scale.  The  New  Hall,  erected  by 
Lord  Mohun,  was  withdrawn. 
Gawsworth  Church,  the  older  parts 
of  which  are  attributed  to  the 
llth  century,  was  restored  in  1851, 
and  an  appeal  was  made  for  its 
further  renovation  in  1920.  It  con- 
tains many  monuments  of  the 
Fytton  family.  See  Fytton  ;  Dark- 
Lady  of  the  Sonnets. 

Gay,  JOHN  (1685-1732).  Eng- 
lish poet  and  dramatist.  Born  in 
Devonshire,  he  began  life  as  a  silk 
mercer,  but  for- 
sook business 
for  literature. 
His  first  real 


Gaya.  Town 
and  district  of 
India.  In  Bihar 
and  Orissa,  its 
area  is  4,712 
sq.  m.  Gaya  is 
notable  for  its 
many  associa- 
tions with  the 
ancient  religion  of 
Buddha.  Thus  at 
Buddh  Gaya  is  the 
great  temple  of  that 
name,  which  dates 
back  to  543  B.C., 
and  the  Barabar 
Caves,  16  m.  N.  of 
Gaya  town,  are 


P.  Gayangos  y  Arce, 
Spanish  historian 


Gaya,  India.     General  view  of  the  Buddhist  temples 
and  shrines  in  the  town 


success  was  a 
pastoral,  Shep- 
herd's Week, 
1714,  written 
at  the  sugges- 
tion of  Pope, 
to  whom  he 
had  dedicated  a 
previous  effort.  This  was  followed 
by  Trivia,  1716,  a  description  of 
the  moving  panorama  of  the  Lon- 
don streets,  and  by  his  Fables, 
1727,  which  were  a  notable  success. 
His  best  work,  however,  is  The  Beg- 
gar's Opera,  1728,  a  lyrical  drama 
of  thieves  and  highwaymen.  It 
had  a  great  vogue,  and  Gay  fol- 
lowed it  up  with  a  sequel,  Polly, 
which,  on  account  of  its  political 
references,  was  prohibited  ;  but  it 
was  published  in  book  form,  1729. 
Among  other  pieces  from  Gay's 
pen  was  the  well-known  song 
Black-eyed  Susan.  Gay  was  a 
great  social  favourite.  The  last 
years  of  his  life  were  spent  in  tho 
household  of  his  friends  the  duke 
and  duchess  of  Queensberry,  and 
he  died  on  Dec.  4. 1732.  Gay  wrote 
with  grace  and  distinction  the  arti- 
ficial verse  of  the  period,  but  he 
sometimes  shows  a  true  feeling  for 
nature.  The  Beggar's  Opera  was 
successfully  revived  at  the  Lyric 
Theatre,  Hammersmith,  in  1920.  { 


regarded  as  among  the  oldest 
existing  Buddhist  monuments. 
Gaya  town  contains  the  famous 
temple  of  Vishnupada  and  other 
sacred  shrines.  Of  the  total  area 
of  the  district  about  two-thirds 
is  under  cultivation  ;  and  of  the 
cultivated  area  half  is  devoted 
to  rice  ;  other  crops  are  wheat, 
pulses,  and  oilseeds.  There  are  a 
number  of  small  industries,  car- 
pets and  rugs,  ornaments,  stone- 
ware, and  lac  being  among  the 
manufactures. 

Gayal  (Bos  fronlalis).  Species  of 
wild  ox  found  in  the  hilly  regions 
of  N.E.  India.    It 
is     smaller    than    F  ^ivf 

the     gaur,     with    | 
which  it  is  said  to   ! 
interbreed,     and    \  .  jjB 
has  straighter   | 
horns  without  any    f 
crest     between 
them.    It  is  more 
often    seen  semi- 
domesticated 
than    wild.      See 
Gaur. 


Gayangos  y 
Arce,  PASCUAL 
DE  (1  809-97). 
Spanish  historian. 
Bom  at  Seville, 
June  21,  1809,  he 
became  professor 


of  Arabic  at  Madrid,  1843,  and,  in 
1881,  director  of  public  instruction 
for  Spain.  His  historical  and  literary 
work  was 
mainly  that 
of  editing 
MSS.,  letters, 
etc.,  and  his 
skill  in  read- 
ing 16th  cen- 
tury hand- 
writing was  of 
great  use  to 
W.H.PreKcott, 
the  historian.  Gayangos  lived  much 
in  London,  where  he  died  Oct.  4, 
1897.  He  compiled  a  catalogue  of 
the  Spanish  MSS.  in  the  British 
Museum,  1875. 

Ga  y  Lord 
Q  u  e  x,  THE. 
Modern  comedy 
by  Arthur  Pinero, 
produced,  April  8, 
1 S99,  at  the*  (old) 
Globe,  where  it 
ran  for  300  per- 
formances. John 
Hare  and  Irene 
Vanbrugh  won  a 
triumph  in  the 
piece. 

Gay  -  Lussac, 
Louis  JOSEPH 
(1778-1850). 
French     chemist. 
Born    at    St. 
Leonard,  Haute    Vienne,  Dec.    6, 
1778,  he  was  educated  at  the  ficole 
Polyteclmique, 
Paris.     Assist- 
ant   to    Bert- 
hollet,  and  to 
Fourcroy,      he 
was     professor 
of  chemistry  at 
the  Ecole  Poly- 
tec  h  nique, 
1809,  and   the 
Jar din   des 
Plantes,    1832. 
He  was  created 
a  peer  in  1839. 


Gayal,  a  wild  ox  from  north-east  India 


GAZA 

His  chief  work  in  physics  was 
the  deduction  that  a  simple  ratio 
exists  between  the  volumes  of 
gases  which  combine,  and  that  the 
volume  of  the  resulting  compound 
bears  a  simple  ratio  to  the  volumes 
of  the  original  gaseous  constituents. 
These  are  known  as  Gay-Lussac's 
or  Charles's  laws. "  His  chemical 
work  included  the  discovery  of 
cyanogen  and  its  compounds,  and 
an  investigation  of  the  properties 
of  iodine.  He  died  May  9,  1850. 

Gaza.  Town  of  Palestine,  the 
modern  Guzze  or  Guz'zeh.  Recog- 
nized as  the  key  to  Palestine  from 
the  south,  it  was  always  a  place  of 
strategical  importance.  In  Bibli- 
cal times  it  was  one  of  the  five 
chief  cities  of  the  Philistines.  In 
332  B.C.  it  was  captured  by 
Alexander  the  Great  after  a  siege 
of  five  months,  and  afterwards 
figured  extensively  in  the  chroni- 
cles of  Maccabees  and  Moslems, 
Crusaders  and  Turks.  Napoleon 
took  it  in  1799. 

Situated  in  the  midst  of  a  fertile 
country  near  the  sea,  on  the  edge 
of  the  desert  between  Palestine  and 
Egypt,  it  has  always  been  a 
prosperous  town,  and  before  the 
war  was  noted  for  its  export  of 
fine  barley.  Pop.  15,000. 

Gaza,  BATTLES  OF.  Fought 
between  the  British  and  the  Turks, 
in  March  and  in  April,  1917.  By 
the  victory  at  Rafa,  Jan.  9,  1917, 
Sir  Archibald  Murray  accomplished 
his  plan  of  interposing  the  width  of 
the  Sinaitic  Peninsula  on  the  N. 
between  the  Suez  Canal  and  the 
Turks  under  Kressenstein.  He 
then  began  the  conquest  of  south- 
ern Palestine,  after  the  rly. 
from  El  Kantara  had  been  con- 
structed close  up  to  the  frontier. 

By  the  middle  of  March,  1917, 
the  rly.  reached  Rafa,  but  the 
advance  into  Palestine  had  begun 
with  the  occupation  of  the  village 
of  Khan  Yunus  on  Feb.  28. 
Kressenstein  took  up  a  strong 
position  on  a  front  stretching  from 
Gaza  to  Beersheba  through  Sheria. 
On  March  25  Dobell's  desert 
column,  consisting  of  Anzacs, 
yeomanry,  and  the  53rd  division 
of  infantry,  together  with  artillery, 
was  concentrated  at  Deir-el-Belah, 
3  m.  from  the  Wadi  Ghuzze. 
Dobell  also  had  at  his  disposal  the 
52nd  and  54th  divisions,  the 
camel  corps,  and  other  artillery. 
On  March  26  the  Wadi  Ghuzze 
was  crossed  without  opposition  by 
the  cavalry  and  camelry.  It  had 
been  designed  that  the  cavalry 
and  camelry  should  envelop  Gaza 
from  the  E.  and  N.,  while  the 
53rd  division  attacked  the  town 
frontally.  This  programme  was 
carried  out,  and  the  Turks  in  Gaza 
were  hemmed  in  by  the  afternoon, 


3453 

after  offering  a  desperate  resistance 
on  the  height  known  as  Ali  Muntar. 
Some  Australians  were  fighting  in 
the  streets  of  the  town,  but  dark- 
ness was  coming  on,  and  Turkish 
reinforcements  from  Huj,  Sheria, 
and  Hareira  pressed  heavily  on  the 
British  right.  There  was  no  water 
for  the  horses,  and  during  the  night 
the  British  abandoned  Ali  Muntar, 
and  the  whole  line  fell  back.  Next 
morning  Ali  Muntar  was  re- 
occupied,  but  the  Turks,  heavily 
reinforced,  were  too  strong,  and  on 
March  28  the  British  withdrew  to 
the  Wadi  Ghuzze. 


Gaza.    The  Great  Mosque,  originally 
a  12th  century  Christian  church 

But  on  April  17  the  second 
battle  of  Gaza  began.  Meanwhile 
Kressenstein  had  turned  his  Gaza 
front  into  a  fortress,  and  his  forces 
had  been  increased  to  five  infantry 
and  one  cavalry  divisions.  To  the 
British  had  been  added  the  74th 
division,  but  the  event  proved 


Gaza.      Map  of  the  battlefields  of 
March  and  April,  1917 

that  they  were  in  insufficient 
strength  for  a  frontal  attack,  which 
alone  was  possible.  On  April  17  the 
British,  helped  by  tanks,  carried 
the  Turks'  outer  defence  line  on 
Sheikh  Abbas,  and  next  day  con- 
solidated the  ground  won.  On 


GAZALAND 

April  19  the  main  effort  was  made, 
and  though  Samson  Ridge  was 
taken,  it  failed  to  carry  Ali  Muntar, 
and  was  beaten  off  elsewhere,  with 
a  loss  to  the  British  of  7,000  men. 
The  battle  was  broken  off  as  night 
fell,  and  was  not  renewed  next  day. 
As  a  consequence  of  this  reverse, 
Sir  Charles  Dobell  was  relieved  of 
his  command.  Sir  Archibald 
Murray  was  replaced  by  Gen.  Sir 
E.  H.  Allenby  at  the  end  of  June, 
1917.  See  Sir  A.  Murray's 
Dispatches,  1920. 

Gaza,  CAPTURE  OF.  British  suc- 
cess over  the  Turks  in  Nov.,  1917. 
As  part  of  his  general  offensive 
against  the  Turks  under  Kressen- 
stein, on  the  Gaza-Sheria-Beer- 
sheba  line,  General  Allenby  had 
fought  and  won  the  battles  of  Beer- 
sheba, Oct.  31,  and  Sheria,  Nov.6-7, 
1917.  The  first  broke  the  Turkish 
left,  the  second  the  Turkish  centre, 
and  on  Nov.  6  at  midnight  Allenby 
launched  what  proved  to  be  the 
final  assault  on  the  strong  works 
covering  Gaza,  the  Turkish  right. 

Before  this  attack  Gaza,  as  well 
as  the  region  immediately  N.  of  it, 
containing  the  terminus  of  a 
strategic  rly.  built  by  the  Turks 
from  the  Central  Palestine 
rly.,  had  been  incessantly  bom- 
barded by  British  land  batteries 
and  warships  from  the  sea.  On 
Nov.  2,  1917,  after  a  tremendous 
bombardment  on  Nov.  1,  Scots  and 
East  Anglians  stormed  Umbrella 
Hill  in  front  of  Gaza,  and  the 
Turkish  first  line  of  defences  from 
it  to  the  coast,  and  held  them, 
despite  repeated  counter-attacks. 
Thereafter  the  intense  shelling  of 
Gaza  by  the  British  was  continued, 
and  meanwhile  Allenby 's  threat 
from  Sheria,  which  had  been 
heightened  by  his  moving  on  Huj 
and  Jemmameh,  9  and  11  m.  re- 
spectively N.E.  of  Gaza,  had  caused 
Kressenstein  to  evacuate  that  town. 

On  the  night  of  Nov.  6  only  a 
few  Turks  remained  to  cover 
Kressenstein's  retreat,  and  when 
western  county  and  Indian  troops 
on  the  S.E.,  with  East  Anglians 
and  home  county  men  on  the 
coast,  moved  to  the  assault,  Gaza 
fell  into  their  hands  with  hardly  a 
struggle  early  on  Nov.  7.  An  out- 
lying position,  known  as  the 
Atwineh  Ridge,  E.  of  Gaza,  was 
taken  on  Nov.  8,  and  with  it  the 
whole  of  the  Gaza-Sheria-Beer- 
sheba  line  was  in  the  hands  of  the 
victorious  British  forces  See 
Palestine,  Conquest  of. 

Gazalaud  OR  GASALAND.  Coun- 
try of  S.  Africa,  in  Portuguese 
E.  Africa.  It  is  situated  on  the 
border  of  S.E.  Rhodesia.  The 
country  is  mountainous,  has  an 
abundant  rainfall,  and  is  watered 
by  the  Sabi  river. 


GAZAN1A 


3454 


GEAR 


to  trans- 
mit mo- 
tion. A 
m  u  1  tiply- 
inggear,  as 
of  a  clock 


Gazania.     Leaves  and  flowers  of  the 
S.  African  shrub 

Gazania.  Genus  of  perennial 
herbs  of  the  natural  order  Composi- 
tae.  They  are  natives  of  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope.  The  leaves  of  some 
species  are  entire  and  lance-shaped  ; 
of  others  deeply  cut  into  narrow 
segments.  The  flower-heads  are 
showy,  the  ray-florets  a  tint  of 
yellow,  and  the  tubular  florets 


Gazelle.    Specimen  of  the  Korin  gazelle 

usually  of  a  darker  colour.  Many 
of  the  garden  varieties  are  hybrids. 

Gazebo.  Summerhouse  built  to 
command  a  wide  view  over  the 
surrounding  country,  correspond- 
ing to  the  Italian  belvedere.  The 
word  is  the  future  form  of  a  sup- 
posed Latin  verb  and  means  I  will 
survey.  Lavabo,  a  wash-hand 
basin,  I  will  wash,  is  a  similar 
formation.  A  bow  window  is  some- 
times called  a  gazebo. 

Gazelle  (Arab,  ghazal).  Name 
given  to  a  large  number  of  species 
of  small  antelopes,  chiefly  found  in 
the  desert  regions  of  the  E.  hemi- 
sphere. They  are  the  lightest  and 
most  graceful  of  the  antelopes,  and 
usually  have  remarkably  slender 
legs.  The  majority  of  the  species 
are  less  than  thirty  inches  high. 


The  upper   molar   teeth   resemble 
those  of  the  sheep.  c 

Gazetteer.  Name  given  to  a 
ideographical  dictionary  or  en- 
cyclopedia, i.e.  a  book  containing 
information  about  towns,  rivers, 
mountains,  etc.,  arranged  in  alpha- 
betical order.  Gazetteers  may  be 
universal,  i.e.  dealing  with  the 
whole  world,  or  local,  a  gazetteer 
of  England  and  Wales,  for  instance. 
The  word  referred  originally  to  one 
who  wrote  for  gazettes,  passing 
thence  to  those  who  compiled 
reference  works  of  the  kind  in 
question,  and  then  to  such  works 
themselves.  In  1695  Laurence 
Echard  brought  out  The  Gazet- 
teer's or  Newsman's  Interpreter. 
This  was  later  abbreviated  to  The 
Gazetteer,  and  so  originated  the 
use  of  the  word  in  its  present  con- 
nexion. Harmsworth's  New  Atlas, 
although  more  than  a  gazetteer, 
contains  much  gazetteer  informa- 
tion revised  up  to  1919-20. 

G.B.E.  Abbreviation  for  knight 

^         or    dame     Grand 

1    Cross  Order  of  the 

British  Empire. 

G.C.B.    Abbre- 
viation for  Grand 

Cross  of  the  Bath. 

He  is  known  as  Sir. 
G.C.I.E.      Ab- 

brev.    for     Grand 

Commander  of  the 

Indian  Empire. 
G.C.M.G.  Ab- 

brev.   for    Grand 

Cross  of  S.  Michael 

and  S.  George. 
G.    C.    S.     I. 

Abbreviation 

for    Grand    Com- 
mander of  the  Star 

of  India. 

G.C.V.O.    Ab- 

brev.     for    Grand 

Cross    of    (Royal) 

Victorian  Order. 

Geant,      AIGU- 
ILLE DU  (Giant's  needle).     One  of 
the  loftiest  peaks  of  the  Pennine 
Alps,    France.      In    the    dept.    of 
Savoie,  it  is  about  5  m.   N.E.  of 
Mont  Blanc,  and  has  an  alt.  of 
13,170ft.     It   is   crowned    with 
an   aluminium  statuette  of  the 
Madonna.    T  he  steep  ascent  from 
Chamonix.   over   the   Col   (pass) 
du   Geant  (11,057  ft.)  leads   to 
Courmayeur  in  Italy. 

Gear.  Toothed  wheel  or 
series  of  connected  tooth  wheels 
for  the  transmission  of  motion 
from  one  machine  to  another,  or 
from  part  of  a  machine  to  an- 
other part.  Gear  wheels  are  of 
varying  shapes  and  sizes,  with 
many  different  kinds  of  teeth  cut 
upon  them  according  to  the  speed 
and  direction  they  are  required  Double  helical  gear 


Bevel  gear 

or  bicycle,  causes  the  driven  part  to 
move 'faster  than  the  driving  part  ; 
a  reducing,  or  de-multiplying  gear, 
as  of  a  crane,  acts  the  reverse  way  ; 
a  change   speed  gear   enables  the 
relative   speeds 
of    the   driving 
and     driven 
parts  to    be 
varied  at  will ; 
a  reversing  gear 
alters  the  direc- 
tion of  motion. 
In  bevel  gear, 
the    toothed 
edges  are  set  at 
an  angle  to  one 
another  so  that 
motion   in  one 
direction     may 


Skew  gear 
right   angles. 


be  transferred 
to  a  direction 
A  skew  gear 


at 

is  employed  between  two  shafts, 
the  axles  of  which  are  not  parallel 
and  do  not  meet.  Helical  gear  is 
used  for  gearing  down  of  steam 


Worm  gear 

turbines,  etc.,  and  is  remarkably 
noiseless,  owing  to  the  constant 
engagement  of  the  teeth.  The 
double  helical  or  herring-bone  gear 
has  right  and  left  handed  rows  of 
teeth  to  eliminate  end-thrust. 


Spur  gear 


GEBER 

A  series  of  gear  -wheels  connect- 
ing with  one  another  in  any 
fashion  for  transmitting  motion  is 
called  a  train.  In  epicycJic  trains, 
used  for  varying  speed  gears  on 
bicycles,  motor-cars,  etc.,  wheels 
run  round  each  other  and  are  kept 
in  contact  by  a  connexion.  A 
differential  gear  or  compensating 
gear  transmits  power  to  both  driv- 
ing wheels  of  a  motor-car  or  other 
vehicle  in  such  a  way  as  to  allow 
the  wheels  to  revolve  at  unequal 
speeds  when  travelling  on  a  curve. 
See  Motor-car  ;  Shafting ;  Worm. 

Geber  (c.  702-c.  765).  Arabian 
alchemist.  The  works  on  chemistry 
attributed  to  him  are  probably  a 
collection  of  writings  by  different 
authors.  Berthelot,  who  examined 
the  authenticity  of  the  works  of 
Geber,  held  that  The  Book  of  the 
Seventy  of  Johannis  is  a  trans- 
lation of  a  genuine  Arabic  MS.  by 
Geber.  See  Alchemy. 

Gebweiler.  Variant  spelling  of 
the  name  of  the  French  town  better 
known  as  Guebwiller  (q  v.). 

Gecko.  Family  of  small  lizards, 
common  throughout  the  tropics. 
They  are  of  dull  colour,  with  many 


Gecko.     The  S.  European  wall  gecko. 
-    Tarentola  mauritanica 

tubercles  on  the  skin,  and  have  a 
somewhat  repulsive  appearance. 
In  most  species  the  toes  act  like 
suckers  and  enable  the  animals  to 
ascend  the  window  panes  and  run 
about  the  ceilings.  They  live  on 
insects  and  are  quite  harmless. 

Geddes,  ANDREW  (1783-1844). 
Scottish  painter.  Born  in  Edin- 
burgh, April  8,  1783,  he  entered 
the  R.A.  schools  in  1806,  and  was 
elected  A.R.A.  in  1832.  He  painted 
several  scriptural  subjects,  The 
Discovery  of  the  Regalia  of  Scot- 
land in  1818,  and  exhibited  at  the 
R.A.,  1821.  The  portrait  of  his 
mother  (in  the  Scottish  National 
Gallery)  is  deemed  his  master- 
piece, but  those  of  George  Sanders, 
Sir  David  Wilkie,  Patrick  Brydone, 
and  Dr.  Chalmers  are  notable 
specimens  of  his  skill.  He  died 
May  5,  1844. 

Geddes,  SIR  AUCKLAND  CAMP- 
BELL (b.  1879).  British  politician. 
A  son  of  Auckland  C.  Geddes  and 
a  brother  of  Sir  Eric  Geddes,  he 
was  educated  in  Edinburgh,  and 
became  a  doctor.  In  the  S.  African 


Sir  Auckland  Geddes, 
British  politician 

Russell 


3455 

War  he  served 
in  the  Highland 
Light  Infantry, 
and  was  after- 
wards assistant 
p  r  o  f  e  s  sor  of 
anatomy  at 
Edinburgh  and 
professor  of  the 
same  at  McGill 
University, 
Montreal,  and 
at  the  Royal 
College  of  Surgeons,  Dublin.  He 
served  in  the  Great  War  and 
obtained  the  honorary  rank  of 
brigadier-general. 

In  1916  he  returned  from  the 
front  to  become  director  of  recruit- 
ing at  the  war 
office,  and  his 
success  there  led 
Lloyd  George  to 
make  him  a  mem- 
ber of  his  Govern- 
ment. He  became 
minister  of  na- 
tional service  in 
Aug.,  1917;  was 
knighted  and  ob- 
tained a  seat  in 
Parliament.  In 
Nov.,  1918,  he 
was  made  a  privy 
councillor  and 
transferred  to  the 
local  government 
board,  and  hi 
Jan.,  1919,  he 


GEELONG 

a  minister  without  portfolio,  and 
was  first  minister  of  transport  1919- 

1921.  He  presided  over  a  com- 
mittee on  national  expenditure  in 

1922,  and  became  chairman  of  the 
Dunlop  Rubber  Co.,  1923.    In  1916 
he  was  knighted. 

Geddes,  JENNY.  Edinburgh 
kail-wife  or  vegetable  seller.  She  is 
famed  for  having  started  a  riot  in 
S.  Giles's  Cathedral  by  hurling  a 
stool  at  the  dean  who  read  Laud's 
liturgy  there  for  the  first  time,  July 
23,  1637.  A  stool  said  to  be  hers 
is  in  the  Antiquarian  Museum, 
Edinburgh. 

Geddes,  PATRICK  (b.  1854) 
British  scientist  and  social  re- 
former. Educated  at  Perth,  Uni- 


was  made  minister  of  reconstruc- 
tion. He  was  president  of  the 
board  of  trade,  1 919-20,  and  British 
ambassador  to  the  U.S.A.,  Mar., 
1920,  to  Jan.,  1924.  He  then  en- 
tered on  a  business  career,  -and  in 
1924-5  was  chairman  of  the  royal 
commission  on  food  prices. 

Geddes,  SIR  ERIC  CAMPBELL  (b. 
1875).      British  politician.      Born 
in  India,   Sept.  26,  1875,  he  was 
educated  at 
M ere his ton 
Castle    School, 
Edinburgh,  and 
passed  some  of 
his  early  years 
in   America    in 
the  service  of  a 
rly.     company. 
After  holding 

a  similar   post       Sir  Eric  Geddes, 
in    India,   he      British  politician 
returned  to  Britain  to  enter  the 
service  of  the  North  Eastern  Rly. 
Co.      In  a  short  time  he  became 
its  deputy  general  manager.      In 

1915  Geddes  was  given  a  post  in 
the  ministry  of  munitions,  and  in 

1916  was  sent  to  France  as  director- 
general  of  military  rlys. 

Early  in  1917  Lloyd  George 
made  him  controller  of  the  navy, 
and,  later  in  the  year,  first  lord  of 
the  admiralty.  In  1919  he  became 


Jenny  Geddes  starting  the  riot  in  S.  Giles's  Cathedral, 
Edinburgh,  by  throwing  a  stool  at  the  officiating  minister 

From  an  engraving  by  W.  Hollar 

versity  College,  London,  and 
abroad,  Geddes  became  demon- 
strator in  physiology  at  University 
College,  London.  He  was  lecturer 
in  zoology  at  Aberdeen,  and  botany 
at  Edinburgh  ;  on  natural  history 
in  the  school  of  medicine,  Edin- 
burgh, and  then  professor  of  botany 
at  Dundee.  He  travelled  widely, 
and  took  a  leading  part  in  educa- 
tional and  social  work  in  Scotland. 
Geddes  was  director  of  the  Cities 
and  Town-Planning  Exhibition. 
His  writings 
were  mainly 
articles  on  these 
subjects  and 
works  on  bio- 
logy and  bo- 
tany. In  Aug., 
1919,  he  was  en- 
gaged by  the 
Internat  i  o  n  a  1 
Zionist  Com- 
mission to  plan 
the  reconstruc- 


•u 


Patrick  Geddes, 
British  scientist 

Elliott  A  Fry 

tion  of  Jerusalem  and  its  proposed 
university. 

Geelong.  City  of  Victoria,  Aus- 
tralia, in  Grant  co.  It  stands 
near  the  head  of  Geelong  Harbour, 
an  arm  of  Corio  Bay,  45  m.  by 
rly.  S.W.  of  Melbourne,  and  is  the 
port  for  the  Western  Plains  wool 
and  wheat,  for  the  accommodation 


3456 


Geelong,  one  of  the  most  important  towns  o!  Victoria,  Australia 


of  which  there  is  wharfage  capable 
of  taking  ships  of  the  largest 
tonnage.  It  has  paper  works, 
cement  works,  limestone  quarries, 
ropeworks,  and  tanneries.  The  first 
place  in  Australia  to  attempt  wool- 
len manufacture,  it  now  has  woollen 
mills,  including  some  carried  on  by 
the  government.  Until  the  dis- 
covery of  gold  Geelong  was  the 
second  city  in  Victoria.  Pop.  30,652. 

Geelvink  Bay.  Inlet  on  the 
N.W.  coast  of  Papua,  in  Dutch 
New  Guinea,  between  Cape  Mamori 
and  Cape  D'  Urville.  It  pene- 
trates 120  m.  inland,  and  is  150  m. 
wide  at  its  entrance.  The  bay  con- 
tains several  islands,  the  chief  being 
the  Schouten  Islands  and  Jobi. 

Geer,  Louis  GERHARD,  BARON 
DE  (1818-96).  Swedish  statesman 
and  writer.  Born  at  Finspang,  he 
became  president  of  the  supreme 
courts  in  1855.  He  was  minister  of 
justice,  1858-70,  and  again  in 
1875,  and  while  occupying  that 
position  introduced  the  measure 
establishing  two  chambers  with 
popular  representation,  1866.  From 
1876-80  he  was  president  of  the 
ministry.  He  was  the  author  of 
many  volumes  of  essays,  stories, 
and  biography,  and  published  a 
volume  of  Reminiscences  in  1892. 

Geestemiinde.  Seaport  of  Ger- 
many, in  the  Prussian  prov.  of 
Hanover.  It  stands  on  the  estuary 
of  the  Weser,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Geeste,  35  m.  N.N.W.  of  Bremen. 
It  is  quite  a  modern  place,  its  fine 
harbour  only  dating  from  1863. 
This  consists  of  two  enormous 
basins,  dry  docks,  etc.,  and  can 
accommodate  the  largest  vessels. 
It  is  an  important  fishing  port,  and 
among  its  industries  are  shipbuild- 
ing and  the  making  of  machin- 
ery and  fishing  equipment.  Pop. 
25,060. 

Geffcken,  FRIEDRICH  HEINRICH 
(1830-96).  German  statesman  and 
lawyer.  Born  at  Hamburg,  Deo.  9, 
1830,  he  studied  law  at  Gottingen 
and  Berlin,  and  entered  the  Prus- 


sian diplomatic  service  in  1854. 
Serving  successively  in  Paris.  Ber- 
lin, and  London,  he  became  a 
close  friend  and  adviser  of  Prince 
Frederick  William  of  Prussia,  later 
the  emperor  Frederick  III.  He 
framed  the  federal  constitution  of 
the  German  Empire,  1870-71,  and 
became  professor  of  constitutional 
history  at  Strasbourg  in  1872. 

In  1888  a 
heated  contro- 
versy arose  on 
his  publication 
of  extracts 
from  Prince 
Frederick  Wil- 
liam's  war 
diary  calcu- 
lated to  lessen 


the  ascendancy  of  Bismarck,  and 
Geffcken  was  indicted  for  high 
treason,  but  acquitted.  He  died  at 
Munich,  May  1,  1896.  Among  his 
many  writings  are  State  and 
Church,1875,  Eng.  trans.  1877,  and 
a  volume  of  essays,  Eng.  trans,  as 
The  British  Empire,  1889. 

Gaffrye  Museum.  London 
museum  of  furniture  design  and 
craftsmanship.  Opened  in  1914,  it 
is  situated  in  the  Kingsland  Road, 
near  Shoreditch  Church,  and  is 
housed  in  the  old  Geffrye,  or  Iron- 
mongers' Almshouses,  founded  by 
Sir  Robert  Geffrye,  or  Geffrey  (1613 
—1703),  lord  mayor  of  London  and 
master  of  the  Ironmongers'  Com- 
pany, and  opened  in  1715.  The  14 
almshouses  and  chapel  stand  round 
three  sides  of  a  court.  The  collec- 
tion, partly  permanent,  partly  on 
loan,  includes  specimen  rooms  of 
various  periods,  carved  mantel- 
pieces, doorways,  and  grates,  and 
much  beautiful  furniture.  It  is  open 
free  every  day,  except  Monday. 

Gefle.  Seaport  of  Sweden,  and 
capital  of  the  Ian  or  govt.  of  Gefle- 
borg.  It  stands  at  the  mouth  of  the 


GEIJER 

river  Gefle,  112  m.  N.N.W.  of  Stock- 
holm. The  river  here  branches  into 
three  arms,  forming  two  islands,  on 
which,  and  on  the  main  shores,  the 
city  is  built.  It  is  the  chief  port  for 
the  Kopparberg  timber  and  iron 
district,  exporting  timber,  wood 
pulp,  iron,  and  joinery.  Fishing 
is  extensively  engaged  in,  and 
there  are  shipbuilding  yards  and 
manufactures  of  sailcloth,  cotton, 
electrical  machinery,  leather,  and 
tobacco.  It  has  a  16th  century 
castle,  a  town  hall,  library,  techni- 
cal schools,  andtheatre.  Pop.  31,941. 

Gafleborg  OR  GAVLEBORG.  Mari- 
time Ian  or  govt.  of  Sweden.  Bound- 
ed on  the  E.  by  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia, 
its  area  is  7,615  sq.  m.  Its  coast- 
line is  much  indented  by  small  bays, 
the  chief  of  which  is  Gefle  Bay,  in 
the  S.E.,  and  the  shores  are  fringed 
with  numerous  islands,  none  of 
any  great  size.  Gefle  is  the  capital 
and  chief  seaport,  other  seaports 
being  Soderhamn  and  Hudiksvall. 
There  are  many  lakes,  the  largest 
of  which  is  Dellen  in  the  N.E. 
Rivers  are  numerous  but  short, 
and  mostly  drain  into  the  Gulf  of 
Bothnia.  Pop.  264,323. 

Gagenschein.  Counter  glow,  or 
faint  patch  of  light  seen  opposite 
the  sun's  place  in  the  sky  while  the 
sun  is  below  the  horizon.  First  de- 
tected by  Brorsen  about  the  middle 
of  the  19th  century,  it  has  since  then 
been  independently  discovered  by 
Professor  Barnard  of  the  Lick 
Observatory.  It  has  been  vari- 
ously attributed  to  reflection  of 
sunlight  by  the  earth's  hydrogen 
and  helium  gases,  far  distant  from 
the  earth,  and  to  similar  reflec- 
tion by  a  swarm  of  meteorites. 
See  Zodiacal  Light. 

Gehenna.  Name  in  Biblical  and 
post-Biblical  literature  of  a  place  of 
fiery  torment.  It  is  derived  from 
Ge-Hinnom,  the  Valley  of  Hin- 
nom,  a  valley  on  the  W.  of  Jeru- 
salem in  which  the  refuse  of  the 
city  and  the  bodies  of  animals 
and  criminals  were  burned.  In 
Matt,  v,  22,  x,  28  the  word  is 
translated  hell.  See  Hell. 

Geijer,  ERIK  GUSTAF  (1783- 
1847).  Swedish  historian  and  poet. 
Born  at  Ransater  in  Varmland,  Jan. 
12,  1783,  he  was  educated  at  Up- 
sala,  where  he  distinguished  him- 
self by  his  monograph  on  Sten 
Sture  and  his  aptitude  for  historical 
research.  He  became  a  lecturer  at 
Upsala  in  1810,  and  in  1817  pro- 
fessor there,  holding  also  a  position 
in  the  Swedish  public  record  office. 
He  died  at  Stockholm,  April  23, 
1847.  Geijer's  great  work  is  his  His- 
tory of  the  Swedish  People,  1832- 
36.  He  was  also  a  poet,  a  musician, 
and  at  one  time  an  active  politi- 
cian. His  collected  works  ap- 
peared 1849-56.  Pron.  Yi-er. 


GEIJERSTAM 

Geijerstam,  GUSTAF  AF  (1858- 
1909)  Swedish  novelist.  Born  Jan. 
5,  1858,  he  graduated  at  Upsala 

r, .  „,, ,,,.    .,    University  and 

worked  as  a 
journalist  at 
Stockholm 
from  1884-93. 
His  first  novel. 
Deathly  Cold, 
1882,  showed 
him  to  belong 
to  the  new 
Gustai  af  Geijerstam.  realistic  school 
Swedish  novelist  of  Swedish 
literature.  Among  his  many  novels 
may  be  mentioned  Pastor  Hallin. 
1887  ;  The  Head  of  Medusa,  1895  : 
Astray  in  Life,  1897  ;  and  the  semi 
autobiographical  Book  of  Little 
Brother,  1900.  He  also  wrote  a 
number  of  witty  peasant  comedies. 
Geikie,  SIR  ARCHJRALD  (1835- 
1924).  British  geologist.  Born  in 
Edinburgh,  Dec.  28,  1835,  he  was 
educated  at  its  high  school  and 
university.  He  entered  the  geo- 
logical survey 
in  1855,  and 
became  direc- 
tor of  the  geo 
logical  survey 
of  Scotland  in 
1867  Mean- 
time he  had 
made  a  repu- 
tation as  a 
popular  writer 
on  geology  in 
The  Story  of  a 
Boulder,  1858, 
and  Scenery  of  Scotland,  1805. 
From  1871-82  he  was  Murchison 
professor  of  geology  and  mineralogy 
in  Edinburgh  University. 

Foreign  secretary  of  the  Royal 
Society,  1890-94,  and  secretary, 
1903-8,  his  main  life  work  was  as 
director-general  of  the  geological 
survey  of  the  United  Kingdom,  and 
director  of  the  museum  of  practical 
geology,  1882-1901.  In  addition  to 
his  Text-book  of  Geology,1882,  and 
Class-book  of  Geology,  1886,  he 
wrote  on  volcanoes  of  Great  Bri- 
tain, scenery  and  its  influence  on 
history  and  literature,  the  founders 
of  geology,  and  lives  of  R.  I.  Mur- 
chison and  A.  C.  Ramsay.  He  was 
knighted  in  1891,  created  K.C.B.  in 
1907,  and  given  the  O.M.  hi  1914. 
His  Scottish  Reminiscences  ap- 
peared, 1 904.  He  died  Nov.  10, 1924. 
Geiler  von  Kaisers  berg. 
JOHAKN  (1445-1510).  German 
preacher.  He  was  born  at  Schaff- 
hausen,  March  16,  1445,  and  edu- 
cated at  Freiburg  and  Basel.  From 
1478  he  preached  at  Strasbourg 
Cathedral,  and  established  his  re- 
putation as  the  greatest  pulpit  ora- 
tor of  his  age.  The  author  of  several 
volumes  on  theological  subjects 
he  died  March  10,  1510. 


3457 

Geisha.  Girl  in  Japan  trained 
as  an  entertainer.  Taught  music, 
dancing,  singing,  and  the  art  of 
conversation  from  an  early  age, 
these  professional  singing  and 
dancing  girls  are  engaged  to  tell 
stories,  provide  music,  and  dance 
at  dinner  parties  and  receptions, 
and  to  amuse  their  hosts  by  witty 
repartee.  See  Asia:  Dancing. 
Prow.  Gay-sha. 

Geisha,  THE.  Musical  comedy, 
written  by  Owen  Hall  (James 
Davis),  composed  by  Sidney  Jones, 


Geisha,  in  characteristic  costume, 
playing  the  shamisen 

and  produced  at  Daly's  Theatre, 
London,  April  25,  1896,  where  it 
ran  for  760  performances. 

Geissler,  HEINRICH  (1814-79) 
German  inventor.  Born  in  Saxony, 
May  26,  1814,  he  became  a  glass 
blower.  For  some  time  he  lived  in 
Holland,  where  he  made  a  number 
of  useful  experiments.  In  1854  he 
settled  at  Bonn,  and  there  he  died, 
Jan.  24, 1879.  He  invented  a  sealed 
glass  tube  called  the  Geissler  tube, 
which  was  used  to  examine  the 
passage  of  an  electric  current 
through  rarefied  gases. 

Gela.  City  of  ancient  Sicily.  It 
stood  on  the  S.  coast  and  was 
founded  by  Greeks.  At  one  time, 
under  the  tyrants  Cleander,  Hip- 
pocrates, and  Gelo,  it  was  the  chiel 
city  of  Sicily ;  but  after  Gelo  had 
transported  half  its  inhabitants  to 
Syracuse,  its  prosperity  declined. 
Phintias,  of  Agrigentum,  trans- 
ferred the  remainder  of  the  people, 
in  280  B.C.,  to  a  town  he  himself 
founded,  and  Gela  fell  into  decay. 

Gelasius  I  (d.  496).  Pope  492- 
96.  Called  on  to  deal  with  the 
schismatic  followers  of  Acacius  at 
Constantinople,  he  tried  in  vain  to 
reconcile  the  Eastern  Church  to 
Rome.  In  this  and  in  other  mat- 
ters he  strongly  maintained  the  su- 
premacy of  the  Roman  see.  He 
was  responsible  for  putting  a  stop 
to  the  Lupercalia  (q.v. )  at  Rome, 
and  for  the  establishment  of  ordi- 
nations at  fixed  times,  i.e.  Ember 


GELDERLAND 

days.  He  has  given  his  name  to  cne. 
of  the  three  earliest  Sacramentaries 
or  Service  books,  Sacramentarium 
Gelasianum. 

Gelatin  OR  GELATINE  (Fr.  gela- 
tine, Lat.  gelatus,  frozen).  Constitu- 
ent of  animal  tissues,  bones,  hoofs, 
etc.,  which  forms  a  transparent  jelly 
when  dissolved  in  water.  Gelatin  is 
essentially  a  purified  form  of  glue. 
By  Cox  and  Nelson's  processes  par- 
ings of  hides  are  purified  and  the 
gelatin  extracted  by  hot  water,  the 
solution  being  afterwards  purified, 
concentrated,  and  solidified  in  thin 
layers,  which  are  dried  on  nets. 

Gelatin  is  largely  used  for  culi- 
nary purposes ;  as  a  basis  for  photo- 
graphic sensitive  surfaces;  in  bac- 
teriology; as  a  size  for  paper;  in 
dyeing ;  and  in  making  printers'  ink 
rollers.  Gelatin  is  soluble  in  glacial 
acetic  acid,  when  it  loses  its  gelatin- 
ising power,  but  the  solution  forms 
a  useful  cement  for  glass.  When 
gelatin  solution  is  treated  with  a 
bichromate  salt,  allowed  to  solidify 
and  exposed  to  light,  the  gelatin 
becomes  insoluble.  This  property 
is  utilised  in  the  carbon  process  of 
photography,  and  in  the  manu- 
facture of  washable  distempers. 

Gelatin  Dynamite.  Indus- 
trial high  explosive  intermediate 
between  blasting  gelatin  and 
gelignite.  In  England  it  con- 
sists of  80  p.c.  of  blasting  gelatin 
incorporated  with  4  p.c.  of  wood 
meal  and  16  p.c.  of  potassium  ni- 
trate. In  the  U.S.  A., sodium  nitrate 
is  employed  in  the  place  of  the  po- 
tassium salt  and  seven  "strengths" 
are  made  containing  from  24  to  63 
p.c.  of  blasting  gelatin,  the  nitrate 
and  wood  meal  content  decreasing 
as  the  blasting  gelatin  increases. 
See  Blasting  Gelatin  ;  Explosives. 

Gelderland,  GUELDERLAND  OR 
GUELDERS.  Province  of  Holland, 
formerly  a  duchy  of  the  Empire. 
Bounded  by  the  Zuider  Zee  on  the 
N.W.  and  by  Prussian  territory  on 
the  S.E.,  it  adjoins  the  provs.  of 
Utrecht,  N.  Brabant,  S.  Holland, 
and  Overyssel,  and  is  watered  prin- 
cipally by  the  Lower  Rhine,  Waal, 
and  Yssel,  while  the  Meuse  forms 
the  S.  boundary.  The  good  pastur- 
age supports  large  numbers  of  cat- 
tle, small  estates  predominating  in 
the  agricultural  districts,  and  corn, 
flax,  beet,  and  tobacco  are  impor- 
tant crops. 

The  capital  of  the  province  is 
Arnhem,  other  important  towns 
being  Zutphen,  Nijmegen  Apel- 
doorn,  and  Elburg.  The  province 
is  traversed  by  several  main  rly. 
lines  and  many  narrow-gauge 
steam -tram  ways  ;  the  Grift  and 
Apeldoorn  canals  are  notable. 
Though  generally  flat,  the  country 
is  attractive,  and  in  the  slightly 
hilly  country  N.  of  Arnhem  is 


2C    4 


GELE"  E 

varied  and  picturesque.  The  prov 
ince,  which  sends  six  members  to 
the  lower  chamber,  has  a  charac 
teristic  dialect  of  High  German 
tendencies.  Area.  1,939  sq.  m 
Pop.  727,165. 

Gelderland  was  part  ot  the 
Frankish  kingdom  of  Austrasia 
It  was  made  a  county  by  the  em- 
peror Henry  IV  in  1079  for  Gerard 
of  Wassenburg,  whose  descendants 
became  its  hereditary  rulers.  Rey 
nald  I  was  defeated  by  John  ol 
Brabant  at  Woeringen,  1288,  but 
his  son  Reynald  II  extended  and 
strengthened  his  domains,  which 
were  erected  into  a  duchy  by  the 
emperor  Louis  V  in  1339.  Dynastic 
quarrels  marked  the  middle  of  the 
14th  century,  and  in  1379  the  sue 
cession  fell  to  William  of  Juliers. 

Duke  Arnold  of  Egmont  ceded 
the  duchy  to  Charles  the  Bold  of 
Burgundy  in  1472,  the  latter  suc- 
ceeding in  1473,  though  strongly 
opposed  by  the  estates,  i.e.  a  body 
representative  of  the  nobility  and 
the  chief  towns.  Arnold's  son, 
Adolph,  succeeded  Charles  in  1477. 
In  1483  Maximilian  of  Austria  as- 
sumed suzerainty,  but  he  was  chal- 
lenged by  Charles  of  Egmont,  who 
ceded  the  duchy  to  William  of 
Cleves  in  1538.  In  1543  Gelderland 
passed  to  the  emperor  Charles  V, 
remaining  a  Hapsburg  fief  until  it 
became  one  of  the  United  Provinces 
in  1578. 

Occupied  by  Louis  XIV,  1672-73, 
part  of  the  province  went  to  Prus- 
sia in  1713.  The  French  revolu- 
tionary armies  invaded  it  in  1794, 
and  from  1810-14  it  was  in  the 
French  possessions  as  the  dept.  of 
Roer.  In  1814  it  finally  became 
part  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Nether- 
lands (q.v.). 

Gel6e,CLAUDE(  1600-82).  French 
painter.  He  is  usually  known  as 
Claude  Lorrain,  from  his  birthplace, 
Chamagne  i  n 
Lorraine.  Go- 
ing to  Italy  as 
a  youth,  h  e 
was  employed 
in  Rome  for 
some  years  by 
the  landscape 
painter,  Tassi, 
who  aided  and 

Claude  Gelee,          encouraged 
French  painter         him.     He  did 

From  an  old  portrait         much  Open-air 

sketching,  the  foundation  of  his 
great  powers  as  a  landscape  painter, 
and  left  Tassi  in  1625.  He  then 
travelled  widely,  working  in  Venice. 
France,  and  Nancy,  returning  to 
Rome  in  1627.  His  pictures  soon 
secured  him  patrons,  and  thencefor- 
ward he  was  steadily  at  work.  To 
guard  against  the  frequent  forgeries 
of  his  works,  he  compiled  the  six 
volumes  of  Libri  cli  Verita  (Books  of 


GELLERT 


Gelee. 


Embarkation  of  S.  Ursula.  Painted  by  Claude  Lorrain  for  Cardinal 
Barberini  in  1646.  now  in  the  National  Gallery.  London 


Truth),  in  which  he  drew  sketches 
of  all  pictures  leaving  his  studio, 
giving  details  of  dates  and  owner- 
ship. These  now  belong  to  the  duke 
of  Devonshire,  but  were  reproduced 
and  published  in  1777.  Claude  died 
at  Rome,  Nov.  21,  1682. 

His  works  are  marked  by  a 
richness  of  detail  and  grandeur  of 
composition  which  few  of  the 
classical  landscape  painters  have 
approached.  His  intimate  know- 
ledge of  nature,  coupled  with  his 
delicate  sense  of  colour,  produced 
many  scenes  of  surpassing  beauty, 
although  he  was  quite  unable  to 
paint  the  human  figure  adequately, 
sometimes  being  obliged  to  have  his 
figures  inserted  by  other  hands. 
Good  examples  are  to  be  found  in 
the  National  Gallery,  London,  es- 
pecially the  Marriage  of  Isaac  and 
Rebecca,  and  the  Embarkation  of 
the  Queen  of  Sheba. 

Gelignite.  Industrial  high  ex- 
plosive. It  is  used  for  blasting 
where  a  cheaper  and  less  violent  ex- 
plosive than  blasting  gelatin  is 
required.  It  is  generally  regarded 
as  a  standard  explosive.  It  con- 
tains about  65  p.c.  of  nitroglycerin, 
which  has  been  made  to  the  consis- 
tency of  thin  jelly  by  the  solution 
in  it  of  collodion  cotton,  27  p.c.  of 
potassium  nitrate,  and  7  p.c.  of 
woodmeal.  A  little  calcium  carbon- 
ate is  present,  as  in  the  case  of 
blasting  gelatin,  and  a  small  quan- 
tity of  moisture.  Gelignite  is  not 
so  local  in  its  action  as  blasting 
gelatin,  rocks  over  a  wider  area 
being  split  into  larger  fragments. 
See  Blasting  Gelatin  ;  Explosives  : 
Dynamite ;  Nitroglycerin. 

Gelimer.  Last  Vandal  king.  A 
descendant  of  Gaiseric,  he  made 
himself  king  of  the  Vandals  in  530 
by  overthrowing  his  kinsman  Hil- 


deric,  whom  a  little  later  he  mur- 
dered. He  ruled  over  the  Vandal 
kingdom  in  Africa  for  about  four 
years.  In  533  his  kingdom  was 
attacked  by  the  Romans.  A  force 
under  Belisarius  landed  in  Africa, 
and  met  the  Vandals  in  battle  10m. 
from  Carthage.  There  Gelimer's 
force  was  routed,  and  Carthage  was 
entered.  However,  the  king  as- 
sembled a  new  army,  and  a  second 
time  gave  battle  to  Belisarius. 
This  took  place  in  Dec.,  about  20 
m.  from  Carthage,  and  ended  in 
the  defeat  of  the  Vandals.  Gelimer 
fled,  but  in  March,  534,  he  sur- 
rendered. He  walked  as  a  captive 
in  the  triumphal  procession  of 
Belisarius  at  Constantinople,  after- 
wards disappearing  from  history. 

Gell,  SIR  WILLIAM  (1777-1836). 
British  antiquary  and  traveller. 
Son  of  Philip  Gell,  of  Hopton, 
Derbyshire,  he  was  educated  at 
Jesus  College,  Cambridge,  became 
a  fellow  of  Emmanuel,  and  studied 
at  the  Royal  Academy  school.  He 
was  knighted  in  1803,  on  his  return 
from  a  mission  to  the  Ionian 
Islands  ;  was  chamberlain  to  Queen 
Caroline  in  1820,  and,  living  there- 
after mainly  in  Italy,  died  at 
Naples,  Feb.  4,  1836.  He  wrote  a 
number  of  authoritative  books  on 
the  topography  and  antiquities 
of  Troy,  Ithaca,  the  Morea, 
Pompeii,  and  Rome,  most  of  then» 
being  illustrated  from  sketches 
by  himself. 

Gellert.  Hound  given  according 
to  tradition  by  King  John  to  his 
son-in-law,  Llewellyn,  in  1205. 
The  story  runs  that  Llewellyn,  re- 
turning from  a  hunt  at  which 
Gellert  had  been  missing,  was  met 
by  the  dog  covered  with  blood. 
Hurrying  into  his  castle  he  found 
his  infant  heir's  cradle  overturned 


ff 


i.  Diamond,    K 
land,    Australia. 


3.    Ruby    (C 
" 


4.  Quartz    (Cat's  Jiye).     5.   Turquoise    (Calaitc),    Khor- 
Persia.      6.    Chrysoberyl,    Russia    and     Ceylon. 


assan, 


7.    Top.  i/.,     Brazil.      «.     I-.mcrald     (Ucryl),    Colombi 
America.       9.     Tourmaline,       California.       10.    Sa 
(Corundum),    Upper    Burma,     n.  Garnet    (Almin 
Russia.     12.  Amethyst,  Brazil 


phire 
dine), 


GEM  :    PRECIOUS  STONES  IN  THEIR  NATURAL  AND  FINISHED  STATES 

Specially  drawn  for  Harmsivorlh's  Universal  Encyclopedia  by  J.  F.  Campbell 


To  face  page  3459 


GELLERT 

and  blood-stained,  and  slew  the  dog 
believing  that  it  had  killed  his 
child ;  only  to  find,  too  late,  that 
the  faithful  dog  had  killed  a  wolf 
that  had  attacked  the  boy.  Gellert's 
grave  is  shown  at  the  village  of 
Beddgelert,  in  Wales,  near  Snow- 
don.  The  story  was  common  hi  Eu- 
rope in  different  forms  long  before, 
and  is  probably  of  Eastern  origin. 
Gellert,  CHRISTIAN  FURCHTE- 
GOTT  (1715-69).  German  poet. 
Born  in  Saxony,  July  4,  1715,  he 
was  professor 
of  moral  phil- 
osophy in  the 
university  of 
Leipzig,  where 
his  lectures 
were  attended 
by  Goethe. 
H  i  s  Fables, 
1746  -  48, 
C.  F.  Gellert.  gained  him 
German  poet  the  name  of 

After  Anton  draff  tne    La    Font- 

aine of  Germany.  His  moral 
writings  are  characterised  by  deep 
religious  feeling,  and  exercised  a 
most  wholesome  influence.  He 
died  at  Leipzig,  Dec.  13,  J769. 

Gelligaer.  Urban  district  of 
Glamorganshire,  Wales.  It  is  14  m. 
N.  of  Cardiff,  on  the  Monmouth- 
shire boundary.  Its  Norman 
church  of  S.  Cadocus  was  restored 
in  1867.  There  are  extensive  col- 
lieries in  the  surrounding  district. 
The  council  owns  an  electrical 
undertaking.  Gelligaer  is  near  the 
site  of  a  Roman  hill-fort  of  the 
1st  century  A.D.  The  best  preserved 
example  of  the  period,  it  illustrates 
with  exactitude  Josephus's  de- 
scription of  a  Roman  camp.  Its 
four-gated,  turreted  ramparts  en- 
close 2£  acres,  with  headquarters, 
six  barracks,  two  granaries,  and 
extramural  baths.  Pop.  35,521. 

Gellius,  AULUS.  Roman  writer, 
who  flourished  in  the  2nd  cent.  A.D. 
After  studying  rhetoric  and  philo- 
sophy at  Rome  and  then  at  Athens, 
he  returned  to  Rome,  where  he  was 
entrusted  with  certain  judicial 
functions.  He  was  the  author  of 
Noctes  Atticae,  or  Attic  Nights, 
so  called  from  having  been  begun 
during  his  stay  in  Athens,  a  mis- 
cellany in  20  books,  of  which  the 
eighth  is  lost.  Its  great  value  lies 
in  the  fact  that  it  has  preserved,  in 
the  form  of  quotations,  fragments 
of  earlier  writers  whose  works  have 
perished,  and  contains  conversa- 
tions with  learned  men  on  lin- 
guistic and  literary  matters. 

Gellivare.  Town  of  Swedish 
Lapland,  hi  the  govt.  of  Norr- 
botten.  It  is  116  m.  by  rly.  N.W. 
of  Lulea,  and  there  is  also  rly.  con- 
nexion with  Narvik,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Ofoten  Fiord,  on  the  W. 
coast  of  Norway.  It  owes  its  im- 


portance to  the  extensive  iron 
mines  of  Malmberg,  a  hill  2,025  ft. 
high,  with  a  mining  village.  The 
deposits  are  among  the  richest  in 
the  world,  some  1,100,000  tons 
of  iron  being  exported  yearly. 
The  town  itself  is  substantially 
built,  and  possesses  an  old  Lapp 
chapel  and  an  ancient  cemetery. 
Pop.  12,100. 

Gelnhausen.  Town  of  Germany 
in  the  Prussian  prov.  of  Hesse- 
Nassau.  Situated  on  the  Kinzig,  a 
tributary  of  the  Main,  14  m.  E.N.E. 
of  Hanau,  it  carries  on  a  variety  of 
industries,  including  the  manu- 
facture of  rubber  goods,  tobacco 
and  wine.  Gelnhausen  has  had  a 
distinguished  past,  having  been 
made  an  imperial  town  in  1169  ; 
and  on  an  island  in  the  Kinzig 
are  the  ruins  of  a  castle  built  by 
Barbarossa.  There  is  a  notable 
church,  the  Marien  Kirche,  in  the 
town,  dating  from  the  13th  century. 
Pop.  4,859. 

Gelnica.  Town  in  the  Slovakia 
division  of  the  Czecho-Slovak  re- 
public, generally  known  as  Golnicz- 
banya  (q.v.). 

Gelo  (Gr.  Gelon).  Tyrant  first 
of  Gela  (491  B.C.)  and  afterwards  of 
Syracuse  (485)  in  Sicily.  In  the 
second  Persian  war  he  offered  a 
force  of  30,000  men  to  help  the 
Greeks  against  the  Persians,  on 
condition  that  he  should  have  the 
sole  command.  This  the  Greeks  re- 
fused, but  Gelo  had  an  oppor- 
tunity of  distinguishing  himself 
nearer  home,  when  Sicily  was  in- 
vaded by  the  Carthaginians  with 
an  immense  force  under  Hamilcar. 
This  force  Gelo  defeated  at  Himera 
in  480  B.C.  on  the  very  day  on 
which  the  Greeks  gained  their  vic- 
tory over  the  Persians  at  Salamis. 
A  wise  and  beneficent  ruler,  he  was 
styled  the  saviour  of  his  country, 
and  after  his  death  (478)  was  hon- 
oured as  a  hero.  Pron.  Jee-lo. 

Gelsemine  (Ital.  gelsomino ; 
Arab,  yasmin,  jasmine).  The  chief 
alkaloid  con  tamed  in  yellow  j  asmine 
(Gelsemium  sempervirens),  another 
alkaloid.gelseminine, being  also  pre- 
sent. Gelsemine  is  extracted  from 
the  finely  powdered  root  by  means 
of  alcohol.  It  is  very  poisonous, 
and  like  strychnine  has  an  intensely 
bitter  taste.  The  total  alkaloids  pre- 
sent in  the  gelsemium  root  is  about 
0*25  p.c.,  three-fourths  of  which 
consists  of  gelsemine.  It  is  con- 
sidered, however,  that  the  medici- 
nal activity  of  the  drug  is  due  to  the 
gelseminine.  The  tincture  of  gelse- 
mium is  prescribed  for  neuralgia.  . 

Gelsenkirchen.  Town  of  Ger- 
many in  the  Prussian  prov.  of 
Westphalia.  It  lies  hi  the  heart  of 
the  industrial  district,  6  m.  N.W.  of 
Bochum,  and  5  m.  N.  of  Essen,  on 
the  Rhine-Herne  canal.  A  modem 


QELM 

town,  with  a  pop.  of  only  844  in 
1852,  it  derives  much  of  its  pros- 
perity from  its  coal  mines.  Other 
important  industries  are  iron  and 
steel  works,  the  manufacture  of 
machinery,  and  chemical  and  brick 
works.  It  also  carries  on  a  trade  in 
gram,  wood,  cattle,  etc.,  much  of 
the  traffic  passing  over  the  canal  to 
the  Rhine.  Gelsenkirchen,  which 
has  absorbed  many  neighbouring 
localities,  became  a  city  in  1875. 
Pop.  181,600. 

Gem.  Name  given  to  precious 
stones,  especially  diamonds,  rubies, 
sapphires,  topazes  and  emeralds 
after  they  have  been  cut  and  pol- 
ished. It  is  used  hi  a  secondary 
sense  for  cameos,  and  the  less  pre- 
cious stones,  e.g.  agates,  garnets, 
jaspers,  onyxes.  By  a  quaint  con- 
ceit the  Romans  divided  gems  into 
male  and  female  according  to  the 
depth  or  lightness  of  their  colour. 
James  Tassie  (1735-99)  and  his 
nephew  William  Tassie  (1777- 
1860)  were  reproducers  of  antique 
gems  hi  a  vitreous  material  of  their 
own  composition.  See  Cameo  : 
Diamond ;  Emerald,  etc ;  also  Arti- 
ficial Gem  Stories  and  Colour  Plate. 

GEM  CUTTING.  In  its  modern 
sense  of  shaping  the  surfaces  of 
stones  hi  rectangular  or  triangular 
planes  called  facets,  gem  cutting  is 
comparatively  modern.  But  the 
rougher  dressing  and  polishing  of 
precious  stones,  as  well  as  the  carv- 
ing of  gems,  was  practised  at  least 
as  early  as  4600  B.C.,  for  turquoises, 
amethysts,  and  lapis-lazuli  have 
been  found  in  the  form  of  spherical 
beads,  flat  or  slightly  domed  circles 
and  rectangles  hi  Egyptian  tombs 
of  the  early  dynasties.  In  the  East 
precious  stones  were  roughly 
shaped  by  chipping  or  grinding 
down  to  flat  or  domed  surfaces  and 
then  polished. 

Early  Centres  of  Catting 

The  art  of  gem  cutting  developed 
in  Paris  about  1280,  and  nearly  a 
century  later  flourished  at  Nurem- 
berg. A  clever  school  of  gem  cutters 
existed  at  Bruges  in  1460  ;  twenty 
years  later  Amsterdam  was  a  recog- 
nized centre  of  the  diamond-out- 
ting  trade,  while  the  trade  hi  col- 
oured stones  was  busiest  at  Lisbon. 
But  Paris  retained  its  reputation, 
which  was  enhanced  by  Cardinal 
Mazarin's  introduction  of  the  "  bril- 
liant "  form  of  faceting.  The  trade 
was  broken  up  at  the  Revolution. 
In  London  little  fine  work  was  done 
until  about  1650,  but  since  1875  the 
gem  cutters  of  London  and  Bir- 
mingham have  rivalled  in  skill  those 
of  Amsterdam,  Antwerp,  and  Paris. 

There  are  various  styles  of  cut- 
ting:  (1)  Brilliants  have  a  flat, 
octagonal  table,  surrounded  by  32 
smafler  facets  sloping  to  the  girdle : 
the  lower  part  is  pyramidal,  24 


GEMINI 


3460 


GEMSBOK 


facets  sloping  to  the  flat  culet.  This 
method,  by  assisting  refraction  and 
reflection,  is  especially  adapted  for 
showing  off  the  beauties  of  dia- 
monds and  rubies.  A  half-brilliant 
is  only  faceted  from  girdle  to  table, 
having  a  flat  base.  (2)  Roses  are 
rather  like  the  half-brilliant,  the 
top  suj^aee  being  cut  with  six  or 
more  triangular  facets  of  equal  size, 
with  flat  back.  These  styles  are  use- 
ful for  small,  thin  stones.  (3)  Brio- 
lettes  are  pear-shaped,  covered 
with  triangular  facets,  but  without 
table,  girdle,  or  culet.  They  are 
sometimes  drilled  across,  to  be 
worn  as  swinging  pendants. 

(4)  Star  cut  stones  were  fashion- 
able early  in  the  19th  century ; 
they  are  combinations  of  the  bril- 
liant and  rose,  with  facets  grouped 
in  multiples  of  six.  (5)  Step  or  trap 
cut  stones  may  be  of  any  shape, 
though  very  often  nearly  rect- 
angular. The  facets  are  long  and 
flat,  placed  parallel  to  the  girdle.  It 
is  an  excellent  style  for  making  the 
most  of  colour  effect.  ( 6 )  Table  cut 
stones  are  either  four-sided  double 
pyramids  or  regular  octahedra, 
with  large  table,  table  and  culet 
either  equal  or  varying  in  size. 


Gemmation.  A.  Piece  ot  sponge  laden 
i,  spicules  of  buds  directed  away  from 
k,  spicules  of  parent  directed  towards 
B.  Bud  which  has  been  set  free  and  has 
the  extremity 

From  The  Cambridge  Natural  History,  M 

(7)  The  dome-shaped  cabochon  is 
one  of  the  oldest  styles.  A  cabochon 
may  be  more  or  less  convex,  the 
convexity  being  equal  or  dissimilar 
on  both  faces,  or  the  base  may  be 
flat.  The  treatment  will  depend 
upon  the  nature  and  quality  of  the 
stone.  This  form  of  dressing  is  ap- 
plied more  particularly  to  opaque 
and  translucent  stones,  such  as  tur- 
quoise and  opal,  but  it  is  also  used 
for  deep-toned  garnets  and  a  few 
other  coloured  stones.  Bastard  cut 
stones  are  those  of  mixed  styles. 

The  great  art  of  gem  cutting  is 
to  bring  out  the  special  beauty  of 
individual  specimens,  removing  or 
minimising  blemishes,  with  as  little 
loss  to  the  bulk  of  the  stone  as  pos- 
sible. Emeralds  are  nearly  always 
cut  square  or  oblong,  with  step 
facets.  Diamonds  are  the  most  diffi- 
cult stones  to  cut  and  polish,  owing 
to  their  extreme  hardness  and  brit- 
tieness.  Yet  the  gem  cutters'  appli- 


ances  are   quite 

simple.  The  rough 

dressing     of    dia- 
monds and  a  few 

other  gem  stones 

may    begin    with 

cleaving  or  slitting 

—  removing    a 

defective    or 

awkwardly  shaped 

part ;     the    stone 

being  cemented  on 

a  wooden   holder, 

with  the    line   of 

cleavage     parallel 

to  the  stick.  Then 

a  sharp,  thin,  steel 

blade     is     placed 

against  the  stone 

and  struck  sharply  with  a  mallet, 

clean  cleavage  taking  place.      The 

operation  can  also  be  performed  by 

sawing  with  a  thin  steel  disk,  but 

this  often  results  in  loss  of  brilliancy, 

even   to    the  development  of  icy 

flakes,  tiny  fissures  only  visible  to 

the  eye  as  slight  cloudiness. 

Facets  are  formed  by  grinding 

against  a  steel  revolving  cone  or 

cutting  with  the  steel  disk.     The 

cone  and  disk  of  diamonds  must  be 

thinly  coated  with  a  paste  of  dia- 
mond   dust     and 
*    olive    oil.     This 
^  paste,  or  a  paste 

of  emery  powder 
'    in  water,  is  used 
for   other  stones. 
Polishing    is     ac- 
.1    complished    by 
N^1  «ar^  <    these  pastes  in  a 

finer  form,  or  with 
tripolite,  rotten - 
stone,  or  jewellers' 
rouge.  Boring  is 
performed  by  the 
rapid  rotation  of  a 
diamond  point. 
All  these  tools  are 

worked  on  a  lathe. 

Engraving,  both  incised  carving 

(intaglio)  and  relief  carving  (cameo), 

is  carried  out  by  means  of  small 

steel  wheels  at  the  end  of  a  rotating 

axis  in  a  lathe.  Certain  of  the  softer 

stones,  such  as  rock  crystal,  agates. 

and  other  siliceous 

stones,  are  etched 

with   hydrofluoric    > 

or   other   suitable 

acid  instead  of 

being  carved.  The 

surface  is  covered 

with    wax,    into 

which  the  design  i;- 

cut  with  a  graver, 

down  to  the  stone. 

which   is   then 

washed  with  acid. 

When  the  wax  is 

removed   the   de- 
sign will  be  found 

etched  in   the 

stone. 


with  buds  a-i  ; 
their  free  ends  ; 
the  osculum,  j. 
become  fixed  by 

ac mill  an  &  Co. 


Gemmi  Pass.     One  of  the  gorges  in  the  Bernese  Alps 
threaded  by  a  mule  track 


Gemini  OR  THE  TWINS.  One  of 
the  ancient  Ptolemaic  constella- 
tions. Castor  and  Pollux  form  the 
heads  of  the  Twins.  Their  feet 
stand  on  the  Milky  Way. 

Gemmation  (Lat.  gemmare,  to 
bud).  Biological  term  signifying 
both  the  process  of  budding  and 
the  arrangement  of  buds  on  a 
stalk.  More  particularly,  the  term 
is  restricted  to  the  asexual  method 
of  reproduction  in  certain  lowly 
organisms  in  which  the  offspring 
take  their  origin  as  an  outgrowth 
or  bud  from  the  parent,  afterwards 
becoming  separated  as  an  in- 
dividual. See  Botany. 

Gemmi.  Pass  or  mule-track 
over  the  Bernese  Alps,  Switzerland. 
It  communicates  between  Frutigen 
in  Berne,  and  Leukerbad  in  the  can- 
ton of  Valais,  and  reaches  an  alt. 
of  7,640  ft.  The  track  passes  the 
Dauben  See,  and  is  often  called 
the  Daube  Pass.  There  is  an  hotel 
on  the  summit,  and  from  it  there  is 
a  remarkable  view,  including  the 
Matterhorn,  Monte  Rosa,  the  Dent 
Blanche,  and  the  Wildstrubel. 

Gemsbok  (Oryx  gazella).  Spe- 
cies of  antelope,  found  in  the  desert 
regions  of  S.W.  Africa.  It  is 
remarkable  for  its  long  straight 
horns,  which  sometimes  reach  a 
length  of  45  ins.  The  animal  is 
about  4  ft.  high,  and  is  grey  on  the 
back  and  sides,  with  white  below. 


Gemsbok,  the  long-horned  antelope  found  in  South- 
West  Africa 


GENDARME 


3461 


GENERAL    MEDICAL    COUNCIL 


There  are  black  markings  on  the 
face,  throat,  and  upper  parts  of  the 
limbs.  It  is  said  that  the  gemsbok 
can  successfully  fight  the  lion  with 
its  horns.  The  name  is  Dutchr 
meaning  chamois-buck. 

Gendarme  (Irregular  singular 
of  gens  d1  armes,  men-at-arms). 
Member  of  a  military  constabulary 
formed  in  France  in  Jan.,  1791.  In 
1812  the  system  was  introduced  into 
Germany,  and  gendarmerie  forces, 
ordinarily  recruited  from  the  army, 
now  exist  also  in  Austria,  Belgium, 
Holland  (where  they  are  called 
Marachausses),  Italy  (Carabinieri), 
and  Spain  (Guardia  civil).  The  gen- 
darmerie, under  the  control  of  the 
various  ministers  of  the  interior, 
are  employed  for  the  protection  of 
villages  and  country  places,  and 
for  the  enforce- 
ment of  certain 
state  and  na- 
tional legisla- 
tion, and  are 
almost  invari- 
ably subject  to 
the  orders  of 
the  civil  au- 
thority, al- 
though in 
France  and 
Italy,  while 
forming  one  of 
the  reserves  of 
the  minister  of 
the  interior, 

Gendarme.  French  they  are  di- 
military  constabulary  rectly  under  the 
orders  of  the  minister  of  war. 
See  Carabinieri. 

Gender  (La t.  genus,  kind).  Classes 
into  which  nouns  are  divided 
according  to  sex  or  absence  of  sex. 
They  are  sometimes  three  in 
number — masculine,  feminine,  and 
neuter;  sometimes  two — masculine 
and  feminine;  and  in  inflexional 
languages  are  shown  by  different 
terminations.  But  this  grammati- 
cal distinction  is  often  arbitrary  ; 
thus,  in  Latin  mensa  (table)  is 
feminine,  in  German  Mond  (moon) 
masculine,  Sonne  (sun)  feminine.  In 
English,  grammatical  gender  does 
not  exist,  natural  gender,  in  which 
sex  and  gender  agree,  being  shown 
by  special  endings  (executor,  exe- 
cutrix), or  by  different  words  (horse, 
mare ;  fox,  vixen).  It  is  probable  that 
originally  the  distinction  of  gender 
was  natural,  not  grammatical. 

Genealogy  (Gr.  genealogia).  His- 
tory of  the  descent  of  a  family.  The 
principal  data  are  places  and  dates 
of  birth,  of  marriage  and  of  death, 
names  of  husbands  and  wives,  par- 
ticulars as  to  offices  held,  or  pro- 
fessions, of  wills  proved,  and  any 
other  particulars.  These  may  be 
supplemented  by  a  pedigree,  or  a 
family  tree,  in  which  the  growth  of 
a  family  is  shown  in  the  reverse 


Adeline  Genee,  in  the 
Dance  of  Bacchus 


way,  the  various  generations  with 
their  armorial  insignia  being  dis- 
played as  fruits  of  a  tree,  rooted  in 
the  founder  of  the  house.  See  Peer- 
age ;  consult  also  How  to  Write 
the  History  of  Ja  Family,  W.  P.  W. 
Phillimore,  1887  ;  The  Genealogists' 
Guide,  G.  W.  Marshall,  1903 ;  Pedi- 
gree Work,  W  P.  W.  Phillimore, 
1914. 

Gen6e,  ADELINE  (b.  1878).  Danish 
dancer.  Born  at  Aarhus,  Denmark, 
Jan.  6,  1878,  and  trained  as  a 
dancer  from 
the  age  of 
eight,  she  be- 
came premiere 
danseuse  at  the 
Copenhagen 
Opera  in  1895. 
Her  success  led 
to  engage- 
ments at  Ber- 
lin,  Munich, 
and  elsewhere. 
From  1897 
to  1907  she 
danced  lead- 
ing parts  in 
numerous  bal- 
lets at  the  Em- 
pire Theatre, 
London,  not- 
ably in  The  Press,  Feb.  14,  1898, 
and  The  Dancing  Doll,  Jan.  3,  1905. 
She  was  extraordinarily  popular  as 
an  exponent,  endowed  with  flaw- 
less technique,  of  the  traditional 
school  of  ballet.  She  also  appeared 
in  the  U.S.A.,  Paris,  and  in  Aus- 
tralia. Her  farewell  performance 
was  given  at  the  London  Coliseum, 
May  11,  1914,  but  she  made  a  short 
reappearance  there  in  April,  1915. 

General  OR  GENERAL  OFFICER. 
Name  given  to  a  military  officer  of 
almost  the  highest  rank,  only  field- 
— — •  marshal  being 
above  it.  It  is 
used  loosely  for 
all  officers 
above  the  rank 
of  colonel-com- 
mandant, a  s 
well  as  for  those 
who  are  full 
generals.  In  the 
British  army 

strap  of  a  British  there  are  major- 
general  generals,  lieu- 
tenant-generals, and  generals,  in 
order  of  seniority.  The  equiva- 
lent rank  in  the  navy  is  admiral. 

During  the  Great  War  the  com- 
manders of  armies  were  given  the 
rank  of  general,  either  temporary  or 
substantive.  The  term  is  common  to 
most  armies  ;  the  French  have  gene- 
ral, general  de  division,  and  general 
de  brigade,  and  the  Germans  have  a 
similar  order.  In  the  U.S.A.  this 
rank  is  only  given  rarely,  the  highest 
acting  rank  being  that  of  lieutenant- 
general.  The  word  was  first  used  in 


its  present  sense  about  the  end  of 
the  16th  century.  In  1650  Crom- 
well was  made  captain-general  of 
the  forces  of  the  Commonwealth, 
and  was  afterwards  known  as  the 
lord-general.  Marlborough  was  the 
captain-general,  and  afterwards  the 
present  forms  came  into  use. 

General.  Title  used  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  to  desig- 
nate the  heads  of  some  religious 
orders.  Under  the  pope,  the  general 
is  the  supreme  head  of  his  order, 
and  exercises  authority  over  the 
provincials  as  they,  in  turn,  control 
the  individual  communities  in  their 
provinces.  The  general  is  usually 
elected  by  a  chapter  of  provincials 
for  a  period  of  three  years;  but  in 
the  Jesuit  order,  for  life.  The 
generals  live  at  Rome  and  are  under 
no  episcopal  jurisdiction  save  that 
of  the  pope.  See  Jesuits. 

General  Assembly.  Name 
given  to  the  governing  body  of 
most  of  the  Presbyterian  churches 
in  the  world.  As  a  rule,  it  meets 
once  a  year,  consists  of  both 
ministers  and  laymen  representing 
the  presbyteries  of  the  church,  and 
is  presided  over  by  a  moderator.  It 
is  the  final  authority  on  all  matters 
of  church  discipline  and  order.  The 
general  assembly  of  the  Church  of 
Scotland,  an  established  church, 
differs  slightly  from  those  of  the 
unestablished  churches :  at  its 
annual  meeting,  usually  held  in 
Edinburgh  in  May,  the  king  is  re- 
presented by  a  high  commissioner 
and  members  are  sent  thereto  from 
the  royal  burghs  and  the  universi- 
ties of  Scotland.  See  Presbyterian- 
ism  ;  Scotland,  Church  of. 

Generalisation.  Mental  pro- 
cess which,  with  the  aid  of  abstrac- 
tion and  comparison,  discovers  the 
qualities  common  to  a  class  of  in- 
dividual things  and  unites  them 
in  a  single  idea  called  a  concept. 
Generalisation  simplifies  knowledge 
by  enabling  a  number  of  particular 
ideas  to  be  combined  under  a  single 
idea ;  further,  if  there  were  no 
general  ideas,  it  would  be  necessary 
to  employ  a  special  name  for  every 
individual  object. 

Generalissimo.  Unofficial  title 
popularly  conferred  upon  a  general 
in  supreme  command  of  two  or 
more  allied  armies  or  forces  of 
different  nationalities,  each  under 
the  command  of  its  own  general. 
This  position  was  held  hi  the  Great 
War  by  Foch  from  March  26,  1918, 
to  the  end  of  the  struggle.  The 
word  is  formed  from  an  assumed 
Latin  superlative  of  generalis, 
generalissimos,  most  general. 

General  Medical  Council.  Au- 
thority appointed  under  the  Medi- 
cal Act  of  1858  to  regulate  the 
qualifications  of  medical  practi- 
tioners and  exercise  disciplinary 


GENERAL      PARALYSIS 

control  in  certain  professional 
matters.  The  council  is  composed 
of  27  members  chosen  by  the 
different  Universities  of  England, 
Scotland,  Ireland,  and  Wales,  the 
Royal  Colleges  of  Physicians,  and 
Royal  Colleges  of  Surgeons  of 
England,  Edinburgh,  and  Ireland, 
the  Apothecaries'  Society  of  Lon-, 
don,  and  the  Apothecaries'  Hall  of 
Ireland ;  five  members  nominated 
by  the  Crown  through  the  privy 
council ;  and  six  members  or  direct 
representatives  elected  by  the 
medical  practitioners  of  England, 
Scotland,  and  Ireland.  Its  principal 
duties  are  :  To  keep  the  medical 
register,  i.e.  the  list  of  medical  men 
who  have  complied  with  regula- 
tions made  by  the  council  and  have 
passed  a  qualifying  examination. 
Unless  a  medical  man  is  registered 
he  does  not  possess  the  privileges 
which  have  been  granted  by  law  to 
members  of  the  medical  profession. 

The  General  Medical  Council 
alone  has  the  right  to  place  a  doctor 
on  the  list  or  to  remove  his  name ; 
to  supervise  the  examinations  con- 
ducted by  universities  and  colleges 
entitled  to  grant  medical  qualifica- 
tions, in  order  to  satisfy  itself  that 
a  proper  standard  of  skill  and 
knowledge  is  maintained ;  to  frame 
regulations  for  professional  con- 
duct, breach  of  which  may  render 
the  offender  liable  to  be  struck  off 
the  register,  e.g.,  advertising  or 
canvassing  for  patients,  covering 
or  assisting  unqualified  practi- 
tioners, etc. ;  and  to  publish,  and 
from  time  to  time  issue  revised  edi 
tions  of  the  British  Pharmacopoeia, 
i.e.  a  book  containing  a  list  of  medi- 
cines and  compounds,  together  with 
the  manner  of  preparing  them  and 
their  appropriate  doses. 

General  Paralysis  of  the  In- 
sane. Disease  of  the  brain  charac- 
terised by  progressive  mental  and 
physical  deterioration,  terminating 
in  insanity  and  paratysis.  By  far 
the  most  frequent  cause  of  the 
disease  is  syphilis,  and  many  au- 
thorities hold  that  this  is  invariably 
an  antecedent  factor.  Contributory 
causes  are  worry  and  long-continued 
occupation  involving  severe  mental 
strain.  The  pathological  changes 
most  often  found  on  post-mortem 
examination  are  thickening  of  the 
covering  membranes  of  the  brain 
and  atrophy  of  its  convolutions. 

The  onset  of  the  disease  is  in- 
sidious, and  the  early  symptoms 
are  likely  only  to  arouse  suspicion 
in  a  medical  man.  Changes  of 
character  are  common.  A  man  may 
become  inattentive  and  forgetful, 
launch  out  into  rash  enterprises 
and  squander  his  money,  or  he  may 
take  to  drink,  become  morose  and 
irritable,  and  commit  offences 
against  decency,  steal,  or  display 


3462. 

other  immoral  tendencies.  Blur- 
ring of  the  speech  in  pronouncing 
certain  words,  and  shght  tremu- 
lousness  of  the  lips  and  tongue 
are  often  early  symptoms. 

As  the  disease  progresses  the 
mental  symptoms  become  more 
marked.  A  characteristic  feature 
is  the  appearance  of  delusions 
associated  with  grandeur,  the  in- 
dividual, perhaps,  imagining  him- 
self to  be  of  high  rank  or  great 
learning,  or  to  possess  unbounded 
wealth.  Periods  of  depression  or 
melancholia  may  interrupt  the 
condition  of  exaltatiori,  and  out- 
breaks of  acute  maniacal  excite- 
ment may  occur  in  which  the 
sufferer  may  do  violence  to  himself 
or  inflict  grave  injuries  upon  others. 
Attacks  resembling  epileptic  sei- 
zures may  supervene,  the  sight  may 
be  affected  owing  to  atrophy  of  the 
optic  nerve,  and  the  gait  may  be- 
come abnormal.  In  the  last  stages 
the  patient  becomes  completely  de- 
mented, paralysed,  and  emaciated, 
death  occurring  from  exhaustion, 
pneumonia,  or  other  intercurrent 
disease. 

The  prognosis  is  bad,  death 
usually  occurring  within  a  few 
years.  Occasionally  the  condition 
remains  stationary  for  a  number  of 
years.  Medical  treatment  is  rarely 
of  much  avail,  but  the  effect  of 
potassium  iodide  may  be  tried  and 
drugs  of  the  salvarsan  class  may  be 
administered. 

General  Service  Medal ,  NAVAL. 
Instituted  by  King  George  V,  in 
1915.  to  be  awarded  for  service 
in  minor  naval 
warlike  opera- 
tions. These 
may  be  either 
in  the  nature 
of  belligerency 
or  of  police,  if 
they  are  con- 
sidered of  suf- 
ficient import- 
General  Service  Medal  ance  to  justify 
issued  in  1847  the  award  of  a 
medal.  The  riband  of  the  medal 
is  red  (four  strips)  and  white  (three 
strips).  It  was  first  awarded,  with 
a  clasp  inscribed  "  Persian  Gulf, 
1909-1914"  to  officers  and  men 
who  were  employed  in  operations 
for  the  suppression  of  arms  traffic 
in  the  Arabian  Sea  or  Persian  Gulf, 
between  Oct.  19,  1909,  and  Aug.  1 
1914.  An  earlier  naval  general  ser- 
vice medal  was  struck,  in  June,  1847, 
and  given  to  members  of  all  rank? 
who  took  part  in  the  Napoleonic 
and  several  subsequent  campaigns.  ' 

Later  a  general  service  medal 
was  conferred  on  those  who  fought 
in  the  Indian  war  of  1799-1826; 
and  later  medals  included  that  of 
1908,  and  one  for  operations  against 
Afghanistan,  in  1919. 


General  Steam 
Navigation  Co. flag; 
red  on  white  back- 
ground 


GENESIS 

General  Steam  Navigation 
Co.,  Ltd.  British  steamship  com- 
pany. Founded  in  1824,  it  has  now 
a  fleet  of  about 
forty  vessels. 
Its  services  are 
the  carriage  ot 
cargo  between 
London  and 
the  ports  on 
the  E.  coast  of 
England,  Lon 
don,  and  Bor- 
deaux, Havre, 
Amsterdam,  and  Rotterdam ;  Lon- 
don and  Oporto ;  also  to  ports  in 
Italy;  and  between  Leith  and 
Glasgow.  It  carries  passengers 
from  Harwich  to  Hamburg  and 
from  London  to  the  Mediterranean 
ports  ;  and  in  summer,  tourists  to 
Southend,  Margate,  and  Ramsgate. 
Its  headquarters  are  15,  Trinity 
Square,  London,  E.C 

Generator.  Apparatus  tor 
producing  electricity.  A  voltaic  cell 
may  be  described  as  a  generator, 
but  the  term  is  more  particularly 
applied  to  a  dynamo  or  alternator 
in  which  mechanical  energy  is 
converted  into  electrical  energy. 
See  Alternator  ,  Dynamo :  Elec- 
tric Power. 

Generoso.  Peak  of  Switzer- 
land, in  the  canton  of  Ticino.  It 
rises  from  the  S.E.  end  of  Lake 
Lugano,  near  the  Italian  frontier, 
to  a  height  of  5,590  ft.,  and  is 
ascended  by  a  rack  and  pinion  rly. 
from  Capolago.  There  is  an  hotel 
on  a  terrace,  3,960  ft.,  and  another 
on  the  Kulm,  at  an  alt.  of  5,295  ft. 

Genesee  (pleasant  valley). 
River  of  the  U.S.A.  Rising  in  the 
N.  of  Pennsylvania,  it  flows  N.  by 
W.  and  N.  by  E.  through  New 
York  state  to  Lake  Ontario,  7  m. 
below  Rochester.  It  is  140  m.  long 
and  is  remarkable  for  its  falls  at 
Portage  and  at  Rochester,  which 
provide  waterpower. 

Genesis  (Gr.,  origin).  First 
book  of  the  Pentateuch  or  rather 
Hexateuch.  The  name  is  taken 
from  the  Septuagint  title,  the 
Generation  of  the  World.  The 
Hebrew  title  is  In  the  Beginning. 
The  book  falls  into  two  main  divi- 
sions :  (a)  Creation  stories  and 
primeval  history,  Gen.  i-xi,  26 ; 
(6)  History  and  stories  of  the  patri- 
archs. Gen.  xi,  27-1, 26.  It  is  com- 
posed of  a  number  of  narratives, 
more  or  less  independent  in  origin 
ond  based  upon  popular  tradition. 

Division  (a)  includes  stories  of 
the  creation  of  the  universe,  of 
4>he  fall  of  man,  of  the  deluge,  and 
of  the  tower  of  Babel.  Division  (6) 
includes  an  Abraham  narrative, 
a  Jacob  story,  and  a  Joseph 
narrative.  Some  of  the  stories  in 
these  narratives  (e.g.  that  of  the 
deluge)  bear  some  resemblance  to 


GENETICS 


3463 


GENEVA 


stories  found  in  Babylonian  and 
ancient  Egyptian  literature.  The 
poem  known  as  The  Blessing  of  Ja- 
cob (Gen.  xlix,  1-27 )  is  probably  one 
of  the  oldest  pieces  of  composition 
found  in  the  Hexateuch.  See  Bible; 
Hexateuch  :  Pentateuch. 

Genetics  (Gr.  genesis,  origin). 
One  of  the  aspects  of  the  problem 
of  organic  evolution.  It  seeks  to 
describe  the  characteristics — like- 
nesses and  differences — as  well  as 
the  variations,  which  occur  in  ani- 
mals and  plants  which  are  related  to 
each  other,  and  to  furnish  theories 
and  explanations  of  the  origin  of 
these.  In  other  words,  genetics 
deals  with  the  fundamental  pro- 
blem of  biology,  namely,  heredity. 

Research  in  genetics  may  be 
carried  out  by  four  methods:  (1) 
The  biometric  method,  begun  by 
Francis  Galton  in  his  Law  of  In- 
heritance, and  greatly  extended 
by  Prof.  Karl  Pearson.  Observers 
of  this  school  deal  with  the  facts  of 
heredity  from  a  statistical  stand- 
point. They  measure  the  degree 
of  resemblances  and  differences 
between  related  individuals,  plants 
or  animals.  It  is  an  indispensable 
but  limited  aspect  of  the  subject. 
(2)  The  Mendelian  method,  as- 
sociated with  the  names  of  Bate- 
son,  Hurst,  Punnett,  and  others  in 
Great  Britain.  This  is  also  in  part 
statistical,  but  in  this  case  the 
attention  is  directed  not  to  the 
ancestry,  but  to  the  progeny.  The 
biometric  method  looks  back- 
ward, the  Mendelian  forward.  In 
both  the  problem  is  that  of 
genetic  relationship.  The  result  of 
this  method  is  that  it  allows  of  the 
application  of  experiments,  and 
this  is  its  great  advantage.  It 
enables  the  observer  to  determine 
the  distribution  of  differences 
among  the  progeny  of  an  indi- 
vidual or  a  pair  of  individuals.  (3) 
The  cytological  method,  which  at- 
tacks the  problem  from  the  aspect 
of  the  cell.  Cytology  seeks  to 
ascertain  what  parts  of  the  cell  are 
concerned  with  heredity  and  in 
what  way.  This  is  a  method  of 
observation,  not  experiment,  and  is 
limited  to  the  study  of  the  dead 
stained  cell.  (4)  The  embryo- 
logical  method,  which  has  assumed 
freater  prominence  in  recent  years, 
t  is  from  experimental  embryo- 
logy that  progress  from  this  side  is 
to  be  sought.  See  Biology;  Cell; 
Cytology ;  Heredity ;  Mendelism  ; 
Somatogenesis. 

Geneva.  Canton  of  Switzer- 
land, in  the  extreme  W.  of  the 
country.  Except  for  a  small  strip 
of  3|  m.  where  it  adjoins  the 
canton  of  Vaud,  it  is  surrounded 
by  French  territory.  Area,  108 
sq.  m.  The  river  Rhone  flows 
through  it  from  Lake  Geneva,  at 


Geneva  arms 


the  S.W.  end  of  which  it  emerges 
and  receives  the  river  Arve.  The 
surface  is  fairly  level  and  is  mostly 
covered  by  market  gardens,  vine- 
yards, and  orchards.  Watch-making 
and  the  manufacture  of  jewelry  are 
the  chief  indus- 
tries of  the  leading 
towns.  Next  to 
Basel  it  is  the 
most  densely 
populated  of  the 
S  w  i  s  e  cantons. 
The  majority  of 
the  inhabitants 
are  French-speak- 
ing, and  half  are  Protestants  and 
half  Roman  Catholics.  The  young- 
est member  of  the  Swiss  Con- 
federation, Geneva  joined  it  in 
1815.  The  capital  is  Geneva. 
Pop.  170,000. 

Geneva.  Largest  lake  of  Central 
Europe,  called  by  the  French 
Leman.  It  lies  between  Switzer- 
land and  France.  Its  length  is  45 
m.,  its  maximum  width  is  10  m., 
and  where  narrowest,  between 
Pointe  de  Genthod  and  Bellerive, 
it  is  2  m.  Crescent-shaped,  the  N. 
shore  measures  59  m.  and  the  S. 
shore  only  45  m.  Area,  225  sq.  m. 
Most  of  the  S.  shore  belongs  to  the 
dept.  of  Haute-Savoie,  France,  but 
the  remainder  is  bounded  by  the 
Swiss  cantons  of  Geneva,  Vaud,  and 
Valais.  The  surface  is  1,220  ft. 
above  sea  level,  the  depth  varying 
between  240  ft.  and  1,094  ft.  It  is 
an  expansion  of  the  Rhone,  which 


enters  it  as  a  silt-laden  mt.  stream 
at  the  S.E.  end  and  emerges  at  the 
S.W.  corner,  clear  and  blue. 

The  waters  of  Lake  Geneva  are 
of  a  beautiful  deep  blue  colour  and 
remarkably  transparent,  especially 
near  Geneva,  the  silt  being  gradu- 
ally deposited  and  incidentally 
diminishing  the  water  area.  Like 
most  of  the  Swiss  lakes,  it  presents 
the  phenomenon  of  the  "  seiches  " 
or  fluctuations  in  the  level  of  the 
water,  phenomena  which  are  caused 
by  sudden  alteration  in  atmo- 
spheric pressure. 

The  level  is  higher  in  summer 
than  in  Avinter,  owing  to  the  melt- 
ing of  the  snows.  It  is  not  so  rich 
in  fish  life  as  many  other  lakes,  but 
lake  salmon,  trout,  pike,  and  carp 
are  caught.  Remains  of  lacustrine 
dwellings  have  been  discovered  on 
its  shores.  It  is  encircled  by 
rlys.  and  traversed  by  steamers, 
the  first  being  built  at  Geneva  in 
1823  by  an  Englishman.  The  most 
important  towns  on  its  banks  arS 
Geneva,  Lausanne,  Nyon,  Coppet, 
Vevey,  Montreux,  Villeneuve, 
Thonon,  Evian  -  les  -  Bains,  and 
Ouchy.  See  Lac  Leman,  F.  A. 
Forel,  3  vols..  1892-1904. 

Geneva  (Fr.  Geneve;  Ger. 
Genf).  City  of  Switzerland,  capital 
of  the  canton  of  Geneva.  It  stands 
at  the  S.W.  extremity  of  the  lake 
of  Geneva,  near  the  confluence  of 
the  Arve  with  the  Rhone,  40  m. 
N.E.  of  Chambery  and  256  m.  S.E. 
of  Paris.  It  is  the  third  largest 


Geneva.     Flan  of  the  city  and  harbour  on  the  Lake  of  Geneva 


GENEVA 


GENEVA   CONVENTION 


instruments,  and 
jewelry,  including 
enamelling  and 
diamond  cutting. 
A'  Mentioned  by 
Caesar,  Geneva 
became  important 
under  the  Romans, 
and  the  seat  of  a 
bishop  in  the  5th 
century  or  earlier. 
It  afterwards  be- 
longed to  the 
Burtrundians,  the 


town  in  the  country.  The  old  part 
of  the  city,  which  is  also  the  com- 
mercial centre,  lies  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Rhone  which  divides 
the  city  into  two  portions,  con- 
nected by  several  bridges.  Since 
the  demolition  of  the  ramparts  in 
1849-50,  Geneva  has  rapidly  spread, 
wide  streets  and  commodious  quays 
lining  river  and  lake  have  been 
constructed,  and  breakwaters  built 
to  protect  the  port. 

Although  a  famous  religious, 
scisntific,  and  literary  centre, 
Geneva  has  few  public  buildings  of 
outstanding  interest.  The  Protes- 
tant cathedral,  founded  in  the  10th 
century  and  consecrated  in  the 
llth,  was  rebuilt  in  the  12th  and 
13th  centuries  and  disfigured  in 
the  18th  by  Renaissance  additions. 
More  tasteful  is  the  adjoining 
Gothic  chapel  of  the  Maccabees, 
built  in  1406  and  restored  in  1874- 
88.  There  are  also  Anglican  and 
American  churches.  The  town  hall 
dates  from  the  16th  century.  The 
academy,  founded  by  Calvin  in 
1559,  has  a  library  containing 
150,000  volumes  and  1 ,500  manu- 
scripts, but  the  university  build- 
ings are  modern. 

There  are  a  large,  handsome 
theatre,  an  athenaeum,  and  many 
museums,  including  thfe  Musee 
Rath,  with  pictures  and  sculp- 
tures; and  the  Musee  Ariana. 
There  are  also  historical,  natural 
history,  industrial,  and  archaeo- 
logical museums.  The  educational 
establishments  and  technical 
schools  are  numerous,  and  there 
is  an  observatory.  The  Victoria 
Hall  is  a  fine  building.  The  city 
has  large  manufactures  of  watches, 
clocks,  musical  boxes,  scientific 


classes.  In  1798  the  city  became 
the  capital  of  the  new  French  dept. 
of  Leman,  and  in  1815  joined  the 
Swiss  Confederation.  Geneva  is 
the  seat  of  the  League  of  Nations, 
whose  first  assembly  opened  in  the 
Reformation  Hall,  Nov.  15,  1920. 
See  Geneva:  its  place  in  the  world, 
C.  &  J.  Grande,  1920.  Pop.  140,900. 

Geneva.  City  of  New  York, 
U.S.A.,  in  Ontario  co.  Situated  at 
the  foot  of  Seneca  Lake,  50  m.  S.E. 
of  Rochester,  it  is  served  by  the 
New  York  Central  and  Hudson 
River  Rly.  and  the  Seneca  and 
Cayuga  Canal.  Nursery  gardening 
is  carried  on,  and  motors,  boilers, 
wagons,  optical  requisites,  cutlery, 
and  stoves  are  manufactured. 
Settled  in  1788  it  received  a  charter 
in  1898.  Pop.  13,915. 

Geneva  Convention.  Inter- 
national agreement  signed  at  Ge- 
neva in  1906,  having  for  its  object 
the  amelioration  of  the  condition 
of  the  sick  and  wounded  in  war. 
Its  main  provisions  are :  Every 
belligerent  is  obliged  to  care  for  all 
sick  and  wounded  soldiers  who 
may  fall  into  its  power  without 
regard  for  nationality,  and  any 
general  who  is  compelled  by  force 
majeure  to  abandon  the  sick  and 
wounded  of  his  army  must  leave 
with  them  a  portion  of  his  field 
ambulances  in  order  to  relieve  the 


Franks,  the    Em- 
pire,  and  to    the 
counts   of   Savoy. 
The  prince-bishops 
of  Geneva  had   a 
continual  struggle 
to  maintain  then- 
privileges  ;     this 
culminated  in  1535 
in    the    epoch    of 
unrest    caused  by 
the  Reformation. 
The  bishop  trans- 
ferred his  seat  to 
Gex,   and   in    1536    Calvin    (q.v.) 
came  to  the  city,  acquired  almost 
sovereign  power,  and  ruled  with  a 
rod  of  iron.      In  the  17th  century 
the  dukes  of  Savoy  attempted  to 
recover   Geneva,   but  it  was   de- 
fended by  Protestant  princes.     In 
the  18th  century  dissensions  arose 
between  the  privileged   bourgeois 
downtrodd* 


and     the 


Geneva.     View  of  the  western  end  of  the  lake  with  the  town  of  Geneva 


Geneva.     1.  Mont  Blanc  bridge  across  the  Rhone.     2. 

Cathedral  church  of  S.  Peter.    3.  Place  Neave,  with  the 

theatre  on  the  right 

enemy  to  some  extent  of  the  burden 
of  nursing.  This  medical  personnel 
is  to  be  relieved  of  its  duties  as 
soon  as  possible  by  the  enemy  and 
returned  to  its  own  army,  and  is  not 
to  be  treated  like  prisoners  of  war. 
In  no  circumstances  may  field 
ambulances — i.e.  doctors,  nurses, 
their  assistants,  transport  drivers 
and  escorts — be  seized  and  held  as 
prisoners  of  war,  but  the  enemy 
may  make  use  of  their  supplies  for 
the  treatment  of  his  own  casualties. 
The  same  rules  apply  to  voluntary 
aid  societies  and  also  to  chaplains. 
Belligerents  must  furnish  the 
enemy  with  a  nominal  roll  of  the 
sick  and  wounded  who  become 
their  prisoners,  also  the  identifica- 
tion marks  found  on  the  dead,  and 
valuables,  letters,  etc.,  to  which 
relatives  of  the  deceased  may  be 


Iden     working 


GENEVA      SPIRIT 


3465 


GENOA 


entitled.  As  a  compliment  to  Swit- 
zerland the  heraldic  emblem  of  a 
red  cross  on  a  white  ground,  formed 
by  reversing  the  federal  colours,  is 
to  be  used  as  the  distinctive  sign  of 
the  medical  service  of  all  armies. 
The  medical  personnel  must  wear  a 
brassard  "  fixed  "  on  the  left  arm 
and  any  civilian  assistants  must, 
in  addition,  hold  certificates  of 
identity. 

The  use  of  the  Red  Cross  as  a 
trade  mark  is  forbidden  by  the 
convention,  and  Great  Britain  in 
1911  passed  the  Geneva  Conven- 
tion Act,  which  makes  it  unlawful 
to  adopt  for  any  purpose  the  em- 
blem, or  the  words  Red  Cross  or 
Geneva  Cross,  without  the  consent 
of  the  army  council.  The  intern- 
ment of  wounded  prisoners  of  war 
in  Switzerland  during  the  Great 
War  was  arranged  in  pursuance  of 
the  Geneva  Convention.  Military 
hospital  ships  fly  the  Red  Cross 
Hag,  besides  being  painted  white 
outside,  with  a  horizontal  band  of 
green  about  a  yard  in  breadth. 
See  Red  Cross. 

Geneva  Spirit  (Fr.  genievre, 
from  genevrier,  juniper).  Distilled 
spirit  flavoured  with  juniper  ber- 
ries. The  name  is  due  to  the  popu 
lar  confusion  of  the  word  with  the 
town  of  Geneva.  Quantities  are 
made  in  Holland,  notably  at  Schie- 
dam, whence  gin  is  often  called 
Hollands  or  Schiedam.  See  Gin. 

Genevieve  (c.  422  -  c.  512). 
Patron  saint  of  Paris.  Born  at 
Nanterre,  the  daughter  of  a  shep- 
herd, she  came  under  the  influence 


S.  Genevieve  haranguing  il;e  citizens 

of  Paris  upon  the  approach  of  Attila. 

From  the  painting  of  E.  Delaunay 

Pantheon,  Paris 

of  S.  Germanus,  and  at  15  devoted 
herself  to  the  religious  life,  prac- 
tising a  stern  asceticism,  though 
not  entering  a  convent.  When 
Paris  was  taken  by  Childeric  she 
was  tireless  in  her  efforts  on  behalf 


of  the  citizens,  and  interceded  with 
the  king  for  the  prisoners.  She 
founded  the  church  of  S.  Denis, 
and  encouraged  the  people  to  re- 
sist Attila's  invasion.  Her  tomb  is 
in  the  church  of  S.  Etienne-du- 
Mont,  Paris. 

Gengibrillo  OR  SWEET  GINGER. 
Roots  of  a  plant  found  in  the 
mountainous  parts,  and  along  the 
rivers  and  streams,  of  Porto  Rico. 
It  contains  a  yellow  juice  of  bitter 
taste  which  is  used  for  dyeing  and 
marking  handkerchiefs.  It  has 
been  found  recently  that  the  roots, 
sliced  and  dried  in  the  sun  and 
then  powdered,  yield  a  dye.  De- 
spite the  name  of  the  plant,  its 
root  affords  evidence  that  it  is  in 
no  way  related  to  the  ginger 
family.  Set  Dyes. 

Genie.  Good  or  evil  spirits,  01 
manifestations  between  the  spiritual 
and  the  animal  in  Oriental  mythol- 
ogy. In  the  Hindu  Vedas  they  art 
benevolent,  but  in  the  stories  ot 
The  Arabian  Nights  and  other 
Eastern  tales  they  are  often  either 
evil  powers  or  vaguely  monstrous 
slaves  of  those  possessing  some 
power  over  their  services.  The 
plural  is  genii.  See  Mythology 

Genipap  (Genipa  americana). 
Small  evergreen  tree  oi  the  natural 
order  Rubiaceae.  Natives  of  tropi- 
cal America  and  W.  Indies,  the 
leaves  are  opposite,  leathery  and 
lance-shaped  ;  flowers  bell -shaped, 
white,  in  clusters.  The  juicy  fruit 
is  as  large  as  an  orange,  but  taper- 
ing to  each  end,  with  a  rather  thick, 
greenish-white  rind. 

Genista.  Genus  ot  shrubs  ot  the 
natural  order  Leguminosae.  They 
are  natives  ot  Europe,  N.  Africa, 
and  W.  Asia.  Native  British 
species  are  G.  anglica,  needle-furze, 
and  G.  tinctoria,  dyers'  green  weed 
(q.v. ).  See  Plantageneb. 

Genista.  British  mine  sweeper. 
She  was  sunk  by  a  German  sub- 
marine while  mine-sweeping  off  the 
W.  coast  of  Ireland,  Oct.  23, 1910. 
About  80  officers  and  men  were  lost. 

Genitive  (Lat.  genetivus,  be- 
onging  to  birth).  One  of  the  cases 
(q.v. )  in  the  inflexional  languages. 
The  term  is  really  a  Latin  mis- 
translation of  the  Greek  name 
yenike,  properly  the  class-case, 
expressing  in  its  widest  application 
the  relation  between  one  thing  and 
another.  The  ideas  of  source, 
origin,  possession,  are  only  special 
aspects  of  the  general  meaning. 
The  inflexion  survives  in  the 
English  possessive  (John's).  See 
Grammar. 

Genius  (Lat.  genere,  to  pro- 
duce). In  Roman  mythology,  the 
god  of  productivity,  in  a  special 
sense  a  tutelary  divinity.  Every 
man  was  supposed  to  be  accom- 
panied from  the  cradle  to  the  grave 


by  his  genius,  his  higher  and  better 
self,  by  whom  he  was  protected 
and  influenced.  Special  days  in  a 
man's  life,  such  as  his  birthday  and 
wedding  day,  were  made  the  occa- 
sion of  festivity  and  rejoicing,  and 
sacrifice  was  offered  to  the  genius. 
Like  the  individual  man,  families, 
cities,  states,  localities,  even  baths 
and  theatres,  had  their  genius.  In 
imperial  times,  the  genius  of  the 
emperor  was  an  object  of  worship, 
even  during  his  lifetime.  The 
genius  of  a  place  was  usually  re- 
presented in  the  form  of  a  snake  ; 
that  of  a  man  as  a  youth  dressed 


Genipap.  Foliage  and  dower  head  o, 
the  tropical  American  fruit  tree 

in  a  toga  with  veiled  head,  carrying 
a  cornucopia.  The  conception  is 
essentially  Italian,  although  the 
daemon  of  the  Greeks  exhibited 
certain  resem  blances. 

In  modern  language,  the  word 
genius  is  used  with  various  shades 
of  meaning.  It  denotes  special 
aptitude  for  a  particular  branch 
of  learning,  as  a  genius  for  mathe- 
matics ,  distinguishing  qualities 
or  characteristics,  as  the  genius  of 
the  Anglo-Saxon  race  ;  outstand- 
ing ability  and  a  person  possessed 
of  such.  See  Demonology. 

Gennadius,  JOANNES  (b.  1844). 
Greek  diplomatist.  Educated  at 
the  English  college  at  Malta,  he 
served  in  the  embassies  of  Wash- 
ington, Constantinople,  and  Lon- 
don. In  1882  he  was  appointed 
charge  d'affaires  at  Vienna,  and 
he  was  minister  plenipotentiary 
to  London,  1885-92  and  1910-18. 
An  honorary  doctor  at  Oxford, 
Cambridge,  and  St.  Andrews,  his 
abilities  were  widely  recognized, 
and  his  reputation  as  a  bibliophile 
was  considerable.  He  retired  from 
the  diplomatic  service  in  1918  and 
settled  in  London. 

Genoa.  Prov.  of  N.W.  Italy, 
sloping  from  the  Apennines  to  the 
Ligurian  Sea.  Its  area  is  1,582 
sq.  m.  Curving  round  the  Gulf  of 
Genoa  and  protected  by  mts.,  the 
coastal  tract,  called  the  Riviera, 
is  a  famous  winter  .resort.  Fertile 
and  intensively  cultivated,  it  pro- 
duces fruit,  flowers,  oil,  and  wine. 


GENOA 

The  people  are  hardy  and  indus- 
trious, and  make  excellent  sea- 
men. Iron-working  and  textile 
manufactures  are  carried  on.  Pop. 
1,119,877. 

Genoa  (Ital.  Genova).  City 
and  seaport  of  Italy,  capital  of  the 
It  stands  at  the 
head  of  the  Gulf 
of  Genoa,  between 
the  rivers  Bisagno 
and  the  Polce- 
vera,  74  m.  S.E. 
of  Turin.  The 
chief  commercial 
port  of  the  coun- 
try,  it  J3  the 
seat  of  an  arch- 


3466 


GENOA 


prov.  of  Genoa. 


Genoa  city  arms 


bishop,  and  possesses  a  university. 
The  present  walls,  the  third  of  a 
series,  extend  up  the  slopes  of 
surrounding  hills  whose  summits 
are  crowned  with  strong  forts, 
batteries,  and  outworks,  enclosing 
detached  houses,  terraced  gardens, 
orange  groves,  and  open  country. 
Erected  in  1626-32,  their  circuit  is 
nearly  12  m.,  and  they  are  pierced 
by  eight  gates. 

The  old  city  has  short,  narrow, 
and  dark  streets  ;  the  modern  quar- 
ters have  broad,  straight  thorough- 
fares and  fine  parks  and  squares, 
while  suburbs  stretch  for  miles  on 
each  side.  The  cathedral,  founded 
in  985,  and  rebuilt  early  in  the 
12th  century,  has  since  been  much 
altered.  There  are  many  other 
churches  of  the  llth,  12th,  13th, 
and  15th  centuries.  Of  the  many 
Renaissance  palaces,  the  most  im- 
portant are  the  Palazzo  Municipale, 
the  Doria,  the  Eosso,  the  Bianco, 
the  Durazzo-Pallavicini,  the  Spin- 
ola,  the  Royal,  the  Balbi-Senarega, 
and  the  old  palace  of  the  doges. 
Many  are  triumphs  of  architecture, 
and  most  contain  art  treasures  and 
collections  of  antiquities. 

The  city,  which  is  rich  in  benevo- 
lent and  educational  establish- 
ments, has  a  university,  a  large 
public  library,  an  academy  of  fine 
arts,  a  handsome  theatre,  the  Carlo 
Felice,  and  a  Verdi  institute  of 
music.  The  cemetery  is  remarkable 
for  its  wealth  of  sepulchral  monu- 
ments. The  well-appointed  har- 
bour, co-vering  about  550  acres, 
admits  ships  of  30  ft.  draught. 
There  are  a  naval  harbour,  a  ma- 
rine arsenal,  and  graving,  dry,  and 
floating  docks.  The  chief  exports 
are  rice,  fruit,  wine,  oil,  silk,  hats, 
hemp,  flax,  cheese,  flour,  paper, 
soap,  and  marble.  The  main  indus- 
tries include  iron- working,  fruit- 
preserving,  sugar -refining,  tanning, 
vesta  match  and  filigree  making, 
and  the  manufacture  of  cotton 
cloth  and  macaroni. 

Genoa  was  inhabited  by  Greeks 
in  the  5th  and  4th  centuries  B.C., 
and  was  already  important  in  the 


Genoa.    Map  of  the  province,  showing  the  principal  resorts  of  the  Italian  Riviera 


second  Punic  War.  It  was  de- 
stroyed by  Hannibal  205  B.C.,  and 
rebuilt  by  the  Romans.  On  the 
decline  of  the  Roman  Empire  it 
fell  under  the  sway  of  the  Lom- 
bards and  Franks.  Sacked  by  the 
Saracens  in  936,  it  developed  the 
spirit  of  patriotism  and  indepen- 
dence and  the  naval  prowess  for 
which  it  has  always  been  distin- 
guished. Allying  itself  with  Pisa 
against  the  Saracens,  Corsica  and 
Sardinia  were  jointly  won  from  the 
Moslems  about  1017-1021,  but  the 
division  of  the  spoil  led  to  jealousy 
and  a  long  naval  war  which  ended 
in  the  defeat  of  the  Pisans  at 
Meloria,  Aug.  6,  1284.  During  the 
llth  century  Genoa  began  to  take 
under  its  protection  the  towns  and 


territory  of  the  adjoining  coast ; 
from  the  close  of  the  13th  to  the 
middle  of  the  15th  century  the 
Genoese  divided  with  the  Venetians 
the  exclusive  commerce  of  Europe 
in  the  productions  of  Asia.  Their 
success  in  commerce  and  banking 
excited  the  jealousy  of  the  Vene- 
tians, and  ultimately  entailed  open 
hostilities.  The  Genoese  were  de- 
feated at  the  naval  battle  of 
Chioggia  in  1380. 

Meantime  intestine  struggles 
between  the  classes,  between  rival 
noble  families,  and  the  Guelph  and 
Ghibelline  feuds,  weakened  the 
state,  which  fell  successively  under 
German,  Neapolitan,  and  Milanese 
dominance.  After  Chioggia  Genoa 
became  subject  to  France  until 


Genoa.    Flan  of  the  city  and  harbour  of  the  chief  port  of  Italy 


GENOA 


GENTIAN 


1528.  Self-government  was  re- 
stored by  Andrea  Doria  and  lasted 
until  the  French  Revolution  and 
the  creation  of  the  Ligurian  Repub- 
lic. In  1800  it  sustained  a  siege  by 
a  British  fleet  and  an  Austrian 
armv,  and  capitulated.  It  was 
delivered  up  to  the  French  on  their 
victory  at  Marengo.  Early  in  1814 
it  was  taken  by  the  British  under 
Lord  Bentinck,  but  at  the  Peace  of 
Paris  the  city  and  territory  of 
Genoa  was  assigned  to  the  king  of 
Sardinia  and  incorporated  as  a 
state  into  his  dominions. 

The  birthplace  of  Columbus  and 
Mazzini,  the  seat  for  centuries  of 
the  bankers  of  the  Spanish  sover- 
eigns and  the  outfitters  of  Spain's 
fleets  and  armies,  Genoa  has  been 
and  is  one  of  the  wealthiest,  most 
independent  and  prosperous  of 
Italian  cities,  legitimately  calling 
herself  Geneva  la  Superba.  Pop. 
300,139.  See  Genoa :  How  the 


Genoa.      1.    The    lighthouse  and  the  western  part  of  the  port.     2.    Piazza 

Carvetto  and  Vittorio  Emanuele  statue.   3.  Cathedral  of  S.  Lorenzo.    4.  General 

view  of  the  town  from  the  east 


Republic  Rose  and  Fell,  J.  T. 
Bent,  1881  ;  The  City  of  Genoa, 
R.  W.  Garden,  1908. 

Genoa,  GULF  OF.  Extension  of 
the  Ligurian  Sea,  Italy.  From  An- 
doria  in  the  W.  to  Spezia  in  the  E. 
the  entrance  is  88  m.  across,  and 
the  gulf  penetrates  inland  to  a 
depth  of  32  m.  The  coastal  strip 
is  divided  between  the  Riviera  di 
Ponente  on  the  W.  and  the  Riviera 
di  Levante  on  the  E.  The  city  of 


Genoa,    from  which  it  is  named, 
stands  at  the  head  of  the  gulf. 

Genre  (Fr.,  kind,  sort).  Word 
meaning  mode  or  style,  but 
specifically  employed  to  describe 

Pictures  of  everyday  life,  such  as 
omestic  interiors,  village  scenes 
and  manners.  The  French  apply 
the  term  to  various  classes  of 
painting  by  means  of  a  distinctive 
epithet,  as  genre  du  paysage.  (land- 
scape) and  genre  historique  (his- 


tory), but  this 
usage  destroys 
the  peculiar  sig- 
nificance of  the 
word  and  is  not 
legitimate.  Dutch 
painters  like 
David  Teniers 
the  Younger  were 
masters  of  genre, 
as  were  David 
Wilkie  and  Er- 
skine  Nicol  in  the 
British  school. 

Gens.  Term 
applied  by  the 
Romans  to  a 
body  of  people 
regarding  them- 
selves as  descend- 
ed from  a  com- 
m  o  n  ancestor. 
Among  famous 
Roman  gentes 
were  the  gens 
Julia,  the  gens 
Cornelia,  and  the 
gens  Fab  ia.  In 
Roman  names  the  gens  was  indi- 
cated by  the  second  name,  e.g.  Caius 
Julius  Caesar.  Broadly  speaking, 
a  gens  was  similar  to  a  Scottish 
clan.  See  Rome  :  History. 

Genseric.  Popular,  but  less 
correct,  name  of  Gaiseric  (q.v.), 
king  of  the  Vandals. 

Gentian  (Gentiana).  Large 
genus  of  annual  and  perennial 
herbs  of  the  natural  order  Gentian- 
aceae,  natives  of  all  temperate  and 
alpine  regions.  The  leaves  are 
mostly  opposite  and  undivided,  but 
trefoils  in  Menyanthes  ;  the  flowers 
funnel-shaped,  purple,  yellow,  or 
white.  The  fruit  is  a  two-valved 
capsule  with  many  seeds.  The 
flowers  of  the  gentians  are  among 
the  most  beautiful  of  any  plants, 
the  blues  often  being  of  a  more 
intense  and  vivid  hue  than  can  be 
found  elsewhere.  Of  this  kind  is 
the  Gentianella  (G.  acaulis)  of  the 
Alps  and  Pyrenees,  where  the  large 
flowers  appear  out  of  proportion  to 
the  small  stemless  plant  that  bears 
them.  Another  exquisite  bit  of 
colour,  though  on  a  smaller  scale, 


GENTILES 


3468 


GEODESY 


^ 


Gentian.     Root,  leaves,  and  flowers 
of  Gentiana  lutea 

is  the  Spring  Gentian  (0.  verna), 
and  a  taller  plant  is  the  Marsh 
Gentian  (Q.  pneumonanthe"). 

The  yellow-flowered  0.  liilea 
furnishes  the  gentian-root  used  in 
medicine.  It  contains  a  bitter  prin- 
ciple and  is  used  for  stimulating 
the  flow  of  the  gastric  juices  and 
promoting  digestion.  The  official 
preparations  are  the  extract,  dose 
2—8  grains  ;  the  compound  infusion, 
£-1  fluid  oz.  ;  and  the  compound 
tincture,  £-1  fluid  dram. 

Gentiles  (Heb.  goyim,  Gr. 
ethne,  Lat.  gentes).  Scriptural 
terms  used  variously  in  the  O.T. 
and  N.T.  Sometimes  rendered 
"  nations  "  and  sometimes  "  heath- 
en," it  was  originally  employed  by 
the  Jews  in  a  general  sense  to  mean 
any  nation  ;  or  applied  figuratively 
to  animals  and  insects.  With  the 
development  of  the  Hebrew  idea  of 
"the  chosen  people"  the  term 
Gentiles  was  applied  by  them  to 
nations  other  than  themselves. 
Later,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Gr. 
barbaros,  it  became  a  term  of  con- 
tempt or  reproach,  but  it  has  been 
used  by  Jew  and  Gentile  alike  as  a 
synonym  for  the  heathen. 

Gentili,  ALBEBICO  (1552-1608). 
Italian  jurist.  Born  at  Ancona, 
Jan.  14,  1552,  he  migrated  to  Eng- 
land hi  1580.  He  taught  law  at  Ox- 
ford until  1590,  when  he  moved  to 
London,  where  he  died  June  19, 
1608.  His  works  De  Jure  Belli  (On 
The  Law  of  War),  1588-98  ;  and 
De  Legationibus  (On  Legations), 
1585,  are  among  the  European 
foundations  of  international  law. 

Gentilly.  Town  of  France,  in  the 
dept.  of  Seine.  It  stands  on  the  river 
Bievre,  between  Paris,  of  which  it 
is  virtually  a  suburb,  and  Sceaux, 
4  m.  S.  of  the  city,  with  which 
there  is  tramway  communication. 
Although  largely  residential,  the 
town  has  manufactures  of  soap  and 


biscuits,  tanneries  and  large  quar- 
ries in  the  neighbourhood.  Close 
by,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Bievre, 
is  the  hospice  of  Bicetre,  which  has 
accommodation  f  orover3,000infirm 
and  insane  persons.  Pop.  10,744. 

Gentleman  (Lat.  gentilis,  be- 
longing to  a  clan).  Term  which  at 
different  periods  has  had  different 
and  never  clearly  defined  meanings. 
Patents  of  gentility  conferring  a 
coat  of  arms  without  a  title  were 
sometimes  bestowed  by  the  sove 
reign,  now  only  by  the  Herald's 
College ;  but  the  right  to  wear  coat- 
armour — the  test  of  a  gentleman 
most  persistently  put  forward,  and 
in  some  circumstances  officially 
recognized — does  not  apply  to 
every  case.  Nowadays  the  term  is 
commonly  used  to  indicate  certain 
standards  of  behaviour,  apart  from 
considerations  of  birth  or  rank.  In 
1920  the  French  Academy  gave  the 
word  a  place  in  the  official  diction- 
ary of  France.  See  Lady ;  Nobility. 

Gentleman's  Magazine,  THE. 
The  first  monthly  periodical  of  its 
kind  in  England.  It  was  started 
Jan.  1,  1731,  at  St.  John's  Gate, 
Clerkenwell,  by  Edward  Cave,  with 
the  purpose  of  presenting  news  in  a 
condensed  form.  Cave's  pseudonym 
Sylvanus  Urban  was  adopted  by 
his  successors.  The  magazine  was 
modernised  in  1868  and  ed.  succes- 
sively by  Richard  Gowing,  Joseph 
Hatton,  Joseph  Knight,  and  A.  H. 
Bullen.  The  copyright  belongs  to 
The  Times. 

Gentlemen- at- Arms.  Per- 
sonal bodyguard  of  gentlemen  "ex- 


tracte  of  nobk 


Gentlemen-at-Arms. 

Dress  of  officer  in 

the  corps 


blood,"  established 
by  Henry  VIII 
in  1509  under 
the  title  of 
Gentlemen 
Speers  and  re- 
organized in 
1539  as  Gentle- 
men Pension- 
ers. Except  the 
Yeomen  of  the 
Guard  it  is  the 
oldest  military 
corps  in  Eng- 
land. In  1834 
William  IV  al- 
tered its  name 
to  the  King's 
Bodyguard  of 
the  Honourable 
Corps  of  Gen- 


tlemen-at-Arms, and  in  1862  it  was 
reorganized  on  a  military  basis.  It 
now  consists  of  a  captain,  a  lieu- 
tenant, standard-bearer,  adjutant 
— styled  the  clerk  of  the  cheque — a 
sub-officer,  and  39  gentlemen-at- 
arms,  all  officers  of  the  regular  army 
who  have  received  decorations. 
Their  office  is  to  attend  the  royal 
person  on  all  occasions  of  public 
solemnity.  See  Household,  Royal. 


Friedrich  yon  Gentz, 
German  diplomat 


Gentz,  FMEDIJCH  VON  (1764- 
1832).  German  diplomatist.  Born 
at  Breslau,  May  2,  1764,  he  was 
educated  at  Berlin  and  the  univer- 
sity of  Konigsberg.  In  1785  he 
entered  the  public  service  of  Prus- 
sia, and  on  the  outbreak  of  the 
French  Revolution  his  literary 
talents  found  full  play.  His  un- 
compromising dislike  of  the  revo- 
lution necessitated  his  quitting 
Prussia  in  1804,  and  he  went  to 
•nngnjnaBrara^M  Vienna,  pass- 
I  ing  the  rest  of 
flE  ^m  I  "is  h'fe  m  the 
service  of  Aus- 
tria. He  visit- 
ed England 
and  received 
money  for 
writing  against 
Napoleon.  He 
was  secretary 
to  the  Austrian 
representatives  at  Vienna  in  1815, 
and  died  July  9,  1832.  Many  of  his 
voluminous  writings  have  been  pub- 
lished, as  have  his  Diaries,  1800-28. 
Genus.  Group  of  species  whose 
close  resemblance  to  one  another 
in  important  anatomical  details 
shows  them  to  be  related.  Genera 
are  distinguished  from  each  other 
by  greater  and  more  important 
differences  than  those  that  divide 
the  species  in  the  same  genus.  See 
Species. 

Genu-Valgum  (Lat.,  knock- 
knee).  Deformity  in  which  the 
knees  touch.  It  is  most  often  due 
to  rickets.  See  Knee. 

Geocentric  (Gr.  ge,  earth  ;  ken- 
tron,  centre).  Term  used  in  astron 
omy  for  describing  the  motions  and 
positions  of  planets,  etc.,  as  viewed 
from  the  earth.  See  Astronomy. 

Geodes  (Gr.  geodes,  earth-like). 
In  mineralogy,  round  hollow  con- 
cretions often  containing  crystals 
of  various  minerals.  Called  potato 
stonesinsomedistricts,and  aetites  or 
eagle  stones  by  the  Greeks,  they  have 
been  supposed  beneficial  in  pain. 

Geodesy  (Gr.  geodaisia,  land 
division).  Science  of  the  measure- 
ment of  the  globe,  i.e.  of  geodetic 
surveying  as  distinct  from  the  sur- 
veying of  plots  of  land  for  farms, 
railways,  etc.  Dichaearchus,  about 
4320  B.C.,  and  Eratosthenes,  c.  200 
B.C.,  both  estimated  the  circum- 
ference of  the  earth,  and  various 
attempts  were  made  by  Hippar- 
chus,  Ptolemy,  and,  later,  Arabian 
mathematicians,  Galileo,  Newton, 
etc.,  to  estimate  the  dimensions  of 
the  earth.  It  was  not  till  1615,  how- 
ever, when  the  system  of  triangu- 
lation  was  first  used,  that  anything 
approaching  accuracy  was  reached. 
The  system  of  triangulation  con- 
sists in  measuring  a  succession  of 
angles  and  sides  of  triangles  on  the 
earth's  surface.  A  base  line  is 


GEODYNAMICS 

chosen,  and  its  length  carefully 
measured.  From  this  base  line  the 
distances  of  any  other  points  may 
easily  be  calculated  by  measuring 
certain  angles.  Geodesy  conse- 
quently involves  the  use  of  the 
most  delicate  and  accurate  tele- 
scopes and  theodolites.  See  Ord- 
nance Survey ;  Surveying  ;  Theo- 
dolite. >» 

Geodynamics.  Science  relating 
to  the  forces  latent  in  the  earth's 
mass.  They  arise  from  its  size  and 
constitution,  as  well  as  from  the 
fact  that  it  is  in  movement,  and  is 
subject  to  gravitational  forces 
exerted  by  the  moon,  the  sun,  and 
other  members  of  the  solar  system. 
See  Earth  ;  Sun. 

Geoffrey  of  Monmouth  (c. 
1100-54).  English  chronicler.  He 
was  archdeacon  of  Llandaff  c.  1140, 
and  bishop  of  St.  Asaph  in  1152. 
His  great  work  is  the  Historia  Bri- 
tonum,  finally  published  about 


3469 

1147,  a  legendary  history  of  the 
English  people,  based  on  the  stories 
of  Nennius  and  on  ancient  Breton 
myths.  It  preserves  numerous 
stories  of  great  value  (e.g.  the  his- 
tories of  Arthur  and  his  court,  of 
Lear,  Brutus,  Vortigern,  and 
others),  and  is  of  great  importance 
in  literary  history,  though  its  his- 
torical reliability  is  small. 

Geographical  Society,  ROYAL. 
Society  for  the  promotion  of  ex- 
ploration and  discovery  and  the 
improvement  of  geographical  teach- 
ing in  universities  and  schools. 
Formed  in  1830,  it  has  a  house  at 
Lowther  Lodge,  Kensington  Gore, 
S.W.,  where  its  afternoon  meetings 
are  held,  the  evening  meetings  tak- 
ing place  in  suitable  large  halls. 
The  Map  Room  and  Museum  at 
Lowther  Lodge  are  open  to  the 
public.  The  Geographical  Journal, 
the  organ  of  the  Society,  is  issued 
monthly. 


GEOGRAPHY  AND    ITS   USES 

I>.  W.  Lyde,  Prof,  of  Economic  Geography,  TTniv.  Coll..  London, 
and  B.  C.  Wallis,  B.Sc.,  Author  of  A  Geography  of  the  'World 

This   general  article   on   the    science    of  Geography    is    supple- 
mented by  those  on  Glacier  ;  Mountain ;  River  and  other  of  the 
earth's  physical  features.     See  also  Geology  ;  Map  ;  etc. 


Geographical  study  begins  with 
topography,  the  accurate  descrip- 
tion of  all  parts  of  the  earth,  the 
people  who  live  there,  the  lives 
they  lead,  the  kinds  of  plants, 
animals,  minerals  found  there  ;  and 
early  in  the  19th  century  the  num- 
ber "of  topographical  facts  was  so 
huge  that  geographers  began  to 
compare  and  classify  them  in 
order  to  reduce  the  content  of  geo- 
graphy to  manageable  dimen- 
sions. These  processes  have  re- 
sulted in  an  assumption  that  the 
earth  comprises  a  series  of  definite 
regions  which  are  so  much  alike 
that  a  clear  conception  of  one 
specimen  of  a  region  suffices  for 
the  understanding  of  the  similar 
areas  elsewhere. 

The  standard  illustrative  region 
is  the  area  bordering  the  Mediter- 
ranean, which  has  warm,  wet  win- 
ters, and  hot,  dry  summers,  a 
characteristic  natural  vegetation, 
cultivated  crops  of  a  definite  type. 
A  knowledge  of  the  shorelands  of 
the  Mediterranean  Sea  implies  also 
a  knowledge  of  California,  parts 
of  Chile,  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
district,  and  the  South  of  Austra- 
lia, all  of  which  are  Mediterranean 
regions  in  this  sense.  ^ 

The  regional  conception,  how- 
ever, is  insufficient  beyond  a  cer- 
tain point,  for  it  implies  no  rela- 
tion between  the  configuration  of 
the  land,  the  occurrence  of  useful 
minerals  or,  most  important  of  all, 
the  character  and  distribution  of 
the  population.  Within  definite 
limits,  however,  the  regional  con- 


ception simplifies  the  geographical 
story  and  is,  therefore,  useful. 

During  the  centuries  of  explora- 
tion geographers  were  also  con- 
cerned with  the  earth  as  a  whole, 
with  the  physical  forces  which 
influence  men's  lives,  with  the 
scientific  classification  of  all  forms 
of  life,  including  man,  and  with  the 
history  of  human  development. 
They  have  always  been  interested  in 
the  physical  sciences,  astronomy, 
geology,  meteorology,  and  biology, 
and  in  the  human  sciences,  ethno- 
ology,  sociology,  economics.  Since 
these  sciences  steadily  developed 
their  special  knowledge  of  one 
aspect  of  the  universe,  geographers 
used  their  conclusions  as  a  basis  for 
the  explanation  of  many  of  the 
observed  facts  of  topography. 
Modern  Geography 

Modern  geography  therefore  in- 
cludes, primarily,  a  certain  amount 
of  gazetteer  information,  and 
secondarily,  the  application  of  cer- 
tain scientific  conclusions  to  human 
activities ;  it  is  the  study  of  the 
earth  as  the  "  home  of  man,"  of 
"  man's  place  in  nature,"  and 
' '  man  and  his  work. ' '  But  although 
the  geographer  is  indebted  to  other 
scientific  studies,  he  does  not  make 
scientific  data  a  portion  of  the  con- 
tent of  geography  until  he  has 
applied  them  to  the  life  of  man. 
From  astronomy  he  borrows  facts 
about  the  earth  as  a  planet  to  ex- 
plain the  consequences  for  man  of 
the  daily  march  of  the  sun  in  the 
sky  and  the  rhythmic  swing  of  the 
tides  in  the  oceans.  From  geology 


GEOGRAPHY 

he  borrows  facts  about  the  conti- 
nents which  preceded  those  now 
in  existence,  in  order  to  explain 
the  existing  land  forms  which  re- 
strain or  incite  human  activities. 

The  subject  matter  of  meteor- 
ology becomes  climatology  for  the 
geographer  who  wishes  to  under- 
stand the  circulation  of  the  atmo- 
sphere in  order  to  realize  the  effects 
of  air  currents,  winds,  storms,  etc., 
and  the  rams  they  bring,  upon  the 
labours  of  men.  The  conclusions 
of  the  biologist  are  useful  mainly 
when  they  show  what  are  the  pre- 
cise plant  regions  and  the  definite 
animal  zones. 

Throughout  the  ages  geogra- 
phers have  tended  to  adhere  to  one 
or  other  of  two  schools  of  thought, 
the  physical  and  the  humanistic, 
in  accordance  with  the  emphasis 
they  laid  upon  the  environment 
or  the  men  within  it.  At  present 
geography  would  appear  to  have 
reached  a  definite  compromise  be- 
tween these  two  methods. 

Analysis  of  Environment 

From  the  recent  advances  in 
other  sciences  the  geographer  is 
beginning  to  see  his  way  towards 
separate  regional  analyses  of  the 
world  under  the  heads  of  land 
forms,  climate,  forms  of  life ;  he 
can  indicate  the  relation  between 
these  elements  of  man's  environ- 
ment, and  is  on  the  eve  of  a  classi- 
fication of  the  physical  world  into 
precise  regions,  so  that  the  physical 
geographer — the  word  physical 
here  implying  attention  to  every- 
thing which  does  not  deal  with 
man  as  a  sentient  being — is  almost 
prepared  to  submit  a  thorough 
analysis  of  man's  environment. 

Being  supplied  with  these  re- 
gional analyses  of  the  world,  the 
humanist  has  two  problems  to  face, 
first,  the  interaction  between  one 
type  of  man  and  different  regions 
and,  secondly,  that  between  differ- 
ent types  of  men  and  one  region. 
For  example,  there  are  the  pro- 
blems of  the  Frenchmen  of  the  Paris 
basin  and  of  the  French  portion  of 
the  Mediterranean  area,  and  of  the 
Californian,  the  Chilean,  and  the 
South  Australian  in  relation  to  their 
environment. 

But  having  worned  out  his  re- 
sults in  comparison  with  the  main 
natural  regions  of  the  world,  the 
humanist  is  faced  by  a  new  diffi- 
culty. The  world  is  administered 
politically  in  regard  to  empires, 
kingdoms,  and  republics,  and  the 
political  frontiers  introduce  com- 
plications. It  is  his  province  to  de- 
termine the  relation  of  the  several 
states  to  the  natural  regions  and  to 
explain  the  size  and  shape  of  coun- 
tries, and  the  distribution  of  their 
inhabitants,  in  relation  to  his  ideal 
analysis  of  the  world  into  regions. 


GEOGRAPHY 

This  political  grouping  is  of  con- 
siderable importance  for  two  main 
reasons.  The  facts  concerning 
man's  labours  are  usually  recorded 
in  terms  of  political  areas,  coun- 
tries or  provinces,  so  that  the  geo- 
grapher has  some  difficulty  in 
determining  the  sum  of  human 
activities  in  a  given  region  which 
includes  part  of  two  or  more  coun- 
tries. At  the  same  time  geography 
is  not  a  study  of  purely  academic 
interest.  Everybody  is  interested  in 
topographical  facts  of  some  kind, 
if  only  because  he  reads  his  daily 
paper  with  interest,  and  the  prac- 
tical aim  of  geography  is  to  present 
so  ordered  a  conspectus  of  man's 
life  and  work  in  the  world  of  to- 
day that  the  student  may  be  able 
to  grasp  the  complete  significance  of 
the  topographical  facts  presented. 

Changing  and  Stable  Elements 
The  ordered  view  of  the  world 
so  obtained  implies  a  study  of 
the  earth  as  an  environment  by 
natural  regions  ;  an  acquaintance 
with  the  human  adjustments  to 
these  specific  environments  and, 
finally,  a  knowledge  of  the  world's 
political  units  as  they  are  related 
to  the  ideal  view  of  the  world  pre- 
viously obtained.  The  topogra- 
phical subject  matter  of  geography 
is  ever-changing  ;  a  new  railway  or 
canal,  the  conquest  of  the  air,  a  new 
application  of  science  to  industry 
may  alter  all  values,  so  that  the 
geographer  is  required  to  confine 
his  attention  to  the  more  perma- 
nent and  stable  elements  of  the 
world  and  to  be  ready  to  adjust  his 
conclusions  to  the  new  circum- 
stances as  and  when  they  occur. 

The  geographer  is,  however, 
above  all  else  an  inquirer,  carry- 
ing his  investigations  wider  and 
deeper  into  man's  manifold  activi- 
ties, and  at  the  present  there  are 
two  lines  of  fruitful  investigation 
which  are  being  followed.  On  the 
one  hand,  especially  upon  the  Con- 
tinent of  Europe,  geographers  are 
completely  analysing  compara- 
tively small  portions  of  the  world, 
such  as  Flanders,  testing  the  con- 
clusions already  attained  on  a 
broader  basis  and  collecting  new 
facts ;  on  the  other  hand  geo- 
graphers are  utilising  the  concep- 
tion that  the  world  as  a  whole  is  a 
unit  to  demonstrate  that  there  are 
certain  fundamental  conditions  or 
relationships  which  can  be  changed 
only  slowly  and  after  a  long  inter- 
val. For  example,  some  three-fifths 
of  the  world's  raw  cotton  is  gro»"m 
in  the  United  States,  giving  thi\t 
country  a  dominant  position  ix\ 
relation  to  the  cotton  markets  ot 
the  world. 

This  is  a  fundamental  geographi- 
cal fact,  for  it  is  barely  conceivable 
that  any  progress  in  cotton  grow- 


3470 

ing  elsewhere  in  response  to  any 
stimulus  whatever  can  materially 
alter  the  situation.  If  India  and 
Egypt  improved  their  output,  the 
States  would  probably  improve  in 
equal  proportions;  if  cotton  were 
grown  extensively  elsewhere  under 
a  system  of  bounties  or  artificial 
encouragement  the  States  would 
safeguard  their  interests  and  take 
steps  to  maintain  the  relative  posi- 
tion. The  geographer  recognizes 
the  nature  of  the  situation  and  it 
is  his  business  to  ascertain  com- 
pletely the  consequences  and  causes 
thereof.  Contrast,  however,  the 
position  of  the  former  Russian  Em- 
pire as  a  former  grower  of  one- 
tenth  of  the  world's  wheat.  It  is 
fundamental  that  wheat  is  grown 
extensively  in  Russia,  but  the  pro- 
portion neither  is  nor  can  be  con- 
stant ;  and  the  geographer  demon- 
strates the  reasons  why  wheat  is 
grown  and  why  the  quantities 
grown  in  Russia  must  fluctuate  in 
comparison  with  the  total  world's 
output. 

The  Geographer's  Method 
The  geographer,  therefore,  takes 
each  country  and  describes  it,  so  as 
to  specify  (1)  the  type  or  types  of 
physical  conditions  of  which  it  is 
comprised ;  (2)  the  kinds  of  people 
who  inhabit  it ;  (3)  the  way  in 
which  these  people  react  to  their 
environment  in  comparison  with 
the  lives  of  similar  peoples  else- 
where and  with  the  lives  of  differ- 
ent peoples  in  similar  areas  ;  and 
(4)  the  relation  it  bears  to  the 
world  as  a  whole.  He  lays  empha- 
sis upon  the  life  and  work  of  man 
to-day,  and  in  so  doing  provides 
suggestions  for  the  immediate 
future  which  will  control  to  some 
degree  man's  development  in  the 
next  few  decades.  B.  c.  Wains 
The  value  of  geography  in  edu- 
cation is  due  to  its  power  of  equip- 
ping the  young  citizen  with  a  wide 
outlook,  a  sense  of  perspective  and 
proportion,  a  familiarity  with 
methods  of  scientific  anatysis  and 
a  certain  manipulative  facility. 
For  in  giving  the  wide  outlook  it 
does  not  sacrifice  accuracy  of  de- 
tail, while  its  disregard  of  non- 
essentials  and  its  many  aspects 
tend  to  marked  clearness  of 
generalisation  along  with  a  multi- 
fold adaptability.  The  observation 
of  facts,  their  verification  and  their 
embodiment  in  a  map,  are  valuable 
if  mechanical,  processes  within  the 
power  of  any  normal  child  ;  the 
synthesis  or  analysis  of  the  whole 
human  environment  is  a  study 
worthy  of  the  close  attention  of 
university  honoursmen.  The  rela- 
tion of  natural  occupations  to 
natural  conditions  and  natural 
products  involves  wide  borrowing 
from  such  various  sciences  as 


<  GEOGRAPHY 

botany,  geology,  and  anthropology. 
If,  therefore,  we  assume  that  the 
ultimate  aim  of  geography  is  to 
study  the  interaction  of  man  and 
his  environment,  it  is  obvious  that 
only  scientific  methods  will  carry 
conviction  and  that  such  methods 
presuppose  an  adequate  knowledge 
of  the  fundamental  data  of  the 
problem.  The  first  step  in  the 
collection  of  such  data  is  the 
patient  observation  of  facts — ex- 
tensively and  intensively ;  and 
extensive  observation  is  the  special 
work  of  explorers.  The  general 
tre.id  of  such  work  in  recent  times 
has,  therefore,  a  peculiar  signifi- 
cance in  relation  to  this  ultimate 
aim  ;  and  among  the  most  signi- 
ficant events  of  the  past  few  years 
are  undoubtedly  the  conquest  of 
both  poles,  the  reconstruction  of 
the  interiors  of  Asia  and  Australia, 
the  partitioning  of  Africa,  and  the 
advances  in  oceanography. 

For  instance,  already  we  see  that 
the  meteorological  work  carried 
out  in  the  Antarctic  continent 
seems  likely  to  be  a  step  towards 
forecasting  the  failure  of  monsoon 
rains  in  India  during  the  succeed- 
ing summer,  i.e.  a  step  towards 
avoiding  all  the  horrors  which  used 
to  be  associated  with  unforeseen 
famine  in  that  populous  country. 
The  development  of  Africa,  again, 
seems  likely  to  test  vitally  the 
value  of  European  systems  of 
education  ;  for  the  Bantus,  at  all 
events,  are  a  virile,  but  illiterate 
people,  who  are  demanding  educa- 
tion, and  education  of  the  same 
kiad  as  is  given  to  white  children. 

International  Cooperation 
The  essential  fact  is  that  to-day 
although  the  world  is  practically 
known,  large  areas  of  it  still  have 
to  be  surveyed  and  properly 
mapped  ;  and  the  latter  task  in- 
volves a  wide  scheme  of  interna- 
tional cooperation,  which  is  already 
illustrated  by,  e.g.  the  Interna- 
tional Geodetic  Association,  the 
International  Council  for  the 
Study  of  Sea  Fisheries,  and  the  In- 
ternational Map  of  1 :  1,000,000. 

Side  by  side  with  the  extensive 
work  of  the  explorers  has  been  the 
intensive  study  of  the  more  ad- 
vanced countries  of  the  world, 
leading  to  most  useful  generalisa- 
tions based  on  detailed  and  precise 
knowledge  of  the  conditions — 
physical,  climatic,  zoological  and 
botanical,  etc. — obtaining  in  re- 
gions of  which  we  have  relatively 
trustworthy  historic  records  for 
hundreds  of  years  back.  And  this 
intensive  work  is  training  the  new 
type  of  explorer,  who  will  organize 
the  new  lands — discovered  by  the 
old  type — on  lines  favourable  to 
the  best  development  of  man  in  the 
particular  region. 


GEOGRAPHY 

In  the  organized  treatment  of 
all  the  material  accumulated  by 
exploratory  and  descriptive  geo- 
graphy, the  modern  science  of  geo- 
graphy fills  the  gap  between -as- 
tronomy and  geology  on  the  one 
side,  and  the  biological  and  kindred 
sciences  on  the  other  ;  but  it  is  im- 
possible to  define  exactly  the  pre- 
cise limits  of  each,  even  when  it  is 
not  a  science  in  the  early  stages  of 
development.  The  extreme  physi- 
cal aspect  of  geography  limits  it  to 
the  investigation  of  the  earth's 
surface  features ;  the  extreme 
humanistic  aspect  limits  it  to 
man's  relations  to  these  features. 
But  any  regional  synthesis  must 
include  vegetational  and  other  bio- 
logical phenomena,  and  any  dis- 
cussion of  human  distributions 
must  include  mathematical  pro- 
blems and  representations  of  space 
relations.  The  truth  lies  between 
the  two  extremes.  We  investigate 
and  classify  physical  phenomena, 
with  special  relation  to  man.  Thus, 
the  importance  of  St.  Helena  had  a 
different  value  according  as  it  was 
estimated  by  sailors  who  knew  only 
of  wind  as  motive  power,  or  by 
*»ailors  who  knew  also  of  steam. 
Physical  and  Human  Aspects 

Logically,  therefore,  modern 
geography  has  three  main  aspects, 
the  physical  base,  the  human  note, 
and  the  interaction  of  the  two,  and 
the  physical  should  be  treated 
first.  But  the  physical  implies  the 
mathematical ;  for  the  object  of 
making  careful  observations  and 
investigations  of  the  phenomena 
is  to  describe  and  compare  various 
earth-forms  and  natural  regions, 
and  its  result  is  their  permanent 
representation  in  such  a  way  as  to 
exhibit  their  location  and  their 
space  relations.  At  the  same  time 
every  precaution  must  be  taken 
against  over-emphasising  the  im- 
portance of  the  mathematical  de- 
termination of  forms  and  positions, 
or  the  physical  determination  of 
the  "  structure,  process,  and  stage" 
of  the  forms  thus  determined. 

Briefly,  the  geographical  pro- 
blem is  the  quantitative  proof  of 
the  manner  in  which,  and  the  de- 
gree to  which,  the  features  and 
phenomena  of  the  earth's  surface 
control  the  distribution  of  all  mo- 
bile elements  and  organisms  ;  and, 
though  the  work  cannot  go  on 
without  the  statistical  distributions 
of  the  map,  any  more  than  an  epic 
can  be  written  without  an  alphabet, 
it  is  the  dynamical  distributions 
that  are  epical,  and  man  is  the 
supreme  figure.  The  key  words, 
therefore,  are  "  control,"  "  re- 
sponse," "  interaction."  The  con- 
trol is  mainly  phj'siographical,  the 
response  is  ontographical,  and  the 
interaction  is  geographical. 


3471 

The  most  difficult  of  all  the 
problems  involved,  and  perhaps 
the  most  essential,  is  to  determine 
exactly  what  are  the  relations  of 
the  distinctively  mobile  distribu- 
tions to  the  more  or  less  fixed  en- 
vironment, and  to  express  these 
quantitatively — not  only  in  the 
"  pictorial  statistical  analysis  "  of 
a  map,  but  also  in  other  forms. 
Already  considerable  progress  has 
been  made  in  one  or  two  directions 
towards  demonstrating,  e.g.  the 
exact  relation  of  relief  to  climate, 
of  climate  to  plant  growth,  and  of 
natural  vegetation  to  agriculture. 
For  instance,  we  know  with  con- 
siderable accuracy  the  gradient 
(30°  to  45°)  and  exposure,  so  as  to 
get  a  maximum  of  autumn  sun- 
shine, desirable  for  a  champagne 
vineyard,  and  the  relations  of  sun- 
light, temperature,  and  humidity 
that  give  Cognac  a  monopoly  of 
real  brandy. 

Political  Geography 

Similar  considerations  are  true 
even  of  political  geography.  Thus, 
the  exact  relation  of  methods  of 
maintenance  to  the  development  of 
social  and  political  institutions  is 
no  longer  merely  a  plausible  hy- 
pothesis ;  and,  even  though  we 
cannot  state  the  relation  as  a 
fraction,  it  is  a  truth  needing  no 
statistical  demonstration  that,  e.g. 
in  a  region  of  winter  rains,  flanked 
by  snow-clad  mountains  that 
guarantee  abundance  of  irrigation 
water  in  summer,  there  is  no  im- 
perious necessity  for  the  work  of 
one  season  to  supply  the  needs  of 
two.  But  there  are  even  purely 
human  phenomena  about  which 
we  can  give  statistics.  For  instance, 
in  regard  to  tropical  colonisation, 
we  know  the  exact  wet-bulb  tem- 
perature at  which  white  men  find 
work  impossible  even  in  the 
presence  of  a  good  current  of  air, 
and  we  know  that  this  is  the  de- 
cisive factor.  Where  the  climo- 
graph  (i.e.  the  average  wet-bulb 
reading)  for  half  the  year  reaches 
70°  F.,  the  conditions  are  not  suit- 
able for  white  men;  and  this 
definite  climatic  boundary  in- 
cludes a  great  portion  of  northern 
Australia. 

Similarly  it  is  possible  to  give 
definite  statistics — though  they 
greatly  need  to  be  extended — 
about  the  relation  of  bright  sun- 
light in  dry  air  to  the  behaviour  of, 
e.g.  school  children  in  England, 
textile  operatives  in  New  England, 
and  hostesses  in  Nairobi — where 
everyone  lives  in  a  state  of  chronic 
irritability  from  overstimulation 
by  the  bright  light.  That  is  to  say, 
we  have  taken  some  preliminary 
steps  towards  determining  the  in- 
fluence of  environment  even  on 
mental  processes. 


GEOGRAPHY 

The  development  of  geography 
in  modern  times  along  such  lines 
has  been  astonishing,  especially  in 
France  and  Britain  ;  and,  as  the 
development  has  been  in  both 
material  and  method,  there  ought 
to  have  been  corresponding  de- 
velopment in  the  standing  of  the 
science,  especially  as  both  material 
and  method  can  be  used,  and  are 
used,  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  truly 
and  permanently  educational.  This 
involves  a  habit  of  using  books  and 
maps,  a  determination  to  test  all 
information  in  such  a  way  that  it 
becomes  a  truth  based  on  your 
own  first-hand  knowledge,  and  a 
power  of  outlook,  which  implies  in- 
vestigation, judgement,  inference, 
and  interpretation.  It  is,  however, 
peculiarly  modern  in  its  method 
of  basing  a  wide  "  world  "  outlook 
on  a  close  contact  with  a  small 
"  home  "  area  ;  and  it  is  interest- 
ing to  notice  how  directly  this 
method  may  be  related  to  the  sig- 
nificant overflow  of  European  pop- 
ulation into  larger  and  less  occu- 
pied areas.  Thus,  from  lands  of 
ancient  liberty  and  good  educa- 
tion, e.g.  Switzerland,  emigration 
is  mainly  of  teachers  and  skilled 
workmen,  who  are  practically 
bribed  to  go,  and  are  not  likely  to 
be  bamboozled  by  lying  advertise- 
ments and  unreal  prospects  ;  but 
from  lands  of  poverty  and  ignor- 
ance, e.g.  Russia,  the  motive  im- 
pulse is  necessity,  and  the  emi- 
grants are  at  the  mercy  of  the 
government  and  capitalists  of  their 
new  home. 

Geography  and  the  Future 

As  citizen,  or  as  emigrant,  one 
must  have  a  geographic  back- 
ground if  one  is  to  keep  order  in 
the  complex  mass  of  details  which 
enter  into  one's  daily  life,  and 
that  background  to-day  is  world- 
wide. To  anyone  with  any  vision 
of  the  British  Empire,  Egypt  may 
be  one  of  the  vital  spots  on  the 
mental  horizon.  For  the  Great 
Circle — i.e.  the  shortest  possible 
route — from  Britain's  most  distant 
colony,  New  Zealand,  to  her  near- 
est colony,  Newfoundland,  passes 
through  Cairo  ;  and  the  Suez  isth- 
mus, through  which  commerce 
deviates  from  the  mathematical 
Great  Circle,  is  not  only  the  link 
between  millions  of  souls  and  acres 
for  which  Britain  is  responsible,  in 
Asia  and  Africa,  but  also  the  point 
on  which  the  various  nations  of  the 
Empire  can  converge  most  easily 
in  peace  or  war.  If  one  re-writes 
Imperial  problems  in  such  geo- 
graphical terms,  one  begins  to 
realize  what  width  of  vision  might 
be  given  to  the  British  people  if, 
when  young,  they  were  properly 
trained  in  the  great  Science  of 
Outlook.  L.  w. 


GEOID 

Geoid.  Term  invented  to  de- 
scribe the  shape  of  the  earth.  Like 
theother  planets,  the  earth  is  spheri- 
cal, but  not  a  true  sphere.  The 
bulge  of  the  earth  which  makes  its 
equatorial  diameter  longer  than 
that  through  the  poles  causes  the 
earth  to  be  classed  as  a  spheroid, 
while  minor  irregularities  have  led 
to  the  use  of  the  term  geoid,  which 
is  equivalent  to  saying  that  the 
earth  is  shaped  like  itself  and  like 
nothing  else.  See  Earth. 

Geok  Tepe.  Village  in  Turkis- 
tan.  It  is  28  m.  from  Askhabad  on 
the  Transcaspian  Ely.  It  is  noted 
for  its  fortress,  an  immensely  strong 
building  erected  by  the  Turko- 
mans, which  in  1880  was  stormed 
by  the  Russians. 

Geological  Society.  British 
learned  society,  the  oldest  geo- 
logical society  in  the  world. 
Founded  in  1807  and  incorporated 
by  royal  charter  in  1825,  it  began 
as  a  dining  club,  meeting  at  the 
Freem  \  eons'  Tavern,  Great  Queen 
Street,  London,  W.C.  Rooms  were 
afterwi  rds  engaged  at  Garden 
Court  (Temple),  Lincoln's  Inn 
Fields,  Bedford  Street  (Covent 
Garden),  until,  in  1828,  apart- 
ments were  granted  at  Somerset 
House,  Strand.  In  1874  the  society 
removed  to  its  present  quarters 
at  Burlington  House,  Piccadilly, 
London,  W. 

The  society  maintained  a  valu- 
able museum  of  rocks,  minerals, 
and  fossils  until  1911,  when  the 
collections  were  dispersed  owing  to 
the  growth  of  the  library.  British 
collections  were  then  presented  to 
the  museum  of  practical  geology 
(Jermyn  Street,  London),  and  col- 
lections from  abroad  to  the  British 
Museum  of  Natural  History  (Crom- 
well Road,  London).  The  society 
meets  fortnightly  from  November 
to  June  inclusive.  Its  publications 
include  the  society's  Quarterly 
Journal,  Abstracts  of  Proceedings, 
and  Record  of  Geological  Litera- 
ture. Two  series  of  its  valuable 
quarto  Transactions  were  pub- 
lished between  1811  and  1856,  but 
none  have  been  issued  since.  The 
United  States  has  a  geological 
society  with  aims  similar  to  the 
British  one.  Papers  read  before 
it  are  published  in  the  society's 
Bulletin. 

Geological  Survey.  British 
government  department  charged 
with  the  investigation  of  the 
geology  of  the  British  Isles  and  the 
upkeep  of  the  museum  of  practical 
geology.  The  field  work  of  the 
survey  officers  includes  a  survey  of 
the  rocks  and  soils,  their  mineral 
contents,  inquiries  into  questions 
relating  to  water  supply  for  the 
dual  purpose  of  the  advancement 
of  science  and  the  accumulation  of 


3472 

facts  useful  to  miners,  farmers, 
architects,  builders,  engineers,  and 
manufacturers. 

In  1815  William  Smith  issued 
the  first  geological  map  of  England, 
and  Sir  Henry  De  la  Beche  followed 
this  great  work  by  beginning  to 
plot  the  geology  of  the  mining 
areas  of  Cornwall  and  Devon  on 
the  Ordnance  Survey  "  one  inch  " 
maps  then  being  published.  This 
work,  started  as  a  private  enter- 
prise, soon  received  national  re- 
cognition, and  in  1835  De  la  Beche 
was  "director  of  the  ordnance 
geological  survey."  From  these 
beginnings  the  department  grew 
under  the  successive  control  of 
De  la  Beche,  Sir  R.  J.  Murchison, 


GEOLOGY 

and  A.  C.  Ramsay,  while  other 
distinguished  geologists  were  also 
connected  with  it. 

The  department  issues  solid  and 
drift  maps,  memoirs  on  special 
subjects,  and  maintains  the  geo- 
logical collection  which  includes 
remarkable  relief  models  of  Ingle- 
borough  and  district,  Assynt,  etc. 
The  collection  is  housed  at  the 
headquarters,  the  museum  of 
practical  geology,  Jermyn  St., 
London,  S.W.,  a  building  erected 
by  the  government  and  formally 
opened  by  the  Prince  Consort  in 
1851.  Students  and  inquirers  are 
welcomed  at  the  museum  which 
is  free  to  the  public  at  certain 
specified  hours. 


GEOLOGY:   THE  READING  OF  THE  ROCKS 

J.  W.  Gregory,  F.R.S.,  Professor  of  Geology,  Glasgow  Univ. 

This  work  contains  articles  on  all  the  important  geological  terms, 

e.g.  Devonian;  Pliocene  ;  Triassic,  etc.     Other  cognate  articles  are 

Fossils  ;  Meteorites  ;  Rocks.     See  also  Earth  ;  and  biographies  of 

Geikie  and  other  geologists 


The  word  geology  means  literally 
"  a  discourse  on  the  earth  "  or  "  the 
science  of  the  earth."  Geology  is 
the  science  which  interprets  the 
evidence  afforded  by  the  materials 
of  the  earth  as  to  its  composition, 
structure,  and  history.  It  investi- 
gates the  minerals  and  rocks  of  the 
earth's  crust  by  aid  of  mineralogy 
and  petrology  ;  it  determines  the 
mutual  relations  of  the  constituent 
layers,  which  give  the  earth  its 
general  structure  by  tectonic  or 
structural  geology ;  it  studies  the 
forces  which  act  on  the  earth  by 
dynamic  or  physical  geology  ;  and 
it  compiles  the  history  of  the  earth 
from  its  beginning  to  the  earliest 
human  records  by  historical  or 
stratigraphical  geology.  The  last- 
named  is  largely  dependent  on  the 
evidence  of  the  remains  of  the  suc- 
cessive animals  and  plants  which 
have  lived  on  the  earth,  and  these 
fossils  are  the  subject  matter  of 
palaeontology. 

ORIGIN  AND  GENERAL  STRUCTURE 
OF  THE  FJARTH.  The  origin  of  the 
earth  and  of  the  other  members  of 
the  solar  system  was  long  attribu- 
ted to  consolidation  from  a  hot 
gaseous  nebula — the  theory  of 
Laplace.  In  recent  years  the  view 
that  has  found  most  favour 
among  geologists  is  that  the 
earth  was  formed  from  vast  swarms 
of  meteorites,  which  are  scattered 
through  space  in  infinite  numbers. 
When  a  meteorite  enters  the  earth's 
atmosphere  it  becomes  incandes- 
cent, owing  to  the  friction  of  the 
air,  and  is  then  known  as  a  shooting 
star  or  meteor.  Meteorites  when 
travelling  through  outer  space  are 
extremely  cold  ;  but  in  a  dense 
swarm  they  are  heated  by  collisions 


and  pressure  and  may  be  fused  into 
a  compact  body. 

The  largest  of  the  meteorites 
known  to  us  are  composed  mainly 
of  iron  and  nickel,  with  a  small 

Eroportion  of  stony  materials. 
E  a  SAvarm  of  meteorites  is 
melted  and  formed  into  one  mass, 
the  heavy  metals  would  naturally 
sink  toward  ths  centre,  and  the 
lighter  stony  matter  would  collect 
on  the  surface  and  solidify  as  a 
rocky  crust ;  the  moisture  would 
condense  on  the  surface  in  sheets  of 
water  and  the  gases  given  off  would 
surround  it  as  an  atmosphere.  This 
arrangement  occurs  in  the  earth, 
which  consists  of  a  central  core  sur- 
rounded by  three  distinct  layers. 
The  central  core  is  known  as  the 
centrosphere  from  its  position,  and 
as  the  barysphere  owing  to  the 
heaviness  of  its  constituents.  It  is 
enclosed  in  the  rocky  crust  of  the 
earth  which  is  known  as  the  litho- 
sphere  ;  upon  this  in  turn  lies  the 
hydrosphere,  which  contains  all  the 
waters  near  the  earth's  surface, 
alike  in  the  sea  and  rivers,  in  rocks 
and  in  clouds.  Surrounding  the 
whole  is  the  gaseous  envelope,  the 
atmosphere. 

The  Centroaphere  or  Thermosphere 
The  centrosphere  forms  the 
largest  part  of  the  earth,  but  as  it  is 
inaccessible  our  knowledge  of  it  is 
gained  indirectly,  especially  from 
the  study  of  earthquakes  and  mea- 
surements of  the  weight  of  the 
earth.  Of  this  central  mass  two 
facts  are  certainly  known.  First,  it 
is  much  hotter  than  the  rocks  on 
the  surface,  since  on  descent  into  a 
deep  mine  the  temperature  rises 
and  the  water  from  deep  springs  is 
hot.  The  increase  of  temperature 


Pliocene 


Great 
Oolite 


Burrter 


Permian 


Sjlur- 


Cambria 


11 


-  -H +-- 


Oo0ooo°o0o0-0 


AVAVAVA 

VA7AVAV 


3473 


Alluvial  gravels,  blown  sands,  estuarine  mud,  boulder  clay, 
and  other  glacial  deposits ;  cave  earth  with  recent  fossils. 
Deposits  yield  peat,  gravels,  and  brickearths  Typical  localities 
are  Solway  Virth.  Chesil  Bank,  Holderness. 

Mainly  sands  and  loams,  var(ous  beds  of  crag.  Chief  economic 
products  are  marl  and  phosphates.  Main  districts  are  Norwich, 
Cromer,  Aldborough. 

Miocene  rocks  fall  into  sequence  herr  They  are  not  repre- 
sented in  Britain,  being  chiefly  found  in  the  Mediterranean  area. 


lilding    stone,    cement,    and 
found    IL    the    Hampshire 


Sands  and  clays  predominate.  ] 
brickearth  are  obtained.  Chiefly 
basin  (Isle  of  Wight). 

Sands,  clays,  and  pebble  beds.  Chief  clay,  London  clay,  is 
widely  spread  over  the  London  basin,  and  may  exceed  450  ft. 
in  thickness.  Chief  economic  products  are  glass-sands,  brick 
and  tile  earth. 

Maestricht  chalk  Is  net  represented  in  Britain. 

Chalk  and«chalk  marl,  yielding  cement  and  lime,  occur  mainly 
in  the  hill  country  of  the  Lowns  and  Chilterns.  Beds  may  be 
more  than  1,500  ft.  thick. 

Mainly  sands  and  clays  providing  road-metal,  cement,  and  phos- 
phates. Notable  outcrops  are  found  at  Leith  Hill,  Blackdown 
Hills,  Hunstanton,  Warminster. 

Chief  clay  of  the  Weald,  with  some  sands,  containing  iron-ore, 
at  Claxby.  Away  from  the  Weald,  where  it  is  1,500  ft.  thick, 
outcrops  at  Swanage  and  in  the  Isle  of  Wight. 

Sands  and  limestones,  yielding  building  stone  and  Purbeck 
marble.  Chief  localities  are  Portland,  Purbeck,  Swindon,  and 
Aylesbury. 

Clay  containing  fossils  of  saurians.  "  Kimeridge  coal  "  yields 
oil-shale.  It  occurs  at  Swindon,  in  the  Vale  of  Pickering,  and 
Cromarty. 

Limestone  and  clay  with  some  grits.  Chief  products  are  lime, 
iron-ore  at  Westbury,  etc.,  and  building  stone.  Main  outcrops 
are  at  Weymouth,  Oxford,  Filey,  and  Brora  in  Sutherlandshire. 

Clay  of  the  Oxford  basin  of  the  Upper  Thames,  yielding  brick 
and  tile  earth.  Away  from  the  Thames  it  occurs  at  Peter- 
borough and  in  the  island  of  Skye. 

Mainly  limestones  yielding  lime  and  local  supplies  of  building 
stone.  The  rocks  also  provide  Bath  stone,  Stonesfield  slate,  and 
fuller's  earth ;  they  range  from  Weymouth  to  Bedford,  East 
Yorkshire,  and  Brora. 

Clay  and  limestone,  estuarine  deposits,  yielding  building  stone 
and  lime  as  well  as  iron-ore  at  Northampton  and  Eosedale.  Out- 
crops occur  at  Cheltenham,  Lincoln,  and  in  Skye. 

Limestones,  Clays  and  shales.  Economic  products  are  alum, 
jet,  lime  and  cement,  and,  notably,  iron-ore  at  Cleveland  and 
Frodingham.  The  rock  is  found  in  Yorkshire,  Skye,  and  Antrim. 
Besides  insect  and  plant  remains  it  has  ichthyosaurian  fossils. 

Marls,  providing  building  stone,  gypsum,  and  rock  salt.  Out- 
crops occur  on  the  flanks  of  the  Southern  Pennines  and  in 
Antrim. 

Triassic  limestones,  musselkalk,  etc.,  are  not  represented  in 
Britain. 

Sandtone  and  pebble  beds,  usually  in  hilly  country— Cannock 
Chase,  Bridgnorth.  Economic  products  are  building  stone  and 
foundry  sand.  Typical  Bunter  heath  country  is  found  in 
Sherwood  Forest. 

Marls,  sandstone  and  limestone,  yielding  building  stone.  Out- 
crops are  found  at  Dumfries,  Penrith,  Suuderland  and  Doncaster. 

Shales  with  coal  and  sandstones,  yielding  coal,  ironstone,  fire- 
clay, building,  paving,  and  grind  stone.  For  location  see  coal- 
fields map. 

Sandstone,  grit,  yielding  chert,  building,  mill  and  paving  stone. 
Outcrops  occur  in  the  Pennines,  South  Wales,  and  the  Mendips. 

Mountain  limestone  yielding  lime,  marble  in  Derbyshire  and 
West  Meath,  lead-ore,  and  cement  stone.  The  rock  is  responsible 
for  scenic  beauties  in  Derbyshire,  the  Mendips,  the  Isl-i  of  Man. 

Sandstone  and  marls  with  local  limestones,  yielding  marble, 
slates  at  Delabole,  Cornwall,  building  stone  and  Caithness  flags. 
Outcrops  are  found  in  the  Orkneys  and  Shetland^,  Hereford, 
Devonshire,  Caithness  and  Forfar. 

Shales  with  limestones  yielding  flags,  building  stone  and  lime. 
The  rocks  are  found  at  Ludlow,  Wenlock,  Llandovery.  in  the 
Pentland  Hilis. 

Limestones  and  shales  yielding  lime,  phosphorite,  jasper,  oil- 
stone and  slates.  Outcrops  occur  at  Bala,  Llandeilc,  Arenig,  in 
the  Lake  Pistrict,  Lowther  and  Lead  Hills. 

Shales  with  sandstone  and  slates,  yielding  marble,  flags, 
building  stone,  road-metal  and  slates.  The  rock  is  found  at 
Tremadoc,  Skye,  Malvern,  Harlech,  Wexford,  in  the  Lake 
District  and  in  the  Isle  of  Man. 

Mainly  igneous  without  fossils,  supplying  road-metal  and  stone 
for  local  building  purposes.  The  rock  is  found  in  North  Scot- 
land, the  Hebrides,  Donegal,  Charnwood  Forest  and  the  Wrekin. 


c     <f>   £ 
z!  j-   * 

=    rt"1-1 


Diagram  indicating  the  geological  progression  in  the  earth  crust  of  the  British  Isles,  from  the  Azoic,  or  lifeless,  to  the 

Caenozoic,  or  recent  and  existing,  age.      The  rock  sequence  here  shown  is  representative  of  the  world,  except  for  three 

systems  which  do  not  occur  in  Britain,  but  are  shown  blank  in  their  proper  positions 

GEOLOGY:  THE  SEQUENCE  OF  THE  ROCK  SYSTEMS 


2D     4 


GEOLOGY 

has  been  generally  accepted  as 
about  1°  F.  for  every  53  ft.  of  des- 
cent from  the  surface  ;  according  to 
some  measurements  the  increase  is 
only  1°  F.  for  every  80  ft.  of  de- 
scent. Even  if  the  rate  becomes 
slower  with  increasing  depth  only  a 
few  miles  below  the  surface  the 
heat  must  be  intense.  In  addition 
to  its  other  names  this  central  mass 
has,  therefore,  been  called  the 
thermosphere,  by  those  wishing  to 
direct  attention  to  the  important 
consequences  of  its  high  tem- 
perature. 

Internal  Composition 

The  second  fact  proved  about 
the  central  core  is  that  its  materials 
are  much  heavier,  bulk  for  bulk, 
than  the  rocks  of  the  earth's  crust. 
These  rocks  weigh  from  about  2-|  to 
3  times  as  much  as  an  equal  bulk  of 
water  ;  the  whole  earth,  however, 
weighs  nearly  5|  times  that  of  an 
equal  bulk  of  water.  The  material 
in  the  interior  of  the  earth  is  there- 
fore more  than  twice  as  heavy  as 
the  rocks  of  the  crust.  This  fact  is 
probably  due  to  the  high  proportion 
in  the  interior  of  various  metals, 
especially  iron  and  nickel.  The 
central  mass  is  different  in  composi- 
tion from  the  rocks  of  the  crust ;  its 
material  has  been  termed  Gei'te,  i.e. 
earth-rock.  It  is  probably  similar 
to  the  largest  meteorites,  which 
consist  of  iron  with  from  6  p.c.  to 
10  p.c.  of  nickel ;  hence  probably 
both  the  bulk  of  the  meteoritic  ma- 
terial and  of  the  earth  consist  of 
iron  and  nickel.  That  the  litho- 
sphere  is  only  about  50  m.  thick, 
below  which  the  earth  consists  of 
geite,  is  probable  from  the  phe- 
nomena of  earthquakes  and  the 
distribution  of  radium. 

THE  ROCKS  OF  THE  EARTH'S 
CRUST.  The  lithosphere  is  the  part 
of  the  earth  with  which  the  geolo- 
gist is  most  concerned.  It  consists 
of  rocks,  which  are  masses  of  fairly 
uniform  coherent  material,  such  as 
granite  and  sandstone.  Rocks  sup- 
ply the  materials  for  the  history  of 
the  earth,  as  each  of  them  retains 
characters  which  indicate  the  con- 
ditions under  which  it  was  formed, 
and  often  reveal  its  age.  Study  of  a 
rock  will  usually  determine  whether 
it  was  formed  on  land  or  sea  ;  if  on 
land,  whether  under  a  moist  or  a 
desert  climate ;  if  in  the  sea, 
whether  near  the  shore  or  in  a  deep 
ocean  ;  and  if  formed  beneath  the 
earth's  surface,  at  what  approxi- 
mate depth. 

Rocks  are  of  two  main  kinds. 
Those  of  the  first  kind  are  formed 
by  the  solidification  of  molten  ma- 
terial ;  they  are  sometimes  called 
primary,  as  they  haye  been  formed 
directly  from  the  molten  constitu- 
ents of  the  earth  ;  and  as  their 
molten  condition  was  due  to  in- 


3474 

tense  heat  they  are  also  called  ig- 
neous. In  some  cases  these  rocks 
have  solidified  on  the  surface  of  the 
earth  in  sheets  which  have  been 
discharged  from  volcanoes.  They 
are  then  called  volcanic  rocks.  If 
they  solidify  very  quickly  they 
form  glass  such  as  obsidian  ;  if 
they  cool  very  slowly  and  under 
heavy  pressure,  the  whole  of  the 
material  will  solidify  in  a  crystal- 
line state.  Under  intermediate  con- 
ditions a  primary  rock  may  be 
composed  of  a  mixture  of  crystal- 
line constituents  and  glass.  Rocks 
which  have  consolidated  at  a  con- 
siderable depth  are  known  as  Plu- 
tonic rocks  (after  Pluto,  the  god  of 
the  infernal  regions)  and  owing  to 
their  slow  cooling  under  great  pres- 
sure none  of  their  material  can 
solidify  as  glass ;  they  consist 
wholly  of  crystalline  constituents 
and  are  accordingly  described  as 
holocrystalline. 

Simple  and  Compound  Minerals 

The  plutonic  rocks  consist, 
therefore,  of  an  aggregate  of  crys- 
talline materials,  each  of  which  is  a 
simple  mineral.  The  term  mineral 
is  used  in  a  broad  sense,  as  in 
mineral  kingdom,  to  include  all  the 
inorganic  constituents  of  the  earth. 
The  simple  minerals  or  mineral 
species  are  those  which  have  a  de- 
finite chemical  composition,  which 
often  have  a  regular  shape  and  can- 
not be  broken  up  by  any  simple 
mechanical  processes  into  other 
minerals.  Compound  minerals, 
such  as  coal,  iron  ore,  slate,  granite, 
etc.,  are,  on  the  other  hand,  mix- 
tures of  simple  minerals  ;  granite, 
for  example,  may  be  seen  by  the 
naked  eye  to  consist  of  a  mixture  of 
simple  minerals  which  can  be  sepa- 
rated by  hand  when  the  rock  is 
crushed. 

Rocks  are  usually  composed  of 
mixtures  of  simple  minerals,  by 
the  identification  of  which  their 
composition  and  history  can  be  de- 
termined. The  lithosphere  must 
originally  have  consisted  solely  of 
primary  rocks ;  the  surface  layer 
was  decomposed  by  air  and  water 
and  the  fragments  used  as  the  con- 
stituents of  a  new  generation  of 
rocks.  Because  in  them  the  ma- 
terial is  used  for  a  second  time  they 
are  called  secondary  rocks.  As  they 
consist  of  broken  fragments  they 
are  clastic ;  the  fragments  are 
large,  such  as  pebbles  in  a  con- 
glomerate, of  coarse  grains  in  a 
sandstone,  and  of  particles  so 
minute  that  they  cannot  be  seen  by 
the  naked  eye  in  a  clay  or  shale. 
Sedimentary  Rocks 

As  these  fragments  are  deposited 
as  sediment,  the  rocks  they  form 
are  called  sedimentary ;  as  these 
rocks  are  deposited  in  layers,  each 
of  which  is  a  stratum,  the  second- 


GEOLOGY 

ary  rocks  are  stratified.  Most  of 
them  having  been  laid  down  by 
water,  as  on  the  sea  floor  or  on  the 
bed  or  banks  of  rivers,  they  are 
therefore  called  aqueous  rocks. 
During  their  deposition  remains  of 
animals  and  plants  are  embedded 
in  them  and  preserved  as  fossils. 
Secondary  rocks,  then,  are  clastic, 
sedimentary,  stratified,  and  often 
fossiliferous.  Primary  rocks,  on 
the  contrary,  consist  of  original 
glassy  or  crystalline  constituents ; 
they  are  therefore  not  clastic,  and 
they  are  unstratified,  igneous,  and 
ufifossiliferous. 

In  addition  to  the  stratified 
rocks  made  of  sediments  there  are 
some  composed  of  the  shells, 
skeletons  or  hard  tissues  of  various 
animals  and  plants.  The  most  im- 
portant representative  of  this 
group  is  limestone  ;  it  consists  of 
carbonate  of  lime  which  has  been 
extracted  from  water  by  corals, 
shell  fish  (mollusca),  calcareous 
plants,  etc.  Some  organisms  secrete 
shells  and  skeletons  of  silica,  and 
their  remains  form  beds  of  chert  or 
flint.  Some  plants  extract  iron 
from  water  and  they  deposit 
layers  of  iron  ore.  Some  animals 
extract  phosphoric  acid  and  form 
shells  and  bones  of  phosphate  of 
lime  ;  they  give  rise  to  phosphatic 
limestones,  which  are  of  great  value 
as  a  source  of  manures.  Another 
group  of  stratified  rocks  is  de- 
posited chemically,  generally  as 
residues  left  by  the  evaporation  of 
water;  such  are  beds  of  rock  salt 
and  of  various  potash  salts. 
Metamorphic  Rocks 

Intermediate  in  character  be- 
tween the  primary  and  secondary 
rocks  is  a  third  group  which  con- 
sists of  rocks  that  have  been  al- 
tered by  heat,  or  superheated 
steam,  or  the  injection  of  veins  of 
molten  rock,  or  by  intense  pressure. 
These  rocks  often  retain  their  ar- 
rangement in  strata,  but  their  con- 
stituents have  been  crystallised 
and  any  fossils  that  may  have  oc- 
curred in  them  have  been  de- 
stroyed. These  rocks  have  been  so 
thoroughly  altered  that  they  are 
known  as  metamorphic.  They 
have  been  produced  from  both 
secondary  and  primary  rocks.They 
have  generally  been  formed  at 
great  depths  below  the  surface, 
and  have  been  exposed  by  uplift  in 
mountain  chains  or  by  the  removal 
of  the  rocks  which  once  covered 
them.  The  peninsular  part  of  India, 
most  of  Scandinavia  and  Finland, 
and  the  western  part  of  Australia 
each  consists  essentially  of  a  large 
exposed  block  of  these  once  deep- 
seated  metamorphic  rocks,  as- 
sociated with  igneous  rocks  which 
have  been  forced  into  them  from  a 
still  deeper  zone. 


GEOLOGY 

THE  ARRANGEMENT  OF  STRATI- 
FIED ROCKS,  FOLDS,  AND  FAULTS. 
When  beds  are  laid  down  in  a 
regular  succession,  each  sheet  hori- 
zontally upon  that  below  it,  the 
series  is  said  to  be  conformable. 
But  if  one  series  of  beds  has  been 
tilted  and  new  beds  are  deposited 
across  its  worn  edges,  the  two 
series  are  unconformable.  Uncon- 
formities are  important  because 
they  indicate  long  intervals  of  time 
during  which  no  beds  were  deposi- 
ted ;  and  there  are  some  complete 
gaps  in  geological  history  when  a 
universal  unconformity  marks  a 
time  of  world-wide  disturbance  of 
the  crust.  The  recognition  of  un- 
conformities is  also  important  in 
applied  geology,  for  if  their  exist- 
ence be  overlooked  serious  errors 
may  be  made  in  mining  or  in 
searching  for  minerals  or  water. 

The  stratified  rocks  of  the  earth's 
crust  were  laid  down  in  layers 
which  were  originally  horizontal ; 
the  bedding  may  have  been  regular 
where  the  material  was  deposited 
or  rearranged  by  strong  currents. 
The  beds,  however,  are  generally 
tilted,  and  their  slope  is  known  as 
the  dip.  Rocks  are  also  disturbed 
by  folding.  The  rocks  may  be  bent 
by  upfolds  in  arches,  which  are 
known  as  anticlines  ;  the  beds  may 
sag  in  downfolds  into  troughs  or 
synclines.  Such  folds  are  often  due 
to  lateral  pressure,  as  when  a  table- 
cloth is  wrinkled  into  folds  by 
being  pushed  across  a  table.  When 
the  lateral  movement  is  consider- 
able, folds  may  be  so  crowded  to- 
gether that  the  two  sides  of  each 
fold  may  be  parallel  as  in  a  closed 
concertina.  Such  compressed  folds 
are  known  as  isoclines.  If  the 
plane  of  the  isocline,  instead  of 
being  vertical  leans  over  to  one 
side,  the  beds  on  the  under  side  are 
turned  upside  down,  and  the  suc- 
cession is  said  to  be  reversed.  An 
upfold  around  a  point  forms  a 
dome,  and  a  downfold  around  a 
point  forms  a  basin. 

Faults  and  Sunklands 

The  disturbances  of  the  crust 
often  produce  fractures  on  one 
side  of  which  the  beds  may  be  dis- 
placed upward  or  downward.  Such 
movements  are  known  as  faults. 
They  break  the  continuity  of  beds, 
so  that  a  sheet  of  stone  may  end 
abruptly  at  a  fault,  beyond  which 
it  may  lie  above  or  below  its 
original  level.  In  mining  it  is  there- 
fore important  to  recognize  faults, 
and  to  determine  on  which  side 
the  beds  have  been  pushed  up- 
ward (the  upthrow  side),  and  on 
which  they  have  sunk  (the  down- 
throw side).  Faults  may  occur 
singly  or  in  series  ;  several  faults 
with  the  throw  all  in  the  same 
direction  are  known  as  step-faults. 


3475 

A  pair  of  parallel  faults,  between 
which  the  beds  have  moved  down- 
ward, forms  a  trough  fault.  A 
pair  of  parallel  faults  between 
which  the  rocks  have  been  left  up- 
raised form  a  ridge  fault,  and  the 
block  of  country  between  them  is 
a  horst.  A  valley  formed  by  the 
sinking  of  a  strip  of  country  be- 
tween two  parallel  faults  is  a  rift 
valley,  while  a  large  tract  of 
country  which  has  sunk  within  a 
ring  of  faults  is  a  sunkland.  The 
continents  may  be  regarded  as 
vast  horsts  which  have  been  left 
upstanding  owing  to  the  subsi- 
dence of  the  ocean  basins  by  com- 
bined faulting  and  folding ;  the 
oceans  cover  the  largest  of  the 
sunklands,  whose  floors  have 
foundered  beneath  the  sea. 
Submerged  Continents 

According  to  a  once  popular 
theory,  the  ocean  basin  and  conti- 
nental elevations  have  been  in  the 
main  permanent  throughout  geo- 
logical times.  The  balance  of 
evidence,  however,  is  against  this 
view.  Some  portions  of  the  conti- 
nents have,  it  is  true,  remained 
above  sea  level  throughout  geo- 
logical time,  and  it  is  correspond- 
ingly probable  that  parts  of  the 
ocean  basins  may  have  been  per- 
manently below  sea  level.  Never- 
theless, there  has  been  great  inter- 
change of  ocean  and  continent. 
There  is  evidence,  for  example,  of 
a  great  continent,  known  as  Gon- 
wanaland,  which  once  extended 
from  Australia  westward  across 
the  Indian  Ocean,  included  most 
of  India  and  Africa,  continued 
across  the  Atlantic,  and  comprised 
the  eastern  highlands  of  South 
America. 

EARTH  MOVEMENTS  AND  MOUN- 
TAINS. The  movements  in  the 
crust  which  cause  faults  some- 
times tend  to  pull  the  rocks  asun- 
der as  if  the  crust  were  shrinking, 
while  at  others  the  rocks  are 
pressed  together.  Faults  of  the 
former  class  are  nearly  world-wide 
in  distribution,  whereas  those  due 
to  compression  on  a  great  scale 
at  any  one  time  in  the  earth's 
history  have  been  restricted  to 
particular  belts  along  which  the 
rocks  have  been  crumpled  into 
mountain  chains. 

Some  of  the  continental  high- 
lands may  be  regarded  as  vast 
horsts  which  have  been  left  up- 
standing while  the  surrounding 
countries  have  been  lowered  by 
folds  and  faults.  Such  horsts  form 
the  peninsula  of  India,  the  plateau 
of  Western  Australia,  the  highlands 
of  Brazil  and  tropical  Africa.  In 
contrast  to  these  broad  highlands 
are  the  long  and  comparatively 
narrow  chains  of  fold-mountains, 
which  are  due  to  the  folding  of 


GEOLOGY 

strips  of  the  earth's  crust  along 
lines  of  special  compression.  Such 
fold-mountain  systems  are  repre- 
sented by  the  Andes  in  S.  America, 
the  Alps,  and  the  Himalayas. 

These  fold-mountain  chains  have 
been  produced  at  successive  periods 
of  active  disturbance  of  the  earth's 
crust.  Three  periods  of  the  forma- 
tion of  fold-mountains  have  been 
of  special  importance  :  that  which 
has  left  the  greatest  mark  on  the 
existing  topography  of  the  earth 
produced  in  Europe,  in  compara- 
tively late  geological  times  (oligo- 
cene  and  miocene),  the  Alpine 
system  which  includes  the  Alps, 
Pyrenees,  Apennines,  and  the  main 
chain  across  the  Balkan  Peninsula. 

As  to  the  ultimate  cause  of 
such  earth-movements  there  is  no 
full  agreement.  The  most  obvious 
cause  is  the  adaptation  of  the 
crust  to  the  shrinkage  of  the  in- 
terior. The  fold-mountain  chains 
are  analogous  to  the  wrinkles 
formed  on  the  skin  of  an  apple  by 
the  shrivelling  of  the  pulp  ;  and 
with  additions  to  explain  the  re- 
striction of  the  folding  to  special 
belts  this  explanation  is  probably 
the  most  satisfactory.  The  graat 
subsidences  between  the  folded 
belts  are  probably  due  to  the 
shrinkage  of  the  interior,  leaving 
areas  unsupported. 

Movements  of  the  Earth's  Crust 

The  upward  and  downward 
movements  of  the  crust  have  de- 
termined the  main  configuration  of 
the  earth,  but  many  secondary 
geographic  features  are  also  due 
to  the  heaving  of  the  earth's  sur- 
face. The  crust  is  in  a  state  of  con- 
tinual tremor  and  movement ; 
large  parts  of  the  earth's  surface 
are  in  such  delicate  equilibrium 
that  the  weight  of  a  fresh  layer  of 
sediment,  or  of  extra  water  at  high 
tide,  or  even  a  heavy  storm  of  rain, 
may  press  down  the  loaded  area. 
Similarly  the  removal  of  a  layer  of 
material  from  a  land  may  not  per- 
manently lower  the  surface,  as  the 
land  may  rise  owing  to  the  lighten- 
ing of  its  load.  This  ready  yielding 
by  the  surface  to  slight  variations 
in  weight  may  appear  inconsistent 
with  the  existence  of  mountain 
chains  and  the  ocean  basins.  It 
might  be  thought  that  mountains, 
by  pressing  down  their  founda- 
tions, would  sink  to  the  average 
level,  while  the  ocean  floors  would 
rise  to  it.  The  existence  of  moun- 
tains is  explained  by  the  weight  of 
their  raised  masses  being  compen- 
sated by  a  deficiency  of  material 
in  their  foundations.  This  princi- 
ple is  known  as  isostacy. 

According  to  it  all  blocks  of  the 
crust  which  are  equal  in  area,  and 
extend  down  to  a  surface  about 
70  m.  below  sea  level,  are  equal  in 


GEOLOGY 


3476 


GEOLOGY 


weight.  Thus  a  block  74  m.  thick 
below  a  place  in  the  Himalayas 
that  is  4  m.  above  sea  level  weighs 
the  same  as  a  block  equal  in  area 
and  66  m.  thick  below  the  ocean 
floor  where  it  is  4  m.  below  sea 
level.  The  greater  thickness  of  the 
Himalayan  block  would  be  com- 
pensated by  the  greater  density  of 
material  in  the  sub-oceanic  block. 

DYNAMIC  GEOLOGY — DENUDA- 
TION, VOLCANOES,  AND  EARTH- 
QUAKES. The  surface  of  the  litho- 
sphere  is  constantly  crumbling 
under  the  attack  of  wind,  air,  and 
water.  The  gases  of  the  atmo- 
sphere cause  the  decay  and  dis- 
integration of  rocks.  Wind,  rain, 
and  rivers  carry  away  the  decom- 
posed material  and  expose  fresh 
layers  to  decay.  This  process  is 
known  as  denudation,  and  it  is 
steadily  lowering  the  surface  of 
the  land.  The  materials  derived 
from  the  wearing  away  of  the  land 
are  in  time  carried  to  the  sea,  and 
there  deposited  as  beds  of  sand  or 
clay  which  are  formed  into  new 
secondary  rocks. 

The  Work  of  Ice 

Denudation  in  cold  countries 
and  on  snow-clad  mountains  is 
aided  by  the  work  of  ice  ;  glaciers 
flow  from  the  mountain  snow- 
fields  down  the  valleys,  and  carry 
with  them  stones  and  earth  which 
are  deposited  when  the  glacier 
melts  in  ridges  known  as  moraines. 
The  geological  work  of  ice  is  at 
present  restricted  mainly  to  moun- 
tains and  to  low  levels  in  the  Polar 
regions  ;  but  in  former  times  large 
tracts  of  country  which  are  now  ice 
free  were  once  covered  by  glaciers. 
The  British  Isles,  for  example,  were 
in  comparatively  recent  geological 
times  covered  by  a  sea  of  ice,  which 
was  formed  upon  the  mountains  of 
Scotland,  the  N.  of  England,  and 
Wales  ;  it  flooded  all  the  northern 
part  of  the  country,  and  deposited 
wide  sheets  of  boulder  clay.  The 
remains  of  various  older  glacia- 
tions  have  been  found  even  in 
tropical  regions.  One  of  the  most 
famous  is  known  from  isolated 
glacial  deposits  in  India,  Australia, 
S.  Africa,  and  S.  America,  which 
were  formed  by  extensive  glaciers 
at  the  time  when  the  growth  of 
luxuriant  vegetation  in  Europe  and 
the  U.S.A.  was  producing  the 
materials  for  their  chief  deposits 
of  coal. 

A  second  group  of  dynamic  pro- 
cesses depends  on  subterranean 
actions,  of  which  the  most  striking 
are  those  connected  with  volcanoes 
and  earthquakes.  A  volcano  is  a 
pipe  up  which  molten  rock  is  forced 
to  the  surface  by  .  its  included 
gases  or  steam,  or  by  pressure  due 
to  earth  movements.  An  earth- 
quake is  a  sudden  violent  move- 


ment of  the  ground ;  it  may  be  due 
to  a  volcanic  explosion,  which  may 
be  so  powerful  as  to  shake  the 
whole  earth,  or  it  may  be  due  to 
the  slipping  of  a  mass  of  sediment 
down  a  steep  slope  especially  be- 
neath the  sea,  or  it  may  be  due  to 
the  uplift  or  subsidence  of  part 
of  the  earth's  crust  by  faulting  or 
folding.  From  the  locality  where 
the  initial  movement  takes  place 
a  shock  passes  outward  in  all 
directions,  and  is  felt  as  an  earth- 
quake. 

HISTORICAL  GEOLOGY.  Histori- 
cal geology  depends  on  two  main 
principles.  The  first  is  that  of 
superposition.  As  the  secondary 
rocks  of  the  crust  are  laid  down 
in  layers,  one  on  top  of  the  other, 
it  follows  that  the  lowest  rock 
in  a  series  is  the  oldest  and 
the  uppermost  is  the  youngest. 
Superposition  is  therefore  alone 
usually  a  safe  guide  to  the  relative 
ages  of  adjacent  rocks.  It  cannot, 
however,  be  implicitly  trusted, 
since  series  of  tilted  rocks  are  in- 
verted by  earth  movements,  hence 
a  rock  may  lie  upon  one  that  was 
originally  above  it.  Superposition 
is  also  inapplicable  to  the  com- 
parison of  rocks  in  distant  parts 
of  the  world.  The  final  deter- 
mination of  the  age  of  rocks  de- 
pends on  the  second  method — the 
use  of  fossils.  Fossils  are  the  re- 
mains or  impressions  in  a  rock  of 
animals  or  plants  that  lived  during 
its  formation.  The  early  animals 
and  plants  were  primitive  in  cha- 
racter, and,  in  accordance  with  the 
theory  of  evolution,  there  has  been 
a  gradual  change  from  them  to  the 
more  complex  organisms  of  later 
times.  Fossils,  therefore,  can  be 
used  like  medals  or  coins  to  deter- 
mine the  dates  of  ancient  ruins. 
Geological  Periods 

The  discovery  by  William  Smith 
(1769-1839)  that  fossils  could  be 
used  in  this  way  gave  him  his 
title  of  Father  of  Geology.  He 
showed  that  fossils  are  "  the 
medals  of  creation,"  for  each  geo- 
logical period  was  characterised 
by  particular  types  of  life.  For 
example,  the  graptolites  lived  in 
the  world  during  the  three  older 
subdivisions  of  the  Palaeozoic 
period.  Any  rock  containing  a 
graptolite,  in  whatever  part  of 
the  earth  it  may  be  found,  may  be 
<i&fely  identified  as  Lower  Palaeo- 
zoic. The  main  time  scale  used  in 
geology  is  based  upon  the  succes- 
sion of  life.  Sir  Charles  Lyell 
termed  the  group  of  rocks  contain- 
ing the  oldest  known  fossils  the 
Palaeozoic  or  period  of  ancient  life. 
It  was  succeeded  by  the  Mesozoic 
or  period  of  middle  life,  and  that  in 
turn  by  the  Kainozoic  or  period  of 
recent  life.  Before  the  Palaeozoic 


there  are  two  great  groups  of  rock 
in  which  no  definite  fossils  have 
been  found.  The  older  of  these  two 
groups  is  the  Eozoic,  its  rocks  are 
igneous  or  metamorphic,  and  un- 
fossiliferous.  It  was  succeeded  by 
the  Archaeozoic,  a  period  mainly 
composed  of  unaltered  secondary 
rocks  which  are  earlier  than  the 
Palaeozoic,  and  contain  some 
obscure  fossil  remains.  The  Palaeo- 
zoic, Mesoazoic  and  Kainozoic  have 
been  also  called  the  Primary, 
Secondary,  and  Tertiary  respec- 
tively. Of  these  terms  the  two 
former  have  been  abandoned,  but 
the  term  Tertiary  is  still  often  Vied 
for  Kainozoic. 

Palaeozoic  Fossils 

The  pre-Palaeozoic  rocks  con- 
tain only  obscure  or  indirect  traces 
of  life,  which  probably  originated 
by  the  formation  and  modification 
of  carbohydrates  under  the  special 
atmospheric  and  climatic  condi- 
tions which  must  have  existed  at 
one  stage  of  the  early  earth.  The 
first  organisms  must  have  been 
small,  and  would  have  had  no  hard 
parts  which  could  leave  traces  in 
the  rocks.  Fossils  begin  suddenly 
in  great  variety  and  abundance 
with  the  Palaeozoic,  their  abrupt 
beginning  indicates  that  at  one 
period  many  groups  of  soft-bodied 
creatures  simultaneously  deve- 
loped shells,  and  could  thus  be 
preserved  as  fossils.  This  rapid 
spread  of  shell  formation  may  have 
been  either  as  a  protection  against 
a  group  of  animals  which  had 
become  carnivorous,  or  owing  to 
some  change  in  the  quality  of  sea 
water  by  which  shells  were  ren- 
dered possible. 

From  the  beginning  of  the  Palae- 
ozoic age  fossils  have  been 
plentiful ;  in  the  lower  Palae- 
ozoic systems  there  were  no 
back-boned  animals,  of  which  the 
fish  occur  as  early  as  the  Silurian. 
Reptiles  appeared  in  the  upper 
Palaeozoic,  when  the  rank  vege- 
tation of  the  Carboniferous  and 
Permian  produced  the  world's 
chief  deposits  of  coal.  The  Meso- 
zoic period,  especially  represented 
in  England  by  the  oolitic  limestone 
and  the  chalk,  was  the  age  of  rep- 
tiles ;  but  during  it  birds  and 
mammals  both  made  their  first 
appearance.  Mammals  became 
supreme  in  the  Kainozoic,  the  end 
of  which  was  marked  by  the  ad- 
vent of  man.  The  date  of  the 
oldest  vestige  of  man  is  the  sub- 
ject of  active  research  and  con- 
troversy. The  crags  of  East 
Anglia  (Upper  Pliocene  in  age) 
have  yielded  many  chipped  flints 
which  are  regarded  by  some  au- 
thorities as  wrought  by  man  :  if 
so,  they  are  the  oldest  of  human 
implements.  The  most  primitive 


GEOMETER  MOTH 


3477 


GEOMETRY 


known  fossil  man  is  the  Eoanthro- 
pus,  found  at  Piltdown  in  Sussex. 
The  interpretation  of  historical 
geology  requires  very  prolonged 
periods  of  time.  Various  esti- 
mates based  upon  the  rate  of 
cooling  and  on  tidal  action  have 
suggested  the  conclusion  that  geo- 
logical time  might  be  limited  to 
100  million  years  or  perhaps  even 
to  20  million  years.  But  many 
geologists  regard  such  estimates 
as  quite  inadequate,  and  prefer 
the  conclusions  more  recently  ad- 
vanced by  radio-activity,  that  the 
age  of  the  earth  must  be  very  great, 
from  1,000,000,000  to  2,000,000,000 
years  being  a  reasonable  estimate. 
See  Escarpment;  Fault. 

Bibliography.  Text- book  of  Palae- 
ontology, C.  A.  von  Zittel,  Eng. 
trans,  by  C.  R.  Eastman,  1900-2; 
Text-book  of  Geology,  Sir  A.  Geikie, 
4th  ed.  1903  ;  The  Natural  History 
of  Igneous  Rocks,  Alfred  Harker, 
1909  ;  The  Building  of  the  British 
Isles,  A.  J.  Jukes-Browne,  3rd  ed. 
1911;  The  Geology  of  To-day,  J.  W. 
Gregory,  1915 ;  Aids  in  Practical 
Geology,  G.  A.  J.  Cole,  1919. 

Geometer  Moth.  Group  of 
moths  whose  caterpillars  are  often 
called  loopers  from  their  curious 
mode  of  pro- 
gression. They 
have  only  two 
pairs  of  pro- 
legs,  placed 
close  to  the 
rear  of  the 
body,  and 
walk  by  alter- 
nately "draw- 
ing up  the 
body  into  a 
loop  and  then  extending  it  again. 
Many  of  these  caterpillars  when 
at  rest  look  exactly  like  dry 
twigs.  See  Caterpillar. 

Geometric  Mean.  Term  used 
to  denote  the  middle  or  average 
value  of  tv/o  quantities  considered 
from  the  point  of  view  of  a  steady 
rate  of  change  from  one  to  the 
other.  Thus  the  geometric  mean  of 
2  and  18  is  6,  for  6  is  3  times  2  and 
18  is  3  times  6,  the  rate  of  change 
being  expressed  as  threefold  multi- 
plication. Expressed  algebraically 
the  geometric  mean  of  a  and  b  is 
*Jab.  The  geometric  mean  is  more 
correctly  used  than  the  arithmeti- 
cal average  in  many  investigations, 
e.g.  the  mean  of  population  at  ten- 
yearly  intervals. 

Geometrical  Progression. 
Series  in  which  the  ratio,  or  multi- 
plying factor,  between  the  succes- 
sive terms  is  constant.  Thus  in  the 
series  1,  3,  9,  27,  81  the  constant 
ratio  between  successive  terms  is  3, 
each  quantity  being  three  times  the 
preceding  one.  Algebraically  the 
scries  is  A+Ax+Ax2+Ax3,  etc., 
or  A  (1+ x+x2+x3  .  .  .). 


Geometer  Moth. 

Caterpillar  of  Brindled 

Beauty  Moth 


GEOMETRY:  FROM  EUCLID  TO  EINSTEIN 

W.  D.  Evans,  M.A.,  King's  College,  Cambridge 

Here  is  given  a   brief  historical  outline  of  one  of  the  oldest  of 

sciences.     Further  information  will  be  found  under  the  headings 

Conic  Sections ;    Coordinates ;   Fourth  Dimension ;  Mensuration, 

etc.     See  also  Descartes  ;  Einstein ;  Euclid 


Geometry  is  the  science  of  spatial 
relations.  According  to  the  ancient 
belief,  geometry  originated  in  the 
art  of  land-surveying,  as  practised 
in  Egypt,  and  this  tradition  is  pre- 
served in  the  Greek  name  (^77= the 
earth,  fierpelv  =  to  measure.)  The 
Egyptians  were  certainly  acquaint- 
ed, before  the  year  1000  B.C.,  with 
some  rules  of  mensuration,  and  they 
made  practical  use  of  the  fact  that 
if  the  sides  of  a  triangle  are  respec- 
tively 3,  4,  and  5  units,  its  greatest 
angle  is  a  right  angle. 

But  it  was  in  Greek  hands  that 
geometry  became  a  logical  science, 
with  general  theorems.  The  most 
popular  text-book  ever  written  on 
any  science  was  Euclid's  Elements, 
which  was  designed  for  the  use  of 
students  of  mathematics  at  the 
University  of  Alexandria  about 
300  B.C.,  and  has  been  used  as  a 
text- book  of  geometry  in  our 
schools  down  to  the  present  day. 
Euclid  begins  with  certain  defini- 
tions, axioms  and  postulates,  from 
which  he  professes  to  deduce  all  his 
results  by  purely  logical  processes, 
without  further  appeal  to  the  eye 
or  to  common-sense.  Thus  he 
thinks  it  necessary  to  prove  that 
two  sides  of  a  triangle  are  together 
greater  than  the  third,  an  example 
which  illustrates  the  abstract  philo- 
sophical outlook  of  the  Greek  geom- 
eters. Though  modem  scrutiny  has 
detected  some  flaws  in  Euclid's 
logic,  and  many  of  his  methods 
have  been  abandoned  as  cumber- 
some, his  deep  insight  into  some  of 
the  most  difficult  problems  of 
geometry  is  undoubted,  and  has 
been  attested  by  some  of  the  best 
modern  writers. 

Euclidean  Theorems 

Euclid's  propositions  are  of  two 
kinds,  theorems  and  problems  ;  a 
theorem  establishes  a  geometrical 
property  by  deduction  from  previ- 
ous results  ;  a  problem  is  a  method 
of  making  a  geometrical  construc- 
tion, followed  by  a  theoretical  proof 
that  the  method  leads  to  the  result 
desired.  Beginning  with  proposi- 
tions concerning  simple  figures 
bounded  by  straight  lines,  such  as 
triangles,  squares,  rectangles,  and 
parallelograms,  Euclid  passes  to 
the  geometry  of  the  circle  and  of 
regular  polygons  with  more  than 
four  sides.  After  a  preliminary 
study  of  ratio  and  proportion,  the 
properties  of  similar  figures  (of  like 
shape  but  of  different  dimensions) 
are  discussed,  similar  triangles 
being  the  leading  case. 


This  work  occupies  the  first  six 
books  of  the  Elements,  which  are 
devoted  to  the  geometry  of  figures 
in  one  plane  (plane  geometry) ; 
four  books  follow  on  arithmetic, 
and  then  the  eleventh,  twelfth,  and 
thirteenth  books  consider  the  geom- 
etry of  figures  in  three-dimensional 
space,  and  of  solid  bodies  (solid 
geometry).  The  only  curved  line 
discussed  by  Euclid  was  the  circle, 
but  the  Greeks  also  studied  in  great 
detail  the  geometry  of  the  conic 
sections,  which  include  three  types 
of  curves,  the  parabola,  ellipse,  and 
hyperbola.  These  curves  are  the  in- 
tersections of  the  ordinary  (right 
circular)  cone  by  different  "planes  ; 
they  may  be  illustrated  by  the 
shadows  of  the  circular  base  of  a 
candlestick  cast  on  the  floor  and 
walls  of  a  room  by  the  candle,  held 
in  different  positions. 

Applied  Geometry 

The  classical  geometry  of  the 
Greeks  was  not,  strictly  speaking, 
numerical,  though  it  involved  ratio 
and  proportion,  but  their  astro- 
nomy, which  they  developed  to  a 
considerable  degree  of  accuracy, 
demanded  a  method  of  measuring 
angles.  The  division  of  the  right 
angle  into  90  equal  parts,  called 
degrees,  and  of  the  degree  into  60 
minutes,  they  derived  from  the 
Babylonians  ;  the  measurement  of 
certain  lengths  connected  with  an 
angle  of  given  size  was  a  natural 
step  forward,  and  this  led  to  the 
science  of  trigonometry.  These 
lengths,  or,  as  they  may  be  more 
accurately  described,  ratios  of 
lengths,  have  received  the  name  of 
trigonometrical  ratios  or  functions 
(sine,  cosine,  etc.),  and  plane  trigo- 
nometry deals  with  their  application 
to  the  measurement  of  triangles. 

This  science  is  applied  to  the 
surveying  and  mapping  of  small 
areas  of  the  earth's  surface  ;  when 
the  areas  are  so  large  that  the 
spherical  shape  of  the  earth  must 
be  considered,  spherical  trigonom- 
etry is  required.  This  is  the  study 
of  triangles  on  a  sphere,  bounded 
by  arcs  of  great  circles — that  is, 
such  circles  as  divide  the  surface  of 
the  sphere  into  two  equal  parts — 
and  is  essential  to  astronomy  and 
navigation.  Astronomy  in  later 
times  utilised  the  properties  of  the 
conic  sections,  for  Kepler  hi  A.D. 
1609  found  that  the  planets  moved 
round  the  sun  in  ellipses,  and  the 
known  properties  of  the  ellipse  led 
Newton  to  the  discovery  of  the  law 
of  gravitation. 


GEOMETRY 


3478 


GEOMETRY 


A  great  advance  in  geometry  was 
made  in  1637  by  Rene  Descartes, 
who  introduced  the  method  of  co- 
ordinates, which  lies  at  the  base  of 
analytical  geometry.  The  idea  of 
coordinates  is  simplicity  itself  ;  it 
is  that  the  position  of  any  point  in 
a  plane  may  be  represented  by  its 
perpendicular  distances  from  two 
fixed  perpendicular  lines.  For  ex- 


n                -» 

T 

L 

* 

j 

1      M 

0 

K 

2 

t 

R 

3 

j          ' 

S 

N 

ample,  in  the  figure,  X'  O  X  and 
Y'  0  Y  are  the  fixed  axes,  P  L  is 
equal  to  3  units,  and  P  K  to  2  units, 
and  P  is  represented  by  its  co- 
ordinates (3, 2).  To  distinguish  P 
from  Q,  R,  S,  which  are  at  the  same 
distances  from  the  axes  as  P,  nega- 
tive coordinates  are  used.  Thus  Q 
is  the  point  ( —3,  2),  R  is  ( —3,  —2), 
S  is  (3,— 2).  In  genera],  the  per- 
pendicular distance  of  a  point  from 
0  Y  is  denoted  by  the  letter  x,  and 
the  distance  from  0  X  by  the  letter 
y,  and  the  point  is  called  (x,  ?y). 
Value  of  Coordinates 

This  simple  notation  had  far- 
reaching  effects  in  geometry,  and 
has  enabled  geometrical  concepts 
to  be  applied  with  great  advantage 
to  other  branches  of  mathematics, 
such  as  the  differential  and  integral 
calculus,  mechanics  and  electricity. 
Its  utility  depends  on  the  fact  that 
a  curve  may  be  regarded  as  an 
assemblage  of  points  possessing  a 
certain  common  property  ;  e.g.  a 
circle  is  an  assemblage  of  points  all 
at  the  same  distance  from  the  fixed  . 
centre  ;  when  considered  in  this 
way  a  curve  is  called  a  "locus." 

This  common  property  may  be 
expressed  in  the  form  of  an  alge- 
braical equation  connecting  the  x 
and  the  y  of  any  and  every  point 
on  the  locus,  and  the  curve  is  then 
completely  represented  by  this 
equation,  which  implicitly  contains 
every  possible  property  of  the 
curve.  Thus  the  conic  sections  can 
all  be  represented  by  an  equation 
of  the  form 

OX--+  2hxy+by-+  2gx+2fy+c=o, 
which  for  different  numerical 
values  of  the  constants  a,  h,  b,  g,  f,  c 
may  denote  a  circle,  a  parabola, 
an  ellipse,  or  a  hyperbola  ;  and  the 
properties  of  these  curves  can  all 
be  deduced  from  this  equation.  By 
the  discovery  of  analytical  geo- 
metry the  scope  and  generality  of 
geometrical  methods  was  immense- 
ly increased,  and  an  even  greater 


degree  of  success  attended  the 
application  of  the  method  of  co- 
ordinates to  three-dimensional  geo- 
metry. In  analytical  solid  geo- 
metry three  coordinate  planes 
(such  as  the  floor  and  two  adjacent 
walls  of  a  room)  take  the  place  of 
the  coordinate  axes,  and  the  posi- 
tion of  a  point  is  represented  by 
three  coordinates  (x,  y,  z).  '  An 
equation  between  x,  y,  and  z  then 
denotes  a  surface. 

Practically  all  advances  in  solid 
geometry  have  been  due  to  analy- 
tical methods,  on  account  of  the 
impossibility  or  difficulty  of  repre- 
senting solids  in  a  plane.  For  this 
reason  little  advance  in  solid  geo- 
metry was  made  by  the  ancients. 

Line  geometry  is  the  name  given 
to  that  system  of  geometry  in 
which  straight  lines  replace  points 
and  systems  of  straight  lines 
systems  of  points.  H.  Grassman 
(1844)  and  Cayley  (1859)  and  J. 
Pliicker  were  the  three  chief  ex- 
ponents of  the  system,  which  in 
new  hands  and  those  of  modern 
geometers  has  added  greatly  to  the 
knowledge  of  the  properties  of 
surfaces  and  solids. 

Another  great  advance  which 
may  be  compared  in  generalising 
power  to  that  made  by  Descartes, 
though  its  effects  have  not  been  so 
far-reaching,  was  the  introduction 
of  projective  geometry,  the  founda- 
tions of  which  were  laid  about  the 
same  time  by  Desargues.  The 
germ  of  projective  geometry  is 
already  implicitly  contained  in  the 
idea  of  the  sections  of  a  cone,  which 
may  be  circles,  ellipses,  parabolas, 
or  hyperbolas.  Straight  lines 
drawn  from  the  vertex  of  the  cone 
to  meet  the  circular  base,  itself  a 
section  of  the  cone,  will  also  meet 
any  other  section  of  the  cone,  an 
ellipse,  for  example,  and  two  such 
curves  as  this  circle  and  this  &\ipse 
may  be  called  projective. 

Orthogonal  Projection 

Certain  properties  are  common 
to  curves  which  are  projective,  and 
by  utilising  these  properties  a  con- 
nexion is  obtained  between  theo- 
rems which  are  true  for  the  differ- 
ent kinds  of  conic  sections.  In 
particular,  properties  of  the  other 
conic  sections  can  be  inferred  from 
known  properties  of  the  circle. 
Another  kind  of  projection  of  great 
usefulness  is  orthogonal  projection, 
in  which  a  curve  is  projected  from 
one  plane  on  to  another  by  means 
of  straight  lines  perpendicular  to 
the  second  plane.  For  example,  a 
section  of  an  ordinary  (right  circu- 
lar) cylinder  by  a  plane  not  parallel 
to  the  base  is  an  ellipse  ;  the  cir- 
cular base  may  be  considered  as  the 
orthogonal  projection  of  the  ellipse. 
This  method  is  the  basis  of  practi- 
cal solid  geometry,  which  enables 


us  to  represent  three-dimensional 
objects  accurately  on  a  plane. 

The  axioms  and  postulates  on 
which  Euclid  based  his  system  of 
geometry  are  accepted  with  slight 
modification  as  the  foundation  of 
trigonometry,  analytical  geometry, 
and  projective  geometry,  and  the 
successful  applications"  of  these 
sciences  in  practice  bear  witness  to 
the  substantial  truth  of  these 
axioms.  But  geometry  may  be 
considered  from  a  purely  abstract 
standpoint,  as  a  science  in  which 
certain  theorems  regarding  points, 
lines,  planes,  etc.,  are  logically 
deduced  from  certain  premises, 
with  no  necessary  connexion  with 
the  space  of  experience,  and  it  has 
been  possible  to  construct  per- 
fectly consistent  theories  on  the 
basis  of  a  denial  of  some  of  Euclid's 
assumptions. 

Non-Euclidean  Geometry 

Many  perfectly  logical  non- 
Euclidean  systems  of  geometry 
have  been  evolved,  the  two  chief 
of  which  are  known  as  elliptic  and 
hyperbolic  geometries.  These  geo- 
metries are  leading  to  new  con- 
cepts of  space. 

For  instance,  the  parallel  postu- 
late of  Euclid  amounts  to  the 
assertion  that  through  a  given 
point  only  one  straight  line  can  be 
drawn  parallel  to  a  given  straight 
line  ;  if  we  assume  that  two  paral- 
lels or  no  parallel  can  be  drawn  we 
are  led  to  different  kinds  of  non- 
Euclidean  geometry,  each  perfectly 
consistent  with  itself,  though  lead- 
ing to  conclusions  apparently  in- 
consistent with  experience.  But  it 
is  conceivable  that  space  may  be 
really  non  -  Euclidean,  although 
apparently  Euclidean  in  such  com- 
paratively small  parts  as  we  are  able 
to  explore,  just  as  a  sheet  of  water 
appears  plane,  though  we  know  it 
is  really  part  of  the  curved  surface 
of  the  earth.  This  possibility  has 
recently  received  strong  support 
from  the  researches  of  Einstein. 

Among  more  recent  develop- 
ments of  geometry  we  may  men- 
tion the  theory  of  vectors ;  a  vector 
is  essentially  a  straight  line  given 
in  magnitude,  direction  in  space, 
and  direction  along  its  length  (a 
straight  line  with  an  arrow-head  on 
it,  in  fact),  but  not  fixed  in  position. 
This  theory  has  had  many  interest- 
ing physical  applications,  and  of 
late  especially  in  connexion  with 
four-dimensional  space — a  purely 
mathematical  conception  in  which 
the  passage  from  three  to  four  di- 
mensions is  imagined  as  analogous 
to  the  passage  from  two  dimensions 
to  three.  This  conception  seems 
sufficiently  remote  from  experience, 
yet  it  has  played  an  important 
part  in  the  development  of  the  re- 
cent physical  theory  of  "relativity." 


GEOMORPHOLOGY    ' 

The  theory  of  vectors  received  a 
great  impetus  at  the  hands  of  Sir 
W.  Rowan  Hamilton  under  the 
name  of  quaternions.  See  Conic  Sec- 
tions ;  Einstein ;  Fourth  Dimen- 
sion .;  Mathematics  ;  Quaternions  ; 
Relativity  ;  Trigonometry. 

W.  D.  Evans 

Bibliography.  School  Geometry, 
Hall  and  Stevens,  1906;  Plane  Geo- 
metry for  Advanced  Students,  C.  V. 
Durell,  1912;  Coordinate  Geometry 
of  Three  Dimensions,  R.  J.  T.  Bell, 
1912:  Modern  Geometry,  C.  V. 
Durell,  1920. 

Geomorphology.  Science  of 
the  study  of  the  crust  of  the 
earth's  surface.  Geology  deals 
with  the  history  of  the  formation 
of  mountainous  masses,  elevations, 
depressions,  etc.,  while  geomorph- 
ology  deals  with  their  present 
configuration.  See  Geology. 

Geophagy  OR  EARTH  EATING. 
Widely  spread  custom  of  eating 
various  forms  of  earth,  chiefly 
clay.  Its  purpose  is  dietetic,  medi- 
cinal, or  sacramental.  In  Caledonia, 
cakes  of  iron -manganese  earth  are 
eaten  after  copious  meals ;  in  New 
Guinea,  eoapstone  is  preferred.  The 
Dyaks  of  Borneo  eat  a  mixture  of 
red  ochre  and  an  oily  clay ;  the 
Hopi  Indians  of  North  America 
eat  clay  mixed  with  potatoes. 

Geophilus  (Gr.  ge,  earth ;  philos, 
loving).  Genus  of  blind  centipedes 
which  live  under  ground,  whence 
their  name  of  earth-loving.  They 
prey  mainly  upon  worms,  which 
they  attack  in  their  burrows  and  on 
the  ground. 

George,  THE.  Part  of  the  in- 
signia of  the  order  of  the  Garter. 
It  is  an  enamelled  gold  pendant, 
representing  S.  George  slaying 
the  dragon,  and  is  suspended 
from  the  collar.  There  is  a  "  lesser 
George  "  with  the  same  device  on 
an  enamelled  ground,  surrounded 
by  an  oval  garter.  See  Garter. 

George.  Name  formerly  ap- 
plied in  a  familiar  sense  to  British 
coins  bearing  the  image  of  S. 
George,  e.g.  the  crown  and  the 
guinea.  The  yellow  George  was  a 
cant  term  for  the  latter. 

George.  Lake  of  Africa.  It  is 
in  the  S.W.  of  the  Uganda  pro- 
tectorate, forming  a  N.E.  exten- 
sion of  Lake  Edward,  with  which  it 
is  connected  by  a  narrow  channel. 

George.  Salt  lake  of  New  South 
Wales.  It  is  25  m.  S.W.  of  Goul- 
burn,  and  is  an  isolated  basin  with 
no  outlet.  Sometimes  nearly  dry, 
it  measures  usually  25  m.  by  8  m. 

George.  Lake  of  New  York, 
U.S.A.  Situated  in  the  E.  part  of 
the  state,  between  Washington, 
Essex,  and  Warren  cos.,  it  stretches 
N.E.  to  S.W.  for  35  m.,  and  has  a 
breadth  varying  from  1  m.  to  3  m. 
Picturesquely  located  among  the 
foothills  of  the  Adirondacks,  it  is  a 


3479 

shallow,  clear 
water  lake, 
studded  with 
small  islands, 
and  is  drained 
by  a  stream 
into  Lake  Cham- 
plain.  ^ 

George  (Gr. 
georgos,  hus- 
bandman). 
Masculine  Chris- 
tian name.  Al- 
though that  of 
the  patron  saint 
of  England,  it 
did  not  become 
popular  in  that 
country  until 
after  George  I 
came  to  the 
throne.  The 
German  form  is 
Georg  and  the 
French  Georges. 
Georgma  and 
Georgiana  are  feminine  forms. 

George.  Patron  saint  of  Eng- 
land. He  is  generally  identified 
with  George  of  Cappadocia,  who 
was  put  to  death  by  Diocletian, 
April  23,  303.  According  to  the 
Golden  Legend,  having  slain  the 
dragon,  he  put  off  his  knightly 
habit,  gave  all  he  had  to  the 
poor  and  went  forth  to  preach 
Christianity,  and  was  martyred 
in  287. 

S.  George  first  became  recog- 
nized as  England's  patron  saint 
under  the  Norman  kings.  In  1346 
Edward  III  founded  the  Order  of 
the  Garter  with  S.  George  as  its 
badge,  and  some  years  later  Edward 
IV  built  the  present  magnificent 
S.  George's  Chapel  at  Windsor, 
where,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  V,  the 
supposed  heart  of  the  saint  was  de- 
posited as  a  precious  relic.  S. 
George  is  also  the  patron  saint  of 
Portugal  and  of  Aragon. 

George  I  (1660-1727).   King  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland.   Born  at 
Hanover,  March  28,  1660,  he  was 
the  son  of  Ernest  Augustus,  after- 
wards elector  of  Hanover,  and  was 
baptized    as    George   Louis.      His 
mother  was  Sophia,  a  grand-daugh- 
ter of  James  I.   In  1682  he  married 
a  cousin,  Sophia  Dorothea,  but  the 
union,  partly  owing  to  the  prince's 
numerous  infi- 
delities,  was 
unhappy,    and 
in    1694    the 
princess     was 
divorced. 
George   served 
with       his 
father's  troop? 
against    the 
French,     but 
much    of     his 
early    life  was 


GEORGE    II 


S.  George,  the  patron  saint  of  England.  From  a  medal  by 
W.  Wyon,  R.A.,  executed  for  the  Prince  Consort  in  1851 

given  up  to  pleasures  of  the  grosser 
kind.  In  1698  he  became  elector 
of  Hanover  and  in  1701  the  Act  of 
Settlement  recognized  his  mother 
and  then  himself  as  heir  to  the 
.throne  of  Great  Britain.  In  1707 
he  commanded  an  imperialist 
army  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish 
Succession,  but  resigned  in  1710. 

On  Aug.  1,  1714,  George  be- 
came king,  and  he  ruled  Great 
Britain  for  thirteen  years.  Al- 
though neither  popular  nor  in- 
structed nor  able,  he  had  a  certain 
common-sense,  while  his  ignorance 
of  English  compelled  him  to  leave 
much  to  his  ministers.  By  accident 
or  design,  therefore,  he  may  be  de- 
scribed as  a  constitutional  sove- 
reign. As  a  European  figure,  how- 
ever, he  was  of  much  importance, 
and  in  European  politics  was  con- 
stantly active.  The  king  died  at 
Osnabriick,  June  11,  1727,  and  was 
buried  at  Hanover.  Of  his  mis- 
tresses the  most  prominent  were  the 
ladies  created  by  him  duchess  of 
Kendal  and  countess  of  Darlington. 
See  The  First  George  in  Hanover 
and  England,  L.  Melville,  1908; 
George  I  and  the  Northern  War, 
1709-21,  J.  F.  Chance,  1909. 

George  II  (1683-1760).  King 
of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  The 
son  of  George  I,  he  was  born  at 
Herrenhausen  when  his  father  was 
only  electoral  prince  of  Hanover, 
Nov.  10,  1683.  His  early  life  was 
passed  in  Hanover,  where  he  was 
educated,  and  at  the  head  of  some 
Hanoverian  troops  he  served 
against  France  in  the  war  of  the 
Spanish  Succession.  The  Act  of 
Settlement  of  1701  placed  him  in 
the  succession  to  the  throne  of 
Great  Britain,  and  in  1706  he  was 
made  duke  of  Cambridge,  but  a 
proposal  that  he  should  reside  in 


After  Kneller 


GEORGE     III 


3480 


GEORGE    IV 


England  fell  through.  At  Hanover 
he  lived  until  1714  the  somewhat 
coarse  life  of  a  prince  who  was 
without  either  ambition  or  culture. 
In  1714  the  prince  followed  his 
father  to  England,  and  for  thirteen 
years  he  was  prince  of  Wales.  The 
relations  be- 
tween the  two 
had  been  bad 
for  some  time, 
and  in  London 
they  reached 
such  a  state 
that  the  prince 
was  ordered  to 
leave  the 
court.  He  re- 
plied by  set- 
ting up  a  court 
of  his  own, 
which  became 
opposition  to 


After  Zf  email 


the   centre   of    all 
George  I  and  his  ministers. 

In  1727  George  became  king, 
and  he  reigned  for  33  years.  The 
reign  may  be  divided  into  two 
parts,  the  break  being  the  resigna- 
tion of  Wai  pole  in  1742.  In  both 
he  acted  as  a  constitutional  sove- 
reign, realizing  that  there  was  a 
new  power  in  the  state — the  will  of 
the  people.  His  own  quarrels  with 
his  father  were  repeated  in  the  case 
of  himself  and  his  son  Frederick, 
who,  driven  from  court,  formed  his 
own  circle  of  opposition  to  the  king 
and  the  ministry.  He  had  the  sense 
to  heed  the  wise  advice  of  his  wife 
Caroline,  whose  influence  over  him 
was  considerable.  He  had  several 
mistresses,  both  before  and  after  his 
wife's  death.  In  addition  to  Frede- 
rick, George  had  a  son,  William 
Augustus,  duke  of  Cumberland, 
and  five  daughters.  He  died  at 
Kensington  Palace,  Oct.  25,  1760. 
George  was  the  founder  of  the  uni- 
versity of  Gottingen.  See  Memoirs 
of  the  Reign  of  George  II,  H.  Wai- 
pole,  1847  ;  Memoirs  of  the  Reign 
of  George  II,  Lord  Hervey,  1884. 

George  III  (1738-1820).  King 
of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  The 
eldest  son  of  Frederick,  prince  of 
Wales,  he  was 
born  June  4, 
1738,  and  was 
baptized  as 
George  William 
Frederick.  His 
father  died  in 
1751,  and  he 
was  educated 
under  the  eyes 
of  his  mother, 
Augusta,  aprin- 
cess  of  Saxe- 
Coburg,and  the 
earl  of  Bute,  who  became  the  head 
of  his  household  when  this  was  set 
up  in  1756.  Their  aim  was  to  make 
him  a  king  of  the  older  type,  one 
who  dominated  domestic  and  for- 


eign  politics,  rather  than  one  of  the 
constitutional  type  as  was  his 
grandfather,  George  II.  In  Oct., 
1760,  he  became  king. 

George  was  the  first  ruler  of  his 
house  who  could  claim  to  be  a 
Briton  born  and  bred.  His  reign 
began  with  an  attempt  to  secure 
power  for  himself.  The  earl  of 
Bute  succeeded  Pitt  and  New- 
castle in  1761,  but  he  left  office  in 
1 763,  and  it  was  evident  that  some 
other  method  or  some  other  minis- 
ter would  have  to  be  tried  if  the 
plan  was  to  succeed.  Other  prime 
ministers,  less  pliable,  followed,  but 
by  1770  the  king  had  formed  his 
own  party,  the  king's  friends,  and 
Lord  North  became  premier.  For 
twelve  years  George  directed, 
through  him,  the  affairs  of  the 
country,  the  period  being  marked 
by  the  independence  of  America. 
In  1780  the  king's  mind  had  given 
way,  and  a  regency  was  necessary, 
but  he  soon  recovered  and  was  able 
to  throw  his  influence  into  the  pro- 
secution of  the  war  against  France 
and  to  declare  strongly  against  any 
concessions  to  the  Roman  Catho- 
lics. From  time  to  time  fresh 
attacks  of  insanity  came  on,  and  in 
1811  he  was  finally  incapacitated. 
He  lingered,  however,  until  Jan.  29, 
1820,  when  he  died  at  Windsor. 

George  was  neither  a  wise  nor  a 
constitutional  king,  and  a  good  deal 
cf  responsibility  attaches  to  him  for 
the  misfortunes  of  the  reign.  His 
private  life,  on  the  other  hand,  was 
blameless,  and  in  his  later  years  his 
popularity  was  great,  due  in  part  to 
his  homely  ways,  seen  in  his  name 
of  Farmer  George.  When  a  young 
man  he  had  strongly  wanted  to 
marry  Lady  Sarah  Lennox,  but  he 
was  dissuaded,  and  in  Charlotte, 
princess  of  Meeklenburg-Strelitz,  he 
found  a  partner  who  made  him  hap- 
py. His  family  consisted  of  nine  sons 
and  six  daughters.  The  sons  who 
grew  to  manhood  were  George  IV, 
William  IV,  and  the  dukes  of  York, 
Kent. Cumberland,  Sussex  and  Cam- 
bridge. See  History  of  England, 
W.  E.  H.  Lecky,  vols.  Ill  -VI,  1899- 
1901  ;  see  also  Caricature. 

George  IV  (1762-1830).  King 
of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  The 
eldest  son  of  George  III,  he  was 
born  in  Lon- 
don, Aug.  12, 
1762  and  was 
baptized  as 
George  Augus- 
tus Frederick. 
A  few  days 
afterwards  he 
was  created 
prince  of 
Wales.  With 

considerable     ^/      rf    /  (IV) 
abilities,       h  e 

Was       Carefully    AJler  Lawrence 


educated,  but  he  early  entered  on 
a  life  of  extravagance  that  con- 
tinued to  the  end. 

The  prince  of  Wales  became 
prominent  politically  owing  to  the 
insanity  of  his  father.  In  1788  the 
country  was  agitated  over  the 
question  of  the  regency.  Should 
the  prince,  as  Fox  contended,  be- 
come regent  by  right  of  birth  and 
receive  the  kingly  power  without 
limitations,  or  should  the  office  be 
conferred  upon  him  subject  to  cer- 
tain restrictions  laid  down  by  Par- 
liament ?  The  latter  view,  that  of 
Pitt,  prevailed,  but  George  was 
only  their  regent  for  a  short  time. 
In  1811,  however,  the  king's  in- 
sanity returned  and  he  became 
regent  again,  retaining  the  position 
until  his  accession  in  Jan.,  1820. 

As  ruler  of  the  country  between 
1811  and  1830,  George  IV  was 
neither  successful  nor  popular.  He 
resisted  reform  as  long  as  he  could, 
for  he  was  old  and  feeble  when  he 
consented  to  the  measures  that 
granted  relief  to  Nonconformists 
and  Roman  Catholics. 

The  chief  interest  of  the  reign, 
from  the  popular  point  of  view, 
was  in  the  relations  between  the 
king  and  his  wife,  Caroline  of 
Brunswick,  whom  he  married  in 
1795.  The  two  soon  separated,  but 
their  discords  were  the  subject  of 
public  inquiry  in  1806  and  of  great 
public  excitement  when  he  be- 
came king.  A  bill  to  deprive  the 
queen  of  her  royal  position  was 
introduced,  but  it  failed  to  pass, 
public  sympathy  being  vocifer- 
ousty  on  the  side  of  the  lady. 

George  had  a  succession  of 
mistresses — Mary  Robinson,  the 
actress,  Lady  Jersey,  Lady  Hert- 
ford, Lady  Conyngham,  and  others. 
His  most  lasting  union  was  with 
Mrs.  Fitzherbert,  who  secretly  be- 
came his  morganatic  wife  in  1785 
and  lived  with  him  until  1813.  His 
only  legitimate  child,  the  princess 
Charlotte,  died  in  1817,  a  year 
after  her  marriage  with  Leopold, 
prince  of  Saxe-Coburg.  Ths  king's 
admirers  called  him  the  first  gen- 
tleman of  Europe,  and  although 
"  a  bad  son,  a  bad  husband,  a  bad 
father,  a  bad  subject,  a  bad  mon- 
arch, and  a  bad  friend,"  there  is 
some  slight  justification  for  the 
title  in  the  courtly  way  he  behaved 
on  state  occasions,  while  in  his 
younger  days  he  was  a  handsome 
man.  He  was  a  great  gambler  and  a 
drunkard,  and  one  reason  for  his  un- 
popularity was  the  fact  that  the 
nation  had  more  than  once  to  pay 
his  debts.  George  died  at  Windsor, 
June  26,  1830.  See  Greville  Me- 
moirs, ed.  H.  Reeve,  1875;  Mrs. 
Fitzherbert  and  George  IV,  W.  H. 
Wilkins,  1905;  The  First  Gentleman 
of  Europe,  L.  Melville,  1906. 


GEORGE      V 


GEORGE 


3481 


V:    KING   AND   EMPEROR 

David  Williamson,  Author  of  Our  King  and  Queen 

This  biography,  like  those  of  the  other  kings  of  Great  Britain,  is 
concerned  mainly  with  the  personal  life  of  the  King,  leaving  to  other 
articles  the  political  history  of  the  reign.  See  therefore  United 
Kingdom ;  and  the  articles  on  the  politicians  and  other  prominent 
personages  of  the  time 


King  George  V  was  born  at  Marl- 
borough  House,  June  3, 1865.  He 
was  the  second  son  of  the  prince 
of  Wales,  afterwards  King  Edward 
VII,  and  his  wife  Alexandra.  He 
was  christened  with  the  names 
George  Frederick  Ernest  Albert, 
and,  with  his  elder  brother  Albert, 
received  a  thorough  education 
under  tutors,  of  whom  the  chief 
was  Canon  J.  N.  Dalton.  Charles 
Kingsley  interested  him  in  natural 
history  during  visits  to  Sandring- 
ham,  and  some  months  in  Switzer- 
land enabled  him  to  acquire  a 
good  knowledge  of  conversational 
French. 

Prince  George  entered  the  navy 
on  June  5, 1877,  joining  the  Britan* 
nia  at  Dartmouth  with  his  brother. 
They  voyaged  in  the  Bacchante  to 
the  W.  Indies,  and  in  1880  went  on 
a  cruise  round  the  world.  Portions 
of  their  diaries  of  their  travels 
were  published  in  a  volume  edited 
by  Canon  Dalton.  Prince  George 
visited  Canada,  and  saw  Niagara 
and  other  notable  spots ;  and 
studied  at  Lausanne.  He  then 
passed  his  examination  for  sub- 
lieutenant, obtaining  a  first-class 
in  seamanship.  In  later  years  he 
received  this  eulogy  from  Admiral 
Hay,  who  said  :  "  He  is  an  accom- 
plished naval  officer,  no  carpet 
seaman,  but  one  who  has  served 
like  the  rest  of  us."  After  a  further 
course  of  training  at  the  R.N. 
College,  Greenwich,  he  qualified  for 
the  Command  of  the  gunboat 
Thrush,  in  which  he  visited  the  W. 
Indies  again,  where  he  opened  an 
industrial  exhibition  in  Jamaica. 

The  sudden  death  of  his  elder 
brother,  Albert  Victor,  in  1892, 
made  him  heir,  after  his  father,  to 
the  throne  and  curtailed  his  naval 
career.  He  was  created  duke  of 
York  and  took  his  seat  in  the  House 
of  Lords,  June  1 7, 1892.  On  July  6, 
1893,  he  married  VictoriaMary,  only 
daughter  of  the  duke  and  duchess 
of  Teck,  in  the  Chapel  Royal, 
St.  James's.  The  honeymoon  was 
spent  at  Sandringham,  where  York 
Cottage  became  the  favourite  resi- 
dence of  the  duke  and  duchess. 
He  held  a  levee  on  behalf  of  Queen 
Victoria,  March  13,  1894,  and 
undertook  many  public  duties. 
His  son  and  heir,  Edward,  was 
born  June  23,  1894,  at  White 
Lodge,  Richmond,  his  other  chil- 
dren being  Albert,  born  Dec.  14, 
1895  ;  Mary,  bom  April  25,  1897  ; 
Henry,  born  March  31,  1900; 


George,  born  Dec.  20,  1902  ;  and 
John,  born  July  12, 1905,  who  died 
Jan.  18,  1919. 

The  duke  paid  several  visits  to 
provincial  centres,  including  Lan- 
caster, where  previously,  he  re- 
marked, a  duke  of  York  would 
never  have  thought  of  bringing  his 
wife  !  He  relieved  the  prince  of 
Wales  of  several  public  engage- 
ments, and,  with  the  duchess,  did 
good  service  by  a  tactful  visit  to 
Ireland,  arousing,  in  the  words  of 
The  Times  correspondent,  "a  pitch 
of  national  enthusiasm  which  can- 
not be  surpassed."  In  May,  1898, 
he  acted  as  one  of  the  pall-bearers 
at  W.  E.  Gladstone's  funeral. 


GEORGE      V 

The  death  of  Queen  Victoria, 
Jan.  22,  1901,  and  his  father's 
accession  to  the  throne  increased 
his  responsibilities.  As  duke  of 
Cornwall  and  York,  he  fulfilled  the 
previously  planned  tour  of  the 
British  dominions,  leaving  England 
with  the  duchess  on  the  Ophir, 
March  16,  1901.  He  opened  the 
first  parliament  of  the  Australian 
Commonwealth  ;  visited  New  Zea- 
land, meeting  the  chiefs  of  Maori 
tribes  ;  and  was  welcomed  warmly 
at  the  Cape  and  in  Canada.  On 
Nov.  1,  1901,  the  voyage  ended  at 
Portsmouth. 

On  King  Edward's  birthday 
in  1901  the  duke  was  created 
prince  of  Wales,  and  on  Dec.  5  he 
delivered  a  notable  speech  in  the 
London  Guildhall,  urging  an  in- 
creased alertness  on  the  country's 
part  in  order  to  meet  competition. 
The  dramatic  postponement  of 
King  Edward's  coronation  in  1902 
gave  much  anxiety  to  the  prince  of 


From  the  Stale  portr 
sion  of  2'hoi.  Agne 


George  V.     Portraits  of  His  Majesty  at  different  periods  of  his  life.     1.  Aged  3  years.    2.  As  a  midshipman,  1880. 
3.  As  naval  captain,  1896.    4.  As  vice-admiral  in  full  dress,  1901     5.  As  field-marshal,  1912.     6.  In  1920 

1  &  5,  Downey.     2,  3  &  6.   Russell.     4,   tt.  Waller  Burnett 


Wales,  but  the  king's  recovery  and 
subsequent  coronation  relieved  the 
national  tension.  The  prince  took 
over  many  duties,  especially  those 
relating  to  London  functions,  and 

fained  facility  as  a  speaker.  In 
905  he  and  the  princess  visited 
India  and  were  present  at  a 
picturesque  Durbar,  returning 
home  by  MJW  7,  1906.  Two  years 
later  they  made  an  extensive  tour 
through  Canada. 

Accession  to  the  Throne 
King  Edward  died  after  a  very 
brief  illness,  May  6,  1910,  and  the 
prince  ascended  the  throne  as 
George  V.  The  strain  of  the  next 
few  weeks,  including  the  funeral  of 
King  Edward  VII  an4  the  recep- 
tion of  many  distinguished  mourn- 
ers, was  followed  by  a  holiday  at 
Balmoral.  The  coronation  of  King 
George  and  Queen  Mary  in  West- 
minster Abbey  took  place  on  June 
22,  1911,  when  the  king  wore  the 
coronation  robes  of  George  IV.  In 


the  next  three  years  the  king  and 
queen  were  busily  engaged  in  visit- 
ing the  various  cities  of  the  empire. 
The  political  situation,  especially 
in  Ireland,  gave  anxiety  in  the 
early  part  of  1914,  and  the  king 
specially  summoned  a  conference  of 
the  opposing  party  leaders  at 
Buckingham  Palace  in  July,  in  the 
hope  of  finding  a  solution  of  the 
deadlock.  The  outbreak  of  the 
Great  War  in  Aug.  overshadowed 
all  other  perplexities. 

The  king  went  to  France  on 
three  or  four  occasions  to  en- 
courage his  army,  and  also  visited 
the  grand  fleet.  He  and  the  queen 
set  a  practical  example  of  economy 
in  the  conduct  of  their  homes.  In 
1917,  by  royal  decree,  the  name  of 
the  royal  house  was  changed  from 
Guelph  to  Windsor.  The  king  and 
queen  were  indefatigable  in  visiting 
the  sick  and  wounded,  and  in 
their  philanthropic  and  other 
efforts.  The  signing  of  the  ar- 


mistice Nov.  11,  1918,  led  to 
a  remarkable  demonstration  of 
loyalty. 

Peace  and  Wax 

King  George  has  the  directness 
of  a  sailor  in  his  public  and  private 
speech  ;  his  wide  travels  and  his 
excellent  memory  enable  him  to 
grasp  problems  with  alertness  and 
insight.  Fond  of  open-air  life  and 
an  exceptionally  good  shot,  he 
would  be  happy  in  the  occupations 
of  a  country  gentleman.  The 
years  of  war  relegated  many  court 
formalities  into  the  background, 
and  enabled  him  to  play  the  part 
of  a  leader  of  the  nation.  At  in- 
numerable investitures  he  im- 
pressed sailors  and  soldiers  with 
his  knowledge  of  their  dangers  and 
achievements,  while  his  exertions 
in  every  direction,  together  with 
his  close  attention  to  affairs  of 
state,  are  unrivalled  in  the  history 
of  kingship.  See.  Abergeldie; 
Accolade ;  Coronation. 


GEORGE 

George    (1819-78).      King    of 
Hanover.     Born  in  Berlin,  where 
his  father  was  then  residing,  May 
27,    1819,    he 
was    the    only 
son  of  Ernest 
Augustus,  who 
became   king 
of  Hanover  in 
1837.    In  1833 
he    became 
blind,  but  this 
was   not   con- 
ueorge  V,  King  01      sidered   a  bar 
Hanover 


3483 


George,  King  ot 
Saxony 


to    his 

sion  in  1851  as  George  V.  For  15 
years  his  illiberal  ideas  involved 
him  in  constant  quarrels  with  his 
subjects,  leading  to  his  expulsioa  in 
1866.  A  supporter  of  Austria,  he 
refused,  contrary  to  the  wishes  of 
his  Landtag,  to  remain  neutral 
during  the  Austro-Prussian  War, 
1866,  when  the  Prussians  invaded 
and  annexed  Hanover. 

George  found  a  refuge  in 
Austria,  where  he  worked  hard 
but  vainly  to  recover  his  lost  land. 
He  died  in  Paris,  June  12,  1878, 
and  was  buried  at  Windsor.  He 
is  known  as  George  V,  his  four 
predecessors  being  also  kings  of 
Great  Britain.  He  refused  to  the 
last  to  bargain  about  his  rights  to 
Hanover.  His  wife  was  Marie, 
daughter  of  Joseph,  duke  of  Saxe- 
Altenburg,  and  hia  only  son  was 
Ernest,  duke  of  Cumberland. 

George  (1832-1904).  King  of 
Saxony.  Born  at  Dresden,  Aug.  8, 
1832.  he  was  the  youngest  son  of 
King  John 
(1801-73).  He 
was  gazetted 
into  the  artil- 
lery in  1846 
and  command- 
ed a  cavalry 
brigade  in  the 
Austro-Prus- 
sian War  of 
1866.  The 
Franco-Prus- 
sian War  gave  him  greater  oppor- 
tunity for  showing  his  military 
ability,  and  at  the  head  of  the  Saxon 
army  he  won  considerable  distinc- 
tion. In  1888  William  I  made  him 
a  Prussian  field-marshal.  On  the 
death  of  his  brother  Albert,  in  1902, 
he  succeeded  to  the  throne,  and, 
after  an  uneventful  reign,  died 
Oct.  15,  1904. 

George  (1845-1913).  King  ot 
the  Hellenes.  Born  at  Copenhagen, 
Dec.  24,  1845,  he  was  a  younger  son 
of  Christian  IX  of  Denmark,  and 
a  brother  of  Queen  Alexandra.  In 
1862  the  Greeks  were  looking  for  a 
king  to  replace  the  expelled  Otto. 
The  crown  was  declined  by  several 
princes  and  then,  by  request, 
the  British  government  nominated 
the  prince  of  Denmark,  Christian 


George,  King  ot  the 
Hellenes 


William  His 
selection  was 
approved  by 
the  Greeks, 
and  he  took 
the  name  of 
George,  resign- 
ing  at  the 
same  time  his 
rights  to  the 
crown  of  Den- 
in  a  r  k.  His 
long  reign, 
which  began 
in  1863,  was  on 
the  whole  suc- 


cessful. In  difficult  circumstances 
he  did  all  he  could  for  the  welfare  of 
his  country;  but  towards  the  end  ol 
his  life  it  was  drawn  into  the  Balkan 
War,  while  previously  it  ha"d  carried 
on  a  struggle  with  Turkey.  On 
March  18,  1913,  in  the  midst  of  the 
Balkan  struggle,  the  king  was  mur- 
dered by  a  subject  while  visiting 
Salonica.  His  wife  was  Olga,  a 
Russian  grand  duchess.  Of  their 
children,  Constantino  succeeded  to 
the  throne  ;  other  sons  were  George, 
Nicholas,  Andrew,  and  Christopher. 
George  (b.  1902).  British  prince. 
The  fourth  son  of  George  V  and 
Queen  Mary,  he  was  born  at  York 
Cottage,  Sandringham,  Dec.  20, 
1902,  and  was  christened  George 
Edward  Alexander  Edmund.  He 


GEORGE 

entered  the 
R.N.  College, 
Osborne,  in 
1916,  proceed- 
ing later  to 
Dartmouth 
In  1920  on  the 
Temeraire  he 
voyaged to the 
West  Indies, 
and  he  joined 
the  Iron  Duke 
in  Jan.,  1921. 

George  (b.  1869).  Greek  prince- 
The  second  son  of  George,  king  of 
the  Hellenes,  he  was  born  at  Corfu, 
June  24,  1869. 
He  entered  the 
navy  and  held 
various     com- 
mands, but  be- 
came generally 
known  in  1898 
when   he   was 
chosen  by  the 
Powers  to  act 
George,  as    high    corn- 

Greek  prince  missioner  in 
Crete.  He  remained  there  until 
1906,  governing  the  island  success- 
fully. During  the  Great  WarGeorge, 
unlike  his  brother,  King  Con- 
stantine,  was  classed  among  the 
partisans  of  the  Allies.  In  1907  the 
prince  married  Marie,  a  member  of 
the  family  of  Bonaparte 


DAVID    LLOYD    GEORGE:    STATESMAN 

Hamilton  Pyfe,  Special  Correspondent  ot  The  Daily  Mail 

This  career  is  here  traced  on  the  personal  side.  For  the  various 
activities  of  Lloyd  George's  public  life  reference  should  be  made 
to  the  articles  War,  Great ;  Home-  Rule ;  Versailles,  Treaty  of,  etc. 
See  also  biographies  of  A  squtth  ;  Balfour  and  other  contemporaries 


David  Lloyd  George  was  born 
Jan.  17,  1863,  at  5,  New  York 
Place,  Chorlton-on-Medlock,  Man- 
chester, where  his  father,  William 
George,  taught  in  an  elementary 
school.  His  mother  was,  before  her 
marriage,  Elizabeth  Lloyd,  both 
parents  being  of  Welsh  extraction. 
Soon  after  his  birth  the  family  re- 
moved to  a  farm  in  S.  Wales, 
where  the  father  hoped  to  recover 
his  lost  h?alth.  He  died,  however, 
and  his  two  boys  were  brought  up 
by  an  uncle,  a  village  shoemaker, 
at  Llanystumdwy,  N.  Wales. 
The  uncle,  Richard  Lloyd,  a  man 
of  strong  character  as  well  as 
strong  opinions,  took  special  pains 
to  supplement  the  schooling  which 
David  got  in  the  village,  and  spent 
his  money  in  making  him  a  solicitor. 

At  Portmadoc,  where  he  served 
his  articles  to  a  solicitor,  from  1879, 
the  young  man  quickly  became 
known  as  a  speaker  at  the  debating 
society,  and  when  he  began  prac- 
tice for  himself,  having  passed  the 
law  final  in  1884,  his  shrewd  grasp 
of  difficulties,  his  combativeness 
and  resolution  soon  brought  clients 


to  his  door.  He  made  a  name 
which  was  known  throughout  all 
the  countryside,  and  was  beginning 
to  make  money  when  a  chance 
came  to  him  to  win  a  national 
reputation. 

A  Church  of  England  clergyman 
refused  to  allow  a  Nonconformist 
to  be  buried  in  the  churchyard 
beside  his  daughter.  The  young 
solicitor  was  consulted,  and  gave 
the  opinion  that  the  clergyman 
was  acting  beyond  his  rights.  He 
further  advised  that  the  church- 
yard be  entered  "  by  force,  if  ne- 
cessary," and  the  body  buried  as 
the  old  man  wished.  This  was  done, 
and  when  legal  action  was  taken, 
Lloyd  George  was  engaged  for 
the  defence.  A  county  court  judge 
decided  against  him.  He  took  the 
case  to  the  high  court ;  before 
the  lord  chief  justice  in  London, 
the  decision  was  reversed. 
Election  to  Parliament 

On  the  wave  of  this  triumph, 
Lloyd  George  was  chosen  to  stand 
as  Radical  candidate  for  Carnarvon 
Boroughs  against  a  local  squire, 
Ellis  Nanney.  A  by-election  came, 


GEORGE 


3484 


Vandyk 


and  in  April,  1890,  the  young 
solicitor  of  27  took  his  seat  in  the 
House  of  Commons.  He  did  not 
make  any  immediate  mark,  though 
he  spoke  frequently  ;  indeed,  his 
opportunity  to  show  what  a  fighter 
he  was  did  not  come  until  1895, 
when  a  Conservative  government 
replaced  a  Liberal  one.  He  had,  in 
pressing  for  Welsh  Disestablish- 
ment, shown  pertinacity  and  pluck, 
even  venturing  to  stand  up  to 
Gladstone  ;  but  it  was  only  when 
he  found  himself  in  opposition  to 
the  Conservatives,  and  especially 
to  Joseph  Chamberlain,  that  his 
fighting  qualities  developed. 

Thinking  that  the  Boers  of  the 
Transvaal  and  Orange  Free  State 
were  being  unjustly  treated,  Lloyd 
George  pleaded  their  cause  during 
the  South  African  War.  By 
this  time  Chamberlain  had  been 
forced  to  regard  him  as  a  danger- 
ous opponent,  one  who  dared  every- 
thing, as,  for  example,  when  he 
tried  to  address  an  anti-war  meet- 
ing in  Birmingham  itself  The 
meeting  was  broken  up,  the  hall 
wrecked,  and  LloyS  George  was 
compelled  to  leave  the  building  in 


a  police  constable's  uniform.  He 
continued  all  the  same  to  declare 
the  war  unjustified,  and  in  the  end 
his  courage  increased  public  respect 
for  him.  There  was  no  outcry 
against  Lloyd  George's  appoint- 
ment to  be  president  of  the  board 
of  trade,  in  Dec.,  1905,  when  Sir  H. 
Campbell-Bannerman  formed  his 
Liberal  ministry.  In  that  office 
he  showed  good  qualities  as  an 
administrator,  threw  over  the 
ministerial  tradition  of  aloofness 
and  superiority,  and  won  golden 
opinions  by  his  accessibility. 

Lloyd  George  handled  the  great 
railway  dispute  of  1907,  and  the 
trouble  in  the  cotton  industry  the 
same  year,  with  distinct  success. 
He  had  few  temptations  now  to 
make  attacks,  though  he  once  and 
again  tiirned  his  power  of  invective 
against  the  tariff  reformers.  He 
seemed  to  be  settling  down  into  a 
front  bench  politician  of  the  usual 
type,  until  a  fresh  phase  of  his 
career  was  opened  by  his  being 
made,  on  April  12,  1908,  chancellor 
of  the  exchequer. 

He  had  now  the  opportunity 
to  effect  some  of  the  changes  which 


GEORGE 

he  had  advocated  so  often  in  the 
direction  of  greater  social  justice, 
and  in  his  f909  Budget  he  laid 
before  the  House  a  number  of  pro- 
posals for  raising  money.  These 
included  taxation  of  land  values, 
taxation  of  coal  royalties,  fresh  im- 
posts upon  land  and  alcohol,  and 
super-taxation  of  large  incomes, 
and  were  attacked  with  furious 
vehemence  by  the  land-owning 
class  and  their  representatives  in 
both  Houses  of  Parliament.  There 
was  also  a  great  deal  of  general 
middle-class  feeling  against  them  as 
disturbing.  Lloyd  George  answered 
this  by  pleading  the  cause  of  the 
poor,  and  holding  up  those  who 
complained  to  ridicule.  A  violent 
speech  at  Limehouse,  in  which 
he  assailed  his  opponents  with 
particularly  irritating  effect,  gave 
rise  to  the  expression  "  Lime- 
housing,"  descriptive  of  his  style 
of  oratory.  In  the  country,  as  a 
whole,  the  Budget  was  popular, 
and  the  fight  its  author  made  for 
it  increased  his  power. 

When  the  House  of  Lords  refused 
to  pass  the  measures  connected  with 
the  newtaxes,they  were  accused,ac- 
cording  to  plan,  of  interfering  with 
a  money  bill,  and  the  Government 
successfully  appealed  to  the  coun- 
try against  what  he  called  "that 
sinister  assembly."  The  Liberals 
were  returned  to  power,  and  the 
scheme  for  depriving  the  House  of 
Lords  of  its  right  to  veto  legislation 
was  carried  into  effect  in  1911. 
His  next  piece  of  legislation  was  the 
National  Insurance  Act,  modelled 
on  the  German  plan.  In  spite  of  its 
promise  of  "  9d.  for  4d.,"  this 
never  appealed  strongly  to  the 
mass  of  people.  He  forced  it 
through,  however,  in  the  face  of 
determined  opposition. 

Then  came  the  Great  War. 
Deep  as  was  his  hatred  of  violence 
between  nations,  he  showed  at 
once  that  he  could  see  nothing  for 
it  but  to  fight  until  the  Germans 
had  been  taught  that  powerful 
empires  have  no  right  to  crush 
small  nationalities.  At  once  he  set 
himself,  with  the  help  of  the  lead- 
ing financial  and  business  brains, 
to  devise  means  of  providing  the 
money  required.  Early  in  1915  he 
left  this  to  Reginald  McKenna,  and 
turned  his  immense  energy  to  the 
task  of  supplying  the  army  with 
munitions.  Here  and  at  the  War 
Office,  whither  he  went  in  July, 
1916,  he  did  most  valuable  service, 
and  it  was  by  his  speeches  also 
that  the  nation  and  its  Allies  were 
more  heartened  and  encouraged 
than  by  those  of  any  other  public 
man.  There  was  no  surprise,  there- 
fore, when  at  the  end  of  1916  he 
was  called  to  take  Asquith's  place 
as  prime  minister. 


GEORGE 


3485 


GEORGE    DANDIN 


Dissatisfaction  with  the  Asquith 
regime  had  culminated  after  the 
disastrous  result  of  Rumania's 
entry  into  the  war.  More  energy, 
closer  coordination  of  effort, 
wider  visions  were,  it  was  gen- 
erally felt,  essential  for  winning  the 
war.  Asquith's  friends  accused 
Lloyd  George  of  intriguing  against 
his  chief  ;  the  affair  had  an  under- 
hand look,  and  the  few  days  in 
which  it  was  brought  to  a  head 
were  filled  with  mysterious  man- 
oeuvres. The  effect  of  the  change 
was  useful  in  giving  the  world  an 
impression  that  the  war  was  being 
more  vigorously  prosecuted,  and 
the  belief  in  Lloyd  George  at  home 
was  proved  by  the  great  majority 
which  returned  him  and  his  coal- 
ition ministry  to  office  just  after 
Germany's  submission  in  1918. 
The  Peace  Conference 

Lloyd  George  now  became  one  of 
the  arbitrators  of  Europe's  destiny 
at  the  Peace  Conference,  where, 
without  following  any  decided  line 
of  his  own,  he  exercised  a  moder- 
ating influence.  On  the  signing  of 
peace,  1919,  he  received  the  Order 
of  Merit,  and  in  1920-22  was  the 
leading  figure  in  the  Allies'  con- 
ferences. He  resigned  the  premier 
ship,  Oct.  19,  1922,  visited  U.S.A. 
and  Canada,  1923,  and  merged  his 
party,  known  as  National  Liberals, 
with  Mr.  Asquith's  followers  in 
Nov.,  1923,  when  Mr.  Baldwin's 
protectionist  policy  drew  together 
all  shades  of  liberalism  in  defence 
of  Free  Trade.  After  his  retirement 
he  wrote  for  the  press. 

As  a  speaker,  Lloyd  George  was 
delightful.  A  pleasant  voice,  an 
easy  manner,  skill  in  gesture  and  in 
tune  would  in  any  case  have  made 
him  an  orator  out  of  the  common. 
To  these  he  added  a  Celtic  fervour, 
a  Biblical  diction,  an  imaginative 
quality  that  lifted  his  themes  out 
of  the  political  rut,  and  gave  them 
that  touch  of  "  uplift,"  that  re- 
lation with  the  deeper  yearnings 
and  the  idealism  of  mankind  which 
scarcely  ever  fails  to  move  an 
audience.  Those  who  have  been 
charmed  by  his  social  gifts  of 
urbanity  and  humour,  his  frank 
admission  that  there  must  always 
be  two  sides  to  a  case,  his  readiness 
to  discuss  everything  quietly  and 
reasonably,  were  astonished  to  hear 
or  to  read  his  denunciations  on 
the  platform  of  those  who  differed 
from  him,  his  outbursts  of  fiery 
zeal,  and  his  solemn  prophecies. 
As  soon  as  he  began  to  speak,  he 
seemed  to  be  a  changed  man  ;  he 
was  carried  away  by  his  own  power 
of  speech  ;  he  was,  as  it  were,  in- 
spired; moreover,  he  reflected  in 
his  speeches  to  an  unusually  large 
degree  the  temper  of  the  particular 
audience  which  he  was  addressing. 


In  1888  Lloyd  George  married 
Margaret,  daughter  of  Richard 
Owen,  of  Criccieth,  which  place  he 
made  his  home  when  in  Wales. 
Their  family  consisted  of  two  sons 
and  three  daughters,  but  one 
daughter  died  in  1907. 

Bibliography.  Life  of  Lloyd 
George,  J.  H.  Edwards,  1913-18; 
Life  of  Lloyd  George,  H.  du  Parcq, 
1912-13;  David  Lloyd  George, 
Harold  Spender,  1919;  Mr.  Lloyd 
George  and  the  War,  W.  F.  Roch, 
1920. 

George,  SIR  ERNEST  ( 1839-1922 ). 
British  architect.  Born  in  London, 
June  13,  1839,  he  was  educated  at 
Brighton,  Reading,  and  the  Royal 
Academy.  He  received  the  queen's 
gold  medal  of  the  Royal  Institute 
of  British  Architects  in  1896. 
President  of  the  Institute  1908-9, 
he  was  elected  an  A.R.A.  in  1910, 
and  knighted  in  1911.  He  was 
elected  an  R.A.  in  April,  1917. 
Examples  of  his  work  are  to  be 
seen  in  the  Royal  Exchange  build- 
ings, the  Golders  Green  crematori- 
um, the  Royal  Academy  of  Music, 
the  Shirpur  Palace,  India,  and  in 
numerous  London  and  country 
residences,  including  the  restora- 
tion of  Berkeley  Castle.  He  died 
Dec.  8,  1922.  See  portrait,  p.  xxi. 
George,  HENRY  (1839-97). 
American  economist.  Born  at 
Philadelphia,  Sept.  2,  1839,  he 
became  a 
printer  in 
California. 
From  that  he 
became  a 
journalist,  and 
while  gaining 
j  ournalistic 
experience  he 
began  to  study 
economic 
questions, 
and  in  1871  he 
made  himself  known  by  his  book, 
Our  Land  Policy.  In  1879  this 
appeared  as  Progress  and  Poverty, 
and  became  enormously  popular  in 
Europe  as  well  as  in  America,  his 
proposed  solution  of  the  land 
question  finding  many  supporters. 
George  became  the  apostle  of 
land  nationalisation,  which  he 
proposed  to  bring  about  by  means 
of  the  single  tax.  In  1886  he  was  a 
candidate  for  the  mayoralty  of 
New  York,  and  he  died  Oct.  29, 
1897.  He  also  wrote  Protection  and 
Free  Trade,  1886 ;  The  Ci  ndition  of 
Labour,  1891;  and  Principles  of 
Political  Economy,  1898.  -See  Single 
Tax ;  consult  also  Life,  by  his  son, 
Henry  George,  1900. 

George,  WALTER  JORDALL  (b. 
1858).  British  athlete.  Born  at 
Colne,  Sept.  9,  1858,  his  first  run- 
ning event  was  the  mile,  at  the 
Notts  Football  Sports  in  1877.  He 
won  the  Spartan  novices'  steeple- 


chase  of  5£   m.   at  Edmonton  in 
1878.     In  1879   he   won   the  mile 
and  the  four-miles  in  the  amateur 
championships 
at  Stain  f  <>  rd 
Bridge,  and 
also  the  10^  m. 
Midland  cross- 
country cham- 
pionship.     In 
the  U.S.A.  in 
1881,  George 
met  the  Amer- 
W.  J.  George,          ican,      L.     E. 
British  athlete          Myers,      win- 
ning   in     the 

three-quarters  and  the  mile.  Dur- 
ing 1882  he  carried  off  the  half,  one 
mile,  four,  and  ten  miles  at  the 
championship  meeting  at  Stoke- 
on-Trent,  the  Midland  and  national 
cross  country  championships,  and 
several  challenge  cups  and  prizes. 
In  1884  he  won  the  half,  mile, 
four  miles,  and  two  miles  steeple- 
chase in  one  afternoon,  and  the 
same  year  created  new  records  for 
nearly  every  distance  from  1000yds. 
to  12  m. 

Turning  professional  in  1885,  he 
made  three  matches  with  W. 
Cummings,  but  only  succeeded  in 
winning  the  mile.  In  1886  they 
met  again,  George  winning  the 
mile  (in  the  world's  record  time  of 
4  mins.  12f  sees.)  and  the  ten  miles. 
George  has  won  12  amateur  track 
championships  and  over  1,000 
prizes. 

George,  WALTER  LIONEL  (b. 
1882).  British  author.  Born  and 
educated  in  Paris,  he  tried  various 
occupations  before  taking  to  jour- 
nalism in  1907.  His  first  work 
was  France  in  the  20th  Century, 
1908.  His  novels,  in  which  he 
deals  outspokenly  with  life's  pro- 
blems and  presents  an  interesting 
amalgam  of  English  and  French 
methods,  include  A  Bed  of  Roses, 
1911;  Israel  Kalisch,  1913;  The 
Making  of  an  Englishman,  1914; 
The  Stranger's  Wedding,  1916 ;  and 
Caliban,  1920.  Deeply  interested 
in  feminism  and  allied  subjects,  his 
studies  in  that  direction,  Women 
and  To-morrow,  1913,  and  The  In- 
tellect of  Woman,  1917,  are  notable. 
George  Dandin;  ou,  LE  MARI 
CONFONDU  (George  Dandin;  or, 
The  Baffled  Husband).  Three-act 
comedy  by  Moliere,  first  produced 
at  Versailles,  July  18,  1668.  Dan- 
din  is  a  rich  peasant  who  marries 
above  his  station  and  has  the  privi- 
lege of  settling  the  debts  of  his 
wife's  parents.  They  with  their 
daughter  render  his  life  wretched, 
especially  by  making  him  out  to  be 
wrong  when  he  is  right ;  hence  his 
remark,  Vous  1'avez  voulu,  vous 
1'avez  voulu,  George  Dandin !  (You 
would  have  it,  you  would  have  it, 
George  Dandin  !). 


GEORGE     INN 


GEORGIA 


George  Inn,  THE.  Famous  old 
coaching  inn,  in  Southwark,  Sur- 
rey. It  is  No.  77,  Borough  High 
Street,  was  built  early  in  the  16th 
century,  owned  in  1558  by  Hum- 
frey  Colet,  M.P.  for  Southwark, 
burnt  hi  1670  and  1676,  and  partly 
pulled  down  in  1889.  The  pictur- 
esque fragment  remaining  is  all 
that  has  survived  of  the  old  South- 
wark inns  mentioned  by  Stow  in 
his  Survey,  1598.  See  London 
Vanished  and  Vanishing,  P.  Nor- 
man, 1905. 

George  Junior  Republic.  In- 
dustrial self-governing  society  for 
young  people  in  the  U.S.A.  It  is  in 
Tompkins  co.,  New  York  State,  9 
m.  from  Ithaca.  It  was  founded  by 
William  Reuben  George,  a  native  of 
a  neighbouring  village,  in  1895.  He 
was  a  New  York  business  man, 
who  had  done  a  good  deal  of  work 
in  providing  holidays  for  city  chil- 
dren. The  idea  behind  it  was  that 
it  should  be  a  settlement  for  chil- 
dren, who  should  work  for  what 
they  enjoy,  and  govern  themselves, 
as  do  the  citizens  of  a  modern  state. 
The  motto  of  the  society  is  "  No- 
thing without  labour." 

Boys  and  girls  usually  remain  in 
the  settlement  for  several  years. 
Fifteen  is  the  age  at  which  they  be- 
come full  citizens,  when  they  are 
eligible  for  the  vote  and  for  posi- 
tions in  the  little  state.  They  make 
their  own  laws,  subject  only  to  the 
assent  of  the  superintendent  ;  and 
live  in  houses  under  the  care  of 
house  mothers.  A  variety  of  indus- 
tries arc  carried  on.  There  are  col- 
leges and  schools ;  religious  ser- 
vices, but  no  sectarian  tests.  Several 
similar  institutions  have  been  es- 
tablished in  the  U.S.A.  See  The 
Junior  Republic  :  its  History  and 
Ideals,  W.  R.  George,  1910. 

Georgetown  (formerly  Sta- 
broek).  Seaport  and  capital  of 
British  Guiana,  S.  America.  It 
stands  near  the  mouth  of  the 


Georgetown.  British  Guiana.    Govern- 
ment buildings  of  the  colony 


river  Demerara,  with  a  fortified 
harbour  and  lighthouse.  The  city, 
sometimes  called  Demerara,  lies 
below  the  level  of  high  water, 
which  is  kept  out  by  a  sea-wall 
called  the  Ring.  The  houses  are 
mostly  of  wood,  the  streets  are 
broad  and  shaded  by  palm  trees 
and  there  are  several  canals.  The 
chief  buildings  are  the  Anglican  and 
R.C.  cathedrals,  government  build- 
ings, several  colleges  and  hospitals, 
botanical  gardens,  museum,  library , 
and  an  asylum. 

The  rlys.  connect  up  with  Ma- 
haica  and  Rosignol.  The  climate 
is  humid  and  hot,  and  owing  to 
the  swampy  surroundings  is  un- 
healthy. The  exports  include 
coSee,  sugar,  cocoa,  rum,  gold,  and 
balata.  The  lack  of  good  drinking 
water  has  been  overcome  by  boring 
artesian  wells  and  the  provision  of 
storage  taaks.  Pop.  54,006. 

George  Town.  Seaport  of  the 
Straits  Settlements,  capital  of  Pen- 
ang.  It  stands  on  the  N.E.  shore  of 
Pulo  Penang.  also  called  Prince  of 
Wales  Island  and  Areca  Island, 
with  a  fine  harbour,  second  only  to 
Singapore,  on  the  W.  coast  of  the 
Malay  Peninsula.  It  is  strongly  for- 
tified, and  has  an  arsenal,  barracks, 
and  several  hospitals.  The  chief 
exports  include  rice,  sugar,  pepper, 
and  tin.  Pop.  101,182,  f  Chinese, 
|  Indians,  £  Malays. 

Georgetown.  Part  of  the  city 
of  Washington,  U.S.A.  It  stands 
on  the  Potomac  river,  at  the  head 
of  navigation,  and  is  about  2  m. 
W.  by  N.  of  the  Capitol.  It  is  the 
seat  of  Georgetown  University  and 
of  several  colleges,  and  has  a  num- 
ber of  industrial  plants,  including 
flour  mills.  Down  to  1871  it  was  a 
separate  city,  but  in  that  year  its 
charter  was  withdrawn  and  it  was 
incorporated  in  the  District  of  Col- 
umbia, becoming  a  part  of  the  city 
of  Washington  seven  years  later. 

Georgetown.  Co.  and  co.  town 
of  S.  Carolina,  U.S.A.  The  town  is 
situated  on  Winyah  Bay,  60  m.  by 
rail  N.E.  of  Charleston,  and  is  the 
port  for  the  farm  products  of  the 
fertile  district  drained  by  the  Pee- 
dee  river  and  its  tributaries.  The 
harbour  is  mainly  used  by  coasting 
and  river  vessels.  Here  Lafayette 
landed  on  his  first  visit  to  the 
States.  Pop.  5,500. 

Here  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio 
canal  crosses  the  Potomac  river  by 
an  aqueduct  1,446  ft.  in  length. 

Georgia.  One  of  the  thirteen 
original  states  of  the  U.S.A. 
Founded  in  1733,  it  was  named 
after  George  II.  Situated  in  the 
S.E.  of  the  country,  it  is  bounded 
nn  the  N.  by  Tennessee  and  N. 
Carolina,  S.  by  Florida,  W.  by  Ala- 
bama, and  E.  by  S.  Carolina  and  the 
Atlantic  Ocean.  Its  area  is  59,265 


Georgia.    Map  oi  the  North  American 
state  founded  in  1733 

sq.  m.,  somewhat  larger  than  Eng- 
land and  Wales.  Its  coast  line  is 
much  indented  and  is  fringed  by 
numerous  islands,  separated  from 
the  mainland  by  shallow  sounds. 
The  soil  in  the  coastal  district  is 
suitable  for  the  production  of  sea- 
island  cotton.  The  surface  com- 
prises three  natural  divisions — Up- 
per Georgia,  the  mountainous  dis- 
trict on  the  N.W.,  Middle  Georgia, 
a  broad  plateau,  and  Lower  Geor- 
gia, a  swampy  region.  The  land  is 
drained  chiefly  by  the  Savannah, 
which  partitions  the  state  from  S. 
Carolina,  the  Ogeechee,  and  the 
Altamaha,  flowing  to  the  Atlantic, 
and  the  Chattahoochee  on  the  W. 
frontier. 

Cotton  is  the  staple  product, 
maize  coming  next ;  fruit  and  to- 
bacco are  also  cultivated.  The 
forests  of  pine,  oak,  etc.,  cover  a 
considerable  area.  Fishing  and 
mining,  gold,  silver,  coal,  mangan- 
ese, etc.,  are  flourishing  industries, 
and  manufactures  of  cotton  goods, 
and  lumber  and  timber  products 
employ  thousands  of  workers. 
Higher  education  is  provided  by  a 
state  and  other  universities,  besides 
several  colleges.  The  rlys.  of  the 
state  have  a  length  of  7,500  m.,  be- 
sides 500  m.  of  electric  track.  Two 
senators  and  12  representatives  are 
returned  to  Congress.  Atlanta  is 
the  capital ;  other  important  towns 
being  Augusta,  Macon,  Columbus, 
and  Athens.  The  principal  sea- 
ports are  Savannah,  Darien, 
St.  Mary's,  and  Brunswick.  The 
climate  is  varied.  Pop.  2,935,617, 
of  whom  more  than  two-fifths  are 
negroes. 

Colonisation  was  largely  due  to 
the  efforts  of  General  Oglethorpe, 
who  was  instrumental  in  settling 
debtors  and  other  unfortunate 
persons  in  it,  the  first  group  sent 
over  in  1733  making  Savannah 
their  home.  Nineteen  years  later 
Georgia  became  a  province.  During 
the  Revolutionary  War,  Savannah 


GEORGIA 

was  taken  by  the  British,  who  re- 
tained it  until  1782.  The  Creek  and 
the  Cherokee  Indians  were  removed 
from  the  state  between  1832  and 
1838.  Georgia  seceded  from  the 
Union  in  1861,  but  was  readmitted 
in  1870.  See  A  Student's  History 
of  Georgia,  L.  B.  Evans,  1898. 

Georgia,  GULF  OR  STRAIT  OF. 
Inlet  of  the  N.  Pacific  Ocean,  divid- 
ing Vancouver  from  the  British 
Columbian  mainland.  Its  N.  ex- 
tension, Queen  Charlotte  Sound, 
connects  with  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
while  its  S.  continuation  leads  to 
Juan  de  Fuca  Strait  and  Puget 
Sound.  Its  length  is  about  250  m., 
its  breadth  29  m. 

Georgia.  Republic  formed  from 
parts  of  the  Russian  governor- 
generalship  of  Caucasia.  It  has  an 
area  of  35,500  sq.  m.  and  an  esti- 
mated pop.  of  3,176,000,  is 
bounded  N.  by  the  Caucasus  mts., 
E.  by  the  republic  of  Azerbeijan, 
S.  by  the  Armenian  republic  of 
Erivan,  and  W.  by  the  Black  Sea. 

A  deep  valley  corridor  runs  for 
500  m.  between  the  Black  and 
Caspian  Seas,  with  the  lofty  Cau- 
casus range  rising  steeply  above  it 
to  the  N.,  and  the  Armenian  mts. 
almost  as  steeply  skirting  it  on  the 
S.  The  foothills  from  both  ranges 
meet  across  the  valley  about  100  m. 
from  the  Black  Sea,  and  form  a 
watershed,  the  Suram  mts.  West- 
ward from  these  low  mountains 
flows  the  river  Rion  to  the  Black 
Sea,  and  eastward  the  Kura  to  the 
Caspian.  Georgia  is  the  rich  and 
sheltered  land  along  these  rivers 
for  250  m.,  and  the  highlands  N. 
and  S.  that  enclose  the  valley. 
Geographical  Features 

Through  the  two  valleys,  and 
tunnelling  the  Suram  mts.,  is  the 
rly.  from  Batuni  to  Baku,  the  cen- 
tre of  the  petroleum  industry  of 
Azerbeijan,  and  the  oil-pipe  to 


3487 

the  Black  Sea  coast  follows  the 
line.  The  area  of  Georgia  E.  of  the 
little  watershed  is  grouped  round 
the  ancient  city  of  Tiflis,  the  capi- 
tal ;  and  the  westward  slope  centres 
on  Kutais.  Batum  is  neutralised 
to  serve  the  three  republics  of 
Georgia,  Armenia,  and  Azerbeijan 
as  their  principal  port,  and  Poti  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Rion  serves  the 
Kutais  province.  N.  of  Poti  a  nar- 
rowing strip  of  the  E.  Black  Sea 
coast,  between  the  mt.  range  and 
the  sea,  past  Sukhum  and  Sochi 
to  Tuapse,  has  joined  Georgia;  and 
S.  of  Batum  the  republic  includes 
the  Armenian  highlands  through 
Ardahan,  formerly  in  the  province  of 
Kars.  The  Sukhum  district  in  the 
N.E.,  backed  by  the  slopes  of  the 
Caucasus,  resembles  the  Riviera  in 
its  agreeable  climate,  and,  being 
wider,  is  more  fertile.  It  lacks 
rlys.,  but  a  main  road  connects  it 
with  the  rly.  junction  of  Santredi 
on  the  Rion  river. 

Crops  and  Minerals 

Georgia  has  an  exceptionally 
wide  range  of  productions.  Wheat, 
maize,  barley,  cotton  and  tobacco 
are  grown,  and  tea  is  harvested  on 
the  Black  Sea  coastal  strip.  The 
Armenian  hills  are  heavily  tim- 
bered. Below  Tiflis,  where  the 
valley  opens  out  towards  Azer- 
beijan, there  are  wide  cattle- 
breeding  steppes.  Silk  is  exten- 
sively produced.  The  vine  flour- 
ishes, especially  on  the  Caucasian 
side  of  the  Kura  valley  below 
Tiflis.  Fruits  abound,  including 
oranges  and  lemons,  olives,  apri- 
oots,  peaches,  plums,  and  apples. 
The  mineral  wealth  is  varied  and 
considerable.  Manganese  ore  is  the 
most  worked,  but  copper  and  coal 
are  also  mined.  Oil  is  present, 
though  not  so  abundantly  as  in  the 
lower  end  of  the  Kura  valley  in 
Azerbeijan. 


Georgia.     Map  of  the  Caucasian  Socialist  republic    formerly  Portion  of  the 
Russian  empire,  in  which  a  Saviet  government  was  set  up  m  1921 


GEORGIA 

The  Georgians,  as  a  race,  have 
a  history  to  be  proud  of.  Though 
they  have  held  a  valley  that  has 
been  one  of  the  world's  natural 
highways  from  E.  to  W.,  and  have 
been  pressed  upon  almost  con- 
tinuously by  more  powerful  na- 
tions, they  have  kept  their  inde- 
pendence for  2,000  years,  and  pre- 
served their  identity,  language,  and 
religion  with  unconquerable  tena- 
city. In  302  B.C.  they  threw  off  the 
yoke  imposed  by  Alexander  the 
Great.  Christianity  became  the 
state  religion  in  A.D.  323,  and 
though  the  country  has  been  occu- 
pied temporarily  by  the  Arabs,  the 
Turks,  and  the  Persians,  and  over- 
run and  devastated  by  hordes  of 
Mongols  under  Jenghiz  Khan  and 
Tamerlane  on  their  way  to  the  W., 
it  has  revived  and  prospered.  By 
its  fidelity  to  Christianity  Georgia 
has  always  been  an  annex  of  Europe, 
an  outlying  branch  of  the  Eastern 
ChurchVather  than  an  Asiatic  land. 

It  was  its  religious  associations 
that  at  last  temporarily  destroyed 
its  independence.  Pressed  heav- 
ily by  the  Turks  at  the  end  of 
the  18th  century,  the  Georgian 
king,  George  XIII,  appealed  to  his 
coreligionist,  the  tsar  of  Russia, 
for  protection.  The  Russians  en- 
tered the  country,  and,  promising 
to  preserve  in  it  all  the  Georgian 
rights,  annexed  it  by  assent  in  1801. 
The  attempt  to  Russianise  a  peo- 
ple who  had  an  independent  exist- 
ence 1,000  years  before  Russia  was 
heard  of,  failed,  and  when  in  Oct., 

1917,  the   Bolshevist  government 
was  formed  in  Russia,  the  three 
chief  races  on  the  southern  flank 
of  the  Caucasus  range  consulted  as 
to  their  future.     As  a  result,  the 
democratic  republic  of  Georgia,  the 
Armenian  republic  of  Erivan,  to- 
gether with  the  Tartar  republic  of 
Azerbeijan    agreed    to    form    one 
independent    government    as   the 
Federal    Democratic    Republic  of 
Transcaucasia,   each   republic   re- 
taining local  government. 

The  New  Republic 
A    united    parliament    or    diet 
(called  the  Seym)  met  April  22, 

1918,  but,  after  five  weeks  of  dis- 
agreement,   the    federal    republic 
was    dissolved,    and  each  of  the 
temporary  partners    organised    a 
government   in   its    own   capital. 
Georgian    separate    independence 
was  proclaimed  on  May  26,  1918, 
and  on  March  12,  1919,  an  elected 
assembly,  voted  for  by  both  sexes, 
ratified  what  had  been  done.    Fol- 
lowing a  revolution  a  Soviet  govern- 
ment was  set  up  in  1921.    See  The 
Kingdom  of  Georgia,  0.  Wardiop, 
1888  ;  Mineral  Resources  of  Georgia 
and  Caucasia,  D.  Ghambusheclze, 
1919. 

John  Derry 


GEORGIAN 

Georgian.  Style  of  architecture 
which  prevailed  in  Great  Britain 
during  the  reigns  of  the  first  three 
Georges  (1714-1820).  A  product 
of  the  later  Renaissance,  it  owed 
its  inspiration  mainly  to  Sir  Chris- 
topher Wren.  Its  best  charac- 
teristic was  simplicity  of  plan  and 
elevation ;  its  worst  was  a  tendency 
towards  the  pedantic.  Wren'p 


GetTygun.     Mompesson  House,  in  the  Close,  Sails 
t  rpical  of  this  style  of  domestic  architecture 

By  courtesy  of  Country  Life 

example  was  followed  by  numerous 
professional  architects. 

Contemporary  with  him  were 
William  Kent,  who  made  an  effec- 
tive design  of  the  Horse  Guards, 
Whitehall,  and  spoilt  a  good  por- 
tion of  Wren's  interior  decoration 
at  Kensington  Palace ;  Isaac  Ware, 
who  built  Chesterfield  House,  and  in 
the  middle  of  the  18th  century  was 
considered  the  leading  authority 
on  architectural  matters  ;  and  Sir 
William  Chambers  (q.v.),  who  out- 
lived both  of  these,  and  was  re- 
sponsible for  Somerset  House  (q.v. ), 
one  of  the  best  creations  of  Geor- 
gian classicism  in  London.  Not 
even  Chambers's  work,  however, 
escapes  the  charge  of  pedantry. 

It  is  chiefly  in  the  smaller  houses 
that  the  significance  and  charm  of 
"  Georgian  "  may  be  found.  In 
the  towns  it  was  uniformity  that 
was  principally  aimed  at,  and  any 
one  of  the  many  Georgian  streets 
in  London  can  show  that  Georgian 
architects,  in  achieving  uniformity, 
gained  also  two  other  essentials  of 
successful  street  architecture — re- 
pose and  dignity.  In  plan  the  Geor- 
gian house  is  a  plain  rectangle, 
solidly  constructed,  very  fre- 
quently of  red  brick.  Its  facade  is 
always  of  the  plairfest  description, 
and  is  pierced  by  rows  of  tall 


3488 

"  sash "  windows  symmetrically 
disposed.  A  porch  was  occasion- 
ally employed,  but  the  typical 
Georgian  doorway,  as  seen  in 
certain  parts  of  London  and 
its  environs,  was  enclosed  by 
classic  columns  carrying  their  cor- 
rect entablature,  and  surmounted 
by  a  hood  which  varied  in  shape 
and  in  the  extent  of  its  projection, 
the  tendency 
I  being  towards  a 
:  shallower  type. 

The    roof    was 
invariably 
•'hipped,"   i.e.  it 
sloped  backwards 
from    each    side, 
and      the     front 
slope  was  pierced 
by  a  row  of  d  ormer 
windows.    At  the 
beginning   of   the 
period  it  was  the 
practice  to  extend 
the  roof  so  as  to 
form  overhanging 
eaves  with  a  heavy 
wooden    cornice  ; 
later,     the     roof 
was    stopped    at 
the  edge  of    the 
walls  by  a  more 
or  less  substantial 
parapet    which 
had  the  effect  of 
heightening      the 
fa9ade.      The  in- 
terior   decoration 
of  Georgian  houses  culminated  in 
the  work  of  Robert  Adam  (q.v.) 
and  his  brother.      Georgian  archi- 
tecture has  latterly  been  revived 
with  great  success  in  the  building 
of  garden  cities  and  suburbs.     See 
Architecture;     consult    also    The 
Decorative    Part   of    Civil    Archi- 
tecture, W.  Chambers,  1825. 

Georgian  Bay.  Opening  of 
Lake  Huron.  It  is  the  north- 
eastern arm  of  the  lake,  and  is 
almost  cut  off  from  the  main 
waters  by  a  peninsula  which  is  part 
of  Ontario,  and  Grand  Manitoulin 
Island,  the  opening  between  the 
two  being  only  about  30  m.  wide. 
It  is  about  120  m.  long  and  50  m. 
broad,  and  its  various  bays  receive 
several  of  the  rivers  of  Ontario. 

Georgian  Bay  Canal.  Cana- 
dian canal,  suggested  and  planned 
but  not  yet  constructed.  It  is  in- 
tended to  join  Georgian  Bay  with 
the  St.  Lawrence  at  Montreal.  It 


GERA 

will  be  450  m.  long,  200  ft.  wide, 
and  22  ft.  deep,  with  23  locks  to 
regulate  the  water,  and  will  take 
vessels  of  from  8,000  to  10,000  tons. 
By  using  tks  Back  River,  an  arm 
of  the  St.  Lawrence,  the  Lake  of 
the  Two  Mountains,  the  Ottawa 
River,  Lake  Nipissing,  which  will 
be  its  central  point,  and  the  French 
River,  it  will  only  be  necessary 
to  construct  about  30  m.  of  actual 
canal,  although  parts  of  the  exist- 
ing waterways  will  need  deepen- 
ing. The  main  advantages  claimed 
for  the  canal,  which  will  be  wholly 
in  British  territory,  are  that  it  will 
bring  the  Canadian  Lake  wheat 
ports  800  m.  nearer  to  Liverpool 
than  they  now  are.  The  cost  has 
been  estimated  at  £30,000,000,  and 
a  survey  was  made  in  1894—98. 

Georgics  (Gr.  georgike,  hus- 
bandry). Didactic  poem  by  Virgil 
in  four  books.  Composed  37-31 
B.C.,  it  deals  with  agriculture,  fruit 
trees,  domestic  animals,  and  bees. 
It  abounds  in  passages  of  great 
beauty,  while  technically  it  is  a 
flawless  poem. 

Geotropism  (Gr.  ge,  earth; 
trope,  a  turning).  Sensitiveness  of 
plants  to  the  effects  of  gravity. 
The  main  roots  of  plants  grow  ver- 
ticaLy  downwards,  due  to  some 
unexplained  action,  though  the 
subsidiary  roots  may  extend  hori- 
zontally or  in  any  intermediate 
direction.  The  twining  of  plants, 
i.e.  creepers,  is  called  lateral 
geotropism. 

Gepidae.  Ancient  Teutonic 
people,  whose  home  in  the  3rd 
century  A.D.  is  said  to  have  been 
the  islands  in  the  Baltic  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Vistula.  Akin  to  the 
Goths,  and  speaking  a  similar  lan- 
guage, they  accompanied  them  in 
their  advance  southwards  and 
settled  in  what  is  now  Hungary. 
After  suffering  defeats  from  Attila 
and  Theodoric,  they  were  con- 
quered by  the  Lombards  in  566. 
They  are  not  heard  of  again  as  an 
independent  people,  being  merged 
in  the  Avars  (q.v.). 

Gera.  Town  of  Thuringia,  Ger- 
many. It  stands  on  the  White 
Elster,  35  m.  S.W.  of  Leipzig.  The 
chief  buildings  are  the  town  hall, 
a  restored  16th  century  building 
standing  on  the  market  place,  a 
modern  theatre,  and  a  museum  ; 
S.  John's  is  the  chief  of  several 
churches.  On  the  Hainberg 


Georgian  Bay  Canal.   Map  of  the  course  of  the  projected  canal  which  will  bring 
the  Canadian  Lake  wheat  ports  800  miles  nearer  Liverpool 


GERACE 


GERARD 


opposite  the  town  is  a  castle,  the 
residence  of  the  princes  of  Reuss. 
The  town  is  an  old  one,  having  been 
a  municipality  since  the  llth  cen- 
tury, but  most  of  its  buildings  are 
modern.  It  has  a  number  of  indus- 
tries, including  the  manufacture  of 
textiles,  machinery,  and  various 
kinds  of  leather.  It  is  also  a  printing 
centre.  It  has  been  part  of  Reuss 
since  about  1250.  Pop.  49,300. 

Gerace.  City  of  Italy,  in  the 
prov.  of  Reggio  di  Calabria  near  the 
ancient  Locri.  It  stands  on  the 
slope  of  a  mountain,  at  an  eleva- 
tion of  1,570  ft.,  4  m.  from  the  sea, 
58  m.  by  rly.  N.E.  of  Reggio.  It 
has  a  restored  cathedral,  wrecked 
by  an  earthquake  in  1783,  with 
Romanesque  remains.  In  the 
vicinity  are  sulphur  springs  and 
iron  and  coal  mines,  while  the  dis- 
trict is  noted  for  its  wine  called 
Lacrima  di  Gerace.  The  ruins  of 
Locri,  founded  in  the  7th  century 
B.C.,  lie  nearer  the  coast,  and 
near  the  old  Torre  di  Gerace 
were  discovered  ruins  of  an 


volatile  oil.  Others  are  rich  in 
oxalic  acid,  and  some  have  edible 
tubers.  They  are  so  called  from  the 
resemblance  of  the  seed -pod  fa>  a 
crane's  bill  (Gr.  yeranion).  •' 

Geranium.  Typical  genus-  of 
the  order  Geraniaccae.  It  consists 
mostly  of  small  plants  with  small 
regular  flowers  and  palmate  or 
divided  leaves,  often  with  a  pun- 
gent odour.  G.  anemoniaefoliwn, 
native  of  Madras,  however,  has  a 
somewhat  shrubby  stem  a  foot 
high,  and  large  purplish-red  flower. 
O.  pratense  (Europe)  has  large  blue 
flowers,  and  the  equally  fine  0. 
sanguitieum  (Europe  and  W.  Asia) 
has  blood-red  flowers.  Q.  lucidum 
(Europe,  W.  Africa,  Asia),  though 
its  bright  rosy  flowers  are  small, 
has  a  handsome  appearance  owing 
to  its  red  stems  and  general  shin- 
ing glossiness.  G.  tuberosum  and 
G.  dissectum,  from  S.  Europe  and 
Australia  respectively,  have  edible 
tubers.  Garden  geraniums  are 
really  pelargoniums  (q.v.).  See 
Balsam  ;  Woodsorrel. 


i/ 


Bautzen,  1815,  was  made  a  count  by 
Napoleon.  In  1814  Gerard  made  his 
peace  with  the  new  regime,  but  re- 
joined Napoleon  on  his  return  from 
Elba  and  fought  at  Ligny.  He  was 
permitted  to  return  to  France  in 
1817,  was  made  a  marshal  in  1831, 
and,  commanding  the  Belgian  expe- 
dition, took  Antwerp  in  1832.  He 
'lied  at  Paris,  April  17,  1852. 

Gerard,    JAMES    WATSON     (b. 
1867).  American  diplomatist.  Born 
at  Geneseo,  New  York,  Aug.   25, 
1867,    and 
educated  at 
Columbia  Uni- 
versity,   he 
became  a  bar- 
rister in  1892, 
and   practised 
in  New  York. 
H  e       became 
prominent    as 
J.  W.  Gerard,          a    Democratic 
American  diplomatist    politician  and 

as  an  officer  in  the  National  Guard. 
In  1908  he  was  chosen  as  associate 
justice  of  the  Supreme  Court,  an 


i 
Geranium.     Foliage  and  flowers  of,  1, 

Ionic  temple.  Pop.  11,100.  Pron. 
Jay-rah-chy. 

Geraldton.  Port  of  W.  Aus- 
tralia. It  stands  on  Champion  Bay, 
and  is  the  chief  town  N.  of  Perth, 
from  which,  by  rly.,  it  is  270  m. 
distant,  N.  by  W.  It  is  also  the 
terminus  of  a  rly.  which  penetrates 
inland  for  COO  m.,  serving  the  Yal- 
goo,  Mt.  Magnet,  Cue,  and  Nannine 
gold  fields.  Exports  comprise  not 
only  gold,  silver,  and  lead,  but  also 
wool  and  sandalwood,  the  produce 
of  this  area.  Pop.  3,49*. 

Geraniaceae.  Large  natural 
order  of  plants,  chiefly  herbs.  They 
are  natives  of  temperate  and  tropi- 
cal regions.  The  leaves  are  oppo- 
site or  alternate,  of  varied  form  ; 
the  flowers  regular  or  irregular. 
Many  species  have  astringent  or 
aromatic  properties,  or  abound  in 


G.  sanguineum,  Europe  and  Western  Asia 
3,  G.  lucidum,  Europe,  West  Africa,  Asia 

Gerar.  Town  in  the  Philistine 
country,  E.  of  Gaza.  Abraham  and 
Isaac  settled  there  for  a  time,  and 
the  latter  had  much  trouble  with 
the  local  herdsmen. 

Gerard,  ETIENNE  MAURICE, 
COUNT  (1773-1852).  French  soldier. 
Born  in  Lorraine,  April  4,  1773,  he 
entered  the  r-  ^  ~  -; 

army  in  1791 
and  became 
chief  -  of  -  staff 
to  BernadoUe 
by  1805.  He 
was  prominent 
in  the  battles 
of  Austerlitz, 

1805,  Jena, 

1806,  and 
Wagram  1809, 

fought  also  in  Spain,  and  in  recog- 
nition of  his  part  in  the  victory  of 


* 


Etienne  Gerard, 
French  soldier 


;   2,  G.  auemoniae  folium,  Madras ; 

appointment  he  held  until  1913, 
when  he  was  sent  to  Berlin  as 
ambassador.  He  was  there  when 
the  Great  War  broke  out,  and  it  fell 
to  his  lot  to  look  aftei  British 
interests  in  Germany,  and  espec- 
ially those  of  the  prisoners  of  war. 
He  had  the  onerous  task  of  qon- 
ducting  the  negotiations  just  before 
the  U.S.A.  entered  the  Great  War, 
and  for  some  days  was  in  a  posi- 
tion of  great  difficulty.  He  re- 
turned home  and  wrote  My  Four 
Years  in  Germany,  1917,  and  Face 
to  Face  with  Kaiserism,  1918, 
severe  indictments  of  Germany  as 
it  was  before  1919. 

Gerard,  JOHN  (1545-1G12). 
English  botanist.  Born  at  Nant- 
wich  and  educated  as  a  surgeon,  in 
early  life  lie  travelled  in  N.  Europe, 
and  settled  to  practise  in  Holborn, 

2E     4 


GE"RARDMER 


3490 


GERMAN      CATHOLICS 


John  Gerard, 
English  botanist 


London.  On  the  hill  facing  the 
Fleet  river  he  had  a  wonderful 
physio  garden  with  over  1,000 
species  of 
plants,  of 
which  he 
published  a 
list,  1596.  He 
is  chiefly  fam- 
ous  for  his 
Herball  or 
Generall  His- 
torie  of  Plants, 
lf>97,  an  im- 
portant bo- 
tanical work,  based  on  the  Pempt- 
ades  of  Dodoens,  1583,  while  the 
large  majority  of  the  woodcuts 
were  derived  from  the  Eicones  of 
Tabernaemontanus,  published  at 
Frankfort,  1590. 

Gerardmer  OR  GEROME.  Town 
of  France.  In  the  dept.  of  Vosges, 
it  is  18  m.  S.  of  St.  Die.  It  stands 
near  the  lake  of  the  same  name,  high 
among  the  mountains,  and  is,  on 
account  of  the  beautiful  scenery 
around  it,  much  visited  by  tourists. 
It  has  some  manufactures,  and  its 
cheeses  are  famous.  In  the  market 
place  is  an  enormous  lime  tree,  300 
years  old.  There  are  baths  and  a 
hydropathic  establishment  in  the 
town,  while  tramways  lead  to 
various  beauty  spots  in  the 
neighbourhood.  Gerard,  duke  of 
Alsace  in  the  llth  century,  is  its 
reputed  founder.  Pop.  10,000. 

Gterardy,  JEAN  (b.  1877).  Bel- 
gian violoncellist.  Bom  at  Spa, 
Dec.  7,  1877,  the  son  of  a  musician, 
he  studied  the  'cello  at  Verviers. 
In  1888  he  began  his  public  career, 
touring  Europe  and  America,  and 
establishing  himself  among  the 
first  of  living  virtuosi. 

Gerasa.  Ancient  city  of  Pales- 
tine, a  member  of  the  Decapolis. 
It  is  situated  among  the  mountains 
of  Gilead,  about  20  m.  to  the  E.  of 
the  Jordan,  and  .is  now  called 
Jerash,  possessing  notable  Roman 
remains  of  the  2nd  and  3rd  cen- 
turies, A.D.  It  has  been  identified 
with  Gadara  and  other  places,  but 
the  identification  is  open  to  doubt. 
Geraud,  ANDRE.  French  jour- 
nalist, better  known  under  his 
pseudonym  of  Pertinax.  His 
articles  during  the  Great  War, 
published  in  the  Echo  de  Paris, 
attracted  wide  attention  by  their 
concise  and  singularly  well-in- 
formed summaries  of  the  military 
situation,  and  during  the  Peace 
Conference  in  1919  his  pen  became 
a  considerable  power.  He  was  a 
formidable  critic  of  Wilson  and 
Lloyd  George,  and  during  1920 
showed  marked  hostility  to  the 
trend  of  British  foreign  policy, 
both  in  the  East  ar\d  in  regard  to 
Germany.  He  was  the  French  cor- 
respondent of  The  Daily  Telegraph. 


Gerenuk.  East  African  ante- 
lope. Reddish  fawn  in  colour,  with 
a  wide  band  of  black  down  the  back, 
it  is  remarkable  for  its  very  long 
neck  which  is  out  of  all  proportion 
to  its  body  and  gives  it  almost  the 
appearance  of  a  diminutive  giraffe. 
Its  chief  food  is  the  leaves  and 
twigs  of  small  trees  and  bushes. 

Gerhardt,  PAUL  (c.  1607-76). 
German  hymn -writer.  Born  in 
Saxony,  and  educated  at  Witten- 
berg, he  became  a  Lutheran 
minister  at  Berlin  and  elsewhere. 
He  ranks  next  to  Luther  among 
the  German  hymn  writers,  many 
of  his  hymns  having  been  trans- 
lated into  English,  the  best-known 
being,  Commit  thou  all  thy  griefs. 
He  died  at  Lubben,  June  7,  1676. 
See  Hymn. 

G6ricault,  JEAN  Louis  ANDRE 
THEODORE     (1791-1824).      French 
painter.    Born  at  Rouen,  Sept.  26, 
1791,  he  stud- 
ied  art   under 
Charles  Vernet, 
and  Pi erre 
Guerin.      His 
careful  picture 
of    a  mounted 
chasseur  officer 
at  the  Salon  of 
1812    was    his 
J.  Gericault,  first  success 

French  painter  in  his  series 
of  military  subjects.  After  fight- 
ing for  the  king  in  the  Hundred 
Days,  he  visited  Rome  and  Flor- 
ence. His  most  notable  picture 
was  The  Raft  of  the  Medusa,  1819 
(Louvre),  a  shipwreck  scene  of 
exceptional  size  (24  ft.  by  18  ft.), 
painted  with  a  fine  sense  of  natural 
form  and  dramatic  detail,  and 
much  admired  by  the  romantic 
school  of  painters.  It  was  exhibited 
with  success  in  London,  1820-22, 
Gericault  then  living  there.  He 
died  in  Paris,  Jan.  26,  1824.  His 
work  marks  the  breaking  away  of 
French  pain  ting  from  the  classic  tra- 
dition of  David  and  his  followers. 

Gerizim.  Hill  of  Samaria.  It 
stands  near  Shechem  or  Nablus, 
and  is  associated  with  an  adjoining 
hill,  Ebal.  The  curses  and  blessings 
in  connexion  with  the  law  were 
pronounced  respectively  from  these 
two  hills,  and  the  Samaritan  tem- 
ple was  built  on  the  former. 

Gerlsdorfer  OR  FRANZ  JOSEFS 
SPITZE.  Mountain  peak  of  the 
Hohen  Tatra  range  in  the  N.W. 
Carpathians.  It  is  the  highest  peak 
of  the  range  (8,737  ft.). 

Germ  (Lat.  germen,  bud).  In 
embryology,  the  primitive  vital 
particle  from  which  an  organism 
(animal  or  plant)  develops ;  in 
bacteriology,  a  bacillus  or  micro- 
organism from  which  a  disease 
originates.  The  term  is  also  used 
figuratively  for  the  ultimate  be- 


ginning of  a  thing,  e.g.  the  germ  of 
an  idea.  See  Bacillus  ;  Bacterio- 
logy ;  Embryology. 

Garm,  THE.  Magazine  founded 
to  further  the  views  of  the  Pre- 
Raphaelite  Brotherhood  in  poetry 
and  art,  published  in  1850.  Only 
four  numbers  were  issued,  the 
title  for  the  last  two  being  changed 
to  Art  and  Poetry.  Edited  by 
William  M.  Rossetti,  in  it  appeared 
several  poems  by  Christina  and 
Dante  Gabriel  Rossetti. 

German.  Term  used  for  any- 
thing belonging  to  Germany.  Be- 
fore the  Great  War  it  was  applied 
as  a  distinctive  mark  to  certain 
German  colonies,  e.g.,  German 
East  Africa,  German  South  -West 
Africa,  and  German  New  Guinea. 
As  these  now  belong  to  other 
Powers  the  term  German  has  been 
dropped  in  this  connexion.  See 
New  Guinea  ;  South-West  Africa  ; 
Tanganyika  Territory. 

German,  EDWARD  (b.  1862). 
British  composer.  Born  at  Whit- 
church,  Salop,  Feb.  17,  1862,  he 
studied  at  the 
Royal  Ac  a- 
demy  of  Music, 
London.  In 
1888  he  became 
musical  direc- 
tor at  The 
Globe  Theatre, 
and  while  there 
produced  the 
incidental 


musc     to 

Richard  III  x***eii 

(1889)  which  first  made  his  repu- 
tation, enhanced  by  his  music  to 
Henry  VIII,  written  for  The 
Lyceum  in  1892.  He  completed 
Sulli  van's  unfinished  opera,  The 
Emerald  Isle  (1901),  and  composed 
Merrie  England  (1902),  A  Princess 
of  Kensington  (1903),  and  Tom 
Jones  (1907),  as  well  as  orchestral 
symphonies,  suites,  and  songs.  His 
work  is  marked  by  a  fluency  and 
melodiousness  which  made  it 
widely  popular. 

German  Catholics  (German, 
Deutschkatholiken).  Religious  sect 
in  Germany.  It  separated  from  the 
Roman  Church  in  1844,  repudiat- 
ing the  papal  decrees  concerning 
mixed  marriages  and  celibacy  of 
the  clergy.  They  were  led  by  two 
ex-priests,  named  Ronge  and 
Czerski  ;  and  at  their  first  council 
held  at  Leipzig,  in  1845,  adopted  a 
simple  confession  of  faith  of  a 
Protestant  character.  They  had 
at  that  time  about  170  congrega- 
tions ;  but  three  years  later  many 
of  these  were  dissolved  through 
internal  dissensions.  Many  of  their 
adherents  returned  to  the  Roman 
Church  ;  and  in  1859  most  of  the 
others  joined  a  rationalistic-  sect 
known  as  the  Free  Congregations. 


GERMANIA 


349  1 


GERMANTOWN 


Germania.  Latin  name  for 
Germany.  As  such  it  is  the  title  of 
the  work  of  Tacitus  on  the  man- 
ners and  customs  of  the  tribes  of 
Germany  about  the  opening  of  the 
Christian  era,  this  being  the  chief 
authority  on  the  subject.  It  is  also 
used  as  a  personification  of  the 
German  people  as  Britannia  is  of 
the  British.  An  example  of  this  is 
the  gigantic  statue  of  Germania, 
33  ft.  high,  which  stands  on  the 
Niederwald,  overlooking  the  Rhine. 
It  commemorates  the  war  of  1870- 
71  and  the  consequent  union  of 
Germany.  See  Germany  ;  Nied- 
erwald. 

Germanicus,  CAESAR  (15  B.C.- 
A.D.  19).  Roman  general.  A  son  of 
Nero  Claudius  Drusus,  Germanicus 
_  was  nephew  of 
^  theemperorTi- 
berius.  Having 
distinguished 
himself  against 
the  P  a  n  n  o  n- 
ians  (A.D.  7-9), 
in  12  he  was 
consul,  and  as 
commander  in 
Gaul  and  on 
the  Rhine, 
quelled  a  dan- 
gerous mutiny. 
To  occupy  his  soldiers,  he  crossed 
the  Rhine,  attacked  and  defeated 
the  Marsi  and  Chatti,  and  in  16 
obtained  a  victory  over  Arminius 
on  the  Campus  Tdistavisus,  near 
Hameln  on  the  Weser. 

Recalled  to  Rome  by  the  jealous 
Tiberius,  he  was  sent  with  exten- 
sive powers  to  settle  affairs  in  the 
East.  His  mission  was  successful, 
but  he  was  continually  thwarted  by 
Calpurnius  Piso,  governor  of  Syria, 
probably  instructed  by  Tiberius. 
Returning  from  a  visit  to  Egypt,  he 
died  at  Daphne,  near  Antioch, 
poisoned,  it  was  said,  by  Piso.  His 
body  was  taken  to  Rome  and  buried 
amidst  general  grief.  His  free 
translation  of  the  Phaenomena,  an 
astronomical  poem  by  Aratus,  is 
extant.  Among  his  children  were 
the  future  emperor  Caligula  and 
Agrippina,  mother  of  Nero. 

Germanium.  Rare  metal.  It 
is  interesting  from  the  fact  that  it 
is  one  of  the  elements  the  existence 
of  which  was  predicted  long  before 
it  was  discovered,  and  its  principal 
physical  characters  described  by 
the  Russian  chemist  Mendeleeff. 
Its  actual  discovery  was  made  by 
the  German  chemist,  Clemens 
Winkler,  in  1886,  in  a  rare  mineral 
called  argyrodite,  found  near 
Freiberg,  Germany.  Winkler  ascer- 
tained the  percentage  composition 
of  the  mineral  to  be  silver  74'72, 
sulphur  17 '13,  germanium  6 '93, 
with  traces  of  iron,  zinc,  mercury, 
and  oxygen. 


The  metal  has  also  since  been 
found  in  euxenite,  a  very  complex 
mineral  containing  also  uranium, 
erbium,  tantalium,  yttrium,  and 
cerium.  Its  chemical  symbol  is  Ge  ; 
atomic  weight,  73 '32 ;  specific 
gravity,  5 '469 ;  melting  point, 
900°  C.  (1,652°  Fah.).  Silver  white 
in  colour,  brittle,  in  many  respects 
resembling  tin,  it  resists  atmo- 
spheric influences  ;  is  insoluble  in 
hydrochloric  acid ;  burns  in  the 
Bunsen  flame,  giving  off  white 
vapours  ;  and  crystallises  from  the 
molten  condition  in  beautiful 
greyish  white,  metallic,  eight 
sided  crystals. 

German  Measles,  RUBELLA  OR 
ROTELN.  Acute  infectious  fever 
occurring  among  both  children  and 
adults.  The  organism  responsible 
for  the  disease  has  not  been  iden- 
tified. The  symptoms  are  usually 
mild.  Slight  headache  and  chilly 
feelings  are  followed  in  a  day  or 
two  by  the  appearance  of  a  rose- 
red  rash,  first  on  the  chest,  which 
afterwards  spreads  over  the  whole 
body.  Most  often  it  consists  of 
separate  raised  spots,  but  some- 
times these  run  together.  The 
throat  is  sore,  the  glands  in  the 
neck  may  be  somewhat  swollen, 
and  there  is  often  a  small  rise  of 
temperature.  The  rash  disappears 
in  a  few  days,  and  the  symptoms 
abate.  Complications  are  rare. 
Treatment  consists  in  keeping  the 
patient  in  bed,  or  at  least  in  a 
warm,  well-ventilated  room,  and 
feeding  him  on  a  light  diet.  A 
purgative  may  be  necessary.  The 
patient  should  be  regarded  as 
capable  of  conveying  the  infection 
for  a  fortnight  after  the  attack, 
and  therefore  kept  isolated  as 
thoroughly  as  possible. 

German  Silver.  Alloy  of  copper, 
nickel,  and  zinc.  The  best  propor- 
tions are  probably  51 '6  p.c.  copper, 
25'8  p.c.  nickel,  and  22'6  p.c.  zinc, 
the  alloy  formed  having  a  beautiful, 
bluish  white,  silver  colour,  and  being 
largely  used  for  the  manufacture  of 
spoons,  forks,  and  candlesticks,  as 
well  as  personal  ornaments.  The 
proportions  used  in  practice  vary, 
while  small  quantities  of  other 
metals,  lead,  tin,  or  iron  in  particu- 
lar, are  sometimes  added,  either  to 
cheapen  the  cost  or  to  impart  some 
special  property.  An  alloy  known 
as  white  copper,  consisting  chiefly 
of  copper  and  nickel,  has  been 
used  in  Saxony  from  remote  times, 
and  was  doubtless  the  precursor  of 
German  silver.  The  Chinese  pack- 
fong,  meaning  white  copper,  is  of 
the  same  class.  See  Alloy ;  Pack- 
fong  ;  Metallurgy. 

German  Sixth.  In  music, 
chromatic  chord  consisting  of  a 
bass  note  with  a  major  third,  per- 
fect fifth,  and  augmented  sixth 


above  it,  as  here 

shown.    It  be- 

longs to  the  key 

of     its     major 

third  —  in     this 

case  C,  but  it  can  be  used  also  in 

other  keys.  The  origin  of  the  name 

is    obscure.      See    Augmentation 

Chromatic  ;  Harmony  ;  Interval. 

German  Tinder  OR  AMADOU. 
Hard,  corky  substance  of  Fames 
fomentarius,  a  destructive  tree- 
fungus,  after  it  has  been  cut  in 
thin  slices,  hammered  out,  and 
treated  with  saltpetre.  Before  the 
invention  of  the  friction  -match 
it  was  much  used  to  obtain  tire 
from  the  flint  and  steel  tinder-box. 
Pieces  of  the  dried  fungus,  without 
treatment,  will  smoulder  for  hours 
after  a  corner  has  been  ignited. 
Without  the  saltpetre  it  was  used 
in  the  contrivance  of  caps  and 
other  articles  of  clothing.  An 
inferior  amadou  is  made  from 


gnaru*. 

German  town.  Former  borough 
of  Pennsylvania,  U.S.A.,  in  Mont- 
gomery co.  In  1854  it  became  a 
part  of  Philadelphia,  whose  twenty- 
second  ward  it  now  is.  A  resi- 
dential district,  about  5  m.  N.  of  the 
central  point  of  the  city,  it  con  tains 
several  historical  houses,  and  is 
notable  as  the  site  of  the  first  paper 
mill  erected  in  the  U.S.A.,  and  for 
the  publication  of  the  first  Ameri- 
can edition  of  the  Bible. 

Germantown  was  settled  in  1683 
by  thirteen  families  from  Crefeld 
in  Germany,  and  became  a  borough 
in  1689.  ft  soon  became  a  strong- 
hold of  the  Society  of  Friends,  who 
built  a  meeting-house  here  about 
1693.  In  the  18th  century  it  was  a 
very  flourishing  place.  It  has  two 
inns,  the  King  of  Prussia  and  the 
Mermaid,  dating  from  that  time. 
Its  founder,  Francis  D.  Pretorius, 
was  a  schoolmaster  here,  and  is 
notable  as  one  of  four  who  signed 
the  first  public  protest  against 
slavery.  In  1789  an  attempt  was 
made  to  fix  the  capital  of  the 
United  States  at  Germantown,  and 
it  was  actually  the  capital  in  1793, 
owing  to  an"  outbreak  of  yellow 
fever  in  Philadelphia  (q.v.).  It  be- 
came part  of  Philadelphia  in  1854. 

The  battle  of  Germantown  was 
fought  between  the  British  and 
the  Americans,  Oct.  4,  1777.  A 
British  force  under  Sir  W.  Howe 
was  in  the  town  when  it  was  at- 
tacked by  Washington.  With  his 
men  advancing  in  two  bodies,  he 
attempted  a  surprise,  but  after  an 
initial  success  this  failed.  There 
was  some  fighting  in  and  around 
the  houses  of  the  town,  but  the 
end  was  the  retreat  of  the  Ameri- 
cans with  a  loss  of  about  700  men. 
The  losses  of  the  British  were 
somewhat  fewer. 


GERMANY 


3493 


GERMANY 


GERMANY :  PEOPLE,  HISTORY  &  LITERATURE 

HAMILTON  FYFE,  Prof.  J.  O.  ROBERTSON,  and  A.  W.  HOLLAND 

Germany  is  dealt  with  as  are  the  other  great  countries  of  the  world.     In  addition  to  this  sketch,  see  the 
articles  on  its  cities,  rivers,  mountains,  etc.  ;  its  rulers  and  statesmen  ;  its  scholars  and  men  of  letters. 
See  also  the  articles  on  Bavaria;  Mecklenburg;  Prussia,  and  the  other  states  of  the  federation  ;  Empire, 
Roman  ;  Hanseatic  League  ;  Hohenzollern ;  Reformation 


Germany  is  the  largest  and  most 
powerful  state  of  Central  Europe. 
It  occupies  the  middle  of  the  Great 

._ European     Plain 

as  well  as  parts 
of  the  Alpine  fore- 
lands, and  con- 
nects Eastern  Eu- 
rope, Russia,  with 
Western  Europe, 
France. 

The  chief  lines 
of  communica- 
tion, both  from 
north  to  south  and  from  east  to 
west,  run  through  it.  Its  frontiers 
are  mostly  on  land,  the  longest 
being  that  which  divides  it  from 
Poland ;  it  also  borders  on  France, 
Belgium,  Holland,  Switzerland, 
Denmark,  and  Czecho-SIovakia. 
Its  sea  coast  frontier  of  1,200m.  is 
partly  on  the  North  Sea,  partly  on 
the  Baltic.  Its  area,  as  fixed  by  the 
treaty  of  Versailles,  is  171,910  sq.m. 
PHYSICAL  FEATURES.  The 
greater  part  of  the  country  is  flat. 
Throughout  the  northern  districts 
the  plain  is  scarcely  broken  ;  in  the 
south  there  are  several  systems  of 
hills  and  regions  of  great  beauty. 
The  most  northerly  range  is  the 
Harz,  consisting  of  very  pretty 
valleys  and  small  heights  well 
wooded  and  easy  to  climb,  which 
make  it  a  favourite  holiday  ground. 
Of  much  the  same  character  are 
the  Black  Forest  and  Bavarian 
highlands.  The  former  does  not 
run  to  summits  much  over  4,000  ft., 
but  these  afford  charming  views, 
and  on  the  slopes  flowers  of  Alpine 
and  sub-Alpine  species  bloom  in 
large  variety.  On  the  Bavarian 
border  the  highest  point  is  9,710 
ft.,  and  there  are  many  peaks 
between  4,000  and  8,000  ft. 

Wealth  in  Timber 

Forestry  is  treated  as  a  branch, 
and  a  very  important  branch,  of 
agriculture.  About  one  quarter  of 
the  country  before  the  Great  War 
(53,000  sq.  m.)  was  forest  land, 
many  of  the  woods  belonging  to  the 
state  or  to  local  authorities ;  less 
than  half  were  private  property. 
Great  care  was  taken  to  keep  the 
forests  in  order,  and  to  replant 
regularly  as  the  trees  were  cut  down. 
Private  owners  were  compelled  to 
do  this.  Thus  four-fifths  of  the 
forest  area,  systematically  culti- 
vated, became  a  source  of  large 
public  and  private  revenue. 

The  Swabian  and  Franconian 
Jura,  considered  to  be  a  continua- 
tion of  the  Swiss  mountains,  are 


not  so  attractive.  The  slopes  and 
summits  are  dreary,  the  valleys 
boggy,  the  lakes  uninteresting,  the 
winds  cold.  Far  pleasanter  is  the 
hilly  region  between  the  rivers 
Neckar  and  Main.  The  Spessart 
range,  N.  of  the  Main,  is  remark- 
able for  its  forests  of  oak  and  beech, 
vast  in  extent ;  it  connects  with  the 
Vogelsberg  and  so  S.W.  with  the 
Taunus,  famous  for  its  water  cures, 
including  those  of  Homburg  and 
Wiesbaden.  The  Thuringian  Alps, 
which  are  well  wooded,  extend  for 
about  150  m.  In  Saxony  there  are 
several  hilly  districts,  which  are 
dignified  by  the  name  of  the  Saxon 
Switzerland. 

RIVERS  AND  CANALS.  The 
rivers,  in  order  of  importance,  are 
the  Rhine,  the  Elbe,  the  Weser 
with  the  port  of  Bremen,  the  Vis- 
tula running  in  from  Poland,  and 
the  Oder.  Hamburg,  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Elbe,  was  Germany's 
greatest  port,  but  it  suffered  so 
severely  during  the  Great  War 
that  it  became  merely  a  shadow  of 
its  former  prosperous  self.  Bre- 
men, its  chief  rival,  was  hit  almost 
as  hard.  Other  ports,  which  had  a 
flourishing  trade  before  the  war,  are 
Liibeck,  Stettin,  Danzig,  now  a  free 
port,  Elbing,  and  Kiel. 

Lakes  as  Holiday  Resorts 

The  canals  are  numerous  and 
well  used.  Of  the  8,646  m.  of  water 
ways  suitable  for  transport,  1,446 
m.  are  canals  and  1,374  m.  canalised 
rivers.  The  most  ambitious  work 
of  this  kind  is  the  Kiel  Canal, 
connecting  the  North  Sea  with  the 
Baltic.  There  are  many  lakes. 
The  largest  is  the  Bodensee  (lake 
of  Constance),  which  is  between 
Bavaria  and  Switzerland.  Many 
of  them  have  summer  resorts  on 
their  banks;  of  these  Tegernsee, 
Schleiersee,  and  Konigsee  in  Ba- 
varia are  the  most  frequented. 
There  is  a  lake  near  Berlin  which 
thousands  of  holiday-makers  visit 
every  summer.  Another  favourite 
resort  is  the  island  of  Riigen,  in 
the  Baltic,  where  are  a  number  of 
hotels  and  boarding-houses,  full  all 
the  hot  weather. 

CLIMATE.  As  a  rule,  the  German 
summers  are  warmer  and  more 
settled  than  in  the  British  Isles  ; 
the  winters  are  colder.  The  rain- 
fall varies  from  66  ins.  a  year  on 
the  Brocken  in  the  Harz  to  20  on 
the  Silesian  plains.  Abundant  rain 
in  the  hilly  districts  accounts  for 
the  rapid-spreading  undergrowth. 
Any  piece  of  land  which  is  left  un- 


cultivated and  unsown  is  likely  to 
bear  trees,  chiefly  firs  or  pines, 
which  grow  so  quickly  that  in  less 
than  ten  years  a 
respectable  plan- 
tation can  be 
seen.  In  the  for- 
ests are  to  be 
found  here  and 
there  wolves  and 
wild  boar;  wild 
cats  badgers,  and  German^epublic 
martens  abound.  arms 

A  large  amount  of  the  soil  is 
sandy,  and,  for  other  reasons,  un- 
productive ;  yet  so  hard  have  the 
peasants  worked,  and  so  skilful  is 
the  application  of  knowledge  to 
agriculture,  that  as  a  producer  of 
varied  crops  Germany  stands  high 
among  the  nations.  Rye  is  the 
cereal  chiefly  grown  ;  most  of  the 
people  eat  rye  bread.  Some 
15,000,000  acres  are  under  rye, 
some  5,000,000  under  wheat.  Pota- 
toes are  produced  in  enormous 
quantities  and  sugar  beets  also. 
Fruit  is  plentiful;  many  of  the 
country  roads  are  lined  with  cherry, 
apple,  or  pear  trees.  Vines  are 
grown  in  many  parts,  and  wines  are 
made  that  have  a  world- wide  fame. 

The  peasantry  are  a  particularly 
sturdy  race  everywhere,  indus- 
trious, simple  in  character  and  in 
their  ways  of  life.  In  the  more 
southerly  regions  their  manners 
are  agreeable,  they  sing  and  dance 
well,  they  welcome  strangers  hos- 
pitably. The  northern  peasants 
are  more  gruff  in  their  demeanour, 
more  calculating  in  their  dealings. 
When  they  went  to  live  in  cities 
they  very  often  became  socialists, 
but  as  long  as  they  remained  on  the 
soil  they  supported  the  monarchy 
with  unwavering  stolidity. 

POPULATION.  The  drift  from  the 
country  into  the  towns  was  steady 
from  the  date  of  the  establishment 
of  the  empire  in  1871.  At  that 
time,  half  of  the  population  de- 
pended upon  the  soil  for  their 
livelihood.  In  1895  that  propor- 
tion had  dropped  to  35  p.c.  ;  fif- 
teen years  after  it  was  only  28  p.c. 
In  that  period  of  thirty  years  the 
population  engaged  in  mining  and 
other  industries  rose  from  35  p.c. 
to  42  p.c.,  and  the  population  en- 
gaged in  trade  and  transport  from 
10  to  13  p.c.  Just  before  the  war 
trade  and  industry  occupied  more 
than  half  the  population,  while  not 
more  than  a  quarter  were  wholly  en- 
gaged in  agriculture.  There  were, 


GERMANY 


3495 


GERMANY 


however,  upwards  of  1,750,000 
Deople  who  tilled  the  soil  in  ad- 
lition  to  following  a  trade  of  some 
sort.  In  the  north  the  farmers 
..ere  obliged  to  employ  a  great  deal 
of  foreign  labour  from  Russia  and 
Austria.  Vast  numbers  of  Italian, 
Polish,  Russians,  and  other  Slav 
peoples  were  employed  as  un- 
skilled labourers  and  in  coal  mines. 
In  such  conditions  there  was  little 
emigration.  The  flow  of  Germans  to 
the  United  States,  which  had  been 
a  feature  of  the  later  19th  century, 
and  to  South  America,  where  they 
established  flourishing  settlements 
early  in  the  20th  century,  almost 
entirely  ceased  in  spite  of  the  rapid 
growth  of  the  population. 

In  1871  the  Empire  had 
41,000,000  inhabitants  ;  this  num- 
ber rose  steadily  until  in  1910 
there  were  close  on  65,000,000,  and 
if  a  census  had  been  taken  in  1915 
it  would  certainly  have  shown 
70,000,000.  This  increase  at  the 
rate  of  about  a  million  a  year 
created  in  a  short  time  a  great 
many  large  towns.  In  1871  there 
were  only  eight  which  had  over 
100,000  inhabitants  ;  in  1914  there 
were  more  than  fifty,  and  instead 
of  accommodating  4  p.c.  of  the 
entire  population,  they  were  occu- 
pied by  21  p.c. 

INDUSTRIES.  Nature  gave  Ger- 
many most  of  the  elements  re- 
quired for  industrial  progress.  In 
the  first  place,  the  German  coal- 
fields were  numerous  and  rich.  In 
the  Rhine  province,  in  Westphalia, 
in  Upper  Silesia  and  on  the  Saar, 
the  output  supplied  90  p.c.  of  the 
country's  needs.  The  mines  of  the 
Ruhr  basin  are  the  richest  and 
have  the  Rhine  close  at  hand  for 
transport.  The  French  have  a  claim 
upon  them  and  other  coalfields  as 
recompense  for  the  damage  done  to 
French  mines  during  the  Great 
War,  but  this  enforced  export 
ought  easily  to  be  borne,  for  it 
has  been  estimated  that  there  is 
coal  enough  in  Germany  to  last  for 
1,300  years  at  the  present  rate  of 
consumption. 

Iron  and  Steel 

For  iron  the  Germans  have  never 
been  so  well  off  as  they  are  for  coal, 
and  since  they  lost  the  ironfields  of 
Alsace-Lorraine,  which  were  speci- 
ally valuable  because  they  lay  close 
to  coal,  they  have  far  less  than  they 
had  before  the  war.  Their  ore  is 
also  of  a  poor  quality ;  they  were 
obliged -even  before  1914  to  im- 
port a  vast  amount,  something 
like  10,000,000  tons  a  year.  Yet 
their  production  of  steel  and  manu- 
factured iron  went  ahead  so  quickly 
during  the  last  two  decades  of  the 
19th  centuiy  that,  whereas  in  1882 
British  foundries  turned  out  twice 
as  much  pig-iron  as  Germany,  by 


1912  the  Germans  were  producing 
half  as  much  again  as  Great  Bri- 
tain. Thus  within  a  generation 
Germany  forced  itself  into  the 
front  rank  of  industrial  nations. 

Two  movements  accompanied 
this  transformation,  one  a  move- 
ment of  capital  into  groups  con- 
trolling vast  sums  of  money  and 
the  operations  of  armies  of  work- 
people ;  the  other,  a  growing 
dissatisfaction  amongst  the  middle 
and  labouring  classes,  which  took 
shape  in  the  development  of  the 
socialistic  party.  Founded  to  all 
appearance  upon  the  doctrine  of 
Karl  Marx,  this  was  indeed  a  Cave 
of  Adullam  to  which  all  resorted 
who  for  any  reason  were  discon- 
tented and  desirous  of  change.  As 
the  trade  unions  became  stronger, 
the  socialists  polled  at  every  elec- 
tion a  larger  number  of  votes,  until 
in  1912  they  had  the  largest  single 
party  hi  the  Reichstag. 

Between  them  the  trade  unions 
and  the  socialist  organization  did 
a  great  deal  to  prepare  the  way 
for  the  change  of  system  from 
monarchy  to  republic  which  oc- 
cured  in  1918.  They  set  up  librar- 
ies, evening  schools,  colleges  for 
manual  workers,  inquiry  offices 
which  supplied  information  on  all 
manner  of  subjects,  and  made  con- 
verts by  all  means  possible. 

Capital  and  Combines 
The  party  also  controlled  a  num- 
ber of  newspapers,  of  which  the 
most  powerful,  Vorwarts,  made  it- 
self feared  as  well  as  hated  by  the 
authorities.  Thus  the  voice  of  the 
discontented  was  loud  in  the  land, 
though  it  had  little  influence  upon 
the  direction  of  aifairs,  chiefly  be- 
cause the  socialists  mostly  put 
patriotism  before  principle,  and  let 
themselves  be  deluded  like  the  rest 
of  the  population.  At  the  same 
time  the  employers  formed  them- 
selves into  associations  for  the  pur- 
pose of  resisting  demands  for  in- 
creased wages  and  shorter  hours. 

This  was  made  easier  by  the 
grouping  which  already  existed  of 
all  the  larger  capitalists  and  many 
small  ones  anxious  for  protection. 
Such  companies  as  Krupp's,  the 
Allgemeine  -  Elektricitats  -  Gesell- 
schaft,  the  Hamburg-Amerika 
and  Norddeutscher  Lloyd  shipping 
trusts,  the  colliery  combination 
and  the  banking  combines,  had 
made  themselves  immensely  strong. 
Individual  captains  of  industry 
and  financiers  gained  great  per- 
sonal power.  Hugo  Stinnes,  who 
became  prominent  during  the  re- 
construction period  after  the  war, 
was  one  of  the  most  influential  of 
these,  and  maintained  bis  influence 
in  spite  of  tne  revolution.  There 
were  also  among  the  employers 
syndicates  in  a  number  of  trades 


which  were  called  cartels  and  exer- 
cised a  widespread  control  over  in- 
dustry. Sometimes  they  merely 
aimed  at  inducing  manufacturers 
to  sell  at  the  same  price,  so  as  not 
to  compete  against  each  other ; 
sometimes  they  took  entire  charge 
of  the  whole  output,  arranged  for 
its  sale,  and  relieved  the  individual 
factory-owner  of  any  concern, 
beyond  producing  the  articles 
required. 

These  served  in  some  directions 
a  useful  purpose,  but  the  feeling 
against  them  steadily  grew  more 
hostile  ;  they  were  denounced  like 
the  trusts  in  America,  and  the 
state  was  called  upon  to  regulate 
or  abolish  them.  There  were  some, 
however,  and  even  some  socialists, 
who  declared  that  the  cartels  repre- 
sented the  next  step  forward  in 
industrial  progress,  since  they  were 
bound  to  be  turned  into  state 
monopolies  for  the  benefit  of  the 
people  as  a  whole. 

Cheap  Electricity 

It  is  certainly  doubtful  whether, 
without  the  electrical  combines, 
Germany  could  have  got  such  cheap 
light  and  power  spread  so  widely 
over  the  land.  A  good  many  muni- 
cipalities which  had  established 
electrical  undertakings  found  that 
the  public  were  better  served  either 
by  selling  to  or  buying  current 
from  a  private  company.  Many  a 
village,  many  a  farmhouse,  which 
could  never  have  enjoyed  the  bene- 
fits of  electric  light,  electric  power, 
or  electric  heating  if  small  enter- 
prise had  been  alone  in  the  field, 
had  reason  to  be  thankful  for  the 
far-reaching  tentacles  of  Siemens- 
Schuckert  or  the  A.E.G.  Especi- 
ally valuable  were  these  advan- 
tages to  those  villagers  who  worked 
in  their  own  homes  at  such  trades 
as  weaving,  glass-making,  toy- 
making,  embroidery,  basket-weav- 
ing, wood-carving,  straw-hat  mak- 
ing, and  so  on. 

Half  a  million  people  are  occu- 
pied or  partly  occupied  in  home 
industries  altogether,  a  good  many 
of  them  in  the  towns,  where  they 
are  engaged  in  tailoring,  cigar- 
making,  and  the  silk  and  hosiery 
trades.  Most  of  these  occupations 
are  badly  paid,  9s.  to  18s.  a  week 
being  reckoned  in  some  districts 
a  fair  wage  for  a  whole  family 
working  from  10  to  12  hours  a  day. 
When  German  goods  began  to  find 
their  way  into  England  again  after 
the  war  it  was  the  products  of 
these  home  industries  which  came 
first,  and,  owing  to  their  cheapness, 
had  the  readiest  sale. 

Not  far  behind  them  came  dyes, 
in  which  the  Germans  had  made 
themselves  pre-eminent,  owing  to 
their  willingness  to  spend  money 
on  chemical  research.  In  the  early 


GERMANY 


3496 


GERMANY 


days  of  aniline  dyes  England  led 
the  way,  but  German  respect  for 
science  and  the  encouragement 
which  its  chemists  received  soon 
altered  the  position,  and  although 
much  was  done  to  enable  dyes  as 
good  as  the  German  to  be  made  in 
England,  not  many  months  had 
passed  after  the  conclusion  of 
peace  before  English  manufac- 
turers were  sending  to  Germany 
again.  Thus  in  dyes  the  Germans 
established  something  like  a  mono- 
poly, as  they  had  in  the  finer  kinds 
of  lenses  and  optical  glass  generally. 
Export  of  Cheap  Goods 

Another  product  of  great  value 
to  them  is  potash,  of  which  they 
have  very  large  deposits  ;  this  is 
used  so  widely  in  agriculture,  and 
is  found  so  little  in  Europe,  that 
its  possession  is  most  useful.  Be- 
sides the  salt  beds  from  which 
potash  comes,  there  are  many 
others  in  Germany  of  large  extent. 
But  it  was  by  the  export  of  manu- 
factured articles  rather  than  of 
natural  products  that  German 
wealth  so  quickly  increased  during 
the  last  fifteen  years  of  the  19th 
century  and  the  first  fourteen  of 
the  20th  century.  The  factories 
made  a  speciality  of  cheapness. 
They  turned  out  articles  which 
were  not  of  the  best  quality,  but 
which  would  meet  with  ready  pur- 
chasers. 

The  progressive  movement  of 
German  exports  led  to  a  large  in- 
crease in  shipping,  and  out  of  this 
grew,  not  only  the  navy  which  was 
begun  in  1897  with  a  complete 
seven  years'  programme,  and  then 
enlarged  in  every  succeeding  year, 
but  also  the  desire  to  compete 
with  Britain  in  passenger  carrying. 
The  German  liners  were  as  large 
and  as  luxurious  as  any. 

GOVERNMENT.  Since  the  abdica- 
tion of  the  third  German  emperor, 
William  II,  the  form  of  govern- 
ment has  been  republican.  All 
citizens  over  20  years  of  age, 
women  as  well  as  men,  have  votes, 
and  return  members  to  the  Reich- 
stag of  the  whole  empire  by  pro- 
portional representation.  This  as- 
sembly is  elected  for  four  years. 
In  addition  there  is  a  Reichsrat  or 
federal  council,  consisting  of  mem- 
bers from  each  of  the  states  form- 
ing the  republic.  These  states  are 
Anhalt,  Baden,  Bavaria,  Bremen, 
Brunswick,  Hamburg,  Hesse,  Lippe, 
Liibeck,  Mecklenburg  -  Schwerin, 
Mecklenburg-Strelitz,  Oldenburg, 
Prussia,  Saxony,  Schaumburg- 
Lippe,  Thuringia,  Waldeck,  and 
Wiirttemberg.  All  the  people  of 
all  the  states  elect  the  president  of 
the  republic  for  a  term  of  seven 
years.  The  constitution  provides 
for  a  referendum  to  the  people  of 
measures  in  dispute. 


There  is  no  state  church,  all 
forms  of  religion  being  free  and 
equal.  The  majority  of  the  people 
(40,000,000)  belong  to  the  Pro- 
testant Church ;  there  are  some 
24,000,000  Roman  Catholics.  In 
recent  years  there  has  been  a  slight 
decrease  in  the  number  of  Pro- 
testants and  a  slight  increase  in 
the  Catholics.  Jews  only  number 
one  per  cent,  of  the  population  ; 
among  the 'wealthy,  however,  the 
proportion  is  much  greater,  as  it  is 
among  those  also  who  follow  the 
arts. 

EDUCATION.  Education  is  left 
to  each  state,  but  it  is  almost  uni- 
form through  out  the  entire  country. 
Everywhere  it  is  compulsory  be- 
tween the  ages  of  6  and  14.  The 
defect  of  German  higher  education 
is  its  intensity,  which  accounts 
for  so  large  a  number  of  the  people, 
even  children,  requiring  spectacles 
or  eyeglasses.  But  on  the  com- 
mercial and  technical  sides  it  has 
made  itself  supreme.  Classical  edu- 
cation is  given  a  secondary  place, 
although  scholarship  is  still  culti- 
vated, both  in  the  Gymnasien 
and  in  the  universities  ;  the  whole 
system  in  the  schools  above  the 
elementary  aims  at  preparation 
for  professional  careers.  Great 
pains  are  taken  to  ensure  that 
teachers  shall  be  well  qualified  for 
their  task. 

Effect  of  Educational  System 

Germans  have  a  profound  belief 
in  the  value  of  education,  and 
keenly  desire  it.  When  those  who 
could  pass  certain  examinations 
were  excused  part  of  their  military 
service,  it  was  considered  dis- 
graceful in  any  young  man  of  edu- 
cation that  he  should  not  be  able 
to  take  advantage  of  this  pro- 
vision. The  tendency  for  educa- 
tion in  Germany  is,  however,  to- 
wards making  all  citizens  obedient 
rather  than  self-reliant.  They  are 
accustomed  to  look  to  the  state  for 
the  regulation  of  many  matters 
which  elsewhere  are  left  to  indi- 
vidual or  local  choice.  Germany 
was,  for  example,  the  first  country 
to  adopt  compulsory  insurance 
against  sickness,  accident,  and  old 
age.  Bismarck  favoured  a  modi- 
fied state  socialism  as  a  means  of 
keeping  the  people  comfortable, 
and  therefore  contented.  The  re- 
sult of  this  was  that  poor  rates 
were  almost  unknown.  Destitute 
persons  haVe  a  claim  upon  any 
local  union  for  relief,  but  the  ex- 
pense of  relieving  them  must  be 
paid  by  the  unions  in  which  they 
are  registered  as  residents.  In  the 
larger  towns  the  Elberfeld  system  is 
applied,  which  employs  the  unpaid 
services  of  well-meaning  persons  for 
visiting  and  inquiring  into  the  con- 
ditions of  those  who  require  help. 


German  high-roads  are  good,  and 
usually  the  secondary  roads  are 
well  looked  after.  An  inclination 
to  have  things  done  decently  and  in 
order,  if  possible  upon  a  uniform 
system,  is  a  German  characteristic. 
The  railways  are  managed  by  the 
federal  government,  and  serve  the 
needs  of  travellers  well.  In  the  40 
years  between  1880  and  1920  they 
were  almost  doubled  in  length  ; 
now  there  are  close  upon  39,000 
miles  of  them.  This  increase  ac- 
companied the  general  develop- 
ment of  the  people.  In  1890 
they  exported  goods  to  the  value 
of  £162,000,000  and  imported 
£203,000,000  worth.  In  J  910  these 
figures  had  risen  to  382  millions 
and  465  millions  ;  during  the  next 
three  years  there  was  a  further 
very  rapid  increase  ;  the  exports 
stood  at  509  millions  and  the  im- 
ports at  560  millions. 

The  Germans  believed  that  the 
growth  of  their  trade  was  largely 
due  to  their  policy  of  protection  ; 
but  the  chief  cause  was  to  be  found 
in  their  enterprise  and  energy. 
Coming  into  the  field  when  both 
British  and  American  had  to  a 
great  extent  occupied  it,  they  saw 
that  only  hard  work  and  ingenuity 
could  capture  markets  for  their 
manufactures.  Everything  possible 
was  done  to  meet  the  wishes  of  pos- 
sible customers.  Catalogues  and 
price  lists  were  always  printed  in  the 
language  of  the  country  to  which 
they  were  sent,  with  weights  and 
measures  and  money  to  match. 
Commercial  travellers  always  spoke 
the  language  of  those  among  whom 
they  tried  to  do  business,  and  spoke 
it  well  enough  usually  to  be  on 
familiar  terms  socially  with  the 
trading  class.  In  almost  every 
part  of  the  world,  therefore, 
German  competition  began  to  be 
felt  by  British  firms. 

National  Ambitions 

National  ambition  was  fiercely 
stimulated  from  the  time  of  the 
successful  war  with  France  and 
the  foundation  of  the  empire.  Up 
to  that  period  the  Germans  had 
been  easy-going,  easily  satisfied, 
romantic  in  their  ideas,  more  de- 
voted to  music  and  poetry  than  to 
material  aims.  The  virus  of  im- 
perialism injected  into  their  blood 
by  Bismarck  brought  about  a  sur- 
prising change.  Their  outlook 
narrowed,  they  set  themselves  de- 
signedly to  fill  the  chief  place 
among  the  nations.  An  immense 
effort,  of  which  the  ramifications 
were  noticeable  in  all  branches 
of  the  national  life,  especially  in 
education,  was  made  to  imbue 
the  entire  people  from  early  youth 
with  the  desire  for  aggrandise- 
ment, for  the  spreading  of  German 
influence  which  they  called  Kultur. 


GERMANY 


3497 


GERMANY 


All  this  was  the  work  of  Bis- 
marck, who,  aided  by  ambitious 
soldiers  like  von  Moltke  and  von 
Roon,  set  himself  to  make  the 
Hohenzollern  dynasty  of  Prussia 
the  most  powerful  monarchical 
caste  in  Europe,  and  to  endow  it 
with  an  empire  that  should  hold 
the  balance,  and  therefore  the  prin- 
cipal share,  of  European  power. 
From  this  conception,  which  Bis- 
marck's genius  for  unscrupulous 
statecraft  was  able  to  realize,  the 
new  rulers  of  Germany  went  on  to 
dream  of  world-power. 

Outside  Germany  proper  over 
one  million  sq.  m.  were  under  the 
German  flag  in- 1914,  most  of  them 
in  East  and  South -West  Africa 
and  in  Cameroons.  They  had  also 
islands  in  the  Pacific.  The  total 
population  of  the  million  sq.  m.  was 
under  15,000,000,  and  only  an  in- 
finitesimal proportion  of  these  were 
settlers  from  Germany.  Indeed,  it 
was  proved  that  the  Germans  were 
not  at  all  inclined  to  colonise,  in 
spite  of  the  frequent  talk  about 
their  need  for  room  to  expand. 
They  did  not  like  the  labours  of 
the  pioneer,  they  did  not  like  lone- 
liness. They  would  settle  in  Brazil 
because  there  they  found  German 
settlements  already  in  being. 
Those  who  were  induced  to  go  to 
the  colonies,  either  by  persuasion 
or  by  the  hope  of  growing  rich 
quickly,  returned  home  as  soon  as 
they  could.  In  1911,  for  example, 
5,050  emigrants  arrived  in  German 
S.W.  Africa,  and  4,300  left.  The 
entire  white  population  of  all  the 
German  acquisitions  overseas  was 
only  about  25,000,  and  a  good 
many  of  these  were  not  Germans. 
Those  who  were  German  belonged 
mostly  to  the  official  class,  to  the 
army  and  to  the  police,  to  the  rail- 
way staffs,  and  to  the  clergy. 
Colonial  Failure 

Nor  did  the  colonies  prove  valu- 
able, as  had  been  hoped,  in  supply- 
ing raw  materials  for  the  manu- 
facturers of  Germany.  They  were, 
in  short,  a  source  of  expense 
rather  than  profit,  and  would  no 
doubt  have  been  given  up  if  the 
government  could  have  let  them 
go  without  thereby  admitting  that 
its  policy  was  ill-founded.  This 
would  have  meant  abandoning  the 
strongest  argument  for  the  at- 
tempt to  build  a  great  navy. 
Their  naval  effort  was  justified  by 
the  claim  to  a  "  place  in  the  sun  " 
of  world-empire,  which  they  could 
not  secure,  they  declared,  unless 
they  were  prepared  to  dispute  it 
by  force. 

CHARACTERISTICS.  At  all  the 
manoeuvres  of  their  emperor,  their 
politicians,  and  their  diplomatists, 
the  mass  of  Germans  looked  on 
with  a  feeling  of  satisfaction, 


though  few  had  any  clear  notion 
as  to  what  they  were  all  about. 
But  everyone  could  perceive  that 
their  leading  men  were  becoming 
more  important  and  that  these 
political  activities  were  good  for 
trade.  So  far  as  the  mass  of  the 
people  were  concerned  little  change 
in  the  national  character  was  to  bo 
noticed.  They  remained  a  simple- 
living,  home-loving  folk,  submit- 
ing  themselves  readily  to  discipline 
of  every  kind,  enjoying  their  work, 
putting  all  their  energies  into  it, 
enjoying  their  pleasures,  and  not 
troubling  themselves  very  much 
about  affairs  of  state,  except  when 
they  were  told  that  England  per- 
sisted in  standing  in  their  way. 
The  government  control  of  the 
newspapers  made  it  easily  possible 
to  divert  national  emotion  into  any 
desired  channel ;  the  general 
direction  given  to  it  was  one  of 
hostility  to  Britain. 

Influence  of  Other  Nations 

Yet,  at  the  same  time,  the  class 
which  carried  on  this  campaign  of 
propaganda,  and  had  its  habits 
entirely  changed  by  the  new  pros- 
perity, was  ready  to  copy  the 
manners  and  customs  of  the 
English  aristocracy  and  rich  middle 
class  with  slavish  flattery.  The 
practice  of  dining  in  the  middle  of 
the  day  and  taking  a  light  supper 
in  the  evening  was  abandoned. 
Lunch,  afternoon  tea,  and  eight 
o'clock  dinner  became  fashion- 
able. No  man  who  cared  about 
his  appearance  wore  any  but 
English  clothes.  For  some  time 
there  had  been  a  disposition  to 
follow  the  British  addiction  to 
outdbor  games.  Football  had  be- 
come popular,  lawn  tennis  was 
played  widely  and  well.  The  older 
kind  of  German  young  man,  who 
wore  his  hair  long  and  his  clothes 
anyhow,  who  tied  a  flowing  tie 
and  did  not  mind  his  linen  being 
grubby,  disappeared  in  all  big  cen- 
tres of  population  ;  his  place  was 
taken  by  a  well-set-up,  square- 
shouldered,  clean,  and  neatly 
dressed  young  man  of  the  American 
type. 

The  girls  changed,  too,  under  the 
influence  of  cycling  and  games; 
they  lost  the  humiliating  subser- 
vience to  men  which  had  been 
drilled  into  their  mothers.  The 
modern  German  wife  would  not 
allow  her  husband  to  go  into  and 
out  of  a  room  before  her,  as  her 
father  did,  without  remonstrance 
from  his  obedient  and  admiring 
helpmeet ;  nor  would  the  modern 
German  husband  feel  comfortable 
if  his  wife  behaved  on  all  occasions 
as  an  inferior  being.  In  these  and 
many  other  ways  the  Germans 
threw  off  their  old  isolations  and 
provinciality,  emerging  into  the 


stream  of  general  European  civili- 
zation. They  were  the  more 
anxious  and  the  more  able  to  do 
this,  since  their  education  always 
included  at  least  one  foreign  lan- 
guage ;  they  were  in  a  position, 
therefore,  to  know  what  other 
people  were  doing,  to  measure 
themselves  against  French,  Amer- 
icans, British  ;  and  to  adopt  what 
pleased  them  in  the  civilization  of 
each.  For  the  most  part  this  pro- 
cess of  self-criticism  and  selection 
had  good  results,  though  the  say- 
ing, "  You  (the  British)  will  always 
be  fools,  and  we  shall  never  be 
gentlemen,"  showed  that  not  all 
Germans  were  blind  to  deep  differ- 
ences of  national  temperament. 
Social  Decline 

But  in  some  directions  the 
mania  for  imitating  led  to  very 
ugly  developments.  For  example, 
Berlin  attempted  to  take  the  place 
of  Paris  as  a  pleasure-city.  In  a 
very  short  time  its  aspect  was  com- 
pletely altered.  Its  old  simplicity, 
its  provincial  character,  gave  place 
to  feverish  pursuit  of  excitement. 
Luxurious  restaurants,  night  en- 
tertainments of  a  hectic  and  vicious 
kind,  all  the  machinery  for  spend- 
ing money  foolishly  and  quickly, 
came  into  existence.  Ostentation 
became  the  note  of  the  new  fashion- 
able society,  the  moral  tone  of  all 
ranks  dropped,  crime  became  more 
common,  especially  crimes  of  a  de- 
testable and  even  unnatural  nature. 
Many  Germans  believed  that  the 
only  remedy  for  the  evils,  the  only 
safeguard  against  national  deca- 
dence, was  war.  These  were  the 
older  families  which  proudly  re- 
called the  triumphs  of  1870-71  and 
believed  in  the  organization  of 
society  upon  a  military  basis. 

Sometimes  the  emperor,  who, 
owing  to  the  simplicity  of  the  Ger- 
man mentality,  exercised  a  great 
deal  of  personal  power,  was  swayed 
by  these  Junker  arguments  and  by 
the  desire  of  the  militarist  party 
for  war ;  more  often  he  dreamed 
of  himself  being  honoured  by  pos- 
terity for  his  efforts  as  "  the  great 
peace-emperor "  to  prevent  war. 
Lacking  any  stability  of  character, 
he  was  a  perpetual  puzzle  to  his 
subjects,  as  he  was  to  the  rest  of  the 
world  ;  the  affection  they  felt  for 
his  office  and  person  was  tinged 
with  a  good  deal  of  quiet  amuse- 
ment at  his  vagaries  and  uncertain 
course.  The  war  drew  out  both  the 
strength  and  the  weakness  of  the 
German  nature.  All  its  old  efferves- 
cent enthusiasm  bubbled  up  at  the 
outset.  Even  the  emperor's  ap- 
peals to  "  our  old  German  god,"  as 
to  a  tribal  fetish,  stirred  the  great 
mass  of  the  people.  All  their  old 
tendency  to  be  soon  depressed  was 
noticeable  as  soon  as  it  became 


GERMANY 


3498 


GERMANY 


GERMANY 

(INDUSTRIAL) 

English     Miles 


Germany.     Map  indicating  the  industries  and  natural  resources  of  the  republic 


clear  that  the  war  must  be  long- 
drawn-out.  Their  inclination  to  do 
what  they  were  told,  to  obey  words 
of  command,  was  illustrated  by 
their  mechanical  reiteration  of  lies 
about  Belgian  atrocities,  and  about 
the  poor-quality  of  the  British 
army  ;  by  their  mechanical  sing- 
ing of  hymns  of  hate.  When  at 
last  they  realized  how  they  had 
been  deceived,  how  their  rulers  had 
aroused  against  themselves  almost 
the  entire  world,  they  turned  their 
resentment  against  them  and  threw 
down  the  structure  of  trade  that 
had  been  built  up  with  such  hopes 
of  commercial  victory. 

To  those  who  knew  the  German 
nature  it  was  certain  that  there 
would  be  an  explosion  as  soon  as 
the  truth  was  known  to  them.  It 
came  sooner  than  even  they  them- 
selves expected.  A  clean  sweep  was 
made  of  monarchy  and  militarism, 
and  though  the  conditions  of  the 
Peace  Treaty,  which  seemed  hard 
to  them  after  the  declarations 
of  President  Wilson  and  Lloyd 
George,  made  a  good  many  look 
forward  to  a  bloody  revenge,  yet 
the  mass  of  the  German  people 
took  their  lesson  to  heart  and  re- 
nounced altogether  the  idea  of 
asserting  their  importance  by  force 
of  arms. 

Now  they  are  returning  to  the 
path  from  which  they  allowed 
themselves  to  be  seduced,  the  path 
of  industry  and  commerce,  in  which 


they  hope  to  renew  the  successes 
of  the  generation  which  preceded 
the  war.  Freed  from  the  expense 
of  keeping  up  a  vast  army  and  a 
navy  which  became  every  year  a 
greater  burden  to  the  taxpayer, 
they  intend,  it  appears-,  to  concen- 
trate all  their  efforts  upon  making 
their  recovery  astonish  the  world 
as  much  as  that  of  France  did 

after  1871.  Hamilton  Fyfe 

Bibliography.  Europe,  G.  G. 
Chisholm  (vols.  i  and  ii  of  Stan- 
ford's Compendium  of  Geography 
and  Travel),  1899  ;  Central  Europe, 
J.  Partsh,  1903  ;  Germany,  H. 
Compton  and  J.  F.  Dickie,  1912; 
Germany  and  the  Germans,  P. 
Collier,  1913  ;  The  Recent  Develop- 
ment of  German  Agriculture,  T.  H. 
Middleton,  1916;  Modern  Germany, 
J.  E.  Barker,  re-written  and  en- 
larged, 1919  ;  The  Evolution  of 
Modern  Germany,  W.  H.  Dawson, 
1919. 

HISTORY.  The  kingdom  of  Ger- 
many, Deutschland,  as  the  Ger- 
mans call  it,  from  Avhich  the  exist- 
ing republic  has  developed,  dates 
from  the  9th  century  or  there- 
abouts, the  time  when  the  Caro- 
lingian  empire  broke  in  pieces ; 
but  the  country,  although  not  then 
known  as  Germany,  has  a  history 
going  back  a  further  3,000  or  4,000 
years,  or  perhaps  more. 

It  is  not,  however,  a  history 
following  a  single  line  of  develop- 
ment, for  Germany  was  from  the 
first  inhabited  by  different  races, 


and  even  when  a  kingdom  it  was  a 
federation  of  semi-independent 
states  rather  than  a  centralized 
monarchy  as  England  and  France 
became.  Other  points  of  interest 
and  difficulty  are  the  connexion  of 
Germany  with  the  Holy  Roman 
Empire,  the  elective  character  of 
its  kingship,  the  process  that  even- 
tually made  Prussia  almost  sy- 
nonymous with  Germany,  and  the 
elimination  of  Austria  from  the 
union  of  German  peoples,  finally 
effected  in  1866. 

In  the  paleolithic  period  man 
lived  in  Germany,  where  the  stone 
and  bone  implements  that  he  used 
have  been  found.  In  the  neolithic 
age  he  was  spread  over  a  good  deal 
of  the  country,  this  being  proved 
by  the  discovery  of  his  dwellings, 
his  implements,  and  his  graves  in 
various  parts  of  the  land.  The 
bronze  age  saw  a  marked  increase 
in  the  civilizing  agencies,  and  soon 
the  people  possessed  chariots  and 
other  weapons,  lived  in  strongly 
built  houses,  and  knew  something 
of  the  arts  and  refinements  of  life. 
To  this  they  were  helped  by  a 
trade  with  the  Mediterranean 
regions.  Such  is  the  evidence  of 
the  soil  and  the  spade  ;  written 
evidence  begins  with  the  Romans. 

Nearly  a  century  before  the 
opening  of  the  Christian  era  the 
Romans  invaded  Germany.  Julius 
Caesar  conquered  some  of  these 
tribes,  and  after  his  day  began  the 


GERMANY 


GERMANY 


military  settlement  of  the  Romans 
along  the  valleys  of  the  Ehine  and 
the  Danube.  After  the  defeat  of 
Varus  by  Arminius  in  A.D.  9,  these 
rivers  were  regarded  as  the  bound- 
aries of  the  empire,  and  conse- 
quently their  castra  or  camps  were 
established  along  or  near  the  two 
valleys.  From  these  sprang  many 
of  the  German  cities  of  to-day,  for 
instance  Cologne,  Mainz,  Cleves, 
Augsburg,  Spires,  and  Worms; 
therein  through  the  dark  ages  that 
followed  there  lingered  traces  of  Ro- 
man civilization  and  of  Christianity. 

Now  and  again,  in  the  early 
centuries,  the  Romans  moved 
across  from  these  rivers  into  Ger- 
many, but  without  achieving  any 
real  successes  in  the  interior. 
Tacitus,  in  his  Germania,  names  a 
large  number  of  tribes  dwelling  in 
Germany,  but  most  of  these  are 
names  only,  and  in  any  case  their 
importance  only  lasted  for  a  few 
years,  for  in  a  century  or  two  most 
of  them  had  disappeared  from 
history.  They  belonged  to  three 
main  groups,  however,  Celts,  Teu- 
tons, and  Slavs,  although  anything 
approaching  exactitude  is  here  im- 
possible. The  cardinal  fact  is  that 
from  them  the  existing  German 
people  emerged,  and  that  to-day 
the  predominance  of  one  or  the 
other  of  these  elements  is  evident 
in  the  various  parts  of  the  country. 
For  example,  there  is  a  strong 
Slav  element  in  the  original  king- 
dom of  Prussia,  and  a  strong  Celtic 
one  in  Bavaria. 

Germany  and  Deutschland 

From  one  of  these  names  came 
our  word  Germany.  Julius  Caesar 
referred  to  a  group  of  tribes  as 
Germani,  while  later  Tacitus  used 
it,  although  for  a  different  group. 
The  latter  author  perpetuated  it, 
moreover,  in  his  invaluable  work, 
and  thus  it  became  the  Lathi,  and 
later  the  English,  name  for  the 
country.  The  Latin -speaking  Ger- 
mans of  the  monasteries,  however, 
when  their  land  was  part  of  the 
Frankish  empire,  called  it  Fran- 
cia,  and  later,  as  a  single  Ger-  . 
man  speech  came  into  existence, 
the  word  Deutsch  was  evolved. 
From  this  came  Deutschland,  al- 
though it  was  not  generally  used 
until  the  15th  century,  this  delay 
being  due  to  the  inclusion  of  Ger- 
many in  the  Holy  Roman  Empire 
with  the  sonorous  description  of;  its 
ruler  as  Imperator  Romanorum. 

Gradually,  as  in  Britain,  the 
Roman  power  grew  weaker,  and  in 
the  3rd  and  4th  centuries  the 
Romans  were  compelled  to  fight 
hard  against  the  tribes  who  refused 
any  longer  to  acknowledge  their 
authority.  Among  these  was  the 
confederation  known  as  the  Alam- 
anni,  who  carried  the  war  on  to 


Roman  soil.  From  the  east  came 
an  inrush  of  Huns,  who  swept 
across  the  land,  and  then  with  the 
appearance  of  the  Franks  the  his- 
tory becomes  a  little  clearer. 

During  these  years  there  had 
been  evidently  a  great  deal  of 
movement  among  the  tribes.  Some 
had  disappeared,  although  this 
may  only  have  been  a  change  of 
name,  the  impression  of  a  conquer- 
ing upon  a  conquered  people.  At 
all  events,  from  about  600,  certain 
tribes  or  groups  of  tribes  bearing 
familiar  names  appear,  and  from 
these  a  fairly  continuous  story  can 
be  traced. 

Kingdom  of  Clovis 

The  chief  of  these  tribes  were  the 
Franks,  the  Saxons,  and  the  Bava- 
nans.  The  Franks  settled  in  both ' 
France  and  Germany,  and  the  state 
they  founded  covered  a  consider- 
able portion  of  each,  which  were 
thus  united,  a  fact  which  does  some- 
thing to  explain  the  long  struggles 
for  the  possession  of  Alsace-Lor- 
raine and  the  neighbourhood. 
Under  Clovis,  who  died  in  511,  they 
became  a  kingdom,  and  this  king- 
dom of  the  Franks  grew  into  the 
empire  of  Charlemagne,  the  Frank- 
ish part  of  Germany  being  that  ly- 
ing along  the  Rhine,  while  its  ruler 
had  a  more  or  less  vague  authority 
over  other  parts.  In  addition  to  this 
kingdom,  Germany  appears  at  this 
time  to  have  been  divided  into  Swa- 
bia,  Saxony,Thuringia,and  Bavaria, 
with  an  eastern  portion  inhabited 
by  Slav  tribes,  some  of  whose  names 
are  still  perpetuated  in  Pomerania, 
Brandenburg,  and  elsewhere. 

The  kingdom  of  Clovis  became 
that  of  the  Merovingian  kings  of 
the  Franks,  under  whose  feeble 
rule  the  German  tribes  conquered 
by  Clovis  and  his  immediate  suc- 
cessors became  again  independent. 
Then  followed  the  rise  of  Pippin 
of  Heristal  and  the  Caroling!  an 
family.  Pippin  and  Charles  Martel 
recovered  the  lost  authority  of  the 
Franks  ovSr  the  Bavarians  and  the 
Thuringians,  who  were  included  in 
the  great  empire  of  Charlemagne. 

Having  become  the  king  of  the 
Franks,  Charlemagne  soon  made  his 
rule  effectual  in  western  Germany, 
save  only  over  the  Saxons.  A  war 
with  them  was  decided  upon,  and 
after  a  struggle  lasting  for  about  30 
years  they  were  brought  under  his 
authority.  He  turned  his  arm  also 
against  the  Slavs,  who  for  many 
years  had  been  troubling  the  eastern 
part  of  Germany,  fighting  success- 
fully against  a  combination  known 
as  the  Avars.  To  his  people  Charle- 
magne was  great  because  he  gave 
them  what  they  needed,  protection  . 
from  their  enemies. 

Under  the  Carolingians  Germany 
became  largely  a  Christian  country. 


Christianity  had  been  introduced 
by  the  Romans  and  in  the  cities 
had  never  entirely  died  out,  but  it 
was  only  when  it  was  accepted  by 
the  king  that  it  spread  rapidly. 
Clovis  had  been  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity, and  in  the-  three  centuries 
after  him  most  of  the  German  mon- 
asteries and  the  older  bishoprics 
were  founded.  The  Englishman 
who  was  renamed  Boniface  was 
one  of  many  itinerant  preachers  of 
the  faith,  and  to  their  efforts  it 
owed  much.  Much  of  the  progress 
made  was  doubtless  superficial, 
and  many  of  the  converts  were  cer- 
tainly doing  nought  but  obeying 
the  orders  of  a  king  when  they  were 
baptized,  but  the  establishment  of 
monasteries  and  churches,  which 
became  centres  of  learning  and  the 
civilizing  and  humanising  agencies 
that  grew  up  hi  and  around  a 
Christian  community,  were  of 
incalculable  benefit  to  the  people. 

Closely  associated  with  this  reli- 
gious movement  was  the  revival  of 
learning.  Much  has  been  written 
about  the  scholars,  Alcuin  and 
others,  whom  Charlemagne  gath- 
ered around  him,  while  his  love 
of  learning  was  revealed  in  other 
ways.  The  revival  which  he  encour- 
aged produced  a  literature,  almost 
wholly  monastic,  narrow  in  outlook, 
but  yet  of  great  value  for  the  life 
of  the  age.  Schools,  again  solely 
under  ecclesiastical  influence,  were 
founded,  and  in  other  ways  civiliza- 
tion made  great  strides  forward. 

Early  Characteristics 
About  the  social  and  economic 
life  of  the  Germans  at  this  time 
only  generalisations  are  possible. 
Without  stressing  too  much  the 
quoted  remark  of  Tacitus  about 
their  hatred  of  town  life,  it  is  cer- 
tain that  the  vast  majority  of  them 
lived  in  the  country.  Trade,  the 
father  of  towns,  was  yet  in  its  in- 
fancy, and  the  nearest  approach  to 
a  town  community  was  the  group 
of  dwellings  housing  its  dependents 
that  sprang  up  around  a  rich  abbey, 
the  palace  of  a  king,  or  the  seat  of  a 
bishop.  There  were  settled  the 
smiths  who  made  and  repaired  the 
weapons  of  war  and  of  hunting,  and 
probably  a  number  of  other  skilled 
craftsmen  whose  work  was  of  a 
more  ornamental  kind. 

The  tilling  of  the  soil  and  the 
care  of  cattle  were  evidently  the 
main  occupationa  of  the  people, 
although  much  of  their  food  was 
doubtless  the  spoil  of  the  chase,  for 
forests  abounded,  and  from  them  a 
plentiful  supply  of  wood  was  ob- 
tained. The  building  and  repairing 
of  the  dwellings  was  done  by  the 
people  themselves.  Clothing  was 
provided  by  domestic  labour,  while 
there  were  some  rude  industries, 
such  as  the  making  of  pottery. 


GERMANY 


3500 


GERMANY 


The  small  communities  in  which 
the  people  lived  were  largely  self- 
governing.  Defence,  one  of  their 
mam  considerations,  had  to  be  pro- 
vided for,  and  there  was  probably 
some  regular  system  of  dividing  the 
arable  lands  among  the  villagers  or 
marksmen.  In  some  way  or  other 
they  contributed  to  the  revenues  of 
their  chief  or  king  ;  they  were  liable 
to  be  called  upon  to  go  and  fight  for 
him,  and  collectively  they  were  re- 
sponsible for  the  peace  in  their  vil- 
lage. Force,  tempered  by  custom, 
was  the  law  under  which  they  lived. 

Division  of  Charlemagne's  Empire 

Soon  after  the  death  of  Charle- 
magne, in  814,  his  great  empire  fell 
to  pieces,  and  in  843  a  most  impor- 
tant arrangement  was  made  be- 
tween his  grandsons.  By  a  treaty 
signed  at  Verdun,  the  empire  was 
divided,  and  that  part  which  lay  to 
the  east  of  the  Rhine,  together  with 
some  smaller  portions  on  the  west, 
was  given  to  Louis.  Later  genera- 
tions labelled  Louis  the  German, 
and  although  his  kingdom  was 
known  as  East  France,  it  was  really 
Germany,  and  he  may  fairly  be 
called  the  first  German  king.  He 
made  Batisbon  his  capital,  and 
ruled  over  a  good  deal  of  what  is 
now  Germany,  while  his  people  had 
a  vague  idea  that  they  formed  a 
distinct  unit  in  Europe.  In  870  an- 
other arrangement  between  him 
and  his  half-brother,  Charles  the 
Bald,  added  much  to  his  kingdom. 
This  gave  to  France  and  Germany 
something  like  their  present  mutual 
frontiers. 

Louis  died  in  876  and  his  king- 
dom soon  fell  to  pieces.  His  son 
Charles  the  Fat  inherited  it  as  he 
did  most  of  France  proper,  but  he 
was  unable  to  defend  it  from  the 
attacks  of  the  Magyars,  another 
stream  of  invaders  from  the  east, 
who  had  been  kept  in  awe  by  the 
name  and  feats  of  Charlemagne. 
He  was  troubled,  too,  by  the 
Northmen,  or  Danes,  as  the  English 
called  them.  At  length  the  Ger- 
mans, eager  for  security,  deposed 
him,  choosing  in  his  stead  in  887  a 
certain  Arnulf,  an  illegitimate  son 
of  an  earlier  king.  Von  Ranke  de- 
scribes this  event,  which  took  place 
at  Tribur  in  887,  as  "  the  first  inde- 
pendent action  of  the  German  secu- 
lar world."  Arnulf,  however,  died  a 
few  years  later,  leaving  only  a  boy 
to  succeed  him. 

At  this  time  the  misery  of  Ger- 
many was  extreme.  Deep  in  the  Ger- 
man mind  was  the  idea  that  they 
had  the  right  and  the  power  to 
choose  their  king,  and  to  this  old 
expedient  they  now  turned  again. 
The  prelates  naturally  took  the 
lead,  being  educateid,  rich,  and  in- 
fluential, and,  with  some  of  the  secu- 
lar nobles,  they  fixed  upon  Conrad, 


a  powerful  man  in  Franconia,  and 
in  911  they  chose  him  as  king. 

By  this" time  feudalism,  or  some- 
thing like  it,  had  appeared  in  Ger- 
many. Desiring  protection,  men 
had  promised,  in  return  therefor, 
their  services  to  some  powerful  per- 
son in  the  neighbourhood,  thus 
becoming  his  vassals.  So  appeared 
the  beginnings  of  a  hierarchy  at  the 
head  of  which  was  the  king.  Some 
of  the  reforms  introduced  by 
Charlemagne  had  been  in  the  same 
direction,  but  it  was  in  the  years 
of  disorder  and  danger  that  it  made 
the  greatest  progress.  In  the  vari- 
ous areas  in  which  the  people  had 
the  same  speech  sympathies,  there 
was  a  tendency  to  look  to  one 
powerful  man  to  lead  the  move- 
*  ment  for  defence,  and  he  became  the 
duke.  Thus  in  Franconia,  Bavaria, 
Saxony,  Swabia,  and  Lorraine 
dukes  appeared  about  this  time,  and 
they  were  sometimes  strong  enough 
to  stand  up  to  the  king.  They  ruled 
over  the  duchies  as  independent 
kings,  and  this  age  is  sometimes 
known  as  that  of  the  great  duchies. 

About  the  same  time,  on  the  fron- 
tiers of  Germany  margraves  were 
appointed  to  defend  the  borders  or 
marches,  and  they  too  had  great 
powers  over  the  districts  under 
them.  Both  Austria  and  Branden- 
burg, the  parent  of  Prussia,  were 
originally  mark  districts. 

Reign  of  Otto  the  Great 

Conrad's  successor  was  Henry 
the  Fowler,  the  first  ruler  of  the 
Saxon  house  that  supplied  Ger- 
many with  kings  until  1024.  He  was 
chiefly  concerned  in  looking  after 
Saxony,  and  left  the  rulers  of  the 
other  duchies  very  much  to  them- 
selves, but  there  was  a  change 
when  his  son,  Otto  the  Great,  be- 
came king.  A  great  man,  inheriting 
certain  advantages  from  his  father, 
he  was  in  reality  the  ruler  of  all 
Germany.  It  was  one  of  the  recur- 
ring periods  when  the  barbarians 
were  harassing  the  land,  but 
Saxony  was  already  safe,  and  it 
was  near  Augsburg,  in  S.  Germany, 
that  he  won  his  great  victory  over 
the  Magyars.  All  the  duchies 
passed  into  his  hands,  or  those  of 
his  nominees,  and  for  once  Germany 
had  a  king  to  whom  there  was  no 
possible  rival.  In  962  he  conferred 
a  questionable  benefit  on  the 
country  by  securing  for  himself 
the  title  and  dignity  .  of  Roman 
emperor.  He  revived  the  empire  of 
Charlemagne,  and  made  Italy,  and 
not  Germany,  the  centre  of  interest 
for  his  successors.  Otto  II,  and 
then  Otto  III,  followed.  Each  left 
the  Germans  very  much  to  them- 
selves ;  in  1000,  like  the  rest  of 
Christendom,  they  believed  the 
end  of  the  world  to  be  at  hand. 

In  1024  Henry  II,  the  last  ruler 


of  the  Saxon  house,  died,  and  the 
electors  chose  as  their  king  a 
Franconian,  called  Conrad.  He, 
like  Henry  the  Fowler,  was  the 
first  of  a  line,  which  endured  until 
1125.  The  chief  event  of  this  cen- 
tury was  the  struggle  over  investi- 
tures, that  culminated  in  the 
appearance  of  Henry  IV  before 
Gregory  VII,  at  Canossa,  and  ended 
in  the  concordat  of  Worms.  The 
main  importance  of  this  contest, 
as  far  as  Germany  was  concerned, 
was  rather  in  the  stimulus  it  gave 
to  civil  war  and  disorder.  The 
pope  found  eager  supporters  in  all 
those  who  disliked  the  rule  or 
person  of  Henry  IV.  The  Saxons 
were  especially  aroused  against 
him,  and  there  was  a  good  deal  of 
fighting  in  that  duchy. 

In  1138  there  appeared  as  a 
candidate  for  the  throne,  vacant 
by  the  death  of  Lothair,  Conrad  of 
Hohenstaufen.  He  was  elected, 
although  not  unanimously,  for 
there  was  a  rival  candidate  who 
was  strong  enough  to  take  up  arms, 
but  in  the  end  he  prevailed,  and 
his  house  ruled  Germany  until 
1254.  Conrad  himself  was  a  man 
of  no  great  parts,  but  it  was  other- 
wise with  his  successors,  Frederick 
I,  and  Frederick  II. 

Under  the  Hohenstaufen,  the 
condition  of  Germany  became  very 
bad.  It  was  fairly  peaceful  during 
the  reign  of  Frederick  I,  who  real- 
ized, as  Otto  the  Great  had  done, 
that  a  king's  first  duty  was  to  pro- 
tect his  people.  He,  however,  spent 
German  lives  and  German  money 
freely  in  Italy,  and  the  end  of  his 
reign  was  marked  by  the  rebellion 
of  hia  powerful  vassal,  Henry  the 
Lion,  of  Saxony.  Frederick  was 
still  strong  enough  to  drive  Henry 
into  exile,  and  to  break  up  his 
great  duchy,  which  had  been  the 
foremost  obstacle  to  a  real  royal 
authority  since  about  1124.  Henry 
VI  and  Frederick  II  cared  less  for 
Germany. 

Hobenstaufen  and  Wei's 

When  Henry  died,  in  1197,  there 
was  a  struggle  for  the  vacant 
throne,  the  opposing  parties  each 
choosing  a  king,  and  then  taking 
up  arms  on  his  behalf.  They  were 
the  Hohenstaufen  and  the  Welfs, 
and  the  two  kings,  Philip  from  the 
former,  and  Otto  from  the  latter, 
fought  without  a  real  decision  for 
sixteen  years.  There  was  a  chance 
of  peace  when  Otto  IV  was  crushed 
in  1214,  but  the  ambition  of  Fred- 
erick II  renewed  the  unrest.  The 
quarrel  with  the  pope  gave  the 
king's  enemies  in  Germany  a 
powerful  weapon  of  offence,  while 
the  faction  leaders  also  made  good 
use,  from  their  own  point  of  view, 
of  the  enmity  between  Frederick 
and  his  son. 


GERMANY 


GERMANY 


Frederick  H  died  in  1250,  and 
his  surviving  son  Conrad,  beaten 
and  disheartened,  soon  left  Ger- 
many to  look  after  itself.  Several 
puppet  kings,  foreigners  such  as 
Richard,  earl  of  Cornwall,  were 
put  forward,  but  none  of  these  had 
any  power,  save  that  of  the  few 
soldiers  who  followed  them  and 
their  supporters. 

One  or  two  characteristics  of 
this  period  may  be  mentioned.  In 
the  first  place,  apart  from  the 
court  and  surroundings  of  the 
kingjthere  was  no  central  authority. 
In  this  fact  lay  the  mischief  done 
by  the  continual  expeditions  to 
Italy.  A  regent  or  someone  of  the 
kind  was  left  behind,  but  the 
machine  he  controlled  was  de- 
prived of  its  principal  parts.  Thus 
came  a  chance  for  the  ambitious 
among  the  princes  and  prelates. 
Civil  wars  were  inevitable.  The 
barons  and  their  troops  plundered 
wherever  they  could,  causing  an 
immense  deal  of  suffering  among 
the  peasantry.  Something  of  the 
kind  happened  in  England  and 
France,  but  to  nothing  like  the 
same  extent.  Moreover,  in  those 
countries  the  hereditary  character 
of  the  kingship  made  for  stability. 

The  early  part  of  this  period  was 
marked  by  the  spread  of  Christian- 
ity; the  latter  by  the  growth  of 
towns.  Otto  the  Great  especially 
believed  in  securing  the  aid  of  the 
Church,  and  about  his  time  many 
bishoprics  and  monasteries  were 
founded,  mainly,  but  not  solely,  in 
the  newly  conquered  regions.  The 
energies  of  Christianity  were  also 
aroused  by  the  Crusades,  in  which 
several  German  kings  and  many 
princes  participated. 

Trade  and  Townships 

Other  causes,  the  growth  of  trade 
being  prominent,  led  to  the  in- 
crease in  the  number  and  size  of 
the  towns.  As  in  England,  kings 
found  that  selling  privileges  to 
them  was  an  easy  way  of  raising 
money.  The  general  disorder  added 
to  their  strength,  for  their  walls 
were  generally  able  to  keep  out  the 
marauding  bands,  and  the  benefits 
secured  by  living  therein  were 
increasingly  appreciated  by  the 
countrymen.  Many  of  them  were 
independent  states  in  all  but  name, 
and  the  eagerness  with  which  kings 
sought  their  aid  is  eloquent  of  their 
position  at  this  time. 

In  general,  during  these  years 
the  size  of  Germany  was  being 
increased.  There  were  set-backs, 
it  is  true,  as  towards  the  end  of 
the  10th  century,  but  notwith- 
standing this  the  gains  were  con- 
siderable. Henry  the  Fowler  began 
the  work  of  bringing  the  Slavs 
over  his  eastern  frontiers  into  his 
duchy.  Other  kings  carried  on 


wars  with  Poles,Bohemians,  Danes, 
and  others,  whose  rulers  now  and 
again  owned  themselves  as  their 
vassals,  but  the  important  fact  was 
not  so  much  this  as  the  steady  roll 
of  German  influence  eastwards.  On 
the  borders  were  watchful  and 
ambitious  men,  lords  of  a  piece  of 
debatable  land,  small  but  capable 
of  indefinite  expansion  by  the 
sword.  One  mark  district  was 
extended  until  it  became  Branden- 
burg, while  another  area  of  expan- 
sion was  in  the  south-east,  Styria, 
Carinthia,  and  thereabouts.  In 
1250  the  Elbe  was  far  from  being 
the  boundary  river  it  had  been 
300  years  before. 

Rise  of  the  Hapsbuigs 

Under  the  conditions  prevailing 
after  1250,  it  mattered  little  to 
the  princes  whether  Germany  had 
a  king  or  not,  but  the  pope  was 
anxious  for  one,  and  at  his  instiga- 
tion the  electors  met  in  1273  and 
chose  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg,  a 
count  ruling  over  some  land  in 
what  is  now  Switzerland,  and  one 
who  had  made  a  reputation  as  a 
fighter.  From  this  date  until  1866, 
with  only  one  long  break,  a 
member  of  this  family  was  the 
senior  of  Germany's  rulers,  the  one 
with  the  greatest  prestige,  though 
not  always  with  the  greatest 
power.  The  Hapsburgs  were 
Roman  emperors  and  German 
kings  as  long  as  the  empire  lasted  ; 
and  as  Austrian  emperors  were  of 
high  consequence  in  Germany  until 
the  events  of  1866. 

But  Rudolph  secured  something 
intrinsically  more  valuable  than 
the  throne  of  a  disunited  country. 
The  result  of  some  fighting  with 
the  king  of  Bohemia,  he  took  the 
duchies  of  Austria,  Styria,  and 
Carniola,  and  by  giving  these  to 
his  sons  he  began  the  long  asso- 
ciation of  his  family  with  the  duchy 
that  grew  into  the  empire  of 
Austria.  When  he  died  in  1298  his 
son  Albert  was  not  elected  king, 
but  he  made  war  upon  his  success- 
ful rival,  Adolph,  who  was  killed 
in  battle.  Albert  then  secured  the 
throne. 

Albert's  reign  was  brief,  and 
when  it  ended  there  was  another 
fight,  this  time  between  one  of  his 
sons,  Frederick,  and  Louis,  a 
member  of  the  Wittelsbach  family. 
The  latter  soon  became  the 
emperor  Louis  IV,  another  ruler 
who  spent  his  strength  freely,  but 
without  advantage  to  his  country, 
in  a  quarrel  with  the  pope.  The 
next  emperor,  Charles  IV,  was  a 
son  of  the  king  of  Bohemia,  and  to 
him,  also,  though  for  a  different 
reason,  Germany  was  only  a 
secondary  consideration.  Charles 
was  followed  by  his  son  Wenceslaus, 
who  was  dethroned  by  the  electors 


because  he  was  too  idle  to  attend 
to  his  duties,  and  then  came 
another  son,  Sigismund.  On 
Sigismund's  death  in  1437  a 
Hapsburg  was  again  chosen  king, 
and  the  election  soon  became  a 
mere  form,  a  Hapsburg  being 
chosen  as  a  matter  of  course. 

The  emperor,  however,  was  by 
no  means  the  only  ruler  in  Ger- 
many, nor  was  he  necessarily  its 
most  powerful  figure.  From  one 
end  to  the  other  were  states, 
bewildering  in  number  and  of 
every  conceivable  size  and  shape, 
ruled  by  counts,  marquesses, 
dukes,  and  some,  not  less  import- 
ant, by  bishops  and  abbots.  By 
virtue  of  the  Golden  Bull  of  1356, 
which  named  seven  electors,  these 
were  winning  an  exceptional 
position  for  themselves,  standing 
out  amid  the  crowd  of  petty 
rulers.  They  were  the  king  of 
Bohemia,  the  rulers  of  the  Palati- 
nate, Saxony,  and  Brandenburg, 
and  the  arcnbishops  of  Mainz, 
Cologne,  and  Treves.  With  Austria 
and  Bavaria  these  may  be  regarded 
as  the  chief  of  the  German  states, 
and  much  of  Germany's  history  is 
that  of  their  rivalries  and  growth. 
In  Germany  by  this  time  some- 
thing like  a  parliament  had  devel- 
oped. Called  the  Reichstag,  it  met 
at  the  instance  of  the  king  in  any 
city  in  which  he  was.  At  first,  as 
in  England,  the  members  sat  all 
together,  but  gradually  they 
became  divided  into  three  houses, 
the  college  of  electors,  the  college  of 
princes,  i.e.  all  the  rulers  save  the 
electors,  and  the  college  of  free  cities. 

The  Hanseatic  League 
Two  other  movements  should  be 
mentioned — the  Teutonic  Order 
and  the  Hanseatic  League.  The 
knights  of  the  former,  the  crusades 
being  over  and  their  occupation 
gone,  accepted  an  invitation  from 
the  bishop  of  Prussia  to  help  him 
to  conquer  the  heathen  Prussians. 
This  the  soldier  monks  did  and  the 
country,  roughly  the  district  now 
known  as  East  Prussia,  became 
the  possession  of  the  order,  its 
ruler  being  the  grand  master. 
German  immigrants  settled  in  the 
land,  and  towns  were  built  therein. 
The  Hanseatio  League  arose 
from  an  association  of  German 
towns  for  mutual  protection. 
There  were  a  number  of  small 
alliances,  which  the  conditions  of 
the  time  almost  compelled,  but 
this  one  became  unique  as  a 
trading  confederation.  It  had  its 
own  fleet,  and  was  strong  enough 
to  fight,  as  it  did  against  Denmark 
for  instance,  but  its  main  activities 
were  commercial.  It  was  indepen- 
dent of  any  German  authority, 
save  that  the  free  cities  owed  a 
certain  allegiance  to  the  king,  and 


GERMANY 


3502 


GERMANY 


so  was  in  practice  a  state  within  a 
state — imperium  in  imperio. 

The  long  reign  of  Frederick  III 
came  to  an  end  with  the  close  of 
the  Middle  Ages.  The  central 
authority  was  feebler  than  ever, 
while  the  Hohenzollems  in  Bran- 
denburg, the  Wittelbachs  in  the 
Palatinate  and  in  Bavaria,  and 
other  rulers  were  making  their 
states  much  larger  and  stronger. 

The  Renaissance  and  Reformation 
•  The  Renaissance  and  the  Refor- 
mation, the  movements  that  mark 
the  end  of  the  Middle  Ages,  had 
profound  results  in  Germany. 
Maximilian,  who  became  king  in 
1493,  was  a  prince  of  the  Renais- 
sance type.  Of  his  many  activities, 
one  was  an  attempt  to  improve 
the  government  of  Germany  as 
a  whole.  He  divided  the  land  into 
circles,  each  responsible  for  the 
maintenance  of  order  within  its 
own  area,  and  this  arrangement 
lasted,  but  in  the  larger  sense  his 
plans  ended  in  failure,  the  vested 
interests  being  too  strong  for  him. 

Maxmilian's  failure  compelled 
his  successors  to  rely  more,  when 
force  was  needed,  upon  Austria, 
where  their  rule  was  effective, 
rather  than  upon  the  princes  of 
Germany,  who  had  axes  of  their  own 
to  grind,  when  troubles  with  foreign 
nations,  especially  France,  arose. 
To  make  this  "separatist  spirit 
more  pronounced  came  the  Refor- 
mation, with  the  cleavage  of 
opinion  that  made  Germany  the 
most  divided  of  all  European 
states.  Charles  V  was  the  most 
powerful  ruler  that  Germany  had 
seen  since  Charlemagne,  but  that 
was  because  he  ruled  over  Spain 
and  Spanish  America,  and  was  in 
close  alliance  with  his  brother 
Ferdinand,  who  owed  to  him  the 
archduchy  of  Austria.  The  support 
which  the  princes  gave  him,  both  in 
his  wars  with  France  and  in  his 
efforts  to  settle  the  religious  diffi- 
culties, was  fitful  indeed.  The 
treachery  of  one  of  them,  Maurice 
of  Saxony,  was  sufficient  to  make 
this  powerful  potentate  a  prisoner. 

The  formation  of  a  definite 
party,  the  Protestants,  among 
princes  and  people,  was  followed 
by  an  outbreak  of  the  peasantry, 
not  in  the  main  a  religious  move- 
ment. Many  attempts  were  made 
to  end  the  general  unrest  that 
continued  after  the  peasants  had 
been  crushed,  and  a  certain  amount 
of  success  attended  the  religious 
peace  of  Augsburg,  1555.  This 
adopted  the  principle  that  the 
religion  of  the  prince  must  be  the 
religion  of  the  land.  Numerically, 
towards  the  end  of  the  17th  century, 
the  Protestants  were  superior  to 
the  Roman  Catholics.  Not  only 
were  the  former  dominant  in  most 


of  the  north,  but  they  had  a  strong 
following  in  the  rich  cities  of  the 
south-west.  Its  two  sections,  how- 
ever, were  as  bitterly  opposed  to 
each  other  as  they  were  to  the 
Roman  Catholics.  The  Calvinists 
had  no  share  in  the  benefits  of  the 
peace  of  Augsburg. 

The  Thirty  Years'  War  was  the 
inevitable  outcome  of  the  religious 
troubles.  Charles  V,  and  after  him 
his  brother  Ferdinand  and  the 
latter's  son  Maxmilian  II,  had 
made  efforts  to  compose  the 
religious  and  allied  differences,  but 
after  a  time  the  rulers  began  to  dis- 
play a  less  conciliatory  spirit 
towards  the  Protestants.  The 
counter  -  reformation  began  its 
work,  and  the  Roman  Church  won 
back  much  that  it  had  lost. 

But  something  must  be  put 
down  to  a  more  material  cause. 
One  of  the  questions  of  the  day 
concerned  the  ownership  of  the 
extensive  lands  that  had  belonged 
to  the  Church.  Many  of  them  had 
been  seized  by  the  Protestants, 
and  about  their  possession  strife 
was  continuous,  for  the  Roman 
Catholics  demanded  restoration. 
At  length  the  year  1552  was 
selected  as  the  dividing  line  ;  all 
that  was  then  in  Protestant  hands 
was  to  remain  so,  all  seized  after 
then  was  to  be  returned. 
Edict  of  Restitution 

Just  after  the  Thirty  Years'  War 
began  Ferdinand  II  became 
emperor.  This  selection  was  the 
result  of  a  family  conclave.  Young 
and  vigorous,  he  was  a  contrast  to 
his  predecessors,  Rudolph  II  and 
Matthias,  while  his  training  had 
made  him  anxious  to  crush  rather 
than  conciliate  the  Protestants. 
In  1629,  flushed  with  victory, 
which,  however,  was  only  tem- 
porary, he  issued  the  edict  of 
restitution.  This  was  intended  to 
recover  for  the  Church  lands  which 
she  had  lost  through  their  rulers 
becoming  Protestants,  for  a  num- 
ber of  prelates  had  adopted  the 
newer  faith  and,  retaining  every- 
thing, had  simply  been  trans- 
formed from  ecclesiastical  into 
secular  rulers. 

The  war  lasted  until  1648,  by 
which  time  Germany  had  become 
a  battlefield  for  nearly  all  the 
nations  of  Europe.  It  had  been 
stripped  bare  by  foreign  soldiers ; 
many  towns. had  been  plundered, 
and  numberless  villages  had  been 
destroyed ;  the  population  had  been 
reduced  probably  by  one  half. 

Between  the  peace  of  Westphalia 
of  1648  and  the  Napoleonic  up- 
heaval Germany  was  less  of  a 
united  state  than  ever.  The  treaty 
granted  toleration  to  the  Calvinists 
equally  with  Roman  Catholics  and 
Lutherans,  and  so  made  peace  on 


this  matter  possible.  But  in 
another  direction  its  results  were 
less  beneficial.  The  princes  were 
free  from  now  to  form  alliances 
with  foreign  powers,  their  states, 
especially  the  larger  ones,  thus 
becoming  to  all  intents  and  pur- 
poses independent.  The  history 
of  Germany  becomes  more  than 
ever  that  of  its  parts. 

The  Wars  with  France 

Internally,  the  cardinal  fact  of 
German  history  during  the  17th 
and  18th  centuries  was  the  rise  of 
Prussia ;  externally  it  was  the 
series  of  wars  against  France.  The 
latter  began  with  the  reign  of  Louis 
XIV,  whose  policy  of  enlarging 
France  was  made  easier  by  the 
existence  of  Germany  as  a  loose 
confederation  of  states.  He  per- 
suaded or  bribed  some,  of  the 
princes  to  fight  for  him,  the  visible 
results  of  his  earlier  wars  being  the 
acquisition  of  Alsace  and  Lorraine. 
The  emperor  did  what  he  could 
in  their  defence,  but  he  had  two 
frontiers  to  protect,  while  the  only 
force  he  could  get  came  from  his 
own  Austria  and  from  such  princes 
as  chose  to  help  him. 

This  was  even  truer  of  the  wars 
that  opened  with  the  accession  of 
William  III  to  the  English  throne 
in  1688  and  ended  with  the  treaty 
of  Utrecht  in  1 71 4.  France  secured 
help  from  Bavaria,  while  the  re- 
sistance to  her  policy  came  mainly 
from  Austria  and  Britain. 

The  dominant  figure  in  18th  cen- 
tury Germany  is  Frederick  the 
Great.  Steadily  Prussia  had 
emerged  from  the  mark  state  of 
Brandenburg  to  one  of  the  powers 
of  Europe.  In  1648,  or  soon  after- 
wards, all  Pomerania  had  been 
added, there  were  other  acquisitions, 
and  a  century  later  Silesia  was 
seized.  Germany  was  divided  into 
two  armed  camps,  one  supporting 
Prussia  and  the  other  Austria,  and 
the  contest  between  the  two, 
ended  temporarily  in  1748,  was 
fought  out  again  in  the  Seven 
Years'  War.  Later  there  was  some 
trouble  about  the  succession  to 
Bavaria,  where  the  ruling  family 
became  extinct  in  1777.  This, 
however,  passed  to  another  branch 
of  the  Wittelsbach  family,  thus 
uniting  the  Palatinate  withBavaria. 
The  Revolutionary  Wars 

In  1789  the  French  Revolution 
began,  and  soon  Austria,  Prussia, 
and  most  of  the  other  German 
states  were  drawn  into  the  war 
against  France.  In  the  same  period 
the  two  chief  German  countries 
were  with  Russia  making  an  end, 
in  their  own  interests,  of  Poland. 
In  1795  Prussia  was  compelled  to 
give  up  her  possessions  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Rhine  to  Fiance,  and 
to  withdraw  from  the  war,  but  it 


GERMANY 


3503 


GERMANY 


was  continued  by  one  or  other,  with 
Germany  as  the  chief  battleground. 
In  1800  the  emperor  Francis  II 
resigned  the  imperial  crown,  and 
the  Holy  Roman  Empire  came  to 
an  end.  Germany  was  now  in 
theory,  what  she  had  long  been  in 
practice,  a  geographical  expression, 
while  her  master,  one  who  carved 
her  into  pieces  as  he  liked,  was 
Bonaparte.  In  1806  the  Prussians 
were  beaten  at  Jena,  and  in  the 
years  following  a  new  spirit  arose 
in  that  country,  and  to  some  extent 
in  other  parts  of  Germany.  It  re- 
sulted in  a  rising,  the  war  of  libera- 
tion, against  Napoleon,  and  his  final 
defeat  at  Waterloo. 

Napoleon,  in  1806,  had  formed 
a  confederation  of  German  states, 
the  confederation  of  the  Rhine, 
but  a  more  lasting  one  came  into 
being  at  the  peace  of  1814.  This 
sealed  and  stamped  a  territorial 
revolution  of  the  first  magnitude, 
for  the  Germany  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  with  its  prince -bishops  and 
the  like,  had  finally  disappeared. 
Most  of  the  300  states  had  van- 
ished, so  the  boundaries  of  the 
others  were  altered  beyond  all  re- 
cognition. Only  39  remained,  and 
these  formed  the  new  German  Con- 
federation, or  Bund.  Austria  and 
Prussia  were  its  chief  members ; 
among  the  others  were  the  kings 
of  Bavaria,  Hanover,  Saxony,  and 
Wurttemberg. 

The  history  of  the  next  fifty 
years  is  mainly  a  struggle  for  con- 
stitutional liberty.  Several  of  the 
states  had  a  landtag,  or  other  as- 
sembly of  nobles  and  prelates,  but 
there  "was  nothing  in  the  way  of 
representative  institutions,  nor  had 
any  government  any  idea  of  its 
responsibility  to  the  people  in  the 
modern  sense.  The  rulers  fought 
hard  against  this  movement,  but 
it  was  too  strong  to  be  crushed. 
Saxe-Weimar  leading  the  way, 
several  rulers  granted  constitu- 
tions to  their  people. 

The  Frankfort  Parliament 
Another  movement  of  the  time 
was  towards  uniformity  in  com- 
mercial matters.  Trade  could  never 
flourish  in  a  country  where  import 
duties  varied  with  each  state,  and 
where  every  few  miles  a  new 
boundary  with  the  inevitable 
custom  house  appeared.  The  first 
attempts  led  to  the  formation  of 
three  distinct  trading  areas,  but 
soon  these  were  united  into  the 
Zollverein  of  1834.  Austria  stood 
outside  this,  making  Prussian 
dominance  easier.  In  1848,  as 
there  had  been  to  a  lesser  extent 
in  1830,  there  were  revolutions 
throughout  Germany.  The  passion 
for  union  was  by  no  means 
satisfied  with  the  association  of 
1814,  and  consequently  a  powerful 


agitation  compelled  the  Bundestag 
to  agree  to  the  meeting  of  a 
national  parliament  at  Frankfort. 
The  members,  who  were  elected  by 
a  wide  franchise,  met  to  draw  up 
a  constitution  for  a  united  Ger- 
many. Having  decided  to  have  an 
emperor,  the  honour  was  offered 
to  the  king  of  Prussia,  but  he  de- 
clined it,  and  as  far  as  immediate 
results  went  the  Frankfort  parlia- 
ment was  a  failure. 

The  duel  between  Austria  and 
Prussia  for  the  headship  of  Ger- 
many was  now  entering  upon  its 
final  stage.  In  1849  Prussia  man- 
aged to  form  a  union,  but  here  she 
met  with  a  rebuff ;  troubles  in 
Hesse  led  to  the  entrance  of  Aus- 
trian and  Prussian  troops,  called 
in  by  conflicting  authorities.  War 
seemed  inevitable,  but  at  the  de- 
cisive moment  Prussia  gave  way, 
and  among  other  things  the  new 
union  was  dissolved.  The  terms 
of  Austria's  diplomatic  victory 
were  in  the  convention  of  Olmiitz, 
and  the  Bund  received  new  life. 
Annexation  of  Slesvig-Holstein 

Other  attempts  at  a  union 
followed,  but  meanwhile  the  Sles- 
vig-Holstein question  had  domi- 
nated German  politics.  The  war 
of  1850  against  Denmark  was 
waged  nominally  by  the  Bund, 
but  in  reality  by  Prussia,  aided  by 
some  of  the  other  states.  This  soon 
came  to  an  end,  but  diplomacy 
continued  its  efforts  at  a  settle- 
ment. In  1863,  this  not  having 
been  reached,  the  Bund  again  in- 
terfered ;  this  time  Saxony  and 
Hanover  took  the  lead,  Prussia 
and  Austria  disapproving  of  their 
action.  The  two  latter  powers, 
however,  fearing  for  their  prestige, 
announced  their  intention  of  acting 
as  independent  states,  invaded 
Denmark,  crushed  the  Danes,  and 
took  over  Slesvig  and  Holstein. 

This  action  led  to  the  inevitable 
war.  Austria  wanted  the  Bundestag 
to  decide  the  future  of  the  cap- 
tured duchies,  but,  refusing  to 
agree,  Prussia  suggested  instead  a 
drastic  reform  of  the  confedera- 
tion, from  which  Austria  should 
be  excluded.  Both  presented  their 
suggestions  to  the  federal  diet, 
which  accepted  that  of  Austria. 
War  was  at  once  declared  by  Prus- 
sia, and  in  a  few  weeks  Austria 
was  totally  crushed  at  Sadowa. 
The  majority  of  the  German  states, 
including  Hanover,  Saxony,  and 
Bavaria,  shared  this  humiliation, 
for  they  had  fought  against  Prussia. 
The  war  ended  the  connexion  of 
Austria  with  the  other  states  of 
Germany  and  led  to  other  changes, 
mainly  in  the  direction  of  increas- 
ing Prussia's  power  and  size.  A 
new  union  was  set  up,  called  the 
North  German  Confederation;  its 


head  was  the  king  of  Prussia,  and 
it  included  all  the  states  N.  of  the 
Main. 

The  final  step  in  the  union  of 
Germany  followed  the  Franco- 
Prussian  War.  The  Prussian  army, 
this  time  aided,  not  opposed,  by 
those  of  Bavaria  and  the  other 
German  states,  again  proved  its 
prowess.  In  Jan.,  1871,  the  North 
German  Confederation  gave  way 
to  the  German  empire,  or  Reich, 
with  William  I  of  Prussia  as  its 
first  emperor.  To  this  was  given 
the  federal  constitution  which, 
except  for  the  disappearance  of  the 
emperor,  it  retained  in  the  main 
after  the  revolution  of  1918.  The 
Reich  consisted  of  26  states, 
although  one  of  these,  Alsace-Lor- 
raine, was  not  given  equal  privi- 
leges with  the  others.  Save  it,  all 
were  represented  in  the  Bundestag, 
while  the  people  sent  their  repre- 
sentatives to  the  Reichstag,  but 
the  affairs  of  the  empire  were 
mainly  controlled  by  Prussia. 
Policy  of  William  II 

The  history  of  Germany  from 
1871  to  1914  was  first  a  policy, 
that  of  Bismarck,  of  unifying  the 
country  on  the  Prussian  model, 
and  later  that  of  William  II,  one 
of  ambitious  plans  of  world  do- 
minion that  led  to  war.  Under  Bis- 
marck a  supreme  court  of  justice 
was  set  up  at  Leipzig,  and  a  com- 
mon monetary  system  was  estab- 
lished. Education  was  organized 
on  Prussian  lines,  while  under  her 
control  came  most  of  the  armies 
and  the  railways  of  the  other  Ger- 
man states. 

William  I  died  in  1888,  and  Bis- 
marck resigned  in  1890.  William 
II  had  his  chancellors,  but  he 
took  a  large  share  himself  in  the 
work  of  government.  Socialism 
made  great  strides;  for  instance, 
at  the  general  election  of  1912  that 
party  polled  more  votes  than  any 
other.  More  remarkable  was  the 
industrial  progress  of  Germany. 

The  exact  share  of  the  emperor 
and  his  advisers  in  bringing  on  the 
war  in  July,  1914,  is  perhaps 
doubtful,  but  it  is  certain  that  the 
German  people  heartily  supported 
it,  and  that  they  believed  they 
would  win.  They  fought  well  and 
endured  well,  although  the  peace 

froposals  put  forward  in  Dec., 
916,  were  a  sign  of  something 
wrong.  In  Jan.,  1918,  there  were 
risings  in  Hamburg,  Munich,  and 
elsewhere,  but  the  collapse  did  not 
come  until  Oct.  There  was  a  revo- 
lution, almost  bloodless  ;  on  Nov. 
9  the  emperor  abdicated,  and  soon 
a  republic  was  proclaimed.  The 
other  German  rulers  followed  his 
example ;  Germany  became  a 
federation  of  republics.  See  N.V. 
A.  W.  HolUmd 


GERMANY 


3504 


GERMANY 


THE  OCCUPATION-.  Under  the 
armistice  the  German  armies  were 
to  evacuate  within  14  days  Bel- 
gium, France,  Alsace-Lorraine,  and 
Allied  and  U.S.  forces  were  to 
occupy  these  districts.  It  was 
further  agreed  that  the  countries 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  were 
to  be  evacuated  within  31  days 
by  the  German  armies  and  ad- 
ministered by  the  local  authorities 
under  control  of  the  Allies  and 
the  U.S.  armies  of  occupation. 
The  latter  were  to  carry  out  this 
occupation  by  holding  the  princi- 
pal crossings-  of  the  Rhine  (Mainz, 
Coblenz,  Cologne)  together  with 
bridgeheads  at  these  points  of  a 
19  mile  radius  on  the  right  bank, 
and  by  garrisons  holding  the 
strategic  points  of  the  regions. 
Distribution  of  Allied  Armies 

The  general  Allied  advance  to 
the  Rhine  began  on  Sunday,  Nov. 
17,  1918.  The  Belgian  army  took 
up  its  position  between  the  Belgian 
frontier  and  the  Rhine,  from 
Emmerich  to  Diisseldorf.  Next  to 
the  Belgians  were  the  British,  whose 
line  extended  to  beyond  Bonn,  and 
included  Cologne.  The  first  cavalry 
patrol  reached  Cologne  on  Dec.  6. 
On  the  right  of  the  British  were  the 
American  troops  who  occupied  the 
bridgehead  of  Coblenz  and  the  dis- 
trict of  Treves.  On  the  right  of 
them  were  the  French,  whose  zone 
extended  to  the  Swiss  frontier. 

The  armies  of  occupation  had 
little  to  do,  as,  for  the  most  part, 
the  German  population  remained 
peaceful.  The  only  critical  period 
was  in  May,  1919,  when,  following 
the  German  refusal  to  accept  the 
peace  terms,  the  whole  force  pre- 
pared to  march  further  into  Ger- 
many, but  the  appointment  of  new 
German  peace  delegates  removed 
the  necessity.  For  a  time  in  1920 
French  troops  occupied  Frankfort 
to  put  down  disorders. 

An  important  agreement  between 
the  Allies  and  Germany  with  re- 
gard to  the  military  occupation  of 
the  territories  of  the  Rhine  was 
signed  in  July,  1919.  By  it  an 
Inter-allied  Rhineland  high  com- 
mission was  established  with 
power  to  issue  ordinances,  having 
the  force  of  law  and  recognized  by 
all  the  Allied  and  Associated 
military  authorities,  and  by  the 
German  civil  authorities.  By  the 
agreement  the  commission  was 
given  the  power  to  declare  a  staie  of 
siege  in  any  part  of  the  territory, 
or  in  the  whole  of  it.  It  was  further 
agreed  that  if,  before  the  end  of  the 
1 5  years,  Germany  had  fulfilled  all 
her  obligations  under  the  treaty, 
the  troops  of  occupation  would  be 
immediately  withdrawn. 

The  British  army  of  occupation 
was  commanded  first  bv  Sir  \V. 


Robertson,  and  later  by  Sir  T. 
Morland  and  Sir  A.  J.  Godley.  The 
French  army  of  occupation  was 
commanded  first  by  Gen.  Mangin 
and  later  by  Gen.  Degoutte.  In 
Jan.,  1923,  French  troops  occupied 
the  Ruhr  owing  to  Germany's 
failure  to  pay  reparations.  See 
Reparations :  Ruhr. 

Bibliography.  The  Holy  Roman 
Empire,  J.  "Bryce,  1889  ;  The 
Medieval  Empire,  H.  A.  L.  Fisher, 
1898  ;  The  German  Empire,  B.  E. 
Howard,  1906  :  A  Short  History  of 
Germany,  E.  F.  Henderson,  1908  ; 
A  History  of  Germany,  H.  E. 
Marshall,  1913  ;  Germany,  A.  W. 
Holland,  1914;  Germany,  W.  T. 
Waugh,  1914  ;  Imperial  Germany, 
B.  H.  von  Biilow,  Eng.  trans.  1914  ; 
The  New  Germany,  G.  Young,  1920  ; 
and  The  Cambridge  Modern  History, 
1902-11. 

LANGUAGE.  The  language  spoken 
by  the  greater  part  of  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  former  German  Empire, 
and  by  the  Germans  of  Austria 
and  Switzerland,  is  known  as  High 
German,  and  forms  a  branch  of 
the  Germanic,  or  Teutonic,  family 
of  Indo-European  languages.  The 
separation  of  High  German,  that  is 
to  say,  the  speech  of  the  "  high  " 
lands  of  the  S.  from  the  parent 
stock,  probably  took  place  in  the 
7th  century,  and  was  marked  by  a 
change  in  the  consonantal  system, 
known  as  soundshifting,  or,  in 
English,  as  Grimm's  Law  (q.v.). 
This  change  is  exemplified  by  the 
consonants  in  such  cognate  words 
as  the  English  ten,  German  zehn ; 
English  do,  German  <un. 

Upper  German  Dialects 

The  first  period  of  the  develop- 
ment of  High  German,  known  as 
Old  High  German,  lasted  from  ap- 
proximately 600  to  1050.  The  prin- 
cipal dialects  were  Upper  German, 
divided  into  two  main  dialects  (1) 
Bavarian,  which  includes  German 
Austrian,  E.  of  the  river  Lech  ;  (2) 
Alemannic,  including  Swabian, 
Alsatian,  and  Swiss,  W.  of  that 
boundary,  and  Upper  Franconian 
to  the  N.  The  line  of  demarcation 
between  High  German  and  Low 
German  runs  approximately  from 
Maestricht  to  Diisseldorf,  then, 
after  a  slight  curve  to  the  S., 
through  Minden,  Magdeburg,  Wit- 
tenberg, Liibben,  and  Fiirstenberg. 
Low  German  includes  Lower  Fran- 
com'an,  which  developed  into 
modern  Dutch  and  Flemish,  and 


the  Saxon  dialects  (Westphalian, 
Low  Saxon,  etc.) ;  these  continue 
to  exist  in  the  form  of  various  so- 
called  Plattdeutsch  dialects. 

Old  High  German  is  a  richly  in- 
flected speech  with  full  endings,  and 
a  wide  range  of  vowel  sounds.  In 
the  course  of  the  llth  century,  this 
dialect  gave  place  to  Middle  High 
German.  The  flexional  endings 
were  reduced  to  a  more  or  less  uni- 
form e -sound  (e.y.  the  declension 
of  the  plural  of  the  word  for  "  day  " 
is  in  Old  High  German  :  nom.  and 
ace.  taga  ;  gen.  tago  ;  dat.  tag  um  ; 
in  Middle  High  German,  tage,  tage, 
tagen) ;  and  the  general  simplifi- 
cation of  the  language  brought  with 
it  a  .syntax  to  a  greater  extent  de- 
pendent on  word-position. 
Middle  High  German 

Middle  High  German  was  the 
language  of  Germany  from  the  llth 
to  well  into  the  15th  century. 
Besides  the  two  chief  dialects  of 
the  south,  Bavarian  and  Aleman- 
nic, it  comprised  the  central 
German  dialects  of  Upper  and 
Middle  Franconian,  Thuringian, 
Upper  Saxon,  and  Silesian.  Middle 
High  German  passed  gradually 
into  New  High  German  or  Modern 
German,  the  principal  changes 
which  mark  the  transition  being  a 
lengthening  of  short  vowels  in  open 
positions,  e.g.  grap  to  Grab  (the 
vowel  being  open  in  the  gen. 
Grabes) ;  leben  to  leben ;  a  reduc- 
tion of  certain  diphthongs  to  mono- 
phthongs, as  guot  to  gut;  dienen  to 
dienen  (ie  pronounced  ee);  also  the 
reversal  of  the  process  in  zit  to  zeit, 
miis  to  Maus,  hiute  (where  it  is  pro- 
nounced like  modern  ii)  to  heute. 

Uniformity  in  High  German 
speech  was  brought  about  by  three 
factors :  the  union  of  the  German 
states  under  the  medieval  empire, 
which  necessitated  a  generally 
understood  language  for  govern- 
ment purposes,  the  invention  of 
printing,  which  made  it  desirable 
that  books  should  appeal  to  as 
wide  a  public  as  possible ;  and, 
most  important  of  all,  the  influence 
of  Luther's  Bible,  which  was  trans- 
lated into  a  carefully  selected 
language  representing  a  compro- 
mise between  N.  and  S.  Thus  the 
spread  of  a  uniform  literary  High 
German  language  was  largely  de- 
pendent on  the  spread  of  the  Re- 
formation itself.  In  the  17th 
century,  High  German  deteriorated 


b    C    o      D  d  E 


F  f      G      g      II    b      I    i    J    j 


k    L    !l     M     m 


German  Language.     Script  forms  of  the  26  characters  in  the  German  alphabet, 
the  capitals  and  small  letters  side  by  side 


GERMANY 


3505 


GERMANY 


seriously,  owing  to  the  promis- 
cuous introduction  of  foreign  words, 
against  which  powerful  linguistic 
societies  long  fought  in  vain  ;  it 
was  not  until  the  latter  half  of  the 
18th  century  that  the  language  be- 
came worthy  of  a  classic  literature. 

While  the  German  language 
has  changed  little  since  the  time 
of  Goethe  and  Schiller,  German 
style  has  undergone  consider- 
able development  in  the  direction 
of  flexibility  and  clearness ;  and  suc- 
cessive legislation  in  the  German- 
speaking  states  has  brought  about 
a  uniform  system  of  orthography. 
An  effort  has  also  been  made 
throughout  Germany,  Austria,  and 
Switzerland  to  maintain  the  purity 
and  uniformity  of  German  pronun- 
ciation by  means  of  a  fixed  stand- 
ard in  the  language  of  the  stage. 
The  claims  of  the  dialects  for 
serious  recognition,  however,  make 
themselves  still  heard,  not  merely 
in  the  N.,  but  also  in  the  south- 
ern states,  especially  in  Bavaria 
and  Austria. 

LITERATURE.  The  literature  of 
the  earliest  or  Old  High  German 
period  calls  for  little  comment,  its 
interest  being  mainly  linguistic. 
The  chief  monuments  are  a  gospel- 
harmony  in  verse  by  Otfrid  of 
Weissenburg,  a  ballad,  Das  Lud- 
wigslied,  and  voluminous  glosses 
and  translations  by  Notker  Labeo, 
a  monk  of  St.  Gall;  indeed,  the 
most  interesting  documents  of  the 
9th  century  are  not  High,  but  Low 
German — namely,  the  fragmentary 
alliterative  ballad,  Das  Hilde- 
brandslied,  and  an  old  Saxon  epic 
of  the  Life  of  Christ,  Der  Heliand, 
or  The  Saviour.  In  the  10th  cen- 
tury, under  the  Saxon  emperors, 
the  vernacular  fell  into  disfavour, 
and  such  literature  as  there  was, 
the  Lay  of  Waltharius,  Ruodlieb, 
a  forerunner  of  medieval  romance, 
Ecbasis  captivi,  an  early  form  of 
the  Beast  saga,  and  the  play?  of 
Roswitha,  a  nun  of  Gandersheim, 
were  written  in  Latin. 

French  Influence 

In  the  llth  century,  when  the 
Middle  High  German  period  opens, 
literature,  hampered  by  the  ascetic 
:  spirit  of  the  Church,  made  at  first 
slow  progress ;  but  French  in- 
fluence soon  found  its  way  across 
the  Rhine.  Before  the  12th  century 
was  half  over  the  Germans  were 
acquainted  with  the  Song  of  Ro- 
land, the  epic  of  Tristan,  and  had 
themselves,  under  Provencal  stimu- 
lus, begun  to  cultivate  a  lyric 
poetry  or  Minnesang,  of  wonderful 
freshness  and  purity.  By  the  end 
of  the  12th  century  Middle  High 
German  poetry  had  reached  its 
zenith.  In  the  courtly  epic,  Hein- 
rich  von  Veldeke,  author  of  the 
Eneit,  bad  given  place  to  Hart- 


mann  von  Aue,  Wolfram  von 
Eschenbach,  and  Gottfried  von 
Strassburg.  To  the  first  we  owe 
versions  of  the  French  romances  of 
Erec  and  Iwein,  the  legend  of  Gre- 
gorius,  and  that  most  charming  of 
Middle  High  German  idylls,  Der 
arme  Heinrich ;  to  Wolfram  a 
German  romance  of  Parzifal  which 
transcends  all  others  in  mystic 
depth  and  romantic  suggestive- 
ness,  and  to  Gottfried  a  German 
Tristan  which  gives  rein  to  the  emo- 
tional paganism  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
More  peculiarly  German  is  the 
great  epic  Das  Nibelungenlied — 
not  unworthily  described  as  the 
German  Iliad — which  unrolls  with 
relentless  tragic  power  the  story  of 
Siegfried's  death  and  Kriemhild's 
revenge.  Another  epic,  Gudrun, 
more  loosely  constructed  but  of 
gentler  beauty,  deals  with  sagas 
of  the  North  Sea  ;  others,  of  vary- 
ing merit,  constitute  the  so-called 
Heldenbuch. 

Literature  in  the  Middle  Ages 
The  glory  of  Middle  High  Ger- 
man literature  is  Walther  von  der 
Vogelweide,  the  greatest  Ivric  poet 
of  the  Middle  Ages.  Walther's 
strength  lies  not  solely  in  the  un- 
rivalled beauty  of  his  love  songs, 
but  in  the  width  of  his  range  ;  he 
is  not  merely  a  minnesinger,  but 
also  a  political  poet.  All  this  re- 
markable outburst  of  poetry  dates 
from  the  last  years  of  the  12th  and 
the  first  two  decades  of  the  13th 
centuries.  Thereafter  Middle  High 
German  literature  fell  into  diffuse 
imitation  and  degenerated  rapidly. 
Of  the  later  poets,  Konrad  von 
Wiirzburg,  who  cultivated  the  epic, 
and  Neidhart  von  Reuental,  a 
lyric  poet,  are  the  most  eminent. 

A  period  of  confused  and  in- 
effectual literary  effort  now  set  in, 
in  which  old  forms  and  new  ideas 
jostled  together.  On  the  one  hand 
the  Germans  gave  themselves  up 
to  mysticism  and  allegory  ;  on  the 
other  they  imitated  the  incisive 
and  witty  literature  of  the  human- 
ists, from  whom  they  also  learned 
the  art  of  translation.  But  there  is 
little  originality  until  the  end  of 
the  15th  century,  when  two  out- 
standing works  appeared,  Das 
Narrenschiff,  by  Sebastian  Brandt, 
which  foreshadowed  the  coming 
Reformation,  and  the  Low  German 
beast  epic,  Reynke  de  Vos  or  Rey- 
nard the  Fox.  The  16th  century  is 
the  century  of  the  Reformation. 
Martin  Luther  himself  is  its  chief 
man  of  letters;  his  translation  of 
the  Bible  is  the  greatest  German 
book  of  the  century,  and  his  hymns 
are  its  most  characteristic  lyric  ex- 
pression. Under  his  influence  the 
drama  sprang  into  new  life  ;  at 
first  restricting  itself  to  Biblical 
themes,  but  later  drawing  freely 


on  the  wealth  of  story  liberated  by 
the  Renaissance.  A  typical  German 
dramatist  of  the  16th  century  is 
Hans  Sachs,  the  cobbler  of  Nurem- 
berg, who  especially  excelled  in  the 
comic  Fastnachtspiele  or  Shrove- 
tide plays  ;  and  in  his  hands  also 
the  Meistergesang  flourished,  a 
form  of  poetry  which  took  the 
place  of  the  medieval  Minnesang. 
The  16th  century  was  also  the 
great  age  of  German  Volkslied. 

17th  and  18th  Centuries 
Besides  the  drama,  the  most 
virile  form  of  literature  was  satire, 
which  with  the  grim  Catholic  monk, 
Thomas  Murner,  attained  a  fierce- 
ness and  brutality  without  example 
in  any  other  period.  Later  in  the 
century  Johann  Fischart,  an  Alsa- 
tian, led  German  prose  into  lines 
of  Rabelaisian  extravagance,  with- 
out an  adequate  substitute  for 
Rabelais'  humour.  The  promise 
of  the  16th  century  was  not  ful- 
filled, for  in  the  17th  Germany  was 
devastated  by  the  Thirty  Years' 
War.  Literature  fell  almost  ex- 
clusively into  the  hands  of  learned 
poets  like  Martin  Opitz,  Paul  Flem- 
ing, Simon  Dach,  and  Andreas 
Gryphius,  who  sought  to  impose  on 
the  Germans  a  rule-bound  litera- 
ture on  strictly  classic  lines.  The 
literary  spirit  of  the  nation  is  to  be 
found  not  here,  but  in  its  religious 
poetry,  above  all,  in  the  hymns  of 
Paul  Gerhardt,  and  in  Grimmels- 
hausen's  romance  Simplicissimus, 
which  held  the  mirror  up  to  the 
long  war  with  relentless  realism. 
The  peace  of  Westphalia  (1648) 
left  Germany  exhausted,  and  the 
literature  of  the  later  17th  century 
consists  mainly  in  imitations  of  the 
French  gallant  novel,  and  in  bom- 
bastic verse  which  reduces  to 
absurdity  the  "  preciosity "  of 
Marini  and  Guarini. 

At  the  opening  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury an  endeavour  to  introduce  a 
classic  taste  in  accordance  with  the 
tenets  of  Boileau  was  apparent. 
The  chief  representative  of  this 
movement  was  J.  C.  Gottsched, 
the  literary  dictator  of  Leipzig, 
whose  Kritische  Dichtkunst  ap- 
peared in  1730.  But  this  pseudo- 
classicism  soon  found  itself  in  con- 
flict with  new  doctrines  more  in 
harmony  with  nature,  which  had 
found  their  way  to  Germany  from 
England.  With  the  conflict  in  1740 
between  the  champions  of  these 
ideas,  the  Swiss  critics,  J.  J.  Bod- 
mer  and  J.  J.  Breitinger,  and  Gott- 
sched, the  new  era  may  be  said  to 
open.  C.  F.  Gellert,  who  won  great 
popularity  with  fables  in  the  style  I 
of  La  Fontaine,  introduced  the 
comedie  larmoyante  from  France  ' 
and  the  Richardsonian  novel  from 
England,  and,  in  1748,  F.  G.  Klop- 
stock  published  the  first  cantos  of 


GERMANY 


3506 


GERMANY 


Der  Messias,  a  religious  epic  in- 
spired by  Milton.  Even  more  sig- 
nificant was  Klopstock's  lyric 
poetry,  which  broke  the  fetters 
that  had  so  long  hampered  the 
German  lyric. 

Meanwhile,  in  S.  Germany,  C.  M. 
Wieland  contributed  to  the  libera- 
tion of  German  letters  with  poetry 
in  the  spirit  of  Ariosto,  with  psy- 
chological fiction  and  a  translation 
of  Shakespeare  ;  while  another  and 
greater  writer,  G.  E.  Lessing,  in- 
augurated the  classic  age  in  Ger- 
man literature.  With  his  Miss  Sara 
Sampson,  Lessing  introduced  into 
Germany  the  tragedy  of  common 
life,  with  Emilia  Galotti  he  per- 
fected this  type  of  drama,  and  with 
Minna  von  Barn  helm  he  gave 
Germany's  18th  century  literature 
its  greatest  comedy.  As  a  critic, 
Lessing  stands  in  the  first  rank. 
Influence  of  Lessing 

His  Laokoon,  which  prescribes 
the  boundaries  between  plastic  art 
and  poetry,  and  his  Hamburgische 
Dramaturgie,  which  interprets  the 
modern  drama  by  the  light  of 
Aristotle,  were  text-books  which 
profoundly  influenced  subsequent 
developments  in  Germany  and  in 
Europe.  Lessing's  later  years  were 
overshadowed  by  his  battle  for 
tolerance  and  enlightenment  with 
the  Lutheran  clergy,  a  conflict 
which  left  an  enduring  monument 
in  the  drama  Nathan  der  Weise. 

Before  Lessing's  career  had 
reached  its  close  another  move- 
ment, the  so-called  Sturm  und 
Drang  or  Storm  and  Stress,  had 
broken  over  Germany,  which  was 
immediately  inspired  by  Rousseau 
and  continued  the  emancipatory 
work  begun  by  Klopstock.  Its 
pioneer  was  J.  G.  Herder,  a  thinker 
of  prophetically  modern  sympa- 
thies, and  at  his  hands  J.  W.  von 
Goethe  was  initiated  into  the  new 
ideas.  Goethe's  Gotz  von  Berlich- 
ingen  and  Werthers  Leiden  were 
the  chief  works  of  the  Sturm  und 
Drang.  A  number  of  gifted,  if  un- 
balanced, young  dramatists  gath- 
ered round  Goethe,  J.  M.  R.  Lenz, 
F.  M.  Klinger,  H.  L.  Wagner ;  and 
in  1781  J.  F.  Schiller  made  his 
debut  with  his  tragedy,  Die  Rauber, 
to  which  were  added  a  few  years 
later  Fiesco  and  Kabale  und  Liebe. 

The  culminating  phase  of  18th 
century  classicism  is  symbolised 
by  the  close  friendship  of  the  two 
leading  poets  in  Weimar  between 
1794  and  Schiller's  death  in  1805. 
In  these  years  Schiller  wrote  .  his 
ballads  and  his  magnificent  series 
of  dramas  from  Wallenstein  to 
Wilhelm  Tell;  Goethe  published 
Wilhelm  Meisters  Lehrjahre  and 
Hermann  und  Dorothea,  while  the 
first  part  of  Faust  followed  in  1808. 
The  minor  literature  of  the  time 


reflects  more  or  less  faithfully  the 
return  to  classicism,  although  in 
the  popular  stage  plays,  notably  by 
Iffland,  Schroder,  and  Kotzebue, 
and  in  the  novels  of  J.  P.  F. 
Richter,  the  old  Sturm  und  Drang 
spirit  is  still  in  evidence. 

Goethe,  who  died  in  1832,  was 
the  acknowledged  head  of  thislitera- 
ture,  his  chief  contributions  to  it 
after  1808  being,  in  lyric  poetry, 
Der  Westostliche  Divan  ;  in  fiction, 
Die  Wahlverwandtschaften  and 
Wilhelm  Meisters  Wander jahre,  to 
whTk  naay  be  added  his  autobio- 
graphy, Diehtung  und  Wahrheit, 
and  in  the  drama,  the  second  part 
of  Faust.  But  in  this  period  the 
dominating  force  in  German  litera- 
ture was  not  classicism  but  roman- 
ticism. The  Romantic  Movement 
falls  into  four  clearly  marked 
phases  :  the  first  is  that  of  the  so- 
called  Romantic  School,  founded 
in  1798  and  led  by  J.  L.  Tieck, 
Novalis,  and  the  brothers  Schlegel ; 
the  second,  which  is  associated 
with  Heidelberg,  encouraged,  under 
the  leadership  of  L.  A.  von  Arnim 
and  C.  Brentano,  the  stud}7  of  the 
Middle  Ages  and  of  the  Literature 
of  the  people  ;  a  third  phase,  to 
which  belonged  the  lyric  poets  J. 
von  Eichendorff,  A.  von  Chamissp, 
and  W.  Muller,  had  its  centre  in 
Berlin,  and  effectually  broadened 
the  basis  of  romanticism  ;  a  final 
period  of  romantic  decay  includes 
the  morbid  supernaturalism  of  E. 
T.  A.  Hoffmann  and  the  Oriental- 
ism of  F.  Riickert. 

Heine  and  His  School 

To  the  last  phase  of  romanticism 
belongs  one  poet  of  supreme  genius, 
Heinrich  Heine  ;  but  Heine  at  an 
early  stage  declared  his  sympa- 
thies with  the  school  of  "Young 
Germany."  This  school,  whose 
leaders  were,  besides  Heine,  Lud- 
wig  Borne  and  Karl  Gutzkow,  was 
essentially  anti-romantic ;  under  its 
protection  journalism  encroached 
on  literature,  and  political  idea 
took  the  place  ot  poetic  sentiment. 
The  Young  German  lyric  reflected 
the  revolutionary  spirit  between 
1830  and  1848;  its  novel,  as  repre- 
sented by  Gutzkow  and  later  by 
F.  Spielhagen,  G.  Freytag,  and  the 
Plattdeutsch  writer,  F.  Renter, 
busied  itself  with  social  problems. 
Meanwhile  the  Germans  were  also 
cultivating  assiduously  the  short 
story :  B.  Auerbach  with  his 
Schwarzwalder  Dorfgeschichten, 
T.  Storm  with  his  tales  of  romantic 
retrospect,  Paul  Heyse  with  his 
finely  chiselled  style  and  Italian 
sympathies,  and  the  two  Swiss 
masters  of  fiction,  G.  Keller  and 
C.  F.  Meyer,  have  won  for  the 
German  short  story  a  high  place  in 
European  fiction. 

Although  to  a  large  extent  over- 


shadowed by  Schiller,  the  German 
drama  struck  out,  under  romantic 
influence,  into  new  paths,  the  chief 
representatives  being  H.  von 
Kleist  in  Prussia,  and  F.  Grill- 
parzer,  the  national  dramatic  poet 
of  Austria.  To  the  post-romantic 
epoch  belong  0.  Ludwig  and  F. 
Hebbel,  the  latter  one  of  the  most 
original  dramatic  poets  of  the  19th 
century.  After  the  revolution  of 
1848  German  literature,  like  Ger- 
man political  life,  passed  into  a 
period  of  comparative  stagnation  ; 
but  just  in  these  years  German 
scholarship,  and  especially  German 
historical  study,  the  latter  under 
the  leadership  of  L.  von  Ranke, 
were  extraordinarily  productive. 
The  most  interesting  literary  work 
emanated  from  a  group  of  writers 
in  Munich,  and  with  Munich  also  was 
associated  Richard  Wagner,  whose 
music  dramas  helped  to  revive  an 
interest  in  theatre  and  drama. 

As  the  century  drew  to  its  close 
the  Germans,  always  sensitive 
to  outside  influences,  absorbed 
the  literary  ideas  in  vogue  in 
France,  Russia,  and  Scandinavia, 
and  under  this  stimulus  cultivated 
the  naturalistic  novel  and  the 
drama  of  milieu.  The  greater  suc- 
cess was  attained  by  the  drama, 
whose  chief  representatives  were 
H.  Sudermann  and  G.  Hauptmann; 
while  in  lyric  poetry  men  like  D. 
von  Liliencron  and  R.  Dehmel, 
in  the  epic,  the  Swiss,  C.  Spitteler, 
broke  effectively  with  the  old  Ro- 
mantic tradition.  The  outstanding 
personality  of  the  last  epoch  was  F. 
Nietzsche,  who  was  not  merely  a 
thinker  of  powerful  originality,  but 
also  a  lyric  poet  of  genius.  It  has 
been  claimed,  no  doubt  with  some 
justice,  that  his  ideas,  working  on 
immature  minds,  helped  to  precipi- 
tate the  catastrophe  of  1914  ;  but 
the  baneful  influences  were  more 
apparent  in  political  and  historical 
writers  like  H.  Treitschke.  How- 
ever this  may  be,  the  literary  move- 
ment, which  opened  with  such 
promise  in  the  'eighties,  had  failed 
to  justify  its  promise  before  the 
outbreak  of  the  Great  War. 

J.  G.  Robertson 

Bibliography.  Studies  in  German 
Literature,  Bayard  Taylor,  1879; 
Outlines  of  a  History  of  the 
German  Language,  H.  A.  Strong 
and  Kuno  Meyer,  1886 ;  Essays 
on  German  Literature,  H.  H. 
Boyesen,  1892  ;  History  of  German 
Literature,  J.  G.  Robertson,  1902; 
Studies  in  German  Literature  in  the 
19th  Century,  J.  F.  Coar,  1903  ; 
History  of  German  Literature  as 
determined  by  Social  Forces,  K. 
Francke,  7th  ed.  1909;  Romanticism 
and  the  Romantic  School  in  Gey- 
many,  R.  M.  Wernaer,  1910;  Brief 
History  of  German  Literature,  G.  M. 
Priest,  1910  ;  Literature  of  Ger- 
many, J.  G.  Robertson,  1913. 


GERMANY 


3507 


GERMANY 


ART.  Though  Teutonic  art  in  its 
origin  and  for  long  afterwards 
lacked  both  spontaneity  and  vol- 
ume, the  earliest  artists  were  never- 
theless also  the  greatest.  The  art  in- 
stinct of  the  people  went  out,  co- 
piously and  gloriously,  towards  the 
material  and  tangible,  and  in  the 
design  of  cathedrals,  town  halls,  and 
private  houses,  and  the  carving  of 
wood  and  stone,  showed  consum- 
mate skill.  But  the  opulent  burgo- 
masters and  merchants,  by  no 
means  averse  from  pomp  and  osten- 
tation, had  neither  the  knowledge 
nor  the  taste  to  encourage  painters, 
who  had  to  look  for  patronage  in 
the  main  to  the  Church,  as  at  Co- 
logne, and  to  the  wise  munificence 
of  an  occasional  emperor.  Purely 
native  effort  soon  spent  itself  and 
the  painters,  to  some  extent  dis- 
trustful of  themselves,  had  the 
sense  willingly  to  submit  to  the 
formative  influence  of  foreign 
schools,  first  of  the  Netherlands, 
next  of  Venice  and  Italy,  and  then 
(in  our  own  day)  of  France. 

In  the  beginning  their  work  was 
violent  in  colour  and  faulty  in 
drawing,  while  their  composition 
tended  towards  exaggeration  and 
anti-climax  and  their  realism  was 
apt  to  be  overdone  and  coarse.  In 
portraits  and  single  figures  and 
limited  groups  they  were  quick 
to  seize  character,  but  regarded 
strength  rather  than  beauty,  and 
the  dominant  note  was  marked  in- 
dividuality. The  men  of  genius 
were  rare  and  their  achievement 
but  served  to  illuminate  the  com- 
parative sterility  of  their  fellows. 
Indeed,  it  is  significant  that, 
throughout  the  period  ending  with 
Adam  Elsheimer  (1578-1628),when 
Italian  influence  became  predomi- 
nant for  a  century,  only  two  names 
can  be  said  to  be  household  words, 
Albert  Diirer  and  Hans  Holbein 
the  Younger. 

Barer  and  Holbein 

Diirer  was  a  man  of  almost  as 
universal  accomplishment  as  was 
Leonardo  da  Vinci,  though  he 
missed  the  latter's  suavity,  refine- 
ment, and  sense  of  colour.  Still,  his 
portraits  of  himself  (Munich  Gal- 
lery) and  Hieronymus  Holtzschucr 
(Berlin  Museum)  are  marvels  of 
technique,  while  his  drawings  for 
wood  and  metal  are  the  theme  of 
undiminished  admiration.  Hol- 
bein's power  ran  on  more  gracious 
lines  and  has  been  preserved  in 
such  pictures  as  the  Madonna 
painted  for  Jacob  Meyer,  burgo- 
master of  Basel  (Grand  Ducal  Pal- 
ace, Darmstadt),  and  his  portraits 
of  George  Gisze,  a  merchant  of  the 
London  Steelyard  (Berlin  Museum), 
and  of  Christina  Sforza,  Duchess  of 
Milan,  which  was  purchased  in!909 
for  £72,000  and  presented  to  the 


nation  (National  Gallery,  London) 
by  the  National  Art  Collections 
Fund.  To  these  it  will  suffice  to  add 
the  Madonna  with  the  Violet,  by 
Stephen  Lochner  (c.  1400-1450), 
the  first  truly  tender  and  charming 
figure  painted  in  Germany  (Archi- 
episcopal  Museum,  Cologne),  and 
the  Holy  Family  at  the  Fountain 
(Berlin  Museum),  by  Albert  Alt- 
dorfer  (c.  1480-1538),  greatest  of 
the  "  Little  Masters."  Where  the 
sculptors  were  many  and  distin- 
guished it  is  not  easy  and  may  be 
unfair  to  particularise,  but  the 
work  of  AdamKrafft  (c.  1455-1507) 
and  Peter  Vischer  (1455-1529)  may 
be  mentioned  as  of  exceptional 
prominence. 

Influence  of  Classic  Ait 
Italian  influence — the  influence 
of  an  Italy,  too,  whose  prime  was 
past — was  established  early  in  the 
17th  century.  The  incompatibility 
of  the  southern  and  northern  tem- 
perament foredoomed  their  projec- 
ted union  to  failure,  but  another  and 
overwhelming  disaster  befell  Ger- 
man art,  which  was  paralysed  for 
generations  by  the  ruin,  misery,  and 
demoralisation  consequent  on  the 
Thirty  Years'  War  (1618^8)  and 
the  Seven  Years'  War  (1756-63). 

However,  in  spite  of  the  appalling 
results  of  the  political  turmoil  and 
dynastic  squabbles,  the  friends  of 
the  Italo-Teutonic  alliance  main- 
tained their  foolish  advocacy.  John 
James  Winckelmann's  laudation  of 
the  art  of  the  ancients  (1764)  was  so 
far  mischievous  that  it  led  to  blind 
faith  in  the  classical  as  art's  be-all 
and  end-all,  and  those  who — like 
Asmus  Carstens  (1754-98)  and  An- 
thony Raphael  Mengs  (1728-79) — 
espoused  his  teaching  diverted 
German  artists  from  thoughts  of 
the  present  and,  more  especially, 
the  future.  Lessing  continued  the 
parable,  and  landscape  and  genre 
were  for  a  time  despised.  Beauty 
was  everything,  Nature  nothing. 
Even  Goethe  joined  the  reaction- 
aries. "  Art,"  he  said,  "  had  been 
written  in  Greek,  not  in  German." 
But  to  all  save  its  devotees 
classicism  was  as  sawdust.  It 
suffered  a  natural  death,  giving 
place  to  the  monkery  and  ascetic- 
ism of  the  Nazarenes — a  nickname 
of  reproach  which  they  proudly 
adopted  as  a  happy  designation 
of  their  coterie — whose  prophet 
was  William  Henry  Wackenroder 
(1773-98),  whose  cult  was  that  of 
the  Madonna,  and  to  whom  a 
picture-gallery  was  as  a  temple  of 
Christian  worship,  the  very  gate  of 
Heaven.  The  leading  exponents  of 
their  art  creed  were  Peter  Cornelius, 
Frederick  Overbeck,  William  Scha- 
dow,  Philip  Veit,  Julius  Schnorr, 
and  Edward  Steinle. 


They  gave  themselves  away  as 
artists  when  they  relinquished 
drawing  from  the  model  as  an 
injury  to  idealism  and  from  the 
nude  as  a  menace  to  modesty.  For 
the  rest,  the  art-loving  public  grew 
weary  of  anaemic  scriptural  pic- 
tures and  didactic  or  namby- 
pamby  anecdotes — excellent  in 
design,  but  poor  in  colour  and 
wholly  destitute  of  vigour — and 
with  avidity  went  after  the  strange 
gods  to  the  west  of  the  Rhine.  Nor 
did  the  Romanticists,  who  sought 
inspiration  from  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, Shakespeare  and  the  poets, 
fare  better.  The  promise  that 
underlay  the  monumentalism  of 
Alfred  Rethel  (1816-59),  who  had 
studied  at  Diisseldorf ,  was  cut  short 
by  madness,  and  though  Moritz 
Schwind  (1804-71)  got  more  out  of 
legend  and  fairy  tale,  which  he  saw 
with  the  eye  of  a  modern,  than  all 
the  other  Romanticists  combined, 
that  way  salvation  did  not  lie. 

If  the  art  of  sentimental 
Germany  lacked  essential  truth 
because  it  was  non-human,  the 
art  of  the  Germany  of  blood  and 
iron,  by  which  it  was  succeeded, 
developed  remarkable  technical 
qualities,  and  several  painters  of 
the  first  rank,  who  had  the  courage 
to  rend  the  shackles  which  had 
bound  their  fathers  and  colleagues, 
frankly  went  to  the  ateliers  of 
Paris  for  what  the  Frenchmen 
could  teach  and  they  learn.  Con- 
cerning the  Exposition  of  1855 
Edmond  About  had  said  truly  and 
wittily,  "  If  you  meet  with  a  good 
German  painter  you  can  compli- 
ment him  in  French." 

20th  Century  Portraiture 

Among  the  men  who  led  the 
anti  -  sentimental  revolution  were 
Anselm  Feuerbach  (1828-80), 
Charles  Piloty  (1826-86),  whose 
technique  was  rendered  the  more 
conspicuous  by  a  feeling  for  colour 
which  his  compatriots  of  the  pre- 
ceding generation  had  disdained, 
and  Gabriel  Max  (b.  1840),  whose 
pictures  possess  a  personal  hand- 
ling that  removes  them  somewhat 
from  the  school  with  which  nation- 
ality associates  him.  But  Adolph 
Menzel  (1815-1905),  own. brother 
to  the  French  Meissonier,  was  the 
painter  of  most  distinctive  force 
and  versatility,  who  owed  least  to 
anyone,  who  was  virtually  self- 
taught,  and  shone  equally  in 
colour  and  black-and-white. 

In  modern  portraiture,  which  is 
the  measure  of  the  greatest  in 
figure  painting,  Francis  Lenbach 
(1836-1904)  proved  that  he  could 
hold  his  own  with  the  ablest, 
whether  of  the  17th  or  the  19th 
century.  Of  the  realists,  none  has  a 
better  claim  to  mention  than  the 
greatest  painter  modern  Germany 


GERMERSHE1M 


3508 


GERONA 


has  produced,  William  Leibl 
(1844-1900),  whose  joie  de  peindre 
recalls  the  most  zealous  of  the 
Dutch  artists.  There  are  others, 
more  or  less  unrelated,  whose 
performance  has  already  demon- 
strated that  they  are  capable  of 
founding  a  German  school  not  un- 
worthy of  the  20th  century.  Among 
such  may  be  named  Eduard  von 
Gebhardt  (b.  1838),  Hans  Thoma 
(b.  1839),  Max  Liebermann  (b. 
1847),  Fritz  von  Uhde  (1848-1911), 
Max  Klinger(b.  1857),  and  Franz 
Stuck  (b.  1863).  How  far  their 
mission  has  been  affected  by  the 
European  war  remains  a  problem 

of  the  future.         James  A.  Manson 

Germersheim.  A  town  of 
Bavaria.  It  stands  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Queich  with  the  Rhine, 
9  m.  from  Spires.  Its  interest 
is  mainly  historical,  although 
until  the  Great  War  it  was  one 
of  Germany's  minor  fortresses. 
The  chief  buildings  are  churches 
and  a  hospital,  and  there  are  some 
small  industries.  Germersheim 
was  a  Roman  station,  and  in  the 
Middle  Ages  a  free  city.  It  was 
then  a  fortified  town  with  a  citadel. 
About  1620  it  passed  into  the 
possession  of  the  house  of  Haps- 
burg,  but  in  1644  it  was  taken 
by  the  French,  as  it  was  again  in 
1674.  Austria  recovered  it  in 
1702 ;  at  the  peace  of  1814  it  be- 
came part  of  Bavaria,  and  later  it 
was  fortified  anew.  Pop.  5,800. 

Germinal.  Seventh  month  in 
the  year  as  rearranged  during  the 
French  Revolution.  It  began  on 
March  21  or  22,  and  the  name 
means  the  month  of  buds. 

Germination  (Lat.  germinatio, 
budding).  Sprouting  of  a  seed  or 
spore.  See  Botany  ;  Cotyledon ; 
Seed  ;  Spore. 

Germiston.  Town  of  the  Trans- 
vaal, S.  Africa.  It  is  9  m.  by  rly. 
S.E.  of  Johannesburg,  and  36  m. 
S.  of  Pretoria.  It  is  an  important 
gold-mining  centre  and  was  for- 
merly known  as  Elandsfontein 
Junction.  Here  is  a  station  of  the 
Victoria  Falls  and  Transvaal  Power 
Co.,  which  supplies  power  to  many 
of  the  mines.  There  are  also 
manufactures  of  chemicals,  agri- 
cultural implements,  and  hard- 
ware. Pop.  62,025,  of  whom  16,252 
are  Europeans. 

Gernrode.  Town  of  Germany. 
In  the  state  of  Anhalt,  it  is  13  m. 
S.S.E.  of  Halberstadt.  Built  on  the 
side  of  the  Stubenberg,  it  possesses 
a  fine  10th  century  abbey  church 
in  the  Romanesque  style.  Pop.  3,300. 

Gerolstein.  Town  of  Germany, 
in  the  Rhine  province,  43  m.  by 
rly.  N.  of  Treves.  One  of  the  most 
picturesque  places  in  the  Volcanic 
Eifel,  it  lies  at  a  height  of  1 ,200  ft. 
on  a  rocky  hillside  commanded  by 


the  ruins  of  a  castle  built  in  1115. 
The  district,  with  its  volcanic 
formation  and  fossils,  etc.,  is 
geologically  interesting,  and  its 
mineral  springs  have  a  wide  repu- 
tation. Pop.  1;350. 

Gerome,   JEAN    LEON    (1824- 
1904).     French  painter.     Born  at 
Vesoul,  May  11,  1824,  he  studied 
,    under     Paul 
d^l1**^  Delaroche, 

d^H    ^SSfe  making    a 

successful 
.    debut   at    the 
'    Salon  in  1847 
with  The  Cock 
j    Fight.      Many 
j    of  his  subjects 
were  classical, 
with    a  touch 
of     modernity 


Jean  Leon  Gerome, 
French  painter 

in  the  treatment, 
and  he  had  a  com- 
petent technique. 
Awarded  the 
Legion  of  Honour 
in  1855,  he  became 
commander  in 
1878. 

In' 1863  he  be- 
came professor  of 
painting  at  the 
Ecole  des  Beaux 
Arts  and  in  1865 
was  elected  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Institute. 
His  best  known 
works  include  Thf 
Age  of  Augustus 
and  The  Birth  of 
Christ  (bought  by 
the  State),  The 
Duel  of  Pierrot, 
Phryne  Before  the  Areopagus,  and 
The  Death  of  Caesar.  Latterly 
Gerome  turned  to  sculpture,  achiev- 
ing success  with  figures  of  Bellona, 
Napoleon.The  Gladiator,  and Tana- 
r-a.  He  died  in  Paris,  Jan.  12,1904. 
See  Cleopatra ;  Gladiator. 

Gerona.  Maritime  prov.  of  N.E. 
Spain,  in  Catalonia.  It  slopes  from 
the  Pvrenees  to  the  Mediterranean. 


Area,  2,264  sq.  m.  Traversed  by 
the  Barcelona-Perpignan  Rly.,  it  is 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  France,  on 
the  S.  and  E.  by  the  Mediterranean, 
and  on  the  W.  by  Barcelona.  One  of 
the  richest  provs.  of  Spain,  it  carries 
on  a  large  trade,  and  produces 
minerals,  fruit,  fish,  timber,  cork, 
copper,  lead,  iron,  ochre,  and  wine. 
Cape  Creus  is  the  easternmost  point 
on  the  peninsula.  The  coast-line  is 
indented  by  one  large  bay,  the  Gulf 
of  Rosas.  The  chief  port  isPortbou. 
Pop.  326,928. 

Gerona  (anc.  Gerunda).  City 
of  Spain,  capital  of  the  prov.  of 
Gerona.  It  stands  at  the  con- 
fluence of  the  rivers  Ter  and  Onar, 
52  m.  N.E.  of  Barcelona,  on  the 
main  line  from  Barcelona  to  Per- 
pignan.  It  is  connected  with  its 


Geiona.     Old  bouses  seen  from  the  bridge  over  the 

Ouar.     On  the  extreme  left  is  the  unfinished  spire  01 

the  church  of  S.  Felix 


suburb  El  Mercadel  beyond  the 
Ofiar  by  a  bridge.  Its  cathedral, 
begun  early  in  the  14th  century, 
stands  on  the  site  of  an  earlier 
edifice,  and  is  a  unique  specimen 
of  Gothic  architecture.  The  manu- 
factures include  paper  and  textiles ; 
coal,  copper,  etc.,  are  mined.  Pop. 
16,000.  There  is  also  a  town  of  this 
name  in  the  Philippine  Islands. 


Gerome.     The  Death  of  Caesar,  painted  in  1867,  an  example  of  the  artist's 
treatment  of  classic  subjects 

Goupil 


GERONTIUS 

Gerona  was  a  place  of  some  im- 
portance during  the  Punic  Wars, 
and  it  has  had  a  tempestuous  his- 
tory, having  been  besieged  numer- 
ous times.  It  is  principally  famous 
for  its  heroic  defence  by  a  few 
Spaniards  and  English  volunteers 
against  the  French  in  1809,  the  gar- 
rison finally  capitulating  through 
famine  and  disease.  The  city  suf- 
fered severely  from  floods  in  1762 
and  in  1829.  Its  bishopric  dates 
from  the  3rd  century.  Pop.  17,416. 

Gerontius.  General  in  the  ser- 
vice of  Constantine  (q.v.),  the 
usurping  •  tyrant  in  Gaul.  After 
Constantine's  defeat  in  408,  Geron- 
tius rebelled  against  him,  pro- 
claimed Maximus,  belonging  to  the 
household  troops,  and  possibly  his 
own  son,  emperor,  and,  having 
put  Constantine's  son  Constans  to 
death,  set  out  in  pursuit  of  Con- 
stantine, who  was  in  refuge  in 
Arel5te  (Aries).  Meantime,  Hon- 
orius  had  dispatched  troops 
against  Constantine,  and,  securing 
his  person  on  the  surrender  of  the 
town,  put  him  to  death.  Gerontius 
fled  before  Honorius's  superior 
forces,  but  was  seized  by  his  own 
mutinous  troops,  who  resented  his 
severity.  These  fired  the  house  in 
which  he  took  refuge  with  his  wife 
and  one  faithful  servant,  and,  after 
a  brave  resistance,  Gerontius  slew 
his  wife  and  servant  at  their  own 
request,  and  then  stabbed  himself. 

Gerrard's  Cross.  Parish  and 
village  of  Buckinghamshire,  Eng- 
land, 3  m.  S.E.  of  Beaconsfield. 


Elbridge  Gerry, 
American  states- 
man 


Gerrard's   Cross,   Buckinghamshire. 

S.  James,  built  by  Sir  W.  Tite 

Formerly  known  as  Jarret's  Cross, 
and  sometimes  spelled  Gerard's 
Cross,  it  is  served  by  the  G.W.  and 
G.C.  Rlys.  S.  of  the  village  on  the 
common  is  the  church  of  S. 
James,  built  in  1859  from  designs 
by  Sir  W.  Tite,  in  the  Lombardo- 
Byzantine  style,  as  a  memorial  to 
Major-General  Reid,  sometime 
M.P.  for  Windsor.  W.  of  the  com- 
mon is  Bulstrode  Park,  a  seat  of 
Sir  J.  F.  Ramsden,  Bart.,  named 
after  a  17th  century  holder  of  the 
manor.  Bulstrode' s  mansion  was 


3509 

rebuilt  by  Judge  Jeffreys,  passed 
to  the  1st  duke  of  Portland,  was 
sold  by  the  4th  duke  of  Portland, 
purchased  in  1810  by  the  12th 
duke  of  Somerset,  and  rebuilt  by 
his  successor  in  the  title.  In  the 
park  is  a  circular  earthwork  en- 
closing 21  acres.  Pop.  1,612. 

Gerresheim,  Town  of  Germany, 
in  the  Rhine  province  of  Prussia. 
Lying  only  3  m.  E.  of  Diisseldort 
(q.v.),  of  which  it  is  now  a  suburb, 
it  is  a  busy  place  with  glass,  wire, 
and  silk  factories,  etc.  The  parish 
church,  dating  from  the  13th  cen- 
tury, is  notable.  Pop.  12,000. 

Gerry,  ELBRIDGE  (1744-1814). 
American  statesman.  Born  at 
Marblehead,  Massachusetts,  July 
17, 1744,  he  be- 
came a  member 
of  the  general 
court  of  Massa- 
chusetts, where 
he  showed  an 
open  hostility 
to  British  rule. 
In  1776  he  was 
a  member  of 
the  Continent- 
al Congress, 
and  was  active 
in  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  Declaration  of  In- 
dependence, of  which  he  was  a 
signatory.  In  1797  he  was  one  of  a 
mission  sent  to  the  French  Direc- 
tory to  arrange  for  the  recognition 
of  the  republic.  Governor  of  Mas- 
sachusetts 1810-12,  he  was  largely 
responsible  for  a  law  dividing  the 
state  into  sena- 
torial districts 
which  gave  the 
governmentunfair 
advantage  over 
the  opposition. 
From  this  arose 
the  term  gerry- 
mander. In  1813 
he  became  vice- 
president  of  the 
U.S.A.,  which  po- 
sition he  held  until 
his  death  at 
Washington,  Nov. 
23,  1814.  See 
Life  and  Letters 
by  J.  T.  Austin, 
1828-29. 
Gers.  Dept,  of  S.W.  France.  Its 
area  is  2,428  sq.  m.  Tributaries  of 
the  Garonne,  the  Gers,  Baise,  Save, 
Gimone,  and  others  coming  down 
from  the  Pyrenees  are  the  chief 
rivers.  The  Adour  also  flows 
through  the  dept.  The  dept.  is  a 
hilly  area,  specially  in  the  S. 
Wheat,  maize,  and  oats  are  grown  ; 
wine  and  brandy  are  made  ;  and 
horses,  cattle,  sheep,  and  poultry 
are  reared.  Auch  is  the  chief  town. 
Others  are  Lectoure,  Mirande, 
Condom,  and  Lombez.  Before  the 


The   church   of 
in  1859 


GERSTENHOFER     FURNACE 

revolution  the  dept.  was  mainly  in 
Gascony.  Pron.Zhare.  Pop.  22 1,994. 
Gerson,     JEAN    CHARLIER    DE 
(1363-1429).   French  scholar  and 
divine.     He  was  born  in  humble 
HmB^^^MM^BB    circumstances 
at     Gerson , 
Dec.    14,    1363, 
and    educated 
at    the    college 
of   Navarre, 
Paris.     Taking 
holy    orders, 
he      became 
canon  of  Notre 
J-  C.  de  Gerson,        Dame     and 
French  scholar        chancejlor      of 

the  university  of  Paris  in  1395. 
He  worked  hard  to  check  the  care- 
less lives  of  the  clergy,  to  end  the 
Great  Schism  then  dividing  the 
papal  court,  and  to  amend  the  too 
scholastic  education  of  the  uni- 
versity. His  outspokenness  led  to 
his  withdrawing  to  Rattenberg  in 
Tirol  in  1418  for  a  time,  during 
which  he  wrote  his  best  known 
work,  On  the  Consolation  of  Theo- 
logy. Later  he  retired  to  a  monas- 
tery at  Lyons,  where  he  died 
July  12,  1429. 

Gersoppa.  Village  and  falls  of 
Bombay,  India,  in  thellonevar  sub- 
division of  North  Kanera  district. 
The  great  ruins  of  Nagarbastikere, 
the  capital  of  the  Jain  chiefs  of 
Gersoppa  (1409-1610),  are  about 
a  mile  and  a  half  to  the  E.  of  the 
village.  According  to  tradition  the 
capital  contained  100,000  houses 
and  84  temples.  The  Gersoppa 
Falls,  which  are  unrivalled  in 
India,  lie  18  m.  E.  of  the  village, 
and  are  on  the  Sherevati  river.  At 
this  spot  the  river  has  a  breadth  of 
about  230  ft.,  and  the  water  falls 
over  a  cliff  830  ft.  high  in  four 
separate  leaps. 

Gerst  acker,  FRIEDKICH  (1816- 
72).  German  novelist  and  writer. 
Born  at  Hamburg,  Nov.  10,  1816, 
he  went  to  America,  where  he  tra- 
velled extensivelv  afoot  during 
1837-43.  Having  told  his  ex'- 
periences  in  a  series  of  diary- 
letters,  he  returned  to  Germany  to 
find  himself  famous.  Thenceforth 
he  devoted  himself  largely  to 
descriptive  books  of  travel.  He 
went  round  the  world,  1849-52  ; 
journeyed  in  S.  America,  1860-61  ; 
in  Egypt  and  Abyssinia,  1862  ;  and 
in  N.  and  Central  America  and 
the  W.  Indies,  1867-68.  These  suc- 
cessive journeys  he  made  the  sub- 
ject of  many  interesting  volumes, 
several  of  which  were  translated 
into  English.  He  also  won  success 
with  some  fiction  largely  inspired 
by  his  travel  experiences.  He  died 
at  Brunswick,  May  31,  1872. 

Gerstenhofer  Furnace.  Roast- 
ing furnace  first  used  at  Freiberg 
in  Germany,  but  also  extensively 


GERTRUDE 


GESTURE  LANGUAGE 


employed  at  Swansea  for  the  roast- 
ing of  pulverised  copper  matter. 
It  is  a  shelf  furnace  in  the  form 
of  a  square  shaft,  across  which 
are  arranged,  at  equal  distances, 
and  one  above  the  other,  a  number 
of  horizontal  fire-clay  bars.  The  ore 
is  introduced  at  the  top  and  falls 
from  bar  to  bar,  arriving  at  the 
bottom  to  a  very  large  extent  de- 
sulphurised. See  Furnace. 

Gertrude.  Name  of  two  saints 
of  the  Latin  Church.  (1)  Gertrude 
(d.  March  17,  659),  a  daughter  of 
Pepin,  the  father  of  Charlemagne, 
was  the  first  abbess  of  the  convent 
of  S.  Gertrude  at  Nivelles,  Belgium. 
On  the  high  altar  of  the  existing 
(llth  century)  edifice  is  a  beautiful 
13th  century  reliquary  of  S. 
Gertrude,  who  is  reverenced  as  the 
patron  of  travellers  and  pilgrims. 
(2)  S.  Gertrude,  born  at  Eisleben, 
Saxony,  Jan.  6,  1256,  became  an 
abbess.  She  had  many  visions  and 
wrote  some  mystical  exercises. 
She  died  Nov.  15,  1334. 

The  name,  of  Teutonic  origin, 
means  Spear  maiden  and  is  one  of 
a  group  to  which  Gerald  belongs. 
It  is  found  in  the  Nibelungenlied 
and  is  a  popular  feminine  Christian 
name  in  England. 

Gervase  OF  TILBURY  (d.  1235). 
English  writer.  Born  probably  at 
Tilbury,  he  grew  up  in  Italy, 
teaching  law  at  Bologna  about 
1175.  He  became  marshal  of  the 
kingdom  of  Aries,  under  the 
patronage  of  the  emperor  Otho  IV, 
for  whom  he  wrote  in  Latin  his 
Otia  Imperialia,  1211-14,  a  com- 
prehensive but  fantastic  summary 
of  history,  geography,  current 
popular  beliefs,  politics,  etc. 

Gervex,  HENRI  (b.  1852).  French 
painter.  Born  in  Paris,  Dec.  10, 
1852,  he  studied  under  Cabanel  and 
other  painters. 
He  made  a  bril- 
liant appear- 
ance with  his 
Bather  Asleep, 

1873,  and  Satyr 
Playing  with  a  . 
Bacchante, 

1874,  in    the 
academic  man- 
ner.       But  he 
showed     equal 
power        in 

realism  with  his  Post  Mortem  at  the 
Hotel  Dieu,  and  his  portrait-group 
of  the  founders  of  the  French  Re- 
public. Some  of  his  portraiture 
was  daring  almost  to  recklessness, 
especially  his  Rolla  and  Masked 
Lady,  the  former  rejected  by  the 
Salon,  1878.  He  earned  distinction 
by  his  decorative  paintings  for 
public  buildings,  e.g.  The  Civil  Mar- 
riage, and  The  Board  of  Charity. 
In  1913  he  was  elected  to  the 
Academy. 


Henri  Gervex, 
French  painter 


Georg  G.  Gervinus, 
German  author 


Gervinus,  GEORG  GOTTFRIED 
(1805-71).  German  author.  Born 
at  Darmstadt,  May  20,  1805,  and 
educated  at  Giessen  and  Heidel- 
berg, he  became  a  teacher  and 
soon  began  to  write.  His  History 
of  German  Poetry,  1853,  is  a  work 
of  great  value ;  ^^ 
the  nucleus  of  | 
this  work  had 
appeared  be- 
tween  1835 
and  1842  under 
a  different 
title.  In  1837 
appeared  his 
Foundations  of 
History.  H  e 
was  appointed 
professor  of  history  and  literature 
at  Gottingen,  where  he  was  one  of 
the  seven  professors  expelled  in 
1837  for  their  protest  against  the 
unconstitutional  acts  of  Ernest 
Augustus,  and  in  1848  he  was  a 
member  of  the  Frankfort  parlia- 
ment. He  died  March  18,  1871. 

Gervinus  was  anxious  for  the 
unity  of  Germany,  and  in  this  cause 
he  founded  in  1847  Die  Deutsche 
Zeitung,  which  he  edited  until 
1848.  His  other  works  include 
Introduction  to  the  History  of  the 
Nineteenth  Century,  Eng.  trans. 
1853 ;  and  Shakespeare  Com- 
mentaries, Eng.  trans.  1863. 

Geshur.  One  of  the  ancient 
states  of  Palestine,  lying  E.  of  the 
Jordan.  David  married  a  daughter 
of  its  king,  and  it  was  here  that 
Absalom  took  refuge. 

Gesneraceae.  Large  natural 
order  of  herbs  and  shrubs.  They 
are  chiefly  natives  of  the  warmer 
regions  of  America.  Some  of  the 
species,  such  as  Gloxinia,  have 
tuberous  roots.  They  have  opposite, 
wrinkled  leaves,  and  showy  tubular 
flowers  of  scarlet,  blue  or  white. 

Gessner,  SALOMON  (1730-88). 
Swiss  poet.  He  was  born  in  Zurich, 
April  1,  1730,  where  he  set  up  as  a 
bookseller,  but 
soon  turned 
t  o  literature, 
also  painting 
and  engraving 
landscapes. 
He  won  his 
chief  popular- 
ity in  Germany 
b  y  his  senti- 
mental Idyllen, 
1756.  His 
Tod  Abels  (Death  of  Abel),  1758, 
written  in  an  irregular  "kind  of 
loose  poetry,  enjoyed  consider- 
able success  in  Germany,  and  was 
translated  into  six  European  lan- 
guages. By  1788  it  had  passed 
through  30  English  editions.  In 
1772  he  issued  a  second  series  of 
Idyllen,  and  Letters  on  Landscape 
Painting.  His  Idylls,  with  one  of  the 


Salomon  Gessner, 
Swiss  poet 


Letters,  were  translated  into  Eng- 
lish, 1798.    He  died  March  2,  1788. 

Gesso  (Ital.,  plaster).  Prepara- 
tion of  plaster  used  as  a  ground  for 
painting  or  laid  over  another  sub- 
stance for  the  same  purpose.  It 
must  be  employed  with  care,  being 
liable  to  chip.  Gesso  duro  (hard 
plaster),  specially  made  of  gypsum, 
has  been  utilised  for  sculpture 
work,  generally  in  low  relief. 
See  Painting ;  Sculpture. 

Gesta  Romanorum  (Deeds  of 
the  Romans).  Medieval  collection 
of  tales  from  Roman  history  and 
other  sources,  probably .  compiled 
about  the  close  of  the  13th  century. 
The  object  was  to  provide  stories 
which  could  be  used  to  enforce 
or  enliven  lessons  from  the  pulpit. 
The  collection  was  first  printed  at 
Utrecht  in  1473,  the  first  English 
edition  being  issued  by  Wynkyn 
de  Worde  about  1510.  There  have 
been  many  later  versions,  the 
fullest  being  that  by  C.  Swan,  1824, 
new  ed.  1905. 

Gestation  (Lat.  gestatio).  The 
act  of  carrying  the  young  in  the 
womb  or  uterus  from  conception  to 
birth.  In  the  human  species  the 
average  duration  of  gestation  is 
278  days,  exceptionally  prolonged 
to  as  many  as  300.  In  France  and 
Scotland,  the  law  assumes  the 
possibility  of  pregnancy  lasting  for 
300  days,  and  in  Germany  302  days. 
In  England  no  legal  limit  is  laid 
down.  See  Pregnancy. 

Gesture  Language.  Com- 
munication  of  thought  by  move- 
ments of  parts  of  the  body  other 
than  the  organs  of  speech.  Gesture 
may  be  (1)  explicit,  as  in  pointing 
or  holding  up  a  coin;  (2)  pantomi- 
mic, as  in  pretending  to  drink; 
(3)  emotional,  as  in  shrugging  the 
shoulders ;  (4)  conventional,  as 
in  raising  the  hat. 

All  these  forms  denote  concrete 
ideas  rather  than  words.  The 
last  three  may  consist  of  grimace; 
the  first  three  are  mutually  in- 
telligible to  persons  of  every  grade 
of  culture  when  for  any  reason 
unable  or  unwishful  to  converse 
by  speech.  Conventional  gesture 
may  be  unintelligible  without  pre- 
vious explanation.  Natural  gesture 
never  attained  the  power  to  com- 
municate abstract  ideas,  or  to  re- 
present the  more  complex  parts  of 
speech.  It  reached  its  highest  devel- 
opments in  recent  centuries  among 
the  Indians  of  the  N.  American 
plains  and  the  populace  of  Naples. 

No  normally  speechless  com- 
munity has  ever  been  recorded. 
Voluntary  vows  of  silence,  such  as 
those  taken  by  someTrappist  monks, 
and  the  involuntary  silence  of  deaf 
mutes  have  led  to  the  invention  of 
conventional  systems  of  manual 
signs.  See  Language ;  Phonetics. 


GETAE 

Getae.  Thracian  tribe.  Later 
called  Daci,  their  earliest  home 
was  on  both  banks  of  the  Ister 
(Danube)  from  its  mouth  as  far  as 
the  Tisia  (Theiss).  Byrebistas 
(Boerebista)  founded  a  Daco- 
Getic  kingdom  about  50  B.C.,  which 
after  his  death  fell  to  pieces.  It 
was  revived  during  the  early  em- 
pire, but  the  territory  was  con- 
quered by  Trajan  (A.D.  106)  and 
made  a  Roman  province.  The 
Getae  were  a  religious  people,  who 
are  said  to  have  believed  in  the 
transmigration  of  souls  and  to  have 
worshipped  a  certain  Zamolxis, 
sometimes  identified  with  Sabazius, 
the  Thracian  Dionysus.  In  spite  of 
the  similarity  of  name,  they  were 
no  way  akin  to  the  Goths,  by 
whom  they  were  absorbed  in  the 
3rd  century.  See  Dacia. 

Gethsemane.  Retired  spot  on 
the  slope  of  the  Mt.  of  Olives,  about 
|  m.  from  Jerusalem.  A  garden  in 
Gethsemane  was  a  favourite  resort 
of  Christ,  and  it  was  there,  or  near 
by,  that  He  was  betrayed  byJudas. 
A  garden,  still  preserved  as  the 
actual  one,  is  considered  by 
modern  explorers  to  be  too  near 
the  city  walls.  Excavations  were 
carried  out  in  the  garden  in  1920, 
in  the  course  of  which  remains  of 
a  4th  century  and  a  13th  century 
church  were  discovered.  See  Jeru- 
salem ;  Palestine. 

Getter.  In  executing  earth- 
works, the  man  who  excavates  the 
material  for  the  filler  who  loads  the 
trucks  or  barrows  and  the  wheeler 
who  trundles  them.  The  propor- 
tion of  getters,  wheelers,  and  fillers 
is  as  follows  :  in  loose  earth,  gravel, 
and  sand,  1-1-1 ;  in  compact  earth 
and  marl,  1-  2-2  ;  in  clay,  1-1J-1 J  5 
in  rock,  3-1-1.  See  Earthwork. 

Gettysburg,  Bor.  and  co.  seat 
of  Adams  co.,  Pennsylvania,  U.S.A. 
It  is  70  m.  N.  of  Washington  and 
25  m.  S.W.  of  Harrisburg,  on  the 
Western  Maiyland  and  Gettysburg 
and  Harrisburg  railroads.  It  was 
planned  in  1780,  named  after 
General  James  Gettys,  made  a  co. 
seat  in  1800,  and  a  bor.  in  1806.  Of 
its  two  Lutheran  institutions,  the 
theological  seminary  dates  from 
1826  and  Pennsylvania  College 
from  1832.  The  field  on  which  the 
great  battle  of  July,  1863,  was 
fought  was  dedicated'in  Nov.,1863, 
as  a  national  cemetery  ;  it  contains 
3,629  graves,  1,630  of  unknown 
dead,  and  a  number  of  memorials, 
including  one,  on  Cemetery  Hill, 
which,  surmounted  by  a  statue  of 
Liberty,  has  at  its  foot  figures  sym- 
bolical of  War,  Peace,  History,  and 
Plenty.  Pop.  4,000. 

Gettysburg,  BATTLE  OF,  One  of 
the  decisive  conflicts  of  the  Ameri- 
can Civil  War.  It  was  fought 
at  Gettysburg,  Pennsylvania,  July 


351  1 

1-3,  1863.  The  battle  area,  con- 
sisting of  mountain,  valley,  rugged 
hill,  precipitous  cliffs,  meadow, 
plain,  stream,  forest,  and  undulat- 
ing green  fields,  was  suited  to 
bring  armies  into  every  possible 
form  of  action ;  but  the  seven 


Gethsemane.  The  garden  near  Jerusalem  which  tradition 
marks  as  the  scene  of  Christ's  betrayal 

severe  engagements  were  fought 
mainly  in  a  valley  between  two 
great  ridges.  In  the  result  the 
Federal  Army  of  the  Potomac, 
82,000  men,  under  General  Meade, 
defeated  the  Confederate  Army  of 
North  Virginia,  73,000  men,  under 
General  Lee.  The  Confederate 
leader  escaped  by  a  masterly  re- 
treat across  the  Potomac. 

In  the  preceding  December,  Lee 
had  repuls?d  an  attack  by  Burn- 
side  at  Fredericksburg,  inflicting 
losses    of    over    10,000   men    and 
forcing  the  Federals  to  retire  be- 
hind  the  line 
of  the  Rapahan- 
nock.   Hooker,  at 
Chancellorsville 
(q.v.),  at  the  end 
of  April,  resumed 
the  Federal  offen- 
s i v e,    but,    at- 
tacked by  Lee  in 
front  and   flank, 
was,     after    four 
days'  heavy  fight- 
ing,  forced  once 
more  behind  the 
Rappahannock, 
both  sides  suffer- 
ing   very    heavy 
losses. 

In  June  Lee's 
army  crossed  the 
Potomac  at  two 
points  not  far 
from  the  battle- 
field of  Antietam, 
and,  perceiving 
that  Meade, 
who  succeeded 
Hooker  on  June 
28,  could  isolate 
him  in  an  enemy's 
country,  deter- 
mined to  face  to- 
wards Gettysburg 


GETTYSBURG 

and  there  to  force  the  issue,  giving 
strict  orders,  however,  that  private 
property  should  be  respected.  One 
of  Meade's  objectives  was  the 
defence  of  Washington,  and  he 
took  up  a  strong  position  S.  of  Get- 
tysburg, on  Cemetery  Ridge.  The 
,  Confeclerate  forces 
occupied  Semin- 
ary Ridge,  nearly 
opposite. 

The  great  strug- 
gle    began  on 
July    1,    when 
Buford's    cavalry 
resisted    the    ad- 
vance    of     Hill's 
Confederate 
troops.   During 
the    afternoon 
Swell's  corps  from 
the  N.  threatened 
the     Federal    in- 
fantry which  had 
come  to  Buford's 
help,  and   the 
Federals    were    driven    back     to 
Cemetery  Ridge  and  Gulp's  Hill. 
Both  armies  were  assembled  by  the 
afternoon    of    July    2,    when    the 
Federals   occupied   a   curve   from 
Culp's  Hill  to  the  Devil's  Den  and 
the  Confederates  threatened  them 
with   a   longer   line,    Longstreet's 
corps  having  taken  up  the  position 
opposite    the    Round    Top    hills. 
Longstreet  attacked  about  4  p.m., 
and  drove  the  Federals  back  to  the 
main  ridge,  but  failed  to  carry  the 
Round  Tops,  which  were  hurriedly 
occupied  by  Federal  reinf  orcements. 


Gettysburg.     Plan  of  the  dispositions  of  the  opposing 

forces  during  one  of  the  chief  battles  of  the  American 

Civil  War 


GEULINCX 


GEYSER 


Later  in  the  afternoon  Ewell's 
troops  occupied  Gulp's  Hill,  and 
at  nightfall,  at  Spangler's  Springs, 
friend  and  foe  knelt  together 
to  quench  their  thirst.  Meade 
decided  to  defend  his  positions, 
and  early  on  July  3  regained 
Gulp's  Hill.  After  "fierce  artillery 
preparation  Lee's  centre,  under 
the  command  of  General  Pickett, 
attacked  strongly  during  the 
afternoon.  The  guns  of  the 
Federals  swept  the  advancing 
troops,  making  great  gaps  in  their 
ranks ;  but  the  ranks  closed,  the 
advance  continued,  the  Federal 
line  was  broken  and  the  ridge 
gained,  but  it  could  not  be  held  ; 
only  a  shattered  remnant  of 
Pickett's  forces  made  its  way  back. 
With  Meade  remained  the  victory. 
Lee  withdrew  his  broken  army  into 
Virginia.  The  los?es  were  estim- 
ated as  follows  :  Federals,  3,072 
killed;  14,497  wounded;  5,434 
prisoners  and  missing  ;  Confeder- 
ates, 2,592  killed  ;  12,709  wounded ; 
5,150  prisoners  and  missing.  There 
is,  however,  reason  to  believe  that 
the  Confederate  losses  were 
heavier.  In  Nov.,  when  the  battle- 
field was  dedicated  as  a  National 
Cemetery,  President  Lincoln  made 
a  two  minutes'  speech  which  has 
become  immortal.  See  American 
Civil  War ;  Lee ;  consult  also 
Chancellorsville  and  Gettysburg,  A. 
Doubleday,  1882 ;  Battle  of  Gettys- 
burg, S.  Drake,  189],  and  Comte  de 
Paris,  new  ed.  1912  ;  U.S.  Official 
Records,  vol.  xxvii,  parts  1-3. 

Geulincx,  ARNOLD  (1624-69). 
Belgian  philosopher.  Born  at 
Antwerp,  Jan.  31,  1624,  he  became 
professor  of  philosophy  in  the  uni- 
versities of  Louvain,  1646-58,  and 
Leiden,  1665-69.  He  founded  the 
system  known  as  Occasionalism.  He 
denies  any  reciprocal  action  of  body 
and  soul,  comparing  them  to  two 
watches  which,  although  separate 
and  independent,  are  in  agreement. 
God  is  the  intermediator.  On  the 
occasion  of  a  bodily  process,  a  de- 
finite sensation  arises  in  the  soul, 
and  on  the  occasion  of  an  idea  in 
the  soul,  the  body  moves — as  the 
result  of  divine  agency. 

Geum.  Handsome,  hardy,  dwarf 
perennial  herbs  of  the  natural 
order  Rosaceae.  Natives  of  Bri- 
tain, India,  and  N.  America,  their 
height  varies  from  one  to  two  ft. 
The  flowers  are  red,  white,  and  yel- 
low, and  they  are  propagated  by 
seed  in  spring,  and  by  division  of  the 
roots  in  autumn.  For  rock  gardens 
G.  montanum,  which  has  rich  yellow 
flowers  in  abundance  in  early 
spring,  is  the  most  attractive. 

Gevaert,  FRANQOIS  AUGUSTE 
(1828-1908).  Belgian  composer. 
Born  at  Huysse,  in  E.  Flanders, 
July  31,  1828,  the  son  of  a  baker, 


Geyser.      Diagram    illustrating   the   principles  which 

cause  the  geyser  at  rest,  left,  to  spout  boiling  water, 

as  seen  in  the  right 

he  studied  at  the  Conservatoire  at 
Ghent.  He  became  organist  of  the 
Jesuit  Church  there,  and  travelled 
in  Spain  and  Italy  ;  from  1867- 
70  he  had  a  post  at  the  Paris  Aca- 
demy of  Music,  and  in  1871  was 
made  director  of  the  Brussels  Con- 
servatoire. His  compositions  in- 
clude many  operas ;  he  wrote  also 
on  the  history  and  theory  of 
music  in  ancient  times.  He  died 
in  Brussels,  Dec.  24,  1908. 

Gevelsberg.  Town  of  Germany, 
in  Westphalia.  It  lies  6  m.  from 
Hagen,  on  the  Westphalian  coal- 
field, and  is  a  modern  industrial 
town,  known  for  its  manufactures  of 


Foliage     and 
Geum  rivale 


cutlery.  It  has 
also  iron  and  steel 
works,  breweries, 
etc.  Pop.  19,000. 

Geyser  (Ice- 
landic, geysir).  Hot 
spring  in  which  the 
water  is  forced  into 
the  air  like  a  foun- 
tain. Geysers  are 
characteristic  of 
volcanic  areas,  and 
derive  their  heat 
from  volcanic 
sources.  There  are 
many  in  the  Yel- 
lowstone National 
Park,  Wyoming, 
U.S.A.  One  famous 
geyser  is  called 
"  Old  Faithful," 
because  of  its  regu- 
1  a  r  i  t  y,  shooting, 
every  63  minutes, 
a  column  of  water 
to  a  height  of  near- 
ly 150  ft. 

After  an  eruption 
the  water  collects  in 
the  tube  connecting 
the     surface    with 
the  interior.      The 
water  in  the  narrow 
irregular     tube     is 
heated  probably  by 
contact    with     hot 
lava.      Steam  is 
formed  locally  in  the  tube  and  lifts 
the  water  above  it ;  more  steam  is 
then  formed  rapidly.    This  reduces 
the  pressure  and  the  whole  is  shot 
into  the  air. 

Geyserland,  situated  near  Ro- 
torua,  in  North  Island,  New  Zea- 
land, is  equally  famous  for  its 
hundreds  of  geysers,  its  boiling 
springs,  mud  volcanoes,  and  fu- 
maroles.  Although  the  natural 
fountains  do  not  rival  in  height 
those  of  Wyoming,  the  best  of 
them  sprout  from  80  to  100  ft. 
Waikite  is  noted  for  the  beauty 
of  the  silica  cone  at  its  orifice. 
Pron.  Guy-zer. 

Geyser.  Domestic  appliance  for 
the  rapid  supply  of  hot  water.  It 
consists  of  a  long  coil  or  spiral  of 
copper,  brass,  or  iron  tubing 
through  which  water  continually 
flows  from  the  source  of  supply  to 
the  container.  The  tube  is  exposed 
to  a  gas  or  other  flame,  a  large  sur- 
face of  water  thereby  being  heated 
at  one  time.  The  metal  tube  is 
made  very  thin  so  that  the  heat 
passes  through  it  instantly.  The 
water  flows  through  the  tube,  thus 
constantly  presenting  fresh  water 
to  the  heated  metal  surface.  In 
this  way  a  large  quantity  of  water 
can  be  raised  to  boiling  point  much 
more  quickly  than  in  an  ordinary 
vessel.  Most  modern  geysers  are 
now  supplied  with  a  single  tap 


1.  Crow's  Nest  Geyser,  New  Zealand.    When  in  eruption  it  invariably  gives  two  jets  at  an  interval  of  90  seconds. 

2.  Waikite  Geyser,  one  of  the  largest  in  North  Island,  New  Zealand.    3.  Geyser  in  Yellowstone  Park,  Wyoming. 

4.  Wairoa  Geyser,  New  Zealand,  near  the  scene  of  the  eruption  of  1881 

GEYSER:    EXAMPLES  OF  NATURE'S  WONDERFUL  BOILING   FOUNTAINS 


GEYSERITE 


35  1  4 


GHATS 


which  simultaneously  turns  on  both 
gas  and  water,  and  so  practically 
removes  any  danger  of  explosion. 

Geyserite.  Variety  of  opaline 
silica  found  in  deposits  round  the 
geysers  of  Iceland,  New  Zealand, 
etc.  Found  in  masses  of  pearly 
lustre  sometimes  of  great  beauty,  it 
consists  chiefly  of  silica  with  10  to 
12  p.c.  of  water. 

Gezer.  City  of  Palestine,  16 
m.  W.N.W.  of  Jerusalem,  com- 
manding the  Philistine  plains.  It 
was  the  dowry  of  the  Egyptian 
princess  whom  Solomon  wedded. 
Assyrian,  Egyptian,  and  Hebrew 
inscriptions  help  the  dating.  R.  A.  S. 
Macalister's  excavations  (1902-9) 
revolutionised  Palestine  archae- 
ology. His  memoir  (1912)  illustrates 
4,000  objects.  Some  pertain  to 
thick-skulled  neolithiccave-dwellers 
living  before  3,000  B.C.,  who  prac- 
tised cremation,  kept  domesticated 
animals,  and  used  bone  implements. 
To  a  taller  race,  who  buried  their 
dead  and  practised  human  sacrifice, 
may  pertain  a  rock- bored  water- 
tunnel  219  ft.  long.  Semitic  settlers 
(2,500  B.C.)  are  represented  by 
their  high  place  ;  Egyptian  influ- 
ence appears  (1,400  B.C.)  ;  Philis- 
tine graves  contain  human  remains, 
and  silver  and  gold  work. 

Gezira  OR  BLUE  NILE  PROVINCE- 
Division  of  the  Anglo-Egyptian 
Sudan,  situated  between  the  Blue 
and  White  Nile.  It  contains  the 
districts  of  Abu-Deleig,  Kamlin, 
Managil,  Mesellemia,  Rufaa,  and 
Wad  Medani,  is  exceedingly  fertile, 
and  produces  maize  and  cotton. 
Although  cotton-growing  is  only  in 
its  experimental  stage,  yet,  with 
ample  irrigation  from  the  captured 
flood  waters  of  the  Blue  Nile,  the 
output  should  be  greatly  improved. 
The  area  is  12,580  sq.  m.,  and  the 
pop.  192,879. 

Gfrorer,  AUGUST  FRIEDRICH 
(1803-61).  German  historian.  Born 
at  Calw,  Wiirttemberg,  March  5, 
1803,  he  was  educated  at  Tubin- 
gen University.  He  was  first  a 
student  of  theology,  which  he 
taught  in  his  own  university,  but 
from  1830,  when  he  entered  the 
royal  library  at  Stuttgart,  his  in- 
terests were  mainly  in  historical  re- 
search, ecclesiastical  history  claim- 
ing a  large  share.  In  1846  he  be- 
came professor  of  history  at  Frei- 
burg, and  in  1848  was  a  member  of 
the  Frankfort  parliament.  He 
died  July  6,  1861.  He  wrote  a  work 
on  Gustavus  Adolphus  and  his 
times,  1835-37  ;  A  History  of  Early 
Christianity,  1838  :  a  General  His- 
tory of  the  Church  down  to  1305, 
1841-46;  a  work  in  seven  volumes 
on  Hilde brand  and  his  Age,  1859- 
61 ;  a  History  of  the  18th  Century, 
1862-73;  and  other  books.  He 
joined  the  Church  of  Rome  in  1853. 


Ghadames,  GADAMES  OR  RHA- 
DAMES.  Oasis  and  town  in  the  ex- 
treme W.  of  the  Italian  colony  of 
Libia  (Tripoli).  It  is  300  m.  S.W. 
of  Tripoli,  and  is  an  important 
centre  for  the  trade  of  the  interior. 
In  Roman  times  it  was  known  as 
Cydamus.  Pop.  about  10,000. 

Gharbiyeh  OR  GHARBIEH.  Mari- 
time prov.  of  Lower  Egypt.  It  con- 
tains the  districts  of  Borollos, 


Gezer.     Ruins  of  the  bath  house  of  Simon  Maccabafeus 
(c.  143  B.C.),  who  took  the  town  from  the  Syrians 


Desuq,  Fua,  Kafr-el-Sheikh,  Kafr- 
el-Zayat,  Mehalla-el-Kubra,  Santa, 
Sherbin,  Talkha,  Tanta,  and  Zifta. 
Area,  2,534  sq.  m.  Pop.  1,484,814. 

Ghardaia.  Town  and  oasis  of 
Algeria,  in  the  Sahara.  It  is  about 
310  m.  S.E.  of  Algiers,  is  walled, 
and  is  surrounded  by  fruit  plan- 
tations. It  forms  one  of  the  three 
principal  routes  from  Algeria  to  the 
Sahara.  It  is  to  be  connected  by 
rly.  with  Laghuat,  to  which  point  a 
rly.  is  being  constructed  from  Ain 
Ussera.  Pop.  of  oasis,  38,000;  of 
town,  8,000. 

Ghat  (Hindu,  path  of  descent). 
Flight  of  steps  upon  a  river  bank 
in  India.  Designed  primarily  to 
facilitate  bathing,  drinking,  and 
other  ritual  acts,  they  served  as 
landing-places,  and  are  found  along 
the  Ganges  at  every  citv  from 
Calcutta  to  Hardwar.  Of  "the  47 
ghats  at  Benares  (q.  v.) — surmounted 
by  temples,  rest-  jpi\i;-5"^^^^s« 
houses,  images, 
and  holy  wells — 
five  are  visited  by 
all  pilgrims.  Mani- 
karnika,  the  most 
sacred,  and  Sma- 
shan — the  burning 
ghats — have  cre- 
mation grounds. 
Munshiisthe  most 
picturesque  . 
Ghosla  the  most 
massive,  Sivala 
the  handsomest, 
although  sur 
passed  in  elegance 
by  one  at  Ma 
heswar  on  the 
Nerbudda.  The 


term  is  used  for  the  scarped  sea 
faces  of  the  Deccan  peninsula,  the 
Western  and  Eastern  Ghats. 

Ghat   OR    RHAT.      Village   and 
oasis  of  N.  Africa.      It  is  in  the 
country  of  the  Tuaregs,  on  the  W. 
border  of  Fezzan,  and  is  an  Italian 
possession.  It  lies  on  the  route  from 
Tripoli  to  the  W.  Sudan,  and  is  sup- 
posed to  be  the  Rapsa  mentioned 
by  Pliny,  although  tradition  states 
that  it  was  built 
I    only  two  centuries 
and    a   half    ago. 
I    Ghat  maintained 
!    its    independence 
i    until   1875,  when 
it  was  taken  by 
the  Turks.      Pop. 
about  4,000. 

Ghats.  Two 
great  mt.  ranges 
in  India,  called 
respectively  the 
Eastern  Ghats 
and  the  Western 
Ghats.  Between 
them  lies  the  tri- 
angular tableland 
of  the  Deccan. 
Ghats,  a  line  of 
small  ranges,  begin  in  Orissa,  and 
thence  continue  through  Ganjam 
to  the  Nilgiri  plateau,  where  the 
junction  is  effected  with  the  West- 
ern Ghats.  They  approach  the  Bay 
of  Bengal  in  Ganjam  and  Vizagap- 
atam,  but  afterwards  their  course 
lies  inland,  leaving  between  them 
and  the  sea  a  long  stretch  of  low 
country  with  a  maximum  width 
of  150  m.  The  Western  Ghats, 
whose  length  is  1,000  m.,  form  a 
sea-wall  for  the  W.  side  of  the 
peninsula,  the  Palghat  Gap  being 
the  main  route  through  this 
barrier. 

The  two  ranges  have  determined 
developments  on  the  coasts  of  S. 
India.  On  the  eastern  side  the  wide 
lowlands  facilitated  the  spread  of 
civilization,  and  it  was  there  that 
the  capitals  of  the  great  kingdoms 
of  S.  India  were  established  :  but  on 


The    Eastern 


(ihat. 


Hindus    laying    a    pyre    at   a    burning    gnat, 
Benares,  where  bodies  are  cremated 


GHAZALI 


GHENT 


Ghats.     Reversing  station  on  the  incline  of  the  Ghore 
Ghat,  in  the  Western  Ghats  of  India 

the  western  side  the  inhabitants  of 
the  narrow  coast  land,  being  prac- 
tically cut  off  from  the  interior  by 
the  Western  Ghats,  were  left  to 
develop  their  own  civilization. 

Ghazali,  ABU  HAMID  MOHAM- 
MED EL-  ( 1058-1  111).  Arabian  phil- 
osopher and  theologian,  called  the 
proof  of  Islam.  He  was  born  and 
died  near  Tus,  in  Khorasan,  where 
he  founded  a  Sufi  monastery. 
Ghazali  combines  a  firm  adherence 
to  orthodox  Islam  with  neo-Plat- 
onism,  and  a  generally  sceptical 
attitude  towards  all  philosophy. 
In  his  Revivification  of  the  Sciences 
of  Religion,  he  seeks  to  free  Mahom- 
edanism  from  a  dead  and  unin- 
spiring formalism. 

Ghaziabad.  Town  and  sub- 
division of  the  United  Provinces, 
India,  in  the  Meerut  District. 
Area,  493  sq.  m.  Of  the  total 
area,  about  three-quarters  is  under 
cultivation,  indigo  being  one  of  the 
important  crops.  Ghaziabad  town 
is  on  the  trunk  road  from  Calcutta 
to  Peshawar,  and  is  an  important 
rly.  junction.  Pop.  about  10,000. 

Ghazipur .  Town  and  district  of 
the  United  Provinces,  India,  in 
the  Benares  Division.  Area,  1,389 
sq.  m.  Of  the  total  area,  three- 
quarters  is  under  cultivation  ;  of 
the  cultivated  area,  about  half  is 
devoted  to  rice  and  barley ;  other 
crops  are  peas,  pulses,  and  sugar- 
cane. Ghazipur  town,  founded  ac- 
cording to  tradition  by  a  Saiyid 
chief,  Masud,  in  1330,  contains  the 
tomb  of  Lord  Cornwallis,  who  died 
there  in  1805.  Pop.  40,000. 

Ghazni,  GHIZNI  OR  GHTJZNEE. 
Town  of  Afghanistan.  It  is  about 
80  m.  S.W.  of  Kabul,  and  is  still 
a  place  of  some  commercial  im- 
portance. Though  it  stands  over 
7,300  ft.  above  sea  level,  wheat 
and  barley  are  grown  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood. In  the  10th  and  llth 
centuries  it  was  the  great  and 
nourishing  capital  of  the  Ghazne- 
vids,  a  race  of  princes  who  ruled 
over  an  empire  that  included  most 
of  Afghanistan  and  Persia,  as  well 
as  a  large  part  of  India. 

They  gave  place  to  the  princes 
of  Ghur,  one  of  whose  sovereigns 


burned    Ghazni, 
and      established 
himself  as  head  of 
an     empire     even 
larger  than  that  of 
the     Ghaznevids. 
The   ruins   of   the 
o  1  d   town,    which 
are    extensive,    lie 
about  3   m.    N.E. 
of   the    present 
town,  which  is  on 
the  caravan   route 
from    Persia   to 
India, by  the  Gomal 
Pass.      An   old 
castle  dominates  the  town.    In  the 
Afghan  Wars  Ghazni  was  captured 
by  Lord  Keane  in  1839,  but  the 
Afghans  retook  it  in  1842,  losing  it 
in  the  same  year,  however,  again 
to  the  British,  then  under  General 
Nott.     Pop.  10,000. 

Gheel.  Town  of  Belgium,  in  the 
prov.  of  Antwerp.  It  lies  about 
28  m.  E.  of  Antwerp,  and  has  the 
fine  Gothic  church  of  S.  Dymphna, 
a  patroness  of  the  feeble-minded. 
Pop.  14,600.  It  is  chiefly  noted 
for  its  insane  colony,  where  some 
2,000  mentally  afflicted  persons 
are  boarded  out  among  the  in- 
habitants for  family  treatment, 
under  official  supervision.  ^. 

The  commune  is  divided  into  six 
sections,  each  under  the  charge  of 
a  physician  and  an  assistant  officer. 
There  are  also  inspectors  appointed 
by  the  minister  of  justice,  to  each 
of  whom  a  district  is  assigned,  every 
patient  in  which  they  visit  once  a 
fortnight.  The  patients  are  divided 
into  two  classes :  private  paying 
patients,  living  in  the  charge  of 
persons  known  as  holes,  at  varying 
fees,  and  pauper  patients,  in  the 
care  of  nourriciers. 

The  advantages  of  the  Gheel 
system  are  that  a  large  number  of 
the  insane  are  well  provided  for 
altogether  outside  of  asylum  ad- 
ministration ;  are  placed  in  a 
position  where  their  life  approaches 
much  more  nearly  to  the  life  they 
would  have  led  had  they  never 
become  insane  ;  are,  to  a  great  ex- 
tent, restored  to  a  place  in  the 
general  community  ;  and  are  made 
to  share  in  the  interests  and  occu- 
pations of  the  sane. 

Among  its  disadvantages  is  the 
fact  that  the  care  of  the  insane  has 
become  what  may  almost  be  called 
the  staple  industry  of  the  place. 
In  the  history  of  the  treat- 
ment of  insanity,  Gheel  occupies  an 
honourable  place.  See  Insanity. 

Gheluvelt.  Village  of  Belgium, 
in  the  prov.  of  W.  Flanders,  4  m. 
S.E.  of  Ypres  on  the  Ypres-Menin 
road.  It  was  the  scene  of  desperate 
fighting  in  the  Great  War,  especi- 
ally in  the  first  battle  of  Ypres,  Oct. 
24-31,  1914,  and  no  position  was 


Ghent  arms 


more  hotly  disputed.  The  2nd  bat- 
talion Welch  regiment  alone  lost  17 
officers  and  600  other  ranks  in 
killed  and  wounded  here.  Captured 
by  the  British  in  Oct.,  1917,  it  was 
lost  in  the  spring  of  1918,  and  fin- 
ally taken  at  the  end  of  Sept.,  1918, 
in  the  battle  for  the  Belgian  coast. 
Several  war  memorials  are  to  be 
erected  here,  including  one  to  the 
officers  and  men  of  the  above  bat- 
talion and  one  to  the  Second  Divi- 
sion. See  Flanders,  Battle  of; 
Ypres,  Battles  of. 

Ghent  (Fr.  Gaud).  City  of  Bel- 
gium, capital  of  the  prov.  of  E. 
Flanders.  It  lies  31  m.  N.W.  of 
Brussels,  at  the 
meeting  of  the 
rivers  Lys  and 
Schelde,  the  arms 
of  which  intersect 
the  city  in  all  di- 
rections. An  im- 
portant rly.  cen- 
tre, with  two  large 
stations,  it  is  situ- 
ated in  the  midst  of  flat,  well-culti- 
vated country.  Ghent  is  connected 
with  the  S.  arm  of  the  estuary  of 
the  Schelde  at  Terneuzen,  about  21 
m.  N.N.E.,  by  a  ship  canal,  built 
1826-27,  and  deepened  1895-96, 
and  has  also -good  inland  waterway 
communications.  Apart  from  its 
administrative  importance  and  its 
university  (founded  1816),  Ghent 
has  considerable  cotton  and  linen 
manufactures,  tanneries,  breweries, 
engineering  works,  and  sugar  re- 
fineries ;  a  busy  trade  in  timber, 
phosphates,  flax,  potatoes,  cement, 
etc. ;  and  many  nurseries  and  hot- 
houses. Ledeberg,  Mont-S.  Amand, 
and  Gentbrugge  are  populous 
suburbs.  Pop.  163,595. 

Its  many  old  buildings  in  the 
Flemish  style,  the  narrow,  curving 
lanes,  and  the  countless  bridges 
and  waterways  make  Ghent  one  of 
the  most  picturesque  of  Belgian 
cities.  Foremost  among  the  historic 
buildings  is  the  cathedral  of  S. 
Bavon,  the  city's  patron  saint, 
founded  about  940,  which  became 
a  cathedral  in  1559.  The  exterior  is 
plain,  but  the  interior  is  full  of 
beauty.  The  choir  dates  from  the 
13th  century,  the  nave  and  tran- 
septs from  the  16th,  and  in  the 
cathedral  is  the  famous  altar-piece 
of  The  Adoration  of  the  Lamb, 
painted  1420-32  by  the  Van 
Eycks  ;  some  panels  of  the  com- 
plete work  were  sold  in  1816,  but 
were  returned  to  Ghent  from 
Berlin  by  the  treaty  of  Versailles 
in  1920. 

The  hotel  de  ville  is  a  large  block 
dating  in  part  from  the  close  of  the 
15th  century,  with  handsome  fa- 
9ades  of  16th  century  Gothic  and 
early  17th  century  Renaissance 
styles.  A  lofty  belfry  (390  ft.), 


GHERBA 


GHIKA 


Ghent.     Plan  of  the  city,  showing  principal  buildings  and  docks 


built  mainly  in  the  14th  century, 
stands  in.  the  centre  of  the  town, 
and  not  far  off  is  the  castle  of  the 
counts  of  Flanders,  a  typical  me- 
dieval stronghold  founded  in  the 
9th  and  rebuilt  in  the  12th  cen- 
tury, the  seat  of  the]  Council  of 
Flanders  from  1407  to  1778. 

The  history  of  Ghent  is  closely 
interwoven  with  that  of  Flanders. 
It  was  in  existence  by  the  middle 
of  the  7th  century,  and  Baldwin, 
1st  count  of  Flanders,  made  it  one 
of  his  strong  points  in  868.  During 
the  13th-15th  centuries  Ghent  be- 
came one  of  the  greatest  marts  of 
W.  Europe,  and  the  burghers,  al- 
ways known  for  their  turbulence 
and  independence,  increased  their 
strength  by  their  accumulated 
wealth  ;  the  story  of  the  Van  Arte- 
veldes,  and  the  determined  revolt 
against  Philip  of  Burgundy,  1448- 
53,  were  typical  of  Ghent's  char- 
acter in  those  days.  At  the  same 
time  the  arts  flourished  in  Ghent, 
which  the  Van  Eycks  made  a 


great  centre  of  Flemish  painting. 
During  the  troubled  times  of  the 
16th  century  the  city  suffered 
severely,  especially  after  her  surren- 
der to  the  duke  of  Parma  in  1584. 

In  1794  Ghent  was  made  the 
capital  of  the  newly  created  French 
dept.  of  the  Schelde,  but  became 
part  of  the  United  Netherlands  in 
1814,  and  part  of  Belgium  in  1830. 
Several  treaties  are  named  from 
their  having  been  concluded  here, 
notably  the  pacification  of  Ghent, 
by  which  the  N.  and  S.  provs. 
united  against  Spain  in  1576,  and 
the  peace  of  Ghent  between  Britain 
and  America,  1814. 

Ghent  was  occupied  by  the  Ger- 
mans during  the  Great  War  on 
Oct.  12,  19J4.  The  city  was  re- 
captured by  the  Belgians  Nov.  11, 
1918.  See  Belgium  ;  Flanders. 

Gherba.  Island  in  the  Gulf  of 
Gabes,  Mediterranean  Sea,  belong- 
ing to  France.  It  lies  off  the  E. 
coast  of  Tunis,  12  m.  E.S.E.  of 
Sfax  and  S.W.  of  the  island  of  Ker- 


kena,  from  which  it  is  separated  by 
a  narrow  strait.  It  is  10  m.  in 
length  from  W.  to  E.,  and  5  m. 
from  N..  to  S. 

Ghetto  (Ital.).  Word  translated 
into  English  as  Jewry,  and  mean- 
ing a  part  of  a  town  inhabited  en- 
tirely by  Jews.  See  Jewry. 

Ghevgeli  OR  GEVCELI.  Town  of 
Yugo-Slavia,  35  m.  N.W.  of  Sa- 
lonica.  Occupied  by  the  British  at 
the  beginning  of  Nov.,  1915,  it  was 
evacuated,  the  Bulgarians  entering 
it  on  Dec.  12.  It  was  recaptured  by 
the  Allies  Sept.  22,  1918.  See  Sa- 
lonica,  Expedition  to ;  Serbia, 
Conquest  of. 

Ghi  on  GHEE  (Hind,  from  ghar, 
to  drip).  Clarified  butter  used  in 
the  East  not  only  for  food  but  also 
medicinally  and  in  religious  cere- 
monies. The  butter  is  heated  and 
skimmed  or  strained  till  it  becomes 
a  semi-solid  oil  which  may  be  kept 
for  years. 

Ghibellines.  Italian  political 
faction.  It  originated  in  Germany, 
the  story  being  that  in  a  fight  near 
Weinsberg,  in  1140,  between  the 
German  king  Conrad  III,  one  of 
the  Hohenstaufen  family,  and  the 
ruler  of  Bavaria,  Welf,  the  troop 
of  the  latter  called  out  as  a  rallying 
cry  Welf,  to  which  the  others  re- 
plied with  Waiblingen,  the  name 
of  Conrad's  castle.  Welf  became 
Guelph,  and  Waiblingen  became 
Ghibelline.  See  Florence ;  Guelphs 
and  Ghibellines. 

Ghiberti,  LOREXZO  (1378-1455)- 
Italian  sculptor.  Born  at  Flor- 
ence, he  began  his  career  as  a  gold- 
smith, a  craft 
which  gave 
him  wonderful 
facility  in 
drawing,  mod- 
e  11  ing,  and 
design.  By  far 
h  i  s  greatest 
work  was  the 
two  magnifi- 
cent bronze 
gates  for  the 
baptistery  in 
Florence,  unrivalled  examples  of 
this  kind  of  bas-relief,  which 
Michelangelo  declared  to  be  fit 
for  the  gates  of  Paradise.  The 
first  of  the  gates,  which  illustrate 
Biblical  subjects,  occupied  Ghi- 
berti for  21  years,  1403-24,  and 
the  second  for  23  years,  1424-47. 
See  Door,  illus. 

Ghika,  ION  (1817-97).  Ru- 
manian diplomatist.  Grandson  of 
Scarlat  Ghika,  prince  of  Wallachia, 
he  early  developed  strong  revolu- 
tionary principles  which  necessi- 
tated his  living  in  obscurity.  He 
became  professor  of  mathematics 
at  Jassy  University,  while  from 
1853  to  1859  he  was  bey  of  Samos, 


Lorenzo  Ghiberti, 
Italian  sculptor 

From  an  old  print 


i  and  9.  Detail  and  general  view  of  N.  facade  of  Hotel 
de  Ville,  i6tb  century.  2.  Chateau  du  Diable,  isth  cen- 
tury. 3.  The  Belfry,  i4th  century,  with  tower  of  cathe- 
dral on  right.  4.  Le  Rabot,  fort  built  1489.  5.  Castle  of 


Counts  of  Flanders.  6.  De  Vigne-Quyo's  statue  (1863) 
of  Jacob  van  Artevelde.  7.  Palais  de  Justice,  1836-46. 
J.  Building  of  old  Beguinage.  10.  Cathedral  of  S.  Bavon, 
from  the  Belfry,  n.  The  Quai  aux-herbes 


GHENT  :     CITY    FAMED    IN    FLEMISH    AND    BELGIAN    HISTORY 


GHIL.AN 


3518 


GHURIAN 


r  *£k  .  -M 


Ghirlandaio.      The  Last  Supper,  a  fresco  painted  in  1480  on  the  refectory  walls  in  the  old  monastery  of  Ognissanti,  Florence 


He  had  long  been  agitating  for  the 
union  of  Moldavia  and  Wallachia, 
and  when  this  took  place  in  1859 
Ghika  returned  to  Bukarest  and 
became  the  first  prime  minister.  He 
was  Rumanian  ambassador  in  Lon- 
don, 1881-89,  and  died  May  7, 1897. 

Ghilan  OK  GILAN.  Prov.  of 
Persia.  Lying  between  the  Elburz 
Mts.  and  the  Caspian,  it  has  an 
area  of  4,673  sq.  m.  and  a  pop.  of 
150,000.  It  is  bounded  W.  by 
Azerbeijan,  S.  by  Kazvin,  and  E. 
by  Mazanderan.  Though  suffering 
from  inundations,  its  soil  is  fertile, 
producing  wheat,  barley,  and  fruit, 
and  it  has  a  trade  in  silks.  Its  chief 
town  is  Resht. 

Ghilzai.  Afghan  tribe  between 
Kandahar  and  Kabul.  They  are 
Pushtu-speaking  Moslems,  claiming 
Turkish  descent,  and  they  rank  in 
military  prowess  with  the  dominant 
Durani,  but  are  distinguished  by 
their  commercial  enterprise.  They 
furnish  the  camel  -  caravans  of 
Povindah  merchants  who-  have  for 
centuries  traded  between  India 
and  Russian  Turkistan. 

Ghioura.  Variant  of  the  Greek  is- 
land better  known  as  Gyaro  (q.v. ). 

Ghirlandaio,  DOMENICO  (1449- 
94).  '  Italian  painter.  Born  at 
Florence,  his  name  was  Domenico 
Tommaso  Corrado  Bigordi,  the 
adopted  sobriquet  indicating  that 
he  was  a  makeY  of  garlands.  Ap 
prenticed  to  a  goldsmith,  he  also 
studied  painting  under  Alessio 
Baldovinetti  (q.i\).  Between  1480 
and  his  death,  Jan.  11,  1494,  he 
produced  many  important  works 
in  tempera  and  fresco,  and  in 
mosaic.  Among  his  most  notable 


paintings  are  S.  Jerome  and  The 
Last  Supper,  1480,  in  Florence  ; 
the  fresco  of  S.  Peter  and  S.  An- 
drew in  the  Sistine  Chapel,  1483, 
Rome ;  Adoration  of  the  Magi, 
1488,  Florence ;  the  Tornabuoni 
frescoes,  1490,  in  S.  Maria  Novella, 
Florence ;  The  Visitation,  1491,  in 
the  Louvre. 

His  mosaic  of  the  Annunciata, 
in  Florence  Cathedral,  is  justly 
celebrated.  In  spite  of  a  hardness 
in  his  colour  effects,  Ghirlandaio 
must  be  placed  among  the  greatest 
painters  of  his  century.  For  a 
short  time  Michelangelo  was  one  of 
his  pupils,  and  his  son,  Ridolfo 
(1483-1560),  was  also  a  painter 
of  ability.  Pron.  Gear-lan-diyo. 

Ghistelles.  Village  of  Belgium, 
in  the  prov.  of  W.  Flanders.  It  is 
11  m.  S.S.W.  of  Bruges  on  the 
Ostend-Thorout  Rly.  From  the 
autumn  of  1914  until  Oct.  16,  1918, 
it  was  in  the  possession  of  the  Ger- 
mans,who  established  an  aerodrome 
here  which  was  bombed  by  allied 
airmen,  Feb.  16, 1915,  to  Aug.,  1918. 

Ghost.  Spirit  of  a  dead  person 
manifesting  itself  in  some  form 
perceptible  to  the  senses  of  the 
living.  Some  measure  of  belief  in 
such  posthumous  manifestations 
has  been  held  in  all  times  and  by 
all  peoples.  The  ghost  is  frequently 
associated  with  some  crime  in 
which  the  person  has  been  con- 
cerned either  as  perpetrator  or  as 
victim,  and  is.  generally  said  to 
appear  about  the  hour  of  midnight 
and  to  disappear  at  cockcrow. 

Sometimes  these  apparitions  are 
described  as  sheeted  ghosts,  imply- 
ing an  appearance  in  their  shrouds, 


and  sometimes  as  appearing  in  the 
habit  in  which  they  lived,  implying 
spiritual  replicas  of  material  things, 
as  in  Hamlet.  See  Psychical  Re- 
search ;  Survival. 

Ghost  Moth  (Hepiahishumuli). 
Common  British  moth.  The  male 
has  shining  white  wings  with  red- 
dish fringes,  the  female  yellowish 
wings  with  brown  spots  and  streaks. 
The  under  surface  of  the  wings  in 
both  sexes  is  brown.  This  moth  is 
often  seen  at  night,  when  its  pecu- 
liar flightcauses  the  white  upper  side 
of  the  wings  toappear  and  disappear 
at  intervals,  whence  its  name. 

Ghoul  (Arab.  ghul).  Monster  of 
Oriental  legend  supposed  to  haunt 
burial  places  and  devour  the 
corpses  of  the  dead.  Hence  the 
word  is  figuratively  used  of  anyone 
who  revels  in  gruesome  matters. 


Ghost  Moth.    Upper  pair  English, 

and  lower  pair  Shetland,  form  of 

Hepialus  humuli 

G.H.Q.  Abbrev.  for  General 
Headquarters.  See  Staff  Work. 

Ghur  OR  GHORE.  Town  of 
Afghanistan,  120m.  S.E.  of  Herat. 
It  was  in  the  12th  century  the 
capital  of  a  powerful  empire. 

Ghurian  OR  GARIAN.  Ancient 
town  in  Tripolitania.  It  is  74  m.  S. 
of  Tripoli,  with  which  it  is  con- 


, 


GIACOMELLI 


GIAOUR 


nected  by  rly.  Ghurian  is  built  on 
a  hill,  and  possesses  a  fine  and  com- 
manding castle  and  the  residences 
of  the  Troglodytes  or  cave-dwellers. 
Pop.  of  town  about  7,000,  of  dis- 
trict about  42,000. 

Giacomelli,  HECTOR  (1820- 
1904).  French  painter.  Born  in 
Paris,  he  early  showed  talent  in 
draughtsmanship,  and  studied  es- 
pecially the  drawing  of  birds, 
flowers,  and  insects,  for  his  dainty 
pictures  of  which  he  later  was 
famous.  His  illustrations  to  Miche- 
let's  L'Oiseau,  1867,  and  L'Insecte. 
1876,  were  justly  popular. 

Giacosa,  GIUSEPPE  (1847-1906). 
Italian  novelist  and  dramatist.  He 
was  born  at  Colleretto-Parella,  in 
Piedmont.  Classed  among  the  ro- 
mantic realists  of  the  period,  he 
wrote  all  forms  of  drama,  in  both 
prose  and  verse,  the  best  known  of 
his  works  being  Tristi  Amori,  1888  ; 
Diritti  dell'  anima,  a  comedy,  1894 ; 
La  Signora  di  Challant ;  and  II  piu 
Forte,  1904.  He  was  editor  of  the 
monthly  Lettura. 

Giant.  Abnormally  tall  human 
being.  The  Greek  word  gigas 
denoted  primarily  manlike  beings 
of  monstrous  size,  either  wholly 
mythical,  such  as  Briareus,  or 
reminiscent  of  traditional  over- 
sized races,  such  as  Polyphemus. 
Similar  Old  Testament  traditions 
attach  to  the  Anakim  and  Rephaim, 
tall  non-Semitic  peoples  who 
occupied  Palestine  before  the 
Israelite  immigration.  Og,  king  of 
Bashari,  and  Goliath  of  Gath,  who 
according  to  Josephus  was  8  ft. 
9  ins.  high,  were  of  Rephaite  blood. 

European  folklore  is  much  con- 
cerned with  stories  of  giants  such 
as  Blunderbore  and  Grim.  It 
attributed  to  their  activities  such 
natural  formations  as  the  Giant's 
Causeway  and  the  Giant's  Kettle, 
together  with  megalithic  struc- 
tures such  as  Dutch  Hunnel- 
bedden. 

Classical  and  medieval  tradition 
have  been  brought  to  the  touch- 
stone of  fact  by  measured  records 
of  giants  in  modern  times.  The 
tallest  races,  pre-eminently  the 
Patagonians  and  the  Galloway 
Scots,  who  are  normally  5  ft.  10  ins., 
seldom  reach  6  ft.  4  ins.  The 
conventional  limit  of  spectacular 
giantism  is  7  ft.  The  Royal  College 
of  Surgeons  in  London  possesses 
the  skeleton,  7  ft.  9  ins.  long,  of 
O'Brien  Charles  Byrne,  the  18th 
century  Irish  giant.  His  con- 
temporary Patrick  Cottar,  whose 
skeleton  was  exhumed  at  Bristol  in 
1909,  was  shown  to  have  been 
7  ft.  10  ins.  ;  the  skeleton  of 
Cornelius  MacGrath,  now  in  Dub- 
lin, is  7  ft.  9  ins.  long.  The  tallest 
authentic  measurement  was  the 
9  ft.  3  ins.  of  the  Russian  Machnov  ; 


Giant.  A  Russian  giant  in  the  U.S.A., 
7  it.  9  ins.  in  height 

the  same  height  was  attributed  to 
John  Middleton,  of  Hale,  Lan- 
cashire, who  was  introduced  to 
James  I  in  1620.  See  Dwarf; 
consult  also  Giants  and  Dwarfs, 
E.  J.  Wood,  1868. 

Giant's  Causeway.  Promon- 
tory of  columnar  basalt  on  the  N. 
coast  of  co.  Antrim,  Ireland.  It 
consists  of  some  40,000  closely 
packed  polygonal  pillars,  the  pent- 
agonal and  hexagonal  formations 
largely  predominating.  The  cause- 
way is  2J  m.  N.E.  of  Bushmills  and 
is  divided  by, 
"whin  dykes" 
into  three  natural  \ 
platforms  known  '• 
as  the  Little 
Causeway,  the 
Middle  or  Honey- 
comb Causeway, 
and  the  Grand 
Causeway.  T  h  c 
pillars  have  a 
varying  diameter 
of  from  15  to  20 
ins.,  each  consist- 
ing of  several 
joints,  concave 
and  convex  at 
the  extremities, 
which  fit  perfectly 
into  each  other, 
formation  of  the  columns  is  gener- 
ally ascribed  to  the  cooling  and 
cracking  of  the  lava.. 

The  neighbouring  cliffs  exhibit 
several  remarkable  features,  such 
as  the  "  Wishing  Chair,"  the 
"  Lady's  Fan,"  the  "  Giant's 
Loom,"  and  the  "  Giant's  Organ," 


the  base  of  which  the  Giant's  Kettle 
is  formed  by  the  gyration  of  stones 
brought  by  the  stream.  These 
holes  are  often  very  deep. 

Giant's  Ring.  Name  applied 
to  a  prehistoric  monument  situated 
some  five  miles  S.W.  of  Belfast,  on 
the  co.  Down  side  of  the  river 
Lagan.  It  consists  of  a  circular 
vallum  measuring  one-third  of  a 
mile  in  circumference,  and  aver- 
aging 15  ft.  in  height.  Almost 
in  the  centre  of  the  flat  enclosure 
is  a  cromlech,  or  Druids'  altar. 
The  ancient  name  of  this  monu- 
ment, and  all  traditions  relating 
to  it,  are  lost  in  antiquity. 

In  1917  a  careful  investigation 
of  the  monument  was  carried  out, 
under  the  superintendence  of  the 
Irish  board  of  works,  the  custod- 
ians of  the  monument.  It  was 
found  that  under  the  cromlech  the 
incinerated  remains  of  apparently 
one  human  being  had  been  buried 
in  the  Soil  without  enclosure  in 
an  urn  ;  the  bones  had  been  so 
much  burned  and  decayed  by  age 
that  no  conclusions  could  be  ar- 
rived at  as  to  sex  or  age. 

The  monument  is  evidently  the 
tomb  of  an  exalted  personage  of 
the  late  stone  age,  possibly  of  about 
2000  B.C.  Near  by  many  sepulchral 
remains  have  been  found,  mostly 
of  the  early  bronze  age. 

Giao-Chi.  Ancient  people  of 
Tibeto-Chinese  stock  in  Indo- 
China.  The  name  in  Chinese  means 


Giant's  Causeway.     The  Honeycomb  Causeway,  one  of 
the  most  striking  portions  of  the  locks 


The    peculiar 


forked  toes.  This  physical  charac- 
ter, recorded  in  early  Chinese 
annals,  may  have  resulted  from  the 
riding  stirrup  being  grasped  be- 
tween the  first  and  second  toes. 
Migrating  southward  across  Tong- 
king,  their  ethnic  fusion  with 
Chams  and  others  produced  the 
Annamese  type  and  culture,  a 


whose   regular  pillars   present   the  mixture   of  Mongoloid   and  Indo 

appearance  of  organ  pipes.  nesian  elements. 

Giant's    Kettle.       Large    hole         Giaour.     Term  applied  by  the 

found  in  the  rock  beds  of  former  Turks  to   all    non  -  Mahomedans, 

glaciers.     A  stream  on  the  surface  especially  Christians,  and  particu- 

of  the  glacier  descends  a  crevasse,  larly   to   Indian-born   Portuguese, 

wearing  out  a  cavity  or  shaft,  at  It     does     not    necessarily    imply 


GIARD1NO 


3520 


Gaetano  Giardino, 
Italian  soldier 


contempt.  The  word,  the  English 
form  of  which  is  adapted  from 
Italian  giaurro,  is  said  to  be  a 
corruption  of  Arabic  Kyafir,  un- 
believer. Byron's  poem  The  Giaour 
appeared  in  1813.  Pron.  jowr. 

Giardino,  GAETANO.  Italian 
soldier.  At  the  outbreak  of  the 
Great  War  he  was  chief  of  staff  to 
the  4th  corps 
and  was  soon 
promoted 
major-general. 
His  career  at 
the  front  was 
successful  and 
in  June,  1917, 
he  became 
corps  com- 
mander, but 
the  same 
month  was  appointed  minister  of 
war.  In  Feb.,  1918,  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  supreme  inter-allied 
council  at  Versailles,  where  he  re- 
mained until  April. 

Giarre.  Town  of  Sicily,  in  the 
prov.  of  Catania.  It  stands  on  the 
E.  slope  of  Mt.  Etna,  8  m.  N.  of 
Acireale  and  40  m.  by  rly.  S.W.  of 
Messina,  a  junction  for  the  rly. 
running  W.  One  mile  E.  of  the 
town  is  Riposto,  its  port,  from 
whence  it  exports  the  wine  for 
which  it  is  celebrated.  Pop.  21 ,611. 
Giaveno.  Town  of  Italy,  in  the 
prov.  of  Turin.  It  stands  on  the 
river Sangone,  at  an  alt.  of  1 ,660  ft., 
17  m.  by  rly.  W.S.  W.  of  Turin,  with 
which  it  is  also  connected  by  tram- 
way. It  has  cotton  and  jute 
spinning  mills  and  paper  factories, 
while  there  is  trade  in  coal,  wood, 
fruit,  mushrooms,  potatoes,  and 
wine.  Pop.  11,756. 

Gibara  OR  JTBARA.  City  of  Cuba. 
It  is  80  m.  N.W.  of  Santiago  de 
Cuba,  with  which  it  has  rly.  con- 
nexion. It  has  a  sheltered  harbour 
protected  by  an  old  fort,  and  is 
the  port  for  a  large  district  pro- 
ducing maize,  sugar,  bananas, 
coconuts,  tobacco,  coffee,  and 
timber.  Pop.  6,175. 

Gibb,  SIR  GEORGE  STEGMANN  (b. 
1850).  British  rly.  manager.  The 
son  of  a  civil  engineer,  he  was  born 
,,..  „,,,,.,_  at  Aberdeen, 
April  20,  1850 
Educated  at, 
the  grammar 
school  and  uni- 
versity there, 
he  became  a 
solicitor.  In 
1877  he  joined 
the  G.W.R.  as 
assistant  so- 
licitor and  in 
1882  became 
solicitor  at 
York  to  the  N.E.R.,'of  which  in 
1891  he  was  made  manager.  In 
1906  he  became  managing  director 


Sir  George  Gibb, 

British  railway 

manager 

Jtussell 


of  the  Metropolitan  District  Rly. 
and  the  allied  Underground  Elec- 
tric Rlys.  Co.  of  London.  His  next 
move  was  to  the  Road  Board,  of 
which  he  became  chairman  in  1910. 
In  1919  he  resigned,  and  was  made 
consulting  general  manager  of  the 
N.E.R. 

Gibbet  (Fr.  gibet,  crooked 
stick).  Type  of  gallows  having  a 
projecting  bar,  and  used  principally 
tor  hanging  malefactors  in  chains 
as  a  warning  to  passers-by,  hence 
the  term  "  to  gibbet."  These  gib- 
bets or  gallows  were  at  one  time 
very  common,  and  the  name  still 
survives  in  Gallows  Hill.  See  Gal- 
lows ;  Hanging. 

Gibbon  (Hylobatea).  Smallest 
of  the  anthropoid  or  man-like 
apes.  Rarely  more  than  3  ft.  high, 
it  is  readily  distinguished  from 
the  other  anthropoids — the  gorilla, 
the  chimpanzee,  and  the  orang- 
utan— by  its  small  slender  build, 
its  remarkably  long  arms,  and  by 
small  naked  callosities  on  the 
buttocks.  It  is  the  only  anthro- 
poid that  walks  on  its  hind  legs 
without  difficulty,  either  balancing 
itself  by  holding  its  long  arms  out- 
stretched or  by  clasping  its  hands 
behind  the  neck. 

There  are  several  species,  all  of 
them  found  in  Malay  and  the 
surrounding  countries.  In  colour 
they  vary  from  black  to  grey,  and 
some  individuals  tend  to  become 
lighter  as  they  grow  older.  They 
live  in  the  trees,  and  are  by  far  the 
most  agile  of  the  anthropoids, 
leaping  through  the  air  with  such 
speed  as  to  catch  birds  on  the 


Gibbon.    Specimen  of  the  Silver  Gibbon 

Gambier  Ballon,  F.Z.S. 

wing.  Their  food  consists  of  fruit 
and  young  shoots,  insects,  and  the 
eggs  and  nestlings  of  birds.  In  the 
forests  they  are  extremely  noisy, 
uttering  mournful  cries  in  the 
morning  and  evening.  In  cap- 


tivity they  are  gentle  and  easily 
tamed,  and  have  been  known  to 
change  colour.  See  Monkey. 

Gibbon,  EDWARD  (1737-94). 
English  historian.  The  eldest  son 
of  Edward  Gibbon,  an  M.P.  in  the 
time  of  Sir  Robert  Walpole,  he  was 
born  at  Putney,  April  27,  1737. 
Both  his  grandfathers  were  mer- 
chants in  London,  and  he  was 
brought  up  in  surroundings  of 
comfort  and  ease.  At  seven  he  had  a 
private  tutor,  at  nine  he  went  to  a 
school  at  Kingston,  and  at  eleven 
he  went  to  Westminster.  There  he 
learned  a  good  deal,  but  he  owed 
more  to  an  aunt,  Catherine  Porten, 
who  took  charge  of  him  after  his 
mother's  death  in  1747. 

In  1752,  after  two  years  spent 
under  tutors,  for  his  health  was  not 
equal  to  the  regular  life  of  West- 
minster, he  went  to  Oxford,  enter- 
ing Magdalen  College  ;  but  his 
knowledge  was  of  an  unusual 
kind,  and  he  did  not  trouble  to 
turn  his  abilities  into  the  conven- 
tional channels.  He  occupied  him- 
self mainly  with  gaieties,  and  pro- 
nounced his  period  of  residence 
wholly  unprofitable,  but  in  1753 
he  joined  the  Roman  Church. 
His  angered  father  took  him  away 
from  Oxford  and  sent  him  to 
Lausanne,  where  for  five  years  he 
lived  with  a  Calvinist  pastor. 
There  he  read  widely  and  steadilv, 
his  retentive  memory  serving  him 
well.  In  1758  he  returned  to  Eng- 
land, and  lived  for  a  time  at  his 
father's  house  at  Buriton  in  Hamp- 
shire. In  1761  he  published  in 
French  his  first  book,  An  Essay  on 
the  Study  of  Literature.  In  1763 
he  set  out  upon  a  tour  of  Europe. 
Part  of  his  time  was  passed  in  Italy, 
and  in  Rome  the  idea  of  the  Decline 
and  Fall  came  to  him. 

In  1765  Gibbon  returned  home 
from  Italy,  and  during  the  next 
five  years  he  wrote  on  miscel- 
laneous subjects.  He  kept  his 
great  idea,  however,  constantly  in 
mind,  but  he  did  not  actually  begin 
work  on  it  until,  after  his  father's 
death  in  1770,  he  moved  from 
Buriton  to  London.  In  1772  he 
began  to  write,  and  in  Feb.,  1776, 
the  first  volume  of  the  Decline  and 
Fall  was  published.  It  was  an 
instant  and  complete  success,  and 
he  continued,  pausing  only  in  1779 
to  reply,  in  a  Vindication,  to  those 
who  had  criticised  chapters  15  and 
16  on  Christianity.  In  1774  he  had 
been  returned  to  the  House  of 
Commons  for  Liskeard,  and  in  1780 
he  was  returned  for  Lymington. 
In  1783,  having  resigned  his  seat, 
he  joined  a  Swiss  friend,  Georges 
Deyverdun,  at  Lausanne,  and  there 
he  lived  until  1793.  The  earlier 
part  of  this  time  he  spent  on  his 
history,  which  he  finished  on 


GIBBON 

June  27,  1787.  The  last  three 
volumes  were  published  in  1788. 

Again  in  England,  Gibbon  spent 
some  time  in  Sussex  with  his  friend 
Lord  Sheffield,  but  he  was  in  Lon- 
don for  an  operation  when  he  died 
Jan.  16,  1794.  His  remains  were 
buried  at  Fletching,  Sussex.  Gib- 
bon was  never  married.  At  Lau- 
sanne, in  1757,  he  became  engaged 
to  Susan  Curchod,  afterwards  the 
wife  of  Necker  ;  but  his  father  for- 
bade the  match,  and,  as  he  says,  "  I 
sighed  as  a  lover,  I  obeyed  as  a  son." 
In  addition  to  the  Decline  and  Fall, 
Gibbon  wrote  an  Autobiography. 

Gibbon  may  be  described  as  the 
greatest  of  '  modern  historians. 
Ranke  and  probably  Acton  knew 
more ;  Ranke  and  Lecky  wrote 
more ;  but  when  the  qualities  of 
the  ideal  historian  are  estimated, 
Gibbon  excels  them  all.  To  know- 
ledge, industry,  and  judgement  he 
added  an  English  style  which  can 
only  be  compared  with  that  of 
Burke,  and  a  power  of  generalisa- 
tion that  amounts  to  genius.  His 
acquaintance  with  the  literature  of 
his  subject  was  amazing  even 
when  his  years  of  steady  reading 
are  remembered.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  must  be  said  that  the  latter 
part  of  his  history  has  certain 
faults;  it  is  a  sketch,  unequal  to 
the  earlier  part  both  in  knowledge, 
accuracy,  and  a  sense  of  propor- 
tion, while  later  research  has  shown 


3521 


Perceval  Gibbon, 

British  novelist 

1911  ;    Margaret 

:      Those      Who 


his  point  of 
view  in  one  or 
two  instances 
to  be  distinctly 
wrong. 

A.  W.  Holland 

Gibbon,  PERCEVAL  (b.  1879). 
British  novelist.  Born  at  Trelech, 
Carmarthenshire,  Nov.  4,  1879, 
eldest  son  of  the  Rev.  J.  Morgan 
Gibbon,  the  Congregationalist 
minister,  he  travelled  in  Africa,  and 
published  his  first  volume,  African 
Items,  a  collection  of  verse,  in 
1904.  Turning  to  fiction,  he 
wrote  effective  short  stories.  He 
served  as  war  correspondent  for 


GIBBONS 

various    Brit- 

i  s  h      and 

American 

journals.     His 

works  include 

Souls  in  Bon- 
dage,    1905; 

Vrouw  Grobe- 

laar's  Leading 

Cases,  1906  ; 

Adventures  of 

Miss     Gregory, 

Harding,      1912 

Smiled,  1920. 

Gibbons,      GRINLING     (1648- 

1720).  English  carver  and  sculp- 
tor. Born  at  Rotterdam,  April  4, 
1648,  of  Dutch 
parentage,  he 
practised  his 
art  in  England, 
where  he  came 
as  a  boy,  and  is 
usually  classed 
with  the  Eng- 
lish school. 

Grinling  Gibbons,      Jolm,    Evelyn, 
English  carver         struck    by    his 

Afler  Kneller  carving,     1671, 

of  Tintoretto's  Crucifixion,  ob- 
tained the  patronage  of  Sir  Chris- 
topher Wren  for  Gibbons,  whose 
carved  decorations  in  S.  Paul's 
(the  choir  stalls)  and  other  Wren 
churches  are  noteworthy. 

Other  fine  works  are  at  Blen- 
heim Palace,  Chatsworth,  Pet- 
worth,  Belton  House  (Grantham), 


Grinling  Gibbons.     Carving,  with  detail  of  game,  birds,  and  fruit,  in  the  western  recess  of  the  State  ante-room,  Windsor 
Castle,  1677-78.     This  room  was  originally  the  "  King's  Eating  R 


GIBBONS 

Gatton,  and  other  great  houses  ; 
and  there  is  a  throne  carved  by 
him  at  Canterbury.  He  carved 
foliage,  fruit,  and  floral  designs 
with  extraordinary  delicacy,  and 
produced  also  several  statues  of 
merit,  including  those  of  Charles  II 
at  Chelsea  Hospital  and  the  Royal 
Exchange,  and  one  of  James  II  at 
Whitehall.  He  died  Aug.  3,  1720, 
and  is  buried  in  S.  Paul's,  Covent 
Garden,  London.  See  James  II,  illus. 
Gibbons,  JAMES  (1834-1921). 
American  cardinal.  Bom  July  23, 
1834,  at  Baltimore,  he  entered 
the  Roman 
Catholic  priest- 
hood,  1861, 
and  in  1872 
was  appointed 
bishop  of  Rich- 
mond. In  1877 
he  became 
archbishop  of 
Baltimore  and 


Orlando  Gibbons, 
English  composer 

From  an  old  print 


and  was  made  cardinal  by  Leo 
XIII  in  1 886.  His  chief  work,  The 
Faith  of  Our  Fathers,  1871,  has 
had  a  wide  circulation  in  Britain 
and  America.  He  was  prominent 
in  the  foundation  of  the  Catholic 
university  of  America  at  Washing 
ton,  1884.  He  died  Mar.  25,  1921. 
Gibbons,  ORLANDO  (1 583-1625). 
English  composer.  Born  at  Cam- 
bridge, he  was  the  most  distin- 
guished Of  urn— i.. 

three  brothers, 
all  musicians, 
sons  of  Wil- 
liam Gibbons, 
one  of  the 
town  musici- 
ans or  waits. 
First  a  chor- 
ister at  King's 
College,  Cam- 
bridge, he 
made  his 
reputation  by  composing  a  fan- 
tasia. In  1604  he  was  appointed 
organist  of  the  Chapel  Royal,  Lon- 
don, and  in  1623  of  Westminster 
Abbey.  His  compositions,  which 
include  much  church  music,  mad- 
rigals and  instrumental  music, 
place  him  amongst  the  greatest  of 
early  English  composers.  He  died 
of  apoplexy  at  Canterbury,  June  5, 
1625,  whither  he  had  gone  to 
produce  his  music  for  the  wedding 
reception  of  Henrietta  Maria  by 
Charles  I.  His  son  Christopher 
(1615-76)  was  successively  or- 
ganist of  Winchester  Cathedral  and 
Westminster  Abbey. 

Gibbs,  JAMES  (1682-1754).  Bri- 
tish architect.  Born  at  Aberdeen, 
Dec.  23,  1682,  he  studied  at  Rome 
under  Carolo  Fontana.  Coming  to 
London  in  1709,  he  designed  and 
built  S.  Mary-le-Strand,  1714-22, 


3522 

and  added  the  steeple  to  Wren's 
church  of  S.  Clement  Danes,  1719. 
The  church  of  S.  Martin -in-the- 
Fields,  his 
masterpiece, 
was  built  be- 
tween 1722-26, 
and  other 
noted  works 
were  the  Rad- 
cliffe  Library, 
Oxford,  1737- 
47;  S.  Peter's, 
V  e  r  e  Street, 
1721;  and 
All  Hallows', 


James  Gibbs, 
British  architect 


Sir  Philip  Gibbs/ 
British  journalist 


After  Hogarth 

Derby,  1723-25.  The  friend  and 
disciple  of  Wren,  Gibbs's  buildings 
are  finely  proportioned,  and  not 
too  slavishly  faithful  to  the  classic 
models.  He  died  at  Aberdeen, 
Aug.  5, 1754. 

Gibbs,  SIR  PHILIP  HAMILTON 
( b.  1877 ).  British  author  and  war 
correspondent.  After  editing  some 
magazines,  h  e 
held  editorial 
appointments 
on  The  Daily 
Mail  and  The 
Tribune  before 
being  attached 
to  The  Daily 
Chronicle  a  s 
special  corre- 
spondent and 
desc  ripti  ve 
writer.  He  Mugae" 

acted  as  war  correspondent  with 
the  Bulgarian  army  in  1912,  with 
the  French  and  Belgian  armies  in 
1914,  and  with  the  British  armies 
in  the  field  from  1915  to  the  end 
of  the  Great  War.  His  works  in- 
clude memoirs,  essays,  and  fiction. 
The  notable  Fleet  Street  novel,  The 
Street  of  Adventure,  was  based  on 
his  own  experiences,  1906-8.  The 
Soul  of  the  War,  1915;  Battles  of 
the  Somme,  from  Bapaume  to  Pass- 
chendaele,  1917  ;  Open  Warfare, 
1919  ;  Realities  of  War,  1920,  give 
vivid  pictures  of  the  Western  front. 
In  1920  he  was  made  K.B.E.  In 
1921-22  he  was  editor  of  The 
Review  of  Reviews. 

Gibeah  (Heb.,  hill).  Name  of 
several  places  in  the  O.T.  The  most 
important  was  Gibeah  of  Benjamin, 
or  Gibeah  of  Saul,  which  stood  a 
little  N.  of  Jerusalem,  and  was  the 
home  of  Saul.  The  site  is  now 
marked  by  an  artificial  mound. 

Gibeon.  Ancient  Hivite  city, 
now  known  as  El-Jib.  It  is  5  m. 
N.W.  of  Jerusalem.  It  was  here 
that  Joshua  overcame  five  kings  of 
the  Amorites,  and  here  later  the 
great  fight  took  place  between  the 
followers  of  David  and  those  oi 
Ishbosheth.  Here  too  Amasa  was 
murdered  by  Joab,  and  .  here 
Solomon  offered  sacrifice  and  ob- 
tained the  gift  of  wisdom. 


GIBRALTAR 

Gibeon.  Township  of  the  S.W. 
Africa  Protectorate.  It  is  situated 
in  the  valley  of  the  Fish  River  a 
few  miles  from  the  main  North- 
South  Rly.,  and  is  the  centre  of  an 
agricultural  district.  Pop.  3,500, 
of  whom  about  900  are  Europeans. 
Gibraltar  (anc.  Calpe).  Town 
and  rock  fortress  at  the  S.  extrem- 
ity of  Spain,  a  British  possession. 
;  .  The  rock  juts  out 

into  the  Mediter- 
ranean as  an  at- 
tenuated peninsu- 
la, terminating  in 
Europa  Point. 
The  town  is  di- 
vided into  two 


the  South  Town.  The  North  Town 
is  the  meaner  part  of  Gibraltar, 
with  narrow  and  crooked  streets. 

The  principal  buildings  are  the 
Anglican  cathedral  of  the  Holy 
Trinity,  built  in  Moorish  style,  and 
consecrated  in  1832;  the  church  of 
the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus;  the 
castle,  built  by  the  Moors,  and  the 
governor's  residence. 

Gibraltar  is  connected  with  the 
mainland  by  an  isthmus,  1£  m.  long, 
and  £m.  broad.  Between  the  British 
Lines  and  the  Spanish  Lines  is  a 
tractof  neutraluninhabi  ted  ground. 
Just  S.  of  the  British  Lines  there 
are  rifle  ranges,  a  racecourse,  and 
cemeteries.  The  newly  constructed 
mole  on  Gibraltar  Bay  affords 
secure  anchorage  for  the  largest 
vessels.  The  haven  is  adequately 
sheltered  from  the  dangerous  E. 


Gibraltar.     Map    oi    the    rock    and 

harbour  from  the  Spanish  Lines  to 

Europa  Point 


GIBRALTAR 

wind,  or  Levanter.  The  town  is  of 
great  importance  as  a  coaling 
station.  The  harbour,  of  260  acres, 
can  accommodate  the  Mediter- 
ranean fleet.  The  population  of  the 
permanent  civilians  is  estimated  at 
17,943.  The  Rock  of  Gibraltar  and 
Mount  Abyla  on  the  African  coast 
were  known  to  the  ancients  as  the 
Pillars  of  Hercules.  An  executive 
council  011  which  non-official  in- 
habitants are  represented  was 
formed  in  1922. 

Gibraltar,  SIEGES  or.  Military 
operations  conducted  by  the 
British,  the  Spaniards,  and  others. 
A  large  number  of  sieges  of  this 
dominant  rock  are  recorded  before 
the  appearance  of  the  British  in 

1704.  It  was  taken  by  the  Moors  in 
711,  and  they  were  deprived  of  it 
by  the  Castilians  in   1309.      The 
Moors  soon  recovered  it  and  held  it 
against  several  attempts  made  by 
the  Christians.     The  latter,  how- 
ever, recovered  it  in  1462,  and  the 
next  sieges  were  due  to  the  desire 
of  one  Spaniard  to   oust  another 
from  it. 

In    July,    1704,   a   British   and 
Dutch    fleet     under     Sir     George 
Rooke,   with  an    army  of  30,000 
men  on   board,  was  sent  against 
Cadiz.  At  the  last  minute  Gibraltar 
was  substituted  for  Cadiz,  and  on 
July  22  the  fleet  appeared  in  the 
bay.     Some  marines  were  landed 
and  the  place  was  bombarded  for 
six  hours ;  at  the  end  of  that  time 
the  garrison,  under  500  men,  offered 
to    surrender.  ___ ___ ___ 

Gibraltar  thus  be- 
came British,  July 
24,1704(0.8.).  It 
cost  61  men  killed 
and  252  wounded. 
r  In  the  autumn 
of  1704  the 
Spaniards,  aided 
by  their  French 
allies,  began  an 
attempt  to  re- 
cover the  fort- 
ress. This  siege 
lasted  until  April, 

1705,  and    was 


3523 


Gibraltar.      Map  of  the  strait  which  separates  Europe 

from  North  Africa 

marked   by   a   daring   attempt   to 
surprise  the  place,  and  by  several 
naval   encounters.       In    1736   the 
Spaniards     tried     ,__ 
again,     but     with     !j 
equal  unsuccess,     : 
and  then  came  the     ; 
siege  of  1779-83.  A 

Gibraltar  at  this  \ 
time  was  defended 
by  Sir  G.  A.  Eliott, 
afterwards  Lord 
Heathfield.  The 
French  and  Span- 
ish fleet  got  into 
the  bay  and  the 
blockade  began. 


GIBRALTAR 

The  fortress  was 
assailed  also  by 
land,  and  exten- 
sive siege  works 
were  constructed. 
A  good  deal  of 
damage  was  done 
by  the  besiegers, 
w  hile  British  ships 
from  time  to  time 
succeeded  in 
attacking  the 
enemy.  However, 
the  garrison  was 
in  great  straits 
when,  in  June, 

1780,  Rodney 
got     provisions 
through. 

Again,  however, 
provisions  ran 
short,  but  in  April, 

1781,  a  British 

fleet  got  in  with  supplies.  A  terrific 
bombardment  was  then  tried,  but 
the  defenders  stuck  to  their  guns 


and  in  Nov.  they  partially  des- 
troyed the  siege  works  by  a  sortie. 
The  final  attack  was  made  in 
Sept.,  1782.  An  army  of  40,000 
men  were  collected,  while  off  the 
bay  was  a  strong  French  and 
Spanish  fleet.  Floating  batteries 
were  built,  and  from  sea  and  land 
a*  continuous  and  heavy  bom- 
bardment was  maintained,  to 
which  Eliott  replied  with  red-hot 
shot.  On  the  13th  the  attack  was 


Gibraltar.     1.  General  view  of  the  Rock  from  Spain.     2.  Governor's  residence  at  Europa  Point     3.  The  signal  station. 

4.  The  North  Town 


GIBRALTAR 


3524 


GIDDINESS 


pressed  desperately,  but  the 
battering  ships  at  length  were  set 
on  fire  and  great  loss  was  inflicted 
upon  the  attacking  force.  On 
Feb.  6,  1783,  the  siege  was  raised. 
See  A  History  of  the  Siege  of 
Gibraltar,  John  Drinkwater.  new 
ed.,  1905. 

Gibraltar,  STRAIT  OF.  Channel 
separating  the  S.  of  Spain  from  the 
N.  of  Africa,  and  leading  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Mediterranean.  It 
has  a  surface  current,  which  flows 
from  the  Atlantic,  and  an  under- 
lying current,  which  flows  from 
the  Mediterranean.  At  its  narrow- 
est point  the  strait  is  nearly  9  m. 
wide ;  its  length  from  E.  to  W.  is 
about  35  m. 

Gibraltar  Fever.  Infectious 
disease  caused  by  a  micro-organ- 
ism, usually  conveyed  by  goat's 
milk.  See  Malta  Fever. 

Gibson,  CHARLES  DANA  (b. 
1867).  American  draughtsman 
and  painter.  Born  at  Roxbury, 
Massachusetts, 
Sept.  14r  1867, 
he  studied  in 
New  York,  and 
Paris.  He 
began  as  a 
draught  s  m  a  n 
in  black  and 
white  for  the 
chief  periodi- 
cals and  maga- 
zines,  and 
made  a  great  hit  by  introducing 
the  American  girl  to  illustrated 
literature.  His  type  of  female 
beauty  was  much  admired,  and 
was  specifically  named  "  The  Gib- 
son Girl."  Later  he  took  up  por- 
traiture. Among  his  books  may 
be  mentioned  Drawings,  1894;  Lon- 
don, 1896;  Pictures  of  People, 
1896 ;  Sketches  and  Cartoons, 
1898  ;  The  Education  of  Mr.  Pipp, 
1899;  The  Americans,  1900;  and 
The  Social  Ladder,  1902. 

Gibson,  JOHN  (1790-1866). 
Welsh  sculptor.  Born  at  Gyffin, 
near  Conway.  While  a  mere  lad 
his  parents 
removed  to 
L  i  ve  r  po  o  1, 
where  he  ac- 
quired great 
facility  in  wood 
carving  and 
statuary.  In 
1816  he  ex- 
hibited his  first 
piece  at  the 
Royal  Aca- 
demy, and  then  he  made  his  home 
in  Rome,  where  he  studied  under 
Canova  and  Thorwaldsen.  His 
Roman  works  include  :  Mars  and 
Cupid,  Psyche  and  Zephyrs,  Sleep- 
ing Shepherd  Boy,  Nymph  Untying 
Her  Sandal,  Cupid  Disguised  as  a 
Shepherd,  and  Hunter  and  Dog. 


Chas.  Dana  Gibson, 
American  painter 


John  Gibson, 
Welsh  sculptor 


Charles  Dana  Gibson.     An  illustration  from  The  Education  of  Mr.  Pipp.     The 

nouveau  riche,  taken  to  a  concert  by  his  wife  and  daughters,  typical  Gibson 

girls,  fails  to  take  any  friendly  interest  in  the  great  composers 


In  1833  he  was  elected  A.R.A., 
and  in  1838  R.A.  He  revisited 
England  in  1844,  and  returned 
periodically.  To  these  years  belong 
his  famous  Tinted  Venus,  for  he 


ing  Liberal.  As  a  prominent  anti- 
Corn  Law  worker,  he  was  returned 
for  Manchester  in  1841.     He  was 
vice-president  of  the  board  of  trade 
in  1846,  and  president  from  1859-66. 
was  an  advocate  of  the    ancient     Gibson  helped  to  secure  the  aboli- 
Greek  practice  of  introducing  colour     tion  of  the  advertisement  duty  in 

1853,  the  newspaper  stamp  in  1855, 


into  sculpture.  He  died  in  Rome, 
Jan.  27,  1866,  leaving  the  con- 
tents of  his  studio  and  the  bulk 
of  his  fortune  to  the  Royal  Aca- 
demy, which  founded  the  Gibson 
Gallery  (q.v.). 

Gibson,  MARGARET  DUNLOP  (d. 
1920).  British  scholar.  The 
younger  twin  daughter  ol  John 
Smith,  of  Ir- 
v  i  n  e,  A  y  r- 
shire,  she  was 
educated 
chiefly  by  pri- 
v  a  t  e  tuition. 
In  1883  she 
married  the 
Rev.  James 
Gibson,  trans- 
lator of-  Cer- 
vantes poetry. 
Both  she  and 


Margaret  D.  Gibson, 
British  scholar 

Elliott  A  Fry 


and  the  duty  on  paper  in  1861, 
A  keen  yachtsman,  he  was  the  last 
to  cruise  in  the  Mediterranean  with 
a  free  pass  from  the  dey  of  Algiers. 
He  died  at  Algiers,  Feb.  25,  1884. 

Gibson  Gallery.  Hall  in  Bur- 
lington House,  Piccadilly,  London. 
The  exhibits  comprise  the  original 
sketches  and  casts  of  the  chief 
works  of  John  Gibson  (q.v.),  and 
examples  of  his  marble  sculpture 
bequeathed  to  the  Royal  Academy. 

Gichtel,  JOHANN  GEORG  (1638- 
1710).  German  mystic.  Born  at 
Ratisbon,  March  14,  1638,  he  stu- 
died theology  and  Oriental  lan- 
guages at  Strasbourg  For  some 
years  he  practised  as  a  lawyer,  and 
in  1665  was  banished  for  attacking 
the  Lutheran  doctrine  of  justifica- 
tion by  faith.  Three  years  later  he 


her  sister,  Mrs.  Agnes  Lewis,  paid  a    settled  at  Amsterdam,   where   he 


founded  the  celibate  sect  of  An- 
gelic   Brethren,    who  aimed    at  a 
He   died 


number  of  visits  to  Syria  and  Pales 

tine.     In  1892.  when  at  the  convent 

on  Mt.  Sinai,  they  photographed  the     fife   of   angelic    purity. 

Syriac  palimpsest  of  the  Gospels,     Jan.  21,  1710. 

and  in  1896  brought  to  England  the 

first  leaf  of  the  Hebrew  Ecclesias- 

ticus.  Mrs.  Gibson  was  a  warm  sup 


Giddiness  OR  VERTIGO  (Lat. 
vertere,  to  turn).  Sensation  of  lack 
of  balance ;  when  marked,  asso- 

porter  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  ciated  with  reeling  or  staggering  of 
of  England,  and  with  her  sister  the  body.  Giddiness  may  be  ex- 
presented  the  site  for  Westminster  perienced  by  persons  in  normal 
Theological  College,  Cambridge,  health  after  rapid  rotation  of  the 
Her  works  include  How  the  Codex 
was  found,  Studia  Sinaitica,  Apoc- 
rypha Arabica,  Didascalia  Apos- 
tolorum,  and  Commentaries  on 
Acts.  She  died  Jan.  11,  1920. 

Gibson,  THOMAS  MILNER  (1806- 
84).     British    politician.     Born  at 


Trinidad,  he  was  educated  at  Char- 
terhouse and  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge. He  entered  parliament  as 
Conservative  member  forlpswich  in 
1837,  and  resigned  in  1839  on  turn- 


body,  as  in  waltzing  ;  by  stepping 
on  an  insecure  surface,  as  that  of 
boggy  turf  ;  and  by  looking  down 
a  vertical  height.  The  commonest 
pathological  cause  is  some  disorder 
of  the  ear,  which  may  be  simply 
wax  in  the  external  ear,  or  more 
deep-seated  disease 

Giddiness  is  also  a  symptom  of 
many  affections  of  the  brain,  such 
as  cerebral  haemorrhage,  tumours, 
and  atheromatous  degeneration  of 


GIDEA     PARK 


3525 


GIFFORD 


the  arteries.  The  action  of  various 
poisons  in  producing  giddiness  is 
illustrated  by  the  excessive  use  of 
alcohol  or  tobacco.  Paralysis  of 
certain  muscles  of  the  eye,  with 
dull  vision,  is  another  cause.  The 
aura  or  premonitory  indication  of 
an  epileptic  fit  frequently  takes  the 
form  of  giddiness. 

Gidea  Park.  Garden  suburb  of 
Romford,  Essex,  England.  It  is 
13|  m.  E.  by  N.  of  London,  with  a 
station,  between  Romford  and 
Harold  Wood,  on  the  G.E.R.  Ori- 
ginally a  subordinate  manor  of 
Romford,  Gidea  (Giddy,  Gedy,  or 
Gwyddy)  is  said  to  have  belonged 
to  the  abbey  of  Westminster.  Sir 
Thomas  Cooke,  lord  mayor  of  Lon- 
don, obtained  a  licence  in  1467  to 
enclose  a  park  and  build  a  fortified 
mansion,  but  Gidea  Hall  was  com- 
pleted by  his  grandson,  Sir  An- 
thony Cooke,  who  here  entertained 
Queen  Elizabeth  in  1568.  The  es- 
tate came  eventually  into  the  pos- 
session of  Sir  Francis  Eyles,  who 
built  a  second  Gidea  Hall  on  the 
site  of  the  old  one  in  1700. 

The  estate  was  acquired  by  Sir 
H.  H.  Raphael,  Bart.,  in  1910,  as 
a  preliminary  step  to  developing 
it  on  garden  city  lines.  About 
80  acres,  with  lake  and  wooded 
land  adjoining,  given  by  Sir  Her- 
bert to  Romford,  is  now  known  as 
Raphael  Park.  By  1920, 200  houses, 
each  built  from  different  plans 
and  elevations,  had  been  erected. 
There  was  a  military  training  camp 
here  during  the  Great  War.  See 
Romford. 

Gideon.  Hebrew  judge  and 
warrior.  The  son  of  Joash,  he  ap- 
pears to  have  been  born  at  Ophrah 
in  Manasseh.  Called  by  God  to  de- 
liver Israel  from  the  Midianites,  he 
overthrew  the  altars  and  groves  of 
Baal.  By  an  ingenious  night  alarm 
he  threw  the  Midianite  army  into 
confusion  and  routed  it.  He  refused 
the  throne,  but  judged  Israel  for 
about  40  years,  and  is  said  to  have 
had  70  sons.  The  obscure  and 
partly  inconsistent  O.T.  account  of 
him  (Judges  6-8)  probably  consists 
of  two  or  more  traditions  unskil- 
fully combined  by  a  late  editor. 

Gien.  Town  of  France,  in  the 
dept.  of  Loiret.  It  stands  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Loire,  40  m. 
E.S.E.  of  Orleans.  An  old  place, 
its  interest  is  mainly  antiquarian. 
It  has  some  old  houses,  a  15th  cen- 
tury bridge  across  the  Loire,  and  a 
chateau,  now  used  as  a  palais  de 
justice.  In  the  town  is  a  gigantic 
statue  of  the  Gallic  chief  Vercin- 
getorix.  Pop.  8,000. 

Gierke,  OTTO  FRIEDRICH  (b. 
1841).  German  jurist.  Born  at 
Stettin,  Gierke  studied  at  Heidel- 
berg and  Berlin,  and  afterwards 
lectured  on  law.  After  holding  uni- 


v*\ 


Otto  Gierke, 
German  jurist 


versity  positions  at  Stettin  and 
Berlin  he  became  professor  of  Ger- 
man law  at  Breslau  in  1872.  In 
1884  he  was  1-—11111 -1BII—1I1I1I1I1I1I>11BBB 
transferred  to 
Heidel  berg, 
and  in  1887  to 
Berlin.  Of 
Gierke's  writ- 
ings the  most 
important  is 
his  German 
Society  Law 
(Gen  o  s  se  n- 
schaftsrecht), 
1887.  In  this  and  other  books  he  de- 
veloped the  idea  that  groups  within 
the  state,  guilds  and  the  like,  have 
their  own  bodies  of  law,  their  own 
personality  and,  consequently,  their 
own  rights. 

Giers,  NICHOLAS  KARLOVITCD 
DE  (1820-95).  Russian  statesman. 
Born  May  21,  1820,  he  entered  the 
diplomatic  service.  Having  gained 
experience  at  home,  he  was  ap- 
pointed minister  plenipotentiary 
to  Persia  in  1863.  After  holding 
similar  posts  at  Bern  and  Stock- 
holm, he  became  foreign  minister 
in  1882.  A  strong  advocate  for 
peace,  he  succeeded  in  maintain- 
ing friendly  relations  with  all 
European  powers.  He  died  on 
Jan.  26,  1895. 

Giesebrecht,  WILHELM  VON 
(1814-89).  German  historian. 
Born  in  Berlin,  March  5,  1814,  he 
became  one  of  Ranke's  pupils,  and 
before  1840  published  his  first  his- 
torical work,  a  monograph  on  Otto 
II.  In  1857  he  was  made  professor 
of  history  at  Konigsberg,  and  in 
1862  at  Munich,  where  he  died  Dec. 
17,  1889.  Giesebrecht's  main  con- 
tribution to  history  is  his  unfin- 
ished History  of  the  Empire  (Kai- 
ser zeit),  1881-90,  a  study  of  the 
medieval  empire  to  the  time  of 
Frederick  I.  It  is  an  exact  piece  of 
scholarship.  His  other  works  in- 
clude a  translation  of  the  History 
of  Gregory  of  Tours,  1851. 

Gi  e  s  s  e  n. 
Town  of  Hesse, 
Germany.  Situ- 
ated on  the 
Lahn,  it  is 
34  m.  N.  of 
Frankfort.  The 
chief  building  is 
the  university, 
founded  1607, 
with  a  library  at 
the  present  dav 
of  200,000  vol- 
umes  and  MSS. 
New  build- 
ings were  erected 
in  1889.  In  the 
chemical  labora- 
tory Liebig,  who 
was  professor  GiesseQ>  Germany- 


Sir  Robert  Giffen, 
British  economist 


carried  out  many  of  his  experiments. 
The  botanic  garden  of  the  univer- 
sity dates  from  1609.  The  indus- 
tries include  iron-foundries,  ma- 
chine shops,  weaving  sheds,  chemi- 
cal works,  etc.  During  the  Great 
War  there  was  a  prisoner-of-war 
camp  at  Giessen.  Pop.  31,153. 

Giffen,  SIR  ROBERT  (1837-1910). 
British  economist.  Born  at  Strath  - 
aven,  Lanarkshire,  July  22,  1837, 
after  serving 
in  a  lawyer's 
office  he  took 
to  journalism, 
being  c  o  n- 
nected  with 
The  Stirling 
Journal.  I  n 
1862  he  moved 
to  London, 
where  his  first 
appointment 
was  on  The  Globe.  He  was  assistant 
to  Lord  Morley  on  The  Fortnightly 
Review,  but  found  his  real  metier 
as  assistant  to  Bagehot  on  The 
Economist. 

In  1876,  having  been  for  a  short 
time  city  editor  of  The  Daily  News 
and  then  of  The  Times,  Giffen 
entered  the  civil  service  as  head  of 
the  statistical  department  of  the 
board  of  trade.  There  he  re- 
mained until  1897.  having  been  con- 
troller-general of  its  commercial, 
labour,  and  statistical  departments 
during  fifteen  years.  In  1895  he 
was  knighted,  and  he  died  April 
12.  1910.  Giffen  was  a  recognized 
authority  on  statistical  and  finan- 
cial matters,  and  his  works  include 
The  Growth  of  Capital,  1890:  Econ- 
omic Enquiries  and  Studies,  1904. 

Gifford,  WILLIAM  (1756-1826). 
British  writer  and  controversialist. 
Son  of  a  glazier,  he  was  born  at 
Ashburton,  Devonshire,  and,  left 
an  orphan  at  the  age  of  twelve,  be- 
came first  a  cabin  boy  on  a  coasting 
steamer,  and  then  apprentice  to 
a  shoemaker.  Devoting  his  spare 
time  to  the  studv  of  mathematics 


here,    1824-52, 


The   Liebig   Museum,    usod 


laboratory  by  J.  Liebig  from  1824-52 


GIFFORD      LECTURES 

and  verse  writing,  he  attracted  the 
notice  of  a  surgeon  named  Cookes- 
lev,  who  raised  a  fund  on  his  be- 
half, with  the 
result  that  after 
two  years' 
schooling  he  was 
sent  to  Exeter 
College,  Oxford, 
after  which  he 
travelled  on  the 
Continent. 

Settling  in 
London  on  his 
return  to  Eng- 
land, he  pub- 


William  Gifford, 
British  writer 


After  Hoppner 

lished  in  1794  and  1795  two  satires, 
The  Baviad,  a  paraphrase  of  the 
first  satire  of  Persius,  which  sup- 
pressed the  Delia  Cruscans  (q-v.), 
and  The  Maeviad,  an  imitation  of 
Horace  directed  against  the  corrup- 
tions of  the  drama.  He  edited  The 
Anti-Jacobin,  1797-98,  so  much  to 
the  satisfaction  of  the  Tories  that 
he  was  given  two  government  ap- 
pointments worth  together  £900 
a  year.  His  Epistle  to  Peter  Pindar 
(Dr.  Walcot),  1800,  a  bitter  piece 
of  invective,  was  followed  by  his 
Autobiography  and  a  verse  trans- 
lation of  Juvenal,  which  still,  with 
that  of  Persius,  1821,  remains  un- 
rivalled in  vigour. 

As  editor  of  The  Quarterly 
Review,  1809-24,  he  attacked 
Keats,  Hazlitt,  and  what  was 
known  as  the  Cockney  School  of 
Poetry.  He  edited  the  dramatic 
works  of  Massinger,  1805-13,  Ben 
Jonson,  1816,  and  Ford,  1827.  He 
died  in  Pimlico,  Dec.  31,  1826,  and 
was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Gifiord  Lectures.  Course  of 
lectures  on  natural  theology,  in 
connexion  with  the  universities  of 
Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  Aberdeen, 
and  St.  Andrews.  It  was  founded 
by  Lord  Gifford  (1820-87),  Scot- 
tish judge  and  philanthropist. 
After  studying  at  Edinburgh,  he 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1849  and 
became  sheriff  of  Orkney  and  Shet- 
land and  a  judge  of  the  court  of 
session.  He  left  the  sum  of  £80,000 
between  the  Scottish  universities 
for  the  establishment  of  the  lecture- 
ships, which  are  exempt  from  any 
dogmatic  test.  The  lecturers  have 
included  Max  Miiller,  Andrew  Lang, 
and  William  James. 

Gift.  In  English  law,  the  pro- 
mise to  make  a  gift,  except  by 
deed,  is  not  en-  Bm^^^^^M 
forceable.  But  I 
once  the  gift  is 
completed,  it  is 
irrevocable  unless 
it  has  been  ob- 
tained by  duress, 
fraud,  or  undue  in- 
fluence. A  gift  is 
only  complete 
when  every  legal 


3526 

step  has  been  taken  to  pass  the 
property  to  the  donee.  For  ex- 
ample, "I  give  you  my  watch,  or 
this  freehold  house,"  are  useless 
unless  the  watch  is  handed  over  or 
the  freehold  conveyed  by  deed. 

Gifu.  Town  of  Japan,  on  the 
island  of  Honshiu.  It  is  the  capital 
of  the  Gifu  prefecture,  70  m.  E.N.E. 
of  Kioto.  Pop.  55,700  See  Earth- 
quake. 

Gig.  Word  suggesting  lightness 
and  speed  applied  to  a  two- 
wheeled  vehicle  drawn  by  one 
horse.  It  is  also  used  of  a  clinker- 
built  racing  boat,  and  of  a  narrow 
ship's  boat  propelled  either  by 
oars  or  sails.  See  Carriage. 

Gigantes.  In  Greek  mythology, 
a  race  of  giants  who  sprang  from 
the  blood  of  Uranus  as  it  fell  to  the 
earth  when  he  was  mutilated  by 
Cronos.  The  chief  of  the  Gigantes 
were  Alcyoneus,  Enceladus,  and 
Porphyrion.  According  to  some 
accounts  they  engaged  in  war  with 
Zeus  and  attempted  to  storm 
Olympus.  They  were  ultimately 
defeated  by  Zeus  with  the  help  of 
Hercules,  and  some  of  them  were 
buried  under  volcanoes.  This  le- 
gend, however, 
seems  to  confound 
the  Gigantes  with 
the  Titans  (q.v. ). 

Giggleswick. 
Parish  and  village 
of  Yorkshire 
(W.R.),  England. 
It  stands  on  the 
Kibble,  14  m.  N.W. 
of  Skipton,  and 
has  a  station  on 
the  Mid.  Rly.  In 
the  neighbourhood 
are  stone  and  slate 
quarries.  It  is 
known  for  its  large 
public  school. 
Founded  in  1512, 
this  received  a  charter  from  Edward 
VI  in  1553,  and  in  1910  a  new 
scheme  for  its  management  was 
put  in  force.  The  school  has  five 
houses  with  accommodation  for 
over  200  boys.  Pop.  946. 

Gijon  (anc.  Gigia).  Seaport  of 
Spain,  in  the  prov.  of  Oviedo.  It 
stands  on  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  11  m. 
N.N.E.  of  Oviedo,  at  the  terminus 
of  various  Asturian  rlys.,  about 
midway  between  the  ports  of 
Bilbao  and  Corunna.  It  has  a 


GILBERT 

commodious  harbour,  with  quays, 
arsenal,  a  curious  15th  century 
church,  palace,  and  the  Jovellanos 
Institute  with  a  fine  art  collection. 
The  town  retains  its  medieval  walls 
and  quaint  houses. 

Among  the  exports  are  minerals, 
fish,  nuts,  fruit,  butter,  and  cheese, 
while  glass,  liqueurs,  tobacco,  soap, 
chocolate,  and  tinned  goods  are 
manufactured.  The  Moors  rebuilt 
the  fortifications  with  stones  from 
the  Roman  city.  Gijon  repelled 
the  Normans  in  844,  was  burnt 
down  in  1395,  but  is  now  a  pros- 
perous town  and  popular  seaside 
resort.  Pop.  52,226. 

Gila.  River  of  the  U.S.A.  Ris- 
ing in  New  Mexico  on  the  slopes 
of  the  Sierra  Madre,  it  flows  S. 
and  W.  through  Arizona,  and 
enters  the  Colorado  near  the  Mexi- 
can border.  For  upwards  of  half  its 
course  of  about  480  m.  it  passes 
through  mountainous  country,  and 
in  places  precipitous  canons  render 
the  river  impossible  of  approach. 

Gila  Monster.  Popular  name 
for  the  heloderm,  the  only  veno- 
mous lizard  known.  It  is  com- 
mon in  Texas  and  Mexico,  and 


Gig  ol  British  admiral,  manned  by  naval 

S.Cribb.Southsea 


Gijon,  Spain.    The  Pescaderia  road  in  the  old  town, 
beside  the  harbour 


lurks  in  ruins  and  old  buildings, 
where  it  feeds  upon  frogs,  eggs,  and 
insects.  Its  bite  is  not  fatal  to 
man,  though  it  produces  very 
injurious  effects. 

Gilbert.  River  of  Queensland, 
Australia.  It  rises  near  the  Gregory 
Range,  about  20  m.  S.  of  Gilberton, 
and  flows  N.W.  to  the  Gulf  of  Car- 
pentaria after  a  course  of  230  m. 

Gilbert.  Group  of  small  islands 
and  atolls  in  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
They  lie  on  the  equator,  between 
long.  171°  and  177°  E.,  S.E.  of  the 
Marshall  Islands.  The  chief  are 
Butaritari,  Makin,  Abaian,  Mara- 
kei,  Tarawa,  Maiana,  Kuria,  Abe- 
mama,  Ananuka,  Tapiteuea,  No- 
nouti,  Nikunau,  Onotoa,  Beru, 
Tamana,  Arorae  and  Ocean  Islands. 
Total  area,  166  sq.  m.  Eighteen 
islands  are  inhabited  ;  they  yield 
pandanus  fruit  and  coconuts,  and 
export  copra  and  phosphates. 


GILBERT 


3527 


GILBERT 


Proclaimed  a  protectorate  in 
1892,  they  were  annexed  by  Great 
Britain,  at  the  request  of  the 
natives,  on  Nov.  10,  1915,  and  now 
form  part  of  the  Gilbert  and  El  lice 
Island  Colony.  The  islands  are  ad- 
ministered by  a  resident  commis- 
sioner, who  is  responsible  to  the 
high  commissioner  for  the  Pacific. 
Pop.  26,417  natives ;  446  foreigners. 
Gilbert  (c.  1110-89).  English 
saint  and  founder  of  the  Gilbcrtines. 
He  was  born  at  Sempringham,  Lin- 
colnshire, of  which  he  became 
rector,  and  where  he  founded  his 
Order  in  1135.  He  was  imprisoned 
on  a  false  charge  of  sending  help  to 
S.  Thomas  Becket  when  in  exile. 
He  died  at  Sempringham,  and  was 
canonised  by  Pope  Innocent  III. 
See  Gilbertines. 

Gilbert,  ALFRED  (b.  1854).  Brit- 
ish sculptor.  Born  in  London, 
1854,  he  studied  at 
Heatherley's 
School  of  Art, 
working  for  a 
year  in  J.  E. 
Boehm's  stu- 
dio, and  at  the 
E  c  o  1  e  d  e  s 
Beaux  Arts 
under  Caval- 
lier.  In  1882 
he  exhibited 
at  the  Royal 
Academy  h  i  s 
first  serious  composition,  The  Kiss 
of  Victory.  Proceeding  to  Rome, 
where  he  fell  under  the  influence 
of  the  Italian  Renaissance,  he  pro- 
duced Perseus  Arming.  This  was 
followed  by  Icarus,  1884,  The  En- 
chanted Chair,  1886,  the  Shaftes- 
bury  Fountain  in  Piccadilly  Circus, 
Comedy  and  Tragedy,  1892,  the 
Duke  of  Clarence  Memorial  at 
Windsor,  statues  of  Queen  Victoria 
at  Winchester,  and  of  John  Bright 
at  Westminster,  and  many  busts. 
He  was  chosen  R.A.  in  1892,  and 
retired  in  1909.  He  was  professor 
of  sculpture  at  the  Academy,  1900- 
9.  His  early  work  was  distinguished 
by  Grecian  simplicity  and  grace, 
but  became  more  decorative. 

Gilbert,  SIR  HUMPHREY  (c. 
1539-83).  English  navigator.  Born 
at  Dartmouth,  he  was  educated  at 
Eton  and  Ox- 
ford, and  stud- 
ied navigation 
and  m  a  t  h  e- 
matics.  In  1563 
he  fought 
against  the 
French  at 
Havre  and  in 
1566  took  part 
in  the  opera- 
tions in  Ire- 
land, being 
of  the  prov.  of 


Alfred  Gilbert, 
British  sculptor 

Elliott  &  Fry 


and  M.P.  for  Plymouth  in  1571,  he 
was  sent  the  following  year  to  the 
Netherlands,where  he  failed  against 
the  Spaniards. 

After  this  failure  he  retired  to 
his  house  in  Limehouse,  where  he 
mostly  resided,  until  1583,  when 
with  two  vessels  he  sailed  to  New- 
foundland, landed  at  St.  John's,  and 
founded  the  first  English  colony  in 
America.  He  insisted  on  setting 
out  on  the  return  voyage  aboard 
the  smaller  of  his  two  vessels,  the 
Squirrel,  a  frigate  of  only  10  tons. 
The  little  craft  foundered  off  the 
Azores  with  all  hands,  Sept.  9, 1583. 


m 


Sir  Humphrey 

Gilbert, 
English  navigator 

given   command 


Munster  in  1 569.    Knighted  in  1 570 


Alfred  Gilbert.   His  beautiful  statue 

of  Icarus,  exhibited  at  the  Royal 

Academy,  1884 

Fred.  Hollyer 

Gilbert,  SIR  JOHN  (1817-97). 
British  painter  and  illustrator. 
Born  at  Blackheath,  July  21,  1817, 
he  entered  a  city  office.  Finding 
the  life  intolerable,  after  two  years 
he  abandoned  business  for  art.  He 
was  almost  entirely  self-taught. 
From  1836  onwards  he  exhibited 
at  the  British  Institution,  Royal 
Academy,  and  other  galleries, 
although  between  1851  and  1867 
he  only  showed  at  the  Academy  a 


solitary  picture  (1867).  His  real 
metier  was  the  illustration  of  books 
and  periodicals,  in  which  he  dis- 
played an  astonishing  fecundity 
and  versatility. 
H  i  s  drawings 
(829  in  all)  for 
Howard  Staun- 
ton's  edition  of 
Shakespeare 
(1856-60)  be- 
came deserved- 
ly famous,  and 
a  complete  set 
of  the  proofs 
found  an  ap- 
propriate 

home  in  the  '- 

print-room  of  the  British  Museum. 
Sir  Walter  Scott  and  Cervantes  he 
also  illustrated  with  extreme  feli- 
city, and  for  nearly  thirty  years 
he  was  the  mainstay  of  The  Illus- 
trated London  News. 

In  1852  he  became  associate  and 
in  1854  full  member  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Painters  in  Watercolour, 
being  elected  its  president  in  1871, 
when  he  received  a  knighthood. 
He  was  elected  A.R.A.  in  1872, 
and  R.A.  in  1876.  His  preference 
of  subjects  was  still  governed  by 
his  old  relish  for  literature  and 
history,  among  his  best  works  in 
oils  being  King  Charles  Leaving 
Westminster  Hall  (1872),  Naseby 
(1873),  Richard  II  Resigning  the 
Crown  to  Bolingbroke  (1876),  and 
The  Doge  and  Senators  of  Venice. 
Sir  John  is  exceptionally  well  re- 
presented in  the  Guildhall  Gallery, 
London,  and  was  presented  with 
the  freedom  of  the  City.  He  died 
at  Blackheath,  Oct.  5,  1897.  See 
Agincourt;  Charles  I. 

Gilbert,  SIR  JOSEPH  HENRY 
(1817-1901).  British  chemist.  Born 
at  Hull,  Aug.  1,  1817,  he  studied 
chemistry  at  London  and  then 
under  Liebig  at  Giessen.  From  1843 
until  his  death  he  was  director  of 
Rothamsted  Laboratory  in  col- 
laboration with  Sir  J.  B.  Lawes.  He 
was  elected  F.R.S.  in  1860,  and  was 
knighted  in  1893,  on  the  jubilee 
of  the  Rothamsted  experiments. 
These  covered  a  large  and  im- 
portant field  of  research.  Gilbert 
died  Dec.  13,  1901. 

Gilbert,  MARIE  DOLORES  ELIZA 
ROSANNA  (1818-61).  Irish  dancer, 
better  known  by  her  stage  name  of 
Lola  Montez  (q.v.). 

Gilbert,  SIR  WILLIAM  SCHWENK 
(1836-1911).  British  dramatist. 
Born  in  London,  Nov.  18, 1836,  he 
was  educated  at  London  Univer- 
sity. From  1857-61  he  was  a  clerk 
in  the  education  department  of 
the  privy  council  office,  and  in  1863 
was  called  to  the  bar.  From  1861- 
7 1  he  contributed  articles  and  draw- 
ings to  Fun,  in  which  his  Bab 
Ballads,  1869  and  1873,  appeared, 


GILBERT     BLANE      MEDAL 


3528 


Sir  W.  S.  Gilbert, 
British  dramatist 


and  he  started  his  career  as  drama- 
tist by  writing  half  a  dozen  bur- 
lesques, including  a  travesty  of 
Tennyson's' The 
Princess.  These 
were  followed 
by  three  fairy 
plays,  The 
PalaceofTruth, 
1870,  The 
Wicked  World, 
1873,  and 
Broken  Hearts. 
1875;  a  classi- 
cal r  o  m  a  n  ce, 
Russeii  Pygmalion  and 

Galatea,  1871  ;  and  two  farcical 
comedies,  Tom  Cobb,  1875,  and 
Engaged,  1877.  He  also  wrote 
plays  of  serious  interest,  such  as 
Dan'l  Druce,  1876  ;  Gretchen, 
1879;  Comedy  and  Tragedy,  1884 : 
and  Brantinghame  Hall,  1888. 

The  remarkable  series  of  operas, 
in  the  production  of  which  he  was 
associated  with  Arthur  Sullivan  as 
music  composer  and  Richard 
D'Oyly  Carte  as  theatrical  mana- 
ger, started  at  The  Royalty  with 
Trial  By  Jury,  1875,  and  was  con- 
tinued at  the  Opera  Comique  by 
The  Sorcerer,  1877,  H.M.S.  Pina- 
fore, 1878,  The  Pirates  of  Penzance, 
1880,  and  Patience,  1881,  and  at 
The  Savoy  by  lolanthe,  1882, 
Princess  Ida,  1884,  The  Mikado, 
1885,  Ruddigore,  1887,  The  Yeo- 
man of  the  Guard,  1888,  The  Gon- 
doliers, 1889,  Utopia  Limited,  1893, 
and  The  Grand  Duke,  1896.  The 
wit  and  finish  of  his  dialogue  and 
lyrics,  the  urbanity  of  his  satire, 
and  the  topsy-turveydom  of  his 
humour  probably  contributed  as 
much  to  the  success  of  The  Savoy 
operas  as  the  grace  and  charm  of 
Sullivan's  music.  Gilbert,  who  was 
knighted  in  1907,  died  May  29, 
1911,  and  was  buried  at  Edgware. 
Gilbert  Blane  Medal.  Naval 
prize.  It  was  founded  in  1829  by 
Sir  Gilbert  Blane,  a  member  of  the 


Gilbert  Blane  Medal.      Reverse  and 
obverse  sides  of  the  naval  prize  medal 

board  for  Sick  and  Wounded  Sea- 
men, to  encourage  the  study  of 
medicine  in  the  navy.  It  consists 
of  a  gold  medal  presented  bien- 
nially to  each  of  the  two  medical 
officers  who  produce  the  most  ap- 
proved daily  journals  of  their  prac- 
tice whilst  in  charge  of  a  ship  of 
war  in  the  Royal  Navy. 


Sir  Walter  Gilbey, 
British  merchant 


Gilbertines.  English  monastic 
order.  It  was  founded  by  S.  Gilbert 
of  Sempringham  (q.v.)  about  1135. 
The  order  included  both  men  and 
women,  who  lived  in  double  monas- 
teries having  no  communication. 
The  men  followed  the  Augustinian 
rule  and  the  women  the  Cistercian. 
The  habit  was  black,  covered  with  a 
w hite  cloak.  S.  Gilbert  established 
13  houses,  containing  some  700 
canons  and  1,500  nuns.  The  superior 
was  called  the  master  or  prior 
general.  See  Abbey;  Monasticism. 
Gilbey,  SIB  WALTER  (1831- 
1914).  British  merchant.  Born  at 
Bishop's  Stortford,  May  2,  1831,  as 
a  youth  he  was 
in  the  office  of 
an  estate  agent. 
During  the 
Crimean  War 
he  served  in 
the  army  pay 
department  at 
the  front,  and 
on  his  return 
to  England  he 
founded,  with 

Elliott  A- fry  QnQ     Qf      his 

brothers,  the  firm  of  W.  &  A. 
Gilbey,  wine  merchants.  In  1893 
Gilbey  was  made  a  baronet  and 
the  title  passed  to  his  son  on 
his  death,  Nov.  12,  1914.  Gilbey 
was  a  sportsman  and  an  agricultur- 
ist, writing  books  on  both  subjects. 
In  1895  he  was  president  of  the 
Royal  Agricultural  Society,  and 
from  1889-1904  of  the  Hackney 
Horse  Society.  His  numerous  pub- 
lications include  Riding  and  Driv- 
ing Horses,  1901,  and  Hounds  in 
the  Old  Days,  1913. 

Gil  boa  (bubbling  fountain). 
Chain  of  hills  beside  the  plain  of 
Esdraelon.  Saul  and  his  sons  were 
slain  in  battle  here. 

Gildas  (c.  516-570).  British  his- 
torian. His  work,  Liber  querulus 
de  excidio  Britanniae,  or  Lament 
over  the  Destruction  of  Britain, 
traces  the  history  of  Britain  from 
the  Roman  invasion  to  the  writer's 
own  time,  and  has  slight  literary 
and  doubtful  historical  value.  He 
is  known  also  as  a  Breton  saint,  two 
monasteries  having  been  founded 
in  his  honour  in  Brittany. 

Gildea,  SIR  JAMES  (1838-1920). 
British  philanthropist.  Born  at 
Kilmaine,  co.  Mayo,  Ireland, 
June  24,  1838, 
third  son  of 
the  Very  Rev. 
G  R.  Gildea, 

?rovost  of 
uam,  he  was 
educated  at  S. 
C  o  1  u  m  b  a's 
College,  near 
Dublin,  and 
Pembroke 
College,  Cam- 


Sir  James  Gildea, 
British  philanthropist 

Rutsell 


bridge.  He  served  in  a  civilian 
capacity  at  the  War  Office,  1857- 
62  ;  was  colonel  commanding  6th 
Royal  Warwickshire  Regt..  1890- 
88  ;  and  from  1909  hon.  colonel  of 
the  4th  (Special  Reserve)  Bat- 
talion. From  the  time  of  the 
Franco  -  Prussian  War,  when  he 
joined  the  committee  of  the 
National  Society  for  Aid  to  the 
Sick  and  Wounded  in  War,  he 
interested  himself  actively  in  work 
on  behalf  of  Service  charities. 

He  promoted  the  reorganization 
of  the  Royal  Patriotic  Fund, 
founded  the  Soldiers'  and  Sailors' 
Families  Association,  1885,  and 
the  Royal  Homes  for  Officers' 
Widows  and  Daughters  at  Wim- 
bledon, ]  899,  and  was  one  of  the 
promoters  of  the  S.  John  Am- 
bulance Association.  Knighted  in 
1902,  he  died  Nov.  6,  1920. 

Gilding.  Application  of  very 
thin  metals,  principally  gold,  for 
decorative  and  other  purposes. 
The  metal  is  caused  to  adhere  by 
painting  a  thin  coat  of  gold  size, 
which  is  a  thickened  linseed  oil  to 
which  has  been  added  a  little 
finely  ground  ochre.  This  size  be- 
comes tacky,  i.e.  sticky,  in  from 
one  to  four  days. 

The  leaves  of  gold  measure 
3^  inches  square,  and  are  con- 
tained in  books  interleaved  with 
paper.  When  it  is  desired  to 
finish  the  work  quickly  japanner's 
gold  size  is  used.  This  becomes 
tacky  in  from  30  minutes  to  two 
hours.  For  certain  work  such  as 
running  lines  on  vehicles  ribbon 
gold  is  often  used.  In  this  the 
gold  is  prepared  in  long  narrow 
strips,  and  rolled  up  in  trie  form  of 
a  narrow  cylinder  or  wheel  with 
protecting  paper  between.  The 
wheel  is  held  in  a  handle,  and  the 
gold  is  transferred  in  a  short  time. 

Gilead.  Mt.  district  in  Palestine 
E.  of  the  Jordan.  In  it  the  tribe 
of  Gad  appears  to  have  settled. 
Elijah  was  the  most  notable  of  its 
sons.  See  Balm. 

Giles  (Lat.  Aegidius).  Patron 
saint  of  lepers  and  beggars.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  born  at  Athens 
at  the  end  of  the  7th  century,  and 
to  have  emigrated  to  France, 
where  he  became  a  hermit  near 
Nimes.  He  founded  an  abbey, 
which  was  called  by  his  name. 

Giles,  ERNEST  (1839-97).  Brit- 
ish explorer.  Born  at  Bristol,  he 
went  to  Australia  at  an  early  age. 
and  between  1872  and  1882  made 
a  number  of  explorations  into  the 
interior.  In  the  first  of  these,  in 
1872,  he  started  from  Chamber's 
Pillar,  about  134°  E.  long.,  25°  S. 
lat.,  and  proceeded  N.W.  as  far  as 
Lake  Amadeus.  In  1873  he  jour- 
neyed from  the  Alberga  River  and 
followed  the  27th  parallel  to  126° 


GILES 


3529 


GILL 


of  E.  long.  But  his  most  success- 
ful journey  was  in  1874,  when,  at 
the  end  of  Sept.,  with  a  well- 
equipped  party 
and  numerous 
camels,  he  left 
Fowler's  Bay, 
and  after  many 
vicissitudes 
and  hardships 
reached  Perth 
on  Nov.  13. 

In    1876    he 

Ernest  Giles,  again  traversed 
British  explorer  the  continent. 
Leaving  PiaSprings,  in  21°  1'  S.  lat., 
116°  45'  E.  long.,  on  April  10,  and 
travelling  to  the  23rd  parallel,  he 
made  a  general  N.E.  course,  cross- 
ing the  headwaters  of  the  Murchi- 
son,  passing  Mount  Gould,  and 
tracing  the  Ashburton  River  to 
its  source.  He  reached  Mount 
O'Halloran,  Aug.  19,  and  Peake 
Station,  Aug.  23.  Towards  the  end 
of  1882  he  explored  the  country  W. 
of  the  Peake.  He  wrote  Geographic 
Travels  in  Central  Australia,  1875  ; 
and  Australia  Twice  Traversed, 
1889. 

Giles.  HERBERT  ALLEN  (b.1845). 
British  scholar.  Born  Dec.  8,  1845, 
4th  son  of  J.  A.  Giles  (d.  1884), 
he  was  edu- 
cated at  the 
Charterhouse, 
and  joined  the 
China  consular 
service  in  186  7. 
He  was  -vice- 
consul  at  Pag- 
oda Island, 
1880,  and 
Shanghai,  EL  A.  Giles, 

1883,  and  con-  British  scholar 
sul  at  Tamsui,  1885,  and  Ningpo, 
1 89 1 .  Resigning  in  1 893,  he  became 
professor  of  Chinese  at  Cambridge 
University,  and.  was  first  lecturer  on 
Chinese  on  the  Dean  Lung  Foun- 
dation, Columbia  University,  New 
York,  1902.  In  addition  to  his 
Longinus,  1870,  he  was  the  author  of 
many  books  on  the  language,  liter- 
ature, art,  and  religion  of  China, 
including  a  History  of  Chinese 
Literature,  1901 ;  Religions  of  An- 
cient China,  1905  ;  The  Civilization 
of  China,  1911  ;  Confucianism  and 
Its  Rivals,  1915  ;  Introduction  to 
Chinese  Art,  1905,  2nd  ed.  1918. 
He  compiled  a  Chinese-English 
Dictionary,  1892,  2nd  ed.  1912; 
and  a  Chinese  Biographical  Dic- 
tionary, 1897. 

His  4th  son,  Lionel  Giles  (b.  Dec. 
£9,  1875),  assistant  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Oriental  Printed  Books 
and  MSS.  in  the  British  Museum, 
secretary  of  the  China  Society,  and 
examiner  in  Chinese  at  Cambridge 
and  London  universities,  was  edu- 
cated at  the  College  S.  Servais, 
Liege,  Feldkircn,  Austrian  Tirol, 


Aberdeen  University,  and  Wad- 
ham  College,  Oxford.  During  the 
Great  War  he  was  attached  to  the 
intelligence  department  of  the 
Admiralty.  He  has  written  several 
works  on  Chinese  subjects  and 
translations  from  the  Chinese,  has 
compiled  an  Alphabetical  Index  to 
the  Chinese  Encyclopaedia,  and 
contributes  the  article  on  China  to 
the  Universal  Encyclopedia. 

Gilfillan,  GEORGE  (1813-78). 
Scottish  author.  Born  at  Comrie, 
Perthshire,  Jan.  30,  1813,  son  of  a 
secession  minis-  _- 
ter,  he  was  edu-  \ 
cated  at  Glas- 
gow Universitv. 
In  1830  he  be-  fi 
came  minister 
of  School  Wynd 
Church,  D  u  n  - 
dee,  where  he 
remained  till  i 
his  death, 
Aug.  13,  1878. 
Between  1845-54  he  published 
three  series  of  critical  estimates 
under  the  title  of  A  Gallery  of 
Literary  Portraits,  and  wrote 
Lives  of  Scott,  1870,  and  Burns, 
1878.  £ee  Memoir,  R.  A.  and  E.  S. 
Watson,  1892. 

Gilgal  (Heb.,  stone-circle). 
Name  given  in  the  O.T.  to  various 
places.  At  one,  near  Jericho,  a 
place  of  sacrifice  in  the  days  of 
Samuel,  Saul  gathered  his  people 
against  the  Philistines. 

Gilgamesh.  Hero  of  a  Baby- 
lonian epic,  by  some  identified  as 
Nimrod  (q.v.).  In  the  twelve  books 
of  the  epic,  corresponding  more  or 
less  closely  to  the  twelve  months 
of  the  year,  his  adventures  are  set 
forth ;  he  is  a  man  of  mighty 
strength,  a  great  hunter,  and,  as 
ruler  of  Erech,  so  evil  that 
the  people  pray  to  the  gods 
against  him. 

Gilgamesh  incurs  the  enmity  of 
the  goddess  Ishtar;  he  journeys  to 
the  land  of  the  dead,  and  the  account 
of  that  journey  gives  occasion  for 
narrating  the  Babylonian  story  of 
the  Flood.  The  account  of  Gil- 
gamesh has  remarkable  parallels 
with  that  of  Hercules.  £ee  The 
Religions  of  Ancient  Egypt  and 
Babylonia,  A.  H.  Sayce,  1902. 

Gilgandra.  Township  of  New 
South  Wales.  It  is  324  m.  by  rly. 
from  Sydney,  and  in  a  wheat-pro- 
ducing district  Pop.  2,204. 

Giigit.  District,  town,  and  river 
of  Kashmir,  India.  Lying  on  the 
S.  slopes  of  the  Hindu  Kush,  the 
dist.  includes  the  valleys  of  Giigit, 
Chitral,  Swat,  and  Ladak.  Area, 
25,000  sq.  m.  The  town  stands  at 
an  elevation  of  4,900  ft.  above  the 
level  of  the  sea,  125  m.  N.W.  of 
Srinagar.  Since  1889  it  has  been 
a  British  Agency. 


Gilia.  Genus  of  annual  herbs  of 
the  natural  order  Polemoniaceae. 
They  are  natives  of  the  warm,  but 
not  tropical,  regions  of  America. 
They  have  abundant  flowers  of 
funnel  or  salver  shape,  blue,  rose, 
yellow,  purple,  white,  etc. 

Gilkin,  IWAN  (b.  1858).  Belgian 
poet.  Born  at  Brussels,  he  was 
educated  at  the  university  of 
Louvain,  where  he  was  known  as 
one  of  the  brilliant  group  of  young 
Belgian  poets  headed  by  Emile 
Verhaeren.  His  contributions  to 
La  Semaine  des  Etudiants,  1879-81, 
and  to  La  Jeune  Belgique,  1881, 
attracted  much  attention.  He  is 
the  author  of  Damnation  de 
F  Artiste,  1890;  Stances  Dorees, 
1893;  La  Nuit,  his  most  character- 
istic work,  1897;  Promethee,  1899. 

Gill.  Organ  of  respiration  in 
animals  that  habitually  live  in 
water  and  do  not  rise  to  the  sur- 
face to  inhale  air.  They  are  found 
in  fishes,  crustaceans,  many  mol- 
luscs, the  larval  stages  of  batra- 
chians  and  some  insects,  and  in 
certain  lower  forms  of  life.  They 
are  so  constructed  as  to  present 
the  largest  possible  surface  con- 
taining capillary  blood-vessels  to 
the  water  in  order  that  the  con- 
tained oxygen  may  be  brought  into 
contact  with  the  blood.  Gills  may 


Gilgamesh,  the  Babylonian  Hercules, 
strangling  a  lion 

From  a  sculpture  in  tfte  Lovvre,  Paris 


GILL 


3530 


GILLINGHAM 


vary  in  their  structure  from 
simple  slits  in  the  body  wall  to 
more  or  less  elaborate  plates, 
filaments,  and  leaf -like  organs.  The 
gills  in  fish  and  many  other  animals 
are  situated  at  the  sides  of  the 
head  or  neck,  but  in  some  crusta- 
ceans they  are  found  on  the  limbs ; 
certain  echinoderms  carry  them 
on  the  tentacles.  No  vertebrates 
higher  than  fishes  and  batrachians 
breathe  with  gills  in  the  adult 
stage,  but  gill  clefts  are  present 
in  an  early  stage  of  the  develop- 
ment of  the  embryo.  The  gills  of 
insects  (as  May  flies)  whose  larvae 
pass  most  of  their  lives  in  water 
are  called  tracheal  gills,  from  the 
fact  that  they  are  permeated  by 
fine  air  tubes.  See  Fish. 

Gill.  In  engineering,  the  flat 
plate  or  fin  fitted  to  the  tubes  of 
a  radiator  or  water  cooler  in  order 
to  facilitate  the  dissipation  of  heat. 
Gill.  Dry  and  liquid  measure 
of  capacity,  used  in  Great  Britain 
and  the  U.S.A.  The  gill  equals 
one  quarter  of  a  pint,  and  contains 
7 '2 19  cubic  ins.  The  word  was 
formerly  used  in  Scotland  and  N. 
England  for  half  a  pint,  and  in 
Jamaica  is  popularly  used  for  the 
sum  of  three-farthings.  Gill  is 
derived  from  the  late  Latin  gillo,  a 
wine  vessel.  Pron.  Jill. 

Gill.  Lough  or  lake  of  Ireland. 
It  is  mainly  in  co.  Sligo  and  partly 
in  co.  Leitrim  ;  length  5  m.,  ex- 
treme breadth  2  m.  It  is  navigable 
by  small  steamers. 

GUI,  SIR  DAVID  (1843-1914). 
British  astronomer.  Born  at 
Aberdeen,  June  12,  1843,  and 
educated  at 
Aberdeen  Uni- 
versity, he  be- 
came interested 
in  astronomy, 
erecting  his 
own  observa- 
tory. On  taking 
charge  of  Lord 
Lindsay's  ob- 
servatory h  e 
went  out  to 
swaine  Mauritius  and 

observed  the  transit  of  Venus. 
Thenceforward  he  carried  out  a 
series  of  observations  which  have 
had  a  far-reaching  effect  on  as- 
tronomical progress  and  research. 
In  1877  he  went  to  Ascension 
Island  to  determine  the  solar 
parallax  by  a  study  of  the  move- 
ments of  the  planet  Mars,  receiving 
the  gold  medal  of  the  Royal  Astro- 
nomical Society;  in  1882  he  took 
fresh  measurements  of  the  transit 
of  Venus,  and  photographed  the 
great  comet  of  that  year. 

Appointed  astronomer-royal  at 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  in  1879,  a 
post  he  held  for  28  years,  Gill 
carried  out  there  his  greatest  work, 


Sir  David  Gill, 
British  astronomer 


G-/LLS 

Gill.     Cast-iron  gilled  pipe  as  used  for 
beating  churches,  public  buildings,  etc. 

the  magnificent  catalogue  of  the 
stars  of  the  southern  hemisphere. 
This  catalogue,  comprising  nearly 
half  a  million  stars,  was  completed 
in  1900.  He  was  created  K.C.B.  in 
1900,  and  died  Aug.  27,  1914. 
Among  his  many  published  works 
the  more  important  are  Catalogues 
of  Stars  for  the  Equinoxes,  1850, 
1860,  1885,  1890,  1900;  History 
and  Description  of  the  Royal 
Observatory,  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
1913 ;  and  many  scientific  papers. 
Gillain,CYRiAQUE  CYPRIEN  VIC- 
TOR (b.  1857).  Belgian  soldier. 
Born  Aug.  11,  1857,  he  entered  the 
army  as  a  pri- 
vate at  the  age 
of  eighteen. 
After  three 
years'  servicehe 
passed  through 
the  Military 
Academy,  join- 
ing the  cavalry 
in  1880.  From 
1888-96  he 
served  in  the 
Congo,  and  in 


C.  C.  V.  Gillain, 
Belgian  soldier 


1913  became  colonel  of  the  4th  Lan- 
cers, which  regiment  he  commanded 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  Great  War. 

From  Oct.,  1914,  he  commanded 
the  first  cavalry  brigade,  partici- 
pating in  the  battle  of  the  Yser. 
Major-general  in  1915,  and  lieut.- 
general  in  1917,  he  was  placed  in 
command  of  the  5th  Division.  He 
succeeded  Rucquoy  as  chief  of  the 
staff  in  April,  1918.  By  his  vic- 
tory in  the  battle  of  Thourout- 
Thielt,  Oct.  14-16,  he  freed  the 
Belgian  coast  from  the  Germans. 

Gillespie,  SIR  ROBERT  ROLLO 
(1766-1814).  British  soldier.  The 
son  of  Robert  Gillespie,  a  land- 
owner in  co.  Down,  he  was  born  at 
Comber  therein,  Jan.  21,  1766. 
Educated  privately,  he  obtained  a 
commission  in  the  army  in  1783. 
In  1787  he  killed  a  man  in  a  duel 
and  was  tried  for  wilful  murder, 
but  the  result  was  a  verdict  in  his 
favour.  His  first  spell  of  active 
service  was  in  1794  in  San  Do- 
mingo, where  he  fought  as  a  volun- 
teer for  the  French  against  the 
rebels.  Gillespie's  reputation  rests 
upon  his  services  in  India,  whither 
he  sailed  in  1805.  He  was  made 
commandant  of  Arcot,  from  which 


Sir  Robert  Rollo 

Gillespie, 
British  soldier 

From  a  miniature 


he  made  his 
famous  ride  to 
Vellore,  July 
10,  1806.  He 
entered  the 
fort  and  in- 
spired  the 
defenders  t  o 
hold  it  until 
help  arrived. 

In  1811  Gil- 
lespie held  a 
command  in  a 
force  sent  to  Java,  and  led  the 
attack  on  Batavia,  but  he  was 
involved  in  a  serious  quarrel  with 
Sir  Stamford  Raffles,  the  governor. 
He  had  returned  to  India,  and  was 
serving  in  a  war  against  Nepal, 
when  he  was  killed  in  leading  a 
desperate  rush  on  the  fort  of 
Kalunga,  Oct.  31,  1814.  In  1815 
he  was  posthumously  knighted. 

Gillette,  WILLIAM  (b.  1855). 
American  actor  and  playwright. 
Born  at  Hartford,  U.S.A.,  July  24, 
1855,  and  edu- 
cated at  New 
York  and  Bos- 
ton  Universi- 
ties, he  made 
his  profession- 
al debut  in 
1875  at  Bos- 
ton, and  first 
appeared  at 
New  York  in 
1877.  Of  his 
own  plays,  the 
most  popular 
have  been 
Secret  Service, 
1896;  an  adap- 
tation, with 
Conan  Doyle, 
of  Sherlock 
Holmes,  1899;  and  Clarice,  1905. 

Gillie.  Old  name  for  a  Highland 
man-servant.  It  is  now  used  to 
denote  one  who  assists  his  master 
on  deerstalking  and  fishing  ex- 
peditions in  the  Scottish  Highlands. 
See  Deerstalking. 

Gillies,  JOHN  (1747-1836).  Scot- 
tish historian.  Born  at  Brechin.. 
Forfarshire,  Jan.  18,  1747,  and 
educated  a  t 
the  University 
o  f  Glasgow, 
in  1793  he  be- 
came historio- 
grapher royal 
for  Scotland. 
His  History  of 
Ancient 
Greece,  1786, 
was  long  con- 
sidered  a 
standard  work. 
15,  1836. 
Gillingham 


William  Gillette  as 
Sherlock  Holmes 


John  Gillies, 
Scottish  historian 

He   died    Feb. 
Market  town  of 


Dorset.  It  stands  on  the  Stour,  23m. 
W.S.  W.  of  Salisbury,  with  a  station 
on  the  L.  &  S.W.  Rly.  The  main 


G1LLINGHAM 


GILOLO 


industry  is  the  marketing  of 
agricultural  produce.  The  chief 
building  is  the  church  of  S.  Mary 
the  Virgin.  Market  day.  Monday. 
Pop.  3,570. 

Gillingham.  Mun.  bor.  of  Kent. 
It  stands  on  the  Medway  to  the  E. 
of  Chatham,  of  which  it  is  virtu- 
ally a  suburb,  and  is  served  by 
the  S.E.  &  C.  Ely.,  being  36  in. 
from  London  It  has  a  fine  Per- 
pendicular church  with  a  curious 
Norman  font,  but  most  of  the  build- 
ing is  modern.  It  was  made  a 
borough  in  1903,  and  includes  the 
districts  of  Brompton  and  New 
Brompton.  The  industries  include 
the  making  of  bricks  and  cement, 
while  many  of  the  inhabitants 
work  in  the  dockyards  of  Chatham. 
The  corporation  owns  the  elec- 
tricity undertaking,  and  provides 
a  park,  recreation  ground,  and 
cemeteries  It  has  a  new  drainage 
system.  One  member  is  returned 
to  Parliament,  the  borough  form- 
ing for  this  purpose  a  division  of 
Chatham.  Gillingham  existed  in 
Anglo-Saxon  times.  It  became  a 
market  town  in  the  time  of  Ed- 
ward III,  and  was  one  of  the  chief 
stations  of  the  navy  until  sup- 
planted by  Chatham.  Pop.  52,252. 
Gillingham,  FRANK  HAY  (b. 
1875).  English  clergyman  and 
cricketer.  He  was  born  Sept.  6, 
1875,  at  Tokyo, 
Japan,  and  was 
educated  at 
Dulwich  and 
Durham  Uni- 
versity. Hav- 
ing been  or- 
dained, he  was 

^^^     ^^^^    curate     at     S. 
F.  H.  Gillingham,      James  the  Less, 
English  cricketer       Bethnal  Green, 
Russeii  and     in     1914 

was  appointed  rector  of  S.  Mary 
Magdalene,  Bermondsey.  He 
qualified  to  play  for  Essex,  for 
which  county  he  first  appeared  in 
1903.  In  1904,  against  Middlesex 
at  Lord's,  he  played  an  innings  of 
201,  his  highest  in  first-class 
cricket,  and  in  1908  made  1,033 
runs  in  29  innings. 

Gillott,  JOSEPH  (1799-1873). 
British  penmaker.  Born  at  Shef- 
field, Oct.  11,  1799,  he  served  his 

time  as  a  cut-    r  

ler.  In  1821 
he  moved  to 
Birmingham,  _<r 

where  in  1830         wfl 
he    began    ex- 
perimenting in 
steel  nib  mak- 
ing.    His   first 
improvement 
was  the  intro-         Joseph  Gillott, 
duct  ion     of       British  penmaker 
side  slits  in  addition  to  the  centre 
slit,    which    made    the    nib    more 


pliable.  His  next  improvement 
was  to  cross-grind  the  point.  So 
far  all  his  work  had  been  performed 
in  secrecy,  the  finished  nibs  being 
sold  to  a  stationer  at  the  price  of 
a  shilling  each.  In  1859  he 
opened  a  large  factory,  and  the 
business  soon  became  one  of  the 
largest  of  its  kind.  Gillott  made  a 
fortune,  much  of  which  was  spent 
on  a  collection  of  pictures,  which 
at  his  death  was  sold  for  £170,000. 
He  died  at  Edgbaston,  Jan.  5, 1873. 

Gillow,  ROBERT  (d.  1773).  Eng- 
lish furniture  maker  and  designer. 
Gillow  set  up  a  cabinet-making 
business  at  Lancaster  about  1730, 
and  opened  a  London  house  in 
1761.  The  business  was  greatly 
developed  by  his  sons,  Richard, 
Robert,  and  Thomas,  whose  high 
standards  of  craftsmanship  •  were 
worthy  of  the  designs  made  for 
them,  among  others  by  George 
Hepplewhite,  and  from  about  1790 
to  1800  by  Thomas  Sheraton. 
Gillow  and  Barton,  as  the  firm 
became,  were  credited  with  the 
introduction  of  the  telescopic 
dining -table,  and  were  the  leading 
furniture  makers  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury in  England.  See  Furniture. 

Gillray,  JAMES  (1757-1815). 
British  caricaturist.  Born  pro- 
bably at  Chelsea,  of  Scottish  or 
Irish  descent,  he  was  apprenticed 
to  a  letter-engraver.  Later  he 
attended  the  R.A.  Schools  and 
studied  engraving  under  W.  W. 
Ryland  and  Bartolozzi.  His  ap- 
titude for  caricature,  at  first  con- 
fined to  social  foibles,  early  dis- 
played itself 
anonymous  1  y, 
but  in  1779  his 
plate  of  Paddy 
on  Horseback, 
published  un- 
der his  own 
name ,  an- 
nounced h  i  s 
entrance  into 
the  political 
arena. 

From  this  date  until  he  died, 
virtually  demented,  in  London  on 
June  1,  1815,  he  produced  no 
fewer  than  1,500  pieces,  mostly 
caustic.  He  spared  no  one.  George 
III  and  his  queen  were  as  ruth- 
lessly assailed  as  William  Pitt, 
Charles  James  Fox,  and  other 
party  leaders,  and  the  public 
vociferously  applauded  all.  His 
illustrations  of  social  manners  and 
customs  are  invaluable  to  the 
historian.  See  Caricature. 

Gillwell  Park.  Scout  officers' 
training  centre.  Situated  in 
Epping  Forest,  about  1  m.  from 
Chingford  station,  it  comprises  55 
acres  of  open  ground  and  woodland 
with  an  historical  mansion  tracing 
descent  from  a  hunting  lodge  of 


Edward  VI.  It  was  presented  to 
the  Boy  Scouts'  Association  by 
W.  F.  de  Bois  Maclaren,  District 
Scout  Commisioner  for  Roseneath, 
Dumbartonshire,  and  was  opened 
July  26,  1919.  The  scoutmasters 
are  housed  in  the  mansion,  and  the 
surrounding  grounds  form  an  ideal 
centre  where  knowledge  of  field- 
craft,  campcraft,  pioneering,  and 
pathfinding  is  acquired.  Scout- 
masters from  all  over  the  world 
attend  in  groups  of  twenty -four  for 
a  ten  days'  course.  See  Boy  Scouts. 

Gillyflower.  Name  originally 
applied  to  carnation  (Dianthvs 
caryophyllus),  but  now  used  chiefly 
f  or  stocks  (Malthiola)  and  wallflower 
(Cheiranihus).  It  is  a  corruption 
of  Fr.  giroflee,  which  is  derived  from 
Gr.  karyo phyllon,  nut-leaf,  clove- 
tree,  in  reference  to  the  clove -like 
smell.  See  Stock  ;  Wallflower. 

Gilman,  DANIEL  COIT   (1831- 
1908).      American  educationalist. 
Born    at    Norwich,  Connecticut, 
July   6,   1831, 
he    was    edu- 
cated at  Yale, 
New    Haven, 
and     Berlin    _ 
Universi  ties.    ' 
He  became 
librarian  and, 
in    1856,  pro- 
fessor      of 
physical   and       Daniel  C.  Gilman, 
political     geo-         American  edu- 


graphy     at 
Yale, 


cationalist 


e,  and  president  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  California,  1872-75.  He 
helped  to  found  and  was  first 
president  of,  1875-1901,  John 
Hopkins  University,  Baltimore.  He 
served  on  the  Venezuela  Boundary 
Commission,  1896;  was  president 
of  the  Carnegie  Institution  of  Wash- 
ington, 1901-4;  executive  officer 
of  the  geological  survey  of  Mary- 
land, and  president  of  the  National 
Civil  Service  Reform  League  and 
of  the  American  Bible  Society. 

His  books  include  University 
Problems,  1898 ;  a  Memoir  of 
James  D.  Dana,  Geologist,  1899  : 
James  Monroe  in  His  Relations  to 
the  Public  Service  (1776-1826), 
1883,  2nd  ed.  1898  ;  Science  and 
Letters  in  Yale,  1901.  He  edited  De 
Tocqueville's  Democracy  in  Amer- 
ica, and  the  miscellaneous  writings 
of  Francis  Lieber,  and  was  one  of 
the  general  editors  of  the  first  edi- 
tion of  the  New  International  Ency- 
clopaedia, 1902-4.  He  died  Oct.  13, 
1908.  See  Life,  F.  Franklin,  1910. 

Gilolo  OR  HALMAHERA.  Island 
of  the  Malay  Archipelago,  one  of 
the  Moluccas  or  Spice  Islands  be- 
longing to  Holland.  It  consists  of 
four  peninsulas,  two  in  the  N.,  one 
E.,  and  one  S.  The  Molucca  pas- 
sage separates  it  from  Celebes  in 
the  W.,  and  Pitts  Passage  divides 


GILPIN 


3532 


GINGER 


it  from  Ceram  on  the  S.,  while 
Gilolo  Passage  flows  along  the  E. 
shores.  Mountainous  and  heavily 
forested,  the  equatorial  line  passes 
through  the  S.  limb  of  the  island. 
There  are  several  active  volcanoes, 
the  chief  of  which  are  Tolo  and 
Gamakora.  Its  length  from  N.  to 
S.  is  about  130  m.,  while  its  maxi- 
mum breadth  in  any  of  its  penin- 
sulas does  not  exceed  45  in.  ;  its 
estimated  area,  including  several 
small  islands,  is  6,900  sq.  m. 

The  largest  of  the  bays  are  Bo- 
lollo,  Weda,  Wossa,  and  Kiau.  Fer- 
tile in  the  cultivated  areas,  spices, 
fruits,  sago,  coconuts,  and  edible 
birds'  nests  are  produced.  Horses, 
cattle,  and  sheep  are  reared,  and 
precious  gems  are  found.  The  prin- 
cipal towns  are  Gilolo,  the  capital, 
Galela,  and  Patani.  Subdivided 
into  several  petty  states,  the 
coastal  districts  are  inhabited  by 
Malays,  while,  in  the  interior,  a 
race  of  inoffensive  people,  called 
Alfuras,  exist.  Pop.  (est.),  100,000. 

Gilpin,  BERNARD  (1517-83). 
English  divine  and  philanthropist. 
Born  at  Kentmere,  Westmorland, 
he  was  educated  at  Queen's  College, 
Oxford.  He  studied  later  at  Paris 
and  Lou  vain,  and  became  arch- 
deacon of  Durham  and  rector  of 
Houghton-le-Spring,  where  he  died 
March  4,  1583.  Here  he  founded  a 
grammar  school,  and  became  famed 
for  his  beneficence.  He  was  offered 
the  bishopric  of  Carlisle,  but  de- 
clined it.  He  spent  his  later  years 
in  journeying  about  the  district, 
preaching  and  relieving  distress. 

Gilpin,  JOHN.  Hero  of  a  poem 
by  William  Cowper  (q.v.).  It  de- 
scribes how  Gilpin,  a  linen-draper 
and  a  train-band  captain,  but  a 
poor  horseman,  attempted  to  fol- 
low his  wife  and  family  to  Edmon- 
ton on  horseback,  but  was  carried 
on  to  Ware,  whence,  with  equally 
diverting  adventures,  he  was  car- 
ried back  to  London.  The  poem 
was  based  on  an  anecdote  of  a  Mr. 
Beyer,  of  Paternoster  Row,  told  to 
the  poet  by  Lady  Austen. 

Gilsonite .  Mineral  named  after 
an  American,  S.  H.  Gilson.  A 
black,  brilliant  bitumen,  it  is  a  non- 
conductor of  heat  and  electricity, 
and  is  used  for  making  paint  and 
varnishes.  It  is  chiefly  found  [in 
Utah  and  Colorado,  U.S.A. 

Giltspur  Street.  London 
thoroughfare  running  N.  from  the 
Old  Bailey  to  W.  Smithfield.  An 
approach  to  the  old  jousting 
ground  at  Smithfield,  hence  its 
name,  it  contained,  1791-1855,  a 
compter,  or  debtors'  prison,  at  the 
S.E.  corner.  On  the  same  side  are 
parts  of  the  G.P.O.  and  S.  Bar- 
tholomew's Hospital  with,  hi  the 
yard  of  the  former,  below  the  sur- 
face, a  bastion  of  the  Roman  wall. 


Gilyak.  Primitive  tribe  of  pa- 
laeasiatic  stock  in  N.  Sakhalin  and 
on  the  lower  Amur,  E.  Siberia. 
Short  and  round-headed,  they  dis- 
play a  sparse -bearded  Tungus  type 
and  a  bushy-bearded  Ainu  type. 
They  occupy  in  the  whiter  pit- 
huts  and  in  the  summer  pile-houses. 
They  are  skilful  boatmen,  hunt 
with  bow  and  arrow,  and  subsist 
mainly  on  salmon  and  sturgeon. 
Their  animism  includes  a  bear- 
festival.  They  numbered  in  1915 
6,194. 

Gimbals  (Fr.  jumelle,  Lat. 
gemettus,  twin).  Brass  rings  in 
which  a  ship's  compass  is  hung. 
They  are  so  arranged  that  the  com- 
pass remains  horizontal,  no  matter 
how  the  vessel  rolls  and  pitches. 

Gimcrack  Club.  Racing  club. 
Founded  in  1767,  its  name  com- 
memorates that  of  a  famous  race- 
horse. It  holds  an  annual  dinner 
at  York,  the  rule  being  that  the 
guest  of  the  evening  shall  be  the 
owner  of  the  horse  that  wins  the 
Gimcrack  Stakes,  a  race  run  every 
Aug.  at  York. 

Girnli.  In  Norse  mythology,  a 
great  hall.  It  was  of  wonderful 
brightness,  and  the  idea  was  that 
it  would  remain  after  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  world,  to  be  for  ever 
the  home  of  the  good. 

Gimmal  Ring.  Two  or  more 
separable  hooks  which  when  linked 
together  form  a  single  finger  ring. 
They  were  formerly  popular  as  be- 
trothal rings  and  ornamented  with 
a  device  of  two  clasped  hands  or 
two  hearts. 

Gimp  (Fr.  guimpe,  nun's  wim- 
ple). Lace  trimming  stiffened  with 
cords  covered  with  silk  or  worsted. 
It  is  sometimes  enriched  with  gold 
or  silver,  and  usually  of  rather  an 
open  design. 

Gin.  Colourless  spirit  fla- 
voured with  juniper  berries  and 
other  aromatic  herbs.  It  is  dis- 
tilled in  a  patent  still,  the  grain 
used  being  maize,  to  which  a  little 
barley  malt  is  added.  The  gin  rec- 
tifier buys  the  neutral  spirit,  and 
then  rectifies  it.  Sometimes  it  is 
rectified  twice,  and  of  course  com- 
mands a  higher  price.  It  is  fla- 
voured by  distillation  with  juniper 
berries,  although  occasionally  es- 
sential oil  of  juniper  is  added  to 
the  rectified  product.  Each  gin 
rectifier  has  his  own  recipes  for 
flavouring,  and  very  often  in  addi- 
tion to  juniper,  almonds,  carda- 
moms, cassia,  orris-root,  coriander 
seeds,  or  other  aromatics  are 
added.  London  gin  is  known  all 
over  the  world,  and  another  variety 
which  has  a  large  sale  is  "  Ply- 
mouth "  gin,  which  is  supposed 
to  obtain  its  particular  flavour 
through  having  a  little  sulphuric 
acid  added  to  it  before  rectifica- 


Gimbals,  device  of  brass  rings  for 
keeping  a  mariner's  compass  hori- 
zontal 

tion  ;  "  Old  Tom  "  is  simply  ordi 
nary  gin  sweetened  with  sugar  or 
sugar  syrup. 

At  one  time  Geneva  had  a  much 
larger  sale  in  this  country  than 
gin,  but  during  the  last  100  years 
the  home  manufacturer  has  built 
up  a  large  trade  in  gin,  and  the 
foreign  article  has  a  small  sale  as 
compared  with  gin.  Geneva  is 
simply  Dutch  gin,  and  is  some- 
times called  hollands,  or  schnapps, 
but  it  has  nothing  to  do  with  the 
city  of  Geneva.  No  doubt  it  is 
derived  from  the  Dutch  word 
"  jenever,"  which  in  English  means 
juniper.  Geneva  is  principally 
made  in  Schiedam,  Holland,  on 
much  the  same  lines  as  English  gin. 
Gin  contains  from  38  p.c.  to  50  p.c. 
of  alcohol.  See  Distilling. 

Ginchy.  Village  of  France,  in 
the  dept.  of  Somme.  It  is  7  m.  E. 
of  Albert  and  2  m.  N.W.  of  Com- 
bles.  Prominent  in  the  battles  of 
the  Somme,  it  was  captured  by  the 
British,  Sept.  10,  1916.  Re-taken 
by  the  Germans  in  March,  1918,  it 
was  recovered  by  the  Allies  hi  the 
autumn.  See  Somme,  Battles  of  the. 

Ginger  (Zingiber  officinale). 
Perennial  herb  of  the  natural  order 
Scitaminaceae.  It  is  a  native  of  the 
E.  Indies.  It  has  a  horizontal  root- 
stock,  which  forms  the  ginger  of 
commerce.  The  leaves  are  narrow, 
lance-shaped,  up  to  1  ft.  long.  The 


Ginger 


Horizontal  rootstocK 
flowering  shoots 


GINGER      ALE 

yellow  and  blue  flowers  are  clus- 
tered in  a  dense  oval  spike,  on  a 
tall,  leafless  stem.  Preserved 
ginger  consists  of  the  young  root- 
stocks  preserved  in  syrup.  The 
ordinary  form,  used  as  a  spice,  is 
the  year-old  rootstock,  either 
skinned  or  unskinned. 

Ginger  Ale.  Aerated  beverage 
flavoured  with  ginger,  acidulated 
with  citric  or  other  vegetable  acid, 
and  coloured  with  caramel.  It  is 
manufactured  in  the  same  way  as 
soda-water,  except  that  before 
water  saturated  with  carbonic  acid 
is  forced  into  the  bottle,  a  small 
quantity  of  ginger-ale  syrup  is 
placed  hi  it.  This  syrup  contains 
citric  acid,  caramel,  ginger  ale 
essence,  and  sugar.  The  ginger  ale 
essence  is  a  compound  of  ginger, 
lemon,  vanilla,  and  cinnamon, 
each  manufacturer  having  his 
special  proportions  of  ingredients, 
upon  which  the  flavour  of  the  pro- 
duct depends.  Ginger  ale  is  a 
clear,  effervescing  liquid,  highly 
popular  as  a  temperance  beverage, 

Ginger  Beer.  Beverage  fla- 
voured with  ginger  and  lemon,  arid 
produced  by  fermentation.  If  con- 
taining less  than  3  p.c.  of  proof 
spirit,  it  may  be  sold  without  a 
licence,  but  if  it  contains  more,  it 
comes  within  the  legal  definition 
of  "  beer,"  as  given  in  the  Revenue 
Acts  of  1880  and  1885.  Ginger 
beer  is  brewed  as  follows  :  Shce 
four  lemons  and  put  them  with 
4  oz.  of  bruised  Jamaica  ginger,  2 
oz.  of  cream  of  tartar,  \  oz.  of  citric 
acid,  and  3  Ib.  of  sugar,  into  a 
wooden  vessel,  and  pour  in  4  galls, 
of  boiling  water.  Cover  over  with 
a  blanket  overnight,  and  next 
morning  add  2  oz.  of  yeast,  and 
allow  the  liquid  to  ferment  for 
eight  hours.  Then  strain  and 
bottle,  fastening  the  corks  with 
string  or  wire.  As  ginger  beer  is  a 
cloudy  liquid  it  is  usually  bottled  in 
stone  or  earthenware  bottles.  The 
clear  variety  in  glass  bottles,  en- 
tirely free  of  alcohol,  is  an  aerated 
water,  flavoured  with  soluble 
essence  of  ginger. 

Gingerbread.  Cake  flavoured 
with  ginger.  The  chief  ingredients 
are  flour,  butter  or  lard,  eggs,  and 
treacle.  More  elaborate  recipes  add 
candied  peel,  sweet  almonds,  cinna- 
mon, etc.  Gingerbread  was  made 
six  centuries  ago  with  rye  flour, 
honey,  and  various  spices,  besides 
ginger.  At  one  time  small  ginger- 
bread figures  of  people  and  animals 
were  sold  by  bakers,  the  figure 
decorated  with  gold  paper  being 
regarded  by  the  children  as  the 
king  of  the  others.  Many  county 
towns  have  been  noted  for  ginger- 
bread fairs,  at  which  small  ginger- 
bread cakes,  known  in  East  Anglia 
as  "  brown  buttons,"  were  sold. 


3533 

Ginger  Wine.  British  wine 
prepared  from  ginger,  lemons, 
raisins,  and  sugar,  by  fermentation. 
One  method  of  preparation  is  as 
follows  :  Boil  together  for  an  hour 
1  Ib.  of  loaf  sugar,  the  rinds  of 
seven  lemons  and  of  two  Seville 
oranges,  \  Ib.  of  bruised  ginger,  and 
4  oz.  of  raisins,  in  6  galls,  of 
water,  then  place  in  a  wooden  vat 
and  cover  over.  Next  day  add  the 
juice  of  the  lemons  and  oranges, 
and  1  oz.  of  isinglass  ;  strain  into  a 
cask,  and  add  two  tablespoonfuls 
of  yeast.  Allow  to  ferment  three 
days,  then  close  the  vessel  with  a 
bung.  After  six  weeks  strain  into 
another  cask,  and  four  weeks  later 
the  wine  will  be  ready  for  bottling. 
The  modern  method  of  making 
British  wines  is  to  prepare  what  is 
known  as  a  "  basis "  wine,  and 
then  to  flavour  it  according  to  the 
variety  of  wine  desired.  A  licence 
is  necessary  for  the  manufacture, 
for  sale,  of  ginger  wine. 

Gingham  (Malay  ging-gang, 
striped).  Cotton  or  linen  fabric 
woven  from  white  or  coloured  yarn 
often  in  stripes,  checks,  or  other 
designs,  used  for  dresses,  um- 
brellas, etc.  Gingham  was  intro- 
duced into  Europe  from  India. 
The  patterns,  though  sometimes 
resembling  those  on  calico,  are 
woven  in,  not  printed  as  on  calico. 
Gingham  is  manufactured  chiefly 
at  Glasgow  and  Manchester,  and 
in  the  U.S.A.  Earlston,  in  Berwick 
shire,  is  still  famous  for  its  ging- 
hams. An  umbrella  is  sometimes 
colloquially  called  a  gingham. 

Gingivitis  (Lat.  gingiva,  gums). 
Inflammation  of  the  gums  (q.v.). 

Ginkel,  GODART  VAN  (1630- 
1703).  Dutch  soldier.  Son  of  a 
Dutch  nobleman,  he  entered  the 
army  and  saw  a  good  deal  of 
service  in  the  wars  against  France. 
In  1688,  being  then  known  as  an 
able  soldier,  he  crossed  to  England 
with  William  of  Orange,  under 
whom  he  also  served  at  the  battle 
of  the  Boyne.  When  the  king  re- 
turned to  England,  Ginkel  was  left 
in  command  in  Ireland,  where  he 
captured  Ballymore  and  Athlone. 
He  was  responsible  for  the  English 
victory  at  Aughrim  and  for  the 
captures  of  Galway  and  Limerick 
that  ended  the  war.  He  continued 
his  military  career  in  the  Low 
Countries,  and,  in  spite  of  his  age, 
led  the  Dutch  in  Marlborough's 
army  in  1702.  He  died  at  Utrecht, 
Feb.  11,  1703.  In  1691  Ginkel  was 
made  earl  of  Athlone,  a  title  held 
by  his  descendants  until  1844. 

Ginning.  Separation  of  cotton 
fibre  from  cotton  seed  by  the  gin 
(a  corruption  of  engine).  Bowing 
was  the  original  process,  the  seed 
being  struck  by  the  string  of  a 
wooden  bow.  Roller  gins  with 


G10BERTI 

parallel  fluted  rollers  were  in  use 
before  1793,  when  Eli  Whitney's 
invention  of  the  saw-gin  ushered 
in  a  new  era  in  the  cotton  trade. 
See  Cotton. 

Gins  burg,  CHRISTIAN  DAVID 
(1831-1914).  Polish  Hebrew  scho- 
lar. He  was  born  at  Warsaw  and 
educated  at  the  Rabbinical  School, 
and  later  in  England,  where  he 
made  his  home.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  O.T.  revision  company,  and 
published  a  large  number  of  im- 
portant works  on  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures,  as  well  as  contributions 
to  encyclopedias  and  dictionaries. 
It  was  owing  to  him  that  the  MSS. 
offered  by  Shapira  to  the  British 
Museum  were  discovered  to  be  a 
forgery.  He  died  March  7,  1914. 

Ginseng  (Panax  schinseng). 
Plant  of  the  natural  order  Aralia- 
ceae.  A  native  of  N.  Asia,  it  has 


A 


Ginseng.      Leaves   and  dowers   CM 
the  medicinal  herb 

compound  leaves  and  greenish 
flowers  in  umbels.  The  name  is 
Chinese,  and  signifies  Wonder  of 
the  World,  the  physicians  believing 
that  the  bitter  root  restores  lost 
animal  functions,  removes  fatigue, 
and  rejuvenates  the  old.  See 
Araliaceae. 

Gioberti,  VINCENZO  (1801-52). 
Italian  philosopher  and  politician. 
He  was  born  at  Turin,  April  5, 
1801,  where  he  became  professor  of 
theology.  Exiled  for  his  indepen- 
dent opinions,  he  withdrew  to 
Paris.  The  events  of  1848  brought 
him  back  to  Turin,  where  he  held 
various  political  offices.  He  after- 
wards returned  to  Paris,  where  he 
died  Oct.  26,  1852.  Gioberti,  who 
may  be  called  a  Platonic  idealist, 
endeavoured  to  reconcile  the 
claims  of  science  and  religion. 

His  most  important  works  were 
Introduzione  allo  Studio  della 
Filosofia  (Introduction  to  the 
Study  of  Philosophy),  Del  Rinno- 
vamento  civile  d'ltalia  (the  Civil 
Renewal  of  Italy),  and  II  Gesuita 
Moderno  (the  modern  Jesuit). 
Although  he  was  a  devout  Catholic, 
his  works,  which  were  strictly  ortho- 
dox, were  placed  upon  the  Index. 


G10JA     DEL     COLLE 


3534 


GIOTTO      Dl      BONDONE 


G.  Giolitti, 
Italian  statesman 


Gioja  del  Colle.  Town  of  Italy,  ' 
in  the  prov.  of  Bari.  A  junction  on 
the  Taranto  line,  it  stands  at  an  alt. 
of  1,180  ft.  above  sea  level,  37  m. 
by  rly.  N.  of  Taranto.  It  trades 
in  grain,  wine,  and  oil.  Pop.  21 ,852. 
Giolitti,  GIOVANNI  (b.  1842). 
Italian  statesman.  Born  at  Mon- 
dovi,  Oct.  27,  1842,  he  was  edu- 
cated at  the 
university  o  f 
Turin.  An 
advocate  b  y 
profession,  he 
turned  his 
attention  t  o 
politics,  was 
elected  a  mem- 
ber of  the 
Chamber  o  f 
Deputies,  and 
became  minister  of  finance  in  1889. 
He  was  president  or  prime  minister 
for  the  fourth  time  from  March, 
1911,  until  1914,  when  he  resigned 
and  was  succeeded  by  Salandra. 
After  the  outbreak  of  the  Great 
War  he  tried  to  keep  Italy  neutral, 
on  the  ground  that  she  could  ob- 
tain sufficient  concessions  with 
regard  to  the  frontier  from  Austria 
without  fighting.  He  was  prime 
minister  again,  1920-21. 

Giordani,  PIETRO  (1774-1848). 
Italian  author.  Born  at  Piacenza, 
Jan.  1,  1774,  he  became  a  Benedic- 
tine monk,  but  in  1800  left  the 
order  and  became  secretary  to  the 
Accademia  at  Bologna.  The  publi- 
cation of  his  Panegirico  all'  Im- 
peratore  Napoleone  was  sufficient 
to  warrant  his  disgrace  at  the  re- 
action of  1815,  and  he  was  the 
object  of  continual  persecution 
until  his  death  at  Parma,  Sept.  1, 
1848.  He  wrote  some  of  the  best 
prose  of  his  period,  and  his  essays 
and  eulogies  have  become  classics. 
Giordano,  LUCA  (1632-1705). 
Italian  painter.  Born  in  Naples, 
he  studied  under  Giuseppe  Ribera, 
and  after- 

wards  went  to  f  ~~*%*, 

Rome   and  I. 
Venice.       11  <• 

painted    in    a  j  ^?  Je&K&  '*• 

free  a  n  d  }  Jp£t  . '  'v^HRfeJ 
animated 
manner,  his 
composition 
was  harmoni- 
ous, his  imagi- 
native  gifts 
were  consider- 
able, and  his 
foreshortening  was  at  once  daring 
and  correct.  He  was  summoned  to 
Madrid  in  1692  by  Charles  II  to 
embellish  the  Escorial. 

His  nickname  of  Fa  Presto  was 
derived  from  his  father's  constant 
injunction  to  hurry  up  (Luca,  fa 
presto — Luke,  make  haste).  His 
best  work  is  to  be  found  in  the 


Luca  Giordano, 
Italian  painter 

From  an  etching 


Escorial,  especially  his  decoration 
of  the  staircase,  representing  the 
Battle  of  St.  Quentin  and  the 
Taking  of  Montmorency.  His  pic- 
tures may  be  seen  in  most  of  the 
leading  collections  on  the  Conti- 
nent, his  Commerce  and  Naviga- 
tion (Florence)  and  the  Judgement 
of  Paris  (in  the  Berlin  Gallery)  be- 
ing especially  characteristic. 

Giorgione,  GIORGIO  (1477- 
1511).  Venetian  painter.  Said  to 
have  belonged  to  the  Barbarelli 
family,  he  was 
born  at  Cas- 
telfranco,  and 
studied  under 
Giovanni  Bel- 
lini, among  his 
fellow-pupils 
being  Titian 
and  Palma  the 
Elder.  Among 

Giorgio  Giorgione,      his  most  cele- 
Venetian  painter       brated     works 

Self-portrait  afe  The   gleep. 

ing  Venus  (Dresden  Gallery),  Evan- 
der  and  Pallas  (Vienna  Gallery), 
The  Fete  Champetre  (Louvre),  The 
Golden  Age  (National  Gallery, 
London),  and  three  in  Venice, 
Adrastus  and  Hypsipyle  (Palazzo 
Giovanelli),  Apollo  and  Daphne(the 
Seminario),  and  S.  Mark  Stilling 
the  Storm  at  Sea  (the  Accademia). 

Some  of  these  were  unfinished  at 
the  time  of  his  death  in  Venice, 
but  his  contemporaries,  even 
Titian,  deemed  it  an  honour  to 
complete  the  master's  work.  In 
his  two  versions  of  Jesus  Bearing 
the  Cross — one  privately  owned  in 
Boston  and  the  other  in  the  church 
of  San  Rocco,  Venice — he  drew  the 
Saviour  after  his  own  unconven- 
tional ideas.  His  landscape  work 
was  equally  distinguished,  and,  to 
judge  from  the  few  of  his  portraits 
that  have  survived — like  The 
Knight  of  Malta,  The  Concert,  in 
the  Uffizi  and 
Pitti  galleries  in 
Florence,  and 
Caterina  Cornaro, 
in  a  private  collec- 
tion in  Milan — he 
was  also  an 
accomplished  por- 
traitist.  See 
Giorgione,  H. 
Cook,  1900. 

Giotto  di  Bon- 
done  (c.  1266- 
1337).  Italian 
painter.  The 
father  of  the 
Italian  Renais- 
sance, as  he  is 
considered  to  be, 
was  born  at  Colle, 
near  Florence.  It 
is  probable  that 
he  was  the  son 
of  Francesco 


Bondone  di  Vespignano,  a  well-to- 
do  landed  proprietor  ;  that  he  was 
apprenticed    to    the    wool    trade  : 
that  he  was  in 
the  habit   of 
stopping  at 
Cimabue's 
studio  in  Flor- 
e  n  c  e    on    the 
way    to    his 
work,   and    by 
this    means 
called  the  mas- 
ter's attention     Giotto  ^  Bondone> 
to  his  genius.  Italian  painter 

Possibly  from  a  print 

Giotto  became 

a  pupil  of  Cimabue,  but  the  natura- 
listic bent  of  his  art  from  the  first 
suggests  that  he  owed  more  to  the 
sculptor  brothers,  the  Pisani,  than 
to  any  painter,  and  more  to  first- 
hand study  of  nature  than  to  any 
master.  About  1298  his  tech- 
nical proficiency  must  have  been 
achieved,  for  it  was  tfien  that  he 
designed  the  mosaic  of  the  Navicella 
and  painted  the  famous  Stef aneschi 
altar-piece  for  S.  Peter's,  Rome. 
The  former  is  now  in  the  portico  of 
S.  Peter's,  and  most  of  the  latter — 
a  triptych,  with  the  central  panel 
representing  Christ  Enthroned — 
in  the  Sagrestia  dei  Canonici.  The 
more  widely  known  frescoes  of  the 
Life  of  S.  Francis  in  the  Franciscan 
Church  of  Assisi  were  painted 
shortly  after,  and  in  1303  he  was 
commissioned  by  Enrico  Scrovegno 
to  decorate  the  chapel  of  the  An- 
nunziata  dell'  Arena  at  Padua  with 
frescoes  of  the  History  of  the 
Virgin  and  Son.  The  mutilated 
frescoes  of  S.  Francis's  life  in 
S.  Croce  Church,  Florence,  were 
executed  considerably  later. 

One  of  his  last  works  was  the 
design  for  the  beautiful  campanile 
of  Florence  Cathedral.  These  are 
the  most  notable  extant  examples 


Giotto  di  Bondone.     The  Ascension,  one  of  the  famous 

series  of  frescoes  painted  in  1305  in  the  chapel  of  the 

Annunziata  dell'  Arena,  Padua 


GIOVINAZZO 


3535 


GIRARDIN 


of  an  art  that  broke  away  from  the 
conventions  of  contemporary  By- 
zantinism  and  opened  the  door 
to  naturalism  in  form  and  colour. 
Giotto  died  at  Florence,  Jan.  8, 
1 337.  See  Italy :  Art ;  consult  also 
Lives,  F.  M.  Perkin,  1902 ;  B.  de 
Selincourt,  1905. 

Giovinazzo.  Seaport  of  Italy, 
in  the  prov.  of  Bari,  the  ancient 
Natiolum.  It  stands  on  the  N. 
shore  of  the  Adriatic,  12  m.  by  rly. 
N.W.  of  Bari.  A  walled  town,  it 
possesses  a  13th  century  cathedral 
and  a  fortified  castle.  Building 
stone  is  quarried  in  the  neighbour- 
hood, brandy  is  distilled,  fishing- 
nets  are  manufactured,  and  fruit 
and  wine  of  excellent  quality  arc 
produced.  Pop.  10,727. 

Gippsland.  District  in  S.E. 
Victoria,  Australia.  Its  area  is 
13,900  sq.  m.  Rugged  and  moun- 
tainous, it  was  formerly  well  tim- 
bered with  giant  eucalyptus,  but  is 
now  extensively  cleared  and  set- 
tled. Its  coastal  lake  district  con- 
sists of  lagoons  and  sandy  dunes. 
It  is  rich  in  both  agricultural — 
chiefly  dairying — produce  and 
minerals.  Coal  is  found,  and  at 
Wonthaggi  the  state  mine  yields 
900,000  tons  per  annum.  Gold 
is  found  at  Walhalla ;  silver,  lead, 
tin,  copper,  antimony,  and  wol- 
fram are  also  produced.  The  chief 
town  is  Sale. 

Gipsy  Hill.  Residential  district 
of  London,  S.E.  One  of  the  divi- 
sions of  Norwood  (q.v.),  it  is  8  m. 
S.  of  London  Bridge,  and  has  a 
station  on  the  L.B.  &  S.C.R.  Nor- 
wood was  once  a  favourite  haunt 
of  gypsies,  and  Gipsy  Hill  pre- 
serves the  memory  of  one  of  them, 
Margaret  Finch,  who  died  in  1760 
at  the  reputed  age  of  109  years. 

Giraffe  (Arab,  zaraf).  Member 
of  the  even-toed  ungulate  or 
hoofed  mammals,  remarkable  for 
the  great  length  of  its  legs  and 
neck.  The  body  is  comparatively 
short,  the  fore-quarters  standing 
much  higher  than  the  hind  ones, 
and  the  tawny  pelt  is  handsomely 
marked  with  a  network  of  light 
lines,  the  pattern  varying  consider- 
ably in  local  races.  The  long,  nar- 
row head  is  surmounted  by  a  pair 
of  short  horns,  or  bony  cores,  cov- 
ered by  the  skin.  The  tongue  is  re- 
markably long  and  is  used  to  grasp 
the  twigs  and  leaves  of  trees.  Owing 
to  the  great  length  of  the  fore  legs, 
the  giraffe  can  only  reach  the 
ground  with  its  mouth  by  strad- 
dling its  legs  widely  apart,  and  it 
has  seldom  been  seen  to  graze. 

Giraffes  are  found  only  in  Cen- 
tral and  S.  Africa,  chiefly  in  desert 
regions,  where  they  have  to  subsist 
for  long  periods  without  drinking. 
There  is  probably  only  one  species, 
divided  into  several  local  races  or 


varieties.  The  animals  are  wary 
and  timid,  but  when  at  bay  can 
deliver  formidable  kicks  with  their 
long  legs.  Their  gait  when  running 
is  peculiar  and  clumsy,  but  they 
get  over  the  ground  at  great  speed. 
The  flesh  is  eaten  by  the  natives, 
and  is  said  to  be  of  excellent 
quality. 

Giraldus  Cambrensis  (c.  1150 
-c.  1222).  Welsh  historian.  Born  in 
Wales,  about  1 150,  he  was  given  the 
name  of  Gerald,  and  the  combina- 
tion made  him  known  as  Giraldus 
Cambrensis.  His  father  was  Wil- 
liam de  Barri,  hence  he  is  some- 
times called  Gerald  de  Barri.  He 
studied  in  Paris,  and  entered  the 
Church,  becoming  an  archdeacon 
owing  to  the  influence  of  his  uncle, 
the  bishop  of  St.  Davids.  He  visited 
Ireland  with  Prince  John,  but  most 
of  his  time  was  passed  in  clerical 
and  political  work  in  Wales.  In 
1198  he  was  chosen  bishop  of  St. 
Davids,  but  the  opposition  of  the 
archbishop  of  Canterbury  pre- 
vented him  from  enjoying  the  dig- 
nity, although  he  tried  hard  to 
obtain  the  papal  consent  thereto. 
His  failure  to  obtain  the  bishopric, 
to  which  he  had  been  elected  once 
before,  was  probably  due  to  his  in- 


dependent spirit.  He  died  probably 
in  1222.  Giraldus  wrote  several 
works,  two  being  on  Ireland,  one 
the  story  of  its  conquest  by  the 
English ;  he  also  wrote  Itinerarium 
Cambrense.  All  have  been  pub- 
lished in  the  Rolls  series,  8  vols., 
1861-69.  See  Gerald  the  Welsh- 
man, H.  Owen,  new  ed.  1904. 

Girandole  (Lat.  gyrus,  circle). 
Wall  candelabra,or  candle  branches, 
attached  to  a  mirror.  They  were 
much  used  during  the  Directoire, 
Empire,  and  Georgian  periods. 

Girardin,  EMILE  DE  (1806-81). 
French  journalist  and  politician. 
Born  at  Paris,  June  22,  1806,  he 
early  devoted 
himself  to  jour- 
nalism for  the 
masses,  and 
in  La  Presse, 
1836,  inaugu- 
rated in  France 
the  cheap  pop- 
ular newspaper 
of  the  modern 
type.  To  its 
columns  his 
first  wife,  Delphine  de  Girardin 
(1804-55),  cqntributed  a  brilliant 
series  of  sketches  published  under 
the  collective  title  of  Lettres 


Emile  de  Girardin, 
French  journalist 


Giraffe.     Male  specimen  of  the  Central  African  girafie 

Gambler  Kollon,  F.Z.S. 


GIRASOL 


3536 


GIRDLE 


parisiennes  (1843).  She  was  also 
the  author  of  several  romances  and 
plays.  As  a  politician  fimile  de 
Girardin  first  supported  the  conser- 
vatives, but  later  became  a  repub- 
lican. He  also  wrote  some  indiffer- 
ent plays  and  a  novel,  fimile,  1827. 
He  died  at  Paris,  April  27,  1881. 

Girasol  (Ital.  girasole,  from 
girare,  to  turn,  sole,  sun).  Gem 
which  reflects  bright  red  or  yellow 
light  apparently  coming  from  its 
interior.  The  most  remarkable 
form  is  the  fire  opal,  which  gives 
bright  hyacinth,  yellow,  or  fire- 
red  reflections  ;  the  finest  examples 
have  been  found  at  Zimapan, 
Mexico,  and  in  the  Faroe  Islands. 
A  sapphire,  presenting  a  radiate 
flamboyant  interior,  and  known  as 
star  sapphire  or  asteriated  sap- 
phire, found  in  India,  has  also  the 
property  of  a  girasol.  At  one  time 
girasols  were  highly  esteemed,  but 
they  can  be  imitated  artificially 
with  facility.  See  Opal. 

Giraud,  ALBERT  (b.  1860).  Bel- 
gian poet.  Born  and  educated  at 
Louvain,  he  was  prominent  in  the 
renaissance  of  Belgian  poetry 
headed  by  Emile  Verhaeren.  His 
contributions  to  La  Jeune  Bel- 
gique,  from  its  beginning  in  1881, 
marked  him  as  one  of  the  most 
promising  of  the  young  poets.  In 
1894  he  succeeded  Iwan  Gilkin 
(q.v.)  in  the  editorship  of  that  re- 
view. The  delicacy  of  his  technique 
was  well  displayed  in  Pierrot 
Lunaire,  1884,  and  Pierrot  Nar- 
cisse,  1891,  its  richness  and 
strength  in  Hors  du  Siecle,  1888- 
94.  Giraud  was  profoundly  in- 
fluenced by  the  work  of  Charles 
Baudelaire.  His  most  noteworthy 
later  volumes  are  La  Guirlande 
des  Dieux,  1910,  and  La  Frise 
empourpree,  1912. 

Girder.  Beam,  supported  at 
each  end  and  carrying  a  load  be- 
tween its  supports. 

Steel  girders  consist  essentially 
of  top  and  bottom  flanges  or  booms 
which  resist  the  horizontal  com- 
ponents of  the  bending  stress,  and 
webs  perpendicular  to  and  uniting 
the  flanges,  which  resist  the  ver- 
tical shearing  stresses.  Compound 
girders  comprise  more  than  one 
web.  Steel  joists  are  rolled  with 
web  and  flanges  in  one  piece  with- 
out a  joint.  In  plate  girders  the 
webs  consist  of  plates  secured  to 
the  flanges,  usually  by  angles  anil 
rivets. 

In  a  triangulated  or  lattice 
girder,  diagonal  and  frequently 
vertical  bracing  is  introduced  in- 
stead of  a  plate  web.  Subject  to 
the  amount  and  nature  of  the  load, 
steel  joists  are  employed  for  spans 
up  to  40  ft,  plate  girders  for  spans 
up  to  70,  and  even  100  ft.,  and  tri- 
angulated girders  for  spans  of  from 


20  ft.  upwards.  Cast  iron  and 
wrought  iron  have  been  almost 
superseded  by  steel  for  girder 
work;  the  former  because  of  its 
low  tensile  resistance,  the  latter 
owing  to  its  greater  cost  and  in- 
ferior strength. 

Wind  girders  resist  wind  pres- 
sure on  structures.  A  continuous 
girder  has  three  or  more  supports. 
Cantilever  girders  have  one  or  both 
ends  projecting  beyond  their  sup- 
port, and  are  loaded  on  the  pro- 
jecting portions.  Reinforced  con- 
crete girders  are  a  combination 
of  concrete  and  steel  bars  in  which 
the  steel  is  disposed  to  resist 
the  tensile  stresses.  See  Bridge ; 
Engineering;  Steel. 

Girdle.  Belt  worn  round  the 
waist  to  draw  in  loose  outer  gar- 
ments, to  keep  up  breeches  or  pet- 
ticoats, or  to  carry  weapons  or 
other  articles  in  constant  employ- 


ment. From  these  primitive  uses 
an  article  of  apparel  developed  that 
lent  itself  to  rich  decoration  by 
armourer,  broiderer,  and  gold- 
smith, and  led  to  the  formation  of 
a  distinct  craft  in  the  Girdlers' 
.Company  (q.v.). 

The  use  of  the  girdle  as  an 
obvious  convenience  for  carrying 
sword  or  dagger  is  very  ancient. 
Cingulum  deponere,  to  lay  down  the 
belt,  was  the  Roman  phrase  for 
leaving  military  service ;  and  in  the 
days  of  chivalry  his  girdle  was  an 
elaborate  part  of  the  knight's 
equipment,  heavily  bossed  and  fas- 
tened with  enamelled  or  jewelled 
buckles.  In  the  15th  and  16th 
centuries  civilian  extravagance 
brought  the  girdle  within  the  pur- 
view of  the  sumptuary  laws.  After 
the  16th  century  it  gradually  dis- 
appeared and  now  only  survives 
in  a  few  distinctively  national 


Girder.     1.  Rolled  steel  girder  or  I  beam.     2.  Part  of  simple  lattice  girder. 

3.  Plate  and  box  girder.      4.  Bowstring  girder.     5.  Arched  or  hog-back  plate 

girder,  much  used  in  railway  construction.     6.  Trussed  I  beam,  employed  in 

Pullman  and  other  railway  passenger  cars 


GIRDLERS-      COMPANY 


3537 


GIRL.      GUIDES 


Girdlers' 
Company  arms 


Girdle.    Examples  from  Brasses  :  left  to  right,  Sir  Simon 

de  Felbrigg,  1351,  Felbrigg  Church ;    Sir  Richard  Wil- 

loughby,  1329,  Willoughby  Church;  Sir  Thomas  Boken- 

ham,  1460,  S.  Stephen's  Church,  Norwich 

costumes  and  makes  ephemeral 
reappearances  at  the  caprice  of 
fashion.  See  Baldric ;  Costume. 

Girdlers'  Company.  London 
city  livery  company.  Originally  a 
fraternity  of  girdle  makers  in  S. 

Laurence,  Old 

Jewry,  it  was  in- 

corporated  in 

1449  and   united 

with  the  Pinners 

and  Wire-drawers 

in  1568.    Thomas 

Button,     founder 

of  the  Charter- 
house, was  a 
member.  The  hall,  39,  Basinghall 
Street,  E.C.,  burnt  with  the  ar- 
chives in  1666,  was  rebuilt  in 
1681-82  and  restored  and  altered 
in  1878-79.  See  Historical  Account 
of  the  ....  Girdlers,  W.  D. 
Smythe,  1905. 

Girgeh.  Town,  prov.,  and  dist. 
of  Egypt.  The  town  is  on  the  W. 
bank  of  the  Nile,  313  m.  S.  of  Cairo 
by  rly.  Its  pop.  is  19,893,  of  whom 
5,443  are  Copts.  The  prov.  has  an 
area  of  576  sq.  m.  and  a  pop.  of 
863,234. 

Girgenti.  Maritime  prov.  of 
Italy,  in  the  S.W.  of  Sicily.  Area, 
1,175  sq.  m.  Mountainous,  it  is 
drained  by  several  rivers,  of  which 
the  Platani  is  the  chief.  Well 
served  by  rlys.,  it  produces  sulphur, 
fish,  oil,  grain,  and  fruits.  Pop. 
409,133.  Pron.  Jeer-jenty. 

Girgenti  (anc.  Agrigentum). 
City  of  Sicily,  capital  of  the  prov. 
of  Girgenti.  Situated  on  an  emin- 
ence near  the  coast,  84  m.  by  rly. 
S.  of  Palermo,  it  has  medieval 
walls,  strengthened  by  towers  and 
pierced  by  four  gates,  and  is  noted 
for  its  catacombs.  Besides  a  14th 
century  cathedral,  with  a  wealth  of 
artistic  and  historic  relics,  it  has  a 
museum  of  antiquities  and  a 
library,  but  its  chief  glories  consist 
in  its  numerous  remains  of  Greek 
temples.  (See  Agrigentum. )  There 
is  a  large  trade  in  sulphur,  salt, 
grain,  oil,  fruit,  etc.,  which  is  ex- 
ported through  Porto  Empcdocle. 
Founded  as  Acragas  in  582  B.C.,  it 


was  in  the  hands 
of  the  Saracens 
from  828  to  1086. 
Pop.  27,106. 

Giriama  OB 
GIBYAMA.  Tract 
of  country  S.  of 
the  Sabaki  river 
in  the  British 
colony  of  Kenya. 
It  extends  in- 
land for  40  m. 
behind  the 
coastal  fringe, 
over  a  length 
of  55  m.,  hav- 
ing water  com- 
munication with 

Kalifi  Bay.  It  is  occupied  by 
the  Wagiriama,  a  Bantu-speaking 
agricultural  people  allied  to  the 
Kikuyu  and  Pokomo.  Their  graded 
system  of  initiation,  under  tribal 
elders,  is  directed  by  a  paramount 
council  of  the  highest  degree,  who 
are  called  Hyenas.  The  S.  pasture- 
land  has  been  adversely  affected  by 
Masai  raids.  The  cereal  produce  of 
the  central  region  is  now  of  great 
economic  importance. 

Girl  Guides.  Organization  for 
the  training  and  welfare  of  girls. 
Founded  by  Sir  R.  Baden-Powell 
(q.v. ),  it  was  developed  by  his 
sister  Agnes  Baden-Powell.  Girls 
are  eligible  for  membership  be- 
tween the  ages  of  8  and  18,  those 
from  8  to  11  years  being  known  as 
Brownies.  The  girls  are  trained  in 
good  and  happy  citizenship  and 
encouraged  to  retain  their  woman- 
liness so  that  they  may  be  good 
"  guides  "  to  the  next  generation. 
Physical  training  and  instruction 
in  useful  arts  and  crafts  are  impor- 
tant features.  Recruits  having  had 
a  month's  attendance  at  the  guide 
meetings  and  learnt  the  guide  law 
become  "  tenderfoots  "  and  have 
then  to  pass  a  test  in  intelligence, 
handicraft,  service,  and  health  be- 
fore being  promoted  to  the  posi- 
tion of  second  class  guides.  To 
qualify  for  first  class,  certain  pro- 
ficiency badges  must  be  gained. 


Girgenti.     Ruins  of  the  temple  of  Castor  and  Pollux 


Girl  Guides.     Left,  dress  of  Brownie; 
right,  First  Class  Guide 

Guides  work  in  patrols  of  6  or  8 
girls  under  a  patrol  leader,  who 
must  have  been  three  months  in 
the  company  and  have  passed  her 
second  class  guide  test.  A  com- 
pany may  consist  of  from  two  to 
five  patrols  under  the  guidance  of  a 
captain  and  a  lieutenant.  These 
officers  are  known  as  guiders  ;  cap- 
tains must  be  over  21  years  of  age 
and  lieutenants  over  18.  As  in  the 
Boy  Scout  movement,  rallies,  dis- 
plays, exhibitions  of  handiwork  are 
held,  and  camps  are  organized. 
Proficiency  and  good  conduct 
badges  are  awarded,  the  highest 
distinction  being  the  Nurse  Cavell 
badge,  awarded  for  life-saving. 
Guides  have  a  law,  one  clause  of 
which  is,  "A  Guide  is  a  friend  to 
all,  and  a  sister  to  every  other 
guide  ";  and  an  official  song. 

During    the    Great    War    they 
equipped  hostels  and  first-aid  sta- 
tions, helped  in  canteens  and  hos- 
pitals, acted  as  orderlies  in  govt. 
offices,  while  a  number  of  them 
acted  as  orderlies  in  offices  in  con- 
nexion with  the  Peace  Conference 
•••••-i    in    Paris,    1919. 
]    The   membership 
;    in  1920  was  about 
321,000,  including 
jjisSfe  '    the    Girl   Scouts 

I  of  America,  who 
have  the  same 
rules  and  law. 
The  headquarters 
are  in  the  same 
building  as  those 
of  the  Boy  Scouts 
at  25,  Bucking- 
ham Palace  Road, 
London.  Princess 
Mary  is  president 
and  Lady  Baden- 
Powell  chief  guide. 
See  Scouting. 


2H 


GIRLS'     FRIENDLVT  SOCIETY 


3538 


Girls'       Friendly       Society. 

Church  organization  for  the  benefit 
of  girls  of  all  classes,  with  branches 
all  over  the  world.  Its  aims  are  to 
band  together  in  one  society 
women  and  girls  as  associates  and 
members,  for  their  mutual  help 
(religious  and  secular),  to  encour- 
age purity  of  life,  dutifulness  to 
parents,  faithfulness  to  employers, 
temperance  and  thrift,  and  to  pro- 
vide the  privileges  of  the  society 
for  its  members,  wherever  they 
may  be,  by  giving  an  introduction 
from  one  branch  to  another. 

Any  member,  associate,  or  can- 
didate who  emigrates  to  any  part 
of  the  British  Dominions  overseas 
is  given  protection  while  travelling, 
is  received  by  an  overseas  member 
on  landing,  and  has  employment 
found  for  her.  Associates  are  re- 
quired to  belong  to  the  Church  of 
England,  but  this  restriction  does 
not  apply  to  ordinary  members, 
who  may  be  of  any  recognized  de- 
nomination. Every  incumbent  of  a 
living  is  ex-officio  patron  of  the 
society  in  his  own  parish. 

The  Society  was  founded  in  1875 
and  its  membership  is  about 
160,000.  The  headquarters  are  at 
39,  yictoria  Street,  London,  S.W. 

Girnar.  Sacred  hill  of  India, 
in  Kathiawar,  Bombay,  10m.  E.  of 
Junagarh  town.  There  are  numer- 
ous Jain  temples  on  the  hill,  which 
is  one  of  the  sacred  places  of  the 
Jains.  The  hill  has  five  principal 
peaks,  the  highest  being  Gorakh- 
neth,  3,666  ft.  above  sea  level. 

Giron  OR  JIEON.  Town  of  Co- 
lombia, S.  America,  in  the  prov.  of 
Saritander.  It  stands  on  the  river 
Lebrija,  10  m.  S.W.  of  Bucara- 
manga,  with  manufactures  of  to- 
bacco. There  are  gold  mines  in  the 
surrounding  districts.  The  town 
was  founded  by  Jesuits  in  1631. 
Pop.  6,202. 

Gironde ,  LA.  Estuary  of  France. 
It  is  formed  by  the  union  of  the 
Garonne  and  the  Dordogne,  and 
is  about  50  m.  from  there  to  its 
mouth  in  the  Bay  of  Biscay.  Its 
width  varies  from  2  m.  to  6  m., 
and  in  spite  of  certain  obstructions 
large  vessels  can  pass  up  it  to 
Bordeaux.  At  its  mouth  is  the 
Tower  of  Cordouan,  a  lighthouse 
standing  on  an  island. 

Gironde.  Department  of  S.W. 
France.  Named  after  the  estuary, 
its  area  is  4,140  sq.  m.  It  fronts 
the  Bay  of  Biscay  on  the  W.,  and 
this  western  section  forms  part  of 
the  district  called  the  Landes, 
being  a  low  and  sandy  plain  con- 
taining several  lakes  and  the  bay 
or  basin  of  Arcachon.  The  eastern 
part  of  the  dept.  is  undulating  and 
the  soil  very  fertile.  Cereals  are 
grown,  but  the  chief  industry  is  the 
cultivation  of  the  vine,  and  there 


are  vineyards  almost  everywhere. 
From  here  come  the  varieties  of 
wine  known,  from  the  districts  in 
which  they  are  grown,  as  Graves, 
Medoc,  Sauterne,  and  others.  The 
climate  and  soil  are  also  favourable 


Gironde.     Map  of  the  French  department  on  the  Bay  of 

Biscay,   showing  the   estuary    of    the    Dordogne    and 

Garonne  rivers 


for  fruit-growing  generally,  while 
many  cattle  are  reared.  Bor- 
deaux is  the  capital  of  the  depart- 
ment, which  is  divided  into  six 
arrondissements.  Other  towns  are 
Blaye,  Arcachon,  Li  bourne,  Pauil- 
lac,  and  St.  Macaire. 

Girondins  OR  GIRONDISTS.  Name 
given  to  one  of  the  political  parties 
of  the  French  Revolution.  It  was 
given  because  several  of  its  early 
members  had  represented  the  dept. 
of  Gironde  in  the  legislative  assem- 
bly. Brissot  (q.  v. )  was  their  leader ; 
hence  they  were  sometimes  called 
Brissotins.  Other  prominent  mem- 
bers were  Condorcet,  Barbaroux, 
and  Vergniaud,  while  Madame 
Roland  was  a  great  influence  in 
the  party. 

The  Girondins  originated  in  a 
schism  in  the  Jacobin  Club,  first 
appearing  in  1791.  They  were  then 
the  more  moderate  section  of  the 
Republican  party,  and  in  March, 
1792,  being  the  largest  group  in  the 
assembly,  Louis  entrusted  them 
with  the  control  of  affairs,  and 
they  declared  war  on  Austria. 
Although  both  parties  were  hi 
favour  of  destroying  the  monarchy, 
the  struggle  between  the  Girondins 
and  the  other  Jacobins  called  the 
Mountain  came  to  a  head  in  the 
National  Convention,  in  which  the 
former  were  about  180  strong. 


Robespierre,  Marat,  and  Danton 
were  attacked  by  the  Giroiidin 
orators,  who,  however,  lost  their 
support  in  the  country,  and  fell  from 
power  by  a  coup  d'etat  in  June,  1793. 
Twenty-two  of  them  were  arrested, 
while  others  fled 
to  the  country 
and  stirred  up 
rebellion.  After  a 
trial,  which  was  a 
travesty  of  jus- 
tice, 21  of  them 
were  executed, 
Oct.  31,  1793, 
others  being 
executed  later. 
After  the  fall  of 
Robespierre  a  few 
of  them  returned 
to  the  Conven- 
tion. See,  French 
Revolution. 

Girouard,  SIR 
EDOUARD  PERCY 
CRANWELL  (b. 
1867).  British 
soldier.  Born  in 
Montreal,  Jan.  26, 
1867,  he  was  edu- 
cated at  the  Royal 
Military  College, 
Kingston,  and  en- 
tered the  army  in 
1888.  He  served 
with  the  Dongola 
expeditionary 
force,  1896,  when 


he  gained  the  D.S.O.,  and  in  the 
Nile  expedition,  1897.  He  was  rly. 
traffic  manager,  Woolwich ,  1 890  -95, 
director  of  Sudan  rlys.,  1896-98, 
director  of  rlys.,  S.  Africa,  1899- 
1902,  and,  during  the  next  two 
years,  was  commissioner  of  rlys., 
Transvaal  and  Orange  RiverColony. 

In  1906  he  was  A.Q.M.G.  of  the 
western  command,  Chester  :  high 
commissioner  of  N.  Nigeria,  ]  907-8, 
and  governor 
and  command- 
er-in -chief  of  E. 
Africa,  1909- 
12.  In  1912  he 
joined  the 
board  of  Arm- 
strong, Whit- 
worth  &  Co. 
When  Lloyd 
George  became 
minister  of 
munitions  i  n 
May,  1915,  he  appointed  Girouard 
his  chief  organizer,  with  the  title  of 
director-general  of  munitions  sup- 
ply. He  was  created  K.C.M.G.  in 
1900,  and  wrote  A  History  of  Rail- 
ways during  the  War  in  S.  Africa. 

Girtin,  THOMAS  (1775-1802). 
Englislrwater-colour  painter.  Born 
in  Southwark,  Feb.  18,  1775,  he 
received  lessons  from  Edward 
Dayes  (1763-1804),  and  frequently 
accompanied  J.  M.  W.  Turner  to 


Sir  Percy  Girouard, 
British  soldier 

Elliott  &  Fry 


GIRTON      COLLEGE 


G1SSING 


sketch  on  the  T  hames  side.    He  was 

the  founder  of  the  modern  school 

of  painters  in  water  colours.  He  died 

of  consumption, 

^jjjjjiifa^    I    m  the    Strand, 

mja        IK       London,      Nov. 

'.    9,  1802. 

Turner    said, 
!    "HadTomGir- 
rl        tin    lived     I 
;    should     have 
|    starved,"     and 
..JO    Ruskin     allows 
that     Turner 
"owed  more  to 
his  teaching  and 
After  j.  opie         c  ompanionship 
than  to  his  own  genius  in  the  first 
years  of  his  life."     Girtin's  broad, 
simple  manner,  his  pure,  deep,  har- 
monious colouring,  his  handling  of 
masses,  his  mastery  of  aerial  effects, 
and  his  sense  of  tone  and  feeling  en- 
title him  to  a  foremost  place  in  the 
English  school.     Most  of  his  best 
works— such  as  the  White  House, 
Chelsea,  and  Battersea  Reach — are 
in  private  hands,  but  he  is  ade- 
quately represented  at  the  British 
Museum.   See  Life,  L.  Binyon,  1900. 
Girton  College.  College  at  Cam- 
bridge for  the  higher  education  of 
women.     Founded  in  a  house  at 
Hitchin,  Oct.  16, 
1869,  almost  the 
first  of   its   kind, 
it  was  removed  to 
Cambridge,   Oct., 
1873.   The  found- 
ers included  Miss 
Emily     Da  vies 
and  Mme.   Bodi- 
chon.     The  name 
is  that  of  a  village 
just  outside  Cambridge  where  build- 
ings, since  enlarged,  for  the  college 
were  erected  facing  the  old  Roman 
Via  Devana.    It  has  a  strong  staff  of 
lecturers  and  tutors,  accommoda- 
tion for  150  students,  and  grounds 
of  33  acres. 

Girvan.   Police  burgh  and  mar- 
ket town  of  Ayrshire,  Scotland.    At 


Girton  College 
badge 


Girvan,  Ayrshire. 


The  town  and  parish  church  from 
the  harbour 


and  some  towers, 
around  which  are 
public  promen- 
ades. Gisors  be- 
ing a  town  on  the 
frontiers  of  Nor- 
mandy, the  Eng- 
lish and  the 
French  fought 
continually  for  it. 
The  chief  church 
is  S.  G  e  r  v  a  i  s, 
part  of  which 
dates  from  the 
13th  century. 
Other  public 
buildings  are  the 
hotel  de  ville, 

formerly  a  convent,  and  a  hospital. 

In  the  Middle  Ages,  Gisors  was  the 

capital  of  the   county   of   Vexin. 

Pop.  5,508. 


visited  in  the  holiday  season,  and 

there  are  a  golf  course,  tennis  courts, 

and  other  attractions.     It  is  the 

nearest  town  to  the  Turnberry  golf 

courses,  5  m.   by 

rly.  or  road.     The    > 

river  after  which  it    ',. 

is    named    has    a   I 

course    of    35  m., 

and  flows  through 

the  fertile  vale  of 

Girvan    from    its 

starting    point   in 

a  small  loch  called 

Girvan  Eye.    Mar- 

ket    day,    Mon. 

Pop.  4,473. 

Gisborne.  Port 
of    North    Island, 
New    Zealand,   in 
Cook  co.  It  stands        Gisborne,  New  Zealand.     The  North  Island  port  at  the 
on   Poverty   Bay.  mouth  of  the  Turanganui  river 

and      has      dailv  By  courtesy  of  Dominion  of  New  Zealand  Government 

steamer  communication  with  Na-  Gissing,  GEORGE  ROBERT  (1857- 
pier.  A  fine  town,  the  centre  of  a  1903).  British  novelist.  He  was 
rich  pastoral  and  agricultural  dis-  born  at  Wakefield,  Nov.  22,  1857, 
trict,  it  has  freezing  works,  and  and  educated 
exports  wool  and  mutton.  Here  at  Owen's  Col- 
Captain  Cook  first  landed  in  New  lege,  Manches- 
Zealand  in  1769.  Pop.  12,660.  ter.  After 
Gisors.  Town  of  France,  in  the  spending  some 
dept.  of  Eure.  It  lies  44  m.  by  rly.  months 
N.W.  of  Paris,  on  the  river  Epte. 
It  is  noted  for  its  castle,  built 


by  Henry  I  and  enlarged  by  later    r°Pe 

and 


Girton  College,  Cambridge.   The  main  buildings,  designed  by  Alfred  Waterhouse, 


1872 


the  mouth  of  the  Girvan  in  Ayr- 
shire, it  is  a  station  on  the  Glas- 
gow and  S.W.  Rly.  It  is  63  m. 
S.W.  of  Glasgow  and  21  S.W.  of 
Ayr.  The  chief  industry  is  fishing. 
The  town  has  a  harbour.  It  is 


in 

America  he  re- 
turned to  Eu- 
in    1877, 
in     1878 
published    a 
Werther  -  like 
romance  called 

Workers  in  the  Dawn,  the  result 
of  some  months  of  study  at 
Jena.  In  1882  he  became  tutor  to 
Frederic  Harrison's  sons,  and  sub- 
sequently brought  out  three  novels, 
The  Unclassed,  1884;  Demos, 
1886  ;  and  Thyrza,  1887  ;  all  con- 
cerned with  the  suffering  of  sensi- 
tive souls  in  sordid  environment. 

More  able,  but  equally  joyless, 
novels  were  The  Nether  World,  New 
Grub  Street,  Born  in  Exile,  and 
The  Odd  Women.      A  scholar  of 
had    been   re^-     parts  and  a  man  of  sound  critical 
The    remains    judgement,  Gissing's  charming  per  - 
include  the  donjon,  built    on   an     sonal  qualities  and  tastes  are  re- 
artificial  mound,  the  outer  walls,     vealed  in  his  monograph  on  Chartos 


kings  of  England,  when  they  ruled 
this  part  of  France,  and  by  Philip 
Augustus  after  it 
covered  by  him. 


GIURGEVO 


3540 


G1VET 


Dickens,  1898  ;  in  By  the  Ionian 
Sea,  1901 ;  in  The  Private  Papers 
of  Henry  Ryecroft,  1903,  a  semi- 
autobiographical  volume ;  and  the 
posthumous  Veranilda,  1904.  He 
died  Dec.  28,  1903.  See  George 
Gissing:  A  Critical  Study,  F.  A. 
Swinnerton,  1912. 

Giurgeyo  OR  GITTRGIU.  A  town  of 
Rumania,  in  Wallachia.  It  stands 
on  the  Danube,  facing  Rustchuk, 
38  m.  S.S.W.  of  Bukarest.  It  is  the 
port  for  the  capital,  with  an  exten- 
sive shipping  trade.  The  exports 
consist  of  grain,  petroleum,  and 
salt.  Formerly  fortified,  it  was 
founded  by  Genoese  colonists  in 
early  medieval  times.  It  has  figured 
prominently  during  the  wars  of  the 
Russians  and  Turks,  and  was  cap- 
tured by  the  Germans,  Nov.  27, 
1916.  See  Rumania,  Conquest  of. 
Pop.  15,200. 

Giuseppe  Garibaldi.  Italian 
armoured  cruiser.  She  was  torpe- 
doed by  an  Austrian  submarine  in 
the  Adriatic,  July  18,  1915.  She 
was  346  ft.  long,  59  ft.  in  beam, 
displaced  7,400  tons,  and  had  en- 
gines of  13,500  horse  power,  giving 
a  speed  of  20  knots.  Her  armour 
was  6  ins.  thick ;  she  carried  one 
10-inch,  14  6-inch,  and  20  smaller 
guns,  and  four  submerged  torpedo 
tubes.  See  Adriatic  Sea,  Operations 
in  the. 

Giusti,  GIUSEPPE  (1809-50). 
Italian  poet.  Born  at  Monsum- 
mano,  near  Florence,  May  12,  1809, 
he  early  won  recognition  for  his 
brilliant  work  in  political  satire, 
which  previously  had  been  little 
cultivated  in  Italian  literature. 
Owing  to  their  revolutionary  senti- 
ments his  poems  were  not  printed 
until  after  1848,  but  they  were 
freely  circulated  in  manuscript.  He 
displayed  his  power  as  lyric  satirist 
successively  in  La  Ghigliottina  a 
vapore,  1833  ;  II  Dies  Irae,  1835 
(on  the  death  of  the  emperor 
Francis  II) ;  Lo  Stivale,  1836  ;  II 
Brindisi  di  Girella,  1840  ;  II  Papato 
del  Prete  (Pero),  1845  ;  II  Gingil- 
lino,  1845  (describing  the  corrup- 
tion of  Florentine  society) ;  and 
Una  Messa  in  Sant'  Ambrogio,1847. 

The  use  he  made  of  idiomatic 
Tuscan  heightens  the  effect  of  his 
work  to  his  countrymen,  but  ren- 
ders it  more  difficult  to  foreign 
readers.  In  1848  Giusti  became  a 
member  of  the  Tuscan  chamber  of 
deputies,  and  died  at  Florence  two 
years  later,  May  31,  1850.  Several 
of  his  poems  are  brilliantly  ren- 
dered into  English  in  Modern 
Italian  Poets,  W.  D.  Howells,1887. 
See  Giusti  and  His  Times,  Susan 
Homer,  1864. 

Givenchy.  Village  of  France,  in 
the  dept.  of  Pas -de -Calais.  Some- 
times known  as  Givenchy-lez-la- 
Bassee,  it  is  2  m.  W.  of  La  Bassee 


and  1  m.  S.E.  of  Festubert. 
Prominent  in  the  Great  War,  it  was 
the  scene  of  a  considerable  battle, 
Dec.,  1914.  Although  the  objective 
of  the  Germans  throughout  the 
war,  it  was  firmly  held  by  the 
British.  Fierce  fighting  took  place 
here  in  1915.  In  April,  1918,  the 
Germans  made  determined  but  un  - 
successful  attacks  on  it  in  their 
great  drive  to  the  Channel  ports, 
which  were  defeated  by  the  efforts 
of  the  55th  (West  Lancashire) 
division,  April  9-14,  and  later  by 
the  British  1st  division.  (See  Ypres, 
Battles  of). 

There  is  a  village  known  as 
Givenchy-en-Gohelle  also  in  the 
dept.  of  Pas-de-Calais,  5  m.  S.W. 
of  l^ens.  The  French  were  engaged 
here  with  the  Germans,  Sept.,  1915, 
and  Jan.-Feb.,  1916.  It  was  cap- 
tured by  the  British  on  April  13, 
1917,  in  the  third  battle  of  Arras. 

Givenchy,  BATTLE  OF.  Fought 
between  the  British  and  Germans, 
Dec.  16-22,  1914.  In  early  Dec., 
1914,  the  eastern  outskirts  of  the 
village  of  Givenchy  were  held  by 
German  troops  of  Prince  Rupert's 
6th  army.  The  Allied  forces  en- 
gaged in  this  section  were  troops  of 
the  Indian  corps  under  Lt.-Gen.  Sir 
James  Willcocks,  with,  to  the  S.  of 
them,  French  troops  under  Gen. 
Foch.  On  Dec.  16  an  unsuccessful 
attempt  was  made  to  carry  a  part 
of  the  German  trenches  near  Gi- 
venchy. On  the  following  day,  to 
assist  the  French,  then  heavily  en- 
gaged at  Arras,  orders  were  issued 
to  demonstrate  and  occupy  the 
Germans. 

Early  in  the  morning  of  Dec.  19, 
two  battalions  of  the  Lahore  divi- 
sion attacked  and  captured  two 
lines  of  German  trenches,  but  were 
driven  back  with  serious  loss  by 
counter-attacks.  An  attack  further 
to  the  N.,  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Festubert,  was  not  more  successful. 
On  Dec.  20,  the  Germans,  who  had 
brought  up  reserves,  violently 
bombarded  the  Indian  front,  and 
delivered  a  counter-attack.  Heavy 
rain  had  washed 
away  the  fire-step 
in  many  places 
and  left  the 
trenches  knee  or 
waist-deep  in 
mud  and  water, 
which  clogged  the 
rifles. 

The  main  Ger- 
man attack  was 
delivered  against 
the  Indian  tren- 
ches near  Festu- 
bert and  the 
village  of  Given- 
chy.  Most  of 
Givenchy  was 
lost,  but  in  the 


evening  it  was  recovered  by  two 
English  battalions.  At  other- 
points  the  Germans  drove  salients 
into  the  British  line,  and  at  moments 
it  looked  as  though  a  break-through 
were  possible.  They  were  greatly 
aided  in  their  assaults  by  the 
superiority  of  their  bombs.  On 
Dec.  21  the  position  was  still  criti- 
cal when  Sir  D.  Haig,  command- 
ing the  1st  corps,  moved  with 
the  1st  division  to  relieve  the  In- 
dian corps  and  beat  back  the  Ger- 
mans ;  by  nightfall  after  very  fierce 
fighting  he  held  Givenchy  firmly, 
and  had  recovered  the  trenches  lost 
at  Festubert. 

The  battle  died  out  on  Dec.  22, 
with  little  change  in  the  position. 
The  Indian  troops  fought  with 
gallantry  and  steadiness  which  re- 
ceived the  praise  of  Sir  John 
French,  but  they  were  ill  equipped, 
had  an  inferior  artillery,  were  worn 
out,  and  had  suffered  heavy  casual- 
ties. In  all,  to  the  end  of  Dec.,  1914, 
they  sustained  a  loss  of  1,397  killed, 
5,860  wounded,  and  2,322  missing 
(most  of  whom  were  killed),  and 
their  units  were  exceedingly  weak. 
Before  the  battle  they  had  had 
seven  weeks  of  almost  incessant 
trench  war.  The  British  casualties 
in  the  battle  were  4,000,  the  Ger- 
mans probably  lost  2,000. 

Givet.  Town  of  France,  in  the 
dept.  of  Ardennes.  It  stands  on  both 
sides  of  the  Meuse,  just  before  Bel- 
gium is  reached.  It  has  a  number  of 
small  industries,  including  tanning, 
and  is  a  river  port ;  but  its  interest 
is  mainly  historical,  as  it  was  once  a 
famous  fortress.  Of  its  fortifications 
the  only  remaining  building  is  the 
citadel,  the  others  having  been 
pulled  down  in  1892.  This  stands 
on  a  rock,  and  as  it  was  founded  by 
the  emperor  Charles  V,  is  known  as 
Charlemont.  There  is  a  town  hall, 
several  churches,  and  a  stone 
bridge  across  the  river.  Givet 
was  in  the  Spanish  Netherlands 
until  it  became  French  about 
1680.  Pop.  7,000. 


Givet,  France.       Looking  down  upon  the  Meuse  from 
the  ramparts  of  the  old  citadel 


G1VORS 

Givors.  Town  of  France,  in  the 
dept.  of  Rhone.  It  lies  about  14  m. 
S.  of  Lyons,  with  a  station  on  the 
Paris-Lyons-Mediterranean  line,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Rhone  at  the 
confluence  with  the  river  Gier.  The 
town's  chief  industries  are  metal 
working  and  glass-bottle  manufac- 
tures, and  there  is  considerable 
trade  in  silk  and  coal.  Pop.  12,784. 

Gizeh  OR  GHIZEH.  Prov.  of 
Lower  Egypt.  It  contains  the 
districts  of  Ayat,  Es  Saff,  Embaba, 
and  Gizeh.  Area,  398  sq.  m.  Pop. 
524,352. 

Gizeh.  Town  of  Egypt.  It 
stands  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Nile, 
opposite  the  island  of  Roda,  just 
above  Cairo.  Here  is  the  palace  of 
Gizeh,  erected  by  the  khedive 
Ismail.  In  the  neighbourhood  are 
the  Pyramids.  Pop.  18,714.  See 
Egyptian  Art,  colour  plate. 

Gizzard  (Lat.  gigeria,  poultry 
entrails).  Term  used  in  compara- 
tive anatomy  for  that  portion  of 
the  alimentary  canal  which  is 
specially  designed  for  grinding  food. 
Hence  it  is  usually  found  in  such 
animals  as  swallow  food  whole  with- 
out mastication.  It  is  well  seen 
in  the  domestic  fowl,  where  the 
action  of  its  muscular  walls  is  aided 
by  bits  of  gravel  swallowed  by 
the  bird.  Many  crustaceans  and 
insects  possess  gizzards. 

Glace  Bay.  Town  and  port  of 
Cape  Breton  Island,  Nova  Scotia, 
Canada.  A  station  on  the  Sydney 
and  Louisburg  Rly.,  it  is  14  m. 
from  Sydney,  with  which  it  is  also 
connected  by  electric  rly.  Around 
it  are  coal  mines,  and  its  industries 
include  machine  and  rly.  shops  and 
fishing.  It  has  a  wireless  station, 
and  is  a  market  for  the  produce  of 
the  neighbourhood.  Pop.  16,562. 

Glacial  Period.  Name  given  to 
one  of  the  great  stages  of  develop- 
ment in  the  earth's  history.  It  is 
the  earlier  of  the  two  subdivisions 
of  quaternary  time.  See  Ice  Age. 

Glacier  (Fr.).  Moving  mass  of 
ice.  The  edge  of  the  permanent 
snow,  the  snow-line,  varies  in  ele- 
vation from  sea  level  in  Antarctica 
to  2,500  ft.  in  Alaska,  8,500  ft.  on 
the  Alps,  and  16,000  ft.  on  the  S. 
side  of  the  Himalayas. 

As  the  snow  above  the  perman- 
ent snow-line  accumulates,  the 
lower  portions,  adjacent  to  the 
rock,  slowly  change  into  ice  ;  and 
when  the  mass  of  ice  and  snow 
becomes  sufficiently  thick  it  begins 
to  make  new  adjustments  to  the 
land  contours,  and  to  move  down 
the  slopes.  When  the  moving 
mass  follows  a  definite  path  down 
a  mountain  valley,  it  is  a  glacier. 

The  physical  changes  which  occur 
when  ice  moves  under  pressure 
have  not  been  precisely  determined. 
Owing  to  irregularities  in  the  rock 


3541 


GLACIER 


Glacier.     The    Mer    cle    Glace,  near    Chamonix.    4i    miles   in   length; 
glacier  which  moves  down  the  north  side  of  Mont  Blanc 


the 


contour,  deep  cracks  or  crevasses 
occur  in  the  upper  glacier  layers ; 
they  are  sometimes  hidden  by  a 
thin  snow  bridge,  and  are  a  source 
of  ever-present  danger.  In  its 
passage  downwards,  a  glacier  ac- 
cumulates large  quantities  of 
rocks.  Some  of  these  sink  into  the 
mass  of  ice  ;  others  are  moved  to 
the  margins  of  the  glacier  because 
the  middle  moves  more  rapidly 
than  the  sides.  The  debris  of  the 
edges  is  known  as  lateral  moraines. 
The  snout  of  a  glacier  occurs 
where  the  temperature  melts  the 
ice  as  fast  as  it  is  brought  down  ; 
in  many  cases  the  snout  advances 
or  retreats  during  different  periods. 
From  the  snout  a  turbid,  milky- 
looking  torrent  rushes  down  the 
valley,  and  when  the  snout  retreats 
it  leaves  rock  debris,  which  forms 
a  terminal  moraine. 

Types  of  Glacier 

Glaciers  have  been  classified  into 
four  types  :  (1)  valley  glaciers  ;  (2) 
piedmont  glaciers ;  (3)  ice  caps ; 
(4)  continental  glaciers.  Valley 
glaciers  occur  in  the  Alps,  where 
the  Aletsch  is  10  m.  long  and  1  m. 
wide ;  in  the  Caucasus,  Andes, 
Himalayas,  and  among  the  coast 
nits,  of  Alaska,  where  the  Muir 
glacier  is  35  m.  long  and  from  6  to 
10m.  wide.  Alpine  glaciers  termin- 
ate on  land,  but  the  Alaskan 
glaciers  reach  the  sea,  and  portions 
break  off  and  float  away  as  ice- 
bergs. The  rate  of  movement  of 
some  valley  glaciers  has  been 
measured ;  the  Mer  de  Glace  in 
France  moved  during  the  warm 
season  from  1  ft.  to  1£  ft.  a  day 
along  the  margin,  and  about  2  ft. 
daily  in  the  middle ;  the  Muir 
glacier  moved  7  ft.  daily  in  the 
middle.  The  rate  varies  with  the 
season,  and  from  year  to  year. 


Piedmont  glaciers  occur  when  a 
valley  glacier  pushes  out  on  to  a 
nearly  level  area  at  the  base  of  the 
mountains.  The  Malaspina  pied- 
mont glacier,  fed  by  numerous 
valley  glaciers,  is  70  m.  by  25  m. 
Formation  of  Icebergs 

Ice  caps  occur  in  Iceland;  the 
largest  is  at  Vatna  Jokull.  In  this 
case  the  ice  moves  very  little, 
owing  to  the  level  character  of  the 
rock  contours.  Extensive  ice  caps 
are  called  continental  glaciers,  or 
ice  sheets.  Greenland  and  Ant- 
arctica are  both  covered  with  ice 
formations  of  this  type.  The  great 
depth  of  the  ice  sheet  causes  out- 
ward movement,  and  in  Antarc- 
tica the  great  ice  barrier,  an  ice 
cliff  margin  to  the  Ross  Sea,  is  500 
m.  in  length,  and  rises  sheer  from 
the  water  to  heights  from  30  ft.  to 
nearly  300  ft.  The  Greenland  con- 
tinental glacier  is  steadily  pushing 
seawards,  the  tongues  of  ice  pro- 
ject into  the  water,  in  some  cases 
with  a  front  60  m.  in  width.  These 
tongues  move  at  rates  between  5 
and  75  ft.  per  day,  and  are  con- 
stantly losing  great  blocks,  which 
feed  the  never-ending  stream  of 
bergs  in  the  N.  Atlantic. 

The  various  signs  left  by  retreat- 
ing glaciers — terminal  moraines, 
layers  of  glacier  silt  (till  or 
boulder  clay),  isolated  rock  frag- 
ments, rounded  rocks  (roches 
moutonnees),  striations  upon  rock 
faces,  etc. — are  so  common  in 
Britain  N.  of  the  Thames,  and  in 
Europe,  N.  of  Bohemia,  that  it  is 
concluded  that  most  of  Europe  has 
been  covered  at  least  once  by  a 
continental  glacier  of  Antarctic 
magnitude.  See  Finsteraarhorn  ; 
Geology;  Ice  Age;  consult  also 
Glaciers  of  the  Alps,  J.  Tyndall, 
1896;  Ice- Work,  Present  and  Past, 
T.  G.  Bonney,  1896. 


GLACIS 


3542 


GLAQIOLUS 


Glacis  (Fr.  glace,  ice).  Ground 
in  front  of  a  fortification  which  is 
within  close  rifle  range.  In  per- 
manent fortresses  the  glacis  are 
frequently  artificially  constructed 


who  engaged  in  comkat  with  others 
or  with  wild  beasts.  Such  combats 
appear  to  have  been  a  common  fea- 
ture of  funeral  ceremonies  among 
the  Etruscans,  being  doubtless  a 


Glacis  formed  of  earth  from  the  trench  at  its  rear.     The 

slopes  of  the  glacis  and  trench  must  be  exposed  to  rifle  fire 

from  the  fortification,  as  indicated  by  dotted  lines 


slopes,  built  at  a  considerable  gra- 
dient, so  that  the  attackers  "can 
only  proceed  up  them  slowly, 
whilst  exposed  to  close  range  rifle 
fire.  The  term  is  also  used  to  de- 
scribe a  sloping  protective  plate  on 
a  battleship,  to  deflect  hostile  shell 
by  causing  them  to  ricochet  instead 
of  exploding  or  penetrating.  See 
Fortification. 

Gladbach.  Name  of  several 
places  in  Germany.  The  most  im- 
portant is  Munchen-Gladbach,  in 
the  Prussian  Rhine  prov.,  16  m.  by 
rly.  W.  of  Diisseldorf.  It  had  its 
origin  in  a  Benedictine  abbey 
founded  here  in  972,  and  sup- 
pressed in  1802.  The  industries  in- 
clude textiles,  iron,  machinery,  etc. 
The  principal  church  is  the  Miin- 
ster  Kirche,  the  ohoir  of  which  is 
attributed  to  Gerard,  the  designer 
of  Cologne  Cathedral.  There  is  a 
museum  of  antiquities,  and  the  nu- 
cleus of  a  textile  collection.  Pop. 
66,414.  Bergisch-Gladbach  is  a 
small  town,  also  in  the  Rhine 
prov.,  about  8  m.  E.N.E.  of 
Cologne.  It  manufactures  iron 
goods,  paper,  and  machinery. 
Pop.  15,207. 

Gladden,  WASHINGTON  (b.  1836). 
American  author  and  preacher. 
Born  at  Pottsgrove,  Pennsylvania, 
Feb.  11,  1836, 
in  1860  he  was 
appointed 
pastor  (C  o  n- 
gregational)  at 
Brooklyn,  N.Y. 
From  1882- 
1914  he  was 
pastor  of  the 
First  Congrega- 
Washington  Gladden,  tional  Church, 
American  author  Columbus, 
Ohio.  He  was  the  author  of  many 
books  on  life  and  conduct,  includ- 
ing Amusements:  Their  Uses  and 
Abuses,  1866 ;  Plain  Thoughts  on 
the  Art  of  Living,  1868  ;  Working- 
men  and  Their  Employers,  1876  ; 
The  Young  Men  and  the  Churches, 
1885;  Art  and  Morality,  1897; 
The  Forks  of  the  Road,  1917.  He 
published  his  Recollections  in  1909. 
Gladiator  (Lat.  glad  ins,  sword). 
Term  applied  among  the  ancient 
Romans  to  a  professional  fighter 


reminiscence  of  human  sacrifice. 
The  custom  was  introduced  into 
Rome  in  264  B.C.,  and  gladiatorial 
combats  in  amphitheatres  became 
a  recognized  amusement,  attaining 
the  zenith  of  popularity  under  the 
Empire.  Gladiators  were  recruited 
from  prisoners  of  war,  criminals, 
and  volunteers,  the  latter  chiefly 
young  men  in  financial  difficulties. 
Schools  existed  for  training  them, 
and  the  wealthy  men  of  fashion  took 
the  same  pride  in  maintaining  a 
school  that  his  modern  counterpart 
takes  in  maintaining  aracing  stable. 
There  were  several  different 
classes  of  gladiators,  such  as  the 
bestiarius,  who  fought  with  wild 
beasts,  and  the  retiarius,  who  was 
armed  with  a  trident  and  a  net 
(rete)  in  the  meshes  of  which  he  en- 
deavoured to  entangle  his  op- 
ponent. Other  gladiators  were 
the  mirmillo,  whose  helmet  was 
adorned  with  the  figure  of  a  fish, 
and  was  usually  opposed  by  the 
Threx,  wearing  a  Thracian  equip- 
ment, a  round  shield  and  a  short 
Sjyord;  the  andabaia,  who  fought 
on  horseback  and  wore  a  helmet 
which  entirely  covered  the  face; 
the  laquearius,  who  carried  a  lasso 
to  catch  his  adversary.  A  gladia- 
torial display  in  the  amphitheatre 
began  with  a  procession  of  gladia- 


tors. As  the  procession  passed  the 
Emperor's  seat,  the  gladiators  cried 
A  ve  Caesar,  morituri  te  salutant 
(Hail,  Caesar,  those  about  to  die 
salute  thee).  When  one  combatant 
was  overcome  but  not  killed  by 
another,  the  spectators,  by  turning 
their  thumbs  up  (or  against  the 
breast)  or  down,  determined  the 
fate  of  the  beaten  gladiator.  The 
exact  significance  of  the  action  is 
disputed.  Lytton's  Last  Days  of 
Pompeii  and  Henryk  Sienkiewicz's 
Quo  Vadis  ?  contain  striking  des- 
criptions of  gladiatorial  combats. 
See  Amphitheatre. 

Gladiolus  (Lat.,  little  sword). 
Beautiful  flowering  bulbs  of  the 
natural  order  Iridaceae.  Most  of 


M 

Gladiolus.     Flowers  and  leaves  of 
the  garden  variety 

them  are  natives  of  South  Africa, 
though  some  Turkish  species  were 
introduced  as  long  ago  as  1596. 
Thev  flower  from  June  to  Oct., 


Gladiator.      Scene  in  the  arena,  by  J.  L.  Gerome,  who  adopted  the  view  that 
"thumbs  down"  was  a  signal  for  the  dispatch  of  the  vanquished 

Stewart    Collection,  fieu  York 


GLADSTONE 

bearing  a  number  of  blossoms  on 
stiff,  almost  upright,  spikes.  The 
corms,  or  bulbs,  should  be  planted 
in  springtime,  about  4  iris,  deep  in 
ordinary  rich  soil,  with  a  dash  of 
silver  sand  at  the  base  of  each  bulb. 
It  is  advisable  to  dig  them  up 
after  flowering,  in  late  autumn, 
and  keep  them  in  a  cool,  dry  place 
\intil  the  following  spring.  For 
show  purposes  they  may  be  forced 
by  potting  up  in  Nov.,  in  a  tem- 
perature averaging  60°.  They  are 
propagated  from  seeds  sown  in 
pans  in  Feb.,  or  by  bulblets 
separated  from  the  parent  conn  and 
planted  out  of  doors  m  early  spring. 
Gladstone.  Town  of  Queens- 
land, Australia.  It  stands  on  the 
fine  natural  harbour  of  Port  Cur- 
tis, 354  m.  N.  of  Brisbane.  It  is  the 
outlet  of  a  number  of  mining  areas 
producing  gold,  silver,  and  man- 
ganese, and  is  in  a  rich  pastoral 
district.  Pop.  1,294. 

Gladstone,  HERBERT  JOHN 
GLADSTONE,  IST  VISCOUNT  (b.1854). 
British  politician.  Born  Jan.  7, 
1854,  the  youngest  son  of  W.  E. 
Gladstone/  he  was  educated  at 
Eton  and  University  College,  Ox- 
ford. He  distinguished  himself  in 
history,  and  was  for  a  few  years 
history  lecturer  at  Keble  College. 
In  1880  he  was  returned  for  West 
Leeds,  and  be- 
came private 
secretary  to 
t  h  e  premier. 
From  1881-85 
he  was  a  lord 
of  the  trea- 
sury, and  in 
1886  financial 
secretary  to 
the  war 
office. 

From  1892- 
94   he    was 

liUS&ell  i 

under  -  secre- 
tary for  home  affairs,  and  in 
1894-95  first  commissioner  oi 
works.  In  1899,  during  the  Liberal 
split,  Gladstone  undertook  the 
thankless  office  of  chief  whip,  and 
was  rewarded  in  1905  by  being 
made  home  secretary.  In  1909  he 
was  chosen  governor-general  of  S. 
Africa,  and  made  a  viscount.  He 
remained  there  until  1914,  and 
during  the  Great  War  was  an  active 
worker  on  behalf  of  the  Belgian 
refugees. 

Gladstone  was  one  of  a  family  of 
four  sons  and  four  daughters.  His 
eldest  brother,  William  Henry 
Gladstone,  M.P.,  died  July  4,  1891, 
leaving  an  only  son,  W.  G.  C.  Glad- 
stone, M.P.  The  other  brothers 
were  Henry,  who  entered  business 
life,  and  Stephen,  rector  of  Hawar- 
den,  who  died  April  23,  1920.  A 
sister  Helen  was  principal  of  Newn- 
ham  College,  Cambridge,  1882-96. 


3543 


GLADSTONE 


WILLIAM   EWART  GLADSTONE 

Bight  Hon.  G.  W.  E.  Russell ,  Author  of  W.  E.  Oladstoi 

For  the  political  events  with  which  Gladstone  was  associated  see 

United  Kingdom ;  National  Finance ;  Ireland  ;  Home  Rule,  etc. 

See   also  articles   on  Victoria ;  Beaconsfield  ;  Palmerston  ;   Peel ; 

Russell,  and  other  contemporaries 


William  Ewart  Gladstone  was 
born  at  62,  Rodney  St.,  Liverpool, 
Dec.  29, 1809.  He  was  the  youngest 
son  of  Sir  John  Gladstone,  Bart., 
M.P.  (1764-1851),  by  his  marriage 
with  Anne  Robertson,  and  he  was 
accustomed  to  say  that  there  was 
not  a  drop  of  blood  in  his  veins 
that  was  not  Scottish.  The  family 
was  a  Lanarkshire  one,  but  Sir 
John  had  settled  in  Liverpool, 
where  he  made  a  fortune. 

Gladstone  spent  his  early  years 
mainly  at  Seaforth,  where  he  had  a 
private  tutor.  In  1821  he  went  to 
Eton,where  he  remained  until  1827. 
He  then  read  with  a  tutor  at 
Wilmslow,  and  in  Oct.,  1828,  went 
to  Oxford,  entering  Christ  Church, 
where  in  1829  he  obtained  a 
studentship.  "  At  Eton,"  said 
Bishop  Hamilton,  "  I  was  a 
thoroughly  idle  bov,  but  I  was 
saved  from  some  worse  things  by 
getting  to  know  Gladstone."  At 
Oxford  his  high  character  was 
equally  apparent. 


At  Christmas,  1831,  Gladstone 
took  his  degree,  a  double  first,  and 
then  came  the  choice  of  a  pro- 
fession. Relieved  from  the  neces- 
sity of  making  his  own  fortune,  he 
turned  his  attention  to  the  Church. 
But  his  father  had  resolved  to 
make  him  a  politician,  and  the 
paternal  will  prevailed.  A  seat  was 
easily  found  for  the  young  Tory, 
who  at  Eton,  and  still  more  at 
Oxford,  had  shown  a  distinct  gift 
for  public  speaking.  At  the  general 
election  inDec.,1 832,  he  was  elected 
for  Newark,  and  in  Jan.,  1833,  he 
took  his  seat  in  the  first  reformed 
parliament.  In  1834  he  was  ap- 
pointed by  Peel  a  junior  lord  of 
the  treasury,  and  in  1835  he  be- 
came under  -  secretary  for  the 
Colonies.  In  a  few  weeks,  however, 
his  party  was  out  of  office. 

In  1841,  when  the  Tories  re- 
turned to  power,  Gladstone  was 
made  vice-president  of  the  board 
of  trade.  He  became  acting  pre- 
sident in  1843,  entering  a  cabinet 


from   a  photograph  by  Lo 
Stereoscopic  Co.,  taken  in 


GLADSTONE 


W.  E.  Gladstone  at  the  age  of  30 

After  W.  Bradley 

for  the  first  time.  In  1845  he  left 
office  because  he  disliked  the  ad- 
ditional public  grant  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  college  at  Maynooth,  but 
at  the  end  of  the  year  he  returned 
to  become  secretary  for  war  and 
the  Colonies.  In  July,  1846,  the 
ministry  resigned.  In  1847  Glad- 
stone was  returned  for  the  uni- 
versity of  Oxford,  but  for  a  few 
years  his  political  position  was  not 
very  clear.  He  was  not  com- 
pletely committed  to  the  Peelites, 
but  he  had  broken  with  the  Toryism 
of  his  youth.  In  1851  he  wrote 
from  Italy  his  letters  denouncing 
the  Bourbon  king  of  Naples. 
Gladstone's  First  Budget 
OnDec.  2, 1852,  Gladstone  became 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  join- 
ing the  ministry  of  Lord  Aberdeen. 
In  April,  1853,  he  introduced  his 
first  budget,  and  the  changes  in  the 
direction  of  simplicity  therein  pro- 
posed marked  him  out  as  a  great 
financier.  Then  came  the  Crimean 
War,  the  resignation  of  Lord 
Aberdeen,  and  a  few  weeks  later 
(Feb.,  1855)  that  of  Gladstone. 
While  in  opposition  he  acted  as 
high  commissioner  for  the  Ionian 
Islands.  In  1859  the  Conservative 


ministry  was  defeated,  and  Pal- 
merston,  under  whom  Gladstone 
had  served  for  a'few  days  in  1855. 
became  premier.  Gladstone  re 
turned  to  the  exchequer  and  foi 
seven  years  was  responsible  for 
the  finance  of  the  country.  In 
one  of  his  budgets  he  abolished 
the  paper  duty,  overcoming  the 
resistance  of  the  House  of  Lords, 
and  his  achievements  during  this 
period  mark  him  as  the  pioneer 
financier  of  democracy. 

Gladstone  was  now  the  most 
able  and  active  member  of  the 
cabinet.  In  1865  he  succeeded 
Palmerston  as  leader  of  the  House 
of  Commons,  Russell  becoming 
prime  minister,  and  he  was  in 
charge  of  the  rejected  reform  bill  ol 
1866.  The  Russell  ministry  then 
resigned,  and  in  1867  Gladstone 
became  the  leader  of  the  Liberal 
party.  About  the  same  time 
Disraeli  succeeded  Derby,  and  the 
two  crreat  rival«  became  the  chief 


Hawarden  Castle,  Flintshire,  for  60  years  the  resident 
of  W.  E.  Gladstone 


The  house  in  which  Gladstone  was 
born,  62,  Rodney  Street,  Liverpool 

figures  on  the  political  stage.  The 
general  election  of  1868  was  fought 
largely  on  the  issue,  pushed  to  the 
front  by  Gladstone,  of  the  dis- 
establishment of  the  Irish  Church. 
The  Liberals  were  returned  topower, 
and  although  he 
promised  to  repeal 
the  income  tax  his 
party  was  de- 
feated, and  for  six 
years  was  in  oppo- 
sition. 

Chagrined, 
Gladstone  decided 
to  retire  from 
political  life,  and 
in  1875  he  was 
succeeded  as 
Liberal  leader  by 
Lord  Hartington, 
but  he  kept  his 
seat  in  the  House 
of  Commons, 


Mrs.  Gladstone,  from  a  photograph 
taken  in  1888 

London  Stereoscopic  Co. 

and  events,  or  his  own  desires, 
soon  called  him  again  to  the  front. 
The  Turkish  possessions  in  the 
Balkans  became  the  scene  of  savage 
fighting,  and  with  the  fervour  of  a 
crusader  Gladstone  carried  on  a 
campaign  against  Turkish  misrule 
and  cruelty.  He  did  not  actually 
resume  the  party  leadership,  but 
when  the  general  election  of  1880 
came  he  was  the  protagonist  of  the 
opposition  to  the  Conservative 
policy,  and  his  speeches,  the  fam- 
ous Midlothian  campaign,  were 
mainly  responsible  for  the  Liberal 
victory.  He  then  became  M.P.  for 
Midlothian,  retaining  that  seat 
until  his  retirement.  He  had  also 
been  elected  by  Leeds,  a  seat  taken 
by  his  son  Herbert. 

The  Second  Premiership 
Gladstone  was  now  at  the  height 
of  his  influence.  No  other  prime 
minister  was  possible,  and  he  took 
that  office  a  second  time  in  April, 
1880,  being  chancellor  of  the  ex- 
chequer as  well  as  first  lord  of  the 
treasury  until  1882.  There  were 
difficulties  in  Ireland  and  in  Egypt, 
which  were  not  helped  by  the  con- 
stant dissensions  in  the  cabinet. 
The  Phoenix  Park  murders,  and 
the  death  of  Gordon,  weakened  the 
position  of  the  ministry,  but  it 
held  on  until  1885.  Then  came  a 
general  election,  at  which  neither 
party  gained  a  clear  majority,  and 
Gladstone's  sudden  declaration  in 
favour  of  Home  Rule. 

In  Feb.,  1886,  the  Conservative 
ministry  was  beaten  and  Gladstone 
took  office  for  the  third  time  as 
premier,  but  the  defection  of  some 
of  his  party  led  to  the  defeat  of  his 
Home  Rule  bill  and  to  another 
election,  on  which  he  was  defeated. 
The  next  election  came  in  1892, 
and  by  a  small  majority  the 
Liberals  were  returned  to  power. 


Gladstone  Bag. 
Type  of  portman- 
teau named  after 
W.  E.  Gladstone 


GLADSTONE     BAG 

The  House  of  Lords,  however, 
rejected  Gladstone's  second  Home 
Rule  bill,  but  it  was  not  this,  but 
the  size  of  the  navy  estimates,  that 
led  to  his  resignation  in  March,  1894. 
He  retained  his  seat  until  1 895.  In 
spite  of  his  great  age,  and  his  failing 
eyesight,  he  spent  his  concluding 
years  mainly  in  his  study,  working 
on  two  subjects  he  loved,  Homer 
and  Butler.  He  appeared  in  public 
in  Sept.,  1896, 
to  denounce 
the  Armenian 
massacres.  He 
died  at  Hawar- 
den,  May  19, 
1898,  and  was 
buried  inWest- 
minsterAbbey. 
In  1  8  3' 9 
Gladstone 
married  Catherine,  sister  and  heiress 
of  Sir  Stephen  Glynne,  9th  baronet. 
Through  this  marriage  the  castle 
and  estates  of  Hawarden  passed  into 
the  Gladstone  family.  On  the  states- 
man's death  it  came  to  his  grand- 
son, W.  G.  C.  Gladstone,  M.P.,  who 
was  killed  in  action,  April  11,  1915. 
Lord  Morley  coined  an  admir- 
ably descriptive  phrase  when  he 
spoke  of  "  those  incomparable 
physical  gifts  which  seemed  to 
encase  a  soul  of  fire  in  a  frame  of 
pliant  steel."  After  a  life  of 
active  service  prolonged  far  be- 
yond the  appointed  limit,  and 
spent  either  in  strenuous  labour  or 
in  recreations  scarcely  less  laborious, 
Gladstone  could  walk  to  the  sum- 
mit of  Snowdon  when  he  had 
turned  eighty ;  and,  when  blindness 
and  deafness  had  disabled  him,  the 
stethoscope  could  detect  nothing 
amiss  in  heart  or  lungs.  He  seemed 
incapable  of  fatigue.  From  work, 
even  the  most  exhausting,  he  re- 
quired only  change  of  occupation. 
By  common  consent  Gladstone 
ranks  as  one  of  the  great  orators  of 
the  19th  century,  and  perhaps  its 
greatest  parliamentarian.  A  clear 
and  beautiful  voice,  a  generous 
flow  of  language,  and  above  ail 
a  burning  belief  in  the  cause  he  was 
at  the  moment  advocating,  account 
for  his  power  to  sway  the  multi- 
tude. He  was  also  great  as  a 
finance  minister,  where  his  lucidity 
of  expression,  grasp  of  detail,  and 
capacity  for  work  found  full  play. 
As  premier  he  was  hardly  so 
successful,  although  at  one  time 
the  Liberal  party  seemed  to 
have  no  existence  apart  from 
his  dominating  personality.  His 
vehement  nature  was  not  suited 
to  the  calm  and  calculated  thought 
and  action  so  necessary  in  foreign 
affairs,  while  his  imperiousness 
made  it  difficult  for  others  to  work 
with  him.  He  had  also  a  great 
love  of  power.  See  Furniss,  H. 


Bibliography.  W.  E.  Gladstone, 
G.  W.  E.  Russell,  1891  ;  Gladstone, 
a  Study  from  Life,  H.  W.  Lucy,  1895  ; 
Life,  H.  Paul,  1901  ;  Life,  John 
Morley,  1903  and  1905;  Religious  Life 
of  Gladstone,  D.  C.  Lathbury,  1910. 

Gladstone  Bag.  Light  port- 
manteau named  after  W.  E.  Glad- 
stone. It  is  made  of  leather,  etc., 
with  yielding  or  flexible  sides, 
stretched  upon  a  metal  frame, 
hinged  at  the  bottom  so  as  to  open 
flat  into  compartments. 

Gladwyn  ( Ir  is  foet  id  iss  ima ) , 
FOETID  IRIS,  OR  ROAST-BEEF  PLANT. 
Perennial  herb  of  the  natural  order 
Iridaceae.  It  is  a  native  of  W. 
Europe.  The  rootstock  is  thick 
and  creeping,  the  leaves  2  feet  long, 
sword-shaped,  erect  and  dark 
mm  ,  green,  the  flowers 

dull  blue-purple, 
with  darker  veins, 


Gladwyn  or  Gladdpn.     Fruit  and, 
inset,  flower  of  Iris  f  oetidissima 

about  3  ins.  across.  The  club- 
shaped  capsule  splits  into  three 
spreading  sections,  late  in  autumn, 
disclosing  the  bright  orange,  round 
seeds,  which  make  the  plant  more 
conspicuous  than  when  in  flower. 

Glaisher,  JAMES  (1809-1903). 
British  aeronaut.  Born  in  London, 
April  7,  1809,  he  was  employed  on 
the  Irish  ordnance  survey,  and  in 
1833  received  an  appointment  at 

Cambridge    obser-     

vatory,   which  he    [ 
left    three    years    f 
later  for  Green-    j 
wich.    He  founded    l 
the  Meteorological 
Society    in    1860, 
and  six  years  later    I 
helped    to    found 
the   Aeronautical 
Society.    In  a  bal- 
loon ascent,  Sept. 
5,    1862,   Glaisher 
and    Coxwell 
reached  a  height  of 
27,887ft.  to  28,543 
ft.    Glaisher  wrote 


GLAMORGANSHIRE 

largely  on  aeronautics  and  meteor- 
ology, his  best  known  works  being 
Meteorology  of  England,  1860; 
Travels  in  the 
Air,  1870;  and 
Crystals  of 
Snow,  1872.  He 
diedFeb.7,1903. 
Glamis.  Vil- 
lage and  parish 
of  Forfarshire, 
Scotland.  It 
stands  on 
Glamis  Burn, 
6  m.  W.S.W.  of 


Forfar,   and  is 


James  Glaisher, 
British  aeronaut 

Elliott  &  Fry 

served  by  the  Cal.  Rly.  In  the 
village  is  a  sculptured  stone,  said  to 
be  a  memorial  of  Malcolm  II.  Near 
the  village  is  Glamis  Castle,  a  seat  of 
the  earl  of  Strathmore.  The  present 
building,  dating  mainly  from  the 
17th  century,  is  in  the  Scottish 
baronial  style,  with  parts  of  a  much 
older  building.  Glamis  is  steeped 
in  history  and  legend.  Here  Mac- 
beth is  said  to  have  lived  and 
Malcolm  II  to  have  been  slain. 
Pron.  Glahms. 

Glamorganshire.  County  of 
S.  Wales.  It  lies  along  the  Bristol 
Channel,  its  other  boundaries  being 

the    counties     of  ^ 

Carmarthen,  <s3T~ 
Brecknock,  and 
Monmouth.  Owing 
to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  rich 
coalfields,  it  has 
become  one  of  the 
great  industrial 
centres  of  the 
country,  and  is 
much  the  most  populous  co.  of 
Wales.  The  chief  mining  area  is 
in  the  valleys  that  run  down  to 
the  sea  around  Cardiff,  while  there 
is  another  industrial  area  around 
Swansea.  Between  Rhymney 
and  Neath  is  the  agricultural  region 
known  as  the  vale  of  Glamorgan. 
The  Gower  peninsula  in  the  W.  is 
in  some  respects  quite  apart  from 
the  rest  of  the  co. ;  on  it  are  Worms 
Head  and  the  Mumbles  Head. 
Swansea  Bay  and  Burry  Inlet  are 
the  chief  openings. 


Glamorganshire 
arms 


Glamis  Castle. 


The  Forfarshire  seat  oi  the  Earl  of 
Strathmore 


GLAMOUR 


3546 


GLAS 


Glamorgan.     Map  of  the  county  in  which  are  situated  the  principal  coal- 
fields of  South  Wales 


The  chief  rivers  are  the  Taff, 
the  Tawe,  Cynon,  Ogwr,  Rhondda, 
Rhymney,  all  short  and  flowing 
southwards.  In  the  N.  of  the  co. 
are  mts.,  a  continuation  of  those  in 
Brecknockshire,  the  highest  point 
being  nearly  2,000  ft.  high.  There 
is  some  beautiful  scenery,  especially 
in  the  vale  of  Neath,  with  its  series 
of  waterfalls.  Cardiff,  Swansea, 
and  Merthyr  Tydfil  are  the  largest 
towns. 

The  chief  industry  is  coal- 
mining, which  has  developed  enor- 
mously since  about  1850 ;  older 
are  the  tinplating  and  smelting, 
which  made  Swansea  and  Merthyr 
Tydfil.  There  is  a  good  deal  of 
agriculture  carried  on,  especially 
in  the  vale  of  Glamorgan,  where 
the  soil  is  rich. 

The  county,  known  to  the  Welsh 
as  Morganwg,  was  conquered  by 
the  Normans  in  the  llth  and  12th 
centuries,  and  several  castles  were 
built  here  as  defences  against  the 
Welsh  from  the  N.  Monasteries 
were  founded  at  Neath,  Margam, 
and  elsewhere,  and  Glamorgan- 
shire, smaller  than  it  is  to-day — for 
Gower  was  outside  it — was  a  co. 
palatine.  Cowbridge,  Kenfig,  Llan- 
trisant,  Neath,  and  Aberavon  be- 
came chartered  towns.  The  earls 
of  Gloucester  and  then  other 
baronial  families  were  lords  of 
Glamorgan,  and  in  the  time  of 
'Edward  VT  the  title  was  given  to 
William  Herbert,  who  afterwards 
became  earl  of  Pembroke. 

The  ruined  castles  in  the  co. 
include  Caerphilly,  Oystermouth, 
Llanblethian,  Penarth,  and  Swan- 
sea. Cardiff,  St.  Donats,  Dun- 
raven,  and  Penrice  have  been 
restored,  and  are  now  inhabited. 
Ewenny  has  a  fine  church  and 
ruins  of  an  abbey.  The  co.  area  is 
487,329  acres,  or  just  ever  800  sq. 
m.,  and  the  pop.  1,252,701.  It  sends 
seven  members  to  Parliament. 


Glamour.  Word  meaning  fas- 
cination or  enchantment.  It  im- 
plies power  to  make  things  seem 
more  pleasant  or  attractive  than 
they  really  are.  Originally  it  meant 
a  kind  of  spell  by  which  a  person 
was  brought  under  the  control  of 
another.  The  word  is  a  corruption 
of  grammar,  meaning  first  a  know- 
ledge of  grammar  and  then  a  know- 
ledge of  magic.  See  Hypnotism. 

Gland  (Lat.  glans,  acorn). 
Organ  of  the  body  which  secretes 
fluid  or  material  essential  for  the 
maintenance  of  health. 

Glanders  (Lat.  glandulae, 
glands).  Disease  of  horses  due  to 
infection  by  a  bacillus  (B.  mallei). 
In  rare  instances  it  is  communi- 
cated to  man  by  contagion,  usually 
through  an  abrasion  of  the  skin. 
When  the  lymphatic  glands  and 
vessels  are  involved,  the  disease  is 
known  as  farcy.  In  the  horse  the 
lungs  are  always  affected,  and  fre- 
quently the  nasal  mucous  mem- 
brane. Nodules  form  which  ulcer- 
ate. The  enlarged  lymphatic  glands 
are  known  as  farcy  buds. 

In  man  there  is  an  acute  and 
chronic  form  of  glanders,  and  an 
acute  and  chronic  form  of  farcy. 
The  acute  form  of  glanders  begins 
three  or  four  days  after  infection. 
Nodules  appear  on  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  nose,  which 
rapidly  break  out  into  ulcers.  •  A 
pustular  eruption  appears  on  the 
face,  and  has  led  to  tne  condition 
being  mistaken  for  small-pox.  This 
form  is  invariably  fatal,  death 
usually  occurring  from  pneumonia. 

Glanvill,  RANULF  DE  (d.  1190). 
English  lawyer.  Born  at  Stratford, 
Suffolk,  he  entered  the  service  of  ' 
Henry  II.  In  1 163  he  was  sheriff  of 
Yorkshire,  and  he  was  afterwards 
sheriff  of  Lancashire.  In  1176  he 
was  made  a  judge  and  from  1180  to 
1189  was  chief  justiciar  of  Eng- 
land. Richard  I  deprived  him  of 


his  office  and  put  him  in  prison, 
but  he  is  said  to  have  been  on 
crusade  at  Acre  when  he  died. 
Glanvill  is  known  by  his  Treatise 
concerning  the  laws  and  customs  of 
the  English  kingdom.  This  is  a 
unique  and  invaluable  account  of 
the  subject.  He  was  also  Henry's 
chief  helper  in  the  judicial  reforms 
carried  out  in  this  reign.  The  Trea- 
tise was  first  published  in  1554. 

Glarnisch.  Mt.  range  of  Swit- 
zerland. In  the  canton  of  Glarus, 
it  trends  S.W.  from  the  town  of 
Glarus,  and  has  several  imposing 
peaks.  The  Vorder- Glarnisch, 
7,648  ft.  in  height,  is  difficult  and 
laborious  of  ascent.  Other  peaks 
are  the  Ruchen- Glarnisch  (9,557 
ft.)  and  the  Bachistock  (9,582  ft.). 
Glarus.  Canton  of  E.  Switzer- 
land. It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  and 
E.  by  the  Walen  See  and  St.  Gall, 
S.  by  Grisons,  and  adjoins  Schwyz. 
Area,  267  sq.  m.  It  slopes  N.  from 
Mt.  Todi,  on  which  is  the  source  of 
the  Linth.  There  are  several  lakes, 
mineral  springs,  and  fine  water- 
falls, besides  the  bold  rocky  group 
of  the  Glarnisch. 

An  Alpine  canton,  the  climate  is 
somewhat  severe  and  only  about 
one-fifth  of  the  surface  is  arable. 
The  inhabitants  are  mostly  Ger- 
man-speaking, and  mainly  Pro- 
testants, while  the  chief  industries 
are  connected  with  textiles,  cattle 
raising,  and  slate-quarrying.  A 
speciality  is  the  curious  green 
cheese  known  as  Schabzieger, 
which,  as  well  as  ice,  is  exported. 
Glarus  is  the  chief  town.  The  can- 
ton joined  the  Swiss  Confederation 
in  1352. 

Glarus  (Romansch,  Claruna; 
Fr.  Claris).  Town  of  Switzerland, 
capital  of  the  canton  of  Glarus.  It 
stands  on  the  river  Linth,  over- 
looked by  the  imposing  Vorder- 
Glarnisch,  43  m.  by  rly.  S.E.  of 
Zurich.  A  serious  conflagration  in 
1861  destroyed  nearly  all  the  town, 
which  was  founded  at  the  end  of 
the  5th  century  by  Fridolin,  an 
Irish  monk,  and  was  settled  by 
Germanic  tribes.  Zwingli  (q.v.) 
was  parish  priest  here  for  10  years. 
The  chief  occupation  is  the  manu- 
facture of  textiles.  Pop.  5,000. 

Glas,  JOHN  (1695-1773).  Scot- 
tish divine.  He  was  born  at  Auch- 
.termuchty,  Sept.  21,  1695,  and 
became  minister  of  Tealing,  near 
Dundee,  in  1719.  Here  he  founded 
a  sect  which  became  known  as  the 
Glassites  (q.v. ).  For  this  he  was  de- 
posed in  1730,  but  some  years  later 
was  again  allowed  to  preach,  but 
not  to  hold  office.  He  wrote  much 
on  religious  subjects.  His  son-in- 
law,  Robert  Sandeman,  assisted 
him,  and  carried  his  ideas  further, 
founding  the  sect  of  the  Sande- 
manians. 


GLASGOW 


3547 


OLASOOW 


GLASGOW:  THE  CITY  AND  ITS  HISTORY 

George  Eyre-Todd,  Author  of  The  Story  of  Glasgow 

This,  and  the  article  on  Edinburgh,  are  the  most  important  of  those 

dealing  with  the  Scottish  cities  and  towns.  For  connected  information 

see  Scotland  :  History.     See  plso  Clyde  ;  Dock  ;  Lanarkshire 


Glasgow  is  situated  in  the 
centre  of  the  great  industrial 
valley  of  the  Clyde,  47  m.  W.  of 
Edinburgh  and  23 


m.    by 
river 


Glasgow  arms 


rly.  and 
from  the 
open  sea  at 
Greenock.  It,  is 
the  largest  city  in 
Scotland  and  the 
second  largest 
in  the  United 
Kingdom,  having 
a  population  in  1921  of  1,034,174. 
It  is  served  by  three  trunk  lines 
of  rly.,  Glasgow  &  South  Western, 
North  British,  and  Caledonian,  and 
is  built  on  a  number  of  hills  on  both 
sides  of  the  Clyde,  the  oldest  part 
being  on  the  north  side. 

The  city's  chief  buildings  include 
the  cathedral,  dedicated  to  S. 
Mungo  (also  known  as  S.  Kenti- 
gern),  built  1197-1446,  and  after- 
wards restored.  Its  crypt  and 
chapterhouse  are  notable.  Almost 
alone  of  similar  edifices  in  Scotland, 
it  escaped  destruction  at  the 
Reformation,  but  apart  from  it, 
Glasgow,  unlike  Edinburgh,  has 
hardly  any  remains  of  its  past. 

Principal  Buildings 
Fine  modern  buildings,  however, 
abound.  On  George  Square  are  the 
municipal  buildings,  a  magnificent 
block  in  the  Italian  Renaissance 
style  and  surrounded  by  additions, 
built  for  the  work  of  the  various 
departments.  The  general  post 
office,  the  Merchants'  House  and 
the  headquarters  of  the  Bank  of 
Scotland  are  here.  The  Royal  Ex- 
change in  Queen  Street  is  a  fine 
building,  and  there  are  many  in 
Buchanan  and  Sauchiehall  Streets. 
S.  Andrew's  Halls  may  be  men- 
tioned. The  Art  Gallery  in  Kelvin- 
grove  Park  contains  a  fine  collec- 
tion of  old  masters.  There  are 
several  fine  hospitals  and  infirma- 
ries, including  the  Royal  and  West- 
ern Infirmaries.  Hutcheson's  Hos- 
pital, instituted  for  poor  men,  is  a 
very  wealthy  foundation,  its  surplus 
funds  having  been  put  to  educa- 
tional uses.  The  Mitchell  and  other 
public  libraries,  the  observatory, 
and  the  botanic  gardens  call  for 
notice.  In  addition  to  the  univer- 
sity, there  are  several  colleges  for 
higher  education,  and  special  ones 
for  art,  technology,  and  theology, 
while  schools  of  every  size  and 
variety  abound. 

Features  of  the  city  are  several 
bridges  across  the  Clyde,  fine 
modem  structures.  In  George 
Square  and  elsewhere  are  statues  of 


various  eminent  men.  There  are 
many  theatres,  picture  palaces,  and 
other  places  of  amusement,  also 
football  and  recreation  grounds. 
The  People's  Palace  on  Glasgow 
Green  is  a  social  centre.  Of  the 
many  parks,  Kelvingrove,  through 
which  the  Kelvin  flows,  is  perhaps 
the  most  noteworthy.  Others  are 
Queen's,  Bellahouston,  and  Alex- 
andra, and  Cathkin  Braes.  Ruchill 
Park  is  outside  the  city  boundaries. 
Glasgow  Green  is  an  older  posses- 
sion, and  is,  by  long  usage,  the 
home  of  popular  demonstrations. 
The  Necropolis  is  a  large  cemetery 
finely  placed  on  a  hill. 

Boundaries  and  Districts 
The  city  boundaries  have  been 
extended  from  time  to  time.  Just 
before  the  Great  War,  Glasgow  was 
enlarged  to  include  Go  van  and  Par- 
tick,  hitherto  separate  municipali- 
ties.  In  addition  to  these  and  the 
city  proper,  Glasgow  includes  the 
residential  districts  of  Kelvingrove 
and  Hillhead,  and  great  industrial 
areas,  such  as  Bridgeton,  Cara- 
lachie,  Cathcart,  Gorbals,  Maryhill, 
Pollokshaws,  St.  Rollox,  Spring- 
burn,  and  Tradeston.  There  are  an 
abundant  supply  of  water  from 
Lochs  Katrine  and  Arklet,  34f  m. 
distant,  system  of  electric  tram- 
ways and  suburban  rlys.,  ferries 
across  the  river,  and  a  subway 
beneath.  The  council  maintains,  in 
addition  to  the  supplies  of  gas, 
water,  and  electric  power,  a  great 
system  of  sewage,  model  lodging 


houses,  etc.  The  harbour,  which 
includes  extensive  docks  along  the 
Clyde,  accessible  for  the  largest 
vessels  afloat,  is  managed  by  the 
Clyde  Trust. 

HISTORY.  Glasgow  appears  to 
have  been  a  place  of  consideration 
as  early  as  397,  for  about  that  time 
S.  Ninian  consecrated  a  Christian 
burying-place  for  its  inhabitants. 
In  543  S.  Mungo  set  up  a 
primitive  church  on  the  spot ;  six 
centuries  later,  in  1116,  David, 
afterwards  David  I,  king  of  Scot- 
land, made  the  spot  the  seat  of  a 
Roman  bishopric ;  and  in  1136 
its  first  bishop,  Achaius,  began 
the  building  of  its  first  cathedral. 

About  1175  Bishop  Jocelin 
secured  the  foundation  of  Glas- 
gow's greatness  by  procuring 
a  charter  making  his  little  city 
a  burgh,  and  establishing  a 
yearly  fair  in  July  which  is 
still  held.  Two  centuries  later 
Bishop  Rae  built  over  the  Clyde 
there  a  stone  bridge,  which  carried 
traffic  to  the  city  for  500  years. 
One  of  the  bishops,  Walter 
Wardlaw,  was  in  1385  made  a 
cardinal  by  Pope  Clement  VTI.  In 
1491-92  Bishop  Blacader  had  the 
see  raised  to  an  archbishopric. 

In  1450-51  James  II  procured  for 
Bishop  Turnbull  f  romPope  Nicholas 
V  a  bull  constituting  a  university 
at  the  bishop's  city  on  the  Clyde. 
In  1539  Jeremy  Russel,  a  Francis- 
can monk  of  Glasgow,  and  John 
Kennedy,  a  youth  of  eighteen  and 
a  promising  poet  belonging  to  Ayr, 
were  burned  at  the  E.  end  of 
Glasgow  Cathedral;  and,  in  the 
infancy  of  Queen  Mary,  Glasgow 
had  its  own  share  in  the  nation's 
troubles  caused  by  the  religious 


Glasgow. 


Map  of  the  district  showing  the  towns  which  have  grown  up  around 
this  important  centre  of  commerce  and  manufacture 


GLASGOW 


3548 


GLASGOW 


quarrels.  When,  encouraged  by 
Henry  VIII  of  England,  the  earls 
of  Lennox  and  Glencairn,  chiefs  of 
the  Protestant  party,  seized  the 
bishop's  castle  at  Glasgow,  their 
forces  were  defeated  by  the  regent 
Arran  on  the  Gallowmuir  E.  of  the 
city,  and  for  the  part  the  burgesses 
had  taken  Arran  hanged  the  de- 
fenders of  the  castle  and  steeple, 
plundered  the  town,  and  threatened 
to  reduce  it  to  ashes. 

In  1560  James  Beaton,  the  last 
Roman  Catholic  archbishop,  fled 
to  France,  but  at  that  time,  when 
abbeys  and  cathedrals  everywhere 
went  down  in  ruin,  the  cathedral 
of  Glasgow  alone  of  all  those  on  the 
mainland  of  Scotland  remained  un- 
destroyed.  On  the  flight  of  the 
archbishop,  Glasgow  seized  the 
common  lands,  feued  them  to  the 
inhabitants,  and  declared  its  right 
to  elect  its  own  magistrate.  This 
right  was  confirmed  by  a  letter  of 
James  VI  in  1611,  and  by  charters 
of  Charles  I  in  1636,  and  of  William 
and  Mary  in  1690. 

In  1638  Glasgow  Cathedral 
was  the  meeting  -  place  of  the 
great  general  assembly  which  de- 
fied the  order  of  Charles  I's  high 
commissioner  to  dissolve,  and  pro- 
ceeded to  pass  the  decree  abolishing 
episcopacy  in  Scotland. 

From  Glasgow,  Graham  of  Claver- 
house  rode  out  with  his  dragoons 
to  capture  the  Covenanters  who 
had  murdered  Archbishop  Sharp. 
After  his  defeat,  it  was  at  Glasgow 
Cross  that  he  set  up  barricades  and 
defended  himself  against  the 
attacks  of  the  Covenanters  and 
their  friends,  who,  upon  news  of  his 
overthrow,  had  marched  after  him 
to  follow  up  their  victory. 

By  this  time  the  city  of  Glasgow 
had  become  a  thriving  business 
centre.  Following  the  rights  of 
fair  and  market  secured  by  Bishop 
Jocelin  from  William  the  Lion, 
Bishop  Walter  in  the  13th  century 
obtained  from  King  Alexander  II 
charters  protecting  the  burgh  from 
invasion  by  the  bailies  of  Ruther- 
glen  on  the  E.  and  giving  the  citi- 
zens the  right  of  free  trade  in  all 
the  regions  of  Lennox  and  Argyll 
without  hindrance  from  the  bailies 
of  Dumbarton. 

Birth  of  Foreign  Trade 

Glasgow  thus  began  to  be  the 
mart  for  trade  with  the  W.  High- 
lands which  it  remains  to  the 
present  day.  Its  foreign  trade  is 
said  to  have  been  begun  by 
William  Elphinstone,  who  about 
1420  began  curing  salmon  and 
herring  and  sending  them  to 
France,  where  they  were  exchanged 
for  brandy  and  salt.  A  hundred 
years  later  Archibald  Lyon,  a  son 
of  Lord  Glamis,  "  undertook  great 
adventures  and  voyages  in  trading 


to  Poland,  France,  and  Holland." 
Considerable  jealousy  existed  be- 
tween the  traders  and  the  mer- 
chants of  the  city  till  in  1605  Sir 
George  Elphinstone  drew  up  his 
Letter  of  Guildry,  which  fixed  the 
separate  rights  and  powers  of  the 
Trades  House  and  the  Merchants' 
House. 

In  1656  Cromwell's  commissioner 
reported  that,  except  those  con- 
nected with  the  college,  all  the 
people  of  Glasgow  were  traders, 
some  to  Ireland,  some  to  France, 
and  some  to  Norway.  They  had 
even  adventured  to  Barbados,  and 
owned  twelve  vessels,  the  three 
largest  being  of  150  tons.  In  1674  a 
whale-fishing  company  was  started 
which  had  five  ships  on  sea,  a 
blubber  and  curing  factory  in 
Greenock,  and  a  soapworks  in 
Glasgow  itself.  And  in  1686 
Walter  Gibson  began  curing  the 
first  red  herrings,  and  trading 
with  them  to  France. 

Steamships  on  the  Clyde 

But  the  greatest  of  all  the  in- 
dustries started  then  was  the 
weaving  of  cotton,  of  which  the 
first  web  produced  in  Scotland 
was  made  by  James  Monteith  in 
the  village  of  Anderston,  near  the 
city,  in  1780.  Three  years  later 
David  Dale,  with  Richard  Ark- 
wright,  the  inventor  of  spinning 
by  water  power,  set  up  his  great 
cotton  mills  at  New  Lanark  and 
elsewhere,  and  soon  cotton  spin- 
ning and  cotton  weaving  were  an 
immense  trade. 

Great  impetus  was  given  to  this 
and  other  industries  by  James 
Watt's  improvements  in  the  steam- 
engine.  Following  this  came  the 
invention  of  the  steamboat  by 
William  Symington,  who  in  1789 
had  a  steamer  running  at  seven 
miles  an  hour  on  the  Forth  and 
Clyde  canal.  After  this  came  the 
launch  of  the  first  passenger 
steamer,  the  Comet,  on  the  Clyde  in 
1812,  and  so  began  the  great  mod- 
ern steamship  industry  of  Glasgow. 

To  accommodate  this  industry 
the  Clyde  was  gradually  deepened. 
At  an  earlier  day  the  Glasgow  mer- 
chants had  used  Irvine  as  a  port, 
and,  when  its  harbour  silted  up, 
had  built  Port  Glasgow  for  the 
purpose.  Schemes  to  deepen  the 
river  had  been  propounded  by 
Smeaton  in  1755,  and  by  James 
Watt  a  few  years  later,  but  it  was 
not  till  the  19th  century  that  the 
systematic  deepening  and  clear- 
ing of  the  channel  began.  Now, 
instead  of  a  depth  of  15  ins.  at  the 
Broomielaw,  and  2  f  fc.  at  Dumbuck 
ford  at  low  water,  it  is  possible 
for  the  largest  and  heaviest  ships 
in  the  world  to  pass  down  the 
waterway.  Following  the  rise  of 
the  shipping  industry,  David 


Napier,  and  afterwards  his  cousin 
Robert,  set  about  the  building  of 
vessels.  These  men  of  enterprise 
were  followed  by  others,  and  to- 
day the  whole  riverside  for  many 
miles  is  occupied  either  by  docks 
or  by  shipbuilding  yards. 
Trade  with  America 

At  the  end  of  the  18th  century  the 
enterprise  of  Glasgow  sufferei  its 
first  staggering  blow  by  the  col- 
lapse of  the  great  Darien  expedi- 
tion in  which  the  merchants  of 
Glasgow  had  taken  a  large  share, 
and  part  of  which  sailed  from  the 
Clyde.  But  the  union  of  Scotland 
and  England  in  1707  opened  up 
great  new  possibilities  of  trade 
across  the  Atlantic,  which  the 
merchants  of  Glasgow  were  prompt 
to  seize.  Within  five  years  the 
number  of  ships  belonging  to 
Glasgow  and  the  Clyde  had  grown 
from  21  to  183,  and  Glasgow  was 
on  the  straight  road  to  prosperity. 
Daniel  Defoe  described  the  place 
at  that  time  as  "  a  large,  stately 
and  well-built  city,  standing  on  a 
plain  in  a  manner  four  square  ;  and 
the  four  principal  streets  are  the 
fairest  for  breadth  and  the  finest 
built  that  I  have  ever  seen  in  one 
city  together.  In  a  word,  it  is  one 
of  the  cleanliest,  most  beautiful 
and  best  built  cities  in  Great 
Britain." 

This  was  the  appearance  of  the 
city  when  Prince  Charles  Edward 
entered  it  on  Christmas  Day,  1745, 
at  the  head  of  his  Highland  army, 
on  his  way  back  from  the  march  to 
Derby.  On  that  occasion  he  levied 
from  the  magistrates  a  large 
quantity  of  clothing  for  his  men, 
and  held  a  review  of  his  troops  on 
Glasgow  Green. 

INDUSTRY  AND  COMMERCE.  The 
Glasgow  merchants  were  becoming 
meanwhile  the  greatest  importers 
of  tobacco  in  the  country.  In  1772, 
of  the  90,000  hogsheads  of  the 
leaf  imported  into  Britain,  Glasgow 
alone  imported  49,000,  and  many 
great  fortunes  were  built  up  by  the 
tobacco  lords,  as  these  merchants 
were  called.  In  1775  the  trade  of 
Glasgow  suffered  its  second  great 
catastrophe  by  the  revolt  of  the 
American  colonies.  When  this 
occurred  the  American  planters 
were  owing  the  Glasgow  merchants 
a  million  sterling,  and  many  of  the 
latter  were  ruined.  But  already 
other  trades  had  sprung  up.  In 
particular  the  first  sugar  house  had 
been  established  here  in  1667. 
While  quartered  in  the  island  of 
St.  Kitts  two  of  the  king's  officers, 
Colonel  William  MacDowall  and 
Major  James  Milliken,  had  married 
a  mother  and  daughter,  owners  of 
great  sugar  estates.  On  returning 
to  Glasgow  the  two  proceeded  to 
develop  the  sugar  trade  with 


i.  The  Cathedral  and,  on  the  left,  Royal  Infirmary  and  Scott  Monument.  4.  The  University,  designed  by  Sir 
Barony  Church.  2.  Royal  Exchange,  built  by  David  Gilbert  Scott,  1868.  5.  Mitchell  Free  Library,  founded 
Hamilton,  1837-40.  3.  George  Square,  showing  the  by  Stephen  Mitchell  (d.  1874).  6.  Broomielaw  Bridge, 
Municipal  Buildings  and,  in  the  centre  of  the  square,  the  opened  in  1899,  from  the  south.  7.  Art  Gallery  from 

across  Kelvingrove  Park 

GLASGOW:    THE  INDUSTRIAL  METROPOLIS   OF   SCOTLAND 

1,  2,  4,  5,  and  7,  T.  and  R.  Annan.     6,  Pholochrom 


GLASGOW 


3550 


GLASGOW 


Glasgow.    Plan  of  the  city,  showing  the  principal  buildings,  railway  stations  and  docks,  and  the  inner  suburbs 


energy,  and  following  their  ex- 
ample a  great  business  began. 

A  type  foundry  was  also  estab- 
lished by  Alexander  Wilson,  from 
which,  in  1741  and  onwards,  the 
brothers  Foulis,  printers  to  the 
university,  procured  the  type  for 
their  famous  editions  of  Latin  and 
Greek  classics.  Among  other  indus- 
tries started  in  the  city  in  the 
18th  century  were  bottle-blowing, 
the  weaving  of  inkle,  or  linen  tape, 
the  making  of  delft  and  crystal, 
and  the  manufacture  of  the 
Highland  dye  called  cudbear. 

Next  came  the  demand  for  ships 
of  iron  and  steel.  Until  the  end  of 
the  18th  century  nearly  all  the 
iron  used  in  Great  Britain  was 
brought  from  abroad.  Dr.  Roe- 
buck of  Sheffield,  however,  estab- 
lished the  great  ironworks  at 
Carron  in  1760,  and  26  years 
later  Thomas  Edington  founded 
the  Clyde  ironworks  at  Glasgow. 
Then  in  1801  the  rich  seams  of 
clayband  ironstone  in  the  Clyde 
valley  were  discovered  by  Robert 
Mushet.  Forthwith,  Dixon  set 
up  the  great  ironworks  S.  of  the 
city,  and  other  great  firms  like  the 
Bairds  followed  suit.  In  1828 
James  Beaumont  Neilson,  mana- 
ger of  the  Glasgow  gasworks,  dis- 
covered the  advantages  of  the  hot 
Mast,  and  immediately  the  vast 


iron  industry  of  the  Clyde  valley 
made  another  bound  forward. 

The  Forth  and  Clyde  canal  was 
completed  in  1790,  with  a  branch 
to  Glasgow.  In  the  previous  year 
another  canal,  to  bring  coal  from 
the  Monkland  pits  to  the  city, 
having  exhausted  its  capital  before 
completion,  was  sold  by  auction 
for  £500  to  the  firm  of  William 
Stirling  &  Son,  who  spent  £100,000 
on  it,  and  made  it  a  great  success. 
A  third  canal,  intended  to  make 
Ardrossan  the  harbour  of  Glas- 
gow, was  begun  by  the  earl  of 
Eglinton  in  1807,  and  built  as 
far  as  Johnston.  In  1758  the  first 
regular  stage  coach  began  to  run 
between  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow, 
making  the  journey  of  42  m.  in 
12  hours. 

Growth  of  Railways 

The  first  railway  to  run  out  of 
Glasgow  was  the  Glasgow  and 
Garnkirk  line  in  1831.  Its  pas- 
sengers were  conveyed  in  open 
trucks  by  an  engine  weighing  seven 
tons,  which  ran  the  distance  of 
8J  m.  in  1  hr.  7  mins.  The  Glasgow 
and  Ayr  Rly.  followed  in  1840,  the 
Glasgow  and  Greenock  line  in  1841, 
the  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow  Rly. 
in  1842,  and  the  first  part  of  the 
Caledonian,  from  Glasgow  to 
Beattock,  in  1848.  All  these  lines 
served  as  feeders  to  the  city. 


As  a  by-product  of  these  rlys. 
has  giow.i  up  the  great  Glasgow 
industry  of  locomotive  building. 
At  the  present  day  the  North 
British  Locomotive  Works  at  St. 
Rollox  are  the  largest  in  the  world, 
while  not  far  short  of  them  are  the 
huge  engine-building  works  of  the 
Caledonian  and  North  British  rly. 
companies. 

GOVERNMENT.  The  management 
of  the  affairs  of.  this  great  city  has 
often  been  held  up  as  a  model  to 
the  world.  From  time  to  time  since 
the  Reformation  the  boundaries 
of  the  city  have  been  extended,  till 
now  they  lie  some  4  or  5  m.  distant 
from  the  centre  in  all  directions. 
This  area  is  divided  into  wards, 
each  of  which  sends  to  the  govern- 
ing body  three  councillors.  There 
are  also  added  a  dean  of  guild, 
who  is  the  official  head  of  the 
Merchants'  House,  and  the  deacon 
convener,  the  head  of  the  incor- 
porated trades. 

This  town  council  elects  its  own 
lord  provost,  who  holds  office  for 
three  years,  as  well  as  a  body  of 
bailies,  or  magistrates,  whose  chief 
duty  is  to  preside  in  the  police 
courts.  The  council  administers 
the  affairs  of  the  city  through 
committees  of  its  members,  and 
from  time  to  time  procures  Acts 
of  Parliament  to  enable  it  to  levy 


GLASGOW 

rates,  effect  improvement,  and 
carry  on  municipal  enterprises.  At 
the  present  day  the  corporation 
owns  property  valued  at  over 
£23,000,000.  It  has  a  debt  of  more 
than  £16,000,000,  and  its  annual 
revenue  is  about  £4,000,000.  The 
management  of  the  harbour  is 
undertaken  by  a  separate  body, 
the  Clyde  Navigation  Trust,  which 
has  expended  nearly  £10,000,000, 
has  a  debt  of  about  £7,000,000, 
and  a  revenue  of  £706,000,  In  1893 
Glasgow  was  made  a  county  by 
itself,  of  which  the  lord  provost 
as  lord  lieutenant  appoints  the 
deputy  lieutenants  and  justices  oi 
the  peace. 

Functions  of  Corporation 

The  chief  undertakings  of  the 
Corporation  are  the  police,  of 
which  the  first  paid  body  was 
established  in  1800;  the  fire  bri- 
gade established  as  a  separate  body 
in  1878  ;  the  waterworks  inau- 
gurated by  Queen  Victoria  in  1859, 
by  which  Glasgow  draws  its  sup- 
plies from  Loch  Katrine  and  Loch 
Arklet,  the  amount  being  now 
110,000,000  gallons  per  day;  the 
supply  of  gas  for  heating,  lighting, 
and  power  purposes,  an  enterprise 
in  which  it  has  some  £3,250,000 
invested  ;  the  supply  of  electricity, 
on  which  it  has  spent  at  least 
£1,250,000  since  1892;  and  the 
provision  of  slaughter-houses  and 
of  markets  for  cattle,  fish,  cheese, 
vegetables,  birds,  dogs,  and  old 
clothes,  which  is  one  of  the  oldest 
enterprises  of  the  city. 

Still  to  be  mentioned  are  the 
cleansing  department,  with  its 
elaborate  system  for  destruction  of 
refuse  or  its  conversion  into 
manure  to  be  sold  to  farmers,  or 
used  on  the  city's  own  farms  at 
Robroyston  and  elsewhere  ;  the 
sewage  works  by  which  the  city's 
drainage  is  carried  to  Dalmarnock, 
Dalmuir  and  Shieldhall  for  purifi- 
cation ;  and  the  electric  tramway 
system  which  runs  through  every 
main  thoroughfare  of  the  city,  and 
for  many  miles  into  the  country  in 
all  directions.  In  1916  the  tramway 
system  had  paid  its  own  entire  cost, 
and  the  enterprise  made  a  contri- 
bution of  some  £60,000  a  year  to 
the  Common  Good  fund  of  the  cor- 
poration. By  1 9 1 9 ,  however,  owing 
to  the  great  increase  in  wages,  the 
surplus  revenue  from  the  tram- 
ways had  ceased. 

The  city  also  provides  baths  and 
washing-houses,  and  model  lodging 
houses.  Its  reference  library  con- 
tains nearly  a  quarter  of  a  million 
volumes,  and  controls  fourteen 
district  lending  libraries  in  different 
parts  of  the  city.  Its  public  parks 
include  Glasgow  Green,  George 
Square,  Kelvingrove  Park,  Queen's 
Park,  and  Rouken  Glen,  besides  the 


3551 

fine  estates  of  Ardgoil  on  Loch 
Long,  and  of  Balloch  Castle  on 
Loch  Lomond.  The  former,  which 
is  14,650  acres  in  extent,  was  pre- 
sented to  the  city  by  Lord  Row- 
allan  in  1905. 

Glasgow  has  unsurpassed  facil- 
ities for  education.  The  univer- 
sity, removed  from  High  Street  to 
Gilmore  Hill  in  1870,  is  one  of  the 
best  equipped  in  the  country.  The 
technical  college,  founded  by  pro- 
fessor John  Anderson,  was  the 
earliest  and  is  now  one  of  the  finest 
in  existence ;  and  the  system  of  pri- 
mary and  secondary  schools  under 
the  education  authority  is  most 
efficient.  The  city's  art  galleries,  of 
which  the  collection  was  begun  in 
1670,  are  the  richest  in  the  kingdom 
out  of  London.  Its  school  of  art  has 
turned  out  many  notable  artists, 
and  not  a  few  designers  of  merit, 
and  the  Glasgow  School  (q.v. )  is  of 
international  repute.  The  city  has 
a  large  number  of  theatres  and 
other  places  of  amusement,  and 
among  its  charitable  institutions, 
besides  several  vast  municipal 
hospitals,  it  has  three  great  infirm- 
aries and  many  other  establish- 
ments, like  the  Samaritan  Hospital 
and  the  Sick  Children's  Hospital, 
which  are  carried  on  by  private 
beneficence  alone. 

Glasgow  Celebrities 

Among  the  natives  of  Glasgow 
who  have  made  name  and  fame  in 
the  realms  of  literature  and  art  are 
Zachary  Boyd,  whose  Last  Battle 
of  the  Soul  in  Death,  1629,  is  one 
of  the  most  forcible  pieces  of  Scot- 
tish prose  writing  ;  Tobias  Smol- 
lett, whose  Humphrey  Clinker, 
1771,  commemorates  Glasgow  not- 
ables of  its  time  ;  Dougal  Graham, 
the  Rabelais  of  Scotland ;  John 
Mayne,  author  of  The  Siller  Gun, 
1808 ;  James  Grahame,  author 
of  The  Sabbath,  1804;  Thomas 
Campbell ;  Adam  Smith ;  John 
Wilson,  the  Christopher  North  of 
Blackwood's  Magazine  ;  John  Gib- 
son Lockhart ;  Charles  Gibbon  and 
William  Black,  the  novelists  ;  and 
Alexander  Smith  the  poet,  whose 
description  of  Glasgow  in  verse 
still  stands  as  the  finest  poetic  con- 
ception of  S.  Mungo's  city. 

In  1920  under  the  scheme  of  the 
British  League  of  Help  for  the 
Devastated  Areas  of  France  the 
city  of  Glasgow  adopted  the 
town  of  Vouziers,  in  the  Aisne 
district. 

Bibliography.  Glasgow  Past  and 
Present,  Senex,  Aliquis  and  others, 
.ed.  D.  Robertson,  1884;  Old  Glas- 
gow :  the  place  and  the  people,  A. 
MacGeorge,  3rded.  1888  ;  Municipal 
Government  in  Great  Britain,  Dr. 
Albert  Shaw,  1895  ;  The  Book  of 
Glasgow  Cathedral,  various  hands, 
ed.  G.  Eyre-Todd,  1898  ;  Early  Glas- 


GLASGOW 

gow  .  .  .  from  the  earliest  times  to 
the  year  161 1,  ,T.  D.  Marwick,  ed.  R. 
Renwick,  1911  ;  Extracts  from  the 
Records  of  the  Burgh  of  Glasgow, 
ed.  J.  D.  Marwick  and  R.  Renwick, 
6  vola.,  1876-1911  (for  the  Scottish 
Burgh  Records  Society)  ;  The  Story 
of  Glasgow,  G.  Eyre-Todd,  1911  ; 
Glasgow  and  Helensburgh :  as  re- 
called by  Sir  Joseph  D.  Hooker, 
David  Murray,  1918. 

Glasgow  UNIVERSITY.  Scottish 
University.  Founded  in  1450  by 
William  Turnbull,  bishop  of  Glas- 
gow, it  found  a 


Glasgow  Univer- 
sity arms 


home  in  the  High 
Street.  Various 
Scottish  s  o  v  e- 
reigns  made  gifts 
of  land  and  other 
property  to  it, 
and  there  it  re- 
mained for  about 
four  centuries. 
In  1860  a  new 
site  was  bought  on  Gilmore  Hill, 
where  a  magnificent  pile  of  build- 
ings was  erected  in  the  Early 
English  style.  They  include  lib- 
rary, museum,  classrooms,  etc., 
with  houses  for  members  of  the 
staff.  Sir  G.  G.  Scott  was  the  archi- 
tect, and  the  buildings  were  opened 
in  1870,  having  cost  £500,000.  Parts 
of  them,  Bute  Hall  and  Randolph 
Hall,  were  given  by  the  benefactors 
after  whom  they  are  named.  Con- 
nected with  the  university  is  the 
Royal  Observatory  on  Dowan 
Hill. 

The  university  has  a  chancellor 
and  a  lord  rector,  the  latter  elected 
by  the  students  voting  by  nations, 
of  which  there  are  four.  Its  work- 
ing head  is  the  principal  and  it  has 
faculties  in  art,  science,  divinity, 
medicine  and  law.  In  the  19th  cen- 
tury it  received  many  additional 
benefactions,  and  it  has  many 
scholarships  and  bursaries,  includ- 
ing the  Snell  exhibition  to  Oxford. 
Women,  equally  with  men,  are  ad- 
mitted to  its  degrees,  and  for  them 
there  is  a  college,  Queen  Margaret, 
founded  in  1883.  Affiliated  to  it 
is  the  Royal  Technical  College, 
which  provides  courses  for  those 
seeking  degrees  in  applied  science. 
The  university  was  at  the  height  of 
its  fame  in  the  18th  century,  when 
Adam  Smith,  Sir  William  Hamil- 
ton, John  Wilson,  and  other  noted 
Scotsmen  were  educated  here,  as 
were  a  number  of  Englishmen.  Ear- 
lier, in  the  time  of  the  Civil  War,  it 
has  been  visited  by  many  English- 
men, although  then  rather  for 
religious  reasons. 

Glasgow.  British  light  cruiser, 
one  of  the  Bristol  (q.v.)  class.  Com. 
pletedin  1911,  she  displaced  4,800 
tons ;  length  overall,  453  ft. ;  carried 
two  6-in.  guns,  ten  4-in.,  and  had  a 
speed  of  25 '8  knots.  She  escaped 
from  Coronel  and  took  part  in  the 


Ellen  A.  G.  Glasgow, 
American  novelist 


GLASGOW 

battle  of  the  Falkland  Islands 
(Dec.  8,  1914),  where  she  helped  to 
destroy  the  German  light  cruisers 
Leipzig  and  Nurnberg.  She  de- 
stroyed the  German  light  cruiser 
Dresden  at  Juan  Fernandez,  March 
14,  1915. 

Glasgow,  EAKL  OF.  Scottish 
title  borne  since  1703  by  the  family 
of  Boyle.  David  Boyle,  M.P.  for 
Buteshire,  was  made  a  peer  in  1699 
and  raised  to  the  rank  of  an  earl  in 
1703.  Patrick  James,  the  8th 
earl,  inherited  the  title  in  1915. 
The  earl  sits  in  the  House  of  Lords 
as  Baron  Fairlie,  a  title  dating 
from  1897,  and  his  eldest  son  is 
known  as  Viscount  Kelburn.  The 
family  seat  is  at  Kelburn,  Ayrshire. 
Glasgow,  ELLEN  ANDERSON 
GHOLSON  (b.  1874).  American 
novelist.  Born  at  Richmond,  Vir- 
ginia, April  22, 
1874,  she  pub- 
lished her  first 
novel,TheDes- 
c  end  ant,  in 
1897.  Then 
came  Phases 
of  an  Inferior 
Planet,  1898; 
The  Voice  of 
the  People, 
1900;  The 
Freeman  and  Other  Poems,  1902  ; 
The  Battleground,  1902 ;  The  De- 
liverance, 1904;  The  Wheel  of  Life, 
1906;  Ancient  Law,  1908;  The 
Romance  of  a  Plain  Man,  1909; 
The  Miller  of  Old  Church,  1911  ; 
Life  and  Gabriella,  1916. 

Glasgow  and  South- Western 
Railway.  Scottish  rly.  company. 
Its  main  line  runs  from  Glasgow 
along  the  west  coast  and  to 
Gretna.  Its  total  mileage  is  1,128, 
and  its  headquarters  are  at  St. 
Enoch  Station,  Glasgow.  The  line 
dates  from  1840,  and  was  known 
as  the  Glasgow,  Paisley,  Kilmar- 
nock,  and  Ayr  Rly.  In  1850  the 
Glasgow,  Dumfries,  and  Carlisle  Rly. 
was  taken  over,  and  the  present 
title  assumed.  The  company  now 
serves  Paisley,  Greenock,  Ardros- 
san,  Troon  and  the  ports  on  the  W. 
coast.  It  owns  the  harbours  at 
Troon  and  Ayr.  It  is  now  in  the 
group  known  as  the  London,  Mid- 
land and  Scottish  Rly. 

Glasgow  Bank  Frauds.  The 
failure  of  the  City  of  Glasgow  Bank, 
Oct.  2,  1878,  resulted  in  losses  of 
over  six  millions  sterling.  Every 
shareholder  was  responsible  to  the 
extent  of  his  fortune.  More  than 
half  of  the  whole  number  had  less 
than  £500  of  stock,  and  only  eighty- 
eight  stockholders  held  amounts  of 
£2,000  and  upwards.  But  among 
this  eighty-eight  was  the  bank  itself, 
which  held  no  less  than  £1 53,536. 

The  manager  and  several  di- 
rectors were  tried  at  Edinburgh, 


3552 

Feb.,  1879,  on  charges  of  falsehood, 
fraud  and  theft,  convicted  on  cer- 
tain counts  and  sentenced  to  terms 
of  imprisonment  varying  from  eight 
to  eighteen  months.  See  Trial  of  the 
City  of  Glasgow  Bank  Directors, 
ed.  William  Wallace,  1905. 

Glasgow  Herald,  THE.  Scot- 
tish daily  Liberal-Unionist  news- 
paper, started  by  John  Mennons, 
Jan.  27,  1783,  as  a  weekly,  under 
the  title  of  The  Glasgow  Adver- 
tiser. Published  later  twice  a 
week  as  The  Glasgow  Advertiser 
and  Evening  Intelligencer,  the  old 
title  was  resumed  in  1794,  altered 
to  The  Herald  and  Advertiser  in 
1802,  and  finally  to  The  Glasgow 
Herald  in  1805.  From  a  tri- 
weekly it  became  a  daily  on  Jan. 
3,  1859. 

Mennons'  successors  in  the 
editorship  have  included  Dr.  James 
McNayr,  Samuel  Hunter,  George 
Outram,  James  Pagan,  who  insti- 
tuted modern  methods  of  report- 
ing, William  Jack,  Dr.  J.  H. 
Stoddart,  Charles  Gilchrist  Russell, 
(1888-1907),  Dr.  William  Wallace, 
F.  Harcourt  Kitchin  (1909-17). 
The  Herald  has  always  been  strong 
on  the  commercial  side.  Allied 
papers  are  The  Glasgow  Weekly 
Herald,  1864,  The  Evening  Times, 


1876,  and  The  Bulletin,  1915.  The 
proprietary  firm,  George  Outram  & 
Co.,  was  converted  into  a  limited 
liability  co.  in  1920. 

Glasgow  School.  Name  asso- 
ciated since  1886  with  a  group  of 
painters  living  in  Glasgow.  Its 
members  have  included  D.  Y. 
Cameron,  -J.  E.  Christie,  Joseph 
Crawhall,  junr.,  Sir  James  Guthrie, 
P.R.S.A.,  E.A.  Hornel,  Sir  John 
Lavery,  R.A.,  Harrington  Mann, 
James  Paterson,  Alexander  Roche. 
R.  Macaulay  Stevenson,  and  E.  A. 
Walton,  P.R.S.W-  See  Painting  ; 
consult  also  The  Glasgow  School 
of  Painting,  D.  Martin,  1902. ' 

Glashtin.  Mythical  horse  in 
Isle  of  Man  folk-lore.  It  lived  in 
the  water,  but  frequently  dispor 
ted  itself  on  the  land  with  the 
native  ponies.  When  the  Manx 
ponies  became  crossed  with  horses 
from  other  countries  the  glashtin 
ceased  to  visit  them. 

Glasnevin.  Parish  and  village 
of  co.  Dublin,  Ireland.  It  is  2  m. 
from  the  city  of  Dublin,  and  is 
famous  for  its  cemetery,  where 
many  great  Irishmen  are  buried, 
and  for  its  botanical  gardens, 
opened  by  the  Royal  Dublin 
Society  before  1800.  There  is  an 
agricultural  college.  Pop.  3,100. 


GLASS   AND   GLASS-MAKING 

H.  J.  Powell,  C.B.E.,  formerly  of  the  Whitefriars  Glass  Works 

In  addition  to  this  general  article  there  arc  articles  on  special  forms 

of  glass,  e.g.  Irish  Glass  ;  Optical  Glass  ;  Stained  Glass ;  Venetian 

Glass.     See  also  Chemistry 


The  place  where  glass  was  first 
manufactured  is  not  known.  Re- 
searches have  postponed  the  origin 
of  glass-working  in  Egypt  untii 
about  1550  B.C.  The  much  simpler 
process  of  glass-blowing  appeared 
about  100  B.C.,  and  by  100  A.D.  all 
the  manual  processes  of  working 
and  decorating  glass,  as  well  as 
processes  of  moulding  and  rolling, 
some  elementary  and  some  ad- 
vanced, had  spread  throughout  the 
Roman  empire. 

The  history  of  glass-making  deals 
with  a  series  of  waves.  The  first 
great  Roman  wave  established 
centres,  and  each  centre,  develop- 
ing some  special  line  or  lines  of 
manufacture,  sent  out  a  secondary 
wave.  In  the  4th  century  A.D., 
starting  from  Rome,  the  wave  of 
Mosaic  decoration  spread  by  way 
of  Ravenna  and  Constantinople. 
To  the  same  century  may  be  at- 
tributed the  Christian  glasses 
(fondi  d'oro)  found  in  the  Roman 
catacombs. 

It  is  probable  that  from  Con- 
stantinople in  the  12th  century 
came  the  Hedwig  cups,  rudely  and 
deeply  cut  with  representations  of 
mythica  birds  and  beasts.  France 
in  the  llth  century  from  Limoges 
and  Chartres  sent  out  a  wave  of 


Mosaic  windows,  and  in  the  same 
century  sent  makers  of  glass  ves- 
sels to  Altare,  near  Genoa  ;  in  the 
1 6th  century  Normandy  and  Lor- 
raine sent  makers  of  window  glass 
and  vessels  to  England  ;  in  the 
1 7th  century  France  developed  the 
manufacture  of  large  sheets  of 
plate  glass,  and  in  the  18th  cen- 
tury sent  mirror- makers  and  glass- 
engravers  to  La  Granja  in  Spain 
In  the  12th  century,  under  Sara- 
cenic influence,  Damascus,  Aleppo, 
Cairo,  and  Alexandria  specialised 
in  enamelling  on  glass  vessels, 
lamps,  beakers,  and  vases,  and  the 
wave  reached  Venice  in  the  15th 
century,  Germany  in  the  16th,  and 
Spain  and  Persia  in  the  17th. 

The  glass  industry,  established 
in  Venice  before  the  13th  century, 
was  banished  to  Murano  in  1291, 
and  attained  perfection  in  the  15th 
and  16th  centuries.  The  Roman 
tradition  of  trailed  decoration  of 
Syrian  origin  was  continuous  in 
Spain  and  Germany.  To  Holland 
must  be  credited  the  invention  in 
the  16th  century  of  an  extremely 
delicate  process  of  acid-etching. 

GLASS-MAKING  IN  ENGLAND. 
There  is  no  proof  of  Roman  glass- 
works of  any  importance  having 
been  established  in  England.  From 


GLASS 

early  times  simple  vessels  and 
rough  window  glass  were  made  in 
the  forests  of  Surrey  and  Sussex. 
In  the  14th  century  some,  -at  any 
rate,  of  the  glass  required  for 
glazing  the  windows  in  S.  Stephen's 
Chapel,  Westminster,  came  from 
Chiddingfold  in  Surrey.  The 
Venetian  adventurers  of  the  15th 
and  16th  centuries  left  few  tradi- 
tions. The  members  of  the  fami- 
lies of  Hennezel  and  Tyzack,  from 
Lorraine,  who  came  over  in  1576, 
made  England  their  home  and  had 
a  lasting  influence.  They  moved 
from  place  to  place,  wherever  fuel 
was  available,  and  their  names, 
often  mutilated,  are  to  be  found 
in  church  registers  in  Sussex,  Sur- 
rey, Hampshire,  Gloucestershire, 
in  Stourbridge,  Newcastle,  and 
London.  They  introduced  improved 
methods  of  making  window  glass, 
and  new  forms  of  drinking  glass. 
Development  of  the  Industry 

The  progress  of  the  industry 
can  be  traced  in  a  long  series  of 
special  licences  and  monopolies. 
Sir  R.  Mansell's  monopoly  lasted 
from  1618  to  1653,  and  was  con- 
tingent on  his  substitution  of  coal 
for  wood  fuel.  In  1696  there  were 
88  glass-houses  ;  the  excise  list  of 
1833  gives  105  in  England,  10  in 
Scotland,  and  10  in  Ireland.  By  the 
middle  of  the  18th  century  English 
flint  glass  (sand-lead-potash)  had 
been  perfected  and  used  for  cut 
table-glass,  the  process  of  cutting 
having  been  introduced  from 
Bohemia.  The  brilliancy  of  this 
English  glass  eclipsed  the  German 
crystal,  and  English  cut  glass 
spread  throughout  Europe.  The 
best  period  was  1780  to  1810.  The 
chief  centres  were  London,  Stour- 
bridge, Whittington,  and  Water- 
ford,  in  Ireland. 

About  the  middle  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury taper-bowled  wine  glasses  with 
air  twist  in  stem  were  introduced. 
Few,  if  any,  of  the  Jacobite  glasses, 
commemorating  by  engraved  por- 
traits, emblems,  and  mottoes  the 
risings  of  1715  and  1745,  belong 
to  the  dates  commemorated.  The 
Bristol  milk  glass  of  the  end  of  the 
18th  century,  enamelled  by  Michael 
Edkins,  has  considerable  merit.  The 
Nailsea  rolling-pins  and  other 
utensils,  streaked  or  spotted  with 
enamel  and  colours,  were  merely 
by-products  of  the  great  crown 
glassworks  (1793  to  1871)  and  have 
no  real  technical  or  artistic  value. 

Lighthouse  and  optical  glasses, 
the  coloured  glasses  made  for 
stained -glass  windows  from  analy- 
ses of  medieval  specimens,  and 
vessels  of  simple  and  graceful 
form  due  to  the  influence  of  Wil- 
liam Morris,  date  from  the  latter 
part  of  the  19th  century.  To  the 
U.S.A.  may  be  attributed  the  in- 


3553 

troduction  of  pressed  table-glass, 
Tiffany's  lustrous  vases,  and  a 
great  variety  of  automatic  ma- 
chinery which  must  destroy  the 
handicraft  of  glass-making. 

Glass  is  a  non-crystalline,  trans- 
parent mixture  of  fused  silicates. 
The  glasses  known  as  "  sheet " 
and  "  plate  "  are  mixtures  of  the 
silicates  of  soda  and  lime,  the  in- 
gredients being  sand,  carbonate  of 
lime,  and  sulphate  or  carbonate  of 
soda.  Table  or  "flint "  glass  is 
usually  a  mixture  of  the  silicates  or 
potash  and  lead,  the  ingredients 
being  sand,  red-lead,  and  carbonate 
of  potash. 

The  temperature  at  which  glass 
mixtures  melt  ranges  from  about 
1,200°  C.  to  1,500°  C.  When 
thoroughly  melted,  glasses  become 
sufliciently  liquid  to  be  poured 
Most,  in  cooling,  pass  from 
liquidity  to  a  stage  of  viscosity,  re- 
sembling the  condition  of  stiff 
treacle.  In  this  state  glass  can  be 
coiled  or  "  gathered "  round  the 
end  of  a  heated  iron  rod,  as 
treacle  can  be  coiled  round  the 
bowl  of  a  spoon,  and  if  the  iron 
rod  be  hollow  (a  blowpipe)  the 
lump  can  be  blown  out  into  a 
hollow  bulb.  Viscous  glass  can  be 
squeezed  and  extended  by  an  iron 
roller,  moulded  by  air  pressure  or 
by  a  mechanical  plunger,  and, 
owing  to  its  ductility,  can  be 
pulled  or  "  drawn "  out  into  an 
almost  invisible  filament 

Glass  is  melted  in  tank-furnaces 
or  pot-furnaces  heated  by  gas. 
A  glass-melting  tank  is  an  oblong 
bath  built  of  large  blocks  of  fire- 
clay, and  covered  with  a  low 
arched  "  crown  "  of  silica  bricks. 
The  raw  materials  are  put  in  at 
one  end,  and  worked  out  at  the 
other  as  molten  glass.  There  are 
two  kinds  of  pots  (crucibles),  one 
like  an  open  basin,  the  other 
shaped  like  an  old-fashioned  bee- 
hive, with  a  hooded  opening  near 
the  top. 

Pot  Furnaces 

Pot  furnaces  are  circular,  oval, 
or  oblong.  They  are  covered  with 
a  low  crown  supported  on  arches, 
within  which  the  pots  stand  Until 
recently  the  fireclay  for  making 
pots  was  prepared  by  mixing  it 
with  water,  and  kneading  it  with 
the  bare  feet.  The  pots  were  built 
up  of  long  rolls  of  clay,  carefully 
consolidated  by  hand  pressure. 
The  clay  is  now  prepared  in  a  pug- 
mill,  and  the  pots  formed  in. 
plaster  of  Paris  moulds. 

Glass  is  a  bad  conductor  of  heat, 
and  if  suddenly  cooled  is  liable  to 
break,  owing  to  internal  tension. 
Glassware  must  therefore  be  cooled 
slowly  ("  annealed  ").  Glasses  of 
special  composition  are  now  made 
for  gas  chimneys  and  cooking 


utensils,  to  resist  extreme  changes 
of  temperature  ;  the  alteration  of 
the  zero-point  in  thermometers  is 
counteracted  by  the  use  of  stable 
zinc-borosilicate  glass,  and  other 
glasses  are  made  to  resist  the  co- 
rosive  action  of  heat,  steam, 
alkalis,  and  acids.  No  glass,  how- 
ever, can  withstand  hydrofluoric 
acid,  which  is  used  for  etching  and 
for  polishing  glass. 

Colour  Effects  in  Glass 

Effects  of  colour  in  glass  are 
due  to  ingredients  melted  with 
those  of  the  glass,  and  held  in 
oolution  or  suspension.  The 
colouring  ingredient  is  usually  a 
metallic  oxide,  e.g.  cobalt  gives 
a  rich  blue  ;  chromium  a  yellow- 
green  ;  manganese  a  violet ;  nickel 
purple  or  brown ;  ferrous  oxide 
dull  green. 

MACHINE-JHADE  GLASS.  Much  of 
modern  glass  is  now  machine  made, 
and  the  development  of  automatic 
machinery  must  be  credited  to  the 
U.S.A.  The  "  Owens  "  bottle- 
machine  revolves,  and  has  fifteen 
or  more  arms  successively  making 
bottles.  An  arm  is  thrust  out, 
sucks  into  a  mould  from  a  basin  of 
molten  glass  the  exact  quantity 
required  to  make  a  bottle,  forms 
the  neck  by  a  plunger,  and  the  body 
in  a  second  mould  by  compressed 
air  admitted  through  the  neck. 
It  drops  the  finished  bottle  into  a 
shoot,  which  carries  it  to  and 
through  an  annealing  kiln.  Directly 
one  arm  has  obtained  its  glass,  the 
succeeding  arm  commences  oper- 
ations. 

The  arms  of  a  similar  machine 
used  for  tumblers  and  chimneys, 
turn  the  glasses  horizontally  within 
the  moulds  to  obliterate  mould 
marks.  When  liberated  from  the 
moulds,  the  tops  of  tumblers,  and 
both  edges  of  chimneys,  have  to 
be  cut  off  and  the  edges  melted. 
The  arms  of  the  Westlake  electric- 
lamp  machines,  after  blowing  the 
initial  bulbs,  elongate  them  by 
swinging  before  blowing,  and  turn- 
ing them  in  the  moulds. 

The  Colburn  or  Libby  -  Owen 
sheet-glass  machine  lowers  a 
straight  bar  or  "  bait,"  previously 
heated  into  a  trough  of  molten 
glass,  and  draws  over  a  roller  a 
continuous  sheet.  The  Frink 
sheet-glass  machine  lowers  an 
annular  bait  into  a  basin  of  molten 
glass,  so  that  it  encircles  a  vertical 
air  f  ipe  in  the  centre  of  the  basin. 
The  bait  when  raised  draws  up  a 
continuous  glass  cylinder,  which, 
owing  to  air  entering  through  the 
pipe,  retains  its  shape.  The 
cylinder  is  cut  into  lengths  suitable 
for  flattening.  In  the  Libby-Owen 
tube  making  machinery  molten 
glass  flows  over  a  hollow  mandril, 
revolving  horizontally.  The  glass 


21    4 


GLASSITES 


3554 


GLASS-SAND 


Glass.     The  making  of  a  bottle.     1.  Molten  glass  at  end  ol  blow-pipe.      4.   Preliminary  blowing,  after  which  the  glass 

is  thrust  back  into  furnace.      2.  As  withdrawn  from  furnace,  when— held  vertically  and  placed  in  mould,  5,  the  sides 

of  which  are  brought  together  by  means  of  a  foot-pedal—it  is  blown  into  its  final  shape.     The  finished  bottle,  3,  after 

being  cut  from  blow-pipe,  is,  6,  carried  on  a  wire  shovel  to  the  annealing  furnace 

Photct.  Clarke  &  Hyde 


is  drawn  away  by  a  "  bait,"  and 
is  kept  hollow  and  cylindrical  by 
air  forced  through  the  mandril. 

Formerly  much  glass-blowing 
was  done  with  comparatively 
primitive  tools,  e.g.  the  blow-pipe, 
a  hollow  iron  rod,  4  ft.  to  6  ft.  in 
length  ;  the  pontil,  a  solid  iron  rod 
for  holding  a  vessel  by  a  glass  seal 
attached  to  its  base ;  a  shaping 
tool,  resembling  giant  sugar  tongs, 
with  cutting  instead  of  spoon  ends. 
Sheet  glass  is  made  in  the  fol- 
lowing way  :  A  large  and  heavy 
bulb,  expanded  by  compressed  air, 
and  lengthened  by  swinging,  is 
opened  at  the  end  distant  from 
the  blow-pipe.  The  cylinder  thus 
formed  is  detached  from  the  blow- 
pipe, and,  when  cold,  is  split  longi- 
tudinally, and  placed  on  a  flat 
bed  in  a  kiln,  unrolled  and  spread 
into  a  flat  sheet.  Plate-glass  is 
molten  glass  poured  upon  an  iron 
table,  and  spread  and  flattened  by 
the  passage  over  it  of  a  heavy 
roller.  Rolled  plate  is  molten  glass 
ladled  or  caused  to  flow  from  a 
tank,  and  caused  to  pass  over  and 
under  a  series  of  iron  rollers. 
Many  varieties  of  bottk  - 
table  glass  are  made  by  air  pres- 
sure into  iron  moulds,  built  up  of 
sections,  and  hinged  together.  In 
the  case  of  light  tumblers,  wine- 
glass bowls,  and  electric-light 
bulbs,  the  inside  of  the  mould  is 
painted  with  an  oil  and  carbon 


paste,  and  the  glass  is  turned 
inside  the  mould,  whilst  it  is  bein^ 
blown,  to  obliterate  marks  made 
by  the  joints  of  the  mould. 

CUT  GLASS.  Decorative  cutting, 
which  requires  great  skill,  is 
effected  by  pressing  glasses,  when 
cold,  successively  against  the 
sharpened  edges  of  wheels  of  iron, 
stone,  and  wood,  revolving  on 
horizontal  spindles,  and  fed  re- 
spectively with  sand  and  Water, 
and  pumice,  mixed  with  putty 
powder  and  water. 

The  foundation  of  the  glass 
technology  society  in  1917,  and 
the  inauguration  of  a  national 
glass  research  association  are  in- 
tended to  put  glass-making  upon 
a  proper  scientific  basis.  Another 
influence  was  the  opening,  in  1915, 
in  Sheffield  University,  of  a  de- 
partment of  glass  technology, 
under  Professor  W.  E.  S.  TurneV. 
See  Sheffield. 

Bibliography.  Glass,  A.  Nesbitt, 
1878;  Principles  of  Glass  Making, 
H.  J.  Powell,  1883  ;  Glass  in  the  Old 
World,  M.  A.  W.  Dunlop,  188:5; 
Glass  Manufacture,  W.  Rosenhain, 
2nd  ed.  1919;  Old  Irish  Glass,  G. 
Stannus,  1!)20;  Irish  Glass,  M.  S. 
D.  Westropp,  1920 

Glassites.  Scottish  sect, 

founded  by  John  Glas.  He  taught 
that  all  Church  establishments 
were  unscriptural,  and  that  each 
congregation  should  be  self-govern- 
ing and  have  the  power  to  appoint 


its  own  ministers.  The  publica- 
tion of  his  views  in  The  Testimony 
of  the  King  of  Martyrs,  1727,  led 
to  his  suspension  by  the  synod  of 
Angus,  and  in  1730  he  was  de- 
posed from  the  Ministry.  He 
founded  several  congregations, 
better  known  as  Sandemanians, 
after  one  of  the  more  conspicuous 
elders,  Robert  Sandeman,  son-in- 
law  of  Glas.  The  sect  adopted  the 
practices  of  community  of  goods 
and  abstinence  from  certain  kinds 
of  food. 

Glass  Paper.  Sheets  of  thick 
cartridge  paper  upon  the  surface 
of  which  powdered  glass  is  lixed. 
Glass  is  broken  in  an  iron  mortar, 
ground  to  powder,  and  graded  ac- 
cording to  the  coarseness  of  the 
particles  by  passing  through  sieves. 
The  paper  is  prepared  by  coating 
evenly  with  liquid  glue,  and,  before 
the  glue  sets,  sifting  the  powdered 
glass  over  the  surface,  shaking  off 
the  superfluous  powder.  Glass 
paper  is  used  for  smoothing  the 
surface  of  wood. 

Glass-sand.  Minute  fragments 
of  siliceous  minerals,  loosely  held 
together.  Their  commonest  con- 
stituent is  quartz  ((/.''.),  which 
with  felspar  makes  up  about  nine- 
tenths  of  the  bulk.  The  brilliancy, 
lustre,  transparency,  and  hardness 
of  glass  depend  upon  the  nature 
of  the  sand  used.  High-class 
glass-sand  needs  a  silica-percentage 


GLASS     SELLERS'     COMPANY 


3555 


GLAUBER'S     SALT 


of  nearly  100,  and  its  grains  should 
be  angular  and  of  medium  to  fine 
grade.  The  presence  of  iron  spoils 
sands  for  best  uses. 

Sands  with  heavy  minerals  and 
other  impurities  are  used  only  for 
rough  bottle-glass.  The  purest 
glass-sand  comes  from  Fontaino- 
bleau  and  Lippe,  being  composed 
of  water-clear  quartz  with  less 
than  0'02  p.c.  of  heavy  minerals 
and  free  from  coating  of  impurities. 
British  localities  for  good  sands  Li- 
clude  the  Lower  Greensand  beds  of 
Aylesbury,  King's  Lynn,  Leighton 
Buzzard,  and  the  Weald.  See  Glass. 
Glass  Sellers'  Company. 
London  city  livery  company.  In- 
__  _  _  corporated  in 
"*  1664,  it  has  one 
trust,  the  John 
Abbott  scholar- 
ship of  £50  tena- 
ble by  a  scholar 
of  the  City  of 
London  School  at 
Oxford  or  Cam- 

SSSS. 


Anne's  Gate,  London,  S.W. 

Glass  Snake  (Ophisaurus  ven- 
trails}.  Popular  but  erroneous 
name  for  the  Scheltopusik,  a  genus 
of  lizards  found  in  Hungary,  Greece, 


Glass  Snake,  a  legless  lizard,  over 
a  yard  in  length 

Russia,  Southern  Asia,  and  N. 
America.  It  is  snake-like  in  form, 
the  limbs  being  either  absent  or 
rudimentary,  and  the  body  is 
covered  with  scales.  It  is  per- 
fectly harmless,  and  feeds  on  mice 
and  snails.  See  Lizard. 

Glass  wort  (Salicornia  europaea) 
OR  MARSH  SAMPHIRE.  Annual  leaf- 
less herb  of  the  natural  order  Cheno- 
podiaceae.  A  native  of  Europe,  N. 
Africa,  W.  Asia,  and  N.  America,  it 
has  juicy,  jointed  stems  and  bran- 
ches, joints  spindle-shaped.  The 
minute  flowers  are  in  pairs,  sunk  in 
a  pit  in  the  joints  of  the  branches, 
and  have  no  petals.  Glasswort 
grows  in  salt  marshes,  and  was  so 
called  from  having  been  burnt  for- 
merly to  obtain  soda  from  its  ashes 
(Barilla)  for  use  in  glass-making. 
Its  joints  are  pickled  as  a  substi- 
tute for  real  samphire  (Crithmum)- 
See  Chenopodiaceae. 

Glastonbury.  Borough  and 
market  town  of  Somerset.  It  stands 
on  the  Brue,  5%  m.  from  Wells  and 


Glasswort  or  Marsh  Samphire.     A 
leafless  herb  with  fleshy  branches 

37  m.  S.W.  of  Bath,  and  has  a  sta- 
tion on  the  Somerset  and  Dorset 
Rly.  It  is  chiefly  famous  for  its 
abbey  ruins,  remains  of  a  great 
monastic  house,  belonging  to  the 
Benedictines,  which  flourished  here 
until  the  Reformation.  The  most 
complete  of  the  ruins  is  that  of  S. 
Joseph's  Chapel,  really  the  Lady 
Chapel,  and  they  show  that  the 
abbey  church  must  have  been  one 
of  the  largest  and  noblest  in  Eng- 
land. Near  it  is  the  abbot's 
kitchen,  an  octagonal  building, 
and  some  distance  away  is  the 
abbot's  barn.  In  the  town  is  the 
abbot's  justice  room.  The  abbey 
buildings  covered  40  acres,  and  the 
abbey  was  one  of  the  richest  in 
England. 

The  chief  buildings  of  the  town 
are   the   Perpendicular  church   of 
S.   John  the    Baptist,    that   of   S. 
Benedict,  and  S.  John's  Hospital, 
a  13th  century  foundation.      The 
George  Inn  was    „... 
once  a  house  for 
pilgrims.    There 
is  an  antiquarian 
museum. 

At  the  beginning 
of  the  7th  century 
the     Benedictines 
founded  a  monas- 
tery here  which 
was    replaced    by 
one    which    Dun- 
s  t  a  n,    who   was 
abbot    here,   re- 
stored   and  en- 
larged    in     the 
tenth      century. 
This  was  destroyed 
by  fire  in  1184,  when  another  and 
finer  one  was  erected,  which  lasted 
until  the  dissolution  of  the  monas- 
teries.    Until  1907  the  ruins  were 
in  private  hands,  after  which  they 
were    transferred    to    the    diocese 
of    Bath   and    Wells.      Tradition 
ascribed  the  foundation  to  Joseph 


which  grew  up  around  the  abbey, 
was  given  municipal  privileges  in 
1 706.  Market  day,  Monday  (alter- 
nate). Pop.  4,250.  (See  Abbey; 
Clock;  consult  also  Architectural 
Handbook  of  Glastonbury  Abbey, 
F.  B.  Bond,  1919.) 

The  Glastonbury  lake-villages 
are  two  late  Celtic  settlements  of 
the  crannog  (q.v.)  type  near  Glas- 
tonbury. Discovered  by  Arthur 
Bulleid  in  1892,  the  principal  one 
was  formed  upon  the  fringes  of  a 
morass  by  pile-surrounded  brush- 
wood fascines.  Beneath  peat 
mounds  90  wattle-and-daub  round 
huts,  18  ft.  to  35  ft.  across,  were 
traced  within  3i  acres.  The  strati- 
fied floors,  successively  remade  and 
rehearthed  as  the  foundations  sub- 
sided, indicate  150  years  of  village 
life  before  the  Roman  occupation. 
The  rarity  of  weapons — 7  out  of 
109  iron  objects — betokens  a  peace- 
ful settlement,  with  several  local 
industries.  Another  settlement 
discovered  in  1908  at  Meare 
village,  2  m.  away,  contained 
similar  remains. 

Glatz.  Town  of  Germany.  In 
Silesia,  it  is  58  m.  by  rly.  S.S.W.  of 
Breslau.  It  is  on  the  Neisse,  lying 
between  the  Eulen  Gebirge  and  the 
Bohemian  frontier.  Above  it  rises 
the  lofty  keep  of  the  old  castle, 
while  across  the  river  is  the  fort 
known  as  the  Schaferberg.  Notable 
buildings  are  the  parish  church  and 
the  town  hall.  Pop.  17,121. 

Glauber,  JOHN  RUDOLPH  (1604- 
68).  German  alchemist.  Born  at 
Karlstadt,  afterwards  living  at 
Strasbourg,  Basel,  Frankfort-on- 


Glatz,  Germany.     The  citadel  overlooking  the  town 

Main,  and  Cologne,  he  died  in 
poverty  in  Amsterdam.  His  name 
is  perpetuated  in  Glauber's  salts, 
which  he  discovered  and  lauded  as 
a  universal  medicine.  See  Alchemy. 
Glauber's  Salt.  Sodium  sul- 
phate, Na2SO410H20,  colourless 
crystals  soluble  in  water.  The  dose 


of  Arimathea,  who,  it  is  said,  built  is  30  to  120  grains  for  repeated 
a  church  here  and  planted  the  thorn  administration ;  £  to  |-  oz.  for  single 
which  bloomed  once  a  year  on  administration.  It 


Christmas    Day.     It 
place    of   pilgrimage 


is    a  useful 

long   a     purgative    for    the    treatment    of 
The    town,     habitual  constipation. 


GLAUCHAU 


3556 


GLEE 


Glauchau.  Town  of  Germany, 
in  Saxony.  Situated  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Mulde,  8  m.  N.N.E.  of 
Zwickau,  and  due  W.  of  Chemnitz, 
it  is  a  busy  manufacturing  centre. 
Pop.  25,155. 

Glaucia,GAius  SERvious.Dema- 
gogue  of  ancient  Rome.  He  was 
closely  associated  with  Saturninus, 
another  demagogue,  in  agrarian 
and  other  popular  proposals 
brought  forward  in  100  B.C.  He 
and  Saturninus  were  supporters  of 
Marius,  who,  after  he  had  made  use 
of  them,  abandoned  them  to  their 
fate,  and  both  were  killed  by  a 
band  of  nobles.  See  Saturninus. 

Glaucoma  (Gr.  glaukos,  bluish 
green).  Disease  of  the  eye  charac- 
terised by  an  increase  of  tension  or 
pressure  of  the  fluids  within  the 
eyeball.  In  chronic  glaucoma, 
gradually  increasing  dimness  of 
vision  is  usually  the  first  symptom, 
and  in  some  cases  rainbow  colours 
are  seen  round  the  margins  oi 
lights.  In  acute  glaucoma,  pain 
in  the  eyeball,  often  radiating 
over  one  side  of  the  head,  is  a 
marked  symptom,  and  vision  is 
affected. 

Hardness  of  the  eyeball  is  an  im- 
portant diagnostic  sign.  Glaucoma 
is  very  serious,  and  if  not  promptly 
treated  may  lead  rapidly  to  per- 
manent blindness.  The  general 
principle  of  treatment  is  to  remove 
a  portion  of  the  iris  so  as  to  allow 
some  of  the  compressed  fluid  to 
filter  into  the  anterior  chamber  of 
the  eye.  See  Blindness  ;  Eye. 

Glauconite  (Gr.  glaukos,  bluish 
green).  Mineral  consisting  of  hy- 
dra ted  silicate  of  iron  and  potash, 
with  some  alumina.  Green  in 
colour  and  indefinite  in  shape,  it 
is  a  common  constituent  of  green- 
sands,  in  which  it  occurs  as  small 
grains.  See  Foraminifera. 

Glaucophane  (Gr.  glaukos,  and 
phainesthai,  to  appear).  A  sili- 
cate of  sodium,  aluminium,  iron, 
and  magnesium,  a  blue  variety  of 
the  amphibole  group  of  minerals. 
It  is  an  important  constituent  of 
great  metamorphosed  rock-masses 
(schists)  in  the  valleys  of  the  South- 
ern Alps  and  Anglesey.  In  colour 
these  schists  are  slate-blue  grey, 
with  silky  lustre  formed  by  the 
structure  of  the  mineral. 

Glaucus.  Name  of  three  per- 
sonages in  Greek  mythology.  They 
are  the  builder  of  the  Argo,  the  ship 
of  the  Argonauts  (q.v.),  ultimately 
a  sea-god  ;  the  father  of  Belle- 
rophon ;  and  a  Lycian  hero  slain 
by  Ajax. 

Glaucus.  Genus  of  gastropod 
molluscs,  found  floating  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
oceans.  They  resemble  green  slugs 
with  six  heavily  fringed  lobes  on 
the  body.  See  Gasteropoda 


Glaze.  Layer  of  pure  or  mixed 
transparent  colour  thinly  applied 
to  a  painting  to  improve  its  tone,  to 
impart  mellowness,  to  protect  the 
surface,  and  to  facilitate  its  being 
cleaned  without  risk  of  injury.  The 
glaze  should  convey  the  effect  of  a 
varnish  on  the  picture  it  covers, 
and  will  be  all  the  more  durable 
if  applied  as  soon  as  the  colour  be- 
neath is  dry  enough  not  to  be 
affected  by  the  brush  marks.  In 
this  respect  it  differs  from  a  var- 
nish, which  should  not  be  applied 
until  the  painting  is  absolutely  dry. 
Glaze  also  plays  an  important 
part  in  the  manufacture  of  pottery 
and  porcelain.  At  the  stage  known 
as  the  biscuit  state,  the  ware  is 
dipped  in  glaze,  which  either  gives 
it  a  finished  appearance,  or,  in 
decorated  porcelain,  forms  the 
ground  on  which  the  painting  is 
applied.  See  Tiles. 

Glazebrook,  SIR  RICHARD  TET- 
LEY  (b.  1854).  British  physicist. 
Born  at  Liverpool,  Sept.  ]  5, 1 854,  he 
was  educated 
at  Liverpool 
College  and 
Trinity  Col- 
leg  e ,  C  a  m  - 
bridge,  where 
he  was  5th 
wrangler  and 
fellow  of  his 
college.  For 
some  time  he 
lectured  in  the 
university  and, 
devoting  himself  to  physics,  became 
in  1880  demonstrator,  and  in  1890 
assistant  director,  of  the  Cavendish 
Laboratory.  In  1898  he  was  chosen 
principal  of  University  College, 
Liverpool,  but  in  1899  he  removed 
to  London  as  director  of  the 
National  Physical  Laboratory,  re- 
signing in  1919.  His  work  lay 
chiefly  with  optics  and  electricity, 
and  in  connexion  with  the  latter 
he  was  president  of  the  Institute  of 
Electrical  Engineers  in  1906.  He 
wrote  text- books  on  physical  optics, 
heat  and  electricity.  He  was 
knighted  in  1917. 

Glaziers 'Com- 
pany, THE.  City 
of  London  livery 
company.  Incor- 
porated in  1638,  it 
is  governed  by  a 
charter  of  1685. 
The  offices  are  11, 
Maiden  Lane, 
London,  W.C. 
Glazing.  Act  of  fitting  glass. 
Common  glazing  consists  in  fixing 
panes  of  glass  in  grooved  frames,  or 
sashes,  by  means  of  putty.  Occa- 
sionally, when  the  sheet  of  glass  is 
large,  small  headless  nails  or  sprigs 
are  driven  into  the  frame  at  wide 
intervals,  and  it  is  sometimes  desir- 


Sii  K.  uiazebrook, 
British  physicist 

Russell 


Glaziers'  Com- 
pany arms 


able  to  support  the  glass  with  a 
supplementary  framework  of  fillets 
of  wood  (beads).  A  bed  of  putty 
("back  putty")  is  laid  in  the 
groove  to  receive  the  glass,  on  the 
margins  of  which  the  "  front 
putty"  is  lightly  and  evenly  pressed 
with  a  spatula  ("putty  knife") 
and  painted  to  prevent  the  putty 
perishing  from  evaporation  of  the 
oil.  "  Cathedral  "  or  leaded  lights 
comprise  strips  of  lead  ("cames  ") 
of  31  section,  strengthened  where 
necessary  with  vertical  or  horizontal 
steel  saddle-bars,  the  cames  being 
soldered  together  at  joints. 

Glass  should  not  be  placed  in 
direct  contact  with  the  metal,  but 
should  be  bedded  on  strips  of  wash- 
leather  glued  to  the  cames,  the 
beads  being  secured  with  screws. 
When  panes  of  glass  are  laid  slate- 
wise  on  roofs,  one  pane  slightly 
overlapping  another,  the  panes  are 
held  by  copper  clips,  or  tingles. 

To  reduce  fire  hazard,  metal 
framing  is  fitted  with  wired 
glass,  a  wire  mesh  embedded  in  the 
glass  offering  effectual  resistance  to 
flame  and  heat.  It  merely  cracks 
where  ordinary  glass  would  fly  out 
and  admit  flames  through.  Putty- 
less  or  dry  glazing  systems  are 
generally  adopted  for  large  ex- 
panses of  glass  roofing — e.g.  Vic- 
toria railway  station,  London.  See 
Building ;  Glass  ;  Pottery  ;  Tiles. 

Gleaning  OR  LEASING.  Gather- 
ing what  is  left  after  harvest, 
usually  corn,  but  sometimes  grapes 
or  other  produce.  By  the  Mosaic 
law  the  farmer  was  expressly  com- 
manded to  leave  the  gleanings  of 
his  fields  and  vineyards  for  the 
poor  and  the  stranger,  and  was  for- 
bidden even  to  "  wholly  reap  the 
corners  "  of  the  fields,  and  from  the 
remotest  times  the  poor  have  been 
almost  universally  allowed  to  glean. 

In  England  the  public  are  not 
legally  entitled  to  glean,  but  are 
seldom  turned  off,  although  in  some 
districts  gleaning  is  done  by  the 
farmer's  and  harvesters'  families. 

Glebe  (Lat.  gleba,  clod,  land). 
Term  in  ecclesiastical  law  for  land 
belonging  to  a  benefice.  It  was  for- 
merly held  to  be  essential  that  each 
parish  should  possess  a  house  and 
glebe  land  for  the  support  of  the 
parson.  The  glebe  might  be  farmed 
by  the  parson,  or,  subject  to  certain 
restrictions,  let  on  lease  in  con- 
sideration of  an  annual  rental,  or  in 
certain  circumstances  sold  or  ex- 
changed. Recent  legislation  has 
enabled  parishes  to  get  rid  of  what 
was  often  a  source  of  loss  rather 
than  of  income.  See  Tithe. 

Glee.  English  vocal  concerted 
work  in  three  or  more  parts.  It  is 
for  solo  voices,  unaccompanied  and 
usually  male,  the  style  being  non- 
contrapuntal.  The  word  is  derived 


GLE1CHEN 

from  the  Anglo-Saxon  "  gligg," 
music,  and  has  little  connexion 
with  gleeful.  Standard  glee  writers 
are  Webbe,  Battishill,  Callcott, 
Cooke,  Attwood,  Horsley,  Morn- 
ington,  Danby,  Stevens,  Spofforth, 
Storace,  Savile,  Este,  Paxton,  Ar- 
nold, Mazzinghi,  Shield,  and  Ford. 
Gleichen,  ALBERT  EDWARD  WIL- 
FRED, LORD  (b.  1863).  British  sol- 
dier. Born  Jan.  15, 1863,  the  eldest 
son  of  Admiral 
Prince  Victor 
of  Hohenlohe- 
Langenburg, 
he  joined  the 
Grenadier 
Guards  in  1881 
and  served  in 
the  Nile  expe- 
dition, 1884- 
85.  From  1886 
-88  he  was  at 
the  War 
Office.  He 
accompanied  Sir  West  Ridgeway's 
mission  to  Morocco,  1893,  and  a 
mission  to  Abyssinia,  1897.  He 
served  in  S.  Africa  1899-1900, 
where  he  gained  the  D.S.O. ;  was 
director  of  intelligence  and  Sudan 
agent,  1901-3 ;  and  employed  at  the 
War  Office,  1907-11.  During  the 
Great  War  he  commanded  the  37th 
division,  1915-16,  and  organized 
and  directed  the  intelligence  bureau, 
dept.  of  information,  1917-18.  He 
was  created  K.C.V.O.  1909,  and 
promoted  major-general  1915. 

Formerly  known  as  Count  Glei- 
chen, he  relinquished  his  German 
honours  in  March,  1918,  when  he 
was  granted  the  style,  title,  and  pre- 
cedence of  the  younger  son  of  a 
marquess.  Lord  Gleichen  has  writ- 
ten With  the  Camel  Corps  up  the 
Nile,  1888;  With  the  Mission  to 
Menelik,  1897  ;  The  Doings  of  the 
15th  Brigade,  1917.  His  sisters. 
Lady  Feodora  (1862-1922)  and 
Lady  Helena  Gleichen,  were  sculp- 
tor and  painter  respectively. 

Gleichenia.  Genus  of  ferns  of 
the  natural  order  Polypodiaceae. 
Natives  of  the  tropics,  they  have 
creeping  rhizomes,  and  the  leafy 
portion  of  the  frond  is  forked,  the 
two  divisions  being  then  subdivided 
after  the  manner  of  a  feather. 

Gleiwitz.  Town  of  Germany,  in 
the  plebiscite  area  of  Upper  Silesia. 
It  stands  on  the  river  Klodnitz,  16 
m.  E.S.E.  of  Beuthen,  and  is  an  old 
place  with  a  fine  Roman  Catholic 
church.  In  the  industrial  district 
of  Silesia,  and  near  the  mines,  it  is 
an  important  banking  centre,  and 
has  iron  and  boiler  works,  and 
manufactures  wire,  nails,  machi- 
nery, etc.  Pop.  66,981. 

Glen.  Narrow  valley  through 
which  a  river  flows,  or  one  between 
two  hills.  The  word  is  of  Celtic 
origin  ;  hence  the  frequency  of  the 


3557 

word  in  place-names  in  Scotland 
and  Ireland.  The  Gaelic  form  is 
gleann,  valley. 

Glenalmond.  Glen  or  valley 
of  the  Almond  river,  Perthshire, 
Scotland  It  is  about  20  m.  long, 
and  the  most 
beautiful  portion 
of  it  is  called  Sma' 
Glen.  On  the  right 
bank  of  the  Al- 
mond  stands 
Trinity  College, 
the  first  school  in 
Scotland  mo- 
Glenalmond.  Arms  delled  after  the 
of  Trinity  College  English  public 
schools.  The  school  has  accom- 
modation for  about  160  boys.  The 

buildings  include         

a  chapel,  labora-  f 
tories,  engineer- 
ing shops,  gym- 
nasium, library, 
etc.  The  school 
has  various 
scholarships. 
Methven,  4J  m. 
N.W.,  is  the  sta- 
tion, and  Perth 
is  10  m.  E.  Dr. 
Charles  Words- 
worth was  the 
first  warden.  In 
the  glen  is  the 
reputed  grave  of 
Ossian. 

Glenart  Castle.  British  hos- 
pital ship.  Belonging  to  the  Union- 
Castle  line  and  of  6,000  tons,  she 
was  mined  in  the  approaches  to 
Spithead  at  11.40  p.m.,  March  1, 
1917,  and  had  on  board  525  sick 
and  wounded,  118  crew,  and  about 
70  medical  staff,  all  of  whom  were 
saved.  On  Feb.  26,  1918,  at  4.5 
a.m.,  on  a  voyage  from  Newport, 
Mon.,  to  Brest,  she  was  torpedoed 


GLENCOE 

first  earl  was  Alexander  Cunning- 
ham, a  lord  of  parliament,  killed 
when  fighting  for  James  III  against 
some  rebels  in  1488.  His  descen- 
dant, William,  the  4th  earl,  took 
part  in  the  affairs  of  both  England 
and  Scotland  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
VIII,  and  his  son  Alexander,  the 
5th  earl  (d.  1574),  was  concerned 
in  the  troubles  of  Scotland  under 
Mary  Stuart ;  at  times  he  was  with 
the  reformers  and  at  others  \\  ith  the 
queen.  William,  the  9th  earl  (d. 
1664),  was,  perhaps,  the  most 
prominent  of  all,  for  he  was  respon- 
sible for  the  rising  in  Scotland  in 
favour  of  Charles  II  which  is  named 
after  him.  He  led  this  in  1653,  but 
it  soon  collapsed  and  he  was  im- 


Glencoe.     The 


uleichenia.     Feather-shaped  fronds 
of  Gleichenia  acutifolia 

and  sunk  by  a  German  submarine 
in  lat.  51°  5'  N. ,  long.  5°  10'  W.  She 
had  no  patients  on  board,  but  of 
her  complement  of  crew  and  medical 
staff  about  153  lives  were  lost. 

Glencairn,  EARL  OF.  Scottish 
title  borne  by  the  family  of  Cun- 
ningham from  1488  to  1796.  The 


Argyllshire  glen  in  which  the 
were  massacred  in  1692 


prisoned ;  later  he  became  lord 
chancellor  of  Scotland.  The  14th 
earl,  James,  who  died  childless  in 
1791,  is  known  as  the  friend  of 
Burns,  who  wrote  a  Lament  on  his 
death  (beginning  The  wind  blew 
hollow  frae  the  hills).  His  brother, 
the  15th  earl,  died  childless  in  1796, 
and  the  title  became  extinct. 

Glencoe.  Glen  in  Argyllshire, 
Scotland.  It  extends  for  10  m.  W. 
from  Buchaille  Etive  to  Loch 
Leven,  an  E.  arm  of  Loch  Linnhe. 
It  lies  among  magnificent  mountain 
scenery  with  peaks  rising  to  3,800  ft. 

The  place  is  noted  for  the  mass- 
acre which  took  place  here  in  1692. 
After  the  suppression  of  Dundee's 
Jacobite  insurrection  of  1689, 
many  Scottish  clans  remained  dis- 
affected, and  the  Scottish  govern- 
ment, chiefly  controlled  by  Lord 
Stair,  his  son,  and  Lord  Melville, 
proclaimed  an  amnesty  to  all  who 
should  take  an  oath  of  allegiance 
by  Dec.  31,  1691.  The  chief  of 
the  Macdonalds  of  Glencoe,  near 
Loch  Leven,  put  off  doing  so  till  the 
last  moment  and,  there  being  no 
magistrate  at  Fort  William  when 
he  went  to  take  the  oath,  was  com- 
pelled to  proceed  to  Inveraray,  with 
the  result  that  the  oath  was  not 
taken  till  Jan.  6.  His  old  enemy, 
the  Master  of  Stair  (Lord  Stair's 
son),  took  advantage  of  this,  and 
an  order  was  obtained  from  William 


GLENCOE 

HI  for  the  extirpation  of  the  Mac- 
donalds  as  being  dangerous  irrecon- 
cilables. 

The  order  was  carried  out  by  the 
Campbells,  also  the  inveterate 
enemies  of  the  Macdonalds,  who, 
arriving  in  the  glen  on  Feb.  13, 
1692,  as  friends,  were  given  hos- 
pitality by  the  unsuspecting  in- 
habitants. In  the  night  they  rose 
and  treacherously  murdered  their 
hosts,  while  many  Macdonalds  who 
escaped  actual  massacre  perished  in 
the  mountains.  In  extenuation  of 
William's  part  in  the  tragedy  it  is 
said  that  he  signed  the  order  with- 
out reading  it.  See  Paradoxes  and 
Puzzles,  J.  Paget,  1874;  The  Mas- 
sacre of  Glencoe,  G.  Gilfillan,  1912. 
.  Glencoe.  Village  of  Natal,  S. 
Africa.  It  is  231  m.  N.  of  Durban 
by  rly.,  on  the  main  line  to 
Johannesburg  and  branch  line  to 
Vryheid  and  Ermelo.  Its  altitude 
is  4,303  ft.  Near  here  the  opening 
operations  of  the  South  African 
War  took  place  in  the  autumn  of 
1899. 

Glenconner,  EDWARD  PRIAULX 
TENNANT,  IST  BARON  (1859-1920). 
British  politician.  Born  May  31, 
1859,  the  eldest 
surviving  son 
of  Sir  Charles 
T  e  n  n  a  n  t, 
Bart.,  he  was 
educated  at 
Eton  and 
Trinity  College, 
Cambridge.  He 
travelled  in 
Africa,  Asia, 
and  America, 
and  gained 
some  political 
experience  as  assistant  private 
secretary  to  Sir  George  Trevelyan. 
In  1906  he  was  returned  as  Liberal 
M.P.  for  Salisbury,  but  lost  his  seat 
in  1910.  He  succeeded  to  his 
father's  baronetcy  in  1906,  and  in 
1911  was  made  a  peer.  He  died 
Nov.  21,  1920. 

Lord  Glenconner  was  chairman 
of  the  Glasgow  firm  of  Charles  Ten- 
nant,  Sons  &  Co.,  and  the  Union 
Bank  of  Scotland.  In  1895  he 
married  Pamela,  daughter  of  the 
Hon.  Percy  Wyndham.  Their  eldest 
son,  Edward  Wyndham  Tennant, 
was  killed  in  action  in  1916.  His 
Worple  Flit  and  other  poems  were 
published  after  his  death. 

Lady  Glenconner  wrote  Windle- 
straw  (in  verse),  1905  ;  a  Memoir 
of  her  son,  1919. 

Glencorse.  Parish  of  Mid- 
othian,  Scotland.  It  stands  on 
jlencorse  burn,  14  m.  from  Edin- 
3urgh,  and  has  a  station  on  the 
^.B.  Rly.  There  are  barracks  and 
a  reservoir  from  which  Edinburgh 
draws  part  of  its  water  supplv- 
1,400. 


Edward  Tennant, 

1st  Baron  Glen- 

connei 

Ruaell 


3558 

Glencorse 
Wood.  Wood  of 
Belgium,  in  the 
p r o  v.  of  W. 

Flanders.  It  is 
4J  m.  E.  of  Ypres, 
a  little  to  the  N. 
of  the  Ypres- 
Menin  road.  It 
was  the  scene  of 
severe  fighting  in 
the  third  battle  of 
Ypres,  1917.  On 
Aug.  10  this 
strongly  fortified 
region  was  at- 
tacked by  Lanca- 
shire troops, 

Bedfords,  and  West  Surreys,  who 
inflicted  heavy  losses  on  the  Ger- 
mans. It  was  captured  by  the 
British,  Sept.  20, 1917.  See  Ypres, 
Third  Battle  of. 

Glendalough.  Valley  of  Ireland, 
in  co.  Wicklow.  It  is  8  m.  N.W.  of 
Rathdrum,  a  station  on  the  Dublin 
&  S.E.  Rly.,  and  is  famous  for  its 
beauty  and  its  eccles.  ruins.  The 
glen,  2  m.  long,  is  enclosed  by  mts. 
which  in  places  reach  over  2,000  ft. 
It  is  traversed  by  the  Glenealo, 
which  in  it  forms  two  lakes.  Glen- 
dalough was  the  seat  of  a  bishop 
from  the  6th  century  to  the  13th, 
after  which,  having  been  plun- 
dered, the  city,  which  some  think 
was  of  considerable  size,  fell  into 
decay.  The  ruins  are  known  as  the 
Seven  Churches,  these  being  the 
cathedral,  Our  Lady's  Church,  S. 
Kevin's  Kitchen,  the  ivy  church, 
the  priory,  and  two  others.  S. 
Kevin's  Kitchen  is  the  most  com- 
plete. Most  of  them  were  founded 
by  S.  Kevin.  There  is  also  a  fine 
round  tower  and  a  cross,  while 
here  was  a  monastery. 

Glendower,  OWEN  (c.  1359- 
1416).  Welsh  rebel,  who  claimed 
descent  from  the  old  Welsh  princes. 
He  studied  law  at  Westminster, 
fought  for  Richard  II  against  the 
Scots  in  1385,  and  entered  the  ser- 
vice of  Henry  of  Lancaster.  After 
Henry  IV's  accession  he  became 
the  champion  of  Welsh  indepen- 
dence, assuming  the  title  of  prince 
of  Wales  and  summoning  a  Welsh 
parliament,  and  spent  the  rest  of  his 
life  in  resistance  against  English 
domination. 

He  made  an  offensive  alliance 
with  France  against  England,  but 
suffered  serious  reverses.  The  date 
and  manner  of  his  death  are  un- 
certain. He  figures  in  Shakespeare's 
Henry  IV.  See  Owen  Glyndwr  and 
the  Last  Struggle  for  Welsh  Inde- 
pendence, A.  G.  Bradley,  1901. 

Glenelg.  River  of  Victoria, 
Australia.  It  drains  the  S.W. 
corner  of  that  State  from  the  Gram- 
pians and  debouches  at  the  head  of 
Discovery  Bay  at  Nelson,  near  the 


GLENESK 


Wendalough,  Ireland.     The  glen  and  old  city,  with  the 
ancient  Round  Tower 

South  Australian  border.  Its  length 
is  260  m. ;  it  is  unnavigable  and  in 
dry  seasons  its  bed  is  bare  through 
evaporation. 

Glenelg.  Seaport  and  watering- 
place  of  South  Australia.  It  stands 
on  Holdfast  Bay,  6  m.  by  rly.  S.W. 
of  Adelaide,  with  whose  inhabitants 
it  is  a  favourite  resort.  Pop.  4,849 

Glenelg,  CHARLES  GRANT, BARON 
(1778-1866).      British   statesman. 
Born  at  Kidderpore,  Bengal,  Oct. 
26,  1778,  and    r 
educated      at    ! 
Magdalene 
College,  Cam- 
bridge, he  was    ' 
called   to    the 
bar,   and    en-    • 
tered     Parlia- 
ment in  1811 

as  member  for    'LJ&B&ftHStB 
the   Inverness          Charles  Grant, 
and    Fortrose        1st  Baron  Glenelg 

burghs.     Made  After  J.Slater 

a  lord  of  the  treasury  in  1813,  a 
privy  councillor  and  Irish  secretary 
in  1819,  he  became  vice-president 
in  1823,  and  president  of  the  board 
of  trade  in  1827,  and  of  the  board 
of  control  in  1830.  In  1835  he  was 
raised  to  the  peerage  and  made 
colonial  secretary,  but  was  forced  to 
resign  in  1839  on  account  of  his  va- 
cillating Canadian  policy.  He  died  at 
Cannes,  April  23, 1866.  His  title  was 
taken  from  his  estate  in  Scotland. 

Glenesk,  ALGERNON  BORTH- 
WICK,  BARON  (1830-1908).  British 
journalist.  Born  at  Cambridge, 
:  ..  ,  Dec.  27,  1830, 

1  eldest  son  of 
Peter  Borth- 
wick,  M.P., 
editor  of  The 
Morning  Post, 
he  was  Paris 
correspondent 
of  that  paper 
in  1850,  and 
succeeded  t  o 
the  editor- 

Bainei  shjp     in     1852> 

and  to  the  proprietorship  in  1876. 
He  suggested  the  formation  of 
the  Primrose  League,  1883,  and 


Algernon  Borthwick, 
1st  Baron  Glenesk 


GLENFINNAN 


3559 


GLIDER 


was  Conservative  M.P.  for  S.  Ken- 
sington, 1885-95.  Knighted,  1880, 
he  was  created  a  baronet  in  1887, 
and  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron 
Glenesk,  1895,  when  he  handed  over 
the  control  of  The  Morning  Post 
to  his  son  Oliver  (d.  1905).  By  his 
death,  Nov.  24,  1908,  the  title  be- 
came extinct.  See  Lord  Glenesk  and 
TheMorning  Post,R.  J.  Lucas,  1910. 

Glenfinnan.  Glen  and  hamlet 
of  Inverness-shire,  Scotland.  The 
hamlet  stands  at  the  head  of  Loch 
Shiel,  18  m.  W.  of  Fort  William.  A 
monument,  erected  in  1815,  marks 
the  spot  where  Prince  Charles  Ed- 
ward unfurled  his  banner  in  1745. 

Glengariff  .  Village  and  pleasure 

resort    of    co.    Cork,    Ireland.       It 

;  stands  on  Glen- 


AJjteH?j^      |  gariff    Harbour, 

!«B  il^.    ''-  anarmofBantry 

Ei  K:  Bay.  ?  m.  N.W. 

^^I^Hl    of  Bantry,  and  is 

^Bl  a  noted  beauty 

r  spot. 

Glengarry. 

1    ;  '  Glen    of   Inver- 

Glengarry  bonnet     ne8g.shiTe>  gcofc. 

land.    It  is  formed  by  the  Garry, 
and  lies  between  lochs  Quoich,  or 


Glengarry,  Inverness-shire.     View  of  the  glen  at  the 
mouth  of  the  river 


Oich,  and  Garry.  It  was  the 
home  of  the  Macdonalds,  and  gives 
its  name  to  the  Highland  bonnet, 
which  is  worn  by  the  kilted  and 
some  other  Scottish  regiments. 

Glen  Innes.  Chief  town  in  the 
rich  New  England  plateau  of  New 
South  Wales.  It  is  423  m.  N.  of 
Sydney  by  rly.,  on  the  main  line 
to  Queensland.  It  is  the  chief  tin- 
mining  centre  of  the  state,  and 
bismuth,  wolfram,  and  molybdenite 
are  also  found.  Pop.  4,089. 

Glenlivet  OR  GLENLIVAT.  Valley 
of  Banffshire,  Scotland.  It  is 
t!ic  plen  of  the  little  river  Livet, 
a  trihut.arv  of  the  Avon,  and  is 
chiefly  celebrated  for  its  whisky 
I*,  is  also  the  name  of  a  parish,  6  m. 
S.E.  of  Ballindalloch. 

Glenmore.  Valley  of  Inverness  - 
shire,  Scotland.  About  60  m.  long, 
It  extends  from  the  Moray  Firth  to 


the  head  of 
Loch  Linnhe, 
i.e.  right  across 
the  country.  It 
is  thus  called 
also  the  Great 
Glen  of  Scot- 
land. In  it  are 
the  Caledonian 
Canal  and  lochs 
Ness,  Lochy, 
Oich,  and 
others.  There 
are  other  glens 
of  this  name 
in  Scotland,  one 
being  in  Perth- 
shire. 

Glenroy.  Valley  of  Inverness- 
shire,  Scotland.  About  14  m.  long, 
it  is  remarkable  for  its  three 
parallel  roads  which  extend  in 
terraces  on  both  sides  of  the  glen. 
They  are  generally  thought  to  be 
the  margins  of  lakes  formed  during 
the  glacial  period  by  the  melting 
of  the  ice  which  filled  the  tribu- 
tary valleys.  The  river  Roy  flows 
through  the  glen,  in  which  are 
several  villages. 

Glens  Falls .  City  of  New  York, 
U.S.A.,  in  Warren 
co.  On  the  left 
bank  of  the  Hud- 
son, where  it  unites 
with  the  Cham- 
plain  Canal,  it  is  55 
m.  N.  of  Troy,  and 
is  served  by  the 
Delaware  and 
Hudson  Rly.  It 
contains  a  free 
public  library,  two 
academies,  and  two 
hospitals.  In  the 
neighbourhood  are 
limestone  and 
marble  quarries, 
and  lime  and 
cement  works,  and 
the  city  has  paper, 
wood-pulp,  and  lumber  mills,  and 
shirt  and  collar  manufactures. 

It  is  named  after  falls  on  the 
Hudson  river.  Settled  in  1763, 


Glenroy,  looking   across   the   glen   to  the    three  parallel 
roads  or  terraces 

Glens  Falls  was  incorporated  as  a 
village  in  1837,  and  became  a  city 
in  1908.  In  1864  and  again  in 
1884  it  suffered  greatly  from  fires. 
Pop.  17,160. 

Glenshee.  Valley  of  Perth- 
shire, Scotland.  It  is  the  valley  of 
the  Shee  Water,  which  joins  the 
Ardle  at  Bridge  of  Cally  ;  through 
it  passes  the  main  road  from  Blair- 
gowrie  over  the  Cairnwell  to  Brae- 
mar.  Length  13  m. 

Glenshiel.  Valley  and  parish 
of  Ross  and  Cromarty,  Scotland. 
Its  length  is  26  m.,  and  its  average 
breadth  is  4  m.  It  was  formerly  part 
of  the  Seaforth  country,  and  in 
1719,  during  the  small  Jacobite 
rising,  there  was  a  fight  in  the  pass 
between  the  Seaforths  and  the 
English.  Glenshiel  is  also  the  name 
of  a  parish,  which  includes  Letter- 
fearn.  Pop.  339. 

Glentilt.  Valley  of  Perthshire. 
It  runs  for  about  15m.  S.  W.f  rom  the 
border  of  Aberdeenshire  to  Blair 
Athol.  The  Tilt  runs  through  it, 
hence  its  name.  On  the  left  are 
some  peaks  of  the  Grampians,  over 
3,500  ft.  high. 

Glider.    Name  for  any  heavier  - 
than-air   vessel    without  a  motor, 
which   is   so   designed   that   when 
launched  from  a  height,  or  with 
certain  velocity,  it  pursues  a  path 
of     gentle    descent    through    the 
air.     In  a  calm  the  glider  derives 
it 'A    power   from 
gravity;  that  is, 
it    falls  until  it 
attains  a  certain 
speed,  and  then, 
as   in   the   case 
of  an  aeroplane, 
the  air  provides 
sufficient     sup- 
port to  allow  the 
glider     to     de- 
scend in  a  long 
slope.  In  a  strong 
wind  having  an 
upward   course, 
a  glider  can  soar, 
I    the  force  of  the 

shire General   Wade's   Bridge   over        wind  in  this  case 
'the  river  Livet  neutralising 


GLIDING 


3560 


GLOBE    THEATRE 


gravity.  By  their  experiments 
with  gliders,  Lilienthal,  Charm te, 
the  Wrights,  and  other  pioneers 
opened  up  the  way  to  the  power- 
driven  aeroplane.  See  Aeronautics ; 
Lilienthal ;  Wright,  0.  &  W. 

Gliding.  Action  of  an  aeroplane 
in  the  air  when  descending  with 
the  engine  stopped.  An  aeroplane 
travels  and  maintains  its  hori- 
zontal course  in  the  air  by  virtue 
of  the  thrust  of  the  propeller. 
When  the  engine  is  stopped  the 
machine  becomes  a  glider,  and  it 
follows  a  sloping  path  towards  the 
earth.  In  the  widest  sense  of  the 
term  any  object  may  be  said  to 
glide  through  the  air  when  it  de- 
scends not  vertically,  but  along  a 
sloping  path.  The  angle  this  path 
makes  with  the  horizon  is  called 
the  gliding  angle  of  the  machine, 
and  is  determined  theoretically  by 
the  ratio  of  the  lift  to  the  drag  or 
resistance. 

Globe  (Lat.  globus).  Spherical 
body,  the  whole  of  the  surface  of 
which,  is  equidistant  from  the 
centre.  The  word  is  used  in  the 
singular  to  signify  the  earth.  A 
sphere  on  the  surface  of  which  is 
drawn  a  map  or  representation  ot 
the  earth  or  heavens,  is  termed  a 
terrestrial  or  celestial  globe  respec- 
tively. See  Earth. 

Globe,  THE.  London  evening 
newspaper.  It  was  first  published 
Jan.  1,  1803,  as  The  Globe  or  Lite- 
rary Advertiser,  largely  as  a  book- 
sellers' organ.  In  turn  The  True 
Briton,  The  Nation,  The  Evening 
Statesman,  The  Argus,  and  The 
Evening  Chronicle  were  amalga- 
mated with  it,  and  on  Dec.  30, 1822, 
a  commercial  travellers'  organ,  The 
Traveller,  was  absorbed  and  the 
double  title,  The  Globe  and 
Traveller,  thereafter  adopted. 
Long  an  official  organ  of  the 
Whigs,  The  Globe  was  acquired 
by  the  Tories  in  1866. 

Sir  George  Armstrong  (1836- 
1907)  edited  it  from  1871,  and  was 
proprietor  from  1875  unt  il  his  death. 
From  1908-11  it  was  owned  by 
Hildebrand  Harmsworth,  a  brother 
of  Viscount  Northcliffe.  It  was 
absorbed  in  the  Pall  Mall  Gazette 
in  Feb.,  1921,  and  with  the  latter 
in  The  Evening  Standard,  1923. 

Globe  Amaranth  (Gomphrenn 
fjlobosa).  Annual  herb  of  the 
natural  order  Amarantaceae.  A 
native  of  India,  it  has  doAvny,  op- 
posite, oblong  leaves.  The  flower- 
heads  are  globular,  about  1  in. 
across  and  dark  red. 

Globe  Artichoke.  Perennial 
plant  supposed  to  be  a  cultivated 
variety  of  the  cardoon  (q.v.), 

Globe  Case,  THE.  Temporary 
suppression  of  the  London  evening 
newspaper,  The  Globe,  during  the 


Great  War.  In  Nov.,  1915,  The 
Globe  published  a  statement  that  it 
was  the  intention  of  the  govern- 
ment not  to  allow  Lord  Kitchener, 
who  had  started  that  week  for  a 
tour  of  inspection  on  Gallipoli,  to 
return  to  his  position  as  Secretary 
of  State  for  War  in  Whitehall.  Al- 
leging that  this  quite  unauthorised 
statement  was  calculated  to  cause 
dismay  among  the  Allies,  the 
government  enforced  disciplinary 
measures  against  the  journal  under 
regulations  50  and  51 A  of  the  De- 
fence of  the  Realm  Act. 

On  Nov.  6  agents  from  Scotland 
Yard  blockaded  the  premises, 
seized  the  issue,  searched  the 
offices,  and  put  the  machinery  out 
of  action  by  removing  essential 
parts.  Within  a  fortnight  The 
Globe,  under  a  new  editor,  was 
allowed  to  resume  publication. 

Globe  Fish.  Marine  fish  of  the 
Diodontidae  and  Tetrodontidac 
families.  They  are  found  in  the 


Globe  Fish.    The  lesser  spotted  variety 
with  distended  body 

tropic  seas,  and  have  the  power 
of  distending  their  bodies  with  air 
till  they  assume  a  more  or  less 
globular  appearance.  At  other 
times  they  have  the  usual  shape  of 
a  round-bodied  fish.  The  largest 
species  are  about  2  ft.  in  length, 
and  most  are  beautifully  coloured. 
Globe-flower  (Trollius  euro- 
paeus).  Perennial  herb  of  the 
natural  order  Ranunculaceae.  It  is 
a  native  of  Europe.  The  leaves  are 
round  in  general  outline,  but  di- 
vided into  five  toothed  lobes.  The 
fine  yellow  flowers  are  globular,  and 


their  rich  appearance  is  due  to  the 
numerous  sepals,  which  are  petal- 
like,  while  the  true  petals  are  small 
and  narrow. 

Globe  Tavern.  Model  refresh- 
ment house.  Erected  in  1917  by 
the  Central  Control  Board  at  Long- 
town,  near  Carlisle,  it  took  the 
place  of  an  old  hotel  of  the  same 
name.  The  tavern,  an  entirely  new 
structure,  was  one  of  several  ex- 
periments in  state  ownership  of  the 
liquor  traffic  in  the  Carlisle  area 
during  the  Great  War.  See  Carlisle ; 
Central  Control  Board  ;  Gretna. 

Globe  Theatre,  THE.  Famous 
London  playhouse,  built  on  the 
Bankside,  Southwark,  in  1599,  by 


Globe-flower.      Leaves  and  flowers 
of  this  European  herb 


Globe  Theatre,  the  old  London  play- 
bouse  associated  with  Shakespeare 

From  an  engraving  e.  1612 

the  Burbages,  Shakespeare,  and 
four  other  actors.  A  circular  build- 
ing, the  "  wooden  O  "  of  the  play 
King  Henry  the  Fifth,  it  held  1,200 
spectators,  and  was  partly  open  to 
the  sky.  Shakespeare  acted  and 
had  shares  in  this  theatre.  It  was 
destroyed  by  fire,  June  29,  1613  ; 
and  its  successor,  opened  June  30, 
1614,  Jasted  until  April  15,  1644. 
It  has  been  conclusively  shown 
that  the  playhouse  of  Shakespeare's 
time  was  on  the  S.  side  of  Park 
Street,  Southwark,  and  the  position 
of  the  frontage  has  been  located  to 
within  a  foot.  (See  The  Site  of  The 
Globe  Theatre,  G.  Hubbard,  1909  : 
The  Site  of  The  Globe  Playhouse, 
L.C.C.,  1921.) 

The  third  London  theatre  of  this 
name  was  opened  in  Newcastle 
Street,  Strand,  Nov.  28,  1868,  and 
had  a  chequered  existence  until  its 
disappearance  with  much  adjoin- 
ing property  in  1902.  Here  Jennie 
Lee  first  appeared  in  J.  P.  Burnett's 
Jo,  Feb.  21,  1876;  Tennyson's 
The  Promise  of  May  failed,  1882  ; 
Penley  brought  Charley's  Aunt 


GLOBE-THISTLE 

from  The  Royalty,  Jan.  30,  1893 ; 
and  Pinero's  The  Gay  Lord  Quex 
was  produced  by  John  Hare,  April 
8,  1899.  Hicks' s  Theatre,  opened 
in  Shaftesbury  Avenue,  W.C.,  on 
Dec.  27,  1906,  was  renamed  The 
Globe,  July,  1909.  See  Bankside. 

Globe-thistle(.Ecfctw.o7w).  Genus 
of  biennial  and  perennial  herbs.  Of 
the  natural  order  Compositae,  they 
are  natives  of  Europe  and  W.  Asia. 
Their  long,  strongly  lobed  and 
spiny  leaves  give  them  a  resemb- 
lance to  thistles.  The  flower-heads 
are  gathered  into  large  globular 
masses,  each  standing  on  a  long 
stalk.  The  flowers  are  white  or 
blue.  The  best  known  species  is  the 
S.  European  E.  ritro. 

Globigerina.  Genus  of  Fora- 
minifera.  They  are  minute  proto- 
zoa, mainlv  marine,  which  secrete 


356  1 


Globigerina.  Minute  It oramimlerous 
protozoa  in  globigerina  ooze 

shells.  In  the  perforate  group  these 
shells  are  hard  and  glossy  and  are 
pierced  by  a  vast  number  of  little 
holes,  through  which  the  body  pro- 
toplasm flows  out  in  thread-like 
streams,  called  pseudopodia,  for 
the  purposes  of  locomotion  and  for 
seizing  food.  Globigerina  abound 
in  the  sea,  where  their  shells  falling 
to  the  bottom  form  the  globigerina 
ooze  which  constitutes  such  a  con- 
siderable part  of  the  bed  of  the 
ocean.  See  Foraminifera. 

Globularia.  Small  genus  of 
perennial  herbs  and  shrubs,  of  the 
natural  order  Relagineae.  Natives  of 


lilobularia   alypum,    a  greenhouse 
species  of  the  herb 


Globe-thistle.     Leaves  and  flower- 
heads  of  the  Echinops 

the  Mediterranean  region,  they 
have  leathery,  lance-shaped  leaves, 
and  numerous  small  flowers  gath- 
ered into  flattish  heads.  G.  vulgaris 
and  G.  nudicaulis,  with  blue  flowers, 
are  frequently  grown  in  gardens, 
and  G.  alypum,  a  shrubby  species, 
in  the  greenhouse.  They  are  some- 
times known  as  Ball-flowers. 

Globulins.  Class  of  protein 
substances  which  occur  both  in  the 
plant  and  animal  kingdoms.  As  a 
rule  insoluble  in  water,  they  dissolve 
in  dilute  neutral  salt  solutions. 
Globulins  in  solution  are  pre- 
cipitated by  adding  a  large  excess 
of  water ;  on  heating  they  co- 
agulate. It  is  not  possible,  how- 
ever, to  draw  a  sharp  line  of 
distinction  between  albumins  and 
globulins,  but  the  solubility  of 
globulin  in  10  p.c.  salt  solution 
is  an  arbitrary  distinction  which 
has  been  adopted. 

Glochidiuxn.  Name  given  to 
the  larval  stage  of  the  fresh-water 
mussel  (Anodonta  cygnaea)  in  the 
belief  that  it  was  a  distinct  species 
parasitic  upon  Anodonta.  This 
mussel  retains  its  eggs  until  they 
hatch,  and  the  glochidia  which 
result  from  them  are  found  at  first 
attached  to  the  gills  of  their 
parent.  They  are  cast  out  in  the 
outgoing  current  of  water  from 
the  gills  of  the  parent,  and  attach 
themselves  to  the  fins  of  stickle- 
backs and  other  fishes,  and  are 
thus  distributed  to  other  parts  of 
the  pond  or  stream.  The  shell 
develops,  and  the  young  mussels 
then  drop  to  the  bottom. 

Glockner,  GROSS.  Twin-peaked 
mountain  of  the  Noric  Alps.  It 
lies  between  Tirol,  Salzburg,  and 
Carinthia,  and  is  the  loftiest  sum- 
mit of  the  Hohe-Tauern  range.  Its 
two  peaks  are  known  as  Grossglock- 
ner  (12,455  ft.)  and  Kleinglockner, 
(12,350  ft.).  The  former  was  as- 
cended for  the  first  time  in  1800 
by  Prince  Salm-Reifferscheid.  The 
Pasterze  glacier  is  fed  by  the 
Glockner  snows. 

Glogau.  Town  of  Germany,  in 
Silesia.  Situated  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Oder,  some  60  m.  by  rly. 


GLOSSITIS 

N.W.  of  Breslau,  it  was  a  for- 
tress of  some  importance,  and  has 
a  cathedral.  The  industries  in- 
clude the  manufacture  of  sugar, 
starch,  pottery,  and  chemicals. 
The  town  has  a  large  wine  trade 
and  iron-foundries,  printing  and 
map-making  works.  Pop.  24,524. 

Glommen.  River  of  Norway, 
the  principal  stream  of  the  country. 
It  rises  in  the  Dovrefeld  at  an  alt. 
of  2,338  ft.,  issuing  from  Lake 
Aursund.  Flowing  in  a  generally 
S.  direction  for  350  m.,  it  falls  into 
the  Skager  Rack  at  Frederiksstadt. 
Timber  from  the  Osterdal  region, 
the  richest  wood  district  in  Nor- 
way, is  floated  down  stream  to 
Frederiksstadt.  The  drainage  area 
of  its  basin  is  15,925  sq.  m.,  and  its 
largest  tributary  is  the  Vormen. 

Gloriana.  Titular  character  of 
Spenser's  allegorical  poem,  The 
Faerie  Queene.  Introduced  in 
canto  i,  3,  as  "  That  greatest 
Glorious  Queene  of  Faeryland," 
she  personifies  both  Glory  and 
Queen  Elizabeth,  to  whom  the 
work  is  dedicated  and  who  also 
figures  in  it  as  Belphoebe. 

Gloriosa.  Small  genus  of 
bulbous  herbs  of  the  natural  order 
Liliaceae.  Natives  of  tropical  Asia 
and  Africa,  their  branching  stems 
bear  lance-shaped  leaves  in  pairs 
or  whorls.  These  leaves  have  slen- 
der extended  tips  which  act  as 
tendrils,  enabling  the  plants  to 
climb.  The  rich  orange  and  red 
flowers  are  reversed,  their  six 
undulated  segments  turning  up- 
wards, whilst  the  stamens  and 
pistils  spread  out  below. 

Glory.  British  battleship  of  the 
Canopus  (q.v.)  class,  now  known  as 
the  Crescent.  Launched  in  1899, 
she  was  employed  in  the  White  Sea 
in  1919,  and  was  appropriated  for 
service  at  Rosyth  as  depot  ship,  re- 
turning from  there  in  the  autumn. 
Re-named  the  Crescent  in  1920,  she 
flew  the  flag  of  Admiral  Sir  H.  L. 
Heath,  Commander-in-chief,  Coast 
of  Scotland.  The  cruiser  Crescent 
was  known  from  1920  as  the 
Crescent  (old). 

Gloss  (Lat.  glossa,  obscure 
word).  Note  or  remark  in  the 
margin  of  a  book  or  between  the 
lines,  to  explain  words  likely  to  be 
of  doubtful  meaning  to  the  reader  ; 
originally  employed  by  the  copyists 
of  old  manuscripts  to  make  the 
meaning  clear.  A  collection  of 
glosses  forms  a  glossary,  frequently 
put  at  the  end  of  a  volume,  and 
often  published  as  a  separate 
work.  See  Manuscripts. 

Glossitis  (Gr.  glossa,  tongue). 
Inflammation  of  the  tongue.  Acute 
glossitis  may  arise  from  injuries, 
bites,  stings  of  insects,  or  over- 
administration  of  mercury,  and  is 
occasionally  seen  in  acute  fevers. 


GLOSSODIA 

The  tongue  becomes  swollen  and 
painful,  and  speech,  swallowing, 
and  respiration  are  interfered  with. 
Treatment  depends  upon  the  cause. 
In  severe  cases,  leeches  may  be 
applied  beneath  the  angles  of  the 
jaw,  or  incisions  made  into  the 
tongue.  If  an  abscess  forms  it 
should  be  opened.  See  Tongue. 

Glossodia  (Gr.  glossa,  tongue). 
Small  genus  of  terrestrial  orchids. 
Natives  of  Australia,  they  have 
egg-shaped  tuberous  roots  and  a 
solitary  lance-shaped,  or  oblong 
leaf.  The  flowering  stem  does  not 
exceed  1  ft.  in  height,  bearing  one, 
two,  or  three  blue  or  purple  flowers, 
sometimes  speckled  with  white. 
These  are  of  more  regular  form 
than  in  most  orchids.  At  the  base 
of  the  lip  of  the  flower  is  a  long, 
tongue-like  appendage  which  has 
suggested  the  name  of  the  genus. 

Glossop.  Mun.  borough  and 
market  town  of  Derbyshire.  It  is 
13  m.  S.E.  of  Manchester,  having 
a  station  on  the  G.C.  Ely.  In  the 
Manchester  area,  its  chief  industry 
is  the  manufacture  of  cotton.  There 
are  also  dyeworks,  bleachworks, 
and  paper  mills,  while  coal  is  mined 
in  the  neighbourhood.  The  chief 
church  is  All  Saints,  a  modern 
building,  and  there  is  a  fine  Roman 
Catholic  church.  Much  of  the  town, 
which  includes  Howard  Town  and 
Milltown,  as  well  as  Glossop  pro- 
per, is  built  on  land  belonging  to 
the  Howards,  one  of  whom  bears 
the  title  of  Lord  Howard  of 
Glossop  and  lives  at  Glossop  Hall, 
a  building  in  the  French  style. 
Glossop  is  on  the  edge  of  the  Peak 
district,  and  near  it  is  Longendale, 
with  the  Etheridge  flowing  through 
some  fine  scenery.  It  was  made  a 
borough  in  1866.  Market  day,  Sat. 
Pop.  21,688. 

Gloss o  -  pharyngeal  Nerve. 
Ninth  cranial  nerve.  It  is  the 
nerve  of  sensation  to  the  upper  part 
of  the  throat  and  tonsils;  of  taste 
to  the  back  and  posterior  two-thirds 
of  the  side  of  the  tongue ;  and  of 
motion  to  the  stylo-pharyngeal 
muscle ;  and  middle  constrictor  of 
the  pharynx. 

Glottis  (Gr.).  Chink  between 
the  true  vocal  cords.  It  alters  in 
size  and  shape  with  the  degree  of 
tenseness  in  the  cords  which  also 
determines  the  pitch  of  the  note 
emitted  in  speaking  or  singing. 

Gloucester.  City,  co.  of  itseli. 
parl.  and  mun.  bor.,  port  and  co. 
town  of  Gloucestershire,  England. 
It  stands  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Severn,  114  m.  W.  by  N.  of  London 
on  the  G.W.  and  Mid.  Rlys.  and 
the  Berkeley  Canal  (16£  m.),  which 
connects  the  docks  with  those  at 
Sharpness  in  the  Severn  estuary. 

An  abbey  was  established  here 
in  681  and  in  1022  a  Benedictine 


3562 

monastery  was  founded,  the  church 
of  which,  following  the  dissolution 
of  the  monasteries  by  Henry  VIII, 
became  the  cathe- 
dral in  1541,  when 
Gloucester    was 
constituted  a 
separate   see. 
Substantially 
Norman,    the 
cathedral     i  s     a 
magnificent    edi- 
Gloucester  arms     fice,  and  contains 
the     canopied 

shrine  of  Edward  II,  the  shrine  of 
Osric,  king  of  Northumbria,  and 
other  fine  monuments,  and  some 
beautiful  stained  glass  windows. 
Other  buildings  include  the  12th 
century  church  of  S.  Mary  de 
Crypt,  the  episcopal  palace,  the 
guildhall,  the  prison,  the  King's 
School,  and  other  educational  in- 
stitutions. The  centre  of  the  city 
is  the  Cross,  the  intersection  of 
the  four  main  streets,  known  as 
the  Eastgate,  Northgate,  West- 
gate,  and  Southgate. 

Remains  of  the  ancient  walls 
exist,  and  there  are  memorials  to 
Hooper  the  martyr,  and  Raikes, 
the  founder  of  Sunday-schools. 
There  is  a  fine  public  park  in 
which  is  a  chalybeate  spring,  dis- 
covered in  1814.  Gloucester  has 
engineering  and  other  works  for 
the  manufacture  of  railway  car- 
riages, engines,  agricultural  imple- 
ments, machinery,  oil  and  feeding 


GLOUCESTER 

cake,  chemicals  and  essences,  and 
factories  for  making  matches,  pins, 
carpets,  rugs,  toys,  etc.  One  mem- 
ber is  returned  to  Parliament. 
Market  day,  Sat.  Pop.  51,330. 

Gloucester  is  one  of  the  most 
historic  of  English  cities.  Com- 
manding the  passage  of  the  Severn, 
it  was  probably  the  British  Caer 
Glow,  and  the  Roman  Glevum. 
In  Anglo-Saxon  times  it  was  also 
a  fortified  place,  and  occasionally 
the  residence  of  kings.  It  was  one 
of  the  three  places  at  which  William 
the  Conqueror  wore  his  crown. 
Several  parliaments  were  held  here 
and  in  every  civil  war,  down  to  the 
one  between  Charles  I  and  his 
foes,  its  possession  was  coveted. 

Gloucester.  City  of  Massa- 
chusetts, U.S.A.,  in  Essex  co.  On 
the  N.  side  of  Massachusetts  Bay, 
32  m.  N.E.  of  Boston,  it  is  served 
by  the  Boston  and  Maine  Rly.  A 
port  of  entry  and  a  popular  sum- 
mer resort,  it  has  one  of  the  finest 
harbours  on  the  coast,  and  is  the 
chief  cod,  halibut,  and  mackerel 
fishing  centre  in  the  U.S.A. 

About  2  m.  -distant  is  Norman's 
Woe,  the  sunken  rock  of  Long- 
fellow's The  Wreck  of  the  Hesperus. 
Settled  about  1634.  Pop.  24,398. 

Gloucester.  British  light  crui- 
ser of  the  Bristol  (q.v. )  class.  She 
became  famous  for  her  effort  to  pre- 
vent the  escape  of  the  Goeben  (q.v.). 
On  Aug.  6,  1914,  the  Gloucester 
got  into  touch  with  the  Goeben 


Gloucester.       The  cathedral  from  the  south-east.       In  the  foreground  is  the 
15th  century  Lady  Chapel 

Frith 


GLOUCESTER 

and  the  Breslau  off  the  Straits  of 
Messina,  when  they  were  running 
for  the  Dardanelles.  She  chased 
them  as  far  as  Cape  Helles  and 
frequently  fired  at  them.  She 
also  took  part  in  the  battle  of 
Jutland,  May  31,  1916. 

Gloucester,  EARL  AND  DUKE  OF. 
English  titles  now  extinct.  Like 
other  counties,  Gloucester  had  its 
earls  in  Norman  times,  one  of  these 
being  Robert,  a  natural  son  of 
Henry  I.  The  great  family  of  Clare 
secured  the  title  about  1218,  and 
retained  it  until  Earl  Gilbert  was 
killed  at  Bannockburn  in  1314.  In 
1385  Thomas  of  Woodstock,  a 
younger  son  of  Edward  III,  was 
made  duke  of  Gloucester,  and 
after  he  had  forfeited  the  title  in 
1397  it  was  held  by  two  other  well- 
known  men :  Henry  IV's  son 
Humphrey,  and  he  who  became 
Richard  III.  Later  dukes  of 
Gloucester  were  Henry,  a  son  of 
Charles  I;  William  (d.  1700),  the 
eldest  son  of  Queen  Anne;  and 
George  Ill's  brother,  William 
Henry,  created  duke  in  1764.  He 
died  in  1805,  when  his  only  son, 
William  Frederick,  known  as  Silly 
Billy,  became  duke.  He  married 
his  cousin,  Mary,  daughter  of 
George  III,  and  when  he  died, 
childless,  in  1834,  the  title  again 
became  extinct. 

Gloucester,  HUMPHREY,  DUKE 
OF  (1391-1447).     Youngest  son  of 
Henry   IV   of   England.      Created 
duke  of  Glou- 
c  ester,  1414, 
by  his  brother, 
Henry   V,   he 
was  wounded 
at    the   battle 
o  f    Agincourt 
and  rescued  by 
the  king.     He 
acted    as    re- 
Humphrey,  gent  during 
ie  of  Gloucester      t,  h  R      k  i  n  cr's 


the      king's 
absence   in 


Duke  of 

From  a  portrait 

France,  ]  420-21,  and  was  protector 
with  but  limited  powers,  at  inter- 
vals, during  the  minority  of  his 
nephew,  Henry  VI.  He  died  at 
Bury,  Feb.  23, 1447,  after  arrest  on 
a  doubtful  charge  of  treason,  and 
was  buried  at  St.  Albans. 

He  was  known  as  "  the  good 
Duke  Humphrey  "  from  the  popu- 
lar notion  of  him  as  a  patriot.  A 
patron  of  learning,  he  made  many 
gifts  to  Oxford.  See  Humphrey ; 
consult  Life,  K.  H.  Vickers,  1907. 

Gloucester,  THOMAS  OF  WOOD- 
STOCK, DUKE  OF  (1355-97).  English 
prince.  The  youngest  son  of 
Edward  III,  he  was  born  at  Wood- 
stock, Jan.  7, 1355.  A  rich  wife  was 
found  for  him  in  the  heiress  of  the 
Bohuns,  and  he  was  made  con- 
stable of  England  and  earl  of  Buck- 
ingham. Thomas's  public  life 


was    the    real 
ruler  of   Eng. 


almost  covered  the  reign  of  his 
nephew,  Richard  II.  Having 
fought  in  France,  he  took  part  in 
domestic  affairs,  and  was  the  leader 
of  those  who  put  a  check  upon  the 
arbitrary 
deeds  of 
Richard  in 
1386;  as  the 
leader  of  the 
lords  appel- 
lant in  1388, 
lie  crushed  his 
enemies  ruth- 
lessly, and  for 

Tbomas  olt  Wood-      a    short    time 
stock,  Duke  of 
Gloucester 

From  a  portrait 

Richard  regained  authority  in 
1389,  but  kept  on  good  terms  with 
the  duke  until  1396.  Differences 
arising  between  them,  Richard  him- 
self arrested  Gloucester  at  Pleshey, 
his  Essex  castle,  in  July,  1397,  and 
a  little  later  his  end  came  ;  most 
probably  he  was  executed  at  Calais 
in  September.  His  only  son  was  not 
allowed  to  inherit  his  titles  or 
estates. 

Gloucestershire.  Western  co. 
of  England.  Its  area  is  1,243  sq. 
m.,  and  it  is  64  m.  long.  Very  irreg- 
ular in  shape,  it 
falls  into  three 
parts.  In  the  west, 
lying  between  the 
Severn  and  the 
Wye,  is  the  forest 
of  Dean  ;  the  cen- 
tre district  is  that 
of  the  Severn 
valley,  and  the 
east  that  of  the 
Cotswolds.  The  chief  rivers  are  the 
Severn,  which  flows  right  through 
the  county  and  forms  the  estuary 
which  makes  it  a  maritime  county, 
Wye,  Upper  and  Lower  Avon,  and 
Thames,  which  rises  here.  Smaller 
ones  are  the  Frome,  Coin,  Lech, 
and  Leddon.  The  chief  range  of 
hills  is  the  Cotswolds,  famous 
rather  for  their  quiet  beauty  than 
for  their  height,  although  some  of 
the  points  exceed  1,000  ft. 

Gloucestershire  is  mainly  an 
agricultural  county,  although  coal 
is  mined  in  the  forest  of  Dean.  The 
valley  of  the  Severn  is  noted  for 
its  rich  pasture  land,  while  here 
much  wheat  is  grown.  Cheese  is 
made,  cattle  are  reared,  apples 
and  pears  are  grown  for  making 
cider  and  perry.  Sheep  are 
plentiful  on  the  Cotswolds.  Cloth 
is  manufactured,  several  of  the 
small  towns,  especially  Stroud, 
being  noted  for  their  broadcloth. 

Gloucester  is  the  county  town, 
but  Bristol  is  much  the  largest. 
Cirencester  and  Tewkesbury  are 
noted  for  their  architectural  and 
historical  associations.  Cheltenham 


Gloucestershire 
arms 


GLOUCESTERSHIRE 

is  a  watering-pU>ce  and  educational 
centre.  A  feature  of  the  county  is 
the  number  of  picturesque  market 
towns,  among  them  Minchinhamp- 
ton,  Northleach,  Nailsworth,  Tet- 
bury,  Chipping  Campden,  and 
Winchcomb. 

The  county  is  served  by  the  Mid. 
and  G.W.  Rlys.  and  by  the  Thames 
and  Severn  canal.  It  sends  four 
members  to  Parliament.  A  hunt- 
ing county,  it  supports  several 
packs  of  hounds,  while  in  cricket 
it  holds  a  foremost  place.  It  is  in 
the  Oxford  circuit  and  mainly  in 
the  dioceses  of  Gloucester  and 
Bristol.  Pop.  (1921)  757,668. 

LITERARY  ASSOCIATIONS.  Robert 
of  Gloucester  was  a  13th  century 
rhyming  chronicler.  Another 
chronicler  of  a  century  later  was 
Richard  of  Cirencester,  but  his  life 
was  mainly  associated  with  West- 
minster. William  Tyndale,  first 
English  translator  of  the  Bible, 
belonged  to  a  Gloucestershire 
family.  A  bishop  of  Bristol  was 
Joseph  Butler,  author  of  The  An- 
alogy of  Religion.  William  War- 
burton,  critic  and  friend  of  Pope, 
was  bishop  of  Gloucester. 

Notable  writers  born  at  Bristol 
include  William  Grocyn,  the  Greek 
scholar,  the  water  poet,  John  Tay- 
lor, Sir  William  Penn,  Thomas 
Chatterton,  and  Robert  Southey. 
John  Keble,  author  of  the  Chris- 
tian Year,  was  born  at  Fairford  ; 
Richard  Graves,  author  of  The 
Spiritual  Quixote,  at  Mickleton ; 
and  Hannah  More  at  Stapleton. 
Daniel  and  Samuel  Lysons  were 
natives  of  the  county. 

The  Cicester  of  Shakespeare's 
Richard  II  is  the  modern  Ciren- 
cester, while  to  the  W.  of  the  latter 
is  Cirencester  House,  formerly 
known  as  Oakley  Park,  frequently 
visited  by  Swift  and  Pope.  At 
Amberley,  Dinah  Maria  Craik  wrote 
her  famous  novel  entitled  John 
Halifax,  Gentleman.  - 

Among  the  many  writers  who 
have  used  Gloucestershire  as  back- 
ground may  be  mentioned  Shelley  ; 
T.  E.  Brown,  for  many  years 
master  at  Gloucester  and  Clifton 
schools  ;  and  Sir  Henry  Newbolt ; 
while  Bristol  and  Clifton  are  scenes 
of  diverting  incidents  in  Dickens's 
Pickwick  Papers. 
"  Bibliography.  Tourists'  Guide  to 
Gloucestershire,  R.  N.  Worth,  1888  ; 
The  Bibliographer's  Manual  of 
Gloucestershire  Literature,  F.  A. 
Hyett  and  W.  Bazeley,  3  vols., 
1 8*95-97,  with  Supplement  by  F.  A. 
Hyett  and  R.  Austin,  2  vols.,  1915- 
16  ;  Victoria  County  History,  ed. 
W.  Page,  1907,  etc.  ;  By  Thames 
and  Cotswold,  W.  H.  Hutton,  2nd 
ed.  1908  ;  Memorials  of  Old  Glouces- 
tershire, ed.  P.  H.  Ditchfield,  1911  ; 
Byways  in  Berkshire  and  the  Cots- 
wolds, P.  H.  Ditchfield,  1920. 


GLOUCESTERSHIRE      REGIMENT 


GLOVES      AND     GLOVE-MAKING 


Gloucester  Regi- 
ment badge 


Gloucestershire     Regiment. 

Regiment  of  the  British  army. 
Known  by  this  name  since  1881,  it 
represents  the 
old  28th  and  6 1st 
regiments  of 
foot.  It  served 
under  Marl- 
borough,  and 
helped  to  win  the 
battle  of  Ramil- 
lies  in  1706.  At 
Almanza  the  regiment  incurred 
heavy  losses  ;  it  was  present  at  the 
battle  of  Fontenoy  in  1745,  and 
assisted  at  the  capture  of  Louis- 
burg  in  1758  and  Quebec  in  1759. 
In  the  battle  before  Alexandria 
(1801)  the  regiment  repulsed  the 
French  attack  on  both  sides,  in 
commemoration  of  which  the  men 
enjoy  the  distinction  of  wearing 
the  regimental  badge  on  the  front 
and  back  of  their  caps. 

It  fought  in  the  Peninsular  War, 
distinguishing  itself  at  Talavera 
(1809),  Salamanca  (1812),  and 
Toulouse.  Later  it  Avon  distinction 
at  Quatre  Bras  and  Waterloo,  in 
the  Punjab  campaign,  the  Crimean 
War,  and  the  Indian  Mutiny. 
During  the  S.  African  War  the 
Gloucesters  shared  in  the  defence 
of  Ladysmith,  the  relief  of  Kim- 
berley,  and  in  the  operations  which 
led  to  the  occupation  of  Bloemfon- 
tein,  March  14,  1900. 

The  regiment  fought  with  dis- 
tinction in  the  Great  War.  The  1st 
battalion  was  in  the  retreat  from 
Mons  and  at  the  battles  of  the 
Aisne  and  Ypres,  1914.  It  did 
splendid  service  at  Loos,  1915,  on 
the  Somme,  1916,  and  in  subsequent 
fighting.  The  10th  service  battalion 
was  singled  out  for  mention  by 
Lord  French  for  gallant  work  at 
Loos,  and  the  Ist-Gth  battalion 


GLOVES 


Gloucestershire. 


Map  ol  the  West  of  England  county,  showing  the  head  oi 
the  Severn  estuary 


(Territorials)  rendered  excellent 
service  in  1915-16  at  St.  Eloi, 
Wulverghem,  and  elsewhere.  A 
stone  obelisk  is  to  be  erected  on 
the  Ypres-Menin  road  near  Hooge 
to  commemorate  the  regiment's 
campaigns,  1914-18.  The  regi- 
mental depot  is  at  Bristol. 


AND   GLOVE-MAKING 

A.  T.  E.  Binstead,  of  The  Drapers'  Organiser 

Articles  of  related  interest  to  this  are  those  on  Costume  and  the 
various  items  thereof,  e.g.  Boot  ;  Hat.     See  also  Leather 


A  glove  is  a  covering  for  the  hand. 
The  custom  of  wearing  gloves  goes 
back  to  immemorial  times.  Xeno- 
phon  refers  to  their  use  by  the 
Persians.  They  were  familiar  to 
the  Romans,  who,  however,  gener- 
ally despised  their  use,  and  were 
worn  by  the  Anglo-Saxons  in  the 
7th  century.  In  those  days  there 
was  only  a  separate  division  for  the 
thumb,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  they 
were  generally  worn  in  England 
until  some  centuries  later.  A  glove 
with  two  thumbs,  so  that  it  may  be 
used  for  either  hand,  is  still  worn 
in  Iceland.  In  the  13th  century 
gloves  made  of  linen  and  reaching 
to  the  elbow  began  to  be  worn  for 
ornament,  as  well  as  for  warmth 


or  protection.  Leather  gauntlet 
gloves  were  used  for  hawking, 
and  knights  when  in  full  armour 
had  gloves  with  metal  entirely 
covering  the  back  of  the  hand 
and  overlapping  the  fingers. 
These  were  made  flexible  in  the 
centre.  Gloves  were  part  of  the 
imperial  insignia  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  and  are  still  worn  ceremoni- 
ally by  the  pope  and  the  Roman 
Catholic  hierarchy.  In  the  gor- 
geous dress  of  the  15th,  16th,  and 
17th  centuries  gloves,  perfumed, 
jewelled,  or  richly  embroidered  on 
the  back,  and  decorated  with 
fringed  gauntlets,  made  their  ap- 
pearance. Queen  Elizabeth  was 
especially  fond  of  these  costly 


articles,  and  some  of  her  gloves  are 
still  extant. 

The  three  rows  of  stitchery 
seen  on  the  back  of  modern 
gloves  are  said  to  be  a  survival  of 
these  embroidered  backs,  though 
it  is  more  probable  that  formerly 
the  stitching  of  the  fingers  was  ex- 
tended to  make  the  hand  look  long 
and  slim.  Modern  forms  of  gloves 
include  rubber  ones  worn  by  sur- 
geons, electricians,  etc.,  and  padded 
gloves  for  boxing  and  for  other 
sports  and  games. 

Gloves  as  Symbols 

Gloves  have  had  their  symbolic 
meanings.  Thus  it  was  the  custom 
to  wear  gloves  in  the  hat  as  the 
favour  of  a  mistress,  the  memorial 
of  a  friend,  and  as  a  mark  to  be 
challenged  by  an  enemy  ;  and  a 
glove  was  thrown  down  as  a  chal- 
lenge to  an  enemy,  who  accepted 
battle  by  picking  it  up. 

Gloves  are  believed  to  have  been 
first  made  hi  England  on  a  large 
scale  by  the  monks  of  Bath.  In  the 
14th  century  a  guild  of  glovers  came 
into  existence  in  London,  and  the 
trade  of  making  them  was  already 
a  profitable  calling.  The  prices  of 
ordinary  sheep-leather  gloves  were 
then  fixed  at  IJd.  per  pair,  whilst 
the  best  gloves  fetched  2d.  a  pair. 


Ulpves.    Processes  in  the  manufacture.     1.  Preparing  and,  2,  stretching  the 
skins  before  cutting  into  shape.     3.  Brushing  dye  into  the  skins.     4.  Press  and 
die  (the  latter  shown  in  foreground)  for  cutting  out.     5.  Finishing  and,  6,  stitch- 
ing silk  on  the  backs 


Lamb    glove    and    Cape    glove, 
when  advanced  to  the  stage  of  tan- 


Suede  leather  is  generally  inferior 
in  strength,  if  not  in  appearance, 


on  the  grain  side. 

The   chamois   and  the    doeskin 


As  early  as  1 190  the  glove-makers 
of  France  had  formed  themselves 
into  a  company  with  S.  Anne  as 
their  patron,  while  in  Scotland  the 
glove-makers  of  Perth  were  a 
chartered  corporation  in  11G5.  In 
England  the  glovers  obtained  a 
charter  for  their  company  in  1038. 

Names  and  Materials 
In  considering  the  glove  trade, 
it  is  well  to  have  a  clear  idea  of  the 
meaning  of  the  various  names 
applied  to  gloves  of  various  quali- 
ties. The  name  Cape,  one  of  the 
first  to  be  met  with,  was  originally 
used  to  designate  a  glove  from  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  skin  is 
large,  heavy,  and  rather  tight- 
grained.  Latterly,  however,  the 
soft,  pliable  glove  usually  made 
from  sheep  and  lamb  skins  tanned 
and  dressed  by  the  "  nappa  "  me- 
thod has  become  commercially 
known  as  Cape.  What  was  once  a 
name  for  a  glove  made  from  a 
single  type  of  skin  is  now  the 
designation  of  a  glove  made  from 
leather  of  a  particular  tannage. 
The  best  types  of  these  skins  come 
from  the  district  of  Kasan  and  the 
Volga  area  in  Russia.  Others  come 
from  Spain,  Turkey,  Rumania, 
Bulgaria,  Montenegro,  and  Serbia, 
and  to  a  smaller  extent  from  some 
other  sources.  The  skins  with  the 
finest  grades  of  wool  are  normally 
inferior  for  glove -making  to  those 
with  hairy,  wiry  wool. 


ning  known  as  "  in  the  white,"  are  to  the  same  types  of  skins  dressed 
virtually  identical,  except  that  the 
skins  that  make  Capes  are  heavier 
and  larger.  It  is  in  the  finishing  of  commerce  are  both  sheepskins, 
and  colouring  processes  that  the  or  parts  of  sheepskins,  tanned  and 
distinction  occurs.  The  dressing  dressed  as  chamois  or  doeskins, 
and  colouring  which  complete  the  Dealers  and  merchants  in  sheep- 
tannage  of  Capes  is  done  by  the  skins  find  it  advantageous  to  split 
"  drum  "  or  "  dipped  "  process,  the  skins  edgewise,  thus  providing 
and  the  skin  is  coloured  all  the  way  two  thinner  skins.  The  upper  part 
through ;  whereas  leather  for  the  with  the  grain  surface  is  termed  a 
so-called  lamb  glove  has  the  colour  "  skiver,"  and  the  lower  a  "  flesher," 
"  brushed  "  on  the  grain  surface  and  it  is  from  these  flesher  sheep- 
only,  leaving  the  flesh  side  or  the  skins  that  the  leathers  known  as 
inside  of  the  glove  white.  The  chamois  and  doeskin  are  produced, 
nappa  tannage  is  an  alum  process,  All  gloves  are  practically  sub- 
and  besides  there  is  a  chrome  tan-  jected  to  the  same  process.  After 
nage  which  has  the  merit  of  being  they  have  been  stamped  out  the 
washable  in  water  of  any  tempera-  sewing  process  is  carried  out  by 
ture  up  to  boiling  point.  machines.  The  first  machine  in- 
After  much  experiment  a  tan-  vented  for  glove  sewing  was  put  on 
nage  was  perfected  for  the  skin  of  *ne  market  about  1875. 
the  Arabian  haired  sheep,  resulting  British  Developments 
in  the  production  of  the  strong,  Not  only  in  output,  but  in  the 
soft,  and  velvet-like  finished  Mocha  quality  and  finish  of  the  cloth 
glove.  The  Mocha  sheep  is  a  dis-  from  which  gloves  are  made,  British 
tinct  type,  not  a  species  resulting  makers  have  made  rapid  progress, 
from  cross-breeding  between  the  and  the  best  fabrics  of  home  pro- 
Mocha  goat  and  the  woolled  sheep,  duction  are  equal  to  any  pre-war 
as  is  frequently  supposed.  No  other  foreign  goods.  Particularly  is  this 
glove  passes  through  so  many  pro-  true  of  the  "  sueded  "  cloth,  a 
cesses  in  tanning  and  dressing  as  fabric  so  finished  as  to  give  it  the 
the  Mocha,  and  while  the  ap-  velvety  feel  and  appearance  of 
pearance  of  the  finished  leather  sueded  leather  ;  and  of  "  Duplex  " 
somewhat  resembles  suede,  it  is  .cloth,  which  is  made  by  sticking 


in  fact  very  different  in  character. 
Mocha  is  "  friezed,"  not  "  sueded." 
The  finished  or  outer  side  surface 
of  the  gloves  is  on  the  grain,  not 
the  flesh  side  of  the  leather.  The 


together  two  single  cloths  by  pro- 
cesses which  are  more  or  less  a 
secret.  Before  the  war  these 
cloths  were  almost  entirely  a 
German  monopoly,  but  machinery 


friezing  process  removes  the  grain,  has  been  produced  which  gives 
leaving  much  of  the  strength  of  the  results  equal  to  any  German 
outer  skin.  The  name  suede  is  fabrics.  The  manufacture  of  dye- 
applied  to  a  glove  of  leather  when  stuffs  had  also  become  a  German 
subjected  to  the  sueding  process,  monopoly,  so  that,  not  only  were 


GLOVERS'      COMPANY 


3566 


GLUE 


cotton  dye-stuffs  difficult  to  get 
after  the  German  dyes  were  shut 
out,  but  it  was  a  long  time  before 
the  British  make  approached  the 
perfection  and  reliability  of  the 
imported  article,  with  the  result 
that  the  reliable  dyeing  of  glove 
fabrics  was  a  very  difficult  matter. 

Bibliography.  A  Complete  View 
of  the  Dress  and  Habits  of  the 
English  People  from  the  Establish- 
ment of  the  Saxons  in  Britain  to  the 
Present  Time,  J.  Strutt,  1842  ; 
Gloves,  their  Annals  and  Associa- 
tions, S.  W.  Beck,  1883  ;  Chats  on 
Costume,  G.  W.  Rhead,  1906 ; 
Gloves  Past  and  Present,  W.  M. 
Smith,  1917  ;  Other  People's  Know- 
ledge about  Gloves,  W.  M.  Smith, 
1918. 

Glovers'       Company,      THE. 
London  city  livery  company.   First 
mentioned    in    1349,    incorporated 
with  the  Leather- 
sellers  in  1502,  it 
was     separately 
incorporated     by 
letters  patent  in 
1638.    The  site  of 
the   old    hall,  in 
Beech  Lane,  E.G., 
Glovers' Company   is    covered    by 
arms  warehouses.    The 

offices  are  2,  Moorgate  Street  Build- 
ings, E.G. 

Gloversville.  City  of  New 
York,  U.S.A.,  in  Fulton  co.  On  the 
Erie  Canal,  64  m.  N.W.  of  Albany, 
it  is  served  by  the  Fonda,  Johns- 
town and  Gloversville  Rly.  It 
contains  a  state  armoury,  a  federal 
building,  a  public  library,  and  the 
Nathan  Littauer  hospital.  The 
chief  glove-making  centre  in  the 
U.S.A.,  its  other  industries  include 
tanning  and  the  manufacture  of 
various  leather  articles.  Settled 
about  1769  and  for  several  years 
called  Stump  City,  Gloversville 
was  incorporated  in  1851  and  be- 
came a  city  in  1890.  Pop.  22,314. 
Glow  Lamp.  Alternative  name 
for  the  incandescent  electric  lamp. 
It  is  so  called  from  the  fact  that 
electricity  is  made  to  pass  through  a 
fine  conductor,  e.g.  carbon  filaments 
or  platinum  wires,  causing  them  to 
glow.  See  Lighting,  Electric. 

Glow-worm.  Name  given  to 
the  female  of  the  beetle  Lampyris 
noctiluca.  It  is  common  in  many 
parts  of  Great  Britain  and  through- 
out central  and  southern  Europe. 
While  the  male  possesses  large 
elytra  and  has  the  usual  appear- 
ance of  a  beetle,  the  female  is  wing- 
less and  grublike  in  form,  resemb- 
ling a  larva  rather  than  a  perfect 
insect.  It  derives  its  name  from 
the  presence  of  luminous  spots  on 
the  abdomen,  which  appear  to 
attract  the  male.  See  Beetle. 

Gloxinia.  Hot-house  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Gesneriaceae. 
They  are  natives  of  Central  Asia 


and  India,  and  were  introduced 
into  Britain  in  1739.  They  reach 
an  average  height  of  1  ft.  and 
have  elongated,  bell-shaped  blos- 
soms of  every  possible  shade  and 
colour.  They  may  be  raised  from 


Gloxinia.     Foliage  and  flowers  of 
G.  sinningia 

seed  planted  in  March  in  an 
ordinary  greenhouse,  or  from  the 
tubers  potted  up  early  in  the  year. 
Gloxinias  need  watering  freely 
until  they  flower,  but  when  the 
foliage  withers,  water  should  be 
gradually  diminished  in  supply 
until  the  tubers  are  quite  dry. 
There  are  about  six  species  in 
cultivation,  but  the  hybrids  are 
innumerable. 

Glucinum.  Variant  name  of  the 
chemical  element  beryllium  (ff.v.). 

Gluck,    ClIRISTOPH     WlLLIBALD 

VON  (1714-87).  German  composer. 
Born  at  Weidenwang,  Bavaria, 
July  2, 1714,he 
studied  music 
at  Prague  and 
later  at  Milan. 
After  prod  uc- 
ing  a  number 
of  operas  of 
the  c  o  n  v  e  n- 
tiorial  type,  he 
realized  the 
need  of  drastic 
reforms  in  the 
character  o  f 
opera  and  in- 
troduced these  into  his  works.  His 
Orfeo  ed  Euridice,  produced  in 
1 762,  is  a  landmark  in  the  history 
of  opera,  and  shows  his  ideas  of 
making  the  relation  of  the  music  to 
the  poetry  more  harmonious,  resem- 
bling that  between  the  arrangement 
of  light  and  shade  in  drawing. 

His  opera  Iphigenie  en  Aulide 
(Paris,  1774)  was  the  occasion  of 
a  struggle  between  the  two  musical 
schools  in  which  Gluck's  party  was 
victorious  over  the  followers  of 
Piccinni.  Gluck  was  at  one  time 
music  master  to  Marie  Antoinette. 
For  long  he  resided  in  Vienna  and 
received  from  the  emperor  the  title 
of  Ritter  von.  He  died  there, 
Nov.  15,  1787. 


Glucose.  Dextrose  or  grape 
sugar.  It  is  a  carbohydrate  present 
in  many  fruits,  and  in  honey.  It  is 
the  form  of  sugar  which  is  present 
in  the  blood  in  the  disease  diabetes. 
Under  the  influence  of  yeast  it  is 
converted  into  ethyl  alcohol  and 
carbonic  acid.  See  Dextrose;  Sugar. 

Glucosides.  Class  of  substances, 
occurring  in  the  vegetable  kingdom, 
which  yield  glucose  (dextrose)  on 
fermentation  or  by  the  action  of 
dilute  acids.  Among  the  glucosides 
there  are  several  which  are  em- 
ployed in  medicine,  as  digitalin, 
digitonin,  and  digitoxin  obtained 
from  foxglove  (Digitalis  purpurea); 
jalapin  from  Ipomoea  orizabensis 
and  Convolvulus  scammonia ;  sali- 
cin  from  the  willow,  and  strophan- 
thin  from  strophanthus  seeds. 
Some  glucosides  yield  hydrocyanic 
(prussic)  acid,  and  have  caused  the 
death  of  cattle.  Saponin  is  a  glu- 
coside  to  which  the  frothing  pro- 
perties of  many  plants  are  due. 

Glue.  Impure  gelatin  used  for 
its  adhesive  qualities  to  hold  to- 
gether various  substances,  chiefly 
wood.  It  is  prepared  from  both  the 
skins  and  bones  of  animals,  the 
skins  producing  a  far  stronger  glue 
than  the  bones.  Fish  glue  is  pre- 
pared by  boiling  the  skin  and  tissue 
of  cod  and  other  fish,  and  properly 
manufactured  is  as  good  as  hide 
glue.  Liquid  glue  is  glue  which  has 
been  treated  with  nitric  or  acetic 
acid  to  prevent  it  from  gelatin- 
ising, without  destroying  any  of 
its  adhesive  qualities.  Marine  glue 
is  a  solution  of  rubber  and  shellac 
in  naphtha  or  benzene,  and  is  used 
in  shipbuilding  for  its  property  of 
resisting  moisture.  A  mixture  of 
linseed  oil  and  quicklime  heated 
together  is  another  form  of  water- 
proof glue.  There  are  a  large 
number  of  other  varieties  of  glues 
prepared  for  special  purposes,  as 
repairing  glass,  ivory,  etc.,  and 
many  of  these  contain  no  gelatin. 

During  the  Great  War  the  manu- 
facture of  the  best  glues  became  of 
great  importance  with  the  sudden 
increase  in  the  demand  for  them  in 
connexion  with  aeroplanes.  The 
necessity  for  having  a  reliable  glue 
brought  to  light  the  fact  that  the 
study  of  gelatins  and  allied  pro- 
ducts had  been  neglected  by  Brit- 
ish chemists,  though  a  certain 
amount  of  research  had  been  car- 
ried out  by  foreign  chemists.  " 

When  prepared  from  skins,  glu- 
tin  is  the  main  adhesive  constitu- 
ent, and  chondrin  from  bone  tis- 
sues. The  bones  chiefly  used  are 
the  heads,  ribs,  shoulder  blades, 
etc.,  of  cattle,  horses,  etc.  They  are 
thoroughly  sorted, passed  through  a 
mill  to  crack  them,  and  then  placed 
in  solvents,  benzol,  or  petroleum 
ether,  for  the  extraction  of  the 


GL.UKHOV 


3567 


GLYCERIN 


unnecessary  fat.  The  cleansed  bones 
are  afterwards  placed  in  a  vertical 
boiler  and  steam -treated  for  the 
extraction  of  the  glue,  and  then 
purified  in  shallow  vats  by  heating 
with  alum,  oxalic  acid,  or  blood. 

Hide  glues  vary  considerably  in 
strength  with  the  part  of  the  ani- 
mal from  which  the  skin  comes. 
Clippings  and  waste,  useless  for 
leather-making,  make  excellent 
glue.  The  skins  are  steeped  in  milk 
of  lime  in  wooden  vats  or  cement 
pits  for  two  or  three  weeks,  then 
washed  thoroughly  and  dried,  the 
glue  afterwards  being  extracted  by 
slow  boiling  in  open  or  closed  ves- 
sels. Scotch  glues  are  manufac- 
tured by  placing  the  hides  in  a 
loosely  woven  sack  lowered  into  a 
cauldron  of  water  which  is  gradu- 
ally brought  to  the  boil. 

Glukhov.   Town  of  Ukrainia,  in 
the  govt.  of  Tchernigov.  It  is  on  the 
Moscow -Kiev- Voronezh  rly.,  175m. 
E.  of  Tchernigov.   There  are 
rope  and  brick  works,  brew- 
eries, and  distilleries.    Gluk- 
hov was  once  the  residence 
of  the  hetman  of  the  Little 
Russian  Cossacks.     Pop.  15,000. 

Gluteal  Muscles.  Three  mus- 
cles, the  G.  inaximus,  medius,  and 
minimus,  which  form  the  fleshy 
mass  of  the  buttock  (Gr.  gloutos, 
rump).  Their  principal  action  is  to 
extend  the  thigh  or  straighten  the 
body  after  stooping.  They  also 
assist  to  move  the  thigh  outwards 
and  rotate  the  leg  outwards. 

Gluten.  Tough,  elastic  sub- 
stance obtained  from  wheat  flour 
by  washing  it  with  water.  The 
flour  is  enclosed  in  a  muslin  bag 
and  kneaded  under  water.  The 
starch  is  washed  away,  and  the 
gluten,  about  10  to  12  p.c.  of  the 
flour,  remains.  Bread  and  biscuits 
made  from  gluten  are  used  as  food 
by  patients  suffering  from  diabetes 
who  are  required  to  avoid  the  use 
of  starchy  food.  Gluten  is  a  com- 
pound of  two  substances,  one 
soluble  and  the  other  insoluble  in 
alcohol.  The  soluble  portion  can 
again  be  separated  into  mucedin 
and  gliadin. 

Glutton  OR  WOLVERINE  (Gulo 
luscus).  Carnivorous  mammal  of 
the  weasel  group,  found  in  the 


Glutton  or  wolverine,  a  species  of  weasel 

W.  S.  Berridge,  F.Z.S. 


COtlS 

Glue.    A,  plant  for  extracting  and 
clarifying  glue ;   B,  plant    ior  de- 
greasing  bones 

northern  districts  of  Europe,  Asia, 
and  N.  America.  It  does  not  now 
occur  in  Great  Britain, 
but  its  fossil  remains  are 
not  uncommon.  It  is 
nearly  3  ft.  in  length,  has 
dark  brown  fur,  and  a 
short,  bushy  tail.  Of 
heavy  build,  it  walks  with 
something  of  the  action 
of  a  bear,  is  found  in 
forests,  is  nocturnal  in 
habit,  and  devours  any 
animal  it  can  catch.  It 
is  particularly  expert  in 
digging  rabbits  out  of 
their  burrows. 

Gly  cas ,  MICHAEL  ( 1 2th 
century  A.D.).  Byzantine 
historian.  Probably  a 
native  of  Sicily  or  Cor- 
cyra,  he  was  the  author 
of  a  general  history  of  the 
world  from  the  earliest 
times  down  to  1118,  the 
end  of  the  reign  of 
Alexius  I  Comnenus.  The 
work  is  written  in  a  sim- 
plerstyle  than  most  of  the 
Byzantine  histories. 

Glycerin  OR  GLYCEROI. 
[C3H6  (H0)3];  Thick 
colourless  liquid  with  a 
sweet  syrupy  taste,  ob- 
tained by  the  decomposi- 
tion of  fats  and  oils  in 
the  process  of  making 
soap  and  candles.  It  was 
discovered  by  Scheele  in 
1779  as  a  by-product  in 
the  manufacture  of  lead 


plaster.  Chevreul  and  Bracon- 
net  in  1817  showed  that  gly- 
cerin is  a  component  to  the 
extent  of  9  to  11  p.c.  of  all  fats 
and  oils.  The  discovery  of  nitro- 
glycerin  by  Nobel  in  1863  in- 
creased the  demand  for  glycerin 
and  caused  it  to  be  manufac- 
tured  on  a  large  scale. 

Glycerin  is  produced  to  a 
small  extent  in  the  fermentation 
of  sugar,  but  the  chief  sources 
are  the  waste  products  of  the 
soap  and  candle  maker. 
When  fats  and  oils  are 
:  saponified  with  a  caustic 
alkali,  the  fatty  acids 
combine  with  the  soda 
or  potash,  and  glycerin  is 
formed  as  a  by-product. 
This  "sweet-water,"  as 
it  is  called,  is  after- 
wards purified  and  con- 
centrated. The  candle- 
maker  only  requires  the  harder 
portion  or  stearin  of  fats,  and  to 
obtain  this  heats  the  fats  with  lime 
or  magnesia,  either  in  open  vessels 
or  in  an  autoclave,  glycerin  being 
again  obtained  as  the  by-product. 
Other  methods  of  obtaining  gly- 
cerin from  fats  are  by  the  acid 
saponification  process,  Twitchell's 
process,  and  by  the  use  of  a  ferment 
obtained  from  castor  oil  seeds. 
These  by  -  products  are  subse- 
quently purified  either  by  distilling 
the  crude  glycerin  with  superheated 
steam  at  ordinary  pressure  or  in  a 
vacuum  apparatus.  Colour  is  re- 
moved by  treating  the  glycerin 
with  animal  charcoal  and  water  by 
evaporation.  The  operation  de- 
mands skill 

Much  distilled  glycerin  is  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  high  explosives 
such  as  dynamite,  blasting  gelatin, 
and  cordite.  It  is  required  to  pass 
special  tests  before  it  can  safely  be 


Glue.      Left,    glue    tester.      Right,    stand    of 

Khedjahl  flasks  used  to  estimate  the  percentage 

of  glue  in  organic  substances 


GLYCOCOL.L 


3568 


GNEISENAU 


used  for  the  manufacture  of  ex- 
plosives. The  purest  glycerin  is 
employed  for  medicinal  purposes, 
and  it  is  necessary  that  arsenic,  a 
common  impurity  in  glycerin, 
should  be  entirely  absent.  Glycerin 
is  also  employed  for  filling  gas- 
meters  and  hydraulic  jacks,  for 
giving  body  to  light  wines,  in 
liqueurs,  and  in  the  manufacture 
of  copying  inks,  shoe  polishes, 
printers'  rollers,  copying  graphs, 
and  numerous  toilet  preparations. 

Glycocoll,  GLYCIN  OR  AMINO- 
ACETIC  ACID  (C2H3N02).  Dis- 
covered by  Braconnet  in  1820,  and 
prepared  by  boiJing  glue  with  sul- 
phuric acid  or  caustic  potash.  It  is 
best  made  by  warming  hippuric 
acid  with  four  times  its  weight  of 
fuming  hydrochloric  acid,  diluting 
with  water,  filtering  out  the  benzoic 
acid  which  deposits,  and  evaporat- 
ing the  liquid  to  dryness.  Glycocoll 
has  a  sweet  taste,  and  its  solution 
is  coloured  deep  red  by  iron 
chloride  and  'deep  blue  by  copper 
salts. 

Glycogen.  Carbohydrate  re- 
lated to  dextrin.  It  was  first  dis- 
covered by  Bernard  in  the  liver, 
and  found  in  small  quantities  in 
other  organs  of  the  body.  Glycogen 
is  best  prepared  in  the  pure  state 
from  liver  by  boiling  with  water, 
removing  the  proteins  by  adding 
potassium  or  mercuric  iodide  and 
hydrochloric  acid.  The  glycogen  is 
then  precipitated  by  adding  alcohol. 
The  method  of  formation  of  gly- 
cogen in  the  liver  is  not  well  under- 
stood, the  quantity  present  depend- 
ing upon  the  food  taken.  Glycogen 
is  looked  upon  as  a  reserve  food  de- 

Cited  in  the  liver,  which  is  trans- 
ned  into  fat  and  sugar. 

Glycol  on  ETHYLENE  ALCOHOL 
(C-HcOa).  Colourless  liquid  with  a 
sweet  taste,  discovered  by  Wurtz  in 
1856.  It  is  best  prepared  by  boiling 
138  grammes  of  potassium  car- 
bonate with  188  grammes  of  ethy- 
lene  bromide  dissolved  in  a  litre  of 
water.  This  operation  is  conducted 
in  a  flask  fitted  with  a  reversed 
condenser.  The  ethylene  alcohol 
is  separated  from  the  resulting 
liquid  after  the  potassium  bromide, 
which  is  also  formed,  has  crystal- 
lised out. 

Glycosmis  (Gr.  glykys,  sweet; 
osme,  smell).  Small  genus  of  trees 
and  shrubs  of  the  natural  order 
Rutaceae.  They  are  natives  of 
tropical  Asia  and  Australia.  The 
leaves  are  divided  into  three  or 
mors  leaflets,  and  the  small  white 
flowers  are  fragrant.  The  fruits  are 
small  edible  berries,  those  of  O. 
citrifolia  being  esteemed  by  the 
Chinese  for  their  delicious  flavour. 

Glycosuria  (Gr.  glykys,  sweet ; 
ouron,  urine).  Temporary  form 
of  diabetes  characterised  by  the 


presence  in  the  urine  of  sugar,  from 
which  it  is  free  normally.  The  con- 
dition may  be  due  to  an  exces- 
sive quantity  having  been  taken 
into  the  system,  or  to  the  action  of 
drugs,  such  as  chloroform.  The 
chronic  form  of  glycosuria  which 
marks  diabetes  melliiiis  is  due  to  a 
failure  of  the  muscular  tissue  to 
utilise  sugar,  which  consequently 
overloads  the  blood  and  escapes  by 
the  kidneys  into  the  urine.  See 
Diabetes. 

Glyn,  ELINOR.    British  novelist. 
Daughter  of  Douglas  Sutherland,  of 
Toronto,  and  wife  of  Clayton  Glyn, 
she    achieved 
a  popular  suc- 
cess with  her 
first  book,The 
Visits  of  Eli/a- 
beth,   1900. 
Later  publica- 

/[     tions    include 
.^»          Reflections  of 
jgV  Ambrosine, 

1902;  The  Vi- 
cissitudes of 
Evangeline, 
1905;  Three 
Weeks,  1907  ;  His  Hour,  1910  ; 
The  Sequence,  1913;  and  The 
Career  of  Katherine  Bush,  1916. 

Glyptodon  (Gr.  glyplos,  carved  ; 
odous,  tooth).  Genua  of  extinct  ar- 
madilloes,  whose  fossil  remains 


Elinor  Glyn, 
British  novelist 

Hoover  Art  Studios, 
Lot  Angeltt 


rvs 


Glyptodon.     Skeleton  of  G.  clavipes  Irom  the  Pampa 
formation  of  Buenos  Aires 

British  Museum 

have  been  found  in  the  post- ter- 
tiary deposits  of  S.  America.  Some 
of  these  fossils  represent  an  animal 
9  ft.  in  length.  The  armoured 
carapace,  instead  of  being  in  bands 
as  in  existing  armadilloes,  permit- 
ting the  animal  to  roll  up  hedgehog- 
fashion,  was  solid  and  continuous, 
like  the  carapace  of  a  tortoise.  The 
head,  feet,  and  tail  emerged  from 
under  this  dome,  but  the  head  was 
protected  by  a  bony  cap,  and  the 
tail  covered  by  tubercled  bony 
rings.  The  carapace  was  beauti- 
fully sculptured  in  small  rosette 
patterns.  The  name  was  suggested 
by  the  deep  ridges  and  grooves  into 
which  the  surface  of  the  molar 
teeth  are  moulded.  See  Fossils. 

Gmtind  OR  SWABISCH-GMUND. 
Town  of  Germany,in  Wiirttemberg. 
It  stands  in  the  valley  of  the  Rems, 


29  m.  E.  of  Stuttgart.  Formerly  a 
free  imperial  city,  it  has  some  inter- 
esting churches,  including  that  of 
the  Holy  Cross  (14th  century)  and 
the  pilgrimage  church  of  S.  Sal- 
vator,  with  two  chapels  hewn  out  of 
the  rock.  Gmiind  is  noted  for  its 
gold  and  silver  ware,  wood-carving, 
etc.  Pop.  21,312. 

Gmunden.  Town  and  pleasure 
resort  of  Upper  Austria.  In  the 
Salzkammergut,  it  stands  at  a 
height  of  1,400  ft.  where  the  Traun 
leaves  the  Traun-see,  38m.  E.N.E. 
of  Salzburg.  The  Traunstein  rises 
sheer  from  the  margin  of  the  lake 
to  a  height  of  5,550  ft.  Gmunden 
is  a  centre  for  hill  and  lake  excur- 
sions. In  addition  to  the  Salzkam- 
mergut museum  there  is  a  kursaal. 
There  are  salt  mines  in  the  vicin- 
ity. Pop.  7,700. 

Gnat.  Popular  name  for  certain 
small  dipterous  (two-winged)  in- 
sects of  the  Culicidae  family.  Some 
nine  species  occur  in  Great  Britain. 
The  larval  stage  is  passed  in  stag- 
nant water,  and  the  adult  insects 
are  most  abundant  in  marshy  dis- 
tricts. Blood-sucking  in  habit,  they 
are  also  known  as  mosquitoes  (q.v.). 
Gneisenau.  German  battle 
cruiser.  She  was  the  flagship  of 
Admiral  von  Spec,  who  commanded 
the  German  squadron  in  China 
Seas  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Great 
,  War.  This,  the 
most  efficient 
•  squadron  in  the 
German  Fleet, 
consisted  of  the 
Gneisenau  and 
Scharnhorst,  and 
the  light  cruisers 
Leipzig,  Dresden, 
and  Xiirn berg.  On 
Xov.  1,  1914,  Von 
Spec  met  Cra- 
dock's  squadron 
at  Coronel  and 
crushed  it  by  su- 
perior gun  power. 
But  on  Dec.  8  of  the  same  year  Von 
Spec. was  caught  by  Sturdee's  more 
powerfully  armed  squadron  off  the 
Falklands,  and  all  the  German 
ships  were  destroyed.  See  Coronel ; 
Falkland  Islands,  Battle  of  the. 

Gneisenau,   AUGUST  WILHELM 
ANTON    NEITHARDT,    COUNT    VON 
(1760-1831).   German  soldier.   The 
son   of    a  sol- 


dier, he  was 
born  Oct.  27, 
1760,  and  was 
educated  at 
the  university 
of  Erfurt,  He 
served  first  in 
the  Austrian 
army.  With  a 
German  con- 
tingent he  was 
in  America  in  the  British  service 


A.  von  Gneisenau, 
German  soldier 


GNEISS 

during  the  war  of  independence, 
and  then  he  entered  the  army  of 
Prussia.  There  he  made  his  way 
to  the  front,  and  when,  in  180(5, 
Prussia  again  took  up  arms  against 
France,  he  was  known  as  a  capable 
officer. 

Gneisenau  nest  helped  in  the 
work  of  reorganizing  the  Prussian 
army,  and  in  the  war  of  liberation 
served  Bliicher  as  chief  of  the  staff. 
He  was  responsible  for  the  plan  of 
campaign  of  1814,  and  for  that  of 
the  battles  around  Waterloo,  and 
to  him  was  due  the  ruthless  pur- 
suit of  the  French.  In  1 8 1 8  he  was 
made  governor  of  Berlin  and  a 
member  of  the  Prussian  council  of 
state.  In  1830  he  was  appointed  to 
command  an  army  on  the  frontier 
of  Poland,  and  he  was  there  when 
he  died  of  cholera,  Aug.  24,  1831. 
The  standard  life  is  by  G.  H.  Pertz 
and  H.  Delbruck,  1864-80. 

Gneiss  (German).  Composite 
rock  consisting  of  quartz,  felspar, 
and  mica  in  varying  proportions 
and  arranged  in  parallel  layers 
(schistose).  It  may  be  fine-grained 
in  thin  layers,  or  the  latter  may  be 
so  thick  and  uneven  that  the  lamin- 
ated structure  is  obscured.  Often 
one  of  the  constituent  minerals  pre- 
dominates greatly  over  the  others. 
There  are  many  varieties  of  gneiss 
named  from  the  predominant  min- 
eral; including  hornblende-gneiss, 
augite  -  gneiss,  graphite  -  gneiss, 
chlorite-gneiss,  and  others,  the  pre- 
fix indicating  the  mineral  that 
wholly  or  in  part  replaces  the  mica. 
Where  the  gneiss  has  well-marked 
foliated  structure  it  is  considered 
to  be  a  true  metamorphic  rock  ;  the 
coarse-grained  kinds  that  show 
only  rudely  parallel  layers  may  be 
eruptive.  Varieties  which  split 
flat  are  useful  in  building  work. 
Pron.  Nice. 

Gneist,  HEINRICH  RUDOLF  HER- 
MANN FKIEDRICH  vox  (1816-95). 
German  jurist.  Born  at  Berlin, 
Aug.  13,  1816, 
the  son  of  a 
judge,  he  was 
educated  at 
Eisleben  and 
the  university 
of  Berlin.  He 
became  a  law- 
yer, but  its 
study  rather 
thivn  its  prac- 
tice attracted 
him,  and  in  1844  he  was  made 
professor  at  Berlin. 

From  1858  to  1893  he  was  a 
member  of  the  landtag  of  Prussia; 
in  1868  he  was  elected  to  the  diet  of 
the  North  German  Confederation, 
and  from  1870  to  1884  he  was  a 
member  of  the  Reichstag.  In  all  he 
was  an  active  member  of  the 
National  Liberal  party,  and  was 


3569 


GNOSTICISM 


Rudolf  Gneist, 
German  jurist 


Gnesen.     View  oi  the  town  and  cathedral  across  the  river  Wrzemia 


active  also  as  an  advocate  of  legal 
reforms.  From  1875-77  he  was  a 
judge  of  the  supreme  court  of 
Prussia,  and  for  a  time  was  tutor  to 
the  emperor  William  II.  He  died 
July  22.  1895.  His  works  on  Eng- 
land include  The  English  Parlia- 
ment, 1886,  and  History  of  the 
English  Constitution,  1886. 

Gnesen  (Pol.  Gniezno).  Town 
of  Poland.  It  is  31  in.  E.X.E.  of 
Posen  on  the  line  to  Thorn,  and 
was  formerly  in  the  German  prov. 
of  Posen.  Poland's  kings  were 
crowned  here,  down  to  1320.  It 
has  been  the  seat  of  an  archbishop 
since  1 000.  The  cathedral,  founded 
in  the  9th  century,  and  largely  re- 
built at  the  close  of  the  18th  cen-  . 
tury,  contains  the  tomb  of  S.  Adal- 
bert (q.v. )  and  bronze  doors  dating 
from  the  12th  century.  The  archi- 
episcopal  palace  is  also  noteworthy. 
There  are  manufactures  of  sugar, 
leather,  and  machinery,  and  a  trade 
in  dairy  products,  also  breweries, 
flour,  and  mills  for  other  products. 
Pop.  25,339. 

Gnome.  Small  legendary  being 
in  the  folk- tales  of  many  peoples, 
supposed  to  dwell  in  the  earth  and 
guard  the  treasures  hidden  there. 
Gnomes,  dwarfs,  and  elves  become 
almost  inextricably  interlinked  in 
the  folk-tales,  though  the  elves  are 
generally  smaller,  more  fairy-like 
creatures,  while  the  gnomes  or 
earthmen  are  more  akin  to  the 
black  dwarfs  of  North  European 
folklore.  See  Folklore. 

Gnome  (Gr.  gnome).  Maxim, 
aphorism,  or  reflection  summing 
up  or  stating  concisely  a  general 
truth.  The  Greek  Gnomic  poets 
were  those  who  wrote  sententious 
didactic  verses,  such  as  Solon, 
Theognis,  Phocylides,  and  others. 

Gnome  Engine.  First  success- 
ful aero-engine  of  the  radial-re- 
volving or  rotary-radial  type. 
This  motor,  of  French  invention, 
was  introduced  in  1909. 

In  the  Gnome  the  cylinders  are 
grouped  star- wise  round  a  central 
crank -case.  There  are  usually  seven 
or  nine  cylinders,  or  there  may  be  a 
double  group  of  fourteen  or  eighteen 
cylinders  arranged  in  two  groups, 
one  behind  the  other.  The  Gnome 
has  only  one  crank,  and  there  is  one 
master  connecting-rod  which  en- 


circles the  crank-pin.  To  the  big  end 
of  the  master  connecting-rod  the 
big  ends  of  the  other  connecting- 
rods  are  hinged.  The  cylinders 
and  the  crank-case  rotate  about  the 
crank-shaft.  By  its  rotation  it  cools 
itself,  thus  dispensing  with  water 
cooling  and  all  its  complications. 
See  Aero-engine ;  Monosoupape. 

Gnosticism  ( Gr.  gnost  ikos,  know- 
ing). Term  usually  applied  to  the 
heresy  with  which  were  concerned 
sects  that  sprang  up  in  the  1st  cen- 
tury A.D.,  the  members  of  which 
claimed  mystical  knowledge  denied 
to  the  rest'of  the  world.  The  name 
was  adopted  first  by  the  Ophites. 

Gnosticism  existed  before  Chris- 
tianity. Originating  in  the  East, 
it  embodied  attempts  to  formulate 
a  cosmic  philosophy  or  theory  of 
the  universe,  and  a  quest  for  a 
world  religion.  An  example  of 
syncretism,  an  effort  to  blend  op- 
posite and  conflicting  ideas  into  a 
harmonious  whole,  its  sources  were 
Zoroastrianism,  Buddhism,  and  ac- 
cretions from  Judaism,  Mithraism, 
the  mythologies  of  Babylon  and 
Egypt,  and  Platonism. 

While,  broadly  speaking,  Gnos- 
ticism was  a  form  of  dualism — 
mind  and  matter  ;  light  and  dark- 
ness ;  good  and  evil — it  em- 
bodied not  one  but  protean  forms 
of  thought.  It  is  characterised 
by  association  with  the  idea  of 
emanation,  a  theory  of  creation 
which  postulates  One  Supreme 
Being  from  whom  lesser  beings 
or  aeons  have  emanated  as  light 
emanates  from  the  sun.  From 
the  fall  of  one  of  these  lesser 
beings  into  the  outer  void  arose  a 
Demiurge,  regarded  as  the  em- 
bodiment of  evil,  from  which  re- 
demption is  only  possible  for  two 
of  the  three  classes  into  which 
Gnosticism  divided  mankind,  by 
re-union  with  the  Infinite — a'  state 
comparable  with  the  Buddhistic  nir- 
vana. An  example  of  a  Gnostic  view 
of  Jesus  Christ  is  in  the  apocryphal 
epistle  of  Barnabas  (q.v.). 

Gnosticism  assumed  a  new  form 
after  the  rise  of  Christianity  ;  and 
gained  a  strong  foothold  in  the  2nd 
century.  Information  about  the 
leading  Gnostics  and  their  writings 
is  largely  derived  from  the  anti- 
heretical  treatises  of  the  Christian 

2K    4 


Gnu. 


GNU 

Father  s — I  r  e- 
naeus,  Tertullian, 
Hippolytus, 
Epiphaiiius,  Igna- 
tius, and  Justin 
Martyr;  from  the 
Pistis  Sophia,  a 
3rd  century  Coptic 
work;  and  re- 
mains of  apocry- 
phal gospels  and 
epistles. 

Gnostics  inter- 
preted the  Scrip- 
tures for  their 
own  purpose ;  and 
one  result  was  the 
f  o  r  in  u  lation  by 
the  Catholic 
Church  of  its  stan- 
dards of  ortho- 
doxy, of  dogmatic 
theology  based 
upon  what  could 
be  shown  historic- 
ally to  be  derived 
from  Christ  and  His  apostles.  Gnos- 
ticism declined  in  the  3rd  and  died 
out  in  the  6th  century,  but  was 
reflected  in  Manichaeism,  an  at- 
tempt to  fuse  Zoroastrianism, 
Gnosticism,  and  Christianity;  in 
Paulicianism ;  in  the  beliefs  of  the 
Cathari  and  Albigenses  ;  and  in 
Rosicrucianism. 

The  reputed  founder  of  post- 
Christian  Gnosticism  was  Simon 
Magus  (see  Acts  8),  the  supposed 
author  of  a  work  called  The  Great 
Revelation,  of  which  only  frag- 
ments remain.  It  had  two  pro- 
minent schools ;  one  in  Alex- 
andria, of  which  Basilides,  Valen- 
tinus,  and  Carpocrates  were  leaders, 
and  one  in  Syria,  of  which  Satur- 
ninus  and  Cerdo  were  among  the 
teachers.  The  last  leader  of  note 
was  Marcion,  who  conceived  three 
primal  forces  :  the  good  God,  re- 
vealed by  Jesus  Christ ;  evil  mat- 
ter, ruled  by  the  devil;  and  the 
Demiurge,  identified  with  the 
Yahveh  of  the  Jews. 

The  sects  wavered  between  ex- 
tremes of  asceticism  and  sensual 
immorality  ;  and  included,  in  ad- 
dition to  those  named  after  their 
leaders,  the  ascetic  Encratites  or 
Continents,  and  the  serpent  wor- 


357O 


White-tailed  variety,  a  native  of  Africa 

flambier  Bolion,  F.Z.S. 


Ltibliugi-apli y .  Gnostic  Heresies  of 
the  1st  and  2nd  Centuries,  H.  L. 
Mansel,  ed.  J.  B.  Liglitfoot,  1875; 
The  Gnostics  and  Their  Remains, 
C.  W.  King,  2nd  ed.  1887;  Frag- 
ments of  a  Faith  Forgotten,  G.  11.  S. 
Mead,  1900;  Esoteric  Teaching  of 
The  Gnostics,  F.  Swiney,  1909  ; 
numerous  works  in  German,  and 
the  writings  of  The  Fathers. 

Gnu  OR  WILDEBEEST.  Genus  of 
large  antelope,  differing  from  all 
other  genera  in  having  heavy  heads 
and  necks  which  somewhat  sug- 


gest the  appearance 
bison.  There  are 
two  species,  the  \ 
white-tailed  and 
the  brindled, both 
natives  of  Africa. 
The  horns  curve  ; 
downwards  and 
then  upwards. 
The  muzzle  is  re- 
markably wide, 
the  neck  has  an 
erect  mane,  and 
the  tail  has  long 
thick  hair  almost 
like  that  of  a 
horse.  The  animal 
stands  rather 
more  than  4  ft. 
high  at  the 


of 


small 


GOAT 

Goa,  once  the  wealthiest  city  in 
India,  is  now  a  city  of  ruins.  The 
colony  has  belonged  to  Portugal 
since  its  capture  by  Albuquerque  in 
1510.  Pop.  of  settlement,  5  lf>,  7  7  2. 

Goajira.  Territory  of  Colombia, 
S.  America.  A  peninsula  jutting 
into  the  Caribbean  Sea,  on  the 
N.W.  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Mara- 
caibo,  it  is  low-lying  and  sandy  on 
the  coast,  with  the  Oca  Mts.,  a  X.E. 
extension  of  the  Andes,  inland. 
Area,  5,000  sq.  m.  Puerto  Estrella 
is  the  capital.  The  native  Indians, 
virile  and  independent,  are  as  yet 
little  influenced  by  civilization. 
Claimed  by  both  Venezuela  and 
Colombia,  it  was  given  to  the  latter 
republic  after  arbitration  in  1891. 
Pop.  53,013. 

Goal  (Fr.  qaule,  a  pole). 
Originally  a  mark  set  up  to  show 
the  end  of  a  race.  It  has  thus  come 
to  be  a  synonym  for  an  end  or  aim. 
In  football  matches  the  score  is 
counted  by  goals,  a  goal  being 
scored  when  the'  ball  is  kicked  be- 
tween the  goal  posts.  Sea  Football. 

GoalandaoRGoALUNDO.  Village 
and  subdivision  of  Bengal,  India, 
in  the  Faridpur  district.  Goalanda 
village  is  151  m.  N.E.  of  Calcutta, 
and  is  the  terminus  of  the  Eastern 
Bengal  Rly.  and  an  important 
steamer  station. 

Goalpara.  District  and  town  of 
India,  in  W.  Assam.  It  lies  to  the 
S.  of  Bhutan,  and,  although  fertile, 
is  very  unhealthy.  The  town  is  the 
capital  of  the  district,  and  stands  on 


Goa.     The  church  of  Bom  Jesus,  built  in  1594,  in  which 
is  buried  S.  Francis  Xavier,  the  apostle  of  the  Indies 


shipping  Ophites  or  Naaseni.    One     shoulder,  lives  in  the  open  country, 
influence     that     worked      against 
Gnosticism,  by  means   of 


rival 

theory  of  the  universe,  was  Neo- 
platonism  (q.v.).  An  important 
branch  of  study  in  connexion  with 
the  heresy  is  concerned  with  its 
elaborate  and  mystical  symbolism, 
secret  terminology,  and  use  of  in- 
scribed talismans  and  amulets.  The 
supposed  Scriptural  references  to 
Gnosticism,  e.g.  John  1 ;  1  Tim. 
i,  4 ;  2  Tim.  ii,  18  ;  Tit.  iii,  9,  are 
debatable.  See  Abraxas ;  Doce- 
tism  ;  Ophites  ;  Valentinians. 


with  the  zebra.    See  Antelope. 

Goa.  Portuguese  colony  on  the 
W.  coast  of  India.  Bounded  by 
the  Bombay  presidency,  its  area  is 
1,469  sq.  m.  It  is  a  fertile  region, 
producing  rice,  spices,  copra, 
coconuts,  salt,  pepper,  and  betel 
nuts.  The  trade  is  chiefly  transit. 
It  contains  the  town  of  Panjim  or 
New  Goa,  the  capital  of  Portuguese 
possessions  in  India  since  1845. 
Except  for  some  of  its  churches, 
still  in  excellent  preservation,  Old 


the  river  Brahmaputra,  80  m.  N.E. 
of  Rangpur.  Pop.  about  5,100. 

Goat.  Genus  of  the  family 
Dovidae,  which  includes  also  oxen, 
sheep,  and  antelopes.  The  goats 
are  placed  between  sheep  and  ante- 
lopes, and  it  is  difficult  to  distin- 
guish them  from  sheep.  Certain 
species  of  wild  sheep  approach 
goats  very  closely  in  structure  and 
appearance. 

Goats  differ  from  sheep  in  the 
bony  structure  of  the  skull,  and 
the  horns  are  placed  close  together 
immediately  above  the  eyes.  The 


GOATHLAND 


3571 


GOATS-BEARD 


males  are  usually  bearded,  and 
have  a  strong  odour.  They  lack 
the  glands  on  the  hind  feet,  and 
have  callosities  on  the  knees. 
While  they  live  in  herds,  they  as- 
sociate less  intimately  and  are  of 
more  independent  disposition  than 
sheep.  The  flesh  of  the  kid  is  ex- 
cellent, but  that  of  the  adult  is 
apt  to  be  tough  and  rank. 

The  goat  in  its  wild  state  in- 
habits the  Eastern  hemisphere  ex- 
clusively, the  so-called  Rocky 
Mountain  goat  of  N.  America  not 
being  a  true  goat,  but  belonging  to 
a  genus  approaching  the  antelopes. 
It  is  widely  spread  in  S.  Europe 
and  Asia,  but  in  Africa  only 
occurs  wild  in  Egypt  and  Abys- 
sinia. So  far  as  is  known,  the 
wild  goat  has  never  inhabited 
the  British  Islands,  the  so-called 
wild  goats  of  some  parts  of  Scot- 
land and  the  Achill  Islands  being 
domesticated  goats  that  have 
taken  to  a  feral  life.  Only  about  ten 
species  of  wild  goat  are  recognized 
by  naturalists,  and  of  these  three 
or  four  are  more  generally  known 
by  the  name  of  ibex  (q.v.). 

The  true  wild  goat  is  a  native 
of  Persia,  Asia  Minor,  and  some 
of  the  Mediterranean  islands,  and 
it  is  from  this  species  that  the  do- 
mesticated goat  has  descended. 
The  varied  form  of  the  horns  in 
domesticated  varieties  suggests 
their  mixed  origin.  Its  domestica- 
tion dates  from  prehistoric  days, 
for  its  remains  have  been  found  in 
the  Swiss  lake  dwellings,  and  it 
was  well  established  in  the  earliest 
Egyptian  period.  Among  domes- 
ticated breeds  maybe  specially  men- 
tioned the  Cashmere  and  Angora 
goats,  noted  for  their  very  valuable 
silky  hair.  See  Cashmere  Goat. 

GOAT  KEEPING.  Goats  are  kept 
in  large  numbers  in  many  countries, 
both  for  the  sake  of  their  hides  and 
hair,  and  also  as  a  source  of  dairy 
products.  Their  value  is  not  fully 
realized  in  Great  Britain,  although 
a  British  and  an  Irish  goat  society 
have  both  done  valuable  work.  To 
cottagers  and  smallholders  the  goat 
is  of  particular  value  as  a  milk  pro- 
ducer. It  is  very  hardy,  easy  to  keep, 
and  thrives  on  a  miscellaneous  diet. 
Value  of  Goats'  Milk 

Goats'  milk  is  relatively  rich  in 
butter-fat  and  casein,  its  per- 
centage composition  being :  water, 
85-71  ;  casein,  3 '20  ;  albumin, 
1'09;  milk-sugar,  4 '46  ;  fat,  4'78  ; 
ash,  0-76.  Goats  are  almost  free 
from  tuberculosis,  and  infants  fed 
on  their  milk  not  only  thrive  but 
are  saved  from  the  danger  of  con- 
tracting this  disease.  If  perfect 
cleanliness  is  maintained,  espe- 
cially by  careful  washing  of  the 
udders  before  milking,  the  un- 
popular "goaty"  flavour  is  en- 


Goat.     1.  Toggenburg.     2.  Nubian.    3.  Anglo-Nubian. 
Nubian  goatling 


4.  Irish.     5.  Anglo- 


tirely  prevented.  Butter  made 
from  goats'  milk  is  white  and  un- 
attractive looking,  but  this  can 
be  got  over  by  the  addition  of 
colouring  matter.  Goat  cheeses 
are  much  esteemed  in  many  coun- 
tries. A  goat  is  not  worth  keep- 
ing unless  it  yields  at  least  2 
quarts  per  day  at  kidding,  but  this 
amount  is  often  largely  exceeded. 
To  secure  good  results  a  suitable 
breed  must  be  selected,  and  breed- 
ing must  be  carried  out  from 
milking  strains.  The  Toggenburg 
breed  is  most  esteemed,  after  which 
come  Anglo  -  Swiss  and  Anglo- 
Nubian  crosses. 

The  best  time  for  mating  is 
Sept.  to  March,  but  by  using  the 
foreign  breeds  or  crosses  with  them, 
kidding  can  be  arranged  for  any 
time,  and  a  winter  supply  of  milk 
ensured.  Kids  not  required  for 
addition  to  the  herd  are  killed  at 
birth,  especially  the  male.  Those 
which  are  kept  require  suckling  for 
two  or  even  three  months.  Except 
for  a  little  corn,  summer  feeding 
(May  to  August)  costs  hardly  any- 
thing, the  animals  being  tethered  on 
rough  grazing.  At  other  times  the 
grass  available  must  be  supple- 
mented by  a  miscellaneous  ration, 
which  may  include  hay,  roots,  offals, 
cake,  and  various  scraps,  such  as 
potato-peelings,  garden  refuse,  and 
acorns.  Water  and  salt  must  be 
provided.  A  few  animals  can  be 
housed  during  winter,  hi  any  avail- 
able building,  but  a  herd  should 
be  accommodated  in  a  suitably 
constructed  goat-house.  See  The 
Book  of  the  Goat,  H.  S.  H.  Pegler, 
5th  ed.  1917. 

Goathland.  Parish  and  village 
of  N.R.  Yorkshire,  England.  It  is 
8  m.  S.W.  of  Whitby,  on  the  N.E. 


Rly.  Here  is  a  cottage  colony  for 
disabled  officers.  Goathland  Moor 
lies  2  m.  S.  of  the  village,  and  is 
noted  for  its  cataracts.  Pop.  519. 
Goat  Moth.  Large  moth  of  the 
genus  Cossus,  common  in  most  parts 
of  Great  Britain.  The  fore  wings, 


Goat  Moth.      Specimen  of  Cossus 
ligniperda 

often  over  3  ins.  in  expanse,  are 
pale  grey  clouded  with  brown,  with 
a  kind  of  network  of  fine  brown 
lines.  The  hind  wings  are  grey, 
with  very  fine  reticulations.  The 
caterpillar  is  flesh  colour,  with 
reddish  brown  patches,  and  is 
almost  hairless.  It  has  an  offensive 
goatlike  smell,  from  which  the  moth 
derives  its  name.  It  lives  in  the 
wood  of  willow  and  other  trees, 
and  as  it  takes  three  years  to  come 
to  maturity,  does  great  damage  to 
the  timber.  It  is  about  3  ins.  long. 
Goat's-beard  (Tragopogon  pra- 
tensis).  Perennial  herb  of  the 
natural  order  Compositae.  A 
native  of  Europe  and  N.  and  W. 
Asia,  it  has  a  tap-root  with  milky 
juice,  and  the  slender,  alternate 
leaves,  which  clasp  the  stem  at  their 


GOAT'S     RUE 


3572 


GOBELIN 


bases,  taper  to  a  long  point.  The 
solitary  flower  head  is  yellow,  with 
7  or  8  slender  bracts.  The  head 
opens  about  4  a.m.  and  closes  as 
soon  as  pollinated,  whence  the 
popular  name  John-go-to-bed-at- 
noon.  The 
fruits  form  a 
"  clock  "  like 
those  of  the 
dandelion,  but 
'arger  and 


Goafs-beard.     Left,  the 


the  growing 
head  of  fruit 


herb  ; 


more  beautiful,  the  parachute 
of  each  fruit  having  its  arms 
feathered.  The  salsify  (T.  porri- 
folius),  grown  as  an  esculent  root, 
belongs  to  the  same  genus.  Its 
flowers  are  purple. 

Goat's  Rue  (Galega  officinalis). 
Perennial  herb  of  the  natural  order 
Leguminosae.  A  native  of  S. 


mining,  large  openings  or  stalls 
are  left  in  the  coal  face,  separated 
from-  one  another  by  a  wall  of  coal 
which  is  left  standing.  When  all 
the  eoeil  has  been  got  from  a  stall, 
it  is  filled  with  refuse  or  waste 
material  that  may  be  at  hand. 
Material  so  employed  is  called  by  the 
miner  gob,  or  goaf,  though  the  lat- 
ter term  is  more  generally  reserved 
for  the  stall  itself  from  which 
the  coal  has  been  removed,  the 
plural  "goaves" 
being  the  form 
generally  used. 
This  use  of  the 
term  gob  has 
doubtlessly 
arisen  from  the 
similarity  b  e- 
tween  the  ap- 
pearance of  the 
opening  into  a 
stall  and  a  huge 
mouth,  the 
word  being  vul- 
garly used  in 
many  parts  of 
the  country 
for  a  mouth  or 

mouthful.  Gob  corresponds  to  the 
attle  or  deads  of  the  metal  miner. 
Gobelin,  JE  AN  (d.  1476).  French 
dyer.  A  native  of  Reims,  he  founded 
in  1450  a  dyeworks  and  cloth 
factory  on  the  banks  of  the  Bievre, 
in  St.  Marcel,  a  suburb  of  Paris. 
The  firm  was  renowned  especially 


puff  or 


for  scarlet  wool,  but  probably  the 
works  would  never  have  enjoyed 
more  than  a  local  reputation  had 
not  Henry  IV,  about  1603,  pur- 
chased from  the  Gobelin  family 
part  of  the  land  adjoining  the  dye- 
house.  Here  tapestry  sheds  were 
erected  for  Marc  de  Comans  and 
Fran9ois  de  la  Planche,  two  expert 
designers,  but  the  establishment 
was  still  called  by  its  old  name, 
which  gradually  became  attached 
to  the  new  products. 

Gobelin.  Tapestry  named  from 
Jean  Gobelin.  In  1667  Louis  XIV 
consolidated  the  royal  Parisian 
tapestry  workshops  at  the  Hotel 
de  Gobelins.  Charles  Le  Brun  and 
eminent  artists  provided  magni- 
ficent designs  such  as  The  History  of 
the  King.  After  a  period  of  suspen- 
sion, work  was  resumed  in  1697. 
Smaller  tapestries,  portieres  of  the 
Gods,  etc.,  were  made  under 
Louis  XV,  but  prosperity  returned 
with  the  beautiful  designs  of 
Boucher.  The  Revolution  crip- 
pled the  industry,  but  later  the 
designs  of  Baudry  brought  suc- 
cess. During  the  Commune  the 
works  were  nearly  destroyed. 
Modern  tapestries  from  designs  by 
Galland  adorn  the  Comedie  Fran- 
$aise,  others  by  Toudouze  are  in 
the  Palais  de  Justice,  Rennes. 
Many  replicas  of  ancient  works 
have'  been  executed  at  the  Gobelins. 
See  Tapestry. 


Goat's  Rue.    I  lowers  and  leaves  of 
the  S.  European  herb 

Europe,  it  has  a  stout,  creeping 
rootstock,  and  the  compound  leaves 
consist  'of  about  15  lance-shaped 
leaflets.  The  leafy  stems  are  about 
4  ft.  high,  with  a  flowering  branch 
at  the  base  of  each  of  the  upper 
leaves.  The  pea-like  flowers  are 
blue,  but  there  is  a  variety  with 
pure  white  flowers.  It  was  formerly 
made  into  a  cordial  for  administra- 
tion in  fevers  and  convulsions. 

Goatsucker  (Caprimulgus  euro- 
paens).  Popular  name  for  the 
nightjar  (q.v.). 

Gob.  Waste  material  used  in 
coal  mines  for  filling  up  stalls.  In 
the  pillar  and  stall  system  of  coal 


Gobelin.     Example  of  a  piece  of  tapestry  depicting  a  scene  from  the  adventures 

of  Don  Quixote,  entitled  Don  Quixote  led  by  Folly,  from  a  cartoon  by  C.  A. 

Coypel  (1694-1752) 


Gobi.  Eastern  section  of  the 
desert  of  Central  Asia,  mainly  in 
Mongolia,  China.  The  fractured 
tableland  of  Mongolia  terminates 
on  the  N.  at  a  scarped  edge  over- 
looking Siberia ;  from  this  edge 
the  land  rises  towards  the  Inshan 
and  Khingan  Mts.,  of  which  the  E. 
and  S.E.  slopes  form  an  escarp- 
ment facing  the  valley  of  the 
Hoang-ho.  The  average  level  of 
the  plateau  is  4,000  ft. 

The  climate  is  one  of  great  ex- 
tremes, and  is  practically  rainless, 
with  the  result  that  there  are  no 
large  rivers.  Nomad  pastoral 
tribes  are  the  only  inhabitants;  they 
find  sustenance  for  their  camels 
and  sheep  at  the  water-holes-;  but 
vast  expanses  of  sand  dunes, 
marked  by  a  silence  undisturbed 
by  any  form  of  life,  prevent  com- 
munication between  China  proper 
and  Siberia. 

Westward  the  desert  area  nar- 
rows and  leads  between  the  Tian- 
shan  and  Kuen-lun  ranges  to  the 
Tarim  basin,  which  forms  the 
basin  of  internal  drainage  of  Lob 
Nor  ;  this  is  the  Chinese  province 
of  Sin  Kiang,  Eastern  Turkistan 
where  the  scanty  rainfall  ame- 
liorates the  harsher  desert  con- 
ditions of  the  east.  In  the  dim 
geological  past,  the  Gobi,  known 
to  the  Chinese  as  Shamo,  was 
covered  by  the  eastern  portion  of 
a  great  sea,  of  which  the  Caspian 
and  Mediterranean  are  modern 
relics.  To  the  N.E.  was  the 
ancient  continent  of  Angaraland, 
and  to  the  8.  that  of  Gondwana- 
land.  The  tilting  of  the  plateau 
and  the  rise  of  the  Kuen-lun  ranges, 
including  the  Khingan  Mts.,  are  a 
more  recent  development.  See 
Asia ;  Desert. 

Goblet,  REN*  (1828  -  1905). 
French  politician.  Born  Nov.  26, 
1828,  he  became  a  lawyer  at 
Amiens.  He  also  did  some  journal- 
istic work,  and  in  1871  was  elected 
to  the  national  assembly  for  the 
Somme  ;  he  soon  made  a  reputa- 
tion by  his  speeches,  where,  as  in 
his  writings,  he  gave  utterance  to 
advanced  views.  In  1882  he  was 
made  minister  of  the  interior  and 
in  1885  minister  of  education.  In 
1886-87  he  was  prime  minister, 
his  short-lived  cabinet  having  to 
deal  with  the  arrest  of  Schnae- 
bele  by  the  Germans  and  the 
beginnings  of  Boulanger's  agita- 
tion. In  1888  he  was  foreign 
minister,  and  he  remained  in  public 
life,  although  not  taking  office 
again,  until  1898.  He  died  in 
Paris,  Sept,  13,  1905. 

Goblets,  THE.  Pair-oared  boat 
race  rowed  annually  at  Henley-on- 
Thames.  It  was  inaugurated  in 
1845,  and  its  full  title  is  The  Silver 
Goblets.  See  Henley  Regatta. 


3573 

Goblin  (Gr.  kobalos  ;  late  Lat. 
gobelinus  ;  Ger.  Kobold).  Mischiev- 
ous or  evil  being.  The  word  is  sup- 
posed to  derive  from  the  Gr.  kob- 
alos,  a  sprite,  a  rogue,  and  to  be 
the  same  as  the  Ger.  Kobold,  spirit 
or  demon  of  the  mine ;  another 
origin  suggested  is  that  of  the 
Gobelinus  or  demon  which  S. 
Taurinus  drove  from  a  temple  in 
Normandy ;  while  yet  another,  and 
somewhat  ridiculous,  derivation 
has  made  elf  and  goblin  to  be  but 
Guelf  and  Ghibelline  in  a  new  form. 
Goblin  has  come  to  be  applicable 
to  any  frightening  phantasm.  See 
Folklore. 

Goby  (Gob ins).  Large  genus  of 
fishes.  Several  species  occur  round 
the  British  coasts,  especially  in 
rocky  neighbourhoods.  Small  in 
size,  the  pelvic  fins  are  modified  to 
form  a  sucker  by  which  they  can 
attach  themselves  to  rocks.  The 


spotted  goby  (0.  minutus)  is  often 
found  at  a  considerable  distance 
up  the  Thames,  and  constructs 
a  curious  little  nest  in  the  sand 
for  its  eggs. 

G.O.C.  Abbrev.  for  general 
officer  commanding.  Military  term 
to  designate  the  senior  officer  of 
general's  rank  in  command  of  any 
district  or  branch  of  the  service  in 
that  district.  Thus,  the  G.O.C.  of 
the  eastern  command  is  the  general 
in  command  of  that  area,  and  the 
G.O.C.R.A.  eastern  command  is  the 
general  commanding  the  artillery 
in  the  same  area. 

Goch.  Town  of  Germany,  in  the 
Prussian  Rhine  province.  It 
stands  on  the  Niers,  66  m.  from 
Cologne.  A  railway  junction,  it 
has  several  small  manufactures. 
In  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  part  of 
the  duchy  of  Cleves,  and  a  centre 
of  the  linen  trade.  Pop.  11,000. 


GOD:     THE    SUPREME    BEING 

Rev.  H.  L.  Goudge,  D.D.,  Principal  of  Ely  Theological  College 

Cognate  articles  in  this  work  are  those  on  Heaven  ;    Jesus  Christ ; 
Trinity,  The.     See  also  Christianity ;  Deism  ;   Theism ;   Theology 


For  the  best  theists  to-day  the 
word  God  stands  for  the  one  ulti- 
mate personal  ground  of  all  exis- 
tence, the  source  of  the  order  and 
beauty  of  the  universe,  and  of 
those  ideals  of  truth,  beauty,  and 
goodness  which  have  led  man  thus 
far  upon  his  upward  way. 

Religion,  says  Schleiermacher, 
is  the  feeling  of  absolute  depen- 
dence, the  immediate  conscious- 
ness of  all  that  is  finite  as  existing 
in  and  through  the  Infinite,  of  all 
that  is  temporal  as  existing  in  and 
through  the  Eternal.  God  is  thus 
revealed  in  and  through  the  ex- 
perience of  man,  and,  the  higher 
and  fuller  the  experience,  the 
higher  and  fuller  is  the  revelation 
attained.  Christians  believe  that 
Christ  is  God's  highest  means  of 
revelation,  but  not  His  only  means. 
The  knowledge  of  God  is  attained 
by  many  paths.  Thus,  though  man 
is  a  religious  being,  and  is  almost 
always  found  believing  in  a  God 
or  gods,  his  conceptions  of  God 
vary  greatly,  and  the  highest  con- 
ception reached  has  a  long  history 
behind  it.  No  adequate  definition 
of  God  can  be  given,  since  God  by 
His  very  greatness  can  be  but 
most  imperfectly  known. 
The  God  of  Israel 

The  Christian  view  of  God  is  the 
result  of  a  long  process,  which  the 
Bible  enables  us  to  trace.  The 
people  of  Israel,  from  whom  Christ 
came,  began  with  a  conception  of 
God  differing  little  from  that  cur- 
rent in  kindred  tribes.  They 
thought  of  their  God  at  first  as 
peculiar  to  themselves  rather  than 


as  the  God  of  the  universe,  and 
they  learned  to  know  Him  in  their 
own  national  experience.  His  re- 
velation of  Himself  had  been  in 
facts,  rather  than  in  words.  He 
was  a  "  living  God,"  Who  by  won- 
drous means  had  lifted  them  out 
of  slavery,  bro\ight  them  to  their 
own  land,  protected  them  when 
they  obeyed  Him,  and  punished 
them  when  they  disobeyed.  But 
from  very  early  days  their  concep- 
tion of  God  was  a  moral  conception 
as  the  conceptions  of  the  tribes 
around  them  were  not.  God  had 
shown  Himself  in  their  experience 
to  be  a  God  of  truth,  and  righteous- 
ness and  love  (cf.  Exodus  xxiv.,  6, 
7),  and  He  asked  righteousness  and 
love  from  them  in  their  dealings 
one  with  another.  In  the  best  of 
the  Hebrews  it  was  God's  charac- 
ter which  was  the  primary  fact 
about  Him,  rather  than  His  power 
or  knowledge.  This  moral  concep- 
tion of  God  was  deepened  and  en- 
larged by  the  teaching  of  the  long 
line  of  prophets  in  Israel's  history. 

This  people,  long  before  the 
coming  of  Christ,  had  learned  that 
their  God  was  "  the  God  of  the 
whole  earth "  (cf.  Isaiah  liv.,  5), 
but  the  moral  conception  held  its 
ground.  It  is  still  the  character  of 
God  and  the  nature  of  His  purpose 
which  occupy  the  foreground  in 
the  consciousness  of  Christians. 
In  the  life  and  death  of  Christ  for 
men,  in  all  that  He  has  done  and  is 
doing  for  them,  the  power  and 
wisdom  of  God  are  clearly  revealed, 
but  His  righteousness  and  love 
are  revealed  more  clearly  still. 


GOD 

The  great  words  "  God  is  love  " 
are  the  summary  expression  of 
what  God  has  been  found  in  Christ 
to  be.  To  this  righteous  love  all 
other  "  attributes "  of  God  are 
subordinate.  His  eternity  and 
omnipresence  are  the  eternity  and 
omnipresence  of  love  and  holiness, 
His  omnipotence  and  omniscience 
instruments  which  serve  them. 
The  vast  additions  made  in  modern 
days  to  our  knowledge  of  nature 
and  of  history  have  indeed  widened 
our  conception  of  God's  methods 
and  purposes.  Art  has  taught  us 
to  find  a  new  revelation  of  Him  in 
all  sublimity  and  beauty  ;  but  the 
revelation  of  God's  character  and 
of  the  nature  of  His  purpose  stands 
where  Christ  has  left  it. 

Authority  and  Acceptance 

This  conception  of  God  comes 
to  us  at  first,  like  other  truth,  upon 
the  authority  of  others,  but  it 
needs  to  be  verified  by  each  man 
for  himself  by  consideration  of  the 
experience  on  which  it  rests  and 
by  the  effort  to  share  it.  The  so- 
called  "  proofs  "  of  God's  existence 
are  simply  the  ways  in  which  He 
makes  Himself  known.  Man's  dis- 
covery of  God  and  God's  revelation 
of  Himself  to  the  individual  and 
to  the  race  are  two  sides  of  the 
same  process. 

But  the  need  of  seeking  after 
God  must  be  recognized.  God's 
revelation  does  not  force  itself 
upon  us.  There  must  be  the  de- 
sire and  the  effort  to  know,  and 
such  a  moral  sympathy  with  the 
character  of  God  as  will  render  the 
revelation  possible.  So  it  is  that 
Christ  says  "  Blessed  are  the  pure 
in  heart ;  for  they  shall  see  God  " 
(Matthew  v,  8),  and  again  "  If  any 
man  willeth  to  do  God's  will,  he 
shall  know  of  the  teaching,  whether 
it  be  of  God,  or  whether  I  speak 
from  Myself  "  (John  vii,  17).  Belief 
in  God  has  difficulties  to  overcome, 
and  only  those  who  are  morally 
faithful  to  the  light  of  conscience 
are  likely  to  overcome  them. 

Why,  firstly,  do  we  find  the  ulti- 
mate ground  of  all  that  exists  in  a 
personal  Being  ?  The  reason  lies 
deep  in  our  own  nature.  Man  is 
conscious  of  himself  as  the  cause 
of  his  own  actions,  and  of  the 
changes  which  they  bring  about 
in  the  world.  Soon  he  becomes  con- 
scious of  his  fellow  men,  as  acting 
with  a  will  and  purpose  resembling 
his  own.  Thus,  he  inevitably  ex- 
plains the  changes  which  he  sees 
in  the  world  by  will  and  purpose, 
and,  as  he  comes  to  recognize  the 
unity  of  the  world,  by  the  will  and 
purpose  of  the  one  God.  No  higher 
explanation  is  open  to  him,  since 
personality  is  the  highest  fact  he 
knows.  At  first  he  may  regard  God 
simply  as  a  magnified  man,  but, 


3574 

as  he  rises  above  this,  he  does  not 
cease  to  believe  that  God  is  living 
and  personal.  Though  the  nature 
of  God  in  its  fullness  must  transcend 
our  understanding,  He  cannot  be 
lower  in  the  scale  of  being  than  our- 
selves. Though  He  may  be  more  than 
personal,  He  cannot  be  less.  The 
world  demands  an  explanation ; 
and  our  minds  can  only  rest  in  the 
thought  of  a  Being  with  will  and  in- 
telligence as  the  cause  and  ground 
of  all  that  experience  reveals  to  us. 

Secondly,  the  world  which  we 
seek  to  explain  is  a  world  of  order 
and  of  beauty,  a  world  which 
everywhere  exhibits  the  adapta- 
tion of  means  to  ends,  and  in  which 
each  end  when  attained  serves  as 
a  means  to  higher  ends  beyond. 
Though  there  may  seem  to  be 
waste  in  nature  and  disorder  in  his- 
tory, there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
both  nature  and  history  are  elo- 
quent witnesses  to  God's  wisdom 
and  power,  and  in  some  degree  to 
the  benevolence  of  His  purpose. 
But  the  world  has  issued  in  living 
beings,  and  in  the  case  of  man,  in 
beings  who  recognize  the  difference 
between  right  and  wrong,  and  the 
obligation,  be  the  cost  what  it 
may,  to  choose  the  higher  of  the 
courses  open  to  them.  This  again 
brings  a  revelation  of  God. 

Though  conscience,  like  reason, 
has  been  a  gradual  growth  in  close 
connexion  with  man's  environ- 
ment, a  true  explanation  of  the 
world  must  take  account  of  it. 
Man  himself  is  the  "  roof  and 
crown  of  things,"  and  no  explana- 
tion of  the  world  can  be  true  which 
ignores  the  ideals  which  have  made 
him  what  he  has  at  his  best  come 
to  be.  A  world  in  which  beauty, 
truth,  and  goodness  are  felt  to  pos- 
sess an  infinite  value  is  a  world 
which  must  minister  to  a  moral 
purpose,  and  the  presence  of  our 
highest  ideals  must  be  our  own 
sharing  in  the  thought  of  God.  It 
is  this  which  assures  us  that, 
though  God  is  the  ground  of  all 
that  exists,  He  must  not  be  re- 
garded as  the  author  of  evil. 
The  Problem  of  Evil 

The  problem  of  evil  is  the  great- 
est difficulty  which  belief  in  God 
has  to  surmount,  but  the  revelation 
of  God  which  conscience  brings 
shows  us  how  to  regard  it.  Evil  is 
no  part  of  the  creation  ;  it  arises 
from  the  misuse  of  what  is  good  by 
the  freewill  of  man.  The  possi- 
bility of  evil  is  a  necessity,  if  good 
is  to  be  freely  chosen.  A  world  in 
which  evil  choice  was  impossible 
would  be  a  world  without  struggle 
or  sacrifice  ;  the  existence  of  moral 
evil  in  the  world,  like  the  existence 
of  pain,  with  which  it  is  intimately 
connected,  has  a  place  to  fill  in  the 
development  of  human  eouls,  and 


GOD 

this  is  the  highest  purpose  of  God 
which  we  are  able  to  trace.  It  is  in 
conflict  with  evil  that  the  righteous- 
ness and  love  characteristic  of  God 
are  developed  also  in  men.  In  all 
these  ways,  quite  apart  from  the 
special  revelation  which  the  Bible 
records,  God  may  be  known  by  men 
who  open  their  eyes  to  the  light. 

But  though  these  paths  of  know- 
ledge are  open  to  all,  they  require  a 
certain  character  for  their  apprecia- 
tion. It  is  the  man  who  himself 
acts  with  the  most  intelligent  pur- 
pose who  will  appreciate  best  the 
intelligent  purpose  revealed  in 
nature  and  in  history,  and  the  man 
most  faithful  to  his  ideals  who  will 
best  see  the  character  of  God  re- 
vealed in  them.  So  it  is  that,  though 
the  best  non-Christian  philosophy 
has  reached  results  very  similar  to 
the  Christian  view  of  God,  its 
influence  outside  Christendom  has 
been  but  slight.  Just  because  the 
acceptance  of  moral  evil  has  so 
largely  blinded  us,  some  higher 
revelation  of  God  is  required. 
God  and  the  Christ 

The  character  of  these  new 
paths  to  knowledge  has  been 
already  seen.  They  are  not  alto- 
gether different  from  the  universal 
proofs,  but  rather  the  same  proofs 
brought  more  closely  home  to  us. 
The  history  of  Israel  and  of  the 
Church  witnesses  to  God  as  all 
history  witnesses  to  Him,  but  more 
clearly  ;  the  ideals  of  the  prophets 
witness  as  all  ideals  witness,  but 
more  fully. 

The  wisdom  and  power  of  God 
shine  out  more  clearly  in  Christ 
than  anywhere  else,  and  the 
character  of  God  in  a  way  abso- 
lutely unique,  while  sin  and  pain, 
the  great  hindrances  to  faith, 
though  not  fully  explained,  are 
illuminated  by  the  Cross.  God  is 
seen  taking  them  upon  Himself, 
and  making  them  the  path  to  the 
highest  good.  Moreover,  Christ,  as 
no  one  else,  has  led  men  to  seek 
after  God,  and  enabled  them  to  be 
sure  that  they  have  found  Him. 
The  crowning  proof  of  God's  exis- 
tence and  character  is  the  multi- 
tude of  those  who  have  come  to 
know  God,  and  who  trace  to  this 
knowledge  all  that  is  best  in  them- 
selves and  most  fruitful  in  their 
life  and  activity. 

Bibliography.  Theism  and  Anti- 
Theistic  Theories,  1879,  Theism, 
1877,  R.  Flint  ;  The  Idea  of  God, 
Martineau,  1887  ;  Personality 
.Human  and  Divine,  J.  R.  Illing- 
worth,  1894  ;  Evolution  of  the  Idea 
of  God,  Grant  Allen,  1897  ;  Christian 
View  of  God  and  the  World,  J.  Orr, 
8th  eel.  1907  ;  The  Christian  Doctrine 
of  God,  Clarke,  1909  ;  The  Develop- 
ment of  Religion,  King,  1910:  The 
Christian  Conception  of  God,  W.  F. 
Adeney,  1912. 


GODALMING 


3575 


GODFREY 


Godalming .     Mun.     bor.     and 
market  town  of  Surrey,  England. 
It  stands  on  the  Wey;  35  m.  S.W. 
of  London  on  the 
L.&S.W.R.   The 
chief     buildings 
are  the  church  of 
SS.     Peter     a  n  d 
Paul,    the   town 
hall,  and  market 
house ;  the  church 
contains      some 
Godahning  arms     Norman      work. 

Near  is  a  memorial  to  J.  G.  Phillips, 
the  chief  wireless  operator  on  the 
Titanic ;  the  town  has  also  a 
technical  and  an  art  school.  It  has 
still  some  half-timbered  houses  of 
the  17th  century.  The  borough 
council  owns  the  waterworks  and 
maintains  an  isolation  hospital  and 
a  cemetery.  The  chief  industries 
are  tanning  and  paper-making ; 
there  is  a  trade  in  malt  and  corn. 
Stone  is  quarried  in  the  neighbour- 
hood. The  place,  which  is  men- 
tioned in  Domesday  Book,  became 
a  borough  in  1574.  It  was  long  a 
centre  of  the  cloth  manufacture. 
Pop.  8,850. 

Near  Godalming  is  the  Char- 
terhouse School.  This  was  founded 
in  London  by  Thomas  Sutton, 
in  1611,  his  foundation  being  for 
a  hospital  and  a  free  grammar 
school.  In  1872  the  school  was 
removed  to  its  present  site,  com- 
modious buildings,  in  the  Gothic 
style,  being  erected  thereon.  It 
consists  of  an  under  school  and 
an  upper  school,  the  latter  being 
divided  into  classical  and  modern 
sides.  The  buildings  include 
chapel,  laboratories,  library,  etc. 
There  are  nine  houses  with  accom- 
modation for  about  600  boys,  and 
schelarships  to  the  school  and  the 
universities.  See  Charterhouse. 

Godavari.  River  of  S.  India. 
900  m.  in  length,  it  flows  across  the 
Deccan,  from  the  W.  Ghats  to  the 
Bay  of  Bengal.  One  of  the  most 
sacred  rivers  of  India,  it  is  a  great 
resort  of  pilgrims.  The  chief  tri- 
butaries are  the  Pranhita  and  the 
Manj  era. 

Godavari.  District  of  India,  on 
the  N.E.  coast  of  the  Madras  Pre- 
sidency. It  takes  its  name  from  the 
great  river  Godavari.  Of  the  total 
area  only  one-third  is  cultivated  ; 
of  the  cultivated  area  more  than 
half  is  devoted  to  rice.  The  ex- 
ports mainly  consist  of  agricul- 
tural produce,  while  the  imports 
include  cotton  twist  and  yarn,  and 
piece  goods.  The  capitaHs  Coean- 
ada.  Its  area  is  7,972  sq.  m.  ^ 

Goderich.  Town  and  port  of 
Ontario,  Canada.  The  county  town 
of  Huron  co.,  it  stands  where  the 
river  Maitland  falls  into  Lake 
Huron,  135  m.  W.  of  Toronto.  It 
is  a  terminus  of  the  C.P.  Rly.,  and 


Godalming,  Surrey,     buildings  of  Onarternouse  Scnool, 
which  was  moved  from  London  in  1872 


a  station  on  the  G.T.  Rly.  There  is 
a  fair  harbour,  from  which  steam- 
ers ply  between  various  ports  on  the 
Great  Lakes  and  the  St.  Lawrence. 
It  has  a  number  of  manufactures, 
including  salt  works,  some  fishing, 
and  is  served  by  electric  tramways. 
The  plan  of  the  town  resembles  a 
spider's  web,  and  its  buildings  in- 
clude churches,  schools,  grain  ele- 
vators, etc.  It  is  visited  by 
pleasure  seekers.  Pop.  5,000. 

Godetia  (Oenothera).  Section  of 
the  evening  primrose  genus.  Of  the 
natural  order  Onagraceae,  they  are 
natives  of  the  warm  parts  of  Amer- 
ica. Evening  primroses  all  have 
yellow  flowers,  and  do  not  open  in 
sunshine  ;  but  the  godetias  have 
white,  rosy,  or  purple  flowers  which 
do.  They  are  annual  herbs.  ' 

Godfather.  Sponsor  for  an  in- 
fant presented  for  baptism,  re- 
quired as  an  assurance  to  the 
Church  that  the  child  will  be 
brought  up  in  the  faith  in  which  it 
is  baptized.  His  duty  is  to  answer 
the  interrogatories  put  to  him  at 
the  font,  and  afterwards  to  see  that 
the  child  is  instructed  according 
to  the  promises  made  in  his  name 
and  in  due  time  brought  to  the 
bishop  for  confirmation. 

The  custom  derives  from  the 
primitive  church,  when  guarantors 
of  the  character  of  persons  brought 
for  baptism  were  an  obviously  neces- 
sary precaution.  Parents  were 
commonly  the  sponsors,  as  being 
the  natural  and  proper  guardians, 
and  the  29th  Canon,  of  1604, 
forbidding  their  admission  to  the 
office,  was  only  intended  to  provide 
additional  security  for  the  religious 
training  of  the  infant.  In  the 
Anglican  Church,  three  sponsors 
are  required,  two  of  them  of  the 
same  sex  as  the  child;  in  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  Church  one  suffices, 
but  two  are  usually  required.  God- 
parents were  formerly  called  Gos- 
sips, from  God  and  sib,  kindred,  i.e. 
relations  in  God.  Tertullian  calls 
them  sponsores,  S.  Augustine  fide- 
jussore-i,  i.e.  sureties.  8ee  Baptism. 


Godfrey  (c. 
1061-1100).  Count 
of  Bouillon  and 
crusading  leader. 
The  son  of  Eustace, 
count  of  Boulogne, 
he  was  made  count 
of  Bouillon  and 
later  duke  of  part 
of  Lorraine  by  his 
master,  the  em- 
peror Henry  IV. 
En  1096  he  offered 
himself  for  service 
as  a  crusader  and 
was  one  of  the 
leaders  of  the 
host  that  marched 
across  Europe  to 
Constantinople  to  the  Holy  Land. 
In  1099  he  had  an  honourable  part 
in  the  successful  siege  of  Jerusalem, 
and  he  was  chosen  its  king,  but  re- 
fused the  title,  although  he  under- 
took the  duties  of  ruler.  He  re- 
mained there,  beating  off  attacks, 
especially  when  at  Ascalon  in  1099 
he  crushed  the  Saracens,  and  to 
some  extent  enlarging  his  authority 
until  his  death  in  July,  1100. 

Godfrey's  fame  became  legend- 
ary in  the  medieval  romances; 
he  was  the  hero  of  two  notable 
French  chansons  de  geste,  and  of 
an  early  legend  which  has  close 
resemblances  to  that  of  Lohen- 
grin (q.v.). 

Godfrey,  CHARLES  (1790-1863). 
British  musical  conductor.  Born 
at  Kingston-on -Thames,  Nov.  22, 
1790,  Godfrey  entered  the  band  of 
the  Coldstream  Guards  as  bassoon 
player,  and  from  1828-63  was  band- 
master. He  founded  Jullien's 
Journal,  the  first  English  publica- 
tion devoted  to  military  music, 
was  appointed  musician  in  ordin- 
ary to  the  king,  1831,  and  died 
Dec.  12,  1863.  ,  ...jaMJt,,MIIJ)IJ1MllyIMLJ 
Several  of  his 
sons  and 
grandsons  fol- 
lowed the  same 
calling.  T  h  e 
eldest  son. 
Daniel,  or  more 
commonly 
Dan,  1831- 
1903,  was 
bandmaster  of 
the  Grenadier 
Guards,  1856-96,  and  then  had  a 
band  of  his  own.  He  died  June  30, 

1903.  Another    son,     Adolphus 
Frederick,  1837-82,  succeeded  his 
father  as  bandmaster  of  the  Cold- 
stream  Guards  for  17  years. 

Charles,  1839-1919,  the  third 
son,  was  bandmaster  of  the  Scots 
Fusilier  Guards  and  then  of  the 
Royal  Horse  Guards  from  1859- 

1904,  and    professor    of    military 
music  at  the  Royal  College  of  Music 
and  the  Guildhall  School  of  Musiro. 


Dan  Godfrey, 
British  bandmaster 

Downey 


GODFREY 


3576 


GODLEY 


Godfrey,  SIR  EDMUND  BERRY 
(1621-78).  English  politician. 
Member  of  a  Kentish  family  and 
educated  at 
Westminster 
and  Oxford,  he 
became  a  wood- 
monger  in  Lon- 
don and  justice 
of  the  peace 
for  Westmin- 
ster, and  was 
knighted,  1666, 

Sir  Edmund  Berry      tor  ^s  services 
Godfrey,  during     the 

English  politician      plague.    Before 

After  Vanderbank  him,    Sept.     6,. 

1678,  Titus  Gates  first  swore  the 
particulars  of  the  notorious  Popish 
•'plot,"  On  Oct.  12  Godfrey  was 
missing,  and  five  days  later  his 
body  was  found  at  Primrose  Hill. 

He  was  almost  certainly  mur- 
dered, perhaps  at  the  instigation  of 
Jesuits,  but  by  whom  has  never 
been  established.  Three  men  were 
hanged  on  the  evidence  of  an 
informer  whose  perjury  was  after- 
wards confessed  and  established, 
but  investigations  have  failed  to 
ascertain  the  facts  about  Godfrey's 
death.  His  name  is  sometimes 
erroneously  given  as  Sir  Edmund- 
bury  Godfrey. 

Godhra.  Town  and  subdivision 
of  Bombay,  India,  in  the  W.  part 
of  Panch  Mahals  dist.  The  area 
of  the  division  is  585  sq.  m.  Godhra 
town  has  an  important timbertrade. 

Godin,  JEAN  BAPTISTE  ANDR£ 
(1817-88).  French  socialist.  Born 
at  Esqueheries,  Jan.  26,  1817,  he 
became  an  employee  in  the  iron- 
works there.  In  1840  he  set  up  in 
business  for  himself,  and  made  a 
considerable  fortune.  He  intro- 
duced profit-sharing  into  his  busi- 
ness, which,  after  it  had  been 
transferred  to  Guise,  he  turned  into 
a  cooperative  association.  He  also 
erected  dwellings,  called  famili- 
steres,  for  the  workers,  and  in  other 
ways  showed  himself  a  genuine 
believer  in  the  socialist  ideas  he 
had  learned  from  Fourier.  Godin 
was  a  member  of  the  National 
Assembly,  1871-76.  He  died  Jan. 
15,  1888.  He  wrote  Solutions 
Sociales  and  other  works  on 
socialism  and  industrial  problems. 
See  Co-Partnership;  consult  also 
Twenty-Eight  Years  of  Co-Partner- 
ship  at  Guise,  A.  Williams,  1908. 

Godiva,  LADY.  Wife  of  the 
llth  century  Leofric  of  Mercia. 
According  to  legend,  Leofric  made 
harsh  exactions  on  his  people  of 
Coventry;  consequently  his  wife 
begged  for  their  removal,  which  he 
promised  to  grant  if  she  rode  naked 
through  the  town.  Lady  Godiva 
accepted  the  terms.  The  people  of 
Coventry  kept  close  within  doors, 
their  windows  shuttered,  during 


Godiva.     Lady  Godiva  as  imperson- 
ated  in   the   Coventry   pageant  of 
Aug.  7,  1907 

the  ride;  all  save  a  certain  tailor, 
who,  peering  through  a  chink,  was 
struck  blind,  and  has  ever  since 
been  known  as  Peeping  Tom.    The 
legend     was     commemorated     at 
Coventry  fair  from  1678-1826  by 
a  Godiva  procession  that  has  been 
revived    intermittently    in     more 
recent  years,  and  it  is  the  subject 
of  a  well-known  poem  by  Tennyson. 
Godkin,      EDWIN     LAWRENCE 
(1831-1902).     Irish-American  pub- 
licist.   He  was  born  at  Moyne,  co. 
Wicklow,    Oct. 
2,   1831,  son  of 
a  Presbyterian 
clergyman  who 
was  also  a  jour- 
nalist. Educated 
at  Armagh,  Sil- 
coates,   and 
Queen's   Col- 
lege, Belfast,  he 
Edwin  L.  Godkin,      studied  law  at 
Irish-American        Lincoln's    Inn, 
publicist  wag    sub.editor 

of  Cassell's  Magazine,  and  wrote  a 
History  of  Hungary,  1853.  He 
served  as  Danubian  and  Crimean 
correspondent  of  The  Daily  News, 
in  which  paper,  after  he  settled  in 
the  U.S.A.  in  1856,  he  stoutly 
defended  the  cause  of  the  North. 

Godkin's  most  influential  work 
was  in  connexion  with  the  editor- 
ship of  two  New  York  papers,  The 
Nation  and  The  Evening  Post, 
1865-99.  Despite  uncertain  health, 
he  did  probably  more  than  any  other 
mun  to  inaugurate  civil  service 
reform,  promote  clean  finance,  and 
defeat  Tammany. 

In  addition  to  the  early  work  on 
Hungary,  he  wrote  Reflections  and 
Comments,  1895 ;  Problems  of 
Modern  Democracy,  1896 ;  and 
Unforeseen  Tendencies  of  Democ- 


racy, 1898.  Oxford  made  him 
hori.  D.C.L.  in  1897.  He  died  at 
Greenway,  Devonshire,  May  21, 
1902,  and  was  buried  in  the  old 
churchyard  at  Hazelbeach,  the 
inscription  on  his  tombstone  being 
by  Viscount  Bryce,  who  delivered 
the  first  of  the  Godkin  memorial 
lectures  on  citizenship  at  Harvard, 
in  1904.  See  Letters,  ed.  R. 
Ogden,  2  vols.,  1907. 

Godlee,  SIR  RICKMAN  JOHN 
(b.  1849).  British  surgeon.  Born 
April  14,  1849,  he  was  the  son  of 
Rickman  Godlee,  a  barrister,  and 
through  his  mother  a  grandson  of 
J.  J.  Lister,  F.R.S.,  and  a  nephew 
of  Lord  Lister.  Educated  at  Uni- 
versity College,  London,  of  which 
he  was  made  a  fellow,  he  began 
a  surgical  practice.  Surgeon  at 
University  College  Hospital,  he  was 
also  professor  of  clinical  surgery 
at  University  College.  His  other 
distinctions  included  the  post  of 
surgeon-in-ordinary  to  the  king. 
In  1912  he  was  made  a  baronet. 
Godlee  wrote  a  Life  of  Lord  Lister 
and  several  books  on  surgery. 

Godley,  SIR  ALEXANDER  JOHN 
(b.   1867).     British  soldier.     Born 
Feb.  4,  1867,  the  son  of  a  soldier, 
he  was  educated  at  Haileybury  and 
Sandhurst.    In  1886  he  joined  the 
Dublin  Fusiliers,  and  in  1896  saw 
active    service   with   mounted   in- 
fantry   in    S. 
Africa.     Hav- 
ing    passed 
through     the 
Staff   College, 
he  was   in  S. 
Africa  when 
the  war  broke 
out   in    1899, 
and   after  as- 
Sir  A.  J.  Godley,        sisting  in*  the 
British  soldier          defence    of 
Russeii  Ma  f  eking, 

took  command  of  a  mounted  bri- 
gade. From  1903-5  he  was  com- 
mandant of  the  school  of  mounted 
infantry  at  Aldershot. 

Four  years  on  the  general  staff 
at  Aldershot  followed,  and  in  1910 
Godley  was  sent  out  to  New 
Zealand  as  major-general  to  com- 
mand the  defence  forces  there.  On 
the  outbreak  of  the  Great  War  he 
went  to  Egypt  and  Gallipoli  at 
the  head  of  a  division  of  Austra- 
lians and  New  Zealanders.  After 
an  arduous  year  on  the  peninsula 
he  went  to  France,  and  was  put 
in  command  of  the  22nd  corps, 
which  he  led  in  the  closing  stages 
of  the  war.  He  was  in  command  of 
the  New  Zealand  Expeditionary 
Force  throughout  the  war.  Mili- 
tary secretary  to  the  secretary  for 
war,  1920-22,  he  was  commander  of 
the  British  Rhine  army.  1922-24. 
becoming  in  the  latter  year  G.O.C. 
Southern  Command. 


GODMANCHESTER 


3577 


GODWIN 


Godmanchester.  Mun.  bor. 
and  market  town  of  Huntingdon. 
It  stands  on  the  Ouse,  1  m.  from 
Huntingdon,  and  has  a  station 
on  the  G.N.  and  G.E.  joint  rly. 
The  chief  building  is  S.  Mary's 
Church,  a  fine  Perpendicular  build- 
ing, and  here  are  some  old  timbered 
houses.  It  has  a  trade  in  agri- 
cultural produce,  being  noted  for 
its  milk  and  cheese ;  milling  is 
another  industry.  Godmanchester 
occupies  the  site  of  a  Roman  and 
possibly  a  British  station.  It  is 
mentioned  in  Domesday  and  was 
early  a  town  of  importance.  In- 
corporated as  a  borough  in  1605, 
it  is  now  governed  by  a  mayor  and 
corporation.  Its  annual  fair  is  still 
held.  Market  day,  Wed.  Pop.  2,130. 

Godolphin,  EARL.  English  title 
borne  by  the  family  of  Godolphin 
from  1706  to  1766.  The  family  was 
an  old  Cornish  one,  and  its  most 
prominent  member,  Sidney,  was 
made  an  earl  in  1706.  His  son 
Francis  (1 678-1766),  lord  privy  seal 
1735^0,  was  the  2nd  and  last  earl. 
When  Francis  died  the  title 
became  extinct,  and  the  estates 
passed  to  his  daughter,  the  wife  of 
Thomas  Osborne,  4th  duke  of 
Leeds.  The  duke  of  Leeds  is  thus 
the  existing  representative  of  the 
Godolphins. 

Godolphin,  SIDNEY  GODOL- 
PHIN, IST  EARL  OF  (1645-1712). 
English  politician.  Of  good  family, 
he  came  somehow  to  the  notice  of 
Charles  II,  to  whose  household  he 
was  attached  during  his  exile.  In 
1660  he  entered  the  House  of  Com- 
mons as  M.P.  for  Helston,  but  it 
was  not  until  1679  that  he  became 
prominent  in  affairs  of  the  state. 
Having  by  then  made  a  certain 
reputation  as  a  student  of  finance, 


ated  with  Marlborough,  led  to 
his  resignation  in  1696.  In  1700, 
however,  he  was  again  in  office. 
In  1702  he 
was  made  lord 
treasurer,  and 
he  remained 
in  power  until 
1710,  when  he 
shared  the 
fate  of  his 
great  associ- 
ate, being  dis- 
1st  Earl  of  Godolphin,  missed  from 
English  politician  office  jn  Aug., 

After  Kneller  171Q       I)uring 

these  eight  years  he  was 
mainly  responsible  for  directing 
the  country's  affairs.  In  1706 
he  was  made  an  earl.  He  died, 
Sept.  15,  1712. 

Godoy,  MANUEL  (1767-1851). 
Spanish  statesman.  Born  at 
Badajoz,  Feb.  12,  1767,  Godoy 
became  an  official  of  the  court,  a 
royal  favourite,  and  was  made 
duke  of  Alcudia.  From  1792-97 
he  was  chief  minister  of  Spain, 
being  responsible  for  the  declara- 
tion of  war  on,  France  and  the 
humiliating  peace  of  Basel,  1795. 
He  was  again  premier  in  1801  and 
also  general  of  the  Spanish  forces, 
which  he  led  into  Portugal,  this 
time  being  in  alliance  with  France. 
He  was  victorious,  but  the  defeat 
of  the  Spanish  fleet  at  Trafalgar 
added  to  the  number  of  his  public 
enemies,  and  he  narrowly  escaped 
death  during  an  insurrection  in 
1808.  His  public  career  was  over, 
and  he  lived  in  Rome  and  Paris 
almost  forgotten  until  his  death, 
Oct.  7,  1851.  Godoy's  Memoirs, 
dealing  with  the  reign  of  his 
patron  Charles  IV,  were  published 
in  English  in  1836. 


tender  at  Edinburgh.  The  story 
that  it  was  sung  as  his  own  com- 
position by  Henry  Carey  at  a 
public  dinner  in  1740  is  now  gener- 
ally discredited.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  statement  that  it  was 
sung  in  Latin  in  James  II's  chapel 
in  1688,  and  preserved  as  a 
Jacobite  hymn,  has  received  the 
support  of  Dr.  Curajnings,  who 
suggests  that  the  words  may  have 
been  sung  to  an  adaptation  of  an 
air  by  Dr.  John  B  ill  (1562-1628), 
first  Gresham  professor  of  music, 
to  whom  the  credit  for  the  music 
has  long  been  popularly  assigned. 
See  Galliard. 

Bibliography.  God  Save  the  King, 
the  original  history  of  the  music  and 
words  of  the  National  Anthem,  W. 
H.  Cummings,  1902  ;  Dictionary  of 
Music  and  Musicians,  G.  Grove,  ed. 
J.  A.  Fuller  Maitland,  vol.  ii,  1906; 
The  National  Anthem,  F.  S.  Boas 
and  J.  E.  Borland  (L.C.C.  pam- 
phlet), 1916. 

Godthaab  (Dan.,  Good  Hope). 
Oldest  settlement  in,  and  chief 
town  of,  the  southern  inspectorate 
of  Greenland.  On  the  S.W.  shore, 
on  a  bay  in  Davis  Strait,  in  lat. 
64°  10'  N.,  it  has  a  harbour,  govern- 
ment offices,  and  a  seminary  for 
Eskimo  catechists.  The  first 
Danish  colony  in  Greenland,  it  was 
founded  by  Hans  Egede  in  1721. 
Pop.  1,000  (20  Danes). 

Godwin  OR  GODWINS  (d.  1053). 
English  earl.  Little  is  known  of 
him  before  the  time  of  Canute, 
when  he  became  one  of  the  English 
earls.  In  1020  he  was  earl  of  the 
West  Saxons,  and  for  fifteen  years 
he  appears  to  have  been  one  of  the 
Danish  king's  chief  supporters.  He 
forwarded  the  selection  of  Hardi- 
canute  as  king  in  1035,  as  in  1042 
he  did  that  of  Edward  the  Con- 


g 

1  Q^>n 

-& 

zat 

11  -7-^ 

j  — 

/^ 

—  &  —  ^  — 

=*= 

God  Save  the  King.     Facsimile  of  the  opening  bars  in  the  original  score  used  at  Drury  Lane  Theatre,  1745 


he  became  a  member  of  the  treasury 
board  and  one  of  the  king's  chief 
advisers,  the  little  group  being 
called  the  chits.  In  1684  he  was 
made  a  secretary  of  state,  and  a 
little  later  first  lord  of  the  treasury. 
In  1690,  after  a  brief  absence, 
Godolphin  returned  to  the  treasury, 
but  he  was  not  loyal  to  William, 
and  his  secret  intrigues  with 
James  II,  in  which  he  was  associ- 


God  Save  the  King.  British 
national  anthem.  The  actual 
origin  and  authorship  of  the  words 
and  music  have  not  been  ascer- 
tained. The  earliest  extant  version 
of  both  appeared  in  The  Gentle- 
man's Magazine,  Oct., 1745,  follow- 
ing upon  the  singing  of  the  anthem 
at  Drury  Lane  Theatre  during  the 
previous  month  as  a  loyal  retort 
to  the  proclamation  of  the  Pre- 


fessor.  His  daughter  was  married 
to  the  latter  king,  and  with  his  sons 
also  in  high  positions,  he  was  the 
most  powerful  man  in  the  kingdom. 
In  1051,  however,  there  was  a 
serious  quarrel  between  the  earl 
and  the  king.  The  details  are  un- 
certain, but  there  was  certainly 
two  rival  parties  in  the  state,  and 
the  one  opposed  to  the  earl  got, 
temporarily  at  least,  the  upper 


GODWIN 


3578 


GOES 


hand,  and  Godwin  and  his  sons 
were  exiled.  In  1053,  however,  he 
returned  and  was  restored  to  his 
estates  and  dignities.  He  died 
April  15,  1053.  Godwin,  whose 
name  is  perpetuated  in  the  Good- 
win Sands,  is  regarded  as  the  pro- 
tagonist of  the  English  against  the 
growing  influence  of  the  Normans. 
Harold  II  was  one  of  his  sons  ; 
others  were  Sweyn,  Tostig,  Gurth, 
and  Leofwine.  See  The  Norman 
Conquest,  E.  A.  Freeman,  1870-76. 
See  Goodwin  Sands. 

Godwin,      MARY       (1759-97). 
English  writer.    Born  at  Hoxton, 
London.  April  27,  ]759,  daughter 
of    Edward 
John    Wall- 
stonecraft, 
after  living  at 
Epping     and 
Beverley, 
Yorkshire, 
where  she  re- 
ceived  the 
principal  part 
Mary  Godwin,          of  her  educa- 
English  writer         tion>    ghe  left 
After  opie  an  uncongenial 

home  in  1778,  and  became  compan- 
ion to  a  Mrs.  Dawson,  at  Bath.  In 
1783,  with  a  Miss  Blood,  she  opened 
school  at  Islington,  later  removed 
to  Newington  Green.  She  was  for 
a  time  governess  in  the  family  of 
Lord  Kingsborough,  and  in  1787 
decided  to  adopt  a  literary  career. 
In  1786  the  London  publisher, 
Johnson,  had  given  her  lOgs.  for  a 
pamphlet  entitled  Thoughts  on  the 
Education  of  Daughters.  She  was 
assistant  editor  of  The  Analytical 
Review ;  translated  Salzmann's 
Elements  of  Morality;  in  1791  pub- 
lished her  Answer  to  Burke's  Re- 
flections on  the  French  Revolution ; 
and  in  1792  issued  her  Vindication 
of  the  Rights  of  Woman. 

In  Paris,  where  she  witnessed 
the  Terror  and  collected  materials 
for  her  unfinished  work  on  the 
Revolution,  1794,  she  met  Gilbert 
Imlay,  arid  bore  him  a  daughter, 
Fanny,  1794,  who  committed  suicide 
in  1816.  She  tried  to  drown  herself 
from  Putney  Bridge  as  a  result  of 
Imlay's  desertion ;  married  William 
Godwin,  March  29,  1797  ;  and  on 
Aug.  30  in  the  same  year  bore  him 
a  daughter,  Mary,  who  became  the 
second  wife  of  the  poet  Shelley. 
She  died  Sept.  10,  1797.  See  her 
Letters  to  Imlay,  new  ed.,  ed.  C.  K. 
Paul,  1879 ;  Memoirs,  W.  Godwin, 
1798;  Life,  Mrs.  E.  R.  Pennell, 
1885;  Study,  E.  Rauschenbusch- 
Clough,  1898. 

Godwin,  WILLIAM  (1756-1836). 
English  political  writer  and  novel- 
ist. Born  at  Wisbech,  Cambridge- 
shire, March  3, 1756,  for  some  years 
he  was  a  Dissenting  minister.  In 
1785  he  became  a  freethinker 


<$»&>' 


and  a  republican,  and  in  1793  ob- 
tained considerable  reputation  by 
the  publication  of  his  Enquiry  con- 
cerning Poli- 
tical Justice,  a 
gospel  of  the 
purest  anar- 
chism. In  1791 
he  brought  out 
The  Ad  ventu  res 
of  Caleb  Wil- 
liams, a  novel 
of  extraordin- 
ary power, 
wherein  he 
y  presented 

After  j.Nonhc0te.R.A.  Falkland,  the 
first  of  his  self-torturing  and  un- 
fortunate heroes.  On  these  two 
books  his  fame  is  based,  but  he  i.s 
probably  best  known  as  the  father- 
in-law  of  Shelley.  He  died  in  Lon- 
don, April  7,  1836.  See  Shelley, 
Godwin  and  their  Circle,  H.  N. 
Brailsford,  1913.  ; 

Godwin- Austen.  Lofty  mt.  of 
Central  Asia,  the  second  highest 
known  peak  in  the  world  (28,278ft. ). 
It  is  situated  on  the  N.E.  frontier  of 
Kashmir,  and  is  the  culminating 
point  of  the  Mustagh  or  Karakoram 
range.  Designated  on  the  Indian 
survey  maps  as  "  K  2,"  it  was  also 
called  Dapsang,  and  in  1888  re- 
ceived its  present  name  after 
Lt.-Col.  H.  H.  Godwin-Austen,  of 
theTrigonometricalSurve}'- of  India. 
God  wit  (Limosa}.  Genus  of 
wading  birds  belonging  to  the 
snipe  group.  Two'species,  the  bar- 


Godwit.     The  black-tailed  variety, 

Limosa  belgica 

tailed  (L.  lapponica)  and  the  black- 
tailed  (L.  belgica)  godwits,  occur 
in  Great  Britain  as  birds  of  pas- 
sage, though  they  appear  to  breed 
there  no  longer.  They  have  long 
legs  and  beaks,  the  plumage  barred 
with  white  and  brown,  and  are 
usually  found  about  shores  and 
estuaries. 

Goeben.  German  battle  cruiser. 
Built  at  Hamburg  in  1911,  her 
length  was  610  ft.,  beam  96  ft.,  and 
displacement  22,640  tons.  Engines 
of  70,000  h.p.  gave  a  speed  of  28 
knots  per  hour ;  her  armour  was  a 
10-in.  belt,  with  10  ins.  on  her  con- 
ning, tower  and  a  2£-in.  protective 
deck.  Guns  were  eight  14-in., 


Goeben.    The  German  battle  cruiser 
when  she  fell  into  British  hands 

twelve  6 -in.,  twelve  12-pounders.  A 
sister  ship  to  the  Moltke,  the  Goeben 
achieved  much  notoriety  by  her 
escape  into  Turkish  waters,  in  com- 
pany with  theBreslau,  Aug.  6, 1914, 

When  the  Great  War  broke  out 
the  two  ships  were  in  the  Aegean 
Sea.  On  Aug.  6,  1914,  the  British 
Mediterranean  fleet  got  into  touch 
with  them  off  Messina  and  gave 
chase,  but  they  escaped  into  the 
Dardanelles.  A  secret  court-martial 
inquiry  into  the  incident  was  held 
by  the  Admiralty,  as  a  result  of 
which  the  officer  tried  was  ac- 
quitted. Later  the  Goeben  became 
very  active  in  the  Dardanelles,  and 
for  some  time  led  the  Turkish  fleet. 
On  Jan.  20,  1918,  in  company  with 
the  Breslau,  she  made  a  dash  from 
the  Dardanelles  and  attacked  the 
British  ships  off  Mudros.  As  a 
result  both  enemy  vessels  were 
driven 'into  minefields,  where  the 
Breslau  sank  and  the  Goeben  sus- 
tained much  injury.  Whilst  ashore 
in  the  Dardanelles  the  Goeben  was 
bombed  by  British  aircraft,  but 
again  escaped.  Next  she  joined  the 
enemy  fleet  in  the  Black  Sea,  and 
was  there  injured  by  running  upon 
enemy  mines.  When  the  British 
fleet  entered  the  Sea  of  Marmora, 
after  the  armistice,  they  found  the 
Goeben  lying  jcrippled  at  Ismid 
and  took  her  over. 

Goes  on  TER  GOES.  Town  of  the 
island  of  S.  Bevel  and,  Netherlands, 
in  the  prov.  of  Zeeland.  It  is 
situated  in  the  N.  part  of  the 
island,  of  which  it  is  the  chief  town, 
20  m.  W.N.W.  of  Bergen-op-Zoom. 
It  has  a  lofty  Gothic  church,  conse- 
crated in  1423,  and  remnants  of 
the  chateau  of  Ostende,  once  the 
residence  of  the  Countess  Jaqueline 
of  Bavaria.  The  town  hall  contains 
fine  pictures  by  Flemish  artists. 


GOETHAL-S 

An  important  weekly  fair  is  held 
at  which  the  quaint  costumes  of 
the  surrounding  districts  may  be 
seen.  Pop.  6,600. 

Goethals,  GEORGE  WASHINGTON 
(b.  1858).  American  soldier  and 
engineer.  Born  at  Brooklyn  and 
educated  at  the  military  academy 
of  West  Point,  he  specialised  in 
military  engineering,  and  did  good 
service  in  that  branch  in  the 
Spanish-American  War  of  1898. 
He  was  also  employed  on  weir 
and  harbour  work.  In  1907 
Goethals  was  given  charge  of 
the  construction  of  the  Panama 


3579 

Canal,     a    task     demanding    not 
only  technical  skill  but  high  ad- 
ministrative   qualities,    which    he 
fulfilled   with 
admirable 
success,  the 
canal    being 
virtually  com- 
pleted some  six 
months  before 
the  scheduled 
date  of  June  1, 
1915.   In  Dec., 
G.  W.  Goethals,         1917,    he    was 
American  soldier       appointed 
acting  quartermaster- general. 


GOETHE:    HIS    CAREER   AND    INFLUENCE 

J.  G.  Robertson,  Prof,  of  German  Literature,  London  TTniv, 

This  article  is  supplemented  by  those  on  Germany :  Literature ; 

Drama  ;  Poetry.     See  also  the  biographies  of  Heine  ;  Schiller,  and 

other  German  poets 


Johann  Wolfgang  von  Goethe, 
Germany's  greatest  poet,  was  born 
at  Frankfort-on-Main,  Aug.  28, 
1749.  Of  good  family,  he  received 
a  liberal  education  at  the  hands  of 
tutors,  and  studied  law  at  the 
university  of  Leipzig  and  subse- 
quently at  Strasbourg.  In  the 
latter  town,  under  the  guidance  of 
Herder,  he  learned  to  appreciate 
the  beauties  of  Gothic  architecture, 
the  German  Volkslied,  and  the 
greatness  of  Shakespeare ;  his 
genius  was  thereby  awakened,  and 
under  the  influence  of  his  love  for 
Friederike  Brion,  daughter  of  the 
pastor  of  a  neighbouring  Alsatian 
village,  his  lyric  powers  revealed 
their  full  strength.  With  Gotz  von 
Berlichingen,  1773,  Goethe  gave 
the  new  literary  movement  of 
Storm  and  Stress  its  first  tragedy, 
and  with  Werthers  Leiden,  1774,  its 
typical  novel.  To  this  period  also 
belongs  the  drama  Clavigo,  1774, 
works,  in- 
orm  of  the 
drama  of  Faust. 

Goethe  and  Weimar 

Before  settling  down  as  an  advo- 
cate in  Frankfort,  Goethe  spent 
some  months  at  Wetzlar,  then  the 
seat  of  the  supreme  German  law 
courts.  His  plans  for  a  career  were, 
however,  soon  upset ;  at  the  end  of 
1775  he  accepted  an  invitation  to 
visit  Karl  August,  duke  of  Saxe- 
Weimar,  and  Weimar  remained  his 
home  for  life.  He  won  the  duke's 
confidence,  and  before  long  was 
entrusted,  as  his  minister,  with  the 
conduct  of  state  affairs.  These 
duties  and  the  claims  of  social  life 
interfered  for  a  time  with  his  liter- 
ary work,  and  he  published  little  ; 
but  under  the  inspiration  of  Char- 
lotte von  Stein,  whose  influence  is 
immediately  apparent  in  his  lyrics, 
all  the  greater  works  of  the  next 
twenty  years  of  his  life  were 
planned  and  begun. 


and  other  fragmentary 
eluding  the   earliest  foi 


The  years  1786-88  Goethe  spent 
in  Italy,  a  stay  which  made  a  deep 
incision  in  his  literary  life  ;  in  the 
course  of  these  years  the  dramas  of 
Iphigenie  auf  Tauris,  1787,  and 
Egmont,  1788,  were  completed, 
and  Torquato  Tasso,  1790,  in  great 
part  written.  On  his  return  to 
Germany  disappointment  with 
home  conditions  for  a  time  lamed 
his  powers,  and  he  produced  little 
of  importance;  but  in  1794  he 
came  into  personal  contact  with 
Schiller,  and  a  mutually  inspiring 
affection  united  the  two  men  until 
the  younger  poet's  death  in  1805.  In 
this  period  Goethe  completed  his 


After  J.  K.  Slieler 

greatest  novel,  Wilhelm  Meisters 
Lehrjahre,  1795-96,  and,  in  friendly 
rivalry  with  Schiller,  wrote  several 
of  his  finest  ballads.  In  1797  he 
published  Hermann  und  Dorothea, 
the  most  perfect  idyll  in  German 
literature. 

Goethe  also  threw  himself  zea- 
lously into  scientific  pursuits.  Here 


GOETHE 

bis  discovery  of  a  rudimentary  in- 
ter-maxillary bone  in  man  and  his 
suggestive  theory  of  plant-develop- 
ment from  the  basic  leaf -form  pre- 
pared the  way  for  the  Darwinian 
theory  of  evolution,  while  his 
studies  in  optics  resulted  in  a  new 
theory  of  colours.  The  last  period 
of  Goethe's  life  is  comparatively 
uneventful.  In  1788  he  had  found 
a  congenial  helpmate  in  Christiane 
Vulpius,  who,  although  of  all  the 
women  Goethe  loved  least  to  be 
regarded  as  his  intellectual  equal, 
inspired  a  lasting  affection;  in 
1806  he  made  her  his  wife.  .-'  * 

His  principal  works  in  this 
period  were  the  first  part  of  Faust, 
1808  ;  Die  Wahlverwandtschaften, 
18C9,  a  psychological  "  problem  " 
novel ;  Der  Westostliche  Divan, 
1819,  a  collection  of  poetry  in  an 
oriental  mould  which  showed  that. 
in  spite  of  his  years,  his  lyric 
powers  were  still  undiminished  ; 
and  Wilhelm  Meisters  Wander- 
jahre,  1821,  a  continuation  of  the 
earlier  novel.  In  1811  he  com- 
menced the  publication  of  his  auto- 
biography, Aus  meinem  Leben  : 
Dichtung  und  Wahrheit,  which, 
however,  was  not  carried  beyond 
the  year  1775,  although  other 
works,  such  as  Die  Italienische 
Reise,  1816,  etc.,  may  be  regarded 
as  a  continuation. 

In  the  very  last  year  of  his  life 
he  put  the  finishing  touches  to  the 
second  part  of  Faust,  1832.  As  his 
interest  in  this  theme  went  back 
to  the  very  beginnings  of  his 
literary  life,  and  the  kernel  of  the 
first  part,  the  tragedy  of  Faust  and 
Gretchen,  was  written  in  his  pre- 
Weimar  clays,  Faust  may  be  said, 
in  a  very  literal  sense,  to  have 
accompanied  Goethe  all  through 
life.  He  died  at  Weimar,  March 
22,  1832. 

Goethe's  Place  in  Literature 

It  is  difficult  in  a  brief  summary 
to  estimate  Goethe's  significance 
for  his  own  literature  and  that  of 
Europe.  The  most  striking  features 
in  his  life  are  the  universality  of 
his  genius,  the  enormous  range  of 
his  intellectual  sympathies,  and  the 
sincerity  and  sanity  of  his  judge- 
ment of  men  and  things.  He 
was  not  tempted  into  false  paths 
by  the  materialistic  tendencies  of 
the  age  of  rationalism  into  which 
he  was  born,  nor  did  he  lose  him- 
self in  the  maze  of  metaphysical 
subtleties  of  the  romantic  epoch. 

His  supreme  achievement,  it  has 
""been  often  said,  was  the  life  he 
lived ;  supreme,  not  on  account  of 
any  exemplary  morality,  but  rather 
because  he  saw  all  his  experience 
in  the  light  of  a  moral  education, 
as  so  much  material  out  of  which 
he  might  build  up,  as  he  said,  the 
pyramid  of  his  life  and  personal!  ty. 


GOETHITE 

His  works  he  has  himself  called 
"  fragments  of  a  great  confession," 
the  "  confession  "  of  his  own  life  ; 
and  this  markedly  subjective  as- 
pect lends  them  a  unique  interest. 

But  Goethe  was  also  a  great  artist 
in  poetry.  It  is  true,  his  strength, 
unlesswherethelyricwasconcerned, 
did  not  lie  in  formal  beauty ; 
his  dramas  often  overstep  the 
limitations  imposed  by  the  theatre  ; 
his  novels  are  lacking  in  proportion 
and  sometimes  tedious.  But  both 
his  dramas  and  his  novels  show  an 
almost  Shakespearean  power  of 
characterisation,  an  insight  into 
problems  of  spiritual  development 
and  emotional  conflict,  and  con- 
tain an  unrivalled  wealth  of  wise 
reflection.  As  a  lyric  poet,  Goethe 
stands  alone  in  a  literature  the 
strength  of  which  has  in  all  times 
lain  in  its  lyric.  In  the  problems  of 
philosophy,  on  the  other  hand,  he 
took  little  interest ;  as  a  political 
thinker,  he  lived  in  too  distraught 
an  age  to  understand  fully  the 
questions  either  of  his  own  time  or 
of  the  future ;  as  a  scientist,  his 
achievements  have  no  present-day 
value.  But  his  attitude  to  the 
problem  of  the  conduct  of  life  is 
still  "  modern."  Goethe's  life 
covered  the  most  important  period 
in  the  development  of  his  coun- 
try's literature,  and  he  is  its 
greatest  personality. 

Round  few  men  of  letters  has  so 
vast  a  literature  grown  up.  The 
standard  edition  of  his  works  is  the 
Weimar  edition  in  142  vols.  (1887 
-1920),  which  includes,  besides 
the  Works  proper,  his  Diaries  and 
Letters.  His  Conversations  have 
been  edited  by  F.  von  Biedermann 
(2nd  ed.,  4  vols.,  Berlin,  1908-9). 
All  Goethe's  more  important  works 
have  'been  translated  into  English, 
Faust  many  times.  England  has 
also  the  honour  of  having  produced 
the  first  adequate  biography  of 
Goethe,  that  by  G.  H.  Lewes,  1855, 
a  book  which  still  retains  its  value 
and  popularity.  Of  modern  Ger- 
man biographies,  that  by  A.  Biel- 


3580 

schowsky,  1896- 
1904,  is  generally 
regarded  as  the  most 
satisfactory  ;  E  n  g. 
trans,  bv  W.  A. 
Cooper,  1905-8.  Of 
the  vast  critical 
literature,  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  make  any 
selection ;  but  the 
publications  of  the 
German  Goethe- 
Gcsellschaft  (since 
1880)  may  be  speci- 
ally mentioned. 


GOGH 


Goethe.  The  poet's  birthplace  at 
Frankfort,  DOW  a  museum.  Top,  right, 
the  house  in  Weimar  where  he  died 
(from  an  old  print) 

Bibliography.  A  complete  biblio- 
graphy will  be  found  in  vol.  iv  of 
Goedeke's  Grundriss  zur  Geschichte 
der  deutschen  Dichtung,  3rd  ed., 
Dresden,  1910.  Amongst  English 
literature  on  Goethe  mention  may 
be  made  of — besides  Lewes's  Life  of 
Goethe  and  Carlyle's  Essays — Life 
of  Goethe,  J.  Sime,  1888;  Goethe 
reviewed  after  Sixty  Years,  J.  R. 
Seeley,  1894  ;  Goethe  and  the 
Twentieth  Century,  J.  G.  Robertson, 
1912;  The  Life  of  Goethe,  P.  Hume 
Brown,  London,  1920. 


Gog  and  Magog,  the  wooden  figures,  carved  in  1708,  in  Guildhall,  London 

London  Stereoscopic  Co, 


Goethite.  Mineral  containing 
nearly  81  p.c.  of  iron.  It  crys- 
tallises in  column  or  needle-like 
shapes  in  the  rhombic  system,  and 
is  found  in  Cornwall,  Saxony,  Lake 
Onega  (Russia),  and  Jackson  Iron 
Mountain  (U.S.A.). 

Gog  and  Magog.  Two  names 
in  Biblical  and  post-Biblical  litera- 
ture. In  Ezek.  xxxviii,  2,  God  is 
spoken  of  as  opposing  "  Gog,  of  the 
land  of  Magog,  the  prince  of  Rosh, 
Meshech  and  Tubal " ;  and  in 
xxxix  a  battle  on  the  mountains  of 
Israel  is  predicted  in  which  Gog  is 
overthrown.  In  the  Mishnah,  Gog 
and  Magog  appear  as  the  worldly 
leaders  of  a  furious  assault  upon 
the  Kingdom  of  God.  The  name 
Gog  was  perhaps  suggested  by  the 
Gyges  of  Herodotus  and  the  Gugu 
of  Assyrian  inscriptions. 

Gog  and  Magog  are  the  names 
given  to  two  huge  carved  figures 
which  stand  on  octagonal  pedestals 
at  each  angle  of  the  wall  at  the 
west  end  of  Guildhall,  in  the  City  of 
London.  Figures  of  this  character, 
but  made  of  wickerwork  and  paste- 
board, were  at  one  time  carried 
in  the  annual  mayoral  procession. 
According  to  tradition  they  repre- 
sent Gogmagog  and  Corineus,  who, 
in  medieval  monastic  chronicles, 
fought  the  battles  of  the  Trojan  in- 
vaders against  the  early  inhabitants 
of  Britain.  In  time  Corineus  was 
forgotten  and  the  name  of  his  com- 
panion divided  between  the  two. 
With  this  myth  is  associated  the 
tradition  that  the  city  was  founded 
by  the  invaders  and  that  London, 
as  Troynovaunt,  or  New  Troy,  was 
the  chief  city  of  Albion  1,000  years 
before  the  Christian  era. 

Each  figure  is  14  ft.  6  ins.  high. 
They  were  carved,  1708,  by  Richard 
Saunders,  who  was  paid  £70  for 
the  work.  Similar  figures  on  a 
smaller  scale  strike  the  hours  on 
Bennett's  clock  in  Cheapside. 

Gogh,  VINCENT  VAN  (1853-90). 
Dutch  painter.  Born  at  Zundert, 
Holland,  he  was  the  son  of  a  Protes- 
tant minister.  He  was  at  first  pro- 
foundly influenced  by  the  work  of 


GOGMAGOG     HILLS 


3581 


GOLBORNE 


Millet,  was  drawn  later  to  the  Im- 
pressionists, and  then  became  one 
of  the  three  leaders  of  the  Post-Im- 
pressionist group,  being  associated 
with  Cezanne  and  Gauguin.  Van 
Gogh's  art  aimed  at  expressing 
that  aspect  of  a  subject  which  most 
strongly  appealed  to  his  senses. 

Towards  the  end  of  his  life  a  sun- 
stroke affected  his  brain,  already 
not  very  strong,  and  after  spending 
some  time  in  an  asylum  at  Aries,  he 
died  by  his  own  hand  at  Anvers- 
sur-Oise.  More  than  half  of  his 
pictures,  including  several  of  his 
best,  were  painted  at  Aries  during 
the  three  years  of  detention. 

Gogmagog  Hills.  Range  of 
hills  in  Cambridgeshire.  They  lie 
to  the  S.E.  of  Cambridge,  and  are  a 
continuation  of  the  chalk  formation 
which  runs  up  from  the  Chilterns. 
Their  highest  points  are  only  about 
220  ft.  above  sea  level,  but  owing  to 
the  flatness  of  the  country  round, 
extensive  views  are  obtained  from 
them.  There  are  traces  of  Roman 
earthworks. 

Gogo.  Seaport  of  Bombay, 
India,  in  the  district  of  Ahmada- 
bad.  It  stands  on  the  W.  shore  of 
the  Gulf  of  Cambay,  190  m.  N.W. 
of  Bombay.  Formerly  of  some  im- 
portance, it  has  lost  its  commercial 
prosperity.  On  the  N.  and  S.  of  the 
town  there  are  salt  marshes.  Pop. 
about  6,000. 

Gogol,  NIKOLAI  VASSILIEVITCH 
(1809-52).  Russian  novelist  and 
dramatist.  Born  at  Sorochintsi, 
Poltava,March 
31,  1809,  and 
educated  at 
N  y  e  j  i  n,  he 
went  to  St. 
Petersburg  in 
1828,  and  for  a 
time  was  a 
clerk  in  a  gov- 
ernment office. 
After  a  period 
o  f  indecision 
and  unrest,  he 
published  anonymously  Evenings 
at  a  Farmhouse  near  Dikanka, 
1831,  a  series  of  stories  of  that 
Little  Russia  in  which  his  early 
life  had  been  spent.  For  a  short 
time  he  was  professor  of  history 
at  St.  Petersburg. 

Inl834Mirgorod, another  volume 
of  stories,  established  his  fame  ;  it 
contained  Taras  Bulba,  a  romance 
of  the  Cossacks,  which  was  re- 
written in  1842  and,  since  widely 
translated,  founded  the  Russian 
novel.  In  1836  his  comedy  Revizor 
was  produced,  its  satire  on  the  con- 
ditions of  the  Russian  life  passing 
unnoticed  in  general  appreciation 
of  its  humour.  It  was  given  by  the 
Incorporated  Stage  Society  at  the 
Scala  Theatre,  London,  June,  1906. 
In  April,  1920,  under  the  name.The 


Nikolai  V.  Gogol, 
Russian  novelist 


Government  Inspector,  the  comedy 
was  produced  at  the  Duke  of  York's 
Theatre.  From  1836-16  the  author 
lived  abroad,  mostly  in  Rome.  In 
1842  he  published  the  first  volume 
of  Dead  Souls,  presenting  Russian 
provincial  life  in  a  clear  and  bril- 
liant manner,  and  with  a  rare 
humour.  The  second  volume  was 
burnt  by  the  author,  and  only  col- 
lected scraps  have  been  produced. 
In  his  later  years  Gogol  became  in- 
tensely religious,  and  died  at  Mos- 
cow, worn  out,  it  is  said,  by  prayer 
and  fasting,  March  3,  1852. 

Bibliography.  The  Great  Masters 
of  Russian  Literature  in  the  Nine- 
teenth Century,  Ernest  Dupuy,  Eng. 
trans.  N.  H.  Dole,  1886  ;  Nicolas 
Gogol  :  ecrivain  et  moraliste,  R. 
Tyrneva,  1901  ;  Landmarks  in 
Russian  Literature,  M.  Baring,  2nd 
ed.  1910  ;  Nicolas  Gogol,  Louis 
Leger,  1914  (in  Les  Grands  fieri vains 
etrangers). 

Gogra.  River  of  India.  With 
its  source  in  Tibet,  it  is  the  great 
river  of  Oudh,  United  Provinces. 
After  passing  Azamgarh,  Ghazipur 
and  Ballia,  it  joins  the  Ganges.  It 
exceeds  500  m.  in  length,  is  vener- 
ated by  the  Hindus,  and  is  a  useful 
waterway. 

Goidels.  Earlier  branch  of  the 
Celtic-speaking  peoples,  who  car- 
ried to  Britain  the  Goidelic  or  C- 
Celtic  speech.  This  developed  into 
the  Irish  and  Scottish  Gaelic  and 
the  Manx  dialects.  The  term,  intro- 
duced by  John  Rhys  in  1882,  dis- 
placed the  earlier  Gadhelic  or 
Gaelic.  The  Goidels  either  pre- 
ceded or  accompanied  the  bronze- 
age  culture,  with  the  practice  of 
cremation.  Round-headed  Alpines, 
they  mingled  with  the  short, 
swarthy,  long-headed  pre-Aryan 
population.  After  at  least  six  cen- 
turies this  mixed  race  was  con- 
fronted by  the  Brythonic  invasion, 
whose  late-Celtic  speech  and  iron- 
age  culture  gradually  penetrated 
westward.  See  Brython  ;  Celt. 

Goil.  Sea-loch  of  Argyllshire, 
Scotland.  It  forms  a  W.  arm  of 
Loch  Long,  and  expends  for  6  m. 
N.W.  of  Lochgoilhead.  There  are 
mountains  on  either  side. 

Goito.  Town  of  Italy,  in  the 
prov.  of  Mantua.  It  stands  on 
the  Mincio,  11  m.  from  Mantua. 
It  is  chiefly  notable  for  the  battle 
fought  here  on  May  30,  1848,  when 
Charles  Albert,  king  of  Sardinia, 
defeated  the  Austrians.  Pop. 
6,700. 

Goitre  (Fr.  goitre,  Lat.  guttur, 
throat).  Enlargement  of  the  thy- 
roid gland,  situated  in  the  lower 
part  of  the  front  of  the  neck. 
Two  chief  forms  are  recognized, 
simple  goitre  and  exophthalmic 
goitre  (q.v.).  Simple  goitre,  also 
known  as  bronchocele  and  Derby- 
shire neck,  occurs  most  fre- 


quently in  hilly  regions,  in  Derby- 
shire and  Gloucestershire  in  Eng- 
land, and  abroad  in  Switzerland, 
Northern  Italy  and  Central  Asia. 
It  is  usually  sporadic,  but  some- 
times occurs  in  the  form  of  an  acute 
epidemic.  The  disease  is  probably 
due  to  the  presence  of  an  organism 
in  drinking  water. 

The  condition  may  last  for  years 
without  producing  serious  symp- 
toms, but  the  gradual  enlargement 
may  ultimately  compress  the  air 
passages  and  cause  difficulty  in 
breathing.  Medical  treatment  is 
not  of  much  avail,  but  the  adminis- 
tration of  thyroid  extract  may  be 
tried.  In  the  early  stages  a  change 
of  locality  sometimes  brings  about 
a  cure.  With  steady  persistence  or 
increase  of  the  growth  a  surgical 
operation  for  removal  of  part  of  the 
goitre  is  generally  advisable.  Pron. 
goy-ter. 

Gokhale,  GOPAL  KRISHNA  (1867- 
1915).      Indian     political    leader. 
Elected  to  the  Bombay  legislative 
council  in  1900,  he  was  selected  in 
1902     by    the 
non-  official 
members  of 
that   body    to 
represent  them 
on  the  Supreme 
Council.    He 
became  leader 
of  the  Indian 
opposition,  al- 
Gopal  Gokhale,        though    mani- 
Indian  politician       festing  consist- 

Ellioll&Fry  ent    loyalty, 

which  wis  recognized  by  the 
conferring  on  him  in  1904  of 
the  C.I.E.  In  1905  he  founded  the 
Servants  of  India  Society  for  the 
training  of  "national  missionaries/' 
He  worked  hard  on  behalf  of  a 
movement  for  the  compulsory  free 
education  of  boys.  Gokhale  was 
one  of  the  leading  exponents  of  the 
policy  of  self-government  for  India 
within  the  Empire.  He  drew  up  a 
remarkable  memorandum  on  the 
subject  only  a  few  days  before  his 
death,  outlining  his  proposals  for 
the  future  government  of  India. 
He  died  at  Bombay,  Feb.  20,  1915. 
See  India. 

Goktcha  OB  SEVANG.  Lake  of 
Armenia.  It  lies  at  an  alt.  of  over 
6,000  ft.,  30  m.  E.N.E.  of  Erivan, 
in  a  deep  basin  surrounded  by  rug- 
ged mts.  It  is  about  47  m.  long, 
with  an  average  breadth  of  12  m., 
and  provides  good  fishing. 

Golborne.  Urban  dist.  and 
parish  of  Lancashire,  England.  It 
is  5J  m.  S.  by  E.  of  Wigan,  on  the 
L.  &  N.W.R.  The  chief  industry  is 
the  cotton  manufacture,  while 
around  are  coal  mines.  Water  is 
supplied  by  the  Ince  urban  district, 
which  has  works  in  Golborne. 
Market  day,  Sat.  Pop.  6,930. 


GOLCAR 


3582 


GOLD 


Golcar.  Urban  district  of 
Yorkshire  (W.R.).  It  is  3  m.  S.W. 
of  Huddersfield,  and  has  a  station 
on  the  L.  &  N.W.R.  A  centre  of 
the  woollen  manufacture,  here  is  a 
mineral  spring.  Pop.  10,100. 

Golconda.  Fortress  belonging 
to  the  nizam  of  Hyderabad.  Situ- 
ated about  7  m.  W.  of  Hyderabad, 
Golconda,  now  a  ruined  city,  was 
the  capital  of  a  kingdom  that 
nourished  from  its  establishment  in 


1512  until  its  conquest  and  annexa- 
tion by  Aurungzebe  in  1687.  Huge 
mausoleums  of  the  former  kings, 
fast  falling  into  decay,  surround 
and  dominate  the  fort,  which  is 
used  by  the  nizam  as  a  treasury 
and  prison.  From  the  fact  that  the 
diamonds  brought  from  the  rich 
fields  at  the  base  of  the  Mia  Hulla 
mts.  were  cut  and  sold  at  Golconda, 
the  name  of  the  city  has  come  to 
be  associated  with  fabulous  wealth. 


GOLD:    THE    METAL  AND    ITS    USES 

A.  J.  Liversedge,  Consulting  Engineer,  and  A.  W.  Holland 

Thin  article  deals  with  the  history  of  gold  and  describes  briefly  the 
areas  and  geological  forms  in  which  it  has  been  found.  In  con- 
clusion, the  importance  of  the  metal  in  commerce  and  finance  is 
considered.  See  Mining  and  the  articles  associated  therewith,  e.g. 
Assaying;  Bumping  Table;  Cyanide,  etc.  See  also  Geology; 
Jewelry ;  Metallurgy,  etc. 


Gold  was  almost  certainly  the 
first  metal  to  be  used  by  man.  He 
would  find  it,  as  it  is  still  often 
found,  among  the  sands  of  rivers  in 
the  form  of  small  grains,  and  some- 
times in  pieces  as  large  as  a  hen's 
egg;  its  colour  and  lustre  would 
attract  him  while  still  uncivilized, 
at  a  very  early  stage  in  his  intel- 
lectual development.  For  ages  he 
used  it  only  for  personal  adorn- 
ment, making  it  into  necklets  and 
anklets  by  tying  the  grains  to- 
gether with  pieces  of  fine  animal 
fibres.  Later  he  found  the  means  of 
working  the  metal  into  various 
forms,  and  then  of  melting  and 
castine  it  in  moulds.  Even  worked 
flints  of  the  stone  age,  knives,  or 
the  equivalents  of  knives,  of  those 
days,  are  found  partly  covered  with 
a  sheath  of  thin  gold,  on  which  the 
primitive  artist  and  engraver  has 
cut  figures  of  women,  animals, 
twisted  snakes,  boats,  etc. 

The  progress  of  the  civilization 
of  ancient  Egypt  is  marked  and 
punctuated  by  remarkable  exam- 
ples of  gold  jewelry,  from  the  beau- 
tiful spiral  shells  of  the  first  dy- 
nasty, 5500  B.C..  to  the  chains  and 
statuettes  and  the  gilded  work  of 
the  time  of  Cleopatra  and  the  Ro- 
mans. There  are  many  references 
to  gold  in  the  O.T.,  some  of  them 
indicating  an  advanced  state  of 
knowledge  of  the  art  of  working 
the  metal,  e.g.  the  statement  that 
the  Jews  "  did  beat  the  gold  into 
thin  plates  and  cut  it  into  wires." 
(Exod,  xxxix,  3.) 

The  extraction  of  gold  from  the 
earth  appears  to  have  been  carried 
on  from  the  earliest  historical  times 
as  diligently  and  systematically  as 
to-day.  The  great  conquerors  car- 
ried off  the  gold  from  the  regions 
which  they  traversed  ;  while  gold 
was  one  of  the  forms  in  which  tri- 
bute was  paid  to  them.  The  accu- 
mulation of  gold  which  King  David 
made  for  the  building  of  the  temple 


is  estimated  to  have  amounted  to 
some  £900,000,000.  The  amount  of 
gold  extracted  from  the  earth  since 
1493,  the  discovery  of  America  and 
the  earliest  date  at  which  anything 
like  a  reliable  estimate  can  be  made, 
until  1917,  is  believed  to  have  been 
about  823,500,000  oz.,  valued  at 
£3,346,332,000  sterling.  The  world's 
stock  at  the  present  time  is  esti- 
mated at  about  £1,766,820,000 
sterling. 

Gold  is  an  elementary  metal, 
chemical  symbol  Au  (Lat.  attrum) ; 
atomic  weight  196*2,  specific  grav- 
ity 19-32,  melting  point  1,061°  C. 
(1,941  -8°  F.)  ;  colour,  when  pure, 
bright  yellow,  slightly  reddish, 
with  high  metallic  lustre  ;  takes  a 
brilliant  polish  ;  in  hardness  nearly 
as  soft  as  lead,  but  differs  from  the 
latter  in  its  extraordinary  mallea- 
bility and  ductility,  in  which  it  sur- 
passes any  other  metal.  It  may  be 
hammered  out  into  leaves  so  thin 
that  300,000  laid  one  upon  the  other 
would  not  be  more  than  one  inch 
in  height ;  a  single  grain  in  weight 
may  be  spread  by  hammering  over 
56-5  sq.  ins.  of  surface,  or  drawn 
into  a  piece  of  wire  500  ft.  in  length. 
Chemical  Characteristics 

The  French  scientist  Reaumur, 
by  gilding  with  gold  a  silver  wire 
and  then  drawing  down  the  wire, 
reduced  the  thickness  of  the  gold 
covering  to  1/12,000,000  in.,  the 
surface  still  appearing  perfect  when 
examined  under  the  microscope.  . 

In  tensile  strength  gold  comes 
after  iron,  platinum,  silver,  and 
copper.  It  does  not  combine 
directly  with  oxygen,  even  when  in 
a  molten  state  in  an  open  vessel,  is 
unaffected  by  air  or  moisture  at 
any  temperature,  and  resists  all  the 
mineral  acids  except  selenic,  which 
only  acts  upon  it  with  the  aid  of 
heat;  the  alkalis  have  no  effect 
upon  it  at  normal  temperatures. 
It  dissolves,  however,  in  aqua 
regia,  a  mixture  of  nitric  and  hy- 


drochloric acids ;  it  is  also  dis- 
solved by  chlorine.  Its  conduc- 
tivity for  heat  is  only  half  that  of 
silver  and  much  less  than  that  of 
copper,  while  its  conductivity  for 
electricity  is  also  less  than  that  'of 
the  two  latter  metals. 

It  is  not  volatile  at  any  such 
temperatures  as  those  which  occur 
in  the  blast  furnace,  but  before  the 
oxy-hydrogen  blow-pipe  or  in  the 
electric  arc  it  may  be  vaporised. 
Gold  forms  two  oxides,  the  mon- 
oxide and  the  -  trioxide  or  auric 
oxide,  the  latter  being  readily  ob- 
tained by  evaporating  a  solution 
of  the  metal  in  aqua  regia  when  the 
crystals  are  yielded.  The  salt  is 
very  deliquescent,  and  is  used  in 
photography.  By  precipitating 
gold  chloride  with  ammonia  or  its 
carbonate,  fulminating  gold  is 
formed,  a  greenish  brown  powder 
readily  exploded  when  dry ;  by 
combination  of  tin  chlorides  with 
gold  chloride  the  Purple  of  Cassius 
is  produced,  a  flocculent  powder 
used  as  a  pigment  in  preparing 
ruby -coloured  glass. 

Its  Native  State 

Gold  is  found  in  nearly  all  parts 
of  the  earth,  and,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  aluminium  and  iron,  is 
more  generally  distributed  than 
any  other  metal.  It  is  mostly, 
however,  in  such  minute  propor- 
tions as  to  escape  recognition 
unless  special  steps  are  taken  to 
ascertain  its  presence.  It  is  also 
found  in  the  sea.  It  chiefly  occurs 
native  in  the  crust  of  the  earth,  i.e. 
in  the  state  of  metal,  occasionally 
pure,  but  more  generally  alloyed 
with  silver,  sometimes  with  copper, 
and  occasionally  with  palladium, 
rhodium,  and  other  metals. 

The  purest  native  gold  yet  found 
is  obtained  in  Australia,  and  con- 
tains 99'65  p.c.  of  the  metal ;  Rus- 
sian mines  at  Ekaterinburg  have 
yielded  specimens  showing  98 '96 
p.c.  On  the  other  hand,  mines 
in  New  Granada,  S.  America, 
have  furnished  ore  carrying  only 
64-93  p.c.  of  gold  but  35'07  p.c.  of 
silver.  Traces  of  iron  are  fre- 
quently present.  It  is  occasionally 
found  in  the  form  of  crystals,  but 
more  generally  in  grains,  thin 
laminae  and  masses,  sometimes  in 
fibres  or  network.  Apart  from  its 
occurrence  in  the  native  condition 
it  is  also  found,  but  comparatively 
rarely,  combined  with  tellurium 
and  lead  in  nagyagite,  in  Hungary ; 
with  tellurium  and  silver  in  syl- 
vanite,  and  as  an  amalgam. 

The  original  position  of  gold  in 
the  crust  of  the  earth  as  at  present 
constituted  is  chiefly  in  the  quartz 
veins  which  occur  in  the  altered 
palaeozoic  rocks,  the  sedimentary 
formations  of  the  Silurian,  Devon- 
ian, and  Carboniferous  periods, 


GOLD 


3583 


GOLD 


particularly  the  first,  where 
have  been  changed  by  con- 


more 
they 

tact  with  irruptive  igneous  rocks. 
The  fissures  formed  in  these  sedi- 
mentary rocks  by  the  eruptive 
forces  to  which  they  were  exposed 
were  subsequently  filled  by  de- 
posits of  quartz  which  probably 
carried  the  gold  with  it  where 
it  is  now  found  concentrated. 

Sometimes,  however,  gold  is  also 
found  diffused  through  the  masses 
of  these  rocks,  both  the  sedimen- 
tary and  the  igneous.  Occasion- 
ally it  appears  in  granite,  but  the 
great  supplies  of  the  world  have 
been  derived  immediately  or  re- 
motely from  the  quartz  veins  of 
the  altered  rocks,  chiefly  of  the 
Lower  Silurian  period,  though  it 
has  been  pointed  out  that  the 
great  Californian  gold-bearing 
deposits  are  as  recent  as  the 
Jurassic  age.  The  gold-bearing 
formations  of  the  Witwatersrand 
present  peculiar  ^features ;  they 
consist  of  beds  of  sandstone,  quart- 
zite,  conglomerates,  and  frequently 
shales.  The  gold  occurs  in  the 
beds  of  conglomerate,  locally 
described  as  "  banket,"  which 
consist  of  masses  of  waterworn 
quartz  pebbles  cemented  together 
by  quartz  sand,  clayey  and  talcose 
matter,  and  oxide  of  iron  ;  but  it 
is  found,  not  in  the  quartz  pebbles, 
but  in  the  cementing  material. 
Sources  of  Supply 

The  veins  of  gold-bearing  quartz 
in  normal  formations  vary  in 
thickness  from  that  of  a  sheet  of 
writing-paper  to  several  feet,  and 
may  extend  for  a  few  yards  or  for 
many  miles.  Generally  the  thinner 
veins  are  richer  than  the  thicker 
ones.  The  veins  may  be  super- 
ficial or  descend  to  great  depths. 
Mines  in  S.  Africa  are  now  being 
worked  at  nearly  2,000  ft.  below 
the  surface,  while  the  famous 
Morro  Velho  mine  of  Brazil  has 
reached  a  depth  of  over  5,000  ft. 

The  gold  of  commerce  is  to-day 
obtained  from  three  sources  :  (1) 
alluvial  deposits,  (2)  quartz  rock, 
and  (3)  telluride  ores,  the  great 
bulk  from  the  first  two,  and  mostly 
from  the  second.  The  alluvial  de- 
posits are  in  the  beds  and  banks 
of  existing  or  of  ancient  streams 
or  rivers  or  their  estuaries,  the 
gold  being  found  in  sands  and 
gravels.  These  deposits  are  un- 
doubtedly derived  from  quartz 
rock  formations  which  in  the 
remote  past  have  been  exposed 
and  broken  up  by  atmospheric 
agencies,  by  earth  movements  or 
volcanic  action,  and  their  contents 
carried  by  water  or  glaciers  into 
their  present  situations,  which 
may,  however,  be  high  above 
existing  rivers,  and  running  in 
quite  different  directions.  These 


deposits  may  be  superficial,  but  in 
some  regions  they  are  of  great 
depths,  e.g.  in  the  "  deep  placer  " 
mines  of  California,  where  the  de- 
posits attain  a  depth  or  thickness 
of  500  ft. 

Australian  Gold  Fields 

Found  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the 
world,  these  deposits  were  the 
sources  whence  primitive  man 
obtained  his  gold,  and  whence 
came  most  of  the  precious  metal 
accumulated  by  the  ancient  civili- 
zations. Many  streams  of  the 
north  of  Scotland  and  of  Ireland 
have  furnished  such  deposits  from 
which  appreciable  amounts  of  gold 
have  been  obtained  in.  the  past. 
Indeed,  in  streams  and  rivers  all 
over  the  world  traces  of  gold  may 
at  any  time  be  found.  The  open- 
ing up  of  the  great  gold-producing 
regions  of  the  world  has  nearly 
always  been  begun  by  discoveries, 
usually  accidental,  of  rich  deposits 
of  this  class.  Thus  the  gold  in- 
dustry of  A-ustralia  really  dates 
from  1851,  when  E.  H.  Hargreaves 
announced  his  discovery  of  gold 
at  Summer  Hill  Creek  and  other 
places  near  Bathurst,  about  150  m. 
from  Sydney,  New  South  Wales, 
although  the  existence  of  gold  in 
Australia  had  been  known  for 
some  years.  The  gold  presents 
itself  in  these  placer  or  alluvial 
workings  mostly  in  very  fine 
grains,  "  dust "  practically,  but 
from  time  to  time  nuggets  weigh- 
ing from  8  oz.  or  10  oz.  upwards 
arc  found.  The  largest  known 
nugget  ever  found  was  the  "  Wel- 
come Stranger,"  21  ins.  long  and 
10  ins.  thick,  and  weighing  2,520 
oz.,  the  melted  gold  amounting  to 
2,268  oz.  10  dwt.  14  grs. 

The  precious  metal  is  usually 
evenly  distributed  throughout  con- 
siderable masses  of  these  alluvial 
deposits,  but  occasionally  is  found 
in  remarkable  concentrations. 
From  a  few  sq.  ft.  of  such  a  deposit 
a  value  exceeding  £10,000  has  been 
recovered  in  many  instances. 
Gold  is  still  extracted  from  such 
placers  by  individuals  working  on 
their  own  account  by  simple  wash- 
ing by  means  of  the  primitive 
appliances  of  the  old-time  miner — 
the  pan,  the  cradle,  the  batea,  and 
the  torn  (q.v.) — but  this  is  mostly 
in  remote  regions  or  where  Chinese 
or  other  cheap  labour  can  find  a 
sufficient  return  for  its  industry  in 
very  poor  deposits. 

The  great  bulk  of  the  gold  from 
alluvial  deposits  is  now  obtained 
by  much  more  elaborate  ma- 
chinery, particularly  dredging, 
excavating,  and  hydraulicking. 
Dredging  is  now  practised  on  a 
large  scale  on  some  of  the  rivers  of 
N.  and  S.  America,  Africa,  Aus- 
tralia, and  the  Far  East.  The  ma- 


chines used  are  identical  in  all  es- 
sentials with  the  dredgers  used  in 
harbours  for  removing  or  prevent- 
ing accumulations  of  sand  or  mud 
likely  to  incommode  navigation. 
(See  Dredger.)  The  mouths  of  the 
rivers  and  other  parts  where  the 
velocity  of  the  water  is  reduced 
are  selected  as  the  grounds  most 
likely  to  prove  profitable,  as  the 
gold  brought  down  by  the  river 
will  settle  at  such  parts. 

Where  the  deposits  are  not  in  the 
beds  or  on  the  banks  of  existing 
rivers,  but  in  those  of  ancient 
rivers,  arrangements  are  some- 
times made  to  bring  water  to  the 
site  in  sufficient  quantity  to  float  a 
dredger  and  carry  off  its  spoil.  The 
"  pay-dirt  "  recovered  by  dredgers 
must  be  subjected  to  treatment  for 
the  extraction  of  the  gold.  .  This 
treatment  begins  with  a  rough  and 
ready  concentration,  which  con- 
sists in  simply  washing  away  some 
of  the  worthless  mud  by  streams  of 
water,  followed  by  amalgamation, 
chlorination,  or  cyaniding,  or  a 
combination  of  the  first  and  third 
of  these  processes. 

Hydraulic  Mining 

The  most  remarkable  method  of 
recovering  gold  from  the  elevated 
placer  deposits  is  that  of  hydraulic 
mining  or  hydraulicking.  The 
illustration  shows  the  operation  of 
this  system ;  a  is  the  hydraulic 
main  by  which  the  water  is  brought 
down  from  some  elevated  source, 
which  may  be  500  ft.  above  the 
site  shown  ;  b  is  a  distributing  box 
provided  with  valves  by  which  the 
water  is  served  to  c,  c',  c",  which 
are  nozzles  through  which  the 
water  is  directed  on  to  the  rock. 

These  nozzles  are  called  "  moni- 
tors," and  are  constructed  to 
swivel  through  a  certain  arc  so  as 
to  command  a  considerable  section 
of  the  deposit  face ;  e,  e',  e,"  are 
channels  which  carry  off  the  water 
with  the  material  washed  out 
(more  generally  a  tunnel  takes  the 
place  of  these  open  channels)  ; 
/,  /'  is  the  sluice  stream,  having  at 
intervals  drops,  as  at  g,  the  object 
of  which  is  to  break  up  boulders, 
and  at  some  point  a  grizzly,  h,  a 
grill  of  iron  bars  so  placed  that 
stones  above  a  certain  size  cannot 
pass  it,  but  are  rolled  over  the  top 
and  discharged  into  a  dump  down 
the  side  of  the  hill. 

At  j  is  an  undercurrent,  the  idea 
of  which  is  to  take  a  certain 
amount  of  the  water  in  the  sluice 
above  from  a  point  below  its  sur- 
face where  it  may  be  supposed 
some  proportion  of  gold  is  being 
carried  along,  and  to  spread  this 
water  out  over  a  large  area,  thus 
reducing  its  velocity  and  permit- 
ting the  rich  dirt  to  settle  before 
the  water  again  rejoins  the  main 


GOLD 


Gold.      Diagram  illustrating  the  hydraulic    method  of 
recovering  gold  from  elevated  placer  deposits.      $<>e  text 


stream.  At  various  points  in  the 
main  stream  sluice  boxes  are  con- 
structed which  are  supplied  with 
mercury  by  which  the  gold  is 
caught  and  retained. 

Most  of  the  gold  of  the  world  is 
now  obtained  by  deep  mining  from 
quartz  rock.  The  process  of  ex- 
traction after  the  ore  has  been 
brought  to  the  surface  comprises 
crushing,  wjiich  may  be  divided 
into  two  or  even  more  stages — 
amalgamation,  chlorination,  or 
cyaniding.  Chlorination  is,  how- 
ever, almost  abandoned,  cyaniding 
having  taken  its  place. 

Amalgamation  generally  begins 
in  the  stamp  mill  mortar  itself, 
where  a  certain  amount  of  mercury 
is  introduced,  or  where  amalgam- 
ated plates  are  disposed  so  as  to 
catch  some  of  the  gold  as  it  is 
liberated  from  its  matrix  ;  but  is 
mostly  carried  out  on  tables  placed 
below  the  discharge  from  the 
stamps  down  which  the  crushed 
ore  is  carried  by  the  water  served 
to  the  stamps.  The  whole  of  the 
gold  is  not  recovered  at  this  stage, 
and  the  "  tailings  "  are  submitted 
to  a  process  of  concentration  for 
which  many  different  kinds  of 
apparatus  have  been  devised. 

The  gold  recovered  by  these 
operations  thus  appears  in  two 
forms,  an  amalgam  and  a  pre- 
cipitate, commonly  called  "slimes," 
which  is  collected  from  the  boxes 
in  which  the  metal  has  been 
thrown  down  by  zinc  shavings 
from  the  cyanide  solution.  From 
the  amalgam  the  gold  is  obtained 
by  distilling  off  the  mercury  in  cast- 
iron  retorts,  and  the  bullion  re- 
sulting, about  35  to  40  p.c.  of 
the  amalgam,  is  melted  in  plum- 
bago crucibles  and  cast  into  bars. 

This  bullion  is  not  pure  gold, 
but,  in  addition  to  an  appreci- 
able amount  of  silver,  contains 
traces  of  copper,  iron,  and  lead. 


3584 

The  gold  is  re- 
covered from  the 
slimes  by  roast- 
ing to  oxidise  the 
zinc,  followed  by 
melting  in  plum- 
b  a  g  o  crucibles 
with  suitable 
fluxes — generally 
borax,  bicarbon- 

aate  of  soda,  and 
sand.  The  final 
purification  of 
the  bullion  for 
BMaa_  <; ;  thegeneral mark- 
et is  effected  by 
parting.  Such  is 
the  general  pro- 
cess of  extracting 
gold  from  free 
milling  ores ; 
where  the  ore  is 
pyretic,  i.e.  contains  sulphur  in 
combination  with  iron  or  other 
metals,  the  ore  must  first  be 
roasted  to  remove  the  sulphur. 

This  general  process  has  in  many 
districts,  particularly  in  the  U.S.  A., 
been  considerably  modified  during 
recent  years  ;  the  tendency  having 
been  to  substitute  other  appliances 
— ball  and  tube  mills  and  disinte- 
grators— for  stamps,  to  cut  out 
amalgamation  more  or  less,  and  to 
utilise  continuous  methods  of  cy- 
aniding, supplemented  by  filtering 
by  means  of  vacuum  filters. 

The  world's  output  of  fine  gold 

in    1917    was    worth   £87,983,000. 

The  chief  sources  of  supply  were  : 

Transvaal  . .   £38,324,000 

United  States    . .      17,344,000 

Australasia        ..       7,401,000 

Rhodesia  . .       3,495,000 

Canada  . .         . .       3,175,000 

India  . .       2,214,000 

West  Africa       . .        1,530,000 

The  greater  portion  of  the  gold 
produced  annually  is  consumed  in 
the  arts,  in  the  preparation  of 
jewelry,  plate,  and  for  gilding 
chiefly  ;  about  one-fourth  is  coined 
in  normal  times,  while  an  appreci- 
able amount  is  required  to  make 
good  the  wear  and  tear  of  gold  coin. 
A.  J.  Liversedge 

Early  in  the  19th  century  gold 
began  to  play  an  important  part  in 
commerce  and  finance.  It  was 
used  by  the  Egyptians  and  other 
early  peoples  to  some  slight  extent 
as  coinage,  but  much  more  of  it 
passed  into  the  hands  of  kings  arid 
other  rulers,  and  was  either 
hoarded  or  employed  in  display. 
There  was  a  great  mass  of  gold  in 
existence  while  the  Roman  Empire 
flourished,  but  then  and  also  during 
the  Middle  Ages  it  had  no  great 
influence  on  prices  or  exchanges. 

The  modern  world  has  seen  gold 
supplant  silver  as  the  chief  medium 
of  exchange,  at  least  in  western 
countries.  The  process  began  in 


GOLD 

England  in  the  18th  century,  and 
in  1816  the  gold  standard  was 
definitely  adopted.  A  fixed  value 
was  given  to  the  sovereign,  and 
through  \t  to  the  ounce  of  gold, 
which  for  100  years  sold  at  about 
85s.  an  ounce.  On  this  foundation 
the  monetary  and  then  the  credit 
systems  were  built.  Silver  and 
copper  coins  were  regarded  as  so 
many  to  the  £.  Great  discoveries 
of  gold  in  Australia  and  elsewhere 
later  in  the  century  gave  an  impetus 
to  the  adoption  of  a  gold  standard 
of  coinage  in  other  countries,  and 
soon,  not  only  France  and  other 
European  countries,  but  the  U.S.A. 
and  many  American  ones  had  set  up 
a  gold  standard.  Silver,  too,  was 
discovered  in  large  quantities , 
this  led  to  a  fall  in  its  price,  and  so 
to  the  agitation  for  a  double 
standard,  or  bimetallism. 

With  a  definite  gold  standard 
and  with  large  reserves  of  gold  in 
the  various  state  and  other  banks, 
it  was  possible  to  build  up  a  credit 
system  which  was  intrinsically 
sound,  and  without  which  it  is  hard 
to  see  how  trade  could  have  de- 
veloped as  it  did  in  the  18th 
century.  The  19th  century  saw  an 
enormous  development  in  the  use 
of  instruments  of  credit,  cheques, 
bills  of  exchange  and  the  like,  and 
with  it  all  there  was  the  knowledge 
that,  if  desired,  gold  could  be  ob- 
tained for  them.  Bank  notes,  too, 
had  a  definite  backing  of  gold, 
while  American  enterprises  were 
largely  financed  by  bonds,  which 
were  payable  in  gold.  This  in- 
creased use  of  gold  was  not  without 
its  effect  on  prices,  but  the 
relation  between  these  is  a  matter 
of  controversy  among  economists. 

The  position  of  gold  was  entirely 
changed  by  the  events  of  the  Great 
War.  Paper  money  was  created 
on  an  immense  scale,  and  over  the 
greater  part  of  Europe  gold,  as  a 
circulating  medium,  disappeared. 
Large  stocks  were  accumulated  by 
the  various  governments,  but  these 
were  nothing  like  sufficient  to  cover 
the  great  amount  of  paper  money 
put  into  circulation.  The  old  gold 
standard  virtually  disappeared, 
this  being  not  without  its  effect 
on  the  great  rise  in  prices  that 
took  place  in  1918-20.  See  Bi- 
metallism; Coinage;  Credit;  Prices. 

A.  W.  Holland 

tl'Mio'jranhy.  The  Gold  Mines  of 
the  Rand,  F.  H.  Hatch  and  J.  A. 
Chalmers,  1895  ;  Gold  Milling,  C. 
G.  Lock,  1901  ;  Handbook  of  Gold 
Milling,  H.  Louis,  3rd  ed.  1902  ; 
Gold  Mines  of  the  World,  J.  H. 
Cxirle,  3rd  cd.,  1905  ;  Gold  Dredjih^, 
C.  C.  Longridge,  2nd  ed.  1907  ;  The 
Metallurgy  of  Gold,  T.  K.  Rose,  6th 
ed.  1915;  Gold  Deposits  of  the 
Rand,  C.  B.  Horwood,  1917. 


GOLD 


3585 


GOLDEN  BOUGH 


Gold  and  Silver  Wyre  Draw- 
ers'   Company,    THE.       London 
city  livery  company.   Incorporated 
in     1693,     it     is 
first  mentioned 
in  1461.     Offices, 
9,    Laurence 
Pountney    Hill, 
E.G.   See  History 
of   the      ... 
Gold  and  Silver 
Gold  and  Silver       Wyre     Drawers, 
Wyre  Drawers'       H.     Stewart, 
Company  arms       ]891. 
Goldau.  Village  of  Switzerland, 
in  the  canton  of  Schwyz.    Situated 
between  the  lakes  of  Zug  and  Lo- 
werz,  6  m.  W.N.W.  of  Schwyz,  on 
the  St.  Gotthard  Rly.  (Arth-Goldau 
station ),it  is  a  junction  for  Zug  and 
Einsiedeln-Wadenswil,      and      the 
starting  point  of  the  Arth-Rigi  Rly. 
On  Sept.  2,  1806,  the  former  village 
of  this  name  at  the  base  of  the 
Rossberg,  with  three  other  villages, 
was  destroyed  by  a  landslip,  the 
track  of  which  can  be  seen  from  the 
railway.   Pop.  500. 

Goldbeating.  Process  of  ham- 
mering pieces  of  gold  into  extreme- 
ly thin  leaves,  known  as  gold  leaf. 
To  separate  the  leaves  a  prepara- 
tion from  the  peritoneum  of  the  ox, 
called  goldbeaters'  skin,  is  used. 
This  is  also  used  for  the  treatment 
of  slight  cuts  or  wounds,  and 
during  the  Great  War  was  em- 
ployed to  line  the  gasbags  of 
airships.  See  Gold  Leaf. 

Gold  Coast.  British  colony  of 
W.  Africa,  situated  between  French 
Togoland  and  the  French  colony  of 
the  Ivory  Coast. 
With  Ashanti 
(q.v.)  and  the 
protected  North- 
ern Territories  it 
forms  a  com- 
pact country 
stretching  from 
the  Gulf  of 
Guinea  to  the 
French  Sudan,  a  distance  of  480  m. 
from  N.  to  S.  Along  the  coast  it 
measures  334  m.  The  area  of  the 
colony  proper  is  24,200  sq.  m.,  that 
of  Ashanti  is  20,000  sq.  m.,  and 
that  of  the  Northern  Territories  is 
35,800  sq.  m.,  or  a  total  of  80,000 
sq.  m.  The  colony  is  divided  into 
three  provinces  :  Western,  Central, 
and  Eastern.  Fcom  the  lagoons  of 
the  coastal  regions  the  country 
rises  gradually  towards  the  interior, 
being  crossed  by  numerous  small 
streams  and  by  one  large  river,  the 
Volta.  The  country  is  inhabited  by 
a  large  number  of  tribes,  governed 
by  their  chiefs,  and  each  more  or 
less  independent  of  the  others. 

The  river-deposits  of  gold,  from 
•which  the  Gold  Coast  derived  its 
mine,  were  worked  by  the  natives 
•priortotheadvent  of  the  Portuguese 


and  French  navigators  in  the  14th 
century.  The  first  European  settle- 
ment was  made  in  1482,  when  Fort 
San  Jorge  de  Mina  (Elmina)  was 
built  by  the  Portuguese.  Subse- 
quently other  nations,  notably  the 
Dutch,  established  themselves  on 
the  coast,  building  castles  and  forts, 
several  of  which  still  remain.  Eng- 
lish expeditions  visited  the  Gold 
Coast  long  before  the  formation  of 
the  "  Company  of  Adventurers  of 
London  trading  into  Africa,"  in 
1618,  but  it  was  not  until  that  year 
that  English  traders  obtained  a 
definite  footing.  Among  those  who 
established  settlements  were  the 
Brandenburgers,  who  for  a  time 
(1682-1720)  maintained  their  posi- 
tion in  the  country. 

The  subsequent  history  of  the 
country  until  the  English  forts  were 
definitely  occupied  by  the  British 
Government  in  1843  is  largely  the 


Gold  Coast.    Map  of  the  British  colony 
in  West  Africa,  on  the  Gulf  of  Guinea 

history  of  various  trading  com- 
panies, such  as  the  Royal  African 
Company  (1672),  the  African  Com- 
pany of  Merchants,  and  other  pri- 
vate trading  corporations.  In  1850 
the  British  Government  purchased 
the  forts  belonging  to  the  Danes,  and 
in  1871  the  Dutch  also  transferred 
their  possessions.  In  1874  the  Gold 
Coast  became  a  separate  colony. 

The  climate  of  the  Gold  Coast, 
though  hot  and  damp,  is  not  in 
itself  unhealthy ;  great  improve- 
ments i'n  sanitation  having  taken 
place  during  recent  years.  The 
chief  products  are  palm  oil,,  palm 
kernels,  rubber,  cocoa,  kola  nuts, 
lumber,  and  gold.  The  cocoa  in- 
dustry in  particular  has  made 
great  progress  during  recent  years. 
There  is  a  rly.  from  Seccondee, 
through  Tarquah,  to  Kumasi, 
with  a  branch  to  Prestea ;  and 
another  line  from  Accra,  the 
capital,  to  Tafu.  The  chief  gold 
mines  are  in  the  Prestea  and  Tar- 
quah districts.  The  chief  ports  in 


order  of  importance  are  Seccondee 
(Sekondi),  Accra,  Addah,  Winne- 
bah,  Saltpond,  Cape  Coast,  and 
Axim.  The  pop.  of  the  colony  is 
853,766  (including  2,203  Euro- 
peans), that  of  Ashanti  is  287,814, 
and  that  of  the  Northern  Terri- 
tories is  361,800. 

Bibliography.  History  of  the  Gold 
Coast,  A.  B.  Ellis,  1893  ;  History  of 
the  Gold  Coast,  C.  C.  Reindorf,  1895 ; 
Alone  in  West  Africa,  Mary  Gaunt, 
1912  ;  History  of  the  Gold  Coast 
and  Ashanti,  W.  W.  Claridge,  2 
vols.,  1915. 

Golden  Age.  In  classical  myth- 
ology, the  period  when  Saturn  or 
Cronos,  after  being  dethroned  by 
Zeus,  reigned  in  Latium  as  king. 
Saturn  taught  agriculture  and  the 
arts  of  civilization  to  his  people, 
and  the  period  of  his  reign,  being 
one  of  peace,  happiness,  and  pros- 
perity, came  to  be  known  as  the 
Golden  Age. 

Golden  Ass,  THE.  Name  by 
whichThe  Metamorphoses  of  Lucius 
Apuleius  is  generally  known.  An 
allegorical  fable  in  1 1  books,  much 
of  it  is  a  paraphrase  of  The  Ass  of 
Lucian,  which  was  originally  de- 
rived from  a  work  of  Lucius  of 
Patrae,  a  Platonist  who  flourished 
in  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius. 
See  Apuleius,  Lucius. 

Golden  Bough,  THE.  General 
title  for  a  series  of  studies  in  magic 
and  religion  by  Sir  J.  G.  Frazer  (q.v. ), 
first  publ.  in  2  vols.,  1890.  In  its 
revised  and  much  expanded  edition 
(12  vols.,  1907-15),  the  work  con- 
sists of  seven  parts  :  The  Magic 
Art ;  Taboo  ;  The  Dying  God  ; 
Adonis,  Attis,  Osiris  ;  Spirits  of  the 
Corn  and  of  the  Wild  ;  The  Scape- 
goat ;  and  Balder  the  Beautiful. 
The  12th  volume  is  a  bibliography 
and  index.  The  work  deals  with 
the  history  of  supernatural  beliefs 
and  symbolic  rituals,  and  was  in- 
spired by  a  wish  to  inquire  into  the 
legend  of  the  golden  bough  utilised 
by  Virgil. 

This  legend  is  identified  with 
the  mistletoe,  which,  growing  on  the 
oak,  represents  the  external  soul  of 
a  living  sun-god  represented  by  the 
tree.  The  Norse  myth  of  Balder 
(q.v. )  had  its  counterpart  in  Italy  in 
the  rex  Nemorensis,  the  priest  of 
Diana  in  the  grove  by  Lake  Nemi, 
near  Aricia.  Balder  and  the  priest 
both  personified  the  oak-spirit, 
whose  life  or  death  was  in  the  mis- 
tletoe and  who  could  not  be  slain 
so  long  as  that  remained  intact. 
The  priesthood  was  gained  by  one 
plucking  the  golden  bough  and 
slaying  the  armed  priest  in  combat, 
after  which  the  victim  was  burned 
at  the  midsummer  fire  festival  and 
the  victor  assumed  his  place  and 
title  until  in  turn  displaced  by.  a 
stronger. 


A    5 


GOLDEN   BULL 


3586 


GOLDEN  HORDE 


Golden  Bull  (Lat.  bulla,  knob, 
seal).  Name  given  to  charters  of 
unusual  importance,  sealed  or 
stamped  with  a  golden  seal  or  bull. 
A  great  number  of  these  was  issued 
in  Germany  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
but  the  name  is  specially  given  10 
the  document  that  regulated  the 
election  of  the  German  kings  from 
1356  to  1806.  f 

To  determine  the  disputes  as  to 
who  were  entitled  to  elect  the  kings 
in  Germany,  the  emperor  Charles 
IV  ordered  a  bull  to  be  drawn  up, 
and  after  some  alterations  the 
princes,  meeting  at  Metz,  accepted 
it  in  Dec.,  1356.  Written  in  Latin, 
this  Golden  Bull  contains  31  chap- 
ters which  fix  the  numbers  of 
electors  at  seven,  nominate  the 
seven,  and  prescribe  their  respec- 
tive precedence  and  duties.  Frank- 
fort is  fixed  upon  as  the  seat  of  the 
elections,  the  rules  for  the  corona- 
tion are  declared,  and  further 


Golden-crested  Wren,  a  small  bird 
living  in  pine  woods 

and  constructs  its  tiny  nest  of 
moss  and  lichens  underneath  a 
bough.  It  is  3 1  ins.  long  and  has 
a  crest  ot  yellow  feathers. 

Golden  Eye  (Glangula  glaucion). 
Wild  duck  found  in  the  north- 
ern districts  of  both  hemispheres. 
It  visits  Great  Britain  in  the  winter. 
The  plumage  is  black  on  the  back, 
with  white  beneath,  and  the  drake 


Golden  Fleece,  ORDER  OF  THE. 
One     of     the    premier     European 
orders    of    knighthood.        It    was 
founded   Jan.    10, 
1429,     by     Philip 
the     Good,     duke 
of    Burgundy,    on 
his  marriage  with 
Isabella     of    Por- 
tugal, and  dedicat- 
ed   to   the   Virgin 
Mary  and  S.  An- 
drew.   The  grand- 
mastership  passed 
by     marriage     to 
theHapsburgs,and 
when     the    Haps- 
burg    dynasty    in 
Spain  came  to  an     Golden  Fleece, 
end  in  1700,  was     Badge    of  the 
claimed    by    the  order 

emperor  Charles  VI,  who  estab- 
lished the  order  in  Vienna  in  1713. 
Since  then  the  order .  has  existed 
independently  in  both  Spain  and 


Golden  Gate,  California.     View,  irom  the  south,  of  the  channel  which  connects  San  Francisco  Bay  with  the  Pacific  Ocean 


clauses  deal  with  such  matters 
as  the  rights  of  the  cities  and  of  the 
king  of  Bohemia. 

In  general  the  bull  greatly 
strengthened  the  power  of  the 
electors,  that  of  the  minor  princes 
and  the  cities  being  correspond- 
ingly reduced.  It  remained  opera- 
tive until  the  dissolution  of  the 
Empire  in  1806.  Various  copies  of 
the  bull  are  in  existence  in  German 
cities,  and  there  is  an  English  trans- 
lation of  it  in  E.  F.  Henderson's 
Select  Historical  Documents  of 
the  .Middle  Ages.  See  Electors  ; 
Empire,  Holy  Roman. 

Golden  Calf.  Image  made  by 
Aaron,  in  response  to  popular  ap- 
peal, during  the  absence  of  Moses 
on  the  mount  (Gen.  32).  It  was  in 
the  form  of  a  young  bull  and  made 
from  earrings  of  gold.  Divine 
honours  were  paid  to  it,  but  it  is 
doubtful  if  it  involved  a  breach  of 
the  first  or  the  second  command- 
ment. Jeroboam  set  up  similar 
images  at  Dan  and  Bethel  (1  Kings 
12).  See  Aaron  ;  Idolatry. 

Golden  -  crested  Wren  OR 
GOLDCKEST  (R'-yulus  crislalus). 
Small  British  bird.  It  is  not  a 
true  wren,  but  belongs  to  the 
warbler  group.  It  is  common  in 
the  pine  forests  in  most  parts  of 
Europe,  where  it  feeds  on  insects 


has  a  bright  green  head.  The  name, 
derived  from  the  yellow  colour  of 
the  eye,  is  sometimes  also  applied 
to  the  tufted  duck. 


Golden  Eye,  a  winter  visitant  of  the 
British  Isles 

Golden  Fleece.  In  Greek  my- 
thology, the  object  of  the  quest  of 
Jason  and  the  Argonauts.  When 
Phrixus  and  Helle,  children  of 
Athamas,  king  of  Thebes,  and 
Nephele,  were  about  to  be  sacri- 
ficed, owing  to  the  intrigues  of  Ino, 
liis  second  wife,  a  ram  with  a  golden 
fleece  and  wings  appeared,  and 
bore  them  away  through  the  air. 
Helle  fell  into  the  sea,  but  Phrixus 
arrived  safely  at  Colchis,  where  he 
sacrificed  the  rain.  Aeetes,  king  of 
the  country,  hung  up  the  fleece  in 
the  sacred  grove  of  Ares.  See 
Argonauts  ;  Jason. 


Austria.  The  badge  is  a  golden  fleece 
attached  by  f  urisons,  or  flint-stones, 
emitting  flames,  to  a  red  ribbon 
worn  round  the  neck,  or,  on  high 
occasions,  to  a  chain  of  alternate 
flint-stones  and  steels  intertwined 
to  represent  B,  the  initial  letter  of 
Burgundy.  The  origin  of  the  badge 
and  name  is  uncertain. 

Golden  Gate.  Channel  connect- 
ing San  Francisco  Bay,  California, 
U.S.A.,  with  the  Pacific  Ocean.  It 
is  5  m.  long  and  from  1  in.  to  '2  in. 
broad,  and  has  bold  and  rocky 
shores,  rising  on  the  N.  side  to  200 
ft.  See  San  Francisco. 

Golden  Horde.  Name  given  to 
a  body  of  Tartars  who  invaded 
Europe  in  the  13th  century.  They 
belonged  to  a  branch  of  the  race 
known  as  Kipchacks.  Led  by  Batu, 
a  grandson  of  Jenghis  Khan,  they 
crossed  Russia  into  Hungary  about 
1 237.  Attempts  to  stop  them  failed 
until  1241,  when  they  were  checked, 
and  settled  on  the  Volga. 

Under  Batu's  son  the  empire,  or 
khanate,  was  consolidated.  The 
race  became  Mahomedans,  but 
soon  their  power  began  to  fail. 
About  1395  they  were  defeated  by 
Timur,  and  by  about  1500  they  had 
disappeared.  The  name  golden 
horde  was  due  to  the  splendid  camp 
(Turk,  ordu)  set  up  by  Batu. 


GOLDEN     HORN 


3587 


GOLDER'S     GREEN 


Golden  Horn,  THE.  Narrow 
inlet  of  the  Bosporus  (q.v.)  which 
divides  the  main  part  of  Constanti- 
nople from  the  Galata  and  Pera 
quarters.  See  Constantinople. 

Golden  Legend,  THE.  English 
title  of  a  collection  of  lives  of  the 
saints,  Legenda  Sanctorum,  com- 
piled by  Jacobus  de  Voragine, 
archbishop  of  Genoa  (d.  1298). 
The  first  Latin  edition  was  printed 
at  Basel  about  1470,  and  an  Eng- 
lish translation,  made  from  the 
French  by  William  Caxton,  was 
printed  by  him  in  1483  (ed.  F.  S. 
Ellis,  1900).  The  Legenda  Aurea, 
as  it  was  soon  popularly  known,  in 
recognition  of  its  great  worth,  was 
translated  into  most  European 
languages,  and  frequently  re- 
printed during  the  first  half  of  the 
16th  century.  The  standard  edi- 
tion of  the  Latin  text  is  by  J.  G.  T. 
Grasse,  1846. 

Golden  Number.  Number  used 
in  calculating  the  dates  of  Easter, 
possibly  so  called  because  it  was 
engraved  in  golden  letters  on 
marble  pillars  in  various  Greek 
cities,  and  marked  in  gold  in  the 
ancient  calendars.  The  golden 
number  is  the  number  of  any  year 
in  the  Metonic  cycle,  which  consists 
of  19  solar  years  containing  235 
lunations,  and  was  discovered  c.  432 
B.C.  by  the  Greek  astronomer  Meton. 
To  find  the  golden  number  add  1  to 
the  year  and  divide  by  19  ;  the  re- 
mainder is  the  golden  number.  If 
there  is  no  remainder  the  golden 
number  is  19.  See  Calendar;  Easter. 
Golden  Rain.  Popular  firework 
which  emits  a  shower  of  sparks. 
It  may  be  used  either  in  a  set  piece 
or  as  the  charge  for  a  rocket,  func- 
tioning when  the  rocket  reaches 
the  highest  point  of  its  trajectory. 
The  mixture  employed  consists  of 
crushed  iron  or  steel  turnings  and 
gunpowder,  the  oxidation  of  the 
iron  yielding  brilliant  sparks,  while 
some  of  the  potassium  nitrate  in 
the  gunpowder  is  replaced  by 
sodium  nitrate  to  intensify  the 
yellow  colour.  See  Fireworks,^ 
Gunpowder. 

Golden  Rod  (Solidago  virgau- 
rea).  Perennial  herb  of  the  natural 
order  Compositae.  A  native  of 
Europe  and  N.  America,  its  root- 
stock  is  stout,  and  the  stems  erect, 
and  slightly  branched,  clad  with 
narrow  lance-shaped  leaves,  and 
terminating  in  clusters  of  small  yel- 
low flower-heads.  It  grows  on  stony 
banks  and  dry  ground.  The  golden 
rod  of  gardens  (S.  canaden-sis)  is  a 
N.  American  species,  with  taller 
stems  and  the  flowers  in  long  pyra- 
midal sprays. 

Golden  'Rose.  Rose  of  wrought 
gold  with  jewelled  petals,  blessed 
by  the  pope  and  either  presented 
to  some  favoured  individual  or 


Golden  Horn.    View  from  the  cemetery  of  Eyub,  looking 
towards  Stamboul  and  Galata 

preserved  in  the  Vatican.  The 
custom  of  blessing  roses  on  the  4th 
Sunday  in  Lent,  hence  called 
Dominica  rasa,  originated  at  a 
very  early  date.  Consecrated  roses, 
as  symbols  of  silence,  were  set 
over  the  doors  of  confessionals, 
and  from  this  practice  arose  the 
phrase  sub  rosa,  under  the  rose, 
meaning  in  confidence.  A  golden 
rose  was  presented  to  Fulk  IV  of 
Anjou  by  Pope  Urban  II  when  the 
first  crusade  was  being  organized 
in  1095,  and  from  about  the  middle 
of  the  14th  century  the  custom  was 
observed  annually.  Henry  VIII 
was  the  recipient  of  three  of  these 
beautiful  specimens  of  the  gold- 
smith's art,  and  in  1906  Pope 
Pius  X  presented  one  to  Queen 
Victoria  of  Spain. 

Golden  Rule.  Term  often  ap 
plied  to  the  precept  of  Christ  in  the 
Gospel  (Matt,  vii,  12),  "Whatso- 
ever ye  would  that  men  should  do 
unto  you,  even  so  do  ye  also  unto 
them  "  ;  often  contracted  into  "  Do 
as  you  would  be  done  by." 

Golden  Square .  London  square, 
between  Bridle  Lane  and  Warwick 
Street,  Regent  Street,  W.  Formed 
soon  after  1688,  and  -a  fashionable 
place  of  residence  in  the  18th 
century,  it  has  been  of  recent 
years  a  centre  of  the  woollen  cloth 
trade.  The  statue  in  the  centre,  of 
George  II  habited  as  an  ancient 
Roman,  was  originally  at  Canons, 
Edgware.  Bolingbroke,Mrs.  Cibber, 


Angelica  Kauff- 
mann,  John 
Hunter,  and  Car- 
d  i  n  a  1  Wiseman 
lived  here.  Here 
De  Quincey  took 
leave  of  Ann,  and 
the  square  figures 
in  Smollett's 
Humphrey  Clin- 
ker, Thackeray's 
Esmond,  and 
Dickens's  Nicho- 
las Nickleby. 
There  is  another 
square  of  this 
name  at  Hamp- 
stead,  N.W. 
Golden  Square,  Town  of 

Victoria,  Australia,  in  Bendigo  co. 

It  is  99  m.  by  rly.  N.W.  of  Mel- 


Golden  Rose.     The  rose   given   bj 
Pius  II  to  the  republic  of  Siena  in  145£ 


Golden  Rod.     Clusters  of   flower- 
heads  of  the  wild  variety 


bourne,  and  is  a  gold-mining  town. 
Pop.  2,570. 

Golder's  Green.  Residential 
district  of  Middlesex,  England.  On 
the  main  road  between  Hamp- 
stead  and  Hendon,  of  which  it 
was  formerly  a  hamlet,  it  is  1J  m. 
N.W.  of  Hampstead  on  the  Char- 
ing Cross,  Euston,  and  Hampstead 
Tube  Rly.,  the  river  Brent  forming 
its  N.  boundary.  Adjoining  West 
Heath,  Hampstead,  is  Golder's 
Hill  Park,  36  acres,  purchased  in 
1898  from  the  executors  of  Sir 
Spencer  Wells  for  £38,500,  with 
mansion,  lakes,  enclosures  for  red 
deer,  peafowl,  etc.  The  mansion, 
used  as  a  refreshment  room,  was 
once  the  residence  of  Jeremiah 
Dyson,  clerk  to  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, who  was  frequently  visited 
here  by  the  poet  Akenside.  About 
£  m.  from  the  rly.  station  is  Golder's 
Green  Crematorium  (see  Crema- 
tion), to  the  N.W.  of  which  is 
Hampstead  Garden  Suburb  (q.v.). 
Golder's  Green  rly.  station  is  a  busy 
omnibus  terminus. 


GOLDFINCH 


3588 


GOLDMARK 


Goldfinch  (Carduelis  elegans). 
Common  British  song-bird.  About 
5  ins.  long,  its  plumage  is  hand- 


Goldfinch.  A  song-bird  of  the  British 
hedgerows 

Her  ridge 

somely  marked  with  black,  white, 
and  yellow.  It  feeds  on  grubs, 
aphides,  and  small  seeds,  and  is 
useful  in  keeping  down  the  growth 
of  noxious  weeds,  especially  thistles. 
It  nests  in  trees  about  May  and 
lays  four  or  five  eggs.  See  Eggs, 
colour-plate. 

Goldfish  (Carassius  auratus). 
Small  fish  of  the  carp  family.  It  is 
a  native  of  China  and  Japan. 


Goldfish.     Specimen  of  the  varie- 
gated variety 

Originally  brown  in  colour,  the 
golden  hue  of  the  domesticated 
variety  is  the  result  of  selective 
breeding  in  captivity.  It  is  said  to 
have  been  introduced  into  Great 
Britain  about  the  close  of  the  17th 
century.  Its  handsome  appearance 
and  hardy  constitution  make  it  a 
favourite  species  for  the  aquarium. 
A  specimen  has  been  known  to 
live  29  years  in  a  tank,  being  fed 
three  times  a  week  on  tiny  scraps 
of  raw  meat.  A  more  convenient 
food  is  finely  crushed  vermicelli, 
whieh  should  be  sprinkled  on  the 
water  in  moderate  quantities. 

The  aquarium  for  goldfish  should 
be  more  wide  than  deep,  so  as  to 
present  a  large  surface  for  the  ab- 
sorption of  air;  and  be  supplied 
with  growing  weeds.  If  the  fish  are 
seen  gaping  at  the  surf  ace,  it  is  a  sign 
that  the  water  is  not  sufficiently 
aerated.  They  will  breed  in  a 
large  tank,  but  better  results  are 
usually  obtained  by  putting  them 
in  a  small  pond.  See  Carp. 

Goldie,  SIR  GEORGE  DASHWOOD 
TAUBMAN  (b.  1846).  British  ad- 
ministrator. Born  in  the  Isle  of 


Man,  May  20,  1846,  the  son  of  Col. 
Goldie-Taubman,  Speaker  of  the 
House  of  Keys,  he  was  educated 
at  the  Royal 
Military  Acad- 
emy,  Wool- 
wich, and  ob- 
tained a  com- 
mission in  the 
Royal  Engi- 
neers. A  pio- 
neer in  the  de- 
velopment of 
Nio-pria  and  SirG.TaubmanGoldie, 
govern  or  of  British  administrator 
the  territory  of 

the  Royal  Niger  Company  from 
1895-99,  when  it  was  taken  over 
by  the  imperial  government,  he 
attended  the  Berlin  Conference 
as  an  authority  on  Niger  affairs 
in  1884,  directed  the  Niger-Sudan 
campaign,  and  in  1897  accom- 
panied the  Kabba,  Bida,  and 
Ilorin  expeditions.  In  1887  he  re- 
sumed his  paternal  name  of  Goldie 
only,  and  was  made  K.C.M.G.  He 
was  sworn  of  the  privy  council  in 
1898.  He  served  upon  several  royal 
commissions,  and  became  presi- 
dent of  the  Royal  Geographical 
Society  and  of  the  National  De- 
fence Association. 

Goldingen  (Lithuanian  Kvl- 
diga).  Town  of  Latvia,  in  the 
former  Russian  govt.  of  Courland. 
It  stands  on  the  Windau,  88  m. 
W.N.W.  of  Mitau.  There  are 
breweries,  distilleries,  and  needle 
factories.  In  the  neighbourhood  is 
a  ruined  castle,  formerly  the  resi- 
dence of  the  dukes  of  Courland. 
Pop.  9,850. 

Gold  Lace.  Ornamentation  em- 
ployed on  uniforms  and  cere- 
monial dress.  It  is  particularly 
used  upon  the  uniforms  of  naval 
officers,  soldiers  in  some  regiments, 
ecclesiastical  and  theatrical  gar- 
ments, and  liveries.  The  term  de- 
notes braid  or  cord,  though  gold 
pillow  lace  is  also  made.  In  India 
the  gold  thread  for  making  the 
lace  is  drawn  out  so  thin  that 
from  1,100  to  1,400  yards  of  it  will 
only  weigh  an  ounce.  It  is  then 
flattened  by  steam  rollers  and 
wound  by  machinery  round  a 
strand  of  silk.  A  finer  thread  up 
to  2,000  yards  an  ounce  is  made  by 
drawing  it  through  holes  in  a  dia- 
mond or  ruby.  In  some  countries, 
gold  lace  is  made  with  a  copper  basis 
or  copper  and  silver,  and  the 
cheaper  sort  is  formed  of  si/'j  or 
rotton  thread  covered  with  wax 
and  gold  leaf.  For  theatrical  lace 
the  cotton  thread  is  covered  with 
Dutch  metal  (q.v.).  i 

Gold  Leaf.  Thin  sheet  of  gold' 
chiefly  used  for  gilding.  It  is  of 
great  antiquity,  and  was  probably 
first  produced  in  the  Far  East ; 
but  the  early  Greeks  were  able  to 


produce  leaf  not  much  over  one 
100,000th  part  of  an  inch  in  thick- 
ness, about  three  times  the  thick- 
ness of  fine  modern  leaf.  The 
Hebrews  and  the  Egyptians  were 
acquainted  with  the  art,  very  fine 
specimens  of  leaf  having  been 
found  in  several  ancient  Egyptian 
mummy  cases. 

Gold  leaf  is  to-day  prepared  by 
first  casting  the  metal  in  small 
ingot  moulds,  using  extra  high 
temperature  to  increase  fusibility, 
followed  by  annealing  the  ingots 
in  hot  ashes  to  clean  them  from 
grease  and  improve  malleability  ; 
rolling  down  the  ingots  between 
hard,  highly  polished  steel  rolls, 
each  into  a  ribbon  10  ft.  in  length 
by  ITJ  ins.  wide  to  the  oz.  of  metal ; 
again  annealing  after  cutting  the 
ribbon  into  small  pieces ;  piling 
the  little  squares  between  sheets 
of  special  paper  in  a  cutch,  150  at 
a  time,  and  beating  with  a  heavy 
hammer  till  each  piece  is  about 
4  ins.  square;  cutting  these  each 
into  four ;  piling  and  beating 
again  in  a  shoder,  with  lighter 
hammers,  the  separating  material 
at  this  stage  being  gold-beaters' 
skin  ;  removing  from  the  shoder, 
cutting  again  into  four ;  piling  in 
a  final  shoder  and  beating  till  the 
pieces  are  about  3  ins.  or  3J  ins. 
square. 

Thus  the  150  original  small 
squares  become  2,400  leaves, 
which  are  finally  trimmed  and 
packed,  25  at  a  time,  in  "  books  " 
between  thin  paper  which  has 
been  rubbed  with  ochre  to  prevent 
the  leaves  adhering.  The  final 
thickness  is  usually  about  one 
290,000th  part  of  an  inch.  The 
finest  leaf  is  produced  from  pure 
metal,  but  the  gold  for  common 
purposes  may  be  alloyed  either 
with  silver  or  copper,  or  with 
both.  See  Gold. 

Goldmark,  KARL  (1830-1915). 
Hungarian  composer.  Born  May 
18,  1830,  he  studied  music  at  the 
Vienna  Con- 
servatoire, af- 
terwardsplay- 
ing  in  theatri- 
cal orchestras 
in  Hungarian 
towns.  Fame 
came  to  him 
through  his 
overture  Sa- 
Karl  Goldmark,  kuntala,  pro- 
Hungarian  composer  d  u  c  e  d  in 
Vienna  in  1865,  and  this  was 
greatly  enhanced  by  his  opera  The 
Queen  of  Sheba,  1875.  His  com- 
positions, which  include  the  operas 
Merlin,  1886,  The  Cricket  on  the 
Hearth,  1896,  and  some  orchestral 
pieces,  are  distinguished  for  their 
rich  orchestral  colouring.  Gold- 
mark  died  Jan.  1,  1915. 


GOLDONI 


3589 


GOLDSMITH 


Goldoni,  CAKLO  (1707-93).  Ita- 
lian dramatist.  Born  at  Venice, 
Feb.  25,  1707,  the  son  of  a  physi- 
cian, and  in- 
tended for  the 
law,  he  took  to 
pi  ay -writing, 
and  in  a  quick 
succession  o  f 
comedies  revo- 
lutionised the 
Italian  stage. 
Facile  in  com- 

ItaUan  dramatist  * n.  invention, 
with  a  gift 

for  writing  animated  dialogue,  and 
an  abounding  sense  of  humour, 
he  wrote  many  works  more  re- 
markable for  their  wit  than  their 
morality,  such  as  The  Twins  of 
Venice,  The  Weak-Headed  Lady, 
The  Lady  of  Merit,  The  Obedient 
Daughter,  and  The  Landlady ; 
comedies  that,  at  least,  reflected 
much  of  the  lighter  life  of  his 
time.  A  dispute  with  his  rival, 
Count  Gozzi,  who  provoked  him  by 
parody,  led  Goldoni  to  leave  Italy 
for  Paris,  where  he  became  attached 
to  the  court.  He  died  Feb.  6, 
1793.  See  Italy  :  Literature ;  con- 
sult also  Memoires,  1787;  Goldoni 
and  the  Venice  of  his  Times,  J.  S. 
Kennard,  1920. 

Gold  Point.  In  financial  circles, 
the  point  at  which  it  pays  bankers 
in  one  country  to  export  gold  to 
another  in  discharge  of  their  liabili- 
ties. Usually  foreign  payments  are 
made  by  bills  of  exchange,  but  if 
the  price  of  these  bills  passes  a 
certain  point  it  will  be  more  econo- 
mical to  ship  gold  than  to  purchase 
bills.  See  Exchange. 

Golds.  Primitive  tribe  on  the 
banks  of  the  lower  Amur,  Sungari, 
and  Usuri  rivers,  E.  Siberia.  Allied 
to  the  Tungus  in  race  and  speech, 
and  preserving  primitive  Altaian 
characters  and  shamanism,  they 
and  their  swine  and  dogs  subsist 
mainly  on  river  fishes.  They  prac- 
tise a  skilful  decorative  art. 

Gold  Salts.  Gold  unites  directly 
with  chlorine  to  form  gold  di- 
chloride,  which  when  brought  in 
contact  with  water  is  decomposed 
into  aurous  chloride  (AuCl)  and 
auric  chloride  (AuCl3).  Auric 
chloride  or  gold  trichloride  is,  how- 
ever, usually  made  by  dissolving 
gold  in  aqua  regia,  a  mixture  of 
four  parts  of  hydrochloric  acid,  and 
one  part  of  nitric  acid.  Gold  tri- 
chloride is  used  in  photography  for 
toning  silver  prints,  a  process 
which  replaces  the  silver  of  the 
photography  by  metallic  gold. 

The  oxides  of  gold  are  prepared 
from  the  chloride,  and  from  gold 
trihydroxide  is  made  the  form  of 
metallic  gold  used  in  miniature 
painting.  See  Gold. 


Goldschmidt,    MEIER     ADOLF  C  the  son  of  a  clergyman,  the  greater 
(1819-87).      Danish  author.      He     part  of  his  boyhood  was  spent  at 
began  his  career  as  contributor  to 
Nestved  Ugeblad,  later  Corsaren, 
the  Danish  Punch.   His  first  novel, 
The  Jew,  1845,  provided  him  with 


a  theme  that  he  made  his  own 
among  Danish  novelists,  and  to 
which  he  returns  in  many  of  his 
Tales,  1846,  and  later  books.  He 
started  two  journals  :  North  and 
South,  1847,  a  monthly  magazine 
written  entirely  by  himself  ;  and 


At  Home 
which 


and 


Abroad,  1861,  to 
tributed  brilliant 
articles  on  life 
and  politics. 
Among  his 
novels  may  be 
mentioned 
Homeless, 
1853-57,  Eng. 
trans,  by  the 
author  1861  ; 
T  he  Heir, 
865; 


liaven, 
1867;  Avrohmche  Nattegal,  1871. 

Goldsmith.  One  who  works  in 
gold.  The  term  is  also  applied  to 
workers  in  precious  metals  gener- 
ally and  to  dealers  in  gold  and 
silver  plate.  Goldsmiths  were 
among  the  earliest  of  the  great 
craftsmen.  They  are  referred  to  in 
the  O.T.  (Neh.  iii,  8  and  31  ;  Isaiah 
xl,  19  ;  xli,  7  ;  xlvi,  6). 

The  craft  was  brought  to  a  high 
perfection  in  Italy,  France,  and 
Germany.  In  England  more  atten- 
tion was  paid  to  silver  plate,though 
the  goldsmith's  craft  was  not  neg- 
lected. Owing  to  the  great  value 
of  gold,  artists  chose  bronze  for  the 
bulk  of  their  grander  conceptions, 
but  many  of  the  greatest  painters 
and  sculptors  began  their  art  edu- 
cation in  the  goldsmith's  shop. 

Francia  was  a  goldsmith  and 
signed  several  of  his  pictures 
"  Francia  thegoldsmith."  Domenico 
Ghirlandaio,  Michelangelo's  teacher, 
was  goldsmith  as  well  as  painter. 
Andrea  Verrocchio,  the  master*  of 
Leonardo  da  Vinci,  practised  the  art, 
and  Lorenzo  Ghiberti  acquired  as 
goldsmith  the  skill  which  enabled 
him  to  beat  out  the  two  bronze 
gates  for  the  baptistery  at  Flor- 
ence which  Michelangelo  declared 
were  worthy  of  Paradise.  (See 
Door,  illus).  Goldsmiths  were  also 
bankers.  Sev  Banking  ;  Goldsmiths' 
Company  ;  Hall  Mark  ;  Jewelry  ; 
consult  also  The  Art  of  the  Gold- 
smith and  Jeweller,  T.  B.  Wigley, 
1898;  English  Goldsmiths  and 
Their  Marks,  C.  J.  Jackson,  1905  ; 
Goldsmiths'  and  Silversmiths' 
Work,  N.  Dawson,  1907. 

Goldsmith,  OLIVER  (1728-74). 
Irish  writer.  Born  at  Pallas,  co. 
Longford,  Ireland,  Nov.  10,  1728, 


the  little  village  of  Lissoy,  in  West 
Meath,  the  Sweet  Auburn  of  The 
Deserted  Village.  Neither  at  school 
nor  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin, 
where  he  went  in  1744,  did  Gold- 
smith give  promise  of  future  great- 
ness. Successive  attempts  to  get 
him  into  the  Church  and  the  legal 
profession  having  failed,  Gold- 
smith's relatives  sent  him  to  Edin- 
burgh to  study  medicine  in  1752, 
with  equally  unsatisfactory  re- 
sults. -From  1754-56  his  life  was 
that  of  a  wanderer.  He  visited 
Holland,  ostensibly  studying  at 
Leiden,  Belgium,  France,  Switzer- 
land, Italy,  and  Germany,  journey- 
ing on  foot  from  place  to  place. 
Sometimes  he  enjoyed  the  hospi- 
tality of  universities  which  wel- 
comed peripatetic  scholars  to  their 
disputations,  more  often  he  was 
dependent  for  food  and  lodging  on 
some  humble  wayside  cottage 
whose  inmates  he  repaid  for  their 
kindness  by  a  tune  on  his  flute. 


from  the  portrait  by  Reynolds  in  the 
National  Portrait  Gallery 


Goldsmith's  experiences  during 
these  years  are  reflected  in  his 
poem  The  Traveller. 

Settling  in  London  in  1756,  Gold- 
smith tried  many  ways  of  earning 
a  living,  including  acting  and  teach- 
ing, but  always  without  success. 
Failing  to  pass  the  examination  for 
surgeon's  mate  in  the  navy,  he  de- 
termined to  settle  down  as  a  book- 
seller's hack,  writing  on  an  amaz- 
ing variety  of  subjects  of  which  he 
had  no  particular  knowledge.  This 
class  of  work  he  continued  more  or 
less  all  the  rest  of  his  life.  A  book 
on  Natural  History  and  histories 
of  England  and  Rome  are  the  most 
notable  of  his  hack  productions. 

His  first  real  contribution  to 
English  classics  was  the  Letters  of 
a  Citizen  of  the  World,  published  in 


GOLDSMITHS'    COMPANY 


3590 


GOLD     STICK 


Goldsmith.  Dr.  Johnson  reading  the  MS.  of  The  Vicar  of  Wakefleld.  Recognizing 
its  merits,  he  sold  it  for  £60,  and  thus  helped  the  author  to  pay  his  debts 

From  the  picture  by  E.    M.   Ward,  B.A. 

grave,  not  precisely  known,  and 
there  is  a  cenotaph  to  him  in  West- 
minster Abbey  with  an  inscription 
by  Johnson. 

As  a  poet  Goldsmith  will  always 
command  a  high  place.  Though 
under  the  influence  of  the  school  of 


1762,  but  originally  issued  serially 
in  The  Public  £ jedger.  The  Letters 
professed  to  be  from  the  hand  of  a 
Chinese  philosopher  on  a  visit  to 
England,  and  contain  much  divert- 
ing comment  on  contemporary  life 
and  manners.  By  this  time  Gold- 
smith had  written  a  great  deal  for 
various  periodicals,  including  The 
British  Magazine,  started  by  Smol- 
lett, the  novelist,  with  whom  Gold- 
smith was  on  very  friendly  terms. 
He  had  also  published  a  book,  An 
Inquiry  into  the  State  of  Polite 
Learning  in  Europe,  which  had  a 
favourable  reception.  In  1761 
Goldsmith  became  friendly  with 
Dr.  Johnson,  and  was  soon  a  regu- 
lar member  of  the  Johnsonian 
circle,  which  included  Burke,  Rey- 
nolds, and  Garrick. 

Fortune,  long  so  unpropitious, 
now  began  to  smile  on  him.  He  had 
a  steady  income  from  his  hack 
work,  while  his  more  worthy  efforts 
were  not  altogether  unremunera- 
tive.  In  1764  appeared  The  Travel- 
ler, which  in  Johnson's  opinion 
gave  Goldsmith  a  high  place  in 
English  literature.  This  was  fol- 
lowed by  that  inimitable  story,The 
Vicar  of  Wakefield  (1766),  and  The 
Deserted  Village  (1770),  one  of  the 
most  charming  of  English  poems. 
He  also  essayed  writing  for  the 
stage  with  The  Good  Natured  Man 
(1768)  and  She  Stoops  to  Conquer 
(1774),  successful  on  its  production 
and  a  favourite  to  this  day.  His 
last  piece  of  work  was  the  satirical 
poem  Retaliation,  written  shortly 
before  his  death.  Notwithstanding 
the  comparative  affluence  of  his 
later  years,  he  died  in  London, 
April  4,  1774,  £2,000  in  debt.  A 
memorial  in  the  Temple  church- 
yard marks  the  whereabouts  of  his 


Goldsmith.    Slab  marking  approxi- 
mately where  Oliver  Goldsmith  was 
buried,   near  the   Temple   Church, 
London 

Pope,  he  shows  a  humanity  and 
brqadth  of  feeling  not  usually  asso- 
ciated with  that  school.  His  prose 
is  marked  by  sim- 
plicity, clarity  and 
singular  charm. 
The  Vicar  of 
Wakefield,  n  o  t  - 
withstanding  i  t  s 
faults  of  c  o  ii- 
struction,  shows 
great  skill  in 
characterisation 
and  is  a  notable 
landmark  in 
the  evolution  of 
the  novel.  P  e  r- 
sonally  Goldsmith 
was  one  of  the 
least  favoured 
of  men,  shy, 


awkward,    and   sadly  marked   by 
smallpox.     See  English  Literature. 

J.  McBain 

Bibliography.  Lives,  J.  Prior, 
1837  ;  W.  Irving,  1849  ;  J.  Forster, 
(3th  ed.  1877;  W.  Black,  1878; 
A.  Dobson,  1888. 

Goldsmiths'  Company.  Fifth 
of  the  twelve  great  London  city 
livery  companies.  The  first  of  its  15 
charters  was 
granted  in  1327, 
20  years  after  a 
statute  of  Ed- 
ward I  had  vested 
in  the  company 
the  right  of  as- 
say. Gregory  de 
llokesley,  lord  Soldsmiths' 
mayor  1275-81  Co^any  arms 
and  1285,  and  master  01  all  the 
king's  mints  throughout  England, 
was  a  member,  as  were  Sir  Nicholas 
Farindon  and  Sir  Francis  Child,  and 
the  company  had  a  chapel,  dedi- 
cated to  S.  Dunstan,  in  S.  Paul's 
Cathedral.  The  first  hall,  in  Foster 
Lane,  E.G.,  was  built  about  1407, 
was  destroyed  in  the  Great  Fire, 
and  rebuilt  by  Wren.  The  existing 
hall  was  opened  in  1835.  In  the 
court  room  is  a  small  altar  of  Diana, 
found  when  the  foundations  were 
being  made. 

The  company  assays  plate,  its 
hall  mark  being  a  leopard's  head, 
keeps  the  pyx  (q.v.),  built  and  en- 
dowed a  technical  institute  at  New 
Cross,  1891,  at  a  cost  of  £85,000,  and 
acts  as  guardian  to  many  charities 
and  scholastic  foundations.  The 
corporate  income  is  estimated  at 
£43,000  and  the  trust  income  at 
£16,000.  See  Hall  Mark  ;  consult 
Memorials  of  the  Goldsmiths'  Com- 
pany, ed.  W.  S.  Prideaux,  1896. 

Gold  Stick.  British  court 
official.  In  England  the  appoint- 
ment is  held  in  turn  by  the  colonels 
of  the  regiments  of  household 
cavalry,  each  of  whom  is  in  waiting 
for  a  month  at  a  time.  The  captain- 
general  of  the  Royal  Company  of 
Archers  is  Gold  Stick  for  Scotland. 
The  officer  in  waiting  walks  behind 
the  sovereign  on  state  occasions. 


Goldsmiths'  Company.    Hall  of  the  Company  in  which 
hall  marks  are  placed  on  gold  and  silver  plate 


GOLD      STRIPE 

Gold  Stripe.  Distinctive  badge 
authorised  in  1916  for  use  in  the 
British  army  during  the  Great  War 
to  indicate  at  first  men  who  had 
been  wounded  by  hostile  action 
while  serving  abroad.  The  badge, 
commonly  known  as  a  wound 
stripe,  was  a  strip  of  Russian  gold 
lace,  about  ^  in.  wide  and  2  ins.  long, 
worn  on  the  left  sleeve  in  a  vertical 
position.  See  Stripe. 

In  the  French  Army  a  badge  of 
similar  significance  was  adopted 
consisting  of  a  small  chevron  in 
gold  lace  worn  point  uppermost  on 
the  right  sleeve  above  the  elbow. 

Gold-thread  (Copt is  tri  folia). 
Perennial  evergreen  herb  of  the 
natural  order  Ranunculaceac.  It  is 
a  native  of  N.  America  and  N. 
Europe.  The  rootstocks  are  bright 
yellow  and  bitter,  the  leaves  divi- 
ded into  three  oval  leaflets,  and 
the  white  flowers  have  both  sepals 


359  1 


GOLF 


Gold-thread,  a  perennial  herb  whose 
roots  are  used  medicinally  and  for  dye 

and  petals  coloured.   The  roots  are 
used  as  a  tonic,  and  for  dyeing. 

Goletta  OR  LA  GOULETTE.  Port 
of  Tunisia,  on  the  Bay  of  Tunis. 
Formerly  the  port  of  Tunis,  it  is 
now  connected  with  the  city  by  a 
ship  canal,  7  m.  in  length,  through 
lake  El-Bahira.  Since  the  cutting 
of  the  canal,  Goletta  has  lost  its 
former  importance.  Many  of  its 
buildings  are  constructed  of  stone 
from  Carthage.  It  was  taken  by 
Charles  V  in  1535.  Pop.  about  5,000. 


GOLF  :     HOW  THE  GAME  IS  PLAYED 

Horace  G.  Hutchinson,  Amateur  Golf  Champion,  1886-87 

In  addition  to  this  article  are  also  biographies  of  the  leading  golfers, 

Ball,  Braid,  Duncan,  and  others.     There  are  also  articles  on  all  the 

other  forms  of  sport,  e.g.  Cricket ;  Football ;  Hockey 

Game  played  upon  a  course  4  m.      evensuggested  that  the  Rules  of  Golf 

Committee  should  pronounce  them 
illegal  instruments  for  the  game. 
These  balls  go  farther,  with  less 


or  more  in  length,  laid  out  on  links, 
i.e.  sandy  -ground  by  the  sea,  or 


over  land  set  with  obstacles,  and 

containing  18  holes  of  a  statutory 

diameter  of  4}  ins.,  into  each  of     than  the  old  "  gutties."  Thus  they 

which  it  is  the  player's  object  to     have  made  the  game  more  pleasant 


force    of    stroke    impelling    them, 


strike  his  ball  successively,  m 
fewer  strokes  than  his  opponent. 
Sometimes  two,  playing  alternate 
strokes  with  one  ball,  will  play 
against  two  others  doing  likewise. 
In  this  form  the  match  is  called  a 
"  foursome."  When  one  plays 
against  one,  the  match  is  called  a 
"  single." 

Golf,  the  national  game  of  Scot- 
land, was  probably  of  native  origin. 
The  court  of  James  I  of  England 


for  the  less  muscular,  the  old,  and 
the  feminine. 

The  Indiarubber  Ball 
Another  change  produced  by  the 
modern. balls  has  been  the  general 
lengthening  of  the  courses,  to  cor- 
respond to  the  general  lengthening 
of  driving.  Playing  from  the  tee, 
if  the  perfect  drive  with  a  rubber- 
cored  ball  and  with  a  solid  gutty 
respectively  be  measured  against 
each  other,  the  difference  is  barely 


and  VI  of  Scotland  brought  it  to  appreciable.  But  if  the  two  balls  be 

Blackheath  where   it   was   played  hit  each  just  a  little  off  that  dead 

for  nearly  three  centuries   before  rjght  centre  of  the  club  face,  then 

that  good  example  was  followed  the  difference  in  length  may  run 

elsewhere  in  Great  Britain.     The  into  a  score  or.  two  of  yards.    The 

first  English  club  of  any  note  was  indiarubber-cored  will   go  far  be- 

the  Royal  North  Devon,  at  West-  yOnd  the  other 

ward  Ho  .'inaugurated  in  1864.  The  ' 


headquarters  of  the  Scottish  game 
is  in  Scotland — at  St.  Andrews,  the 
course  of  the  Royal  and  Ancient 
Golf  Club.  The  rules  (of  the  game) 
are  interpreted  (and  altered,  if  cir- 
cumstances demand  it)  by  the 
Rules  of  Golf  Committee,  whose 
ruling  obtains  almost  universally. 

Simplification  of  the  Game 
Since     about    the    year     1880 
various  steps  have  been  taken  in 
the    direction    of    simplifying    the 


In  this  way,  therefore,  the  modern 
ball  has  diminished  the  premium 
on  perfect  accuracy ;  in  other  words 
"  has  made  the  game  easier." 

But  if  the  two  balls  perfectly 
and  stoutly  hit  from  the  tee  will 
thus  travel  equally,  the  india- 
rubber-cored  ball  is  still  likely  to  be 
within  an  iron  club's  range  of  the 
hole,  while  the  guttapercha  ball 
is  not ;  because  the  indiarubber- 
cored  goes  much  farther  off  iron 


\7  O  V**V 

game,  the  clubs  in  particular  being     than  the  gutty  will  go.    Moreover, 
adapted  better  to  their  purpose,     it  is  more  easily  lifted,  it  rises  more 


Notably  the  number  of  iron  clubs     quickly  off  a  hard,  unkindly  lie  ; 

relatively  to  the  wooden  has  been  whereby  again  it  has  increased  the 

easiness  of  the  game.  And  the  fact 
of  its  farther  travel  off  the  iron  clubs 


increased — in  part  because  the 
modern  indiarubber-filled  balls  re- 
spond in  a  more  lively  way  to 


is   the   principal   reason   why   the 


the  impact  of  iron  than  the  solid  courses  which  were  just  right  for 

balls  of  guttapercha  used  to— and  the  guttY  balls  were  found  to  be 

the  shape  of  both  wooden  and  iron  Jus*  wrong— erring  on  the   short 

'  •     •       •  «•»-»'  i  •  side — for  the  rubber-cores. 


clubs  has  been  modified  by  making 
them    shorter    in 
I    the   head  than 
;    they  were  of  old, 
•1    and  thus  massing 
the  weight  behind 
the   point  of  im- 
pact. 


The  quays  and  shippii 
of  the  canal  to  Tunis 


Long  and  Short  Games 
This  coming  of  the  rubber-w>red 
balls  and  consequent  lengthening 
of  all  our  courses  is  the  most  im- 
portant happening  in  modern  golf. 
And  if  this  were  the  whole  of  the 
story    it    would     seem    as    if    the 
The    modern     rubber-core  had  made   the  game 
rubber-cored  balls     far  easier  all   round.      Easier,   it 
came  into    vogue     certainly   has   made   it,    but   that 
-I    about     the     year     enhanced  easiness  is  all  in  the  long 
|    1902,  when  Herd     game.     For  the  play  of  the  short 
I    won  the  open    game  the  gutty  ball  is  easier  than 
I    championship     the  other.  The  gutty  can  be  stopped 
I   with    them  at     more  dead  off  the  mashie  in  the 
Hoylake.      For  a     approach  stroke,  and  can  be  played 
while    there    was     more  boldly  at  the  back  of  the  hole 
the  mouth       much    opposition     in  the  putt.  But  setting  the  advan- 
to  them;    it  was     tages   and   disadvantages   against 


GOLF 


3592 


Jjj 


12  34  56789  10 

Golf.  Clubs  used  in  playing  the  game.  1,  driver; 
2,  brassie,  similar  to  driver,  but  with  brass  sole  and 
face  more  laid  back;  3,  baffy  or  spoon,  with  larger 
and  more  sloping  face  than  brassie;  4,  cleek;  5,  mid- 
iron;  6,  mashie;  7,  jigger;  8,  niblick;  9,  cleek  putter; 
10,  wooden  putter  with  lead  face 

each  other,  the  rubber-core  wins  on 
balance.  Its  greater  length  of 
travel,  especially  off  the  iron  clubs, 
outweighs  the  greater  difficulties 
which  it  introduces  into  the  short 
game.  Quite  recent  legislation  has 
standardised  size  and  weight  of 
balls  in  order  to  prevent  inordinate 
length  of  driving,  but  the  little 
experiment  already  made  with  the 
standard  balls  induces  some  scep- 
ticism as  to  whether  much  has 
been  effected  by  it. 

Considering  how  large  a  change 
has  been  made  by  these  compara- 
tively modern  balls,  it  is  singular 
how  slight  the  change  has  been  in 
clubs,  in  the  mode  of  their  use,  and 
in  the  best  men  using  them.  Even 
when  Herd  won  the  first  champion- 
ship played  with  the  new  ball  in 
1902,  the  three  best  golfers  in  the 
world  were  Braid,  Taylor,  and 
Vardon.  They  remained  but  very 
little,  if  at  all,  behind  best  in  1920. 
There  has  been  a  variety  of  fashions 
in  clubs — "fishing-rod"  drivers, 
"dreadnoughts,"  and  what  not — 
but  finally  a  happy  medium  seems 
to  have  been  established.  Experi- 
ment and  innovation  have,  how- 
ever, not  ceased,  for  American 
golfers  have  proposed  for  use  a 
new  fashion  of  putter  and  a  ribbed- 
faced  mashie.  The  latter  appears 
to  have  a  distinct  advantage  in 
that  it  makes  a  rubber-cored  ball 
stop  on  the  green  in  the  way  in 
which  the  gutty  ball  stops  dead. 
The  Clubs  Used 

Speaking  generally,  the  clubs 
which  constitute  the  ordinary 
golfer's  full  equipment  are :  driver, 
brassie,  driving  mashie,  cleek  or 
driving  iron  (one  or  other  of  the 
last  three  should  be  enough  for  the 


reasonable  man, 
though  many  golf- 
ers carry  an  un- 
reasonable super- 
fluity), mid-iron, 
lofting  mashie, 
and  putter.  The 
lastmay  be  of  iron, 
wood,  or  alumin- 
ium. The  beginner 
may  be  advised  to 
limit  his  set  to  a 
brassie,  iron, 
in  ashie  and  putter. 
It  is  noteworthy 
tli at  the  great  pro- 
fessionals f  re- 
qucntly  make  ex- 
cellent use  of  clubs 
which  can  only 
be  described  as 
mongrels. 

I  n  addressing 
himself  to  the  full 
driving  shot,  the 
player  should 
stand,  roughly 
speaking,  square 
to  the  ball,  i.e.  so  that  a  line  drawn 
from  the  toes  of  one  foot  to  the 
toss  of  the  other  shall  be  parallel 
with  the  intended  line  of  the  ball's 
flight.  The  driver  is  the  longest  of 
the  clubs,  and  is  designed  for  the 
longest  strokes,  and  the  clubs  de- 
crease progressively  in  length  of 
shaft  as  the  strokes  for  which 
they  are  intended  are  shorter.  And 
increasingly,  as  the  golfer  takes  in 
hand  a  shorter  club,  will  he  tend 
to  advance  his  right  foot  and 
withdraw  the  left  in  making  his 
address  to  the  ball.  This  is  true  of  all 
the  clubs  and  of  all  the  strokes, 
progressively,  down  to  the  putter. 
With  the  putter  there  are  so  many 
different  modes  of  address  to  the 
ball  that  it  is  useless  to  suggest  any 
classic  style  for  this  humble  but 
most  important  part  of  the  game. 
With  the  lofting  mashie  this  ad- 
vance of  the  right  foot  and  with- 
drawal of  the  left  reaches  its  ex- 
treme, and  the  player  is  then  said 
to  be  standing  "  open  " — pre- 
sumably because  he  is,  thus,  more 
full-faced  towards  the  line  of  the 
ball's  flight. 

This  is  virtually  the  universal 
rule  for  all  good  golfers  :  that  they 
stand  more  and  more  open  as  they 
play  with  the  shorter  clubs  and  as 
they  make  the  shorter  strokes ; 
but,  besides  this,  there  is  a  great 
individual  difference,  even  among 
the  best  golfers,  in  regard  to  the 
stance,  whether  "  square  "  or  more 
or  less  "  open,"  for  the  full  drive. 
This  is  strildngly  illustrated  by  the 
example  of  the  three  great  Brit- 
ish golfers,  Braid,  Vardon,  and 
Taylor,  named  here  in  this  order 
of  deliberate  design,  because  Braid 
often  drives  with  the  left  foot  even 


a  little  advanced,  relatively  to  the 
right,  so  as  to  stand  even  more  than 
square,  so  to  say,  to  the  ball  ; 
Vardon,  on  the  other  hand,  stands 
nearly  square,  but  slightly  open, 
and  Taylor  so  extremely  open,  even 
for  the  full  drive,  that  he  appears 
to  vary  his  stance  remarkably 
little  for  the  shorter  strokes. 

A  hint  of  practical  value  may  be 
got  from  noticing  these  differences, 
because  they  seem  to  be  the  nat- 
ural outcome  of  the  marked  differ- 
ence in  build  of  these  three  great 
golfers.  Braid  is  tall  and  loosely 
built ;  Taylor  very  thick-set  and 
"  cobby  "  ;  Vardon  is  the  medium 
between  them,  a  very  finely  made 
athlete  indeed.  Each  presumably 
has  evolved  the  style  best  suited  to 
his  particular  build,  and,  that 
being  so,  it  seems  that  the  learner 
who  is  tall  and  rather  loosely 
jointed,  as  Braid  appears  to  be, 
would  do  best  to  take  that  fine 
example  for  his  model,  to  adopt 
the  square,  if  not  the  ultra-square, 
address  for  the  drive. 

Build  and  Stance 

The  Taylor-built  man,  on  the 
other  hand,  would  probably  find 
his  advantage  in  standing  as 
Taylor  does,  very  open,  and  the 
medium-made  man  in  following 
Vardon,  with  his  stance  just  a  little 
less  open  than  square.  The  sugges- 
tion is  only  offered  as  likely  to  be 
of  value,  for  there  are  many  ex- 
ceptions to  the  rule  of  the  cobby- 
built  golfer  standing  open,  and 
vice  versa.  One  of  the  most  open 
stances  was  that  of  Jack  Graham, 
killed  in  action,  who  certainly  was 
of  the  loose-jointed  make. 


Golf.     The      Vardon      overlapping 

grip,  illustrated  by  a  direct  plaster 

cast  from  Harry  Vardon's  hands 

Reproduced  from  lite  original  at  South  Herts 
Golf  Club,  by  courtesy  of  the  Committee 

The  ball  will  be  farthest  from  the 
player  as  he  addresses  it  for  the 
longest  shots  ;  nearest  him  for  the 
shortest.  That  almost  follows  from 
the  different  lengths  of  the  clubs. 
But  for  the  shorter  shots,  the  hands 


i.  Old     Scottish     stance,     with     slightly     bent    knees,  shot:      5,  top  of  swing;     6,  finish,   Vardon.     7  and  8. 

Duncan.     2.  Open   stance,    with   ball  opposite  left   toe,  Similar  shot  by    Braid.     9.   Keeping    head    down    after 

Duncan.     3.  Finishing     a    drive,     Duncan.     4.  Top    of  mashie  shot  by  placing  right  foot  where  ball  lay,  Duncan, 

swing   for   brassie   shot,    J.    H.   Taylor.     5    and   6.  Iron  10.     "Run    up"    finish    to    mashie    shot,    Abe  Mitchell, 

ii.  Putting    (note  straight  left   arm),   Abe    Mitchell 

GOLF  :    STANCES    AND    STROKES   BY   FAMOUS  PLAYERS   OF   THE   ROYAL    AND    ANCIENT    GAME 

1.  2,  and  9,  A.  Vllyett,  Upminster  ;  5,  6,  7,  8,  10,  and  11.  Sport  and  General 


GOLF 

are  kept  closer  into  the  body  than 
in  the  longer ;  so  this  also  has  the 
effect  of  bringing  the  player  and 
the  ball  nearer  together.  In  the 
case  of  a  square  stance  it  should  be 
about  equidistant  from  both  feet. 
When  standing  open  it  will  be 
much  nearer  the  right. 

The'  modern  golfer  has  much  re- 
duced what  is  called  the  length  of 
the  swing  from  the  full  measure 
which  used  to  be  admired.  The  old 
ideal  was  a  swing  which  brought 
the  club  at  its  farthest  almost  to 
the  perpendicular  behind  the 
player's  back.  An  illustration  of  it 
is  to  be  found  in  the  swing  of  Hugh 
Kirkaldy  as  immortalised  on  the 
back  of  the  Badminton  Library 
Golf  volume.  Nowadays,  if  a  man 
has  the  club  at  the  horizontal  be- 
hind his  back  he  is  deemed  to  have 
gone  far  enough,  and  any  more  to 
be  a  superfluity.  No  doubt  this 
makes  for  finer  accuracy,  and,  be- 
sides, the  modern  mode  of  gripping 
the  club  doe?  not  lend  itself  to  any 
extreme  length  of  swing.  „ 

The  Modern  Grip 

Details  of  the  modern  grip  are 
intricate.  Much  is  heard  of  the 
"  interlocking  "  and  the  "  over- 
lapping." In  the  former  a  finger 
or  two  of  the  one  hand  is  crooked 
within  a  finger  or  two  of  the  other 
— there  are  several  modifications  ; 
in  the  latter  a  finger  or  two  of  the 
one  hand  merely  over-lies,  without 
crooking  round,  a  finger  or  two  of 
the  other  ;  but  the  essence  of  the 
grip  and  its  purpose  is  in  both  in- 
stances the  same.  It  is  always  a 
difficulty  in  the  golfing  stroke  to 
get  the  two  hands  working  per- 
fectly together,  not  to  have  the  one 
tuning  a  little  againstthe  otherand 
so  disturbing  the  perfection  of  its 
directing  influence  at  the  critical 
moment.  The  idea  is  to  "  get  the 
two  hands  working  as  one,"  and 
in  no  way  can  this  be  contrived 
better  than  by  making  virtually 
one  hand  of  the  two  by  means  of 
this  "  Vardon  grip,"  or  one  of  its 
varieties. 

The  essential  of  the  golfing 
stroke  is,  generally  speaking,  that 
the  club  head  shall  be  travelling,  at 
its  moment  of  impact  with  the  ball, 
in  the  proposed  direction  of  the 
ball's  flight.  It  is  obvious  that  only 
thus  can  the  ball  be  struck  the 
most  direct  and  forcible  blow  pos- 
sible. Thus,  too,  is  it  struck 
straight,  and  none  of  that  cut  is 
put  on  it  which  has  the  result  of 
making  it  deviate  to  the  right  or 
left  of  the  desired  line  with  "  pull  " 
or  "  slice."  Cut,  of  course,  may  be 
put  on  the  ball  purposely,  in  order 
to  make  it  bite  into  the  ground  on 
alighting,  and  thus  not  to  travel 
far  but  to  "  pitch  dead,"  as  it  is 
called,  but  this  is  a  different  matter. 


3594 

In  order  to  achieve  this  true 
travel  of  the  club-head  in  the  line 
of  the  ball's  flight,  either  the  two 
hands  must  work  as  one,  or  the  one 
hand  must  be  decidedly  the  master 
hand.  It  was  always  the  left  hand 
with  which  the  golfing  pupil  used 
to  be  taught  to  grip  tight,  the 
right  hand  doing  a  little  of  the 
more  forceful  work  of  the  drive  ; 
and  doubtless  it  is  the  left  which 
has  to  be  the  master  hand  still, 
although  the  golfer  of  to-day  puts 
more  power  in  with  his  right  than 
his  ancestors  used  to.  But  that  is  a 
maxim  for  the  longer  strokes  and 
for  the  squarer  stances  mainly.  As 
the  strokes  grow  shorter,  as  the 
ball  is  brought  nearer  to  the  right 
foot,  and  as  the  stance  becomes 
more  open,  so  the  right  hand  tends 
to  do  more  of  the  work,  and  the  left 
ceases,  more  and  more,  to  be  the 
master. 

The  golfer  of  old  used  to  let  the 
club  handle  fall  back,  at  the  top  of 
the  swing,  on  to  the  web  between 
the  first  finger  and  thumb  of  the 
right  hand,  but  the  modern  golfer 
is  taught  never  to  shift  the  grip  of 
either  hand  throughout  the  swing, 
and  many  have  both  thumbs 
straight  down  the  handle  of  the 
club  throughout  the  stroke.  With 
this  grip  the  length  of  what  was 
once  extolled  as  "  the  St.  Andrews 
swing  "  would  surely  be  impossible, 
even  if  it  were  desired. 

The  Follow-through 

It  was  one  of  the  first  maxims 
among  the  old  school  of  golfers 
that  the  stroke  should  be  well 
"followed  through,"  which  meant, 
if  analysed,  that  the  club  head 
should  travel  on  well  along  the  line 
of  the  ball's  flight.  It  is  a  good 
maxim  still,  for  the  purpose  of 
teaching  the  learner  to  strike  the 
ball  correctly,  but  in  the  dynamics 
of  the  stroke  it  has  not  all  its  old 
importance,  because  the  rubber- 
cored  balls  start  away  more 
quickly  than  the  solid  "  gutty," 
and  do  not  remain  so  long  in  con- 
tact with  the  club.  Certainly, 
modern  golfers  do  not  follow 
through  the  stroke  as  their  fore- 
fathers did;  and  one  does  not  see 
that  they  lose  anything. 

The  time-honoured  dicta  of 
"  Slow  back,"  "  Don't  press,"  and 
"  Keep  your  eye  on  the  ball,"  are 
still  to  be  reverenced  as  profitable 
texts.  The  modern  tendency  is  un- 
doubtedly to  make  the  stroke  less 
of  a  swing  and  more  of  a  hit  than  it 
used  to  be  ;  but  still,  as  ever  of  old, 
the  besetting  sin  of  all  golfing  flesh 
is  to  hurry  the  club  away  from  the 
ball  unduly  fast  in  the  back  swing, 
to  hit  too  soon,  too  hard,  and  with- 
out perfect  timing  and  control ; 
and  still,  as  ever,  it  is  better  that 
you  should  look  at  the  ball  when 


GOLF 

you  hit  rather  than  yield  to  the 
perpetual  temptation  to  cast  your 
gaze  forward  to  where  you  hope  to 
see  the  ball  cleaving  the  heavens. 

Another  evil  temptation  is  to  let 
the  body  sway  away  as  the  club  is 
swung  upward.  The  body  must  be 
allowed  to  turn  freely  on  the  hips, 
and  this  turn  is  assisted  by  letting 
the  heel  of  the  left  foot  come  away 
off  the  ground,  by  giving  a  turn  on 
the  toes  of  this  foot  and  by  bend- 
ing, in  and  towards  the  right,  the 
left  knee.  The  movement  will  be 
far  more  easily  realized  if  at- 
tempted with  a  club,  or  even  a 
walking  stick  in  the  hand,  and  if  a 
trial  swing  be  made  with  it.  But 
though  the  body  thus  turns,  the 
hips  and  the  shoulders  going  round 
as  though  on  the  vertebrae  for  their 
axis,  it  should  not  be  carried  far- 
ther away  from  the  ball  at  any  one 
moment  of  the  swing  than  at  any 
other,  and  this  keeping  at  the  same 
distance  throughout  is  best  accom- 
plished by  remembering  to  keep 
the  head  steady,  not  to  let  the  head 
take  any  part  in  the  turning  move- 
ment. If  this  be  borne  in  mind,  any 
tendency  to  sway  the  body  away 
ought  to  be  naturally  corrected. 
Driving  High  and  Low  Balls 

Sometimes  it  is  better  to  drive  a 
high  ball,  especially  when  the  wind 
is  behind,  so  as  to  take  full  advan- 
tage of  it ;  and  to  get  this  extra 
height  the  "  first  aid,"  so  to  say,  is 
to  tee  the  ball  high,  to  set  it  well 
up  on  a  good  pile  of  sand  so  as  to 
let  the  club-head  get  well  under  it. 
That  is  the  first  aid  to  elevation, 
and  the  second  is  to  stand  with  the 
ball  rather  more  towards  the 
player's  left  than  for  a  stroke  in 
which  there  is  no  need  for  special 
height  of  trajectory.  The  mechani- 
cal  reason  why  this  position  tends 
to  put  the  ball  high  into  the  air  is 
that  the  club-head  has  begun  to  rise 
a  little  by  the  time  it  meets  the  ball. 

Conversely,  when  the  wind  is 
against  the  direction  in  which  the 
ball  has  to  travel,  the  ball  should 
be  kept  low,  skimming  at  slight 
elevation  above  the  ground,  so 
that  the  full  force  of  the  wind 
should  not  meet  it.  This  is  accom- 
plished by  teeing  low,  and  by  stand- 
ing so  that  the  ball  is  more  towards 
the  player's  right  than  when  he  is 
addressing  it  for  a  stroke  which  is 
designed  to  give  it  the  normal 
trajectory. 

In  the  play  with  the  wooden 
clubs,  whether  from  the  tee  or 
from  a  fair  lie  through  the  green. 
it  is  the  aim  of  the  player  to  strike 
the  ball  clearly  away  without  any 
abrasion  of  the  turf  :  but,  at  their 
iron  club  shots,  good  players 
almost  invariably  cut  out  and  send 
flying  a  larger  or  smaller  slice  of 
turf.  This  slice  of  turf  is  called,  in 


GOLGOTHA 

golfing  parlance,  the  "  divot," 
which  all  homilies  on  the  game 
beseech  one  almost  tearfully  to 
replace  after  excision.  It  is,  of 
course,  in  the  interests  of  the  turf 
itself  that  this  entreaty  is  made. 
If  the  divot  is  replaced  at  once 
there  is  every  chance  of  its  roots 
growing,  so  that  the  ?jcar  is  scarcely 
visible  ;  if  it  is  left  to  lie  and  grow 
parched  the  excavated  hole  re- 
mains like  a  wound  on  a  fair  skin, 
and  the  excisor  is  heavily  cursed 
by  a  following  player  whose  ball  is 
trapped  in  the  hole. 

These  divots  are  cut  by  the  iron 
clubs  of  a  skilled  player,  not  before 
the  club- head  comes  to  the  ball, 
but  just  after  it  has  met  the  ball's 
hinder  circumference.  The  stroke 
is,  in  fact,  more  of  a  downward  one 
than  the  ordinary  stroke  with  the 
wooden  clubs.  It  is  a  stroke  which 
is  sometimes  used  with  the  wooden 
brassie  also,  particularly  if  the 
ball  be  lying  in  just  such  a  cup  as 
is  apt  to  be  left  by  the  careless  player 
who  has  not  replaced  the  divot. 
Divot  Cutting 

The  natter  driving  swing  is  then 
not  adapted  for  this  difficult  situa- 
tion, for  with  the  flat  swing  the 
club-head  would  meet  the  near  lip 
of  the  cup  before  coming  to  the 
ball,  and  so  much  of  its  force  of 
impact  on  the  ball  would  be  spent, 
as  on  a  cushion  or  buffer  of  earth 
and  grass.  The  more  downward 
swing  enables  the  club-head  to  nip 
in  between  the  hinder  lip  of  the 
cup  and  the  ball.  It  is,  of  course, 
impossible,  in  this  stroke,  that  the 
club-head  shall  follow  on  at  all 
freely 'in  the  direction  of  the  ball's 
flight.  Rather  it  goes  on  downward 
into  the  turf,  and  it  is  thus  that  it 
cuts  out  and  sends  flying  the  divot. 

No  satisfactory  explanation  has 
yet  been  forthcoming,  but  the  fact 
remains  that  a  stroke  played  with 
this  downward  swing  of  the  iron 
clubs,  thus  going  on  and  cutting 
out  the  divot,  seems  to  send  the 
ball  away  with  a  flight  more  con- 
trolled in  accordance  with  the 
player's  intent  than  when  it  is 
swept  away  clearly  and  without 
any  excision  of  turf.  While  the 
reason  remains  unknown,  its  truth 
is  testified  by  the  general  practice 
of  every  good  golfer. 

The  most  nearly  perpendicular 
in  movement  of  all  the  strokes  in 
the  game  is  that  in  which  the 
player  is  making  a  short  shot  with 
the  mashie  up  to  the  hole,  and  is 
putting  on  as  much  back  spin  as 

Eossible  on  the  ball  so  that  it  shall 
ill  as  dead  as  may  be  on  alighting. 
The  comparatively  straight  down- 
ward impact  on  the  hinder  circum- 
ference of  the  ball  has,  presumably, 
an  effect  similar  to  that  of  the 
masse  shot  in  billiards.  It  stops 


3595 

the  ball  from  running  far  after 
pitching. 

The  Short  Game 

'  Probably  there  is  more  of  indi- 
vidual option  and  less  of  any  stereo- 
typed and  classical  style  in  the 
putting — the  short  game  near  the 
hole — than  in  any  other  depart- 
ment of  golf.  It  has  sometimes 
been  charged  to  golf  as  a  weakness 
and  a  lack  of  relative  proportion  in 
its  different  branches  that,  whereas 
a  fine  player  may  go  round  an  18- 
hole  course  in  72  strokes,  no  less 
than  36  of  these,  or  one-half,  are 
likely  to  be  played  on  the  putting 
green,  i.e.  within  20  yds.  of  the 
hole.  Perhaps  it  is  an  undue  pro- 
portion, but  we  have  to  take  the 
game  as  we  find  it,  and,  seeing  that 
this  is  the  proportion  which  exists, 
it  is  no  wonder  that  we  often  hear 
it  said  that  most  matches  are  lost 
and  won  on  the  putting  green. 

This  short  game,  therefore, 
though  not  the  most  exhilarating, 
is  perhaps  the  most  important  part 
of  the  whole  business ;  and  if  it  is 
impossible  to  lay  down  any  rules 
for  its  execution,  it  may  at  least  be 
said  that  every  really  fine  putter, 
no  matter  what  his  manner  of 
address  to  the  ball  may  be  in  the 
putting  strokes,  brings  his  club 
well  away  back  from  the  ball  before 
delivering  the  blow,  and  carries  the 
club  well  and  smoothly  after  the 
ball  along  the  line  of  its  travel. 
That,  really,  is  the  essential ;  the 
rest,  the  means  by  which  this 
smoothness  of  stroke  is  to  be 
obtained,  is  really  secondary. 

Bibliography.  Golf,  a  Royal  and 
Ancient  Game,  R.  Clark,  1893  ; 
Golf,  H.  G.  Hutchinson,  7th  ed. 
1895  ;  Hints  on  the  Game  of  Golf, 
H.  G.  Hutchinson,  12th  ed.  1903; 
Great  Golfers,  their  Methods  at 
a  Glance,  G.  W.  Beldam,  1904; 
The  Royal  and  Ancient  Game 
of  Golf,  H.  H.  Hilton  and  G.  G. 
Smith,  1912;  How  to  Play  Golf,  H. 
Vardon,  1912  ;  The  Complete  Golfer, 
H.  Vardon,  new  ed.  1914;  Fifty 
Years  of  Golf,  H.  G.  Hutchinson, 
1919;  The  Art  of  Putting,  W.  Park, 
1920.  The  rules  of  golf  are  numer- 
ous and  complicated,  and,  as  ap- 
proved by  the  Royal  and  Ancient 
Golf  Club  of  St.  Andrews,  are  circu- 
lated to  members  by  golf  clubs. 

Golgotha  (Heb:,  skull).  Hill 
outside  Jerusalem  where  Christ 
was  crucified.  See  Calvary. 

Goliath.  Philistine  of  Gath. 
He  was  a  man  of  gigantic  stature 
who  challenged  Saul's  soldiers  to 
single  combat,  and  was  slam  by 
David  with  his  sling.  There  ap- 
pears to  have  been  another  Goliath 
of  Gath  who  was  killed  by  Elhanan, 
one  of  David's  men  (ISam.  17-22). 

Goliath.  British  battleship. 
On  Nov.  28, 1914,  she  assisted  in  the 
bombardment  of  Dar-es-Salaam, 
German  E.  Africa.  She  was  the 


GOLLIWOGG 

first  warship  in  the  Great  War  to 
be  sunk  by  a  torpedo  fired  from  any 
vessel  other  than  a  submarine. 
On  the  night  of  May  13,  1915,  she 
was  protecting  the  flank  of  the 
French  army  a  short  distance  in- 
side the  Dardanelles,  when  she  was 
attacked  and  destroyed  by  the 
Turkish  destroyer  Mauvenet-i- 
Millet,  Captain  T.  L.  Shelford, 
24  other  officers,  and  482  men  being 
lost.  The  Goliath  was  launched  at 
Chatham  in  1898,  and  completed 
two  years  later  at  a  cost  of  £866,006, 
carrying  four  12-in.  and  twelve 
6-in.  guns  on  a  displacement  of 
12,950  tons.  See  Canopus ;  Dar- 
danelles, Attacks  on  the. 

Goliath  Beetle  (Goliathus}. 
One  of  the  largest  of  the  tropical 
beetles.  It  is  found  in  Central  and 

Southern     Af- 
f          '°\  r  i  c  a,      and 

f  reque  ntly 
I      .  \  £,      I          measures  4  ins. 

\  &&?&••  Jr  *n  *enStn-    Its 

%'fl  colour   is  usu- 

JjJx^L  ally  black,  but 

w  »|  y  im^k    i  it    is   often 

£.  ;  JB|  ^\  variegated 

l^kyjH      )\  with  white.   It 

\  is  said  to  live 

'/  ^  on  the  sap  of 

•••••**  forest    trees. 

Goliath  Beetle  of  S  ee     Beetle  • 

tropical  Africa  Insectg 

Gollancz,  SIB  ISRAEL  (b.  1864). 
British  man  of  letters.  Born  in 
London  and  educated  at  the  City 
of  London 
School  and 
Christ's  Col- 
lege, Cam- 
bridge, he  be- 
came professor  | 
of  English  I9L  *P 
literature  at 
King's  Col- 
lege, London,  _ 
1906.  Secre-  Sir  Israel  Gollancz, 
tary  of  the  British  man  of  letters 
British  Acad-  Bussel1 

emy  since  1907  and  knighted  in 
1919,  he  is  an  authority  on  early 
English  texts.  He  edited  The 
Pearl,  1891  ;  The  Exeter  Book  of 
Anglo-Saxon  Poetry,  1897,  etc.  ; 
The  Temple  Shakespeare,  1894-96  ; 
and  was  general  editor  of  The 
Temple  Classics. 

Golliwogg.  A  black  woolly  male 
doll  with  long  straight  black  hair, 
bead  eyes,  and  red  mouth.  Popular 
with  all  children,  the  golliwogg  has 
become  a  favourite  figure  with 
authors  who  specialise  in  juvenile 
literature.  In  several  books  by 
Bertha  Upton  the  golliwogg  figures 
as  the  hero  alone  or  with  other 
dolls :  The  Golliwogg's  Bicycle 
Club,  1896  ;  The  Golliwogg  at  the 
Seaside,  1898  ;  The  Golliwogg  in 
War,  1899 ;  The  Golliwogg's 
Christmas,  1907.  See  Doll. 


G6LN1CZBANYA 

Golniczbanya.  Town  in  the 
Slovakia  division  of  the  Czecho- 
slovak republic,  now  known  as 
Gelnica  ;  formerly  in  the  kingdom 
of  Hungary.  It  is  situated  in  the 
highlands,  5  m.  by  rly.  on  a  branch 
line  from  the  main  line  through 
the  Carpathian  valleys  from  Kosice 
to  Bratislava  (Pressburg).  It  has 
iron  and  copper  mines  and  iron- 
works. More  than  half  the  inhabi- 
tants are  Germans,  the  rest  being 
Slovaks  and  Magyars.  Roman 
Catholics  are  more  numerous  than 
Lutherans.  Pop.  3,833. 

Golosh  OB  GALOSH  (Fr.  galoche). 
Vulcanised  rubber  overshoe.  An 
American  invention,  it  was  in- 
troduced into  Great  Britain  about 
1847.  Originally  golosh  signified 
any  kind  of  boot  or  shoe,  but  more 
especially  a  wooden  clog  or  patten. 
The  word  is  ultimately  derived 
from  Gr.  kalopudion,  diminutive  of 
kalopou-s,  a  shoemaker's  last. 

Golovnin,  VASILI  MIKHAILO- 
VITCH  (1776-1831).  Russian  sea- 
man. In  1805  he  commanded  a 
vessel  named  the  Diana,  with  the 
object  of  exploring  the  coastlands 
of  Russia  and  making  a  voyage 
round  the  world.  He  was  seized 
and  imprisoned  for  two  years  by 
the  Japanese  (1811-13),  but  made 
another  voyage.  Afterwards  he 
wrote  an  interesting  account  of 
his  experiences  and  of  the  manners 
and  customs  of  his  captors. 

GoltZ,  KOLMAR  VON  DER  (1843- 

1910).  German  soldier.  Born  Aug. 
12,  1843;  at  Bielkenfeld,  near 
L  a  b  i  a  u,  E. 
Prussia,  he  en- 
tered the  Prus- 
sian army  as  a 
lieutenant  in 
1 801.  In  the 
Franco-P  r  u  s  - 
sian  War  he 
was  on  the  staff 
of  Prince 
Kolinar  von  der  Goltz,  Frederick 
German  soldier  Charles  and 
afterwards  served  on  the  historical 
section  of  the  general  staff  in  Ber- 
lin. In  1883  he  undertook  the  re- 
organization of  the  Turkish  army 
with  the  rank  of  pasha,  and  re- 
mained in  Turkey  for  twelve  years. 
In  1908  he  became  field-marshal, 
and  headed  a  German  mission  to 
Constant)  no  pie,  where  he  had 
much  to  do  with  the  Young  Turk 
movement. 

When  the  Great  War  broke  out 
Goltz  accompanied  the  German 
army  into  Belgium,  and  was  made 
governor-general,  first  of  Brussels 
and  then  of  Belgium.  Early  in  1915 
he  went  to  Turkey,  and  he  com- 
manded a  Turkish  army  near  Con- 
stantinople during  the  allied  at- 
tack on  Gallipoli.  For  some  time  he 
directed  Turkish  operations  in  the 


Middle  East,  but  on  April  19,  1916, 
died  of  spotted  fever  at  his  head- 
quarters. His  most  notable  work, 
The  Nation  in  Arms,  1883,  had 
much  influence  in  strengthening 
the  fighting  spirit  in  Germany. 
Among  his  other  works  were  : 
The  War  History  of  Germany  in 
the  Nineteenth  Century ;  Cam- 
paigns of  Frederick  the  Great.  His 
nephew,  General  von  der  Goltz,  com- 
manded the  German  forces  in 
Lettland  in  1919,  and  captured 
Riga  in  Oct.  of  that  year,  carrying 
on  a  campaign  in  the  Baltic  pro- 
vinces after  Germany  had  been 
ordered  to  evacuate  them  in  accor- 
dance with  the  treaty  of  Versailles. 
Goltzius,  HENDRIK  (1558-1010). 
Dutch  engraver  and  painter.  He 
was  born  at  Mulbrecht  in  the  duchy 
of  Jiilich,  and 
died  at  Haar- 
lem. As  a 
painter  he 
never  achieved 
great  distinc- 
tion, although 
he  had  speci- 
ally studied 
the  works  of 
Michelangelo  Hendrik  Goltzius, 
and  Raphael.  Dutch  engraver 

His        engrav-  Self-porlrail 

ings,  on  the  other  hand,  rank  with 
the  best  of  the  German  school  of 
the  10th  century,  showing  im- 
mense virility  and  technical  skill, 
although  frequently  erring  in  the 
matter  of  aesthetic  taste.  He  en- 
graved portraits  and  miscellaneous 
subjects  after  his  own  designs  and 
those  of  various  Italian,  Flemish, 
and  German  masters. 

Goluchowski,  AGENOR,  COUNT 
(1812-75).  Austrian  statesman. 
Of  Polish  descent,  he  was  educated 
by  the  Jesuits.  He  entered  the 
diplomatic  service  of  Austria,  be- 
coming minister  of  the  interior  in 
1859,  after  he  had  served  for  twelve 
years  as  governor  of  Galicia.  He 
held  his  portfolio  for  a  year  and 
resumed  his  governorship  in  1866, 
occupying  the  post  until  his  death, 
with  an  interval  of  four  years 
(1867-71).  His  son  Agenor,'  also 
a  diplomatist,  was  minister  of 
foreign  affairs  for  Austria-Hungary, 
1895-1906. 

Gomal  OR  GOMUI,  River  and 
pass  of  Afghanistan.  The  river 
rises  some  50  m.  S.  of  Ghazni  and 
winds  through  the  Suleiman  Mts. 
Except  in  the  rainy  season,  when 
it  flows  into  the  Indus,  its  waters 
are  lost  in  the  sands. 

Gomara  OR  KAFFA.  Dependency 
of  Abyssinia.  Situated  in  the  S.  W., 
it  is  noted  for  its  coffee,  which 
takes  its  name  from  this  district. 
It  is  a  lofty  tableland,  watered  by 
the  river  Omo,  and  inhabited  by 
people  of  Harnitic  stock. 


GOMEZ     CARRILLO 

Gomberville,  MARIN  LE  ROY 
DE  (1600-74).  French  author.  His 
prolix  Polexandre,  with  its  extra- 
vagant adventures  and  high-flown 
sentiment,  is  a  typical  example  of 
the  roman  galant  popular  in  the 
aristocratic  circles  of  the  time.  He 
was  one  of  the  original  members  of 
the  Academy. 

Gomel.  Town  inS.W.  Russia,  in 
the  govt.of  Mohilev.  It  is  situated 
on  the  Sozh,  at  the  junction  of  two 
rlys.,  1 12  m.  S.E.  of  Mohilev.  It  has 
large  rly.  repairing  works,  sugar  re- 
fineries, and  oil-mills ;  and  consider- 
able trade  is  done  in  timber,  wool, 
oil,  and  sugar.  Pop.  37,000. 

Gomera.  One  of  the  Canary 
Islands  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 
Separated  from  Teneriffe  by  a 
channel  13  m.  wide,  its  length  is  20 
m.  and  breadth  1.0  m.,  area  143  sq. 
m.  Of  volcanic  origin,  with  steep 
coasts,  it  rises  in  the  interior  to  an 
alt.  of  nearly  4,000  ft.  Wooded 
and  well  watered,  its  fertile  valleys 
produce  potatoes,  fruit,  sugar,  and 
cotton.  Silk  is  manufactured,  and 
dromedaries  are  reared.  San  Sebas- 
tian, the  capital  and  port,  has  an 
excellent  harbour.  Columbus  called 
at  the  island  in  1492.  Pop.  19,736. 

Gomersal.  Parish  and  village 
of  Yorkshire  (W.R.).  It  is  5J  m. 
S.E.  of  Bradford,  with  a  station  on 
the  L.  &  N.W.  Rly.  The  chief 
industries  are  the  making  of 
worsted,  cloth,  and  blankets,  while 
in  the  neighbourhood  are  coal 
mines.  The  Red  House  here  is  the 
Briarmains  of  Charlotte  Bronte's 
Shirley.  Pop.  3,800 

Gomez,  MAXIMO  (1826-1905). 
Cuban  insurgent  leader.  Born  at 


his 


name 


Maximo  Gomez, 
Cuban  insurgent 


San     Domingo, 

was  Maximo 
Gomez  y  Baez. 
He  drifted  to 
Cuba,  where  in 
1868  he  joined 
the  insurgents ; 
ten  years  later, 
having  taken 
part  in  the  un- 
successful re- 
volt, he  had  to 
seek  safety  in 
flight.  When  affairs  between  the 
Cubans  and  Spain  again  reached 
breaking  point,  he  returned  and,  in 
1895,  was  made  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  Cuban  forces.  In  June 
of  the  following  year  he  gained  a 
notable  victory  at  Puerto  Principe, 
and  remained  one  of  the  three  prin- 
cipal leaders  of  the  Cubans  until  the 
close  of  the  war,  1898,  and  tlx>  ces- 
sion of  the  island  to  the  U.S.A., 
a  cession  which  he  strongly  op- 
posed. See  Marching  With  Gomez. 
G.  Flint,  1898. 

Gomez  Carrillo,  ENRIQUE  (b. 
1873).  Spanish- American  author 
and  journalist.  He  was  born  in 


GOMME 


3597 


GONCOURT 


Guatemala,  his  father  being  a  dis- 
tinguished Spanish  historian  and 
his  mother  of  French  origin.  Early 
in  his  career  he  settled  in  Paris, 
and  there  most  of  his  extraordinary 
volume  of  work  has  been  achieved. 
The  Spanish  world  accepts  him  as 
a  master  of  prose,  and  his  work  is 
familiar  to  the  readers  of  the  lead- 
ing Spanish  and  South  American 
periodicals.  He  is  seen  at  his  best  in 
his  numerous  works  of  travel,  such 
as  From  Marseilles  to  Tokyo,  1905  ; 
The  Soul  of  Japan,  1906  ;  and 
Greece,  1907  ;  and  in  such  critical 
works  as  Modernism.  In  London, 
in  1920,  his  wife,  under  her  stage 
name,  Raquel  Meller,  made  a 
great  success  interpreting  Spanish 
dramatic  song. 

Gomme,  Sre  GEORGE  I  AURENCE 
(1853-1916).  British  antiquary. 
Born  in  London,  he  was  educated 
at  the  City  of 
London  School. 
He  entered  the 
service  of  the 
Metropolitan 
Board  of 
Works,  and 
was  transferred 
later  to  its  suc- 
cessor, the  Lon- 
don  County 
Council.  In 


Sir  G.  L.  Gomme, 
British  antiquary 

Elliott  &  Fry 


made  statistical  officer  to  the  council  , 
and  in  1900  he  became  its  clerk.  In 
1911  he  was  knighted.  He  resigned 
in  1914,  and  died  Feb.  23,  1916. 
Gomme  was  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  Folklore  Society,  and  edited, 
at  one  time  or  other,  The  Anti- 
quary, The  Archaeological  Review, 
and  The  Folklore  Journal.  His 
published  works  include  Primitive 
Folk  Moots,  1880;  Ethnology  in 
Folklore,  1892  ;  The  Governance 
of  London,  1907,  and  other  books 
on  London.  Lady  Gomme  (Alice 
Bertha  Merck)  wrote  Traditional 
Games  of  Great  Britain,  1894. 

Gommecourt.  Village  of  France, 
in  the  dept.  of  Pas-de-Calais.  It  is 
on  the  road  from  Albert  to  Arras, 
13f  m.  N.  of  Albert.  In  the  posses- 
sion of  the  Germans,  1914-17,  who 
strongly  fortified  the  park  of  its 
chateau,  it  came  into  prominence  in 
the  first  battle  of  the  Somme,  when 
on  July  1,  1916,  the  British  46th  and 
56th  divisions  were  repulsed.  The 
failure  to  capture  it  had  marked 
effect  on  the  result  of  the  battle,  as 
it  was  a  point  of  great  strategic  im- 
portance. It  was  yielded  up  by  the 
Germans  on  Feb.  27,  1917,  in  their 
retreat  to  the  Hindenburg  line. 
Several  war  cemeteries  are  in  the 
vicinity,  and  a  British  war  me- 
morial is  to  be  erected.  Gommie- 
court,  captured  by  the  British,  Aug. 
23,  1918,  lies  about  6  m.  due  E.  See 
Somme,  First  Battle  of  the. 


Samuel  Gompers, 

American  labour 

leader 


Gomorrah.  With  Sodom  one 
of  the  two  cities  of  the  plain, 
where  Lot  dwelt  (Gen.  18,  19). 
They  were  notorious  for  vice,  and 
were  mysteriously  destroyed  by  fire. 
See  Abraham ;  Sodom. 

Gompers,  SAMUEL (1850-1 924). 
American  labour  leader  Born  in 
London,  of  Jewish  origin,  Jan.  27, 
1850,  he  went 
to  the  U.S.A.  in 
1863.  The  fol- 
lowing year  he 
founded  the 
union  of  cigar  - 
maker  s,  to 
which  trade  he 
had  been  ap- 
prenticed in 
England,  and  la- 
boured  inces- 
santly to  organ- 
ize the  working  classes.  Largely 
responsible  for  the  formation  of  the 
American  Federation  of  Labour  in 
1881,  he  became  its  president  the 
following  year,  holding  this  office 
continuously,  with  one  year's 
break  in  1894.  This  federation 
drew  into  itself  all  the  larger  unions 
and  did  much  in  carrying  reforms 
through  the  legislature.  Gompers 
was  opposed  to  Socialism,  and  de- 
nounced all  attempts  to  introduce 
Sovietism  into  the  policy  of  the 
American  Labour  party  He  died 
Dec.  13,  1924.  See  Uncensored 
Celebrities,  E.  T.  Raymond,  1918. 
Gomuti  (Arenga  saccharifera). 
Tree  of  the  natural  order  Palmae, 
native  of  the  Moluccas.  The  trunk 
grows  to  about  40  ft.,  and  the 
large  leaves  are  divided  featherwise 
into  long,  narrow  leaflets.  The 
flower-spikes  are  male  or  female, 
and  down  among  the  foliage.  The 
flesh  of  the  large  round  fruit  is 
acrid.  The  horse-hair-like  fibres 
that  cover  the  leafstalks  are  used 
for  thatching  and  cordage.  The 
juice  of  the  flower-spikes  contains 
much  sugar,  and  can  be  converted 
into  toddy  or  vinegar. 


Gomuti.      A  palm  tree  of  the 
Moluccas 


Gonaives.  Seaport  of  Haiti,  W. 
Indies.  A  prosperous  town  and  a 
bishop's  see  on  the  Bay  of  GonaT ves, 
62  m.  N.W.  of  Port-au-Prince,  it 
has  a  good  harbour  and  exports 
coffee,  cotton,  and  dye  woods. 
Here,  on  Jan.  1,  1804,  Dessalines 
(q.  v. )  declared  the  independence  of 
Haiti.  In  1914  it  was  the  scene  of 
two  conflicts  between  government 
troops  and  insurgents.  The  town 
was  nearly  destroyed  -by  an  earth- 
quake, May  7,  1842.  Pop.  13,000. 
Between  Cape  S.  Nicolas-le- 
Mole  and  Cape  Dame  Marie,  the 
Bay  of  Gonai'ves  is  about  100  m. 
across  and  penetrates  inland  about 
the  same  distance.  Pron.  Go- 
nah-eev. 

Goncalves  Dias,  ANTONIO 
(1823-64).  Brazilian  poet.  Born  in 
Maranhao,  Aug.  10,  1823,  he  was 
for  some  time  professor  at  the 
college  of  Pedro  II  in  Rio  de 
Janeiro.  One  of  the  chief  poets 
of  Brazil,  he  also  wrote  on  ethno- 
graphical subjects  and  compiled  a 
dictionary  of  Tupi,  one  of  the  chief 
S.  American  Indian  languages.  On 
a  voyage  home  from  Europe,  he 
was  drowned,  Nov.  3,  1864. 

Goncourt,  EDMOND  DE  (1822- 
96),  and  JULES  DE  (1830-70). 
French  novelists.  Known  famil- 
iarly as  the 
brothers  D  e 
Goncourt, 
they  belonged 
to  a  Lorraine 
family.  Ed- 
mond was 
born  at  Nancy, 
May  26,  1822 ; 
Jules  in  Paris, 
Dec.  17,  1830. 
Chiefly  inter- 
ested at  first 
in  18th  cen- 
tury art  and 
the  collection 
of  bric-a-brac, 
and  drawings 
and  pastels  of 
that  period — 
Edmond  also 
became  an 
e  n  t  h  u  s  i  a  s  tic 
admirer  of 
Japanese  art — they  collaborated 
at 'first  in  books  of  social  history, 
Histoire  de  la  Societe  Frangaise 
pendant  la  Revolution,  1854  ;  La 
Societe  Frangaise  pendant  le  Di- 
rectoire,  1855 ;  Histoire  de  Marie- 
Antoinette,  1858. 

As  collaborators  in  fiction  (1860- 
70)  each  composed  the  same  inci- 
dent independently,  and  the  two 
versions  were  afterwards  moulded 
into  one.  Chief  of  their  novels 
were  Sceur  Philomene,  1861,  a 
hospital  story  ;  Renee  Mauperin, 
1864 ;  Germinie  Lacerteux,  a 
study  of  the  gradual  degeneration 


Edmond  de  Goncourt 
French   novelist 


Jules  de  Goncourt 
French  novelist 


GOND 


3598 


GONFALON 


of  a  servant,  1865  ;  Manette  Salo- 
mon, a  story  of  a  Jewish  artist's 
model,  1867 ;  and  Mme.  Gervaisais, 
1869,  the  best. 

Edmond,  independently,  wrote 
Watteau,  1876;  Prudhon,  1877; 
L'Art  Japonaise  au  XVIIIe  Siecle, 
1891-96  ;  and  the  novels  La  Fille 
Elisa,  1878;  Les  Freres  Zemganno, 
1879;  La  Faustin,  1882;  andCherie, 
1885.  He  edited  Les  Lettres  de 
Jules  de  Gohcourt,  1885,  and  the 
Journal  des  Goncourt,  1887-92. 
The  brothers  collaborated  in  a 
play,  Henriette  Marechal,  1865 ; 
and  both  kept  a  diary,  reproduced 
in  the  much-discussed  Journal. 

As  writers  of  fiction  the  brothers 
de  Goncourt  were  pioneers  of  the 
naturalist  school.  Having  collected 
their  materials  with  laborious  in- 
dustry, they  attempted  to  set  forth 
the  naked  facts  of  life  in  a  style 
designed  with  equal  laboriousness 
to  arrest  attention  by  its  supposed 
suitability  to  subject  or  situation. 
The  Academic  des  Goncourt  was 
founded  to  help  struggling  authors 
by  money  resulting  from  the  sale 
of  the  Goncourt  art  collection. 
Jules  died  June  20,  1870 ;  and 
Edmond,  July  16,  1896.  They 
form  a  connecting  link  between 
Flaubert  and  Zola.  See  Nouveaux 
Essais  de  Psychologic  Contempo- 
raine,  Paul  Bourget,  1885  ;  Lives, 
A.  Delzant,  1889;  M.  A.  Belloc- 
Lowndes  and  M.  L.  Shedlock,  1895. 

Gond.  Primitive  tribe  in  Cen- 
tral India.  Numbering  (in  1911) 
2,917,950,  two-thirds  occupy  hill- 
tracts  in  the  Central  Provinces. 
The  Dhur  Gonds,  dark-skinned, 
roundish-headed,  thick-lipped  pea- 
santry, preserve  their  aboriginal 
forest  life,  ceremonial  dances,  and 
animism.  The  hinduised  Raj 
Gonds  on  the  plains  claim  Rajput 
descent.  Half  of  them  have  dis- 
placed their  Dravidian  speech,  in- 
termediate between  Tamil  and 
Telugu,  by  Hindi  or  Gujarati. 
Four  14th-17th  century  Gond 
kingdoms  gave  this  region  the 
name  Gondwana. 

Gonda.  Town  and  district  of 
India.  It  is  in  the  United  Pro- 
vinces, in  the  Fyzabad  division.  Of 
the  total  area  (2,818  sq.  m.)  about 
two-thirds  is  under  cultivation,  and 
of  the  cultivated  area  almost  half  is 
devoted  to  rice.  Other  crops  are 
wheat,  maize,  and  grain.  Exports 
consist  principally  of  agricultural 
produce ;  imports  include  piece 
goods,  salt,  and  metals.  The  last 
raja  of  Gonda  took  part  in  the 
Mutiny,  and  his  estates  were  con- 
fiscated. Pop.  of  town,  15,000. 

Gondal.  State  of  Bombay, 
India.  In  the  Kathiawar  agency,  its 
area  is  1.024  sq.  m.  The  ruler  is  a 
thakur  sahib,  entitled  to  a  salute 
of  11  guns. 


Gondar.  Town  of  Abyssinia, 
capital  of  the  prov.  of  Amhara.  It 
is  built  on  a  hill,  at  an  elevation  of 
6,000  ft.,  24  m  N.E.  of  Lake  Tsana. 
At  one  period  a  flourishing  centre 
of  Abyssinian  trade,  it  has  now  a 
population  of  about  3,000.  See 
Abyssinia. 

Gondokoro.  Garrison  town  of 
Uganda,  Central  Africa.  It  stands 
on  the  White  Nile,  1,081  m.  S.  of 
Khartum.  Navigation  to  Rejaf,  15 
m.  S.,  and  to  Khartum,  is  carried 
on  by  the  steamers  of  the  Sudan 
government.  Here  Sir  Samuel 
Baker  established  a  military  sta- 
tion in  1871  and  called  the  settle- 
ment Ismailia.  Formerly  a  seat  of 
the  slave  traffic,  it  had  a  large 
trade  hi  ivory. 

Gondola  (Ital.).  Long,  low, 
narrow,  flat-bottomed  boat  used 
on  the  lagoons  and  canals  of 
Venice.  Both  prow  and  stern  curve 
high  off  the  water  ;  each  end  is 


Gondola,  the  small  cabined  boat  used 
and  canals  of  Venice 

decked,  the  rowers,  or  gondoliers, 
standing  up  to  wield  their  sweeps. 
Usually,  in  the  centre,  is  a  carriage- 
like  cabin,  with  doors  and  cur- 
tained windows.  The  prow  is  some- 
times still  decorated  with  a  curious 
imitation  battle-axe  head,  the  last 
relic  of  the  sumptuous  decorations 
formerly  so  profusely  lavished  on 
gondolas  that  sumptuary  laws 
were  passed  in  the  16th  century  to 
prevent  such  extravagances.  Since 
that  time,  as  a  rule,  these  vessels 
have  been  painted  black.  See 
Venice. 

Gondola.  In  aeronautics,  term 
used  to  describe  the  boat-shaped 
car  fitted  to  an  airship.  The 
usual  term  now  is  nacelle.  See 
Airship. 

Gondoliers,  THE.  Comic  opera 
by  W.  S.  Gilbert,  with  music  by 
Arthur  Sullivan,  and  produced, 
London,  Dec.  9, 1889,  at  The  Savoy 
Theatre,  where  it  ran  for  554 
performances.  The  cast  included 
Grraldine  Ulmar  as  Gianetta, 
Jessie  Bond  as  Tessa,  Decima 
Moore  as  Casilda,  Rosina  Brand- 
ram  as  the  Duchess  of  Plaza  Toro, 
Frank  Wyatt  as  the  Duke,  W.  H. 
Denny  as  Don  Alhambra  del 
Bolero,  Rutland  Barrington  as 
Giuseppe  Palmieri,  and  Courtice 
Pounds  as  Marco  Palmieri. 


Gondomar,  DIEGO  SABMIENTO 
BE  ACUNA,  COUNT  OP  (1567-1626). 
Spanish  diplomatist.  Born  Nov.  1, 
1567,  of  a 
wealthy  fam- 
ily, he  was 
still  young 
when  he  was 
a  p  p  o  i  n  t  e  d 
commander  of 
the  Portuguese 
frontier  and 
helped  to  re- 
pulse the  Eng-  Count  Qf  Gondomar 
hsh  attacks  on  Spanish  diplomatist 
the  coast.  In  v  t 
1613  he  was  ssnt  as  ambassador 
to  England,  where  he  remained, 
with  a  brief  interval,  until  1622! 
He  furthered  the  projected  match 
between  the  prince  of  Wales 
(Charles  I)  and  a  Spanish  infanta, 
and  his  influence  was  largely  re- 
sponsible for  the  execution  of  Sir 
AValter  RaHch.  He  died  in  Spain, 
Oct.  2,  1626. 

G  o  n  d  wana 
I  Beds.  Series  of 
jij%  sandstones,  shales, 
ironstones,  and 
coal-seams,  of 
P  ermo-Carbonifer- 
ous  age,  typically 
developed  in  India. 
1  They  contain 
i  abundant  fossil 
*  plants,  the 
on  the  lagoons  «  Glo  sso  pteris 
Flora,"  which 
ranged  from  Australia  through 
India  to  Russia,  and  through  Africa 
to  Brazil,  marking  the  former  ex- 
tent of  the  ancient  continent 
"Gondwanaland."  Basement  bed, 
the  Talchir  conglomerate,  is  not- 
able on  account  of  presence  of 
huge  ice-scratched  boulders. 

Goneril.  Character  in  Shake- 
speare's tragedy  King  Lear.  This 
proverbially  unnatural  daughter, 
the  eldest  of  Lear's  three  children, 
and  wife  of  the  duke  of  Albany, 
having  received  half  her  father's 
kingdom,  afterwards  refused  him 
shelter.  Having  fallen  in  love  with 
Edmund,  bastard  son  of  the  earl  of 
Gloucester,  and  poisoned  Regan, 
her  younger  sister  and  rival,  she 
stabs  herself  to  death  on  finding 
that  her  lover  has  been  mortally 
wounded  in  a  duel  with  his  brother 
Edgar.  See  King  Lear. 

Gonfalon.  Banner  used  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  and  formed  after  the 
fashion  of  the  vex  ilium,  or  standard 
of  the  Roman  cavalry.  It  consisted 
of  a  flag  attached  to  a  cross-bar  and 
suspended  by  cords  at  right  angles 
to  the  pole.  Though  at  first  a  war 
banner,  it  subsequently  became 
peculiar  to  the  Church.  In  medieval 
Florence,  Venice,  and  other  Italian 
cities  the  standard-bearer,  or  Gon- 
faloniere,  was  an  influential  officer 


GONG 


Gonfalon,  as  used  in  ecclesiastical 
ceremonies  and  processions 

both  in  camp  and  council.  The 
older  form  of  the  word  was  gon- 
fanon,  a  corruption  of  the  Middle 
High  German  gundfano,  battle- 
standard. 

Gong.  In  music,  a  percussion 
instrument,  made  of  bronze.  Of 
Oriental  origin,  it  is  a  large  round 
plate  in  form,  with  turned-up 
edges,  and  is  struck  by  a  heavy 
drum -stick  with  hard  leather  knob, 


Gong.      Japanese  instrument  irom 

producing  a  deafening  crash  of 
indefinite  pitch.  Gongs  are  largely 
used  in  Eastern  temples. 

Gongora  y  Argote,  Luis  DE 
(1501-1627).  Spanish  poet.  Born 
at  Cordova,  July  11,  1561,  and 
e  d  u  c  a  ted  at 
Salamanca 
University,  he 
began  to  write 
poetry  when  a 
youth,  aban- 
doning the  law 
for  which  he 
was  trained. 
G  o  n  g  o  r  a's 
manner  was 


3599 

pompous  and  extravagant  in  his 
middle  age,  his  style  giving  rise  to 
the  term  Gongorism.  La te  in  life  he 
entered  the  Church,  and  lived  in 
Madrid,  becoming  chaplain  to 
Philip  III,  and  the  friend  of  nobles 
and  hidalgos.  Lope  de  Vega  was 
an  enthusiastic  admirer  of  Gon- 
gora's  poetry.  He  died  at  Cordova, 
May  23,  1627. 

Goniatites.  Extinct  forms  of 
shells,belonging  to  the  class  Cephalo  - 
poda  (q.v. ).  The  shells  are  spirally 
coiled  and  divided  into  chambers 


GONORRHOEA 

(passing  water)  is  increased,  and 
the  act  is  accompanied  with  pain. 
If  the  condition  is  neglected 
chronic  inflammation  of  the  ure- 
thra may  be  set  up  and  lead  to 
persistent  discharge,  or  gleet,  which 
may  last  for  many  months  or  even 
years,  and,  however  slight,  re- 
main highly  infectious  to  other  per- 
sons. Complications  are  frequent, 
glands  in  the  groin  may  become 
swollen  and  suppurate,  and  the 
infected  parts  may  become  in- 
flamed. Chronic  gonorrhoea  or 


Goniatites.   Left  to  right,  Prone-rites  cyclolobus,  Glyphioceras  sphaericure,  both 

from  Carboniferous  limestone  in  England ;  Agathiceras  Suessi,  from  Permo- 

Carboniferous  in  Sicily 

British  Museum 


Luis  de  Gongora 

y  Argote, 
Spanish  poet 

After  Velasquez 


simple  in  the 
first  period, 
but  became 


connected  by  a  delicate  tube,similar 
to  the  existing  nautilus.  They  are 
common  in  Devonian  rocks. 

Goniometer  (Gr.  gonia,  angle; 
mclron,  measure).  Instrument  used 
by  crystallographers  for  measuring 
the  angles  of  crystals.  One  form, 
the  contact  goniometer,  consists  of 
a  graduated  semicircular  arc,  to 
the  centre  of  which  a  pair  of  ad-, 
justable  slotted  oars  provided 
with  straight  edges  are  pivoted  in 
such  a  manner  that  they  can  be 
fixed  at  any  angle  by  a  screw. 

The  reflecting  goniometer  deter- 
mines the  angle  between  any 
two  faces  on  a  crystal,  by  obtaining 
the  reflection  of  light  from  a  colli- 
mator  (q.v. )  from  each  of  the  two 
faces  in  succession. 

Gonnelieu.  Village  of  France, 
in  the  dept.  of  Nord.  It  is  about  8 
m.  S.W.  of  Cambrai,  and  2  m.  E. 
of  Gouzeaucourt  (7.?'.).  Captured 
by  the  British,  April  20,  1917,  it 
was  taken  by  the  Germans, 
Nov.  30,  1917,  in  the  first  battle  of 
Cambrai,  but  was  retaken  by  the 
British,  Dec.  1,  1917.  See  Cambrai, 
First  ba.ttle  of. 

GonocalyxPulcher.  Evergreen 
shrub  of  the  natural  order  Erica- 
ceae. A  native  of  New  Grenada, 
it  has  oblong  leaves  and  bright 
red  tubular  flowers. 

Gonorrhoea  (Gr.  gonorrhoia). 
Acute  infectious  disease  affecting 
the  organs  of  generation.  The 
specific  organism  responsible  is 
known  as  the  gonococcus  or  dip- 
lococcns  gonorrhoeae.  In  the  male 
the  symptoms  usually  commence 
in  from  two  to  eight  days  after  in- 
fection, frequency  of  micturition 


repeated  acute  attacks  may  lead 
to  stricture  of  the  urethra,  which 
brings  in  its  train  a  series  of  dis- 
tressing symptoms. 

In  the  female,  gonorrhoea  causes 
pain  and  swelling  of  the  external 
organs  of  generation  and  a  yellow 
discharge  from  the  vagina.  It  may 
attack  the  bladder,  uterus,  or 
Fallopian  tubes,  producing  pus 
formation  and  very  serious  disease, 
and  it  is  a  common  cause  of  steri- 
lity. Besides  the  local  effects,  con- 
stitutional symptoms  may  arise 
in  either  sex.  The  most  frequent 
of  these  is  gonorrhoeal  "  rheuma- 
tism "  or  arthritis,  which  may  lead 
to  pain  and  swelling  in  the  joints, 
followed  by  permanent  changes  and 
serious  crippling.  Gonorrhoea  may 
also  produce  general  blood  poison- 
ing, resulting  in  serious  disease  of 
the  heart  or  even  death. 

If  the  infection  is  conveyed  to 
the  eye  it  may  cause  acute  in- 
flammation, followed  by  ulceration 
and  possibly  blindness.  A  painful 
example  of  this  complication  is 
afforded  by  infants  who  are  in- 
fected by  the  disease  in  the  mother 
at  the  time  of  birth,  an  accident 
which  is  probably  one  of  the  com- 
monest causes  of  blindness  in 
young  children.  The  immediate 
cleansing  of  the  eyes  after  birth 
is  now  looked  upon  as  a  most  im- 
portant duty  of  midwives  and 
monthly  nurses. 

The  royal  commission  on  Ve- 
nereal Disease  has  called  public  at- 
tention to  the  serious  evils  arising 
from  gonorrhoea,  and  arrange- 
ments have  been  made  in  all 
populous  centres  for  the  skilled 


GONSALVO 

treatment  of  the  disease  under  con- 
ditions which  secure  complete 
secrecy.  Consulting  a  quack  or 
so-called  "  specialist  in  venereal 
disease  "  may  lead  to  grave  mal- 
treatment or  neglect,  and  cannot 
be  too  strongly  deprecated.  The 
general  principle  in  the  treatment 
of  gonorrhoea  is  to  disinfect  the 
parts  attacked  and  to  prevent  the 
inflammation  from  spreading. 

Gonsalvo  de  Cordova.    Name 
by     which     the     Spanish     soldier 
Gonzalo      Hernandez     y    Aguilar 
(1453-1515)   is 
usually  known. 
A  younger  son 
of     a    Spanish 
grandee,  the 
count  of  Agui- 
lar, he  was  born 
at   Monti  11  a, 
near    Cordova, 
March  16,  1453. 
Gonsalvo  de  Cordova,  Jn  1495  ]?erdi- 
Spamsh  soldier 


bella  chose  Gonsalvo  to  command 
the  force  sent  by  them  to  help  Fer- 
dinand of  Naples  against  the  French. 
He  remained  there  until  1498, 
driving  the  French  from  Naples. 

Jn  1501  he  returned  to  Italy  to 
help  the  French.  The  allies,  how- 
ever, soon  quarrelled,  and  Gon- 
salvo's  last  victories,  as  his  first, 
were  over  the  French.  His  great 
achievements  were  at  Cerignola 
(1503)  and  on  the  Garigliano  (1504). 
His  influence  was  very  strong  on 
the  military  leaders  of  the  16th 
century.  He  died  at  Granada, 
Dec.  2,  1515. 

Gontard,  MAX  VON  (b.  1861). 
German  soldier.  He  joined  the 
Konigin  Augusta  regt.,  and  after 
filling  various 
military  posts 
came  under  the 
notice  of  the 
kaiser,  William 
II,  who  made 
him  tutor  and 
military  gover- 
nor to  four  of 
his  sons.  In 
1918  he  held  an 
important  command  on  the  west 
front. 

Gontcharov,  IVAN  ALEXAN- 
DROVITCH  (1814-91).  Russian 
novelist.  Born  at  Simbirsk  in  S.E. 
Russia,  he  occupied  positions  in 
various  government  offices.  His 
first  novel,  A  Common  Story,  1847, 
Eng.  trans.  1894,  was  followed  the 
next  year  by  fragments  of  another, 
Oblomov,  which  was  not  finished 
until  ten  years  later.  He  died 
Sept.  27,  1891. 

Gonville  and  Caius  College. 
Official  name  of  the  college  at 
Cambridge  University,  England, 
usually  known  as  Caius  (pron. 
Keys).  In  1348  Edmund  Gonville, 


Max  von  liontaicl, 
German  soldier 


36OO 

rector  of  Torrington,  in  Norfolk, 
founded  Gonville  Hall,  near  S. 
Botolph's  Church  ;  his  executor, 
Bishop  Bateman,  in  1351  removed 
the  college  to  its  present  site  near 
Trinity  Hall,  and  called  it  the  Hall 
of  the  Annunciation.  In  1557  John 
Caius  (q.v.)  by  royal  charter  re- 
founded  the  society  under  its 
existing  name. 

The  three  portals  through  which 
the     college    was     - 
entered     were 
named    by    Caius 
the  gates  of   Hu- 
mility,  Virtue    or 
Wisdom,     and 
Honour.  The  first- 
named     gate,   re- 
moved in  1868,  is 
in  the   garden    of 
the     master's 
lodge.    The  much  - 
admired   Gate    of 
Honour,      leading 
into  Senate  House 
passage,   was    de- 
signed   by   Caius. 
The     exterior     of 
the  chapel,  built  c. 
1393,  was  cased  with  freestone  in 
1716-26.    With  the  college  are  as- 
sociated   the    names    of    William 
Harvey,      John 
Cosin,        Jeremy 
Taylor,    Edward 
Thurlow,  Thomas 
Gresham,  E.    H. 
Alderson,   J. 
Hookham   Frere, 
and  John   Venn. 
The    society    in- 
cludes   a  master  Gonville  and  Caius 
and    21     fellows        College  arms 
on  the  older  foundations. 

Gonzaga.  Name  of  a  princely 
Italian  family  which  ruled  over 
Mantua  from  1328  to  1708.  Its 
members  also  held  the  marquisate 
of  Montferrat  from  1536,  and 
later  the  duchies  of  Guastalla  and 
Nevers.  It  included  many  distin- 
guished soldiers,  notably  Giovanni 
Francesco  II  (d.  1444)  ;  two  car- 
dinals, Ercole  (1505-63),  ar  active 
ecclesiastical  reformer,  and  Sci- 
pione(1512-93),  a  patron  of  letters ; 
and  Luigi  (1568-91),  who  was 
canonised  as  S.  Aloysius. 

Giovanni  Francesco  III  (d.  1519), 
the  husband  of  Isabella  d'Este,  was 
a  soldier  and  a  collector  of  art  trea- 
sures. Under  his  son  Federigo  II 
(d.  1540)  the  court  of  Mantua  was 
famous.  A  struggle  between  two 
branches  of  the  family,  the  dukes 
of  Nevers  and  Guastalla,  for  Man- 
tua, France  supporting  the  former, 
and  Spain  and  Austria  the  latter, 
brought  about  civil  war  (1627-30). 

The  end  came  in  1708  when 
Ferdinand  Charles  IV  was  de- 


GOOCH 

Austria  then  annexed  Mantua 
and  Savoy  took  Montferrat.  The 
Guastalla  branch  of  the  family 
became  extinct  in  1746. 

Gonzaga,  THOMAZ  ANTONIO 
(1744-1809).  Portuguese  poet. 
Born  at  Oporto,  he  was  educated 
at  the  university  of  Coimbra,  and 
in  1768  went  to  Brazil  and  became 
a  judge  at  Villa  Rica,  in  the  prov. 
of  Minas.  In  1792  he  was  banished 


posed   by  the  emperor  Joseph  I, 
and   died   in   exile   without   issue. 


Gonville  and  Caius  College,  Cambridge,  with  the  Senate 
House  on  the  left 

to  Mozambique  on  a  charge  of 
conspiracy.  He  wrote  under  the 
pseudonym  of  Morceu,  and  his 
lyrics,  Marilia  de  Dirceu,  enjoyed 
great  popularity.  They  were  edited, 
with  a  Life,  by  J.  da  Sylva,  1845. 
Gonzalo  de  Eerceo  (c.  1198- 
1264).  Spanish  poet.  A  secular 
priest  attached  to  the  Benedictine 
monastery  of  San  Millan  de  la 
Cogolla  in  the  diocese  of  Calahorra, 
he  became  deacon  in  1220.  His 
latest  and  perhaps  most  polished 
work  is  the  Vida  de  Santa  Oria, 
Virgen.  His  poems  and  songs  deal 
with  religion. 

Gooch,  SIR  DANIEL  (1816-89). 
British  engineer.  Born  at  Bedling- 
ton,  Aug.  16,  1810,  he  began  life  in 
some  ironworks 
at  Tredegar, 
and  later  be- 
c  ame  asso- 
ciated with  the 
Step  h  e  n  s  o  n  s 
and  other  pio- 
neers in  rail- 
way construc- 
tion. His  life 
work  was  done 
on  the  G.W.R. 

In  1837  he  became  its  locomotive 
superintendent,  and  until  1804, 
when  he  left  the  company,  he 
made  remarkable  improvements  in 
its  engines.  In  1866  he  returned 
to  the  G.W.R.  as  chairman,  and 
holding  this  position  for  23  years, 
brought  the  line  from  a  position 
bordering  on  bankruptcy  to  a  high 
pitch  of  prosperity.  Gooch  had 
much  to  do  with  laying  the  Atlantic 
cable.  He  was  made  a  baronet  in 
1865,  and  died  Oct.  15,  1889. 


Sir  Daniel  Gooch, 
British  engineer 


GOODALL 

Goodall,  FREDERICK  (1822- 
1904).  British  artist.  The  son  of 
an  engraver,  he  was  born  Sept. 
17,  1822.  He 
studied  art  and 
soon  began  to 
paint,  exhibit- 
ing his  first 
picture,  Card 
Players,  at  the 
Royal  Academy 
in  1839.  In  1853 
he  was  elected 
A.R.A.  and 
in  1803  R.  A. 
He  died 

EUioll&Fry  July       3  g> 

1904.  Many  of  Goodall's  best  pic- 
tures have  Egypt  and  the  desert 
for  their  scene.  They  include 
Hagar  and  Ishmael,  Rachel  and 
Her  Flock,  The  Return  from  Mecca, 
and  The  Finding  of  Moses. 

Goodenough  Medal.  Prize 
founded  in  memory  of  Captain 
J.  G.  Goodenough,  R.N.,  who  died 
Aug.  20,  1875, 
from  wounds 
inflicted  with 
poisonedarrows 
by  the  natives 
of  Santa  Cruz. 
The  fund  con- 
sists of  a  sum 


of  about   £800, 
with  the  inter- 

&-^iMuteSB* 

presented  yearly  to  the  sub-lieuten- 
ant who  has  taken  a  first-class  in 
seamanship,  and  in  the  examina- 
tion for  lieutenant  passes  best  in 
gunnery. 

Good  Friday  (Gr.  Pascha  Stauro- 
simon,  Pasch  of  the  Cross ;  paras- 
keue,  Holy  Friday;  Lat.  dies  absolu- 
tionis).  Name  given  in  the  R.C.  and 
Anglican  Churches  to  the  Friday  in 
Holy  Week  (q.v.)  on  which  the 
Crucifixion  is  commemorated.  In 
England,  to  which  the  name  was 
for  a  long  time  peculiar,  it  super- 
seded that  of  Long  Friday,  an 
allusion  to  the  fast.  The  name 
pascha,  afterwards  appropriated  to 
Easter  (cf.  Acts  xii,  4,  as  given  in 
A.V.  and  R.V.),  derives  from  the 
association  of  the  day  with  the 
time  of  the  Jewish  Passover. 

In  the  Anglican  Church  special 
collects,  epistle,  gospel,  lessons, 
and  psalms  are  appointed  for  the 
day,  which  is  frequently  observed 
by  the  Three  Hours  service,  from 
noon  to  3  p.m.,  during  which  the 
attention  of  the  congregation  is 
specially  directed  to  the  Seven 
Last  Words  :  it  was  for  this  service 
that  Haydn's  Last  Words  of  the 
Redeemer  were  written.  Among 
old  English  customs  was  that  of 
the  royal  blessing  of  cramp-rings 
(q.v.)  for  prevention  of  the  falling 
sickness. 


3601 

In  the  R.C.  Church  the  altar  is 
at  first  bare,  no  candle  is  lighted, 
the  officiating  priests  wear  black 
vestments.  After  the  altar  has 
been  covered  with  a  white  cloth 
and  special  prayers  have  been  said, 
there  follows  The  Adoration  of  the 
Cross.  Communion  is  forbidden 
except  in  case  of  sickness.  In  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  and  Greek  Churches, 
for  the  ordinary  Mass,  the  Mass  of 
the  Presanctified  is  substituted ;  in 
this  the  priest  receives  as  commu- 
nion a  Host  (q.v.)  consecrated  on  the 
previous  day.  The  Roman  office 
known  asTenebrae  (Lat.,  darkness) 
and  observed  on  the  Wednesday, 
Thursday,  and  Friday  of  Holy 
Week,  is  so  called  from  the  gradual 
extinction  of  the  lights  in  the 
church  during  the  service,  in  com- 
memoration of  the  darkness  that 
covered  the  earth  at  the  time  of 
the  Crucifixion.  For  this  office, 
which  has  been  introduced  of 
recent  years  into  some  Anglican 
churches,  music  has  been  composed 
by  Palestrina,  Salvatore,  Michael 
Haydn,  and  others.  In  England 
and  Ireland  Good  Friday  is  ob- 
served as  a  Sunday.  See  Easter. 

Good  Hope.  British  armoured 
cruiser  of  the  Drake  (q.v.)  class. 
Originally  named  Africa,  she  was 
launched  at  Fairfield  in  1899  and 
completed  in  1902.  In  1902  she  was 
the  largest  ship  of  her  class  hi  the 
world,  being  500  ft-,  long  and  71  ft. 
in  beam,  with  a  displacement  of 
14,100  tons,  a  trial  speed  of  23'5 
knots  with  engines  of  30,100  h.p., 
and  an  armament  of  two  9 '2 -in., 
sixteen 6 -in., and  twelve  12-pounder 
guns.  Her  principal  armour  belt 
was  6  ins.  thick. 

From   1902-12  the  Good  Hope 
served   almost  continuously   as  a 
flagship  of  cruiser  squadrons,  and 
hi    the    latter   year   went    to    the 
Mediterranean  as  flagship   of   the 
commander-in-chief,    being   trans- 
ferred to  the  reserve  in  Nov.     In 
Aug.,  1914,  she  was  commissioned 
for  service   as    flagship    of   Rear- 
admiral  C.  Cradock,  and  on  Nov.  1 
following,   in    the 
action  of!  Coronel   ••• 
(q.v.),    she    was 
sunk    with    all 
hands.  •MHHMKnMB 

Good  Hope, 
CAPE  OF.  Promon- 
tory of  S.  Africa. 
It  is  about  30  m. 
from  Cape  Town, 
and  forms  the  S. 
extremity  of  Table 
Mountain.  Its 
height  is  about 
1,000  ft.,  and  it 
forms  a  landmark. 
Owing  to  its  im- 
portance in  navi-  Cape  o£  Gbod  Hope>  the  gouth  AMcan  promontory 
gation  it  became  named  by  early  voyagers  the  Stormy  Cape 


GOODRICH 

known  as  the  Cape,  and  the 
southernmost  part  of  S.  Africa  as 
Cape  Colony.  The  prov.  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  is  now  the 
official  name,  but  it  is  still  spoken 
of  as  the  Cape;  Cape,  not  Good, 
being  the  dominant  word.  See 
Cape  of  Good  Hope ;  Cape  Colony. 

Goodna.  Town  of  Queensland, 
Australia,  in  Moreton  West  dist. 
It  is  a  farming  centre,  on  the  road 
20  m.  S.  of  Brisbane.  Pop.  2,167. 

Good  Parliament.  Name 
given  to  the  parliament  that  met 
hi  April,  1376.  To  reform  the  gross 
mismanagement  of  national  affairs 
towards  the  end  of  the  reign  of 
Edward  III,  the  Commons  re- 
solved to  withhold  all  grants  until 
their  grievances  were  redressed. 
Through  Sir  Peter  de  la  Mare,  who 
thus  founded  the  office  of  Speaker, 
the'y  presented  a  list  of  petitions  to 
the  king,  set  up  a  council  of  12 
peers  to  advise  the  sovereign,  and 
imprisoned  and  deprived  of  their 
lands  two  of  his  ministers,  Lords 
Latimer  and  Lyons,  who  had  been 
guilty  of  corruption  and  general  mal- 
practice. The  parliament,  which 
was  dissolved  July  6,  1376,  holds 
an  important  place  hi  the  history 
of  the  constitution. 

Goodrich,  CASPER  FREDERICK 
(b.  1847).  American  sailor.  Born  at 
Philadelphia,  Jan.  7,  1847,  he 
graduated  from  the  U.S.  naval 
academy  in  1864  and  saw  service  in 
the  Civil  War.  In  1882  he  com- 
manded a  detachment  of  sailors  at 
Alexandria  to  police  the  burning 
city,  and  was  naval  attache  during 
the  Tel-el-Kebir  campaign.  In 
1884  he  brought  the  Greeley  relief 
ship  Alert  to  New  York.  Member 
of  the  torpedo  board  1884-85, 
inspector  of  ordnance  1886,  he  was 
promoted  captain  in  1897  and  was 
president  of  the  naval  war  college 
1897-98.  During  the  Spanish- 
American  War  he  commanded  the 
St.  Louis  and  the  Newark.  Made  a 
rear-admiral  1904,  he  was  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  Pacific 
squadron  1905-6,  retiring  in  1909. 


B     5 


GOODRICH 


36O2 


GOODWOOD     RACES 


Goodrich,  SAMUEL  GKISWOLD 
(1793-1860).  American  author. 
Born  at  Ridgefield,  Connecticut, 
Aug.  19,  1793,  he  became  editor  of 
an  annual,  The  Token,  published  at 
Boston,  among  the  contributors  to 
which  were  Nathaniel  Hawthorne 
and  Longfellow.  Goodrich  is  best 
known  by  his  pseudonym  of  Peter 
Parley,  under  which  he  published 
a  large  number  of  books  for  chil- 
dren on  a  wide  variety  of  subjects. 
He  died  at  New  York,  May  9,  I860. 

Goodrich  Castle.  Ruined  castle 
of  Herefordshire.  It  stands  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Wye,  above  the 
village  of  Goodrich,  about  3  m. 
from  Ross.  The  remains  include  a 
gateway  and  ruins  of  two  towers, 
the  keep,  and  the  chapel.  As  a 
defence  against  the  Welsh,  there 
was  a  fortress  here  before  the 
Norman  Conquest,  but  the  existing, 
parts  are  of  later  date.  The  keep 
dates  from  the  time  of  Henry  II.  It 
was  once  held  by  the  earls  of  Pem- 
broke, to  which  family  it  was  given 
by  Henry  III ;  afterwards  it  passed 
to  the  Talbots,  earls  of  Shrews- 
bury. It  was  held  for  Charles  I 
during  the  Civil  War,  but  after  a 
siege  lasting  eighteen  weeks  the 
parliamentarians  captured  it  in 
1646,  and  dismantled  it.  There  is 
an  interesting  old  church  in  the 
village,  near  which  is  Goodrich 
Court,  a  modern  residence  formerly 
containing  a  noted  collection  of 
armour. 

Good  Templars,  INDEPENDENT 
ORDER  or.  Society  for  the  purpose 
of  inculcating  total  abstinence  and ' 
abolishing  the  sale  of  alcoholic 
liquors.  Founded  in  Utica,  New 
York,  in  1851,  it  spread  rapidly  in 
N.  America,  and  in  1868  was  intro- 
duced into  Britain  by  Joseph 
Malins.  The  ritual,  which  is  secret, 
and  contains  passwords  and  signs, 
was  translated  into  18  languages, 
and  the  society  established  lodges 
through  the  British  colonies  and  in 
most  European  countries.  Organ- 
ized in  lodges,  the  British  head- 
quarters are  at  Birmingham.  In 
1919  the  international  membership 
of  the  order  was  620,000.  See 
Friendly  Societies. 

Goodwill.  Term  used  for  the  ad- 
vantages, other  than  the  material 
assets,  buildings,  furniture,  etc., 
which  go  with  a  business  or  pro- 
fession. It  is  regarded  as  property, 
and  stamp  duties  must  be  paid 
when  it  is  transferred  from  one 
person  to  another.  It  is  also  valued 
for  death  duties,  and,  moreover, 
a  person  is  entitled  to  compensation 
if  the  goodwill  of  his  business  is 
injured.  Lord  Lindley  denned 
goodwill  as  "  the  benefit  arising 
from  connexion  and  reputation," 
and  its  value  "  what  can  be  got  for 
the  chance  of  being  able  to  keep 


that  connexion 
and  improve  it." 
It  frequently  in- 
cludes a  name 
which,  because  it 
is  known,  has 
a  commercial 
value.  Profes- 
sional goodwill 
usually  means  a 
recommendation 
of  some  kind  of 
the  purchaser  by 
the  seller  to  the 
clients,  and  an 
undertaking  to 
refrain  from  com- 
petition. 

Goodwin, 
THOMAS  (1600- 
80).  English 
puritan  divine. 
He  was  born  at 
Rollesby,  Nor- 
folk, Oct.  5, 1600, 
and  educated  at 
Cam  bridge,  w  here 
he  became  a  uni- 
versity preacher 
and  lecturer  at 
Trinity  Church. 
Owing  to  disputes 
with  his  bishop, 
he  resigned,  and 
was  for  a  time  a 


Goodwin  Sands.      Chart  of  the  dangerous  sandbanks  off 
the  east  coast  of  Kent,  England 


pastor  at  Arnhem,  Holland.  Having 
returned  to  England  in  1640,  he 
preached  with  much  success  in 
London,  and  became  a  member  of 
the  Westminster  Assembly  three 
years  later. 

A  friend  and  confidant  of  Oliver 
Cromwell,  whose  deathbed  he  at- 
tended, he  preached  many  times 
before  the 
House  of  Com- 
mons. From 
1650,  until  the 
Restoration, 
when  he  was 
deprived  of 
the  office, 
he  -was  presi- 
dent of  Magda- 
lenCollege,"Ox- 
ford.  Thence- 
forward until  his  death,  Feb.  23, 
1680,  he  was  pastor 
of  the  independent  ', 
church,  Fetter  • 
Lane,  London.  His 
collected  works, 
mainly  sermons 
and  expositions  of 
Scripture,  were  re- 
printed, 1861-66. 

Goodwin 
Sands.  Dangerous 
sandbanks  off  the 
E.  coast  of  Kent, 
England.  They 
extend  from  N.  to 
S.  for  10  m.,  about 
6m.  from  the  main- 


Thomas  Goodwin, 
English  divine 


land.  They  form  a  natural  protec- 
tion to  the  anchorage  of  the  Downs, 
but  themselves  have  been  the  scene 
of  many  shipwrecks.  At  low 
water  they  rise  some  feet  above 
sea  level,  while  at  high  water 
they  lie  15  ft.  below  the  sea.  The 
extreme  limits  of  the  shoal  are 
marked  by  four  light-vessels, 
whose  flashing  lights  are  visible  at 
a  distance  of  12  m.  The  sands  are 
named  after  Earl  Godwin. 

Goodwood.  Sussex  residence 
of  the  duke  of  Richmond  and 
Gordon.  It  is  3£  m.  N.E.  of  Chi- 
chester.  The  mansion  was  erected 
during  the  first  half  of  the  18th 
century,  and  the  grounds  are  cele- 
brated for  their  magnificent  cedars. 

Goodwood  Races.  Horse-races 
held  annually  at  the  end  of  July. 
They  extend  over  four  days,  be- 


Goodwood  Races.     Finish  of  the  Stewards'  Cup,  1920, 
won  by  Western  Wave 


GOOD  WORDS 


36O3 


GOOSE 


Goora  Nut.  Foliage,  flowers,  and  seeds 
(also  in  section)  of  the  African  tree 

ginning  on  a  Tuesday.  The  course 
is  situated  on  the  Downs  adjoining 
Goodwood  Park.  The  meeting,  in- 
augurated in  1802,  is  one  of  the 
principal  society  functions  of  the 
London  season.  See  Horse  Racing. 

Good  Words.  English  monthly 
illustrated  religious  magazine.  Es- 
tablished in  1860  by  Alexander 
Strahan,  and  published  at  6d.,  its 
first  editor  was  Norman  Macleod, 
on  whose  death  in  1872  Donald 
Macleod  became  editor.  Its  writers 
and  illustrators  included  many 
eminent  men  and  women.  It  later 
passed  into  the  hands  of  Isbister 
and  Co.,  from  whom  it  was  acquired 
by  The  Amalgamated  Press,  and 
issued  as  a  penny  weekly.  In  191 1 
it  was  amalgamated  with  The 
Sunday  Companion. 

Goole.  Market  town,  urban 
district,  and  seaport  of  Yorkshire 
(W.R.).  It  stands  on  the  Ouse, 
just  where  it  is  joined  by  the  Don, 
25  m.  S.W.  of  Hull,  the  two  ports 
being  under  a  joint  port  sanitary 
authority.  It  is  served  by  the  N.  E. 
and  L.  &  Y.  Rlys., and  has  extensive 
modern  docks.  Steamers  go  from 
here  to  Hull,  and  to  several  ports 
of  the  European  continent.  Its 
industries  include  shipbuilding, 
engineering  works,  flour  mills, 
chemical  works,  artificial  manure 
manufactures,  etc.  Coal  is  its  chief 
article  of  export.  It  is  situated  in 
a  fine  agricultural  neighbourhood. 


The  principal  build- 
ing is  the  church 
of  S.  John ;  there 
is  a  free  library 
and  market  hall. 
The  council  owns 
the  gas  and  water 
undertakings.  Goole 
owes  its  growth  to 
the  opening  of  a 
canal,  part  of  the 
Aire  and  Calder 
Navigation  system, 
in  1826.  Pop.  20,330. 
Goora  Nut. 
Seed  of  an  ever- 


Goole,  Yorkshire. 


green  tree  (Cola 
acuminata),  of  the 
natural  order  Sterculiaceae.  It  is 
a  native  of  tropical  Africa.  The 
tree  is  about  40  ft.  high  and  has 
large,  leathery,  oblong  leaves, 
pointed  at  each  end,  and  sprays  of 
pale  yellow  flowers.  The  seeds, 
about  the  size  of  horse  chestnuts, 
are  contained  in  pod-like  follicles. 
They  are  used  as  a  condiment,  a 
small  piece  also  being  chewed  before 
a  meal  to  improve  the  flavour  of 
the  viands.  Goora  is  said  to  make 
,  half -putrid  water  drinkable. 

Goosander  (Mergus  merganser). 
Diving  duck.  It  visits  the  N.  of 
Scotland,  and  occasionally  breeds 
there.  The  male  is  black  on 
the  back  and  white  beneath,  with 
a  greenish  head,  red  beak,  and 
pinkish  breast,  and  is  about  26  ins. 
long.  In  winter  it  migrates  to 
Southern  Europe  and  Asia.  The 
name  is  probably  an  abbreviation 
of  goose-gander,  as  merganser  of 
Lat.  mergus,  diver;  anser,  goose. 

Goose.  Name  applied  rather 
indefinitely  to  include  various 
genera  of  the  order  Anseres,  which 
includes  also  ducks  and  swans. 
Some  of  these  genera  are  so  closely 
connected  by  intermediate  forms 
with  swans  and  ducks  that  it  is 
difficult  to  indicate  any  clear  line 
of  demarcation.  About  40  species 
are  called  geese  :  but  the  typical 
geese  are  usually  restricted  to 
eleven  species.  Broadly  speaking, 
£eese  are  smaller  than  swans,  and, 


The  secondary  school,  founded  1876 

Valentine 


with  certain  exceptions,  larger  than 
ducks.  Their  necks  are  shorter 
than  the  body  and  their  beaks  are 
never  longer  than  the  head.  They 
are  heavy,  strong  birds,  much  less 
aquatic  in  habit  than  either  ducks 
or  swans.  Of  British  wild  geese,  the 
grey  lag  (Anser  cinereus)  and  the 
bean  goose  (A.  segetum)  are  the 
best  known,  the  former  breeding  in 
the  N.  of  Scotland  and  Ireland. 
But  in  the  main  British  wild  geese 


Goosander.      Specimen  of  Mergus 
castor,  a  diving  duck 

are  only  winter  visitors,  retiring 
farther  N.  in  spring  for  nesting 
purposes. 

The  domestic  goose  is  descended 
from  the  grey  lag,  with  which  it 
will  interbreed,  and  was  evidently 
domesticated  at  a  very  early  period, 


Goose. 


Varieties  ot  the  wild  and  domesticated  birds.     Left  to  right,  Emden  goose  ;   Toulouse  goose,  both  domesticated  : 
Bean  goose,  Anser  segetum,  a  British  wild  species 


GOOSEBERRY 

as  some  of  the  oldest  Sanskrit 
writings  mention  it,  and  an  ancient 
Egyptian  painting  represents  the 
cramming  of  a  goose  by  hand.  In 
Great  Britain  it  has  long  been  bred 
on  a  large  scale,  the  common  land 
being  utilised  for  the  purpose. 
Before  steel  pens  were  invented, 
goose  quills  were  in  great  demand, 
but  now  are  little  used.  The  down 
is,  however,  still  a  valuable  article 
of  commerce. 

The  domestic  goose  has  been 
greatly  developed  in  size  by  selec- 
tive breeding.  Its  ancestor,  the 
grey  lag,  weighs  about  8  lb.,  but  a 
fine  specimen  of  a  good  modern 
strain  may  scale  25  lb.  As  a  pro- 
ducer of  eggs  the  goose  is  unimpor- 
tant, there  being  hardly  any 
market  for  them.  Of  the  various 
domestic  strains,  the  Embden  and 
the  Toulouse  are  those  usually 
kept.  The  former  is  the  Michael- 
mas goose,  while  the  latter  is  the 
favourite  bird  for  Christmas,  as  it 
attains  great  weight.  A  tailor's 
goose  is  a  flat  iron  used  by  tailors 
and  so  named  from  a  resemblance 
of  the  handle  to  the  neck  of  a 
goose.  See  Brent  Goose ;  Poultry 
Farming. 

Gooseberry.  Fruit  of  a  shrub 
of  the  natural  order  Grossulariaceae 
and  genus  Ribes.  R.  qrossularia  is 
the  parent  species,  but  varieties  are 
numerous.  The  bushes  should  be 
planted  in  autumn  or  early  spring, 
about  5  ft.  apart  every  way,  in 
ordinary  soil,  and  in  a  sunny  posi- 
tion. They  should  be  freely  pruned 
in  July,  all  weak  shoots  being  cut 
back.  After  fruiting,  well-rotted 
manure  should  be  applied  to  the 
surface  of  the  ground  in  autumn, 
while,  as  a  summer  stimulant,  weak 
solutions  of  sulphate  of  soda  may 
be  applied  at  intervals.  Goose- 
berries are  best  propagated  by 
autumn-struck  cuttings,  or  by 
seeds  from  ripe  fruit  sown  just 
underneath  the  surface  of  the 
soil. 

Young  bush  plants  should  have  a 
clear  stem  of  6  ins.  to  12  ins.  in 
height  from  which  the  buds  have 


Gooseberry.    Leaves  and  berries  of 
the  parent  species.     Inset,  flower 


3604 

been  removed,  to  prevent  the 
growth  of  suckers.  Supposing  the 
heads  to  consist  of  from  three  to  six 
shoots,  the  ends  of  these  should  be 
shortened  a  little,  soon  after 
planting.  The  following  season 
young  shoots  will  be  freely  pro- 
duced, and  two  should  be  allowed 
to  grow  from  each  original  shoot  to 
form  the  main  branches  of  the 
head,  the  remainder  being  cut 
back.  From  nine  to  twelve  main 
branches  are  sufficient  to  form  the 
head,  and  they  should  be  regulated 
so  as  to  be  about  an  equal  distance 
apart,  and  allowed  to  grow  12  ins. 
each  year  until  the  bush  is  as  large 
as  desired.  The  head  having  been 
formed,  no  further  training  is  re- 
quired. See  Fruit  Farming. 

Gooseberry  Caterpillar. 
Name  applied  vaguely  to  the 
larvae  of  the  magpie  moth  (Abraxas 
grossulariata)  and  a  saw  fly  (Ne- 
matus  ribesii).  Both  feed  on  the 
leaves  of  the  gooseberry  and  do 
great  damage  in  spring  and  early 
summer. 

The  sawfly  larvae  make  their 
appearance  soon  after  the  leaves 
have  expanded  in  the  spring  and,, 
if  not  cleared  off,  soon  destroy  all 
the  foliage.  The  caterpillars  of  the 
moth  result  from  eggs  laid  in  July 
or  August,  but  as  they  go  into 
hibernation  before  becoming  full- 
grown,  these  also  put  in  an  early 
appearance.  As  both  these  insects 
are  warningly  coloured,  in  white, 
yellow,  orange  and  black,  birds  do 
not  molest  them.  Dusting  the 
bushes  with  a  mixture  of  soot  and 
lime,  or  with  powdered  tobacco  or 
hellebore,  is  recommended,  but  the 
safer  method  is  to  pick  off  the  larvae 
by  hand.  In  any  case,  dusting  with 
hellebore  or  tobacco  should  not  be 
resorted  to  after  the  fruit  is  formed, 
or  these  will  become  poisonous. 

Goosefoots  (Cfienopodium). 
Genus  of  annual  and  perennial 
herbs.  Of  the  natural  order  Cheno- 
podiaceae,  they  are  natives  of  all 
climates,  mostly  occurring  on  sea- 
shores or  in  cultivated  land.  Mostly 
weeds,  some  species  are,  or  have 
been,  used  as  pot-herbs,  such  as 
Good  King  Henry  (C.  bonus-henri- 
cus),  used  as  a  substitute  for  aspa- 
ragus and  spinach.  G.  ambrosioides 
of  tropical  America  is  the  so-called 
Mexican-tea,  whose  essential  oil 
causes  it  to  be  used  as  a  tonic  and 
anti-spasmodic  medicine.  C.  quinoa 
is  cultivated  in  Chile  and  Peru,  its 
3  eds  being  employed  as  food  and 
medicinally. 

Goose  Land  (Russ.  Gusinaia 
Zemlia).  South-western  division  of 
Novaia  Zemlia.  Situated  on  the  W 
coast  of  the  south  island,  it  pro- 
jects into  the  Arctic  Ocean  be- 
tween N.  and  S.  Goose  capes.  It  is 
also  known  as  Wil lough  by 's  Land. 


GOPHER 


Goose   Step,    as   executed  by   the 
Prussian  Guard 

Goose  Step.  Popular  name  for  a 
military  exercise  called  the  balance 
step.  The  body  is  balanced  upon 
one  leg,  while  the  other  is  ad- 
vanced without  a  jerk,  the  knee 
straight,  the  toe  pointed  out,  and 
the  shoulders  square  to  the  front. 
The  advanced  leg  is  then  planted 
firmly  on  the  ground,  and  the 
weight  of  the  body  thrown  upon  it, 
while  the  other  leg  is  advanced  in 
like  manner,  both  knees  being  kept 
straight.  This  march  is  in  slow 
time,  i.e.  75  paces  to  the  minute. 
This  pace  is  practised  for  ceremonial 
parades,  e.g.  trooping  the  colour  on 
the  king's  birthday.  In  the  early 
days  of  the  Great'  War,  when  the 
Germans  were  over-running  Bel- 
gium and  France,  their  troops  fre- 
quently entered  conquered  towns 
of  importance  with  the  goose-step 
march.  See  Drill. 

Gopeng  Beds.  Series  of  pale 
grey  clays  and  boulder  clays,  deve- 
loped in  Kinta  district,  Malay 
Peninsula,  and  probably  of  Permo- 
Carboniferous  age  (q.v. ).  They  con- 
tain tin  ore,  and  are  associated 
with  granite,  phyllite,  quartz.ite, 
and  crystalline  limestone. 

Gopher  (Geomys}.  Genus  of 
small  rodents  belonging  to  the 
squirrel  family.  The  European 
gopher  is  known  as  the  suslik,  and 
is  common  in  Central  and  Eastern 
Europe  and  Siberia.  Its  fossil 
remains  have  been  found  in  the 
Thames  valley.  It  somewhat  re- 
sembles a  squirrel  without  the 
tufted  ears  and  long  tail,  and 
lives  in  burrows  in  which  it  hiber- 
nates during  winter.  It  feeds 


Gopher.       The    European   spe 
also  called  the  Suslik 


GOPHER   WOOD 


3605 


GORDON 


upon  seeds  and  roots,  and  occasion- 
ally upon  birds  and  mammals. 

Gopher  Wood.  Material  of 
which,  according  to  the  Bible  nar- 
rative, the  ark  built  by  Noah  was 
constructed  (Gen.  vi,  14).  The 
weight  of  authority  favours  its 
identification  with  the  cypress 
(q.v. ).  The  translators  of  the  Bible 
leave  the  word  in  Hebrew. 

Goppingen.  Town  of  Germany, 
in  Wurttemberg.  Situated  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Fils,  it  is  26  m. 
N.W.  of  Ulm.  The  town  was 
largely  rebuilt  after  a  disastrous 
fire  in  1782,  and  has  woollen  and 
metal  manufactures  and  mineral 
springs.  The  principal  building  is 
the  old  castle  erected  by  Duke 
Christopher  in  the  16th  century, 
and  possessing  a  fine  spiral  stone 
staircase  known  as  the  Trauben- 
stieg  (vine-stairway).  Pop.  22,373. 

Gopsall  Hall.  Residence  in 
Leicestershire,  long  the  seat  of 
Earl  Howe.  It  is  4  m.  from  Market 
Bosworth.  It  was  built  in  the  18th 
century,  and  passed  from  Earl 
Howe,  the  admiral,  to  the  Curzons, 
descendants  of  his  daughter.  It  is 


Gopsall  Hall,  the  Leicestershire  mansion,  until  1918 
the  seat  of  Earl  Howe 

Scho field,  Atherslone 


noted  for  its  Corinthian  front, 
180  ft.  long  with  a  portico,  and 
until  1919  had  a  wonderful  library, 
with  many  rare  volumes,  including 
some  Shakespeares.  The  chapel  is 
adorned  with  cedar  wood  from 
Lebanon.  Handel  resided  here  for 
some  years.  In  1918  the  hall  and 
estate  were  sold  by  Earl  Howe. 

Gorakhpur.  City  and  district 
of  the  United  Provinces,  India,  in 
Gorakhpur  division.  Area,  4,587 


Goral.  Ruminant  mammal 
placed  by  zoologists  between  the 
goats  and  the  antelopes.  Found 
only  in  the  Himalayas,  it  some- 
what resembles  a  goat  with  very 
short  horns  and  no  beard.  It 
stands  about  27  ins.  high  at  the 
shoulder,  and  is  brown  in  colour 
with  black  stripes  down  the  back 
and  on  the  front  of  the  legs.  It  is 
usually  found  in  small  herds. 

Gorbals.  Suburb  of  Glasgow, 
at  one  time  a  separate  municipality. 
It  is  on  the  S.  side  of  the  Clyde, 
and  is  served  by  the  Glasgow  and 
S.W.  Rly.  Tramways  also  connect 
it  with  the  centre  of  the  city.  The 
chief  buildings  are  its  parish  church 
in  Carl  ton  Place,  once  a  residential 
district,  theatres,  and  the  public 
library.  The  centre  of  the  district, 
now  one  of  the  poorest  and  most 
crowded  parts  of  Glasgow,  is 
known  as  Gorbals  Cross.  Gorbals 
was  a  separate  burgh  until  incor- 
porated with  Glasgow  in  1846. 
See  Glasgow. 

Gorboduc.  Tragedy  by  Thomas 
Sackville  (afterwards  earl  of  Dor- 
set) and  Thomas  Norton.  It  was 

„ first  acted  by  the 

1    gentlemen  of  the 
;    Inner  Temple  be- 
]    fore  Queen  Eliza- 
|    beth,    Jan.     18, 
I    1562.      It  is   the 
-  |HJR          earliest  example  of 
English    tragedy. 
;    Gorboduc,  king  of 
^m  mKSs  •'nni:    Britain,       divides 
the  kingdom   be- 
tween    his    sons, 
whose     quarrels 
lead     to     a   gen- 
eral killing  off  of 
the     characters. 
Printed    in     1570 
as    F  e  r  r  e  x    and 
Porrex,    there    is 
a  modern  edition 
L.  Toulmin  Smith,  1883. 


by 

Gordian  (Lat.  Gordiamis). 
Name  of  three  Roman  emperors, 
father,  son,  and  grandson.  An- 
tonius  Gordianus  Africanus,  a 
kinsman  of  the  emperor  Marcus 
Aurelius,  after  holding  the  offices 
of  aedile,  praetor,  and  consul,  in 
A.D.  232  became  proconsul  of 
Africa.  Having  gained  the  affec- 
tion of  the  inhabitants,  he  was  in- 
vited to  assume  the  throne  bv 


sq.  m.      Of  the  total  area  about     body  of  rebels  who  had  revolted 


three-quarters  is  under  cultivation ; 
of  the  cultivated  area  almost 
half  is  devoted  to  rice.  Exports 
mainly  consist  of  agricultural  pro- 
duce; the  chief  imports  are  piece- 
goods,  salt,  and  metals.  Area, 
division,  9,543  sq.  m. ;  district, 
4,528  sq.  m.  Pop.,  division, 
6,524,419,  f  Hindus;  district, 
3,201,180,  fo  Hindus;  city,  48,358, 
|  Hindus,  £  Mahomedans. 


against  Maximinus  (q.v.).  This  he 
did  with  great  reluctance  in  238, 
being  then  nearly  80  years  of  age. 
Duly  recognized  by  the  senate,  he 
associated  his  son  with  him  as 
joint-emperor.  The  governor  of 
Mauretania,  refused  to  recognize 
him  as  emperor,  and  in  an  engage- 
ment near  Carthage  the  younger 
Gordian  lost  his  life,  whereupon 
the  father  committed  suicide. 


Goral. 


A    Himalayan    ruminant 
resembling  a  goat 


After  the  brief  joint  reign  of 
Balbinus  (q.v. )  and  Pupienus  (q.v. ), 
which  ended  in  the  murder  of 
both,  the  son  of  the  younger  Gor- 
dian, a  boy  of  12,  was  proclaimed 
emperor  by  the  soldiery  as  Gordian 
III  (238).  He  proved  to  be  a  capable 
general,  but  a  succession  of  vic- 
tories was  cut  short  by  his  death. 
His  successor  in  command,  Marcus 
Julius  Philippus,  incited  the  sol- 
diery against  Gordian,  and  in  a 
mutiny  Gordian  was  murdered 
(244),  Philippus  being  proclaimed 
emperor  in  his  stead. 

Gordian  Knot.  In  Greek  le- 
gend, a  knot  of  bark  made  by 
Gordius,  a  Phrygian  king,  in  fas- 
tening the  pole  to  the  yoke  of  a 
sacred  wagon  in  the  Acropolis  of 
Gordium.  An  oracle  declared  that 
whoever  should  loose  the  knot 
would  be  ruler  of  Asia.  Alexander 
the  Great  fulfilled  the  oracle  by 
cutting  the  knot  with  his  sword. 
"  Cutting  the  Gordian  knot "  has 
become  proverbial  for  prompt 
dealing  with  a  baffling  problem. 

Gordium .  Ancient  city  of  Phry  - 
gia.  It  stands  on  the  road  between 
Pessinus  and  Ancyra  near  the  San- 
garius  river.  It  was  named  after 
Gordius,  a  Phrygian  peasant,  who, 
according  to  tradition,  became  king 
of  Phrygia.  See  Gordian  Knot. 

Gordon.  Name  of  two  war 
cemeteries  in  France  where  British 
soldiers  who  fell  in  the  Great  War 
are  buried.  One  is  N.N.E.  of 
Kemmel,  and  the  other  is  S.  of 
Mametz.  Four  others  bear  the 
names  of  Gordon  Castle,  S.W.  of 
Thiepval;  Gordon  Dump,  E.  of 
La  Boisselle  ;  Gordon  Farm,  and 
Gordon  House,  between  the  Menin 
Road  and  Zillebeke  Lake.  See 
War  Graves. 

Gordon.  Name  of  a  Scottish 
family.  Strictly  speaking,  its  head 
is  the  marquess  of  Huntly,  another 
branch  being  represented  by  the 
marquess  of  Aberdeen,  while  the 
duke  of  Richmond  is  a  Gordon  in 
the  female  line.  Aberdeenshire  is 
their  special  area,  but  there  are 
many  others  throughout  Scotland, 


GORDON 


3606 


GORDON 


and  many  bearers  of  the  name  have 
distinguished  themselves.  It  is  per- 
petuated, moreove*,  by  the  Gordon 
Highlanders. 

Gordon  is  supposed  to  be  taken 
from  Gorden,  in  Berwickshire, 
where  a  certain  Norman  settled  in 
the  llth  century,  and  took  the 
name.  His  descendant,  Adam 
Gordon,  obtained  from  Robert 
Bruce,  Strathbogie,  in  Aberdeen- 
shire,  the  castle  of  which  was  long 
the  family  residence.  He  called  this 
Huntly,  after  a  place  on  his  estate 
in  Berwickshire.  He  was  killed  in 
battle  in  1333.  His  lands  in  Ber- 
wickshire and  Aberdeenshire  passed 
down  in  the  direct  line  until  they 
came  to  Sir  Adam  Gordon,  who  had 
no  sons.  His  daughter,  Elizabeth, 
married  Sir  Alexander  Seton,  who 
then  became  lord  of  Gordon,  their 
descendants  taking  the  name  of 
Gordon.  From  one  of  them,  made 
earl  of  Huntly  in  1450,  come  the 
earls  and  marquesses  of  Huntly. 

A  dukedom  of  Gordon  was  in 
existence  from  1684  to  1836,  being 
held  by  the  marquesses  of  Huntly. 
The  4th  marquess  was  created  duke 
of  Gordon  in  1684  ;  both  he  and  his 
son,  the  2nd  duke,  were  Jacobites. 
The  3rd  duke  was  the  father  of 
Lord  George  Gordon.  Alexander, 
the  4th  duke,  was  the  husband  of 
Jane  Maxwell,  the  duchess  of 
Gordon  of  whom  many  stories  are 
told.  Described  as  the  greatest 
subject  in  the  country,  he  was  made 
earl  of  Norwich  in  1784.  His  son 
George,  the  3rd  duke,  who  was 
known  as  a  soldier,  left  no  sons 
when  he  died  in  1836,  and  the  duke- 
dom became  extinct.  His  heiress, 
his  sister,  Charlotte,  married  the 
duke  of  Richmond,  who  took  the 
additional  name  of  Gordon,  and  in 
1876  a  later  duke  of  Richmond 
was  given  the  additional  title  of 
duke  of  Gordon. 

Gordon  Castle,  near  Fochabers, 
was  the  chief  seat  of  the  dukes  of 
Gordon  until  their  extinction.  It 
is  a  large  quadrangular  building, 
built  in  the  18th  century,  and 
passed  in  1836  to  the  duke  of  Rich- 
mond, who  still  owns  it.  See  The 
House  of  Gordon,  ed.  J.  M.  Bullock. 
1903. 

Gordon,  ADAM  LINDSAY  (1833- 
70).  Australian  poet.  Born  at 
Fayal,  in  the  Azores,  and  educated 
at  Cheltenham 
and  M  e  r  t  o  n 
College,  Ox- 
ford, he  left 
E  n  g  1  a  n  d  in 
1853  for  S. 
A  u  s  t  r  a  1  i  a, 
where  he  be- 
came succes 
sivcly  trooper 
in  the  mounted 
police,  horse- 


breaker,  livery-stable-keeper,  and 
steeplechaser,  and  member  of  the 
House  of  Assembly. 

In  1867  he  published  two  vol- 
umes of  poems,  Sea  Spray  and 
Smoke  Drift,  and  a  dramatic  lyric 


Ashtaroth.  Bush  Ballads  and 
Galloping  Rhymes  was  published 
in  1870,  and  on  June  24  of  that 
year  he  shot  himself  at  New 
Brighton,  Melbourne,  disappoint- 
ment at  failure  to  establish  his 
claim  to  an  estate  in  Scotland  hav- 
ing aggravated  a  mental  disturb- 
ance from  which  he  had  suffered 
throughout  life.  His  collected 
poems  were  edited  and  published 
by  Marcus  Clarke,  1880,  and  have 
secured  him  a  high  place  in  the 
history  of  Australian  literature. 
See  Memoir,  J.  H.  Ross,  1888. 

Gordon,  CHARLES  GEORGE  (1833- 
85).  British  soldier.  Born  at 
Woolwich,  Jan.  28,  1833,  he  en- 
tered the  Royal  Engineers  in  1852, 
served  in  the  Crimean  War  in  1855, 
and  took  part  in  the  Chinese  expe- 
dition of  1860.  After  the  peace, 
Gordon  was  allowed  to  assist  the 
Chinese  government  in  the  sup- 
pression of  the  Taeping  rebellion 
(1863-64),  when  his  achievements 
won  him  the  popular  sobriquet  of 
"  Chinese  "  Gordon.  In  1873  hi.? 
services  were  lent  to  the  khedive  of 


A.  Lindsay  Gordon, 
Australian  poet 


Charles  George  Gordon.     The   capture  and   murder   of   the  general  by  the 
Mahdi's  forces  at  Khartum,  Jan.  26,  1885.     From  the  painting  by  Geo.  W.  Joy 

By  permission  of  Frost  &  Keed,  Lid.,  Art  Publishers,  Brislol  &  London,  publishers  of  the  etching 


GORDON 


36O7 


GORDON   BENNETT  CUP 


Egypt,  Ismail,  for  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  district  known  as  the 
Egyptian  Sudan.  After  a  brief  with- 
drawal, he  returned  thither  in  1877 
as  governor,  a  position  which  he 
resigned  in  1880. 

Between  1880  and  1884  the 
Mahdi,  a  self-styled  successor  of 
the  prophet,  acquired  a  dangerous 
ascendancy  over  the  fanatical 
Sudanese  tribes.  The  Egyptian 
government  was  unable  to  re- 
establish its  own  authority,  and  the 
British  government  was  not  pre- 
pared to  undertake  the  task  of  con- 
quest. But  the  Egyptian  garrisons 
at  Suakin,  Berber,  Khartum,  and 
elsewhere  were  not  strong  enough 
to  maintain  their  positions  un- 
supported, and  the  British  govern- 
ment was  induced  to  commission 
Gordon  with  the  duty  of  withdraw- 
ing them,  for  which  his  unique 
knowledge  of  the  Sudan  and  his 
immense  personal  influence  marked 
him  out.  But  when  in  1884  he  ap- 
peared on  the  scene,  he  at  once 
formed  the  conclusion  that  it  was 
the  business  of  the  Egyptian 
government  to  "  smash  the  Mahdi" 
and  recover  the  Sudan. 

The  Khartum  Expedition 

The  result  was  that  in  March 
Gordon,  without  British  troops, 
was  shut  up  in  Khartum,  while  the 
British  government,  believing  that 
he  could  withdraw  if  he  would, 
and  feeling  itself  placed  in  a  false 
position,  resented  demands  for 
the  dispatch  of  a  relief  expedition 
which  it  persisted  in  regarding  as 
unnecessary.  When  the  real  need 
was  realized  it  was  still  believed  that 
the  matter  was  not  urgent,  and 
months  were  wasted  in  the  discus- 
sion of  alternative  routes  before 
the  expedition  actually  started 
in  Oct.  British  troops  advanced 
up  the  Nile;  hi  Jan.,  1885,  the 
advance  guard,  after  some  sharp 
fighting,  reached  Metemmeh,  100  m. 
below  Khartum,  where  it  halted  for 
four  days  and  then  made  its  dash 
to  bring  Gordon  out — too  late. 
When  it  arrived  at  Khartum  on 
Jan.  28  it  found  that  the  Mahdi 
had  rushed  the  defences  two  days 
before,  and  that  Gordon  was  dead. 

So  fell  a  soldier  of  true  heroic 
type,  a  medieval  warrior  saint,  a 
puritan  mystic  in  the  midst  of  19th 
century  materialism  ;  a  man  who 
lived  by  the  Faith  that  can  move 
mountains,  doing  whatsoever  he 
did  to  the  Glory  of  God,  in  the  full 
conviction  that  he  was  an  instru- 
ment in  the  hands  of  God,  fearing 
nothing  and  doubting  nothing ; 
one  who,  left  to  himself,  had  re- 
peatedly accomplished  the  appar- 
ently impossible  chiefly  through 
liis  extraordinary  power  of  influenc- 
ing others.  In  China  he  had  led  his 
troops  to  battle,  himself  armed 


with  nothing  but  a  cane.  Sudanese 
and  Arabs  had  fallen  under  the 
spell  of  his  personality.  As  an  ad- 
ministrator dealing  with  uncivilized 
or  half-civilized  peoples,  unham- 
pered by  the  complex  organization 
of  political  systems,  he  had  been 
incomparable,  though  a  very  im- 
practicable subordinate.  When  the 
public  services  had  not  demanded 
his  time  and  energies,  he  had  de- 
voted them  not  to  his  own  advance- 
ment but  to  the  redemption  of 
the  waifs  and  strays  of  humanity. 
A  national  monument  was  erected 
to  his  memory  in  Trafalgar  Square 
in  1888,  and  his  family  placed 
a  cenotaph  bearing  a  recumbent 
effigy  of  him  in  S.  Paul's  Cathedral. 
Other  memorials  are  at  Chatham, 
Rochester  Cathedral,  and  West- 
minster Abbey,  and  his  character 
and  work  are  fitly  commemorated 
in  the  Gordon  Boys'  Home  (g.v. ) 
for  destitute  lads.  A.  D.  innes 

Bibliography.  Col.  Gordon  in 
Central  Africa,  G.  B.  Hill,  1881  ; 
The  Story  of  Chinese  Gordon,  A.  E. 
Hake,  7th  ed.  1884  ;  Events  in  the 
Life  of  C.  G.  Gordon,  H.  W.  Gordon, 
1886;  Letters  from  the  Crimea,  the 
Danube,  and  Armenia,  ed.  D.  C. 
Boulger,  1888  ;  Charles  George 
Gordon  (in  English  Men  of  Action 
Series),  W.  F.  Butler,  1889  ;  Events 
of  the  Taeping  Rebellion,  with 
Monograph,  Introduction,  and  Notes 
by  A.  E.  Hake,  1891  ;  Life  of 
Gordon,  D.  C.  Boulger,  new  ed. 
1910  ;  Gordon  at  Khartoum,  W.  S. 
Blunt,  1911  ;  Eminent  Victorians, 
Lytton  Strachey,  1918. 

Gordon,  LORD  GEORGE  (1751- 
93).  Third  son  of  the  third  duke 
of  Gordon.  Born  in  London,  Dec. 
26,  1751,  he 
became  a  lieu- 
tenant in  the 
navy,  but  re- 
signed on  being 
refused  a  ship. 
He  entered 
Parliament  in 
1774  as  mem- 
ber for  Lud- 
gershall,Wilt- 
'*  shire.  In  1779 

From  an  old  print  he  Was  elected 

president  of  the  Protestant  Asso- 
ciation for  the  repeal  of  the 
Catholic  Relief  Act  of  1778,  and  in 
1780  marched  from  St.  George's 
Fields  to  the  House  of  Commons  at 
the  head  of  an  enormous  mob  to 
present  a  petition  against  the 
measure.  (See  Gordon  Riots.) 

Lord  George  was  imprisoned  in 
*the  Tower  for  eight  months  and 
tried  for  high  treason,  but  was  ac- 
quitted. In  1788,  for  libelling  the 
British  government  and  Marie 
Antoinette,  he  was  imprisoned  hi 
Newgate,  where  he  spent  the  rest 
of  his  life,  solacing  himself  with 
dinners,  balls,  and  music,  especially 


the  bagpipes.  In  his  later  years 
he  was  a  zealous  Jew.  He  died  in 
Newgate,  Nov.  1,  1793. 

Gordon,  LUCIE  DUFF-  (1821- 
69).  British  author  and  translator. 
Born  in  Westminster,  June  24, 
1821,  the  only 
child  of  John 
Austen  the 
jurist,  in  1840 
she  married 
Sir  Alexander 
C  o  me  w  a  1 1 
Duff  -  Gordon, 
Bart.,  and 
sub  sequently 
numbered 
among  her 

After  H.w.phiiup,  friends  Dic- 
kens, Thack- 
eray, Tennyson,  and  Kinglake,  her 
house  in  Queen  Anne's  Gate  being 
famous  as  a  centre  of  intellectual 
society.  Latterly  she  lived  in 
Egypt,  dying  at  Cairo,  July  14, 
1869.  Her  chief  works  are  Letters 
from  Egypt,  1865,  and  a  transla- 
tion of  Von  Ranke's  Ferdinand  I, 
and  Maximilian  II  of  Austria, 
1853. 

Gordon,     PATRICK    (1635-99). 
Scottish   soldier.       He    was    born 
March  31,  1635,  at  Auchleuchries, 
in      Aberdeen- 
shire,     the  jf  g 
younger  son  of  *    JE^^JJBIL 
a     poor     laird.      J&Bf        1EL 
In    1651    he 
found  his   way 
to  Poland,  and 
during  the  next 
few    years 
fought    for  the 
Swedes,    the 
Poles,  and  the 
emperor,  being  always  ready  when 
taken     prisoner     to    transfer    his 
services  to  his  last  opponents.    In 
1661    he   entered    the     service    of 
Alexis,  tsar  of  Russia. 

On  a  visit  to  England  in  1685 
Gordon  was  requested  by  James 
II  to  settle  permanently  in  Eng- 
land, but  was  unable  to  obtain  per- 
mission to  do  so.  Shortly  after  his 
return  'to  Russia,  circumstances 
brought  Gordon  into  contact  with 
the  young  tsar,  Peter  the  Great, 
who  conceived  a  great  affection  for 
him.  Gordon  repaid  this  favour  by 
the  part  he  played  in  the  revolution 
which  ended  by  establishing  the 
tsar  more  firmly  on  the  throne  ; 
while  in  1698  he  crushed  the  for- 
midable revolt  of  the  Strelitzes  or 
household  troops.  He  died  at  Mos- 
cow, Nov.  29,  1699.  Passages  from 
Gordon's  Diary  were  printed  for 
the  Spalding  Club  in  1859. 

Gordon  Bennett  Cup.  Trophy 
instituted  by  James  Gordon  Ben- 
nett in  1899  for  the  encouragement 
of  motor-racing.  The  races  in  con- 
nexion with  it  have  taken  place  in 


Patrick  Gordon, 
Scottish  soldier 


GORDON     BOYS'     HOME 


3608 


GORDON      RIOTS 


various  parts  of  the  European  con- 
tinent, in  the  Isle  of  Man,  and  in 
America.  In  1902  the  cup  was  won 
by  an  Englishman,  S.  F.  Edge, 
the  race  being  run  over  the  road 
from  Paris  to  Innsbruck. 

There  is  also  a  Gordon  Bennett 
cup  for  an  international  air  race, 
the  first  contest  being  held  at 
Reims  in  1909.  The  first  post-war 
race  took  place  in  France  on  Sept. 
28,  1920,  being  won  by  the  French 
airman,  Sadi-Lecointe. 

Gordon  Boys'  Home,  THE. 
British  institution  for  the  training 
of  homeless  and  destitute  boys. 
It  is  situated  at  West  End,  near 
Brookwood,  Surrey.  Erected  as 
the  national  memorial  to  General 
Gordon  after  his  death  in  1885, 
it  accommodates  250  boys,  chosen 
from  the  homeless  and  destitute, 
between  the  ages  of  about  14 
and  15£,  and  gives  them  train- 
ing up  to  the  age  of  17  or  there- 
abouts, which  will  fit  them  alike 
for  civil  life  in  Great  Britain  or  its 


selves.  The  offices  are  5,  York 
Street,  St.  James's,  London,  S.W. 
There  are  homes,  run  on  similar 
lines,  in  other  parts  of  England, 
e.g.  Nottingham. 

Gordon  -  Gumming,  ROUA- 
LEYTN  GEORGE  (1820-66).  British 
traveller  and  big  game  hunter. 
Born  March  15, 
1820,  and  edu- 
cated at  Eton, 
he  went  for  a 
short  period  to 
India,  where  he 
served  in  the 
Madras  Light 
Cavalry.  Re- 
turning to 
Scotland,  h  e 
afterwards  em- 
barked on  a 
hunting  expedition  in  Bechuana- 
land  and  the  Limpopo  valley, 
an  account  of  which  he  has  given 
in  Five  Years  of  a  Hunter's 
Life  in  the  Far  Interior  of  South 
Africa,  1850.  The  lion  hunter,  as  he 


R.  G.  Gordon- 

Cumming, 
British  traveller 


colonies,    and   for   service   in   the     was  called,  died  at  Fort  Augustus, 


army,  navy,  or  mercantile  marine. 

To  gain  admission  a  boy  must  be 
really  necessitous  and  free  from 
such  physical  and  mental  infirmity 
as  would  disqualify  him  for  service 
as  stated  above.  Free  admission  is 
given  to  such  number  of  boys  as  can 
be  provided  for  out  of  the  general 
income  of  the  home.  The  lads,  who 
are  under  military  discipline,  besides 
receiving  their  general  education,  Abercromby 
are  trained  as  engineers,  tailors,  gathered  a 
shoemakers,  carpenters,  saddlers, 
clerks,  bakers,  and  gardeners,  while 
others,  trained  as  musicians,  are 
enlisted  into  the  regimental  bands. 

During  the  Great  War  over  1,000 
ex-pupils  served  in  the  various 
arms,  151  of  whom  were  killed  in 
action  or  died  of  wounds,  18  were 
promoted  to  commissions  for  ser- 
vice in  the  field,  and  31  were  pre- 
sented with  decorations  or  men- 
tioned in  dispatches.  A  new  school 
workshop  is  being  erected  as  a 
memorial  to  those  who  fell  in  the 
war,  part  of  the  labour  of  which 
was  provided  by  the  pupils  them- 


Inverness-shire,  March  25,  1866. 

Constance  Frederica  Gordon- 
Gumming  (b.  1837),  a  sister  of  the 
above,  was  a  well-known  traveller, 
who  recorded  her  experiences  in  a 
series  of  books  that  enjoyed  con- 
siderable popularity. 

Gordon  Highlanders.  Regi- 
ment of  the  British  army.  It  was 
raised  in  1788,  when  Colonel  Robert 


Gordon  Highlanders' 
badge 


Gordon  Boys'  Home.      The  boys  drilling  in  front  of  the 
West  End  Home,  near  Brookwood 


body  of  young 
highlanders 
together.  In 
1790  they  pro- 
ceeded to  In- 
dia, where 
they  remained 
until  1804, 
showing  great 

gallantry  at  the  siege  of  Seringa- 
patam.  Soon  they  became  the 
75th  regiment  of  the  line  and, 
later,  the  1st  battalion  of  the  Gor- 
don Highlanders.  In  1794  the  duke 
of  Gordon  raised  a  regiment  of 
highlanders  from  among  his  tenants 
in  Aberdeenshire. 
In  his  honour  they 
were  called  the 
Gordon  Highland- 
ers, and  became, 
later,  the  2nd  bat- 
talion of  that  regi- 
111  e  lit,  and  the 
Hyill^l^lt^'  92nd  of  the  line. 

The  Gordons 
were  in  Holland  in 
1799  and  distin-' 
guished  themseves 
in  Egypt  in  1801. 
They  fought  under 
Sir  John  Moore  at 
Corunna,  and 
under  Wellington 


at  Vittoria  and  in  the  Pyrenees.  At 
Quatre  Bras  the  92nd  drove  the 
French  from  their  positions,  and  at 
Waterloo  routed  a  solid  column  of 
French  infantry  and  captured  2,000 
prisoners.  It  was  on  this  occasion 
that  the  Gordons  seized  the  stirrups 
of  the  Scots  Greys  and,  shouting 
"  Scotland  for  Ever  !  "  ran  with 
the  cavalry  towards  the  foe. 

The  Gordons  took  part  in  quell- 
ing the  Indian  Mutiny,  marched 
with  Lord  Roberts  from  Kabul  to 
Kandahar,  led  the  way  across  the 
Egyptian  trenches  at  Tel-el-Kebir, 
and  in  the  Chitral  campaign  helped 
to  storm  the  Malakand  Pass.  They 
won  fresh  glories  at  Dargai,  while 
in  the  S.  African  War  the  2nd 
battalion  was  among  the  defenders 
of  Ladysmith,  and  the  1st  fought 
at  Magersfontein  and  at  Paarde- 
berg.  In  the  Great  War  the  1st 
battalion  were  in  the  retreat  from 
Mons,  the  2nd  at  the  first  battle  of 
Ypres,  also,  with  the  6th  battalion 
(Territorial),  at  Neuve  Chapelle, 
1915.  The  Gordons  fought  at  Fes- 
tubert  and  Loos,  1915,  at  Arras, 
1917,  and  in  many  other  leading 
battles.  The  4th  Gordons,  at- 
tached to  the  51st  division,  took  a 
leading  part  in  the  capture  of 
Famars,  the  last  battle  of  the 
Great  War  in  which  that  division 
participated.  The  regimental  depot 
is  at  Aberdeen. 

Gordon  Riots.  Disturbances 
which  took  place  in  London  in 
June,  1780.  In  that  year  Sir  George 
Savile  introduced  a  bill  to  enable 
Roman  Catholics  who  abjured  the 
temporal  sovereignty  of  the  pope 
to  purchase  and  inherit  land ;  the 
bill  also  proposed  to  give  a  certain 
liberty  to  their  priests.  It  became 
law  as  regards  England,  but  a 
proposal  to  extend  it  to  Scotland 
was  violently  opposed  and  was 
abandoned. 

In  England  certain  Protestants 
formed  an  association  to  work  for 
the  repeal  of  the  Act.  Lord  George 
Gordon  (q.v. )  took  the  lead,  and  at 
the  head  of  about  60,000  people 
marched  with  a  petition  to  West- 
minster on  June  2.  They  forced 
peers  and  members  of  Parliament 
to  shout  No  Popery,  and  to  wear 
blue  cockades,  made  their  way  into 
the  lobbies  of  the  Houses  of  Parlia- 
ment, and  when  the  military  ar- 
rived wrecked  the  chapels  attached 
to  the  Bavarian  and  Sardinian  em- 
bassies. On  the  4th  they  renewed 
their  attacks,  and  soon  had  a  good 
part  of  London  at  their  mercy. 
Prisons  were  broken  open,  numer- 
ous fires  were  started,  and  the 
Bank  of  England  was  attacked. 
On  the  7th  George  III  called  a 
meeting  of  his  ministers,  and  when 
they  hesitated  he  himself  ordered 
the  military  to  act.  The  riots  were 


GORE 


3609 


GORGE 


Gordon  Riots.     Troops  of  the  Honourable  Artillery  Company  firing  on  rioters 

looting  a  house  in  Broad  Street,  City,  June  7,  1780.     Surgeon  Sir  William 

Blizard  is  seen  tending  wounded  in  the  foreground 

From  a  picture  by  F.  Whealley 


suppressed,  and  the  leaders  brought 
to  trial.  Twenty-one  were  exe- 
cuted, but  Gordon  was  acquitted. 
In  Barnaby  Rudge  Dickens  gives 
a  vivid  picture  of  these  riots. 

Gore.  Prov.  of  S.W.  Abyssinia. 
Bounded  on  the  W.  by  the  Anglo- 
Egyptian  Sudan,  it  is  mountainous, 
and  is  inhabited  by  Gallas.  Gore, 
the  capital,  is  a  town  of  3,500 
inhabitants. 

Gore,  ARTHUR  WENT  WORTH  (b. 
1868).  English  lawn-tennis  player. 
Born  at  Lyndhurst,  Hants,  Jan.  2, 
1868,  he  was  captain  of  the  first 
international  team,  England  v. 
America,  1900,  and  played  in  In- 
ternationals, 1906,  1907,  1912,  and 
1913.  He  was  champion  of  Eng- 
land, 1901,  1908,  and  1909  (also 
Doubles  with  H.  R.  Barrett),  and 
champion  of  Scotland  in  1892. 

Gore,  CHARLES  (b.  1853).  Brit- 
ish prelate.  Bom  Jan.  22,  1853,  he 
was  a  son  of  Hon.  C.  A.  Gore  and  a 
nephew  of  the 
4th  earl  of 
Arran.  Edu- 
cated at  Har- 
row and  Balliol 
College,  0  x  - 
ford,  he  was 
elected  fellow 
of  Trinity  Col- 
lege, and  was 
ordained.  In 
1880  he  went 
to  Cuddesdon 
as  vice-principal  of  the  college  there' 
becoming  in  1884  first  head  of 
Pusey  House,  Oxford. 

For  nine  years  he  was  an  in- 
fluential figure  in  Oxford,  his  main 
work  being  to  permeate  the  High 
Church  movement  with  the  results 
of  modern  Biblical  criticism.  This 
led  to  certain  difficulties  and  con- 
troversies, especially  after  the 
publication  of  Lux  Mundi,  1890. 


Charles  Gore, 
British  prelate 

Russell 


In  1893  he  left  Oxford  to  become 
vicar  of  Radley,  and  in  1894  he 
was  made  canon  of  Westminster. 
In  1902  Gore  was  chosen  bishop  of 
Worcester,  where  he  worked  hard 
to  found  the  new  diocese  of  Bir- 
mingham, of  which  in  1905  he 
became  the  first  bishop.  In  1911 
he  was  translated  to  Oxford, 
where  he  remained  until  his  re- 
signation in  1919. 

He  founded  the  Community  of 
the  Resurrection  at  Mirfield  ;  and 
wrote  numerous  theological  and 
expository  works  on  which  rests 
his  high  reputation  as  a  theologian. 
An  able  preacher,  he  was  also  dis- 
tinguished for  his  active  sympathy 
with  socialistic  and  humanitarian 
ideas  and  movements. 

Gore,  GEORGE  (1826-1908).  Bri- 
tish physicist.  Born  at  Bristol, 
Jan.  22,  1826,  at  an  early  age  he 
became  interested  in  electro-metal- 
lurgy and  electro-chemistry.  Elec- 
ted F.R.S.  in  1865,  his  discoveries 
established  his  reputation.  His 
principal  works  are  The  Art  of 
Scientific  Discovery,  1878;  The 
Scientific  Basis  of  Morality,  1882  ; 
and  The  Art  of  Electro-Metallurgy, 
1877.  He  died  Dec.  23,  1908. 

Goree.  Small  island  off  the 
French  colony  of  Senegal.  It  is 
situated  S.E.  of  Cape  Verde,  and 
forms  one  of  the  four  communes 
which  send  a  representative  to  the 
French  parliament.  It  has  a  forti- 
fied harbour  and  exports  wax,  gold- 
dust,  and  ivory.  Pop.  1,140,  of 
whom  45  are  Europeans. 

Gorell,  JOHN  GORELL  BARNES, 
IST  BARON  (1848-1913).  British 
lawyer.  Born  May  16,  1848,  he 
was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1876.  He 
was  made  a  Q.C.  in  1888,  and  be- 
came one  of  the  foremost  advocates 
of  his  time.  He  was  raised  to  the 


bench  in  1892  as  judge  of  the  pro- 
bate, divorce,  and  admiralty  divi- 
sion, becoming  president  of  that 
court  in  1905, 
and  retiring  in 
1908.  He  died 
April  22,  1913. 
He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his 
elder  son, 
Henry,  who 
was  killed  in 
action  in  the 
Great  War,  1st  Baron  Gorell, 

1917.  His          British  lawyer 
second    son,  EIHOH&  Fry 
Ronald   Gorell    Barnes    (b.    1884), 
3rd  baron,  also  served  in  the  Great 
War,  being  capt.  and  adjutant  of 
7th   batt.    of    the    Rifle    Brigade, 
1916,  maj.-gen.  on  the  staff,  1918, 
and  deputy-director  of  staff  duties 
(Education)  at  War  Office,  Aug., 

1918.  See  John   Gorell    Barnes, 
First    Lord    Gorell,   J.    E.   G.   de 
Montmorency,  1920. 

Gorgas,  WILLIAM  CRAWFORD 
(1854-1920).  American  surgeon. 
Born  Oct.  3,  1854,  he  studied 
medicine,  and 
in  1880  was 
appointed  an 
army  surgeon. 
Rising  to  the 
rank  of  major- 
surgeon  in 
1893,  he  was 
sent  as  chief 
medical  offi- 
cer t  o  H  a- 
vana.  Here  he 
completely 
stamped  out  the  yellow  fever, 
and  when  chief  sanitary  officer 
for  the  Panama  CanaL  1904-13, 
saved  thousands  of  lives  in  the 
unhealthy  districts.  In  recognition 
of  this  he  was  promoted  surgeon- 
general  in  1914.  On  the  entry 
of  the  U.S.A.  into  the  Great  War 
he  organized  the  army  medical  ser-' 
vice,  and  visited  France  in  1918. 
He  died  in  London,  July  4, 1920. 

Gorge.  Narrow  valley  of 
greater  depth  than  width,  usually 
with  steep  sides.  Formed  by  the 
cutting  power  of  running  water, 
it  marks  the  course  where  a 
stream  is  or  has  been.  The  most 
perfect  example  is  the  Grand 
,  Canon  of  Colorado  river,  6,000  ft. 
in  its  deepest  part,  with  sides 
nearly  perpendicular,  their  steep- 
ness being  due  to  absence  of  rain- 
fall. In  England  gorges  are  found 
in  carboniferous  limestone,  e.g.  on 
the  Avon  at  Clifton.  See  Canon ; 
Colorado. 

Gorge  (late  Lat.  gorga,  gullet, 
narrow  pass ).  Military  term  used  to 
indicate  that  face  of  a  fortification 
or  entrenched  work  which  is  least 
prepared  to  withstand  a  frontal 
attack  or  fire.  See  Fortification. 


William  C.  Gorgas, 
American  surgeon 


GORGEI 

Gorgei    OR    GORGEY,  ARTHUR 
(1818-1916).      Hungarian  soldier. 
Born  at  Toporcz,  Jan.  30,  1818,  he 
^^^^^ » ^^^^^ „    came  into  pro- 
minence in  the 
Hungarian 
rising    against 
the    Austrians 
in    1848.      He 
achieved  some 
signal      suc- 
cesses, notably 
at  Ozora  (Oct. 
Arthur  Gorgei,         7)     where    he 
Hungarian  soldier      forced     the 

capitulation  of  10,000  Croats,  but 
found  himself  unable  to  work  with 
Dembinski,  the  comander-in-chief, 
and  was  in  fact  accused  of  losing  the 
battle  of  Kapolna  by  arriving  late. 

Subsequently  Gorgei  himself  was 
given  the  chief  Command,  and  al- 
most cleared  Hungary  of  the  Aus- 
trians. Fatal  delays  were  caused, 
however,  by  his  dissensions  with 
Kossuth,  the  dictator,  and  his 
government.  A  Russian  army  came 
to  the  help  of  the  Austrians,  and 
Gorgei  was  compelled  to  surrender 
near  Vilages  on  Aug.  13, 1849.  For 
this  he  was  accused  of  treachery,  a 
charge  of  which  he  was  cleared  in 
1885.  He  died  in  May  1916. 

Gorges,  SIR  FERDINANDO  (c. 
1566-1647).  British  adventurer. 
Born  in  Somerset,  he  became  a 
soldier  and  saw  a  good  deal  of  ser- 
vice. He  fought  against  the 
Spanish  armada  and  in  France  for 
Henry  IV ;  went  on  an  expedi- 
tion with  Essex,  with  whose  re- 
bellion he  was  associated,  and 
served  in  Ireland.  In  1596,  having 
been  knighted,  Gorges  was  made 
governor  of  Plymouth,  and  there 
he  shared  in  the  early  plans  for 
settling  colonists  in  America. 
A  member  of  the  Plymouth  Com- 
pany, he  frequently  sent  out  ships 
and  colonists  to  the  New  World,  in 
which  he  had  obtained  grants  of 
land.  The  most  considerable  of 
these  was  one  of  1639,  making  him 
lord  of  Maine,  of  which  state  he  is 
regarded  as  the  founder.  In  1647, 
too  old  to  serve  the  king  in  the 
Civil  War,  he  died  at  Long  Ashton, 
Somerset.  Pron.  Gor-jez. 

Gorget  (Fr.  gorge,  throat).    In 
armour,  a  metal  covering  for  the 
throat,  protecting  the  gap  between 
the  breastplate  and  helmet.       In 
the  ornate  armour  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury the  gorget 
was    often 
richly   em- 
bossed.    It 
was    the    last 
remnant    of 
body     armour 
worn     by     in- 
fantry in  Eng- 
1  a  n  d,    and,       Gorget:  armour  to 
reduced    to       protect  the  throat 


36  1  O 

a  crescent-shaped  ornament,  was 
long  worn  by  officers  to  denote  that 
they  were  on  duty.  See  Armour. 

Gorgias  (c.  475-390 B.C.).  Greek 
philosopher  and  sophist.  Born  at 
Leontini,  in  Sicily,  he  came  to 
Athens  in  427  to  plead  the  cause  of 
his  native  town  against  Syracuse. 
Primarily  a  teacher  of  rhetoric,  in 
which  he  introduced  a  number  of 
innovations,  unfamiliar  words,  and 
rhetorical  figures,  he  also  wrote  a 
treatise  On  Nature,  which  is  entirely 
lost.  In  this  he  maintained  that 
nothing  really  existed  ;  that  if  it 
did  exist  it  could  not  be  known ; 
and  that  even  if  it  could  be  known 
it  could  not  be  communicated. 
Gorgias  is  one  of 
the  chief  interlo- 
cutors in  the 
Dialogue  of  Plato 
which  bears  his 
name.  The  authen- 
ticity of  two  ex- 
tant speeches — An 
Apology  for  Pala- 
m  e  d  e  s  and  An 
Encomium  of 
Helen — attributed 
to  him  is  disputed. 
See  Sophists. 

Gorgons.  In 
Greek  mythology, 
three  monsters 
named  Stheno, 
Euryalo  and 

"  Medusa,  who  dwelt  in  Libya.  In 
stead  of  hair,  their  heads  were- 
covered  with  crawling  serpents, 
and  they  had  the  property  of  turn- 
ing into  stone  anyone  who  looked 
upon  them.  Medusa,  who  alone 
was  mortal,  was  killed  by  Perseus, 
who  struck  off  her  head,  looking 
at  her  reflection  in  a  mirror  while 
he  did  so,  in  order  to  avoid  being 
turned  into  stone.  Perseus  pre- 
sented the  head  to  Athena,  who 
set  it  in  the  middle  of  her  shield. 
Similarly,  the  Chinese  and  other 
Oriental  nations  decorated  their 
shields  with  frightful  figures,  to 
terrify  the  enemy.  Later,  the 
Gorgons  were  represented  in  art 
as  beautiful  maidens.  Probably 
personifications  of  the  flashing 
lightning,  the  rationalists  explained 
them  as  a  race  of  hideous  women, 
Their  sisters,  the  Graeae,  personi- 
.  fying  old  age,  had  the  form  of  swans 
and  only  one  eye  and  tooth  be- 
tween them.  See  Medusa ;  Perseus. 

Gorgonzola.  Town  of  Italy, 
in  the  prov.  of  Milan.  It  is  12 
m.  N.E.  of  Milan,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  a  steam  tramway. 
It  is  engaged  in  the  silk  industry, 
but  is  best  known  for  its  cheese, 
which  is  widely  exported.  Pop. 
5,198.  See  Cheese. 

Gorham,  GEORGE  CORNELIUS 
(1787-1857).  Anglican  clergyman. 
Born  at  St.  Neots,  and  educated 


GORILLA 

at  Queens'  College,  Cambridge, 
of  which  he  became  fellow,  he 
was  ordained  in  1811.  On  his 
appointment  in  1847  to  the  living 
of  Brampford  Speke,  the  bishop  of 
Exeter  refused  to  institute  him  on 
the  ground  that  his  views  on  bap- 
tism were  not  those  of  the  Church 
of  England.  This  led  to  a  series  of 
law  suits,  which  ended  in  the  judi- 
cial committee  of  the  privy  council 
deciding  that  his  views  were  not 
incompatible  with  orthodoxy.  As 
the  bishop  proved  immovable,  he 
was  finally  instituted  by  the  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  in  1851,  and 
held  the  living  until  his  death, 
June  19,  1857. 


Gorhambury,  Hertfordshire.      Ruins  of  the  house  built 
in  1563,  later  occupied  by  Francis  Bacon 

Gorhambury.  Hertfordshire 
seat  of  the  earl  of  Verulam.  It  is 
2  m.  W.  of  St.  Albans.  The  mansion, 
standing  in  a  fine  park,  was  built 
1778-85,  includes  much  later  work, 
and  is  notable  for  its  hall  and  pic- 
tures. In  the  grounds  are  ruins  of 
the  house  in  which  Francis  Bacon 
lived  in  almost  regal  state.  The 
m?nor  originally  belonged  to  the 
al  bey  of  St.  Albans,  was  granted  by 
Henry  VIII  to  Ralph  Rowley  and 
tl.en  to  John  Maynard.  It  was 
bought  in  1550  by  Nicholas  Bacon 
and,  after  the  death  of  his  son 
Francis,  1626,  descended  to  the 
latter's  cousin  Sir  Thomas  Meautys, 
whose  widow  married  Sir  Harbottle 
Grimston,  Bart.,  speaker  of  the 
Restoration  parliament. 

Gori.  Town  of  Georgia,  Trans- 
caucasia, in  the  govt.  of  Tiflis.  It 
stands  on  the  river  Kura  and  the 
Poti-Tiflis  Rly.,  48  m.  N.W.  of 
Tiflis.  The  chief  occupations  are 
the  cultivation  of  fruit  and  vines, 
cattle-rearing,  and  the  manufac- 
ture of  cotton  and  woollen  goods. 
Gori  was  formerly  the  residence  of 
the  princes  of  Karthli  (Georgia). 
Pop.  11,000. 

Gorilla.  Largest  of  the  anthro- 
poid or  manlike  apes,  but  not  so 
nearly  related  to  the  human  genus 
as  the  chimpanzee.  It  is  found  only 
in  Western  Equatorial  Africa, 
where  it  inhabits  the  forests.  A 


GORINCHEM 


Gorilla. 


The  man-like  ape  of  the 
African  forests 


fine  male  may  attain  a  height  of 
slightly  over  ,6  ft.,  but  the  female 
seldom  exceeds  4£  ft. 

The  gorilla  is  distinguished  from 
the  chimpanzee  (q.v.)  by  its  greater 
size,  larger  teeth,  heavy  brow  ridges 
over  the  eyes,  and  great  length  of 
the  arms — the  hands  reaching  well 
below  the  knees  when  the  animal 
stands  erect.  The  adult  animal 
has  also  a  more  savage  and  bestial 
look.  In  bulk  and  in  length  of 
limbs  the  full-grown  gorilla  much 
exceeds  an  average  man.  The 
colour  is  black,  though  some  speci- 
mens show  a  slightly  reddish  tinge 
on  the  head  and  shoulders,  and  the 
body  is  covered  with  coarse  hair. 

The  hands  are  wider  and  stouter 
than  those  of  the  chimpanzee,  and 
the  fingers  are  partly  united  by 
a  strong  web  of  skin,  while  the 
thumb  is  short  and  of  little  use 
as  an  opposable  member.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  great  toe  is  re- 
markably developed,  and  the  foot 
is  a  powerful  grasping  instrument. 
Owing  to  the  shyness  and  wariness 
of  the  gorilla,  and  its  habitat  in  the 
densest  forests,  little  is  known  as 
yet  of  its  mode  of  life.  The  animals 
appear  to  have  some  kind  of  family 
life,  the  male  and  female  being 
found  with  young  ones  of  various 
ages,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether 
they  have  any  permanent  home. 

So  far  as  is  known,  the  gorilla  in 
its  wild  state  lives  on  fruit  and 
roots,  possibly  varying  its  diet  with 
eggs  and  young  birds,  and  it  has 
sometimes  proved  troublesome  by 
robbing  plantations. 

The  gorilla,  like  the  chimpanzee 
and  the  orang-utan,  does  not  habit- 
ually walk  erect,  but  supports  itself 
with  its  hands,  which  are  usually 
partly  closed  so  that  the  weight  is 
borne  on  the  knuckles.  In  the  trees 
these  animals  progress  with  sur- 
prising speed  and  agility,  and  can 


take  long  leaps  that  would  appear 
impossible  for  such  heavily- built 
animals.  Ow'mg  to  its  great  muscu- 
lar development  and  savage  dis- 
position, it  is  a  very  formidable  op- 
ponent when  brought  to  bay,  but 
the -stories  of  aggression  on  its  part 
appear  to  be  ill-founded.  It  rather 
avoids  encounter  with  man,  and 
makes  off  with  great  speed  on  his 
approach. 

All  attempts  to  keep  the  gorilla 
in  captivity  for  any  length  of  time 
have  hitherto  failed.  Very  young 
specimens  exhibit  some  docility 
for  a  time,  but  soon  mope  and  die. 
Adults  are  quite  untamable  and 
unmanageable,  and  quickly  die  in 
captivity.  Some  six  gorillas  have 
been  kept  in  the  London  Zoological 
Gardens,  but  none  of  them  lived 
for  more  than  a  few  months.  See 
Monkey. 

Gorinchem  OR  GORKUM.  Town 
of  the  Netherlands,  in  the  prov.  of 
S.  Holland.  It  stands  on  the  Mer- 
wede  at  the  inflow  of  the  Linge,  22 
m.  E.S.E.  of  Rotterdam.  The  town 
is  picturesque,  with  17th  century 
gateways  and  brick  and  stone 
nouses  decorated  with  mosaic 
work.  It  has  an  excellent  harbour, 
and  carries  on  a  trade  in  cattle, 
cereals,  and  hemp,  while  its  salmon 
fisheries  are  important. 

The  Merwede  canal  communi- 
cates with  Amsterdam.  A  few 
mites  below  Gorinchem  begins  the 
Biesbosch,  a  district  40  m.  in 
area,  which  was  overwhelmed  by  a 
flood  in  1421,  when  over  70  market 
towns  and  villages  were  wiped  out, 
with  death-roll  exceeding  100,000. 
The  district  has  since  been  re- 
claimed. Gorinchem  was  the  first 
city  taken  by  the  Water  Gueux 
(Beggars),  the  allies  who  helped 
the  Dutch  by  sea,  from  the  Span- 
iards in  1572.  Pop.  12,053. 

Goring.  Village  and  parish  of 
Oxfordshire.  It  is  on  the  Thames, 
opposite  Streatley,  on  the  Berk- 
shire side  of  the  river,  9  m.  N.W. 
of  Reading.  For  the  two  there  is  a 
station  on  the  G.W.  Rly.  It  is  a 
boating  centre,  being  also  visited 
by  anglers.  There  is  a  church  with 
a  Norman  tower 
and  formerly  there 
was  a  nunnery 
here.  It  lies  amid 
beautiful  scenery 
and  gives  its  name 
to  the  gap  between 
the  Chil  terns  and 
the  Marl  borough 
Downs  through 
which  the  Thames 
flows.  Here 
Icknield  Street 
(q.v.)  crossed  the 
river.  Pop.  1,785. 

Goring     Heath 
is  a  village  3J  m. 


GORIZIA 

away.  Another  Goring  is  a  village 
on  the  Sussex  coast.  2^  m.  W.  of 
Worthing. 

Goring,  GEORGE  GORING,  LOBD 
(1608-57).  English  royalist.  Son 
of  George  Goring,  earl  of  Norwich, 
he  was  born 
July  14,  1608. 
As  a  soldier, 
he  gained  his 
early  experi- 
ence in  the 
Dutch  service, 
before  being 

made  governor    

of  Portsmouth  HHP^bh^BP'"  .i 
in  1639.  He  Lord  George  Goring, 
served  Charles  English  royalist 

I    in    the    short  After  V an  DVck 

wars  against  the  Scots  and  was  one 
of  those  who  suggested  to  the  king 
the  idea  of  using  the  army  to  over- 
awe the  parliament.  This  army 
plot  was  betrayed  by  him,  but 
when  war  began  he  was  found  on 
the  side  of  the  king. 

Having  surrendered  Portsmouth, 
he  went  to  the  Netherlands  to 
raise  soldiers,  and  then  had  a 
command  in  Yorkshire.  He  was 
taken  prisoner  at  Wakefield,  but 
was  again  free  when  Marston  Moor 
was  fought,  and  there  commanded 
a  wing.  After  this  Goring  held  a 
command  in  the  W.  of  England, 
where  the  plunderings  of  his  troops 
made  him  hated.  He  shared  hi  the 
campaign  that  culminated  in  the 
defeat  at  Naseby,  and  was  himself 
crushed  at  Langport  hi  July,  1645, 
and  he  passed  the  rest  of  his  days 
in  France  and  Spain.  He  com- 
manded some  English  troops  in 
Spain,  where  he  died. 

Gorizia,  Town  of  Italy,  for- 
merly capital  of  the  Austro-Hun- 
garian  crownland  of  Gorz  and 
Gradisca.  It  is 
picturesquely 

F laced  on  the 
sonzo,  23  m. 
N.  N.  W.  of 
Trieste,  and  is 
dominated  by  an 
eminence  which 
is  crowned  by 


Gorizia  arms 


the    ancient     stronghold     of     the 


Goring,   Oxfordshire.     The   Thames,   with  the   village 
beyond,  from  Streatley 


3612 


GORLICE 


Counts  of  Gorz,    used   in   modern  Austrian  front  from  Sabotino,  on 

times  as  barracks.    The  old  part  of  the  W.    side   of  the  Isonzo,   and 

the  town  is  enclosed   in    a    triple  N.W.  of  Gorizia,  to  San  Michele, 

shield  of  walls,  and  the  new  town  in   the   Carso,   on  the  E.  side   of 

is  fast  developing  into  a  popular  the  river,  and  S.W.   of  the  town, 

winter    resort.      The    most    note-  Connected  with  Sabotino  were  the 

worthy    buildings     are     the     17th  Oslavia    hills    and    Podgora;     in 

century   cathedral,    the   municipal  former  attempts  the  Italians  had 

offices,  the  archbishop's  palace,  the  been  held  up. 

college  of  the  Jesuits,  and  the  house          On  Aug.  6,  however,  they  carried 

of  the  provincial  diet.  The  inhabit-  all  the  Austrian  positions  protect- 

ants   are   mainly   engaged   in   the  ing   Gorizia,    and   in   the   evening 

weaving     industries — cotton     and  were  less  than  |  m.  from  the  bank 

silk — and  in   the   manufacture   of  of  the  river.    They  also  took  Monte 

leather   articles,  liqueurs,  pottery,  Calvaria,    and   as   night   fell  were 

paper,  candles,  and  soap.    There  is  attacking  the  last  Austrian  trenches 

trade  in  fruit  and  wine.  Pop.  30,995.  between    the    southern    slope    of 

Gorizia  was  one  of  Italy's  most  Podgora    and    the    Isonzo.        On 

important  objectives  in  the  Great  Aug.      C-7      they     stormed     San 

War,  as  it  was  a  strategic  centre  Michele,    thus    securing    the    two 

barring    the   way   to  Trieste,    the  bastions     which      had      defended 

ultimate  objective.    In  their  offen-  Gorizia  N.  and  S.    On  Aug.  8  they 

sives  on  the  Isonzo  in  July,  1915,  captured  the  level  space   on   the 


the  Italians  made  but  little  head- 


W.  bank,  and  in  the  failing  light 
some  of  their  troops  waded  across 
and  entrenched  on  the  E.  bank. 
Meanwhile  bridges  were  got  ready, 
and  in  the  morning  of  Aug.  9  the 
main  force  passed  over  and  occu- 
pied Gorizia.  Its  capture  had 
important  effects,  enabling  the 
Italians  to  silence  the  Austrian 
positions  on  Monte  San  Gabriele. 
This  relieved  the  pressure  on  the 
Italians  holding  river  crossings, 
especially  the  bridge  at  Gorizia. 

Gorkum.  Alternative  name  of 
the  Dutch  town  of  Gorinchem 
(q.v.) 

Gorky,  MAXIM  (b.1869).  Russian 
author.  He  was  born  at  Nijni 
Novgorod,  Mar.  14,  1869,  his  real 
'  'being  .....  —  ...... 


Gorizia,  Italy.     The  old  fortress  of 

the  counts  of  Gorz  on  the  Castle  Hill 

overlooking  the  town 


Maxim  Gorky, 
Russian  author 


*»; 

g^^HH^Bl     Alexei     Maxi- 

movitch  Pyesh- 

k  o  v.      His 

father    died 

when    he     was 

four    years     of 

age,   and    his 

way  towards  the  town,  and  it  was     mother  shortly 
not  until  Aug.  8,  1916,  that  it  was     after    re-mar- 
captured  by  the  Third  Army,  under     ried.     The  boy 
the  duke  of  Aosta.     In  the  great     was      brought 
Austro-German    offensive    of    the     up    by   his  maternal  grandfather, 
autumn    of    1917 
Gorizia  was  aban-    ? 
d  o  n  e  d   by   the 
Italians,  Oct.  28,    \: 
but  recovered   in 
the    autumn     of 
1918.     It  suffered 
greatly  from  bom- 
bardments.      See 
Isonzo,  Battles  of 
the. 

Gorizia,  CAP- 
TURE OF.  Italian 
success  against 
Austria,  Aug. 
1916.  On  Aug.  6 
there  was  an  in- 

tense    bombard-        Gorlest0n,  Norfolk.     View  of  the  town  and  sea  front 
mentof     the  from  the  south 


but  after  a  few  months'  schooling 
was  apnrenticed  to  a  cobbler,  and 
two  months  later  to  a  draughts- 
man, from  whom  he  ran  away ; 
then,  after  being  assistant  to  an 
ironmaker,  he  became  help  to  the 
cook  on  a  Volga  steamer,  who 
inspired  him  with  a  liking  for 
reading. 

At  the  age  of  16  Gorky,  failing 
to  secure  education  at  Kazan 
University,  entered  a  biscuit  fac- 
tory, afterwards  working  at  any- 
thing that  offered.  In  1888  he 
tried  to  commit  suicide,  and  on 
recovery  resumed  that  vagabond 
life  which  later  provided  him  with 
almost  inexhaustible  material  for 
his  pen.  In  1892  his  first  story, 
Makar  Chudra,  appeared  in  a 
Tiflis  journal.  In  1893  V.  G. 
Korolenko  encouraged  him  to  write. 
Chelkash,  1893,  and  other  short 
stories  were  rapidly  produced,  and 
the  young  author  became  immedi- 
ately popular.  Foma  Gordeyev, 
1900  (Eng.  trans.  1901),  his  first 
novel,  though  marked  by  fine  des- 
criptions of  scenery  of  the  Volga, 
and  by  remarkable  character 
drawing,  was  on  the  whole  dis- 
appointing. 

In  1901  began  appearing  a  col- 
lection of  Gorky's  tales,  his  position 
being  then  recognized  as  that  of  the 
most  popular  of  Russian  authors. 
Many  volumes  of  these  tales  ap- 
peared in  English  translations.  His 
play,  The  Lower  Depths,  was 
produced  in  London  in  1903.  He 
suffered  imprisonment  in  1905  as  a 
sympathiser  with  the  revolution- 
aries. 

On  the  outbreak  of  the  Great 
War  he  volunteered  for  service 
with  the  Russian  Red  Cross,  and 
after  the  revolution  became  pre- 
sident of  a  committee  for  safe- 
guarding artistic  property.  He 
later  threw  in  his  lot  with  the 
Bolshevists,  and  was  engaged  in 
propaganda  work,  but  definitely 
severed  his  connexion  with  them  in 
1920.  See  Maxim  Gorky,  His  Life 
and  Writings,  E.  J.  Dillon,  1902. 

Gorleston.  Parish  and  water- 
ing place  of  Norfolk,  England.  It 
is  part  of  the  borough  of  Great 
Yarmouth,  122  m.  N.E.  of  London, 
and  is  reached  by  the  G.E.  Rly. 
Standing  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Yare,  it  has  good  sands,  in  addi- 
tion to  a  pier  and  other  attrac- 
tions for  visitors.  Electric  trams 
connect  it  with  Yarmouth  proper, 
and  steamers  go  from  here  to 
Lowestoft.  See,  Yarmouth. 

Gorlice,  GORLITZA  OR  GOKLITSE. 
Town  of  Poland,  formerly  in 
Galicia.  It  is  about  25  m.  S.E.  of 
Tarnov  and  17  m.  S.W.  of  Jaslo, 
among  the  foothills  of  the  Carpa- 
thians. It  has  naphtha  works  and 
a  trade  in  grain  and  wine.  It  was 


GORLITZ 


3613 


GORT 


very  prominent  in  the  Great  War 
in  the  campaigns  fought  between 
the  Russians  and  Austro-Germans 
in  Galicia  and  in  the  Carpathians. 
In  Dec.,  1914,  the  Russians  advanc- 
ing south  from  it  carried  a  strong 
position  in  the  mountains  at 
Konieczuka.  It  was  abandoned 
by  the  Russians  in  their  retreat 
from  the  Donajetz  to  the  San.  and 
occupied  by  the  enemy,  May  2, 
]915.  It  was  again  prominent  in 
the  fighting  in  this  region  in  1916. 
Pop.  6,500.  See  Carpathians,  Cam- 
paigns in  the  ;  San,  Battle  of  the. 

Gorlitz.  Town  of  Germany,  in 
Silesia.  Situated  on  the  Neisse,  27 
m.  by  rly.  E.  of  Bautzen  on  the  line 
from  Dresden  to  Breslau,  it  has 
large  cloth  factories  and  machinery 
works.  A  great  bastion,  the  Kaiser- 
trutz  (1490),  and  other  traces  of  the 
old  fortifications  remain.  The  prin- 
cipal church  is  that  of  S.  Peter  and 
S.  Paul,  containing  a  copy  of  the 
Holy  Sepulchre  at  Jerusalem.  The 
Rathaus,  built  early  in  the  14th 
century  and  restored  1874-75,  has 
a  tower  erected  1509-13,  bearing 
the  arms  of  Matthew  Corvinus, 
king  of  Hungary,  and  a  balcony  of 
rather  later  date.  The  town  park, 
which  includes  a  botanical  garden, 
contains  a  statue  to  Jakob  Boehme, 
the  mystic,  who  was  buried  in  the 
cemetery  at  the  N.  of  the  town.  The 
railway  to  Kohlfurt  crosses  the 
valley  of  the  Neisse  by  a  viaduct 
on  34  arches  with  a  length  of  over 
500  yds.  and  a  height  of  115  ft. 
Pop.  85,806. 

Gorlitz  came  into  prominence  in 
1850  by  reason  of  a  famous  murder 
trial  held  at  Darmstadt.  In  1847 
the -countess  of  Gorlitz  was  stran- 
"gled  by  one  of  her  men-servants, 
and  her  burned  corpse  was  dis- 
covered a  few  hours  later.  After 
two  years'  investigation  the  trial 
took  place,  and  aroused  great  in- 
terest because  of  the  theory  of  spon- 
taneous combustion  which  was 
then  raised.  The  physician  Von 
Siebold,  who  supported  the  theory 
as  a  scientific  possibility,  was  op- 
posed by  the  .  chemists  Bischoff 
and  Lie  big. 

Gormanston,  VISCOUNT.  Irish 
title  borne  since  1478  by  the  family 
of  Preston.  A  Lancashire  man,  Sir 
Robert  de  Preston,  made  lord 
chancellor  of  Ireland  and  an  Irish 
baron,  began  the  long  connexion  of 
his  family  with  that  country.  His 
descendant,  another  Sir  Robert, 
was  made  Viscount  Gormanston,  in 
co.  Dublin,  in  1478.  The  title,  the 

Sremier  Irish  viscounty,  passed 
own  to  his  descendants,  most  of 
them  taking  a  leading  part  in  Irish 
affairs,  until  it  came  to  Jenico,  the 
7th  viscount.  Adhering  to  James 
II,  he  was  deprived  of  his  honours 
and  outlawed  in  1691,  and  the  title 


was  not  officially  recognized  until 
1800,  when  another  Jenico  was 
allowed  to  take  his  seat  in  the  Irish 
House  of  Lords  as  the  12th  vis- 
count. Edward,  the  13th  viscount, 
was  made  a  baron  of  the  United 
Kingdom  in  1868.  In  1907  Jenico 
became  the  15th  viscount.  The 
family  estates  are  in  counties 
Dublin  and  Meath. 

Gornergrat.  Rocky  ridge  of 
the  Pennine  Alps,  Switzerland,  in 
the  canton  of  Valais.  It  forms  part 
of  the  Riffelberg,  3J  m.  S.E.  .  of 
Zermatt,  with  which  it  communi- 
cates by  a  mountain  rly.  Alt. 
10,289  ft.  The  summit  commands 
a  panorama  of  the  Monte  Rosa- 
Breithorn-Matterhorn  group. 

Goroblagodat.  Mining  district 
of  the  Urals,  E.  Russia,  in  the  govt. 
of  Perm.  It  is  127  m.  N.E.  of  Perm, 
and  contains  numerous  foundries, 
ironworks,  gold  and  platinum 
mines,  and  quarries. 

Gorres,  JOHANN  JOSEF  (1776- 
1848).  German  publicist.  Born  at 
Coblenz,  Jan.  25,  1776,  he  gradu- 
ated at  Bonn  and  soon  became  an 
ardent  revolutionary.  Teaching 
physics  at  Coblenz  from  1800-6,  he 
then  moved  to  Heidelberg,  re- 
turned to  his  native  town  in  1808, 
embroiled  himself  in  political 
schemes,  and  was  compelled  to 
take  refuge  from  the  authorities  in 
Switzerland.  In  1826  he  returned 
and  was  appointed  professor  of 
history  at  Munich  University,  re- 
maining there  until  his  death,  Jan. 
27,  1848.  Die  Kristliche  Mystik, 
1836-42,  was  his  chief  work. 

Gorringe,  SIR  GEORGE  FRED- 
ERICK (b.  1868).  British  soldier. 
Born  at  Southwick,  Sussex,  Feb. 
10,  1868,  he  en- 
tered the  Royal 
Engineers  i  n 
1888,  and  after- 
wards saw 
much  service 
with  the  Egyp- 
tian army,  win- 
ning the  D.S.O. 
in  the  Dongola 
campaign, 
1896,  and  ac- 
tively partici- 
pating in  the  Khartum  expedition 
1897-98.  He  was  specially  employed 
in  charge  of  the  reconstruction  of 
Khartum,  1899.  He  took  part  in 
the  S.  African  War,  being  A.D.C. 
to  Lord  Kitchener  and  D.A.A.G. 
of  the  headquarters  staff,  and  com- 
manded a  flying  column  in  Cape 
Colony  in  1901.  He  commanded 
in  the  operations  in  Southern  Sen 
nar,  1904,  was  director  of  move- 
ments and  quartering  at  the  War 
Office,  1906-9,  and  brig. -gen.  com- 
manding the  18th  infantry  brigade, 
1909-11.  In  1912  he  went  to  India 
to  command  the  Bombay  brigade. 


Sir  G.  F.  Gorringe, 
British  soldier 


During  the  Great  War  Gorringe' s 
name  was  very  prominent  in  con- 
nexion with  the  campaign  in  Meso- 
potamia. He  commanded  the  12th 
Indian  division  and  captured 
Nasiriyeh,  July  25,  1915,  and  was 
chief  of  the  staff  of  the  Tigris  force 
Jan. -March,  1916,  and  succeeded 
Aylmer  in  the  command  of  the  Kut 
relief  force  in  April,  1916.  In  1917- 
18  he  was  engaged  in  France.  He 
was  promoted  maj.-gen.  1911, 
temp,  lieut.-gen.  Mar.,  1916,  created 
K.C.B.  in  1915,  and  K.C.M.G.  in 
1918.  See  Kut ;  Mesopotamia, 
Conquest  of. 

Gorse.  Alternative  name  for 
the  prickly  evergreen  shrub  also 
known  as  furze  (q.v. ). 

Gorst,  SIR  JOHN  ELDON  (1835- 
1916).  British  politician.  Born  at 
Preston,  May  24,  1835,  and  edu- 
cated at  the  grammar  school  and  S. 
John's  College,  Cambridge,  he  went 
in  1859  to  New  Zealand,  where  he 
became  civil  commissioner  in  Wai- 
kato.  Returning  to  England,  he 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1865.  He 
entered  the 
House  of 
Commons  i  n 
1866  as  mem- 
ber for  the 
borough  of 
Cambridge  and 
sat  for  Chat- 
ham, 1875-92, 
and  for  Cam- 
bridge Univer- 
s  i  t  y  ,  1892- 
1906.  He  was 
a  member  of 
the  Fourth  Party  (q.v.). 

Gorst  was  knighted  in  1885,  was 
solicitor-general  in  1885-86,  under- 
secretary" for  India  from  1886-91, 
financial  secretary  to  the  treasury, 
1891-92,-and  vice-president  of  the 
committee  of  the  council  on  educa- 
tion from  1895  to  1902.  He  took  a 
keen  interest  in  labour  and  social 
questions,  and  in  1890  was  British 
plenipotentiary  at  the  labour  con- 
ference in  Berlin.  He  died  in 
London,  April  4,  1916.  His  elder 
son,  Sir  Eldon  Gofst  (d.  1911),  suc- 
ceeded Cromer  in  1907  as  British 
agent  and  consul-general  in  Egypt. 
Gort,  VISCOUNT.  Irish  title 
borne  since  1816  by  the  families  of 
Prendergast  and  Vereker.  Sir 
Thomas  Pren- 
dergast, a  sol- 
dier, M.P.  and 
baronet,  was 
killed  at  Mal- 
plaquetin!709  J| 
and  from  his  II 
son  his  estates  ft 
i  n  Monaghan 
passed  to  a  . 
grandson,  John 
Smyth,  also  an 
Irish  M.P.  He 


6th  Viscount  Gort, 
British  soldier 


_l 


GORTCHAKOV 

took  the  name  of  Prendergast ;  in 
1810  was  made  a  baron,  and  in 
1816  a  viscount.  To  these  dig- 
nities his  nephew,  Charles  Vereker, 
succeeded,  and  from  him  the  pre- 
sent viscount  is  descended.  John 
Standish  Surtees  Prendergast,  6th 
viscount  (b.  1886),  won  distinc- 
tion in  the  Great  War.  Serving 
with  the  Grenadier  Guards,  he  won 
the  M.C.,  D.S.O.  and  bar,  and  the 
V.C.,  Sept.  27,  1918. 

Gortchakov,  PRINCE  ALEXAN- 
DER MIKHAILOVITCH  (1798-1883). 
Russian  diplomatist.  Born  July 
16,  1798,  he 
entered  the 
diplomatic  ser- 
vice and  be- 
came secretary 
at  the  embassy 
in  London  in 
1824.  After 
holding  vari- 
ous posts  he 
was  appointed 
ambassador  to 
the  German 
Bundestag  in  1850.  Thence  he 
was  transferred  to  Vienna,  1854- 
56,  in  the  latter  year  succeeding 
Nesselrode  as  foreign  minister  to 
Alexander  II,  and  in  1863  became 
chancellor  of  the  empire.  His 
policy  was  at  first  strongly  pro- 
Prussian,  but  later  he  began  to 
distrust  Bismarck,  a  feeling  in- 
creased by  Germany's  attitude  of 
aloofness  from  Russia  in  the  Turk- 
ish war  of  1877-78.  He  then 
turned  his  attentions  to  France 
and  worked  for  a  Franco-Russian 
rapprochement.  He  resigned  his 
portfolio  as  foreign  minister  in 
1882,  and  died  at  Baden-Baden 
on  March  11,  1883.  -<?ee  Berlin, 
Congress  of. 

Gortchakov,  MIKHAIL  DMITRI- 
VITCH  (1795-1861).  A  Russian 
soldier.  Of  noble  family,  he  be- 
came a  soldier 
and  saw  service 
against  the 
French  in  1812 
-14.  He  fought 
against  the 
Turks  in  1828- 
29,  against  the 
Poles  in  1831, 
and  against  the 
M.  D.  Gortchakov,  Hungarians  in 
Russian  soldier  ig49.  In  1846 
he  was  made  governor  of  War- 
saw, and  when  the  Crimean  War 
began  his  reputation  was  suffi- 
ciently high  for  him  to  hold  an  in- 
dependent command.  His  first 
operations  were  against  the  Turks 
in  Moldavia  and  Wallachia,  and  an 
unsuccessful  attack  on  the  fortress 
of  Silistria,  but  later  he  was  en- 
trusted with  the  command  in  the 
Crimea.  There  he  won  fame  by  his 
defence  of  Sevastopol.  In  1856 


3614 

he  was  made  governor-general  of 
Poland,  and  died  at  Warsaw, 
May  30,  1861. 

Gorton.  District  of  Manchester. 
It  is  an  industrial  area  on  the  E. 
side  of  the  city.  It  is  served  by  the 
G.C.  Rly.  and  by  tramways,  and 
includes  four  eccles.  districts.  The 
chief  industries  are  chemical  works, 
engineering  works,  ironworks,  and 
cotton  mills.  See  Manchester. 

Gortonites.  Religious  sect 
founded  in  the  U.S.A.  about  1650 
by  Samuel  Gorton  (c.  1610-77).  A 
native  of  Gorton,  Lancashire,  he 
fled  to  America  on  account  of  his 
religious  opinions.  At  Warwick, 
Rhode  Island,  he  made  a  settle- 
ment, mainly  of  those  who  shared 
his  religious  opinions.  Named  after 
him,  the  Gortonites,  who  disliked 
all  forms  and  ceremonies,  existed 
until  about  1800. 

Gortyna  OR  GORTYN.  Ancient 
city  of  Crete,  situated  on  the  S. 
side  of  the  island  about  10  m.  in- 
land. It  was  second  only  to 
Cnossus  (g.v.)  in  importance,  and 
the  two  cities  from  an  early  period 
were  constantly  at  variance.  In 
Roman  times  it  became  the  capi- 
tal of  the  island.  Near  Gortyna 
was  discovered  in  1884  the  well- 
known  inscription  containing  a 
code  of  laws  dated  about  400  B.C. 

Gorz.  German  name  for  Gori- 
zia  (q.v.).  It  was  the  capital  of  the 
old  Austrian  crownland  of  Gorz 
and  Gradisca. 

Gosau  Beds.  Series  of  lime- 
stones, marls,  and  sandstones  in 
the  north-eastern  Alps  of  Austria. 
A  local  development  of  the  Upper 
Cretaceous  system,  they  contain 
massive  fossil  shells  and  banks 
of  corals. 

Goschen,  GEORGE  JOACHIM 
GOSCHEN,  IST  VISCOUNT  (1831- 
1907).  British  statesman.  Born 
August  10, 
1831,  he  was 
of  German 
descent,  his 
grandfather 
being  a  pub- 
lisher of  Leip- 
zig. His  own 
birth  and  edu- 
cation, how- 
ever, were 
English,  and 
after  a  fine 
career  at 
Rugby  and  Oriel  College,  Ox- 
ford, he  became  a  partner  in  the 
London  firm  of  Friihling  and 
Goschen.  In  1863  he  entered  Parlia- 
ment as  Liberal  member  for  the 
City  of  London,  and  in  1865  joined 
the  ministry,  entering  Russell's 
cabinet  the  next  year.  From  1868- 
7 1  he  was  president  of  the  poor  law 
board,  and  from  1871-74  first 
lord  of  the  admiralty  under  Glad- 


GOSCHEN 

stone.  Declining  to  take  office  in 
1880,  he  was  sent  as  special  am- 
bassador to  Turkey 

As  a  Liberal  Unionist  after  1884 
Goschen  was  in  more  congenial 
company.  He  denounced  Home 
Rule  with  great  spirit,  and  alone  of 
his  party  took  office  under  Salis- 
bury in  1886.  This  was  the  occa- 
sion on  which  Lord  Randolph 
Churchill,  confident  that  his  resig- 
nation would  seriously  embarrass 
the  premier,  "  forgot  Goschen," 
who  remained  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer  until  1892.  From  1895 
to  1900  he  was  again  first  lord  of 
the  admiralty.  He  was  M.P.  for 
St.  George's,  Hanover  Square, 
where  he  had  found  a  seat  when 
Liverpool  rejected  him  in  1887. 
Previously  he  had  represented 
Edinburgh,  and  earlier  still  Ripon. 
In  1900  he  retired  and  was  made  a 
viscount.  He  was,  however,  active 
in  his  hostility  to  tariff  reform,  and 
spoke  occasionally  in  the  Lords 
until  his  death,  Feb.  7,  1907. 

Goschen  was  a  many-sided  man 
and  sturdily  independent.  As 
chancellor  he  was  responsible  for 
reducing  the  interest  on  Consols 
from  3  to  2£  p.c.,  a  change  of  doubt- 
ful benefit  to  the  country.  He 
wrote  a  standard  book  on  the 
Foreign  Exchanges,  and  in  later 
life  edited  the  Life  and  Times  of  his 
grandfather.  Short  sight  prevented 
him  from  being  chosen  Speaker, 
1884.  From  1903  to  1907  he  was 
chancellor  of  Oxford  University. 
(See  Life,  Hon.  A.  Elliot,  1911.) 

His  son,  George  Joachim,  2nd 
viscount  (b.  1866),  was  iriember 
for  East  Grinstead  1895-1906  and 
was  appointed  joint  parliamentary 
secretary  to  the  board  of  agricul- 
ture, March,  1918.  He  became 
governor  of  Madras,  1924, 

Goschen,  SIR  WILLIAM  EDWARD 
(1847-1924).  British  diplomatist. 
A  son  of  W.  H.  Goschen.  a  Lon- 
don banker, 
and  a  younger 
brother  of  the 
1st  Viscount 
Goschen,  h  e 
was  born 
July  18,  1847. 
Educated  a  t 
Rugby  and 
Oxford,  he 
entered  the 
diplomatic 
service,  and  .  Rus*eU 

after  passing  some  time  as  attache" 
at  Madrid,  Buenos  Aires,  and  Paris, 
became  second  secretary  at  Rio  de 
Janeiro.  From  there  he  went  to 
Constantinople,  after  which  he 
gained  experience  as  principal  sec- 
retary at  Peking,  Copenhagen,  Lis- 
bon, Washington,  and  St.  Peters- 
burg. In  1898  he  was  sent  as  British 
minister  to  Belgrade. 


Sir  William  Goschen, 
British  diplomatist 


GOSFORD 

From  1900  to  1905  he  was  min- 
ister at  Copenhagen,  and  from  1905 
to  1908  was  ambassador  at  Vienna. 
In  1908  Goschen  was  transferred  to 
Berlin,  and  it  was  his  lot  to  conduct 
the  negotiations  immediately  pre- 
ceding the  outbreak  of  the  Great 
War  and  to  leave  the  German 
capital  on  its  declaration.  In  1901 
he  was  knighted,  in  1905  was  made 
a  privy  councillor,  and  in  1916 
a  baronet.  He  died  May  20,  1924. 

Gosford,  EARL  OF.  Irish  title 
borne  since  1806  by  the  family  of 
Acheson.  It  descends  from  Sir 
Archibald  Acheson  (d.  1634),  a 
Scottish  lawyer,  who  was  made  a 
baronet,  and  became  a  lord  of  ses- 
sion and  a  secretary  of  state.  His 
baronetcy  was  inherited  by  his  de- 
scendants, some  of  whom  settled 
in  Ireland.  One  of  them,  Sir  Archi- 
bald, a  county  gentleman  of  Ar- 
magh and  a  member  of  the  Irish 
parliament,  was  made  Baron  Gos- 
ford in  1776  and  a  viscount  in  1785. 
Arthur,  the  second  viscount,  was 
made  an  earl  in  1806.  Archibald, 
the  second  earl  (d.  1849),  was 
governor  of  Canada,  and  in  1835 
was  made  a  British  peer  as  Baron 
Worlingham.  The  present  holder 
is  his  descendant.  The  earl's  eldest 
son  is  known  as  Viscount  Acheson, 
and  his  chief  residence  is  Gosford 
Castle,  Armagh. 

Gosforth.  Urban  district  of 
Northumberland.  It  is  2  m.  N.  of 
Newcastle-on-Tyne,  having  a  sta- 
tion on  the  N.E.  Rly.  Here  is  Gos- 
forth Park,  where  race  meetings 
are  held,  and  around  are  collieries. 
Pop.  15,500.  Another  Gosforth  is  a 
village  in  Cumberland,  on  the  edge 
of  the  Lake  district,  12  m.  S.E.  of 
White  haven.  It  is  noted  for  its 
ancient  viking  cross,  a  structure  in 
the  churchyard,  14i  ft.  high. 

Goshawk  (Astur  palumbarius). 
Bird  of  prey,  resembling  a  large 
sparrow  hawk.  It  is  found  in  many 
parts  of  Europe  and  Asia,  but  is  now 
very  rare  in  Great  Britain.  The 
species  was  formerly  fairly  common 
and  was  used  in  the  sport  of  hawk- 
ing. The  plumage  is  bluish  grey  on 
the  back,  and  white  barred  with 
brown  beneath. 

Goshen.  Land  or  district  of 
ancient  Egypt.  It  was  given  by 
Pharaoh  to  Joseph  and  his  kinsmen 
as  a  dwelling  place.  It  probably  lay 
between  the  delta  of  the  Nile  and 
the  isthmus  of  Suez.  Its  capital 
was  the  place  now  known  as  Fakus. 

Goshen.  Former  Boer  republic. 
It  was  founded  in  Bechuanaland, 
beyond  the  borders  of  the  Trans- 
vaal, in  1881.  It*  capital  was  at 
Rooi  Grond.  Goshen  and  the 
neighbouring  republic  of  Stellaland 
came  to  an  end  when  Bechuana- 
land was  proclaimed  a  British  Pro- 
tectorate in  1885. 


3615 

Goslar.     Town 
of     Germany,     in 
Prussia.    It  stands 
on  the  N.  side  of 
the    Kara,    27   m. 
S.E.ofHildesheim. 
Founded     in     the 
10th    century,    it 
quickly  gained  im- 
portance from  the 
silver,  copper,  and 
other  mines  of  the 
Rammelsberg 
(2,080  ft.),  which 
rises  H  m.  to  the 
S.  of  the  town.    It 
is     a    picturesque 
place,  with  portions  of  the  ram- 
parts still  standing,  and  fine  old 
houses.     Goslar    suffered    for    its 
loyalty  to  the  Hohenstaufen,  being 
destroyed  in  1250  by  Otho  IV.    It 
joined  the  Hanseatic  League,  and 
was  very  flourishing  about  1500. 

In  1802  the  town  was  annexed 
by  Prussia,  to  which  it  has  be- 
longed ever  since,  except  for  50 
years  after  1816,  when  it  was  in- 
cluded in  the  kingdom  of  Hanover. 
The  principal  places  of  interest  are 
the  Market,  with  its  church;  the 
Kaiserhaus  ;  the  Domcapelle,  the 


GOSPELS 


a 


Goslar,  Germany.       Market  place  with  the  fountain 
dating  from  about  the  12th  century 

is  now  used  in  various  senses.  It 
is  the  name  of  the  biographies  of 
Christ  in  the  N.T.  ;  signifies  the 
message  of  redemption  contained 
in  those  books ;  and  is  further  used 
as  a  term  for  the  entire  Christian 
system  of  religion.  Thus  in  the 
N.T.,  "  to  believe  the  Gospel " 
means  not  merely  to  accept  the 
record  of  Christ  as  true,  but  to 
accept  all  that  that  record  implies. 
See  Bible  ;  New  Testament. 

Gospellers.  Name  formerly 
applied  to  the  followers  of  Wycliffe 
and  other  pioneers  of  the  Reforma- 
tion in  England,  who  laid  stress  on 


sole  remains  of  a  cathedral  founded, 

like  the  Kaiserhaus,  by  Henry  III     preaching  the  Gospel  to  the  people. 
5  llth  cen-     It  was  also   given   to  a  party   of 


about  the  middle  of  the 
tury  ;  and  the  Kaiserworth  (1494), 
with  statues  of  eight  German  em- 
perors, several  of  whom  chose 


Goshawk,    a    large    bird    of    prey, 
formerly    used    for    hawking 

Goslar  as  a  place  of  residence.  The 
town's  industries,  besides  those 
connected  with  the  mines,  include 
beer,  and  cigar  manufacture,  and 
chemical  works.  Pop.  18,900. 

Gospel.  Anglo-Saxon  com- 
pound word,  god-spel,  meaning 
good  news,  used  as  an  equivalent 
of  the  Greek  euangelion.  The  word 


Antinomians  who  caused  trouble 
during  the  Reformation  period, 
and  at  a  later  date  to  the  Puritans. 
In  Church  ritual,  the  Gospeller  is 
the  deacon  who  reads  the  Gospel 
in  the  Mass. 

Gospel  Oak.  Name  of  a  short 
thoroughfare,  or  Grove,  connect- 
ing Rochford  Street  and  Haver- 
stock  Road,  London,  N.W.  It  is 
also  the  name  of  a  station,  6£  m. 
from  Broad  Street  on  the  N.L.R., 
between  Kentish  Town  and  Hamp- 
stead  Heath.  From  an  old  oak  tree 
at  the  boundary  pf  Hampstead 
and  St.  Pancras  parishes,  at  which 
a  portion  of  the  Gospel  was  read 
at  the  beating  of  the  bounds,  an 
inn  was  named ;  and  the  name  was 
later  given  to  the  surrounding  fields, 
now  built  over,  to  a  small  village,  to 
a  chapel,  and  to  the  railway  station. 

Under  one  of  the  trees  in  Gospel 
Oak  Fields,  Whitefield  is  said  to 
have  preached  :  and  here,  down  to 
1857,  was  held  a  fair  known  as 
Gospel  Oak  Fair.  Herrick,  in  his 
Hespeddes  (55,  To  Anthea),  calls 
the  oak  the  Gospel  tree.  The 
custom  of  Gospel  reading  at  the 
beating  of  the  bounds  appears  to 
have  been  common  in  many  part$ 
of  England. 

Gospels,  THE  FOUR.  Name 
given  to  the  first  four  books  in  the 
N.T.,  which  are  ascribed  to 
Matthew,  Mark,  Luke,  and  John. 
The  three  first  stand  together  and 
form  a  striking  contrast  to  the 


GOSPORT 

fourth.  They  are  called  "  the 
Synoptics,"  because  they  follow 
the  same  lines  and  deal  with  the 
narrative  from  a  similar  point  of 
view.  Mark  is  the  earliest  of  the 
three  and  gives  the  story  of  the  life 
of  Jesus  in  its  simplest  form. 
Matthew  adapts  his  narrative  for 
Jewish  readers,  and  his  apologetic 
aim  is  manifest  in  his  constant  use 
of  the  argument  from  prophecy. 
Luke,  on  the  other  hand,  being  a 
Greek,  strives  to  make  his  portrait 
of  Jesus  appeal  to  the  Greek- 
speaking  world. 

The  fourth  Gospel  was  written 
thirty  years  later  than  the  others, 
and  is  obviously  an  interpretation 
of  Christ  rather  than  a  record  of 
events.  Its  purpose  is  definitely 
stated  in  the  words,  "These  (signs) 
are  written  that  ye  may  believe 
that  Jesus  is  the  Christ,  and  that 
believing  ye  may  have  life  in  His 
name  "  (xx,  31). 

The  Synoptic  Gospels 

The  problem  of  the  inter-relation 
of  the  Synoptic  Gospels  has  been 
much  discussed  recently.  It  is  no 
longer  possible  to  regard  them  as 
independent  writings.  The  im- 
mense amount  of  common  material, 
the  similar  arrangement  of  events, 
the  many  verbal  similarities  put 
such  a  theory  out  of  court. 

It  is  inconceivable,  for  instance, 
that  three  independent  writers  in 
the  narrative  of  the  healing  of  the 
palsied  man  at  Capernaum  could 
have  introduced  at  the  same  point 
in  the  story  exactly  the  same  paren- 
thesis ("he  saith  to  the  sick  of  the 
palsy  ").  The  hypothesis  that  the 
three  evangelists  embodied  and 
reproduced  the  oral  tradition  of  the 
Church  is  now  regarded  as  inade- 
quate because  it  does  not  explain 
all  the  facts.  The  most  generally 
accepted  theory  is  that  the  simi- 
larities in  the  three  narratives  can 
only  be  accounted  for  by  assuming 
that  the  evangelists  derived  their 
materials  from  common  sources. 
One  of  these  sources  is  generally 
identified  with  the  Gospel  of  Mark, 
perhaps  not  in  its  present  form. 

The  justification  for  this  assump- 
tion is  ample.  Practically  the 
whole  of  our  Mark  is  embodied  in 
Matthew  and  Luke,  and  even  the 
order  of  Mark's  narrative  is 
followed  by  one  or  other  of  the 
later  evangelists.  It  is  only  very 
rarely  that  Matthew  and  Luke 
agree  in  differing  from  the  state- 
ments or  arrangement,  or  phrase- 
qjogy  of  Mark.  In  addition  to  Mark 
we  know  that  the  other  two  evan- 
gelists used  another  document, 
because  their  Gospels  contain  much 
common  material  which  is  not 
derived  from  that  source.  This 
material  is  chiefly  connected  with 
the  teaching  of  Jesus.  It  is,  there- 


3616 


GOSPORT 


fore,    highly    probable    that    the     probably  belong  to  the  period  60- 
second    documentary    source    em-     80,  though  it  is  impossible  to  date 


ployed  by  Matthew  and  Luke,  was 
a  collection  of  the  Logia  or  Sayings 
of  Jesus  ;  and  attempts  have  been 
made,  notably  by  Harnack,  to  re- 
construct it.  Such  a  reconstruc- 
tion, however,  is  bound  to  be  hy- 
pothetical, because  when  Matthew 
and  Luke  diverge,  there  is  no  in- 


them  with  anything  like  precision. 
The  tertiary  stratum  is  the  Gos- 
pel of  S.  John  which  cannot  have 
come  into  existence  much  before 
100.  From  an  historical  point  of 
view  its  evidence  is  of  much  less 
value.  The  personal  equation  of 
the  writer  makes  its  presence  felt 


fallible  criterion  for  deciding  which     especially    in    his    version    of    the 


of  them  represents  the  original. 

Comparing  the  version  of  the 
teaching  of  Jesus  in  Matthew's 
Sermon  on  the  Mount  with  the 


teaching  of  Jesus.  There  is  much 
to  be  said  for  the  position  of  Renan 
that  "  if  Jesus  spoke  as  Matthew 
makes  him  speak,  he  cannot  have 


version  in  Luke,  we  find  that  about  spoken  as  John  makes  him  speak," 

a    third    of    the    Sermon    on   the  not    that    this    implies    that    the 

Mount  appears  in  Luke's  Sermon  Johannine    speeches    are    entirely 

on   the    Plain ;     another  third   is  fictitious,  for  as  Matthew  Arnold 

found  interspersed  at  many  differ-  puts  it,  "  these  speeches  cannot  in 

ent  parts  in  Luke's,  while  the  re-  the  main  be  the  writer's,  because 

maining  third  is  absent  altogether,  in  the  main  they  are  clearly  beyond 

Again  if  comparing  the  versions  of  his  reach."     See  Bible ;  Criticism  ; 


the  Lord's  Prayer  or  the  Beatitudes 
of  the  two  Gospels,  the  most  strik- 
ing differences  manifest  them- 
selves. It  is  almost  impossible  in 
these  and  many  other  cases  to  say 
whether  Matthew  or  Luke  is  more 
likely  to  be  a  faithful  representa- 
tion of  the  original,  and  hence  the 
character  of  the  second  source 
must  always  remain  problemati- 
cal as  regards  its  details. 

From  the  statement  of  Papias 
(c.  130),  bishop  of  Hierapolis  in 
Phrygia,  "  Matthew  then  composed 
the  Logia  in  the  Hebrew  tongue 
and  each  one  interpreted  them  as 
he  was  able,"  it  has  been  argued 
that  what  Matthew  wrote  was  not 
our  present  Gospel  but  the  Logia 
source  which  was  afterwards  em- 
bodied in  it. 

Three  Strata  of  Evidence 

It  follows  that  our  Gospels  re- 
present three  different  strata  of  his- 
torical evidence.  The  first  and 
most  valuable  is  to  be  found  in  the 
sources  of  the  synoptics — Mark 
and  the  Logia.  It  is  from  these 
that  our  earliest  and  best  material 
for  constructing  the  life  of  Jesus  is 
to  be  obtained.  Unfortunately  the 
date  at  which  these  documents  were 
written  cannot  be  fixed  with  any- 
thinglike  certainty,  ? 
but  they  cannot  ! 
be  much  later  j 
than  the  decade  | 
50-60.  They  must  I 
certainly  have 
been  composed 
at  a  time  when 
their  statements 
might  have  been 
checked  and  chal- 
lenged by  the 
recollection  of  liv- 
ing witnesses. 

The  secondary 
stratum  is  to  be 
found  in  Matthew 
and  Luke  which 


Jesus  Christ ;   New  Testament. 

H.  T.  Andrews 

Bibliography.  The  Gospels  as  His- 
torical Documents,  V.  H.  Stanton, 
1903,  etc.  ;  The  Gospel  History  and 
its  Transmission,  F.  C.  Burkitt,  1906; 
Sources  of  our  Knowledge  of  the 
life  of  Jesus,  P.  Wernle,  Eng.  trans. 
E.  Lummis,  1907  ;  Gospel  Origins, 
W.  W.  Holdsworth,  1909. 

Gosport.  Urban  district,  sea- 
port and  market  town  of  Hamp- 
shire, the  full  name  of  the  urban 
district  being  Gos - 
port  and  Alver- 
stoke,  originally 
two  separate 
villages.  Standing 
on  the  W.  side 
of  Portsmouth 
Harbour,  it  is  86 
m.  from  London 
with  a  station  on 
the  L.  &  S.W.  Rly.  A  ferry  and  a 
floating  bridge  connect  it  with 
Portsmouth,  of  which  it  is  virtually 
a  suburb.  It  has  various  naval 
establishments,  the  most  notable 
being  the  immense  Royal  Clarence 
Victualling  Yard,  and  Haslar 
Hospital,  while  there  are  also 
barracks,  a  powder  magazine,  etc. 
The  chief  church  is  Holy  Trinity. 
Pop.  33,300. 


Gosport  arms 


iosport,  Hampshire.      The  Hard  or  landing  place  on 
Portsmouth  harbour 


GOSS 


3617 


Goss.  Porcelain  invented  by 
William  Henry  Goss  (1833-1906). 
It  is  remarkable  for  the  delicate 
ivory  of  its  body  and  the  brilliance 
of  the  enamels  employed  in  the 
heraldic  decoration  which  was  its 
earliest  distinguishing  feature.  The 
ware  is  made  at  the  Falcon  pot- 
teries, Stoke-on-Trent.  See  Pottery. 
Goss,  SIR  JOHN  (1800-80). 
British  organist  and  composer. 
Born  at  Fareham,  Hampshire, 
Dec.  27,  1800,  he  became  a  choris- 
ter at  the  Chapel  Royal  in  London. 
In  1838  he  succeeded  his  master, 
Thomas  Attwood,  as  organist  of  S. 
Paul's  Cathedral,  and  he  held  that 
post  until  1872,  being  knighted  on 
his  retirement.  He  composed  many 
anthems,  edited  the  Church  Psal- 
ter and  Hymnbook,  and  wrote  The 
Organist's  Companion.  Goss  died 
May  10,  1880. 

Gossamer.  Fine  filaments  of 
cobweb,  which  may  be  seen  in 
autumn  floating  in  the  air  or  en- 
tangled in  the  bushes.  They  are 
spun  by  the  young  of  certain  spi- 
ders, which  are  thus  carried  on  the 
wind  for  considerable  distances. 
The  word  is  applied  to  a  gauzy 
textile  fabric. 

Gosse,  SIR  EDMUND  WILLIAM 
(b.  1849).  English  man  of  letters.  He 
was  bora  in  London,  Sept.  21, 1849, 
his  father 
being  Philip 
H.  Gosse,  the 
naturalist,  and 
his  mother  a 
Hebrew  and 
Greek  scholar. 
He  was  edu- 
cated at  pri- 
vate schools  in 
Devonshire. 
By  the  in- 
fluence of 
Charles  Kings- 
ley,  he  became  assistant  librarian 
at  the  British  Museum,  1867-75, 
and  translator  to  the  Board  of 
Trade,  1875-1904.  He  was  librarian 
to  the  House  of  Lords,  1904-14. 

Distinguished  as  poet,  critic, 
translator,  and  biographer,  as  a 
poet  his  work  has  much  in  common 
with  the  French  ballade.  In  col- 
laboration with  J.  A.  Blaikie,  he 
wrote  Madrigals,  Songs,  and  Son- 
nets, 1870,  then  came  On  Viol  and 
Flute,  1873,  which  led  to  his  friend- 
ship with  Lawrence  Alma-Tadema, 
and  his  marriage,  in  1875,  with  that 
artist's  sister-in-law.  His  collected 
poems  were  isued  in  1911. 

In  1871-72  he  travelled  in  Scandi- 
navia, and  afterwards  did  much  to 
introduce  the  work  of  Ibsen  and 
Bjornson  to  English  readers.  His 
Gossip  in  a  Library,  1891 ;  Questions 
at  Issue,  1893  ;  Critical  Kit-Kats, 
18,96;  French  Profiles,  1905;  Por- 
traits and  Studies,  1912,  are  notable 


volumes.  So,  also,  is  his  Father  and 
Son,  1907,  a  book  crowned  by  the 
French  Academy  in  1913.  His 
Collected  Essays  appeared  in  5 
vols.  in  1913  ;  his  Diversions  of  a 
Man  of  Letters  in  1919. 

He  is  the  author  of  biographical 
studies  of  Gray,  1882  ;  Congreve, 
1888  ;  P.  H.  Gosse,  1890  ;  Donne, 
2  vols.,  1899 ;  Jeremy  Taylor,  1904 ; 
Patmore,  1905  ;  Ibsen,  1908  ;  and 
A.  C.  Swinburne,  1917.  In  1876  he 


the  Baltic  at  Mem,  below  Soder- 
koping.  Its  total  length  is  240  m., 
the  canalised  portion  being  55  m. 
It  considerably  reduces  the  sea 
journey  between  Gothenburg  and 
Stockholm.  The  canal  has  58  locks, 
a  maximum  alt.  of  300  ft.,  and  is  10 
ft.  deep.  The  work  was  begun  in 
1716,  continued  in  1753,  and  com- 
pleted 1810-32.  See  Canal. 

Goteborg.     Swedish  name  for 
the  town  at  the  mouth  of  the  Gota 
river.    See  Goth- 
enburg. 

Goteborg  and 
Bohus.  Lan  or 
government  of 
Sweden.  It  is 
bounded  on  the 
W.  by  the  Skag- 
erak  and  the 
Kattegat,  area 
1,948  sq.  m.  Its 
coast-line  is 
broken  by 


published  a 
drama,  King 
Erik;  in  1892, 
a  romance  of 
16th  century 
life,  The  Secret 
of  Narcisse;  in 
1901,  an  ironic 
fantasy,  Hypo- 
lympia,  or  the 
Gods  in  the  Is- 
land. He  is 
the  author  of 
several  literary 
histories.  He 
was  knighted  in 
1925. 

Gosse,  PHILIP  HENRY (1810-88). 
British  naturalist.     Born  at  Wor- 


Gotha,    Germany.     The   castle  square   viewed  from  the 
arcades  of  the  Hall  of  Commerce.   Top,  left.the  ducal  castle 

numerous  inlets,  while  manv  is- 
lands fringe  the  mainland.  Pop. 
416,508.  The  capital  is  Gothen- 


cester,  April  6,  1810,  he  spent  his     burg  (q.v.)  or  Goteborg. 


early  years  as  a  farmer  in  Canada 
and  a  schoolmaster  in  the  U.S.A. 
Returning  to  England  in  1839,  he 
was  sent  to  Jamaica  to  collect 
birds  and  insects  for  the  British 
Museum.  He  then  devoted  his 
attention  to  marine  zoology,  and 

published  and  illustrated  several     ^  

books  on  the  subject.    He  died  at     throne  -Toom," 
Torquay,  Aug.  23,  1888.  fine  library,  and 

Gota.  River  of  S.W.  Sweden,  a  rich  museum  in 
Issuing  from  Lake  Weiier,  at  its  S.  which  is  included 
extremity,  it  flows  S.S.E.  to  the  a  picture  gallery. 
Kattegat  through  two  arms,  the  There  is  a  well- 
southern  one  passing  Gothenburg,  timbered  park  S.  of  the  palace.  The 
About  65  m.  long,  it  is  navigable  old  Rathaus  (1574),  in  the  Haupt- 


Gotha.  Town  of  Thuringia, 
Germany.  It  stands  on  the  slope 
of  a  hill  15  m.  W.S.  W.  of  Erfurt. 

The  Friedenstein  

Palace,  built 
about  1645,  con- 
tains, in  addition 
to  a  theatre  and 


Gotba  arms 


throughout  its  course.    The  catar- 
act at  Troll hatten  is  surmounted  by 
locks  constructed  1793-1800. 
Gota  Canal.     Waterway  of  S. 


Markt,  has  an  elaborate  fagade. 

Gotha  has  an  observatory,  many 
schools,  and  several  banks  ;  while 
the  famous  map-making  firm  of 


Sweden,  connecting  the  Kattegat  Justus    Perthea     (founded     1785) 

with   the   Baltic.      Starting   from  employs     many     skilled     hands. 

Gothenburg,  and  utilising  the  Gota  The    principal    manufactures    in- 

river  and  Lake  Wener,  the  canal  elude   porcelain,    pianos,    woollen 

leads  to  Lake  Wetter  and  then  con-  goods,  and  machinery,  etc.      Pop. 

tinues  E.  through  small  lakes  to  39,553. 


C    5 


GOTHA 


GOTHIC     ARCHITECTURE 


Gotha.  German  aeroplane.  It 
was  the  type  of  heavier-than-air 
craft  mostly  used  in  raiding  Lon- 
don, Paris,  and  other  large  centres 
during  the  Great  War,  and  was 
capable  of  a  speed  of  about  70  m.  to 
80  m.  an  hour.  It  was  a  biplane 
fitted  with  twin  engines,  with 
pusher  or  tractor  air-screws. 
See  Aeroplane. 

Gotham.  Village  of  Notting- 
hamshire, England.  It  is  associ- 
ated with  the  phrases  "  wise  men 
of  Gotham "  and  "  mad  men  of 
Gotham,"  once  used  as  synonyms 
for  rustic  simpletons,  much  as  Ab- 
derites  was  used  in  ancient  Greece 


IMERRY  TALES1 


Th 


Gotham.     Facsimile  of  the  title  page  of 
an  early  edition  of  the  old  jest  book 

for  the  men  of  Abdera  (qrv. ).  The 
men  of  Gotham  figure  in  the  jest 
books  and  plays  of  the  15th-16th 
centuries,  notably  in  the  Townley 
Mysteries  and  in  the  black  letter 
collection  entitled  Merry  Tales  of 
the  Mad  Men  of  Gotam. 

The  20  tales  or  anecdotes  in  the 
collection  referred  to  include  the 
familiar  jest  of  the  men  who 
hedged  in  a  cuckoo  to  compel  it  to 
sing  all  the  year,  and  the  story  of 
the  man  who  riding  to  market,  with 
two  bushels  of  wheat,  carried  them 
on  his  own  neck  so  that  his  horse 
should  not  bear  too  heavy  a  burden. 

Dekker,  in  The  Gull's  Hornbook, 
1609,  alludes  to  "  the  wise  men  of 
Gotham,"  as  does  the  old  rhyme  : 

Three  wise  men  of  Gotham 
Went  to  sea  in  a  howl  ; 

And  if  the  bowl  had  been  stronger 

My  song  would  liavo  been  Jonser. 
Washington  Irving,  in  Salmagundi, 
1807,   called   New  York   Gotham. 
See   Shakespeare   Jest  Books,  ed. 
W.  C.  Hazlitt,  1864. 

Gothenburg  OR  GOTTEN  BURO 
(Swed.  Goteborg).  Second  largest 
city  and  chief  exporting  seaport  of 
Sweden.  It  stands  on  the  S.W. 


coast,  5   m.   from 

the  mouth  of  the 

river  Gota,  285  m. 

by    rly.    S.W.    of 

Stockholm.       The 

old   ramparts    are 

replaced  by  boule 

vards    adjoining 

the  moat.      The 

city  is  traversed  by 

numerous     canals, 

has  electric  tram 

ways,  and  is  served 

by     six     railways. 

It    has    fine    new 

quarters,     h  a  n  d- 

some   quays,    and 

many  parks,  besides  a    cathedral, 

German     and    English   churches, 

town     hall,     exchange,      museum 

with   pictures  and  statuary,  and  a 

university  and  library. 

Its  spacious  harbour  is  generally 
ice  free.     Exports  include  timber, 
wood    pulp,   joinery,  paper,  card- 
board, iron,  glass,  calcium  carbide, 
matches,    butter,  fish,  and   hides. 
There  are   shipbuilding  yards,  saw 
and  flour  mills,  tanneries,  sugar  re- 
fineries,    breweries,     tobacco    and 
margarine     f  a  c  - 
tories,  and  textile 
and    other  in- 
dustries. 

Founded  by 
Gustavus  Adol- 
phus  in  1619,  it 
was  at  first  settled 
by  f  o  r  e  i  g  n  e  rs,  Gothenburg  arms 
chiefly  Dutch, 

Scots,  and  English.  During  the 
Continental  blockade  of  1806  it 
was  the  chief  British  'base  in  N. 
Europe.  In  1802  the  city  suffered 
from  a  disastrous  conflagration, 
and  in  Nov.,  1920,  the  fishing 
harbour  was  seriously  damaged  by 
fire.  Pop.  197,421. 

Gothenburg  System.  Plan  for 
dealing  with  the  liquor  traffic  intro- 
duced at  Gothenburg,  Sweden, 
about  1871.  Adopted  in  Stockholm 
in  1877,  it  has  spread  to  Norway 
and  other  countries,  and  has  been 
adapted  in  the  United  Kingdom  by 
the  Public  House  Trust  (q.v.). 
Under  the  Gothenburg  system  a 
company  may  buy  up  existing 
licences  and  open  in  place  of  the 
old  licensed  houses  a  limited 
number  of  establishments  for  the 
sale  of  pure  liquor,  the  salaried 
managers  of  which  have  no  pe- 
cuniary interest  in  the  sale  of  the 
liquor.  Each  company  is  under  mu- 
nicipal control,  and  all  profit  be- 
yond the  realization  of  5  p.c.  on  the 
capital  expenditure  is  handed  over 
to  the  civic  authorities,  with  the 
two-fold  result  of  lowering  the  rates 
and  checking  the  cost  of  main- 
taining those  impoverished  by  in- 
temperance. See  Liquor  Traffic: 
Temperance. 


Gothenburg,  Sweden.     North  Hamngatan,  one  of  the 
quays  on  the  Storahamn  canal,  which  traverses  the  city 

Gothic  (late  Lat.  Gothicus). 
Term  meaning  connected  with  the 
Goths.  Originally  it  was  applied  to 
certain  distinguishing  features  of 
the  Middle  Ages  as  contrasted  with 
those  of  classical  times,  and  con- 
noted rudeness  or  want  of  polish 
The  term  is  also  applied  to  a  certain 
phase  of  art  and  architecture  ;  to 
type  used  for  printing  German, 
black-faced  and  pointed  letters  for- 
merly called  black  letter ;  and  to  the 
Mozarabic  liturgy  spoken  by  the 
Christians  of  Toledo,  which  was 
supposed  to  have  been  introduced 
into  Spain  by  the  Visigoths  or 
Western  Goths. 

The  Gothic  language  is  now 
generally  assigned  to  the  E.  Ger- 
manic branch  of  the  Teutonic 
group.  Originally  spoken  by  the 
Visigoths,  who  in  the  4th  century 
occupied  Dacia  and  Moesia,  it  sur- 
vived until  the  16th  century  in  the 
Crimea.  The  alphabet,  the  in- 
vention of  which  is  attributed  to 
Ulphilas  (q.v.),  consisted  of  24  let- 
ters, based  upon  the  Greek,  but  also 
contained  some  Latin  characters 
and  runic  symbols  (see  Rune). 
Some  idea  of  this  Gothic,  or,  rather, 
Moeso-Gothic  language,  is  fur- 
nished by  the  fragmentary  remains 
of  the  translation  of  *the  Bible  by 
Ulphilas,  discovered  in  Germany 
and  now  in  the  library  of  the  uni- 
versity of  Upsala,  and  of  one  or  two 
other  documents,  together  with  a 
portion  of  a  calendar,  found  in 
Italy.  See  Goths ;  Typography. 

Gothic  Architecture.  Manner 
of  building  practised  in  Western 
Europe,  especially  in  France,  from 
about  1150-1550.  Before  the 
earlier  date  a  traditional  use  of 
Roman  forms  had  lingered  on  in 
some  degree  and  in  rude  ways.  The 
styles  of  art  then  practised  are, 
therefore,  now  usually  called  Ro- 
manesque. The  word  Gothic  at 
first  was  applied  to  Romanesque 
art  as  well  and  was  used  in  the 
sense  of  barbaric.  In  reality,  how- 
ever, Gothic  architecture  is  one  of 
the  most  remarkable  and  refined 
types  of  building  art  ever  prac- 
tised. Gothic  art  is  also  frequently 


ANGLO -NORMAN 


m 

Window,  S.  John's,  Devizes  =  1160         S.John's  Chapel,     Tower^of    London  .   1076 West   Front.    Iff  ley  Church,  Oxford  =  c.1170 

EARLY     ENGLISH 


Early  English 
foliage  bracket 
S'-Albans  Cathedra) 


*    Vaulted    roof, 
Westminster  Abbey,  c  1260 


DECORATED 


Foliated  capital, 

Chapter  House, 

Southwell  Cathedral  ••  1300 


Doorway, 
chfield  Cathedral^  c  1330 


PERPENDICULAR 


Capital,  All  Hallows' Church, 
Wellingborough^cl450 


Window  iamb  5  mullion.  jl 
All  Sainb;  MaiJstone  i 


^-";         ^^S 


S.Mar,S,0,forj;|486 


Flying  buttress,  Sherborne-.cl470 


Flower  ornament, Henry  Vll's  Chapel. 
Westminster-  c  1510 


Ornamented   moulding, 
i,  Somerset 


Whitchurch, 


\^ffi^'v*  :i~ 

Sutton  Place ,  Guildford  =  1523 


Section  of  same 
Oriel  window,  Mentacute, Somerset- c.1580 


GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE:   ITS   DEVELOPMENT   IN    ENGLAND    FROM   ANGLO-NORMAN    TO  TUDOR 

Specially  drawn  for  Harmsworlh's  Universal   Encyclopedia  by  Harold  Oakley 


GOTHLAND 


3620 


GOTHS 


called  medieval,  but  this  also  ap- 
plies only  to  western  Europe  ;  me- 
dieval art  in  Persia  or  India,  for 
instance,  is  not  Gothic. 

About  the  middle  of  the  12th 
century,  especially  in  Paris  and  its 
neighbourhood,  all  the  inherited 
forms  of  building  were  gradually 
changed  under  the  influence  of 
great  dominating  principles.  The 
leading  ideas  were  freedom,  energy, 
and  delight.  There  was  a  great 
outburst  of  building  fervour  especi- 
ally in  churches,  and  under  this 
impulse  the  building  art  became 
entirely  experimental  and  organic. 
The  modern  development  of  iron 
structures  like  great  bridges  is  in 
some  degree  a  parallel  phenomenon; 
these,  too,  are  experimental  and 
organic,  but  only  in  regard  to  aims 
limited  to  commercial  profit  and 
political  power. 

Constructive  Balance 

The  chief  problem  the  medieval 
builders  set  themselves  to  solve 
was  the  erection  of  vast  cathedral 
buildings  having  high  stone  vaults. 
Now,  arches  and  vaults  are  active 
things  always  tending  to  push  out- 
wards and  fall ;  thus  these  build- 
ings came  to  be  conceived  as  pro- 
blems in  equilibrium.  The  higher 
central  vaults  of  the  nave  were 
usually  sustained  on  either  side  by 
lower  vaults  over  the  aisles,  and 
arched  stone  props,  called  flying 
buttresses,  were  built  from  the 
outer  walls  of  these  aisles  to  the 
upper  part  of  the  main  building  or 
clerestory.  These  arched  props 
were  placed  only  at  intervals  be- 
tween the  windows  ;  at  the  outer 
ends  they  rose  from  strong  but- 
tress masses  built  out  from  the 
aisle  walls.  In  some  of  the  greater 
French  cathedrals  there  are  two 
aisles  on  each  side  of  the  central 
span,  the  outer  ones  being  the 
lowest.  At  the  middle  point  of  all, 
over  the  intersection  of  the  nave 
and  transepts,  a  tall  lantern  tower 
was  frequently  built ;  the  whole 
plan  and  design  turned  on  this 
question  of  constructive  balance. 

Jn  all  the  minor  parts  and  details, 
a  similar  general  idea  of  functional 
service  was  developed,  pillars 
became  very  tall,  and  large 
windows  spread  over  the  walls 
between  the  supporting  points. 
Still  further  beyond  the  actual 
needs  of  structure,  the  expression 
of  tense  and  active  service 
was  increased  by  breaking  up  the 
edges  of  arches  and  pillars  into 
many  deeply  cut  mouldings,  but 
these  and  the  many  delightful 
forms  of  tracery  and  sculpture 
were  means  to  what  was  thought 
to  be  proper  finish,  and  do  not  be- 
long to  the  structural  system 
proper.  It  was  these  details,  how- 
ever, that  caught  the  eyes  of  the 


older  students  of  Gothic  architec- 
ture, which  came  to  be  thought  of 
as  a  picturesque  grouping  of  towers 
and  traceried  windows  and  pin- 
nacles and  parapets. 

The  great  spring-time  of  Gothic 
art  was  the  hundred  years  from 
1150-1250;  then  came  a  century 
or  so  of  strong  maturity,  and  then 
a  gradual  decline.  In  England, 
Canterbury  Cathedral  was  built  by 
a  French  master-mason  from  about 
1175,  but  a  clear  expression  of  the 
Gothic  spirit  hardly  became  general 
before  1200.  At  the  middle  of  the 
13th  century,  Westminster  Abbey 
and  Salisbury  Cathedral  were  being 
built,  and  great  works  were  in 
progress  at  most  of  the  other 
cathedrals,  and  at  scores  of  abbeys. 

The  development  of  Gothic 
architecture  from  first  to  last  was 
so  regular  that  examples  can  be 
dated  with  fair  accuracy  at  sight. 
In  England  the  style  of  work  which 
is  most  characteristic  of  the  13th 
century  has  been  called  Early  Eng- 
lish, the  typical  work  of  the  14th 
century  is  Decorated,  and  that  of 
the  15th  century  is  Perpendicular. 
Although  the  'perfecting  of  the 
stone- vaulted  cathedral  was  the 
great  task  of  Gothic  architecture, 
yet  all  other  building  problems,  as 
the  castle,  bridge,  town  hall,  and 
house,  were  dealt  with  in  the  same 
spirit.  Gothic  and  the  other  style- 
names  here  mentioned  are  all 
modern  ;  to  those  who  executed  it 
their  work  was  merely  good  build- 
ing. Sec.  Architecture  ;  Cathedral ; 
Cologne.  W.  R.  Lethaby 

Bibliography.  Principles  of  Gothic 
Architecture,  M.  H.  Bloxam, 
llth.  ed.  1882  ;  Development  and 
Character  of  Gothic  Architecture, 
C.  H.  Moore,  1899  ;  A  History  of 
Gothic  Art  in  England,  E.  S.  Prior, 
1900  ;  Gothic  Architecture  in  Eng- 
land, F.  Bond,  1905  ;  Medieval 
Architecture,  A.  C.  Porter,  1909  ; 
Architecture  for  General  Readers, 
H.  H.  Statham,  1909  ;  Gothic 
Architecture  in  France,  England, 
and  Italy,  2  vols.,  1915. 

Gothland  (Swed.  Gottland). 
Largest  island  in  the  Baltic  Sea, 
belonging  to  Sweden.  It  lies  about 
58  m.  off  the  S.E.  coast  of  the 
Scandinavian  peninsula,  and  is  76 
m.  long  and  30m. broad,  with  an  area 
of  1220  sq.  m.  A  level  limestone 
plateau,  with  an  alt.  of  from  80  ft. 
to  100  ft.,  encircled  by  cliffs  and 
broken  by  bays,  its  soil  is  fairly 
fertile  and  the  climate  com- 
paratively mild.  It  is  well  wooded 
and  the  marshes  have  been  drained. 
Cattle,  ponies,  and  sheep  are 
reared,  and  cereals,  sugar  beet, 
fish,  lime,  stone,  and  timber  are 
produced.  There  are  some  80  m. 
of  rly.  and  several  small  towns. 

In"  the  Middle  Ages  Gothland 
was  a  member  of  the  Hanseatic 


League,  and  since  then  it  has  had 
various  owners,  finally  becoming 
Swedish  in  1645.  From  its  form 
and  situation  it  has  been  called  fche 
Eye  of  the  Baltic.  The  capital  is 
Visby.  Pop.  56,028. 

Gothland,  GOTALAND  OR 
GOTARIKE.  Most  southerly  of  the 
three  old  pro  vs.  of  Sweden.  It  is 
subdivided  into  12  lans  or  depart- 
ments. Mountainous  and  forested 
in  the  N.,  and  including  lakes 
Wener  and  Wetter,  it  also  con- 
tains some  of  the  most  productive 
soil  in  the  country.  Gothenburg 
(q.v.)  is  the  largest  town. 

Gothlandian.  System  of  strati- 
fied rocks,  developed  in  Shropshire, 
Wales,  the  Lake  District,  southern 
Scotland,  and  north-eastern  and 
central  Ireland.  They  are  named 
after  the  island  of  Gothland, 
where  they  are  typically  de- 
veloped. They  consist  of  two 
main  types  of  rocks ;  a  great 
thickness  of  limestones,  sandstones, 
and  shales,  containing  fossil  re- 
mains of  brachiopods,  corals, 
molluscs,  and  trilobites;  and  beds 
of  fine-grained  deposits  —  dark 
shales  and  mudstones — containing 
graptolites. 

Three  modern  divisions  are  the 
Valentian  (at  base),  Salopian,  and 
Downtonian.  Formerly  they  were 
divided  into  Llandovery,  Wenlock, 
and  Ludlow  series,  but  correlation 
in  different  areas  was  difficult 
owing  to  variation  in  facies.  At 
the  top  of  Ludlow  the  Ledbury 
shales  (Downtonian)  form  passage 
beds  into  the  overlying  Old  Red 
Sandstone  of  the  Devonian  system. 
Rocks  of  Gothlandian  age  are 
well  developed  in  Scandinavia, 
Bohemia,  Normandy,  Brittany,  and 
the  Baltic  provinces. 

Goths.  Teutonic  people  of  the 
Scandinavian  branch.  In  the  1st 
century  A.D.  they  appear  to  have 
been  dwelling  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  Baltic  and  the  river 
Vistula.  In  the  3rd  century  they 
had  migrated  southwards  and  were 
spreading  along  the  N.  of  the  Black 
Sea  and  the  Lower  Danube.  In  the 
second  half  of  that  century  they 
annihilated  the  army  of  the 
emperor  Decius,  were  heavily  de- 
feated later  by  Claudius,  and  were 
finally  allowed  by  Aurelian  to 
settle  in  Dacia.  There  they  were 
known  as  the  Visigoths  or  Western 
Goths,  while  the  tribes  which 
remained  in  the  E.  were  called 
Ostrogoths. 

They  dwelt  on  friendly  terms 
with  the  Roman  Empire  for  the 
next  hundred  years,  but  towards 
the  close  of  the  4th  century  the 
pressure  of  the  Huns  (q.v.),  who 
subjugated  the  Ostrogoths,  forced 
the  Visigoths  to  push  over  the 
Danube,  and  the  emperor  Theo- 


GOTHS 

dosius  compromised  with  them  by 
allowing  their  settlement  in  Thrace. 
They  had  already  adopted  the 
Arian  form  of  Christianity,  taught 
by  the  missionary  Ulphilas  (q.v.). 
Invasion  of  Italy 

After  the  division  of  the  empire 
between  the  two  young  sons  of 
Theodosius,  a  new  migratory  move- 
ment began  among  the  Goths. 
Gothic  cohorts  had  been  embodied 
in  the  Roman  army  ;  an  injudicious 
reduction  in  their  pay  stirred  the 
Visigoths  to  revolt  under  the 
leadership  of  Alaric  the  Amaling. 
Alaric  was  pacified  by  being  made 
governor  of  Illyricum,  but,  in  400, 
he  led  his  Visigoths  to  invade  the 
Western  Empire,  by  way  of  N. 
Italy.  He  was  held  back  for  a  time 
by  Stilicho,  but  in  408,  when 
Stilicho  was  dead,  Alaric  renewed 
his  invasion,  swept  through  north- 
ern Italy,  and  in  410  captured  and 
sacked  the  city  of  Rome  for  the 
first  time  since  its  capture  by  the 
Gauls  800  years  before.  Though 
the  Goths  wrought  much  devas- 
tation they  were  distinguished  as 
being  by  far  the  least  cruel  of  bar- 
barian conquerors  ;  and  the  im- 
pressive majesty  which  still  at- 
tached to  the  name  Rome  is 
emphasised  by  the  strange  fact 
that  Alaric  chose  not  to  set  himself 
on  the  imperial  throne,  but  to  act 
as  lieutenant  of  the  emperor. 

Although  the  Goths  might  have 
taken  possession  of  Italy,  Ataulf, 


362  1 

who  succeeded  Alaric,  in  411  with- 
drew his  Visigoths  into  southern 
Gaul.  There  the  Gothic  kingdom 
of  Toulouse  was  set  up,  in  nominal 
subordination  to  the  Roman  em- 
pire. In  451  its  king,  Theodoric, 
joined  with  the  Roman  general 
Aetius  in  inflicting  a  decisive  defeat 
upon  Attila  (q.v.)  and  the  Huns, 
when  Theodoric  himself  was  killed. 

The  kingdom  of  Toulouse  em- 
braced Spain  as  well  as  southern 
Gaul.  The  Goths,  in  fact,  were 
granted  the  sovereignty  of  this 
territory  as  an  official  recognition 
of  their  services  to  the  Roman 
empire  in  Spain,  which  had  been 
conquered  by  Ataulfs  successor 
Wallia.  The  peninsula  had  just 
before  been  overrun  by  a  kindred 
but  infinitely  more  cruel  race,  the 
Vandals  (q.v.).  Wallia's  conquest, 
nominally  the  recovery  of  Spain 
from  the  Vandals,  drove  that 
people  into  the  southern  portion  of 
it,  which  still  bears  the  name  of 
Andalusia  ;  later  they  migrated  to 
Africa.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
6th  century  the  kingdom  of  Tou- 
louse was  overthrown  by  the 
Franks  (q.v.)  under  Clovis,  whose 
career  was  checked  by  the  Ostro- 
goth Theodoric  (to  be  distinguished 
from  Theodoric  the  Visigoth). 

In  Spain  the  Gothic  dominion 
continued.  By  the  middle  of  the 
century  it  had  reverted  to  the  form 
of  an  elective  monarchy  which  had 
prevailed  among  the  Goths  under 


GOTHS 

the  old  tribal  system.  In  one  of  the 
revolutions  which  are  the  normal 
accompaniment  of  elective  monar- 
chies, a  prince  named  Ermengild, 
who  had  relinquished  Arianism  for 
orthodox  Christianity,  earned  the 
martyr's  crown  by  refusing  to 
revert  to  Arianism,  but  in  the  reign 
of  his  brother  Reccared,  the  Gothic 
people  conformed  to  the  prevailing 
creed  of  Western  Europe  and 
adopted  orthodox  Christianity. 
The  Saracens  in  Spain 

The  Church,  hitherto  hostile, 
now  became  friendly,  but  its  friend- 
ship became  more  dangerous  than 
its  enmity,  since  the  rulers  fell 
under  the  domination  of  Church- 
men, who  in  their  own  interests 
hindered,  instead  of  helping,  all 
efforts  to  centralize  the  govern- 
ment. The  Saracens  invaded 
Spain,  and  the  last  Gothic  king, 
Roderic,  was  overthrown  in  the 
great  seven  days'  battle  of  the 
Guadaleto  in  711.  The  Moors 
overran  the  peninsula,  and  the 
surviving  Goths  were  driven  into 
the  remote  fastnesses. 

The  Ostrogoths  had  fallen  under 
subjection  to  the  Huns,  but  when 
the  Hun  empire  broke  up  on  the 
death  of  Attila  they  reappeared  on 
the  middle  Danube.  Thence  about 
470  they  descended  into  the  Balkan 
peninsula.  Their  young  king  Theo- 
doric emulated  the  career  of 
Alaric.  Acting  as  lieutenant  of  the 
eastern  emperor  Zeno,  he  carried 


Goths. 


The  Goths  in  Italy,  from  the  painting  by  P.  F.  Poole,  R.A.,  depicting  one  of  the  drunken  orgies  to  which  the 
barbarians  of  the  north  abandoned  themselves  when  they  encountered  the  luxuries  of  Italy 

Manchester  Art  Gallery 


GOTO 

his  Ostrogoths  into  Italy,  over- 
threw Odoacer,  the  Teutonic  chief 
who  had  deposed  the  last  of  the 
Roman  emperors,  and  established 
himself  as  the  vicegerent  of  Zeno. 
He  proved  a  soldier  and  legislator 
of  exceptional  ability,  but  died 
in  526. 

The  emperor  Justinian  resolved 
to  make  his  dominion  in  Italy  a 
reality  ;  his  general  Belisarius  (q.v. ) 
temporarily  wrested  the  supremacy 
from  the  Goths ;  after  his  depar- 
ture they  recovered  their  ascend- 
ancy under  Totila,  a  worthy  suc- 
cessor of  Theodoric.  Belisarius 
failed  to  overthrow  him,  but  the 
task  was  finally  accomplished  by 
Narses.  The  Ostrogoths,  their 
power  completely  shattered,  re- 
treated to  the  N.,  dispersed,  and 
were  never  heard  of  more. 

Riblioyraphy.  History  of  Latin 
Christianity,  H.  H.  Milman,  4th  ed. 
1 883  ;  The  Goths,  H.  Bradley,  1888; 
Decline  and  Fall,  E.  Gibbon,  ed.  J. 
B.  Bury,  1909-14;  Italy  and  her 
Invaders,  T.Hodgkin,  2nd.  ed.  1916. 

Goto  OR  GOTTO.  Group  of 
islands  off  the  S.W.  extremity  of 
Japan.  They  lie  W.  of  Kiushiu  and 
60  m.  W.  of  the  port  of  Nagasaki. 
Known  also  as  the  Five  Islands, 
the  largest  are  Fukai,  Hisaka, 
and  Nakadori.  Fukai  is  25  m.  in 
length. 

Gotterdammerung.  German 
name  for  the  Norse  Ragnarok,  or 
the  Twilight  of  the  Gods;  the 
break-up  of  the  power  of  the  gods 
of  Teutonic  mythology  which 
would  result  in  a  new  cosmogony. 
Wagner  (q.v.)  made  it  the  theme  of 
one  of  his  operas. 

Gottesberg.  Town  of  Silesia, 
Germany.  Lying  at  an  alt.  of  1,900 
ft.,  46  m.  S.W.  of  Breslau,  its  in- 
dustries include  coal -mining,  and 
linen  and  hosiery  manufactures. 
Pop.  10,644. 

Gottfried  von  Strassburg  (fl. 
1210).  German  poet.  His  unfin- 
ished epic  Tristan,  adapted  from 
the  French,  is  the  only  work  that 
can  with  certainty  be  ascribed  to 
him.  In  this  poem,  distinguished 
by  style  and  beauty  of  expression, 
the  author  exhibits  remarkable 
psychological  insight. 

Gottingen.  Town  of  Germany. 
In  the  Prussian  province  of  Han- 
over, it  stands  on  the  Leine,  67  m. 
from  Hanover.  Above  the  town 
rises  the  Hainberg.  There  is  an  old 
town  and  a  new  town ;  the  former 
is  still  surrounded  by  its  fortifica- 
tions, which  have  been  turned  into 
promenades.  In  and  around  its 
narrow  streets  are  Gottingen's 
most  interesting  buildings ;  the 
Rathaus,  built  in  the  14th  century 
and  restored  in  the  18th,  and  the 
churches  of  S.  John  and  S.  James. 
Here,  too,  are  some  curious  old 


3622 

houses.  In  the  market-place,  in 
front  of  the  Rathaus,  is  the  goose- 
girl  fountain.  The  chief  industries 
are  the  making  of  chemicals, 
scientific  instruments,  and  textiles, 
while  it  is  a  publishing  centre  A 
canal,  really  an  arm  of  the  Leine, 
flows  through  the  town.  When 
Hanover  formed  a  separate  king- 
dom, Gottingen  was  one  of  its  chief 
towns,  while  it  was  an  important 
place  also  in  the  duchy  of  Bruns- 
wick, which  preceded  Hanover.  It 


Gottingen.     Johannis  Strasse,  one  of  the  old  thorough- 
fares, showing  the  tower  of  S.  John's  Church 

became  a  corporate  town  about 
1200,  joined  the  Hanseatic  League, 
.and  in  the  18th  century  was  a 
literary  centre.  During  the  Great 
War  there  was  a  prisoner-of-war 
camp  here. 

Gottingen  is  chiefly  famous  for 
its  university,  founded  by  the  Eng- 
lish King  George  II  in  1734.  Jt 
rapidly  became  noted,  owing  to  the 
high  quality  of  its  teachers.  In 
1837  seven  of  its  professors,  the 
two  Grimms,  Ewald,  and  Dahl- 
mann  among  them,  were  expelled 
for  protesting  against  the  act  of 
King  Ernest  Augustus  in  taking 
from  the  people  a  constitution 
granted  in  1830.  The  main  build- 
ing is  on  the  W  ilhelmsplatz.  The 
university  has  also  a  library,  one 
of  the  richest  in  Germany,  labora- 
tories and  museums,  an  observa- 
tory, botanical  garden,  "and  hos- 
pitals. Gottingen  has  also  several 
scientific  and  other  societies.  Pop. 
37,600. 

Gottschall,  RUDOLF  VON  (1823- 
1909).  German  author.  Born  at 
Breslau,  Sept.  30,  1823,  after  study- 
ing at  Konigsberg,  Breslau,  and 
Perl  in  universities,  he  applied  him- 
self to  dramatic  literature.  An 
ardent  liberal,  under  the  excite- 
ment of  the  revolution  of  1848  he 
produced  three  tragedies,  an  epic, 
and  a  volume  of  poems.  In  1854 
appeared  Carlo  Zeno,  an  epic  poem, 
also  an  historical  comedy,  Pitt  und 
Fox.  Thereafter  his  output  of 


GOUDA 

plays  and  miscellaneous  work  was 
great,  the  former  being  collected 
in  1884  in  12  vols.  His  best  novel 
was  Im  Banne  des  Schwarzen 
Adlers,  1877.  He  died  Dec.  18, 1909. 
Gottsched,  JOHANN  CHRISTOPH 
(1700-66).  German  critic.  Boni 
at  Judithenkirch,  near  Konigs- 
berg, he  began  early  to  lecture  at 
Leipzig,  where  he  became  a  pro- 
fessor in  1734.  He  sought  to  re- 
form the  German  drama,  and  es- 
tablish poetry  as  a  matter  of 
definite  rule.  For 
a  time  his  influence 
was  considerable, 
and  he  was  re- 
garded as a  prophet 
of  German  literary 
culture, inspired  by 
French  models.  He 
died  at  Leipzig, 
Dec.  12,  1766. 

Gouda  OR  TER 
Gouw.      Town   of 
the  Netherlands,  in 
the    prov.    of    S. 
Holland.  It  stands 
on    the    Yssel    at 
its    junction    with 
the  Gouw,   12  m. 
N.E.     of     Rotter- 
dam, and  is  inter- 
sected in  all  direc- 
tions by  a  system 
of  canals.     Notable  buildings  are 
the  Groote  Kerk,  founded  in  1485 
and  rebuilt  in  1552,  and  the  Stad- 
huis,  built  1449-59. 

The  principal  industries  are  the 
manufacture  of  candles,  cigars, 
twine,  pottery,  pipes,  and  the 
famous  cheese.  A  trade  in  cattle 
and  cereals  is  carried  on.  Gouda 
canal  connects  Amsterdam  with 
the  Lek  oil  refineries.  Pop.  29.704. 


Gouda.       The     Gothic     Stadhuis, 
built  in  1449-59,  with  the  Renais- 
sance staircase,  1603 


GOUGH 


3623 


GOULARD'S  EXTRACT 


1st  Viscount  Gough, 
British  soldier 


After  J.  Jackson,  11. A. 


Gough,  HUGH  GOUGH,  IST  VIS- 
COUNT (1779-1869).  British  soldier. 
Born  at  Woodstovvn,  co.  Limerick, 
Nov.  3, 1779,  he 
belonged  to  a 
family  that  had 
long  lived  in 
Ireland.  In 
1794  he  entered 
the  army,  and 
took  part  in 
various  expedi- 
t  i  o  n  s  against 
France  and  her 
allies.  In  1809 
he  went  to 
Spain,  and  in  the  Peninsular  War 
made  a  reputation  by  his  gallantry 
and  also  as  a  regimental  leader. 
After  1819  he  served  in  Ireland. 

In  1837  he  commanded  a  division 
in  India,  whence  he  went  to  China 
as  commander-in-chief  during  the 
war  of  1840-41.  In  1845  he 
was  made  commander-in-chief  in 
India,  and  as  such  he  took  the 
field  against  the  Mahrattas  in  1843, 
and  against  the  Sikhs  in  1845.  He 
crushed  the  Sikhs,  his  culminating 
victory  being  at  Sobraon,  but  in 
1848  they  rose  again  in  arms. 
Gough  met  them  at  Chillianwalla, 
and,  although  that  combat  was  not 
decisive,  a  victory  at  Gujarat  put 
an  end  to  their  resistance  before 
the  order  for  his  recall  reached 
him.  In  1846,  being  already  a 
baronet,  he  was  made  a  baron,  arid 
in  1849  a  viscount.  A  field-marshal, 
he  died  March  2,  1869. 

Gough  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  George,  and  then  by  his  grand- 
son Hugh  (1849-1919),  who  be- 
came the  3rd  viscount  in  1895. 

Gough,  StR  HUBERT  DE  LA 
POER  (b.  1870).  British  soldier. 
Born  Aug.  12.  1870,  of  a  famous 
Irish  family  of 
soldiers,  he  was 
educated  at 
Eton  and  Sand- 
hurst, and  in 
1 S89  joined  the 
Kith  Lancers. 
He  served  in 
the  Tirah  ex- 
pedition, 1897- 
98,  and  after- 
wards  went 
through  the  S. 
African  War.  In  1907  he  took  over 
the  command  of  the  16th  Lancers. 
Then  serving  in  Ireland,  Gough  re- 
signed his  commission  rather  than 
proceed  against  Ulster,  but,  this 
difficulty  adjusted,  he  took  the  3rd 
cavalry  brigade  to  France  in  Aue., 

1914,  and  was  later  given  the  com- 
mand of  a  division,  and  in  July, 

1915,  of  the  1st  corps. 

In  July,  1916,  he  was  placed  at 
the  head  of  the  5th  army,  which 
he  had  led  during  the  battle  of  the 
Somme.  In  1917  his  tactics  at  the 


Sir  Hubert  Gough, 
British  soldier 


third  battle  of  Ypres  were  criti- 
cised as  unduly  costly,  but  he  was 
still  with  his  army  when  the  Ger- 
mans broke  through  the  British 
line  in  March,  1918.  He  did  every- 
thing possible  to  stay  the  rush,  but 
was  held  responsible  for  the  disas- 
ter and  recalled.  In  1919  he  was 
appointed  head  of  a  military  mis- 
sion to  coordinate  allied  effort  in 
the  Baltic  States.  Gough  was 
knighted  in  1916,  and  made  a 
lieutenant-general  in  1917.  See 
The  Fifth  Army  in  March,  1918, 
by  W.  S.  Sparrow,  with  a  foreword 
by  Gen.  Sir  H.  Gough,  1921. 

Gough,  JOHN  BARTHOLOMEW 
(1817-86).  American  temperance 
lecturer.  Born  at  Sandgate,  Kent, 
England,  Aug. 
22,  1817,  he 
went  to  Amer- 
ica, and  in  1831  i  nw 
became  a  book  «JM 
binder  in  New  ^  -^g 

York.  Drunk 
enness  and  a 
dissolute  life, 
which  hastened 
the  death 
of  his  wife 
and  child, 
brought  him  to  destitution.  Be- 
friended by  a  Quaker,  he  took 
the  pledge  in  1842,  and  soon  be- 
came a  powerful  and  convincing 
lecturer  on  temperance,  himself 
furnishing  a  useful  illustration  of 
his  text.  In  1853  he  lectured  in 
London.  He  died  Feb.  18, 1886. 

Gough,   JOHN  EDMOND    (1871- 
1915).    British  soldier.     Born  Oct. 
25,   1871,   he  was  the  son  of  Sir 
Charles  Gough,  V.C.,  and  nephew 
of     Sir     Hugh 
Gough,  V.C. 
He  entered  the 
1    army  in  1892, 
1   joining    the 
I    Hi  He    Brigade, 
i    and   served   in 
I    British  Central 
i    Africa,     1896- 
1    97,     the     Nile 
John Edmond Gough,    Campaign, 
British  soldier          1898<  and    the 
supine  gi  African  War, 

1899-1902.  He  took  part  in  the 
Somaliland  operations,  1902-3,  and 
commanded  the  force  in  action  at 
Daratoleh,  1903,  where  he  gained 
the  V.C.  He  was  at  the  head  of  the 
Somaliland  force,  1908-9,  and  later 
inspector-general,  of  the  King's 
African  Rifles.  He  took  part  in 
the  Great  War,  1914-15,  and  his 
death  on  Feb.  22,  1915,  was  the 
result  of  a  stray  German  bullet. 

Gough- Calthorpe,  SIR  SOMER- 
SET ARTHUR  (b.  1864).  British 
sailor.  A  son  of  Lord  Calthorpe, 
he  was  born  Dec.  23,  1864,  and 
entered  the  navy  in  1878.  He 
served  in  the  naval  brigade  in  the 


Sir  S.  A.  Gough- 

Calthorpe, 
British  sailor 

Lafayette 


Nigerian  Expedition  of  1895,  was 
naval  attache  at  St.  Petersburg 
during  the  Russo-Japanese  War, 
1904-5,  and  in 
the  Great  War 
commanded 
the  2nd  cruiser 
s  q  u  a  d  r  o  n, 
1914-16.  In 
1918  he  was 
appointed 
second  Sea 
Lord,  and  in 
1917  was 
placed  in  com- 
mand of  the 
coastguard 
and  reserves.  Next  year  he  was 
appointed  command'er-'n- chief  in 
the  Mediterranean,  and  in  Nov., 
1H1S,  high  commissioner  at  Con- 
stantinople. From  1920  to  1923 
he  was  commander-in-chiet  in 
Portsmouth.  Kniphted  in  1916,  he 
was  promoted  admiral  in  1919, 

Gouin,  Sin  LOMEII  (b.  1861). 
Canadian  politician. 
Grondines,  Quebec, 
1861,  the  son 
of  a  lawyer, 
he  was  edu- 
cated at  Levis 
and  at  Laval 
University, 
Montreal.  In 
1884  he  be- 
came a  bar- 
rister, and  in 
1897  was  re- 
turned to  the 
provincial  legislature  by  a  division 
of  Montreal.  In  1900  he  took  office 
as  minister  for  public  works  in 
Quebec,  and  in  1905,  having  just 
resigned,  he  was  recognized  as  the 
man  to  form  a  strong  government, 
acceptable  to  the  French  Canadians 
and  Roman  Catholics.  He  held  office 
until  July,  1920.  In  1921-3  he  was 
minister  of  justice  for  Canada. 

Goujon,  JEAN  (c.  1515-67). 
French  sculptor.  A  native  of  Nor- 
mandy, probably  born  in  Rouen,  hi 
1541-42  he  executed  various  sculp- 
tures for  the  cathedral  and  the 
church  of  S.  Maclou  in  that  city. 
Shortly  afterwards  he  removed  to 
Paris,  where  his  connexion  with 
the  Louvre  established  and  pre- 
served his  reputation.  He  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  decoration 
of  the  building — his  four  Caryatides 
being  famous — and  some  of  the 
finest  examples  of  his  genius  have 
found  a  home  there. 

Goulard's  Extract.  Strong 
solution  of  lead  subacetate.  It  is 
prepared  by  boiling  lead  oxide  and 
lead  acetate  with  water.  It  was 
discovered  by  Thomas  Goulard 
(1720-90)  of  Montpellier,  and  in  a 
diluted  form  is  known  as  Goulard's 
lotion  or  water.  It  is  used  as  an 
application  for  wounds. 


Sir  Lomer  Gouin, 
Canadian  politician 


GOULBURN 


3624 


GOUNOD 


Goulburn.  River  of  Victoria, 
Australia.  It  is  345  m.  long,  a 
tributary  of  the  Murray,  which  it 
joins  9  m.  E.  of  Echuca.  It  flows 
in  a  N.W.  direction  through  good 
agricultural  and  gold-bearing 
country,  and  is  stocked  with  trout. 
It  is  navigable  in  its  lower  reaches. 
Goulburn.  Town  of  New  South 
Wales.  A  rly.  junction  ]  34  m.  S.  W. 
of  Sydney  on  the  main  line  to  Mel- 
bourne, it  stands  on  the  Wollon- 
dilly  river,,  in  an  agricultural, 
dairying  district.  It  possesses  two 
cathedrals,  Anglican  and  Roman 
Catholic,  fine  public  buildings,  and 
tanneries,  boot  factories,  breweries, 
and  flour  mills.  Pop.  10,023. 

Gould,  SIR  ALFRED  PEARCE 
(1852-1922).  British  surgeon.  Son 
of  George  Gould,  a  Baptist  minister, 
he  was  edu- 
cated at  Amer- 
sham  Hall 
School,  Read- 
ing, and  Uni- 
versityCollege, 
London,  where 
he  graduated 
i  n  medicine. 
In  1877  he 
joined  the  staff  Sir  A.  Pearce  Gould, 
of  the  West-  British  surgeon 
minster  Hos-  Kwssel1 

pital,  and  in  1882  that  of  the 
Middlesex  Hospital,  where  he  be- 
came lecturer  and  consulting  sur- 
geon. As  a  surgeon,  he  soon  had  a 
large  practice,  and  his  reputation 
won  for  him  the  position  of  presi- 
dent of  the  Medical  Society  of 
London  and  other  honours.  He 
was  also  vice-chancellor  of  London 
University  and  president  of  the 
Rontgen  Society.  During  the 
Great  War  he  was  surgeon  in 
charge  at  one  of  the  great  London 
hospitals.  Knighted  in  ]9J1,  Sir 
Alfred  wrote  several  works  on 
surgery,  a  notable  one  being  The 
Elements  of  Surgical  Diagnosis, 
5th  ed.  1919.  He  died  April  19",  1922. 
Gould,  SIR  FRANCIS  CARRUTIJERS 
(1844-1925).  British  caricaturist. 
Born  at  Barnstaple,  Dec.  2,  1844, 
tor  many  years 
he  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Lon- 
don Stock  Ex- 
change, where 
his  talent  for 
producing 
clever  sketches 
of  a  humorous 
and  satirical 
order  became 
1  w  e  1 1  known. 
Having  illus- 
trated the 
Christmas  numbers  of  Truth  with 
remarkable  acceptance,  he  formally 
embarked  upon  the  profession  of 
caricaturist,  working  for  The  Pall 
Mall  Gazette. 


E.  a. 


Later  he  transferred  his  services 
to  The  Westminster  Gazette,  of 
which  his  cartoons  soon  became  an 
outstanding  feature.  Many  of  his 
political  pictures  have  appeared 
in  volume  form,  and  his  other 
publications  include  Froissart's 
Modem  Chronicles.  He  was 
knighted  1900 ;  died  Jan.  1,  1925. 
Gould,  GEORGE  JAY  (b.  J864). 
American  capitalist.  Eldest  son  of 
Jay  Gould,  he  was  born  Feb.  6, 
1864,  and  in  1885  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  New  York  Stock  Ex- 
change. A  partner  in  the  banking 
firm  of  W.  E.  Connor  &  Co.,  he 
turned  his  attention  to  rly  a.  about 
1888,  and  at  different  times  was 
president  of  over  fourteen  rlys. 
and  manager  of  many  other  con- 
cerns, including  the  Western  Union 
Telegraph  System. 

Gould,  JAY  (1836-92).  Ameri- 
can capitalist.  Born  at  Roxbury, 
New  York,  May  27,  1836,  he  left 
,  ,.,,^  his  father's 

^X**'  |    farm     at    the 

age  of  16  and 

i*H|  «8t    I        ^    entered    an 
|    ironmongery 
\    store.  Here  he 
}    remained  until 
Wk±.       '-,    1 856,  spending 
his  spare  time 
in    the    study 
of    surveying. 
After    a    ven- 
ture in  the  lumber  trade,  he  took 
advantage  of  the  rly.  panic  of  1857 
to  buy  a  controlling  interest  in  the 
Rutland  (N.Y.)  Washington  Rly. 
Two    years     later    he    opened    a 
broker's  business  in  New  York. 

In  1856  he  became  president  of 
the  Erie  railroad,  of  which  he  had 
obtained  the  controlling  interest, 
and  manipulated  rly.  stock  to  enor- 
mous profit.  The  Union  Pacific, 
Missouri  Pacific,  Wabash,  Texas 
Pacific,  St.  Louis  and  Northern,  and 


Jay  Gould, 
American  capitalist 


St.  Louis  and  San  Francisco  Rlys. 
were  all  controlled  by  him,  whilst  in 
1881  he  formed  the  Western  Union 
Telegraph  System.  He  died  on 
Dec.  2,  ]892. 

Gounod,  FRAN  go  is  CHARLES 
(1818-93).  French  composer.  He 
was  born,  the  son  of  a  painter,  at 
Paris  on  June 
17,  1818,  and 
entered  the 
conservatoire 
of  Paris  in 
1836.  After 
s  t  u  dyin  g 
there  under 
Fromental 
Halevy,  he 
went  to  Italy 
as  winner  of 
the  Prix  de 
Rome.  On 
his  return  to 
Paris  he  became  organist  at  the 
chapel  of  the  Missions  Etrangeres. 
His  name  was  brought  into  public 
notice  by  the  production  of  his 
first  opera,  Sappho,  in!851,  and  his 
next  operatic  success  was  in  1858 
with  a  clever  setting  of  Le  Medecin 
malgre  Lui.  Gounod's  version  of 
Goethe's  Faust,  which  set  him  in 
the  forefront  of  operatic  composers, 
was  brought  out  in  Paris  in  1859. 
Its  first  performance  in  London 
was  in  1863. 

Henceforth  his  work  secured  a 
ready  hearing,  and  there  came 
Philemon  et  Baucis,  1860,  and  La 
Reine  de  Saba,  1862,  which  has 
always  met  with  more  success 
abroad  than  in  France.  Mireille,  on 
a  libretto  of  the  Proven9al  poet 
Mistral,  appeared  in  1864,  and  his 
fine  rendering  of  the  story  of 
Romeo  and  Juliet  in  1867.  Mean- 
while he  had  also  been  writing 
much  other  music,  sacred  and 
secular,  notably  the  Mass  of  S. 
Cecilia,  1855.  Among  his  other 


F.  C.  Gould.    Example  of  his  political  caricature.    "  A  meeting  of  the  Tariff 

Committee  of  the  Birmingham  Liberal  Unionist  Association.     AH  its  members 

are  said  to  have  been  present."  July  21,  1903 

By  vermiitl'jH  of  The  Westminster  Gazette 


GOUPIL     GALLERY 


3625 


GOURMONT 


sacred  music  should  be  remem- 
bered two  other  Masses,  1870  and 
1887,  and  the  two  oratorios  The 
Redemption  and  Mors  et  Vita,  pro- 
duced at  the  Birmingham  Festivals 
in  1882  and  1885  respectively. 
Gounod,  who  came  to  England  dur- 
ing the  Franco-Prussian  War,  died 
at  St.  Cloud,  Oct.  18,  1893. 

Despite  much  severe  criticism  of 
his  sometimes  over-florid  and  over- 
sweet  style,  Gounod's  work  at  its 
best  has  a  permanent  interest.  His 
operas  are  untiringly  welcomed  in 
all  countries,  his  Masses  are  fre- 
quently sung,  some  of  his  songs, 
e.g.  the  Ave  Maria,  a  melody  boldly 
superimposed  on  the  first  prelude 
of  Bach,  are  universally  familiar. 
He  exercised  a  great  influence  on 
the  following  generation  of  French 
composers.  Gounod  was  personally 
a  man  of  wide  culture  and  deep 
religious  feeling,  both  reflected  in 
his  work,  and  a  volume  of  his  auto- 
biographical notes  and  reprinted 
articles  was  published  in  1896. 

Goupil  Gallery.  Art  gallery  at 
No.  5,  Regent  Street,  London,  S.  W. 
It  was  established  as  a  centre  for  the 
exhibition  and  sale  of  modern  pic- 
tures in  1901  by  William  Stephen 
Marchant,  who  left  the  Paris  house 
of  Goupil  &  Co.  in  1898  to  manage 
their  London  establishment.  In 
1902  he  introduced  the  pictures  of 
Henri  le  Sidaner  to  London,  and 
exhibitions  have  been  held  also 
of  the  works  of  W.  Nicholson,  W. 
Orpen,  W.  Rothenstt'in,  Augustus 
John,  J.  M.  Whistler,  and  other 
artists,  among  them  representatives 
of  the  modern  French  and  Dutch 
Romantic  school. 

Gouraud,  HENRI  JOSEPH 
EUGENE  (b.  1807).  French  soldier. 
Born  at  Paris,  Nov.  17,  1807,  he 
joined  the 
French  a  r  m  y 
as  a  lieutenant 
of  chasseurs  a 
pied  in  1890. 
He  saw  active 
service  in  the 
Sudan  in  1898; 
in  the  Congo, 
Senegal,  and 
Morocco,  being 
promoted  brig- 
adier-general, J  une  4,  191 2.  He  was 
at  the  head  of  the  1st  Colonial 
Army  Corps  in  Feb.,  1915. 

In  July,  1915,  he  was  severely 
wounded  while  in  command  of  the 
French  forces  in  Gallipoli.  Return- 
ing to  France,  in  Dec.  he  was  given 
command  of  the  Fourth  Army.  In 
1910  he  was  appointed  resident 
commissary  general  in  Morocco, 
but  in  June,  1917,  was  again  in 
command  of  the  Fourth  Army.  In 
July,  1918,  he  repulsed  the  Germans 
from  Reims  and  in  the  Argonne. 
In  1919  he  became  high  commis- 


Henri  J.  Gouraud, 
French  soldier 


sioner  of  France  in  Syria  and 
Cilicia,  and  commander-in-chief  of 
her  army  of  the  Levant.  See 
Marne,  Battles  of  the. 

Gourd  (Lat.  cucurbita}.  Half- 
hardy  annual  trailing  plant  of  the 
natural  order  Cucurbitaceae,mostly 
native  of  India.  Some,  such  as 
pumpkins  and  marrows,  bear  edible 
fruits,  while  others  are  grown 
merely  for  decorative  purposes, 
and  trained  to  climb  over  arches 
and  upon  poles  and  other  garden 


Gourd.  Examples  ot  some  ordinary 
forms.  The  species  shown  include: 
1.  Vegetable  Marrow;  2.  Water 
Melon;  3.  Winter  Melon;  4.  Great 
Yellow  Gourd 

structures.  Ornamental  gourds  are 
raised  from  seeds  planted  in  rich 
soil  at  tho  end  of  May,  or  the  be- 
,";  nning  of  June,  and  watered 
freely  in  dry  weather,  liquid  manure 
being  substituted  when  the  fruits 
have  formed.  Gourds  require  no 
pruning  or  cutting  back. 

The  story  of  Jonah  and  the  gourd 
(Jonah,  4)  is  well  known.  The 
rind  of  several  varieties  of  gourd, 
including  the  bottle-gourd  (</.?>.),  is 
u^ed  by  natives  to  form  flasks  or 
bottles  for  carrying  liquids. 

Gourgaud,  GASPAKD,  BARON 
(1783-1852).  French  soldier.  He 
rose  to  the  rank  of  general  in  the 
Napoleonic  campaigns,  and  after 
the  final  overthrow  of  Napoleon 
accompanied  his  master  to  St. 
Helena,  where  he  assisted  him  in 
the  preparation  of  his  Memoirs. 
He  published  an  account  of  the 
campaign  of  1815,  and  a  vehement 
refutation  of  Scott's  Life  of  Na- 
poleon, but  bis  most  important 
book  is  his  Journal  inedit  de 
Ste.-Helene,  first  published  in  1899 
He  died  in  Paris,  July  25,  1852. 

Gourko,  BASIL  JOSEFOVITCH 
ROMEIKO  (b.  1807).  Russian  soldier 
Born  May  8,  1867,  he  entered  the 
army  in  1883.  He  took  part  in  the 
Russo-Japanese  War,  1904-5.  At 
the  outbreak  of  the  Great  War  he 
was  in  command  of  a  cavalry 
division  of  the  army  which  in- 
vaded E.  Prussia  in  Aug.,  1914. 

In  1916  he  commanded  one 
of  the  Russian  S.W.  armies  in 
Volhynia,  and  in  1910-17  was 
for  some  time  commander-in-chief 
of  the  Russo-Rumanian  army  in 


Joseph  Gourko, 
Russian  soldier 


Moldavia.  In  1917,  after  the  revo- 
lution, he  was  put  in  command  of 
the  Russian  Central  Army,  but 
resigned  as  a  protest  against  the 
disorganization  of  the  army  by  the 
Soviets.  Later  he  came  to  London, 
where  in  1918  he  published  his 
Memories  and  Impressions  of  War 
and  Revolution  in  Russia,  1914-17. 

Gourko  on  GURKO,  JOSRPJI 
VASILIVITCU  (1828-1901).  Russian 
soldier.  Of  a  noble  Lithuanian 
family,  he  was 
born  Nov.  15, 
1828,  and  be- 
c  a  m  e  an 
officer  of  the 
i  m  p  e  r  i  a  I 
guard.  He 
r  o  se  rapidly 
in  rank,  and 
served  in  the 
Crimean  War, 
but  his  mili- 
tary reputation  rests  entirely  upon 
hie  achievements  against  the  Turks 
in  1877-78.  He  led  a  Russian 
detachment  across  the  Danube  and 
seized  Tirnova;  he  then  drove  the 
Turks  from  the  Shipka  Pass,  and 
pressed  further  into  their  empire. 
Falling  back,  he  defended  the  Ship- 
ka against  Turkish  efforts  at  recap- 
ture, and  had  a  large  share  in  the 
operations  that  led  to  the  fall  of 
Plevna.  One  operation  was  an  ad- 
vance on  Sofia,  which  he  occupied, 
having  previously  driven  the  Turks 
from  Orkhanie.  Near  Philippopolis 
he  gained  one  of  the  few  real  vic- 
tories of  the  war,  and  he  had  won 
other  successes  when  the  struggle 
ended.  Gourko  was  afterwards 
governor  of  St.  Petersburg  and  of 
Odessa,  while  from  1883-94  he  was 
governor-general  of  Poland.  He 
died  Jan,  29,  1901. 

Gourmont,  REMY  DE  (1858- 
1915).  French  literary  critic  and 
scholar.  Born  at  Bazoche,  Orne 
dept.,  France,  he  came  under  the 
influence  of  Huysmans,  Gerard  de 
Nerval,  and  Mallarme,  and  is  re- 
membered as  a  champion  of  the 
symbolist  movement  in  modern 
French  poetry,  a  scholar,  and  a 
writer  who  to  a  distinguished 
literary  style  added  philosophic 
insight.  From  1883-91  he  held  an 
appointment  at  the  Bibliotheque 
Nationale,  Paris.  Afterwards  he 
became  editor  of  Le  Mercure  de 
France.  He  wrote  Les  Fransais  au 
Canada,  1888;  Proses  Moroses 
1896  ;  Le  Pelerin  du  Silence,  1890  ; 
Le  Livre  des  Masques,  1890-98 ; 
Esthetique  de  la  Langue  Fran- 
caise,  1899 ;  Promenades  Litter- 
aires,  1904-0;  Une  Nuit  au  Luxem- 
bourg, 1900 ;  Promenades  Philo- 
sophiques,  1906-8 ;  a  volume  of 
verse,  Divertissements,  1912.  Two 
of  his  works,  Lettres  a  1'Ama- 
zone  and  Pendant  la  Guerre,  were 


GOUROCK 


3626 


GOVERNESS-CART 


published  posthumously,  1916. 
He  died  Sept.  21,  1915.  See  Por- 
traits and  Speculations,  A.  Ran- 
some,  1913. 

Gourock.  Burgh  and  waterino- 
place  of  Renfrewshire.  It  stands 
on  the  S.  side  of  the  Firth  of  Clyde 
3  m.  from  Green- 
ock,  with  which 
it  is  connected  by 
electric  trams,  as 
it  is  with  Port 
Glasgow.  It  is  a 
station  on  the  C. 
Rly.  The  town, 
which  is  divided 
into  two  parts, 
Kempoch  and  Ashton,  has  a  num- 
ber of  industries,  mainly  connected 
with  shipping,  while  its  sheltered 
bay  is  much  frequented  by  yachts. 
The  chief  public  building  is  the 
Gamble  Institute,  and  there  are 
golf  links  here.  Legendary  and  his- 
torical associations  cling  to  a  stone 
called  Granny  Kempoch.  Gourock 
became  a  burgh  in  1694.  Pop. 
(1921)  10,128. 

Gout  (Lat.  gulta,  drop,  humour). 
Constitutional  disorder  character- 
ised by  excess  of  uric  acid  in  the 
blood,  and  deposit  of  urate  of 
sodium  in  the  joints  and  their 
vicinity.  The  precise  changes  in 
metabolism  which  occur  during  the 
condition  are  not  fully  understood. 
Hereditary  influences  are  an  im- 
portant predisposing  cause  ;  alco- 
holism and  over-eating  without 
sufficient  exercise  are  frequent 
antecedents.  Workers  in  lead  are 
particularly  liable  to  the  disease. 
Males  are  more  frequently  affected 
than  females,  and  the  disease  is 
exceptional  under  the  age  of 
thirty-five. 

Three  forms  are  generally  recog- 
nized :  acute,  chronic,  and  irreg- 
ular gout.  In  the  acute  attack 
there  may  be  premonitory  symp- 
toms, such  as  twinges  of  pain  in 
the  small  joints  of  the  hands  and 
feet,  and  indigestion.  The  attack 
most  often  begins  in  the  early  hours 
of  the  morning,  with  violent  pain 
in  the  joints  of  the  big  toe,  which 
rapidly  become  hot  and  swollen. 
Sometimes  the  knee  or  finger 
joints  are  first  affected,  and  several 
joints  may  be  involved  simul- 
taneously, or  in  rapid  succession. 
The  temperature  rises  to  102°  or 
103°.  The  pain  lessens  in  a  few 
hours,  but  recurs  towards  evening 
for  the  next  two  or  three  days,  the 
severity  of  the  symptoms  gradually 
abating. 

After  the  first  attack,  the  joint 
affected  appears  to  return  to  the 
normal  condition,  but  repeated 
attacks  result  in  more  or  less  stiff- 
ness and  swelling  of  the  articula- 
tions. Ultimately  the  condition 
passes  into  the  chronic  form,  the 


Gourock,  Scotland.     The  town  and  bay  on  the  south 
side  of  the  Firth  of  Clyde 


joints  being  permanently  enlarged, 
deformed  and  irregular.  So-called 
"  chalk  stones  "  are  formed  about 
the  knuckles  and  elsewhere,  and 
the  skin  over  them  is  stretched  and 
sometimes  ulcerated.  Deposits  of 
sodium  urate  in  the  cartilages  of 
the  ear  are  common.  Besides  local 
signs  the  patient  usually  suffers 
from  dyspepsia  and  more  or  less 
continuous  ill-health.  Irregular 
gout  is  a  condition  seen  in  persons 
who,  while  not  suffering  from 
definite  attacks  of  gout,  have  a 
tendency  to  the  disease  often  due 
to  hereditary  influences.  The  ten- 
dency may  manifest  itself  in  a 
liability  to  eczema,  biliousness, 
thickening  of  the  arteries,  headache, 
neuralgia,  diabetes,  etc. 

With  proper  care,  gouty  persons 
may  live  for  many  years,  but  long- 
continued  attacks  are  very  likely 
to  bring  about  Bright's  disease, 
uraemia  (q.v.),  changes  in  the 
arteries,  and  affections  of  the  heart. 
In  an  attack  of  acute  gout,  the 
affected  limb  should  be  raised,  and 
the  pain  may  be  relieved  by  warm 
fomentations.  Colchicum  is  a 
valuable  remedy,  and  the  adminis- 
tration of  citrate  of  potash  or 
lithium  is  often  useful.  Chronic 
gout  must  be  kept  under  control 
chiefly  by  carefully  regulated 
living. 

Meat  should  be  taken  sparingly, 
and  rich  substances,  such  as  sweet- 
breads, liver,  and  kidney,  as  well 
as  most  soups  and  meat  extracts, 
should  be  avoided.  Fresh  fish,  eggs, 
milk,  butter,  and  fresh  vegetables 
are  useful.  Alcohol  is  better  avoided 
completely,  but  a  small  amount  of 
whisky  may  be  allowed.  Regular 
sufficient  daily  exercise  and  at- 
tention to  the  bowels  are  important. 
Overwork  and  business  worry 
should  be  avoided. 

Gouzeaucourt.  Village  of  France, 
in  the  dept.  of  Nord.  It  lies  9  m. 
S.S.  W.  of  Cambrai.  It  was  promin- 
ent in  the  first  battle  of  Cambrai, 
being  captured  by  the  Germans  in 
their  counter-offensive,  Nov.  30. 


1     1917,    and    after 
j     being  held  by  them 
|     for    three     hours 
HHHHHj     was    retaken    by 
the  Guards   divi- 
!     sion.  Captured  by 
the    Germans    in 
the  springof  1918, 
I     it  was  recaptured 
by  the  British  5th 
;  ud  42iuldi  visions 
on  Sept.  28  of  the 
same       year. 
Several    British 
war  cemeteries 
are  in  the  vicinity. 
See    Cambrai, 
Battles  of. 

Go  van.  Suburb 
of  Glasgow,  until  1912  a  separate 
municipality.  It  lies  on  the  S.  side 
of  the  Clyde  opposite  Glasgow 
proper,  although  part  of  the  parish 
of  Go  van  is  N.  of  the  river.  It  is 
served  by  the  Glasgow  &  S.W.  Rly., 
and  is  also  connected  with  Glasgow 
by  electric  tramways  and  a  district 
rly.  that  goes  under  the  Clyde.  The 
chief  industry  is  shipbuilding,  there 
being  immense  yards  here.  There 
are  also  docks,  while  steamers  call 
at  the  pier.  Engineering  works  and 
foundries  are  among  the  other 
industries. 

The  principal  public  buildings  are 
the  parish  church,  with  some  early 
Christian  monuments  in  its  church- 
yard, S.  Mary's  U.F.  church,  and 
the  large  Merry  flats  poorhouse. 
Here  is  Elder  Park.  The  growth 
of  shipbuilding  in  the  19th  century 
turned  Govan  from  a  village  into 
a  populous  town,  and  when  it  was 
united  with  Glasgow  in  1912  it 
had  a  pop.  of  about  90,000.  See 
Glasgow. 

Governess- cart.  Low-hung, 
small,  two-wheeled,  one-horse  car- 
riage, holding  four  persons.  It  has 


Governess-cart.    Low,  two-wheeled 
vehicle  used  on  country  roads 

two  seats,  facing  inwards,  and  a. 
small  door  at  rear.  Usually  drawn 
by  a  pony  or  quiet  cob,  it  is  un- 
comfortable, but  safe,  and  is 
named  from  its  use  as  a  children's 
conveyance. 


GOVERNMENT 


3627 


GOVERNMENT 


GOVERNMENT:     ITS    MAIN     FUNCTIONS 

Prof.  W.  S.  McKechnie,  Author  of  The  State  and  the  Individual 

The  method  of  government  in  each  country  of  the  world  is  described 

under  that  heading,  e.g.  Canada ;  England ;  France  :  Germany .   See 

also  articles  on  the  various  instruments  of  government,  e.g.  Cabinet  : 

King ;  Parliament.     See  also  Democracy  ;  Sovereignty  ;  State 


The  term  government  (Lat. 
gnbernare,  to  steer,  direct)  de- 
scribes the  work  of  those  who  guide 
the  ship  of  state,  determining  its 
course  and  controlling  its  rate  of 
progress.  The  numerous  services 
performed  on  behalf  of  the  com- 
plex modern  state  are  usually 
classified  as  legislative,  or  the  mak- 
ing of  laws  ;  executive,  or  the  en- 
forcing of  laws  ;  and  judicial,  or 
the  interpretation  of  laws. 

The  facts  are  hardly  so  simple 
as  this  classification  seems  to  sug- 
gest. The  legislature,  indeed,  is 
the  supreme  authority  in  enacting 
and  repealing  statutes.  The  judi- 
ciary, i.e.  the  judges  taken  col- 
lectively, it  is  equally  true,  con- 
fines itself  to  expounding  the  law 
and  applying  it  to  particular  cases. 
But  the  executive  government  by 
no  means  restricts  its  activities  to 
executing  or  enforcing  statutes  and 
judicial  decisions ;  it  is  the  agent 
or  man  of  business  of  the  commun- 
ity as  a  whole,  conducting  the 
domestic,  colonial,  and  foreign 
policy  of  the  state,  accepting  re- 
sponsibility for  army,  navy,  and  the 
numerous  civil  services  and  depart- 
ments of  government,  and  manag- 
ing the  whole  national  property. 

The  word  "  administrative " 
would  less  inadequately  indicate 
the  extent  and  nature  of  these 
functions.  Long-established  usage, 
however,  points  to  "  executive  "  as 
the  natural  antithesis  to  legisla- 
tive, and  no  confusion  need  arise 
if  the  words  are  recognized  as  inter- 
changeable. 

Powers  of  the  Legislature 

If  the  usual  three  functions  of 
government,  however,  are  still  to 
be  accepted  as  covering  all  the 
activities  of  a  modern  state,  the 
word  legislature  must  be  so  inter- 
preted as  to  include  not  merely 
law-making  proper,  but  also  the 
right  to  impose  taxes  involving 
complete  control  over  the  financial 
and  material  resources  of  the  nation. 
Parliament  passes  money  bills  as 
well  as  ordinary  bills,  and  this 
power,  now  freed  from  all  restric- 
tions, forms  a  weapon  of  almost  in- 
calculable possibilities. 

The  form  of  government  /tf  a 
state  is  known  as  its  constitution, 
which  may  thus  be  defined  as  the 
sum  of  the  principles,  usages,  and 
laws  that  determine  who  is  to 
exercise  in  any  given  state  the 
supreme  legislative,  executive,  and 
judicial  authorities  respectively,  to- 
gether with  the  relations  of  these 


authorities  to  each  other,  and  to 
individual  citizens.  To  define  the 
relations  between  the  supreme 
legislature  and  the  supreme  exe- 
cutive is  the  first  problem  under 
every  form  of  constitution  ;  and  in 
Great  Britain  the  solution  has  been 
found  in  cabinet  government. 
The  British  Cabinet 

The  cabinet  is,  indeed,  the  char- 
acteristic and  central  feature  of  the 
modern  British  system  of  govern- 
ment, and  illustrates  the  subtle 
manner  in  which  ancient  theories 
and  institutions  have  been  made 
compatible  with  modern  require- 
ments and  realities.  In  theory  the 
British  Constitution  is  the  em- 
bodiment, in  the  clearest  and  the 
most  typical  manner,  of  Montes- 
quieu's doctrine  of  the  separation  of 
powers  ;  in  practice,  by  an  applica- 
tion of  the  principle  of  unity  in 
difference,  it  has  resulted  in  the 
almost  complete  monopolisation  of 
all  authority  both  legislative  and 
executive  by  one  small  group  of 
political  leaders,  ministers  of  the 
crown,  who,  possessing  the  con- 
fiSence  of  the  House  of  Commons, 
acting  in  the  king's  name,  and  shar- 
ing among  them  the  control  of  all 
the  great  departments  of  govern- 
ment, together  form  the  cabinet 
for  the  time  being.  In  this  cabinet 
or 'inner  circle  of  the  ministry  all 
the  powers  of  government  have 
come  to  be  concentrated. 

In  theory  the  making  of  laws 
rests  with  king,  lords,  and  com- 
mons. Statutes  are  granted  by  the 
king  in  his  own  name,  while  the 
lords  spiritual  and  temporal,  and 
the  commons  are  merely  consenters 
to  the  grant.  In  theory  the  king's 
free  acquiescence  is  the  chief  essen- 
tial. In  practice  he  could  not  with- 
hold his  authority  except  in  cir- 
cumstances that  are  almost  impos- 
sible to  occur,  and  then  only  on  the 
advice  and  at  the  request  of  re- 
sponsible ministers.  The  theoretical 
right  of  the  lords,  again,  freely  to 
reject  or  amend  had  been  much 
curtailed  even  before  1911,  while 
the  Parliament  Act  has  almost  ex- 
tinguished it. 

Finally,  the  consent  of  the  all- 
powerful  House  of  Commons  is 
practically  assured  to  cabinet 
measures  beforehand  from  the  fact 
that  the  majority  in  the  lower 
chamber,  organized  in  normal 
times  upon  party  lines,  vote  as  they 
are  directed  by  the  party  leaders, 
with  whom  their  own  political 
interests  and  hopes  of  office  are 


closely  bound  up.  In  this  busy  age, 
only  ministerial  measures  have  a 
fair  chance  of  becoming  statutes. 
Thus,  by  a  slow  and  bloodless 
revolution,  the  cabinet  has  usurped 
the  legislative  rights  of  king,  lords, 
and  commons.  » 

It  has  equally  usurped  the 
monarch's  administrative  autho- 
rity. While  in  theory  the  supreme 
executive  power  is  to-day,  in  the 
strict  letter  of  constitutional  law, 
vested  solely  in  his  majesty  King 
George  V  as  an  individual  as  fully 
as  it  was  in  Henry  VIII  or  Edward 
I,  in  practice  every  official  act 
of  the  crown  is  in  reality  the  act 
of  the  cabinet.  Thus  functions 
which  in  theory  are  carefully 
separated  and  vested  in  different 
organs  are  in  reality  collected  to- 
gether again  and  placed  under  ex- 
clusive control  of  the  cabinet,  on 
the  sole  condition  that  that 
cabinet  retains  the  confidence  of-  its 
faithful  henchmen,  the  majority 
in  the  people's  chamber. 

The  system  of  polity  now 
supreme  in  the  British  Empire  is 
thus  one  of  extreme  simplicity  ;  all 
real  power  is  concentrated  in  one 
central  authority,  the  cabinet  in 
alliance  with  the  Commons'  House. 

This  system  is  known  from  one 
point  of  view  as  parliamentary  gov- 
ernment, because  the  predominant 
House  of  Commons  by  its  support 
keeps  the  cabinet  in  power  ;  and, 
from  another  point  of  view,  as 
cabinet  government  because  the 
cabinet  owes  responsibility  to 
parliament. 

Party  or  Coalition 

It  is  one  of  the  merits  of  the 
constitutional  system  that  in 
times  of  emergency  it  can  rapidly 
adapt  itself  to  new  needs  by  the 
formation  of  a  coalition  ministry 
which  is  no  longer  dependent  on 
the  support  of  one  of  the  two 
great  parties.  That  party  system, 
which  is  reckoned,  in  normal  times, 
to  be  required  for  smooth  working 
of  cabinet  government,  would  seem 
not  to  be  essential  to  its  existence. 
It  is  one  thing,  however,  to  do  with- 
out party  government  for  a  brief 
period  of  abnormal  stress  and  quite 
another  thing  to  attempt  to  discard 
it  altogether. 

The  great  rival  of  cabinet  govern- 
ment, as  a  system  of  popular  con- 
trol, is  presidential  government  as 
exemplified  in  the  U.S.A.,  where 
the  president,  appointed  by  an 
elaborate  method  of  what  is  nomin- 
ally double  election,  is  not,  like  the 
British  Cabinet,  responsible  to  Con- 
gress. In  Switzerland,  again,  a 
democratic  form  of  polity  has  been 
established  on  a  federal  basis  that 
seems  to  be  entirely  independent  of 
the  party  system,  and  includes  as 
its  main  feature  the  possibility  of 


GOVERNOR 


3628 


GOWER 


frequent  appeals  from  the  decisions 
of  its  houses  of  legislature  to  the  en- 
franchised people  by  the  expedients 
known  as  the  referendum  and  the 
initiative.  These  devices,  so  far 
as  they  extend,  are  a  method  of 
summoning  "  the  people  "  of 
Switzerland  to  a  direct  share  in  the 
legislative  function  of  government. 
Bibliography.  Best  Form  of 
Government,  G.  C.  Lewis,  1863 ;  Re- 
presentative Government,  J.  S.  Mill, 
new  ed.  1865;  Liberty,  Equality  and 
Fraternity,  J.  F.  Stephen,  2nd  ed. 
1874;  Parliamentary  Government 
in  British  Colonies,  A.  Todd,  1880  ; 
Popular  Government,  H.  J.  S.  Maine, 
1885;  American  Commonwealth, 
Lord  Bryce,  1888  ;  Fragment  on 
Government,  J.  Bentham,  ed.  C.  F. 
Montague,  1891  ;  Parliamentary 
Government  in  England,  A.  Todd, 
new  ed.  1892  ;  Government  and 
Parties  in  Continental  Europe,  A. 
Lawrence  Lowell,  1896  ;  Democracy 
and  Liberty,  W.  E.  H.  Lecky,  1899  ; 
The  State,  Woodrow  Wilson,  1899  ; 
Works,  E.  Burke,  1901-6;  Man 
versus  the  State,  Herbert  Spencer, 
1902  ;  Self -Government  in  Canada, 
F.  Bradshaw,  1903  ;  Governance  of 
England,  Sidney  Low,  1904  ;  Law  of 
the  Constitution,  A.  V.  Dicey,  7th  ed. 
1908;  The  New  Democracy  and  the 
Constitution,  W.  S.  McKechnie, 
1912  ;  Government  of  England,  A. 
Lawrence  Lowell,  new  ed.  1912  ; 
Responsible  Government  in  the 
Dominions,  A.  B.  Keith,newed.l912. 
Governor.  In  mechanics,  an 
apparatus  for  regulating  the  work- 
ing speed  of  an  engine  under  vary- 
ing conditions  of  load.  Most 
governors  for  steam  and  internal 
combustion  engines  follow  the 
original  ball  governor  of  James 
Watt,  and  a  diagram  of  a  modern 
example  is  given  above.  S  is 
a  vertical  shaft,  rotated  by  the 
engine  through  a  bevel  gear.  Four 
links,  L  L  L  L,  connect  two  metal 
balls,  B,  B,  with  the  top  of  S  and 
with  a  weight,  W,  grooved  near  the 
bottom  at  C.  The  weight  is  able  to 
move  freely  up  and  down  S. 

When  the  speed  of  the  engine 
exceeds  a  certain  limit,  B  B  move 
outwards  and  raise  W7,  which  brings 
with  it  the  forked  end  of  lever  D. 
The  supply  of  steam  is  decreased 
by  the  movement  of  D  and  the 
speed  falls.  B  B  now  move  in- 
wards ;  the  motion  of  D  is  slightly 
reversed,  and  the  supply  of  steam 
is  increased.  In  some  governors  W 
is  replaced  by  an  adjustable 
spring  under  compression ;  such 
governors  can  be  run  with  the 
shaft  horizontal. 

Governor  (Lat.  gubernare,  to 
steer).  Representative  in  a  pro- 
vince or  colony  of  the  supreme 
authority  of  a  state.  Under  the 
Roman  Empire  civil  officials  with 
proconsular  power  and  rank  gov- 
erned the  senatorial  provinces,  i.e. 
those  in  which  legions  were  not 


maintained  ;  the  imperial  provinces, 
requiring  military  forces  for  their 
security,  were  governed  by  legati 
Augusti,  with  full  military  power 
and  wide  jurisdiction. 

Under  the  British  system  of 
colonial  administration  governors 
are  classified  as  governors-general, 
governors,  and  lieutenant  -  gover- 
nors. Governors -general  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  Crown  to  represent 
its  authority  in  India,  where  the 
governor-general  is  also  styled 
viceroy  ;  the  Dominion  of  Canada  ; 
the  Commonwealth  of  Australia  ; 
the  Dominion  of  New  Zealand ; 


Governor  for  regulating  the  speed  of 
an  engine.    See  text 

the  Union  of  S.  Africa  ;  and  tne 
Anglo-Egj'ptian  Sudan.  Governors 
appointed  by  the  Crown  administer 
three  of  the  fifteen  administrations 
into  which  India  is  divided,  viz. 
Madras,  Bombay,  and  Bengal ; 
the  six  original  states  of  the 
Commonwealth  of  Australia  ;  the 
Colony  and  Protectorate  of  Nigeria, 
the  Crown  Colonies,  and  most  of 
the  Colonies.  Lieutenant-gover- 
nors are  appointed  by  the  king  for 
the  Northern  and  the  Southern 
Provinces  of  Nigeria  ;  and  by  the 
governor-general  of  India  for  the 
Punjab,  the  United  Provinces  of 
Agra  and  Oudh,  Burma,  and  Bihar 
and  Orissa. 

In  the  U.S.A.  each  state  elects  a 
governor  as  the 
chief  official  in 
the  legislative 
and  executive 
management  of 
its  own  affairs. 
Gow,  NIEL 
(1727-1807). 
Scottish  violin- 
st.  Born  at  In- 
ver,  near  Dun- 
keld,  March  22, 

After  Karburn  •  1727,     his     Skill 


Niel  Gow, 
Scottish  violinist 


in  playing  reels  made  him  famous. 
In  London  he  was  in  great  request 
at  fashionable  gatherings,  and  he 
also  did  most  useful  work  in  pre- 
serving the  old  Scottish  melodies. 
Gow,  who  died  March  1,  1807,  had 
four  sons  all  musicians,  and  his 
and  their  compositions  are  found 
in  The  Gow  Collection  of  oH  Scot- 
tish songs. 

Gowanlea.  British  drifter.  She 
was  one  of  the  craft  forming  the 
drifter  line  across  the  Straits  of 
Otranto,  May  15,  1917,  when  this 
line  was  attacked  by  Austrian 
light  cruisers  from  Cattaro.  Skip- 
per Watt  of  the  Gowanlea  was 
awarded  the  V.C.  for  his  gallantry. 
See  Adriatic  Sea,  Operations  in  the. 
Gowbarrow  Park.  Estate  in 
the  Lake  District  of  England,  now 
public  property.  It  is  on  the  N. 
side  of  Ullswater,  on  the  slopes  of 
Gowbarrow  Fell.  The  original  park 
was  about  2,000  acres  in  extent, 
but  additions  have  been  made  to  it. 
It  contains  a  shooting  lodge  called 
Lyulph's  Tower,  and  the  beautiful 
waterfall  of  Aira  Force.  Gow- 
barrow was  bought  by  the  National 
Trust  and  opened  in  1906. 

Gower.  Peninsula  of  Glamor- 
ganshire. It  lies  between  the  rivers 
Tawe  and  Loughor,  being  about 
27  m.  long  and  7  m.  across.  It 
contains  Swansea  and  Oyster- 
mouth,  is  almost  surrounded  by 
the  waters  of  the  Bristol  Channel, 
and  retains  certain  customs  of  its 
own.  The  Welsh  call  it  Gwyr. 

Gower  was  conquered  by  the 
Normans  in  the  12th  century,  and 
therein  some  of  them  settled,  built 
castles,  and  introduced  the  feudal 
system.  It  had  its  own  lord,  who 
had  the  privileges  of  a  lord  of  the 
marches ;  he  held  his  court  at 
Swansea  and  had  his  "own  sheriff 
and  other  officials.  The  lordship 
passed  from  the  family  of  De 
Braose  to  John  de  Mowbray,  duke 
of  Norfolk.  The  earl  of  Pembroke 
was  a  later  lord,  and  from  that 
family  it  passed  by  marriage  to  the 
Somersets,  now  represented  by  the 
duke  of  Beaufort.  In  1535,  how- 
ever, Gower  was  included  in  Gla- 
morganshire (q.v.). 

Gower,  JOHN  (c.  1325-1408). 
English  poet,  contemporary  and 
friend  of  Chaucer,  who  calls  him 
4i  moral  Gow- 
er." He  lived 
largely  at  his 
country  seat  in 
Kent,  but  de- 
tails of  his  life 
are  obscure. 
He  became 
blind  shortly 
before  his 
death,  and  was 
buried  in  S. 


John  Gower, 
English  poet 


Saviour's  Church  at  Southwark. 


i.  London,  LL.D.     2.  London,  M.A.    3.  Glasgow,  LL.D.     4.  Glasgow,  M. A.    5.  Cambridge,  LL.D.    6.  Cambridge,  M.A. 

7.  Birmingham,  LL.D.     8.  Birmingham,  M.A.     9.  Oxford,  Mus.  Doc. ;  Oxford  D.C.L.  is  similar  in  shape,  but  the  robe 

is  scarlet  cloth  with  crimson  silk  facings.     10.  Oxford,  M.A.     n.  Edinburgh,  LL.D.      12.  Edinburgh,  M.A. 

GOWNS   AND   HOODS   WORN   BY   LL.D.'s  AND   M.A.'s   OF   THE    PRINCIPAL   BRITISH   UNIVERSITIES 

Specially  drawn  for  Harmswsrth's  Universal  Encyclopedia  by  J.  F.  Campbell  from  gowns  lent  by  Ede  and  Raventeroft,  London 
To  face  page  3628.  •          [See  over 


2! 


13.   Aberdeen,   LL.D.    14.   Aberdeen,    M.A.    15.   St.   Andrews,   LL.D.    16.    St.    Andrews,   M.A.      17.  Liverpool,    LL.D. 
18.  Liverpool,  M.A.     19.  Manchester,  LL.D.    20.  Leeds,  M.A.      21.  Durham,  D.C.L.     22.  Sheffield,  M.A.     73.    Duulin, 

LL.D.     24.   Wales,   M.A. 
GOWNS   AND    HOODS   WORN   BY   LL.D.'s   AND   M.A.'s   OF   THE   PRINCIPAL   BRITISH    UNIVERSITIES 

Specially  drawn  for  Harniworth's  Universal  Encyclopedia  by  J.  F.  Campbell  from  gowns  lenl  by  Edr  mid  Ravenserofi,  London 


GOWN 


COWRIE-    CONSPIRACY 


Gower's  chief  works  are  Speculum 
Meditantis,  written  in  French, 
which  was  lost  for  centuries  and 
discovered  at  Cambridge  in  1895  ; 
Vox  Clamantis,  in  Latin,  which 
deals  with  the  rising  of  Wat  Tyler ; 
and  Confessio  Amantis,  in  English, 
a  collection  of  tales  after  the  model 
of  Chaucer's  Canterbury  Tales. 
Gower  is  unconscionably  prolix 
and  somewhat  dull.  The  Vox 
Clamantis, .  which  runs  to  30,000 
lines,  is  redeemed  by  the  author's 
gift  for  story-telling  and  a  certain 
quaintness  of  fancy.  The  standard 
edition  of  his  works  is  that  by  G.  C. 
Macaulay,  1899-1902. 

Gown.  Word  meaning  an  outer 
garment  of  loose  shape.  It  is  now 
used  in  two  senses,  for  the  robe 
worn  by  graduate  and  under- 
graduate members  of  universities, 
and  of  learned  societies  generally, 
and  as  a  synonym  for  the  outer 
garment  of  a  lady.  There  are  also 
dressing  gown,  tea  gown,  etc.  See 
Costume  ;  Dressmaking  ;  Hood  ; 
also  colour  plate. 

Gowrie,  EARL  OF.  Scottish  title 
borne  from  1581  to  1600  by  the 
family  of  Ruthven.  The  1st  earl 
was  William  Ruthven,  4th  Lord 
Ruthven  ;  he  belonged  to  an  old 
family,  and  one  of  his  ancestors 
had  been  made  Lord  Ruthven  in 
1488.  Like  his  father,  the  3rd  Lord 
Ruthven,  he  was  active  in  the 
troubled  times  of  Queen  Mary.  He 
was  concerned  in  the  raid  of  Ruth- 
ven, as  the  seizure  of  James  VI  at 
Ruthven  Castle  in  1582  was  called. 
The  earl  was  executed  for  treason 
in  1584,  but  the  estates  were  re- 
stored to  his  son  William,  the  2nd 
earl,  who  died  in  1588.  John  Ruth- 
ven, who  then  became  the  3rd  earl, 
is  chiefly  known  for  his  share  in  the 
Gowrie  conspiracy.  During  the 
attempt  to  seize  the  king,  he  was 
killed,  Aug.  5,  1600,  and  the  title 
became  extinct.  The  estates  of  the 
earl  were  mainly  in  Perthshire.  See 
Ruthven. 

Gowrie  Conspiracy,  THE.  Plot 
against  the  person  of  James  VI  of 
Scotland,  attempted  by  John,  earl 
of  Gowrie,  and  his  brother  Alexan- 
der, known  as  the  master  of  Ruth- 
ven. On  Aug.  5,  1600,  the  king 
was  mounting  his  horse  at  Falkland 
Palace  for  a  day's  buck  hunting 
when  Alexander  Ruthven  ap- 
proached and  told  him  that  a 
countryman  had  found  near  Perth 
a  wide  pot  all  full  of  coined  gold  in 
great  pieces,  and  that  the  man  was 
detained  in  Gowrie  Castle,  where  the 
king  was  prayed  to  come  and 
examine  him. 

About  7  o'clock  the  king  ac- 
cordingly rode  there  with  a  few 
attendants,  Ruthven  spurring  for- 
ward to  warn  his  brother  of  the 
king's  approach.  James's  sus- 


John  Gower.    Effigy  and  tomb  of 

the  poet  in  S.  Saviour's  Church, 

Southwark 

picions  had  been  aroused  by  Ruth- 
ven's  strange  manner,  and  also  by 
Gowrie's  appearance  with  an  escort 
of  fourscore  armed  retainers  to 
meet  his  royal  visitor,  and  he  was 
further  angered  by  the  sorry  cheer 
provided  for  his  refreshment.  After 
dinner  Alexander  led  him  to  a 
remote  part  of  the  castle,  up  a 
winding  stair,  and  through  several 
rooms,  the  doors  of  which  he 
locked  behind  him,  into  a  gallery 
chamber  where  a  man  was  waiting 
with  a  dagger  in  his  girdle.  Seizing 
this  dagger,  Ruthven  held  it  to 
the  king's  breast,  and  threatened  to 
stab  him  if  he  uttered  a  sound. 
James  pleaded  with  him,  and  by 
promise  of  pardon  and  silence  on 
the  subject,  prevailed  on  him  not 


to  strike.  Ruthven  left  the  room 
to  consult  his  brother,  leaving  the 
king  in  the  custody  of  the  servant. 

Ruthven  returning  told  the 
king  he  must  die,  and  a  desperate 
struggle  followed,  during  which 
James  managed  to  drag  Ruthven 
to  a  window  whence  he  called  for 
help  to  his  attendants,  whom 
Gowrie  had  vainly  tried  to  induce 
to  leave,  alleging  that  the  king 
had  already  departed  by  another 
door.  Sir  John  Ramsey  was  the 
first  to  find  his  way  upstairs,  and 
stabbed  Ruthven,  who  was  dis- 
patched on  the  stairs  by  Sir  Thomas 
Erskine  and  Sir  Hugh  Harries  also 
rushing  to  the  rescue.  The  earl  oi 
Gowrie,  hurrying  in,  was  stabbed 
to  the  heart  by  Ramsey. 

What  lay  behind  the  tacts  re- 
mains uncertain.  An  investigation 
was  held,  but  even  at  the  time 
popular  feeling  ran  high  against 
James,  whom  the  people  believed 
to  be  ''  a  doer  and  not  a  sufferer." 
It  was  alleged  that  he  desired  to 
extirpate  the  Ruthven  family,  who 
made  some  pretensions  to  the 
throne,  and  the  proved  forgery  of 
letters  produced  by  a  notary, 
George  Sprot,  which  purported  to 
have  been  written  by  Sir  Robert 
Logan  of  Restalrig  to  Gowrie,  has 
strengthened  this  opinion,  further 
confirmed  by  the  ruthless  treat- 
ment meted  out  to  the  surviving 
Ruthvens.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
has  been  suggested  that  the  Ruth- 
vens were  actuated  by  desire  to 
avenge  their  father's  execution,  and 
also  that  the  conspiracy  originated 
in  the  English  court  with  the  con- 
nivance of  Elizabeth.  See  The  Tra- 
gedy of  Gowrie  House,  L.  A-  Barbe, 
1887 ;  James  VI  and  the  Gowrie 
Mystery,  Andrew  Lang,  1902. 


Gowrie  Conspiracy.      The  death  of  John  and  Alexander  Gowrie,  frustrated 
in  their  plot  to  assassinate  James  VI  of  Scotland 

From  a  print  in  the  British  Museum 


GOYANA 


GOYEN 


Francisco  Goya  y 

Lucientes, 
Spanish  painter 

Self-portrait 


Goyana.  Town  of  Brazil,  in  the 
state  of  Pernambuco.  It  stands  on 
the  river  Goyana,  40  m.  N.N.W.  of 
Pernambuco.  It  has  a  Carmelite 
monastery,  schools,  a  hospital, 
law  courts,  and  factories,  and 
trades  in  cotton,  dyewoods,  sugar, 
rum,  coffee,  tobacco,  cattle,  and 
hides.  Pop.  about  ]  5,000. 

Goya  y  Lucientes,  FRANCIS*  o 
Josls  DE  (1746-1828).  Spanish 
painter  and  etcher.  Born  of  peasant 
parents  at 
Fuendetodos, 
in  Aragon,  he 
studied  art  un- 
der Jose  Mar- 
tinez at  Sara- 
gossa.  Having 
become  em- 
broiled with 
the  authorities, 
he  was  obliged 
to  flee  to  Ma- 
drid, and  a  few 
years  later  had 
to  seek  refuge  in  Italy.  Returning 
to  Madrid  in  1775,  he  married  the 
sister  of  Bayeu.  the  court  painter, 
through  whose  interest  he  was  com- 
missioned to  design  the  famous 
tapestries  now  in  the  Prado.  In 
1785  he  became  deputy  director  of 
the  San  Fernando  Academy,  in 
1789  painter  of  the  chamber  to 
Charles  IV,  and  in  1814  court 
painter  to  King  Ferdinand.  He 
was  in  Seville,  1817,  at  Paris,  1824, 
and  at  Bordeaux,  1825,  where  he 
died  April  16,  1828. 

A  revolutionary  in  life  as  well  as 
in  art,  Goya  delighted  in  offending 
conventional  susceptibilities.  His 
three  most  famous  sets  of  etchings, 
Los  Caprichos,  the  Tauromaquia, 
and  Los  Desastres  de  la  Guerra — 
the  last  inspired  by  Napoleon's 
invasion — express  his  mordantly 
satirical  genius  almost  better  than 
any  of  his  paintings ;  but  his  por- 
traits and  subject  paintings,  with 
their  uncompromising  realism,  are 
hardly  less  characteristic.  The  best 
of  his  work  is  at  Madrid,  but  there 
are  four  examples  in  the  National 
Gallery,  London.  See  Carnival. 

Goyaz.  Central  state  of  Brazil. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  W.  by  Matto 
G  rosso,  and  on  the  E.  by  Minas 
Geraes  and  Bahia.  Area,  288,462 
sq.  m.  Several  mt.  ranges  traverse 
the  state,  the  chief  of  which  are 
the  sierras  of  the  Matto  Gordo, 
the  Cordillera  Grande,  and  the 
Serro  do  Parana,  mostly  running 
from  N.  to  S.  and  of  no  great  eleya- 
tion.  The  principal  rivers  are  the 
Tocantins,  which  rises  as  the 
Maranhao  in  the  S.  of  the  state 
and  flows  due  N.  through  the 
centre  ;  the  Araguay  on  the  W. 
boundary  ;  and  the  Paranahyba. 
Several  other  streams  are  un- 
navigable  because  of  cataracts  and 


Goya.      His  portrait  of  Dona  Isabel  Corbo  de  Porcel, 
painted  in  1806,  now  in  the  National  Gallery,  London 


currents.  Extensive  forests  fringe 
most  ef  the  rivers,  and  a  large  por- 
tion of  territory  in  the  northern 
districts  of  the  state  is  unexplored. 


bacco,  and  car-ao 
is  carried  "on. 
G  oyaz  is  the  most 
backward  of  the 
Brazilian  states, 
transport  facili- 
ties are  almost 
non-existent,  and 
rlys.  are  only  just 
beginning  to  be 
laid  down.  T he- 
site  for  the  Fede-. 
ral  capital  has 
been  selected 
from  this  state, 
on  a  plateau  be- 
tween Formosa 
Pyrinopolis  and 
Santa  Lugia.  The 
climate  is  agree- 
able on  the  whole. 
Pop.  541,287. 

Goyaz,  the  cap- 
ital of  the  state, 
was  formerly 
known  as  Villa 
Boa  de  Goyaz. 
It  stands  on  the 
Vermelho  river, 
on  the  N.  side  of 
the  Serra  de 
Santa  Rita,  at 
an  alt.  of  nearly 
2.000  ft.,  650  m. 
N.W.  of  Rio  de 
Janeiro.  A  well- 
built  town,  the  chief  buildings  are 
a  cathedral,  governor's  palace, 
schools,  churches,  and  a  town  hall. 
Goyaz  was  founded  by  Bartholo- 
mew Silva  towards  the  end  of  the 
17th  century.  Pop.  25,000. 

Goyen,  JAN  VAN  (1596-1665). 
Dutch  painter.  Born  at  Leiden, 
Jan.  13, 1596,  he  worked  for  a  while 
in  France,  and  on  his  return  to  Hol- 
land took  finishing  lessons  from 
Esaias  van  de  Velde.  After  a 
short  sojourn  in  Haarlem  he  re- 
sided in  his  native  city  for  several 
removing  in  1631  to  The 


The  S.  part  of  the  state  contains 
the  principal  centres  of  the  civil- 
ized population.  Formerly  gold 
was  extensively  worked,  but  the 
output  has  declined  considerably. 
Silver,  copper,  marble,  and  iron 
exist,  but  are  unworked.  Dia- 
monds and  quartz  crystals,  called 
Brazilian  pebbles-  and  used  in 
optical  work,  are  found.  The  chief 
occupation  is  stock-raising,  but  thev 
cultivation  of  coffee,  sugar,  to- 


Gozo,    Malta.       Wall   in   the   Gran 
Castello  containing    Norman  arch- 
ways     Top,    left,    interior    of    the 
cathedral  looking  eastward 


GOZO 

Hague,  where  he  died  in  April,  1665. 
He  painted  the  river,  canal,  and 
coastal  scenery  of  the  Netherlands. 
Gozo  OR  Gozzo.  British  island 
of  the  Maltese  group.  It  lies  4  m. 
N.W.  of  Malta,  is  8  m.  long  and 
4  m.  broad,  and  has  an  area  of  26 
sq.  m.  Composed  of  coralline  lime- 
stone, the  surface  is  diversified,  fer- 
tile, and  well  cultivated,  producing 
fruits  and  vegetables.  Lace  is  made. 
There  are  remains  of  cyclopean 
walls,  and  a  tower  and  Roman 
monuments.  The  chief  towns  are 
Victoria,  formerly  Rabato,  in  the 
centre  of  the  island,  andFortCham- 
bray  on  the  S.E.  coast.  Pop.  21,911. 
Gozzi,  CARLO,  COUNT  (1722- 
1806).  Italian  dramatist  and 
memoir  writer.  He  was  a  native  of 
Venice.  His  farcical  plays  and 
fairy  pieces  in  the  Venetian  patois 
enjoyed  considerable  popularity  for 
their  satiric  wit.  They  were  written 
to  ridicule  his  dramatic  rivals,  Carlo 
Goldoni  and  others,  and  their  suc- 
cess contributed  to  drive  Goldoni 
from  Venice.  See  his  Memoirs,  1797, 
Eng.  trans.  J.  A.  Symonds,  1890. 

Gozzoli,  BENOZZO  (1420-98). 
Florentine  painter,  whose  real 
name  was  Benozzo  di  Lese.  Born 
in  Florence,  he  studied  under  Fra 
Angelico,  whose  assistant  he  after- 
wards became.  Gozzoli  was  an  in- 
dustrious and  painstaking  fresco 
painter.  Among  his  famous  works 
are  a  Virgin  and  Child  and  St. 
Thomas  Receiving  the  Girdle  from 
the  Virgin,  painted  in  1459  for  the 
church  of  San  Fortunate  at  Monte- 
falco  (the  latter  now  in  the  Lateran 
Museum,  Rome) ;  the  decorations 
for  the  Riccardi  (then  the  Medici) 
Palace  in  Florence,  particularly 
the  frescoes  of  The  Journey  of  the 
Three  Magi  and  Angels  in  Paradise  ; 
and  the  series  of  twenty-four  fres- 
coes of  Biblical  themes  executed  for 
the  Campo  Santo,  Pisa. 

G.P.I.  Abbrev.  for  general 
paralysis  of  the  insane. 

G.P.O.  Abbrev.  for  General 
Post  Office. 

G.R.  Abbrev.  for  Georgins  Rex 
(King  George). 

Graaff,  SIR  DAVID  PIETER  DE 
VILLIERS  (b.  1859).  South  African 
politician.  Born  March  30,  1859, 
he  was  the  son 
of  a  Boer  at 
Villiersdorp. 
He  entered 
business  in 
Cape  Town, 
and  in  time  be- 
came head  of 
the  firm  of 
Com  brine k  & 
Co.  In  1891 
he  was  chosen 
mayor  of  the 
city,  and  in  the  same  year  he  en- 
tered the  legislative  council  of  the 


Sir  David  Graaff, 
S.  African  politician 

Russell 


3631 

Cape  of  Good  Hope,  where  he  re- 
•Jmained  until  1899.  In  1907  he 
returned  to  the  council,  but  in 
1910  he  was  elected  by  Namaqua- 
land  to  the  first  parliament  of  the 
Union  of  S.  Africa.  Botha  made 
him  minister  of  public  works, 
which  post  he  held  until  1912, 
being  afterwards  minister  without 
portfolio.  In  1914  he  was  for  a 
time  high  commissioner  for  S. 
Africa  in  London,  but  in  1915  he 
returned  home  to  become  minister 
of  finance.  He  resigned  office  in 
1916,  although  he  remained  a 
member  of  the  legislature.  In  1911 
he  was  made  a  baronet. 

Graaf  Reinet.  Town  of  Cape 
Province.  It  stands  on  the  Sunday 
river,  185  m.  by  rly.  N.  of  Port 
Elizabeth.  Founded  in  1784,  it  is 
situated  in  a  district  famous  for 
its  angora  goats  and  ostriches.  To 
the  N.  are  the  Sneeuwbergen,  of 
which  the  Compassberg  rises  to  a 
height  of  8,208  ft.  above  sea  level. 
The  town  possesses  a  college  for 
Dutch  students,  and  is  noted  for 
its  fruit  and  wine. 

Grabbe,  CHRISTIAN  DIETRICH 
(1801-36).  German  dramatist. 
Born  at  Detmold,  Lippe,  Dec.  11, 
1801,  his  dissipated  habits  under- 
mined his  talents,  and  he  died  of 
drink  in  his  native  town,  Sept.  12, 
1836.  Though  much  of  his  work  is 
extravagant  in  plan,  and  lurid  in 
presentation,  it  was  marked  by 
real  poetic  and  dramatic  genius. 
His  best  plays  were  Don  Juan  and 
Faust,  1829  ;  Frederick  Barbarossa 
and  Napoleon,  1831. 

Gracchus.  Name  of  two  re- 
formers in  ancient  Rome.  They 
were  the  sons  of  Cornelia  (q.v.), 
daughter  of  Scipio  Africanus  the 
Elder,  by  Tiberius  Sempronius 
Gracchus,  governor  of  hither  Spain 
in  181  B.C.,  who  made  the  province 
one  of  the  most  peaceable  in  the 
Roman  dominions. 

The  elder,  Tiberius  Sempronius 
Gracchus  (163-133  B.C.  ),  was  present 
at  the  siege  of  Carthage  and  served 
in  Spain,  and  on  his  journeys  to  and 
from  that  country  the  deplorable 
condition  of  Italian  agriculture 
first  drew  his  attention.  The  public 
land,  i.e.  the  conquered  territory 
distributed  among  Roman  citizens, 
had  largely  and  illegally  passed 
into  the  hands  of  a  comparatively 
small  number  of  wealthy  people, 
who  cultivated  their  immense 
farms  chiefly  by  slaves. 

As  tribune  for  the  year  133  B.C., 
he  brought  forward  a  measure  pro- 
viding that  the  public  lands  should 
be  distributed  in  small  holdings 
among  the  poor,  and  that  a  certain 
proportion  of  free  labourers  should 
be  employed  on  all  large  farms. 
This  measure  brought  Tiberius  into 
conflict  with  the  senate  and  with 


GRACCHUS 

large  numbers  of  the  wealthy 
classes,  and  another  tribune,  Octa- 
vius,  was  suborned  to  veto  the  pro- 
posed legislation.  » 

Tiberius  thereupon  got  the  as- 
sembly of  the  people  to  deprive 
Octavius  of  his  office,  and  the  bill 
was  passed.  Threatened  with  im- 
peachment at  the  end  of  his  term 
of  office  for  his  illegal  proceedings, 
Tiberius  set  himself  to  obtain  the 
tribunate  for  another  year.  The 
elections  were  held,  but  the  senate 
declared  that  they  were  illegal,  and 
in  the  riots  which  ensued  Tiberius 
and  300  of  his  followers  were  killed. 
Tiberius  was  a  man  of  noble  charac- 
ter, and  his  reforms  were  prompted 
by  a  genuine  desire  to  improve  the 


Gracchus.     Cornelia,  mother  of  the 

Gracchi,  with  her  sons.     From  a 

group  by  P.  J.  Cavelier,  1814-94 

Luxembourg,  Paris 

condition  of  his  less  fortunate 
fellow  citizens.  Nor  was  his  work 
altogether  in  vain  ;  much  land  was 
recovered,  and  during  the  next 
decade  the  census  showed  an  in- 
crease of  70,000  citizens. 

Ten  years  after  the  death  of 
Tiberius,  the  agitation  was  renewed 
by  his  brother,  Gaius  Sempronius 
Gracchus  (153-121  B.C  ),  who,  after 
service  in  Spain  and  as  quaes- 
tor in  Sardinia,  was  tribune  in  123 
and  122  B.C.  His  policy  was  to  put 
his  reforms  on  a  much  broader 
basis  than  those  of  his  brother,  and 
not  to  rely  on  the  support  of  only 
one  class  in  the  community.  •"' 

In  addition  to  renewing  the 
purely  agrarian  legislation  of  Ti- 
berius, his  measures  included  the 
establishment  of  colonies  for  settle- 
ment by  the  poor,  extensive  army 
reforms,  and  a  monthly  dole  of 
corn  to  all  citizens  at  less  than  half 
the  market  price,  while  an  en- 
deavour was  made  to  secure  the 
support  of  the  wealthy  capitalists 
of  the  equestrian  order  by  giving 
them  the  privilege  of  acting  as 
jurymen.  These  proposals  met  with 


r 


GRACE 

opposition  from  the  senate,  which 
Gracchus  sought  to  counter  by 
reviving  the  constitutional  legisla- 
tive powers  of  the  assembly  of  the 
people  which  had  been  usurped  by 
the  senate.  His  policy  virtually 
amounted  to  a  revolution,  and  the 
senate,  thoroughly  alarmed,  put 
forward  a  tribune,  M.  Livius 
Drusus,  to  outbid  Gracchus.  An 
additional  proposal  of  Gracchus  to 
extend  the  franchise  among  the 
Italians  alienated  many  of  his 
purely  Roman  supporters,  and 
strengthened  the  hands  of  the 
senate.  Gracchus  was  not  elected 
for  the  tribunate  of  121,  and  steps 
were  taken  by  the  senate  to  repeal 
his  measures.  The  result  was  a 
riot,  in  which  Gracchus  perished, 
as  his  brother  had  done  before  him. 
Less  disinterested,  perhaps,  than 
Tiberius,  Gaius  was  undoubtedly 
the  abler  man.  The  democratic 
movement  which  he  started  was 
eventually  the  chief  instrument  in 
the  overthrow  of  the  senatorial 
ascendancy. 

Grace  (Lat.  gratia).  Term  used 
in  theology  to  express  the  love  of 
God  manifesting  itself  in  free  and 
undeserved  favour  to  mankind. 
Tliis  manifestation  is  threefold  and 
progressive.  First,  there  is  the 
original  and  eternal  love  with 
which  God  views  His  creatures ; 
hence  He  wills  that  all  men  shall 
be  saved  and  sends  forth  His  Son 
to  accomplish  that  salvation  by 
His  death.  This  is  the  grace  of  un- 
deserved favour.  Secondly,  this 
fact  is  brought  to  the  knowledge  of 
man  by  the  preaching  of  Christ  and 
His  Apostles,  and  by  the  teaching 
of  the  Christian  Church.  This  is 
the  grace  of  outward  instruction. 
Thirdly,  the  knowledge  of  salva- 
tion is  made  effectual  in  the  soul 
and  the  life  by  the  supernatural 
gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  whereby 
man  embraces  the  salvation  freely 
provided  and  offered  him.  This  is 
the  grace  of  inward  sanctification. 
The  first  is  often  known  as  general 
grace,  and  the  second  and  third 
combined  as  particular  grace. 

Persons  are  said  to  be  in  a  state 
of  grace  when  they  are  living  in 
communion  with  God,  are  penitent 
for  their  sins,  and  are  making  use 
of  the  means  of  grace  provided  by 
Christ.  The  sacraments  are  the 
special  channels  of  divine  grace  ; 
but  whether  their  efficacy  depends 
on  the  faith  of  the  recipient  is  one 
of  the  points  of  controversy  be- 
tween Catholics  and  Protestants. 
In  regard  to  the  relationship  of  the 
grace  of  God  to  the  free  will  of 
man,  S.  Augustine  and  the  Cal- 
vinists  maintained  that  all  good  in 
man  is  due  to  the  grace  of  God  ; 
while  the  Pelagians  taught  that 
grace  merely  guided  and  helped 


3632. 

man's  free  will.  The  Church 
generally  takes  the  view  that  the 
grace  of  God  and  the  free  will  of 
man  cooperate  in  all  good  works  ; 
though  some  hold  that  every  good 
thing  wrought  by  the  will  of  man  is 
due  to  the  prevenient  or  antici- 
patory grace  of  God.  See  Cal- 
vinism ;  Theology. 

Grace  (Lat.  gratia).  Word  mean- 
ing a  favour  of  some  kind.  It  is 
thus  used  in  law  and  politics.  In 
England  an  Act  of  Grace  is  one 
passed  at  the  opening  of  a  new 
reign,  granting  a  general  pardon  to 
certain  classes  of  offenders,  usually 
insolvent  debtors.  In  Scotland  the 
term  is  applied  especially  to  an  Act 
of  1696,  which  compelled  every 
creditor,  who  had  caused  a  debtor 
to  be  imprisoned  for  debt,  to  be  re- 
sponsible for  the  debtor's  main- 
tenance while  in  prison.  Favours 
granted  by  sovereigns  were  long 
known  as  graces,  and  the  term  sur- 
vives at  the  universities,  being  used 
there  for  certain  permissions,  e.g. 
to  take  a  degree.  Days  of  grace  are 
days  allowed,  beyond  the  appointed 
time,  in  which  a  bill  of  exchange 
must  be  met.  The  phrase  your 
grace  is  used  in  Britain  in  address- 
ing archbishops  and  dukes,  the 
idea  behind  it  being  that  persons  of 
these  high  ranks  granted  favours. 
Grace.  Form  of  thanksgiving 
said  or  sung  before  or  after  meals. 
Something  of  the  kind  was  in  use 
among  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
but  the  existing  graces  are  of  Chris- 
tian, and  mainly  monastic,  origin. 
They  are-said  in  the  halls  of  public 
schools  and  colleges,  at  Oxford  and 
Cambridge,  the  Inns  of  Court,  and 
other  learned  societies,  and  fre- 
quently at  public  dinners.  Some 
societies  have  their  own  grace,  often 
a  long  one.  A  popular  form  is  Bene- 
dictus  benedicat  (May  the  Blessed 
bless)  used  before,  and  Benedicto 
benedicatur  (May  the  blessed  be 
blest)  after  the  meal. 

Grace,  WILLIAM  GILBERT  (1848- 
1915).  English  cricketer.  Born 
July  18,  1848,  at  Downend,  Glou- 
cestershire, his 
father  was 
Henry  Mills 
Grace,  a  doctor, 
who  was  also 
an  enthusiastic 
cricketer.  His 
four  sons  were 
all  brought  up 
to  play  cricket 
from  child- 
hood, and  in 
addition  to  W. 
G.,  two  of  them 
—Henry  Mills 


Russell 

and  George  Frederick — played  for 
Gloucestershire. 

Educated  for  the  medical  pro- 
fession,  Grace   became   a   doctor, 


GRACECHURCH     STREET 

but  cricket  was  his  real  career.  In 
1863  he  began  to  play  in  first- 
class  matches,  and  in  1870  became 
a  member  of  the  Gloucestershire 
county  team,  which  almost  at  once 
ranked  as  a  first-class  county. 
This  he  captained  until  1899,  and 
under  him  it  was  at  one  time  the 
champion  county.  He  captained 
the  English  team  in  its  test  matches 
against  Australia  until  1899,  and 
to  that  country  he  took  teams  in 
1873-74  and  1891-92;  he  also 
visited  the  United  States.  In  1899 
he  severed  his  connexion  with 
Gloucestershire,  and  became  man- 
ager of  the  new  London  County 
club.  He  died  on  Oct.  23,  1915. 

The  champion,  as  Grace  was 
called,  was  certainly  the  greatest 
cricketer  who  ever  lived.  A  man 
of  massive  frame,  over  6  ft.  in 
height,  he  was  also  devoted  to 
other  sports,  being  a  fine  runner, 
but  mainly  with  the  idea  of  keep- 
ing himself  fit.  As  a  batsman  he 
was  superb,  but  he  was  also  a 
notable  fieldsman  and  a  skilful 
bowler.  He  knew  the  game  from 
end  to  end,  and  part  of  his  suc- 
cess was  due  to  his  judgement. 

Grace's  performances  with  the 
bat  were  marvellous,  the  more 
so  because  they  were  done  on  the 
rougher  wickets  of  the  past.  Alto- 
gether, up  to  1900,  when  his  career 
as  a  first-class  cricketer  ended,  he 
scored  over  51,000  runs.  In  1871 
he  scored  2,739  runs  in  the  season, 
an  average  of  78,  including  ten 
innings  of  over  100  each.  His 
highest  score  in  first-class  cricket 
was  344,  while  on  ten  occasions  he 
scored  over  200.  He  played  in  a 
long  series  of  Gentlemen  v.  Players 
matches  from  1865  to  1899  ;  15 
times  he  scored  over  100  in  these 
games.  As  a  bowler  he  took  over 
2,800  wickets,  while  in  seven  sea- 
sons he  scored  over  1,000  runs  and 
took  over  100  wickets  In  1895, 
when  nearing  fifty,  he  scored  2,346 
runs,  giving  him  an  average  of  51. 
Grace  wrote  Cricketing  Remi- 
niscences, 1899. 

Gracechurch  Street.  London 
thoroughfare  connecting  Fish  Street 
Hill  with  Cornhill  and  Leadenhall 
Street,  B.C.  Known  in  the  13th 
century  as  Garscherchesstrate  (A.S. 
gaers,  gers,  graes,  a  blade  of  grass, 
herb,  hay),  from  the  grass  or  herb 
market  held  in  the  yard  of  S. 
Benet's  Church,  its  present  name 
dates  from  1666.  S.  Benet's  stood 
on  the  E.  side,  at  the  junction  with 
Fenchurch  Street,  was  burnt  in  the 
Great  Fire,  rebuilt  by  Wren  1685, 
and  demolished  1867-68,  when  the 
street  was  widened.  Tarlton  the 
clown  lived  here,  and  at  the  Cross 
Keys  Inn,  No.  15,  which  existed 
down  to  the  middle  of  the  19th 
century, Bankes  exhibited  his  horse 


GRACE     NOTES 


GRAFTING 


Marocco.  At  No.  13  William  Hone 
opened  Ths  Grasshopper  coffee 
house.  Some  scenes  of  Thomas 
Heywood's  comedy,  The  Wise 
Women  of  Hogsdon,  are  laid  in  this 
street. 

Grace  Notes.  In  music,  a  note 
not  essential  to  the  harmony, 
added  to  give  piquancy  to  melodies. 
Such  notes  are  usually  written 
smaller  than  the  ordinary  notes. 
See  Acciaccatura  ;  Appoggiatura  ; 
Mordent;  Shake;  Trill;  Turn. 

Graces.  In  classical  mythology, 
the  three  deities  of  grace  and 
beauty,  called  Charites  by  the 
Greeks  and  Gratiae  by  the  Ro- 
mans. See  Charites. 

Gracia.  North-western  suburb 
of  Barcelona,  Spain.  It  has  tram- 
way communication  with  the  Plaza 
de  la  Paz,  near  the  docks.  There 
are  manufactures  of  linen  and 
cotton.  See  Barcelona. 

Grackle  OR  GRAKLE  (Lat.  gra- 
culus,  jackdaw).  Name  given  to 
the  hill  mynah  of  Malay  and  India. 
These  birds  belong  to  the  starling 
family,  and  have  glossy  black 
plumage  with  yellow  wattles  on  the 
sides  of  the  head.  They  live  en- 
tirely on  fruit,  and  are  remarkably 
clever  talkers  and  mimics. 

Gradient  (Lat.  gradus,  a  step). 
Term  usually  applied  to  a  road  or 
railway  for  the  degree  of  ascent  or 
descent.  The  extent  or  amount  of 
inclination  may  be  denoted  in 
several  ways.  Thus  a  gradient  of 
two  degrees  52  minutes  is  equal  to 
a  gradient  of  5  p. c.,  or  a  gradient  of 
1  in  20,  and  is  equivalent  to  a  rise 
or  fall  of  1  ft.  for  every  20  ft.  of 
horizontal  distance.  The  gradient 
of  a  river  or  flow  of  water  is  known 
as  its  fall.  The  ruling  gradient  of  a 
road  or  railway  is  the  steepest  gra- 
dient generally  encountered  except 
where  additional  assistance  for 
hauling  is  provided.  On  roads  the 
ruling  gradient  is  about  1  in  30  ex- 
cept for  very  short  distances.  On 
railways  it  varies  according  to  the 
general  nature  of  the  country  tra- 
versed, the  class  of  traffic,  and  the 
type  of  locomotive  employed.  See 
Railways;  Roads. 

Gradisca.  Town  and  district  of 
Italy,  formerly  of  Austria-Hungary. 
The  town  is  6  m.  S.W.  of  Gorizia 
on  the  Isonzo  river.  It  has  an  old 
castle  now  used  as  a  prison,  and 
its  fortifications  have  been  replaced 
by  fine  promenades.  Its  population 
of  nearly  2,000  are  Italians,  and 
during  the  Great  War  it  became  a 
leading  objective  of  the  Italian 
armies,  forming  part  of  "  Italia  ir- 
redenta." Its  capture  by  General 
Cadorna,  June  9,  1915,  completed 
the  Italian  control  of  the  Lower 
Isonzo.  Recaptured  by  the  Aus- 
trians when  the  Italians  retreated 
to  the  Piave  it  fell  once  more  into 


Italian  hands  during  the  final  de- 
feat of  the  Austrians  in  1918.  Pop. 
34,150.  See  Isonzo,  Battles  of  the. 

Gradishsk.  Town  of  the 
Ukraine,  Russia,  in  the  govt.  of 
Poltava.  It  stands  near  the 
Dnieper,  20  m.  N.E.  of  Krement- 
chug.  At  the  great  fair  in  May 
much  trade  is  done  in  grain,  horses, 
cattle,  hemp,  tar,  flax  and  butter. 
There  is  a  large  sugar-refinery  in 
the  neighbourhood.  Pop.  10,000. 

Gradual  OR  GRAYL  (Lat.  gradus, 
a  step).  Ancient  liturgical  chant  or 
antiphon.  Also  called  the  respon- 
sory,  it  is  sung  at  High  Mass  after 
the  reading  of  the  Epistle.  Called 
the  gradual  from  being  formerly 
sung  on  the  altar  steps  or  while  the 
deacon  ascended  the  steps  of  the 
ambo  (q.v. )  or  reading  desk  to  sing 
or  read  the  Gospel,  it  is  called  the 
responsory  because  it  answers  the 
Epistle  or  because  it  is  sung  anti- 
phonally.  It  is  followed  by  the 
Hallelujah  or,  in  penitential  sea- 
sons, by  the  Tract.  The  book 
containing  these  pieces  of  music,  to 
which  Haydn,  Mozart,  Cherubini 
and  others  contributed,  was  known 
as  the  Gradale  or  Graduale,  a  term 
later  extended  to  include  other 
portions  of  the  service, 

Gradual  Psalms.  Title  given 
to  Psalms  cxx-cxxxiv.  The  early 
Fathers  regarded  them  as  marking 
the  steps  by  which  the  soul  ascends 
to  God.  In  the  Roman  Breviary 
they  are  divided  into  three  sets  of 
five  each.  Formerly  said  before 
matins  every  day  in  Lent,  the  obli- 
gation of  reciting  them  in  choir  was 
abolished  by  Pius  X.  The  term 
Song  of  Degrees,  applied  in  the 
A.V.  to  a  number  of  these  Psalms, 
is  altered  in  the  R.V.  to  Song  of 
Ascents.  Of  the  many  theories  of 
the  title  the  most  generally  accepted 
is  the  explanation  that  these 
Psalms  were  sung  during  the  "  go- 
ings up "  or  pilgrimages  of  the 
Jews  to  Jerusalem  for  the  great 
annual  feasts.  They  are  usually 
attributed  to  the  early  part  of  the 
post-exilic  period. 

Grafenberg.  Village  of  Czecho- 
slovakia, formerly  in  Austrian 
Silesia.  It  stands  among  the 
Sudetic  Mts.,  37  m.  N.W.  of 
Troppau.  It  is  chiefly  known  for 
its  water-cure,  the  first  hydro- 
pathic having  been  established  here 
by  Priessnitz  in  1826.  Pop.  1,100. 

Graffiti.  Italian  word  meaning 
ancient  scribbling.  Written  or 
drawn  upon  walls,  rocks,  potsherds 
and  other  surfaces,  graffiti  were 
scratched  with  sharp  implements, 
drawn  in  charcoal  or  chalks,  or 
painted.  Universal  in  range,  from 
neolithic  drawings  on  cave-walls  at 
Gezer  and  rocks  in  the  Nile  valley, 
to  scratchings  by  2nd  century 
Chinese  pilgrims  on  Shantung 


tombs,  and  viking  runes  at  Maesli- 
owe,  they  survive  in  modern  school- 
boy and  tourist  scrawls.  In  ancient 
Egypt  they  occur  on  pyramid  walls 
at  Medum  and  on  potsherds ;  many 
thousands  are  recordedf  romThebes. 
At  Pompeii  they  included  sporting 
tips,  election  notices  and  amatory 
effusions.  On  Silchester  potsherds 
they  show  the  Romano-British 
populace  habitually  using  Latin. 
Numerous  in  ancient  Rome,  a  cari- 
cature of  the  Crucifixion  was  found 
on  the  Palatine  in  Rome  in  1857  ; 
Marucchi  found  in  the  St.  Sebastian 
catacomb,  in  1915,  4th  century 
graffiti  confirming  its  traditional 
association  with  the  remains  of  SS. 
Peter  and  Paul.  See  Art,  Primi- 
tive ;  Inscriptions. 

Graft.  Term  in  common  use  in 
the  U.S.A.  and  Canada  to  signify 
the  use  of  public  positions  for 
private  gain,  such  as  the  gathering 
in  of  perquisites,  or  of  illegal  com- 
missions, or  the  official  acquisition 
of  knowledge  that  can  be  used 
profitably  in  private  business. 
Regarded  as  a  part  of  the  "  spoils 
of  office,"  this  corruption  has  been 
extended  by  the  change  of  public 
officials  with  every  change  of  the 
party  in  power. 

Grafting.  Method  of  transfer- 
ring a  branch  or  bud  of  a  choice 
variety  of  tree  to  a  vigorous  foster- 
parent,  so  that  the  bud  or  branch 
may  be  benefited.  This  bud  is 
technically  known  as  a  "  scion," 
the  stem  to  which  it  is  transferred 
as  the  "  stock."  Many  different 
sorts  of  plants  and  trees  can  be 
grafted,  but  the  operation  is 
generally  confined  to  roses  and 
fruit  trees.  The  most  suitable  time 
for  grafting  is  in  the  springtime, 
when  the  sap  is  rising  in  the  wood. 

The  chief  object  of  the  operation 
is  to  increase  the  supply  of  a 
desirable  variety  of  fruit  or  flower 
which  cannot  easily  be  multiplied 
by  seed.  Various  forms  of  grafting 
are  known  as  "  cleft,"  "  tongue," 
and  "  slip,"  which  are  really  dis- 
tinctions without  much  difference, 
the  important  thing  being  to  ascer- 
tain that  the  scion,  or  graft,  is 
firmly  embedded  upon  the  stock, 
and  protected  from  the  weather  by 
a  covering  of  clay  or  wax. 

A  shoot  of  the  scion  should  be  cut 
down  to  a  point  with  a  sharp  knife, 
and  an  aperture  of  suitable  capa- 
city prepared  in  the  stock.  It  is  the 
blending  of  the  sap,  or  juices 
brought  about  by  the  junction  of 
stock  and  scion,  that  contributes  to 
a  successful  graft.  There  should  be 
a  good  bud  just  above  the  cut  at 
each  end.  The  interior  edges  of  the 
bark  should  be  made  to  touch  and 
remain  in  contact',  for  which  pur- 
pose it  is  particularly  necessary  to 
use  a  sharp  knife.  Crown  grafting  is 


D     5 


GRAFTING 


3634 


GRAHAM 


Grafting.      1.    A   piece   of  scion  wood,  and,  2,  scions   ready   for   grafting. 

3.  Crown  or  rind  grafting.     4.  Splice.     5.  Cleft.     6.  Saddle.     7.  Inarching. 

8.  Whip.     9.  Notch.     10.  Top  graft,  tool  holding  stock  open  for  reception  of 

scions.     11.  Scions  in  position.      12.  After  application  of  wax 


most  generally  practised  upon  the 
stocks  of  fruit  trees  of  mature  age. 
The  stock  is  cut  off  cleanly,  and 
any  number  of  slips  or  scions,  from 
four  to  six,  inserted  in  the  slits 
prepared  for  them.  By  this  process 
it  is  possible  to  obtain  three  or  four 
different  varieties  of  grafted  fruit 
from  the  same  tree,  but  the  process 
is  not  economical.  Among  all  the 
different  varieties  of  graft,  the 
simple  slip  or  tongue,  with  the  stem 
of  a  scion  suitably  prepared,  is  the 
one  which  gives  the  best  results. 
See  Gardening.  •" 

Grafting.  Transference  of  por- 
tions of  skin  from  one  area  to 
another  to  replace  skin  destroyed 
by  burn  or  injury.  The  method 
was  introduced  by  Reverdin  in 
1869.  His  plan  was  to  remove  a 
number  of  small  pieces  of  cuticle 
and  cutis,  the  upper  layers  of  the 
skin,  from  the  healthy  area,  which 
were  then  dotted  over  the  denuded 
are*,  thus  serving  as  centres  of 
repair.  In  Thiersch's  method  large 


strips  of  cuticle  are  applied  to  the 
raw  surface.  In  the  Wolfe  graft 
the  whole  thickness  of  the  skin  is 
employed.  Bone-grafting  has  also 
been  applied  with  success  in  modern 
surgery.  See  Surgery. 

Grafton.  Town  of  New  South 
Wales.  It  stands  on  the  Clarence 
river,  45  m.  from  its  mouth,  and 
is  the  chief  port  of  the  Northern 
Rivers  dist.,  350  m.  N.  of  Sydney. 
It  has  bacon  factories,  creameries, 
sawmills,  and  tanneries.  The  centre 
of  a  fertile  district  devoted  to 
dairying  and  horse  breeding,  it  pro- 
duces also  sugar,  maize,  oranges, 
and  timber.  It  is  the  seat  of  an 
Anglican  and  a  Roman  Catholic 
b.'shop.  Coal  has  been  discovered 
in  the  neighbourhood.  Pop.  5,888. 

Graf  ton,  DUKE  OF.  English 
title  borne  by  the  family  of  FitzRoy 
since  1675.  Henry,  son  of  Charles 
II  by  Barbara  Villiers,  duchess  of 
Cleveland,  was  called  FitzRoy  and 
made  duke  of  Grafton  in  1675.  He 
was  killed  in  1690  whilst  fighting  in 


Ireland  for  William  of  Orange.  His 
descendant,  Augustus  Henry,  the 
3rd  duke,  figured  in  the  politics  of 
the  18th  century,  and  from  him 
the  later  dukes  descend.  These 
include  the  7th  duke,  who  was 
wounded  at  Inkerman,  and  became 
a  general,  and  who  died  Dec.  1918. 
The  duke's  eldest  son  is  known  as 
earl  of  Euston,  and  his  chief  seat  is 
Euston  Hall,  Thetford.  His  estates 
are  mainly  in  Suffolk  and  North- 
amptonshire. 

Grafton,  AUGUSTUS  HENRY 
FITZROY,  3RD  DUKE  OF  (1735- 
1811).  English  statesman.  Born 
Oct.  1,  1735,  he  was  educated  at 
West  minster 
and  Cam- 
bridge. He 
became  duke 
in  1757  and 
was  soon  a 
prominent 
figure  in  poli- 
tics. He  op- 
posed Bute, 
and  in  1765 
became  seevc- 
tary  or  state 
for  the  northern  department,  1765. 
In  1766  he  was  made  tirst  lord 
of  the  treasury.  He  was  head 
of  the  ministry  during  Pitt's 
illness,  but  resigned  in  1770.  He 
was  made  lord  privy  seal  in  1771, 
and  again  in  1782.  He  died 
at  Euston  Hall,  Suffolk,  March 
14,  1811. 

Grafton  Gallery.  London  pic- 
ture repository.  It  is  in  Grafton 
Street,  Piccadilly,  and  derives  its 
name  from  the  dukes  of  Grafton. 
The  collections  include  works  by 
Leighton  and  Poynter,  and  the  art- 
treasures  belonging 'to  the  Dilet- 
tanti Society,  founded  in  1734.  In 
1921  the  interests  in  connexion 
with  the  Grosvenor  Gallery  were 
transferred  here  and  exhibitions 
of  the  National  Portrait  and  other 
societies  organized. 

Gragnano.  Town  of  Italy,  in 
the  prov.  of  Naples.  It  is  20  m.  by 
rly.  S.E.  of  Naples,  and  2  m.  E.  of 
Castellammare.  It  has  many  mac- 
aroni factories  and  is  noted  for  the 
red  wine  it  exports.  Pop.  14,642. 

Graham,  GEORGE  PERRY  (b. 
1859).  Canadian  politician.  Born 
at  Eganville,  Ontario,  of  Irish 
descent,  he  began  life  as  a  teacher, 
but  adopted  journalism  and  in 
1880  became  editor  of  The  Morris- 
burg  Herald.  In  1893  he  moved  to 
Brockville,  where  he  was  managing 
director  of  The  Recorder,  and  in 
1898  was  returned  to  the  Ontario 
legislature.  Devoting  himself  to 
politics,  he  was  secretary  of  the 
province  in  1904-5,  and  in  1907 
became  leader  of  the  opposition. 

He  was  returned  to  the  House  of 
Commons  at  Ottawa  as  a  follower 


GRAHAM 


3635 


GRAHAME-WHITE 


of  Sir  Wilfrid  Laurier,  and  was 
appointed  minister  of  railways  and 
canals,  holding  that  position  until 
the  Liberal  defeat  in  1911.  Having 
lost  his  seat  at  Brockville,  he  was 
elected  in  1912  for  S.  Renfrew. 
Prominent  also  in  commercial  life, 
Graham  was  president  of  The 
Montreal  Herald  and  of  other 
companies. 

Graham,  SIR  HENRY  JOHN 
LOWNDES  (b.  1842).  British  civil 
servant.  The  son  of  William 
Graham  of  Burntshiels,  Renfrew- 
shire, he  was  educated  at  Harrow 
and  Balliol  College,  Oxford.  In 
1868  he  became  a  barrister  and 
from  1874-80  was  secretary  to  the 
lord  chancellor,  Earl  Cairns.  From 
1880-85  he  was  master  in  lunacy, 
and  from  1885-1917  was  clerk  of 
the  parliaments.  In  1902  he  was 
knighted.  Sir  Henry  married 
firstly  a  daughter  of  the  earl  of 
Cranbrook  and  secondly  a  daughter 
of  the  marquess  of  Northampton. 
His  eldest  son,  Sir  Ronald  William 
Graham  (b.  1870),  entered  the 
diplomatic  service,  and  was  ap- 
pointed minister  to  the  kingdom  of 
the  Netherlands  in  1919. 

Graham's  second  son,  Captain 
Harry  Graham,  is  known  as  a 
clever  writer  of  skits  and  parodies. 
His  works  include  Ruthless 
Rhymes  for  Heartless  Homes, 
1899;  Misrepresentative  Men,  1904; 
Misrepresentative  Women,  1906  ; 
The  Bolster  Book,  1910  ;  Canned 
Classics,  1911;  and  Biffin  and  His 
Circle,  1919. 

Graham,  SIR  JAMES  ROBERT 
GEORGE  (1792-1861).  British  poli- 
tician. Born  June  1,  1792,  he  was 

_. ,  the  eldest  son 

djjf^^^     1    of    Sir     James 

|   Graham,  Bart., 

iJhte.        •:»         to  wnose    ^tle 

I    he      succeeded 

I   in  1824.     Edu- 

|    cated  at  West 

^B|  ^^k       1    minster  School 

•mm  Wjiy&L         and     Christ 

•^•BFJM^    Church,  Ox 

Sir  James  Graham.     ford,  he  entered 

Bntuh  politician    >.Parliament     in 

1818  as  M.P.  for  Hull  in  the 
Whig  interest.  In  1826,  after 
an  absence  of  five  years,  he  re- 
turned to  the  House  as  M.P.  for 
Carlisle,  and  was  soon  prominent 
among  those  who  were  advocating 
the  reforms  which  were  carried 
into  effect  between  1830  and  1836. 
In  1830  he  was  made  first  lord  of 
the  admiralty,  resigning  in  1834 
because  he  disagreed  with  the  pro- 
posals about  the  revenues  of  the 
Irish  Church.  Graham  then  gravi- 
tated to  the  Tories,  and  from  1841- 
46  was  home  secretary  under  Peel, 
this  being  the  time  when  the  letters 
of  Mazzini  and  other  political  re- 
fugees were  opened  by  his  orders. 


In  1852,  with  other  Peelites,  he 
joined  the  ministry  as  first  lord  of 
the  admiralty,  but  he  resigned  in 
1855  owing  to  censure  about  the 
conduct  of  the  Crimean  War.  He 
died  Oct.  25,  1861.  See  Life,  C.  S. 
Parker,  1907. 

Graham,  ROBERT  BONTINE  CUN- 
NINGHAM E  (b.  1852).  British  author, 
traveller,  and  politician.  Belong- 
ing to  an  old  Scottish  family,  he 
derived  his  literary  tastes  from 
his  mother,  a  sister  of  the  14th 
Baron  Elphinstone.  Educated  at 
Harrow,  he  engaged  in  cattle  farm- 
ing in  Mexico  and  the  River  Plate, 
was  Radical  M.P.  for  N.  Lanark- 
shire, 1886-92,  wrote  much  on 
social  subjects,  travel,  and  topog- 
raphy, but  is  best  known  as  a 
writer  of  vivid  short  stories. 

Following  his  Notes  on  the  Dis- 
trict of  Menteith,  1895,  and  Father 
Archangel  of  Scotland  and  other 
Essays,  written  with  his  wife,  1896, 
came  Aurora  la  Cujini,  1898,  a 
realistic  sketch 
of  a  bull  fight 
and  a  dancing 
hall  in  Seville; 
Mogreb  el  Ack- 
sa,  a  Journey  in 
Morocco,  1898; 
The  I  p  a  n  e, 
1899;  Thirteen 
Stories,  1900  ; 


ffoppi 

A  Vanished  Arcadia,  1901  ;  Success, 
1902  ;  Life  of  Hernando  de  Soto, 
1903;  Progress,  1905  ;  His  People, 
1906;  Faith,  1909;  Hope,  1910; 
Charity,  1912  ;  A  Hatchment,  1913  ; 
Life  of  Bernal  Diaz  del  Castillo, 
1915  ;  A  Brazilian  Mystic,  1920. 

Graham,   STEPHEN    (b.    1884). 
British  author  and  traveller.     At- 
tracted to  Russia  by  the  spirit  of 
Russian    literature,     he    travelled 
much    in    that 
country    and 
gained    an    in- 
timate   insight 
into    the    lives 
of    the    people. 
In  1914  he  tra- 
velled  in   Cen- 
tral    Asia,     in 
Egypt  and  the 
near  East,  1915,       Stephen  Graham, 
and  in  Norway         British  author 
and  Murmansk,  .  Russcl1 

1916.  Returning  to  England,  he 
joined  the  Scots  Guards,  with  whom 
he  served  1917-18.  His  books  in- 
clude A  Vagabond  in  the  Caucasus, 
1911  ;  Undiscovered  Russia,  1912  ; 
A  Tramp's  Sketches,  1912  ;  Chang- 
ing Russia,  1913  ;  With  Russian 
Pilgrims  to  Jerusalem,  1913  ;  With 
Poor  Immigrants  to  America, 
1914  ;  The  Way  of  Martha  and 
the  Way  of  Mary,  1915  ;  Through 


Russian  Central  Asia,  1016  ;  Priest 
of  the  Ideal,  1917  ;  Quest  of  the 
Face,  1918 ;  A  Private  in  the 
Guards,  1919 ;  and  Children  of  the 
Slaves,  1920,  a  study  of  the  Ameri- 
can negro  question. 

Graham,  THOMAS  (1805-69). 
British  chemist.  Born  at  Glasgow, 
Dec.  21,  1805,  and  educated  at 
Glasgow  and 
Edinburgh 
Universities, 
in  1837  he  was 
app  oi  nted 
professor  of 
chemistry  at 
University 
College,  Lon- 
don. He  held 
this  office  un- 
til in  1855  he 
became  master  of  the  Mint.  He  was 
the  first  president  of  the  Chemical 
Society,  founded  in  1841.  Gra- 
ham's scientific  reputation  rests 
upon  important  investigations  into 
the  diffusion  of  gases  and  liquids. 
He  died  in  London,  Sept.  11,  1869. 
Grahame-White,  CLAUDE  (b. 
1879).  British  aviator  and  aero- 
nautical engineer.  Born  Aug.  21, 
1879,  he  was 
educate'd  at 
Bedford  Gram- 
mar School. 
After  establish- 
ing a  motor  en- 
gineering busi- 
ness in  London, 
he  became  in- 
terested in 
aeronautics  in 
1909,  making 
his  earliest 
flights  in  France,  and  was  the  first 
Englishman  to  be  granted  an  avi- 
ator's certificate.  He  started  a  school 
of  aviation  at  Paris  in  1909,  and  in 
1910  won  for  Great  Britain  the 
international  Gordon  Bennet  aero- 
plane race  in  America.  He  formed 
the  Grahame-White  Aviation  Co., 
which  became  proprietors  of  the 
Aerodrome,  at  Hendon. 

On  the  outbreak  of  the  Great 
War  he  was  appointed  flight-com- 
mander on  special  service  in  the 
R.N.A.S.,  but  he  resigned  in  1915 
to  superintend  the  carrying  out 
of  government  contracts  for  build- 
ing aeroplanes.  He  was  the  author 
of  The  Story  of  the  Aeroplane, 
1911,  The  Aeroplane,  Past,  Present, 
and  Future,  1911  ;  The  Aeroplane 
in  War,  1912;  The  First  Airways, 
their  Organization,  Eiquipment,  and 
Finance,  1918. 

Grahame-White.  Trade  name 
of  various  aeroplanes  desfqned  by 
the  Grahame-White  Aviatioi*  Co. 
They  were  extensively  flown  at 
Hendon  Aerodrome,  London,  for 
instructional  purposes  during  the 
Great  War. 


C.  Grahame-White, 
British  aviator 

Elliott  &  Fry 


GRAHAM     LAND 


GRAIN 


Graham  Land.  Part  of  the 
Antarctic  continent.  It  lies  clue  S. 
of  Tierra  del  Fuego,  N.  of  Alexan- 
der I  Land  and  S.  of  Danco  Land. 
Discovered  by  John  Biscoe,  a  Brit- 
ish mariner,  in  1832,  the  islands 
lying  off  its  N.  coast  were  named 
after  him.  It  is  a  mountainous 
tract,  desolate  and  ice-bound. 
Nordenskj.6ld,  the  explorer,  re- 
mained two  years  here  in  1901-3, 
and  it  was  visited  by  Charcot  in 
1904-5.  On  the  W.  coast  a  me- 
teorological station  was  erected  at 
the  expense  of  the  Argentine  Re- 
public. See  King  Oscar  II  Land. 

Graham  Prize.  Prize  for  naval 
history,  founded  in  1909  by  Lady 
Graham  in  memory  of  her  husband 
Admiral  Sir  Wm.  Graham.  It  is 
given  to  the  cadet  of  the  4th,  5th, 
or  6th  term  at  the  Royal  Naval 
College,  Dartmouth,  who  obtains 
highest  place  in  a  voluntary  ex- 
amination in  a  special  period  of 
naval  history. 

Grahamstown.  City  of  S. 
Africa.  In  the  Cape  prov.,  it  is  the 
capital  of  its  eastern  portion,  in 
what  is  called  the  Albany  district. 
It  stands  on  the  slopes  of  the  Zuur- 
berg  Mts.,  40  m.  by  rail  from  the 
sea  at  Port  Alfred  and  106  m.  from 
Port  Elizabeth.  The  chief  build- 
ings are  the  Anglican  and  Roman 
Catholic  cathedrals,  the  town  hall, 
a  Gothic  building  completed  in 
1882,  with  public  library  and  art 
gallery,  and  a  museum.  The  Angli- 
can cathedral  in  Church  Square, 
partly  designed  by  Sir  Gilbert 
Scott,  has  some  interesting  decora- 
tions. There  are  several  other 
churches,  a  synagogue,  etc.  The 
Albany  Hall,  the  court  house,  and 
the  botanic  gardens  covering  100 
acres  may  be  mentioned.  'Here 
are  the  Albany  General  Hospital 
and  other  hospitals.  Educational 
institutions  include  the  Rhodes 
university  college,  founded  in 
1904:  and  S.  Andrew's  College,  a 
public  school  for  boys.  L 

Oatlands  is  a  suburb,  and  near 
the  town  is  a  racecourse.  Grahams- 
town  has  a  trade  in  wool,  and  is 
also  a  health  resort.  Founded  in 


Grahamstown,  South  Africa.    The  principal  square  with 
the  Town  Hall,  and,  on  the  left,  the  Anglican  cathedral 


1812,  it  wa,s  for  many  years  an 
important  military  station.  It  was 
named  after  Col.  John  Graham,  a 
leader  among  the  early  settlers. 
Pop.  14,000. 

Graian  Alps.  Section  of  the 
Western  Alps,  lying  between  S.E. 
France  and  N.W.  Italy.  Running 
from  N.  to  S.  from  the  valleys  of 
the  Isere  and  Dora  Baltea  in  the 
N.,  to  those  of  the  Arc  and  Dora 
Riparia  in  the  S.,  they  culminate 
in  the  Gran  Paradiso  (13,324  ft.) 
and  the  Grivola  (13,022  ft.). 

Grail,  THE  HOLY.  Name  given 
in  legend  to  the  cup  used  by  Christ 
at  the  Last  Supper.  Several  ver- 
sions of  the  story  of  this  vessel 
exist,  some  saying  that  it  came 
into  the  hands  of  Joseph  of  Ari- 
mathea,  who  used  it  to  collect  the 
Blood  which  flowed  from  Christ  on 
the  Cross.  By  other  authorities  it 
is  described  as  the  sacred  cup  from 
which  Christ  drank  while  hanging 
on  the  Cross.  It  is  sometimes 
called  the  San  (Saint)  Graal  or 
Greal.  Joseph  of  Arimathea  is  re- 
ported to  have  brought  it  to 
England,  but  later  it  is  said  to  have 
been  carried  to  India. 

In  the  Morte  d' Arthur  of  Sir 
Thomas  Malory  (15th  century),  the 
Siege  (seat)  Perilous  at  the  Round 
Table  is  reserved  for  the  perfect 
sinless  knight  who  shall  achieve 
that  quest  of  the  Grail ;  and  there 
on  the  day  on  which  that  knight, 
Galahad,  who  was  of  king's  lineage 
and  of  the  kindred  of  Joseph  of 
Arimathea,  took  his  seat  it  was 
told  to  Arthur  that:  "This  day 
the  San  Grail  appeared  in  thy 
house,  and  fed  thee  and  all  thy 
fellowship  of  the  Round  Table." 
After  the  Holy  Grail  has  appeared, 
the  knights  set  off  on  that  quest 
which  but  one  can  achieve,  and 
which  marks  the  breaking  up  of 
the  fellowship. 

In  another  form  of  the  legend — 
that  of  which  Perceval  (q.v.)  is  the 
central  figure — the  Grail  is  seen  in 
a  chapel  belonging  to  the  castle  of 
King    Fisherman,    and    evil    falls 
upon  the  king  and  his  land  because 
the  knights  to  whom  a  sight  of  it 
is   granted   fail   to 
1    say  a  certain  word. 
1    In  the  Germanised 
1   form  of  the  story, 
•4    the  Grail  is  not  a 
|   dish  or  a  cup,  but 
a  stone,  while  in  the 
Welsh  tale  of  Pere- 
dur,    which    some 
authorities    regard 
as   the   original 
(Studies    in  the 
Arthurian  Legend, 
J.  Rhys,  1891 ;  and 
Myths  of  the  Celtic 
Race,  T.   W.   Rol- 
leston,  1912),  there 


is    no   Grail  at  all,   but  only  the 
quest. 

In  the  12th  century  Robert 
de  Borron  treated  the  subject 
in  his  Joseph  of  Arimathea. 
About  the  same  time  Chretien 
de  Troyes  wrote  his  poem,  Perceval 
le  Gallois,  and  about  the  end 
of  the  century  came  another 
version  in  the  Parzival  of  Wolfram 
von  Eschenbach,  who  said  that  he 
had  received  the  substance  of  his 
story  from  a  Provengal  poet.  In 
the  early  part  of  the  13th  century 
an  unknown  author  composed  the 
romance  of  Perceval  le  Gallois,  ou 
le  Conte  de  Graal  (Eng.  trans.  The 
High  History  of  the  Holy  Grail, 
Sebastian  Evans,  1898).  The  ety- 
mology of  the  word  grail  (old  Fr. 
graal,  greal)  is  uncertain.  It  is 
suggested  that  it  is  a  corruption  of 
late  Lat.  gradale  or  cratus  (cf. 
crater),  both  meaning  bowl,  dish. 
San  Greal  was  later  corrupted 
into  Sang  Real,  the  True  Blood  of 
Christ.  See  Arthur;  Morte  d' Arthur. 

Bibliography.  Un  Probleme  Lit- 
teraire  Resolu,  Origine  et  Genese  de 
la  Legende  du  Saint-Graal,  A.  T. 
Vercoutre,  1901 ;  The  Legend  of  the 
Holy  Graal,  A.  Nutt,  1902;  Die 
Heimath  der  Legende  von  Heil 
Gral,  Wesselofsky,  1903. 

Grain  (Lat.  granum).  Literally 
a  small,  hard  seed.  From  this  it 
has  become  a  synonym  for  corn, 
especially  when  used  in  a  business 
sense.  See  Barley;  Oats;  Wheat. 

Grain.  Unit  of  weight.  The 
average  weight  of  a  grain  of  corn 
taken  from  the  middle  of  a  ripe 
ear ;  the  1/7000  part  of  a  pound 
avoirdupois.  In  Troy  weight,  480 
grains  equal  an  ounce,  while  24 
grains  are  called  a  pennyweight. 

Grain,  ISLE  OF,  OR  St.  JAMES. 
Parish  and  village  of  Kent,  Eng- 
land. Standing  at  the  junction  of 
the  Thames  and  the  Medway,  it 
was  formerly  an  island,  but  has 
now  roadway  communication  with 
the  mainland.  Here  fortifications 
guard  the  approaches  of  the 
Thames  and  the  Medway. 

Grain,  RICHARD  CORNEY  (1844- 
95).  British  entertainer.  Born  Oct. 
26,  1844,  he  was  called  to  the  bar 
in  1866,  but 
four  years 
later  joined  the 
German  Reed 
Company,  with 
which  he  was 
associated  un- 
til his  death, 
March  16, 
1895.  He  wrote 
over  fifty  en- 
tertainments 
for  the  com- 


Ctorney  Grain. 
British  entertainer 

Elliott  &  Fry 


pany,  and  many  songs  and  sketches, 
whilst  Corney  Grain,  by  Himself, 
appeared  in  1888. 


GRAIN     COAST 


3637 


GRAMONT 


Grain  Coast.  Name  formerly 
applied  to  a  portion  of  the  W. 
African  littoral  between  the  island 
of  Sherbro  and  the  Ivory  Coast. 
The  greater  part  is  now  under  the 
control  of  the  republic  of  Liberia. 
It  was  noted  for  melegueta  pepper, 
or  grains  of  Paradise  (q.v. ),  hence 
its  name.  See  Liberia. 

Graincourt.  Village  of  France, 
in  the  dept.  of  Nord.  It  is  6  m. 
W.S.W.  of  Cambrai,  and  lies 
slightly  off  the  Bapaume-Cambrai 
road.  It  was  captured  on  Nov.  20, 

1917,  by   the   British    62nd   (W. 
Riding)  division.     Retaken  by  the 
Germans  in  March,  1918,  it  was  re- 
captured by  the  British,  Sept.  27, 

1918.  See  Cambrai,  Battles  of. 
Graining.       Art    of    imitating 

woods  such  as  oak,  mahogany, 
walnut,  etc.,  by  means  of  paint. 
Upon  a  ground  colour  is  painted  a 
coat  of  graining  colour,  and  while 
this  is  still  wet  it  is  manipulated 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  remove  part 
of  it  and  expose  the  ground  be- 
neath. Oak  graining  is  the  most 
popular,  probably  because  of  the 
remarkable  resemblance  to  nature 
which  a  skilled  craftsman  can  pro- 
duce. In  old  houses  will  often  be 
found  examples  of  graining  in 
excellent  condition  after  more  than 
a  quarter  of  a  century.  Ability  to 
grain  well  was  at  one  time  the  hall- 
mark of  the  expert  painter  and  de- 
corator, but  the  teaching  of  Ruskin, 
who  called  graining  a  "  sham,"  gave 
the  art  a  great  setback  from  which 
it  is  now  slowly  recovering. 

Grain  of  Paradise  (Amomum). 
Seed  of  two  species  of  this  genus, 
which  is  included  in  the  natural 
order  Scitamineae.  Both  are  peren- 
nial herbs,  and  natives  of  W. 
Africa.  A.  granum-paradisi  has 
lance-shaped  leaves  and  whitish 
flowers  ;  A.  melegueta  more  slender 
leaves  and  pale  pink  flowers.  The 
seeds  are  warm  to  the  taste  and 
have  a  suggestion  of  camphor. 
They  are  illegally  used  by  brewers 
and  distillers  to  make  the  strength 
of  their  productions  appear  greater. 
See  Cardamom. 

Grallatores  (Lat.,  stilt-walker). 
Name  formerly  applied  to  the  long- 
legged  wading  birds,  but  now  ob- 
solete. The  old  method  of  classify- 
ing birds  according  to  their  habits, 
as  waders,  perchers,  swimmers, 
etc.,  was  unscientific  and  mislead- 
ing, since  birds  of  very  different 
anatomical  structure  may  have 
similar  habits.  The  old  order  Gral- 
latores is  now  broken  up  into  Her- 
odii  andGrallae. 

Gram,  GREEN  (Phaseohts  tntm- 
go).  Herb  of  the  natural  order 
Leguminosae,  a  native  of  India. 
Commonly  cultivated  in  India  and 
the  Nile  Valley,  it  has  a  consider- 
able number  of  varieties,  some 


dwarf  and  erect,  others  climbing. 
It  is  a  hairy  plant,  with  the  leaves 
divided  into  three  oval  leaflets. 
The  small  whitish  flowers  are  suc- 
ceeded by  hairy,  nearly  cylindrical 
pods  containing  the  small  seeds 
which  are  used  as  food. 

Gramineae.  Large  natural  or- 
der of  herbs  of  the  grass  family.  It 
includes  over  3,000  species,  natives 
of  all  climates.  They  are  mostly 
tufted,  with  cylindrical,  jointed 
stems  and  narrow,  alternate 
leaves.  The  flowers  usually  consist 
of  two  minute  scales  enclosed  in  a 
boat-shaped  glume,  together  with 
three  stamens  and  a  single-celled 
ovary.  The  fruit  is  a  membranous 
envelope,  enclosing  the  single  albu- 
minous seed.  Most  of  them  pro- 
duce nutritious  herbage  and  seeds, 
which  form  the  principal  foods  of 
man  and  his  herds  and  flocks.  The 
numerous  meadow-grasses  mainly 
consist  of  species  with  flat  leaves 
that  do  not  roll  up  in  dry  weather. 
The  order  contains  all  the  valuable 
cereals — wheat,  oats,  rye,  rice,  etc., 
sugar-cane  and  bamboo. 

Grammar  (Gr.  grammaliLe,  the 
science  of  letters,  grammata).  The 
term,  originally  meaning  simply 
the  art  of  reading,  was  extended  to 
include  the  study  of  literature  and 
all  branches  of  learning  generally. 
In  its  more  restricted  sense,  it  is 
the  study  of  the  forms  and  syntax 
of  a  language,  the  art  of  speaking 
and  writing 
correctly.  But 
the  rules  of 
grammar  are 
not  unalter- 
ably fixed  and 
final ;  they 
merely  repre- 
sent the  prac- 
tice followed 
i  n  speaking 
and  writing 
by  educated 
persons  at  a 
certain  time. 
Much  of  what 
is  now  called 
bad  grammar 
(e.g.  I  don't 
know  nothing)  was  once  considered 
perfectly  correct.  The  best  authors 
of  the  most  flourishing  period  of  a 
literature  did  not  write  according 
to  rules ;  rather,  their. writings  fur- 
nished the  material  on  which  the 
rules  of  the  grammarians  were  based. 
Grammar  early  engaged  the  at- 
tention of  the  learned  in  both  east 
and  west.  The  founders  of  the 
science  in  the  west  were  the  Greeks. 
The  sophists  and  Plato  first 
directed  attention  to  the  formation 
and  derivation  of  words,  Aristotle 
discussed  the  parts  of  speech,  and 
the  Stoics  invented  names  for 
cases.  The  great  Alexandrian 


Grain  ot  Paradise. 

Left,  plant  with 

flower ;  right,  seed 

pod  and  section 


grammarians  and  critics  drew  up 
the  rules  of  Greek  grammar  from 
the  Homeric  poems  and  other  mas- 
terpieces of  Greek  literature,  and 
most  of  their  rules  still  find  a  place 
in  modern  school  books. 

In  the  first  century  B.C.  Dionysius 
Thrax  brought  out  the  first  com- 
plete Greek  grammar,  and  Apol 
lonius  Dyscolus  (2nd  century  A.D.) 
first  definitely  separated  forms 
from  syntax.  The  Romans  made 
no  original  contributions  to  the 
science,  their  chief  merit  being  that 
they  translated  the  Greek  ter- 
minology and  introduced  it  into 
Europe.  The  two  most  famous 
Roman  grammarians  were  Aelius 
Donatus  (4th  century  A.D.)  and 
Priscian  (6th  century).  In  the 
Middle  Ages,  and  even  in  the 
Renaissance  period,  little  progress 
was  made,  and  it  was  not  until  the 
discovery  of  Sanskrit  in  the  18th 
century  that  an  exact  science  of 
grammar  became  possible.  See 
Language  ;  Phonetics. 

Gramme.  Unit  of  weight  in  the 
metric  system.  It  is  the  thousandth 
part  of  the  weight  of  a  litre  of  dis- 
tilled water.  It  equals  15 '43248 
grains.  See  Metric  System. 

Grammichele.  Town  of  Sicily, 
in  the  prov.  of  Catania.  It  stands 
on  an  eminence,  1,560ft.  above  sea 
level,  55  m.  by  rly.  (33  m.  direct) 
S.W.  of  Catania.  Clay,  stone,  and 
marble  quarries  are  worked,  and  a 
trade  is  carried  on  in  grain,  cotton, 
oil,  wine,  fruit,  and  cattle.  It 
was  founded  in  1693  to  replace 
Occhiala,  which  had  been  utterly 
wrecked  by  an  earthquake.  In  the 
vicinity  is  a  cave  altar  to  Demeter. 
Pop.  17,463. 

Grammont  (Flem.  Geerards- 
bergen).  Town  of  Belgium,  in  the 
prov.  of  E.  Flanders.  Situated  on 
the  Dendre,  23  m.  S.S.E.  of  Ghent, 
it  has  a  Gothic  15th  century  town 
hall  with  four  corner  turrets  and, 
under  the  balcony,  a  fountain 
resembling  that  of  the  Mannikin  at 
Brussels.  In  the  church  of  S.  Bar- 
thelemy  are  two  paintings  by  De 
Crayer.  The  rly.  line  from  Alost  to 
Mons  passes  through  Grammont. 
Pop.  about  1 2,000. 

Gramont,  PHILIRERTDE  (1621- 
1707).  French  courtier,  subject  of 
the  Memoires  written  by  Anthony 
Hamilton  (q.v. ).  Of  noble  descent, 
Gramont  was  educated  for  the 
Church,  but,  turning  to  the  a,rmy, 
served  with  distinction  under  Conde 
and  Turenne  in  Flanders  and 
Spain.  Banished  from  the  French 
covirt  on  account  of  an  intrigue 
with  one  of  the  mistresses  of  Louis 
XIV,  he  came  to  London,  1662, 
and  mixed  freely  in  the  court  of 
Charles  II.  There  he  married  Eliza- 
beth Hamilton,  sister  of  Anthony. 
His  exile  ended  in  1664,  but  he 


GRAMOPHONE 


GRANADA 


revisited  England  on  diplomatic 
and  court  missions  in  1670-71, 
1676,  and  1688.  He  died  in  Paris, 
Jan.  10,  1707. 

The    Memoires    de    la    Vie    du 
Comte  de  Gramont,  published  in 
1713  as  having  been  dictated  by 
the  subject  himself,  were  actually 
written  by  his  brother-in-law,  and 
give  not  only  a  vivacious  picture 
of  Gramont,  but  also  an  intimate 
account  of  the    more    scandalous 
aspects  of  the  court  of  Charles  II. 
The  best  modern  edition,  based  on 
that  edited  by  Sir  Walter  Scott, 
1811,  is  byC.  Goodwin,  2  vols., 1903. 
Gramophone  (Gr.  gramma,  let- 
ter; phone,so\ind).  Talking-machine 
allied  to  the  phonograph  and  based 
upon  the  same  general  principles. 
The    fundamental    constructional 
difference  between  the  two  consists 
in  replacing  the  hollow  cylindrical 
record  of  the  phonograph  by  a  disk 
upon  which  the  sound  record  is  cut 
as  a  spiral.   The  record  is  mounted 
upon  a  spindle  rotated  uniformly, 
usually   by   a    spring -motor    con- 
trolled by  a  ball-governor.      The 
chamber  or  sound-box,  containing 
the  diaphragm  carrying  the  stylus, 
is  supported  by  a  tubular  arm  deli- 
cately poised  on  a  bracket  so  that 
it  can  be  readily  turned  aside  and 
follow  with   ease  the  movements 
of  the  stylus  in  the  spiral  track. 
See  Phonograph ;  Talking-machine. 
Grampians.  Mt.  range  in  Scot- 
land.    They  dominate  the  centre 
of    the    country,    serving    as    the 
barrier  between  the  Highlands  and 
the  Lowlands.    They  stretch  from 
the  coast   of   Aberdeenshire  in   a 
S.W.  direction  to  Dumbartonshire, 
touching  also  the  counties  of  Banff, 
Inverness,  Forfar,  Perth,   Stirling, 
and  Argyll.    Their  highest  point  is 
reached  in  Ben  Nevis,  but  there 
are  other  peaks  over  4,000  ft.  high, 
and  a  number  over  3,000.    Among 
the  most  important  are  Ben  Mac- 
dhui,    Ben  Lawers,  Ben  Lomond, 
Cairngorm,  Ben  Alder,  Ben  Crua- 
chan.  and  Cairntoul.    Many  of  the 
rivers  of  Scotland  flow  from  the 
Grampians ;  some,  e.g.  the  Forth 
and  Tay,  southwards  ;  others,  the 
Don  and  Dee,  northwards.     The 
mts.    enclose   some   of    the   finest 
scenery  in  Britain,  examples  being 
the  stretch  along  the  Dee  in  Aber- 
deenshire, the  wild  country  at  the 
W.  end  of  the  Caledonian  Canal, 
the  wooded  passes  of  Perthshire, 
and  the  mts.  and  lochs  that  beau- 
tify that  co.  and  also  Argyllshire. 
In   general   the   N.    parts "  of   the 
range   are   wild   and    barren,    and 
there  are  extensive  deer  forests. 

Grampians.  Mountain  range 
of  W.  Victoria,  Australia.  It  con- 
tains the  source  of  the  river  Glen- 
elg,  and  Mt.  William  (4,500  ft.) 
is  its  highest  summit.  The  N.E. 


extension  of  the  range  is  called  the 
Pyrenees. 

Grampound.  Market  town  of 
Cornwall.  It  stands  on  the  Fal, 
9  m.  from  Truro  and  6  m.  from 
St.  Austell,  and  has  a  station 
(G.W.H.)  at  Grampound  Road, 
2  m.  away.  Its  old  town  hall  still 
stands,  and  the  place  is  mainly 
interesting  on  account  of  its  past. 
It  became  a  town  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  and  in  1553  began  to  send 
two  members  to  Parliament.  It 
had  a  mayor  and  corporation, 
while  a  small  number  of  persons 
elected  the  two  members.  These 
men's  votes  were  so  easily  and 
openly  bought  that  the  affair 
became  a  scandal  even  in  the  1 8th 
century.  In  1818  an  inquiry  was 
held,  and  in  ]  821  the  borough  was 
disfranchised.  A  little  later  it  lost 
its  rights  as  a  borough,  and  is  now 
only  a  village  and  parish. 

Grampus  (Orca  gladiator). 
Large  and  ferocious  dolphin  which 


Grampus.     Specimen  of  the  large 
and  pugnacious  dolphin 

attains  a  length  of  20  ft.    It  ranges 
all  o\er  the  world,  and  has  even 


Gramophone.  Diagram  illustrating  the  principal  parts 
and  the  method  of  reproducing  sound.  Vibrations  of 
diaphragm  on  reproducer,  shown  inset,  are  conveyed 
through  the  tone  arm  into  the  sound-box,  whence  they 
issue  through  louvres,  shown  broken  off  to  expose 
interior  of  sound-box 


been  found  in  the  Thames  at  Chel- 
sea. It  preys  upon  fishes  and  seals, 
and  has  been  known  to  attack  the 
whale.  The  word  grampus  is  a  cor- 
ruption of  Lat.  crassus  or  grandis 
piscis  (coarse  or  large  fish),  cf. 
Span,  gran  pez.  See  Dolphin. 

Gran  OR  GARAM.  River  of  Hun- 
gary. Taking  its  rise  near  the  Low 
Tatra,  it  flows  W.  and  then  S. ,  reach- 
ing the  Danube  just  below  Eszter- 
gom,  after  a  course  of  about  150  m. 
Gran.  Alternative  name  for 
Esztergom  (q.v.),  a  town  of  Hun- 
gary on  the  Danube,  25  m.  N.W. 
of  Budapest. 

Granada.  Name  of  a  Moorish 
kingdom  in  Spain  that  lasted  from 
1238  to  1492.  The  city  of  Granada 
and  the  district  around  it  fell  into 
the  power  of  the  Moors  and  was 
long  ruled  by  the  caliphs  of  Cor- 
dova. It  became  a  flourishing 
place,  and  was  at  one  time  the 
capital  of  an  independent  princi- 
pality. The  kingdom,  however, 
dates  from  about  1238,  and  here  a 
certain  Moor  began  to  rule  over 
Granada,  Malaga,  and  other  places, 
making  the  former  his  capital. 

Gradually  the  Christians  won 
back  Spain  from  the  Moors,  and 
later  in  the  15th  century  Granada 
alone  remained  to  the  latter.  Fer- 
dinand and  Isabella  at  length 
turned  their  arms  against  it,  and, 
owing  to  rivalries  among  the  ruling 
family,  Granada 
.fell  an  easy  prey. 
The  Moors  were 
beaten  in  battle  ; 
their  last  ruler, 
Boabdil,  formally 
resigned  his  king- 
dom to  the  Chris- 
tians, who,  Jan.  2, 
1492,  entered  the 
city  of  Granada. 
Thenceforward  the 
kingdom  formed 
part  of  Spain.  See 
Alhambra ;  Moors ; 
Spain :  History. 

Granada.  Mari- 
time  prov.  of 
Spain,  in  Andalu- 
sia. Bounded  S.  by 
the  Mediterranean, 
it  formed  part  of 
the  old  Moorish 
kingdom.  The  sur- 
face is  mountain- 
ous, and  it  con- 
tains, in  the  Sierra 
Nevada,  the 
highest  points  of 
Spain,  one  of  the 
most  picturesque 
regions  in  Europe. 
Well  watered, 
chiefly  by  the  Jenil 
and  its  tributaries, 
it  is  extremely 
fertile. 


GRANADA 


GRANARD 


Granada.     Map  of  the  southern  Spanish  province,  which 
contains  the  highest  points  in  Spain 

Warm  in  the  plains  and  cool  in 

the  hills,  its  products  include  those 

of  alpine  and  sub-tropical  regions. 

Sugar-canes,     beet-roots,     cereals, 

fruit,  cotton,  and  flax  are  grown, 

and  silk,  wine  and  oil  produced,  and 

there  are  textile  factories,  tanneries, 

and  iron  works.   There  are  various 

minerals  and  marble  quarries,  and 

precious  stones  are  found.      There 

are  also  several  hot  springs  in  the 

prov.     Pop.  542,640. 

Granada.  City  of  Spain,  capital 

of  the  prov.  of  Granada.    It  stands 

on  the  slopes  of  two  hills  and  on 
the  plain  connect- 
ing them,'  03  m. 
N.E.  of  Malaga. 
Abundantly  sup- 
plied with  water, 
and  having  a  de- 
lightful climate, 
this  old  Moorish 
city,  the  last  seat 
of  the  Moslem 
rulers  of  Spain,  is 
peculiarly  inter- 


buried  the  great 
Captain  Gonzalo 
de  Cordova.  Pop. 
77,425. 

On  the  inva- 
sion of  thelberian 
peninsula  by  the 
Saracens  in  the 
8th  century, 
some,  mainly 
Syrians  from 
Damascus,  estab- 
lished themselves 
near  the  site  of 
the  ancient  Illi- 
beris.  The  set- 
tlement grew  in 
importance,  and 
during  the  Middle 
Ages  became  the 
wealthiest  and 

most  splendid  city  in  Spain.  As 
the  capital  of  the  Moorish  kingdom 
of  Granada  it  flourished  for  cen- 
turies until  the  Moors  began  to 
give  ground  during  the  wars  with 
Alfonso  XI  and  Pedro  the  Cruel. 
In  1482  Ferdinand  and  Isabella 
began  their  task  of  expelling  the 
Moors  from  Spain,  and  in  1492 
Boabclil,  the  last  king  of  the  Moors, 
was  compelled  to  abandon  his  cap- 
ital. The  city  thereafter  declined  in 


Granada  arms 


esting.  It  contains  in  the  Alham- 
bra  (q.v.)  a  unique  memorial  of 
Moorish  power  and  art. 

The  old  town,  Albaicin,  which 
stands  on  a  neighbouring  hill, 
although  the  poorest  part  of  the 
city  and  the  dwelling-place  of  gyp- 
sies, is  most  picturesque.  There  are 
remains  of  the  Moorish  walls  and 
towers,  the  Alcazar,  the  Casa  del 
Cabildo  (or  old  university),  the 
water  conduits  and  other  buildings 
which  once  made  Granada  a  great 
trading  city  and  a  seat  of  arts  and 
learning.  The  more  modern  town 
contains  the  cathedral,  public 
buildings,  promenades,  plazas,  gar- 
dens, fountains,  etc.  It  has  many 
educational  and  philanthropic  in- 
stitutions, carries  on  a  large  trade 
in  agricultural  produce,  and  manu- 
factures textiles,  liqueurs,  soap, 
and  paper.  In  the  Capilla  Rml,  or 
Chapel  Royal,  is  the  sarcophagus 
of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  and 
in  the  convent  of  San  Jeronimo  lies 


prosperity  and  importance.  Taken 
by  the  French  in  1810  and  1823,  it 
suffered  from  seismic  disturbances 
in  1884-85,  and  a  conflagration  in 
1890  damaged  the  Alhambra. 

Granada.  City  of  Nicaragua, 
Central  America,  capital  of  the 
dept.  of  Granada.  It  stands  on 
Lake  Nicaragua,  28  m.  by  rly. 
S.S.E.  of  Managua.  Founded  in 
1523,  the  city  is  well  built,  and  has 
fine  churches  and  public  buildings. 
It  trades  in  dye  woods,  indigo, 
cocoa,  wool,  and  hides,  and  manu- 
factures footwear  and  gold-wire 
chains.  There  are  large  cocoa 
plantations  in  the  environs.  The 
city  was  partly  burned  down  in 
1855.  Pop  17,050. 

Granadilla.  Edible  fruits  of 
several  species  of  Passiflora  (pas- 
sion-flowers), though  the  name 
properly  refers  to  the  large  green- 
ish-yellow fruits  of  P.  quadrangu- 
laris.  These  are  about  6  ins.  in 
diameter,  with  sweet,  slightly  acid, 
purple  pulp.  It  is  a  native  of 
Nicaragua,  but  is  largely  culti- 
vated in  the  tropics.  It  has  strongly 
scented  white  and  red  flowers. 

Granard.  Urban  district  and 
market  town  of  Longford,  Ireland. 
The  station  is  Ballywillan,  3  m. 
away.  Much 
damage  to  the 
buildings  here  was 
done  during  dis- 
turbances in  Nov., 
1920.  Fop.  ],530. 
Granard,  EARL 
OF.  Irish  title, 
borne  since  1684 
by  the  family  of 
Forbes.  Sir 
Arthur  Forbes,  a 
member  of  the 
Scottish  family  of 
that  name,  ob- 
tained a  grant  of 
land  in  co.  Long- 
ford,  and  was 
made  a  baronet  in 
1628.  His  son,  Sir 
Arthur  (d.  1696), 
was  made  a 
baron,  a  viscount, 
and  in  1684  an 


Gram 


The  centre  of  the  city  and  the  cathedral,  from  San  Jeronimo. 
Above,  characteristic  houses  in  the  old  town 


GRANARY 


3640 


GRAND     CORNIER 


Bernard  Forbes, 
8th  Earl  of  Granard 


earl.  He  fought  for  Charles  II  in 
Scotland,  against  the  Common- 
wealth, and  raised  the  18th  Royal 
Irish  Regi- 
m  e  n  t,  which 
his  son,  the 
2nd  earl, 
commanded. 
George,  the 
3rd  earl,  was 
sent  as  British 
minister  to 
M  uscovy,  and 
George,  the 
6thearl,agen- 
oral  infct,!e 

army,  was  made  a  baron  of  the 
United  Kingdom  in  1800.  Bernard, 
the  8th  earl,  who  succeeded  in 
1889,  was  master  of  the  horse.  The 
family  seat  is  Castle  Forbes,  co. 
Longford,  and  the  earl's  eldest  son 
is  known  as  Viscount  Forbes. 

Granary  (Lat.  pi.,  gmnaria). 
Place  for  storing  grain  in  bulk.  In 
modern  times  the  granary  has  been 
largely  supplemented  by  the 
elevator.  See  Barn  ;  Elevator. 

Granby,  MARQUESS  OF.  Title 
borne  by  the  eldest  son  of  the  duke 
of  Rutland,  Granby  being  a  village 
i  n  Notting- 
hamshire, not 
far  from  Bel- 
voir.  Its  most 
notable  bearer 
was  the  Eng- 
lish soldier 
John  Manners 
(1721-1770). 
The  eldest 

son    of    the          John  Manners, 
third       duke,      Marquess  of  Granby 
he   was    born  After  Reynold* 

Aug.  2,  1721.  Educated  at  Eton 
and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
his  first  military  service  was  with 
Cumberland's  army  in  the  Jacobite 
rising  of  1745.  In  1758,  during  the 
Seven  Years'  War,  he  went  to 
Germany  in  command  of  a  brigade 
of  cavalry,  and  in  1759  became 
commander  of  the  British  contin- 
gent, in  which  capacity  he  did 
brilliant  work,  notably  at  Warburg, 
Briickermuhl,  Gravenstein,  and 
Wilhelmstahl.  He  returned  home  in 
1763,  and  became  commander-in- 
chief  in  1766,  his  conduct  in  this 
position  being  attacked  by  Junius. 
For  many  years  Granby  was  M.P. 
for  Grantham,  and  he  represented 
Cambridgeshire  from  1754  until 
his  death  at  Scarborough,  Oct.  18, 
1770.  Granby  is  the  marquess 
whose  name  is  borne  by  many 
public  houses,  a  tribute  to  his 
popularity  in  1763. 

Gran  Chaco.  Region  of  central 
S.  America.  See  Chaco,  el  Gran. 

Grand.  River  of  U.S.A.  Its 
headstreams  rise  in  Iowa,  and 
unite  in  Gantry  co.,  Missouri, 
through  which  state  the  river  flows 


S.E.  to  its  junction  with  the  Mis- 
souri river  near  Brunswick.  Its 
length  is  about  300  m. 

Grand.  River  of  Colorado  and 
Utah,  U.S.A.  A  headstream  of  the 
Colorado  river,  it  rises  in  the  Rocky 
Mts.,  and  flows  350  m.  S.W.  to  the 
Green  river,  which  it  joins  in  the 
S.E.  of  Utah,  and  has  cut  deep  and 
precipitous  canons, 

Grand.  River  of  Michigan, 
U.S.A.  Rising  in  Jackson  co.,  in  the 
N.E.  part  of  the  state,  it  flows  W. 
and  N.  to  Lansing,  where  it  again 
follows  a  W.  course,  and  enters 
Lake  Michigan  at  Grand  Haven. 
It  is  280  m.  long,  and  navigable  for 
40  m.  up  from  its  mouth. 

Grand,  SARAH.  Pen-name  of 
Frances  Elizabeth  M'Fall,  British 
novelist.  Daughter  of  Edward 
Clarke,  R.N., 
she  was  mar- 
ried at  the  age 
of  16  to  Sur- 
geon Lieut.  - 
Col.  M'Fall. 
Her  first  novel 
I  d  e  a  1  a,  was 
written  at  the 
age  of  26,  but 
her  reputation 
chiefly  rests 
upon  The 
Heavenly 
Twins,  1893,  memorable  for  its 
uncompromisinghandlingof  certain 
sex  problems,  a  subject  skilfully 
developed  in  The  Beth. Book,  1898. 
A  lifelong  supporter  of  the  woman's 
movement,  her  other  publications 
include  Babs  the  Impossible,  1900, 
and  The  Winged  Victory,  1916. 

Grand  Alliance.  Name  given 
to  the  alliance  of  European  Powers 
against  France  in  1701.  Louis  XIV 
of  France,  refusing  to  recognize  the 
treaties  by  which  arrangements  for 
a  partition  of  the  Spanish  posses- 
sions had  been  made,  accepted  for 
his  grandson  the  crown  of  Spain. 
To  counter  this,  William  III  formed 
the  alliance  between  the  Empire, 
England,  and  Holland,  who  signed 
a  treaty  agreeing  to  compensate 
the  emperor  for  the  loss  of  Spam, 
on  Sept.  7,  1701.  The  alliance, 
joined  in  1702  by  Prussia,  and  in 
1703  by  Portugal  and  Savoy, 
carried  on  the  war  of  the  Spanish 
Succession  (q.v. ). 

Grand  Bank.  Submarine  ele- 
vation, extending  about  200  m.  to 
300  m.  S.  by  E.  of  Cape  Race,  New- 
foundland. The  area  is  about 
500,000  sq.  m.  ;  the  depth  varies 
from  10  to  160  fathoms.  The 
waters  swarm  with  fish,  especially 
cod,  and  fishing  is  free.  The  season 
lasts  from  June  to  mid.  Nov.  See 
Fisheries ;  Newfoundland. 

Grand  Bassam.  Port  in  the 
French  colony  of  the  Ivory  Coast. 
It  stands  on  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  at 


the  entrance  of  a  lagoon,  which 
forms  a  well -protected  harbour. 
It  is  the  most  important  port  in  the 
colony,  but  trade  is  somewhat 
hampered,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
Abidjan,  the  coastal  terminus  ot 
the  main  line  of  rly.,  is  situated  on 
the  adjacent  mainland.  Here  is 
the  headquarters  of  the  customs 
administration.  It  was  formerly 
the  seat  of  the  governor  of  the 
colony.  Pop.  2,832. 

Grand  Canal.  Main  waterway 
of  Venice.  It  winds  through  the 
city,  in  the  shape  of  the  letter  S,  and 
from  it  other  canals  branch  in  all 
directions.  On  its  banks  are  most  of 
the  famous  palaces  of  the  city,  and 
near  it  is  the  Piazza  of  S.  Mark. 
The  Rialto  bridge  crosses  it.  See 
Venice. 

There  is  a  Grand  Canal  in  Ireland, 
extending  from  Dublin  to  Ballin- 
asloe;  this  has  a  length  of  80  m., 
and  with  its  branches  one  of  146  m. 

Grand  Canal.  Canal  of  China, 
stretching  from  Hangchow  to 
Tientsin,  a  distance  of  850  m.  At 
Chinkiang,  280  m.  from  Hangchow, 
the  Yangtze  divides  the  canal  into 
two  portions.  The  construction  of 
the  middle  section,  from  the 
Yangtze  to  the  Yellow  river, 
which  was  in  use  in  480  B.C.,  is  at- 
tributed to  the  6th  century  B.C. 
The  S.  section  was  added  between 
A.D.  605  and  617,  arid  the  N.  part, 
from  the  old  bed  of  the  Yellow 
river  to  Tientsin,  was  made  be- 
tween 1280-83. 

Grand  Canon.  Deep  gorge  in 
Arizona,  U.S.A.,  cut  by  the  Color- 
ado river.  It  is  the  most  remark- 
able of  a  series  of  canons,  extend- 
ing for  about  1,000  m.  along  the 
river's  course,  and  presents  a  scene 
of  unequalled  natural  grandeur  and 
weirdness.  The  gorge  extends  for 
about  217  m.,  has  a  depth  varying 
between  3,000  ft.  and  6,000  ft.,  and 
a  breadth  of  from  2m.  to  15  m 
James  White  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first  to  traverse  the  canon, 
but  the  first  authenticated  passage 
was  accomplished  by  Major  J.  W. 
Powell  in  1869.  See  Cafion. 

Grande  Combe,  LA.  Town  of 
France.  In  the  dept.  of  Gard,  it  is 
31  m.  from  Nimes.  The  munici- 
pality includes  La  Levade  and  La 
Pise,  as  well  as  La  Grande  Combe 
proper.  There  are  coal  and  other 
mines  around  the  town,  which  is 
also  known  for  its  glass  manufac- 
ture. Pop.  11,550. 

Grand  Cornier.  Mt.  of  Swit- 
zerland, in  the  canton  of  Valais. 
Situated  N.  of  the  Dent  Blanche, 
near  the  Matterhorn,  it  reaches  an 
alt.  of  13,020  ft.  The  ascent  by  the 
".  Col  de  Bricolla  is  difficult,  but  not 
dangerous  ;  that  from  the  Col  du 
Grand  Cornier  (11,628  ft.)  is 
longer  and  more  difficult.  See  Alps. 


GRANDCOURT 


GRAND     ISLAND 


Grandcourt.  Village  of  France, 
in  the  dept.  of  Pas-de-Calais.  It 
is  6  m.  S.W.  of  Bapaume,  lying 
slightly  off  the  Albert-Bapaume 
road.  It  was  captured  by  the  British 
Feb.  7,  1917.  Retaken  by  the  Ger- 
mans in  Mar.,  1918,  it  was  recovered 
by  the  Allies  in  Aug.,  1918.  See 
Ancre,  Battle  of  the;  Somme, 
Battles  of  the. 

Grand  Duke.  Title  ranking 
above  that  of  duke.  It  first  ap- 
peared in  1557,  when  Pius  V  gave  it 
to  the  duke  of  Tuscany.  It  was 
held  by  the  Medici  family  and  later 
by  the  Habsburgs,  who  retained  it 
after  they  had  been  deprived  of 
Tuscany  in  1859.  The  other  grand 
dukes  mainly  date  from  the  reor- 
ganization of  Europe  in  1815. 
There  were  several  in  Germany 
before  1918 — Saxe- Weimar,  Baden, 
Oldenburg,  the  two  Mecklenbergs, 
and  Hesse- Darmstadt.  The  ruler 
of  Luxembourg  is  called  the  grand 
duke  or  grand  duchess,  and  the 
word  was  used  to  translate  the 
title  borne  by  members  of  the  im- 
perial family  of  Russia  before  1918. 
See  Duke. 

Grandee  (Span,  grande).  Span- 
ish title.  Borne  by  the  highest 
nobles,  it  carried  many  privileges. 
Grandees  were  exempt  from  taxes, 
and  from  arrest  except  by  special 
warrant  from  the  king,  and  could 
even  join  the  service  of  the  king's 
enemies.  They  were  allowed  to  re- 
main covered  in  the  king's  pre- 
sence. Their  privileges  were  gradu- 
ally curtailed,  and  Joseph  Bona- 
parte abolished  the  title.  It  was 
revived  in  1834,  though  shorn  of 
all  its  privileges. 

Grand  Falls.  Cataract  of  La- 
brador. It  is  on  the  Grand  or 
Hamilton  river,  about  252  m.  W. 
by  S.  of  Hamilton  Inlet.  It  de- 
scends over  315  ft.,  has  a  breadth 
of  200  ft.,  and  is  one  of  the  finest 
cataracts  in  N.  America. 


Grand  Falls.  Town  of  New- 
foundland, on  the  Exploits  River, 
about  22  m.  from  its  mouth.  Con- 
nected by  railway  with  the  port  of 
Botwood.  It  takes' its  name  from 
the  falls,  and  owes  its  origin  to  the 
development  of  the  water  power 
there  by  the  Anglo-Newfoundland 
Development  Company,  Limited, 
whose  pulp  and  paper  mills,  com- 
'menced  in  1906,  and  completed 
three  years  later,  are  among  the 
largest  in  the  world.  At  Grand 
Falls  there  is  a  town  hall,  fivt 
churches,  club,  and  other  public 
buildings.  Pop.  4,000. 

Grand  Falls  OR  COLEBROOKE. 
Town  of  New  Brunswick,  Canada, 
capital  of  Victoria  co.  It  stands  on 
the  St.  John  river,  near  its  falls,  200 
m.  N.W.  of  St.  John,  and  is  served 
by  the  G.P.R.  Situated  in  a  lum- 
bering region,  there  are  saw,  grist, 
and  lumber  mills.  Pop.  1,280. 

Grandfather  Clock.  Popular 
term  for  clocks,  usually  eight-day, 
with  cases  to  contain  the  long  pen- 
dulum. They  were  introduced  in 
England  towards  the  end  of  the 
17th  century,  and  for  some  time 
were  made  with  the  dome  typical 
of  the  bracket  clock  from  which 
they  were  developed.  Early  speci- 
mens were  made  of  oak,  and  had 
brass  dials,  often  engraved.  Suc- 
ceeding types  were  made  of  walnut 
and  mahogany,  and  had  white  dials 
frequently  with  a  painted  device 
showing  the  changes  of  the  moon. 
Early  grandfather  clocks,  especi- 
ally those  dated  c.  1680-1700,  are 
prized  by  collectors.  English  18th 
century  specimens  are  numerous. 
See  Clock ;  Horology. 

Grand  Fleet.  Name  given  to 
Great  Britain's  principal  naval 
force  during  the  Great  War.  Num- 
bering about  400  ships,  it  was  based 
upon  Scapa  Flow  in  the  Orkneys  ; 
Invergordon  in  Cromarty  Firth ; 
and  Rosyth  in  the  Firth  of  Forth. 


Grand  Falls,  Newfoundland.      The  pulp  and  paper  mills  of  the  Anglo- 
Newfoundland  Development  Company,  where  the  paper  for  The  Daily  Mail 
and  The  Daily  Mirror  is  made 


Grand  Falls,  New  Brunswick.    The 
falls  of  the  St.  John  River 

The  Harwich  force,  but  not  the 
Dover  Patrol,  came  under  it.  Dur- 
ing the  last  year  of  the  war  an 
American  battle  squadron  of  five 
ships  formed  part  of  it.  Just 
previous  to  the  war  the  Grand 
Fleet  was  commanded  by  Sir  G. 
A.  Callaghan,  who  was  replaced  by 
Sir  John  Jellicoe  immediately  war 
was  declared.  Upon  the  latter 
becoming  first  sea  lord  in  Nov., 
1916,  Sir  David  Beatty  was 
appointed  commander-in-chief  of 
the  Grand  Fleet,  and  he  retained 
that  post  until  the  end  of  the  war, 
when  the  Grand  Fleet  was  dis- 
persed. See  Navy,  British. 

Grand  Forks.  City  of  North 
Dakota,  U.S.A.,  the  co.  seat  of 
Grand  Forks  co.  It  stands  at  the 
union  of  the  Red  Lake  river  with 
the  Red  river  of  the  North,  82  m. 
N.  of  Fargo,  and  is  served  by  the 
Great  Northern  and  the  Northern 
Pacific  Rlys.  It  contains  S.  Ber- 
nard's College  and  Grand  Forks  Col- 
lege, and  about  2  m.  from  the  city  is 
the  suburb  of  University,  the  seat  of 
the  state  university.  Grand  Forks 
is  a  distributing  centre  for  the 
surrounding  agricultural  district, 
trades  largely  in  lumber,  wheat,  and 
flour,  and  manufactures  lumber 
products,  bricks,  machinery,  grain 
elevators,  carpets,  rugs,  and  furni- 
ture. Settled  in  1871,  it  received  a 
city  charter  in  1881.  Pop.  16,342. 

Grand  Island.  City  of  Nebra- 
ska, U.S.A.,  the  co.  seat  of  Hall  co. 
On  Platte  river,  155  m.  W.S.W.  of 
Omaha,  it  is  served  by  the  Union 
Pacific  and  other  rlys.  It  contains 
Grand  Island  College,  a  sailors'  and 
soldiers'  home,  and  a  public  library. 
A  live-stock  trade  is  carried  on  and 
beet-sugar  production  is  an  impor- 
tant industry.  The  city  has  can- 
neries, rly.  workshops,  broom  and 
wire-fence  factories,  and  brick- 
works. Grand  Island  was  settled  in 
1857.  Pop.  11,505. 


GRANDISON 


3642 


GRAND   REMONSTRANCE 


Grandison,  SIR  CHARLES,  THE 
HISTORY  OF.  Novel  by  Samuel 
Richardson  first  published  anony- 
mously in  1753-54.  The  story  is  told 
in  a  lengthy  series  of  lengthy  letters. 
Purposing  to  present  a  character 
of  ideal  human  goodness,  the 
author  created  in  Sir  Charles  a  prig 
rather  than  a  hero. 

Grand  Junction  Canal.  Arti- 
ficial waterway  of  England.  It 
stretches  from  the  Oxford  Canal  at 
Braunston,  Northamptonshire,  to 
the  Thames  at  Brentford,  Middle- 
sex, a  distance  of  93|  m.  ;  with  its 
branches  it  has  a  total  length  of 
140£  m.  It  passes  through  the 
counties  of  Northampton,  Bucks, 
Hertford,  and  Middlesex,  and  has 
98  locks.  It  forms  an  important 
canal  section  of  the  proposed  great 
system  for  England.  See  Canal. 

Grand  Jury.  In  English  law,  a 
body  of  men,  fixed  between  12  and 
23,  who  at  the  assizes  and  quarter 
sessions  are  summoned  to  inquire 
into  the  charges  against  supposed 
criminals.  They  decide  whether  or 
not  there  is  a  prima  facie  case 
against  a  prisoner  or  defendant. 
The  jury  is  the  descendant  of  the 
jury  of  presentment  that  existed 
under  Henry  II  and  probably 
earlier.  The  procedure  is  for  the 
grand  jury,  having  been  first 
charged  by  the  judge,  to  examine 
the  various  bills  of  indictment ;  and 
to  declare  each  a  true  bill  or  no 
true  bill.  Grand  jurymen  must  be 
men  of  standing  of  the  county  and 
are  summoned  by  the  sheriff.  In 
1917  an  Act  was  passed  suspending 
grand  juries  for  the  period  of  the 
war,  and  this  suspension  continued 
until  1922.  See  Jury. 

Grand,  National,  THK  Princi- 
pal cross-country  horse-race.  In- 
augurated in  1839,  it  takes  place 
annually  at  Aintree,  near  Liver- 
pool, on  the  Friday  of  the  Liver- 
pool Spring  Meeting.  The  course  is 
4  m.  856  yds.,  and  includes  30 
jumps.  The  water  jump  is  15  ft. 
broad,  and  two  other  difficult 
obstacles  are  Valentine's  and 
Becher's  Brooks.  The  race  was  sus- 
pended from  1916-18  inclusive, 
through  the  Great  War,  a  substi- 
tute race,  called  the  Racecourse 
Association  Steeplechase  in  1916, 
and  the  War  National  Steeplechase 
in  1917  and  1918,  being  run  at 
Gatwick.  Four  horses  have  twice 
won  the  Grand  National,  Abd-el- 
Kader,  1850  and  1851 ;  The  Lamb, 
1868  and  1871  ;  The  Colonel,  1869 
and  1870;  and  Manifesto,  1897 
and  1899.  Poethlyn  won  it  in 
1919,  and  was  also  successful  in  the 
substitute  race  in  1918.  The  high- 
est weight  carried  to  victory  is  12  st. 
7  Ib.  this  being  achieved  by  Clois- 
ter, 1893,  Manifesto,  1899,  Jerry 
M.,  1912,  and  Poethlyn,  1919. 


Grandpre.  Town  of  France,  in 
dept.  of  Ardennes.  It  is  on  the  Aire, 
36  m.  S.S.E.  of  Mezieres.  Ito  13th 
century  church,  with  the  rest  of  the 
town,  was  much  damaged  in  the 
Great  War.  The  town  was  partly 
captured  by  the  77th  U.S.  division 
on  Oct.  15,  1918,  and  a  severe 
struggle  ensued  for  its  citadel  and 
hills  to  the  N.  See  Argonne,  Cam- 
paigns of  the. 

Grand  Pre.  Village  in  King's 
co.,  Nova  Scotia..  Situated  on  the 
shores  of  the  basin  of  Minas,  46  m. 
N.W.  of  Halifax,  it  was  the  scene 


Grand     Pre,    Nova     bcocia.      The 
Evangeline  statue  unveiled  in  1920 

of  the  surprise,  defeat,  and  capture 
of  Col.  Noble's  Massachusetts  regi- 
ment by  the  French  in  1747,  and 
of  the  expulsion  of  the  Acadians 
by  the  British  in  1755  (see  Mont- 
calm  and  Wolfe,  F.  Parkman, 
1884),  which  forms  the  theme  of 
the  first  part  of  Longfellow's  poem 
Evangeline  (q.v.).  By  a  purchase 
the  C.P.R.  secured  control  of  the 
well  beside  the  willows  on  the  farm 
tradition  associates  with  Evange- 
line's  story,  and  here  in  Septem- 
ber, 1920,  Lady  Burnham  unveiled 
a  statue  of  Evangeline.  It  stands  in 
a  park  laid  out  with  willows,  pop- 
lars, and  flowers,  and  containing  a 
Norman  gateway,  and,  thanks  to 
the  cooperation  with  the  C.P.R.  of 
the  French -Canadian  Societe  de 
I'Assomption,  a  chapel  of  contem- 
porary architecture. 

The  statue  in  bronze,  by  Henri 
Hebert,  was  cast  in  Paris  and 
fashioned  from  a  small  model  of 
burnt  clay  by  the  artist's  father, 
Philippe  Hebert,  the  sculptor,  a 
descendant  of  Louis  Hebert.  Louis 
emigrated  from  France  in  the 
time  of  Henry  of  Navarre,  with 
other  members  of  his  family,  dyked 
and  reclaimed  the  marshlands  of 
Minas  Basin,  gave  a  name  to  the 
valley  which  was  later  corrupted 
into  Bear  River,  and  shared 
the  exile  of  the  Acadians  in  1755. 


Grand  Prix.  International  race 
for  three-year-old  horses  run  at 
Longchamps  over  a  distance  of  1 
m.  7  fur.  An  English  horse  named 
The  Ranger  won  the  race  on  its 
inauguration  in  1863,  and  among 
other  successful  English  com- 
petitors were  Robert  the  Devil, 
1880 ;  Paradox,  1885 ;  Minting, 
1886;  Spearmint,  1906;  Galloper 
Light,  1919  ;  Comrade,  1920.  The 
race  was  suspended  from  1914-18, 
inclusive,  through  the  Great  War. 

Grand  Prix  de  Rome.  State 
prize  for  composition  at  the  Paris 
Conservatoire  which  is  competed  for 
annually  in  July,  the  result  being 
announced  in  Nov.  The  successful 
candidate  is  crowned  with  laurel, 
proclaimed  laureat,  and  sent  to 
Rome  to  study  for  four  years,  during 
which  time  he  receives  an  income 
from  the  French  government.  The 
proxime  accessit  receives  a  gold 
medal.  A  similar  Prix  de  Rome 
at  the  Brussels  Conservatoire  is 
awarded  at  intervals  of  two  years. 

Grand  Rapids.  City  of  Michi- 
gan, U.S.A.,  the  co.  seat  of  Kent 
co.  On  the  Grand  river,  at  the  head 
of  navigation,  it  is  65  m.  W.N.W.  of 
Lansing,  and  is  served  by  the  Michi- 
gan Central  and  other  rlys.  It  con- 
tains a  federal  building,  the  city 
hall  and  the  county  court  house, 
and  has  a  number  of  benevolent 
institutions.  Grand  Rapids  trades 
extensively  in  the  produce  of  the 
agricultural  and  fruit-growing  dis- 
trict in  which  it  stands,  and 
manufactures  lumber  products, 
furniture,  carpets  and  rugs,  car- 
riages, agricultural  implements, 
and  knitted  goods.  In  the  locality 
gypsum  is  worked.  Founded  in 
1833,  it  was  incorporated  five  years 
later,  and  granted  a  city  charter 
in  1850.  In  1905  it  was  reincor- 
porated.  Pop.  135,040. 

Grand  Rapids.  City  of  Wis- 
consin, U.S.A.,  the  co.  seat  of 
Wood  co.  On  the  Wisconsin  river, 
90  m.  N.N.W.  of  Madison,  it  is 
served  by  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee 
and  St.  Paul,  and  other  rlys.  The 
river  divides  the  city  into  two 
parts,  connected  by  a  fine  bridge. 
A  rly.  centre  and  the  distributing 
point  for  a  large  district,  Grand 
Rapids  has  machinery  works,  a 
foundry,  and  lumber,  paper,  pulp, 
furniture,  and  wagon  manufac- 
tures. Its  buildings  include  a  city 
hall,  court  house,  hospital,  and 
public  library.  A  city  charter  was 
granted  in  1869.  Pop.  6,521. 

Grand  Remonstrance,  THK. 
In  English  history,  the  statement 
of  the  case  of  the  Commons  against 
Charles  I.  It  was  drawn  up  by  the 
Long  Parliament  in  1641,  im- 
mediately before  the  outbreak  of 
the  Civil  War.  The  first  part  de- 
tailed the  acts  of  misgovernment 


GRANDS  MULETS 


3643 


GRANGER 


committed  by  the  king  after  his 
accession ;  subsequent  sections 
dealt  chiefly  with  suggested  reme- 
dial measures,  such  as  the  adoption 
of  safeguards  against  Roman 
Catholicism,  guarantees  for  the 
better  administration  of  justice, 
and  the  prevention  of  the  employ- 
ment as  ministers  of  worthless  per- 
sons. After  acrimonious  debate  the 
Grand  Remonstrance  was  passed 
by  159  votes  to  148,  and  was  pre- 
sented to  the  king,  Dec.  1,  1641. 

Grands  Mulcts.  Rocky  ridge 
on  the  N.  slope  of  Mont  Blanc.  It 
lies  at  an  alt.  of  10,030  ft.  on  the 
track  from  Chamonix  to  Mont 
Blanc.  See  Mont  Blanc. 

Grandson  OB  CRANSON.  Town 
of  Switzerland,  in  the  canton  of 
Vaud.  It  stands  on  the  lake  of 
Neuchatel,  3  m.  by  rly.  N.W.  of 
Yverdon.  It  has  an  ancient 
Romanesque  church,  recently  re- 
stored, and  a  fine  castle  dating 
from  the  llth  century,  long  the 
seat  of  the  baronial  family  of 
Grandson.  Captured  by  the  Ber- 
nese in  1475,  it  was  taken  in  Feb., 
1476,  by  the  duke  of  Burgundy, 
whose  massacre  of  the  garrison  led 
to  the  famous  battle  of  March  3, 
1476,  near  the  town,  in  which 
Charles  the  Bold  was  disastrously 
defeated  by  the  Swiss.  Pop.  1,334. 

Grand  Trunk  Railway.  Cana- 
dian railway,  now  part  of  the 
National  Transcontinental  system, 
and  owned  by  the  state.  It  was 
formed  in  1852,  being  an  amal- 
gamation of  various  small  lines, 
including  the  St.  Lawrence  and 
Champlain,  the  oldest  line  in 
Canada,  St.  Lawrence  and  Atlantic, 
Guelph  and  Sarnia,  and  Grand 
Junction.  Other  lines  were  added 
by  purchase  or  construction. 

About  1900  it  was  decided  to 
make  the  system  a  trans-contin- 
ental one,  and  by  an  arrangement 
with  the  Dominion  Government 
the  Grand  Trunk  promoted  the 
Grand  Trunk  Pacific  line.  The 
guarantees  given  in  this  connexion 
were  a  heavy  charge  on  the  com- 
pany's resources,  and  this,  coupled 
with  the  difficulties  caused  by  the 
Great  War,  was  a  serious  check  to 
its  development.  The  Dominion 
Government,  therefore,  decided  to 
acquire  the  system,  and  to  this  end 
an  Act  was  passed  in  1919. 

When  taken  over  in  1920  the 
company  had  a  mileage  of  3,567  in 
Canada  and  1,558  in  the  U.S.A. 
The  system  starts  from  Portland, 
Maine,  and  from  Rousses  Pt.  on 
Lake  Champlain.  A  line  from  Que- 
bec joins  these  two  and  the  main 
line  passes  to  Montreal  by  the 
Victoria  Jubilee  Bridge.  From 
Montreal  it  goes  to  Toronto,  and 
thence  through  Ontario  to  various 
partsonLake  Huron  and  on  Georgia 


Sir  W.  Guy  Granet, 

British  railway 

manager 

Russell 


Bay.  The  company  had  steamers  on 
the  Great  Lakes  and  elsewhere  and 
headquarters  at  Montreal.  The 
total  capital  was  about  £85,000,000. 
See  Canada. 

Granet,  SIR  WILLIAM  GUY  (b. 
1867).  British  rly.  manager.  Born 
Oct.  13,  1867,  he  was  educated  at 
Rugby  and 
Balliol  College, 
Oxford,  and 
was  called  to 
the  bar  in 
1883.  He  be- 
came secretary 
of  the  Rail- 
way C  o  m  - 
panies'  Asso- 
ciation in 
1900,  assist- 
ant-general 
manager  o  f 
the  Midland  Rly.,  1905,  and  general 
manager  in  1906.  During  the  Great 
War  he  was  director-general  of 
military  rlys.  in  1916  and  director- 
general  of  movements  and  rlys.  in 
1917,  with  a  seat  on  the  Army 
Council.  In  Dec.,  1918,  he  retired 
from  the  general  managership  of 
the,  M.  R.,  and  in  1924  became  ch. 
of  the  London,  Midland  &  Scottish 
Rly.  He  was  knighted  in  1911. 

Grange  (late  Lat.  granea,  barn). 
Term  now  used  for  a  country  house 
with  farm  attached,  and  also  for  a 
better-class  farm.  It  has  been 
applied  to  a  granary,'  a  barn,  a 
farm,  occasionally  to  a  collection 
of  farms,  and  hence  a  village  or 
hamlet,  and  especially,  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  to  outlying  farm 
buildings  belonging  to  a  religious 
house  or  lay  lord  where  crops  for 
tithe  or  rent  were  stored. 

Grange  OR  GRANGE  OVER  SANDS. 
Urban  dist.  and  watering-place  of 
Lancashire.  It  stands  on  More- 
cambe  Bay,  9  m.  from  Carnforth, 
and  has  a  station  on  the  Furness  Rly. 
The  chief  building  is  the  Victoria 
Hall ;  there  are  also  public  gardens, 
and  the  urban  council  owns  the 
water  supply.  With  a  mild  cli- 
mate, it  has  a  hydropathic  estab- 
lishment and  has 
good  bathing  facili- 
ties. Pop.  2,200. 

Grangemouth. 
Burgh  and  sea- 
port of  Stirling- 
shire. It  stands 
on  the  south  side 
of  the  Forth,  3  m 
from  Falkirk,  and 
is  served  by  the 
N.B.  andCal.  Rlys. 
Here  two  streams, 
the  Grange  and  the 
Carron,  fall  into  the 
Forth.  Mainly  a 
modern  town,  it 
arose  on  the 
terminus  of  the 


Forth  and  Clyde  canal,  and  has 
now  extensive  docks.  From  here 
coal  and  iron  are  sbipped,  while 
the  ore  for  the  ironworks  of  the 
Falkirk  district  is  landed  here. 
Steamers  go  to  London,  Rotterdam, 
and  other  ports.  There  is  a  large 
shipbuilding  yard,  two  dry-docks, 
and  manufactures  of  rope,  etc.  The 
town  council  owns  the  water  and 
gas  works.  Pop.  11,000. 

Grange  Party  OR  GRANGERS. 
Economic  organization  in  the 
U.S.A..  in  full  the  Society  of 
Patrons  of  Husbandry.  It  was 
founded  in  ]  867,  the  prime  mover 
being  0.  H.  Kelley,  a  farmer  from 
Minnesota,  and  its  main  object  was 
to  foster  the  agricultural  interest. 
A  feature  wa»  that  it  was  a 
secret  society.  Its  membership 
was  limited  to  those  engaged  in 
agriculture  ;  women  were  eligible 
with  men.  Until  1873  its  influence 
was  very  marked  and  to  it  much 
legislation  was  due,  the  railways 
being  a  subject  of  much  interest 
to  the  Grangers.  After  1873  a 
period  of  decline  set  in,  but  after 
1890  the  movement  revived  and 
it  is  now  a  strong  organization. 

Granger,  JAMES  (1723-76). 
English  writer  and  print  collector. 
Born  at  Shaftesbury,  Dorset,  and 
educated  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford, 
he  became  vicar  of  Shiplake,  where 
he  died  April  4,  1776.  He  wrote  a 
Biographical  History  of  England, 
from  Egbert  to  the  Revolution, 
1769,  which  he  lavishly  illustrated 
with  the  engraved  portraits  he  had 
collected.  This  history  was  added 
to  by  other  hands,  one  copy 
containing  3,000  portraits. 

The  process  of  extra-illustrating 
a  book  with  pictures  relating  to  all 
that  the  book  contains  has  been 
known  since  as  grangerising.  The 
grangeriser,  having  made  his  col- 
lection, takes  his  book  to  pieces, 
inserts  the  extra  illustrations  in  the 
most  appropriate  places,  and  has 
the  whole  bound  anew.  Notable  ex- 
amples of  this  kind  of  work  are  the 
Crowle  copy  of  Pennant's  History 


ngemc 

Clyde  canal,  of  which  this  town  is  the  terminus 

Valentine 


GRANICUS 

of  London,  in  the  British  Museum  ; 
and  Sutherland's  Clarendon  and 
Burnet,  in  the  Bodleian. 

Granicus.  Ancient  name  of  the 
modern  Bigha  Chai,  a  river  of  the 
Troad,  Asia  Minor.  It  flows  into 
the  Propontis,  or  Sea  of  Marmora, 
and  is  famous  as  the  scene  of  the 
battle  in  which  Alexander  the  Great 
defeated  the  Persians  in  334  B.C. 

Granite  (Ital.  granito,  grained, 
speckled).  Granular  crystalline 
rock  normally  composed  of  the 
minerals  felspar,  quartz,  and  mica 
or  hornblende,  with  a  number  of 
other  minerals  in  varying  small 
percentages,  as  magnetite,  zircon, 
etc.  The  latter  minerals  have  dif- 
ferent effects  upon  the  appearance 
of  the  granite.  Graphic  granite,  for 
example,  has  quartz  and  felspar 
so  arranged  that  a  section  gives  the 
appearance  of  cuneiform  charac- 
ters ;  the  granite  of  Peterhead  is 
red,  due  to  admixture  of  iron 
oxides,  etc.  The  usual  colour  of  the 
rock  is  a  shade  of  grey,  though 
pink,  red,  greenish,  and  yellow  are 
found  and  all  variations  of  texture 
from  coarse  to  fine  grained. 

Granites  are  found  in  large  ir- 
regular amorphous  masses,  known 
as  bosses,  sometimes  extending 
over  hundreds  of  square  miles,  and 
were  originally '  cooled  at  great 
depths  below  the  earth's  surface. 
On  account  of  its  great  strength 
and  hardness  granite  is  largely  used 
in  all  stone  construction,  though 
the  difficulty  of  working  it  makes 
its  use  expensive.  The  granites  of 
Cornwall,  the  red  Peterhead  gran- 
ite, and  granites  of  Aberdeen  are 
considered  the  best  in  Great 
Britain,  though  those  of  Mount 
Sorrel  in  Leicestershire,  and  Wales 
are  largely  quarried.  See  Geology  , 
consult  also  Stones  for  Building 
and  Decoration,  G.  P.  Merrill,  1905. 

Granitite.  Variety  of  granite  in 
which  the  mica  constituent  is  repre- 
sented by  biotite  alone. 

Granitza  Furnace.  Form  of 
furnace  used  at  New  Almaden, 
California,  for  the  treatment  of  fine 
mercury  ores.  ^  v 

It  consists  of 
a  vertical 
shaft  having  a 
series  of  slop- 
ing shelves 
one  above  the 
other,  down 
which  the  ore 
slides,  being 
deflected  from 
side  to  side  as 
it  falls.  A  fire- 
grate is  pro- 
vided at  one 
side  of  the 
shaft.  See 
Furnace;  Mer- 
cury. 


Granitza  Furnace 

Sectional  diagram  : 

see  text 


Gran  Sasso  d'ltalia  (Great 
Rock  of  Italy).  Mt.  mass  of  the 
Apennines.  It  lies  between  the 
provs.  of  Teramo  and  Aquila.  The 
highest  peak  is  Monte  Corno  (9,580 
ft. ),  the  loftiest  point  of  the  range. 
Other  peaks  are  Corno  Piccolo, 
8,650  ft.  ;  Pizzo  d'Intermesole, 
8,680  ft. ;  Pizzo  Cefalone,  8,307  ft. ; 
and  Monte  della  Portella,  7,835  ft. 
Generally  snow-capped,  it  com- 
mands an  extensive  view,  including 
the  Dalmatian  Mts.  Summer  and 
autumn  are  the  best  seasons  for 
making  the  ascent,  either  from 
Aquila  or  Teramo.  It  was  first 
ascended  by  Orazio  Delfico  in  1794. 
There  is  an  Italian  Alpine  Club  hut 
near  the  summit.  See  Apennines. 
Grant  (Lat.  credentare,  to  en- 
trust). Literally,  permission  and 
thus  a  gift,  the  implication  being 
that  such  a  gift  carries  with  it  a 
privilege  of  some  kind.  It  is  thus 
used  especially  in  law,  where  it 
means  the  conveyance  of  property 
from  one  person  to  another  by 
deed.  A  deed  of  grant  is  now  the 
proper  method  of  conveying  free- 
hold property ;  but  it  is  used  in 
most  other  cases  also,  whether  the 
property  be  real  or  personal.  A 
grant-in- aid  is  money  granted  by 
Parliament  to  local  authorities  in 
aid  of  local  services. 

Grant,  ALBERT  (1830-99).  Com- 
pany promoter.  Son  of  W.  Gott- 
heimer,  he  .was  born  in  Dublin. 
He  adopted 
the  name  of 
Grant,  and 
raised  capital 
to  the  extent 
of  £24,000,000 
in  connexion 
with  c  o  m- 
panies  operat- 
ing on  the 
Albert  Grant,  Continent,  in 
Company  promoter  China,  S. 
America,  and  elsewhere,  with  ulti- 
mate loss  to  shareholders  of  about 
£20,000,000.  He  was  M.P.  for  Kid- 
derminster in  1865-68  and  1874- 
80.  In  1868  he  was  made  a  baron 
by  Victor  Emmanuel.  He  became 
owner  of  The  Echo  in  1874  and 
built  a  magnificent  mansion,  Ken- 
sington House,  which  was  de- 
molished on  behalf  of  his  creditors. 
In  1873-74  he  bought  Leicester 
Fields  and,  after  laying  out  the 
garden,  handed  the  ground  over 
for  the  benefit  of  the  public, 
July  2,  1874.  His  pictures  fetched 
over  £100,000  at  Christie's  in  1877. 
His  later  years  were  taken  up  in 
defending  bankruptcy  proceedings. 
He  died  at  Bognor,  Aug.  30,  1899. 
See  Leicester  Square. 

Grant,  JAMES  (1802-7.9).  Scot- 
tish journalist.  Born  at  Elgin, 
Morayshire,  he  helped  to  found,  and 
fora  time  edited,  The  Elgin  Courier, 


and,  after  serving  The  Morning 
Chronicle,  London,  was  editor  of 
The  Morning  Advertiser,  1850-71. 
He  was  author  of  a  history  of  The 
Newspaper  Press,  3  vols.,  1871-72, 
and  wrote  extensively  on  theo- 
logical  subjects  from  a  Calvinistic 
standpoint.  He  died  at  Bayswater, 
May  23,  1879. 

Grant,  JAMES  (1822-87).    Scot- 

tish novelist.     Born  at  Edinburgh, 

Aug.  1,  1822,  son  of  Captain  Grant, 

92nd   Gordon 

|     Highlanders, 

I    and     related 

I    through     his 

•**"*r     1    mother  to  Sir 

'•"  ''  3t       I    Walter  Scott, 

|  he  served, 
1840-43,  as 
an  ensign  in 
the  62nd 
Foot,  studied 


an  architect's 
office,  and 
then  devoted  himself  to  literary 
work.  Of  his  56  novels,  most  of 
which  deal  with  military  life  or 
Scottish  history,  the  most  notable 
is  The  Romance  of  War,  1845.  It 
was  largely  based  on  his  father's 
stories  of  the  Peninsular  War.  He 
was  author  of  Memorials  of  Edin- 
burgh Castle,  1850  ;  Old  and  New 
Edinburgh,  1880;  Memoirs  of 
Montrose,  1858  ;  Cavaliers  of  For- 
tune, or  British  Heroes  in  Foreign 
Wars,  1859;  Scottish  Soldiers  of 
Fortune,  1889  ;  Histories  of  British 
Battles,  1873  and  1884;  an  Illus- 
trated History  of  India,  1876  ;  and 
The  Tartans  of  the  Clans  of  Scot- 
land, 1886.  He  was  one  of  the  pio- 
neers of  the  volunteer  movement, 
and  died  in  London,  May  5,  1887. 
Grant,  JAMES  AUGUSTUS  (1827- 
92).  British  soldier  and  explorer. 
Born  at  Nairn,  April  11,  1827,  and 
educated  at  Marischal  College, 
Aberdeen,  he  received  a  commis- 
sion in  the  8th  Native  Bengal  In- 
fantry, 1846.  He  took  part  in  the 
sieges  of  Multan  and  Gujerat,  1849, 
and  was  attached  to  the  78th  High- 
landers at  the  relief  of  Lucknow, 
1857,  when  he  was  wounded.  In 
1862-63  heaccompaniedJ.  H.  Speke 
(q.v.  )  in  exploring  the  sources  of 
the  Nile,  and  published  A  Walk 
Across  Africa,  1864.  In  1868  he 
accompanied  the  Abyssinian  ex- 
pedition under  Napier.  He  left 
the  army  with  the  rank  of  lieuten- 
ant-colonel, and  died  at  Nairn, 
Feb.  11,  1892.  His  collection  of 
dried  plants  is  in  the  herbarium  at 
Kew  Gardens. 

Grant,  SIR  JAMES  HOPE  (1808- 
75).  British  soldier.  Born  at  Kil- 
graston,  Perthshire,  July  22,  1808, 
a  brother  of  Sir  Francis  Grant,  the 
portrait-painter,  he  entered  the  9th 
Lancers  in  1826  and  saw  his  first 


active  service  |  .^m^ 
in  the  Chinese  I 
War  (1840- 
-42).  Proceed- 
ing to  India,  \ 
he  fought  in 
the  first  and 
second  Sikh 
Wars.  He 
played  a  most 
important  £ 
part  in  the 
suppression 
of  the  Indian 
Mutiny,  notably  in  the  operations 
before  Delhi,  and  in  the  first  and 
second  reliefs  of  Lucknow.  In 
1860  he  was  commander  in  the 
war  against  China  which  soon 
ended  in  the  capture  of  the 
Taku  forts  and  the  surrender  of 
Peking.  In  1870  Grant  received  the 
Aldershot  command,  when,  in  face 
of  strong  opposition,  he  initiated 
the  autumn  manoeuvres.  He  died 
in  London,  March  7,  1875. 

Grant,  ULYSSES  SIMPSON  (1822- 
85).  American  soldier  and  presi- 
dent of  the  U.S.A.  Born  April  27, 
1822,  near  Clermont,  Ohio,  the  son 
of  a  farmer  of  Scottish  ancestry,  he 
was  educated  at  the  military 
academy  of  West  Point.  He  fought 
with  distinction  in  the  Mexican 
War  (1845-48),  but  in  1854 
resigned  from  the  army  and  was 
engaged  for  some  years  in  farming 
and  in  real  estate  dealing.  His 
first  command  in  the  Civil  War 
was  the  colonelcy  of  an  infantry 
regiment  of  volunteers,  and  shortly 
afterwards  he  was  made  a  brigadier- 
general.  But  the  event  which 
brought  him  into  real  prominence 
was  his  capture  of  Fort  Donelson, 
in  Tennessee,  in  Feb.,  1862. 

Less  successful  at  Shiloh  in  the 
following  April,  he  began  as  com- 
mander of  the  Thirteenth  Army 
the  series  of 
m  o  vement  s 
which  culmin- 
ated in  July, 
1863,  in  the 
surrender  of 
Vicksburg  to 
him,  with  some 
30,000  men. 
This  brilliant 
piece  of  work 
brought  Grant 
the  command 
of  the  military  division  of  the 
Tennessee,  and  the  rank  of  major- 
general  in  the  regular  army,  fol- 
lowed by  promotion  to  the  rank  of 
lieut. -general  after  the  victory  at 
Chattanooga  in  the  autumn. 

In  March,  1864,  Grant,  now  recog- 
nized by  Lincoln  as  the  one  man 
capable  of  finishing  the  war,  was 
made  commander-in-chief  and  es- 
tablished his  headquarters  with  the 
army  of  the  Potomac,  operating  in 


3645 

Virginia.  The  main  strength  of  the 
Confederates  was  there,  and  Grant 
announced  that  he  would  fight  it 
out  on  this  line,  though  it  took 
him  all  the  summer.  The  battles  of 
this  campaign,  The  Wilderness, 
Spottsylvania,  Cold  Harbour,  and 
others,  were  among  the  most 
terrible  of  the  war.  Grant's  losses 
were  greater  than  those  of  his 
opponent  Lee,  but  Grant  could 
always  reinforce  his  depleted  ranks, 
whereas  Lee  could  not.  Eventually 
the  policy  of  attrition  began  to  tell. 
Petersburg  and  Richmond,  the 
Confederate  capital,  fell  on  April  2 
and  3,  1865,  and  with  the  surrender 
of  Lee's  shrunken  remnant  at 
Appomattox  Court  House  on  April 
9,  the  war  was  virtually  finished. 

Grant  was  not  perhaps  a  military 
genius  of  the  highest  order,  but  he 
showed  remarkable  ability  in  the 
manner  in  which  he  exercised  a 
general  supervision  of  the  war 
while  conducting  a  most  strenuous 
local  campaign.  Moreover,  he  saw 
clearly  that,  against  the  superior 
forces  of  the  North,  the  eventual 
overthrow  of  the  South  was  in- 
evitable, and  he  set  himself  to 
accomplish  that  purpose. 

In  1868  Grant  became  president 
of  the  U.S.A.  and  held  office  for 
two  terms.  During  his  presidency 
the  Alabama  claims  against  Britain 
were  settled.  In  1880  there  was  a 
movement  to  put  Grant  forward 
for  a  third  term,  but  the  project 
aroused  opposition  as  being  un- 
constitutional and  was  accordingly 
dropped.  In  1884  the  banking 
house  in  which  Grant  had  become  a 
partner  failed,  and  he  was  reduced 
to  poverty.  In  order  to  provide 
for  his  wife  and  family  he  began  to 
write  his  Personal  Memoirs,  which 
enjoyed  great  popularity.  He  died 
of  cancer  in  the  throat  at  Mt. 
MacGregor,  near  Saratoga,  July  23, 
1885.  See  American  Civil  War. 

Bibliography.  Military  History  of 
Grant,  1861-65,  A.  Badeau,  1881  ; 
From  Tanyard  to  White  House, 
W.  M.  Thayer,  1885 ;  Grant  as 
Soldier  and  Statesman,  E.  Howland, 
1868  ;  Grant's  Campaign  in  Virginia, 
1864,  J.  H.  Anderson,  1908  ;  Grant's 
Campaign  in  1864  and  1865, 
C.  F.  Atkinson,  1908. 

Grantham.   Mun.  borough  and 
market  town  of  Lincolnshire.     It 
stands  on  the  Witham,  25  m.  S.S.E. 
of    Lincoln    and 
105m.    from 
London,   and    is 
an   import  ant 
junction  on  the 
G.N.  Ely.  ;  it  is 
also  served  by  a 
canal.    The  chief 
building  is   the 
church    of  S. 
Grantham  arms      W  u  1  f  r  a  m  ; 
mainly  13th  century  work,  it  has  a 


GRANTLEY 


Grantham,    Lincolnshire.        Parish 

church  of  S.  Wulfram,  showing  the 

14th  century  spire,  280  ft.  high 

Frith 

massive  tower  with  spire,  and  is 
noted  for  its  window  tracery,  crypt, 
and  chained  library.  Sir  Isaac  New- 
ton was  educated  at  the  grammar 
school  here  ;  it  is  of  the  time  of 
Edward  VI.  There  are  a  modern 
guildhall,  an  exchange,  and  several 
churches.  The  ancient  market 
cross  was  re-erected  in  the  large 
market  place  in  1910. 

The  Angel  Inn  is  a  building  that 
once  belonged  to  the  Templars, 
while  the  George  is  mentioned  in 
Nicholas  Nickleby.  The  chief  in- 
dustries are  the  manufacture  of 
agricultural  implements  and  en- 
gines, malting,  and  basket-mak- 
ing, wickerwork,  etc.  Grantham 
existed  in  the  time  of  Domesday. 
Various  charters  were  given  to  it, 
and  it  was  represented  in  Parlia- 
ment until  1918.  It  obtained  a 
mayor  and  corporation  in  1463,  and 
is  now  governed  by  a  corporation 
reformed  under  the  Act  of  1835. 
Several  fairs  are  still  held.  Market 
day,  Sat.  Pop.  (1921)  18,902. 

Grant  Land.  Ice-bound  tract 
within  the  Arctic  Circle.  It  is  the 
northernmost  part  of  Ellesmere 
Island,  in  British  North  America, 
W.  of  Lincoln  Sea  and  E.  of  Nansen 
Sound.  Discovered  by  Hayes,  Hall, 
and  Nares  in  1875,  it  lies  between 
lat.  81°  and  83°  N. 

Grantley,  FLETCHER  NORTON, 
IST  BARON  (1716-89).  English 
lawyer.  The  son  of  a  Yorkshire- 
man,  he  was  born  at  Grantley, 
June  23,  1716,  and  was  called  to 
the  bar  in  1739.  He  entered  the 


GRANTON 


3646 


GRAPE 


House  of  Commons  as  member  for 
Appleby  in  1756,  and  remained 
therein,  sitting  for  various  consti- 
tuencies, until  1782.  In  1762  he 
was  made  solicitor-general  and  in 
1763  attorney-general.  He  was 
elected  speaker  of  the  House  of 
Commons  in  1770,  but  lost  the 
position  in  1780,  largely  owing  to 
the  way  he  had  addressed  the  king 
about  money  matters  in  1777.  He 
was  raised  to  the  peerage  in  1782. 
An  able  but  unscrupulous  lawyer, 
he  figured  in  the  public  prints  as 
Sir  Bull-face  Doublefee.  He  died 
Jan.  1,  1789,  when  his  eldest  son 
William  (1742-1822)  became  the 
2nd  baron  ;  the  title  is  still  held  by 
the  descendants  of  the  1st  baron. 

Granton.  Seaport  of  Edin- 
burghshire,  Scotland.  It  stands  on 
the  Firth  of  Forth  and  within  the 
city  of  Edinburgh.  It  has  a  good 
harbour,  with  two  breakwaters  and 
facilities  for  coaling,  and  is  the 
headquarters  of  several  steamship 
lines  and  a  landing  place  for  the 
North  Sea  trawlers.  Coal,  cotton, 
etc.,  are  exported,  and  timber, 
grain,  tobacco,  etc.,  imported.  See 
Edinburgh. 

Grantown.  Police  burgh  and 
market  town  of  Elginshire,  Scot- 
land. It  stands  on  the  Spey,  23  m. 
S.  of  Forres,  on  the  Highland  and 
G.N.  of  Scotland  Rlys.  The  capital 
of  Strathspey,  Grantown  is  finely 
situated  amid  magnificent  forests 
of  pine  and  birch,  and  is  frequented 
as  a  health  resort.  Distilling  is 
carried  on  and  there  is  a  trade  in 
cattle.  The  town  was  founded  in 
1776  by  Sir  James  Grant,  hence 
its  name,  and  near  it  is  Castle 
Grant,  seat  of  the  earls  of  Seafield. 
Pop.  1,450. 


Granville,  France. 


The  lower  and  upper  towns,  from 
the  south 


Granulite  (Lat.  yranulum,  little 
grain).  Rock  mainly  composed  of 
felspar,  quartz,  mica,  and  granite. 
The  name  is  used  for  several 
varieties  of  rock  by  geologists.  It 
is  common  in  Scotland  and  parts 
erf  Europe. 

Granvelle  OR  GRANVELLA,  AN- 
TorNE  PERRENOT  DE  (1517-86). 
Spanish  prelate  and  diplomatist. 


Born  Aug.  20,  1517,  at  Besan^on, 
his  father  was  a  lawyer  who  be- 
came chancellor  to  the  emperor 
Charles  V.  Educated  at  the  uni- 
versities of  Padua  and  Louvain, 
Antoine  became  a  priest,  and  in 
1540  was  made  bishop  of  Arras. 
His  father's  influence,  however, 
and  his  own  aptitude  led  him  into 
political  life,  and  he,  too,  was  soon 
employed  by  Charles  V  on  diplo- 
matic business.  He  attended  some 
of  the  sittings  of  the  council  of 
Trent  in  the  emperor's  interest, 
and  was  responsible  for  the  treaties 
between  Charles  and  his  German 
foes  in  1547  and  1552.  He  helped 
to  arrange  the  marriage  between 
Mary  and  Philip  II,  and  in  1559 
settled  in  the  Netherlands  as  chief 
adviser  to  the  regent,  Margaret  of 
Parma. 

From  1570-75  Granvelle  was 
viceroy  of  Naples  for  Philip  II, 
after  which  he  held  a  controlling 
position  in  state  circles  at  Madrid. 
Granvelle  was  made  archbishop  of 
Malines  in  1560,  archbishop  of 
Besancon  in  1584,  and  a  cardinal  in 
1561.  He  died  at  Madrid,  Sept.  21. 
1586.  Granvelle's  letters  and 
papers,  owing  to  the  prominent 
part  he  took  in  European  politics, 
are  an  important  source  for  his- 
torians. 

Granville.  Town  of  New  South 
Wales,  Australia,  in  Cumberland 
co.  It  is  situated  a  few  miles  E. 
of  Parramatta  on  the  Parramatta- 
Sydney  Rly.,  and  is  a  manufactur- 
ing centre  within  Greater  Sydney. 
Pop.  6,938. 

Granville.  Town  and  watering- 
place  of  France,  in  the  dept.  of 
Manche.  Built  on  a  promontory, 
where  the  river  Bosq  enters  the 

^    English    Channel, 

1    it  is  divided  into 
the    lower    town 
and    the    upper 
town,    the    latter 
being  surrounded 
b  y     fortifications 
and      containing 
the  citadel.    The 
Gothic  church  of 
Notre  Dame  was 
restored    in    t h e 
15th  -  16th    cen- 
turies.   The  town 
has   a  good   har- 
bour and  a  ship- 
p  i  n  g    trade.      It 
was    fortified    by 
the  English  when  they  held  France, 
but  was  taken  from  them  in  1450. 
Tney  possessed  it  again  later,  but, 
having  fortified  it  in  1640,  finally 
lost  it  in  1641.     Pop.  11,350. 

Granville,  EARL.  British  title 
borne  since  1833  by  the  family  of 
Leveson-Gower.  The  first  earl 
was  Lord  Granville  Leveson- 
Gower  (1773-1846),  a  younger  son 


of  the  1st  marquess  of  Stafford. 
He  was  secretary  at  war  and  am- 
bassador in  turn  to  Russia  and 
France.  His  son,  the  2nd  earl, 
was  leading  Liberal  politician  in 
the  time  of  Gladstone,  and  his 
grandson,  Granville  George,  the 
3rd  earl  (b.  1872),  was  in  the 
diplomatic  service,  being  made 
minister  at  Athens  in  1917.  t 

Granville,  GRANVILLE  GEORGE 
LEVESON-GOWER,  2ND  EARL (1815- 
91).  British  statesman.  The 
eldest  son  of  the  1st  earl,  he  was 
born  May  11,  1815,  and  was 
educated  at  Eton  and  Christ 
Church,  Oxford.  Related  to  the 
great  Whig  families,  he  entered 
Parliament  as  M.P.  for  Morpeth  in 
1836,  and  was  an  under-secretary 
under  Melbourne.  In  1846  he 
succeeded  to  his  father's  earldom, 
and  a  succession  of  political  offices 
followed.  In  1846  he  was  made 
master  of  the  buckhounds ;  in 
1848  vice-president  of  the  board  of 
trade;  in  1851  foreign  minister. 
In  1852  he  was  chosen  president  of 
the  council ;  in  1854  chancellor 
of  the  duchy 
of  Lancaster ; 
and  in  1855 
was  again 
president.  He 
resigned  with 
his  colleagues 
in  185S. 

In  1855 
Granville  be- 
came leader 
of  the  Lib- 
erals in  the 
House  of 
Lords.  In  1859  he  became  presi- 
dent of  the  council,  and  from  1868- 
70  he  was  colonial  secretary,  this 
being  under  Gladstone,  with  whom 
he  was  henceforward  closely  as- 
sociated. He  was  foreign  secre- 
tary 1870-74,  and  again  1880-85, 
but  he  is  usually  regarded  as  weak 
in  that  position.  He  followed 
Gladstone  on  Home  Rule,  and 
in  1886  was  for  a  short  time  colo- 
nial secretary.  A  cultured  man  of 
gracious  personality,  and  alive  to 
the  need  for  change  and  improve- 
ment, Granville  was  chancellor  of 
the  university  of  London  from 
1856-91.  He  died  in  London, 
March  31,  1891.  See  Life,  Lord 
Fitzmaurice,  1905. 

Grao  Mogol.  Town  of  Brazil, 
in  the  state  of  Minas  Geraes.  It 
stands  in  a  mining  district  on  a 
tributary  of  the  Jequitinhonha, 
55  m.  due  N.  of  Minas  Novas. 

Grape.  Fruit  of  the  vine(Vitis 
vinifera),  a  shrub  of  the  natural 
order  Ampelideae.  The  vine,  which 
is  a  native  of  the  Mediterranean 
region,  was  apparently  introduced 
into  Britain  at  the  time  of  the 
Christian  era.  In  the  S.  and  W.  of 


GRAPE  FRUIT 


3647 


GRAPH 


Urape.      Black  Hamburg  grapes,  a 

fine  dessert  variety,  growing  under 

glass 

England  grapes  will  ripen  in  the 
open  air,  on  sunny  borders  with 
rich  loamy  soil  dug  to  a  depth 
of  3  ft.  The  vines  should  be  cut 
back  every  year  in  winter,  and 
given  copious  draughts  of  liquid 
manure  and  dressings  from  the 
stable.  Where  it  is  necessary  to 
grow  grapes  under  the  shelter  of 
glass,  the  vine  should  be  planted 
in  rich  loam  mixed  with  old  lime 
rubbish,  and  the  canes  planted  early 
in  the  year,  say,  at  the  end  of  Janu- 
ary, putting  the  vines  6  ft.  apart. 

Grapes  may  be  had  at  any  time 
in  the  year  by  starting  the  vines  six 
months  ahead  of  the  date  required 
and  keeping  them  in  a  temperature 
which  rises  automatically  from  45° 
to  80°,  according  to  the  season  of 
the  year  and  the  results  expected. 
The  vines  should  be  watered  liber- 
ally until  they  flower,  using  water 
of  a  similar  temperature  to  that  of 
the  house.  As  soon  as  the  vines 
have  ceased  to  flower  and  the  fruit 
has  formed,  the  supply  of  water 
should  be  diminished,  and  the 
bunches  of  newly  formed  grapes 
should  be  thinned  to  ensure  ber- 
ries of  good  size  and  full  flavour 
and  colour  being  produced.  A  good 


average  bunch  of  grapes  should 
weigh  from  f  Ib.  to  1  lb.,  and  these 
bunches  should  be  borne  at  inter- 
vals of  about  1  ft.  upon  the  rod  or 
vine.  It  is  a  mistake  to  thin 
grapes  insufficiently  with  the  idea 
of  getting  a  larger  crop,  as  by  so 
doing  the  resulting  fruit  is  of  in- 
ferior size  and  quality,  and  the 
vine  is  impoverished.  See  Vine  ; 
Wine.  . 

Grape  Fruit  (Citrus  decumana). 
Tree  belonging  to  the  same  genus  as 
the  orange,  alternatively  known  as 
shaddock  (q.v.). 

Grape  Hyacinth  (Muscari  race- 
mosum).  Bulbous  herb  of  the  na- 
tural order  Liliaceae.  A  native  of 
Europe  and  S.  Africa,  it  has  long, 
slender,  half-rounded  leaves,  and 
a  short  flower  stem,  bearing  many 
round  dark- blue  flowers. 

Grape  Pear  (Amelanchier  cana- 
densis).  Small  tree  of  the  natural 
order  Rosaceae.  It  is  a  native  of 
N.  America.  It  has  oblong-elliptic, 
toothed  leaves,  and  large  white 
flowers  in  drooping  sprays.  The 
fruit  is  globular,  of  crimson  or  pur- 
plish colour,  sweet  and  agreeable. 

Grape-shot  (Fr.  grappe,  bunch 
of  grapes).    Obsolete  projectile  at 
one  time  much  used  for  smooth- 
bore guns.     It 
/%  ]    consisted  of  a 

\E_  3    large    number 

of  cast-iron 
bullets  packed 
in  layers  be- 
t  w  e  e  n  thin 
iron  plates, 
and  then  ar- 
ranged in  tiers 
(generally 
three),  the 
whole  being 
held  together 
by  an  iron 
bolt  passing 
through  the 
centre  of  the 
plates,  thus 
resembling  a  bunch  of  grapes. 
When  fired  the  shot  broke  up  and 
distributed  the  bullets  in  a  shower 
in  a  somewhat  similar  manner  to 
case-shot,  but  at  a  greater  dis- 
tance from  the  muzzle  of  the  gun. 
It  has  been  entirely  replaced  by 
shrapnel  (q.v. ).  See  Ammunition. 


Grape-shot,  an 
obsolete  projectile 


Urape  Hyacinth.  Leaves  aiiu  flowers 
of  the  bulbous  herb 


Grape  Sugar. 

glucose  also  known 
as  dextrose  (q.v.). 
Graph  (Gr. 
graphein,  to  write). 
Diagrammatic  re- 
presentation of 
statements,  form- 
ulae, etc.  Graph- 
ical methods  are 
increasingly  em- 
ployed in  the  solu- 
tion of  problems, 
and  the  presenta- 


Solid  form  of 


Grape  Pear.     Leaves,  flowers,  and 
fruit  of  the  North  American  tree 

tion  of  the  results  of  analysis,  not 
only  in  science,  but  in  every-day 
affairs.  Simple  examples  of  such 
diagrams  are  charts  showing  varia- 
tion of  temperature,  the  rise  and 
fall  of  exports  and  imports  over  a 
given  period,  etc.  These  charts 
are  usually  prepared  on  squared 
paper,  i.e.  paper  divided  into 
squares  by  equidistant  horizontal 
and  vertical  lines. 

In  general,  two  lines  are  chosen 
at  right  angles,  and  the  position  of 
any  point  on  the  curve  is  defined 
with  reference  to  these  lines.  As  an 
example,  suppose  it  is  required  to 
show  over  a  given  period  the 
number  of  ships  sunk  by  sub- 
marines week  by  week.  Along  one 
of  the  axes  are  marked  at  equal 
intervals  the  number  of  weeks, 
5,  10,  15,  etc.,  and  along  the  axis 
at  right  angles  the  number  of 
ships  sunk  during  each  of  those 
weeks.  In  the  third  week,  say,  22 
ships  were  sunk. 

Then  from  the  points  3  of  the 
week's  axis,  and  22  of  the  ships' 
axis,  lines  are  drawn  meeting,  and 
where  they  meet  gives  one  point  on 
the  curve,  and  similarly  other 
points  are  obtained,  and  so  a  com- 
plete diagrammatic  representation 
of  the  sinking  of  ships  by  sub- 
marines, enabling  those  who  have 
drawn  the  curve  to  see  at  once  how 
the  rate  of  sinking  is  rising  or  fall- 
ing, without  remembering  a  mass  of 
figures.  Such  graphical  methods 
are  now  widely  used  in  commerce, 
e.g.,  in  curves,  showing  the  output 
in  various  industries,  fluctuations 
of  wages,  rates  of  exchange,  etc. 


Graph,  indicating  number  of  ships  sunk  in  a  period 
twenty  weeks.     See  text 


GRAPHIC 


3648 


GRAPHOTYPE 


MONDAY  TUFSDAY  WEDNESBAY  THURSDAY  FRIDAY  SATURDAY  SUNDAY 

6aJn.    Noon    6p.m    Mid.     6am.  Noon   6pm.    Mid.     6am.   Noon   6p.m.   Mid.     6ajn    Noon   6p.m.    Mid.     6am.  Noon   6pjn    Mid.     6a.m.  Noon    Bp.m    Mid.    6am  Noon    6p.ru 

70' , ..............; ..MM.MI.MMMIMIMIMMN.IM ,  i  j , .  i  . .  1 1  i .  i  1 1  M  i .  i  ..  i  i  i  i  H  i  I TTTTTTTTTTn  *>* 


•60° 


60' 


50' 


Graph,  showing  variation  of  temperature  from  hoar  to  hour  during  one  week.   The  temperature  is  seen  to  be  steadily  fall- 
ing from  63°  F.  to  45°  F.     See  also  text 


Another  example  of  the  use  of 
graphical  methods  is  shown  in 
the  chart  giving  the  temperature 
during  one  week.  Horizontally, 
at  equal  distances,  are  marked  the 
days  of  the  week,  while  vertically 
appear  temperatures  in  degrees 
Fahrenheit.  The  temperature 
at  noon  on  Monday  is  64°  F., 
and  a  point  is  made  on  the  chart 
where  the  64  line  and  the  Monday 
noon  line  meet.  Similar  points  are 
made  for  the  temperatures  for 
every  six  hours  during  the  week, 
and  these  points  are  all  joined, 
either  by  straight  lines  or  curved 
lines,  showing  the  gradual  increase 
or  fall  of  temperature.  This  chart 
tells  its  own  story  at  once,  that  the 
temperature  on  the  whole  during 
the  week  has  been  steadily  falling. 
The  line  joining  the  various  points 
on  such  a  graph,  whether  it  is 
straight  or  not,  is  called  the  curve 
through  the  points. 

In  mathematics,  graphical 
methods  are  very  largely  used  for 
the  solution  of  algebraical  and 
other  problems.  In  algebra  one 
function  y  is  often  expressed  in 
terms  of  another  function  x,  so 
that  as  x  varies  in  value,  so  does  y. 
Now  if  along  the  two  axes  of  re- 
ference are  measured  distances  x 
and  y,  which  correspond  to  one 
another,  a  curve  representing  the 
equation  y=F  (x)  may  be  drawn. 
By  this  method  an  approximate  so- 
lution may  be  obtained  to  any  equa- 
tion, however  complicated,  where 
it  is  impossible  to  obtain  a  solution 
by  any  other  method.  See  Baro- 
graph ;  Coordinates ;  Geometry. 

Graphic,  THE.  London  weekly 
illustrated  newspaper.  It  was 
started  Dec.  4,  1869,  by  W.  L. 
Thomas,  a  feature  being  acceptance 
of  drawings  whatever  the  method 
of  the  artists  contributing  them, 
the  illustrations  previously  in 
vogue  being  the  work  only  of 
draughtsmen  on  wood. 


On  the  art  side  The  Graphic  has 
numbered  on  its  staff  Henry  Woods, 
Luke  Fildes,  Frank  Holl,  H.  Her- 
komer,  E.  J.  Gregory,  James  D. 
Linton,  E.  J.  Poynter,  and  Phil 
May ;  while  its  literary  contributors 
have  included  Edmund  Yates, 
G.  A.  Sala,  Anthony  Trollope, 
Charles  Reade,  Victor  Hugo, 
Wilkie  Collins,  George  Meredith, 
Thomas  Hardy,  William  Black, 
Bret  Harte,  Walter  Besant,  J.  M. 
Barrie,  and  Rudyard  Kipling. 
Sydney  P.  Hall  and  Frederic 
Villiers  did  splendid  work  for  it 
as  war  artists.  J.  M.  Bulloch  was 
appointed  editor  in  1909.  The  con- 
trol of  the  paper,  together  with 
that  of  The  Daily  Graphic  and 
Bystander,  passed  from  H.  R. 
Baines  &  Co.,  Ltd.,  in  Nov.,  1919, 
to  W.  E.  and  J.  G.  Berry. 

Graphic  Statics.  Method  used 
for  obtaining  the  relations  between 
forces,  external  and  internal,  acting 
on  a  body  or  framework  in  engin- 
eering. Forces  are  represented  in 
magnitude  and  direction  by  straight 
lines,  and  by  compounding  them 
together  according  to  the  law  of  the 
polygon  of  forces,  the  forces  in  any 
part  of  a  framework  may  quickly 
be  obtained.  The  representation 
of  these  forces  is  called  the  stress 
diagram,  and  from  it  can  be  ob- 
tained by  direct  measurement  the 
force  in  any  particular  member  of  a 
structure,  as  a  bridge.  See  Graphical 
Statics,  L.  Cremona,  Eng.  trans. 
L.  H.  Beare,  1913;  Theory  of 
Structures,  A.  Morley,  1918. 

Graphite  OR  BLACK  LEAD. 
Mineral  form  of  carbon,  soft,  grey 
or  black  in  colour,  with  greasy 
touch.  Scheele,  in  1779,  showed 
the  true  nature  of  graphite,  which 
when  pure  is  entirely  converted 
into  carbonic  acid  gas  just  as  the 
diamond.  It  occurs  in  nature  in 
various  parts  of  the  world.  The 
deposits  at  Borrowdale  in  Cumber- 
land were  for  many  years  the  chief 


source  of  the  graphite  used  for 
black-lead  pencils.  Large  quantities 
are  found  in  Ceylon  and  the  United 
States  of  America. 

For  making  pencils,  graphite  was 
originally  employed  in  the  form  of 
slips  cut  from  blocks  of  graphite, 
but  to  use  up  the  graphite  powder 
obtained  as  a  by-product  other 
methods  were  adopted.  Finely 
sifted  graphite  is  blended  with 
other  substances  according  to  the 
hardness  of  the  pencil  required. 

Plumbago  crucibles  are  made 
largely  from  Ceylon  graphite  mixed 
with  Stourbridge  clay.  The  mass  is 
worked  up  with  water,  and  then 
left  to  mature  for  some  weeks,  after 
which  the  crucibles  are  shaped  by 
the  method  familiar  to  potters,  and 
afterwards  dried  arid  fired.  The 
advantage  of  plumbago  crucibles 
in  metallurgical  operations  is  that 
they  stand  changes  of  temperature 
without  cracking,  and  do  not 
absorb  any  of  the  metal  which  is 
melted  in  them.  The  variety  of 
graphite  known  as  gas  carbon  is 
deposited  in  the  upper  parts  of 
the  retorts  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  coal  gas  and  in  blast-furnaces. 
Very  hard,  it  is  employed  for 
making  carbons  for  the  arc  electric 
light  and  as  electrodes  in  batteries. 

The  use  of  graphite  as  a  stove- 
polish  is  familiar.  Ceylon  graphite 
is  mixed  with  lamp-black  into  a 
paste  by  means  of  vinegar  and  tur- 
pentine; the  lamp-black  neutral- 
ises the  silvery  lustre  which  is  pro- 
duced by  Ceylon  black-lead  alone. 
See  Carbon. 

Graphotype  (Gr.  graphein,  to 
write;  typos,  impression).  Process 
of  making  drawings  in  the  form  of 
a  relief  from  which  stereotypes  may 
be  taken.  The  drawing  was  done 
on  the  surface  of  compressed  chalk 
with  a  special  ink,  the  chalk  after- 
wards being  brushed  away,  leaving 
the  lines  of  the  design  in  relief. 
The  process  is  now  obsolete. 


GRAPNEL 

Grapnel.'  -  Small  anchor  with 
four  or  five  or  more  flukes.  It  is  not 
used  where  any  great  strength  is 
required  for  holding  purposes,  but 
for  anchoring  small  boats,  enabling 
balloons  to  get  a  grip  of  the  Around, 
etc.  See  Anchor. 

Grappa.  Mt.  of  Italy,  the  high- 
est in  a  range  between  the  valleys 
of  the  Brenta  and  the  Piave.  The 
Grappa  region  was  prominent  in 
the  Great  War,  and  fighting  took 
place  here  by  which  the  Italians 
stayed  the  Austro-German  inva- 
sion after  the  Caporetto  disaster, 
Oct.,  1917.  This  front  was  again  in- 
volved in  fighting  in  June,  1918, 
during  the  Austrians'  last  offensive. 
The  enemy  were  cleared' from  this 
sector  towards  the  end  of  Oct., 
1918.  See  Asiago  Plateau,  Battles 
of  ;  Monte  Grappa,  Battles  of. 

Grapple-plant  (Harpagophy- 
tum  procumbens).  Prostrate  peren- 
nial herb  of  the  natural  order  Pe- 


Grapple-plant.    Leaves,  flower,  and 
fruit  of  the  S.  African  herb 

dalineae.  A  native  of  S.  Africa,  the 
leaves  are  hand-shaped,  the  purple 
flowers  funnel-shaped.  The  large 
fruits  are  armed  with  strong,  sharp 
hooks  which  cling  to  the  skins  of 
animals,  and  so  get  transported 
from  place  to  place,  the  numerous 
angular  seeds  being  shaken  out  by 
the  movements  of  their  carriers. 
When  they  come  in  contact  with 
the  lips  of  browsing  animals  they 
cause  intolerable  pain.  Dr.  Living- 
stone has  told  how  an  ox  will  stand 
and  roar  with  the  pain  and  sense  of 
helplessness  inflicted  by  these  fruits 
attached  to  its  mouth,  which  also 
prevent  its  feeding.  ,.  , 

Graptolitoidea  (Gr.  graptos, 
lettered  ;  lithos,  stone  ;  eidos,  form, 
likeness).  Extinct  class  of  low 
organisms,  remains  of  which  are 
found  in  early  sedimentary  rocks. 
They  are  often  to  be  seen  on  slates, 
forming  a  fossilised  film,  and  look- 
ing rather  like  a  flattened  branch 
of  seaweed  or  seafirs.  These  organ- 
isms were  tiny  marine  animals 
belonging  to  the  order  Hydrozoa. 

Gras,  F£LIX  (1844-1901).  Pro- 
vencal novelist  and  poet.  He  was 
bom  May  3,  1844,  at  Malemort, 


Felix  Gras, 
French  author 


3649 

Vaucluse.       His     first     work,    Li 
Carbounie,  an  epic  of  the  moun- 
tains, won  him  an  immediate  posi- 
tion      among  _ 
the      younger    I 
felibres,  an  as- 
sociation   for 

the  presenta-  |  fe  *%$&:&': 
tion  of  Pro-  I 
ven?al  Ian-  i 
g  u  a  g  e  and 
literature 
started  twen- 
ty years  earlier 
byRoumanille 
and  Mistral. 
This  was  followed,  in  1882,  by  To- 
loza,  an  epic  dealing  with  Simon  de 
Montfort  and  the  persecution  of  the 
Albigenses.  Then  came  Lou  Rou- 
mancero  Proven9al,  a  collection  of 
traditions  of  the  country  in  ballad 
form,  1887  ;  and  Li  Papalino,  tales 
in  prose  dealing  with  olden  days  of 
the  popes  at  Avignon,  1891.  Later 
he  wrote  three  impressive  novels  of 
the  French  Revolution,  all  of  which 
have  been  translated  into  English 
by  C.  A.  Janvier,  The  Reds  of  the 
Midi,  1896  ;  The  Terror,  1898  ;  and 
The  White  Terror,  1900. 

Graslitz  OR  KKASLICE.  Town  of 
Czecho-Slovakia,  in  Bohemia.  It 
stands  near  the  German  frontier,  20 
m.  N.N.E.  of  Eger.  An  important 
manufacturing  centre,  it  is  noted 
for  its  musical  instruments.  Other 
leading  industries  are  the  manufac- 
ture of  cotton,  lace,  embroidery, 
and  toys.  Pop.  39,216. 

Grasmere.  Lake  and  village  of 
Westmorland,  England.     The  lake 
is  one  mile  long  and  about  ^  mile 
wide.      It    is   beautifully   situated 
in  -  a  valley  in  the  centre  of   the 
Lake  District,  with  the  mountains 
all    around.     The   village,    which 
stands  where  the  Rothay  falls  into 
the  lake,  is  4  m.  from  Ambleside 
and!2fromKeswick.  It  is  noted  for 
its  associations  with  Wordsworth, 
whose  early  residence,  Dove  Cot- 
tage, is  here.     In  it  De   Quincey 
also  lived.    In  the  churchyard  are 
the    tombs    of    Wordsworth    and 
Hartley  Coleridge.         ?,TO., , 
An     annual     fes-    \ 
tival,    called    the 
rushbearing,  takes 
place  here  on  the    t 
Saturday  after  S. 
Oswald's       Day, 
Aug.  5.    The  place 
has  also   an   ath- 
letic    meeting 
every  August.     S. 
Oswald's    Church 
is   partly   a    13th 
century   building. 
Grasmere  is  a  good 
centre  for  visitors 
to    the     Lakes. 
Coaches      and 
motor-vehicles  go 


GRASS 

from  here  to  Keswick,  Coniston, 
and  elsewhere,  and  there  is  boating 
on  the  lake.  See  Lake  District,  The. 

Grass.  Term  strictly  applied  to 
species  of  the  natural  order  Gram- 
irieae,  but  in  farming  language  also 
used  of  clovers  and  other  kinds  of 
herbage  growing  together  in  a  field. 
A  distinction  is  drawn  between 
temporary  grass,  or  ley,  intended  to 
be  ploughed  up  after  a  certain  in- 
terval, and  permanent  grass,  which 
occupies  the  land  continuously, 
either  as  pasture,  which  is  entirely 
devoted  to  grazing,  or  as  meadow, 
that  may  yield  a  hay  crop  every 
year  or  at  regular  intervals.  When 
first  laying  down  land  to  grass, 
careful  cleaning  and  the  prepara- 
tion of  a  fine  seed  bed  are  necessary. 

The  mixture  of  seeds  employed 
varies  according  to  the  object  in 
view.  For  temporary  leys  those 
species  of  grass  and  clover  are 
chosen  which  are  short-lived  but  of 
rapid  growth,  while  perennial  types 
make  up  the  mixtures  employed 
when  permanent  grass  is  to  be  es- 
tablished. For  the  latter  the  exact 
nature  of  the  mixture  will  depend 
on  the  local  soil  and  climate.  Only 
seed  of  the  highest  quality  should 
be  used. 

The  management  of  established 
pastures  requires  considerable 
skill.  At  the  end  of  winter  and  be- 
ginning of  spring  chain-harrowing 
and  rolling  are  beneficial.  By  the 
former  process  dung  is  spread  out, 
molehills  levelled,  and  moss  re- 
moved, while  rolling  consolidates 
the  soil  round  the  roots  and  en- 
courages a  thick  growth  of  herbage. 
Cattle  must  not  be  turned  on  too 
early,  certainly  not  until  late  in 
April ;  sheep  crop  grass  very ' 
closely,  so  that  they  can  get  a  good 
living  after  the  other  kinds  of  stock 
have  had  their  turn.  Pastures  de- 
voted to  fattening  stock  require 
little  artificial  manuring,  but  where 
lime  is  deficient  this  may  be  sup- 
plied, either  in  the  form  of  quick- 
lime or  of  ground  lime.  Poor  pas- 
tures may  require  dressings  of 


Grasmere,  Westmorland.     The  lake  and  village  seen 
from  the  south 

E    S 


GRASS     CLOTH 

potash  or  phosphates,  and  in  the 
latter  case  remarkable  results  have 
been  obtained  from  basic  slag.  ' 

Meadows,  after  being  used  for 
grazing,  require  chain  harrowing 
and  rolling,  and  stones  or  the  like 
should  be  removed  when  a  hay 
crop  is  in  anticipation.  Large 
dressings  of  manure  are  necessary, 
more  especially  if  a  hay  crop 
is  taken  every  year.  Every 
three  or  four  years  farmyard 
manure,  up  to  10  tons  per  acre, 
can  be  applied  with  advantage, 
supplemented  by  a  complete  mix- 
ture of  artificials  in  years 
when  the  meadow  has  not  been 
dunged. 

The  world's  great  natural  grass- 
lands are  known  by  various  names, 
prairies  in  Canada,  steppes  in 
Russia,  pampas  in  S.  America, 
veld  in  S.  Africa,  downs  in  Aiis- 


ttrasse.    liie  South  ot  France  winter  resort,  ;rom  tne  east. 
On  the  hilltop  are  the  Hotel  de  Ville  and  the  Cathedral 

tralia.  On  the  desert  edge  the 
grasslands  degenerate  into  scrub- 
lands ;  on  the  forest  edge  they 
become  parklands  or  savannahs. 

In  Western  Europe  and  in  New 
Zealand  the  natural  vegetation 
should  be  forest,  but  the  trees  have 
been  cleared  and  the  land  devoted 
to  arable  and  pasture.  In  New 
Zealand,  cleared  land  is  sown, 
usually  with  English  grass  seed, 
and  sheep  and  cattle  are  fed  upon 
the  resulting  crop.  Upon  mt. 
ranges  in  medium  latitudes  the 
higher  levels  where  trees  do  not 
grow  usually  become  meadows 
during  the  summer  months. 

These  summer  pastures  are  the 
"  Alps,"  and  are  used  in  Switzer- 
land and  similar  countries  for  the 
summer  feed  of  flocks  and  herds. 
Some  natural  grasslands,  such  as 
the  pampas,  are  sown  with  alfalfa 
or  lucerne,  an  excellent  food  for 
cattle,  which  thrives  especially  in 
a  slightly  alkaline  soil  and  in  a  dry 
climate.  Other  grasslands  are 
gradually  being  turned  to  arable  ; 
the  great  wheatlands  of  N.  America 
are  gradually  obliterating  the  ori- 
ginal prairie.  See  Farm  ;  Pasture ; 
Water  Meadow. 


3650 

Grass  Cloth.  Term  commonly 
applied  to  fine  fabrics  woven  from 
certain  Oriental  plants  which  are 
not  grasses,  especially  to  that 
made  from  China  grass  (Boeh- 
meria  nivea),  which  is  a  nettle-like 
plant.  The  inner  fibres  of  Manilla 
hemp,  a  plant  of  the  banana  family, 
produce  good  grass  cloth,  much 
used  in  Europe  for  articles  of 
dress.  The  cloth  made  from  true 
grasses,  e.g.  esparto,  is  coarse. 

Grasse.    Town  of  France.     In 
the    Alpes-Maritimes    dept.,    it    is 
19  m.  W.S.W.  of  Nice.     On  a  mt. 
slope,  700-1,380  ft,  above  sea  level, 
sheltered  from  the  cold  winds  of  the 
N.    and   open   to    the   S.,   it   is   a 
favourite    winter    resort    and     a 
centre  for  the  manufacture  of  per 
fumes  and  essences,  about  60,000 
acres  being  devoted  to  the  culti- 
vation of  roses  and  orange  flowers. 
The  parishchurch. 
•  in  old  cathedral. 
m|  dates     from     the 
jjjfl    12th -13th     cen 
I^^H    turies ;    the   hotel 
de    ville,    with  a 
12th     century 
tower,     the    hos- 
pital,     and      the 
casino  are  notable 
features,  and  there 
is  a  public  park. 
Queen    Victoria 
stayed      here     in 
1891.  J.H.  Frago- 
nard,  the  painter, 
to  whom  there  is  a 
statue,  was  a  na- 
tive.   Pop.  19,700. 
Grasses.   Name  loosely  applied 
to  many  plants  of  diverse  nature, 
but  more  correctly  indicating  those 
of    the    natural    order    Gramineae 
(q.v.).      Although   both  in  genera 
and  species  they  are  outnumbered 
by    the     orchids,     in     individuals 
grasses  predominate  over  all  other 
green  vegetation.     When  the  far- 
mer speaks  of  grass  he  is  referring 
to  all  the  fodder  plants  that  con- 
stitute   the    pasture    and    all    the 
meadow  plants  that  will  convert 
into  hay.     The  crops  of  his  corn- 
fields,  whether   wheat,  barley,  or 
oats,  he  does  not  refer  to  as  grass, 
though  they,  as  well  as  the  sugar- 
cane and  bamboos  of  the  tropics, 
are  equally  grasses.      These  grain- 
bearing    grasses,    including    maize 
and  rice,  constitute  the  staple  food 
of    the    human    race,    while     the 
fodder    grasses    supply    indirectly 
the  greater  part  of  animal  diet  of 
man.     Their  great  importance    is 
due  to  the  richness  of  their  seeds 
in  the  matter  of  starch  and  the  high 
percentage    of    protein.       Certain 
grasses,     such    as    esparto,    yield 
fibres  that  are  of  value  in  the  mak- 
ing of  paper  and  cordage.    Grasses 
are  found  in  nearly  every  part  of 


GRASSMARKET 

the  world  where  there  is  a  little 
soil,  from  the  tropics  to  the  arctic 
regions,  and  from  high-waiter  mark 
up  to  the  limits  of  vegetation  on 
the  mountains. 

Grasshopper.  Orthopterous 
(straight-winged)  insects  of  the 
Locustidae  and  Acridiiclae  famili'ps. 


Grasshopper,      u  ea,    r^ree.,    ,,rass- 
hopper,  Locusta  viridissima.  Above. 

Meconema  thalassinum 

Remarkable  for  their  long  hind  legs 
and  jumping  powers,  they  are 
common  in  fields  during  summer. 
They  vary  in  colour  from  green  to 
brown,  and  the  species  vary  much 
in  size.  The  Locustidae  are  usually 
green  in  colour,  with  long  antennae 
and  an  ovipositor  in  the  female. 
The  Acridiidae  have  short  antennae 
and  no  ovipositor. 

Locusts  do  not  belong  to  the 
Locustidae  but  to  the  Acridiidae. 
The  familiar  chirp  is  produced  in 
the  former  family  by  rubbing  the 
wings  together,  and  in  the  latter  by 
drawing  the  edge  of  the  wing  along 
the  inner  side  of  the  femur.  Most 
of  the  species  feed  upon  plants, 
but  a  few  eat  caterpillars  and  small 
insects.  See  Locust. 

Grassmann's  Law.  In  philo- 
logy, name  given  to  the  explanation 
of  certain  exceptions  to  the  law  of 
consonantal  interchange  known  as 
Grimm's  Law.  It  deals  with  the 
aspirated  mutes  (gh,  kh,  dh,  th,  bh, 
ph)  and  lays  down  the  principle 
that,  when  an  original  Indo- 
European  root  began  and  ended 
with  an  aspirate,  only  one  was 
allowed  to  stand  in  Sanskrit  and 
Greek,  e.g.  Skt.  bhavami,  Gr.  phuo, 
I  become,  but  babhuva,  pephulca, 
I  became.  See  Philology ;  Phonetics. 

Grassmarket.  Thoroughfare 
of  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  between 
West  Port  and  the  Cowgate.  A 
weekly  market  has  been  held  here 
since  1477.  A  stone  cross  marks 
the  site  of  the  ancient  gallows 
where  many  of  the  Covenanters 
were  executed.  During  the  riots 


i.  Holcus  mollis.    2.  Alopecurus  pratensis.    3.  A.  ovatus. 

4.  Aramophila  arundinacea.  5.  Phleum  pratense.  6.   Nar- 

dus  stricta.    7.  Calamagrostis  stricta.    8.  Anthoxanthum 

mollis.     17.  Bromus  diandrus. 

GRASSES    FOUND    IN    MEADOW    AND    MOORLAND    OF    GREAT    BRITAIN 

Specially  drawn  for  Harmsworth's  Universal  Encyclopedia  by  Eslella  Harbord 


odoratum.     9.  Aira  caespitosa.     10.  Triodia  decumbens. 
ii.  Cynosurus  cristatus.  12.  C.  echinatus.       13.  Festuca 
elatior.    14.  Briza  media.    15.  Poa  pratensis.    1 6.  Bromus 
1 8.  Lolium  multiflorum 


GRASS  OF  PARNASSUS 


3652 


GRATTAN 


of  1736,  Captain  Porteous  was 
dragged  here  from  the  Tolbooth 
and  hanged  from  a  dyer's  pole. 
See  Edinburgh. 

Grass  of  Parnassus  (Parnas- 
sia  palustris).  Perennial  herb  of 
the  natural  order  Saxifragaceae. 
It  is  a  native 
of  Europe,  N. 
Africa,  N.  and 
W.  Asia,  and 
N.  America.  It 
is  a  bog  plant 
with  1  o  n  g- 
stalked  heart- 
shaped  leaves, 
and  large  soli- 
tary white 
flowers  on  tall 
stems.  The  pe- 
tals are  thick 
and  veined. 
The  large 
ovary  bears 
four  stigmas. 
Five  of  the  ten 
stamens  have  been  transformed 
into  scales  bearing  nectar  glands, 
and  fringed  with  hairs  ending  in 
yellow  knobs. 

Grass  Snake  (Tropidonot.us 
natrix).  One  of  the  commonest 
non-poisonous  snakes  of  Europe, 


lia.    They  are  also  known  as  black- 
boy  and  grass  gum-tree.  They  have 


:3, 


Grass  of  Parnassus, 
leaves  and  flowers 


Grass  Snake.     Specimen  of  the  harmless  snake  common 
in  England 


part  of  Asia,  N.  Africa,  and  Eng- 
land, being  unknown  in  Scotland 
and  Ireland.  Greenish-grey  to 
brown  above,  with  black  bands, 
giving  it  the  alternative  name  of 
ringed  snake,  it  is  black  and  white 
underneath.  It  has  two  white  or 
yellowish-white  spots  behind  its 
head  which  distinguish  it  some 
distance  away. 

Growing  to  a  length  of*  three  to 
four  feet,  the  grass  snake  feeds 
chiefly  on  frogs,  toads,  and  fish,  and 
is  usually  found  in  damp  places. 
The  eggs,  varying  from  15  to  30, 
the  size  of  a  dove's  egg,  are  laid  in 
rich  damp  mould,  in  manure  heaps 
and  similar  places.  See  Snake  ; 
Water  Snake  ;  consult  also  Cam- 
bridge Natural  History,  vol.  vii, 
London,  1901. 

Grass  Tree  (Xanthorrhoea). 
Genus  of  perennials  of  the  natural 
order  Juncaceae,  natives  of  Austra- 


Grass  Tree.      The  Australian  tree 

with  long  flower-stems,  a  head  of 

which  is  shown  inset 

short,   thick  trunks  like  those   of 
palms,  rough  with  the  bases  of  for- 
mer leaves,  consolidated  by  red  or 
yellow  gum  produced  by  the  plant. 
The  long,  wiry  leaves  are  like  those 
of  the  rushes,  and  form  a  great 
tuft.   The  central  flower-stem  may 
be  15  ft.  to  20  ft.  long,  its  upper  end 
a  dense  spike  of  small  flowers  like 
that    of    the   reed-mace    (Typha). 
X.  arborea,  the  Botany  Bay  gum, 
and  X.  hast  His,  when  denuded  of 
leaves,    have  fre- 
'  1  quently  been 
\   mis  taken"  for  men 
}    (black-boys). 
<   Cattle  eat  the 
leaves,  and  the 
natives     the 
middle  of  the  top 
of  the  stem.   The 
fragrant  resin 
exuded  is  known 
to    commerce   as 
Botany  Bay  resin 
and  black-boy 
gum. 

Grass -wrack 
(Zostera  marina). 
Perennial  marine  plant  of  the 
natural  order  Naiadaceae.  It  is  a 
native  of  most  temperate  coasts, 
where  it  grows  submerged  about 
low -water.  Its  slender,  grass- 
like,  bright  green  leaves  are  "from 
1  ft.  to  3  ft.  Ions.  The  green  flowers 

rv 


Grass-wrack.    Leaves  and  roots  of  the 
marine  plant.     Inset,  a  flower-head 


are  devoid  of  sepals  or  petals,  con- 
sisting only  of  an  ovary  and  one  or 
two  anthers.  The  dried  leaves  are 
used  for  packing,  and  for  stuffing 
upholstery,  under  the  name  of 
Ulvamarina. 

Grate  (Lat.  cratis,  hurdle). 
Framework  comprising  metal  bars 
with  air  spaces  between  them,  for 
retaining  fuel  for  heating  rooms, 
etc.  The  term  is  also  used  for  the 
floor  of  a  firebox  or  furnace.  It  has 
spaced  bars  for  supporting  fuel,  and 
through  them  air  is  supplied  to 
support  combustion.  Steam  gen- 
erators are  commonly  fitted  with 
moving  grates,  which  propel  the 
fuel  along  firebars,  or  carry  it  into 
a  furnace,  to  ensure  complete  com- 
bustion. See  Furnace  ;  Generator. 

Gratian  (A.D.  359-383).  Roman 
emperor.  In  375  he  succeeded  his 
father,  Valentinian  I,  with  whom 
he  had  already  been  associated  in 
the  government  of  the  western 
empire  since  367,  but  a  section  of 
the  army  insisted  on  his  four-year- 
old  half-brother,  Valentinian  II, 
sharing  the  throne.  Gratian  was  an 
unwarlike  youth,  quite  unfitted 
to  deal  with  the  barbarian  peril. 
Pressed  from  the  east  by  the  Huns, 
the  Goths  crossed  the  north-eastern 
frontier,  and  in  378  won  the  battle 
of  Adrianople  (q.v. ). 

Valens,  the  emperor  of  the  east, 
having  fallen  in  the  battle,  Gratian 
invited  Theodosius  I  to  succeed 
him.  Both  rulers  were  under  the 
domination  of  S.  Ambrose,  which 
led  to  the  prohibition,  enforced- 
with  great  severity,  of  pagan  and 
heretical  worship  throughout  the 
empire.  In  383  Maximus  was  pro- 
claimed emperor  by  the  troops  in 
Britain,  and  Gratian  was  murdered 
by  his  own  soldiery. 

Gratian  OR  GRATIANUS,  FRAN- 
ciscus.  Medieval  jurist.  Born  in 
Italy  about  1100,  he  entered  a 
Benedictine  monastery,  and  as  a 
monk  spent  his  life.  He  is  known 
solely  for  his  legal  work,  the  De- 
cretum  Gratiani,  regarded  as  the 
foundation  of  canon  law.  He 
died  about  11 50,  and,  according  to 
some  accounts,  was  then  bishop  of 
Chiusi.  See  Canon  Law. 

Grattan,  HENRY  (1746-1820). 
Irish  orator  and  statesman.  Born 
in  Dublin,  July  3, 1746,  he  was  edu- 
cated  pri- 
vately  and  at 
Trinity  C  o  1- 
lece,  Dublin. 
After  gradu- 
ating, he  was 
admitted  a 
student  of  the 
Middle  Tem- 
ple, London, 
but  spent 
most  of  his 

time  listening        Aflerf.Wheatlev, 


GRATUITY 


3653 


GRAVELINES 


to  speeches  in  the  Houses  of  Par- 
liament and  practising  oratory. 
In  1772  he  was  called  to  the  Jrish 
bar,  and  in  1775  was  nominated 
to  represent  Charlemont  in  the 
Irish  Parliament  by  the  owner 
of  the  borough,  Lord  Charle- 
mont. 

Grattan  soon  became  the  leader 
of  the  popular  or  patriot  party. 
Supported  by  the  Irish  volunteers, 
he  procured,  in  1782,  the  passing  of 
legislation  which  made  the  Irish 
Parliament  independent.  A  further 
rupture  between  Grattan  and  Flood 
(q.v. )  then  occurred,  the  former 
believing  that  England  had  given 
sufficient  evidence  of  her  recog- 
nition of  Irish  legislative  in- 
dependence, and  that  there  was 
no  longer  a  need  for  the  reten- 
tion of  the  Volunteers,  the  latter 
clamouring  for  a  fuller  and  more 
complete  renunciation  of  English 
authority. 

Grattan  won,  but  his  success, 
coupled  with  his  failure  to  procure 
Catholic  emancipation,  saw  the 
beginning  of  the  decline  of  his 
popularity.  He  continued,  how- 
ever, with  unabated  vigour,  to 
speak  for  the  popular  cause,  at- 
tacking the  pension  list,  the  sale  of 
peerages,  and  the  purchase  of  seats 
in  the  House  of  Commons,  pleading 
for  the  amelioration  of  the  lot  of 
the  peasants,  and  for  commercial 
equality  between  England  and  Ire- 
land, and  opposing  vehemently  the 
constant  suggestions  of  a  Union. 
In  1794  he  supported  the  Govern- 
ment on  the  question  of  the  war 
with  France,  but  in  1797  protested 
strongly  against  General  Lake's 
proclamation  of  martial  law  for 
Ulster. 

Though  so  ardently  devoted  to 
the  side  of  liberty,  Grattan  showed 
no  sympathy  with  the  movement 
of  the  United  Irishmen,  and  in 
1798,  when  their  rebellion  broke 
out,  he  went  over  to  England  and 
remained  there  until  the  rising  was 
at  an  end.  From  1806  until  his 
death  he  represented  Malton  and 
Dublin  in  the  British  Parliament, 
his  chief  interests  being  to  secure 
emancipation  for  Roman  Catholics. 
He  died  in  London,  June  4,  1820- 
and  was  buried  in  Westminster 
Abbey.  Grattan  was  a  man  of  fine 
character,  disinterested  and  pat- 
riotic, but  his  reputation  rests 
chiefly  upon  his  oratory,  to  which 
the  highest  tributes  were  paid  by 
contemporaries.  See  Life,  by  his 
son,  Henry,  1839-46  ;  Leaders  of 
Public  Opinion  in  Ireland,  \V.  E. 
H.  Lecky,  1903. 

Gratuity  (late  Lat.  gratuitas,  a 
free  gift).  Sum  of  money  granted 
by  the  Government  to  British  sol- 
diers for  services  rendered  on  active 
service.  It  may  be  also  granted  as 


compensation  for  wounds  received, 
jn  addition  to  any  pension  which 
may  subsequently  be  granted  in 
respect  of  the  wound,  and  in  lieu 
of  a  pension  in  respect  of  any 
disability  contracted  on  active 
service.  The  first  type  of  gratuity 
is  popularly  designated  "  blood 
money."  Gratuities  for  services 
rendered  and  wounds  received 
vary  according  to  the  rank  of 
the  recipient. 

A  gratuity  in  lieu  of  pension  in 
respect  of  disability  is  granted  at 
the  discretion  of  the  ministry  of 


Graun,  KAEL  HEINRICH  (1701- 
59).  German  composer.  Born  at 
Wahrenbriick,  in  Prussian  Saxony, 
May  7, 1701,  he  began  his  career  in 
opera  at  Dresden.  About  1735  he 
made  the  acquaintance  of  Frederick 
the  Great,  then  crown  prince,  and 
was  attached  to  his  court  until  his 
death  in  Berlin,  Aug.  9,  1759.  For 
his  patron  he  composed  a  large 
number  of  operas  and  cantatas  and 
a  Te  Deum  to  celebrate  the  battle 
of  Prague.  He  is  best  known  by 
his  cantata,  The  Death  of  Jesus, 
which  is  regularly  performed 


pensions  when  it  is  considered  that     throughout  Germany  during  Pas 
it  more  adequately  meets  the  case, 
usually  when  the  disability  is  as- 
sessed at  less  than  20  p.c.,  but  a 
pensioner  who  prefers  a  lump  sum 

may  apply  to  be  granted  a  gratuity         Grave.     Name  for  a  place  of 
in  lieu  of  his  existing  pension.     The     burial. 


sion  Week. 

Grauwacke.  Alternative  spell- 
ing of  the  name  of  the  coarse  sand- 
stone Greywacke  (q.v. ). 


sting  pensi 
word  is  also  used  in  a  more  general 
sense  for  any  payment  that  is  not 
a  legal  obligation,  bonuses  and  the 
like.  See  Bonus. 

Grau,  MIGUEL  (1834-79).  Peru- 
vian admiral.  A  naval  officer  and  a 
member  of  the  Peruvian  Congress, 
Grau  was  director  of  the  naval  aca- 
demy just  before  the  war  with 
Chile  began  in  1879.  Thereupon  he 
took  command  of  a  fleet,  and  with 
his  battleship,  the  Huascar,  fought 
two  Chilean  ships  off  Point  Anga- 
mos,  Oct.  8,  1879.  In  this  en- 
counter Grau  was  killed  by  the 
explosion  of  a  shell. 

Graudenz  on  GRUDZIAZ.  Town 
of  Poland.  Formerly  a  strongly 
fortified  German  town  in  W. 


Graudenz,  Poland.    The  old  citadel  on  the  Schlossberg, 
overlooking  the  Vistula 


Prussia,  it  lies  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Vistula,  45  m.  N.  of  Thorn, 
and  is  commanded  by  a  citadel 
built  by  Frederick  the  Great.  The 
principal  manufactures  include 
machinery,  flour,  and  tobacco. 
Graudenz  fell  to  Poland  in  14G6, 
and  to  Prussia  in  1772.  During  the 
early  stages  of  the  Great  War  it 
was  threatened  by  the  Russians  in 
their  advance  on  the  Vistula,  but 
was  saved  by  troops  hastily  sent 
across  Germany  from  the  W.  front. 
Pop.  40,325. 


It  comes  from  an  Anglo- 
Saxon  word,  and  from  it  have 
come  the  compounds  gravestone, 
graveyard,  gravedigger,  etc.  See 
Archaeology ;  Burial  Customs ; 
Burial  Laws  ;  War  Graves. 

Grave.  In  music,  slow  tempo, 
massive  in  character.  Handel  uses 
the  term  at  the  opening  of  The 
Messiah,  and  for  the  short  solid 
double  choruses  in  Israel  in  Egypt 
where  great  solemnity  of  delivery 
is  required.  See  Musical  Terms. 

Gravel.  Accumulation  of  worn 
rock  fragments,  formed  by  the 
action  of  the  sea,  by  rivers,  or  by 
glaciers.  The  constituents  of 
gravel,  which  may  be  formed  from 
nearly  every  type  of  rock,  vary 
in  size  from  a  walnut  to  a  pea. 
Larger  fragments 
1  are  known  as 
I  shingle,  smaller  as 
I  sand.  Byinfiltra- 
1  tion  of  silica,  lime, 
.,^^.tts-*a  £  or  ir°n  oxides  the 
1  gravel  fragments 
may  become 
cemented  together 
and  are  known  as 
conglomerate 
(q.v.).  The  chief 
use  of  gravel  is  for 
the  construction 
of  roads  and 
paths,  those  Avhich 
are  rich  in  oxide  of 
iron  being  pre- 
ferred for  "their 
Shell  gravel,  as  its 
name  implies,  consists  chiefly  of 
shell  fragments,  and  is  extensively 
used  for  pathways.  Artificial 
gravels  are  used  in  road-making 
on  account  of  the  scarcity  of  good 
binding  natural  gravel,  and  are 
made  by  crushing  granite,  quartz, 
slag,  etc.,  to  the  required  size. 
See  Roads. 

Gravelines.  Town  and  seaport 
of  France,  in  the  dept.  of  Nord. 
It  stands  on  the  Aa,  about  1  m. 
from  its  mouth,  and  15  m.  from 


warm  colour. 


GRAVEL.INES 


3654 


Dunkirk.  The  port  has  a  harbour 
on  the  river,  but  the  accumulation 
of  sand  therein  is  a  drawback  to  it. 
It  is  a  fishing  centre,  many  of  the 
fisherfolk  living  in  Les  Huttes,  a 
part  of  the  town  almost  reserved 
for  them,  and  has  a  trade  in  timber, 
coal,  etc.  There  are  several  other 
industries,  including  sugar  refining, 
while  fish  and  food  preserving  are 
carried  on.  Gravelines  retains 
its  old  walls.  About  1250  a  count 
of  Flanders  canalised  the  river  Aa, 
and  here  the  town  grew  up. 

Gravelines,  BATTLE  OF.  Fought 
July  13,  1558,  between  the  French 
on  the  one  side  and  the  Spaniards 
and  English  on  the  other.  Philip  II 
of  Spain  persuaded  his  wife  Mary 
to  join  him  in  making  war  on 
France  in  1557.  On  July  13,  1558, 
two  small  armies  met  outside 
Gravelines,  the  Spanish  having 
English  help  in  the  shape  of  a  fleet, 
under  Lord  Clinton,  cruising  along 
the  coast.  The  French  were 
charged  by  the  Flemish  cavalry 
under  the  count  of  Egmont,  while 
the  guns  of  the  ships  assisted  in 
their  discomfiture.  The  result  was 
their  defeat  and  the  consequent 
treaty  of  Cateau  Cambresis. 

Gravelotte.  Village  of  Lorraine, 
now  part  of  France.  It  is  about  6 
m.  due  W.  of  Metz,  and  is  solely 
important  because  of  the  battle 
fought  here  in  Aug.,  1870,  during 
the  Franco-Prussian  War.  Near 
the  village  is  a  large  cemetery, 
while  in  1905  the  Germans  erected 
here  a  colonnade  in  which  are 
busts  of  their  leaders  in  the  war 
and  memorials  of  the  fallen.  See 
Metz,  Campaign  of. 

Gravelotte,  BATTLE  OF.  Fought 
Aug.  18,  1870,  in  the  Franco-Prus- 
sian War.  There  were  actually 
engaged  100,000  French,  under 
Bazaine,  and  150,000  Germans  of 
the  first  and  second  armies  directed 
by  Von  Moltke.  The  fight  resulted 
in  Bazaine  being  driven  back  east- 
ward into  Metz,  when  he  desired 
to  move  west  on  Verdun.  It  was  a 
strategical  victory  for  the  Germans, 
who,  by  their  superior  numbers, 
were  able  to  turn  the  French  right 
flank,  but  they  lost  over  20,000 
killed  and  wounded,  while  the 
French  admitted  a  loss  of  only 
13,000.  The  battle  was  part  of  the 
great  campaign  around  Metz  (q.v.). 

Gravenstafel.  Hill  of  Belgium, 
in  the  prov.  of  W.  Flanders,  1£  m. 
N.W.  of  Broodseinde.  It  was 
prominent  in  the  fighting  in  the 
Ypres  salient  in  the  Great  War.  • 
During  the  second  battle  of  Ypres, 
April,  1915,  Canadian  and  North- 
umbrian troops  made  an  heroic 
stand  at  Gravenstafel.  It  was  cap- 
tured by  the  New  Zealand  division, 
Oct.  4,  1917,  in  the  third  battle  of 
Ypres.  See  Ypres,  Battles  of. 


Graves.  Name  of  wine  produced 
in  the  Graves  district  of  Gironde, 
France.  It  is  generally  dry,  light, 
and  more  alcoholised  than  claret, 
with  a  distinctive  flavour  imparted 
by  the  gravelly  soil.  Graves  is 
either  white  or  red,  but  in  England 
the  name  is  usually  associated  with 
the  white  variety.  Pron.  Grahv. 

Graves,  THOMAS  GRAVES,  BARON 
(c.  1725-1802).    British  sailor.    He 
entered  the  navy  when  very  young, 
served    in    the 
expedition    to 
Cartagena 
(1741),  and  was 
present   at  the 
battle  off  Tou- 
lon (1744).     In 
1758,  after  ser- 
vice in    Africa 
and  the  English 
1st  Baron  Graves,      Channel,   he 
British  sailor          {ought  under 
After  Nonhcoie          Rodney  at  the 
bombardment  of  Havre  de  Grace. 
Promoted  rear-admiral  in  1779,  in 
1780    he   sailed   to    America    and 
in   1781  took  part  in  the  action  of 
the  Chesapeake,  and  became  com- 
mander-in-chief  of  the  station. 

His  actions,  especially  his  failure 
to  relieve  Cornwallis  when  besieged 
at  York,  caused  much  discussion, 
but  he  was  promoted  vice-admiral 
in  1787  and  in  1788  was  made 
commander-in-chief  of  Plymouth. 
In  1794  he  became  admiral,  and  for 
his  conduct  in  the  battle  of  June  1 
was  made  an  Irish  peer  arid  granted 
a  pension  of  £1,000.  He  died 
Feb.  9,  1802. 

Graves,  ALFRED  PERCEVAL  (b. 
1840).  Irish  author.  Born  in 
Dublin,  July  22,  1846,  a  son  of  the 
bishop  of  Lim- 
erick,  after 
graduating  a  t 
Dublin  Uni- 
versity, he  en- 
tered the  home 
office,  after- 
wards becom- 
ing an  inspec- 
tor of  schools. 
He  began  his  A.  Perceval  Graves, 
literary  career  Irish  author 

at    the    age  Eiiioit&FrV^ 

of  14,  with  a  Christmas  Ode  in  a 
Liverpool  paper.  Father  O'Flynn, 
the  poem  by  which  he  was  first 
known,  was  written  in  1872  and 
appeared  in  The  Spectator,  but 
was  not  published  as  a  song  until 
1882,  when  it  came  out  in  a  collec- 
tion of  Irish  songs,  arranged  to 
Graves' s  words,  entitled  Songs  of 
Old  Ireland.  Among  other  works 
by  him  are  Songs  of  Irish  Wit  and 
Humour  and  The  Irish  Song  Book, 
1894.  Graves  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  founding  of  the  Irish 
Literary  Society,  of  which  he  was 
twice  president. 


Charles  Graves, 
British  author 


Graves,  CHARLES  LARCOM  (b. 
1856).  Author  and  journalist.  Son 
of  the  bishop  of  Limerick,  he  was 
born  Dec.  15, 
1856,  and  edu- 
cated at  Marl- 
borough  and 
Christ  Church, 
Oxford.  En- 
gaged in  tutor- 
i  a  1  w  o r  k  in 
Manchester, 
1880-84,  he  be- 
came a  journal- 
ist in  London, 

Elliott  &  Fry  &  n  ^    wag     a  g. 

sistant  editor  of  The  Spectator, 
1899-1917.  He  joined  the  staff 
of  Punch  in  1902.  He  is  author 
of  The  Life  and  Letters  of  Sir 
George  Grove,  1903 ;  Life  and 
Letters  of  Alexander  Macmillan, 
1910  ;  Mr.  Punch's  History  of  the 
Great  War,  1919  ;  and  numerous 
works  in  a  lighter  vein,  including 
The  Blarney  Ballads,  1889  ;  The 
Hawarden  Horace,  1894-96;  The 
Diversions  of  a  Music  Lover,  1904  ; 
Humours  of  the  Fray,  1907  ;  and 
(with  E.  V.  Lucas)  Wisdom  While 
You  Wait,  Signs  of  the  Times,  and 
Hustled  History. 

Graves,  CLOTILDE  INEZ  MARY 
(b.  1864).  Irish  novelist  and  play- 
wright. Born  at  Buttevant,  co. 
Cork,  June  3, 
1864,  she  stud- 
ied art,  and 
then  turning  to 
the  drama  and 
literature  won 
popularity  un- 
der the  name 
of  Richard 
Dehan,inl910, 
with  The  Dop 
Doctor,  a  real- 
istic story  of 
life  in  S.  Africa  during  the  Boer 
War.  This  success  was  followed 
up  by  a  number  of  capital  stories, 
including  Between  Two  Thieves, 
1912;  The  Man  of  Iron  (Bismarck), 
1914  ;  and  Earth  to  Earth,  1916. 
Between  1887  and  1907  she  wrote 
a  number  of  plays,  including 
Katherine  Kavanagh,  A  Mother  of 
Three,  and  St.  Martin's  Summer. 

Graves,  SIR  THOMAS  (c.  1747- 
1814).   British  sailor.   Entering  the 


Clotilde  I.  M. Graves, 
Irish  novelist 


navy,     he    served 


Sir  Thomas  Graves, 
British  sailor 

After  Norlhcote 


in  the  Seven 
Years'  War, 
and  in  1773 
sailed  to  the 
Arctic  seas 
under  Captf  in 
Phipps.  The 
following  year 
he  went  to 
America, 
where  he  was 
employed  in 
the  preven- 
tion of  smug- 


3655 


GRAVITATION 


welcomed  here  on 
his  accession  to 
the  throne,  and 
Edward  VII, 
when  prince  of 
Wales,landed 
here  with  his 
young  bride, 
Alexandra. 
Gravesend's  first 
charter  is  dated 
1562.  In  the  parish 
church  of  S. 
George  are  mem- 
orials  of  the 


Gravesend  gives  its  name  to  a  co. 
div.  returning  one  member  to  Par- 
liament. Market  day,  Sat.  Pop. 
of  mun.  bor.  28,115. 

Gravimetric  Analysis.  Method 
of  obtaining  the  constituents  of  any 
substance  by  weighing,  as  distinct 
from  volumetric  analysis,  which 
obtains  them  by  consideration  of 
the  cubical  contents. 

Gravina.  City  of  Italy,  in  the 
prov.  of  Bari.  It  stands  on  an 
eminence  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Gravina,  29  m.  direct  and  63  m.  by 
rlv.  S.W.  of  Bari.  Over  1,000  ft 


gling.  In  1779  he  commanded  a 
sloop,  and  in  1781  was  advanced  to 
post  rank.  He  was  in  the  action  of 
the  Chesapeake,  1781,  that  of  St. 
Kitts,  1782,  and  of  Dominica  in 
the  same  year.  In  1800  he  was 
given  a  command  under  Lord  St. 
Vincent,  and  the  next  year  was 
promoted  rear-admiral,  sailing  to 
the  Baltic  under  Sir  Hyde  Parker. 
He  was  Nelson's  second  in  com- 
mand at  the  battle  of  Copenhagen 
and  was  knighted  for  his  services. 
On  his  return  he  retired,  and  died 
at  his  house  near  Honiton  in  1814. 
Grave's  Disease.  Alternative 
name  for  the  disease  known  as 
Exophthalmic  Goitre  (q.v.). 

Gravesend.  Parl.  and  mun. 
bor.,  river  port,  and  market  town 
of  Kent,  England.  On  the  right 
bank  of  the  Thames  estuary,  24  m. 
E.  of  London  by  the  S.E.  &  C.  and 
L.  &  T.  (M.)  Rlys.,  it  is  opposite 
Tilbury,  with  which  there  is  ferry 
communication.  It  is  a  customs 
and  pilot  station,  a  port  under 
the  Port  of  London  Authority,  and 
the  headquarters  of  the  Royal 
Thames  Yacht  Club.  The  market, 
owned  by  the 
corporation,  has 
existed  since  the 
close  of  the  13th 
century.  The 
town  has  electric 
lighting  works, 
town  hall,  a 
library,  and,  in 
the  Imperial 
Paper  Mills, 


Gravesend  arms 


Ltd.,  the  second  largest  and  the 
most  modern  business  concern  of 
its  kind  in  the  United  Kingdom. 
The  frontage  of  the  paper  mills  is 
directly  on  the  river,  and  there  is 
a  jetty  opposite  the  main  entrance, 
so  that  ocean  steamers  can  unload 
their  cargoes  of  wood  pulp  within 
a  few  feet  of  the  paper-making 
plant.  Close  by  is  a  branch  printing 
office  of  The  Amalgamated  Press. 
Gravesend  has  a  history  going 
back  to  pre-Norman  times.  In 
1380  the  town  was  partly  burnt 
by  the  French,  and  it  shared  in  the 
Wat  Tyler  rebellion.  George  I  was 


Gravesend,  Kent.     The  works  of  the  Imperial  Paper  Mills,  Ltd.     Top,  left,  the 
Jubilee  Clock  Tower 


Indian  Princess  Pocahontas  (£.#.), 
who  saved  the  life  of  Captain 
John  Smith  (q.v. ).  There  are  two 
piers.  Rosherville  Gardens,  1  m. 
to  the  W.,  were  once  a  popular 
resort  for  Londoners. 

Shipbuilding,  brewing,  and  shrimp 
fishing  are  among  the  industries, 
while  vegetables  and  fruit  are 
grown  in  the  surrounding  districts. 


above  sea  level,  it  possesses  a  15th 
century  cathedral,  a  castle  of  the 
Emperor  Frederick  II,  afterwards 
belonging  to  the  Orsini,  and  me- 
dieval walls  and  gateways.  Besides 
Santa  Sofia,  there  is  a  rock-hewn 
church,  with  ancient  paintings.  In 
the  vicinity  are  prehistoric  tumuli, 
and  a  castle  of  the  Hohenstaufen. 
Pop.  19,900. 


GRAVITATION:     THE    UNIVERSAL    LAW 

W.  D.  Evans.  M.A.,  King's  College.  Cambridge 

This  article  discusses  the  general  conception  of  gravity  and  the  theories 

which  have  been  formulated  to  explain  it.     See  also  the  articles 

Ether;  Matter;  Relativity 


Gravitation  (Lat.  gravitas,  weight) 
is  the  universal  law  governing  the 
motions  of  all  material  bodies. 

The  simplest  manifestation  of 
gravitational  force  is  the  property 
of  a  body  known  as  its  weight,  in 
virtue  of  which  it  falls  to  the  earth, 
or  if  supported,  exerts  a  down- 
ward pressure.  When  the  earth 
was  conceived  as  flat,  the  weight 
of  bodies  was  interpreted  as  the 
result  of  a  natural  tendency 
"  downwards,"  but  when  the  idea 
of  the  spherical  form  of  the  earth 
was  accepted,  it  became  clear  that 
the  direction  which  was  "  down- 
wards "  for  one  place  on  the  earth 
was  "  upwards  "  for  the  antipodes, 
and  that  the  natural  tendency  was 
for  bodies  to  fall  towards  the  centre 
of  the  earth.  The  fall  was  not 


necessarily  direct,  as  a  body  might 
evidently  fall  in  a  curved  path. 

Gravitation  as  a  general  law 
was  advanced  by  Sir  Isaac  Newton 
as  a  mechanical  explanation  of 
the  paths  of  the  planets  around 
the  sun.  Newton  showed  mathe- 
matically that  these  paths  could  be 
accounted  for  by  ascribing  to  the 
planets  a  tendency  to  fall  to  the 
sun,  similar  to  the  tendency  to  fall 
to  the  earth  which  is  observed  in 
bodies  on  the  earth's  surface,  and 
he  proved  that  this  tendency  to 
fall  varied  in  intensity  inversely  as 
the  square  of  the  planet's  distance 
from  the  sun.  He  assumed  the  exist- 
ence of  an  attraction  exerted  by 
the  sun  on  the  planet,  and  likewise 
varying  as  the  inverse  square  of 
the  distance;  and  this  attractive 


GRAY 

force  was  known  as  the  force  of 
gravity.  A  similar  attraction  ac- 
counted for  the  motion  of  the  moon 
around  the  earth,  this  force  being 
smaller  than  the  attraction  of  the 
sun  in  proportion  to  the  much 
smaller  mass  of  the  earth. 

The  next  step  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  theory  was  to  extend 
the  operation  of  the  attractive  force 
of  gravity  to  the  small  particles  of 
matter  which  ultimately  make  up 
the  masses  of  the  great  heavenly 
bodies.  Newton  showed,  for  ex- 
ample, how  the  small  attractions 
of  the  earth's  particles  would  com- 
bine to  form  the  joint  attraction 
to  the  centre  of  the  earth,  and  was 
thus  led  to  his  formula  of  gravita- 
tion :  "  Every  material  particle  in 
the  universe  attracts  every  other 
particle  with  a  force  whose  direc- 
tion is  that  of  the  line  joining  the 
two,  and  whose  magnitude  varies 
directly  as  the  product  of  their 
masses,  and  inversely  as  the  square 
of  their  distance  apart."  Newton 
made  no  attempt  to  account  for 
this  attractive  force,  which,  it 
should  be  noticed,  was  independent 
of  the  kind  of  matter,  and  acted  at 
a  distance  without  any  obvious  • 
medium  of  transmission. 

Theory  of  Relativity 

Such  was  the  theory  of  gravita- 
tion as  it  left  the  hands  of  Newton, 
with  difficulties  which  no  one 
perceived  more  clearly  than  its 
originator,  but  still  a  marvellously 
successful  explanation  of  ob- 
served facts  so  far  as  it  went.  In 
spite  of  the  advances  made  in 
physical  science  during  the  inter- 
vening two  centuries,  no  more  was 
learnt  about  the  nature  of  gravi- 
tation until  within  the  last  few 
years.  Knowledge  was  gradually 
accumulated  as  to  the  nature  of 
light  and  the  operation  of  elec- 
trical forces,  and  great  generali- 
sations like  the  "  conservation  of 
energy  "  were  introduced  and  con- 
sistently verified,  but  gravitation 
long  remained  obstinately  apart, 
an  obscure  enigma  which  still  pre- 
sented the  anomaly  of  an  incom- 
prehensible "  action  at  a  distance." 
Certain  difficulties  in  the  theories 
of  light  and  electricity  led  to  the 
introduction,  in  the  early  years  of 
the  twentieth  century,  of  the  so- 
called  theory  of  relativity,  which 
has  had  a  revolutionary  effect  on 
the  fundamental  ideas  of  mechanics 
and  physics,  and  in  the  hands  of 
Einstein  has  thrown  a  new  light 
on  the  problem  of  gravitation. 

Einstein  obtained  a  new  law  of 
gravitation,  derived  not  from  ob- 
servation, but  from  pure  reasoning, 
which  differs  but  slightly  from 
Newton's  law  in  its  application  to 
the  cases  within  our  knowledge. 
There  were  three  deductions  from 


Einstein's  theory  of  gravitation  in 
which  its  differences  from  New- 
ton's law  were  open  to  experi- 
mental verification,  and  in  two  of 
the  three  cases  the  result  has  gone 
in  favour  of  the  new  theory. 

According  to  Einstein  the  ellipses 
in  which  the  planets  revolve  about 
the  sun  should  themselves  be  in 
course  of  gradual  rotation ;  such 
an  effect  had  long  been  known  in 
the  case  of  the  planet  Mercury, 
although  the  amount  of  the  rota- 
tion was  extremely  small,  amount- 
ing only  to  43  seconds  of  arc  in  the 
last  century.  Einstein  was  suc- 
cessful in  showing  that  this  result 
would  follow  from  his  theory,  cor- 
rect to  a  second,  and  also  that  in 
the  cases  of  the  other  planets  the 
effect  would  be  too  small  to  be 
measurable. 

The  second  deduction  from  the 
theory  was  that  light  rays,  passing 
near  the  sun,  would  be  deflected 
from  their  course  by  a  calculable 
amount ;  this  prediction  was  veri- 
fied in  the  most  striking  way  by 
the  British  solar  eclipse  expedition 
of  1919. 

The  third  deduction,  a  tiny  dis- 
placement of  the  lines  in  the  sun's 
spectrum,  is  still  (November,  1920) 
a  matter  of  dispute. 

Although  it  is  as  yet  too  soon  to 
pronounce  definitely  that  Ein- 
stein's theory  contains  the  whole 
truth  about  gravitation,  its  success 
in  explaining  the  observations  of 
astronomers  entitles  us  to  credit 
its  originator  with  a  step  forward 
comparable  to  that  of  Newton, 
while  the  derivation  of  the  law  of 
motion  of  the  universe  from 
general  reasoning  may  justly  be 
considered  the  most  astonishing 
example  of  the  power  of  pure 
thought  in  the  history  of  science. 

Gray,  ASA  (181 0-88 ).  American 
botanist,  Born  at  Paris,  New  York 
State,  Nov.  18,  1810,  he  entered 
the  medical 
school  at  Fair- 
field  a  t  the 
age  of  16.  He 
qualified  as  a 
physician,  but 
never  prac- 
tised. Before 
he  was  of  age 
he  had  entered 
into  corre- 
spondence 
with  leading  botanists,  including 
John  Torrey,  the  state  botanist, 
whose  assistant  and  colleague  he 
ultimately  became. 

In  1838  the  new  university  of 
Michigan  offered  him  the  chair  of 
botany,  which  he  accepted  on  con- 
dition that  he  might  first  spend  a 
year  of  study  in  Europe.  But 
an  engagement  with  Torrey  kept 
him  in  New  York,  and  from  1842 


Asa  Gray, 
American  botanist 


until  his  death  he  was  professor 
of  natural  history  at  Harvard. 
He  died  at  Cambridge,  Massachu- 
setts, Jan.  30,  1888. 

Gray,  DAVID  (1838-61).  Scot- 
tish poet.  Born  near  Kirkintilloch, 
Dumbartonshire,  Jan.  29,  1838, 
the  son  of  a  hand-loom  weaver,  he 
was  educated  at  Glasgow  Univer- 
sity. In  1860  he  came  to  London 
with  Robert  Buchanan  (q.v.)  to 
begin  a  literary  career.  He  died 
Dec.  3,  1861,  of  consumption,  de- 
veloped from  a  cold  caught  from 
spending  his  first  London  night  in 
Hyde  Park.  His  best  work  is  his 
sonnet  sequence,  In  the  Shadows. 
See  David  Gray  and  other  Essays, 
R.  Buchanan,  1868. 

Gray,  ELISHA  (1835-1901). 
American  inventor.  Born  at 
Barnesville,  Ohio,  Aug.  2,  1835,  in 
1867  he  brought  out  a  patent  for  an 
improved  telegraph  apparatus,  and 
nine  years  later  filed  specifications 
for  the  telephone,  which  he  claimed 
as  his  own  invention.  The  U.S. 
supreme  court,  however,  awarded 
the  patent  to  A.  G.  Bell.  "Gray 
invented  many  improvements  in 
telegraph  and  telephone  appli- 
ances, which  he  manufactured  at 
Chicago  and  Cleveland.  He  died 
at  Newtonville,  Massachusetts, 
Jan.  21,  1901. 

Gray,  GEOKCE  (b.  1892).  Aus- 
tralian billiard  player.  Son  of 
Harry  Gray,  the  professionalcham- 
p  i  o  n  billiard 
player  of 
Queensland, 
when  only  17 
years  of  age 
he  created  a 
sensation  in 
the  billiard 
world  by  his 
wonderful  haz- 
ard play,  mak- 
ing 831  off  the 
red  ball  in  a 
break  of  836. 
Jio  came  to 
England  in 
1910.  While 


George  Gray,  Aus- 
tralian billiaid  player 


playing  n  gainst 
Harverson  in  London  on  March  17- 
18, 1911,  he  compiled,  using  crystal- 
late  balls,  an  unfinished  break  of 
2,196  (1,944  being  off  the  red). 

Gray,  JOHN  EDWAKD  (1800-75). 
British  naturalist.  Born  at  Wal- 
sall,  Feb.  12,  1800,  he  entered  the 
British  Museum  as  an  assistant  in 
1824,  and  in  1840  was  appointed 
keeper  of  the  zoological  collections. 
He  wrote  various  works  on  natural 
history,  ranging  from  whales  down 
to  seaweeds,  and  was  noted  for  his 
study  of  the  British  non-marine 
mollusca.  He  died  March  7,  1875. 

Gray,  THOMAS  (1716-71).  Eng- 
lish poet.  Born  in  London,  Dec. 
26,  1716,  the  fifth  child  and  only 
survivor  of  a  familv  of  twelve 


GRAYLING 


GRAY'S     INN 


After  J.  0.  Eccardl   in  the  /f)  ./ 

Nal.  Portrait  Gallery          f  f    ^6^1 

hildren,  he  was  v  J      rt 
iucated    at   Eton,        J       ^ 


children, 
educated 

where  he  was  a  school  friend  and 
contemporary  of  Horace  Walpole. 
After  four  years  at  Peterhouse, 
Cambridge,  where  he  went  in  1734, 
Gray  accompanied  Walpole  on  a 
three  years'  tour  on  the  Continent. 
The  scenes  of  travel  made  a  deep 
and  lasting  impression  on  Gray's 
mind,  though  the  end  of  the  tour 
was  marred  by  a  quarrel  between 
the  two  friends,  each  returning 
home  alone.  Shortly  afterwards, 
in  1742,  Gray  went  back  to  Cam- 
bridge to  resume  the  classical 
studies  he  loved,  and  in  Cambridge, 
first  at  Peterhouse  and  afterwards 
at  Pembroke,  he  made  his  home 
for  the  rest  of  his  life,  save  for 
brief  periods,  as,  for  instance,  when 
he  visited  Scotland  in  17G5.  In 
1757  he  was  offered  but  declined 
the  poet  laureateship,  and  in  1768 
became  professor  of  modern  his- 
tory at  Cambridge. 

Apart  from  translations  from 
the  classics,  Gray's  first  poem  was 
the  Ode  to  Spring,  followed  by  the 
Ode  on  a  Distant  Prospect  of  Eton 
College  and  the  Hymn  to  Adver- 
sity;  all  these  appeared  in  1742. 


Thomas  Gray.    The  poet's  tomb  in  the  beautiful  church- 
yard of  Stoke  Foges,  near  Slough 

Homeland  Association,  ltd. 


In  1747  appeared  the  Ode  on  the 
Death  of  a  Favourite  Cat,  an 
earnest  of  his  renewed  friendship 
with  Walpole,  to  whom  the  cat 
belonged.  Three  years  later  came 
the  Elegy  Written  in  a  Country 
Churchyard.  The  inspiration  came 
from  the  churchyard  at  Stoke 
Poges  (q.-v.),  and  the  poem,  made 
familiar  by  many  quotations,  is 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  and  ex- 
quisitely finished  ever  written. 
Other  well-known  poems  are  The 
Progress  of  Poesy,  1754,  a  magnifi- 
cent piece  of  work  written  in  the 
so-called  Pindaric  metre ;  The  Bard, 
1757  ;  The  Fatal  Sisters,  1768  ; 
The  Descent  of  Odin,  1768.  The 
two  last  were  the  fruits  of  the 
Norse  and  Icelandic  studies  which 
occupied  his  later  years. 

Very  small  in  bulk,  all  Gray's 
work  is  that  of  a  consummate 
artist.  Though  influenced  by  the 
prevailing  18th  century  conven- 
tionalism, he  shows  a  depth  of 
thought  and  feeling  notably  absent 
from  most  contemporary  poetry. 
Temperamentally  shy  and  re- 
served, and  of  melancholy  dispo- 
sition, he  was  capable  of  sincere 
friendship  with  the  few  who  could 
appreciate  his  real  nature. 

Gray  died  at  Cambridge,  July  30, 
1771,  and  was  buried  in  Stoke  Poges 
churchyard.  A  monument  to  him 
consisting  of  a  large  sarcophagus 
was  erected  in  1799  by  John  Penn 
in  a  field  adjoining  the  churchyard, 
and  a  tablet  was  unveiled  on  the 
walls  of  39,  Cornhill,  London,  his 
birthplace,  in  1918.  There  are 
busts  of  the  poet  at  Eton  and  at 
Pembroke  College,  which  latter 
was  largely  rebuilt  1870-79  out  of 
a  building  fund  started  in  his 
honour  in  1776.  There  is  also  a 
monument  to  his  memory  with  a 
medallion  portrait  in  Westminster 
Abbey.  See  English  Literature. 

J.  McBain 

Bibliography.  Lives,  J.  Mitford 
(prefixed  to  1814  edition  of  works) ; 
E.Gosse,  1903;  Life  and  Letters,  W. 
Mason,  1774;  Gray  and  his  Friends, 
D.  C.  Tovey,  1890. 

Grayling  (Thy- 

mallus  vulgaris). 
Fish  of  the  salmon 
family.  It  is  fairly 
common  in  Eng- 
lish rivers,  but  has 
only  recently 
found  its  way  to 
Scotland  and  is 
still  absent  from 
Ireland.  Easily 
recognized  by  its 
large  and  many- 
rayed  dorsal  fin, 
it  occasionally 
attains  a  weight  of 
4  lb.,  and  is  a  good 
table  fish. 


Grayling  Butterfly  (Salyrus 
semele).  British  butterfly  of  heathy 
and  uncultivated  lands,  found  also 
in  temperate  Europe,  N.  Africa, 
and  W.  Asia.  The  wings,  which 
have  an  expanse  of  about  2  his.,  are 
smoky-brown  in  tint,  with  a  broad 
zigzag  ochreous  band  near  the 
blackish  margin.  This  band  bears 
two  white-centred  black  spots  on 
the  forewing  and  a  smaller  one  on 
the  hindwing.  The  male  is  smaller 
than  the  female,  and  the  markings 
are  less  bright  and  distinct.  The 
brown-striped,  drab-coloured  cater- 
pillar feeds  upon  various  wild 
grasses.  See  colour  plate,  Butter- 
fly, No.  34. 

Crrays  OK  GRAYS  THUEEOCK. 
^Jrb.  dist.  and  market  town  of 
Essex.  It  stands  on  the  Thames, 
20  m,  from  London,  and  is  served 
by  the  London,  Tilbury  &  Southend 
Rly.  The  chief  industries  are  brick 
and  cement  making.  Near  are 
some  chalk  pits,  of  interest  to  the 
scientist.  Pop.  16,000. 

Gray's  Harbour.  Inlet  of 
Washington,  U.S.A.  It  has  the 
three  small  ports  of  Hoquiam, 
Aberdeen,  and  Cosmopolis,  which 
are  served  by  the  N.  Pacific  and 
other  rlys.,  and  are  important  for 
the  trade  in  lumber,  canned  fish, 
and  furs.  The  U.S.A.  government 
has  built  a  system  of  jetties  which 
helps  to  maintain  a  minimum 
depth  of  24  ft.  to  a  point  4  m. 
above  Aberdeen  on  the  Hoquiam 
river.  The  entrance,  which  is  f  m. 
wide  and  100  ft.  deep,  is  ob- 
structed by  a  shifting  bar  3  m. 
out ;  the  area  at  low  water  is  30 
sq.  m.  There  are  facilities  for  ship 
repairs  and  tug  boats. 

Gray's  Inn.  One  of  the  four 
inns  of  court,  London.  On  the  N. 
side  of  Holborn,  with  Gray's  Inn 
Road  (formerly  Gray's  Inn  Lane) 
on  the  E.  and  Theobald's  Road 
(formerly  King's  Road)  on  the  N., 
near  the  Chancery  Lane  station  of 
the  C.L.R.  (Tube),  it  covers  30 
acres,  on  the  site  'of  the  old  pre- 
bendal  manor  of  Portpbol,  town 
residence  of  the  lords  Gray  de 
Wilton,  1315-150o.  It  passed  to 


Grayling,  a  British  fresh-water  fish 
of  the  salmon  family 

the  priory  of  E.  Sheen,  Surrey,  who 
leased  it  to  law  students,  and  has 
been  a  freehold  of  the  Ancient  and 
Honourable  Society  of  Gray's  Inn 
since  1733.  Two  chancery  inns, 
Staple  Inn  and  Barnard's  Inn, 


GRAY'S    PEAK 


3658 


GREAT     BASIN 


were  formerly  attached.  The  cog- 
nizance of  the  society  is  a  griffin, 
which  was  engraved  in  a  work  by 
Edmund  Bunny,  The  Sceptre  of 
Judah,  1584,  inscribed  Gryphus 
Graiensis. 

The  hall,  1555-60,  in  which 
Shakespeare's  Comedy  of  Errors 
was  acted,  1594,  is  lighted  by  mul- 
lioned  and  transomed  windows, 
with  a  bay  window  N.,  has  an  open 
hammer- beam  roof,  carved  wains- 
cotting  and  screen,  and  some  not- 
able portraits.  Here,  on  every 
crand  night,  is  honoured  the  toast, 
To  the  glorious,  pious,  and  im- 
mortal memory  of  Queen  Eliza- 
beth. During  the  Great  War  it 
narrowly  escaped  destruction,  an 
incendiary  bomb  which  fell  on 
an  adjoining  lobby  being  success- 
fully extinguished  before  much 
serious  damage  was  done.  The 
chapel  is  thought  to  occupy  the  site 
of  the  old  chantry  of  Port-pool.  The 
library,  rebuilt  1883-84,  contains 
30,000  volumes  and  MSS.  The 
walks  or  gardens,  the  special  glory 
of  the  inn,  were  laid  out  1597- 
1600,  according  to  tradition  under 
the  supervision  of  Francis  Bacon, 
who  is  said  to 
have  planted  the 
famous  cat  alp  a 
tree  (see  Indian 
Bean),  the  oldest 
in  England,  which 
may  have  been 
brought  across 
the  Atlantic  by  Gray's  Inn  arms 
Raleigh!  Tn  Charles  II' s  time  and 
later  the  walks  formed  a  fashion- 
able promenade. 

Bacon  had  chambers  at  No.  1, 
Coney  Court  (burnt  1678),  from 
1576-1626 :  here  he  wrote  his 
Novum  Organum,  planned  his 
Garden  of  the  Months,  and  dated 
his  Essays.  Re  was  made  a  bencher, 
1586,  d\iplex  reader  1600,  and 
treasurer  1608.  A  memorial  statue 
by  F.  W.  Pomeroy  was  unveiled  in 
South  Square,  June  2,  1912.  Other 
eminent  names  associated  with  the 
inn  are  those  of  Nicholas  Bacon, 


Gray's  Inn,  London.     The  16th  century  hall,  with  fine 

panelling  and  hammer-beam  roof ;  looking  towards  the 

benchers'  table 


Graz,  Austria.     The  Haupt  Platz  or  principal  square. 
On  the  bill  bemml  is  the  citadel 


Lord  Burghley,  Samuel  Butler, 
George  Gascoigne,  the  poet ;  Sir 
William  Gascoisne,  the  judye ; 
Oliver  Goldsmith,  Edmund  Hall, 
the  chronicler  ;  Sir  Thomas  Gres- 
harn,  Samuel  Johnson,  Archbishop 
Laud,  T.  B.  Macaulay,  Sir  Samuel 
Rornilly,  James  Shirley,  Sir  Philip 
Sidney.  Robert  Southey,  and  Arch- 
bishop Whitgift.  Within  the 
Jacobean  gateway,  in  Holborn, 
Jacob  Tonson  had  a  bookshop. 
Dickens  was  clerk  to  a  firm  of 
attorneys  in  Gray's  Inn,  which 
was  also  noteworthy  for  its  rookery 
until  the  birds  were  driven  off  by 
carrion  crows.  See  Gray's  Inn : 
Its  History  and  Associations,  W. 
R.  Douthwaite,  1886  ;  Chronicles 
of  an  Old  Inn,  Andree  Hope,  1889. 
Gray's  Peak.  Summit  of  the 
Rocky  Mts.  in  Colorado,  U.S.A. 
Situated  about  50  m.  W.  of  Den- 
ver, it  attains  an  alt.  of  14,341  ft., 
and  is  named  in  honour  of  Asa 
Gray,  the  American  botanist. 

Graz  OR  GRATZ.  Town  of  Aus- 
tria, the  capital  of  Styria.  It  is 
situated  on  both  banks  of  the  Mur, 
here  crossed  by  seven  bridges,  90 
m.  S.W.  of  Vienna.  Graz  lies  in 
picturesque  surroundings,  the  ori- 
ginal town  having  grown  up  round 
the  Schlossberg  or  citadel,  which 
commands  a  fine  view.  Among  the 
notable  buildings 
}  are  the  Gothic 
|  cathedral  (15th 
•  \  century),  the 
parish  church 
with  an  altar- 
piece  by  Tinto- 
retto, and  the 
Renaissance 
Landhaus.  The 
Johanneum  con- 
tains many  in- 
teresting collec- 
tions and  a  library 
of  nearly  200,000 
volumes.  The 
university,  found- 
ed in  1573,  has 
four  faculties,  and 


before  the  Great 
War  had  about 
2,000  students. 
Craz  is  industri- 
ally important, 
with  large  steel 
works  and  rly. 
shops.  Other 
manufactures  are 
doth,  leather, 
paper,  etc.  Pop. 
151,781. 

Graziani, 
GENERAL.  French 
soldier.  In  the 
Great  War  he 
was  appointed 
chief  of  the  staff 
in  1915,  and 
attended  im- 
councils,  including 


General  Graziani, 
French  soldier 


portant  war 
that  of  Jan 
1916,  in  Lon- 
don. He  re 
signed  through 
ill-health,Sept., 
1916.  In  1918 
he  commanded 
the  12th  French 
corps  in  Italy, 
and  from  March 
-0  c  t.  cooper- 
ated with  the 
British. 

Grazier.  One  who  pastures 
and  rears  cattle  for  the  market  as 
distinct  from  one  who  breeds  stock. 
See  Agriculture  ;  Cattle  ,  Farm. 

Great  Adventure,  THE.  Modern 
comedy  by  Arnold  Bennett,  found- 
ed on  his  novel  Buried  Alive.  It 
was  produced  at  The  Kings  way, 
London,  March  25,  1913,  and  ran 
for  673  performances.  The  lead- 
ing parts  were  played  by  Henry 
Ainley  and  Wish  Wynne. 

Great  Barrier  Reef.  Coral 
reef  1,200  m.  long,  off  the  N.E. 
coast  of  Australia.  It  covers  an 
area  of  100,000  sq.  m.,  and  is  the 
greatest  oceanic  feature  of  its 
kind  in  the  World.  It  acts  as  a 
vast  natural  breakwater,  the  chan- 
nel separating  it  from  the  Queens- 
land coast — 10  m.  to  30  m.  wide — 
providing  a  safe  sea  passage  of 
extraordinary  tropical  beauty, 
studded  with  islands,  of  which 
Hinchinbrook  is  the  largest.  There 
are  numerous  deep  sea  passages 
across  it,  opposite  which  lie  im- 
portant towns  (e.g.  Townsville 
and  Rockhampton),  and  river- 
mouths  (Burdekin,  Fitzroy,  Bur- 
nett), Raine  Inlet  being  the  safest. 
Pearl  and  b^che-de-mer  fishing  is 
carried  on.  Captain  Cook  was  the 
first  to  cross  the  reef.  See  Coral 
Reef ;  consult  also  Great  ^Barrier 
Reef,  W.  Kent  Saville,  1894. 

Great  Basin.  Interior  drainage 
area  of  the  western  U.S.A.  It 
covers  nearly  the  whole  of  Nevada 
and  parts  of  Utah,  Idaho,  Oregon,  . 


GREAT      BEAR 


GREAT    DIVIDING    RANGE 


and  California,  is  bounded  W.  by 
the  Wasatch  Mts.  and  E.  by  the 
Sierra  Nevada  and  the  Cascades, 
and  covers  an  area  of  more  than 
200,000  sq.  m.  A  vast  arid  region 
diversified  by  a  series  of  indepen- 
dent nit.  ranges  extending  from 
N.  to  S.,  its  highest  altitude  ap- 
proaches 5,000  ft.,  from  which  it 
slopes  away  to  the  S.  and  dips 
beneath  sea  level. 

Lakes  are  numerous,  and  among 
the  largest  are  the  Great  Salt 
Lake  and  Lakes  Sevier  and  Utah  on 
the  E.,  and  Lakes  Carson,  Walker, 
Owens,  Harney,  and  Malheur  on  the 
W.,  all  saline  or  drained  to  salt 
lakes.  The  only  considerable  per- 
manent river  within  the  basin  is 
the  Humboldt.  Where  irrigation 
has  been  applied  the  soil  is  fertile, 
but  the  greater  part  of  the  region 
is  desert.  Much  mineral  wealth 
underlies  the  basin,  and  vast  tracts 
are  covered  with  alkali  and  salt. 

Great  Bear.  Popular  name  of 
the  well-known  northern  constella- 
tion Ursa  Major  (q.v.). 

Great  Bear.  Extensive  lake  of 
Canada.  In  the  N.W.  Territories,  it 
touches  the  Arctic  Circle.  Irre- 
gular in  shape,  it  has  a  length  of 
176  m.,  and  breadth  varying  from 
25  m.  to  46  m.  ;  its  area  is  11,200 
sq.  m.,  and  its  average  depth  270 
ft.  Frozen  over  for  the  greater 
part  of  the  year,  it  abounds  in  fish, 
and  discharges  into  the  Mackenzie 
river  by  the  Great  Bear  river.  The 
trading  station  of  Fort  Franklin 
is  on  its  shores. 

Great  Britain.  Name  used  for 
the  island  which  includes  England, 
Wales,  and  Scotland,  also  the  ad- 
jacent small  islands.  It  is  thus  the 
United  Kingdom  less  Ireland.  The 
official  use  of  the  word  dates  from 
1603,  when  James  I  united  the 
crowns  of  England  and  Scotland, 
and  called  himself  king  of  Great 
Britain.  There  was  much  objec- 
tion to  this  style,  which  was  de- 
clared illegal  by  the  courts  of  law, 
but  it  persisted.  The  word  had  been 
used  previously,  but  in  a  looser, 
more  poetic  sense,  having  originated 
in  the  desire  to  distinguish  Great 
Britain  from  Little  Britain  or 
Brittany.  See  Britain  ;  England ; 
Scotland ;  United  Kingdom. 

Great  Central  Railway.  Fng- 
lish  rly.  company,  the  main  line  of 
which  runs 
from  London 
to  Manchester. 
Its  total  mile- 
age is  2,688, 
and  on  this 
basis  it  ranks 
seventh  among 
English  rlys. 
Its  London 
terminus  is 
Marylebon  e 


Station  and  Manchester  terminus 
London  Road.  The  line  also  serves 
Sheffield,  Nottingham,  Leicester, 
Bradford,  Halifax,  and  Lincoln,  as 
well  as  some  of  the  outer  western 
suburbs  of  London.  It  owns  docks 
at  Immingham,  near  Grimsby,  and 
at  Grimsby  itself,  and  has  done 
much  to  develop  both  ports.  Its 
goods  traffic  consists  largely  oi  the 
coal  of  the  N.  Midlands,  which  it 
carries  to  the  coast.  It  has  a  fleet  of 
steamers  plying  between  Grimsby 
and  Antwerp,  Rotterdam,'  and 
other  continental  ports.  It  owns 
four  canals — the  Macclesfield,  the 
Peak  Forest,  the  Ashton,  and  the 
Chesterfield — and  several  hotels. 
Its  shops  are  at  Gorton  and  Dukin- 
field,  near  Manchester,  and  its 
general  offices  in  London.  The 
total  capital  is  over  £56,000,000. 

The  Great  Central  developed 
from  the  old  Manchester,  Sheffield 
and  Lincolnshire  Rly.  The  latter 
was  originally  a  line  running  from 
Manchester  to  Sheffield,  and  opened 
in  1845.  Other  lines  were  ab- 
sorbed, and  soon  it  was  serving 
Lincolnshire,  and  had  purchased 
the  docks  at  Grimsby,  this  amalga- 
mation being  formed 'into  the  Man- 
chester, Sheffield  and  Lincolnshire 
in  1849.  Other  additions  were 
made,  but  the  great  change  came 
in  1897  with  the  extension  to  Lon- 
don and  the  present  title.  The  line 
from  Sheffield  to  London  was 
opened  for  goods  traffic,  1898,  and 
for  passengers,  1 899.  Since  then  the 
line's  extensions  have  been  mainly 
in  three  areas  :  Cheshire  and  South 
Lancashire,  Middlesex  and  Bucking- 
hamshire, and  the  East,  Midlands. 
It  is  now  a  constituent  company 
of  the  London  and  North -Eastern 
Rly.  See  Railways. 

Great  Circle.  Line  on  the 
earth's  surface  which  lies  in  a 
plane  through  the  centre  of  the 
earth,  or  any  circle  on  the  earth's 
surface  which  divides  the  world 
into  two  equal  parts.  Thus  all  meri- 
dians of  longitude  are  halves  of  great 
circles,  but  the  equator  is  the  only 
parallel  of  latitude  which  satisfies 
the  conditions,  since  the  planes  of 
other  parallels  do  not  pass  through 
the  earth's  centre.  The  shortest 
line  joining  any  two  points  on  the 
earth's  surface  is  on  a  great  circle, 
hence  the  ascertaining  of  great 
circles  is  of  great  importance  in 
navigation,  (q.v. ). 

The  great  circle  through  London 
and  Melbourne  crosses  Calcutta 
and  almost  touches  Trinidad ;  that 
which  is  the  edge  of  the  land  hemi- 
sphere touches  Formosa,  Sumatra, 
and  almost  touches  Japan,  Mada- 
gascar, and  Cape  Town. 

Great  Contract.  The  financial 
arrangement  suggested  in  1611, 
but  not  carried  out,  between  James 


I    and    the    English    parliament. 


It  was  proposed   by  Robert  Cecil, 
earl    of    Salisbury,    that   James    I 


should  surrender  the  revenue 
which  he  raised  from  his  tenants 
in  the  old  feudal  ways,  by  aids, 
fines,  etc..  and  should  in  return 
receive  a  fixed  sum  of  £200,000  a 
year.  The  Commons  offered 
£100,000  and  then  agreed  to 
double  that  amount,  but  both 
sides  put  forward  further  demands 
and  the  bargain  was  never  clinched. 
G'eat  Dane.  Name  popularly 
applied  to  a  breed  of  German 
boarhonnds.  It  is  the  largest  of 
the  European  mastiffs,  and  has 
long  been  bred  in  Germany  and 
Denmark.  It  stands  34  inches  high 
at  the  shoulder,  and  good  speci- 
mens weigh  about  180  Ib.  It  is 
still  employed  in  the  Black  Forest 
for  hunting  purposes,  but  its 
general  use  is  as  a  watchdog.  It  is 
smno'h  coated,  and  should  be  grey, 


Great    Dane.      Champion  Stella  of 

Seisdon,    a   first   prize  winner  and 

champion  example  ot  the  breed 

t black,  or  black  and  yellow  in  colour. 
Naturally  its  ears  droop,  but  are 
usually  trimmed  to  a  pointed  shape 
to  give  the  animal  a  more  alert 
appearance.  The  Great  Dane  was 
introduced  to  Great  Britain  in  1870, 
when  its  great  size  and  fine  appear- 
ance rapidly  made  it  a  favourite. 
In  disposition  it  is  friendly  and 
faithful,  but  its  great  strength  and 
determined  will  make  it  often  diffi- 
cult to  control.  See  Dog. 

Great  Dividing  Range.  General 
name  of  the  vast  mountain 
system  of  E.  Australia.  It  extends 
from  the  N.  of  York  Peninsula 
in  Queensland,  and  trends  S. 
and  S.E.  to  the  borders  of  New 
South  Wales ;  it  then  turns  S.S.  W. 
through  that  state  and  Victoria, 
terminating  at  its  S.E.  extremity. 
The  westerly  extension  from  here 
is  known  as  the  Australian  Alps, 
and  also  as  the  Great  Dividing 
Range.  The  highest  summits  are 
found  in  New  South  Wales, 
Kosciusco  (7,300  ft.)  and  Town- 
send  (7,265  ft.)  being  the  loftiest. 
There  are  several  other  peaks  over 
5,000  ft.  The  various  sections  of 
the  Great  Dividing  Range  have 
different  names,  e.g.  the  Muniong, 
Macpherson,  and  Bellender  ranges, 
and  the  Blue  Mountains. 


GREAT     EASTERN 


3660 


GREAT     FISH 


Great  Eastern 
Railway  arms 


Great  Eastern.  British  steam- 
ship, built  in  1858  from  the  designs 
of  Isambard  Brunei.  The  largest 
steamship  built  to  that  date,  she 
was  first  called  the  Leviathan.  Her 
dimensions  were:  length  692  ft., 
beam  83  ft.,  draught  25  ft.,  and 
gross  tonnage  18,915  tons.  She 
was  a  screw  and  paddle  vessel  and 
cost  about  £750,000.  Her  builders 
were  Scott,  Russell  &  Co.,  Millwall. 
After  several  vicissitudes  the 
ship  was  employed  in  laying  the 
Atlantic  cable.  Later  she  laid  the 
French  Atlantic  cable,  the  Bom- 
bay-Suez cable,  and  the  fourth  and 
fifth  Atlantic  cables.  Sold  by  auc- 
tion for  £16,000,  she  was  moved  to 
the  Mersey  and  broken  up,  the  ma- 
terials being  sold  for  about  £60,000. 
Great  Eastern  Railway.  Eng- 
lish rly.  company  serving  the 
eastern  suburbs  of  London  and  the 
E.  counties. 
Its  London 
terminus  is 
Liverpool 
Street,  and  its 
total  mileage 
2,626.  Large 
towns  served 
by  it  include 
Norwich,  Yar- 
mouth, Ips- 
wich, and  Cambridge,  and  it  carries 
daily  an  enormous  number  of 
persons  between  London  and  the 
E.  suburbs,  as  well  as  to  and  from 
Southend  and  other  places  on  the 
coast.  The  company  owns  steamers 
which  run  from  Harwich  to  Dutch 
ports  and  An  twerp,  possesses  hotels, 
and  runs  motor-' buses  in  many 
districts.  Its  headquarters  are  at 
Liverpool  Street,  and  its  works 
at  Stratford ;  its  capital  is  about 
£64,000,000. 

The  line  took  its  present  name 
in  1862.  It  was  an  amalgamation 
of  several  companies,  these  in- 
cluding the  Norfolk,  the  East 
Anglian,  the  East  Suffolk  and  the 
Eastern  Counties.  Two  lines  ran 
from  London,  one  to  Colchester 
and  the  other  to  Cambridge.  It  is 
now  merged  in  the  London  and 
North- Eastern  Rly.  See  Railways 
Great  Expectations.  Twelfth 
novel  of  Charles  Dickens.  It  was 
written  to  increase  the  circulation 
of  All  the  Year  Round,  in  which 
it  appeared  between  Dec.,  1860, 
and  Aug.,  1861.  Philip  Pirrip 
affords  a  companion  study  to 
David  Coppei  field.  His  dilemma 
between  the  humble  ties  of  his 
sister's  home  and  his  expecta- 
tions from  a  mysterious  bene- 
factor who  afterwards  turns  out 
to  be  a  convict  he  had  helped 
on  the  marshes,  convey  a  whole- 
some moral.  It  was  at  Bulwer 
Lytton's  suggestion  that  the  story 
was  given  a  happy  ending. 


the  hall,  church, 
part  of  Fig  Tree 
Court,  and  the 
gateway  to  Fleet 
Street  perished. 
Wharves  and 
landing  stages 
and  boats  and 
barges  were  in- 
cluded in  the 

losses,the  total  ex- 

i    tent  of  which  has 
I    been  estimated  at 
m&M    £10,000,000,asum 
to  equal  to  at  least 

£40,000,000      o  f 
'  modern  coinage. 

For  a  long  time  .the  fire  was 
attributed  by  many  people  to  a 
Papist  plot ;  to-day  it  is  agreed 
that  it  was  due  to  a  strong  N.E. 
wind  following  a  period  of  ex- 
tremely dry  weather,  and  the  in- 
flammable nature  of  the  buildings. 
Fire-engines  were  as  unknown  as 
fire  insurance,  and  the  bJ  owing  up 
of  houses  by  gunpowder  had  to  be 

plants,  and  is  engaged  in  the  ship-     resorted  to  to  stay  the  flames, 
ment  of  wool.     The   city   derives        The    familiar    epigram    to    the 
its  name    from   the   falls   on   the     effect     that    the     fire     began    in 


Great   Eastern  steamship  on  her   first   voyage 
New  York,  June,  1860 

From  a  contemporary  drawing 

Great  Falls.  City  of  Montana, 
U.S.A.,  the  co.  seat  of  Cascade  co. 
On  the  Missouri  river,  98  m. 
N.E.  of  Helena,  it  is  served  by  the 
Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul 
and  other  rlys.  It  is  the  centre 
of  a  mining  region,  producing  cop- 
per, silver,  gold,  lead,  iron,  zinc, 
etc.  Great  Falls  has  large  smelting 
works,  flour  mills,  and  machinery 


Missouri.     Pop.  13,948. 

Great  Fire'.  London  fire  which 
lasted  four  days  and  nights  of 
Sept.,  1666.  It  broke  out  about 
2  a.m.  on  Sunday,  Sept.  2,  near 
the  oven  of  one  Farynor,  the  king's 
baker,  in  Pudding  Lane,  near 
London  Bridge.  A  pile  of  faggots 
was  by  the  oven,  flitches  of  bacon 
stood  near  ;  the  houses  in  the  lane, 
one  of  the  narrowest  in  the  city, 
had  projecting  storeys,  and  their 
woodwork  was  coated  with  pitch, 
Farynor,  his  wife,  daughter,  and 
manservant  escaped  by  the  roof, 
but  the  maidservant,  afraid  to  risk 
the  climb,  was  the  first  victim  of 
the  outbreak. 

The  flames  spread  slowly  until 
they  attacked  the  cellars  and  ware- 
houses  along  Thames  side.  By 
8  a.m.  on  Sept.  2  London  Bridge 
was  blazing.  On  the  Tuesday 
Cheapside,  S.  Paul's  Cathedral, 
and  Guildhall  were  destroyed.  By 
Thursday  morning  only  a  sixth 
part  of  the  city  within  the  walls 
was  left  standing,  the  liberties  west 
towards  Temple  Bar  were  burnt 
out,  100,000  people  were  homeless, 
and  nearly  all  that  had  remained  of 
medieval  London  was  obliterated 
or  doomed.  So  far  as  is  known, 
however,  only  about  a  dozen  people 
were  burnt. 

The  area  destroyed  within  the 
city  walls  was  373  acres  ;  without, 
63  acres  and  3  roods.  Besides 
S.  Paul's  and  the  Guildhall,  84 
parish  churches,  13,200  houses,  44 
halls  of  livery  companies,  the  city 
gates,  Royal  Exchange,  all  the 
markets  except  Leadenhall,  the 
gaols,  all  the  Inner  Temple  except 


Pudding  Lane  and  ended  at  Pie 
Corner  lacks  veracity  ;  the  fire 
burnt  for  20  hours  after  Pie  Corner 
had  been  razed  ;  it  ended,  in  the 
Cripplegate  area,  at  Cock  Lane. 
It  was  not  until  1668  that  the  task 
of  rebuilding  was  taken  thoroughly 
in  hand. 

The  Monument  opposite  Fish 
Street  Hill,  erected  1671-77,  did 
not  originally  contain  the  ascrip- 
tion  of  the  fire  to  Popish  faction  ; 
this  was  placed  upon  it  in  1681 
after  the  publication  of  the  per- 
juries  of  Titus  Gates  ;  the  words 
were  finally  removed  in  1830.  See 
London  ;  Monument,  The  ;  consult 
also  The  Great  Fire  of  London, 
W.  G.  Bell,  1920,  the  first  adequate 
history  of  the  fire,  and  the  Diaries 
of  Evelyn  and  Pepys. 

Great  Fish.  Bay  or  inlet  of  the 
Atlantic  Ocean.  It  is  off  S.W. 
Africa,  in  lat.  16°  20'  S.  and  long. 
11°48'E.  Near  the  S.W.  extremity 
of  Angola  or  Portuguese  W.  Africa, 
it  penetrates  about  30  m.  inland. 

Great  Fish.  River  of  Cape 
Province,  S.  Africa.  For  many 
years  it  formed  the  boundary  of 
Cape  Colony  against  incursions  by 
the  Kaffir  tribes  on  the  E.  It 
drains  over  12,000  sq.  m.  and 
rises  in  the  Sneeuwbergen  Mts., 
receiving  the  waters  of  the  Graak, 
Tarka,  and  Little  Fish  rivers,  and 
enters  the  Indian  Ocean  at  Waterloo 
Bay,  between  Port  Alfred  and  East 
London.  Its  length  is  230  m. 

Great  Fish.  River  of  Canada, 
also  called  the  Back.  It  rises  near 
the  N.  shore  of  Lake  Aylmer,  N.E. 
of  Great  Slave  Lake,  and,  flowing 
generally  in  a  N.E.  direction,  dis- 


GREAT  GABLE 


366  1 


GREAT  LAKES 


charges  into  an 
inlet  of  the  Arctic 
Ocean  after  a 
course  of  about 
500  m.  Sir  George 
Back  (q.v. )  e  x- 
plored  its  shores. 
Great  Gable. 
Mt.  peak  of  Cum- 
berland. England. 
It  is  about  7  in. 

5.  of  Keswick  and 
is  2,950   ft.  in  alt. 
Near    is     Green 
Gable,   2,500   ft. 
high. 

Great  Harry. 
English  warship, 
built  by  Henry  VIII  at  a  cost  of 
£14,000.  She  was  the  first  double- 
decked  ship  constructed  in  Eng- 
land, was  of  1,000  tons  burthen, 
and  is  considered  to  mark  the 
beginning  of  the  Royal  Navy. 

Greathead,  JAMES  HENUY  ( 1 844- 
96).  British  engineer.  Born  at 
Grahamstown,  Cape  Colony,  Aug. 

6,  1844,  he  came  to  England  in 
1859-        He    studied    engineering 
under  P.  W.  Barlow,  who  directed 
his  attention  to  the  shield  system 


Great  Harry. 


English  double-decked  warship  of  1514 

From  a  picture  by  Holbein 

in  tunnelling.  This  Greathead 
made  use  of  in  the  Thames  tunnel 
constructed  by  him  in  1809.  He 
invented  the  Greathead  Shield, 
which,  in  1880,  he  applied  to  the 
construction  of  the  City  and  South 
London  and  other  tube  rlys.  He 
died  Oct.  21,  1890. 

Great  Lake  OR  CLARENCE  LAKE. 
Lake  of  Tasmania,  in  the  co.  of 
Westmoreland.  It  lies  S.  of  the 
Great  Western  Mts.,  and  is  9  m. 
long  and  from  2  m.  to  3  m.  broad. 


'  Great  Lakes,  THE.  Chain  of  five 
fresh-water  lakes  in  N.  America. 
Situated  between  Canada  and  the 
U.S.A.,  they  belong  to  the  basin  of 
the  St.  Lawrence  river,  by  which 
they  are  drained  to  the  Atlantic 
Ocean.  In  order  of  size  they  are 
Superior,  Michigan,  Huron,  Erie, 
and  Ontario,  and  their  entire  water 
expanse  is  about  94,100  sq.  m. 

The  surface  of  I/ike  Superior  is 
600  ft.  above  sea  level,  and  between 
that  lake  and  Erie  there  is  a  de- 
pression of  28  ft.,  but  between  Lake 
Erie  and  Lake  Ontario  there  occurs 
a  fall  of  about  320  ft.,  chiefly  due 
to  the  precipitation  of  the  Niagara 
river  over  a  limestone  ledge, 
which  forms  the  Niagara  Falls.  The 
channel  serving  Lake  St.  Clair 
has  been  increased  from  its 
original  depth  of  9i  ft.  to  20  ft., 
and  the  Detroit  river  has  been 
dredged  to  a  depth  of  22  ft.  The 
Sault  Ste. -Marie  Canal  connects 
Lakes  Huron  and  Superior.  Lakes 
Erie  and  Ontario  are  joined  by  the 
Welland  Canal,  which  admits  the 
passage  of  vessels  drawing  14  ft., 
but  a"  canal  in  course  of  building 
admit  vessels  of  25  ft.  draught. 


GREAT    FIRE 

Scale    of  Yards 


CHURCHES:    1,    Allhallows    Barking:      2,    S.    Olave;       3,    S 
Katherine  Coleuian;  4,   Trinity  Christ  Church;  5,    S.    Katherin 
Christ  Church;    6.   S.    Andrew  TTiidershaft;    7,    S.    Mary;    8, 
Ethelburga;      9,    S.    Helen;      10.    Allhallows   Stainin 


Gabriel  or  Fen  Church;    12,    S.   Margaret  Patten 

t  Hill;   15,    S.    Botolph;  16.    S 


.  S.  Mary  Magdalen;  64,  Allhallows  Honey  Lane;  65  S. 
Mary  Bow;  66,  S.  Mary  Aldermany;  67,  S.  James  Garlick- 
hithe;  68,  Holy  Trinity;  69,  S.  Michael  Queenhithe;  70,  S. 
Mildred;  71.  Allhallows  Bread  Street;  72,  S.  John  Evan- 
gelist; 73,  S.  Matthew;  74,  S.  Peter  W.  Cheap;  75,  S. 
Michael;  76,  S.  John  Zachary ;  77,  S.  Olave  Silver  Street;  78, 


stan  in  the  East;  14,   S.    Mary 

Magnus:     17,    S.    George:      18.    S.    Margaret:      13.    R"   Leonard        S.    Mary   Rtaining;     79,    S.    Alban;     80,    S.    Anne;     81,    Foster 
Milk  Church;     20.   R.   Benet  Grass  Church;     21.   R.    Dyonis :    22,         (R.    Vodast) ;  82,    S.   Leonard:  83,    S.    Augustine;  84,    S.    N:chols 
Allhallows;    23,   S.   Edmond:     24,   S.    Michael  Archangel;  25.   S.        Olave;      85,    S.    Nicholas    C  " 
Peter    Cornhill ;      2fi.    R.    Martin    Oteswich;      27,    S.     Anthony       haunt:      87,    S.    Mary   Somi 
(French    Church):    28.    S.    Peter    le    poor;      29,    Austin    Friars        Magdalen:     90,   Chriitchurr 
(Dutch  Church);  SO,  R.   Bartholomew:  31,   S.    Benet  Fink;  32.   S. 
Nicholas   Aeon;   33.    S.    Clement   in    Eastcheap;   34,    R.    Michael; 
35,   R.  Martin  Orgar:    36,    R.   Laurence  Poultne.v:    37.   S.   Mary 
Abehurch:     38,    S.    Mary   Woolnoth:     39,    S.    Christopher;     40. 
S     Margaret    Lothlmry;      41.    R.    Mildred;    42,     R.    Mary    Wool- 
church:      43,    S.    Stephen    Walbrook;      44.    S.    Swith'n ;      45,    R. 
Mary   Bothaw:      46.    Allhallows  the  more;      47.    Allhallows  the 
less:    48,   R.    Michael  Paternoster:     49.   S.    Martin  Vintry:     50. 
S.    John    upon    Walbrook-      51     S     Thomas    Apostle;      52     R 
Sythe;     53.    R.    Pancrate:      54.    R.     Mary    Coleehureh:      55     R. 


Mount- 
Somerset;  88,  S.  Peter;  89,  S.  Mary 
-h;  91.  S.  Gregory:  92.  R.  Anne; 
93,  R.  Andrew;  94,  S.  Bene't  Hithe;  95,  Temple;  96,  S.  Dun- 
stan:  97.  S.  Bride;  98,  S.  Andrew;  99,  S.  Repulchre;  100. 
R.  Bart,  the  less;  101.  R.  Bart,  the  great;  102,  S.  Botolph: 
103.  R.  Giles:  104,  S.  Botolph ;  105.  S.  Botolph;  106,  Trinity 
Minories;  107,  S.  Olave;  108,  S.  Mary  Overy. 

HALLR:  1,  Bakers';  2,  Clothworkers';  3,  Ironmongers';  4, 
Bricklayers';  5,  Fletchers';  6,  Parish  Clerks':  7,  Drapers': 
8.  Fishmongers';  9,  Dyers';  10.  Carpenters';  11,  Armourers'; 


Martin  Pomary :  56,  R.  Olave,  TTpwell :  57,  R.  Stephen:  58." 
S.  Alphege;  59,  S.  Mary  Aldermanbury ;  60.  S.  Michael 
Bassishaw;  61,  S.  Mary  Mngdalen;  62,  R.  Laurence  Jewry; 

Great  Fire  of  London.     Plan  of  the  area  affected  by  the  conflagration  of  1666,  showing  the  various  wards.    The  solid  black 
line  indicates  the  course  of  the  old  city  wall,  and  the  broken  line  the  limits  of  the  fire 


12,  Girdlers';  13,  Guild;  14,  Weavers';  15,  Masom 
Bakewell;  17,  Bay;  18.  Founders';  19,  Grocers': 
Mercers':  21,  Cutlers':  22.  Sinners';  23.  Innholders' 
Parish  Clerks';  25.  Painter  Stainers';  26.  Saddlers'' 
Goldsmiths';  28,  Haberdashers';  29.  Blacksmiths' 


I3REAT     NORTHERN     RAILWAY 


3662 


GREAT     ORGAN 


Great   Lakes. 


Map  of  the   great  inland  seas   of  the  United  States  and  Canada,  important  as  waterways  to  the 
surrounding  states  and  provinces,  showing  canals  open  and  projected 


The  region  surrounding  the 
Great  Lakes  is  one  of  the  most  pro- 
ductive in  North  America,  and  the 
cheapness  of  transport  afforded  by 
these  waterways  has  enabled  the 
farming,  fruit-growing,  and  mining 
industries  to  be  developed  on  a 
greater  scale.  Among  the  ports 
served  by  the  lake  system  are 
Chicago,  Milwaukee,  Detroit, 
Buff  do,  Cleveland,  Erie,  Toronto, 
Hamilton,  and  Kingston.  The 
level  of  the  lakes,  which  are  un- 
navigable  through  ice  for  about 
five  months  in  the  year,  is  gradually 
lowering,  and  to  obviate  this  dams 
have  been  built  across  the  outflow 
channels.  See  Erie;  Huron;  Michi- 
gan ;  Ontario  ;  Superior. 

Great  Northern  Railway. 
English  railway  system.  Its  main 
line  runs  from  London  to  York. 
Its  total  mile- 
age is  1,053,  and 
its  capital 
£62,000,000. 
Among  the  large 
towns  served  by 
this  line  are 
Nottingham, 
Peterborough, 
Lincoln,  while  a 
branch  in  Yorkshire  runs  to  Leeds, 
Wakefield,  and  other  towns  of  the 
West  Riding.  By  arrangement  with 
the  N.E.R.  its  trains  run  as  far  as 
Berwick  while  it  has  running  pow- 
ers over  parts  of  the  G.C.R.,  and 
other  lines.  It  is  interested  in  the 


G.N.R.  arms 
Derby,     and 


G.N.and  G.E.  Joint  Rly.,  and  it  also 
partners  the  G.C.  The  company 
owns  three  canals.  Its  head- 
quarters are  at  King's  Cross 
Station,  London,  N.,  and  its 
shops  at  Doncaster. 

The  undertaking  dates  from 
1846,  when  two  rival  lines,  the 
London  and  York  and  the  Nor- 
thern were  amalgamated  as  the 
G.N.R.  In  1850  the  main  line 
was  opened,  and  from  that  in  sub- 
sequent years  branch  lines  were 
made  through  the  populous  mid- 
land counties,  into  Lincolnshire 
and  into  Yorkshire.  Of  its  em- 
ployees, 1,000  lost  their  lives  in  the 
Great  War.  It  now  forms  a  branch 
of  the  London  and  North  -Eastern 
Rly.  See  Railways. 

Great  Northern  Railway. 
Irish  rly.  co.  Its  main  lines  run 
from  Dublin  to  Belfast,  and  to 
Londonderry, 
other  towns 
served  including 
Dundalk,  Ennis- 
killeii,Newry,and 
Drogheda.  1 1 
total  mileage  is 
561,  and  its  capi- 
tal £9,755,704.  Its  G.N.R.  of  Ireland 
headquarters  are  arms 

at  Amiens  Street  Station,  Dublin, 
and  its  works  at  Dundalk.  Its  ser- 
vices connect  with  the  L.  &  N.W. 
steamers  from  Kingstown,  Green- 
ore,  and  Dublin  to  Holyhead.  The 
line  was  incorporated  in  1876,  being 


an  amalgamation  of  earlier  under- 
takings.  These  included  the  Ulster 
rly.,  dating  from  1839,  and  the 
Dublin  and  Drogheda. 

Great  North  of  Scotland 
Railway.  Scottish  railway  com- 
pany. It  was  incorporated  in  1 846, 
its  first  line  being  between  Aber- 
deen and  Inverness,  but  later  the 
western  end  of 
this  was  trans 
ferred  to  the 
Caledonian  Rly. 
A  number  of 
smaller  lines 
were  taken  over, 
and  other  lines 


were   built  be- 
tween then  and 


G.N.  of  Scotland 
Railway  arms 


1900.  The  line  now  runs  from 
Aberdeen  to  Peterhead  and  Fraser- 
burgh;  and  inland  to  serve  Elgin, 
Ballater,  Huntly,  and  other  places 
in  Aberdeenshire  and  the  neigh- 
bouring counties.  At  Elgin  it  is 
linked  with  the  Highland  Rly.  The 
company  maintains  a  service  of 
motor  omnibuses.  It  is  closely  con- 
nected with  the  Cal.  &  N.B.  Rlys., 
the  three  sharing  a  station  at 
Aberdeen.  It  owns  several  hotels, 
and  the  headquarters  are  at  89 
Guild  St.,  Aberdeen.  It  is  now  part 
of  the  London  and  North-Eastern 
Rly  See  Railways. 

Great  Organ.  Manual  key- 
board of  an  organ  which  controls 
the  more  solid-toned  stops.  Where 
there  are  two  manuals,  the  great 


GREAT  PLAGUE 

is  the  lower  one  ;  where  there  are 
more  than  two,  it  is  usually  the 
second  from  the  bottom.  See 
Ortran.  A 

Great  Plague.  Terrible  epi- 
demic of  bubonic  plague  which 
ravaged  London  and  other  parts  of 
England  in  1665.  In  1 603  there  was 
an  epidemic  of  plague  in  which 
33,347  persons  died  in  London, 
and  in  1625  there  was  another  in 
which  41,313  perished. 

For  the  15  years  preceding  1665 
London  had  been  remarkably  free 
from  plague.  It  has  been  said  that 
the  infection  was  brought  from 
Holland,  but  this  is  not  certain,  as 
there  were  always  a  few  cases  in 
London.  In  June  the  number  of 
j  deaths  became  alarming,  and  there 
was  a  steady  increase  in  the  mor- 
tality until  the  end  of  Sept.  Dur- 
ing the  winter  months  the  epidemic 
abated.  The  total  number  of 
deaths  in  London  in  1665  was 
68,596.  At  the  height  of  the 
epidemic  the  scenes  in  London 
were  appalling.  The  doors  of  the 
houses  in  which  the  sick  lay  were 
marked  with  a  red  cross  and  the 
words  "  Lord,  have^  mercy  upon 
us,"  and  no  person  was  allowed  to 
enter  or  leave  these  houses. 

At  first  the  dead  were  buried 
separately  and  in  coffins,  but  when 
the  mortality  was  at  its  worst  the 
bodies  were  simply  thrown  into 
great  pits.  Besides  shutting  up 
the  houses,  fires  were  burnt  in  the 
streets,  as  these  were  believed  to 
have  a  preventive  effect.  The  ex- 
ceptional virulence  of  the  epidemic 
was  confined  to  London  and  the 
towns  in  its  immediate  vicinity. 

The  plague  lingered  on  in  Lon- 
don through  1666,  and  its  eventual 
disappearance  was  probably  helped 
by  the  Great  Fire  of  that  year, 
which  swept  away  a  large  area  of 
overcrowded,  narrow,  and  insani- 
tary streets.  Defoe,  in  his  Journal 
of  the  Plague  Year,  published  in 
1722,  gives  what  purports  to  be  an 
account  of  the  plague  by  a  contem- 
porary. See  Black  Death ;  Plague. 

Great  Popo.  Port  in  the  French 
colony  of  Dahome.  It  is  situated 
in  the  extreme  W.  of  the  country 
25m.  W.  of  Whydah.  Pop.  2,115.' 

Great  Powers.  Term  applied, 
especially  during  the  19th  century, 
to  the  dominating  countries  of 
Europe.  Their  agreement  virtually 
decided  the  peace  of  the  world. 
The  Congress  of  Vienna,  in  1815, 
established  or  confirmed  the  right 
of  France,  Great  Britain,  Austria, 
and  Russia  to  be  Great  Powers,  and 
after  its  unification  Italy  was  added. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury, the  influence  of  Germany,  the 
U.S.A.,  and  Japan  in  woild  politics 
brought  them  into  the  list  of  Great 
Powers.  The  Great  War  destroyed 


3663 

Russia,    and    re-    | 
vealed    the   com-    | 
parative    weak-    i 
ness  of  Austria    % 
and  Italy,  so  that 
now   the    Powers 
that  really  count 
number  only  four. 

Great  Queen 
Street.  London 
thoroughfare 
linking  Drury 
Lane  with  Kings- 
way,  W.C.  Con- 
structed about 
K529,  and  named 
after  Queen  Henrietta  Maria,  many 
of  its  houses  were  built  by  Inigo 
Jones's  pupil  Webb.  Here  are  the 
Freemasons'  Hall,  1775-76;  Free- 
masons' Tavern,  1786,  and  Kings- 
way  Theatre,  1900.  Lord  Herbert 
of  Cherbury  wrote  his  De  Veritate 
here,  and  Sheridan  is  said  to  have 
written  The  School  for  Scandal 
at  No.  55.  Joshua  Reynolds  and 
William  Blake  worked  here  as 
apprentices. 

Great  Rebellion.  Name  given 
to  the  civil  war  in  England  which 
ended  in  the  execution  of  Charles 
I  in  1649,  or,  according  to  another 
point  of  view,  in  the  restoration  of 
Charles  II  in  1660.  To  the  royalists 
in  the  time  of  Charles  II,  as  earlier, 
the  parliamentary  movement  ap- 
peared as  a  rebellion,  and  the 
phrase  obtained  greater  currency 
when  Clarendon  called  his  great 
work  The  History  of  the  Rebellion. 
Mature  considerations,  however, 
have  led  people  to  regard  it  more 
as  a  civil  war.  See  Civil  War. 

Great  Rift .  Valley  or  depression 
of  the  earth's  surface.  It  extends 
from  the  N.  of  Palestine  to  near  the 
borders  of  Natal.  It  is  the  longest 
meridional  land  valley  on  the 
earth,  being  nearly  5,000  m.  in 
length.  Beginning  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  Lebanon  range,  its 
course  lies  through  the  Jordan  and 
Dead  Sea,  the  gulfs  of  Akaba  and 
Suez,  and  the  Red  Sea,  where  it 
strikes  E.  through  the  Gulf  of  Aden. 
From  Bab-el-Mandeb  it  crosses 
French  Somaliland  and  Abyssinia, 
through  Lakes  Rudolf,  Manyara, 
and  Nyasa  to  the  Sheringoma 
plateau  in  Portuguese  E.  Africa. 

At  the  N.  extremity  of  Lake 
Nyasa  the  valley  branches  off  N.  W. 
through  Lake  Tanganyika,  and 
bearing  N.  and  N.E.  it  reaches 
Lakes  Edward  and  Albert.  From 
Lake  Tanganyika  there  are  S.W. 
and  S.  extensions  to  Lake  Upemba 
and  Lake  Mweru. 

Great  Salt  Lake.  Extensive 
water  expanse  in  Utah,  U.S.A.  It 
lies  in  the  N.W.  part  of  the  state 
on  the  E.  side  of  the  Great  Basin, 
is  about  75  m.  long  by  from  20  m. 
to  50  m.  broad,  and  has  a  mean 


GREAT     SEAL 


Great  Salt  Lake.      The  Overland  Limited  or  Mormon 
Express  crossing  the  bridge  over  the  lake 


depth  of  20  ft.  Its  surface  elevation 
is  4,220  ft.  above  sea  level,  and  its 
area,which  varies  greatly,  according 
to  rainfall,  was  about  1,750  sq.  m. 
in  1850,  but  twenty  years  later  its 
size  had  increased  to  2,175  sq.  m. 

A  natural  salt  lake,  its  waters 
contain  about  13  p.c.  of  mineral 
salts,  principally  chloride  of  sodium, 
and  the  production  of  salt  by 
evaporation  is  a  considerable  indus- 
try. The  lake  is  fed  by  the  Bear, 
Jordan,  and  other  streams,  and 
through  the  Jordan  receives  the 
waters  of  Lake  Utah,  but  it  has 
no  outlet.  It  ia  remarkable  for  the 
fact  that  its  heavy  waters  do  not 
permit  the  human  body  to  sink. 
The  existence  of  the  lake  was  first 
reported  in  1689  by  Baron  La 
Hontan.  See  Salt  Lake  City. 

Great  Schism.  Period  from 
1378  to  1417  during  which  two 
rival  popes  claimed  each  to  be  the 
sole  head  of  the  Church.  In  1378 
Urban  VI  was  elected  pope,  the 
papal  court  having  just  returned 
to  Rome  after  its  exile  at  Avignon. 
Against  him  the  French  party 
elected  an  anti-pope,  Clement  VII. 
In  general  the  former  was  recog- 
nized by  all  Christendom  save 
France,  Scotland,  and  parts  of 
Germany  and  Italy  under  French 
influence.  Each  party  elected  suc- 
cessors on  the  deaths  of  the  two 
popes.  Various  attempts  to  heal 
the  breach  failed,  until  in  1415  the 
Council  of  Constance  ended  the 
schism  by  the  deposition  of  the 
anti-pope  John  XXIII.  The  right- 
ful pope,  Gregory  VII,  Urban' s 
successor,  resigned,  and  in  1417  a 
new  pope,  Martin  V,  was  elected 
and  recognized  by  both  parties. 
See  Constance,  Council  of  ;  Papacy. 

Great  Seal.  Emblem  of  sover- 
eignty, customarily  used  in  some 
monarchical  countries  when  the  will 
of  the  sovereign  is  expressed.  In  the 
United  Kingdom  a  new  seal  is 
made  at  the  beginning  of  each 
reign,  the  old  one  being  destroyed. 
Edward  the  Confessor  had  one, 
and  its  custody  was  entrusted  to 
the  chancellor.  Later  there  was  a 
separate  official  called  the  lord 
keeper,  who  was  responsible  for  the 


GREAT     SLAVE 


3664 


Great  Seal.  Facsimile  o!  the  two  sides  of  an  impression  of  the  great  seal  of  James  II. 
The  original  measures  5A  ins.  diameter 


seal.  But  since  the  accession  of 
George  III,  in  1760,  it  has  been  in 
the  keeping  of  the  lord  chan- 
cellor, although  occasionally  the 
office  has  been  placed  in  commis- 
sion. There  was  a  separate  seal 
for  Scotland  until  the  union  of 
1707.  See  Chancellor;  Seals. 

Great  Slave.  Lake  of  Canada, 
in  the  N.W.  Territories.  Its  area 
is  10,719  sq.  m.,  and  its  shape 
irregular.  It  is  about  300  m.  long 
and  of  varying  width  and  has 
several  bays ;  the  Slave  and  other 
rivers  flowinto  it,  and  theMackenzie 
carries  its  waters  to  the  Arctic. 

Great  Smoky  Mountains. 
Section  of  the  Appalachian  system, 
U.S.A.  They  extend  in  a  S.W.  to 
N.E.  direction  between  the  states  of 
TennesseeandNiCarolina,and  attain 
an  alt.  of  6,636  ft.  in  Mt.  Guyot. 

Great  Southern  and  Western 
Railway.  Irish  rly.  co.  The 
largest  in  the  country,  its  main 
line  runs  from 
Dublin  to  Cork 
and  Limerick, 
and  it  also  serves 
Athlone,  Water- 
ford,  Mallow, 
C 1  o  n  m  e  1,  Kil- 
kenny, Kill  arney, 
Kenmare,  Val- 
entia,  and  other 
towns  in  the 

S.  and  W.,  and  links  up  at  Rosslare 
with  the  G.W.R.  boat  service  from 
Fishguard.  Its  headquarters  are 
Kingsbridge  Terminus,  Dublin.  Its 
capital  is  £14,577,000,  and  its  total 
mileage  open  for  traffic,  1,130. 

Great  Wall,  THE.  Rampart 
constructed  in  the  reign  of  Tsui 
Shih  Hwangti  (246-209  B.C.)  as  a 
protection  against  the  incursions  of 
the  Tartars.  It  stretches  from 
beyond  Lanchow,  Kansu  province, 
in  the  W.  to  Chihli  province,  where 
it  ends  within  a  few  miles  of  the  sea 
at  Shanhaikwan,the  total  length  be- 
ing about  1 ,400  m.  Originally  from 
20  ft.  to  30  ft.,  with  towers  40  ft.  to 
50  ft.  high  at  intervals  of  200  yds., 
it  has  crumbled  away  to  a  low  mud 


G.S.  &  W.R.  of 
Ireland  arms 


wall  in  the  W.,  with  wide  gaps.  It 
is  best  preserved  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Peking.  See  China. 

Great  War.  Name  usually 
given  to  the  struggle  extending  to 
nearly  every  part  of  the  world  that 
opened  with  Austria's  attack  on 
Serbia  in  July,  1914,  and  ended 
with  Germany's  surrender  Nov.  11, 
1918.  In  this  Encyclopedia  its 
various  battles  are  described  under 
their  respective  headings  (see. 
Battle),  while  there  is  a  general 
account  of  the  whole  struggle  under 
War,  Great.  The  Great  War  is  the 
title  of  a  current  history  edited  by 
H.  W.Wilson  and  J.  A.  Hammerton 
that  appeared  weekly  during  the 
struggle.  It  created  a  record  for  a 
publication  of  this  kind,  running 
for  over  five  years,  and  was  com- 
pleted in  thirteen  large  volumes. 

Great  Western  Railway.  Eng 
lish  railway  company.  Founded  in 
1835,  its  first  line  was  from  London 
to  Bristol.  The  system  was  rapidly 
extended,  both 
byconstruc- 
ti°n  and  pur- 
chase, until  it 
became  the 
chief  line 
serving  the  W. 
of  England. 
Continuous  ex- 
tensions were 
made,  and  the 
line  now  serves 
Birmingham 
and  the^lidlands,  Devon  and  Corn- 
wall, Bristol  and  S.  Wales. 

The  company  has  a  steamboat 
service  to  Ireland,  Fishguard  to 
Rosslare,  opened  in  1906,  while  the 
Severn  Tunnel,  1887,  shortened 
the  journey  to  S.  Wales.  It 
has  greatly  developed  motor-bus 
services  as  feeders  to  the  lines, 
while  its  non-stop  to  Plymouth  and 
Torquay,  and  its  services  to  the 
Cornish  watering-places  are  among 
the  most  efficient  pieces  of  modern 
railway  management.  It  owns 
docks  at  Plymouth,  Birkenhead, 
and  elsewhere,  manages  the  har- 


CREDOS 

bour  at  Fishguard.  and  has  hotels. 
Its  mileage  is  2,996,  and  its  capital 
over  £100,000,000.  The  principal 
locomotive  and  carriage  works  are 
at  Swindon,  and  its  headquarters 
are  at  Paddington.  During  the 
Great  War  the  company  ran  33,615 
trains  for  the  forces,  of  which  5,000 
were  ambulance  trains.  .  In  the 
grouping  scheme  it  absorbed  vari- 
ous other  lines.  See  Railways. 

Greaves  (old  Fr.  greve,  shin- 
bone).  Armour  for  the  lower  part 
of  the  legs. 
Bronze  or 
pewter  greaves 
were  worn  by 
the  ancient 
Greeks  and 
Romans  (Gr. 
knemides,  Lat. 
ocrcae ).  In  me- 
dieval times 
they  were 
f req  uently 
richly  em- 
bossed and  or- 
namented. 
They  were 
lined  with 
some  soft 
material  and  fastened  by  ankle  rings 
and  straps.  See  Armour. 

Grebe  (Podiceps).  Genus  of 
diving  birds,  five  species  of  which 
occur  in  Great  Britain.  They  are 
remarkable  for  their  curiously 
lobed  feet,  rudimentary  tail,  and 
the  backward  position  of  the  legs 
which  causes  them  to  assume  on 


Greaves.        Mailed 

leg,       showing 

greave    between 

knee  and  ankle 


Grebe.    Great  crested  grebe  on  her 
nest  among  rushes 

land  an  upright  position  like  a  pen- 
guin. They  frequent  ponds  and 
lakes  in  summer,  and  some  go  to 
the  sea  in  winter.  The  little  grebe 
is  known  as  the  dabchick  (?.?>.). 

Greco,  EL.  Name  by  which  the 
painter  Domenico  Theotocopuli 
(g.v.)  is  generally  known. 

Gredos,  SIERRA  DE.  Mountain 
range  of  W.  Spain,  dividing  Old 
Castile  from  New  Castile  and  Estre- 
madura.  It  is  a  S.W.  continuation 
of  the  Sierra  de  Guadarrama,  and  is 
about  100  m.  in  length. 


GREECE 


GREECE 


GREECE:      IN     ANCIENT    TIMES    AND    TO-DAY 


HAMILTON  FYFE  and  A.  D.  INKES,  M.A. 

This  article  describes  the  existing  Stale  of  Greece,  saving  something  about  its  industrial  and  other 

activities.     Its  history  is  then  outlined,  while  articles  on  its  Art,  Law,  Literature,  and  Religion  follow. 

See  the  articles  on  Greek  statesmen,  both  ancient  and  modem,  e.g.  Pericles,  Themistocles,  and  Venizelos; 

and  those  on  Athens,  and  other  cities.   See  also  Alexander ;  Europe ;  Macedonia  ;  Sparta,  etc. 


Greece  lies  in  the  S.  of  the  Balkan 
Peninsula  with  a  very  long  coast- 
line to  the  Aegean  and  Ionian  Seas, 
including  a  number  of  islands  in  the 
Aegean  Sea  and  off  the  coast  of 
Asia  Minor. 

Its  superficial  area  is  larger  than 
that  of  England,  but  so  much  of  it 
is  mountainous  that  it  could  never 
support    a   large 
population.    The 
mountains, 
though  not  very 
high,   divide  the 
country     into    a 
number  of  small 
districts  between 
which  communi- 
Arms  of  Greece      cation  ig  difficuit. 

It  is  the  sea  which  links  up  the 
different  regions  of  Greece.  There 
are  no  long  rivers ;  most  of  them  dry 
up  in  summer.  There  are  many 
lakes  of  moderate  depth  ;  one  of  the 
largest,  Copais  in  Boaotia,  has  been 
drained  and  turned  into  a  most 
fertile  tract  of  land  by  a  British 
company.  There  are  only  a  few 
forests  and  little  wooded  country. 
The  climate  varies  considerably  ; 
generally  it  is  sub-tropical  on  the 
lower  levels,  and  subject  to  ex- 
tremes of  heat  and  cold.  Whether 
the  present  inhabitants  are  truly 
descended  from  the  ancient  Greeks 
is  disputed  by  many.  There  have 
been  so  many  invasions  of  the 
country,  both  warlike  and  peaceful, 
by  other  races,  chiefly  Slav,  that 
the  admixture  of  stocks  must  be 
considerable. 

Modern  Expansion 

Owing  to  its  recent  extension, 
it  is  a  very  much  larger  country 
than  was  ancient  Greece.  Before 
the  Great  War  it  already  covered 
nearly  42,000  sq.  m.  with  a  popula- 
tion of  nearly  5,000,000.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  Great  War  it  re- 
ceived a  large  part  of  the  Turkish 
province  of  Izmir  or  Smyrna  in 
Asia  Minor  (2,500,000  inhabitants 
and  21,000  sq.  m.)  and  western 
Thrace,  formerly  Bulgarian  and 
before  that  Turkish  (500,000  in- 
habitants, 2,500  sq.  m. ),  including 
the  whole  of  the  Aegean  seaboard 
in  Macedonia,  and  the  islands  of 
the  Dodecanese.  The  great  idea 
of  the  modern  Greeks,  a  vast 
dominion  including  Macedonia, 
Thrace,  Epirus,  Asia  Minor,  Crete, 
and  the  whole  of  the  Aegean 
Islands,  was  thus  to  a  large  extent 
realized. 

It  was  always  hoped  that  the 
capital  of  this  Greater  Greece 


Flag  of  Greece 
as  a  kingdom 


would  be  Constantinople,  and  many 
Greeks  still  cherish  this  ambition 
and  thus  regard  Bulgaria  as  "  the 
enemy,"  the  Bulgarians  being  the 
people  most  likely  to  dispute  with 
Greece  the  inheritance  of  the  Turk. 
This  Greek  idea  was  lor  the  time 
being  shattered  as  the  result  of  the 
treaty  of  Lausanne  (1923),  which 
gavVback  to  Turkey  much  tern- 
tory.  A  tide  of  emigration  to 
the  U.S.A.  set  in  during  the 
early  years  of  the  20th  century, 
and  after  the  Balkan  War  in  one 
year  (1913-14)  45,000  Greeks  left 
their  country.  Afterwards,  how- 
ever, the  drain  was  not  so  serious. 
Since  April  1924  Greece  has  been 
a  republic.  There  is  only  one 
legislative  chamber,  the  Boule  or 
chamber,  to  which  each  16,000  in- 
habitants return  one  member.They 
are  elected  for 
four  years,  and 
are  paid  £160 
a  year,  those 
who  live  in  the 
neighbour- 
hood of  the 
capital  receiv- 
ing rather  less. 
If  a  member 
is  absent  without  leave  on  more 
than  five  days  in  a  month,  he  is 
fined  17s.  6d.  for  each  sitting  that  he 
has  missed.  The  chamber  must  be 
in  session  for  at  least  three  months 
every  year  and  cannot  transact 
business  unless  one-third  of  its 
members  are  present.  Call-over  is 
taken  at  the  beginning  of  every 
sitting,  and  much  time  can  be 
wasted  by  obstructionists  who  de- 
mand frequent  counts.  There  is  a 
council  of  state,  but  its  functions 
are  judicial,  not  legislative,  and 
provisions  for  a  revision  of  the 
constitution. 

The  short  white  kilt  (fustaneUa) 
is  still  worn  by  a  great  many  of  the 
peasants,  though  in  the  country,  as 
in  the  towns,  the  fashion  of  wear- 
ing coats  and  trousers  and  hard 
felt  hats  is  spreading.  In  agricul- 
ture the  peasant  proprietors  and 
the  cultivators  who  work  on  the 
metayer  systems  are  mostly  back- 
ward. Few  have  adopted  deep  dig- 
ging as  a  means  of  keeping  mois- 
ture in  the  soil,  which,  in  so  dry  a 
climate  and  in  the  absence  of  rivers 
suitable  for  irrigation,  would  add 
much  to  the  yield  of  the  farms. 

The  chief  crop  is  that  of  currants, 
which  are  grown  on  a  very  large 
extent  of  land  and  exported  all  over 
the  world.  Olives  are  grown  exten- 


sively, tobacco  is  an  increasing 
crop,  and  wine  is  made  in  large 
quantities,  mainly  for  home  con- 
sumption, the  strong  flavour  of 
resin  in  most  of  it  making  it  un- 
pleasant to  anyone  not  accustomed 
to  this  peculiarity.  Only  about  one- 
fifth  of  the  country  is  worth  culti- 
vating by  present  methods.  The 
rest  is  mountainous  and  barren. 

Of  the  cultivated  lands  half  are 
given  up  to  growing  food  for  the 
population,  wheat,  barley,  rice,  and 
maize.  Many  peasants  eat  meat 
only  a  few  times  a  year,  on  festival 
occasions.  Where  meat  is  usual, 
lamb  is  the  universal  dish  ;  vege- 
tables are  apt  to  be  scarce  ;  rice  as 
an  ingredient  of  pilaff  is  very  com- 
mon ;  marrows  stuffed  with  rice 
and  meat  lend  variety ;  sweet- 
meats are  plentiful  in  some  dis- 
tricts ;  fruit  is  fairly  so,  since  figs 
and  oranges  grow  easily ;  wine  is 
drunk  everywhere. 

Railways  and  Steamers 

Until  1869  there  were  no  railway 
communications  in  the  country. 
Tricoupis  ardently  encouraged  their 
construction,  but  in  a  mountainous 
country  this  is  a  costly  business  and 
there  would  not  probably  for  a  long 
time  be  traffic  enough  to  make  new 
lines  pay.  There  are  good  steamer 
services  on  the  long  coast-line.  Most 
of  them  are  run  by  a  Scottish  firm 
which  is  known  all  over  Greece  as 
"  John,"  because  the  founder  bore 
the  name  of  John  MacDowell. 

The  Greeks  have  between  seven 
and  eight  hundred  trading  vessels, 
mostly  small,  for  coasting  and 
island  trade.  The  Corinth  canal, 
which  had  been  talked  about  for 
2,000  years,  was  completed  in  1893, 
but  for  a  long  time  it  was  not  used 
largely  and  Corinth  remained  less 
important  commercially  than  Pat- 
ras,  Volo,  Kalamata,  and  Larissa. 

Until  19l>3  the  chief  ports  vere 
Smyrna  and  Salonica,  the  latter 
acquired  after  the.  Balkan  War,  the 
former  allotted  to  the  Greeks  when 
the  Turkish  Empire  was  reduced 
by  the  Peace  Treaty  of  Sevres 
( 1920).  Of  the  other'  Greek  towns 
known  to  antiquity  Sparta  is  mo- 
dern and  featureless;  Thebes  pic- 
turesque, but  small  and  sleepy ; 
Laurium  is  disfigured  by  the  smoke- 
stacks and  the  spoil-banks  of  mines. 
Athens  is  the  only  centre  of  popu- 
lation, ancient  or  modern,  which 
can  lay  claim  to  the  title  of  "  city." 

When  it  became  the  capital  of 
the  new  kingdom  it  was  a  village, 
with  only  162  dwelling,'}  in  it.  Now 

F    fi 


GREECE 


Greece.    Map  of  the  ancient  divisions  and  cities  of  Hellas, 
with  the  classical  names  of  the  surrounding  seas 

it  has  a  population  of  175,000,  many 
fine  public  and  private  buildings, 
broad  boulevards,  and  the  famous 
Constitution  Square,  which  is  the 
heart  of  the  city  to  and  from  which 
flow  all  the  currents  of  its  life- 
blood.  It  is  a  mixture  of  old  and 
new.  The  roads  are  mostly  exe- 
crable and  very  dusty;  goats  are 
driven  through  the  streets  and 
milked  at  the  house-doors;  the 
bazaars  resemble  those  of  Cairo 
and  Constantinople.  Occasional 
tall  figures  in  costume  belonging  to 
the  past  mingle  with  the  throng  in 
European  clothes  to  remind  one 
that  in  far-away  districts  little  has 
been  changed. 

Street  Life  in  Athens 
The  Athenians  live  much  in  the 
open  air.  They  sit  outside  their 
numberless  cafe's  and  talk  politics 
interminably  over  cups  of  Turkish 
coffee,  with  glasses  of  water,  or  ices, 
or  mugs  of  Bavarian  beer.  The 
cries  of  newspaper-sellers  are  heard 
without  ceasing,  for  everyone 
wants  to  know  "  the  latest,"  just 
as  did  the  ancient  Athenians.  The 
Greeks  are,  as  a  nation,  anxious 
to  learn,  hungry  for  education, 
which  can  be  had  free  from  the 
elementary  school  right  up  to  the 
university.  The  teaching  given,  is 
inclined  to  be  too  purely  literary, 
which  creates  too  large  a  number 
of  young  men  desirous  of  becoming 
lawyers,  newspaper  writers,  and  offi- 
cials, instead  of  taking  to  industry 
or  commerce.  Attempts  have  been 
made  to  check  thia  tendency  by 
founding  technical  and  commercial 
schools.  Venizelos  took  up  in  1920 
a  plan  for  establishing  a  public 


school  on  the 
English  model  on 
one  ot  the  Greek 
islands. 

Among  most  of 
the  more  highly 
educated  religion 
is  either  nog- 
lectedor  kept  up 
merely  as  a  form. 
But  among  the 
peasantry  attach- 
ment to  the  Greek 
Churchisasstrong 
as  ever.  During 
the  struggle  for 
independence,  the 
heads  of  the 
Chr.rch  were  the 
leaders  of  the 
nation,  and  thi? 
tie  has  not  been 
dissolved,  though 
the  Church  has 
no  real  political 
importance.  The 
state  keeps  up  a 
connexion  with  it 
by  paying  the 
bishops;  they  re- 
ceive the  same  salary  as  members 
of  Parliament  (£160  a  year) ;  arch- 
bishops get  £200.  The  Moslem 
religious  leaders  are  also  paid  by 
the  State  to  avoid  injustice  to  the 
Mahomed  an  population. 

In  the  monasteries  strangers  are 
welcomed  and  hospitably  enter- 
tained ;  the  monks  are  usually 
more  intelligent  than  the  priests. 
Not  only  they,  but  all  the  country 
people  scrupulously  keep  the  many 
fasts  which  the  Church  ordains, 
and  live  for  numbers  of  week?  to- 
gether in  Advent,  in  Lent,  and  at 
other  seasons,  on  bread,  vegetables, 
olives,  fruit,  and  fish.  There  are 
small  communities  of  Roman 
Catholics  as  well  as  Moslems  scat- 
tered here  and  there. 

Birthdays  and  Weddings 
In  many  of  their  social  habits 
the  Greeks  retain  a  religious  flavour 
even  if  they  are  not  strictly  Ortho- 
dox in  their  opinions  and  prac- 
tice. For  instance,  they  make 
much  more  of  the  name-day  (the 
day  of  the  saint  after  whom  one  is 
called)  than  of  the  birthday  ;  and 
New  Year's  Day,  which  is  avChurch 
festival,  is  observed  by  all  as  an 
occasion  for  making  visits  and 
giving  presents.  Weddings,  on  the 
other  hand,  are  rather  social  than 
religious  in  their  character  ;  they 
are  celebrated  as  a  rule  in  private 
houses.  In  the  country  there  are 
still  kept  up  picturesque  and  in- 
teresting marriage  customs,  such 
as  that  in  Euboea,  where  brides 
smear  honey  on  the  doors  of  their 
new  homes  and  throw  pome- 
granates at  it  ;  if  seeds  stick 
in  the  honey,  happiness  may  be 


GREECE 

expected;  if  not,  heads  are  shaken. 
Both  in  the  villages  and  the 
towns,  and  also  among  the  Greeks 
who  live  abroad,  there  is  a  strong 
love  of  country,  so  perfervid  as 
to  be  quickly  stirred  up  to  aggres- 
siveness. Compulsory  service  is 
not  felt  as  a  hardship,  though  from 
his  twentieth  year  until  he  has 
passed  fifty  the  Greek  man  is  at 
the  beck  and  call  of  the  military 
authorities. 

Industrially  the  country  is  not 
likely  to  make  rapid  progress.  It 
has  some  2,000  factories,  but  they 
are  mostly  quite  small ;  cotton  is 
the  only  manufacture  on  a  large 
scale  ;  agriculturally  it  can  never 
be  rich.  Its  recent  acquisitions  are 
certainly  valuable,  but  heavy  tax- 
ation would  soon  provoke  discon- 
tent. What  wiser  and  cooler- 
headed  Greeks  see  is  that  their 
country  needs  a  long  period  of 
quiet  and  hard,  steady  work,  dur- 
ing which  it  can  consolidate  its 
conquests,  and  make  those  ad- 
vances in  civilization  which  will 
put  the  Greeks  among  the  pro- 
gressive nations  of  the  world. 

Hamilton  Pyfe 

ANCIENT  GREECE.  The  history  of 
ancient  Greece  may  be  more  cor- 
rectly called  the  history  of  the 
Hellenes.  It  is  the  story,  not  of 
that  part  of  Europe  now  called 
Greece,  nor  of  a  nation,  but  of 
a  people  never  united  as  a 
homogeneous  political  body,  yet 
always  conscious  of  a  spiritual 
unity,  full  of  diversities,  yet  shar- 
ing common  characteristics  which 
distinguished  them  all  and  set 
them  apart  from  all  other  races. 

All  that  was  most  characteristic 
of  the  race  was  indeed  concentrated 
and  consummated  in  one  little  state, 
hardly  bigger  than  the  county  of 
Kent,  upon  the  Greek  peninsula  ; 
but  Hellas,  the  Hellenic  area, 
covered  not  only  the  modern  king- 
dom of  Greece,  but  all  the  islands 
of  the  Aegean  Sea  and  the  western 
coast  of  Asia  Minor ;  while  the  Hel- 
lenic expansion  dominated  Sicily, 
occupied  the  ports  of  southern 
Italy,  and  planted  colonies  on  the 
African  coast,  and  as  far  W.  as 
Massilia,  the  modern  Marseilles. 
We  shall  use  the  term  Greece  for 
the  Greek  peninsula,  Hellas  for  the 
Hellenic  area,  and  Greater  Greece 
for  the  area  of  expansion. 
Minoan  Civilization 

Recent  investigations  and  ex- 
cavations lead  to  the  conclusion 
that  before  the  Hellenes  appeared 
on  the  scene  at  all,  an  earlier  race 
of  uncertain  origin,  having  the 
island  of  Crete  as  its  centre,  had 
attained  a  high  degree  of  civilization 
which  is  given  the  name  of  Minoan. 
About  the  15th  century  B.C.  the 
Hellenes  were  pushing  down  into 


GREECE 

Greece,  to  which  the  Minoan  civili- 
zation had  not  extended.  In  the 
13th  century  the  Minoans,  with 
their  superior  civilization,  ex- 
tended their  ascendancy  into  the 
southernmost  regions  reached  by 
the  advancing  Hellenes,  and  estab- 
lished what  is  called  the  Mycenean 
civilization  within  the  Moreca  or 
Peloponnesus. 

Achaeans  and  Hellenes 
The  most  inclusive  name  of  the 
Hellenes  at  this  era  was  Achaeans 
or  Danaans,  with  Aeolians  and 
lonians  as  subdivisions  About  the 
12th  or  llth  century,  a  new  and 
ruder  Hellenic  wave,  the  Dorian, 
rolled  down  from  the  N.W.  The 
Dorian  pressure  drove  first  the  nor- 
thern Aeolians,  and  then  the 
southern  lonians,  to  push  their 
way  across  the  islands  to  the  coasts 
of  Asia  Minor.  It  was,  however, 
only  in  the  S.,  in  the  eastern  Morea 
and  on  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth, 
that  the  Dorians  effected  a  con- 
quest, destroying  the  Minoan  as- 
cendancy, and  then  carrying  their 
arms  eastwards,  across  Crete  and 
the  southern  islands,  to  the  south- 
western coast  of  Asia  Minor. 

By  the  year  1000'  B.C.  Hellas 
had  formed  itself ;  Hellenes  were 
permanently  established  over  the 
whole  Hellenic  area— the  Greek 
peninsula,  the  islands  of  the  Aegean 
Sea,  and  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor. 
The  time  when  the  Hellenic  name 
superseded  Achaean  as  the  com- 
mon title  of  the  race  is  uncertain, 
but  it  was  manifestly  later  than 
the  shaping  of  the  two  great  epics 
of  Homer  (probably  in  the  9th 
century),  who  speaks  always  of 
Achaeans  and  Danaans,  not  of 
Hellenes.  The  7th  century  was  the 
era  of  the  Western  Hellenic  ex- 
pansion into  Sicily  and  Italy,  due 
to  the  fact  that  eastward  expan- 
sion was  blocked  by  geographical 
conditions.  Powerful  non-Hellenic 
kingdoms  were  already  estab- 
lished in  Asia  Minor,  against  which 
the  Hellenic  states  on  the  coast 
could  make  no  advance  across  the 
inland  hill-country. 

Geographical  Influences 

Geographical  conditions  deter- 
mined the  character  of  Hellenic 
political  development ;  on  the  one 
hand  preventing  political  unifica- 
tion, and  on  the  other  fostering  a 
high  degree  of  organization  in  the 
separate  political  units.  Every 
island  was  made  a  natural  unit  by 
the  sea ;  hill  ranges  cut  up  the 
mainland  into  small  areas,  isolated 
from  each  other,  generally  tending 
to  the  evolution  of  a  city  forming 
the  centre  of  an  agricultural  dis- 
trict which  became  a  political  unit 
where  the  concentrated  life  fostered 
a  vigorous  political  activity.  But 
the  Greeks,  having  no  common  foe, 


3667 

had  no  incentive  to  union  either  for 
self-defence  or  for  conquest,  the 
two  great  motives  to  unification. 

Nevertheless,  they  had  the  com- 
mon bond  of  religion  and  language, 
and  the  common  characteristics  of 
political  development  which  caused  ' 
them  to  feel  themselves  apart  from 
the  "  barbarians "  who  had  no 
share  in  their  religious  mysteries, 
and  were  politically  undeveloped. 
Thus,  under  normal  conditions,  to 
the  Greek  the  enemy  to  be  sus- 
pected was  the  rival  Greek  state  ; 
the  alien  was  the  citizen  of  a  rival 
.state. 

In  each  community  the  course  of 
political  development  followed  the 
same  lines  up  to  a  certain  point. 
From  the  earliest  times  each  little 
state  consisted  of  a  free  population 
of  tribesmen,  with  their  slaves — 
captives,  or  earlier  peoples  con- 
quered in  war ;  all  ruled  over  by 
an  hereditary  king,  controlled  or 
guided  by  a  'council  of  the  heredi- 
tary clan  chiefs  whose  families 
formed  an  aristocracy,  while  the 
people  periodically  assembled  for 
military  or  other  purposes  to  con- 
firm or  possibly  to  reject  the  more 
important  projects  designed  by 
their  rulers.  In  course  of  time  in 
every  state  except  Sparta,  which 
retained  the  kingship  under  pecu- 


ORSKCB 

established  a  dynasty  more  or  less 
permanent,  which  rested  upon  the 
employment  of  a  paid  soldiery. 
More  commonly  the  second  or 
third  generation  saw  the  forcible 
ejection  of  the  tyrant  and  the  re- 
covery of  political  control  by  the 
old  aristocratic  families  in  conjunc- 
tion with  wealthy  families  from  the 
commons,  who  established  an  oli- 
garchy; or  else  the  popular  party 
established  a  democracy. 

The  more  powerful  cities  usually 
exercised  a  certain  dominion  over 
a  group  of  their  weaker  neighbours, 
but  such  a  dominion  rarely  ex- 
tended over  so  wide  an  area  as  that 
of  an  average  English  county. 

Thus,  by  the  6th  century  B.C. 
Hellas  was  composed  of  a  great 
number  of  small  city  states,  most 
of  them  independent ;  though  the 
flourishing  and  wealthy  cities  of 
Asia  Minor,  while  remaining  auton- 
omous, had  been  compelled  to  ac- 
knowledge the  sovereignty  of  the 
Oriental  monarchy  of  Lydia.  The 
6th  century  was,  roughly  speaking, 
the  age  of  the  tyrants. 

The  Persian  Menace 

But  the  second  half  of  this  cen- 
tury saw  a  new  portent — the  crea- 
tion of  the  Persian  Empire  by 
Cyrus  (q.v.),  and  his  successors, 
Cambvses  and  Darius  (7 .?•.).  The 


Greece.     Restoration  of  the  temple  of   Demeter,   in  which  the  Eleusinian 
mysteries  were  celebrated 

lost  great  empires  of  the  ancient  world, 
Babylonian,  Assyrian,  or  Egyptian, 
had  never  touched  Europe,  and 


liar  conditions,   the  monarch 
his  hereditary  functions,  and  even 
if    the    royal    family    survived    it 
became  absorbed  among  the  other 
noble  houses. 

Then  came  a  period  of  struggle 
between  nobles  and  commons, 
usually  culminating  in  the  military 
success  of  a  noble  who,  having  suc- 
cessfully espoused  the  popular 
cause,  turned  his  victory  to 
account  by  assuming  a  monarchy, 
shorn,  however,  of  the  sacred 
character  originally  attaching  to 
the  institution.  To  these  monarchs 
the  Greeks  gave  the  name  of  iy- 
rannos,  tyrant,  or  rather  absolute 
ruler.  Here  and  there  a  tyrant 


never 

had  scarcely  penetrated  W.  of  the 
Taurus  Mountains.  B*ut  now  the 
Persians  and  Medes  from  beyond 
the  Euphrates  carried  their  do- 
minion first  over  the  whole  of  Asia 
Minor,  then  absorbed  the  Baby- 
lonian empire,  and  finally  swept 
into  Egypt  and  subjugated  it. 
The  conquest  of  Asia  Minor  meant 
that  the  Greek  cities  were  included 
in  the  great  provinces  or  satrapies 
organized  by  the  Persian  kings ; 
-and  when  Dariuls  crossed  into 
Europe,  513  B.C.,  and  conducted 
an  experimental  campaign  in  the 


GREECE 


3668 


GREECE 


Greece.     Map  ox  the  country  snowing  its  boundaries  as  Uennei  by  Treaty  ot  Lausanne, 


regions  N.  of  the  Danube,  Hellas 
became  conscious  of  the  existence 
of  an  entirely  new  menace. 

The  yoke  of  Persia  was  light; 
she  suffered  her  subject  peoples  to 
rule  themselves  after  their  own 
fashion  so  long  as  they  paid  their 
tribute  and  provided  contingents 
to  her  armies  when  called  upon. 
Nevertheless,  in  500  B.C.  the  Ionic 
cities  of  Asia  Minor  revolted  against 
their  satrap  and  called  upon  their 
kinsmen  across  the  sea  to  come  to 
their  aid.  The  revolt  was  crushed  ; 
but  aid  had  actually  been  sent  by 
Athens,  while  Sparta,  acknow- 
ledged by  the  Greek  states  of  the 
W.  as  the  premier  military  state, 
contented  herself  with  threats. 

Darius  sent  envoys  to  demand 
from  all  the  Hellenic  states  "  earth 
and  water,"  symbols  of  the  recog- 
nition of  Persia's  sovereignty. 
Many  took  prudence  to  be  the 
better  part  of  valcur,  and  yielded. 


Athens  and  Sparta  took  the  lead 
in  refusing  with  contumely.  The 
result  was  that  in  490  Darius  dis- 
patched an  expedition  which  was 
to  teach  the  Athenians  a  lesson, 
since  their  active  participation  in 
the  Ionic  revolt  had  excited  his 
particular  indignation.  Had 
Athens  elected  to  submit,  or  had 
she  been  wiped  out,  the  future  of 
the  world  would  in  all  probability 
have  been  entirely  changed  ;  but 
although  it  was  in  vain  that  she 
appealed  to  the  other  Greek  states, 
she  had  made  up  her  mind  to 
stand  for  freedom  at  all  costs.  The 
Persian  host  landed  on  the  plain  of 
Marathon ;  the  little  Athenian 
army,  supported  by  none  save  the 
loyal  city  of  Plataea,  hurled  the 
Persians  into  the  sea. 

The  glorious  victory  of  Marathon 
(490)  taught  the  Greeks  a  different 
lesson  from  that  which  Darius  had 
intended  ;  it  was  a  complete  de- 


monstration of  the  enormous  su- 
periority of  the  Greek  armament, 
discipline,  and  tactics  over  those  of 
the  Persians  ;  it  meant  that  Greek 
troops  well  led  could  hold  their  own 
against  Asiatics,  in  face  of  almost 
any  odds.  Ten  years  later  Xerxes, 
the  son  of  Darius,  having  resolved 
no  longer  to  tolerate  the  defiance  of 
his  power  by  the  insolent  Westerns, 
gathered  a  vast  army  and  fleet  to 
crush  their  resistance  once  for  all. 
But  in  the  meantime  Athens, 
guided  by  Themistocles,  had  de- 
voted herself  zealously  to  the  de- 
velopment of  her  fleet,  and  in  the 
face  of  the  vast  preparations  of 
Persia  the  other  Greek  states  had 
realized  that  they  must  either  fight 
by  the  side  of  Athens  or  perish. 

Even  then  the  selfishness  of  the 
southern  Dorians  made  them  re- 
luctant to  advance  be}7ond  the 
Isthmus  of  Corinth,  which  could  be 
made  impregnable.  Still,  the  fear 


GREECE 

that  Athens  might  be  compelled  to 
make  her  own  terms,  involving  at 
least  the  withdrawal  of  her  fleet 
and  the  exposure  of  Peloponnesus 
to  attack  from  the  sea,  drove  the 
Spartans,  to  whom  the  control  of 
the  land  forces  were  assigned,  to 
occupy  first  the  northern  pass  of 
Tempe,  and  when  it  was  found  that 
that  could  be  turned,  the  nearer 
pass  of  Thermopylae. 

Even  then  nothing  more  than 
the  advance  guard  bad  been  sent, 
while  the  forces  of  the  Athenians 
and  their  island  allies  were  on  the 
fleets  which  were  engaged  in  hold- 
ing the  Persian  navies  at  bay.  The 
Greek  position  was  turned  at  Ther- 
mopylae; and  Leonidas,  having 
dismissed  the  major  portion  of  his 
troops,  fell  at  the  head  of  his  three 
hundred  Spartans,  winning  thereby 
immortal  renown,  but  not  saving 
Hellas.  The  Persians  overran  At- 
tica, but  the  Athenians  drew  the 
fleets  of  the  Barbarians  into  the 
great  naval  engagement  in  the  bay 
of  Salamis  (480)" where  they  were 
annihilated. 


Then  at  last,  though  again  only 
under  threat  of  the  Athenian  with- 
drawal, Sparta  prepared  for  a  vig- 
orous offensive  against  the  still 
vast  army  which  Xerxes  yet  re- 
tained in  Greece,  an  army  which 
was  finally  and  utterly  shattered  in 
479  at  Plataea ;  while  the  coup 
de  grace  was  simultaneously  ad- 
ministered to  the  Persian  navy  on 
the  Asiatic  coast  at  Mycale.  At  the 
same  time  the  Hellenes  in  Sicily 
under  Gela,  tyrant  of  Syracuse, 
broke  another  Oriental  wave  by 
a  crushing  defeat  of  the  Cartha- 
ginians at  Himera  in  480. 

The  importance  of  these  years  to 
the  history,  not  only  of  Greece,  but 
of  the  world  can  hardly  be  over- 
estimated. They  saw  the  first  grand 
collision  between  Orientalism  and 
the  vital  spirit  of  Western  civiliza- 
tion. The  triumph  of  Persia  would 
have  turned  Athens  into  another 
Tyre  at  the  best ;  the  triumph  of 
the  Greeks  made  her  the  Athens  of 
Pericles,  Aeschylus,  Sophocles,  Eu- 
ripides, and  Pheidias,  the  mother  of 
Socrates  and  Plato. 


GREECE 

Of  all  the  Greek  states,  Athens 
had  the  most  to  giin  by  a  tame 
submission,  the  most  to  suffer 
through  a  bold  defiance  whatever 
the  result  might  be,  the  most  to 
lose  hy  defeat.  She  staked  all  and 
saved  her  soul,  and  thereby  saved 
the  soul  of  Europe.  If  Persia  had 
won,  Greece  would  have  been 
emasculated,  the  Oriental  tide 
would  have  rolled  on  into  Sicily, 
and  Italy,  Rome,  at  that  time 
"  mewing  her  mighty  youth  " 
would  have  been  submerged,  the 
very  conception  of  political  liberty 
would  have  been  blotted  out.  Nor 
is  it  to  be  believed  that,  if  this.  Had 
befallen,  Greek  thought  and  Greek 
conceptions  of  art  would  have 
attained  to  anything  like  that 
development  which  during  the  next 
century  and  a  half  gave  the  Greeks 
that  supremacy  which  has  ever 
since  influenced  the  world. 

In  490  the  great  majority  of  the 
Greeks  probably  believed  that  re- 
sistance to  the  power  of  Persia  was 
all  but  hopeless.  In  479  the  Greek 
attitude  had  become  altogether 


Greece.     Types  of  the  inhabitants.     1.  Man  from  Andravidha.     2.    Shepherd  of  Morea  in  winter  coat  of  straw.     3. 
Mahomedan  peasant.     4.  Man  from  Dhmiyizana.     5.  Gendarme  of  Samos.      6.  Bride  in  costume  of  Patmos.   7.  Peasant 

woman  of  Morea.     8.  Woman  of  Corinth 


GREECE 

different.  There  was  a  widespread 
disposition  to  follow  up  the  great 
victories  and  to  strike  at  Persia 
herself.  For  such  an  enterprise 
the  first  necessity  was  the  whole- 
hearted unity  of  Hellas.  To  rout 
the  Persian  navy  on  the  sea,  and  to 
shatter  Persian  armies  on  Greek 
soil,  was  one  thing ;  to  invade  the 
Persian  empire  was  somewhat  as 
though  England  should  project  an 
invasion  of  Europe,  as  far  as  the 
magnitude  of  the  task  was  con- 
cerned ;  but  we  should  have  to 
think  of  England  as  though  every 
county  was  a  separate  sovereign 
state  with  no  central  English 
government. 

Obstacles  to  Unity 

The  difficulties  in  the  way  of 
united  action  were  greater  than 
those  of  the  thirteen  American 
colonies  when  they  opposed  them- 
selves to  the  power  of  the  Mother 
Country.  A  real  continuous  unity 
of  action  was  only  possible  of 
attainment  under  the  direction  of 
one  recognized  and  unquestioned 
control.  Despite  what  Athens  had 
done,  Sparta,  not  Athens,  was  the 
only  state  to  which  the  rest  were 
willing  to  concede  a  priority  ;  but 
though  the  Spartan  troops  were  ad- 
mittedly of  the  best,  Sparta  herself 
was  quite  unfitted  for  the  task  of 
organizing  a  united  Hellas, 

Sparta  remained  inert  and 
apathetic,  and  when  it  was  left  to 
Athens  to  take  the  lead,  continen- 
tal Greece  held  aloof,  though  the 
maritime  states  formed  the  Delian 
League  (see  Delos)  under  the  Athe- 
nian presidency.  But  a  naval 
league  could  not  do  the  work. 

Before  five  and  twenty  years  had 
passed  the  dream  of  a  war  of  ag- 
gression had  in  effect  faded  away, 
and  the  Greek  states  had  fallen  back 
into  the  old  attitude  of  mutual 
hostilities  and  jealousies,  though 
with  this  difference,  that  they  were 
now  grouped  roughly  either  as 
allies  or  dependents  of  Sparta  or  as 
allies  or  dependents  of  Athens.  For 
Athens,  through  the  Delian  League, 
was  founding  a  sort  of  maritime 
empire.  At  its  first  formation  the 
states  of  the  league  had  main- 
tained the  navy  of  the  league  by 
providing  contingents  of  ships  and 
men  ;  when  they  were  permitted  to 
substitute  money  payments,  the 
ships  and  men  were  supplied  by 
Athens,  so  that  the  navy  of  the 
league  became  virtually  the  navy 
of  Athens,  and  the  enormously  in- 
creased power  of  Athens  excited 
the  jealousy  of  every  other  state, 
but  especially  that  of  the  Spartans. 

A  further  cause  of  dissension  lay 
in  the  fact  that  in  almost  every 
Greek  state,  whether  the  govern- 
ment was  oligarchical  or  demo- 
cratic, there  existed  the  two  oligar- 


3670 

chical  and  democratic  parties  in 
fierce  antagonism.  Oligarchical 
states  favoured  Sparta,  while 
democratic  states  favoured  Athens; 
but  the  antagonistic  party  in  each 
state  always  hoped  to  effect  a  revo- 
lution with  the  aid  of  either  Athens 
or  Sparta. 

The  Peloponnesian  War 

The  result  was  that,  nearly  fifty 
years  after  the  Persian  debacle, 
almost  all  Hellas  was  involved  in 
the  great  conflict  between  Athens 
and  Sparta,  which  is  called  the 
Peloponnesian  War.  The  struggle 
opened  in  431.  After  ten  years  it 
was  suspended,  the  advantage  on 
the  whole  lying  with  Athens,  whose 
naval  supremacy  was  unequivo- 
cally established  ;  but  an  ill-judged 
attempt  to  extend  her  imperial 
sway  by  a  great  expedition  to 
Sicily  ended  in  a  tremendous  dis- 
aster. Sparta  seized  her  oppor- 
tunity to  renew  hostilities,  and 
though  for  a  long  time  Athens  held 
her  own,  a  monstrous  blunder  at 
last  enabled  the  Spartans  to  cap- 
ture or  destroy  the  greater  part  of 
her  fleet  at  Aegospotami,  and  bring 
the  war  to  a  decisive  conclusion, 
with  Spartan  supremacy  com- 
pletely established  in  404. 

The  next  twenty  years  demon- 
strated the  inherent  incapacity  of 
Sparta  for  political  organization  ; 
she  could  not  rise  above  the  con- 
ception of  a  Spartan  dictatorship, 
a  military  tyranny.  A  new  ad- 
versary arose  when  Thebes  broke 
from  her  sway,  and,  under  the 
leadership  of  Epaminondas  de- 
feated her  armies  at  Leuctra  in 
371,  and  created  a  brief  Theban 
ascendancy  which,  however,  did 
not  long  survive  the  death  of  the 
great  captain  at  the  battle  of  Man- 
tinea  in  362. 

Athens,  though  she  had  re- 
covered much  of  her  old  strength, 
was  still  in  no  position  to  renew 
her  bid  for  the  leadership  of 
Greece.  But  a  claimant  for  that 
position  now  appeared  in  a 
quarter  which  had  hitherto  been 
regarded  as  at  best  semi-Hellenic. 
On  the  N.  of  Greece  lay  Mace- 
donia, a  loosely  organized  king- 
dom which  had  scarcely  passed 
beyond  the  tribal  system.  The 
royal  family,  however,  claimed  a 
pure  Hellenic  descent.  In  359  the 
Macedonian  crown  passed  to 
Philip,  who  was  spending  his  boy- 
hood virtually  as  a  hostage  in 
Thebes.  He  returned  to  Macedon 
to  apply  there  the  political  and 
military  lessona  which  he  had 
absorbed. 

With  excellent  military  material 
ready  to  his  hand,  he  shaped  his 
Macedonians  into  a  highly  dis- 
ciplined army  instead  of  a  loose 
congeries  of  clan  levies  ;  inter- 


GREECE 

vened  in  the  affairs  of  the  Greeks  ; 
posed  as  the  champion  of  Hel- 
lenism in  punishing  for  an  act  of 
sacrilege  the  northern  state  of 
Phocis,  which  but  for  his  appear- 
ance might  have  made  a  successful 
bid  for  a  military  supremacy  ; 
and  then  virtually  compelled  the 
whole  of  Greece  not  only  to  re- 
cognise Macedon  as  an  Hellenic 
state,  but  to  acknowledge  him  as 
the  elected  leader  of  Hellas,  the 
captain  of  its  armies  in  the  revived 
project  of  an  Hellenic  war  upon 
Persia. 

The  entry  of  Macedon  upon  the 
Hellenic  stage  was  in  itself  a  tre- 
mendous revolution,  for  her  or- 
ganized military  resources  were 
more  than  a  match  for  those  of 
any  casual  combination  of  the 
Greek  states.  Unlike  the  Per- 
sians, Philip  could  with  his  Mace- 
donians apply  all  that  the  Greeks 
knew  of  the  art  of  war,  all  that 
had  made  them  a  match  for  ten 
times  their  number  of  Asiatics. 
The  moment  had  actually  come 
when  under  Macedonian  pressure 
Hellas  might  have  been  unified  as 
a  military  empire.  But  in  336 
Philip  was  assassinated  and  his 
crown  passed  to  his  son,  Alexander 
the  Great,  a  lad  of  twenty. 
Alexander  the  Great 

For  a  moment  the  older  states 
thought  they  could  shake  them- 
selves free  of  the  new  domination  ; 
the  terrific  energy  of  the  voung 
king  soon  undeceived  them.  A 
revolt  headed  by  Thebes  was 
crushed,  and  Alexander  forth- 
with took  up  the  projected  task  of 
hurling  the  West  against  the  East. 
In  eleven  momentous  years  (334- 
323)  he  brought  the  whole  of  what 
had  been  the  Persian  empire  under 
his  dominion  (See  Alexander  the 
Great),  bursting  even  through  the 
mountain  gateways  of  India  ;  but 
his  mighty  career  was  cut  short 
when  he  was  no  more  than  thirty- 
three  years  of  age  in  323  B.C. 

In  the  midst  of  his  tremendous 
and  unparalleled  activities  as  a 
conqueror  and  leader  of  armies, 
the  genius  of  Alexander  had  not 
failed  either  to  provide  temporary 
organization  of  his  conquests  or 
to  indicate  the  scheme  for  per- 
manent structure.  The  barrier 
between  East  and  West,  between 
Oriental  and  Hellenic,  was  to  be 
broken  down.  The  two  were  to  be 
fused,  each  giving  of  its  best  to  the 
other.  Not  only  in  Egypt  but 
in  Afghanistan  and  Turkistan 
arose  cities  which  took  from  him 
the  name  of  Alexandria,  cities 
where  Greeks  and  Macedonians 
were  planted  for  the  diffusion  of 
Hellenic  civilization  ;  Greeks  were 
settled  even  in  the  Punjab.  But 
his  dream  of  a  universal  empire 


GREECE 

which  was  to  be  fused  into  homo- 
geneity was  not  destined  to  be  ac- 
complished. 

Dying  with  no  son  to  succeed 
him,  he  left  the  vast  dominion  to 
be  striven  for  among  his  generals, 
with  the  result  that  after  a  few 
years  it  had  fallen  into  five  main 
divisions,  in  Europe,  in  Asia  Minor, 
in  Egypt,  in  Syria,  and  in  the  re- 
mote East  beyond  the  Euphrates. 
In  the  four  Oriental  divisions 
Hellenism  was  only  an  exotic  ;  a 
foreign  influence,  an  atmosphere 
which  surrounded  Macedonian  and 
Greek  dynasts,  which  left  its  traces 
but  was  never  absorbed  into  the 
soil.  And  Alexander,  failing  to 
fuse  East  and  West,  failed  no  less 
to  fuse  Hellas.  The  Hellas  he  led 
was  still  only  a  congeries  of  small 
states  forced  into  alliance  and 
dominated  by  Macedon.  So  it  re- 
mained after  he  was  gone. 
Athens  and  Antipater 

Alexander  was  no  sooner  dead 
than  Athens  took  the  lead  in 
forming  a  league — from  which  as 
a  matter  of  course  Sparta  and 
others  stood  apart — for  throwing 
off  the  Macedonian  yoke  ;  but, 
after  some  initial  success  against 
Antipater,  the  regent  whom  Alex- 
ander had  left  in  Macedonia,  in 
what  is  known  as  the  Lamian  war, 
the  league  was  virtually  dissolved 
by  Antipater's  diplomacy.  Then 
followed  the  period  of  the  strug- 
gles for  supremacy  between  Alex- 
ander's generals,  which  finally  set- 
tled on  the  Macedonian  throne  the 
dynasty  of  Antigonus  in  278. 

The  last  of  his  rivals  was 
Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epirus  ;  but  the 
career  of  that  brilliant  military 
adventurer,  who  perished  in  the 
contest  with  Antigonus,  had  scarce- 
ly any  influence  on  the  story  of 
Greece.  The  Macedonian  kingdom 
exercised  no  recognized  authority 
over  the  Greek  states,  though  it 
enforced  an  effective  domination 
wherever  only  an  isolated  resist- 
ance was  offered.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  Antigonus  secured  his  ascen- 
dancy by  setting  up  a  tyrannos 
who  was  a  creature  of  his  own  in 
most  of  the  states. 

Nevertheless,  it  was  at  this  stage, 
about  the  middle  of  the  third  cen- 
tury B.C.,  that  there  arose  among 
those  minor  states  which  had 
never  claimed  a  leading  position, 
the  conception  of  a  free  federation 
of  self-governing  states,  bound 
together  for  purposes  of  foreign 
policy.  In  the  Peloponnesian  dis- 
trict "which  still  bore  the  ancient 
name  of  Achaea,  and  in  Aetolia, 
facing  Achaea,  on  the  northern 
side  of  the  gulf  of  Corinth,  arose 
the  Achaean  and  Aetolian  leagues 
ot  cities,  which  began  by  expelling 
the  tyrants  who  had  been  imposed 


3671 

upon    them,    and    assisting    their 
neighbours  to  do  likewise. 

Leagues  of  the  3rd  Century 

Each  of  the  leagues  was  orga- 
nized with  what  might  be  called  a 
central  federal  council  with  a 
common  commander-in-chief,  and 
one  or  other  was  quickly  joined  by 
most  of  the  more  vigorous  cities, 
though  Sparta  obstinately  stood 
aloof.  Had  the  Greeks  in  the  day  of 
their  greatest  glory  been  able  to 
rise  to  the  conception  of  an  Hel- 
lenic federation  in  which  every 
state  would  be  ready  to  subordi- 
nate its  particular  interests  to  the 
common  good,  there  might  con- 
ceivably have  been  a  true  union 
and  fusion  of  Hellas.  But  now  it 
was  too  late.  The  leagues  were 
jealous  of  each  other,  and  Sparta 
was  jealous  of  both,  while  both 
were  jealous  of  Sparta. 

Greater  Hellas  in  the  W.  had 
never  been  in  close  touch  with 
Hellas  proper  since  the  episode  of 
the  Athenian  expedition  to  Sicily. 
Then  the  old  struggle  with  Car- 
thage had  been  renewed,  which  in 
the  third  century  was  merged  in  the 
struggle  between  Carthage  and 
Rome.  This  tremendous  contest 
was  brought  to  a  decisive  issue  in 
the  second  Punic  War  (218-201),' 
which  began  at  the  moment 
when  Eastern  Hellas  was  split  up 
between  Macedon,  Sparta,  and  the 
two  leagues.  Philip  V  of  Macedon, 
unfortunately  for  himself,  hoped 
to  strengthen  his  own  position  by 
alliance  with  the  Carthaginian 
Hannibal,  which  brought  down 
upon  him  the  wrath  of  Rome  as 
soon  as  she  felt  herself  free  to 
extend  her  activities. 

Greek  States  and  Macedon 

•The  Greek  states  were  divided 
generally  into  those  hostile  to 
Macedon,  and  those  which  favoured 
her,  and  individually  into  parties 
which  followed  the  same  line. 
But  the  first  result  was  that  Philip 
was  beaten  by  the  Romans,  who 
proceeded  to  declare  the  liberation 
of  Greece  from  the  Macedonian 
yoke  (196).  But  though  Rome  ab- 
stained from  assuming  a  formal 
sovereignty,  it  was  obvious  that 
her  domination  had,  as  a  matter 
of  fact,  taken  the  place  of  that  of 
Macedon,  whose  king  had  been 
made  a  dependent  of  the  republic. 

Rome  had  rewarded  the  states 
which  favoured  her  at  the  expense 
of  those  which  supported  Macedon; 
but  the  one  group  considered  their 
gains  inadequate,  while  the  other 
considered  that  they  had  been 
robbed.  Consequently,  as  soon  as 
Philip's  successor,  Perseus,  sought 
to  throw  off  the  Roman  domina- 
tion he  received  moral  support  from 
many  quarters,  though  no  material 
aid.  He  was  decisively  crushed  at 


GREECE 

the  battle  of  Pydna,  in  168,  and 
Macedon  was  partitioned  into  a 
group  of  republics.  It  -was  natural 
that  Rome  should  assume  a  dic- 
tatorial tone  towards  the  states 
whose  conduct  she  felt  justified  in 
resenting,  and  that  those  states  in 
their  turn  should  resent  her 
haughty  attitude.  Again  the 
natural  results  followed — attempt- 
ed defiance  crushed  by  overwhelm- 
ing force,  and  the  pronouncement 
that  since  the  Greeks  persisted  in 
misusing  their  liberty,  they  must 
lose  it.  The  last  hopeless  effort  for 
Greek  independence  expired  with 
the  siege  and  capture  of  Corinth, 
in  146,  when  Greece  was  swallowed 
up  in  the  Roman  Empire. 
Greece  and  Rome 

Greece  fell,  but  in  falling,  in  part 
at  least,  conquered  the  conqueror. 
The  Greek  spirit  and  the  Roman 
spirit  were  poles  apart ;  but  if  the 
Roman  had  in  him  something 
which  the  Greek  lacked,  he  was 
nevertheless  conscious  that  the 
Greek  compelled  his  admiration  by 
some  quality  in  which  he  was 
himself  deficient,  and  set  himself 
painfully  to  the  sincere  flattery  of 
imitation  ;  an  imitation  not  always 
discriminating,  and  not  always 
successful.  Roman  literature  and 
Roman  art  became  palpably  the 
product  of  effort  to  reproduce 
Greek  literature  and  Greek  art, 
seldom  more  than  half  understood. 

The  Roman  formulated  his 
canons  from  the  Greek  examples, 
often  without  grasping  what  was 
fundamental,  and  what  was  acci- 
dental, thereby  creating  the  classi- 
calism  by  which  he  himself  was 
hidebound;  departing,  however,  en- 
tirely from  the  essential  Romanti- 
cism of  the  Greek  in  the  great  days 
of  Greece,  when  the  most  vigorous 
individuality  had  sought  its  own 
expression,  and  by  its  triumphant 
success  made  individuality  there- 
after afraid  of  itself.  But  if  it 
was  in  the  main,  not  the  spirit  of 
Greece,  but  the  form  in  which  it 
had  clothed  itself,  that  the  Roman 
sought  "to  assimilate,  there  was 
yet  some  infusion  even  of  the  spirit 
which  may  be  felt  in  the  work  of 
the  greatest  of  the  Roman  poets. 

This  sketch  of  the  political 
history  of  the  Hellenes  shows  how 
the  conditions  which  fostered  an 
extraordinary  and  unparalleled  vi- 
tality in  individual  communities, 
actually  prevented  their  fusion  into 
a  greater  homogeneous  political 
organization,  so  that  they  never 
shaped  into  a  nation  exercising  an 
imperial  sway  over  other  peoples. 
The  function  of  Hellenism  was  not, 
like  that  of  Rome,  to  conquer  and 
control  the  world,  but  to  educate 
it,  and  to  inspire  its  ideals. 

A.  D.  Innes 


GREECE 

From  this  time  until  the  begin- 
ning of  the  19th  century,  Greece 
was  but  a  district  under  alien  rule. 
By  conquest  it  became  part  of  the 
Roman  empire,  but  except  perhaps 
at  Corinth  few  changes  were  made 
by  the  conquerors.  For  a  time  the 
cities  were  self-governing  as  before, 
subject  only  to  the  authority  of  the 
Roman  governor  in  Macedonia. 

Some  of  the  Greeks  assisted 
Mithradates  in  his  struggle  against 
Roma  that  began  in  88  B.C.,  while 
Greece  was  a  battleground  in  the 
civil  strife  in  which  Julius  Caesar 
was  the  central  figure.  Under 
Augustus  and  the  early  emperors 
conditions  were  more  settled,  and 
this  was  the  age  in  which  Greek 
thought  and  culture  mainly  exer- 
cised its  powerful  influences  upon 
Rome.  The  province  of  Achaea 
was  set  up  to  include  most  of 
southern  Greece,  while  steps  were 
taken  to  form  some  bond  of  union 
between  the  cities.  Hadrian  did  a 
good  deal  for  the  country  in  various 
ways.  In  the  3rd  century  Greece 
was  invaded  by  the  Goths,  but  the 
Romans  drove  them  out.  Later  it 
suffered  in  the  same  way  from  the 
Visigoths.  Christianity  made  slow 
progress,  for  the  cultured  pagans  of 
Athens  were  less  susceptible  to  it 
than  the  northern  barbarians. 
Under  the  Eastern  Empire 

When  the  Roman  empire  was 
divided,  Gre3ce  fell  to  the  eastern  or 
Byzantine  portion  and  the  lan- 
guage and  influence  of  Greece  were 
dominant  at  Constantinople.  A 
succession  of  invaders  entered  the 
land  and  a  number  of  Slavs  settled 
therein,  but  on  the  whole  the 
eastern  emperors  looked  well  to  its 
defence.  The  dispute  about  the 
worship  of  images  caused  trouble 
and  bloodshed.  In  the  10th  century 
the  Bulgarians  invaded  Greece,  but 
they  were  severely  beaten  in  995. 
More  momentous  was  the  advent 
of  the  Normans  from  Sicily  and  of 
the  Venetians. 

In  1204  the  Byzantine  empire 
collapsed  and  Greece  passed  to  the 
Latin  empire  of  Romania.  That 
only  lasted  until  1261,  from  which 
date  until  the  arrival  of  the  Turks 
the  country  was  ruled  by  Frank 
and  other  .foreign  nobles,  first 
drawn  eastward  by  the  Crusades. 
These  rulers,  called  despots,  divi- 
ded between  them  most  of  the 
country,  while  the  Venetians  had  a 
foothold  on  the  coast  and  islands. 
None  of  the  dynasties,  however, 
succeeded  in  establishing  them- 
selves firmly,  and  in  150  years  or  so 
the  emperor  at  Byzantium  was  once 
more  master  of  Greece.  He,  how- 
ever, fell  before  the  Turks  in  1453, 
and  a  few  years  after  the  fall  of  Con- 
stantinople the  sultan  conquered 
practically  the  whole  of  the  land. 


By  the  Turk  Greece  was  divided, 
apart  from  the  islands,  into  six  san- 
jaks.  His  rule  was  arbitrary  and  at 
times  brutal,  but  not  consistently 
oppressive.  Greece  was  obviously, 
affected  by  the  series  of  wars  be- 
tween the  sultan  and  Venice.  By 
1570  the  former  had  made  his 
mastery  complete,  but  after  Le- 
panto  the  tide  began  to  turn,  and 
in  1699  the  Morea  was  surrendered 
to  the  republic,  but  it  was  recon- 
quered in  1715.  The  rise  of  the 
Russian  power  was  the  next 
external  event  that  affected  the 
fortunes  of  Greece,  and  this  led  at 
length  to  freedom  from  Turkish  rule. 

A.  W.  Holland 

The  history  of  Moc'em  Greece 
begins  with  the  war  of  Indepen- 
dence, one  of  the  overflowings 
of  national  sentiment  caused  by  the 
French  Revolution.  It  met  with 
general  sympathy  hi  Europe.  The 
insurgents  were  assisted  by  large 
loans ;  and  the  transference  of  the 
chief  naval  and  military  com- 
mands to  British  volunteers,  Lord 
Dundonald  and  Sir  Richard  Church, 
helped  to  bring  the  long  and  fluc- 
tuating contest  to  an  end.  But  it 
was  only  settled  by  the  interven- 
tion of  the  Great  Powers,  Britain, 
•France,  and  Russia,  which  first  by 
diplomacy  and  then  by  arms  as- 
sisted the  Greeks  to  establish  an 
independent  state. 

The  Bavarian  prince  Otto  was 
invited  to  become  king  of  the 
Hellenes,  but  his  despotic  methods 
and  the  employment  of  Bavarians 
only  in  government  offices  soon 
made  him  disliked.  The  Greek 
politicians,  kept  out  of  office,  turned 
their  energies  to  stirring  up  trouble; 
in  1843  the  king  was  forced  to 
grant  a  constitution  and  to  dismiss 
his  Bavarian  advisers.  But  he 
neither  grew  in  popularity  nor  was 
he  able  to  secure  good  government 
for  the  country,  which  needed 
above  all  things  a  period  of  rest. 
Instead  it  was  plunged  into  political 
struggles,  in  which  the  Great  Powers 
took  sides. 

British  Intervention 

Twice  British  warships  were  sent 
to  threaten  Piiaeus,  the  port  of 
Athens  ;  the  first  time  to  enforce 
payment  of  interest  on  a  loan  ar- 
ranged in  London  ;  the  second 
time  to  support  the  doubtful 
claims  to  compensation  put  for- 
ward by  a  certain  Don  Pacifico,  a 
Portuguese  who  called  himself  a 
British  subject.  Again,  during  the 
Crimean  War,  when  Greek  sym- 
pathies flowed  towards  Russia, 
foreign  warships  were  sent  into 
Greek  waters.  This  so  intensified 
the  unpopularity  of  the  king  that 
a  few  years  later  he  was  deposed, 
and  the  crown  offered  to  the 
duke  of  Edinburgh.  But  Britain 


GREECE 

had  agreed  with  France  and 
Russia  that  neither  she  nor  they 
would  put  a  prince  upon  the 
throne,  so  the  Greeks  had  to  look 
elsewhere.  They  found  a  (lerman- 
Dane  who  in  1863  became  king  as 
George  I. 

At  first  he  was  warmly  welcomed, 
the  more  so  because  Britain  took 
the  opportunity  to  please  the 
Greeks  by  restoring  to  them  the 
seven  islands  of  the  Ionian  Sea 
which  had  for  a  number  of  years 
been  under  British  influence.  But 
the  strife  of  parties  which  has 
always  hindered  the  progress  of 
modern  Greece  became  more  and 
more  violent.  The  king  was  drawn 
into  it.  He  was  obliged  to  dismiss 
his  principal  adviser,  a  German, 
whom  he  had  brought  with  him  ; 
and  to  agree  to  changes  in  the  con- 
stitution which  put  the  whole 
power  of  control  into  the  hands  of  a 
single  legislative  chamber,  and 
went  further  in  the  direction  of 
democracy  than  any  other  state 
at  that  time. 

Financial  Difficulties 

There  was  little  difference  be- 
tween the  parties  which,  headed 
by  Triccupis  and  Delyannis,  fol- 
lowed one  another  hi  and  out  of 
office  for  many  years.  No  great 
principles  divided  them,  no  mea- 
sures of  capital  importance  were  in 
dispute.  They  played  the  political 
game  for  its  own  sake  ;  not  gener- 
ally even  for  what  they  could  get 
out  of  it,  but  for  the  satisfaction  of 
their  combative  instincts  and  their 
desire  to  exercise  authority.  What- 
ever laws  were  passed  by  one  side 
were  usually  repealed  as  soon  as 
the  other  side  regained  power. 

Their  frequent  reversion  to  this 
form  of  militarist  fury  brought 
them  into  financial  difficulties ; 
they  could  not  pay  the  interest  on 
their  national  debt,  and  in  1893 
Tricoupis,  worn  out  by  incessant 
efforts  to  keep  his  countrymen  on 
the  path  of  economy  and  good 
sense,  proposed  to  repudiate  a  large 
part  of  their  liabilities.  There  was 
an  uproar  in  Europe  ;  the  scheme 
had  to  be  withdrawn. 

Tricoupis  soon  resigned,  and  the 
withdrawal  of  his  restraining  hand 
was  quickly  seen.  Agitation  against 
the  Turks  on  account  of  their  treat- 
ment of  Macedonians  and  Cretans 
was  carried  on  by  a  secret  society, 
and  in  1897  war  broke  out.  The 
Greeks  were  the  aggressors  and 
suffered  bitterly  for  their  folly. 

The  Turkish  troops  were  every- 
where and  at  once  victorious.  The 
Greek  troops  behaved  badly,  and  the 
government  was  obliged  to  beg 
the  Great  Powers  to  mediate  arid 
save  them  from  annihilation.  The 
one  good  result  of  the  war  was  the 
liberation  of  Crete  from  Turkey. 


GREEK    ARCHIPELAGO 

The  only  events  which  broke  the 
monotony  of  political  warfare  for 
some  time  after  this  were  the 
murder  of  Delyannis  (1905)  and 
a  revising  of  the  constitution 
(1911).  But  in  1912  came  the 
Balkan  War,  in  which  Greece 
joined  Serbia  and  Bulgaria  against 
Turkey  and  wiped  out  the  stain  of 
humiliation  that  had  rested  upon 
the  country  since  1897.  The  troops 
fought  well  and  deserved  their 
successes,  which  brought  an  addi- 
tion of  some  16,000  sq.  m.  to  Greek 
territory.  Further  gains  were  made 
at  the  expense  of  Bulgaria,  against 
whom  the  Greeks  turned  their  arms 
in  1913,  with  Serbia  and  Ru- 
mania, owing  to  quarrels  over  the 
partition  of  the  Turkish  spoils. 

The  outbreak  of  the  Great  War 
divided  the  Greek  nation.  Some 
hoped  that  Greece  might  be  able 
to  remain  neutral.  Others  sup- 
ported Venizelos,  and  were  for 
taking  the  side  of  Britain,  France, 
and  Russia.  In  the  end  the  latter 
prevailed,  and  King  Constantino 
lost  his  throne  in  1917,  the  Powers 
which  had  guaranteed  Greek  inde- 
pendence demanding  his  expulsion 
from  the  country.  Hs  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Alexander,  a  young  man 
of  24,  who  died  in  Oct.,  1920. 

Venizelos  throughout  the  period 
1917-20  was  virtually  dictator. 
Const  ant  ine  returned  in  Dec., 
1920,  abdicated  Sept.,  1922,  and 
died  Jan.  11,  1923.  Succeeded  by 
his  son  George  II,  the  latter  was 
forced  to  leave  the  country  at  the 
end  of  1923.  Meantime  the  Turks 
made  war  on  the  Greeks  in  Asia 
Minor,  where  in  1921-22  the  latter 
suffered  defeats;  the  Turks  cap- 
tured Smyrna  and  drove  the  Greeks 
from  Asia  Minor.  In  Jan  ,  1 924, 
Venizelos  was  back  in  Greece  as 
premier.  See  Salonica  ;  N.V. 

Bibliography.  History  of  Greece. 
E.  Curtius,  Eng.  trans.  A.  W.  Ward, 
1868-73  ;  Epochs  of  Ancient  His- 
tory, ed.  G.  W.  Cox  and  C.  Sankey, 
1876  ;  Social  Life  in  Greece,  J.  P. 
Mahaffy,  1877  ;  Thucydides,  Eng. 
trans.  J.  Jowett,  1881  ;  Herodotus, 
Eng.  trans.  G.  C.  Macaulay,  1890, 
and  G.  Rawlinson,  1897  ;  Plutarch's 
Lives,  Eng.  trans.  T.  North,  new 
ed.,  1898;  Europe,  vol  i.,  G.  G. 
Chisholm,  in  Stanford's  Compen- 
dium of  Geography  and  Travel, 
1899;  History  of  Greece,  C.  W.  C. 
Oman,  7th  ed,  1901  ;  A  Smaller 
Histcry  of  Greece,  W.  Smith,  1905; 
Greece,  J.  Fulleylove  and  J.  A. 
McClvmont,  1906;  History  of 
Greece,  G.  Grote,  new  ed.  1869-70  : 
condensed  and  ed.  with  notes,  etc. 
J.  M.  Mitchell  and  M.  O.  B. 
Caspar),  1907  ;  Ancient  Greece, 
G.  G.  A.  Murray,  1911  ;  History  of 
Greece  to  the  JDeath  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  J.  B.  Bury,  1913. 

Greek  Archipelago.  Cluster 
of  islands  in  the  Aegean  Sea  (q.v.). 


3673 


GREEK     ART 


GREEK    ART    AND    ARCHITECTURE 


H.  Stuart-Jones.  Camden  Prof,  of  Ancient  Hist. .Oxford,  and  P.  J.  Maclet 

Information  complementary  to  that  contained  in  the  two  following 
articles  will  be  found  under  the  headings  Athens  ;  Acropolis  ;  Apollo  ; 
Architecture  ;  Art ;  Roman  Art ;  Sculpture  ;  Theatre ;  the  biographies 
of  the  great  sculptors,  Apelles ;  Pheidias,  etc.,  and  the  names  of 
famous  buildings,  e.g.  Erechlheum ;  Mausoleum ;  Parthenon. 
See  also  Aegean  Civilization  ;  Mycenae  ;  Troy,  etc. 


Discoveries  at  Mycenae  revealed 
an  art  which,  had  it  been  shown  to 
be  that  of  the  Heroic  Age  of  which 
Homer  sung,  belonged  properly  to 
the  Greek  race,  and  w?us  the  earli- 
est expression  of  its  genius.  They 
proved,  however,  to  be  only  the 
first  stage  in  the  process  by  which 
the  civilization  of  the  Aegean  in 
prehistoric  times  was  brought  to 
light  and  a  continuous  archaeo- 
logical record  established,  dating 
from  the  neolithic  age. 

It  became  clear  that  Crete  was 
in  the  earliest  time  the  seat  of  a 
great  power,  doubtless  the  kingdom 
of  Minos  known  to  Greek  tradition ; 
and  the  palace  of  the  rulers  of 
Cnossus  was  the  centre  from  which 
its  artistic  influence  was  carried 
far  and  wide  in  the  Eastern  Medi- 
terranean. Hence  we  now  speak  of 
Minoan  rather  than  Mycenaean  art, 
since  the  importance  of  Mycenae  is 
secondary  and  contemporary  with 
the  later  phases  of  the  develop- 
ment in  Crete.  But  it  is  very 
questionable  whether  the  artists  of 
this  period  were  in  any  sense 
Greeks  ;  their  pictographic  script 
has  not,  it  is  true,  been  deciphered, 
but  it  seems  unlikely  that  it  was 
used  to  write  the  Greek  tongue. 

The  art  of  the  time  produced 
masterpieces  of  decoration,  and 
some  remarkably  naturalistic 
works  such  as  the  gold  cups  un- 
earthed at  Vaphio ;  but  it  lacks  the 
sobriety  and  symmetry  of  true 
Greek  art,  and  it  seems  best  to 
suppose  that  Aegean  civilization 
came  to  an  end  about  1000  B.C. 
owing  to  the  invasion  of  waves  of 
immigrants  from  the  north,  who 
founded  the  Greek  race.  The  older 
art  died  out  and  left  but  doubtful 
traces  in  that  which  followed. 
Early  Greek  Art 

The  earliest  Greek  art  in  the 
proper  sense  is  represented  for  us 
almost  entirely  by  pottery,  at  first 
adorned  with  geometrical  patterns 
and  a  few  rudely  drawn  figures, 
but  later  borrowing  from  Oriental 
models  a  wealth  of  plant  and 
animal  forms  usually  arranged  in 
horizontal  bands  of  decoration. 
Corinth  and  Chalcis  in  Greece 
proper  were  the  main  centres  of 

S'oduction ;  Ionia,  Rhodes,  and 
elos  had  their  own  styles.  Ere 
long,  subjects  from  myth  and  saga 
began  to  make  their  appearance, 
generally  isolated  scenes  of  com- 
bat or  exploits  of  heroes. 


Ionian  art  treats  its  material 
with  greater  breadth,  expanding  it 
so  as  to  fill  a  frieze,  and  often  dis- 
regards the  unities  of  time  and 
space ;  Doric  art  concentrates 
attention  on  a  single  motive  and 
prefers  the  square  field.  Some 
remains  of  early  metal  work  and 
painted  sarcophagi  from  Ionia 
illustrate  this,  and  the  cedar-wood 
chest  covered  with  carvings,  which 
was  dedicated  at  Olympia  by  the 
tyrant  Cypselus  (q.v.)  of  Corinth, 
seems  to  have  combined  both  forms 
in  one.  The  FranQois  vase,  an  Attic 
work  of  the  early  6th  century  B.C., 
shows  the  handicraft  of  this  time  at 
its  best.  There  is  an  artistic,  as  dis- 
tinct from  a  literary,  tradition  in  the 
handling  of  mythological  subjects. 
The  Beginnings  of  Sculpture 

To  the  same  period  belong  the 
beginnings  of  Greek  sculpture. 
This  was  at  first  religious ;  the 
earliest  statues  were  those  of  the 
gods,  the  next  those  of  their 
priests  or  worshippers,  dedicated  in 
temple-precincts.  At  first  we  have 
rude  and  shapeless  images  such  as 
that  of  Apollo  at  Amyclae,  a 
bronze  column  with  head,  hands, 
and  feet  attached ;  these  rough- 
hewn  pillars  were  called  Xoana. 
But  the  progress  made  by  the 
Greek  artist  in  representing  the 
human  form  was  very  rapid.  For 
some  time  he  obeyed  the  law  of 
frontality  which  prescribes  that 
the  figure  shall  be  symmetrical 
about  a  straight  vertical  line,  and 
when  this  limitation  was  over- 
come, he  continued  to  represent 
the  most  typical  aspect  of  his 
subject,  or  even  to  combine 
typical  aspects  of  its  several  parts, 
so  that  we  have  a  full-faced  body 
with  the  legs  of  a  runner  hi  profile. 

The  limits  of  strictly  religious 
art  were  passed  when  athletes 
who  won  victories  in  the  games 
were  permitted  to  dedicate  their 
statues.  Hence  came  a  powerful 
impulse  to  the  study  of  the  human 
form,  and  in  due  time  to  the  repro- 
duction of  individual  features, 
though  true  portrait  sculpture 
begins  at  the  earliest  in  the  5th 
century.  Ancient  writers  tell  of  a 
mythical  Daedalus  as  the  founder 
of  a  school  of  sculptors  ;  the  names 
of  many  of  his  successors  are 
historical,  such  as  Archermus  of 
Chios,  Dipoenus  and  Scyllis  of 
Crete,  and  Rhoecus  and  Theodorus, 
the  inventors  of  casting  in  bronze. 


GREEK    ART 

As  in  early  handicraft,  so  in  sculp- 
ture, we  find  an  Ionic  school  work- 
ing largely  in  the  Aegean  islands 
and  known  to  us  from  works  dedi- 
cated at  Delos,  but  also  active  at 
Athens  ;  and  on  the  other  hand  a 
Dorian  school  which  worked  in  the 
Peloponnese — where  Sparta  was 
then  still  an  art-centre — and  in  the 
western  colonies. 

Sculpture  soon  became  associa- 
ted with  religious  architecture,  the 
continuous  frieze  above  the  column 
of  the  Greek  temple  and  the 
"  metopes,"  or  square  slabs  filling 
what  had  been  empty  spaces 
between  the  beam-ends  of  wooden 
buildings,  gave  golden  opportuni- 
ties for  work  in  high  or  low  relief ; 
the  triangular  pediment  presented 
a  fresh  problem,  which  the  Greek 
was  not  slow  to  solve.  In  an 
early  attempt  made  in  Athens, 
Heracles  is  shown  wrestling  with 
Triton. 

The  material  was  a  soft,  calcare- 
ous tufa,  which  was  covered  by  a 
thick  layer  of  paint — red,  blue  and 
green.  This  work  belongs  to  the 
6th  century,  during  which  the 
Peisistratid  tyrants  made  Athens 
a  great  art-centre,  attracting  from 
both  Ionia  and  the  Peloponnese, 
especially  the  former,  the  best 
talent  of  the  time. 

Athenian  Vase  Fainting 

Other  foci  of  artistic  develop- 
ment were  the  sanctuaries  of  Delphi 
and  Olympia,  which  rulers,  states 
and  individuals  from  E.  and  W. 
filled  with  their  offerings  ;  and  the 
advance  towards  technical  mastery 
had  made  great  strides  even  before 
the  Persian  wars  (490-479  B.C.), 
which  raised  the  national  conscious- 
ness of  the  Greek  to  the  most  in- 
tense pitch,  and  was  followed  by 
the  attainment,  within  a  few 
decades,  of  the  highest  artistic  per- 
fection. In  particular,  the  Athenian 
vase-painters  showed  a  marvellous 
fertility  of  imagination,  combined 
with  great  delicacy  in  line-drawing 
and  skill  in  adapting  their  com- 
positions to  a  curved  surface. 
Euphronius,  Duris  and  Hieron  are 
the  most  famous,  but  many  of  the 
finest  vases  are  unsigned. 

The  severity  of  the  earlier  works 
of  this  time,  such  as  the  bronze 
charioteer  dedicated  at  Delphi  by 
a  Syracusan  prince  or  the  pediment 
of  the  temple  of  Aphaia  at  Aegina 
soon  gives  way  to  the  marvellous 
freedom  of  the  discus-thrower  of 
Myron.  The  so-called  canon  of 
Polyclitus  represented  the  frame 
of  the  human  athlete  in  its  perfect 
type ;  and  the  sculptures  of  the  Par- 
thenon, though  we  cannot  trace  in 
them  the  hand  of  Pheidias  himself, 
to  whom -was  entrusted  the  general 
supervision  of  the  decoration  of  the 
temple  and  the  carving  in  gold  and 


3674 

ivory  of  the  statue  of  Athena,  of 
which  a  reduced  copy  was  found 
at  Athens,  reveal  both  by  design 
and  execution  a  group  of  craftsmen 
of  unsurpassed  cunning. 

Naturally  much  less  is  known  of 
the  painting  of  the  same  period  in 
which  Polygnotus  was  the  most 
famous  name  ;  but  we  can  perhaps 
form  some  idea  of  the  style  of  his 
great  frescoes  of  the  fall  of  Troy 
and  the  under  world,  both  at 
Delphi,  from  Athenian  vase  paint- 
ings. At  Olympia,  the  great  temple 
of  Zeus,  with  its  pediments,  belongs 
to  the  earlier  half  of  the  5th  cen- 
tury; the  statue  of  the  god  was 
the  work  of  Pheidias,  but  we  have 
no  material  for  an  adequate  re- 
construction of  it. 

Developments  of  the  4th  Century 

The  great  war  which  devastated 
Greece  in  the  closing  decades  of 
the  5th  century  B.C.,  to  some  extent 
severed  the  intimate  association 
of  art  with  national  life  ;  it  also 
affected  the  distribution  of  the 
national  wealth,  and  led  to  a 
lowering  of  religious  conceptions 
and  of  political  standards.  Thus  in 
the  4th  century  we  find  in  the 
finest  works  not  so  much  an 
embodiment  of  ideals  as  a  refine- 
ment of  the  artist's  individual  con- 
ception of  beauty  ;  moreover,  the 
execution  of  the  earlier  period, 
masterly  as  it  was,  was  surpassed 
by  that  of  the  great  sculptors  of 
the  new  time. 

We  possess  an  original  by  Praxi- 
teles in  the  Hermes  at  Olympia 
in  which  the  treatment  of  flesh 
and  drapery,  alike  at  once  in  its 
realism  and  its  grace,  is  inimit- 
able. We  can  only  rely  on  copies 
for  his  more  famous  works — the 
Satyr  and  the  Aphrodite  of  Cnidus ; 
his  contemporary  Scopas,  who  ex- 
celled in  the  rendering  of  passion, 
must  be  judged  by  the  heads  from 
the  pediment  designed  by  him  for 
a  temple  at  Tegea  in  Arcadia. 

The  athletic  school  of  Sicyon  pro- 
duced its  master  in  Lysippus.  of 
whose  Apoxyomenos  (an  athlete 
scraping  himself  with  a  strigil)  there 
is  a  copy  in  the  Vatican  which  is 
more  slender  in  its  scheme  of  pro- 
portions than  the  Canon  of  Poly- 
clitus. Lysippus  was  also  a  master 
of  portrait  sculpture,  which  now  at 
length,  in  the  hands  of  Silanion  and 
others,  attained  individual  realism 
(a  fine  example  is  the  portrait  of 
Demosthenes,  by  Polyeuctus).  He 
was  commissioned  to  reproduce  the 
features  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
which  we  recognize  in  many  works, 
including  the  head  of  a  marble 
statue  found  at  Gyrene  after  the 
Italian  occupation  of  Cyrenaica  in 
1912.  Alexander  also  employed 
the  greatest  of  Greek  painters, 
Apelles,  who,  with  his  rival  Proto- 


GREEK    ART 

genes,  succeeded  to  the  places  occu- 
pied at  the  beginning  of  the  4th 
century  by  Zeuxis  and  Parrhasius. 
These  are,  however,  no  more  than 
names  to  us.  The  use  of  colour  in 
connexion  with  sculpture  is  illus- 
trated by  the  magnificent  series 
of  sarcophagi  discovered  at  Sidon, 
one  of  which  represents  Alexander 
in  battle  and  the  chase. 

In  the  Hellenistic  age  which  fol- 
lowed the  death  of  Alexander,  art 
was  affected  by  the  changed  social 
and  political  conditions.  The 
monarchies  which  arose  from  the 
ruins  of  Alexander's  empire,  and 
such  communities,  e.g.  Rhodes,  as 
enjoyed  a  measure  of  freedom  un- 
der their  protection,  enlisted  the 
services  of  the  greater  artists  for 
the  erection  and  adornment  of  their 
public  monuments.  The  famous 
Colossus  of  Rhodes,  which  fulfilled 
the  function  of  a  lighthouse,  was 
the  work  of  Chares,  a  pupil  of 
Lysippus.  The  Victory  of  Samo- 
thrace,  a  colossal  statue  of  the 
goddess  standing  on  the  prow  of  a 
ship,  which  is  now  in  the  Louvre, 
commemorated  a  naval  victory 
won  by  Demetrius  Poliorcetes  in 
306  B.C.  The  Fortune  of  Antioch, 
an  early  example  of  the  personifi- 
cations popular  in  this  period,  is 
represented  by  a  statuette  in  the 
Vatican :  it  was  the  work  of  Euty- 
chides  of  Sicyon,  another  pupil  of 
Lysippus. 

Art  in  Pergamum 

The  kings  of  Pergamum  were  the 
chief  patrons  of  art  in  the  Hellen- 
istic age.  Their  victories  over  the 
Gaulish  invaders  of  the  3rd  cen- 
tury B.C.  were  commemorated 
both  by  a  series  of  life-sized  statues 
and  groups,  some  of  which  survive 
in  originals  and  copies,  the  most 
famous  being  the  Dying  Gaul  of 
the  Capitoline  Museum,  Rome,  and 
also  by  a  number  of  smaller  groups 
representing  the  combats  of  gods 
and  giants,  Athenians  and  Ama- 
zons, Athenians  and  Persians,  and 
Pergamenes  and  Gauls,  regarded  as 
typical  of  the  struggle  between 
Greek  and  barbarian.  The  Apollo 
of  the  Belvedere,  now  in  the  Vati- 
can, an  antique  copy  of  a  bronze 
Greek  original,  assigned  by  some 
to  the  4th  century,  perhaps  rather 
commemorates  the  repulse  of  the 
Gauls  from  Delphi  in  279  B.C. 

Above  all,  the  great  altar  erected 
on  the  Acropolis  of  Pergamum, 
probably  by  Eumenes  II  (197-169 
B.C.)  is  decorated  with  a  frie/e 
in  high  relief  depicting  the  battle 
of  the  gods  and  giants,  in  which 
a  new  art,  distinguished  by 
dramatic  force  and  technical  bra- 
vura, is  brilliantly  represented.  A 
school  of  artists  which  flourished 
at  Rhodes  in  the  century  preceding 
the  Christian  era  has  left  us  the 


Greek  female  costume.    Left  to  right  :  peplos  or  outer  garment  ;  girl  fastening  the  chiton  over  her  shoulder  with  brooch 
or  button  ;  fessket-carrier   at   a  festival,   showing  girdle  and  sandals  ;  girl  in  chiton  and  slippers  donning  the  peplos 


\v 

Priestesses  pouring  libations,  showing  various  types  of  drapery  and  head-dress  :    a  kalyptra  or  veil,  kekryphalos  or 
p  confining  the  hair,  and  stephane  or  crown.     Right :    lady  in  old-time  costume  seated 


Greek   youth  in   chlamys  or  short   mantle,   and  wearing  a  pilos  or  close-fitting  felt  cap.     Centre  :  a  warrior  in  field 
dress.      Right  :  a  peasant  wearing  petasos  or  soft  cap,  and  high  boots 

GREEK    COSTUME    AS    RECORDED    IN    MURAL    PAINTING    AND    SCULPTURE 

From  Costume  of  the  Ancients,  by  Thomas  Hope 


GREEK  ART 


3676 


GREEK  ART 


group  of  Laocoon  and  his  sons, 
with  its  exaggerated  pathos.  From 
Tralles  in  Asia  Minor  came  Apol- 
lonius  and  Tauriscus,  the  sculptors 
of  the  Farnese  bull  at  Naples,  a 
group  which  represents  the  punish- 
ment of  Dirce  by  Amphion  and 
Zethus.  The  scientific  research  of 
the  time  left  its  trace  in  the  Bor- 
ghese  fighter  of  Agasias,  an  Ephe- 
sian  sculptor,  which  is  interesting 
as  an  example  of  minute  ana- 
tomical study. 

Decorative  Arts 

Artists  also  catered  for  the  tastes 
of  the  wealthy  class  which  sprang 
up  in  the  capitals  and  other  great 
cities  of  the  new  monarchies. 
Painting  and  mosaic  were  employed 
in  the  decoration  of  private  houses, 
especially  at  Alexandria,  and  the 
discoveries  of  Rome  and  Pompeii 
enable  us  to  form  some  idea  of  the 
results.  Alexandria  was  the  chief, 
but  not  the  only,  home  of  Toieutic, 
or  the  art  of  the  chaser  of  gold  and 
silver,  of  whose  work  Roman  plate 
gives  us  the  best  impression.  The 
terra-cotta  statuettes  and  groups 
found  in  tombs,  especially  those  of 
Tanagra  in  Boeotia,  are  works  of 
great  charm  and  delicacy. 

The  growth  of  private  luxury 
was  also  responsible  for  the  popu- 
larity of  genre  subjects  in  sculp- 
ture, of  which  the  best  example  is 
the  Boy  and  Goose  by  Boethus, 
for  the  loss  of  religious  significance 
in  the  representations  of  divinities, 
as  in  the  instance  of  the  Medici 
Venus  fnd  fie  Aphrodite  in  the 
Bath  of  Uoedalsas,  and  the  hybrid 
of  painting  and  sculpture  seen  in 
the  pictorial  reliefs  used  in  wall- 
decoration.  Lastly,  after  the 
Roman  conquest,  we  find  a  re- 
currence to  early  models  in  the  Neo- 
Attic  school  of  archaising  artists. 

H.  Stuart-Jones 

Bibliography.  Principles  of  Greek 
Art,  P.  Gardner,  1914;  Handbook  of 
Greek  Sculpture,  EL  A.  Gardner, 
1902-3;  the  Art  of  the  Greeks,  H. 
B.  Walters,  1906  ;  and  History  of 
Greek  Art,  F.  B.  Tarbell,  1896. 

ARCHITECTURE.  Before  the  7th 
century  B.C.  the  architecture  of  the 
peoples  inhabiting  the  Greek  penin- 
sula and  parts  of  the  Asia  Minor 
coast  was  too  deeply  impregnated 
with  Persian,  Egyptian,  and  As- 
syrian elements  to  be  regarded  as  a 
distinctive  style.  The  discoveries 
atTiryns  (Troy),  Cnossus,  Mycenae, 
and  other  places  have  revealed  the 
existence  of  an  elaborate  archi- 
tecture four  or  five  centuries  ear- 
lier than  the  beginnings  of  the  real 
Greek  civilizition;  but  those  build- 
ings had  little  or  nothing  in  common 
with  the  form  or  spirit  of  what  is 
now  understood  by  Greek  archi- 
tecture. It  is  only  after  the  lapse 
of  400  years  that  the  national  archi- 


tecture begins  to  emerge.  Even 
then,  its  massiveness  and  bold  pro- 
portions are  suggestive  of  Egypt 
rather  than  Greece,  and  it  is  not 
until  the  5th  century  B.C.  that 
this  massiveness  is  refined  into 
the  combined  stability  and  grace 
of  Doric  building. 

The  main  principle  governing 
Greek  building  was  ordered  sym- 
metry combined  with  picturesque- 
ness  of  effect.  Individually,  the 
Greek  temple,  fully  developed,  is 
an  oblong  structure  enclosed  by  a 
row  of  columns.  In  its  earliest 
form  it  was  a  small  square  apart- 
ment in  which  the  image  of  a  par- 
ticular deity  was  placed,  with  a 
porch  formed  of  two  flanking  piers, 
and  two  columns  between  them, 
on  its  front.  The  next  step  was  to 
separate  the  apartment,  or  cella, 
from  its  porch  by  a  screen  with  a 
doorway.  The  porch  was  then 
further  developed  by  the  addition 
of  an  outside  screen  of  four  columns, 
which  number  was  subsequently 
increased  to  six,  so  as  to  enable 
the  two  at  the  extremities  to  out- 
flank the  actual  front  and  form  a 
starting-point  for  a  range  of 
columns  carried  round  the  remain- 
der of  the  building.  Thus  was 
evolved  the  hexastyle  temple, 
which  is  the  typical  form  of  the 
mature  Greek  temple  enclosed  in 
its  envelope  of  columns.  The  Par- 
thenon itself  is  exceptional  in  that 
it  had  a  hexastyle  portico  at  each 
end  of  the  cella,  and,  outside,  a 
further  portico  which  was  oota- 
style  (eight-columned ) ;  but  the 
hexastyle  type  is  the  prevailing  one. 
Grouping  of  Buildings 

The  building  consisted  of  a  single 
storey  with  a  low-pitched  roof 
ending  in  a  pediment.  Height 
was  not  aimed  at,  nor  is  there  any 
great  variety  of  outline.  On  the 
other  hand,  these  buildings  were 
grouped  so  as  to  secure  the  maxi- 
mum effect  of  picturesqueness.  No 
two  of  those  which  once  crowned 
the  Acropolis  were  placed  in  line 
with  each  other.  They  were  set  at 
various  angles,  conforming  to  the 
rise  and  fall  of  the  ground,  from 
which  they  appeared,  spontane- 
ously and  naturally,  to  grow. 

Moreover,  the  Greek  temple, 
regularly  outlined,  exquisitely 
though  not  mathematically  pro- 
portioned as  it  was,  did  not  rely 
wholly  on  its  form.  The  architec- 
tural ornament  of  its  exterior  was 
decked  out  in  bright  primary 
colours,  sometimes  gilded  ;  marble 
was  often  covered  with  coloured 
stucco,  and  sculpture  was  painted, 
until  the  whole  must  have  sparkled 
with  points  of  colour  in  the  sun. 

Greek  architecture  was  domi- 
nated at  successive  periods  by 
three  Orders,  of  which  the  first 


and  best  beloved  was  the  Doric. 
In  Athens,  one  of  the  best  pre- 
served buildings  of  this  Order  is 
the  so-called  Temple  of  Theseus. 
Excavations  carried  out  at  Olym- 
pia  in  1876  laid  bare  the  founda- 
tions and  plan  of  a  great  Doric 
temple  of  Zeus,  and  of  others, 
while  many  similar  structures  have 
been  unearthed  in  Crete  and  the 
islands  of  the  Archipelago,  the 
western  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  and 
in  Sicily  and  the  toe  of  Italy,  where 
Greek  colonies  existed. 

The  evolution  of  the  Ionic  Order 
is  less  easy  to  trace  than  the 
Doric.  The  volute  capitals,  which 
are  its  distinguishing  feature,  ap- 
pear to  have  originated  in  Asia, 
and  there  are  no  known  examples 
in  Greece  itself  earlier  than  the 
5th  century.  The  Erectheum,  on 
the  Acropolis,  the  greatest  of  all 
Ionic  temples,  was  built  about 
420  B.C.  In  Asia  Minor,  however, 
Ionic  temples  existed  before  the 
Persian  Wars. 

Just  as  the  use  of  the  Doric 
Order  reached  its  climax  of  splen- 
dour a  few  years  after  the  building 
of  the  Parthenon  (447  B.C.),  so  the 
maturity  of  the  Ionic  followed  the 
Erectheum  within  the  space  of.  a 
few  years,  as  if,  in  each  case,  the 
production  of  a  great  example  was 
needed  to  give  the  impetus  to  the 
development  of  the  style.  Doric 
had  satisfied  the  early  aspirations 
of  the  Greek  builders  to  comeliness 
of  form  and  fine  proportions,  but 
denied  them  the  greater  freedom 
of  purely  architectural  ornament 
which  they  desired. 

The  Ionic  Order  gave  them  a 
new  opportunity.  The  Ionic  vol- 
ute, in  its  original  form,  had  a  two- 
sided  capital.  This  was  found  un- 
satisfactory at  the  corners  of  build- 
ings where  the  capitals  had  to 
show  their  ends,  while  those  next 
to  them  showed  their  broadsides 
and  volutes.  A  new  corner  capital 
was  accordingly  invented  which, 
by  a  slight  modification  of  the 
volutes,  was  transformed  into  a 
four-sided  capital,  thus  enabling 
the  continuity  in  the  whole  line  of 
capitals  on  a  front  to  be  preserved. 
This  order  also  admitted  more 
than  one  tr<  atment  of  the  bases  of 
columns,  and  variety  in  the  treat- 
ment of  the  entablature. 

The  Corinthian  Order 

The  Corinthian  Order,  the  latest 
of  the  three  employed  by  the 
Greeks,  was  not  introduced  much 
earlier  than  the  age  of  Alexander 
the  Great.  Its  foliated  capital  ap- 
pears to  have  been  borrowed  from 
the  bell-shaped  capital  of  the  an- 
cient Egyptians,  though  the  acan- 
thus leaf  ornament  with  which  the 
Greeks  covered  it  was  practically 
their  own  device.  A  little  circular 


Arms  arid   armour:  shield  (front  and  side)  and  spears,         Domestic  utensils  :    a  basket,  standard  and  hanging  lamps, 
sword  and  scabbard,  and,  right,  a  pair  of  greaves  tripod  table,   and,  above,  a  handled   patera  for  libations 


Pottery  vessels:    five  amphorae  (two-handled  vases); 

top,  left,    a    wine-jug;    two  hand-lamps,    and,   below 

each  hand-lamp,  a  stemmed  drinking  cup 


Musical    instruments  :     syrinx    or    pipes,     lyres    and 
citharae,   crotalon    or  castanets,   tympanum  or  tam- 
bourine, and  tibiae  or  flutes 


Fictile  vases:  amphora  embellished  with  graceful  Bacchanalians,  entwined  swan-headed  handles  and  vine-wreathed 
neck,  and  other  water-jugs  and   wine-jugs  painted  with  bulls'  heads,  human  figures,  and  conventional  designs 

GREEK  ART:    BEAUTY  OF  DESIGN  STILL  UNSURPASSED  APPLIED  TO  ARTICLES  IN  COMMON  USE 


GREEK  CHURCH 


3678 


GREEK      FIRE 


building  at  Athens,  known  as  the 
Choragic  Monument  of  Lysicrates, 
is  accredited  as  the  best  example 
of  this  order  on  Grecian  soil ;  it 
was  erected  about  334  B.C.  But 
the  style  was  never  fully  developed 
in  Greece,  and  its  manifestations 
are  chiefly  found  in  the  architecture 
of  the  decadence ;  it  is  rather  a 
feature  of  Roman  architecture 
than  of  Greek. 

Of  Greek  municipal  buildings 
very  few  traces  remain,  but  in  the 
time  of  Pericles  (5th  century)  the 
Agora,  or  market  place,  of  Athens 
had  its  porticoes  and  colonnades 
enriched  with  painting  and  sculp- 
ture in  a  manner  befitting  the  great 
industrial  centre  of  the  city. 
Domestic  architecture  re  tamed  the 
Oriental  type,  squat  and  bare  on 
the  outside,  with  roofs  sloping  to 
the  courtyard,  presenting  no  fea- 
tures of  architectural  interest. 
The  Greeks  were  not  tomb-builders, 
and  nothing  of  importance  in  this 
class  of  architecture  can  be 
chronicled. 

The  theatres  were  built  on  a 
scale  surpassing  that  of  all  other 
public  buildings,  both  in  Greece 
itself  and  in  Asia  Minor ;  the 
theatre  at  Dionysus  was  no  less 
than  443  ft.  in  diameter  ;  but  the 
proscenia  of  those  great  masses  of 
masonry  were  the  only  points 
treated  architecturally,  and  none 
of  them  have  survived. 

F.  J.  Maclean 

Bibliography.  L' Architecture  grec- 
que,  V.  Laloux,  1888 ;  Die  Baukunst 
der  Griechen,  J.  Durm,  1880  ;  The 
Architecture  of  Greece  and  Rome, 
W.  J.  Anderson  and  R.  P.  Spiers, 
1907  ;  Greek  Architecture,  E.  A. 
Browne,  1909. 

Greek  Church.  Name  given  to 
the  Eastern  or  Oriental  Church, 
the  full  title  of  which  is  The  Holy 
Orthodox  Catholic  Oriental  Church. 
The  name  Greek  is  given  to  this 
Church  because  it  was  Greek  in 
origin,  and  most  of  its  ecclesiastical 
liturgies  and  literature  were  com- 
posed in  that  language.  The  Greek 
Church  is  to-day  the  third  largest 
section  of  Christendom,  having 
some  100,000,000  members  as 
against  230,000,000  Roman  Catho- 
lics and  140,000,000  Protestants. 
By  far  the  greatest  number  of  its 
members  (no  fewer  than  85,000,000) 
belong  to  Russia,  the  remainder 
being  scattered  about  Turkey, 
Greece,  Serbia,  Rumania,  L'ulgaria, 
Egypt,  and  W.  Asia. 

In  primitive  times  the  Eastern 
and  Western  divisions  of  Christen- 
dom formed  a  single  Church,  and  it 
was  only  gradually  that  the  separa- 
tion took  place.  Many  causes  con- 
tributed to  this  result.  When 
Constantino  transferred  the  capital 
of  the  empire  from  Rome  to  Con- 
stantinople,  it  was  inevitable  that 


the  Roman  empire  would  split  into 
two  divisions,  and  that  the  political 
rivalry  between  these  two  divisions 
would  be  reflected  in  the  Church. 

It  soon  also  became  clear  that  the 
genius  of  the  East  differed  from 
that  of  the  West.  The  East  was 
more  interested  in  the  speculative 
problems  of  theology,  the  West  in 
form  and  organization.  The  spirit 
of  the  East  finds  its  best  expression 
in  the  writings  of  Origen  and  the 
Alexandrian  fathers;  the  spirit  of 
the  West  in  those  of  Augustine.  To 
the  East  we  owe  the  metaphysi- 
cal side  of  Christian  theology, 
especially  in  Christology ;  to  the 
West  the  doctrines  of  sin,  grace,  and 
predestination.  For  some  centuries 
the  two  Churches  gradually  drifted 
apart,  but  it  was  not  until  the  9th 
century  that  the  final  rupture  took 
place.  The  actual  occasion  for  the 
division  was  a  controversy  upon 
the  Filioque  clause  in  the  Nicene 
creed. 

Points  of  Difference 
In  addition  to  the  theological 
difference,  there  were  several  out- 
standing points  upon  which  the  two 
Churches  diverged :  (1 )  the  Eastern 
Church  maintained  the  absolute 
equality  of  the  different  patriarch- 
ates and  refused  to  acknowledge 
the  supremacy  of  the  pope  of  Rome. 
(2)  The  Eastern  Church  refused  to 
adopt  the  rule  of  celibacy  for  the 
mass  of  its  clergy,  and  allowed  all 
except  the  bishops  and  monks  to 
marry.  (3)  The  Eastern  Church 
always  maintained  communion  "  in 
both  kinds,"  and  refused  to  consent 
to  the  Roman  practice  of  withhold- 
ing the  cup  from  the  laity.  (4)  It 
also  insisted  on  "trine  immersion" 
in  baptism.  (5)  It  allowed  the  use 
of  the  vernacular  in  its  liturgies 
and  public  worship.  (6)  The 
Eastern  Church  does  not  accept  the 
Apostles'  or  the  Athanasian  creed, 
both  of  which  are  of  Western 
origin ;  but  regards  the  Niccne 
creed  without  the  Filioque  clause 
as  the  basis  of  its  faith. 

As  a  result  of  its  belief  in  the 
equality  of  the  patriarchates  the 
different  national  sections  of  the 
Eastern  Church  maintain  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  independence. 
The  orthodox  Church  of  Russia  was 
formerly  subject  to  the  patriarch 
of  Constantinople,  but  as  it  grew  in 
import  ance  and  numbers  a  separate 
patriarchate  was  established  at 
Moscow  in  1582,  and  in  1721  a 
holy  synod  was  established  at  St. 
Petersburg  whose  jurisdiction  ex- 
tended across  two  continents.  The 
national  Church  of  Greece  also 
secured  its  independence  in  1833, 
and  has  a  synod  of  its  own.  Serbia, 
Rumania,  and  Montenegro  also 
have  their  own  synods  and  metro- 
politans, and  are  no  longer  under 


the   control    of    the   patriarch    of 
Constantinople. 

Various  attempts  have  been 
made  at  different  times  to  bring 
about  a  reunion  between  the  East- 
ern Church  and  the  Churches  of  the 
West.  At  the  councils  of  Lyons, 
1274,  and  of  Ferrara,  1439,  fruitless 
efforts  were  initiated  to  heal  the 
breach.  A  compromise  might  have 
been  found  on  the  theological  diffi- 
culty, but  the  papacy  presented  an 
insurmountable  barrier.  Overtures 
have  also  been  made  at  different 
times  by  the  Lutheran  Church,  but 
the  difficulties  have  always  proved 
intractable.  There  have  been  pour- 
parlers on  more  than  one  occasion 
between  the  Greek  and  the  Angli- 
can Churches,  hitherto  with  no 
tangible  result.  At  the  world  con- 
ference of  the  Churches  on  Faith 
and  Order,  held  in  Geneva,  in  Aug., 
1920,  representatives  of  the  Greek 
Church  were  present  in  consider- 
able force,  and  formally  proposed, 
on  behalf  of  the  Greek  Church  as  a 
whole,  the  establishment  of  a 
League  of  Churches  parallel  to  the 
League  of  Nations. 

H.  T.  Andrews 

Greek  Fire.  Inflammable  com- 
position used  by  the  Byzantine 
Greeks  for  defensive  warfare.  Ac- 
cording to  many  accounts  it  was 
inextinguishable  and  was  able  to 
burn  under  water.  Its  invention  is 
ascribed  to  Callinicus  of  Heliopolis 
in  A.D.  ti68.  The  composition  of 
Greek  rire  is  a  matter  of  uncer- 
tainty. Aeneas  Tacticus  gives  it 
as  a  mixture  of  sulphur,  pitch, 
charcoal,  incense  and  tow,  while 
Vegetius  adds  naphtha. 

It  was  used  against  the  enemy 
in  various  forms,  the  simplest  being 
a  tube  packed  full  of  the  composi- 
tion and  thrown  like  the  modern 
grei  lade.  It  was  often  blown  through 
copper  tubes,. fixed  in  the  prow  of 
the  vessel.  These  tubes  were  shaped 
like  the  mouths  of  savage  monsters, 
so  seeming,  to  the  terrified  enemy, 
to  be  vomiting  streams  of  liquid  fire. 
There  is  hardly  much  doubt  that 
gunpowder,  or  some  composition 
very  like  it,  was  also  used  to  hurl 
missiles  of  Greek  fire  compositions 
vrhich  exploded  when  they  hit  their 
object,  thus  coming  very  near  the 
modern  gun. 

The  secret  of  Greek  fire  was  well 
kept,  and  the  terror  it  inspired, 
apart  from  its  devastating  effects, 
prevented  the  capture  of  Constan- 
tinople for  many  centuries.  The 
use  of  various  forms  of  Greek  fire 
was  continued  till  the  14th  century 
when  gunpowder  took  its  place. 
See  Explosives;  consult alsoHistory 
of  Inventions,  Beckmann,  1846 ; 
Gibbon's  Decline  and  Fall  of  the 
Roman  Empire,  vi,  ed.  J.  B.  Bury, 
1912. 


GREEK     LANGUAGE 


3679 


GREEK     LANGUAGE 


GREEK  LANGUAGE  AND   LITERATURE 

J.  S.  Phillimore,  LL.D,,  Prof,  of  Humanity,  Glasgow,  and  J.  H.  Freese 

This    article  is   supplemented    by   articles    on   the  Greek   writers, 
e.g.  Hesiod  and  Homer  ;   the  dramatists,  e.g.  Aristophanes,  Euri- 
pides,  and   Sophocles;    Thucydides,   and   other   historians.      See 
Acting;  Drama;  Theatre;  also  Alphabet 


Greek  is  a  member  of  the  Indo- 
European  family  of  languages.  The 
view  that  there  existed  a  special 
affinity  between  Greek  and  the 
Italic  languages,  due  to  an  original 
Greco-Italian  language,  is  no 
longer  held.  The  common  primi- 
tive language  of  the  Greek  stocks  is 
unknown ;  the  Homeric  poems, 
the  earliest  existing  record,  exhibit 
forms  belonging  to  various  times 
and  different  idioms.  According  to 
the  ancient  Greeks  themselves, 
Greek  once  contained  three  (four) 
distinct  dialects — Doric,  Aeolic, 
(Attic)  Ionic,  named  after  Dorus, 
Aeolus,  and  Ion,  the  three  legen- 
dary ancestors  of  the  Hellenic  race. 

Modern  philologists  are  content 
with  two  main  divisions :  Ionic 
and  non-Ionic,  the  former  including 
the  language  of  Homer,  the  new- 
lonic  of  Herodotus,  and  Attic 
(Athens),  the  latter  Doric  (Sparta, 
Corinth),  Aeolic  (Boeotia),  and 
Achaean  (northern  Greece).  At  the 
end  of  the  6th  century  B.C.  a  dia- 
lect of  the  Ionic  group,  that  of 
Athens,  whose  political,  social,  and 
industrial  superiority  had  raised 
her  to  the  position  of  the  metro- 
polis of  Hellas,  asserted  and  main- 
tained its  supremacy  over  the  rest. 

The  history  of  the  Greek  lan- 
guage may  be  roughly  divided  into 
the  following  periods  :  Attic  (oOO- 
300  B.C.)  ;  Hellenistic  (300  B.C.- 
A.D.  600) ;  Byzantine  (600-1453) ; 
modern  (1453  to  the  present  day). 
After  the  subjection  of  Greece  to 
the  rule  of  Macedonia,  Attic  be- 
came the  popular  language  at  the 
Macedonian  court.  The  conquests 
of  Alexander  in  Egypt  and  the  East, 
the  substitution  of  Alexandria  for 
Athens  as  the  centre  of  learning 
and  civilization,  and  the  founda- 
tion of  new  Hellenic  communities, 
led  to  its  adoption  as  the  general 
means  of  comiriunication. 

The  result  was  the  formation  of  a 
dialect  called  Hellenistic  or  Koine, 
universal  or  common  Greek,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  pure  Attic. 
The  term  Hellenistic  was  formerly 
limited  to  the  language  of  Greek- 
speaking  foreigners,  especially  Jews, 
and  was  used  with  special  re- 
ference to  biblical  Greek,  but  is 
now  generally  understood  to  mean 
the  language  spoken  from  the  time 
of  Alexander  the  Great  to  the  esta- 
blishment of  the  Byzantine  or 
Eastern  empire.  Many  specimens, 
in  colloquial  style  but  of  no  particu- 
lar literary  interest,  have  been 
found  in  Egypt.  The  incorporation 


of  Greece  in  the  Roman  Empire  did 
not  lead  to  the  absorption  of  Greek 
by  Latin  ;  in  fact,  as  Horace  says, 
"  the  conquered  took  captive  the 
conqueror."  Many  Latin  words, 
however,  especially  official,  were 
introduced.  The  military  character 
of  Roman  rule  checked  literary  ini- 
tiative, and  left  scope  for  the  deve- 
lopment of  the  colloquial  idiom. 


Capitals 

Minus- 
cules 

Greek 
Names 

-P^..  ,  Modern 
English  Greek 

A 

a 

Alpha 

a 

a 

B 

jj 

Beta 

b 

V 

r 

A 

7 
5 

Gamma 
Delta 

I 

gh,V 
th 

(in  that 

E 

6 

Epsilon 

e 

e 

Z 

f 

Zeta 

z 

z 

H 

1 

Eta 

ee 

ee 

e 

0 

Theta 

th 

th 

(in  thin) 

in  I/I/MI 

i 

t 

Iota 

i 

i 

K 

/C 

Kappa 

k 

k 

A 

X 

Lambda 

1 

1 

M 

fj. 

Mu 

m 

m 

N 

V 

Nu 

n 

n 

gj 

£ 

Xi 

x 

X 

O 

0 

Omicron 

o 

o 

(in  not) 

(in  not) 

n 

7T 

Pi 

P 

P 

p 

P 

Rho 

r 

r 

V 

<r, 

Sigma 

s 

s 

S  l^noJ) 

T 

r 

Tau 

t 

t 

T 

K 

Upsilon 

u 

i 

<i> 

0 

Phi 

ph 

ph 

X 

X 

Chi 

ch 

ch 

\f 

Psi 

ps 

ps 

ft 

M 

Omega 

o 

o 

(in  note) 

The  signs  '  '  represent  the  hard  (as  in  hat) 
and  smooth  breathings,  the  latter  merely 
denoting  a  catch  in  the  breath.  Neither 
has  any  value  in  modern  Greek.  Three 
older  letters,  F  ,  the  digamma,  having  the 
sound  of  v  or  w ;  Q,  the  hard  k ;  and  ^  re- 
presenting s,  were  dropped  as  being  of  no 
further  use,  although  they  were  retained  as 
numerals. 
Greek  Alphabet  as  finally  adopted  in  403  B.C. 


The  conversion  of  Rome  to  Chris- 
tianity and  the  removal  of  the  capi- 
tal to  Byzantium  (Constantinople) 
had  far-reaching  effects.  The  classi- 
cal spirit  gave  way  to  new  ideas ; 
during  this  period  the  name  Greeks, 
as  savouring  of  paganism,  was  re- 
placed by  Romaei  (Romans).  But 
the  language  itself  was  saved  by  the 
church  ;  the  fathers  studied  it  and 
wrote  in  it,  and  in  fact  all  written 
compositions  were  modelled  on 
classical  Attic.  The  efforts  of  the 


Comneni  (1050-1200)  to  revive  the 
classical  language  have  their  paral- 
lel in  those  of  the  purists  of  modern 
Greece.  The  subjection  of  the  coun- 
try by  the  Turks  had  but  little 
effect.  It  was  chiefly  seen  in  words 
relating  to  food  and  dress,  and 
terms  of  abuse. 

Similarly,  French  (chiefly  refer- 
able to  the  Frankish  empire  at  Con- 
stantinople, 1204)  and  Italian  (ow- 
ing to  commerce  with  Venice)  con- 
tributed to  the  vocabulary.  But 
with  all  this  the  modern  language 
cannot  be  called  a  mixed  language  ; 
it  is  the  natural  analytical  develop- 
ment of  Hellenistic,  a  direct  sur- 
vival of  classical  Attic,  though  im- 
poverished, corrupted,  and  moder- 
nised. 

Ancient  Greek  was  one  of  the 
most  highly  inflected  languages  of 
the  Indo-European  group.  Its 
euphonious  vowel  system,  the  soft- 
ness of  its  consonantal  combina- 
tions, the  richness  of  the  inflexional 
forms,  especially  in  the  verb,  its 
adaptability  to  the  formation  of 
compounds,  rendered  it  highly 
suitable  for  rendering  abstruse  and 
scientific  terms.  A  glance  at  any 
technical  work,  or  indeed  at  the 
columns  of  a  newspaper,  will  show 
how  much  English  is  indebted  in 
this  connexion  to  the  language 
of  ancient  Greece ;  e.g.  aeroplane, 
gramophone,  kinematograph,  tele- 
gram, telephone. 

LITERATURE.  The  temporal 
range  of  Greek  literature  is  enor- 
mously long.  No  fewer  than  2,300 
years  divide  Homer  from  the 
Turkish  capture  of  Constantinople ; 
and  yet  Homer  is  evidently  the 
mature  product  of  a  high  culture 
which  had  generations  of  primitive 
poetry  behind  it ;  and  the  Byzan- 
tine prolongation  of  the  literature 
was  still  alive  in  1453.  Though  not 
for  all  this  time  giving  form  to  the 
highest  and  largest  achievements  of 
the  human  mind,  Greece  never, 
even  in  her  decline,  fell  below  the 
capacity  to  furnish  at  leasl  an 
articulate  chronicle  of  events. 

Such    useful    longevity    is    only 

Cible  in  languages  which  over- 
racial  and  national  limits, 
lending  themselves  to  relays  of 
peoples  for  their  vehicle  of  thought 
and,  thereby,  part  of  their  civiliza- 
tion ;  it  is  purchased  at  the  sacrifice 
of  idiomatic  refinement.  So  the 
aesthetic  beauty  of  the  literature 
certainly  declines  as  from  the  time 
when  Alexander's  conquests  hybri- 
dised Greece.  Indeed,  it  has  been 
said  that,  whereas  Greek  prior  to 
that  date  is  unique,  thereafter  it 
became  merely  a  literature  like 
another.  But  it  retained  its  worka- 
day faculty  of  expressiveness,  and 
was  able  to  expand  enough,  after 


GREEK     LANGUAGE 


3680 


GREEK      LANGUAGE 


many  foreign  intakes,  to  accommo- 
date the  quite  new  mind  of  Chris- 
tianity. 

A  literary  language  is  formed  by 
one  of  a  number  of  dialects  estab- 
lishing itself  as  supreme  over  com- 
petitors. The  most  expressive  wins, 
but  the  power  of  expression  is  only 
then  put  to  the  proof  when  men  of 
genius  arise  to  make  the  inspiring 
demand  upon  its  possibilities.  As 
Latin  among  the  ancient,  as  Tuscan 
among  the  medieval  Italian  dia- 
lects, so  Ionic  took  the  lead  among 
the  Greek,  because  Homer  was  an 
Ionian.  But  the  great  formative 
authors — a  Dante  or  a  Homer — 
borrow  freely  from  other  dialects  ; 
and  the  language,  which  eventually 
establishes  itself  as  central,  as  the 
mother  tongue,  prevails  by  absorp- 
tion as  well  as  by  exclusion.  Both 
these  ways  of  selection  belong  to  its 
vigour.  The  language  of  Homer's 
Iliad  and  Odyssey,  as  well  as  that 
of  Hesiod's  Works  and  Days,  has  a 
strain  of  Aeolic  in  it. 

Ionic  and  Attic 

Ionic,  once  hallmarked  by 
Homer,  was  further  assured  of 
primacy  by  Archilochus  (7th  cen- 
tury B.C.),  a  writer  whom  ancient 
criticism  regularly  esteemed  as 
next  only  to  him  in  greatness.  And 
through  the  intermediate  stage  of 
Old  Attic,  Ionic  emerges  into  the 
eventual  Attic  which  is  in  perfec- 
tion during  the  period  between 
Pericles  and  Alexander.  Thanks  to 
the  genius  of  Pindar,  Doric  main- 
tains itself  in  Lyric  during  the  5th 
century ;  but  after  that  time  the 
mediums  for  composition  are  Attic, 
for  prose  ;  and  for  poetry,  an  arti- 
ficial decorative  diction. 

Attic  is  the  most  Greek  of  Greek, 
and  much  that  is  commonly  called 
Greek  is  distinctively  Attic.  The 
greatest  legacy  which  Attic  litera- 
ture bequeathed  to  the  world  was 
not  the  masterpieces  of  beauty, 
crowded  thick  into  two  intense 
centuries  (from  Aeschylus  to 
Menander  is  only  three  lifetimes), 
but  language  perfected  as  a  rea- 
soning instrument.  The  essence  of 
Attic  is  that  art  and  science 
(which  in  a  romantic  view  are 
enemies)  here  are  sisters  :  beauty 
and  truth,  two  names  for  one 
ideal ;  writing,  just  the  best  of  talk 
immortalised,  having  shed  the 
triviality,  but  kept  the  ease.  Attic 
may  be  said  to  culminate  in  Plato. 

But  the  qualities  to  which  Attic 
alone  gave  an  intellectual  deter- 
mination are  not  absent  from  the 
literature  of  the  other  dialects. 
Sappho,  whose  reputation  would 
probably  suffer  if  her  complete 
works  were  recovered,  Alcaeus  and 
Alcman  all  have  the  sharpness  of 
touch  which  goes  with  high  sensi- 
bility. The  beauty  of  good  Greek 


is  naked  beauty,  a  grace  of  speech 
like  the  grace  of  proportion  in  a 
human  body.  These  talents  are 
there,  but  only  devoted  to  the  con- 
cerns of  passion  and  of  fancy ; 
Athens  applied  them  to  discovery 
and  reasoning. 

The  Greeks  were  unrivalled  in 
inventiveness  ;  they  left  no  liter- 
ary form  undiscovered,  if  we  ex- 
cept such  an  essentially  informal 
composition  as  the  Latin  Satura, 
which  had  no  unity  about  it  but 
the  author's  personality.  Yet  even 
here  the  Roman  claim  of  originality 
is  doubtful.  Forms  have  developed 
and  shifted  ;  what  existed  only  in 
miniature  for  them  has  been 
executed  on  a  great  scale  by  mod- 
erns (e.g.  the  psychological  narra- 
tive or  novel  of  character).  But  it 
is  almost  literally  true  to  say  that 
one  cannot  point  to  any  kind  of 
modern  book  from  which  it  shall 
not  be  possible  to  ascend  by  a  legi- 
timate strain  of  pedigree  to  a  Greek 
ancestry.  Thus  Greek  is  the  perfect 
field  in  which  to  study  the  curi- 
ous laws  (sketched  by  Brunetiere 
and  Ouvre,  but  not  yet  fully  ex- 
pounded) of  the  Development  of 
Forms  in  Literature. 

We  find  certain  forms  corre- 
sponding to  certain  political  epochs. 
Wares  must  have  a  market.  The 
proper  audience  must  exist.  Hom- 
eric epic  presupposes  an  aristo- 
cracy in  whom  the  tradition  of 
heroic  chivalry  and  patriarchal 
polity  still  survives,  at  an  interval 
sufficient  to  suffuse  historical  out- 
lines with  legend.  Drama  requires 
much  intensity  of  city  life  for  its 
atmosphere ;  it  results  from  an 
increasing  pressure  from  prose,  i.e. 
poetry  modifies  itself  into  this 
form  in  order  to  keep  a  hold  on  the 
strictly  intellectual  purposes  which 
prose  expressly  exists  for — to  prove 
and  to  persuade.  For  tragedy  is 
poetical  casuistry. 

Athenian  Comedy 

The  development  of  oratory  be- 
longs, of  course,  to  democracy,  a 
condition  when  men  need  to  go 
armed  in  tongue  and  wit  for  their 
safety.  The  New  Comedy  of 
Manners  is  the  entertainment  of  a 
cultivated  bourgeoisie,  living  se- 
curely and  serenely  in  a  homo- 
geneous society  :  the  product  of  an 
Athens  which  has  retired  from 
being  a  great  state.  Greek  genius 
never  invented  a  more  catholic 
form  ;  it  could  be  acclimatised 
anywhere. 

Just  when  tne  literature  of  inde- 
pendence had  evolved  its  complete 
round  of  manifestations,  Mace- 
donian imperialism  provided  the 
royal  courts  of  Seleucia,  Perga- 
mum,  and  (pre-eminently)  Alex- 
andria, to  foster  all  that  range  of 
productions  for  which  democracy 


has  no  use  :  the  Callimachean  and 
Theocritean  schools  of  verse,  the 
methodic  curiosities  of  science,  and 
the  patient  pieties  of  disinterested 
inquiry,  to  which  mankind  owes 
most  of  its  knowledge  of  the  past. 

At  every  stage  in  a  history  which 
is  motley  with  local  diversities 
(Hellas,  though  small  in  area, 
having  many  centres  or  compart- 
ments) and  violently  accidented 
with  revolution  (for  they  were  a 
morally  unstable  people),  the  Greek 
genius  rose  to  the  challenge  of  creat- 
ing the  literary  monument  proper 
to  that  occasion.  As  their  political 
philosophy  traced  a  necessary 
cycle  of  politics  from  monarchy 
through  aristocracy — plutocracy — 
democracy,  to  autocracy,  so  did 
they  actually  exemplify  the  nor- 
mal successions  of  literature. 
The  Transformation  of  Homer 

The  forms  continue  duly  to 
ramify  and  recornbine  them- 
selves till  every  spark  of  vitality 
was  worked  out,  e.g.  when  epic 
becomes  impossible  (because  with 
increasing  refinement  of  detail,  no 
man's  imagination  can  execute  the 
line  of  beauty  on  the  colossal  scale), 
every  element  of  epic  yet  persists, 
but  transformed.  The  emotion  of 
a  Homeric  battlepiece  now  vents 
itself  in  a  chorus  or  a  rhesis  of 
tragedy,  i.e.  the  stock  is  continued 
by  a  cross  with  lyric  in  that  case, 
and  rhetoric  in  this.  Similarly,  the 
Homeric  Aristeia  takes  new  life  as 
the  Epinikian  ode.  Selected  out  of 
the  general  fabric  of  tradition, 
those  stories  in  which  the  law  of 
destiny  and  retribution  is  written  in 
letters  of  blood  and  fire,  are  now 
enhanced  to  their  full  significance  ; 
and  what  has  been  a  few  lines  of 
detail  in  Homer  becomes  for 
Aeschylus  the  Orestean  trilogy. 

Here  was  a  certain  peculiar 
quality  of  events  when  a  super- 
human power  or  scheme  or  law 
cuts  into  the  quick  of  human 
affairs,  to  stultify  pride  ;  it  was 
latent  in  the  poetical  mass.  Greek 
genius  elicits  it,  gives  it  full  relief, 
appropriates  the  Dionysiac  mum- 
meries as  pulpit  or  stage  to  mani- 
fest it,  and  names  it  once  for  all 
tragic.  The  same  principle  may  be 
traced  in  other  successions  ;  of  the 
hymn,  older  than  Homer,  and  now 
too. exhausted  to  tempt  ambition 
any  more,  there  yet  survives  some- 
thing able  by  alliance  with  epini- 
kian  and  rhetoric,  to  give  birth 
first  to  the  patriotic  rhetoric  of 
Herodotus'  Chronicles,  and  later  to 
Isocrates'  Panegyric. 

Tragedy  itaelf  has  worked  out  its 
possibilities  with  Euripides,  but 
it  died  only  to  come  to  life  again  in 
New  comedy.  Even  the  peculiar, 
inimitable  Attic  product,  the  Old 
comedy,  left  descendants  in  satire 


GREEK     LANGUAGE 


368  1 


GREEK     LANGUAGE 


and  lampoon.  With  the  Greeks  no 
mood  was  ever  at  a  loss  for  means 
of  expression.  The  typical  ex- 
perience of  Greece  has  at  least 
taught  us  a  few  principles  ;  such 
as,  that  great  lyric  and  great  ora- 
tory do  not  belong  to  the  same  age 
(since  they  are  alternative  modes) ; 
and  that  in  times  of  great  scientific 
discovery  poetry  will  be  mainly 
decorative. 

The  Growth  of  Prose 

What  marks  the  definite  triumph 
of  the  Ionian  in  the  competition 
for  intellectual  headship  and 
spokesmanship  of  Greece,  is  the 
institution  of  prose.  Poetry  had 
attained  to  a  very  high  range  of 
facility,  and  had  successfully  dis- 
charged the  functions  of  pleading 
and  arguing  besides  its  peculiar 
birthright  of  expressing  mood, 
impulse,  and  the  pride  of  life,  while 
as  yet  nobody  ventured  the  idea 
that  language  could  be  artistically 
beautiful  and  yet  released  from 
metre  ;  release  from  a  discipline  or 
a  constraint  is  how  the  Greek  con- 
ceived this  momentous  revolution, 
the  development  of  prose. 

The  discoverers  of  the  Iambic 
had  given  to  versified  thought  the 
lightest,  easiest,  most  unaffected 
uniform  that  it  could  wear  until  the 
stern  convention  of  artistic  dignity 
was  broken.  But  there  came  a  mo- 
ment when  thought  rebelled.  It 
was  as  though  some  Chinese  decree 
which  ordained  dancing  as  the  only 
ceremonial  mode  of  progression, 
were  abrogated  in  favour  of  walk- 
ing. The  motive  was  the  scientific 
curiosity  which  characterises  the 
Ionian  mind  :  it  was  Ionian  phil- 
osophers and  historians  who  made 
a  new  intellectual  instrument  out  of 
unmetrical  language,  a  medium 
hitherto  reserved  at  best  for  annals, 
registers,  etc.,  which  might  form 
the  materials  of  history,  and  for 
the  informal  sayings  and  conversa- 
tions of  sages  who  professed  no 
systematic  theory. 

Prose  does  not  appear  until  the 
6th  century  B.C.,  a  round  hundred 
years  after  Archilochus ;  and  it 
does  not  impose  itself  at  once  as 
necessary  in  philosophy.  Xeno- 
phanes  (born  c.  580),  and  long 
after  him,  Parmenides  (c.  520)  and 
Empedocles  (c.  484),  wrote  in 
verse.  But  all  the  historians,  from 
Cadmus  and  Pherecydes  onward, 
used  the  new  medium. 

During  the  greatest  period  (the 
5th  century  B.C.),  as  is  usual  at  high 
pouits  of  civilization,  we  find  Greek 
poetry  and  prose  closely  approxi- 
mating. The  reconciling  force  was 
rhetoric,  i.e.  the  study  of  style. 
The  systematic  analysis  of  language 
was  begun  in  Sicily  by  Corax  and 
Teisias  ;  but  the  first  great  masters 


of  self-conscious  prose  are  Gorgias, 
Thrasymachus,  Antiphon,  and  the 
other  Sophists.  They  developed 
the  effectiveness  of  language  for 
argument  and  appeal  by  principles 
which  are  of  fundamental  validity. 
Earliest  professors  of  dialectic 
and  literature,  under  their  influ- 
ence the  dividing  line  between 
prose  and  verse  was  narrowed  down 
to  actual  metre ;  prose  even  as- 
sumed the  emotional  rhythm  ;  and 
verse  (dramatic)  was  refined  away 
from  the  pomp  of  Aeschylus  to  the 
discreet  pliancy  of  Sophocles ;  and 
this  approximation  continued  as 
long  and  in  so  far  as  poetry  con- 
tinued to  be  a  form  of  action  at  all, 
i.e.  concerned  with  proving  or  per- 
suading. A  great  prose  writer  like 
Thucydides  has  a  poetical  imagina- 
tion ;  a  great  poet  like  Euripides 
has  a  scientific  intellect. 

But  a  century  later  and  the  two 
diverge  again  :  poetry,  now  made 
wholly  to  please,  "  dresses  up " 
without  regard  to  common  usage. 
Prose,  devoted  to  science,  in  the 
hands  of  Aristotle's  school,  be- 
comes almost  as  exact  and  disim- 
passioned  an  instrument  as  algebra. 
Indeed,  there  is  no  modern  science 
which  might  not  conveniently  use 
Greek  as  a  language,  adequate  to 
all  its  requirements  in  facility  and 
accuracy.  From  the  4th  century 
B.C.  onward  prose  prevails :  no 
books  that  deeply  changed  any- 
body's mind  were  written  in  verse 
henceforth. 

The  Koine  Dialektos 

But  after  the  loss  of  Athenian  in- 
dependence there  is  both  a  general 
decline  in  creative  power  and  also  a 
disestablishment  of  Attic  from  its 
position  of  dominance.  The  new 
capitals  form  new  local  centres,  of 
which  Alexandria  is  the  chief.  To 
correct  this  artistic  decentraliza- 
tion, natural  necessity  evoked  a 
new  Lingua  Franca,  the  Koine 
Dialektos,  a  federative  language,  as 
though  English,  American,  and 
Pidgin-English  were  to  coalesce 
nowadays. 

It  was  cheap  Greek,  preserving 
somewhat  of  the  readiness  and  fru- 
gality of  Attic  as  an  instrument, 
but  more  or  less  discoloured  by  con- 
tact with  non-Hellenic  on  the 
fringes  of  the  Mediterranean  world ; 
Greek  written  by  and  for  Jews, 
Egyptians,  Syrians,  Italians,  etc. 
Undistinguished  rather  than  de- 
graded, it  offered  the  prose-artist 
no  adequate  means  of  refined  crafts- 
manship. It  was  a  medium  out  of 
which  hardly  anything  but  religious 
inspiration  could  make  style. 

Consequently,  though  serious 
writers,  such  as  Polybius,  Plu- 
tarch, Marcus  Aurelius,  used  this 
ordinary  Greek  as  it  came  to  their 


hand,  Latinisms,  barbarisms,  neo- 
logisms, and  all,  without  nicety, 
and  never  found  themselves 
cramped  for  expression,  more  con- 
scious stylists  began  as  early  as  the 
1st  century  A.D.  to  write  a  literary 
Greek,  studiously  learned  from 
classical  models,  for  their  orna- 
mental purposes.  There  were 
several  waves  of  such  Atticism, 
conscious  renascences  of  an  obso- 
lete fashion  worked  by  academic 
aristocracies  ;  the  most  famous  is 
that  to  which  Dion  of  Prusa(c.  A.D. 
40-117),  Lucian  (c.  A.D.  125-185), 
a  Syrian,  and  the  Philostrati  (c. 
A.D.  150-250)  belong.  The  Atticist 
renascences,  and  likewise  all  the 
poetry  produced  after  the  downfall 
of  Athenian  liberty,  addressed 
themselves  to  learned  coteries,  not 
to  the  general  average  of  an  intelli- 
gent bourgeoisie  as  before. 

Literature,  it  has  been  said,  be- 
came now  a  chamber  concert  for 
virtuosi.  Thus  there  is  a  regular 
barrier  between,  on  the  one  hand, 
the  poetry  of  Callimachus,  Eu- 
phorion,  the  Anthology  Little 
Masters,  or  the  prose  of  Lucian  and 
Alciphron  ;  and  on  the  other,  the 
New  Testament  (on  its  literary 
side)  and  the  popular  propagandism 
of  such  sects  as  Cynicism. 

In  the  Greek  Romances  we 
have  a  singular  phenomenon  :  an 
essentially  un- Attic,  only  half  Hel- 
lenic thing,  neglected  all  through 
the  classical  period,  and  finally 
taken  up  into  polite  literature  in 
the  period  of  Atticist  renascence. 
These  stories,  coming  so  late  as 
they  did,  and  so  evidently  creatures 
begotten  in  senility,  have  yet  exer- 
cised a  far  greater  influence  on 
later  literatures  than  any  other 
product  of  the  Greek  genius  after 
Plutarch.  The  poem  of  Nonnus 
(Dionysiaca  in  48  books),  produced 
more  than  1,200  years  after  Homer 
in  the  Homeric!convention  of  dic- 
tion, is  an  extraordinary  literary 
fact.  Here,  far  down  the  centuries, 
was  a  Syrian  in  Egypt,  inditing  an 
epic  which  is  despised  only  because 
the  past  brilliance  of  Greece  ob- 
scures it. 

Procopius  and  S.  Romanes 

A  sort  of  final  spasm  takes  place 
in  the  epoch  of  Justinian  when 
Procopius  in  history,  and  Palladas 
in  epigram,  show  themselves  com- 
petent still  to  employ  intelligently 
the  literary  machineries  of  1,000 
years  earlier ;  and  at  the  same 
period  the  Eastern  Church  as- 
tonishes us  by  breaking  out  into  a 
Christian  lyrism.  S.  Romanes  (b. 
c.  A.D.  .500)  is  an  original  poet, 
1,000  years  after  Pindar ;  and 
from  the  fountain  which  he  struck 
out,  a  stream  runs  far  into  the 
Middle  Ages,  and  by  devious 
channels  eventually  finds  its  way 

C    5 


GREEK     LAW 


3682 


GREEK     LETTER     SOCIETY 


into  the  West,  where  once  more  the 
traditional  fertilising  power  of 
Greek  influence  on  Latin  minds  is 
exemplified. 

Bibliography.  History  of  ancient 
Greek  Literature,  G.  Murray,  1897  ; 
Histoire  de  la  litterature  grecquo, 
1896-99  ;  Manuel  d'histoire  de  la 
littarature  grecque,  A. and  M.Croiset, 
1900,  Eng.  trans.  G.  Ileffelbower, 
190-1;  Les  formes  littoraires  de  la 
pensee  grecque,  H.  Ouvre,  1900;  Hist, 
of  Greek  Literature,  K.  O.  Muller, 
Eng.  trans.  G.  Cornewall  Lewis  and 
J.  W.  Donaldson,  1858,  an  unfinished 
torso,  completed  by  J.  W.  D.  and 
the  only  English  work  giving  an 
account  of  Byzantine  literature  ; 
History  of  Classical  Greek  Litera- 
ture, J.  P.  Mahaffy,  1903  ;  The 
Greek  Genius  and  its  Meaning  to  xis, 
R.  W.  Livingstone,  1912  ;  Intro- 
duction to  Homer,  R.  C.  Jebb,  1898  ; 
Collected  Studies  in  Greek  and 
Latin  Scholarship,  A.  W.  Verrall, 
1913  ;  Classical  Essays,  F.  W. 
Myers,  1888  ;  Greek  Studies,  W. 
Pater,  1904  ;  Studies  of  the  Greek 
Poets,  J.  A.  Symonds,  1893,  repr. 
1920;  Homer  and  the  Epic,  1893, 
Homer  and  his  Age,  A.  Lang,  1906. 

Greek  Law.  Term  generally 
applied  in  a  restricted  sense  to  the 
judicial  procedure  of  the  Greek 
states,  virtually  to  that  of  Athens, 
the  only  city,  with  the  exception 
of  Gortyna  (q.v.)  in  Crete,  of  which 
a  detailed  account  exists. 

At  Athens  there  were  various 
officials  who  exercised  different 
functions  in  the  settlement  of 
civil  and  criminal  cases.  Thus,  of 
the  nine  archons,  the  eponymus 
had  the  supervision  of  family  dis- 
putes, the  basileus  of  religious, 
especially  murder  questions,  the 
polemarchus  of  disputes  between 
resident  aliens  and  foreigners.  The 
court  of  Areopagtis  or  the  51 
ephetae,  who  sat  in  different 
courts  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  case,  tried  cases  of  wilful  mur- 
der, homicide,  and  arson. 

The  Forty,  four  to  each  tribe,  re- 
sembled the  English  magistrates  in 
petty  sessions.  They  went  round 
the  demes,  settling  unimportant 
private  cases  in  which  the  sum  in- 
volved was  less  than  10  drachmae 
(about  8s.  6d.).  Otherwise,  the 
matter  was  handed  on  by  them  to 
one  of  the  diaetetae  or  arbitrators, 
who  formed  a  sort  of  court  of  first 
instance.  If  his  decision  was  re- 
jected, he  impounded  and  sealed 
up  all  documents  and  evidence  to 
be  reproduced  at  the  regular  trial 
before  the  heliastae  or  diccsts,  the 
equivalents  of  the  modern  jury,  by 
whom  most  cases,  both  civil  and 
criminal,  were  tried  in  later  times. 
The  dicastae  were  6,000  in  number, 
600  from  each  tribe,  and  had  to  be 
over  30  years  of  age.  The  actual 
number  of  jurymen,  chosen  by  lot, 
varied  from  201  to  2,501,  the  odd 
figure  being  obviously  intended  to 


prevent  the  number  of  votes  from 
being  equal. 

Public  and  Private  Actions 

Actions  were  distinguished  as 
public  (graphe)  or  private  (dike), 
altbough  they  frequently  ran  into 
one  another,  dike  being  used  to  in- 
cludo  both.  When  the  state  was 
directly  or  indirectly  affected, 
this  constituted  ground  for  a  public 
action.  Such  an  action  could  be 
brought  by  any  full  citizen,  ex- 
cept in  murder  cases,  where  the 
nearest  relatives  were  obliged  to 
prosecute,  but  if  he  failed  to  secure 
one-fifth  of  the  votes,  he  was  fined 
1,000  drachmae  (about  £40)  and 
sometimes  in  civil  cases  he  had  to 
pay  the  defendant  one-sixth  of 
his  claim.  Private  suits  had  to 
be  brought  by  the  person  directly 
affected. 

The  process  went  through  three 
stages.  The  plaintiff  summoned 
the  defendant  to  appear  on  a  cer- 
tain day  before  the  magistrate 
who  was  to  preside.  The  plaintiff 
handed  a  written  statement  of  the 
charge  and  of  the  declarations  of 
the  witnesses  to  the  magistrate, 
who  decided  whether  there  was  a 
case.  Both  parties  deposited  fees 
(prytaneia),  which  went  to  the  suc- 
cessful litigant.  If  the  defendant 
failed  to  appear,  judgement  went 
against  him  by  default. 

The  next  step  was  the  pre- 
liminary examination  (anakrisis). 
At  this  the  defendant  could  put  in 
a  counter-claim  or  a  plea  that, 
even  if- the  charge  made  were  true, 
there  was  some  informality  which 
relieved  him  of  the  obligation  to 
meet  the  charge  directly.  If  no 
such  plea  was  put  forward  or  was 
rejected  by  the  magistrate,  the 
case  was  ordered  to  proceed. 

The  dicasts,  chosen  by  lot  by 
the  officials  called  thesmothetae, 
assembled  in  their  special  court, 
the  Heliaea,  the  same  magistrate 
presiding.  Both  plaintiff  and  de- 
fendant delivered  speeches  on 
their  own  behalf,  but  they  were 
allowed  to  have  advocates  to 
assist  them,  and  their  speeches 
were  often  written  by  persons  who 
made  a  special  business  of  it.  The 
length  of  time  allowed  for  each 
speech  was  measured  by  the 
clepsydra  or  water-clock.  The 
verdict  was  given  by  ballot,  bronze 
voting  tablets  being  used,  whole 
for  acquittal,  pierced  in  the  centre 
for  condemnation,  For  acquittal 
it  was  necessary  that  the  votes 
should  be  equal.  There  was  no 
appeal  from  the  verdict,  but  a 
new  trial  could  be  demanded  if  it 
transpired  that  the  witnesses  had 
committed  perjury. 

Penalties  consisted  of  capital 
punishment,  inflicted  by  hurling 
the  condemned  into  a  deep  pit  near 


Athens,  or  by  administering  hem- 
lock to  him  in  prison ;  banishment ; 
atimia  or  loss  of  the  privileges  of 
citizenship ;  confiscation  of  pro- 
perty ;  and  fines.  The  execution 
of  the  sentence  was  carried  out  by 
various  officials,  that  of  death  by 
a  body  called  the  Eleven. 

Such  a  method  of  legal  pro- 
cedure was  highly  unsatisfactory. 
The  dicasts  had  no  judge's  sum- 
ming up  to  influence  their  verdict ; 
they  were  not  responsible  like  the 
regular  magistrates,  who  had  to 
give  an  account  (euthyna)  of  their 
term  of  office  ;  all  kinds  of  appeals 
ad  misericordiam  were  made  by  the 
litigants,  such  as  bringing  in  their 
wives  and  children  dressed  in  rags. 
The  emoluments  appealed  to  the 
ordinary  citizen,  who  was  able  to 
live  on  them  without  doing  any 
other  work.  J.  H.  Freese 

Bibliography.  Greek  Constitu- 
tional Antiquities,  G.  Gilbert,  1895; 
Aristotle's  Constitution  of  Athens, 
trans.  F.  G.  Kenyon,  1891 ;  Appen- 
dices to  C.  R.  Kennedy's  trans,  of 
Demosthenes  in  Bohn's  Series, 
1856-61.  The  standard  work  on 
the  subject  is  Der  Attische  Process, 
Meier-Schomann,  new  ed.  1 883-87. 

Greek  Letter  Society.  Name 
given  to  the  secret  fraternity  of 
students  found  in  most  American 
universities.  It  takes  its  name 
from  the  initials  of  the  Greek  words 
adopted  as  a  motto,  and  these, 
with  their  "  grips  "  and  rituals,  are 
the  only  secrets  of  these  societies. 
A.  A.*.  (1832),  *.T.  (1833),  and 
A.K.E.  (1844)  are  perhaps  the 
best  known,  but  there  are  more 
than  fifty,  each  with  a  chapter  of 
from  20  to  30  members  in  many  dif- 
ferent "institutions.  The  richer 
chapters  have  fraternity  houses,  in 
which  the  members  live. 

Fraternities  have  been  con- 
demned as  undemocratic  and  en- 
couraging cliques  and  extrava- 
gance, laws  against  them  having 
been  actually  passed  in  certain 
states  ;  but  their  numbers  and  pro- 
perty make  them  important. 

The  oldest  Greek  letter  society, 
$.B.K.  (initials  of  the  motto, 
philosophia  bio'i  kubernetfe,  philo- 
sophy the  guide  of  life),  was 
founded  in  1776  at  the  College  of 
William  and  Mary,  Williamsburg, 
Virginia.  Suspended  in  1781 
through  the  successive  occupation 
of  Williamsburg  by  the  British, 
French,  and  American  armies,  it 
survived  in  the  chapters  it  had  es- 
tablished at  Harvard  and  Yale.  It 
has  now  dropped  its  social  for  aca- 
demic activities,  and  admission  to 
it  is  recognized  as  a  true  literary 
distinction.  Women  undergradu- 
ates have  founded  their  own  Greek 
letter  societies  or  "Sororities," 
and  the  idea  has  been  extended  to 
the  professions. 


GREEK     RELIGION 


3683 


GREELEY 


Greek  Religion.  Greek  religion 
is  not  the  same  as  Greek  myth- 
ology. The  latter  is  an  account  of 
the  words  and  deeds  of  the  super- 
human beings  called  gods ;  the 
former  is  concerned  with  the  nature 
and  functions  of  these  beings,  and 
the  worship  and  ritual  by  which 
they  were  approached. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  reli- 
gion of  the  Greeks,  as  it  appears  in 
the  Homeric  poems,  was  preceded 
by  an  earlier  religion.  It  has  been 
established  that  an  earlier  civiliza- 
tion, to  which  the  name  Aegean  or 
Minoan  has  been  given,  preceded 
that  of  the  Greeks.  The  Greeks 
themselves  are  the  result  of  the 
blending  of  earlier  inhabitants,  nei- 
ther Indo-European  nor  Semitic, 
with  invaders  who  descended  from 
central  Europe,  the  last  of  these 
being  the  Dorians.  How  far  Greek 
religion  is  an  admixture  of  the  be- 
liefs of  the  original  inhabitants 
with  those  of  the  Indo-European 
invaders  ;  whether  the  Greeks  ever 
worshipped  stones,  trees,  plants, 
and  animals  ;  what  part  foreign  in- 
fluences, Asiatic  and  especially 
Egyptian,  played  in  the  formation 
of  Greek  religion  as  first  known  to 
us,  are  still  unsettled  questions. 

Greek  religion  was  originally  nei- 
ther monotheistic  nor  merely  sym- 
bolical of  a  mystic  system  brought 
from  the  East.  Nor  was  it  purely 
a  nature-religion,  as  was  argued 
from  the  fact  that  comparative 
philology  had  shown  that  many  of 
the  old  Vedic  deities,  who  bore 
similar  names  to  those  of  the  Greek 
gods,  were  personifications  of  na- 
ture. Similarity  of  name  does  not 
necessarily  imply  a  similar  concep- 
tion of  the  nature  of  the  god.  Thus, 
one  who  in  the  Greek  hierarchy 
holds  high,  even  the  highest,  rank 
may  be  insignificant  in  another. 
The  Greater  and  Lesser  Gods 

Greek  religion  was  essentially 
anthropomorphic.  The  gods  were 
conceived  of  as  immortal,  possess- 
ing the  forms  of  men,  their  vices 
and  virtues,  but  infinitely  superior 
in  power  and  influence.  They  may 
be  divided  into  (1)  the  gods  "of  the 
sky,  whose  home  was  on  Mt. 
Olympus,  ruled  by  Zeus  ;  (2)  the 
gods  of  the  seas  and  rivers,  ruled  by 
Poseidon  ;  (3)  the  chthonian  gods, 
or  gods  of  the  underworld,  ruled  by 
Hades.  With  these  greater  gods 
were  associated  numerous  inferior 
deities.  As  the  individual  gods  dif- 
fered in  power  and  wisdom,  so  they 
enjoyed  different  degrees  of  venera- 
tion in  different  states.  New  epi- 
.thets  from  time  to  time  indicated 
altered  and  extended  functions. 

The  Greek  believed  himself  to  be 
surrounded  by  gods,  upon  whom 
he  was  himself  dependent,  and  not 
only  he  alone,  but  his  family  and 


the  greater  family,  the  state.  At  Religion,  J.  E.  Harrison,  2nd  ed. 
the  same  time  he  professed  nothing  1908;  Lehrbuch  der  Religions- 
in  the  nature  of  religious  dosrma  :  geschichte,  Chantepie  de  la  Saus- 

saye,    new    ed.    1905,    Eng.    trans. 

Manual  of  the  Science  of  Religion, 


B.   S.   Colyer  Fergusson,    1891;      A 


in  the  nature  of  religious  dogma  ; 
there  was  nothing  that  could  be 
properly  called  a  priesthood,  spe- 
cially gifted  with  a  knowledge  of  Handbook  of  Gfeek  Religion,  A. 
things  divine.  The  Greek  could  Fairbanks,  1910;  The  Mycenaean 
believe  what  he  pleased,  except  Tree  and  Pillar  Cult,  A.  J.  Evans, 
deny  the  existence  of  the  gods  1901;  Psyche,  E.  Rohde,  1894. 
or  attack  the  existing  religion. 


Inexorable  Fate 

An  important  element  in  Greek 
religion  was  Moira  (Fate),  repre- 
senting the  physical  and  moral 
laws  that  inexorably  governed  the 
universe,  to  which  even  the  gods 
had  to  bow.  Hence  it  was  incum- 
bent upon  them  to  see  that  men 
kept  and  did  not  violate  these  laws, 
and  they  meted  out  rewards  and 
punishments  accordingly.  The  re- 
lation between  men  and  gods, 
whose  favour  was  to  be  gained  and 
whose  wrath  appeased  by  various 
rites  and  sacrifices,  and  whose 
pleasure  was  learnt  from  the  ora- 
cles, was  regarded  as  a  sort  of  con- 
tract. If  the  individual  or  state 
required  the  aid  of  the  gods,  they 
on  their  part  had  to  give  of  their 
best  in  return. 

That  the  Greeks  believed  in  the 
existence  of  the  soul  after  death  is 
shown  by  propitiatory  rites  such  as 


Greeley,  HORACE  (1811-T2). 
American  journalist.  Born  on  a 
New  Hampshire  farm,  Feb.  3, 1811, 

he    joined    the __. 

staff  of  a  coun-  1 
try  newspaper  |>: 
at  the  age  of  15,  f  _  ,1- 
and  in  1831  I 
made  his ,  way  | 
to  New  York  1 
as  a  journey-  | 
man  printer. 
After  a  first 
failure  with  a 

paper    called  *f^i^-~<^ 

The     Morning 

Post  (1833),  he  founded  The  New 
Yorker  in  1834,  the  literary  ex- 
cellence of  which  gained  him  an 
immediate  reputation.  He  started 
The  Tribune  in  1841,  and  the  large 
circulation  of  this  paper  in  the  N. 
and  W.  gave  Greeley  an  opportunity 
of  preaching  his  political  doctrines. 

The  question  of  slavery  early  en- 


, 


were  performed,  e.g.,  at  the  festival     gaged  his  attention,  and  by  1850 
called    Anthesteria,    by    offerings     The   Tribune   was  an  unflinching 
laid  on  the  tomb  which  the  shade 
of  the  departed  was  supposed  to 
haunt,  and  by  the  honours  paid  to 
distinguished  persons  or  local  di- 


vinities such  as  Hercules  and  the 


advocate  of  abolition.  Delegate  to 
the  fateful  Republican  national 
convention  of  Chicago  in  1860, 
Greeley  helped  forward  the  nomin- 
ation of  Lincoln,  and  staunchly 


oekist  or  founder  of  a  colony,  who     supported  the   president   through 
were    dignified   with   the   title   of     the    war.      He    was    one    of    the 

and 


heroes. 

Up  to  the  time  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  War,  the  general  belief  in 
the  gods  remained  unshaken  among 
the   people.      After  that  time,   a 
general  moral,  social,  and  political 
decay  set  in.    The  people  became 
impregnated  with  the  scepticism  of 
the  philosophers  and  of  dramatists 
like  Euripides.     Unbelief  and  reli- 
gious indifference  took  its  place, 
succeeded  by  superstition,  which  in 
turn   led   to  the 
prevalence  of     yrc^-" 
mystical     sects     [ 
and     rites    like     | 
those  of  the  Or- 
phic   and    other     |  2SuraL 
mysteries,  and  to 
the  introduction 
of  foreign  divini- 
ties.     See  Hero ; 
Mystery;    Myth- 
ology; Oracle; 
Orphism. 

J.  H.  Freese 
Bibliography. 
Cults  of  the  Greek 
States,  L.  R.  Far- 
nell,  1896-1909  ; 
Prolegomena  to  Horace  Greeley. 


bailees  of  Jefferson-  Davis, 
thereby  incurred  the  anger  of  a 
large  section  of  the  northern 
public.  Vigorously  opposing  the 
re-nomination  of  Grant  in  1872,  he 
was  himself  nominated  by  the 
Liberal  Republicans,  and  carried 
six  southern  states  ;  but  the  con- 
sequent mental  strain,  coupled  with 
the  loss  of  his  wife,  proved  too  much, 
and  he  died  suddenly,  Nov.  29,  1872. 
See  Life,  A.  H.  Sotheran,  1892. 


theStudy  of  Greek 


The  house  in  Amherst,  New  Hamp- 


shire, in  which  he  was  born 


GREELY 


Adolphus  W.  Greely, 
American  explorer 


Greely,  ADOLPHUS  WASHINGTON 
(b.  1844).  An  American  explorer. 
Born  at  Newburyport,  Mass., 
March  27, 1844, 
he  served  in 
the  Civil  War 
(1861-65).  Re- 
maining in  the 
army,  he  be- 
came a  briga- 
dier-general in 
1887.  He  was 
appointed,  i  n 
1881,  to  com- 
mand a  polar 
expedition, 
and  with  a N"  party  oi  25  men 
reached  the  then  farthest  North 
(83°  24'),  crossing  Grinnell  Land 
to  the  Polar  Sea.  Two  relief  expe- 
ditions failed  to  find  them,  and 
when  the  third  succeeded,  only 
seven  of  his  party  were  alive. 

Greely  was  largely  employed  in 
the  signal  arrangements  of  the 
Spanish-American  War,  was  in 
charge  of  the  relief  operations  at 
San  Francisco  after  the  earth- 
quake in  1906,  and  was  promoted 
major-general  the  same  year.  He 
retired  in  1908,  his  Three  Years 
of  Arctic  Service,  1883,  giving  an 
account  of  his  expedition. 

Green.  River  of  Kentucky, 
U.S.A.  Rising  in  the  centre  of  the 
state,  it  flows  for  300  m.  W.  and 
N.W.  to  the  Ohio  river,  about  7  m. 
above  Evansville.  Locks  and  dams 
have  made  the  river  navigable  for 
small  steamers  to  Greensburg, 
about  200  m.  upstream. 

Green.  Headstream  of  the  Colo- 
rado river,  U.S.A.  Rising  on  the 
slopes  of  the  Wind  river  range  in 
Wyoming,  it  follows  a  S.  course 
through  the  Uinta  Mts.,  in  which 
it  has  cut  a  series  of  deep  canons, 
and  joins  the  Grand  river  in  the 
S.E.  of  Utah  to  form  the  Colorado. 
Its  length  is  about  710  m. 

Green,  ALICE  SOPHIA  AMELIA 
(b.  1848).  British  historical  wri- 
ter. Born  at  Kells,  Ireland,  7th 
child  of  Ed-  , 
ward  Adderley  | 
Stopford,  arch- 
deacon  of 
Meath,  she 
married,  in 
1877,  John 
Richard  Green. 
Her  writings 
include  Henry 
II,  1888 ;  Town 
Life  in  the  Fif- 
teenth Century,  1894;  The  Mak- 
ing of  Ireland  and  Its  Undoing, 
1908;  Irish  Nationality,  1911 ;  and 
Woman's  Place  in  the  World  of 
Letters,  1913.  She  edited  several 
editions  of  J.  R.  Green's  Short 
History  of  the  English  People,  in- 
cluding that  of  1916,  which  con- 
tains an  additional  chapter. 


m 


Alice  S.  A.  Green, 
British  historian 


Charles  Green, 
British  aeronaut 


Green,  ANNA  KATHARINE  (b. 
1846).  American  novelist.  Born  at 
/Brooklyn,  Nov.  11,  1846,  she  was 
the  author  of  numerous  stories  of 
crime  and  criminal  detection.  She 
made  an  enormous  hit  both  in 
America  and  in  Great  Britain  with 
her  first  novel,  The  Leavenworth 
Case,  1878,  a  story  with  a  most 
ingenious  plot.  Her  later  stories 
include  The  Sword  of  Damocles, 
1881,  The  Forsaken  Inn,  1890, 
and  The  Filigree  Ball,  1903. 

Green,  CHARLES  (1785-1870). 
British  aeronaut.  Born  in  London, 
Jan.  31,  1785,  he  interested  himself 
in  aeronautics 
and,  on  the 
coronation  of 
George  IV,  in 
1821,  was  the 
first  to  ascend 
i  n  a  carbur- 
retted  hydro- 
gen gas  bal- 
loon,  from 
Green  Park. 
After  this,  he 
made  many  ascents,  and  in  1836 
ascended  from  Vauxhall  in  his  Great 
Nassau  balloon,  taking  eight  pas- 
sengers and  remaining  aloft  an  hour 
and  a  half.  In  1838  he  made  two 
ascents  from  Vauxhall,  attaining 
19,335  ft.  and  27,146ft.  respectively. 
His  last  ascent  was  in  1852,  and 
he  died  March  26, 1870.  Green  de- 
monstrated the  possibility  of  using 
coal  gas  in  balloons,  and  invented 
the  guide  rope. 

Green,  HETTY  HOWI.AND  ROB- 
INSON (1835-1916).  American  finan- 
cier.    In  1865  she  inherited  a  large 
fortune  from  her  father,  Edward 
M.  Robinson,  and  two  years  later 
married  Edward  H.   Green.     She 
had   remarkable   business   ability, 
and  managed,  without  outside  help 
or  advice,  large  estates  and  an  enor- 
mous business  in  stocks  and  shares. 
She  died  July  3,  1916,  leaving  a 
fortune  computed  at  £20,000,000. 
Green,  JOHN  RICHARD    (1837- 
83).      British  historian.      Born  in 
Oxford,  Dec.  12,  1837,  he  was  edu- 
cated at  Mag-     r  •  ~-~j 
dalen    College    f                  1^ 
School    and 
Jesus   College.    | 
He   became   a    | 
clergyman  and    I 
held  an  incum-    I 
bency  at  Step- 
ney,     but     ill-    1 

health     com-     ^nn  *i^a  ui-eeu. 
pelled  him   to        British  historian 
abandon    par-          After  j.  Sandyt 
ish  work,  and  for  a  little  time  he  was 
librarian  at  Lambeth.    He  had  soon 
a  reputation  by  his  contributions  to 
The  Saturday  Review,  and  from 
about  1868  to  his  death  he  devoted 
himself  to  historical   study.      He 
died  at  Mentone,  March  7,  1883. 


Green's  great  work  is  his  Short 
History  of  the  English  People, 
perhaps  the  most  popular  work  of 
its  kind  ;  it  appeared  in  1874,  and 
there  have  been  many  later  edi- 
tions. In  this  he  avoided  the  con- 
ventional historical  divisions,  and 
laid  more  stress  upon  important 
social  and  religious  movements 
than  upon  kings,  wars,  and  treaties. 
But  its  great  attraction  is  its  style, 
for  it  abounds  in  passages  that 
linger  in  the  mind.  Its  accuracy 
cannot  be  seriously  questioned,  but 
its  author's  knowledge  of  the  later 
centuries  was  hardly  equal  to  that 
of  the  earlier  ones,  and  certain 
theories  are  pressed  too  far. 

His  more  detailed  Making  of 
England,  1882,  and  Conquest  of 
England,  1883,  are  of  great  value  to 
students  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  period. 
He  was  the  author  of  several  vol- 
umes of  Essays  and  miscellaneous 
writings,  and  helped  to  found  The 
English  Historical  Review.  See 
The  Letters  of  J.  R.  Green,  ed. 
Leslie  Stephen,  1901. 

Green,  THOMAS  HILL  (1836-82). 
British  philosopher.  Born  at  Bir- 
kin,  Yorkshire,  April  7,  1836,  he 
was  educated  at  Rugby  and  Balliol 
College,  Oxford.  His  father  was  a 
clergyman,  and  he  claimed  descent 
from  Oliver  Cromwell.  In  1860  he 
was  elected  to  a  fellowship  at  Bal- 
liol, and  in  Oxford  he  remained  all 
his  life.  He  was  on  the  tutorial  staff 
at  Balliol,  and  from  1878  was  pro- 
fessor of  moral  philosophy  in  the 
university.  He  died  March  26, 1882. 

He  was  the  most  penetrating 
influence  in  the  Oxford  of  his  day, 
and,  through  his  pupils,  his  influence 
on  English  philosophy,  especially 
political  and  moral  philosophy,  was 
profound.  In  politics  he  was  a 
Liberal,  in  some  matters  an  ad- 
vanced Radical.  He  took  great  in- 
terest in  educational  matters  and 
was  actively  concerned  in  social 
movements  for  the  betterment  of 
the  working  classes.  As  a  philoso- 
pher he  was,  under  the  influence  of 
Kant,  Hegel,  and  Fichte,  the  chief 
representative  of  English  critical 
idealism,  opposed  to  the  empiricism 
of  John  Stuart  Mill  and  Spencer. 

Knowledge,  to  him,  was  the  re- 
production of  an  eternal  mind  in 
human  personality.  .  The  entity 
which  embraces  all  relations  of  ex- 
perience is  the  infinite,  absolute 
subject,  the  eternal,  pure  self-con- 
sciousness, the  synthetic  principle 
of  unity  which  manifests  itself  in 
the  individual.  As  a  political  phil- 
osopher he  accepted  in  the  main 
Hegel's  theory  of  the  state,  but 
adapted  it  in  certain  particulars  to  ' 
meet  his  own  views.  It  is  only 
in  the  state  of  society  that  the 
individual  can  find  the  rightful 
sphere  for  his  activities.  In  Robert 


GREEN 


3685 


GREEN  CROSS  SOCIETY 


Elsmere,  Green  appears  as  Mr.Gray. 
His  teaching  is  contained  in  his 
Prolegomena  to  Ethics  and  hig 
Lectures  on  the  Principles  of  Poli 
tical  Obligation. 

Green,  VALENTINE  (1739-1813). 
British  engraver.    Born  at  Salford, 
near  Chipping  Norton,  Oxfordshire, 
Oct.   16,  1739, 
he  refused   tc 
take-   up   law, 
and     studied 
line  engraving 
under    Robert 
Hancock    of 
Worcester. 
Later     on    he 
came  to   Lon- 
Valentine  Green,        don,    took    up 
British  engraver        mezzotint,  and 
After  Abbott  before  he  was 

thirty  achieved  unqualified  success. 
His  prints  after  Benjamin  West's 
Return  of  Regulus  to  Carthage  and 
Hannibal  swearing  eternal  enmity 
to  the  Romans  were  the  largest 
mezzotints  until  then  produced. 
He  translated  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds's 
portraits  with  rare  sympathy  and 
skill,  and  proofs  in  prime  condition 
now  letch  very  high  prices.  He  ex- 
hibited at  the  R.A.  in  1774,  and  in 
1775  was  elected  associate  engraver 
and  became  mezzotint  engraver  to 
George  III. 

In  1789  the  elector  of  Bavaria 
gave  him  the  sole  right  to  engrave 
and  publish  prints  after  the  orig- 
inals in  the  Diisseldorf  Gallery,  but 
he  had  only  completed  22  plates 
when  the  gallery  was  destroyed  in 
1798  during  the  siege  of  the  town 
by  the  French.  On  the  founda- 
tion of  the  British  Institution  in 
1805  he  was  appointed  keeper!  He 
died  in  London  on  June  29,  1813. 
His  plates  number  400,  and  though 
he  is  best  known  by  his  portraits,  he 
engraved  many  subjects  by  the  Old 
Masters,  such  as  Rubens'  Descent 
from  the  Cross,  Domenichino's  Vir- 
gin and  Child,  Murillo's  S.  John 
with  the  Lamb,  Ludovico  Carracci's 
Entombment  of  Jesus,  and  Agos- 
tino  Carracci's  Venus  and  Cupid. 
He  engraved  portraits  after  Van 
Dyck,  George  Romney,  and  others, 
besides  those  by  Reynolds. 

Greenaway,  KATE  (1846-1901). 
British  artist.  Born  in  Hoxton, 
London,  March  17, 1846,  her  father, 
John  Greenaway,  being  a  well- 
known  wood 
engraver,  she 
studied  at 
the  South  Ken- 
sington Art 
School,  Heath - 
erley's  Acad- 
emy, and  the 
Slade  School 
Her  earlier 

efforts     were    -Kate  Ureenawayi 
limited     to          British  artist 


L... 


Kate  Greenaway.      P  Peeped  In  It,  a  characteristic 
Greenaway  drawing  from  an  alphabet  series 

S.  Kensington  Museum 

valentines    and    Christmas    cards,     agricultural 
although  she  exhibited  occasionally, 


court  house,  the 
municipal  and 
federal  buildings, 
the  public  library, 
and  several  hos- 
pitals and  educa- 
tionalinstitutions, 
while  not  far 
away  is  the  state 
reformatory. 

An  important 
rly.  centre,  its  har- 
bour is  accessible 
to  the  largest  lake 
vessels,  and  a 
large  trade  is 
carried  on  in  coal, 
i umber,  fish,  and 
grain.  It  contains 
rly.  repair  shops, 
lumber  yards,  and 
canneries,  and 
manufactures 
implements,  ma- 
chinery, gas  engines,  flour,  bricks, 


for  the  first  time  at  the  Dudley     and  tiles.     Green  Bay  stands  near 


Gallery  in  1868,  and  at  the  Royal 
Academy  in  1877. 

The  work  with  which  Kate 
Greenaway's  name  is  chiefly  identi- 
fied consists  of  drawings,  chiefly  in 
colour,  but  often  in  black  and  white, 
illustrating  stories  and  poems  for 
children.  The  girls  and  boys  are 
garbed  in  the  costume  of  the  early 


the  site  of  an  old  Indian  village  and 
was  permanently  settled  about 
1745.  It  was  incorporated  in  1838 
and  became  a  city  in  1854.  Pop. 
30,017. 

Green  Cloth,  BOARD  OF.  De- 
partment of  the  British  royal  house- 
hold. It  is  presided  over  by  the 
lord  steward,  who  has  under  him 


19th    century,    and   the   resulting  the  master  of  the  household  and 

pictures  are  quaint  and  attractive,  other  officials.     It  is  charged  with 

being  saved  from  the  pedantry  of  the  duty  of  supervising  the  house- 

archaism  by  the  juvenility  of  the  hold,  including  the  kitchen,  arrange- 


figures  and  charm  of  composition. 
Her  work  enjoyed  an  immense 


ments  of  the  court,  etc.,  the  office 
being  at  Buckingham  Palace.   It  is 


vogue,  and  for  a  long  time  "  Kate     so  called  because  of  the  covering 


Greenaway  "  frocks  were  the  fash- 
ion for  little  girls.  From  1880 
almost  to  her  death  at  Hampstead, 
Nov.  6,  1901,  not  a  year  passed 
without  several  books  from  her 
hand.  Some  she  wrote  as  well  as 
illustrated,  such  as  Under  the  Win- 
dow, 1879,  and  Marigold  Marsh, 


of  the  table  at  which  the  lord 
steward  and  his  subordinates  sat. 
See  Lord  Steward. 

Green  Cross  Society.  Corps  of 
women  motor  drivers  in  the  Great 
War.  It  was  established  in  June, 
1915,  and  was  officially  known  as 
the  Women's  Reserve  Ambulance. 


1885,  the  latter  perhaps  the  most     Members  drove  either  their  own  or 


the  corps'  vehicles,  and  specialised 
in  connecting  the  ambulance  trams 
arriving  in  London  with  certain 


successful    of    the   series    from 
commercial  standpoint. 

Greenback.  Popular  name  of 
the  paper  money  first  issued  by  the  hospitals,  mostly  in  the  suburbs, 
U.S.A.  during  the  Civil  War,  and  so  but  were  trained  and  equipped  to 
called  because  the  printing  on  the  render  ambulance  service  in  any 
back  of  the  notes  is  in  green  ink.  direction. 

Included  in  the  membership  were 


Green  Bay.     Opening  of  Lake 
Michigan,  penetrating  for  120  m. 


hundreds   of  girls,   most   of   them 


S.W.  into  Wisconsin,  U.S.A.  It  engaged  in  business,  who  devoted 
has  a  greatest  breadth  of  20  m.  their  leisure  to  work  in  hospitals 
and  an  extreme  depth  of  120  ft.,  and  canteens,  or  who  acted  as 
and  derives  its  name  from  the  station  guides  for  returning  sol- 
colour  of  its  water.  The  Fox  river  diers.  They  also  rendered  valuable 
enters  at  its  head,  and  its  mouth  is  help  during  the  air  raids  on  Lon- 
obstructed  by  a  number  of  islands,  don,  and  supplied  large  numbers 
Green  Bay.  City  of  Wisconsin,  of  recruits  to  other  corps.  A  detach- 
U.S.A.,  the  co.  seat  of  Brown  co.  ment  went  as  ambulance  drivers 
A  port  of  entry  at  the  head  of  with  Dr.  Elsie  Inglis  (q.v.),  of  the 
Green  Bay,  112  m.  N.  of  Milwau-  Scottish  Women's  Hospital,  to 
kee,  it  is  served  by  the  Chicago,  Russia  and  Rumania.  The  uni- 
Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul  and  other  form  was  of  green  cloth,  hence  the 
rlys.  Its  chief  buildings  are  the  popular  designation  of  the  corps. 


GREENE 

Greene,  'HARRY  PLTJNKET  (b. 
1865).  British  singer.  Born  in 
Dublin,  June  24,  1865,  a  son  of 
Richard  J.  Greene  and  a  grandson 
of  Lord  Plunket,  he  was  educated 
at  Clifton  College.  He  was  origin- 
ally intended  for  the  bar,  but  the  de- 
velopment of  his  voice  induced  him 
to  study  for  the  musical  profession 
at  Stuttgart  and  Florence.  In 
1888  he  appeared  in  London  as 
a  baritone  in  The  Messiah,  and 
afterwards  took  leading  parts  in 
oratorio  and  opera,  while  his  inter- 
pretation of  the  great  classical 
songs  revealed  high  artistic  power. 
Greene  also  became  professor  of 
singing  at  the  Royal  Academy  of 
Music  and  the  Royal  College  of 
Music. 

Greene,  NATHANAEL  (1742- 
1786).  American  soldier.  Born 
Aug.  7,  1742,  at  Potowomut, 
Rhode  Island, 
the  son  of  a 
Quaker,  on  the 
outbreak  o  f 
the  War  of 
Independen  c  e 
he  enlisted  as  a 
private  in  the 
colonial  army. 
In  1775  he  was 
appointed  to 
the  command 
of  the  Rhode 
Island  con- 
tingent with 
the  rank  of 
brigadier- 
general.  At 
the  battle  of 
Brandy  wine  he 
led  a  reserve 
force,  and  in 
1780  he  was 
made  com- 
mander of  the 
army  of  the 
South,in  which 
capacity  he  eventually  cleared 
Georgia  and  N.  and  S.  Carolina  of 
the  British.  He  died  near  Savannah, 
June  19,  1786. 

Greene,  ROBERT  (c.  1560-1592). 
English  poet  and  prose  writer. 
Bora  at  Norwich,  and  educated  at 
S.  John's  College  and  Clare  Hall, 
Cambridge,  he  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  English  romantic 
comedy  and  prose  fiction.  His 
prose  pastoral  Pandosto  inspired 
Shakespeare's  Winter's  Tale.  He 
died  in  poverty,  Sept.  3,  1592,  and 
was  buried  near  Bethlem  Hospital, 
Bishopsgate,  London. 

Of  some  forty  works  attributed 
to  him,  most  of  which  are  pamphlets 
containing  idyllic  pictures  of 
womanhood,  impressions  of  country 
ife,  and  descriptions  of  the  shady 
side  of  the  London  of  his  day,  the 
most  important  are  the  plays, 
Friar  Bacon  and  Friar  Bungay, 


from  the  statue  in  the 
Capitol,  Washington 


James  IV,  and  Pandosto,  and  the 
autobiographical  Groatsworth  of 
)Wit,  containing  a  reference  to  "the 
only  Shake-scene,"  which  is  gen- 
erally assumed  to  be  a  depreciation 
of  Shakespeare,  to  whose  Henry  VI 
and  Titus  Andronicus  he  is  believed 
to  have  contributed.  He  wrote 
some  charming  lyrics,  notably  in 
his  Menaphon.  His  first  romance, 
Mamillia,  was  influenced  by  the 
Euphues  of  Lyly.  His  complete 
works  were  edited  by  Grosart, 
1881-86,  and  his  plays  and  poems 
by  Churton  Collins,  1905. 

Green  Earth.  Name  given  to  a 
dark  greenish  soft  mineral  sub- 
stance, a  hydrous  silicate  rich  in 
iron.  It  is  found  chiefly  in  cavities 
of  eruptive  rocks  or  ancient  lavas. 

Greenfinch  OR  GREEN  LINNET 
(Lirjurinus  chloris).  Common  Brit- 
ish song-bird.  Usually  found  in 


L: 

Greenfinch,    a    British    hedgerow 
song-bird  * 

fields  and  hedgerows,  it  is  greenish 
yellow  on  the  back,  with  yellow 
underparts,  and  is  one  of  the 
handsomest  of  the  smaller  birds. 
The  hen  is  less  brightly  coloured 
than  the  male.  The  greenfinch  feeds 
upon  grain  and  seeds. 

Green-Fly.  Popular  name  for 
various  species  of  plant-lice  (Aphis) 
of  the  insect  order  Hemiptera- 
Homoptera.  They  are  soft-skinned, 
with  six  delicate  legs  and  the  mouth 
modified  into  a  very  fine  piercing 
organ  through  which  they  suck 
continuously  the  juices  of  plants. 
The  young  are  hatched  out  in  a 
form  similar  to  the  adult,  so  there 
is  no  transformation.  Theoretically 
the  adults  have  four  exceedingly 
delicate  and  hyaline  wings  with 
only  a  few  strengthening  nervures ; 
but  few  of  the  summer  brood  ever 
develop  wings.  Winged  individuals 
are  numerous  in  the  autumn  brood. 

After  pairing  these  produce  eggs 
which  hatch  in  spring,  the  brood 
consisting  mainly  of  imperfect, 
wingless  females  which,  without 
pairing,  bring  forth  living  young 
which  after  three  weeks  exhibit 
the  same  power  of  virgin  pro- 
duction, which  is  continued 
through  several  generations.  It 
is  this  power  which  accounts  for 
the  enormous  and  rapid  multi- 
plication of  green-fly  on  roses,  etc. 
Most  species  of  green-fly  are  pro- 


GREENHEARt 

vided  on  the  upper  surface  of  the 
hind-body  with  a  pair  of  tubes 
through  which  liquid  wax  is 
ejected  at  their  enemies — ich- 
neumon-wasps, lady-birds,  and 
syrphus-flies. 

i  It  was  formerly  supposed  that 
ants  derived  honey-dew  from 
these  tubes,  but  this  sweet  sub- 
stance is  really  the  excrement  of 
the  Aphides.  On  account  of  the 
advantage  thus  derived,  ants  fre- 
quently take  special  care  of  flocks 
of  green-fly  that  they  place  on 
suitable  plants— roots  in  the  case 
of  certain  subterranean  species. 
Green-fly  may  be  brown,  grey,  or 
black  coloured  as  well  as  green. 
See  Insects. 

Greenford.  Urban  dist.  and 
parish  of  Middlesex,  England.  It 
is  8  m.  W.N.W.  of  London  by  the 
G.W.R.  It  was  styled  Greneforde 
in  Domesday  Book,  and  Greenford 
Magna  to  *  distinguish  it  from 
Greenford  Parva,  which  has  been 
generally  known  since  the  16th 
century  as  Perivale  (q.v.).  Situated 
between  Southall  and  Harrow,  the 
manor  belonged  to  Westminster 
Abbey  until  the  dissolution,  and 
passed  in  1550  to  the  see  of  London. 
The  rectory  and  advowson  have  be- 
longed since  1725  to  King's  College, 
Cambridge.  The  early  Perpendicu- 
lar flint  and  brick  church,  dedicated 
to  the  Holy  Cross,  and  restored 
in  1871  and  1882,  contains  some 
brasses  and  examples  of  old  stained 
glass.  In  the  adjacent  hamlet  of 
Greenford  Green  is  the  factory,  on 
the  Grand  Junction  Canal,  still  used 
for  industrial  purposes,  in  which 
Perkin  perfected  his  production  of 
aniline  dyes  from  coal  tar.  Horsen- 
den  Hill,  a  well-known  eminence, 
is  between  Greenford  Green  and 
Perivale.  Pop.  1,064. 

Greengage.  Fruit  tree  of  the 
natural  order  Rosaceae,  and  genus 
Prunus.  The  greengage  is  really 
a  variety  of  plum  and  needs  the 
same  system  of  culture.  It  was 
first  introduced  into  Great  Britain 
from  the  monastery  of  Chartreuse 
in  France,  by  Lord  Gage,  and  it  is 
supposed  that  the  fruit  is  one  of 
the  primary  and  necessary  in- 
gredients in  the  preparation  of 
the  liqueur  which  bears  the  name 
of  the  monastery.  It  is  largely 
grown  in  France,  from  which  the 
chief  supplies  of  Great  Britain  are 
derived.  It  is  greatly  valued  as  a 
dessert  fruit.  See  Plum. 

Greengrocer.  English  name 
for  a  retailer  of  fresh  fruit  and 
vegetables.  See  Grocer. 

Greenheart  (Nectandra  rodiaei). 
Timber-tree  of  the  natural  order 
Lauraceae.  A  native  of  -British 
Guiana,  it  attains  a  height  of  60  or 
70  ft.  It  has  alternate  leathery 
leaves  and  tubular  flowers.  Its 


GREENH1THE 


Greenheart.     Foliage,  flower-beads, 

and  fruit,  with  section,  of  the  timber 

tree 

timber  is  of  great  strength  and 
durability,  and  yields  planks  of 
great  length,  while  ash-coloured 
bark  (Bibiru-bark)  is  used  medi- 
cinally in  fevers  and  as  a  tonic. 

Greenhithe.  Parish  and  village 
of  Kent,  England.  It  is  situated 
on  the  Thames,  ££  m.  N.E.  of 
Dartford,  on  the  S.E.  &  C.R.  In 
the  vicinity  are  numerous  chalk 
pits.  Ingress  Abbey,  to  the  E.,  on 
the  site  of  a  grange  which  belonged 
to  Dartford  Priory,  is  a  semi- 
Gothic  mansion  built  partly  of 
stone  from  old  London  Bridge. 
The  church  of  S.  Mary  the  Virgin 
dates  from  1855. 

Greenhouse.  Term  applied  to 
structures  of  wood  and  glass 
erected  for  the  protection  and  pro- 
pagation of  plants  unable  to  under- 
go the  rigours  of  winter.  In  Britain, 
if  erected  by  the  tenant  of  a  house, 
such  structures  can  only  be  re- 
moved by  -written  permission  of 
the  landlord,  unless  they  are  of  a 
portable  nature.  A  tenant  may  not 
fasten  any  portion  of  his  green- 
house to  the  floor  by  cemented 
bricks,  or  to  the  wall  by  nails, 
unless  he  is  willing  to  lose  'his  pro- 
prietary rights  to  the  structure. 
Greenhouses  are  of  two  kinds, 
heated  and  unheated.  The  latter 
is  technically  known  as  the  cool 
house  and  the  former  as  the  tem- 
perate house.  See  Gardening. 

Green  Howards.  Official  name 
of  the  Yorkshire  Regiment,  the  19th 
of  the  line.  It  was  given  to  the 
regiment  because  after  it  was 
raised  it  had  Sir  Charles  Howard 
for  its  colonel,  and  the  men  wore 
grass-green  facings.  Long  used  as 
a  popular  name  for  the  regiment, 
in  1920  it  was  made  the  official 
title.  See  Yorkshire  Regiment. 

Greenland.  Large  island,  mainly 
within  the  Arctic  Circle,  the  only 
colonial  possession  of  Denmark.  Its 
area  is  about  826,000  sq.  m.  Lying 
N.E.  of  British  N.  America,  its  most 
northerly  point,  lat.  83°  39'  N.,  is 
about  1,600  m.  from  its  S.  extremity 
in  Cape  Farewell,  lat.  59°  45'  N. 


3687 

Its  extreme  breadth  is  700  m. 
The  coast  is  characterised  by 
rugged  cliffs,  rising  sheer  from  the 
ocean,  with  deep  and  tortuous, 
fiord-like,  glacier- rilled  indenta- 
tions, piercing  inland  in  some  cases 
for  nearly  100  m.  The  principal  in- 
lets are  Independence  Fiord,  Ingle- 
field  Gulf,  Disco  Bay,  Scoresby 
Sound,  Kane  Basin,  Petermann 
Fiord,  Sherard-Osborn  Fiord,  and 
Franz  Josef  Fiord.  The  Green- 
land Sea  lies  off  its  E.  coast,  Den- 
mark Strait  separates  it  from  Ice- 
land in  the  S.E.,  while  Davis  Strait, 
Baffin  Bay,  Smith  Sound,  and  the 
Kennedy  and  Robeson  Channels 
divide  it  from  Grant  Land,  Grin- 
nell  Land,  Devon  Island,  and 
Baffin  Island  on  the  W. 

Nearly  the  whole  of  Greenland 
is  an  elevated  plateau,  the  mean 
alt.  being  4,500  ft.  ;  but  in  places 
there  are  eminences  approaching 
10,000  ft.  The  valleys  have  been 
filled  in  by  accumulations  of  snow, 
so  that  its  whole  area  presents  a 
continuous  and  fairly  level  ice 
sheet  extending  from  sea  to  sea. 
The  largest  of  the  glaciers  is  the 
Humboldt  in  the  N.W.,  reputed  to 
be  the  largest  in  the  world.  It  dis- 
charges into  Kane  Basin  on  a 
front  of  55  m. 

Other  large  glaciers  are  the 
(Sh-eat  Karaiak,the  Jacobshavn,and 
the  Petowik,  all  on  the  W.  coast. 
The  only  ice-free  areas  are  on 
certain  parts  of  the  S.W.  and  S.E. 
coasts  during  the  summer  months, 
when  Arctic  flora  appears,  with 
herbs,  shrubs,  and  mosses  in  the 
N.  and  saxifrages,  poppies,  he^h, 
anemones,  with  Arctic  birch,  a'der, 
and  willow,  in  the  S. 

The  climate  is  extremely  cold 
and  foggy  in  the  winter,  but  during 
the  short  summer  in  the  S.  the 
mean  tempcraUire  is  48°  F. 
Animals  are  not  numerous,  being 
represented  by  the  polar  bear, 
reindeer,  musk  ox,  etc.  Birds  are 
more  plentiful.  The  inhabitants 


GREENLAND 

are  Eskimos,  found  N.  of  Mel- 
ville Bay,  between  Cape  York 
and  Etah. 

The  country  is  divided  into  two 
inspectorates — the  southern  in- 
spectorate, which  touches  lat.  67° 
20'  N.,  and  the  northern,  with  un- 
defined N.  limits.  The  principal 
settlements  are  Upernivik,  the 
most  northerly  village  in  the 
world ;  Godhavn,  on  the  island  of 
Disco,  the  capital ;  Sydproven, 
Christianshaab,  Umanak,  Jacobs- 
•  havn,  Sukkertoppen,  Frederiks- 
haab,  Ivigtut,  and  Julianehaab. 
The  Royal  Danish  Greenland  Co. 
monopolises  the  trade  of  Green- 


~^&P3$$&  /%, 


Greenhouse.     Span-roof  forcing  house,  suitable  for  any 
situation,  shown  in  section 

£V  courtesy  of  Boulton  &  Paul,  Ltd.,  Nonvich 


Greenland.     Map    of    tne    Danish 
colony,  most  of  which  lies  within 

the  Arctic  circle 

land,  which  consists  of  whale  and 
seal  oil,  furs,  cryolite,  and  eider- 
down. There  are  extensive  fishing 
grounds  round  the  coasts,  with  cod 
and  haddock  as  the  principal  catch. 
Greenland  was  discovered  and 
named  towards  the  end  of  the  10th 
century  by  a  Norseman,  Eric  the 
Red,  who  planted  a  colony  on 
the  S.W.  coast. 
|  His  son,  Leif  Eric- 
j  son,  when  on  a 
I  voyage  from  Nor- 
way to  Greenland, 
is  supposed  to 
have  discovered 
the  mainland  of 
America.  Chris- 
tianity  was  in- 
troduced and  a 
bishopric  estab- 
lished in  the  12th 
century. 

Intercourse  with 
Europe  was  main- 
tained until  the  be- 
ginning of  the  15th 
century,  when  the 
increase  of  the  Arc- 
tic ice  completely 


GREENLAND     HILL 


3688 


GREENSAND 


imprisoned  the  colony  and  pre- 
cluded all  access.  This  settlement 
is  said  to  have  extended  200  m.  in 
the  S.E.  of  Greenland,  and  pos- 
sessed several  churches  and  monas- 
teries. Nothing  certain  is  known 
of  the  fate  of  the  settlers. 

In  1585  John  Davis  visited  the 
country,  but  only  found  Eskimos, 
among  whom  were  a  few  Norse 
traditions.  In  1702  Hans  Egede, 
a  Danish  missionary,  founded 
Godthaab  on  the  W.  coast,  and  his 
example  has  been  followed  b&. 
others,  so  that  the  population  now 
amounts  to  13,449.  The  largest 
settlement  is  Sydproven,  with  789 
inhabitants.  During  recent  years 
the  immense  icecap  has  been 
crossed  by  Nansen,  Peary,  Ras- 
mussen,  De  Quervain,  and  Koch  ; 
and  much  geographical  knowledge 
of  the  coast  and  the  neighbouring 
seas  has  been  obtained. 

Greenland  Hill.  Name  given 
to  high  ground  2m.  S.E.  of  Gavr- 
elle,  France,  in  the  dept.  of  Pas-de- 
Calais.  It  was  an  important  tacti- 
cal point  in  the  German  line  during 
the  Great  War,  and  fighting  took 
place  between  the  British  and 
Germans  for  its  possession  in  the 
third  battle  of  Arras,  April-May, 

1917.  It    was    stormed    by    the 
British  51st  division  on  Aug.  26, 

1918.  See  Arras,  Battles  of. 
Greenland  Sea.  Arm  of  the  N. 

Atlantic  Ocean,  lying  N.  of  lat.  70° 
N.,  between  Greenland  on  the  W., 
Spitz bergen  on  the  E.,  and  Iceland 
on  the  S.  Its  breadth  is  about  400 
m.,  and  its  depth  varies  from  2,550 
fathoms  off  Spitz  bergen  to  1,000 
fathoms  off  the  W.  coast  of  Jan 
Mayen.  The  current  from  the 
Arctic  Ocean  runs  down  the  E. 
shore  of  Greenland. 

Greenlaw.  Parish  and  village 
of  Berwickshire,  Scotland.  It 
stands  on  Blackadder  Water,  7  m. 
S.W.  of  Duns  and  62  m.  from  Edin- 
burgh. It  has  a  station  on  theN.B. 
Rly.  Greenlaw  was  the  co.  town  of 
Berwickshire  until  1853,  and  was 
long  a  centre  of  the  woollen  manu- 
facture, which  is  still  carried  on  to 
some  extent.  Near  it  is  Hume 
Castle  (q.v.).  Pop.  550. 

Green  Mountains.  Northern 
section  of  the  Appalachian  system, 
U.S.A.  The  range  extends  in  a  N. 
direction  from  near  the  Hudson 
river  in  New  York  through  Mas- 
sachusetts and  Vermont.  Its 
general  elevation  is  from  2,000  ft. 
to  2,500  ft.  above  sea-level,  the 
highest  summits  occurring  in  the  N. 
and  centre  of  Vermont,  Mt.  Mans- 
field, 4,364  ft.,  being  the  loftiest. 

Part  of  the  range  forms  the  water- 
shed of  the  affluents  of  the  Cumber- 
land river  and  the  streams  flowing 
to  the  Hudson  river  and  Lake 
Champlain.  Extensive  forests  of 


pine,  spruce,  and  other  trees  cover 
the  slopes  of  the  range,  which 
contain  rich  deposits  of  iron, 
marble,  manganese,  and  other 
minerals. 

Greenock.  Municipal  and  police 
burgh  and  seaport  of  Renfrew- 
shire, Scotland.  It 
stands  on  the  S.side 
of  the  Firth  of 
Clyde,  22  m.  from 
Glasgow,  and  is 
served  by  the  Cal. 
and  Glasgow  & 
S.W.  Rlys.  A  ser- 
vice of  electric 
tramways  con- 


Greenock  arms 


nects  it  with  Port  Glasgow  o  n  the 
east  side  and  Gourock  on  the 
west. 

The  chief  buildings  include  the 
town  hall  and  municipal  buildings, 
the  Watt  Institution,  and  Greenock 
library,  and  the  Custom  House. 
There  is  a  technical  college  and 
other  colleges  and  schools  ;  also 
several  hospitals  and  other  charit- 
able institutions.  The  oldest  church 
is  a  16th  century  building.  In  its 
churchyard  Highland  Mary  (q.v.) 
was  buried,  but  in  1920  the  ground 
and  site  of  the  . 
church  were  taken 
for  an  extension 
of  a  shipbuilding 
yard.  The  parks 
include  Well 
and  Wellington. 
Along  the  sea 
front  is  a  fine 
esplanade,  and  the 
town  has  golt 
links. 

The  chief  indus- 
tries of  Greenock 
are    shipbuilding 
and  shipping.  The 
port  has   been 
continuously    im- 
proved  since  it 
was  first  opened  in  1710,  and  has 
now   a   large   import   and   export 
trade.    Tourist  steamers  start  from 
Prince's  Pier.     There  are   several 
harbours,    with    docks    both    wet 
and     dry,     a     great     extent     of 
quays  and  other  accessories  of  a 
first-class  port ;    also  great  ship- 
building  yards.      The   town  is   a 
centre  for  sugar  refining,  while  en- 
gines, boilers,  and   other  require- 
ments of  ships,  e.g.  ropes  and  sail- 
cloth,  are  made,   as  are  textiles, 
paper,  aluminium,  etc.     Distilling 
and    oil   refining   are    carried    on. 
Greenock  became  a  burgh  in  1635, 
and  a  flourishing  seaport  after  the 
union  of  Scotland  with  England  in 
1707.    Here  James  Watt  was  born. 
It  is   governed  by  a   corporation 
that  controls  the  supplies  of  gas, 
water,    and    electric    light ;    and 
sends  one  member  to  Parliament. 
Pop.  (1921)  81,120. 


Greenockite.  Mineral  sulphide 
«f  cadmium.  It  crystallises  in 
double  six-sided  yellow  crystals 
belonging  to  the  hexagonal  system, 
and  is  found  in  Renfrewshire  and 
Dumbartonshire,  Przibram  (Bo- 
hemia), and  Laurium  (Greece). 

Greenore.  Seaport  of  co. 
Louth,  Ireland.  It  stands  on  the 
N.  side  of  Carlingford  Lough,  2  m. 
S.E.  of  Carlingford.  It  has  a  rly. 
station,  and  the  L.  &  N.W.  Rly. 
has  made  it  the  terminus  of  a 
service  from  Holyhead.  There  is 
a  pier  and  accommodation  for 
steamers.  The  L.  &  N.W.  Co. 
owns  a  line  that  runs  from  here  to 
connexions  with  the  G.N.  of  Ire- 
land system.  The  place,  which  has 
golf  links,  is  visited  by  pleasure- 
seekers,  and  a  steam  ferry  goes  to 
Greencastle  on  the  other  side  of 
the  lough.  Pop.  290. 

Green  Park.  Open  space  in 
London.  It  covers  54  acres  between 
Piccadilly  and  St.  James's  Park  and 
Constitution  Hill.  A  favourite  re- 
sort of  Charles  II,  it  had  a  notoriety 
for  duels,  the  duchess  of  Cleveland 
witnessing  a  combat  here  in  1696 
between  her  lover  Fielding  and  Sir 


nock.      View  from  the  harbour,  with  the   quay 
and  the  tower  of  the  municipal  buildings 

Henry  Colt.  Queen Caroline'slibrary 
was  in  the  park,  but  was  pulled  down 
for  the  purpose  of  erecting  Stafford 
House.  See  Air  Defences. 

Green  Room.  Room  in  a 
theatre  set  apart  for  the  social 
use  of  actors  and  actresses,  so- 
called,  it  is  supposed,  because 
green  used  to  be  the  prevailing 
colour  of  its  wall-paper,  or  furni- 
ture, or  of  both.  See  Actor;  Theatre. 

Greensand.  Two  series  of  beds 
of  sands  and  sandstones  which  form 
the  lower  part  of  the  Cretaceous 
system  and  known  as  upper  and 
lower.  In  Kent  they  are  separ 
ated  by  a  clay  development, 
the  Gault.  The  prevailing  green 
colour  is  due  to  grains  of  glauconite 
scattered  through  the  beds.  Lower 
Greensand  is  well  developed  in  the 
Isle  of  Wight,  where  the  beds  are 
100  ft.  thick,  and  S.W.  of  England, 
and  forms  a  rim  round  north,  west, 


GREENSBORO 


3689 


GREENWICH 


and  south  of  the  Weald.  At  Leith 
Hill,  Surrey,  they  reach  an  eleva- 
tion of  965  ft.  The  thickness  and 
character  of  the  beds  are  variable. 
Greensand  makes  good  building 
stone,  as  characterised  by  Bargate 
stone,  near  Reigate,  and  Kentish 
Rag,  near  Maidstone.  The  beds 
extend  from  Wiltshire  through  to 
Cambridgeshire,  often  as  yellow 
and  brown  sands,  with  ironstone. 
Upper  Greensand  is  quite  distinct 
from  Lower  Greensand  in  its 
fossil  contents.  See  Gault. 

Greensboro.  City  of  North 
Carolina,  U.S.A.,  the  co.  seat  of 
Guilford  co.  It  is  80  m.  W.N.W. 
of  Raleigh,  and  is  served  by  the 
Southern  Rly.  It  contains  several 
educational  institutions,  including 
Greensboro  Female  College,  the 
State  Normal  and  Industrial  Col- 
lege for  Women,  and  Bennett  Col- 
lege and  the  State  Agricultural- 
and  Mechanical  College,  both  for 
negroes.  Other  buildings  are  the 
Carnegie  public  library,  an  audi- 
torium, and  several  hospitals. 

A  large  trade  in  tobacco,  maize, 
cotton,  and  lumber  is  carried  on, 
and  there  are  manufacturing 
plants  for  cotton  goods,  machinery, 
handles  and  spokes,  fertilisers,  car- 
pets, cigars,  and  flour.  Greens- 
boro was  founded  in  1808,  and 
received  a  city  charter  in  1870. 
Pop.  18,400. 

Greensburg.  Borough  of  Penn- 
sylvania, U.S.A.,  the  co.  seat  of 
Westmoreland  co.  It  is  31  m.  E. 
by  S.  of  Pittsburg,  and  is  served  by 
t.he  Pennsylvania  Rly.  Among 
several  educational  institutions 
are  St.  Joseph's  Academy  and  St. 
Mary's  Academy,  both  for  Roman 
Catholics.  It  trades  largely  in  the 
local  coal,  and  manufactures  iron 
and  brassware,  glass,  lumber  pro- 
ducts, engines,  nuts,  bolts,  flour,  and 
bricks.  Greensburg  was  settled  in 
1784,  and  was  incorporated  fifteen 
years  later.  Pop.  13,000. 

Greenshank(2Wemw,s  canescerw). 
Wading  bird  of  the  snipe  family,  so 
called  from  its  olive  legs.  It  visits 
Great  Britain  in  autumn  and 
winter,  and  is  most  common  in  the 
N.  of  Scotland,  where  it  is  usually 
found  by  the  shore,  feeding  on 
small  crustaceans  and  molluscs. 

Greenstone.  Name  given  to 
certain  granular  crystalline  rocks 
consisting  of  felspar  with  augite, 
hornblende,  or  hypersthene.  The 
latter  three  give  it  its  characteristic 
and  greenish  colour.  See  Dolerite. 

Greenville.  City  of  S.  Carolina, 
U.S.A.,  the  co.  seat  of  Greenville  co. 
It  stands  on  the  Reedy  river,  160  m. 
N.E.  of  Atlanta,  and  is  served  by 
the  Southern  and  other  rlys.  It  is 
an  educational  centre,  and  contains 
the  Furman  University,  Granville 
Female  College,  Chicora  College,  and 


the  Ursuline  Academy.  The  indus- 
tries include  iron-founding,  bleach- 
ing, and  the  manufacture  of  wagons, 
carriages,  cotton,  and  fertilisers. 
Settled  in  1776,  it  was  incorporated 
in  1831,  and  became  a  city  in  1868. 
Pop.  17,400. 

Greenwell,  DORA  (1821-82). 
British  essayist.  She  was  born  at 
Greenwell  Ford,  Durham,  Dec.  6, 
1821,  and  died  March  29,  1882. 
Her  work,  while  individual,  has 
much  in  common  with  that  of 
Christina  Rossetti.  Marked  by 
deep  religious  feeling,  it  touches 
ancient  myths  and  medieval  le- 
gends ;  it  caught  from  Greek  ex- 
emplars a  love  of  beauty,  a  flair 
for  the  simple  but  subtly  expressive 
word,  an  acute  sense  of  the  enigma 
of  life ;  and  its  musical  quality 
bespeaks  the  author's  love  of 
German  lyric  and  Provencal  and 
Italian  rhyme. 

In  Carmina  Crucis,  1869,  her 
treatment  of  the  story  of  Perse- 
phone is  typical ;  in  the  poem  Poet 
and  Painter  (Lucretius  and  Leon- 
ardo da  Vinci)  she  contrasts  differ- 
ing forms  of  unbelief;  in  Camera 
Obscura,  1876,  the  poem  Between 
Two  Worlds  embodies  a  vision  of 
the  passing  dead  in  terza  rima  of 
haunting  impressiveness.  She 
touched  the  heroic  in  her  Song  of 
Roland,  The  Battle  Flag  of  Sigurd, 
and  The  Flaming  Oar  Her  prose 
work  included  memoirs  of  Lacord- 
aire,  1868,  and  John  Woolman,  1871; 
The  Patience  of  Hope,  1860;  Essays, 
1866;  and  Colloquia  Crucis,  1871. 
See  Memoirs,  W.  Dorling,  1885. 

Greenwich.      Parl.   and  mun. 
bor.  of  London.    It  is  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Thames,  6  m,   from 
London  on  the 
S.E.    &    C.R.,   is 
connected   with 
the  Isle  of  Dogs 
(q.v.)   by   a  tun- 
nel, opened  in 
1902,    for   foot 
passengers   (sta- 
tion,   N.     Green- 
Greenwich  arms    wich,    on    the 
G.E.R.),    and    by    the    Blackwall 


Tunnel  (g.v.)  with  Blackwall. 
There  is  'bus  and  tram  communi- 
cation with  the  city.  The  bor.  is 
bounded  W.  by  Deptford,  S.  by 
Lewisham,  and  E..  by  Woolwich. 
Sixth  in  size  of  the  London  bors., 
its  principal  buildings  are  Green- 
wich Hospital,  Naval  College,  and 
Observatory,  described  separately  ; 
the  Herbert  and  Brook  Fever  Hos- 
pitals, the  parish  church,  and 
several  almshouses.  Its  open  spaces 
include  the  park,  185  acres  ;  Black- 
heath,  267  acres  ;  and  part  of  Wool- 
wich Common.  There  are  telegraph, 
engineering,  and  chemical  works. 
Notable  inns  are  the  Trafalgar, 
the  Ship,  and  the  Crown  and 
Sceptre.  The  ministerial  "  white- 
bait dinners"  were  held  at  Green- 
wich, 1864-68,  1874-80,  and  1894, 
latterly  at  the  Ship. 

Once  a  Danish  encampment, 
Greenwich  was  originally,  and  for 
centuries,  a  small  fishing  town. 
The  manor,  once  the  property  of 
the  abbey  of  S.  Peter,  at  Ghent, 
was  transferred  to  the  Carthusian 
priory  at  Sheen,  and  was  later  given 
to  Humphrey,  duke,  of  Gloucester, 
who  enclosed  a  park  of  200  acres, 
rebuilt  the  palace  on  part  of  the 
site  now  occupied  by  Greenwich 
Hospital,  and  erected  a  tower, 
Greenwich  Castle,  on  the  hill  where 
the  Observatory  stands.  Henry 
VIII,  who  was  born  and  baptized 
at  Greenwich,  here  married  Cath- 
erine of  Aragon.  Queen  Mary  and 
Queen  Elizabeth  were  born  and 
Edward  VI  died  here.  James  I 
settled  palace  and  park  on  his  wife- 
Anne  of  Denmark.  Charles  I  lived 
at  Greenwich  until  the  outbreak  of 
the  Civil  War ;  Cromwell  resided 
here,  and  at  the  Restoration  the 
place  once  again  reverted  to  the 
Crown.  The  palace  was  partly  re- 
built, and  formed  the  nucleus  of 
the  hospital. 

The  parish  church,  dedicated  to 
S.  Alphege,  who  was  martyred  here 
by  the  Danes  in  1012,  wa"s  rebuilt 
in  1718,  and  contains  monuments  to 
Wolfe  and  Tallis.    Lavinia  Fenton, 
duchess  of  Bolton,  was  buried  in 
«    the  churchyard  in 
JH      1760.     Dr.  John- 
iji!   son    lived    in 
^•^    Church   Street  in 
1737.       Down  to 
1857,    two     fairs, 
notable   for   their 
boisterous   char- 
acter,  and  de- 
scribed   by    both 
Dickens    and 
Thackeray,  were 
held   annually    at 
Easter  and  Whit- 
sun.    One  member 
is   returned    to 


Greenwich.     Entrance  to  Royal  Hospital  school,  where 
sons  of  sailors  and  marines  are  trained 


~ 
100,493. 


GREENWICH 


3690 


GREENWICH  OBSERVATORY 


Greenwich.  Town  of  Connecti- 
cut, U.S.A.,  in  Fairfield  co.  It 
stands  in  a  picturesque  position  on 
Long  Island  Sound,  27  m.  N.E.  of 
New  York  City,  at  the  S.W.  ex- 
tremity of  the  state,  and  is  served 
by  the  New  York,  New  Haven  and 
Hartford  Rly.,  besides  having  con- 
nexion with  New  York  by  steamer 
and  electric  rly.  A  residential  dis- 
trict and  holiday  resort,  it  contains 
Greenwich  Academy  and  other 
educational  establishments.  The 
place  is  noted  for  its  oysters.  It 
was  settled  in  1640.  Pop.  18,277. 

Greenwich  Hospital.  British 
institution  founded  for  aged  and 
infirm  sailors,  and  since  1873  the 
home  of  the  Royal  Naval  College. 
Situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Thames,  5  m.  below  London  Bridge, 
it  occupies  the  site  of  an  old  royal 
palace,  and  of  its  successor,  built 
by  Humphrey,  duke  of  Gloucester, 
and  named  by  him  Placentia. 
Charles  II,  in  1667,  began  to  rebuild 
the  palace  from  designs  by  Inigo 
Jones  and  Webb,  but  only  one 
wing  was  completed.  Building  was 
resumed  under  William  III  and 
Anne,  from  designs  by  Wren.  In 
1705  the  new  buildings  were 
opened  as  a  seamen's  hospital,  in 
memory  of  the  naval  victory  of 
La  Hogue,  and  of  Queen  Mary, 
consort  of  William  III. 

The  buildings  consist  of  several 
groups.  The  original  design  of 
the  massive  river  facade  is  ascribed 
to  Webb.  To  a  second  group  belong 
the  completion  and  extension  of  the 
river  fasade,  and  the  S.  blocks,  de- 
signed by  Wren,  with  fine  colon- 
nades and  the  W.  and  E.  domes. 
The  E.  dome  was  completed  by 
Hawksmoor.  To  the  second  group 
belongs  also  the  Painted  Hall, 
once  the  dining  hall,  designed  and 
carried  out  by  Wren.  The  pavilions 
at  each  extremity  of  the  terrace 
were  built  in  1778.  The  King 
Charles  buildings  are  divided  from 
those  of  Queen  Anne  by  a  great 
square  on  the  river  front.  The 
statue  of  George  II  in  the  centre 


was  executed  by 
Rysbrack  out  of  a 
single  block  of 
white  marble,  cap- 
tured from  the 
French  by  Admiral 
Rooke. 

Beyond  the 
square  are  the  Hall 
and  Chapel,  each 
with  a  beauti- 
fully proportioned 
dome.  Other 
buildings  are 
the  old  infirmary, 
now  the  Seamen's 
Hospital;  and  the 
Royal  Hospital 
School,  the  central  part  of  which 


Greenwich  Observatory.   The  extension  opened  in  1897 
Greenwich     Observatory. 


Nelson   and  other  naval  men,  and 


man 
In 


was  designed  by  Inigo  Jones.    The     Headquarters  of  the  British  astro- 
Painted    Hall    contains    relics    of     nomer  royal.    Founded  by  Charles 

II,  on  a  hill  in  the  centre  of  Green- 
wich Park,  on  the  site  of  a  tower 
built  by  Duke  Humphrey,  it  was 
handed  over  to  Flamsteed,  the 
first  astronomer  royal,  in  107(5. 
From  here  is  reckoned  the  zero 
meridian  of  longitude  in  British 
maps  and  charts ;  and  here  is 
reckoned  what  is  known  as  Green- 
wich mean  time.  Admiralty  chro- 
nometers and  watches  are  supplied, 
repaired,  and  rated  at  the  Obser- 
vatory, in  connexion  with  which 
are  magnetic  and  meteorological 
observatories. 

The  work  in  all  the  observatories 


ny  portraits  and  battle  pictures. 

the  museum  are  a  collection  of 
models,  and  a  Franklin  room.  The 
chapel,  burnt  in  1779,  was  rebuilt 
in  1779-89,  and  restored  in  1851 
and  1882.  The  N.  and  S.  fronts  of 
the  hospital  are  of  Portland  stone, 
the  W.  of  brick.  On  the  terrace 
are  two  obelisks  in  memory,  re- 
spectively, of  Lieut.  J.  R.  Bellot, 
the  French  Arctic  explorer  (d. 
1853),  and  the  marines  who  tell  in 
the  New  Zealand  war  of  1863-64. 

Greenwich  Naval  College. 
British  institution  for  the  higher 


education  of  officers  for  the  royal     is  continuous,  the  instruments  are 

navy.      When  the  system   of  in-     numerous  and  of  thehighestquality, 

pensions    at    Greenwich    Hospital 

expired  in  1869,  the  greater  part 

of  the  buildings  was  adapted  to 

the  needs  of  the  College,  which  was 

opened  in  1873.      In  addition  to 

officers  of  the  R.N.,  it  is  open  to 

those   of    the    R.M.A.,    R.M.L.T., 

the     Royal   Indian    Marine,    and 

the  merchant  service.      Courses  of 


and  only  visitors  making  serious 
scientific  inquiries  are,  as  a  rule, 
admitted.  On  the  E.  wall  are  a 
24-hour  electric  clock,  and  various 
standards  of  length.  A  new  build- 
ing was  completed  in  1897.  A  fine 
view  can  be  obtained  from  the 
terrace.  Details  of  the  work  carried 
on  are  supplied  in  animal  official 


private  students  of  naval  archi- 
tecture and  marine  engineering. 
The  president,  a  flag  officer,  is 
assisted  by  a  naval  captain,  com- 
mander, and  a  large  staff  of  in- 
structors. 


instruction  are  provided  also    for     reports.      A  little  to  the  E.  are  the 

buildings  that  contain  the  magnetic 
instruments,  and  to  the  N.  of 
these  remains  of  a  Roman  house 
were  discovered  in  1902.  See 
Clocks;  Observatory;  also  frontis. 
to  Vol.  1. 


Greenwich   Hospital    from   the    river.      On   the  lelt 

are   Queen  Anne's   buildings ;    on    the    right,  King 

Charles's  buildings 


Greenwich    Hospital.      The    Painted    Hall,  formerly 

the     dining     hall,     containing    portraits    of     naval 

celebrities 


GREENWOOD 


369  1 


GREGORIAN  CHANT 


FrederickGreeuwood, 
British  journalist 

Russell 


Greenwood,  FREDERICK  (1830- 
1909).  British  journalist.  He  was 
born  in  London,  March  25,  1830. 
After  acting  as 
reader  to  a  firm 
of  printers  and 
publishers,  he 
took  to  writing 
essays  and 
novels  for 
newsp  apers 
and  magazines. 
He  was  first 
editor  of  The 
Queen,  1861- 
63 ;  assistant 
editor,  with  G.  H.  Lewes,  1862-64, 
and  then  editor,  1864-68,  of  The 
Cornhill  Magazine ;  and  first  editor 
of  The  Pall  Mall  Gazette  from  Feb., 
1865.  When  in  April,  1880,  its  pro- 
prietors and  politics  were  changed, 
he  and  his  staff  resigned,  and  in  May 
started  The  St.  James's  Gazette, 
of  which  he  was  editor  until  1 888. 
He  founded  and  edited  The  Anti- 
Jacobin,  1891-92.  He  died  at 
Sydenham,  Dec.  14,  1909. 

He  devoted  special  study  to 
foreign  affairs,  was  a  strong  op- 
ponent of  Gladstone's  an ti -Tur- 
kish policy,  and  suggested  to 
Beaconsfield  the  purchase  by  Great 
Britain  of  Ismail  Pasha's  Suez 
Canal  shares,  of  the  intended  sale 
of  which  he  had  received  early  in- 
formation. Of  his  novels  the  best 
is  Margaret  Denzil's  History,  1864. 
He  was  the  author  also  of  The 
Lover's  Lexicon,  1803,  and  Ima- 
gination in  Dreams,  1894;  and 
figures  as  Richard  Rockney  in 
George  Meredith's  Celt  and  Saxon. 
Greenwood,  SIR  HAMAR  (b. 
1870).  British  politician.  Born  at 
Whitby,  Ontario,  Feb.  7,  1870,  he 
was  educated 
there  and  at 
the  university 
of  Toronto. 
For  a  time  he 
was  in  the  On- 
tario depart- 
ment of  agri- 
culture, an 
officer  in  the 
Canadian 
militia,  and 
was  also  a  bar- 
rister. In  1906  he  was  elected  as 
a  Liberal  for  York,  and  became 
parliamentary  private  secretary  to 
Winston  Churchill,  then  under- 
secretary for  the  colonies.  Defeated 
at  York  in  Jan.,  1910,  he  found  a 
seat  at  Sunderland  in  Dec.  In 
1924  he  was  elected  M.P.  for  East 
Walthamstow. 

In  1915  Greenwood  commanded 
a  service  battalion  of  the  S.  Wales 
Borderers.  In  1916  he  returned  to 
England,  and  was  for  a  time  at  the 
War  Office.  In  1919  he  was  made 
under-secretary  for  the  home  de- 


Sir  H.  Ureenwpod, 
British  politician 

Russell 


partment,  and  from  1920  to  1922 
was  chief  secretary  for  Ireland. 
In  1915  he  was  made  a  baronet. 
See  Ireland  :  History. 

Greenwood,  THOMAS  (1851- 
3909).  Advocate  of  rate-supported 
piblic  libraries.  Born  at  Woodley, 
near  Stockport,  Cheshire,  May  9, 
1851,  he  began  business  life  as  a 
clerk  in  a  hat  works,  and  then  be- 
came a  library  assistant  at  Sheffield. 
He  founded  in  London  a  number 
of  trade  journals,  which  he  edited, 
wrote  a  biography  of  Edward 
Edwards  the  librarian,  1902,  and 
was  the  author  of  Public  Libraries. 
Their  Organization,  Use,  and  Man- 
agement, 1886,  5th  ed.  1894.  He 
formed  a  large  bibliographical 
library,  which,  with  the  library  of 
Edwards,  he  presented  to  Man- 
chester Public  Library,  where  it  is 
known  as  the  Thomas  Greenwood 
Library  for  Librarians.  He  died 
at  Elstree,  Herts,  Nov.  9,  1908. 

Greenwood  Case.  Sensational 
trial  at  Carmarthen  Assizes,  Nov. 
2-9,  1920,  of  a  Kidwelly  solicitor 
who  was  charged  with  administer- 
ing arsenic  to  his  wife.  He  was  de- 
fended by  Sir  Edward  Marshall 
Hall,  K.C.  The  trial  was  remark- 
able for  the  extreme  conflict  of 
evidence,  and  for  the  weakness  of 
the  evidence  for  the  prosecution, 
and  it  brought  out  strongly  the 
defects  of  the  circuit  system,  under 
which  the  accused  man  was  kept 
in  prison  for  more  than  four 
months  awaiting  his  trial  on  a 
capital  charge,  before  his  acquittal 
at  the  hands  of  the  jury. 

Greet,  BEN.  British  actor 
manager.  Born  on  a  training  ship 
in  the  Thames,  which  his  father 
commanded,  he  was  educated  at 
the  Royal  Naval  School,  New 
Cross.  In  1879  he  first  appeared 
on  the  stage  at  Southampton,  and 
after  playing  in  London,  entered 
on  management  in  1886.  For  25 
years  he  toured  with  his  own  com- 
pany, chiefly  in  Shakespeare.  In 
1901  he  revived  the  old  morality 
Everyman  in  London,  and  for 
many  years  from  1902  was  engaged 
in  management  at  New  York.  Dur- 
ing the  Great  War  and  after  he 
produced  Shakesperean  plays  at  the 
Royal  Victoria  Hall  (  "  Old  Vic  "  ), 
London,  and  elsewhere. 

Gregale.  Name  given  to  a  dry 
N.E.  wind  which  blows  over  Malta. 
It  has  been  identified  with  the 
Bora,  which  often  rages  with  great 
severity  in  the  Adriatic,  and  the 
Euroclydon,  which  wrecked  S. 
Paul's  ship  (Acts  xxvii,  14). 

Gregarines.  Parasitic  single - 
celled  animals,  protozoa,  found 
in  the  alimentary  canals  of  inver- 
tebrates, chiefly  the  arthropods. 
There  are  a  large  number  of 
species,  among  the  more  important 


being  those  found  in  the  earth- 
worm, lobster,  cockroach,  and 
cuttlefish.  The  effect  of  the  pre- 
sence of  these  parasites  on  the 
bodies  of  their  hosts  is  as  a  rule 
purely  local.  See  Sporozoa. 

Gregoire,  HENRI  (1750-1831). 
French  bishop  and  revolutionary. 
Born  of  peasant  stock  at  Veho, 
Meurthe-e  t- 
Moselle,Dec.4, 
1750,  .he  was 
educated  for 
the  priesthood 
by  the  ,Jesuits 
at  Nancy.  He 
sat  in  the 
States  General 
of  1789,  pro- 
Henri  Gregoire,  minent  as  one 
French  revolutionary  of  the  revolu- 
tionary clerics  who  joined  hands 
with  the  third  estate.  With  the  lat- 
ter he  attacked  the  privileges  of  the 
clergy,  though  firmly  maintaining 
his  Catholic  beliefs,  and,  under  the 
new  civil  constitution  of  the 
Church,  was  elected  bishop  of 
Blois,  1791.  In  1792  he  strongly 
advocated  the  abolition  of  the 
monarchy,  and  became  president 
of  the  convention  in  Nov. 

During  the  consulate  he  con- 
tinued to  work  for  ecclesiastical 
reform,  but,  opposing  Napoleon's 
concordat  with  Pope  Pius  VII,  re- 
signed his  bishopric  hi  1801.  In 
the  senate  he  vainly  opposed  the 
establishment  of  the  empire,  and 
worked  against  it  during  its  last 
months  in  1814.  After  the  Bour- 
bon restoration,  however,  owing 
to  his  past  record,  he  was  forced 
to  live  in  retirement.  In  1819  he 
was  elected  to  the  chamber  for 
the  dept.  of  Isere,  but  the  election 
was  quashed  by  a  special  vote. 
After  this  he  finally  retired  and 
wrote  a  number  of  books  on  eccle- 
siastical history.  He  died  at 
Auteuil,  May  28,  1831. 

Gregorian  Calendar.  Calen- 
dar introduced  by  direction  of 
Pope  Gregory  XIII  in  1582.  It 
was  a  reform  of  the  Julian  calen- 
dar, but  was  not  adopted  in  Great 
Britain  until  1752.  See  Calendar. 
Gregorian  Chant.  Term  ap- 
plied to  the  plainsong  system  used 
in  the  rendering  of  the  music  of  the 
services  of  the  Church  as  supervised 
and  settled  by  S.  Gregory.  The 
principal  eight  modes  or  tones  may 
be  described  as  represented  by  the 
white  notes  alone  of  the  pianoforte, 
with  the  exception  of  an  occasional 
B  flat  to  avoid  the  harshness  of  the 
tritone.  The  four  authentic  modes 
are  No.  1  (Dorian,  D  to  D),  No.  3 
(Phrygian,  E  to  E),  No.  5  (Lydian, 
F  to  F),  and  No.  7  (Mixo-Lydian, 
GtoG).  Coupled  with  each  of  these, 
but  lying  a  fourth  lower,  is  a  plagal 
mode  distinguished  by  an  even 


GREGOROVIUS 


3692 


GREGORY     I 


number  and  having  the  prefix  hypo 
to  the  Greek  term.  Each  pair  has 
the  same  final,  but  a  different 


Intona-        Kec.     Media-      Bee. 
lion          Note       UOH        Note 


The  same  in  modern  notatic 


-F-F-+ 


Gregorian   Chant.      Tone   VIII,   1st 

ending,     with     transliteration     into 

modern  notation 

dominant,  i.e.  the  note  to  which 
the  recitation  is  chanted.  The 
dominant  of  an  authentic  mode  is 
the  fifth  degree  except  when,  as  in 
No.  3,  that  happens  to  be  B,  then 
the  dominant  is  the  sixth.  The 
dominant  of  a  plagal  mode  is  a  third 
lower  than  that  of  its  associated 
authentic  mode,  except  that  C 
takes  the  place  of  B  as  before. 

Structurally,  the  chant  begins 
with  an  intonation,  used  in  every 
verse  of  the  Canticles,  but  only  in 
the  first  verse  of  the  Psalms,  fol- 
lowed by  a  reciting  note  (domi- 
nant) and  a  melodic  extension 
called  the  mediation.  This  closes 
the  first  portion  of  the  chant.  The 
second  begins  with  a  reciting  note 
(dominant  again),  and  concludes 
with  a  melodic  extension  called  the 
ending.  Each  of  the  tones,  has 
various  endings.  It  is  not  necessary 
that  the  ending  should  close  on  the 
final,  which,  however,  is  always 
supplied  by  the  antiphon  which 
precedes  and  follows  each  canticle 
or  psalm. 

In  addition  to  the  eight  principal 
tones  others  are  sometimes  used. 
The  material  being  the  same,  the 
only  difference  lies  in  the  notes 
taken  as  finals  and  dominants.  As 
in  all  plainsorig,  the  music  is  noted 
on  a  four-line  stave  with  either  the 
For  the  C  clef,  and  for  performance 
is  transposed  to  any  convenient 
pitch.  See  Ambrosian  Chant. 

Gregorovius ,  FERDINAND  ( 1 821- 
91).  German  historian.  BornatNei- 
denburg,  E.Prussia,  Jan.  19, 1821,he 
was  educated 
at  Konigsberg, 
and  became  a 
teacher.  He 
passed  much 
of  his  life,  how- 
ever, in  Italy, 
and  his  great 
work  is  his  His- 
tory of  Rome 
in  the  Middle 
Ages.  Accu- 
rate, detailed 
and  scholarly, 


Ferdinand 

Gregorovius, 

German  historian 


this  monumental 
work  in  many  volumes  traces  the 
history  of  the  city,  and  with  it  of 
the  papacy,  from  about  400  to  1534 
(Eng.  trans.  A.  Hamilton,  1894- 
1900).  Gregorovius  wrote  a  number 
of  other  historical  works,  includ- 


ing a  Life  of  the  Emperor  Hadrian 
(Eng.  trans.  R.  Martineau,  1855), 
and  some  poems.  He  died  at 
Munich,  May  1,  1891. 

Gregory.  Salt  lake  of  S.  Aus- 
tralia. It  lies  between  Lake  Eyre 
and  Lake  Blanche  in  lat.  29°  S.  and 
long.  1 39°  10'  E.  Its  length  is  40  m. , 
and  maximum  breadth  10  m. 

Gregory  THE  ILLUMINATOR  (c. 
257-332).  Apostle  of  Armenia  and 
saint.  Descended  from  the  royal 
race  of  Parthia,  his  family  were 
killed  in  revenge  after  his  father, 
Anak,  had  assassinated  the  king  of 
Armenia.  The  boy  was  educated  as 
a  Christian  at  Caesarea,  and  later 
returned  to  Armenia,  probably 
about  290.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
imprisoned  there  for  14  years,  and 
to  have  been  released  as  a  reward 
for  healing  King  Terdat  (Tiridates) 
of  a  disease.  He  later  became  the 
head  of  the  Armenian  Church,  but 
gave  up  office  in  331  and  spent  the 
rest  of  his  life  in  a  cave. 

Gregory  NAZIANZEN  (c.  330- 
390).  Saint  and  father  of  the  East- 
ern Church.  He  was  a  native  of 
Nazianzus,  in  Cappadocia,  of  which 
place  his  father  became  bishop. 
His  mother  was  a  woman  of  deep 
piety.  He  studied  at  the  two 
Caesareas,  Alexandria,  and  Athens, 
and  had  Julian,  afterwards  Roman 
emperor,  for  fellow  student,  and 
Basil  for  friend.  He  assisted  his 
father  at  Nazianzus,  was  made 
bishop  of  Sasima,  was  elected  bishop 
of  Constantinople,  and,  one  of  the 
most  eloquent  orators  of  the  early 
church,  became  famous  for  his 
defence  of  the  Nicene  faith  and  his 
opposition  to  Arianism  and  Apol- 
linarianism.  Jerome  was  one  of 
his  pupils. 

His  consecration  as  bishop  of 
Constantinople  took  place  in  381, 
but  the  Macedonian  and  Egyptian 
bishops  contending  that  the  canons 
of  Nice  limited  a  bishop  to  one 
diocese,  he  resigned  and  spent  the 
rest  of  his  life  in  his  birthplace. 
His  writings  include  letters,  which 
abound  in  beautiful  thoughts, 
poems,  and  45  orations  which  won 
for  him  the  title  of  Theologian.  The 
best  edition  of  his  works  is  the 
Benedictine,  Paris,  1778-1840.  See 
memoir,  C.  Ullmann,  1825,  Eng. 
trans.  G.  F.  Coxe,  1857. 

Gregory  OF  NYSSA.  G  reek  saint 
and  father  of  the  church.  Born  at 
Caesarea  about  331,  the  younger 
brother  of  S.  Basil,  who  brought 
him  up,  he  taught  rhetoric  for  some 
years,  after  which  he  was  ordained, 
and  about  371  was  appointed 
bishop  of  Nyssa  in  Cappadocia.  In 
375  he  was  deposed  on  a  false 
charge  of  misappropriating  church 
funds  ,  three  years  later  he  was  re- 
stored to  his  see,  and  took  part  in 
the  Councils  of  Constantinople  in 


381  and  394.  He  probably  died  in 
396.  His  numerous  writings  all 
dealt  with  theological  and  eccle- 
siastical questions. 

Gregory  OF  TOURS  (538-594). 
Frankish  historian.  Born  at  Cler- 
mont-Ferrand he  was  there  edu- 
cated and  became  a  priest.  In  573 
he  was  made  bishop  of  Tours,  a 
position  which  gave  him  a  standing 
in  the  Frankish  realm.  The  civil 
wars  of  the  time  were  constantly  at 
his  doors,  but  he  seems  to  -have 
been  equal  to  most  emergencies. 
He  died,  Nov.  17,  594.  Gregory 
wrote  in  Latin  several  works,  but 
only  his  History  of  the  Franks  is  of 
any  importance.  The  early  part  of 
this  is  mainly  legend  and  tradition, 
but  for  the  6th  century,  when 
the  author  narrates  contemporary 
or  nearly  contemporary  events, 
it  is  perhaps  the  most  valuable 
authority  extant. 

Gregory.  Name  of  16  popes. 
Gregory  III,  pope  731-41,  was  a 
Syrian  whose  reign  was  troubled  by 
Lombard  invasions.  Gregory  IV,  a 
Roman  pope,  827-44,  was  involved 
in  the  feuds  of  the  Frankish  em- 
peror, Louis  the  Pious. 

Gregory  V,  pope  996-99,  the 
nominee  of  his  cousin,  the  emperor 
Otto  III,  was  the  first  German 
pope.  Gregory  VI  received  the  pa- 
pacy from  his  godson,  the  youthful 
profligate  pope,  Benedict  IX,  April, 
1045,  in  exchange  for  a  large  sum  of 
money.  Benedict  subsequently  re- 
gretted his  resignation,  an  anti- 
pope  Sylvester  III  put  in  a  claim, 
and  the  Roman  clergy  appealed  to 
the  German  king,  Henry  III,  to  es- 
tablish order.  Benedict  and  Syl- 
vester were  banished,  and  a  synod 
at  Sutri,  Dec.  1046,  declared  that 
Gregory  had  become  pope  through 
simony.  Henry  then  arranged  that 
a  German,  Clement  II,  should  be 
elected  pope,  and  Gregory  resigned. 
He  died  in  Germany  early  in  1048. 
Gregory  I  CALLED  THE  GREAT 
(c.  540-604).  Pope  590-604.  Born 
at  Rome,  he  was  the  son  of  Gordi- 
an  us,  a  Rom  an 
patrician. 
About  574  he 
threw  up  a 
promising 
worldly  career 
—he  held  the 
office  of  pre- 
fect of  the 
city  the  pre- 
vious year — 
to  become  a 
monk.  His  family  estates  in  Sicily 
were  given  up  for  the  foundation 
of  monasteries,  and  his  home  on 
the  Caelian  Hill  \\  as  converted  into 
a  religious  house  dedicated  to  S. 
Andrew,  where  Gregory  lived  in 
retirement  for  some  years. 
1  In  678  Pope  Pelagius  II  ordained 


Gregory  the  Great, 
Pope,  590-604 


GREGORY     II 


3693 


GREGORY     VII 


him  one  of  the  7  deacons  of  the 
city,  and  the  following  year  dis- 
patched him  on  a  special  mission  to 
Constantinople  with  the  object  of 
obtaining  help  from  the  emperor 
against  the  Lombards  now  ac- 
tively threatening  Rome. 

On  his  return  to  Rome  after  six 
years'  absence,  he  devoted  himself 
to  teaching  and  literary  work  ;  this 
period  is  also  marked  by  the  inci- 
dent,related  by  Bede,  of  his  meeting 
the  English  youths  in  the  Forum 
which  fired  him  with  the  project 
for  the  conversion  of  England.'  His 
original  idea  was  to  go  himself, 
and  he  had  actually  started  when 
the  pope,  to  whom  Gregory  acted 
as  confidential  secretary,  prompted 
by  the  Romans,  sent  urgent  mes- 
sages desiring  his  return.  In  590  he 
became  pope,  and  in  596  he  sent 
Augustine  to  Britain.  Gregory's 
remarkable  gifts  of  management 
and  organization  were  displayed  in 
his  scheme  of  relief  for  the  needs  of 
the  refugees  thronging  Rome,  no 
less  than  by  the  reorganization  of 
the  vast  estates  constituting  the 
patrimony  of  the  Church.  He 
gave  his  name  to  that  mode  of 
plain  chant  (Gregorian)  which, 
supplanting  previous  modes,  be- 
came pre-eminently  the  music  of 
the  Church. 

Gregory's  Letters  (collected  in  14 
volumes)  are  a  witness  to  his  un- 
ceasing labours  in  the  supervision 
of  the  whole  Church,  not  merely  as 
a  firm  upholder  of  the  supremacy 
of  the  papacy  over  East  and  West, 
but  as  overseer  of  local  ecclesias- 
tical affairs,  the  election  to  vacant 
sees,  and  the  holding  of  local  synods. 

The  first  monk  to  become  pope, 
Gregory's  influence  tended  natur- 
ally to  enhance  the  importance  of 
the  monastic  system  and  to  bring 
it  into  closer  relationship  with  the 
Church.  The  action  which  placed 
Gregory  at  variance  with  the  By- 
zantine emperor  when  the  former 
took  upon  himself  to  arrange 
terms  of  peace  with  the  Lombard 
chiefs,  marks  a  distinct  stage  in 
that  process  by  which  the  papacy 
arrived  at  temporal  sovereignty. 

The  weight  and  influence  lent  to 
the  papacy  by  Gregory's  pontificate 
gained  Gregory  his  title  of  Great. 
He  was  canonised  by  popular  ac- 
clamation immediately  after  his 
death,  March  10,  604,  and  ranks  as 
a  doctor  of  the  Church.  His  festival 
is  kept  March  10,  throughout  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church.  Gregory's 
special  emblem  in  art  is  a  dove 
which,  according  to  the  story,  was 
seen  sitting  on  his  head  as  he  dic- 
tated his  Homilies.  '*See  Augus- 
tine ;  Papacy ;  consult  also  Pope 
Gregory  the  Great  and  his  Relations 
with  Gaul,  F.  W.  Kellett,  1889  ; 
Gregory  the  Great,  J.  Barmby, 


1892;  Gregory  the  Great,  His 
Place  in  History  and  Thought,  F.  H. 
Dudden,  1905. 

Gregory  II  (d.  731).     Pope  7 15- 
731.  A  Roman,  of  the  Savelli  family, 
he  started  his  ecclesiastical  career  as 
a  pupil  in  the 
papal    Schola 
Canto-rum.   Un- 
der   Sergius    1 
(687-701)     he 
was  made  sub- 
deacon    and 
papal    almoner 
(sacellar  ius) 
and  later  papal 
Gregory  II,  librarian.  After 

Pope,  715-731  becoming  pope 
he  was  visited  by  the  Englishman 
Winfrid  or  Boniface,  whom  the  pope 
authorised  to  preach  to  the  heathen 
"  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine." 
Gregory  II  died  Feb.  11,  731. 

Gregory  VII  (c.  1025-85).  Popo 
1073-85.  His  name  was  Hilde- 
brand, and  he  was  born  in  Tuscany 
of  obscure  and, 
probably,  hum  - 
ble  origin. 
Educated  a  t 
the  C 1  u  n  i  a  c 
monastery  on 
the  Aventine 
Hill,  Rome, 
where  his  uncle 

was  abbot,  he  Gregory  VII, 
was  created  Pope,  1073-85 
cardinal  -  d  e  a-  After  Raphael 

con  by  Pope  Leo  IX,  and  adminis- 
trator of  the  papal  estates,  where 
he  proved  the  possession  of  those 
gifts  of  administration  which  dis- 
tinguished his  later  rule. 

Resisting  the  attempts  of  the 
Romans  to  make  him  pope  on  the 
death  of  Leo  IX,  he  managed  to 
secure  the  nomination  of  his  can- 
didate who  became  pope  as  Victor 
II  in  1054.  The  latter  was  suc- 
ceeded in  1057  by  Stephen  IX,  who 
died  while  Hildebrand  was  engaged 
on  an  embassy  to  Germany.  It  had 
been  the  pope's  wish  that  Hilde- 
brand should  succeed  him,  and  he 
forbade  an  election  to  take  place 
until  after  Hildebrand's  return,  but 
a  faction  seized  the  opportunity  to 
set  up  a  pretender,  who  assumed 
the  title  of  Benedict  X.  The 
pseudo-pope  was,  however,  dis- 
posed of  by  the  prompt  action  of 
Hildebrand,  whose  own  candidate 
again  ascended  the  papal  throne  as 
Nicholas  II. 

A  succession  of  German  popes 
had  tended  to  increase  the  imperial 
influence,  particularly  in  the 
matter  of  elections  to  the  papal 
throne,  to  a  dangerous  extent.  A 
decree  now  promulgated  vested  the 
right  of  electing  a  pope  in  the  col- 
lege of  cardinals,  thus  placing  the 
appointment  alike  out  of  the 
power  of  the  emperor  no  less  than 


out  of  that  of  the  Roman  pa- 
tricians with  their  factions.  On 
the  death  of  Pope  Nicholas  in  1061, 
the  malcontents  among  the  Italian 
factions  set  up  an  anti-pope  who. 
under  the  title  of  Honorius  II, 
created  a  schism  which  lasted  three 
years.  Eventually  Hildebrand's 
candidate  prevailed  and  was  en- 
throned as  Alexander  II. 

The  reform  movement,  mean- 
while, continued  to  gain  ground 
under  Hildebrand,  who,  made  arch- 
deacon in  1059,  was  now  created 
papal  chancellor.  At  last  on  the 
death  of  Alexander,  Hildebrand, 
who  had  guided  the  policy  of  no 
less  than  six  popes,  was  chosen  by 
popular  acclamation,  subsequently 
was  canonically  elected,  and  as- 
cended the  papal  throne  as  Gregory 
VII.  In  accordance  with  some 
vague  reference  to  the  emperor's 
voice  in  papal  elections,  embodied 
in  the  decree  of  Nicholas  II,  he  de- 
ferred consecration  until  notice  of 
his  election  had  received  imperial 
acknowledgment ;  it  was  the  last 
time  that  a  papal  election  ever  re- 
ceived imperial  sanction. 

Gregory's  first  care  was  thus  to 
secure  peace  with  secular  authority 
in  order  to  further  the  aims  which 
he  put  forward  at  his  first  Lenten 
Synod  held  in  Rome,  March  1074. 
The  reforms  there  promulgated,  the 
abolition  of  simony,  and  the  moral 
discipline  of  the  clergy  set  forth  in 
decrees  involving  clerical  celibacy 
and  continence,  were  intended  as 
means  only  to  an  end,  of  which  the 
uplifting  and  purifying  of  the  clergy 
were  necessary  conditions. 

The  uproar  created  throughout 
Europe  by  the  promulgation  of 
these  decrees  did  not  deter  Gre- 
gory, who  followed  them  up  by 
sending  his  legates  over  the  coun- 
try with  authority  to  depose  such 
of  the  clergy  as  should  refuse  to 
submit,  and  he  enforced  them  still 
further  by  attacking  the  real  root 
of  the  evil,  i.e.  lay  investiture  or 
the  appointment  to  ecclesiastical 
offices  by  secular  persons,  an  old 
abuse  against  which  the  reforming 
body  in  the  Church  had  protested 
in  vain.  The  decree  of  the  synod 
which  excommunicated  any  lay 
person,  emperor  or  king,  who 
should  confer  an  investiture  in  con- 
nexion with  any  ecclesiastical 
office,  brought  the  pope  into  col- 
lision with  the  whole  secular  force 
of  Europe,  while  the  interests  in- 
volved and  the  personal  character 
of  the  combatants  embittered  the 
struggle.  «. 

The  emperor,  Henry  IV,  ••  who 
previously  had  confessed  his  mis- 
deeds against  the  Church  and  pro- 
mised amendment,  was  now  sum- 
moned to  appear  before  a  council 
at  Rome  to  answer  for  his  conduct. 


GREGORY  VIM 


3694 


GREGORY  X 


Henry's  answer  was  to  summon  a 
meeting  of  his  supporters  at  a  great 
council  held  at  Worms,  January, 
1076.  Defending  the  emperor 
against  the  charges  laid  against 
him,  they  proceeded  to  depose  the 
pope  himself,  this  decision  being 
announced  to  Gregory  by  letter  in 
which  the  emperor  addresses  the 
pope  as  "  Hilde  brand,  no  longer 
Apostolic  but  a  false  monk." 

Gregory  responded  by  excom- 
municating the  emperor  at  a  synod 
in  Lent  (1076),  deposing  him  and 
absolving  his  subjects  from  their 
allegiance.  Henry,  finding  himself 
gradually  abandoned  by  his  par- 
tisans and  faced  with  the  possi- 
bility of  the  election  of  another  em- 
peror, felt  compelled  to  submit, 
and  hurried  to  Italy.  The  story  of 
his  three  days'  humiliation  in  the 
snow  outside  the  walls  of  the  castle 
of  Canossa  is  well  known. 

Yet  the  triumph  of  Hilde  brand 
was  more  apparent  than  real ;  at 
the  price  of  an  outward  show  of 
mortification  Henry  was  able  to 
obtain  all  he  desired.  He  again  in- 
curred excommunication  in  1080, 
but  the  death  of  one  enemy,  Rudolf 
of  Swabia,  elected  by  the  German 
princes  at  the  council  of  Augsburg 
in  1077  to  succeed  him,  enabled 
him  at  last  to  concentrate  all  his 
forces  on  his  greater  enemy  the 
pope.  Having  set  up  an  an ti- pope 
in  the  person  of  the  excommuni- 
cated archbishop  of  Ravenna,  who 
took  the  name  of  Clement  III,  he 
marched  on  Rome,  where  on 
March  21,  1084,  he  caused  himself 
to  be  crowned  by  the  pseudo-pope. 
Meanwhile  Gregory,  obliged  vO 
leave  Rome,  took  refuge  first  at 
Monte  Cassino,  the  great  Benedic- 
tine monastery,  and  then  at 
Salerno,  where  he  died  May  25, 
1085.  One  of  his  last  acts  was  to 
release  from  sentence  of  excom- 
munication all  his  enemies  except 
Henry  and  the  anti-pope.  Gregory 
VII  was  canonised  by  Paul  Vin  1606. 
See  Hildebrand  and  his  Times, 
W.  R.  W.  Stephens,  1898;  Life 
and  Times  of  Hildebrand,  Pope 
Gregory  VII,  A.  H.  Mathew,  1910. 
Gregory  VIII  (d.  1187).  Pope 
in  1187.  His  name  was  Alberto  di 
Morra,  and  he  became  a  monk 
early  in  life.  In  1155  he  was  made 
a  cardinal,  and  in  1172  papal  chan- 
cellor. In  the  same  year  he  was 
one  of  the  two  legates  sent  to  Eng- 
land by  the  pope  to  inquire  into  the 
circumstances  attending  the  mur- 
der of  Thomas  Becket,  and  from 
him  Henry  II  subsequently  re- 
ceived absolution.  His  short  pon- 
tificate, Oct.-Dec.,,  .1187,  was 
marked  by  steps  for  a  reconcilia- 
tion with  the  emperor  Frederick  I 
in  order  to  present  a  united  front  to 
the  Moslems  under  Saladin.  He 


died  at  Pisa,  Dec.  17, 1187,  whither 
he  had  gone  with  the  object  of 
making  peace  between  the  two* 
rival  seaports  of  Pisa  and  Genoa, 
on  whom  depended  the  naval  and 
transport  operations  of  the  pro- 
jected crusade. 

Gregory    IX    (c.     1145-1241). 
Pope  1227-41.     Born  at  Anagni  in 
the  Campagna  district,   his  name 
was    Ugolino, 
C  o  n  t  e     d  e 
Segni.     Under 
his      relative, 
Pope  Innocent 
III    (1198- 
1216),  he  was 
made    a    car- 
dinal 1206,  and 
in  1207-9  was 
Gregory  IX,  legate   on   im- 

Pope,  1227-41  portant  diplo- 
matic missions  to  Germany.  By 
Pope  Honorius  III  he  was  created 
plenipotentiary  legate  for  Lom- 
bardy  and  was  deputed  to  preach  a 
new  crusade  to  the  Holy  Land. 
Ugolino  ascended  the  papal  throne 
March  19,  1227,  on  the  death  of 
Honorius,  and  three  days  later  sum- 
moned the  emperor  Frederick  II, 
who  had  taken  the  cross  on  his 
coronation  in  1220,  to  the  fulfilment 
of  his  vow.  This  was  the  beginning 
of  a  struggle  between  the  papacy 
and  the  empire,  which  lasted  the 
whole  of  Gregory's  pontificate,  and 
only  ended  with  the  death  of 
Frederick  in  1250. 

The  emperor  apparently  com- 
plied with  the  summons,  sailed 
from  Brindisi  in  Sept.,  and  re- 
turned in  three  days.  The  pope, 
distrusting  his  sincerity,  launched 
on  him  sentence  of  excommunica- 
tion, Sept;  27,  1227,  but  he  could 
not  prevail  on  the  princes  and 
bishops  of  Germany  generally  to 
acquiesce  in  the  sentence  which  re- 
leased them  from  their  oath  of 
allegiance  to  Frederick,  and  the 
publication  of  the  ban  in  S.  Peter's, 
Rome,  so  excited  the  Ghibellines 
that  the  pope  fled  from  the  city  to 
avoid  the  violence  of  the  mob. 

The  emperor,  disregarding  the 
sentence,  continued  his  crusade, 
and  wrote  from  Jerusalem,  March 
17,  1229,  to  announce  the  success 
of  the  expedition  ;  the  Holy  City 
was  once  more  in  Christian  hands, 
and  Frederick  crowned  himself  in 
the  church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre. 
His  triumph  seemed  complete,  but 
his  position  was  intolerable.  He 
abruptly  left  Syria  and  returned  to 
Europe  to  find  his  opponent  a  fugi- 
tive at  Perugia. 

Gregory  returned  to  Rome  in 
Feb.,  1230,  and  a  peace  between 
the  two  belligerents  was  concluded 
in  July.  But  athwart  the  Hohen- 
staufen  dream  of  universal  domi- 
nation lay  the  papacy,  represented 


by  a  figure  as  indomitable  as 
Frederick  himself,  and  trouble  soon 
broke  out.  For  a  time  the  struggle 
was  maintained  by  the  Lombard 
League,  which  Gregory  joined  on 
the  avowal  of  the  emperor's  inten- 
tion to  extend  his  empire  over 
almost  the  whole  of  Italy,  including 
the  papal  states.  On  March  20, 
T.239,  Gregory  again  excommuni- 
cated Frederick,  and  later  gave 
orders  for  a  general  council  to 
assemble  at  Rome  at  Easter,  1241. 
But  .Frederick,  who  had  defeated 
the  league  at  Cortenuova,  1237, 
continued  his  progress  in  spite  of  a 
reverse  before  Brescia  the  following 
year,  and  effectually  prevented  the 
meeting  by  threats  and  violence. 
Advancing  with  his  army,  he  was 
already  within  sight  of  Rome  when 
news  arrived  that  his  opponent  had 
died  on  Aug.  22,  1241. 

In  contrast  with  this  struggle  is 
Gregory's  attitude  towards  the 
Mendicant  Orders,  whose  rise  is  the 
prominent  religious  feature  of  the 
period.  He  was  appointed  Pro- 
tector of  the  Friars  Minor  in  1220 
at  the  special  request  of  S.  Francis, 
whom  he  canonised  in  1228  ;  and 
he  was  the  friend  and  patron  of  S. 
Dominic.  The  pope  sought  in  the 
Friars,  as  well  as  in  the  older  orders, 
instruments  for  the  conversion  of 
the  heathen  in  the  remoter  parts  of 
Europe,  in  Asia,  and  in  Africa.  He 
made  unsuccessful  attempts  to 
induce  the  Eastern  Church  to  re- 
turn to  the  unity  of  Christendom. 

Gregory's  special  legislation, 
which  withdrew  heresy  cases  from 
secular  jurisdiction  and  brought 
them  before  special  tribunals  on 
which  members  of  the  new  re- 
ligious Orders,  and  more  particu- 
larly Dominicans,  were  appointed 
to  sit,  dates  the  medieval  Inquisi- 
tion as  a  creation  of  his  pontificate. 

Gregory  X  (1210-76).  Pope 
1271-76.  Born  at  Piacenza,  his 
name  was  Teobaldo  di  Visconti. 
He  was  elected  pope  Sept.  1,  1271, 
after  a  vacancy  of  nearly  three 
years  in  the  Holy  See  following  the 
death  of  Clement  IV.  Gregory  was 
not  a  cardinal,  nor  even  a  priest, 
when  the  choice  of  the  cardinals 
at  Viterbo  fell  upon  him,  and  he 
was  engaged  at  the  time  in  an  ex- 
pedition to  the  Holy  Land.^  '.Or- 
dained priest  six  days  after  his 
entry  into  Rome,  March  13,  he  was 
consecrated  pope,  March  27,  1272. 
Gregory's  aims  were  peace  for 
Europe,  the  reform  of  the  Church, 
and  the  reunion  of  Christendom 
by  the  abolition  of  the  Eastern 
Schism.  In  the  cause  of  peace  he 
endeavoured  to  reconcile  the  war- 
ing factions  of  Guelph  and  Ghibel- 
line ;  he  persuaded  the  German 
electors  to  choose  a  new  emperor 
on  the  death  (1272)  of  Richard  of 


GREGORY     XI 


GREGORY 


Gregory  XI, 
Pope,  1370-78 


Cornwall,  and  loyally  supported 
their  choice  against  rival  claimants. 
In  the  interests  of  reform  he  sum- 
moned a  General  Council  which 
met  at  Lyons,  May,  1274,  where  he 
promulgated  the  new  law  of  the 
Church  for  papal  elections. 

But  the  passion  of  Gregory's  life 
was  for  the  Holy  Land  and  the 
kingdom  of  Jerusalem  then  totter- 
ing to  its  fall.  His  death  (Jan. 
10,  1276)  put  an  end  to  his  prepara- 
tions for  a  fresh  crusade  and  dis- 
solved the  new  reunion  of  East 
and  West.  He  received  local  ven- 
eration as  a  saint  in  Italy,  where 
his  feast  is  kept  on  Feb.  16. 

Gregory  XI  (1331-78).  Pope 
1370-78.  His  name  was  Pierre 
Roger  de  Beaufort,  and  he  was 
created  a  car- 
dinal at  the  age 
of  eighteen  by 
his  uncle,  Cle- 
ment VI.  On 
Dec.  30,  1370, 
he  was  elected 
pope.  The 
seventh  in  suc- 
cession of  the 
Avignon  popes, 
the  most  mem- 
orable act  of  his  pontificate  was  the 
re -transference  of  the  see  to  Italy. 
Beginning  with  plans  for  reform 
and  reconciliation,  he  was  forced 
to  concentrate  his  efforts  on  quell- 
ing the  rebellion  of  his  own  sub- 
jects. When  Gregory  laid  Florence 
under  a  ban,  the  citizens  sent  S. 
Catherine  of  Siena  to  Avignon  to 
intercede  for  them  (June,  1376). 
She  failed  in  her  embassy,  but  in- 
duced the  pope  to  return  to  Rome. 
Contrary  to  the  advice  of  his  court 
Gregory  sailed  for  Italy,  and  made 
his  formal  entry  into  Rome,  Jan. 
17,  1377,  thus  ending  the  70  years' 
exile.  He  died  March  27,  1378. 

Gregory  XII  (c.  1327-1417). 
Pope  1406-15.  Angelo  Corraro, 
or  Correr,  who  as  Gregory  XII  was 
recognized  a  s 
rightful  pope 
during  the 
Great  Schism 
(1378-14  17). 
was  b  o  r  n  at 
Venice  of  a  no- 
ble family,  be- 
came bishop  of 
C  a  s  t  e  1 1  o  in 

1 380,  and  in  Gregory  XII, 
1405  cardinal.  Pope,  1406-15  - 
He  was  elected  to  the  papacy  in 
succession  to  Innocent  VII  in  1406. 
Before  the  election  each  cardinal 
vowed  that  in  the  event  of  his  own 
election  he  would  abdicate  his  right 
provided  that  the  anti-pope  Bene- 
dict XIII  would  do  the  same. 

The  proposal  to  do  this  immedi- 
ately after  the  election  fell  through, 
and  subsequently  the  pope  pro- 


ceeded to  make  cardinals  of  the 
members  of  his  own  family,  con- 
trary to  his  promise  to  the  conclave.. 
The  Council  of  Constance  (1414- 
18)  declared  the  deposition  of  all 
anti-popes  and  received  Gregory's 
abdication,  conferring  on  him  the 
bishopric  of  Porta,  which  he  held 
up  to  his  death,  Oct.  18,  1417. 

Gregory  XIII  ( 1 502-85 ) .  Po  pe 
1 572-85.  Ugo  Buoncompagno  was 
born  Jan.  7,  1502,  at  Bologna,  at 
the  university 
of  which  he 
studied  and 
taught.  Com- 
ing to  Rome  in 
1539,  he  was 
employed  suc- 
cessively by 
Paul  III,  Ju- 
lius III,  Paul 
IV,  and  Pius 
IV.  He  was 
sent  by  Pius  IV,  in  1559,  in  a  confi- 
dential capacity  to  the  Council  of 
Trent,  where  he  remained  until  it 
closed  in  1563,  and  the  following 
year  was  made  cardinal.  He  was 
elected  pope  on  the  death  of 
Pius  V. 

Faced  with  the  loss  to  the 
Church  of  whole  nations  through 
Protestantism,  Gregory  sought  a 
remedy  in  the  building  and  en- 
dowing of  colleges  and  seminaries 
for  the  training  of  propagandists 
and  candidates  for  the  ministry. 
Among  the  foundations  built  or 
endowed  by  him  was  the  Jesuit 
College,  Rome,  an  Order  on  which 
Gregory  relied  for  missionary  work 
in  China,  Japan,  and  India.  An 
order  was  given  by  him  for  a  Te 
Deum  to  be  sung  in  Rome  in  cele- 
bration of  S.  Bartholomew's  Day. 

The  most  memorable  act  of  his 
pontificate  was  his  reform  of  the 
Julian  calendar  (see  Calendar). 
Gregory's  method  of  replenishing 
his  treasury,  depleted  by  his  build- 
ing schemes,  by  confiscating  old 
properties  the  titles  to  which  he 
claimed  as  lapsed,  involved  him  in 
much  trouble  with  his  subjects. 
He  died  April  10,  1585. 

Gregory  XIV  (1535-91 ).  Pope 
1590-91.  The  son  of  a  Milanese 
senator,  Niccolo  Sfondrati,  he  was 
born  Feb.  11,  1535,  and  educated 
at  the  universities  of  Perugia  and 
Padua.  In  1560  he  was  made 
bishop  of  Cremona,  and  cardinal 
in  1583.  Elected  pope  in  succession 
to  Urban  VII,  by  the  advice  of 
Philip  II  of  Spain  he  joined  the 
league  against  Henry  IV  of 
France.  He  died  Oct.  15,  1591. 

Gregory  XV  (1554-1623).  Pope 
1621-23.  Alessandro  Ludoyisi  was 
born  at  Bologna,  studied  at  Rome 
under  the  Jesuits,  and  graduated 
at  the  university  of  his  native  city. 
Returning  to  Rome,  he  was  ap- 


pointed to  various  offices  by  suc- 
cessive popes,  was  made  arch- 
bishop of  Bologna  in  1612  and 
cardinal  in 
1616  by  Paul 
V,  whom  he 
succeeded  a  s 
pe  in  1621. 
is  pontificate 
was  responsible 
for  two  decrees 
of  importance, 
the  first  estab- 
lishing a  regu- 


in! 


lar  mode    and 


Gregory  XV, 
Pope,  1621-2! 

ritual  in  the  conduct  of  papal 
elections,  the  second  constituting 
a  special  and  permanent  congrega- 
tion for  the  control  of  foreign 
missions.  He  died  at  Rome,  July 
8,  1623. 

Gregory  XVI  (1765-1846). 
Pope  1831-46.  Mauro,  or  Bartolom- 
rneo  Alberto  Cappellari,  born  at 

Belluno  inVen- 

etia,  Sept.  8, 
1765,  entered  a 
Camaldolese 
monastery  and 
became  a 
priest.  Sent  to 
Rome,  in  1800 
he  was  made 
abbot  of  San 
Gregorioonthe 
Coelian  Hill. 
Forced  during  the  Napoleonic 
troubles  to  retire  from  Rome,  he 
returned  thither  011  the  fall  of  the 
emperor.  In  1825  he  was  created 
cardinal. 

His  election  to  the  papacy, 
Feb.  2,  1831,  in  succession  to  Pius 
VIII  was  the  signal  for  an  out- 
break of  revolution  ill  the  papal 
states  which  was  only  kept  in 
check  with  the  assistance  of  armed 
force  from  Austria.  Gregory  was 
wholly  opposed  to  any  measure  of 
democratic  control,  and  the  Ency- 
clical of  1832,  rejecting  the  appeal 
of  Lamennaifl,  Lacordaire,  and 
Montalembert,  showed  him  equally 
unsympathetic  to  political  libera- 
tion. He  died  June  9,  1846. 

Gregory, 
AUGUSTA, 
LADY.  Irish 
writer.  The 
youngest 
daughter  of 
Dudley  Persse 
of  Rox  borough, 
co.  Galway,sho 
married  Sir 
William  Greg- 
ory, M.P.  (d. 
1892).  Lady 
Gregory  was  an  enthusiastic  pro- 
moter of  the  Irish  literary  revival, 
and  won  a  place  among  the  play- 
wrights of  her  time.  Cuchulain 
of  Muirtemne,  1902,  and  Gods  and 
Fighting  Men,  1904,  are  very 


Scresford 


GREGORY 

capable  renderings  of  Irish  sagas 
into  the  idiom  of  the  Irish  pea- 
santry, into  which  she  also  trans- 
lated three  of  Moliere's  plays,  The 
Kiltartan  Moliere,  1910.  Her 
own  plays,  produced  by  the  Irish 
Literary  Theatre,  which  she  helped 
to  found,  include  Spreading  the 
News,  The  White  Cockade,  The 
Rising  of  the  Moon,  The  Work- 
house Ward,  and  The  Full  Moon. 

Gregory,  THOMAS  WATT  (b. 
1861).  American  lawyer.  Born  in 
Missouri,  Nov.  6,  1861,  he  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  Texas  bar  in  1885. 
Five  years  later  he  entered  into 
partnership  as  Gregory  &  Batts, 
and  the  firm  was  employed  in  the 
prosecutions  resulting  from  the 
application  of  the  anti-trust  laws. 
In  1913  he  was  appointed  special 
assistant  attorney-general  in  the 
prosecution  of  the  New  York,  New 
Haven,  and  Hartford  Railroad  Co., 
and  in  1914  became  attorney- 
general  in  Wilson's  cabinet. 

Gregory's  Powder.  Pulvis 
Rhei  Compositus  or  compound 
powder  of  rhubarb.  It  consists  of 
rhubarb  root,  22  parts  ;  light  mag- 
nesia, 66  parts  ;  ginger,  12  parts. 
Dose  10  to  60  grains.  It  is  a  useful 
purgative  for  indigestion  in  children. 

Greif.  Armed  German  raider 
destroyed  in  the  North  Sea  by  a 
British  armed  merchant  cruiser, 
Feb.  29,  1916.  The  Greif  was 
stopped  by  the  Alcantara  when 
trying  to  steal  through  the  British 
northern  patrol  disguised  as  a  Nor- 
wegian merchantman.  A  board- 
ing party  was  dispatched  in  a  boat 
to  overhaul  her;  thereupon  the 
Greif  dropped  the  screens  that  hid 
her  guns  and  opened  fire  with  her 
6-in.  weapons.  A  fight  at  point- 
blank  range  followed,  which  ended 
in  the  raider  being  sunk.  Five 
officers  and  115  men  of  her  crew 
were  picked  up  out  of  a  comple- 
ment of  over  300.  The  Alcantara 
was  also  torpedoed  and  sunk.  The 
British  losses  in  the  engagement 
were  5  officers  and  69  men. 

Greif,  MARTIN.  Pen-name  of 
Friedrich  Herman  Frey  (1839- 
1911).  German  poet.  Born  at 
Spires,  his  life  was  uneventful, 
marked  only  by  the  appearance  of 
his  plays  and  poems,  the  former  of 
which  met  with  little  success. 
Gedichte,  a  volume  of  lyrics,  ap- 
peared in  1868.  His  principal  plays 
were  Nero,  1877  ;  Marino  Faliero, 
1879 ;  Konradin,  1889 ;  Ludwig 
der  Bayer,  1891  ;  Francesca  da 
Rimini,  \ 892 ;  and  Agnes  Bernauer, 
1 894.  The  lyrics  published  in  1 902, 
Neue  Lieder  und  Maren,  are  full 
of  grace  and  sentiment. 

Greiffenhagen,  MAURICE  WIL- 
LIAM (b.  1862).  British  painter. 
Born  in  London,  Dec.  15,  1862,  of 
a  Russian  father  and  an  English 


mother,  he  studied  at  the  R.A. 
schools,  and  for  several  years  prac- 
tised black  and  white  "work  with 
great  success.  In  1906  he  was  ap- 
pointed headmaster  of  the  Life 
branch  of  the  Glasgow  School  of 
Arts,  and  in  1916  was  elected 
A.R.A.,  and  R.A.  in  1922. 

Greifswald.  Townot  Germany, 
in  the  Prussian  prov.  of  Pomerania. 
It  stands  2  m.  from  the  mouth  of 
the  Ryckgraben,  20  m.  S.E.  of 
Stralsund.  It  was  a  member  of  the 
Hanseatic  League.  The  university, 
founded  in  1456,  possesses  the 
famous  Croy  tapestry  which  is  ex- 
hibited once  in  10  years,  whose 
subject  is  Luther  preaching  before 
the  royalties  of  Saxony  and  Pom- 
mern.  Greifswald  became  Prussian 
in  1815.  There  are  some  good 
gabled  houses,  and  the  church  of  S. 
Nicholas  (1300-26)  has  a  notable 
tower  330  ft.  high.  Pop.  24,679. 

Greisen.  Cornish  rock  consist- 
ing of  quartz  and  mica.  It  is  a 
variation  of  the  granite  in  which  it 
occurs,  being  recrystallised  granite 
in  which  the  felspar  has  been  re- 
placed by  quartz  and  mica.  It  is 
found  where  tin  ores  are  abundant. 
Greiz.  Town  of  Germany,  in 
Thuringia,  formerly  the  capital  of 
the  principality  of  Reuss-Greiz  (or 
elder  branch).  It  stands  on  the 
White  Elster,  50  m.  S.S.W.  of 
Leipzig.  The  river  cuts  the  town 
in  two,  the  new  town  being  on  the 
left  bank  and  the  old  town  on  the 
right.  Notable  features  are  an  old 
castle  built  on  an  eminence  over- 
looking the  town,  two  handsome 
palaces,  formerly  the  residences  of 
the  prince  of  Reuss,  a  university, 
several  churches,  government  build- 
ings, and  a  19th  century  Gothic 
town  hall.  Greiz  is  a  centre  of 
the  textile  industry,  with  extensive 
railroad  shops.  Pop.  23,245. 

Grenada.  Island  of  the  W. 
Indies,  in  the  Caribbean  Sea,  be- 
longing to  Great  Britain.  It  is  the 
sou  thernmost  of 
the  Windward 
group,  which 
forms  a  united 
colony  86  m.  due 
N.  of  the  W.  end 
of  the  island  of 
Trinidad.  Area, 
133  sq.  m.  Gren- 
ada is  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  islands  of  the  W. 
Indies,  with  diversified  scenery,  a 
delightful  climate,  and  exceedingly 
fertile  soil  suitable  for  the  raising 
of  tropical  produce. 

Of  volcanic  origin,  a  wooded 
range  of  mountains,  reaching  an 
elevation  of  2,751  ft.  in  St.  Ca- 
therine's Mt.,  traverses  the  island 
from  N.  to  S.  It  includes  several 
extinct  volcanoes,  whose  craters 
are  now  lakes,  the  chief  of  which 


GRENADE 

are  the  Grand  Etang  and  Lake 
Antoine.  There  are  numerous 
small  rivers,  besides  hot  mineral 
springs.  One-fourth  of  the  area  is 
under  cultivation,  and  agriculture 
is  the  principal  occupation. 


Grenada  arms 


Grenada.     Map  of  the  West  Indian 
island  in  the  Caribbean  Sea 

The  chief  products  are  cacao, 
coffee,  sugar,  rum,  nutmegs,  mace, 
cotton,  cotton  seed,  arrowroot, 
hides,  timber,  and  turtles,  most  of 
these  being  exported.  The  raising 
of  sugar-canes,  formerly  the  most 
prominent  industry,  has  been 
superseded  by  that  of  cacao.  There 
are  four  hospitals  and  two  asy- 
lums. The  roads  are  good,  the 
rainfall  abundant,  and  there  is 
steamer  communication  with  the 
neighbouring  ports  and  islands. 

St.  George's,  the  capital  and  the 
seat  of  the  governor  of  the  Wind- 
ward Islands,  is  built  on  a  penin- 
sula and  has  an  excellent  har- 
bour, nearly  landlocked  ;  it  is  an 
important  coaling  station.  Other 
towns  are  Charlotte,  Sauteurs,  and 
Grenville.  Grenada  is  administered 
by  a  legislative  council,  with  a 
governor  assisted  by  six  official  and 
seven  unofficial  members,  who  serve 
for  six  years. 

Discovered  by  Columbus  on 
Aug.  15,  1498,  it  was  settled  by 
the  French — the  natives  still 
speak  a  French  patois.  Captured 
by  the  English  in  1762,  it  was  re- 
taken by  the  French  in  1779,  and 
finally  restored  to  Gt.  Britain  in 
1783.  In  1795  the  French  landed 
troops  on  the  island,  causing  an 
insurrection,  which  was  not  quelled 
until  the  following  year.  Pop. 
71,567,  of  whom  2  p.c.  are  whites. 

Grenade  (Lat.  granatus,  filled 
with  grains  ;  Span,  granada,  pome- 
granate). Small  missile  contain- 
ing an  explosive  charge,  frequently 
termed  bomb.  A  kind  of  grenade 
was  used  to  a  considerable  extent 
during  the  15th  century.  It  was 


GRENADIER 

filled  with  gunpowder  and  generally 
made  of  earthenware,  afterwards 
of  brass.  The  fuses  were  very 
primitive  and  uncertain.  In  the 
17th  century  the  fuse  problem 
was  fairly  well  solved.  This  de- 
velopment reached  its  zenith  to- 
wards the  end  of  the  18th  century, 
after  which  grenades  fell  into  disuse 
until  the  Russo-Japanese  /War, 
when  there  was  a  revival.  The 
Great  War  brought  the  weapon  into 
prominence  again,  many  varieties 
being  introduced,  and  leading  to 
the  use  of  the  trench  howitzer.  See 
Ammunition ;  Battye  Grenade;  Be- 
sozzi  Grenade;  Bomb;  Egg  Gren- 
ade; Hand  Grenade;  Rifle  Gren- 
ade ;  Stick  Grenade ;  Stokes  Gun. 

Grenadier.  Literally,  a  soldier 
who  throws  a  grenade.  They  ap- 
peared first  in  the  17th  century,  the 
early  custom  being  for  each  regi- 
ment to  have  its  company  of 
grenadiers.  The  French  led  the 
way,  their  example  being  soon 
followed  in  England  and  else- 
where; in  England  soon  after  the 
formation  of  the  standing  army 
each  battalion  had  its  grenadier 
company.  The  grenadiers  were 
picked  men,  and  this  company 
was  usually  regarded  as  the  lead- 
ing one  in  a  regiment,  taking  the 
place  of  honour  on  parade. 

The  next  step  was  to  form 
these  companies  into  battalions. 
This  was  done  in  France  and 
Prussia  more  than  it  was  in  Eng- 
land, and  from  it  arose  the  regi- 
ments that  now  bear  the  name. 
After  a  time  the  grenade  fell  into 
disuse,  and  soon  after  1850  grena- 
dier companies  ceased  to  exist  in 
the  British  regiments.  The  grena- 
dier's special  head-dress  was  a 
pointed  cap  of  embroidered  cloth, 
having  peaks  and  flaps  ;  or  a  loose 
fur  cap  similar  in  shape. 

In  1915  some  controversy  was 
aroused  by  a  proposal  to  give  all 
bomb-throwers  in  all  regiments  the 
title  of  grenadiers.  The  regiment 
protested,  and  the  matter  was  re- 
ferred to  King  George  V,  with  the 
result  that  by  an  army  order  of 
March,  1916,  it  was  stated  that 
"  The  term  '  grenadier  '  will  no 
longer  be  applied  to  men  trained 
or  employed  in  the  use  of  hand- 
grenades.  Such  men  will  in  future 
be  designated  '  bombers.'  "  See 
Trench  Warfare. 

Grenadier  Guards,  THE.  Regi- 
ment of  the  British  army.  Raised 
in  1660  by  Colonel  Russell,  it  be- 
came the  bodyguard  of  Charles 
II.  The  premier,  though  not  the 
oldest,  regiment  of  the  Foot  Guards, 
the  Grenadier  Guards  have  had  a 
distinguished  history.  They  fought 
under  William  of  Orange,  and  were 
engaged  in  the  four  great  victories 
of  Marlborough,  who  was  at  one 


3697 

time  their  colonel.  They  greatly 
increased  their  reputation  at  Fon- 
tenoy,  and  two  of  their  battalions 
were  with  Sir 
John  Moore  in 
the  retreat  from 
Corunna,  while 
another  suffered 
terrible  losses  in 
the  battle  of 
B  a  r  o  s  s  a.  Two 
battalions  of  the 
Grenadiers  lost  Grenadier  Guards 
over  1 ,000  men  at  badge 

Quatre  Bras  and  Waterloo.  After 
the  latter  battle  the  Prince  Regent 
bestowed  upon  them  the  title  of  the 
first  or  Grenadier  Regiment  of 
Foot  Guards.  Later  distinguished 
services  include  the  campaigns  of 
the  Crimea, 
Egypt,  and  S. 
Africa. 

In  the  Great 
War  the  Grena- 
dier Guards  had 
four    battalions 
in   the   field   in 
France,     which 
at  first  were  in 
different     b  r  i  - 
gades  and,  for  a 
|  time,  in   dif- 
ferent divisions. 
In  Sept.,  1915, 
the   battalions 
I  were    brought 
i  together  and 
I  their  history 
I  was  thenceforth 
I  that   of  the 
I  Guards  Divi- 
I  sion. 

I       During     four 
\  years  of  war  the 
|  regiment    s  u  s  - 
Grenadier  Guards,     tained  in  casual- 
Private  in  parade      ties     11,915 
uniform  officers    and 

men,  made  up  as  follows :  officers, 
203  killed,  242  wounded,  2  missing ; 
men,  4,508  killed,  6,939  wounded, 
2 1  missing.  Seven  V.  C.  's  were  won 
by  the  regiment. 

With  the  Scots  and  Coldstream 
Guards  the  Grenadiers  have  the 
privilege  of  guarding  the  royal 
palaces  and  the  Bank  of  England 
and  marching  through  the  City  of 
London  with  fixed  bayonets.  See 
Army :  colour  plate ;  consult  The 
Grenadier  Guards  in  the  Great  War 
of  1914-18,  Sir  F.  Ponsonby,  1920. 
Grenadines.  Cluster  of  small 
islands  and  islets  in  the  Caribbean 
Sea,  belonging  to  Gt.  Britain. 
They  lie  between  St.  Vincent  and 
Grenada  in  the  W.  Indies.  Appor- 
tioned administratively  between 
St.  Vincent  and  Grenada,  the 
largest  is  Carriacon,  which  is 
attached  to  Grenada,  and  con- 
tains most  of  the  population. 
Cattle  raising  and  cotton  growing 


1st  Baron  Grenf ell, 
British  soldier 

Russell 


GRENFELL 

are  the  principal  occupations. 
Only  three  of  the  islands  are 
inhabited,  but  the  soil  is  fertile. 
Area,  14  sq.  m.  Pop.  6,886. 

Grenfell.  Town  of  New  South 
Wales,  in  Forbes  co.  It  stands  in  a 
plain  E.  of  Mt.  Berabidgal,  180  m. 
due  W.  of  Sydney.  Pop.  1,050. 

Grenfell.  Town  of  New  South 
Wales,  Australia,  in  Mounteagle 
co.  It  is  the  terminus  of  a  branch 
line  from  Koorowatba  on  the  main 
line  from  Sydney  to  Melbourne. 
It  stands  286  m.  W.S.W.  of  Syd- 
ney, on  the  western  slopes  of  the 
mountains  from  Gundagai  through 
Forbes  to  Narromine.  Pop.  3,007. 
Grenfell,  FRANCIS  WALLACE 
GRENFELL,  1st  BARON  (1841-1925). 
British  soldier.  Born  April  29, 1 841 , 
he  was  the  son 
of  Pascoe  St.  L. 
Grenfell,  and 
entered  the 
60th  Rifles  in 
1859.  In  1878 
he  served  in  the 
Kaffir  War;  in 
1879  in  the  Zulu 
War,  and  i  n 
1881-82  in  the 
Transvaal.  His 
connexion  with 
Egypt  began  in  1882;  in  1884  he 
was  with  the  force  that  went  up 
the  Nile,  and  in  1885  he  was  made 
sirdar  of  the  Egyptian  army.  In 
1886  he  commanded  the  frontier 
field  force  at  Ginnis,  and  in  1888- 
89  the  expedition  that  fought  at 
Suakin  and  Toski.  From  1 894-97  he 
was  inspector-general  of  auxiliary 
forces  at  home.  In  1897-98  he 
commanded  the  British  troops  in 
Egypt,  and  from  1899-1903  was 
governor  and  commander-in-chief 
at  Malta.  He  commanded  the  4th 
Army  Corps  1903-4,  and  was  com- 
mander-in-chief in  Ireland  1904-8. 
In  1886  Grenfell  was  knighted. 
Made  a  baron  1902  and  in  1908  a 
field-marshal,  he  died  Jan,  27, 1925. 
Grenfell,  BERNARD  PYNE  (b. 
1869).  British  archaeologist.  Born 
at  Birmingham,  Dec.  16,  1869,  and 
educated  at  Clifton  College  and 
Queen's  College,  Oxford,  he  began 
exploration  work  in  Egypt  in  1894. 
In  company  with  A.  S.  Hunt  he 
discovered  a  t 
Behnesa  in 
1896-97  and 
1905-6  im- 
mense hoards 
of  Oxyrhyn- 
chus  papyri. 
He  was  a p- 
pointed  profes- 

sor  of  papyro- 

Bernard  P.  Grenfell,    logy  at  Oxford 
British  archaeologist   in    1908,     and 
Busseii  made  honorary 

professor  in  1916.  Grenfell  and 
Hunt  have  published  jointly  papyri 


GRENFELL 


3698 


GRENVILLE 


Francis  Grenfell, 
British  soldier 


from  Oxyrhynchus,  Tebtunis,  Hi- 
beh,  and  other  finds.  The  Sayings 
of  Our  Lord,  1897  ;  and  New  Say- 
ings of  Jesus,  1904,  were  issued 
separately. 

Grenfell,  FRANCIS  OCTAVIUS 
(1880-1915).  British  soldier.  The 
eighth  son  of  Pascoe  Du  Pre 
Grenfell,  he  was 
born  Sept.  4, 
18SO,  and  edu- 
cated at  Eton, 
where  with  his 
l^win  brother 
Riversdale 
("Rivy")  he 
was  noted  for 
excellence  in 
sports.  He 
joined  the  3rd 
battalion  Seaforth  Highlanders 
(Militia)  in  1S99,  transferring  in 
1901  to  the  King's  Royal  Rifles, 
with  which  regiment  he  served  in 
the  S.  African  War. 

In  1905  he  joined  the  9th  Lan- 
cers, which  regiment  he  accom- 
panied to  France  in  August,  1914, 
with  the  rank  of  captain.  Grenfell 
was  one  of  the  first  officers  to  gain 
the  V.C.  in  the  Great  War,  which 
was  awarded  to  him  for  gallantry 
on  Aug.  24,  1914,  in  action  against 
the  unbroken  Germans  at  Au- 
dregnies,  and  on  the  same  day 
assisting  to  save  the  guns  of  the 
119tli  Battery,  R.F.A.,  near  Dou- 
bon.  Grenfell,  after  being  twice 
invalided  home,  was  killed  in  the 
Ypres  salient  on  May  24,  1915. 

By  his  will,  dated  May  G,  1915, 
he  bequeathed  his  Victoria  Cross 
to  his  regiment.  Capt.  Grenfell 
was  a  noted  polo  player.  Rivers- 
dale  Grenfell  was  killed  in  action, 
Sept.  14,  1914.  See  Francis 
and  Riversdale  Grenfell,  John 
Buchan,  1920. 

Grenfell,  JULIAN  HENRY  FRAN- 
CIS (1888-1915).  British  soldier 
and  poet.  The  eldest  son  of  Lord 
Desborough,  he 
was  born  March 
SO,  1888.  Edu- 
cated at  Eton 
and  Balliol  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  he 
proved  himself 
both  a  fine 
soldier  and  a 
fine  athlete.  He 
excelled  at 
several  sports, 
butespeciallyat  ««*« 

boxing,  in  which  he  represented 
Oxford  and  the  army.  In  1909  he 
entered  the  Royal  Dragoons,  with 
which  he  went  to  the  front  early  in 
the  Great  War.  He  had  won  the 
D.S.O.,  when  on  May  13,  1915,  he 
was  seriously  wounded,  and  on  the 
26th  he  died  in  hospital  at  Boulogne. 
Grenfell  is  chiefly  known  by  the 


Julian  Grenfell, 
British  soldier 


Wilfred  T.  Grenfell, 

British  medical 

missionary 

Elliott  &  Fry 


verses,  Into  Battle,  which  appeared 
in  The  Times  a  few  days  before  his 
death. 

Lord  Desborough's  younger  son, 
Gerald  William  Grenfell  (t890- 
1915),  was  killed  in  action  at  Hooge, 
July  30,  1915,  while  serving  with 
the  Rifle  Brigade.  Both  at  Eton 
and  Oxford,  where  he  was  a  scholar 
of  Balliol,  he  had  distinguished 
himself  as  a  classical  scholar,  while 
he  represented  his  university  at 
boxing  and  tennis. 

Grenfell,  WILFRED  THOMASON 
(b.  1865).  British  medical  mis- 
sionary. Born  Feb.  28,  1865,  and 
educated  a  t 
Marlborough 
and  Oxford, 
he  studied 
medicine,  and 
became  house 
surgeon  at  the 
London  Hos- 
pital, under 
Sir  Frederick 
Trcves.  Being 
interested  i  n 
the  North  Sea 
fishermen,  he 
fitted  out  the  first  hospital  ship,  and 
established  land  missions  and  homes 
for  their  use.  In  1892  he  went  to 
Labrador,  built  four  hospitals,  and 
started  various  institutions  for  the 
fishermen.  He  was  made  an  honor- 
ary fellow  of  the  American  college 
of  surgeons  in  1915,  and  was  a 
major  in  the  Harvard  surgical  unit 
in  France  during  the  Great  War. 
His  many  books  on  his  missionary 
work  among  the  fishermen  include 
the  autobiographical  A  Labrador 
Doctor,  1918. 

Grenoble.  City  of  France,  in  the 
dept.  of  Isere,  the  old  capital  of  Dau- 
phine.  It  stands  on  the  Isere,  75  m. 
S.E.  of  Lyons,  and 
is  beautifully  situ- 
ated at  the  foot 
of  Mont  Rachais. 
The  chief  buildings 
arc  the  cathedral 
of  Notre  Dame, 
partly  of  tlie  llth 
century;  the 
church  of  S.  Andre, 
with  its  monument 
to  Bayard ;  and  the 
old  church  of  S. 
Laurent.  Secular  edifices  include 
the  palais  de  j  ustice,  the  library,  with 
a  fine  collection  of  manuscripts, 
books,  and  paintings,  and  the  uni- 
versity. It  is  a  river  port,  and  is 
noted  for  its  manufacture  of  gloves. 
The  city  is  an  old  one,  having  ex- 
isted under  the  Franks,  and 
earlier.  It  was  part  of  Provence 
before  becoming  part  of  France, 
and  as  the  chief  town  of  Dauphine 
was  an  important  place,  retaining 
certain  privileges  until  the  Revo- 
lution. Pop.  77,600. 


Grenville,  WILLIAM  WYNDHAM 
GRENVILLE,  BARON  (1759-1834). 
British  statesman  Born  Oct.  25, 
1759,  he  was 
the  youngest 
son  of  George  I 
Grenville. Edu-  Vmrni^-  3 
cated  at  Eton 
and  Christ 
Church,  Ox- 
ford,he  entered 
Parliament  as 
M.P.  for  Buck- 
i  n  g  h  a  m  in 
1782  His  fam- 
ily connexions 
made  his  way 
easy,  and  having  for  a  short  time 
been  secretary  to  his  brother,  Earl 
Temple,  lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland, 
he  became  paymaster-general  under 
Pitt  in  1783.  In  1786  he  was  made 
vice-president  of  the  committee  on 
trade;  in  1789,  having  been  for  a 
few  months  speaker,  he  became 
home  secretary,  and  in  1791  foreign 
secretary.  He  had  been  a  peer 
since  1790. 

Grenville  remained  in  office  with 
Pitt  until  the  two  resigned  in  1801, 
the  period  being  a  most  eventful 
one,  but  his  attachment  to  Fox 
prevented  him  from  returning  to 
power  in  1804.  In  1806,  on  Pitt's 
death,  he  and  Fox  formed  a 
coalition  ministry,  but  this  only 
lasted  until  March,  1807,  as 
Grenville,  who  was  premier,  re- 
fused to  pledge  himself  against  relief 
to  Roman  Catholics.  As  an  un- 
official member  he  took  part  in 
public  life,  acting  mainly  with  the 
Whigs,  until  his  death  at  Drop- 
more,  Jan.  12, 1834,  when  the  peer- 
age became  extinct.  A  fine  classical 
scholar,  Grenville  edited  Lord  Chat- 
ham's letters  to  Thomas  Pitt. 


Grenoble,   France.      Pont  d'Hopital   over   the   Isere. 
Behind  the  city  lie  the  snow-covered  French  Alps 

Grenville,  GEORGE  (1712-70). 
English  statesman.  Born  Oct.  14, 
1712,  he  was  educated  at  Eton  and 
Christ  Church,  Oxford,  was  called 
to  the  bar  in  1735,  but  adopted  a 
political  career,  and  from  1740  till 
his  death  sat  for  the  borough  of 
Buckingham  in  the  House  of 
Commons.  He  was  made  a  lord  of 
the  admiralty  in  1744  and  of  the 
treasury  in  1747  ;  treasurer  of  the 
navy,  and  a  privy  councillor  in 
1754,  and  secretary  of  state  for 
the  northern  department,  and  first 


George  Grenville, 
English  statesman 


GRENVILLE 

lord  of  the  admiralty  in  1762. 
He  was  prime  minister  from  1763- 
65,  his  administration  being  chiefly 

notable  for  the 

prosecution  of 
John  Wilkes, 
in  1763,  and 
the  passing  of 
the  American 
Stamp  Act  in 
1765.  He  was 
known  as  "The 
Gentle  Shep- 
herd," a  nick- 
name due  to 
Pitt's  quoting 
the  words  of  the  old  song,  "Gentle 
shepherd,  tell  me  where,"  when 
Grenville  was  wearying  the  house 
with  complaints.  Grenville  died  in 
London,  Nov.  13,  1770. 

Grenville  OR  GREYNVILLE,  SIR 
RICHARD  (c.  1541-91).  English 
sailor.  Belonging  to  an  old 
Cornish  family, 
in  his  youth  he 
is  reported  to 
have  fought 
with  distinc- 
tion in  the 
Austrian  ser- 
vice against  the 
Turks  in  Hun- 
gary. He  was 
one  of  the 
members  for 
Cornwall  in  the 
parliaments  of  1571  and  1584,  and 
was  sheriff  of  the  county  in  1571. 

In  1591  Grenville  was  appointed 
vice-admiral,  or  second  in  com- 
mand, under  Admiral  Sir  Thomas 
Howard,  of  a  squadron  sent  to  the 
Azores  to  intercept  the  homeward 
bound  Spanish  treasure  fleet. 
Spain  had,  however,  learned  of  the 
dispatch  of  this  squadron,  and  sent 
a  fleet  of  53  vessels  to  the  Azores, 
where  they  arrived,  Aug.  31. 
Howard's  fleet,  anchored  north  of 
Flores,  numbered  only  16,  and  at 
least  half  his  men  were  sick  with 
scurvy,  so  he  hurried  his  men 
aboard,  and  put  to  sea. 

For  some  reason  the  Revenge, 
Grenville's  flagship,  was  unable  to 
follow,  and  was  cut  off.  Grenville 
thereupon  determined  to  pass 
through  the  Spanish  line  ;  he  made 
a  dash,  but  was  becalmed  under  the 
lee  of  the  enormous  galleons, 
whose  men  boarded  her,  and  after 
a  fierce  fight  captured  and  over- 
whelmed the  few  survivors  of  her 
crew.  Mortally  wounded,  Grenville 
was  taken  aboard  the  Spanish 
admiral's  flagship,  where  he  died 
a  few  hours  later.  For  fifteen  hours 
150  men  had  fought  hand  to  hand 
against  5,000  Spaniards,  and  it  was 
not  until  their  number  was  reduced 
to  20  that  they  yielded.  The  story 
is  finely  told  in  Tennyson's  poem, 
The  Revenge. 


Sir  Richard  Grenville, 
English  sailor) 


Gresham.  British  life  assurance 
company.  It  was  established  in 
1848,  and  registered  as  a  limited 
company,  1893.  Its  head  offices  are 
5,  St^Mildred's  House,  Poultry.E.C. 

Gresham,  SIR  THOMAS  (c.  1519- 
79).  English  merchant  and  finan- 
cier. Born  in  London,  second  son 
of  Sir  Richard  Gresham  (d.  1549), 
lord  mayor  of  London  in  1537,  and 
an  ancestor  of  the  marquess  of 
Bath,  he  came  of  an  old  Norfolk 
family.  Educated  at  Gonville  Hall, 
now  Gonville  and  Caius  College, 
Cambridge,  and  a  student  at 
Gray's  Inn,  he 
joined  the  Mer- 
cers' Company, 
and  amassed  a 
fortune. 

Knighted   by 
Queen  Elizabeth, 
he  acquired  lands 
in     Norfolk    and 
Suffolk,  and    had 
mansions  at  May- 
field,    in    Sussex, 
and    Osterley,   in 
Middlesex.    He 
was  lamed  for  life 
by  a  fall  from  his 
horse  in  1560,  and 
lost  his  only  son  in 
1564,  and,  decid- 
ing to  devote  his 
wealth  to  public  ends,  carried  out,  in 
1566-68,  a  project  of  his  father's  by 
founding  the  Royal  Exchange.    He 
died,  Nov.  21, 1579,  and  was  buried 
in  S.  Helen's  Church,  Bishopsgate. 
He   bequeathed  one  moiety  of 
the  Exchange  to  the  city  corpor- 
ation,  the  other  to  the  Mercers' 
Company,  in  trust  for  the  founda- 
tion of  the  Gresham  Lectures.    He 


GRESSET 

Gresham  College.  Educational 
centre  in  London.  It  was  originated 
by  Sir  Thomas  Gresham  (q.v. ),  who 
left  his  residence 
in  Bishopsgate 
Street  to  the  cor- 
poration of  the 
city  of  London 
and  the  Mercers' 
Company,  for  the 
purpose  of  start- 

Gresham  College]    in§.  lectuf.s    in 
arms  various  subjects. 

In  1597  the  lec- 
tures were  organized  and   begun, 


Sir  Thomas  Gresham,  English  merchant 

After  Holbein 

left  his  house  in  Bishopsgate  Street 
for  the  use  of  the  lecturers,  founded 
eight  almshouses,  and  left  money 
for  other  charities.  See  Life  and 
Times  of  Sir  Thomas  Gresham,  J. 
W.  Burgon,  1839. 


Gresham   College.       The    courtyard    of    Sir    Thomas 
Gresham's  house  in  which  Gresbam  College  was  started 

From  an  old  print 

and  they  have  been  continued  ever 
since.  There  are  seven  lecturers, 
and  each  delivers  twelve  lectures 
a  year.  They  are  on  divinity, 
astronomy,  music, 'geometry,  law, 
physic,  and  rhetoric. 

Gresham's  Law.  Economic  law 
that  may  be  roughly  stated  as 
"  bad  money  drives  out  good." 
It  was  first  expressed  thus  in  a 
document  of  1560,  dealing  with 
the  proposed  reforms  of  the  coinage, 
but  its  present  name  was  only 
given  by  H.  D.  Macleod,  in  1858, 
in  the  belief  that  Sir  Thomas 
Gresham  was  responsible  for  the 
statement  made  in  the  above  pro- 
clamation. The  truth  of  the  law  is 
amply  proved  by  experience. 
Where  there  are  two  forms  of  cur- 
rency, each  being  legal  tender, 
persons  will  naturally  pay  their 
debts  in  the  less  valuable  one,  re- 
taining any  of  the  more  valuable 
one  they  may  have,  which  thus 
will  tend  to  disappear  from  circu- 
lation. The  existence  of  this  law 
is  a  strong  argument  against 
bimetallism  (q.v.). 

Gresset,  JEAN  BAPTISTE  Louis 
(1709-77).  French  poet  and  drama- 
tist. Born  at  Amiens,Aug.  29, 1709, 
he  is  remembered  chiefly  for  one 
capital  comedy,  Le  Mechant,  and  a 
burlesque  poem,  Vert- Vert,  which 
contains  beneath  its  humorous 
story  of  a  convent  parrot  some 
shrewd  satire  on  monastic  life. 
He  died  at  Amiens,  June  16,  1777. 


GRES     WARE 


3700 


GREUZE 


Gres  Ware.  Variety  of  stone- 
ware. The  finer  qualities  are  made 
of  a  mixture  of  clay,  quartz  sand, 
lime  or  barytes.  Cologne  gres  was 
celebrated.  Pron.  gray. 


land.  Owing  to  its  situation  close 
to  the  English  border,  it  was  con- 
venient for  runaway  marriages,  as 
here  couples  from  England  could 
take  advantage  of  the  ScQttish 


until  1856,  when  an  Act  made  resi- 
dence in  Scotland  for,  at  least,  21 
days  necessary  in  the  case  of  one  of 
the  parties.  On  the  English  side  of 
the  Sark  is  the  village  of  Gretna, 


Greta  Hall,  Cumberland,  the  home  of  Robei 
for  forty  years 


Gretna  Green  in  war  time.         The  munition-making 
township  in  which  16,000  workers  were  housed  in  huts 


Greta.  River  of  Cumberland. 
It  is  a  tributary  of  the  Derwent, 
which  it  joins  near  Keswick. 
Its  length  is  4  m. 
Overlooking  it  is 
Greta  Hall,  where 
S  o  u  t  h  e  y  lived 
from  1803  until 
his  death  in  1843, 
and  Coleridge  from 
1800  to  1809. 
There  are  two 
rivers  of  this  name 
in  Yorkshire.  One 
is  a  tributary  of 
the  Tees,  while  the 
other  rises  near 
Ingleton  and  falls 
into  the  Lune. 

Gretna.  Muni- 
tions centre  during 
the  Great  War.  In 
1915  a  cordite  factory  was  opened 
near  to  the  village  of  Gretna  Green. 
Here  a  munition-making  township 
sprang  up  on  a  site  which  had  hither- 
to been  bare  farmland.  The  workers 
numbered  ultimately  about  16,000. 
Huts  for  their  accommodation  were 
erected,  and  clubs,  refreshment 
rooms,  and  other  buildings  estab- 
lished. The  total  capital  expendi- 
ture on  building  and  equipment 
was  £9,230,143,  the  working  cost 
£14,846,697,  and  the  value  of  the 
cordite  produced  £16,690,246. 

In  1920  it  was  decided  to  main- 
tain Gretna  as  a  centre  for  the 
manufacture  of  explosives,  and  to 
use,  if  possible,  a  part  of  its  ether 
plant  for  the  conversion  of  alcohol 
to  ether,  and  the  treatment  of  the 
ether  alcohol  recovered.  See  Mu- 
nitions. 

Gretna  Green.  Village  of  Dum- 
friesshire, Scotland.  It  is  9  m.  N.  W. 
of  Carlisle,  near  the  little  river  Sark 
that  divides  England  from  Scot- 


marriage  laws.  The  marriages  were 
usually  celebrated  by  the  black- 
smith or  innkeeper  in  his  smithy  or 


Gretna  Green.     The  smithy  where  formerly  clandestine 
marriages  were  celebrated 


inn.  The  practice  flourished  from 
1770,  when  an  Act  made  hasty  mar- 
riages more  difficult  in  England, 


Greuze.     Psyche,  the   picture  for- 
merly called  Sorrow,  painted  in  1786 

Wallace  Collection 


with  stations  on  the  Cal.  and  Glas- 
gow and  S.W.  Rlys.    Pop.  1,200. 

Gretna  Tavern.  Model  public 
house  near  Carlisle,  England.  It 
was  the  first  started  by  the  Central 
Control  Board  in  July,  1916.  See 
Carlisle ;  Central  Control  Board. 

Gretry,  ANDRE  ERNEST  MODESTE 
(1741-1813).  Belgian  composer. 
Born  at  Liege,  Feb."  8,  1741,  he  be- 
came a  chorister  in  a  church  there 
and  when  quite  young  produced 
some  symphonies:  For  seven  years 
he  studied  in  Rome,  and  after- 
wards, on  the  advice  of  Voltaire, 
settled  in  Paris,  where  he  passed 
the  greater  part  of  his  life.  Gretry 
devoted  himself  almost  entirely  to 
the  composition  of  comic  operas, 
upon  the  form  of  which  he 
exercised  considerable  influence, 
but  he  also  wrote  some  church 
music.  In  France  he  became  the 
most  popular  composer  of  his  day. 
He  died  Sept.  24,  1813. 

Greuze,  JEAN  BAI-TISTE  (1725- 
1805).     French  painter.     Born  at 
Tournus,  near  Macon,  Aug.21, 1725, 
he    studied 
under  Charles    f 
Grandon(1691    j 
-1762)     of 
Lyons.     His 
first  exhibited 
picture,  A  Fa- 
ther Expound- 
ing the   Bible 
to  his  Family, 
gave    promise 
of     a     highly 
successful    ca- 
reer,   and    in 
1755  his  Blind 
Man    Duped 
secured    his 
election  to  the 
Academy.        A  sojourn 


in   Italy 


modified  his  style  to  some  extent, 


GREVILLE 

but  on  returning  to  Paris  he  re- 
sumed his  work  in  genre.  In 
1769  he  submitted  his  Severus 
Reproaching  Caracalla,  a  poor  pro- 
duction in  what  was  meant  to  be 
the  historical  mode,  and  though  the 
Academy  now  admitted  him,  he  was 
only  classed  with  painters  of  genre. 
He  suffered  heavy  pecuniary 
losses  during  the  Revolution,  and 
with  the  Directorate  a  complete 
change  in  the  prevailing  taste  for 
art  took  place.  But  the  naive 
simplicity  of  his  most  charming 
pictures,  sustained  by  accurate 
drawing  and  careful  colouring,  and 
tenderly  painted,  has  outstayed 
the  tawdry  theatricality  of  the 
Neo-Classicists,  and  often  his  works 
command  enormous  prices,  while 
those  of  his  deriders  seldom  find  a 
purchaser.  He  died  in  poverty  in 
Paris,  March  21,  1805. 

Greville,  CHARLES  CAVENDISH 
FULKE  (1794-1865).  British 
diarist.  Bora  April  2,  1794,  he  was 
a  member  of 
the  family  of 
the  earl  of 
Warwick,  and 
a  grandson, 
through  his 
mother,  of  the 
duke  of  Port- 
1  a  n  d.  Edu- 
cated at 
Eton  and 
Christ 
Church,  Ox- 
ford, his  con- 
nexions s  e- 
cured  for  him  the  position  of  secre- 
tary of  Jamaica,  a  non-resident 
sinecure.  In  1821  he  became  also 
clerk  of  the  privy  council,  and 
there  he  remained  until  1859.  He 
kept  a  diary  throughout  his  official 
career,  this  containing  some  very 
valuable  material.  The  first  part 
of  it  was  published  in  1875,  a  pre- 
face being  contributed  by  his  friend 
Harry  Reeve.  The  whole,  known  as 
The  Greville  Memoirs,  appeared  in 
seven  volumes  between  that  date 
and  1887.  Greville's  comments  on 
royal  personages  are  remarkably 
frank,  so  much  so  that  some 
passages  in  the  first  volumes  were 
suppressed.  He  died  Jan.  18,  1865. 
Greville's  brother  Harry  (1801-72) 
also  kept  a  diary,  of  which  Leaves 
appeared  in  1882-84. 

Grevillers.  Village  of  France, 
in  the  dept.  of  Pas -de -Calais.  It  lies 
on  the  Albert-Bapaume  road  1^  m. 
S.W.  of  the  latter,  and  just  N.E.  of 
Loupart  Wood  (q.  v. ).  It  was  taken 
by  the  British  on  March  13,  1917. 
Retaken  by  the  Germans  in  their 
offensive  of  March,  1918,  it  was  re- 
captured by  the  British  during 
the  advance  in  Aug.,  1918.  See 
Ancre,  Battle  of  ;  Somme,  Battle 
of  the. 


F.  P.  J.  Grevy, 
French  president 


37O1 

FRANCOIS  PAUL  JULES 
( 1 807-91 ).  President  of  the  French 
Republic,  1879-87.  Born  at  Mont- 
sous  -  Vaudrey, 
Jura,  Aug.  15, 
1807,  he  was  a 
strong  repub- 
lican while  a 
law  student  in 
Paris.  After 
the  revolution 
of  1848  he  was 
elected  deputy 
in  the  con- 
stituent assem- 
bty,  sitting  also  in  the  legislative 
assembly,  1849-51,  when,  opposed 
to  the  coup  d'etat  of  Napoleon  III, 
he  returned  to  the  bar.  Under  the 
third  republic,  he  was  president  of 
the  national  assembly,  1871-73,  and 
of  the  chamber  of  deputies,  1876-79. 
Grevy  succeeded  MacMahon  as 
president  of  the  republic,  Jan.  30, 
1879.  Although  his  signature  of 
peace  with  China,  June,  1885,  made 
an  inconclusive  end  to  French  diffi- 
culties in  Tongking,  and  in  home 
affairs  his  record  lacked  any 
striking  distinction,  he  was  re-elec- 
ted for  a  further  seven  years,  Dec., 
1885.  But  his  reputation  was 
severely  damaged  by  revelations  of 
his  son-in-law's  (Daniel  Wilson) 
trafficking  in  honours  and  offices, 
and  he  resigned  Dec.  2,  1887.  He 
died  at  his  birthplace,  Sept.  9, 1891. 
Grew,  NEHEMIAH  (1641-1712). 
English  botanist.  The  son  of  a 
clergyman  at  Coventry,  he  was 
educated  at  Cambridge,  but  took 
his  degree  as  a  doctor  of  medicine 
at  Leiden.  In  1672  he  began  to 
practise  in  London,  and  soon  had  a 
large  connexion,  but  his  best  work 
was  done  as  a  student  of  botany. 
His  researches  were  embodied  in 
his  Anatomy  of  Vegetables,  begun 
1672,  and  his  Anatomy  of  Plants, 
1684,  and  to  him  and  Malpighi  are 
due  the  foundations  of  our  know- 
ledge of  plant  anatomy.  He  was 
secretary  of  the  Royal  Society  from 
1677  until  his  death,  March  25, 
1712.  A  genus  of  trees,  Grewia,  is 
named  after  him. 

Grey  OR  GRAY.  Colour  prepared 
by  mixing  black  and  white  pig- 
ments so  that  neither  colour  pre- 
dominates. Grey  bark  is  a  variety 
of  cinchona  bark  which  has  a  sil- 
very-grey lichen  growing  upon  the 
outer  surface. 

Grey,  EARL.  British  title  borne 
by  the  family  of  Grey  since  1806. 
The  family  had  long  been  living  in 
Northumberland  when,  in  1746, 
Henry  Grey  was  made  a  baronet. 
His  eldest  son  succeeded  to  the 
baronetcy,  but  a  younger  son, 
Charles  (1729-1807),  was  more 
distinguished.  He  served  in  the 
army,  being  wounded  at  Minden, 
and  fought  with  distinction  in  the 


GREY 

War  of  American  Independence. 
He  was  made  a  general  and  was 
knighted.  In  1801  he  was  created 
Baron  Grey,  and  in  1806  an  earl. 
From  him  the  later  earls  are  de- 
scended, as  is  also  Viscount  Grey  of 
Fallodon.  The  earl's  seat  is  Howick 
House,  Lesbury,  and  his  eldest  son 
is  known  as  Viscount  Howick. 

Grey,  CHARLES  GREY,  2jsro  EARL 
(1764-1845).  British  statesman. 
Born  at  Fallodon,  Northumberland, 
Mar.  10, 1764, 
he  was  the 
eldest  son  of 
the  soldier 
who  became 
the  1st  Earl 
Grey.  Edu- 
cated at  Eton 
and  Kin  g's 
College,  Cam- 
bridge,  he 
entered  Par- 
liament in 
1786  as  M.P. 


V 

After  Lawrenct 

for  Northumberland  and  soon  as- 
sociated himself  with  Fox  and  the 
Whigs.  His  first  experience  of 
office  was  in  the  coalition  ministry 
of  1806-7,  in  which  he  was  first 
lord  of  the  admiralty  and  then 
foreign  secretary. 

The  successor  of  Fox  as  the 
leader  of  the  Whigs,  Grey,  who  in 
1807  succeeded  to  his  father's 
title,  did  not  greatly  distinguish 
himself  in  opposition  during  the 
long  period  of  Tory  ascendancy 
that  ended  in  1830.  However,  when 
the  Whigs  were  returned  to  power 
in  1830,  his  dignified  presence,  his 
stately  eloquence,  his  unblemished 
character,  and  his  parliamentary 
experience  marked  him  out  as  the 
only  possible  premier.  His  ministry 
was  responsible  for  the  great  Reform 
Act ;  Grey  conducted  the  negotia- 
tions with  the  king,  and  after 
handing  in  his  resignation  secured 
the  promise  that  forced  the  mea- 
sure through  the  House  of  Lords. 
He  remained  in  office  when  the  re- 
formed parliament  met,  but  serious 
differences  in  the  ministry  led  to  his 
resignation  in  July,  1834.  He  died 
at  Howick,  July  17,  1845.  The 
correspondence  between  Grey  and 
William  IV  over  the  Reform  Bill 
was  edited  by  his  son,  the  3rd  earl, 
1867.  See  also  Lord  Grey  of  the 
Reform  Bill,  G.  M.  Trevelyan,  1920. 

Grey,  HENRY  GEORGE  GREY,SRD 
EARL  ( 1 802-94 ).  British  politician. 
The  eldest  son  of  the  2nd  earl,  he 
was  bom  Dec.  28,  1802.  Educated 
at  Eton  and  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge, he  entered  Parliament  in 
1826,  and  in  1830  became  under- 
secretary for  the  colonies  in  his 
father's  ministry  From  1835-39 
he  was  secretary  for  war,  and  in 
1846  he  became  colonial  secretary, 
retaining  that  post  until  1852. 


GREY 

Thenceforward  out  of  office,  he  re- 
mained, however,  an  active  figure 
in  public  life,  and  his  age  did  not 
prevent  him  from  strongly  oppos- 
ing Home  Rule.  He  died  at 
Howick,  Oct.  9,  1894,  his  successor 
being  his  nephew  Albert.  He 
wrote  several  books  on  political 
questions,  one  being  a  defence  of 
his  colonial  policy. 

Grey,  ALBERT  GEORGE  GREY,  4ra 
EARL  (1851-1917).  British  admini- 
strator.       Born    in    St.    James's 
^  Palace,    Nov. 

28,    1851,    the 
4    son  of  General 
•  vj    Charles    Grey, 
H  £!P'  £Wm  1    private    secre- 
tary to  Queen 
Victoria,  he 
was     educated 
at  Harrow  and 
Cambridge.  He 

4th  Earl  Grey,         was  M.P.  for  S. 
British  administrator    Northumber- 
*«•"»  land    1880-85, 

and  Northumberland  (Tyneside) 
1885-86.  A  great  traveller,  he 
was  in  S.  Africa  in  1894  when 
his  uncle  died,  and  he  succeeded 
to  the  earldom.  He  became  ad- 
ministrator of  Rhodesia  in  1896, 
and  was  a  director  of  the 
South  African  Company,  1898- 
1904.  From  1904  to  1911  he  was 
governor-general  of  Canada.  On 
his  return  to  England,  Earl  Grey 
threw  himself  into  public  work 
with  zest,  two  of  his  chief  projects 
being  Dominion  House,  and  the 
Public  House  Trust.  He  was  also 
keenly  interested  in  agricultural 
reform,  and  worked  for  an  Irish 
Convention.  He  died  Aug.  29,1917. 
See  Albert,  Fourth  Earl  Grey  :  A 
Last  Word,  Harold  Begbie,  1917. 

Grey  of  Fallodon,  EDWARD, 
IST  VISCOUNT  (b.  1862).  British 
statesman.  Born  April  25,  1862, 
he  belonged  to  the  family  of  which 
Earl  Grey  was  the  head.  He  was 
educated  at  Winchester  and  Balliol 
College,  Oxford,  and  in  1882, 
having  lost  his  father,  Lieut. -Col. 
G.  H.  Grey,  he  succeeded  his  grand- 
father, Sir  George  Grey,  the  Liberal 
politician,  in  the  family  baronetcy 
and  estates,  the  former  dating  from 
1814.  In  1885  he  was  returned  to 
Parliament  as  Liberal  M.P.  for 
Berwick-on-Tweed,  and  his  con- 
nexions brought  him  to  the  notice 
of  Gladstone,  who  is  reported  to 
have  predicted  for  him  a  great  poli- 
tical future.  He  had  not,  however, 
taken  any  prominent  part  in  debate 
when,  in  1892,  he  was  made  under- 
secretary for  foreign  affairs,  an 
office  in  which  he  acquitted  L;*nself 
well  for  three  years. 

During  the  ten  years  in  opposi- 
tion the  Liberals  began  to  look  upon 
Grey  as  one  of  their  leaders,  and  the 
South  African  War  gave  him  a  cer- 


3702      - 

tain  prominence.  In  1905  Campbell- 
Bannerman  chose  him  as  foreign 
minister.  In  that  office  he  remained 
for  eleven  years,  but  all  he  did  in 
the  first  eight  was  dwarfed  by  his 
activities  in  1914. 

It  fell  to  him  to  conduct  the  last 
negotiations  with  Germany,  and 
those  with  France,  in  July  and 


August,  1914,  and  to  explain  the 
British  position  to  the  House  of 
Commons  and  the  country.  Cer- 
tainly in  those  days  he  strove  hard 
for  peace,  and  his  case  at  the  mo- 
ment was  so  convincing  tnat  he 
had  no  difficulty  in  committing 
Britain  to  the  struggle  with  the  full 
assent  of  the  people.  He  remained 
in  office,  quietly  discharging  his 
duties,  during  the  earlier  part  of  the 
war,  and  also  after  the  Coalition 
government  was  formed  ;  but  in 
Dec.,  1916,  he  resigned  with 
Asquith.  Already  a  K.G.,  an 
unusual  honour  for  a  commoner, 
an  earldom  was  conferred  on  him 
July  6,  1916,  which  at  his  request 
was  altered  to  a  viscounty.  In  1919 
his  eyesight  became  impaired,  but 
it  improved  later.  His  first  wife 
died  in  1906,  and  in  1922  he  married 
Lady  Glenconner  In  early  life  he 
was  a  fine  tennis  player,  and 
throughout  fly-fishing,  on  which 
he  wrote  a  book,  was  his  main 
hobby.  His  residence,  Fallodon 
Hall,  was  burned  down  in  April, 
1917. 

Grey  had  many  of  the  character- 
istics of  his  lifelong  friend,  Asquith. 
Personally  of  the  most  scrupulous 
honour,  he  was  yet  rather  inclined, 
in  the  face  of  difficulties,  to  take  the 
line  of  least  resistance.  His  strong 
position  with  the  Liberals  was  due 
to  an  appearance  of  strength,  to  a 
certain  dignity  and  reserve,  espe- 
cially in  speech,  and  still  more  to  a 
constant  and  obvious  indifference 


GREY 

to  office.  All  recognized  him  as  a 
patriot  and  a  gentleman,  although 
not  a  statesman  of  the  type  of  Pitt. 
See  The  Foreign  Policy  of  Sir  E. 
Grey,  Gilbert  Murray,  1915. 

A.    W.    Holland 

Grey,  SIR  GEORGE  (1799-1882). 
British  politician.  A  son  of  Sir 
George  Grey  and  a  grandson  of 
Charles,  1st 
Earl  Grey,  he 
was  born  at 
Gibraltar  and 
educated  by  a 
tutor  and  at 
Oriel  College, 
Oxford.  He  be- 
came a  barrist- 
er, and  in  1832, 
as  a  Whig,  en- 
tered the  House 
of  Commons 
for  Devonport. 
From  1847  to 
1852  he  represented  N.  North- 
umberland, and  from  1853  to  1874 
Morpeth.  In  1834  and  between 
1835-39  Grey  was  under-secretary 
for  the  colonies.  In  1841  he  was 
for  a  short  time  chancellor  of  the 
duchy,  and  when  the  Liberals  came 
into  office  in  1846  he  was  appointed 
home  secretary.  He  held  that  post 
during  the  troubles  of  1848,  leaving 
office  in  1852.  After  a  brief  term  as 
colonial  secretary  he  returned  to 
the  home  office  in  1855  and  was 
there  until  1858  and  again  from 
1861  to  1866.  He  died  at  his  resi- 
dence, Fallodon,  Sept.  9,  1882. 

Grey,  SIR  GEORGE  (1812-98). 
British  administrator.  Born  at 
Lisbon,  April  12,  1812,  son  of  an 
officer  killed  at 
Bada j  o  z,  he 
was  educated 
at  Sandhurst. 
In  1829  he 
took  up  a  com- 
mission in  the 
83rd  Foot,  but 
retired  from 

the   army    in 

1839  with  the  Sir  George  Grey, 
rank  of  cap-  British  administrator 
tain.  He  took  part  in  1836  and 
1839  in  two  adventurous  expedi- 
tions along  the  N.W.  coast  of 
W.  Australia  and  along  the  N. 
and  S.  coast-line  of  Shark's  Bay. 
He  was  governor  of  S.  Australia, 
1841-i5;  of  New  Zealand,  1845- 
53,  and  1861-67  ;  of  Cape  Colony, 
1853-60  ;  and  prime  minister  of 
New  Zealand,  1877-84.  He  was 
made  a  K.C.B.  in  1848,  lived  in 
London  after  1894,  was  made  a 
privy  councillor,  and,  dying  in 
London,  Sept.  20,  1898,  was  buried 
in  S.  Paul's  Cathedral. 

He  wrote  vocabularies  of  the 
dialects  of  W.  and  S.W.  Aus- 
tralia, two  volumes  on  his  early 
expeditions,  and  wrote  also  on 


GREY 


3703 


,'     GREYHOUND 


Polynesian  mythology  and  the  tra- 
ditions and  history  of  the  New  Zea- 
land race.     See  Life  and  Times  of 
Sir  George  Grey,  W.  L.  &  L.  Rees, 
3rd  ed.  1893;  Life,  J.  Collier,  1909. 
Grey,    LADY    JANE    (1537-54). 
Nine    days    queen    of    England. 
Daughter  of  Henry  Grey,  duke  of 
Suffolk,    great-grand-daughter    of 
Henry  VII,  and  cousin  of  Edward 
VI,   she  was  remarkable  for  her 
beauty  and  accomplishments.   Un- 
der her  tutor,  John  Aylmer,  after- 
wards    bishop    of    London,     she 
acquired  great  proficiency  in  Greek, 
Latin,     Italian,     French, 
and      Hebrew,    and    her    p^ 
learning  aroused  the  ad-     f 
miration     of     the     great    u>   ^-.^i 
scholars  of  the  day,  Roger    B&jHiS 
Ascharu    professing 
amazement   at    her    skill 
in     both     speaking    and 
writing  Greek.       In  pur- 
suance of   a    project    to 
alter  the  royal  succession 
from   the   Tudor    to    the 
Dudley  family,   she   was 
married     May    21,    1553, 


volumes,  including  The  Spirit  of 
the  Border,  1905;  Desert  Gold, 
1913;  Wildfire,  1917  ;  The  Man  of 
the  Forest,  1920. 

Grey  Book.  General  term  in 
Belgium  for  publications  issued  by 
the  government,  containing  diplo- 
matic correspondence  or  other  let- 
terpress relating  to  foreign  affairs. 

Grey  de  Ruthyn,  LORD.  Eng- 
lish title  borne  "by  the  family  of  • 
Clifton.  Its  first  holder,  Roger  de  I 
Grey,  a  son  of  Lord  Grey  de  Wilton,  1 
was  called  to  Parliament  in  1324,  I 
the  barony  being  thus  created.  His  9 


Greyiriars,  Edinburgh.  1.  Martyrs' 
Memorial,  near  the  graves  of  many 
Covenanters  who  suffered  death  be- 
tween 1661  and  1688.  2.  The  Churches 
from  the  S.E.  3.  Entrance  to  the 
Covenanters' Prison  in  the  churchyard 

to  Guildford  Dudley,  son  of  the 
duke  of  Northumberland,  and  her 
accession  was  announced  July  10. 
On  July  19  her  short  reign  ended, 
and  she  was  beheaded  on  Tower 
Hill,  Feb.  12,  1554. 

Grey,  ZANE  (b.  1875).  American 
story  writer.  He  was  bom  at 
Zanesville,  Ohio,  Jan.  31,  1875, 
and  educated  at  the  university  of 
Pennsylvania.  Having  studied  law, 
he  practised  in  New  York,  1898- 
1904,  and  then  turned  to  story 
writing.  He  won  wide  popularity 
by  his  romances  of  adventurous 
life  in  the  American  wild.  His  first 
story,  Betty  Zane,  1904,  was 
followed  by  a  rapid  succession  of 


descendant,  Edmund,  the  4th 
baron,  was  made  earl  of  Kent  in 
1465,  being  then  lord  treasurer  of 
England.  When  Henry,  8th  earl  of 
Kent,  died  without  sons  in  1639, 
his  earldom  became  extinct,  but 
the  barony  passed  to  a  nephew, 
Charles  Longueville.  His  daughter, 
the  wife  of  Sir  Henry  Yelverton, 
.  succeeded,  and  her  son  Henry  was 
made  a  viscount.  His  son,  the  2nd 
viscount,  was  made  earl  of  Sussex 
in  1717. 

The  title  was  held  by  the  earls 
until  the  3rd  earl  died  in  1799.  It 
then  passed  to  a  grandson,  Henry 


Lady  Jane  Grey, 
Queen  of  England 

m  a  contemporary  portrait 


n  Edward  Gould,  from  him  to 
,  his  daughter,  wife  of  the 
marquess  of  Hastings,  and 
from  her  to  her  son,  the  last 
marquess  of  Hastings.  From 
1869-85  it  was  in  abeyance, 
but  in  1885  it  was  adjudged 
to  Bertha,  wife  of  Augustus 
W.  Clifton,  and  sister  of  the 
marquess  of  Hastings.  Her 
two  sons  succeeded  in  turn. 

Greyfriars.  Two  parishes,  Old 
and  New  Greyfriars,  Edinburgh, 
Scotland.  The  name  derives  from 
a  Franciscan  monastery  of  Obser- 
vantines  founded  1436  by  James  I, 
and  destroyed  in  1547  by  the 
English.  The  Old  Church,  built  1614 
and  restored  after  a  fire  in  1845, 
had  a  spire,  destroyed  1721  ;  the 
New  Church  was  added  in  1721, 
and  its  organ  was  the  first  intro- 
duced into  a  Scottish  Presbyterian 
place  of  worship.  On  the  grave- 
stone of  Boswell  of  Auchinleck 
was  signed  the  National  Covenant, 
Feb.  28,  1638.  From  June-Nov., 
1679,  1,200  Covenanters,  taken 
prisoner  at  Bothwell  Brig,  were 
interned  here.  In  1707,  in  a  corner 
of  the  churchyard,  was  erected  the 
Martyrs'  Memorial. 

The  churchyard  contains  many 
memorials  of  a  time  when,  in 
Stevenson's  words,  every  mason  was 
a  pedestrian  Holbein.  See  Covenant- 
ers ;  Edinburgh ;  consult  Epitaphs 
and  Inscriptions  in  Greyfriars, 
J.  Brown,  1867  ;  Edinburgh,  R.  L. 
Stevenson,  1878 ;  Tide-Marks  of 
the  Covenant,  J.  N.  Ogilvie,  1910. 
Greyhound.  Breed  of  dog  of 
Eastern  origin,  famed  for  its  great 
speed.  One  of  the  oldest  breeds  of 
domesticated  hunting  dogs;  it  is 
represented  on  ancient  Egyptian 
monuments.  It  Is  distinguished  by 
its  slender  form,  long  legs,  and  long 
rat-like  tail.  Its  muzzle  is  long, 
and  well  adapted  to  seize  an  animal 
going  at  great  speed.  To  strengthen 


GREYMOUTH 


GR1ERSON 


Greyhound.    A  typical  example  of 
a  Waterloo  Cup  winner 

its  grip,  a  strain  of  bulldog  was  in- 
troduced into  the  breed  with  great 
advantage,  for  the  dog  had  been 
bred  to  such  a  pitch  of  fineness 
that  it  could  not  hold  its  prey.  Its 
narrow  muzzle  and  small  nostrils 
unfit  it  for  following  scent,  and  it 
hunts  entirely  by  sight. 

The  English  greyhound  is  the 
best  known  of  the  group,  and  is 
claimed  as  the  parent  of  the  others. 
It  is  smooth-coated,  probably  the 
result  of  breeding,  for  most  other 
hounds  of  this  type  have  rough 
coats.  Coursing  matches  with 
greyhounds  are  extremely  popular. 
The  most  celebrated  greyhound  of 
recent  years  was  Colonel  North's 
Fullerton,  which  won  the  Waterloo 
Cup  four  times.  See  Dog. 

Greymouth.  Chief  town  of 
Westland,  South  Island,  New  Zea- 
land. It  is  on  the  larger  W.  Coast 
rly.,  and  has  almost  complete  rly. 
connexion  with  Christchurch.  At 
the  mouth  of  the  Grey  river,  it  has  a 
good  harbour,  carries  on  gold- 
mining,  beside  brick-making  and 
saw-milling,  and  is  in  the  chief  coal- 
mining area  in  the  country.  Pop., 
with  suburbs,  8,373. 

Grey  Powder  (Hydrargyrum 
cum  Greta).  Drug  compounded  of 
1  part  of  mercury  with  2  parts  of 
prepared  chalk.  It  is  a  useful 
purgative  for  children. 

Greytown.  Alternative  name 
for  the  Nicaraguan  port  of  San 
Juan  del  Norte  (q.v.). 

Greywacke  (Ger.  grauwacke). 
Hard,  gritty,  grey-brown,  yellow, 
or  dark  coloured  rocks  of  the 
Palaeozoic  formations.  Remark- 
able for  the  great  variety  of  its 
constituents,  quartz,  felspars,  bio- 
tite,  iron  ores,  graphite,  etc.,  it  is 
common  in  the  S.  of  Scotland,  N. 
of  Ireland,  and  Wales. 

Grey  wether.  Blocks  of  sand- 
stone found  thickly  strewn  over 
the  surface  of  the  country  in  Dor- 
set, Wiltshire,  Surrey,  N.  France, 
etc.  It  is  so  called  from  its  fancied 
resemblance  to  sheep. 

Gribble,  BERNARD  FINEGAN  (b. 
1872).  British  artist.  Bom  in 
London,  he  first  studied  architec- 


ture, but  turned  to  drawing  at  the 
classes  of  the  S.  Kensington  Art 
School.  He  exhibited  regularly  at 
the  Royal  Academy  from  before 
the  age  of  20,  and  has  also  shown 
at  the  Paris  Salon.  He  is  well 
known  as  a  skilful  painter  of 
marine  and  naval  subjects. 

Gribble,  FRANCIS  HENRY  (b. 
1862).  British  author  and  critic. 
Born  at  Barns taple,  he  was  edu- 
cated at  Exeter  College,  Oxford. 
In  1887  he  joined  the  staff  of  The 
Observer  and  The  Daily  Graphic. 
His  first  story,  The  Red  Spell,  1895, 
was  followed  by  several  novels,  in- 
cluding The  Things  that  Matter 
and  The  Lower  Life,  1896,  dealing 
with  phases  of  modern  social  life 
with  shrewd  insight  and  rather 
mordant  wit.  In  1907  he  published 
Madame  de  Stael  and  Her  Lovers, 
the  first  of  a  number  of  volumes 
biographical  and  critical.  Gribble 
was  in  Luxembourg  when  the 
Great  War  broke  out,  and  was 
interned  at  Luxembourg  until  late 
in  1915,  afterwards  publishing 
accounts  of  his  experiences  in  In 
Luxembourg  in  War  Time,  1916, 
and  The  History  of  Ruhleben, 
1919,  written  in  collaboration 
with  Joseph  Powell.  See  photo, 
p.  xxi. 

Griboiedov,  ALEXANDER  SER- 
GUIEIEVITCH  (1795-1829).  Russian 
dramatist.  In  1812  he  joined  the 
army,  but  left  it  in  1817  ;  later  he 
entered  the  diplomatic  service,  and 
was  sent  first  to  Persia  and  then  to 
Georgia.  He  began  by  translating 
some  of  Shakespeare's  plays,  but 
in  1823  his  comedy,  The  'Misfor- 
tune of  Being  Too  Clever,  which 
could  not  be  acted,  was,  in  manu- 
script, delighting  St.  Petersburg. 

In  1826  he  was  arrested  for  sup- 
posed complicity  with  the  Decem- 
brists, but  was  soon  set  at  liberty 
and  served  in  the  Persian  cam- 
paign, returning  to  St.  Petersburg 
in  1828  "  armed  with  a  treaty  of 
peace  and  a  tragedy,"  Georgian 
Nights,  inferior  to  his  comedy. 
Griboiedov  was  killed  during  a 
rising  at  Teheran,  Jan.  30,  1829. 

Gricourt.  Village  of  France,  in 
the  dept.  of  Aisne.  It  is  6  m.  N. W. 
of  St.  Quentin,  slightly  W.  of  the 
road  running  from  that  town  to 
Cambrai.  Prominent  in  the  Great 
War,  it  was  taken  by  the  British  in 
April,  1917,  lost  in  the  spring  of 
1918,  and  recaptured  in  Sept.,  1918. 
See  Arras,  Third  Battle  of ;  Cam- 
brai, Second  Battle  of. 

Gridiron.  Frame  of  iron  bars 
used  for  cooking  food  over  a  fire. 
E  S.  Lawrence 
was  martyred 
by  being 
roasted  over  a 

Gridiron  used  for  gridiron,  and 
cooking  the  implement 


is    always    associated    with    this 
saint. 

In  engineering  a  gridiron  is  a 
series  of  parallel  beams  laid  at 
regular  intervals  upon  a  masonry 
foundation,  and  located  in  a 
tidal  basin.  Over  it  a  ship  may 
be  floated  at  high  tide,  and 
upon  it  she  settles  down  as  the 
tide  falls,  until,  at  low  tide,  the 
lower  portions  are  exposed  for 
examination.  See  Concrete. 

Grieg,  EDVARD  HAGERTJP  (1843- 
1907).  Norwegian  composer.  Born 
at  Bergen,  of  Scottish  origin,  Jan. 
15,  1843,  he 
studied  music 
at  Leipzig  and 
C  openhagen. 
Returning  to 
Norway,  he 
founded  a 
musical  union 
at  Christiania 
in  1867,  and 
Edvard  Grieg,  was  its  con- 
Norwegian  composer  ductor  until 
1880.  Eventually  he  settled  in  Ber- 
gen and  devoted  himself  tocomposi- 
tion.  He  died  Sept.  4, 1907.  Grieg's 
work  includes  the  familiar  music  to 
Peer  Gynt,  which  first  brought  him 
fame,  a  piano  concerto,  orchestral 
and  chamber  music,  and  many 
songs.  He  was  essentially  a  national 
composer. 

Grierson,  SIB  JAMES  MONCRIEFF 
(1859-1914).  British  soldier.  Born 
at  Glasgow,  Jan.  27,  1859,  he  was 
educated  at 
Glasgow  Aca- 
demy and  the 
R.M.A.,  Wool- 
wi  c  h.  He 
entered  the 
RoyalArtillery 
in  1877,  and 
took  part  in 
the  S  u  a  k  i  n 
operation  s 
1885,  and  in 
the  Hazara 
expedition,  1888.  Director  of 
military  operations  at  headquarters 
from  1904-6,  he  was  then  selected 
to  command  the  1st  Division  at 
Aldershot.  From  1912-14  he  was 
general  officer  commanding  -  in - 
chief.  Eastern  command. 

Grierson,  who  was  military 
attache  at  the  British  embassy, 
Berlin,  1896-1900,  had  a  profound 
knowledge  of  German  military 
affairs,  and  his  selection  to  com- 
mand the  second  corps  of  the 
British  Expeditionary  Force  in 
Aug.,  1914,  was  regarded  as  ex- 
cellent. He  died  in  the  train  in 
France  on  his  way  to  the  front. 
Aug.  18, 1914.  Grierson's  published 
works  included  Armed  Strengths  of 
Armies  of  Russia,  Germany,  and 
Japan,  1886  88;  Staff  Duties  in 
the  Field,  1891. 


Sir  J.  M.  Grierson, 
British  soldier 


Peder,  Count 

Griffenfeld, 

Danish  statesman 


GRIERSON 

Grierson,  SIR  ROBERT  (c.  1655- 
1733).  Laird  of  Lag,  and  perse- 
cutor of  the  Covenanters.  He  was 
appointed  president  of  the,  military 
court  at  Kircudbright  in  1681,  was 
made  a  baronet  and  pensioned  by 
James  II  in  1685  ;  presided  at  the 
trial  and  execution  of  the  Wigtown 
Martyrs,  and  after  the  revolution 
of  1689  was  fined  and  imprisoned. 
He  died  of  apoplexy.  He  used  the 
thumbkins  in  enforcing  the  Test 
Act,  systematically  refused  his 
victims  permission  to  prepare  for 
death  by  prayer,  and  is  said  to 
have  rolled  them  down  a  slope  in 
barrels  fitted  with  spikes  and 
knife- blades.  He  was  the  original 
of  Sir  Robert  Redgauntlet  in 
Wandering  Willie's  Tale. 

Griffenfeld,  PEDER,  COUNT 
(1635-99).  Danish  statesman.  He 
was  born  in  Copenhagen,  his  name 
before  he  was 
ennobled  being 
Peder  Schu- 
macher. In 
1663  he  became 
librarian  to 
Frederick  III, 
and  keeper  of 
the  royal 
archives,  and 
later  the  king's 
secretary.  In 
1670  he  was 
created  a  count,  and  from  1673-76 
he  was  chancellor,  controlled  the 
country's  foreign  policy,  and  aimed 
at  establishing  a  Scandinavian 
League.  In  1676  he  was  the  victim 
of  an  intrigue,  was  charged  with 
treason,  and  sentenced  to  death, 
but  on  the  scaffold  the  sentence  was 
commuted  to  imprisonment  for  life. 
Griffin  OR  GRYPHON  (Gr.  gryps, 
Lat.  gryphus).  Mythical  monster, 
part  lion,  part  eagle,  supposed  to 
typify  strength 
and  vigilance.  It 
figures  in  Persian 
sculpture  as  a 
guardian  of 
treasure,  on 
Greek  coins,  in 
classical  architec- 
t  u  r  e,  Teutonic 
legend,  and 
heraldry. 
Often  confused  with  the  dragon, 
it  is  represented  in  heraldry  with 
the  body,  tail,  and  hind  legs  of  a 
lion,  and  head,  neck,  breast,  fore 
legs,  and  wings  of  an  eagle,  and 
with  f orwardly  pointed  ears.  When 
represented  rampant  it  is  said  to  be 
segreant.  The  male  griffin  has  no 
wings,  but  is  armed  with  protrud- 
ing rays  or  tufts  of  hair,  and  some- 
times horned  like  the  unicorn. 

The  armorial  crest  of  the  city  of 
London  (q.v.)  is  a  griffin's  sinister 
wing  argent,  charged  with  a  cross 
gules;  the  supporters  are  griffins 


37O5 

elevated  and  endorsed,  argent  and 
charged  on  the  wings  with  a  cross 
gules.  The  Temple  Bar  Memorial, 
at  the  junction  of  Fleet  Street  and 
the  Strand,  popularly  known  as  The 
Griffin,  erected  at  a  cost  of  £10,600, 
and  unveiled  Sept.  8,  1880,  is  sur- 
mounted by  a  "griffin,"  designed 
by  C.  B.  Birch.  See  Gray's  Inn. 

Griffin,  GERALD  (1803-1840). 
Irish  dramatist,  novelist,  and  poet. 
He  was  born  in  Limerick.  Dec.  12, 
1803.  His 
works  include 
Tales  of  the 
Munster  Fes- 
tivals, 1827, 
and  The  Col- 
1  e  g  i  a  n  s,  a 
novel,  1829, 
new  ed.  1896, 
on  which  Dion 
Boucicault 
founded  the 
play  of  The 
Colleen  Bawn.  I.  ater  in  life  he  formed 
the  teaching  society  of  The  Christian 
Brothers  and  died  in  Cork,  June  12, 
1840.  His  novels  reflect  very 
faithfully  the  life  and  scenery  of 
southern  Ireland.  See  Life,  by  his 
brother,  1843  ;  novels  and  poems, 
ed.  W.  Griffin,  8  vote.,  1842-43; 
Poetical  and  Dramatic  Works, 
1857-59. 

Griffmia.  Genus  of  bulbous 
perennials  of  the  natural  order 
Amaryllidaceae.  They  are  natives 
of  Brazil,  and  have  large  bulbs  and 
oblong  lance-shaped  netted  leaves, 
and  white,  blue,  or  lilac  flowers 
forming  an  umbel. 

Griffith,  ARTHUR  (1867-1922). 
Irish  politician  Griffith  worked  in 
his  early  vears  as  a  compositor  and 
journalist  Travelling  widely,  he  at 
one  time  edited  a  newspaper  in  S. 
Africa.  In  1899  he  founded  the 
short-lived  journal  The  United 
Irishman,  but  the  publication  of 


Gerald  Griffin, 
Irish  novelist 

After  Mercier 


GRIGGS 

his  historical  study  The  Resurrec- 
tion of  Hungary,  1904,  is  a  land- 
mark in  the  early  history  of  the 
Sinn  Fein  movement,  of  which  he 
may  be  counted  one  of  the  foun- 
ders. He  was  arrested  in  May ,  1 9 1 8, 
but  whilst  interned  in  England  was 
returned  as  Sinn  Fein  member  for 
E.  Cavan  at  the  by-election  in 
June,  and  again  in  Dec.,  1918.  Re- 
leased in  1919,  Griffith  was  acting 
president  of  Dail  Eireann.  and  in 
1922  head  of  the  Irish  Free  State 
executive.  He  died  Aug.  12,  1922. 

Griffith,  SIR  SAMUEL  WALKER 
(1845-1920).  Australian  lawyer 
and  politician.  Born  at  Merthyr 
Tydvil,  June  21,  1845,  the  son  of  a 
Nonconformist  minister,  he  emi- 
grated when  young  to  Australia. 
Educated  at  the  university  of 
Sydney,  in  1867  he  was  called  to 
the  bar.  Having  settled  in  Queens- 
land, he  became  associated  with  the 
politics  of  that  state.  In  ]  883  he  was 
made  premier. 
He  held  the 
latter  office 
until  1888, 
and  again 
1890 -93,  when 
he  resigned  to 
become  chief 
justice  of 
Queensland. 
He  held  that 
post  until 
1919,  and  died 
at  Brisbane,  Aug.  9, 1920.  He  had 
much  to  do  with  drawing  up  the 
constitution  of  the  Commonwealth 
of  Australia,  and  in  1903  was 
chosen  its  chief  justice,  becoming 
later  a  member  of  the  judicial  com- 
mittee of  the  privy  council. 

Griffon.  European  breed  of 
dog.  A  rough-coated  animal,  it  is 
somewhat  taller  than  the  setter 


Sir  Samuel  Griffith, 
Australian  lawyer 

Russell 


Griffin.     The  memorial  erected  in 

1880  on  the    site  of  old  Temple 

Bar,  London 


Griffon.      Copthorne    Wiseacre,    a 
champion  Brussels  griffon 

and  of  a  grizzly  liver  colour.  The 
dogs  are  used  in  hunting  game  birds. 
The  Brussels  griffon  is  a  Belgian 
dog ;  it  is  small,  red,  short-nosed, 
and  at  one  time  was  very  popular 
as  a  pet  in  England.  The  word  is 
used  sometimes  as  a  variant  of 
griffin.  See  Dog  :  colour  plate. 

Griggs,  JOHN  WILLIAM  (b.1849). 
American  politician.  Born  July  10, 
1849,  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 


GRIGORESCU 

1871,  and  was  appointed  city 
counsel  to  Paterson,  New  Jersey. 
Member  of  the  New  Jersey  as- 
sembly (1876-77)  and  senate  (1882- 
88),  he  was  president  of  the  latter 
in  1886,  and  was  governor  of  the 
state  1895—98,  when  he  resigned  on 
his  appointment  as  attorney- 
general  in  McKinley's  cabinet.  On 
his  resignation  in  1901  he  was  ap- 
pointed a  member  of  the  court  of 
arbitration  at  The  Hague.  . 

Grigorescu,  NICOLAS  (1838- 
1907).  Rumanian  painter.  Born 
at  Vacareshti-Restoaca,  Rumania, 
May  15,  1838,  the  son  of  an  agricul- 
tural labourer,  he  was  saving  his 
wages  as  a  painter  of  icons  to  enable 
him  to  study  in  Paris,  but  was  per- 
suaded to  remain  in  his  native  land 
to  produce  pictures  for  churches 
and  monasteries.  But  the  call  to 
Paris  proved  irresistible,  and  in 
1861  he  was  received  into  the  con- 
genial society  of  the  Barbizon 
school.  The  forest  scenery  pro- 
vided many  themes  for  his  brush, 
and  his  Sunset  at  Barbizon — now 
in  the  Simu  Museum  at  Bukarest — 
ranks  as  his  masterpiece  in  land- 
scape. Returning  to  Rumania,  he 
was  captivated  by  the  manners  of 
the  gypsies,  Jews,  and  shepherds  of 
the  Danubian  states,  and  incidents 
in  their  lives  inspired  several  of  his 
best  pictures. 

In  1870  he  again  made  his  home 
in  France,  but  in  1877  he  hastened 
to  bear  his  part  in  the  campaign 
against  the  Turks,  of  which  he  left 
a  magnificent  memorial  in  his 
Attack  at  Smardan,  purchased  by 
the  government  for  the  town  hall 
of  Bukarest.  Portraiture  also  at- 
tracted him,  and  his  portraits  of 
his  king  and  queen  ("  Carmen 
Sylva  " )  are  among  his  most  bril- 
liant works.  He  died  at  Campina, 
in  Rumania,  July  21,  1907,  univer- 
sally regarded  as  the  greatest 
painter  his  country  had  produ?ed. 

Grigoriev,  VASILI  VASII.IEVITOH 
(1816-82).  Russian  Oiicntalist 
and  numismatist.  Born  at  St. 
Petersburg,  March  15,  1816,  he 
studied  Oriental  languages  at  its 
university  and  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  Persian.  He  proceeded  in 
1838  to  Odessa,  where  he  founded 
an  historical  and  antiquarian  so- 
ciety. He  became  governor-general 
of  Orenburg,  1852,  and  professor  of 
Oriental  history  at  St.  Petersburg, 
1862-78.  Among  his  numerous 
works  are  History  of  the  Mongols, 
1846  ;  Description  of  the  Khanate 
of  Khiva,  1861  ;  Kabulistan  and 
Kafiristan,  1867  ;  The  Scythian 
Nation,  1871  ;  Russia  in  Asia, 
1876.  He  died  at  St.  Petersburg, 
Jan.  2,  1882. 

Grigorovitch,  DMITRI  VAST 
LIEVITCH  (1822-1900).  Russian 
novelist.  More  or  less  inspired  by 


3706 

George  Sand,  he  began  with  The 
Village,  1846,  a  series  of  remark- 
able stories  rendering  with  great 
faithfulness  the  conditions  of  the 
peasantry  under  the  system  of 
serfdom.  Other  of  his  works  were 
Anthony  the  Unlucky,  1848  ;  The 
Valley  of  Smiedov  ;  The*  Fishers, 
1853;  and  The  Colonists,  1855. 
His  stories,  though  lacking  in 
literary  skill,  possess  a  lasting  value 
as  ethnographical  studies. 

Grijalva.  River  of  S.E.  Mexico. 
Named  after  its  discoverer,  Juan  de 
Grijalva,  the  Spanish  explorer,  it 
rises  in  Guatemala,  and  flows  300 
m.  W.,  N.W.,  and  N.  to  the  Gulf  of 
Campeachy  near  the  Bay  of  Tu- 
pilco.  For  a  part  of  its  course  it 
forms  the  boundary  between  the 
states  of  Chiapas  and  Tabasco.  It 
is  navigable  for  about  50  m. 

Grile,  DOD.  Pen-name  adopted 
for  his  earlier  writings  by  the  Ameri- 
can author  Ambrose  Bierce  (q.v. ). 

Grill  (Fr.  gritter,  to  boil).  Uten- 
sil for  broiling  meat  over  a  fire,  a 
form  of  gridiron.  The  grill-room 
in  restaurants  is  the  room  where 
such  broiling  is  actually  done.  See 
Cookery. 

Grille.  French  word  meaning 
literally  a  grating  of  metal  or 
wood,  used  to 
screen  a  window  or 
other  aperture. 
The  close  iron  grat- 
ing in  prison  cells 
through  which 
prisoners  converse, 
without  being  able 
to  come  into  per- 
sonal contact  with 
their  visitors,  is 
called  a  grille.  The 
grille  was  the  name 
given  to  the  barrier 
behind  which  lady 


GRILLPARZER 

visitors  heard  debates  in  the 
House  of  Commons.  This  was 
removed  in  1918.  Tombs  are  often 
protected  by  grilles.  A  beautiful 
example  is  the  one  surrounding 
Queen  Eleanor's  tomb  in  West- 
minster Abbey. 

Grillparzer,  FRANZ  (1791- 
1872).  Austrian  dramatist.  He 
was  born  in  Vienna}  Jan.  14,  1791, 
and  after 
studying  law 
entered  the 
Austrian  civil 
service  in  181 3, 
remaining  i  n 
it  until  he  re- 
tired with  a 
pension  in 
1856.  At  the 
age  of  25  he 
made  his  first 
great  dramatic 
hit  with  Die  Ahnfrau  (The  Ances- 
tress), a  ghost  tragedy  that  made 
him  famous.  It  was  followed  by  a 
succession  of  pieces  that  made  the 
author's  name  the  most  notable  in 
Austrian  literature.  His  other  early 
plays  included  Sappho,  1819 
(several  Eng.  trans.) ;  a  trilogy  on 
Das  Goldene  Vliess  (The  Golden 
Fleece),  1821  ;  andKonig  Ottokar, 


I  Franz  Grillparzer, 
Austrian  dramatist 


Grille.  Former  grille  of  Ladies'  Gallery 

in  House  of  Commons.     Top,  right, 

grille    around   the    tomb   of   Queen 

Eleanor  in  Westminster  Abbey 


1825,  an  historical  play  on  a  13th 
century  king  of  Bohemia. 

In  1826  Grillparzer  visited  Goethe 
at  Weimar.  In  1828  came  another 
historical  play,  Ein  treuer  Diener 
seines  Herrn  (A Faithful  Servant); 
then  came  DOS  Meeres  und  der 
Lie  be  Wellen  (The  Waves  of  the 
Sea  and  of  Love),  1831,  the  story 
of  Hero  and  Leander;  and  Der 
Traum  ein  Leben  (The  Dream,  a 
Life),  1835;  these  two  plays  were 
long  leading  favourites  on  the 
German  stage.  In  1838  his  comedy 
Weh  dem  der  liigt  (Woe  to  Him 
Who  Lies)  proved  a  failure  and 
disheartened  the  author.  *>  He  had 
earlier  published  a  volume  of  poems 
and  on  Jan.  21,  1848,  produced  his 
chief  prose  story,  Der  arme  Spiel- 
mann  (The  Poor  Fiddler).  He  died 
in  Vienna,  Jan.  21,  1872,  leaving 
three  unacted  plays,  Die  Jtidin  von 


GRIMALDI 


37O7 


GRIMSBY 


Toledo  (The  Jewess  of  Toledo)  ; 
Ein  Bruderzwist  im  Hause  Habs- 
burg  (A  Brother's  Quarrel  in  the 
House  of  Habsburg);  andLibussa, 
a  fine  drama  on  the  queen-founder 
of  Prague.  His  collected  works 
were  published  in  20  vols.,  at 
Stuttgart,  1892-94,  and  in  1890 
a  Grillparzer  Society  was  founded 
in  Vienna.  See  F.  Grillparzer  and 
the  Austrian  Drama,  G.  Pollak, 
1907. 

Grimaldi.  JOSEPH  (1779-1837). 
English  clown.  Born  in  London, 
Dec.  18,  1779,  and  belonging  to  a 


//    //       /     '      I      !      \    \ 
Joseph  Grimaldi  the  clown,  in  Harle- 
quin and  Friar  Bacon 

From  a  sketch  by  G.  Cruikihank 

family  of  clowns  and  dancers,  he 
danced  at  Drury  Lane  and  Sadler's 
Wells  when  quite  an  infant,  and 
made  his  greatest  success  in  the 
pantomime  of  Mother  Goose  at 
Co  vent  Garden  in  1806.  His  sing- 
ing of  such  ditties  as  Tippety- 
Witchet  and  Hot  Codlins  aroused 
great  enthusiasm.  He  died  in  Lon- 
don, May  31,  1837.  See  Memoirs 
of  J.  G.,  ed.  Charles  Dickens,  1838. 
Grime's  Graves.  Flint  mines 
of  the  stone  age  at  Weeting,  Nor- 
folk, which  in  1870  Canon  Green- 
well,  their  explorer,  claimed  as 
neolithic.  Within  20  acres  there 
are  254  pits,  20  ft.  to  60  ft.  across, 
and  40  ft.  deep,  often  with  lateral 
tunnels.  Red-deer  antlers  were 
used  as  picks,  chalk  cups  as  lamps. 
The  older  idea  was  that  they  were 
the  remains  of  a  British  village. 
They  were  systematically  re-ex- 
amined in  1919. 

Grimm,  JAKOB  LTJDWIG  KARL 
(1785-1863).  German  philologist 
and  folk-lorist.  Born  Jan.  4, 1785,  at 
Hanau  in  Hesse-Cassel,  he  studied 
law  at  Marburg,  visited  Paris  in 
1805,  and  in  1808  became  librarian 
to  Jerome  Bonaparte  at  Cassel.  His 
first  book,  on  the  Meistersingers, 
1811,  was  followed  in  1812  by  the 


first  collection  of  Kinder-  und  Haus- 
marchen,  made  by  him  and  his 
brother,  and  continued  in  1814  and 
1822.  These 
tales,  trans- 
lated into 
many  lan- 
guages, in 
English  as 
Grim  m's 
Fairy  Tales, 
have  immor- 
talised the 


In  1829  Jakob  went  to  Gottingen 
as  librarian  and  lecturer,  accom- 
panied by  his  brother,  but  political 
changes  led  to  their  dismissal.  In 
1840  both  were  invited  to  profes- 
sorships in  Berlin.  Jakob's  most 
important  works  are  Deutsche 
Grammatik,  1819,  and  Geschichte 
der  deutschen 
Sprache,  1848, 
which  revolu- 
tionised the 
study  of  Teu- 
tonic philo- 
logy; Deutsche 
Reichsalter- 
thiimer,  Ger- 
man legal  An- 
tiquities, 1828; 
Deutsche 
thologie, 
En: 


uities,  iozo;       fa 
utsche  My-      (T/- 
•logie,  1835,      /[ 

ig.    trans.  // 

?9-88.    The  (/ 


brothers  began 
a  German  Dic- 
t  i  o  n  a  r  y  and 
edited  many 
old  German 
classics.  Jakob  died,  Sept.  20,  1863. 

His  younger  brother,  Wilhelm 
Karl  (1786-1859),  born  at  Hanau 
Feb.  24,  1786,  after  holding  a  post 
in  the  Cassel  library,  became  sub- 
librarian at  Gottingen  in  1830,  and 
professor  at  Berlin  in  1840.  His 
whole  life  was  the  counterpart  of 
his  brother's.  His  chief  indepen- 
dent work  was  Die  deutsche  Hel- 
densage  (German  Heroic  Saga), 
1829.  He  died  Dec.  16,  1859. 
See  Cruikshank  ;  Philology. 

Grimma.  Town  of  Saxony.  It 
stands  on  the  Mulde,  19  m.  from 
Leipzig.  It  has  a  famous  school, 
the  prince's  school,  with  a  free 
library.  In  the  castle  here  the 
margraves  of  Meissen  and  their 
successors,  the  electors  of  Saxony, 
lived  for  several  centuries.  Other 
buildings  are  the  15th  century 
town  hall  and  several  churches  and 
schools.  The  industries  include 
a  trade  in  agricultural  produce. 
The  town  grew  up  around  the  castle, 
and  before  the  Reformation  there 
was  a  monastery  here.  Pop.  1  1  ,440. 

Grimmelshausen,  HANS  JAKOB 
CHRISTOFFEL  VON  (c.  1625-76).  Ger- 
man author.  Born  at  Gelnhausen, 


near  Hanau,  Prussia,  he  was  carried 
off  at  the  age  of  ten  by  Hessian 
troops,  and  led  an  adventurous  life 
with  the  army  as  camp  follower  and 
soldier  of  fortune.  After  the  con- 
clusion of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  in 
1648,  nothing  is  known  of  him  until 
1667,  when  he  was  chief  magistrate 
of  Renchen,  in  the  Black  Forest. 

Two  years  later  Grimmelshausen 
published  what  has  been  described 
as  the  one  German  prose  classic  of 
the  17th  century,  The  Adven- 
turous Simplicissimus  (Eng.  trans. 
1912).  It  is  an  extraordinary 
medley  of  adventure  and  observa- 
tion, largely  based  on  its  author's 
own  experiences.  Occupying  an 
important  place  in  the  annals  of 
picaresque  fiction,  Simplicissimus 
throws  valuable  light  on  the  social 
side  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War, 
while  its  closing  chapters  on 
its  hero's  desert-island  experiences 
might  have  inspired  Defoe's  Robin- 
son Crusoe.  Grimmelshausen  wrote 
many  other  works  under  various 
pseudonyms,  mostly  anagrams  of 
his  name. 

Grimm's  Law.  In  philology, 
the  name  given  to  the  regular 
sound-shifting  or  consonantal  inter- 
change between  (1)  Sanskrit, 
Greek  and  Latin  ;  (2)  Low  Ger- 
man ;  (3)  High  German.  The  rule 
is  that  an  aspirate  in  (1)  corre- 
sponds to  a  soft  consonant  in  (2) 
and  to  a  hard  consonant  in  (3) ;  a 
soft  consonant  in  (1)  corresponds 
to  a  hard  consonant  in  (2)  and  an 
aspirate  in  (3) ;  a  hard  consonant 
in  ( 1 )  corresponds  to  an  aspirate  in 
(2)  and  to  a  soft  consonant  in  (3)  : 
Greek  thura,  English  door,  German 
Tor ;  Greek  ther,  English  deer,  Ger- 
man Tier ;  Latin  dens,  English 
tooth,  German  Zahn. 

Many  apparent  exceptions  have 
been  explained  by  what  are  known 
as  Verner's  and  Grassmann's  Laws, 
and  others  will  probably  be  found 
to  be  the  result  of  other  phonetic 
laws  not  yet  discovered.  Grimm's 
Law  takes  its  name  from  the  philo- 
logist, Jakob  Grimm  (q.v.),  who 
first  definitely  formulated  it,  al- 
though the  principle  had  already 
been  enunciated  by  a  Danish 
scholar,  Rask.  See  Phonetics. 

Grimsby  OR  GREAT  GRIMSBY. 
County  and  mun.  borough  of  Lin- 
colnshire. It  stands  near  the  mouth 
„ of  the  Humber, 

1  *^f      ^ftl       15  m-  from  Hul1 
I'SSB.AJWI       and     155      from 
London,    and   is 
served     by     the 

Rlys.     The  chief 
buildings  are  the 
Grimsby  arms        parish  church  of 
S.  James,  a  13th  century  building, 
the  town  hall,  exchange,  and  cus- 
tom house.   There  is  a  16th  century 


GRIM'S     DYKES 


3708 


GR1NDELWALD 


m.  

Grimsby,  Lincolnshire.    The  Royal  Dock  and  Hydraulic 
Tower,  300  ft.  in  height 

grammar  school,  and  a  large  fish 
market.  There  is  a  free  library, 
technical  school,  and  benevolent 
institution  for  seamen  ;  also  public 
gardens.  The  principal  industry  is 
fishing,  herring  being  the  chief 
catch.  In  1919  over  150,000  tons 
of  fish,  worth  nearly  £7,000,000, 
were  landed,  and  the  port  has  over 
800  steam  trawlers,  being  probably 
the  largest  fishing  centre  in  the 
world.  It  has  an  import  and  ex- 
port trade,  especially  in  coal,  ma- 
chinery, timber,  grain,  iron,  and 
butter.  Other  industries  include 
shipbuilding,  tanning,  brewing, 
and  rope-making,  while  there  are 
flax  and  bone -crushing  mills. 

Grimsby  was  a  Danish  settle- 
ment and  became  a  borough  soon 
after  the  Norman  Conquest.  It  was 
soon  a  flourishing  port,  but  after 
a  time  entrance  to  it  was  made 
difficult  by  the  accumulation  of 
sand.  This,  however,  was  over- 
come, and  in  the  19th  century  it 
was  a  fishing  centre,  its  prosperity 
increasing  rapidly.  Docks  were 
built,  a  great  extension  being  made 
by  the  Manchester,  Sheffield  and 
Lincolnshire  Rly.  between  1849-54. 
Further  extensions  followed  until 
there  were  docks  of  every  kind, 
with  ample  quays,  etc.  During  the 
Great  War  the  trawlers  and  fisher- 
men were  employed  in  mine  sweep- 
ing and  the  like.  It  is  called  Great 
Grimsby  to  distinguish  it  from 
Little  Grimsby,  a  village  4  m. 
from  Louth.  Market  days,  Mon. 
and  Fri.  Pop.  83,000. 

Grim's  Dykes.  Folk-name  for 
several  prehistoric  entrenchments 
in  Great  Britain.  There  are  ex- 
amples at  Berkhampstead,  Herts ; 
Wealdstone,  Middlesex ;  and 
Down  ton,  Wilts.  Like  Devil's 
Dykes  (q.v.),  the  name  indicates 
their  mysterious  origin  ;  both  are 
used  of  that  from  Mongewell  to 
Henley,  Oxon,  10  m.  long  ;  and  of 
others  at  Princes  Risborough, 
Bucks,  and  in  Dorset.  It  is  vari- 
ously spelled  Grime's,  Graeme's,  and 
Graham's.  See  Antonine's  Wall. 


Grimsel.Moun- 

tain  pass  of  Swit- 
zerland, in  the 
Bernese  Alps.  It 
leads  from  the 
valley  of  the  Aar, 
in  the  canton  of 
Bern,  to  that  of 
the  Rhone  in 
V  a  1  a  i  s,  and 
reaches  an  alt.  of 
7.100  ft.  From 
Meiringen  the 
carriage  road 
leads  past  Han- 
degg,  joining  the 
Furka  route  W. 
of  the  Rhone 
glacier.  There  is 
an  old  hospice  near  theGrimsel  lake, 
and  farther  on  is  the  Todtensee  or 
Lake  of  the  Dead. 

Grimspound.  Prehistoric  strong- 
hold on  Dartmoor,  Devonshire. 
Having  an  area  of  four  acres,  con- 
taining  the  remains  of  24  Bronze  - 
age  hut-circles,  it  is  enclosed  by 
two  irregularly  oval  walls  of  coursed 
granite,  3  ft.  6  ins.  apart,  530  yds. 
long,  and  originally  8  ft.  high,  with 
three  entrances.  They  served  to 
defend  the  village  flocks  and  herds 
against  animal  and  human  foes. 

Grimthorpe,  EDMUND  BECKETT, 
IST  BARON  (1816-1905).  British 
lawyer.  Born  May  12,  1816,  a  son 
of  Sir  Edmund 
Beckett  Deni- 
son,  whose 
surname  he 
dropped  on 
inheriting  the 
baronetcy,  he 
was  educated 
at  Eton  and 
Trinity  Col- 
lege, Cam- 
bridge. Called 
to  the  bar  at 

Lincoln's  Inn  in  1841,  he  became 
Q.C.,  1854,  and  was  chancellor 
and  vicar-general  of  the  province 
of  York  from  1877-1900.  A 
leader  of  the  parlia 
a  vigorous  con- 
troversialist i  n 
ecclesiastical  and 
architectural 
matters,  as  shown 
in  the  restora- 
tion of  S.  Al ban's 
Abbey  carried  out 
under  his  sole 
direction  and  at 
his  expense,  the 
term  "Grim- 
thorping"  was 
applied  to  any 
ruthless  restora- 
tion of  ancient 
cathedrals.  He 
died  at  St.  Al- 
bans,  April  29. 
1905. 


1st  Baron  Grim- 
thorpe, 
British  lawyer 


Grindal,  EDMUND  (c.  1520-83). 
English  prelate.  The  son  of  a  far- 
mer, he  was  born  at  St.  Bees  and 
was  educated  ^^^^^^^^^-- 
at  Cambridge. 
Ordained  in 
1544,  he  be- 
came known  as 
a  religious  re- 
former. Ridley 
secured  pro- 
motion for 
him,  one  post 
being  that  of 
c  h  a  p  1  ai  n  to 
Edward  VI, 
but  on  the  king's  death  he 


Edmund  Grindal, 
English  prelate 

AflcrDe  Vo» 

left 


England  for  Frankfort.  He  re- 
turned in  1559,  Mary  by  then 
being  dead,  and  was  made  master 
of  Pembroke  Hall,  Cambridge.  In 
1559,  too,  he  was  consecrated 
bishop  of  London,  in  succession  to 
Bonner. 

As  bishop,  Grindal  showed  little 
desire  to  punish  Nonconformists, 
and  is  usually  regarded  as  a 
weak  ruler  of  his  diocese,  which 
he  left  in  1570  to  become  arch- 
bishop of  York,  where  again  he 
was  less  zealous  than  the  ex- 
tremists liked.  In  1575  he  was 
chosen  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
where  he  was  strong  enough  to 
refuse  to  obey  Elizabeth  when  she 
ordered  him  to  suppress  the  pro- 
phesyings  or  meetings  of  Puritan 
clergy.  He  was  therefore  sus- 
pended as  regards  the  non-spiritual 
duties  of  his  office,  and  was  not 
restored  to  these  until  1582. 
Grindal  died  in  his  palace  at  Croy- 
don,  July  6,  1583.  He  is  buried  in 
the  parish  church  at  Croydon. 

Grindelwald.  Valley  of  central 
Switzerland,  in  the  Bernese  Ober- 
land.  It  is  13  m.  long  by  4  m.  broad, 
and  its  station  is  11  m.  S.E.  of 
Interlaken.  The  Black  Liitschine 
river  flows  through  the  valley, 
which  is  enclosed  by  the  peaks  of 
the  Wetterhorn,  Schreckhorn,  Met- 
tenberg  Eiger,  and  Faulhorn.  Two 
descend  almost  to  the  river. 


Grindelwald.     The  Bernese  valley,  looking  east  towards 
the  Wetterhorn 


GRINDING 


3709 


GRISAILLE 


A  favourite  excursion  centre, 
both  in  summer  and  winter,  many 
hotels  and  shops  have  been  built  ^ 
between  the  hamlet  of  Gydisdorn 
and  the  station.  A  wooden  church 
was  replaced  by  a  stone  one  about 
1180,  which  in  turn  was  super- 
seded by  the  present  church, 
erected  in  1793.  The  valley  lies 
at  an  altitude  of  3,410  ft.  The  in- 
habitants are  mostly  German- 
speaking  Protestants.  Pop.  3,468. 

Grinding.  Term  applied  to  the 
sharpening  of  tools,  cutlery,  etc., 
or  the  smoothing  of  any  hard  sub- 
stance by  rubbing  away  its  sur- 
face ;  and  also  to  crushing  and 
pulverising  machinery. 

The  grinding  or  sharpening  of 
tools,  cutlery,  etc.,  is  carried  out 
on  rapidly  revolving  power-driven 
stones.  In  tool  grinding  the  whole 
operation  is  carried  out  mechani- 
cally to  ensure  an  accuracy  of  the 
angles  of  the  cutting  edges  of  such 
tools  as  drills,  impossible  with 
hand-ground  tools.  Most  of  the 
grinding  is  wet  grinding,  i.e.  a 
plentiful  supply  of  water  is  used 
with  the  emery  or  other  stone. 
Dry  grinding  is  still  used  for  point- 
ing needles  and  prongs  of  forks, 
finishing  steel  pens,  etc. 

For  smoothing  purposes  various 
methods  are  used.  In  brass  and 
bell  work  powdered  pumice  stone 
is  used,  while  a  sand  blast  is 
used  for  cleaning,  sharpening, 
frosting,  etc.  The  sand  blast  is 
particularly  useful  for  resharpening 
•worn  files.  For  grinding  glass 
lenses  and  metal  specula  emery  •» 
powder  is  used ;  and  for  jewels, 
diamond  dust.  Plate  glass  is  ground 
flat  by  grinding  two  sheets  of  the 
glass  together  with  emery,  sand, 
or  other  suitable  grinding  material. 

Grinding  is  an  essential  opera- 
tion in  the  extraction  of  many 
metals  from  their  ores,  and  in  the 
preparation  of  Portland  cement, 
corn,  etc.  The  appliances  range 
from  the  primitive  wooden  mortar 
and  pestle  to  the  elaborate  roller 
machines  of  the  modern  flour  mill. 
The  machines  used  for  reducing 
rock  to  about  1  in.  in  size  are 
called  breakers  ;  for  the  reduction 
to  fragments  capable  of  passing 
through  a  coarse  mesh,  crushers  ; 
and  for  reduction  to  powder  form, 
pulverisers.  The  latter  machines 
are  often  combined.  See  Milling. 

Gringo.  Colloquial  term  em- 
ployed in  the  Latin  American 
republics  to  designate  a  traveller 
or  settler  of  other  European  origin, 
especially  British  or  Anglo-Ameri- 
can. Like  Dago  (q.v. ),  it  came  into 
general  use  in  the  '80s,  and  is  appar- 
ently a  variant  of  Griego  (Greek). 

Grinnell  Land.  Eastern  por- 
tion of  Ellesmere  Island,  British 
N.  America.  It  is  separated  from 


Greenland  by  the  Kennedy  and 
Robeson  channels.  The  N.  por- 
tion of  Ellesmere  Island  is  called 
Grant  Land.  Largely  an  ice- 
covered,  mountainous  and  deso- 
late tract,  it  rises  in  Mt.  Arthur  to 
nearly  5,000  ft.  The  valleys  in 
summer  support  musk  oxen,  wolves, 
foxes,  and  grouse,  and  several  kinds 
of  arctic  plants.  Discovered  by 
Hayes  in  the  second  Grinnell  Ex- 
pedition, in  1854,  it  was  explored 
by  Greely  in  1882.  Near  Lady 
Franklin  Bay,  on  the  N.E.,  are 
deposits  of  Tertiary  coal,  among 
the  most  northerly  known. 

Grinstead,  EAST.  Urban  dist. 
and  market  town  of  Sussex.  It  is 
30  m.  from  London  on  the  L.B.  & 
S.C.  Rly.  Its  chief  thoroughfare, 
the  High  Street,  contains  some  old 
timber-built  houses,  and  here  is 
Sackville  College,  an  almshouse 


East  Grinstead.     High  Street  of  the  Sussex  market  town, 
with  Tudor  timbered  houses 

dating  from  1608.  There  is  a  trade 
in  agricultural  produce,  while 
bricks  and  tiles  are  manufactured. 
Market  day,  Thurs.  Pop.  7,100. 

Grinstead,  WEST.  Parish  and 
village  of  Sussex.  It  is  18  m.  S-W. 
of  East  Grinstead,  on  the  L.B.  & 
S.C.R.  Its  parish  church  retains 
part  of  the  Norman  structure.  The 
ruins  of  Knepp  Castle  are  near  the 
village.  In  West  Grinstead  Park, 
Pope  composed  The  Rape  of  the 
Lock.  Pop.  1,620. 

Gripes.  Painful  spasms  in  the 
intestines,  most  frequently  due  to 
undigested  food.  See  Colic. 

Griqualand  East.  N.E.  district 
of  the  Cape  Province,  S.  Africa.  It 
was  named  from  the  Griquas,  a 
mixed  race  descended  from  Dutch 
settlers  and  native  women.  It  lies 
S.E.  of  Basutoland  and  S.W.  of 
Natal,  and  was  annexed  to  Cape 
Colony  in  1875.  The  chief  village 
is  Kokstadt,  named  after  a  half- 
breed  Griqua  chief,  Adam  Kok.  A 
treaty  was  made  on  Oct.  5,  1843, 
with  his  younger  son,  Adam  Kok 
III,  which  caused  trouble  with  the 
Boers,  and  the  dissatisfied  farmers 
left  the  district  Area,  6,602  sq.  m. 


Pop.  249,088,  including  7,950 
whites  and  241,138  coloured. 

Griqualand  West.  District  of 
the  Cape  Province,  S.  Africa,  north 
of  the  Orange  river.  It  was  an- 
nexed by  Great  Britain,  Oct.  17, 
1871,  after  an  arbitration  court  had 
declared  the  territory  to  be  the 
property  of  the  chief  Water-boer, 
and  not  part  of  the  Orange  Free 
State.  Griqualand  West  was  an- 
nexed to  the  Cape  in  1877,  but  not 
actually  incorporated  until  1880. 
The  discovery  of  diamonds  at  Kim- 
berley  in  1867  attracted  immi- 
grants to  this  district.  De  Beers, 
Belmont,  Barkly  West,  and  Griqua- 
town  are  other  important  mining 
centres.  Area,  15,197  sq.  m. 

Grisaille  (Fr.  gris,  grey).  Spe- 
cies of  grey  colour  obtained  by 
mixing  black  and  white  in  varying 
proportions.  Grisaille  is  a  valuable 
_  medium  for 
m  o  n  ochromes, 
is  common  in 
stained  -  glass 
windows  and 
mural  decora- 
tion, and  is  used 
freely,  e.g.  by 
Vran  Dyck,  for 
sketches.  The 
ancient  Greek 
painters,  who 
knew  nothing 
of  chiaroscuro, 
found  grisaille 
helpful  in  their 
schemes  of  gra- 
d  a  t  i  o  n  and 
modelling,  as  it 
enabled  them 

to  represent  the  appearance  of 
relief.  Once  employed  by  many 
artists  for  blocking  in  their  sub- 
jects, Jean  Baptiste  Oudry  con- 
demned the  practice,  especially 
when  the  intermixture  of  white  was 


Griqualand  East.      Group  of  Griquas, 
descendants  of  Dutch  settlers  and  natives 


GR1SELDA 

excessive,  because  this  dried  rapidly 
and  did  not  incorporate  with  the 
colours  of  the  over-painting. 

Griselda,  GRISSELL,  GRIZZLE, 
OR  GRISELDIS.  Heroine  of  tra- 
ditional fiction.  She  is  regarded 
as  the  model  of  wifely  obedience 
and  patience.  Her  story,  generally 
derived  from  Boccaccio,  who  may 
have  got  it  from  an  earlier  source, 
has  been  told  by  Petrarch,  by 
Chaucer  (in  the  Clerk's  Tale),  has 
several  times  been  treated  dramat- 
ically, in  Germany  by  Hans  Sachs 
(1546),  in  England  by  John  Phillip 
(1565),  Henry  Chettle  (1603),  and 
others,  and  has  been  rendered  in 
ballad  form. 

Grisette  (Fr.  gris,  grey).  Name 
given  in  France  to  a  girl  or  young 
woman  of  the  working-class.  It  im- 
plies a  certain  capacity  for  enjoy- 
ment and  an  absence  of  restraint, 
but  not  necessarily  immorality. 
The  name  was  given  to  them  be- 
cause the  girls  were  usually  dressed 
in  garments  made  of  a  woollen 
cloth  called  grisette  from  its  grey 
colour. 

Grisi,  GITJLIA  (1811-69).  Italian 
singer.  Born  in  Milan,  July  28, 
1811,  of  a  family  of  singers,  she  ap- 
I  peared  in  Ros- 
|  sini's  Zelmira 
I  when  only  17, 
1  and  thencefor- 
j  ward  enjoyed 
!  continuous 
s  success  until 
^Slfcx^  her  death  in 
3  Berlin,  Nov.  29, 
Z^Jm  1869.  Very 
beautiful  and 
highly  gifted, 
both  as  a  soprano  singer  and  an 
actress,  Madame  Grisi  was  a  mem- 
ber of  that  famous  quartet  which 
included  Rubini,  Tamburini,  and 
Lablache,  and  for  which  Bellini 
composed  I  Puritani. 

Gris  Nez  (Grey  nose).  Cape  of 
France,  in  the  dept.  of  Pas-de- 
Calais,  on  the  Strait  of  Dover  at 
its  narrowest  point.  It  is  the 
nearest  part  of  France  to  the  Eng- 
lish coast. 

Grison  OR  HURON  (GaUiclis). 
Carnivorous  mammal  of  the  weasel 
family  found  in  S.  America  and 
Mexico.  It  is  about  as  large  as  a 
marten,  and  is  grey  on  the  back 
and  dark  brown  on  the  under- 
parts,  with  yellow  tips  to  the  tail 
and  ears.  It  lives  in  hollow  trees 
and  clefts  in  the  rock,  and  preys 
upon  small  birds  and  mammals. 

Grisons  (Ger.  Graubunden). 
Easternmost  and  largest  canton  of 
Switzerland.  It  is  bounded  N.  and 
E.  by  Austria  and  S.  by  Italy,  and 
has  an  area  of  2,773  sq.  m.  Com- 
posed of  the  basins  of  the  Upper 
Rhine  and  the  Inn,  with  that  of 
two  tributaries  of  the  Ticino  and 


Giulia  Grisi, 
Italian  singer 


3710 

one  of  the  Adda,  it  is  almost  wholly 
mountainous,  comprising  most  of 
the  ancient  Rhaetia.  There  are 
many  mineral  springs,  forests,  and 
mt.  pasturages,  the  lower  ones  sus- 
taining a  fine  breed  of  cows.  The 
climate  is  generally  severe,  and 
the  vegetation  Alpine,  though  the 
vine  and  maize  are  grown  in  shel- 
tered spots. 

The  capital  is  Chur  or  Coire 
(q.v.);  other  important  towns  are 
Dissentis,  Davos,  and  Arosa.  The 
canton  includes  the  Engadine  or 
upper  valley  of  the  Inn,  noted  for 
its  scenery.  One  of  the  most 
sparsely  populated  cantons,  of  its 
population  nearly  one  half  are 
Catholic  and  German  -  speaking, 
and  the  rest  speak  Romansch 
dialects  or  Italian. 

Until  1798  the  canton  consisted 
of  three  leagues — the  Grey  League 
(founded  1395),  the  League  of 
God's  House  (1367),  and  that  of 
the  Ten  Jurisdictions  (1436).  These 
combined  in  the  Three  Perpetual 
Leagues  in  1471.  After  a  troublous 
history  it  joined  the  Helvetic  Re- 
public, 1799-1801,  and  in  1803  it 
entered  the  Swiss  Confederation. 
Pop.  118,262. 

Grisounite  (Fr.  grisou,  fire 
damp).  French  safety  explosive, 
used  in  coal  mines.  It  consists 
chiefly  of  varying  proportions  of 
ammonium  nitrate,  dinitronaph- 
thalene,  potassium  nitrate,  etc. 
See  Explosives. 

Grist  (A.S.,  to  grind).  Word 
originally  applied  to  the  act  of 
grinding  corn.  It  came  to  be  used 
for  the  corn  ground  and  the  meal 
produced,  and  colloquially  for  any- 
thing that  is  a  source  of  profit. 
Grist  is  also  used  for  a  size  of  rope  ; 
e.g.  common  grist  is  a  rope  3  ins.  in 
circumference. 

Gris  wold,  RTJFUS  WiLMOT(1815 
-57).  American  author.  Born  at 
Benson,  Vermont,  Feb.  15,  1815, 
he  became  a  journalist.  For  a  time 
he  was  a  Baptist  minister,  but 
returning  to  newspaper  work  he 
joined  the  staff  of  a  paper  in  New 
York.  Later,  he  edited  Graham's 
Magazine  and  The  International 
Magazine.  Griswold  made  several 


GROCER 

useful  collections  of  prose  and 
verse,  including  Poets  and  Poetry 
of  America,  1842,  and  wrote  Re- 
publican Court,  1854,  an  account 
of  society  in  the  time  of  Washing- 
ton. He  died  Aug.  27,  1857. 

Grit.  v  Consoli dated  sand  of 
which  the  particles  are  angular  and 
comparatively  coarse.  See  Sand  ; 
Sandstone. 

-  '«Grizzly.  Name  of  a  large  bear. 
The  word  means  rather  grey.  A 
powerful  creature,  the  grizzly 
inhabits  the  mountainous  districts 
of  the  west  of  Canada  and  the 
U.S.A.  It  is  much  larger  and 
heavier  than  the  brown  bear,  which 
to  some  extent  it  resembles,  and 
is  only  dangerous  when  attacked 
or  hungry.  See  Bear. 

Groat  ( Low  German,grrote,  great). 
English  silver  coin,  now  demone- 
tised. The  groat  was  first  issued  in 


Groat.    Two  sides  of  the  coin  minted 
by  Edward  HI,  1   in.  diameter 

England  by  Edward  III  in  1351, 
minted  at  London  and  York,  its 
original  value  being  one  penny,  but 
coming  to  have  the  value  of  four- 
pence.  A  new  issue  was  made  by 
Henry  VII,  but  the  groat  was  dis- 
continued in  1662.  It  was  revived 
as  a  silver  fourpenny  piece  by 
William  IV  in  1836,  and  the  fact 
of  its  issue  having  been  advised  by 
Joseph  Hume  gave  it  the  popular 
name  of  the  "  Joey."  Issue  was 
dropped  in  1856,  and  it  was  de- 
monetised in  1887. 

The  Scots  groat  was  issued  at 
Edinburgh  by  David  II  in  1358, 
and  James  V  coined  a  £  groat 
in  1527.  An  Irish  groat  was 
issued  by  Henry  VI  in  1460.  See 
Coinage. 

Grocer.  Modern  form  of 
grosser,  one  who  dealt  wholesale 
(en  gros).  In  modern  usage 
the  word  is  ap- 
plied to  a  re- 
tailer of  tea, 
sugar,  coffee, 
spices,  etc.,  which 
are  known  col- 
lectively as  gro- 
ceries. In  me- 
dieval times  he 
was  known  as  a 
spicer.  ^  Hence 
the  names  Grocer 
and  Spicer.  In 
the  United  King- 

Grisons,  Switzerland.     General  view  of  Coire,  the  capital       fom   the  grocera 
town  of  the  canton  have     a     regular 


GROCERS'     COMPANY 


371  1 


GROLIER 


trade  organization,  several  journals 
devoted  to  their  interests,  and  hold 
annually  an  exhibition  in  London. 
Grocers'  Company.  Second  of 
the  12  great  livery  companies  of 
the  city  of  London.  Its  founders, 
known  as  Pepper- 
ers  and  Spicers, 
met  as  a  frater- 
nity of  S.Anthony 
as  early  as  1345, 
when  they  were 
granted  letters 
patent  of  incor- 
Grocers'  Company  poration  by  Ed- 
arms  ward  in,  which 
were  confirmed  or  added  to  by  12 
later  documents.  It  participated  in 
the  Ulster  colonisation  scheme  of 
1613,  but  sold  the  property  in  1872. 
Nearly  all  its  property  in  the  city 
was  lost  in  the  fire  of  1666.  Its 
freemen  and  honorary  members 
have  included  Sir  John  Crosby, 
Charles  II,  William  III,  George  V, 
when  duke  of  York,  the  duke  of 
Edinburgh,  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  1st 
duke  of  Albemarle,  William  Pitt, 
Canning,  Sir  Robert  Peel,  Lord 
Roberts,  Lord  Salisbury,  and  A. 
J.  Balfour. 

Its  first  hall  was  built  in  Old 
Jewry  c.  1427,  and  served  for  some 
time  for  the  purposes  of  the  Bank 
of  England.  The  existing  biiilding 
in  the  Poultry,  E.G.,  was  erected  in 
1798-1802  from  designs  by  T. 
Leverton,  the  entrance  into  Princes 
Street  being  built  in  1827.  Notable 
for  its  services  to  charity  and  good 
learning,  the  company  built  a  new 
wing  to  the  London  Hospital  in 
1876,  founded  Oundle  School, 
Northants,  and  middle  -  class 
schools  at  Hackney  Downs  in 
1876.  It  has  contributed  largely 
to  the  City  and  Guilds  of  London 
Technical  Institute,  and  estab- 
lished scholarships  for  research  in 
sanitary  science.  Its  corporate 
income  is  estimated  at  £38,000, 
and  its  trust  income  at  £500. 
See  Some  Account  of  the  Grocers, 
J.  B.  Heath,  1854. 

Grocyn,  WILLIAM  (c.  1446- 
1519).  English  classical  scholar. 
He  was  born  at  Colerne.  Wiltshire, 
and  educated  at  Winchester  and 
New  College,  Oxford,  of  which  he 
was  fellow  1467-81.  A  friend  of 
Sir  Thomas  More,  Thomas  Linacre, 
John  Colet,.  William  Latimer,  and 
Erasmus,  who  called  him  his 
patronus  et  praeceptor,  he  studied  in 
Italy,  1488-90,  under  Politian  and 
Chalcondyles,  was  a  pioneer  of  the 
New  Learning,  and  among  the  first 
publicly  to  teach  Greek  at  Oxford. 
While  in  Italy  he  made  the 
acquaintance  of  the  printer  Aldus 
Manutfus  (q.v,).  He  was  divinity 
reader  at  Magdalen  College,  1481- 
88,  prebendary  of  Lincoln  Cathe- 
dral, held  benefices  at  Newton 


Longueville,  Deepdene,  London 
(S.  Lawrence  Jewry),  Shepperton, 
and  East  Peckham,  and  was 
master  of  All  Hallows,  Maidstone, 
where  he  was  buried.  A  monument 
has  been  raised  to  his  memory  in 
the  church  at  Newton  Longueville. 
See  Oxford  Historical  Society's 
Collectanea,  ii,  1890. 

Grodek.  Town  of  Poland,  for- 
"  merly  in  Austrian  Galicia.  It  is 
12  m.  W.S.W.  of  Lemberg,  and 
was  prominent  in  the  Great  War 
in  the  Austro-Russian  campaigns 
in  Galicia.  After  their  capture  of 
Lemberg,  Sept.  3,  1914,  the  Rus- 
sians advanced  W.,  and  from  Sept. 
6-13  heavy  fighting  took  place 
around  Grodek,  which  fell  to  them 
on  Sept.  12.  As  the  result  of  the 
Austrian  counter-offensive  the  Rus- 
sians, in  July,  1915,  retreated  from 
Grodek  to  a  position  in  front  of 
Lemberg.  See  Lemberg,  Battles  of. 
Grodno.  One  of  the  districts  E. 
of  the  Baltic  Sea,  formerly  a  gov- 
ernment in  Russia.  It  is  bounded 
N.,  S.,  E.,  and  W.  by  the  govts.  of 
Vilna,  Minsk,  Volhynia,  and  Poland 
respectively.  Its  area  is  14,896  sq. 
m.  It  is  an  immense  plain,  with 
numerous  lakes  and  marshes, 
watered  by  the  Bug,  Niemen,  and 
Narev.  The  soil  is  generally  barren, 
but  grain,  flax,  hemp,  tobacco,  and 
fruit  are  cultivated.  There  are 
cloth  and  tobacco  factories,  tan- 
neries, and  distilleries.  In  the  13th 
century  the  district  belonged  to  the 
Lithuanians,  then  passed  to  the 
Poles,  and  in  1796  was  incorporated 
with  Russia.  Pop.  2,094,300. 

Grodno.  Chief  town  of  the 
district  of  the  same  name.  It 
stands  on  the  Niemen  and  the 
Petrograd- Warsaw  railway,  160  m. 
N.E.  of  Warsaw.  There  are  cloth, 
silk,  tobacco,  firearms,  and  ma-' 
chinery  factories,  and  considerable 
trade  is  done  in  corn,  timber,  and 
hemp.  In  the  neighbourhood  are 
the  mineral  springs  of  Duskieniki. 
Grodno  was  the  residence  of 
Stephen  Bathory  in  the  16th  cen- 
tury, and  it  was  here  that  the  par- 
tition of  Poland  was  signed  in  1793. 
In  Feb.,  1921,  its  possession  was  in 
dispute  between  Poland  and  Lith- 
uania. Pop.  61,600.  tfeeN.V. 
Grodno,  CAPTURE  OF.  German 
'  success  in  the  Great  War,  Sept.  1- 
'  4,  1915.  On  Aug.  25  Brest-Litovsk 
was  in  German  hands,  and  on  the 
following  day  the  Russians  lost  Bia- 
lystok.  Scholtz  closed  in  on  Grodno, 
N.E.  of  which  Eichhorn  was  nearing 
Orany,  reaching  it  on  Aug.  31,  and 
rendering  Grodno  untenable.  On 
Sept.  1  the  Germans,  with  whom 
was  Beseler's  siege  artillery,  at- 
tacked the  fortifications  on  the  W. 
and  N.  They  stormed  the  forts 
on  the  W.  side,  and  captured  one 
on  the  N.  with  its  garrison  ;  later 


in  the  day  they  carried  a  fort  still 
farther  N. 

Meanwhile,  the  main  Russian 
forces  had  been  evacuating  the 
fortress,  and  on  Sept.  2  it  was 
entered  by  the  Germans,  who 
crossed  the  Niemen  and  got  into 
the  town.  To  secure  the  retreat 
of  a  considerable  force  that  was 
in  danger  of  being  surrounded,  the 
Russians  developed  a  counter- 
offensive  on  Sept.  3,  re-entered 
the  town,  and  secured  the  desired 
retirement  of  the  threatened  body. 
On  Sept.  4  the  Germans  were  again 
in  full  possession  of  the  town. 
The  Russians  retreated  on  Lida, 
S.  of  Vilna,  on  the  W.  of  which 
Eichhorn  was  then  making  a 
frontal  attack  while  Scholtz,  moving 
on  from  Grodno,  took  Skidel  on 
Sept.  12,  and  advanced  through 
Mosty  north-eastward,  but  failed 
to  cut  them  off. 

'  Grog.  Name  applied  by  sailors 
in  the  royal  navy  to  their  ration  of 
unadulterated  rum.  The  word  is 
said  to  be  derived  from  old  Grog, 
a  nickname  of  Admiral  Vernon,  so 
called  from  his  coarse,  or  grogram 
cloak.  In  the  days  of  the  four- 
wheeled  cabs,  cabmen  used  to 
drink  rum  mixed  with  hot  water, 
a  slice  of  lemon,  and  a  bit  of  sugar, 
which  they  called  grog.  See  Rum. 

Grogging.  Name  for  an  in- 
genious evasion  of  excise  dues. 
Casks  containing  spirit  absorb  into 
the  wood  in  time  an  appreciable 
quantity  of  spirit  which  can  be 
extracted  by  rinsing  and  other  pro- 
cesses. By  the  Finance  Act  of  1898 
grogging  and  the  possession  of  a 
cask  so  treated,  or  of  any  spirit  ob- 
tained by  the  process,  are  offences 
punishable  by  a  fine  of  £50. 

Groin.  In  anatomy,  the  fold  at 
the  junction  of  the  abdomen  and 
the  front  of  the  thigh. 

Groin.  In  architecture,  the 
angle  formed  by  the  intersection  of 
arches  or  vaults.  Groined  vaulting 
is  so  called  to  distinguish  it  from 
barrel  or  other  forms  of  arch  con- 
struction in  which  no  such  inter- 
section takes  place..  See  Gothic 
Architecture. 

Grolier,  JEAK,  VICOMTE  D'AGUI- 
SY  (1479-1565).  French  book  col- 
lector. Born  at  Lyons,  he  entered 
the  French  diplomatic  service,  and 
was  ambassador  in  Milan  and 
Rome.  He  began  collecting  books, 
which  he  had  splendidly  bound  and 
generally  lettered  in  Latin  with  the 
legend  "  Jean  Grolier  and  his 
friends."  In  1537,  on  his  return  to 
France,  he  became  treasurer  under 
Francis  I.  Ten  years  after  his  death 
'his  famous  library,  of  about  3,000 
volumes,  was  sold  ;  a  number  of 
the  books  from  it  are  in  the  Biblio- 
theque  Nationale,  Paris,  and  some 
in  the  British  Museum.  The 


CROMWELL 

Grolier  Club,  New  York,  founded 
in  1884  to  encourage  the  applica- 
tion of  art  to  book  production,  was 
named  after  him.  See  Bookbind- 
ing ;  consult  also  Recherches  sur 
Jean  Grolier,  A.  J.  V.  le  Roux  cle 
Lincy,  1866  ;  Bookbindings,  with 
account  of  the  Grolier  Club,  J.  B. 
Matthews,  1896. 

Gromwell  (Lithospermum).  Ge- 
nus of  annual  and  perennial  herbs 
and  shrubs  of  the  natural  order 
Boraginaceae.  Natives  of  Europe, 
temperate  Asia,  and  N.  America, 
they  have  bristly  or  hairy,  alternate 
leaves,  and  funnel-shaped,  white, 
blue,  or  yellow  flowers  in  clusters. 
Common  gromwell  (L.  officinale) 
has  greenish-yellow  flowers ;  in  corn 
gromwell  (L.  arvense),  an  annual, 
they  are  creamy-white ;  and  in 
purple  gromwell  (L.  purpureo- 
caeruleum)  they  are  bright  blue- 
purple. 

Groner,  GENERAL.  German  sol- 
dier. Regarded  as  Germany's 
greatest  expert  in  rly.  management 
and  supply,  he 
||  was  director  of 
field  rlys.  in 
1916,  and  in 
Oct.  of  that 
year  was  placed 
at  the  head  of 
the  new  man- 
power and  mu- 
nitions dept.  of 
the  war  office. 
He  became 
head  of  the  war  bureau  of  the  Prus- 
sian ministry  of  war,  1917  ;  but 
resigned  in  Aug.,  1917,  when  he 
was  appointed  to  the  command  of 
a  division.  He  succeeded  Luden- 
dorff  in  Oct.,  1918,  as  quarter- 
master-general, and  went  to  Na- 
mur  early  in  Nov.  to  conduct  the 
great  German  withdrawal.  He  was 
prominent  in  the  suppression  of 
the  Spartacist  risings  in  1919,  and 
became  minister  of  transport  in 
June,  1920. 

Groningen.  N.E.  prov.  of  the 
Netherlands.  It  is  bounded  N.  by 
the  North  Sea,  N.E.  by  the  Dollart, 
W.  by  Friesland,  E.  by  Hanover, 
and  S.  by  Drenthe.  Area,  881  sq.  m. 
The  surface  is  flat,  and  swampy  in 
the  S.E.  district,  where  reclamation 
is  proceeding.  There  is  good  graz- 
ing land  in  the  N.  The  prov.  is 
mainly  agricultural,  though  there 
are  industrial  and  shipping  indus- 
tries and  coast  fishing  is  carried  on. 
The  few  rivers  are  unimportant. 
Groningen  suffers  from  sea  en- 
croachment and  has  to  be  pro- 
tected by  a  system  of  dykes  and 
embankments.  The  chief  towns 
are  Groningen,  the  capital,  Delfzyl, 
Appingedam,  and  Winschoten.  The 
principal  products  are  wheat,  bar- 
ley, oats,  flour,  potatoes,  rye,  and 
oil  seeds.  Pop.  359,950. 


General  Groner, 
German  soldier 


3712 

Groningen.  Town  of  the 
Netherlands,  capital  of  the  prov.  of 
Groningen.  It  stands  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Hunse  r , 

with  the  Drent- 
sche  Aa,  32  m.  by 
rly.  E.  of  Leeu- 
wardein.  Inter- 
sected by  numer- 
ous canals,  it  has 
wide  streets 
and  gabled  houses 
of  the  17th  cen- 
tury, and  is  surrounded  by  boule- 
vards on  the  site  of  the  ramparts. 
Among  the  principal  buildings  are 
the  Gothic  church  of  S.  Martin, 
dating  mainly  from  the  13th  and 
16th  centuries,  with  a  lofty  tower 
and  a  fine  organ ;  the  new  uni- 


Groningen,  Holland.  Exterior  of  the 
versity,  opened  in  1909,  with  five 
faculties,  52  professors,  and  about 
500  students ;  a  museum ;  the 
Stadhuis,  restored  in  1787 ;  the 
16th  century  law  courts  ;  the  13th 
century  Gothic  Aa-Kerk,  restored 
1500,  to  which  a  baroque  tower 
was  added  in  1712  ;  and  several 
educational  establishments.  There 
is  a  large  market. 

Groningen  is  the  most  important 
town  in  the  N.  Netherlands,  and 
carries  on  a  large  trade  in  grain  and 
rape  seed.  Its  harbour  is  accessible 
to  small  sea-going  vessels.  The 
principal  manufactures  are  textiles, 
tobacco,  cigars,  mirrors,  furniture, 
machinery,  and  gold  and  silver  ar- 
ticles ;  there  are  also  large  printing 
and  lithographic  establishments. 
Groningen  is  mentioned  in  history 
as  early  as  the  9th  century,  and 
from  the  middle  of  the  llth  cen- 
tury it  was  under  the  bishop  of 
Utrecht.  A  member  of  the  Han- 
seatic  League  from  1282,  it  was 
taken  by  Prince  Maurice  of  Orange 
in  1594,  and  successfully  withstood 
a  siege  by  Bishop  Bernhard  von 
Galen  of  Minister  in  1672.  The  for- 
tifications were  razed  in  1874. 
During  the  Great  War  there  was 
an  internment  camp  here  for  mem- 
bers of  the  British  1st  naval  brig- 
ade, and  Belgian  troops  who  re- 
treated into  Dutch  territory  after 
evacuating  Antwerp,  Oct.,  1914. 
Pop.  84,448. 


GROOM 

Gronov  OR  GRONOVIUS.  Name 
of  a  family  of  German  classical 
scholars  and  men  of  science,  all 
connected  with  Leiden.  Johann 
Friedrich  (1611-71),  a  native  of 
Hamburg,  became  professor  of  his- 
tory and  eloquence  at  Deventer 
and  of  Greek  at  Leiden.  The 
founder  of  the  Dutch  school  of 
Latinists,  he  edited  a  number  of 
Latin  classics.  His  son  Jakob 
(1645-1716),  professor  of  Greek 
literature  at  Pisa  and  of  belles- 
lettres  at  Leiden,  is  best  known  by 
his  Thesaurus  Antiquitatum  Grae- 
carum,  a  learned  but  undigested 
mass  of  information  on  Greek  anti- 
quities. Jakob's  son  Abraham 
(1695-1775)  was  librarian  of  Lei- 
den, and  edited  various  classical 
r  authors.  Another 
1  son,  Johann 
Friedrich  (1690- 
1760),  was  a  well- 
known  botanist, 
whose  son,Lorenz 
Theodor  (1730- 
77),  was  the  au- 
thor of  works  on 
zoology,  e  s  - 
pecially  ichthy- 
ology. 

Groom  (old 
I  Fr.  gromet,  boy). 
^M  Term  applied  to 
railway  station  a  manservant  in 
charge  of  horses.  In  addition  to 
his  stable  duties,  a  groom  is  usually 
expected  to  accompany  his  master 
when  riding.  From  its  earlier  and 
more  general  use  for  any  male  at- 
tendant, the  word  survives  as  the 
title  of  certain  officials  in  the  lord 
chamberlain's  department  of  the 
British  royal  household,  whose 
duties  are  to  attend  the  sovereign. 
The  groom  of  the  stole  is  next  to 
the  vice-chamberlain  and  in  charge 
of  the  stole  worn  on  state  occa- 
sions. His  office  only  exists  during 
the  reign  of  a  king.  There  is  a  simi- 
larly styled  ap- 
pointment i  n 
the  queen  con- 
sort's house- 
hold. 

Groom  in 
the  word  bride- 
groom, applied 
to  a  man  about 
to  be,  or  re- 
cently, mar- 
ried, and  to  his 
attendant,  the 
groomsman,  is 
derived  from 
the  A.S.  gutna 
man,  cognate 
with  the  Lat. 
homo,  the  "r" 
having  in- 
truded as  a  re- 
sult of  confusion 
with  groom. 


Groom.     Typical 
English  livery 


GROOMBRIDGE 

Groombridge.  Village  of  Sus- 
sex, England.  It  is  3J  m.  S.W.  ot 
Tunbridge  Wells,  34J  m.  from  Lon- 
don, on  the  L.B.  &  S.C.R.,  which 
has  a  junction  here,  and  in  the 
parishes  of  Speldhurst  (Kent)  and 
Withyham  (Sussex).  The  church 
at  Speldhurst  has  windows  by 
Burne-Jones  ;  that  of  S.  John  the 
Baptist,  chapel- of -ease  to  Speld- 
hurst Church,  was  formerly  a 
private  chapel.  From  the  Cob- 
hams,  who  had  a  licence  to  hold  a 
market  in  1285,  the  village  passed 
to  the  Wallers.  Groombridge  Place 
is  an  old  moated  house.  Pop.  790. 
Groombridge,  STEPHEN  (1755- 
1832).  British  astronomer.  Born 
Jan  7.  1755,  he  succeeded  to  the 
,,,,  business  of  ;x 
1  linen-draper  in 
!  r  •  ']  West  Smith- 

field,   London, 
and  it  was  not 
till    1802   that 
he  was  able  to 
l^SKr*-  -      ^fl    study     astron- 
;    JJH    omy  seriously. 
M  I  3B    In    1800    he 

S.  Groombridge,        began    com- 
British  astronomer      pi]ing   a    cata. 

From  a  print  lQgue    Qf    starg 

down  to  8'9  magnitude,  within  50° 
of  the  N.  Pole,  and  six  years  later 
he  was  made  F.R.S.  He  had  made 
some  50,000  observations,  and  was 
engaged  upon  the  correction  and 
completion  of  his  catalogue  when 
attacked  by  paralysis.  His  work 
was  published  in  1838,  under  the 
supervision  of  Sir  George  Airy.  He 
died  March  30,  1832. 

Groome,  FRANCIS  HINDES 
(1851-1902).  British  author.  Born 
at  Earl  Soham,  Suffolk,  Aug.  30, 
1851,  he  graduated  at  Oxford  and 
Gottingen,  and  took  up  literature 
as  a  profession.  He  was  connected 
with  various  encyclopedias,  but  is 
principally  known  from  his  research 
in  gypsy  lore.  In  Gypsy  Tents, 
1880,  was  his  first  contribution  to 
gypsy  knowledge,  and  Gypsy 
Folk  Tales,  1899,  contained  much 
of  value  and  interest.  ^He  also 
wrote  A  Short  Border 'History. 
1887,  and  Two  Suffolk  Friends^ 
1895  ;  and  edited  Borrow's  Laven- 
gro  in  1900.  He  died  Jan.  24, 1902. 

Groot  OE  GROETE,  GERHARD 
(1340-84).  Dutch  reformer.  Born 
at  Deventer  in  the  Netherlands,  he 
became  a  wandering  preacher,  and 
founded  the  Brethren  of  the  Com- 
mon Life  (q.v. ),  a  communal  society 
which  continued  to  flourish  till  the 
Reformation.  He  died  Aug.  20, 1384. 

Groote  Eylandt  OR  GREAT 
ISLAND.  Largest  island  in  the  Gulf 
of  Carpentaria.  It  lies  off  the  S.E. 
coast  of  ArnhemLand  and  measures 
40m.  in  width  and  length.  Its 
mountainous  centre  and  barren 
shores  have  been  little  explored. 


37  1-3 

Groote  Schuur.  Official  resi- 
dence of  the  premier  of  the  Union 
of  S.  Africa.  It  is  near  Rondes- 
bosch  station,  about  3J  m.  from 
Cape  Town,  Observatory  Road 
connecting  the  two.  The  house 


Groote  Schuur,  near   Cape  Town. 

The  official  residence  of  the  premier 

of  South  Africa 

was  formerly  the  residence  of  Cecil 
Rhodes,  who  built  it,  but  there 
appears  to  have  been  one  here 
before  1652  Near  it  is  the  Rhodes 
Memorial,  a  replica  of  Physical 
Energy,  by  G.  F.  Watts. 

Gros,  ANTOINB  JEAN,  BARON 
(1771-1835).  French  painter.  Born 
in  Paris,  March  16. 1771,  he  studied 
under  Jacques 
Louis  David 
and  in  Italy. 
Having  won 
the  approval  of 
Napoleon  b  y 
liis  picture  of 
The  Battle  of 
A  r c  o  1  a,  he 
made  him  the 
central  figure 
of  many  of  his 
canvases,  now  in  the  Louvre  and 
at  Versailles,  among  them  Napoleon 
Visiting  the  Plague  -  stricken  at 
Jaffa,  1804,  The  Battle  of  Aboukir, 
1806,  Napoleon  at  Eylau,  1808, 
and  The  Battle  of  the  Pyramids, 
1810.  After  the  Restoration  Gros 
continued  to  paint  in  the  grand 
manner,  his  chief  work  being  the 
decoration  of  the  dome  of  the 
Pantheon  hi  Paris.  Having  lost 
his  hold  on  the  public,  he  took  this 
so  much  to  heart  that  he  drowned 
himself  in  the  Seine,  his  body 
being  found  at  Meudon,  June  26, 
1835.  Besides  battle  and  historical 
pieces  he  painted  numerous  por- 
traits. See  Eylau.  Pron.  Gro. 

Grosart,  ALEXANDER  BALLOCH 
(1827-99).  British  author,  editor, 
and  antiquary.  Born  June  18, 


Antoine  Jean  Gros, 
French  painter 


GROSE 

1827,  at  Stirling,  and  educated  at 
Falkirkand Edinburgh  universities, 
he  became  United  Presbyterian 
minister  at  Kinross,  1856-65  ; 
Princes  Park,  Liverpool,  1865-68  ; 
and  Blackburn,  1868-92.  He  died 
9  in  Dublin,  March  16,  1899.  Suc- 
cessful as  a  preacher  and  minister, 
his  interest  in  Puritan  theology  led 
him  to  a  life-long  study  of  the  prose 
and  poetry  of  the  16th  and  17th 
centuries,  with  the  result  that  he 
made  a  substantial  contribution  to 
the  common  knowledge  of  Eliza- 
bethan and  Jacobean  literature,  as 
editor  of  works  and  MSS.  not  before 
accessible  to  the  general  reader. 

He  issued  by  subscription  the 
Fuller  Worthies  Library,  39  vols., 
1868-76;  Chertsey  Worthies  Li- 
brary, 14  vols.,  1876-81 ;  Huth  Li- 
brary, 33  vols.,  1881-86;  and  Occa- 
sional Issues  of  RareBooks,  38  vols., 
1875-81.  He  edited  the  prose  of 
Wordsworth,  1876,  and  the  com- 
plete works  of  Spenser,  1880-88, 
and  Daniel,  1896;  and  wrote 
several  works  of  devotion  and 
hymns.  His  discoveries  included 
poems  by  Richard  Crashaw. 

Grosbeak  (Fr.  grosbec).  Bird  of 
the  finch  family,  nearly  related  to 
the  hawfinch.  It  is  common  in  the 
pine  forests  of 
N.  Europe,  and 
is  a  rare  winter 
migrant  to 
Great  Britain,  j 
The  male  is  j 
rosy  crimson, 
the  female 
grey.  The  bird 
has  a  large  and 
massive  beak, 
whence  its  \ 
name.$eeBeak. 
Groschen 
(Low  L  a  t. 
grossus,  big, 
denarius, 
penny).  Obso- 
lete coin  of 
silver  with  a  considerable  admix- 
ture of  copper,  formerly  current 
in  various  parts  of  JNf.  Germany. 
Its  value  was  -fa  of  a  thaler,  or 
rather  more  than  a  penny.  It 
went  out  of  circulation  between 
1873-76.  Catherine  I  of  Russia 
struck  a  copper  grosch  in  1727, 
value  one  kopeck. 

Grose,  FRANCIS  (1731-91 ).  Eng- 
lish draughtsman  and  antiquary. 
Born  at  Greenford,  Middlesex, 
the  son  of  an  opulent  Swiss 
jeweller,  he  was  Richmond  herald, 
1755-63,  and  became  F.S.A.  in 
1757.  Prolonged  tours  resulted  in 
his  Antiquities  of  England  and 
Wales,  1773-87.  While  collecting 
the  material  for  his  Antiquities  of 
Scotland,  1789-91,  he  met  Burns, 
who  wrote  a  poem  on  the  subject 
of  his  peregrinations  warning 

I     5 


Grosbeak.     Speci- 
men of  the  Cocco- 
thraustes     mela- 
noxanthus 


GROSNAIA 


3714 


GROSSM1TH 


brother  Scots  that  "  a  chiel's 
amang  ye  takin'  notes  "  He  wrote 
on  Ancient  Armour  and  Weapons, 
1785-89 ;  Military  Antiquities, 
1786-88  ;  and  Antiquities  of  Ire- 
land, 1791-97.  He  died  in  Dublin, 
June  12,  1791. 

Grosnaia  OR  GROZNY.  Town  of 
Russia,  in  the  Caucasus.  It  is  in 
the  province  of  Terek,  60  m.  N.E. 
of  Vladikavkaz,  on  the  Sunzha.  In 
the  neighbourhood  are  mineral 
springs  and  naphtha  beds.  It  has 
lost  its  former  military  importance, 
and  is  chiefly  known  for  its 
petroleum  refineries.  Pop.  34,060 

Gross.  Numerical  unit  and 
measure  of  quantity.  It  equals  a 
dozen  dozen,  i.e.  144,  and  is  used 
in  reckoning  many  classes  of  goods. 
A  great  gross  is  12  gross,  i.e.  1,728. 

Gross,  SAMUEL  DAVID  (1805- 
84).  American  surgeon.  Born  in 
Pennsylvania,  July  8,  1805,  he 
practised  in  Philadelphia,  1828-33, 
and  in  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  1833-40, 
being  then  appointed  to  the  chair 
of  surgery  in  Louisville,  Kentucky. 
In  1850  he  was  transferred  to  a 
similar  post  in  New  York  Univer- 
sity, moving  thence  to  the  Jeffer- 
son medical  university,  Phil- 
adelphia, where  he  was  professor 
of  surgery  from  1856  until  his 
death,  May  6,  1884.  His  works 
include  Diseases  of  the  Bones  and 
Joints,  1830  ;  Elements  of  Patho- 
logical Anatomy,  1839  ;  System  of 
Surgery,  6th  ed.  1884. 

Grossenhain.  Town  of  Ger- 
many, in  Saxony.  It  stands  on  the 
Roder,  20  m.  N.W.  of  Dresden, 
and  is  a  rly.  junction  for  Frank- 
fort-on-Oder,  on  the  Berlin-Dres- 
den line.  It  is  a  manufacturing 
town  with  important  cloth  fac- 
tories. Other  industries  are  con- 
nected with  machinery,  tobacco, 
leather,  and  glass  works.  Grossen- 
hain has  been  in  many  hands  from 
time  to  time,  falling  successively  to 
the  Bohemians  and  the  margraves 
of  Meissen  and  Brandenburg. 
There  was  a  battle  here  in  1813 
between  the  French  and  the  Rus- 
sians. Pop.  12,217 

Grosseteste,  ROBERT  (c.  1175- 
1253).  English  prelate  and  scholar. 
Born  of  humble  parentage  at 
Stradbroke,  Suffolk,  and  educated 
at  Oxford,  he  became  chancellor  of 
the  university,  and  in  1224  the  first 
rector  of  the  Franciscan  school  at 
Oxford.  In  1235  he  was  elected 
bishop  of  Lincoln  He  at  once  set 
himself  to  reform  abuses  in  his 
diocese,  and  became  one  of  the  most 
resolute  champions  of  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  clergy.  In  1239  he 
quarrelled  with  the  Lincoln  chap- 
ter over  his  right  oi  visitation  a 
dispute  which  lasted  six  years,  and 
was  eventually  decided  by  the 
pope  in  his  favour.  He  was  a  pro- 


found Greek  scholar,  bringing 
Greek  books  to  England  and  mak- 
ing Latin  versions  of  them,  and 
was  a  skilled  physicist  and  mathe- 
matician. He  died  Oct.  9,  1253, 
and  is  buried  in  Lincoln  Cathedral. 
See  Life,  F.  S.  Stevenson,  1899. 

Grosseto.  Maritime  prov.  of 
Central  Italy,  at  the  head  of  the 
Tyrrhenian  Sea.  It  is  backed  by  a 
branch  of  the  Apennines,  rising  in 
Mt.  Amiata  to  5,470  ft.,  and  in- 
cludes most  of  the  Maremma. 
Mostly  barren  and  unhealthy,  it 
yields  timber,  quicksilver,  and 
Siena  earths.  The  malarial  marshes 
of  the  ancient  Lacus  Prelius  have 
been  reclaimed,  and  are  now  pas- 
tureland.  The  chief  rivers  are  the 
Ombrone  and  the  Albegna.  The 
island  of  Elba  lies  about  13m.  off 
the  coast.  The  capital  is  Grosseto. 
Pop.  155,774.  Area,  1,735  sq.  m. 

Grosseto.  Town  of  Italy,  capi- 
tal of  the  prov.  of  Grosseto.  It 
stands  near  the  Ombrone,  39  m. 
S.S.W.  of  Siena.  Its  handsome 
red-and-white  marble  cathedral, 
begun  late  in  the  13th  century  and 
restored  in  1855,  and  the  14th  cen- 
tury citadel  betray  Sienese  in- 
fluence. The  Municipio  holds  a 
rare  collection  of  bronzes,  cinerary 
urns  and  vases,  besides  other  Et- 
ruscan relics.  A  few  miles  N.E.  of 
the  city  are  the  sulphur  baths  of 
the  ancient  Rusellae,  one  of  the  12 
cities  of  the  Etruscan  League.  Its 
Cyclopean  walls  and  ruins  are  still 
extant,  although  the  place  was 
deserted  about  1150. 

The  principal  trade  is  in  cattle, 
cereals,  horses,  and  machinery. 
Farming  implements  are  made. 
Dating  from  the  Middle  Ages,  the 
bishop's  see  was  transferred  here 
from  Rusellae  about  1138.  In  sum- 
mer the  official  headquarters  are 
removed  to  Scansano,  20  m.  to  the 
S.E.  Malaria  has  seriously  de- 
populated the  town.  Pop.  12,442. 

Grossetti,  PAUL  (1864-1918). 
French  soldier.  He  entered  the 
army  in  1883,  and  became  a  divi- 
sional commander  in  1914.  He 
took  a  prominent  part,  in  the  first 
battle  of  the  Marne,  Sept.  9,  1914, 
in  which  he  saved  the  situation  at 
La  Fere  Champenoise  and  Monde  - 
mont.  He  helped  to  defeat  the 
Germans  on  the  Yser  in  Oct.,  1914, 
and  with  his  division  rendered 
valuable  assistance  to  the  British 
at  the  first  battle  of  Ypres  He  was 
later  promoted  to  command  the 
16th  army  corps,  and  saw  service  in 
the  campaign  in  Macedonia,  1917 
He  died  in  Paris,  Jan.  7.  1918. 

Grosslichterfelde.  Village  oi 
Prussia,  Germany  It  is  5m.  by  rly. 
S.  by  W  ot  Berlin,  and  is  impor- 
tant because  it  contains  a  cadet 
school,  which,  previous  to  1878. 
.was  located  in  Berlin 


Grossmith,  GEORGE  (1847- 
1912).  British  actor  and  enter- 
tainer. Born  Dec.  9,  1847,  the 
eldest  son  of 
George  Gros- 
smith, jour- 
nalist, enter- 
tainer, and  lec- 
turer, he  be- 
came asso- 
ciated with  his 
father  as  re- 
porter at  Bow 
Street 
Police 
Court.  In 
1870  he 
became  an  entertainer,  and  in  1877 
began  his  career  as  actor  and 
singer  in  Gilbert  and  Sullivan 
opera  by  appearing  in  The  Sor- 
cerer at  the  Opera  Comique,  after- 
wards taking  a  leading  part  in 
eight  more  of  these  pieces  at  The 
Savoy.  In  1889  he  resumed  his 
old  career  as  entertainer,  achieving 
much  success  at  the  piano  in 
London,  in  the  provinces,  and  in 
the  U.S.A.  He  died  at  Folkestone, 
March  1,  1912. 

His  son,  George  Grossmith,  junr. 
(b.  1874),  made  his  first  appearance 
on  the  stage  in  Haste  to  the  Wed- 
ding, at  The  Criterion,  July  27, 
1892.  From  1901-16  he  appeared 
in  musical  comedy  at  The  Gaiety, 
winning  success  as  singer  and 
dancer.  After  a  period  of  service 
in  the  R.N.V.R.,  he  resumed  his 
career  as  actor  and  theatrical 
manager.  In  1920  he  was  associ- 
ated with  Edward  Laurillard  in 
the  purchase  of  the  Gaiety  and 
Adelphi  theatres. 

Grossmith,  WEEDON  (1853- 
1919).  British  artist  and  actor. 
The  brother  of  George  Grossmith 
(d.  1912),  as  a 
young  man  he 
studied  in  the 
R.A.  schools 
and  exhibited 
at  the  R^A. 
and  Grosvenor 
Gallery.  In 
'°e5  he  ap- 
peared on  the 
stage  at  Liver- 
po  o  1,  and 
Russeii  shortly  after  at 

New  York,  and  made  his  first  ap- 
pearance in  London  at  The  Gaiety 
in  1887.  In  1891  he  produced  and 
acted  in  A  Pantomime  Rehearsal, 
which  ran  for  two  years.  For  the 
remainder  of  his  life  Grossmith 
maintained  his  success,  which  cul- 
minated in  his  own  play,  The  Night 
of  the  Party,  1901.  His  last  appear- 
ance was  in  The  Misleading  Lady  at 
The  Playhouse  With  his  brother 
George  he  wrote  tor  Punch  The 
Diary  of  a  Nobody,  1892,  repr. 
with  memoir  of  the  brothers  by 


Weedon  Grossmith, 
British  actor 


GROSSULAR 


37  15 


GROTEFEND 


B.  W.  Findon,  1920 ;  and  in  1913 
published  his  reminiscences,  From 
Studio  to  Stage.  He  died  June 
14,  1919. 

Grossular.  Variety  of  garnet, 
chemically  a  calcium  aluminium 
silicate.  It  crystallises  in  a  cubic 
system,  and  is  green,  red,  or  colour- 
less. It  is  a  characteristic  of  meta- 
morphic  limestones,  as  in  Tirol,  and 
also  occurs  in  ejected  blocks  from 
Vesuvius.  See  Crystallography. 

Grossulariaceae.  Natural  order 
of  (often)  spiny  shrubs.  They 
are  natives  of  the  N.  temperate 
regions  and  the  Andes,  of  which  the 
gooseberry  and  currant  are  well- 
known  examples.  They  have  al- 
ternate leaves,  and  tubular  or  bell- 
shaped  flowers,  the  calyx  being  the 
conspicuous  part  owing  to  the  mi- 
nute size  of  the  petals.  The  fruit 
is  a  berry  filled  with  juicy  pulp 
surrounding  the  seeds. 

Gross-Venediger.    Mt.  mass  of 
the  Noric  Alps,  in  the  HoheTauern, 
on  the  borders  of  Tirol  and  Salzburg. 
It  lies  between  the 
Gross    G 1  o  c  k  e  r 
and    the    Drei 
Herrn  Spitze,  and 
reaches  an  alt.  of 
12,010  ft.      The 
Klein  -  Venediger, 
adjoining,   attains 
11,420ft. 

Grosvenor. 
Name  of  a  family 
that    holds    three 
British     peerages. 
The  earliest  Gros- 
venors  were  found 
in  Cheshire  in 
the  12th  century. 
One  of  them  who 
lived  at  Eaton, 
near  Chester,  was  made  a  baronet 
in  1622,  and  was  the  ancestor  of 
Sir  Richard  Grosvenor,  made  Earl 
Grosvenor  in    1784.       The    earl's 
descendants     became    marquesses 
and  then    dukes    of  Westminster. 
The  second  peerage  is  the  barony 
of   Ebury,   conferred   in  1857    on 
Lord  Robert  Grosvenor,  a  son  of 
the  1st  marquess  of  Westminster. 
The    third,    the    barony    of    Stal- 
bridge,  was  bestowed  in  1886  on 
Lord  Richard  Grosvenor,  a  son  of 
the  2nd  marquess.     He  was  chief 
Liberal  whip  1880-85,  and  for  many 
years  chairman  of  the  L.  &  N.W. 
Rly.     He  had  extensive  estates  in 
Dorset,  but  in  1918  these,  which  in- 
cluded the  towns  of  Shaf  tesbury  and 
Stalbridge,were  sold  by  his  descend- 
ant.    See  Westminster,  Duke  of. 

Grosvenor  Gallery,  THE.  Pic- 
ture gallery  founded  in  London  in 
1877  by  Sir  Coutts  Lindsay  of 
Balcarres  (1824-1913),  a  painter  of 
considerable  talent.  The  object  of 
the  gallery  was  the  annual  exhibi- 
tion (by  invitation)  of  pictures  by 


artists  who  were  supposed,  rightly 
or  wrongly,  not  to  enjoy  the  favour 
of  the  R.A.,  and  the  type  of 
pictures  exhibited  at  the  gallery 
incurred  some  ridicule,  expressed 
by  W.  S.  Gilbert  in  Patience  (1881) 
when  he  sang  of  "the  greenery  - 
yallery,  Grosvenor- Gallery,  foot-in- 
the-grave-young-man."  In  1888  the 
gallery  enlarged  its  utilities  and 
was  made  available  for  social  func- 
tions. This  led  to  a  secession  of 
artists  who  established  the  New 
Gallery.  The  Grosvenor  Galleries 
in  New  Bond  Street  were  opened 
as  a  mart  for  the  works  of  living 
artists  in  1912. 

Grosvenor  House.  Former 
London  home  of  the  duke  of  West- 
minster. It  is  on  the  S.  side  of 
Upper  Grosvenor  Street,  having  a 
fine  exterior  colonnade,  erected  in 
1842.  The  house  was  built  for  the 
duke  of  Gloucester,  brother  of 
George  III,  and  here  died  the  duke 
of  Cumberland,  of  Culloden  fame. 
In  its  western  wing  is  a  superb  col- 


Grosvenor  House.     Colonnade  and  entrance  of  the  tormer 
London  residence  of  the  duke  of  Westminster 

lection  of  pictures,  including  gems 
by  Rubens  and  Rembrandt,  and 
other  Dutch,  Flemish,  British,  and 
Italian  painters.  During -the  Great 
VVar,  it  was  headquarters  of  the 
ministry  of  food.  It  was  bought  by 
Viscount  Leverhulme,  1924. 

Grosvenor  Square.  One  of  the 
great  squares  of  London.  It  is 
approached  from  Park  Lane  by 
Upper  Brook  Street  and  Upper 
Grosvenor  Street,  Mayfair.  About 
six  acres  in  area,  it  was  laid  out  by 
William  Kent  for  Sir  Richard 
Grosvenor  (d.  1732)  in  1695,  and 
completed  in  1725.  The  central 
gardens  occupy  the  site  of  Oliver's 
Mount — whence  the  adjacent 
Mount  Street  takes  its  name — a 
redoubt  thrown  up  by  the  citizens 
in  1643  on  the  approach  of 
Charles  I  after  Edgehill. 

Since  the  middle  of  the  18th 
century  a  fashionable  quarter,  the 
square  was  not  lighted  by  gas  until 
1839.  One  of  its  early  residents  was 
the  4th  earl  of  Chesterfield,  at 
whose  house  Dr.  Johnson  was  kept 


waiting  in  an  anteroom.  At  No.  22 
William  Beckford  entertained 
Nelson;  at  No.  23  the  12th  earl  of 
Derby  was  married  to  Elizabeth 
Farren  the  actress ;  at  No.  6 
Joseph  Neeld,  M.P.,  formed  his 
collection  of  pictures.  No.  39 
(now  44 )  was  a  meeting  place  of  the 
Cato  Street  conspirators.  Lord 
Chancellor  Hardwicke,  Lord  Rock- 
ingham,  Lord  North,  Henry  Thrale, 
John  Wilkes,  Lord  Stratford  de 
Redcliffe,  Bulwer  Lytton,  the 
philanthropic  earl  of  Shaftesbury, 
Dr.  Pusey,  and  J.  Pierpont  Morgan 
were  among  other  residents. 

Grote,  GEORGE  (1794-1871). 
British  historian.  Born  at  Becken- 
ham,  Kent,  Nov.  17,  1794,  and 
educated  at  the 
Charterhouse, 
at  16  he  entered 
his  father's 
bank.  He  con- 
tinued  his 
studies  despite 
the  discour- 
agement of  his 
father,  and 
read  widely  in 
the  classics  and 
economics  and 


p  h  i  1  o  s  o  p  hy. 
His  father  was 


Was         After  S.  P.  Denning 

also  opposed  to  his  union  with  Miss 
Harriet  Lewin,  whom  he  married 
in  1820.  In  addition  to  his  work 
at  the  bank,  with  which  he  was 
associated  for  over  30  years,  and 
his  literary  pursuits,  Grote  also 
entered  politics,  becoming  member 
for  the  City  of  London  in  1832,  and 
was  much  interested  in  the  pro- 
motion of  the  university  of  London. 

Among  his  friends  were  the 
Mills,  father  and  son,  Brougham, 
Ricardo,  and  Bain.  In  1843  he 
retired  from  the  bank  and  devoted 
his  leisure  to  the  completion  of  his 
History  of  Greece,  first  projected  in 
1822.  Though  written  as  a  vindi- 
cation of  democracy,  the  history, 
completed  in  1856,  remains  a  monu- 
ment of  research  and  sound  his- 
torical judgement,  enriched  by  pas- 
sages of  great  eloquence.  Among 
other  important  works  of  Grote  are 
one  on  Plato  and  the  other  com- 
panions of  Socrates,  1865,  and 
another  (unfinished)  on  Aristotle, 
1872.  Grote  died  June  18, 1871,  and 
was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Grotefend,  GEORG  FRIEDRICH 
(1775-1853).  German  archaeolo- 
gist. Born  at  Miinden,  Hanover, 
June  9,  1775,  he  became  succes- 
sively professor  at  Gottingen, 
1797,  Frankfort,  1803,  and  Hanover, 
1821.  He  was  chiefly  known  as  a 
Latin  and  Italian  philologist  until 
he  won  lasting  fame  by  his  deci- 
pherment of  the  Babylonian 
cuneiform  inscriptions.  He  died 
Dec.  15,  1853. 


GROTESQUE 

Grotesque.  Ancient  form  of 
decorative  painting  or  sculpture, 
in  which  nature  was  distorted, 


Grotesque  creature  worked  into  the 

architectural   ornament    of    Senlis 

Cathedral,  France 

By  courtesy  of  Macmillan  &  Co. 

parodied,  or  exaggerated.  Thus,  in 
one  variety,  human  and  animal 
forms  were  combined  in  fantastic 
fashion  and  interwoven  with  flowers 
and  foliage,  partly  to  tone  down 
what  might  otherwise  have  been 
merely  repulsive.  The  idea  did  not 
necessarily  imply  ugliness,  but 
rather  something  bizarre,  with  a 
touch  of  the  absurd  and  incon- 
gruous, in  which  sense  the  Romans 
often  introduced  it  into  the  decora- 
tions of  their  buildings.  The  word 
is  French,  from  Ital.  grottesca, 
curious  painted  work  found  in 
grottos.  See  Dance  of  Death. 

Groth,  KLAUS  (1819-99).  Ger- 
man poet.  Born  at  Heide,  Holstein, 
April  24,  1819,  he  was  the  first 
writer  of  importance  to  use  Low 
German  as  a  literary  medium.  He 
achieved  fame  with  Quickborn, 
1852,  poems  of  Dithmarschen  life. 
In  1858  he  was  appointed  lecturer 
in  German  at  Kiel  University,  and 
professor,  1866.  He  died  at  Kiel, 
June  2,  1899. 

Grotius,  HUGO  (1583-1645). 
Dutch  jurist,  known  in  Holland  as 
Huig  van  Groot.  Born  at  Delft, 
April  10,  1583, 
his  father  was 
a  lawyer.  He 
showed  extra- 
ordinary i  n  - 
tellectual  abili- 
ties and  as  a 
boy  acquired 
a  wide  know- 
ledge  of  the 
classics.  Hav- 
ing studied  at 
Leiden  and  in 
France,  he  be- 

AJlerM.J.MireveU       came     ft     prac, 

tising  lawyer,  but  found  time  to 
write  Latin  verses  and  dramas. 

In  1603  he  was  appointed  his- 
toriographer of  the  United  Pro- 
vinces ;  other  public  positions  were 
also  given  to  him ;  but  his  share  in 
the  politics  of  the  time  led  to  his 
fall.  Of  tolerant  spirit,  he  wished 
to  mitigate  the  (fierce  hostility 
between  the  religious  parties  in 


Holland,  but  in  this  he  failed.  Re- 
garding the  Remonstrants  (q.v.)  as 
less  fanatical  than  their  opponents, 
he  joined  and  assisted  Barne veldt  in 
stating  their  case.  In  July,  1618, 
however,  Maurice  of  Orange  made 
a  sudden  move  against  Barneveldt 
and  his  party,  and  Grotius,  in  1619, 
was  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for 
life.  He  escaped  from  Loevenstein 
in  1620,  owing  to  the  wit  and  de- 
votion of  his  wife ;  reaching  Paris, 
he  lived  for  some  time  in  poverty 
in  France.  After  a  time  his  fortunes 
mended,  and  having  entered  the 
Swedish  service  in  1634  he  was 
made  ambassador  to  France.  He 
died  at  Rostock,  Aug.  28,  1645. 

In  exile  Grotius  wrote  his  monu- 
mental work,  De  jure  belli  et  pacis, 
published  in  1625,  in  Paris.  An 
earlier  work,  unpublished  until  the 
19th  century,  was  written  by  him 
on  this  subject  in  1604.  He  wrote 
other  works  of  the  kind,  bringing 
to  his  task  an  almost  unrivalled 
fund  of  learning.  He  also  wrote 
a  good  deal  on  theological  ques- 
tions, and  his  Annals  of  the  Ne- 
therlands is  the  best  contempor- 
ary account  of  tho 
revolt  against 
Spain. 

His  fame  rests, 
however,  upon  his 
De  jure,  the  foun- 
dation of  modern 
international  law. 
It  deals  not  only 
with     peace    and 
war,    as    the  title 
suggests,  but  with 
the     powers    and 
duties    of    states. 
The  main  idea 
which  we   owe  to 
him  is  that  there 
is  a  foundation  in 
morality  for  states 
and  a  test  in  mor- 
ality for   their   activities,    which, 
therefore,  do    not    rest,  as  earlier 
writers  taught,  on  the  narrower  basis 
of  ecclesiastical  or  Biblical  precepts. 
Grotius  visited  England  and  was 
intimate  with  the  greatest  scholars 
of    his    day,    Casaubon    and    his 
master,     Scaliger,     among     them. 
More  than  3,000  of  his  letters  have 
been  published.    See  International 
Law;  consult  De  Jure  Belli,  Eng. 
trans.  W.  Whewell,  1853;  Opinions 
of  Grotius,  D.  P.  de  Bruyn,  1894. 

Grotius  Society.  Learned 
society  founded  in  1915.  Its  object 
is  to  discuss  the  problems  of  inter- 
national law  arising  out  of  the  Great 
War.  Unlike  the  Institute  of  In- 
ternational Law,  its  membership 
is  confined  to  British  subjects,  al- 
though foreign  lawyers  are  admitted 
as  honorary  and  corresponding 
members.  It  was  founded  to  take 
the  place  of  the  International  Law 


GROTTO 

Association,  the  activities  of  which 
were  suspended  by  the  war.  Lord 
Reay  was  its  first  president. 

Grottaferrata.  Village  of  Italy, 
in  the  prov.  of  Rome.  It  is  13  m. 
S.E.  of  Rome,  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected by  electric  rly.  A  Greek 
monastery  was  founded  here  by 
Nilus  in  1004.  The  llth  century 
church,  rebuilt  in  1754  and  re- 
stored in  1902,  has  frescoes  by 
Domenichino.  The  abbot's  palace 
contains  local  antiquities  and  art 
treasures.  Wine  is  produced,  and 
fairs  are  held  on  March  25  and 
Sept.  8.  Pop.  1,050. 

Grottaglie.  Town  of  Italy,  in 
the  prov.  of  Lecce.  It  is  13  m. 
E.N.E.  of  Taranto  and  32  m.  by 
rly.  S.W.  of  Brindisi.  Local  indus- 
tries include  the  manufacture  of 
pottery,  chalk  quarrying,  cotton 
and  silk  weaving,  and  bee-keeping. 
Wine  and  oil  are  produced,  and 
there  is  trade  in  grain  and  fruit. 
Pop.  11,851. 

Grotto  (Fr.  grotte ;  Lat.  crypia). 
Cave  or  recess  in  the  earth,  parti- 
cularly one  made  or  enlarged  arti- 
ficially for  use  as  a  shrine  or  retreat. 


Grotto  at  Morgat,  Brittany  ;    a  natural  cavern  in  the 
rocks  only  approachable  from  the  sea 

On  July  25,  the  festival  of  S. 
James  the  Great,  it  was  formerly 
the  custom  of  the  faithful  to  fasten 
a  shell  in  hat  or  coat  and  make 
pilgrimage  to  the  shrine  at  Com- 
postella  to  which,  according  to  tra- 
dition, his  body  was  translated. 
Shell  grottos  with  a  figure  of  the 
saint  were  set  up  by  the  wayside, 
where  those  too  poor  to  make  pil- 
grimage could  make  their  offerings 
to  commemorate  the  day.  Children 
in  many  countries  preserve  the  cus- 
tom, though  not  its  purpose,  by 
erecting  little  decorative  shrines 
of  oyster  shells  and  soliciting 
money  with  the  cry,  Remember  the 
grotto.  One  of  many  notable  grot- 
tos is  the  Dog's  grotto,  Grotta  del 
Cane,  by  the  lake  of  Agnano,  near 
Naples.  Over  the  floor  of  this  car- 
bonic acid  gas  rises  to  a  height  of 
some  18  ins.,  stupefying  dogs  taken 
into  the  grotto.  See  Capri. 


I 


GROUCHY 


37  17 


GROUPS 


Grouchy,  EMMANUEL,  MARQUIS 
DE  (1766-1847).  French  soldier. 
Born  in  Paris,  Sept.  5,  1766,  he 
m  joined  the  Re- 
fj  volutionaries, 
—p^  -,  |  notwithstand- 

Bp     ;    ing  his  aristo- 
I   cratic    birth, 
-.  m&r      I    and 


in  suppressing 
the  royalist 
rising     in     La 
Vendee.     He 
Emmanuel,    Marquis    fought  in  Italy 
de  Grouchy,  in    179*     and, 

French  soldier         becoming    one 

of  Napoleon's  most  trusted  leaders, 
took  part  in  the  battles  of  Hohen- 
linden,  Friedland,  and  Wagram.  He 
served  in  the  Russian  campaign  of 
1812,  and  did  good  service  in  the 
retreat  after  Leipzig  in  1813.  His 
failure  to  appear  with  his  division 
on  the  field  of  Waterloo  was  said  by 
Napoleon  to  have  lost  the  battle. 
After  Waterloo  he  was  proscribed 
and  took  refuge  in  the  U.S.A.,  but 
was  permitted  to  return  in  1819, 
and  in  1830  received  again  his  old 
style  of  marshal.  He  died  at  St. 
Etienne,  May  29,  1847.  See  Water- 
loo, Campaign  of. 

Ground  Annual.  In  Scots  law, 
a  payment  charged  upon  certain 
lands,  something  like  the  English 
ground  rent.  It  is  paid  on  land 
once  the  property  of  the  Church, 
such  being  the  feu  duties  paid  to 
the  lords  of  erection,  the  successors 
of  those  who  received  the  lands  at 
the  Reformation.  It  is  also  used 
for  the  annual  payment  made 
sometimes  by  builders  for  the  use 
of  land  for  building  purposes. 

Ground  Bass  OR  BASSO  Os 
TENATO.  Short  musical  phrase  re- 
peated many  times  with  varied 
treatment.  It  is  usually  in  the  bass 
part,  but  is  sometimes  transferred 
to  an  upper  part.  The  ground  bass 
has  been  used  from  the  17th  cen- 
tury to  the  present  day,  and  fine 
examples  occur  in  Bach's  well- 
known  Passacaglia ;  in  Purcell's 
Chaconne  in  The  Fairy  Queen  and 
many  of  his  vocal  works  ;  in  Han- 
del's choruses  Envy,  eldest  born  of 
hell  (Saul),  and  To  Song  and  Dance 
(Samson).  See  Chaconne;  Divisions. 

Ground  Ice.  Name  given  to 
the  natural  phenomenon  more 
usually  called  Anchor  Ice  (q.v.).  fc 

Ground  Ivy  (Nepeta  hederacea). 
Perennial  prostrate  herb  of  the 
natural  order  Labiatae.  It  is  a 
native  of  Europe  and  N.  and  W. 
Asia.  The  trailing  stems  are  2  ft. 
or  more  in  length,  with  opposite, 
kidney-shaped  leaves,  round- 
toothed  at  the  edges.  The  tubular, 
blue-purple  flowers  are  produced  in 
whorls  of  from  three  to  six  at  the 
base  of  the  leaf-stalks.  It  is  no  rela- 
tion to  the  ivy  (Hedera  helix).  The 


Ground  Ivy.     Foliage  and  flowers 

plant  is  bitter  and  aromatic,  and 
was  formerly  employed  in  brewing. 
Ground  Nut,  PEA-NUT,  MONKEY- 
NUT,  OR  EARTH-NUT  (Arachis  liypo- 
gaea).  Annual  herb  of  the  natural 
order  Leguminosae.  It  is  a  native 
of  S.  America  and  the  W.  Indies. 
The  leaves  are  broken  up  into  four 
oval  leaflets,  and  the  pea-like 
flowers  are  yellow.  After  pollina- 
tion the  flower-stalk  lengthens  and 
curves  to  the  ground,  in  which  it 
buries  the  incipient  fruit,  which 
there  develops  into  the  yellowish 
wrinkled  pods  which  contain  two 
seeds.  These  are  of  great  value, 
not  only  as  a  food,  but  as  a  source 
of  a  liquid  oil  pressed  from  them. 
It  is  used  for  lubricating  watches 
and  other  delicate  machinery  ;  also 
as  a  substitute  for  olive-oil,  and 
for  burning. 


Ground  Nut  with,  flower  stalks  length- 
ened and  burying  fruits 

Ground  Pigeon.  Name  used 
for  the  pigeons  classed  in  the  sub- 
family Peristerinae.  The  turtle 
dove  is  a  familiar  example.  They 
are  less  arboreal  in  habit  than 
some  of  the  other  groups,  and  as  a 
rule  have  longer  legs. 

Ground  Rent.  Name  given  to 
the  rent  paid  for  the  ground  on 
which  a  house  or  other  building 
stands,  as  distinct  from  that 
paid  for  the  building.  Builders 
and  others  often  take  land  on  lease, 
paying  usually  a  fixed  annual  sum 
for  a  fixed  term  of  years.  If  a 


man,  having  built  on  the  land,  i.e. 
having  improved  it,  lets  it  to  an- 
other at  a  higher  price,  it  is  known 
as  an  improved  ground  rent.  The 
taxation  of  ground  rents  is  fre- 
quently called  for,  under  a  mis- 
apprehension that  they  escape  the 
usual  burdens.  Income-tax  is 
paid  upon  them,  and  although  the 
ground  landlord  pays  no  part  of 
the  rates,  yet  this  consideration 
affects  the  contract,  the  ground 
landlord  charging  a  lower  price  for 
his  land  than  he  would  do  were  he 
assessed  directly  to  the  rates.  See 
Rent ;  Single  Tax. 

Groundsel  (Senecio  vulgaris). 
Annual  herb  of  the  natural  order 
Compositae.  A  native  of  Europe 
and  N.  Africa,  it  has  succulent 


Groundsel.    Stem  with  flower-heads 
and  leaves 

stems  1  ft.  or  2  ft.  in  height,  with 
slender  leaves  cut  into  irregular 
lobes  and  coarsely  toothed.  The 
drooping  flower-heads  are  yellow, 
succeeded  by  a  small  globe  of 
fluffy,  silky  hairs  which  carry  the 
fruits  everywhere. 

Ground  Squirrel  (Tamias).Pop- 
ular  name  for  the  chipmunk  (q.v.). 

Group  Captain.  Title  of  the 
rank  in  the  Royal  Air  Force  equiva- 
lent to  that  of  a  full  colonel  in  the 
army  and  captain  in  the  navy. 

Groups,  THEORY  OF.  Modern 
development  of  higher  algebra.  It 
deals  with  the  transformation  of 
algebraic  forms.  The  theory  of 
groups  of  substitutions  was  sug- 
gested by  E.  Galois,  a  French 
mathematician  (1811-32) ;  a  new 
theory  of  groups  of  substitution 

/*»; 


Ground  Pigeon.      Turtledove,  a 
member  of  the  sub-family 


GROUP      SYSTEM 


GROVE     CELL 


was    due    to     the 
Son,  n  dinav  ian 
mathematician 
Sophus  Lie,  whose   [ 
investigations     on 
this    subject   were   N 
published  1888- 
93.     See  Theory   15^ 
of      Groups      of   1 
Finite    Order,    W.    RR.. 
B  u  r  n  s  i  d  e,      2nd    I ; 
ed.  1911. 

Group     Sys-   I 
tern.      British  re- 
cruiting scheme  in   p 
the     Great     War.    P 
Under  the  scheme   y 
instituted      by 
Lord  Derby  in  Oct.,  1915,  the  male 
population    was    divided    into    46 
groups,  the  single  men  in  the  first 
23  groups  according  to  their  ages, 
from  18  to  40,  and  married  men  in 
groups  24-^6.     The  intention  was 
to  call  up  the  groups  in  turn  as  they 
were  required.     This  was  the  last 
effort   to    increase    the    army    by 
voluntary  recruiting,  and  its  failure 
to  supply  the  enormous  number  of 
men  required  led  to  the  passing  of 
the  Military  Service  Acts  in  1916. 
See  Army,  British  ;      Compulsory 
Service  ;  Derby  Scheme. 

Grouse.  Name  applied  by  zo- 
ologists to  all  the  members  of  the 
family  of  game  birds  known  as 
Tetraonidae,  which  includes  more 
than  30  species ;  but  popularly 
used  in  a  more  restricted  sense. 
Four  species  of  grouse  occur  in  the 
N.  of  Great  Britain.  The  ptarmi- 
gan, which  turns  white  in  winter,  is 
found  only  in  the  wilder  districts  of 
Scotland ;  the  blackcock,  the  fe- 
male of  which  is  known  as  the  grey 
hen,  is  much  larger,  and  is  said  still 
to  occur  in  the  S.W.  of  England  as 
well  as  in  Scotland ;  the  caper- 
cailzie, the  largest  of  all,  became 
extinct  in  Great  Britain  in  the  18th 
century,  but  was  reintroduced  in 
1837  and  is  now  fairly  plentiful  in 
Forf ar,  Perth,  and  Stirling ;  the  red 
grouse,  or  moor  cock,  is  by  far  the 
most  plentiful,  and  the  bird  com- 
monly implied  when  speaking 
of  grouse. 

The  red  grouse  (Lagopus  scoticus), 
which  measures  about  15  ins.  in 
length  and  weighs  from  20  oz. 
to  30  oz.,  is  found  only  in  the 
British  Isles,  and  is  one  of  the 


very  few  species  that  are  exclu- 
sively British.  On  the  continent11 
of  Europe,  and  in  Asia  and  N. 
America,  it  is  represented  by  the 
very  similar  willow  grouse,  and 
some  authorities  regard  the  two  as 
varieties  of  the  same  species.  But 
/the  willow  grouse  turns  white  in 
winter,  which  the  red  grouse  never 
does  ;  its  note  is  somewhat  differ- 
ent ;  and  its  food  and  habits  are  not 


the  same.  Anatomically  the  two 
birds  are  identical ;  the  only  differ- 
ence in  the  summer  plumage  is  that 
the  willow  grouse  is  rather  lighter 
in  tone  and  has  white  wing  quills. 

Grouse  are  found  on  the  moors 
throughout  Scotland  and  the  sur- 
rounding islands,  except  the  Shet- 
lands,  in  the  northern  counties  of 
England,  in  some  parts  of  Wales, 
and  thinly  throughout  Ireland.  The 
birds  nest  in  March  on  the  ground, 
usually  in  the  shelter  of  a  tuft  of 
heather  or  other  herbage,  and  the 
number  of  eggs  varies  from  six  to 
fourteen.  In  colour  they  are  usu- 
ally reddish-yellow,  blotched  with 
brown,  but  they  vary  greatly.  Un- 
like many  game  birds,  the  grouse  is 
monogamous.  The  food  consists 
mainly  of  the  young  shoots  of  the 
heather,  but  grubs  and  insects  are 
also  eaten. 

In  colour  grouse  vary  consider- 
ably. Sometimes,  but  rarely,  the 
plumage  is  entirely  black ;  usually 
a  reddish  chestnut  is  the  prevailing 
hue  ;  while  in  some  districts  the 
plumage  is  not  uncommonly 
spotted  with  white  on  the  breast 
and  underparts.  The  colour  varies 
after  the  moults.  The  hen  moults  in 
spring  and  autumn,  the  cock  in 
autumn  and  winter.  See  Black- 
Dock  ;  Egg ;  Ptarmigan. 

GROUSE  SHOOTING.  The  two 
legitimate  methods  of  killing 
grouse  are  by  shooting  them  over 
dogs,  and  driving  the  birds  to  the 
guns  by  the  aid  of  beaters.  The  ad- 
vantages of  the  latter  method, 
which  is  now  most  in  favour,  are 
that  the  guns  can  be  stationed  at 
fixed  positions,  and  that  the  fact  of 


the  birds  being  driven  gives  a 
greater  chance  of  the  older  and 
stronger  birds  being  killed  first. 
Though  never  reared  and  fed  arti- 
ficially like  the  pheasant,  grouse 
are  carefully  preserved  on  the 
moors  and  need  considerable  atten- 
tion, as  wet  seasons,  overcrowding, 
and  epidemic  diseases  are  very  apt 
to  reduce  their  numbers.  The 
shooting  season  in  Great  Britain  for 
grouse  extends  from  Aug.  12  till 
Dec.  10.  See  Sporting  Gun  ;  con- 
sult The  Grouse  in  Health  and 
Disease,  2  vols.,  1912  ed. ;  Oke's 
Game  Laws,  L.  Mead,  5th  ed.  1912. 
Grove,  SIB  COLERIDGE  (1839- 
1920).  British  soldier.  The  son  of 
W.  R.  Grove,  a  judge,  he  was  born 
at  Wandsworth  and  educated  at 
Balliol  College,  Oxford.  He  joined 
the  15th  Foot  in  1863.  He  served  in 
Egypt  in  1882-85,  but  made  his 
^putation  on  the  administrative 
de.  From  1888-94  he  was  assis- 


Grouse.    1.  Red  grouse.    2.  Ruffed 
grouse,    cock   and   ben.     3.  Ptar- 
migan in  summer  plumage 

tant  adjutant-general  and  from 
1896  to  1901,  when  he  was  knighted, 
he  was  military  secretary  at  the 
war  office.  He  died  May  17, 
1920. 

Grove,  SIR  GEORGE  (1820-1900). 
British  writer  on  music.  Born  at 
Clapham,  Aug.  13,  1820,  he  was 
educated  as  a 
civil  engineer. 
His  main  inter- 
ests, however, 
were  in  music, 
and  in  1883  he 
became  the 
first  director  of 
the  new  Royal 
College  of  Mu- 
sic and  was 
knighted.  He 
was  editor  of  Macmillan's  Maga- 
zine, 1868-83,  edited  the  first  edi- 
tion of  the  Dictionary  of  Music  and 
Musicians,  and  wrote  articles  on 
music.  Grove,  who  died  May  28, 
1900,  was  at  one  time  secretary  of 
the  Society  of  Arts.  See  Life,  C.  L. 
Graves,  1904. 

Grove  Cell.  Primary  electric 
cell  very  similar  to  the  Bunsen  cell 
and  possessing  the  same  character- 
istics. The  Grove  differs  from  the 
Bunsen  cell  in  that  a  sheet  of  plati- 
num, bent  to  an  S  form  hi  plan, 


Sir  George  Grove, 
British  writer 


GROWING     PAINS 


37  19 


GRUNDY 


takes  the  place  of  a  carbon  rod. 
Like  the  Bunsen,  the  Grove  cell 
gives  a  high  electromotive  force  and 
has  a  low  resistance  ;  but  it  has 
also  the  same  disadvantages,  viz. 
that  noxious  fumes  are  given  off 
and  the  cell  has  to  be  taken  to 
pieces  after  use.  The  use  of  plati- 
num makes  the  first  cost  high.  To 
reduce  this,  porcelain  coated  with  a 
film  of  platinum  has  been  used  in- 
stead of  a  plate  of  the  metal.  See 
Bunsen  Cell ;  Cell,  Voltaic  and 
Primary. 

Growing  Pains.  Popular  name 
for  pains  in  the  limbs  complained 
of  by  young  children.  Since  pain 
is  never  produced  simply  by 
growth,  the  complaint  of  the  child 
should  always  be  investigated,  as 
the  symptom  may  be  an  indication 
of  acute  rheumatism  or  other 
serious  affection. 

Growler.  Slang  term  for  a 
four-wheeled  cab.  These  vehicles 
were  colloquially  distinguished 
from  the  smarter  and  brisker  han- 
som cab  by  the  terms  growler  and 
crawler,  from  the  surliness  of  the 
drivers  and  the  slowness  of  the 
horses.  Holding  four  persons  and 
designed  to  carry  luggage,  they 
plied  for  hire  mostly  between  rail- 
way stations.  See  Cab. 

Growth.  Gradual  increase  in 
size  or  volume.  The  chief  use  of  the 
word  is  in  connexion  with  organic 
growth.  The  study  of  the  growth 
of  animals  and  plants  has  provided 
more  fundamental  theories  of  the 
evolution  of  mankind  than  the 
study  of  any  other  subject.  Growth 
is  a  physico-chemical  process,  and 
here  again  its  study  has  resulted 
in  great  advances  in  chemical  and 
physical  research.  The  various 
aspects  of  organic  growth  are  dealt 
with  in  this  Encyclopedia  under 
Biology;  Cell ;  Embryology;  Physi- 
ology; Plant,  etc. 

In  medicine  the  term  is  used  in 
such  expressions  as  a  malignant 
growth,  e.g.  cancer,  and  for  any 
abnormal  increase  in  any  part  of 
the  body,  tumours,  etc.  In  crys- 
tallography crystals  grow  by  con- 
stant additions,  in  a  definite  way, 
to  their  size,  always,  however, 
retaining  the  same  general  shape. 

Groyne.  Projection  built  out 
to  sea  to  obstruct  the  continuous 
drift  of  shingle  or  sand.  On  sea 
coasts  where  tidal  currents  prevail, 
littoral  drift  occurs,  i.e.  a  gradual 
travel  of  shingle  or  sand  along  the 
shore,  with  usually  a  preponder- 
ating tendency  in  one  direction. 
This  may  result  in  a  give-and-take 
effect  on  straight  stretches,  or  ac- 
cording to  the  configuration  of  the 
coast-line  and  other  influencing 
factors,  it  may  result  in  certain 
Jocalities  being  denuded  of  their 
share  of  detritus  and  rendered 


more  liable  to  erosion  by  the  sea. 
To  check  this  action  groynes  are 
projected  from  the  shore,  generally 
down  to  about  low-water  mark, 
against  which  detritus  such  as 
shingle  or  sand  heaps  itself  on  one 
side.  Groynes  are  usually  con- 
structed of  heavy  timber  planks 
bolted  to  and  supported  by  driven 
piles  and  raking  struts  for  resisting 
the  pressure  of  the  heaped-up 
mass.  Sometimes  they  are  built  of 
masonry.  Local  conditions  must 
be  carefully  studied,  since  unsuit- 
able design  or  wrong  setting  of  the 
groynes  may  make  matters  worse 
than  before.  See  Breakwater. 

Grubber.  Term  loosely  applied 
to  various  forms  of  cultivator.  By 
it  the  ground  is"  deeply  stirred, 
without  being  turned  over  as  it  is 
by  ploughing.  See  Cultivator;  Hoe. 

Grub  Street.  Old  name  of  a 
London  thoroughfare  in  Cripple- 
gate  (q.v. ),  E.G., running  N.E.  from 
Fore  Street  to  Chiswell  Street,  and 
known  since  1830  as  Milton  Street. 
Described  by  Stow  as  having  been 
inhabited  by  bowyers,  fletchers, 
and  bow-string  makers,  and  sati- 
rised by  Pope  and  Swift  as  the 
home  of  the  poorest  and  most 
helpless  of  literary  drudges — 
whence  the  application  of  its  name 
to  writers  and  literary  efforts  of  a 
mean  character — the  thoroughfare 
is  to-day  notable  for  its  business 
establishments.  John  Foxe,  the 
martyrologist,  once  lived  in  Grub 
Street.  See  Modern  Grub  Street, 
A.  St.  John  Adcock,  1913. 

Gruel  (late  Lat.  grutellum,  meal). 
A  semi-liquid,  easily  digested  food 
made  with  oatmeal  and  milk,  or 
milk  and  water,  in  the  proportions 
of  a  tablespoonful  of  oatmeal  to  a 
pint  of  milk.  The  milk  is  boiled, 
and  the  oatmeal,  previously  mois- 
tened with  a  little  milk,  is  added 
to  it.  It  is  stirred  till  it  boils,  and 
then  allowed  to  simmer  for  about 
half  an  hour,  when  it  is  strained 
and  sweetened. 

Griin,  ANASTASIUS.  Name  taken 
by  the  Austrian  poet  Anton  Alex- 
ander, Count  von  Auersperg  (q.v. ). 

Griinberg.  Town  of  Germany, 
in  Silesia.  It  stands  in  a  plain,  35  m. 
by  rly.  N.W.  of  Glogau.  It  has  tex- 
tile industries  and  varied  manufac- 
tures, including  machinery,  leather, 
and  tobacco,  and  a  large  wine  trade, 
German  champagne  being  made 
from  the  yield  of  the  vineyards  in 
the  district.  Pop.  23,168. 

Grundtvig,  NIKOLAI  FREDERIK 
SEVERIN  (1783-1872).  Danish  theo- 
logian, historian,  and  poet.  Born 
Sept.  8,  1783,  the  son  of  the  pastor 
of  Udby,  Zealand,  he  was  edu- 
cated in  Copenhagen.  In  1821  he 
was  made  pastor  of  Praestro  in 
Zealand  and  in  1822  chaplain  of 
S.  Saviour's  Church,  Copenhagen. 


In  1825,  in  answer  to  a  book  by 
Clausen,  called  Catholicism  and  Pro- 
testantism, Grundtvig  wrote  his  fa- 
.,  mous  protest 
against  the 
rationalistic 
tendency  o  f 
the  day  in  The 
Church's  Re- 
ply. Clausen 
retaliated  b  y 
expos  ing 
Gruridtvig's 
u  n  orthodoxy, 
and  the  con- 
troversy 


Nikolai  Frederik 

Grundtvig, 
Danish  theologian 

After  C.  A.  Jensen 


e  n- 

ded  with  the 
latter's  deprivation  of  his  chaplaincy 
in  1826.  In  1839  he  returned  to 
clerical  work,  and  in  1861  he  was 
made  bishop.  He  died  Sept.  2,  1  872. 

He  wrote.  Northern  Mythology, 
1808;  A  Summary  of  Universal 
History,  1812;  Roskilda  Rhymes 
and  Roskilda  Saga,  historical 
poems,  1814;  Songs,  1815;  Nor- 
thern Verses,  1838;  and  A  Hand- 
book of  Universal  History,  1833- 
42.  Grundtvig  was  famous  as  an 
educational  reformer.  His  system 
of  continuing  the  work  of  the 
Danish  Elementary  Schools  (Folks- 
kola)  in  High  Schools  (Folkshogs- 
kola)  has  borne  wonderful  fruit. 

Grundy,  MRS.  In  Great  Britain, 
the  personification  of  conventional 
respectability.  The  name  is  taken 
from  Thomas  Morton's  comedy 
Speed  the  Plough  (1798),  in  which 
one  of  the  characters  frequently 
refers  to  Mrs.  Grundy  —  "  What  will. 
Mrs.  Grundy  say  ?  "—as  the  em- 
bodiment of  the  social  proprieties. 

Grundy,  SYDNEY  (1848-1914). 
British  dramatist.  Born  at  Manches- 
ter, March  23,  1848,  and  educated 
at  Owens  Col- 
lege, he  was 
called  to  the 
bar  and  prac- 
tised, 1869-76, 
but  was  early 
drawn  to  writ- 
ing  for  the 
stage.  His 
first  play,  A 
Little  Change 
was  produced 

at     the     Hay- 

market  Theatre, 
1872.  He  is  chiefly  associated 
with  skilful  adaptations  from  the 
French.  The  Bells  of  Haslemere 
(with  Henry  Pettitt),  1887,  and  A 
Pair  of  Spectacles  (from  Les  Petits 
Oiseaux  of  Labiche  and  Delacour), 
1890,  were  extremely  successful. 
Others  of  his  many  pieces  were 
Sowing  the  Wind,  1893  ;  A  Bunch 
of  Violets,  1894  ;  The  Musketeers, 
1899  ;  The  Garden  of  Lies,  1904  ; 
Business  is  Business,  1905  ;  The 
Diplomatists,  1905  ;  A  Fearful  Joy, 
1908.  He  died  July  4,  1914. 


GRUR1E 


372O 


GUADALAVIAR 


Grurie.  Wood  of  France,  in  the 
dept.  of  Meuse,  lying  between 
Vienne-le-Chateau  and  Varennes, 
forming  part  of  the  Argonne  forest. 
Fighting  continued  here  through- 
out the  Great  War,  beginning  in 
Nov.,  1914,  when  the  French  re- 
pelled fierce  German  attacks  in  the 
wood,  and  ending  in  the  great 
Franco -American  battles  of  the 
autumn  of  1918.  See  Argonne, 
The  Campaigns  of  1914-18. 

Grus  (Lat.,  crane).  Southern 
constellation,  named  by  Dirck 
Keyser.  It  is  just  south  of  Pisci? 
Australis.  See  Constellation. 

Gruyere,  LA.  District  of  Switz- 
erland, in  the  canton  of  Fribourg 
A  pastoral  region,  it  lies  in  the 
Saane  valleyand  is  celebrated  for  its 
cheese.  The  inhabitants  are  mostly 
French-speaking  and  Roman  Cath- 
olic. The  chief  town  is  Bulle  (pop. 
3,400),  with  a  13th  century  castle, 
but  the  historic  capital  is  Gruyeres, 
standing  on  a  hill  at  an  alt.  of 
2,713  ft.,  with  a  fine  old  castle  of 
the  counts  of  Gruyeres,  who  be- 
came extinct  in  the  16th  century  ; 
it  is  restored,  and  contains  frescoes 
and  old  weapons. 

Guacharo  OK  OIL  BIRD  (Steat- 
ornis  caripensis).  Remarkable 
bird,  native  of  the  N.  part  of  S. 


Guacharo.    Specimen  of  the  Trinidad 
species 

America,  related  to  the  nightjars. 
The  size  of  a  crow,  a  feeder  on  hard 
nuts  and  fruits,  it  is  entirely  noc- 
turnal, sleeping  during  the  day  in 
dark  caverns.  Little  is  definitely 
known  about  the  nesting  of  the 
birds,  but  the  young  are  exten- 
sively used  as  a  food  by  the  S. 
American  Indians,  and  also  as  a 
source  of  oil.  It  is  brownish  grey  in 
general  colour,  and  leaves  its  breed- 
ing and  sleeping  caverns  at  night 
with  a  loud  clicking  note.  These 
peculiar  birds,  which  have  become 
objects  of  great  interest  to  natural- 
ists on  account  of  their  nocturnal 
methods  of  feeding,  are  found  in 
Trinidad,  Venezuela,  and  Ecuador. 
Guaco.  Name  given  by  S. 
American  Indians  to  several  plants, 
but  confined  by  naturalists  to  a 
climbing  Composite  plant  of  the 
order  Eupatoriaceae.  The  plant  is 
remarkable  for  its  supposed  pro- 
perty of  making  anyone  who  eats 
its  leaves  immune  from  snake  bites. 


Guadalajara,  Mexico. 


The  cathedral,  built  in  the  early  17th  century,  seen 
from  the  south-west 


Guadalajara.  Prov.  of  Central 
Spain.  It  is  bounded  N.  by  the 
prov.  of  Soria,  S.  by  Cuenca,  E.  by 
Zaragoza  and  Teruel,  and  W.  by 
Madrid.  Mountainous  in  the  N.  and 
E.,  its  highest  elevations  rise  nearly 
7,000  ft.  in  the  Guadarrama  range 
on  the  N.  frontier  ;  elsewhere  it  is 
an  undulating  plateau.  The  prov., 
which  is  served  by  the  Madrid- 
Zaragoza  Rly.,  is  drained  by  the  Ta- 
gus  and  its  tributaries,  the  Tajuna, 
Jarama,  Henares,  and  Guadiela. 

Silver  and  salt  are  worked,  and 
iron  and  lead  exist ;  but  the  chief 
industries  are  sheep  and  goat  rear- 
ing and  agriculture.  Olive  oil,  wine, 
silk,  flax,  and  saffron  are  produced. 
Area,  4,676  sq.  m.  Pop.  214,316. 

Guadalajara.  Town  of  Spain, 
capital  of  the  prov.  of  Guadalajara. 
It  stands  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Henares,  at  an  alt.  of  over  2,000  ft., 
33  m.  E.N.E.  of  Madrid,  by  the 
Madrid-Zaragoza  Rly.  The  chief 
buildings  are  two  15th  century 
palaces,  and  the  old  Mendoza 
palace,  all  dilapidated ;  the  church 
of  San  Francisco,with  a  mausoleum, 
or  Pantheon,  in  which  many  of  the 
Mendoza  family  lie  buried  ;  and  a 
16th  century  town  hall.  There  are 
besides  a  museum,  a  library,  a 
school  for  military  engineering,  a 
few  quaint  churches,  and  a  military 
aerodrome.  Woollen  fabrics,  soap- 
and  bricks  are  manufactured. 

Evidences  of  Roman  activity  in- 
clude the  foundations  of  a  fine 
stone  bridge  and  of  the  aqueduct 
across  the'  river.  The  Roman  and 
Visigothic  Arriaca  or  Caraca,  its 
present  name  is  derived  from  the 
Moorish  Wad-al-hajarah,  or  Valley 
of  Stones.  Captured  by  the  Moors 
in  714,  the  town  passed  to  Castile 
in  1081  Pop  12,178. 


Guadalajara.  City  of  Mexico, 
the  capital  of  the  state  of  Jalisco. 
Situated  near  the  Rio  Grande  de 
Santiago,  at  an  alt.  of  5,095  ft. 
above  sea  level,  it  is  280  m.  W.N.  W. 
of  the  city  of  Mexico,  and  is  served 
by  a  branch  of  the  Mexican  Central 
rly.  The  city  is  planned  on  modern 
lines,  and  is  lit  by  electricity.  The 
see  of  a  bishopric, its  cathedral, com- 
pleted in  1618,  is  one  of  the  most 
magnificent  ecclesiastical  structures 
in  the  country  and  contains  a 
celebrated  painting  by  Murillo. 
Other  buildings  are  the  university, 
the  bishop's  palace,  the  government 
building,  a  public  library  contain- 
ing nearly  30,000  volumes,  an 
academy  of  fine  arts,  and  several 
educational  institutions. 

A  considerable  trade  in  the  agri- 
cultural produce  of  the  district  is 
carried  on,  and  the  city  has  im- 
portant steel,  iron,  and  glass  in- 
dustries, besides  manufactures  of 
cottons,  woollens,  flour,  leather, 
and  art  pottery.  It  has  suffered 
from  several  earthquakes.  In 
July,  1914,  Guadalajara  was  sur- 
rendered to  the  Constitutionalists 
by  the  Federal  forces.  Pop.  1 1 9,468. 

Guadalaviar  (Arab.  Wad-el- 
abyad,  white  river).  River  of  E. 
Spain.  It  rises  in  two  headstreams 
in  the  Sierra  Albarracin  and  the 
Sierra  de  Gudar,  uniting  at  Teruel, 
where  it  bends  S.  and  then  E.S.E., 
to  discharge  its  waters  into  the 
Mediterranean  2  m.  beyond  Valen- 
cia, after  a  course  of  about  150  m. 
The  right-hand  stream,  above 
Teruel,  is  known  as  the  Alfambra. 
The  Guadalaviar  is  noted  for  its 
romantic  scenery.  Near  its  mouth 
the  river  is  canalised,  and  it  forms 
part  of  the  water  supply  of  the 
city  of  Valencia. 


GUADALCAZAR 


3721 


GUALDO     TADINO 


Guadalcazar.  Town  of  Mexico, 
in  the  state  of  San  Luis  Potosi.  It 
is  situated  45  m.  N.E.  of  the  city  of 
San  Luis  Potosi,  in  the  vicinity  of 
quicksilver  mines.  Pop.  7,500. 

Guadalquivir  (Arab.  Wad-al- 
Icebir,  great  river).  River  of  S. 
Spain,  the  ancient  Baetis.  It  rises 
by  various  headstreams  in  the  mts. 
in  the  E.  of  the  prov.  of  Jaen,  and 
flows  first  N.E.,  then  in  a  W.  and 
S.W.  direction,  emptying  into  the 
Atlantic  about  20  m.  N.  of  Cadiz. 
Its  length  is  360  m.  Second  only  to 
the  Ebro  in  importance,  it  waters, 
with  its  tributaries,  most  of  Anda- 
lusia. It  flows  with  a  full  stream  all 
the  year  round,  being  fed  in  sum- 
mer by  the  melted  snow  from  the 
mountains  and  by  heavy  rains  in 
winter.  The  tide  is  perceptible  as 
far  as  Seville,  which  can  be  reached 
by  vessels  up  to  1.000  tons,  a  dis- 
tance of  70  m.,  while  Cordova  can 
be  reached  by  small  craft. 

Principal  tributaries  are  the 
Genii,  Guadiana  Menor,  and  the 
Guadajoz  on  the  left  bank,  and  the 
Guadalimar  and  the  Jandula  on 
the  right.  Near  its  mouth  the  sur- 
rounding district,  called  Las  Maris- 
mas,  is  marshy,  caused  by  the  river 
overflowing  its  banks,  and,  before 
Seville  is  reached  upstream,  it 
branches,  forming  the  islands 
of  Isla  Mayor  and  Isla  Menor. 
The  drainage  area  is  computed  at 
2,900  sq.  m.  See  Cordova. 

Guadalupe.  River  of  Texas, 
U.S.A.  Rising  in  the  S.  of  Kerr  co., 
it  flows  E.  and  S.  by  E.  and  bifur- 
cates about  20  m.  from  its  mouth, 
one  branch  joining  the  San  Antonio 
river  and  the  other  flowing  into  San 
Antonio  Bay,  an  arm  of  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico.  Its  length  is  250  m. 

Guadalupe  Hidalgo.  Village 
of  Mexico,  about  3  m.  N.  of  the 
city  of  Mexico.  It  has  a  collegiate 
church,  and  a  shrine  resorted  to  by 

Eilgrims.     By  a  treaty  concluded 
ere  Feb.   2,   1848,  Mexico  ceded 
New  Mexico  and  Upper  California 
to  the  U.S.A.  and  agreed  to  the  Rio 
Grande  as  the  boundary  line. 

Guadarrama,  SIERRA  DE.  Moun- 
tain range  of  North-Central  Spain. 
From  the  W.  the  mountains  tra- 
verse the  centre  of  the  prov.  of 
Avila  and  then  mark  the  frontier 
between  the  provs.  of  Segovia  and 
Soria  on  the  N.  and  Madrid  and 
Guadalajara  on  the  S.  They  trend 
from  S.W.  to  N.E.,  and  divide  the 
valleys  of  the  Douro  and  Tagus. 
The  loftiest  point  is  the  Pico  de  la 
Penalara,  with  an  alt.  of  nearly 
8,000  ft.  The  extensions  on  the  E. 
and  W.  are  known  as  the  Sierra  de 
Gredos  and  the  Sierra  Moncayo 
respectively. 

Guadeloupe.  Two  islands  of 
the  Lesser  Antilles,  W.  Indies, 
forming  a  French  colony.  Situated 


in  the  W.  Atlantic,  S.  of  Antigua 
and  N.  of  Dominica,  the  two  islands 
are  separated  by  a  narrow  strait 
called  Riviere  Sallee.  The  large 
western  island,  Guadeloupe  proper, 
is  called  Basse -terre,  the  eastern 
being  known  as  Grande-terre. 
Total  area,  722  sq.  m.  Basse-terre 
is  of  volcanic  origin,  and  a  range 
of  mts.  forms  its  backbone  from 
N.  to  S.  Among  the  volcanoes  the 
most  famous  is  La  Souffriere  (alt. 
5,000  ft.),  last  active  in  1843, 
others  being  Les  Deux  Mamelles, 
and  La  Grosse  Montagne.  Grande- 
terre  is  of  coralline  formation,  and 
its  surface  is  fairly  level,  nowhere 
exceeding  500  ft.  above  sea  level. 

There  are  no  rivers  of  any  im- 
portance, as  they  are  apt  to  dry  up 
in  summer,  leaving  only  shallow 
pools.  Forests  of  valuable  timber 
abound,  and  mangroves  flourish  on 
the  swampy  coast.  The  soil  is  ex- 
tremely fertile,  the  chief  products 
being  coffee,  cacao,  sugar,  vanilla, 
tobacco,  bananas,  cereals,  and 
sweet  potatoes.  Rum  is  distilled 
and  exported.  The  climate,  though 
hot,  is  not  unhealthy,  but  the 
colony  is  subject  to  destructive 
storms.  The  principal  port  is 
Pointe-a-Pitre,  at  the  S.  entrance 
to  the  Riviere  Sallee,  and  there  are 
safe  anchorages  in  the  roads  of 
Basse-terre  and  in  the  Bay  of  Ma- 
hault.  There  are  five  dependencies, 
which  embrace  the  islands  of  Marie 
Galante,  Desirade,  St.  Martin,  Les 
Saintes,  and  St.  Barthelemy,  with 
an  area  of  688  sq.  m. 

The  seat  of  the  government  is  at 
Basse-terre  (q.v.),  a  town  of  8,656in- 
habitants.  There  is  steamer  con- 
nexion with  France,  and  a  wireless 
station  at  Destrellan  was  opened  in 
1918.  The  colony  is  administered 
by  a  governor,  assisted  by  a  con- 
cil,  and  is  represented  by  a  senator 
and  two  deputies.  Pop.  212,430,  of 
whom  3,461  were  French  born, 
12,306  foreigners,  and  the  re- 
mainder blacks. 

Guadeloupe  was  discovered  by 
Columbus  in  1493.  It  was  taken 
in  1635  by  the  French,  who  relin- 
qusihed  it  to  the  British  in  1759. 
It  changed  owners  many  times 
during  the  next  50  years,  and  was 
finally  ceded  to  France  at  the 
peace  of  1814. 

Guadiada.  River  of  S.  Spain, 
the  ancient  Anas.  It  rises  in  head- 
streams  in  the  provs.  of  Cuenca  and 
Albacete,  and  flows,  partly  under- 
ground, generally  in  a  W.  direction, 
through  the  provs.  of  Ciudad  Real 
and  Badajoz.  From  the  city  of 
Badajoz  (q.v.)  it  flows  S.S. W.,  form- 
ing for  nearly  40  m.  the  boundary  be  - 
tween  Badajoz  and  the  Portuguese 
prov.  of  Alemtejo.  Continuing 
through  Portuguese  territory,  it 
bends  S.  and  S.S.E.  along  the  fron- 


tier of  the  Portuguese  prov.  of 
Algarve  and  the  Spanish  prov.  of 
Huelva,  to  fall  into  the  Atlantic 
between  Villa  Real  de  San  Antonio 
in  Portugal  and  Ayamonte  in 
Spain.  Its  length,  including  its 
principal  headstream  the  Zancara, 
is  about  500  m.  The  chief  tribu- 
taries are  the  Jabalon,  Cobres, 
Ardilla,  Zujar,  Ruecas,  and  the 
Bullaque.  It  is  only  navigable  for 
40  m.  from  its  mouth,  which  is 
nearly  choked  by  shoals.  At  Mer- 
tola,  the  head  of  navigation,  the 
river  is  spanned  by  a  Roman  bridge 
of  81  arches,  built  by  Trajan.  It 
drains  an  area  of  about  32,000  sq.m. 

Guadix  (Arab.  Wad  Ash,  water 
of  life).  City  of  Spain,  in  the  prov. 
of  Granada.  It  stands  on  the  N. 
slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  a  junc- 
tion on  the  Granada-Almeria  Rly. 
It  has  ancient  walls  and  a  ruined 
Moorish  castle,  and  its  cathedral 
(modern)  is  built  on  the  site  of  a  mos- 
que. There  is  trade  in  brandy,  cot- 
ton-wool, flax,  and  cereals ;  manu- 
factures include  building  materials, 
earthenware,  hats,  etc.  There  are 
mineral  springs  and  iron  and  cop- 
per mines  in  the  vicinity.  Once 
covered  with  water,  the  whole 
undulating  district  is  intersected 
by  gullies  cut  by  the  retiring  floods. 
Guadix  la  Vieja,  5  m.  to  the  N.W., 
the  Roman  Acci,  is  the  traditional 
seat  of  the  first  Iberian  bishopric. 
Pop.  13,820. 

Guaduas.  Town  of  Colombia,  in 
the  prov.  of  Cundinamarca.  It 
stands  near  the  river  Magdalena, 
45  m.  N.W.  of  Bogota.  At  an  alt. 
of  3,300  ft.,  it  is  a  centre  of  sugar, 
coffee,  and  fruit  cultivation.  There 
are  large  asphalt  deposits  in  the 
surrounding  localities.  Pop.  9,000. 

Guaiacol.  Colourless  liquid 
occurring  as  a  constituent  of  beech- 
wood  creosote  from  which  it  is 
separated  by  distillation  and  sub- 
sequent purification.  It  is  employed 
in  medicine  for  treating  the  early 
stages  of  tuberculosis  of  the  lungs. 
It  possesses  antiseptic  and  anti- 
pyretic properties. 

Guaiacol  Carbonate.  Crystal- 
line substance  prepared  by  the 
action  of  carbonyl  chloride  upon 
sodium  guiacolate.  It  is  adminis- 
tered in  cases  of  rheumatoid 
arthritis,  and  also  in  phthisis,  bron- 
chitis, and  typhoid. 

GualdoTadino.  To^n  of  Italy, 
in  the  prov.  of  Perugia.  It  stands 
on  a  spur  of  the  Apennines,  at  an 
alt.  of  1,750  ft.,  22  m.  by  rly.  N.  of 
Foligno.  A  walled  town,  it  has  a 
cathedral,  and  the  town  hall  con- 
tains pictures  by  Nicolo  Alunno. 
There  are  manufactures  of  earthen- 
ware and  silk,  and  trade  in  mill- 
stones, cereals,  and  olive  oil.  In  the 
neighbourhood  are  scanty  remains 
of  the  ancient  Tadinum,  where 


GUALEGUAY 

Narses,  one  of  Justinian's  generals, 
defeated  Totila  the  Ostrogoth  in 
552.  Pop.  10,448. 

Gualeguay.  Town  of  Argen- 
tina, in  the  prov.  of  Entre  Rios.  It 
stands  on  the  navigable  river 
Gualeguay,  8  m.  by  rly.  N.E.  of 
Puerto  Ruiz.  It  has  tanneries,  flour 
mills,  slaughter  houses,  and  meat 
curing  and  soap  factories.  Pop. 
9,000. 

Gualeguaychu.  Town  and 
river  port  of  Argentina,  in  the 
prov.  of  Entre  Rios.  It  stands  on 
the  Gualeguaychu,  10  m.  from  its 
entry  into  the  Uruguay.  It  is  the 
terminus  of  the  Parana-Concepcion 
Rly.,  carries  on  a  brisk  trade 
-along  the  river,  and  manufactures 
meat  products.  Pop.  17,880. 

Guam.  Largest  and  most  south- 
erly of  the  Ladrone  Islands,  Pacific 
Ocean,  belonging  to  the  U.S.A. 
It  lies  in  lat.  15°  N.  and  long.  144° 
45'  E.,  has  a  length  of  32  m.,  and  a 
breadth  varying  from  4  m.  to  10  m., 
area  about  225  sq.  m.  It  is  low  and 
of  coral  formation  in  the  S.,  and 
hilly  in  the  N.  The  climate  is  warm 
but  healthy ;  earthquakes  are 
common,  but  not  often  destructive. 
Densely  wooded  and  well  watered, 
it  yields  coconuts,  bread-fruit,  rice, 
oranges,  sugar,  maize,  coffee,  and 
valuable  timber.  Cattle  and  buffa- 
loes are  reared. 

The  capital  is  Agana,  and  the  port 
of  entry  Piti.  Guam  is  strongly 
garrisoned  and  is  administered  by 
a  governor,  who  is  commander-in- 
chief  and  commandant  of  the  naval 
station.  It  has  a  wireless  tele- 
graphy station  and  cable  and  regu- 
lar steamship  communication  with 
the  U.S.A.  Guam  was  taken  from 
Spain  by  the  U.S.A.  in  1898,  and 
slavery  was  abolished  in  1900.  Pop 
14,344,  including  220  whites. 

Guan  (Penelope).  Group  of 
game  birds.  Found  in  S.  America, 
they  include  about  15  species.  They 
are  large  birds,  nearly  related  to 
the  curassows,  and  usually  have 
naked  throats  and  wattles.  They 
are  found  in  the  forests,  and  go  in 
large  flocks,  except  in  the  nesting 
season.  They  vary  considerably  in 
colour  from  green  to  brown  ;  and 
most  of  them  are  amenable  to 
domestication. 

Guana bacoa.  Town  of  Cuba 
Situated  about  6  m.  by  rly.  E.  oJ 
Havana,  of  which  it  is  a  residential 
suburb,  it  has  a  theatre,  a  hospital, 
and  medicinal  springs.  An  old 
town,  formerly  occupied  by  Indians, 
it  was  chartered  in  1743,  a»d 
captured  by  the  British  in  1762 
Pop.  14,500. 

Guanaco  OR  HUANACO  (Auchenia 
huanaco).  Species  of  llama.  Rang- 
ing from  Peru  to  Patagonia,  it  is 
rather  larger  than  the  vicuna,  a 
good  specimen  being  rather  more 


3722 

than  4  ft.  high  at  the  shoulder. 
Guanacos  live  in  large  herds  in 
the  mountains  and  are  difficult  to 
approach,  though  in  captivity  they 
are  easily  domesticated.  The  term 
llama  is  usually  applied  to  a 
domesticated  breed  of  this  species. 
It  has  the  curious  habit  of  resorting 
to  certain  places  at  the  approach  of 
death,  and  the  ground  in  these 
"  cemeteries  "  is  often  white  with 
its  bones. 

Guanajay.  Town  of  Cuba.  The 
terminus  of  a  branch  rly.  from 
Havana,  36  m.  N.E.,  it  is  a  fav- 
ourite health  resort.  Considerable 
trade  is  carried  on  in  the  local  pro- 
ducts, chiefly  sugar  and  tobacco. 
Pop.  6,500 

Guanajuato.  Inland  state  of 
Mexico.  Situated  on  the  central 
plateau  at  an  alt.  of  about  6,000  ft., 
it  is  one  of  the  most 
thickly  populated 
states  and  has  an 
area  of  10,950  sq.  m. 
Mountainous  in  the 
N.,  it  is  watered  by 
the  Lerma  and  its 
tributaries,  and  con 
tains  several  lakes. 
Gold,  silver,  tin, 
lead,  mercury,  and 
copper  are  exten- 
sively worked 
Stock-rearing  and 
agriculture  are  im- 
portant industries, 
and  cotton  and 
woollen  goods, 
flour,  beer,  and 
spirits  are  manufac- 
tured. The  state  is  served  by  the 
National  and  Central  Rlys.  Guan- 
ajuato is  the  capital.  Pop.  1,0  ^  700 


GUANCHES 

of  the  city  of  Mexico,  it  is  situated 
6,250  ft.  above  sea  level,  on  both 
sides  of  the  Canada  de  Marfil,  a 
narrow  defile.  A  branch  line  to  Silao 
connects  it  with  the  main  Mexican 
Central  Rly.  Among  the  principal 
buildings  are  the  Alhondiga  dc 
Granaditas,  built  for  a  public  grain 
store  and  now  the  prison,  the  cathe- 
dral, the  mint,  the  government 
palace,  a  college,  and  several  mon- 
asteries. The  silver  mines  were 
the  most  valuable  in  the  country, 
but  increasing  depth  has  made  them 
difficult  to  work.  The  chief  manu- 
factures arc  woollen  and  cotton 
goods,  chemicals,  soap,  pottery, 
and  flour.  Guanajuato  was 

founded  in  1554,  and  suffered  great 
damage  in  the  war  of  independence, 
during  which  it  was  taken  in  1810. 
Pop.  35,700. 


Guanaco,  the  wild  llama  sound  in  various  parts 
South  America 


Guanajuato  OR  SANTA  F±  DE 
GUANAJUATO.  City  of  Mexico.  The 
capital  of  Guanajuato,  160m.  N.W. 


Guanajuato.   Market  place  in  the  capital  city  of  the 
Mexican  state 


Guanare.  Town  of  Venezuela, 
capital  of  Portuguesa  state.  It 
stands  near  the  river  Guanarito,  50 
m.  S.E.  of  Trujillo. 
Founded  in  1593 
it  is  an  important 
centre  of  a  coffee, 
sugar,  and  cattle 
producing  district. 
Pop.  11,000. 

Guanches.  Ab- 
original people  of 
the  Canary  Islands. 
Descended  from  a 
Libyan  immigra- 
tion into  Teneriffe 
by  sea  in  the  dawn 
of  history,  they 
were  subsequently 
affected  by  other 
arrivals,  especially 
in  Grand  Canary. 
Early  Mediterran- 
e  a  n — perha  ps 
Ph  oeni  c  i  an  — 
traders  brought 
some  cultural  ele- 
ments of  Egyptian 
origin,  t  specially 
the  practice  of  embalming.  Their 
social  institutions,  polyandry, 
abandonment  of  the  aged,  separate 


GUANIDINE 


3723 


GUARDA 


paths  for  the  sexes,  and  their  non- 
metallic  technology  (rough  pottery, 
bone  and  shell  ornaments,  stone 
and  wood  implements)  were  de- 
termined by  their  insulation.  Mas- 
tered by  Spain  in  the  loth  century, 
they  form  the  latent  substratum 
of  the  present  hispanified  popula- 
tion of  the  archipelago. 

Guanidine.  An  alkaline  sub- 
stance with  a  caustic  taste  which 
occurs  in  vetch  seedlings  and  sugar 
beet.  It  was  prepared  originally 
by  the  oxidation  of  guanine,  and 
hence  received  the  name  guani- 
dine.  Guanidine,  which  is  a  poi- 
sonous substance,  forms  a  series 
of  crystalline  salts  with  acids. 

Guanine  OR  IMIDOXANTHINE. 
White  powder  prepared  from 
Peruvian  guano  and  the  pancreas 
of  various  animals.  It  is  insoluble 
in  water,  alcohol,  or  ether,  and  has 
both  acid  and  basic  properties. 

Guano  (Peruvian  huana,  dung). 
Name  originally  given  to  the  ac- 
cumulated excreta  of  birds  found 
principally  upon  the  shores  and 
islands  of  the  South  American 
coast,  chiefly  Peru  and  Chile,  and 
little  frequented  islands  in  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  The  original  de- 
posits of  land  and  sea  birds  have 
been  much  depleted  by  commercial 
demand,  and  artificial  substitutes, 
chiefly  of  German  origin,  are  largely 
employed.  The  principal  ingredients 
of  guano  are  phosphorus  and  am- 
monia, and  compounds  which  have 
these  elements  as  a  basis  illustrate 
the  difference  between  a  natural 
manure  and  a  fertiliser.  One  is  the 
natural  excreta  of  the  bird  or  animal, 
the  other  a  chemical  substitute. 

Guantanamo.  Town  of  Cuba. 
Situated  in  the  S.E.  of  the  island, 
it  is  about  10  m.  from  Guantanamo 
Bay,  and  is  connected  by  rly.  with 
Santiago,  40  m.  to  the  W.,  and 
Caimanera,  its  port,  12  m.  to  the 
S.  Leased  to  the  U.S.A.  as  a  naval 
station  in  1903,  it  has  a  large  and 
safe  harbour,  and  carries  on  a  con- 
siderable export  trade  in  sugar, 
coffee,  and  lumber,  the  products  of 
the  locality.  Guantanamo  was  oc- 
cupied by  a  British  naval  force  in 
1741,  and  was  settled  by  French 
emigrants  from  Haiti  about  the 
beginning  of  the  19th  century. 
Pop.  60,200. 

Guapay  OR  Rio  GRANDE.  River 
of  Bolivia,  tributary  to  the  Ma- 
more.  Rising  in  the  dept.  of 
Cochabamba,  it  flows  S.E.  and 
then  N.W.,  receiving  the  Piray 
and  the  Yapacani  on  its  right  or  S. 
side.  The  mainhead  stream  of  the 
Mamore,  it  is  often  called  the  Rio 
Grande  or  Great  River.  Its  length 
is  about  550  m. 

Guapore  OR  ITENEZ.  River  of 
Brazil.  It  rises  in  Matto  Grosso, 
and  flows  N.W.,  joining  the  Ma- 


more.  For  part  of  its  course  it 
forms  the  boundary  between 
Brazil  and  Bolivia.  It  has  a  length 
of  about  940  m.,  and  is  navigable 
for  small  craft  to  the  town  of 
Matto  Grosso. 

Guarana  (Paullinia  sarbili-s)- 
Climbing  shrub  of  the  natural  order 
Sapindaceae.  It  is  a  native  of 
Brazil,  and  has  alternate,  compound 
leaves,  tendrils,  and  small  whitish 
flowers  in  sprays.  The  pear-shaped 
fruit  is  three-celled,  each  cell  con- 
taining a  single  seed  partly  en- 
veloped in  an  aril  (like  the  mace  of 
nutmeg).  These  seeds  are  dried  and 
ground  to  a  fine  powder,  moistened 
and  kneaded  into  a  dough  which 
is  rolled  into  sticks  6  ins.  or  8  ins. 
long.  It  is  grated  into  sugar  and 
water,  and  drunk  as  a  beverage. 
Its  essential  principle  is  identical 
with  that  of  tea,  and  it  is  supposed 
to  ward  off  all  sorts  of  disease. 

Guarani  (Caraio,  warrior).  Term 
loosely  applied  to  a  group  of  S. 
American  Indian  tribes  of  allied 
speech,  belonging  to  the  Caraio 
race.  They  are  round-headed,  of 
medium  height,  and  massively 
built.  The  light-brown  tint  of  the 
S.  Brazil  forest  tribes  becomes 
darker  westward.  The  Bolivian 
tribes  retain  the  long  octagonal 
huts,  roomy  canoes,  long  bows  and 
arrows,  and  body-paint  of  the 
early  Caribs.  See  Chiquitos  ;  Chi- 
riguanos  ;  Cocamas  ;  Omaguas. 

Guarantee  (old  Fr.  garanfie, 
warranty).  Term  of  English  law. 
It  means  a  promise  to  be  answer- 
able for  the  debt,  default,  or  mis- 
carriage of  another.  Guarantee 
necessarily  supposes  three  parties 
and  two  obligations  :  (1)  the  credi- 
tor or  person  with  whom  the  prin- 
cipal obligation  is  entered  into  ; 
(2)  the  principal  debtor,  or  person 
who  enters  into  an  obligation  with 
the  creditor ;  and  (3)  the  surety 
or  guarantor,  who  enters  into  a 
secondary  obligation  with  the 
creditor  that  the  principal  debtor 
shall  perform  his  obligation. 

The  obligation  guaranteed  may 
be  a  mere  debt,  or  it  may  be  the 
performance  of  a  contract,  e.g. 
when  someone  guarantees  that 
another  shall  do  certain  work  in  a 
certain  way,  or  in  a  certain  time. 
The  common  fidelity  guarantee  is 
merely  a  contract  to  guarantee  the 
faithful  carrying  out  of  his  con- 
tract by  a  servant,  etc.  A  guarantee 
must,  under  the  Statute  of  Frauds, 
be  evidenced  by  writs  signed  by 
the  guarantor.  A  guarantee  is  a 
contract  requiring  the  utmost  good 
faith.  The  creditor  must  disclose 
everything  he  knows  which  might 
affect  the  mind  of  the  guarantor, 
e.g.  if  A  is  to  guarantee  the  honesty 
of  a  servant  of  B's,  and  B  knows, 
and  does  not  tell  A,  who  does  not 


kno\v,that  the  servant  has  previous- 
ly been  guilty  of  theft,  the  guar- 
antee is  bad.  During  the  currency 
of  the  guarantee  the  creditor  must 
not  deal  with  the  principal  debtor 
behind  the  guarantor's  back  so  as  to 
make  the  guarantee  more  onerous. 
The  Partnership  Act,  1890,  pro- 
vides that  a  continuing  guarantee 
given  to  a  firm  or  to  a  third  person 
in  respect  of  the  transactions  of  a 
firm  is,  in  the  absence  of  agree- 
ment to  the  contrary,  revoked  as 
to  future  transactions  by  any 
change  in  the  constitution  of  the 
firm,  to  or  in  respect  of  which  the 
guarantee  was  given. 

Guarantee  Association.  So- 
ciety for  guaranteeing  persons 
against  loss.  In  the  United  King- 
dom the  most  usual  kind  are  those 
that,  in  return  for  annual  pay- 
ments, undertake  to  make  good 
any  defalcations  on  the  part  of 
persons  occupying  positions  of 
trust,  e.g.  a  cashier.  In  the  United 
States  there  are-  many  societies 
that  guarantee  titles  to  land,  rents, 
trade  debts,  investments,  and 
things  of  that  kind.  See  Fidelity 
Guarantee;  Insurance;  Lloyds. 

Guard.  Word  used  in  several 
senses,  generally  with  the  idea  of 
protection.  In  one  sense  the  guard 
are  the  soldiers  on  duty  to  protect 
the  person  or  residence  of  the 
sovereign,  or  military  headquarters. 
In  London  and  Windsor  mount- 
ing the  guard  and  changing  the 
guard  are  ceremonies  of  some  in- 
terest. At  the  Horse  Guards, 
Whitehall,  the  ceremony  is  per- 
formed at  11  every  morning. 
From  guard  comes  the  word 
guards  to  denote  regiments  of 
soldiers,  although  yeomen  of  the 
guard  is  an  example  of  the  older 
use  of  the  word.  Armies  on  the 
march  usually  include  an  advance 
guard  and  a  rear  guard.  See 
Guards  ;  Sentinel. 

Guarda.  District  of  Portugal, 
in  the  prov.  of  Beira.  Situated  S. 
of  the  river  Douro,  it  is  bounded 
on  the  E.  by  the  Spanish  prov.  of 
Salamanca.  The  Serra  da  Estrella 
traverses  the  S.  part  of  the  district, 
which  is  well  watered  and  pro- 
ductive, containing  several  impor- 
tant towns.  Guarda  is  the  capital. 
Area,  2,1 16  sq.  m.  Pop.  271,816. 

Guarda.  City  of  Portugal, 
capital  of  Guarda  district.  It  is  the 
highest  inhabited  city  in  the  penin- 
sula, standing  at  an  alt.  of  3,369  ft. 
on  the  N.E.  slopes  of  the  Serra  da 
Estrella,  105  m.  by  rly.  N.E.  of 
Coimbra.  Enclosed  by  ancient 
walls,  it  has  a  ruined  castle,  built 
as  a  "guard"  against  the  Moors, 
hence  the  name.  The  stately 
cathedral  dates  from  the  16th  cen- 
tury, and  there  is  a  large  sana- 
torium. Pop.  6,500. 


GUARDAFU1 


3724 


GUARINI 


Guardant  in  heraldry 


i 


Guardafui,  CAPE.  Most  easterly 
portion  of  the  African  continent ; 
it  is  situated  in  Italian  Somaliland. 
A  bold  and  commanding  headland, 
it  presents  the  appearance  of  a 
crouching  lion  when  approached 
from  the  S.  The  surrounding 
country  is  rocky  and  barren,  but 
two  or  three 
small  coast 
villages  are 
situated  near 
the  cape. 

Guardant. 
In  heraldry,  a 
four-footed 
beast  shown 
standing  side- 
ways,  with 
its  face  turned  to  the  spectator. 
If  walking  past  in  profile  it  is 
passant,  if  looking  backwards 
regardant. 

Guard! ,  FRANCESCO  (1712-93). 
Venetian  painter.  Born  in  Venice, 
he  was  a  pupil  of  Canaletto.  His 
master's  ren- 
dering of  archi- 
t  e  c  t  u  r  e  was 
firmer  and 
more  accurate, 
but  G  u  a  r  d  i 
was  a  better 
colourist,  and 
depicted  atmo- 
spheric effects 

with  truer  feel-      Francesco  Guardi, 
ing,  and  water       Venetian  painter 
with  greater  buoyancy.     There  are 
several    good    examples    in     the 
National  Gallery,  London. 

Guardian  (old  Fr.  garder,  to 
guard).  Word  meaning  literally 
one  who  guards  or  protects  an- 
other. It  is  used  in  two  main  senses. 
In  English  law  a  guardian  is  a 
person  appointed  by  the  father  or 
by  the  court  to  look  after  the 
person  of  an  infant.  The  father  can 
appoint  a  guardian  by  his  will,  but 
cannot  oust  the  mother,  who  will 
act  with  the  father's  nominee.  A 
guardian  can  forbid  his  ward's  mar- 
riage, control  his  education,  and 
limit  his  pocket  money,  and  gener- 
ally takes  the  place  of  the  father. 
If  the  ward  is  refractory  the  guar- 
dian can  make  him  a  ward  of  court 
by  applying  to  the  Chancery 
Division.  A  guardian  ad  litem  is  a 
person  appointed  by  the  court  to 
represent  an  infant  defendant.  A 
guardian  is  not  allowed  to  make  a 
profit  out  of  his  office,  and  his  duty 
is  to  see  that  the  ward  is  brought 
up  in  a  manner  befitting  his  station 
in  life.  A  guardian  cannot  interfere 
with  the  ward's  religion,  which 
must  be  that  of  his  father  until  he 
is  old  enough  to  choose. 

In  England,  guardians  of  the 
poor  are  the  men  and  women 
elected  by  the  ratepayers  to  look 
after  the  poor,  educate  the  chil- 


dren, manage  the  workhouses,  etc. 
In  each  union  of  parishes  they 
form  a  board  of  guardians.  They 
were  established  by  an  Act  of  1834, 
and  until  1894  were  nominated  in 
addition  to  elected  guardians.  At 
that  time,  also,  the  boards  of  guar- 
dians in  rural  districts  were  made 
virtually  identical  with  the  rural 
district  councils.  See  England : 
Local  Government;  Health,  Min- 
istry of ;  Poor  Law. 

Guardian,  THE.  London  weekly 
newspaper.  It  was  established 
Jan.  21,  1846,  a  few  weeks  after 
the  secession  of  Newman  to  the 
Church  of  Rome,  to  provide  a  rally- 
ing point  for  the  Tractarians  who 
remained  loyal  to  the  Church  of 
England,  and  to  vindicate  its 
catholic  position.  The  founders 
included  Frederick  Rogers  (after- 
wards Lord  Blachford),  R.  W. 
Church  (afterwards  dean  of  S. 
Paul's),  and  the  Rev.  J.  B.  Mozley. 
Interpreting  the  word  "catholic" 
liberally,  The  Guardian  endeavours 
to  be  the  organ  of  the  whole 
Church.  It  devotes  space  to  litera- 
ture, music,  and  art,  and  was  de- 
scribed by  W.  E.  H.  Lecky  in  1899 
as  reflecting  "  the  best  intellectual 
influences  of  the  time."  The  editor- 
ship was  originally  in  commission 
among  the  founders,  supported 
by  the  managership  of  Martin 
Sharp.  Later  editors  have  been 
D.  C.  Lathbury,  1883-99  ;  Canon 
Walter  Hobhouse,  1900-5  ;  and  J. 
Penderel-Brodhurst.  In  1903  it 
insorporated  The  Churchwoman, 
founded  in  1895. 

Guardian  Angel.  One  of  a 
number  of  celestial  beings  who,  in 
Jewish,  Christian,  and  Moslem 
belief,  act  as  guardians  of  the 
human  race.  In  the  early  Christian 
Church  it  was  believed  that  each 
individual  was  under  the  care  of  a 
particular  angel,  also  that  a  good 
angel  and  a  bad  angel  were  in  con- 
stant conflict  for  the  possession  of 
each  man's  soul.  Of  Biblical  re- 
ferences, Gen.  xxiv,  7,  40  ;  xlviii, 
16  ;  Ex.  xxiii,  20,  23  ;  xxxii,  34  ; 
xxxiii,  2 ;  Ps.  xci,  11  ;  Dan.  iii, 
25,  28;  vi,  22;  Matt,  xviii,  10; 
Rev.  i,  20  ;  ii,  1,  are  among  those 
cited  in  this  connexion.  In  the 
N.T.  the  most  notable  reference  is 
Matt,  xviii,  10. 

The  theme  of  the  guardian  angel 
is  frequent  in  poetic  literature,  e.g. 
Shakespeare's  "  Angels  and  minis- 
ters of  grace  defend  us,"  Hamlet  i, 
4 ;  the  "  Holy  angels  guard  thy 
bed"  of  Watts's  Cradle  Hymn; 
and  the  lines  of  Samuel  Rogers' s 
Human  Life  : 

A  guardian  angel  o'er  his  life  presiding. 
Doubling  his  pleasures,  and  his  cares 

dividing. 

Similar  ideas  of  celestial  guardian- 
ship are  associated  with  the  stars, 
e.g.  Praed's  "A  star  before  the 


darkened  soul,  To  guide,  and  glad- 
den, and  control."  Note  also 
Judges  v,  20,  "  the  stars  in  their 
courses  fought  (for  Israel)  against 
Sisera."  See  Angel. 

Guards.  In  the  military  sense, 
soldiers  of  superior  type,  prestige, 
and  privilege.  They  were  origin- 
ally the  bodyguard  of  emperors 
and  kings,  and  in  Britain  and  other 
countries  the  nucleus  of  the  stand- 
ing army.  Famous  bodies  of 
Guards  were  the  Praetorians  at 
Rome,  the  Gardes  du  Corps  and 
Swiss  Guards  in  the  service  of  the 
kings  of  France,  the  old  and  young 
Guard  of  Napoleon,  and  the  Papal 
Guard.  Before  the  Great  War  the 
Prussian  Guard  was  the  corps 
d' elite  of  the  German  army,  while 
the  Russian  and  other  armies  had 
guard  regiments. 

In  England  the  kings  had  their 
bodyguard  from  early  times,  and 
the  yeomen  of  the  guard  and  the 
king's  bodyguard  for  Scotland  are 
survivals  of  that  period.  The 
existing  Guards  date  from  the 
time  of  Charles  II,  and  were  then 
divided  into  horse  and  foot.  The 
horse  guards  consist  now  of  three 
regiments,  1st  and  2nd  Life  Guards, 
and  Royal  Horse  Guards,  col- 
lectively known  as  the  household 
cavalry.  The  foot  guards  are  the 
three  old  regiments,  1st,  2nd,  and 
3rd,  or  Grenadier,  Coldstream,  and 
Scots  Guards,  to  which  the  Irish 
Guards  were  added  in  1902  and 
the  Welsh  Guards  in  1 9 1 5.  During 
the  Great  War  a  new  unit,  the 
Machine  Gun  Guards,  was  estab- 
lished. Together  they  form  the 
brigade  of  Guards,  which  has  its 
depot  at  Caterham.  To  this,  men 
of  superior  physique  only  are 
•admitted.  The  title  of  Dragoon 
Guards  is  merely  a  name  given  to 
certain  cavalry  regiments.  Memo- 
rials to  the  Guards'  services  in  the 
Great  War  are  to  be  erected  on  the 
Horse  Guards  Parade,  London,  and 
in  Holy  Trinity  Church,  Windsor. 
See  Army ;  Butler,  Lady. 

Guarico.  State  of  Central  Vene- 
zuela, lying  S.  of  Miranda.  It  was 
formed  in  1901  out  of  a  portion  of 
the  state  of  Miranda.  Area  about 
25,500  sq.  m.  Its  capital  is  Cala- 
bozo,  situated  on  the  Rio  Guarico, 
a  tributary  of  the  Orinoco  (q.v.). 
Pop.  220,488. 

Guarini,  GIOVANNI  BATTISTA 
(1537-1612).  Italian  poet.  Born 
at  Ferrara,  Dec.  10,  1537,  he  was 
for  some  time  a  professor  at  the 
university  there.  At  the  age  of 
30  he  entered  the  service  of  the 
duke  of  Ferrara.  He  is  chiefly 
remembered  as  the  author  of  II 
Pastor  Fido,  a  pastoral  drama 
first  produced  in  1585.  He  also 
wrote  Rime,  1601,  Latin  orations, 
and  died  at  Venice  on  Oct.  6,  1612. 


GUARNER1 


3725 


GUATEMALA 


GuarnerioRGuARNERius.  Name 
of  one  of  the  three  great  families 
of  Italian  violin  makers  of  Cre- 
mona who  nourished  during  the 
17th  and  18th  centuries.  Andreas, 
the  first  of  the  family,  was  a  com- 
panion of  Stradivarius  in  the  work- 
shop of  Amati,  and  his  work  dates 
from  about  1650-95.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  sons,  Peter  and 
Joseph,  and  his  grandson,  Peter, 
son  of  Joseph  ;  but  the  most  cele- 
brated of  the  family  was  his 
nephew,  Joseph.  He  was  known 
as  del  Gesu,  because  the  letters 
I.H.S.  appear  after  his  name  on  the 
labels  in  his  violins.  His  finest 
instruments  date  from  about 
1725-40. 

Guastalla.  City  of  Italy,  in  the 
prov.  of  Reggio  Emilia.  It  stands 
near  the  river  Po,  and  is  a  rly. 
junction  19  m.  by  rly.  N.  of  Reggio. 
Founded  by  the  Lombards  in  the 
7th  century,  it  has  16th  century 
fortifications,  a  ruined  castle,  a 
10th  century  cathedral  (restored), 
and  a  school  of  music.  Here  in 
1734  the  Austrians  were  defeated 
by  the  Franco-Sardinian  forces. 
Pop.  11,881. 

Guatemala.  Republic  of  Central 
America.  It  lies  S.  and  E.  of 
Mexico,  and  is  bounded  S.W.  by 
the  Pacific,  E.  by 
British  Honduras 
and  the  Gulf  of 
Honduras,  and  S. 
by  San  Salvador 
and  Honduras. 
Its  area  is  48,290 
sq.  m. ;  the  pop. 
2,003,579,  of 
are  pure  Indians 
and  the  majority  of  the  rest  half- 
castes,  only  a  very  small  propor- 
tion being  of  European  descent. 
For  administrative  purposes  the 
republic  is  divided  into  22  depts. 
The  capital  was  Guatemala,  but  on 
Jan.  3  and  4,  1918,  an  earthquake 
laid  the  whole  city  in  ruins.  Other 
important  towns  are  Quezalte- 
nango,  Coban,  and  Totonicapan. 

Physical  Features 

The  surface  is  mountainous, 
except  near  the  N.E.  coast,  where  it 
is  low-lying  and  marshy  forest 
land.  Several  mountain  ranges, 
mainly  belonging  to  the  Antillean 
system,  traverse  the  country.  The 

Erincipal  ranges  are  the  Cordilleras 
•om  S.E.  to  N.W.,  the  Sierra 
Madre  in  the  W.  and  S.,  the  Sierra 
de  las  Minas,  the  Sierra  de  Chama, 
the  Sierra  de  Santa  Cruz,  and  the 
Sierra  de  Copan  in  the  centre  and 
E. ,  the  latter  close  to  the  Honduras 
border.  The  loftiest  peaks  in  the 
Cordillera  are  Tajamulco  (12,600 
ft.)  and  Tacama  (12,400  ft.)  in  the 
S.W.  ;  Acatenango  (11,100  ft.)  and 
the  volcano  Fuego  in  the  south - 
central ;  and  the  volcanoes  Pacaya 


Guatemala  arms 
whom  60    p.c. 


and  Santa  Maria  on  the  S.  slope. 
In  Oct.,  1902,  the  latter  erupted, 
causing  widespread  havoc.  Earth- 
quakes are  of  frequent  occurrence. 
One  in  April,  1902,  shattered  the 
town  of  Quezaltenango,  other 
severe  visitations  being  those  of 
1863  and  1874.  The  coast-line  is 
unbroken  on  the  Pacific  side,  and 
the  only  indentation  on  the  Atlan- 
tic side  is  the  Bay  of  Amatique, 
an  extension  of  the  Gulf  of  Hon- 
duras. There  are  no  promontories 
of  importance. 

The  Usumacinta,which  forms  part 
of  the  Mexican  boundary,  the  Mota- 
gua,  and  Polochic  are  the  largest  of 
the  numerous  but  comparatively 
unimportant  rivers.  Steamships  ply 
on  the  Polochic  and  Dulce,  and  a 
few  other  rivers  can  be  navigated 
by  light  craft,  but  the  remainder 
are  unnavigable.  The  principal 
lakes  are  the  Izabal,  Atitlan  (noted 
for  its  crabs),  Amatitlan,  Ayarza, 
Peten,  and  Guija.  The  chief  ports 
are  San  Jose,  Ocos,  and  Champerico 
on  the  Pacific  coast,  and  Santa 
Tomas,  Livingston,  and  Puerto 
Barrios  on  the  Caribbean  Sea. 

The  narrow  Pacific  slope  is  well 
watered,  and  productive  up  to  an 
elevation  of  5,000  ft.,  and  is  the 
most  densely 
populate  d 
part  of  the 
country.  The 
Atlantic  slope 
is  thinly  popu- 
lated, and  of 
no  great  com- 
mercial im- 
portance, al- 
though coffee  is  raised  in  the  Coban 
district.  Bananas  are  cultivated 
in  the  Motagua  valley  and  around 
Lake  Izabal,  and  lumbering  is 
carried  on  in  the  Peten  region. 

The  climate  varies  according  to 
the  elevation.  Torrid  heat  prevails 
on  the  Pacific  lowlands,  where 
yellow  fever  is  a  scourge.  From 
2,000  ft.  to  5,000  ft.  the  climate  is 
agreeable  and  like  perpetual  spring. 
Above  5,000  ft.  it  is  cold.  The 
rainy  season  is  from  May  to 
October,  extended  by  two  months 
on  the  coast. 

The  most  important  crops  are 
coffee,  plantains,  bananas,  corn, 
rice,  and  potatoes.  The  cotton- 
growing  industryis  being  developed. 
On  the  plateaux  horses,  mules, 
cattle,  sheep,  goats,  and  pigs  are 
reared  in  large  numbers.  The 
mineral  wealth  of  the  country  is 
immense,  but  the  mining  industry 
is  as  yet  undeveloped.  The  most 
important  mining  zones  are  in  the 
depts.  of  Chiquimula  and  Huehue- 
tenango.  Gold,  silver,  coal,  lignite, 
manganese,  copper,  tin,  lead,  cinna- 
bar, slate,  alum,  antimony,  marble, 
alabaster,  plumbago, 


Guatemala  Mer- 
chant nag ;  white 
and  light  blue 


bitumen,  porphyry,  zinc,  and  chalk 
are  all  found,  while  opals  and  other 
precious  stones  exist.  The  Peten 
forests  abound  in  valuable  trees, 
producing  mahogany,  dyewoods, 
oak,  pine,  and  spruce  wood.  Man- 
grove, bamboo,  agave,  coconut  and 
palm  trees  are  also  present,  while 
there  is  a  wealthy  variety  of  orchids 
and  other  flowers  and  ferns. 

Among  the  animals  met  with  in 
Guatemala  are  the  jaguar,  cougar, 
tapir,  honey-bear,  wild  pig,  quetzal, 
ocelot,  puma,  armadillo,  red  deer, 
and  monkeys.  Reptiles  include 
the  alligator,  iguana,  turtles,  boas 
and  various  other  kinds  of  snakes  ; 
bird  life  is  prolific  and  varied; 
the  insects  include  mosquitoes, 
locusts,  tarantulas,  grasshoppers, 
and  myriads  of  tormenting  flies. 
Railways  and  Communications 

The  railways  and  communica- 
tions of  Guatemala  are  as  yet  in- 
adequate. In  1912  the  Guatemala 
Rly.  (195  m.),  the  Guatemala 
Central  Rly.  (139  m.),  the  Occiden- 
tal Rly.  (51  m.),  and  the  Ocos  Rly. 
(22  m. )  were  incorporated  as  the 
International  Rly.  of  Central  Amer- 
ica. In  1914  "a  60-m.  railroad 
between  Santa  Maria  and  Las 
Cruces  was  purchased,  and  traffic 
was  opened  in  Oct.,  1916.  Other 
lines  are  projected,  but  away  from 
the  rlys.  most  of  the  traffic  is  borne 
by  mules,  although  there  are  few 
good  roads  in  the  country.  An 
intra-coastal  canal,  called  the 
Chiquimulilla  canal,  is  being  con- 
structed from  San  Jose  to  the 
Esclaves  river,  close  to  the  Pacific 
seaboard.  There  are  4,337  m.  of 
telegraph  lines  in  -operation.  The 
prevailing  religion  is  Roman 
Catholicism,  but  all  other  creeds 
are  tolerated.  Education  is  com- 
pulsory and  free. 

The  republic,  which  dates  from 
March  21,  1847,  is  governed  by  a 
president,  elected  for  a  term  of 
six  years ;  a  national  assembly 
elected  by  popular  vote  at  the  rate 
of  one  member  for  every  20,000 
inhabitants  ;  and  a  council  of  state 
consisting  of  13  members,  partly 
appointed  by  the  president  and 
partly  by  the  national  assembly. 

The  money  is  the  paper  peso 
with  a  nominal  value  of  4s.,  the 
nickel  real,  half  real,  and  quarter 
real,  worth  6d.,  3d.,  and  l|d. 
respectively,  and  copper  coins  of 
25  and  12£  centavos. 

HISTORY.  Guatemala  was  in- 
vaded and  subdued  by  Pedro  de 
Alvarado,  an  officer  in  the  train  of 
Cortes,  between  1522-1524,  and 
for  nearly  300  years  was  ruled 
from  Spain.  The  territory  then 
included  all  the  countries  in  the 
region  now  called  Central  America, 
and  it  was  not  until  1821  that 
she  threw  off  the  Spanish  yoke, 


GUATEMALA 


3726 


GUAYCURU 


proclaimed  her  independence,  and 
joined  the  Confederation  of  Central 
America,  which  lasted  for  26  years. 
From  1847,  when  the  republic  was 
founded,  down  to  1865,  the  country 
was  virtually  in  the  hands  of  a 
dictator  named  Rafael  Carrera,  an 
Indian  of  obscure  origin,  whose 
dictatorship  terminated  with  his 
death.  In  1871  General  Barrios 
was  elected  president,  and  under 
his  rule  the  republic  prospered. 
War,  however,  broke  out  with 
Salvador,  Nicaragua,  and  Costa 
Rica  in  1885,  over  an  attempt  to 
re-establish  the  Central  American 
Confederation,  and  Barrios  was 
killed.  A  period  of  anarchy 
followed,  with  civil  war  in  1906, 
but  the  internecine  strife  was 
finally  quelled  by  the  intervention 
of  Presidents  Roosevelt  and  Diaz. 
The  president,  Carlos  Herrera,  was 
elected  in  March,  1920. 

Guatemala.  City  of  Guatemala, 
Central  America,  and  capital  of  the 
republic.  A  well-built  town,  with 
broad,  straight  streets  and  contain- 
ing a  cathedral,  a  university,  and 
many  fine  public  buildings,  it  was 
entirely  destroyed  by  earthquake 
Jan.  3  and  4,  1918.  It  stood  on  an 
undulating  plain,  80  m.  by  rly. 
from  San  Jose,  its  port  on  the 
Pacific,  and  was  also  connected  by 
rly.  with  a  port  on  the  Gulf  of 
Honduras.  The  third  capital  of 
this  name,  it  replaced  Almalonga 
or  La  Ciudad  Vieja  and  Guatemala 
la  Antigua  (25  m.  to  the  W.),  both 
destroyed  by  earthquakes.  In  1920 
the  new  city  was  being  rebuilt  about 
12  m.  S.  of  the  recently  destroyed 
one.  See  Earthquake. 

Guava  (Psidium  guava).  Small 
tree  of  the  natural  order  Myrtaceae, 
a  native  of  the  W.  Indies.  The 
branches  are  four-sided,  the  leaves 
opposite,  oval,  and  downy  beneath, 
and  the  flowers  white,  singly  or  in 
clusters  of  three.  The  fruit  is  apple- 
or  pear-shaped,  with  thin,  yellow 
rind  filled  with  pulpy  yellow  or  red 
flesh,  of  acid-sweet  flavour,  in 


which  are  numer-  is    divided   into   two   sections,   an 

ous  hard,  kidney-  old  town,  narrow,  dirty,  and  badly 

shaped    seeds.     It  paved,  and  a  new  one  well  laid  out. 

is     made     into  The    seat   of    a    bishop,    the   city 

guava     jelly    and  possesses  numerous  churches   and 

guava  cheese.  The  educational  establishments.    There 

purple  guava  is  P.  are  also  large  shipyards  and  a  good 

cattleyanum,  a  na-  harbour,    protected    by    a    break- 

tive  of  Brazil.  water.       The    city    is     low-lying, 

Guaviare,  the  sanitation  bad,  and  the  water 

GUAYABERO    OR      Supply    poor. 

LESSEPS.  River  Jn  1913  a  scheme  to  apply  an 
of  Colombia,  a  effective  system  of  sanitation  was 
tributary  of  the  begun  at  a  cost  of  £2,000,000. 
Orinoco.  It  rises  Manufactures  include  soap,  candles, 

liquors,  mineral 
waters,  alcohol, 
hats,  and  food  pro- 
ducts, and  there  is 
trade  in  tobacco, 
hides,  cotton,  rub- 
ber, bark,  cacao, 
quinine,  and 
metals.  TheGuaya- 


Guatemala  City,  Central  America.    Cathedral  before  its 
destruction,  and,  top,  left,  view  of  the  Ermita  valley 


q  u  i  1  -  Q  u  i  t  o  rly. 
terminus  is  on  the 
opposite  side  of 
the  estuary,  but 
another  line  to  the 
coast  is  now  con- 
structed. The  port 
is  visited  by  Euro- 
pean  steamers 
via  the  Panama 
Canal.  A  confla- 

in  the  Cordillera  near  Bogota,  and     gration  in  1896  destroyed   much  of 

flows  generally  in  an   easterly  di-      the  city.      Pop.  93,851. 

rection  for  700  m. 

It  is  navigable  for    ^ 

small  craft  for    | 

most  of  its  course.     f 

Guayaquil    OK  ^^^sS^^^^^SS^Wl 

SANTIAGO  DE  GUA-    I  **^^^9^!^^^^H 

YAQUIL.       Seaport 

and  city  of  Ecua-  J^  ^*gf "•—"*gr" ~*v~ " 

dor,  capital  of  the    - 

prov.    of    Guayas. 

It  stands    on    the 

W.     bank    of    the 

estuary     of     the 

Guayas,    at    the 

head    of   the  Gulf 

Guayaquil.     General  view  of  this  city  and  seaport  of 
Ecuador.  South  America 


of  Guayaquil.     It 

is    the    port     for 

Quito,   from    which    it    is  distant 

about    150    m.    S.S.W.       The  city 


uuava.       Foliage,  flower,  and  fruit 
of  the  West  Indian  tree 


Guayaquil,  GULF  OF.  Large 
inlet  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  on  the 
W.  coast  of  S.  America,  between 
Ecuador  and  Peru.  It  is  100  m. 
wide  at  its  mouth,  and  contains 
the  island  of  Puna,  32  m.  long 
and  12  m.  broad. 

Guaycuru.  Family  of  primitive 
S.  American  Indian  tribes,  mainly 
in  the  Gran  Chaco,  N.  Argentina. 
Their  speech  is  more  guttural  and 
primitive  than  the  Guarani,  from 
which  they  get  their  name.  The 
Chaco  tribes  are  predatory  nomad 
horsemen,  who  used  bows  and 
arrows,  and  knives  made  of  fish- 
jaws.  They  practised  infanticide, 
but  not  cannibalism.  Westward, 
the  Matacos  were  widespread.  See 
Abipones  ;  Charruas  ;  Tobas. 


GUAYMAS 


3727 


GUEBWILLER 


Guaymas.  Seaport  of  Mexico, 
in  the  state  of  Sonora.  Situated  in 
the  Gulf  of  California,  it  has  a  fine 
natural  harbour,  affording  secure 
anchorage,  and  is  connected  by  a 
line  to  Nogales  with  the  rly.  sys- 
tem of  the  U.S.A.  It  trades  in  the 
produce  of  the  locality,  its  chief 
exports  being  gold,  t  silver,  and 
pearls.  Pop.  8,650.  •" 

Gubbings  OR  GUBBENS  (Dialect- 
word,  fish -parings).  Contemptuous 
name  formerly  given  to  an  un- 
civilized community  in  the  vicinity 
of  Brent  Tor,  Devonshire.  They 
were  reputed  in  Fuller's  Worthies 
of  England,  1662,  to  have  de- 
scended from  several  social  out- 
casts two  centuries  earlier,  and  to 
have  multiplied  without  marriage. 
They  occupied  mean  hovels  or 
caves,  subsisted  on  pilfered  sheep, 
and  spoke  a  debased  local  dialect. 
They  developed  great  fleetness  of 
foot,  revenged  all  wrongs,  resisted 
the  civil  power,  and  were  governed 
by  an  elected  king  of  the  Gubbings. 
The  tradition  was  graphically  util- 
ised in  Kingsley's  Westward  Ho  ! 
The  colloquialism  "  greedy  Gub- 
bins"  as  a  variant  for  greedyguts 
still  lingers.  See  Doones,  The. 

Gubbio.  City  of  Italy.  In  the 
prov.  of  Perugia,  it  is  the  ancient 
Iguvium  and  the  medieval  Eugu- 
bium.  It  lies  at  the  base  and  on  the 
slopes  of  Monte  Calvo,  at  an  alt.  of 
1,600  ft.,  26  m.  S.  of  Urbino.  The 
city  is  typically  medieval,  with 
many  old  palaces  and  churches. 
The  cathedral  dates  from  the  13th 
century,  and  the  Gothic  palace  of 
the  dukes  of  Urbino  was  rebuilt  in 
Renaissance  style.  The  municipal 
palace  contains  .  the  Eugubine 
Tables  (q.v,). 

The  Palazzo  dei  Consoli  (1332- 
46),  a  huge  pinnacled  building  with 
a  tower,  is  now  a  national  monu- 
ment. Above  this  palace  stands 
the  convent  of  Sant'  Ubaldo.  The 
Festa  dei  Ceri  (Feast  of  Candles) 
is  an  interesting  procession  through 


the  city  to  the  convent,  which 
takes  place  annually  on  May  15. 
Gubbio  has  long  been  famous  for 
its  majolica  ware.  Pop.  27,397. 
See  Gubbio,  L.  McCracken,  1905. 

Guben.  Town  of  Prussia.  A 
railway  junction,  it  stands  on  the 
Neisse,  22  m.  from  Frankfort-on- 
Oder.  It  has  some  textile  and 
other  industries,  including  the 
making  of  hats  and  cloth,  also 
pottery,  paper,  etc.,  and  its  chief 
buildings  are  churches,  a  museum, 
etc.  It  is  an  old  town  and  suffered 
much  in  various  wars.  After  being, 
in  turn,  under  the  rule  of  Bohemia 
and  Saxony,  it  passed  to  Prussia 
by  the  treaty  of  1815.  Pop.  38,590. 

Gubernatis,  COUNT  ANGELO  DE 
(1840-1913).  Italian  scholar  and 
critic.  Born  at  Turin,  April  7, 1840, 
he  became  professor  of  Sanskrit  at 
Florence  in  1863,  but  resigned  the 
position  on  marrying  a  relative  of 
Bakunin  (q.v.),  with  whose  revo- 
lutionary theories  he  was,  for  a 
time,  impressed.  He  was,  how- 
ever, re-elected  to  the  professorship 
in  1867.  In  1876  he  was  Italian 
delegate  at  the  International  Con- 
gress of  Orientalists,  and  two  years 
later  lectured  on  Manzoni  at  Ox- 
ford. He  founded  the  Indian 
Museum  at  Florence,  and  in  1891 
became  professor  of  Sanskrit  at 
Rome.  He  died  on  Feb.  26,  1913. 
His  chief  works  include  Zoological 
Mythology,  1872;  Mitologia  Ve- 
dica,  1874 ;  La  Mythologie  des 
Plantes,  1878-82  ;  Manzoni,  1878  ; 
Peregrinazioni  Indiani,  1886-87 ; 
La  Serbie  et  les  Serbes,  1897 ;  and 
La  Roumanie  et  les  Roumains, 


Gubbio,  Italy.     Church  of  S.  Gio- 
vanni Battista.     On  the  left,  part  of 
the  Palazzo  dei  Consoli 


Gude,  HANS  FREDREK  (1825- 
1903).  Norwegian  painter.  Born 
in  Christiania,  March  13,  1825,  he 
studied  under  Schirmer  and  Achen- 
bach,  the  latter  of  whom  per- 
suaded him  to  practise  landscapes 
instead  of  history.  In  1854  he 
became  professor  in  the  Academy 
of  Diisseldorf,  in  1864  in  that  of 
Karlsruhe,  and  in  1886  in  that  of 
Berlin,  where  he  died  Aug.  17, 
1903.  His  earlier  pictures  of  the 
scenery  of  the  mountains  and 
fiords  gave  him  a  foremost  place  in 
the  Norwegian  school.  Among  his 
best  works  may  be  named  Wed- 
ding at  Hardanger,  Shipwrecked 
Fishermen,  Fishing  by  Night,  The 
Vikings'  Ships  in  Sognefiord,  The 
Coast  of  Riigen,  Funeral  at 
Sognefiord. 

Gudea.  Sumerian  ruler  of  La- 
gash.  He  reigned  about  2450  B.C. 
He  imported  from  distant  lands 
cedar  beams,  diorite,  copper,  and 
gold,  for  adorning  his  buildings. 
De  Sarzec  found  beneath  his  tem- 
ple of  the  moon-god  Ningirsu  many 
headless  diorite  statues,  one  having 
on  the  knees  a  drawing-board  with 


a  building  plan.  A  head  subse 
quently  found  and  refitted  to  its 
torso  revealed  his  portrait ;  this 
is  now  in  Paris.  See  Babylonia. 

Guden.  Largest  river  of  Den- 
mark, in  Jutland.  It  traverses  the 
prov.  of  Viborg,  and,  flowing 
N.E.  falls  into  the  Randers  Fiord, 
an  opening  of  the  Kattegat,  15m. 
N.E.  of  Randers.  Its  length  is 
80  m. 

Gudgeon  (Gobio).  Genus  of 
small  fresh-water  fishes,  of  which 
one  species  is  common  in  most 


Gudgeon,  a  small  fresh-water  fish 


British  rivers.  It  is  related  to  the 
carp,  and  has  two  small  barbels 
on  the  snout.  It  is  usually  found 
on  the  gravelly  bed  of  the  stream, 
is  easily  caught,  and  is  fairly  good 
eating. 

Gudgeon  Pin.  Pin  connecting 
the  piston-rod  with  the  connecting- 
rod  at  its  small  end,  allowing  the 
latter  freedom  of  movement.  The 
term  is  often  applied  to  any  such 
connecting  pin.  See  Engine  ; 
Steam  Engine. 

Gudrun  OR  KUDRTTN.  German 
romantic  epic.  In  its  existing  form 
(13th  century)  it  is  of  later  date 
than  the  Nibelungenlied,  to  which 
in  metrical  form  it  is  somewhat 
similar.  It  deals  with  the  romance 
of  the  heroine  whose  name  it  bears, 
daughter  of  a  Friesland  king,  and 
of  her  parents,  and  embodies  many 
legends  of  the  North  Sea  and  coasts 
of  Normandy. 

Guebwiller  OR  GEBWEILER. 
Town  of  France,  in  Alsace-Lor- 
raine. It  is  situated  14  m.  S.S.W. 
of  Colmar  at  the  entrance  of  the 
valley  of  the  Lauch,  a  stream 
running  down  from  the  Vosges  Mts. 
The  church  of  S.  Leodegar,  begun 
in  1182,  and  restored  in  modern 
times,  deserves  mention.  The  in- 
dustries include  the  manufacture 
of  sugar,  textiles,  machinery,  etc., 
and  near  by  is  produced  one  of  the 
best  brands  of  Alsatian  wines. 
Pop.  12,900. 

During  the  French  advance  into 
Alsace  at  the  opening  of  the  Great 
War,  Guebwiller,  with  Mulhouse 
and  other  places,  was  occupied  by 
the  French,  Aug.  20,  1914,  for 
the  first  time  since  1871,  but  was 
soon  re-abandoned  to  the  Germans. 
It  was  restored  to  France  in  1919, 
under  the  terms  of  the  peace 
treaty.  See  Alsace,  Campaigns  in. 


GUELDER  ROSE 

Guelder  Rose  (Viburnum 
opulus).  Small  tree  of  the  natural 
order  Caprifoliaceae.  A  native  of 
Europe,  N.  and  W.  Asia,  and  N. 
America,  the  smooth  leaves  are  cut 
into  three  strongly  toothed  lobes. 
The  whitish  flowers  form  a  cluster 
of  which  the  central  mass  are  small 
(J  in.)  and  perfect,  of  a  creamy 
tint,  while  those  of  the  outer  ring 


Guelder  Rose.  Cluster  of  flowers  of 
the  wild  plant 

are  three  times  the  size,  quite 
white,  and  without  pistil  or  stamens. 
The  garden  guelder  rose,  or  snow- 
ball tree,  is  a  variety  in  which  all 
the  flowers  are  sterile  like  this 
outer  row.  The  wild  plant  is  more 
beautiful,  for  in  autumn  the  fertile 
flowers  have  been  succeeded  by 
large  juicy  berries  of  a  wonderful 
translucent  red.  The  flowers 
secrete  nectar,  and  on  the  leaf- 
stalk there  are  cup-shaped  glands 
filled  with  nectar  for  ants,  which 
keep  the  plant  free  from  cater- 
pillars. 

Guelph  OR  G  UELF.  Italian  form 
of  the  German  word  Welf,  and  as 
such  that  of  one  of  the  parties  in 
the  noted  medieval  struggle  be- 
tween Guelphs  and  Ghibellines. 
Meaning  wolf,  it  began  as  the 
Christian  name  of  a  race  of  nobles 
who  were  powerful  in  Bavaria  in 
the  llth  and  12th  centuries.  One 
of  them,  Henry  the  Proud,  became 
duke  of  Bavaria,  and  also  duke  of 
Saxony,  and  his  son  Henry  the 
Lion  was  one  of  the  most  power- 
ful of  the  German  princes.  The 
word  became  the  battle  cry  of 
their  followers,  and  was  taken  to 
Italy,  where  it  became  Guelph. 

Guelph    was    also    used    as    the 

name  of  the  family  to  which  the 

electors  of  Hanover  and,  therefore, 

the    sovereigns    of    Great    Britain 

from  1714  to  1837  belonged,  these 

being    descended   from    the   early 

Welfs.    It  became  more  prominent 

during  the  years  that  followed  the 

loss  of  his  throne  by  George  V  of 

.Hanover  in  1866.     His  cause  was 

I  spoken  of  as  that  of  the  Guelphs; 

1  the  sum  of  money  set  aside  for  him 

J , 


3728 

was  known  as  the  Guelph  Fund; 
and  there  was  a  Guelph  press.  See 
Hanover. 

Guelph.  City  of  Ontario, 
Canada,  capital  of  Wellington  co.  It 
stands  on  the  Speed  river,  about 
50  m.  W  by  S.  of  Toronto.  It  is 
served  by  the  G.T.R.,  C.P.R.,  and 
C.N.R.,  and  has  its  own  street  rly. 
There  are  many  factories,  making 
iron  goods,  furniture,  carpets, 
textiles,  beer,  soap,  etc.,  the 
motive  power  being  derived  from 
the  falls  of  the  Speed  ;  and  it  is  a 
market  for  the  agricultural  produce 
of  the  surrounding  district.  In 
1919  a  factory  for  spinning  linen 
from  Canadian  flax  was  opened. 
It  has  a  city  hall  and  market,  and 
the  Ontario  Agricultural  College, 
with  its  experimental  farm.  Pop. 
16,300. 

Guelph  and  Ghibelline.  Name 
of  two  political  factions,  prominent 
in  Italian  history  from  the  12th  to 
the  14th  century.  Primarily  they 
denoted  the  division  into  im- 
perialist and  anti-imperialist  par- 
ties, the  supporters,  that  is,  of  the 
supremacy  of  the  emperor,  as  head 
of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  in 
Italy,  and  his  opponents,  at  the 
head  of  whom  was  the  pope. 

The  papacy  disputed  the  head- 
ship of  Christendom  with  the  em- 
peror, and  there  was  consequently 
a  natural  alliance  between  the 
papacy  and  the  Guelphs,  while  the 
Ghibellines  supported  the  emperor. 
Theoretically,  the  Guelphs  were  the 
champions  of  local  and  popular 
liberties  and  freedom  from  foreign 
domination ;  but  in  the  eyes  of 
the  Ghibellines  they  were  the 
champions  of  a  decentralization 
which  meant  anarchy,  and  also  of 
ecclesiastical  ascendancy.  The 
Ghibellines  stood  for  a  strong 
central  authority. 

In  the  middle  of  the  13th  century 
the  house  of  Hohenstaufen  was 
finally  overthrown ;  imperialism 
and  papalism  ceased  to  provide 
the  fundamental  distinction.  But 
party  factions  still  clung  to  the  old 
labels,  and  they  became  even  more 
prominent  as  designating  local 
parties  than  they  had  been  as  ex- 
pressing great  political  principles, 
for  which,  however,  they  still  stood 
in  the  minds  of  idealists  such  as 
Dante.  The  feud,  which  was 
especially  strong  in  Florence,  was 
carried  into  almost  every  relation 
of  life,  and  each  had  its  distinct 
habits  and  customs  in  dress, 
manners,  and  the  like.  In  the  course 
of  the  14th  century  the  old  names 
as  well  as  the  old  principles  were 
gradually  displaced,  and  virtually 
disappeared  in  the  15th  century. 
See  Ghibelline  ;  Hohenstaufen  ; 
consult  also  The  Renaissance  in 
Italy,  J.  A.  Symonds,  1875.  'r 


GUERET 

Guelphic  Order,  ROYAL.  Hano- 
verian order  of  knighthood,  insti- 
tuted by  George  IV  of  England, 
when  Prince  Regent,  in  1815  ;  it 
was  last  bestowed  by  William  IV. 
The  badge  is  a  star  with  the  white 
horse  of  Saxony  in  the  centre.  The 
ribbon  is  of  light  blue  watered  silk. 

Guemappe.  Village  of  France. 
In  the  dept.  of  Pas-de-Calais,  it  is 
5  m.  E.S.E.  of  Arras.  Lying  in  the 
valley  of  the  Cojeul,  it  was  promi- 
nent in  the  fighting  along  the  line  of 
this  river  during  the  Great  War. 
It  was  captured  by  the  British  on 
April  23,  1917,  retaken  by  the 
Germans,  and  finally  captured  by 
Canadian  troops,  Aug.  26,  1918. 
See  Arras,  Battles  of. 

Guenon  (Fr.,  monkey).  Large 
group  of  African  monkeys  of  the 
genus  Cercopithecus.  They  are 
slender  with  long  tails  and  small 
callosities  on  the  buttocks.  Their 
hair  has  a  mottled  appearance, 
due  to  each  hair  bearing  coloured 
rings.  They  are  usually  found  in 
small  droves  in  the  forests,  and  are 
very  pugnacious.  In  captivity  they 
make  good  pets,  as  they  are  docile 
and  hardy,  and  are  easily  taught 
to  perform  tricks.  See  Monkey. 

Guepratte,  EMILE  PAUL 
AIMABLE.  French  sailor.  During 
the  Great  War,  in  1914-15,  he  took 
part  in  the  naval  operations  in  the 
Dardanelles.  He  succeeded  Ad- 
miral du  Fournet  as  commander  of 
the  French  squadron  in  that 
theatre  of  war,  and  served  under 
Vice-admiral  de  Robeck,  who 
specially  commended  the  be- 
haviour of  the  French  squadron 
under  Guepratte  in  the  attack  of 
March  18,  1915.  He  was  promoted 
vice-admiral  in  Oct.,  1915. 

Guerara,  GOURARA  OR  GERRARA. 
District  in  the  Algerian  Sahara, 
forming  the  most  northerly  chain 
of  oases  S.  of  Algeria  proper.  It 
consists  of  the  oases  of  Tin  Erkouk, 
Timimoun,  Tabelkoza,  Sebkha, 
Fatis,  Tahantas,  and  Charouin.  In 
1901  it  contained  689,729  date 
palms,  consisting  of  more  than  40 
species.  It  was  occupied  by 
France  in  1902. 

Guercino.  Nickname  of  the 
Italian  painter  Barbieri  (q.v.). 

Gueret.  Town  of  France.  In 
the  dept.  of  Creuse,  of  which  it  is 
the  capital,  it  is  48  m.  from 
Limoges,  standing  at  the  foot  of  the 
Puy  de  Gaudy.  The  chief  building 
is  the  prefecture,  a  house  of  the 
15th  century,  and  there  is  a 
museum,  but  there  are  no  remains 
of  the  abbey  of  S.  Pardoux  round 
which  the  town  grew.  There  are  a 
number  of  industries,  and  the 
town  is  a  market  for  the  cattle  and 
other  produce  of  the  surrounding 
district.  It  was  formerly  the  capital 
of  La  Marche.  Pop.  8,300. 


GUERE2A 

Guereza  (Colobus).  Group  of 
African  monkeys,  notable  for  the 
fact  that  the  thumb  is  either  absent 
or  rudimentary.  They  include 
about  12  species,  but  are  little 
known,  as  they  live  in  the  tops  of 
the  forest  trees  and  seldom  survive 
captivity.  Most  of  them  are 
black  and  white,  and  have  long 
silky  hair  valued  in  the  fur  trade. 
See  Colobus ;  Monkey.  «* 

Guericke,  OTTO  VON  (1602-86). 
German  scientist.  Born  at  Magde- 
burg, he  studied  at  several  German 
universities,  also  at  Leiden.  He 
held  a  public  position  at  Erfurt, 
and  was  for  many  years  burgo- 
master of  Magdeburg.  He  left  Mag- 
deburg in  1681,  and  died  at  Ham- 
burg, May  11,  1686.  Guericke  is 
best  known  as  the  inventor  of  the 
air  pump.  He  also  invented  the 
manometer,  and  discovered  that 
two  bodies,  equally  charged  with 
electricity,  will  repel  one  another. 
Guerin,  EUGENIE  DE  (1805-48). 
French  writer.  She  was  born  at 
Albi,  Tarn,  sister  of  the  poet 
Maurice  de  Guerin  (1810-39),  to 
whom  she  was  devotedly  attached. 
Her  Journal  et  Lettres,  published 
in  1862,  Eng.  trans.  1865,  reveals 
her  as  a  woman  of  notable  char- 
acter, a  mystic  and  a  strong  Catho- 
lic. See  Maurice  and  Eugenie  de 
Guerin,  H.  Parr,  1870. 

Guernsey.  One  of  the  Channel 
Islands.  Second  only  in  size  to 
Jersey,  it  is  about  9  m.  long  and 
5  m.  broad,  and 
has  an  area  of  24£ 
sq.  m.  St.  Peter 
Port,  the  capital, 
on  the  S.E.  coast, 
and  St.  Sampson's 
are  the  only  places 
of  any  size,  the 
others  being  small 
fishing  and  in- 
Guernsey  arms  iand  villages. 
Fort  George  is  a  military  station. 
From  St.  Peter  Port  regular  com- 
munication is  maintained  with 
Southampton,  Weymouth,  Ply- 
mouth, London,  and  various  ports 
in  France. 

Much  of  the  land  is  divided  into 
small  holdings,  and  some  cereals 
are  grown.  The  Guernsey  breed 
of  cattle  is  famous.  Granite  is 
quarried  and  fishing  is  an  indus- 
try. But  the  chief  industry  is  mar- 
ket gardening,  large  quantities  of 
potatoes,  grapes,  flowers,  tomatoes, 
etc.,  grown  chiefly  under  glass, 
being  produced,  mainly  for  the 
English  market. 

A  picturesque  island,  especially 
in  the  S.,  where  the  rugged  coast  is 
broken  by  numerous  bays,  Guern- 
sey is  a  favourite  holiday  resort. 
There  are  numerous  prehistoric  re- 
mains, and  notable  buildings  of 
later  date  include  Castle  Cornet,  a 


3729 


GUERRILLA     WARFARE 


Guernsey.    St.  Peter  Port,  capital  of  the  second  in  size  oJ  the  Channel  Islands 


fortress  begun  in  the  13th  century, 
and  old  churches  at  St.  Samp- 
son's, St.  Martin,  Vale,  and  Catel. 
Domestic  architecture  includes 
some  picturesque  manor  houses. 

The  bailiwick  of  Guernsey  in- 
cludes Alderney,  Sark,  Herm,  and 
other  smaller  islands.  Guernsey  is 
governed  by  an  assembly  called  the 
States  and  another  known  as  the 
royal  court.  The  chief  officials  are 
the  lieutenant-governor  and  the 
bailiff,  an  attorney -general,  solici- 
tor-general, and  a  receiver-general, 
all  appointed  by  the  crown.  The 
island,  which  is  divided  into  10 
parishes,  is  in  the  diocese  of  Win- 
chester, and  the  dean  is  the  chief 
ecclesiastic.  At  St.  Peter  Port  is 
Elizabeth  College,  a  public  school. 
English  money  is  the  only  legal 
currency. 

Guernsey  sent  two  companies 
of  volunteers  to  the  R.  Irish 
Regt.  and  R.  Irish  Fus.  A  bat- 
talion of  Guernsey  men,  the  1st 
Batt.  R.  Guernsey  Light  Infantry 
(29th  Div.),  did  gallant  service  on 
April  12,  1918,  N.  of  Merville. 
Pop.  (with  Herm  and  Jethou), 
41,900. 

Guernsey  Lily  (Nerlne  sar- 
niensis).  Bulbous  herb  of  the 
natural  order  Amaryllidaceae,  a 
native  of  S.  Africa.  The  strap- 
shaped  leaves  appear  later  than  the 
flowers,  which  are  lily-like,  salmon- 
coloured,  and  form  a  large  cluster  at 
the  top  of  a  stout  flower-stem. 

Guerrazzi,  FRANCESCO  DOMEN- 
ico  (1804-73).  Italian  author  and 
politician.  Born  at  Leghorn,  Aug. 
12, 1804,  he  studied  law  at  Pisa,  but 
.early  turned  to  literature  and  poh\ 
tics.  His  first  historical  novel,  The 
Battle  of  Benevento,  1827,  estab- 
lished his  reputation.  A  political 
agitator,  he  was  often  imprisoned, 
and  while  in  prison  wrote  his  prin- 
cipal work,  The  Siege  of  Florence, 
1836.  He  also  wrote  the  novels 
Isabella  Orsini,  1844,  and  Beatrice 
Cenci,  1854.  He  sat  in  the  Turin 
parliament,  1862-65,  and  died 
Sept.  23,  1873.  See  his  Letters, 


ed.  G.  Carducci,  1880-82,  by  F. 
Martini,  1891.  Pron.  Gwerratsi. 

Guerrero.  S.W.  state  of  Mexico, 
bordering  the  Pacific.  Situated  on 
the  declivity  of  the  Anahuac 
plateau,  it  is  extremely  moun- 
tainous, the  greater  part  of  its 
surface  being  covered  by  the 
Sierra  Madre.  The  valleys  of  the 
Rio  de  las  Balsas,  or  Rio  Mexcala, 
and  the  smaller  streams  produce 
cereals,  coffee,  cotton,  tobacco, 
and  other  crops.  The  mineral 
wealth  is  extensive.  The  capital 
is  Chilpcingo,  and  the  seaport 
Acapulco.  Area,  25,279  sq.  m. 
Pop.  620,416. 

Guerrilla  Warfare  (Span,  guer- 
rilla, little  war).  Hostile  operations 
of  inhabitants  who  take  up  arms 
to  defend  their  homes,  and  harass 
the  professional  army  of  an  in- 
vader. During  the  French  occupa- 
tion of  Spain,  in  the  time  of  Napo- 
leon, the  guerrilla  system  was 
brought  to  a  condition  of  per- 
fection. 

Guerrillas  recognize  no  laws  or 
customs  of  war ;  they  present  no 
target  for  a  large  disciplined  force 
to  conquer  in  battle  ;  living  from 
hand  to  mouth,  they  are  indepen- 
dent of  transport,  and  collect  and 
disperse  rapidly.  The  S.  African 
War  of  1899-1902  was  prolonged 
by  the  operations  of  guerrillas 
after  the  Boer  armies  had  been 


Guer 


ernsey  Lily.    Flower-head,  leaves, 
and  bulb  of  the  African  herb 


K    5 


GUERRIN1 


373O 


GUEUX 


crushed.  In  the  American  Civil 
War,  the  guerrillas  of  W.  Virginia 
could  never  be  suppressed. 

The  Circassian  leader,  Schamyl, 
kept  the  Russian  armies  at  bay  for 
years  by  guerrilla  tactics;  the  Der- 
vishes, Afghans,  Zulus,  Burmese, 
Kaffirs,  and  Maoris  gave  similar 
trouble  to  the  British  forces.  The 
French  in  Algeria  met  their  master 
in  Abd-el-Kader.  Napoleon  had  to 
execute  Andreas  Hofer  as  the  sole 
means  of  clearing  Tirol.  The 
Chouans,  in  Brittany,  defied  the 
French  Government  in  1795.  The 
Spanish  army  contended  in  vain  for 
three  years  against  the  Cubans. 
The  U.S.A.  troops  were  repeatedly 
worsted  by  the  tactics  of  the  Red 
Indians.  See  Franc-Tireur. 

Guerrini,  OLINDO  (1845-1916). 
Italian  poet  and  critic.  He  was 
born  at  Forli,  and  became  librarian 
at  Bologna  University.  At  the  age 
of  twenty-two  he  published  his 
first  volume  of  poems,  Postuma  : 
Canzionere  di  Lorenzo  Stecchetti, 
1877,  which  created  something 
of  a  sensation  owing  to  its 
"  audacious  immorality."  In  the 
succeeding  two  years  he  defended 
himself  against  his  critics  in  Pol- 
emica  and  Nova  Polemica.  He 
wrote  also  appreciations  of  various 
Italian  authors,  and  issued  his  col- 
lected poems,  La  Rime,  in  1903. 
He  died  at  Bologna,  Oct.  22,  1916. 
Guesclin,  BERTRAND  DU  (1320- 
80).  French  soldier.  Born  in 
Brittany,  he  was  trained  to  arms, 
and  when 
quite  young 
made  a  repu- 
tation by  his 
skill  in  the 
tournament. 
He  fought  in 
the  civil  war 
then  raging  in 
Brittany,  and 

Bertranddu  Guesclin,    ]\    was,    thfre 
French  soldier         that     he    be- 
came   one    of 

the  most  renowned  of  theopponents 
of  England.  He  was  constantly  in 
the  field,  and  his  exploits  were 
many  and  glorious,  although  more 
than  once  he  was  taken  prisoner. 
When  peace  was  made  in  1360,  he 
marched  into  Spain  at  the  head  of 
an  army  of  mercenaries,  and  there 
was  again  taken  prisoner  by  the 
English  at  Navarrete.  On  the  re- 
newal of  the  war  between  England 
and  France  he  was  one  of  the 
French  leaders,  and  was  instru- 
mental in  recovering  several  dis- 
tricts for  his  king.  He  died  July  13, 
1380.  Made  constable  of  France, 
he  was  regarded  as  the  greatest 
French  soldier  of  his  age. 

Guest,  LADY  CHAKLOTTE  ELIZA- 
BETH (1812-95).  Welsh  scholar. 
Born  at  Uffington  House,  Lincoln- 


tenham 
Poole. 


and 
In 


shire,  May  12,  1812,  daughter  of 
the  9th  earl  of  Lindsey,  she  married, 
1833,  Sir  Josiah  Guest,  Bart. 
(1785-1852), 
whose  iron- 
works  at 
Dowlais  she 
managed  after 
his  death;  and 
in  1855,  Dr. 
Charles  Schrei- 
ber  (d.  1884) 
M.P.  for  Chel- 
Lady  Charlotte  Guest, 
Welsh  scholar 

1838-49  she  issued  a  three.- volume 
version  of  the  medieval  Welsh 
tales,  commonly  known  as  The 
Mabinogion  (q.v.).  Regarded  as  a 
masterpiece  of  English  prose,  this 
marked  an  epoch  in  the  study  of 
Celtic  literature,  and  was  quickly 
translated  into  German  and  French 
by  Schulz  and  Villemarque  re- 
spectively. In  addition  to  a  version 
for  boys  of  the  earliest  Welsh  tales 
of  King  Arthur,  she  wrote 
several  volumes  on  china,  fans,  and 
playing  cards,  of  which  she  was  a 
well-known  collector.  She  pre- 
sented parts  of  her  collection  to  the 
British  and  South  Kensington 
Museums,  and  did  much  to  revive 
the  Eisteddfod.  She  died  at  Canf ord 
Manor,  Dorset,  Jan.  15,  1895. 

Guest,  FREDERICK  EDWARD  (b. 
1875).  British  politician.  Born 
June  14,  1875,  the  third  son  of  the 
1st  Lord  Wim- 
borne,  he  was 
educated  at 
Eton.  Having 
entered  the 
army,  1st  Life 
Guards,  he 
served  in  the 
expedition  up 
the  Nile  in  1899, 

and  afterwards  Frederick  E.  Guest, 
in  S.  Africa.  British  politician 

During     the  Lafayette 

Great  War  he  was  first  on  the 
Western  front,  and  then  in  E.  Africa, 
winning  the  D.S.O.  He  had  made 
three  unsuccessful  attempts  to  enter 
the  House  of  Commons  when  he  was 
returned  as  M.P.  for  East  Dorset  in 
1911.  In  1912  he  was  made  trea- 
surer of  the  household,  being  also 
a  government  whip.  He  left  office 
in  1915,  but  in  1917  he  returned, 
to  become  patronage  secretary  to 
the  treasury.  He  was  secretary 
for  air,  1921-22. 

Guest,  SIR  JOSIAH  JOHN  (1785- 
1852).  British  ironmaster.  Born 
Feb.  2,  1785,  he  was  the  son  of 
Thomas  Guest,  an  ironmaster  in 
Dowlais,  Glamorganshire.  Edu- 
cated at  grammar  schools  at  Bridg- 
north  and  Monmouth,  he  entered 
the  ironworks  at  Dowlais,  of  which 
he  became  manager  in  1815.  He 
had  already  introduced  consider- 


able improvements  in  making  iron, 
and  under  him  the  works  became 
among  the  largest  of  their  kind,  em- 
ploying 12,000  workers.  .w  He  be- 
came their  sole  proprietor  in  1849, 
and  they  now  belong  to  the  firm  of 
Guest,  Keen  &  Nettlef  olds.  Guest 
was  M.P.  for  Honiton,  1826-31, 
and  for  Merthyr  Tydvil  from  1832- 
52.  He  was  made  a  baronet  in 
1838,  and  died  at  Dowlais,  Nov.  26, 
1852.  Guest,  whose  eldest  son 
was  made  Lord  Wimborne  (q.v.), 
bought  Canford  Manor,  in  Dorset. 
His  commercial  interests  in  S.Wales 
included  the  chairmanship  of  the 
Taff  Vale  Rly. 

Guetar  (great-land).  American 
Indian  tribes  of  semi-advanced 
culture  in  central  Costa  Rica,  at 
the  time  of  the  Spanish  conquest. 
Situate  between  the  primitive 
Guatuso  and  the  Talamanca  people, 
their  territory  was  bounded  on  the 
Atlantic  side  by  the  San  Juan  and 
Matina  rivers,  and  on  the  Pacific 
by  the  Barranca  and  Terraba 
rivers.  Living  in  unfederated  com- 
munities, they  cultivated  maize 
and  cacao,  practised  canoe  fish- 
ing, hunted  deer  and  peccari,  and 
wore  shell  necklaces  and  ear  orna- 
ments. Ignorant  of  metals,  they 
sculptured  vigorous  basalt  figures. 

Gueudecourt.  Village  of  France, 
in  the  dept.  of  Somme.  It  is  2J  m. 
S.  of  Bapaume,  and  was  prominent 
in  the  battles  of  the  Somme.  It 
was  captured  from  the  Germans  by 
the  British  on  Sept.  26,  1916,  re- 
taken by  the  Germans  in  their 
offensive  of  March,  1918,  and  again 
captured  by  the  British  in  Aug., 
1918.  See  Bapaume,  Battle  of; 
Somme,  Battles  of  the. 

Gueux,  LES  (Fr.,  the  beggars). 
Name  specially  applied  to  those 
Netherlanders  who  revolted 
against  Spain  in  the  16th  century. 
The  name  is  supposed  to  have  origi- 
nated in  1566,  when  a  party  of 
nobles  took  their  petition  of  griev- 
ances to  the  regent,  Margaret, 
duchess  of  Parma.  To  induce  her 
to  face  them,  someone  asked  if  she 
were  afraid  of  ces  gueux,  these 
beggars,  and  the  petitioners,  men 
of  wealth  and  position,  hailed  the 
epithet  as  an  honour,  taking  as 
their  symbols  the  wallet  and  the 
bowl  of  the  beggar. 


Philip  of  Spain,  and  although  the 
original  league  was  broken  up  the 
Dutch  Republic  really  arose  from 
it.  In  the  struggle  the  name  gueitx 
de  mer,  or  sea-beggars,  was  given  to 
privateers  who,  with  the  conni- 
vance of  William  of  Orange,  preyed 
upon  the  shipping  of  Spain.  Their 
great  exploits  were  the  seizures  of 
Brill  and  Flushing  in  1572.  See 
Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic,  J.  L. 
Motley,  new  ed.  1901. 


GUEVARA 


GUIANA 


Guevara,  ANTONIO  DE  (c.  1490- 
1545).  Spanish  author.  Passing 
his  youth  at  court,  in  1518  he  be- 
came a  Franciscan  friar  and  was 
appointed  preacher  to  the  court  of 
Charles  V.  Made  bishop  of  Guadix 
in  1527,  two  years  later  he  pub- 
lished Marco  Aurelio  con  el  reloj 
de  principes,  which  appeared  in 
London  in  1532  as  The  Golden 
Book  of  Aurelius,  Emperor  and 
Eloquent  Orator.  This  Diall  of 
Princes,  as  a  later  translation  in 
1537  puts  it,  was  the  original  of 
Lyly's  Euphues,  1578,  which 
founded  the  euphuist  school  of 
literature.  See  Euphuism. 

Guevara,  Luis  VELEZ  DE  (1579- 
1644).  Spanish  writer.  Born  at 
Ecija,  he  was  educated  at  the  uni- 
versity of  Osuna.  For  a  time  he 
was  a  soldier  and  afterwards  a 
courtier,  but  most  of  his  life  was 
devoted  to  writing.  He  died  at 
Madrid,  Nov.  10,  1644.  Guevara 
wrote  over  400  plays  and  a  novel, 
El  Diablo  Cojuelo  (The  Lame 
Devil),  on  which  Le  Sage  based  Le 
Diable  Boiteux. 

Guggenheim.  Name  of  a 
family  of  American  capitalists. 
Meyer  Guggenheim,  a  Jew  of  Phil- 
adelphia, acquired  copper  interests 
in  California,  and  in  developing 
these  was  assisted  by  his  sons.  The 
firm  which  they  founded  was  very 
prosperous  and  soon  the  Guggen- 
heims  were  known  as  the  copper 
kings.  The  second  of  the  six  sons, 
Benjamin  (1855-1912),  went  down 
with  the  Titanic  in  1912,  while 
Morris  or  Murray  (b.  1858)  was 
perhaps  the  most  active.  All  were 
interested  in  copper,  while  in  addi- 
tion Simon  was  U.S.A.  senator 
for  Colorado,  1907-13,  being  a 
Democrat. 

Guiana.  Territory  in  the  N.E. 
of  S.  America.  Bounded  W.  by 
Venezuela  and  E.  by  Brazil,  it  is 
divided  into  three  sections — 
British,  French,  and  Dutch  Guiana. 
The  general  term  Guiana  is  some- 
times used  to  include  Brazilian 
Guiana,  territory  lying  to  the  S. 
Its  area  is  est.  at  166,800-  sq.  m. 
The  surface  slopes  gently  from  the 
level  coastal  tract  to  the  Tumac 
Humac  range  in  the  S.  and  to  the 
Pacaraima  range  in  the  W.  Large 
forested  areas,  inhabited  by  wild 
Indians,  exist  towards  the  S.,  which 
is  still  unexplored.  Before  1793  this 
region  was  divided  between  France, 
•  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Holland.  Its 
coasts  were  first  explored  by  Span- 
iards in  1499-1500.  /SeeArawak. 
.  Guiana,  BRITISH.  Colony  of  S. 
America.  It  is  bounded  N.  by  the 
Atlantic,  S.  by  Brazil,  W.  by  Vene- 
zuela, and  E.  by  Dutch  Guiana. 
It  includes  the  settlements  of 
Essequibo,  Berbice,  and  Demerara, 
and  has  an  area  of  89,480  sq.  m. 


Inland  for  a  distance  of  from  10  m. 
to  40  m.,  the  country  consists  of 
rich  alluvial   flats  and    mudbanks 
deposited  by  the 
numerous  rivers. 
This  coastal  strip 
is  the  only  part 
under  cultiva- 
tion, and  virtu- 
ally the  only  part 
inhabited.      The 
land     thereafter 
rises  towards  the 
interior  and  cul- 
minates   in    the 
ranges  of  Pacaraima  and  Acaray  in 
theS.W.  andW.,Roraima,inthe  for- 
mer.reachingan  elevation  of  8,735ft. 
The  chief  rivers  are   the   Esse- 


British  Guiana 
arms 


Canada,  and  the  United  States. 
Imports  are  mainly  foodstuffs  such 
as  flour,  meat,  butter,  clothing, 
machinery  and  hardware,  tobacco 
and  alcoholic  beverages  ;  of  these 
the  United  States  supplies  approxi- 
mately half.  Exports  are  largely 
sugar,  rum,  and  balata,  and  are 
almost  equally  divided  between 
the  United  Kingdom  and  Canada. 

The  colony  was  originally 
founded  by  the  Dutch,  who  settled 
on  the  Essequibo  river  in  the  17th 
century.  In  1781  it  was  captured 
by  the  British  and,  after  changing 
owners  several  times,  was  finally 
ceded  to  the  British  in  1815.  Pop. 
310,972. 

Bibliography.     History  of  E.G.,  J. 


quibo(600  m. ),  the  Berbice  (400  m. ),   iRodway,  1891  /Twenty-five  Years  in 

and  the  Demerara  (250  m.).  Other 

streams  include  the  Courantyne  on 

the  E.  boundary,  the  Cuyuni,  Ba- 

rima,  Waini,  Mazaruni,  and  Pom- 

eroon.  The  Courantyne,  Demerara, 

Barima,  and  Berbice  are  navigable 

for  about  100  m.  from  their  mouths, 


Guiana.     Map  of  the  British,  Dutch,  and  French  colonies 
on  the  S.  American  Atlantic  seaboard 


the  others  for  short  distances  only, 
being  obstructed  by  rapids  and 
cataracts.  The  climate  is  hot  and 
the  rainfall  heavy  ;  fever  is  preva- 
lent in  the  low-lying  districts. 

The  chief  products  are  sugar, 
rice,  coconuts,  coffee,  cacao,  wild 
rubber,  maize,  wheat,  vanilla,  and 
limes.  Cattle,  sheep,  horses,  pigs, 
goats,  and  donkeys  are  reared.  The 
exports  include  sugar,  rum,  char- 
coal, balata,  timber,  diamonds,  and 
rice.  Gold  is  mined  and  precious 
stones  are  found.  There  are  about 
100  m.  of  rly.  opened  for  traffic. 
In  addition  there  are  320  m.  of 
good  roads  and  40  m.  of  canals.  The 
flora  and  fauna  are  abundant. 
From  the  Berbice  river  the  huge 
water-lily,  the  Victoria  Regia,  was 
first  obtained.  The  colony  is  ad- 
ministered by  a  governor  assisted  by 
a  council.  The  capitalis  Georgetown. 

Trade  is  almost  entirely  con- 
fined to  the  United  Kingdom, 


E.G.,  H.  Kirke,  1898  :  Handbook  of 
E.G.,  G.  D.  Bayley,  1909  ;  Guiana, 
British,  French,  and  Dutch,  J.  Rod- 
way,  1912. 

Guiana,  DUTCH,  OR  SURINAM. 
Colony  of  S.  America,  belonging  to 
the  Netherlands.  The  area  is  46,000 
sq.  m.  It  lies  be- 
tween British 
Guiana  on  the 
W.  and  French 
Guiana  on  the  E., 
and  is  bounded 
N.  by  the  Atlantic 
and  S.  by  Brazil. 
The  Courantyne 
river  flows  along 
the  W.  and  the 
Maroni  along  the 
E.  frontier.  In 
the  S.  are  im- 
penetrable 
forests  and  sav- 
annahs, culmin- 
ating in  the 
Acaray  range. 
The  configuration 
of  the  surface, 
the  climate  and 
resemble  those  of 
Only  one- 


productions 

British   Guiana   (q.v.). 

tenth   of  the   territory  is   s'ettled, 

and   most   of   the   plantations   lie 

along  the  shores  of  the  Surinam. 

The  capital,  Paramaribo,  stands 
on  the  Surinam,  near  its  mouth. 
The  colony  is  administered  by 
a  governor,  assisted  by  a  council. 
Exports  include  sugar,  cacao,  ban- 
anas, coffee,  rice,  maize,  rum,  and 
molasses.  The  language,  laws,  and 
coinage  are  Dutch. 

The  colony  was  founded  by  Lord 
Willoughby,  then  governor  of  Bar- 
bados, in  1650,  and  was  exchanged 
17  years  later,  at  the  peace  of  Breda, 
for  what  is  now  New  York.  It  finally 
became  Dutch  in  1815.  Pop.  107,827, 
exclusive  of  the  forest  aborigines. 

Guiana,  FRENCH.  Colony  of  S. 
America,  belonging  to  France.  It 
lies  between  Dutch  Guiana  on  the 
W.  and  Brazil  on  the  E.  and  S., 
while  the  Atlantic  washes  its  shores 


GUICCIARDINI 


3732 


GUIL.BERT 


on  the  N.  Area  32,000  sq.  m.  The 
Maroni  river  flows  along  its  W. 
boundary,  and  the  Oyapock  marks 
the  E.  frontier.  Other  rivers  are 
the  Ouya,  Sinnimari,  Mana,  and 
Approuague.  The  continuation  of 
the  Acaray  range  or  Tumac  Humac 
mountains  extends  along  the  S. 
boundary.  The  flat  alluvial  tract 
on  the  coast  is  exceedingly  fertile. 
The  chief  products  are  sugar, 
coffee,  cacao,  rice,  maize,  manioc, 
and  indigo.  Rubber,  pepper,  spices, 
rum,  rosewood  essence,  phosphates, 
woods,  and  skins  are  exported.  The 
colony  includes  the  so-called  island 
of  Cayenne,  on  which  stands  the 
capital  of  the  same  name.  It  is  only 
separated  from  the  mainland  by  the 
forking  of  a  river.  The  chief  ports » 
are  Cayenne,  Oyapock,  and  St. 
Laurent-du-Maroni.  The  colony 
is  administered  by  a  governor 
assisted  by  a  council,  and  is  repre- 
sented in  the  French  Parliament 
by  a  deputy. 

French  settlers  arrived  at 
Cayenne  in  1604.  In  1763  the 
French  government  dispatched 
12,000  emigrants  to  the  colony,  but 
nearly  all  succumbed  to  the  ravages 
of  disease  and  the  climate.  Captured 
by  the  British  and  Portuguese  in 
1809,  it  was  returned  to  France  in 
1814.  Since  1855  Guiana  h  as  been  a 
penal  settlement.  Pop.  26,325,  ex- 
clusive of  the  convicts,  who  number 
about  6,000.  See  Cayenne. 

Guicciardini,  FRANCESCO ( 1483- 
1540).  Italian  historian.  Contem- 
porary and  friend  of  Machiavelli, 
he  was  a  prac- 
tical  man  of 
affairs,  and  has 
been  described 
as  the  realist 
where  Machia- 
velli was  the 
idealist.  De- 
spite his  hold- 
ing frequently 
opposite  views, 
h  e  cynically 
adapted  him- 
self to  the  ser- 
vice of  the  rulers  of  his  time. 

In  1534  he  retired  and  devoted 
himself  to  writing  his  great  His- 
tory of  Italy  from  1490  to  1532, 
a  translation  of  which  into  English 
by  A.  P.  Goddard  was  published 
in  ten  volumes,  1755-59.  This 
work  has  been  summed  up  as 
being  with  all  its  defects  one  of  the 
most  valuable  histories  ever  writ- 
ten. Guicciardini's  other  writings 
include  a  series  of  political  aphor- 
isms. Pron.  Gwitchardeenee. 

Guiccioli,  COUNTESS  TERESA 
( 1 802-73 ).  Italian  mistress  of  Lord 
Byron  (q.v.).  Daughter  of  Count 
Gamba  of  Ravenna,  she  was 
married  in  her  17th  year  to  the 
sixty  -  year  -  old  Count  Guiccioli. 


Francesco  Guic- 
ciardini, 
Italian  historian 

From  a  print 


Teresa  Guiccioli, 
Italian  countess 


Shortly  after  her  marriage  she  was 
introduced  to  Byron,  in  April,  1820, 
and  became  infatuated  with  him. 
Thencefor- 
ward, thanks 
to  an  alter- 
natelycompla- 
c  e  n  t  and 
jealous  hus- 
band (from 
whom  she  was 
subsequently 
separated), 
she  was  more 
or  less  closely 

After  W.  Brockedon  associated 

with  the  poet  to  the  end  of  his 
life.  She  later  married  the  Marquis 
Rouille  de  Boissy.  In  1868  she 
published  Byron  juge  par  les 
temoins  de  sa  vie  (Eng.  trans.  1869). 

Guide-book.  Handbook  for 
tourists  and  travellers.  Early 
travel-books  were  chiefly  didactic. 
One  of  the  first  was  written  in  1574 
by  a  German,  Hieronymus  Tur- 
lerus.  Paterson's  British  Itinerary 
appeared  in  1776.  There  are 
numerous  guides  to  London  dated 
early  in  the  19th  century. 

Guides,  CORPS  OF.  Unit  of  the 
Indian  army.  It  owes  its  existence 
to  Sir  Henry  Lawrence,  who,  in 
1846,  decided  .«,„ 
to  raise  for 
service  on  the 
frontiers  a 
body  of  troops 
more  mobile 
than  the  regu- 
lars. The'name 
had  been  borne 
by  a  unit  in 
Napoleon' s 
army.  Sir 
Henry  Lums- 
den  was  its 
first  com- 
mander. A 
small  force, 
but  including 
both  horse  and 
foot  soldiers,  it 
saw  active  ser- 
vice almost  at 
once  and  was 
constantly  en- 
gagedinborder 
warfare  there- 
after. Among 
the  many  in- 
cidents in  the  history  of  the  Guides 
are  the  march  to  Delhi  during  the 
Mutiny,  the  massacre  at  Kabul  in 
1879,  when  a  detachment  of  them 
formed  Cavagnari's  escort,  their 
share  in  the  Afghan  War  of  1878- 
80,  and  services  at  the  relief  of 
Chitral.  The  corps  grew  from  a 
troop  of  cavalry  and  two  com- 
panies of  infantry  to  a  strength  of 
27  officers  and  1,400  men  It  has 
worn  ?.  khaki  uniform  from  the 
first.  The  headquarters  are  at 


5S>, 


Corps  ot  Guides. 
Private  of  infan- 
try company 


Mardan  and  its  full  name  is  the 
Queen's  Own  Corps  of  Guides. 
See  Army ;  consult  The  Story  of  the 
Guides,  G.  J.  Younghusband,  1908. 

Guidon  (Fr.).  Crimson  silk 
colours  of  dragoon  regiments  of 
the  British  army.  The  lance  is  8  ft. 
6  ins.  long,  including  the  royal 
crest  on  top.  The  flag  is  3  ft.  5  ins. 
to  the  ends  of  the  points  of  the 
swallow  tails,  exclusive  of  fringe, 
and  2  ft.  3  ins.  on  the  lance  ;  the 
width  of  the  slit  at  the  points  of 
the  swallow  tail  is  13|  ins.  ;  it 
bears  the  badge,  devices,  and  mot- 
toes conferred  by  royal  authority 
for  services  in  the*  field.  See 
Colours  ;  Eagle  :  Standard. 

Guido  y  Spano,  CARLOS  (b. 
1832).  Argentine  poet  and  poli- 
tician. He  was  born  at  Salta,  in 
N.  Argentina,  and  early  took  to  a 
political  life.  In  1865  he  was 
president  of  the  National  Congress, 
took  part  in  the  war  against  Para- 
guay, and  was  president  of  the 
senate,  1872-76.  His  poems  were 
mostly  comprised  in  Hojas  al 
Viento,  1871. 

Guienne.  Prov.  of  old  France. 
It  was  at  first  a  part  of  Aquitaine, 
obtaining  a  separate  existence  in 
the  13th  century.  Its  capital  was 
Bordeaux.  From  1154-1451  it  was 
an  English  possession.  From  1451 
it  was  part  of  France,  and  with 
Gascony  formed  one  of  the  govern- 
ments of  the  ancien  regime,.  Since 
the  Revolution  it  has  been  divided 
between  the  departments  of  Gi- 
ronde,  Lot,  Lot-et-Garonne,  Dor- 
dogne,  and  Tarn-et-Garonne.  See 
Aquitaine  ;  France  :  History. 

Guilbert,  YVETTE  (b.  1869). 
French  singer  and  actress.  Born 
in  Paris,  she  worked  as  a  girl  in 
millinery  and 
dressmaking 
establish- 
ments,  and  as  a 
newspaper  re- 
porter. Her 
gifts  of  witty 
i  mpersonation 
and  her  skill 
as  a  singer  of 
piquant  songs 
led  her  to  cafe- 
concert  en- 
gagements, 
and,  in  1890, 
to  highly  sue- 
cessful  appear- 

ances    at    the  ^ 

Eldorado  and  Ambassadeurs,  Paris. 
She  was  enthusiastically  received 
in  London,  Rome,  Vienna,  Berlin, 
and  elsewhere.  She  toured  the 
U.S.A.,  1906-7, 1909-10,  and  1915- 
17,  becoming  teacher  of  dramatic 
diction  at  New  York.  She  wrote 
two  novels,  La  Vedette,  and  Les 
Demi-Vieilles,  1902,  and  published 
How  to  Sing  a  Song,  1919. 


GUILD 


GUILD 


GUILD 


IN    TRADE  AND  CRAFTSMANSHIP 

G.  H.  Leonard,  Prof,  of  Modern  History.  TTniv.  Coll.,  Bristol 

Trade  Unions  is  an  article  allied  to  this  one.  See  also  Apprentice- 
ship ;  Industrial  Revolution  and  the  entries  on  the  various  livery 
companies.  Guild  Socialism  is  the  subject  of  a  separate  article 


The  word  guild,  alternatively 
gild,  the  u  being  inserted  to  indicate 
the  hard  sound  of  g,  is  derived 
from  A.S.  gild,  payment,  but  its 
primary  meaning  is  an  association 
of  some  kind.  Even  before  the 
Norman  Conquest  English  and 
other  European  people  were  accus- 
tomed to  form  themselves  for 
social  and  religious  purposes  into 
associations,  artificial  families  of 
brethren  and  sistren  which  were 
called  guilds  or  gilds,  from  the  geld 
or  payment  out  of  which  the  feasts 
and  masses  for  the  souls  of  the  de- 
parted were  provided.  Such  guilds, 
developing  in  many  interesting 
ways,  in  Germany  as  well  as  in 
England,  existed  side  by  side 
with  the  commercial  and  industrial 
guilds  of  the  Middle  Ages,  in  which 
the  religious  and  social  side  was 
always  strongly  insisted  on. 

Early  in  the  12th  century,  deal- 
ers and  the  few  men  more  or  less 
permanently  engaged  in  handi- 
craft, who  were  now  making  their 
appearance  in  the  towns,  were 
beginning  to  form  themselves  into 
associations  to  supervise  and  regu- 
late local  trade.  No  privilege  was 
more  coveted  in  the  town  charters 
than  the  recognition  of  such  an  as- 
sociation of  merchants.  The  mer- 
chant guild  laid  down  rules  for  the 
honest  conduct  of  trade,  managed 
the  markets,  but  above  all  secured 
for  its  members  freedom  from  tolls, 
and  the  right  of  keeping  much,  at 
all  events,  of  the  buying  and  selling 
within  the  borough  in  their  own 
hands,  keeping  out  the  foreign 
merchant  from  abroad,  and  the 
local  dealer — equally  a  foreigner — 
who  lived,  perhaps,  only  jus*  out- 
side the  town  walls. 

Guildship   and  Burgessship 

Though  most  members  of  the 
merchant  guild  were  commonly 
also  members  of  the  municipal  gov- 
ernment, guildship  and  burgessship 
were  not  at  first  identical  terms. 
Only  gradually  did  the  two  bodies 
become  one.  It  is  not  easy  to  define 
the  early  relations  of  the  local  au- 
thority, whether  merchant  guild  or 
municipality,  to  the  craft  guilds, 
which  are  found  in  almost  every 
industry  and  every  town  at  the 
end  of  the  14th  century,  while  some 
of  them,  e.g.  several  of  the  weavers' 
guilds,  date  back  at  least  two 
centuries  earlier.  In  England,  at 
all  events,  the  craft  guild  appears 
to  develop  from  the  natural  group- 
ing together  of  men  engaged  in  the 
same  kind  of  work  and  living,  ac- 
cording to  medieval  custom,  in  the 


same  quarter  of  the  town.  In  the 
first  instance,  the  purpose  of  this 
may  have  been  largely  religious, 
but  as  industry  expanded  and 
new  and  highly  specialised  trades 
sprang  up,  a  need  for  a  more  de- 
tailed supervision  and  government 
in  the  interest  of  seller  and  buyer 
alike,  which  the  older  bodies  real- 
ized they  could  hardly  supply,  led 
to  the  regular  formation,  under  the 
municipal  authority,  of  responsible 
organizations  of  men  engaged  in  a 
particular  trade.  There  are  many 
references  also  to  women  as 
members  of  guilds,  though  in  cer- 
tain cases  this  was  by  no  means 
encouraged. 

Functions   of   Craft   Guilds 

It  was  the  duty  of  the  wardens 
and  aldermen  of  the  new  craft 
guilds  to  keep  the  trade  in  good  re- 
pute, making  "  reasonable  ordin- 
ances "  for  the  observance  of  proper 
standards  of  size  and  quality, 
providing  for  skilled  workmanship, 
and  in  some  cases  settling  prices, 
though  this  was  apparently  more 
often  the  duty  of  the  municipal 
authority.  Everyone  believed 
that  there  was  such  a  thing  as  a 
just  price,  which  depended  on  the 
cost  of  materials,  and  on  a  reason- 
able wage  which  would  enable  the 
worker  to  support  himself  and  his 
family  according  to  the  standard 
of  the  class  to  which  he  belonged. 
In  the  early  days,  when  markets 
were  small,  and  industry  was  of  a 
comparatively  simple  character, 
such  prices  and  wages  were  really 
easy  to  determine,  and  general 
regulations  as  to  methods  of  work, 
hours  of  labour,  etc.,  comparatively 
easy  to  enforce,  but  it  was  necessary 
to  insist  that  all  who  worked  at  a 
particular  trade  should  be  members 
of  the  guild,  though  to  no  honest 
man  would  membership  be  denied, 
provided  he  held  the  proper  quali- 
fications. 

The  necessary  guarantees  of 
character  and  skill  were  provided 
in  the  system  of  apprenticeship, 
which,  beginning  in  the  middle  of 
the  13th  century,  soon  became  an 
integral  part  of  the  social  and 
economic  life  of  the  people.  The 
"  prentice,"  on  signing  his  in- 
dentures, was  taken  into  the 
household  of  a  master  craftsman, 
there  to  be  taught,  not  only  the 
"  mistery  "  (minister ium)  or  trade, 
with  its  secrets,  but  to  be  bred  up 
in  religion  and  good  manners  as  a 
Christian  and  a  citizen.  It  was  the 
duty  of  the  master,  in  loco  parentis, 
to  provide  bed,  board,  suitable 


clothing,  general  oversight,  pat- 
ernal advice — and  chastisement — 
Sometimes  even  a  school  education, 
perhaps  including  in  certain  trades 
the  knowledge  of  foreign  languages. 

By  the  custom  of  London, 
which  soon  became  general,  the 
period  of  apprenticeship  was  one 
of  seven  years  ;  a  man  was  not  con- 
sidered to  have  grown  into  "  full 
knowledge  of  his  art "  until  the 
age  of  twenty- three.  The  ap- 
prentice might  then,  in  the  earlier 
days,  produce  his  masterpiece,  and 
be  accepted  as  a  master  who  might 
set  up  for  himself  in  business  and 
marry.  But  though  little  capital 
was  needed — a  man's  tools  and 
shop  being  all  that  was  generally 
required — it  was  usual  that  a  few 
years  should  be  spent  as  a  journey- 
man paid  originally  by  the  day. 

As  time  went  on,  however,  it 
became  increasingly  difficult  for 
the  journeyman  to  become  a 
master,  the  members  of  the  old 
guild  abusing  the  trust  which  had 
been  tacitly  given  to  them  on  be- 
half of  the  community.  Closing  the 
doors  to  newcomers,  or  to  men  who 
could  not  afford  to  pay  a  large 
entrance  fee,  in  order  to  keep  up 
prices  that  were  no  longer  reason- 
able, they  attempted  to  keep  the 
monopoly  of  sale  at  all  events  in 
their  own  hands.  A  further  di- 
vision of  labour  was  now  rapidly 
developing.  Hitherto  masters  and 
men  had  been  of  the  same  class. 
Their  interests  were  ultimately  the 
same.  But  evidence  soon  appears 
of  a  cleavage  between  the  wealthy 
members,  the  traders  and  shop- 
keepers who  were  accumulating 
capital  in  the  modern  sense,  and 
ceasing  to  follow  their  trade,  as  of 
old,  in  the  workshop  itself,  and  the 
actual  producers,  comparatively 
few  of  whom  could  hope  to  better 
their  position — the  hired  men,  with 
a  new  sense  of  class  consciousness, 
who  began  to  found,  within  the 
guild,  new  associations  of  labour, 
yeomen  guilds  as  they  were  called, 
antagonistic  to  the  masters,  and 
using  from  time  to  time  the  now 
familiar  weapon  of  the  strike. 
Decline  of  the  Guilds 

Four  stages  are  recognized  in 
the  history  of  English  industry. 
The  second  stage,  that  of  the  guild 
— when  for  the  first  time  a  class  of 
professional  men  for  whom  manu- 
facture was  a  primary  vocation, 
had  replaced  the  family  system,  in 
which  the  household  itself  supplied 
nearly  all  its  own  wants,  was  now 
in  turn  to  be  slowly  superseded  by 
the  domestic  system  in  which, 
before  the  era  of  machinery  and  the 
modern  factory,  capitalists  for  the 
most  part  put  out  their  work  to  be 
done  in  the  homes  of  the  people, 
and  were  virtually  independent  of 


GUILDFORD 


3734 


GUILDHALL 


any  organization,  outside  their 
own.  Trade  was  expanding.  The 
old  towns  were  decaying,  and  in- 
dustry was  shifting  to  new  centres 
where  the  restrictions  of  the  guild 
did  not  apply.  The  expenses  of 
those  still  working  in  guilds  were 
heavy,  while  the  value  of  member- 
ship steadily  decreased.  With  the 
marked  development  of  a  purely 
commercial  spirit  in  the  15th 
century,  men  wanted  greater  free- 
dom to  acquire  wealth  for  them- 
selves, while  with  the  new  ideas  ol 
individualism  which  spread  in  the 
16th  century  the  general  welfare 
of  the  community  was  forgotten. 
In  the  confiscation  of  the  pro- 
perty of  the  religious  guilds  under 
Edward  VI,  the  craft  guilds,  or 
companies,  also  suffered  by  the 
loss  at  least  of  those  funds  which 
had  accumulated  for  purposes  now 
officially  regarded  as  superstitions. 
In  the  20th  century  the  word  was 
used  for  a  certain  class  of  trade 
unions,  guilds  of  bank  clerks,  for 
instance.  Somewhat  different  were 
the  building  guilds,  consisting  of 
representatives  of  the  various 
classes  of  workers  in  that  industry. 
See  Housing. 

Bibliography.  The  Old  Guilds  of 
England,  F.  Armitage,  1919  ;  Guilds 
in  the  Middle  Ages,  G.  Reynard, 
Eng.  trans.  D.  Terry,  1919;  The 
Parish  Guilds  of  Mediaeval  England, 
H.  F.  Westlake,  1919. 

Guildford.  Borough  and  mar- 
ket town  of  Surrey,  for  some  pur- 
poses still  the  county  town.  It  is  29 
m  from  London, 
having  stations 
on  the  L.  &  S.W., 
L.B.  &  S.C.,  and 
S.E.  &  C.  Rlys., 
and  stands  on 
the  Wey.  In  the 
High  Street  are 
Abbot's  Hospi- 
tal, a  Jacobean 
building  founded  in  1619  as  an 
almshouse  by  Archbishop  Abbot, 
and  famous  for  its  oak  ;  the  gram- 
mar school  of  the  16th  century, 
with  its  library  and  chained  books  , 
the  Angel  Inn  with  its  vaults,  and 
other  historic  buildings.  The  town 
has  the  keep  of  its  Norman  castle,  a 
museum,  county  hall,  county  hos- 
pital, and  institute.  The  guildhall 
is  a  brick  and  timber  erection  of  the 
late  17th  century.  The  chief 
churches  are  S.  Mary's,  mainly  of 
the  12th  century,  with  some  inter- 
esting architectural  features ;  S. 
Nicolas,  rebuilt  about  1875  but 
containing  the  old  Loseley  Chapel 
with  its  memorials  ;  and  Trinity 
Church,  rebuilt  in  the  18th  century. 
The  castle  grounds  are  now  public 
gardens.  The  town  has  a  trade  in 
agricultural  produce,  and  is  a  rail- 
way junction.  Other  industries  are 
flour  milling  and  brewing. 


Guildford  arms 


Guildhall, 
LONDON.  Home 
of  the  City  Corpo- 
ration. Situated 
at  the  end  of 
King  Street, 
Cheapside,  be- 
tween Alderman- 
bury  and  Basing- 
hall  Street,  it  was 
built,  1411-35, 
approximately  on 
the  site  of  an 
earlier  structure. 
Most  of  the  me- 


Guildford  was 
an  important 
place  before  the 
Norman  Con- 
quest. A  castle 
was  built  here ,  it 
was  represented  in 
Parliament  from 
1295  to  1885.  In 
the  Middle  Ages 
it  was  a  centre  of 
the  cloth  trade, 
and  its  govern- 
ment was  in  the 
hands  of  the  local 
guild.  Market  day, 
Tues.  Pop.  24,927. 

Guildford.  Town  of  Western 
Australia,  in  Swan  district.  It  is 
situated  on  the  rly.  9  m.  N.E.  of 
Perth,  and  was  one  of  the  earliest 
settlements  in  the  original  Swan 
River  Colony.  Pop.  3,200. 

Guildhall.  In  medieval  archi- 
tecture, a  hall  for  the  meeting  of 
the  guild  merchants.  Its  origin 
was  a  roofed  booth  for  collecting 
market  tolls.  As  the  local  mer- 
chant organizations  developed,  a 
room  for  business  purposes  was 
added,  generally  built  over  the 
toll  booth,  and  the  practice  of 
placing  the  council  chamber  of  the 
guildhall  on  an  upper  floor,  with 
access  to  the  market  place,  was  re- 
tained long  after  the  original  rough 
toll  booth  had  become  a  structure 
of  stone  or  brick. 

The  guild  system  was  developed 
earlier  in  Flanders  and  N.  Germany 
than  elsewhere.  Hence  the  large 
number  of  historic  guildhalls  in 
the  chief  cities  and  towns  of 
these  territories,  each  identified 
with  the  staple  trade  of  the  locality. 
In  London,  the  halls  of  the  separate 
guilds  were  and  are  known  as 
Company  Halls.  On  the  Continent, 
the  guild  gradually  extended  its 
authority  to  the  affairs  of  the  town 
itself,  and  the  guildhall  became  the 
town  hall.  Owing  doubtless  to 
the  London  example,  the  municipal 
buildings  of  York,  Bristol,  and 
other  large  towns  are  commonly 
called  guildhalls.  /SeeChippenham. 


Guildford,    Surrey.       Ruins    of    the    Norman    castle. 
Above,  the  High  Street,  looking  north-east 

Valentine  &  Frith 

dieval  timber  work  was  destroyed 
by  the  Great  Fire  (q.v.)  of  1666,  but 
parts  of  porch  and  hall,  typical 
of  the  Perpendicular  period,  re- 
main, while  the  crypt  or  under- 
croft escaped  almost  unscathed. 
Wren  replaced  the  open  roof  with  a 
flat  ceiling.  The  S.  front  was 
restored  by  George  Dance,  jun.,  in 
1789,  but  a  complete  restoration 
was  not  undertaken  until  1864, 
when  Sir  Horace  Jones  modelled 
the  open  oak  roof  on  that  destroyed 
in  1666,  made  a  number  of  other 
improvements,  and  crowned  the 
structure  with  a  metal  spire.  The 
E.  half  of  the  crypt  has  fine  shafts 
of  Purbeck  marble  and  stone  vault- 
ing, and  when  parts  of  the  brick 
arches  of  the  W.  half,  put  up  by 
Wren,  were  removed  in  1909-10, 
it  appeared  that  this  section  was 
identical  with  the  E.  part. 

The  Great  Hall,  152  ft.  by  49Jft., 
and  89  ft.  in  height,  is  used  for 
the  election  of  the  lord  mayor 
and  sheriffs  and  M.P.'s  for  the  city, 
and  the  state  banquets  and  enter- 
tainments of  the  corporation.  The 
lord  mayor's  annual  banquet  has 
been  held  here  since  1501.  A  15th 
century  window  in  the  S.W.  corner 
was  uncovered  in  1909.  The  walls 
were  cleared  of  paint  and  plaster  in 
1914,  when  interesting  evidence  of 
the  fire  was  disclosed.  The  hall 
contains  a  number  of  monuments, 
busts  and  portraits,  and  the  giant 
figures  of  Gog  and  Magog  (q.v. ). 


GUILDHALL    ART    GALLERY 


3735 


GUILD     SOCIALISM 


The  chief  apartments  include 
the  Common  Council  chamber, 
constructed-  by  Sir  Horace  Jones 
in  1884 ;  aldermen's  court  room, 
1670-80  ;  the  new  court-room,  by 
Sydney  Perks,  1908 ;  and  the 
rating  offices,  1909.  The  library 
and  reading-room,  free  to  the 
public,  date  from  1871-72 ;  the 
museum  is  devoted  to  London 
antiquities ;  and  the  art  gallery. 
See  The  Guildhall,  J.  J.  Baddeley, 
1899. 

Guildhall  Art  Gallery,  THE. 
Officially  known  as  the  Art  Gallery 
of  the  Corporation  of  London.  It 
was  founded  in  1885,  when  a  suite 
of  spacious  rooms  was  allotted  to  it 
in  Guildhall.  The  collection  is 
mainly  confined  to  the  British 
school,  and  is  especially  represent- 
ative of  19th  century  work.  The 
gallery  authorities  have  made  a 
speciality  of  loan  exhibitions,  such 
as  that  of  Spanish  art. 

Guild  Socialism.  School  of 
socialist  thought  which  works  for 
the  reconstruction  of  society  on  a 
democratic  basis  through  indus- 
trial self-government  in  the  form  of 
guilds,  and  through  the  substitu- 
tion of  functional  for  general  repre- 
sentation in  the  central  authority 
of  the  community.  Admitting  the 
necessity  of  some  form  of  industrial 
society,  guild  socialists  have  chiefly 
been  occupied  with  working  out  a 
fresh  social  theory  rather  than 
with  tabulating  exact  ways  and 
means  of  putting  this  into  practice  ; 
and  they  have  emphasised  the  in- 
dustrial problem,  because  they  hold 
that,  until  the  industry  of  society 
can  satisfy  the  primary  needs  of 
all  its  members,  all  political 
measures  of  social  amelioration 
are  dangerously  delusive. 

The  guild  is  the  unit  on  which 
the  theory  builds  its  structure. 
This  is  an  autonomous  and  demo- 
cratically governed  organization, 
which  includes  all  the  workers, 
whether  by  hand  or  brain,  actually 
engaged  in  an  industry  or  con- 
nected groups  of  industries.  Thus, 


while  land  or  the  capital  for  in- 
dustry would  be  owned  by  the 
community,  the  tilling  of  that  land 
or  the  working  of  those  mines  or 
factories  would  be  carried  out  by 
the  guilds,  who  would  be  respon- 
sible to  the  whole  community  for 
the  adequate  fulfilment  of  their 
functions.  Within  the  guild,  direc- 
tors and  technical  experts  would 
conduct  its  work  and  would  them- 
selves be  responsible  for  such  direc- 
tion to  their  fellow-members. 

Guilds  would  naturally  differ  in 
internal  details ;  the  groups  to 
which  doctors,  teachers,  or  artists 
belonged  would  be  conducted  differ- 
ently from  those  of  agricultural  or 
mining  workers.  But  the  under- 
lying principles  of  self-government 
in  professional  or  technical  affairs 
would  be  the  same  for  all.  The  con- 
ception of  the  guild  is  wider  than 
that  of  the  trade  union  :  first,  as 
including  all  the  workers  from  top 
to  bottom,  without  distinction  of 
hand  or  brain  ;  second,  as  being  an 
organization  which  not  merely 
looks  after  the  economic  welfare  of 
its  members,  but  actually  carries 
on  the  particular  industry.  The 
guild  stands  together  as  a  whole, 
and  though  remuneration  for  ser- 
vices would  naturally  be  graded 
according  to  their  value,  the  wage- 
system  as  hitherto  existing  would 
have  no  place  in  its  economics. 


But  there  must  be  a  coordina- 
tion of  the  purposes  and  functions 
of  all  the  individual  guilds,  not 
only  where  they  touch  directly,  as 
iron-workers  with  coal-miners,  but 
also  in  the  intricate  relations  of  the 
supply  of  commodities  and  the  de- 
mands for  such  made  by  the  con- 
sumers. This  brings  up  the  ques- 
tion of  the  central  government  of 
the  community,  whose  various  and 
often  conflicting  interests  must 
be  reconciled  with  those  of  the 
guilds.  Guildsmen  hold  that  the 
accepted  principles  of  democratic 
self-government,  such  as  parlia- 
mentary representation,  are  really 
impracticable,  so  complex  are  the 
workings  of  the  industrial  society 
which  they  seek  to  regulate.  They 
urge,  therefore,  that  the  citizens 
should  elect  representatives  not  for 
general,  but  for  specific  or  func- 
tional purposes.  Thus,  alongside  of 
the  industrial  guilds,  we  should  find 
bodies  representative  of  the  differ- 
ent functions  and  interests  of  the 
citizens,  such  as  a  cooperative 
council  representing  them  as  eco- 
nomic consumers,  a  civic  council 
representing  their  common  local 
needs,  or  another  representing  their 
interests  in  education  or  art. 

From  these  councils  would  rise 
other  bodies,  tentatively  described 
as  the  commune,  combining  the 
functions  of  the  councils  in  one  lo- 
cality, and  the  regional  commune, 
to  meet  the  economic,  administra- 
tive, and  social  requirements  of 
large  areas.  Over  these  last  im- 
portant bodies  would  come  a 
national  commune,  a  body  of  dele- 
gates from  the  great  industrial 
guilds  of  the  country  and  from  the 
regional  bodies. 

The  guild  doctrine  was  worked 
out  first  in  The  New  Age,  edited  by 
A.  R.  Orage,  from  1911  onwards, 
and  by  the  National  Guilds  League, 
with  headquarters  at  39,  Cursitor 
Street,  London,  E.G.  A  significant 
experiment  was  made  by  the  for- 
mation, in  1920,  of  a  guild  in  the 
building  industry,  which  undertook 


Guildhall,  London.      1.    The  Gatehouse,  restored  in  1789,  the  main  entrance  in  Guildhall  Yard.     2.    The  Great  Hall,  in 
which  the  principal  civic  receptions  and  banquets  are  held.     3.  The  Library,  built  1871-72 


GUILFORD 


3736 


GUILLOTINE 


a  certain  number  of  housing  con- 
tracts sanctioned  by  the  ministry 
of  health  in  Jan.,  1921.  See  Social- 
ism. J.  E.  Miles 
Bibliography.  Self -Government  in 
Industry,  G.D.H.  Cole,  4th  ed.  1919; 
Guild  Socialism  Restated,  G.  D.  H. 
Cole,  1920  ;  A  Guildsman's  Inter- 
pretation of  History,  A.  J.  Penty, 
1 920  ;  The  Meaning  of  National 
Guilds,  M.  B.  Reckitt  and  C.  E. 
Bechofer ;  Roads  to  Freedom, 
Bertrand  Russell,  1918. 

Guilford,  EARL  OF.  English 
title  borne  by  the  family  of  North 
since  1752.  Francis  North  (1637- 
1685),  a  son  of  the  3rd  Lord  North, 
was  made  Baron  Guilford  in  1683. 
He  was  a  prominent  lawyer  in  the 
time  of  Charles  II,  ending  with  the 
position  of  lord  keeper  of  the  privy 
seal.  His  grandson,  Francis,  in- 
herited both  the  barony  of  Guilford 
and  that  of  North,  and  was  made 
an  earl  in  1752.  His  son  was  Lord 
North,  the  prime  minister  of 
George  III, 
who  only  be- 
came ,earl  of 
Guilford  two 
years  before 
his  death  in 
1792.  Three 
of  his  sons 
succeeded  in 
turn  to  the 
earldom.  The 
third,  Frede- 
rick, the  5th 
earl,  a  great  lover  of  Greece,  had 
much  to  do  with  the  founding 
of  the  university  of  Corfu.  The 
title  passed  on  his  death  in  1827 
to  a  cousin.  The  family  seat  is 
Waldershare  Park,  Dover,  and  the 
earl's  eldest  son  is  known  as  Lord 
North.  See  North,  Lord. 

Guillaumat,  MARIE  Louis 
ADOLPHE  (b.  1863).  French  sol- 
dior.  Born  at  Bourgneuf,  Jan.  4, 
1863,  he  joined 
the  French 
army  Oct.  1, 
1884.  He  saw 
active,  'service 
in  Algeria, 
Tunisia, 
Tongking  and 
China,  and  in 
the  Boxer  out- 
break in  1900 
commanded 
the  French  troops  in  Tientsin. 
Brigadier-general  and  director  of 
infantry  under  the  minister  of  war 
in  Oct.,  1913,  he  was  appointed 
chief  of  the  cabinet  of  the  minister 
of  war  in  June,  1914. 

As  temporary  general  of  division 
he  commanded  the  4th  infantry 
division  in  1914  and  the  1st  army 
corps  in  1915,  which  were  heavily 
engaged  in  the  Argonne  and  in 
Champagne.  Full  general  of  di- 
vision, Dec.,  1915,  he  took  part 


1st  Baron  Guilford 

After  Biley 


M.  L.  A.  uuillaumat, 
French  soldier 


in  the  Verdun  fighting,  1916,  and 
was  appointed  head  of  the  French 
second  army,  Dec.,  1916.  In  Dec., 

1917,  Guillaumat  succeeded  Sarrail 
as  commander-in-chief  at  Salonica, 
and  became  military  governor  of 
Paris,  June,  1918,  and  in  Oct.  was 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  French 
fifth   army.        He   was  appointed 
inspector-general,  June,  1919. 

Guillaume  d' Orange.  Hero  of 
an  old  French  romance.  Also 
known  as  Guillaume  au  court  nez, 
or  William  of  the  Short  Nose,  his 
story  is  set  forth  in  one  of  the  old 
chansons  de  geste.  The  story  is 
blended  with  that  of  S.  William  of 
Orange,  count  of  Toulouse  (d.  812). 

Guillemin,  AMEDEE  VICTOR 
(1826-93).  French  scientist. 
Teacher  of  mathematics  in  Paris, 
he  devoted  his  attention  to  further- 
ing the  cause  of  popular  scientific 
knowledge,  and  in  1851  published 
Les  Mondes,  Cause ries  Astrono- 
miques.  This  was  followed  by 
Simples  explications  des  chemins  de 
fer  (1863),  Le  Ciel  (1864),  La  Lune, 
(1865),  and  a  number  of  books  on 
astronomy  and  physics.  Hislastcon- 
siderable  work  was  the  Petite  Ency- 
clopedic Populaire,  1 2  vols. ,  1 886-9 1 . 

Guillemont.  Village  of  France, 
in  the  dept.  of  Somme.  Situated 
5  m.  E.  of  Albert,  it  was  promi- 
nent in  the  battle  of  the  Somme, 
1916.  It  was  captured  on  Sept.  3 
by  the  British  20th  division. 
Retaken  by  the  Germans  in  March, 

1918,  it  was  recovered  in  August. 
See  Bapaume,  Battle  of;    Somme, 
Battles  of  the. 

Guillemot  (Una).  Genus  of 
seabirds  belonging  to  the  auk 
family  and  including  the  razorbill. 
The  guillemot 
is  common 
around  the 
British  coasts, 
I  nit  is  rarely 
-een  on  the 
rocks  except 
ui  the  nesting 
season,  as  it 
spends  nearly 
all  its  time  at 
sea.  The 
plumage  is 
white  on  the 
under  parts, 
with  dark 
head,  back, 
and  wings. 
No  nest  is 
made,  the 
single  large  egg  being  laid  on  a 
bare  cliff-ledge. 

Guillotine.  Instrument  for  the 
painless  decapitation  of  crimi- 
nals. It  consists  of  two  upright 
grooved  posts  between  which  a 
heavy  knife  is  mounted  with  its 
blade  set  obliquely.  When  a  cord 
is  released  the  blade  falls  swiftly 


on  to  the  block  on  which  the 
victim's  head  lies.  Similar  con- 
trivances existed  in  Scotland. 


uemot.    Specimen 
of  Uria  troile 


Guillotine  used  by  the  French  revo- 
lutionaries in  the  days  of  the  Terror 

From  a  contemporary  print 

where  the  "  Maiden  "  was  in  use 
by  1581,  and  at  Halifax,  York- 
shire, before  1650.  The  present 
name  comes  from  that  of  a  French 
doctor,  Joseph  Ignace  Guillotin 
(1738-1814),  who  recommended  its 
use  to  the  Constituent  Assembly  in 
1789,  and  saw  it  officially  adopted 
by  the  penal  code,  1792.  It  is.  still 
the  means  of  capital  punishment 
in  France. 

The  name  is  applied  in  English 
printing  offices,  paper  warehouses, 
and  bookbinding  establishments  to 
a  machine  for  cutting,  squaring, 
and  trimming  paper. 


Guillotine.      Machine  used  by   book- 
binders for  squaring  and  trimming  paper 

By  courtesy  of  Payne  &  Sons  (Olley) ,  Lid. 


GUILMANT 


3737 


GUINEA     FOWL 


Guillotine  is  also  used  as  a 
political  term  to  indicate  the 
procedure  by  which  the  discussion 
of  a  measure  in  parliament  is  cut 
short  by  fixing  a  day  or  hour  at 
which  the  discussion  must  end. 
See  Capital  Punishment. 

Guilmant,  FELIX  ALEXANDRE 
(1837-1911).  French  organist  and 
composer.  Born  at  Boulogne, 
March  12,  1837,  the  son  of  an  or- 
ganist, he  became  himself  organist 
of  a  church  there  at  the  age  of 
sixteen.  His  masters  were  his 
father  and  the  Belgian  Lemmens. 
In  1871  Guilmant  was  appointed 
organist  of  the  church  of  the  Trinity 
in  Paris,  a  post  he  retained  for 
thirty  years.  He  composed  much 
excellent  music  for  the  organ,  was 
professor  at  the  Conservatoire,  and 
undertook  concert  tours  through 
Europe. 

Guimaraes.  Town  of  Portugal, 
in  the  district  of  Braga.  It  is  36  m. 
by  rly.  N.E.  of  Oporto  by  a  branch 
line.  Its  llth  century  castle  was 
the  birthplace  of  Alfonso  (1094), 
the  first  king  of  Portugal.  The 
14th  century  church  of  Santa 
Maria  da  Oliveira  is  built  on  the 
site  of  an  older  edifice,  traditionally 
connected  with  King  Wamba  (672- 
680).  It  has  an  arcaded  town  hall. 
The  sulphur  springs  near  the  town 
were  the  Roman  Aquae  Laevae. 
In  the  neighbourhood  is  Mons 
Citania,  a  prehistoric  Iberian  city, 
some  ruins  of  which  are  still  extant. 
Pop.  8,860. 

Guinea.  Obsolete  gold  coin  of 
the  English  currency.  It  was  first 
struck  in  1663,  deriving  its  name 


Guinea  of  George  HI,  known  as  the 

spade  guinea  from  the  shield.  Actual 

diameter,  1  inch 

from  the  fact  that  the  gold  used 
was  imported  by  a  chartered  com- 
pany trading  with  Guinea,  W. 
Africa.  Its  nominal  value  was  20 
shillings,  but  through  the  rapid 
depreciation  of  the  silver  coinage 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  17th 
century,  it  rose  to  be  worth  as  much 
as  30  shillings  by  1694.  It  sank, 
however,  and  in  1717  its  value  was 
fixed  at  21  shillings.  Pieces  of  £,  2, 
and  5  guineas  were  also  struck,  and 
in  1718  a  \-  guinea  was  coined.  The 
last  isssue  was  that  of  1813,  and  in 
1817  its  place  as  the  standard  gold 
coin  was  taken  by  the  sovereign 
(q.v.).  As  a  monetary  unit,  the 
guinea  has  survived,  and  certain 
payments,  e.g.  professional  fees,  are 
customarily  reckoned  in  guineas. 


Guinea.  Name  applied  to  a  large 
portion  of  W.  Africa.  It  covers  the 
territory  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Senegal  to  the  S.  portion  of  An- 
gola, and  came  into  general  use 
in  the  15th  century. 

Guinea,  FRENCH,  OR  LA  GUINEE 
FRANgAiSE.  French  colony  on  the 
coast  of  W.  Africa.  It  lies  between 
Portuguese  Guinea  and  the  British 
colony  of  Sierra  Leone,  by  which 
it  is  bounded  on  the  N.W.  and  S.E. 
respectively.  On  the  N.  the  French 
colonies  of  Senegal  and  Upper 
Senegal-Niger,  on  the  S.  Liberia, 
and  on  the  E.  the  French  colony  of 
the  Ivory  Coast  form  the  boun- 
daries. 

The  colony's  area  is  95,218  sq.  m. 
and  the  pop.  is  1,851,200,  includ- 
ing 1,200  Europeans.  The  colony 
may  be  divided  into  three  geogra- 
phical zones:  (1)  the  flat  coastal 
districts  varying  in  width  from 
25  m.  to  65  m.  ;  (2)  a  succession  of 
high  plateaux  culminating  in  (3) 
Fouta-Djallon  (Futa-Jallon),  a 
mountainous  region  forming  the 
watershed  of  the  rivers  Gambia, 
Senegal,  and  Niger.  The  inhabi- 
tants of  these  regions  are  generally 
of  mixed  origin.  The  principal 
tribes  are  the  Diallonkes  or  Sous- 
sous,  amongst  whom  Mahomed- 
anism  is  making  rapid  progress  ; 
the  Timenes ;  and  the  Foulahs. 

The  colony  is  administered  by  a 
lieutenant-governor  responsible  to 
the  governor-general  of  French  W. 
Africa,  and  an  administrative 
council,  and  is  divided  into  two 
communal  districts  (Konakry,  the 
capital,  and  Kankan),  18  circles, 
and  a  military  region  situated  to 
the  N.  of  Liberia.  The  principal 
products  are  ground-nuts,  tobacco, 
gum,  timber,  kola  nuts,  rice, 
cotton,  wax,  and  ivory,  and  there 
is  a  large  trade  in  skins  and  hides, 
the  country  being  specially  rich  in 
cattle,  sheep,  and  goats.  The  chief 
towns  are  Konakry  (7,385),  the 
capital,  an  important  port ;  Kou- 
rossa  (3,142)  and  Siguri  (3,734), 
on  the  Niger;  Kankan  (7,126), 
Dubreka  (1,335),  Boke  (3,803),  on 
the  Nunez;  and  Mamon  (2,411). 
Konakry  is  in  touch  with  the  Niger 
by  means  of  the  railway  to  Kourossa 
(366  m.)  and  Kankan  (49  m.  fur- 
ther), and  thence  by  waterway  to 
Bamako  and  the  Senegal  rly. 

Guinea,  PORTUGUESE.  Colony  in 
W.  Africa,  with  an  area  of  about 
13.944  sq.  m.,  completely  sur- 
rounded by  French  territory, except 
where  it  faces  the  Atlantic.  On  the 
N.  is  Senegal,  on  the  S.  French 
Guinea.  The  country  is  well  watered 
and  fertile.  Five  rivers,  the  Geba, 
Mansoa,  Cacheo,  Buba,  and  Cacine, 
are  of  commercial  importance.  The 
population  consists  of  Foulahs, 
Man  dingoes,  Mamjaks,  and  other 


races,  and  numbers  about  300,000. 
The  principal  products  are  rubber, 
palm  nuts,  coffee,  cotton,  cocoa, 
rice,  and  ground-nuts  ;  and  hard 
timbers,  such  as  mahogany,  cam- 
wood, and  ebony,  are  plentiful. 
Cattle  are  very  numerous.  For  ad- 
ministrative purposes  the  colony 
is  divided  into  five  districts  :  Bis- 
sau, Boulama,  Cacheo,  Farim,  and 
Geba.  The  chief  commercial  cen- 
tres are  Boulama,  Bissau,  Cacheo, 
and  Cacine. 

Guinea,  SPANISH,  OR  Rio  MUNI. 
Colony  belonging  to  Spain,  situated 
to  the  S.  of  Cameroons,  and  by  the 
Franco-German  Agreement  of  1911 
entirely  surrounded  by  that  terri- 
tory except  where  it  borders  on  the 
sea.  The  colony  is  administered 
from  Santa  Isabel  in  the  island  of 
Fernando  Po  (q.v. ).  In  addition  to 
the  territory  on  the  mainland 
(known  as  Rio  Muni)  the  colony 
consists  of  the  islands  of  Annobon, 
Little  and  Great  Elobey,  Corisco, 
and  Fernando  Po.  The  products 
are  similar  to  those  of  the  French 
Gabun  Colony.  Area  of  Rio  Muni, 
9,264  sq.  m.  Pop.  about  100,000. 

Guinea,  GULF  OF.  Important 
gulf  in  the  W.  coast  of  Africa, 
stretching  from  Liberia  to  Cape 
Lopez  in  French  Equatorial  Africa. 
It  is  broken  by  several  bays,  in- 
cluding the  Bight  of  Benin,  the 
Bight  of  Biafra,  Corisco  Bay,  and 
Nazareth  Bay,  and  receives  the 
waters  of  the  Volta,  Niger,  Ogowe, 
and  other  rivers. 

Guinea  Fowl  (Numida  meka- 
gris).  Member  of  the  pheasant 
tribe,  of  which  it  is  the  only  repre- 


Guinea  Fowl.         Specimen  of  this 
member  of  the  pheasant  tribe 

sentative  in  Africa.  In  general 
appearance  it  is  more  suggestive  of 
a  small  turkey  than  a  pheasant. 
In  its  wild  state  the  guinea 
fowl  is  well  distributed  over  S. 
and  Central  Africa,  but  is  absent 
from  the  northern  countries.  The 
birds  live  in  large  flocks  and  run 
with  great  swiftness,  seldom  flying 
unless  compelled.  It  is  fond  of 
roosting  in  low  trees.  •'  ^ 

The  guinea  fowl  has  been  domes- 
ticated from  early  days  and  was 
highly  appreciated  by  the  Greeks 
and  Romans.  At  the  present  day 
it  is  not  greatly  in  favour  with 
poultry  breeders,  as  it  is  somewhat 


GUINEA     GRASS 


3738 


GUINNESS     TRUST 


delicate  and  very  quarrelsome. 
But  the  bird  is  a  remunerative  one, 
both  flesh  and  eggs  being  highly 
esteemed  and  fetching  good  prices. 
See  Fowl ;  Poultry. 

Guinea  Grass  (Panicum  maxi- 
mum). I ,ar ge  peren  ni  al  grass  of  the 
natural  order  Gramineae.  A  native 
of  the  W.  Indies,  it  grows  from  5  ft. 
to  10  ft.  high. 

Guinea  Pepper  (Xylopia  aethio- 
pica).  Tall  shrub  of  the  natural 
order  Anonaceae.  It  is  a  native  of 
W.  Africa.  It  -has  egg-shaped 
leaves,  covered  on  the  underside 
with  white  down,  and  flowers  con- 
sisting of  three  sepals  and  three 
petals  The  long  cylindrical  pods 
have  an  aromatic  odour  and  a 
pungent  taste,  and  are  used  as  sub- 
stitutes for  pepper. 

GuineaPig.  Small  domesticated 
rodent  belonging  to  the  cavy  tribe, 
and  nearly  related  to  the  pacas  and 


Guingamp,  France. 


Guinea  Pig.    Specimens  01  the  rodents 
often  kept  as  pets 

agutis.  Its  origin  is  doubtful,  but 
it  is  believed  to  have  descended 
from  the  black  Cutler's  cavy  of 
Peru,  long  ago 
domesticated  b  y 
the  Incas.  These 
cavies  were  usually 
self-coloured,  the 
tortoiseshell  coat 
of  the  modern 
guinea  pig  and  the 
long  hair  of  certain 
varieties  being  the 
result  of  selective 
breeding.  The 
guinea  pig  first  ap- 
peared in  Europe 
in  the  16th  cen- 
tury, when  it  was 
introduced  to  Hol- 
land soon  after 
the  discovery  of 
America,  the  name 
Guinea  being  pro- 
bably a  corruption 
of  Guiana.  It  is 
easily  kept  in  cap- 
tivity, provided  it 
is  protected  from  cold  and  damp  • 
it  will  eat  most  kinds  of  roots  and 
corn ;  is  extremely  prolific,  and 
makes  excellent  eating. 

Guinea  Plum  (Parinarium 
excelsum).  Tree  of  the  natural 
order  Rosaceae,  native  of  W. 
Africa.  It  has  leathery,  oblong 


leaves,  downy  be- 
neath, and  sprays 
of  white  flowers, 
followed  by  plum- 
like  fruits  with 
coarse,  grey  skin, 
dry,  mealy  flesh, 
and  a  large  stone. 
It  is  the  grey  plum 
of  Sierra  Leone. 
Guinegate  OR 

Gtr  I  N  EG  A  TTE. 

Village  of  France 
sometimes  known 
as  Enguinegatte. 
In  the  dept.  of 
Pas-de-Calais,  it  is  known  for  the 
battles  fought  here  in  1479  and  1513. 
In  the  former  the  French  were 
beaten  by  Maximilian  of  Austria  on 
Aug.  7,  1479;  the  latter  is  known 
as  the  battle  of  the  Spurs  (g.o.). 

Guines.  Town  of  France.  In 
the  dept.  of  Pas-de-Calais,  it  is 
5J  m.  from  Calais,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  rail,  tram,  and  canal. 
Formerly  an  important  place,  it 
had  a  castle  and  was  a  fortified 
town  and  the  capital  of  a  county  to 
which  it  gave  its  name.  It  is  now 
chiefly  a  market  for  agricultural 
produce.  The  English  held  it  from 
the  time  of  Edward  III  to  that  of 
Mary.  It  was  the  headquarters  of 
Henry  VIII  at  the  Field  of  the 
Cloth  of  Gold  (g.v.).  Pop.  4,160. 

Guines.  Town  of  Cuba,  in  the 
prov.  of  Havana.  It  lies  about  30 
m.  S.E.  of  Havana,  with  which  it 
has  rly.  communication.  Founded 
towards  the  middle  of  the  18th 


Uumevere  at   the   nunnery   at  Amesbury,  where  sue 
made  herself  a  nun  and  became  abbess 

By  permission  from  the  painting  by  Mary  F.  Raphael 

century,  it  was  named  after  an 
extensive  estate,  and  incorporated 
in  1814.  In  1817  it  was  devastated 
by  fire.  It  trades  in  tobacco,  coffee, 
and  sugar.  Pop.  8,050. 

Guinevere.  Character  in  the 
Morte  D' Arthur.  The  daughter  of 
Leodegrance,  king  of  Cameliord, 


View  oJ  the  square,  showing  the 
parish  church 

she  married  King  Arthur.  She  fell 
in  love  with  Sir  Lancelot,  and  he 
with  her,  and  their  relations  served 
to  bring  about  the  last  great  battle 
and  the  death  of  Arthur.  She  re- 
tired to  a  nunnery  at  Amesbury 
and  there  died.  See  Arthur ;  Morte 
D' Arthur. 

Guingamp.  Town  of  Brittany, 
France.  In  the  dept.  of  Cotes  du 
Nord,  it  stands  on  the  river  Trieux, 
82  m.  W.N.  W.  of  Rennes.  A  statue  of 
the  Virgin  in  the  church  of  Notre 
Dame  de  Bon  Secours  is  the  object 
of  an  annual  pilgrimage  in  July. 
The  town  is  a  centre  of  agriculture. 
In  the  Middle  Ages  Guingamp  was 
the  chief  town  of  the  duchy  of 
Penthievre.  Near  the  town  is 
Graces,  a  village  with  a  16th  cen- 
tury Gothic  chapel.  Pop.  9,300. 
See  Gingham. 

Guinness.  Name  of  an  Irish 
stout  brewed  by  the  firm  of  Dublin 
brewers  of  this  name.  The  soft 
Dublin  water  is  particularly  suit- 
able for  the  brewing  of  stout.  See 
Brewing ;  Stout. 

Guinness.  Name  of  an  Irish 
family  famous  as  brewers.  Arthur 
Guinness,  in  the  18th  century, 
had  a  brewery  at  Leixlip.  He 
transferred  his  business  to  Dublin 
and  became  famed  for  his  porter, 
as  it  was  then  called.  By  his  son 
and  grandson  the  business  was  con- 
tinued, and  under  the  latter,  Ben- 
jamin Lee  Guinness  (1798-1868), 
it  was  much  enlarged.  It  was 
known  as  Arthur  Guinness,  Sons 
&Co.  In  1886  it  was  made  a 
limited  company,  but  the  Guinness 
family  retained  a  major  interest  in 
it.  Benjamin  Lee  Guinness,  made 
a  baronet  in  1867,  was  an  M.P. 
and  a  great  benefactor  to  Dublin. 
His  eldest  son  became  Baron  Ardi- 
laun,  1880,  and  died  without  sons 
in  1915.  The  other,  Edward  Cecil, 
was  made  baronet  in  1885,  Baron 
Iveagh  in  1891,  viscount  in  1905, 
and  earl  in  1919.  See  Iveagh,  Earl. 

Guinness  Trust.  Fund  estab- 
lished by  1st  Earl  Iveagh  n  1889 
for  the  provision  of  houses  for 
the  poorer  classes  in  London  and 
Dublin.  The  sum  set  aside  was 
£250,000 ;  blocks  of  dwellings  were 


GUINOBATAN 


3739 


GUISE 


erected,  and  it  was  afterwards 
increased.  The  offices  of  the  trust 
are  5,  Victoria  Street,  London, 
S.W.  See,  Housing. 

Guinobatan.  Town  of  Luzon, 
Philippine  Islands.  It  stands  on 
the  Inaya  river,  10  m.  N.W.  of 
Albay.  It  has  a  trade  in  the  hemp 
produced  in  the  locality.  Pop. 
20,000. 

Guipure.  Lace-making  term. 
The  word  comes  from  Fr.  guiper,  to 
whip,  or  cover,  a  thread,  and  ori- 
ginally denoted  the  silk-whipped 
cord  or  wire  used  in  lace-making. 
It  was  also  applied  to  the  cartisane 
of  parchment  lace,  i.e.  to  the  small 
pieces  of  parchment  or  vellum 
whipped  round  with  gold  or  silver 
thread.  Gradually  lace  made  with 
guipure  came  to  be  known  itself  as 
guipure,  and  the  name  was  also 
used  of  imitation  parchment  lace. 
The  term  is  now  applied  generally 
to  lace  with  no  mesh  ground,  with 
the  patterns  tied  with  brides  or  large 


Guipure.     Example  of  the  lace  of 
stitches,  as  in  modern  Honiton  and 
Maltese  lace  ;    to  lace  made  with 
gimp,  and  to  some  kinds  of  gimp. 
See  Lace. 

Gnipuzcoa.  Maritime  province 
of  N.  Spain.  The  Bay  of  Biscay 
washes  its  N.  shores,  and  the  river 
Bidassoa  separates  it  from  France 
on  the  N.E.  One  of  the  Basque 
provinces,  it  is  the  smallest  but 
most  densely  populated  in  Spain, 
with  a  population  of  344  per  sq.  m. 
There  are  pine,  oak,  and  chestnut 
forests,  and  fruit  orchards.  Mineral 
springs  abound ;  cod,  tunny,  and 
sardine  fisheries  are  important, 
and  oysters  are  bred.  It  is  in- 
habited mainly  by  the  Basques, 
who  still  retain  their  language 
and  customs.  The  capital  is 
San  Sebastian*.  Area,  728  sq.  m. 
Pop.  250,934. 

Guiraut  de  Borneil  (c.  1138- 
1220).  Provenyal  troubadour.  He 
was  born  at  Excideuil,  Dordogne, 
and  accompanied  Richard  Cceur  de 
Lion  on  the  third  crusade.  Though 
known  as  "  master  of  the  trouba- 
dours," he  has  received  but  scant 
attention  at  the  hands  of  students, 
only  a  portion  of  the  eighty  of  his 
poems  which  survive  having  been 
edited,  by  A.  Kolsen,  1894. 

Guisborough.  Market  town 
and  urban  district  of  Yorkshire 
(N.R. ).  It  is  9  m.  S.E.  of  Middles- 
brough, on  the  N.E.  Rly.,  and 


stands  in  a  valley 
beneath  the  Cleve- 
land Hills.  The 
chief  buildings  are 
the  church  of  S. 
Nicholas,  a  Per- 
pendicular edifice, 
the  town  hall,  and 
the  grammar 
school.  Here  was 
an  Augustinian 
priory,  some  few 
remains  of  which 
still  exist.  It  is 
said  to  have  been 
founded  in  1109 
by  one  of  the  Bruce 
family.  The  industries  are  mainly 
connected  with  tho  iron  found  in 
the  Cleveland  district.  Market 
day,  Tues.  Pop.  7,000. 

Guiscard.  Village  of  France,  in 
the  dept.  of  Oise.  It  is  19  m.  N.N.E. 
of  Compiegne  and  6  m.  S.  of  Ham, 
through  which  passes  the  high  road 
to  St.  Quentin.  Prominent  in  the 
Great  War,  it  was 
occupied  by  the 
French,  March  19, 
1917,  and  retaken 
by  the  Germans  in 
March,  1918,  the 
British  20th  and 
36th  divisions 
being  driven  back 
during  the  Ger- 
this  name  man  offensive.  It 

was  finally  retaken  by  the  Allies 
in  Sept.,  1918.  See  Somme,  Bat- 
tles of  the. 

Guiscard,  ROBERT  (c.  1020-85)- 
Norman    warrior.      Born  in   Nor- 
mandy, he  was  a  younger  son  of 
Tancred    de    Hauteville.       About 
1046  he  went  to  Italy,  whither  his 
elder  brothers  had  preceded  him, 
they  being    among   the    Normans 
who   had   just  taken  Apulia  from 
the  Greeks.     Three  of  them  were 
chosen  in  turn  count  of  Apulia,  and 
to  this  office,  in  1057,  Robert,  who 
had  also  made  a  name  as  a  warrior, 
succeeded.     He  continued  the  Nor- 
man  work   of   conquest   and   was 
recognized  as  a  duke  by  the  pope. 
In  1081  he  led 
an    army    to 
Greece,  and 
defeated  the 
emperor's 
troops  at  Dur- 
azzo,  returning 
to  Italy  to  help 
Pope    Gregory 
VII,     then     at 
war    with    the 
emperor  Henry 
IV.  Guiscard 
drove    Henry': 
troops  from  be- 
fore     Rome, 
which    he    en- 
tered,   and    to 
which     he     re- 


Guisborough,  Yorkshire.     Ruins  o!   the   Augustinian 
priory,  a  12th  century  foundation 

stored  Gregory.  He  renewed  war 
against  Byzantium,  but  died  at 
Cephalonia,  July,  1085.  The  name 
Guiscard  means  resourceful. 

Guise.  Town  of  France,  in  the 
dept.  of  Aisne.  It  stands  on  the 
Oise,  30  m.  N.  of  Laon.  The  castle 
dates  in  part  from  the  16th  century. 
Here  are  works  for  making  stoves 
and  similar  goods,  conducted  on  the 
cooperative  principle ;  in  connexion 
with  them  is  a  large  building  where 
the  workmen  live  on  the  com- 
munistic plan.  This  was  founded 
about  1850  by  J.  B.  Godin,  who 
followed  the  principles  advocated 
by  Fourier.  Camille  Desmoulins 
was  born  in  the  town.  Guise  is 
chiefly  known  as  having  given  its 
name  to  a  noted  French  family. 
In  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  the 
capital  of  a  county.  The  town  was 
taken  by  the  Germans  in  1914,  in 
their  first  onrush  towards  Paris, 
but  was  recovered  during  the 
final  advance  of  the  Allies  in  Oct., 
1918.  Pop.  8,100. 

Guise  OR  ST.  QUENTIN,  BATTLE 
OF.  Fought  between  the  French 
and  Germans  during  the  Great 
War,  Aug.  29-30,  1914.  On  its  re- 
treat from  Charleroi  the  5th  French 
army  under  Lanrezac,  four  corps 
strong,  had  reached  positions  S.  of 
the  Oise  at  Guise  when  it  received 
orders  from  Joffre  to  take  the  offen- 
sive against  St.  Quentin,  15  m. 
W.S.W.  of  Guise.  Joffre's  object 


Guise,  France. 


Part  of  the  town  and  the  16th  century 
castle 


GUISE 

was  to  give  the 
British  relief  from 
pursuit  and  Man- 
oury's  new  6th 
army  time  to  as- 
semble near  Paris. 
On  Aug.  29 
Lanrezac  had  to 
open  his  battle, 
with  noprotection 
to  his  left  except 
from  two  tired 
French  reserve 
divisions,  which 
speedily  fell  back. 
While  facing 


3740 


Guise. 


about,  to  move  on  St.  Quentin, 
his  right  formed  by  the  10th  corps 
was  violently  attacked  S.  and  E. 
of  Guise  by  the  Germans  in  con- 
siderable strength.  He  determined, 
therefore,  to  abandon  the  move- 
ment on  St.  Quentin  as  being  too 
dangerous,  and  Joffre  tacitly  con- 
curred. He  directed  the  3rd  and 
1st  corps  to  support  the  10th  corps 
against  the  Germans  near  Guise, 
while  the  18th  corps  covered  his 
left  and  faced  towards  St.  Quentin. 
It  crossed  the  Oise,  but  near  Itan- 
court  found  itself  heavily  engaged 
by  troops  in  approximately  equal 
force  of  Kluck's  and  Billow's 
armies.  The  Germans  were  checked 
and  driven  back  with  considerable 
loss  across  the  Oise  at  Guise,  but 
the  danger  of  being  turned  by 
Kluck's  advance  was  such  that 
Lanrezac  could  not  profit  by  this 
success  of  his  right ;  and  on  his 
left  the  18th  corps  had  to  re-cross 
the  Oise  as  German  reinforcements 
entered  the  battle.  Lanrezac  had 
no  choice  but  to  break  off  the 


engagement  on  Aug.  30,  and 
resume  his  retreat,  as  his  right 
was  in  the  air  and  Kluck's  advance 
continued.  The  German  loss  was 
stated  by  Biilow  at  6,000  killed  and 
wounded.  The  French  casualties 
were  estimated  by  the  Germans  at  a 
considerably  higher  figure,  and  in 
addition  about  2,000  prisoners  were 
taken. 

Guise.  French  title  taken  from 
the  town  of  this  name  and  held 
by  a  cadet  branch  of  the  ruling 
family  of  Lorraine.  Its  principal 
holders  are  described  below.  The 
earldom  of  Guise,  with  Aumale, 
Elbeuf,  and  other  possessions,  was 
brought  to  Rudolph  of  Lorraine 
by  has  wife  Marie  of  Blois,  in 
1333,  and  passed  to  Rene  II  of 
Lorraine,  from  whom  they  came  to 
his  second  son  Claude,  in  whose 
hands  they  were  converted  into  a 
duchy.  Mary  of  Guise,  1515-60, 
who  married  James  V  of  Scotland, 
was  mother  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots. 
Fran?ois  Joseph,  1670-75,  was  the 
7th  and  last  duke,  arid  on  the  death 
of  his  great-aunt,  Marie,  the  title 
lapsed. 


Map  of  the  battlefield  of  August,  1914 

Guise,  CHARLES  DE  (1525-74). 
French  prelate,  known  as  the 
cardinal  of  Lorraine.  The  2nd  son 
of  Claude,  duke 
of  Guise,  he  was 
made  titular 
archbishop  of 
Reims,  1538, 
and  cardinal  in 
1547.  Immoral 
and  unscrupu- 
lous, but  skilled 
in  statecraft,  he 
sharedf  or  many 
years  the  power 

of  his  brother  Fran9ois,  2nd  duke  of 
Guise.  He  helped  to  negotiate  the 
treaty  of  Cateau-Cambresis,  1559, 
and,  a  bitter  foe  of  the  Huguenots, 
strove  to  introduce  the  harshest 
form  of  the  Inquisition  into  France. 
He  was  forced  to  leave  the  court 
by  Catherine  de'  Medici,  and  died 
in  disgrace  Dec.  26,  1574.  His 
dissolute  life  earned  him  the  name 
of  cardinal  of  the  bottles. 

Guise,   CLAUDE,   IST  DUKE  OF 
(1496-1550).          French     soldier. 


Charles  de  Guise, 
Cardinal  of  Lorraine 


Second   son  of   Rene  II,   duke 
Lorraine  (d. 
1508),   he  was 
born   Oct. 
1496.     He 


1st  Duke  of  Guise 


From  a  portrait  in  the 
Pilti  Pal  ace,  Florence 


20, 

in- 

herited his 
father's  French 
duchy  of  Au- 
male, his  bro- 
ther Anthony 
succeeding  t  o 
the  dukedom 
of  Lorraine.  In 
1513  he  mar- 
ried Antoinette  of  Bourbon,  thus 
linking  himself  with  the  French 
court,  where,  he  became  an  official 
of  the  household.  He  fought 
with  great  gallantry  at  Marignano, 
1515,  and  at  Fuenterrabia,  1521. 
In  1525  he  shattered  the  Ana- 
baptist forces  in  Lorraine.  Francis  I 
of  France  made  Claude  governor 
of  Champagne,  and  converted  his 
fief  of  Guise  into  a  duchy,  1526. 
He  was  thus  a  peer  of  France,  and 
by  Angevin  descent  and  his  Lor- 
raine duchy  took  precedence  over 
the  Bourbon  princes  themselves. 
He  died  April  12,  1550. 


GUISE 

Guise,  FRANCOIS,  2ND  DUKE  OF 
(1519-63).  French  soldier  and 
statesman.  He  was  born  at  Bar. 

Feb.  17,  1519,    ^. 

and  saw  war  at 
Montmedy,  in 
1542;  Land- 
recies,  in  1543; 
and  at  the 
siege  of  Bou- 
logne, in  1545, 
his  wounds  in 
these  c  a  m- 


paigns    giving 


2nd  Duke  of  Guise 


him  the  sobriquet  of  Le  Balafre, 
the  scarred.  His  defence  of  Metz 
against  the  emperor  Charles  V, 
1552,  made  him  famous  as  a 
general,  and  he  commanded  the 
French  troops  sent  to  aid  Pope 
Paul  III  against  Spain,  1556.  In 
1558  he  recovered  Calais  and  other 
places  from  the  English. 

Under  Francis  II  the  duke  was 
virtually  supreme  ruler  of  France. 
With  relentless  cruelty  he  sup- 
pressed the  conspiracy  of  Amboise 
formed  by  the  lesser  nobility 
against  the  rule  of  the  Guises  and 
their  ally  the  cardinal  Granvella, 
1560.  Under  the  regency  of 
Catherine  de'  Medici  he  formed, 
with  the  duke  de  Montmorency 
and  the  marshal  de  S.  Andre,  the 
"  triumvirate  "  who  opposed  her 
attempts  to  reconcile  the  Catholic 
and  Protestant  parties.  In  the  re- 
ligious wars  which  broke  out  in 

1562,  Franyois  again  took  the  field, 
winning  victories    at   Rouen    and 
Dreux,  1562,  but  while  laying  siege 
to  Orleans  was  shot  at  St.  Mesmin 
by  a  Protestant  fanatic,  Feb.  19, 

1563,  and  died  five  days  later. 
Guise,    HENRI,    3RD    DUKE  OF 

(1550-88).  Son  of  Fra^ois  of 
Guise,  he  inherited  his  father's 
courage  but  not  his  ability.  In  his 
youth  he  fought  against  the  Turk- 
ish invaders  of  Hungary,  and  he 
was  prominent  in  the  massacre  of 
S.  Bartholomew,  1572.  He  defeated 
the  Huguenots  at  Dormans,  1575, 
and  set  out,  1585,  to  use  his  great 
popularity  to  seize  the  crown  from 
the  discredited  Henry  III. 

Defeating  the  German  mercen- 
aries at  Vimory,  and  the  Huguenots 
at  Auneau,  1587,  he  entered  Paris 
April,  1588,  and,  the  Parisian  mob 
favouring  his  attempt,  laid  siege 
to  the  king  in  the  Louvre.  At 
this  point  his  courage  failed  him, 
and  Henry  III  left  Paris  for  Blois, 
where  he  invited  Guise  to  attend 
the  states -general  which  he  con- 
voked there.  Despite  warnings  of 
intended  treachery,  the  duke  fol- 
lowed the  king  to  Blois,  but  was 
assassinated  there  by  the  king's 
arrangement,  and  almost  in  his 
presence,  Dec.  25,  1588.  Like  his 
father,  Henri  was  called  Le  Balafre, 
from  a  wound  received  at  Dormans. 


GUISE 


3.741 


GUJARAT 


Guise.    The  assassination  of  Henri,  3rd  Duke  of  Guise,  by  order  of  Henry  III, 
in  the  chateau  of  Blois,  Christmas  Day,  1588 

From  a  painting  by  Delaroche,  Chantilly 


Guise,   HENRI,   STH  DUKE    OF 
(1614-64).    Born  at  Blois,  April  4, 
1614,  son  of  Charles  of  Lorraine, 
4th     duke     of 
Guise,   he   be- 
came   arch- 
bishop  of 
Reims  while 
still    a    young 
man.      On  his 
father's  death, 
1640,    he    re- 
nounced    h  i  s 
Henry,  orders    and 

5th  Duke  of  Guise      took  the  titla 

He  conspired  with  the  count  of 
Soissons  against  Louis  XIII,  1641, 
and  with  Masani- 
ello  in  1647  to  seize 
the  crown  of  Naples. 
Taken  prisoner  in  the 
attempt,  he  was  con- 
fined in  Spain  from 
1648-52.  He  joined 
the  Frondeurs  in 
Paris,  1652.  He  died 
in  Paris,  June,  1664. 
Guitar  (Gr.Jcithara, 
Lat.ciMara).  Stringed 
instrument,  with  a 
neck  and  fretted 
finger-board.  The 
true  Spanish  guitar 
has  six  strings, 
played  by  plucking 
with  the  fingers,  and  Gmtar-  Anda' 


usually  tuned  : — 

E        A       D        G 


lusian  model 


Many  other  forms  and  sizes,  tried 
during  the  last  three  centuries, 
may  be  seen  in  museums. 

Guitry,  LUCIEN  (1860-1925). 
French  actor.  Born  in  Paris,  he 
first  appeared  at  the  Gymnase 


in  La  Dame  aux  Camelias,  1878. 
He  spent  some  years  at  St.  Peters- 
burg, was  producer  at  the  Comedie 
Francaise,  but  became  best  known 
by  his  successful  managership  of 
the  Theatre  de  la  Renaissance, 
1902-9.  Among  his  most  success- 
ful performances  there  were  in 
Anatole  France's  Crainquebille  and 
Le  Mannequin  d'Osier,  Zola's  L'As- 
sommoir,  and  in  L'Emigre  and  Le 
Juif  Polonais.  The  death  of 
Constant  Coquelin,  1909,  left 
Guitry  the  foremost  French  actor. 
He  appeared  in  ,3^^^^^^^^^,^ . 
London  in  1902, 
1909, 1920,  and 
died  June  1, 
1925.  His  son 
Sacha(b.l855), 
is  both  actor 
and  dramatist. 
Among  his  nu- 
merous plays, 

witty,  cynical,  Lucien  Guitry, 
and  sparkling, 
are  N  o  n  o, 
1905  ;  La  Clef,  1907  ;  La  Prise  de 
Berg-op-Zoom,  1912 ;  Pasteur, 
1919.  In  many  he  has  himself  ap- 
peared, in  some  with  his  father. 
He  took  part  in  his  own  plays  in 
London,  May,  1920. 

Guittone  di  Arezzo  (c.  1235- 
94).  Italian  poet  and  writer. 
One  of  the  most  influential  of  the 
forerunners  of  Dante,  he  is  credited 
with  having  first  given  the  sonnet 
its  enduring  form,  and  with  being 
the  author  of  the  first  known 
Italian  epistolary  writings.  He 
modelled  his  style  on  that  of 
Seneca,  as  the  later  Humanists 
did  on  that  of  Cicero,  and  thereby 
somewhat  hampered  the  national 
development  of  Italian  literature. 
He  is  frequently  referred  to  as 
Fra  Guittone  from  his  having 
joined  the  military  and  religious 
order  of  the  Cavalieri  de  Santa 
Maria. 


French  actor 

Gerschel 


Guizot,  FRANQOIS  PIERRE  GUIL- 
LAUME  (1787-1874).  French  states- 
man, historian,  and  academician. 
Born  at 
Nimes,  Oct.  4. 
1787,  of  Hu- 
guenot paren- 
t  a  g  e  and 
brought  up  as 
a  Protestant  at 
Geneva,  he 
went  to  Paris 
in  1  8 0 5  t  o 
study  law. 
There  he  soon 
attracted  at- 
tention  by  his 
journal  istic 
writings,  and 
in  1812  was 
appointed  professor  of  modern 
history  in  the  university  of  France. 
Under  Louis  XVIII  he  held 
several  administrative  offices  and 
became  the  leader  of  the  Doc- 
trinaires or  moderate  Liberals ;  but 
the  reactionary  policy  of  Charles 
X  drove  him  into  opposition,  and 
for  some  time  his  lectures  were  in- 
terdicted. On  the  accession  of 
Louis  Philippe  he  became  minister 
of  the  interior  and  afterwards  of 
public  instruction,  and  in  1840  was 
sent  as  French  ambassador  to 
London.  He  remained  in  England 
for  a  few  months  only,  being  re- 
called by  the  king  to  take  Thiers's 
place  as  minister  of  foreign  affairs. 
In  1847  he  became  prime  minister, 
and  his  refusal  to  yield  to  various 
popular  demands  was  largely  in- 
strumental in  bringing  about  the 
revolution  of  1848,  which  virtually 
closed  his  political  career.  The 
rest  of  his  life  was  devoted  mainly 
to  literature.  He  died  at  Val- 
Richer,  Nqrmandy,  Oct.  12,  1874. 

Guizot's  historical  works — of 
which  the  most  important  are 
Histoire  de  la  Revolution  d'An- 
gleterre,  Histoire  de  la  Civilisation 
en  Europe,  and  Histoire  de  la 
Civilisation  en  France — are  care- 
fully written,  philosophical  in 
character,  and  impregnated  with 
his  own  political  ideas.  See  his 
Memoires  and  Life  by  Bardoux, 
1894.  Pron.  Ghee-zo. 

Gujarat.  Dist.  and  subdivision 
of  the  Punjab,  India,  in  the  Rawal- 
pindi Division.  It  lies  between  the 
Jhelum  and  Chenab  rivers,  and  is 
irrigated  from  the  Jhelum  canals. 
Of  the  total  area  about  two- 
thirds  is  under  cultivation,  about 
one-third  of  this  being  devoted 
to  wheat.  District  area,  2,051 
sq.  m.  Pop.  745,634,  five-sixths 
Mahomedans.  Subdivision  area, 
569  sq.  m.  Pop.  304,778,  five- 
sixths  Mahomedans. 

Gujarat.  Town  of  the  Punjab, 
India.  The  headquarters  of  Gu- 
jarat dist.  and  subdivision,  it  is 


GUJARAT 


3742 


GULFWEED 


of  considerable  commercial  im- 
portance, and  is  noted  for  its  manu- 
facture of  furniture.  Pop.  19,090, 
three-quarters  Mahomedans,  one- 
quarter  Hindus. 

Gujarat,  BATTLE  OF.  Fought 
between  the  British  and  the  Sikhs, 
Feb.  21,  1849.  The  second  Sikh 
War  had  begun  with  the  British 
check  at  Chillianwalla,  in  Jan.  In 
Feb.  Lord  Gough,  the  British  com- 
mander, fought  an  army  of  Sikhs, 
estimated  at  60,000,  drawn  up 
before  the  fortified  town  of  Gu- 
jarat. He  attacked  them  with  his 
artillery,  in  which  he  was  greatly 
superior,  allowing  tliis  to  play  upon 
them  for  2£  hrs.  An  advance  was 
then  made,  and  the  Sikh  ranks 
broke  into  flight.  The  British 
cavalry  pursued  them  for  many 
miles,  and  the  result  was  the  anni- 
hilation of  the  Sikh  army  and  the 
capture  of  its  guns  and  baggage. 
The  British  army  of  24,000  lost  about 
800.  Gujarat  was  taken  and  the 
Punj  ab  surrendered.  See  Sikh  Wars. 

Gujranwala.  Dist.,  subdivision 
and  town  of  the  Punjab,  India,  in 
the  Lahore  Division.  The  area  of 
the  dist.  is  4,082  sq.  m.,  of  which 
about  two-thirds  is  under  cultiva- 
tion, one-third  of  this  being  de- 
voted to  wheat ;  other  crops  are 
gram,  barley,  cotton,  and  millet. 
The  district  owes  much  of  its  pros- 
perity to  the  two  Chenab  irrigation 
canals.  The  manufacture  of  cotton 
cloth  is  an  industry  of  some  im- 
portance. Gujranwala  town  is  an 
important  commercial  centre.  Its 
manufactures  include  cotton  cloth 
and  brass  vessels.  J  ats  are  the  most 
numerous  tribesmen.  Pop. ,  district, 
923,419  ;  subdivision,  218,352 ; 
town,  29,472. 

Gulbarga.  Division,  dist.,  sub- 
division, and  town  of  India,  in 
Hyderabad  State.  Area  of  div. 
22,110  sq.  m.,  and  of  dist.  6,719  sq. 
m.  The  cultivated  area  of  the 
dist.  is  considerable,  millet  being 
the  chief  crop.  Limestone  occurs  ; 
cotton  goods  are  made,  and  millet, 
hides,  and  cotton  exported.  Im- 
ports include  salt,  cotton,  woollens, 
and  hardware.  In  Gulbarga  City, 
the  headquarters  of  the  division 
and  a  trade  centre,  is  the  Jama 
Masjid  in  the  old  fort,  a  mosque 
constructed  in  the  time  of  Feroze- 
shah.  Pop.,  division,  3,673,171; 
district,  1,150,983;  subdivision, 
212,034;  town,  32,437. 

Gulbrands-dal  OR  GUDBRANDS- 
DAL.  Valley  dist.  of  S.  Norway.  It 
is  the  central  part  of  the  main 
valley,  with  ramifications  of  the 
river  Lougen.  Emerging  from  Lake 
Miosen,  this  river  flows  N.W.  to 
Romsdal  co.,  the  •Gulbrandsdal 
running  from  the  Romsdal  past 
Littlehammer  to  the  base  of  the 
Dovrefeld  Mts. 


Gulden.  Silver  coin  current  at 
various  times  in  Germany  and  the 
Netherlands.  In  Austria  and  the 


Gulden.     Obverse   and    reverse   of 
Dutch  coin  of  1773.     Diameter, ';  in. 

S.  German  states  it  was  in  use  until 
1876,  and  is  current  as  the  guilder 
or  gulden,  in  Holland.  See  Florin. 


Gulf  Stream.    Chart  of  the  North  Atlantic  Ocean  showing 
the  origin  and  directions  of  the  current 

Gules.  One  of  the  seven  heraldic 
tinctures,  red.  It  is  represented 
in  drawings 
by  a  series  of 
thin  vertical 
lines  close 
together.  The 
word  is  derived 
either  from  Fr. 
gueules,  pi.  of 
gueule  (Lat.  gu- 


tonal  current,  from  E.  to  W. 
across  the  Atlantic  Ocean  N.  of  the 
equator.  Part  of  this  current  skirts 
the  outer  shores  of  the  W.  Indies, 
but  the  greater  portion  enters  the 
Caribbean  Sea  and  thence  passes 
to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Here  the 
piling  up  of  waters  causes  a  stream 
current  to  issue  from  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  between  Florida  and  Cuba. 
This  current  unites  with  the  branch 
which  keeps  outside  the  W.  Indies 
to  form  the  Gulf  Stream. 

The  combined  current  follows 
the  direction  of  the  coast ;  it  de- 
creases steadily  in  rate  of  flow, 
depth,  and  temperature,  but  in- 
creases in  width. 
On  reaching  the 
latitudes  of  the 
prevailing  wes- 
terlies the  Gulf 
Stream  loses  its 
stream  character 
and  becomes  a 
great  drift.  Its 
waters  are  spread 
out  like  a  fan, 
and,  instead  of 
there  being  a 
broad  ocean 
river,  there  is 
a  general  move- 
men  t  of  the 
whole  surface 
waters  ,of  the 
ocean  which, 
pushed  by  the 
winds,  drift  to- 
wards the  coasts 
of  N.W.  Europe. 
This  drift  current 
is  called  the  Gulf 
Stream  drift  or 

the  N.  Atlantic  drift.  It  influences 
the  climate  of  W.  Europe  by  raising 
the  winter  temperature,  but  this 
power  depends  mainly  on  the  pre- 
vailing westerlies.  See  Weather. 

Gulfweed  (Sargassum  bacci- 
ferum).  Seaweed  of  the  class 
Phaeophyceae.  It  has  narrow, 


Gules  in  heraldry 


la),  throat,  red 
skin,    or    from 
See  Heraldry, 
bay).     Large-. 


Persian  gyul, 

Gulf  (Gr. 

indentation  of  the  coast-line  of  a 
country  or  continent,  and  the  sea 
contained  within  it.  The  name  of 
bay  is  generally  given  to  an  in- 
dentation whose  mouth  is  broad 
compared  with  its  depth,  while 
gulf  is  more  appropriate  to  a  long 
narrow  indentation.  Examples  are 
the  gulfs  of  Suez,  Aden,  California, 
Mexico,  Finland,  and  Bothnia. 

Gulf  Stream.  Warm  ocean 
current  flowing  from  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  along  the  S.E.  coast  of  the 
U.S.A.  The  N.E.  trades  cause  a 
great  drift  of  waters — the  N.  Equa- 


Gulfweed.     Leaves  and  fruit  of  the 
Sargasso  Sea  seaweed 

stalked  leaves,  with  stalked  air- 
bladders  at  their  base.  It  floats  on 
the  sea,  forming  vast  fields  that 
impede  shipping.  Detached  pieces 


GULL 

are  often  deposited  on  distant 
shores  by  the  Gulf  Stream.  Its 
celebrated  headquarters  is  in  the 
Atlantic,  where  it  is  estimated  to 
cover  an  area  of  200,000  sq.  m., 
known  as  the  Sargasso  Sea,  and 
almost  unaltered  since  the  days 
when  Columbua  encountered  it 
about  400  leagues  to  the  W.  of  the 
Canaries,  to  the  great  alarm  of  his 
men,  who  imagined  it  to  be  at- 
tached to  rocks. 

Gull.  Order  (Laridae)  of  sea- 
birds,  comprising  about  50  species. 
It  includes  the  various  genera  com- 
monly known  as  gulls,  terns,  kitti- 
wakes,  and  skuas.  Most  are  grey  and 
white  in  colour,  have  long  and 
powerful  wings,  and  are  web- 
footed.  All  are  fine  swimmers  and 
fliers,  and  many  of  them  divers. 
The  majority  haunt  the  coasts, 


his  medical  degree  at  London  Uni- 
versity in  1841,  having  gained  the 
necessary  knowledge  by  securing 
a  minor  appointment  at  Guy's 
Hospital  and  there  attending  the 
lectures.  At  Guy's,  where  he  was 
lecturer  a  nd 
then  phy- 
sician, he  made 
his  reputation  „ 
by  his  skill  in  <i 
dealing  with 
disease,  and  he 
en  hanced  it 
after  the  re- 
covery of  the 


he  attended, 
from  typhoid  in  1871.  He  was  then 
made  a  baronet.  Gull  died  in 
London,  Jan.  29,  1890. 


"  Gulliver's  Travels.  Satiric 
work  of  fiction  by  Jonathan  Swift, 
parts  of  which  have  come  to  be 
regarded  chiefly  as  a  children's 
story  book.  It  was  first  published 
pseudonymously  in  1726  as  Travels 
into  Several  Remote  Nations  of  the 
World  by  Lemuel  Gulliver.  It  is 
divided  into  four  parts,  telling  of 
as  many  voyages ;  to  Lilliput  and  to 
Brobdingnag,  in  both  of  which  the 
satire  is  political  ;  to  Laputa, 
satirising  philosophers  and  men  of 
science  ;  and  to  the  Houyhnhnms, 
where  the  satire  degenerates  into 
misanthropy.  Apart  from  the 
satire,  sometimes  playful  and  fre- 
quently bitter,  it  is  one  of  the  most 
original  and  convincing  works  of 
extravagant  fiction.  The  idea  is 
borrowed  from  the  Vera  Historia, 
or  True  History,  of  Lucian  (q.v. ), 


Gull.    Left  to  right,  Black-beaded  gull,  Larus  ridibundus  ;   Herring  gull,  L.  argentatus  ;  Common  gull,  L.  canus 


usually  in  flocks,  but  are  frequently 
found  far  inland  during  severe 
weather.  Gulls  are  often  seen  fol- 
lowing the  plough  in  search  of 
grubs,  and  the  assemblage  of  vast 
flocks  of  black-headed  gulls  is  a 
common  sight  in  London  during 
winter.  When  at  sea  they  feed  on 
fishes  and  small  crustaceans,  and 
serve  as  useful  shore  scavengers. 
Gulls  are  all  migratory,  either 
wholly  or  partially.  Their  large 
eggs,  of  which  they  lay  usually 
two  or  three  a  season,  are  in  many 
places  collected  for  the  table. 
Most  gulls  nest  on  the  cliffs  ;  some, 
as  the  black-headed  gulls,  in  the 
marshes. 

Among  the  more  familiar  species 
are  the  common  gull,  which  is 
really  less  common  than  many 
others,  and  only  visits  England  in 
winter ;  the  black-headed  gull, 
which  is  common  around  the 
coasts,  has  a  red  beak,  and  develops 
a  dark-brown  head  and  neck  in 
summer ;  and  the  herring  gull,  a 
large  bird  measuring  nearly  2  ft. 
in  length,  which  has  a  yellow  beak, 
with  red  legs,  and  yellow  rings 
round  the  eyes.  See  Bird. 

Gull,  SIR  WILLIAM  WITHEY 
(1816-90).  British  physician.  Born 
at  Colchester,  Dec.  31,  1816,  he 
began  life  as  a  schoolmaster.  Turn- 
ing, however,  to  medicine,  he  took 


Gulland,  JOHN  WILLIAM  (1864- 
1920).  British  politician.  Born  at 
Edinburgh,  he  was  educated  at  the 
High  School  and  University.  He 
became  a  corn  merchant,  and  was 
interested  in 
the  municipal 
affairs  of  Edin- 
burgh. He  was 
M.P.  for  Dum- 
fries Burghs, 
1906-18;  sec- 
retary to  the 
Scottish  Lib- 
eral committee 
in  the  House 
of  Commons, 
1906-9 ;  junior 
lord  of  the 
Treasury  and  Scottish  whip,  1909- 
15  ;  and  joint-parliamentary  secre- 
tary to  the  Treasury,  1915-17.  He 
died  Jan.  27,  1920. 

Gullane.  Village  and  watering- 
place  of  Haddingtonshire,  Scotland. 
It  stands  on  Gullane  Bay,  an  open- 
ing of  the  Firth  of  Forth,  4  m. 
from  N.  Berwick  and  19^  from 
Edinburgh.  It  is  visited  for  its 
bathing,  and  there  are  golf  links. 
The  name  means  a  little  lake. 
Pop.  920. 

Gullet  (Lat.  gula,  throat).  Tube 
leading  from  the  pharynx  to  the 
stomach      through     which     food 
See  Oesophagus. 


which  also  inspired  Cyrano  de 
Bergerac's  Voyage  a  la  Lune.  See 
Swift. 

Gully  (Lat.  gula,  throat).  Term 
meaning  a  channel  worn  in  the 
ground  by  running  water,  a  small 
steep-sided  valley  or  ravine,  or  a 
ditch  or  deep  gutter. 


John  Wm.  Gulland, 
British  politician 

Russell 


Gulliver   watching  the   Lilliputian 
army  marching  between  bis  legs 

From  a  drawing  by  T.  Morten 


GULLY 


3744 


GUMBINNEN 


Gully,  JOHN  (1783-1863).  Brit- 
ish sportsman.  Born  at  the  Crown 
Inn,  Wick,  of  which  his  father  was 
the  proprietor,  Aug.  21,  1783,  he 
was  brought  up  as  a  butcher. 
While  imprisoned  for  debt  in  the 
Marshalsea  he  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  Hen  Pearce,  the  Game 
Chicken,  who  obtained  his  release 
by  interesting  some  patrons  of  the 
ring  in  his  behalf.  A  match  was 
made  between  Gully  and  Pearce, 
and  the  Chicken  won.  Gully's  later 
victories  established  his  reputation. 

Retiring  from  the  ring  in  1808, 
he  became  a  professional  betting 
man  and  amassed  a  large  fortune, 
which  he  invested  in  collieries.  He 
won  the  St.  Leger  with  Margrave 
in  1832,  pulled  off  the  double  event 
at  Epsom  in  1846  by  winning  the 
Derby  with  Pyrrhus  I  and  the  Oaks 
with  Mendicant,  and  in  1854  won 
the  2,000  Guineas  with  Hermit 
(not  the  Derby  winner  of  1867)  and 
the  Derby  with  Andover.  Gully 
represented  Pontefract  in  parlia- 
ment. He  died  March  9,  1863. 

Gully  Ravine.  Name  given  to 
a  deep  cleft  running  inwards  to- 
wards Krithia  from  a  point  near 
Beach  Y  at  the  S.W.  extremity  of 
the  Gallipoli  peninsula.  Strongly 
fortified  by  the  Turks,  it  twisted 
N.E.  between  overhanging  hills. 
It  was  200  ft.  high  in  places  and 
covered  with  thick  green  under- 
growth. On  June  28,  1915,  it  was 
attacked  by  Gen.  Hunter- Weston 
with  the  29th  division,  156th 
brigade  of  the  Lowland  division, 
and  the  Indian  brigade.  The  gains 
were  definite  and  considerable.  See 
Gallipoli,  Campaign  in. 

Gum  (Eucalyptus).  Large  genus 
of  tall  evergreen  trees  of  the 
natural  order  Myrtaceae.  With 
few  exceptions  they  are  natives  of 
Australia,  where  they  are  the 
dominant  trees  of  the  forests. 
They  have  undivided,  leathery, 
and  usually  alternate  leaves.  The 
upper  part  of  the  calyx  and  the 
corolla  are  shed  when  the  flower 
opens,  so  that  the  great  number  of 
stamens  form  the  most  con- 
spicuous feature  of  the  expanded 
blossom.  Eucalyptus  oil  is  obtained 
from  the  leaves  of  E.  globulus. 

Some  of  the  species  rapidiy  attain 
enormous  proportions,  the  height 
frequently  exceeding  those  of  the 
giant  sequoias  of  California.  E. 
amygdalina  has  been  recorded  of  the 
height  of  522  ft.  The  girth  of  these 
big  trees  at  5  ft.  from  the  ground 
averages  from  40  ft.  to  50  ft., 
though  they  have  been  known  as 
much  as  88  ft.  Planks  over  200  ft 
long  have  been  cut  from  them. 
Some  species  shed  the  outer  bark 
in  long  thin  strips ;  but  the  under 
bark  is  deliberately  stripped  for 
roofing  houses  and  many  trees 


are  killed  by  this  process.  Fallen 
timber  rapidly  decays.  Among 
other  products  of  the  gum  trees 
is  a  kind  of  kino,  which  exudes 
from  the  tree  as  a  resinous  juice, 
and  has  great  astringent  properties. 
The  timber  is  valuable  for  many 
purposes,  especially  where  beams 
of  great  length  are  required. 

Gum  (Lat.  gummi).  Adhesive 
and  thickening  agent.  True  gum 
is  the  exudation  and  sometimes 
the  juice  of  trees  and  plants.  It  is 
soluble  in  water.  The  best  is  gum 
arable.  Tragacanth,  the  chief 
example  of  gums  containing 
bassorin,  is  obtained  by  making 
incisions  in  the  stem  of  a  low  bush 
growing  in  Asia  Minor  and  Persia. 
The  dried  juice  absorbs  fifty  times 
its  own  weight  in  water,  and  once 
melted  is  a  mucilage  (q.v, )  rather 
than  an  adhesive.  Both  it  and 
gum  arabic  are  used  in  pharmacy 
to  contain  insoluble  substances  in 
pills,  etc. 

Gum  resins  are  also  the  products 
of  plants,  and  consist  of  a  mixture 
of  gum — soluble  in  water — and 
resin,  only  soluble  in  alcohol — such 
as  ammoniacum,  myrrh,  etc. 
Plum,  cherry,  almond,  and  other 
fruit  trees  exude  gum,  which  yield 
arabinose  or  oxalic  acid,  according 
to  the  way  it  is  treated.  Gum 
substitute,  or  British  gum,  is 
made  by  converting  starch  into 
dextrin  either  by  heating  or 
treating  with  acids,  and  is  found 
superior  to  real  gums  as  an  adhesive 
for  postage  stamps,  being  easily 
dissolved  and  easily  spread.  The 
best  known  gum  resins  are 
ammoniacum  asafetida,  galbanum, 
and  myrrh.  These  are  all  used  in 
the  practice  of  medicine. 

Gum  arabic  is  dried  gum  ob- 
tained from  the  stem  and  branches 
of  various  species  of  Acaciae,  the 
finest  kind  being  obtained  from 
Acacia  Senegal.  The  acacias  are 
small  trees  growing  freely  in  W. 
Africa,  N.  of  the  river  Senegal,  and 
also  abundant  in  S.  Nubia,  Kor- 
dofan,  and  E.  Africa.  The  Kordo- 
fan  gum  which  is  most  prized  is 
exported  from  Alexandria  and 
occurs  in  ovoid,  opaque,  white 
tears,  the  largest  being  of  the  size 
of  a  hazel  nut.  Inferior  kinds  of 
gum  arabic  from  Morocco,  Cape 
Colony,  East  India,  and  Australia 
are  mos  t  ly 
]  coloured,  and 
_y|f5l.  /,,  although  not 
j  suitable  for  use 
-  '>^g  :fv-r,  iii  medicine.1, 

S^lr*/        '  anc"       m      t^ie 

"^•V  manufacture  of 

'""v&JJi ii^  pastilles,       are 

fr/         j  much  used    in 

i. ..^^^^r..'..-..     _ J  the   industries, 

Gum  arabic,  flowers  and  as  an  ad' 

oi  Acacia  Senegal  hesive. 


Gum  OR  GINGIVA.  Name  for  the 
fleshy  tissue  which  surrounds  the 
margin  of  the  upper  and  lower  jaws. 
The  gums  are  covered  by  mucous 
membrane  which  is  continuous  with 
that  of  the  mouth.  Inflammation 
of  the  gums  generally  arises  from 
a  neglect  of  the  teeth  It  is  also 
seen  in  scurvy,  and  in  persons  who 
have  been  taking  mercurial  pre- 
parations for  a  considerable  time. 
Chronic  inflammation  of  the  gum 
may  eventually  lead  to  loosening 
and  falling  out  of  the  teeth.  An 
abscess  at  the  root  of  a  tooth  may 
break  through  on  the  surface  of  the 
gum,  the  condition  then  being 
known  as  a  gumboil. 

Pyorrhoea  alveolaris  is  an  in- 
flammatory state  of  the  gums 
associated  with  the  formation  of 
pus  between  the  teeth  and  the 
gum.  The  condition  is  very  apt 
to  affect  the  general  health,  pro- 
ducing anaemia,  disorders  of 
digestion,  and  pains  in  the  limbs 
resembling  rheumatism.  Removal 
of  the  teeth  is  the  best  treatment. 
Chronic  lead  poisoning,  which  is 
sometimes  seen  among  smelters, 
printers,  and  plumbers,  produces  a 
blue  line  at  the  margin  of  the  gums 
from  the  deposit  of  lead  sulphide  in 
the  tissues.  See  Pyorrhoea ;  Teeth. 

Gumbinnen.  Town  of  E. 
Prussia,  Germanj'.  It  is  about  66 
m.  from  Konigsberg,  and  stands 
at  the  junction  of  the  rivers  Ro- 
minte  and  Pissa.  The  chief  build- 
ings are  churches,  a  hospital,  etc., 
and  the  industries  include  the 
making  of  machinery,  weaving, 
and  tanning.  Gumbinnen  was 
made  a  town  by  Frederick  William 
I  of  Prussia,  who  settled  some  re- 
ligious refugees  here  in  the  18th 
century.  During  the  early  part  of 
the  Great  War  the  district  was  in- 
vaded by  the  Russians,  and  there 
was  a  good  deal  of  fighting  around 
here.  Pop.  14,500. 

Gumbinnen, BATTLE  OF.  Fought 
between  the  Germans  and  the 
Russians,  Aug.  20,  1914.  Little 
more  than  a  fortnight  after  Ger- 
many's declaration  of  war,  Aug.  1, 
1914,  Russia  had  in  motion  several 
large  armies,  one  of  which  invaded 
E.  Prussia  from  the  N.,  while  a 
second  struck  from  the  S.  The 
former,  called  the  Army  of  the 
Niemen,  consisted  of  250,000  men 
under  Rennenkampf  ;  the  latter, 
called  the  army  of  the  Nareff,  led 
by  Samsonoff,  was  of  the  same 
strength. 

The  German  forces,  commanded 
by  Von  Fran?ois,  were  in  this 
area  much  inferior  to  the  Russian 
in  numbers  and  in  quality.  After 
raids  and  reconnaissances  across 
the  frontier,  Rennenkampf,  gaining 
a  foothold  in  enemy  territory,  ad- 
vanced along  the  railway  that  ran 


GUMBO 


3745 


GUN 


from  Kovno,  his  main  base,  to 
Konigsberg.  By  Aug.  16  his 
front  extended  from  Pillkallen  on 
the  N.  to  Goldap  on  the  S.  On 
Aug.  17  Von  Franyois  held  him  up 
for  some  hours  at  Stalluponen,  but 
after  a  stubborn  fight  was  forced 
to  retire  on  Gumbinnen,  10  m. 
farther  along  the  railway,  where  he 
was  met  and  defeated  on  Aug.  20. 

Attacking  f rontally,  the  Russians 
rushed  the  German  positions,  but 
the  Germans  reformed  and  counter- 
attacked, and  the  battle  fluctuated 
for  some  time.  In  the  end  the 
numbers  of  the  Russians  pre- 
vailed, and  the  Germans  retreated 
as  night  fell.  On  the  wings,  both  at 
Pillkallen  and  at  Goldap,  Renneri- 
kampf  was  successful  by  Aug.  21. 
Von  Frangois  retired  on  Inster- 
burg,  an  important  railway  and 
road  junction,  but  unable  to  hold 
it,  withdrew  to  Konigsberg.  See 
Tannenberg,  Battle  qf. 

Gumbo  OR  OKRA.  (Hibiscus 
esculentus).  Annual  herb  of  the 
natural  order  Malvaceae.  It  is  a 
native  of  the  W.  Indies,  and  has 
yellow  flowers.  The  unripe  fruits 
contain  much  mucilage,  and  are 
used  in  cookery  for  thickening 
soups,  and  for  other  purposes. 

Gumboil.  Small  abscess  on  the 
gum,  arising  in  most  cases  from 
decay  at  the  root  of  a  tooth. 

Gum  Elemi  (Canarium  com- 
mune). Tree  of  the  natural  order 
Burseraceae.  It  is  a  native  of  the 
Philippine  Islands.  The  leaves  are 
broken  up  into  seven  to  nine  oval 
leaflets.  The  flower?  are  small, 


Gummel.  Town  of  Nigeria.  It 
is  in  the  Katagum  portion  of 
the  Kano  prov.,  75  m.  N.E.  of 
Kano. 

Gummersbach.  Town  of  Ger- 
many in  the  Rhine  prov.  of  Prussia. 
It  is  25  m.  E.N.E.  of  Cologne,  and 
is  the  chief  town  of  a  district.  An 
industrial  centre,  it  has  manufac- 
tures of  electrical  apparatus,  car- 
pets, textiles,  paper,  machinery, 
etc.  Pop.  16,000. 

Gummidge,  MRS.  Character  in 
Charles  Dickens's  David  Copper- 
field.  She  is  the  widow  of  Peggot- 
ty's  partner,  and,  given  a  home  by 
hospitable  Peggotty,  takes  the 
most  comfortable  place  and  queru- 
lously complains  that  she  is  a  "  lone, 
lorn  creetur,  and  everythink  goes 
contrairy  with  her." 

Gumming.  Disease  or  affec- 
tion of  fruit  trees  usually  due  to 
excessive  richness  in  the  soil.  It 
manifests  itself  by  exudations  of  a 
yellowish-brown  transparent  sub- 
stance upon  the  stems  or  joint 


Gum  Elemi.    Foliage  and  flowers  ; 
below,  left,  fruit  and  section 

white  and  clustered,  and  the  fruit 
has  a  thin  olive  skin  and  a  sweet 
kernel.  From  incisions  made  in 
the  bark,  a  fragrant  resin,  of  the 
consistence  of  honey,  exudes,  and 
hardens  on  exposure.  This  is  the 
elemi  used  in  medicine. 

Gummata.  Tumours  which 
may  form  in  almost  any  organ  or 
tissue  of  the  body  during  the  course 
of  syphilis.  Their  appearance  indi- 
cate's  an  active  stage  of  the  disease 
requiring  energetic  constitutional 
treatment.  See  Syphilis. 


branches  of  the  trees.  Trees  so 
affected  should  either  be  trans- 
planted into  a  less  fertile  soil  or 
rigorously  root-pruned.  As  a  rule, 
gummy  trees  run  to  an  excess  of 
foliage  without  making  much  fruit. 
See  Fruit  Farming. 

Guxnti.  River  of  India,  in  tins 
United  Provinces.  It  rises  east  of 
Pilibhit,  and  after  a  course  of  about 
500  m.  enters  the  Ganges  at  Said- 
pur,  in  Ghazipur  District.  The 
Gumti  is  the  only  left  bank  tribu- 
tary of  the  Ganges  which  does  not 
issue  from  the  Himalayas;  it  de- 
pends for  its  water  entirely  upon 
the  rains.  (Lucknow  is  the  chief 
town  on  its  banks.) 

Gumurdjina,  GUMURZHINA  OR 
GUMULJINA.  Town  of  Greece,  in 
Thrace.  Known  chiefly  for  its 
large  annual  cattle  market,  it  is 
situated  on  the  Karaga,  about 
70  m.  S.W.  of  Adrianople,  and 
12m.  from  the  Aegean  Sea.  The 
district  produces  good  wine. 
Pop.  8,000. 


GUNS    AND   GUN    MAKING 

Capt,  E,  de  W,  S.  Colver  and  John  Lcylancl 

A  general  sketch  of  guns  in  general  is  followed  by  an  account  of 
naval  guns.  The  guns  used  in  land  warfare  are  more  usually 
described  as  Artillery  (q.v.).  In  addition  there  are  articles  on  every 
kind  of  gun,  e.g.,  Howitzer;  Machine  gun;  Stokes  gun,  etc., 
and  on  the  various  explosives,  e.g.  Cordite  ;  Gunpowder  ;  Melinite, 
etc.  See  also  Ammunition;  Ballistics;  Explosives;  Firearms; 
Pistol ;  Revolver ;  Rifle,  etc. 


Gun  (Anglo-Saxon,  gonne,  ma- 
chine for  throwing  missiles)  is  a 
term  somewhat  loosely  employed 
to  describe  several  widely  different 
varieties  of  firearms  and,  more  par- 
ticularly, relatively  long-barrelled 
varieties.  Amongst  the  smaller 
varieties  of  firearms,  the  term  gun 
is  chiefly  confined  to  long- barrelled, 
smooth-bore  sporting  weapons  and 
the  automatically  operated  rifles 
termed  machine  guns.  Among  the 
larger  firearms,  gun  is  the  designa- 
tion of  the  long-barrelled  rifled 
weapons,  which,  on  account  of 
their  stronger  construction,  per- 
mitting higher  chamber  pressures, 
and  consequently  greater  muzzle 
velocity  of  the  projectile,  are  able 
to  throw  the  latter  a  greater  dis- 
tance with  a  comparatively  flat 
trajectory  in  contradistinction  to 
the  more  lightly  constructed 
howitzers,  which,  though  they  may 
throw  a  projectile  of  equal  or 
greater  weight  for  similar  calibres, 
work  at  a  lower  pressure,  have  a 
shorter  range,  and  attain  this  by  a 
very  steep  or  high  trajectory. 
Howitzers  are  usually  rifled,  but 
many  of  the  very  light  varieties  in- 
troduced to  aid  trench  fighting  in 
the  Great  War  are  smooth  bored. 

The  early  history  and  develop- 
ment of  the  sporting  gun  is  the 
same  as  that  of  the  military  wea- 


pon, and  it  was  not  until  it  was  re- 
cognized, towards  the  middle  of 
the  19th  century,  that  a  rifled 
weapon  was  essential  for  military 
purposes,  that  the  two  classes  be- 
came distinctive.  Modern  sporting 
guns  are  essentially  designed  to 
throw  a  charge  of  small  shot  to  an 
effective  range  of  50  to  90  yards, 
the  barrels  being  smooth  bored.  If 
the  bore  is  parallel  throughout  it  is 
known  as  cylinder,  but  if  it  is  con- 
stricted towards  the  muzzle  in 
order  to  increase  the  effective 
range  and  prevent  the  shot  spread- 
ing so  widely  it  is  termed  choke 
(half  or  full).  Most  guns  are 
double  barrelled,  and  except  for 
special  purposes  it  is  usual  for  the 
right  barrel  to  be  cylinder  and  the 
left  choke  bored.  The  size  of  the 
bore  is  designated  by  a  number, 
this  being  a  survival  from  the  days 
of  the  musket  and  founded  on  the 
weight  of  the  single  lead  bullet 
which  the  barrel  was  designed  to 
use.  The  most  usual  size  is  12  bore, 
but  8  and  4  bore  guns  are  employ- 
ed for  duck  shooting,  and  16,  20, 
and  28  bore  guns  are  used  to  some 
extent  when  an  exceptionally  light 
weapon  is  desired. 

The  question  of  weight  has  al- 
ways been  an  important  one  in  the 
manufacture  of  sporting  weapons, 
it  being  essential  to  attain  the 

L    5 


GUN 

maximum  strength  with  the  mini- 
mum weight.  To  obtain  the  requi- 
site strength  and  toughness  in  the 
barrels  they  were  for  many  years 
constructed  of  strands  of  wrought 
iron  and  steel  twisted  and  then 
welded  together  (Damascus  bar- 
rels), and  these  are  still  frequently 
employed,  but  now  are  chiefly 
valued  for  the  beauty  of  the  etched 
surface,  as  modern  alloy  steels  pro- 
vide ample  strength  and  toughness. 
Breech-loaders  and  Automatics 

All  modern  weapons  are  breech- 
loading  and  employ  central  fire  car- 
tridges. In  some  guns  the  striking 
mechanism  is  external  and  these 
are  termed  hammer  guns,  while  in 
others  the  striking  mechanism  is 
enclosed  in  the  lock,  giving  a 
neater  appearance,  such  weapons 
being  termed  hammerless.  Some  of 
the  latter  class,  known  as  ejectors, 
automatically  throw  out  the  empty 
cartridge  case  after  a  shot  has  been 
fired,  and  a  further  development  is 
the  single  trigger  gun  in  which  one 
trigger  controls  both  barrels. 
Single-barrel  repeating  and  auto- 
matic guns  carrying  five  to  eight 
cartridges  in  a  magazine  have  also 
been  introdiiced,  but  are  too  heavy 
to  be  popular.  To  afford  safety 
in  carrying  the  weapons  loaded, 
hammer  guns  can  be  placed  at  half 
cock,  and  the  hammerless  varieties 
have  a  safety  catch. 

In  the  highest  class  guns  speci- 
ally well-figured  walnut  is  employed 
for  the  stocks,  and  the  greatest 
skill  is  lavished  on  elaborate  en- 
graving of  the  lock  plates  and 
breech  block.  English  guns  have 
the  highest  reputation  for  beauty 
and  accuracy  of  workmanship, 
while  Belgian  guns  supply  a  more 
popular  demand.  After  the  Great 
War  the  Birmingham  Small  Arms 
Co.  instituted  a  policy  of  mass  pro- 
duction of  plain  finished,  reliable 
guns  at  a  competitive  price.  Be- 
fore any  gun  is  purchased  it  should 
be  submitted  to  a  firing  proof  for 
strength  as  evidenced  by  a  proof 
mark  stamped  on  the  barrels,while 
smokeless  powder  cartridges  should 
not  be  used  in  any  gun  which  has 
not  been  tested  for  the  higher  pres- 
sures involved  and  does  not  bear  the 
additional  stamp  "  nitro  proof." 

E.  W.  de  S.  Colver 

NAVAL  GUNS.  Naval  guns  are 
those  engines  on  board  fighting 
ships  from  which  projectiles  are 
discharged  by  explosive  force.  Ed- 
ward III  had  iron  and  brass  guns 
in  his  ships,  and  during  subsequent 
centuries  the  mechanisms  increased 
largely  in  number  and  variety.  In 
Elizabeth's  time  ships  carried  the 
double  cannon  or  cannon-royal, 
with  8£-in.  bore,  firing  a  64-pound 
projectile,  and  the  demi-cannon, 
which  was  a  30-pounder.  Smaller 


3746 

guns  were  the  culverins,  which 
were  longer  in  proportion  to  bore, 
and  fired  shots  ranging  from 
17  pounds  to  one  pound.  They 
comprised  whole  and  demi-cul- 
verins,  serpentines,  sakers,  minions, 
falcons,  robinets,  and  bases. 

Other  guns  something  like  the 
modern -howitzer  type  were  called 
perriers,  and  were  intended  to  dis- 
charge stone  balls,  carcase  or  case- 
shot,  fire-balls  and  the  like  ;  and 
there  were  mortar  pieces  called 
petards  and  murderers,  the  latter 
being  breech-loaders,  like  some 
other  types  of  the  time.  Early  guns 
were  made  of  bronze  and  iron  bars 
hooped  together.  The  Sovereign  of 
the  Seas,  in  Charles  I's  reign,  moun- 
ted 102  brass  guns.  Cast-iron  guns 
were  made  in  England  as  early  as 
1545,  and  this  construction  con- 
tinued for  300  years  or  more. 

All  these  guns  were  smooth- 
bores, firing  round  shot.  The  ships 
in  the  great  war  with  France  car- 
ried 32 -pounders  and  42 -pounders 
as  the  lower  deck  armament,  and 
shorter  and  lighter  pieces  called 
carronades,  from  Carron  in  Scot- 
land where  they  were  first  made. 
These  ranged  upward  from  6  to 
68-pounders.  The  carronade  was 
intended  to  project  large-calibre 
shots  with  accuracy  to  the  distance 
at  which  the  old  wooden  ships 
generally  engaged,  viz.  400  to  600 
yards.  Guns  of  this  character  con- 
tinued to  be  made  until  about  1830, 
when  a  more  effective  32-pounder, 
weighing  50  tons,  was  introduced. 
Large-calibre  guns  were  mean- 
while being  brought  in  for  the  firing 
of  shells  and  hollow  shot.  They 
were  first  introduced  in  the  French 
navy  by  Col.  Paixhans  in  1824. 
Introduction  of  Rifling 

The  Armstrong  system  of  "  built- 
up  guns,"  formed  of  wrought  iron 
with  steel  for  the  inner  tube,  dating 
from  1856,  put  an  end  to  the  earlier 
manner  of  construction.  Rifled 
guns  began  to  be  introduced  about 
1850,  firing  elongated  projectiles, 
and  were  tried  in  the  Crimean  War. 
The  really  effective  rifled  gun  was 
due  to  the  inventive  ingenuity  of 
W.  G.  ( afterwards  Lord )  Armstrong. 
Its  parts  were  the  A-tube,  or  barrel, 
with  powder  and  shot  chamber, 
and  the  polygroove  rifled  bore ; 
the  breech -piece  of  wrought  iron  ; 
three  to  six  coils  or  jackets  which 
were  shrunk  on  the  A-tube  after 
expansion  by  heat ;  the  trunnion 
ring,  and  other  fittings. 

Some  difficulties  occurred  with 
the  early  breech -loading  guns, 
and  delays  resulted  which  gave 
France  and  Germany  the  lead.  It 
was  not  until  1881  that  the  manu- 
facture of  a  fully  satisfactory  type 
really  began  in  England.  The  im- 
mense advantages  of  the  new  guns 


GUN 

were  manifest,  not  the  least  of  them 
being  that  the  possibility  was  se- 
cured of  easily  repairing  guns  by 
renewing  the  inner  tube  or  "lining" 
when  eroded  by  the  action  of 
deleterious  gases.  Guns  increased 
enormously  in  size,  weight,  and 
power,  until  the  16£-in.,  111-ton 
was  mounted  in  the  Benbow,  Sans 
Pareil,  and  Victoria.  These  huge 
guns  were  not  used  in  subsequent 
ships,  because  only  two  of  them 
could  be  placed  in  a  single  ship,  and 
the  advantage  was  seen  of  mount- 
ing, in  such  ships  as  the  Anson,  four 
67-ton  guns,  which  could  be  fired 
more  rapidly,  and  ultimately  could 
discharge  a  greater  weight  of  metal. 
Essentials  of  Naval  Guns 

The  standard  type  of  big  gun  for 
the  British  navy  was  afterwards 
for  many  years  the  12-in.,  which 
was  mounted  on  all  the  ships 
prior  to  the  super-Dreadnoughts. 
The  chief  requirements  sought 
were,  and  still  are,  great  range, 
rapidity  and  accuracy  of  fire,  and 
high  striking-energy  with  the  mini- 
mum weight. 

In  the  Russo-Japanese  War  the 
effective  range  was  about  6,000 
yards  ;  before  the  Great  War  it 
had  increased  nominally  to  9,000 
or  10,000  yards,  and  at  the  Jutland 
Battle  fire  was  opened  at  a  range 
of  nearly  19,000  yards. 

Enormous  strength  is  required 
to  withstand  the  pressure  of  mod- 
ern cordite  and  other  propellant 
charges,  and  steel  of  perfect  homo- 
geneity, elasticity,  and  break-resist- 
ing strength  is  used.  The  breech 
block  must  combine  the  smallest 
possible  weight  consistent  with 
complete  resistance  to  the  back 
pressure  of  the  gases.  The  mechan- 
ism must  ensure  the  most  rapid 
opening  of  the  breech,  charging  of 
the  gun,  closing  the  breech,  and  fir- 
ing the  gun.  The  mounting  and 
carriage  of  the  guns,  which  are 
usually  placed  in  pairs,  must  pro- 
vide for  the  easiest  and  smoothest 
working  in  elevation  and  in  training 
on  the  roller-path,  in  order  to  find 
the  target  and  attain  immediate 
accuracy  of  aim.  The  whole  of 
the  weights  of  the  gun  and  gun- 
house  are  distributed  over  a  large 
area,  and  are  perfectly  balanced 
for  ease  of  rotation. 

The  12-in.  gun,  its  original  length 
being  45  times  its  calibre,  weighed 
over  57  tons,  and  fired  a  projectile 
of  850  Ib.  with  a  cordite  charge  of 
309  Ib.  The  muzzle  velocity  was 
2,666  feet  per  second,  and  the 
muzzle  energy  41,000  foot-tons. 
The  complete" gear  for  working  two 
guns  of  this  character,  concen- 
trated within  the  moving  mass, 
would  represent  a  weight  of  about 
600  tons,  enclosed  in  a  barbette 
mounting  or  gun-house.  The 


MACHINE  GUNS  AND  TRENCH  MORTARS  (top  left  corner)  :  A.  Lewis,  mou 
GUNS  AND  HOWITZERS:  1.  4'5-in.  howitzer.  2.  18-pdr.  field  gun,'  marl 
9.  9'2-in.  howitzer  10.  60-pdr.,  mark  I.  11.  6-in.,  mark  XIX.  12.  4'1 

r/u;  relative  sizes  of  the 


To  face  page  3746 


,nted  for  use  on  aeroplanes.      B.  Lewis,  for  trench  work.   C.  Madsen.    D.  Hotchkiss.    E.  '303  Vickers. 
,  IV,  on  mark  in  carriage.      3.  8-in.  howitzer.     4.    13-pdr.  (weight  6  cwt.).      5.    6  in.  howitzer  (30  cwt. 
Mn.      18.    15-in.  howitzer,  showing  loading  derrick.      14.    15-in.  naval  guns.       15.    14-in.,  mark  III,  on 

:  I?M»S  aiuf  howitzers  may  be  judged  by  the  figures  of  the  men      Expressly  drawn  for  Harmsworth's  Universal  Ency 


Ill 


17 


trench  mortar  and  shell.  O.  Large  calibre  trench  mortar.  H.  Heavy  bomb  thrower. 
3-in.  anti-aircraft  (20  cwU).  7.  6  in.  howitzer  (26  cwt.).  8.  8-in.  howitzer,  mark  VII. 
unting.  16.  12-in.  howitzer,  mark  V,  rly.  mounting.  17.  12-in.,  mark  IX,  rly.  mounting 

6y  /.  F.  Campbell 


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3747 


GUNCOTTON 


ammunition  hoists  are  centrally 
situated,  and  trolleys  from  the 
magazines  or  running  gear  load  the 
projectiles  and  charges  on  the 
platform  below,  whence  by  hydrau- 
lic or  electric  mechanism  they  are 
rapidly  raised  to  a  point  behind 
the  breech  of  the  gun  and  auto- 
matically rammed  home.  With  the 
increase  of  length  to  50  calibres, 
and  the  installation  of  13'5-in.  and 
15 -in.  guns,  the  weights  have  been 
increased  enormously,  as  will  be 
seen  below.  In  the  U.S.  and  Japan- 
ese navies  16-in.  guns  have  been 
mounted  in  the  latest  ships. 
Manufacture  of  Big  Guns 

In  the  manufacture  of  modern 
big  guns  the  operation  begins  with 
the  casting  of  the  steel  ingot  and 
the  forging  of  it  under  pressure  in 
some  cases  of  5,000  tons.  The  ingot 
is  bored  by  means  of  a  trepanning 
machine,  and  forged  upon  a  man- 
drel into  the  form  of  a  tube  at  a 
red  heat  under  a  powerful  press 
which  has  a  downward  force  of 
3,500  tons  or  more,  the  tube  being 
turned  continuously  during  the 
operation.  Having  thus  been 
forged  approximately  to  the  re- 
quired dimensions,  the  gun  tube  is 
next  turned  by  lathes,  and  bored 
by  long  machines,  working  usually 
from  both  ends  at  the  same  time, 
hardening  or  tempering  being  car- 
ried out  in  a  bath  of  rape -seed  oil. 
In  British  practice  the  gun  is  next 
wound  with  steel  ribbon,  about  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  wide  and  a 
tenth  of  an  inch  thick.  On  ths  12- 
in.  gun  there  is  usually  a  length  of 
about  120  miles,  weighing  nearly 
14  tons,  with  14  layers  at  the 
muzzle  and  75  at  the  breech.  Then 
comes  the  shrinking  on  of  the  outer 
jacket,  at  a  very  high  temperature, 
which  when  cooled  becomes  an  in- 
tegral part  of  the  gun.  After  these 
operations  the  gun  is  internally 
rifled  by  special  plant,  and  ex- 
ternally machined.  German  guns 
made  by  the  Krupp  company  are  of 
the  "  built-up  "  type,  strengthened 
by  the  shrinking  on  of  outer  tubes, 
whereby  any  tendency  of  the  gun 
to  droop  at  the  muzzle  is  stated  to 
be  obviated. 

Improvements  in  Design 

The  gun,  with  its  breech  and  in- 
tricate fittings,  its  complex  mount- 
ing, and  its  optical  sighting  and 
firing  gear,  represents  one  of  the 
finest  achievements  of  human  in- 
genuity. A  single  lever,  moved  in 
various  directions  by  hand,  works 
all  the  machinery  in  the  gun- 
house,  opening  the  breech,  placing 
the  gun  in  the  loading  position, 
raising  the  loading  cages,  operating 
the  rammer,  and  closing  the  breech. 

During  the  Great  War  improve- 
ments in  guns  were  directed  chiefly 
to  increasing  the  range  and  accur- 


acy of  fire,  mainly  by  altering  the 
shape  of  the  projectiles,  increasing 
the  elevation  of  the  gun,  and  add- 
ing to  the  muzzle  velocity.  The 
enormous  increase  in  the  power  of 
modern  guns  will  be  seen  from  the 
table  on  this  page,  which  shows 
the  principal  guns,  indicating  their 
calibre-lengths.  The  figures  of 
velocity  and  energy  in  the  case  of 
the  16-in.  gun  are  approximations. 


classes,  the  larger  being  238  ft. 
long,  with  a  draught  of  4  ft.  and  a 
speed  of  14  knots,  carrying  two 
6-in.,  two  12-pr.,  and  six  machine 
guns ;  the  others  (with  names 
ending  in  "-fly")  were  120  ft. 
long,  with  a  draught  of  2  ft.  and  a 
speed  of  9- 5  knots,  armed  with  one 
4-in.,  one  6-pr.,  and  four  machine 
guns. 

(2)  Coast  service  gunboats,  which 


12-in. 

13'5-in. 

15-in. 

16-in. 

50  cal. 

45  cal. 

45  cal. 

45  cal. 

Weight   ..                     ..  (tons) 

67 

76} 

97 

117 

Projectile           ..         ..      (Ib.) 

850 

1,400 

1,900 

2,250 

Muzzle  velocity  (foot-seconds) 
Muzzle  energy  (foot-tons) 

3,000 
53,400 

2,500 
60,670 

2,500 
82,340 

2,450 
93,230 

It  will  be  observed  that,  though 
the  muzzle  velocity  progressively 
decreases,  the  muzzle  energy  is 
continually  increasing. 

The  13'5-in.  was  first  mounted 
in  the  Orion  class  of  battleships, 
1911-12,  and  the  Lion  and  Tiger 
classes  of  battle-cruisers.  The  15-in. 
gun  was  first  installed  in  the  Queen 
Elizabeth.  With  the  exception  of 
a  few  18-in.  guns  mounted  in 
monitors  during  the  Great  War, 
the  largest  gun  in  the  British  ser- 
vice is  the  15-in.,  of  which  eight 
were  mounted  in  the  battle-cruiser 
Hood,  with  secondary  guns,  twelve 
of  5'5-in.  and  four  of  4-in.,  the 
latter  being  mounted  for  high- 
angle  fire  against  aircraft. 

Smaller  Naval  Weapons 

Little  needs  to  be  said  of  the 
lesser  guns  of  the  British  navy. 
They  are  all  mechanisms  analogous 
in  make  to  the  larger  ones.  The 
9'2-in.  fires  a  projectile  of  380  Ib. 
The  6-in.  discharges  ten  aimed 
rounds  of  100  Ib.  per  minute. 
There  are  also  the  5'5-in.,  the  4'7- 
in.,  and  the  4-in.  semi-automatic 
gun  for  flotilla  leaders,  also  the  4-in. 
high-angle  fire  gun  (rising  to  80  or 
90  degrees)  for  anti-aircraft  prac- 
tice. During  the  Great  War  some 
special  types  of  guns  were  intro- 
duced, including  a  12-in.  which 
was  mounted  in  one  or  more  sub- 
marines, 11 -in.  and  7'5-in.  howit- 
zers, a  10-in.  muzzle-loading  bomb- 
thrower  for  use  against  submarines, 
and  a  Y-gun  for  rapid  firing  of 
bombs,  loading  alternately  at  one 
breech  and  the  other. 

John  Leylaml 

Gunboat.  Term  properly  ap- 
plied to  small  craft  capable  of 
operating  in  shallow  waters  and 
limited  areas,  and  in  which  the 
gun  assumes  an  unusual  impor- 
tance. In  the  British  navy  there 
are  four  classes  of  gunboats  :  (1) 
River  gunboats,  originally  designed 
for  service  on  the  great  rivers  of 
China,  were  revived  in  the  Great 
War  for  the  Mesopotamian  cam- 
paign. These  last  were  of  two 


are  intended  for  service  in  the 
estuaries  of  the  Chinese  and 
African  rivers.  They  are  much 
larger  than  the  river  gunboats,  dis- 
placing from  800  to  1,200  tons. 
None  have  been  built  for  many 
years.  (3)  Coast  defence  gunboats, 
which  were  built  between  1 870  and 
1880,  armed  with  a  single  heavy 
gun  in  the  bows.  They  displaced 
not  above  370  tons,  and  were  of 
little  practical  use.  (4)  The  smaller 
monitors  built  for  service  hi  the 
Great  War  were  officially  classed 
as  gunboats.  The  earliest  gunboat 
to  be  built  was  the  Staunch,  de- 
signed by  G.  W.  Rendel  and  built 
at  Elswick,  1 867.  She  was  nothing 
more  than  a  floating  gun  carriage, 
carrying  a  9-in.  gun,  which  could 
be  lowered  in  to  a  well  by  hydraulic 
power.  She  displaced  180  tons 
and  had  a  speed  of  6£  knots,  and 
an  overall  length  of  75  ft.  See 
Battleship  ;  Destroyer ;  Navy. 

Gunbus.  Slang  term  for  any 
aeroplane  which  mounts  one  or 
more  guns.  It  is  more  especially 
applied  to  a  gun -carrying  aeroplane 
of  a  large  typs. 

Guncotton.  Nitrocellulose  of 
the  highest  possible  degree  of  nitra- 
tion, containing  about  13  p.c.  of 
nitrogen  in  commercial  practice. 
Cotton  waste  is  the  raw  material 
generally  employed  in  the  manu- 
facture of  guncotton.  It  is  given  a 
drastic  treatment  with  alkali  to 
remove  all  grease,  boiled  with 
several  changes  of  water,  dried, 
picked  over  by  hand  to  remove 
impurities,  opened  out  by  a  teasing 
machine,  and  then  desiccated.  Ths 
nitrating  acid  contains  about  75 
p.c.  sulphuric  acid,  17  p.c.  nitric 
acid,  and  8  p.c.  water,  the  propor- 
tions varying  somewhat  according 
to  the  process  employed,  these 
being  detailed  in  the  article  on 
nitrocellulose.  When  nitration  is 
complete  the  guncotton  is  im- 
mersed hi  water  and  thoroughly 
washed  to  remove  the  bulk  of  the 
acids,  and  then  undergoes  a  treat- 
ment, termed  stabilisation,  to 


GUNDAGAI 


3748 


GUNNERY 


remove  unstable  products,  which, 
if  left  in,  have  a  most  deleterious 
effect  on  its  keeping  properties. 
The  process  consists  of  boiling 
the  guncotton  in  about  10  series 
of  waters,  a  trace  of  alkali  being 
sometimes  added,  the  total  boiling 
lasting  about  50  hours.  Passing 
the  guncotton  through  a  pulping 
machine  reduces  it  to  a  fine  state 
of  division  ;  it  is  then  passed  over 
a  trap  to  remove  foreign  matter, 
and  then  washed  again  in  a 
poacher,  a  small  percentage  of  cal- 
cium carbonate  added,  and  then 
the  water  content  reduced  to  about 
25  p.c.,  and  the  pulp  moulded ' 
into  blocks  by  hydraulic  pressure. 
Wet  guncotton  is  very  insensitive 
and  a  satisfactory  blasting  explo- 
sive if  primed  with  dry  guncotton 
initiated  with  a  fulminate  detona- 
tor. At  one  time  it  found  extensive 
use  for  filling  mines,  torpedoes,  etc., 
but  has  been  displaced  by  trinitro- 
toluene, and  at  present  is  only  em- 
ployed for  military  blasting,  being 
pressed  into  15  oz.  slabs.  In  the 
dry  state  guncotton  is  very  sensi- 
tive to  friction  and  percussion,  and 
must  be  handled  with  great  care. 
In  this  condition  it  is  used  for 
priming  wet  guncotton  and  other 
explosives,  and  as  an  ingredient  of 
cordite  (q.v. ).  See  Explosives; 
Nitrocellulose ;  Smokeless  Powder. 
Gundagai.  Town  of  New  South 
Wales,  Australia.  It  stands  on  the 
Murrumbidgee  river,  287  m.  by  rly. 
S.W.  of  Sydney,  in  a  rich  wheat 
and  maize  producing  district. 
Pop.  1,181. 

Gunib.  Town  of  Daghestan  in 
the  Caucasus.  It  is  situated  on  the 
Karakoi-su,  on  an  almost  perpen- 
dicular rock  in  a  narrow  pass,  and 
is  strongly  fortified. 

Gunjah  OK  GANJA.  Dried  flower- 
ing tops  of  the  female  plants  of 
cannabis  indica,  the  Indian  hemp. 
It  is  sometimes  smoked  as  a  kind 
of  tobacco.  See  Ganja. 

Gun  Licence.  Permit  necessary 
for  the  possession  of  firearms.  In 
Great  Britain  the  licence,  which  is 
administered  by  the  county  coun- 
cils and  is  rigidly  enforced,  permits 
the  owner  to  carry  firearms.  It 
costs  10s.  a  year,  and  expires  on 
July  31.  Soldiers  carrying  rifles 
or  revolvers  in  the  performance 
of  duty  or  whilst  shooting  at  a 
target,  are  exempt,  as  are  also 
holders  of  game  licences.  The 
possession  of  a  gun  licence  does  not 
absolve  the  owner  from  the  neces- 
sity of  applying  for  a  police  permit 
to  possess  firearms.  See  Firearms. 
Gunmakers'  Company.  Lon- 
don city  livery  company.  It  was 
granted  a  charter  in  1638.  By 
an  Act  of  1814  it  was  provided 
that  all  London -made  gun  barrels 
should  be  marked  by  the  company 


after  being  tested 
at    their    proof 
house  in  Commer- 
cial Road,  E.,  and 
the  company's 
charter    was    re- 
cognized  by   the 
Gun  Barrel  Proof 
Gunmaklrs'Com-    Act  of  1868.   The 
pany  arms          offices  are  ^  at  46, 
Queen      Victoria 
Street,  London,  E.G. 

Gunmetal.  An  alloy  of  copper 
and  tin,  usually  in  proportion  of  90 
parts  of  the  former  and  10  of  the 
latter.  It  thus  belongs  to  that 
class  of  alloys  known  as  bronzes. 
Its  importance  was  at  one  time 
much  greater  than  it  is  to-day,  as 
it  was  for  a  long  period  the  chief 
metal  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
cannon,  its  place  now  in  that 
connexion  being  taken  by  steel. 

It  is  possible  that  the  Chinese 
prepared  gun-metal  and  used  it  in 
the  making  of  ordnance  long  before 
any  other  people  ;  the  Arabs  pre- 
pared such  cannon  at  the  beginning 
of  the  twelfth  century  ;  while  it  is 
probable  that  the  cannon  used  by 
the  Turks  at  the  siege  of  Constanti- 
nople in  1394  were  also  of  this  alloy. 
Its  uses  to-day  lie  chiefly  in  the 
construction  of  parts  of  machinery 
which  require  to  have  great 
strength  but  where  steel  or  iron 
cannot  be  employed,  as  in  certain 
classes  of  pumps,  and  for  the  bear- 
ings of  heavy  shafts.  See  Alloys  ; 
Bronze. 

Gunn,  WILLIAM  (1858-1921). 
English  cricketer.  Born  in  Not- 
tingham, he  began  to  play  cricket 
for  the  county  in  1880,  and  until 
his  retirement  in  1904,  was  one  of 
the  mainstays  of  the  team.  He 
made  48  centuries,  and  in  25 
seasons  scored  24,899  runs.  Play- 
ing for  England  he  scored  228 
against  the  Australians  in  1890, 


and  his  highest  score  was  273 
against  Derbyshire.  Gunn's  play 
is  regarded  by  most  authorities 
as  model  batting.  A  man  of  great 
height  and  strength,  he  was  in  his 
prime  a  superb  fieldsman,  while  he 
played  association  football  for 
Notts  county,  and  also  represented 
England.  For  many  years  he  was 
the  head  of  a  business  of  cricket 
outfitters.  He  died  in  Nottingham, 
Jan.  29,  1921.  Two  of  Gunn's 
nephews,  John  and  George,  played 
cricket  regularly  for  Nottingham- 
shire. 

Gunnedah.  Town  of  New  South 
Wales,  Australia,  in  Buckland  co. 
It  is  situated  on  the  Namoi  river, 
and  is  a  road  junction,  191  m.  from 
Newcastle  by  rail.  The  district  is 
liable  to  inundation  when  the  rains 
are  heavy.  Good  coal  occurs  in  the 
neighbourhood.  Pop.  4,100. 

Gunner.  Private  soldier  in  the 
artillery  who  serves  a  gun,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  a  driver,  who  is  in 
charge  of  horses.  The  rank  of 
master  gunner  is  peculiar  to  the 
garrison  artillery.  The  3rd  class 
master  gunner  holds  the  highest 
rank  of  non-commissioned  officer, 
and  master  gunners  of  the  1st  or 
2nd  class  are  warrant  officers.  See 
Artillery,  Royal. 

Gunnersbury.  District  of  Mid- 
dlesex, England.  It  is  between 
Baling  and  Acton  on  the  N.  and 
Brentford,  Kew,  and  Chiswick  on 
the  S.,  and  is  served  by  the  District 
and  N.L.  Rlys.  The  estate,  which 
includes  a  park,  was  purchased  in 
1761  for  Princess  Amelia,  daughter 
of  George  II,  whose  parties  here 
were  famous.  Gunnersbury  House 
was  sold  in  1786,  pulled  down  in 
1801,  rebuilt  on  a  smaller  scale,  and 
superseded  in  turn  by  a  mansion 
belonging  to  the  Rothschild  family, 
into  whose  hands  the  estate  came 
about  the  middle  of  the  19th  cent. 


GUNNERY  IN  NAVAL  WARFARE 

John  Leyland,  Author,  The  Royal  Navy,  etc. 

This  article  deals  with  naval  gunnery,  corresponding  facts  about 

land  guns  being  in  the  articles  A  rtillery ;  Ballistics,  etc.      See  also 

Ammunition;  Explosives;  Gun 


Naval  gunnery  is  an  exact 
science,  and  at  the  same  time  a 
practical  art.  It  is  based  upon 
knowledge  of  internal  ballistics,  by 
which  is  meant  the  behaviour  of 
the  gun  and  its  projectile  under  the 
pressure  of  the  gases  generated, 
and  of  external  ballistics,  which  are 
concerned  with  the  flight  of  the 
projectile  at  various  ranges,  and  in 
various  conditions,  this  matter  be- 
ing the  first  condition  of  accurate 
aim,  apart  from  the  movement  of 
the  firing  ship  and  her  target.  Upon 
the  efficient  use  of  her  guns  depends 
the  fighting  value  of  a  battleship, 
battle-cruiser  or  light  cruiser.  The 
gun  remains  supreme  in  action. 


By  the  gun  the  Bliicher  was  de- 
stroyed in  the  Dogger  Bank  battle, 
and  by  the  gun  the  Indefatigable, 
Invincible,  and  Queen  Mary  were 
sunk  in  the  battle  of  Jutland.  By 
the  gun  also  the  German  Fleet  suf- 
fered such  terrific  injury  in  that 
engagement,  though  most  of  its 
ships  returned  to  port,  that  the 
fleet  never  issued  to  sea  again  to 
seek  another  fight.  Conditions  be- 
ing equal,  the  biggest  gun  will  pre- 
vail. Combined  with  speed,  it  has 
often  enabled  a  ship  to  choose  her 
own  distance  for  firing,  outside  the 
range  of  her  adversary. 

The  tendency  of  recent  progress 
has  been  to  increase  the  firing 


I.  Loading  a  6-iu.  gun.  2.  Spotter  at  the  sights  of  a  12- 
pdr.  3.  Dummy  barbettes,  Gunnery  School,  Whale 
Island.  4.  "The  Knocker  Out,"  a  device  for  teaching 
Lun-laying  by  means  of  a  rifle,  fitted  with  Morris  tube, 


on  the  barbette,  which  is  aimed  at  a  target  fastened  to 
the  chase  of  the  gun.  5.  13-5-10.  guns  firing.  6.  "The 
Dotter  "  system  of  teaching  gun-laying,  in  which  th-3 
sights  are  electrically  connected  with  a  target  disk 


GUNNERY:  INCIDENTS  IN  THE  TRAINING  OF  THE  NAVAL  GUNNER 

Stephen  Cribb,   Southse 


GUNNERY 


375O 


GUNNERY 


range.  That  was  the  reason  for  the 
introduction  of  the  "  all-big-gun  " 
Dreadnought.  Range  has  been  in- 
creased mainly  by  adding  to  the 
propelling  energy  within  the  gun, 
and  elevating  the  angle  of  fire.  It  is 
exceedingly  difficult  to  master  even 
the  elements  involved  in  the  hitting 
of  an  enemy's  shipatextreme  range. 
The  utmost  accuracy  is  required  in 
scientific  gunnery,  and  it  must  be 
continuous  accuracy.  The  oppos- 
ing ships  are  moving  at  high  speed, 
and  the  range  is  constantly  chang- 
ing— it  may  vaiy  as  much  as  900 
yards  in  a  minute — and  it  is  chang- 
ing at  a  rate  that  is  not  constant. 
Fleets  rarely  move  upon  parallel 
courses.  Difficulties  arise  also  from 
mist  and  the  condition  of  the  atmo- 
sphere, wind,  temperature,  and 
other  factors.  At  great  ranges  the 
trajectory,  that  is  the  curve  of 
flight  of  the  projectile,  is  neces- 
sarily very  high,  its  fall  very  steep, 
and  the  danger  zone  therefore 
narrow. 

Moving  Targets 

But  there  is  another  important 
factor  always  presented  to  the 
gunnery  officer.  The  ships  are 
moving  swiftly,  and  the  position  of 
the  target,  relatively  to  the  firing 
ship,  changes  during  the  flight  of 
the  projectile,  which  may  cover  a 
period  of  8,  10,  12,  or  even  more 
seconds,  according  to  the  range. 
Therefore  the  gun  must  be  aimed, 
not  at  the  ship  in  the  position  she 
occupies  at  the  instant  of  firing,  but 
at  the  position  she  will  occupy  at 
the  moment  when  the  projectile 
arrives. 

At  first  sight  it  may  seem  that 
the  problem  of  aiming  at  a  place 
where  a  swiftly  moving  enemy  will 
arrive  a  few  seconds  later  is  in- 
soluble. But  there  is  a  guide  to  her 
future  position  in  a  knowledge  of 
the  course  she  has  previously  pur- 
sued, whether  a  direct  course  or  a 
curved  course  under  helm.  In 
order  that  this  may  be  ascertained 
and  the  range  found  and  retained, 
observing  and  reckoning  instru- 
ments of  the  finest  and  most  in- 
genious character  have  been  de- 
vised. It  is  necessary  first  to  ascer- 
tain the  range,  bearing,  and  speed 
of  the  enemy,  next  to  integrate 
these  factors  with  the  speed  and 
changing  curve  of  the  firing  ship, 
and  then  to  transmit  them  instan- 
taneously to  the  guns. 

The  system  of  training  in  range- 
finding,  and  retaining  and  keeping 
the  sights  on  the  target,  employed 
at  the  British  naval  gunnery  estab- 
lishment at  Whale  Island,  Ports-, 
mouth,  and  in  the  tenders,  and  at 
the  Gunnery  School,  Devonport, 
is  quite  wonderful.  Single  and 
double  "  dotter "  apparatus  for 
teaching  men  to  fire  with  accuracy 


without  expending  ammunition, 
deflection-teachers,  and  sub-calibre 
arrangements  are  employed. 

At  Devonport  is  a  rocking  plat- 
form, actuated  by  mechanism 
which  has  about  200  movements, 
and  whose  speed  can  be  adapted  to 
represent  the  rolling  and  pitching 
movements  of  a  battleship  or  light 
cruiser.  Thus  gunlayers  are  trained 
in  keeping  their  sights  on  the  target, 
and  attain  remarkable  accuracy  of 
observation  and  shooting. 

Range-finders  up  to  a  15-ft.  base 
line  have  been  installed  in  British 
ships  in  elevated  armoured  posi- 
tions. Sometimes  they  are  placed 
in  low  armoured  towers,  and  are 
often  installed  within  the  ar- 
moured structure  of  the  gun  turret, 
with  large-angle  prismatic  sighting 
telescopes.  It  was  no  uncommon 
thing  before  the  war  for  the  service 
target  to  be  hit,  even  at  a  long 
range,  by  the  first  shot.  In  asso- 
ciation with  the  range-finder,  elec- 
tro-mechanical devices  are  in- 
stalled to  establish  fire-control,  by 
determining  the  rate  of  change  of 
range  and  bearing  of  the  enemy, 
and  then  of  transmitting  the  infor- 
mation to  the  gunner.  An  indicator 
on  a  graduated  dial  affixed  to  the 
gun  sights,  being  electrically  con- 
trolled, gives  the  range  from  the 
control  station.  The  sight-setter 
then  moves  a  pointer  round  to  the 
required  place,  and  by  his  control 
wheel  keeps  this  pointer  always 
opposite  to  the  index  mark.  The 
same  system  is  applied  to  the  de- 
flection gear.  The  men  are  very 
highly  skilled,  and  have  all  gone 
through  the  gunnery  schools. 
Modern  Fire  Control 

There  are  recent  modifications 
and  improvements  in  this  system, 
the  electro-mechanical  arrange- 
ments having  been  reduced  to  a 
very  simple  form  of  transmitting 
switch  and  gear  at  the  dial  operat- 
ing the  pointer.  The  whole  ten- 
dency, seen  in  the  actions  of  the 
Great  War,  has  been  to  establish 
more  firmly  the  system  of  fire  con- 
trol and  direction.  Advantage  can 
be  taken  in  director  firing  of  the 
roll  of  the  ship,  which  elevates  the 
guns  and  increases  the  range,  and 
salvo  firing  proved  highly  effective 
in  the  sea  fighting. 

Director  firing  was  greatly  re- 
vived before  the  war.  The  advan- 
tage was  conspicuous  of  being  able 
to  direct  a  vessel's  guns  from  a  cen- 
tral station,  where  range  and  suc- 
cessive corrections  could  be  calmly 
and  quietly  worked  out  apart  from 
the  confusing  noises  which  must 
prevail  in  the  vicinity  of  the  guns. 
When  sighting  and  laying  mechan- 
ism became  more  accurate,  Sir 
Percy  Scott,  director  of  target 
practice,  developed  the  system  of 


controlling  fire  from  a  central  sta- 
tion. Much  is  due  to  the  experi- 
mental department  at  the  Whale 
Island  Gunnery  School,  and  to  Ad- 
mirals Peirse  and  Browning,  suc- 
cessively directors  of  target  prac- 
tice, under  whom  the  establish- 
ment became  the  focus  of  the  best 
gunnery  brains  in  the  British  navy. 
For  several  years  practically  every 
gunnery  advance  emanated  from 
it.  In  the  system  of  control  it  was 
feared  there  might  arise  a  disposi- 
tion to  trust  too  much  to  the  con- 
trol officer  and  his  instruments  to 
the  neglect  of  individual  training 
and  practice  with  the  gun,  but  no 
such  defect  was  discovered  during 
the  naval  fighting  in  the  Great  War. 
German  Range-finding 

The  Germans  employed  a  very 
efficient  system  of  range-finding 
and  fire  direction  and  control,  per- 
fected during  recent  years,  which 
has  never  been  fully  described,  and 
from  the  ships  surrendered  the 
scientific  appliances  had  been  re- 
moved. It  differed  in  no  important 
degree  from  the  British  and  Ameri- 
can systems.  Lord  Jellicoe's  dis- 
patch spoke  of  the  high  standard 
of  the  German  gunnery,  resulting 
from  the  use  of  some  such  system 
of  fire  as  the  Petravic.  In  one 
British  appliance  the  speed  of  the 
observing  ship  and  the  estimated 
direction  and  speed  of  the  target 
were  so  combined  that  rate  of 
change  of  the  range  and  the 
deflection  could  be  read  off  on 
a  graduated  map  surface.  In 
others  a  rate-of-change  clock  de- 
vice was  employed,  with  a  pointer 
moving  over  a  dial  at  a  rate 
variable  at  will,  so  that  from  the 
initial  range  given  changes  of  range 
could  be  transmitted  corresponding 
as  nearly  as  possible  to  the  ranges 
given  by  the  range-taker. 

In  the  finest  apparatus,  the 
speed  and  course  are  almost  auto- 
matically ascertained  from  ob- 
servation. The  change-of -range  in- 
strument gives  a  forecast  of  the 
ranges  based  on  this  knowledge,  as 
well  as  the  bearing  of  the  enemy 
relatively  to  the  firing  ship,  and 
the  plotting  can  be  corrected  for 
any  change  of  course  of  the  latter. 

It  will  be  realized  that  great  ex- 
perience, high  powers  of  observa- 
tion, and  much  skill  are  required 
to  use  these  elaborate  appliances 
successfully.  The  gunnery  officers 
of  the  British  navy  are  men  of  the 
very  highest  training.  They  go 
through  long  and  exhaustive 
courses  in  the  theory  and  practical 
work  of  internal  and  external  bal- 
listics— the  gun  and  its  effective 
working.  They  are  also  in  a  true 
sense  engineers,  every  gun  turret 
being  a  mass  of  machinery  of  the 
most  complicated  character. 


GUNNERY  SCHOOL 


GUNPOWDER 


Gunnery  School.  Government 
establishment  for  the  practical 
training  of  artillerymen.  The  chief 
British  military  gunnery  school  is 
at  Shoeburyness.  Essex,  and  is 
quite  distinct  from  the  experi- 
mental establishment,  also  situ- 
ated there.  The  school  was  estab- 
lished here  in  1849  on  account  of 
the  immense  firing  ground  afforded 
by  the  Maplin  sands,  which  are 
left  dry  at  low  water.  Officers 
after  passing  the  Royal  Military 
Academy  at  Woolwich  proceed  to 
the  Gunnery  School  for  practical 
training,  and,  in  addition,  courses 
are  arranged  for  officers  and 
N.C.O.'s  qualifying  as  instructors, 
and  for  practice  in  the  use  of  new 
weapons,  and  in  "  quick  firing  " 
with  specially  designed  ordnance 
against  rapidly  moving  targets. 
Separate  courses  are  provided  for 
the  horse,  field,  and  garrison 
branches  of  the  artillery. 

In  1900  a  branch  school  for 
siege  artillery  was  established  at 
Lydd ;  there  is  a  camp  at  Rhyader, 
and  instruction  is  also  given  in 
coast  defence  work  from  the  forts 
at  the  Isle  of  Wight.  The  naval 
gunnery  school,  known  as  H.M.S. 
Excellent,  is  situated  on  Whale 
Island  in  Portsmouth  Harbour, 
and  provides  similar  instruction  for 
all  gunnery  ratings  of  the  navy. 

Gunning,  ELIZABETH  (1734- 
90).  Duchess  of  Hamilton  and  of 
Argyll.  She  was  the  second  of  three 
daughters  of  an  Irish  squire,  John 
Gunning  of  Castle  Coote,  co.  Ros- 
common.  With  her  elder  sister 
Maria,  she  came  to  London  in  1751, 
with  the  intention  of  going  on  the 
stage,  but  there  the  beauty  of  the 
pair  made  an  extraordinary  im- 
pression in  society  and  among 
the  populace.  They  were  feted 
everywhere,  while  crowds  followed 
them  in  the  streets.  In  1752  Eliza- 
beth married  the  6th  duke  of 


Elizabeth    Gunning.    Duchess    of 
Hamilton  and  of  Argyll 

I  rnrn  a  print  in  the  British  Museum 


Hamilton  (d.  1758).  After  being 
engaged  to  the  3rd  duke  of  Bridge- 
water,  she  married  in  1759  the 
marquess  of  Lome,  who,  in  1770, 
succeeded  his  father  as  5th  duke  of 
Argyll.  In  1776  she  was  created 
Baroness  Hamilton,  with  remainder 
to  her  male  issue  as  baron.  She 
died  May  20,  1790.  Two  of  her 
sons  became  dukes  of  Hamilton, 
and  two  dukes  of  Argyll ;  she  also 
had  three  daughters.  There  are 
several  portraits  of  her  in  existence. 
Gunning,  MARIA  (1733-60). 
Countess  of  Coventry.  Elder  sister 
of  Elizabeth  Gunning,  she  married 
the  6th  earl  of  Coventry  in  1752, 
less  than  three  weeks  after  Eliza- 
beth's marriage  to  the  duke  of 
Hamilton.  She  was  generally  re- 
garded as  being  more  beautiful 
than  her  sister  Elizabeth,  and  the 
loveliest  woman  at  the  court.  In 
1759  she  was  mobbed  by  an  ad- 
miring crowd  in  Hyde  Park,  and 
was  afterwards  provided  by  the 
king  with  a  military  escort.  She 
died  of  consumption,  Oct.  1,  1760, 
perhaps  from  the  use  of  white  lead 
for  her  complexion. 

Gunnisun.  River  of  Colorado, 
U.S.A.  Rising  in  the  S.W.  part  of 
the  state,  it  flows  W.  and  N.W.  for 
200  m.,  and  joins  the  Grand,  a 
main  headstream  of  the  Colorado. 
It  has  cut  a  number  of  deep  canons, 
one  of  granite  being  40  ft.  long  and 
2,500  ft.  deep. 

Gun  Pit.  Field  entrenchment 
capable  of  accommodating  a  field 
gun  or  howitzer.  The  great  im- 
provement in  the  rate  and  accu- 
racy of  artillery  fire  in  modern 
warfare,  combined  with  the  use  of 
aeroplanes  for  reconnaissance  and 
spotting,  has  rendered  it  almost  im- 
perative for  guns  to  be  "  dug  in  " 
as  soon  as  they  reach  a  position 
from  which  it  is  intended  to  open 
fire.  If  hostile  artillery  fire  is  not 
anticipated  an  empaulement  will 
give  protection  against  rifle  fire. 
This  defence  consists  of  two  banks 
of  earth  placed  on  the  flanks  of  the 
gun  about  four  feet  apart  in  front 
and  fourteen  feet  at  the  rear. 

The  gun  pit  is  an  elaboration  of 
the  empaulement,  the  banks  being 
thrown  up  to  a  height  of  about 
three  feet  above  ground  and  the 
intervening  space  sunk  two  feet  for 
a  field  gun  (18-pounder).  The 
floor  of  the  pit  must  provide  a 
solid  foundation  and  the  width  of 
the  embrasure  be  such  as  will  pro- 
vide for  an  efficient  field  of  fire. 
Communication  trenches  link  up 
the  gun  pits  of  the  battery,  the 
battery  commander's  headquarters 
and  the  gun  crews'  quarters.  Over- 
head cover  against  observation  is 
provided  by  tree  branches,  sods,  or 
such  other  material  as  will  har- 
monise with  *.\\p  -urroundinu 


Maria  Gunning,  Countess  of  Coventry 

From  a  painting  by  F.  Coles 

country,  and  the  ground  in  front  of 
the  guns'  muzzles  is  either  kept 
wet  or  covered  with  sacking  to 
avoid  dust  being  blown  up  when 
the  guns  are  discharged,  thus  re- 
vealing the  position.  When  time 
permits  the  overhead  cover  of  the 
pit  is  usually  elaborated  to  provide 
protection  against  shrapnel  and 
shell  splinters,  a  roof  of  baulks  and 
corrugated  iron  being  carried  on 
heavy  timbers,  and  then  covered 
with  earth  three  to  four  feet  thick, 


Gun  Pit.     Diagrams  showing  prin- 
ciples of  construction.    Above,  plan; 
below,  elevation 

camouflage,  to  prevent  aerial  de- 
tection, being  provided  over  all,  as 
before.  See  Artillery. 

Gunpowder.  Oldest  known  ex- 
plosive, essentially  a  mechanical 
mixture  of  saltpetre,  charcoal,  and 
sulphur.  The  early  mixtures  con- 
tained much  larger  proportions  of 
the  two  latter  ingredients  than 
modern  powders. 

Ordinary  charcoal  is  unsuitable 
for  gunpowder,  and  at  present 
dogwood,  alder,  or  willow  is  cut  in 
spring,  stored  1£  to  3  years,  then 
cut  into  pieces  about  an  inch  thick, 
packed  into  iron  cylinders  having 
holes  at  one  end  through  which 
volatile  constituents  escape,  and 
heated  in  a  furnace  for  four  hours. 
Air  is  excluded  from  the  charcoal 
by  allowing  the  cylinder  to  cool  in 
a  larger  closed  tank.  Military 
gunpowder  generally  approximates 


GUNPOWDER     PLOT 


GUN      RUNNING 


Gunpowder.  Vertical  section  of  edge-runner  mill  for  the 
incorporation  of  gunpowder.  A  A,  rollers  mounted  on 
axles  E  E.  B,  pan  in  which  the  gunpowder  is  ground 
and  mixed.  C,  vertical  shaft  revolved  by  bevel  gearing  F. 
D,  cross  frame  fixed  to  C,  from  which  are  hung  the 
roller  axles  E  E 


to  :  saltpetre,  75  p.c.  ;  charcoal, 
15  p.c.  ;  and  sulphur,  10  p.c.  ;  but 
for  blasting  the  variations  of  com- 
position are  considerable.  The  in- 
gredients are  separately  weighed 
out  and  roughly  ground  It  is 
usual  to  add  some  of  the  saltpetre 
to  the  sulphur  to  prevent  the  latter 


becoming  electri- 
fied and  igniting, 
the  remainder  be- 
ing ground  \vith 
the  charcoal  to 
prevent  clogging. 

After  prelimin- 
ary mixing  by 
hand  or  in  rotat- 
ing drums,  the  in- 
gredients are  in- 
corporated. The 
rollers  are  sus- 
pended so  that 
they  cannot  ap- 
proach within  \ 
inch  of  the  bed, 
minimising  the 
risk  of  friction  on 
a  thin  layer  of 
powder.  Ploughs 
constantly  push 
the  mass  under 
the  rollers,  result- 
ing  in  very 
thorough  grinding 
and  mixing  of  the 
ingredients,  which 
are  moistened  with 
water,  80  Ib.  be- 
ing milled  at  a 
time  for  3  to  8 
hours,  lengthy  in- 
corporation yield- 
ing a  faster 
burning  powder. 
One  shaft  drives 
six  mills,  which  are 
separated  by 
strong  walls,  water 
tanks  being  ar- 


ranged so  that  an 
explosion  in  any 
mill  results  in  all 
being  flooded.  The 
caked  powder  is 
next  broken  up, 
the  fragments  ar- 
ranged in  layers 


between  plates  and  pressed  to  a 
high  density. 

The  mass  is  broken  down  by 
passing  between  toothed  bronze 
rollers,  and  automatic  sieves  grade 
the  powder  as  to  size,  large  frag- 
ments being  recrushed  and  dust  re- 
jected. Gunpowder  has  been  largely 
displaced  as  a  sporting  and  mili- 
tary propellant  by  smokeless  pow- 
der (q.v.),  but  finds  considerable  use 
for  blasting,  in  certain  types  of  shell 
and  cheap  sporting  cartridges,  and 
as  an  igniter  for  smokeless  powder 
in  cannon.  See  Explosives. 

Gunpowder  Plot.  Plot  to  blow 
up  the  Houses  of  Parliament  on 
Nov.  5,  1605,  on  which  day  Parlia- 
ment was  to  be  opened  by  King 
James  I.  A  search  under  the  build- 
ings was  made,  and  Guy  Fawkes, 
one  of  the  conspirators,  was  found 
there.  The  ceremony  of  searching 
the  vaults  of  Parliament  at  its 
annual  opening  is  a  legacy  of  the 
Gunpowder  Plot.  See  Fawkes,  Guy 

Bibliography.  What  was  the  Gun- 
powder Plot  ?  The  Gunpowder  Plot 
and  the  Gunpowder  Plotters,  J. 
Gerard,  1897;  What  Gunpowder 
Plot  Was,  S.  R.  Gardiner,  1897  ;  The 
Gunpowder  Plot,  M.  W.  Jones,  1909. 

Gun-room.  Room  in  warships 
so  called  because  it  was  formerly 
situated  at  the  end  of  the  gun- 
deck.  It  was  used  in  large  ships  by 
the  gunner,  in  small  ones  by  the 
lieutenants  as  a  common  living- 
room.  The  modern  gun-room  is  a 
mess  shared  by  sub-lieutenants, 
engineer  sub-lieutenants,  officers 


Gunpowder  Plot.  An  old  print  depicting  the  execution  of  the  conspirators. 
Top,  right,  contemporary  print  of  the  conspirators:  left  to  right,  Bates,  Robert 
Winter,  Chris.  Wright,  John  Wright,  Percy,  Guy  Fawkes,  Catesby,  Thos.  Winter 


of  the  accountant  branch,  junior 
to  assistant  paymasters  of  four 
years'  seniority.,  and  midshipmen. 
See  Battleship. 

Gun  Running.  Term  applied 
to  the  smuggling  of  arms  into 
places  where  their  importation  is 
forbidden  or  strictly  controlled, 
especially  for  political  purposes. 
Governments  which  have  reason 
to  fear  the  armed  resistance  of 
subject  races  have  to  keep  a  close 
look-out  for  gun  running,  which 
is  often  a  lucrative  undertaking 
for  unscrupulous  traders  ;  e.g.  in 
the  Persian  Gulf,  the  Malay 
Archipelago,  and  formerly  in  the 
W.  Mediterranean  in  connexion 
with  the  Carlist  intrigues  in  Spain. 


GUNTER 


3753 


GURKHA 


Archibald  C.  Gunter, 

Anglo-American 

author 


Gun  running  has  been  actively 
carried  on  in  Ireland,  occasions 
being  the  Ulstermen's  feat  in 
Belfast  Lough  in  April,  1914,  and 
that  of  the  Nationalist  volunteers 
atHowth  in  July,  1914.  £eeDhow. 
Gunter,  ARCHIBALD  CLAVERING 
(1847-1907).  Author  and  play- 
wright.  Born  at  Liverpool,  Oct. 
25, 1847,.  at  an 
early  age  he 
went  with  his 
parents-  to 
California. 
Having  been  a 
civil  engineer 
on  the  Central 
Paci  fi c  Rly. 
and  a  stock- 
broker, he 
went  to  New 
York  in 
1879,  and  took  to  writing  novels 
and  plays.  He  wrote  29  novels. 
His  first,  Mr.  Barnes  of  New 
York,  1887,  was  printed  at  his 
own  expense,  and  circulated  by 
a  news  company.  Over  a  million 
copies  of  it  were  sold  before  the 
author's  death,  and  he  successfully 
dramatised  it  and  its  successor, 
Mr.  Potter  of  Texas,  1888.  Its 
success  and  that  of  Gunter's  other 
books  was  due  to  his  insistence  on 
plot,  movement,  and  incident, 
avoidance  of  the  past  tense,  and 
the  creation  of  the  illusion  that  the 
author  himself  did  not  know  what 
was  coming.  In  1905  he  edited 
Gunter's  Magazine.  He  died  in 
New  York,  Feb.  23,  1907. 

Gunter,  EDMUND  (1581-1626). 
English  mathematician.  Educated 
at  Westminster  School  and  Christ 
Church,  Oxford,  he  was  ordained, 
and  in  1615  was  appointed  vicar 
of  S.  George's,  Southwark.  His 
interests,  however,  were  scientific, 
and  in  1619  he  was  made  professor 
of  astronomy  at  Gresham  College, 
London.  He  died  Dec.  10,  1626. 
Gunter  made  some  useful  mathe- 
matical discoveries,  while  several 
inventions  still  bear  his  name. 

Gunter's  Chain.  Chain  used  in 
surveying.  Its  introduction  was 
due  to  Edmund  Gunter.  It  is  22 
yds.  long,  divided  into  100  links, 
and  it  allows  of  easy  calculations 
of  measurements,  since  an  acre 
contains  10  sq.  chains,  or  100,000 
sq.  links.  See  Surveying. 

Guntur.  Town  of  Madras,  India, 
in  the  Kistna  district.  It  stands 
on  the  Grand  Trunk  Road,  47  m. 
W.N.W.  of  Masulipatam.  It  was 
given  to  the  French  in  1753  by 
Muzaffar  Jang,  and  became  British 
in  1778.  There  is  trade  in  cotton 
and  cereals.  Pop.  about  25,000. 

Gupta.  Name  given  to  an  em- 
pire that  flourished  in  India  from 
botween  300  and  500  A.D.  It  was 
founded  by  a  certain  Chandra- 


gupta  and  enlarged  by  his  successor 
Samudragupta.  The  real  Gupta 
empire  was  in  northern  India, 
where  was  its  capital  Pataliputra, 
but  Samudragupta  conquered  al- 
most the  whole  of  the  peninsula. 
After  450  it  was  attacked  by  the 
Huns,  and  when  Skandagupta  died, 
about  480,  it  came  to  an  end,  al- 
though princes  of  the  family  ruled, 
under  the  overlordship  of  others, 
for  some  350  years  longer  over  a 
smaller  area,  known  as  Magadba. 
The  Gupta  era,  which  was  long 
used  in  Indian  chronology,  dated 
from  Feb.  26,  320.  In  the  latter 
part  of  the  19th  century  the  dis- 
covery of  Gupta  inscriptions  added 
to  our  knowledge  of  this  empire. 
See  India:  History;  consult  Gupta 
Inscriptions,  J.  F.  Fleet,  1888. 

Gupta,  SIR  KRISHNA  GOVINDA 
(b.  1851).  Indian  civil  servant. 
Born  at  Bhatpara,  Dacca,  Feb.  28, 
1851,  he joined 
the  Indian 
civil  service  in 
1873,  becom- 
ing secretary 
to  the  board 
of  revenue, 
1887,  co  m- 
m  i  s  si  oner  of 
excise,  1893, 
and  divisional  Sir  Krishna  Gupta, 
commissioner  Indian  civil  servant 
1901.  He  Eiuon*  Fry 

was  appointed  a  member  of  the 
board  of  revenue  in  1904,  being 
the  first  Indian  to  hold  such  a 
post.  He  was  one  of  the  two 
Indians  who  were  for  the  first  time 
nominated  to  the  council  of  India, 
and  held  that  post  from  1908-15. 
He  retired  from  the  India  office  in 
March,  1915.  He  was  created 
K. C.S.I,  in  1911. 

Gurdaspur.  District,  sub- 
division, and  town  in  the  Lahore 
division  of  the  Punjab,  India.  The 
district  is  bounded  on  the  E.  by 
the  river  Beas, .  while  the  Ravi, 
which  has  many  tributaries  within 
the  district,  crosses  the  N.W.  It 
is  irrigated  by  the  Upper  Bari  Doab 
Canal  and  two-thirds  of  its  area 
is  cultivated.  The  rainfall  is  good 
and  the  crops  are  usually  certain, 
no  part  of  the  Punjab  being  more 
fertile.  Wheat  and  sugar-canes  are 
the  main  crops,  while  pulses  and  rice 
are  also  grown.  The  sanatorium 
of  Dalhousie  is  in  the  N.E.,  7,687 
ft.  in  elevation,  and  is  a  pretty  and 
healthy  place,  reached  by  tonga 
from  Pathankot,  51  m.  away.  The 
town  of  Gurdaspur  lies  in  the  middle 
of  the  district,  and  is  on  the  rly. 
from  Amritsar  to  Pathankot,  ex- 
porting sugar  and  food  grains  to  the 
former  town.  District :  1,889  sq.  m., 
pop.  836,771.  Subdivision  :  area 
496  sq.  m.,  pop.  224,515.  Town  : 
pop.  6,248. 


Gurgaon. ,_  District,  subdivi- 
sion, and  town  of  the  Ambala  divi- 
sion of  the  Punjab,  India.  The  dis- 
trict lies  between  the  Delhi  district 
and  Rajputana,  and  is  bounded  on 
the  E.  by  the  river  Jumna.  Close 
to  the  river  the  plain  is  irrigated  by 
the  Agra-Delhi  Canal;  here  theJats 
are  good  cultivators.  Elsewhere 
the  soil  is  sandy  and  the  low  hills 
are  bare.  Owing  to  the  unreliable 
rainfall  crops  fail  frequently.  It  is 
crossed  by  two  main  rlys.  Rewari 
is  the  most  important  town.  Gur- 
gaon  town  stands  on  the  Rajpu- 
tana state  rly.,  20  m.  S.  W.  of  Delhi, 
in  a  fertile  plantation,  and  is  the 
administrative  headquarters.  Dis- 
trict :  area  1,984  sq.  m.,  pop. 
.643,177.  Subdivision:  area 411  sq. 
m.,pop.H2,312.  Town:  pop.  5,461. 

Guriev.  Ri ver  port  of  S.  Russia, 
in  Uralsk.  It  stands  on  the  Ural, 
10  m.  fi'om  where  it  runs  into  the 
Caspian  Sea,  and  not  far  from  the 
boundary  between  Europe  and 
Asia.  The  chief  occupation  is 
fishing.  Pop.  9,500. 

Gurjun  Balsam  OR  WOOD  OIL. 
An  oleo-resin  prepared  from  sev- 
eral species  of  Dipterocarpus, 
chiefly  D.  turbinatus,  in  India, 
Burma,  and  the  Malacca  States. 
The  distilled  oil  is  used  in  the  place 
of  balsam  of  copaiba  in  cases  of 
leprosy.  It  is  also  used  as  a  protec- 
tion against  the  attacks  of  white 
ants,  and  as  a  varnish. 

Gurkha.  Name  usually  applied 
by  Europeans  to  those  tribes  in 
Nepal  whence  the  British  Gur- 
kha regiments 
are  recruited. 
Of  the  total 
Nepalese  popu- 
lation, num- 
bering (1911) 
5,639,092,  the 
chief  tribes  are 
the  Kha,  Man- 
gar,  and  Gu- 
rung.  Their 
Mongoloid 
strain  and  pri- 
mitive anim- 
ism have  been 
much  Aryan  - 
i  s  e  d ;  the 
Sanskrit- 
speaking  Kha 
and  the  Man- 
gar  profess 
Hinduism,  the 
Gurung  a  lax 
Buddhism. 

The  Gurkhas, 
who  form  part 
of  the  Indian  army,  aided  by  their 
loose  observance  of  caste  rules, 
fraternise  freely,  especially  with 
Highland  regiments.  Their  char- 
acteristic weapon,  the  kukri,  is  a 
curved  knife.  Faithful,  fearless, 
self-reliant,  they  rendered  valuable 


Serjeant  of  Gur- 
kha regiment 


GURNARD 

service  during  the  Great  War,  both 
in  France  and  on  other  fronts.  The 
Nepal  government  placed  10,000 
at  the  disposal  of  India  for  com- 
batant service,  and  throughout  the 
period  of  hostilities  55,000  recruits 
were  received  by  the  Gurkha  bat- 
talions of  the  Indian  army.  Pron. 
Goorka. 

Gurnard  (Trigla).  Fish  of  a 
genus  which  includes  about  40 
species.  Gurnards  are  distinguished 


Gurnard.     1.  Grey  gurnard,  Trigla 

gurnardus.      2.    Bed,    T.   cuculus. 

3.  Sapphirine,  T.  hirundo 

by  their  large,  ugly  heads,  which 
are  covered  with  angular  plates. 
The  three  front  rays  of  each  pec- 
toral fin  are  modified  into  feelers, 
somewhat  resembling  fingers,  which 
are  used  not  only  in  finding  prey, 
but  in  creeping  on  the  sea  bottom. 
Most  gurnards  make  good  table  fish. 

Seven  species  of  gurnards  are 
found  around  the  British  coasts, 
the  red  gurnard  (T.  cuculus)  being 
most  frequently  seen  in  the  mar- 
kets. It  is  bright  red  in  colour, 
tinged  in  parts  with  silvery  white, 
and  the  pink  colour  of  its  flesh  is 
attributed  to  its  feeding  upon  crus- 
taceans. The  grey  gurnard  (T. 
gurnardus)  is  also  common,  and  is 
larger  in  size,  being  less  esteemed 
for  the  table.  The  sapphirine  gur- 
nard (T.  hirundo)  is  often  2  ft.  in 
length,  and  is  brown  with  beautiful 
blue  pectoral  fins.  The  piper  (T. 
lyra)  is  a  large  red  species  with  pro- 
minent snout  and  formidable  spines. 
The  gurnard  makes  a  grunting 
noise  when  first  captured,  whence 
the  name  (Fr.  grogner,  to  grunt). 

Gurney.  Name  of  an  English 
amily,  known  for  its  association 
with  banking  and  Quakerism. 
Hugh  le  Gourney,  or  Gkurney,  ob- 
ained  land  in  Norfolk  soon  after 
he  Norman  Conquest,  and  there 


3754 

his  descendants  lived  for  centuries. 
In  the  17th  century  some  joined 
the  Society  of  Friends.  John  Gur- 
ney (1688-1741),  prominent  as  a 
merchant  in  Norwich  and  as  a 
Friehd,  was  the  father  of  John  and 
Henry  Gurney,  who,  in  1770,  set  up 
a  bank  in  Norwich.  This  became 
the  firm  of  Gurney  &  Co.,  of  which, 
towards  the  end  of  the  century, 
another  John  Gurney,  a  descendant 
of  Joseph  Gurney,  became  the  head. 
John  was  the  father  of  Elizabeth 
Fry  and  Samuel,  Joseph  John,  and 
Daniel  Gurney. 

Joseph  John  and  Daniel  entered 
the  Norwich  business,  but  their 
brother,  Samuel  (1786-1856),  also 
a  philanthropist  interested  in  hu- 
manitarian and  religious  move- 
ments, went  to  London  and  served 
in  the  business  of  his  brother-in- 
law,  Joseph  Fry.  In  1807  he  be- 
came a.  partner  in  the  firm  of 
Richardson,  Overend  &  Co.,  which 
under  him  became  known  as  Over- 
end,  Gurney  &  Co.  His  sons  carried 
on  his  business  until  1865,  when  it 
was  made  into  a  joint  stock  com- 
pany. In  1866  it  failed  with  liabili- 
ties of  over  £1 1 ,000,000,  many  other 
firms  being  involved.  The  Nor- 
wich bank,  however,  continued  to 
flourish  until  it  was  absorbed  by 
Barclay's  in  1896.  Earlham  Hall, 
near  Norwich,  was  long  the  family 
residence.  See  The  Gurneys  of 
Earlham,  Augustus  Hare,  1895. 

Gurney.  Name  of  a  family  of 
shorthand  writers.  Thomas  Gur- 
ney (1705-1770)  was  born  at  Wo- 
burn,  March  7,  1705,  his  father 
being  a  miller.  He  himself  became 
a  clockmaker  and  then  a  school- 
master, at  the  same  time  learning 
shorthand.  About  1740,  having 
settled  in  London,  he  was  made 
the  official  shorthand  writer  at  the 
Old  Bailey,  the  first  appointment 
of  its  kind.  He  was  shorthand 
writer  in  other  courts  of  justice 
and  in  the  House  of  Commons.  He 
died  June  22,  1770.  His  system 
was  published  as  Brachygraphy. 

His  son  Joseph  (1744-1815) 
succeeded  to  the  positions.  He 
published  reports  of  state  trials 
and  also  further  editions  of  the 
Brachygraphy.  The  business  of 
shorthand  writer  was  carried  on  by 
Joseph's  son,  William  Brodie  Gur- 
ney (1777-1855),  and  then  by  the 
latter  s  son,  Joseph  Gurney  (1804- 
79).  William  was  a  philanthropist 
and  a  prominent  figure  among  the 
Nonconformists  of  his  day.  In 
1813  he  was  recognized  as  the  offi- 
cial shorthand  writer  to  the  two 
Houses  of  Parliament.  His  son 
Joseph  was  the  official  short- 
hand writer  from  the  time  of  his 
father's  resignation  in  1849  until 
his  own  in  1872,  when  the  office 
passed  to  a  nephew,  W.  H.  Gurney 


GUSHER 

Salter.  Joseph  Gurney  died  Aug. 
12,  1879.  See  A  Text  Book  of  the 
Gurney  System  of  Shorthand,  W. 
H.  Gurney  Salter,  1884. 

Gurney,  EDMUND  (1847-88). 
British  psychological  writer.  Born 
at  Hersham,  Surrey,  March  23, 
1847,  he  was  educated  at  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge.  Much  inter- 
ested in  psychical  subjects,  he  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Society 
for  Psychical  Research,  whose  ob- 
ject was  to  investigate  the  claims 
of  spiritualism.  Gurney  himself 
chiefly  devoted  his  attention  to 
telepathy,  hallucination,  and  hyp- 
notism. He  died  June  23, 1888. 

Gurney,  HENRY  PALTN  (1847- 
1904).  British  scientist.  Born  in 
London,  Sept.  7,  1847,  he  was  edu- 
cated at  the  City  of  London  School 
and  Clare  College,  Cambridge,  of 
which  he  became  lecturer  in  mathe- 
matics and  natural  science,  and 
senior  fellow.  In  1871  he  was  or- 
dained, and  long  served  S.  Peter's, 
Bayswater,  as  curate.  In  1872  he 
began  to  lecture  for  Walter  Wren 
(q.v.),  and  in  1877  became  manag- 
ing partner  of  the  tutorial  firm  of 
Wren  and  Gurney.  In  1894  Gurney 
was  appointed  principal  of  the 
Durham  College  of  Science,  New- 
castle-upon-Tyne.  A  noted  athlete, 
he  lost  his  life  in  Switzerland,  Aug. 
13,  1904,  the  result  of  a  fall. 

Gurney,  JOSEPH  JOHN  (1788- 
1847).  British  philanthropist. 
Born  Aug.  2,  1788,  a  son  of  John 
Gurney  o  f 
Earlham  Hall, 
Norfolk,  he 
studied  at 
Oxford, though 
not  in  the  uni- 
versity, and 
soon  began 
to  write.  He 
became  a  part- 
ner in  the  bank 
of  Gurney 
&  Co.,  Nor- 
wich, but  his  real  work  was  done 
as  a  minister  of  the  Society  of 
Friends,  and  as  an  advocate  of  the 
abolition  of  slavery,  of  prison  re- 
form, and  other  causes  of  the  kind. 
To  promote  these  he  travelled  in 
America  and  elsewhere.  He  died 
Jan.  4,  1847.  See  Memoir,  ed.  J.  B. 
Braithwaite,  1854. 

Gurupy.  River  of  N.  Brazil. 
Rising  on  the  N.  slope  of  the  Serra 
de  Cinta,  it  flows  NJE.  and  N.  to 
discharge  its  waters  into  the  Atlan- 
tic N.  of  the  towns  of  Gurupy  and 
Visco,  through  the  Bay  of  Gurupy. 
Its  length  is  estimated  at  250  m. 

Gusher  (Icelandic  geyser,  to 
gush).  Literally  anything  that 
rushes  out  violently  as  water  from 
a  geyser.  It  is  used  now  for  a  well 
of  oil  that  does  not  need  pumping. 
See  Oil. 


Joseph  John  Gurney, 
British  philanthropist 


GUSSET 

Gusset.  Flat  plate  used  for 
riveting  or  bolting  together  two  or 
more  parts  of  a  metal  frame,  e.g. 


Gusset.       Examples  of   gussets,  A, 
1,  a  lattice  girder ;    2,  Lancashire 
steam  boiler 

for  riveting  together  a  bridge 
girder  boom  and  its  web  bracing 
members.  It  is  also  a  plate  con- 
necting two  parts  of  a  structure 
with  the  object  of  providing  ad- 
ditional rigidity,  e.g.  connecting 
the  trough  flooring  of  a  bridge  to 
the  main  girders.  See  Bridge. 

Gustavus  I,  called  VASA  (1496- 
1560).  King  of  Sweden  1523-60 
and  founder  of  the  Vasa  dynasty. 
His  real  name 
was  G  u  s  t  a  v 
Eriksson,  h  i  s 
familiar  s  u  r- 
name,  which 
he  himself 
never  em- 
ployed, being 
derived  from 
the  fascine  re- 

Gustavusl,  sembling   a 

King  of  Sweden        vase   in  his 
From  a  print  family   arms. 

Born  at  Lindholmen,  Upland,  May 
12,  1496,  son  of  a  Swedish  noble, 
Erik  Johansson,  he  was  educated  at 
Upsala,  and  early  joined  the  army. 
In  1518  he  carried  the  Swedish 
standard  at  the  battle  of  Brann- 
skyrka,  when  his  cousin,  Sten 
Sture,  defeated  the  Danes.  He  was 
carried  off  by  the  Danes  and  im- 
prisoned, but  escaped.  After  many 
adventures,  he  got  back  to  Sweden. 
After  the  Blood  Bath  of  Stock- 
holm, 1520,  in  which  his  father  was 
one  of  the  victims,  Gustavus  suc- 
ceeded in  rousing  the  people  to 
revolt,  and  drove  out  the  Danes. 
In  1523  he  was  proclaimed  king  by 
the  Swedish  diet,  captured  Stock- 
holm, and  was  crowned,  thus 
bringing  to  an  end  the  somewhat 
turbulent  union  of  Scandinavia. 
In  1524  he  effected  a  treaty  of  peace 
with  Denmark.  An  encourager  of 
Lutheranism,  in  1527  he  definitely 
broke  with  Rome  and  established 
the  reformed  religion  in  his  do- 
minions. He  encouraged  trade  and 
commerce  and  the  establishing  of 
schools  and  laid  the  foundations  of 
a  navy.  In  1544  the  crown  was 
made  hereditary  in  his  family.  He 
died  Sept.  29,  1560,  and  was  buried 
in  the  cathedral  of  Upsala. 


3755 

Gustavus  II  OR  GUSTAVUS 
ADOLPHUS  (1594-1632).  King  of 
Sweden.  Born  at  Stockholm, 
Dec.  9,  1594, 
he  was  the  son 
of  Charles  IX 
and  the  grand- 
son of  Gusta- 
vus Vasa.  He 
was  well  edu- 
cated, and  is 
said  to  have 
been  familiar 
with  five 
1  a  n  g  uages 
when  only 

a  boy,  while  Afler  Va 

he  was  also  trained  in  the  art  of 
government.  His  father  made  him 
his  assistant,  and  as  duke  of  Vest- 
manland  he  had  some  authority  of 
his  own. 

Gustavus  succeeded  his  father 
on  the  throne  in  1611,  holding  it 
against  the  claims  of  Sigismund  of 
Poland,  who  was  of  a  rival  and 
older  branch  of  the  family. 
Between  1611  and  1630  he  re- 
organized the  government,  waged 
successful  wars  with  Denmark  and 
Russia  for  the  recovery  of  Swedish 
provinces  on  the  Baltic,  and  then 
dealt  in  like  manner  with  Poland. 
His  disciplined  troops  became  the 
best  instrument  of  war  in  Europe, 
and  he  himself  the  greatest  living 
master  of  the  art  of  war.  Mean- 
while the  Thirty  Years'  War  had 
broken  out  in  Germany  and  the 
Catholic  and  Imperial  party  had 
established  their  ascendancy. 

At  this  point  Gustavus  inter- 
vened as  the  champion  of  the 
Protestant  cause.  He  landed  in 
Pomerania  in  1630,  and  having 
frightened  or  persuaded  Branden- 
burg and  Saxony  into  active  co- 
operation, opened  those  brilliant 
campaigns  which  triumphantly 
swept  back  the  Catholic  tide  and 
established  his  own  position 
among  the  greatest  captains  of 
history.  His  victory  at  Breitenfeld, 
Sept,  17,  1631,  and  his  triumphal 
march  through  western  and  south- 
ern Germany  amazed  all  Europe. 
His  character  as  well  as  his  talents 
raised  him  to  heroic  rank,  but  he 
fell  in  the  hour  of  victory  at  the 
battle  of  Liitzen,  Nov.  16,  1632. 
Gustavus  married  Marie  Eleanora, 
a  member  of  the  Hohenzollern 
family,  and  had  one  daughter,  his 
successor,  Christina.  See  Thirty 
Years'  War ;  consult  History  of 
Gustavus  Adolphus,  J.  L.  Stevens, 
1885  ;  Gustavus  Adolphus  and  the 
Struggle  of  Protestantism  for 
Existence,  C.  R.  L.  Fletcher,  1890. 

Gustavus  III  (1746-92).  King 
of  Sweden  1 771-92.  Born  at  Stock- 
holm, Jan.  24,  1746,  he  was  the 
first  ruler  of  the  native  -  born 
Holstein-Gottorp  lino.  He  was  in 


Gustavus  III, 
King  of  Sweden 


GUSTROW 

Paris,  when 
the  death  of 
his  father, 
Adolphus 
Frederick,  re- 
called him 
to  Sweden.  In 
the  following 
year,  by  means 
of  a  feigned 
revolt,  he 
effected  a  coup 
d'etat  against  the  powerful  nobles. 

Gustavus  was  so  devoted  to  all 
things  French  that  he  sought  to 
copy  the  luxury  of  Versailles,  and 
increased  taxation  as  to  alienate 
his  people.  In  1788  he  was  person- 
ally responsible  for  an  ineffective 
war  with  Russia.  A  conspiracy 
of  nobles  was  formed  against  him, 
and  he  was  shot  in  Stockholm, 
and  died  thirteen  days  later,  March 
29, 1 792.  See  Gustavus  III  and  His 
Contemporaries,  R.  N.  Bain,  1894. 
Gustavus IV  (1778-1 837).  King 
of  Sweden  1792-1809.  He  was 
born  at  Stockholm,  Nov.  1,  1778, 
the  son  of 
Gustavus  III. 
For  the  first 
five  years  of 
his  reign  the 
kingdom  was 
under  the  re- 
gency of  his 
uncle.  He 
allied  himself 
with  England, 
lost  Finland  to 
the  Russians, 
and  Stralsund 
and  Riigen  to 


Gustavus  IV, 
King  of  Sweden 


the  French.  In  1809  his  army 
and  nobles  combined  to  dethrone 
him,  and  he  died  Feb.  7,  1837,  at 
St.  Gall,  Switzerland.  See  his  Auto- 
biography (in  German),  1829;  An 
Exiled  King,  S.  Elkan,  1913. 

Gustavus  V  (b.  1858).  King  of 
Sweden.  Born  at  Drottningholm, 
June  16,  1858,  a  son  of  Oscar  II,  he 
studied  at 
Upsala,  and 
entered  the 
Swedish  army 
in  1875.  Dur- 
ing 1878-79  he 
travelled  much 
over  Europe, 
and  in  1881 
mar  ried  Vic- 
toria, daughter 
of  the  grand 
duke  of  Baden.  In  1907  he  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne.  When  the 
Great  War  broke  out  in  1914, 
Gustavus,  unlike  his  ministers, 
favoured  a  militant  policy ;  but 
his  country  maintained  its  neu- 
trality. 

Gustrow.  Town  of  Germany, 
in  Mecklenburg-Schwerin.  It 
stands  on  the  Nebel  river,  23  m.  by 


Gustavus  V, 
King  of  Sweden 


GUT 


3756 


GUTHRIE 


rly.  S.  of  Rostock.  It  has  a  13th 
century  cathedral  (restored  1868)  ; 
a  16th  century  town  hall,  a 
Renaissance  castle,  now  utilised  as 
a  workhouse  ;  and  a  fine  old  parish 
church  with  paintings  and  carvings. 
A  busy  industrial  centre,  holding 
an  annual  wool  fair,  it  manufac- 
tures iron  goods,  bricks,  sugar,  glue, 
tobacco,  alcoholic  liquors,  dyes, 
soap,  and  wire  rope.  There  are 
also  motor-car  works  and  machine 
shops,  tanneries,  saw  mills,  and  a 
brisk  trade  in  dairy  produce.  Dur- 
ing the  Great  War  it  became  an 
internment  camp.  Pop.  17,805. 

Gut.  Intestines  of  animals, 
which  when  removed  and  prepared 
are  used  for  various  commercial 
purposes.  The  entrails  from 
freshly-killed  sheep  or  other  ani- 
mals are  removed,  thoroughly 
washed,  trimmed,  and  scraped  free 
of  the  softer  surface  layers.  The 
gut  is  then  sold  for  sausage  cover- 
ings, being  preserved  in  salt  until 
required.  The  process  of  gut- 
spinning  is  employed  where  the 
gut  is  to  be  made  into  fiddle  strings 
or  cords  for  rackets,  etc.  The 
various  lengths  of  scraped  gut  are 
sewn  together,  and  the  gut  twisted 
on  a  spinning  wheel.  The  spun 
gut  is  then  dried  in  the  open  air. 
Silkworm  gut  as  used  for  fishing 
tackle  is  made  from  silkworms. 

Gutchkov,  ALEXANDER  IVANO- 
VITCH  (b.  1853).  Russian  states- 
man. Born  and  educated  in  Mos- 
cow, he  entered 
on  a  business 
career,  and 
early  interest- 
ed himself  in 
public  affairs. 
He  served  as  a 
volunteer  with 
the  Boers  in 
the  S.  African 
War,  and  in 
the  Russo- 
Japanese  War, 
and  with  the  Bulgarians  in  the 
Balkans.  ^In  1905  he  became  one 
of  the  founders  and  soon  the  leader 
of  the  Octobrist  Party  (g.v.).  He 
entered  the  Duma  in  1907,  and  was 
made  president,  proving  himself  a 
firm  constitutionalist  of  the  mode- 
rate school.  He  failed  to  secure  a 
seat  in  the  Fourth  Duma,  but  was 
elected  member  of  the  Council  of 
the  Empire. 

During  the  Great  War  he 
directed"  Red  Cross  work  at  the 
front,  and  later  acted  as  chairman 
of  the  central  industrial  muni- 
tions committee.  In  March,  1917, 
after  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolu- 
tion, he  was  appointed  minister  of 
war  and  marine  in  the  first  Russian 
national  cabinet,  but  designed  in 
May,  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  exer- 
cising his  authority.  "He  was 


arrested   in   Sept.,   but    was  soon 
released.     See  Russia. 

Gutenberg  OR  GENSFLEISCH, 
JOHANN  (c.  1400— c.  1468).  German 
inventor  of  printing  from  movable 


The  true  tffiyies  of  lohn  Gutttmbeig  Dcliiuattlfom. 
Pa.irtU.n3   at   Metitz    in.  German**.. 


Alexander  Gutchkov, 
Russian  statesman 


Johann  Gutenberg,  the  German  in- 
ventor of  movable  type  printing 

From  an  old  engraving 

types.  Born  at  Mainz,  he  lived  be- 
tween 1420  and  1426  at  Stras- 
bourg, where  he  is  believed  to  have 
perfected  his  invention.  He  re- 
turned, about  1444,  to  Mainz, 
where  he  was  assisted  financially 
by  a  partnership  with  Johann 
Fust,  a  goldsmith,  who  foreclosed 
on  a  mortgage ;  and  technically  by 
Fust's  son-in-law,  Peter  Schoffer, 
an  engraver,  who  is  credited  with 
the  invention  of  punches  and 
matrices.  He  died  at  Mainz. 

An  astronomical  calendar,  a 
fragment  of  which  was  discovered 
in  1901,  a  Latin  Bible,  and  a  Latin 
dictionary,  approximately  dated 
1447,  1458,  and  1460  respectively, 
and  two  or  three  other  works,  are 
attributed  to  Gutenberg  alone,  but 
no  book  bears  his  name.  A  Guten 
berg  museum  was  founded  in  1901 
at  Mainz,  where  a  statue  was  erected 
in  1837,  and  where  festivals  were 
held  in  1837,  1840,  and  1900.  See 
Coster,  L.  J. ;  Typography. 

Giitersloh.  Town  of  Germany. 
It  is  in  Westphalia,  11  m.  S.W.  of 
Bielefeld.  It  has  textile,  brewing 
and  other  industries,  and  an  exten- 
sive trade  in  Westphalian  ham  and 
sausage.  The  local  rye-bread,  pum- 
pernickel, is  famous  for  its  nutritive 
value.  During  the  Great  War 
an  internment  camp  was  estab- 
lished here.  Pop.  18,336. 

Guthrie  Castle,  the  old  resi- 
dence of  the  Guthrie  family.  It 
is  8  m.  from  Arbroath,  and  was 
restored  in  the  19th  century.  Mas- 
sive walls  of  the  original  15th  cen- 
tury building  still  stand. 


Guthrie.  City  of  Oklahoma, 
U.S.A.,  the  co.  seat  of  Logan  co. 
It  stands  on  the  Cottonwood  and 
Cimarron  rivers,  30  m.  N.  of 
Oklahoma  City,  and  is  served  by 
the  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa 
Fe,  and  other  rlys.  Notable  build- 
ings include  the  federal  building, 
the  city  hall,  a  county  courthouse, 
a  Carnegie  library,  and  the  Scot- 
tish Rite  Temple.  Guthrie  has 
cotton  and  flour  mills,  foundries  and 
machine  shops,  and  lumber,  cigar 
and  furniture  factories.  Its  mineral 
springs  attract  many  visitors. 
Founded  in  1889,  the  year  Okla- 
homa was  thrown  open  to  white 
settlement,  Guthrie  was  the  capi- 
tal of  the  territory  from  1890  until 
1907,  and  in  that  year,  when  Okla- 
homa became  a  state,  it  was  con- 
stituted the  capital,  but  was 
superseded  by  Oklahoma  City  in 
1911.  Pop.  12,098. 

Guthrie,  SIR  JAMES  (b.  1859). 
Scottish  painter.  Born  at  Greenock, 
June  10,  1859,  he  was  educated  at 
the  university 
of  G 1  a s gow, 
and  studied 
art  in  London 
and  Paris. 
He  became 


p  r  o  m  i  nently 
identified  with 


the  Glasgow 
school  (q.v.), 
though  his 
work  is  more 
cosmopolitan 
than  Scottish, 


Sir  James  Gutbrie, 
Scottish  painter 

Russell 

and,  in  its  later 
aspect,  is  akin  in  stylo  to  that  of 
Sargent. 

Elected  A.R.S.A.  in  1888,  and 
R.S.A.  four  years  afterwards,  he 
was  chosen  president  of  the  Scot- 
tish Academy  in  1902,  in  succession 
to  Sir  George  Reid.  His  finest  pic- 
tures include  Funeral  Service  in 
the  Highlands,  1882  ;  To  Pastures 
New,  1883 ;  and  Schoolmates, 
1886,  in  the  Ghent  Municipal  Gal- 
lery ;  while  of  his  many  portraits, 
those  of  Lady  Stirling-Maxwell, 
Professor  Jack,  and  the  Rev.  Prin- 
cipal Alexander  Whyte,  may  be 
mentioned. 

Guthrie,  THOMAS  (1803-73). 
Scottish  divine.  Born  at  Brechin, 
Forfarshire,  July  12,  1803,  he  was 
e  d  u  c  a  ted  at 
Edinburgh 
and  Paris, 
and,  after 
being  manager 
of  his  -father's 
bank,  1827- 
29,  became 
minister  of 
Arbirlot,  near 
A  rbroath, 
1830;  of 
1837  ;  of  S. 


Thomas  Guthrie, 
Scottish  divine 

Old      Greyfriars, 


John's,  Edinburgh,  1840-43  ;   and, 


GUTHRIE 


after  the  disruption,  of  Free  S. 
John's,  1843-64.  A  powerful 
preacher,  he  took  a  leading  part  in 
the  promotion  of  a  national  system 
of  education,  of  ragged  schools, 
temperance,  and  social  work  among 
the  poor.  In  11  months,  1845-46, 
he  raised  £116,000  for  Free  Church 
manses. 

He  was  moderator  of  the  Free 
Church  General  Assembly,  1862,  the 
first  editor  of  The  Sunday  Magazine, 
1864-73,  and  F.R.S.  Edin.  He 
died  at  St.  Leonards,  Feb.  24, 
1873.  A  voluminous  writer,  many 
of  whose  works  had  a  wide  circu- 
lation in  the  U.S.A.,  he  wrote  Fleas 
for  Ragged  Schools,  1847-62;  A 
Plea  for  Drunkards,  1S50 ;  The 
Gospel  in  Ezekiel,  1856  ;  The  City, 
its  Sins  and  Sorrows,  1857  ;  The 
Way  to  Life,  1862.  His  son,  Charles 
John,  Lord  Guthrie  (1849-1920) 
was  a  judge  of  the  Court  of 
Session.  See  Autobiography  and 
Memoir,  D.  K.  and  C.  J.  Guthrie, 
1874-75. 

Guthrie,  THOMAS  ANSTKY.  Eng- 
lish novelist  and  playwright  who 
wrote  under  the  pen-name  of  F. 
Anstey  (7.?;.). 

Guthrum  (d.  890).  Danish 
king  of  E.  Anglia.  He  gained  a  vic- 
tory over  Ethelred  and  his  brother 
Alfred  at  Reading  in  871,  and 
after  Ethelred's  death  marched 
with  two  other  kings  to  Cambridge 
in  875,  occupied  Wareham  in  876, 
and  in-  877  was  bought  off  by  a 
treaty.  In  878  he  was  defeated  by 
Alfred  at  Ethandune  (Edington), 
Wilts,  and  surrendered  in  his  camp 
at  Chippenham.  By  the  peace  of 
Wedmore  he  agreed  to  become  a 
Christian,  to  give  hostages,  and  to 
leave  Wessex  to  Alfred.  He  was 
baptized  under  the  name  of  Athel- 
stan,  Alfred  standing  godfather. 
In  885  he  failed  to  renew  his 
hostages  and  permitted  an  attack 
on  Wessex,  but  was  defeated  and 
concluded  the  treaty  known  as 
Alfred  and  Guthrum's  peace,  See 
Wedmore,  Treaty  of. 

Gutierrez,  JUAN  MARIA  (1809- 
78).  Argentine  poet  and  writer. 
J3orn  at  Buenos  Aires,  he  was  for 
some  time  an  exile  in  Chile,  but 
after  the  downfall  of  the  dictator 
Rosas  he  returned  and  became 
rector  of  the  university  in  his  na- 
tive place,  where  he  died  Feb.  26, 
1878.  An  ardent  patriot,  his  hatred 
of  Spanish  rule  is  exemplified  in  his 
ode  To  the  May  Revolution,  1841, 
and  in  This  Year  and  That.  He  is 
at  his  best  in  his  shorter  poems, 
which  are  distinguished  by  correct 
and  elegant  style.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  South  American  an- 
thology— America  Poetica.  His 
writings  exercised  great  influ- 
ence throughout  the  S.  American 
continent. 


Gutta-percha.  Substance  re- 
sembling rubber,  prepared  from 
the  juice  of  various  trees  of  the 
genus  Palaquium,  natives  of  the 
Malay  Archipelago.  The  tree  has 
also  been  introduced  into  Java. 
Incisions  are  made  in  the  bark  of 
the  tree,  which  causes  the  juice  to 
exude.  It  quickly  coagulates  and 
is  scraped  off  with  a  knife.  Fre- 
quently the  tree  is  felled  in  order 
to  collect  the  gutta-percha,  but 
the  modern  method  is  to  tap  the 
standing  trees. 

Although  resembling  rubber 
closely,  gutta-percha  is  less  elastic, 
becomes  plastic  at  the  tem- 
perature of  boiling  water,  and  can- 
not be  vulcanised  like  rubber. 
Owing  to  its  special  electrical  pro- 
perties, gutta-percha  is  employed 
as  an  insulator  for  submarine 
cables.  It  is  also  used  for  covering 
golf  balls,  and  for  many  purposes 
for  which  rubber  is  also  adapted. 
See  Rubber. 

Gutter  (Lat.  gutta,  drop).  Term 
used  in  several  connexions.  In 
iron  and  steel  smelting,  a  gutter  is 
a  channel  through  which  the  mol- 
ten lead  flows  from  the  furnace. 
In  printing,  it  is  the  blank  space 
between  adjoining  pages  in  a  forme 
of  type.  In  building,  and  in  drain- 
ing and  roadmaking,  it  is  a  channel 
used  to  carry  off  water. 

Roof  gutters  may  be  situated 
wherever  desirable,  e.g.  under  the 
parapets  formed  by  party  walls, 
or  down  the  internal  angles  or 
"  valleys  "  formed  by  intersecting 
roofs,  or  in  convenient  positions  on 
flat  roofs.  Except  at  the  eaves, 
roof  gutters  are  usually  flat  and 
narrow  waterways,  but  the  most 
familiar  form  is  the  eaves  gutter, 
most  commonly  of  the  shape  called 
half-round,  which  is  fixed  at  the 
lowest  part  or  eaves  of  the  roof, 
and  conducts  the  water  through 
down-pipes  to  a  drain,  rainwater 
butt,  or  perhaps  to  a  paved  foot- 
path. From  there  it  can  easily 
escape  to  the  road -channel  or 
gutter. 

The  eaves  gutter,  when  fed  by 
other  gutters,  is  a  main  gutter. 
Eaves  gutters  are  of  various 
materials — copper,  lead,  cast-iron, 
zinc — and  are  formed  and  fixed  in 
various  ways.  A  simple  form  is  the 
half-round  metal  gutter  suspended 
beneath  the  eaves  by  malleable 
iron  hangers,  of  which  one  end  is 
screwed  on  to  the  roof  boards,  the 
other  being  attached  to  the  middle 
of  a  bridging  piece  which  clips  the 
edges  of  the  gutter.  More  commonly 
the  eaves  gutter  rests  on  a  board 
supported  on  brackets  or  corbels, 
or  on  a  ledge  formed  in  a  parapet 
wall  which  conceals  it ;  or  the 
gutter  may  be  moulded  to  form 
part  of  a  cornice. 


mr. 


r 


Gutta-percha.     Leaves  and  flowers 
of  Palaquium  gutta 

For  flat  roofs  a  gutter  having 
vertical  sides  is  preferable ;  while  for 
sloping  roofs  gutters  having  sloping 
sides — such  as  the  V-gutter — are 
most  usual ;  or  one  side  may  be 
sloping  and  the  other  upright,  as  in 
the  "  parapet  gutter."  Gutters 
should  incline  towards  their  out- 
lets in  a  ratio  of  not  less  than  1  in 
10,  and  in  some  instances  2  or  3  in 
10  is  desirable.  Sunk  or  enclosed 
gutters  are  usually  8  ins.  or^O  ins. 
wide.  Cornice  and  parapet  gutters 
are  commonly  of  wood,  covered 
with  lead  or  zinc. 

Drips  in  roof  gutters  are  falls  ar- 
ranged at  intervals  of  12  ft.  or  so  in 
the  line  of  the  gutter  to  facilitate 
the  flow.  Snow-boards,  to  prevent 
snow  choking  the  gutters  or  sliding 
off  the  roof  hi  heavy  masses,  are 
commonly  formed  of  creosoted 
yellow  deal  battens  laid  trans- 
versely over  the  gutter  about  an 
inch  or  so  apart.  Another  form  of 
guard  consists  of  angle-irons  raised 
perpendicularly  along  and  above 
the  gutter  and  supporting  trans- 
versely three  or  four  rows  of  teak 
boards  running  parallel  to  the 
gutter. 

Road  guttering  is  called  also 
channelling,  and  town  roads  are 
usually  specified  to  be  kerbed  and 
channelled,  the  channels  being  ob- 
viously incomplete  without  kerbs 
to  prevent  water  running  over  the 
footpath  or  gradually  sapping  it. 
Channels  are  usually  formed  of 
small  oblong  blocks  of  stone  (gran- 
ite, syenite,  Kentish  rag)  laid  on 
a  concrete  bed  forming  a  water- 
table  not  less  than  15ins.  wide,  and 
laid  lengthwise  to  the  direction  of 
the  road  which  is  cambered  or 
sloped  from  its  middle  to  its  sides, 
the  channels  conforming  to  this 
slope.  See  Building ;  House. 


GUTTIFERAE 


GUYON 


Guttiferae.  Natural  order  of 
trees  and  shrubs,  natives  of  humid 
regions  in  S.  America,  India,  and 
Africa.  They  have  undivided,  leath- 
ery, opposite  leaves,  and  white, 
yellow  orpink'flowers,  often  imper- 
fect. They  exude  a  yellow  gum- 
resin,  that  obtained  from  Garcinia 
cambogia  and  other  species  forming 
the  gamboge  of  commerce.  Mango- 
steen  is  the  fruit  of  G.  mangostana ; 
and  the  mammee- apple  that  of 
Mammea  americana. 

Gutzkow,  KARL  FERDINAND 
(1811-78).  German  dramatist  and 
novelist.  Born  in  Berlin,  March  17, 
1811,  after  studying  at  several  uni- 
versities, in  1835  he  published 
Wally,  die  Zweifjerin  (Wally,  the 
Sceptic),  which  so  offended  the 
authorities  that  he  was  sentenced 
to  three  months'  imprisonment. 
He  became  also  one  of  the  "  Young 
Germany  "  writers,  publication  of 
whose  future  work  was  forbidden 
by  a  special  edict  of  the  Federal 
Diet.  In  1847,  however,  he  was  ap- 
pointed dramatic  adviser  to  the 
Dresden  court  theatre.  He  had 
already  won  distinction  on  the 
stage  with  his  Richard  Savage, 
1839 ;  Zopf  und  Schwert  (The 
Queue  and  the  Sword),  1844,  and 
other  plays.  He  died  at  Frankfort- 
on-Main,  Dec.  16,  1878. 

Guy  (Span,  guia,  guide).  Term 
for  a  *ope  of  hemp  or  steel  wire 
used  for  steadying  an  object  which 
is  being  jifted  or  moved;  or  for 
temporarily  arresting  or  prevent- 
ing the  motion  of  an  object ;  or  for 
temporarily  securing  and  stiffening 
a  portion  of  an  incomplete  struc- 
ture. Such  a  rope,  if  used  for  a 
permanent  purpose,  is  called  a  stay. 
Guy,  THOMAS  (c.  1645-1724). 
English  bookseller,  printer,  and 
founder  of  Guy's  Hospital,  Lon- 
don. Bom  in 
Horselydown, 
Sou  t  h  wark, 
and  educated 
at  Tamworth, 
he  was  a  p- 

y:     '""IP      i    Prenticed  to  a 
I    London  book- 
|    seller,  1660-68. 
JS^SmimS    Becoming  a 
Thomas  Guy,  iounder    freeman  of  the 
oi  Guy's  Hospital       stationers' 
Company,  he  set  up  in  business  tor 
himself  at  the  corner  of  Lombard 
Street  and  Cornhill,  made  a  feature 
of   cheap   Bibles,   and    became   a 
printer  to  Oxford  University,  1679- 
92.      He  was  M.P.  for  Tamworth, 
1695  -  1707.      He    lived    sparely, 
acquiring  a   large  fortune,   partly 
amassed    by    buying    and    selling 
at     a     profit     shares    in    South 
•Sea    stock,    and    is   best  remem- 
bered     by     his     benefattions    to 
trade    charities    and    his    general 
philanthropy. 


He  founded  almshouses  and  built 
the  town  hall  at  Tamworth  ;  be- 
came a  governor  of  S.  Thomas's 
Hospital,  for  which  he  built  and 
furnished  three  wards ;  spent 
£18,793  in  founding  in  Southwark 
the  hospital  known  by  his  name, 
and  left  £200,000  for  its  endow- 
ment. He  also  gave  £400  a  year 
to  Christ's  Hospital.  Many  of  his 
benefactions  were  only  made  known 
after  his  death,  Dec.  27,  1724.  See 
Biog.  History  of  Guy's  Hospital, 
G.  T.  Bettany  and  S.  Wilks,  1893. 

Guy  as.  Maritime  prov.  of  S.W. 
Ecuador,  S.  America.  Area  11,500 
sq.  m.  Traversed  by  the  river 
Guyas,  it  is  low  lying  and  fertile, 
producing  cocoa,  coffee,  sugar, 
rice  and  tobacco.  The  river  rises 
in  the  Andes,  and  flows  S.W.  into 
the  gulf  of  Guayaquil.  It  is  navig- 
able for  light  craft  as  far  as  Bo- 
degas. The  capital  is  Guayaquil 
(q.v.).  Pop.  150,000. 

Guy  de  Lusignan  (d.  1195). 
French  crusader  and  king  of  Jeru- 
salem and  Cyprus.  Younger  son  of 
Hugh  the  Brown  of  Lusignan,  of  a 
great  French  feudal  family,  he  mar- 
ried in  1180  Sybilla,  daughter  of 
the  king  of  Jerusalem  and  received 
the  title  of  count  of  Jaffa  and  Asca- 
lon.  On  the  death  of  Baldwin  V, 
Guy  became  king  of  Jerusalem, 
1186.  He  was  captured  at  Tiberias 
by  Saladin,  1187,  but  set  free  on 
condition  that  he  ceased  to  fight 
against  Islam,  which  promise  he 
soon  afterwards  broke. 

His  title  to  the  throne  was 
challenged  by  Henry  of  Champagne 
who  was  called  to  the  throne  by 
election  in  1192,  whereupon  Guy 
purchased  Cyprus  from  the  Knights 
Templars,  and  established  a  new 
principality  on  the  island.  His 
brother,  Amalric,  succeeded  him  on 
his  death  in  1195,  became  king  of 
Jerusalem,  1197,  and  founded  the 
Lusignan  kings  of  Cyprus. 

Guy  Mannering  ;  OR,  THE  AST- 
ROLOGER Second  novel  of  Sir 
Walter  Scott.  Written  in  six 
weeks,  founded  on  old  Galloway 
and  Ayrshire  traditions,  and  pub- 
lished in  Feb.,  1815,  it  formed  a 
notable  departure  from  its  prede- 
cessor, Waverley.  Its  descriptions 
of  coast  scenery  are  a  prominent 
feature  ;  the  chief  characters  in- 
clude the  partly  autobiographical 
Colonel  Mannering ;  Dominie  Samp- 
son, whose  exclamation  "  Pro- 
digious !  "  has  become  proverbial  ; 
Dan  die  Dinmont,  the  Liddesdale 
farmer ;  Meg  Merrilies  ;  Gilbert 
Glossin,  the  wily  attorney,  and  his 
smuggler  accomplice  Dirk  Hat- 
teraick.  The  work  was  dramatised 
by  Daniel  Terry  with  the  aid  of  the 
author,  whose  assistance  almost 
betrayed  the  secret  of  the  noveJ's 
authorship. 


Georges  Guynemer, 
French  airman 


Guynemer.  GEORGES  (1894- 
1917).  French  airman.  He  obtain 
ed  his  pilot's  certificate  April,  1915 
and  quick  ly 
rose  from  pri 
vate  to  lieu- 
tenant, be- 
coming  one 
of  the  best- 
known  French 
airmen  on  the 
west  front. 
Promoted  t  o 
captain  in 
Feb.,  1917, 
after  he  had  brought  down  over 
thirty  German  aeroplanes,  by  the 
beginning  of  Sept.  he  had  fifty  vic- 
tories to  his  credit,  and  became  the 
champion  "  ace "  of  the  French 
air  force. 

His  greatest  feat  was  on  May  25, 
1917,  when  he  brought  down  two 
German  aeroplanes  in  one  minute 
and  two  more  later  on  in  the  same 
day.  He  was  killed  on  Sept.  11, 
1917,  after  he  had  brought  down 
his  fifty-third  enemy  aeroplane,  by 
being  shot  in  the  head  by  the  Ger- 
man airman  Wissemann,  after  a 
thrilling  fight.  Guynemer  was 
twenty  times  mentioned  in  dis- 
patches, was  twice  wounded,  and 
received  the  Military  Medal,  the 
Military  Cross,  and  the  rosette  of 
Officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honour. 
The  French  Chamber  in  Oct.,  1917, 
decided  to  place  his  name  on  the 
commemorative  tablets  of  the  Pan- 
theon until  his  body  could  be  found 
and  buried  in  that  hall. 

Guy  of  Warwick.  Mythical 
hero  of  an  Anglo-Norman  me- 
trical romance.  Sir  Guy,  son  of  a 
steward  of  the  earl  of  Warwick, 
to  gain  the  hand  of  the  earl's 
daughter  Felice  or  Phillis,  goes 
through  knightly  adventures  at 
home  and  abroad,  is  then  married, 
but,  in  remorse  for  the  blood  he 
has  shed,  becomes  a  pilgrim  to  the 
Holy  Land.  He  returns,  and,  after 
killing  the  Danish  giant,  Colbran, 
in  a  duel  to  decide  the  issue 
between  Athelstan  and  the  Danes, 
retires  unknown  to  a  hermitage  at 
Guy's  Cliffe  (q.v.),  near  Warwick, 
and  only  reveals  himself  to  his  wife" 
Felice  by  sending  her  a  ring  when 
he  is  on  the  point  of  death.  The 
poem,  of  great  length,  and  sup- 
posed to  have  been  written  about 
the  13th  century,  in  couplets  and 
romance  stanzas,  was  once  enor- 
mously, jwpular.  A  MS.  copy  is  at 
Caius  College,  Cambridge  ;  there 
are  fragments  in  the  Auchinleck 
MSS.  at  Edinburgh,  and  the  text 
was  edited  by  J.  Zupitza,  1883-87. 
Guyon,  MADAME  (1648-1717). 
French  mystical  writer  whose 
maiden  name  was  Jeanne  Marie 
Bouvier  de  la  Motte.  Born  at 
Montargis,  April  13,  1648,  she 


GUYON 


GWALIOR 


Madame  Guyon, 
French  Quietist 

From  a  print 


early  came  under  the  influence  of 
Father  Lacombe,  a  prominent 
Quietist  teacher.  After  her  hus- 
band's death 
she  began  in 
1676  to  advo- 
cate Quietism 
in  Savoy  and 
later  at  Paris. 
In  1688  and 
1695  she  suffer- 
ed terms  of  im- 
prisonment for 
teaching  the 
heresies  of 
M  o  1  i  n  o  s  , 
though  she  had  the  support  of 
Fenelon.  She  taught  that  the  es- 
sence of  religion  consisted  in  the 
passive  contemplation  of  God,  and 
that  good  deeds  were  of  less  mo- 
ment. She  died  at  Blois,  June  9, 
1717.  See  Mysticism;  consult  also 
Poems,  1902 ;  A  Method  of  Prayer, 
1904,  ed.  D.  Macfayden. 

Guyon,  RICHARD  DEBAUFRE 
(1803-56).  British  soldier  in  Hun- 
garian and  Turkish  service.  Born 

near     Bath,    COT^-^^^^^,™-  ~ 

March  3 1,1 803,    |  •**  ' 

he  entered  the    f 
Austrian  army,    [^ 
and      reached    | 
the  rank  of    |i 
captain.        H  e    V. 
retired  in  1839, 
and   settled  in 
Pest,  but  when 
the  Hungarian 
rising     broke 
out   in   1848   he  commanded  the 
Hungarian  landsturm.     After  the 
victory  of  Schwechat  in  Oct.,  he 
was  put  in  command  of  a  divi- 
sion,  and  early  in  the  following 
year  was  promoted  general.     He 
succeeded  in  raising  the  siege  of 
Komorn  in  April,  1849,  but  when 
the   Hungarians   collapsed   Guyon 
escaped  with  Kossuth  to  Turkey. 
Joining  the  Turkish  army  in  1852, 
he  fought  against  the  Russians  in 
Anatolia  during  the  war  of  1855- 
56,  but  died  suddenly  at  Scutari, 
Oct.  12,  1856. 

Guyot,  YVES  (b.  1843).  French 
writer  and  economist.  Born  at 
Dinan,  Sept.  6,  1843,  he  was  edu- 
c  a  t  e  d  at 
Rennes  and 
became  a  jour- 
nalist. In  1868 
he  was  ap- 
pointed editor 
of  L'lnde- 
pendant  d  u 
Midi,  but  he 
soon  migrated 
to  Paris,wliere 
he  worked  for 
sevcralpapers  and  took  partin  public 
life.  As  editor  of  Le  Siecle  between 
1892  and  1903  he  made  himself  a 
force  for  political  and  social  reform. 


Richard  Guyon, 
British  soldier 


especially  in  his  attacks  on  one  aspect 
of  the  police  system,  for  which  he 
was  imprisoned.  In  1885  he  was 
returned  to  the  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties, and  1889-98  he  was  minister 
of  public  works.  In  1909  he  was 
made  editor  of  Le  Journal  des 
Economistes.  In  1920  he  attended  a 
congress  of  free  traders  in  London. 
His  writings  include,  to  give  them 


1912  and  in  1913  respectively. 
Among  its  distinguished  teachers 
have  been  Astley  Cooper,  Richard 
Bright,  Thomas  Addison,  and  Wil- 
liam Gull.  Hodgkin  was  a  lec- 
turer, and  Keats  was  at  one  time 
a  student  at  the  hospital.  There 
is  an  excellent  medical  school  at- 
tached to  the  hospital. 
Guzman  Blanco,  ANTONIO 


their  English  titles,  The  Comedy  of     (1828-99).    Venezuelan  statesman. 

r>.~*~,*: rpu~  a»:^^  ~t  v_  Born  at  Caracas,  Feb.  29,  1828,  he 

became  a  lawyer  and  then  a  soldier, 
fighting  in  the  civil  disturbances 
of  the  time.  From  1863-68  he  was 


Protection ;  The  Science   of   Eco- 
nomics ;    Prostitution ;     and    The 
Socialist  Tyranny.    Pron.  Ghee-oh. 
Guy's  Cliffe.      Estate  on  the 
bank  of  the  river  Avon,  1 J  m.  from 
Warwick,   now  the   seat   of   Lord 
Algernon    Percy. 
In  the  grounds  are    jp" 
the    cave    said    to    ',j^ 
have     been     hewn 
for  himself  by  Guy 
of    Warwick    (ff.v.) 
and  the  chapel   of 
S.  Mary  Magdalen, 
founded    to    his 
memory   by   Rich- 
ard     Beauchamp, 
earl  of  Warwick  (d. 
1439),  and  contain- 
ing    a     mutilated 
statue  of  the  hero. 
There  were  hermit 
residents  at  Guy's 
Cliffe  in  the  reigns 
of  Edward  III  and 
Henry  IV,  and  another  occupant  ot 
the  hermitage  was  John  Rous  the 
antiquary   (d.  1491),  who  was   its 
chantry  priest,  officiating  daily  in 
the  chapel. 

Guy's  Hospital.    London  hos- 
pital   founded    by    Thomas    Guy 
(g.v.)  in  1721.   It  has  647  beds,  and 
departments    for 
providing    treat- 
ment    in     all 
branches  of  medi- 
cine and  surgery. 
The  Wills    li- 
brary was  built  in 
1902,  the  Gordon 
Guy's  Hospital       Museum  in  1905. 
arms  in  1919  new  lab- 

oratories were  built  for  the  study 
of  chemistry  and  physics.  New 
departments  of  pathology  and 
pharmacology  were  established  in 


vice-president  of  Venezuela,  and  in 
1870,  as  the  result  of  a  revolution, 


Guy's  CliSe.    Warwickshire  seat  of  Lord  Algernon  Percy 


became  dictator  of  the  country. 
He  was  deposed  in  1889,  whilst  he 
was  in  Europe  serving  as  envoy 
to  the  Powers,  one  reason  for  his 
fall  being  his  corrupt  methods  of 
making  money.  On  the  other  hand 
he  did  something  for  the  education 
and  the  general  welfare  of  his  coun- 
try. Guzman  Blanco  died  in  Paris, 
July  29,  1899. 

Gwalior.  State  of  India.  In 
the  Central  India  Agency,  its  area 
is  25,133  sq.  m.  Of  the  lands  under 
state  control  about  a  quarter  is 
under  cultivation,  a  quarter  of  this 
being  devoted  to  millet,  other  im- 
portant crops  being  gram  and 
wheat.  The  forests  are  extensive 
and  full  of  wild  animals.  Minerals 
include  sandstone,  limestone,  mica, 
and  iron.  The  chief  industry  is 
the  manufacture  of  cotton  goods. 


Gwalior,  India.     The  palace,  Gwalior  City,  begun  in  the  early  16th  century,  a 
magnificent  example  of  Hindu  architecture,  seen  from  the  fort 


GWALIOR 


GYMNASTICS 


Exports  mainly  consist  of  agri- 
cultural produce.  The  ruler  is  a 
maharaja,  entitled  to  a  salute  of 
21  guns.  Pop.  3,102,280,  nearly 
all  Hindus. 

Gwalior.  City  of  Gwalior 
state,  India.  The  town  occupies 
the  site  of  the  old  city  of  Gwalior, 
and  2  m.  to  the  S.  is  the  capital 
of  the  state,  Lashkar.  It  contains 
Jain  and  early  Hindu  antiquities 
and  the  palace  of  Man  Singh.  The 
famous  fort  of  Gwalior  stands  on  an 
isolated  hill  above  the  town,  which 
contains  many  buildings  of  his- 
torical interest,  Pop.  14,700. 

Gwelo.  Town  of  Rhodesia,  S. 
Africa.  It  is  198  m.  S.W.  of  Salis- 
bury and  113  m.  N.E.  of  Buluwayo, 
with  which  towns  it  is  connected 
by  rly.  It  is  the  centre  'of  a 
gold-mining  district.  European 
pop.  500. 

Gwent.  Welsh  name  for  Mon- 
mouthshire. In  1921  it  was  pro- 
posed to  create  a  new  bishopric  for 
the  church  in  Wales  and  to  call 
this  Gwent.  See  Monmouthshire  ; 
Newport;  Wales,  Church  of. 

Gwinner,  ARTHUR  VON  (b.1856). 
German  banker.  Born  at  Frank  - 
fort-on-Main,  April  4,  1856,  he 
was  the  son  of  a  lawyer,  Wilhelm 
von  Gwinner,  the  friend  and  bio- 
grapher of  Schopenhaiier.  He  en- 
tered the  public  service,  and  was 
for  a  time  consul  at  Madrid,  after 
which,  in  1888,  he  founded  in 
Berlin  a  banking  company,  bear- 
ing his  own  name.  In  1894  he 
joined  the  board  of  directors  of  the 
Deutsche  Bank,  and  in  1901  be- 
came its  virtual  head.  He  secured 
the  concession  for  the  Bagdad 
Rly.  and  became  president  of 
the  companies  formed  to  construct 
and  work  the  lines  between  Con- 
stantinople and  Bagdad. 

Gwyniad.  Small  fish  belonging 
to  the  genus  Coregonus.  Found  in 
Lake  Bala,  it  belongs  to  the  sal- 
monoid  group,  arid  much  resembles 
a  small  herring.  It  is  probably  only 
a  local  race  of  the  powan,  common 
in  the  Lake  District  and  in  Loch 
Lomond. 

Gwynn,  GVVYN  OR  GWIN,  NELL 
OR  ELEANOR  (1650-87).  -English 
actress,  mistress  of  Charles  II. 
Born  Feb.  2,  1650,  either  in  an 
alley  in  Drury  Lane  or  at  Here- 
ford, she  early  attracted  notice  as 
an  orange -seller  at  the  Theatre 
Royal,  Drury  Lane,  where  in  1665 
she  made  her  first  stage  appear- 
ance as  Cydaria  in  Dryden's  Indian 
Emperor.  Until  1682,  when  she 
left  the  stage,  she  played  a  variety 
of  parts  and  was  specially  success- 
ful in  broad  comedy  and  in  daring 
prologues  and  epilogues. 

She  became  the  king's*  mistress 
about  1669,  and  retained  his  affec- 
tion until  his  death.  She  died  in 


Nell  Gwynn,  actress  and  favourite 
of  Charles  II 

After  Sir  Peter  Lely 

London  of  apoplexy,  and  was 
buried  at  St.  Martin's-in-the- 
Fields.  Of  her  two  sons  by  Charles, 
the  elder  was  created  duke  of  St. 
Albans  in  1684.  Her  sprightliness 
and  frank  good  nature  and  her 
rivalry  with  the  unpopular  duchess 
of  Portsmouth  made  her  a  uni- 
versal favourite.  See  Charles  II ; 
consult  also  The  Story  of  Nell 
Gwyn,  P.  Cunningham,  ed.  G. 
Goodwin,  1908 ;  Nell  Gwyn,  C, 
Chesterton,  1912. 

Gyantse.  Town  of  Tibet,  125  m. 
N.E.  of  the  Chumbi  Valley.  It 
stands,  at  an  alt.  of  13,200  ft.,  at 
the  foot  of  a  Jong  or  fortress  which, 
with  a  fortified  lamasery,  occupies 
two  rocky  eminences  commanding 
a  wide  plain.  Gyantse  was  held 
by  the  Younghusband  Expedi- 
tion, and  opened  to  foreign  trade 
by  the  Lhasa  Convention,  1904. 

'Gyaro,  GYAROS  OR  GHIURA. 
Island  of  the  Aegean  Sea.  One  of 
the  Cyclades,  it  is  a  mountainous 
island,  about  10  m.  N.W.  of  the 
island  of  Syra.  Triangular  in  shape, 
its  length  is  10  m.,  and  greatest 
breadth  about  3  m.  In  Roman  im- 
perial times  it  was  a  place  of  ban- 
ishment for  criminals. 

Gybe.  Nautical  term  for  the 
swinging  over  of  the  mainsail 
boom  or  spanker  when  the  wind  is 
aft.  With  the  wind  dead  aft  and 
variable  there  is  often  a  strong 
tendency  of  the  mainsail  to  gybe, 
and  if  the  operation  is  not  carried 
out  carefully  the  vessel  may  cap- 
size or  the  mast  or  boom  be 
broken. 

Gyers'  Kiln.  Metallurgical  fur- 
nace used  for  the  calcining  of  iron 
ores.  Designed  by  John  Gyers,  an 
engineer  of  Middlesbrough-on-Tees, 
it  consists  essentially  of  an  inner 
lining,  about  18  ins.  in  thickness,  of 
firebrick  enclosed  in  an  iron  casing. 
The  upper  part  is  cylindrical,  20  ft. 


to  35  ft.  in  diameter,  while  the 
lower  part  is  conical,  tapering  in- 
wards to  the  bottom.  In  the  centre, 
on  the  bottom,  is  a  double  cone 
which  assists  to  spread  the  ore  and 
fuel  evenly  in  the  kiln.  Air  is  in- 
troduced through  passages  in  the 
sides  of  the  tapering  part  of  the 
kiln  and  also  through  the  spreader 
cone.  See  Furnace  ;  Iron. 

Gyges  (7th  century  B.C.).  King 
of  Lydia.  As  a  young  man  he  be- 
came a  favourite  of  the  reigning 
Lydian  Sadyattes  Candaules,  but 
having  given  offence  to  his  master, 
and  anticipating  punishment,  he 
assassinated  him  and  seized  the 
throne.  Lender  Gyges  Lydia  be- 
came a  powerful  kingdom.  He  ul- 
timately fell  in  battle  against  the 
barbarian  Cimmerii  (c.  650  B.C.). 

Gyimes  Pass.  Pass  over  the 
Carpathians  between  Rumania 
and  Transylvania,  formerly  Hun- 

farian  but  Rumanian  since  1919. 
t  has  railway  communications 
from  Targu  Ocna  in  Rumania  to 
Csikszereda  in  Transylvania,  the 
line  there  linking  up  with  the 
circular  rly.  running  from  Brasso 
(Kronstadt)  N.  to  Toplicza  and 
then  S.W.  down  the  valley  of 
the  Maros.  Prominent  in  the  Great 
War,  it  was  captured  by  the 
Rumanian  armies  in  Aug.,  1916, 
but  recaptured  by  tin  Germans 
on  Oct.  16.  See  Rumania,  Con- 
quest of. 

Gylippus.  Spartan  general. 
During  the  Peloponnesian  War  he 
was  sent  to  Sicily  with  a  force  of 
3,000  men  in  414  B.C.,  to  assist  the 
Syracusans.  Assuming  the  chief 
command,  he  helped  the  Syracu- 
sans to  destroy  the  Athenian  be- 
sieging force.  The  Athenian  ships 
were  defeated  in  the  harbour  of 
Syracuse,  while  their  land  forces 
were  compelled  to  surrender  with 
their  generals  Nicias  and  Demos- 
thenes. Gylippus  later  fell  into 
disgrace  for  abstracting  some  of 
the  treasure  taken  at  the  capture 
of  Athens  in  404. 

Gymkhana  (Pers.  gandkhana, 
ball  house).  Name  for  a  mixed 
sports  and  athletic  meeting.  It 
originated  about  1860  in  India, 
where  horse  and  pony  races  were 
introduced  as  a  means  of  recrea- 
tion and  amusement  for  British 
soldiers  and  officials.  Further  in- 
terest was  given  by  including  ath- 
letic events,  such  as  tug-of-war, 
and  military  sports  such  as  tent- 
pegging,  as  well  as  a  variety  of 
competitions  of  an  amusing  and 
less  strenuous  character.  See 
Athletics. 

Gymnastics""' (Greek,  gymnas- 
tike,  training).  The  art  of  devel- 
oping the  body  by  means  of  suit- 
able exercises.  The  Greeks  fully 
understood  the  value  of  all-round 


i.  The  horse:  front  rest  position.  2.  Flank  vault, 
left.  3.  Rear  vault,  left.  4.  Right  double  feint ;  from 
the  rest  the  gymnast  swings  both  legs  clear  over  croup, 
returns  without  pause,  and  vaults  left.  5.  Horizontal 
bar ;  left,  bent  arm  rest ;  right,  front  lever  position,  a 


difficult  exercise.  6.  Parallel  bars:  left,  upper  armrest; 
right,  double  shoulder-stand.  7.  Left,  bent  arm  hand- 
stand ;  right,  front  lever  in  rest.  8.  From  right  shoulder- 
stand,  on  right,  to  position  on  left.  9.  Handstand  and, 
in  front,  right  elbow  lever 


GYMNASTICS:    EXERCISES    ON    VAULTING    HORSE,    HORIZONTAL    AND    PARALLEL    BARS 


M     5 


GYMNOSOPH1STS 

physical  culture,  and  in  the  gym- 
nasia the  youth  of  Athens  strove 
to  approach  the  ideal  of  finely 
proportioned  beauty  as  revealed 
in  marble  by  their  famous  sculptors. 
From  Greece  the  cult  of  gym- 
nastics spread  to  Rome,  where  in 
the  Thermae  or  baths,  to  which 
gymnasia  were  attached,  athletic 
exercises  were  practised. 

While  it  is  true  that  active  sports 
of  various  kinds  have  been  always 
and  universally  popular,  the 
science  of  gymnastics  proper  was 
neglected  in  medieval  Europe,  and 
its  serious  revival  in  modern  times 
may  be  said  to  date  from  the  dark 
days  after  Jena,  when  Prussia 
began  Co  fit  herself  for  the  final 
struggle  against  Napoleon.  Her 
example  was  followed  in  later  years 
by  other  European  countries,  in- 
cluding Great  Britain,  though  not 
in  every  case  from  a  fixed  purpose 
of  improving  the  national  physique 

Before  long  two  opposing  theories 
of  gymnastics  were  developed.  The 
first,  based  upon  German  practice, 
regarded  free  movements  merely 
as  preliminary  to  the  more  strenu- 
ous exercises  performed  with  the 
help  of  apparatus,  such  as  the  hori- 
zontal bar,  parallel  bar,  ladder  and 
rings,  weights,  etc.,  involving  feats 
of  strength  as  well  as  of  agility. 
The  Swedish  system,  on  the  other 
hand,  claims,  and  not  unjustly, 
that  elaborate  and  costly  appar- 
atus, and,  indeed,  apparatus  of 
any  kind,  is  a  luxury  that  may  be 
dispensed  with  by  those  who  de- 
sire full  and  all-round  bodily  de- 
velopment with  the  sense  of 
physical  well-being  which  this  in- 
volves. In  recent  years  Swedish 
methods,  with  adaptations,  have 
become  increasingly  popular  in 
Great  Britain,  especially  since  the 
system  of  training  in  the  British 
army  has  been  altered  in  the  same 
direction  with  improved  results  on 
the  average  standard  of  fitness 
reached  by  the  recruits.  See  Drill ; 
Dumb-Bell ;  Eurhythmies ;  Indian 
Club;  Physical  Training ;  Swedish 
Drill. 

Gymnosophists  ( Gr.  gymnos, 
naked ;  sophistes,  wise  man).  Indian 
philosophical  sect,  remarkable  for 
their  austere  method  of  life  and  in- 
difference to  pain.  To  purify  the 
soul  they  mortified  the  body.  They 
went  naked,  were  vowed  to  celibacy, 
and  believed  in  the  transmigration 
of  souls. 

Gymnospermae  (Gr.  gymnos, 
naked;  sperma,  seed).  Large  class 
of  flowering  plants  distinguished 
by  having  the.  ovules  and  seeds 
naked — not  enclosed  in  a  chamber 
(ovary  or  seed-vessel).,  It  consists 
of  the  various  natural  orders  of 
coniferous  trees — yews;  pines,  firs, 
cy cads,  cedars,  cypresses,  etc.  They 


3762 

have  needle-like  evergreen  leaves, 
and  the  seed  includes  two  coty- 
ledons with  a  store  of  food  for  the 
seedling  in  each. 

Gympie.  Town  of  Queensland, 
Australia.  It  is  90  m.  N.  of 
Brisbane  and  40  m.  S.  of  Mary- 
borough, its  port.  It  is  the  centre 
of  a  goldfield  which  also  produces 
silver,  nickel,  bismuth,  antimony, 
and  coal.  Pop.  1L718. 

Gyongyos.  Town  of  Hungary, 
in  the  co.  of  Heves.  It  is  on  the 
Gyongyos  river,  45  m.  N  E.  of  Buda- 
pest. The  town  is  noted  for  its 
Franciscan  monastery.  A  thriving 
trade  is  carried  on  in  cereals  and 
a  very  choice  wine  is  made.  The 
manufactures  include  copper  goods, 
bricks  and  tiles.  Pop.  18,314. 


Gymnastics.  Statue  of  Greek  athlete 
using  bronze  scraper  to  cleanse  bis 
skin  after  exercise.  It  is  regarded 
as  typifying  the  ancient  Greek  ideal 
of  physical  fitness 

Vatican,  Rome 

Gyp.  Pseudonym  of  the  French 
writer  Sybille  Gabrielle  Marie 
Antoinette  de  Riquetti  de  Mira- 
beau,  comtesse  de  M  artel  de 
Janville.  See  Martel,  Comtesse  de. 

Gyp.  Name  given  to  a  male 
servant  of  resident  members  of  a 
Cambridge  college.  His  counterpart 
at  Oxford  is  scout.  The  gyp  is  as- 
sisted by  a  woman,  usually  his  wife, 
who  is  called  a  bedmaker.  The  name 
has  been  humorously  derived  from 
Greek  gyps  (vulture),  with  refer- 
ence to  a  supposed  voracity  in 
snapping  up  perquisites.  Pron.  Jip. 

Gypsies.  The  people  known  in 
England  as  Gypsies,  and  m  other 
countries  by  a  variety  of  names 
(Gitanos,  Zigeuner,  Tchinghianes, 
Zingari),  call  themselves  Roma 
men.  Large  bands  of  these  nomads 
appeared  in  Western  Europe  about 
1417,  though  there  is  evidence  that 


GYPSIES 

smaller  parties  wandered  west- 
wards before  that  date.  They  came 
from  the  Balkan  peninsula,  where 
their  tribes  are  still  met  with  in 
considerable  numbers.  Riidiger  in 
1777,  and  Jacob  Bryant  in  1785, 
announced  the  discovery  of  their 
ultimate  origin  from  India. 

Interest  in  Gypsies  was  fostered 
by  the  writings  of  George  Borrow, 
but  the  serious  study  of  the  prob- 
lem of  their  origin  was  first  under- 
taken on  the  Continent.  A.  F.  Pott, 
of  Halle,  published  in  1844  his  Die 
Zigeuner  in  Europa  und  Asien,  in 
which  he  displayed  the  grammar 
and  vocabulary  of  Romani,  tracing 
the  bulk  of  the  words  of  Indian 
origin  by  means  of  parallels  from 
Sanskrit  and  modern  Indian 
tongues.  At  the  same  time  he 
noted  a  large  number  of  words 
borrowed  from  Greek,  Hungarian, 
Herman,  and  other  languages, 
picked  up  by  the  Gypsies  in  their 
wanderings.  F.  Miklosich  extended 
and  corrected  Pott's  work  in  his 
liber  die  Mundarten  und  die  Wan- 
derungen  der  Zigeuner  Europas 
(On  the  Dialects  and  Wanderings 
of  the  Gypsies  of  Europe),  1880. 
He  proved  conclusively  that  the 
route  taken  by  the  Gypsies  after 
leaving  India  lay  through  Armenia 
and  across  Asia  Minor  to  the 
Balkans,  where  they  must  have 
remained  for  some  centuries.  On 
reaching  the  west  they  professed 
to  be  pilgrims  from  Egypt,  hence 
the  name  by  which  they  are  known. 
The  story  was  pure  fiction,  but  it 
secured  for  them  a  freedom  to 
travel  which  they  soon  abused, 
bringing  upon  themselves  a 
savage  persecution. 

England  perhaps  has  the  clean- 
est record  in  this  respect,  but  it 
is  still  popularly  supposed  that 
Gypsies  commit  the  crime  of  steal- 
ing children.  No  case  of  this  kind 
has  ever  been  proved  with  evidence 
sufficient  to  satisfy  an  impartial 
mind,  and  the  accusation  may  be 
dismissed  as  baseless.  They  are 
thought  to  be  a  distinctly  criminal 
element  in  the  population,  yet  an 
analysis  of  charges  brought  against 
Gypsies  (including  other  vagrants 
alleged  to  have  been  Gypsies)  in 
England  during  four  recent  years 
shows  that  out  of  1,682  prosecu- 
tions only  18  were  for  crimes  such 
as  murder,  abduction,  or  attempted 
suicide,  216  for  theft,  burglary, 
and  receiving  stolen  property,  349 
f  orassaults,  drunkenness,  obscenity, 
and  using  threats,  and  76  for 
cruelty  to  horses,  to  children, 
desertion  of  wife,  and  begging.  The 
remaining  charges  were  for  poach- 
ing, fortune-telling,  and  stealing 
wood,  and  for  minor  offences  such 
as  damaging  turf,  making  fires  too 
near  the  road,  driving  without 


GYPSOPHILA 


3763 


GYPSY-WORT 


lights,  hawking  without  licence  and 
the  like,  many  of  which  are  inci- 
dental to  the  Gypsies'  manner  of 
life.  The  comparative  absence  of 
serious  crime  among  a  class  of 
the  community  which  has  been 
variously  estimated  to  number  any- 
thing between  15,000  and  45,000, 
proves  the  baselessness  of  popular 
opinion  on  the  subject. 

In  the  matter  of  cleanliness 
Gypsies  are  often  confused  with 
other  van-dwellers.  The  true 
Gypsy  is,  as  a  rule,  more  scrupu- 
lously cleanly  than  the  average 
English  peasant.  This  may  to 
some  extent  be  attributed  to 
superstition.  A  plate  from  which 
a  dog  has  eaten  will  not  again  be 
used  for  the  preparation  of  human 
food.  It  has  become  mokhadi 
(defiled).  This  ceremonial  defile- 
ment attaches  to  vessels  used  by  a 
woman  in  child-birth,  to  female 
underclothing  and  the  like,  though 
these  customary  ideas  vary  from 
one  family  to  another.  A  strange 
custom  is  that  of  burning  the  van 
and  all  the  belongings  of  a  deceased 
Gypsy.  The  idea  behind  this  may 
be  the  fear  of  ghosts,  a  fear  that  is 
very  prevalent  among  Gypsies. 

Gypsies  are  very  hospitable,  and 
full  of  humorous  and  quaint  say- 
ings. The  fortune-telling,  the  so- 
called  Gypsy  kings  and  queens, 
and  the  assumption  of  ancient 
lineage  from  the  Pharaohs  are  all 
pretence  for  the  bewilderment  of 
the  too  credulous  gadzho  "  non- 
gypsy."  To  what  particular  sec- 
tion of.  the  population  of  North 
India  Gypsies  are  most  nearly 
related,  as  well  as  the  occasion  and 
date  of  their  emigration  from  that 
country,  are  problems  that  remain 
to  be  solved.  r-  G-  Ackerley 

Bibliography.  Dialect  or  the 
English  Gypsies,  B.  G.  Smart  and 


Gypsies.       Group  of  Serbian  Gypsy 

children.       Above,   typical   family 

from  Rumania 

H.  T.  Crofton,  1875;  Dissertation 
on  the  Gypsies,  H.  M.  G.  Grellmann, 
1807;  The  English  Gypsies  and 
Their  Language,  C.  G.  Leland,  1874; 
In  Gyps'y  Tents,  F.  H.  Groome, 
1880;  Scottish  Gypsies  under  the 
Stewarts,  D.  Mac  Ritchie,  1894 ; 
Gypsy  Folk  Tales,  F.  H.  Groome, 
1899;  the  works  of  George  Borrow, 
including  Romano  Lavo-Lil,  a  word 
book  of  the  Romany  or  English- 
Gypsy  Language;  and  Aylwin,  a 
Welsh  romance  by  T.Wabts-Dunton. 

Gypsophila  (Gr.,  chalk-loving). 
Hardy  perennial  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Caryophyllaceae. 
Natives  of  India  and  Asia,  they 
thrive  well  if  given  the  ordinary 
treatment  for  annual  plants.  The 
tiny  flowers  are  white  or  pink  in 
colour.  The  plants  prefer  a  dry 
and  well-drained  soil,  and  will  not 
succeed  in  damp  or  sunless  situa- 
tions. They  are  chiefly  grown  for 
the  use  of  their  foliage  in  blending 
bouquets,  and  were  introduced 
into  England  in  1759. 

Gypsum.  Mineral,  a  hydrous 
calcium  sulphate,  Ca£>CyiH20, 
containing  32'5  p.c.  of  lime,  46'6 


p.c.  sulphur  trioxide,  and  20'9  p.c. 
of  water.  It  occurs  in  nature  as 
a  soft,  white  rock,  usually  associ- 
ated with  rock  salt,  and  consisting 
of  a  confused  mass  of  small 
crystals,  mixfid  usually  with  silica 
and  clay. 

Selenite  is  the  variety  of  gypsum 
which  occurs  in  distinct  crystals, 
occasionally  three  to  four  feet  in 
length.  The  crystals  belong  to  the 
monoclinic  system,  have  a  pearly, 
shining,  lustrous  surface,  and  can 
readily  be  split  into  thin,  trans- 
parent sheets.  Satin  spar  is  the 
name  given  to  a  fine  fibrous 
variety  of  gypsum  having  usually 
a  pearly,  opalescent  appearance 
Red  or  yellow  tinted  satin  spar  is 
coloured  by  ferruginous  impuri- 
ties. Alabaster  is  a  fine-grained, 
compact  variety  of  gypsum,  resem- 
bling marble  in  appearance. 

Gypsum  is  found  in  England, 
notably  near  Derby  and  Carlisle, 
and  in  Nottinghamshire  and 
Cheshire  ;  in  France,  near  Paris  ; 
in  numerous  places  in  the  U.S.A. — 
one  of  the  greatest  deposits  being 
in  the  Great  Salt  Lake,  Utah— and 
in  smaller  deposits  in  Europe  and 
Africa.  The  variety  found  near 
Paris  is  extensively  used  in  the 
preparation  of  plaster  of  Paris. 
Alabaster,  the  most  celebrated 
variety  of  which  comes  from  Vol- 
terra  in  Tuscany,  is  used  for  decor- 
ative work,  vases,  statuettes,  etc., 
and  selinite  for  optical  apparatus. 
Large  quantities  of  gypsum  are 
used  in  the  preparation  of  cements, 
fertilisers,  as  a  basis  of  paints,  and 
for  making  imitation  marble.  See 
Alabaster. 

Gypsy-wort  (Lycopus  euro- 
paeus).  Perennial  herb  of  the 
natural  order  Labiatae.  It  is  a 
native  of  Europe,  N.  Africa,  Asia, 
Australia,  and  N.  America.  It  has 
a  creeping  rootstock,  tough,  four- 
angled  stem,  and  opposite  elliptical 
leaves  with  margins  deeply  cut 
into  coarse  teeth.  The  small 
bluish-white  flowers,  dotted  with 
purple,  are  crowded  in  whorls 
round  the  stem,  just  above  each 


Gypsy-wort.    Stem  with  flower  whorls 
situated  above 


each  pair  of  leaves 


GYULA 


I       MECHANISM 
I       CONTROLLING 
1        COMPRESSED 


PETROL  MOTOR 

' DRIVE  GYROSCOPES 


Gyroscope. 


"Diagram  illustrating  the  mechanism  and  construction  of  the  Brennan  monorail,  which  owes  its  stability 
on  the  rail  to  the  use  of  gyroscopes 


pair  of  leaves.  It  grows  on  banks  of 
streams  and  ditches,  and  the  juice 
makes  a  rich  brown  stain. 

Gyron  (Fr.).  In  heraldry,  a 
wedge,  formed  by  a  diagonal  line 
from  the  dexter  chief  meeting  a 
horizontal  line  in  the 
fess  point.  It  is  one 
of  the  sub-ordinaries 
(q.v.).  When  a  shield 
is  divided  by  a  series 
of  wedges  it'is  said  to 
be  gyronny.  Usually 
there  are  eight  gjTons, 
but  there  may  be 
only  six,  or  as  many  as  sixteen. 
Such  irregularities  should  always 
be  specified. 

Gyroscope  (Gr.  gyros,  circle; 
skopein,  to  look).  Originally  name 
of  a  scientific  toy  used  to  demon- 
strate the  forces  acting  on  rotating 
bodies.  It  is  now  extended  to 
various  devices  which  depend  on 
gyroscopic  forces. 

The  gyroscope  consists  usually 
of  a  heavy  fly-wheel  spinning  at  a 
high  speed,  supported  on  an  axis  at 
right  angles  to  the  plane  of  the 
wheel.  Its  motions  and  applica- 
tions depend  on  the  fact  that  if 
any  body,  symmetrical  about  an 
axis  of  greatest  or  least  moment  of 
inertia,  is  set  rotating  about  that 
axis,  then  the  direction  of  the 
latter  remains  unchanged  in  space 
unless  external  forces  are  applied. 
As  examples  of  gyroscopic  motion 
may  be  cited  the  wheels  of  a  bicycle 
when  in  motion,  the  turning  of  a 
propeller  of  an  aeroplane,  and  the 
spinning  of  a  rifle  bullet  or  shell, 
enabling  it  to  keep  its  general 
direction  unaltered.  4 

The  applications  of  the  principle 
of  the  gyroscope  are  numerous  and 
important.  The  gyro-compass  de- 


pends upon  the  stability  of  the 
motion ;  the  directing  of  torpedoes 
is  due  to  the  gyroscope. 

The  Sperry  aeroplane  stabiliser 
consists  of  a  gyroscope  driven 
from  the  engine  shaft.  It  is  con- 
nected with  the  controls  and  auto- 
matically operates  them  against 
the  tendency  to  roll,  etc.  The  gyro 
turn  indicator  used  in  aeroplanes 
is  driven  at  high  speed  by  the  air 
as  the  machine  is  flying,  and  gives 
warning  of  the  machine  turning. 

The  increasing  use  of  steel  and 
iron  on  board  ship,  especially  naval 
vessels,  made  the  ordinary  mag- 
netic compass  unreliable,  and  many 


Gyroscope   in    its    simplest    form. 

While  spinning,  the  top    remains 

steady  on  the  string 

attempts  have  been  made  to  replace 
it,  the  most  successful  being  a  gyro 
compass.  This  consists  of  a  heavy 
horizontal  spinning  disk  revolving 
in  a  vacuum  at  8,000  or  more  revo- 
lutions a  minute.  The  axis  of  the 
gyro  wheel  is  connected  with  the 
pointer  of  a  compass  card,  and  so 
any  deviation  of  the  ship's  course 
is  at  once  measured.  Gyro-com- 


passes are  usually  placed  in  the 
body  of  the  ship,  below  deck,  and 
connected  by  transmitters  to  re- 
peating compasses  on  the  steering 
platform,  bridge,  etc. 

In  1907  Louis  Brennan  exhibited 
before  the  Royal  Society  a  device 
for  the  application  of  the  gyroscope 
to  monorails.  In  such  a  system  the 
cars  are  supported  o'n  single 
wheels,  equilibrium  being  main- 
tained by  a  gyroscope  revolving  at 
high  speed  in  a  vacuum.  Since 
then  a  number  of  monorail  systems 
working  on  the  gyroscopic  principle 
have  been  tested  in  Great  Britain, 
U.S.A.,  and  Germany.  See  Bren- 
nan ;  Torpedo. 

Gythium.  Ancient  Greek  city, 
in  Peloponnesus.  It  stood  at  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Gythius,  on  the 
N.W.  shore  of  the  Bay  of  Laconia, 
27  m.  from  Sparta,  whose  port  it 
was.  As  the  headquarters  of  the 
Spartan  fleet  it  was  often  attacked  ; 
the  Athenians  burned  it  in  455  B.C. 
It  was  a  member  of  the  Achaean 
League  (q.v.)  from  195  B.C.  until 
146  B.C.  Excavations  have  brought 
to  light  the  remains  of  a  Greek 
theatre  and  Roman  ruins,  but 
much  of  the  ancient  city  lies  be- 
neath the  sea.  Marathonisi  is  the 
modern  town. 

Gyula.  Town  of  Hungary,  the 
capital  of  the  co.  of  Bekes.  It 
stands  on  the  White  Koros  river, 
which  bisects  the  town,  36  m. 
N.N.  W.  of  Arad.  Formerly  strongly 
fortified,  it  has  a  museum  contain- 
ing antiquarian  relics,  the  ruins 
of  an  old  castle,  and  a  chateau. 
There  is  trade  in  wine,  oil,  flour, 
and  spirits,  while  cattle  are  reared 
in  the  neighbourhood.  Turtles 
are  caught  in  the  surrounding 
swamps.  Pop.  24,284. 


H  Eighth  letter  oi  the  Eng- 
0  lish  and  Latin  alphabets. 
By  some  it  is  regarded 
as  a  consonant,  by  others  as  a 
mere  aspiration.  It  had  the  same 
form  in  Greek  and  originally  the 
same  value,  but  later  was  split  in 
half  to  represent  the  rough  and 
smooth  breathings,  H  being  kept  to 
denote  eta  (long  e),  whereas  in 
Latin  it  continued  to  represent  the 
original  aspirate  sound.  In  Eng- 
lish, initial  h  is  silent  in  some  words, 
as  honest,  honour,  hour  ;  in  others, 
as  herb,  humble,  custom  varies.  In 
certain  words,  generally  of  foreign 
origin,  after  c  and  g,  it  is  used  to 
indicate  the  hard  sound  of  those 
letters,  as  chemistry,  chimaera, 
ghetto,  Ghibelline.  In  what,  when, 
which,  the  digraph  wh  is  in  certain 
parts  of  Great  Britain  pronounced 
hw.  H  is  silent  after  a  vowel,  which 
it  generally  lengthens.  See  Alphabet. 

H.  In  music,  the  German  name 
for  B  natural.  Thus,  Schubert's 
famous  Unfinished  Symphony  is 
called  in  Germany,  Symphony  hi  H 
moll,  i.e.  in  B  minor.  This  use  of 
an  eighth  letter  arose  from  the  re- 
semblance of  the  sign  for  a  natural 
to  the  Gothic  "h." 

Haakon.  Masculine  Christian 
name.  Of  Teutonic  origin,  it  means 
high  kin  and  is  chiefly  known  as 
that  of  a  sequence  of  Norwegian 
kings.  There  were  seven  of  these. 
The  name  is  sometimes  spelled 
Haco.  Pron.  Hawkon. 

Haakon  I  (915-961).  King  of 
Norway,  c.  938-961,  known  as  The 
Good.  Youngest  son  of  Harold 
Haarfager  (Fair-Hair),  he  was 
brought  up  in  England  as  foster- 
son  of  King  Athelstan.  After  his 
father's  death  he  was  furnished 


with  ships  by  the  English  king  and 
sailed  for  Norway.  Having  de- 
feated his  half-brother,  Eric  Blood- 
Axe,  Haakon  was  proclaimed  king 
about  938.  He  was  killed  in  961, 
whilst  repelling  an  invasion  by  the 
sons  of  Eric. 

Haakon  IV  (1204-63).  King  of 
Norway,  1223-63.  Known  as 
The  Old,  he  brought  Iceland  and 
Greenland  under  the  Norwegian 
crown.  He  was  defeated  by  Alex- 
ander III  of  Scotland  at  Largs,  in 
1263,  and  died  at  Kirkwall  Islands. 
Haakon  VII  (b.  1872).  King 
of  Norway 
from  Oct., 
1905.  Born 
Aug.  3,  1872, 
the  second  son 
of  Frederick 
VIII  of  Den- 
mark, in  1896 
as  Prince 
Charles  he  mar- 
Haakon  VII,  r  i  e  d  Maud, 
King  of  Norway  youngest 
daughter  of  the  prince  of  Wales, 
afterwards  King  , 
Edward  VII.  In  f 
Oct.,  1905,  on 
the  separation  of 
Norway  from  Swe- 
den, he  was  elected 
king  of  the  former 
country  and  took 
the  name  of 
Haakon.  He  was 
crowned  June  22, 
1906.  His  heir  is 
Prince  Olaf  (b. 
1903. 

Haarlem.  Town 
of  Holland,  capital 
of  the  province  of 
N.Holland.  It  lies 


about  14  m.  W.  of  Amsterdam,  on 

the  river  Spaarne.     The    town  is 

well  served  by  rlys.,  both  to  The 

Hague    and    to 

Amsterdam,    The 

industries    of 

Haarlem     are 

small,    cotton 

manufacture, 

bleaching       and 

dyeing,     printing 

and     type-found-      Haarlem  arms 

ing    being    the 

chief,  but  the  town  is  famous  as  the 

centre  of  an  important  bulb  growing 

and  exporting  industry. 

Haarlem  possesses  many  archi- 
tectural and  artistic  treasures.  Its 
chief  features  are  the  Groote  Kerk, 
on  the  market  place,  a  large  cruci- 
form church  of  the  late  15th  cen- 
tury, with  a  tower  over  250  ft.  high; 
the  town  hall,  in  the  Netherlands 
Renaissance  style,  containing  a 
superb  collection  of  paintings  by 
Frans  Hals,  and  other  notable 
Dutch  pictures;  the  Teyler  Mu- 
seum, antiquarian,  geological,  and 


HAASE 

artistic ;  the  old 
Meat  Market,  one 
of  the  most  beauti 
ful  buildings  in 
Holland,  built 
1602-3,  now  used 
for  the  archives  ; 
and  small  mu- 
seums of  colonial 
industries  and  of 
industrial  art.  In 
the  market  place 
is  a  statue  of  Lou- 
r  e  n  s  Janszoon.> 
Coster. 

Haarlem  was  the    « • 
seat    of    William, 
1st  count  of  Holland,  and  suffered 
a  terrible  massacre  after  vainly  re- 
sisting the  seven  months'  siege  of 
Frederick  of  Toledo,  1572-73.    Re- 
taken   by    William    of   Orange   in 
1577,  its  great  prosperity  was  in  the 
17th  century.     Pop.  74,816. 

Haase,  HUGO  (1863-1919).  Ger- 
man socialist.  Born  at  Allenstein, 
Prussia,  of  Jewish  parents,  he 
studied  law  at 
Konigsberg 
University,  and 
practised  in 
that  town.  He 
was  a  member 
of  the  Reich- 
stag from  1 897- 
1906.  .Re-elect- 
ed in  1912,  he 
shared  with 
Bebel  the 
chairmanship  of  the  socialist  party. 
After  Bebel's  death  Ebert  and 
Haase  were  joint  presidents  of  the 
party,  the  latter  being  its  chairman 
in  the -Reichstag.  He  seceded  from 
the  main  socialist  body  in  1916  on 
the  question  of  voting  war  credits  in 
the  Reichstag.  He  was  one  of  the 
engineers  of  the  revolution  of  Nov., 
1918.  He  was  shot  by  a  Viennese 
named  Voss  on  Oct.  8,  1919,  as  he 
and  his  wife  were  about  to  enter 
the  Reichstag,  and  died  in  Berlin, 
Nov.  6,  as  the  result  of  his  wounds. 
See  Bebel ;  Ebert. 

Habakkuk.  One  of  the  minor 
prophets.  His  work  was  contem- 
poraneous with  that  of  Jeremiah. 
He  lived  at  the  time  when  Judah 
was  invaded  by  the  Chaldeans,  and 
taught  that  they  were  the  instru- 
ments of  God  to  punish  the  Jews 
for  their  lawlessness.  His  book 
consists  of  two  chapters  of  pro- 
phecy and  a  lyrical  hy  mn. 

Habberton,  JOHN  (b.  1842). 
American  author  and  journalist. 
Born  at  Brooklyn,  Feb.  24, 1842,  he 
learned  the  printing  trade  hi  New 
York,  and  served  in  the  Civil  War. 
He  held  editorial  posts  on  The 
Christian  Union,  The  New  York 
Herald,  and  Collier's  Weekly.  He 
is  the  author  of  many  stories  about 
children,  the  most  successful  of 


3766 


where  it  was  decided  that  a  hus- 
band has  no  power  to  detain  his 
wife  against  her  will.  In  times  of 
national  emergency  the  Habeas 
Corpus  Act  may  be  suspended  by  a 
special  Act.  It  is  also  suspended 
automatically  where  martial  law 
(q.v.)  obtains. 

Haberdasher.  Word  used  for  a 
retail  trader  who  sells  articles  such 
as  pins  and  needles,  buttons,  and 
other  accessories  of  dress,  i.f. 


Hugo  Haase, 
German  socialist 


which,  Helen's 
Babies,  1876,  had 
a  large  sale  in 
America  and  Great 
Britain.  Other 
stories  by  him  are 
Other  People's 
Children,  1877; 
Budge  and  Toddie, 
1909. 

Habeas  Corpus 
(Lat.,  have  the 
body).  Term  of 
English  law.  It 
forms  the  opening  words  of  various 
writs,  e.g.  Habeas  Corpus  ad  facien- 
dum et  recipiendum,  to  remove  a 
cause  from  a  lower  court  ;  Habeas 
Corpus  ad  prosequendum,  to  re- 
move a  prisoner  to  the  proper  ju- 
risdiction. But  the  most  famous, 
the  safeguard  against  arbitrary  im- 
prisonment, is  the  high  preroga- 
tive writ  of  Habeas  Corpus  ad  sub- 
jiciendum.  It  is  addressed  to  one 
who  detains  or  imprisons  another, 
and  commands  him  to  "  have  the 
body  "  of  the  person  in  the  Court  of 
King's  Bench  on  a  certain  day,  to- 
gether with  the  cause  of  his  deten- 
tion. If  the  court  decides  that  the 
cause  shown  does  not  justify  the 
detention  it  orders  a  release. 

The  writ  is  as  old  as  the  Common 
Law  itself;  but  in  1679  it  was 
thought  proper  to  pass  the  Habeas 
Corpus  Act,  to  prevent  certain 
evasions  of  the  law  which  had 
sprung  up  under  the  arbitrary 
Stuart  kings;  e.g.  after  the  receipt 
of  the  writ  by  one  gaoler,  the 
government  would  remove  the 
prisoner  to  another  gaol,  and  then 
the  first  gaoler  would  make  answer 
that  he  no  longer  had  the  body  of 
the  prisoner,  and  therefore  could 
not  produce  it  in  court.  Again, 
judges  sometimes  refused  to  hear 
applications  for  the  writ.  These 
and  other  evasions  were  made  pun- 
ishable ;  but  the  Act  only  applies 
to  criminal  cases.  In  addition,  the 
writ  is  used  where,  for  instance,  a 
child  is  detained  from  its  father  or 
mother  or  other  lawful  guardian  ; 
and  was  used  by  the  friends  of  Mrs. 
Jackson  in  the  celebrated  case 


Haarlem.     The  Groote  Kerk,  or  Great  Church,  with 

the  old  Meat  Market  on  right.    Top,  left,  the  Stadhuis 

which  contains  the  art  museum 

what  are  known  as  small  wares.  To- 
day haberdashery  is  merely  a 
branch  of  the  drapery  trade.  The 
word  is  an  old  one,  and  its  origin 
and  early  meaning  are  uncertain. 

Haberdashers'  Company 
Eighth  of  the  twelve  chief  London 
city  livery  companies.  Incor- 
porated 1447,  it 
was  originally  a 
branch  of  the 
Mercers',  with 
S.  Catherine 
the  Virgin  and  S. 
Nicholas  as  pa- 
tron saints.  Hab- 
erdashers' Hall, 
in  Gresham 
Street,  B.C.,  is 
built  on  a  site 


Haberdashers' 
Company  arms 


bequeathed  in 
1478  by  William  Baker.  The  first 
hall  was  burnt  with  the  archives  in 
1666;  the  second,  by  Wren,  was, 
with  the  exception  of  part  of  the 
court-room,  burnt  in  1864.  The 
company,  which  has  a  corporated 
income  estimated  at  £9,000  and  a 
trust  income  of  £49,000,  manages 
several  almshouses  and  schools. 

Habit  (Fr.  habit,  Lat.  habitue, 
dress).  Outer  garment,  such  as  the 
riding  dress  of  a  woman,  the  frock 
of  a  monk,  or  other  garment  that 
is  distinctive  for  special  occasions 
or  avocations.  See  Costume. 

Habit  (Lat.  habitus,  state, 
manner).  Fixed  disposition  or  con- 
dition of  mind  or  body  resulting 
from  the  frequent  repetition  of  the 
same  action,  which  is  afterwards 
performed  under  the  slightest  im- 
petus as  it  were  mechanically  and 
without  any  special  effort  of  will. 


HABIT 

Most  ordinary  actions  of  daily  life 
are  the  result  of  habit.  Habit  is 
beneficial  to  the  individual  in  so 
far  as  it  relieves  him  from  the  ne- 
cessity of  concentrating  his  atten- 
tion on  occasion  of  each  perform- 
ance of  an  activity,  but  its  me- 
chanical nature  is  likely  to  hamper 
initiative.  The  first  result  of  habit 
is  that  it  enables  repeated  acts  to 
be  carried  out  with  greater  facility 
and  promptitude ;  secondly,  as 
the  effort  needed  grows  less,  the 
consciousness  of  those  acts  is 
weakened  ;  thirdly,  the  repetition 
brings  about  an  inclination  to  re- 
produce them,  which  more  or  less 
resembles  instinct,  from  which, 
however,  habit  differs  in  remaining 
to  a  greater  or  less  extent  under 
the  influence  of  volition. 

Habit  and  Repute.  Term  used 
in  Scots  law.  In  Scotland,  if  a  man 
and  a  woman  live  together  openly, 
i.e.  by  ha  bit  and  repute,  the  courts  of 
law  will,  if  desired,  give  a  declaration 
that  they  are  legally  married.  The 
term  is  also  applied  to  what  are 
known  as  habitual  criminals. 

Habitant  (Lat.  habitare,  to  in- 
habit). Name  given  to  original 
settlers  at  Quebec  and  still  applied 
to  farmers.  They  have  a  marked 
individuality  of  their  own,  which 
includes  a  patois  of  their  original 
French.  They  have  their  own 
literature,  the  principal  authors 
being  Frechette,  De  Gaspe, 
and  the  Abbe  Casprain.  See 
Canada. 

Habitual  Criminal.  Defined 
by  the  Prevention  of  Crimes  Act, 
1908,  as  one  who,  since  attaining 
the  age  of  sixteen,  has  been  at  least 
three  times  convicted  of  crime, 
and  who  is  leading  persistently  a 
dishonest  or  criminal  life.  In  Eng- 
lish law  such  persons,  if  again  con- 
victed of  a  serious  offence  and  sent 
to  penal  servitude,  may  also  be  sen- 
tenced to  not  less  than  five  nor 
more  than  ten  years'  preventive 
detention.  This  is  a  milder  form  of 
imprisonment,  designed  less  for 
punishment  than  to  protect  society 
from  its  irreclaimable  foes.  See 
Borstal  System  ;  Recidivist. 

H.A.C.  Abbrev.  for  Honour- 
able Artillery  Company  (q.v.). 

Hachette.  Name  of  a  firm  oi 
publishers  and  booksellers.  Found- 
ed in  Paris  in  1826  by  Louis  Chris- 
tophe  Francois  Hachette  (d.  1864), 
primarily  for  the  publication  of 
classical  works,  the  house  now 
issues  general  Literature  and  the 
Joanne  series  of  French  and  Eng- 
lish guide- books.  The  firm  has  over 
750  rly.  bookstalls  in  France  and 
agencies  in  the  French  colonies. 
The  London  branch,  established  in 
1859,  has  produced  an  extensive 
series  of  works  for  the  study  of 
French,  German,  Spanish,  Italian, 


3767 

and  other  European  languages.  In 
the  Great  War  over  2,000  employees 
joined  the  British  and  French 
forces.  The  Paris  house  is  at  79, 
Boulevard  Saint-Germain,  and  the 
chief  London  house  at  18,  King 
William  Street,  W.C. 

Hachioji.  Town  of  Japan.  In 
the  island  of  Honshiu,  it  is  25  m.  W. 
of  Tokyo.  Silk-worm  rearing  and 
silk  weaving  are  the  principal  in- 
dustries. Pop.  24,000. 

Hackberry.  Name  of  the  fruit 
of  a  tree,  Celtis  occidentalis,  of  the 
order  Ulmaceae,  also  known  as 
nettle-tree  (q.v.). 

Hackensack.  Town  of  New 
Jersey,  U.S.A.,  the  co.  seat  of 
Bergen  co.  It  stands  on  the  Hack- 
ensack river,  12  m.  N.  of  Jersej' 
City,  and  is  served  by  the  New 
York,  Susquehanna  and  Western 
and  other  rlys.  It  is  a  residential 
district,  and  has  a  county  court 
house  and  an  old  Dutch  church 
Silk  goods,  wallpaper,  and  jewelry 
are  manufactured.  Hackensack 
was  settled  in  1640  and  incor- 
porated in  1868.  Pop.  16,010. 

Hackenschmidt,  GEORGES  (b. 
1878).  Russian  wrestler.  After  a 
successful  career  on  the  Continent 
he  came  to  England  about  1901, 
and  appeared  at  the  Tivoli  and 
other  music-halls,  where  his  im- 
mense strength  and  magnificent 
physique  made  him  extremely 
popular.  In  1904  he  beat  Jenkins 
at  the  Albert  Hall,  and  in  1906  won 
the  championship  from  Madrali, 
the  Turk,  at  Olympia.  His  meas- 
urements were :  height,  5  ft.  8  ins. ; 
weight,  14  st.  10  Ib. ;  neck,  22  ins. ; 
chest,  52  ins. ;  biceps,  18  ins. ;  calf, 
17  ins.  In  1908  he  lost  the  cham- 
pionship to  Frank  Gotch,  at 
Chicago.  During  the  Great  War 
he  was  interned  in  Germany. 

Hacker,  ARTHUR  Q858-1919). 
British  artist.  Born  in  London, 
he  studied  at  the 
Royal  Academy 
schools,  and  in 
Paris  under 
Bonn  at,  ex- 
hibiting his  first 
picture  at  the 
R.  A.  in  1880  In 
1886  he  joined 
the  New  Eng- 
lish Art  Club, 
but  continued 
to  exhibit  at  the 
Academy,  and 

in  1892  his  Annunciation  was 
bought  by  the  Chantrey  Trustees 
for  the  Tate  Gallery,  and  his  Syrinx 
for  the  Manchester  Gallery.  He  be- 
came A.R.A.  1894,  R.A.  1910,  and 
died  in  London,  Nov.  12, 1919.  His 
early  reputation  was  made  by  cot- 
tage interiors  with  figures  ;  for  a 
time  French  influence  was  marked. 
See  Annunciation. 


1858. 


Arthur  Hacker, 
British  artist 


HACKSTON 

Hackney.  Breed  of  horse  origi- 
nating from  a  cross  between  the 
race-horse  and  the  cart-horse,  used 
for  riding,  and  now  bred  for  driving 
also.  From  the  practice  of  hiring 
them  out  the  word  acquired  its 
application  to  vehicles  plying  for 
hire,  as  hackney-coach  or  hackney- 
cab.  A  shorter  form  is  hack,  ap- 
plied to  one  who  will  drudge  for 
any  employer.  See  Cab ;  Horse. 

Hackney.  Parish  and  mun.  and 
parl.  bor.  of  N.E.  London.  Cover- 
ing an  area  of  5£  sq.  m.,  it  is  served 
by  the  G.E.  and  N.L.  Rlys.,  has  ex- 
cellent 'bus  and  tramway  facilities, 
and  is  bounded  by  Walthamstow 
and  Leyton,  N.  ;  Bethnal  Green, 
E.  ;  Shoreditch,  S.  ;  and  Totten- 
ham, Stoke  Newington,  and  Isling- 
ton, W.  It  has  developed  rapidly 
since  the  middle  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury around  Mare  Street,  Church 
Street,  Grove  Street,  and  Well 
Street.  There  are  a  town  hall, 
1897,  technical  institute,  and  free 
libraries.  Electricity  works  were 
inaugurated  in  1901.  Hackney  in- 
cludes part  of  Victoria  Park  (q.v.), 
London  Fields,  Hackney  Marshes, 
339  acres,  opened  in  1894,  and 
Hackney  Downs,  41f  acres. 

The  manor  belonged  to  the 
Knights  Templars,  then  to  the 
Knights  of  S.  John  of  Jerusalem, 
and  members  of  noble  families  once 
had  their  country  seats  here.  Of 
the  ancient  church  of  S.  Augustine, 
supplanted  by  the  parish  church  of 
S.  John,  only  the  tower,  and  chapel 
of  Sir  Henry  Rowe,  1614,  remain. 
The  district  preserves  memories  of 
Archbishop  Sancrof  t,  Milton,  Defoe, 
Matthew  Henry,  Gilbert  Wakefield, 
John  Howard,  the  Howitts  arid  the 
John  Ward  satirised  by  Pope,  and 
is  noted  for  its  churches,  dissenting 
chapels,  educational  and  charit- 
able institutions,  and  the  bygone 
nurseries  of  Conrad  Loddige.  Hack- 
ney (Congregational)  College,  now 
at  West  Hampstead,  was  founded 
hi  Well  Street  in  1803.  There  is  a 
stone  memorial  at  Shacklewell 
Green,  unveiled  1920,  to  over  100 
men  of  the  district  who  fell  hi  the 
Great  War.  Memorials  have  also 
been  erected  at  the  church  of  S. 
Mary  of  Eton,  Hackney  Wick,  and 
in  the  grounds  of  the  Town  Hall. 
Each  of  the  three  sections  of  the 
parl.  bor.,  N.,  Central,  and  S., 
returns  one  member.  Pop.  222,533. 
See  History  and  Antiquities  of  the 
Parish  of  Hackney,  T.  Robinson, 
2  vols.,  1842. 

Hackston,  DAVID  (d.  1680). 
Scottish  Covenanter.  A  member  of 
a  Fifeshire  family,  he  became  a 
leading  Covenanter,  and  was  pre- 
sent at  the  murder  of  Archbishop 
Sharp,  May  3,  1679.  He  was  one  of 
the  Covenanters'  leaders  at  the 
battles  of  Drumclog  and  Bothwell 


3768 


HADDOCK 


Bridge.  On  July  22,  1680,  he  was 
captured  after  a  skirmish  at  Airds- 
moss,  Ayrshire,  and  executed  at 
Edinburgh  on  July  30. 

Hadad.  Name  of  certain  Edo- 
mite  kings  or  princes  in  the  O.T. 
(1)  A  king  of  Edom,  who  suc- 
ceeded Husham  and  defeated  the 
Midianites  (1  Chron.  i,  46).  (2)  An 
Edomite  of  royal  blood,  who  was 
taken  to  Egypt  as  a  child  to  escape 
massacre  at  the  hands  of  Joab, 
David's  commander-in-chief,  and 
later  married  Pharaoh's  sister-in- 
law.  At  the  death  of  David,  he 
returned  to  Edom  and  became  a 
troublesome  enemy  to  Solomon 
(1  Kings  xi,  14).  Hadad  or  Adad 
was  also  the  name  of  a  Syrian  deity. 

Haddington.  Royal  and  mun. 
burgh  and  the  co.  town  of  Had- 
dingtonshire, Scotland.  It  stands 
on  the  Tyne,  17  m.  E.  of  Edin- 
burgh on  the  N.B.R.  The  13th 
century  church  of  S.  Mary  is  sur- 
mounted by  a  square  tower,  90  ft. 
high,  and  the  choir  contains  the 
tomb  of  Jane  Welsh,  the  wife  of 
Thomas  Carlvle.  At  one  time  a 


Haddington  burgh  arms 

royal  residence,  Haddington  was 
the  birthplace  of  Alexander  II,  It 
has  one  of  the  principal  grain 
markets  in  Scotland,  and  woollen, 
agricultural  implement,  and  other 
manufactures.  Market  day,  Fri. 
Pop.  (1921)  4,053. 

Haddington,  EARL  OF.  Scottish 
title  borne  since  1627  by  the  family 
of  Hamilton.  Sir  Thomas  Hamil- 
ton, who  held  a  number  of  high 
positions  in  Scotland  under  James 
VI,  including  those  of  secretary  of 
state,  keeper  of  the  privy  seal,  and 
president  of  the  court  of  session, 
was  made  a  baron  in  1616  and  earl 
of  Melrose  in  1619.  In  1627  he 
exchanged  his  title  of  Melrose-  for 
that  of  Haddington.  His  son,  the 
2nd  earl,  was  a  leading  Covenanter. 

Charles,  the  5th  earl,  married  in 
1674  Margaret  Leslie,  who  became 
countess  of  Rothes.  By  arrange- 
ment her  title  passed  to  their 
eldest  son,  while  the  second, 
Thomas,  became  earl  of  Hadding- 
ton. He  was  made  hereditary 
keeper  of  Holyrood,  a  position 
which  the  9th  earl  surrendered  in 
1843  in  return  for  £40,000.  This  9th 
earl  was  made  a  peer  of  the  United 
Kingdom  in  1827.  He  w#s  lord-lieu- 
tenant of  Ireland,  1 833-34.  He  left 
no  sons,  so  his  Scottish  titles  passed 


to  a  cousin,  George  Baillie,  who 
took  the  additional  name  of  Hamil- 
ton. In  1917  George,  the  llth  earl, 
died  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
grandson  George  as  12th  earl.  The 
family  seat  is  Tyninghame,  Had- 
dingtonshire,  and  the  earl's  eldest 
son  bears  the  courtesy  title  of 
Lord  Binning. 


Haddington,  Scotland.    The  town  viewed  from  the  tower 
of  the  United  Free  church 


Haddingtonshire  OR  EAST  LO- 
THIAN. S.E.  maritime  co.  of  Scot- 
land. With  about  40  m.  of  coast  on 
the  Firth  of  Forth 
and  North  Sea,  its 
area  is  267  sq.  m. 
Along  the  S. 
border  are  the 
Lammerm  uir 
Hills  (Lammer 
Law,  1,733  ft.), 
whence  the  sur- 
face has 

coast;  in  a  few 
eminences  occur 
— Garleton  Hill 
(590ft.),Traprain 
Law  (700 ft,),  and 
North  Berwick 
Law  (612  ft.). 
The  Tyne,  the 
chief  stream, 
flows  N.E.  to  the 


Haddingtonshire 

arms 

gradual   slope   to  the 
isolated 


Fletcher,  is  generally  known  as 
Fletcher  of  Saltoun,  and  is  widely 
remembered  for  his  saying  that  so 
long  as  he  might  write  the  ballads 
for  a  people  he  cared  not  who  made 
its  laws.  John  Knox  is  believed  to 
have  been  born  in  the  Gifford  Gate 
of  Haddington,  and  was  educated 
in  the  grammar  school  of  this 

town.      At  Had- 

]  dington,  too,  Jane 
1  Welsh  Carlyle 
'\  was  born  and  is 
g  buried.  John 
Home,  the  author 
of  Douglas,  lived 
for  several  years 
at  the  farm  of 
Kilduff,  and  a 
statue  to  him 
stands  in  front  of 
the  Town  Build- 
ings of  Hadding- 
ton. At  Gifford 
was  born  John 
Witherspoon, 
1712-94,  writer  of 
many  works  on  theological  and 
other  themes,  and  principal  of 
Princeton  College,  New  Jersey.  At 
Ormiston  is  a  granite  obelisk  to  the 
missionary  Robert  Moffat,  who  was 
born  there.  The  Bass  Rock  (q.v.) 
was  at  one  time  the  prison  of  Alex- 
ander Peden,  the  Covenanter.  There 
is  much  in  the  work  of  Sir  Walter 
Scott  concerning  the  county,  not- 
ably in  The  Bride  of  Lammermoor. 
Haddock  (Gadns  aeglefinu*). 
Common  British  fish  of  the  same 
genus  as  the  cod,  which  it  generally 


sea. 

Agriculture  and 
the  pasturage  of 
sheep  are  actively 
pursued,  and 
fishing  and  fish- 
curing  occupy  a 
number  of  the 
inhabitants.  The 
Dunbar  red  lands 
are  an  area  of 
exceptional  fer- 
tility. Large  quantities  of  coal  and 
limestone  are  obtained,  but  manu- 
factures are  not  extensively  prose- 
cuted. The  N.B.R.  serves  the 
county.  Haddington  (co.  town), 
Dunbar,  and  North  Berwick  are 
the  principal  towns.  Berwick  and 
Haddington  return  one  member  to 
Parliament.  Pop.  (1921)  47,487. 

LITERARY  ASSOCIATIONS. 
Bishop  Gilbert  Burnet's  first  bene- 
fice was  Saltoun.  His  pupil,  Andrew 


Haddingtonshire.     Map  of  the  maritime  county  in  the 
south-east  of  Scotland 

resembles.  It  may  be  distin- 
guished by  the  black  line  running 
along  each  side,  and  the  black 
patch  on  either  side  of  the  body. 


Haddock,  a  common  British  fish 


HADDON 


3769 


Haddon  Hall,  Derbyshire.     Left,  part  of  terrace,  with  Dorothy  Vernon  steps.     Bight,  Long  Gallery  or  Ballroom 


The  haddock  is  usually  less  than 
2  ft.  in  length,  though  3  ft,  is 
occasionally  reached.  Haddocks 
are  found  in  shoals,  and  feed  mainly 
on  molluscs,  small  crustaceans,  and 
the  spawn  and  fry  of  other  fish. 
They  are  taken  in  the  trawl  net  and 
also  on  lines  baited  with  mussels. 
They  spawn  in  winter  near  the 
coast,  and  it  is  estimated  that  a 
large  specimen  will  lay  1,500,000 
eggs  in  the  season.  Economically 
the  haddock  is  a  most  important 
food  fish.  It  is  largely  eaten  fresh, 
hut  is  also  split  and  smoked,  the 
best  qualities  being  known  as  finnan 
haddocks  from  Finnan  or  Findon, 
Kincardincshire.  See  Fish. 

Haddon,  ALFRED  CORT  (b.  1 855). 
British  anthropologist  and  zo- 
ologist. Born  in  London,  May  24, 
1855,  he  studied  at  Cambridge.  He 
was  professor  of  zoology  in  the 
Ro3ral  College  of  Science,  Dublin, 
1880-1901  ; ~  became  lecturer  in 
ethnology  at  Cambridge,  1900-9, 
and  London,  1904-9,  and  since 
then  reader  in  ethnology  at  Cam- 
bridge. He  was  president  of  the 
Royal  Anthropological  Institute, 
1901-2.  Besides  numerous  papers, 
his  works  include  Evolution  in  Art, 
1895  ;  Study  of  Man,  1898  ;  Head- 
hunters,  1901  ;  Races  of  Man, 
1909 ;  and  History  of  Anthrop- 
ology, 1910. 

Haddon  Hall.  Ancient  baronial 
mansion  in  Derbyshire,  England. 
Picturesquely  environed  and  situ- 
ated on  a  limestone  foundation 
above  the  left  bank  of  the  Wye, 
2  m.  S.E.  of  Bakewell,  on  the  road 
to  Derby,  it  passed  from  the 
Norman  family  of  Peveril  or 
Peverel  to  that  of  Avenell,  and 
then,  in  the  12th  century,  to  the 
Vernons.  Towards  the  close  of  the 
16th  century,  by  the  marriage  of 
Dorothy  Vernon  to  Sir  John 
Manners,  it  passed  to  the  Rutlands. 

Maintained  in  a  state  of  careful 
preservation  by  the  Rutlands, 
though  not  used  by  them  as  a 
dwelling  since  the  early  part  of  the 
18th  century,  Haddon  consists  of 
two  quadrangles  on  different  levels. 


Features  are  the  12th-15th  century 
chapel,  14th-17th  century  banquet- 
ing hall,  tapestried  drawing-room, 
Elizabethan  Long  Gallery  or  ball- 
room^-Haddon's  special  glory — 
ante-room  with  steps  to  the  winter 
garden,  tapestried  state  bedroom, 
kitchen,  dining-room,  Eagle  or 
Peveril' s  Tower  and  terrace. 

With  the  terrace  steps  is  associ- 
ated the  legend  of  Dorothy  Vernon's 
elopement  with  Sir  John  Manners, 
first  mentioned  in  print  about  1820, 
fostered  by  Eliza  Meteyard  and 
other  writers  of  fiction,  and  revived 
by  Sir  Arthur  Sullivan's  opera. 
Haddon  Hall,  1892.  With  Wing- 
field,  Haddon  supplied  Walter 
Scott  with  materials  for  his  picture 
of  Martindale  Hall  in  Peveril  of 
the  Peak.  See  Gallery;  Rutland, 
earl  and  duke ;  consult  Haddon 
Hall,  S.  C.  Hall,  1871;  Haddon, 
G.  Le  Blanc  Smith,  1906. 

Haden,  SIR  FRANCIS  SEYMOUR 
(1818-1910).  British  etcher  and 
surgeon.  Born  in  London,  and 


half-sister  he  had  married  in  1847. 
In  1880  he  founded  the  Society  of 
Painter  Etchers.  He  retired  from 
surgical  prac- 
tice, 1887,  was 
knighted  in 
1894,  and  died 
June  1,  1910. 

_^    _.  Hadendoa. 

19  Tribe  of  Ha- 
I  mitic  pastoral 
I  nomads  in  the 
I  Nubian  desert 
between 
Suakin  and 
the  Abys- 
sinian fron- 
tier. Their 
mop-like  hair  earned  for  them  and 
the  Baggara  the  name  Fuzzy- 
Wuzzies  during  the  Mahdist  revolt 
(1882-98).  Osman  Digna  was  of 
this  tribe.  See  Mahdi. 

Hades  (Gr.,  the  invisible). 
Greek  mythology,  properly 
name  of  the  god  who  ruled 
underworld,  also  called  Pluto, 
was  the  son 
Cronos  and Rhea, 
and  brother  of 
Zeus  and  Posei- 
don. His  wife 
was  Proserpine 
or  Persephone 
(q.v.),  daughter 
of  Dem  etc  r. 
Hades  is  repre- 
sented as  wearing 
a  helmet,  which 
had  the  power  of 
rendering  him  in- 
visible. He  is  the 
Roman  Pis  or 
Orcus. 


In 

the 

the 

He 

of 


Sir  F.  Seymour  Haden.     Kitgaren  Castle  on  the  Teiti, 
a  typical  etching  by  the  artist 

educated  at  University  College,  he 
studied  surgery  at  the  Sorbonne, 
Paris,  and  at  Grenoble,  and  settled 
in  private  practice  in  London  in 
1847.  While  in  Paris,  he  spent  his 
evenings  at  the  art  schools,  but 
did  not  take  up  etching  seriously 
till  1858,  when  he  made  the 
acquaintance  of  Whistler,  whose 


In  later  ni}'- 
t  h  o  1  o  g  y,  the 
name  Hades 

came  to  be  used  for  the  realms  of 
the  god-  These  were  regarded  as 
being  somewhere  inside  the  earth. 
The  river  Styx  was  the  boundary, 
and  over  it  the  dead  were  ferried  by 
Charon.  On  the  opposite  shore  was 
the  three -headed  dog  Cerberus,  the 
vicious  guardian  of  Pluto's  realm. 
Three  judges  judged  the  dead, 


HADFIELD 


377O 


HADLEY     WOOD 


namely  Minos,  Rhadamanthus,  and 
Aeacus.  The  virtuous  were  sent  to 
dwell  in  Elysium  (q.v.),  which  is 
generally  regarded  as  a  separate 
place  ;  in  Virgil,  however,  it  is  in 
Hades.  The  place  of  punishment 
and  torture  was  Tartarus ;  here 
were  confined  such  malefactors  as 
Ixion,  and  the  Giants  who  rebelled 
against  Zeus.  See  Hell.  Pron. 
Haydeez. 

Hadfield.  Village  and  eccles. 
district  of  Derbyshire.  It  is  13  m. 
from  Manchester  by  the  G.C.  Ely., 
which  has  a  station  here,  and  1£  m. 
N.W.  of  Glossop.  The  industries 
include  calico  and  print  works. 
Between  here  and  Woodhead  is 
the  source  of  the  Derwent,  and  a 
series  of  reservoirs  from  which 
Manchester  obtains  some  of  its 
water.  Pop.  6,500. 

Hadfield,  SIR  ROBERT  ABBOTT 
(b.  1859).  British  metallurgist. 
He  initiated  and  carried  out  a  series 
of  investiga- 
tions on  the 
microstructu  re 
of  steel  and  its 
alloys,  c  h  r  o- 
miumsteeljSili- 
con  steel,  high- 
speed toolsteel, 
etc.  His  dis- 
covery of  man- 
ganese steel  in 
1882  increased 
the  prosperity 
of  his  Shef- 
field steel  works,  and  brought  him 
recognition  from  every  steel-pro- 
ducing country.  He  made  a  study 
of  low  hysteresis  steel  and  con- 
tributed a  number  of  technical 
papers  on  the  subject  of  steel  and 
steel  testing  to  scientific  periodicals. 
Master  cutler  of  Sheffield,  1899- 
1900,  he  was  president  of  the  Iron 
and  Steel  Institute  1905-7.  He 
was  made  a  baronet  in  1917,  having 
been  knighted  in  1908.  See  Steel. 

Hadham.  Two  parishes  of 
Hertfordshire,  England.  Great  or 
Much  Hadham  is  near  the  river 
Ash,  4  m.  S.W.  of  Bishop's  Stort- 
ford,  with  a  station  on  the  G.E.R. 
The  manor  was  given  by  King 
Edgar  to  the  bishop  of  London. 
The  old  palace  was  built  about 
1400.  The  existing  mansion  dates 
from  1780.  The  Early  English 
church  of  S.  Andrew,  much  re- 
stored, was  erected  in  1300. 

Little  Hadham,  formerly  Had- 
ham Parva,  3£  m.  N.W.  of  Bishop's 
Stortford,  has  a  12th  century 
church,  with  a  timbered  porch, 
Perpendicular  tower,  and  a  chancel 
restored  in  1885,  and  is  associated 
with  the  Capel  family.  Near  by 
is  Hadham  Hall,  an  Elizabethan 
structure.  Brickmaking  is  a  local 
industry.  Pop.  Great  Hadham, 
1,606;  Little  Hadham,  744. 


Sir  Robert  Hadfield, 
British  metallurgist 

Russell 


Hadhramaut  OR  HADRAMAUT. 
District  of  Arabia.  Extending 
from  the  Aden  Protectorate  and 
the  Yemen  to  Oman,  this  little- 
known  region  lies  along  the  Gulf 
of  Aden  and  the  Arabian  Sea,  and 
is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the 
Great  Arabian  Desert.  From 
Aden  the  British  exercise  a  certain 
political  control  over  it.  Its  chief 
natural  features  are  the  Jebel 
Tsahura  (alt.  8,000  ft.)  and  the 
great,  usually  dry,  Wady  Had- 
hramaut. Some  of  its  valleys  are 
fertile,  but  it  is 
a  poor  country. 
Shibam  is  itschief 
town,  and  its  port 
is  Makalla,  or 
Mokella,  which 
does  a  fair  amount 
of  trade.  The  pop. 
of  the  region  is 
estimated  at 
500,000,  mostly 
Beduin.  The 
five  Kuria  Muria 
Islands,  lying  off 
the  coast  towards 
Oman,  are  Brit- 
ish, the  sultan  of 
Muskat  ceding 
them  to  provide 
a  landing  for  the  Red  Sea  cable. 

Hading,  JAKE  (b.  185a).    Stage 
name    of    Jeanne    Alfredine    Tre- 
fouret,  French  actress.    Born  Nov. 
...  25,    1859,    her 

I    talent,     which 
I    had  shown  it- 
I    self  as  a  child, 
I    was  developed 
I    in  the  Mar- 
fli   seilles    Con- 
I   servatoire,  and 
^    she  was  about 
-^r;  I    14'-   years    old 

^HralH   when  she  began 
T  •  t  <  >  make  a  name 

for  herself  at 
A  1 g  i  e  r  s  and 
Cairo.  She  was 
first  seen  in 
Paris  in  1879, 
at  the  Palais- 
Royal  in  La 
Six  years  later 

she  was  engaged  by  Victor  Karing, 
whom  she  married,  at  the  Gymnase, 
but  her  greatest  success  was  in 
Frou  Frou,  1886.  Associated  with 
the  Comedie  Fran9aise,  in  1896  she 
acted  the  title-role  in  Sardou's 
Marcelle.  She  retired  in  1920. 

Hadj  OR  HADJI.  Arabic  term 
applied  to  a  Moslem  on  his  return 
from  the  pilgrimage  (hadj)  to 
Mecca  and  Mount  Arafat  which  is 
incumbent,  where  it  is  possible,  on 
every  devout  Mahomedan  once 
in  his  lifetime.  One  who  has  made 
the  pilgrimage  has  the  title  el- 
hadj,  i.e.  the  pilgrim,  prefixed  to 
his  name,  and  the  right  to  wear  a 


green  turban.  See  Kaaba ;  Mecca ; 
consult  also  Pilgrimage  to  El 
Medina  and  Meccah,  R.  F.  Burton, 
1855-56. 

Hadjin  OR  HAJIN.  Town  of 
Cilisia,  in  the  vilayet  of  Adana, 
Asia  Minor.  Dating  from  the  14th 
century,  it  lay  80  m.  N.  of  Adana, 
situated  at  an  alt.  of  3,200  ft.,  on 
the  southern  slopes  of  the  Anti- 
Taurus.  Most  of  its  population, 
numbering  about  10,000,  were 
Armenians,  and  a  Protestant  mis- 
sion was  established  there.  In  1920 
the  Armenians  defended  the  town 
for  several  months  against  Turkish 
Nationalists,  but  at  the  end  of  Oct. 
the  town  fell  to  theTurks,who  massa- 
cred most  of  the  inhabitants  and  de- 
stroyed it.  See  Asia  Minor ;  Cilicia. 


Jane  Hading, 
French  actress 

Chaste  Suzanne. 


Hadleigh,  Essex.   .  Ruins  of  13th  century  castle,  looking  east 

By  courtesy  of  The  Salvation  Army 

Hadleigh.  Parish  and  village  of 
Essex,  England.  It  is  5  m.  W.N.W. 
of  Southend-on-Sea.  Fragmentary 
ruins  remain  of  Hadleigh  Castle, 
built  by  Hubert  de  Burgh,  earl  of 
Kent,  in  the  13th  century,  given  by 
Henry  VIII  to  Anne  of  Cleves,  and 
abandoned  in  the  16th  century.  The 
church  of  S.  James  is  Norman,  with 
a  wooden  tower.  The  Salvation 
Army  founded  a  farm  colony  at 
Hadleigh  in  1891.  Pop.  1,707. 

Hadleigh.  Urban  district  and 
market  town  of  Suffolk,  England. 
Situated  on  the  Brett,  9  m.  W.  of 
Ipswich,  with  a  station,  a  branch 
terminus  of  the  G.E.R.,  it  was  once 
the  centre  of  the  woollen  trade. 
Here  Guthrum  the  Dane  is  said  to 
have  been  buried.  Malting  and 
corn-milling  are  local  industries. 
Market  day,  Mon.  Pop.  3,200. 

Hadley,  ARTHUR  TWINING  (b. 
1856).  American  scholar.  Born  at 
New  Haven,  Connecticut,  April  23, 
1856,  he  was  educated  at  Yale, 
where  his  father  was  professor,  and 
at  Berlin.  In  1879  he  himself  be- 
came a  tutor  at  Yale,  in  1883  was 
made  lecturer  on  railroad  adminis- 
tration, and  in  1891  professor  of 
political  economy.  In  1899  he 
was  chosen  president  of  Yale.  In 
1914  he  was  special  lecturer  at 
Oxford.  His  publications  include 
Standards  of  Public  Morality,  1907, 
and  Undercurrents  in  American 
Politics,  1915. 

Hadley  Wood.  District  of 
Barnct,  Middlesex,  England.  Situ- 
ated on  the  Hertfordshire  border, 


HADNALL 


3771 


HADRIAN'S     WALL 


with  a  station  on  the  G.N.R.,  its 
woodland  scenery  covers  about  250 
acres.  The  cruciform  Perpendicular 
church  of  S.  Mary,  with  ivied  and 
turreted  tower  containing  an  old 
iron  beacon,  dates  from  the  15th 
century,  and  was  restored  in 
1848-52.  Part  of  Hadley,  or 
Monken  Hadley,  Common  was  the 
scene  of  the  battle  of  Barnet,  1471, 
the  spot  where  Warwick  is  sup- 
posed to  have  fallen  being  marked 
by  an  obelisk  known  as  Hadley 
High  Stone.  Like  High  or  Chip- 
ping Barnet,  E.  Barnet,  New 
Barnet,  and  Friern  Barnet,  the 
district  of  Hadley  Wood  is  a 
growing  one.  See  Barnet. 

Hadnall.  Parish  and  village  of 
Shropshire,  England.  It  is  5  m. 
N.E.  of  Shrewsbury,  with  a  station 
on  the  L.  &  N.W.R.  The  parish 
church  contains  the  tomb  of  Vis- 
count Hill  (1772-1842).  Pop.  8,600. 
Hadow,  SIR  WIHLIAM  HENRY  (b. 
1859).  British  educationist.  The 
son  of  a  Gloucestershire  clergy- 
man, he  was 
educated  at 
Malvern  and 
Worcester  Col- 
lege,  Oxford, 
of  which  he 
was  e  le  c  t  e  d 
fellow.  He 
remained  o  n 
the  teaching 
staff  there  un- 
til 1909,  when 
he  was  ap- 
of  Armstrong 


Sir  Henry  Hadow, 
British  educationist 

Russell 


pointed    principal  ^ 

College,  Newcastle,  and  in  1918  he 
was  knighted.  In  1918,  also,  he 
was  chosen  director  of  education 
on  the  lines  of  communication  in 
France.  A  leading  authority  on 
music,  Hadow  edited  The  Oxford 
History  of  Music  and  wrote  many 
books  on  the  subject,  including 
Studies  in  Modern  Music,  1894 
and  1895. 

Hadrian.  Roman  emperor,  A.D. 
117-138,  whose  full  name  was 
Publius  Aelius  Hadrianus.  Born 
(76)  at  Rome  or  at  Italica  in  Spain, 


Hadley  Wood.     Parish  Church  of  S. 
Mary,  with  the  old  beacon  in  the  turret 

he  was  brought  up,  adopted,  and 
designated  successor  by  the  em- 
peror Trajan.  Hadrian  believed 
that  the  Roman  empire  had 
reached  its  limits,  and  that  the 
policy  of  conquest  must  give  place 


Hadrian,  Roman  Emperor 

From  the  bust  in  the  Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence 

to  a  policy  of  consolidation.  He 
made  peace  with  the  Parthians, 
Trajan's  campaign  against  whom 
had  ended  so  disastrously,  and  is 
said  to  have  contemplated  retire- 
ment from  Dacia.  "The  greater 


part  of  Hadrian's  reign  was  spent 
in  travel.  There  was  scarcely  a 
province  of  the  empire  which  he 
did  not  visit. 

Though  a  voluptuary,  Hadrian 
worked  strenuously  to  promote  the 
welfare  of  his  subjects.  One  of  his 
most  notable  reforms  was  the  sub- 
stitution of  direct  collection  of 
taxes  for  the  iniquitous  system  of 
tax-farming  ;  he  also  inaugurated 
legal  reforms,  and  organized  for  the 
administration  of  the  empire  a 
regular  civil  service. 

Outward  deference  waa  shown 
to  the  senate,  but  to  all  intents  and 
purposes  Hadrian  was  an  absolute 
ruler.  He  was  a  man  of  wide  cul- 
ture, and  was  a  leader  in  the  anti- 
quarian movement,  which  sought 
its  literary  models  in  the  past. 
During  the  last  years  of  Hadrian's 
reign  occurred  the  last  revolt  of  the 
Jews  which  ended  with  their  virtual 
extermination  in  Judaea.  Shortly 
before  his  death  Hadrian  composed 
the  well-known  poem  to  his  soul, 
of  which  more  than  100  English 
versions  exist.  See  The  Emperor 
Hadrian,  F.  Gregorovius  (Eng. 
trans.  M.  E.  Robinson,  1898). 
'Hadrian's  Villa  (Ital.  Villa 
Adriana).  Country  seat  of  the 
Roman  emperor  Hadrian.  It  is  2  m. 
S.W.  of  Tivoli,  the  ancient  Tibur, 
and  15£  m.  by  tramway  E.N.E.  of 
Rome.  The  grounds,  covering  an 
area  of  several  sq.  m.,  and  the  ruins 
some  170  acres,  are  a  marvel  of 
landscape  gardening,  and  contain 
the  remains  of  Hadrian's  palace, 
of  temples,  baths,  theatre,  a 
stadium,  colonnaded  gardens,  and 
imitations  of  other  famous  build- 
ings. Excavations  were  begun  in 
the  16th  century. 

Hadrian's  Wall.  Roman  ram- 
part, 73£  m.  long,  between  Bowness 
on  Solway  Firth  and  Wallsend-on- 
Tyne,  England.  Erected  by 
Hadrian  about  122,  and  repaired 
by  Severus  about  208,  it  was 
mainly  of  freestone  blocks  with  a 
rubble  core,  perhaps  18  ft.  high 


Hadrian's  Villa,  Tivoli. 


Remains  of  the  swimming  bath  or  Natatorium.     Right,  interior  of  the  Philosophers'  Hall,  at 
the  north-east  corner  of  the  square 


HAECKEL 


3772 


Hadrian's  Wall.      Map  indicating  the  course  of  the  Roman  wall  and  the 
stationary  camps  established  to  defend  the  northern  frontier  of  Britain 


and  G  ft.  to  9|  ft.  thick,  flanked 
by  a  ditch  averaging  36ft.  by  15  ft. 
A  military  road  ran  more  or  less 
parallel  on  the  S.  side,  with  an  outer 
ditch  and  earthen  mound  —  the 
vallum.  At  intervals  of  a  Roman 
mile  were  about  80  smaller  castella 
or  milecastles,  averaging  60  ft.  by 
70  ft.,  whereof  f>2  are  traceable. 
Between  them  were  320  recessed 
watchtowers.  See  Britain. 

Haeckel,  ERNST  HEiNRiCH(1834 
-1919).  German  scientist.  Born  at 
Potsdam,  Feb.  16,  1834,  he  studied 
medicine  at  Wiirzburg,  Berlin,  and 
Vienna.  For  a  short  time  he  prac- 
tised as  a  physician,  but  devoting 
himself  to  natural  history  became 
professor  of  comparative  -anatomy 
and  director  of  the  zoological  in- 
stitute at  Jena,  in  1862.  Three 
years  later  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  zoology,  and  he  remained 
at  Jena  for  the  rest  of  his  life. 

On  the  publication  of  Darwin's 
Origin  of  Species,  Haeckel  at  once 
became  an  enthusiastic  convert  to 
the  Darwinian  theory  of  evolution. 
In  his  Natural  History  of  Creation, 
1  868,  he  traced  the  descent  of  man 
from  protoplasm  to  the  chimpanzee 
in  26  stages,  and  declared  human 
remains  found  in  Java  to  be  the 
missing  link  be- 
tween  man 
and  the  man- 
like apes. 

With  Darwin, 
he  maintained 
the  hereditary 
transmission  of 
acquired  char- 
acters, against 


the 


iews  of  Weismann  and  later 
biologists,  arid  held  that  the  most 
elementary  forms  of  substance, 
matter,  and  ether  possessed  sensa- 
tion and  will.  His  other  books, 
General  Morphology  of  Organisms, 
1866;  The  Last  Link,  1898;  and 
The  Riddle  of  the  Universe,  1901, 
all  expositions  of  evolution,  have 
been  translated  into  many  lan- 
guages, and  the  last-named  is  ac- 
cepted as  a  popular  text-book  of 
rationalism.  In  it  Haeckel  claimed 
to  have  demonstrated  by  his  theory 
of  monism  the  non-existence  of  a 


personal  God,  of  free  will,  and  of 
the  soul  of  man  after  death.  In 
Oct.,  1914,  he  signed  the  letter  of  the 
German  scientists  declaring  Ger- 
many to  be  tree  of  anv  blame  for  the 
outbreak  of  the  Great  War.  He  died 


Hadrian's  Wall.    Fart  of  the  wall  near  Haydon  Bridge, 
7  miles  west  of  Corbridge,  Northumberland 

at  Jena,  Aug.  8,  1919.  See  Evolu- 
tion; Pithecanthropus  erecius. 

Haelen.  Village  of  Belgium. 
In  the  prov.  of  Limburg,  it  is  11  m. 
W.  of  Hasselt.  It  was  the  scene  of 
a  sharp  engagement  between  the 
Belgians  and  Germans  on  Aug.  12, 
1914.  The  action,  which  lasted  5 
hours,  took  place  among  cornfields, 
and  a  charge  of  Belgian  cavalry 
completed  the  rout  of  the  enemy, 
who  had  made  an  attack  here  to 
force  the  passage  of  the  Gette.  See 
Belgium,  Occupation  of. 

Haematite  (Greek  haimatetes, 
blood -like).  Ore  of  iron,  so  named 
from  its  red,  metallic  lustre.  It 
usually  occurs  in  kidney-shaped, 
granular  or  amorphous  masses. 
Most  red  rocks  contain  haematite. 
Specular  iron  ore  is  the  crystallised 
variety  of  the  mineral,  and  is  steel- 
grey  in  colour.  Red  ochre  is  an 
earthy,  impure  form  of  haematite. 
In  one  form  or  another  the  mineral 
is  found  in  most  parts  of  the  world. 
The  finest  variety  of  specular  iron 
ore  comes  from  Elba. 

The  mineral  is  put  to  a  large 
number  of  uses.  Finely  ground  it  is 
a  basis  for  paints  ;  pencils  made 
from  it  are  used  by  masons  for 
marking  stone ;  powdered,  it  is 
extensively  used  for  polishing  pur- 
poses, particularly  for  polishing 
gold  and  silver ;  cut  and  polished 
as  an  ornamental  stone;  it  is  also 


HAEMORRHAGE 

used  in  the  manufacture  of  Besse- 
mer steel.     See  Iron. 

Haematoxylin.  Colourless  cry- 
stalline compound  present  in 
freshly  chipped  logwood  (Haemat- 
oxylon  campechianum).  It  is  con- 
verted into  the  colouring  matter 
haematein,  naturally  in  the  wood, 
on  lengthy  exposure  to  the  air,  and 
artificially  by  the  addition  of  an 
alkali.  Haematoxylin  is  prepared 
by  combining  fresh  logwood  ex- 
tract with  ether.  It  is  employed  in 
cotton  dyeing. 

Haemoglobin  (Gr.  haima, 
blood;  Lat.  globus,  ball).  The 
colouring  matter  of  the  blood.  In 
bright  red  arterial  blood  it  is 
,  loosely  combined 
]  with  oxygen,  form- 
I  ing  oxy-haemoglo- 
I  bin.  During  the 
;  circulation  of  the 
blood,  the  body  tis- 
sues abstract  the 
oxygen,  and  leave 
the  colouring  mat- 
teras  haemoglobin. 
See  Blood. 

Haemophilia 
(Gr.  haima,  blood; 
philia,   friendship, 
tendency  to).  Con- 
genital tendency  to 
bleeding  even  from 
quite   trivial 
wounds.    The  con- 
dition is  strongly  hereditary,  and  is 
transmitted  only  through   the   fe- 
male line.   Haemophilia  is  generally 
recognized  during  the  first  year  of 
life,  owing  to  almost  uncontrollable 
haemorrhage  from   a   trifling   cut. 
Besides  bleeding  from  a  wound, 
there  may  be  serious  spontaneous 
haemorrhages     from     the     nose, 
mouth,   stomach,  and  bowels.     If 
wounded,  the  patient  should  be  kept 
absolutely  at  rest,  and  the  bleeding 
controlled    by    pressure    and    the 
application  of  ice,  or  drugs  which 
hasten  the  coagulation  of  blood. 

Haemoptysis  (Gr.  haima,  blood; 
ptysis,  spitting).  Bleeding  from  the 
larynx,  trachaea,  or  lungs. 

Haemorrhage  (Gr.  haimor- 
rhagia,  bloody  flux).  Internal  or 
external  discharge  of  blood  from 
a  blood-vessel.  Internal  haemor- 
rhage, when  the  bleeding  occurs 
into  the  cavity  of  the  chest  or 
abdomen,  may  be  recognized  by 
the  onset  of  faintness,  pallor,  air- 
hunger,  failing  pulse,  and  finally 
collapse.  The  patient  should  be 
laid  flat,  fresh  air  provided,  ice 
given  to  suck,  and  cold  dressings, 
preferably  in  the  form  of  ice, 
applied  to  the  seat  of  the  haemor- 
rhage if  known.  If  collapse  occurs, 
the  limbs  should  be  raised  and  band- 
aged firmly  from  end  to  end.  No 
stimulant  should  be  given,  as  this 
tends  to  cause  a  continuance  of  the 


HAEMORRHOIDS 


3773 


HAGEN 


bleeding.  Bleeding  from  the  lungs, 
when  bright  and  frothy  blood  is 
expectorated,  should  be  treated 
similarly ;  and  also  bleeding  from 
the  stomach  when  blood,  dark  in 
colour,  and  often  resembling  coffee- 
grounds,  is  vomited,  i 

External  haemorrhage  may  be 
arterial,  venous,  or  capillary. 
Arterial  haemorrhage  occurs  when 
an  artery,  i.e.  a  blood-vessel  con- 
veying blood  from  the  heart,  is 
injured.  It  is  recognized  by  the 
bright-red  colour  of  the  blood, 
which,  unless  the  wound  is  very 
deep,  is  seen  to  escape  from  the 
end  of  the  artery  nearer  the  heart 
in  pulsating  jets,  corresponding  in 
rhythm  to  the  heart-beat.  Venous 
haemorrhage  occurs  when  a  vein, 
i.e.  a  blood-vessel  conveying  blood 
to  the  heart,  is  injured.  The  blood 
either  wells  up  from  the  depth  of 
the  wound,  or  is  seen  to  flow  from 
the  side  of  the  wound  farther 
away  from  the  heart.  It  is  dark  in 
colour,  and  escapes  in  a  steady 
stream.  Capillary  haemorrhage, 
i.e.  bleeding  from  the  capillaries, 
which  are  very  fine  blood-vessels 
found  in  the  skin  and  almost  uni- 
versally throughout  the  body,  oc- 
curs in  all  wounds  to  a  greater  or 
less  extent.  It  is  recognized  by  the 
steady  oozing  of  bright  red  blood 
from  all  parts  of  the  wound. 

In  some  cases  a  tourniquet  is 
essential,  and  this  may  be  ex- 
temporised by  lightly  bandaging  a 
hard  pad  on  the  pressure-point, 
and  then  twisting  the  bandage 
with  a  stick  so  as  to  tighten  the 
bandage.  Bleeding  from  a  vein 
can  usually  be  stopped  by  pressure 
upon  the  wound,  but  if  this  fails, 
pressure  should  be  exerted  on  the 
side  of  the  wound  farthest  away 
from  the  heart.  In  bleeding  from  a 
varicose  vein,  pressure  should  be 
applied  on  both  sides  of  the  wound. 
Bleeding  from  capillaries  can  al- 
ways be  stopped  by  pressure  upon 
the  wound,  or  by  the  application  of 
hot  (not  warm)  or  cold  water.  See 
Blood ;  First  Aid. 

Haemorrhoids  (Gr.  haima, 
blood  ;  rhein,  to  flow)  OR  PILES. 
Varicose  veins  in  the  anus  and 
lower  part  of  the  rectum.  The 
most  frequent  causes  are  a  seden- 
tary life,  chronic  constipation,  and 
any  disease  which  retards  the 
circulation  through  the  veins,  such 
as  congestion  of  the  liver  and 
chronic  alcoholism.  Women  suffer 
less  than  men,  but  pregnancy  and 
diseases  of  the  uterus  sometimes 
bring  on  piles.  When  the  enlarged 
veins  protrude  from  the  anus  and 
are  covered  with  skin,  they  are 
known  as  external  piles,  those 
within  the  anus  in  the  lower  part 
of  the  rectum  being  referred  to  as 
internal  piles. 


The  symptoms  of  piles  are  not 
necessarily  serious,  and  many 
persons  are  affected  to  a  moderate 
extent  without  experiencing  much 
inconvenience.  Haemorrhage  from 
the  anus  is  often  the  first  noticeable 
symptom,  and  if  neglected  may 
become  serious  in  amount,  and 
give  rise  to  anaemia.  Itching  is  a 
frequent  symptom.  External  piles 
do  not,  as  a  rule,  demand  other 
treatment  than  the  avoidance  of 
constipation  and  the  use  of  oint- 
ments before  defaecation.  The 
habitual  use  of  purgatives  is  to  be 
deprecated. 

Haeseler,  GOTTLIEB  VON  (1835- 
1919).  German  soldier.  Born  in 
1835,  he  served  in  the  Danish  War 
of  1864,  the  Austro-Prussian  War, 
1866,  and  the  Franco-Prussian  War, 
1870-71,  when  he  was  selected  by 
Moltke  as  one  of  his  leading 
generals  and  gained  the  name  of 
the  Devil  of  Metz.  He  retired  in 
1903  with  the  rank  of  field-marshal, 
but  continued  to  advise  the  general 
staff.  He  reappeared  in  the  field 
during  the  Great  War,  and  was  in 
command  at  Verdun  during  the 
opening  stage  of  that  battle.  He 
died  in  Berlin,  Oct.  27,  1919. 

Haff.  Name  given  to  the  lagoons 
on  the  Baltic  coast  of  Prussia. 
They  are  due  to  the  gradual  for- 
mation of  an  alluvial  bar,  or 
Nehrung,  across  the  mouth  of  an 
estuary  where  the  outward  silt- 
laden  current  of  a  river  is  checked 
by  the  different  direction  of  the 
currents  farther  out  to  sea.  The 
haff,  or  lagoon,  within  the  bar,  is 
steadily  being  silted  up  since  the 
bar  interferes  with  the  free  outflow 
of  the  river  floods.  See  Lagoon. 

Hafid,  MULAI  (b.  1873).  Sultan 
of  Morocco.  Son  of  Mulai  Hassan 
II,  he  was  educated  at  El  Azhar 


Hagar   awaits  the   death   of  her  son  Ishmael  in  the 
wilderness 

After  the  painting  by  Jean  Mural 


University,  Cairo,  and  on  his  return 
to  Morocco  was  appointed  viceroy 
to  the  southern  part  of  the  king- 
dom. The  policy  of  his  half- 
brother,  Abd-el-Aziz,  led  Mulai 
Hafid  to  rebel,  and  in  1907  he  pro- 
claimed himself  sultan  and  drove 
Abd-el-Aziz  from  the  throne.  In 
1912  he  was  deposed  by  his  brother 
Mulai  Yussuf.  ~> 

Hafiz  (d.  c.  1388).  Name  used 
by  the  Persian  poet  Shams-ud-din 
Mohammed.  He  was  born  at 
Shiraz,  capital  of  Fars,  where  he 
appears  to  have  spent  most  of  his 
life.  His  fame  as  a  poet,  philosopher, 
and  student  of  the  Koran  was  such 
that  a  college  was  specially  estab- 
lished for  him,  where  he  taught  for 
many  years.  Hafiz,  though  his 
personal  life  earned  the  censure  of 
the  more  austere,  was  a  member 
of  a  devotional  order  of  Islam. 

His  great  work  was  the  Diwan, 
a  collection  of  short  lyrical  poems 
in  the  form  known  as  the  ghazal, 
in  expression  sensuous  and  melli- 
fluous, but  inspired  by  the  mysti- 
cal creed  of  the  Sufi)  He  is  re- 
garded as  the  most  finished  of  the 
Persian  lyricists,  and  exercised  a 
lasting  influence  on  the  forms  of 
Persian  verses  in  later  generations. 
His  tomb,  a  little  to  the  N.  of 
Shiraz,  is  still  visited  by  pilgrims. 
A  prose  Eng.  trans,  of  the  Diwan, 
by  H.  Wilberforce  Clarke,  was 
published  in  1891. 

Hagar.    Egyptian  handmaid  to 

Sarai,  by  whom  Abraham  became 

the  father  of  Ishmael   (Gen.   16). 

Sarai's  jealousy  caused  her  to  flee 

with    her   son    to    the    wilderness, 

where,  in  a  vision,  she  learnt  the 

future  of  Ishmael.    She  returned  to 

Abraham,  but  at  a  later  date  was 

finally  sent  away,   and  afterwards 

married    her  son   to   an  Egyptian 

—       - ••••-•-,    woman  (Gen..xxi, 

1   9-21).     See  Abra- 

j    ham. 

Hagen.  Town 
of  Germany,  in 
Westphalia.  It  is 
15  m.  N.E.  of 
Elberfeld,  and 
44  m.  N.E.  of 
Cologne,  standing 
at  the  union  of 
two  little  rivers, 
Volme  and  Ennepe. 
It  is  on  the  West- 
phalian  coalfield, 
and  is  an  impor- 
tant rly.  junction. 
Its  industries  are 
chiefly  the 
making  of  iron 
and  steel ;  there 
are  also  woollen, 
cotton,  paper, 
and  tobacco 
factories.  Pop. 
88,605. 


HAGENAU 


HAGGERSTON 


Carl  Hagenbeck, 

Dealer  in  wild 

animals 


Hagenau.  Town  of  France,  in 
Alsace-Lorraine.  It  stands  on  the 
Moder,  18  m.  N.  of  Strasbourg. 
It  was  fortified  by  Barbarossa  in  the 
12th  century,  and  the  palace  which 
he  built  there  remained  until  de- 
stroyed by  the  French  in  1678.  The 
centre  of  a  hop-growing  dist.,  the 
industries  include  wool-spinning 
and  the  manufacture  of  porcelain 
stoves.  The  town  became  a  free 
imperial  city  in  1257.  The  princi- 
pal church  is  that  of  S.  George, 
dating  from  the  12th  century,  and 
containing  a  great  wooden  figure  of 
Christ  (1488).  Hagenau  passed  to 
France  by  the  treaty  of  West- 
phalia (1648),  becoming  German  in 
1871,  and  once  more  was  trans- 
ferred to  France  after  the  Great 
War.  Pop.  18,868. 

Hagenbeck,  CARI,  (1844-1913). 
German  dealer  in  wild  animals. 
He  was  born  at  Hamburg,  the  son 
of  a  fishmonger 
who  started  a 
small  mena- 
gerie, after- 
wards trading 
in  wild  beasts. 
At  his  death  his 
son  succeeded 
him  in  the  busi- 
ness, and  his 
energy  and  en- 
terprise made  it 
the  largest  in 
the  world.  A  skilled  trainer  of 
animals,  he  was  the  first  to  exhibit 
performing  Polar  bears.  He  started 
the  Zoological  Gardens  at  Stellin- 
gen,  near  Hamburg,  in  1897,  and 
introduced  the  system  of  display- 
ing wild  animals  out  of  doors.  The 
food  restrictions  enforced  during  the 
Great  War  made  it  increasingly  diffi- 
cult to  keep  the  animals  alive,  but 
the  gardens  were  not  finally  closed 
until  October,  1920.  See  Zoologi- 
cal Gardens. 

Hagerman  Pass.  Lofty  moun- 
tain track  over  the  Rocky  Mts.  of 
Colorado,  U.S.A.  It  is  on  the  line 
of  the  Colorado  Midland  Ely.,  and 
reaches  an  alt.  of  11,535  ft. 

Hagerstown.  City  of  Mary- 
land, U.S.A.,  the  co.  seat  of  Wash- 
ington co.  It  is  80  m.  W.  by  N.  of 
Baltimore,  and  is  served  by  the 
Baltimore  and  Ohio  and  other  rlys. 
The  chief  buildings  are  Kee  Mar 
women's  college,  a  public  library, 
and  a  hospital ;  and  the  industries 
include  the  manufacture  of  car- 
riages, motor  vehicles,  bicycles, 
furniture,  boilers,  flour,  silk,  and 
fertilisers.  In  the  neighbourhood 
is  Gettysburg.  Settled  about  1740, 
Hagerstown  was  incorporated  in 
1791.  Pop.  26,125. 

Hag-fish  OR  HAG  (Myxine  gin- 
tinosa).     Order  of  marine  animals 
belonging  to  the  lamprey  grouj 
In     appearance     they 


small  round  eels,  but  have  no  side 
fins  and  no  lips.  They  have  teeth 
on  the  tongue  and  palate,  and 


bfe 


Hag-fish,  species  of  lamprey  found 
on  the  coasts  of  Britain 

tentacles  on  the  bead,  which  seem 
to  assist  them  in  boring  their  way 
into  the  bodies  of  the  fishes  on 
which  they  feed.  They  are  eyeless, 
and  secrete  a  remarkable  amount 
of  thick  slime.  The  common  hag- 
fish  is  found  on  the  British  coasts, 
and  is  occasionally  2  ft.  long.  These 
animals  are  not  true  fish,  and  are 
separately  classed  by  zoologists  as 
Cyclostomata,  round-mouthed. 

Haggai.  One  of  the  minor  pro- 
phets. He  returned  from  the 
Babylonian  captivity  with  Zerub- 
babel,  and  began  to. prophesy  in  his 
old  age.  His  short  book  in  two 
chapters  is  homely  in  style  and 
contains  four  prophecies,  all  be- 
longing to  the  same  year,  and  de- 
signed to  encourage  the  people  in 
rebuilding  the  temple.  It  was 
written,  according  to  his  own  state- 
ment, in  the  second  year  of  the 
reign  of  Darius  Hystaspis  (520  B.C.  )u 
Haggard,  Sm  HENRY  RIDER  (b. 
1856).  British  novelist  and  agri- 
cultural economist.  Born  at  Bra- 
denham,  Nor- 
folk, June  22, 
1856,  and  edu- 
cated at  Ips- 
wich grammar 
school,  he  held 
various  official 
posts  in  S.  Af- 
rica, 1875-79. 
He  was  called 
to  the  bar 
at  Lincoln's 
Inn,  1879, 
and  pub- 
lished his  first  work,  Cetewayo  and 
His  White  Neighbours,  in  1882. 
South  Africa  figures  prominent!}' 
in  his  novels,  the  success  of  which 
is  due  largely  to  the  author's  ex- 
ceptional narrative  and  descriptive 
power. 

In  addition  to  King  Solomon's 
Mines,  1885,  his  most  successful 
adventure  story,  and  Jess,  1887, 
perhaps  his  best  work,  his  novels 
include  Dawn,  1884  ;  The  Witch's 
Head,  1885  ;  She,  1887,  in  which 
mystery  is  blended  with  adventure ; 
Allan  Quatermain,  1887  ;  Maiwa's 
Revenge,  1888 ;  Col.  Quaritch, 
V.C.,  1888;  Cleopatra,  1889; 
Allan's  Wife,  1890  ;  Eric  Bright- 
eyes,  1891  ;  Nada  the  Lily,  1892  ; 
Montezuma's  Daughter,  1893 ;  Joan 


Haste,  1895;  The  Heart  of  the 
World,  1896 ;  Lysbeth,  1901  ; 
Stella  Fregelius,  1904:  Ayesha, 
1905  ;  Fair  Margaret,  1907  ;  Red 
Eve,  1911  ;  When  the  World 
Shook,  1919;  and  The  Ancient 
Allan,  1920.  In  1891,  with  Andrew 
Lang,  he  wrote  The  World's  Desire. 

Sir  Rider  Haggard,  who  was 
knighted  in  1912,  also  became 
prominent  as  a  practical  farmer 
and  an  agricultural  economist, 
his  journeyings  through  England 
in  1896-98  to  investigate  rural 
conditions  resulting  in  a  most 
valuable  work,  Rural  England, 
1902.  His  agricultural  treatises 
also  include  Reports  on  Salvation 
Colonies,  1905  ;  The  Poor  and  the 
Land,  1905  ;  and  Rural  Denmark, 
1911.  After  the  war  he  visited 
every  part  of  the  British  Empire, 
in  connexion  with  the  settlement 
of  ex-service  men. 

Haggerston.  Suburb  of  N.E. 
London.  Mentioned  in  Domesday 
as  Hergotestane,  and  once  a  hamlet 
in  the  parish  of  S.  Leonard's, 
Shoreditch,  it  is  covered  with 
factories  and  artisan  dwellings, 
and  stretches  from  the  N.  side 
of  Hackney  Road  to  Dalston,  and 
from  Kingsland  Road  on  the  W. 
to  London  Fields.  Goldsmith 
Square,  S.  of  the  Regent's  Canal, 
is  a  public  recreation  ground. 
There  are  several  almshouses 
founded  by  city  companies.  Near 
the  Hackney  Road  is  the  Great 
North-Eastern  Hospital  for  Chil- 
dren, built  1868.  Of  the  churches, 
S.  Augustine's  dates  from  1867; 
S.  Columba's'from  1868  ;  and  S. 
Chad's  from  1869.  Nichols  Square 
was  named  after  John  Nichols  the 
antiquary.  Halley,  the  astronomer, 
was  born  in  Haggerston.  The  dis- 
trict is  well  served  by  the  N.L.R. 
from  Broad  Street,  and  by  'buses 
and  trams. 


Haggerston.     Interior  of  tne  church 
of  S.  Columba 


HAGGIS 

Haggis.  Ancient  Scottish  dish, 
supposed  to  have  been  adapted 
from  the  French.  The  stomach 
of  a  sheep  having  been  thoroughly 
washed  and  allowed  to  soak  for 
several  hours  in  cold  salt  water, 
scalded  in  boiling  water,  and  then 
scraped  with  a  knife,  is  used  as  a 
bag  into  which  the  ingredients  are 
placed.  The  chief  ingredients  are 
the  heart,  liver  and  lungs  (pluck) 
of  a  sheep.  Having  been  drained, 
boiled  and  trimmed,  half  of  the 
liver  is  grated  and  the  rest  of  the 
ingredients  are  finely  minced. 

For  a  meal  intended  for  eight 
persons  there  are  added  1  Ib.  of 
finely  shredded  suet,  two  chopped 
onions,  half  a  pint  of  oatmeal  or 
£  Ib.  of  toasted  and  crumbled  oat- 
cakes, two  teaspoonfuls  of  salt  and 
one  of  pepper,  half  a  nutmeg 
(grated),  a  grain  of  cayenne,  half 
a  pint  of  good  gravy,  and  the  juice 
of  a  small  lemon.  The  ingredients 
are  put  into  the  prepared  bag — 
care  being  taken  that  no  thin  parts 
of  the  bag  are  left,  and  that  allow- 
ance is  made  for  swelling — care- 
fully sewed  up,  plunged  into  boil- 
ing water  and  boiled  gently  for 
three  hours,  being  pricked  with  a 
needle  occasionally  during  the  first 
half-hour,  and  then  served  hot 
without  sauce  or  gravy.  Burns, 
in  his  poem,  To  a  Haggis,  describes 
the  dish  as  "  great  chieftain  o'  the 
puddin'  race."  Cookery  books  give 
directions  for  variant  forms,  e.g. 
English  haggis,  lamb's  haggis, 
mutton  haggis,  and  Kew  mince  or 
royal  haggis. 

Hagi.  Town  of  Japan,  on  the 
island  of  Honshu.  Situated  near 
the  S.W.  extremity  of  the  island, 
50  m.  W.  of  Hiroshima,  it  is  notable 
as  the  seat  of  the  daimos  of  Chosu, 
who  were  largely  instrumental  in 
crushing  feudalism.  Pop.  25,000. 

Hagiography  (Gr.  hagios,  holy; 
graphein,  to  write).  General  term 
for  sacred  writings,  or  for  bio- 
graphies of  saints.  Of  related  words 
hagiographa,  of  frequent  use  in 
the  early  Church,  was  applied  by 
the  Jews  to  the  Psalms,  Proverbs, 
Job,  Ezra,  Esther,  Chronicles, 
Solomon's  Song,  Ruth,  Eccle- 
siastes,  Nehemiah,  Lamentations, 
and  Daniel,  books  not  read  publicly 
in  the  synagogues.  Hagiocracy 
means  a  priestly  hierarchy,  hagio- 
latry  the  worship  or  invocation  of 
saints.  See  Saint. 

Hagiology  (Gr.  hagia,  holy 
things ;  logos,  account).  Term  ap- 
plied to  literature  dealing  with 
the  saints  of  the  Christian  Church. 
It  includes  all  the  martyrologies 
and  biographies-  of  saints  and 
martyrs.  The  Roman  martyrology 
contains  about  3,000  names.  The 
Eastern  lists  are  also  very  lengthy, 
and  to  these  must  be  added  the  long 


list  of  local  saints  whose  memory 
is  only    preserved   in    their    own 
country.  Cornwall  and  Brittany,  for 
example,  commemorate  early  saints 
of  whom  hardly  anything  is  known. 
The  earliest  attempt  at  a  hagio- 
logy  is  that  of  Eusebius,  The  As- 
sembly of  the  Ancient  Martyrs.   In 
the  Greek  Church,  the  hagiologies 
or  menologies  date  from   the  9th 
century.      The   first    attempt    at 
a    criticism    and    revision    of    the 
hagiologies  of  the  Western  Church 
was  made  by  the  Flemish  Father 
Rosveyde  (d.  1629).  His  researches 
led  to  the  compilation  of  the  Acta 
Sanctorum  and  the  establishment 
of  the  Bollandists  (q.v.).    See  Mar- 
tyrology ;    Saint. 

Hagion  Oros,  GULF  OF.  Opening 
of  the  Aegean  Sea.   It  lies  between 
the  peninsula  of  the  same  name 
and  that  of  Longos,  the  eastern- 
most  and   central  prongs   of   the 
Chalcidic  peninsula  in  Macedonia. 
It  is  also  called  the  gulf  of  Monte 
Santo,  and  is  about  20  m.  in  length, 
and  15  m.  in  breadth  at  its  widest. 
The  peninsula  of  Hagion  Oros  is 
also  named  the  Athos  peninsula, 
because  Mt.  Athos  stands  on  it. 

Hagonoy.       Town    of    Luzon, 
Philippine  Islands,  in  the  prov.  of 
Bulacan.  It  stands  on  Manila  Bay, 
10   m.    W.    of    Bulacan,    and   has 
alcohol,    textile    and     fishing    in- 
dustries.   Pop.  22,000. 

Hague,  THE  (Dutch,  'S  Graven 
Hage  or  Den  Haag).  Capital  of  the 
kingdom  of  the  Netherlands.    The 
v..i...:..;;......................:.....:,j»  Hague    capital 

also  of  the  prov. 
of  S.Holland,  lies 
in  flat  country,  in 
parts  sandy,  but 
pleasant  and 
well-tilled,  about 
14  m.  N.W.  of 
Rotterdam  and 
The  Hague  arms  2£  m.  from  the 
North  Sea  at  Scheveningen.  The 
city  is  attractively  laid  out,  with 
broad  streets  and  pleasant  squares, 
in  orderly  but  not  monotonous 
arrangement.  There  are  two  large 
rly.  stations  and  good  tramway  ser- 
vices. As  the  capital,  The  Hague 
is  the  residence  of  the  royal  family, 
and  the  seat  of  the  legislative  and 
central  judicial  bodies  of  the 
country.  Its  chief  industries  are 
printing  works,  distilleries,  furni- 
ture and  earthenware  works. 

The  central  point  of  the  city  is 
the  Plein,  near  which  stand  the 
buildings  of  the  supreme  court,  the 
ministries  of  war,  justice,  and  the 
colonies,  and  the  Mauritshuis, 
erected  between  1633-44  and  re- 
built 1704-18,  in  which  is  housed 
the  famous  collection  of  pictures 
made  by  the  successive  princes  of 
Orange.  Close  by  is  the  Binnenhof, 
a  group  of  buildings  round  a 


square,  where  are  the  Hall  of  the 
Knights,  used  by  the  chambers  in 
joint  session,  and  the  halls  in  which 
the  first  and  second  chambers  sit. 
The  Gevangenpoort,  overlooking 
the  ornamental  water  known  as 
the  Vyver,  is  a  large  medieval 
tower  formerly  used  for  prisoners. 

The  town  hall,  originally  built 
about  1565  and  restored  in  the 
middle  of  the  17th  century,  is  a 
highly  characteristic  Dutch  build- 
ing of  its  period.  The  most  notable 
churches  are  the  Nieuwe  Kerke, 
dating  from  the  middle  of  the  17th 
century,  where  lie  the  remains  of 
the  De  Witts  (q.v.)  and  formerly 
lay  those  of  the  philosopher  Spin- 
oza ;  and  the  Groote  Kerk,  a  15th 
century  Gothic  building,  with  a 
lofty  tower  and  ironwork  spire  and 
a  finely  carved  16th  century  pulpit. 

The  royal  palace,  an  18th  cen- 
tury edifice  enlarged  during  1816- 
17,  stands  on  the  Noordeinde 
and  has  extensive  private  gardens 
behind.  To  the  N.  of  this  lies  the 
pleasant  open  space  of  the  Willems 
Park,  the  heart  of  the  fashionable 
quarter  of  the  city,  with  the  large 
national  monument,  erected  in 
1869  to  commemorate  the  achieve- 
ment of  national  independence  in 
1813.  Other  places  of  interest  are 
the  Steengracht  Gallery,  the  muni- 
cipal museum,  the  royal  library, 
the  Mesdag  Museum,  and  the 
museum  of  industrial  art. 

To  the  N.E.  of  the  town  lie  the 
zoological  gardens  and  the  beauti- 
ful Haagsche  Bosch  ;  the  latter,  a 
large  wooded  park  in  parts  quite 
wild,  contains  the  royal  villa  known 
as  the  Huis  ten  Bosch,  built  about 
1645, in  which  the  first  international 
peace  conference  met  in  1899.  The 
Palace  of  Peace,  built  largely  at 
the  expense  of  Andrew  Carnegie 
on  the  designs  of  the  French  archi- 
tect, L.  M.  Cordonnier,  to  house 
the  international  peace  conferences 
and  the  court  of  arbitration,  was 
opened  in  Aug.,  1913. 

In  history  The  Hague  has  en- 
joyed the  advantages  of  its  isolated 
position  in  the  Low  Countries,  and 
has  enjoyed  comparative  tran- 
quillity. Its  origins  are  traced  to  a 
hunting  seat  of  the  counts  of  Hol- 
land, c.  1250,  which  gradually  be- 
came their  regular  residence  to- 
wards 1280.  From  the  last  decade 
of  the  16th  century  The  Hague 
w-as  the  political  centre  of  the 
states  general  of  Holland,  which 
gave  it  increased  importance  ;  the 
murder  of  the  De  Witts  in  1672 
was  a  terrible  episode  in  its  peace- 
ful history. 

In  1795  the  French  revolutionary 
armies  captured  the  city,  and  the 
Batavian  republic  was  set  up.  It 
remained,  in  French  possession 
until  Nov.,  1813.  Even  as  late  as 


HAGUE 


3776 


HAGUE  CONFERENCE 


The  Hague.     1.  The  Vyver,  an  ornamental  water  in  the  centre  of  the  city,  with  part  of  the  Binnenhof  on  left.     2.  The 

Palace  of  the  Queen,  with  statue  of  William  the  Silent,  by  Count  Nieuwekerke,  1845.     3.  The  Huist  en  Bosch,  built 

1645.     4.  The  Mauritshuis,  rebuilt  1704-18,  containing  the  famous  picture  galleries.     5.    The  Hall  of  the  Knights, 

in  the  Binnenhof,  meeting  place  of  the  Dutch  chambers 


180G  The  Hague  only  held  the 
status  of  a  village,  when  Louis 
Bonaparte  raised  it  to  that  of  a 
town. 

Apart  from  the  modern  Hague 
conferences,  The  Hague  has  long 
been  an  important  centre  of  diplo- 
macy, and  has  given  its  name  to 
several  treaties.  Among  the  most 
important  are  the  alliance  of  Eng- 
land, Sweden,  and  the  Nether- 
lands, 1668;  and  the  treaty  be- 
tween England,  France,  and  Hol- 
land in  1717.  The  old-standing 
tradition  of  The  Hague  as  a  peace- 
making centre  of  the  nations  led 


many  to  support  its  claims  to  be 
made  the  seat  of  the  League  of 
Nations,  but  Geneva  was  selected 
instead.  Top.  352,079. 

J.  E.  Miles 


The  Hague.     The  Palace  of  Peace  opened  in  1913  as  a 
seat  for  The  Hague  Tribunal  and  the  peace  conferences 


,  CAP  DE  LA.  Promontory 
of  the  Cotentin  peninsula,  France, 
in  the  dept.  of  Manche.  It  is  at  the 
N.W.  extremity  of  the  dept.  and 
juts  out  into  the  English  Channel, 
12  m.  N.W.  of  Cherbourg.  Alder- 
ney  is  10  m.  W.  of  the  point,  and 
about  35m.  E.S.E.  is  the  road- 
stead of  La  Hogue  or  La  Hougue. 
Hague  Conference.  Inter- 
national conference  held  at  The 
Hague  in  the  in- 
}  terests  of  peace. 
The  suggestion  for 
a  conference  of 
this  kind  came 
from  the  tsar  of 
Russia,  Nicholas 
II,  and  in  1899  the 
first  conference 
met,  representa- 
tives from  Euro- 
peancountries  and 
from  the  U.S.A. 
being  present.  The 
members  signed 
three  conventions. 
Thefirstconcerned 
the  establishment 
of  an  inter- 


national  court  of  arbitration,  known 
now  as  The  Hague  tribunal;  the 
second  dealt  with  the  laws  and 
customs  of  war;  and  the  third  with 
naval  warfare.  In  addition  it  was 
declared  that  the  throwing  of 
missiles  from  balloons,  the  use  of 
poison  gases  and  of  expanding 
bullets  were  illegal. 

A  second  conference  met  in  1907, 
when  a  proposal  put  forward  by 
the  British  Government  for  the 
reduction  of  armaments  was  re- 
jected ;  but  in  other  directions 
much  was  done.  The  conventions 
of  1 899  were  revised,  and  con- 
clusions were  reached  on  such 
matters  as  the  rights  and  duties  of 
neutral  states  in  naval  warfare, 
the  conversion  of  merchant  vessels 
into  warships,  the  laying  of  auto- 
matic submarine  contact  mines, 
the  bombardment  of  undefended 
towns  by  warships,  etc.  It  also 
passed  a  resolution  on  the  strength 
of  which  a  conference  on  prize  law 
met  in  London  in  1908-9  and 
drew  up  the  Declaration  of  London. 
Conferences  of  many  European 
powers  were  held  at  The  Hague  in 
1893,  1894,  1900,  and  1904  to  deal 
with  matters  of  private  interna- 
tional law — for  instance,  marriage. 
See  Blockade ;  International  Law ; 
London,  Declaration  of.  > 


HAGUE     TRIBUNAL 


3777 


HA1G 


Hague  Tribunal.  International 
court  of  justice  established  in  1899 
for  the  settlement  of  disputes 
between  one  country  and  another. 
Its  home  is  at  The  Hague.  It  arose 
out  of  the  peace  conference  held 
there  in  1899,  when  it  was  decided 
to  form  a  permanent  international 
court.  Sixteen  powers  signed  the 
agreement,  which  said  that  each 
power  should  nominate  four  mem- 
bers who  should  serve  for  six  vears. 
A  dispute  referred  to  the  tribunal 
should  be  heard  before  five  of  these 
members,  two  chosen  by  each 
litigant  and  a  fifth,  as  president,  by 
the  four.  Between  the  opening  of 
the  20th  century  and  the  outbreak 
of  the  Great  War  a  number  of 
cases  were  referred  to  the  tribunal, 
among  them  being  that  of  Great 
Britain,  Germany,  and  Italy  against 
Venezuela.  The  first  members 
nominated  by  Great  Britain  were 
Lord  Pauncefote,  Sir  Edward 
Malet,  Sir  Edward  Fry,  and 
Professor  J.  Westlake.  See 

Arbitration,  International. 

Hahnemann,  SAMUEL  CHRISTIAN 
FRIEDRICH  (1755-1843).  German 
physician.  Born  at  Meissen, 

OTMII^^SBI  APriI  10' 1755' 

I  he  became  a 
I  doctor  after 
...-»*,  i-rlL  studying  at 
Leipzig  and 
Vienna.  He 
practised  i  n 
Dresden  and 
Leipzig,  but 
his  reputation 
rests  upon  the 

German  physician  system  of  ho- 
moeopathy which  he  founded.  His 
theory  was  first  put  forward  in  an 
article  in  1796  and  wa?  afterwards 
worked  out  more  deliberately  in 
books,  especially  his  chief  one,  The 
Organism  of  Rational  Health.  He 
practised  at  Kothen  and  later  in 
Paris,  after  he  left  Leipzig  owing  to 
the  unpopularity  of  his  theories 
among  those  whose  business  was 
affected  thereby,  but  he  had  the 
satisfaction  of  seeing  them  widely 
accepted.  He  died  July  2,  1843. 
See  Homoeopathy ;  consult  Life 
and  Letters,  T.  L.  Bradford,  1895. 
Hai-cheng.  Town  of  China,  in 
the  prov.  of  Fengtien.  It  stands  on 
the  S.  Manchurian  Rty.,  and  is  one 
of  the  centres  of  the  Manchurian 
|  silk  trade. 

Haida  (men).  North  American 
Indian  tribe  in  Queen  Charlotte 
Islands,  British  Columbia,  and 
Prince  of  Wales  Island,  Alaska. 
They  are  divided  into  two  matri- 
lineal  clans,  Eagle  and  Raven ; 
each  individual  has  a  personal 
totem  (animal-helper).  Their  skil- 
fully carved  ceremonial  rattles, 
masks,  and  totem  poles  betray 
Polynesian  influence. 


Samuel  Habne 


Haifa,  Palestine.     Tcwn  and  harbour  from  the  sea 


Haidarabad.  Alternative  spell- 
ing for  the  state  and  cities  of  India, 
more  frequently  spelled  Hyderabad 
(q.v.). 

Haider  Ali  OR  HYDER  ALT   (c. 

1722-82).    Ruler  of  Mysore.   A  Ma- 

homedan  of  insignificant  parentage, 

he  entered  the 

1    service  of  the 

I    raja  of  Mysore 

;    ffii  in  1749,  where 

k         his  strong  per- 
'    sonality    soon 
placed  him  at 
the  head  of  af- 
I    fairs.    In  1763 
I     he    conquered 
Haider  Ali,  Kanara,     and 

Ruler  of  Mysore  the  wealth 
thus  attained  completely  turned 
his  head.  In  alliance  with  the  nizam 
of  Madras  he  fought  the  British  at 
Chengam,  1767,  and  was  signally 
defeated.  Persisting  in  hostilities, 
he  succeeded  in  1769  in  effecting  a 
treaty  with  his  victors,  but  was  un- 
able to  induce  them  to  help  him  in 
his  campaign  against  the  Maha- 
rattas  in  1772.  In  revenge  for  this 
he  took  advantage  of  the  war  with 
France  to  march  on  Madras,  1779, 
but  after  some  initial  successes  was 
routed  by  Sir  Eyre  Coote  in  an  en- 
gagement near  Porto  Novo.  He 
died  at  Chittore. 


Haiduk.  Hungarian  word  given 
to  a  certain  class  of  outlaws  in 
Turkey  and  other  Balkan  countries, 
e.g.  Serbia.  It  meant  originally 
robber,  but  in  Hungary  it  came  to 
refer  to  mercenary  soldiers.  Early 
in  the  17th  century  these  received 
a  grant  of  land  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Theiss,  which  was  then  called 
the  Haiduk  district.  It  was  also 
used  for  the  retainers  of  the  Hun- 
garian landowners.  One  theory  is 
that  the  word  was  first  given  to 
some  Turkish  outlaws  who  took 
refuge  in  Hungary. 

Hai-Dzuong.  Town  of  Tong- 
king,  French  Indo-China.  It  is 
situated  in  the  Song-ka  delta 
region,  32  m.  E.S.E.  of  Hanoi,  the 
capital.  Pop.  8,000. 

Haifa,  KHAIFA  OR  HEPFIA.  Town 
and  seaport  of  Palestine,  the  an- 
cient Sycaminum.  An  important 
place,  with  a  harbour  that  is 
the  best  natural  haven  in  Pales- 
tine, it  lies  on  the  Bay  of  Acre, 
under  Mt.  Carmel,  and  is  con- 
nected by  rly.  with  the  Central 
Palestine  and  Damascus  lines.  It 
has  a  considerable  and  increasing 
trade,  and  cotton  is  grown  locally. 
Haifa  figured  in  the  Crusades. 
During  the  Great  War  it,  with  Acre, 
was  occupied  by  the  British,  Sept. 
23,  1918.  Pop.  20,000. 


EARL    HAIG    OF    BEMERSYDE 

H.  W.  Wilson,  Military  Critic  of  The  Daily  Mail 

In  this  work  are  accounts  of  all  the  great  battles  directed  by  Haig. 

See  Arras ;  Bapauine ;  Cambrai ;  Messines ;  Somme,  etc.     See  War, 

Great,  and  the  biographies  of  Byng ;  Foch  ;  French  ;  Joffre ;  Plumer, 

and,  other  generals.     Also  Cavalry  ;  Tactics 


Douglas  Haig,  1st  Earl  of  Bemer- 
syde,  was  the  youngest  son  of 
an  ancient  Fife  family,  and  was 
born  June  19,  1861.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Clifton  and  Brasenose 
College,  Oxford,  whence  he  went 
to  Sandhurst,  and  was  gazetted  in 
1885  to  the  7th  Hussars.  He  was 
distinguished  both  as  polo  player 
and  as  a  serious  student  of  his  pro- 
fession. He  was  a  good  linguist,  and 
passed  through  the  Staff  College. 

Haig  served  in  the  Khartum 
campaign  of  1898  and  in  the  South 
African  War,  where  his  work 
attracted  attention.  He  acted  as 
chief  of  staff  at  Colesberg  in  1900 
to  Sir  John  French,  and  in  1901-2 
he  commanded  a  group  of  columns 


under  Lord  Kitchener.  All  the 
reports  on  him  predicted  a  great 
future  and  laid  stress  on  his  quali- 
ties of  leadership.  After  the  South 
African  War  he  served  (1903-6)  in 
India,  first  as  inspector-general  of 
cavalry,  and  then,  after  some  years 
at  home,  during  which  he  was  direc- 
tor of  military  training  (1906-7), 
and  director  of  staff  duties  at  head- 
quarters (1907-9),  as  chief  of  staff 
to  the  Indian  Army  (1909-12).  On 
his  return  to  Europe  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  Aldershot  command, 
which  he  held  till  the  outbreak  of 
the  Great  War. 

He  went  to  France  in  Aug.,  1914, 
with  the  expeditionary  force  in 
command  of  the  1st  corps,  and 


HA1G 


HAIG 


took  part  in  all  the  earlier  battles, 
passing  in  Jan.,  1915,  to  the  com- 
mand of  the  1st  army.  In  Dec., 
1915,  he  succeeded  Sir  John  French 
as  commander-in-chief  of  the 
British  forces  in  France,  and  held 
this  position  till  the  close  of  the 
war.  On  Jan.  1,  1917,  he  was 
promoted  field  -  marshal ;  and  in 
1919  he  was  created  earl  and  re- 
ceived a  grant  of  £100,000  from 
the  nation.  He  married  in  1903 
the  Hon.  Dorothy  Vivian,  daughter 
of  the  3rd  Lord  Vivian,  and  a  son 
and  heir  was  born  to  him  in  March, 
1918.  His  two  daughters  were 
born  in  1907  and  1908. 

Haig,  like  Petain,  had  the 
gift  of  calm  and  resolution  in 
the  darkest  hours,  and  he  was 
by  nature  an  optimist.  In  Feb., 
1917,  in  an  interview,  he  con- 
fidently predicted  an  early  victory 
of  the  Allies,  and  this  pronounce- 
ment was  much  criticised  at  the 
time,  though  but  for  the  un- 
expected collapse  of  the  Russians 
all  his  hopes  should  have  been 
fulfilled.  He  was  constitutionally 
shy,  another  point  in  which  he  re- 
sembled Petain,  and  he  could 
never  address  his  troops,  and  was 
indeed  little  seen  by  them.  ,  , 


In  the  crisis  of  the  first  battle  of 
Ypres  (Oct.  31,  1914),  when  .all 
seemed  to  be  giving  way,  he  was 
suddenly  seen  riding  down  the 
Menin  road  under  a  heavy  fire, 
perfectly  apparelled  with  a  per- 
fectly turned-out  escort,  behaving 
in  that  emergency  with  an  un- 
ruffled calm  which  had  an  elec- 
trical effect.  Under  his  eyes  the 
line  was  re-formed,  the  2nd 
Worcesters  stormed  and  recovered 
Gheluvelt,  and  Ypres  was  saved. 

In  the  battle  of  Loos  (Sept.  25, 
1915)  he  commanded  the  1st 
British  army,  which  delivered  the 
principal  attack,  and  was  criticised 
for  the  failure  to  throw  in  the  re- 
serves promptly  and  for  the  small 
results  obtained.  Such  mistakes 
were  probably  inevitable  until  ex- 
perience in  large  scale  warfare 
had  been  gained;  before  1914  no 
British  general  had  handled  more 
than  30,000  men  in  a  body,  and 
at  Loos  some  250,000  were  engaged. 

After  Haig  received  the  com- 
mand in  France,  he  had  to  prepare, 


in  conjunction  with  Joffre,  the 
plans  for  a  great  offensive  in  1916 
on  the  Somme  front.(^  The  policy 
contemplated  was  attrition,  as  at 
that  date  there  were  no  means  of 
delivering  a  surprise  attack  or  of 
turning  the  enemy's  position.  The 
plan  as  adopted  was  not  Haig's  ; 
he  had  wished  to  attack  the  for- 
midable Beaumont-Hamel  ridge 
from  the  N.  and  from  Arras,  but, 
owing  to  difficulties  of  cooperation, 
the  French  were  against  this. 
Haig's  thoroughness  of  organi- 
zation was  seen  in  the  admirable 
completeness  of  the  preparations 
for  this  attack,  which  involved 
enormous  engineering  work.  The 
losses  of  the  British  in  the  Somme 
battles  were  terrible  (400,000),  but 
the  Germans  suffered  as  severely. 
No  decisive  blow  could  be  inflicted 
till  the  German  reserves  were  ex- 
hausted, and  the  artillery  pre- 
paration required  at  that  date  to 
cut  wire  rendered  the  terrain 
almost  impassable. 

Successes  in  1917 

Haig  in  1917  was  required  to  act 
under  Nivelle's  directions,  which 
hampered  his  operations,  but  he 
gained  the  two  brilliant  victories 
of  Arras  and  Messines,  though  all 
his  arrangements  were  upset  by  the 
necessity  of  prolonging  his  attack 
at  Arras,  in  order  to  take  the  pres- 
sure off  Nivelle,  whose  offensive 
had  failed.  Thus  the  third  battle 
of  Ypres  did  not  open  till  July  31, 
when  the  good  weather  had  gone  ; 
it  involved  fearful  suffering  and 
sacrifices  for  the  troops,  but  it  came 
very  near  being  a  complete  victory. 

The  first  battle  of  Cambrai  was  a 
remarkable  success,  though  it 
could  not  be  exploited  because  of 
the  diversion  of  troops  by  the 
British  Government  to  various  sub- 
sidiary fields,  and  because  of  the 
dispatch  of  five  divisions  to  Italy. 
Haig  had  been  a  believer  in  tanks, 
and  they  were  to  provide  him  with 
a  weapon  capable  of  restoring  the 
factor  of  surprise  and  eliminating 
the  prolonged  artillery  preparation. 

In  early  1918  Haig  was  con- 
vinced of  the  imminence  of  a 
great  German  offensive,  but  could 
not  persuade  the  British  Govern- 
ment of  the  soundness  of  his  view. 
His  removal  from  the  command 
was  considered,  but  fortunately 
was  not  carried  out.  He  was  left 
with  infantry  effectives  114,000 
below  strength,  nor  could  he  in- 
duce the  home  authorities  to  send 
him  reinforcements  from  Palestine 
and  the  secondary  fields.  With 
his  weak  force,  his  front  was  ex- 
tended 28  miles  in  Jan.,  to  the 
Oise ;  and  owing  to  his  lack  of 
men  he  was  compelled  to  station 
his  reserves  north  of  the  Somme. 
When  -  the  German  offensive 


HAIL 

was  opened  (March  21,  1918),  he 
could  not  throw  in  these  reserves 
quickly,  but,  though  disastrous 
loss  was  inflicted  by  the  rapid 
German  advance  in  overwhelming 
strength,  his  dispositions  were 
generally  justified  and  the  attack 
was  not  fatal. 

When  Haig  took  the  offensive  on 
Aug.  8,  1918,  notwithstanding  the 
loss  of  464,000  men  which  the 
British  army  had  suffered  during 
the  German  offensives,  he  handled 
his  troops,  now  heavily  but  tardily 
reinforced  from  home  and  from 
subsidiary  fields,  with  brilliant 
skill.  From  that  hour  he  pressed 
the  Germans  fiercely  and  unre- 
lentingly, and  won  such  a  series  of 
victories  against  forces  not  in- 
ferior hi  strength  and  commanded 
by  the  most  experienced  soldiers, 
as  no  general  had  gained  in  the 
war.  His  order  of  Aug.  1,  1918, 
stating  that  the  crisis  had  passed, 
was  marked  by  deep  insight, 
though  its  correctness  was  doubted 
in  London. 

The  Final  Victory 

His  assault  on  the  Hindenburg 
line  (Sept.  27-Oct.  1)  was  the 
greatest  feat  in  his  career,  under- 
taken aa  it  was  against  the  judge- 
ment of  the  British  War  Cabinet, 
which  dreaded  a  repulse  and 
heavy  casualties,  when  Foch 
himself  was  reluctant  to  order  it. 
Its  triumphant  success  in  the  face 
of  enormous  difficulties  was  one 
of  the  main  factors  in  bringing  a 
speedy  end  of  the  war.  So  un- 
certain was  the  home  government 
as  to  the  position  that  it  did  not 
venture  to  congratulate  him  and 
his  army  until  Oct.  7,  when  the 
end  of  the  war  was  now  manifestly 
in  sight.  His  faith  and  courage 
at  that  decisive  moment  place  him 
high  among  the  leaders  of  men. 

He  was  not  a  showy  commander 
and  he  had  minor  defects,  but  Sir 
F.  Maurice  states  the  truth  when 
he  says  that  this  "  great  leader's 
calm  judgement,  coolness  in  ad- 
versity, unselfish  patience  when 
unsupported  at  home,  and  bold 
decisions  when  the  time  came  to 
be  bold,  were  vital  factors  in  our 
triumph."  He  led  to  the  most 
terrible  war  in  history  by  far  the 
largest  British  forces  which  have 
ever  taken  the  field,  and  by  sheer 
strength  of  character  and  de- 
termination he  played  the  leading 
part  in  the  100  days  of  almost  con- 
tinuous battle  which  brought  the 
war  to  so  glorious  a  close.  Though 
many  had  doubted  the  capacity 
of  the  Allies  to  meet  the  Germans 
in  a  war  of  movement,  he  shone 
in  this,  which  was  one  of  the 
severest  tests  of  generalship. 

Earl  Haig  received  many  honours 
during  and  after  the  war.  In 


3779 

addition  to  holding  the  high  rank 
of  G.C.B.  and  G.C.V.O.,  he  was 
made  a  Knight  of  the  Thistle  in 
1917,  and  awarded  the  Order  of 
Merit  in  1919.  He  received 
decorations  from  every  nation  of 
the  Allies,  including  the  American 
Cross  of  Honour,  1918,  and  the 
Knight  Grand  Cross  of  the  Order  of 
S.  Maurice  and  S.  Lazarus,  1916. 
He  was  given  honorary  degrees 
by  several  British  universities,  and 
was  elected  lord  rector  of  St. 
Andrews  University  in  1916.  He 
received  the  freedom  of  over  a 
score  of  British  cities  and  towns. 
During  1919-20  he  visited  most 
parts  of  the  kingdom  unveiling  war 
memorials,  and  delivering  speeches 
on  behalf  of  disabled  ex-officers 
and  men,  in  whom  he  took  the 
keenest  interest.  Early  in  1921  he 
paid  a  visit  to  S.  Africa  to  attend 
an  empire  conference  on  ex-service 
men.  See  Cavalry  Studies,  Strat- 
egical and  Tactical,  D.  Haig,  1907 ; 
Despatches,  Dec.,  1915-April,  1919, 
ed.  J.  H.  Boraston,  1919 ;  Sir  D. 
Haig's  Great  Push  :  the  Battle  of 
the  Somme,  H.  N.  Williamson, 
1917. 

Hail.  Balls  of  ice  of  complex 
structure  which  fall  usually  from 
cumulo-nimbus  clouds  during  a 
thunderstorm.  They  may  exceed  a 
pound  in  weight  and  three  inches  in 
diameter.  Raindrops  are  some- 
times carried  upward  by  the  as- 
cending air  currents  which  occur 
during  the  development  of  thunder- 
storms. If  carried  sufficiently  high 
they  freeze,  and  any  subsequent 
upward  movement  causes  conden- 
sation and  subsequent  freezing  of 
moisture  until  the  ball  is  composed 
of  several  concentric  layers  of  ice. 
If  the  ball  suffers  alternate  risings 
and  fallings  these  layers  become 
more  definite.  Finally  when  the 
ball  is  too  large  to  be  carried  by  the 
ascending  currents  the  hail  falls. 

Hail  is  necessarily  hard  and  com- 
pact and  is  usually  tough  enough 
to  retain  its  shape  after  collision 
with  the  ground.  Consequently, 
hail  does  serious  damage  to  fruit 
trees,  growing 
crops,  and  glass. 

Hail.  Town  of  } 
Arabia,  the  capi- 
tal of  the  emirate 
of  S  homer  or 
Shammar.  It  is 
situated  about  250 
m.  N.E.  of  the 
sacred  town  of 
Medina.  Pop. 
10,000.- 

Hailes,  DAVID 
DAIVRYMPLE,  LORD 
(1726-92).  Scot- 
tish lawyer  and 
historian.  Born  in 
Edinburgh,  Oct. 


Lord  Hailes, 
Scottish  lawyer 

After  Seton 


HAILEYBURY 

28,    1726,  he 

was  the  eld- 
est son  of  Sir 
James  Dal- 
rymple,  Bart., 
of  Hailes,  and 
a  descendant  of 
Viscount  Stair. 
Educated  a  t 
Eton  and 
Utrecht,  he 
became  a  law- 
yer. After  a  suc- 
cessful career  as  an  advocate,  he 
was  made  a  judge  in  1766,  taking 
the  tite  of  Lord  Hailes.  He  died 
Nov.  29,  1792.  Leaving  no  sons, 
his  baronetcy  passed  to  his  nephew, 
and  his  estates  to  the  family  of 
Ferguson,  into  which  his  daughter 
married.  Lord  Hailes  was  friendly 
with  Johnson,  Burke,  and  Horace 
Walpole.  A  stout  believer  in  Chris- 
tianity, he  replied  to  Gibbon's 
strictures  on  that  faith,  and  wrote 
much  on  historical  and  anti- 
quarian subjects.  His  chief  wor^, 
is  The  Annals  of  Scotland,  a 
bold  chronological  outline  of 
Scottish  history,  1057-1371,  but 
scrupulously  fair  and  accurate. 
Hailes  is  a  village  in  Haddington- 
shire,  4  m.  from  Haddington.  It 
stands  on  the  Tyne,  and  has  a 
ruined  castle. 

Haileybury  College.  English 
public  school.  It  was  founded  in 
1862,  and  took  over  the  college  at 
Haileybury,  near  Hertford,  main- 
tained by  the  East  India  Company 
from  1806  until  its  dissolution.  It 
is  a  Church  of  England  school  and 
is  governed  by  a  council.  Divided 
into  three  sections,  upper,  middle, 
and  lower,  it  has  classical  and 
modern  sides  and  gives  several 
scholarships.  The  boys,  about  500 
in  number,  live  in  ten  houses,  but 
take  their  meals  together  in  the 
college,  except  a  few  who  are  in  a 
boarding-house  proper.  During  the 
Great  War,  2,814  old  Haileyburians 
served  with  H.M.  forces,  of  whom 
566  lost  their  lives,  and  the  list  of 
honours  included  four  Victoria 


Haileybury  College.      Quadrangle  of  the  famous  Hert- 
fordshire public  school  . 


HAILSHAM 


3780 


HAIR 


Hails  ham.  Market  town  and 
parish  of  Sussex.  It  is  7  m.  N.  of 
Eastbourne  and  54  m.  from 
London  and  has  a  station  on  the 
L.B.  &  S.C.  Ely.  The  chief  build- 
ing is  S.  Mary's  Church,  a  Perpen- 
dicular building.  The  town  has  a 
trade  in  agricultural  produce, 
cattle  and  sheep  markets,  and  one 
or  two  manufactures.  Near  is 
Michelham,  a  residence  which  was 
once  a  monastic  house.  Market 
day,  Wed.  (alternate).  Pop.  4,600. 

Hainan/  Island  S.  of  China, 
separated  from  Kwangtung  prov. 
by  a  narrow  strait.  Kiungchowf  u  is 
the  capital,  and  Hoihow  the  chief 
port.  The  centre  of  the  island  is 
mountainous,  with  peaks  rising  to 
7,000  ft.  Chinese  inhabit  mainly 
the  coast  line ;  in  the  interior 
aboriginal  tribes,  known  as  Sai  or 
Li,  maintain  a  semi-independent 
existence.  Rubber  is  produced  and 
tin  exported,  but  the  mine  is  still 
worked  by  native  methods.  Area 
13,900  sq.  m.  Est.  pop.  1,500,000. 

Hainault  OR  HAINAUT.  Prov. 
of  Belgium,  formerly  the  county  of 
Hainault.  It  is  bounded  by  the  ir- 
regular line  of  the  French  frontier, 
and  by  the  provinces  of  W.  and  E. 
Flanders,  Brabant,  and  Namur. 
The  prov.  is  hilly  in  parts,  espe- 
cially round  Renaix,  and  in  the 
district  known  as  the  Borinage, 
round  Mons.  The  Schelde,  Sambre, 
Dendre,  and  Haine  are  the  chief 
rivers.  The  seat  of  the  provincial 
administration  is  Mons,  and  the 
other  important  towns  are  Charle- 
roi,  Tournai,  Thuin,  Lessines,  Ath, 
Leuze,  Enghien,  Jumet,  La  Lou- 
viere,Chimay,Soignies,andWasmes. 

Hainault  contains  one  of  the 
chief  industrial  areas  of  Belgium, 
the  rich  coal  and  steel  districts  cen- 
tring on  Mons  and  Charleroi.  In 
the  N.  it  is  mainly  agricultural, 
cereals  and  beetroots  being  im- 
portant crops  ;  quarries  and  glass- 
works are  also  notable.  There  are 
numerous  rly.  lines  in  all  directions, 
and  the  artificial  waterways,  the 
Mons-Conde  canal  and  the  canal- 
ised Sambre  with  its  water  con- 
nexion to  Brussels  from  Charleroi, 
are  the  main  outlets  to  France. 
The  prov.  is  intimately  connected 
with  the  coalfields  and  industries 
of  N.E.  France.  The  inhabitants 
are  almost  entirely  French-speaking 
Walloons.  Area,  1,437  sq.  m.  Pop. 
1,214,093. 

As  an  independent  county, 
Hainault  was  of  some  importance 
in  earlier  times.  The  first  of  the 
long  line  of  counts  of  Hainault  was 
Reginar  I  (d.  916),  who  took  part 
in  the  acquisition  of  Lorraine  by 
Charles  III  of  France*.  His  descen- 
dant, the  countess  Rachilda,  mar- 
ried Baldwin  VI  of  Flanders,  c. 
1040,  which  brought  Hainault  into 


close  relationship  with  its  northern 
neighbour.  At  the  end  of  the  13th 
century  count  Jean  d'Avesnes 
(1279-1304)  inherited  also  the 
county  of  Holland,  which  was 
united  with  that  of  Hainault,  until 
the  latter  fell  to  Burgundy,  after 
which  its  history  is  knit  with  that 
of  the  Netherlands.  Hainault  was 
occupied  by  the  French  revolution- 
ary armies  in  1794,  amalgamated 
with  the  Netherlands  in  1814,  and 
finally  incorporated  with  the  king- 
dom of  Belgium  in  1830.  See  Bel- 
gium ;  Netherlands. 

Hainault  Forest.  Open  space 
in  Essex,  England.  Lying  to  the 
S.E.  of  Epping  Forest  (q.v.),  it 
formed  part  of  the  ancient  Forest  of 
Waltham,  of  which  all  of  the  4,000 
acres  remaining,  except  Crabtree 
Wood,  near  Chigwell  Row,  were 
disafforested  in  1851-52.  The 
name  Hainault  Forest  is  now  ap- 
plied to  805  acres  (551  arable  land 
and  245  acres  forest)  acquired  for 
the  public  in  1903  at  a  cost  of 
£21,830,  and  opened  July,  1906.  It 
is  the  largest  open  space  under  the 
control  of  the  London  County 
Council.  Fairlop  Fair,  held  in 
July,  1725-1852,  was  held  about 
1  m.  E.  of  Chigwell  Row  under  or 
near  a  famous  oak  known  as  Fair- 
lop  Oak,  destroyed  by  a  gale  in  1820, 
and  from  which  were  made  the  pul- 

S't  and  reading  desk  in  S.  Pancras 
aurch,  Euston  Road,  London. 

Hamburg  OB  WEISSES  LAMM. 
Town  of  Austria.  It  stands  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Danube,  27  m. 
E.S.E.  of  Vienna,  and  near  the 
Hungarian  frontier.  It  is  a  pic- 
turesque place  surrounded  by  old 
walls,  and  on  the  top  of  the 
Schlossberg  (950  ft.)  are  the  re- 
mains of  a  castle  mentioned  in  the 
Nibelungenlied.  It  was  a  Hun- 
garian border  fortress  until  1042, 
when  it  was  taken  by  the  emperor, 
Henry  III.  On  the  Wiener  Tor  is  a 
statue  traditionally  said  to  be  that 
of  Attila.  Between  Deutsch-Alten- 
burg  (Goldenes  Lamm)  and  Petro- 
nell  are  remains  of  the  Roman  station 
of  Carnuntum  (q.v. ),  inchiding  an 
amphitheatre.  Pop.  of  dist.,  15^200. 

Haiphong  OR  HAI-FONG.  Sea- 
port of  Tong-king,  French  Indo- 
China.  It  stands  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Kua-Kam,  a  tributary  of 
the  Song-ka,  60  m.  from  Hanoi, 
its  port.  The  new  French  residen- 
tial quarter  is  well  laid  out,  with 
broad  streets  and  boulevards. 
Cotton  milling  is  one  of  the  leading 
occupations.  It  is  a  French  naval 
station,  having  rly.  communica- 
tion with  Hanoi,  and  a  brisk  trade 
with  Hong  Kong.  Pop.  18,500. 

Hair.  Outgrowth  or  develop- 
ment of  the  skin  characteristic  of 
all  mammals.  It  includes  not  only 
fur  and  hair  like  that  of  the  human 


body,  but  also  the  bristles  of  the  pig, 
the  vibrissae  or  whiskers  of  the  cat, 
and  the  spines  of  the  hedgehog 
and  porcupine.  Its  object  is  to 
keep  the  body  warm,  mammals 
like  the  whales,  which  have  little 
hair,  being  provided  with  a  thick 
layer  of  fat  beneath  the  skin. 

Each  hair  is  developed  in  a 
little  follicle  or  pit  in  the  skin,  and 
grows  from  a  papilla  or  small  bulb 
at  the  base  of  the  follicle.  When 
the  hair  falls  off,  or  is  pulled  out, 
another  is  developed  from  the 
papilla.  Permanent  baldness  is 
due  to  the  atrophy  or  destruction 
of  these  papillae.  The  body  of  the 
hair  is  covered  with  minute  scales, 
and  forms  a  kind  of  tube  contain- 
ing pigment  or  colouring  matter. 
The  white  or  grey  hair  of  old  age  is 
due  to  the  failure  of  pigment  and 
its  replacement  by  air. 

Each  hair  follicle  is  provided 
with  sebaceous  glands,  which  se- 
crete an  oily  liquid  for  the  purpose 
of  lubricating  the  hair.  It  has  also 
a  tiny  muscle  by  which  the  hair 
can  be  erected.  This  is  very  effi- 
cient in  some  animals,  as  the"  com- 
mon cat,  but  in  the  human  species 
it  acts  but  feebly,  the  phenomenon 
of  the  hair  "  standing  on.  end " 


Hair.  Left,  of  stinging  nettle;  A, 
large  hair;  B,  smaller  hairs  with 
broken  tips,  growing  from  veins. 
Right,  human  hair;  1,  epidermis;  2, 
mouth  of  hair  follicle;  3.  sebaceous 
follicle  ;  4,  arrector  pili  muscle  ; 
5,  papilla  of  hair  ;  6,  adipose  tissue 

being  rare.  The  curious  sensation 
known  as  "  goose  skin  "  is  due  to 
the  contraction  of  these  small 
muscles.  The  hair  is  constantly 
being  shed  and  regrown,  and  it  is 
believed  that  the  entire  hair  of  the 
human  head  is  renewed  every  three 
or  four  years.  Baldness  may  be  due 
to  actual  disease,  want  of  general 
tone  in  the  skin,  or  to  hereditary  ten- 
dency. The  wearing  of  un ventilated 
hats  is  a  common  cause  of  the  trouble. 
Most  mammalia  are  entirely 
covered  with  hair.  This  is  true  of 
the  human  species,  the  only  abso- 
lutely hairless  regions  being  the 
palms  of  the  hands  and  the  soles  of 
the  feet.  In  some  forms  hair  is  a 
secondary  sexual  characteristic,  as 
the  beard  of  the  man  and  the  mane 
of  the  lion  and  male  baboon.  The 
colour  of  the  hair  in  many  animals 


HAIR     BRUSH 


3781 


HAIRDRESSING 


serves  a  protective  purpose  in 
making  the  creature  resemble  its 
surroundings  ;  this  is  well  seen  in 
the  arctic  fox,  mountain  hare,  and 
ermine,  which  turn  white  in  winter 
to  match  the  snow,  and  in  the 
stripes  and  spots  in  many  animals. 

Differences  of  quality  in  the 
hair  are  characteristic  of  local 
varieties  of  the  human  species. 
The  hair  of  negroes  is  crisp  or 
woolly  ;  of  Mongolians  coarse  and 
lank  ;  of  the  Australian  aborigines 
curiously  crinkled  ;  of  the  Cauca- 
sian races  usually  glossy  and  wavy. 
Speaking  broadly,  the  Latin  races 
have  black  hair,  while  the  Teutonic 
races  tend  to  be  fair. 

Hair  Brush.  Small  brush  for 
the  hair.  The  best  brushes  are 
made  of  bristle,  bent  double  and 
drawn  through  holes  in  the  flat 
stock,  a  wire  running  through  all 
the  bent  heads  to  keep  them  in 
place.  This  forms  the  back  of  the 
brush.  See  Brush. 

Hair- brush  Grenade.  Heavy 
hand  grenade  so  named  from  its 
external  resemblance  to  a  hair 
brush.  During  the  early  stages  of 
the  Great  War  a  number  of  hair- 
brush grenades  were  improvised  by 
using  a  base  board,  to  which  was 
attached  a  slab  of  wet  guncotton 
covered  with  nails. 

At  a  later  stage  of  the  conflict 
well-constructed  hair-brush  gren- 
ades were  brought  into  use.  The 
explosive,  ammonal  or  amatol,  is 
placed  in  a  tin  box  about  5  ins. 
long  by  3  wide,  and  2  ins.  high,  on 
top  of  which  is  a  grooved  cast-iron 
plate  nearly  f  in.  thick,  these  com- 
ponents being  fastened  to  the  base- 
board by  two  metal  straps.  Igni- 
tion is  effected  by  a  length  of 
safety  fuse  carrying  at  one  end  a 
detonator  embedded  in  the  explo- 
sive, and  at  the  other  a  percussion 
cap  in  a  special  holder.  This  holder, 
which  is  also  secured  to  the  base- 
board, carries  a  spring-loaded 
plunger,  and  the  latter  is  held 
away  from  the  cap  by  a  safety  pin 
passing  through  its  rear  end.  When 
the  pin  is  withdrawn  the  cap  is 
fired  and  the  safety  fuse  ignited. 
See  Ammunition;  Explosives;  Hand 
Grenade. 


Hairdressing.     Classic  styles  from  which  subsequent  fashions  have  developed. 
Top  three  rows,  Greek  ;  4th  row,  first  head  Greek,  remainder  Etruscan  ;  5th  row, 
Roman 

From  Costumes  of  the  Ancients,  Thomas  Hope 


Hair-brush  Grenade.     Diagram  showing  this  grenade  in 
plan,  and,  above,  in  section 


Hairdressing.  Method  of  ar- 
ranging and  ornamenting  the  hair. 
The  hair  has  been  the  object  of 
special  attention  in  all  ages  and 
among  all  nations,  savage  and 
civilized.  Among  savages  have  been 
found  the  styles  of  frizzing  so  that 
the  hair  stands  out  from  the  head 
in  a  great  ball ;  of  gathering  into 
lumps  or  horns  on 
the  top  and  at  the 
sides  with  grease ; 
of  plaiting  into 
hundreds  of  cords 
as  is  done  in  the 
New  Hebrides ; 
and  of  wearing  it 
lank  and  adorned 
with  a  circlet  of 
coloured  feathers 
as  among  the 
American  In- 
dians. Flowers, 
bones,  s  h  e  1  Is, 


kernels,  beads,  and  quills  are  also 
used  as  ornaments. 

The  Chinese  custom  of  shaving 
the  head  except  on  the  crown, 
from  which  hangs  a  long  pigtail,  is 
gradually  being  abandoned  in  fa- 
vour of  short  hair.  Some  Moslems 
still  shave  their  heads  excepting 
for  a  tuft  on  top  which,  as  a  handle, 
is  to  help  them  into  Paradise  after 
death.  Japanese  ladies  make  their 
hair  very  satiny  and  draw  it  over 
cushions  to  a  knot  at  the  back. 
Ancient  Britons  and  Saxons  wore 
long  hair,  and  Saxon  ladies  twisted 
their  locks  and  curled  them  with 
an  iron. 

The  Normans  introduced  the 
short  cut  into  England,  and  from 
that  time  fashion  has  swung  from 
one  extreme  to  another,  the  most 
absurd  being  the  late  18th  century 
style  of  erecting  two  or  three  feet 
of  tow  upon  the  head,  covering  it 


HAIREDIN 


3782 


HAITI 


with  the  wearer's  hair,  thickly 
greased  and  powdered,  and  adorn- 
ing the  pile  with  false  curls,  jewels, 
feathers,  and  flowers.  The  Carolean 
custom  of  wearing  enormous  wigs 
was  almost  as  absurd. 

False  hair,  dyes,  and  pomatums 
have  been  in  use  through  the  ages  ; 
Roman  ladies  scattered  gold  dust 
on  their  heads  ;  Mary  Queen  of 
Scots  ordered  false  additions  to  her 
hair  while  in  prison;  Pepys's  wife 
began  to  wear  flaxen  hair  in  middle 
life.  See  Barber. 

Hairedin  Barbarossa.  Turk- 
ish battleship  sunk  by  a  British 
submarine  in  the  Sea  of  Marmora, 
Aug.  9,  1915.  She  was  sold  to  Tur- 
key in  1910,  after  16  years'  service 
in  the  German  fleet  as  the  Kur- 
fiirst  Friedrich  Wilhelm.  Strongly 
protected  with  armour,  upon  a  hull 
354  ft.  long  and  64  ft.  in  beam,  she 
carried  six  11 -inch  guns  in  turrets, 
20  smaller  weapons,  and  two  tor- 
pedo tubes. 

Hair  Grass  (Aira  caespitosa). 
Perennial  grass  of  the  natural  order 
Graminae.  Widely  distributed  in 
temperate  and  cold  climates,  it  has 
flat,  rough,  tough  leaves,  and  shin- 
ing brown  or  purplish  flower  spike- 
lets.  Its  stems  attain  a  height  of 
4  ft.  or  5  ft.,  and  the  plant  forms 
thick  tussocks  in  wet  places.  The 
herbage  is  too  coarse  for  agricul- 
tural or  grazing  purposes. 

Hair  Moss  (Polytrichum  com- 
mune). Large  moss  of  the  natural 
order  Bryaceae.  A  native  of  all 
temperate  regions,  it  has  awl- 
shaped  leaves  with  toothed  edges, 
set  closely  around  the  stiff,  pliant 
stem,  which  ends  in  the  so-called 
flower  (sexual  organs),  or  in  the 
long-stalked  spore-capsule  (spor- 
ange)  covered  by  its  thatch-like 
cap  (calypter).  The  dried  plants 
are  used  for  stuffing  pillows,  and 
for  making  dusting  brushes. 

Haiti,  HAYTI  OR  SANTO  DOMINGO. 
Island  in  the  W.  Indies,  one  of  the 
Greater  Antilles,  second  only  in 
size  to  Cuba.  The  Mona  Passage 
separates  it  from  Porto  Rico  on  the 
E.  and  the  Windward  Passage  from 
Cuba  on  the  W.  The  Atlantic 
washes  its  northern  shores  and  the 
Caribbean  Sea  its  southern.  Haiti 
is  400  m.  long  and  from  60  m.  to 
160  m.  broad;  its  area  is  29,536 
sq.  m.,  nearly  the  size  of  Ireland. 
It  is  politically  divided  into  two  re- 
publics— Haiti  on  the  W.  and  Santo 
Domingo  (q.v. ),  or  the  Dominican 
Republic,  on  the  E. 

Haiti  is  extremely  fertile,  lofty, 
and  heavily  forested,  mountain 
ranges  alternating  with  rich  val- 
leys, watered  by  numerous  rivers, 
and  diversified  by  plains  and  ex- 
tensive lakes.  Several  mountain 
ranges  traverse  the  island  longitu- 
dinally, the  loftiest  peak  being 


Haiti.      Map  of  the  West  Indian  island  containing  the 
republics  of  Haiti  and  Santo  Domingo 

Loma  Tina  in  the  N.  W.  (alt.  10,300 
ft. ).  Between  the  mountains  of  the 
N.W.  is  a  broad,  fertile  tableland 
called  the  Vega  Real  or  royal  gar- 
den, intersected  by  several  large 
streams.  The  principal  rivers  are 
the  Artibonite,  rising  in  the  moun- 
tains of  the  N.W.  and  discharging 
into  the  Bay  of  Gona'ives;  the  Yuna, 
flowing  E. ;  the  Yaqui  del  Norte, 
flowing  N.W.  ;  and  the  Yaqui  del 
Sur,  flowing  S.  The  largest  lakes  lie 
in  the  S.  and  S.W.  portions  of  the 
island.  In  the  E.  is  a  series  of 
llanos  or  prader ias,  valleys  or  plains. 
The  climate  is  very  hot  and 
humid,  especially  on  the  plains,  and 
is  unsuited  to  Europeans.  The 
rainy  season  begins  in  May  and  lasts 
generally  until  the  end  of  October, 
but  sometimes  well  into  November; 


A  succession  of 
sanguinary  c  o  n- 
flicts  led  to  the 
extermination  o  f 
the  aborigines,  and 
within  a  generation 
scarcely  any  of 
them  survived, 
thousands  of  negro 
slaves  being 
shipped  from  Africa 
to  take  their  place. 
In  the  17th  century 
French  buccaneers, 
who  had  made 


Hair    Moss.       Stems    and    spore- 
capsules  rising  from  the  foliage 

the  best  months  are  from  April  to 
June.  Occasional  hurricanes  occur 
during  the  wet  season. 

The  chief  products  are  coffee, 
cocoa,  cotton,  tobacco,  hides  and 
skins,  gum,  honey,  sugar,  and  rum. 
Cattle-breeding  is  neglected.  In 
the  dense  forests  of  the  mountain- 
ous regions  many  valuable  woods 
are  obtained,  notably  mahogany, 
lignum-vitae,  and  dye  woods.  The 
minerals  include  gold,,  silver,  cop- 
per, tin,  iron,  nickel,  gypsum,  kaolin, 
porphyry,  and  limestone. 

Haiti  was  first  touched  by  Euro- 
peans on  Dec.  6,  1492,  when  Co- 
lumbus landed  on  its  shores.  He 
named  it  Hispaniola,  and  four 
years  later  colonists  from  Spain 
founded  the  city  of  Santo  Domingo. 


the  island  of  Tortuga  their  haunt, 
settled  on  the  shores  of  the  Bay  of 
Gonalves,  and  in  1697,  at  the  peace 
of  Ryswick,  the  W.  portion, 
amounting  to  nearly  one-third  of 
the  island,  was  ceded  to  them.  In 
1791  the  negroes,  who  had  largely 
increased  in  numbers,  revolted  and 
overthrew  their  cruel  taskmasters, 
the  result  being  that  two  years  later 
the  emancipation  of  the  blacks  was 
decreed  by  the  French  Convention. 

Haitian  Independence 
Under  Toussaint  1'Ouverture 
(q.v.),  a  negro  of  ability  who  had 
been  made  military  chief,  the 
negroes  captured  the  remaining 
Spanish  portion  of  the  island,  and 
expelled  the  Europeans.  In  1801 
an  expedition  was  sent  by  France 
to  recover  her  lost  possession,  but 
although  they  captured  1'Ouverture 
and  deported  him,  they  could  not 
maintain  their  position,  and  re- 
linquished the  island  in  1803.  The 
independence  of  Haiti  was  pro- 
claimed on  Jan.  1,  1804,  and  from 
1804-6  Dessalines  ruled  as  emperor. 
From  1809-21  the  Spaniards  re- 
covered possession  of  the  E.  end  of 
the  island,  but  the  negroes  again 
revolted,  and  the  E.  and  W.  por- 
tions were  joined  together  as  the 
republic  of  Haiti  until  1844,  when 
the  Dominican  Republic  was  estab- 
lished. Since  that  time  the  history 
of  Haiti,  with  its  two  little  repub- 
lics, has  been  marked  by  political 
confusion  and  a  succession  of  revo- 
lutions between  the  negroes  and 
half-breeds.  See  Santo  Domingo. 
Haiti.  Republic  embracing  the 
W.  portion  of  the  island  of  Haiti, 
in  the  W.  Indies.  Area  10,204  sq. 
m.  Although 
smaller  in  area, 
it  is  more  import- 
ant than  the  re- 
public of  Santo 
Domingo  on  the 
E.  The  coast- 
line is  greatly 
indented  on  the 
W.  by  the  Bay  of 


Haiti,  arms  of  the 
republic 


Gonaives,  lying  between  two  moun- 
tainous peninsulas,  and  at  the  head 
of  the  bay  lies  Port  au  Prince,  the 
capital.  Several  islands  lying  off  the 
coast  are  subject  to  this  republic — 


3783 


HAKE 


Haiti.     Group  of  officers  and  soldiers  in  the  service  of  the  Negro  republic 


the  chief  being  La  Gonave,  facing 
the  capital,  Tortuga,  off  the  N.W., 
and  La  Vache,  off  the  S.W.  coast. 
The  largest  rivers  are  the  Arti- 
bonite,  navigable  for  nearly  100  m., 
the  Grand  Anse,  and  the  Trois 
Rivieres.  The  most  extensive  in- 
land sheet  of  water  is  the  Etang 
Saumatre  in  the  S.E.,  60  m.  in 
length  from  N.W.  to  S.E.,  and 
22  m.  wide. 

.  The  chief  ports,  besides  the 
capital,  are  Port  de  la  Paix, 
Gona'ives,  Jacmel,  St.  Marc,  Cap 
Haitien,  Jeremie,  Aux  Cayes,  and 
Miragoane.  Torrid  heat  prevails 
on  the  lowlands,  but  the  climate 
is  more  equable  in  the  higher 
regions.  The  flora  is  profuse,  but 
the  fauna  is  limited,  the  largest 
mammal  being  the  agouti  (q.v. ).  The 
mineral  resources  are  considerable, 
but  unworked,  although  several 
concessions  have  been  granted. 
Among  the  minerals  known  to  exist 
are  gold,  silver,  copper,  tin,  nickel, 
iron,  gypsum,  kaolin,  limestone,  and 
porphyry.  Agriculture  is  the  chief 
industry.  The  chief  crops  are 
coffee,  cocoa,  and  tobacco,  and  the 
cultivation  of  sugar  is  progressing. 

The  constitution  of  the  present 
republic  dates  from  June  12,  1918. 
At  its  head  is  a  president,  elected 
for  a  period  of  four  years,  assisted 
by  five  secretaries  of  state.  Legis- 
lative power  lies  with  a  Chamber  of 
Deputies  and  a  Senate  of  15  mem- 
bers. By  a  treaty  of  Nov.,  1915, 
the  U.S.A.  established  a  protector- 
ate over  Haiti.  Education  is  free 
and  compulsory,  but  it  is  backward 
in  the  country  districts.  The  re- 
ligion is  Roman  Catholicism. 

An  armed  constabulary  is  main- 
tained with  officers  mainly  re- 
cruited from  the  U.S.  Marine 
Corps.  Railways  are  in  the 
constructive  stage,  only  64  m.  of 


light  railway  being  in  use.  A  line  is 
being  laid  down  to  connect  the 
capital  with  Cap  Haitien.  Steamers 
ply  to  New  York.  French  weights 
and  measures  are  used.  The  es- 
timated pop.  is  2J  millions,  mostly 
negroes,  but  with  a  large  number  of 
mulattoes  and  about  500  of  Euro- 
pean descent.  French  is  the  official 
language,  but  the  lower  classes 
speak  a  patois  known  as  Creole 
French. 

In  July,  1915,  the  United  States 
landed  a  naval  force  and  formally 
undertook  to  restore  law  and 
order,  and  in  1915-16  a  virtual 
protectorate  by  U.S.A.  over  Haiti 
was  established  and  ratified.  The 
new  gendarmerie  has  established 
order,  armed  bands  range  the 
hills  and  burn  peaceful  villages 
no  longer  ;  yellow  fever  and  small- 
pox have  disappeared,  malaria  is 
less  rampant  in  consequence  of 
advances  in  education  and  sani- 
tation ;  roads  have  been  built 
throughout  the  country ;  hos- 
pitals have  been  erected  and 
staffs  trained ;  prisons  have  been 
cleansed.  Reports  of  unnecessary 
violence  by  the  marines  in  putting 
down  banditry  were  current  in 
1920-21  and  are  to  be  investigated 
by  America. 

Hai-Yang-Tao,  BATTLE  OF. 
Naval  engagement  in  the  Chino- 
Japanese  War,  Sept.  17,  1894.  The 
Chinese  admiral,  Ting,  fell  in  with 
the  Japanese  fleet  under  Ito  off  the 
Yalu  river.  Although  stronger  in 
point  of  armament,  Ting  was  un- 
able to  cope  with  the  mobility  of 
the  Japanese  fast  cruisers,  and  was 
utterly  defeated,  being  forced  to 
take  refuge  under  the  guns  of  Port 
Arthur  (q.v.). 

Hajdu-Boszormeny.  Town  of 
Hungary,  in  the  co.  of  Hajdu.  It 
stands  in  the  midst  of  an  agricul- 


tural region,  11  m.  N.W.  of  De- 
breczin,  producing  cattle  and 
cereals.  Pop.  16,100. 

Hajdu-Szoboszlo.  Town  of 
Hungary,  in  the  co.  of  Hajdu.  It 
stands  in  a  pastoral  region,  12  m. 
S.W.  of  Debreczin,  and  the  inhabi- 
tants are  engaged  in  cattle-rearing 
and  agricultural  pursuits.  Pop. 
J  0,000. 

Hajipur.  Subdivision  and  town 
of  Bihar  and  Orissa,  India,  in  Muz- 
affarpur  district.  Area  of  the  sub- 
division, 798  sq.  m.  It  is  a  fertile 
tract  and  is  extensively  cultivated. 
Hajipur  town  is  on  the  Gandak, 
close  to  its  junction  with  theGanges 
at  Patna,  and  is  on  the  main 
line  of  the  Bengal  and  N.W.  Rly. 
The  town  contains  an  ancient 
mosque  and  Hindu  temples.  Its 
commercial  importance  is  con- 
siderable. Pop.  21,000.  . 

Hake  (Merluccius  vulgaris). 
Large  fish  of  the  cod  family.  It  is 
fairly  common  around  the  British 
coasts,  and  especially  off  Cornwall, 
where  it  preys  upon  the  pilchards. 
It  is  rarely  over  3  ft.  in  length,  and 
is  dark  grey  on  the  back  and  lighter 


Hake,  one  oi  the  cod  family,  caugat 
off  the  British  coasts 

below.  The  head  is  somewhat  flat- 
tened, and  there  is  an  absence  of 
the  barbels  seen  in  some  species  of 
the  group.  It  is  an  important 
food  fish,  as  its  flesh  is  white  and 
of  good  flavour. 

Hake,  THOMAS  GORDON  (1809- 
95).  British  physician  and  poet.  He 
was  born  at  Leeds,  March  10,  1809, 
and  educated 
at  Christ's 
Hospital  and 
Glasgow  Uni- 
versity. His 
first  poem,  The 
Piromides,  was 
published  i  n 
1839,  but  most 
of  his  poetical 
work  was  done 
after  the  age  of 
50,  when  he  had  retired  from  medi- 
cal practice.  Among  his  poems 
are  Madeline,  1871  ;  Parables 
and  Tales,  1872  ;  New  Symbols, 
1876;  Maiden  Ecstasy,  1883.  His 
poems  won  the  enthusiastic  praise 
of  his  friends  the  Rossettis,  but 
though  original  in  conception,  they 
are  very  unequal  and  often 
obscure.  Hake  wrote  an  autobio- 
graphy, Memoirs  of  Eighty  Years. 
He  died  Jan.  11,  1895. 


T.  Gordon  Hake, 
British  poet 


HAKIM 


3784 


HAL 


Hakim.  Title  given  among 
various  Mahomedan  peoples  to 
persons  holding  judiciary  offices, 
e.g.  the  chief  administrators  of  cer- 
tain districts  in  Persia.  The  mean- 
ing of  the  word  is  "  one  who  com- 
mands." Pron.  hah-kim. 

Haking,  SIR  RICHARD  CYRIL 
BYRNE  (b.  1862).  British  soldier. 
Born  Jan.  24,  1862,  he  entered  the 
army  in  1881, 
joining  the 
Hampshire 
Regiment.  His 
first  active  ser- 
vice  was  in 
Burma,  in  1885 
-87,  and  he  was 
in  S.  Africa  in 
1899-1900.  By 

then  he  was  a 
Sir  Richard  Haking,  , , 

British  soldier          maJor    on,    the 

staff,  and  re- 
turned home  to  become  professor 
of  the  Staff  College,  1901-6.  Five 
years  on  the  general  staff  followed, 
and  in  1911  he  was  given  command 
of  the  5th  Infantry  Brigade,  which 
he  took  out  to  France  in  1914. 
In  Dec.,  1914,  he  was  promoted  to 
a  division,  and  in  Sept.,  1915,  was 
put  at  the  head  of  the  llth  corps, 
which  he  led  to  the  end  of  the  war. 
In  1920  he  commanded  the  Allied 
troops  of  occupation  in  the  plebiscite 
areas  of  E.  Prussia,  and  in  1921  be- 
came high  commissioner  for  Dan- 
zig, and  in  1923  commander  of  the 
British  troops  in  Egypt.  In  1916 
he  was  knighted. 

Hakka  (Chinese,  strangers). 
People  of  mixed  Chinese  and  ab- 
original stock,  mostly  in  S.  China. 
Issuing  from  Shantung  before  250 
B.C.,  they  now  number  several  mil- 
lions in  Kwangtung,  Kwangsi,  and 
Fulden,  with  500,000  in  Formosa, 
and  virile  colonies  inTong-king,  the 
Netherlands  East  Indies,  and  the 
Straits  Settlements,  besides  many 
emigrants  to  Australia,  S.  Africa, 
and  California.  In  Hong-Kong  they 
work  as  barbers  and  stonecutters. 
They  are  thrifty  husbandmen  and 
labourers,  forming  separate  com- 
munities, with  distinctive  dialects. 
Hakluyt,  RICHARD  (c.  1552- 
1616).  English  geographer.  Of  re- 
mote Dutch  extraction,  he  was 
born  in  Herefordshire  and  educated 
at  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  Having 
taken  orders  he  became  chaplain  to 
the  embassy  at  Paris,  1583,  where 
he  collected  all  available  material 
about  French  and  Spanish  voyages 
to  all  parts  of  the  world.  In  1588 
he  returned  to  England,  and  the 
following  year  published  The 
Principall  Navigations,  Voiages, 
and  Discoveries  of  the  English 
Nation,  enlarged  ed.  in  3  vols., 
1598-1600.  In  1590  Hakluyt 
became  rector  of  Wetheringsett, 
Suffolk,  and  in  1604  archdeacon  of 


Westminster.  He  used  his  influence 
to  encourage  the  colonisation  of 
Virginia.  In  addition  to  his  pub- 
lished works,  he  left  behind  a  large 
number  of  MSS.,  many  of  which 
were  printed  by  the  Hakluyt  So- 
ciety. He  died'  Nov.  23,  1616,  and 
is  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

His  cousin  Richard,  of  whose  life 
little  is  known,  was  one  of  the 
men  who  was  chiefly  responsible 
for  sending  Frobisher  on  his 
voyages.  He  was  a  leading  adviser 
in  all  the  American  enterprises  of 
his  time,  and  he  corresponded  with 
practically  all  the  ocean  navigators 
of  his  day.  His  correspondence 
was  preserved  by  his  cousin. 
Pron.  Hakloot. 

Hakluyt  Society.  British  so- 
ciety for  printing  hitherto  unpub- 
lished works  of  early  travel.  Named 
after  Richard  Hakluyt,  it  was 
founded  in  1846  to  print  "  the  most 
rare  and  valuable  voyages,  travels, 
and  geographical  records  ...  to  the 
circumnavigation  of  Dam  pier."  By 
1913  over  160  volumes  had  been 
published,  including  Raleigh's 


Hakodate,    Japan.      The    town    and 
treaty  port 

Guiana,  1848,  Hakluyt's  Divers 
Voyages,  1850,  The  Journal  of 
Christopher  Columbus,  1893,  and 
Early  Dutch  and  English  Voyages 
to  Spitzbergen  in  the  Seventeenth 
Century,  1904.  The  offices  are  at 
1,  Kensington  Gore,  London,  S.W. 
Hakodate  OR  HAKODADI.  Treaty 
port  of  Japan,  at  the  S.  extremity 


of  the  island  of 
stands  on  a  penin- 
sula in  the  strait 
of  Tsuguru,  18  m. 
N.  of  Omasaki  on 
the  neighbouring 
island  of  Honshu, 
and  was  opened 
to  foreign  com- 
merce in  1859. 
Clean  and  well 
laid  out,  it  is  pic- 
turesquely situ- 
ated at  the  foot  of 
a  rocky  height, 
1,150ft.  The  chief 
buildings  are  the 
town  hall,  naval 


Hokkaido 


school,  and  the  Japanese  Club.  An 
American  mission  has  its  headquar- 
ters here.  The  deep  and  commo- 
dious harbour  is  fortified  and  al- 
most land-locked,  fully  equipped 
with  docks  and  quays.  Matches 
are  manufactured,  and  the  exports 
include  beans,  peas,  pulse,  sulphur, 
charcoal,  furs,  lumber,  and  the 
produce  of  the  extensive  fisheries. 

There  is  steamer  connexion  with 
other  Japanese  ports,  and  from 
Aomori,  on  Honshu,  to  which  a 
steamer  plies  daily,  a  rly.  proceeds 
to  Yokohama.  Tramways,  water- 
works, etc.,  were  established  when 
the  town  was  rebuilt  after  the  disas- 
trous fire  of  1907.  During  the  civil 
war  of  1868  it  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  rebels,  but  was  recaptured  by 
the  emperor  in  the  following  year. 
Pop.  99,800. 

Hakone.       Watering-place  and 

small  lake  of  Japan,  on  the  island 

of  Honshu.      Its  thermal  aprings, 

pure,  sulphurous,  and  saline,  range 

between  98°  and  168°  F.   The  lake, 

which  lies  to  the  N.W.  of  the  resort 

at  an  alt.  of  2,427  ft.,  is  about  3  m. 

.    in  length  by  1  m. 

broad. 

Hal.     Town  of 

^ ^  ^ ^^^^^   Belgium.  It  stands 

I    on  the  Senne,  9  m. 

1  from    Brussels,  in 

2  the     province      of 
Brabant.  The  chief 
building      is      the 
Gothic   church    of 
Notre  Dame,  built 
in    the    14th    cen- 
tury, and  a  popu- 
lar shrine  for  pil- 
grims. It  is  famous 
for     its     miracle- 
working  image  of 
the  Virgin,  its  ala- 
baster altar,  the  work  of  Jan  Mone, 
its  bronze  font,  its  monuments  and 
other  treasures,  the  gifts  of  kings 
and  princes.    There  is  an  hotel  de 
ville  of  the  17th  century,  and  the 
place  has  several  manufactures,  in- 
cluding sugar  and  paper.  The  canal 
to  Charleroi  passes  by  here.  During 
1914-18  Hal  was  in  the  occupation 
of  the  Germans.    Pop.  13,000. 


harbour    of    the 


Hal,  Belgium.    E5tel  de  Ville,  and  statue  of  A.  F.  Servais, 
the  violoncellist 


HALAKITE     CASE 


3785 


HALDANE 


Halakite  Case.  In  Jan.,  1917, 
the  private  room  of  Sir  Theodore 
Andrea  Cook,  the  editor  of  The 
Field,  was  raided  by  the  military 
authorities  in  connexion  with  the 
White  Powder  Syndicate  in  which 
Sir  T.  A.  Cook  was  privately  inter- 
ested. This  syndicate  was  pressing 
a  new  explosive  named  Halakite, 
for  which  its  inventor,  an  American 
named  Blanch,  claimed  extraordi- 
nary powers.  The  English  expert 
board  under  Lord  Moulton  had  re- 
jected the  invention  as  a  fraud. 

An  inquiry  showed  that  Sir  Theo- 
dore Cook  and  others  had  been 
dupes  of  the  inventor.  Blanch  was 
left  to  produce  his  explosive  for 
independent  examination,  but  no 
Halakite  was  forthcoming,  and  the 
military  authorities  were  left  in 
possession  of  the  field. 

Halas  OR  KISKUNHALAS.  Town 
of  Hungary,  in  Little  Cumania. 
It  is  84  m/by  rly.  S.S.E.  of  Buda- 
pest on  the  line  to  Belgrade.  It  is 
an  agricultural  centre  with  large 
vineyards.  Pop.  24,381. 

Halation.  Defects  in  photo- 
graphs consisting  of  the  spread  of 
light  from  some  bright  part  of  the 
subject,  e.g.  a  church  window,  to 
dark  parts  immediately  surround- 
ing it.  The  chief  cause  is  reflec- 
tion of  light  from  the  glass  side  of 
the  plate,  on  which  the  negative  is 
taken,  obliquely  back  on  to  the 
sensitive  film.  The  usual  preven- 
tive is  to  give  the  glass  side  a  dark 
coating  (backing)  which  absorbs 
the  light.  See  Photography. 

Halberd  OR  HALBERT  (old  Fr. 
halebarde).  Late  medieval  weapon 
consisting  of  a  combined  pick  and 
axe  with  a  pike-head,  attached  to 
a  shaft  5  ft.  or  6  ft.  long.  The 
bearers  of  halberds  were  known  as 
halberdiers,  and  came  to  be  em- 
ployed chiefly  on  ceremonial  occa- 
sions. The  weapon,  in  a  somewhat 
modified  form,  is  still  carried  by 
the  English  Yeomen  of  the  Guard. 
The  phrase  to  send  anyone  to  the 
halberds,  i.e.  to  punish  him,  arose 
from  the  fact  that  at  one  time 
soldiers  were  flogged  while  tied  to 
halberds  fixed  in  the  ground.  See 
Arms  ;  Pike. 

Halberstadt.  Town  of  Ger- 
many, in  Prussian  Saxony.  It 
stands  on  the  Holzemme,  30  m. 
S.W.  of  Magdeburg,  and  has  con- 
siderable trade  and  manufactures, 
including  woollen  goods,  leather, 
tobacco,  soap,  oil  refineries,  and 
breweries.  Halberstadt,  which 
was  an  episcopal  see  from  the  9th 
to  the  17th  century,  has  preserved 
many  of  its  old  architectural 
features,  and  its  timbered  houses 
are  notable.  The  most  important 
building  is  the  13th  -15th  century 
cathedral,  dedicated  to  S.  Stephen, 
and  consecrated  in  1491. 


;     1  i'i    H 


Halberstadt,  Germany.    The  Gothic 

Ratskeller,   built    in  1461,   a  fine 

example  of  woodwork 

At  the  other  end  of  the  Dom- 
platz  is  the  Liebfrauen  Kirche 
(1146),  and  near  the  cathedral  is 
the  Gothic  church  of  S.  Martin, 
completed  about  1350,  with  fine 
towers  restored  towards  the  end 
of  the  19th  century.  The  Gothic 
Rathaus  dates  from  the  close  of 
the  14th  century,  with  Renaissance 
additions,  and  the  Roland,  or  sym- 
bol of  civic  liberty,  a  gigantic  armed 
figure  carved  in  stone,  was  erected  in 
1433.  The  Ratskel  ler,  on  the  Holz- 
markt,  is  the  finest  of  the  wooden 
houses  of  the  town.  Pop.  46,481. 


1st  Visct.  Haldane, 
British  politician 

Russell 


Halberd.     1.  Swiss,  14th  cent.     2. 
German,  14th  cent.    3.  Swiss,  15th 
cent.    4.  Swiss,  16th  cent.    5.  Ger- 
man, 16th  cent. 


Halbertstadt.  German  aero- 
plane of  the  Fokker  type.  It  is  a 
single-seater  biplane  used  as  a 
fighting  scout  in  the  Great  War. 
The  Halbertstadt  had  a  fixed  en- 
gine, with  a  tractor  airscrew. '" 

Halcyone.  Incorrect  transliter- 
ation of  Alcyone  (q.v.},  due  to  a 
fanciful  connexion  with  the  Greek 
word  lials,  salt.  Pron.  Hal-si-onee. 

Haldane,  RICHARD  BTJRDON 
HALDANE,  IST  VISCOUNT  (b.  1856). 
British  politician  and  lawyer.  Born 
July  30,  1856,  the  son  of  Robert 
Haldane,  a  Scottish  lawyer,  he  was 
educated  at  Edinburgh  Academy 
and  university, 
and  afterwards 
in  Germany. 
H  i  s  remark- 
able gifts  won 
him  many  dis- 
tinctions, es- 
pecially in 
philosophy,but 
he  chose  the 
barforacareer, 
and  became  an 
English  bar- 
rister in  1879,  and  Q.C.  in  1890. 

In  1885  Haldane  was  returned 
to  Parliament  as  a  Liberal  for 
Haddingtonshire.  He  became  gen- 
erally known  as  a  Liberal  im- 
perialist during  the  S.  African 
War,  and  Liberals  were  not  unani- 
mous in  approving  his  appointment 
as  secretary  for  war  in  1905.  He 
held  that  position  until  1912,  just 
after  he  had  been  made  a  peer,  and 
during  his  term  of  office  he  founded 
the  Territorial  force.  He  became 
lord  chancellor  in  1912,  retiring 
1915.  In  Jan. -Nov.  1924,  he  was 
lord  chancellor  in  the  labour  gov- 
ernment. His  many  honours  include 
the  O.M.  Among  his  writings  are  a 
Life  of  Adam  Smith,  Translations 
of  Schopenhauer,  and  the  Pathway 
to  Reality.  His  interest  in  educa- 
tion was  constant,  and  he  did  much 
to  establish  the  newer  universities, 
of  one  of  which,  Bristol,  he  became 
chancellor.  In  1902-4  he  was 
Gifford  Lecturer  at  St.  Andrews, 
and  he  was  an  indefatigable 
speaker  on  a  variety  of  subjects. 

Haldane's  political  position  was 
always  a  peculiar  one.  His  mod- 
eration made  him  suspect  to 
Radicals  and  to  many  Liberals, 
while  his  interest  in  philosophy, 
and  the  length  and  argumentative 
nature  of  his  speeches,  did  not  en- 
dear him  to  the  average  man.  1  is 
avowed  debt  to  German  scholar- 
ship was  a  charge  against  him,  as 
were  the  consequences  of  his  visit 
to  Germany  in  1912,  and  his  objec- 
tions to  Lord  Roberts's  proposals 
for  national  service.  He  defended 
his  action  in  his  book,  Before  the 
sWar,  1920,  which  describes  his 
conversations  with  the  Kaiser. 


HALDANE 


3786 


In  1912  Haldane  was  sent  by  the 
Cabinet  to  inquire  into  the  gravity 
of  the  German  menace,  and  to 
discuss  the  possibilities  of  an 
amicable  understanding.  .  He  re- 
turned home  full  of  misgiving,  and 
imparted  his  fears  to  his  chief 
colleagues,  but  uttered  no  word  of 
warning  to  the  public.  This  told 
heavily  against  him  in  popular 
opinion,  although  it  is  difficult  to 
see  what  more  he  could  have  done 
without  endangering  the  world's 
peace  by  public  speeches,  and  it  is 
certain  that  he  did  much  to  make 
the  expeditionary  force  efficient  for 
the  ordeal  of  1914.  Pron.  Halldane. 
Haldane,  JAMES  ALEXANDER 
(1768-1851).  Scottish  preacher. 
Born  at  Dundee,  July  14,  1768, 
and  educated 
at  Dundee 
Grammar 
School  and 
Edinburgh 
University,  he 
made  four 
voyages  to  the 
East  as  a  mid- 
shipman, set- 
tled in  Edin- 


in  179.4> 
made  a  series 
of  evangelistic 
tours  in  1797,  and  in  that  year 
founded  at  Edinburgh  the  Society 
for  Propagating  the  Gospel  at 
Home.  Leaving  the  Church  of 
Scotland,  he  founded  and  became 
pastor  of  the  first  Congregational 
church  in  Scotland,  taking  no 
salary  and  devoting  the  income  to 
his  society.  In  1808  he  joined  the 
Baptists,  and  from  that  time  was 
engaged  in  many  theological  con- 
troversies. His  numerous  writings 
include  The  Duty  of  Christian  For- 
bearance in  Regard  to  Points  of 
Church  Order,  1811.  He  was  as- 
sisted in  his  work  by  his  brother 
Robert,  and  died  at  Edinburgh, 
Feb.  8,  1851.  See  Lives  of  Robert 
and  James  Alexander  Haldane,  A. 
Haldane,  1852. 

Haldane,    SIR    JAMES    AYLMEH 
LOWTHROP     (b.     1862).         British 
soldier.     Born  Nov.   17,  1862,  the 
son  of  a  doc- 
tor,   he    was 
educated      a  t 
Edinburgh 
Academy. 
From      Sand- 
fa  u  rs  t       he 
passed    into 
the   Gordon 
Highlanders  in 
1882,      and      Sir  James  Haldane, 
served  on  the          British  soldier 
Indian  frontier  Busicl1 

between  1894-98,  winning  the 
D.S.O.  in  the  Tirah  campaign. 
He  was  with  the  Gordons  in  the 
earlier  part  of  the  S.  African  War, 


being  severely  wounded  at  Elands- 
laagte,  and  escaping  from  Pretoria 
in  1900. 

Having  been  on  the  intelligence 
staff  at  headquarters  in  England, 
he  was  sent  to  watch  the  operations 
of  the  Russo-Japanese  War,  and  on 
his  return  was  again  at  the  War 
Office  as  a  general  staff  officer.  In 
1912  he  took  command  of  the  10th 
brigade,  and  in  1914  he  took  this 
to  France,  leading  it  in  the  early 
days  of  the  Great  War.  In  Nov.  he 
succeeded  to  the  3rd  division,  and 
in  1917  took  command  of  the  6th 
corps,  which  was  under  him  dur- 
ing the  German  offensive  of  1918. 
In  Feb.,  1920,  he  was  appointed 
to  command  the  British  troops 
in  Mesopotamia.  Haldane  was 
knighted  in  1918.  He  published 
A  Brigade  of  the  Old  Army,  1920. 
Hale.  Urban  dist.  of  Cheshire, 
England.  It  is  1£  m.  S.E.  of 
Al  trine  ham,  on  the  Cheshire  Lines 
Rly.  It  is  in  the  Manchester  area, 
being  practically  a  residential 
suburb  of  that  city.  Gas  and  elec- 
tric light  are  supplied  by  com- 
panies, and  water,  hitherto  ob- 
tained from  a  company,  will, 
under  the  Manchester  Corporation 
Act  of  1919,  be  supplied  direct  by 
that  authority.  There  are  other 
places  of  this  name  in  England. 
One  is  a  village  on  the  Mersey,  10 
m.  from  Liverpool,  with  Hale 
Head,  on  which  is  a  fixed  light. 
Another  is  a  village  near  Farnham, 
Surrey,  and  a  third  is  near  Ford- 
ingbridge,  in  Hampshire. 

Hale,  EDWARD  EVERETT  (1822- 
1909).  American  author.  Born  at 
Boston,  Massachusetts,  April  3, 
1822,  he  was 
educated  a  t 
Harvard.  He 
held  various 
pastorates,  and 
was  founder 
and  editor  of 
Old  and  New, 
a  magazine 
finally  merged 
in  Scribner's 
Monthly.  His 
Ten  Times  One  is  Ten,  1870,  con- 
tributed to  the  establishment  of 
many  charitable  clubs.  But  he  is 
best  known  as  the  author  of  The 
Man  without  a  Country,  a  story 
which,  appearing  anonymously  in 
The  Atlantic  Monthly  in  18'63,  did 
much  to  maintain  a  spirit  of  loyalty 
to  the  union. 

Hale,  GEORGE  ELLERY  (b.  1868). 
American  astronomer.  Born  at 
Chicago,  June  29,  1868,  he  was 
educated  at  the  Massachusetts  In- 
stitute of  Technology,  and  at  the 
universities  of  Harvard  and  Berlin. 
Having  devoted  himself  to  the 
study  of  astronomy,  he  became  in 
1890  director  of  the  Kenwood  as- 


trophysical  observatory.  From 
1891-93  he  was  professor  of  astro- 
•  physics  at  Beloit  College.  From 
1893-97  associate  professor  of 
astrophysics  in  the  university  of 
Chicago,  in  1897  he  was  promoted 
professor,  while  from  1895  to  1905 
he  was  director  of  the  Yerkes  ob- 
servatory. In  1904  he  was  made 
director  of  the  solar  observatory 
of  the  Carnegie  Institution  at  Mt. 
Wilson,  California.  Hale  ranks 
high  among  the  American  astrono- 
mers, a  fact  recognized  by  nu- 
merous academic  honours.  He  in- 
vented the  spectroheliograph,  was 
joint  editor  of  Astronomy  and 
Astrophysics,  and  editor  of  The 
Astrophysical  Journal. 

Hale,  JOHN  PARKER  (1806-73). 
American  statesman.  Born  at 
Rochester,  New  Hampshire,  March 
31,  1806,  he  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1830.  From  1834-41  he  was 
district  attorney  for  his  state.  In 
1842  he  entered  Congress  as  a 
democrat  and  soon  showed  strong 
anti-slavery  principles,  which  met 
with  violent  opposition  from  his 
constituents,  but  by  a  vigorous  | 
campaign,  known  as  the  Hale 
Storm  of  1845,  he  won  New  Hamp- 
shire to  his  cause.  In  1847  he 
entered  the  Senate  and  with 
Chase,  Seward,  and  Sumner  or- 
ganized a  weighty  opposition  to 
the  cause  of  slavery.  In  1847  and 
in  1852  he  was  nominated  for  the 
presidency,  but  withdrew  in  favour 
of  Van  Buren  in  the  former  year, 
and  was  defeated  in  the  latter.  A 
staunch  supporter  of  Lincoln,  he 
served  in  the  Senate  until  1865, 
when  he  retired  and  became 
minister  to  Spain.  There  he  re- 
mained until  1869.  He  died  on 
Nov.  19,  1873,  at  Dover,  New 
Hampshire. 

Hale,  SIR  MATTHEW  (1609-76). 
English  lawyer.  Born  Nov.  1, 1609, 
at  Alderley,  Gloucestershire,  he 
was  the  son  of 
a  lawyer.  He 
was  educated 
a  t  Magdalen 
Hall,  Oxford, 
and  after 
studying  for 
the  Church 
turned  to  the 
aw.  In  1637 

Sir  Matthew  Hale,       ,no    became    a 
English  lawyer         barrister   and 

From  a  portrait  in  Was     SOOn     en- 

Lincoin's  inn  gaged  in  some 

of  the  great  cases  of  the  time, 
appearing,  for  instance,  on  behalf 
of  Laud.  Never  a  partisan,  he  ac- 
cepted the  dominance  of  the  parlia- 
mentarians, and  his  prosperity  con- 
tinued after  the  death  of  Charles  I ; 
in  1653  he  was  made  a  judge,  the 
first  appointed  by  Cromwell,  and 
in  1655  was  elected  to  Parliament. 


HALEB 


3787 


HALF  BLOOD 


In  1660  Charles  II  made  him  chief 
baron  of  the  exchequer  and  in 
1671  chief  justice  of  the  common 
pleas.  He  died  Dec.  25,  1676.  A 
man  of  great  learning,  remarkable 
especially  for  his  industry,  Hale 
wrote  books  on  law,  religion,  and 
mathematics.  See  Lives  of  the 
Judges,  E.  Foss,  1848-70. 

Haleb  OR  HALEBESH  SHABBA. 
Arabic  name  for  the  Syrian  vilayet 
better  known  as  Aleppo  (q.v.). 

Hales,  STEPHEN  (1677-1761). 
British  botanist.  Born  at  Bekes- 
bourne,  Kent,  Sept.  7,  1677,  he 
was  educated  at  Cambridge.  Hav- 
ing been  ordained,  he  became  per- 
petual curate  of  Teddington  in 
1709,  where  he  passed  his  life, 
although  he  held  livings  in  other 
parts  of  the  country.  He  intro- 
duced the  methods  of  weighing 
and  measuring  into  his  experi- 
ments on  living  plants,  and  so 
laid  the  solid  foundations  upon 
which  modern  science  in  this  de- 
partment has  been  built  up.  His 
books,  Vegetable  Staticks,  1727, 
and  Haemostaticks,  1733,  consist 
of  the  memoirs  in  which  he  com- 
municated his  discoveries  to  the 
Royal  Society.  He  was  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  Society  of 
Arts.  He  died  at  Teddington, 
Jan.  4,  1761. 

Hales  Grenade.  Explosive 
grenade  made  for  use  both  from  the 
•rifle  or  hand,  and  detonated  by  a 
percussion  fuse. 

The  hand  grenade  consists  of  a 
sheet  brass  cylinder,  round  the 
upper  part  of  which  is  a  segmented 
cast-iron  ring  to  provide  missiles. 
A  central  tube  extends  through 
the  body,  and  in  this  is  the  striker 
pellet,  which  is  held  away  from  the 
detonator  by  the  creep  spring,  and 
is  secured  until  the  grenade  is  to  be 
thrown  by  the  safety-pin,  which 
passes  through  the  base  plug  and 
striker.  A  detonator  holder  is  car- 
ried separately  until  the  grenade 
is  about  to  be  used,  when  it  is 
screwed  into  position.  It  is  pro- 
vided at  its  lower  extremity  with 
a  percussion  cap,  and  contains  the 
detonator,  which  has  a  perforated 
base  to  admit  the  flash  from  the  cap 
to  the  composition. 

In  the  earlier  issues  of  grenades 
the  explosive  was  tonite,  but  later 
ammonal  or  amatol  was  used.  The 
grenade  is  fitted  with  a  wooden 
handle  about  15  ins.  long,  and  to 
this  is  attached  a  tail  of  streamers 
to  ensure  the  grenade  striking  its 
objective  nose  first.  The  complete 
grenade  weighs  about  1  lb.,  and  can 
be  thrown  60  to  70  yds. 

The  rifle  grenade  is  of  similar 
general  construction,  but  is  pro- 
vided with  a  heavy  segmented 
cast-iron  body.  The  cap  and  de- 
tonator are  arranged  in  a  similar 


manner  to  those  of  the  hand  gre- 
nade, but  the  striker  is  made  with 
a  reduced  diameter  in  the  centre, 
and  is  prevented  from  moving  for- 
ward by  two  small  retaining  bolts. 
In  place  of  the  wooden  handle  the 
grenade  is  fitted  with  a  steel  rod, 
10  ins.  long,  which  is  of  the  same 
calibre  as  the  barrel  of  the  service 
rifle,  a  special  blank  cartridge  being 
used  to  propel  the  missile.  The 
range  of  these  rifle  grenades  is 
about  300  to  400  yards.  See  Am- 
munition ;  Explosives  ;  Hand  Gre- 
ade;  Rifle  Grenade. 

Hales o wen.  Market  town  and 
parish  of  Worcestershire.  On  the 
G.W.  and  Mid.  joint  rly.,  it  is  6£ 
m.  from  Birmingham,  and  stands 
on  the  Stour  and  under  the  Lickey 
Hills.  William  Shenstone,  who 
lived  at  the  Leasowes  here,  is 
buried  in  the  churchyard  of  the 
church  of  SS.  Mary  and  John  the 
Baptist.  There  is  an  old  grammar 
school  and  a  few  remains  of  an 
abbey.  The  chief  industries  are 
the  making  of  iron  and  steel  goods. 
Cradley  Heath,  a  centre  of  the 
nail  and  chain  manufacture,  is 
in  the  parish.  Market  day,  Sat. 
Pop.  4,100. 

Halevy,  JACQUES  FRANCOIS  FRO- 
MENTAL  ELIE(  1799-1 862).  French 
composer.  Born  in  Paris  of  Jewish 
parentage, 
May  27,  1799, 
his  real  name 
was  Levi.  He 
studied  at  the 
C  o  nservatoire, 
then  under 
Cherubini,  and, 
after  going  to 
Italy  with  the 
grand  prix,  re- 
turned to 
himself  to  the 


Fromental  Halevy, 
French  composer 


France  to  devote 
composition  of  operas,  of  which  he 
wrote  a  large  number,  including 
The  Jewess.  Professor  at  the  Con- 
servatoire from  1827,  he  there 
trained  several  great  musicians. 
Halevy  was  secretary  of  the 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts  and  chevalier 
of  the  Legion  of  Honour.  He 
died  March  17,  1862. 

Halevy,  LUDOVIC  (1834-1908). 
French  dramatist  and  novelist. 
He  was  born  in  Paris,  Jan.  1, 
1834,  and  started  to  write  for  the 
stage  at  an 
early  age.  Most 
of  his  work  in 
this  direction, 
operettas, 
vau  d  e  ville 
pieces,  and 
comedies,  was 
done  in  colla- 
boration with 
HenriMeilhac 
(1831-97), 
among  the 


most  noteworthy  being  Orphee  aux 
Enfers,  1861;  La  Belle  Helene, 
1864;  Fanny  Lear,  1868;  Froufrou, 
1869;  and  Le  Petit  Due,  1878. 
Halevy  also  published  volumes  of 
his  collected  short  stories,  notably 
Monsieur  et  Madame  Cardinal, 
1873,  and  several  novels,  of  which 
the  best  is  L'Abbe  Constantin,  1882. 
He  was  elected  to  the  French 
Academy  in  1884,  and  died  in 
Paris,  May  8,  1908. 

Haifa.  Prov.  of  the  Anglo- 
Egyptian  Sudan,  containing  the 
districts  of  Haifa,  Mahas  (Delgo), 
and  Sukkot  (Kosha).  Area,  91,600 
sq.  m.  Pop.  38,325. 

Half  Blood.  Relationship  be- 
tween persons  deriving  from  the 
same  father  or  mother,  but  not 
from  the  same  father  and  mother. 
Whole  blood,  is  relationship  be- 
tween persons  deriving  from  the 
same  couple  of  ancestors.  Under 
the  old  English  feudal  law  regulat- 
ing title  by  descent,  the  basic  prin- 
ciple of  collateral  inheritance  was 
that  the  heir  to  a  feiidum  anil- 
quum  must  be  of  the  whole  blood 
of  the  first  feudatory  or  purchaser. 
Actual  proof  of  such  lineal  descent 
gradually  becoming  impossible, 
the  law  substituted  reasonable 
proof,  only  requiring  that  the 
claimant  should  be  next  of  the 
whole  blood  to  the  person  last  in 
possession.  A  distant  kinsman  of 
the  whole  blood  was  admitted, 
or  an  estate  even  allowed  to  escheat 
to  the  lord,  rather  than  that  the 
half  blood  should  inherit. 

Obvious  hardships  inevitably 
resulted.  Thus  if  a  father  had  two 
sons  by  different  wives,  these  half 
brothers  could  not  inherit  from 
each  other,  so  that  if  the  elder  suc- 
ceeded his  father  in  the  estate  and 
died  without  issue,  the  younger  was 
deprived  of  inheritance  as  being 
only  of  half  blood  to  the  person 
last  seised.  Whereas  had  the 
elder  brother  predeceased  the 
father,  the  younger  could  have  in- 
herited, not  as  heir  to  his  half 
brother  but  as  heir  to  their  common 
father  who  was  the  person  last 
actually  seised.  In  England  this, 
with  other  hardships,  was  abol- 
ished in  1833,  and  the  rules  as  to 
the  descent  of  real  estate  and  the 
law  of  inheritance  by  the  half  blood 
as  well  as  by  the  whole  blood  are 
prescribed  by  an  Act  of  1859.  In 
the  U.S.A.  the  laws  affecting  the 
half  blood  vary  in  different  states. 
In  some,  relatives  of  the  half  blood 
inherit  equally  with  those  of  the 
whole  blood  in  the  same  degree  ; 
in  others  they  only  inherit  if  none 
of  whole  blood  exist.  In  Louisiana 
natural  children,  if  acknowledged, 
may  inherit  from  both  parents  if 
no  lawful  issue  exists.  See  Family ; 
Inheritance;  Kinship. 


HALF     PAY 


3788 


HALF-TONE 


Half  Pay.  Rate  of  pay  issued 
to  officers  of  the  navy  and  army 
who  have  for  some  reason  ceased 
to  do  duty,  and  have  been  removed 
from  their  corps,  appointment  or 
command,  but  who  are  on  the 
active  list  and  still  eligible  foi 
employment. 

Half-timer.  Name  given  to  a 
pupil  who  attends  school  for 
approximately  half  the  ordinary 
hours,  going  to  work  in  the  others. 
In  England  the  Education  Act  oi 
1870,  and  later  Acts,  made  educa 
tion  compulsory,  but  local  author! 
ties  were  allowed  to  pass  by-laws 
permitting  children  to  become  halt- 
timers  on  reaching  a  certain  age, 
generally  12  or  13,  provided  they 
had  reached  a  certain  standard. 
The  number  of  half-timers  in  Eng- 
land in  1911-12  was  70,255r  the 
annual  figures  showing  a  steady 
decrease  in  the  number  of  these 
partial  exemption  scholars.  Most 
were  employed  in  textile  factories 
in  Yorkshire  and  Lancashire. 

Attempts  to  end  half-time  were 
resisted  by  employers  and  workers, 
but  the  Education  Act  of  1918 
provided  for  its  abolition,  and  from 
Jan.  1,  1921,  local  authorities  had 
no  power  to  grant  exemption  from 
attendance  at  school  to  an}7  child 
between  the  ages  of  5  and  14. 
Under  the  Employment  of  Women, 
Young  Persons,  and  Children  Act 
which  came  into  force  1921,  it  was 
illegal  to  employ  any  child  under 
14  in  industry  unless  the  child  was 
already  so  employed.  See  Children  ; 
Education ;  Factory  Acts. 

Half-tone.  Photo-mechanical 
process  of  making  typographic 
printing  blocks  from  full-tone 
originals  such  as  photographs, 
wash-drawings,  and  the  like,  as 
distinguished  from  those  in  line. 
While  the  making  of  line  blocks  by 
photo-etching  became  commer- 
cially practicable  as  early  as 
1 860-70,  some  years  passed  before 
a  satisfactory  method  was  devised 
for  breaking  up  full-tone  originals 
into  a  form  capable  of  printing 
with  type.  In  the  earlier  pro- 
cesses of  Pretsch,  Dallas,  and 
Negre  a  gelatine  relief  was  made 
from  a  negative  of  the  original. 
This  relief  was  rendered  conductive 
with  black-lead  and  an  electrotype 
made  from  it. 

Other  inventors  broke  up  the 
image  by  placing  a  ruled  or 
irregular  screen  in  front  of  the 
sensitive  plate  when  photographing 
the  original  with  the  object  of  re- 
placing the  continuous  tone  by  a 
fine  pattern  of  dots  or  other  form. 
This  is  the  method  which  is  now 
commercially  used  in  making  half- 
tone blocks,  but  the  present  pro- 
cess, which  is  purely  optical  and  is 
carried  out  with  great  rapidity  and 


Half-tone.      The  same  subject  as  reproduced  through  six  different  screens. 

(1),  150  lines  per  inch;    (2),  135;  (3),  120,  the  screen  used  for  The  Universal 

Encyclopedia  blocks;  (4),  100;   (5),  80;  (6),  64;  5  and  6  being  commonly 

used  for  newspaper  illustrations.     See  text 


facility,  was  evolved  directly  from 
a  mechanical  and  tedious  method 
independently  worked  out  by 
Pettit  in  France  and  F.  E.  Ives  in 
America  in  1878.  These  ex- 
perimenters, who  were  the  first  to 
produce  successful  half-tone  en- 
gravings, made  a  plaster  cast  from 
a  gelatine  relief  of  the  original,  the 
high-lights  forming  the  raised  parts 
and  the  shadows  the  hollows.  The 
cast  was  blackened  on  the  sur- 
face and  ruled  through,  line  by 
line,  with  a  V-shaped  tool,  the 
action  of  the  cutting  V  on  the 
black  relief  causing  the  high-lights 
of  the  picture  to  be  formed  by  fine 
black  lines  where  the  white  ground 
of  the  plaster  is  most  deeply  cut ; 
the  shadows  by  fine  white  lines  cut 
away  by  the  point  of  the  V ;  and  in- 
termediate tones  by  corresponding 


portions  of  white  and  black  lines. 
The  excised  relief  was  then  photo- 
graphed, a  resist-image  printed 
from  the  negative  on  to  metal, 
and  the  latter  etched.  Ives  per- 
ceived that  this  translation  of 
the  original  into  minute  units  of 
black  and  white  in  correspondence 
throughout  with  the  tones  froic 
high-light  to  shadow,  could  be 
very  simply  done  by  photographing 
the  original  on  to  a  sensitive  plate 
having  a  fine  ruled  screen  of 
crossing  opaque  lines  placed  at 
the  requisite  distance  close  in 
front  of  it.  Cross-line  screens  for 
this  purpose  were  made  by  Levy 
of  Philadephia  about  1880,  and 
from  this  time  half-tones  began 
speedily  to  come  into  general  use, 
first  for  magazine  and  book  illus- 
tration, later  in  daily  newspapers. 


HALIARTUS 


3789 


HALICARNASSUS 


In  the  practical  making  of  half- 
tone .blocks,  the  original  is  photo- 
graphed with  a  screen  of  fineness 
corresponding  with  the  quality  of 
the  printing.  For  magazine  illustra- 
tion, a  screen  of  120  to  135  lines 
per  inch  is  commonly  used ;  for 
newspaper  half-tones,  one  of  65  to 
100  lines,  and  for  the  finest  cata- 
logues and  book  engravings,  150  to 
175  lines.  The  action  of  the  screen 
at  a  short  distance  from  the  plate 
consists  in  the  formation  on  the 
latter  of  a  dot  from  every  aperture 
produced  by  the  crossing  of  the 
lines  of  the  screen,  these  dots 
automatically  ranging  in  size  from 
mere  separate  points  in  the  high- 
lights, to  larger  units  which  unite 
to  form  a  honeycomb  pattern  in 
the  middle  tones,  and  an  almost 
solid  black  in  the  shadows.  From 
this  screen-negative  a  resist-image 
is  printed  on  metal,  usually  copper, 
although  zinc  is  largely  used.  The 
metal  is  usually  sensitised  by  the 
enameline  process,  viz.  by  coating 
with  a  solution  of  fish-glue  and 
bichromate  of  ammonium  which  is 
flowed  on  and  thinly  and  evenly 
distributed  by  whirling  the  plate. 

After  drying  and  printing  under 
the  negative,  whereby  the  light- 
affected  parts  are  rendered  in- 
soluble, the  plate  is  rinsed,  and 
usually  is  then  dipped  in  a  dye 
bath  of  methyl  violet  to  render  the 
very  thin  image  plainly  visible. 
The  soluble  parts  of  the  coating 
are  removed,  first  in  cold  and 
finally  in  warm  water,  and  the  plate, 
after  drying,  is  "  burnt  in  " — that  is, 
heated  to  a  temperature  at  which 
it  scorches  wood,  whereby  the 
fish-glue  image  is  converted  into  a 
hard  enamel-like  substance  which 
is  an  effective  resist  of  the  etching 
fluid.  The  latter  is  perchloride  of 
iron  (ferric  chloride)  for  copper, 
nitric  acid  for  zinc.  As  in  the 
case  of  line  blocks,  half-tones  are 
now  very  largely  etched  by  the  acid 
spray  of  a  machine. 

The  next  operation  is  the  so- 
called  "  fine "  etching  or  re- 
etching,  called  "  staging "  in 
America.  The  plate  up  to  this 
point  is  said  to  have  been  "flat- 
etched."  Fine  etching  consists  in 
lightening  parts  of  the  plate  by 
further  treatment  in  the  etching 
bath  or  machine,  the  other  portion 
of  the  plate  being  covered  with 
etch-proof  varnish.  The  process, 
which  is  artist's  work,  is  carried 
out  to  improve  the  quality  of  a 
block  from  a  defective  original, 
for  example,  making  an  object 
stand  out  against  its  background 
by  lightening  the  tone  of  the 
latter,  but  it  is  very  largely  used  to 
correct  the  defective  work  of  the 
photographer  in  making  the  screen- 
negative. 


When  fascimile  reproduction,  or 
the  nearest  approximation  to  it,  is 
required,  fine  etching  should  be 
vetoed ;  without  its  aid  the  half- 
tone process  is  capable  of  almost 
exact  reproduction  of  the  tones 
from  an  original.  After  fine- 
etching  a  plate  is  often  further 
improved  by  mechanical  means. 
Parts  can  be  made  to  print  darker 
by  rubbing  with  a  burnisher,  a 
highly  polished  steel  blade  with 
rounded  edges;  or  parts  may  be 
lightened  with  a  roulette,  a  milled 
steel  tool  which  can  be  used  to  im- 
press minute  holes  into  the  plate. 

The  last  stages  in  the  making  of  a 
half-tone  plate  are  routing,  lining, 
mounting,  and  piercing,  for  all  of 
which  special  machines  have  been 
devised.  Routing  consists  in  cut- 
ting away  the  metal  of  the  plate  to 
part  of  its  thickness  by  means  of  a 
high-speed  tool  like  a  drill.  It  is 
used  for  blocks  where,  for  example, 
a  head  or  a  machine  is  required  to 
print  without  a  background.  Lin- 
ing is  the  putting  round  the  rect- 
angular picture  of  a  line  or  rule,  or 
a  series  of  line  borders.  This  is 
done,  as  a  rule,  also  by  the  machine 
which  bevels  the  plate.  The  plate  is 
next  mounted  type-high  on  hard 
wood,  and  the  whole,  the  wood 
as  well  as  the  metal,  may  be 
"pierced"  again  by  a  high-speed 
cutting  tool,  if  it  is  required  to  pro- 
vide space  for  type  among  several 
pictures  on  a  single  block. 

Although  the  making  of  a  half- 
tone block  involves  so  many  separ- 
ate operations,  this  branch  of 
photo-engraving  has  become  so 
highly  organized  and  accelerated  by 
mechanical  appliances  that  the 
whole  process  can  be  done  in  a  very 
few  minutes.  At  a  demonstration 
made  by  The  Daily  Mail  for  a 
French  editor,  a  half -tone  block  was 
finished  by  the  Mail's  photo-engrav- 
ing department  within  34  minutes 
of  the  original  photograph  having 
been  taken  on  the  Thames  Em- 
bankment. See  Intaglio;  Photo- 
gravure; Process.  G.  E.  Brown 

Haliartus.  Town  of  ancient 
Greece,  in  Boeotia,  situated  on  the 
southern  shore  of  Lake  Copai's.  Said 
to  have  been  destroj^ed  by  Xerxes 
during  his  invasion  of  Greece,  it  was 
rebuilt  and  became  an  important 
place.  The  site  and  ruins  of  Hali- 
artus are  near  the  modern  village 
of  Mazi.  In  171  B.C.  it  was  be- 
sieged by  the  Romans,  and  its 
territory  handed  over  to  Athens, 
167. 

Haliburton,  THOMAS  CHANDLER 
(1796-1865).  Canadian  judge  and 
author.  Born  at  Windsor,  Nova 
Scotia,  son  of  a  justice  of  the  com- 
mon pleas,  and  educated  at  the 
grammar  school  and  King's  Col- 
lege, he  was  called  to  the  bar  in 


1820,  became  chief  justice  of  com- 
mon pleas,  1828—40,  and  judge  of 
the  supreme  court,  1842-56,  when 


T.  C.  Haliburton, 
Canadian  judge 


jSKgi^maaj^^wi^Ml 

I    England.      He 

\vu.s    M.P.    for 
I    L  a  u  n  c  eston, 
W^fjf:'  §    1859-65,    and 
i    died    at    Isle- 
worth,   Aug. 
27,  1865. 

Founder  of 
the  American 
school  of  dia- 
lect  humour, 
he  is  famous  as  the  creator  of 
Sam  Slick,  Yankee  clockmaker 
and  pedlar,  whose  drolleries  and  wit 
first  found  expression  in  The  Nova 
Scotian  newspaper  in  1835. 

In  addition  to  The  Clockmaker, 
or  Sayings  and  Doings  of  Sam 
vSlick  of  "  Slickville,  1837-40,  he 
wrote  A  General  Description  of 
Nova  Scotia,  1823  ;  Historical  and 
Descriptive  Account  of  Nova 
Scotia,  1825-29;  Bubbles  of  Can- 
ada. 1839  ;  The  Attache,  or  Sam 
Slick  in  England,  1843-44  ;  The  Old 
Judge,  or  Life  in  a  Colony,  1849  ; 
Traits  of  American  Humour,  1852  ; 
Rule  and  Mis-rule  of  the  English  in 
America,  1850  ;  Sam  Slick's  Wise 
Saws  and  Modern  Instances,  1853. 
To  encourage  Canadian  literature 
a  society  called  the  Haliburton 
Society  was  founded  at  King's  Col- 
lege, Windsor,  N.S.,  and  its  first 
publication  was  a  memoir  of  Hali- 
burton by  F.  B.  Crofton,  1889. 

Halibut  (Hippoglossus  vulgaris). 
Largest  of  the  Mat  fishes.  It  occa- 
sionally attains  a  length  of  over 
7  ft.,  but  is  usually  between  4  ft. 
and  5  ft.  The  body  is  thick  and 
narrow,  and  brown  on  the  upper 
side.  Generally  found  at  some 
distance  from  the  shores  to  a  depth 


Halibut,  the  largest  flat  fish 
of  100  fathoms,  it  is  taken  by  trawl- 
ing. Its  food  consists  of  fish  and 
the  smaller  crustaceans.  It  is  ex- 
tremely prolific  and  an  important 
food  fish. 

Halicarnassus .  Ancient  Greek 
city  of  Caria  in  Asia  Minor,  opposite 
the  island  of  Cos.  A  Dorian  colony 
from  Troezene,  like  other  Greek 
cities  of  Asia  Minor,  it  became  sub- 
ject to  Persia  in  the  6th  century 
n.c.  In  the  4th  century  B.C.  it  was 
the  seat  of  a  dynasty  which  ruled  in 
Caria.  On  the  death  of  Mausolus, 
one  of  the  dynasty,  his  widow 
Artemisia  raised  a  magnificent 
monument  to  his  memory  known  as 
the  Mausoleum  (q.v.),  which  was 


HALIFAX 


Halicz,  Poland.      The  principal  thoroughfare  of  the 
town,  leading  towards  the  Dniester 

considered  one  of  the  seven  won- 
ders of  the  ancient  world.  In  334 
B.C.  the  city  was  taken  after  a  siege 
by  Alexander  the  Great.  The 
historians  Herodotus  and  Diony- 
sius  of  Halicarnassus  were  natives. 
It  is  the  modern  Budrum. 

Halicz  OR  GALICZ.  Town  of  Po- 
land, in  Galicia,  formerly  belonging 
to  ^Austria-Hungary.  It  stands  on 
the  Dniester,  60  m.  S.S.E.  of  Lem- 
berg  (Lwow),  and  is  noted  for  the 
brine  springs  in  the  vicinity.  Salt 
and  soap  are  manufactured,  and 
there  is  some  trade  in  timber.  The 
medieval  fortress  of  the  princes  of 
Halicz,  which  stands  on  an  emin- 
ence, is  now  in  ruins.  At  the  parti- 
tion of  Poland  in  1773  the  town 
of  Halicz  was  included  in  Austrian 
Galicia.  It  became  part  of  Poland 
when  that  kingdom  was  recon- 
stituted in  1919.  Pop.  4,956. 

Halicz,  CAMPAIGNS  AROUND.  Op- 
erations in  the  Great  War,  1914-17. 
The  Russians  in  their  invasion  of 
Galicia  in  the  first  month  of  the 
war  captured  Halicz  and  Tarnopol 
on  Aug.  27,  1914,  and  overran  the 
greater  part  of  Galicia.  In  the 
spring  of  1915  the  Austro-Germans 
commenced  an  important  counter- 
campaign,  and  their  operations  for 
the  recapture  of  Halicz  were  under- 
taken in  June,  1915. 

On  June  22,  23,  and  24,  the  Rus- 
sians threw  the  German  and  Aus- 
trian forces  back,  but  in  accord- 
ance with  the  retreat  eastward  of 
their  armies  farther  N.  they  aban- 
doned the  line  from  Zuravno  to  near 
Halicz,  and  fell  back  to  the  Gnila 
Lipa  on  June  26,  about  the  same 
time  as  these  other  armies  reached 
that  river,  along  which  heavy 
fighting  proceeded  round  Rohatyn 
and  other  points  in  its  course.  On 
June  30  the  Russians  retreated  to 
the  Narajovka,with  a  further  retire- 
ment to  the  Zlota  Lipa  in  view. 

Meanwhile,  Austrian  forces  were 
bombarding  Halicz,  and  the  Rus- 
sians withdrew  from  th^  south  side 
of  the  river,  preparing  at  the  same 
time  for  evacuating  the  town,  in 
accordance  with  the  movement  of 


their  troops  higher 
up.  On  June  27 
the  Austrians  oc- 
cupied S.  Halicz, 
and  on  the  night  of 
June  28-29,  under 
cover  of  a  thick 
fog,  they  crossed 
the  river  and  got 
into  N.  Halicz.  It 
looked  as  if  they 
might  turn  the 
Russian  line,  but  on 
June  30  the  Rus- 
sians rallied  near 
Halicz  and  drove 
the  Austrians  back 
to  the  river,  thus 
permitting  a  general  withdrawal 
from  the  line  of  the  Gnila  to  that  of 
the  Zlota  Lipa,  the  new  positions 
being  taken  up  on  July  3. 

Russia's  final  offensive  was 
directed  towards  recovering  the 
ground  lost  in  Galicia  in  1915,  and 
one  of  the  objectives  was  the  re- 
capture of  Halicz. 

While  the  struggle  raged  around 
Brzezany  (see  Brzezany,  battles  of), 
in  the  course  of  Brusiloff's  1917 
offensive  in  Galicia,  Korniloff,  with 
the  8th  Russian  Army,  cooperated 
on  the  S.  between  the  Dniester 
and  the  Pruth,  by  bombarding,  on 
July  7,  the  Austro- German  front 
below  Jezupol  along  the  Bistritsa, 
where  stood  the  4th  Austrian  Army 
commanded  by  Tersztyansky,  and 
attacking  it  in  force  next  day. 
Having  made  several  breaches  in 
the  fortified  lines  of  the  enemy  to 
the  west  of  Stanislau,  the  Russians 
advanced,  and  captured  Jezupol 
and  various  adjacent  villages  on 
the  Bistritsa.  On  July  9  Korniloff 
continued  his  advance  to  Halicz, 
reaching  the  Lukovitsa,  the  enemy 
retreating  to  the  line  of  the  Lom- 
nitsa.  As  the  result  of  the  two 
days'  fighting  the  Austro -German 
front  was  rolled  up  for  13  m.  to  a 
depth  of  from  three  to  seven  m. 
On  July  10  the  Russians  resumed 
their  pursuit  N.W.  and  captured 
Halicz  by  a  converging  attack. 
During  the  three  days'  advance, 
which  had  covered  15  m.,  they 
captured  10,000  prisoners. 

On  July  11  the  Russians  took 
Kalusz,  W.  of  the  Lomnitsa,  and 
next  day,  crossing  the  river  at  its 
junction  with  the  Dniester,  cap- 
tured the  heights  on  the  western 
bank,  while  farther  south  the 
enemy  was  driven  back  from  the 
hills  north-east  of  Kalusz.  On  July 
13-14  the  Austro-Germans,  who 
had  been  reinforced,  made  a  deter- 
mined stand  on  the  Lomnitsa,  and, 
pushing  the  Russians  back  strongly, 
attacked  towards  Kalusz,  which 
they  recaptured,  July  16,  the  Rus- 
sians being  compelled  to  withdraw 
across  the  river. 


On  July  19  the  Austro-Germans 
began  a  counter-offensive  against 
the  Russian  front  along  the  Zlota 
Lipa  to  the  Dniester,  which,  owing 
to  the  defection  of  the  Russian 
troops  there,  quickly  succeeded 
in  changing  the  general  situation 
in  the  whole  southern,  area  to 
the  utter  discomfiture  of  Russia. 
On  July  21  the  Russians  were 
driven  from  Babin  and  across  the 
Lomnitsa.  As  the  enemy  pressure 
and  the  .  Russian  breakdown 
farther  north  became  more  and 
more  pronounced  the  S.  Galician 
armies  had  to  fall  back,  aban- 
doning Halicz ,  Nod  vorna,  S  tan  isl  au , 
and  other  places.  See  Galicia, 
Campaigns  in  ;  Korniloff. 

Halidon  Hill.  Battlefield  near 
Berwick-on-Tweed,  where,  July  19, 
1333,  a  battle  was  fought  between 
the  English  and  the  Scots.  The 
English,  under  Edward  III,  were 
nearly  all  dismounted,  and  were 
divided  into  three  divisions  or- 
battles,  each  composed  of  men-at- 
arms,  with  archers  on  their  flanks. 
The  Scots,  under  Sir  Archibald 
Douglas,  came  up  the  hill  in  dense 
columns.  Their  attack  was  re- 
pulsed by  the  showers  of  arrows, 
only  their  left  reaching  the  English, 
while  the  rest  were  driven  down 
the  hill,  pursued  by  the  English 
on  horseback.  The  forces  engaged 
were  not  large,  and  the  losses  of 
the  English  were  very  light.  The 
battle  was  fought  by  the  Scots  to 
save  Berwick,  but  on  their  defeat 
the  town  was  promptly  surren- 
dered to  Edward. 

Halifax.  County  and  mun.  bor- 
ough of  Yorkshire  (W.R.).  It 
stands  at  the  junction  of  the  rivers 
Hebble  and 
Calder,  7  m.  S.  W. 
of  Bradford,  and 
191  m.  from 
London.  It  has 
stations  on  the 
G.N.  and  L.  & 
Y  Rlvs.  The 


Halifax  arms 


principal  secular 
buildings  include 
the  town  hall,  a  19th  century  edifice 
designed  by  Sir  Charles  Barry,  and 
the  royal  infirmary  in  the  Renais- 
sance style.  The  Piece  Hall,  now 
a  market,  dates  from  the  13th 
century. 

Of  the  churches  that  of  S.  John 
the  Baptist  is  the  chief  ;  although 
dating  mainly  from  the  17th  cen- 
tury, part  of  it  is  older,  while  there 
was  a  church  on  the  site  before 
1066.  All  Souls  is  a  fine  modern 
church  designed  by  Sir  Gilbert 
Scott,  and  the  chief  of  many  Non- 
conformist churches  is  the  Congre- 
gational building,  Square  Church. 
There  is  a  public  library  and  muse- 
um ;  also  the  Ackroyd  museum  and 


HALIFAX 


3791 


HALIFAX 


Halifax,  Nova  Scotia.   Plan  of  the  Canadian  city,  show- 
ing the  principal  quays  and  dockyards 

art  gallery.  There  are  several  parks, 
one  having  been  given  by  Sir  F. 
Crossley,  who  gave  his  house  for  a 
museum.  To  the  same  benefactor 
and  his  brother  the  town  owes  the 
Crossley  almshouses  and  the  Cross- 
ley  orphanages.  There  are  tech- 
nical schools,  Heath  grammar 
school,  and  the  Waterhouse  school. 
A  bridge  connects  the  two  parts  of 
the  town  which  lie  on  either  side  of 
the  river  valley.  Halifax  is  a  centre 
for  the  manufacture  of  woollen 
and  worsted  goods,  carpets,  and 
blankets.  There  is  some  cotton 
spinning,  while  machinery  and 
chemicals  are  made.  Ironworks  are 
important.  The  corporation  owns 
the  gas  and  water  undertakings, 
tramways,  and  electric  light  sup- 
ply. One  member  is  returned  to 
Parliament. 

The  town  was  but  a  hamlet  be- 
fore the  introduction  of  the  cloth 
trade  about  1500.  From  then  it 
grew  rapidly,  but  it  was  not  made 
a  municipal  borough  until  1848. 
From  1832  to  1918  it  sent  two 
members  to  Parliament.  Its  gibbet 
is  historic.  On  this  stealers  of  cloth 
were  executed,  after  trial  before  a 
jury  of  16.  There  is  a  model  of  the 
gibbet  in  the  museum.  In  1921  the 
town  adopted  Metz-en-Couture  in 
the  dept.  of  Pas-de-Calais.  Market 
day,  Sat.  Pop.  (1921)  99,129. 

Halifax.  N  City  of  Nova  Scotia, 
Canada,  a  seaport  and  the  capital 
of  the  prov.  It  stands  on  a  hill 
overlooking  Chebucto  Bay,  named 
after  it  Halifax  harbour,  and  owes 
its  importance  to  its  position.  The 
harbour  is  one  of  the  finest  in  the 
world  ;  safe  and  spacious,  it  is  6  m. 
long  and  1  m.  broad.  It  has  ample 
docks,  etc.,  including  the  royal 


dockyard  estab- 
lished here  in  1758. 
It  has  a  large  dry 
dock  and  accom- 
modation for  the 
largest  steamers. 
An  extensive 
scheme  of  im- 
provements begun 
before  the  Great 
War,  was  retarded 
by  the  war  and 
also  by  a  terrible 
explosion  which 
took  place  in 
Dec.,  1917,  when 
a  munition  ship 
collided  in  the 
harbour  with 
another  vessel. 
Immense  damage 
was  done,  es- 
pecially at  Rich- 
mond and  the  N. 
end  of  the  city 
generally,  where 
many  streets  were 
laid  in  ruins. 
Over  300  persons  were  killed,  and 
3,000  houses  damaged,  the  loss 
being  estimated  at  £5,000,000. 

Halifax  is  837  m.  from  Montreal, 
and  is  the  terminus  of  two  trans- 
continental lines  of  rly.,  C.P.R.  and 
C.N.R.,  as  also 
of  those  confined 
to  the  prov. 
Steamers  go 
regularly  to 
Europe,  the 
U.S.A.,  the  West 
Indies,  and  else- 

Halifaz,  N.S.,  arms   ™he*e;     It    is 
Canada  s  c  n  i  e  t 

winter  port,  the  headquarters  of 
the  Atlantic  section  of  the  Can- 
adian navy,  and  since  its  founda- 
tion has  been  a  garrison  town, 
strongly  fortified.  In  1906  the 
Dominion  became  responsible  for 
its  defence.  Its  exports  are  fish, 


lumber,  etc.,  and  its  industries  in- 
clude shipbuilding,  founding,  sugar 
and  oil  refining,  and  the  making  of 
furniture,  soap,  paint,  tobacco,  etc. 
There  are  also  factories  for  making 
cotton  and  woollen  goods,  agri- 
cultural implements,  etc. 

Founded  in  1749,  and  named 
after  the  earl  of  Halifax  (1716-71), 
Halifax  has  still  some  wooden 
houses.  It  was  made  the  provincial 
capital  in  1750.  In  appearance  it  is 
somewhat  English,  a  reminder  of  the 
time  when  it  was  the  main  gateway 
into  Canada  and  a  military  and 
social  centre  relatively  more  import- 
ant than  it  is  to-day.  Its  chief  build- 
ings are  those  erected  for  official 
uses,  e.g.  the  house  of  the  Nova 
Scotia  legislature  and  the  residence 
of  the  lieutenant-governor.  The 
Roman  Catholics  have  a  cathedral, 
while  S.  Paul's  is  the  oldest  Anglican 
church.  The  city  has  a  citadel. 
There  are  hospitals  and  other 
charitable  institutions,  as  well  as 
several  schools  and  colleges,  the 
chief  of  which  is  Dalhousie  Uni- 
versity. Tt  is  governed  by  a 


Halifax,   England.      The  parish  church  of   S.   John. 
Top,  right,  the  town  hall,  built  by  Sir  Charles  Barry.  1862 

Valentine 


mayor  and  cor- 
poration, and  has 
supplies  of  electric 
light,  gas,  and 
water.  The  ameni- 
ties include  public 
parks,  notably 
Point  Pleasant, 
and  boating  and 
fishing  on  an  arm 
of  the  harbour. 
Dartmouth, 
across  the  har- 
bour, is  really  a 
i  suburb  of  the  city. 
Pop.  46,619. 


HALIFAX 


3792 


HALIFAX 


Halifax,  Nova  Scotia.     The  town  and  harbour  seen  from  the  citadel 


Halifax,  EARL  OF.  English  title 
borne  by  the  families  of  Savile  and 
Montague.  The  first  holder  was 
the  statesman  George  Savile,  who 
was  made  Viscount  Halifax  in 
1667,  and  earl  of  Halifax  in  1679. 
In  1682  he  was  advanced  to  a  mar- 
qucssate,  but  when  his  son  William 
died,  in  1700,  all  the  titles,  save  an 
old  baronetcy,  became  extinct.  At 
once,  however,  the  Whig  states- 
man, Charles  Montague,  was  made 
Baron  Halifax,  and  in  1714  he  be- 
came an  earl.  On  his  death  in  1715 
the  earldom  became  extinct,  but 
the  barony  passed  to  his  nephew 
George,  who  in  the  same  year  was 
made  earl  of  Halifax.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded in  .1739  by  his  son  George, 
who  took  the  additional  name  of 
Dunk,  and  on  his  death  in  1771  the 
titles  again  became  extinct. 

Halifax,  GEORGE  SAVILE,  IST 
MARQUESS  OF  (1633-95).  British 
statesman  and  author.  The  son  of 
Sir  William 
Savile,  a  York- 
shire baronet, 
he  was  born  to 
wealth  and 
station,  his  re- 
latives includ- 
i  n  g  Shaf  tes- 
bury  and  other 
prominent 
men.  He  was 
well  educated, 
and  learnt 
much  from  his 
uncle,  Sir  W.  Coventry.  In  1660  he 
sat  in  Parliament,  but  his  political 
career  only  began  about  1667,  when, 
his  uncommon  abilities  having  been 
recognized,  he  was  made  Viscount 
Halifax.  He  was  employed  on 
diplomatic  work,  and  was  an 
active  member  of  the  privy  council 
and  the  House  of  Lords ;  about 
1679  he  became  one  of  the  king's 
chief  advisers,  and  he  was  the 
leader  of  the  opposition  to  the 
exclusion  of  James  f  nom  the  throne, 
the  rejection  of  the  Exclusion  Bill 
being  largely  due  to  his  efforts.  He 


1st  Marquess  of 

Halifax, 
British  statesman 

From  a  print 


was  not,  however,  friendly  to 
James.  His  policy  as  a  leading 
member  of  the  executive  was 
throughout  a  moderating,  though 
not  always  a  successful  one.  He 
objected  to  the  execution  of  Russell 
and  Sidney  ;  he  tried  to  reconcile 
the  king  with  Monmouth  after  the 
Rye  House  plot,  and  to  establish 
more  friendly  relations  between 
Charles  and  William  of  Orange.  In 
1679  he  was  made  an  earl,  and  in 
1682  a  marquess. 

On  the  accession  of  James, 
Halifax  lost  his  power,  although  for 
a  while  he  was  lord  president.  He 
spoke  against  nearly  all  the  un- 
constitutional acts  of  the  king,  and 
his  Letter  to  a  Dissenter  was 
instrumental  in  defeating  the 
Declaration  of  Indulgence.  He  did 
not,  however,  join  William  of 
Orange  on  his  landing ;  instead,  he 
acted  as  a  mediator,  after  which, 
to  the  chagrin  of  his  Tory  asso- 
ciates, he  joined  William  and  acted 
mainly  with  the  Whigs.  For  a  few 
critical  days  he  was  the  acting 
head  of  the  government :  it  was  he 
who  presided  over  the  council  that, 
after  the  flight  of  James,  took 
steps  to  keep  order,  while  as 
speaker  of  the  House  of  Lords  he 
had  a  large  share  in  arranging  the 
settlement  of  1689.  As  the  nation's 
spokesman  he  formally  offered  the 
crown  to  William  and  Mary.  Made 
lord  privy  seal,  Halifax  was  one  of 
the  new  king's  chief  advisers,  but 
he  had  many  enemies,  and  in  1690 
he  retired  from  the  cabinet.  He 
continued,  however,  active,  mainly 
as  a  critic,  until  his  death,  April  5, 
1695.  He  is  buried  in  Henry  VII's 
chapel,  Westminster  Abbey.  He 
was  twice  married,  and  left  a 
family.  One  grandson  was  the 
great  earl  of  Chesterfield. 

Halifax  was  a  statesman  and  an 
orator,  but  his  fame  rests  more 
upon  his  work  as  a  thinker.  The 
name  of  the  trimmer,  coined  by 
himself,  expresses  his  political  ideas 
if  the  word  is  taken  without  the 


'more  sinister  associations  that  have 
grown  up  around  it.  He  thought 
too  clearly,  and  knew  too  much  to 
be  a  mere  party  politician,  while  he 
anticipated  many  of  the  ideas  of  a 
later  day.  Unlike  some  theorists, 
he  was  never  afraid  to  cany  his 
moderating,  if  unpopular,  precepts 
into  practice.  His  wit  was  the 
admiration  of  all  save  those  who 
winced  under  his  sarcasms.  Hali- 
fax's great  work  is  The  Character 
of  a  Trimmer,  written  in  1684. 
Maxims  of  State  is  another,  while 
he  wrote  The  Character  of  Charles 
II,  Some  Political,  Moral,  and  Mis- 
cellaneous Thoughts  and  Reflec- 
tions, and  the  Anatomy  of  an 
Equivalent.  In  his  treatises  on 
statecraft  he  put  forward  his  idea 
of  the  state  and  its  functions  ;  un- 
like Hobbes,  it  was  no  appeal  to 
first  principles,  but  a  guide  to 
practical  politics.  See  Life  and 
Letters,  H.  C.  Foxeroft,  1898. 

Halifax,  CHARLES  MONTAGUE, 
EARL  OF  (1661-1715).  British 
statesman.  Born  at  Horton, 
Northampton- 
shire, April  16, 
1661,  he  was  a 
grandson  o  f 
the  1st  earl  of 
Manchester. 
Both  at  West- 
minster School 
and  Trinity 
College,  Cam- 
bridge, he 
made  his  mark 
as  a  scholar ; 
he  was  associated  with  Sir  Isaac 
Newton,  wrote  verses,  and  studied 
philosophy.  In  1689  as  a  Whig 
he  entered  Parliament  as  M.P. 
for  Maldon,  owing  this  and  other 
favours  to  his  friend  the  "magnifi- 
cent" earl  of  Dorset.  In  the  Com- 
mons he  won  an  early  reputation, 
and  in  1692  was  made  a  lord  of 
the  treasury,  being  advanced  in 
1694  to  the  post  of  chancellor  of 
the  exchequer. 

In  these  years  Montague  intro- 
duced the  important  financial  re- 
forms which  place  him  in  the  first 
rank  of  English  financiers.  He 
helped  to  found  the  Bank  of 
England,  was  the  leading  spirit  in 
reforming  the  coinage,  and  initi- 
ated the  National  Debt  and  the 
first  issue  of  exchequer  bills.  In 
1697  he  was  made  first  lord  of  the 
treasury.  In  1698  Montague  was 
accused  of  fraud ;  the  charge  was 
not  proved,  but  his  honesty  was 
not  equal  to  his  talents,  while  his 
vanity  brought  him  further  ene- 
mies. In  1699  he  resigned,  taking 
the  rich  sinecure  office  of  auditor  of 
the  exchequer  which  he  had  care- 
fully provided  for  himself.  In  1701 
he  was  made  a  peer,  taking  the 
title  of  Baron  Halifax. 


Earl  of  Halifax, 
British  statesman 

From  aprint 


HALIFAX 


3793 


HALL 


Two  unsuccessful  attempts  were 
made  by  the  Tories  to  impeach 
him.  He  was  employed  once  or 
twice  on  public  affairs  during 
Anne's  reign,  but  political  office 
only  came  again  when  Georgo  I 
became  king.  In  1714  he  was  made 
first  lord  of  the  treasury  and 
created  earl  of  Halifax,  but  he  had 
only  been  in  office  a  few  months 
when  he  died,  May  19,  1715.  He 
left  no  children.  Halifax  loved  the 
society  of  men  of  letters,  who  were 
entertained  and  rewarded  by  him  ; 
among  his  friends  were  Addison, 
Pope,  and  Prior,  with  the  last  of 
whom  he  collaborated  in  a  parody 
of  The  Hind  and  the  Panther. 

Halifax,  GEORGE  MONTAGU 
DUNK,  2ND  EARL  OF  (1716-71). 
British  politician.  Thesonof  George 
Montagu,  earl 
of  Halifax,  he 
was  born  in 
Oct.,  1716,  and 
educated  at 
Eton  and 
Trinity  Col- 
lege,  Cam- 
bridge, suc- 
ceeding to  the 
earldom  in 
1739.  He  as- 
sumed the  name  of  Dunk  on  his 
marriage  to  the  heiress,  though  not 
the  daughter,  of  Sir  Thomas  Dunk. 
Halifax  was  in  political  life  from 
1748  to  1771.  He  was  in  turn 
president  of  the  board  of  trade  and 
plantations,  lord  lieutenant  of  Ire- 
land, and  first  lord  of  the  admir- 
alty ;  in  1762  he  was  made  secre- 
tary of  state,  and  later  lord  privy 
seal,  serving  in  the  ministries  of 
Bute,  Grenville,  and  North.  He 
died  June  8,  1771,  leaving  no  son. 
Halifax,  CHARLES  WOOD,  IST 
VISCOUNT  (1800-85).  British 
statesman.  Born  Dec.  20,  1800,  he 
was  the  eldest 
son  of  Sir  F.  L. 
Wood,  a  York- 
shire baronet 
and  land- 
owner, whom 
h  e  succeeded 
in  the  baron- 
etcy in  1846. 
He  was  edu- 
cated at  Eton 
and  Oriel  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  and 


2nd  Earl  of  Halifax, 
British  politician 


1st  Viscount  Halifax, 
British  statesman 


i~fe~,  ^.^^,^ larried  a  daughter 

of  Charles,  2nd  Earl  Grey.  Having 
entered  Parliament  as  a  Whig,  from 
1832-34  he  was  joint  secretary  to 
the  treasury,  and  from  1835-39 
secretary  to  the  admiralty.  In  1846 
lie  took  office  as  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer,  remaining  there  until 
transferred  to  the  presidency  of  the 
board  of  control  in  1852. 

He  was  first  lord  of  the  admiralty, 
1855-58,  and  secretary  for  India, 
1859-66,  seven  very  difficult  years. 


In    1866    he   left   office   and   was 
created   Viscount  Halifax,  having 
represented   that  town  in  Parlia- 
ment, 1832-66.    In  1870  he  became 
lord  privy  seal,  and  when  he  left 
office  with  the  Liberals  in  1874  his 
long  official  life  ended.    He  died  at 
Hickletori,  Yorkshire,  Aug.  8, 1885. 
Halifax,     CHARLES      LINDLEY 
WOOD,  2ND    VISCOUNT    (b.    1839). 
English  churchman.     Born  in  Lon- 
don,   June    7, 
1839,  the  son  of 
Charles  Wood, 
1st      viscount, 
•    and  educated 
J||    at   Eton    and 
PM*.    I        I    Christ  Church, 
I    Oxford,  he  suc- 
I   ceeded   to   the 
•HJjJlHHgsBEi  i   peerage     in 
Charles  L.  Wood,       1885.    From 
2nd  Viscount  Halifax,    1 862-70  he  was 

Lafayette  groOHl     of      the 

bedchamber  to  the  prince  of  Wales, 
and  in  1886  became  an  ecclesi- 
astical commissioner.  For  50  years 
he  was  a  recognized  leader  of  the 
High  Church  party,  and  from  1867- 
1919  was  president  of  the  English 
Church  Union. 

A  Liberal  Unionist  in  politics,  he 
was  conspicuous  for  his  opposition 
to  disestablishment  and  divorce 
laws  and  for  his  championship 
of  the  interests  of  the  Established 
Church. 

Halkett,  HUGH  HALKETT,  BARON 
VON  (1783-1863).  British  soldier. 
The  son  of  a  soldier,  he  was  born  at 
Musselburgh,  Aug.  30,  1783.  He 
entered  the  army  and  first  saw 
service  in  India.  In  1803  he  took  a 
commission  under  his  brother 
Colin  in  the  German  legion,  a  body 
of  Germans  in  the  pay  and  service 
of  England.  He  served  with  this 
in  several  campaigns  in  Germany 
and  the  Netherlands^  and  went 
with  it  to  Portugal  in  1808.  There 
he  won  fame  at  Albuera  and  other 
battles.  For  the  rest  of  his  life 
Halkett  was  an  officer  of  the 
Hanoverian  army.  He  was  made  a 
noble  and  appointed  inspector- 
general  of  infantry.  He  led  some 
Hanover  i  a  n  s 
at  Waterloo 
and  had  a  high 
command  in 
the  war  of  1848 
against  the 
Danes.  He 
died  at  Han- 
over, July  26, 
1863.  H  i  s  • 
brother,  S  i  r  Baron  Halkett, 
Colin  Halkett  British  soldier 
(1774-1856),  was  first  in  the  service 
of  Holland.  Later  he  commanded 
a  battalion  of  the  German  legion 
in  the  Peninsular  War,  and  led  a 
brigade  at  Waterloo,  when  he  was 
wounded. 


Hall.  Word  used  originally  for 
a  large  room.  It  was  specially 
applied  to  the  room  in  which  kings 
and  others  in  authority  received 
suppliants,  hence  the  phrase,  the 
hall  of  justice.  The  same  room  was 
also  used  for  feasts  and  ceremonies 
and  in  castles  and  other  large  resi- 
dences as  a  dining-room  for  the 
household,  a  use  which  persists  in 
the  halls  of  colleges,  public  schools, 
and  similar  institutions.  It  was  also 
given  to  the  place  where  the 
burgesses  of  a  town  or  the 
members  of  a  guild  met,  hence 
comes  the  town  hall  and  the  guild- 
hall. A  further  use,  arising  out  of 
the  first,  was  for  a  manor  house. 
This  was  the  hall  in  which  justice 
was  dispensed,  and  so  in  time  the 
house  itself  became  known  as  the 
hall.  The  large  residence  in  many 
English  villages  is  consequently 
known  as  the  hall.  Notable  halls, 
using  the  word  for  a  room,  are 
Westminster  Hall,  the  hall  of  the 
Middle  Temple,  the  hall  of  Christ 
Church,  Oxford,  the  halls  of  several 
of  the  London  livery  companies, 
and  the  banqueting  hall,  Whitehall. 

A  hall  of  fame  is  a  building 
erected  for  the  purpose  of  com- 
memorating great  men.  One  such 
hall  is  part  .of  the  buildings  of  New 
York  University.  Finished  in  1900, 
it  consists  of  a  colonnade,  500  ft 
long,  with  a  hall  and  rooms  for  the 
reception  of  portraits  and  memen- 
toes of  the  chosen.  The  colonnade 
has  150  panels  on  which  the  names 
of  the  famous  dead  can  be  recorded. 
Each  must  be  a  citizen  of  the 
U.S.A.,  and  must  have  been  dead 
for  at  least  ten  years.  The  method 
of  selection  is  by  a  board  of  100 
selectors,  men  of  standing  as 
scholars  and  writers.  Up  to  Nov., 
1920,  five  elections  had  taken  place 
and  63  names  admitted. 

Hall.  Town  of  Austria,  in 
Tirol,  5  m.  E.N.E.  of  Innsbruck. 
Situated  on  the  Inn,  at  a  height  of 
1,895  ft.,  it  was  a  place  of  some 
importance  in  medieval  times  by 
reason  of  the  salt  mines  of  the 
Haller  Salzberg,  9  m.  to  the  N., 
which  are  still  worked.  The  chief 
buildings  are  the  13th  century 
parish  church,  and  the  old  town 
hall  (15th  century).  Chemicals, 
felt,  buttons,  etc.,  are  manufac- 
tured. Pop.  7,520. 

Hall  OR  SCHWABISCH-HALL. 
Town  of  Germany,  in Wiirttemberg. 
It  lies  in  the  deep  valley  of  the 
Kocher  on  both  banks  of  the  river, 
35  m.  N.E.  of  Stuttgart,  and  still 
retains  an  old-world  appearance. 
There  are  two  important  churches, 
S.  Catharine  and  S.  Michael,  both 
15th  century  Gothic,  the  latter 
having  replaced  a  Romanesque 
building.  The  fountain  in  the  mar- 
ket place  with  sculptures  dates 


0    5 


HALL 

from  1509.  The  salt-works  are  im- 
portant, and  there  are  saline  baths 
on  an  island  in  the  river.  There  is  a 
large  trade  in  cattle. 

Belonging  in  the  llth  century 
to  the  counts  of  Westheim,  it 
passed  to  the  knights  templars. 
It  was  a  free  city  of  the  empire 
from  the  13th  century  down  to 
1802,  when  it  was  taken  over  by 
Wurttemberg.  The  coins  called 
Heller  (Haller)  were  first  struck  at 
the  mint  here.  To  the  S.  of  the 
town  is  the  llth  century  Benedic- 
tine abbey  of  Komburg.  Pop.  9,400. 
Hall,  SIR  ALFRED  DANIEL  (b. 
1864).  British  agriculturalist.  Edu- 
cated at  Manchester  and  Oxford, 
in  1 894  he  became  principal  of  the 
South-EasternAgriculturalCollege, 
Wye.  He  left  there  in  1902  to  be 
director  of  the  Rothamsted  Experi- 
mental Station,  where  he  remained 
for  10  years  In  1917  he  was  ap- 
pointed permanent  secretary  to 
the  board  of  agriculture,  receiving 
a  knighthood  the  following  year. 
He  published  much  on  agriculture, 
and  contributed  papers  to  the  Pro- 
ceedings of  the  Royal  Society, 
Chemical  Society,  etc. 

Hall,  ASAPH(  1829-1 907).  Ameri- 
can astronomer.  Of  humble  birth 
and  little  education,  his  taste  for 
mathematics  led  him  to  study.  In 
1857  he  obtained  a  position  as  as- 
sistant in  the  Cambridge  observa- 
tory. Here  his  progress  was  rapid, 
and  after  five  years  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  mathematics 
in  the  U.S.  naval  observatory.  He 
was  sent  on  expeditions  to  Bering 
Straits,  Sicily,  Vladivostok,  and 
elsewhere  to  observe  eclipses  and 
transits,  and  in  1877  he  made  his 
name  by  the  discovery  of  the  two 
satellites  of  Mars.  Retiring  from 
the  observatory  in  1891,  from 
1895-1901  he  was  professor  of 
astronomy  at  Harvard. 

Hall,  CHARLES  FRANCIS  (1821- 
71).  American  explorer.  Born  at 
Rochester,  New  Hampshire,  he 
began  his  ca- 
reer as  a  jour- 
nalist, and,  in 
the  service  of 
the  American 
Geographical 
Society,  in 
I860  accom- 
panied the  ex- 
pedition sent 
to  search  for 
Sir  John 
Franklin,  and 
passed  two 
years  amongst 
the  Eskimos.  In  1864  he  made 
another  Arctic  voyage,  meeting,  in 
1866,  some  Eskimos  who  gave  him 
authentic  details  of  the  fate  of 
Franklin  and  his  party.  From  them 
he  received  Franklin's  watch  and 


3794 

other  relics  which  put  the  fate  of 
the  explorer  beyond  all  doubt.  On 
this  occasion  he  spent  five  years  in 
the  Arctic  regions.  In  1871  he  was 
sent  on  another  expedition  by  the 
U.S.  government,  and  reached 
82°  11'  N.,  the  farthest  north  any 
vessel  had  yet  attained.  After  a 
sledging  expedition  he  was  taken 
ill  and  died,  Nov.  8,  1871.  After 
many  dangers  his  party  returned 
to  New  York  in  1873. 

Hall,   CHARLES   MARTIN    (18G3- 
1914).    American  chemist.    He  was 
born  in  Ohio,  Dec.   6,   1863,  and 
educated  at  Oberlin  College.     He 
patented    a   method   of   preparing 
aluminium  by  dissolving  alumina 
in  a  fused  bath  composed  of  the 
fluorides  of  aluminium  and  a  metal 
more    electro-positive     than     alu- 
minium.     By  this  invention  alu- 
minium   became    available    at    a 
cheap  price.    He  died  Dec.  27, 1914. 
Hall,     CHRISTOPHER     NEWMAN 
(1816-1902).        British    Noncon- 
formist.     Born  at  Maidstone,  May 
22, 181 6,  son  of 
I    John  Vine  Hall 
I    (1774-1860), 
proprietor     of 
'    The  Maidstone 
I    Journal     and 
I    atithor  of  The 
S  i  n  n  e  r's 
Friend,  he  was 
educated    at 
Rochester  and 
Totteridge.  At 
the  age  of  14  he 
entered  his  father's  printing  office, 
becoming  compositor,  reader,  and 
reporter.     Then  came  conversion, 
lay  preaching,   and  study  for  the 
ministry.     He  studied  at  Highbury 
College   and   London    University, 
1 837-42 ;  was  pastor  of  Albion  Con- 
gregational Church,  Hull,  1842-54; 
of. Surrey  Chapel,  London,   1854- 
76 ;  and  of  the  same  congregation 
at  Christ  Church,  Lambeth,  built  at 
cost  of  £64,000  in  perpetuation  of 
Surrey  Chapel,  1876-92. 

He  was  chairman  of  the  Congre- 
gational Union,  1866,laboured  inces- 
santly as  an  evangelical  preacher, 
visited  Canada  and  the  U.S.A.  in 
1867,  was  an  eloquent  vindicator  of 
the  North  during  the  American 
Civil  War,  and  wrote  many  devo- 
tional works.  Of  his  tract,  Come  to 
Jesus,  1848,  translated  into  various 
languages,  4,000,000  copies  were 
sold.  He  died  Feb.  17,  1902,  and 
was  buried  at  Abney  Park. 

Hall,  EDWARD  (c.  1500-1547). 
English  chronicler.  A  Shropshire 
man,  he  was  educated  at  Eton  and 
King's  College,  Cambridge.  He  be- 
came a  barrister  and  M.P.  for 
Bridgnorth  in  1542,  while  he  also 
held  official  positions  in  the  city  of 
London.  Hall  is  known  solely  as 
the  author  of  a  Chronicle  published 


C.  Newman  Hall, 
British  Noncon- 
formist 


Joseph  Hall, 
English  prelate 

From  a  picture  in  Em 
manuel  Coll.,  Camb. 


HALL 

in  1548.  This,  called  in  full  The 
Union  of  the  noble  and  illustrious 
families  of  Lancaster  and  York, 
gives  an  account  of  the  history  of 
England  from  1399  to  1547,  when 
Henry  VIII  died.  It  is  a  valuable 
source,  while  it  is  also  interesting  be- 
cause of  Shakespeare's  debt  to  it. 
Hall  was  a  Protestant,  a  royalist,  a 
hater  of  priests,  and  a  lover  of 
pageants.  His  Chronicle  was  con- 
tinued by  other  hands,  and  the 
latter  and  more  valuable  part,  that 
dealing  with  Hall's  own  lifetime,  has 
been  edited  by  C.  Whibley,  1904. 

Hall,  JOSEPH  (1574-1656).  Eng- 
lish prelate  and  author.  Born  at 
Bristow  Park,  Ashby-de-la-Zouch, 
July  1,  1574, 
and  educated 
at  Emmanuel 
College,  Cam- 
bridge, of 
which  he  be- 
came fellow,  he 
held  livings  at 
Halstead  and 
Waltham,  was 
dean  of  Wor 
cester,  1616, 
bishop  of  Exe- 
ter, 1627-41, 
and  bishop  of  Norwich,  1641-47. 
He  accompanied  Sir  Edmund 
Bacon  to  Spa,  1605  ;  was  chaplain 
to  Henry  prince  of  Wales,  1608  ; 
deputy  at  the  synod  of  Dort,  1618. 

Though  devoted  to  the  Church  of 
England,  he  was  accused  by  Laud 
of  puritanical  leanings,  and  his  de- 
fence of  episcopacy,  1640,  caused 
an  attack  by  five  Puritans  whose 
initials  formed  the  joint  pseudo- 
nym of  Smectymnuus,  and  in- 
volved him  in  controversy  with 
Milton.  Impeached  and  imprisoned 
1642,  his  estate  was  sequestered  and 
his  house  plundered.  He  described 
his  trials  in  Hard  Measure,  1647. 
He  died  in  poverty  at  Higham, 
near  Norwich,  Sept.  8,  1656. 

He  wrote  in  couplets  a  series  of 
epigrammatical  satires,  after  the 
manner  of  Martial  and  Juvenal, 
entitled  Virgidemiarum  (gathering 
of  rods),  1597-98.  The  first  of  their 
kind  in  English,  they  attacked 
current  poetical  taste,  neglect  of 
polite  learning,  and  contemporary 
manners  and  fashions.  Felicitous 
in  phrasing,  racy  in  their  wit  and 
humour,  and  intrepid  in  invective, 
they  overemphasised  human  frailty 
but  are  valuable  for  their  portrai- 
ture of  men  and  manners  of  the 
time.  Author  of  devotional  works 
generally  known  as  his  Contempla- 
tions, Hall  anticipated  Earle  and 
Overbury  in  the  writing  of  Charac- 
ters. Wotton  calls  him  Our  Eng- 
lish Seneca.  See  Works,  ed.  P. 
Wynter,  1863  ;  Poems,  ed.  A.  B. 
Grosart,  1879:  Meditations,  ed.  C. 
Sayle,  1902  ;  Life,  G.  Lewis,  1886 


3795 


HALLE 


Marie  Hall, 
British  violinist 


Hall,  MARIE  (b.  1884).  British 
violinist.  Born  at  Newcastle-on- 
Tyne.  April  8,  1884,  she  was  the 
daughter  of  a 
harpist,  and  as 
a  child  showed 
exceptional 
gifts  as  a  vio- 
linist. After 
studying  with 
various  teach- 
ers in  England 
she  went  to 
S  e  v  c  i  k,  at 
Prague,  under 
whom  she  de 
veloped  her  wonderful  technique 
Returning  to  England  in  1903,  she 
took  her  place  in  the  front  rank  of 
living  violinists,  and  made  various 
tours  in  almost  ail  parts  of  the 
world.  In  1911  she  married  Edward 
Baring. 

Hall,  ROBERT  (1764-1831).  Brit- 
ish Baptist.  Born  at  Arnesby,  Lei- 
cestershire, May  2,  1764,  son  of  a 
Baptist  pas- 
tor, he  was 
educated  at 
Bristol  and 
King's  Col- 
lege, A  ber- 
deen.  Assist- 
ant to  Caleb 
Williams, 
Broadmead 
Chapel,  Bris- 
tol, and  clas- 
sical tutor  in  After  J.riower* 

the  Bristol  seminary,  1785-90.  he 
was  pastor  at  Cambridge,  1791- 
1806,  and  after  periods  of  mental 
failure,  1804-6,  was  pastor  at 
Harvey  Lane,  Leicester,  1807-25. 
He  died  at  Bristol,  Feb.  21,  1831. 

A  Calvinist  after  the  type  of 
Andrew  Fuller,  though  opposed  to 
Fuller  on  the  subject  of  com- 
munion, and  an  ardent  supporter 
of  missions,  his  sermons  remain 
among  the  classics  of  the  modern 
pulpit.  He  was  the  author  of 
Christianity  Consistent  with  a  Love 
of  Freedom,  1791  ;  Apology  for  the 
Freedom  of  the  Press,  1793  ;  Mod- 
ern Infidelity  considered  with  Re- 
spect to  its  Influence  on  Society, 
1800  ;  and  The  Advantage  of 
Knowledge  to  the  Lower  Classes, 
1810.  He  was  a  conductor  of  The 
Eclectic  Review.  See  Works,  ed. 
().  Gregory,  1831-33,  llth  ed. 
1853;  memoir,  E.  P.  Hood,  1881. 

Hall,  SAMUEL  CARTER  (1800-89). 
British  author  and  editor.  The 
4th  son  of  Col.  Robert  Hall  (1753- 
1836),  of  Topsham,  Devon,  he  was 
born  at  Geneva  barracks,  Water- 
ford,  May  9,  1800.  He  came  to 
London  in  1822,  was  called  to  the 
bar  at  the  Inner  Temple,  was 
gallery  reporter  for  The  New  Times, 
and  established  and  edited  The 
Amulet  Annual,  1826-37.  He 


Samuel  Gaiter  Hall, 
British  author 


Mrs.  S.  C.  Hall. 
British  author 


edited  The 
New  Monthly 
1830-36 
founded  and 
edited  The  Art 
Journal,  1839 
-80;  wrote 
with  his  wife 
Anna  Maria.. 
nee  Fielding 
( 1800-81  ),Ire- 
1  a  n  d,  Its 
Scenery,  Character,  etc.,  1841-43  , 
and  was  the  author  of  Memories  of 
Great  Men  and  Women,  1871,  and 
Retrospect  of  a 
Long  Life,  1883. 
He  died  March 
16.  1889. 

Mrs.  S.  C. 
Hall,  who  died 
Jan.  30,  1881, 
wrote  Sketches 
of  Irish  Char- 
acter,  1829; 
Lights  and 
Shadows  of 
Irish  Life,  1838,  one  of  the  stories 
in  which  was  dramatised  as  Groves 
of  Blarney;  Stories  of  the  Irish 
Peasantry,  1857 ;  and  several 
novels.  Husband  and  wife  wrote 
or  edited  about  500  volumes. 

Hall,  SIR  WILLIAM  REGINALD  (b. 
1871).  British  sailor.  He  entered 
the  navy  in  1883,  and  became  a 
specialist  in 
gunnery.  He 
was  senior  staff 
officer  of  the 
Excellent  in 
1898,  in  which 
year  he  was 
promoted  com- 
mander. In- 
specting cap- 
tain of  me- 
chanical train- 
ing establish-  Bussel1 
ments,  1906-7,  he  was  naval  assist- 
ant to  the  controller  of  the  navy, 
1911-13.  In  Oct.,  1914,  he  was  ap- 
pointed director  of  the  intelligence 
service  of  the  war  staff  at  the  Ad- 
miralty. He  resigned  from  the  Ad- 
miralty Jan.  1919,  and  was  elected 
M.P.  in  1919  and  1922.  In  1923 
he  became  principal  agent  of  the 
Unionist  party,  resigning  Feb.  1924. 
Hallam,  ARTHUR  HENRY  (1811- 
33).  British  essayist.  Born  in 
London,  Feb.  1,  1811,  the  eldest 
son  of  Henry 
Hallam,  the 
historian,  he 
was  educated 
at  Eton  and 
Trinity  Col- 
lege, C  a  m- 
bridge,  where 
he  became 

intimate   with 

Artnur  Henry  Hallam   Tennyson.  His 

From  a  bust  by  Chantrey      early  death  at 


Sir  Reginald  Hall, 
British  sailor 


Vienna,  Sept.  15,  1833,  which 
inspired  Tennyson's  elegiac  poem, 
In  Memoriam,  cut  short  a  career 
of  remarkable  promise.  See  In 
Memoriam  ;  Tennyson. 

Hallam,  HENRY  (1777-1859). 
British  historian.  The  son  of 
John  Hallam.  dean  of  Bristol 
Hallam  was 
born  at  Wind 
sor,  July  9, 
1777,  and  edu 
cated  at  Eton 
and  Christ 
Church,  Ox- 
ford. He  be- 
came a  barris- 
ter, but  pri- 
vate means, 
coupled  with 
an  easy  post 
in  the  civil  service,  enabled  him 
to  devote  his  life  to  literary  work. 
He  died  at  Hayes,  Kent,  on  Jan. 
21.  1859 

A  strong  Whig,  Hallam  wrote 
many  articles  for  The  Edinburgh 
Review ;  but  he  is  remembered 
chiefly  by  two  monumental  works. 
His  View  of  the  State  of  Europe 
during  the  Middle  Ages,  1818,  is  in 
the  nature  of  a  general  sketch  of 
the  various  institutions  and  influ- 
ences, and  is  still  of  considerable 
value  in  spite  of  much  light  thrown 
by  recent  research  upon  feudalism 
and  other  problems.  This  is  less 
true  of  his  Constitutional  History 
of  England,  which  deals  with  the 
period  between  1485  and  1760.  It 
is  a  clear  and  impartial  account  of 
the  various  constitutional  changes, 
although  to  some  extent  it  has 
been  superseded  by  later  scholar- 
ship. It  is  written  by  one  who  be- 
lieved firmly  in  the  principles  of  the 
Whigs  and  in  the  revolution  of  1688 
as  the  high  tide  of  constitutional 
liberty.  He  also  wrote  an  Intro- 
duction to  the  Literature  of  Europe 
in  the  15th,  16th,  and  17th  cen- 
turies, 1838-39,  and  edited  the 
Remains  in  Prose  and  Verse  of 
his  son,  1834. 

Hallamshire.  Name  given  to  a 
district  around  Sheffield.  Hallam 
is  mentioned  in  Domesday  Book, 
when  it  belonged  to  Earl  Waltheof. 
Nether  Hallam  is  the  centre  of  the 
district,  which  has  no  exact  limits. 

Halland.  Lan  or  govt.  of  S.W 
Sweden.  It  is  bounded  W.  by  the 
Kattegat,  N.  by  Goteborg  and  Bo- 
hus,  and  S.  by  Malmohus.  Area, 
1,900  sq.  m.  Halmstad  (q.v.)  is  the 
capital  and  chief  port.  The  ex- 
ports include  timber,  granite,  fish, 
oats,  and  butter.  Of  the  rivers  the 
most  important  are  the  Atran  and 
the  Nissa.  Pop.  148,040. 

Halle.  Town  of  Germany,  in 
Prussian  Saxony  It  stands  on  the 
Saale,  23  m.  by  rly.  W.N.W.  of 
Leipzig.  An  old  town,  Halle  owes 


HALLE 


3796 


HALLELUJAH      CHORUS 


Halle,  liermany.       The  market  place  looking  west  towards  the  16th  century 
Marienkirche  and  the  Roter  Turra,  276  ft.  high 


its  importance  to  the  salt,  indus- 
try, which  still  survives,  though 
other  manufactures,  e.g.  machinery, 
sugar,  lubricants,  etc.,  flourish. 

Its  chief  glory  is  the  univer- 
sity, founded  by  Frederick  I  of 
Prussia  in  1694.  Suppressed  by 
Napoleon,  it  was  re-established  in 
1815,  and  combined  with  that  of 
Wittenberg.  In  addition  to  the 
faculty  of  theology,  Halle  Uni- 
versity offers  its  students,  who 
before  the  Great  War  numbered 
2,500,  training  in  all  the  usual 
branches  of  knowledge.  There  are 
a  well-equipped  medical  school, 
anatomical  institute,  observatory, 
physical  laboratories,  agricultural 
institute,  etc.,  and,  besides  the  uni- 
versity library  (250,000  volumes), 
another  in  connexion  with  the 
academy  of  natural  history.  In 
1698  Francke  (q.v.)  established  the 
institution  bearing  his  name,  and 
now  including  an  orphan  home, 
schools,  and  other  means  of  assist- 
ance for  the  poor. 

The  market  place  in  the  old  town 
is  distinguished  by  the  Roter  Turm, 
the  lofty  belfry  of  a  16th  century 
church  that  no  longer  exists.  The 
Rathaus  (14th-16th  centuries)  and 
the  Marienkirche  (16th  century)  are 
of  interest.  The  most  important 
church  archaeologically  is  that  of 
S.  Maurice,  near  the  salt-works, 
whose  employees,  the  Halloren, 
retain  their  old  exclusiveness. 
There  was  a  Spartacist  outbreak 
in  Halle  in  1919.  Pop.  180,843. 

Hall<§,  SIR  CHARLES  (1819-95). 

British      pianist     and     conductor. 

Born  at  Hagen,  Westphalia,  April 

11,  1819,  the  son  of  a  musician,  he 

received  his  musical  education  in 

!   Germany  and  France.    He  settled 

j   in  1 836  in  Paris,  where  he  instituted 


Sir  Charles  Halle 
British  musician 


concerts  of  chamber  music,  but 
in  1848  came  to  England.  In 
Manchester,  1893,  he  founded 
the  Royal  College  of  Music,  of 
which  he  was 
the  first  prin- 
cipal. He  was 
knighted  in 
1888,  having 
become  a  na- 
t  u  r  a  1  i  s  e  d 
British  s  u  b- 
ject.  He  died 
Oct.  25,  1895. 
Halle  was 
highly  gifted 
as  both  pianist  and  conductor,  and 
the  performances  of  his  Manchester 
orchestra  reached  a  high  standard. 
His  recitals  in  London  were  long  a 
feature  of  the  musical  season. 

Halle,WiLMA  NORMANN-NERUDA, 
LADY  (1839-1911).  British  violin- 
ist. Born  at  Briinn,  March  29, 
1839,  daughter 
of  Joseph 
I  Neruda,  organ - 
i  istof  the  cathe- 
*  dral,  she  be- 
came a  pupil  of 
Leopold  Jansa 
and  made  her 
first  appear- 
ance  at  Vienna. 
She  rapidly 
won  a  position 
among  the 
greatest  violin- 
ists. In  1864 
she  married 
Ludwig  Nor- 
mann,  a  Swed- 
i  s  h  musician, 
and  in  1888  Sir 
Charles  Halle. 

Lady  Halle,  She    thus    *>e- 

British  violinist        came  a  British 


subject,  and  in  1901  was  made 
violinist  to  Queen  A le \and ra.  Lady 
Hal!e  died  on  April  15,  1911. 

Halleck,  HENRY  WAGER  (1815- 
72).  American  soldier.  Born  at 
Western ville,  New  York,  Jan.  16, 
1815,  he  was  educated  at  West 
Point.  He  resigned  from  the  army 
in  1854,  but  returned  shortly  after 
the  outbreak  of  the  Civif  War, 
being  given  the  rank  of  major- 
general.  A  man  of  great  adminis- 
trative ability,  he  did  good  work 
in  reorganizing  the  army.  In  1 862 
he  was  appointed  commandcr-in- 
chief  of  the  Federal  forces,  but 
resigned  in  1861  to  become  chief 
of  the  staff.  He  died  at  Louisville, 
Kentucky,  Jan.  9,  1872. 

Halleflinta.  Rock  of  exceed- 
ingly compact  texture.  It  varies 
in  colour  from  grey  to  black, 
sometimes  tinged  yellow,  red  or 
green.  It  is  composed  of  minute 
particles  of  quartz  and  felspar, 
and  occurs  commonly  in  association 
with  foliated  rocks  in  Norway  and 
Sweden. 

Hallelujah  OR  ALLELUIA  (Heb., 
Praise  the  Lord  or  Praise  to  the 
Lord).  Ascription  of  praise  in  the 
Psalms  and  Jewish  hymns.  In  the 
N.T.  it  occurs  only  in  Rev.  19.  In 
the  R.O.  Church,  in  which  formerly 
it  was  only  used  on  Easter  Sunday, 
it  is  now  used  at  Mass,  between  the 
Epistle  and  Gospel,  except  at  cer- 
tain times  (e.g.  from  Scptuagesima 
to  Holy  Saturday,  and  in  ferial 
Masses  during  Advent),  when  it  is 
omitted  as  a  sign  of  mourning.  In 
the  First  Prayer  Book  of  Edward 
VI  Hallelujah  was  sung  after 
Praise  ye  the  Lord,  from  Easter  to 
Trinity  Sunday.  The  response, 
The  Lord's  Name  be  praised,  was 
substituted  in  1662. 

Hallelujah  Chorus.  Name  spe- 
cially applied  to  the  concluding 
chorus  of  Part  II  of  Handel's  ora- 
torio The  Messiah.  The  Messiah 
was  first  produced  in  Dublin,  April 
13, 1742.  and  in  London,  March  23, 
1743.  In  1743  the  whole  audience, 
with  George  II,  rose  to  their  feet 
at  the  beginning  of  the  Hallelujah 
Chorus  and  remained  standing 
throughout,  establishing  a  custom 
which  remains  to  this  day.  Handel 
is  reported  to  have  said  regarding 
his  experience  when  composing  the 
chorus  :  "I  did  think  I  did  see  all 
heaven  before  me,  and  the  great 
God  Himself."  Three  felicitous 
quotations  appear  in  the  chorus  : 
(1)  The  theme  of  "For  the  Lord 
God  Omnipotent  reigneth "  is  a 
plainsong  melody  of  great  age ;  (2) 
The  theme  of  "  The'  Kingdom  of 
this  World  "  is  from  the  chorale, 
"  Sleepers,  wake  "  ;  and  (3)  "  For 
He  shall  reign  for  ever  and  ever  " 
is  an  adaptation  of  the  last  line  of 
the  same  chorale.  See  Oratorio. 


3797 


HALL      MARK 


Haller,  JOSEPH  (b.  1873).  Polish 
soldier.     The  grandson  of  Joseph 
Anton   Haller,   formerly   president 
^^MH^M^M^^    °f  the  republic 
I    of   Cracow,   he 
j»  ?    was     educated 
1    for    the    army 
I    in  Vienna.    He 
f    distinguished 
!    himself   in  the 
I    Great    War, 
especially      i  n 
'    the    campaign 
Joseph  Haller,         in  V  o  1  h  v  n  i  a, 
Polish  soldier          and  the  b'att|eg 

on  the  Styr  and  Stokhod.  In  1917 
he  organized  a  unit  of  Polish  troops 
and  led  them  in  the  campaigns  in 
the  Bukowina.  He  disapproved  of 
the  peace  of  Brest  Litovsk,  signed 
March  3,  1918,  and  joined  a  nuriiber 
of  Poles  in  Bessarabia,  breaking 
through  the  Austrian  lines  and 
reaching  the  Ukraine.  There  he 
commanded  a  corps,  but  was  de- 
feated by  Von  Eichorn's  forces  at 
Kamoff.  He  went  to  France  in 
the  autumn  of  1918,  where  he 
commanded  the  Polish  contingent. 
In  April,  1919,  he  took  the  latter  to 
Poland  to  oppose  the  Bolshevist 
invasion.  See  Poland. 

Halley,  EDMUND  (1656-1712). 
English  astronomer.  Born  in  Lon- 
don, Oct.  29,  1650,  the  son  of  a 
soap  boiler,  he 
was  educated 
at  S.  Paul's 
School,  where 
he  disting- 
uished  himself 
in  mathe- 
matics and 
classics.  At 
17  he  p  r  o- 
ceeded  to  Ox- 
ford,  and  at 
20  he  sailed 

for  St.    Helena         From  portrait  belong- 

to  determine  in» lo  lhe  Koyal  Soeiel» 
the  positions  of  the  fixed  stars  of 
the  S.  hemisphere.  Completing  his 
map  in  1677,  he  was  made  a  fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  the  following 
year.  In  1679  and  the  following 
years  he  travelled  extensively  on 
the  Continent,  and  in  Paris  made 
the  first  observations  of  the  comet 
named  after  him,  the  return  of 
which  he  afterwards  predicted. 

In  1684  he  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  Newton  and  discussed  with 
him  the  latter's  investigations  on 
gravitation,  investigations  upon 
which  Halley  himself  had  indepen- 
dently been  engaged.  The  astrono- 
mer at  once  realized  the  great 
importance  of  Newton's  work,  and 
took  a  leading  part  in  the  publica- 
tion of  the  Principia.  In  the  follow- 
ing years  he  carried  out  a  series  of 
important  investigations  on  trade 
winds  and  on  the  magnetism  of 
the  earth.  His  ideas  on  the  latter 


were  so  greatly  in  advance  of  his 
time  that  it  was  not  until  1811  that 
they  were  properly  appreciated. 

In  1705  Halley  published  his  re- 
sults on  the  movements  of  comets. 
Appointed  astronomer  royal  at 
Greenwich  on  the  death  of  Flam- 
steed,  he  made  a  study  of  the 
motion  of  the  moon,  advocated  the 
method  of  calculating  the  distance 
of  the  sun  by  measurements  of  the 
transit  of  Venus,  and  detected  in- 
equalities in  the  motions  of  Saturn 
and  Jupiter.  He  died  at  Green- 
wich, Jan.  14,  1742. 

Halley's  Comet.  The  most 
notable  of  all  the  comets  whose  per- 
iods are  known.  It  takes  76  years 
(approximately)  to  travel  round  its 
orbit,  which  is  a  very  elongated 
ellipse  with  one  extremity  beyond 
the  path  of  the  planet  Neptune. 
At  its  return,  in  1682,  it  was  ob- 
served by  Flamsteed,  Halley,  and 
Hevelius.  Halley  computed  its 
orbit  and  found  that  it  was  identi- 
cal with  the  comet  that  had  ap- 
peared in  1607  and  before  that  in 
1531  ;  and  he  predicted  its  return 
in  1757.  He  did  not  live  to  see  his 
prediction  fulfilled,  but  his  comet 
duly  returned  nearly  two  years 
late  on  account  of  disturbances 
from  its  path  by  the  planets.  Its 
next  return  in  1835  was  computed 
by  a  number  of  astronomers.  In 
1910  its  reappearance  was  chiefly 
remarkable  for  the  accuracy  of  the 
calculations  of  P.  II  .  Cowell  and 
A.  C.  D.  Crommelin  of  Greenwich 
Observatory  for  the  dates  of  the 
comet's  appearance,  path,  and 
perihelion  passage.  Its  perihelion 
passage  was  computed  as  likely  to 
occur  on  April  17th,  1910.  The  date 
was  April  19th. 

Crommelin  in  a  detailed  study  of 
previous  appearances-  of  the  comet 
carried  back  its  history  with  defin- 
iteness  to  240  B.C.  The  other  ap- 
pearances were  recorded  in  87  B.C., 
11  B.C.,  and  in  A.D.  66,  141,  989, 
1066,  in  which  connexion  it  is  de- 
picted on  the  Bayeux  Tapestry, 
1145,  1223,  1301,  1378,  1456,  1531, 
1607,  1682,  1759,  and  1835.  See 
Comet, 

Halliburton,  WILLIAM  DOBIN- 
SON  (b.  1860).  British  physiologist. 
He  was  born  in  London,  June  21, 
1860,  studied  at  London  University, 
and  in  1889 
was  appointed 
professor  of 
physiology  at 
King's  College, 
London.  Mem- 
ber  of  the 
Council  of 
the  Royal 
Society,  1898- 

}lo°?'uand 
1903-4,  he  was 

president  of  the 


W.  D.  Halliburton, 
British  physiologist 


physiological  section  of  the  British 
Association  in  1902.     His  principal 
publications   are  :    Text  Book    of 
Chemical    Physiology    and    Path- 
ology, 1891 :  Essentials  of  Chemical 
Physiology,  new  ed.  1919;  Hand- 
book of  Physiology,  14th  ed.,  1919. 
HalliweU-Philiipps,  JAMES  OR- 
CHARD  (1820-89).     British  Shake- 
spearean  scholar.       He    was    born 
at  Chelsea, 
I    June  2 1,1820, 
\    and   educated 
H          •'    at  Jesus  Col- 
1    lege,   Cam- 
Jl        J~  I     bridge.       The 

name  Phil- 
lipps  (which 
was  that  of 
his  first  wife) 
J.  0.  Halliwell-Phil-  was  added  in 
lipps,  British  scholar  1872.  At  first 
devoting  himself  to  earlier  English 
literature  generally,  he  eventually 
confined  himself  to  Shakespeare, 
editing  and  annotating  the  texts 
in  16  folio  volumes,  and  in  1881 
publishing  his  Outlines  of  the  Life 
of  Shakespeare,  which  reached  its 
8th  edition  in  1889.  He  died  near 
Brighton,  Jan.  3,  1889. 

Hall  Land.  Division  of  N.W. 
Greenland.  It  lies  N.  of  Washington 
Land  and  S.W.  of  Peary  Channel. 
On  the  N.  it  faces  Lincoln  Sea, 
and  on  the  W.  Robeson  Channel 
separates  it  from  Grant  Land.  It 
lies  about  lat.  82°  N. 

Hall  Mark.  Set  of  marks 
stamped  upon  gold  and  silver 
articles  at  the  Goldsmiths'  Hall, 
London,  or  assay  offices,  to  attest 
the  genuineness  of  the  metal  and 
the  date  of  its  testing.  The  series 
consists  usually  of  five  marks: 
(1)  the  standard  mark,  indicating 
the  standard  of  the  metal,  e.g. 
18  for  gold  of  18  carats;  (2)  the 
hall  mark,  indicating  the  town 
where  the  assaying  has  been  done, 
e.g.  a  leopard's  head  crowned  for 
London,  an  anchor  for  Birming- 
ham ;  (3)  the  duty  mark  (used 
1784-1890),  showing  that  the 
necessary  duty  had  been  paid; 
(4)  the  date  mark,  a  letter  of  the 
alphabet  for  each  year,  varying  in 
design  in  cycles  ;  (5)  the  maker's 
mark,  now  his  initial  letters,  though 
early  pieces  have  sometimes  em- 
blems, as  a  rose  or  a  star.  The 
assay  offices  are  at  London,  Bir- 
mingham, Chester  and  Sheffield, 
Edinburgh  and  Glasgow,  and 
Dublin.  The  York  office  was 
closed  in  1856,  Exeter  in  1882, 
and  Newcastle  in  1886. 

One  of  the  earliest  ordinances  in 
connexion  with  testing  the  amount 
of  alloy  in  gold  and  silver  was  that 
of  Henry  III  in  1238.  The  privilege 
of  assaying  was  granted  to  the 
Goldsmiths'  Company  by  Edward  I 
in  1300  ;  Edward  III  in  1327 


HALLOW-E'EN 


3798 


HALLSTATT 


STANDARD 


300-1657 


1697    TO   17x0 


.Since  1822 


1784 


n>  1890 


l697 


6 


1700 


ff 


1705 


1706 


e 


4> 


f 


1710 


(B 


1715- 


London  Hall  Marks, 
from  1300  to  present  day 


Method  of 
Stamping 


London  Date  Marks, 
1697-1715 


York  (closed  1856) 


Exeter  (closed  1882)     Newcastle  (closed  1886) 


Chester 


Edinburgh 


Glasgow 


Dublin 


Birmingham 


Sheffield 


Hall  Marks.  On  silverware  these  consist  of  the  maker's  initials,  the  standard 
marks  of  the  assay  office,  and  date  stamp.  Until  1890,  the  duty  stamp  was 
also  added.  Date  stamps  run  in  cycles  of  20  years,  represented  by  the  first 
20  letters  of  the  alphabet,  less  j.  Standard  marks  of  the  provincial  offices, 
both  closed  and  active,  are  given  above,  in  addition  to  the  London  hall  marks. 
In  the  series  1736-55,  the  date  shield  was  changed  after  1737 

All  the  above  are  reproduced  by  permigtionfrom  The  Silver  and  Sheffield  Plate  Collector, 
published  by  Herbert  Jenkins,  Ltd.,  fork  Street,  St.  James's,  London 


enjoined  them  to  place  on  the  tested 
metal  a  "  stamp  of  a  puncheon  of 
a  lion's  head."  Numerous  other 
orders,  regulations,  etc.,  include 
those  of  Henry  VII,  1504, 
Elizabeth,  1597,  and  William  III, 
1697-8.  The  first  Scottish  edict  on 
such  marks  is  that  of  James  II, 
1457,  and  in  Ireland  a  charter  of 
Charles  I  gave  the  rights  to  the 
Corporation  of  Goldsmiths  of 
Dublin  in  1638.  Counterfeiting, 
etc.,  of  hall  marks  is  a  felony. 
See  Assaying ;  Goldsmiths'  Com- 
pany :  consult  also  Hall  Marks  on 
Plate,  W.  Chaffers,  7th  ed.  1891  ; 
Old  English  Plate,  Wilfred  Cripps, 
nev.ed.  1901 ,  English  Goldsmiths 
and  Their  Marks,  C.  J.  Jackson, 
1905;  The  Silver  and  Sheffield 
Plate  Collector,  W.  A.  Young,  1919. 


Hallow-e'en.  Popular  Scottish 
name  for  Oct.  31,  the  eve  of  All 
Saints  Day.  Also  called  All  Hal- 
lows E  ve,Holy  Eve,  - 
Cake  Night  (in 
Yorkshire),  and,  in 
the  N.  of  England, 
Nutcrack  Night, 
from  early  times  it 
has  been  associated 
with  many  super- 
stitions and  cus- 
toms, a  number  of 
which  are  referred 
to  in  Burns's  poem 
of  this  name. 
Hallow-e'en  is  sup- 
posed to  be  a  sur- 
vival  from  the 
ancient  festival  of 
Pomona,  the 


Roman  goddess  of  fruit  trees. 
Apples  and  nuts  play  a  large  part 
in  the  pastimes  indulged  in,  the 
nuts  being  used  for  purposes  of 
divination.  There  still  lingers  a 
belief  that  children  born  on  Hallow- 
e'en possess  supernatural  gifts. 

Hall  Peninsula.  Projection  on 
the  S.E.  of  Baffin  Island  between 
Cumberland  and  Meta  Incognita 
peninsulas,  divided  from  the  latter 
by  Frobisher  Bay. 

Hallstatt.  Village  of  Austria,  in 
Upper  Austria.  It  lies  at  the  S.  end 
of  Hallstatter  See,  at  a  height  of 
over  1,600  ft.,  37  m.  S.E.  of 
Salzburg.  It  is  famous  for  its  salt 
mine.  The  church  has  a  15th  cen- 
tury altar  of  carved  wood,  and 
there  is  a  museum  with  Celtic  and 
other  antiquities.  Pop.  800. 

In  the  vicinity  a  cemetery  of 
3,000  graves,  discovered  1846, 
contained  the  human  remains  and 
grave-goods  of  prehistoric  settlers. 
They  worked  the  neighbouring 
salt  deposits,  tended  cattle,  prac- 
tised agriculture,  and  benefited  by 
the  commercial  intercourse  along 
the  amber  route  between  the 
Baltic  and  the  Adriatic.  The 
presence  40  m.  away  of  the  famous 
Noricum  mines  enabled  them  to 
develop  the  use  of  iron  instead  of 
bronze.  The  settlement  according- 
ly gives  its  name  to  the  first  period 
of  Iron  Age  culture,  divisible  into 
early  Hallstattian  (850-600  B.C.), 
with  a  gradual  transition  from 
bronze ;  and  late  Hallstattian 
(600-400  B.C.),  with  a  fuller  use  of 
iron,  and  much  Oriental  influence. 

Among  5,816  objects  from  the 
earlier  excavations  (1847-64),  64 
were  gold,  3,574  bronze,  593  iron, 
270  amber.  The  Noric  iron  needed 
no  tempering  ;  its  exploitation 
was  effected  in  four  stages — for 
ornamenting  bronze,  edging  bronze 
tools  and  weapons,  imitating 
bronze  types,  and  developing  new 
types  in  iron.  Bronze  buckets, 
painted  pottery,  Phoenician  glass, 
ivory,  gold-thread  embroidery,  and 
fibulae  mark  a  high  standard  of 
luxury  and  taste. 


Hallstatt,  Austria.     The  village  on  the  shore        the 
Hallstatter  See 


HALL-STROM 


3799 


HALO 


Halls trom,  PER  AUGUST  LEON- 
ARD (b.  1866).  Swedish  author. 
Born  in  Stockholm,  Sept.  29, 
1866,  after  finishing  his  training  as 
a  civil  engineer  in  1886,  he  spent  a 
couple  of  years  in  America  doing 
chemical  work.  His  first  publica- 
tion was  a  book  of  poems,  1891, 
but  his  proper  medium  was  prose, 
and  he  wrote  a  number  of  novels 
and  short  stories  of  great  charm, 
among  them  Wild  Birds,  1894 ; 
Purple,  1895  ;  An  Old  Story,  1895  ; 
The  Diamond  Ornament,  1896 ; 
Spring,  a  Novel  of  the  Nineties, 
1898.  His  style  is  somewhat  in- 
volved, but  full  of  individuality  ; 
and  his  rich  imagination  and  keen 
sympathetic  insight  into  modern 
life  and  problems  won  for  him  a 
large  circle  of  readers,  both  in 
Sweden  and  abroad. 

Hallucination  (Lat.  hollucinari, 
to  wander  in  mind).  Condition  of 
mind  in  which  a  person  sees  some- 
thing that  has  no  real  existence 
within  his  range  of  vision.  It 
should  be  carefully  distinguished 
from  illusion,  in  which  a  real  object 
is  seen,  but  is  wrongly  interpreted. 
Thus,  seeing  a  ghost  when  nothing 
is  there  is  hallucination  ;  but  mis- 
taking a  tombstone  in  the  dusk  for 
a  ghost  is  illusion. 

Hallucination  is  unquestionably 
subjective :  i.e.  the  object  seen 
only  exists  in  the  mind  of  the 
person  seeing  it.  In  normal  vision 
the  rays  of  light  impinging  on  the 
retina  of  the  eye  produce  an  im- 
pression which  is  conveyed  to  the 
brain  by  the  optic  nerves,  and  a 
mental  image  is  thus  formed  of  the 
object  from  which  the  rays  of  light 
proceed.  It  is  easy  to  produce  this 
mental  image  without  the  action 
of  the  eye.  This  may  be  done  quite 
unconsciously  when  the  thoughts 
are  abstracted,  and  the  mental 
image  may  be  so  vivid  that  the 
person  believes  he  actually  sees  the 
object.  See  Apparition ;  Dream. 

Kalinin.  Town  of  France.  Jt 
stands  on  the  Lys,  13  m.  N.N.W.  of 
Lille,  in  the  dept.  of  Nord,  being  on 
the  Belgian  frontier.  An  old  place, 
it  was  once  the  seat  of  a  noted 
family  It  has  an  interesting 
church.  The  chief  industries  are 
the  manufacture  of  textiles,  and 
there  are  also  distilleries  and  iron- 
foundries.  During  1914-18  the 
town  was  in  the  occupation  of  the 
Germans.  Pop.  16,600. 

Halma  (Gr.,  leap).  GamepJayed 
by  two  or  four  persons  on  a  board 
divided  into  256  squares,  with  men 
in  the  form  of  chess  pawns.  The 
men  are  placed  in  four  spaces, 
termed  yards,  one  at  each  corner 
of  the  board,  and  the  object  of  the 
player  is  to  get  his  own  men  into 
his  adversary's  yard,  the  player  or 
side  first  accomplishing  this  win- 


ning the  game.  Moves  are  made  by 
the  step,  a  move  of  one  square  in 
any  direction ;  and  by  the  hop, 
in  which  a  piece  may  jump  over 
any  other  piece  of  its  own  or  any 
other  colour  in  any  direction,  and 
may  continue  so  doing,  provided 
there  is  a  vacant  square  for  it  next 
to  the  piece  hopped  over.  With  two 
players,  each  has  19  men  coloured 
black  and  white  respectively.  In 
the  four-handed  game,  each  player 
has  13  men  only,  the  colours  being 
white,  black,  red,  and  green. 
Sometimes  four  persons  play  in 
partnerships  of  two. 

Halmahera.  Alternative  name 
for  the  island  in  the  Malay  Archi- 
pelago better  known  as  Gilolo  (q.v. ). 

Halmstad.  Seaport  town  of 
Sweden,  capital  of  the  govt.  of 
Halland.  It  stands  on  the  Katte- 
gat, 76  m.  S.S.E.  of  Gothenburg, 
with  two  harbours  and  a  roadstead. 
An  important  rly.  junction,  it 
has  steamer  communication  with 
Copenhagen,  Lubeck,  and  other 
ports.  The  15th  century  castle  is 
the  residence  of  the  provincial  gov- 
ernor, and  there  are  a  15th  century 
church  (restored)  and  a  museum. 
Granite,  timber,  paper,  fish,  butter, 
oats,  and  potatoes  from  the  S.  of 
Sweden  are  exported.  There  are 
shipbuilding  yards,  cloth,  flour, 
jute  and  saw  mills,  sugar  refineries, 
and  breweries.  In  the  vicinity  are 
mineral  and  sea-water  baths.  Here, 
in  1676,  Charles  XI  defeated  the 
Danes.  Pop.  18,297. 

Halo.  Luminous  ring  round  the 
sun  or  moon.  Halos,  when  clearly 
defined,  are  seen  to  be  coloured, 


Halo  round  the  sun  caused  by  ice 
crystals  in  high  clouds 

red  on  the  inside  and  blue  on  the 
outside.  Usually  about  44°  in 
diameter,  they  ars  due  to  the  sun 
or  moon  being  seen  through  a  thin 
sheet  of  cirro-stratus  clouds,  which 
owing  to  their  elevation  are  com- 
posed of  tiny  ice  crystals.  It  is 
the  bending  or  refraction  of  the 
light  when  passing  through  these 
ice  crystals  that  causes  the  halo. 
In  polar  regions,  where  ice  crystals 
are  usually  present  in  the  air,  very 
brilliant  halos  are  common.  De- 
spite popular  belief  to  the  contrary, 
halos  have  no  definitely  determined 
significance  in  connexion  with  the 
weather.  The  word  is  derived 
from  Gr.  holds,  threshing-floor,  a 
space  circular  in  form,  round 
which  the  oxen  trod. 

Halo  OR  NIMBUS.  In  art,  a  disk 
or  circle  of  light  surrounding  the 
head  in  representations  of  divine 
personages  and  saints  in  sacred 


Halo   as   depicted   by  famous   artists:      1.  Fra   Angelico,   1387-1455.         :.'. 

Botticelli,  1444-1510.      3.  Raphael,  1483-1520.      4.  Raphael.       5.  Dore  and 

later  pictures.     6.  Raphael,  the  floating  halo 


HAL     OF     THE     WYND 


3800 


HALSTEAD 


and  legendary  art.  The  nimbus  of 
God  the  Father  had  the  form  of  a 
single  triangle,  or  of  one  triangle 
superposed  on  another,  with  di- 
vergent rays  and,  occasionally, 
the  Greek  letters  a  (alpha)  and  w 
(omega)  in  the  right  and  left  lower 
corners  of  the  superior  triangle. 
The  halo  of  the  Saviour  showed, 
within  the  circle,  parts  of  the  arms 
of  a  cross,  the  rest  of  which  was 
concealed  by  the  head.  The. 
Virgin's  head  was  surrounded 
either  by  a  plain  circle  or  by  a 
circlet  of  stars,  while  the  saint's 
halo  was  usually  a  circle  of  rays. 
A  square  nimbus  indicated  that 
the  person  so  adorned  was  living 
when  the  painting  was  made.  The 
halo  is  not  unknown  in  sculpture, 
especially  in  Indian  art.  Among 
the  Hindus  it  took  various  shapes. 
For  instance,  the  hair  of  the 
modelled  image  might  be  designed 
as  streaming,  halo-like,  from  each 
side  of  the  head.  See  Saint. 

Hal  of  the  Wynd.  Character  in 
Scott's  novel  The  Fair  Maid  of 
Perth.  He  is  also  called  Henry  Gow 
and  the  Gow  Chrom  (the  bandy- 
legged smith).  His  name  Hal  or 
Henry  of  the  Wynd,  is  applied  to 
him  because  he  lived  in  the  Wynd 
of  Perth.  Known  as  the  best  arm- 
ourer that  ever  made  sword,  and 
the  truest  soldier  that  ever  drew 
one,  his  fear  that  Catharine  Glover 
had  been  promised  to  Conachar 
(Eachin  Maclan)  made  him  es- 
pouse the  cause  of  Clan  Chattan 
against  Clan  Quhele,  in  the  famous 
battle  of  the  North  Inch.  Four 
months  after  the  battle  Hal  of  the 
Wynd  and  Catharine  are  married. 

Halogens  (Gr.  hols,  salt ;  gen-, 
to  produce).  Name  applied  by  Ber- 
zelius  to  a  group  of  closely  allied  ele- 
ments, fluorine,  chlorine,  bromine, 
and  iodine.  The  salts  of  these 
elements  are  known  as  haloid  salts. 
Each  of  the  halogens  is  mon ato- 
mic, and  they  exhibit  well-marked 
gradation  in  their  properties  ac- 
cording to  the  atomic  weights  of 
the  elements. 

Haloragaceae.  Natural  order 
of  herbs  and  shrubs.  Mostly  per- 
ennial, they  aie  widely  distributed 
throughout  the  world.  Many  of 
them  are  marsh  or  aquatic  herbs, 
like  the  mare's-tail  (Hippuris). 
The  flowers  are  mostly  minute,  the 
sexes  separate.  The  plants  have 
no  economic  importance. 

Hals,  FRANS  (c.  1580-1666). 
Dutch  painter.  He  was  born,  prob- 
ably at  Antwerp,  the  son  of  Pieter 
Hals  Clarz.  He  probably  studied 
under  Adam  van  Noort  at  Ant- 
werp, and  afterwards  .with  Van 
Mander  at  Haarlem.  His  first 
known  work  of  importance  is  the 
group  of  the  S.  George's  Shooting 
Guild  of  Haarlem,  now  in  the  Haar- 


lem museum ;  it  was  painted  in 
1616,  and  is  one  of  seven  large 
pictures  of  contemporary  guilds. 
The  artist's  extraordinary  gift  for 
seizing  and  expressing  a  fleeting 
human  emotion  is  nowhere  better 
shown  than  in  The  Laughing 
Cavalier,  in  the  Wallace  collection. 

The  National  Gallery  possesses 
five  pictures  by  Hals,  but  the  great- 
est works  of  his  brush  are  in  Dutch 
galleries,  and  it  is  often  said  that 
Hals  cannot  be  appreciated  without 
a  visit  to  Haarlem,  where  there  are 
ten  paintings  in  the  municipal 
museum,  representing  all  periods 
of  his  activity  up  to  the  last  year 
of  his  life.  The  Ryks  museum,  Am- 
sterdam, the  Hague  gallery,  and  the 
Louvre  have  also  good  examples. 
For  generations  his  work  was  held 
of  small  account ;  one  of  his  por- 
traits, now  in  Berlin,  changed  hands 
in  1786  for  five  shillings. 

Hals  was  twice  married.  His 
first  wife  died  in  1615,  the  victim 
of  his  ill-treatment  ;  the  second, 


Frans  Hals,  Dutch  painter,  self-portrait 

Haarlem  Museum 

Lysbeth  Reyniers,  lived  with  him 
for  nearly  fifty  years  and  bore  him 
five  sons,  all  of  whom  became 
artists.  During  his  later  years  Hals 
lived  on  an  allowance  from  the 
municipality  of  Haarlem,  eked  out 
by  the  proceeds  from  a  teaching 
studio  he  had  started.  He  died 
at  Haarlem.  See  Descartes ; 
Dutch  Art. 

Halsbury,  HARDINGE  STANLEY 
GIFFARD,  IST  EARL  OF  (1823-1921 ). 
British  lawyer.  Born  Sept.  3,  1823, 
of  a  Devon- 
shire family,  he 
w  a  s  educated 
at  Merton  Col- 
lege,  Oxford. 
He  became  a 
barrister,  hav- 
ing hereditary 
connexions 
with  that  pro- 
fession,  and 
after  fifteen 
years  of  steady 
practice, 
especially  in 


criminal  cases,  was  made  a  Q.C. 
in  1865.  In  1875,  not  yet  having 
secured  a  seat  in  Parliament, 
he  was  made  solicitor-general  by 
Disraeli,  and  in  1877  he  entered 
the  House  of  Commons  as  M.P. 
for  Launceston.  In  1885  he  was 
created  a  peer,  as  Baron  Halsbnry, 
and  was  made  lord  chancellor.  He 
filled  that  office  throughout  the 
Conservative  ministries  of  1886- 
92  and  1895-1905. 

In  1898  he  was  made  earl  of 
Halsbury  and  Viscount  Tiverton. 
He  was  high  steward  of  Oxford 
University  from  1896  onwards. 
Halsbury  was  remarkable  for  his 
physical  vigour.  When  over  80 
he  edited  The  Encyclopaedia  of  the 
Laws  of  England  ;  when  over  90  he 
sat  as  a  judge  in  the  House  of  Lords. 
Although  not  a  profound  lawyer,  he 
w  as  an  able  j  udge.  He  died  Dec.  1 1 , 
1921.  Pron.  Hallsbury. 

Halsey,  SIR  LIONEL  (b.  1872). 
British  sailor.  Born  Feb.  26,  1872, 
he  was  educated  at  Fareham  and 
joined  H.M.S. 
Britannia  in 
1885,  becoming 
a  lieutenant  in 
1893. He  served 
in  the  defence 
of  Ladysmith, 
1899 -1900,  and 
reached  the 
rank  of  com- 
mander in  1.901. 
Promoted  cap- 
tain in  1905,  he 
commanded  H.M.S.  New  Zealand 
during  the  empire  cruise  of  that 
ship,  which  he  also  commanded 
in  the  action  in  the  Heligoland 
Bight,  Aug.,  1914,  and  in  the  action 
off  the  Dogger  Bank,  Jan.  24,  1915. 
He  was  on  Jellicoe's  staff  in  the 
Iron  Duke  in  the  battle  of  Jutland, 
May  31,  1916.  In  1917  he  became 
third  sea  lord,  and  in  Oct.,  1918, 
was  appointed  to  command  the 
Australian  navy.  Hakey  accom- 
panied the  prince  of  Wales  in 
the  Renown  as  chief  of  staff, 
March-Oct,  1920.  He  became 
comptroller  and  treasurer  to  the 
prince  in  Dec.  of  that  year.  He 
was  knighted  in  1918  and  pro- 
moted vice-admiral  in  1D21. 

Halsingborg.  Alternative  spel- 
ling of  the  Swedish  town  better 
known  as  Helsingborg  (q.v. ). 

Halstead.  Urban  dist.  and 
market  town  of  Essex,  England. 
It  stands  on  the  Colne,  15  m.  N.W. 
of  Colchester,  on  the  Colne  Valley 
and  Halstead  Rly.  The  church  of 
S.  Andrew  dates  from  the  14th 
century,  and  contains  stone  effigies 
of  two  unknown  knights  and  brass 
effigies  of  members  of  the  Bonr- 
chier  family.  Other  buildings  in- 
clude the  town  hall,  corn  exchange, 
and  cottage  hospital.  Silk  and 


Sir  Lionel  Halsey, 
British  sailor 

Russell 


HALTON 


3801 


HAMADRYAD 


crape  are  manufactured,  and  there 
are  brass  and  iron  foundries, 
breweries,  and  a  tannery.  The  coun- 
cil owns  the  waterworks  and  public 
baths,  and  maintains  public  gar- 
dens. Market  day,  Tues.  Pop.  6,264. 

Halton.  Village  of  Bucking- 
hamshire, England.  It  is  on  the 
Wendover  Canal,  4  m.  S.E.  of 
Aylesbury.  During  the  Great  War 
a  military  camp  was  established 
here  which,  in  1917,  was  taken 
over  from  the  war  office  and  used 
as  a  technical  training  centre  for 
men  and  boys  of  the  air  service. 
After  the  war,  in  addition  to  being 
used  as  a  recruiting  depot,  training 
centre,  and  record  office  of  the 
R.A.F.,  it  became  the  headquarters 
of  the  Air  Force  Staff  College. 

Haltwhistle.  Market  town  and 
parish  of  Northumberland.  It 
stands  on  the  S.  Tyne  and  is  a  sta- 
tion on  the  N.E.  Rly.,  16  m.  W.  of 
Hexham.  The  Roman  wall  runs 
near  it,  and  many  antiquities  have 
been  found  in  the  neighbourhood. 
The  chief  industry  is  coal-mining. 
Market  day,  Thurs.  Pop.  4,000. 

Ham.  In  anatomy,  the  back 
part  of  the  leg  behind  the  knee- 
joint,  and,  secondarily,  the  thigh 
and  buttock  of  any  animal.  The 
word  is  applied  particularly  to  the 
thigh  of  a  pig,  salted,  smoked,  and 
cooked.  The  thigh  is  pickled  in 
brine  made  of  water,  salt,  salt- 
petre, and  a  little  sugar,  or  simply 
rubbed  with  salt.  When  sufficiently 
salted  it  is  hung  for  several  days 
on  an  upper  floor  of  a  smoking 
house,  the  smouldering  fire  of 
wood  or  peat  being  on  the  lowest 
floor.  It  can  be  boiled,  or  baked 
in  a  crust  of  flour  and  water.  Wilt- 
shire and  Yorkshire  hams  are  the 
best.  Hams  are  exported  from 
Westphalia  and  Chicago.  •«. 

Ham.  Urban  dist.  of  Surrey, 
England.  A  residential  suburb  of 
London,  it  stands  between  Twick- 
enham, N.,  and  Teddington,  S., 
and  is  bounded  on  the  E.  by  Rich- 
mond Park.  The  manor  was  given 
by  Athclstan  to  his  chief  alderman, 
Wulgar,  931  ;  and,  after  being  in 


Ham  House,  Surrey.      The  17th  century  house  of  the 
earl  of  Dysart 


the  possession  of  Francis,  1st 
Viscount  Lovcll,  Anne  of  Cleves, 
Henry  prince  of  Wales,  and  Charles 
I,  was  granted  to  John  Maitland, 
5th  earl  of  Lauderdale,  and  his 
wife,  Elizabeth,  countess  of  Dysart. 
Facing  the  Thames,  in  the  parish 
of  Petersham,  is  Ham  House,  seat 
of  the  earl  of  Dysart,  built  1610  on 
the  site  of  the  home  of  WTulgar 
by  Sir  Thomas  Vavasour.  It  was 
the  scene  of  the  secret  meetings  of 
the  Cabal  (q.v. )  and  the  birthplace 
of  John  Campbell,  2nd  duke  of 
Argyll.  Notable  for  its  art  collec- 
tion, it  inspired  the  vision  of  the 
haunted  house  in  Hood's  poem, 
The  Elm  Tree.  The  meadows, 
known  as  Ham  Walks,  extend 
from  Ham  House  to  Twickenham 
Ferry,  are  mentioned  in  Thomson's 
The  Seasons,  and  were  a  favourite 
haunt  of  Swift,  Pope,  and  Gay. 
Ham  Common,  20  acres,  is  be- 
tween Richmond  Park  and  the  road 
from  Petersham  to  Kingston.  S. 
Andrew's  Church,  on  the  S.  side  of 
the  common,  dates  from  1832. 

Ham  is  not  to  be  confused  with 
East  Ham  and  West  Ham  in  E. 
London.    There  was  another  Ham 
House  in  Portmore 
Park,    Weybridge,    f 
which    was    given 
by    James    II    to 
Catherine    Sedley, 
who    married    the 
1st   earl    of   Port- 
more.    Pop.  1,435. 
Ham.    Town  of 
France.     It  stands 
on  the  Somme,  in 
the    dept.    of    the 
Somme,  36  rn.  from 
Amiens.       It   is 
famous  for    its 
castle,  one  of   the 
most  formidable  of 
its  kind.     This  was  founded  in  the 
10th  century,  but  the  present  build- 
ing dates   mainly   from   the   13th 
century,  with  improvements  of  the 
15th.    A  feature  is  the  donjon,  or 
constable's  tower,  one  of  enormous 
strength,  having  walls  35  ft.  thick. 
This  was  long  used  as  a  prison. 

The  church  of 
Notre  Dame  is  the 
successor  of  an  old 
building,  most  of 
which  was  burned 
in  1760.  Erected 
to  serve  the  abbey 
of  S.  Augustin,  its 
12th  century  crypt 
survives.  The  town 
has  a  library,  a 
belfry,  and  a  small 
museum.  During 
the  Great  War  it 
was  in  the  occupa- 
tion of  the  Ger- 
mans from  Sept., 
1914,  until  March, 


1917,  when  they  heavily  mined  it 
after  evacuating  it  in  their  retreat 
to  the  Hindenburg  line.  Retaken 
by  the  Germans  in  March,  1918,  it 
was  recovered  by  the  French  on 
Sept.  6  of  that  year.  Pop.  3,300. 
See  Somme,  Battles  of  the. 

Ham.  One  of  the  sons  of  Noah 
(Gen.  9  and  10).  He  is  said  to  have 
been  the  ancestor  of  the  Ethiopians, 
Egyptians,  and  the  nations  of  N. 
Africa  generally.  The  name  means 
hot  or  black,  and  is  also  the  ancient 
name  for  Egypt,  to  which  country 
it  is  applied  in  Psalms  105  and  106. 

Hamadan.  City  of  Persia  and 
capital  of  a  prov.  of  the  same  name. 
It  is  about  180  m.  S.W.  of  Teheran, 
and  is  built  on  the  site  of  the 
ancient  Ecbatana.  Long  a  place  of 
importance  as  a  centre  of  trade  on 
the  great  road  through  Kerman- 
shah  to  Khanikin  and  Bagdad,  and 
also  with  Teheran  and  the  Caspian, 
it  manufactures  leather  goods, 
carpets,  and  silks.  It  contains  the 
tomb  of  Avicenna,  and,  according 
to  tradition,  those  of  Esther  and 
Mordecai.  During  the  Great  War 
it  was  the  scene  of  operations,  of 
the  Russians  and  the  Turks  in 


Ham,  France.     The  castle  from  which  Louis  Napoleon 
escaped  in  1846  after  6  years'  confinement 

Persia,  It  was  occupied  by  the 
British  in  April,  1918,  on  the 
march  to  the  Caspian.  Pop.  35,000. 
Pop.  of  prov.  about  350,000. 

Hamadryad  OR  KINO  COBRA. 
Large  species  of  the  cobra,  found  in 
India,  Malaya,  and  the  Philippines. 
It  is  extremely  venomous  and  of 
fierce  and  m^^ammmaaass^mn 
rather  aggres- 
sive  dispo- 
sition. In 
colour  yellow 
o  r  yellowish 
brown,  with 
black  bands, 
it  attains  a 
length  of 
about  14  ft. 
As  it  feeds  to 
a  large  ex- 
tent on  other 
snakes  it  is  in 
some  degree  a 

useful  reptile.  Hamadryad.  Haed  of 
See  Snake.  the  poisonous  snake 


HAMADRYADS 


HAMBURG 


Hamadryads  (Gr.  hama,  to- 
gether with  ;  drys,  tree).  In  Greek 
mythology,  nymphs  that  presided 
over  trees'  Their  lives  were  only  co- 
existent with  the  lives  of  the  trees 
in  which  they  dwelt.  See  Nymphs. 

Hamah.  Town  of  Syria,  the 
Hanmth  of  the  Bible,  and  the  an- 
cient Epiphania.  Situated  on  the 
Orontes  among  attractive  gardens 
and  groves  of  palms,  110  m.  N.E. 
of  Damascus,  and  about  30  m. 
almost  due  N.  of  Horns,  it  has  a 
flourishing  weaving  industry  and  a 
fair  amount  of  general  trade,  which 
is  helped  by  its  being  on  the  Syrian 
rly.  An  early  Canaanite  strong- 
hold, it  was  subdued  by  Shalman- 
eser  III,  Tiglath-pileser  III,  and 
Sargon  II.  It  was  renamed  Epiph- 
ania after  AntiochuslV,moslemised 
A.D.  639,  and  captured  by  Tancred 
and  Saladin.  Five  basalt  stelas, 
now  in  Constantinople,  bear  Hittite 
inscriptions.  Pop.  45,000,  one-, 
fourth  Greeks.  See  Hittites. 

Hainan.  Chief  minister  and 
favourite  of  Ahasuerus,  king  of 
Persia.  Because  Mordecai,  a  Jew, 


Haman  condemned  by  Ahasuerus 

from  an  engraving  after  Kembr until 

paid  him  no  reverence,  he  resolved 
to  destroy  Mordecai  and  all  Jews 
in  the  kingdom.  Without  men- 
tioning Mordecai  or  the  Jews  he 
obtained  from  the  king  a  decree 
requisite  for  his  purpose.  The  plot, 
however,  was  exposed  by  Esther, 
cousin  and  adopted  daughter  of 
Mordecai,  with  the  result  that 
Haman  was  hanged  on  the  gibbet 
he  had  prepared  for  Mordecai. 

At  the  feast  of  Purim  it  became 
a  custom  among  the  Jews  to  hang 
Haman  in  effigy  ;  and  to-day  when 
the  Book  ot  Esther  is  read  in  the 
synagogues  the  name  of  Ahasuerus' 
one-time  favourite  is  received  with 
contumely.  The  gallows  is  said  to 
have  been  50  cubits  high,  hence 
the  phrase  to  hang  as  high  as 
Haman.  See  Esther  ;  Mordeoai. 


i,  JOHANN  GEORG  (1730- 
88).  German  writer.  Born  at 
Konigsberg,  Aug.  27,  1730,  in  1759 
he  made  his  home  at  Konigsberg 
and  the  rest  of  his  life  was  passed 
in  study  and  writing,  while  earning 
a  living  as  a  clerk.  His  books  were 
never  very  popular,  but  his  in- 
fluence was  considerable,  and  he 
was  called  the  magician  of  the 
north.  He  was  very  friendly  with 
Goethe,  Herder,  and  other  thinkers. 
His  writings,  which  deal  with 
philosophy  and  the  philology  and 
literature  of  the  East,  were  published 
in  7  vols.,  1821-43  ;  they  reveal 
him  as  a  man  of  deep  religious 
feeling.  He  died  June  21,  1788. 

Hamasa.  Word  meaning  brave 
and  given  to  an  anthology  of 
Arabic  poetry.  This  was  collected 
by  Abu  Tamman  in  the  9th  cen- 
tury and  is  divided  into  ten  books. 
The  first  book  deals  with  the  heroes 
of  the  past,  hence  its  name,  and 
remaining  ones  with  love,  travel, 
and  the  like.  Some  of  the  poems 
have  been  translated  into  English 
by  Sir  A.  C.  Lyall  in  Ancient 
Arabic  Poetry,  1885. 

Hambach.  Village  of  Bavaria. 
It  stands  in  the  Hardt,  15  m.  from 
Spires,  in  the  centre  of  a  vine- 
growing  region.  It  is  chiefly  noted 
for  its  castle,  where,  May  27,  1832, 
the  revolutionary  movement  in 
Bavaria  was  inaugurated  by  a 
meeting  attended  by  30,000  per- 
sons. This  is  also  called  the  Max- 
burg  and  stands  on  a  hill  over 
1,000  ft.  high.  Built  by  the  em- 
peror Henry  II,  the  early  building 
was  destroyed  by  the  French  in 
1688.  Maximilian  II,  king  of 
Bavaria,  replaced  it  in  the  19th 
century  by  a  modern  residence. 

Hambleden,  WILLIAM  FRED- 
ERICK DANVERS  SMITH,  VISCOUNT 
(b.  1868).  British  business  man. 
The  eldest  son  of  W.  H.  Smith  (q.v.), 
he  was  born  Aug.  12, 1868,  and  edu- 
cated at  Eton  and  New  College, 
Oxford,  where  he  distinguished 
himself  as  an  oarsman.  After  his 
father's  death  in  1891  his  mother 
wascreatedViscountessHambleden, 
and  on  her  death  in  1913  their  son 
succeeded  to  the  title.  He  was 
already  head  of  the  firm  of  W.  H. 
Smith  &  Son,  and  in  1891  had  suc- 
ceeded his 
father  also  as 
Unionist  M.P. 
for  the  Strand 
division,  re- 
taining his  seat 
until  1910.  An 
officer  of  the 
Devon  Yeo- 
m  a  n  r  y,  he 
served  during 
the  Great  War 
in  Gallipoli 
and  Ecrypt. 


Mark  Hambourg, 
British  pianist 


1st  Viscount 

Hambleden, 

British  business  man 


Hambledon.  Village  of  Hamp- 
shire, famous  for  its  cricket  club. 
It  is  6  m.  N.E.  of  Fareham. 
Formed  about  1750,  this  club  was 
the  first  of  its  kind  in  England. 
The  games  are  played  on  two 
downs,  Windmill  and  Broad  Half- 
penny. The  club  was  at  the  height 
of  its  fame  about  1800,  when 
David  Harris  and  William  Beld- 
ham  played  for  it,  and  the  Hamble- 
don men  were  strong  enough  to 
encounter  an  all-England  eleven. 
The  village  gives  its  name  to  the 
Hambledon  Hunt.  There  is  another 
Hambledon  in  Surrey,  3  m.  from 
Godalming. 

Hambourg,  MARK  (b.  1879). 
British  pianist.  Born  at  Bogutchar, 
S.  Russia,  May  30,  1879,  he  studied 
in  Vienna.  He 
made  his  first 
public  appear- 
ance in  Moscow 
in  1888,  and 
afterwards 
toured  the 
world.  H  a  m- 
bourg  became 
a  naturalised 
British  subject 
and  married 
a  daughter  of  Lord  Muir-Mackenzie. 
Hamburg.  City  and  seaport  of 
Germany.  It  is  also  the  name 
of  a  free  state.  It  stands  on 
the  Elbe,  75  m.  from  Cuxhaven 
and  1 78  from 
Berlin,  and  is 
served  by  the 
Prussian  state 
rly.  system,  hav- 
ing a  central  and 
other  stations. 
Contiguous  with 
Hamburg  arms  it  are  the  towns  of 
Altona  and  Ottensen,  which,  how- 
ever, are  part  of  Prussia.  Suburbs 
proper  include  S.  Georg  and  S. 
Paul),  which  were  separate  munici- 
palities until  after  1870. 

Hamburg  has  an  old  town  and 
a  new  town,  formerly  divided  by 
the  river  Alster  which  has  "been 
closed  to  form  two  lakes,  and 
these,  the  Inner  Alster  and  the 
Outer  Alster,  are  features  of  the 
city.  They  are  divided  by  the 
Lombards  Bridge  and  by  remains 
of  the  old  fortifications.  The  Inner 
Alster  is  used  largely  for  pleasure, 
steamers  plying  regularly  up  and 
down.  The  city  has  another  river, 
the  Bille.  Through  its  older  part 
flow  streams  which  are  used  to 
carry  goods  to  the  docks,  and  on 
this  account  Hamburg  has  been 
likened  to  Venice.  Around  the 
Inner  Alster  is  modern  Hamburg, 
its  fine  broad  streets  lined  with 
hotels,  banks,  shops,  and  the  like. 
Of  the  thoroughfares  may  be  men- 
tioned the  Alsterdamm,  the  Jung- 
fernstieg,  and  the  Neuer  Wall. 


The  Law  Courts.  2.  The  Inner  Alster.  3.  The 
Jungfernstieg,  a  promenade  flanking  the  Alster.  4.  The 
Art  Gallery  (Kunsthalle),  built  1867-69.  5.  The  Jung- 
landin 


built  when  Hamburg  was   a   member  of  the  Hanseatic 
League.      7.  Houses  bordering  a  canal  in  the  old  town. 

8.  S.    Nicholas    Church,   with    spire    485  ft.  in  height. 

9.  View  of  the  city,  showing  the  Lombards  Bridge 


lernstieg,   showing   the  landing   stage.      6.   Warehouses 

HAMBURG  :    GERMANY'S    LARGEST    SEAPORT     AND     A     STATE     OF     THE     REPUBLIC 


HAMBURG-AMERIKA 


3804 


HAMBURG-AMERIKA 


Hamburg,  Germany.     Plan  of  the  central  portion  of  the  city,  including  the 
business  quarter  and  the  principal  docks 


Around  the  outer  Alster  are  sub- 
urbs, among  them  Harvestehude, 
Uhlenhorst,  Roterbaum,  Eilbeck, 
and  Borgfelde.  The  chief  church  is 
S.  Nicholas,  with  its  lofty  spire  ;  it 
is  a  modern  building  in  the  Gothic 
style,  beautifully  decorated.  S. 
Michael's  is  a  very  laTge  building  of 
the  18th  century,  also  with  a  lofty 
tower.  S.  Peter's  was  rebuilt  in  the 
original  style  in  1844-49  ;  it  has 
some  interesting  glass.  S.  Cath- 
erine's and  S.  James's  are  the  only 
old  churches,  the  chief  reason  for 
this  being  the  fire  of  1842. 

Of  secular  buildings  the  chief  is 
the  immense  Rathaus  (town  hall). 
Built  in  1886-95,  this  is  in  the  Re- 
naissance style.  It  has  a  great  hall 
and  some  other  large  rooms,  and  is 
beautifully  decorated  ;  beneath  it 
are  some  remarkable  vaults.  Near 
it  is  the  exchange.  The  Johanneum 
houses  the  city  library  and  a  col- 
lection of  antiquities.  Other  build- 
ings include  the  customs  house, 
law  courts,  and  post  office.  There 
is  an  art  gallery  ancJ  several  mu- 
seums, and  botanical  and  zoological 
gardens.  Chief  of  the  educational 
establishments  is  the  new  univer- 
sity. Of  the  squares  may  be  men- 
tioned the  hop  market  and  the 
goose  market,  while  the  city  has 
many  public  memorials,  notably 
the  Hansa  Fountain.  It  has  a  town 
and  other  theatres.  Hamburg  has 
a  city  railway  and  an  extensive 
service  of  electric  tramways.  There 
is  a  meteorological  station,  and  a 
general  hospital  at  Eppendorf. 

Before  the  Great  War  Hamburg 
was  one  of  the  greatest  ports  in  the 
world.  On  the  Elbe  is  an  enormous 
extent  of  docks  and  harbours 
mainly  constructed  since  1888, 


when  Hamburg  entered  the  Zoll- 
verein.  The  great  part  forms  the 
free  port,  which  receives  goods  for 
transit  trade,  those  not  liable  to 
import  duties.  Huge  granaries  and 
emigrant  sheds  are  features.  The 
island  of  Wilhelmsburg,  which  here 
divides  the  Elbe  into  two  branches, 
is  utilised  for  docks,  etc. 

Until  1914  it  was  a  centre  for 
importing  coal,  oil,  and  indeed 
almost  all  that  Germany  needed, 
while  it  exported,  not  only  her 
manufactures,  but  those  of  Aus- 
tria. A  great  number  of  emigrants 
sailed  from  here.  The  war  com- 
pletely paralysed  the  port's  trade, 
but  after  the  armistice  it  revived, 
and  in  1920  no  fewer  than  4,880 
vessels  entered  Hamburg. 

Of  the  manufactures  shipbuild- 
ing is  perhaps  the  chief,  there  being 
enormous  yards  here.  Beer  and 
spirits,  tobacco  and  cigars,  chemi- 
cals and  furniture  are  among  the 
many  articles  produced.  There  are 
many  flour  mills  and  works  for 
making  other  articles  of  food. 

Hamburg  grew  up  around  a  fort- 
ress built  by  Charlemagne  to  pro- 
tect the  frontiers  of  his  empire.  It 
was  also  important  as  a  centre  of 
Christianity,  as  a  bishopric  was 
established  there,  also  in  the  9th 
century.  This  became  an  arch- 
bishopric, and  the  archbishops  held 
a  high  place  among  German 
ecclesiastics.  After  the  break-up  of 
the  Carolingian  empire  the  city 
passed  under  the  rule  of  the  count 
of  Holstein,  but  it  was  within  the 
limits  of  the  medieval  empire.  The 
emperors  granted  privileges  to  the 
city,  which  about  1200  began  to 
be  an  important  commercial  centre. 
It  was  one  of  the  first  members  of 


the  Hanseatic  League.  In  1510  it 
was  made  a  free  city,  although  the 
king  of  Denmark  did  not  formally 
give  up  his  claim  to  be  its  over- 
lord until  1768. 

The  city  was  governed  by  a 
council,  and  in  the  Middle  Ages 
there  was  constant  friction  between 
the  various  authorities.  In  1529 
the  citizens  accepted  the  reformed 
teaching.  Hamburg  was  fairly 
prosperous  in  the  17th  century,  but 
its  greatness  dates  really  from  the 
industrial  revolution.  It  became 
one  of  the  chief  ports  for  trade 
with  America,  and  the  invention  of 
steam  gave  a  great  impetus  to  its 
trade.  In  Nov.,  1918,  there  was 
rioting  in  the  city. 

The  little  state  of  which  Ham- 
burg is  the  capital  is  a  republic 
within  the  German  Reich.  It  is 
governed  by  a  house  of  burgesses 
consisting  'of  160  members,  to 
which  an  executive  of  18  members 
is  responsible.  The  existing  con- 
stitution dates  from  March,  1919. 
The  area  of  the  state  is  160  sq.  m., 
and  the  pop.  is  1,050,000.  Outside 
the  city  of  Hamburg  the  territory 
consists  of  several  small  detached 
portions  in  Holstein  and  Hanover, 
and  islands  in  the  Elbe.  The  only 
towns  are  Bergedorf  and  Cux- 
haven  with  Ritzebutte!.  In  1815 
the  state  joined  the  German  Bund, 
and  in  1866  the  N.  German  Con- 
federation. In  1871  it  entered  the 
German  Empire,  within  which  it 
remained  after  1918,  when  the  con- 
stitution was  made  somewhat  more 
democratic.  See  Hanseatic  League ; 
consult  also  The  Hansa  Towns, 
H.  Zimmern,  1889  ;  Chronicles  of 
Three  Free  Cities,  Hamburg,  Bre- 
men, and  Lubeck,  W.  King,  1914. 
Hamburg- Amerika.  German 
steamship  line.  It  was  established 
in  1847  to  run  cargo  boats  between 
Hamburg  and  New  York.  Its  size 
increased 
rapidly  after 
the  union  of 
Germany  in 
1871  and 
especially 
later  under 
the  control 
of  Albert 
Ballin,  until 
in  1914  it 
was  said  to 


Hamburg- Amenka 
Steamship  Line 
flag,  blue  and  white 
with  yellow  shield 


be  the  largest  steamship  company 
in  the  world.  It  had  services  from 
Hamburg  to  Dover,  but  its  main 
operations  were  in  the  American 
trade,  its  steamers  going  regularly, 
not  only  to  New  York  and  the  ports 
of  N.  America,  but  also  to  those  of  S. 
America,  Central  America,  and  the 
W.  Indies.  -Its  headquarters  were 
at  Hamburg.  The  Great  War  inter- 
rupted operations,  but  they  recom- 
menced again  after  the  armistice. 


HAMBURGER 


3805 


Hamburger    Nachrichten 

(Hamburg  News).  German  daily 
newspaper  founded  in  1792.  It 
was  Bismarck's  confidential  organ 
after  his  retirement  from  the  chan- 
cellorship in  1890,  am'  became 
violently  Anglophobe. 

Hamel.  Village  of  France,  in  the 
dept.  of  Somme.  It  is  3  m.  E.S.E. 
of  Corbie  (q.v  )  It  was  captured  by 
the  Germans  in  their  spring  offen- 
sive of  1918,  and  retaken  by  the 
Americans  on  July  4,  1918. 

Hamel,  CAPTURE  OF.  American 
exploit  in  July,  1918,  during  the 
Great  War  Part  of  the  American 
army  marked  Independence  Day, 
July  4,  191 8;  by  attacking  Hamel 
and  Vaire  Wood,  in  combination 
with  some  Australian  forces.  The 
American  troops,  which  lay  N.  of 
Villers-Bretonneux  and  S.  of  the 
Somme,  were  the  33rd  Illinois 
National  Guard  Division,  most  of 
them  drawn  from  Chicago.  Four 
companies  participated  in  the 
action,  which  was  their  first.  After 
an  intensive  artillery  bombardment, 
the  Americans  with  the  Australians 
advanced  under  cover  of  many 
tanks  on  a  front  of  4  m.,  the  U.S.A. 
soldiers  being  engaged  principally 
in  the  assault  on  Hamel.  Ground 
to  a  depth  of  1|  m.  was  captured, 
and  Hamel  and  Vaire  Wood  were 
taken,  with  1,500  prisoners,  20 
trench  mortars,  and  100  machine 
guns.  One  American  serjeant, 
single-handed,  captured  and 
brought  in  seven  Germans. 

Hamel,    GUSTAV    (1889-1914). 
British     aviator.       Educated      at 
Westminster,  he  took  up  aviation 
in    its    early 
days,     and     in 
1911    won    the    \ 
Brook  lands-    ;     ^pSi^L 
Brighton      air  I^^^B^ 

race  and,  the 
following  year, 
the  Aerial 
Derby  around 
London.  In 

Gustav  Hamel, 
the  Daily  Mail         Briti?h  aviator 

prize  in    the 

Greater  London  race,  covering  94£ 
m.  in  75  mins.  49  sees.  In  May, 
1914,  he  was  returning  on  a  new 
Morane-Sau'nier  monoplane  from 
Paris  to  London  when  he  was  lost, 
no  trace  of  himself  or  his  machine 
ever  being  found. 

Hameln.  Town  of  Germany,  in 
the  Prussian  prov.  of  Hanover.  It 
is  situated  on  the  Weser,  above  the 
junction  of  the  Hamel,  which  flows 
through  the  town,  with  the  main 
stream,  25  m.  S.W.  of  Hanover.  Its 
fame  is  largely  connected  with 
the  legend  of  the  Rattenfanger  or 
Ratcatcher,  known  to  English 
readers  through  Browning's  poem 
The  Pied  Piper  of  Hamelin.  Ac- 


Hameln,  Germany.    The  Ratcatcher's 

House,    built   in   1602,   the   reputed 

home  of  the  legendary  ratcatcher 

cording  to  one  theory  the  story  had 
its  origin  in  an  outbreak  of  dancing 
mania  among  the  children  of  Ham- 
eln in  1284.  The  principal  church 
is  the  14th  century  minster,  dedi- 
cated to  S.  Boniface,  restored 
1870-75.  The  industries  include 
sugar-refining,  spinning,  and  mill- 
ing, a  large  river  trade  is  carried 
on,  and  there  are  important  salmon 
fisheries. 

Hameln  grew  up  round  the  old 
abbey  of  S.  Boniface,  and  in  1259 
belonged  to  the  bishopric  of  Min- 
den,  passing  in  1277  to  Brunswick, 
after  which  it  became  a  member  of 
the  Hanseatic  League.  It  fell  to  the 
Swedes  in  1633,  and  on  two  subse- 
quent occasions,  1757  and  1806, 
to  the  French,  finally  becoming  a 
Prussian  town  in  1866.  Pop.  22,061. 

Hamerling,  ROBERT  (1830-89). 
Austrian  poet.  He  was  born  at 
Kirch  berg,  Lower  Austria,  Mar.  24, 
1830.  Asa 
student  at 
V7  i  e  n  n  a  he 
shared  in  the 
troubles  of 
1848-49,  but 
escaped  arrest, 
and  in  1855 
was  appointed 
lecturer  at 
Trieste.  Owing 
to  ill- health  he 
retired  on  a 
pension  in  1866  and  lived  an  in- 
valid's life  at  Grata,  where  he  died 
July  13,  1889. 

The  most  notable  of  his  volumes 
were  Sinrien  und  Minnen  (Medita- 
tions and  Love),  1860;  Das 
Schwanenlied  der  Romantik  (The 
Swansong  of  Romanticism),  1862  ; 
Ahasver  in  Rom  (Ahasuerus  in 
Rome),  1866  ;  Der  Konig  von  Sion 


Robert  Hamerling, 
Austrian  poet 


(The  King  of  Sion),  1869  ;  Amor 
und  Psyche,  1882 ;  Blatter  im 
Winde  (Leaves  in  the  Wind),  1887  ; 
and  Homunculus.  188S. 

Hamerton,  PHILIP  GILBERT 
(1834-94).  British  critic  and 
etcher.  Born  at  Laneside,  Shaw, 
near  Oldham,  Sept  10,  1834.  his 
mother  died  a 
few  days  later, 
and  at"  ten  he 
was  an  orphan. 
His  guardians 
designed  him 
for  holy  or- 
ders, but  he 
chose  painting 
as  a  career. 
With  the  Phihp  Gilbert  Earner- 
keenest  s  y  m-  ton«  British  <*"* 
pathy  for  the  Eiiioti&Frv 

fine  arts,  he  showed  no  remarkable 
talent  for  painting.  But  in  search 
of  landscapes  he  visited  Scotland, 
and  in  The  Isles  of  Loch  Awe,  1855, 
he  made  his  first  appearance  as  a 
poet.  In  1857  he  was  back  en- 
camped at  Loch  Awe;  but  the 
frank  and  fascinating  story  of  that 
experience  and  later  encampments, 
in  the  company  of  his  young 
French  wife,  as  related  in  A  Pain- 
ter's Camp  in  the  Highlands,  1862, 
caught  the  fancy  of  the  public. 

As  art  critic  of  The  Saturday  Re- 
view, and  editor  of  The  Portfolio, 
he  became  an  accepted  authority  on 
art,  and  like  Ruskin  he  gave  much 
attention  to  social  philosophy, 
The  Intellectual  Life,  1873,  being 
one  of  the  classics  of  the  Victorian 
era.  Etching  and  Etchers,  1868, 
and  The  Graphic  Arts,  1885,  are 
two  of  his  many  works  that  stand 
out  beyond  the  mass  of  art  criti- 
cism of  his  time.  Married  to  a 
Frenchwoman,  Eugenie  Gindriez, 
he  lived  many  years  in  France,  and 
wrote  with  authority  on  that  coun- 
try and  its  people.  He  died  at 
Boulogne-sur-Seine,  Nov.  6,  1894. 
See  Philip  Gilbert  Hamerton  :  an 
Autobiography  and  a  Memoir  by 
his  Wife,  1897. 

Ham  Hill.  Elevation  in  Somer- 
setshire, 4  m.  W.  of  Yeovil,  alter- 
natively called  Hamdon.  Covering 
an  area  of  about  210  acres  on  the 
summit  is  an  ancient  British  earth- 
work 3  m.  in  circumference,  in  a 
good  state  of  preservation  and 
yielding  interesting  traces  of  British 
and  of  Roman  occupation.  Valu- 
able building  stone  is  quarried 
on  the  hill. 

Hami.  Town  in  the  N.E.  of 
Sinkiang  (Chinese  Turkistan),  on 
the  road  from  Peking  to  Kashgar. 
Established  on  an  oasis  in  the 
desert,  Hami  was  captured  from 
the  Tartars  in  1477.  It  is  an  im- 
portant trading  centre,  and  forms  a 
meeting  around  of  the  Buddhist 
and  Moslem  worlds.  Pop.  5,000. 


HAMILCAR 


3806 


HAMILTON 


Hamilcar.  Name  of  several 
famous  Carthaginians.  (1)  Son  of 
Mago,  one  of  the  suffetes  or  su- 
preme magistrates.  Having  in- 
vaded Sicily  480  B.C.  with  a  large 
army  of  mercenaries,  he  laid  siege 
to  Himera,  but  was  utterly  de- 
feated by  Gelon  (q.v. ).  Hamilcar 
himself  'was  slain  and  his  army 
virtually  annihilated.  ( 2 )  Military 
and  naval  commander  during  the 
first  Punic  War.  After  various  suc- 
cessful operations  by  land,  the 
Carthaginian  fleet,  commanded  by 
Hamilcar  and  Hanno,  was  defeated 
(256  B.C.)  by  Regulus  and  Volso 
off  Ecnomus,  half-way  between 
Gela  and  Agrigentum. 

Hamilcar  Barca  (c.  270-228 
B.C.).  Carthaginian  soldier  and 
statesman,  the  father  of  Hannibal. 
Incommandof 
the  Carthagin- 
ian forces  in 
Sicily  during 
the  first  Punic 
War,  he  suc- 
cessfully held 
his  ground 
against  the 
Romans,  until 
the  naval  vic- 
tory of  the  lat- 
ter under  Catulus,  in  241  B.C.,  forced 
the  Carthaginians  to  conclude  a 
peace,  in  negotiating  which  Hamil- 
car took  the  leading  part.  On  his 
return  to  Carthage  he  had  to  deal 
with  a  revolt  of  mercenaries,  which 
he  crushed  after  three  years'  fight- 
ing. He  then  turned  his  attention 
to  Spain,  and  in  nine  years,  by 
fighting  and  by  negotiation,  had 
established  Carthaginian  dominion 
over  a  great  part  of  the  country, 
when  his  career  was  brought  to  an 
end  by  his  death  in  battle  in  228 
B.C.  His  surname  means  lightning 
(Hebr.  barak). 

Hamilton.  Burgh  and  market 
town  of  Lanarkshire.  It  stands 
near  where  the  Avon  falls  into  the 
Clyde,  and  is  11  m.  S.E.  of  Glasgow. 
It  has  stations  on  the  N.B.  and 


Hamilcar,  Cartha- 
ginian soldier 

From  a  coin 


Cal.  Rlys.  and  is  the  centre  of  a  rich 
coal  and  ironstone  district ;  min- 
ing being  the  chief  industry.  There 
are  also  cotton 
and  other  manu- 
factures, while 
the  place  is  a 
centre  for  the 
produce  of 
numerous  mar- 
ket gardens. 

Hamilton's  Hamilton  arms 
chief  buildings  are  the  town  hall 
with  .a  lofty  clock  tower,  and  the 
county  buildings.  The  grammar 
school  was  founded  in  1588,  and 
moved  to  its  present  building  in 
1847.  There  are  barracks,  and  the 
place  is  a  regimental  depot.  Tram- 


I 


Hamilton  Palace,  Lanarkshire.     Formerly  the  seat  of 
th 


le  dukes  of  Hamilton 
ways  connect  the  town  with  Glas- 
gow, Motherwell,  and  other  places 
in  the  neighbourhood.  It  gives  its 
name  to  a  county  division  returning 
one  member  to  Parliament.  Hamil- 
ton was  originally  known  as  Cad- 
zow,  but  took  its  present  name 
when  it  passed  to  the  family  of 
Hamilton.  Its  modern  growth  be- 
gan with  the  opening  of  the  mines 
in  the  19th  century.  Pop.  38,600. 
Hamilton  Palace  stands  near  the 
town.  It  occupies  the  site  of  the 
burgh  of  Nether  ton,  and  the  first 
house  was  built  about  1600.  This 
was  rebuilt  about  1700,  and  in 


1820-30  the  10th  duke  built  the 
third  house.  An  enormous  building 
in  the  classical  style,  the  front  is 
Corinthian,  with  a  pillared  portico. 
The  treasures  of  the  palace  were 
very  valuable,  but  in  1882  a 
great  sale  disposed  of  a  number  of 
them  for  over  £300,000.  In  1920 
the  duke  decided  to  dismantle  the 
palace,  which  was  becoming  unsafe 
owing  to  the  underground  workings, 
and  the  rest  of  the  pictures  and 
other  contents  were  sold.  In  the 
park,  which  is  1,500  acres  in  extent, 
is  a  magnificent  mausoleum,  built 
by  the  10th  duke  at  a  cost  of 
about'  £1 30,000.  This,  too,  became 
unsafe,  and  in  1921  arrangements 
were  made  to  remove  the  bodies 
therefrom.  In- 
cluded in  the  ducal 
property  are  .the 
ruins  of  Cadzow 
Castle,  in  the 
park  of  which  is  a 
famous  breed  of 
wild  cattle. 

Hamilton  . 
Suburb  of  Bris- 
bane, Australia. 
It  has  fine  river 
frontage  with 
wharf  accommo- 
dation for  the 
largest  ocean 
steamships.  Pop. 
6,247.  See  Bris- 
bane. 

Chief  town  of  the 
western  district  of  Victoria, 
Australia.  It  is  198  m.  W.  of  Mel- 
bourne by  rly.,  in  the  centre  of  a 
pastoral  and  agricultural  area, 
with  butter  factory  and  meat- 
preserving  works. 
Pop.  5,000. 

Hamilton. 
City  and  port  of 
Canada.  It  stands 
on  a  branch  of 
Burlington  Bay, 
at  the  W.  end  of 

Lake     Ontario,   Hamilton,  Ontario, 
being  40  m.  from  arms 


Hamilton. 


Hamilton,  Canada.     General  view  of  the  city  on  Lake  Ontario 


HAMILTON 


3807 


HAMILTON 


Toronto.  It  is  served  by  the  three 
transcontinental  lines,  C.P.R., 
C.N.R.,  and  G.T.R.,  and  has  a  ser- 
vice of  electric  trains  to  towns  in 
the  neighbourhood.  From  here 
steamers  go  to  Toronto  and  other 
ports  on  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the 
great  lakes.  Behind  are  hills  and 
in  front  is  a  narrow  strip  of  land 
called  Burlington  Beach,  which 
separates  it  from  Burlington  Bay. 
A  canal  has  been  cut  through  the 
beach,  a  popular  resort  in  summer. 

The  city  has  Anglican  and  Roman 
Catholic  cathedrals,  and  a  large 
number  of  churches.  There  are 
many  colleges  and  schools,  hos- 
pitals, public  libraries,  and  theatres; 
also  parks  and  recreation  and  ath- 
letic grounds,  the  chief  parks  being 
Gore  andDundurn  Castle.  There  are 
the  county  buildings  of  Wentworth 
co.,  and  a  fine  market  square.  A 
service  of  electric  tramcars  runs 
through  the  wide  streets,  and  there 
is  electric  light  and  power  from  the 
De  Cew  Falls.  Sometimes  called  the 
Birmingham  of  Canada,  Hamilton 
has  manufactures  of  iron  and  steel 
goods,  including  railway  stock  and 
agricultural  implements,  as  well  as 
textiles,  tobacco,  and  furniture.  It 
is  a  railway  centre. 

The  city  was  founded  about  1778, 
its  first  inhabitants  being  loyalists 
from  the  U.S.A.  Later  it  took  the 
name  of  Hamilton  from  George 
Hamilton.  Its  growth  during  the 
early  years  of  the  20th  century  to 
one  of  the  largest  cities  in  Canada 
was  mainly  due  to  the  introduction 
and  us^  of  electric  power.  Made  a 
municipality  in  1833,  it  is  governed 
by  a  council  consisting  of  mayor 
and  aldermen.  Pop.  100,000. 

Hamilton.  Chief  town  and  ad- 
ministrative centre  of  the  Bermu- 
das. It  is  situated  on  Great  Ber- 
muda or  Main  Island,  with  a  deep 
harbour  approached  by  a  long,  in- 
tricate channel  through  Two  Rock 
Passage.  There  are  well-laid-out 
gardens,  and  it  is  a  winter  resort 
for  American  visitors.  Pop.  2,627. 

Hamilton.  Town  of  North 
Island,  New  Zealand,  in  Waikato 
co.  It  is  86  m.  by  rly.  S.S.E.  of 
Auckland,  the  centre  of  a  grazing 
and  dairying  district.  It  was  first 
laid  out  for  settlement  by  British 
soldiers  after  the  Maori  wars. 
Pop.  5,677. 

Hamilton.  City  of  Ohio,  U.S.A., 
the  co.  seat  of  Butler  co.  It  stands 
on  the  Great  Miami  river,  25  m.  N. 
of  Cincinnati,  and  is  served  by  the 
Cincinnati,  Hamilton,  and  Dayton, 
and  other  rlys.,  and  the  Miami  and 
Erie  Canal.  The  chief  buildings  are 
the  court  house,  a  public  library, 
and  the  Notre  Dame  Academy. 
The  river  and  canal  afford  water- 
power  for  the  industrial  plants, 
which  include  woollen,  flour,  and 


paper  mills,  engine  and  machine 
works,  foundries,  and  carriage  and 
wagon  factories.  Settled  in  1791, 
Hamilton  became  a  city  in  1857. 
Pop.  45,647. 

Hamilton.  Famous  Scottish 
family  to  which  the  dukes  of  Aber- 
corn  and  Hamilton  belong.  It  ap- 
pears to  have  descended  from  a 
certain  Walter  Fitzgilbert,  and  one 
story  is  that  the  name  is  taken  from 
a  place  in  Leicestershire.  Walter 
called  himself  of  Hameldone  and 
obtained  the  barony  of  Cadzow  in 
Lanarkshire.  His  younger  son  was 
the  ancestor  of  the  earls  of  Had- 
dington,  one  of  the  many  titles 
held  by  the  Hamiltons. 

Walter's  eldest  son  David,  who 
held  the  barony  of  Cadzow,  was 
taken  prisoner  at  Neville's  Cross 
and  was  a  lord  of  parliament. 
From  him  and  his  son  various 
branches  of  the  Hamiltons  de- 
scended, one  of  these  being  now 
represented  by  Lord  Hamilton  of 
Dalzell.  James  Hamilton,  baron  of 


William,  3rd  Duke  of  Hamilton  , 

After  Mytens 

Cadzow,  who  was  made  Lord  Ham- 
ilton in  1445,  really  founded  the 
family's  greatness  by  his  marriage 
with  Mary,  daughter  of  King  James 
II.  His  son  was  made  earl  of  Arran 
in  1503,  and  one  of  his  illegitimate 
children  was  John  Hamilton,  arch- 
bishop of  St.  Andrews.  John,  2nd 
earl  of  Arran,  was  the  father  of 
Claud,  Lord  Paisley,  from  whom 
the  dukes  of  Abercorn  are  de- 
scended, and  of  John,  made  mar- 
quess of  Hamilton.  From  the  latter 
the  dukes  of  Hamilton  are  de- 
scended, though,  after  the  death  of 
the  2nd  duke  in  1651,  only  hi  the 
female  line.  The  heir  male  of  the 
family  is  therefore  the  duke  of 
Abercorn,  whose  eldest  son  is 
known  as  the  marquess  of  Hamil- 
ton. In  1786  the  earl  of  Abercorn 
was  created  Viscount  Hamilton  of 
Hamilton  in  Leicestershire. 


1st  Marquess  of 
Hamilton 

AfterM.  Gerardi 


Hamilton,  DUKE  OF.  Scottish 
title,  the  oldest  of  its  kind  in  the 
peerage.  Sir  James  Hamilton,  of 
Cadzow,  .  and  his  wife,  Mary, 
daughter  of  James  II  of  Scotland, 
had  a  son  who,  in  1503,  was  made 
earl  of  Arran.  His  son,  another 
James,  known  as  the  Regent  Arran, 
was  made  duke  of  Chatellerault,  in 
France,  in  1549,  and  John,  one  of 
the  regent's  younger  sons,  was 
created  marquess  of  Hamilton  in 
1599. 

The  marquess,  who  died  in  1604, 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  James, 
who,  in  1619,  was  made  an  Eng- 
lish peer  as 
earl  of  Cam- 
bridge. The 
1  a  1 1  e  r '  s  son 
James  was  the 
first  duke,  cre- 
ated in  1643. 
Executed  in 
1649  for  his 
share  in  the 
civil  war,  he 
was  followed 
by  his  brother 
William,  already  earl  of  Lanark, 
and  secretary  of  state  in  Scotland 
under  Charles  I.  He  was  mortally 
wounded  at  Worcester  in  Sept., 
1651,  and  the  title  and  estates 
passed  to  his  niece  Anne.  She 
married  William  Douglas,  earl 
of  Selkirk,  who,  in  1660,  waa 
created  duke  of  Hamilton.  This 
duke,  who  ranks  as  the  3rd,  turned 
from  the  Stuarts  to  William  of 
Orange  in  1688  and  died  in  1694. 

The  duchess  survived  him,  but  in 
1698  she  resigned  her  titles  to  her 
son  James  Douglas,  who  was 
created  duke  with  precedence  from 
1643.  He  was  made  duke  of  Bran- 
don in  1711,  and  was  killed  in 
a  famous  duel  with  Lord  Mohun 
in  1712,  an  incident  depicted  in 
Esmond.  From  him  the  later  dukes 
are  descended.  James,  the  6th, 
married  the  beauty,  Elizabeth 
Gunning  (q.v.);  James,  the  7th, 
inherited,  in  1761,  the  title  of 
marquess  of  Douglas,  but  failed 
after  litigation  to  secure  the 
Douglas  estates.  However,  the 
family  was  known  henceforward  as 
Douglas -Hamilton.  Alexander, 
the  10th  duke,  ambassador  at  St. 
Petersburg,  was  a  great  collector  of 
pictures  and  works  of  art  generally. 
William,  the  llth  duke,  married 
a  daughter  of  the  grand-duke  of 
Baden,  and  his  daughter  married 
the  prince  of  Monaco.  William,  the 
12th  duke,  was  made  duke  of 
Chatellerault  in  1864  by  Napo- 
leon III. 

The  semi-royal  position  of  the 
dukes  of  Hamilton  passed  with  the 
death  of  the  12th  duke  in  1895. 
He  was  succeeded  by  a  cousin, 
Alfred  Douglas,  but  left  many  of 


HAMILTON 


3808 


HAMILTON 


his  estates  to  his  daughter,  the 
marchioness  of  Graham.  She  in- 
herited Brodick  Castle  and  most  of 
the  isle  of  Arran.  Hamilton  Palace 
and  the  estates  in  Lanarkshire 
went  to  the  new  duke.  The  duke's 
eldest  son  is  known  as  marquess  of 
Douglas  and  Clydesdale.  y. 

Hamilton,  JAMES  HAMILTON, 
IST  DUKE  OF  (1606^9).  Scottish 
politician.  The  eldest  son  of  the 


James,  Duke  ot  Hamilton 

After  Van  Dyck 

2nd  marquess  of  Hamilton,  he  was 
born  June  19,  1(506.  For  a  time  he 
was  at  Exeter  College,  Oxford,  and, 
having  become  marquess  in  1625, 
he  went  to  the  court  of  Charles  I. 
He  was  for  about  three  years  in 
Germany,  whither  he  took  a  force 
to  aid  Gustavus  Adolphus,  but  he 
returned  in  time  to  assist  Charles 
with  his  advice. 

In  the  intrigues  that  preceded 
the  Civil  War,  Hamilton  was  pro- 
minent, the  king  relying  greatly  on 
his  counsel.  In  1641  he  deserted 
Charles,  but  soon  he  was  serving 
him  again. 

When  war  broke  out  he  re- 
mained in  Scotland,  being  leader  of 
a  faction  there  ;  but  his  plans  and 
intrigues  failed,  and,  discredited, 
he  left  Edinburgh  for  Oxford. 
Charles  put  him  in  prison,  but  soon 
he  was  released.  Then  came  the 
crowning  act  of  his  life,  his  leader- 
ship of  a  strong  Scottish  force  to 
restore  Charles,  which  led  to  the 
renewal  of  the  civil  war  in  1648. 
Incompetent  as  a  general,  he  was 
easily  routed  at  Preston,  and  was 
made  prisoner.  Tried  and  found 
guilty,  on  March  9,  1649,  he  was 
executed. 

Hamilton,  ALEXANDER  (1757- 
1804).  American  statesman.  He 
was  born  Jan.  11,  1757,  on  the 
island  of  Nevis,  West  Indies,  of 
which  his  mother  was  a  native  ; 
his  lather  was  a  Scotsman.  Edu- 
cated at  King's  (later  Columbia) 
College,  New  \ork,  at  the  age  of  17 


CVV         _L  \J1  K,      III       J    i  OVJ 

O 


he  published  essays  on  The  Rights 
of  the  Colonies.  At  the  age  of  20  he 
was  a  lieutenant-colonel  and  aide- 
de-camp  to  George  Washington. 
In  1780  he  married  a  daughter  of 
General  Schuyler,  who  survived 
him  50  years.  In  1782  he  was 
elected  a  member  of  Congress  for 
the  state  of  New  York,  in  1786 
became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  New 
York  Legisla- 
ture, and  in 
1787  he  was  a 
delegate  to  the 
convention  for 
framing  the 
constitution  of 
the  U.S.A., 
with  the  draft- 
ing of  which 

he    is     believed  AflerTrumbull 

to  have  had  much  to  do.  A  year 
later  he  was  a  member  of  the  New 
York  State  Convention  for  ratifying 
that  constitution.  In  the  interval, 
with  two  friends,  he  had  produced 
The  Federalist,  explaining  the  con- 
stitution to  the  people. 

From  1789-95  he  was  secretary 
to  the  Treasury,  when  he  estab- 
lished the  National  Bank,  and 
proved  himself  a  great  financier. 
After  resigning  from  the  Treasury 
he  practised  law  in  New  York.  In 
1798  he  was  appointed  second  in 
command  of  the  provisional  army 
in  anticipation  of  a  French  inva- 
sion, and  on  the  death  of  Washing- 
ton in  the  following  year  was  in 
chief  command.  On  July  11, 1804, 
he  was  wounded  in  a  duel  with 
Aaron  Burr,  and  died  on  the  follow- 
ing day.  Washington's  closest  and 
ablest  associate,  Hamilton  was  a 
great  and  clear  thinker,  whose 
influence  on  the  political  develop- 
ment of  his  country  was  enormous. 
Bibliography.  Life,  by  his  son, 
J.  C.  Hamilton,  1834-40;  Hamil- 
ton and  his  Contemporaries,  C.  J. 
Riethmuller,  1864  ;  Life  and  Epoch 
of  Alexander  Hamilton,  G.  Shea, 
1879  ;  Alexander  Hamilton,  H.  C. 
Lodge,  1886;  and  Alexander  Hamil- 
ton, F.  S.  Oliver,  1906.  Gertrude 
Atherton's  novel,  The  Conqueror, 
1902,  deals  with  Hamilton's  life  in 
graphic  fashion,  and  the  same 
author  edited  his  Letters,  1903. 

Hamilton,  ANTHONY,  COUNT  (c. 
1646-1720).  British  author  and 
soldier.  One  of 
the  sons  of  Sir 
George  Hamil- 
ton, a  younger 
son  of  the 
duke  of  Aber- 
conij  he  is  be- 
lieved to  have 
been  born  at 
Rosecrea,  Tip- 
perary,in!646. 
He  took  part 
British  soldier  '  in  the  fighting 


Sir  B.  M.  Hamilton, 
British  soldier 


in  Ireland,  1689-90,  and  was  at 
the  battle  of  the  Boyne,  after  which 
he  went  abroad  and  spent  most  of 
his  life  at  the  court  of  the  Stuarts 
in  exile  at  Germain-en-Laye,  where 
he  died,  April  21,  1720.  He  is 
chiefly  remembered  as  writer  of 
the  lively  Memoirs  of  the  Court  of 
Charles  II,  of  his  brother-in-law, 
the  count  of  Gramont  (q.v.). 

Hamilton,  SIR  BRUCE  MEADE  (b. 
1857).  British  soldier.  Bora  Dec. 
7,  1857,  he  entered  the  East  York- 
shire regiment 
in  1877.  A 
long  career  of 
active  service 
began  in  Af- 
ghanistan in 
1880,  and  in 
succeeding 
years  he  was 
in  S.  Africa 
and  Burma. 
In  1895,  as 

a      major,      he  Lafayette 

was  in  Ashanti,  and  in  1897  in 
Benin,  where  he  commanded  the 
Niger  Coast  Protectorate  Force. 
During  the  S.  African  War  he  served 
first  on  the  staff  and  afterwards  in 
command  of  the  21  st  brigade,  and  of 
a  flying  column.  In  1903  he  was  put 
in  charge  of  a  brigade  at  Aldershot ; 
a  divisional  command  followed, 
and  from  1909-13  he  commanded 
the  Scottish  district.  During  the 
Great  War  Hamilton  was  in  com- 
mand of  an  army  raised  for  home 
defence  in  1914-15,  and  in  1915- 
16  was  in  charge  of  the  training 
centre  at  Ripon.  In  1902  he  was 
knighted,  and  in  1913  made  a  full 
general. 

Hamilton,  CICELY  (b.  1872). 
British  author,  playwright,  and 
actress.  Born  in  London,  her  fame 
as  a  play- 
wright rests 
chiefly  on 
Diana  of  Dob- 
son's,  1906. 
Her  other  pub- 
lications i  n  - 
elude  three 
novels  based 
on  her  plays : 
Diana  of  Dob- 
son's  ;  Just  to 
Get  Married ; 
and  A  Matter  of  Money,  1916;  a 
study  of  Marriage  as  a  Trade  •  and 
William,  an  Englishman,  1919. 
She  also  wrote  and  lectured  largely 
on  feminist  subjects. 

Hamilton,  LORD  CLAUD  JOHN 
(1843-1925). '  British  politician  and 
railway  director.  Born  Feb.  20, 
1843,  a  son  of  the  1st  duke  of 
Abercorn,  from  Harrow  he  joined 
the  Grenadier  Guards,  but  after 
three  years  entered  Parliament  as 
M  P.  for  Londonderry  city.  In 
1868  he  served  as  a  lord  of  the 


Cicely  Hamilton, 
British  author 

Ell  toll  <fc  Fry 


HAMILTON 


3809 


HAMILTON 


Lord  Claud  Hamilton, 
British  politician 

Russell 


treasury  in  the  Conservative  min- 
istry. From  1869-80  he  was  M.P. 
for  King's  Lynn;  from  1880-88 
for  Liverpool, 
and  from  1910- 
18  for  S.  Ken- 
sington. In 
early  life  (April, 
1872)  he  joined 
t  h  e  board  o  f 
directors  of  the 
G.E.R.,  became 
deputy  chair- 
man in  Jan., 
1875,  and  in 
Sept.,  1893, 
chairman.  He  was  one  of  the  best 
known  figures  in  the  railway  world, 
and  a  keen  defender  of  the  interests 
of  capital.  In  1917  he  was  made  a 
P.C  He  died  Jan.  26,  1925. 

Hamilton,  COSMO.  British  dra- 
matist and  novelist.  The  second 
son  of  Henry  Gibbs  and  brother  of 
Sir  Philip  Gibbs  (q.v.)t  he  assumed 
his  mother's  name  in  1898.  He 
edited  The  World,  1905-6,  and 
wrote  a  number  of  capital  novels 
and  plays.  When  the  Great  War 
broke  out  he  joined  the  Royal 
Naval  Air  Service,  being  gazetted 
a  lieu  t.  in  Nov., 
1914.  His  many 
novels  and 
short  stories  in- 
cluded Adam's 
Clay,  1907; 
Keepers  of  the 
House,  1908  ; 
The  Blindness 
of  Virtue,  1908; 
The  Princess  of 
New  York, 
1911;  The  Out- 
post of  Eternity,  1912;  The 
Miracle  of  Love,  1915.  Among  his 
plays  were  The  Wisdom  of  Folly, 
1902  ;  The  Mountain  Climber,  1  905  ; 
Arsene  Lupin,  1909  ;  and  Mrs. 
Skeffington,  1910. 

Hamilton,  SIR  EDWARD  (1772- 
1851).  British  sailor.  Born  March 
12,  1772,  when  a  boy  he  served  for 
two  years  with  his  father,  Sir  John 
Hamilton,  in  the  W.  Indies.  Pro- 
moted lieut.  in  1793,  he  was  present 
at  the  siege  of  Bastia,  1794,  and  in 
]  796  was  sent  again  to  the  West 
Indies.  In  1799 
lie  led  a  party 
in  boats  into 
the  harbour  of 
Puerto  Ca- 
bello  and,  un- 
der  heavy  fire, 
seized  the 
Spanish  fri- 
gale  Hermi- 
one,and  towed 
her  out.  Only 

12  of    his  men 


**• 


Cosmo  Hamilton, 
British  dramatist 

Elliott  &  Fry 


Sir  Edward  Hamilton, 
British  admiral 

After  Thompson 


were  wounded;  but  Hamilton  him- 
self was  badly  hit.  This  unrivalled 
feat  won  him  a  knighthood  and  the 


naval  gold  medal.  While  returning 
to  England  he  was  captured  by  a 
French  privateer  and  taken  to 
Paris,  where  Napoleon  is  said  to 
have  questioned  him  about  his  ex- 
ploit. In  1818  he  was  created  a 
baronet  and  became  an  admiral  in 
1846.  He  died  in  London,  March 
21,  1851. 

Hamilton,  ELIZABETH  (1758- 
1816).  Scottish  writer.  Born  in 
Belfast,  July  21,  1758,  and  brought 
up  in  Scot- 
1  a  n  d,  she 
wrote  on  edu- 
cational, relig- 
ious, andphil- 
an  t h  r opic 
subjects  ;  but 
her  fame  rests 
chiefly  on  The 
Cottagers  o  f 
Glenburnie,  j 
a  story  of  ' 
Scottish 
rural  life.  Mrs.  Hamilton,  as  she 
called  herself,  died  at  Harrogate, 
July  23,  1816. 

Hamilton,  EMMA,  LADY  (c. 
1761-1815).  British  adventuress. 
A  daughter  of  Henry  Lyon,  she  is 
believed  to  have 
been  born  at  Ness, 
in  Cheshire,  prob- 
ably in  1 761  .though 
April  26,  1763,  is 
sometimes  given  as 
the  date.  Her  par- 
ents were  in  humble 
circumstances,  and 
her  father  having 
died  while  she  was 
a  baby,  she  was 
brought  up  by  her 
grandmother  a  t 
Hawarden.  She 
came  to  London 
about  1778  as  a 
nursemaid,  and 
there  are  many  con- 
flicting stories  as  to 
her  early  life  and 
intrigues.  In  1 782 
she  became  the 
mistress  of  the  Hon 
Charles  Greville, 
and  four  years  later 
of  his  uncle,  Sir 
William  Hamilton, 
British  ambassador 
at  Naples.  In  1791 
Sir  William  married 
her  at  Marylebone,  and  returned 
with  her  to  Naples,  where  she  be- 
came the  confidante  of  the  queen. 
In  1793  she  and  Nelson  first  met, 
but  it  was  five  years  later,  after 
his  victory  at  the  Nile,  that  they 
became  intimate.  Their  child, 
Horatia,  was  born  in  1801,  after 
the  return  of  the  Hamiltons  and 
Nelson  to  England.  Hamilton  died 
in  1803,  and  Nelson  in  1805.  Lady 
Hamilton  was  left  with  comfort- 


able  means,  soon  swallowed  up  by 
her  extravagance. 

After  being  imprisoned  for  debt, 
she  went  to  Calais  in  1813,  and 
died  there  Jan.  15,  1815.  She 
made  extravagant  claims  to  public 
reward  on  account  of  doubtful 
services  rendered  to  the  state,  and 
is  remembered  mainly  for  her 
liaison  with  Nelson  and  for  her 
remarkable  beauty,  to  which  over 
twenty  portraits  of  her  by  George 
Romney  bear  witness.  See  Me- 
moirs of  Lady  Hamilton,  1815  (and 
later  editions) ;  Lady  Hamilton 
and  Nelson,  J.  C.  Jeaffreson,  1888 ; 
Emma,  Lady  Hamilton,  H.  Gam- 
lin,  1891 ;  Emma,  Lady  Hamilton, 
Walter  Sichel,  1905. 

Hamilton,  LORD  GEORGE  FRAN- 
CIS (b.  1845).  British  politician.  A 
younger  son  of  the  1st  duke  of 
Abercorn,  he  was  educated  at 
Harrow.  In  1868  he  was  sent  to 
the  House  of  Commons  by  the  co. 
of  Middlesex,  and  after  the  re- 
distribution of  1885  represented 
the  Baling  division  until  his  retire- 
ment. In  1874  he  entered  the  Con- 
servative ministry  as  under-secre- 
tary  for  India,  and  in  1878  was 


Reynolds 

transferred  to  the  office  of  vice- 
president  of  the  council.  In  1885- 
86,  and  again  from  1886-92,  he  was 
in  the  cabinet  as  first  lord  of  the 
admiralty,  and  from  1895-1903 
was  secretary  for  India. 

In  1903  he  resigned  owing  to 
disagreement  with  Chamberlain's 
fiscal  proposals,  and  retired  from 
Parliament  in  1906.  In  1894  he  was 
chairman  of  the  London  County 
Council,  and  after  his  retirement 

P    5 


HAMILTON 


3810 


HAMILTON 


£lliolt  *  Fr» 


was.  chairman 
of  the  commis- 
sion that  in- 
quired into  the 
poor  laws,  and 
of  the  one  that 
reported  upon 
the  early 
failure  in  Meso- 
p  o  t  a  m  i  a 
during  the 
Great  War. 
In  1916  Lord 
George  published  his  reminiscences. 
Hamilton,  HUBERT  ION  WETHER- 
ALL  (1861-1914).  British  soldier. 
Born  June  27,  1861,  he  was  a  son  of 
Lieut. -General 
H.  M.  Hamil- 
t  o  n  and  a 
brother  of 
General  Bruce 
M.  Hamilton. 
He  joined  the 
Queen's  Regi- 
ment in  1880, 
of  which  he 
H.  L  W.  Hamilton,  was  adjutant, 
British  soldier  1886-90; 
Elliott  &  F,y  served  in  the 

Burmese  expedition,  1886-88  ;  the 
Egyptian  campaign,  1897-99;  and 
in  S.  Africa,  1899-1902.  Military 
secretary  to  Kitchener  in  S.  Africa, 
1900-2,  and  in  India,  1902-5,  he 
commanded  the  7th  brigade,  1906- 

8,  and  was  on  the  general  staff  of 
the  Mediterranean  command,  1908- 

9.  He  led  the  3rd  division  at  the 
outbreak   of  the  Great  War,  dis- 
tinguishing  himself  at  Mons   and 
the    Aisne.      Hamilton,   who   was 
given    the    D.S.O.    in    1898,    was 
killed  near  La  Bassee,  Oct.  14, 1914. 

Hamilton,  SIR  IAN  STANDISH 
MONTEITH  HAMILTON  (b.  1853). 
British  soldier.  The  son  of  a  soldier, 
he  was  born  at  Corfu,  Jan.  16, 1853. 
Educated  at  Cheam  School  and 
Wellington  College,  he  entered  the 
Gordon  Highlanders  in  1873,  and 
first  saw  active  service  in  the 
Afghan  War  of  1878-79.'  He 
served  in  the  Boer  War  of  1881, 
being  taken  prisoner  at  Majuba 
Hill,  where  he  was  wounded,  was 
with  the  expedition  up  the  Nile 
in  1884-85,  and  in  Burma,  1886- 
87.  In  1891  he  became  colonel, 
and,  after  service  in  the  Chitral 
campaign,  1895,  led  a  brigade  in 
the  Tirah,  1897-98.  For  a  short 
time  he  commanded  the  school 
of  musketry  at  Hythe. 

In  1899,  when  the  S.  African 
War  began,  Hamilton  was  in  Lady- 
smith  as  chief  of  the  staff  to  Sir  G. 
White,  and  he  was  in  command  of 
the  infantry  at  Elandslaagte  and 
other  engagements.  After  the 
relief  of  Ladysmith  he  commanded 
some  mounted  infantry,  was  chief 
of  the  staff  to  Lord  Kitchener,  and 
was  in  command  of  mobile  columns 


in  the  Transvaal  until  the  end  of 
the  war  in  1902.  when  he  was  made 
quartermaster-general  to  the  forces. 

During  the  Russo-Japanese  War 
he  was  military  representative  of 
India,  being  in  Manchuria  with  the 
Japanese,  an  experience  which  led 
to  his  book,  A  Staff  Officer's  Scrap 
Book.  From  1905-9  he  was  general 
officer  commanding  the  southern 
district,  from  1909-10  adjutant- 
general  and  a  member  of  the  army 
council,  and  from  1910—15  com- 
mander-in-chief  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean and  inspector-general  of  over- 
sea forces.  In  1915,  having  been 
just  made  a  full  general,  Hamilton 
was  chosen  to  command  the  force 
that  landed  on  the  Gallipoli  penin- 
sula. He  led  it  in  its  terrible  right- 
ing until  he  was  superseded  in  Oct. 

The  failure  of  the  expedition  was 
bound  to  rea.ct  on  the  general  in 
charge  of  the  operations,  and  the 
commission  that  inquired  into  the 
matter  censured  him,  although 


only  on  minor  points.  His  san- 
guine temperament,  perhaps,  made 
,  him  unfitted  for  the  task,  but  it  is 
doubtful  whether  another  would 
have  succeeded.  He  retired  from 
the  army  in  1920.  A  charming 
personality,  Hamilton  is  a  writer 
with  distinct  gifts  of  style,  shown 
not  least  in  his  dispatches,  and 
something  of  a  poet.  His  works 
include  Icarus  and  Fighting  of  the 
Future,whileA  Gallipoli  Diary,1920, 
deals  with  the  campaign  in  Gal- 
lipoli. See  Gallipoli,  Campaign  in. 
Hamilton,  JOHN  McLrRE  (b. 
1853).  American  painter.  Born  at 
Philadelphia,  Jan.  31,  1853,  he 
studied  at  the  Antwerp  Academy 
and  at  the  Beaux  Arts,  Paris.  The 
first  years  of  his  professional  life 
were  passed  in  his  native  town, 
but  in  1878  he  settled  in  London 
as  a  portrait  painter.  Portraits  of 


George  V,  Gladstone,  Cardinal 
Manning,  Prof.  Tyndall,  General 
Booth,  Lord  Leighton,  and  other 
prominent  artists  may  be  cited. 

Hamilton,  PATRICK  (c.  1504- 
28).  Proto-martyr  of  the  Scottish 
Reformation.  Born  at  Stane  House, 
Lanarkshire,  or  Kincavel,  Linlith 
gowshire,  grandson  of  the  1st  Baron 
Hamilton,  his  mother  was  a  daugh- 
ter of  Alexander  Stewart,  duke  of 
Albany,  second  son  of  James  II. 
Made  abbot  of  Feme,  Ross-shire, 
in  his  Nth  year,  he  was  educated  at 
Paris,  Louvain,  and  St.  Andrews. 

For  commending  Tyndale's 
translation  of  the  N.T.  in'l526  he 
was  charged  with  heresy.  He  es- 
caped to  Marburg,  where  he -came 
under  the  influence  of  Luther  and 
other  reformers  and  composed  his 
Loci  Communes,  known  as  Pat- 
rick's Pleas,  in  which  he  set  forth 
the  doctrine  of  justification  by 
faith.  He  returned  to  Scotland  in 
the  autumn  of  1527,  was  seized 
Feb.  28,  1528,  tried  for  heresy  in  St. 
Andrews  Cathedra!,  sentenced  by 
Archbishop  Beaton,  and  burnt  at 
the  stake,  Feb.  29,  J  528.  See  Life, 
P.  Lorimer,  1857;  Patrick  Hamil- 
ton, a  Tragedy  of  the  Reformation, 
T.  P.  Johnston,  1882. 

Hamilton,  WALTER  KERR(1808- 
69).  British  prelate.  Born  Nov.  16, 
1808,  son  of  Anthony  Hamilton, 

archdeacon  of    r, 

Taunton,  he- 
was  educated  ^tev 
at  Eton  and 
ChristChurch, 
Oxford,  and 
was  fellow  of 
Merton,  1831, 
with  Henry  E 
Manning  and 
Edward  Deni- 
son.  An  ad- 
herent of  the 


I 


Walter  K.  Hamilton, 
British  prelate 

After  Richmond 

•Oxford  movement  (r/.v.),  he  suc- 
ceeded Denison  as  vicar  of  S.  Peter- 
in-thc-East,  Oxford,  1837-41  ;  was 
canon  residentiary,  Salisbury, 1841- 
54;  and  bishop  cf  Salisbury,  1854- 
69.  In  his  charges  he  maintained 
the  doctrines  of  the  Eucharistic 
Sacrifice,  the  Real  Presence,  and 
sacramental  confession.  He  insti- 
tuted diocesan  retreats,  estab- 
lished Salisbury  Theological  Col- 
lege, ]  860  ;  composed  Morning  and 
Evening  Services  for  Every  Day 
in  the  Week,  1842;  and  wrote  on 
Cathedral  Reform,  1853.  He  died 
Aug.  1,  1869. 

Hamilton,  WILLIAM  (1665- 
1751).  Scottish  poet.  A  friend  of 
Allan  Ramsay,  his  Seven  Familiar 
Epistles  represent  a  correspond- 
ence in  verse  between  the  two 
poets.  Hamilton  is  also  remem- 
bered by  his  elegy  on  his  dog 
Bonny  Heck  and  by  "  Willie  was 
a  Wanton  Wag."  He  wrote  a 


HAMILTON 


HAMIRPUR 


William  Hamilton, 
Scottish  poet 


modernised  version  of  Blind 
Harry's  Wallace,  which  attained 
Considerable  popularity.  Generally 
known  as  Hamilton  of  Gilbertfield, 
hi  Lanarkshire,  where  he  long  re- 
sided, he  afterwards  moved  to  Lat- 
rick,  and  died  there  May  24,  1751. 
Hamilton,  WILT.IAM  (1704  54) 
Scottish  poet,  generally  known  as 
William  of  Bangour,  in  Linlithgow- 
shire.  He  be- 
came involved 
in  the  Jacobite 
rebellion  of 
1745,  and  had 
to  flee  the 
country.  He 
eventually  re- 
turned and 
succeeded  t  o 
the  -family 
estate,  but  his 
health  made  it  necessary  for  him 
to  go  abroad  again,  and  he  died  at 
Lyons,  March  25,  1754.  He  was 
a  contributor  to  Allan  Ramsay's 
Tea-table  Miscellany.  His  fame 
rests  chiefly  on  the  beautiful  poem, 
The  Bonnie  Braes  of  Yarrow. 

Hamilton,  SIR  WILLIAM  (1730- 
180H).  British  diplomatist.  Bom 
Dec.  13,  1730,  he  was  a  grandson  of 
the  third  duke 
of  Hamilton, 
and  in  early 
life  was  a  sol- 
dier. In  1761 
he  became  an 
M.P.  and  in 
1764  went  to 
Naples  as  Brit- 
i  s  h  minister. 
There  he  re- 
mained until 
1800,  varying 

ydipl 

social  and  sporting  life  and  a  keen 
study  of  volcanic  activity,  encour- 
aged by  his  proximity  to  Vesuvius. 
He  made  a  valuable  collection  of 
antiquities,  part  of  which,  bought 
by  the  trustees  of  the  British 
Museum  in  1772,  formed  the  nu- 
cleus of  the  department  of  Greek 
and  Roman  antiquities.  Ancient 
vases  especially  were  purchased  by 
him  in  large  numbers  ;  be  was  an 
F.R  S.  and  wi*ote  several  books  on 
volcanoes.  His  first  wife,  a  Welsh 
heiress,  having  died  in  1782,  Hamil- 
ton persuaded  Emma  Lyon  to  live 
with  him  at  Naples,  and  she  re- 
mained his  mistress  until  the  two 
were  married  in  1791.  About  1793 
the  pair  made  the  friendship  of 
Nelson,  and  the  three  spent  a  good 
deal  of  time  together.  Hamilton 
appears  to  have  acquiesced  in  his 
wife's  intimacy  with  the  great  sea- 
man, who  was  present  when  he 
died,  April  6,  1803. 

Hamilton,  SIR  WILLIAM  (1788- 
1856).  Scottish  philosopher. 
Bora  at  Glasgow,  March  8,  1788, 


Sir  Wm.  Hamilton, 
British  diplomatist 

From  an  engraving 


and  educated 
there  and  at 
Balliol  College, 
Oxford,  he  be- 
came professor 
of  history  at 
Edinburgh  in 
1821,  and  pro- 
fessor of  logic 
and  meta- 
Sir  Wm.  Hamilton,  physics  from 
Scottish  philosopher  1836_56.  He 

After  J.  Archer,  B.S.A.       was    an     ar(Jent 

supporter  of  university  reform  and 
an  opponent  of  the  tendency  of  the 
colleges  to  claim  for  themselves 
teaching  and  other  functions  which 
rightly  belonged  to  the  university. 
Hamilton,  much  influenced  by 
Kant,  gave  a  new  turn  to  Scottish 
philosophy.  He  especially  insists 
upon  the  relativity  of  knowledge; 
the  absolute  is  not  only  unknow- 
able, but  also  inconceivable;  it  is 
an  object  of  faith,  not  of  science. 
His  most  important  work  is  his  Lec- 
tures on  Metaphysics  and  Logic, 
ed.  Mansel  and  Veitch,  publ.  post- 
humously 1859-61.  He  died  at 
Edinburgh,  May  6,  1856. 

Hamilton,  WILLIAM  GERARD 
(1729-96).  English  politician.  Born 
in  London,  Jan.  28,  1729,  the  son  of 
a  bencher  of 
Lincoln's  Inn, 
and  originally 
intended  for 
the  law,  he 
gave  it  up  for 
politics.  Hav- 
ing entered 
Parliament  in 
1754,  his 
maiden  speech  Wm.  U.  Hamilton, 
in  1755,  which  EnSUsh  Politician 
Walpoledeclared  never  to  have  been 
surpassed  by  anyone  except  Pitt, 
earned  him  the  title  of  "  Single- 
speech  Hamilton."  The  sobriquet 
is  not  quite  accurate,  as  he  after- 
wards spoke  with  success  in  both 
the  English  and  Irish  parliaments. 
After  serving  as  chief  secretary  to 
the  lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland, 
Hamilton  entered  the  Irish  Parlia- 
ment and  from  1763-84  was  chan- 
cellor of  the  exchequer  in  that 
country.  He  died  July  16,  1796. 

Hamilton,  SIR  WILLIAM  ROWAN 
(1805-65).  Irish  mathematician. 
Born  at  Dublin,  Aug.  4,  1805,  as  a 
boy  he  showed  a  remarkable  apti- 
tude for  languages,  reading  Latin 
and  Greek,  Persian,  Arabic,  and 
nine  other  languages  before  the 
age  of  thirteen.  Intended  by  his 
father  for  a  post  in  the  East  India 
Company,  his  great  genius  for 
mathematics  asserted  itself,  and 
before  his  seventeenth  birthday 
he  had  detected  a  mistake  in  Lap- 
lace's Mecanique  Celeste.  Sent  to 
Trinity  College,  Dublin,  his  bril- 
liance soon  attracted  attention. 


Sir  W.  K.  Hamilton, 
Irish  mathematician 


At  the  early  age  of  22  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  astronomy 
to  the  university.  In  1835  he 
was  knighted. 
During  these 
years  optics 
owed  him  a 
great  debt  for 
his  remark- 
able theoreti- 
cal researches, 
the  chief  of 
which  resulted 
in  his  predic- 
tion of  the 
phenomenon  of  conical  refraction, 
leading  to  a  remarkable  proof  of 
the  undulatory  theory  of  light. 

The  work  by  which  Hamilton 
was  to  become  best  known  was  a 
system  of  mathematical  analysis 
known  as  Quaternions  (<?.?-'.).  The 
method  was  published  in  his  Lec- 
tures on  Quaternions,  1853,  andThe 
Elements  of  Quaternions,  1866. 
He  died  Sept.  2,  1865.  Consult 
Life,  Rev.  R.  P.  Graves,  1883-89. 

Hamilton- Gordon,  SIR  ALEX- 
ANDER (b.  1859).  British  soldier. 
Born  July  6,  1859,  he  was  a  grand- 
son of  the  4th  earl  of  Aberdeen. 
Educated  at  Winchester,  he  en- 
tered the  Royal  Artillery  in  1880, 
and  almost  at  once  saw  service  in 
Afghanistan.  During  the  S.  African 
War  he  was  appointed  to  the  in- 
telligence department.  From  1904- 
1 0  lie  was  .on  the  general  staff  at 
headquarters.  From  1910-14  he 
was  director  of  military  operations 
in  India,  and  in  Aug.,  1914,  he  was 
made  commander-in-chief  at  Alder- 
shot,  retaining  that  position  until 
May,  1916,  when  he  led  a  division 
to  France.  A  little  later  he  was  put 
in  command  of  the  9th  (2nd  Army) 
Corps,  which  he  led  in  the  fighting 
on  the  Lys,  early  in  1918,  and  after- 
wards took  to  assist  the  French  on 
the  Aisne.  In  1918  he  was  knighted 
and  made  a  lieutenant-general. 

Hamilton  Group.  Series  of 
stratified  rocks  of  marine  origin, 
found  in  N.  America  (New  York 
State,  Pennsylvania.  Ontario,  etc. ). 
They  form  the  upper  division  of 
Middle  Devonian  system  hi  that 
region,  and  contain  abundant  fos- 
sils (trilobites,  brachiopods,  etc.). 
These  rocks  reach  a  thickness  of 
1,500  ft.,  and  are  extensively  used 
for  building  and  paving  purposes. 

Hamirpur.  District,  subdivision 
and  town  of  India,  in  the  United 
Provinces.  The  surface  is  flat  and 
fertile,  and  is  watered  by  the  Jum- 
na, which  flows  along  the  N.  boun- 
dary, and  other  streams.  The  town 
is  the  capital  of  the  district,  and 
stands  on  the  Jumna,  150  m.  S.E. 
of  Agra.  Area,  district,  2,292  sq. 
m.  ;  subdivision,  375  sq.  m.  Pop., 
district,  465,223 ;  subdivision, 
79,506 ;  town,  7,452. 


HAMITIC 


3812 


HAMLEY 


* 


Hamlet 


The  play  scene,  where  Hamlet,  lying  at  Ophelia's  feet,  watches  the  effect  of  tae  play  upon 
his  uncle  Claudius.     From  the  painting  by  Maclise 
Tale  Gallery,  London 


conscience  of 


Hamitic.  Terra  denoting  an 
ethnic  and  linguistic  group  in  N.E. 
Africa.  So  called  from  Ham,  one  of 
the  sons  of  Noah,  in  ethnology  it 
designates  a  frizzy-haired,  medium  - 
headed,  red-brown,  thin-lipped 
type,  of  nomadic  culture,  best 
represented  by  the  Nubian  Beja, 
Abyssinian  Agaos,  and  the  Dan- 
akil,  Galla,  and  Somali  tribes. 
Their  relationship  to  the  ancient 
Egyptians  is  still  undecided.  An 
early  Himyarite-negroid  blend 
rather  than  a  distinct  race,  their 
contact  with  peoples  of  lower  cul- 
ture produced  three  great  ethnic 
fusions :  with  Bushmen,  the  Hotten- 
tot ;  with  lake  negroes,  the  Bantu ; 
with  Nilotic  negroes,  the  Masai. 
Hamitic  speech  may  be  related  to 
Semitic  through  a  common  precur- 
sor in  W.  Asia.  It  is  classified  into 
47  stocks,  comprising  71  dialects, 
spoken  over  one-fifth  of  Africa. 

Hamlet.  Tragedy  by  Shake- 
speare. Hamlet,  Prince  of  Den- 
mark, learning  from  his  father's 
ghost  that  the  father  was  poisoned 
by  Claudius,  his  brother  and  suc- 
cessor, has  a  play  acted  before 
Claudius,  in  which  a  similar  case 
of  poisoning  is  represented.  Claud- 
ius rises  in  excitement  and  betrays 
his  guilt.  Hamlet  rebukes  his 
mother  for  her  unnatural  union 
with  Claudius,  and  sails  for  England 
with  the  courtiers  Rosencrantz  and 
Guildenstern.  Having  altered  the 
letter  they  carried  from  Claudius 
for  delivery  to  the  English  king, 
Hamlet  _  sends  them  to  the  de- 
struction intended  for  himself,  and 
returns  to  Denmark.  Laertes,  to 
avenge  the  death  of  his  father, 


Polonius,  whom  Hamlet  had  killed, 
and  that  of  his  sister  Ophelia,  who, 
losing  her  reason,  had  drowned  her- 
self, stabs  Hamlet  with  a  poisoned 
foil,  but  not  before  he  himself  had 
been  fatally  wounded  with  the  same 
weapon.  Hamlet  kills  the  king,  and 
the  queen  dies  from  drinking  of  a 
poisoned  cup  intended  for  Hamlet. 

The  scene  is  laid  in  Elsinore,  and 
relief  from  the  main  theme  is  sup- 
plied by  the  sententiousness  of 
Polonius,  the  king's  counsellor,  and 
the  witticisms  of  the  two  grave- 
diggers  who  bury  Ophelia.  Its 
stock  of  varying  and  exciting  in- 
cidents, its  store  of  pregnant  utter- 
ances and  maxims,  its  fairly  equal 
division  into  scenes  of  tragedy  and 
comedy,  above  all,  the  appeal  of  its 
leading  character,  have  made 
Hamlet  the  most  popular  of  all 
Shakespeare's  plays.  Henry  Irving 
(Lyceum,  Oct.  31,  1874)  and 
Forbes- Robertson  (Lyceum,  Sept. 
11,  1897)  have  been  the  most 
famous  of  modern  Hamlets.  But 
nearly  all  the  more  prominent 
English-speaking  players  of  re- 
cent times,  Edwin  Booth,  Wilson 
Barrett,  Frank  Benson,  Beerbohm 
Tree,  H.  B.  Irving,  Martin  Harvey, 
and  Matheson  Lang,  have  assumed 
the  r61e,  as  have  such  celebrated 
foreigners  as  Salvini,  Rossi,  Mounet- 
Sully,  and  Sarah  Bernhardt. 

Hamlet  is  based  on  an  ancient 
Icelandic  saga  of  the  Danish  kings, 
which  found  its  way,  in  1570, 
from  the  Historia  Danica  of  Saxo 
Grammaticus,  1514,  into  Belle- 
forest's  Histoires  Tragiques.  There 
existed  a  previous  play  in  Eng- 
lish on  the  subject,  probably  by 


Kyd.  Shakespeare's  play  was  first 
acted  at  The  Globe,  1602,  with 
Burbage  in  the  title-role,  and  there 
is  a  tradition  that  the  poet  took 
the  part  of  the  Ghost.  It  was  first 
published  in  1603.  There  were  four 
other  quartos  between  1604  and 
1611.  The  existing  text  is  collated 
from  the  Second  Quarto  of  1604  and 
the  1623  folio.  The  play  is  in  five 
acts,  contains  3,924  lines,  of  which 
1,208  are  prose  and  2,490  blank 
verse,  with  81  pentametric  rhymes, 
and  has  found  more  commentators 
than  any  other  of  Shakespeare's 
plays.  See  Barrett,  Wilson ;  Forbes- 
Robertson;  consult  also  Shake- 
speare's Hamlet;  a  New  Commen- 
tary, W.  F.  Trench,  1913  ;  Hamlet 
and  the  Scottish  Succession,  L. 
Winstanley,  1921. 

Hamley,  SIB  EDWAKD  BRUCE 
(1824-93).  British  soldier.  Born 
at  Bodmin,  April  27,  1824,  and 
educated  a  t 
the  Royal 
Military  Acad- 
emy, Wool- 
wich, he  en- 
tered  the 
artillery  in 
1843,  and  first 
saw  active 
service  in  the 
Crimean  War. 
In  1859  he  was 
appoi  n ted 
professor  of  military  history  at  the 
Staff  College  at  Sandhurst,  and  his 
lectures  formed  the  basis  of  his 
great  work  The  Operations  of  War, 
1866.  From  1870-77  he  was  com- 
mandant of  the  Staff  College.  In 
1882  he  served  in  the  Egyptian  War. 


Sir  E.  B.  Hamley, 
British  soldier 


3813 


HAMMER-HEADED      SHARK 


Mortified  at  what  he  considered 
the  lack  of  recognition  of  the  part 
he  played  at  the  battle  of  Tel-el- 
Kebir,  he  issued  a  special  report  on 
the  operations,  supplemented  by  a 
magazine  article.  Public  sympathy 
was  on  his  side,  and  he  was  made 
a  K.C.B.,  but  no  further  official 
employment  was  given  him.  He 
sat  in  Parliament  as  a  Conservative 
from  1886-92.  Hamley's  writings 
include  The  War  in  the  Crimea, 
1855,  and  contributions  to  Black- 
wood's  and  Fraser's  Magazines.  He 
died  in  London,  Aug.  12, 1893. 

Hamlin,  HANNIBAL  (1809-91). 
American  statesman.  Born  at 
Paris  Hill,  Maine,  Aug.  27,  1809, 
h  e  practised 
for  some  years 
as  a  1  a  w  y  e  r. 
From  1835-40 
he  was  connect- 
ed with  the 
legislature  of 
his  state,  of 
which  he  was 
governor  in 
Hannibal  Hamlin,  1857.  Member 
American  statesman  of  Congress, 
1843-47,  he  took  up  a  strong  a,nti- 
slavery  attitude,  and  introduced 
the  Wilmot  Proviso  prohibiting 
slavery  in  Mexican  territory.  He 
was  a  senator,  1848-61  and  1869- 
81,  and  in  1854  left  the  Democrats 
owing  to  their  attitude  towards 
slavery,  and  joined  the  new  Re- 
publican party,  with  the  founda- 
tion of  which  he  had  much  to  do. 
He  was  vice  president  of  the 
U.S.A.,  1861-65,  and  minister  to 
Spain,  1881-83.  He  died  at  Bangor, 
Maine,  July  4,  1891.  See  Life,  C.  E. 
Hamlin,  1899. 

Hamm.  Town  of  Germany.  Jt 
stands  on  the  Lippe,  19  m.  from 
Dortmund,  in  the  Prussian  prov. 
of  Westphalia.  Standing  on  the 
Westphalian  coalfield,  it  is  an  in- 
dustrial centre,  with  manufactures 
of  machinery,  iron,  and  varieties  of 
iron  goods,  also  gloves,  leather, 
and  chemicals.  There  are  several 
churches,  one  dating  from  the  13th 
and  another  from  the  16th  cen- 
tury. The  town  has  a  service  of 
electric  tramways.  A  mile  away 
are  some  thermal  baths  visited  by 
invalids  and  others.  Hamm  be- 
longed in  the  Middle  Ages  to  the 
Hanseatic  League.  In  1666  it 
passed,  with  the  county  of  Mark, 
of  which  it  was  the  capital,  to 
Brandenburg,  and  thus  to  Prussia. 
It  was  then  a  fortified  town  which 
had  undergone  several  sieges,  while 
in  the  Seven  Years'  War  it  was  at- 
tacked by  the  French.  Pop.  43,700. 
Hammamet.  blulf  and  town 
of  Tunisia,  on  the  N.E.  coast.  The 
town  is  situated  on  the  gulf,  40  m. 
by  rly.  S.E.  of  Tunis,  and  is  a 
popular  bathing  resort.  Pop.  3,200. 


Hammann,  OTTO  (b.  1852). 
German  publicity  agent.  Born  at 
Blankenham,  Weimar,  Jan.  23, 
1852,  and  educated  at  Leipzig, 
Heidelberg,  and  Jena,  he  served  as 
an  officer  in  the  German  army  and 
then  took  up  journalism.  Intro- 
duced to  the  Gorman  Foreign 
Office  by  Caprivi,  he  became  its 
Press  director,  and  wielded  much 
power  in  the  interests  of  the  war- 
party.  In  1917  he  assumed  con- 
trol of  the  Transocean  News 
Agency  for  pro-German  propa- 
ganda in  foreign  countries. 

Hamme.  Town  of  Belgium. 
In  the  prov.  of  E.  Flanders,  it 
stands  on  the  Durme,  13  m.  E.  of 
Ghent.  It  has  textile  manufactures, 
including  lace  and  linen,  while 
other  industries  are  flour  mills  and 
oil  mills.  Pop.  14,200. 

Hammer.  Tool,  consisting  of  a 
heavy  head  of  metal  usually  fixed 
on  a  shaft  of  wood,  and  used  for 
striking  blows.  Hammers  vary 
in  size  from  small  hand  hammers, 
weighing  only  a  few  ounces,  to  wegian  shores 
giant  power  hammers  weighing  in  lat.  70°  40' 
many  tons.  In  hand  hammers  the 
shaft  is  usually  of  ash  or  hickory. 
The  striking  part  of  the  iron  or  steel 
head  is  called  the  face,  the  oppo- 


ment  indulged  in  by  Henry  VIII. 
The  conditions  governing  modern 
hammer  throwing  require  the  per- 
former to  throw  from  inside  a 
circle  of  7  ft.  in  diameter,  within 
which  he  must  remain  after  having 
hurled  the  hammer.  The  ham- 
mer must  weigh  16  Ib.  and  not 
exceed  4  ft.  in  length.  The  head 
and  handle  may  be  of  any  shape, 
size  or  material.  Under  these  con- 
ditions J.  J.  Flanagan  made  a 
throw  of  170  ft.  4J  ins.  at  the 
London  Stadium  on  July  17, 1908. 
The  American  hammer  consists  of 
a  steel  wire  handle  with  two  loops 
for  the  hands,  joined  to  the  head 
by  a  ball-bearing  swivel. 

Hammerfest.  Town  of  Nor- 
way, in  the  fylke  or  county  of  Fin- 
mark.  The  most  northerly  town 
in  the  world,  it 
stands  on  the 
W.  coast  of 
Kvalo  island, 
which  lies  off 
the  N.W.  Nor- 


site  end  the  peen.-     The  latter  is 

often    split     and     • 

curved  to    enable 

nails  to  be  with- 

drawn. 

In  many  ham-  g!SNB^TpHT>^iii.j 
mers,  e.g.  a  coal- 
breaking  h  a  m  - 
mer,  there  are  two 
faces  which  may 
be  used  indif- 
ferently. In 
masonry  a  mash 
hammer  has  a 
short  handle  and 
heavy  head  for 
use  with  chisels; 
a  scabbling  ham- 
mer has  one  end 
pointed  for  use  on  hard  stone 
and  the  patent  hammer  is  one  used 
for  granite  and  other  hard  rocks, 


N.,  675  m.  by 
sea  N.E.  o'f 
Trondh  j  em. 
Timber  -  built, 
the  town 


Hammerfest,  Norway.      General  view  of  the  town  and 

harbour.     Top,  right,  the  Meridian  Column  on  Bird's 

Cape,  marking  the  end  of  the  meridian  arc  accurately 

measured,  1816-52 

suffered  severely  from  a  con- 
flagration, July  21,  1890,  after 
which  the  town  hall,  churches,  and 


the  head  consisting  of  a  number     schools  were  all  rebuilt.     There  is  a 

good  harbour,  which  is  the  base  of 
the  Spitsbergen  and  Kara  Sea  whale 
fisheries.  Cod-liver  oil,  train  oil, 
salt  fish,  reindeer  hides,  fox  skins, 
and  eiderdown  are  exported,  and 
a  large  trade  is  carried  on  with 
Archangel.  Here  the  sun  does  not 
set  from  May  13  to  July  29,  and 
does  not  rise  from  Nov.  18  to 
Jan.  23.  Pop.  2..709. 

Hammer-headed  Shark  (Zy- 
yaena).  Name  given  to  a  genus  of 
fishes  belonging  to  the  shark 
family,  but  differing  much  in  ap- 
pearance from  the  true  sharks. 
They  include  five  species,  and 
have  the  sides  of  the  head  expanded 
so  as  to  resemble  a  hammer  when 


of    plates    with    sharpened 
bolted  together. 

The  word  hammer  is  widely 
used  for  any  part  of  a  mechanism 
which  strikes,  as  the  hammer  of  a 
gun,  the  hammers  in  the  action  of 
a  pianoforte,  etc.,  as  well  as  for 
objects  that  are  hammer  shaped. 
See  Steam  Hammer. 

Hammer,  THROWING  THE. 
Branch  of  field  athletics.  It  is  of 
very  ancient  date  and  probably  of 
Celtic  origin,  as  it  has  been  for 
centuries  a  favourite  pastime  in 
Scotland  and  Ireland.  Under  the 
term  casting  the  bar,  it  was  a 
popular  feature  of  rural  sports  in 
England,  being  a  form  of  amuse- 


HAMMERKOP 


3814 


HAMMERSTEIN 


Hammer-beaded  shark.     Specimen  of  Zygaena  spbyrna 


viewed  from  above.  The  eyes  are 
at  the  extremities  of  these  lateral 
head  processes.  These  fish  are 
common  in  the  tropic  seas,  and  one 
species  (Z.  malleus)  is  occasionally 
found  off  the  British  coasts.  They 
frequently  attain  a  length  of  14  ft., 
and  are  voracious  and  dangerous. 
See  Shark. 

Hammer kop,  HAMMERHEAD  OR 
UMBRETTE  (Scopus  umbrella).  Afri- 
can bird,  related  to  the  herons  and 
storks.  It  is  about  2  ft.  long  and 
has  brown  plumage.  When  the 
crest  of  feathers  at  the  back  of  the 
head  is  raised,  it  gives  the  head  a 
certain  resemblance  to  a  hammer. 
The  bird  is  always  found  near 
water,  and  feeds  chiefly  on  fish, 
frogs,  and  lizards. 

Hammersmith.  Parl.  andmun. 
borough  of  the  co.  of  London.  It  is 
bounded  S.  by  P'ulham  and  the 
Thames,  where 
it  is  fringed  by 
the  Upper  Mall 
and  Lower  Mali ; 
W.  by  Chiswick 
and  Acton  ;  E.  by 
Kensington  ;  and 
N.  by  Kensal 
Green.  It  is  on 
the  main  road 
from  London  to 
Brentford,  and  is  served  by  the 
G.W.,  West  London  Extension, 
District,  Piccadilly  Tube,  and  North 
London  Rlys.  Once  a  parish  of 
Fulham,  it  was  constituted  a  sepa- 
rate borough  in  1899  and  covers  an 
area  of  about  3£  sq.  m.  It  possesses 
a  fine  town  hall,  1897,  a  public 
library,  and  many  churches,  alms- 
houses,  and  schools,  the  last  named 
including  S.  Paul's,  removed  here 
from  the  city  in  1883,  the  Godol- 
phin  School,  dating  from  the  10th 
century,  and  those  of  the  Latymer 
foundation,  1824. 

The  parish  church  of  S.  Paul, 
consecrated  by  Laud  in  1631,  and 
rebuilt  1882-83,  contains  a  number 
of  monuments,  preserved  from 
the  demolition  of  the  old  building. 
A  suspension  bridge  erected  across 
the  Thames  in  1827,  the  first  of 


Hammersmith 
arms 


its  kind  near  Lon- 
don, was  replaced 
by  tne  existing 
structure  in  1887^ 
Close  by  is  Ham- 
mersmith Pier, 
7  m.  by  river  from 
Westminster.  The 
Lyric  Theatre  was 
opened  April  20, 
1891;  under  the 
direction  of  Nigel 
Playfair  it  has 
seen  the  produc- 
tion or  revival  of 
se  vera  1  note- 
worthy plays, 
notably  John 
Abraham  Lincoln, 
1919,  and  Gay's  The  Beggar's 
Opera,  1920.  The  King's  Theatre 
was  opened  on  Dec.  26,  1902.  In 
Blythe  Road  is  the  Post  Office 
Savings  Bank,  1903,  and  at  Addison 


Drinkwater's 


Hammerkop.        Specimen 
African  bird 


the 


Road  is  Olympia.  a  glass-roofed 
building,  1886,  intended  for  agri- 
cultural shows,  since  used  for 
exhibitions,  and  during  the  Great 
War  as  a  camp  for  interned  aliens 
and  a  depot  of  the  Royal  Army 
Service  Corps.  At  Shepherd's  Bush 
are  a  common,  8  acres,  opened  1871, 
and  the  White  City,  1908,  notable 
for  the  Olympic  Games  held  in  its 
stadium,  and  the  Franco- British 
and  other  exhibitions.  At  Worm- 
\vood  Scrubs  is  a  prison,  1874,  and 
here  also  are  two  recreation 
grounds,  215  acres  and  22  acres 
respectively,  opened  1879  and 
1886.  Ravenscourt  Park,  32|  acres, 


at  the  W.  end  of  King  Street,  was 
acquired  by  the  London  County 
Council  in  1887.  Brook  Green,  4? 
acres,  was  made  public  in  1881. 
The  Broadway  is  a  busy  riy.,  tram, 
and  'bus  centre,  where  six  roads 
meet.  The  omnibus  garage,  near 
the  parish  church,  includes  the 
facade  of  Bradmore  House,  pulled 
down  in  1913,  once  the  residence 
of  Elijah  Impey,  and  occupying  the 
site  of  Butterwick  Manor  House, 
Cromwell's  headquarters  in  1647. 

Once  noted  for  its  market 
gardens,  orchards,  and  dairy  farms, 
Hammersmith,  which  derives  its 
name  trom  two  Saxon  words  mean- 
ing a  town  with  a  harbour  or  creek, 
is  now  covered  with  small  houses, 
iron  and  dye  works,  electric  lamp, 
sugar,  and  other  factories.  Its 
notable  residents  have  included 
Sir  Nicholas  Crispe,  who  built 
Brandenburg  House,  once  the 
headquarters  of  Fairfax,  and  the 
home  of  Queen  Caroline,  wife  of 
George  IV  ;  Kneller;  Radcliffe; 
Morland;  Thomson;  Turner;  and 
Morris,  who  here  started  the  Kelm- 
scott  Press  (q.v.).  Two  members 
are  returned  to  Parliament.  The 
chapel  of  S.  George  at  S.  Peter's 
Church  was  dedicated  in  1920  in 
memory  of  137  men  of  the  parish 
who  fell  in  the  Great  War.  Pop.  of 
bor.  (1921)  130,287. 

Hammerstein,  OSCAR  (1847- 
1919).  American  opera  impresario. 
Born  in  Berlin,  he  went  to  the 


Hammersmith.        Hammersmith    suspension     bridge, 
erected  1887  ;   above,  the  Town  Hall,  built  1897 


U.S.A.,  where  he 
made  a  fortune  as 
a  cigar  maker. 
Turning  his  atten- 
tion to  opera,  he 
built  the  Man- 
hattan Opera 
House  in  New 
York,  and  from 
1906  gave  an  ex- 
cellent series  of 
performances 
there.  He  built 
six  other  theatres 
in  the  city,  also 
a  house  in 


HAMMER     TOE 


3815 


HAMMURABI     CODE 


Oscar  iiammerstein, 
American  impresario 


Philadelphia, 
and  in  1911  the 
London  Opera 
House.  After 
the  failure  of 
the  latter  he 
returned  to  the 
U.S.A.,  and 
died  in  New 
York,  Aug.  1, 
1919. 
Condition  in 


Hammer  Toe. 

which  the  first  phalanx  of  the  toe 
is  bent  upwards,  and  the  second 
phalanx  downwards,  the  third  or 
terminal  phalanx  being  bent  either 
downwards  or  upwards.  The  result 
is  that  the  base  of  the  toe  presses 
upwards  against  the  top  of  the 
boot,  and  the  person  walks  on  the 
extremity  of  the  toe  or  even  on 
the  nail,  the  shape  of  the  toe  thus 
coming  to  resemble  somewhat  the 
head  of  a  ha.mmer.  An  operation 
involving  removal  of  part  of  the  toe 
is  usually  required. 

Hammerton,  JOHN  ALEXANDER 
(b.  1871).  British  editor  and 
writer.  Born  at  Alexandria  in  the 
parish  of  Bonhill,  Dumbartonshire, 
of  Anglo-Scottish  parentage,  he 
took  to  journalism  in  Glasgow, 
1888,  and  edited  newspapers  at 
Blackpool,  Nottingham,  and  Bir- 
mingham before  settling  in  London 
as  a  writer  and  editor  of  books  and 
periodicals,  1900.  His  name  is 
associated  as  editor  with  many 
noteworthy  publishing  enterprises, 
such  as  The  Punch  Library  of 
Humour,  1907  ;  Harmsworth  His- 
tory of  the  World,  1909;  The 
Great  War,  in  thirteen  volumes, 
1914-19  ;  Harmsworth's  New  Atlas 
of  the  World,  1920,  and  Harms- 
worth's  Universal  Encyclopedia. 
He  spent  nearly  two  years,  1912- 
13,  in  Spanish  America  as  managing 
editor  of  El  Diecionario  Enciclo- 
pedico  Hispano-Americano,  and 
his  impressions  of  the  Argentine  and 
Uruguay  are  given  in  The  Argen- 
tine Through  English  Eyes,  1917. 
Among  his  many  writings  in 
literary  criticism  and  biography 
Stevensoniana,  1903,  and  George 
Meredith  in  Anecdote  and  Criti- 
cism, 1909,  may  be  mentioned. 

Hammock  (Span,  hamaca). 
Swinging  bed  of  netting,  canvas, 
fibre,  skins,  etc.,  suspended  at 


Hammock  of  the  type  used  in  the  British  navy 


each  end  to  supports.  On  ship- 
board, and  particularly  on  war- 
ships, the  hammocks  are  made  of 
canvas,  and  in  the  old  days  of 
sailing  vessels  they  were  folded  and 
stowed  along  the  bulwarks  to  give 
some  protection  from  the  enemy's 
fire.  The  word  is  thought  to  have 
been  derived  from  the  fact  that  the 
natives  of  Brazil  used  the  bark  of 
the  Hamack  tree  for  nets  in  which 
to  sleep. 

Hammond.  City  of  Indiana, 
U.S.A.,  in  Lake  co.  It  stands  on 
the  Grand  Calumet  river,  21  m. 
S.S.E.  of  Chicago,  and  is  served  by 
the  Erie  and  several  other  rlys. 
The  industries  include  slaughter- 
ing, packing,  and  canning,  printing, 
and  the  manufacture  of  chemicals, 
bricks,  starch,  iron  and  steel,  ma- 
chinery, and  carriages.  Hammond 
was  settled  in  1869,  and  incor- 
porated in  1883.  Pop.  26,000. 

Hammond,  JOHN  HAYS  (b. 
1855).  Mining  engineer.  Born  at 
San  Francisco,  March  31,  1855, 
h  e  w  a  s  edu- 
|  cated  at  Shef- 
\  field  Scientific 
School,  Yale, 
and  in  1880 
was  appointed 
to  the  U.S. 
geological  sur- 
vey of  the  Cali- 
f  o  r  n  i  a  n  gold 
fields.  One  of 
the  leaders  of 
the  reform 
movement  in  the  Transvaal,  he 
disapproved  of  the  Jameson  Raid, 
but  after  its  failure  was  never- 
theless sentenced  to  death.  This 
sentence  was  commuted  to  15 
years'  imprisonment  and  later  to 
a  fine.  Retiring  to  England  and 
thence  to  America,  he  interested 
himself  in  mining  and  development 
schemes.  He  attended  the  corona- 
tion of  George  V  as  representative 
of  the  president  of  the  U.S.A. 

Hammurabi,  KHAMMURABI  OR 
HAMMURAPI.  King  of  Babylon 
about  2100  B.C.  Identifiable  with 
Amraphel,  king  of  Shinar  (Gen.  14), 
a  British  Museum  stele  portravs 
him  as  a  bearded  Semite.  Sixth 
and  greatest  monarch  of  the  first 
dynasty  of  Babylon,  he  established 
its  supremacy  over  the  city  states 
of  Sumer  and  Ak- 
kad.  besides  sub- 
duing Elam.  He 
reigned  for  43 
years,  and  en- 
gaged in  building 
and  irrigation 
works.  His  letters 
illuminate  the 
political  and  eco- 
nomic conditions 
of  his  age.  See 
Babylonia. 


J.  Hays  Hammond, 
Mining  engineer 


Hammurabi  Code.  Bodv  of 
laws  codified  by  Hammurabi,  king 
of  Babylon.  It  wan  inscribed  upon 
a  black  diorite  stele  for  the  temple 
of  the  sun-god  Shamash  at  Sippara. 
and  carried  thence  by  Shutruk- 
Nakhkhunte  of  Elam,  "about  1200 
B.C.,  to  Susa.  J.  de  Morgan  found  it 
there  in  three  fragments,  1901-2, 
and  it  is  now  in  Paris.  The  block, 
7  ft.  3  ins.  high,  tapering  from  6  ft. 


Hammurabi  Code.  Stone  inscribed  with 
the  code,  now  in  the  Louvre,  Paris 

2  ins.  to  5  ft.  4  ins.  round,  is  sur- 
mounted by  a  sculptured  relief  re- 
presenting Shamash  delivering  the 
code  to  Hammurabi.  Incised  on 
front  and  back  were  about  8,000 
words  in  Semitic  cuneiform. 

A  portion  chiselled  out  by  its 
Elamite  captor  is  partly  recover- 
able from  fragmentary  copies  pre- 
viously found  in  Ashurbanipal's 
Nineveh  library,  whence  the  code 
was  known  before  its  authentic 
original  came  to  light. 

The  282  extant  section?  comprise 
enactments  pertaining  to  witch- 
craft, false  judgement,  licensing 
laws,  assault,  desertion  :  marriage, 
divorce,  dowry,  inheritance,  adop- 
tion ;  contracts,  debts ;  tenancy, 
distraint,  agricultural  rent  ;  rights 
OF  orphans  and  widows  ;  regulation 
of  boat-building,  river-traffic,  and 


HAMPDEN 


3816 


HAMPSHIRE 


1st  Visct.  Hampden, 
British  politician 


riparian  rights ;  wages,  interest, 
and  insurance.  Three  grades  of 
society  were  recognized,  nobles, 
commoners,  and  slaves.  Mutilation 
and  fine  prevailed,  imprisonment 
is  unmentioned ;  the  absence  of  a 
murder-penalty  points  to  the  re- 
tention of  the  blood-feud. 

The  code  was  a  unification  of 
Semitic  elements  pertaining  to 
pastoral  life,  violence,  and  theft, 
with  the  commercial  and  agricul- 
tural law  of  the  Sumerian  city- 
states,  whereof  glimpses  appear  in 
the  legal  reforms  of  Urukagina, 
king  of  Lagash,  about  2825  B.C. 
For  an  Assyrian  Code  somewhat 
similar  to  the  Babylonian  Code  of 
Hammurabi,  though  smaller,  see 
Mesopotamia.  See  also  Babylonia. 
Hampden,  SIR  HENRY  Bou- 
VERIE  WILLIAM  BRAND,  IST  VIS- 
COUNT (1814-92).  Speaker  of  the 
British  House 
of  Commons. 
Born  Dec.  24, 
1814,  and  edu- 
cated at  Eton, 
he  entered 
Parliament  as 
Liberal  M.P., 
1852,  repre- 
senting Lewes 
till  1868,  and 
Cambridge- 
shire, 1868-84.  For  many  years  a 
party  whip,  he  was  elected  Speaker 
in  1872,  and  filled  that  office  during 
the  years  of  the  Parnellite  obstruc- 
tion. The  sitting  of  Jan.  31,  1881, 
lasted  for  41  hours,  and  at  9  a.m., 
Feb.  2,  Brand,  on  his  own  responsi- 
bility, closed  the  debate.  On  retire- 
ment from  the  chair  in  1884,  Brand 
was  created  Viscount  Hampden. 
He  died  at  Pau,  March  14,  1892. 

Hampden,  JOHN  (1594-1643). 
English  statesman.  The  eldest  son 
of  William  Hampden,  of  Hampden, 
Bucks,  and  his 
wife  Elizabeth, 
an  a  u n  t  o  f 
Oliver  C  r  o  m- 
well,  he  was 
probably  born 
in  London. 
Educated  at 
Thame  Gram- 
mar School  and 
Magdalen  Col-  John  Hampden, 
lege,  Oxford,  in  English  statesman 
1613  he  entered  the  Inner  Temple. 
He  inherited  his  father's  estates, 
including  the  residence  at  Great 
Hampden,  and  became  member  of 
Parliament  for  Grampound,  Corn- 
wall, in  1621  ;  later  he  sat  for 
Wendover,  and  for  Buckingham- 
shire. 

In  1627  Hampden  was  impris- 
oned for  refusing  to  pay  a  share  of 
a.  forced  loan  raised  by  Charles  I, 
and  in  1635,  on  the  attempt  to 
raise  ship-money  from  inland 


places,  he  refused  again  and  was 
prosecuted ;  a  majority  of  the 
judges  decided  against  him,  but 
the  Long  Parliament  reversed  their 
judgement.  His  courageous  stand 
on  a  matter  of  principle  estab- 
lished him  as  a  popular  figure,  and 
he  became  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
parliamentary  party.  He  took 
part  in  the  impeachment  of  Straf- 
ford,  1641,  and  in  1642  was  one  of 
the  Five  Members  whose  attempted 
arrest  by  the  king  led  to  the  out- 
break of  the  Civil  War.  When  the 
war  began  Hampden  raised  a  regi- 
ment of  infantry,  and  took  part  in 
the  relief  of  Coventry  and  the  siege 
of  Reading.  In  a  skirmish  at  Chal- 
grove  Field,  Oxfordshire,  June 
18,  1643,  he  was  badly  wounded, 
and  he  died  at  Thame,  June  24. 
Friend  and  foe  united  in  regarding 
him  as  a  man  of  uncommon  gifts. 
See  Memorials  of  Hampden,  Lord 
Nugent,  new  ed.  1889  ;  Statesmen 
of  the  Commonwealth,  J.  Forster, 
1840 ;  Critical  and  Historical 
Essays,  Lord  Macaulay,  1843. 

Hampden,  RENN  DICKSON  (1793- 
1868).  British  prelate.  Born  at 
Barbados,  March  29,  1793,  son  of 
Colonel  Renn 
Hampden,  he 
was  educated 
at  Oriel  Col- 
lege, Oxford, 
where  he  was 
fellow  with 
Keble  and 
Newman  in 
1814,  and  was 
curate  in  turn  Renn  D.  Hampden, 
at  Newton,  British  prelate 

Faringdon,        AflerD.  Macnee.R.S.A. 

and  Hackney,  principal  of  S.  Mary's 
Hall,  Oxford,  1833,  spending  £4,000 
on  the  buildings,  and  professor  of 
moral  philosophy,  1834.  His  Bamp- 
ton  lectures,  1832,  on  The  Schol- 
astic Philosophy  Considered  in  its 
Relation  to  Christian  Theology, 
discussing  the  injurious  effect  of 
scholasticism  on  Protestant  truth, 
were  regarded  as  heretical. 

His  appointment  as  regius  pro- 
fessor of  divinity,  1836,  was  vigor- 
ously opposed  by  Newman,  Pusey, 
and  others,  but  defended  by  Ar- 
nold. His  nomination  in  1847  as 
bishop  of  Hereford  was  opposed  by 
13  bishops  and  led  to  ineffective 
litigation,  his  consecration  taking 
place  in  1848.  His  writings  include 
Lectures  on  Moral  Philosophy, 
1856  ;  and  The  Fathers  of  Greek 
Philosophy,  1862.  He  died  in 
London,  April  23,  1868.  See  Me- 
morials, by  his  daughter,  H.  Hamp- 
den, 1871  ;  Reminiscences,  T. 
Mozley,  1882;  The  Case  of  Dr. 
Hampden,  R.  Jebb,  1849. 

Hampshire.  County  of  south- 
ern England,  officially  the  county 
of  Southampton.  It  has  a  coast-line 


on  the  English  Channel,  where  are 
the  openings  of  Southampton 
Water  and  Portsmouth  Harbour. 

The  Isle  of  Wight 

forms  part  of  the 

county,  although 

it  has  a  separate 

county      council, 

and  is  described  in 

a  separate  article. 

In  the  N.  are  the 

downs,  low  ranges 

of  hills  rising  up  Hampshire.   Badge 

to     nearly    1,000  of  cou±n±SOUth- 

ft.  in  places,  and 


ampton 


in  the  W.  is  the  New  Forest.  The 
chief  rivers  are  the  Itchin,  Test, 
Avon,  Hamble,  and  Lymington. 
The  area  of  the  county,  including 
the  Isle  of  Wight,  is  1,623£  sq.  m. 

Hampshire  is  mainly  an  agricul- 
tural county,  a  feature  being  the 
number  of  sheep  reared.  There  are 
also  many  pigs.  Wheat,  barley,  and 
oats  are  grown,  but  there  is  a  con- 
siderable area  of  waste  or  forest 
land,  including,  in  addition  to  the 
New  Forest,  the  forests  of  Bere, 
Woolmer,  and  Alice  Holt. 

Winchester  is  the  capital.  The 
largest  towns  are  the  two  great  sea- 
ports, Southampton  and  Ports- 
mouth ;  the  county  also  includes 
Bournemouth,  Southsea  Alder- 
shot,  and  Eastleigh. 

There  are  a  number  of  small 
market  towns.  Some  of  these, 
e.g.  Andover,  Basingstoke,  Christ- 
church,  Romsey,  and  Lymington, 
are  boroughs  with  a  long  history 
behind  them  ;  others,  although  not 
now  boroughs,  are  equally  old,  e.g. 
Petersfield,  Fareham,  Alton,  Odi- 
ham,  Whitchurch,  and  Stockbridge 
were,  at  one  time  or  other,  repre- 
sented in  Parliament.  Farnborough 
and  Gosport  are  of  more  recent 
growth.  The  chief  rly.  line  is  the 
L.  &  S.W.,  but  the  G.W.  and 
the  L.B.  &  S.C.  also  serve  the 
county.  The  county  sends  six 
members  to  Parliament,  in  addition 
to  one  for  the  Isle  of  Wight.  It 
is  in  the  diocese  of  Winchester. 

In  the  county  are  the  abbey 
ruins  at  Beaulieu  and  Netley,  and 
the  beautiful  old  churches  at 
Christchurch  and  Romsey.  Of  old 
castles  there  remain  Porchester 
and  Hurst.  There  are  the  ruins  of 
Basing  House,  Strathfieldsaye,  the 
seat  of  the  duke  of  Wellington, 
Hursley,  and  Tich  borne.  At 
Bishop's  Waltham  the  bishop  of 
Winchester  had  a  palace,  while 
Porchester  was  a  Roman  station 
Notable  houses  include  Heron 
Court,  near  Christchurch,  and 
Broadlands,  once  the  residence  of 
Lord  Palmerston.  Hampshire  was 
the  birthplace  of  English  cricket. 
Pop.,  Tsle  of  Wight  excluded, 
(1921)  410,  223.  (See  New  Forest ; 
Wight,  Isle  of.) 


HAMPSHIRE 


381  7 


HAMPSTEAD 


Hampshire. 


Map  of  the  South  of  England  county,  which  includes  the  Isle  of 
Wight 


LITEBARV  ASSOCIATIOHS.  Ham  j 
shire  was  first  notably  used-  as  a 
literary  background  in  Gilbert 
White's  Natural  History  of  Sel- 
borne.  Jane  Austen  made  capital 
out  of  the  comfortable  classes  of 
the  county  in  which  most  of  her 
life  was  spent  (Steventon  and 
Chawton).  Cobbett  extended  his 
Rural  Rides  into  Hampshire. 
Charles  Kingsley  dealt  with  the 
county  in  Yeast,  described  the 
road  to  Winchester  in  Hereward 
the  Wake,  and  the  Hartford  Flats 
in  Madam  How  and  Lady  Why. 

Bibliography.  General  History  of 
Hampshire,  3  vols.,  B.  B.  Wood- 
ward, 1861-69  ;  History  of  Hamp- 
shire, T.  W.  Shore,  1892  ;  Hamp- 
shire with  the  I.  of  Wight,  G.  A.  B. 
Dewar,  1900  ;  Hampshire  Days, 
VV.  H.  Hudson,  1903  ;  Highways 
and  Byways  in  Hampshire,  D.  H. 
M.  Read,  1908  ;  Victoria  History  of 
the  Counties  of  England,  Hamp- 
shire. 5  vols.,  ed.  H.  A.  Doubleday 
and  W.  Pa-e,  1 90S- 12. 

Hampshire.  British  cruiser. 
The  first  Hampshire  fought  under 
Blake  in  1655,  and  thenceforward 
there  was  a  Hampshire  in  most  of 
Britain's  naval  battles  down  to  the 
end  of  the  18th  century.  The  last 
ship  to  bear  the  name  was  a  cruiser 
of  the  Devonshire  class.  Her  length 
was  460  ft,,  beam  68J  ft.,  displace- 
ment 11,000  tons. 

On  June  5, 1916,  off  the  Orkneys, 
in  extremely  rough  weather,  the 


Hampshire,  which  was  conveying 
Lord  Kitchener  on  a  mission  to 
Russia,  ran  into  a  minefield  and 
sank.  There  were  only  twelve 
survivors  out  of  her  complement 
of  over  600  officers  and  men, 
among  those  lost  being  Lord 
Kitchener  (q.v.)  and  his  staff. 

Hampshire  Regiment.  For- 
merly the  37th  and  67th  Foot. 
Raised  in  1702  and  1758  respec- 
tively, this 
regiment  first 
saw  active 
service  in  Hol- 
land, after- 
wards taking 
part  in  Marl- 
borough's 
battles.  At 
Dettingen, 
1743,  and 
Minden,  1759,  it  played  a  notable 
part.  The  regiment  formed  a  por- 


Hampshire  Regiment 
badge 


tion  of  the  "fighting  brigade"  em- 
ployed against  the  French  in  Hol- 
land, and  distinguished  itself  at 
Tournai,  1794,  and  Barossa,  1811. 
Later  campaigns  include  the 
Indian  Mutiny,  the  China  War, 
1860-61,  the  Afghan  War,  1878-80, 
and  the  Burmese  War,  1885-87. 
After  the  S.  African  War  it  saw 
field  service  in  Somaliland. 

In  the  Great  War  battalions  of 
Hampshires,  regular  and  territorial, 
served  in  every  theatre  of  war. 
The  1st  battalion,  as  part  of  the 
llth  brigade,  fought  at  Mons  and  in 
later  battles  on  the  W.  front.  The 
2nd  was  part  of  the  29th  division. 
The  depot  is  at  Winchester.  See 
The  Battle  Story  of  the  Hampshire 
Regiment,  F.  E.  Stevens,  1920. 

Hampson,  WALTER  (b.  1864). 
Yorkshire  poet.  Born  at  Rothwell, 
Yorkshire,  he  entered  the  railway 
service  and  became  an  engine 
driver.  Beginning  to  write  poems 
in  the  Yorkshire  dialect,  he  won 
the  name  of  the  Footplate  Poet, 
while  he  also  edited  The  Yorkshire 
Clock  Almanack.  His  poems  include 
Songs  of  the  Line  ;  Tykes  Abroad  ; 
and  A  Wheel  in  Wharfeland.  See 
Anthology  of  Yorkshire  Verse, 
F.  W.  Moorman,  1916. 

Hampstead.  Parl.  and  mun. 
bor.  and  residential  district  of 
N.W.  London.  Occupying  about 
3^  sq.  m.,  it  is 
served  by  the 
Hampstead 
(Tube),  N.L., 
Midland,  and 
District  Rlys., 
and  has  good 
'bus  and  tram 
services.  Modern 
buildings  i  n- 
clude  the  town 
library ;  New  and 


Hampstead  arms 


H.M.S.    Hampshire,  the  cruiser  in  which  Lord  Kitchener 
was  travelling  when  she  sank 

Cribb,  Southsea 


hall ;     public 

Hackney  Colleges  (Congregational); 
Westfield  College  for  Women ;  Uni- 
versity College  School,  1907  ; 
Hampstead  General  Hospital,  on 
the  site  of  Bartrum  House,  once 
the  residence  of  Sir  Rowland  Hill ; 
New  End  Military  Hospital ;  Mount 
Vernon  Hospital  ;  Royal  Soldiers' 
Daughters'  Home,  and  Sailors' 
Orphan  Girls'  Home.  The  church 
of  S.  John,  1747,  replaced  a  struc- 
ture pulled  down  in  1745,  and 
?  contains  a  bust 
of  Keats,  by 
Anne  Whitney, 
presented  by 
Americans. 

In  the  church- 
yard were  buried 
Sir  James  Mack- 
intosh, Joanna 
Baillie,  who  lived 
at  Bolton  House, 
in  1806-51 ; Lucy 
Aiken,  John 
Constable,  George 


.HAMPSTEAD 


3818 


HAMPSTEAD 


Hampstead. 


Church  Row,  a  characteristic  street  o!  the 
North-West  London  borough 


Du  Maurier,  who  Jived  at  New 
Grove  House,  1874-95,  and  Sir 
Walter  Besant. 

For  long  a  favourite  residence  of 
artists  and  literary  men,  Hamp- 
stead is  full  of  interesting  associa- 
tions. Dr.  Johnson  wrote  The 
Vanity  of  Human  Wishes  at 
Priory  Lodge,  1749 ;  Clarkson 
Stanfield  lived  at  Stanfield  House  ; 
Sir  Hany  Vane  was  arrested  at  his 
residence  here  in  1660;  Keats,  who 
wrote  Hyperion  and  The  Eve  of  St. 
Agnes  at  Lawn  Bank,  also  lived  in 
Well  Walk,  as  did  Constable. 
Other  notable  inhabitants  include 
Romney,  William  Blake,  Akenside, 
Arbuthnot,  Mrs.  Barbauld,  Mrs. 
Siddons,  Shelley,  Leigh  Hunt, 
Steele,  Talleyrand,  Sir  T.  Palgrave, 
Edward  Irving,  Baron  Erskine, 
Lord  Mansfield,  the  1st  earl  of 
Chatham,  Spencer  Percival,  Sir 
Spencer  Wells,  and  Sir  Charles 
Dilkc. 

The  manor,  first  mentioned  in 
978  and  referred  to  in  Domesday, 
is  owned  by  the  Maryon-Wilson 
family.  The  history  of  Hampstead 
is  linked  with  that  of  Belsize,  and  it 
was  part  of  Hendon  in  the  1 6th  cen- 
tury. With  Highgate  (q.v.),  it  was 
once  a  favourite  hunting  ground. 
Its  chalybeate  wells  are  said  to 
have  been  known  to  the  Romans, 
and  Well  Walk,  Wellside,  and 
Flask  Walk  recall  the  davs  in 


the  18th  century 
when  it  was  a 
fashionable  spa, 
the  scene  of 
novels  by  Fanny 
Burney  and 
Samuel  Richard- 
son. The  famous 
Kit-Kat  Club 
(q.v. )  met  at  the 
Upper  Flask 
Tavern,  now 
Upper  Heath, 
where  George 
Steevens,  the 
Shake  spearean 
scholar,  lived  in 
1771.  Hamp- 
stead is  one  of  the 
28  metropolitan  boroughs,  tt  re- 
turns one  member  to  Parliament. 
Pop.  of  bor.,  86.080.  See  Bull  and 
Bush  ;  Jack  Straw's  Castle  ;  Ken 
Wood  ;  Spaniards,  The. 

Bibliography.  The  Northern 
Heights,  W.  Howitt,  1869;  Records 
of  the  Manor,  Parish  and  Borough 
of  Hampstead,  F.  E.  Baines,  1890; 
Sweet  Hampstead,  C.  A.  White,  2nd 
ed.  1  904  ;  The  Annals  of  Hampstead, 
T.  J.  Barratt,  3  vols.,  1912. 

Hampstead  Garden  Suburb. 
Residential  suburb  of  N.W.  Lon- 
don. Situated  N.  of  Hampstead 
Heath  Extension,  of  which  it  was 
an  outcome,  and  E.  of  Golder's 
Green  (q.v.),  it  was  founded  by 
Mrs.  Henrietta  Octavia  Barnett, 
and  is  owned  and  managed  by  a 
trust.  Mrs.  Barnett  set  out  the 
scheme  in  Feb.,  1905,  and,  aided 
by  Earl  Grey,  Sir  Robert  Hunter, 
Bishop  Winnington-Ingram,  and 
others,  was  able  to  form  a  com- 
pany in  March,  1906,  when  the  240 
acres  were  purchased  from  the 
Eton  College  trustees.  The  land 
had  not  previously  changed  hands 
since  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  The 
first  sod  was  cut  May  4,  1907.  The 
scheme  aimed  at  doing  something 
to  meet  the  housing  problem,  to 
lay  out  the  suburb  on  an  orderly 
plan,  to  provide  houses  for  all 
classes,  and  to  preserve  natural 
beauty.  The  main  buildings  in- 
clude three  places  of  worship,  an 


educational  institute,  art  and 
music  schools,  invalid  children's 
school,  council  school,  home*  of 
rest,  convalescent  cottage,  and  a 
club  house  for  working  women. 
See  Garden  City. 

Hampstead  Heath.  Open  space 
in  N.W.  London.  It  occupies  the 
summit  and  N.  slopes  of  Hamp 
stead  Hill,  at  an  elevation  of  430 
ft.  above  sea  level.  From  its  higher 
stratum  of  Bagshot  sand,  some  80 
ft.  thick  above  the  London  clay, 
issued  the  Holbourne,  Tybourne, 
and  other  streams  which  once  tra- 
versed the  capital.  The  heath, 
famous  for  its  firs,  broken  hillocks, 
wild  gorse,  grassy  glades,  extensive 
views,  and  old  inns,  covers  250 
acres,  Parliament  Hill  (265  acres) 
and  Golder's  Hill  (36  acres)  adjoin- 
ing.  In  the  16th  century  it  was 
noted  for  the  variety  of  plants  grow- 
ing upon  it. 

Down  to  the  early  days  of  the 
19th  century  a  haunt  of  highway 
robbers,  fairs  and  races  were  once 
held  here,  and  it  is  a  popular  Bank 
Holiday  resort.  Preserved  from  en- 
closure by  the  Metropolitan  Com- 
mons Act,  1866,  the  greater  part 
was  acquired  as  a  public  recreation 
ground  in  1870,  additional  ground 
being  added  in  1 907.  Old  inns  on 
and  near  the  Heath  are  The  Bull 
and  Bush,  Jack  Straw's  Castle, 
and  The  Spaniards. 

Hampstead  Murder,  THE.  The 
dead  body  of  a  baby  was  dis- 
covered, Oct.  24,  1890,  in  a  field 
near  Finchley  Road,  London  ;  and 
at  the  same  time  the  discovery  was 
made  of  the  dead  body  of  a  woman 
near  Crossfield  Road,  Hampstead. 
They  were  found  to  be  the  wife  and 
child  of  F.  S.  Hogg.  The  last  place 
they  had  visited  alive  were  the 
rooms  of  Mary  Eleanor  Wheeler 
(Mrs.  Pearcey).  This  woman  had 
known  the  husband  before  his 
marriage,  and  in  a  fit  of  un- 
controllable jealousy  decoyed  Mrs. 
Hogg  with  her  baby  to  her  rooms 
and  there  murdered  them.  She  was 
convicted  Dec.  3  and  executed 
Dec.  23,  1890. 


Hampstead  Heath.     The  view  from  the  flagstaff,  looking  west  towards  Harrow 


HAMPTON 


38  1  9 


HAMPTON  COURT 


HBB 

Hampton  Court.     1.  Interior  of  the  Great  Hall,  built  by  Henry  VIII,  1530-35.    2.  West  Front  and  Great  Gatehouse, 
built  by  Cardinal  Wolsey.      3.  Aon  BoleyiTs  Gateway,  in  which  is  the  entrance  to  the  Great  Hall.     4.  Fountain  Court, 

designed  by  Sir  Christopher  Wren 


Hampton.  Urban  dist.  and 
village  of  Middlesex,  England.  It 
stands  on  the  Thames,  15  m.  S.W. 
of  London,  on  the  L.  &  S.W.R. 
Hampton  Court  (7.'-.),  1  m.  to  the 
S.E.,  and  Bushey  Park  (g.v.)  are 
within  its  boundaries.  The  parish 
church  of  S.  Mary  is  on  the  site  of  an 
older  structure,  was  built  in  1 830, 
and  enlarged  .and  restored  in  1888 
and  1898  ;  in  the  churchyard  lies 
Huntington  Shaw  (d.  1710),  who 
wrought  the  iron  gates  at  Hampton 
Court. 

At  Garrick  Villa,  formerly  Hamp- 
ton House,  E.  of  the  church,  David 
Garrick  lived,  1754-79.  There  is  a 
KHh  century  grammar  school.  To 
the  W.  of  the  villag3  are  large 
waterworks  under  the  control  of 
the  London  Water  Board.  Near  are 
Kempton  Park  and  Hurst  Park 
racecourses  ;  Hampton  has  a  ferry 
to  Molesey  Hurst.  The  manor, 
which  belonged  in  Edward  the 
Confessor's  time  to  Earl  Algar,  is 
mentioned  in  Domesday,  and  was 
once  held  by  Wolsey.  Pop.  9,220. 

Hampton,  WADE  (1818-1902). 
American  soldier  and  politician. 
Born  at  Columbia,  S.  Carolina, 
March  28,  1818,  he  studied  law  but 
did  not  practise.  Though  opposed 


in  sentiment  to  the  disintegration 
of  the  union,  he  joined  the  Con- 
federate army  on  the  outbreak  of 
the  Civil  War,  and  became  a  briga- 
dier-general of  cavalry  and  eventu- 
ally lieutenant-general.  He  played 
a  notable  part  in  reconstruction 
in  the  south.  He  was  governor  of 
S.  Carolina,  1876-79,  and  a  member 
of  the  U.S.  senate,  1879-91.  He 
died  at  Columbia,  April  11,  1902. 

Hampton  Court.  Palace  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Thames,  between 
Hampton  and  Hampton  Wick, 
Middlesex,  15  m.  S.W.  of  London 
Bridge.  Built  by  Cardinal  Wolsey 
in  1515,  and  surrendered  by  him  to 
Henry  VIII  in  1526,  it  remained  a 
royal  residence  until  the  time  of 
George  III.  The  red  brick  buildings, 
containing  more  than  1,000  rooms, 
cover  8,  and  the  gardens  44,  acres. 

The  E.  and  S.  wings  were  built 
by  Wren  ;  the  gardens  were  laid 
out  for  Charles  II  and  William  and 
Mary.  The  state  apartments  were 
restored  and  opened  to  the  public 
in  1839 ;  the  Haunted  Gallery, 
made  public  in  J918,  is  said  to  be 
visited  by  ghosts  of  Strafford,  Jane 
Seymour,  Catherine  Howard,  and 
Mrs.  Penn.  Edward  VI 's  nurse. 
The  Chapel  Royal  was  opened  to  the 


public  in  1918.  Many  paintings  and 
tapestries  and  an  astronomical 
clock  are  to  be  seen.  Features  of  the 
gardens  are  the  grape  vine,  planted 
1768,  the  Maze, and  the  Long  Water. 
The  Home  Park  covers  600  acres  ; 
adjacent  is  Bushey  Park  (1,000 
acres),  famous  for  its  chestnut 
avenue  and  tame  deer.  The  old 
moat  was  opened  up  in  1910. 

At  Hampton  Court,  Edward  VI 
was  born,  Jane  Seymour  died, 
Catherine  Howard  was  disgraced, 
Henry  VIII  married  Catherine 
Farr,  Philip  and  Mary,  also  Charles 
I  and  Henrietta  Maria,  spent  their 
honeymoons,  Charles  I  was  a  pris- 
oner, James  1  presided  over  the 
Prayer  Book  conference,  the 
authorised  version  of  the  Bible  was 
planned,  and  William  III  was 
injured  while  riding.  Present  resi- 
dents are  principally  royal  pension 
ers.  See  Hampton  Court,  E.  Law. 
1891  ;  J.  Cartwright,  1910. 

Hampton  Court  Conference. 
Conference  arranged  by  James  I 
in  1604  at  Hampton  Court  between 
the  bishops  and  four  representa- 
tives of  the  Puritan  clergj'.  James 
had  just  ascended  the  English 
throne,  and  the  Puritans  had  pe- 
titioned him  to  recognize  their 


HAMPTON  ROADS 


3820 


HANCOCK 


views  as  to  certain  changes  in  the 
prayer  book  and  upon  ceremonies 
and  vestments.  The  proposals  of 
the  petitioners  were  rejected,  and 
James  administered  a  scolding  to 
their  representatives.  See  Puritans. 

Hampton  Roads.  Channel  at 
the  lower  end  of  the  James  river, 
Virginia,  U.S.A.  It  carries  the 
waters  of  the  James  and  two  other 
rivers  into  Chesapeake  Bay,  and  is 
a  strongly  defended  naval  station. 
Along  its  shores  are  several  good 
harbours,  including  Norfolk,  which 
make  it  a  commercial  highway  of 
great  importance. 

Hampton  Roads,  BATTLE  OF. 
Naval  engagement  during  the 
American  Civil  War,  March  8-9, 
1862.  On  March  8  three  Confederate 
ships,  the  largest  of  which  was  the 
ironclad  Virginia,  formerly  the 
U.S.  Merrimac,  entered  Hampton 
Roads,  set  fire  to  the  Federal 
frigate  Congress,  and  sank  the 
sloop  Cumberland.  The  Con- 
federates got  away  with  little 
damage,  but  the  same  evening  the 
Federal  ironclad  Monitor,  which 
had  been  launched  earlier  in  the 
year,  steamed  into  the  Roads,  and 
the  following  morning  put  out  to 
give  battle  to  the  Merrimac.  The 
latter  vessel  was  already  crippled, 
and  the  action  of  the  Monitor  during 
the  engagement  and  her  superiority 
over  the  Merrimac  were  a  signal  suc- 
cess for  her  designer,  Ericsson  (q  v. ). 
This  was  the  first  encounter  be- 
tween armoured  warships.  See 
American  Civil  War. 

Hampton  Wick.  Parish  and 
village  of  Middlesex,  England.  It 
is  situated  on  the  Thames  opposite 
Kingston,  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected by  a  bridge,  and  is  2J  m.  E. 
of  Hampton  on  the  L.  &  S.W.R. 
The  church  of  S.  John  Baptist  was 
enlarged  1887.  The  due  de  Ne- 
mours lived  at  Bushey  House. 
Steele  lived  at  Hampton  Wick  for 
a  time,  and  Timothy  Bennet,  who 
secured  the  public  way  through 
Bushey  Park,  was  a  native.  Pop. 
2,417. 

Hamrin  Hills  OB  JEBEL  HAM- 
RIN.  Range  of  hills  in  Mesopotamia. 
It  came  into  prominence  during  the 
Great  War  in  the  course  of  the 
British  operationsagainsttheTurks, 
who  were  defeated  here  in  April, 
1917.  It  runs  N.W.  from  the  Diala, 
an  eastern  tributary  of  the  Tigris,  to 
the  Tigris  about  the  village  of  Fat- 
hah,  and  is  traversed  from  N.  to  S. 
by  the  Shat  el  Adhaim,  another  of 
the  affl  uents  of  the  great  river.  The 
average  height  is  from  2,000  ft.  to 
3,000ft.  See  Mesopotamia,  Con- 
quest of. 

Hamster  (Cricetusfrumentarius). 
Small  rodent,  common  in  Asia  and 
northern  Europe,  especially  in 
some  parts  of  Germany.  It  i# 


Hamster,  a  North 
European  rodent 


about  a  foot 
long,  and  has 
about  2  ins.  of 
tail.  The  thick 
fur  is  yellow- 
ish brown  in 
colour  and 
very  glossy, 
and  h  as  a 
modest  value 
in  the  trade 
for  lining  gar- 
ments. It  lives 
in  burrows, 
rather  elaborately  constructed, 
consisting  of  a  dwelling  chamber 
and  a  granary  connected  by  galleries 
and  provided  with  separate  tunnels 
for  entrance  and  exit. 

Sometimes  four  or  five  granaries 
will  be  found  in  a  single  burrow. 
These  are  used  for  storing  corn 
for  consumption  in  winter,  during 
which  season  the  hamster  keeps 
below  ground  and  spends  most  of 
its  time  in  profound  sleep.  Separate 
burrows  of  a  simple  kind  are  con- 
structed for  the  summer,  in  which 
the  young  are  reared.  Two 
families,  ranging  in  number  from 
six  to  eighteen,  are  reared  every 
season,  hence  the  hamster  often 
becomes  a  most  destructive  pest 
to  crops.  Its  flesh  is  eaten  by  the 
country  people. 

Hamsun,  KNUT  (D.  1859).  Nor- 
wegian author.  Brought  up  as  a 
cobbler  in  the  Lofoten  Isles,  his 
literary  talent 
showed  itself 
at  an  early  age. 
After  an  un 
successful  at- 
tempt  to 
graduate  at 
Christiania 
University,  and 
an  equally 
futile  en- 
deavour to 
make  his  way  in 
America,  he  obtained  employment 
in  the  Newfoundland  fisheries.  In 
1888,  however,  his  Suit,  a  novel, 
was  published  in  a  Danish  maga- 
zine, and  immediately  brought  him 
fame.  His  output  thenceforward 
was  considerable  and  his  novels 
have  been  translated  into  many 
languages.  Hunger  (Suit),  1899, 
and  Growth  of  the  Soil,  1914,  are 
the  best  known  in  Enclish  trans- 
lations. They  were  followed  in 
1921  by  Konerne  ved  Vandposten 
(The  Women  at  the  Well).  In  1920 
he  was  awarded  the  Nobel  prize 
for  literature. 

Han.  River  of  China.  It  takes 
its  rise  in  the  Ta-pa-ling  mts.  of 
Shensi,  and  flows  E.  and  S.  across 
the  provs.  of  Shensi  and  Hupeh,  to 
effect  a  junction  with  the  Yang- 
tse-Kiang  at  Hankow.  Floods  are 
common,  but  the  river  is  navigable 


Knut  Hamsun, 
Norwegian  author 


by  small  craft  to  Sim pu wan,  a 
distance  of  1,260  m.,  and  for  large 
junks  to  Fancheng,  450  m.  Much 
traffic  is  carried  on  the  river,  which 
is  1,300  m.  in  length,  and  passes 
several  important  towns.  The  river 
lias  several  times  changed  its  course. 
Hanaper  (late  Lat.  hanaperium, 
hamper).  Name  given  to  a  wicker 
basket  in  which  documents  were 
kept  in  the  English  chancery,  and 
so  to  a  department  of  that  court  of 
law.  Controlled  by  the  clerk  of 
the  hanaper,  it  received  the  fees 
for  sealing  charters,  patents,  and 
writs  under  the  great  seal.  Abo  I 
ished  in  England,  the  office  sur 
vives  in  Ireland,  where  the  clerk 
of  the  crown  and  hanaper  issues 
writs  for  parliamentary  elections. 

Hanau.  Town  of  Germany,  in 
Hesse-Nassau.  Situated  in  fertile 
country  near  the  junction  of  the 
Kinzig  and  the  Main,  14  m.  by 
rly.  E.  of  Frankfort,  it  is  a  busy 
industrial  centre,  still  famous  for 
its  jewelry,  especially  diamond  - 
cutting,  and  gold  and  silver  goods, 
the  manufacture  of  which  was 
introduced  by  refugees  from  the 
Low  Countries  in  the  1 7th  century. 
Other  manufactures  include  car- 
pets, leather,  porcelain,  tobacco,  etc. 
There  is  a  monument  to  the  brothers 
Grimm  (q.v.),  who  were  natives.  In 
the  neighbourhood  is  the  former 
electoral  palace  of  Philippsruhe, 
famous  for  its  orangeries,  and  the 
mineral  springs  of  the  Wilhelmsbad. 
To  the  N.E.  is  the  battlefield  where 
on  Oct.  30-31,  1813,  Napoleon  de- 
feated the  allied  force  which  was 
attempting  to  follow  up  the  victory 
of  Leipzig.  Pop.  37,500. 

Hancock,  WINFIELD  SCOTT  (1824 
-8G).      American  soldier.   Born   at 
Montgomery  Square,  Pennsylvania, 
Feb.   14,   1824, 
lie     was     edu- 
cated    at    the 
military    acad- 
emy   of    West 
Point.     On  the 
outbreak  of  the 
Civil    War    he 
was  appointed 
brigadier -gene- 
Winfield  S.  Hancock,    ra]     of     volun- 
American  soldier        teerg>    and    by 

1864  he  held  the  same  rank  in 
the  regular  army.  He  was  present 
at  Williamsburg,  at  Fredericks- 
burg,  at  Chancellorsville,  where 
his  skilful  handling  of  his  troops 
saved  the  Federals  from  complete 
rout,  and  at  Gettysburg,  where  he 
again  displayed  great  powers  of 
leadership.  He  also  did  good  service 
in  the  Wilderness  campaign.  In  1880 
he  stood  for  the  presidency  as  a 
Democrat,  but  he  was  defeated  by 
James  A.  Garfield.  He  died  near 
New  York,  Feb.  9,  1886.  See  Life, 
F.  A.  Walker,  1894. 


HAND 


3821 


HANDEL. 


Hand.  Prehensile  extremity  of 
the  arm.  It  consists  of  three 
divisions —the  carpus  or  wrist,  the 
metacarpus,  and  the  phalanges  of 
the  fingers.  The  carpus  consists  of 
eight  small  bones  arranged  in  two 
rows.  From  the  radial  to  the  ulnar 
side,  the  bones  of  the  first  row  are 
the  scaphoid,  lunar,  pyramidal, 
and  pisiform.  Those  in  the  second 
row  are  the  trapezium,  trapezoid,  os 
magnum,  and  unciform.  The 
metacarpus  consists  of  five  Jong 
bones,  which  articulate  at  the  upper 
end  with  the  wrist,  and  at  the  lower 
end  with  the  first  phalanges  of  the 
fingers.  The  phalanges  are  four- 
teen in  number,  three  for  each  finger 
and  two  for  the  thumb. 


Handbells.    Set  of  bells  in  diatonic  scale 


practising  the  changes  (q.v.)  for 
ringing  on  church  bells.  One 
player  can  easily  control  four  hand- 
bells, two  with  each  hand,  if  their 
handles  are  leather  loops,  and  the 


composers,  and 
whilst  there  pro- 
d  u  c  e  d  several 
operas  with  great 
success. 

In  1710  Handel 
returned  to  Germany,  and  was  ap- 
pointed "  chapel-master  "  to  the 
elector  of  Hanover,  .  afterwards 
George  I  of  England.  The  same 
year  he  came  to  England,  where, 


clappers  only  act  when  swung  in    apart  from  a  few  short  visits  to 


Hand.      Leit,  of  a  negro  irom  the  Blue  Nile  ;  right,  of 

a    very   aged   gorilla,    showing   the    shorter    thumb 

typical  of  the  apes 

The  hand  is  supplied  with  blood- 
vessels derived  from  the  radial  and 
ulnar  arteries  of  the  forearm.  The 
palm  of  the  hand  is  protected  by  a 
strong  and  dense  layer  of  tissue 
lying  beneath  the  skin,  known  as 
the  palmar  fascia.  In  middle-aged 
persons,  particularly  those  who 
suffer  from  gout,  this  fascia  may 
become  contracted,  causing  some 
of  the  fingers,  most  often  the  ring 
and  little  fingers,  to  be  drawn  in 
towards  the  palm,  thus  seriously 
crippling  the  hand.  This  condition, 
known  as  Dupuytren's  contrac- 
tion, as  a  rule  requires  operative 
treatment.  There  is  no  fundamen- 
tal difference  between  the  hands  of 
the  higher  apes  and  those  of  man. 
The  chief  difference  is  in  the  thumb, 
always  shorter  in  the  ape.  It  is 
most  human  in  proportions  in  the 
chimpanzee,  and  in  some  of  the 
Anthropoidea  is  practically  absent. 
See  Anatomy. 

Hand.  English  measure  of  length. 
Like  foot,  it  originated  from  a 
human  limb,  being  the  breadth  of 
a  man's  palm.  After  a  time  a 
fixed  length  was  given  to  it  and  it 
is  now  4  ins.  It  is  only  used  for 
measuring  horses. 

Handbells.  Small  bells  of  sweet 
tone,  used  both  for  the  sake  of 
their  own  music,  and  also  for 


one  direction.  Parties  of  five  or  six 
players  can  thus  operate  a  large 
number  of  bells,  and  perform 
elaborate  music  in  harmony.  See 
Campanology. 

Handcuffs.    Devices  for  fasten- 
ing the  wrists  of  prisoners.    Modern 
handcuffs      consist 
of  two  metal  rings 
adjustable  to  vari- 
ous sizes  by  means 
of    a   ratchet,    and 
fastened      together 
by   a   short    length 
of  chain.    Formerly 
handcuffs    were 
rigid,  and  a  police 
officer     was    .com- 
pelled   to    carry 
two  or    three    sets 
when    he    went  to 
arrest    a    prisoner. 
Handcuffs  with  no 
connecting      chain, 
shaped  like  a  figure 
eight,  fixed    the 
wrists    in    one 
position,   and    often  caused  great 
pain.      Some  handcuffs  fit  only  on 
one  wrist,  the  other  part  being  held 
by    the    officer   in   charge   of    the 
prisoner.     Snap-handcuffs  enable  a 
detective  to  imprison  one  wrist  of 
an    offender  with  a  single    move- 
ment. Nippers  are  a  variety  of  those 
handcuffs  which  are  used  only  on 
one  wrist,  the  other  part  of   the 
handcuff  forming  a  handle.  Twisters 
are    a    similar    arrangement,    the 
metal  ring  being  replaced  by  a  short 
length  of  chain  that  can  be  twisted 
round  the  prisoner'  s  wrist.     The 
latter  are  not  used  in  Great  Britain. 
Handel,      GEORGE      FREDERIC 
(1685-1759).    Musician.      He    was 
born  at  Halle,  in  Saxony,  the  son 
of     a     surgeon-barber,     Feb.    23, 
1685.        At     a    very     early      age 
he  revealed  the  possession  of  great 
musical  gifts,  but  received  no  en- 
couragement   from    his    father   to 
develop  them.    Eventually  he  be- 
came a  pupil  of  Zachau,  organist  of 
the  cathedral  at  Halle,  and  spent 
some  time  in  Berlin,  afterwards  be- 
coming organist  at  Halle.    In  1703 
he  went  to  Hamburg  and  played 
the  violin  in  the  orchestra  of  the 
Opera  House  ;   then  his  first  opera, 
Almira,  was  produced  in  1705.    He 
went  to  Italy  for  three  years  to 

Study  the  methods  of  Italian  opera 


Germany,  he  spent  the  remainder 
of  his  life.  He  introduced  himself 
to  English  audiences  by  his  opera 
Rinaldo,  which  aroused  great  en- 
thusiasm. Other  operas  followed  ; 
also  a  Te  Deum  to  celebrate  the 
peace  of  Utrecht  in  1713.  For 
some  time  he  was  organist  to  the  | 
duke  of  Chandos  at  Canons,  Edg- 
ware.  In  1719  the  Royal  Academy 
of  Music  was  established  for  the 
performance  of  opera,  and  Handel 
specially  composed  many  operas 


Handcuffs.     Pair  of  handcuffs  in 
common  use  by  the  British  police 

for  this  society,  which  came  to  an 
end  in  1728,  He  then  became  in- 
terested in  other  operatic  schemes, 
which,  however,  were  unsuccessful 
owing  to  financial  difficulties,  the 
quarrels  of  singers,  and  the  opposi 
tion  of  rival  composers. 

He  next  turned  to  oratorio,  and 
began  that  series  of  sacred  works 
upon  which  bis  fame  rests.  Saul  and 
Israel  in  Egypt  were  composed  in 
1739,  the  Messiah  and  Samson  in 
1741,  Judas  Maccabeus  in  1746, 
and  his  last  oratorio,  Jephtha,  in 
1751.  Shortly  after  this  he  became 


HANDFASTING 


HANGAR 


totally  blind,  and  died  April  14, 
1759.  Handel's  many  operas  are 
now  known  only  by  name,  and  by 
a  few  isolated  songs.  On  the  other 
hand,  his  finest  oratorios  are  uni- 
versal favourites.  The  grandeur  of 
their  great,  choruses,  considering  the 
simplicity  of  the  musical  material 
upon  which  they  are  built,  still  re- 
main unequalled.  See  Handel,  W. 
S.  Rockstrow,  1883 ;  Handel  and  his 
Orbit.  P.  Robinson,  1908;  Handel, 
11.  A.  Streatfield,  1909. 

Handfasting.  Form  of  provi- 
sional marriage  formerly  prevalent 
in  Scotland,  so  called  because  the 
couple  exchanged  vows  holding 
hands.  They  "were  then  legally 
entitled  to  live  together  as  man  and 
wife  for  a  year  and  a  day,  after 
which  period  they  could  either 
part  or  be  married  permanently. 
The  child  of  a  couple  who  parted 
was  supported  by  the  parent  who 
severed  the  union.  Handfasting 
was  also  the  old  English  name  for 
betrothal.  See  Marriage. 

Hand-grenade.  One  of  the  older 
weapons  of  warfare.  Hand-grenades 
were  used  as  early  as  the  first  half  of 
the  16th  century,  and  at  that  period 
were  probably  earthenware  cases 
filled  with  gunpowder.  It  is  said  that 
they  were  used  with  considerable 
effect  at  the  siege  of  Aries  in  1536. 

The  use  of  this  weapon  appears 
to  have  considerably  diminished 
during  the  Napoleonic' wars,  but  did 
did  not  entirely  cease,  as  it  was 
used  at  Saragossa  (1808-9),  Ant- 
werp (1832),  Sevastopol  (1854-56), 
and  by  British  troops  in  the  Sudan 
(1884-86).  It  did  not  attain  a  posi- 
tion of  any  importance  after  about 
1790,  however,  until  the  Russo- 
Japanese  War,  when  it  was  again 
used  with  great  effect.  During  the 
Great  War,  when  trench  fighting 
became  such  a  marked  feature,  the 
hand-grenade  had  a  great  revival. 

A  hand-grenade  can  usually  be 
thrown  to  a  distance  of  about  50 
yards,  and  should  not,  therefore, 
have  an  explosive  effect  over  a 
greater  radius  than  30  yards.  The 
provision  of  a  suitable  fuse  is  a 
matter  of  difficulty.  A  percussion 
fuse  may  detonate  the  grenade  if 
the  thrower  accidentally  strikes  the 
rear  of  the  trench  in  swinging,  and 
a  time  fuse  if  too  long  enables  the 
enemy  to  throw  the  missile  back, 
while  if  the  fuse  is  short  the 
grenade  explodes  either  harmlessly 
in  the  air  or  amongst  the  throwers. 
Sf.e  Ammunition  ;  Bomb  ;  Explo- 
sives ;  Grenade;  Grenadier;  Rifle 
Grenade ;  Stokes  Gun. 

Handicap.  In  sporting  con- 
tests, term  denoting  the  bringing 
together,  by  means  of  penalties  and 
allowances,  the  various  compe- 
titors in  such  a  manner  as  to  afford 
an  equal  chance  to  each.  In  foot- 


Hand  -  in  -  Hand 
Insurance  Co.'s 
fire-mark,or  plate 
affixed  to  insured 
premises 


racing,  billiards,  etc.,  this  is 
accomplished  by  giving  a  start 
to  the  runner  or  player  who  is  the 
inferior  performer.  In  horse- 
racing,  handicapping  is  effected  by 
apportioning  different  weights  to 
the  various  horses  entered.  All 
races  or  contests  conducted  under 
these  conditions  are  designated 
handicaps.  The  word  is  a  con- 
traction of  hand  in  the  cap,  in 
reference  to  the  method  of  drawing 
lots.  See  Golf;  Horse  Racing. 

Hand-in-Hand.  English  in- 
surance company,  now  incorpor- 
ated with  the  Commercial  Union. 
It  was  founded 
in  1696,  the 
first  headquart- 
ers being  at 
theRoyalCoffee 
House,  Buck- 
ingham Gate, 
London.  The 
name  taken  was 
the  contribu- 
tors' for  in- 
suring houses, 
chambers,  or 
rooms  from  loss 
by  fire  by  ami- 
cable contribution.  This  became 
the  amicable  contributorship,  and 
later  the  Hand-in-Hand,  derived 
from  the  clasped  hands  on  its  fire- 
mark.  In  1836  the  company  began 
to  undertake  life  insurance.  In 
1717  an  office  was  opened  in  the 
city,  and  for  long  the  head  office 
was  at  Angel  Court,  Snow  Hill. 
The  next  building  was  pulled  down 
in  1874  to  make  room  for  Ludgate 
Circus,  after  which  the  offices  at 
26,  New  Bridge  Street,  were  opened. 
In  1905  it  amalgamated  with  the 
Commercial  Union  Assurance  Co. 

Handkerchief.  Square  of  linen, 
cotton,  or  silk  for  wiping  the  nose. 
It  came  into  use  about  the  time  of 
Henry  VI.IT,  and  Elizabeth's  reign 
saw  handkerchiefs  decorated  with 
lace  and  made  of  silk.  A  muckinder 
or  muckender  was  a  handkerchief 
usually  attached  to  the  girdle,  and 
worn  by  children  about  the  be- 
ginning of  the  17th  century. 

Handley  Page.  British  aero- 
plane. It  was  the  first  really  large 
aeroplane  ever  built,  the  forerunner 
of  the  Italian  Caproni  and  the 
German  Gotha.  A  biplane  con- 
structed for  bombing  enemy  lines, 
communications,  and  quarters,  one 
of  the  first  machines  completed  in 
1915  took  twenty  people  up  to  a 
hoight  of  7,000  feet  on  a  trial 
flight,  and  since  then  big  strides  in 
construction  and  performance  have 
been  made. 

In  the  Great  War  a  Handley 
Page  machine  flew  from  Eng- 
land to  Constantinople  on  a  bomb- 
ing raid,  and,  after  the  declaration 
of  the  armistice,  the  feat  of  fiying 


from  England  to  India  in  stages 
was  also  performed.  With  a 
wing  span  of  well  over  a  hundred 
feet,  the  early  types  of  Handley 
Page  machines  were  driven  by  two 
Rolls-Royce  engines,  developing  a 
total  horse-power  of  over  five  hun- 
dred; but  the  later  models  are  more 
than  twice  as  powerfully  engined. 
Characteristics  of  the  Handley  Page 
are  the  large  balanced  ailerons,  bi- 
plane tail  and  twin  rudders,  and 
the  long,  deep  fuselage  affording 
accommodation  for  passengers.  See 
Aero -engine  ;  aeroplane ;  Page,  F. 
Handley. 

Handsel.  Earnest  money.  Pay- 
ment by  a  purchaser  of  part  of  an 
agreed  sum  into  the  vendor's  hand 
to  bind  a  contract.  The  word  is 
also  applied  to  the  first  money 
taken  at  a  market  or  on  opening  a 
new  business,  and  in  the  north  of 
Great  Britain  to  presents  made  for 
luck.  Thus  in  Scotland  Handsel 
Monday  is  the  popular  name  for 
the  first  Monday  in  the  year,  when, 
as  on  Boxing  Day  in  England,  pre- 
sents of  money  are  given  in  token 
of  good  will. 

Handsworth.  Urban  district 
and  parish  of  Yorkshire  (W.R.). 
It  is  4  m.  S.E.  of  Sheffield,  and  is 
mainly  a  mining  district.  Other 
industries  are  quarrying  and  nur- 
sery gardening.  The  church,  an  old 
structure,  is  dedicated  to  S.  Mary. 
Pop.  14,200. 

Handsworth.  District  of  Bir- 
mingham. Until  1911,  when  it  was 
incorporated  with  that  city,  it  was 
a  separate  urban  district,  with  a 
population  of  60,000.  Lying  to  the 
N.E.  of  the  city  proper,  it  is  in 
Staffordshire,  and  until  1918  gave 
its  name  to  a  parliamentary  divi- 
sion of  that  county.  It  is  chiefly  an 
industrial  area,  having  many  works 
for  the  manufacture  of  maohinery, 
hardware,  etc.  It  is  served  by  the 
G.W.  Rly.,  while  tramways  also 
connect  it  with  the  centre  of  the 
city.  See  Birmingham. 

Handy  Andy.  Chief  character 
in  Handy  And}7,  an  Irish  story,  by 
Samuel  Lover,  1842.  The  book  is 
full  of  frolicsome  fun,  and  long  set  a 
sort  of  standard  for  Irish  humour 
of  the  more  farcical  kind.  Handy 
Andy  himself  is  a  typical  blunderer, 
and  many  of  the  episodes  were  long 
popular  as  readings  or  recitations. 

Hangar.  Shed,  usually  canvas 
covered,  for  housing  flying  ma- 
chines. The  canvas  is  stretched 
over  a  wooden,  bolted  framework. 
During  the  Great  War  hangars 
were  very  commonly  used  both 
abroad  and  in  Britain  where  per- 
manent sheds  did  not  exist,  and 
were  often  so  skilfully  camouflaged 
that  it  was  frequently  a  very  diffi- 
cult matter  for  hostile  aircraft  to 
see  them  from  above.  See  Airship. 


HANGARD 


3823 


HANKAU 


Hangard.  Village  of  France,  in 
the  dept.  of  Somme.  It  is  U  m.  E. 
of  Domart,  and  was  the  scene  of 
heavy  fighting,  April  4-5,  in  the 
German  offensive  of  1918.  The 
wood,'  which  is  1  m.  north  of  the 
village,  was  entered  by  the  Germans 
on  April  5,  which  carried  them  to 
within  9  m.  of  Amiens,  the  nearest 
they  approached  to  that  important 
centre  in  this  year.  The  British 
offensive  of  Aug.  8,  1918,  which 
freed  Amiens,  recovered  Hangard 
Wood.  See  Amiens,  Battle  of. 

Hang-chow  OR  HANO  CHAU. 
Treaty  port  and  town  of  China, 
capital  of  Che-kiang  prov.  It  is  on 


Hang-chow,  China.  The  old  Kate  in 
the  Tsien-tang  river,  and  was 
opened  to  foreign  trade  in  189(3. 
It  is  118  m.  S.  of  Shanghai,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  rly.  and 
waterways.  The  tide  in  Hang- 
chow  bay,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Tsien-tang  river,  forms  a  bore 
twice  daily,  varying  in  height  from 
a  few  feet  to  15  ft.  or  20  ft.  (at  times 
even  30)  at  the  equinoxes.  Pop. 
594,000,  and  about  200  foreigners. 

Hang-chow  Bay.  Large  inlet  of 
the  E.  China  Sea,  indenting  the 
shore  of  the  prov.  of  Che-kiang.  It 
penetrates  inland  for  about  1 10  m. 
and  receives  the  waters  of  the 
Tsien-tang  Kiang,  on  which,  20  m. 
from  its  mouth,  stands  the  port  of 
Hang-chow.  At  its  entrance,  be- 
tween Cape  Yang-tse  on  the  N. 
and  the  island  of  Chusan  on  the 
S.,  the  distance  is  52  m. 

Hanging.  Death  from  constric- 
tion of  the  neck,  the  constricting 
force  being  the  weight  of  the  body. 
In  modern  judicial  hanging,  in 
which  a  long  drop  is  allowed,  death 
is  practically  instantaneous,  being 
due  to  fracture  or  dislocation  of  the 
upper  cervical  vertebrae  which 
produces  compression  or  rupture  of 
the  spinal  cord  (breaking  the  neck). 
In  the  old  form  of  execution,  which 
was  practised  at  Tyburn,  the  noose 
was  placed  round  the  neck  of  the 
condemned  person  while  standing 
on  a  cart,  which  was  then  driven 
away  from  beneath  him.  In  this 
case,  and  in  most  suicidal  hangings, 


death  is  due  partly  to  asphyxia  and 

partly  to  arrest  of  the  circulation  in 

the   brain   by  compression  of  the 

large    blood-vessels    in    the    neck. 

Hanging   is   the   method  of  com- 
mitting   suicide    most    frequently 

adopted  by  males,  but  is  less  com- 
mon among  females. 

In  1918  the  number  of  suicides  in 

England  and  Wales  from  hanging 

was   616  (males  462,  females  154). 

Accidental  death  from  "hanging  is 

rare,     but     occasionally     persons 

working  among  ropes  have  become 

entangled  and  killed.     Murder  by 

hanging    is   almost  unknown,   but 

several  instances  are  recorded  of 
a  murderer  sus- 
pending the  body 
of  his  victim  after 
death  in  order  to 
suggest  suicide. 
See  Capital  Punish- 
ment ;  Execution. 
Hanging  Gar- 
dens of  Babylon. 
One  of  the  seven 
wonders  of  the 
ancient  world. 
Situated  within 
the  confines  of  the 
palace  of  Nebu- 
chadrezzar, they 
occupied  a  space 
the  city  walls  of  some  four 

acres,    and    were    in    a    series    of 

terraces,    resting    on    arches    and 

rising  to  300  ft.  above  the  level  of 

the  plain.     They  contained  a  pro- 
fusion    of     the     choicest     flowers, 

groves  of  trees,  secluded  arbours, 

and    banqueting    halls,    and    were 

watered    from    a   reservoir   at   the 

highest    point    in    direct    artificial 

connexion  with  the  Euphrates.  The 

gardens  were  probably  laid  out  by 

Nebuchadrezzar,      though      other 

traditions     associate     them     with 

Semiramis.     See  Babylon. 

Hanging    Valley.       Tributary 

valley  leading  to  an  over-deepened 

main    vailey.        Many    valleys    in 

mountainous    districts    have    been 

considerably   deepened    below   the 

level  of  the  side  valleys.   The  rivers 

of     these     tributary     or     hanging 

valleys  descend  to*  ....... 

the     main     stream 

by  waterfalls.  Geo-   _^^^^^^^ 

logists   differ  as  to  jgjggg 

the     cause     which 

deepened  the  main 

valley,     but    the 

general      belief     is 

that  they  were  pro- 
duced    by     glacial 

erosion,    and     this 

is  supported  by  the 

fact  that  they  are  es  - 

pecially    numerous 

in  glaciated  regions. 

Some  hanging  val- 
leys still    contain 

glaciers.   See  Fiord.       Hankau.    The  native  quarter  of  the  Chine*  treaty  port 


Hangnest.  Popular  name  for  a 
large  group  of  American  birds 
(Icteridae)  known  also  as  troupials. 
Related  to  the  starlings,  they  take 
their  name  from  the  curious  nests 
they  construct.  These  are  closely 
woven  of  grass  and  hair,  are  rather 
purselike  in  shape,  often  2  ft.  long, 
with  the  entrance  near  the  bottom, 
and  hang  from  the  slender  branches 
of  trees.  As  many  as  40  of  these  nests 
have  been  found  in  a  single  tree. 

Hans  6  (Finnish  Hankoriemi). 
Fortified  port  in  Finland.  1 1  is  on  the 
peninsula  Hango-Udd,  at  the  entry 
to  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  and  the  ter- 
minus of  the  coast  rly.  from  Petro- 
grad.  The  harbour  is  safe,  and 
there  is  a  good  shipping  trade.  The 
chief  exports  are  butter,  timber, 
and  paper.  The  sea  baths  are 
much  patronised.  Pop.  4,000. 

Hank.  Standard  measure  of 
length  ;  also  a  convenient  form  in 
which  to  put  up  yarns  for  transit. 
Thread  is  wound  off  a  bobbin  round 
the  arms  of  a  reel.  Eighty  wraps 
round  the  IJ-yard  reel  used  in 
cotton  yarn  represent  one  lea  or 
120  yds.  Seven  leas  equal  840  yds., 
or  one  cotton  hank.  For  measuring 
worsted  yarns  the  reel  has  a  cir- 
cumference of  one  yard ;  the 
worsted  lea  is  thus  80  yds.,  and  the 
worsted  hank  560  yds.,  or  one- 
third  less  than  cotton.  The  linen 
lea  is  300  yds.,  and  the  spun  silk 
hank  is  of  the  same  length  as  cotton. 

The  hank  is  in  effect  a  large  skein 
and  after  being  measured  it  is  tied 
with  a  thread  which  separates  lea 
from  lea  and  holds  the  end  of  the 
thread.  The  hank  is  knotted  for 
convenience  by  being  twisted  and 
folded  back  up"on  itself.  The  hanks 
are  then  bundled  into  neat  pack- 
ages normally  of  10  ib.  weight. 
See  Cotton. 

Hankau.  Treaty  port  of  China, 
in  Hu  peh  prov.  It  is  situated  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Yang-fse,  600  m. 
from  tne  mouth,  at  the  junction  of 
the  Han  river.  Founded  during  the 
Ming  dynasty,  it  was  left  in  ruins 
by  the  Taiping  Rebellion  (1853- 
60),  but  was  opened  to  foreign 


HANKEY 


3824 


HANNIBAL 


trade,  18G2.  Hankau  is  connected 
by  rly.  with  Peking,  755  in.  dis- 
tant, and  is  accessible  to  ocean- 
going steamers  during  summer. 
With  Hanyang,  across  the  Han 
river,  and  Wuchang,  on  the  S. 
hank  of  the  Yang-tse,  it  forms  the 
foremost  trading  centre  hi  central 
China,  only  surpassed  in  import- 
ance in  the  whole  of  China  by 
Shanghai.  Pop.  of  the  three  cities 
variously  estimated  between 
826,000  and  1 ,443,950.  In  Hankau 
there  are  British,  Russian,  French, 
and  Japanese  settlements,  with  a 
total  foreign  population  of  3,000. 

Hankey,  SIR  MAURICE  PASCAL 
ALERS  (b.  1877).  British  civil  ser- 
vant. Born  April  1,  1877,  he  was 
educated  at 
Rugby.  He 
entered  the 
Royal  Marine 
Artillery  in 
1895,  and 
served  for  some 
years  with  the 
fleet.  In  1902 
he  joined  the 
naval  intelli- 
gence depart- 
ment, which 


Sir  Maurice  Hankey, 
British  civil  servant 


Rut  sell 

led  to  his  becoming  assistant  secre- 
tary to  the  committee  of  imperial 
defence.  In  1912  he  was  promoted 
to  be  secretary,  and  in  1916,  on  its 
formation,  he  acted  in  a  similar 
capacity  to  the  war  cabinet.  In  1919 
he  was  made  secretary  to  the  Cabi- 
net. Made  a  K.C.B.  in  1916,  Sir 
Maurice  had  much  to  do  with  the 
preparations  for  the  peace  confer- 
ence of  1919,  and  was  the  British 
representative  on  its  secretariat. 
In  1919  he  was  created  G.C.B.  and 
awarded  £25,000  for  his  services 
during  the  war.  In  1923  he  be- 
came clerk  of  the  privy  council. 
See  Cabinet. 

Han-Kiang.  River  of  China, 
mainly  in  the  provs.  of  Hu-peh  and 
Shen-si.  Rising  in  the  Tapaling 
mts.  at  the  S.W.  corner  of  the  prov. 
of  Shen-si,  it  winds  in  a  generally 
E.  or  S.E.  course,  to  join  the  Yang- 
tse-Kiang  near  Hankau.  The 
towns  of  Hauchung,  Sing-Ngan,  and 
Yuen-yang  are  on  or  near  its  banks. 
Its  length  is  est.  at  900  m. 

Hanley.  District  of  Stoke-upon- 
Trent,  formerly  a  county  borough 
and  market  town.  It  is  18  m.  from 
Stafford  and  148 
m.  from  London, 
being  served  by 
the  N.  Staffs. 
Rly.  and  by 
tramways.  The 
chief  buildings 
are  the  town 
hall,  Victoria 

Hanley  arms          pal1'    Public    li' 
brary,  school  of 
art,  and  technical  museum,  as  well  as 


a  number  of  churches.  The  staple 
industry  is  the  manufacture  of 
pottery  of  all  kinds  from  china- 
ware  to  tiles ;  there  are  also 
foundries  and  ironworks,  while 
around  are  extensive  coal  mines. 
A  modern  place,  Hanley  developed 
with  the  growth  of  the  pottery  in- 
dustry. It  was  made  a  borough  in 
1857,  and  in  1910  was  included  in 
the  borough  of  Stoke-upon-Trent. 
It  had  then  a  population  of  66,000, 
being  the  most  populous  of  the  so- 
called  Five  Towns.  See  Potteries  ; 
Stoke-upon-Trent. 

Hannah.  Wife  of  Elkanah  and 
mother  of  the  prophet  Samuel 
(1  Sam.  1  and  2).  Samuel  was 
horn  in  answer  to  prayer,  and  she 
dedicated  him  to  God's  service, 
taking  him  to  Eli,  the  high  priest, 
to  become  his  attendant.  Fairly 
common  as  a  Christian  name, 
Hannah  means  in  Hebrew,  grace. 

Hannay,  JAMES  (1827-73).  Scot- 
tish author  and  journalist.  Born 
at  Dumfries,  Feb.  17,  1827,  he 
entered  the  navy  in  1840.  but  left 
it  in  1845.  He  then  became  a 
journalist,  working  for  The  Morn- 
ing Chronicle  and  other  papers, 
before  serving,  from  1860-64,  as 
editor  of  The  Edinburgh  Courant. 
From  1868-73  he  was  British 
consul  at  Barcelona,  and  he  died 
Jan.  8, 1873.  Hannay's  voluminous 
writings  include  novels,  essays, 
and  miscellaneous  articles.  Satire 
and  Satirists,  1854,  and  Char- 
acters and  Criticisms,  1865, 
show  his  literary  knowledge  and 
taste.  His  novels  include  Hearts 


peer.    In  1888  he  presided  over  th 
Parnell  Commission,   and  in  1892 
was  an  arbitrator  in  the  dispute 
concerning  the  Bering  Sea  fisheries 
Strong,  dignified,  learned  and  ac 
curate,  Hannen  ranks  among  the 
greatest  English  judges  of  the  19tl 
century.  He  died  in  London,  Marc! 
29,1894. 

Hannibal.  City  of  Missouri 
U.S.A.,  in  Marion  co.  It  stands  or 
the  right  bank  of  the  Mississipj. 
river,  120  m.  N.W.  of  St.  Louis,  and 
is  served  by  the  Chicago,  Burling 
ton,  and  Quincy,  and  other  rlys 
Among  the  chief  buildings  are  fh< 
federal  building,  the  city  hall,  i 
hospital,  a  high  school,  and  a  publi< 
library.  The  city  is  connected  witl 
East  Illinois  by  a  long  bridge  across 
the  river,  and  contains  a  fine  park  o 
1 20  acres.  A  thriving  trade  in  agri 
cultural  produce,  lumber,  flour,  anc 
tobacco  is  carried  on,  and  th 
industrial  establishments  includ 
foundries,  lumber,  cigar,  shoe,  lime 
and  cement  factories,  and  wagon 
and  machinery  works.  Hanniba 
was  founded  in  1 819,  and  received  a 
city  charter  in  1839.  Pop.  22,398. 

Hannibal  (c.  247-183  B.C.).  Car 
thaginian  soldier.  He  was  the  S( ;n  o\ 
Hamilcar  Barca,  who,  after  the  first 
Punic  War  (264-241  B.C.),  in  which 
Rome  had  wrested  the  command 
of  the  sea  from  her  rival,  organized 
what  was  virtually  an  independent 
Carthaginian  dominion  in  Spain. 
In  childhood  Hannibal  had  taken 
a  great  oath  to  his  father  that  his 
lifa  should  be  devoted  to  the  over- 
throw of  Rome.  In  Spain  the  b 


Conyers, 
Studies 

Three  Hundred  Years  of  a  Nor- 
man House,  1867  ;  and  published 
a  volume  of  Essays  from  The 
Quarterly  Review,  1861. 

Hannay,   JAMES   OWEN.      Irish 
novelist,  better  known  by  his  pen- 
name,  George  A.  Birmingham  (q.v.). 
Hannen,  JAMES  HANNEN,  BARON 
(1821-94).  British  lawyer.  Born  in 
London,    he  was    educated    at   S 
Paul's     School 
and  Heidelberg 
University,  and 
was    called    t  o 
the  bar  at  the 
Middle  Temple, 
1848.       Ap- 
pointed   junior 
counsel   to  the 
treasury,  ]863, 
he      became 
a    judge    of 
the  queen's  bench,  1868,  and  judge 
of  the  probate  and  divorce  court, 
1872.      He   was   president   of   the 
admiralty    and    divorce    division, 
1875-91,  when  he  was  appointed  a 
lord  of  appeal  and  created  a  life 


Baron  Hannen, 
British  lawyer 


inary  capa 
city  that  after  Hamilcar's  death  the 
soldiery  demanded  his  appoint- 
ment to  the  supreme  command, 
though  he  was  only  twenty-five. 
Two  years  later,  by  laying  siege  to 
the  allied  town  of  Saguntum,  he 
roused  Rome  to  declare  war  upon 
Carthage.  He  at  once  resolved 
upon  an  invasion  of  Italy.  With 
extraordinary  skill  he  led  his  army 
from  Spain  through  the  south  of 
Gaul  in  218,  defeated  in  the  Rhone 
valley  a  Roman  expedition  sent 
to  hold  him  in  check,  carried  his 
army  over  the  Alpine  passes,  as 
Napoleon  did  two  thousand  years 
later,  in  the  face  of  extraordinary 
difficulties,  descended  into  the  Lom- 
bard plain,  and  routed  the  Roman 
armies  at  the  battles  of  Ticinus  and 
Trebia. 

Throughout  the  struggle  Hanni- 
bal had  to  live  upon  the  country, 
while  he  was  entirely  dependent 
upon  his  own  military  genius,  the 
small  and  miscellaneous  but  de- 
voted and  admirably  trained  army 
which  he  had  brought  into  Italy, 
and  such  support  as  he  could  per- 
suade or  compel  the  Italian 
enemies  of  Rome  to  supply.  The 


HANNINGTON 


3825 


HANNYNGTON 


Romans  had  the  ascendancy  by 
sea,  so  that  he  was  in  effect  cut 
off  from  both  the  Spanish  and 
African  bases.  In  the  spring  of  217 
he  pushed  southwards,  ambushed 
the  great  army  of  the  Roman 
general  Flaminius,  and  annihilated 
it  at  the  battle  of  Lake  Trasimenus. 
Failing  to  force  a  general  engage- 
ment upon  the  new  Roman  com- 
mander Fabius  Maximus,  he  suc- 
ceeded in  passing  by  him  and 
penetrating  into  Southern  Italy. 
There,  in  216,  he  beguiled  a  third 
Roman  commander  with  an  army 
of  90,000  men  into  fighting  a 
pitched  battle  at  Cannae  in  Apulia. 
This  army  was  also  annihilated, 
with  the  political  effect  of  bringing 
over  the  S.  Italians  to  Hannibal's 
side.  The  fact  that  he  was  still  un- 
able to  besiege  and  capture  Rome, 
but  wintered  at  Capua  instead  of 
making  the  attempt,  demonstrates 
the  desperate  character  of  his  task. 

From  this  time,  while  his  ascen- 
dancy in  the  field  was  never 
broken,  he  was  always  struggling 
with  diminishing  resources  against 
an  inexhaustible  adversary.  Han- 
nibal, like  Frederick  the  Great  in 
the  Seven  Years'  War,  might 
strike  and  strike  again,  but  his 
blows  could  do  no  more  than  pre- 
serve his  own  army  from  destruc- 
tion. At  last,  in  207,  the  Cartha- 
ginians threw  another  army  under 
Hasdrubal  into  Northern  Italy. 
Could  he  have  effected  a  junction 
with  Hannibal,  the  tide  might 
have  been  turned ;  but  while 
Hannibal  was  being  contained  in 
the  S.,  the  Roman  general  Nero, 
by  a  brilliant  march,  brought 
Hasdrubal's  advancing  army  to 
action  on  the  Metaurus  and  de- 
stroyed it.  The  battle  was  decisive. 
Hannibal  remained  on  the  defen- 
sive in  the  S.,  while  the  Romans 
crushed  the  Carthaginian  power  in 
Spain  and  in  Sicily,  and  prepared 
a  great  expedition  against  Car- 
thage itself. 

Thither  Hannibal  was  recalled 
in  203.  But  though  he  was  placed 
in  command,  he  was  not,  as  in 
Italy,  in  effective  control  of 
veteran  troops>  'who  knew  and 
trusted  him.  The  Carthaginian 
army  was  crushed  at  the  battle  of 
Zama,  202,  and  in  the  following 
year  Rome  dictated  terms  of 
peace.  Hannibal  then  retired  from 
Carthage,  where  he  was  made 
powerless  by  the  jealousy  of  the 
oligarchical  government,  and  with- 
drew to  Bithynia  in  Asia  Minor, 
whence  he  urged  the  enemies  of 
Rome  to  make  war  upon  her.  At 
last,  in  183,  finding  that  his  pro- 
tector Prusias  could  not  resist  the 
Roman  demands  for  the  surrender 
of  his  person,  he  took  poison.  So 
perished  the  great  soldier  who  as  a 


Hannibal,  Carthaginian  soldier 

From  a  bust  found  at  Capua.     Naples  Museum 

military  genius  stands  beside 
Alexander  the  Great,  Julius  Caesar, 
Marlborough,  and  Napoleon.  See 
Carthage;  Rome.  A.  D.  innes 

Bibliography.  Carthage  and  the 
Carthaginians,  E..  Bosworth  Smith, 
1879,  new  ed.  1897;  Histoire  d' 
Annibal,  E.  Hennebert,  1870-1902  ; 
Hannibal,  F.  A.  Dodge,  1891,  and  W. 
O'C.  Morris,  1897;  Hannibal  and 
the  Great  War  between  Rome  and 
Carthage,  W.  How,  1899. 

Hannington,  JAMES  (1847-85). 
First  bishop  of  Eastern  Equatorial 
Africa.  Born  at  Hurstpierpoint, 
Sussex,  Sept.  3, 
1 847,  he  was 
educated  at  S. 
Mary  Hall, 
Oxford.  His 
first  ministerial 
duties  were 
discharged  at 
M  a  r  t  i  n  h  o  e, 
Devon.  Aj^ear 
later  he  be- 
came curate  in 
charge  of  S.  George's,  Hurstpier- 
point, a  church  built  by  his  father. 
Here  he  remained  until  1882,  when 
the  murder  of  two  missionaries  on 
the  Victoria  Nyanza  induced  him 
to  offer  his  services  to  the  Church 
Missionary  Society. 

Soon  after  his  arrival  in  Uganda, 
he  was  prostrated  with  fever,  and 
forced  to  return  to  England.  In 
June,  1884,  he  was  consecrated 
bishop  of  Eastern  Equatorial 
Africa.  He  reached  Mombasa  in 
Jan.,  1885.  In  July  he  started  for 
Uganda,  and  when  almost  at  his 
goal  his  party  was  suddenly  at- 
tacked by  forces  of  King  Mwanga. 
After  being  imprisoned  in  a  grass 
hut  for  eight  days  he,  with  the 
men  of  his  caravan,  was  murdered, 
Oct.  29,  1885.  See  Life,  E.  C. 
Dawson,  1887  ;  Last  Journals, 
ed.  E.  C.  Dawson,  1888. 

Hanno.  Name  of  several  emin- 
ent Carthaginians.  Hanno,  sur- 
named  the  Great  (c.  220  B.C.),  was 


James  Hannington, 
Missionary  bishop 


for  35  years  the  leader  of  the  aristo- 
cratic party  at  Carthage  which 
favoured  peaceful  relations  with 
Rome,  as  opposed  to  Hamilcar 
Barca,  Hannibal,  and  Hasdrubal, 
who  advocated  war.  About  240 
he  was  governor  of  Libya,  where 
his  oppression  of  the  inhabitants 
caused  them  to  revolt,  in  which 
they  were  supported  by  the  Cartha- 
ginian mercenaries.  Hanno  was  at 
first  successful,  but  his  inability  to 
take  advantage  of  his  victory  at 
Utica  and  his  carelessness  in  with- 
drawing his  forces  led  to  a  severe 
reverse,  with  the  result  that  he  was 
superseded  by  Hamilcar  Barca, 
against  whom  he  afterwards  cher- 
ished a  life-long  enmity.  After  the 
battle  of  Zama  he  was  one  of  the 
Carthaginian  deputies  sent  to  ask 
for  peace.  Another  Hanno  was  a 
navigator  who  lived  about  500  B.C. 
Having  passed  the  Straits  of  Gib- 
raltar, he  undertook  a  voyage  of 
discovery  along  the  west  coast  of 
Africa,  the  object  of  which  was 
the  increase  of  the  commercial 
prosperity  of  Carthage  and  the 
foundation  of  colonies.  He  wrote 
an  account  of  his  voyage,  originally 
in  the  Punic  language,  which  has 
been  preserved  in  a  Greek  version, 
entitled  The  Periplus  (Eng.  trans. 
Thomas  Falconer,  1797).  Another 
Hanno  took  part  in  the  battle  of 
Cannae  (216)  and  in  later  opera- 
tions in  lower  Italy. 

Hannover.  Name  applied  to 
the  aircraft  produced  by  the  Han- 
nover Waggonfabrik  A.G.  (Ger- 
many) during  the  Great  War.  The 
machines  were  all  biplanes,  mostly 
of  the  two-seater  reconnaissance 
type.  One  type  used  in  1918  had 
the  very  unusual  feature  of  a  bi- 
plane tail  for  a  quite  small  single- 
engine  machine. 

Hannyngton,  JOHN  ARTHUR  (b. 
1868).  British  soldier.  Born  Feb. 
26,  1868,  he  joined  the  Worcester- 
shire Regiment 
in  June,  1889, 
and  later 
transferred  to 
the  Indian 
army.  He  was 
employed  with 
the  K  i  n  g'  s 
African  Rifles, 
1901-10.  In 
the  Great  War 
he  was  in  com- 
mand of  a 
and,  promoted 


J.  A.  Hannyngton, 
British  soldier 

Elliott  &  Fry 


brigade,  1916-17, 
major-general,  rendered  distin- 
guished service  in  .  the  campaign 
in  East  Africa  under  Smuts.  He 
was  employed  in  carrying  out 
independent  operations,  being  in 
command  of  the  2nd  East  African 
brigade.  In  1916  he  had  charge  of 
the  encircling  movement  against 
the  Germans  in  the  Rufiji  area. 

Q    5 


HANOI 


3826 


HANOVER 


Hanoi.  Town  of  Annam,  capital         Hanotaux,     ALBERT    Acr>osTE 
ol  the  prov.  ol  Tong-king.    It  stands     GABRIEL  ( b.  1853).  French  historian 


on  the  right  bank  of  the  Song-ka  or 
Red  river,  about  100  m.  from  its 
month  in  the  China  Sea,  and  since 
1903  has  been  the  seat  ot  the  gov- 
ernor-general ot  French  Indo- 
Chma.  The  town,  an  agglomera- 
tion of  several  villages,  occupies  a 
large  area.  A  fine  rly.  bridge, 
opened  in  1902,  spans  the  river, 
and  there  are  extensive  remains  of 
an  ancient  royal  palace. 

The  native  quarter  lies  between 
the  citadel  and  the  river.  The 
houses  are  mainly  constructed  of 
wood  and  mud,  but  since  the  com- 
ing of  the  French,  many  handsome 
buildings  have  arisen.  They  in 
"lude  the  official  premises,  muse 


and  statesman       He    was   horn   at 
Beaurevoir, 
Aisne,  Nov.  19 
1853.  An  article 
by   him    in    La 
Republique 
Fransaise      at- 
tracted   the 
notice       of 
Gambetta    and 
secured   him 
an     appoint- 
ment in   the 
foreign  office. 
In    1885    be 
held  a 
position 
in  the  French  legation  in  Constan 


urn.  hospital,  theatre,  and  various  tinople.  Entering  political  jife, 
hotels.  A  school  of  medicine  for 
natives  was  opened  here  in  1902, 
and  together  with  a  European  col- 
lege formed  into  the  university  of 
Indo-China  in  1917. 

The  twin-towered  cathedral  is 
a  prominent  landmark.  The  cita- 
del perched  on  an  eminence  is 


Hanoi,  Annam.     Plan  01  tne  European  quartet  ol  tne 

city,  since  laOS  the   seat   of   the  governor-general  ol 

trench  indo-Chins 


a  square,  1,200  yds.  to  each  side, 
surrounded  by  a  brick  wall,  and 
contains  many  of  the  public  build- 
ings In  the  vicinity  ol  the  city 
is  the  Great  Lake,  on  the  shore  of 
which  is  a  Buddhist  temple  and  a 


was  deputy  for  the  Aisne,  1886-89, 
when  he  became  conspicuous  by 
his  opposition  to  Boulanger.  After 
having  been  director  of  the  French 
foreign  office,  1892,  he  was  foreign 
minister  1894-95  and  1896-98. 

Hanotaux  was  a  firm  supporter 
of  the  policy  that  brought  about  the 
Fran  co- Russian 
alliance,  and  ac- 
companied Presi- 
dent Faure  on 
nis  visit  to  the 
Russian  capital  : 
while  out  of  his 
policy  in  Africa 
developed  the 
Fashoda  incident 
ol  1*98.  In  1897 
he  was  elected  a 
memuei  uf  the 
French  Academy. 
Hanotaux  wrote 
a  History  of  the 
War  of  1914  of 
which  the  ninth 
volume  appeared 
in  1920  His  other 
works  include 
Henri  Martin, 
1885;  Histuirede 
Richelieu,  1893- 
a,s  awarded  the 


1903,  which 
Gobert  Pri/.e  by  the  Academy ; 
L'Atfaire  de  Madagascar,  1890  ;  La 
Semeet  lesQuai?,  1901  ;  Uistoirede 
la  France  Con  tern  poraine,  1903-8. 
Eng.  trans.  J.  C.  Tarver,  1903.  etc.; 


huge  image  ol  Buddha  in  bronze,     and  Histoire  de  la  Troisieme  Re 

The  city  is  provided  with  electric     ~~~'  <: 

tramways,  and    a  racecourse    was 
opened  in  1890. 

An  important  centre  of  trade, 
mostly  carried  on  by  Europeans 
and  Chinese,  Hanoi  has  rly.  con-  over 
nexion  with  Hai-phong.  the  princi- 
pal port,  and  with  the  Chinese 
town  of  Lung-chow.  Manufactures 
include  inlaid  and  lacquer  ware, 
filigree  work,  mats,  gold  and  silver 
wire,  leather  articles, and  embroi- 
dery. Hanoi  supplanted  Saigon  as  states,  the  duchy 
capital  in  1902.  Pop.  est.  at  150,000.  of  Brunswick  uanover  arms 


publique,   1904. 

Hanover.  Name  of  a  European 
kingdom  tnat  existed  from  1814  to 
I860.  It  developed  from  an  elec- 
torate of  Han-  

created  in 
1692,  and  this  in 
turn  was  pre 
ceded  by  a  duchy 
o  1  Brunswick 
Luneburg.  Like 
other  German 


which  dated  back  to  about  the  10th 
century,  was  frequently  divided 
among  members  of  the  reigniny 
family  One  such  division  became 
the  duchy  of  Brunswick- Luneburg, 
which  was  divided  later  into  Lune 
burg-CeileandLuneburg-CaJenberg, 
each  named  after  its  chief  town. 
The  two  were  sometimes  united, but 
more  olten  were  ruled  separately, 
until,  in  1665,  the  former  was  under 
George  William  and  the  latter 
under  his  brother,  Ernest  Augustus. 

Ernest  Augustus,  having  served 
the  emperor.  Leopold  1,  against  the 
Fiench,  was  given  in  1692  the  title 
of  elector  of  Brunswick-Liineburg. 
and  the  office  of  standard  bearer  in 
the  empire.  He  had  made  Hanover 
his  capital,  whence  his  little  state 
was  also  known  as  Hanover,  and 
that  form  ultimately  prevailed.  Its 
enlargement  was  due  to  the  mar 
riage  between  his  son,  George  I  ol 
England,  and  his  cousin,  Sophia 
Dorothea,  the  heiress  of  Liineburg- 
Celle,  which  in  1 705  George  inherit- 
ed. He  had  succeeded  his  father 
Ernest  Augustus  as  elector  in  1698 
and  in  1714  he  succeeded  through 
his  mother  Sophia  to  the  throne 
of  Great  Britain 

The  Hanoverians  fought  against 
France  in  the  various  wars  of  the 
18th  century,  several  times  su Ber- 
ing from  the  invader.  In  1757  the 
convention  of  Kloster-Zeven  gave 
up  the  electorate  to  France,  but  it 
was  soon  regained,  and  the  peace  of 
1763  left  it  intact.  The  Hanover- 
ians were  drawn,  too,  into  the  wars 
against  France  under  Napoleon, 
and  their  country  was  more  than 
once  in  the  power  of  the  conqueror 

In  1814,  by  the  congress  of  Vienna. 
Hanover  was  constituted  a  king- 
dom,and  certain  changes  were  made 
in  its  area.  It  was  then  governed 
by  a  king,  or  in  his  absence  by 
a  statthalter,  with  the  minister* 
responsible  to  him  aione,  and  an 
irregular  and  almost  powerless 
assembly  of  estates.  In  1S19  a 
constitution  was  given  to  it,  but 
this  was  not  sufficiently  liberal,  and 
in  1*3.'<  it  gave  way  to  a  more 
democratic  one,  modelled  on  that 
of  Great  Britain — a  parliament  ot 
two  houses  and  a  ministry  respon 
sible  to  it. 

In  1837  Hanovei  wa°  separated 
trorn  Great  Britain,  and  Ernest 
Augustus,  duke  ol  Cumberland,  be 
came  its  kmt>.  He  abolished  the 
new  constitution.,  but  in  1840, 
he  was  forced  to  concede  one 
again.  He  died  in  1857,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  George. 
George  would  not  accept  the 
modern  ideas  of  government,  and 
there  was  consttant  friction  during 
his  reign.  In  lS<66  Hanover,  n 
member  oi  the  German  Bund, 
decided  to  take  the  side  of 


HANOVER 


3827 


HANOVER 


Hanover.      Town   of    Prussia, 
formerly  the  capital   of  the  king- 
dom of  Hanover  and  now  of  the 
province.     It 
stands    at    the 
junction  of   the 
Leine    and    the 
Ihme,     112     m. 
from    Hamburg 
and  1 63  m  from 
Berlin.       There 
is  an  old  town,        Hanover  town 
a  new  town  be- 
yond   it,    and    various  sxiburbs,  of 


Austria  against  Prussia.  At  once 
Prussia  asked  for  her  neutrality, 
and  this  being  refused,  invaded 
Hanover.  In  June  the  Hanoverian 
army  surrendered,  and  the  country 
was  formally  annexed  in  Sept.  See 
Europe  ;  Germany. 

Hanover.  Province  of  Prussia. 
It  lies  in  the  N.W.  of  Germany,  the 
bulk  of  it  being  between  the  Weser 
and  the  Elbe,  while  another  part  is 
between  Oldenburg  and  Holland. 
It  was  constituted  in  1866,  and  in 
1 873  the  territory  of  Jade  was 'added 
to  it.  The  capital  is  Hanover.  It 
has  a  coast-line  on  the  North  Sea, 
and  contains  the  ports  of  Emden 
and  Wilhelmshaven.  Its  area  is 
14,870  sq.  m.,  and  its  pop.  2.942.500. 


Hanover. 


The  new  Town  Hall,  built 
Top,  left,  view  oi  old 


Hanover. 


Map   oi    the   Prussian   province,  which,   until   1866,   was  an 
independent  kingdom 


1903-11,  overlooking  the  Masch  Park, 
houses  on  the  Leine 

which  Caleiiberg  is  the  most  in- 
teresting. In  the  old  town  are  the 
market  church,  dating  from  the 
14th  century  and  restored  in  the 
19th,  and  the  old  town  hall,  of 
somewhat  later  date. 

The  new  town  has  a  fine  church, 
and  there  are  several  large  squares 
adorned  with  statues  and  monu 
ments.  Modern  buildings  include 
the  new  town  hall,  the  royal  and 
other  theatres,  the  new  provincial, 
old  provincial,  archaeological, Kest- 
ner,  and  other  museums  ;  also  the 
art  gallery  (Kunstlerhaus).  The 
royal  library  contains  a  fine 
collection. 

The  palace,  built  in  1635-40,  is 
a  reminder  of  the  time  when  Han- 
over had  its  own  sovereigns.  Just 
before  the  end  a  more  magnificent 
residence  was  erected  for  them  ; 
known  as  the  Guelph  Palace,  this 
now  houses  the  technical  high 
school.  Some  extensive  woods 
around  the  town  have  been  made 
into  a  public  park.  Hanover  is  a 
railway  junction  and  has  a  large 
number  of  manufactures,  including 
machinery,  hardware,  cloth,  chem- 
icals, linen,  and  rubber  goods. 

Hanover  is  first  mentioned  in 
the  13th  century.  It  was  on  the 
lands  of  the  family  of  Welf,  but  its 
importance  began  in  the  16th 
,  century,  when  one  of  the  branches 
of  the  family  made  it  the  chief  of 
one  of  the  little  Brunswick  duchies. 
Later  it  became  the  capital  of  the 
electorate.  Pop.  302,500. 


HANOVER  SQUARE 


3828 


HANSOM 


Hanover  Square.  London 
square.  It  lies  between  the  junc- 
tion of  New  Bond  Street  and  Re- 
gent Street  with  Oxford  Street. 
Laid  out  in  1718,  and  named  in 
honour  of  George  I,  its  notable 
residents  have  included  the  hook- 


Hanover  Square.  S.  George's  Church, 
built  1713-24,  where  many  fashion  - 
able  weddings  have  been  solemnised 

collecting  duke  of  Roxburgh,  at 
Harewood  House,  built  for  him  by 
the  brothers  Adam  ;  General  Lord 
Cadogan ;  the  earl  of  Harewood, 
whose  residence  became  the  home 
of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  ; 
Lord  High  Chancellor  Cowper ; 
Lord  Palmerston,  father  of  the 
prime  minister  ;  Augusta,  duchess 
of  Brunswick ;  Mrs.  Jordan  the 
actress  ;  Talleyrand  ;  Lords  Anson 
and  Rodney  ;  and  Thomas  Camp- 
bell as  guest  of  the  2nd  earl  of  Minto. 

Largely  rebuilt,  the  square  is  now 
occupied  by  learned  societies  and 
business  establishments.  The 
Oriental  Club,  founded  in  1824,  is 
at  No.  18.  The  once  famous  Han- 
over Rooms  and  the  Hanover 
Square  Club  are  no  more.  On  the 
E.  side  is  a  statue  of  William  Pitt 
by  Chantrey,  set  up  in  1831  ;  and 
in  George  Street  is  the  church  of 
S.  George's,  Hanover  Square,  built 
1713-24,  which  once  had  almost  a 
monopoly  of  society  weddings. 

Hanriot.  French  aeroplane, 
named  after  its  builder.  A  Hanriot 
biplane  was  among  the  most  suc- 
cessful of  the  French  aeroplanes  of 
the  latter  period  of  the  Great  War. 

Hansard.  Official  record  of 
parliamentary  proceedings.  It  was 
named  after  Luke  Hansard  (1752- 
1828),  a  Norwich  compositor,  who, 
as  printer  to  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, after  1803  continued  Cob- 
bett's  Parliamentary  History  under 
the  title  of  Hansard's,  Parliament- 
ary Debates.  These  reports,  issued 
by  himself  and  his  family  down  to 


1889,  were  at  first  taken  from  the 
newspapers  and  revised  by  mem- 
bers. Following  actions  for  libel  by 
a  bookseller  named  Stockdale,  the 
reports  were  protected  by  the 
privileges  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons in  1840,  but  not  till  1857  did 
the  Treasury  subsidise  them. 

In  1889  Hansard  became  a  pub- 
lic company,  and  when  this  was 
wound  up  the  work  was  done  by 
contract,  the  reports  from  1895  to 
1908  being  supplied  by  The  Times 
staff.  Then  the  State  took  control, 
and  the  Debates  were  reported  by 
a  government  staff,  of  which  Mr., 
afterwards  Sir,  James  Dods  Shaw 
(d.  1916)  was  first  editor,  with  an 
assistant  editor,  twelve  reporters, 
and  five  typists.  The  Speaker,  as- 
sisted by  the  Debates  Publication 
Committee,  is  the  final  authority 
in  the  event  of  complaints  as  to 
the  reporting. 

Hanseatic  League  OR  HANSA. 
Association  for  commercial  pur- 
poses of  the  commercial  towns  of 
N.  Germany  in  the  later  Middle 
Ages.  When  not  only  every  coun- 
try but  every  town  regarded  the 
presence  of  foreign  traders  as  a 
necessary  evil  and  the  traders  them- 
selves as  persons  to  whom  no  facili- 
ties should  be  conceded,  no  one 
could  trade  abroad  without  having 
at  his  back  an  association  of  which 
he  was  a  member.  Each  trading 
town  became  a  trading  Associa- 
tion. While  they  retained  their 
mutual  jealousies,  they  gradually 
realized  the  advantages  of  combina- 
tion for  the  purposes  of  trading  in 
foreign  lands,  exacting  concessions, 
and  acting  in  concert  against 
piracy.  Such  loose  leagues  were 
formed  by  the  towns  engaged  in 
the  Baltic  trade  and  those  engaged 
in  the  North  Sea  trade,  there  being 
several  of  them  in  the  early  part 
of  the  13th  century. 

The  first  Hansa  or  Association 
which  obtained  concessions  in  Eng- 
land was  that  of  the  Merchants  of 
Cologne,  who  gradually  admitted 
the  Hansas  of  other  towns.  In 
1282  the  German  Hansa,  which  in- 
cluded Cologne,  Hamburg,  and 
Liibeck,  was  permanently  estab- 
lished ;  this  prepared  the  way 
for  a  more  general  combination 
into  the  Hanseatic  League  of  the 
North  German  commercial  towns. 
The  league  became  so  powerful 
that  it  was  able  to  dominate  the 
foreign  trade  of  Norway,  Sweden. 
Denmark,  and  even  to  some  ex- 
tent of  London.  The  English  com- 
mercial history  of  the  14th  and 
15th  centuries  is  largely  that  of  the 
•efforts  of  the  English  Associations, 
the  Merchants  of  the  Staple,  and 
the  Merchant  Adventurers,  to 
restrict  the  privileges  of  the  Hansa 
in  England  and  to  extort  corre- 


spending privileges  for  themselves 
from  the  Hanseatic  towns  in  Ger- 
many, and  as  rivals  of  the  Hansa  in 
other  countries.  Wisby,  on  Goth- 
land, was  one  of  its  great  centres. 

The  League  even  acquired  a  politi- 
cal domination  in  the  Baltic ;  but  at 
.the  end  of  the  15th  century  its 
power  was  waning  ;  by  the  middle 
of  the  16th  century  it  had  lost  all 
its  privileges  in  England  ;  geo 
graphical  discoveries  and  mari- 
time developments  had  provided 
new  pathways  for  commerce,  and 
by  the  opening  of  the  17th  century 
the  league  had  ceased  to  be  of 
great  account.  Its  doom  was  finally 
sealed  by  the  disintegration  of  Ger- 
many wrought  by  the  Thirty 
Years'  War.  See  Bremen  ;  Ger- 
many ;  Guild  ;  Hamburg ;  Liibeck. 
Hansen,  PETER  ANDREAS  (1795- 
1874).  Danish  astronomer.  Born 
in  Slesvig,  Dec.  8,  1795,  he  became 
director  of  the  Seeberg  observatory 
near  Gotha.  Having  turned  his 
attention  to  lunar  observation,  his 
Tables  de  la  Lune,  1857,  were  pub- 
lished by  the  British  Government, 
who  awarded  the  author  £1,000. 
Foreign  member  of  the  Royal 
Society,  and  holder  of  the  Copley 
medal,  1850  in  1842  and  1860  he 
received  the  gold  medal  of  the 
Royal  Astronomical  Society.  He 
died  at  Gotha,  March  28,  1874. 
One  of  the  most  profound  mathe- 
matical astronomers,  his  work  has 
long  formed  the  basis  of  many  of 
the  calculations  employed  in  the 
preparations  of  The  Nautical 
Almanac  and  similar  works. 

Hansi.  Subdivision  and  town 
of  the  Punjab,  India,  in  Hissar 
District.  Area,  803  sq.  m.  Hansi 
town,  one  of  the  oldest  places  in  N. 
India,  contains  cotton  ginning  and 
pressing  factories.  Pop.  subdivision, 
167,963,  |  Hindus,  \  Mahomedans; 
town,  14,576,  equally  Hindus  and 
Mahomedans. 

Hansom.  Name  given  to  a  cab, 
an  improved  form  of  the  cabriolet. 
It  was  invented  by  J.  A.  Hansom, 
a        Yorkshire 
architect,    who 
in   1834    regis- 
t  e  r  e  d     his 
"  patent,  safe- 
ty cab,"  which 
was  eventually 
named    after 
him.     Its  chief 
feature  was  an 
J.  A.  Hansom,         arrangement 
Inventor  ot  the  cab     for   pr|venting 

its  tipping  forward  if  the  horse  fell, 
or  backward,  if  over-balanced.  It 
had  two  enormous  wheels,with  sunk 
axle-trees,  and  a  seat  for  the  driver 
at  the  side.  Subsequent  improve- 
ments reduced  the  size  of  the 
wheels,  fixed  the  dickey  at  the 
back,  and  provided  a  pair  of  double 


HANSWURST 


HAPSBURG 


doors  in  front,  with  eliding 
folding  panels,  lowered  from  the 
roof  by  the  driver ;  the  hansom 
could  thus  be  used  open,  half,  or 
totally  closed.  JSee  Cab  ;  Taxicab. 
Hanswurst.  Name  of  the  buf- 
foon, the  traditional  clumsy, 
clownish  fellow  of  the  old  German 
stage  ;  equivalent  to  the  English 
Jack  Pudding.  The  sausages  fami- 
liarly associated  with  the  clown  in 
the  modern  harlequinade  may 
have  their  origin  in  Hanswurst, 
which  means  literally  Jack  Sausage. 
Hanuman.  Monkey  god  in 
Hindu  tradition,  worshipped  as  the 
type  of  a  faithful  servant.  In  the 
Ramayana  (q.v.)  he  is  described  as 
helping  Rama  to  rescue  his  wife 
Sita  from  Ceylon,  whither  she  had 
been  carried.  Hanuman  discovered 
her,  and  with  his  monkey  forces 
helped  to  build  the  bridge  by  which 
Rama  and  his  army  crossed  from 
the  mainland  to  Ceylon. 

Hanway,  JONAS  (1712-86).  Eng- 
lish traveller  and  philanthropist. 
Born  at  Portsmouth,  Aug.  12, 1712, 
he  was  first  in 
business  at 
Lisbon  and 
then  at  St. 
Petersburg, 
which  latter 
city  he  left,  in 
Sept.  1743,  to 
sell  woollen 
goods  in  Per- 
Jonas  Hanway,  sia,  returning, 
English  traveller  after  many  ad- 
ventures, Jan.  1,  1745.  In  1750  he 
returned  to  England  and  published 
an  account  of  his  travels  in  1753. 
From  1762-83  he  was  a  commis- 
sioner of  the  victualling  office.  He 
founded  the  Magdalen  Hospital  for 
women,  and  was  the  first  man  to 
use  an  umbrella  in  London.  His 
violent  attack 
on  the  habit 
of  tea-drink- 
ing was  an- 
swered by  Dr. 
Johnson.  He 
died  Sept.  5, 
1786.  Hanway 
Street,  Lon- 
don, is  named 
after  him. 

Hanwell. 
Urban  district 
of  Middlesex. 
It  has  a  sta- 
tion on  the 
G.W.  RIy.,  be- 
ing 7  m.  from 
the  terminus 
at  Padding  - 
t  o  n,  while 
tramcars  also 
Bush, 


Hanway  and  bis 
umbrella 

After  an  old  prim 

run  to  Shepherd's 
Hammersmith,  and  else- 
where. The  urban  council  provides 
a  recreation  ground  and  a  public 
library.  Water  is  supplied  by  the 


Metropolitan  water  board,  and 
gas  and  electricity  by  companies. 
Here  is  the  large  lunatic  asylum  of 
the  London  County  Council,  and 
cemeteries  for  Kensington  and  S. 
George's,  Hanover  Square.  The 
chief  church  is  S.  Mary's.  The 
Brent  flows  by  here  on  its  way  to 
the  Thames,  and  there  is  a  canal. 
Hanwell  includes  the  newer  district 
of  Elthorne.  Pop.  19,200. 

Han  worth.  Parish  and  village 
of  Middlesex,  England.  Situated 
N.  of  Kempton  Park  (q.v.),  1J  m. 
N.E.  of  Sunbury  and  1J  m.  S.  of 
Feltham  stations  on  the  L.  & 
S.W.R.,  it  is  on  the  King's  or  Car- 
dinal's river,  which  was  made  by 
Wolsey  for  the  supply  of  Hampton 
Court.  The  manor,  owned  in  the 
13th  century  by  the  Hamdens,  was 
given  by  Henry  VIII,  who  had  a 
hunting  lodge  here,  to  Catherine 
Parr.  Its  later  owners  included 
Anne,  duchess  of  Somerset,  William 
Killigrew,  Bradshaw  the  regicide, 
the  Cottingtons,  and  the  5th  duke 
of  St.  Albans,  who  cut  down  the 
trees  in  the  park,  which  was  once 
part  of  Hounslow  Heath.  Han- 
worth  House  was  destroyed  by  fire, 
1797,  and  replaced  by  a  mansion  £ 
m.  N.E.  of  the  old  house.  The 
Early  English  church  of  S.  George 
replaced  an  earlier  one.  Pop.  2,200. 

Hanyang.  City  of  China,  in  Hu- 
peh  prov.  It  stands  at  the  junction 
of  the  Han  river  with  the  Yangtze. 
It  is  a  large  industrial  centre:  with 
an  arsenal  and  other  engineering 
works,  but  it  suffered  during  the 
revolution  of  1911,  being  almost 
completely  destroyed  by  the  con- 
tending factions.  Hanyang  is  the 
oldest  of  the  Three  Cities  (q.v.). 
Pop.  100,000. 

Haparanda.  Town  of  Sweden, 
in  the  Ian  or  govt.  of  Norrbotten. 
It  stands  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of 
Bothnia,  on  the  W.  arm  of  the 
river  Tornea,  and  is  connected  by  a 
bridge  with  the  town  of  Tornea,  in 
Finland.  It  has  shipbuilding  yards 
and  is  an  important  meteorological 
station.  Its  sea-harbour  is  Salmis, 
7  m.  W.  The  Russo-Swedish  Rly. 
runs  through  the  town,  which  be- 
came an  important  centre  of 
traffic  to  Russia  during  the  Great 
War,  owing  to  the  Germans  having 
mined  the  Baltic  Sea.  Pop.  1,442. 

Hapsburg  OR  HABSBUEG.  Name 
of  the  family  that  ruled  over  the 
empire  of  Austria-Hungary  until 
1918.  Members  of  the  family  were 
German  kings  and  Holy  Roman 
emperors  from  1438  to  1806,  and 
kings  of  Spain  from  1516  to  1700. 

The  name  Hapsburg  or  Hab- 
ichtsburg,  meaning  hawk's  castle, 
was  taken  in  the  llth  century  from 
the  family  seat,  a  castle  near  the 
junction  of  the  Aar  with  the  Rhine. 
Counts  and  afterwards  landgraves 


in  Alsace,  one  of  them,  Rudolph, 
made  himself  very  useful  to  the 
emperor  Frederick  II. 

Founders  of  the  Family 

The  first  great  Hapsburg'  was 
another  Rudolph,  who,  in  1273, 
was  chosen  German  king.  Wresting 
Austria  and  Styria  from  the  king  of 
Bohemia  and  giving  them  to  his 
own  sons,  he  began  the  family's 
long  connexion  with  Austria.  Ru- 
dolph's son  Albert  became  German 
king,  although  not  immediately  on 
his  father's  death,  and  for  a  short 
time  his  son,  another  Rudolph,  was 
king  of  Bohemia.  In  1314  another 
Hapsburg  was  chosen  German  king, 
but  in  1322  he  was  dispossessed, 
and  for  about  a  century  the  family 
was  perforce  content  with  ruling 
Austria  and  its  attendant  duchies. 

The  usual  frequent  subdivision  ot 
their  lands  between  the  various 
members  of  the  family  occurred, 
but  for  one  reason  or  another  these 
partitions  did  not  prove  perma- 
nent, a  fact  which  contributed  to 
the  rise  of  the  house.  In  1437 
Albert  of  Hapsburg,  who  had  mar- 
ried a  daughter  of  the  emperor 
Sigismund,  inherited  his  father-in- 
law's  kingdoms  of  Hungary  and 
Bohemia.  In  1438  he  was  chosen 
German  king  and  thus  became  em- 
peror. The  two  kingdoms  were  lost 
to  the  family  when  Albert's  son 
Ladislaus  died  without  sons  in 
1457,  but  Frederick,  another  mem- 
ber of  the  family,  had  already  se- 
cured the  German  throne. 
The  Two  Branches 

Frederick  was  the  strange  mon- 
arch who  dreamed  of  the  future 
greatness  of  the  Hapsburgs,  but  it 
was  his  son,  Maximilian  I,  who  trans- 
lated these  dreams  into  realities. 
He  himself  married  Mary,  daughter 
of  Charles  the  Bold,  duke  of  Bur- 
gundy, and  his  son  Philip  married 
the  heiress  of  Castile  and  Aragon. 
In  this  way  his  grandson,  Charles 
V,  the  greatest  of  the  Hapsburgs, 
received  a  vast  inheritance.  His 
brother  Ferdinand,  by  a  marriage, 
secured  the  kingdoms  of  Hungary 
and  Bohemia  for  the  Hapsburgs. 
this  time  permanently  until  1918. 
Henceforward  there  were  two 
main  branches  of  the  Hapsburgs, 
the  Austrian  and  the  Spanish. 

Meantime  Charles  V  had  been 
succeeded  as  emperor  by  his 
brother  Ferdinand,  whose  line  was 
more  fortunate.  One  after  another 
succeeded  to  the  empire,  elective 
now  only  in  theory,  and  to  the 
hereditary  Austrian  lands.  Their 
hold  on  Bohemia  was  shaken  by 
the  Thirty  Years'  War  and  on 
Hungary  by  the  advances  of  the 
Turks,  but  both  dangers  were  re- 
pelled. Maximilian  II  succeeded 
Ferdinand,  and  after  the  brothers 
Rudolph  and  Matthias  came 


HAPUR 


383O 


HARBOUR 


m 


Us1 


Hara-kiri.     Scene  at  the  condemnation  of  a  samurai  to  the  suicide  made 
obligatory  by  Japanese  feudal  custom 

After  a  drawing  from  a  Japanese  print 


Ferdinand  111  and  Leopold  1. 
With  the  death  of  Charles  VI, 
however,  the  male  line  of  the 
Hapsburgs  came  to  an  end  in  1740. 
The  existing  Hapsburgs  are  de- 
scended from  Maria  Theresa,  the 
daughter  of  Charles  VII,  and  her 
husband  Francis  of  Lorraine  — 
hence  the  family  is  sometimes 
known  as  Hapsburg-Lorraine.  Two 
of  their  sons,  Joseph  II  and 
Leopold  II,  succeeded  to  the 
imperial  throne.  A  grandson, 
Francis  II,  was  the  last  Holy 
Roman  Emperor  and  the  first  to 
call  himself  emperor  of  Austria, 
while  a  succession  of  younger 
members  of  the  family  ruled  over 
Tuscany,  which  Francis  of  Lor- 
raine had  brought  to  the  common 
stock.  About  this  time  the  family 
increased  rapidly  in  numbers,  and 
in  the  19th  century  there  was  a 
bewildering  number  of  archdukes. 
In  1859  the  Hapsburgs  lost 
Tuscany,  but  in  Austria-Hungary 
Francis  Joseph,  in  spite  of  several 
humiliations,  was  still  emperor  and 
king  when  he  died  hi  1916.  His 
grand-nephew  Charles,  however, 
lost  all  in  1918,  and  the  various 
Hapsburgs  became  private  person- 
ages. See  Austria  ;  Bohemia  ; 
Empire,  Holy  Roman  ;  Europe  ; 
Hungary  ;  consult  also  The  Whirl- 
pool of  Europe  ;  Austria-Hungary 
s,  A.  R.  and  E. 


and  The  Ha 
Colquhoun,  1906  ;  and  The  Cradle 
of  the  Hapsburgs,  J.  Gilbart- 
Smith,  1907  ;  The  Hapsburg  Mon- 
archy, H.  W.  Stead,  2nd  ed.  1914. 
Hapur.  Subdivision  and  town 
of  the  United  Provinces,  India,  in 
Meerut  district.  The  cultivated 
area  is  large.  Hapur  town  is  a  local 
trade  centre.  Area,410sq.m.  Pop., 
subdivision,  251,668,  f  Hindus, 
\  Mahomedans;  town,  19,142,  f 
Hindus.  ?  Mahomedans. 


Hara-kiri  (Jap.,  belly-cut). 
Suicide  by  disembowelment  in 
Japan.  The  custom  originated  as 
a  means  of  honourable  death 
among  the  medieval  feudal  nobles, 
and  in  the  14th  century  obligatory 
hara-kiri  was  recognized  by  the 
mikado  as  the  privileged  form  of 
execution  for  a  samurai  convicted 
of  disloyalty  or  breaking  the  law. 

The  ceremony  consists  in  ripping 
up  the  stomach  from  left  to  right. 
Obligatory  hara-kiri  was  abolished 
in  1868,  but  the  voluntary  iorm — 
committed  from  loyalty  to  a  dead 
superior  or  as  a  protest  against  a 


living  one,  or  out  of  desperation — 
survived.  A  notable  modern 
instance  is  that  of  General  Nogi 
and  his  wife,  through  grief  at  their 
emperor's  death.  In  the  case  of 
women  the  throat  was  cut.  Among 
the  Karens  of  Burma  honourable 
suicide  is  committed  by  strangu- 
lation. Seppuku,  the  Japanese 
pronunciation  of  the  Chinese 
synonym  chi'eh  fuh,  is  regarded  as 
the  more  elegant  term  for  this 
method  of  "  happy  dispatch." 

Harbin  OR  KHAEBIN.  Town  of 
Manchuria,  China,  in  the  prov.  of 
Kirin.  It  stands  on  the  Sungari 
river,  325  m.  N.E.  of  Mukden. 
Here  the  Trans-Siberian,  or  that 
section  known  as  the  Chinese 
Eastern  Rly.,  branches  S.  to 
Mukden  and  thence  to  Peking,  to 
Dairen  and  Korea,  while  the  main 
line  continues  to  Vladivostok. 
Harbin  was  opened  to  foreign 
trade  in  1909.  The  international 
settlement  is  administered  by  a  mu- 
nicipal council.  Harbin  promises 
to  become  the  centre  of  Eastern 
Siberian  trade.  The  Japanese 
intend  to  link  it  up  with  the  coast 
town  of  Possiet.  Pop.  28,600. 

Har borne.  Suburb  of  Birming- 
ham. It  is  to  the  S.W.  of  the  city 
proper,  beyond  Edgbaston.  It  is 
served  by  the  L.  &  N.W.  Rly.,  and 
also  by  motor  omnibuses.  There 
are  a  number  of  industries  here, 
but  it  is  mainly  a  residential  area, 
the  houses  and  roads  having  been 
laid  out  in  a  spacious  manner.  See 
Birmingham. 


HARBOURS:     NATURAL   AND   ARTIFICIAL 

P.  J.  Risdon,  Consulting  Engineer 

This  article  describes  generally  the  varieties  of  harbours  and  the  way 
in  which  they  are  constructed  and  protected.  See  the  articles  on  the 
great  ports  of  the  world:  Hamburg;  Liverpool;  London;  Ports- 
mouth; Rio  de  Janeiro;  New  York,  etc.;  also  Concrete;  Engineer- 
ing. See  also  River ;  Tides 


A  harbour  is  a  water  area  par- 
tially enclosed  and  so  protected  from 
storms  as  to  provide  safe  accommo- 
dation for  shipping.  Other  essential 
features  of  a  good  harbour  are  a 
sufficient  area  and  depth  of  water 
for  the  number  and  size  of  the 
vessels  to  be  accommodated,  and 
safe  and  easy  access  to  and  from 
the  open  sea  in  any  weather. 
Harbours  may  be  classed  (a)  as 
natural  or  artificial  harbours,  or 
(6)  as  harbours  of  refuge  or  com- 
mercial harbours. 

A  natural  harbour  is  an  inlet 
or  arm  of  the  sea  protected  from 
storms  by  the  natural  configura- 
tion of  the  coast,  and  with  an 
entrance  so  formed  and  located 
as  to  facilitate  navigation  whilst 
ensuring  comparative  tranquillity 
within.  Notable  instances  of  na- 
tural harbours  are  Milford  Haven, 
a  well -sheltered  creek  about  10  m. 


long,  with  excellent  access  and  a 
minimum  depth  of  water  of  48  ft. ; 
and  Rio  de  Janeiro,  which  possesses 
one  of  the  finest  natural  harbours  in 
the  world.  The  mouths  of  the 
Thames,  Mersey,  Humber,  Firth  of 
Forth,  Potomac,  and  St.  Lawrence 
may  be  said  to  constitute  natural 
harbours,  although  protection  is 
not  always  so  complete  as  in 
harbours  with  narrow  entrances, 
while  bars  and  sandbanks  some- 
times form  obstructions,  rendering 
constant  dredging  necessary. 

An  artificial  harbour  is  one 
which  is  protected  from  the  effect 
of  sea  waves  by  means  of  break- 
waters. Early  instances  of  arti- 
ficial harbours  are  those  of  Tyre 
and  Sidon  and  Carthage.'  The 
selection  of  site  is  influenced  by  (1 ) 
the  range  of  tide  and  depth  of  water; 
(2)  the  nature  of  the  approach, 
which  should  be  of  sufficient  width 


HARBOUR 


HARBOUR 


haroour.      Perspective  plan  showing  arrangement  oi  Dover  Harbour  as  it  was  oeiore  tne  ureat  War.     Ine  larger  Oasin 
is  the  Admiralty  harbour,  completed  in  1909  ;  on  the  left  is  the  Commercial  harbour,  leading  to  the  tidal  basin  and  docks 


and  depth,  and  face  in  the  right 
direction  in  regard  to  tidal  currents 
and  prevailing  storms  to  permit  of 
the  safe  navigation  of  ships  enter- 
ing the  harbour  in  the  worst 
weather ;  (3)  local  conditions, 
which  must  allow  of  the  construc- 
tion of  the  necessary  breakwaters. 

In  practice  the  necessity  for  a 
harbour  in  a  given  locality  usually 
overrides  other  considerations,  but 
localities  where  progressive  silting 
occurs  should  be  avoided.  Full 
knowledge  of  all  such  local  condi- 
tions as  tidal  range  and  currents, 
prevailing  winds  and  waves,  coast 
erosion  and  silting,  and  the  effect 
of  artificial  obstructions  is  essen- 
tial in  order  to  avoid  unsatisfac- 
tory results,  e.g.  the  construction 
of  breakwaters  without  due  regard 
to  currents  may  cause  silting  on 
an  extensive  scale.  The  position 
and  width  of  opening  are  also  im- 
portant :  the  position  is  deter- 
mined by  the  direction  of  prevail- 
ing storms  ;  the  width  is  made  as 
narrow  as  possible  to  prevent  the 
entry  of  heavy  seas,  but  must  be 
sufficient  for  the  safe  passage  of 
vessels  during  the  heaviest  gales. 
Again,  it  must  be  proportioned  to 
the  width  of  the  harbour  itself,  so 
that  waves  entering  the  enclosed 
space  may  have  ample  room  in 
which  to  expand. 

Sometimes  an  outer  breakwater 
is  constructed  upon  which  the 
main  force  of  the  waves  is  ex- 
pended. This  forms  an  outer 
silting  basin,  which  may  also 


serve  as  a  refuge,  while  the  basin 
within  the  inner  breakwaters  or 
moles  constitutes  a  commercial 
harbour.  In  such  cases  the  dis- 
tance between  the  openings  in  the 
outer  and  inner  breakwaters  should 
be  sufficient  to  allow  sailing  ships, 
running  before  the  wind,  to 
shorten  sail  after  passing  the  outer 
breakwater  and  make  the  inner 
entrance  in  safety. 

Harbours  of  Refuge 

A  harbour  of  refuge  may  be 
either  natural  or  artificial,  and 
may  be  used  solely  as  a  refuge  for 
ships  in  a  storm,  or  may  also  con- 
stitute a  commercial  harbour. 
The  essential  features  are  good 
anchorage  and  safe  and  easy 
access  from  the  sea  at  any  state  of 
the  tide  and  in  any  weather.  The 
best  known  harbours  of  refuge 
are  the  one  at  Sandy  Bay,  near  Cape 
Ann,  on  the  coast  of  Massa- 
chusetts, and  that  at  the  mouth  of 
Delaware  Bay,  U.S.A.  The  break- 
water of  the  former  is  over  9,000  ft. 
long,  72  ft.  in  height,  and  205  ft.wide 
at  the  base.  Both  are  rubble  mound 
constructions  capped  with  stone. 

A  commercial  harbour  may  be 
either  a  natural  or  artificial  har- 
bour within  which  docks,  quays, 
wharves,  and  piers  are  constructed 
and  equipped  with  the  necessary 
appliances  for  the  loading  and  dis- 
charge of  cargoes.  Sometimes  the 
inner  side  of  a  breakwater  is  con- 
structed as  a  quay  or  wharf  along- 
side which  ships  may  berth.  Dry 
docks  are  also  sometimes  pro- 


vided. Owing  to  the  presence  of  a 
bar  or  sandbanks,  or  the  difficulty 
of  maintaining  a  sufficient  depth 
of  water  in  the  approach  channel 
at  low  tide,  or  to  other  local  con- 
ditions, many  harbours  can  only 
be  entered  and  left  at  high  tide. 

In  the  early  period  of  commer- 
cial enterprise,  sites  for  harbours 
were  frequently  selected  which 
afforded  natural  shelter,  and  were 
readily  accessible  to  the  small 
ships  then  in  use.  Small  rivers  and 
creeks  fulfilled  the  requirements 
of  those  days,  and  led  to  the 
establishment  of  ports  inadequate 
for  the  accommodation  of  the 
bigger  vessels  built  later.  The 
channel  was  maintained  by.  the 
discharge  of  land  water  or  tidal 
flow,  and  to  deepen  it  for  the  pas- 
sage of  ships  of  greater  draught, 
training  jetties  were  in  many  in- 
stances constructed  along  each 
bank,  projecting  seawards  beyond 
the  original  entrance,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  concentrating  the  flow  of 
water  and  scouring  the  channel. 

Whilst  this  purpose  was  served, 
these  projecting  jetties*,  often 
acted  as  groynes  on  the  fore- 
shore, checking  the  travel  of 
shingle  and  sand,  and  eventually 
causing  a  reduction  in  depth  ot 
the  channel  at  the  outer  end  by 
the  formation  of  a  bar.  This  led 
to  the  periodical  extension  of  the 
jetties  seawards  until  a  great  length 
was  sometimes  attained,  as  in  the 
case  of  Dunkirk.  This  method  of 
improvement  can,  therefore,  only 


HARBOUR 

be  regarded  as  a  temporary  mea- 
sure, since  in  its  execution  the 
engineer  combats  a  persistent  force 
of  nature,  which  in  the  end  gener- 
ally prevails. 

An  alternative  method  is  to 
make  use  of  river  or  other  land 
water  for  scouring  the  channels, 
or  where  this  is  not  available  in 
sufficient  quantity,  to  construct 
sluicing  basins,  i.e.  reservoirs  with 
sluice  gates,  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
channel,  in  which  sea  water  is 
impounded  at  high  or  spring  tide. 
At  low  tide  the  sluices  are  opened 
and  a  volume  of  water  sweeping 
down  the  channel  scours  out  the 
silted  material.  The  jetties  are 
sometimes  made  to  converge  to- 
wards the  outlet  so  as  to  concen- 
trate the  scouring  effect  at  the 
entrance  where  a  bar  tends  to 
form.  This  method  has  been 
greatly  favoured  at  Belgian  and 
French  ports,  and  in  many  other 
localities  where  silting  occurs  on  an 
extensive  scale.  In  some  cases, 
where  waves  of  considerable  force 
enter  a  jetty  channel,  the  channel 
is  widened  for  a  short  distance,  the 
jetty  is  made  of  open  construction 
for  a  portion  of  its  length,  and  a 
basin  Avith  a  shelving  beach  is 
constructed.  By  this  means  the 
waves  passing  up  the  channel  find 
an  outlet,  and,  expanding  into  the 
basin,  spend  their  force  upon  the 
beach.  Such  an  arrangement  is 
known  as  a  wave  breaker. 
Semi-natural  Harbours 

Next  to  a  purely  natural  har- 
bour, an  inlet  or  creek  sheltered 
on  two  sides  by  headlands,  and  only 
requiring  artificial  protection  at 
the  entrance,  forms  the  most 
desirable  harbour  site,  other  con- 
ditions being  equal.  At  Plymouth 
and  Cherbourg,  for  example,  this 
natural  advantage  exists,  the  en- 
trances being  protected  by  de- 
tached breakwaters.  Such  condi- 
tions are  only  to  be  expected  on 
more  or  less  rocky  coasts. 

Varieties  of  the  principal  types 
of  harbour  are  numerous,  depend- 
ing upon  local  requirements  and 
conditions  as  well  as  upon  financial 
considerations  and  limitations.  A 
portion  of  a  large  bay  may  be 
converted  into  a  harbour  by  a  de- 
tached breakwater  more  or  less 
parallel  with  the  coast  and  one  or 
two  mole  breakwaters  projecting 
from  the  shore,  or  a  harbour  may 
be  formed  by  two  mole  break- 
waters with  outer  ends  converging 
or  by  a  single  mole  breakwater. 

A  fine  example  of  a  combined 
harbour  of  refuge  and  commercial 
harbour,  the  second  largest  purely 
artificial  harbour  in  the  world, 
exists  at  Dover,  (ft  which  the 
leading  features  are  as  follows : 
Low  water  area  of  Admiralty 


3832 

(refuge)  basin,  610  acres  ;  commer- 
cial basin,  80  acres  ;  length  of  Ad- 
miralty mole  breakwater,  4,000  ft. ; 
E.  mole  breakwater,  2,942  ft.  ;  S. 
(detached)  breakwater,  4,212  ft,  ; 
total  length  of  breakwater,  2'1  m., 
of  which  about  1  75  m.  measures 
100  ft.  high  from  foundation  to 
the  top  of  the  parapets  and  60  ft. 
across  the  base,  and  consists  of  solid 
concrete  and  granite. 

The  inner  faces  of  the  east  arm 
and  Admiralty  mole  extension  are 
tendered,  and,  in  addition  to  the 
Prince  of  Wales's  pier,  2,910  ft.  long, 
dividing  the  Admiralty  and  com- 
mercial basins,  provide  berthing 
accommodation  for  shipping.  The 
deck  level  of  all  the  breakwaters  is 
10  ft.  above  high  (spring)  tide,  the 
E.  arm  and  Admiralty  mole  ex- 
tention  being  provided  with  ad- 
ditional high  sheltering  parapets. 
There  are  two  entrances,  one  fac- 
ing E.  and  the  other  S.,  the  width 
being  650  ft.  and  740  ft.  respec- 
tively, and  the  depth  40  ft.  at  low 
tide.  The  tidal  range  is  18  ft.  9  in., 
and  very  strong  currents  occur  on 
this  part  of  the  coast,  and  it  is 
estimated  that  with  every  tide 
17,000,000  tons  of  water  enter 
and  leave  the  harbour,  of  which 
half  enters  or  leaves  in  two  hours. 

These  facts  influenced  the  deci- 
sion to  provide  two  entrances. 
The  extension  works,  complete  in 
1909,  occupied  twelve  years  to 
construct,  cost  £4,000,000,  and 
comprised  1,300,000  cubic  yds.  of 
concrete  and  1,900,000  cubic  ft. 
of  granite.  Concrete  blocks,  weigh- 
ing from  26  to  40  tons  each,  were 
employed  in  the  construction  of 
the  breakwaters. 

Buenos  Aires  Harbour 

An  interesting  type  of  a  com- 
mercial harbour  is  exemplified  in 
the  port  extension  works  at  Buenos 
Aires.  The  scheme  embraces  four 
parallel  tidal  basins  from  385  to  643 
yds.  long  by  154  yds.  wide,  formed 
by  intervening  and  end  moles  of 
the  same  lengths,  the  whole  being 
protected  by  a  detached  break- 
water of  the  rubble  mound  type, 
If  m.  long,  beginning  near  the 
existing  dock  approach  channel 
and  spaced  at  a  distance  of  275 
yds.  from  the  outer  ends  of  the 
moles.  Within  the  line  of  the 
breakwater  gantry  stagings  were 
built  out  from  the  shore  by  means 
of  which  temporary  dams  were 
formed,  enclosing  the  whole  area  of 
uhe  new  port  works.  Water  was  then 
pumped  out  of  the  enclosed  space, 
and  the  construction  of  the  moles 
and  basins  commenced  in  the  dry. 

The  moles  vary  from  137  yds.  to 
222  yds.  in  width,  and  consist  of 
retaining  walls  with  earth  filling. 
A  depth  of  33  ft.  at  low  water  is 
provided  for.  The  temporary  dams 


HARBOUR 

are  arranged  in  sections,  so  that 
as  each  basin  with  its  correspond- 
ing moles  is  completed,  it  may  be 
opened  to  traffic  by  admitting 
the  water  and  removing  a  section 
without  interfering  with  the  re- 
mainder of  the  work. 

A  harbour  may  be  provided 
with  one  or  more  entrances ;  at 
Plymouth  and  Cherbourg  the  de- 
tached breakwaters  at  the  en- 
trances permit  of  vessels  entering 
at  either  end.  In  purely  artificial 
harbours  there  is  usually  only  one 
entrance,  as  the  admission  of  waves 
through  two  openings  is  liable  to 
reduce  tranquillity  of  the  water 
within,  unless  an  outer  breakwater 
and  stilling  basin  are  provided. 
On  the  other  hand,  two  entrances 
allow  ships  the  benefit  of  selection 
according  to  the  direction  of  a 
storm,  and  are  sometimes  an  ad- 
vantage where  littoral  currents 
prevail.  The  width  varies  greatly 
according  to  local  circumstances, 
ranging  from  100  ft.  to  several 
thousand  ft.  ;  thus,  where  the  en- 
trance faces  a  comparatively  shel- 
tered position,  it  may  be  as  wide 
as  the  harbour  itself,  but  when  it 
faces  in  the  direction  of  prevailing 
storms  it  is  made  as  narrow  as  is 
consistent  with  safe  navigation. 
Harbour  Entrances 

In  exposed  situations  the  width 
of  the  harbour  itself  influences  the 
width  of  opening,  since  waves, 
after  passing  through  the  entrance, 
need  ample  width  in  which  to  ex- 
pand. Again,  a  deep-water  en- 
trance in  an  exposed  position 
should  be  narrower  than  one  in 
shallow  water,  since  deep  waves 
passing  through  it  are  not  so 
readily  stilled  as  shallow  waves. 
Outer  and  inner  breakwaters  are 
sometimes  constructed  to  overlap, 
so  that  the  openings  do  not  come 
opposite  each  other.  Ample  room 
should  be  allowed  between  them 
to  permit  of  a  sailing  ship  tacking 
to  make  the  inner  opening  after 
passing  through  the  outer  entrance. 

Rocks  and  dangerous  reefs  in  the 
vicinity  of  harbour  works  are 
sometimes  removed  or  lowered  by 
blasting.  Extensive  operations  of 
this  character,  occupying  many 
years  and  costing  over  a  million 
pounds,  were  carried  out  to  im- 
prove the  East  river  at  New 
York,  an  underwater  area  of  some 
12  acres  of  rock  being  lowered. 
The  positions  of  sandbanks,  bars, 
dangerous  reefs,  etc.,  near  harbour 
entrances  are  marked  by  light- 
houses, or,  where  a  light  is  not 
essential  at  night,  by  beacons. 
Large  lantern  lights  are  also  pro- 
vided on  the  ends  of  breakwaters 
to  mark  the  entrance  by  night, 
Buoys  are  frequently  employed  to 
indicate  varying  depths  of  water 


HARBOUR  GRACE 


3833 


HARCOURT 


within  a  harbour,  and  for  marking 
out  an  approach  channel  beyond 
the  entrance. 

A  defended  harbour  is  a  place 
at  which  companies  of  Royal  Gar- 
rison Artillery  were  stationed  dur- 
ing the  Great  War. 

Bibliography.  The  Theory,  For- 
mation, and  Construction  of  British 
and  Foreign  Harbours,  J.  Rennie, 
1854  ;  Harbours  and  Docks,  L.  F 
Vernon  Harcourt,  1885  ;  The  Design 
and  Construction  of  Harbours,  T. 
Stevenson,  1886  ;  Ports  and  Docks, 
D.  Owen,  1904. 

Harbour  Grace.  Port  of  entry 
and  second  town  in  importance  of 
Newfoundland.  It  stands  on  Con- 
ception Bay  and  the  Reid  rly.  It 
has  a  Roman  Catholic  cathedral,  a 
court  house,  and  a  large  but  ex- 
posed harbour.  Pop.  4,279. 

Harbour  Lights,  THE.  Nautical 
melodrama  by  George  R.  Sims  and 
Henry  Pettitt,  produced  at  The 
Adelphi,  Dec.  23,  1885,  where  it 
ran  for  512  performances.  The  cast 
included  William  Terriss,  as  David 
Kingsley,  the  hero. 

Harburg.  Town  of  Germany, 
in  the  Prussian  province  of  Han- 
over. It  stands  on  the  S.  branch 
of  the  Elbe,  5  m.  S.  of  Hamburg. 
Since  the  middle  of  the  19th 
century  it  has  become  a  seaport 
and  transit  centre  of  increasing 
size  and  importance.  It  is  con- 
nected with  Hamburg  by  rly.  and 
river,  and  is  a  rly.  junction  for  Bre- 
men and  Cuxhaven.  Its  manu- 
factures include  jute  and  linseed 
oil.  Engineering  and  shipbuilding 
are  also  carried  on.  Pop.  67,025. 

Harcourt,  LEWIS  HARCOURT, 
VISCOUNT  (1863-1922).  British 
politician.  He  was  born  Feb.  1, 
1863,  the  elder 
son  of  Sir 
William  Har- 
court, and  was 
educated  a  t 
Eton.  For 
many  years 
h  e  acted  a  s 
private  secre- 
tary to  his 
father,  and 
gained  a  wide 
knowledge  o  f 
politics  and  politicians.  In  1904  he 
entered  the  House  of  Commons  for 
the  Rossendale  division  of  Lanca 
shire,  and  in  1905  joined  the 
Liberal  ministry  as  first  commis- 
sioner of  works. 

Later  he  entered  the  Cabinet, 
and  from  1910-15  was  colonial 
secretary,  reverting  to  his  former 
post  when  the  Coalition  Govern- 
ment was  formed  in  1915.  He  re- 
signed with  Asquith  in  1916,  and 
was  made  a  viscount.  This  title 
had  been  held  by  earlier  Harcourts, 
whose  estate  at  Nuneham  he  in- 
herited. He  died  Feb.  24,  1922. 


r* 


Viscount  Harcourt, 
British  politician 


Simon,  Viscount 

Harcourt, 
English  lawyer 


Harcourt,  SIMON  HARCOTJRT, 
IST  VISCOUNT  (c.  1662-1727). 
English  lawyer  The  only  son  of 
Sir  Philip  Har- 
court, he  be- 
longed to  the 
family  that, 
coming  from 
Norm  andy. 
had  made  its 
home  in  Ox- 
ford  shire, 
where  Stanton 
Harcourt  com- 
meinorates 
the  fact. 
Simon  was  born  at  the  manor 
house  there,  and  was  educated  at 
Pembroke  College,  Oxford.  In 
1690  he  entered  Parliament  as 
M.P.  for  Abingdon,  and  in  1702  he 
became  solicitor-general  and  a 
knight.  In  1707-8,  and  again  in 
1710,  he  was  attorney-general, 
and  later  in  1710  was  made  lord 
keeper  of  the  great  seal.  In  1711 
he  was  created  a  baron  ;  in  1713 
he  became  lord  chancellor,  but  like 
other  Tories,  he  lost  his  office  when 
George  I  became  king  in  1714;  in 
1721  he  was  made  a  viscount.  He 
died  July  23, 1727.  Swift  referred 
to  him  as  "  trimming  Harcourt." 

Harcourt,  the  ancestor  of  the 
later  Harcourts,  bought  Nune 
ham,  which  is  still  their  seat.  His 
son,  Simon,  predeceased  his  father, 
so  the  latter's  heir  was  his  grand 
son,  Simon  (1714-77).  He  was 
viceroy  of  Ireland,  1772-77,  hav 
ing  previously  been  governor  to 
the  prince  of  Wales,  afterward.- 
George  III.  In  1749  he  was  made 
an  earl.  His  two  sons  succeeded  in 
turn  to  the  titles  and  estates.  The 
younger  of  these,  William,  the  3rd 
earl  (1743-1830),  served  in  America 
and  in  Flanders,  becoming  a  field 
marshal.  When  he  died  the  titles 
became  extinct. 

Harcourt,  SIR  WILLIAM  GEORGE 
GRANVILLEVENABLESVERNON  (1827 
-1904).  British  statesman.  The 
son  and  grandson  of  clergymen,  his 
grandfather  being  Edward  Har- 
court, archbishop  of  York,  he  was 
born  at  York,  Oct.  14,  1827.  The 
archbishop  was  originally  named 
Vernon,  but  took  the  name  of 
Harcourt  .  on  succeeding  to  the 
estates  of  that  family.  Educated 
privately  and  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  Harcourt  was  called  to 
the  bar.  He  was  made  Whewell 
professor  of  international  law  at 
Cambridge,  and  held  this  post 
until  1887. 

By  birth  a  Whig,  Harcourt 
joined  the  Liberal  party,  and  in 
1868  entered  the  House  of  Com- 
mons as  M.P.  for  Oxford  city.  He 
lost  his  seat  in  1880  but  was  mem- 
ber for  Derby  1880-95  when, 
being  rejected  there,  he  was  re- 


turned by  W.  Monmouthshire,  re- 
taining that  seat  until  his  death. 
He  entered  official  life  as  solicitor- 
general  under  Gladstone  in  1S73; 
going  into  opposition  in  1874. 
In  1880,  when  the  Liberals  came 
again  into  power,  he  was  made 
home  secretary.  He  had  to  deal  with 
the  Fenian  outrages,  and  the  Irish 
malcontents  found  in  him  one  of 
their  most  vigorous  assailants.  In 
1886  he  was  for  a  few  months 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  hav- 
ing adhered  to  Gladstone  when  the 
party  was  split  over  Home  Rule  ; 
and  then  followed  six  more  years 
in  opposition. 

In  1892  Harcourt  returned  to 
the  Exchequer,  and  in  1894  was 
responsible  for  the  Budget  which 
established  the  present  graduated 
system  of  death  duties.  He  suc- 
ceeded Gladstone  in  1894  as  leader 
of  the  House  of  Commons,  but  not 


as  prime  minister,  and  this  was  un- 
doubtedly a  bitter  disappointment 
to  him.  From  1895-98  he  led  the 
party  in  opposition,  but  the  dif- 
ferences between  him  and  many 
of  his  followers  grew  more  pro- 
nounced, and  he  resigned  in  1898. 
Henceforward  he  occupied  a  de- 
tached position,  having  little  save 
hard  words  both  for  the  Conserva- 
tives and  for  the  imperialist  section 
of  the  Liberals.  He  died  Oct.  1, 
1904,  having  only  just  inherited 
Nuneham  Park  and  the  estates  of  the 
Harcourts.  He  was  twice  married, 
and  left  two  sons,  Lewis  and 
Robert,  both  Liberal  politicians. 

Harcourt  was  one  of  the  fore- 
most men  of  his  day,  touching  life 
at  many  points.  Endowed  with  an 
imposing  presence  and  great  men- 
tal gifts,  he  was  a  witty  talker,  a 
forcible  debater,  and  a  most  accept- 
able platform  speaker.  His  Life  by 
A.  G.  Gardiner  appeared  in  1923. 
See  British  Political  Leaders,  J. 
MacCarthy,  1903. 


HARDA 


HARDICANUTE 


Harda.      Subdivision  and 
ot  the  Central   Provinces,  India,  in 


hurg,   Kuno  Moltke.   and  Wilhelm 
von  Hohenhau,  which   led  to  their 


the    district   of    Hoshangabad      It     disappearance    from    the    imperial 


stands  on   the  high    road  to  Bom- 
bay   and   is  a  station  on  the  Great 


circle.      He  was  several  times  pro 
•secuted    for    Ifse-maje-ste.    and     his 


Hardanger  Fiord.  Deep,  rami- 
fied inlet  on  the  W.  coast  of  Nor- 
way It  opens  S.  of  Bergen,  and 


Indian  Peninsula  Rly.,  12  m.  from  paper  was  repeatedly  suppressed 
Handia.  It  is  a  prosperous  town  during  the  Great  War.  He  helped 
with  a  good  water  supply,  and  a  to  found  a  free  theatre  in  Berlin 
trade  in  cereals  and  oil  seeds.  Area  in  1889,  and  was  the  author  of 
of  subdivision,  1,125  sq.  m.  Pop.,  several  books,  of  which  two,  Word 
subdivision,  129,915:  town,  8,340.  Portraits,  1911,  and  Monarchs  and 

Men.  1912,  appeared  in  English. 

Hardenberg,  FRIEDRICH  LUD 
wro  VON  (1772-1801)  German 
poet  and  romance 
writer,  better 
known  by  his  pseu- 
donym of  Nova- 
Is  (</.».). 

Hardenberg, 
KARL  AUGUST, 
PRINCE  VON  ( 1 750- 
1822)  German 
statesman.  Born  in 
Hanover  May  31, 
1750  he  was'edu 
cated  at  Leipzig 
and  Gottingen, 
afterwards  enter- 

Haruanger  Fioru.      Lanuiug-piace  ai  riiuftoru,   at   taa        in§          public  ser 

head  of  the  Hardanger  Fiord  vice    of    Hanover. 

He    was    made   a 

extends  in  a  N.E.  direction  about  count,  but  left  the  service  because  of 

70  m.  to  Vik  and  Ulvik,  which  are  his  wife's  intimacy  with  the  prince 

about  115  m.   from   the  open  sea  of  Wales,  afterwards  George  IV,  the 

beyond  the  islands  at  its  mouth.  Hardenbergs  being  then  in  England. 

A  branch,  known  as  the  Sorfiord,  In  1782  he  entered  the  service  of 

runs  S.  to  Odde,  passing  the  vast  the  duke  of  Brunswick,  and  in  1792 

Folgetond  snowfield.     Among  the  was  made  administrator  of  Ans bach 

many  cataracts  on  the  Bardanger  and  Baireuth 

Fiord  are  the  Skjeggedalsfos  and  Hardenberg  was  soon   busy  for 

the  Voringfos.  Prussia.     On  the  outbreak  of  war 

Harde court.  Vi.lage  of  France,  against  France  he  had  been  sent 
in  the  dept.  of  Somme.  It  is  2  m.  out  on  diplomatic  work.  He  helped 
S.W.  of  Combles,  and  was  promin-  to  arrange  the  peace  of  Basel  (1795), 
ent  in  the  Great  War.  It  was  after  which  he  held  an  important 
stormed  by  the  Allies  on  July  8,  post  in  Berlin.  In  1804  he  was 
1916,  and  this  operation  com-  made  foreign  secretary  by  Freder- 
pleted  the  first  phase  of  the  French  ick  William  III,  but  in  1805 
operations  north  of  the  Somme.  Napoleon  insisted  upon  his  retire- 
Recaptured  by  the  Germans  in  ment.  He  returned  to  his  post  in 
March,  1918  it  was  finally  taken  1807,  but  again  the  dictator  had 
by  the  Allies  on  Aug  28,  1918.  him  dismissed.  In  1810  he 

became    chancellor,    and    as   such 

FELIX  had  a  great  deal  to  do  with  the  re- 


6'ee  Somme.  Battles  of  the 
Harden,      MAXIMILIAN 
KRNST  (b.  1861).    German  journal 
and  politician 


AJ  - 

^rajfjfl  I    '111(l    won    the 

*    support  of  Bis- 
marck    and 


Maximilian  Harden, 
German  journalist 


organization  ot  Prussia.     He  sup- 
ported    heartily     the     policy     of 
making  war  on  France  in  1812,  and 
his  real  name    had  a  share  in  arranging  the  settle- 
was     Witkow-     ment  ol   1814-15,   being  Prussia's 
he    be-     chief  representative  at  the  congress 
of  Vienna.     He  was  also  a  member 
of   all   the  congresses    that    took 
writer      under    P'ace  between  1812  and  1822,  but 
the  pseudonym     was  merely  a  puppet  in  the  hands 
Apostata      °*  Metternich.     He  died  at  Genoa, 
'     No.  26   1822. 

Harderwyk.  Town  and  port 
of  Holland.  Situated  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Gelderland,  about  *6  m. 


Born  at  Berlin 
Oct.  20.    1861, 


ski  ; 

oame     known 

as   a    satirical 


C  a  p  r  i  v  i.    In 

Oct.,  1892,  he  founded  the  weekly  due  E.  ol  Amsterdam,  it  has  a  small 

naper  Die  Zukunft  (The  Future),  harbour  on  the  Z aider  Zee,  and  is 

n  which,  in  1907,  he 'launched  a  on   the    rly.    between    Amersfoort 

campaign  against  Philip  zu  Eulen-  and  Zwolle.    The  port  is  now  used 


only  for  coasta.1  traffic,  but  the 
town  is  a  useful  agiionltimil  centre. 
There  is  a  depot  for  recruits  tor  the- 
Dutch  East  Indian  service.  Har- 
derwyk University,  founder)  1648 
and  well  known  in  the  ISth  century, 
was  closed  in  1811.  Pop.  8,000 

Hard  Fern  (Blechnum  «pimni). 
Fern  of  the  natural  order  Poly- 

Sodiaceae.  It  is  a  native  of  Europe 
.E.  Asia,  the  Canaries,  and  N  W. 
America.  The  rootstock  is  creep- 
ing and  scaly  :  fronds  are  leathery, 
polished,  long  and  narrow,  and 
deeply  cut  in  from  the  margins  to 
or  nearly  to,  the  midrib.  Fertile 
fronds  have  the  divisions  narrower 
and  more  distant ;  the  barren 
fronds  are  broader,  evergreen,  more 
or  less  prostrate.  The  fertile  fronds 
are  twice  the  length  of  the 
others,  erect,  the  under  side  of 
each  lobe  margined  with  the  line  ot 
brown  spore-cases.  6'ee  Fern. 

Hardhead,  MATFEI.LON  OK 
GREATER  KNAPWEED  (Centavrea 
scabiosa).  Perennial  herb  of  the 

natural     order  

Compositae.  It 
is  a  native  ol 
Europe  and  W7 
Asia.  Thelona 
leaves  are 
deeply  cut  into 
boldly  toothed 
segments.  The 
grooved  flower 
ing  stem  is  2  ft 
or  3  ft.  long 
covered  w  i  t  h 
soft  hairs 
branched  near 
the  top,  each 
branch  ending 
inalarge  bright 
purple  (occasionally  white)  flower- 
head.  The  lower  part  of  the  head  is 
almost  spherical,  invested  with 
large  rough  scales  with  brown  tips. 

Hardi Canute  OR  HARTHACNUT 
(c.  1018-42).  King  of  Denmark 
and  England.  The  son  of  King 
Canute  and  his  Norman  wife. 
Emma,  the  widow  of  Ethelred  the 
Unready,  he  passed  most  of  hi* 
time  in  Denmark,  where  he  acted 
as  his  father's  deputy.  In  103f> 
Canute  died  and  he  became  king  ol 
Denmark,  while  Earl  Godwin 
wished  him  to  be  king  of  England 
also.  A  contest  between  him  and 
his  half-brother  Harold  resulted  in 
division  of  the  kingdom  between 
them,  Hardicanute  taking  the 
southern,  or  English,  part. 

Hardicanute  however,  stayed 
in  Denmark  seeking  among  othei 
things  the  throne  of  Norway,  and 
in  1039  his  discontented  English 
subjects  placed  themselves  undei 
Harold.  When  Harold  died,  he  was 
chosen  king.  He  then  came  to 
England,  but  his  short  reign  was 
marked  by  brutalities,  notably  the 


Hardhead,  leaves 
and  flower-heads 


3835 


HARDINGE 


J.  Keir  Hardie, 
Labour  leader 

Russell 


ravaging  of  Worcestershire,  and  by 
a  short  quarrel  with  Earl  Godwin. 
He  died,  says  the  A.S.  Chronicle, 
as  lie  stood  at  drink,  June  9,  10-42. 
Hardie,  JAMES  KEIR  (1856- 
1915).  British  labour  leader.  Born 
in  Scotland,  Aug.  15,  1856,  he 
worked  in  the 
mines  from  the 
age  of  seven 
until  his  24th 
year,  when  he 
was  elected  sec- 
retary to  the 
Lanarkshire 
Miners'  Union. 
From  1882-86 
he  was  editor 
of  The  Cum- 
nock  News,  and 
in  1888  unsuccessfully  contested 
Mid  Lanark.  An  advocate  of  an 
independent  labour  party,  he  be- 
came one  of  the  founders  and 
the  chairman  of  the  I.L.P.,  1893. 
Labour  M.P.  for  West  Ham, 
1892-95,  and  for  Merthyr  Tydvil, 
from  1900  till  his  death,  he  started 
and  edited  The  Labour  Leader. 
He  died  Sept.  26,  1915. 

Harding,      JAMES     DUFFIELD 
(1798-1863).         English     painter. 
Born  at  Deptford,  he  studied  under 
Paul     Sandby 
and      Samuel 
Prout.  He  was 
elected      asso- 
ciate    of     the 
Old  Water  Col- 
our Society  in 
1820  and  mem- 
ber    in     1821. 
His      sketches 
were  facile  but 
a  little  super- 
|  ficial ;  he  was  the  first  to  use  papers 
i  of  various  tints.     One  may  cite  his 
!  Falls  of  Schaffhausen,  1855,  View 
|   of      Fribourg,      1855,      and     the 
Picturesque  Selections,  1861.     He 
died  at  Barnes,  Dec.  4,  1863. 

Harding  WARREN  GAMALIEL 
(1865-1923).  American  president. 
Born  Nov.  2,  1.865,  in  a  farmhouse 
near  the  village  of  Blooming  Grove, 
in  Morrow  co.,  Ohio,  the  son  of 
George  T.  Harding,  a  doctor,  he 
was  educated  in  the  school  of  his 
village  and  at  a  college  at  Caledonia 
in  his  native  state.  Having  been  a 
schoolmaster  for  two  years  he 
started  work  in  the  printer's  shop 
at  Blooming  Grove,  and  in  1884 
with  the  help  of  his  father  acquired 
The  Marion  Star,  the  local  news- 

Eaper  of  the  village  in  which  his 
imily  settled  in  the  early  'eighties. 
From  1899-1903  he  represented 
Marion  in  the  senate  of  Ohio,  and 
from  1904-6  was  lieutenant- 
governor  of  the  state. 

In  1912  he  nominated  W.  H.  Taft, 
and  followed  him  when  Roosevelt 
split  the  Republican  party.  In 


James  D.  Harding, 
English  painter 


1914  he  was  elected  to  the  senate 
of  Washington,  where  he  was 
member  of  the  foreign  relations 
committee.  In  1916  Harding 
made  the  keynote  speech  of  the 
convention  which  nominated  C.  E. 
Hughes  for  the  presidency. 

Before  the  Great  War  he  paid 
three  long  visits  to  Europe  and 
studied  fiscal  and  labour  questions. 
In  its  early  stages  he  came  out 
openly  against  President  Wilson's 
refusal  to  take  steps  to  meet  the 
spread  of  the  European  conflagra- 
tion across  the  Atlantic,  and  backed 
Roosevelt  in  trying  to  arouse  the 
president  to  a  sense  of  impending 
emergencies.  When  the  U.S.A. 
entered  the  war  he  favoured  Roose- 
velt's plan  for  sending  a  volunteer 
division  to  France  without  delav. 


Warren  Gamaliel  Harding. 
President  of  the  U.S.A. 

Harding  was  unanimously  nomi- 
nated in  June,  1920,  as  the  Re- 
publican candidate  for  the  presi- 
dency at  the  Chicago  convention. 
He  was  a  compromise  candidate 
after  the  failure  of  both  the  con- 
servative and  the  radical  wings  of 
the  party  to  get  their  nominees 
accepted.  He  was  elected  presi- 
dent on  Nov.  2,  1920,  by  16,181,289 
votes  to  9,141,750  cast  for  Gover- 
nor Cox,  his  Democratic  opponent, 
carrying  37  out  of  48  states  and 
the  entire  country  outside  the 
traditionally  Democratic  south. 

Harding's  sweeping  victory 
showed  the  national  disgust  with 
the  personal  domination  of  the 
president,  so  marked  a  feature  of 
the  Wilson  regime,  and  the  general 
desire  of  the  country  to  concen- 
trate its  energies  on  American 
affairs.  He  spent  part  of  the  four 
months  before  he  took  office  in 
consulting  what  he  termed  the 
best  minds  among  the  Republican 
party,  and  at  Marion  he  held  a 
series  of  conferences  on  questions 
of  the  day  with  experienced  poli- 
ticians, financiers,  and  men  of 
affairs.  His  first  speeches  showed 
that  he  believed  in  an  effective 
protective  tariff  and  the  free  use 


of  the  Panama  canal  by  American 
shipping;  also  that  the  United 
States,  with  its  vast  natural  re- 
sources, had  a  great  part  to  play 
in  the  world.  Consequently,  though 
elected  on  a  platform  which  re- 
pudiated the  League  of  Nations 
as  established  by  the  treaty  of 
Versailles,  he  tried  to  bring  about 
some  new  association  in  which 
America  should  play  a  part.  He 
died  Aug.  2,  1923. 

Hardinge,  HENRY  HARDINGE. 
1ST  VISCOUNT  (1785-1856).  British 
soldier  and  administrator.  Of  an 
old  Kentish 
family,  he  was 
born  at  Wrot- 
ham,  March  30, 
1785,  and  edu- 
cated at  Eton. 
Having  en- 
tered the  army, 
he  served  in 
the  Peninsular 
War,  and  in 
1815  was  with 
the  Prussian 
army  at  Ligny, 
where  he  was 
wounded.  In  1820  Sir  Henry 
entered  Parliament  as  M.P.  for 
Durham,  and  in  1828  he  became 
secretary  at  war  under  Wellington  ; 
in  1830  he  was  chief  secretary  for 
Ireland,  as  he  was  again  in  the 
Tory  ministry  of  1834-35.  From 
1841-44  he  was  again  secretary  at 
war,  resigning  to  become  governor- 
general  of  India.  He  was  there 
until  1852,  carrying  through  the 
wars  against  the  Sikhs  and  being 
rewarded  in  1846  with  a  viscounty. 
From  1852  to  1856  he  was  com- 
mander-in-chief.  He  died  Sept.  24, 
1856,  and  his  title  is  still  held  by 
his  descendants.  See  Sikh  Wars  ; 
consult  also  Viscount  Hardinge, 
C.  Hardinge,  1891. 

Hardinge,  CHARLES  HAEDTXGE, 
IST  BARON  (b.  1858).  British  diplo- 
matist. Born  June  20,  1858,  a 
younger  son  of 
the  2nd  Vis- 
count Har- 
dinge, he  was 
educated  at 
Harrow  and 
Trinity  College, 
Cambridge.  In 
1 880  he  entered 
the  diplomatic 
service,  and 
gained  e  x  p  e- 
rience  in  seve- 
ral capitals,  especially  St.  Peters- 
burg, 1898-1903.  After  being  as- 
sistant under-secretary  for  foreign 
affairs,  he  went  to  St.  Petersburg 
as  ambassador  in  1904,  returning 
to  London  in  1 906  to  become  under- 
secretary at  the  foreign  office. 

In  1910  he  was  appointed  vice- 
roy of  India,  being  raised  to  the 


Baron  Hardinge, 
British  diplomatist 

Russell 


HARDINGE      BRIDGE 


3836 


HARDWICKE 


peerage  as  Viscount  Hardinge  of 
Penshurst.  In  1916  Hardinge  left 
India  and  was  again  made  under- 
secretary for  foreign  affairs  in 
spite  of  the  censure  passed  upon  him 
by  the  Mesopotamia  commission. 
He  was  made  a  K.G.  and  in  1920- 
22  was  ambassador  to  France. 

Hardinge  Bridge.  Railway 
bridge  across  the  Ganges,  India. 
It  spans  the  river  at  Sara  and  was 
opened  in  1917.  A  marvellous  feat 
of  engineering,  it  connects  the  stan- 
dard 5  ft.  6  in.  gauge  system  of  the 
E.  Bengal  Rly.,  S.  of  the  Ganges, 
with  the  metre  gauge  system  N.  of 
the  river.  It  comprises  15  girder 
spans  of  345  ft.  1|  ins.  with  3  land 
spans  of  75  ft.  at  each  end. 

Har  dings  tone.  Village  and 
parish  of  Northamptonshire.  It  is 
2  m.  from  Northampton  and  is 
famous  for  its  cross,  the  best 
preserved  of  those  erected  by 
Edward  I  to  the  memory  of  his 
wife  Eleanor.  There  is  an  old 
church  dedicated  to  S.  Edmund, 
and  the  Nen  runs  through  the 
parish,  as  does  the  Grand  Junction 
Canal.  The  battle  of  Northampton, 
at  which  in  1459  Henry  VI  was 
defeated  and  taken  prisoner,  was 
fought  on  Hardingstone  Fields. 
There  are  remains  of  a  Roman 
camp.  See  Northampton,  Battle  of. 

Hard  Labour.  Term  used  in 
penology  for  a  particular  kind  of 
punishment.  Ordinary  prisoners 
are  sentenced  to  imprisonment 
with  or  without  hard  labour,  and 
Acts  of  Parliament  lay  down  the 
various  offences  for  which  hard 
labour  may  be  imposed.  The 
maximum  sentence  is  two  years, 
and  is  seldom  passed  except  for 
offences  as  robbery  with  violence. 
Prisoners  who  are  sentenced  to 
hard  labour  usually  pass  the  first 
28  days  of  their  confinement 
breaking  stone,  making  heavy  coal 
sacks,  and  picking  oakum,  and 
afterwards  on  the  manufacture  of 
post  bags,  hammocks,  etc.  If 
certified  fit  by  the  doctor,  for  the 
first  14  days  of  hard  labour  the 
prisoner  sleeps  without  a  mattress. 
8c.c  Criminology ;  Penal  Servitude. 

Hardness.  Term  used  for  a 
certain  quality  in  water.  According 
to  the  action  of  water  on  soap  it  is 
stated  to  be  hard  or  soft.  If  an 
insoluble  curd  is  formed  the  water 
is  "  hard,"  but  when  a  lather  is 
readily  formed  the  water  is  known 
as  "  soft."  Hardness  is  due  to 
calcium  and  magnesium  salts 
dissolved  in  the  water.  Tem- 
porary hardness  is  due  to  calcium 
and  magnesium  bicarbonates,  which 
boiling  removes  by  converting  them 
into  insoluble  carbonates  which  are 
deposited  on  the  surface  of  the 
vessel.  This  deposit  in  kettles  and 
boilers  is  known  as  fur  and  is 


objectionable  on  account  of  the  loss 
of  heat  that  it  occasions. 

Permanent  hardness  is  due  to 
calcium  and  magnesium  sulphates 
and  chlorides  remaining  in  the 
water  after  boiling.  It  cannot  be 
stated  definitely  that  hard  water  is 
injurious  for  drinking  purposes,  but 
for  domestic  purposes  a  great  waste 
of  soap  takes  place.  Hardness  is  ob- 
jectionable in  water  used  for  steam 
boilers  and  also  in  many  industrial 
processes.  On  the  other  hand, 
water  containing  calcium  sulphate 
is  required  for  brewing  pale  ale. 

Water  is  tested  for  hardness  by 
Clark's  soap  test,  which  consists  in 
ascertaining  the  amount  of  soap 
which  has  to  be  destroyed  by  a 
given  volume  of  the  water  before  a 
lather  is  obtained.  The  softening  of 
water  is  effected  on  a  large  scale  at 
water  works  by  the  addition  of 
slaked  lime,  which,  reacting  with 
the  calcium  bicarbonate,  produces 
calcium  carbonate  and  is  deposited 
as  a  sediment. 

Hardoi.  District,  subdivision, 
and  town  of  the  United  Provinces, 
India.  The  surface  is  fairly 
level,  and  is  watered  by  the 
Ganges,  Gamti,  Ramganga,  Gavia, 
and  other  streams,  while  several 
lakes  are  scattered  throughout  the 
district.  Dense  jungle  prevails  in 
parts,  inhabited  by  large  game,  but 
the  tiger  is  almost  extinct.  The 
chief  products  are  rice  and  wheat. 
Area,  district,  2,232  sq.  m. ;  sub- 
division, 635  sq.  m.  Pop.,  district, 
1,121,250;  subdivision,  301,700; 
town,  13,855. 

Hardouin,  JEAN  (1640-1729). 
French  scholar.  He  was  born  at 
Quimper,  became  a  Jesuit,  and  in 
1683  was  appointed  librarian  at 
the  College  de  Louis  le  Grand, 
Paris.  He  maintained  that  most 
of  the  classic  literature  of  Greece 
and  Rome  was  the  invention  of 
13th  century  monks.  The  excep- 
tions which  he  admitted  were 
Homer's  Iliad,  Herodotus,  Virgil's 
Georgics,  Pliny's  Natural  History, 
the  Satires  and  Epistles  of  Horace, 
and  the  works  of  Cicero.  In  the 
same  way  he  dismissed  all  ancient 
works  of  art  as  spurious,  and  held 
similarly  heterodox  views  as  to  the 
Septuagint,  the  Greek  text  of  the 
New  Testament,  and  the  authen- 
ticity of  all  councils  of  the  Church 
earlier  than  that  of  Trent. 

Hardstoft.  Village  of  Derby- 
shire, England,  6  m.  N.  W.  of  Mans- 
field. It  was  selected  by  experts  as 
the  place  where  the  first  boring  for 
oil  should  be  made  in  England. 
Work  was  begun  in  Oct.,  1918,  and 
in  the  following  May  oil  was  found. 
The  supply  was  steady,  yielding  by 
the  end  of  1920  4,575  barrels,  or 
590  tons.  The  nearest  railway  is 
the  G.C.R. 


Hardt.  Mt.  range  of  Bavaria, 
Germany.  In  the  Bavarian  Pala- 
tinate, it  is  a  continuation  of  the 
Vosges  and  runs  parallel  to  the 
Rhine  through  the  Palatinate. 
The  highest  summit  is  Kalmit. 
2,250  ft.  The  upper  parts  are 
mainly  covered  with  trees,  while 
the  vine  is  grown  on  the  lower.  The 
E.  side,  which  slopes  down  to  the 
Rhine,  is  very  picturesque  witli 
charming  valleys,  and  ruined 
castles  on  its  heights. 

Hard  Times.  Charles  Dickens's 
ninth  and  shortest  novel.  Pub- 
lished in  Household  Words  (Apri!- 
Aug.,  1854),  it  is  a  satire  on  the 
utilitarian  philosophy  of  early 
Victorian  days,  bears  unmistak- 
able evidence  of  Carlylean  influ- 
ence, was  approved  as  to  its  main 
drift  and  purpose  by  Ruskin,  and 
dismissed  by  Macaulay  as  "  sullen 
Socialism." 

Hardwar.  Town  of  the  United 
Provinces,  India,  in  Saharanpur 
District.  It  stands  on  the  Ganges 
and  is  a  place  of  great  antiquity. 
It  is  one  of  the  holy  places  of  India, 
and  the  centre  of  a  great  pilgrim 
traffic.  Pop.  28,680. 

Hardware.  Term  used  for  ware 
made  of  the  cheaper  metals,  e.y. 
iron,  zinc,  etc.,  especially  kitchen 
utensils,  tools,  and  the  like.  In  Eng- 
land hardware  is  manufactured 
mainly  in  the  Birmingham  district. 
The  trade  has  its  own  trade  papers 
and  trade  organizations,  the  for- 
mer including  Hardware  and 
Machinery,  and  The  Hardware 
Trade  Journal. 

Hardwicke,  EARL  OF.  British 
title  borne  since  1754  by  the  family 
of  Yorke.  It  was  given  to  the  lord 
chancellor  Philip  Yorke,  his  son 
Philip  (1720-95)  being  the  second  [ 
earl.  He  was  for  some  years  an  [ 
M.P.,  was  a  contributor  to  Athe- 
nian Letters,  having  also  scien- 
tific interests.  A  nephew,  Philip 
(1757-1834),  who  became  the  3rd 
earl,  was  lord -lieutenant  of  Ireland, 
1801-6.  He,  too,  was  succeeded  by 
a  nephew,  Charles  Philip,  the  4th 
earl  (1799-1873),  also  a  descendant 
of  Charles  Yorke,  the  lord  chancel- 
lor. He  served  in  the  navy  and  sat 
in  the  House  of  Commons  before 
becoming  a  member  of  the  Tory 
cabinet  of  1852.  In  1858  he  was 
lord  privy  seal,  also  under  Lord 
Derby.  The  title  passed  to  his  son 
and  other  descendants,  coming  in 
1909  to  Charles  Alexander,  the  8th 
earl.  The  earl's  eldest  son  is  known 
as  Viscount  Royston. 

Hardwicke,  PHILIP  YORKE,  IST 
EARL  OP  (1690-1764).  British  law- 
yer. Born  at  Dover,  Dec.  1,  1690, 
his  father,  also  Philip  Yorke,  was  a 
lawyer  there.  He  began  life,  after 
education  at  a  private  school  in 
London,  in  an  attorney's  office,  but 


HARDWICKE 


3837 


he  soon  turned  to  the  other  branch 
of  the  profession,  and  after  serving 
as  a  tutor  to  the  sons  of  the  earl  of 
Mace  lesfield, 
he  was  called 
to  the  bar  in 
1718.  His 
f  rien  dship 
with  Maccles- 
field,  the  lord 
c  h  a  n  c  e  1 1  or, 
was  useful  to 
I  ,:  J  him,  and  he 
1st  Earl  of  Hard  wicke,  soon  had  a 
British  lawyer  gOO(j  practice. 
In  1719  he  was  chosen  M.P.  for 
Lewes,  and  in  1720  he  became 
solicitor-general,  and  a  knight.  In 
1723  he  was  promoted  attorney- 
general. 

In  1733  Yorke  was  made  lord 
chief  justice  and  created  a  peer,  and 
in  1737  lord  chancellor.  There  he 
remained  until  1756,  and  during 
these  years  he  was  one  of  the  most 
influential  men  in  the  country.  As 
head  of  the  council  of  regency  in 
1745,  he  had  to  deal  with  the  crisis 
caused  by  the  Jacobite  rising,  and 
after  it  was  over  he  showed  himself 
merciless  to  the  rebels.  He  carried 
the  measure  abolishing  the  heredi- 
tary jurisdiction  in  the  Highlands, 
but  his  name  i»  more  closely  asso- 
ciated with  the  Marriage  Act  of 
1753.  In  1754  he  was  made  an  earl. 
Hardwicke  resigned  the  lord 
chancellorship  in  Nov.,  1756,  but 
in  1757  returned  to  the  cabinet, 
although  without  a  definite  post. 
He  remained  there  until  May,  1762, 
and  until  his  death,  March  6, 1764, 
was  one  of  the  leaders  of  his  party 
in  its  opposition  to  the  ministry  of 
Bute.  His  eldest  son  succeeded  to  his 
titles;  another  son,  Charles  Yorke, 
became  lord  chancellor ;  others  were 
Joseph  Yorke,  created  Lord  Dover, 
and  James  Yorke,  bishop  of  Ely. 
Hardwicke' s  fame  rests  upon  his 
work  as  a  judge.  To  him,  more  per- 
haps than  to  anyone  else,  are  due 
the  lines  upon  which  English 
equity  has  developed. 

Hardwicke  Society.  Legal  de- 
bating society  established  about 
1835  and  named  after  Lord  Chan- 
cellor Hardwicke.  Its  meeting- 
places  have  included  Peele's  Coffee 
House,  Fetter  Lane  (now  a  tavern), 
Anderton's  Hotel,  the  Portugal  and 
Dicks' s  hotels  (now  no  more),  and 
the  Temple.  Originally  formed  for 
the  discussion  of  legal  subjects,  the 
society  now  concerns  itself  mainly 
with  political  subjects.  Its  present 
home  is  the  Middle  Temple  Com- 
mon Room.  Only  bar  students  and 
barristers  are  admitted. 

Hard. wick  Hall.  Seat  of  the 
duke  of  Devonshire.  It  is  6  m. 
from  Chesterfield,  in  Derbyshire. 
Built  by  Elizabeth,  countess  of 
Shrewsbury,  between  1590  and 


Hardwick    Hall.      Derbyshire    seat    of    the    Duke  of 
Devonshire  seen  from  the  south-west 

1597,  it  is  remarkable  for  the 
number  and  size  of  its  glass  win- 
dows, and  it  contains  some  fine 
pictures  and  tapestries.  It  has 
been  altered  very  little  and  is  a 
fine  example  of  an  Elizabethan 
mansion.  Notable  features  are  the 
picture  gallery  and  the  chapel. 
There  was  an  earlier  hall  here  in 
which  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  lived 
when  a  prisoner. 

The  nearest  station  is  Rowthorn, 
1  m.  away.  Near  is  Ault  Hucknall, 
its  little  church  containing  the 
tomb  of  Thomas  Hobbes. 

Hardwood.  Term  used  for  a 
timber  that  is  heavy  and  close- 
grained  and  therefore  strong.  The 
opposite  term  is  soft  wood.  In 
forestry  the  term  is  used  for  the 
wood  of  a  broad-leaved  tree,  such 
as  the  beech,  in  opposition  to  that 
of  a  coniferous  tree  ;  this  is  irre- 
spective of  the  strength  of  the 
timber.  See  Forestry  ;  Timber. 

Hardy,  ALEXANDRE  (c.  1560-c. 
1631 ).  French  dramatist.  He  was 
born  in  Paris,  but  little  is  known  of 
his  Me  beyond  the  fact  that  for 
some  time  he  travelled  with  a  band 
of  strolling  players,  for  whom  he 


wrote  pieces,  and 
later  was  attached 
in  a  similar  capa- 
city to  the  Theatre 
de    1'  Hotel    d' Ar- 
gent,  Paris.      He 
was    one    of    the 
most  prolific  dra- 
matists of  history, 
producing    some 
600     plays,     of 
which  41   are  ex- 
tant. Among  these 
are  Scedase,  1604; 
A Iphee,  a  pastoral, 
1606;    La  Mort 
d'Achille,      1607 ; 
and  the  two  best, 
Marianne,  1610,  and  Fredegonde, 
1621.     Although  now  little    read, 
Hardy  was  important  historically 
as  the  first  to  give  life  and  move- 
ment to  the  classic  drama. 

Hardy,  DUDLEY  (1867-1922). 
British  artist  and  illustrator.  Born 
at  Sheffield,  Jan.  15,  1867,  he  was 
the  eldest  son  of 
T.  B.  Hardy,  the 
marine  painter. 
He  studied  at 
Dusseldorf, 
Antwerp,  and 
Paris,  and  had 
much  to  do  with 
the  exhibitions 
of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Brit- 
ish Artists,  the 
Royal  Institute 
of  Water  Colour 
Painters,  and 
other  London 
exhibitions.  To 

the  general  public  he  was  better 
known  as  an  illustrator  in  The 
Sketch,  Graphic,  Punch,  Sphere, 
and  kindred  periodicals,  and  by  his 
work  in  books  and  poster  work. 
Hardy  died  Aug.  11,  1922. 


ElliottJk  Fry 


THOMAS    HARDY  :    NOVELIST   AND  POET 

George  Sampson,  M.A.,  Author  and  Critic 

The  articles  English  Language  and  Literature  and  Novel  may  be 

consulted  in  connexion  with  the  following.      See  also  Bournemouth  ; 

Dorchester;   Dorset;   and  biographies  of  Kipling,  Meredith,  and 

other  contemporaries  of  Hardy 


Thomas  Hardy,  novelist,  poet, 
and  dramatist,  was  born  at  Upper 
Bockhampton,  near  Dorchester, 
June  2,  1 840.  From  local  schools  he 
passed  to  King's  College,  London. 
During  1856-61  he  was  the  pupil 
of  an  ecclesiastical  architect,  and 
from  1862-67  he  worked  at  Gothic 
architecture,  under  Sir  A.  Blom- 
field.  It  is  not  fanciful  to  trace  the 
influence  of  this  training  in  the 
ordering  of  his  literary  work. 

He  drew  and  measured  many  old 
country  churches,  since  pulled 
down  or  destroyed  by  "  restora- 
tion," and  was  a  prizeman  of  the 
Royal  Institution  of  British  Archi- 
tects, and  of  the  Architectural  As- 


sociation. Meanwhile  he  read  Latin 
and  Greek  with  a  fellow  pupil,  and 
wrote  a  great  deal  of  verse, 
during  1860-68.  Some  of  this  has 
been  published,  some  transposed 
into  prose  and  embedded  in  the 
novels. 

His  first  known  appearance  in 
print  was  with  an  article,  How  I 
Built  Myself  a  House,  in  Cham- 
bers's  Journal  for  March  18,  1865. 
In  1871  appeared  his  first  novel, 
Desperate  Remedies,  followed  in 
1872  by  Under  the  Greenwood 
Tree.  His  last  full-length  story, 
The  Well- Beloved,  appeared  in 
1897.  His  work,  while  various  in 
scope  and  positive  value,  has  a 


HARDY 


3838 


remarkable  homogeneity,  due 
partly  to  the  literary  patriotism, 
or  "  localism,"  that  confines  his 
scenes  and  persons  to  the  limits  of 
a  province,  but  most  of  all  to  the 
character  of  a  writer  strong  and 
unglamoured  in  his  view  of  man 
and  the  universe,  fearless  and  un- 
flinching in  his  artistic  sincerity. 

What  distinguishes  him  de- 
finitely from  the  purely  Victorian 
writers  is  his  complete  abjuration 
of  the  popular  sentimental  attitude 
towards  love,  life,  and  religion, 
and  his  almost  pagan  sense  of  fate. 
The  difference  can  be  seen  by  a 
comparison  of  the  two  dairymaids, 
Hetty  Sorrel,  in  Adam  Bede,  and 
Tess  in  Tess  of  the  D'Urbervilles. 
Hardy  seems  to  see  human  life  as 
something  almost  pitiably  tran- 
sient against  the  eternal  impassiv- 
ity of  nature.  Thus,  in  The  Return 
of  the  Native,  1878,  the  most 
powerful  creation  is  not  a  person, 
but  a  place,  Egdon  Heath,  grim, 
sinister,  and  almost  malignant  in 
its  immemorial  indifference  to  the 
life  that  flutters  briefly  on  its 
ancient  bosom. 

Hardy's  artistic  geography  must 
not  be  taken  too  literally.  It  is  not 
for  nothing  that  he  reverts  to  the 
ancient  name  Wessex,  calls  Dor- 
chester Casterbridge,  Oxford 
Christminster,  and  so  forth.  He  is 
often  treated  as  the  exploiter  of  a 
province ;  but  his  Wessex  is  a  cre- 
ation rather  than  a  transcript. 

Hardy's  output  of  work  was  very 
regular — seventeen  long  novels  or 
collections  of  stories  in  twenty-six 
years,  all  at  a  very  high  level  of 
imaginative  and  technical  excel- 
lence. Every  reader  will  have  pre- 
ferences ,  but  general  agreement 
would  group  together  Tess  of  the 
D' Urbervilles,  Jude  the  Obscure, 
The  Mayor  of  Casterbridge,  The 
Return  of  the  Native,  The  Wood- 
landers,  and  Far  from  the  Madding 
Crowd,  as  superior  to  Desperate 
Remedies,  A  Pair  of  Blue  Eyes, 
The  Hand  of  Ethel  berta,  and  A 
Laodicean.  Never  overlooked, 
Hardy  became  most  famous  when 
Tess  of  the  D'Urbervilles,  with  its 
challenge  to  the  conventions  of 
respectability,  appeared  in  1891, 
and  something  like  a  storm  burst 
when  the  grim  and  dreadful  pic- 
ture of  sordid  existence,  called  Jude 
the  Obscure,  followed  a  few  years 
later.  The  Well-Beloved  (1897), 
a  puzzling  fantasy,  seemed  to 
indicate  a  loss  of  power. 

The  unwavering  views  of 
Hardy's  novels  find  their  parallel 
in  the  poems.  Verse  was  his 
earliest  literary  activity  and  his 
latest.  What  followed 'The  Well- 
Beloved  was  not  another  novel,  but 
Wessex  Poems  (1898),  including 
some  dating  from  his  activity  in 


the  'sixties.  Four  other  volumes  of 
verse,  Poems  of  the  Past  and  the 
Present,  Time's  Laughing-Stocks, 
Satires  of  Circumstance,  and 
Moments  of  Vision,  succeeded. 

The  poems  exhibit  the  homogene- 
ity of  the  stories.  Many  of  them, 
the  poet  is  careful  to  tell  us,  are 

Abbots  Cernel,  Cerne  Abbas ;  Ald- 
brickham,  Reading ;  Alfredston,  Wan- 
tage ;  Anglebury,  Wareham  ;  Buck- 
bury  Fitzp'iers,  Okeford  Fitzpaine ; 
Budmouth  Regis,  Weymouth  ;  Canford 
Manor,  Chine  Manor ;  Casterbridge, 
Dorchester  ;  Castle  Boterel,  Boscastle  ; 
Chalk  Newton,  Maiden  Newton  ;  Chase- 
town,  Cranborne ;  Christminster,  Ox- 
ford ;  Corvesgate  Castle,  Corfe  Castle  ; 
Downstaple,  Barnstaple ;  Durnover, 
Fordington  ;  East  Egdon,  Affpuddle  ; 
Emminster,  Beamiuster  ;  Endelstow,  St. 
Juliet's  ;  Enkworth,  Enkcombe  ;  Ever- 
shead,  Evershot ;  Falls  Park,  Mells  ; 
Flintcomb  Ash,  Dole's  Ash ;  Great 
Hintock,  Minterne  Magna  ;  Havenpool, 
Poole  ;  Holmstoke,  East  Stoke  ;  I  veil, 
Yeovil ;  Kingsbere,  Bere  Regis  ;  King's 
Hintock  Court,  Melbury  Sampford ; 
Knollingwood,  Wimborne  St.  Giles ; 
Knollsea,  Swanage  ;  Leddenton,  GiHing- 
ham  ;  Little  Hintock,  Melbury  Osmund  ; 
Lornton,  Horton  ;  Lulshead,  Luhvorth  ; 
Marlott,  Marnhuil  ;  Marygreen,  Fawley 
Magna  ;  Melchester,  Salisbury  ;  Middle- 
ton  Abbey,  Milton  Abbey  ;  Mill-pond  St. 
Jude's,  Milborne  St.  Andrews  ;  Narro- 
bourne,  East  Coker ;  Nuzzlebury, 
Hazlebury  Bryan ;  Overcombe,  Sutton 
Poyutz  ;  PortBredy,  Bridport ;  Po'sham, 
Portisham ;  Quartershot,  Aldershot ; 
Ringworth,  Ringstead ;  Sandbourne, 
Bournemouth  ;  Shaston,  Shaftesbury  ; 
Sherton  Abbas,  Sher borne  ;  Shottsford 
Forum,  Blandford  Forum ;  Solentsea, 
Southsea ;  Stancy  Castle,  Dunster ; 
Stickleford,  Tincleton  ;  Stoke  Barehills, 
Basingstoke  ;  Stourcastle,  Sturminster 
Newton  ;  Talbothays,  Norris  Mill  Farm  ; 
Tolchurch,  Tolpuddle ;  Toneborough, 
Taunton ;  Warborne,  Wimborne ; 
Weatherbury,  Puddletown  ;  Wellbridge, 
Woolbridge  ;  Weydon  Priors,  Weyhill ; 
Wintoncester,  Winchester ;  Yewsholt, 
Farrs. 

Thomas   Hardy.     Place-names  in  the 

Wessex    novels,    with    their    generally 

accepted  identifications.     The  fictitious 

names  are  printed  in  italic. 


"  dramatic  or  personative  in  con- 
ception," that  is,  utterances  of 
invented  persons,  and  not  neces- 
sarily his  own.  But  it  is  impossible 
not  to  find  in  them  the  strong,  sad~ 
sincerity,  occasional  bitterness, 
and  tragic  recognition  of  life's 
futility  that  form  a  kind  of  ground 
bass  to  the  novels.  Hardy's  poems, 
it  should  be  added,  are  original  in 
manner,  and  but  lightly  touched 
with  verbal  grace  and  felicity  ;  but 
he  is  a  genuine  poet ;  the  lyric  in- 
spiration of  his  verse  is  unquestion- 
able. It  is  not  impossible  that  the 
poet  may  survive  the  story-teller. 

The  suspicion  of  exhausted 
power  aroused  byTheWell-Beloved 
was  removed  when  the  most 
amazing  of  his  works,  The  Dynasts, 
an  epic-drama  of  the  Napoleonic 
Wars,  began  to  appear  in  1904. 
Two  further  instalments  came  in 
1906  and  1908.  It  is  a  pity  that  the 
work  did  not  first  appear  as  a  com- 
pleted thing,  for  the  vastness  of 
the  design  and  the  mastery  of 
execution  could  not  be  appre- 
ciated in  a  periodical  reading  of 
parts  coming  at  intervals  of  two 
years.  The  unique  greatness  of 
The  Dynasts  is  generally  admitted. 
Hardy's  implied  view  of  man  as  a 
puny,  temporary  creature,  fretting 
himself  briefly  against  a  spectral 
background  of  remote  and  inex- 
orable forces,  here  becomes  ex- 
plicit, for  the  events  of  the  conflict 
are  shown  first  in  the  dimensions 
of  man's  own  experience,  and  then 
as  the  faint  writhings  of  ant-like 
creatures  on  little  plots  of  earth, 
watched  from  above,  interpreted 
by  all-seeing  spiritual  powers. 

As  poetry,  drama,  and  history, 
The  Dynasts  is  a  noble  contri- 
bution to  world-literature.  The 
choral  odes  of  the  spirits,  the  de- 
scriptive prose  directions  and  con- 
nexions, and  the  serviceable  verse 
of  the  major  dialogue  are  all  in 
varying  degree  most  admirable.  A 
great  life-work  is  thus  fully  rounded 
off  by  a  great  achievement. 

Thomas  Hardy  was  given  the 
Order  of  Merit  in  1910,  and 
awarded  the  gold  medal  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  Literature.  He 
received  the  degrees  of  LL.D. 
(Aberdeen),  Litt.D.  (Cambridge), 
Litt.D.  (Oxford),  and  became  an 
Honorary  Fellow  of  Magdalene 
College,  Cambridge.  He  was  twice 
married,  first,  in  1874,  to  Emma 
Lavinia  Gifford,  and  next,  in 
1914,  to  Florence  Emily  Dugdale. 
Published  Works.  Desperate  Reme- 
dies, 1871  ;  Under  the  Greenwood 
Tree,  1872  ;  A  Pair  of  Blue  Eyes, 

1873  ;  Far  from  the  Madding  Crowd, 

1874  ;    The    Hand    of    Ethelberta, 
1876  ;  The  Return  of  the  Native, 
1878;   The   Trumpet-Major,    1880; 
A  Laodicean,  1881 ;  Two  on  a  Tower, 


3839 


HARE 


Inomas  iiuruy. 


The   bouse  near  Dorcnester   wnete  tue  novelist  and  poet  was  born  in  1840. 
bis  borne  in  later  life  at  Dorcbester 


Right,   Max  Gate, 


1882  ;  The  Mayor  of  Casterbridge, 
1886;  The  Woodlanders,  1887; 
Wessex  Tales,  1888  ;  A  Group  of 
Noble  Dames,  1891  ;  Tess  of  the 
D'Urbervilles,  1891;  Life's  Little 
Ironies,  1894:  Jude  the  Obscure, 
1896  ;  The  Well-Beloved,  1 897  ;  Wes- 
sex Poems,  1898  ;  Poems  of  the  Past 
and  Present,  1902;  The  Dynasts, 
I,  1904;  II,  1906;  III,  1908;  Time's 
Laughing-Stocks,  1909  ;  A  Changed 
Man,  1913  ;  Satires  of  Circumstance, 
1914;  Moments  of  Vision,  1917. 
The  Poems  and  The  Dynasts  have 
been  re-issued  complete  in  two  vol- 
umes ;  of  the  prose  there  are  three 
complete  editions,  Wessex  Novels, 
1895,  etc. ;  The  Wessex,  1912,  etc.  ; 
The  Mellstock,  1920,  etc. 

Bibliography.  The  Art  of  Thomas 
H  irdy,  Lionel  Johnson,  1895  : 
Thomas  Hardy,  A.  Macdonnell. 
1894  :  The  Wessex  of  Thomas  Hardy, 
B.  C.  A.  Windle,  1901  ;  The  Wessex 
of  Romance,  W.  Sherren,  1902. 
Tne  Hardy  Country,  C.  G.  Harper. 
1904  ;  Thomas  Hardy,  a  Critical 
S^udy,  L.Abercrombie,1912;  Papers, 
W  Sharp.  1912;  Thomas  Hardy  s 
Wussex,  H.  Lea,  1913;  Thomas 
Hardy,  H.  Child,  1916. 

Hardy,  THOMAS  Bi  SH  (1842- 
97).  British  painter.  Born  at  Shef- 
field, he  was  an  extraordinarily 
prolific  painter  of  marine  subjects, 
chiefly  in  water-colour.  He  exhi- 
bited at  the  Royal  Academy  from 
1872,  and  became  a  member  of  the 
Royal  .Society  ot  British  Artists  in 
1884.  He  died  Dec.  15,  1897. 

Hardy,  SIR  THOMAS  MASTERMAN 
(1769-1839).  British  sailor.  Born 
at  Kingston,  Dorset,  April  5,  17f>9, 
he  served  some 
years  in  the 
merchant  ser- 
vice before  he 
was  appointed 
lieutenant  in 
the  navy  in 
1793,  and  at- 
tached  to 
N  e  1  s  o  n  '  s 
squadron  off 
Genoa.  In 
1796  he  served 
under  Nelson 
A/trr  R.  £ic«<  in  theMinerva. 


In  1798  he  was  present  at  the 
battle  oftheNile,and  was  promoted 
to  Nelson's  flagship,  the  Vanguard. 
In  command  of  the  Victory  in 
1805,  he  acted  as  captain  of  the 
fleet  during  the  remainder  of  Nel- 
son's command.  He  was  by  Nel- 
son's side  when  the  admiral  was 
struck,  was  witness  to  his  will,  and 
attended  him  until  his  death.  Made 
a  baronet  in  l«0fi 


rime,     iiiue  uuies,  i^e^us  tmuuus. 
Above,  common  bares,  L.  europaeus 

to  the  N.  American  station,  where, 
except  three  years  (1809-12)  at 
Lisbon,  he  remained  until  1815. 

In  1819  he  was  made  comman- 
der-in-chief  of  the  S.  America 
station.  In  1825  he  was  promoted 
rear-admiral,  and  in  1830  became 
first  sea  lord.  In  1834  he  was  made 
governor  of  Greenwich  Hospital, 
where  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his 
life  He  died  Sept.  20,  1839.  See 
Nelson ;  consult  Nelson's  Hardy  : 
his  Life,  Letters  and  Friends,  A.  M. 
Broadley  and  R.  C.  Bartelot.  1909. 

Hardyng,  JOHN  (1378-1465). 
English  cnronicler.  A  native  of 
Northumberland,  he  began  life  as  a 


soldier.  He  saw  a  good  deal  of  sei  - 
vice  in  France,  being  at  Agincourt, 
and  he  was  sent  on  an  errand  to 
Rome.  He  passed  much  of  his  time 
in  compiling  a  rhyming  chronicle 
of  England.  The  first  edition  ended 
in  1436;  another,  Yorki?t  in  its 
tone,  was  prepared  by  him  for 
Richard,  duke  of  York,  and 
yet  another  for  Edward  IV;  it 
is  inaccurate  and  dull.  He  lived 
from  about  1436,  at  Kyme,  Lin- 
colnshire. 

Hare.  Name  applied  generally 
to  a  large  family  of  rodents,  which 
includes  the  hares  proper  and  the 
rabbits.  There  are  about  nine 
well-marked  local  races  or  varieties, 
mostly  grey  or  brown.  They  are  all 
remarkable  for  their  long  hind  legs 
and  ears,  and  their  short  curved 
tails,  and  are  capable  of  great  speed. 
The  common  hare  is  distinguished 
from  the  rabbit  by  its  larger  size, 
longer  limbs  and  ears,  and  the  red- 
dish-brown hue  of  its  fur.  It  also 
differs  greatly  in  its  habits,  especi- 
ally in  not  living  in  burrows. 

The  hare  lives  usually  in  the 
open,  crouching  in  a  furrow  or  in  a 
hollow  in  the  grass,  and  only  takes 
shelter  in  the  undergrowth  of 
thickets  in  wet  weather.  It  sits 
so  very  closely  that  often  it  will 
not  stir  until  almost  trodden  upon. 
The  hare  feeds  mainly  on  corn, 
vegetables,  and  bark  of  young  trees. 
Hare,  AUGUSTUS  JOHN  CUTHBERT 
(1834-1903).  British  author.  Born 
in  Rome.  March  13,  1834,  he  was 
educated  a  t 
Harrow  and 
Un  iversity 
College,  Ox- 
ford. Much  of 
Hare's  life  was 
spent  abroad, 
and  his  guide- 
books  beai 
witness  to  his 
i.»  Hare,  intelligent  ob- 
British  author  servation. 
miiou  &  Fry  Among  these 
are  Walks  in  Rome,  1871';  Wan- 
derings in  Spain,  1873;  Walks 


HARE-LIP 


in  London,  1878  ;  Florence,  1884  : 
Cities  of  Central  Italy,  1884  ;  Paris, 
1887  ;  and  several  books  on 
France. 

He  also  published  The  Memorials 
of  a  Quiet  Life,  1872-76,  a  tribute 
to  the  lady  who  had  adopted  him, 
and  the  rather  tedious  Story  of  My 
Life,  1896-1900,  which  will  always 
be  popular  for  its  anecdotes  ot 
well-known  people.  He  died 
Jan.  22,  1903. 

Hare,  FRANCIS  (1671-1740). 
English  prelate.  Born  Nov.  1,1671, 
he  was  the  son  of  an  Essex  man 
Richard  Hare.  He  was  educated 
at  Eton  and  King's  College,  Cam 
bridge,  and  was  ordained.  In  1704 
he  was  made  chaplain-general  to 
the  army  in  Flanders,  where  he 
remained  for  some  years.  In  17]«r> 
he  was  appointed  dean  of  Worcester 
and  in  1726  dean  of  S.  Paul's.  In 
1727  he  was  chosen  bishop  ot 
Worcester,  and  in  1731  was  trans- 
lated to  Chichester,  retaining  all 
the  time  the  deanery  of  S.  Paul's. 
He  died  April  26,  1740.  He  wrote 
a  good  deal,  took  part  in  the  Ban- 
gorian  Controversy,  and  had  a 
controversy  with  Bentley.  Francis 
Hare-Naylor  (1753  - 1815),  the 
author,  was  his  grandson. 

Hare,  SIR  JOHN  (1844-1921) 
British  comedian  and  actor-manag- 
er. B.  in  London,  May  16, 1844,  and 
educated  at 
•  Jiggles  wick 
Grammar 
School,  in 
1865  he  be- 
gan his  ap- 
pearance i  n 
London  in  the 
leading  parts 
of  the  Robert- 
son series  of 
comedies. 
From  1875- 

79      n  e      w  a  g 

manager  of  the  old  Court  Theatre, 
and  from  1879-88  was  associated 
with  W.  H.  Kendal  as  manager  of 
the  St.  James's  Theatre.  From 
1889-95  he  was  lessee  of  the  Gar- 
rick.  He  brought  out  and  played 
in  many  of  Arthur  Pinero's  plays 
from  The  Money  Spinner,  1881,  to 
that  of  The  Gay  Lord  Quex,  1899. 
One  of  his  most  popular  parts 
was  Benjamin  Goldfinch  in  A 
Pair  of  Spectacles,  1890.  He 
was  knighted  in  1907.  He  died 
on  Dec.  28,  1921. 

Hare,  JULIUS  CHARLES  (1795- 
1855).  British  clergyman  and 
author.  Born  at  Valdagno,  Italy, 
Sept.  13,  1795,  he  was  educated  at 
Cambridge,  and  became  tutor  at 
Trinity  College.  In  1832  he  was 
appointed  rector  of  Hurstmon- 
ceux,  and  archdeacon  of  Lewes  in 
1840.  He  was  the  intimate  friend 
of  the  leading  spirits  of  the  Broad 


and.N.  America.  Near  the  root- 
stock  the  leaves  are  heart-shaped 
or  kidney-shaped,  but  up  the  stem 
become  more  slender  andelongated. 
The  stems  are  slender,  angled, 
with  blue  bell-shaped  flowers.  See 
Bell-flower;  Flower. 

Harefield.  Parish  and  village 
of  Middlesex,  England.  Situated 
above  the  Colne,  between  Ux bridge 
and  Rickmansworth,  it  has  asbes- 
tos and  lime  works.  The  manor,  in 
Edward  the  Confessor's  time  the 
property  of  Countess 
Goda,  passed  in  1284  to 
the  Baeheworths,  in  1315 
to  the  Swan  lands,  and 


Julius  Cbas.  Hare, 
British  author 


Church  party,  and  became 
chaplain  to    the  queen   in      '^R§ 
1853.  In  collaboration  with        ^j 
his    brother,    A.  W.    Hare 
__  __  (1792-1834;, 

"1    he     wrote 
|S|jjk         Guesses    at 
1    Truth,     and 
I    was  the  author 
j    of    The     Mis 
I    s  i  o  n   of    the 
<    Comforter, 
jjlw    '     1846,and  other 
|    books.      HP 
*    died  at  Hurst 
m  o  n  c  e  u  x. 
Jan.  23,  185:> 
Hare  and  Hounds.    Variation 
of  cross-country  running.     It  is  a 
healthy  form  of  winter  exercise  in 
which  generally  one  or  two,   but 
sometimes    more,    of   the    fleetest 
runners  participating  are  selected 
as  the  hares,  the  remainder,  un- 
limited   in    number,     being     the 
hounds.    The  hares  set  off  at  a  fast 
pace  laying  a  trail  of  paper-cut- 
tings as  they  go,  and  the  pack,  who 
follow  at  an  interval  of  about  ten 
minutes,    endeavour   to    overtake 
them.     By  adroitly  doubling  and 
laying      cross  -  trails     the    hares 
endeavour  to 
avoid     capture, 
and    frequently 
manage      to 
throw  their  pur- 
suers   off  the 
scent.    See  Run 
ning. 

Harebell 
(Campanula  ro- 
tundifo  lia). 
Perennial  herb 
of  the  natural 
order  Campanu- 
laceae.  It  is  a 
native  of 

?,U-r  °  \i'  A  ?*'      Harebell,  flowers 
Africa,  N.  Asia,  and  buds 


Sir  John  Hare.  1.  As  Lord  Kil- 
clare  in  A  Quiet  Rubber,  1876. 
2.  As  Benjamin  Goldfinch  in  A 
Pair  of  Spectacles,  1890.  3.  As 
Colonel  Daunt  in  The  Queen's 
Shilling,  1879 

then  to  Sir  John  Newdegate,  whose 
descendant  sold  it  in  1585;  it  re- 
turned to  the  Newdegates  in  1675. 

Lord  Keeper  Egerton,  who 
married  Alice  Spencer,  dowager 
countess  of  Derby,  acquired  it  in 
1601,  and  at  Harefield  Place  enter- 
tained Queen  Elizabeth  in  1602, 
when,  says  tradition,  Othello  was 
performed.  Milton's  Arcades  was 
performed  here  for  the  countess 
(d.  1637)  in  1634.  The  mansion, 
which  has  had  two  successors,  was 
burnt  in  1660.  The  church  of  S. 
Mary,  founded  1300,  is  rich  in 
monuments.  There  are  remains  of 
Moor  Hall,  a  camera  or  cell  of  the 
priory  of  S.  John,  Clerkenwell ;  also 
some  almshouses  founded  by  the 
countess  of  Derby.  Pop.  2,400 

Hare-lip.  Congenital  deformity 
in  which  the  upper  lip  is  fissured. 
Usually  there  is  a  central  fissure  in 
the  margin  of  the  lip.  The  defect 
may  involve  the  nose  and  the  hard 
and  soft  palate.  Hare-lip  can  be 
improved  by  surgical  treatment. 


HAREM 


3841 


HAREWOOD 


Harem.     A  Gilded  Cage.     Oriental  scene  painted  by 
F.  Goodall,  R.A. 

Harem  (Ar.  hareem,  sacred,  set 
apart,  i.e.  forbidden).  Name  ap- 
plied in  Mahomedan  countries  to 
that  part  of  the  house  in  which  the 
women  are  secluded.  The  meaning 
of  the  word  has  been  extended  to 
include  all  the  women  thus  kept 
apart.  Although  the  harem  is  prac- 
tically a  Mahomedan  institution, 
the  custom  of  secluding  the  female 
members  of  the  household  is  of 
great  antiquity  in  the  East ;  ex- 
cavations prove  that  the  kings  of 
ancient  Persia  confined  their 
womenfolk  to  a  separate  part  of 
the  palace,  while  various  passages 
in  the  O.T.  provide  evidence  to  the 
same  effect. 

According  to  the  Koran,  no 
woman  may  allow  her  face  to  be 
seen  by  any  man  save  her  father, 
husband,  son,  or  close  blood  rela 
tions,  and  obedience  to  this  pre- 
cept, together  with  the  practice  of 
polygamy  and  concubinage,  led  to 
special  apartments  or  entire  wings 
of  large  houses  being  devoted  to 
the  women  of  the  establishment. 
Conditions  of  life  in  the  harem 
differ  widely  in  Mahomedan  coun- 
tries. The  law  of  Islam  permits  a 
man  four  wives  (the  sultan  is  al- 
lowed seven),  and  each  wife  may 
demand  a  separate  apartment. 

In  India  and  Turkey  the  inmates 
have  more  liberty  than  elsewhere, 
and  the  rule  of  the  eunuchs,  in 
whose  charge  the  harems  are  fre- 
quently placed,  is  less  evil.  Idle- 
ness and  scandalmongering  are  the 
worst  features  of  the  system. 


Western  ideas  are 
gradually  having 
their  effect  on  the 
harem,  and  the 
institution,  in  more 
civilized  parts  of 
Islam,  is  becoming 
greatly  modified 
See  Polygamy. 
Haren,  O  N  N  o 

ZWIER  VAN  (1711- 

79).      Dutch  poet 
and      statesman. 
Brother  of  Willem 
van  Haren,  he  was 
born  at  Leeuward 
en  on  April  2, 1711. 
and    occupied 
various    offices    of 
state  in  the  Nether- 
lands,  being  a 
staunch  supporter 
of   the   Orange 
family.     He  wrote 
much  verse,  among 
his    most    notable 
volumes  being  Die 
Koophandel,1769: 
Agon,    a   poetic 
tragedy,  1769  ;  De 
Geusen,  1771 ;   De 
Vrijheid,1778.  He 
translated    Pope's 
EssayonMan.  HediedSept.2,1779. 
Haren,  WILLEM  VAN  (1710-68). 
Dutch   poet.      Born    of    a   distin- 
guished family  at  Leeuwarden,  Feb 
21, 1710,  Haren  studied  at  Franeker 
and  Groningen.      In   1728  he  in- 
herited the  castle  and  estates  of 
Henkenshage.     His  best  work  was 
the  epic  poem  Gevallen  van  Friso, 
1741 ,  one  of  the  notable  long  poems 
in  the  language.  He  died  July  4,1 768 
Hares.    North  American  Indian 
tribe  of  Athapascan  stock  :    pro- 
perly the  Kawchodinne,  or  great- 
hare-people.  Living  N.  and  W.  of  the 
Great  Bear  Lake,  Canada,  they  num- 
ber about  600. 
They  subsist  on 
fish,     reindeer, 
and  the  Arctic 
hare,w  Inch  also 
furnishes   their 
clothing.  They 
are  in  friendly 
contact    with 
the  Eskimos. 

Hare's -ear 
(Bupleurum  ro- 
tund i  folium). 
Annual  herb  of 
the  natural 
order  Umbelli- 
ferae,  native  of 
Europe  and  W. 
Asia.  The  stem 


Hare's-ear.   Leaves 

and  flower-head  of 

Bupleurum     fruti- 

cosum 


is  hollow,  ap- 
pearing to  run 
through  the 
base  of  the 
thick,  oblong  or 
roundish,  glau- 


cous leaves.  The  minute  yellow 
flowers  form  tiny  umbels  m  the 
centre  of  a  cup  of  bracts  whose 
edges  are  united.  A  shrubby 
perennial  (B.  fruticosum).  from 
Spain,  is  grown  in  gardens. 

Hare's-foot  Fern  (Davallia 
canariensis).  Fern  of  the  natural 
order  Polypodiacoae,  native  of  W 


Hare's-foot  Fern.      Rootstock  and 

wedge-shaped  fronds 
Europe  and  the  Canaries.  The 
rootstock  creeps  above  ground, 
densely  clothed  with  shaggy  brown 
scales ;  the  frond  is  wedge-shaped, 
cut  up  into  leaflets  (pinnae)  which 
are  much  divided. 

Hare's -tail  Grass  (La  gurus 
ovatus).  Annual  grass  of  the  natural 
order  Gramineae.  It  is  a  native  of 
••rnxmiu^o-^  W.  and  S.  Eu- 
rope, N.  Africa, 
and  W.  Asia.  It 
has  numerous 
stems,  broad, 
flat  leaves,  and 
flower  spikelets 
crowded  into  a 
white,  hairy 
oval  head, 
which  suggest- 
ed the  name. 

Hare  wood, 
EARLO  F.British 
title  borne  since 
1812  by  the 
family  of  Las- 
celles.  Edward 
)  Lascelles,  the 
;  head  of  a  well- 
j  known  York- 
I  shire  family, 
I  was  created 
j  Baron  Hare- 
]  wood  in  1796, 
j  an  earlier  crea- 
j  tion  of  this 
j  name  having 
•I  become  extinct 
i  when  its  first 
!  holder  died.  In 
j  1812  he  was 
made  an  earl. 
The  family 
estates  are  in 
Yorkshire  (W.R.),  the  chief  seat 
being  Harewood  House,  near  Leeds, 
and  the  earl's  eldest  son  is  known 
as  Viscount  Lascelles. 


Hare's-tail  Grass, 
showing  root, 
leaves,  and  flower 


R     5 


HARFLEUR 


3842 


HARING 


Harfleur.  Town  and  seaport 
of  France.  In  the  dept.  of  Seine 
Inferieure,  it  stands  on  the  Le- 
zarde,  near  where  it  falls  into  the 
Seine.  The  chief  building  is  S. 
Martin's  Church,  a  Gothic  building 
known  for  its  high  steeple  and 
fine  portal.  There  are  ruins  of  the 


Harfleur,  France.     The  church  of 
S.  Martin,  with  its  beautiful  Gothic 
spire 

old  castle,  but  the  other  fortifica- 
tions have  disappeared.  A  1 7th 
century  chateau  occupies  the  site 
of  the  castle. 

Harfleur  was  a  considerable 
port  in  the  Middle  Ages,  but 
later  it  was  rendered  useless  by 
the  accumulation  of  sand  in  the 
Lezarde.  However,  in  1 887  a  canal 
was  cut  connecting  it  again  with 
Havre  and  the  Seine.  A  new 
harbour  with  docks  and  other  ac- 
commodation for  vessels  and  their 
cargoes  were  built  along  the  canal, 
and  the  port  has  a  trade  in  coal 
and  timber.  There  is  some  fishing, 
while  other  industries  are  con- 
nected with  oil  and  spirits.  Har- 
fleur was  besieged  and  taken  by 
Henry  V  of  England  in  1415,  being 
then  the  chief  port  of  Normandy, 
in  1445,  inspired  by  John  de 
Grouchy,  the  French  drove  out  the 
English,  and  although  the  latter 
returned,  they  finally  lost  the  place 
in  1449.  Pop.  2,700. 

Hargicourt.  Name  of  two  vil- 
lages in  France  prominent  in  the 
Great  War:  (1)  in  the  dept.  of 
Aisne,  slightly  S.  of  Ronssoy.  It 
fell  to  the  Germans  in  the  first  day 
of  their  great  March  offensive,  191 8. 
It  was  retaken  by  an  Australian 
division,  Sept.  18, 191 8.  (2)  In  the 
dept.  of  Somme,  6  m.  S.E.  of 
Moreuil.  This  Hargicourt  was 
captured  by  the  Germans,  March, 
1918,  and  stormed  by  the  French, 
Aug.  9,  1918.  See  Epehy,  Battle 
of;  Somme,  Battles  of  the. 


Hargood,  SIR  WILLIAM  (1762- 
1839).  British  admiral.  Born  May 
6,  1762,  his  father  was  in  the  navy, 
which  he  himself  entered  in  1773. 
As  a  youth  he  saw  a  good  deal  of 
active  service,  especially  during 
the  war  against  America.  In  1792 
he  obtained  command  of  a  ship, 
the  Hyaena,  but  in  1793  this  was 
taken  by  a  French  vessel,  and  the 
officers  were  made  prisoners.  They 
escaped,  however,  and  soon  Har- 
good,  acquitted  by  a  court-martial, 
was  commanding  another  ship.  He 
did  good  service  in  suppressing  the 
mutiny  of  1796  ;  at  Trafalgar  he 
led  the  Belleisle,  and  he  was  al- 
most constantly  at  sea  until  1814, 
being  appointed  to  command  a 
squadron  in  1810.  In  1815  he  was 
knighted,  in  1831  was  made  an 
admiral,  and  from  1833—36  he  was 
commander-in-chief  at  Plymouth. 
Hargood,  who  died  Sept.  11,  1839, 
owed  much  to  his  friendship  with 
William  IV,  under  whom  he  served 
in  the  navy. 

Hargreaves,  JAMES  (d.  1778). 
British  inventor.  A  carpenter  and 
weaver  of  Standhill,  near  Black- 
burn, in  1760  he  invented  an  im- 
provement of  the  carding  machine, 
and  about  four  years  later  built  a 
machine  which  contained  eight 
spindles  in  a  row.  This  was  called 
the  spinning  jenny,  and  its  inven- 
tion marks  the  beginning  of  an  era 
in  industrial  history.  Together 
with  Kay's  flying  shuttle  it  revo- 
lutionised the  cot-  .._ 
ton  and  woollen  ; 
industries,  multi- 
plying their  out- 
put many  times. 

Imagining  that 
i  t  s  introduction 
would  replace 
human  labour  by 
machinery  and 
thus  mean  ruin 
for  themselves, 
some  Blackburn 
spinners  raided 
Hargreaves" 
house  and  de- 
stroyed his  appa- 
ratus in  1768.  He 
thereupon  moved 
to  Nottingham, 
and  notwithstand- 
i  n  g  opposition, 
his  machines  were 
soon  widely  used.  After  his  death  it 
was  asserted  that  he  had  appropri- 
ated the  invention  of  Arkwright, 
and  the  matter  was  the  subject  of  a 
lawsuit.  See  Arkwright ;  Spinning. 

Hari  OR  HERI  RUD.  River  of 
Afghanistan,  the  ancient  Arius. 
Rising  in  the  Hindu  Rush,  it  has 
a  length  of  about  700  m.  It  flows 
through  N.W.  Afghanistan  and  for 
part  of  its  course  forms  the  boun- 
dary between  Afghanistan  and 


Persia.  Herat  is  situated  on  it.  It 
finally  loses  itself  in  the  Tejen 
swamps  of  the  Transoaspian  prov. 

Haricot,  FRENCH  BEAN  OR  KID- 
NEY BEAN.  Seed  of  Pliaseolus  rul- 
yciris.  The  green  pods,  called  b}7 
the  French  haricots  verts,  when 
boiled  form  a  wholesome  and  ex- 
cellent vegetable.  They  can  be 
preserved  in  salt  for  some  time  for 
winter  use.  The  beans,  either  dried 
or  fresh,  are  boiled.  If  dried,  it  is 
necessary  to  soak  them  in  cold  water 
for  about  twenty -four  hours,  or  they 
may  be  placed  in  cold  water  and 
brought  to  the  boil.  After  simmer- 
ing for  half  an  hour  they  are  again 
placed  in  cold  water,  and  this  pro- 
cess is  repeated  till  the  beans  are 
tender.  The  older  meaning  of  the 
French  word  haricot  is  a  dish  of 
stewed  mutton,  beans,  and  other 
vegetables.  Fron.harryko.  <SeeBean. 

Haricot  Redoubt.  Turkish 
strongly  fortified  position  on  the 
Kereves  Ridge,  Gallipoli  peninsula, 
prominent  in  the  fighting  there  in 
the  Great  War.  It  lies  on  the 
S.E.  part  of  Gallipoli  near  Krithia 
(q.v. ).  It  was  stormed  by  the  Brit- 
ish, June  4,  1915.  See  Gallipoli, 
Campaign  in. 

Haring,  GEOEG  WILHELM 
(1798-1871).  German  novelist, 
also  known  as  Willibald  Alexis. 
Born  at  Breslau,  June  29,  1798,  he 
saw  some  military  service,  was 
engaged  in  law,  and  then  took  up 
literary  work.  He  was  a  prolific 


James  faargreaves.    Model  of  his  Spinning  Jenny,  now  in 
the  Science  and  Art  Museum,  South  Kensington,  London 


writer  of  poems,  plays,  and  histori- 
cal novels,  many  of  the  last  having 
become  classics.  Cabanis,  1832  ; 
Roland  von  Berlin,  1840 ;  Die  Hosen 
des  Herrn  von  Bredow,  1846-48, 
are  the  best  known  of  his  romances. 
He  was  much  influenced  by  Sir 
Walter  Scott,  and  his  early  novels, 
Walladm.  r,  1823-24,  and  Schloss 
Avalon,  1827,  were  long  considered 
works  of  that  author.  Haring  died  at 
Arnstadt,  Thuringia,  Dec.  16, 1871. 


HARINGTON 


3843 


HARLECH 


Sir  Chas.  Harington, 
British  soldier 


Harington,  SIR  CHARLES  HAR- 
INGTON (b.  1872).  British  soldier. 
Born  at  Chichester,  May  31,  1872, 
he  was  edu- 
c  a  t  e  d  at 
C  h  e 1 1  e nham 
and  Sand- 
hurst, and 
entered  the 
army,  King's 
(Liverpool) 
Regt.,  in  Jan., 
1892.  He 
served  on  the 
staff  in  the  S. 
RUMH  African  War, 

when  he  won  the  D.S.O.  From 
1903-7  he  was  an  officer  at  the 
Royal  Military  College;  and  in 
April-Nov.,  1909,  was  specially  em- 
ployed at  the  War  Office.  From 
1911-13  Harington  was  brigade 
maj  or,  of  the  6th  brigade,  Aldershot. 
During  the  Great  War  he  was 
brigadier-general  on  the  general 
staff,  1915-16,  and  later  chief  of 
staff  to  General  Plumer.  When  the 
latter  went  to  Italy,  Oct.,  1917, 
Harington  accompanied  him  as 
chief  of  the  general  staff  of  the 
British  forces.  He  was  appointed 
deputy  chief  of  the  Imperial 
General  Staff.  War  Office,  in  April, 
1918.  In  Sept.,  1920,  he  was  ap- 
pointed G.O.C.  thft  army  of  the 
Black  Sea,  and  in  1923  the  North- 
ern command.  He  was  knighted  in 
Jan.,  1919,  and  was  promoted 
lieut. -general  in  Sept.,  1920 
Harington  OR  HARRINGTON, 


English  writer. 
Northampton- 


James  Harington, 
English  writer 

From  a  print 


JAMES  (1611-77). 
Born  at  Upton, 
shire,  Jan.  7,  r, 
1611,  and  edu-  j 
cated  at  I 
Trinity  Col-  I 
lege,  Oxford,  f| 
he  passed  some 
time  abroad, 
examining 
different  forms 
of  government, 
especially  that 
of  Venice.  He 
became  a 
gentleman  of  the  bedchamber  to 
Charles  I,  and  in  1646,  although 
holding  republican  views,  he  was 
again  attached  to  the  king,  then 
in  captivity.  They  had  discus- 
sions on  politics,  but  Harington, 
having  failed  to  arrange  terms 
between  Charles  and  his  foes,  lost 
his  position.  He  lived  quietly 
under  the  Commonwealth,  but  in 
1661  was  imprisoned  for  a  short 
time.  His  last  years  were  clouded 
by  mental  trouble,  and  he  died  in 
London,  Sept.  11,  1677.  His  body 
was  buried  in  S.  Margaret's,  West- 
minster. 

Harington  is  known  solely  by 
his  one  book  Oceana.  Published 
in  1656,  and  dedicated  to  Crom- 


Henry  Harland, 
American  novelist 


well,  it  is  a  treatise  on  govern- 
ment, England  being  Oceana,  and 
shows  its  author  as  the  most 
original  political  thinker  of  his 
time.  According  to  his  teaching, 
the  vital  principles  in  an  ideal 
system  of  government  are  a  bal- 
ance of  forces,  material  and  in- 
tellectual, and  a  rotation  of  offices. 
In  some  ways  he  anticipated  ideas 
that  were  not  translated  into 
action  until  the  19th  century.  He 
advocated  compulsory  education 
and  voting  by  ballot,  put  forward 
plans  for  breaking  up  great  landed 
estates,  and  was  a  believer  in  com- 
plete religious  liberty.  His  ideas 
attracted  a  good  deal  of  attention, 
and  in  1659  a  debating  society 
called  the  Rota  Club  was  founded 
to  discuss  them.  See  Oceana,  ed. 
H.  Morley,  1887. 

Harington,  SIR  JOHN  (1561- 
1612).  English  writer.  He  was 
born  at  Kelston,  Somerset,  and 

Queen     Eliza- 
beth became 

his  godmother, 

his    parents 

having   suf- 

f  e  r  e  d     i  m- 

prisonment  for 

their      loyalty 

to  her  in  1 554 . 

He    was    edu- 

Sir  John  Harington,     cated  at  Eton 
English  writer         and      c  a  m. 
Aftcrj.Thur.ton         bridge,    and 
studied  law  at  Lincoln's  Inn.    His 
wit    and    liveliness    made    him    a 
favourite   at   court.      In    1591    he 
published  a  translation  of  Ariosto's 
Orlando  Furioso  with  a  prefatory 
Apologie    of    Poetrie.       Later    he 
issued   a   number   of   satires   of   a 
somewhat     free     character,     and 
aroused   the  queen's   anger   by   a 
supposed  reference  to  the  earl  of 
Leicester.     Having  been  forgiven, 
he  went  to  Ireland   in   1599  with 
Essex,  by  whom  he  was  knighted. 
When  the  queen  was  nearing  her 
end,  he  wrote  A  Tract  on  the  Suc- 
cession to  the  Crown,  in  favour  of 
James    of    Scotland  (publ.   1880), 
and  in   1605,  with  a  view  to  be- 
coming chancellor  of   Ireland,    he 
wrote  A  Short 
View  of  the  State 
of    Ireland    (publ. 
1879).    He  died  at 
Kelston,  Nov.   20, 
1612.      His  letters 
and    miscellanies, 
brought     together 
in   Nugae  Anti- 
quae,   1769,  throw 
much     li  g  h  t    on 
Elizabethan  times. 

Hariri,    ABU 

MOHAMMED  AL- 
QASIM    AL    (1054- 

1122).     Arabic   

grammarian    and   Harlecb,  Merionethshire.    The  castle,  famous  in  W 


poet.  He  was  born  and  died  at 
Basra  on  the  Tigris.  Author  of 
several  grammatical  treatises,  of 
which  two  are  extant,  his  most 
famous  work  is  his  Maqamat 
(Assemblies  or  Lectures),  a  collec- 
tion of  50  rhymed  tales  composed 
at  the  suggestion  of  a  distinguished 
Persian  statesman.  The  hero  of 
them  is  Abu  Seid,  a  disreputable 
but  fascinating  scamp,  full  of 
genius  and  learning,  who  was 
driven  into  exile  and  poverty 
when  the  Crusaders  took  his  native 
town.  There  are  Eng.  trans,  by 
T.  Preston,  1850,  and  T.  Chenery, 
1867. 

Harland,  HENRY  (1861-1905). 
American  novelist.  Born  at  St. 
Petersburg,  March  1,  1861,  he 
spent  most  of 
his  later  years 
in  London, 
and  died  in 
Italy  at  San 
R  e  m  o,  Dec. 
20,  1905.  His 
early  books 
were  realistic 
studies  of 
American  Jew- 
ish life  written 

under  the  pseudonym  of  Sidney 
Luska.  He  then  became  known 
in  Great  Britain  as  editor  of  The 
Yellow  Book  and  as  author  of 
three  volumes  of  short  stories, 
Grey  Roses,  1895,  and  Comedies 
and  Errors,  1898 ;  Mademoiselle 
Miss,  1903 ;  and  of  three  novels, 
The  Cardinal's  Snuff  Box,  1900, 
The  Lady  Paramount,  1902,  and 
My  Friend  Prospero,  1904.  His 
later  work  won  for  him  a  deserved 
reputation  as  a  stylist. 

Harlaw.  Spot  in  Aberdeenshire, 
famous  for  the  encounter  here  in 
1411.  It  stands  near  the  river  Ury, 
2  m.  N.W.  of  Inverurie.  Donald, 
lord  of  the  isles,  collected  his  High- 
landers to  take  possession  of  the 
earldom  of  Ross.  He  was  met  by 
troops  under  the  earl  of  Mar,,  and 
his  force  was  completely  crushed. 

Harlech.  Town  of  Merioneth- 
shire, Wales.  It  is  10  m.  from 
Barmouth,  on  the  Cambrian  Rly., 


\ 


HARLE1AN 


3844 


HARLOW 


and  is  famous  for  its  ruined  castle 
overlooking  the  sea.  There  was  a 
fortress  here  in  Roman  times,  but 
the  present  building  dates  from  the 
reign  of  Edward  1.  In  1468  the 
castle  was  taken  by  the  Yorkists 
after  a  long  siege,  this  incident 
having,  it  is  said,  given  rise  to  the 
Welsh  song  of  The  March  of  the 
Men  of  Harlech.  It  was  dismantled 
after  the  Civil  War,  when  it  was 
one  of  the  last  places  to  hold  out 
for  Charles  I.  The  town  has  de- 
clined in  importance.  It  was  made 
a  borough  by  Edward  I,  and  was 
long  the  county  town  of  Merioneth- 
shire. There  is  a  golf  course  on 
the  sands.  Pop.  1,800. 

Harleian  Manuscripts.  Coj 
lection  made  by  Robert  Harley, 
1st  earl  of  Oxford  (1661-1724),  and 
his  son  Edward  (1689-1741).  It 
contained  7,639  volumes  of  MSS 
and  14,336  rolls  and  other  deeds. 
In  1753  it  was  purchased  for 
£10,000  by  the  Government  and 
placed  in  the  British  Museum.  See 
British  Museum  ;  Manuscripts. 

Harlem.  Alternative  spelling  of 
the  city  in  the  Netherlands  better 
known  as  Haarlem  (q.v.). 

Harlemmer  Meer  OR  HAARLEM 
LAKE.  Commune  of  Holland,  in  the 
prov.  of  N.  Holland.  Lying  to  the 
S.  of  Haarlem,  this  district  is 
among  the  largest  of  the  Dutch 
polders,  or  reclaimed  lakes  or 
morasses.  It  was  formed  by  pump- 
ing away  the  water  of  a  large  lake 
formerly  covering  the  area,  the 
work  being  carried  out  by  the  state 
between  1840  and  1853,  the  greater 
part  of  the  cost  being  met  by  the 
sale  of  the  reclaimed  land.  The 
district  thus  saved  covers  about 
72  sq.  m.,  and  is  fertile  and  we'll 
tilled,  with  an  estimated  pop.  of 
20,000.  The  chief  villages  in- 
clude Nieuw  Vennep  and  Abennes, 
and  the  railway  runs  along  the 
western  edge. 

Harlequin  (Ital.  arlecchino). 
Stock  character  in  pantomime.  The 
origin  of  the  name  is  uncertain. 
According  to  one  explanation,  it  is 
a  corruption  of  II  Lecchino,  the 
licker  of  plates,  Harlequin  having 
been  originally  a  gluttonous  eating- 
house  menial,"  who  abandoned  that 
profession  and  became  first  a  sol- 
dier, then  comedian,  tumbler 
dancer,  merry-andrew,  and  mounte- 
bank at  one  and  the  same  time. 

Disguised  as  the  marquis  ol 
Sbruffadeli,  he  goes  to  Court  and 
makes  love  to  the  Court  ladies  and 
to  their  waiting- maids.  Columbine 
(q.v.)  is  sometimes  his  mistress, 
sometimes  his  wife.  "Harlequin.  .  . 
with  his  black  mask,  his  many- 
coloured  lozenges,  his  shower  ol 
spangles,  represents*  love,  wit, 
mobility,  audacity,  all  the  showy 
and  vicious  qualities  "  (T.  Gautier). 


Another  suggested  derivation  is 
from  old  Fr.  hellequin,  demon  ;  cf 
A.S.  hella  cynn,  people  of  hell.  The 
harlequin  of  English  pantomime  is 
a  mischievous  character  who  plays 
tricks  on  the  clown  and  the  panta- 
loon, to  whom  he  is  supposed  to  be 
invisible,  and  who  engages  in 
acrobatic  dances  with  the  colum- 
bine. See  Pantomime  ;  consult 
also  History  of  the  Harlequinade, 
Maurice  Sand,  1915. 

Harlequin  Duck  (Anas  hislri- 
onica).  Species  of  wild  duck,  plen- 
tiful in  the  Arctic  regions  and 
occasionally  visiting  Great  Britain. 
It  is  a  handsome  bird,  the  male 


Harlequin  Duck.     Specimens  of  male 

and  female  birds 

having  lead-coloured  plumage,wrth 
purple  bars  on  the  wings  and  white 
markings  on  the  head,  neck,  and 
breast.  It  spends  the  summer  in- 
land, and  is  found  in  winter  about 
rocky  coasts. 

Harlequins.  Rugby  football 
club.  It  was  established  in  1871, 
and  soon  ranked  as  one  of  the  chief 
of  those  playing  around  London. 
Its  first  ground  was  at  Wands- 
worth  Common.  Under  A.  D. 
Stoop,  the  club  was  very  success- 
ful, and  in  1908  its  headquarters 
were  removed  to  the  large  new 
ground  at  Twickenham,  opened  by 
the  English  Rugby  Union. 


Harlequin.   George  Grossmith  dressed 
as  this  character  of  pantomime 

Lafayette 


Harlesden.  District  of  Middle- 
sex, England.  In  the  urban 
district  of  Willesden,  it  lies  between 
Kensal  Green  and  Stonebridge 
Park,  on  the  Harrow  Road.  It  is 
served  by  the  L.  &  N.W.  and 
Bakerloo  (Tube)  rlys.  and  has  a 
wharf  on  the  Paddington  branch 
of  the  Grand  Junction  Canal.  Once 
known  as  Harlesden  Green,  a  ham- 
let of  Willesden,  it  is  now  closely 
built  over  The  church  of  All  Souls 
dates  from  1879. 

Harley  Street.  London  tho- 
roughfare connecting  Marylebone 
Road  and  Cavendish  Square,  W. 
Named  after  Edward  Harley,  2nd 
earl  of  Oxford,  its  notable  residents 
have  included  Sir  Philip  Francis, 
William  Beckford,  W.  E.  Glad- 
stone, Sir  C.  Lyell,  A.  A.  Procter, 
B.  W.  Procter,  Allan  Ramsay,  and 
J.  M.  W  Turner.  Many  of  the 
leading  medical  specialists  and  phy- 
sicians have  consulting-rooms  here. 

Harlingen.  Town  and  seaport 
of  Holland.  In  the  province  of 
Friesland,  it  stands  on  the  Zuyder 
Zee,  16  m.  from  Leeuwarden.  It 
has  a  large  modern  harbour  built  in 
1870-71  and  enlarged  in  the  20th 
century,  and  from  it  are  exported 
butter,  cheese,  cattle,  potatoes,  and 
other  products  of  Friesland;  while 
timber,  coal,  cotton,  and  jute  are 
imported.  There  is  regular  steam- 
ship communication  with  London, 
Amsterdam,  and  other  ports.  With 
the  interior  it  is  connected  by  rail- 
way and  canal,  while  it  has  a 
service  of  tramways.  The  town 
hall  and  an  old  church  are  the 
chief  buildings.  Pop.  10,500. 

Harlington.  Parish  and  village 
of  Middlesex,  England.  It  is  N.W. 
of  Hounslow,  and  1  m.  S.  of  Hayes 
station  on  the  G.W.R.  Formerly 
called  Herdintone  and  Hardington, 
it  gave  its  name,  short  of  the  first 
letter,  which  was  omitted  by  an 
oversight  in  the  patent,  to  Henry 
Bennet,  1st  earl  of  Arlington  (q.v.). 
The  church  of  S.  Peter  and  S.  Paul, 
restored  1867,  with  N.  aisle  added 
in  1881.  contains  brasses,  effigies, 
and  other  monuments  of  the  Ben- 
net,  Ossulton,  Tankerville,  and  De 
Salis  families.  See  Hayes. 

Harlow,  GEORGE  HENRY  (1787- 
1819).  British  painter.  Born  in 
London,  June  10,  1787,  he  studied 
under  Sir  Thomas  Lawrence  and 
others,  and  painted  history  and 
portraits.  His  Trial  Scene,  1817, 
from  Shakespeare's  Henry  VIII, 
with  a  portrait  of  Mrs.  Siddons  as 
Queen  Catherine,  attracted  much 
attention.  In  1818  he  visited  Italy 
to  improve  his  defective  technical 
powers,  and  died  in  London,  Feb.  4, 
1819.  Although  a  follower  of  Law- 
rence, he  possessed  an  artistic 
originality  which  earned  him  a 
high  reputation. 


HARMAN 


3845 


HARMONIC      MOTION 


Sir  John  Harman, 
English  sailor 

After  Lely 


Harman,  SIB  JOHN  (d.  1673). 
English  sailor.  Of  Suffolk  birth,  he 
first  appears  as  commanding  the 
Welcome  in 
a  battle  off 
Portland  in 
1653.  In  1654 
he  sailed  to  the 
Mediterranean 
with  Blake, 
under  whom 
he  also  fought 
at  Santa  Cruz. 
In  1665  he 
carried  the 
duke  of  York's 
flag  in  the  Royal  Charles  in  the 
battle  of  J  une  3,  when  the  Dutch 
were  defeated.  Knighted  for  his 
share  in  the  victory,  he  was  pro- 
moted rear-admiral  and  in  1666 
was  severely  wounded  in  the  battle 
off  North  Foreland.  In  1667  he 
went  to  the  West  Indies  as  com- 
mander-in-chief  and  destroyed  the 
French  fleet  at  Martinique.  *  Carry- 
ing the  campaign  ashore,  Harman 
took  Cayenne  and  Surinam.  In' 
1672  he  took  part  in  the  battle  of 
Sole  Bay.  Next  year  he  dis- 
tinguished himself  against  de  Ruy- 
ter,  sitting,  owing  to  illness,  in  a 
chair  on  the  deck  while  directing 
operations.  He  died  Oct.  11,  1673. 
Harmattan.  Dry,  dust-laden 
wind  which  blows  away  from  the 
Sahara  between  Oct.  and  March. 
The  harmattan,  locally  known  as 
the  Doctor,  brings  cool  dry  weather 
to  the  steaming  jungles  of  West 
Africa,  and  is  health  -  giving. 
The  quantities  of  fine  dust  which  it 
brings  are  a  nuisance. 

Harmer,  SIR  SIDNEY  FBEDKRIC 
(b.  1862).  British  scientist.  Born  at 
Norwich,  March  9,  1862.  he 
educated  a  t 
University 
College,  Lon- 
don, of  which 
he  became 
fellow,  and  at 
King's  College, 
C  am  b  ridge, 
where  he  was 
fellow,  lecturer 
and  assistant- 
tutor  1890- 
1908.  He  was 

j  also  superintendent  of  the  univer- 
sity museum  of  zoology,  Cam- 
bridge. In  1908  he  was  appointed 
director  of  the  natural  history 
departments  of  the  British  Museum 
and  keeper  of  zoology.  He  was 
made  a  F.R.S.,  and  was  joint 
editor  of  The  Cambridge  Natural 
History.  He  was  knighted  in  1920. 
Harmine.  Alkaloid  which 
occurs  in  the  seeds  of  the  wild  rue 
(Peganum  harmala)  The  seeds 
contain  about  4  p.c.  of  alkaloids, 
one-third  of  which  is  harmine,  the 
rest  being  of  harmaline. 


Sir  Sidney  Harmer. 
British  scientist 


Harmodius  and  Aristogiton. 

Two  devoted  Athenian  friends. 
When  the  sister  of  Harmodius  had 
been  insulted  by  Hipparchus, 
brother  of  the  tyrant  Hippias,  they 
resolved  to  murder  Hipparchus  at 
the  festival  of  the  Panathenaea 
in  514  B.C.  Hipparchus  was  slain, 
but  Harmodius  was  killed  before 
Hippias  could  be  reached,  and 
though  Aristogiton  escaped,  he  was 
subsequently  taken  prisoner.  Put 
to  torture,  he  died  without  giving 
any  information  as  to  the  names  of 
his  accomplices.  Though  the 
motive  of  the  assassination  was  to 
satisfy  a  private  injury,  yet  the 
tyranny  of  Hippias  had  been  so 
oppressive  that  Harmodius  and 
Aristogiton  were  honoured  as 
martyrs  by  later  generations. 

Harxnonds worth.  Parish  and 
village  of  Middlesex,  England.  It  is 
situated  1£  m.  S.  of  the  West  Dray- 
ton  station  of  the  G.W.R.,  between 
Harlington  and  Colnbrook.  Called 
Hermodesworthe  'in  Domesday, 
the  manor  once  belonged  to  the 
Benedictine  abbey  of  Holy  Trinity 
at  Rouen,  from  which  it  passed  to 
William  of  Wykeham,  who  settled 
it  upon  Winchester  College.  The 
old  tithe  barn,  N.W.  of  the  church, 
has  three  floors  and  an  open 
timber  roof.  The  ancient  church  of 
S.  Mary  the  Virgin  was  restored 
in  1863-64,  when  the  old  brasses 
were  stolen.  The  manor  house 
was  pulled  down  in  1774  Pron. 
Harmsworth. 

Harmonia.  In  Greek  legend, 
daughter  of  Ares  and  Aphrodite, 
and  wife  of  Cadmus.  Among  her 
wedding  presents  were  a  robe  and 
necklace  which  brought  misfortune 
on  all  those  who  owned  them.  Ac- 
cording to  one  story,  they  were  the 
gift  of  Hephaestus,  who  desired  to 
avenge  her  mother's  unfaithfulness. 
See  Alcmaeon  ;  Cadmus. 

Harmonica.  Musical  instru- 
ment. It  consists  of  glass  vessels 
either  selected  for  their  intrinsic 
notes,  or  tuned  by  having  water 
poured  into  them.  Penetrating 
tones  are  produced  by  rubbing  the 
glasses  with  the  moistened  finger. 
The  Harmonica,  first  known  in  the 
17th  century,  was  improved  by 
Richard  Pockrich,  an  Irishman, 
and  became  a  fashionable  instru- 
ment in  the  middle  of  the  18th 
century.  It  was  further  developed 
by  Benjamin  Franklin,  who 
mounted  the  glasses  on  a  revolving 
spindle,  their  lower  edge  being  made 
to  pass  through  water.  The  term  also 
designates  a  toy  having  mounted 
plates  of  glass,  or  sometimes  metal, 
struck  with  a  small  wooden  hammer 

Harmonic  Motion.  Term 
which  may  be  used  as  the  general 
description  of  the  periodic  oscilla 
torv  type  of  motion  which  is  so 


common  in  nature,  and  of  which  the 
motions  of  the  tides,  the  vibrations 
of  a  violin  string,  and  the  beating 
of  a  pendulum  are  familiar  ex- 
amples. The  ideally  simple  type 
of  harmonic  motion  is  known  as 
"  simple  harmonic  motion,"  and  it 
has  been  found  possible,  by  the 
method  known  as  "  harmonic 
analysis,"  to  resolve  every  har- 
monic motion  into  a  combination  of 
different  simple  harmonic  motions. 
Simple  harmonic  motion  is  de- 
fined as  follows.  If  we  look  at  a 
particle,  which  is  moving  uniformly 
in  a  circle  Ql  M  Q  N,  from  a  point 
P  some  distance  outside  it  (see 
diagram  Fig.  1),  the  particle  will 


Fig.l 


appear  to  be  moving  backwards 
and  forwards  along  the  dia- 
meter M  O  N.  While  the  particle 
actually  moves  with  uniform  speed 
along  the  semi-circle  N  Q1  M,  it  will 
appear  to  the  observer  at  P  to 
move  with  increasing  speed  from 
N  to  O,  and  then  with  decreasing 
speed  from  0  to  M  ;  its  apparent 
motion  is  then  reversed,  and  the 
particle  returns  to  N,  again  reach- 
ing its  highest  apparent  velocity 
when  opposite  the  centre  0.  A 
particle  which  moves  to  and  fro 
along  a  line  M  O  N  as  the  particle 
considered  appears  to  do,  is  said  to 
have  a  simple  harmonic  motion. 

The  bob  of  a  pendulum  which  is 
beating  small  oscillations  is  an 
actual  example.  The  maximum 
distance  attained  from  the  centre 
of  the  motion  is  called  the  ampli- 
tude, while  the  time  of  a  complete 
oscillation  backwards  and  forwards 


Harmonica.      A  favourite  musical 
instrument  of  the  18th  century 


HARMONICON 


3846 


HARMONIUM 


is  the  "  periodic  time "  or  the 
period.  A  diagrammatic  represen- 
tation of  simple  harmonic  motion 
may  be  obtained  by  plotting  the 
distance  from  the  centre  against 
the  time  ;  the  resulting  curve  is 
shown  in  Fig.  2.  This  curve  is  the 
outline  of  the  section  of  the  simplest 
type  of  water  wave,  or  tidal  wave. 
The  method  of  harmonic  analysis 
is  based  on  a  mathematical  theorem 
known  as  Fourier's  theorem,  which 
demonstrates  that  any  periodic 
motion,  however  complicated,  can 
be  built  up  as  a  combination  of 
simple  harmonic  motions.  Thus  the 
actual  tides  at  a  given  port  can  be 
studied  as  the  resultant  of  several 


fig.  2 

different  factors,  such  as  the  posi- 
tions of  the  sun  and  moon,  and  the 
special  local  conditions,  each  factor 
expressing  itself  as  a  simple  har- 
monic rise  and  fall  of  the  water- 
level.  This  method  wa<=  introduced 
by  Lord  Kelvin,  who  invented  a 
machine  which  would  carry  out  the 
harmonic  analysis,  and  could  be 
used  to  predict  the  tides  for  any 
time  ahead.  See  Motion. 

Harmonicon,  THE.  Monthly 
musical  journal  edited  by  VV.  Ayr- 
ton.  It  appeared  from  1823  to  1833. 

Harmonic  Progression.  Three 
quantities  A,  B,  0,  are  said  to  be  in 
harmonic  progression  when  A  is  to 
C  as  (A-B)  is  to  (B-C),  and  B  is 
then  said  to  be  the  harmonic  mean 
between  A  and  C.  It  is  easy  to 
prove  algebraically  that  the  recip- 
rocals of  A,  B,  and  C  are  in  arith- 
metic progression,  and  this  pro- 
perty may  lie  used  as  an  alter- 
native definition.  The  origin  of  the 
term  is  ascribed  to  Pythagoras. 

Harmonic  Series.  Partial 
tones  which  accompany  every 
fundamental  musical  sound.  When 


14  are  not  in  tune  with  the  ordinary 
musical  scale.  Stopped  pipes  and 
cylindrical  tubes,  such  as  the 
clarinets,  produce  only  the  odd 
numbers  of  the  series.  See  Acous- 
tics ;  Harmony. 

Harmonious  Blacksmith. 
Popular  name  for  an  Air  with 
Variations  in  Handel's  Fifth  Suite 


lows  are  actuated  by  two  pedals 
worked  by  the  player  ;  in  larger 
instruments,  especially  those  which 
have  a  pedal  keyboard,  a  hand 
lever  is  added,  to  be  worked  by  a 
second  person.  The  reeds  are 
metal  tongues  of  varying  curve  and 
thickness,  for  quality, 
and  of  varying  size,  for 
pitch.  They  are  free 
reeds  (q.v.)  passing 


an  elastic  body,  such  as  a  stretched 
string  or  a  column  of  air  in  a  tube, 
is  set  in  vibration,  there  are  pro- 
duced many  notes  beside  the  funda- 
mental one,  and  musical  tone 
depends  for  its  quality  upon  the 
proportions  in  which  these  other 
sounds  are  combined  with  the 
fundamental.  The  science  of  har- 
mony also  derives  much  of  its 
justification  from  this  pheno- 
menon. The  series,  is  as  above 
when  8  ft.  C  is  the  fundamental ; 
similar  series  are  generated  by 
all  other  notes;  Nos.  7,  11,  13,  and 


(or  lesson)  lor  the  harpsichord. 
The  story  of  Handel  taking  refuge 
from  the  rain  in  a  smithy  near 
Edgware  is  given  at  length  in 
Rockstro's  Life  of  Handel,  pp. 
116-21,  1883.  See  Handel,  the 
Duke  of  Chandos  and  the  Har- 
monious Blacksmith,  W.  H.  Cum- 
mings,  pp.  17-31,  1915. 

Harmonists.  Communist  re- 
ligious society  first  organized  in 
Wurttemberg,  Germany,  by  John 
George  Rapp  (1770-1 847).  In  1803 
Rapp  and  his  followers  emigrated 
to  America,  and  in  Butler  co., 
Pennsylvania,  in  1805,  formed 
the  Harmony  Society  and  the  town 
of  Harmony.  In  1814  New  Har- 
mony was  formed  on  the  Wabash, 
Indiana  ;  and  in  1824  the  Indiana 
property  was  sold  to  Robert  Owen, 
and  a"  new  settlement,  called 
Economy,  started  on  the  Ohio. 

Under  the  management  of  Fred- 
erick Rapp  (Reichart).  adopted 
son  of  the  founder,  the  society 
owned  flourishing  cotton,  woollen, 
silk,  and  other  industries,  and 
made  considerable  advance  also 
in  intellectual  culture,  but  a 
division  occurred  in  1832.  The 
society  became  involved  in  debt 
and  litigation,  and  was  dissolved 
in  1906.  The  members  held  ail 
property  in  common,  discouraged 
M  .£.  sexual  intercourse, 
f  f*  •f—^f'  '  ...  arid  believed  the 
•  second  coming  of 
Christ  to  be  near. 
.2  .3  t*  is  IB  See  Rapp  and  His 

Associates,  J.  S.  Duss,  1914. 

Harmonium.  Musical  instru- 
ment with  a  keyboard  or  key- 
boards controlling  the  access  of 
the  wind  from  the  bellows  to  the 
reeds  which  produce  the  sound. 
In  ordinary  harmoniums  the  bel- 


faarmomum.  sectional  diagrams 
illustrating  essential  parts  of  the 
instrument.  Arrangement  of  in- 
terior: a,  feeders;  b,  reservoir;  c, 
wind-chest;  d,  spiral  springs;  e, 
cranks;  f,  cords  connecting  crank- 
levers  to  foot-boards;  g.  wind- 
trunks:  h,  safety  valve;  i,  peg  to 
open  valve.  Top,  left,  bass  end  of 
sound-board:  a,  vibrator;  b,  mor- 
tice :  c,  sound-board ;  d,  pallet  • 
e,  pallet-lever;  f,  spring 

through  and  through  their  frames 
as  they  vibrate.  The  reeds  are 
fixed  above  the  sound- 
board, in  rows  parallel 
with  the  keyboard,  each 
reed  being  over  a  wind 
hole  controlled  by  its 
appropriate  key.  The 
various  stops  govern 
strips  of  wood,  padded, 
each  of  which  closes  or 
opens  the  complete  set 
of  holes  belonging  to  a 
series  of  reeds,  much 
as  in  the  organ  (f).v. ), 
but  of  simpler  mechan- 
ism. While  in  the  organ 
most  of  the  stops  are  of 
AraFrame!  the  ful1  compass  of  their 
B.'  Vibrat-  keyboards,  in  the  har- 
ingtongue  monium  the  five  octaves 
are  divided  thus  : 


In  large  instruments  there  is  a 
great  variety  of  stops,  but  the  fol- 
lowing are  those  of  fundamental 
character  (French  names  in  italic): 


Left 

Diapason  Bass\ 
/ 


No.  Right 

©Diapason  Treble 
FMte 

©Double  Diapason  Treble 
Clarinet 

f$\         Principal  Treble 
^         Fifre 

©Oboe  Treble 
Hautbois 


Pitch 
8ft. 

16ft. 
4  ft. 
8ft. 


HARMONY 


3847 


HARMONY 


No.  1,  treble  and  bass,  gives 
standard  pitch.  Nos.  2  and  3  are 
respectively  an  octave  lower  and 
an  octave  higher.  No.  4  is  of  the 
same  pitch  as  No.  1,  but  of  reedier 
quality.  There  are  also  forte 
stops,  which  increase  the  power  of 
Nos.  3  and  4  by  opening  shutters  ; 
voix  celeste  (treble,  16  ft.),  which 
adds  a  rank  of  reeds  to  No.  2,  tuned 
sharp  in  order  to  produce  a  wavy 
tone ;  tremolo,  which  shakes  the 
wind  before  it  reaches  the  reeds  ; 
sourdine  (mute),  which  shuts  off 
half  the  wind  pressure  from  No.  1, 
bass,  so  that  it  may  be  soft  enough 
to  accompany  a  melody ;  and, 
most  characteristic  of  all,  the  ex- 
pression stop,  which  cuts  off  the 


wind  reservoir  and  allows  the  wind 
to  pass  direct  from  the  feeders  to 
the  reeds,  and  consequently  leaves 
the  full  control  of  pressure,  and 
with  it  some  measure  of  securing 
"  expression,"  to  the  player's 
feet. 

Percussion  action,  in  the  best 
instruments,  improves  the  attack 
of  the  tone  by  causing  tiny  ham- 
mers to  strike  the  reeds  of  No.  1 
set.  Grand  jeu  (or  full  organ)  is 
a  mechanism  which  gives  the  full 
power  of  the  instrument  without 
drawing  separate  stop  knobs. 
Sometimes  there  is  also  a  knee  or 
heel  swell  which  opens  shutters  to 
increase  the  tone.  See  American 
Organ. 


to  hear  every  note,  their  presence 
may  be  proved.  The  notes  marked 
X  can  be  arranged  thus : 


HARMONY:  ITS  PLACE  IN  MUSIC 

W.  G.  Alcock,  Mus.  Doc.,  Organist  of  Salisbury  Cathedral 

The  group  of  articles  to  which  this  belongs  includes  Music  and 

Singing.     See  also  Voice ;  biographies  of  the  great  composers.  Bach, 

Mozart,  Purcell,  and  others,  and  the  articles  on  musical  terms,  e.g. 

Chord ;  Counterpoint ;  Fugue 

Harmony  may  be  defined  as  This  is  known  as  the  harmonic 
"  the  art  of  combining  two  or  more  series,  and  though  it  is  not  possible 
sounds  of  definite  musical  pitch, 
according  to  accepted  rules."  Har- 
mony is  based  upon  the  scale, 
which,  is  a  succession  of  eight  notes 
designated  alphabetically.  The 
scale  is  of  Greek  origin,  its  intro- 
duction being  about  the  middle  of 
the  6th  century  B.C.  The  Greeks, 
though  aware  of  the  possibility  of 
combined  sounds,  used  their  scales 
for  melodic  purposes.  The  Greek 
scales  or  modes  may,  roughly,  be 
represented  by  any  series  of  eight 
consecutive  white  keys  upon  the 
pianoforte.  The  Ionian  mode 
commencing  on  C  represents  our 
major  diatonic  scale,  and  upon  this 
and  its  minor  variant  our  modern 
musical  system  is  built.  The  har- 
monic possibilities  of  other  series 
may  be  explored,  such  scales  being 
the  Aeolian  (beginning  on  A),  the 
Locrian  (on  B,  but  rejected),  the 
Dorian  (on  D),  the  Phrygian  (on 
E),  the  Lydian  (on  F)",  and  the 
Mixo-Lydian  (on  G). 

Notes  and  Harmonics 

Musical  sounds  are  complex.  If 
a  low  note  on  the  pianoforte  be 
struck  and  held,  notes  of  higher 
pitch  will  be  heard,  though  of  less 


augmented  or  diminished  intervals 
are  discords.  Intervals  one  semi- 
tone more  than  petiect  or  major 
are  augmented  and  one  semitone 
less  than  perfect  or  minor  are 
diminished. 

The  first  recorded  attempts  at 
combining  musical  sounds  are  those 
described  by  Hucbald,  a  Flemish 
monk  of  the  10th  century.  In  his 
work,  "  Enchiridion  Musicae,"  an 
example  appears  as  at  (A),  being 
thus  translated  by  Burney.  This 
crude  device  was  known  as 
Organum  or  Diaphony.  Later  a 
drone  or  holding  note  was  used, 
over  which  another  part  moved 
freely,  as  at  (B).  The  note  X 
suggests  what  is  now  known  as  a 
passing  note,  or  one  unessential  to 
the  harmony. 

This  method  was  succeeded  by 
Discantus,  which  at  first  consisted 
in  the  simultaneous  performance 
of  two  different  tunes.  This  later 
development  led  to  counterpoint, 
which  may  be  described  as  "  the 
art  of  combining  melodies." 

The  early  rules  of  harmony  were 
strict  and  binding,  even  the  6th 
being  considered  a  discord.  The 


r 


which  is  the  diatonic  major  scale  of 
C,  starting  from  the  5th  note,  or 
dominant ;  and  thus  accounted  for 
on  acoustical  grounds. 

The  study  of  harmony  presup- 
poses  an   accurate   knowledge   of 


gradual  developments  of  the  next 
four  centuries  led  to  a  great  ad- 
vance, such  as  may  be  found  in  the 
work  of  Dufay,  a  Netherlander, 
born  about  1360.  Josquin  Despres, 
born  about  a  century  later,  has 


(A)     TU    pa  —  trfs   Semp-i  -tur-nus    es 


<9  -Q- 

fi  -  //  - 


us 


o 


power,  simultaneously.  These 
higher  notes  are  called  harmonics. 
Stringed  instruments  are  rich  in 
harmonics,  and  if  the  G  string  of  a 
violoncello  be  sounded  with  the 
bow  the  harmonics  given  in  addi- 
tion to  the  generator  (or  open 
string)  will  be  as  shown  below: 


(B)  Te  hu  —  mi  —  /es  fa  —  mu 
intervals,  or  the  distance  from  one  been  acclaimed  as 
note  to  another.  Intervals  are 
reckoned  (1)  from  the  number  of 
names  of  notes  they  contain ;  (2)  in- 
clusively, i.e.  counting  both  limits  ; 
and  (3)  upwards,  i.e.  from  the 
lower  to  the  higher  note.  Intervals 
are  either  concords  or  discords. 
Concords  are  either  perfect  (4th, 
5th,  and  8th)  or  imperfect  (major 
and  minor  3rd,  and  major  and 
minor  6th).  2nds,  7ths,  and  all 
x 


etc 


etc 


Generator 


(Any  other  note  may  be  taken  as  a  generato 


-    // 

"  one   of  the 

greatest  geniuses  of  any  period," 
and  in  his  work  there  is  abundant 
evidence  of  the  great  advance 
he  achieved  in  developing  the 
contrapuntal  devices  of  his  pre- 
decessors in  the  direction  of  har- 
mony. Early  in  the  16th  century, 
Palestrina  was  born,  and  it  is 
difficult  to  overestimate  his  in- 
fluence on  music.  Of  his  numerous 
compositions,  which  are  still  in 
general  use,  the  Missa  Papae 
Marcelli  is  notable  as  having  being 
written  as  an  attempt  to  save 
the  art  from  the  degradation  to 
which  it  had  fallen  by  its  ad- 
mixture with  secular  tunes  of 
the  worst  description. 


HARMONY 


3848 


HARNACK 


But  the  pioneer  of  modern 
harmonic  thought  was  Claudio 
Monteverde,  born  at  Cremona,  in 
1568.  He  struck  out  new  paths  of 
his  own,  questioning  and  dis- 
obeying many  rules  hitherto 
regarded  as  inviolable,  and  fore- 
shadowing the  all  -  important 
principle  of  the  relation  of  chords 
through  a  common  tonic,  or  key- 
note. His  operas,  Arianna  and 
Orfeo,  show  a  mastery  never 
before  attained.  English  com- 
posers, from  Tallis  and  Byrd  (16th 
century)  to  Henry  Purcell  (1658- 
1695),  were  also  at  work,  feeling 
about  in  new  directions.  But 
Purcell,  like  Monteverde  before 
him,  not  content  with  musical 
rule  as  he  found  it,  thought  for 
himself,  and,  experimenting  in  the 
most  daring  manner,  wrote  pas- 
sages which  command  attention  to- 
day. Purcell  died  when  John 
Sebastian  Bach  was  but  ten  years 
old.  Bach  summed  up  all  that  his 
predecessors  had  accomplished, 
and  indeed  almost  any  chord  in  use 
to-day  (except  in  the  complex 
departures  from  tradition  to  be 
found  in  the  advanced  school) 
may  be  seen  or  suggested  by  this 
astounding  composer. 

It  is  important  to  note  how 
harmony  has  developed  with  the 
gradual  improvement  in  musical 
instruments.  Composition  for 
voices  is  naturally  restricted,  as 
compared  with  what  may  be 
accomplished  on  instruments. 

Music  may  be  described  as  the 
resolution  of  discord  into  concord. 
A  chord  in  which  any  note  forms  a 
concord  with  every  other  note,  is 
called  a  concord.  A  chord  in  which 
any  discord  appears  is  called  a 
discord. 

In  the  following  : 


ant  note  in  a  discord  must  be 
heard  in  the  previous  chord  as  a 
concord.  In  the  following  passage  : 


the  first  chord  contains  the 
note  F,  which  as  a  7th  from  G  is 
discordant  with  it.  It  is  also  a 
discord  with  the  B,  as  they  form 
a  diminished  5th,  which  is  a  dis- 
cord. The  first  chord,  then,  can 
give  no  sense  of  finality,  and  must 
be  followed  by  a  chord  in  which  no 
discordant  interval  appears.  That 
condition  is  fulfilled  in  the  second 
chord,  which  is  called  the  re- 
solution of  the  first,  and  this  is  a 
simple  example  of  a  principle  of 
which  the  possibilities  of  exten- 
sion are  endless.  The  greatest 
advances  have  been  made  by 
those  daring  enough  to  widen 
the  harmonic  outlook  of  their  day. 
It  was  necessary  in  eferly  times  to 
prepare  a  discord,  i.e.  the  discord- 


-£- 

o 

as 

S 

^ 

"v 

the  F  is  a  discord  in  the  2nd 
chord,  but  a  concord  (imperfect)  in 
the  1st,  and  is  therefore  said  to  be 
prepared.  Even  Monteverde  dared 
to  disregard  this  rule,  writing 
in  his  madrigal,  Cruda  Amarilli, 
a  seventh  and  a  ninth  without 
preparation.  The  reverse  of  this 
may  be  seen  in  Schumann's  En- 
treating Child,  which  concludes 
with  an  unresolved  7th. 

Systems  of  harmony  have  been 
devised  from  time  to  time,  but  the 
developments  of  composition  leave 
them  successively  out  of  date, 
while  the  modern  scale,  consisting 
of  whole  tones,  opens  up  new  fields 
of  thought  which  are  being  widely 
explored.  Alfred  Day  published 
a  treatise  in  1845,  and  his 
theories  have  been  more  or  less 
adopted  by  other  writers.  The 
broad  principles  of  these  various 
treatises  agree  in  the  main,  and 
such  progressions  as  consecutive 
perfect  5ths,  and  octaves  between 
any  two  parts,  have  been  univer- 
sally condemned.  Day  considered 
the  bad  effect  of  the  former  to  be 
due  to  the  two  parts  moving 
practically  in  two  different  keys. 
Consecutive  octaves  were  regarded 
as  weakening  the  part-writing  by 
making  two  voices  sing  the  same 
notes,  though  one  or  more  octaves 
apart.  Consecutive  unisons  were 
forbidden  for  the  same  reason. 

Harmony,  PRE-ESTABLISHED.  In 
the  philosophical  system  of  Leib- 
niz, the  theory  that  all  the 
monads  (or  primary  elements), 
although  independent  of  each 
other,  were  connected  by  a  "  pre- 
established  "  harmony,  previously 
determined  by  God,  whereby  what 
was  produced  in  one  monad  was 
reflected  in  the  rest. 

Harms  worth.  Family  name  of 
Viscount  Northcliffe  (q.v.)  and 
Viscount  Rothermere  (q.v),  the 
eldest  and  second  sons  of  Alfred 
Harms  worth  (1837-89),  barrister 
of  the  Middle  Temple,  London. 
Two  other  brothers  became  known 
as  Liberal  politicians :  Cecil 
Bisshopp  Harmsworth  and  Sir 
Robert  Leicester  Harmsworth, 
Bart.  (b.  1870).  The  latter  was 
elected  M.P.  for  Caithness  in 
1900,  and  made  a  baronet  in 
1918.  In  1919  Esmond,  only 
surviving  son  of  Viscount  Rother- 
mere, was  elected  M.P.  for  Thanet, 
and  in  1922,  1923,  and  1924. 


Harmsworth,  CECIL  BISSHOPP 
(b.  1869).  British  politician.  Born 
Sept.  28,  1869,  the  third  son  of 
Alfred  Harmsworth  and  a  younger 
brother  of  Viscounts  Northcliffe 
and  Rothermere,  he  was  educated 
at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  where 
he  had  a  brilliant  career,  being 
senior  moderator  in  literature. 
He  then  joined  his  brothers  in 
the  firm  of  Harmsworth  Bros. 
Turning  his  attention  to  politics, 
he  fought  two 
seats  in  the 
Liberalinterest 
in  1900-1,  and 
in  1906  was  re- 
turned to  Par- 
liament for  the 
Droitwich  divi- 
sion of  Wor- 
cestershire. 
He  lost  his  seat  Cecil  B.  Harmsworth, 
in  1910,  but  British  politician 

in      1911       was  Elliott&Fry 

elected  for  S.  Bedfordshire,  and 
early  in  1915  entered  the  govern- 
ment as  under-secretary  for  home 
affairs.  The  formation  of  the 
Coalition  in  1915  deprived  him 
of  that  office,  but  in  1918-22,  sit- 
ting for  S.  Bedfordshire,  he  was 
under-secretary  for  foreign  affairs. 
Harnack,  ADOLF  VON  (b.  1851). 
German  theologian  and  church 
historian.  Son  of  Theodosius  Har- 
nack (1817- 
89),  professor 
of  theology  at 
Dorpat,  where 
he  was  born 
May  7,  1851, 
he  began  his 
career  as  lec- 
turer in  church 
h i  s  t  o  r  y  at 
Adoli  von  Harnack,  Leipzig  in  1874. 
German  theologian  jie  was  ap 
pointed  professor  of  eccles.  history 
at  Leipzig,  1876  ;  at  Giessen,  1879  : 
at  Marburg,  1886  ;  and  at  Berlin, 
1887-1905,  when  he  became  general 
director  of  the  royal  library.  The 
distinction  of  "Von"  (q.v.)  was  con- 
ferred upon  him  in  1914,  when  he 
took  part  in  presenting  the  German 
case  to  neutrals  in  the  Great  War. 
The  most  eminent  German  Pro 
testant  theologian  of  his  day 
though  his  orthodoxy  did  not 
escape  suspicion,  he  was  the  author 
of  many  influential  works,  includ- 
ing Gnosticism,  1873;  Ignatius, 
1878 ;  Monasticism  :  Its  Ideals  and 
Its  History,  Eng.  trans.  1903  ; 
History  of  Dogma,  1886-89,  Eng. 
trans.  1895-1900 ;  Outlines  of  the 
History  of  Dogma,  Eng.  trans. 
1893-97  ;  Martin  Luther,  3rd  ed 
1901  ;  The  Apostles'  Creed,  1901  ; 
a  History  of  Early  Christian  Litera- 
ture, 1897-1904  ;  What  is  Christi- 
anity ?,  Eng.  trans.  1901 ;  and 
studies  in  the  New  Testament, 


HAROERIS 

Eng.  trans.  1907-12.  He  collabor- 
ated with  Von  Gebhardt  and 
T.  Zahn  in  editing  the  Apostolic 
Fathers,  1876-78,  and  was  joint 
editor  with  E.  Schiirer  of  the 
Theologische  Litteraturzeitung. 

Haroeris  OB  AROERIS.  Name  of 
the  earliest  Egyptian  sun-god, 
Horus  the  Aged.  He  is  represented 
as  a  hawk- headed  man  leaning  on 
a  staff,  and  is  not  to  be  confused 
with  Horus  the  Younger,  the  son 
of  Osiris  and  Isis.  See  Egypt. 

Harold.  Masculine  Christian 
name.  Of  Teutonic  origin,  it  means 
power  for  war  and  in  England  has 
retained  or  perhaps  recovered  the 
popularity  it  won  in  Anglo-Saxon 
times.  It  was  introduced  by  the 
Danish  invaders.  In  Scandinavian 
countries  it  is  spelled  Harald. 

Harold  I,  CALLED  HAREFOOT 
(d.  1040).  King  of  the  English, 
1037-40.  A  son  of  Canute  the  Great 
by  an  English  mother,  he  came  into 


3849 

Godwin  and  his  sons  were  ban- 
ished he  went  to  Ireland,  but  was 
soon  in  England  again,  and  when 
Godwin  died  in  1053  became  earl 
of  Wessex.  Henceforward  he  was 
the  most  powerful  man  in  the  land. 
His  wars  against  the  Welsh  gave 
him  a  reputation  as  a  fighter,  and 
when  Edward  died  he  was  chosen 
and  crowned  king.  A  double 
danger  now  threatened  him.  His 
brother  Tostig  came  from  Norway 
with  Harold  Haardraade,  the  king 
of  that  country,  to  recover  his  lost 
earldom  of  Northumbria ;  and 
William  of  Normandy  claimed  the 
crown  which,  he  alleged,  Harold 
had  promised  to  secure  for  him 
when  shipwrecked  off  the,  coast  of 
France.  Harold  crushed  the  Nor- 
wegians at  Stamford  Bridge,  but 
was  killed  at  Hastings,  Oct.  14, 1066. 
See  Hastings,  Battle  of. 

Harold  I  (c.  S50-c.  933).      King 
of    Norway    872-C.930,  known    as 


Harold  II.     The  Battle  of  Hastings  and  the  death  of  Harold,  struck  in  the 
forehead  by  an  arrow,  Oct.,  1066 

From  a  print  after  P.  J.  de  Loulherbourg 


prominence  on  his  father's  death 
in  1035.  England  had  been  left  by 
Canute  to  his  son  Hardicanute, 
who  was  already  king  of  Denmark, 
but  Harold,  more  of  an  English- 
man than  his'  half-brother,  also 
claimed  it.  Both  had  stout  sup- 
porters, and  the  Witan  divided 
England  between  them,  Harold 
becoming  king  of  the  district  N.  of 
the  Thames.  Shortly  afterwards 
Earl  Godwin  and  his  party  tired  of 
serving  the  still  absent  Hardi- 
canute, and  in  1037  Harold  became 
king  of  all  England.  His  reign  was 
disturbed  by  invaders  from  Scot- 
land and  Wales.  He  died  at  Ox- 
ford, March  17,  1040. 

Harold  II  (c.  1026-66).  King 
of  the  English.  A  son  of  Earl 
Godwin,  he  became  earl  of  East 
Anglia  in  the  time  of  his  brother-in- 
law,  Edward  the  Confessor.  When 


Fair-Hair  (Haarfagr).  He  was  a 
son  of  Halfdan  the  Black,  one  of 
the  petty  rulers  among  whom 
Norway  was  then  divided.  Accord- 
ing to  the  sagas  he  fell  in  love  with 
a  beautiful  girl,  Gyda,  who  refused 
to  marry  him  while  any  other  king 
ruled  in  all  Norway  ;  Harold  then 
vowed  that  he  would  not  comb  or 
cut  his  hair  until  he  had  obtained 
the  sole  kingship.  After  over- 
coming several  of  his  neighbours, 
in  a  sea-fight  at  Hafursfiord  in  872 
he  overcame  the  confederated 
rulers  and  united  the  kingdom. 
His  defeated  rivals  migrated  to 
the  Faroes,  Hebrides,  Orkneys, 
Shetland,  and  Iceland,  all  of  which, 
except  Iceland,  he  subsequently 
subdued.  He  proved  a  capable 
ruler  of  his  people,  but  was 
troubled  by  the  quarrels  of  his 
many  sons,  among  whom,  about 


HARP 

930,  he  divided  his  kingdom. 
After  his  death,  c.  933,  his  eldest 
and  youngest  sons,  Eric  Blood-Axe 
and  Haakon  I,  fought  for  the 
sovereignty,  and  the  former  was 
driven  into  exile. 

Harold  III  (1015-66).  King  of 
Norway  1048-66,  known  as  The 
Severe  in  Council  (Haardraade). 
He  was  a  son  of  King  Sigurd  and 
half-brother  of  King  Olaf  (S.  Olaf ). 
When  the  latter  was  killed  at  the 
battle  of  Stiklestad,  1030,  Harold 
fled  to  Russia,  where  he  fell  in  love 
with  a  princess  at  Novgorod.  He 
then  went  on  to  Constantinople, 
where  he  became  leader  of  the 
imperial  Varangian  guard.  He  left 
Constantinople  in  1044  for  Russia, 
married  the  daughter  of  the  prince 
of  Novgorod,  and  in  1046  returned 
to  Norway,  where  he  shared  the 
kingdom  with  his  nephew,  Magnus, 
and  later,  1048.  succeeded  him  as 
sole  ruler.  In  1066  he  invaded 
England  in  support  of  Tostig,  the 
brother  of  the  English  Harold,  and 
was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Stamford 
Bridge  (q.v.)  in  Sept.,  1066. 

Haroun  Al  Raschid  (763-809). 
Caliph  of  Bagdad.  Haroun  was 
born  at  Rai,  March  29,  763,  and 
was  sent  by  his  father,  Mohammed 
Mahdi,  to  take  part  in  the  in- 
vasion of  the  Eastern  Empire  in 
781  ;  he  reached  the  Bosporus  and 
imposed  tribute  on  the  Empress 
Irene,  782.  He  succeeded  his 
brother  Musa,  as  fifth  caliph  of  the 
Abasside  line,  in  786,  and  opened  a 
reign  proverbial  for  its  magnifi- 
cence and  prosperity.  Haroun 
made  his  court  a  great  centre  of 
art  and  literature.  He  waged 
successful  wars  against  the  Greek 
Empire,  797,  and  suppressed 
various  provincial  revolts. 

At  first  he  ruled  with  the  power- 
ful aid  of  the  Barmecides,  but 
sudden  jealousy  made  him  order 
their  wholesale  murder  in  803.  In 
the  same  year  he  marched  against 
the  emperor  Nicephorus,  invading 
Phrygia  and  destroying  Heraclea, 
and  exacted  heavy  tribute  from 
him.  On  his  way  to  quell  a  rising 
in  the  province  of  Khorasan, 
Haroun  died  at  Tus  in  March,  809. 
His  name  is  still  remembered,  if 
only  as  a  central  figure  in  The 
Arabian  Nights.  He  was  a  man  of 
considerable  talents  and  culture, 
but  lacking  in  strength  of  char- 
acter. See  Arabian  Nights ;  con- 
sult also  Haroun  al-rashid,  E.  H. 
Palmer,  1881. 

Harp.  Musical  instrument  with 
strings  plucked  by  the  fingers. 
Employed  in  some  form  or  other 
by  all  races  and  from  remote  ages, 
its  earliest  forms  seem  to  have 
been  suggested  by  the  hunting  bow, 
whose  tightly  stretched  string  will 
emit  a  note  of  fair  musical  value ; 


HARPAGUS 


3850 


when  a  portion  of  the  bow  is  rein 
forced  by  a  hollow  resonator  the 
tone  is  vastly  improved.  This 
kind  appears  to  have  been  carried 
on  the  shoulder. 

It  is  a  short  step  from  this  to  an 
instrument  of  the  old  Egyptian 
type. 

Bow-shaped  and  two-sided  harps 
were  limited  in  power  by  the 
ability  of  their  material  to  stand 
the  strain  of  the  strings.  It  was 
therefore  an  important  advance 
when  a  third  side  was  added,  as  in 
the  next  primitive  form. 

No  reasonable  limit  was  now  set 
to  the  number  or  the  tension  of  the 
strings,  allowing  much  greater 
variety  and  power,  and  it  only  re- 
quired the  accumulated  experience 
of  a  few  centuries  of  makers  and 
players  to  raise  this  type  to  the 
finished  modern  form. 

This  kind  of  harp  is  essentially 
a  diatonic  instrument,  set  in  one 
key,  and  possessing  only  seven 
strings  in  each  octave,  but,  in  the 
eighteenth  century,  mechanism  was 
added  to  shorten  some  of  the 
strings  at  will,  and  thus  allow 
changes  of  key.  The  final  im- 
provement, after  many  partial 
attempts,  was  made  about  1810  by 
Sebastian  Erard,  who  built  a 
double-action  harp  of  six  and  a 
half  octaves  in  the  key  of  C  flat, 
with  seven  pedals  to  be  depressed 
halfway  or  entirely,  raising  each 
string  respectively  a  semitone  or  a 
tone.  Rods  from  the  pedals  pass 
up  inside  the  sound  box  or 
resonator,  the  back  of  the  harp, 
and  actuate  little  cranks  which  act 
on  the  strings  as  described. 

At  the  close  of  the  19th  century 
Messrs.  Pleyel  brought  out  a  new 
form  of  chromatic  harp,  requiring 
no  pedals.  It  has  a  string  for  each 
semitone  in  two  sets  representing 
respectively  the  black  and  the 
white  keys  of  the  pianoforte.  These 
sets  cross  each  other  slightly 
instead  of  being  in  the  same 
plane,  so  that  the  player  commands 
either  the  diatonic  or  the  chromatic 
notes  by  plucking  the  strings  at 
different  levels,  while  a  rapid 
chromatic  scale  is  obtainable  by 
running  a  finger  across  the  centre 
where  the  sets  pass  each  other. 
Harp  music  is  written  on  two 
staves,  like  pianoforte  music,  and 
at  actual  pitch. 

Harpa°us.  Median  general. 
Ordered  by  Astyages,  king  of  the 
Medes,  to  put  to  death  the  infant 
Cyrus,  he  handed  him  over  to  a 
shepherd,  who  spared  his  life. 
When  Astyages  discovered  this,  he 
killed  Harpagus's  son  and  served 
him  up  before  his  father  at  a  meal 
When  Cyrus  grew  up,  Harpagus 
encouraged  him  to  reVolt  against 
Astyages,  who  was  defeated  and 


Harp. 


1  and  2.  Bow-shaped  instruments  used  in  Ancient  Egypt.     3.  Modem 
form  of  orchestra  harp.     4.  Phrygian  trigon 


dethroned.  Harpagus  became  one 
of  Cyrus's  trusted  generals,  and 
reduced  the  Greek  cities  of  Asia 
Minor  to  subjection.  See  Cyrus  the 
Elder. 

Harpalus.  Treasurer  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great.  Having  betrayed 
his  trust,  he  absconded  from 
Babylon  to  Athens  with  a  large 
sum  of  money,  with  which  he 
attempted  to  bribe  public  men  to 
support  him  against  Alexander 
and  Antipater,  his  regent  in 
Europe.  Demosthenes  was  one  of 
those  accused  of  having  accepted 
bribes.  Harpalus  failed,  however, 
in  his  object,  and  to  avoid  being 
handed  over  to  Antipater  he  fle.d 
to  Crete,  where  he  was  murdered. 

Harpalyce.  In  Greek  mytho 
logy,  daughter  of  Harpalycus,  a 
Thracian  king.  Famous  for  her 
swiftness  of  foot  and  skill  in  manly 
exercises,  after  her  father's  death 
she  lived  in  the  forests,  supporting 
herself  by  robbery  and  plunder. 
She  was  at  last  caught  by  some 
shepherds  in  a  net  and  put  to 
death  Pron.  Harpali-see. 

Harpenden.  Urban  dist.  and 
village  of  Hertfordshire,  England. 
It  is  25  m.  N.W.  of  London  on  the 
Mid.  and  G.N.  Rlys.  At  Rotham- 
sted,  near  by,  in  1843,  Sir  J. 
Bennet  Lawes  (q.v.)  started  an 
agricultural  experiment  station,  and 
his  name  is  commemorated  in  the 
Lawes  Testimonia  I  La  boratory .  At 
Harpenden  also  are  the  S.  George's 
co-educational  school,  and  Dr. 
Stephenson's  Home  for  Waifs  and 
Strays.  The  12th  century  church 
was,  with  the  exception  of  the 
tower,  rebuilt  in  1802,  and  contains 


some  interesting  glass  and  brasses' 
A  Celtic  cross  on  Church  Green 
was  unveiled,  Oct.,  1920,  in  memory 
of  the  164  Harpenden  men  who  fell 
in  the  Great  War.  A  race  meeting 
is  held  annually.  Pop.  6,172. 

Harper,  Sin  GEORGE  MONTAGUE 
(1865-1922).  British  soldier.  Born 
Jan.  11,  1865,  he  entered  the  Royal 
Engineers  in  1884  He  served  in 
the'S.  African  War,  1899-1900,  was 
employed  in  mobilisation  duties  at 
army  head- 
quarters, 
1902-3,  and 
during  the 
next  three 
years  was 
D.  A.  Q,  M.  G. 
(M  o  b  i  1  i  s  a- 
t  i  o  n),  and 
D.A.A.G.  Staff 
College.  From 
1911-14  he 
was  on  the 

general  staff  at  the  War  Office.  In 
the  early  months  of  the  Great  War 
he  was  on  the  general  staff,  be- 
coming a  brigade  commander  in 
1915.  Later  he  commanded  the 
51st  division,  being  promoted 
major-general  in  1916.  He  com- 
manded the  4th  corps  in  1918,  and 
was  appointed  G.O.C.  Southern 
Command  in  March,  1919.  Knight- 
ed in  1918,  Harper  was  killed  in  a 
motor  accident,  Dec.  15,  1922. 

Harper  and  Brothers.  Ameri- 
can firm  of  publishers  with  a 
branch  in  London.  In  1812  James 
Harper  (1795-1869),  son  of  Joseph 
Harper,  a  farmer  of  Newton,  Long 
Island,  with  his  brother  John 
(1797-1875),  started  a  printing 


Sir  (ieorge  Harper, 
British  soldier 


HARPER'S     FERRY 


3851 


HARPSICHORD 


John  Harper, 
American  publisher 


business  in  New 
York,  produc- 
ing books  for 
booksellers  and 
p  u  b  1  i  s  h  e  r  s 
Later  they  be- 
gan publishing 
on  their  own 
account,  and, 
joined  by  two 
younger  bro- 
thers, Joseph 
Wesley  (1801-70)  and  Fletcher 
(1806-77),  founded  in  1833  the 
publishing  firm  of  Harper  and 
Brothers.  They  started  Harper's 
Family  Library,  a  kind  of  serial 
publication,  which  led,  in  1850,  to 
the  founding  of 
Harper's  Mag- 
azine. This  was 
followed  in 
1857  by  Har- 
per's Weekly, 
in  1867  by  Har- 
per's Bazaar, 
and  in  1881 
by  H  a  r  p  e  r'  s 

James  Harper,  Young  People, 
American  publisher  later  Harper's 
Round  Table.  In  1899  the  firm 
was  formed  into  a  company,  of 
which  George  Harvey  was  presi- 
dent. James  Harper  was  mayor  of 
New  York  City,  1844-46.  See  The 
House  of  Harper,  J.  Henry  Harper. 
1912. 

Harper's  Ferry.  Town  of  W. 
Virginia,  U.S.A.,  in  Jefferson  co. 
It  stands  at  the  junction  of  the 
Shenandoah  and  Potomac  rivers, 
55  m.  N.W.  of  Washington,  and  is 
served  by  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio 
rly.  and  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio 
canal.  It  has  pulp  and  paper  in- 
dustries, and  a  college  for  negroes. 
Harper's  Ferry  was  the  scene  on 
Oct.  16,  1859,  of  a  raid  by  John 
Brown  (q.v.).  the  abolitionist,  and 
a  few  followers,  on  the  armoury, 
which  was  held  until  the  following 
day,  when  it  was  recaptured  by 
General  Lee.  In  1862  the  town, 
together  with  12,500  prisoners, 
was  surrendered  by  the  Federals 
to  the  Confederates  under  Stone- 
wall Jackson.  Pop.  706. 

Harper's  Magazine.  Popular 
illustrated  monthly,  founded  in 
New  York,  June,  1850,  under  the 
editorship  of  Henry  J.  Raymond, 
and  published  by  Harper  and 
Brothers.  In  1880  it  began  to  be 
issued  simultaneously  in  London 
and  New  York.  Devoted  to  travel, 
science,  art,  and  literature,  in  six 
months  it  reached  a  circulation  of 
50,000,  and  in  three  years  1 1 8,000. 
It  has  consistently  made  a  feature 
of  the  best  English  fiction  in  serial 
form  and  afforded  a  great  stimu- 
lus to  magazine  illustration  and 
to  domestic  short-story  writing, 
Charles  Reade,  Justin  McCarthy, 


Cable,  Stockton,  and  Mrs.  Hodgson 
Burnett  being  among  its  early  con- 
tributors. H.  M.  Alden  became 
editor  in  1869,  and  with  him  have 
been  associated  George  William 
Curtis,  whose  Easy  Chair  caus- 
er i  e  s  have  at-  

tained  permanent 
form,  and  W.  D. 
Howells,  who  con- 
tributed the  Edi- 
tor's Study  for 
many  years. 

Harpies  (C  r. 
harpyiai,  snatch  - 
ers).  In  Greek 
mythology,  mon- 
strous birds  with 
a  woman's  head 
and  long  claws. 
They  were  sent 
b  y  the  gods  t  o 
torment  the  blind 
Phineus  by 
snatching  his  food 


Moonrise  found  its  way  to  the  same 
gallery.  He  died,  painting  almost 
to  the  last,  on  Aug.  25,  1916. 

Harpocrates.  Name  of  an 
Egyptian  deity,  identified  with 
Horus.  Worshipped  among  the 


Harpoon. 


Gun  with  bomb-nosed  harpoon, 
harpoon  with  barbs  extended 


Above, 


whenever  he  raised  it  to  his  lips.  The 
expedition  of  the  Argonauts  (q.v.) 
passed  the  I  onianlslands  where  they 
dwelt,  and  Calais  and  Zetes,  the 
sons  of  Boreas,  delivered  Phineus 
from  his  tormentors.  The  Harpies 
are  personifications  of  the  storm- 
winds,  which  swept  away  mortals 
at  the  bidding  of  the  gods  and 
conveyed  them  to  the  lower 
world. 

Harpignies, 
HENRI  JOSEPH 
(1819-1916). 
French  land- 
scape painter. 
Born  at  Valen- 
c  i  e  n  n  e  s,  he 
studied  in  Paris 
under  Ac  hard, 
and  in  Italy.  In 
1866  his  Even- 
ing in  the 
Roman  Campagna,  a  good  example 


H.  J.  Harpignies. 
French  painter 

After  Dubufe 


Greeks  and  Romans,  and  repre- 
sented with  a  finger  to  his  lip,  he 
was  the  god  of  silence.  See  Horus. 

Harpoon  (Fr.  harpon,  grappling 
iron).  Weapon  used  for  the  cap- 
ture of  whales.  In  the  early  days  of 
the  whale  fishery  the  harpoon  was 
thrown  from  the  hand  by  a  har- 
pooner,  rowed  in  an  open  boat,  but 
the  modern  harpoon  is  fired  by  a 
gun.  See  Anthropology;  Bone 
Implements ;  Whaling. 

Harpsichord  (Ital.  clavicembalo, 
abbrev.  cembalo ;  Fr.  clavecin  ; 
Ger.  clavizim,bel).  The  most  im- 
portant of  the  stringed  instruments 
with  keyboards  before  the  inven- 
tion of  the  pianoforte.  It  answered 
all  purposes  in  solo  and  chamber 
music  which  the  pianoforte  now 
serves,  and  also  occupied  a  unique 

rosition  in  the  orchestras  of  the 
7th  and  18th  centuries,  being  em- 


ployed to  fill 


Harpsichord  with  douoie  keyboard,  5-octave  range. 
English  17th  century  model 

Victoria  &  Albert  Museum,  S.  Kensington 


of  his  personal  and 
poetic  style,  was 
bought  for  the 
Luxembourg,  and 
in  1884  his 


in  chords  according 
-,  to  the  figured  bass, 
]  and  to  accompany 
entirely  the  recita- 
tivo  secco.     The  es- 
sential     difference 
between  the  harpsi- 
chord   and    the 
pianoforte  is  that  in 
thelatterthestrings 
are  struck  by  ham- 
4  mers,    whereas     in 
;|  the  former  they  are 
I  plucked  by  quills  or 
1  leather  plectra  in- 
I  serted  in  "  jacks  " 
I  or  uprights,  which 
I  are  caused  to  pass 
the     strings    when 
the    keys    are    de- 
pressed.       The 

String 


t 


Harpsichord.     Diagram  showing  working  of  jack  and  string 


HARPURHEY 


3852 


HARRIER 


Harpsichord. 

Mechanism 

of  jack 


harpsichord  proper  is  usually 
shaped  like  the  modern  grand 
piano,  but  spinets  and  virginals 
and  some  other  forms,  are  some 
times  given  the  name.  No  expres 
sion,  in  the  full  sense  of  the  word 
is  possible  on  the  harpsichord,  but 
in  the  18th  century  instruments 
had  elaborate  contrivances  foi 
securing  variety,  such  as  an  extra 
keyboard,  stops  controlling  plec- 
tra of  various  degrees 
of  hardness,  and  a  swell 
(g.v.). 

A.  Jack. 

B.  Plectrum    oi    quill    o: 

leather. 

C.  String. 

D.  Damper  to  stop  sound 

when  jack  returns  to 
place. 

•>  Dotted  lines  showing 
plectrum  falling  out 
of  the  way  when  de- 
scending. 

Spring,  of  bristle,  to 
restore  the  plectrum 
carrier  to  the  vertical 
position 

Harpurhey.  Suburb  of  Man- 
chester. To  the  N.E.  of  the  city 
proper,  it  is  mainly  a  district 
covered  with  the  smaller  class  of 
houses,  factories  and  the  like.  Here 
is  Queen's  Park,  while  the  river  Irk 
runs  through  the  district.  Tram- 
ways connect  it  with  the  centre  of 
Manchester.  See  Manchester. 

Harpy.  In  heraldry,  a  fabulous 
creature,  having  the  head  and 
bust  of  a  woman,  the  body,  wings, 
legs,  and  tail  of  a  vulture.  See 
Harpies. 

Harpy  Eagle  (Thrasaetvs  har- 
py ia).  Large  and  powerful  bird  of 
prey,  found  in  Central  and  S. 
America.  Its  general  colour  is 
white,  with  a  black  back  and  tail 
and  grey  wings  ;  on  the  head  is  a 
crest  of  feathers  which  when 
erected  gives  the  bird  a  somewhat 
owl-like  aspect.  It  is  not  a  true 
eagle,  but  is  placed  between  the 
eagle  and  the  buzzard.  It  is 
slightly  over  a  yard  in  length,  and 
has  a  strongly  curved  beak  and 
powerful  claws.  It  is  found  in  the 
forests,  usually  near  a  river  or 
stream,  and  spends  much  of  its 
time  watching  on  the  topmost 
boughs  of  some  dead  tree.  It  will 
kill  animals  much  larger  than  it- 
self, young  deer,  peccaries,  mon- 
keys, badgers,  and  sloths  being 
among  its  favourite  prey.  It  nests 
either  in  a  tall  tree  or  on  the  ledge 
of  an  inaccessible  cliff. 

Harraden,  BEATRICE  (b.  1864). 
English  novelist.  Born  at  Hamp- 
stead,  London,  she  was  educated 
at  Cheltenham  Ladies'  College  and 
London  University.  She  first  made 
her  reputation  with  Ships  that 
Pass  in  the  Night,  1893,  a  story 
depending  for  its  interest  almost 
entirely  upon  its  fine  character 
studies.  Other  novels  include  The 


Fowler,  1899. 
Katherine 
F  re  n  s  h  am. 
1903;  The 
Scholar's 
Daughter, 
1906:  and 
Spring  Shall 
Plant,  1920 
In  Va  r  y  i  n  g 
Moods,  1894, 
is  a  volume  of 
clever  short 
stories. 

Harrar   OR   HARAU.      Town  ol 
Abyssinia,  200  m.  W.  of  Berbera. 
It  is  substantially  built,  surrounded 
by  walls,  and  stands  at  an  eleva 
tion    of   6,000   ft. 
A     large    trading    j 
centre,  it  is  noted    f 
for      the     coffee    kfefeita^ 
grown     in    the    Mgf 
neighbourhood     | 
The    Harrar    Mts.    I 
form  a  S.E.  exten     '  4        ,  /+ 
sion  of  the  Abys- 
sinian    highlands. 
Pop.  about  50,000. 
Harrier.  Breed 
of  hound  used  for 
hunting    the    hare 
by  scent.      In  ap- 
pearance it  closely 
resembles  the  fox- 
hound, but  in  size 
is  intermediate  between  that  hound 
and   the    beagle,    standing    about 
20  ins.  high  at  the  shoulder.    Pro- 
bably it  was  derived  from  a  small 
strain  of  foxhound,  and  in  England 
most  of  the  harriers  are  actually 
crossed  with  that  breed.    In  Wales 
the  pure-bred  strain  is  still  to  be 
found. 

The  harrier  may  be  readily  dis- 
tinguished from  a  small  foxhound 
by  its  longer  and  more  pointed 
ears,  and  it  should  have  a  rather 


Harrier.      A  winning  bound  in  o 
harrier  and  beagle  show 

narrower  and  longer  head.  About 
150  packs  are  now  kept  in  the 
United  Kingdom,  most  of  them  in 


Harrar, 


Harpy  Eagle,  a  large  South  Ameri- 
can bird  of  prey 


Abyssinia.     One  of  the  city  gates 

Ireland,  where  the  sport  of  hare- 
hunting  is  very  popular.  The  hunt 
is  a  somewhat  slow  one,  but  har- 
riers will  follow  a  cold  scent  that 
would  completely  baffle  the  ordin- 
ary foxhound.  See  Dog;  Fox- 
hound. 

Harrier  (Circus).  Genus  ot 
hawks,  including  about  18  species. 
They  are  slender  in  form,  with  un 
usually  long  tBjjjji 
legs  and  wings,  I 
and  compara- 
tively short 
and  small 
beaks.  They 
do  not  fre- 
quent trees, 
but  are  usually 
found  in 
marshy  d  i  s- 
tricts,  where 
they  prey 
upon  fish  and 
frogs,  in  addi-  Harrier.  Specimen 
tion  to  smafl  of  Circus  cyaneus 
birds  and  mammals.  Three  species 
occur  in  Great  Britain.  The  hen 
harrier  (C.  cyaneus),  so  called  from 
its  habit  of  preying  upon  poultry, 
has  now  become  rare.  Montagu's 
harrier  (C.  cineraceus)  was  for- 
merly common,  but  is  now  seldom 
seen";  and  the  marsh  harrier  (C. 
aeruyinosua),  the  largest  of  the 
three,  has  been  almost  extermin- 
ated in  England.  The  bird  takes 
its  name  from  harrying  small  birds. 


HARRINGAY 


3853 


HARRIS 


1st  Baron  Harris, 
British  soldier 


Harris,  Outer  Hebrides.      Tarbert,  the  principal  town 
of  this  part  of  the  island  of  Lewis,  from  the  east 

Harringay.       District    of    N. 

London.    Built  within  recent  years 

over  the  once  open  country  called 

Green  Lanes,  a  name  now  given  to 

a    main   thoroughfare,   it  lies  be- 
tween Finsbury  Park  and  Hornsey. 

Harringay  is  a  variant  of  Haringea, 

Haringhea,  or  Haringey,  by  one  or 

the  other  of  which  names  Hornsey 

(q.v.)  was  known  between  the  13th 

and  16th  centuries.  The  district  has 

stations  on  the  G.N.R.  and  M.R. 
Harrington,  EARL  OF.    British 

title  borne  since  1742  by  the  family 

of  Stanhope.  Its  first  holder  was 
William  Stan- 
hope, who  be- 
longed to  the 
same  family  as 
the  1st  earl 
of  Chesterfield, 
and  from 
whom  the 
Earls  Stan- 
hope as  well  as 
the  earls  of 
Harrington 
are  descended. 
He  was  a  noted 
politician  i  n 
the  time  of 

George  II,   being   ambassador   to 

Spain,   a  secretary   of  state,   lord 

president  of  the  council,  and  lord- 
lieutenant    of    Ireland.       He    was 

made  a  baron  in  1730  and  an  earl 

in  1742,  dying  in  1756.     The  title 

descended  in  the  direct  line.  Charles 

Augustus,  the  8th  earl  (1844-1917), 

was  long  a  master  of  hounds.    The 

earl's  residence  is  Elvaston  Castle, 

Derby,  and  his  eldest  son  is  known 

as  Viscount  Petersham. 

Harris.      Name   given   to   the 

southern  portion  of  the  island  of 

Lewis,  one  of  the  Outer  Hebrides. 

It  is  about  20  m.  long  and  of  vary- 
ing breadth,  and  is  a  mountainous 

and  barren  district.    It  forms  part 

of  the  county  of  Inverness.     The 

parish  includes  a  number  of  ad- 
jacent islands,    St.    Kilda   among 

them.    Sheep  are  reared  and  wool 

is  woven,  hence  the  Harris  tweed. 

The  Sound  of  Harris,  which  divides 

it  from  North  Uist  on   the  S.,  is 


Charles  Augustus, 

8th  Earl 
of  Harrington 


the  only  channel 
of  the  Outer 
Hebrides  for  large 
vessels.  It  is  10  m. 
long  and  about  7 
wide.  Tarbert  is 
the  chief  place. 
In  1920  much  of  it, 
about  60,000  acres, 
was  purchased  by 
Lord  Leverhulme. 
Pop.  5,500. 

Harris,  GEORGE 
HARRIS,  IST  BARON 
(1746-1829).    Bri- 
tish  soldier.  Born 
at  Brasted,  Kent, 
March     18,    1746, 
the  son  of  a   clergyman,   he  was 
educated     at     Westminster    and 
Woolwich.     Having    entered     the 
artillery,  he  was  severely  wounded 
at  Bunker  Hill  in  1775.    Proceeding 
to  India  as  aide-de-camp  to  General 
Medows.  he  served  in  the  first  cam- 
paign    against 
Tippoo     Sahib 
in  1790-91, and 
was  afterwards 
given    a    high 
appointment 
in  Madras.    In 
the    second 
campaign  he 
was   in   com- 
mand   of     the 
operati  ons 

After  A.  W.  Davis          which,  in  1799, 

ended  with  the  storming  of 
Seringapatam  and  annexation  of 
Mysore.  In  1815  he  was  created 
Baron  Harris  of  Mysore  and  Ser- 
ingapatam. He  died  at  Belmont, 
Kent,  in  May,  1829. 

Harris,  GEORGE  ROBERT  CAN- 
NING HARRIS,  4TH  BARON  (b.  1851). 
British  politician  and  cricketer. 
Born  Feb.  3, 
1851,  he  was 
educated  at 
Eton  and  Christ 
Church,  Oxford. 
In  1872  he  suc- 
ceeded to  the 
title.  As  a  crick- 
eter he  was  in 
the  Eton  eleven 
for  three  years 
(1  868-70  ), 
while  he  played 

for  Oxford  against  Cambridge  in 
1871,  1872,  and  1874.  He  joined 
the  Kent  county  team,  and  in 
1875  became  its  captain,  retaining 
that  post  until  1 889.  Harris  played 
for  England  against  Australia  in  a 
test  match  in  1880,  and  captained 
a  team  that  went  to  Australia.  As 
a  Conservative  politician,  he  was 
under-secretary  for  India,  1885- 
86,  and  for  war,  1886-89.  From 
1890-95  he  was  governor  of  Bom- 
bay. Later  he  was  associated  with 
industrial  undertakings  in  S.Africa. 


4th  Baron  Harris, 
British  politician 

Russell 


Harris,  SIR  AUGUSTUS  HENRY 
GLOSSOP  (1852-96).  British  actor 
and  theatrical  manager.  Born  in 
Paris,  he  made  his  first  appearance 
at  the  Theatre 
Royal,  Man- 
chester, in 
1873.  In  1879 
he  became 
lessee  of  Drury 
Lane,  and  with 
MerittandPet- 
titt  wrote  The 
World  (p  r  o- 


Sir  Charles  Harris, 


duced  July  31, 1880),  the  first  of  the 
spectacular  melodramas  which 
helped  to  revive  the  prosperity  of 
the  house.  He  also  staged  panto- 
mimes at  Drury  Lane  on  a  scale  of 
great  splendour.  He  was  sheriff 
of  London  in  1890-91,  being 
knighted  in  1891.  He  died  at 
Folkestone,  June  22,  1896. 

Harris,  SIR  CHARLES  ALEXAN- 
DER (b.  1855).  British  adminis- 
trator. Born  at  Wrexham,  June 
28,  1855,  he 
was  educated 
at  Richmond 
School,  Yorks, 
near  where 
his  father  was 
a  vicar,  and 
at  Christ's 
College,  Cam- 
bridge. He  en- 
tered the  civil 
British  administrator  service  in  1879. 

Russell  Jje     helped    to 

conduct  the  British  case  on  the 
question  of  the  boundary  of  Brazil, 
1901^4,  as  he  had  previously  done 
in  that  of  Venezuela.  In  1917  he 
was  knighted,  and  was  appointed 
governor  of  Newfoundland. 

Harris,  FRANK  (b.  1856).  British 
journalist  and  author.  Born  of 
Welsh  parentage  in  Galway,  he 
emigrated  to  Canada  when  15. 
Returning  to  Europe,  he  studied  in 
Paris,  Heidelberg,  Gottingen,  Ber- 
lin, and  Athens.  In  1881  he  began 
to  write  for  The  Spectator,  and  in 
1882  became  editor  of  The  Evening 
News,  which  he  left  to  edit  The 
Fortnightly  Review,  1888-93. 

Proprietor  and  editor  of  The 
Saturday  Review,  1894-98,  he  after- 
wards edited  Vanity  Fair.  Shake- 
spearean critic,  playwright,  and 
author  of  some  notably  good  short 
stories,  his  works  include  Elder 
Conklin,  1894;  Montes  the  Mata- 
dor, 1900  ;  The  Bomb,  1908  ;  The 
Man  Shakespeare,  1909;  The 
Women  of  Shakespeare,  1911 ; 
Oscar  Wilde,  his  Life  and  Confes- 
sions, 1916 ;  and  the  play,  Mr.  and 
Mrs.  Daventry,  1900. 


HARRIS 


3854 


HARRISON 


J.  Ken  del  Hams. 
British  scholar 


Harris,  HOWEL  (1714-73). 
Founder  of  Welsh  Calvinistic  Me- 
thodism. Born  at  Trevecea,  Breck- 
nockshire, Jan.  23,  1714,  he  was 
for  a  time  a  teacher  in  a  church 
school,  but  devoted  the  greater  part 
of  his  life  to  itinerant  preaching. 
He  founded  a  number  of  societies 
and  chapels,  formed  a  community 
at  Trevecea  in  1752,  served  in  the 
Brecknockshire  militia,  1759,  was  a 
friend  of  the  Wesleys,  and  wrote 
an  Autobiography,  publ.  1791.  He 
died  July  21,  1773.  See  Life, 
T.  Jackson,  1837. 

Harris,  JAMES  RENDEL  (b.  1851). 
British  scholar.  Born  at  Ply- 
mouth, he  was  educated  at  the 
g  i  a  m  m  a  r 
school  there 
and  at  Clare 
College,  Cam- 
bridge,  of 
which  he  be- 
came a  fellow 
and  librarian. 
He  was  pro- 
fessor at  Johns 
Hopkins  Uni- 
versity, Balti- 
autieii  more)  1882- 

85  ;  at  Haverford  College,  Penn- 
sylvania, 1886-92  ;  lecturer  in 
palaeography  at  Cambridge,  1893- 
1903  ;  professor  of  theology,  Lei- 
den, 1903-4  ;  director  of  studies, 
Friends'  Settlement,  Woodbrooke, 
near  Birmingham,  1903-18;  and 
Haskell  lecturer  at  Oberlin  College, 
1910  President  of  the  Free  Church 
Council,  1907-8,  he  became  curator 
of  MSS.  at  the  John  Rylands 
Library,  Manchester,  1918. 

He  travelled  widely  in  the  East, 
where  he  discovered  important 
MISS,  bearing  on  the  Bible.  His 
numerous  works  include  The 
'Leaching  of  the  Apostles  and  the 
Sibylline  Books,  1885 ;  Some  Syrian 
and  Palestinian  Inscriptions,  1891  ; 
The  Dioscuri  in  Christian  Legend, 
1903 ;  Sidelights  on  New  Testa- 
ment Research,  1909 ;  Origin  of 
the  Cult  of  Dionysos,  1915;  Origin 
of  the  Cult  of  Artemis,  1916 ; 
Ascent  of  Olympus,  1917;  Origin  of 
the  Doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  1919  ; 
The  Last  of  the  Mayflower,  1920. 

Harris,  JOEL  CHANDLER  (1848- 
1908).  American  writer  popularly 
known  as  Uncle  Remus.  Born  at 
Eatonton, 
Georgia,  Dec. 
8,  1848,  he 
worked  in  a 
printing  office, 
studied  1  a  w, 
and  practised 
at  Forsyth.  In 
1878  he  joined 
the  staff  of  The 


Atlanta  Constitution,  of  which  he 
was  editor,  1890-1905,  and  to 
which  he  contributed  the  first  of 
his  Uncle  Remus  stories  con- 
cerning the  adventures  of  Brer 
Rabbit,  and  Brer  Fox.  These 
stories,  derived  from  his  know- 
ledge of  negro  folklore,  were  first 
collected  in  1880  as  Uncle  Remus  : 
His  Songs  and  His  Sayings.  This 
volume  had  a  number  of  suc- 
cessors, including  The  Tar-Baby 
and  Other  Rhymes,  1904.  When 
he  issued  his  first  book  he  knew 
little  or  nothing  of  folklore  in 
general,  and  was  astonished  when 
he  began  to  receive  letters  from 
learned  bodies  asking  him  to  ex- 
plain the  connexion  between  his 
stories  and  those  of  a  similar  kind 
told  in  other  parts  of  the  world. 

He  was  the  author  of  a  Life  of 
H.  W.  Grady  (his  predecessor  as 
editor  of  The  Atlanta  Constitu- 
tion), 1890,  and  of  Georgia  from 
the  Invasion  of  De  Soto  to  Recent 
Times,  1899.  He  died  at  Atlanta, 
Georgia,  July  3,  1908.  See  Life 
and  Letters  of  Joel  Chandler 
Harris,  by  his  daughter-in-law, 
Julia  Collier  Harris,  1918. 

Harris,  THOMAS  LAKE  (1823- 
1906).  Anglo-American  mystic. 
Born  at  Fenny  Stratford,  Bucks, 
England,  May  15,  1823,  he  went 
with  his  parents  in  1828  to  the 
U.S.A.,  became  a  universalist,  a 
Swedenborgian,  and  then  a 
spiritualist.  In  1861  he  founded 
the  Brotherhood  of  the  New  Life. 
Laurence  Oliphant  (q.v. ),  who  has 
described  him  in  his  Masollam, 
1886,  was  for  a  time  one  of  his 
converts.  He  visited  England 
1859-61  and  1865-66,  claimed  that 
his  poems  were  revealed  to  him  in 
trances,  and  was  the  author  of 
Truth  and  Light  in  Jesus,  1860  ; 
The  Millennial  Age,  1861;  The 
Great  Republic,  a  Poem  of  the  Sun, 
1867.  He  died  at  Santa  Rosa, 
California,  March  23,  1906.  See 
Life,  A.  A.  Cuthbert,  1908. 

Harrisburg.  City  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, U.S.A.,  the  capital  of  the 
state  and  the  co.  seat  of  Dauphin 
co.  It  stands  on  the  Susquehanna 
river,  105  m.  W.N.W.  of  Philadel- 
phia, and  is  served  by  the  Pennsyl- 
vania and  other  rlys.  Harrisburg 
is  the  see  of  a  Roman  Catholic 
bishop  and  contains  several  fine 
buildings,  including  the  capitol, 
replacing  the  building  destroyed 
by  fire  in  1897,  the  court  house,  the 
state  arsenal  and  hospital  for  the 
insane,  and  the  county  prison. 

The  city  has  a  monument  to  the 
fallen  in"  the  Mexican  War  and 
another  to  the  Dauphin  co.  soldiers 
killed  in  the  Civil  War.  The  capitol 
houses  a  state  library  of  170,000 
volumes.  A  flourishing  industrial 
city,  its  manufacturing  plants  in- 


clude large  iron  and  steel  works, 
rly.  workshops,  machine,  carriage 
and  wagon  works,  and  bed,  mat- 
tress, boot  and  shoe  nail,  clothing, 
brick  and  tile,  lumber  and  flour 
factories.  Settled  in  1719,  Harris- 
burg was  organized  as  a  town  in 
1785,  and  incorporated  in  1791. 
It  became  the  capital  in  1812. 
Pop.  73,275. 

Harrismith.  Town  of  the 
Orange  Free  State,  S.  Africa.  It  is 
60  m.  from  Ladysmith  and  170  m. 
from  Durban,  and  stands  on  the 
river  Wilge  among  the  mountains 
at  a  height  of  over  5,000  ft.  The 
chief  building  is  the  block  contain- 
ing town  hall,  public  library,  and 
market,  opened  in  1908.  There 
are  churches  and  a  public  park. 
Harrismith  is  a  trading  centre 
for  the  district  and  is  visited  as  a 
health  resort.  It  was  occupied  by 
the  British  forces  on  Aug.  4,  1900. 
Pop.  6,800. 

Harrison.  Town  of  New  Jersey, 
U.S.A.,  in  Hudson  co.  It  stands  on 
the  Passaic  river,  7  m.  W.  of  Jersey 
City,  and  is  served  by  the  Penn- 
sylvania and  other  rlys.  On  the 
opposite  shore  of  the  river  is 
Newark,  with  which  there  is  bridge 
communication.  Harrison  is  an 
industrial  town,  and  contains  steel, 
iron,  marine-engine,  and  elevator 
works,  foundries,  machine  shops, 
and  pump,  wire,  leather,  lumber, 
and  tool  factories.  It  was  settled 
in  1668,  and  incorporated  in  1873. 
Pop.  16,160. 

Harrison,  BENJAMIN  (1833- 
1901).  American  statesman.  Born 
at  North  Bend,  Ohio,  Aug.  20,  1833, 
grand  son  oi 
President  Wil- 
liam  Henry 
Harrison,  after 
practising  law 
lie  joined  the 
Federal  army 
and  greatly 
d  i  s  t  inguished 
himself  in  the 
Benjamin  Harrison,  Civil  War. 
American  statesman  Senator  1881- 
87,  he  was  elected  president  on  the 
Republican  ticket  in  1888,  his 
opponent  being  Grover  Cleveland. 
During  his  term  of  office  the  treaty 
of  the  annexation  of  Hawaii  was 
negotiated,  afterwards  withdrawn 
by  Cleveland  when  president ;  the 
first  pan-American  Congress  was 
held,  the  McKinley  tariff  intro- 
duced, and  the  Bering  Sea  seal 
fisheries  controversy  with  Great 
Britain  settled  by  arbitration. 

Defeated  in  his  candidature  for 
re-election,  he  abandoned  politics 
for  the  law.  In  1899  he  was  coun- 
sel for  Venezuela  in  the  boundary 
arbitration  commission  set  up 
to  examine  the  claims  of  Great 
Britain,  and  took  part  in  the  Peace 


HARRISON 


3855 


HARRISON 


Conference  at  The  Hague,  May  18, 
1899.  Harrison  died  at  Indiana- 
polis, March  13,  1901.  He  was  the 
author  of  This  Country  of  Ours, 
1897,  an  account  of  the  administra- 
tive organization  of  the  U.S.A. 
See  Life,  Lew  Wallace,  1888  ;  The 
Presidents  of  the  United  States,  ed. 
J.  G.  Wilson,  1894. 

Harrison,  FREDERic(1831-1923). 
British  author  and  publicist.  Born 
in  London,  Oct.  18,  1831,  he  was 
educated      a  t 
I    King's     C  o  1  - 
I    lege,   London, 
i^fcifc   <*«•*  %          and   Wadham 
1    College,    0  x  - 
•I  4—  I    ford.     He  be- 

1  came  a  fellow 
and  tutor  of 
Wadham,  but 
soon  settled 
i  n  London. 


Called  to  the  bar  in  1858,  he 
was  a  member  of  the  royal  com- 
mission on  trade  unions  in  1867- 
69,  and  from  1877-89  was  professor 
of  jurisprudence  at  the  Inns  of 
Court.  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  English  Positivism  (q.v.),  and  for 
25  years  president  of  the  English 
Positivist  committee. 

Harrison  wrote  gracefully  and 
well,  if  not  always  profoundly,  on 
a  variety  of  subjects,  and  when 
well  over  eighty  was  contributing 
to  the  reviews,  dealing  with  cur- 
rent questions  with  the  freshness 
and  vigour  of  youth,  qualities  he 
also  showed  when  in  1915  he  wrote 
The  German  Peril,  in  which  for 
many  years  he  had  believed.  Poli- 
tics constantly  attracted  him, 
although  in  practice  he  did  not 
get  beyond  serving  the  L.C.C.  as 
an  alderman  from  1889-93.  He 
wrote  The  Meaning  of  History, 
1862,  enlarged  ed.  1894  ;  and  Lives 
of  Oliver  Cromwell,  1888,  and  Wil- 
liam the  Silent,  1897  ;  Byzantine 
History  in  the  Early  Middle  Ages, 
1900  ;  and  Theophano,  1904. 

On  literature  he  wrote  The 
Choice  of  Books,  1886  ;  Victorian 
Literature,  1895  ;  A  Life  ot  Ruskin, 
1902  ;  and  numerous  introduc- 
tions to  literary  masterpieces.  On 
Positivism  and  ethical  and  reli- 
gious matters  generally  he  was 
voluminous,  his  books  ranging  from 
Comte's  Positive  Polity  in  1875  to 
The  Positive  Evolution  of  Religion 
in  1912,  with  The  Creed  of  a  Lay- 
man, 1907,  between.  In  1911  ap- 
peared Autobiographic  Memoirs. 
He  was  a  noted  climber,  and  in 
1908  published  My  Alpine  Jubilee. 
He  died  Jan.  14,  1923.  His  son 
Austin  was  editor  of  The  English 
Review  in  1910-23. 


joun  tiarnson, 
English  clockmaker 


Harrison,  JOHN  (1693-1776). 
English  clockmaker.  Born  at  Foul- 
by,  Yorkshire,  the  son  of  a  car- 
pen  ter,  he 
taught  himself 
the  elements 
of  mechanics, 
and  in  1715 
made  an  8- 
day  clock 
with  wooden 
wheels,  which 
is  still  working 
in  the  patent 
museum  at 

S.  Kensington.  After  King 

In  1726  he  introduced  an  impor- 
tant improvement  with  his  grid- 
iron pendulum,  in  which  parallel 
rods  of  brass  and  steel  contracting 
and  expanding  in  opposite  direc- 
tions compensated  for  differences 
of  temperature.  In  1736  he  pro- 
duced a  ship's  chronometer  more 
accurate  than  any  hitherto  made. 
In  1759  he  made  a  pocket  chrono- 
meter of  remarkable  accuracy 
which,  fulfilling  certain  conditions 
laid  down  by  an  Act  of  Parliament 
of  1713,  entitled  Longitude  Harri- 
son, as  he  was  called,  to  a  reward 
of  £20,000,  which  was  withheld, 
however,  by  the  board  of  longi- 
tude. It  was  not  until  1773  that 
he  received  this  money.  He  died 
in  London,  March  24,  1776. 

Harrison,  MARY  ST.  LEGER. 
British  novelist.  The  younger 
daughter  of  Charles  Kingsley,  she 
wrote  a  number  of  novels  under  the 
pen  name  of  Lucas  Malet  (f/.v.). 

Harrison,  THOMAS  (1606-60). 
English  puritan  and  regicide.  He  was 
born  at  Newcastle- under- Lynae, 

Staffs,  the  son 

of  a  grazier 
and  butcher. 
He  became 
clerk  to  a  Lon- 
don solicitor ; 
in  1642  joined 
the  bodyguard 
of  the  earl  of 
Essex,  and  dis- 

liiomas  Harrison,      tinguished 
English  Puritan        himself      at 

From  an  old  print         MarstOH    Moor. 

He  was  in  command  of  the  force 
that  took  King  Charles  from  Hurst 
Castle  to  London,  was  one  of  the 
court  that  tried  him,  and  signed  the 
death  warrant.  During  Cromwell's 
absence  in  Ireland  Harrison  was  in 
supreme  military  command  in  Eng- 
land, 1650-51. 

He  took  part  in  the  expulsion  uf 
the  Long  Parliament  in  1653,  in 
which  year  came  the  division  of  the 
Commonwealth  party  into  the 
Fifth  Monarchy  idealists  under 
Harrison  and  the  more  practical 
men  under  Lambert.  The  latter 
gained  the  upper  hand,  and  Harri- 
son lost  his  offices  and  commission, 


and  twice  suffered  imprisonment 
for  his  loyalty  to  his  views.  He 
was  one  of  the  most  consistent  and 
resolute  of  the  Parliamentarians, 
and  though  one  of  the  seven  regi- 
cides excluded  from  the  Act  of  in- 
demnity, refused  to  flee  the  coun- 
try at  the  Restoration  or  to  ac- 
knowledge Charles  II.  He  was 
taken,  tried  and  executed  on  Oct. 
13,  1660.  See  Thomas  Harrison, 
Regicide  and  Major-General,  C.  H 
Simpkinson,  1905. 

Harrison,  WILLIAM  (1534-93). 
English  topographer.  Born  in 
London,  April  18,  1534,  he  was 
educated  at  S.  Paul's  and  Westmin- 
ster schools,  and  1556  graduated 
at  Oxford.  He  became  rector  of 
Radwmter,  Essex,  in  1559.  At 
the  suggestion  of  Reginald  Wolfe, 
printer  to  Elizabeth,  he  wrote 
the  Description  of  England,  1577, 
a  vividly  actual  and  most  valuable 
account  of  the  country  in  the  time  of 
Elizabeth.  Harrison  was  appointed 
in  1586  dean  of  Windsor,  where  he 
died  in  April,  1593.  Much  of  his 
work  is  in  Shakespeare's  England, 
ed.  F.  J.  Furnivall.  1877-78. 

Harrison,  WILLIAM  HENRY 
(1773-1841).  American  statesman. 
Born  at  Berkeley,  Charles  City 
county,  V  i  r  - 

finia,  Feb.  9, 
773,  he  en- 
tered the 
army  and 
fought  with 
distinction 
against  the 
N.W.  Indians. 
From  1801-13 


ritory,  he  was  responsible  for 
several  treaties  with  the  Indians. 
one  of  which,  involving  a  large 
cession  of  territory  to  America,  in- 
directly led  to  the  war  with  Great 
Britain  in  1812.  Harrison  was 
appointed  to  the  command  in  the 
north-west,  and  his  defeat  of  a  com- 
bined force  of  British  and  Indians 
on  the  Thames,  Ontario,  Oct.  5, 
1813,  and  other  successes  gained 
him  a  reputation  during  the  war 
second  only  to  that  of  Andrew 
Jackson. 

Member  of  Congress,  1816-19, 
and  senator,  1825-28,  he  was  an 
unsuccessful  candidate  for  the 
presidency  in  1836,  but  was 
elected  in  1840  in  what  became 
known  as  the  "  log-cabin  and 
hard  cider  "  campaign,  in  allusion 
to  his  once  having  lived  in  a  log- 
cabin  and  to  his  preferring  cider 
to  beer.  He  died  at  Washington, 
a  month  after  his  inauguration, 
April  4,  1841.  See  Lives  of  the 
Presidents,  W.  0.  Stoddard,  1888- 
89  ;  The  Presidents  of  the  United 
States,  ed.  J.  G.  Wilson,  1894. 


HARRISON 


3856 


HARROWBY 


Harrison.  British  steamship 
line.  It  was  founded  in  1830,  being 
then  known  as  the  Charente  Steam- 
ship Co.,  tak- 
ing later  the 
name  of  its 
owners,  T.  & 
J.  H  a  r  rison. 
Its  chief  ser- 
vices are  be- 
tween Liver- 
Harrison  Line  pool  and  ports 
Flag,  red  and  in  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  the 
W.  Indies,  and  Brazil ;  also  to 
Calcutta,  S.  Africa,  and  E.  Africa. 
From  Calcutta  its  steamers  go  to 
the  River  Plate  and  S.  Brazil.  The 
London  offices  are  Dock  House, 
Billiter  Street,  B.C. 

Harris  Tweed.  Textile  fabric 
defined  as  tweed,  hand-spun, 
hand-woven  and  dyed,  and  finished 
by  hand  in  the  islands  of  Lewis, 
which  includes  Harris,  Uist,  Barra, 
and  their  several  purtenances.  See 
Tweed. 

Harrogate.  Municipal  borough 
and  watering-place  of  Yorkshire 
(W.R.).  It  is  203  m.  from  London 
on  the  N.E.,  G.N., 
and  M.  Rlys.  Har- 
rogate is  noted  for 
ita  springs,  of 
which  there  are 
87.  There  are 
several  baths  and 
pump-rooms,  a 

number  of  hospi- 
Harrogate  arms     ta,g     and     hyd^ 

pathics,  as  well  as  the  Royal  Hall, 
concert  room,  opera  house,  cinema 
halls,  and  other  attractions.  The 
buildings,  which  include  .  fine 
churches  and  hotels,  are  all  modern. 
The  Stray  is  a  large  open  space,  as  is 
Harlow  Moor,  and  there  are  public 
gardens.  The  earliest  spring  was 
discovered  in  the  16th  century.  At 
Harlow  is  an  observatory.  Near  the 
town  are  Ripon,  Fountains  Abbey, 
and  Ripley  Castle.  The  district 
around  is  known  as  Knaresborough 
Forest.  Harrogate  was  originally 
two  villages,  Low  and  High  Harro- 
gate. It  was  made  a  borough  in 


1884.  The  waters  are  chalybeate, 
sulphurous,  and  limestone,  and  are 
the  property  of  the  corporation. 
During  the  Great  War  over  100,000 
injured  soldiers  were  treated  here. 
Pop.  38,938.  See  Baths ;  Spa. 

Harrow.  Raking  machine  for 
shallow  cultivation  of  the  soil, 
differing  from  the  cultivator  in  the 
absence  of  wheels.  Drag-harrows, 
some  of  which  require  three  horses, 
may  have  curved  tines.  Light 
harrows  possess  tines  arranged 
on  the  zigzag  principle,  so  as  to 
cover  the  ground  fully  between 
them.  The  term  seed  harrow  is 
applied  to  a  light  kind  by  which 
a  coating  of  soil  is  drawn  over  the 
seeds.  Chain  harrows,  from  their 
flexible  nature,  are  well  suited  for 
dealing  with  grass  land,  removing 
weeds,  and  distributing  the  drop- 
pings of  stock.  See  Agriculture  ; 
Ploughing. 

Harrow  OR  HARROW-ON-THE- 
HILL.  Parish,  urban  district,  and 
parl.  div.  of  Middlesex,  England. 


dating  from  1553.  The  modern 
buildings  include  district  council 
offices,  public  hall,  assembly  rooms, 
fire  station,  and  cottage  hos- 
pital. The  parish  church  of  S. 
Mary,  founded  by  Lanfranc  and 
consecrated  by  Anselm.  1094. 
was  largely  rebuilt  in  the  14th 
century,  and  restored  by  Sir  Gilbert 
Scott  'in  1840.  It  contains  old 
brasses,  among  them  that  of  John 
Lyon,  founder  of  Harrow  School, 
monuments  and  coloured  glass.  Its 
lead-encased  wooden  spire  is  a 
landmark  for  miles  around,  and  the 
view  from  the  terrace  is  famous. 
In  addition  to  its  great  public 
school,  Harrow  has  several  other 
educational  establishments,  includ- 
ing the  John  Lyon  school. 

The  manor  belonged  to  the 
archbishops  of  Canterbury  as 
early  as  the  9th  century,  when  it 
was  known  as  Herges,  a  name  re- 

S laced    in    the    14th    century    by 
arewe-at-Hill,  whence  its  present 
name.   Cranmer  in  1543  exchanged 
it  for  other  lands 
j    with  Henry  VIII, 
j    who    in    1546 
granted  it  to  Sir 
Edward,  after- 
wards    Lord, 
North,   in  whose 
family     it    re- 
m  a  i  n  e  d      until 
1630.  Pop.  town, 
in    1851,    4,950; 
in    1921    it    was 
19,468.    -See  Mid- 
dlesex. 

Harrowby, 

EARL  OF.   British 

Harrogate,  Yorkshire.     Looking  up  Parliament  Street.       title  borne  by  the 
Part  of  the  Royal  Baths  is  seen  on  the  right  family  of  Ryder 

It  is  10  m.  by  road  N.W.  from  since  1809.  Nathaniel  Ryder,  M.P., 
Hyde  Park  Corner,  and  is  served  a  son  of  the  lord  chief  justice,  Sir 
by  the  L.  &  N.W.,  G.C.,  Met.,  Dudley  Ryder,  was  made  Baron 


District,     and     Bakerloo     (Tube) 
Rls.    Situated  on  the  summit  and 


Harrowby   in    1776,    and   his   son 
Dudley   (1762-1847)  was    created 
and    earl     of 
This  earl  had 


slopes  of  a  hill  rising  abruptly  200  Viscount     Sandon 

ft.   from  the  plain,  it  has  grown  Harrowby  in  1809. 

rapidly  since  the  increase  of  rly.  been  secretary  of  state  for  foreign 

facilities.     Harrow  High  Street  re-  affairs  under  Pitt,  and  lord  presi- 

tains  much  of  its  old  character  and  dent  of  the  council  from  1812-27. 

contains  an  inn,  the  King's  Head.  He  took    an    important    part    in 


Harrow     Left.  "  Ducker,"   the  bathing  pond  for  ihe  school.    Right,  the  parish  church,  restored  by  Sir  Gilbert  Scott 


HARROW     SCHOOL 


HART 


Harrow  School.    1.  Interior  of  the  Speech  Room.     2.  Fourth  Form  Room,  1611,  on  the  panels  of  which  many  scholars, 
afterwards  famous,  have  carved  their  names.     3.  The  Chapel.     4.  The  Old  School,  built  in  1611 

Pholochrom  Co. 


the  negotiations  that  preceded 
the  passing  of  the  Reform  Bill  in 
1832. 

Dudley,  the  2nd  earl  ( 1 798-1 882 ), 
was  M.P.  from 
1819-47,  and 
ended  his 
official  life  as 
lord  privy  seal 
under  Lord 
Palmerston. 
The  3rd  earl 
was  a  follower 
of  Disraeli, 
and  interested 
in  education. 
He  was  vice- 
president  o  f 
the  council,  1874-78,  and  president 
of  the  board  of  trade,  1878-80,  while 
still  Viscount  San  don.  John  Her- 
bert Dudley,  the  5th  earl,  who 
succeeded  in  1900,  was  a  partner  in 
the  bank  of  Coutts  and  married 
a  daughter  of  W.  H.  Smith,  M.P. 
His  eldest  son  is  called  Viscount 
Sandon,  and  his  chief  seat  is  San- 
don  Hall,  Stafford.  The  village  of 
Harrowby  is  in  Lincolnshire. 

Harrow  School.  English  public 
school.  Founded  by  a  yeoman 
named  John  Lyon,  and  granted  a 
charter  in  1571, 
it  was  opened  in 
1611  at  Harrow, 
Middlesex,  and 
was  long  a  school 
for  the  poor 
children  there. 
After  a  time,  how- 
ever, the  master 
began  to  take 
pupils  from  other 
parishes,  a  privilege  sanctioned  by 


Harrow  School 
arms 


the  courts  of  law  in  1809,  and  this, 
together  with  the  increasing  value 
of  the  property  left  by  Lyon,  gave 
it  its  present  position.  Towards 
the  end  of  the  18th  century  it 
developed  into  a  leading  public 
school,  the  chief  rival  of  Eton  and 
Winchester.  Most  of  the  buildings 
are  modern,  these  including  chapel, 
library,  and  speech  room,  but  the 
original  room  still  remains. 

The  school  numbers  about  600 
boys.  There  are  eleven  school 
houses,  and  a  few  private  boarding 
houses.  It  has  an  upper  and  a 
lower  school,  but  is  not  divided 
into  sides  ;  there  are  forms  and 
divisions,  the  latter  including 
army  and  navy.  There  are  a  num- 
ber of  entrance  scholarships  and 
some  leaving  scholarships  to  the 
universities.  Since  the  time  of 
John  Farmer,  Harrow  has  been 
famous  for  its  music.  Among  its 
headmasters  have  been  Christopher 
Wordsworth,  George  Butler,  C.  J. 
Vaughan,  H.  M.  Butler,  and  J.  E.  C. 
Welldon.  Its  pupils  have  included 
Byron,  Peel,  and  Palmerston. 

During  the  Great  War,  2,917 
members  of  the  Harrow  School 
Officers'  Training  Corps  joined  the 
forces,  of  whom  619  were  killed 
and  690  wounded.  Eight  won  the 
V.C.,  and  among  other  honours 
were  two  bars  to  D.S.O.,  2  ;  one 
bar  to  D.S.O.,  16  ;  D.S.O.,  215  ; 
M.C.,  252  ;  D.F.C.,  2  ;  D.S.C.,  3. 
Among  distinguished  generals  from 
the  school  were  Sir  H.  Smith- 
Dorrien,  Sir  H.  A.  Lawrence,  and 
Lord  Home.  There  are  war 
memorial  buildings  in  honour  of 
the  fallen.  See  Byron. 


Bibliography.  Harrow  School, 
B.  Pitcairn,  1870;  Harrow  School 
and  its  Surroundings,  P.  M.  Thorn- 
ton, 1885;  Harrow  School,  E.  W. 
Howson  and  G.  T.  Warner,  1898: 
Harrow,  A.  Fox,  1911;  The  Harrow 
Life  of  Henry  Montagu  Butler,  E. 
Graham,  1920. 

Harsova.  Town  of  Rumania. 
It  is  situated  on  the  Danube  in  the 
district  known  as  the  Dobruja, 
15  m.  S.  of  Braila,  and  60  m.  N.E. 
of  Silistria.  It  came  into  promi- 
nence in  the  Great  War  during 
Mackensen's  invasion  of  the  Do- 
bruja in  the  autumn  of  1916.  Its 
importance  was  due  to  the  fact 
that  here  was  one  of  the  few  good 
possible  crossings  of  the  Danube. 
See  Rumania,  Conquest  of. 

Hart,  ALBERT  BUSHNELL  (b. 
1854).  American  historian.  He 
was  born  at  Clarksville,  Penn- 
sylvania, July  1,  1854,  and  edu- 
cated at  Harvard  and  Freiburg, 
Germany.  Appointed  instructor  of 
American  history  at  Harvard,  1883, 
he  occupied  various  professorial 
posts  at  that  university  for  over 
thirty  years.  His  historical  works 
include  Introduction  to  the  Study 
of  Federal  Government,  1890 ; 
Epoch  Maps,  1891  ;  Formation  of 
the  Union,  1892  ;  Foundations  of 
American  Foreign  Policy,  1901  ; 
National  Ideals  Historically  Traced, 
1907 ;  American  War  Manual,  1918. 

Hart,  SIR  ROBERT  (1835-1911). 
Civil  administrator  in  China.  Born 
in  co.  Armagh,  and  educated  at 
Queen's  College,  Belfast,  he  entered 
the  British  consular  service  in 
China,  1854.  Invited  by  the  vice- 
roy of  Canton  to  undertake  the 


S     5 


HART     DYKE 


3858 


HARTFORD 


biruobertHart, 
British  administrator 


supervision  of  the  customs  in  1859, 
Hart  resigned  from  the  British 
consular  service  and  by  his  organi- 
zation largely 
created  the 
Chinese  impe- 
rial maritime 
customs  ser- 
vice, of  which 
he  became  in- 
spector-general 
in  1863.  Only 

°11  tw°  °cca: 
sions,  1800  and 
1878,  did  he 
revisit  Europe  before  his  retire- 
ment from  office  in  1908. 

His  thorough  knowledge  of  the 
Chinese  language,  his  absorption  of 
the  Chinese"  point  of  view,  and  his 
resolute  administration  for  the 
benefit  of  China,  won  the  confi- 
dence of  the  Chinese  government, 
and  the  success  of  his  department 
brought  him  the  additional  charge 
of  the  lighting  of  the  coast  and 
inland  waterways  and  of  the 
imperial  post.  In  1906  the  Chinese 
government  placed  the  customs 
service  under  a  board  of  Chinese 
officials,  and  in  Jan.,  1908,  Hart, 
nominally  president  of  the  board, 
received  formal  leave  of  absence 
and  returned  to  England.  He  was 
created  a  baronet  in  1893,  and  died 
near  Great  Marlow,  Sept,  20,  1911. 

Hart  Dyke,  SIR  WILLIAM  (b. 
1837).  British  politician.  The  son 
of  a  Kentish  baronet  with  a  title 
dating  from 
1679,  he  was 
born  Aug.  7, 
1837.  Edu- 
cated at  Har- 
row and  Christ 
Church,  Ox- 
ford, h  e  en- 
tered  the 
House  of  Com- 
mons as  a  Con- 
servative for 
West  Kent  in 
1865.  Returned  for  Mid  Kent  in 
1868,  he  represented  that  constitu- 
ency until  1885  ;  from  then  until  his 
retirement  in  1906  he  sat  for  the 
Dartford  division.  From  1868-74 
Dyke  was  a  junior  whip,  and 
when  the  Conservatives  were  in 
power,  1874-80,  he  was  their  chief 
whip.  He  was  chief  secretary  for 
Ireland  1885-86,  and  from  1887-92 
was  vice  president  of  the  council, 
i.e.  minister  in  charge  of  education. 
He  succeeded  to  the  baronetcy  in 
1875.  He  was  for  some  years  chair- 
man of  the  L.C.  &  D.  Rly. 

Harte,  FRANCIS  BRET  (1839- 
1902).  American  novelist  and 
poet.  Bom  Aug.  25,  1839,  he  went 
at  the  age  of  15  to  California, 
where  he  spent  three  years  as  a 
gold-miner  and  schoolmaster.  He 
became  editor  of  The  Weekly  Cali- 


bir  W.  Hart  i>yke, 
British  politician 

Russell 


fornian,  in  which  he  published  his 

admirable  parodies,  the  Condensed 

Novels.     From    1868-70  he  edited 

The    Overland 

Monthly,      for 

which  he  wrote 

the   inimitable 

verses  on  The 

Heathen 

Chinee    and 

many  of    his 

most   famous 

stories,  includ-    fg. 


ing  The  Luck  of  Roaring  Camp, 
The  Outcasts  of  Poker  Flat.Miggles, 
and  Tennessee's  Partner. 

From  1878-85  he  held  consular 
appointments  at  Crefeld  in  Ger- 
many, and  at  Glasgow.  From  1885 
onwards  he  resided  near  London, 
producing  many  novels  and  short 
stories,  but  none  quite  equal  to  his 
early  studies.  He  died  at  Camberley, 
May  5,  1902.  See  Lives,  T.  E.  Pem- 
berton,1903 ;  H.  W.  Boynton,  1905. 

Hartebeest  (Bubalis).  Genus  of 
large  antelopes,  found  in  S.  Africa. 
The  name  is  Dutch  and  is  derived 
from  the  supposed  resemblance  of 
the  animal  to  a  stag.  The  harte- 
beest  is  one  of  the  swiftest  of  the 
antelopes  ;  is  about  4  ft.  high  at 
the  withers  ;  is  reddish  brown  or 
bay  in  colour,  and  has  ringed  horns 
which  first  diverge  from  the  fore- 
head like  a  V  and  then  turn  back- 
wards at  right  angles.  There  are 
probably  four  species,  with  various 
local  races.  See  Animal ;  Antelope. 

Hart  Fell.  Mountain  in  Scot- 
land. On  the  borders  of  Dumfries- 
shire and  Peeblesshire,  it  is  6  ra. 
N.E.  of  Moffat.  Its  height  is  2,650ft. 

Hartford.  City  of  Connecticut, 
U.S.A.  Capital  of  the  state  and  co. 
seat  of  Hartford  co.,  it  stands  on 


the  Connecticut  river  at  the  head 
of  navigation  for  large  ships,  1 25  m. 
W.S.W.  of  Boston,  and  is  served 
by  the  New  York,  New  Haven,  and 
Hartford  and  other  rlys.  Among  a 
number  of  imposing  buildings  are 
the  fine  white  marble  slate  capitol, 
the  municipal  buildings,  the  city 
hall,  built  in  1796,  which  served  as 
the  capitol  until  1879,  the  state 
arsenal,  the  Wadsworth  Athe- 
naeum, the  Colt  Memorial,  and  the 
Morgan  art  gallery.  The  churches 
include  S.  Joseph's  Cathedral  (Ro- 
man Catholic)  and  the  Church  of 
the  Good  Shepherd.  The  prin 
cipal  educational  establishments 
are  Trinity  College  and  Hartford 
Theological  Seminary. 


m 

mm^ 


Hartford,   U.S.A.      The   municipal 
buildings 

Hartford  is  a  port  of  entry,  but 
is  chiefly  important  as  an  insurance 
centre.  Its  manufactures  consist  of 
typewriters,  steam-engines,  print- 
ing machinery,  motor  vehicles, 
sewing-  macliines, 
furniture,  rubber, 
and  hosiery. 

Settled  in  1633 
by  Dutch  colonists, 
from  16J4  to  1701 
Hartford  was  the 
capital,  when  New 
Haven  became  joint 
capital,  but  since 
1875  Hartford  has 
been  the  sole  seat 
of  government.  It 
received  a  city 
charter  in  1704. 
Among  a  number  of 
eminent  writers  who 
have  lived  here  are 
Harriet  B  e  e  c  h  e  r 
Stow  e,  Whittier, 
Joel  Barlow,  C.  D. 
Warner,  and  Mark 


Hartebeest. 


Specimen  o!  feubalis  caama,  a  large  South 
African  antelope 


T  w  a  i  n. 
180,695. 


Pop. 


HARTINGTON 


3859 


HARTLEY 


Hartington,  MARQUESS  OF. 
English  title  borne  by  the  eldest 
son  of  the  duke  of  Devonshire.  It- 
is  best  known  as  the  name  of  the 
Liberal  statesman  who  became  duke 
of  Devonshire  in  1891.  Hartington  is 
a  village  in  the  Peak  dist.  of  Derby- 
shire. See  Devonshire,  8th  Duke  of. 
Hartland,  HENRY  ALBERT 
(1840-93).  British  painter.  Born 
at  Mallow,  co.  Cork,  on  Aug.  2, 
1840,  Hartland  worked  for  a  time 
painting  stage  scenery  in  Dublin, 
and  made  his  first  appearance  at 
the  Royal  Academy  in  1869.  His 
best  work  was  done  in  water- 
colour,  his  favourite  subjects  being 
the  mooiland  scenery  of  Ireland, 
and  N.  Wales  ;  most  of  his  working 
life  was  spent  at  Liverpool.  He  was 
a  frequent  exhibitor  at  the  Royal 
Academy,  and  examples  of  his 
work  are  to  be  found  in  the  S.  Ken- 
sington Museum  and  the  Walker 
Art  Gallery,  Liverpool.  He  died  at 
Liverpool,  Nov.  28,  1893. 

Hartland  Point.  Headland  on 
the  N.  coast  of  Devonshire,  Eng- 
land. Forming  the  S.W.  extremity 
of  Barnstaple  Bay,  it  has  a  light- 
house with  a  revolving  light  visible 
for  17  m. 

Hartlebury.  Parish  and  village 
of  Worcestershire,  England.  It 
is  a  rly.  junction  on  the  G.W.R., 
6  m.  S.E.  of  Bewdiey.  The  castle 
to  the  W.  of  the  village  is  the  resi- 
dence of  the  bishop  of  Worcester. 
The  early  bishops  had  a  castle  here 
dating  from  the  13th  century,  but 
the  present  building  is  mainly  an 
18th  century  one.  It  contains  the 
Hurd  library  and  some  good  por- 
traits. Pop.  2.500. 

Hartlepool.  Municipal  bor.  of 
Durham.  It  stands  on  a  headland 
on  the  coast  of  Durham,  247  m. 
from  London  and 
18  m.  from  Dur- 
ham on  the  N.E. 
Rly.  The  chief 
buildings  are  the 
church  of  S. 
Hilda,  dating 
from  the  12th 
Hartlepool  arms  century,  with  its 
great  tower,  and  the  town  hall,  a 
modern  building  in  the  Italian  style. 
The  chief  industries  are  shipping 
and  shipbuilding.  There  is  a  large 
fishing  trade,  for  which  there  is  a 
commodious  fish  quay.  The  town 
has  a  service  of  electric  tramways, 
connecting  it  also  with  W.  Hartle- 
pool. 

Hartlepool  originated  round  a 
monastery  founded  about  640.  It 
obtained  some  municipal  privileges 
from  King  John,  and  was  a  forti- 
fied place,  there  being  still  many  re- 
mains of  its  walls  and  the  Sanciwell 
gate.  It  was  made  a  borough  in 
1590.  In  the  Middle  Ages  and 
later  it  had  large  markets  and 


fairs,  and  is  now 
a  flourishing  sea- 
port. It  is  gov- 
erned by  a  mayor 
and  corporation 
which  derives  an 
income  from 
some  corporate 
property.  Gas 
and  water  are 
supplied  by  a 
company.  Known 
as  the  Hartle- 
pool s,  Hartle- 
pool and  W.  Har- 
tlepool unite  in 


Hartlepool.    The  Promenade.    Top  right,  Christ  Church 
and  square,  West  Hartlepool 


sending  one  member  to  Parlia- 
ment. Pop.  20,000. 

Hartlepool,  WEST.  Co.  bor.  of 
Durham.  It  stands  just  S.  of 
Hartlepool,  being  245  m.  from 
London,  and  is  served  by  the 
N.E.  Rly.  The  principal  buildings 
are  the  town  hall,  market  hall, 
public  library,  Athenaeum,  and 
several  modern  churches.  The 
borough  includes  Seaton  Carew,  a 
watering-place,  2  m.  to  the  S.,  and 
Stranton  with  an  old  church — All 
Saints.  West  Hartlepool  is  entirely 
a  modern  seaport  dating  from  the 
opening  of  the  Durham  coalfields. 
With  Hartlepool,  it  has  a  fine  large 
harbour,  protected  by  a  break- 
water. It  includes  docks,  which 
cover  over  350  acres  and  provide 
facilities  for  shipping  and  ship- 
building of  all  kinds.  Timber,  iron 
ore,  and  sugar  are  among  the  im- 
ports. Large  shipbuilding  yards, 
engineering  works,  saw  and  flour 
mills  are  among  the  other  indus- 
tries. Market  day,  Sat,  Pop.  68,923. 

Hartlepools,  BOMBARDMENT  OF 
THE.  German  naval  operation  in 
the  Great  War,  Dec.  16,  1914. 
Early  in  the  morning  of  Dec.  16, 
1914,  a  German  battle -cruiser 
squadron  under  the  command  of 
Vice-Admiral  Hipper  appeared  off 
the  N.E.  coast  of  England  and 
shelled  the  Hartlepools,  Whitby, 
and  Scarborough,  the  total  casu- 
alties being  150  non-combatants 
killed  and  over  400  wounded.  The 
enemy  vessels  engaged  were  the 
battle  cruisers  Derfflinger,  Seydlitz, 
and  Moltke,  Von  der  Tann,  the 
armoured  cruiser  Bliicher,  and  cer 
tain  light  cruisers  and  destroyers. 


The  bombard- 
ment bec>an  at 
8.15  a.m.  and 
lasted  until  8.50 
a.m.  Three 
cruisers  got  within 
a  range  of  4,000 
yds.  The  coastal 
batteries  m  a  i  n- 
tained  an  artillery 
duel  throughout 
the  engagement, 
and  inflicted  some 
damage.  The  light  cruiser  Patrol 
and  two  destroyers,  Doon  and 
Hardy,  also  fired  at  the  enemy. 

Great  damage  was  caused  by  the 
bombardment.  Important  build- 
ings were  hit,  including  the  rail- 
way station,  waterworks,  gasometer, 
and  a  battery.  It  is  estimated 
that  1,500  shells  were  fired  by 
the  German  force,  and  500  houses 
hit.  The  casualties  were  113  killed, 
including  30  women  and  15  chil- 
dren, and  300  wounded.  The  mili- 
tary casualties  were  seven  men  of 
the  Durham  Light  Infantry  killed 
and  14  men  of  the  Durham  and 
Yorks.  Regts.  and  R.E.  wounded. 
Hartley,  SIR  CHARLES  AUGUSTUS 
(1825-1915).  British  engineer. 
Born  at  Heworth,  Durham,  he  be- 
came a  railway  engineer.  During 
the  Crimean  War  he  served  as  an 
engineer  with  the  Turks.  This  led 
to  his  appointment  as  engineer-in- 
chief  to  the  international  com- 
mission that  controlled  the  Dan- 
ube, and  in  1892  he  was  made  its 
consulting  engineer.  In  1867  he 
won  a  prize  offered  by  the  tsar  tor 
a  plan  to  improve  Odessa  Harbour, 
and  he  was  consulted  about  river 
and  harbour  prospects  all  over  the 
world,  including  the  Mississippi 
and  Schelde,  Durban,  and  Trieste. 
He  was  on  the  commission  for  the 
improvement  of  the  Suez  Canal. 
Knighted  in  1862,  he  died  on 
Feb.  20,  1915. 

Hartley,  DAVID  (1705-57).  Eng- 
lish physician  and  philosopher. 
Bom  Aug.  30,  1705,  and  educated 
at  Jesus  College,  Cambridge,  con- 
scientious scruples  ied  him  to 
abandon  his  intention  of  taking 


HARTMANN 


3860 


HARTZENBUSCH 


Holy  Orders.  He  became  a  suc- 
cessful physician,  finally  settling 
at  Bath,  where  he  died  Aug.  28, 
1757.  His  chief  work  is  Observa- 
tions on  Man,  his  Frame,  his  Duty, 
and  his  Expectations,  1749.  In 
this  he  explained  the  workings  of 
the  mind  as  due  to  certain  tiny  vi- 
brations or  li  vibratiuncules,"  work- 
ing both  inwards  and  outwards  by 
way  of  the  nerves,  according  as  the 
disturbing  cause  was  an  external 
object  or  an  internal  impulse.  The 
founder  of  the  Associationist  psy- 
chological school  (see  Association 
of  Ideas),  he  attached  special  im- 
portance to  the  law  of  succession 
and  simultaneity.  See  Hartley  and 
James  Mill,  G.  S.  Bower,  1881. 

Hartmann,  FELIX  VON  (1851- 
1919).  German  cardinal  and  arch- 
bishop of  Cologne.  Born  at  Miin- 
s  t  e  r,  W  e  s  t- 
phalia,  Dec.  15, 
1851,  and  or- 
dained in  1874, 
he  was  conse- 
crated bishop 
of  Munster  in 
1911,  elected 
archbishop  of 
Cologne,  1912, 
and  made  a 
canlinal  priest 
by  Pope  Pius  X,  May  25,  1914.  He 
was  entrusted  with  a  special  mis- 
sion to  the  Vatican,  Nov.-Dec., 
1915,  and  in  1916  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Prussian  House  of  Lords. 
He  died  at  Cologne,  Nov.  11,  1919. 
He  was  a  consistent  supporter  of 
the  German  government  through- 
out the  Great  War. 

Hartmann,  KARL  ROBERT  EDU- 
ARD  VON  (1842-1906).  German 
philosopher.  Born  in  Berlin,  Feb. 
23,  1842,  the 
son  of  a  Prus- 
sian general, 
for  five  years 
he  heJ  da  com- 
mission in  the 
Guards -Artil- 
lery, but  was 
forced  in  1865 
to  retire  on  ac- 
count of  a 
neuralgic  af- 
fection of  the 
him  a  cripple 
period  spent 


Felix  von  Hartmann. 
German  prelate 


Eduard  von  Hart- 
mann,     German 
philosopher 


knee  which  made 
for  life.  After  t 
in  study  he  published,  in  1869, 
his  work  on  The  Philosophy  of 
the  Unconscious,  10th  ed.  1890, 
Eng.  trans.  W.  C.  Coupland,  1884  ; 
2nd  ed.  1904.  His  Modern  Psy- 
chology, 1903,  is  an  account  of  the 
progress  of  psychological  study  in 
Germany  in  the  second  half  of  the 
19th  centurj-.  His  other  works 
include  German  Aesthetics  since 
Kant,  1886;  The  Religion  of  the 
Future,  Eng.  trans.  E.  Dare,  1888; 
The  Sexes  Compared  and  Other 


Essays,  Eng.  trans.  A.  Kenner, 
1895;  and  The  Philosophy  of  the 
Beautiful,  18-87.  He  died  atLichter- 
felde,  near  Berlin,  June  6,  1906. 
*  Von  Hartmann  was  a  monist. 
f  lis  Philosophy  of  the  Unconscious 
is  based  on  an  amalgamation  ot 
Schopenhauer's  doctrine  of  will 
with  the  metaphysic  of  Hegel  and 
the  positiveness  of  Scheiling.  Logi- 
cal thought  and  illogical  will  are 
merged  in  the  unconscious,  i.e.  in 
the  one  and  universal  unconscious 
mind  which  animates  the  world. 
Unlike  Schopenhauer,  Hartmann 
denies  that  will  can  exist  without 
willing  something  definite,  which 
is  thought  or  idea.  Mind  and  mat- 
ter are  objectifications.  Nature's 
restorative  and  reproductive  pow- 
ers are  unconscious,  as  are  reflex 
action  and  instinct.  Consciousness 
came  to  life  in  man,  and  with  it  an 
idea  of  wretchedness  to  which  the 
lesser  animals  are  strangers.  From 
this  idea  man  has  sought  relief  in  a 
belief  in  worldly  happiness,  faith 
in  a  hereafter,  and  trust  in  the  ame- 
liorative agency  of  education  and 
science.  The  greater  part  of  the 
will  perceives  the  inevitable  misery 
of  existence,  and  finally  man  will 
seek  the  peace  of  non-existence. 
See  Pessimism,  J.  Sully,  1891. 

Hartmannsweilerkopf  Sum- 
mit in  the  Vosges,  north-west  of 
Mulhouse,  called  by  the  French 
Vieil  Armand.  It  is  "3,  136  ft.  high, 
and  its  possession  was  hotly  con- 
tested by  the  French  and  the 
Germans  during  the  Great  War. 
In  Jan.,  1915,  when  the  crest  was 
held  by  a  small  detachment  of 
French  chasseurs,  it  was  rushed 
by  the  Germans,  who  fortified  it 
and  beat  off  all  efforts  to  retake  it. 
On  March  22,  1915,  after  a  violent 
bombardment,  it  was  attacked 
by  three  French  battalions,  which 
with  severe  losses  captured  some 
important  trenches.  On  March  26 
the  attack  was  renewed,  and  the 
crest  was  carried. 

On  April  25  the  Germans  de- 
livered an  assault,  supported  by 
their  heaviest  guns,  and  in  the 
evening  reached  the  crest,  cap- 
turing some  hundreds  of  French 
whom  they  cut  off.  The  French 
reserves  were  thrown  in,  but 
could  not  regain  the  crest,  though 
they  held  positions  close  to  it. 
On  Oct.  15,  by  a  sudden  attack 
with  liquid  fire,  the  Germans  seized 
the  advanced  French  trenches  on 
the  western  edge  of  the  crest,  but 
during  the  night  were  driven  from 
them  by  a  French  counter-attack. 

Late  in  the  year  the  French 
command  decided  to  carry  out 
a  considerable  offensive.  This  was 
delayed  by  bad  weather,  and  when 
it  opened  on  Dec.  21  the  Germans 
were  ready  for  it.  None  the  less, 


the  French  captured  the  summit 
and  took  800  prisoners,  but  were 
counter-attacked  on  the  22nd  and 
driven  off,  and  the  regiment  en- 
gaged was  practically  annihilated, 
losing  1,998  officers  and  men,  the 
commander,  General  Serret,  being 
mortally  wounded.  From  this  date 
the  summit  remained  in  German 
hands.  See  Alsace,  Campaigns  in. 

Hartmann  von  Aue  (c.  1170- 
1210).  German  Meistersinger.  A 
Swabian  knight,  known  to  have 
joined  in  one  of  the  Crusades.  He 
was  the  author  of  two  Arthurian 
epics,  Erec  and  Iwein,  which 
greatly  influenced  German  me- 
dieval poetry,  and  of  two  religious 
narrative  poems,  Gregorius,  a 
legend  of  the  early  life  of  Pope 
Gregory  the  Great,  and  Der  Arme 
Heinrich  (Poor  Henry),  a  tender 
romance  of  love  and  faith  based  on 
the  legend  which  Longfellow  also 
used  in  his  Golden  Legend. 

Hartshorn.  Popular  name  for 
ammonia  water,  ammonium  car- 
bonate. The  name  originally  re- 
ferred to  the  preparation  made  by 
distillation  from  the  antlers  of  the 
red  deer,  Cervus  elaphus.  The  pro- 
ducts of  distillation  have  now  been 
replaced  by  ammonia  prepara- 
tions. See  Ammonia. 

Hart's-tongue  Fern  (Phyllitis 
scolopendrium).  Fern  of  the  natural 
order  Polypodiaceae  It  is  a  native 
of  Europe,  N.  Africa,  Asia,  and  N. 
America.  The  rootstock  is  short 
and  broad,  clothed  with  slender 
brown  scales  ;  the  fronds,  1  ft.  to 
3  ft.  long,  are  undivided,  leathery, 
and  strap-shaped,  with  a  heart- 
shaped  base.  The  spore  clusters  are 
in  thick  parallel  lines  at  right  angles 
to  the  thick  mid  rib.  See  Fern. 

Hart  -  Truffle  (Elaphomyces 
granulatus).  Subterranean  fungus 
of  the  natural  order  Ascomycetes. 
It  is  a  yellow 
tuber  of  de- 
pressed spher- 
ical form,  at- 
tached to  the 
roots  of  coni- 
fers, and  filled, 
when  ripe,  with 
a  purplish- 
brown  mass  of 
spores.  Its 
presence  be- 
neath the  soil 
is  indicated 
above  it  by  the 
clubbed  stems 
of  another  fun- 
gus, Cordyceps 
capitala,  which  is  parasitic  upon 
the  hart-truffle. 

Hartzenbusch,  JUAN  EUGENIC 
(1806-80).  Spanish  dramatist. 
Born  at  Madrid,  Sept,  6,  1806,  of 
German  origin,  he  worked  as  a  car- 
penter for  some  years  and  then 


Hart-Truffle,  with 

clubbed   stems    of 

its  parasite 


HARUSPICES 


HARVARD      UNIVERSITY 


adopted  journalism  After  making 
several  translations  and  adapta 
tions  of  French  and  Spanisli 
dramas,  he  produced  Los  Amante.^ 
de  Teruel  (TeruePs  Lovers)  in  1837, 
and  leaped  into  popularity.  A  later 
success  was  achieved  in  1845  with 
La  Jura  en  Santa  Gadea.  He  pub 
lished  critical  editions  of  Calderon 
and  others,  and  Cuentos  y  Fabulas 
(Stories  and  Fables)  in  1861.  He 
died  at  Madrid,  Aug.  2,  1880. 

Haruspices.  In  ancient  Rome, 
diviners  or  soothsayers  who  drew 
omens  from  examination  of  the 
entrails  of  slaughtered  animals 
They  also  observed  the  manner  in 
which  the  victim  went  to  its  death, 
the  character  of  the  flames  in  which 
it  was  consumed,  and  of  the  meal, 
wine,  etc.,  used  in  the  sacrifice  . 
and  suggested  methods  of  pro 
pitiating  the  divine  wrath  after  the 
occurrence  of  prodigies  and  thun 
derstorms.  The  emperor  Claudius 
formed  them  into  a  college  which 
existed  until  the  5th  century. 

Harvard.  Lofty  peak  of  the 
Rocky  Mts.,  in  Lake  co.,  Colorado, 
U.S.A.  One  of  the  College  peaks, 
it  attains  an  elevation  of  14,376  ft. 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  It  is 
about  110  m.  S.W.  of  Denver. 

Harvard,  JOHN  (1607-38).  One 
of  the  founders  of  Harvard  Univer- 
sity. Born  in  Southwark,  London, 
S.E.,  he  was  a  son  of  Robert  Har 
vard  (d.  1625),  a  prosperous  but- 
cher, was  baptized  in  S.  Saviour's. 
Nov.  29,  1607,  and  educated  at  the 
local  grammar  school  and  at  Em- 
manuel College,  Cambridge.  He 
was  married,  April  19,  1636,  at 
South  Mailing,  to  Anne  Sadler,  of 
Ringmer,  Sussex.  In  1637  he  went 
to  America,  was  admitted,  Aug.  6. 
a  townsman  of  Charlestown,  Mass  ; 
and  became  second  minister  of  the 
church  there.  Dying  Sept.  14, 
1638,  he  left  his  books  (all  but  one 
of  which  were  destroyed  by  fire 
in  1764)  and  half  of  his  estate  to 
a  college  which  had  been  chartered 
in  1636  in  the  hamlet  of  New 
Towne,  which  was  renamed  Cam- 
bridge. The  college  was  named 
Harvard  College. 

In  1638  a  granite  obelisk  was 
erected  to  Harvard's  memory  at 
Charlestown  ;  in  1904  a  memorial 
tablet  was  placed  in  Emmanuel 
College  ;  in  1905  the  chapel  of  S. 
John  the  Divine,  in  S.  Saviour's 
was  restored  by  Harvard  men  and 
renamed  Harvard  Memorial  Chapel 
Harvard's  mother,  Katherine 
Rogers,  was  a  native  of  Stratford 
on- A  von,  and,  it  is  suggested,  was- 
introduced  to  his  father  by  Shake 
speare.  Harvard  House,  Stratford 
on-Avon,  built  by  the  father  oJ 
Katherine  Rogers,  was  restored  at 
the  expense  of  Edward  Morris,  of 
Chicago,  and  opened  Oct.  6,  1909 


Harvard  House,  Stratford-on-Avon, 

built  bv  Harvard's  grandfather,  and 

-estored  in  1909 

as  a  rendezvous  101  Americans 
visiting  England,  and  a  repository 
of  records,  relics,  etc.,  of  the  Eliza- 
bethan period.  See  John  Harvard 
and  His  Times,  H.  C.  Shelley,  1907 

Harvard  University.  Senior 
university  of  the  U.S.A.  It  was 
founded  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  just 
outside  Boston,  by  some  Cam- 
bridge graduates  who  gave  it  the 
name  of  their  own  seat  of  learning, 
but  when  some  money  was  left  to 
it  by  John  Harvard  the  present 
name  was  taken.  In  1636  the 
colony  of  Massachusetts  took  the 
first  steps  to  set  it  on  foot,  and  in 

1637  the  first  build-     

ing  was  opened 
A  board  of  over-  ! 
seers  was  named 
while  in  1650  the 
college  was  made 
into  a  corporation 
Nathaniel  Eaton 
was  the  first 
president. 

Various  changes 
have  been  made  in 
the  constitution, 
but  the  two  bodies, 
overseers  and  cor- 
p  o  r  a  t  i  o  n.  i.e. 


president,  fellows,  and  others, 
have  remained,  the  changes  having 
been  in  the  direction  of  widening 
the  circle  of  those  who  may  be 
elected  as  overseers.  Similarly  the 
college,  which  began  its  career  on 
somewhat  narrow  sectarian  lines 
has  been  gradually  broadened  until 
religious  tests  are  non-existent. 

The  medical  school  dates  from 
1782,  and  the  law  school  from 
1817,  while  in  1825  arrangements 
were  made  to  educate  those  who 
did  not  wish  to  work  for  a  degree, 
but  to  prepare  themselves  by 
some  particular  study  for  scientific 
or  business  life.  The  modern 
prosperity  of  the  university  was 
attained  under  the  presidency 
(1869-1909)  of  C.  W  Eliot.  He 
was  succeeded  by  A.  L.  Lowell. 
The  university  consists  of  the 
original  Harvard  College,  the 
school  of  arts  and  sciences,  and 
the  school  of  business  administra- 
tion founded  in  1908,  these  being 
in  the  faculty  of  arts  and  sciences. 
There  are  also  the  divinity  school, 
to  which  Andover  Theological  Col- 
lege is  affiliated  ;  the  law  school, 
and  the  medical  school,  with  the 
dental  school  set  up  in  1867 
There  are  schools  of  engineering, 
mining,  and  applied  science. 

Some  of  the  buildings,  e.g.  the 
medical  school,  are  in  Boston, 
while  elsewhere  are  various  scien- 
tific establishments,  e.g.  a  school 
of  agriculture  at  Jamaica  Plain, 
an  arboretum  at  W.  Roxbury,  and 
meteorological  stations  in  the 
Andes  The  school  of  forestry 
has  a  small  forest  at  Petersham 


Harvard   University.      Austin  Hall,  seat  of   the   law 
school  founded  in  1817.      Top,  right,  Randolph  Hall 


The  university  has 
several  large 
libraries,  an  ob- 
servatory, and 
various  museums. 
It  issues  publica- 
tions of  various 
kinds,  and  there 
are  numerous 
social  and  sporting 
activities.  The 
university  pro- 
vides university 
extension  courses. 


HARVEST 


3862 


HARVEST-MITE 


j<afHpp*i 


q&m 


Radcliffe  College  is  for  women 
students.  There  are  about  800 
members  of  the  staff,  and  over  5,000 
students.  Longfellow  and  Joseph 
Story  were  on  the  staff  at  Harvard, 
while  Emerson,  Channing,  Lowell, 
and  O.  W.  Holmes  graduated  here. 
See  Harvard  College,  by  an  0  xonian. 
H.  C.  Hill,  1906;  The  Story  of 
Harvard,  H.  Pier,  1913. 

Har'/est  (A.S.  haerfest,  crop, 
cognate  with  Gr.  karpos,  fruit,  and 
Lat.  carpere,  to  pluck).  Final  stage 
in  the  getting  in  of  crops,  especially 
cereals.  Among  the  chief  cereals, 
barley  is  allowed  to  remain  standing 
until  the  grains  are  fully  ripe  and 
the  ears  bend  down,  while  oats  and 
wheat  are  cut  before  fully  mature, 
as  otherwise  the  grain  is  liable  to 
fall  out  and  be  lost.  The  sickle  for 
reaping  and  hand  labour  for  mak- 
ing up  the  sheaves  are  now  almost 
entii-ely  superseded  by  the  reaping 
machine  and  self-binder  (q-v. ). 
Carts  may  be  filled  up  by  means  of 
a  loader,  and  the  labour  of  stack- 
building  reduced  by  employment 
of  an  elevator.  The  crop  is  now 
often  stored  in  Dutch  barns,  but 
when  stacks  are  built  in  the  open 
the  principles  of  construction  and 
thatching  are  much  as  given  for 
hay  (q.v.).  It  is  usual  to  raise  a 
corn  stack  from  the  ground  on 
supports  which  prevent  or  hinder 
the  access  of  rats  and  mice. 

Beans  are  either  cut  and  tied  up 
in  bundles  mechanically  or  secured 
by  a  hook.  Peas  are  cut  by  a  hook 
and  allowed  to  dry  on  the  ground, 
the  heaps  being  turned  as  neces- 
sary. See  Australia  ;  Chile ;  Egypt. 

Harvest  Customs .  Ceremonies 
and  celebrations  associated  with 
the  completion  of  the  gathering  in 
of  harvest.  Of  immemorial  anti- 
quity and  world-wide  distribution, 
they  originated  in  worship  of  the 
nature  deities  associated  with  the 
growth  of  crops.  Among  the  Ro- 
mans the  Cerealia  weije  feasts  in 
honour  of  Ceres,  and  many  widely 
disseminated  customs  are  linked 


Harvest.      Scenes  in  the   harvest   field.      Tractor  with  two  loaded  wagons. 
Above,  cutting  oats  with  a  Fordson  tractor  and  self-binder 

By  courtesy  of  The  Agricultural  Gazelle 


with  the  classical  legends  of  Deme- 
ter  and  Persephone. 

One  custom  which,  with  but 
slight  variations,  can  be  traced 
among  widely  separated  peoples, 
is  the  forming  of  a  crude  figure — 
sometimes  merely  a  handful  of 
corn  decorated — which  is  borne  in 
procession  as  a  personification  of 
the  crop  and  made  the  central 
figure  of  the  festivities.  This  cus- 
tom still  survives  in  parts  of  Eng- 
land and  Scotland,  where  a  harvest 
doll  or  kern,  i.e.  corn  baby,  is 
fashioned  from  some  of  the  best 
corn  into  the  semblance  of  a  human 
figure,  dressed  up,  and  carried  with 
the  last  wagonload  of  the  harvest. 

In  Scotland,  the  last  sheaf,  called 
the  Maiden  or  the  Old  Woman, 
according  to  whether  it  is  cut 
before  or  after  Hallowmas,  is  kept 
till  Christmas  morning,  when  it  is 
distributed  to  the  cattle  to  give 
them  health  throughout  the  next 
year,  or  is  -  .. _  . 

hung  up  until 
replaced  by  its 
next  year's 
successor. 
Similar  cus- 
toms are  re- 
corded in  vari- 
ous European  "  Harvest-Mite, 
countries.  greatly  enlarged 


Another  immemorial  custom  is 
the  harvest  supper  given  by  the 
owner  of  the  crop  to  all  who  help 
to  garner  it.  The  Jews  feasted  at 
the  getting  in  of  harvest  and  made  a 
thank-offering  of  the  first  fruits, 
and  among  heathen  peoples  the 
heads  of  families  feasted  on  terms 
of  equality  with  their  servants. 
In  England  the  supper  was  the 
crowning  celebration  of  the  harvest 
home,  and  from  the  fact  that  a 
goose  was  the  principal  dish  on 
these  occasions  the  custom  of 
eating  a  goose  on  Michaelmas  Day 
originated.  See  The  Golden  Bough, 
J.  G.  Frazer,  1917,  etc 

Harvestman.  Popular  name 
lor  a  group  of  spiderlike  arachnids 
(Phalangium),  common  in  autumn. 
They  are  distinguished  from  spiders 
by  absence  of  a  waist  and  their  re- 
markably long  legs.  See  Arachnida. 

Harvest-Mite,  HARVEST-TICK 
OR  HARVEST-BUG.  Name  given  to 
the  larvae  of  a  group  of  mites  of  the 
family  Trombidiidae.  The  common 
harvest-mite,  which  is  covered  with 
scarlet  hairs,  is  found  in  vast  num- 
bers on  grass  and  low  herbage  in 
summer  and  autumn.  It  bores  un- 
der the  thin  skin,  usually  of  the  legs, 
of  man  and  other  animals.  As  it 
reaches  the  adult  stage,  it  leaves 
its  host  and  drops  to  the  ground, 


HARVEST      MOON 


3863 


HARVEY 


Gabriel  Harvey, 
English  scholar 

From  an  old  print 


where  it  preys  upon  minute  in- 
sects The  best  remedy  is  to  paint 
the  affected  spot  with  tincture  ot 
iodine,  turpentine,  or  ammonia. 

Harvest  Moon.  Nearest  full 
moon  to  the  autumnal  equinox, 
Sept.  23.  Owing  to  the  position  of 
the  moon's  path  with  respect  to  the 
horizon,  it  rises  nearly  at  the  same 
time  on  successive  evenings.  The 
succession  of  moonlight  evenings 
occurring  at  this  time  of  the  year  is 
taken  advantage  of  by  farmers  to 
gather  their  crops,  and  hence  the 
name.  See  Moon. 

Harvey,  GABRIEL  (c.  1550-1630). 
English  scholar.  Born  at  Saffron 
Walden,  son  of  a  \vell-t< 
maker,  he  had 
a  distinguished 
career  at  Cam- 
bridge.  He 
advocated  the 
use  of  classical 
metres  in  Eng- 
lish verse,  was 
the  friend  of 
Spenser  (ho 
was  the  Hob- 
binol  of  The 
S  hep  beard's 
Calendar),  and 
car  ried  on  a 
bitter  quarrel  with  Thomas  Nashe 
(q.v. ).  He  died  at  Saffron  Walden, 
Feb.  11,  1630.  See  Marginalia,  G 
Harvey,  coll.  and  ed-  G.  C.  Moore 
Smith,  1913. 

Harvey,  SIR  GEORGE  (1806-76). 
Scottish  painter.  Born  at  St. 
Ninian's.  Stirlingshire,  he  studied 
at  the  Trus- 
tees' Acad- 
emy, E  d  i  n- 
burgh.  He  was 
an  original  as- 
sociate of  the 
Scottish  Acad- 
emy, 1827,  be- 
coming a  full 
member  in 
MI  utorge  Harvey.  1829,  and 
Scottish  painter  president  in 
1864.  He  died  at  Edinburgh, 
•  Ian  22,  1876  Scottish  genre,  por 
traits,  and  landscapes  were  treated 
by  him.  iSeeCovenantersjDrumclog. 
Harvey,  GEORGE  BRINTON  Mc- 
CLELLAN  (b  1864).  American  jour- 
nalist Born  Feb.  16,  1864,  he  was 
educated  at  Peacham  academy, 
Vermont,  and  in  1882  became  a  re- 
portei  on  The  Springfield  Repub- 
lican. In  1886  he  joined  the  staff  of 
The  New  York  World.  He  became 
managing  editor  of  The  New 
York  World  in  1891,  and  in  1894 
turned  his  attention  to  railways, 
being  constructor  and  president  ot 
vanou*  electric  undertakings  1894 
-98.  He  bought  The  North  Ameri- 
-an  Review  in  1899.  which  he 
edited  tor  ovei  20  years.  Harvey 
was  president  of  the  publishing 


firm  of  Harper  and  Bros.,  1900-15, 
and  founded  and  edited  Harvey's 
Weekly.  In  April,  1921,  he  was 
appointed  U.S.  ambassador  to  Lon- 
don, resigning  Oct.,  1923. 

Harvey,  Sm  JOHN  MARTIN   (b. 
1867).      British    actor.      Born    at 
Wyvenhoe,  Essex,  June  22.  1867.  he 
made  his   first    •naHHBMn^MHB 
appearance    in    1 
1881     at     the    p 
Court  Theatre,    I 
and     in     1882    I 
was      engaged    j 
by  Henry  Irv     j 
ing,  remaining 
in  his  company 
until  1896,  and 
playing  leading      Sir  Martin  Harvey, 
parts  on   tour.  British  actor 

In  1897  he  played  in  Hamlet  with 
Forbes-Robertson,  and  in  1898 
took  over  the  management  of  The 
Lyceum,  producing  in  Feb.,  1899, 
The  Only  Way.  As  Sydney  Carton 
he  became  famous. 

In  1900,  with  Mrs.  Campbell,  he 
revived  Pelleas  and  Melisande  at 
The  Royalty,  and  in  1905  he  pro- 
duced Hamlet  at  The  Lyric.  The 
Breed  of  the  Treshams,  produced 
in  1903  at  the  Kennington  Theatre, 
was  revived  in  1907  and  1915.  In 


Sir  Martin  Harvey  as  Sydney  Carton 
in  The  Only  Way 

1912  he  appeared  at  Co  vent 
Garden  as  Oedipus  in  Oedipus  Rex. 
He  was  knighted  in  1921. 

Harvey,  WILLIAM  (1578-1657). 
English  physician,  discoverer  ot 
the  circulation  of  the  blood.  He 
was  born  at  Folkestone,  Kent. 
April  1,  1578,  and  educated  at  the 
King's  School,  Canterbury,  Cains 
College,  Cambridge,  and  the  uni- 
versity of  Padua,  taking  his  doc 
tor's  degree  in  physic  at  Padua  and 
at  Cambridge  in  1602.  He  settled  in 
practice  in  London,  and  in  1607 
became  fellow  of  the  College 


of  Physicians, 
and  in  1609 
physician  t  o 
S.  Bartholo 
mew's  Hospi- 
tal. In  1615 
h  e  was  a  p- 
pointed  Lum 
leian  lecturer 
to  the  College 
of  Physicians, 
and  the  next  "  / 

year   first   put  After  C.Jamen 

forward  his  theories  about  the 
movement  of  the  heart  and  blood. 
Harvey  had  been  appointed 
physician  to  James  I  in  1618,  and 
in  1632  he  received  the  same 
honour  from  Charles  I,  who  was  his 
constant  and  helpful  patron.  He 
accompanied  the  king  on  one  visit 
to  Scotland,  was  with  him  at  the 
battle  of  Edgehill,  and  followed 
him  to  Oxford,  where  he  remained 
for  three  years,  and  was  made 
warden  of  Merton  College.  He  re- 
turned to  London  in  1646,  and  pur- 
sued his  investigations  into  the 
subject  of  generation  which  re- 
sulted in  the  publication,  in  1651, 
of  his  Exercitationes  de  generatione 
Animalium,  his  only  other  work  of 
first  importance.  He  died  in  Lon- 
don, June  3,  1657,  and  was  buried 
in  the  family  vault  at  Hempstead, 
Essex, 

Harvey,  WILLIAM  (1796-1866). 
British  wood-engraver  and  de- 
signer. Born  at  Newcastle-on- 
Tyne,  July  13,  1796,  he  studied 
under  Thomas  Bewick,  and  later, 
under  Benjamin  Haydon  in  Lon- 
don. About  1822  he  gave  up  en- 
graving for  design,  and  produced 
some  facile  illustrations  for  North- 
cote's  Fables,  Lane's  Arabian 
Nights,  and  Hood's  Eugene  Aram. 
He  died  at  Richmond,  Jan.  13, 
1866. 

Harvey,  WILLIAM  HENRY  (1811- 
66).  British  botanist.  Born  at 
Summerville,  Limerick,  Feb.  5, 
1811,  he  went,  after  a  youth  spent 
in  business,  to  S.  Africa,  and  be- 
came colonial  treasurer  at  the  Cape. 
Returning  to  Ireland  on  account  of 
his  health,  he  was  appointed  keeper 
of  the  Herbarium  at  Trinity  College. 
Dublin.  In  1846  he  began  the 
publication  of  his  important  work 
on  sea  weeds,  the  Phycologia  Britan- 
nica.  In  1849 
he  paid  a  long 
visit  to  the 
U.S.A.,  and  ac- 
cumulated ma- 
terial for  his 
Contributions 
to  a  History 
ot  the  Marine 
Algae  ot  N 

wm.au,  n.  uaivey      America,  1852- 
British  botanist        53.      His   later 

After  Maguir?  WOrllS     WCT6 


HARVEY    PROCESS 

_-_^^^^— -^-^____^_ 

Phycologia  Australica  (1858-63), 
Thesaurus  Capensis  (1859-63), 
and  Index  Generum  Algarum 
(1860).  He  died  at  Torquay,  May 
15,  1866. 

Harvey  Process.  Process  in- 
vented by  H.  A.  Harvey,  an 
American  engineer,  for  hardening 
steel  plates.  It  consists  essentially 
in  heating  the  plate  in  a  furnace 
while  it  is  covered  all  over  the  sur- 
face to  be  hardened  with  charcoal 
or  some  other  form  of  carbonaceous 
material.  The  operation  may  re- 
quire to  be  maintained  for  several 
days.  The  carburised  face  is  then 
further  treated  by  chilling  by  a 
water  spray.  Steel  plates  so  harvey- 
ised  have  proved  extraordinarily 
resistant  to  penetration  by  shot. 
See,  Armour  ;  Metallurgy ;  Steel. 

Harwich.  Seaport  and  borough 
of  Essex.  It  stands  on  a  peninsula 
at  the  mouth  of  the  estuary  of  the 
Orwell  and  the 
Stour,  70  m.  from 
London.  It  is 
served  by  the 
G.E.  Ely.,  which 
has  made  it  the 
port  for  its  con- 
tinental traffic, 
and  from  here 
steamers  go  to  the 
Hook  of  Holland,  Amsterdam, 
Rotterdam,  Antwerp,  Hamburg, 
Copenhagen,  and  elsewhere.  The 
chief  buildings  are  the  church  of 
S.  Nicholas  and  the  town  hall.  The 


Harwich  arms 


Harwich,   Essex.     The    pier    used    by 
passenger  steamers 

harbour,  a  very  safe  one,  is  pro- 
tected by  breakwaters.  There  are 
modern  docks.  Passengers  go  from 
Parkestone  Quay,  1  m.  up  the 
Stour.  Other  industries  are  fishing, 
shipbuilding,  and  the  making  of 
fertilisers  and  cement.  It  is  a 
yachting  centre. 

Harwich  became  a  borough  in 
1319,  and  from  1604  to  1867  was 
separately  represented  in  Parlia- 
ment. By  charter  it  was  allowed 
markets  and  fairs.  A»  a  port  it  was 
flourishing  in  the  14th  and  15th 


3864 

centuries.  Its  position  made  it 
strategically  important,  and  it  has 
long  been  fortified.  Martello  towers 
exist,  and  there  are  modern  defence 
works  at  Landguard  Fort  on  the 
Suffolk  side,  at  Shotley  Point  and 
elsewhere  round  the  port.  During 
the  Great  War  Harwich  was  an 
important  naval  base.  A  train 
ferry  service  to  Zeebrugge  was 
inaugurated,  1924.  The  watering- 
place  of  Dovercourt  is  within  the 
borough.  Pop.  (1921),  13,036 

Harwood,  GREAT.  Market  town 
and  urban  dist.  of  Lancashire.  It 
is  5  m.  N.E.  of  Blackburn,  on  the 
L.  &  Y.  Rly.  The  chief  industries 
are  the  manufacture  of  cotton  and 
the  mining  of  coal  in  the  neighbour- 
hood. The  council  owns  the  mar- 
ket and  a  cemetery,  while  gas  and 
water  are  supplied  by  Accrington. 
Market  day,  Fri.  Pop.  13,800. 

Harz.  Mountain  range  of  N. 
Germany  lying  between  the  Leine 
and  the  Saale  and  crossed  by  the 
waterparting  between  the  Weser 
and  the  Elbe.  The  existing  heights 
are  the  remains  of  an  ancient  and 
more  extensive  system  of  fold 
mountains  which  were  uplifted 
during  the  period  when  the  coa) 
measures  were  under  formation 

The  Harz  consists  of  carboni- 
ferous and  older  rocks  with  intru- 
sive granites  ,  the  Brocken,  3,730 
ft.,  the  highest  point,  being  the 
largest  granite  mass.  N.  of  the 
rancre  outlying  hills  lead  to  the  low- 
land  of  N.  Ger- 
many ;  the  drain- 
age is  by  the  Ocker 
and  other  streams 
to  the  Weser ;  to 
the  S.  lies  the 
fertile  "Golden 
Meadow,"  the 
valley  of  the 
Helme,  tributary  to 
the  Saale. 

The  range,  56  m. 
by  20m.,  comprises 
the  Upper  Harz,  a 
thickly  forested  dis- 
trict  where  at 
Clausthal  and  other 
c  e  nt  r  e  s  silver  is 
mined  at  depths 
below  sea  level,  and 
the  Lower  Harz 
where  agriculture  prevails  on  land 
cleared  of  the  forest,  and  copper  is 
mined  at  Mansfelcl,  the  chief  Ger- 
man centre  for  this  mineral.  The 
whole  region,  which  is  associated 
with  legendary  occurrences,  e.g.  the 
spectre  of  the  Brocken  (q.v.),  is 
visited  by  tourists  and  invalids, 
the  valley  of  the  Bode  being  noted 
for  its  mountain  scenery. 

Harzburg.  Town  of  Brunswick, 
Germany.  It  is  27  m.  from  Bruns- 
wick, and  lies  at  the  entrance  to 
the  Radan  valley,  along  the  sides 


1 


coasting 


HASDRUBAL 

^^^^^^^^^^M^^^i^i 

of  which  it  is  built,  and  which 
affords  pleasant  promenades.  It  is 
a  popular  resort  for  visitors  to  the 
Harz,  and  for  invalids  The  town 
itself,  which  has  saline  baths  and 
springs,  has  few  objects  of  in- 
terest, but  its  surroundings  are 
fine,  and  from  the  Grosser  Burg- 
berg,  topped  by  a  ruined  castle,  a 
good  view  is  obtained.  Pop.  3,500. 

Hasa  OR  EL  HASA.  District  on 
the  W.  side  of  the  Persian  Gulf. 
A  low-lying  plain,  350  m.  long,  it 
is  bounded  N.  by  Koweit,  whose 
sheikh  is  independent  under  Brit- 
ish protection,  and  S.  by  the  penin- 
sula of  El  Kater.  Off  the  coast 
are  the  Bahrein  Islands  (q.v.).  Be- 
fore the  Great  War  the  Turks 
claimed  the  sovereignty  of  Hasa, 
and  had  some  troops  in  El  Hofuf, 
its  capital,  but  its  various  Arab 
chiefs  were  virtually  independent. 
Quantities  of  dates  are  grown. 
Area,  31,000  sq.  m.  Pop.  150,000. 

Hasan  (625-669)  AND  HUSSEIN 
(629-680).  Sons  of  Ali,  adopted 
son  of  Mahomet  and  Fatima,  the 
Prophet's  daughter.  After  their 
father  had  been  fatally  stabbed  in 
the  mosque  at  Kufa,  661.  the 
brothers  lived  in  retirement  at 
Medina.  Hasan  is  believed  to  have 
been  poisoned  by  his  wife.  Hussein, 
who  married  a  daughter  of  Yez- 
digerd,  the  last  Sassanian  king  of 
Persia,  was  slain  in  battle  at  Ker- 
bela  when  on  his  way  to  respond  to 
a  popular  call  to  the  caliphate.  The 
brothers  are  venerated  by  the 
Shiites  as  martyrs.  See  Ali  ; 
Mahomedanism  ;  Shiites  ;  consult 
also  The  Miracle  Play  of  Hasein 
and  Hosein,  Lewis  Pelly,  1879  ; 
Persian  Passion  Play,  in  Matthew 
Arnold's  Essays  in  Criticism,  1st 
series,  new  ed.  1911. 

Hasdrubal  OR  ASDRUBAL.  Car- 
thaginian soldier.  Left  in  Spain  by 
his  brother  Hannibal  (q.v.),  when 
setting  out  on  his  expedition  against 
Rome  in  218  B.C.,  Hasdrubal  car- 
ried on  the  war  against  the  two 
Scipios,  whose  object  it  was  to 
prevent  him  from  reinforcing  Han- 
nibal. In  208  he  crossed  the 
Pyrenees,  and  in  207  the  Alps,  and 
reached  Italy  with  his  army.  It 
was  defeated,  however,  at  the 
battle  of  the  Metaurus,  Hasdrubal 
himself  was  killed,  and  Hannibal 
was  informed  of  the  disaster  by 
his  brother's  head  being  thrown 
into  his  camp. 

The  name  of  Hasdrubal  was 
borne  by  several  other  eminent 
Carthaginians,  the  most  distin- 
guished of  these  being  the  son-in- 
law  of  Hamilcar  Barca  (q.v.).  As 
commander  of  the  Carthaginian 
forces  in  Spain,  he  was  responsible 
for  the  treaty  fixing  the  boundary 
between  the  Carthaginian  and  Ro- 
man territory.  See  Carthage. 


HASE 

Hase,  KABL  AUGUST  VON  (1800- 
90).  German  Protestant  theolo- 
gian. Born  at  Steinbach,  Saxony, 
Aug.  25,  1800,  he  was  educated  at 
Leipzig  and  Erlangen.  He  was 
tutor  at  Tubingen,  1823,  and  after 
being  a  political  prisoner  for  ten 
months,  during  which  period  he 
wrote  a  novel,  Die  Proselyten, 
1827,  he  went  to  Dresden.  In  1 828 
he  became  professor  of  philosophy 
at  Leipzig,  and  was  from  1830-83 
professor  of  theology  at  Jena, 
where  he  died  Jan.  3,  1890. 

He  was  the  author  of  numerous 
works  on  theological  questions, 
church  history,  ecclesiastical  law, 
etc.  His  Life  of  Jesus  first  appeared 
in  1829,  reached  a5thed.  in  1865, 
was  rewritten  in  1876,  and  trans- 
lated into  English  in  1881.  His 
History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
1834,  reached  a  12th  edition  in 
1900,  and  appeared  in  English  in 
1855.  He  also  wrote  a  handbook 
of  Dogmatics,  1826,  Life  of  S. 
Francis,  1856,  a  book  on  Protes- 
tant polemical  theology,  1863, 
and  a  Life  of  S.  Catherine  of  Siena, 
1864 ;  .  and  some  lectures  on 
Church  History,  1880. 

Haselden,  WILLIAM  KERRIDGE 
(b.  1872).  British  cartoonist. 
Born  at  Seville,  Spain,  he  began 
his  career  as  a 
clerk  at  Lloyd's. 
London,  but  de- 
voted his  leisure 
to  sketches  and 
caricatures  for 
public  ation. 
About  1902  he 
took  up  drawing 
professionally, 
and  in  1904  was 
appointed  car- 
toonist to  The 
Daily  Mirror.  He  has  contributed 
caricatures  of  theatrical  celebrities 
to  Punch  since  1905. 

Haselrig,  SIR  ARTHUR  (d.  1661) 
English  Parliamentarian.  He  was 
the  eldest  son  of  Sir  Thorn  as  Hasel- 
rig, Bart.  (d.  1629),  of  Noseley, 
Leicestershire,  and  was  one  of  the 
Five  Members  whose  attempted 
arrest  precipitated  the  Civil  War 
Largely  influenced  by  Pym,  he  be 
came  prominent  among  the  Puri- 
tans, and  raised  a  troop  of  cuiras- 
siers for  the  earl  of  Essex's  army. 
He  was  a  firm  upholder  of  the  Par- 
liament and  opposed  Cromwell's 
protectorship.  In  1647  he  was 
governor  of  Newcastle.  Imprisoned 
in  the  Tower  on  the  Restoration, 
he  died  there,  Jan.  7,  1661.  The 
name  is  variously  given  as  Hesil- 
rige  and  Haslerig.  In  1818  the 
iamily  formally  changed  the  name 
to  Hazlerigg. 

Hashish  (Arab.,  herbage).  Con- 
tection  of  Cannabis  Indica,  or  In- 
dian hemp.  Made  from  the  dried 


W.  K.  Haselden, 
British  cartoonist 

Hoppf 


3865 

leaves  and  small  r~ 
stalks  of  the 
plant,  it  is  a  drug 
which  produces  a 
mild,  pleasurable 
sense  of  intoxica- 
tion. It  is  also  a 
narcotic  and  is 
smoked,  drunk,  or 
eaten.  The  word 
assassin  is  derived 
from  hashish.  See 
Hemp. 

Haslar    Hos- 
pital.   Royal 
Naval  hospital  at 
Gosport,      Ports-         Haslemere, 
mouth.     It  was  opened  in   1753, 
having  taken  eight  years  to  build. 


HASLEMERE 


Once  upon  a  time  there  was  a  Kaiser  named  William 
who  thought  it  would  be  great  fun  to  go  and  kick  the 
peaceful  world.  So  he  got  his  little  son  Willie  to  go  and 
kick  with  him.  But  when  they  kicked,  the  world  stuck 
out  cruel  bayonets,  and  hurt  the  toes  of  the  Willies  so 
much  that  they  went  away  crying.  And  now  they  think 

that  world-kicking  is  a  horrid  game 

W.  K.  Haselden  :  The  first  of  the  Big  and  Little  Willie 

series  of  cartoons  which  appeared  in  The  Daily  Mirror 

during  the  Great  War 

The  buildings  and 
grounds  cover  57 
acres.  Haslar  was 
once  the  largest 
brick  building  in 
the  world,  and  it 
still  remains 
Britain's  principal 
naval  hospital, 
with  accommoda- 
tion for  1,116  pati- 
ents. It  is  adminis- 
tered by  a  surgeon- 
general,  and  the 
naval  medical 
school  is  located 
in  it.  Attached  to  Haslar  Hospital,  P 


The  High  Street,  looking  north 
the  hospital  is  a  fine  medical  library 
and  museum.  The  original  build- 
ing was  a  home 
for  naval  pen- 
sioners, but 
owing  to  the 
growth  of  the 
navy  this  became 
later  part  of  the 
hospital  proper. 
Additions  were 
made  from  time 
to  time,  one  fine 
block  of  build- 
ings being  opened 
in  1917. 

Haslemere. 

Market  town  and 
parish  of  Surrey. 
It  is  13  m.  from 
Guildford  and  43 
in.  from  London, 
with  a  station  on 
the  L.  &  S.W. 
Rly.  It  stands  in 
a  valley  between 
Blackdown  Hill 
and  Hindhead ; 
around  is  some  of 
the  finest  scenery 
in  Surrey  There 
is  an  old  church 
dedicated  to  S. 
Bart  h  o  1  o  m  e  w, 
and  an  educa- 
tional museum. 
Haslemere  was  a 
town  at  the  time 
of  Domesday 


HASLINGDEN 


3866 


HASTINGS 


Book,  and  from  1582  to  1832  sent 
two  members  to  Parliament.  About 
1 887  its  attractions  became  known, 
and  soon  a  number  of  literary  and 
other  persons  made  their  homes 
here.  Near  is  Aldworth,  the  resi- 
dence of  Tennyson  and  where  he 
died.  Pop  3,500. 

Has  ling  den.  Mun.  bor.  and 
market  town  of  Lancashire,  Eng- 
land. It  is  19  m.N.W.  of  Manchester 
on  the  L.  &  Y  Rly.  Cotton,  silk  and 
woollen  goods  are  manufactured, 
and  there  are  also  coai-mmes,  stone 
quarries,  and  iron  foundries.  Ac- 
crington  and  l.awtenstal!  supply 
electricity  in  bulk  for  both  lighting 
and  power  purposes.  Water  is  ob- 
tained trom  Bury.  Pop  18,700. 

Hasp.  Name  applied  to  the 
hinged  part  of  a  metal  fastening 
for  a  door,  box,  or  book  cover.  The 
common  form  for  a  door  has  a  loop 
or  slot,  which  is  passed  over  an 
adjoining  staple  and  secured  by  a 
pin  or  the  link  ot  a  padlock. 

Haspe.  Town  of  Germany,  in 
the  Prussian  province  of  West- 
phalia. It  is  10  m.  N-E.  of  Barmen 
and  3  m.  from  Hagen,  with  which  it 
is  connected  by  tramway  as  well  as 
by  rail.  It  stands  where  the  rivers 
Ennepe  and  Haspe  unite.  On  the 
Westphalian  coalfield,  it  is  a  modern 
industrial  town,  the  chief  works 
being  iron-foundries,  rolling  mills, 
and  other  establishments  for  the 
manufacture  of  iron,  steel,  and 
brass.  Pop.  23,500. 

Hassall,  JOHN  (b.  1868).  British 
artist.      Born     at     Walmer,     and 
educated  at  Heidelberg,  he  began 
life  on  a  farm 
in  Manitoba; 
then  studied  art 
at   Antwerp, 
and  at  Julian's, 
Paris.     Special- 
ising     upon 
poster  work,  he 
rapidly     at- 
tained a  leading 
II   .       position  in  this 
fOv£S^i/X"  •     genre.    He  also 
^T  produced  many 

f  humorous 

xusseii  sketches     and 

designs  in  black-and-white,  and 
several  elaborate  compositions  in 
water-colour. 

Hassan.  District,  subdivision, 
and  town  of  India,  in  the  state  of 
Mysore.  It  is  traversed  by  the  W. 
Ghats  and  the  Hemavati  river. 
Coffee  and  cereals  are  raised  for  ex- 
port. The  minerals  include  felspar, 
kaolin,  and  quartz.  Scattered 
throughout  the  district  is  a  large 
number  ot  archaeological  relics. 
Hassan,  the  capital  of  the  district,  is 
64  m.  N.W.  of  Mysore.  Area  of  dis- 
tiict,  2,666  sq.  m.  Pop.  district, 
580,200 ;  subdi vision, 98,b40 ;  town, 
7,460. 


Hassan  Ibn  Sabbah  (d.  1124). 
Persian  sectary.  Son  of  a  promi- 
nent member  of  the  Shiite  sect  in 
Khorasan,  he  had  to  leave  Persia 
and  later  Egypt  after  unsuccessful 
political  intrigues  at  the  courts  of 
MalikShahand  the  caliph  Mostansir 
respectively.  His  strong  personality 
attracted  a  number  of  followers,  to 
whom  he  taught  his  peculiar  doc- 
trines, and  he  thus  founded  the 
powerful  Society  of  Assassins  (q.v.). 
In  1090  he  established  their  head- 
quarters at  Alamut,  a  strong  moun- 
tain fortress  of  Persia,  whence  he 
came  to  be  known  as  Sheikh-al- Jebal, 
or  the  Old  Man  of  the  Mountain. 
Among  his  victims  were  his  own  sons. 

Hasse,  EVELYN  RENATUS  (1856- 
1918).      Bishop   of   the   Moravian 
Church.      He   became  the  leading 
minister  of  the  Moravian  Church  in 
the  British  Isles.     From  1906  to  his 
death    he    was    president    of    the 
directing   board   of   the   Moravian 
Church.      He  was  consecrated  as 
bishop  of  the  Moravian  Church  in 
1904.        He     was 
president    of    the    i 
Christian    Endea-    ; 
vour  Society,  and    \ 
rendered  valuable 
services     to     the    I 
Evangelical    • 
Union,  the   Bible 
Society,  and 
foreign    missions.    ; 
His  book,    The 
Moravians,  helped 
to  make  the  work 
of    the    Moravian 


Hasselt.  Town  of  Belgium, 
capital  of  the  prov.  of  Limburg. 
It  lies  in  flat  country  on  the  river 
Denier,  about  18  m.  W.N.W.  of 
Maestricht.  It  is  an  important  rly. 
centre,  but  it  has  few  industries. 
A  septennial  kermesse  on  Assump- 
tion Day  has  several  features  of 
interest  to  students  of  folklore.  At 
Hasselt  the  Belgians  were  defeated 
by  Dutch  troops  on  Aug.  6,  1831. 
Pop.  17,000. 

Hastinapur.  Ruined  city  of 
the  United  Provinces,  India,  in 
Meerut  district.  It  stands  on  the 
Burh  Ganga,  or  former  bed  of  the 
Ganges,  22  m.  N.E.  of  Meerut,  and 
was  the  capital  of  the  great  Pan- 
dava  kingdom.  It  was  demolished 
by  a  flood. 

Hastings.  County  borough, 
market  town,  and  watering-place 
of  Sussex,  England.  It  is  also  one 
of  the  Cinque  Ports,  and  the 
borough  includes  St.  Leonards.  It 
is  62  m.  S.E.  of  London  on  the 
S.E.  &  C.  Rlv.,  and  is  also  served 


Hastings.    Ruins  ot  the  castle.    Top  right,  the  old  town 
from  the  East  Hill 


Church  known  in  Britain.    He  died 
in  June,  1918.    See  Moravia. 
Hasse,  JOHANN  ADOLPH  (1699- 


bytheL.B.  &  S.C. 
Rly.  From  Has- 
tings proper  to 
St.  Leonards  in 
the  W.  is  a  fine 
promenade,  3  m. 
in  length.  Sev- 
eral pleasure 
grounds  inc  1  u  d  e 
Alexandra  Park, 
75  acres  in  extent. 
The  objects  of 
interest  in  c  1  u  d  e 
the  remains  of  a 
castle  built  on 
West  Hill  soon  after  1066,  the 
churches  of  All  Saints  (llth  cen- 
tury), S.  Clements  (13th  century), 


1783).  German  composer.  Born  at  and  some  underground  passages 
Bergedorf,  Hamburg,  March  25,  or  caves.  Ecclesbournc  (Jlcn  ;md 
1699,  he  studied  singing  in  Naples  Fairlight  Glen 
and  sang  for  a  time  as  a  tenor,  are  near.  S. 
Turning  to  composition,  he  wrote  Mary's  R.  C. 
over  a  hundred  operas,  including  Church  was 
Antigonus  and  Artaxerxes,  and  for  largely  built  by 
many  years  lived  at  Dresden  as  Coventry  Pat- 
director  ot  the  opera  belonging  to  more.  The  Bras- 
the  elector  Augustus  of  Saxony,  sey  Institute  con- 
He  died  in  Vienna,  Dec.  16,  -1783.  tains  an  excellent 


HASTINGS 


BATTLE     OF 

HASTINGS 

lish  Miles 


3867 


HASTINGS 


Battle  of  Hastings.     Map  ol  the  surrounding  country 

showing  the  routes  followed  by  Harold  and  William. 

Inset,  plan  of  the  battlefield 


library ;  a  school  of  art  and  a 
museum  are  housed  in  the  building. 
There  is  a  town  hall,  grammar 
school,  technical  schools,  hospitals, 
etc.  Fishing  is  the  chief  industry. 
At  the  E.  end  between  the  East 
and  West  Hills  lies  the  fishing 
quarter,  and  there  is  a  fish  market. 
There  is  a  cricket  week  in  August. 
Hastings  was  a  town  in  Anglo- 
Saxon  times,  and  in  the  Middle 
Ages  was  a  flourishing  port.  It 
was  made  a  borough  in  1589,  and 
returned  two  members  to  Parlia- 
ment from  1366  to  1885,  since 
when  it  has  sent  one.  Pop.  66,496. 

Hastings.  Town  of  North  Is- 
land, New  Zealand.  It  is  12  m.  by 
rly.  S.W.  of  Napier,  in  Hawke's 
Bay  dist.,  and  has  refrigerating  and 
fruit-canning  works.  Pop.  7,918. 

Hastings,  BATTLE  OF.  Fought 
Oct.  14,  1066,  between  the  Nor- 
mans under  William,  called  after 
this  victory  the  Conqueror,  and  the 
English  under  Harold  II  (q.v.). 
It  took  place  on  a  hill,  to  which 
a  later  writer  gave  the  name  of 
Senlac,  about  6  m.  from  Hastings. 

Harold  had  just  beaten  the  Nor- 
wegians at  Stamford  Bridge  when 
he  heard  that  William  had  landed 
at  Pevensey.  Rapidly  marching 
southwards,  he  chose  a  position  on 
which  to  meet  the  invader.  His 
own  bodyguard,  the  huscarls,  men 
heavily  armed  with  axe  and  shield, 
were  the  nucleus  of  his  army,  but 
he  had  also  with  him  men  of  the 
fyrd,  imperfectly  armed  and  trained. 
All  fought  in  a  number  of  massed 
groups,  and  around  each  was  a 
ring  of  stakes  driven  into  the 
ground  to  impede  horsemen. 

The  archers,  the  footmen,  and 
finally  the  horsemen  attacked  the 
English,  but  could  make  no  im- 


pression on  their 
closed  ranks. 
Then  some  of 
Harold's  auxili- 
aries left  their 
places  to  follow  a 
few  who  were 
routed,  and 
William  ordered 
some  of  his  men 
to  feign  flight. 
The  English  ran 
down  the  hill  after 
the  Normans,  who 
turned  round  and 
cut  them  to  pieces. 
But  on  the  hill 
the  huscarls  stood 
firm  around  their 
king.  As  night 
came  on  the 
archers  began  to 
shoot  into  the  air. 
Then,  with  the 
arrows  falling 
about  their  faces, 
the  English  gave 
Normans  got  in 


way,   and    the 

among  them.     Fighting  to  the  last, 

Harold  and  his  two  brothers  were 

killed,   and   his  army  was  totally 

destroyed. 

Hastings,  BARON.  English  title, 
now  borne  by  the  family  of  Astley. 
Sir  John  Hastings,  a  great  man  in 
the  time  of  Edward  I,  was  the 
first  holder.  In  1290  he  claimed 
the  crown  of  Scotland.  Laurence, 
the  3rd  baron,  was  made  earl 
of  Pembroke  in  1339.  John,  the 
3rd  earl,  was  killed  in  a  tourna- 
ment in  1391,  and  the  barony  re- 
mained in  abeyance  until  1841.  It 
was  then  given  by  the  House  of 
Lords  to  a  descendant  of  the  Hast- 
ings family,  Sir  Jacob  Astley.  He 
ranked  as  the  16th  baron,  and 
from  him  the  present  holder  is 
descended.  The  family  seat  is 
Melton  Constable,  Norfolk. 

This  barony  must  be  distin- 
guished from  another  barony  of 
Hastings,  one  held  by  the  marquess 
of  Hastings  until  1868.  It  then  fell 
into  abeyance  between  the  sisters 
of  the  last  marquess,  but  in  1920 
was  claimed  by  the  countess  of 
Loudoun.  See  Loudoun,  Earl  of. 

Hastings,  MARQUESS  OF.  British 
title  borne  bv  the  family  of  Raw- 
don-Hastings'from  1817to  1868.  The 
first  holder  was  the  soldier,  Francis, 
earl  of  Moira,  who  was  made  Vis- 
count Loudoun,  earl  of  Rawdon 
and  marquess  of  Hastings  in  1817. 
He  married  Flora  Campbell,  in  her 
own  right  countess  of  Loudoun, 
and  their  son,  Francis  George 
(1808-44),  inherited  titles  from 
both  parents.  The  3rd  marquess 
was  his  son,  Paulyn,  and  the  4th 
was  another  son,  Henry.  The 
latter  gained  a  good  deal  of  noto- 
riety on  the  turf  and  in  society, 


After  M.  A.  Shee.  R.A. 


dying  without  children,  Nov.  10, 
1868.  The  titles  that  hadcomedown 
from  his  grandfather,  including 
the  marquessate  of  Hastings,  then 
became  extinct,  but  those  of 
his  grandmother  passed  to  his 
sisters.  In  addition  the  marquess 
had  inherited  the  baronies  of 
Botreaux,  Hastings,  Hungerford, 
and  Grey  de  Ruthyn.  The  estates 
passed  to  his  elder  sister,  the 
countess  of  Loudoun.  The  seats 
were  Donington  Hall,  Leicester- 
shire, and  Loudoun  Castle,  Ayr- 
shire. See  Loudoun,  Earl  of. 

Hastings,  FRANCIS  KAWDON- 
HASTINGS,  IST  MARQUESS  OF  ( 1 754- 
1826).  British  soldier  and  admin- 
istrator. Born 
Dec.  9,  1754, 
he  was  the  son 
of  Sir  John 
Rawdon,  an 
Irish  baronet, 
afterwards 
made  earl  of 
Moira.  Edu- 
cated at  Har- 
row and  Uni- 
versity Col- 
lege, Oxford, 
he  entered  the 
army  in  1771. 
He  served  in  the  American  War  of 
Independence,  commanding  a  vol- 
unteer force  of  Irishmen,  and  in 
1783  was  made  a  baron.  In  1793 
he  became  earl  of  Moira. 

In  1813  Moira  was  appointed 
governor  of  Bengal  and  comman- 
der-in-chief  in  India.  He  remained 
there  until  1823,  his  term  of  office 
being  marked  by  the  long  war 
against  the  Gurkhas  of  Nepal  and 
the  successful  campaign  against  the 
Pindaris  and  Mahrattas.  He  was 
made  marquess  of  Hastings  in  1817. 
Hastings  resigned  in  1821,  but  did 
not  leave  India  until  1823.  His 
policy  was  disliked  by  the  E.  India 
Co.  From  1824-26  he  was  governor 
of  Malta,  and  he  died  Nov.  28,  1826. 
See  Life,  Ross  of  Bladensburg,  1893; 
Private  Journal,  ed.  Marchioness 
of  Bute,  1858. 

Hastings,  JAMES  (1855-1922). 
Scottish  divine  and  theological 
writer.  Born  at  Huntly,  Aberdeen- 
shire,  and  educated  at  the  gram- 
mar school,  university,  and  Free 
Church  divinity  hall,  Aberdeen, 
he  was  ordained  minister  at  Kin- 
neff,  Kincardineshire,  1884,  and 
was  minister  of  Willison  Church, 
Dundee,  1897-1901,  and  of  S. 
Cyrus  Church,  Dundee,  1901-11. 
He  started  The  Expository  Times, 
and  edited  it  from  1889-1919.  He 
compiled  a  Dictionary  of  the  Bible, 
5  vols.,  1898-1904,  single  vol.  1908 ; 
Dictionary  of  Christ  and  the  Gos- 
pels, "2  vols.,  1906-7;  and  Encyclo- 
paedia of  Religion  and  Ethics,  vols. 
1-10, 1908-19.  He  died  Oct.  15, 1 922. 


HASTINGS 

Hastings,  WARREN  (1732-1818). 
British  statesman.  Born  at 
Churchill.  Oxfordshire,  Dec.  6, 
1732,  he  was 
the  son  of  Pen- 
niston  Hast- 
ings, the  rector 

*  of  the  parish. 

•  His    mother 
died    a   few 
days  after  his 
birth,      his 
father  went 
abroad,     and 
the  child  was 
looked   after 

After  T.  Kettle  by    Ms    gran(J. 

father,  another  Penniston  Hastings. 
He  was  educated  at  Churchill,  at 
a  school  at  Newington  Butts,  and 
finally  at  Westminster,  where  he 
was  a  king's  scholar.  In  1750  he 
became  a  writer  in  the  service  of 
the  E.  India  Co. 

In  1756  Hastings  joined  the 
force  that  under  Clive  recovered 
Calcutta  from  Suraj-ad-Dowlah. 
He  served  Clive  well  in  some  diplo- 
matic work,  and  after  Plassey  was 
made  president  at  Murshidabad, 
where  he  worked  in  close  harmony 
with  his  chief,  and  did  good  service 
to  the  E.  India  Company.  In  1761 
he  became  a  member  of  the  council 
of  Bengal,  and  returning  to  Cal- 
cutta, he  passed  three  years  mainly 
in  disputes  with  his  colleagues. 
He  resigned  in  1764. 

After  four  years  in  England, 
Hastings  returned  to  India  in  1768, 
as  second  member  of  the  council  of 
Madras,  remaining  there  until 
transferred  to  a  like  position  in 
Bengal.  In  1772  he  became  presi- 
dent of  the  council  of  Bengal,  and 
in  1773  he  was  named  governor- 
general  of  India  under  Lord  North's 
regulating  Act.  The  government 
was  controlled  by  a  council  of  five, 
and  three  of  these  members,  led 
by  Sir  Philip  Francis,  habitually 
thwarted  the  governor  -  general. 
Despite  this  antagonism,  Hastings 
reorganized  the  administration  of 
Bengal,  laying  the  foundations  of  the 
Indian  civil  service.  The  blunders  of 
the  British  authorities  in  Bombay 
and  Madras  forced  him  into  wars 
with  the  Mahratta  powers,  and 
with  Haidar  Ali ;  the  boldness  with 
which  he  faced  these  emergencies 
saved  the  British  power  in  India 
from  destruction.  After  the  de- 
parture of  Francis,  the  council 
acted  somewhat  more  harmoni- 
ously, and  Hastings  had  a  less 
difficult  time  in  the  years  that  pre- 
ceded his  recall  in  1785. 

In  the  straits  to  which  he  was 
reduced,  by  want  of  funds  and  lack 
of  effective  support  from  the  Com- 
pany, Hastings  adopted  methods 
which  would  have  been  a  matter  of 
course  for  Orientals,  but  which 


Europeans  cannot  employ  without 
risk  of  censure.  Public  opinion  in 
England  was  stirred  against  him 
by  his  chief  enemy,  Francis,  whom 
he  had  wounded  in  a  duel  in  Aug., 
1780.  Soon  after  his  return  he  was 
impeached.  The  trial,  which  began 
in  1788,  aroused  tremendous  in- 
terest. It  lasted  over  seven  years, 
the  chief  charge  against  Hastings 
being  that  he  had  hired  out  British 
troops  to  exterminate  the  Rohillas, 
had  robbed  the  begums  of  Oudh, 
and  was  responsible  for  the  judicial 
murder  of  Nuncomar.  The  House 
of  Lords  unanimously  acquitted 
him  on  every  charge,  and  the  ver- 
dict of  successive  governors-general 
was  emphatically  in  his  favour. 
He  was  ruined  financially  by  the 
trial,  but  the  Company  made  tardy 
reparation  by  conferring  a  pension 
on  him,  and  before  his  death  the 
House  of  Commons  acknowledged 
formally  his  distinguished  services 


to  Britain.  He  died  at  Daylesford. 
Aug.  22,  1818,  and  was  buried  in 
the  church  there.  See  India, 

Bibliography.  The  Story  of  Nun 
comar  and  the  Impeachment  of  Sir 
E.  Impey,  Sir  J.  F.  Stephen,  1885  ; 
Warren  Hastings,  L.  J.  Trotter, 
1890  ;  The  Administration  of  War- 
ren Hastings,  Sir  G.  W.  Forrest, 

1892  ;  The  Rise  of  the  British  Do- 
minion   in   India,   Sir   A.   C.    Lyall, 

1893  :  Warren   Hastings,  Sir  A.  C. 
Lyall,  1899  :  and  JMacaulay's  Essay. 

Hastings  Beds.  Series  of  sand- 
stones sands,  clays,  and  layers  of 
limestone,  forming  the  lower  part 
of  the  Wealden  series  in  Kent, 
Surrey,  and  Sussex.  Their  greatest 
thickness  is  1,000  ft.,  and  they  con- 
tain fossil  remains. 

Haswell.  Parish  and  village  of 
Durham,  England.  It  is  9  m.  S.  of 
Sunderland  on  the  N.E.  '  Rly. 
Coal-mining  is  the  chief  industry 
Pop.  5,860 


HAT   AND    HAT-MAKING 


M.  E.  Brooke,  Writer  on  Fashion 


There  are  supplementary  articles,  on  the  various  special  forms  of 

hat,  e.g.  Panama,   Sombrero.     See   the  articles  on  other  items  of 

dress ;  also  Cap  and  Costume,  with  their  colour  plates 


A  hat  is  a  covering  for  the  head, 
distinguished  from  the  cap  by 
having  a  brim.  This  distinction, 
however,  grew  up  but  slowly,  and 
in  early  times  there  were  few  varia- 
tions of  head-dress,  the  first  being 
undoubtedly  the  skin  of  some 
animal  worn  round  the  head  for 
protective  purposes. 

The  modern  hat  has  been  traced 
to  the  Greeks,  who  wore  the 
petasos,  a  low-crowned,  wide 
brimmed  felt  one,  tied  under  the 
chin  or  in  other  ways.  A  few 
Romans  wore  something  of  this 
kind,  and  also  the  causia,  of  Mace- 
donian origin,  a  hat  of  felt  with 
high  crown  and  broad  brim.  The 
pileus  was  a  close-fitting  cap. 
Felt  hats  of  somewhat  similar 
shape  were  worn  by  the  rich  in 
England  in  the  12th  century. 

In  the  14th  century,  men  in 
England  wore  tall  felt  hats  with 
coloured  upturned  brims.  The 
1 5th  century  saw  somewhat  similar 
hats,  and  then  came  the  flat  hat, 
usually  of  velvet,  popular  in  Tudor 
times.  The  best  known  example  of 
this  is  to  be  seen  in  Holbein's  por- 
trait of  Henry  VIII.  The  pot  hat, 
trimmed  with  a  plume  in  front, 
appeared  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth. 
Later  came  the  high -crowned, 
broad-brimmed  Puritan  hat,  intro- 
duced early  in  the  17th  century  ; 
and  in  the  time  of  Charles  II 
a  big,  low-crowned  hat  with  a  pro- 
fusion of  feathers  was  the  hat  worn 
by  the  typical  cavalier. 

The  next  important  innovation 
was  the  three-cornered  or  cocked 


hat,  which  lasted  until  the  French 
Revolution.  Then,  about  1792, 
men  began  to  wear  beaver  hats 
resembling  the  moderti  top- hat, 
but  ornamented  with  strings  and 
tassels.  About  1840  the  modern 
silk  hat  was  first  worn  in  England. 

Straw  hats  were  introduced  into 
Britain  quite  early,  but  their  mo- 
dern popularity  only  dates  from 
about  1850,  when  the  so-called 
bowler  hat,  made  of  hard  felt,  also 
came  into  vogue.  In  the  20th  cen- 
tury the  silk  hat  fell  considerably 
out  of  fashion,  being  reserved  more 
and  more  for  ceremonial  occasions, 
and  soft  hats  known  as  the  Hom- 
burg  and  Trilby  came  into  favour. 
Clerical  Hats 

The  clergyman's  hat  of  soft  felt 
has  a  long  ancestry,  and  the  hats 
of  bishops  and  deans  are  survivals 
of  a  bygone  fashion.  The  red  hat 
of  the  cardinal  was  bestowed  about 
1250  by  Innocent  IV,  that  colour 
symbolising  the  cardinals'  willing- 
ness to  shed  their  blood  for  the 
Church.  A  feature  of  recent  years 
is  the  general  wearing  of  hats  by 
women,  the  bonnet  having  been 
superseded.  They  are  of  innumer- 
able shapes,  and  range  from  a 
simple  hat  of  straw,  trimmed  only 
with  a  plain  ribbon,  to  the  most 
elaborate  devices  of  millinery. 

HAT -MAKING.  The  main  types  of 
hats  in  civilized  countries  are  also 
either  made  of  felt  or  of  straw, 
in  silk  and  velour,  etc.  The 
silk  hat  has  a  foundation  normally 
of  several  layers  of  calico  stiffened 
with  shellac.  The  foundation  is 


Hat  and  Hat-making.    1.  Combing  the  felt  oli  a  velour.     2.  Laying  a  seam  in  a  silk  hat.     3.  Sewing  on  the  brims  of 

straw  hats.     4.  Scratching  felt  for  imitation  velours.     Respirators  are  necessary  on  account  of  flying  hairs  and  dust 

5.  Blocking  felt  hats.     6.  Making  and  covering  bodies  of  the  Sandringham  hat 


carefully  shaped  to  suit  the  pre- 
vailing fashion  by-  means  of 
wooden  blocks,  and  the  silk 
plush,  whence  the  name  and  glossy 
appearance  are  derived,  is  skil- 
fully sewn  on. 

Felt  hats  are  made  by  dropping 
rabbit  fur,  wool,  or  mixture  of 
fur  and  wool  upon  a  spinning- 
cone,  and  by  playing  upon  the 
cone  jets  of  acidulated  water, 
causing  the  hairs  to  felt  together. 
When  the  process  has  proceeded 
far  enough,  the  V-shaped  hood  thus 
formed  is  removed  and  "  planked  " 
by  hand  or  machine  to  consolidate 
the  felting.  The  hood  is  rubbed 
for  this  purpose  between  grooved 
surfaces,  and  the  felt  is  then  firm 
enough  to  be  dyed  and  prepared 
by  successive  stages  to  the  shape 
in  which  the  hat  .is  to  be  worn. 
The  hard  felt  or  bowler  hat  is 
stiffened  in  a  spirit  solution  of 
shellac.  The  soft  felt  hats  are 
stiffened  only  with,  water- paste. 

In  England  the  hatting  industry 
is  carried  on  most  largely  at  and 
near  Stockport  and  in  Nuneaton. 
There  is  strong  competition  from 
felt  hats  made  in  Italy. 
Straw  Hats 

The  making  of  straw  hats  is  an 
industry  that  has  never  been  sys- 
tematically organized  in  England, 
although  none  has  increased  more 
rapidly  and  in  none  has  the  char- 
acter changed  more.  Formerly 
the  straw  plaits  from  which  hats 
are  formed  were  made  at  Luton, 
Dunstable,  and  other  English 
centres,  but  now  the  majority  are 


imported,  although  certain  coarse 
straw  plaits  are  still  made  in  Eng- 
land. Braids  of  fine  straw  mixed 
with  bright  artificial  silk  are  made 
in  Leek  for  the  use  of  hat  manu- 
facturers, and  great  possibilities  in 
hat  decorations  are  anticipated  by 
the  manufacture  of  this  material. 

The  best  plaits  are  those  from 
corn  straw,  and  next  come  those 
from  hemp.  Makers  still  depend 
on  Switzerland  for  the  best  picot 
tagel,  which  is  of  hemp  extraction. 
There  is,  however,  an  inferior 
quality  which  comes  from  Japan. 
Italy  is  the  birthplace  of  the  best 
pedal  straw  plait ;  in  that  country 
corn  is  cultivated  specially  for  the 
stalks,  the  grain  being  atrophied. 
Certain  chips  and  yeddahs  like- 
wise come  from  Italy. 

The  plaits  are  imported  into 
England  in  their  natural  state, 
and  are  then  sent  to  be  dyed  or 
bleached.  A  few  manufacturers 
for  the  highest  class  trade  arrange 
to  reserve  certain  shades  for 
special  clients,  and  some  do  their 
own  dyeing.  The  sewing  cotton 
used  to  stitch  the  hats  is  dyed  in 
lengths  of  5,000  or  10,000  yds.  to 
match  the  straw.  The  first  work 
of  the  dyer  is  to  bleach  the  plaits 
intended  for  light  shades  or  for 
white  with  peroxide  of  hydrogen. 

The  straw  hat  manufacturer 
employs  blocks  of  the  shape  of 
the  hat,  and  sews  the  plaits  upon 
them  by  the  aid  of  sewing  ma- 
chines. Two  types  of  machines 
are  used  in  converting  the  plaits 
into  hat  shapes.  For  the  more 


expensive  hats  a  machine  is  used 
which  sews  a  concealed  stitch, 
while  hats  of  the  cheaper  sort  are 
made  on  a  machine  which  leaves 
the  stitching  clearly  visible.  The 
block  is  placed  beside  the  skilled 
worker,  who  stitches  to  fit  the 
block.  Frequently  "  slopes,"  cor- 
responding to  a  gore  in  a  dress, 
have  to  be  inserted.  As  soon  as 
the  shape  is  completed  it  has  to  be 
stiffened,  and  is  dispatched  to  a 
room  to  undergo  treatment  with 
a  special  preparation  of  gelatin. 
Later  the  shapes  are  steamed, 
shaped  to  the  block,  and  ironed. 

The  cheaper  hats  are  shaped  by 
hydraulic  pressure.  In  making 
buckram  shapes  for  hat  founda- 
tions, the  buckram  is  bought  in 
24-yard  rolls  and  cut  into  the  shape 
desired.  An  aluminium  or  spelter 
block  is  used  in  pressing.  The 
former  is  a  modern  invention  and 
a  great  improvement,  for  while  it 
can  stand  any  amount  of  heat,  it 
is  extremely  light  in  weight. 

Genuine  panama  hats  are  im- 
ported from  Colombia  in  plateau 
form,  and  are  blocked  in  England. 
Otranto  or  simulated  panama, 
made  of  paper,  comes  from  Japan. 
Before  the  Great  War,  velour  hats 
were  largely  imported  from  Aus- 
tria, where  the  manufacture 
reached  a  high  pitch  of  excellence. 
They  now  come  from  Paris  and  the 
north  of  England.  The  best 
velours  are  made  of  hare  fur  and 
dyed  before  being  converted  into 
hoods,  thus  obviating  a  white  line 
at  the  edges  when  they  are  cut. 


HATCH 


3870 


HATFIELD   HOUSE 


Edwin  Hatch, 
British  theologian 


Hatch,  EDWIN  (1835-89).  Brit- 
ish theologian.  Born  at  Derby, 
Sept.  4,  1835,  he  was  educated  at 
King  Edward's 
School,  Birm- 
ingham, and 
Pembroke  Col- 
lege, Oxford. 
He  was  o  r  - 
dainedin  1859, 
and  went  to 
Trinity  C  o  1  - 
lege,  Toronto, 
as  professor  of 
classics;  in 
1862  he  became  head  of  the  high 
sch  >ol  at  Quebec.  In  1867,  Hatch, 
again  in  England,  was  appointed 
vice-principal  of  S.  Mary  Hall,  Ox- 
ford, and  in  1884  university  reader 
in  ecclesiastical  history,  having 
previously  been  lecturer  on  the 
Septuagint.  By  this  time  he  had 
made  a  reputation  as  a  theologian, 
his  Bampton  lectures  in  1880,  On 
the  Organization  of  the  Early 
Christian  Churches,  having  at- 
attracted  much  attention.  His 
published  works  include  The 
Growth  of  Church  Institutions, 
1887,  and  some  poems.  He  died 
Nov.  10,  1889. 

Hatching  (Fr.  hacker,  to  chop). 
Shading  by  minute  intersecting 
lines  in  drawing  or  engraving.  See 
Crosshatching. 

Hatchment.  Lozenge -shaped 
panel  used  to  display  the  armorial 
bearings  of  a  deceased  person.  If 
erected  to 
commemorate 
an  unmarried 
person,  a 
widower  or  a 
widow,  the 
whole  of  the 
panel  sur- 
rounding 
the  armorial 
shield  would 
be  painted  black  ;  if  for  a  husband 
or  a  wife,  the  arms  would  be  im- 
paled, and  half  the  hatchment 
would  be  painted  black  and  half 
white,  the  black  being  on  the 
dexter  or  sinister  according  to 
whether  the  deceased  was  the  hus- 
band or  the  wife.  Hatchments 
were  formerly  affixed  to  the  resi- 
dences of  deceased  persons  and 
also  carried  in  the  funeral  proces- 
sion, to  be  subsequently  hung  up 
in  the  church.  Many  country 
churches  in  England  still  retain 
hatchments  of  local  families.  The 
word  is  said  to  be  a  corruption  of 
achievement  (q.v.).  See  Heraldry. 
Hatfield  OR  BISHOP'S  HATFIELD. 
Parish  and  market  town  of  Hert- 
fordshire, England.  It  stands  on 
the  Lea,  17  £  m.  N.  of  London,  on 
the  G.N.R.,  is  secluded,  and  re- 
markable for  its  picturesque  old 
and  handsome  church. 


Known  as  Heathfield  in  Saxon 
times  and  as  Hetfelle  in  Domes- 
day, the  manor  was  given  by  Edgar 
to  the  monks  of  Ely,  and  here, 
1108-1538,  the  bishops  of  Ely  had 
a  palace,  parts  of  which,  including 
the  banqueting  hall  and  a  gate- 
house, remain.  The  manor  was 
conveyed  in  1538  by  Bishop  Good- 
rich to  Henry  VIII  in  exchange  for 
lands  in  Cambridge,  Essex,  and 
Norfolk.  Edward  VI,  who  lived 
here  occasionally  before  coming  to 
the  throne,  conveyed  it  to  his  sister 
Elizabeth,  who  here  held  her  first 
council.  It  was  given,  in  1603,  by 
James  I  to  Robert  Cecil,  1st  earl  of 
Salisbury,  in  exchange  for  Theo- 
balds (q.v.),  near  Cheshunt,  and  it 
has  remained  since  in  possession  of 
the  Cecil  family. 

The  church  of  S.  Etheldreda 
dates  from  Norman  times,  was  ex- 
tensively restored  in  1872,  and  has 
two  noteworthy  chapels,  one  con- 
taining a  recumbent  effigy  of 
Robert  Cecil  (d.  1612),  an  example 
of  the  costly  Italian  work  of  the 
early  17th  century,  and  the  other 
monuments  of  the  Brocketts  and 
Reades,  of  Brockett  Hall,  a  man- 
sion 3  m.  from  Hatfield,  once  the 
residence  of  Lord  Melbourne  and 
Lord  Palmerston  and  later  the  seat 
of  Lord  Mount  Stephen.  Pop. 
8,592.  See  English  Studies,  J.  S. 
Brewer,  1881. 

Other  Hatfields  include  one  in 
Worcestershire,  4^  m.  S.  of  Wor- 
cester. Hatfield  Broad  Oak,  Hat- 
field  Regis,  or  King's  Hatfield,  is  in 
Essex,  5£  m.  S.E.  of  Bishop's 

Stortford,  site  of  a         

12th  century  Bene-   I 
d  i  c  t  i  n  e     priory.   I 
Hatfield   Forest  is 
aparish2Jm.N.W.  ; 
of   Hatfield  Broad 
Oak.      Great  Hat- 
field  is  in  the  East 
Riding    of     York- 
shire ;    H  a  t  fi  e  1  d 
Heath,    a   parish 
and  village  of  Hat- 
field    Broad    Oak; 
Little   Hatfield,  in 
the  East  Riding  of 


Yorkshire;  and  Hatfield  Peverel, 
an  Essex  parish  or  village  2£  m. 
S.W.  of  Witham,  with  remains  of  a 
12th  century  Benedictine  priory. 

Hatfield  Chase.  Dist.  of  York- 
shire (W.R.).  Composed  of  peat 
moss,  it  lies  between  the  rivers 
Don,  Idle,  and  Thorne.  Originally, 
as  the  name  suggests,  parts  of  it 
were  the  resort  of  deer,  while  else- 
where there  were  fish.  In  1626  it 
was  drained  by  Cornelius  Vermuy- 
den,  and  most  of  its  180.000  acres 
is  now  under  cultivation.  The 
village  of  Hatfield,  7  m.  from  Don- 
caster  on  the  Don,  has  an  interest- 
ing church,  S.  Lawrence.  The 
manor  house  here  was  once  a  royal 
residence,  used  when  the  kings 
hunted  in  the  chase.  Hatfield  is 
supposed  to  be  the  Heaihfield  at 
which  Penda,  king  of  Mercia, 
gained  a  victory  over  the  North- 
umbrians in  633.  The  station  is 
Stainforth,  on  the  G.C.  Rly.  Pop. 
1,750. 

Hatfield  House.  Seat  of  the 
Cecils,  in  Hertfordshire,  England. 
Built  of  red  brick  and  Caen  stone, 
and  one  of  the  most  notable  ex- 
amples of  Jacobean  architecture  in 
the  kingdom,  it  stands  in  the  parish 
of  Hatfield  or  Bishop's  Hatfield. 
Erected  by  Robert  Cecil,  1st  earl  of 
Salisbury,  it  was  completed  in 
1611,  contains  part  of  the  old 
palace  of  the  bishops  of  Ely,  and 
stands  in  a  park  measuring  up- 
wards of  10  m.  in  circumference. 
In  the  park  is  preserved  the 
oak  tree  under  which,  accord- 
ing to  tradition,  Elizabeth  was 


Hatfield  House.      The  Hall  and,  top  rignt,  soutn  front 
of  the  mansion  built  by  the  1st  Earl  or  Salisbury 


seated  when  she 
received  news  of 
her  accession  to 
the  throne. 

In  shape  a 
parallelogram, 
with  two  wings 
on  the  S.  front, 
from  designs  by 
John  Thorpe,  the 
building  was  re- 
stored by  the  6th 
earl.  The  W.  wing 
was  almost  totally 
destroyed  by  fire, 


HATHAWAY 


387  1 


HATTON 


I 


Nov,  27,  1835,  when  the  widow  of 
the  1st  marquess  lost  her  life  at 
the  age  of  85,  but  it  was  soon 
rebuilt.  Notable  features  are  the 
hall,  grand  staircase,  long  gallery, 
King  James's  room,  armoury,  li- 
brary, summer  and  winter  dining- 
rooms,  drawing-room,  and  chapel. 

In  Hatfield  House  are  pre- 
served a  remarkable  collection 
of  MSS.  and  state  papers,  some 
of  which  have  been  published 
by  the  Historical  MSS.  commis- 
sion, many  relics  of  Tudor  and 
Jacobean  times,  and  a  large  num- 
ber of  historical  portraits,  includ- 
ing that  of  Queen  Elizabeth  by 
Zuccaro.  Much  interest  attaches 
to  a  genealogical  tree,  42  ft.  long, 
drawn  up  for  Elizabeth,  tracing  her 
descent  back  to  Adam.  It  is  kept 
on  a  roller  and  in  the  later  section 
coats-of-arms  are  attached  to  all 
the  names.  Outside  the  gates  is  a 
bronze  statue,  by  George  Frampton, 
of  the  3rd  marquess  of  Salisbury, 
erected  by  Hertfordshire  friends 
and  neighbours,  Oct.  21,  1906.  See 
Cecil;  Gallery;  consult  also  English 
Studies,  J.  S.  Brewer,  1880. 

Hathaway,  ANNE  (1556-1623). 
Maiden  name  of  the  wife  of  Wil- 
liam Shakespeare.  She  was  daugh- 
ter of  Richard  Hathaway,  yeoman 
farmer  of  Shottery,  near  Stratford  - 
on-Avon,  and  married  Shakespeare 
Nov.  28,  1582,  being  eight  years 
older  than  her  husband.  See 
Shakespeare,  William  ;  consult  also 
The  Women  of  Shakespeare's 
Family,  Mary  Rose,  1905. 

Hatherley,  WILLIAM  PAGE 
WOOD,  BARON  (1801-81).  British 
lawyer.  He  was  born  in  London, 
Nov.  29,  1801,  a  son  of  Sir  Matthew 
Wood,  and  educated  at  West- 
minster, Geneva,  and  Trinity  Col-  . 
lege,  Cambridge.  Called  to  the  bar 
from  Lincoln's  Inn  in  1827,  he  was 
engaged  for  some  years  in  parlia- 
mentary work  and  chancery  prac- 
tice, and  took  silk  in  1845.  In  1847 
he  was  returned  as  M.P.  for  Oxford, 
was  vice-chancellor  of  the  county 
palatine  of  Lancaster,  1849-51,  and 
in  1851  solicitor-general.  He  be- 
came a  chancery  judge  in  1853,  a 
lord  justice  of  appeal  in  1868,  and 
lord  chancellor  in  Dec.  of  the 
same  year,  when  he  was  created 
Baron  Hatherley.  He  resigned  in 
1872,  and  died  July  10,  1881. 

Hathor  (dwelling  of  Horus). 
Egyptian  goddess.  A  sky-deity, 
cow-headed  or  cow-horned,  she 
was  the  great  mother  of  the  early 
dynastic  people.  In  1906  Naville 
found  in  a  Deir  el-Bahri  shrine 
a  superb  sandstone  cow,  now  at 
Cairo.  This  life-size  figure,  of  the 
15th  century  B.C.,  was  worshipped 
as  Hathor.  When  the  goddess 
was  represented  in  human  form, 
with  horned  disk,  she  became 


Anne  Hatha way's  Cottage  at  Shottery,  near  Stratford 
on-Avon 

identified    with    Aphrodite.      The 

seven     Hathors     were     benignant 

fates.     Hathor- headed  capitals  are 

a    favourite   architectural   motive. 

See  Dendera ;  Egypt ;  Isis. 

Hathras.         Subdivision      and 

town    of    the    United     Provinces, 

India,  in   Aligarh     district.       The 

district  is    extensively  cultivated. 

Hathras    town   is   a  rly.    junction 

and  is  of  growing  importance  as  an 

industrial   and  commercial   centre. 

Area,  290  sq.  m.  Pop.,  subdivision, 

210,936  ;  town,  37,854. 

Hatia.     Island  off  the  coast  of 

Bengal,  India,  in  Noakhali  district. 

The  island  is  low-lying  and  is  ex- 
posed to  the  sea.  In  the  great 

cyclone  of  1876  over  half  the  popu- 
lation lost  their  lives.  Area,  185 

sq.  m. 

Ha-tien.        Town    of     Cochin 

China,  French  Indo-China.  It 
stands  on  the  Gulf  of  Siam,  150  m. 
W.S.W.  of  Saigon.  The  inhabitants 
are  mostly  fisher  folk.  Pop.  1 1 ,000. 
Ha-tinh.  Harbour  of  Annam, 
French  Indo-China.  It  stands  on 
the  Gulf  of  Tongking,  170  m.  by 
rly.  N.W.  of  Hue,  the  capital.  It 
has  trade  in  cotton  and  cereals. 
Hatshepsut,  HATASU,  HAT- 

SHEPSET,  OR  HATSHOPSITU.  Egyp- 
tian queen  of  the  XVIIIth  dynasty, 
about  1500  B.C.  She  was  for  35 
years  co-regent  with  her  father 
Thothmes  I,  her  half-brother  and 
consort,  Thothmes  II,  and  Thoth- 
mes III. 

Hatteraick,  DIRK.  Dutch  smug- 
gler in  Sir  Walter  Scott's  novel,  Guy 
Mannering,  who  fears  neither 
"  dog  nor  devil."  Forced  by  Gilbert 
Glossin  to  be  that  attorney's 
accomplice  in  the  kidnapping  of 
Harry  Bertram,  he  strangles  Glossin 
in  prison,  and  then  hangs  himself. 
Hatteras.  Headland  at  the  S. 
end  of  a  sandy  island  at  the  en- 
trance to  Pamlico  Sound,  N.  Caro- 
lina, U.S.A.  Heavy  seas  caused 
by  storms  make  it  dangerous  to 
navigation. 

Hattiesburg.  City  of  Mississip- 
pi, U.S.A.,  the  co.  seat  of  Forrest 
co.  It  stands  on  the  Leaf  river.  1 15 


m.  N.E.  of  New 
Orleans,  and  is 
served  by  the  New 
Orleans  and  N.  E. 
and  other  rlys. 
Situated  in  an  agri- 
cultural, cotton- 
growing,  and  lumber 
region,  it  has  a 
wood  reduction  mill, 
rly.  workshops  and 
machine  shops,  and 
manufactures  lum- 
ber products,  fertil- 
isers,  wagons, 
and  mattresses. 
Settled  in  1882, 
it  was  i  n  c  o  r  p  o  r- 
ated  in  1884.  Pop.  14,952. 

Hattin.  Village  of  Palestine,  the 
Ziddim  of  the  O.T.  It  lay  5  m. 
N.W.  of  Tiberias,  and  was  the 
scene  of  the  final  overthrow  of  the 
Crusaders  by  Saladin  in  1187. 

Hatto.  Name  of  two  arch- 
bishops of  Mainz.  Hatto  I,  having 
entered  the  church,  became  abbot 
of  Reichenau,  and  in  891  arch- 
bishop of  Mainz.  As  head  of  this 
important  diocese,  he  took  a 
leading  part  in  German  politics. 
He  was  a  trusted  counsellor  of 
King  Arnulf,  being  afterwards 
ruler  of  Germany  for  his  young  son, 
Louis  the  Child.  He  helped  Con- 
rad I  to  secure  the  throne  after  the 
death  of  Louis,  and  for  some 
reason  or  other  brought  upon  him- 
self the  dislike  of  the  Saxons  and  of 
their  duke,  Henry  the  Fowler.  He 
died  May  15,  913. 

Hatto  II,  who  was  archbishop 
from  968  to  970,  is  the  Hatto 
whose  name  is  associated  with 
the  legend  of  the  Mouse  Tower 
at  Bingen,  the  story  being  that  he 
was  devoured  by  rats  or  mice.  At 
one  time  Hatto  I  was  regarded  as 
the  victim,  but  later  research 
makes  it  refer  to  Hatto  II,  who  had 
a  reputation  for  oppressing  the 
poor.  See  Curious  Myths  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  S.  Baring-Gould,  1897. 
Hatton,  SIR  CHRISTOPHER  (1540- 
91).  English  courtier.  Born  at 
Holdenby,  Northamptonshire,  he 
was  educated 
at  S.  Mary 
Hall,  Oxford, 
and  admitted 
to  the  Inner 
Temple  in 
1559.  His 
prowess  in  a 
tourney  attrac- 
ted the  notice 

of  Queen  Eliza-          Sir  U  Hatton, 
beth,whomade        English  courtier 
him    one    of    her    courtiers.     She 
showered   favours  upon-   him,  and 
he  entered  Parliament.      Elizabeth 
employed  him  in  important  matters, 
such  as  the  trials  of  Babington  and 
MaryQueen  of  Scots,  and  eventually 


HATTON 


3872 


HAULAGE 


made  him  lord  chancellor  in  1587, 
to  the  disgust  of  the  legal  pro- 
fession. His  natural  shrewdness 
enabled  him  to  acquit  himself  with 
moderate  success,  and  he  retained 
the  office  until  his  death,  which 
occurred  on  Nov.  20,  1591. 

Hatton,  JOSEPH  (1841-1307). 
British  author  and  journalist. 
Born  Feb.  3.  1841,  the  son  of 
Francis  Augus- 
tus Hatton, 
who  founded 
The  Derbyshire 
Times,  he  came 
to  London  in 
1868  to  con- 
duct The  Gen- 
tleman's Maga- 
zine. He  held 

_  At     ..  several    ap- 

Irt-tLkSl™'*'*?'    pointments 
V  X^       as     editor 

S  and    special 

Eiuoii&Fn,  correspon- 

dent, but  as  a  journalist  is  chiefly 
remembered  as  the  writer  of 
Cigarette  Papers,  a  weekly  mis- 
cellany in  The  People,  of  which 
paper  he  was  editor  in  his  last  years, 
and  for  the  way  in  which,  as 
correspondent  for  The  Standard  in 
America,  he  enabled  his  paper  to 
publish  the  news  of  the  shooting  of 
President  Garfield  a  day  in  advance 
of  its  contemporaries.  Among  his 
numerous  works  the  best  known 
are  Clytie,  subsequently  dramatised 
by  himself,  and  By  Order  of  the 
Czar.  He  died  July  31,  1907. 

Hatton  Garden.  London 
thoroughfare.  Named  after  Sir 
Christopher  Hatton,  lord  chan- 
cellor to  Queen  Elizabeth,  who 
lived  at  Hatton  House,  it  connects 
Holborn  Circus  with  Clerkenwell 
Road,  and  is  known  as  a  centre 
of  the  London  diamond  trade. 
Wycherley  the  dramatist  visited 
the  countess  of  Drogheda  here 
before  his  marriage  to  her.  Mazzini 
lived  at  No.  5.  Mirabeau  was  also 
a  resident.  No.  53  was  formerly  a 
police-court  presided  over  by  a 
Mr.  Laing,  the  original  of  Mr. 
Fang  in  Die  kens' s  Oliver  Twist. 
Joseph  Strutt,  the  antiquary,  died 
in  Charles  Street.  See  Ely  Place. 
Hatvan.  Town  of  Hungary,  in 
the  co.  of  Heves.  It  stands  on  the 
Zagyva  river,  30  m.  N.E.  of  Buda- 
pest. It  is  an  important  rly.  junc- 
tion and  is  noted  for  its  ancient 
castle.  The  chief  industry  is  the 
manufacture  of  cloth.  Pop.  9,750. 
Hatzfeld.  Former  name  of  the 
town  of  Yugo-Slavia  now  known 
as  Zsombolya  (q.v.).  There  is  also 
a  village  of  Germany  called  Hatz- 
feld. It  stands  on  the  Eder,  40  m. 
W.S.W.  of  Kassel.  Pop.  885. 

Hatzfeldt-Wildenburg,  PAUL 
MELCHIOR,  COUNT  VON  (1831-1901 ). 
German  diplomatist.  Born  of  an 


old  and  aristocratic  family,  he  en- 
tered the  diplomatic  service  of 
Prussia.  In  1 882  he  was  appointed 
foreign  secre- 
tary of  the 
German  em- 
pire. Three 
years  later  he 
was  sent  as 
ambassador  to 
London,  where 
he  remained 
until  his  death, 
Nov.  22,  1901. 
His  Corre- 
spondence, 
1905,  is  interesting  on  account  of 
his  intima,cy  with  Bismarck. 

Hauberk  (O.H.G.  Hals,  neck; 
bergftn,  to  protect).  Coat  of  chain 
rnai!  or  closelv  linked  iron  or  steel 


Count  von  Hatz- 
feldt-Wildenburg, 
German  diplomatist 


Hauberk.      Coat  of  chain  mail  as 
worn  by  John  of  Gaunt 

rings.  At  first  probably  little 
more  than  a  gorget  (q.v.),  it  devel- 
oped until  it  sometimes  reached 
to  the  wearer's  knees— and  had 
sleeves  reaching  nearly  to  the 
wrists.  The  Norman  hauberk  was 
put  on  over  the  head  like  a  modern 
sweater ;  other  forms  were  fas- 
tened up  the  front.  The  hauberk 
fell  out  of  use  among  western 
peoples  in  the  15th  century.  See 
Armour. 

Hauch,  HANS  CARSTEN  (1790- 
1872).  Danish  poet.  Born  at 
Fredrikshald,  Norway,  May  12, 


Wilt  elm  Hauft, 
German  poet 


1790,  in  1846  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  northern  literature  at 
Kiel.  He  left  the  country  during 
the  Holstein  revolution  in  1848, 
and  in  1850  became  professor  of 
aesthetics  at  Copenhagen.  He  re- 
mained there  until  his  death, 
March  4,  1872.  Hauch  wrote 
several  historical  tragedies,  many 
lyrics  and  romances.  An  edition  of 
his  works  was  published  at  Copen- 
hagen, 1873-75. 

Hauff,  WII.HELM  (1802-27). 
German  poet  and  novelist.  He  was 
born  at  Stuttgart,  Nov.  29,  1802, 
and  having 
studied  at  Tu- 
bingen, acted 
as  tutor  for  a 
couple  of  years. 
He  became  edi- 
tor of  Das  Mor- 
genblatt  in  his 
native  town 
in  Jan.,  1827, 
but  died  Nov. 
18  the  same 
year.  In  his  short  life  he  wrote 
much  of  lasting  excellence,  notably 
his  three  series  of  Marchen  (Fairy 
Tales),  1826-28;  Lichtenstein,  a 
Wurttemberg  romance  in  the  man- 
ner of  Scott,  1826  ;  Memoiren  des 
Satan  (Memoirs  of  Satan),  1826- 
27,  rich  in  humour  ;  and  Novellen 
(Novelettes),  1828. 

Haugesund.  Seaport  of  Nor- 
way, in  the  amt  of  Stavanger. 
It  stands  on  the  W.  coast,  near  the 
N.  extremity  of  the  island  of 
Karmo,  60  m.  due  S.  of  Bergen. 
The  port  carries  on  a  thriving 
trade,  mainly  in  timber  and  fish. 
Pop.  18,000. 

Haulage.  Transport  of  ma- 
terial. In  all  mining  operations 
this  constitutes  one  of  the  most  im- 
portantbranches  upon  the  efficiency 
of  which  the  success  of  an  enterprise 
may  depend.  The  most  primitive 
method  of  removing  material  from 
a  mine  to  the  place  where  it  is  to 
be  deposited  for  treatment  con- 
sists in  loading  it  on  to  the  backs 
or  shoulders  of  men  or  women,  in 
some  kind  of  container,  and  having 
it  carried  out.  From  this  we  pass 
by  methods  gradually  increasing 


Haulage.     Plant  for  carrying  logs  by  chain  up  an  incline  of  220  ft.  for  a 
distance  of  492  yds. 


HAULBOWLINE 


3873 


HAUNTED      HOUSE 


Haulage. 


in  refinement  and 
complexity  to  the 
elaborate  haulage 
plants  of  the  great 
gold  and  diamond 
mines  of  the  Trans- 
vaal, for  example 
recording  on  the 
way,  the  wheel- 
barrow and  every 
kind  of  transport 
a  n  i  m  a  1 — m  u  1  e  s, 
llamas,  horses,  cam- 
els, oxen,  dogs.  The 
mechanical  means 
employed  include 
the  light  railway, 
the  standard  rail- 
way, and  the  aerial 
railway  orwire  rope. 

Haulage  in  a  coal 

mine  may  be  described  as  main  and 
secondary  or  contributory,  the 
latter  consisting  in  transporting 
the  coal  from  the  working  face 
to  the  main- haulage  ways;  the 
former  in  conveying  it  to  the  foot 
of  the  shaft.  In  the  main  haulage, 
trains  of  trucks  or  tubs  are  drawn 
along  rails  either  by  horses,  com- 
pressed air  locomotives,  or  by  wire 
ropes  operated  from  near  the  bottom 
of  the  shaft  either  electrically  or  by 
means  of  engines  worked  by  com- 
pressed air.  Of  recent  years  elec- 
trical locomotives  and  benzine  or 
petrol  locomotives  have  been  in- 
troduced in  coal-mining.  The  tubs 
or  trucks  employed  are  either  of 
iron  or  steel  or  wood,  and  hold  any- 
thing from  10  to  45  cwts.  of  coal, 
their  size  being  determined  by 
the  character  of  the  workings.  In 
the  direct  haulage  system,  where 
the  tubs  are  brought  up  an  in- 
cline direct  from  the  working  face 
to  the  shaft,  they  are  usually 
arranged  to  run  back  empty  by 
their  own  weight  on  a  single  line 
of  rails.  See  Mining. 

Haulbowline.  Island  in  Cork 
Harbour,  co.  Cork,  Ireland.  It  is 
S.  of  Queenstown,  and  on  it  are  a 
naval  dockyard  and  an  ordnance 
depot.  The  name  is  also  that  of  a 
rock  at  the  mouth  of  Carlingford 
Lough,  on  which  is  a  lighthouse. 
See  Queenstown. 

Haunted  House.  The  idea  that 
houses  and  other  places  are  haunted 
by  the  ghosts  of  the  departed  is 
very  ancient,  and  common  to 
nearly'  all  nations.  The  usual  ghost 
story  describes  various  noises,  to- 
gether with  the  appearance  of 
ghostly  visitants,  usually  con- 
nected with  some  crime  or  tragedy 
that  has  been  committed  in  the 
place.  The  majority  of  such  tales 
are  founded  on  careless  and  in- 
accurate observation,  and  the 
sounds  and  phenomena  are  explic 
able  by  material  causation. 

There    are,  however,  on  record 


System  of  steam-driven  rope  haulage  for 
trucks  up  a  steep  incline 

well  authenticated  cases  which 
cannot  be  put  down  to  the  imagina- 
tion, the  evidence  for  them  being 
as  convincing  as  it  well  could  be. 
Of  several  explanations  proposed, 
the  most  probable  appears  to  be 
that  persons  under  strong  emotion 
— as  when  meeting  a  violent  death 
— may  leave  some  kind  of  impres- 
sion on  their  surroundings,  one 
normally  as  imperceptible  as  the 
image  on  an  undeveloped  photo- 
graphic plate,  which  becomes 
apparent  only  when  the  plate  is 
placed  in  the  developer.  So  the 
alleged  impression  becomes  ap- 
parent only  to  those  who  are 
psychic  or  peculiarly  sensitive 
thereto.  This  would  account  for  the 
fact  that  some  persons — otherwise 
perfectly  normal — are  greatly  given 
to  experiencing  these  strange  pheno- 
mena, while  others  never  do  so. 


Haunted    House.       Old    house    in 

Cock    Lane,    SmithfieW,    scene   of 

manifestations  which  puzzled  and 

deceived  London  society  in  1762 

Among  houses  at  which  super- 
natural appearances  are  said  to 
have  been  observed  is  Mannington 
Hall,  Norfolk,  where  Dr.  Jessop, 


rector  of  Seaming,  on  Oct.  10, 
1879,  saw  the  figure  of  a  man  in  an 
old-fashioned  costume  of  clerical 
cut.  Newstead  Abbey  is  reputedly 
haunted  by  a  Black  Friar,  presum- 
ably one  of  the  Augustinian  order 
expelled  in  1539  when  the  property 
was  sold  to  Sir  John  Byron.  The 
poet  Byron  declared  he  had  seen 
him,  and  that  the  appearance  of 
the  Friar  foretold  a  death  in  the 
family.  Incidentally,  Newstead 
Abbey  is  considered  unlucky  to  its 
possessors,  a  view  founded  on  the 
belief,  as  expressed  in  Spelman's 
History  of  Sacrilege,  that  holders 
of  what  was  once  Church  property 
are  doomed  to  disaster. 

Numerous  instances  of  houses 
infested  for  a  time  with  malicious 
spirits,  playing  senseless  pranks, 
are  on  record.  The  German  people 
have  long  recognized  this  kind  of 
haunting  by  Poltergeists,  as  they 
style  them.  Such  was  the  Epworth 
ghost  which  in  1716-17  tormented 
the  Rev.  Samuel  Wesley  and  his 
family.  The  Cock  Lane  (q.v.) 
ghost  in  a  house  off  Smithfield, 
London,  whose  pranks  were  of  the 
like  character,  was  a  deception. 
The  Sampford  Peverell  ghost  dis- 
turbed the  house  for  three  years 
from  1810.  Fraud  was  suspected, 
but  never  discovered. 

The  best  established  account  of 
haunting  in  recent  years  is  found 
in  the  book  The  Alleged  Haunting 

of  B House  (2nd  ed.  1900). 

Ballechin  House,  Perthshire,  is  the 
mansion  indicated,  as  appears  from 
a  correspondence  in  The  Times  in 
June,  1897.  The  book  is  a  cold, 
circumstantial  account,  under  the 
imprimatur  of  the  Psychical  Re- 
search Society  (q.v.),  in  which  it 
is  remarked  that  the  occurrences 
observed  had  continued  for  over  a 
quarter  of  a  century.  In  1913, 
circumstantial  accounts  of  the 
haunting  of  Asfordby  Rectory, 
Leicestershire,  appeared  in  the 
newspapers.  These  manifestations 
had  continued  for  thirty  years. 

Ghosts  have  a  kind  of  quasi- 
legal  status  in  the  sense  that  the 
owner  of  a  house  stated  to  be 
haunted  may  bring  an  action  at 
law  for  "  slander  of  title,"  and  may 
recover  damages,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  modern  house  called  Hillside 
at  Egham,  occupied  by  Stephen 
Phillips  in  1903.  He  left  the 
alleged  haunted  house  and  forfeited 
the  rent.  In  1904  the  owner 
brought  an  action  against  his  late 
tenant  and  a  morning  newspaper, 
but  the  case  was  settled  out  of 
court  for  £200.  In  1906  The  Daily 
Mail  was  defendant  in  a  similar 
action,  when  £90  damages  was 
awarded;  but  judgement  was  re- 
versed on  appeal.  The  house  is  now 
peacefully  occupied. 


T    5 


HAUPTMANN 


HAUSSMANN 


Hauptmann,  GERHART  (b.1862). 
German  dramatist.  Born  at  Salz- 
Kninn  Nov  1 5.  1 862,  at  the  age  of 
eighteen  h  e 
became  an  art 
student  at 
Breslau,  and 
in  1883  went  to 
Rome,  where 
he  hired  a 
studio  and 
dabbled  in 
sculpture.  His 

marriage       i  n 
German  dramatist       Ifi85  made  him 

independent  of  earning  a  livelihood, 
and,  having  returned  to  Germany, 
he  resumed  his  studies.  In  1889  he 
began  playwriting,  producing  Vor 
Sonnenaufgang,  followed  in  1890  by 
Friedensfest ;  Einsame  Menschen, 
1891  .  and  Die  Weber,  1892. 

The  first  ot  these,  by  its  out- 
spoken attack  on  existing  condi- 
tions and  the  ways  of  thought, 
placed  Hauptmann  at  the  head  of 
modern  German  dramatists.  With 
an  almost  repellent  naturalism 
and  realistic  depiction  of  the  mean- 
nesses and  ugly  trivialities  of  mo- 
dern life,  he  struck  a  new  chord  in 
contemporary  literature  and  art. 
From  1892  his  outlook  broadened, 
and  thenceforward  his  output 
was  considerable  and  varied.  His 
Emmanuel  Quint,  1910,  and  At- 
lantis, 1912,  were  powerful  works. 
Recipient  of  the  Nobel  prize  for 
literature  in  1912,  his  works  have 
been  translated  into  most  European 
languages 

Hauraki,  GULF  OF.  Arm  of  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  on  the  E.  coast  of 
North  Island,  New  Zealand.  Pro- 
tected by  the  Great  Barrier  Island 
athwart  its  entrance,  it  affords 
safe  anchorage  to  the  numerous 
vessels  plying  to  the  ports  of 
Auckland  and  Thames.  The 
southern  extension  of  the  gulf  is 
known  as  the  Firth  of  Thames. 
The  Gulf  of  Hauraki  contains  a 
large  number  of  islands,  is  70  m. 
long  and  42  m.  broad. 

Hauran,  THE.  District  ot 
Palestine  anciently  known  as 
Auranitis.  It  lies  E.  of  the  Jordan, 
with  loosely  defined  boundaries, 
but  it  forms  the  elevated  plain, 
much  of  which  is  fertile,  lying 
between  the  river  and  the  Jebel 
Hauran  (alt.  6,000  ft.)  on  the  E. 
It  is  bounded  N.  by  the  Jaulan 
district  S.  of  Damascus,  and  S.  by 
the  El  Belka  region. 

Hausa.  Negroid  people,  mostly 
N.  of  the  Benue  and  Niger  rivers, 
Nigeria.  Their  culture,  based  on 
settled  husbandry,  handicrafts,  and 
trade,  advanced  under  Libyan  im- 
petus, and  the  adoption  ot  Islam  by 
the  upper  classes.  Their  political 
power  was  overthrown  by  the  Fula 
chief  Dan  Fodio  in  1810,  but  since 


the  British  occupation  of  Sokoto  in 
1903  their  virile  temperament  has 
again  emerged.  There  are  vigorous 
colonies  in  Tunis  and  Italian  Libya. 
Walled  towns,  such  as  Kano,  re- 
present their  superiority  to  the 

general  negroid 

I   level.        The 
jMl&&8jJ&     I    Hausa   stock, 
1   essentially 
I   peaceable,    was 
•P""^  I   easily  domin- 

1    a  ted    by    the 
I    pastoral     Fula. 


.** 


Hausa  woman  with  feet  and  arm 
bandaged  after  the  ceremonial  appli- 
cation o!  henna.  Above,  Hausa  man 

The  Hausa  military  police  regi- 
ments in  British  and  Belgian  terri- 
tory are  largely  recruited  from 
Hausa-speaking  W.  African  negroes. 
See  Negro ;  consult  also  Hausaland : 
or  Fifteen  Hundred  Miles  through 
the  Central  Soudan,  C.  H.  Robinson, 
1897. 

Hausa.  Language  spoken  in 
Africa  by  15,000,000  people  of 
Mahomedan  faith,  whose  original 
home  appears  to  have  been  be- 
tween Sokoto  and  Bornu.  Easy  to 
learn,  it  has  been  adopted  as  the 
trade  language  from  Lake  Chad  to 
the  Guinea  coast.  It  is  generally 
considered  to  belong  to  the  Hamitic 
family  of  languages,  which  include 
Egyptian  (Coptic),  Galla,  and 
Berber.  According  to  some,  it  is  a 
Semitic  tongue,  but  although  the 
vocabulary  contains  a  considerable 
Arabic  element,  it  has  no  guttural 
sounds  like  Arabic  'Ain  and  Ghain, 
and  triliteral  roots,  the  character- 
istic feature  of  all  Semitic  lan- 
guages, are  wanting. 

The  literature  consists  mainly 
of  religious  hymns  and  war-like 
songs  translated  from  the  Arabic. 
The  Arabic  alphabet  is  used. 
Since  the  territory  came  under  Brit- 
ish protection  Hausa  has  received 
considerable  attention,  and  a 
readership  hi  the  language  has 
been  established  at  Cambridge. 


Hausen,  MAX  A.  W.  VON  (1846- 
1922).  German  soldier.  Born  at 
Dresden,  Dec.  17,  1846,  the  son  of  a 
Saxon  nobleman,  he  entered  the 
Saxon  army  as  an  ensign  in  a 
Jager  regiment,  rising  gradually  to 
the  rank  of  general.  He  was  war 
minister  of  Saxony  in  1902.  When 
the  Great  War  broke  out  he  was 
associated  in  command  with  Duke 
Albert  of  Wiirt- 
temberg  in  the 
operations  in 
the  Belgian  Ar- 
dennes of  the 
German  Third 
x4rmy,  Aug.- 
Sept.,  1914,  and 
took  part  in  the 
battle  of  the 
Marne,  being  re-  Max  von  Hausen, 
pulsed  at  Vitry  German  soldier 
le  Francois.  He  died  Mar  19,  1922 
Hauser,  KASPAR  (d.  1833).  Wild 
boy  of  Nuremberg.  He  was  found 
in  the  market  place  of  that  city, 
May  26,  1828, 
dressed  as  a 
peasant,  inco- 
herent  of 
speech  and 
holding  in  his 
hand  a  letter 
professedly 
written  by  a 
poor  labourer 
who  said  that 
the  boy  had 

been  deposited 

years    before, 


Kaspar  Hauser,  wild 
boy  of  Nuremberg 


From  a  contemp.  print 

at  his  door,  16 
by  an  unknown  person,  and  that 
he  had  brought  him  up  in  strict 
confinement.  At  first  he  was  im- 
prisoned, but  subsequently  his 
education  was  undertaken  by  the 
city  and  by  Earl  Stanhope,  and 
eventually  he  became  a  clerk.  He 
died  at  Ansbach,  where  he  had  been 
sent  to  be  educated,  Dec.  17,  1833, 
from  a  wound  in  the  left  breast, 
which,  he  said,  had  been  inflicted 
by  his  early  custodian.  Whether 
he  was  impostor  or  victim  has 
never  been  determined. 

Haussmann,  GEORGES  EUGENE, 
BARON  (1809-91).  French  admini- 
strator. Born  in  Paris,  March  27, 
1809,  his 
family  was, 
as  the  name 
suggests,  o  f 
German  e  x  - 
traction.  Edu- 
cated in  Paris, 
he  entered  the 
civil  service,  in 
which  he  made 


good  progress.  In  1849  he  was  made 
prefect  of  \7ar,  and  in  1853  prefect 
of  the  Seine;  there  he  became 
famous  as  the  rebuilder  of  Paris. 


HAUTBOY 


3875 


HAUTE-VIENNE 


Much  of  the  city  was  remodelled  by 
him,  his  improvements  including 
the  planning  of  the  Bois  de  Bou- 
logne and  of  extensive  boulevards. 
He  also  built  bridges  and  provided 
Paris  with  a  new  system  of  water 
supply  and  sewerage.  In  1870, 
owing  partly  to  the  expenditure  he 
had  incurred,  he  was  dismissed. 
In  1877  he  entered  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies  as  deputy  for  Ajaecio. 
and  he  died  in  Paris,  Jan.  11,  1891. 
The  Boulevard  Haussmann  pre- 
serves his  name,  and  he  wrote 
Memoirs,  published  in  1890-93. 

Hautboy  (Fr.  hautbois,  high- 
wood ;  Ital.  oboe;  Ger.  Hoboe  ; 
Old  Eng.  hoboy).  Wood-wind 
instrument  consisting  of  a  conical 
tube,  with  side  holes,  as  in  the 
clarinet  and  flute.  It  is  played  ver- 
tically with  a  double  reed,  and  it 
first  "  overblows  "  at  the  octave. 
The  useful  compass  of  the  ordinary 
treble  hautboy  is 


b~C7   Or 

Bflat 


t)~O"   to    D 


B 

and  good  players 
command  a  few 
semitones  higher. 
The  tone  of  the  haut- 
boy is  reedy,  with  a 
peculiar  nasal  ring, 
very  pleasant  at  'its 
best,  harsh  when 
forced.  The  hautboys 
were  amongst  the 
earliest  of  wind  in- 
struments to  secure 
permanent  places  in 
the  stringed  orchestra, 
and  in  the  Handel 
period  (1685-1759) 
they  were  used  in 
masses,  like  the 
strings.  The  modern 
orchestra  employs  two 
or  three,  playing  inde- 
pendent parts. 

An  alto  hautboy, 
a  minor  third  lower  in 
pitch,  is  known  as 
oboe  d'amore  ;  a  tenor 

1|    instrument,  a   fifth 
1  o  w  e  r,    is    the    cor 
anglais.       Bach  used 
.'•     the    oboe     d'amore     a 
I    good  deal,  and  also  a 
tenor  oboe  di  caccia, 
of  the  same  pitch  as 
the  cor  anglais  ;   but 
some  authorities  con- 
sider the  oboe  di  caccia 
to  have  been  a  high-pitched  bas- 
soon   Bather    than    a    low-pitched 
hautbo}7;     See  Bassoon. 

Haute  -  Garonne.  Dept.  of 
France.  In  the  S.W.  of  the  coun- 
try, it  is  on  the  borders  of  Spain. 


Hautboy, 
military 
model 


Its  area  is  2,457  sq.  m.  In  the  S., 
where  the  Pyrenees  enter  it,  the 
dept.  is  mountainous,  having  peaks 
over  10,000  ft.  high  ;  in  the  N.  it  is 
hilly.  The  chief  river  is  the  Gar- 
onne, which  flows  right  through  it  ; 
others  are  the  Salut,  Ariege,  and 
Save.  The  Canal  du  Midi  also  runs 
through  the  dept.  Much  land  is 
covered  by  forests,  but  in  the  lower 
areas  the  soil  is  fertile,  and  wheat, 
maize,  and  vines  are  grown,  also 
fruit.  Mineral  springs  abound, 
the  chief  being  the  Bagneres-de- 
Luchon.  Toulouse  is  the  chief  town 
and  the  dept.  is  divided  into  four 
arrondissements.  Pop.  432,100. 

Haute-Loire.  Dept.  of  France. 
In  the  south-central  part  of  the 
country,  its  area  is  1,930  sq.  m. 
It  includes  the  mts.  of  the  Ce- 
vennes,  Vivarais,  Velay,  and  other 
ranges.  The  Loire  is  the  chief  river, 
others  being  the  Allier,  Borne, 
and  Lignon.  Much  of  the  land 
is  covered  with  trees  ;  the  soil  is 
not  very  fertile,  and  the  cereals 
grown  are  chiefly  the  coarser  kinds, 
rye,  oats,  etc.  "Cattle,  goats,  etc., 
are  reared,  and  some  coal  is  mined. 
Le  Puy  is  the  chief  town,  and  the 
dept.  is  divided  into  three  arron- 
dissements. Before  1790  most  of 
Haute-Loire  was  in  the  province  of 
Languedoc.  Pop.  303,800. 

Haute-Marne.  Dept.  of  France. 
It  is  contiguous  with  the  depts.  of 
Aube,  Marne,  Meuse,  Vosges, 
Haute-Saone,  and  Cote  d'Or,  and 
was  formerly  part  of  the  province 
of  Champagne.  Towards  the  S., 
the  plateau  of  Langres  and  the 
Mont's  Faucilles  form  a  hilly  region, 
rising  at  points  to  over  1,600.  ft. 
The  river  Marne  rises  in  this  part 
and  flows  in  a  northerly  direction 
through  the  dept.,  other  rivers 
being  the  Blaise,  Rognon,  Saulx, 
and  the  upper  reaches  of  the  Aube. 

Cereals  are  widely  grown,  and 
the  large  woods,  the  vineyards,  and 
grazing  land  are  of  importance. 
There  are  extensive  industries  in 
connexion  with  iron-foundries,  cut- 
lery, etc.  The  capital  is  Chaumont 
(q.v, ),  and  the  notable  towns  are 
Langres,  St.  Dizier,  Wassy,  Nogent, 
and  the  watering-place,  Bour- 
bonne-les-Bains.  There  are  three 
arrondissements  in  the  dept.  Area, 
2,420  sq.  m.  Pop.  214,800. 

Hautes- Alpes.  Dept.  of  France. 
It  is  contiguous  with  the  depts.  of 
Savoie,  Isere,  Drome,  and  Basses- 
Alpes,  and  is  bounded  on  the  E.  by 
the  Italian  frontier.  It  is  entirely 
mountainous,  its  highest  point 
being  the  Barre  des  Ecrins  13,460 
ft.,  and  has  no  important  indus- 
tries, and  only  agriculture  on  a 
small  scale  here  and  there.  The 
rivers  Durance  and  Buech  rise  in 
the  dept.,  and  there  are  many  small 
nit.  toi  rents.  There  are  three 


arrondissements,  with  Cap  as  tl.e 
capital,other  towns  being  Briancon, 
St.  Bonnet,  Embrun,  and  Aspres. 
Area,  2,178  sq.  m.  Pop.  105,100. 

Haute-Saone.  Dept.  of  France. 
In  the  E.  of  the  country,  its  area 
is  2,075  sq.  m.  In  the  N.E.  are  the 
Vosges  Mts.,  with  the  Ballon  de 
Servance,  4,000  ft.  high.  The 
chief  river  is  the  Saone  ;  others 
are  its  tributaries,  the  Amance, 
Salon,  and  Ognon.  The  dept.  is 
an  agricultural  area.  In  addition 
to  the  usual  cereals  of  the  tem- 
perate zone,  the  vine  and  fruit  are 
grown,  while  many  cattle  are 
reared.  A  good  deal  of  the  land, 
however,  is  forest.  The  dept.  is 
divided  into  three  arrondissements. 
V7esoul  is  the  capital  ;  other  places 
are  Gray,  Hericourt,  St.  Remy,  and 
Plancher  les  Mines.  Pop.  257,600. 

Haute-Savoie.  Dept.  of  France. 
In  the  S.E.  of  the  country,  it  is 
on  the  frontier  of  both  Switzer- 
land and  Italy.  Its  area  is  1,775 
sq.  m.  It  is  a  mountainous  region, 
containing  Mont  Blanc,  and  is 
consequently  not  very  fertile. 
There  is,  however,  a  certain 
amount  of  agriculture  in  the  val- 
leys, and  many  sheep  are  pastured. 
In  parts  of  the  dept.  the  vine  is 
grown,  and  white  wines  are  pro- 
duced. Annecy  is  the  chief  town, 
and  the  dept.  is  divided  into  four 
arrondissements.  The  principal 
rivers  are  the  Arve  and  other  tribu- 
taries of  the  Rhone.  Herein  are 
Chamonix  and  other  tourist  cen- 
tres ;  also  one  side  of  the  Lake  of 
Geneva.  Haute  Savoie  has  only 
been  French  since  1860,  being  part 
of  the  land  obtained  after  the 
war  against  Austria.  Before  then 
it  was  in  the  duchy  of  Savoj'. 
Pop.  255,137. 

Hautes-Pyrenees.  Dept.  of 
France.  It  is  contiguous  with  the 
depts.  of  Basses-Pyrenees,  Gers, 
Haute-Garonne,  and  is  bounded  on 
the  S.  by  the  Spanish  frontier.  The 
southern  part  is  extremely  moun- 
tainous, embracing  a  large  part  of 
the  central  Pyrenees,  but  the  flat 
country  N.  of  Tarbes  is  fertile, 
bearing  good  crops  of  cereals,  vines, 
and  fruit.  The  chief  rivers  are  the 
upper  reaches  of  the  Adour,  Gave 
de  Pau,  Bai'se,  Gers,  and  Neste 
d' Aure.  Tarbes  is  the  capital,  other 
towns  of  note  being  Lourdes, 
Bagneres-de-Bigorre,  Lannemezon, 
Luz,  Vic,  and  Maubourguet.  The 
grand  mountain  scenery  attracts 
many  visitors ;  Gavamie,  on  the 
upper  Gave  de  Pau,  has  the 
finest  of  the  Pyrenean  cirques,  or 
vast  natural  amphitheatres.  Area, 
1,750  sq.  m.  Pop.  206,000. 

Haute-Vienne.  Dept.  of  France. 
It  is  contiguous  with  the  depts.  of 
Vienne,  Indre,  Creuze,  Correze, 
Dordogne,  and  Charente,  and  is 


HAUTMONT 


3876 


HAVANA 


especially  hilly  towards  the  S.W., 
where  lies  a  part  of  the  Montagues 
du  Limousin.  Cereals,  chestnuts, 
sheep,  and  cattle  are  the  chief 
agricultural  products.  There  are 
miscellaneous  industries  in  the 
towns,  porcelain,  boots,  paper,  and 
liqueurs  being  notable.  The  river 
Vienne  enters  the  dept.  at  its 
easternmost  corner  and  flows  W., 
tributaries  in  the  dept.  being 
the  Taurion  and  Briance.  The 
Gartempe  flows  across  the  N. 
part,  and  the  Isle,  Dronne,  Tar- 
doire.  and  Charente  rise  in  the 
dept.  There  are  four  arrondisse- 
ments,  with  Limoges  (q.v.)  as  the 
capital,  other  towns  of  note  being 
Bellac,  Le  Dorat,  St.  Junien,  and 
St.  Yrieux.  At  Chalusset,  10  m.  S. 
of  Limoges,  is  the  ruined  castle  of 
the  viscounts  of  Limoges.  Area, 
2,119sq.  m.  Pop.  384,736. 

Hautmont.  Town  of  France. 
In  the  dept.  of  Nord,  it  is  18  m. 
E.S.E.  of  Valenciennes  and  139  m. 
from  Paris.  It  has  manufactures 
of  glass,  pottery,  etc.  During  the 
Great  War  it  was  occupied  by  the 
Germans.  Pop.  15,000. 

Haut-Rhin.  Former  dept.  of 
France.  Constituted  with  the 
other  depts.  in  1790,  Haut-Rhin 
was  annexed  by  Germany  in  1.871, 
except  for  the  arrondissement  of 
Belfort,  which  became  the  Terri- 
tory of  Belfort  (q.r.).  Its  capital 
was  Colmar,  and  under  German 
rule  it  formed  the  district  of  Upper 
Alsace.  This  area  was  restored  to 
France  by  the  treaty  of  Versailles, 
1919.  Area,  1,589  sq.  m.  See  Alsace. 

Hatiy,  REN£  JUST  (1743-1822). 
French  mineralogist.  Born  in  St. 
Just,  Oise,  Feb.  28,  1743,  he 
was  educated  for  the  Church,  but 
while  teaching  in  Paris  he  became 
interested  in  mineralogy.  In  1781 
he  discovered  the  geometric  law  of 
crystallisation,  and  two  years  later 
he  was  elected  to  the  academy  of 
sciences.  Becoming  professor  of 
mineralogy  at  the  museum  of 
natural  history  in  Paris,  Hauy 
made  a  magnificent  collection  of 
crystals  and  wrote  extensively  on 
the  subject.  In  addition  to  his 
works  on  crystallography,  Hauy 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  intro- 
duction of  the  metric  system  into 
France.  Among  his  best  known 
works  are  Traite  de  Mineralogie, 
1801  ;  Traite  des  caracteres  phy- 
siques des  pierres  precieuses,  1817  ; 
and  Traite  de  cristallographie, 
1822.  Hauy  died  June  3,  1822. 

Hatiyne.  Mineral  compound  of 
calcium,  aluminium,  and  silica, 
named  after  Rene  Hauy,  and  a 
constituent  of  those  igneous  rocks 
which  are  rich  in  soda.  It  is  found 
in  bright  blue  crystals  and  grains 
in  the  lavas  of  Vesuvius  and  else- 
where in  Italy,  Azores,  Canary, 


Havana.     Plan  of  the  capital  city  of  Cuba,  with  the 
entrance  to  the  harbour  and  the  quays 

and  Cape  Verde  Islands,  and  parts 
of  the  United  States.  Haviyne  is 
one  of  the  sodalite  group  of  mine- 
rals, of  which  lapis  lazuli  is  the 
best  known  member. 

Havana  (Span.,  La  Habana). 
Largest  city  of  the  W.  Indies.  The 
capital  of  Cuba,  it  is  situated  on 
the  N.  coast,  on  one  of  two  penin- 
sulas forming  the  harbour,  and  is 
a  busy  commercial  centre.  It  has 
an  excellent  rly.  service,  being 
linked  up  with  all  the  chief  towns 
on  the  island.  The  bay  of  Havana 
is  one  of  the  securest  harbours  in 
the  world.  It  receives  the  outflow  of 
a  number  of  small  streams,  and 
is  divided  into  several  small  bays. 

Havana  consists  of  old  and  new 
towns.  The  former  lies  within  the 
limits  of  the  old  walls,  built  be- 
tween 1671  and  1740,  and  almost 
wholly  dismantled  between  1863 
and  1880,  and  is  narrow  and 
cramped.  The  new  town  is  built 
on  more  spacious  lines,  and  gener- 
ally presents  a  clean  and  ordered 
appearance,  with  fine  promenades, 
squares,  and  streets,  some  of  them 
lined  with  trees.  El  Morro  and  the 
Castillo  del  Principe  belong  to  the 
city's  fortifications. 

The  principal  buildings  include 
the  cathedral,  completed  1724,  in 
which  the  remains  of  Columbus 


reposed  before 
their  transference 
to  Spain  in  1 898  ; 
the  university,  the 
Jesuit  College  de 
Belen ,  t  he  m  assi  ve 
Tacon  orNacional 
Theatre,  the  old 
palace  in  which 
the  president 
resides,  the  opera 
house,  the  bis- 
hop's palace,  the 
admiralty,  and 
the  national  lib- 
rary, housed  in  the 
Maestranza,  the 
former  arsenal. 
The  Prado  is  a 
wide  promenade,  fashionably  fre- 
quented. 

The  staple  industry  of  Havana 
is  the  manufacture  of  cigars  and 
tobacco.  Sugar  is  also  produced 
in  large  quantities,  and  other  manu- 
factures include  barrels  and  cases 
for  the  cigar  and  tobacco  supplies, 
and  carriages,  wagons,  and  ma- 
chinery. •  These,  with  oil,  rum, 
honey*  wax,  and  fruit,  are  the  chief 
articles  exported,  the  imports  con- 
sisting mainly  of  grain,  flour,  food- 
stuffs, and  cotton.  The  total  value 
of  the  foreign  trade  exceeds 
£27,000,000  a  year.  Pop.  360,500. 
Founded  in  1515  on  the  S.  coast, 
Havana  was  removed  to  its  present 
site  in  1519,  when  it  was  known  as 
San  Cristobal  de  la  Habana  or 
Savanna.  It  frequently  suffered  at 
the  hands  of  pirate  in  the  10th 


Havana. 


View  of  the  city  from  Cabaaa,  looking  over  the  entrance  to  the 
harbour.     Top  right,  one  qf  the  maiq  streets 


3877 


HAVERHILL 


when  he  entered  the  Rifle  Brigade. 

In  1823  he  transferred  to  an  Indian 

regiment,  two  of  his  brothers  being 

officers  in  that 

country.      His 

first   e  x  p  e  r  i  - 

ence  of  active 

service  was  in 

Burma  (1825- 

26),      after 

which  he  was 

in  the  Afghan 

War,  where  he 


century,  and  was  the  object  of 
Dutch  attack  in  the  following 
century.  In  1762  it  was  captured 
by  the  English  after  a  lengthy 
siege,  but  was  restored  at  the  peace 
of  1763.  On  Feb.  15,  1898,  the 
Maine  was  blown  up  in  the  harbour, 
the  incident  leading  to  the  Spanish- 
American  War,  during  which  Ha- 
vana was  blockaded  by  the  Ameri- 
can fleet. 

Havant.  Market  town  and 
urban  district  of  Hampshire,  Eng- 
land. It  stands  on  Langstone  Har-  fought  in  mo  ^a^6s  _^  ^ 
bour,  7  m.  N.E.  of  Portsmouth  of  the  opera- 
and  67  m.  from  London  on  the  tions  in  and  around  Kabul.  He 
L.B.  &S.C.  Rly.  The  chief  building  fought  against  the  Mahrattas  and 
is  the  old  church  of  S.  Faith,  re-  the  Sikhs,  and  was  made  quarter- 
master-general 
and  later  adjutant- 
general  of  the 
troops  in  India. 

In    1857    Have- 
lock  held   a  com- 
mand in  the  short 
war  against  Persia, 
and    on    the    out- 
break    of     the 
Mutiny  he  was  sent 
with    a    force    to 
crush     the     muti- 
neers.    In    a   suc- 
cession of  fights  he 
showed  great  skill, 
but  he  was  unable 
to    relieve    Cawn- 
pore,  while  he  only 
got  through  to  Lucknow  when  re- 
inforced by  troops  under  Outram. 
He  had  just  taken  that  city  and 
been  knighted  when  he  died  there 
of  dysentery,  Nov.  24,  1857.     His 
services    were    recognized    by    a 
baronetcy    to     his    son,    Sir    H. 
Havelock-Allan.     Havelock,  a  sin- 
cere if  somewhat  narrow  Christian, 
belonged  to  the  Baptist  denomina- 
tion.   He   wrote   Memoirs   of   the 
Afghan  Campaign.     See  Memories 
of  Havelock,  J.  C.  Marshman,  1860 ; 
Havelock,  Archibald  Forbes,  1890  ; 
The  Bayard  of  India,  W.  J.  Trot- 
ter, 1903.  f 

Haverfordwest 

(Welsh,  Hwlf-  ! 
fordd).  Municipal 
borough  and  river 
port  of  Pembroke- 
shire, of  which  it 
is  the  county  town. 
It  stands  on  the 
W.  Cleddau  river, 
8%  m.  from  Mil- 
ford,  and  is  served 
by  the  G.W.  Rly. 
A  county  of  itself, 
it  has  its  own  lord 
lieutenant.  The 
town  proper  is  on 
the  west  of  the  river,  hence  the  west 
added  to  the  earlier  name  :  on  the 
east  are  the  suburbs  of  Cartlet  and 
Prendergast.  The  chief  buildings 
are  the  churches  of  S.  Mary,  S. 


Havant,    Hampshire.     East   Street   and  the  shopping 
centre  of  the  town 

stored  in  the  19th  century,  but  with 
some  Early  English  work.  Near  is 
Hayling  Island.  The  industries  con- 
sist of  tanning,  malting,  and  brew- 
ing. Market  day,  Tues.  Pop.  4,100. 

Havas  Agency  (Agence  Havas). 
French  news  agency.  Founded  in 
1825  by  Charles  Havas,  a  journalist 
who  specialised  in  translations 
from  foreign  newspapers,  and  con- 
tinued by  his  son,  Auguste  Havas, 
it  was  converted  into  a  company 
July  24,  1879,  with  a  capital  of 
8,500,000  francs,  M.  Favier  being 
its  first  president  and  M.  Lebey  its 
director. 

Havel.  River  of  N.  Germany. 
Originating  in  a  lake  near  Neu- 
Strelitz  in  Mecklenburg-Strelitz,  it 
flows  S.E.  and  S.  to  Spandau, 
where  it  is  joined  by  the  Spree,  and 
Potsdam,  turning  thence  roughly 
W.  to  Brandenburg  and  N.W.  to 
its  junction  with  the  Elbe,  near  the 
point  where  the  latter  river  makes 
its  final  bend  N.W.  towards  Ham- 
burg and  the  North  Sea.  Navig- 
able as  far  as  Fiirstenburg,  30  m. 
from  its  source,  the  Havel  is  im- 
portant in  the  waterways  system 
of  N.  Germany.  See  Brandenburg. 

Havelock,  SIR  HENRY  (1795- 
1857).  British  soldier.  The  son  of 
William  Havelock,  a  shipbuilder, 
he  was  born  at  Sunderland,  April 
5, 1795.  Educated  at  Charterhouse 
School,  he  studied  law  until  1815, 


Martin,  and  S.  Thomas.  An  old 
building  is  now  used  for  the  fish 
market.  Two  bridges  cross  the 
river.  The  dominating  feature  of 
the  town  is  the  keep  of  the  castle, 
built  by  one  of  the  Clares  in  the 
1  2th  century.  There  are  remains 
of  an  Augustinian  priory.  There  is 
a  trade  by  river  in  coal  and  agri- 
cultural and  other  produce. 

Haverfordwest  was  settled  by 
the  Flemings  in  the  12th  century. 
It  obtained  various  privileges,  and 
in  1485  it  became  a  corporate 
town.  Its  rights  as  a  county  date 
from  1536.  A  stronghold  of  the 
English,  it  was  several  times  at- 
tacked by  the  Welsh.  After  the 
pacification  of  Wales  it  became  a 
flourishing  port  and  remained  so 
until  supplanted  by  Milford.  Mar- 
ket day,  Sat.  Pop.  5,900. 

Havergal,  FRANCES  RIDLEY 
(1836-79).  British  poet  and  hymn- 
writer.  Born  at  Astley,  Worcester- 
shire, Dec.  14, 
1836,  daughter 
of  the  Rev. 
William  Henry 
Havergal, 
writer  of  sacred 
music,  she  be- 
gan to  write 
verse  at  the  age 
of  seven.  She 


is  chiefly  remembered  as  a  writer  of 
hymns,  one  being  Take  my  life, 
and  let  it  be.  An  edition  of  her 
complete  poetical  works  appeared 
in  1884.  She  died  June  3,  1879. 

Haver  hill.  Market  town  and 
urban  district  of  Suffolk.  It  is  16 
m.  from  Cambridge  on  the  G.E. 
Rly.  and  55  from  London.  It  is 
the  terminus  of  the  Colne  Valley 
line.  The  chief  building  is  the 
restored  church  of  S.  Mary.  The 
industries  include  the  making  of 
cloth,  boots,  and  bricks,  and  there 


Haverfordwest,  Pembrokeshire.     The  town  and  castle 


is  a  trade  in  agricultural  produce. 
Market  day,  Friday.     Pop.  4,750. 

Haverhill.  City  of  Massachu- 
setts, U.S.A.,  in  Essex  co.  It  stands 
on  the  Merrimac  river  at  the  head 


HAVERSACK 

of  navigation,  32  m.  N.  of  Boston, 
and  is  served  by  the  Boston  and 
Maine  Rly.  An  important  indus- 
trial town,  it  has  large  boot  and 
shoe  factories,  and  also  manufac- 
tures woollen  hats,  leather,  bricks, 
nails,  slippers,  and  boot  and  shoe 
machinery.  Settled  in  1640, 
Haverhill  was  incorporated  in 
1645,  and  received  a  city  charter 
in  1869.  Pop.  49,180. 

Haversack  (Ger.  hafer,  uats). 
An  oatsack  or  nosebag.  Haver 
remains  a  common  provincialism 
for  oats  inScot- 
land,  especially 
in  the  co  ra- 
pounds haver- 
m  e  a  1  and 
h  a  verc  akes. 
Haversack  i  s 
used  especially 
of  the  small 
canvas  bag  in 
which  soldiers 
carry  their 
1  --  rations  and  per- 

Haversack  as  used     „  0  n  „      pffpofq 

intheBrm^n.y  In  tL  B±h 
army  it  is  carried  at  the  left  side, 
either  suspended  from  the  belt  or 
from  a  shoulder  sling,  the  latter 
worn  under  the  belt. 

Haversian  Canals.  Minute 
canals,  running  lengthwise  through 
bones,  containing  blood  -  vessels. 
They  are  named  after  an  English 
physician,  Clopton  Havers  (c. 
1650-1702). 

Haverstock  Hill.  London  tho 
roughfare.  It  connects  Chalk  Farm 
with  Rosslyn  Hill,  Hampstead. 
Belsize  Park  station  on  the  Hamp- 
stead (Tube)  Rly.  is  here  ;  Haver- 
stock  Hill  station  on  the  Mid.  and 
G.E.  Rlys.  is  at  Lismore  Circus  on 
the  E.  Near  Belsize  Park  station  is 
Hampstead  town  hall,  built  in  1877. 
Sec  Hampstead. 


m 


3878 

Havildar  (Pers.).  Native  non- 
commissioned officer  in  the  infan- 
try and  artillery  of  the  Indian 
army.  In  rank  he  is  equivalent  to  a 
serjeant ;  he  may  be  promoted  to 
havildar  major.  The  corresponding 
rank  in  the  cavalry  is  dafadar. 

Havre  OR  LE  HAVRE.  Seaport 
town  of  France,  chief  town  of  the 
dept.  of  Seine  Inferieure  It  lies  on 
the  N.  bank  of  the 
Seine  estuary,  49 
m.  W.  of  Rouen, 
and  143m.  byrly. 
from  Paris,  with 
which  it  is  con- 
nected by  the 
main  Etat  line. 
The  town  itself  is 
almost  entirely 


Havre  arms 


modern,  and,  though  well  laid-out, 
with  broad  main  streets  running  E. 
and  W.,  has  few  features  of  interest. 
The  hotel  de  ville  is  a  handsome 
modern  building  in  French  Renais- 
sance style,  as  also  is  the  Exchange; 
the  museum  and  library  (1845)  con- 
tain some  interesting  pictures,  and 
other  public  buildings  are  a  natural 
history  museum,  several  lycees, 
commercial  and  technical  schools, 
a  theatre,  palais  de  justice,  prison, 
and  the  large  Kleber  barracks. 

The  principal  church  is  that  of 
Notre  Dame,  built  originally  1575- 
1600.  The  large  rly.  station  has 


Ihe  town  ana  sen  uom,  wuu  me  mouth  oi  the  Seine. 
ridge  across  the  commercia   narbonr   leadin?  to  the  B 


Top  right. 


HAWAII 

extensive  goods  yards,  and  all  the 
principal  quays  and  dock  ware- 
houses are  connected  by  rly. 
Havre  has  important  engineering 
works,  shipbuilding  yards,  oil  re- 
fineries, chemical  and  dye  works, 
a  state  tobacco  manufactory,  and 
many  miscellaneous  industries. 

Havre  is  one  of  the  greatest  of 
French  seaports,  the  main  centre 
of  trade  with  N.  America,  and  the 
docks  are  extensive  and  well  con- 
structed. The  daily  steamer  from 
Southampton  comes  into  the  outer 
harbour,  out  of  which,  to  the  N., 
opens  the  17th  century  Bassin  du 
Roi.  The  chief  dock  of  the  inner 
harbour  is  the  Bassin  de  1'Eure, 
1846-56,  with  an  area  of  over  70 
acres,  used  by  the  liners  of  the 
Compagnie  Generale  Transatlan- 
tique ;  the  Bassins  Vauban  and 
Bellot  are  also  notable.  The  main 
block  of  warehouses  covers  about 
60  acres.  Large  improvements  and 
extensions  were  interrupted  by  the 
Great  War,  but  continued  in  1919. 
The  chief  trade,  normally,  is  in 
coal,  cotton,  cereals,  woods,  sugar, 
coffee,  and  cocoa.  Pop.  136,159. 

Louis  XII  founded  the  chapel  of 
Notre    Dame    de    Grace   in    1509, 
whence  came  the  town's  old  name 
of  Havre-de-Grace.     Fortifications 
were    built    and   the    harbour   en- 
larged by   Francis  I,  1516,  with  a 
;   view     to     English 
i   wars,    but   it   was 
'i   handed   over  to 
.;;    Elizabeth     by 
Conde,  1562.     Re- 
covered in  15C-3,  it 
was  developed  by 
Richelieu  and  Col- 
bert, and  iu  time 
became    a    serious 
rival  to  the  English 
ports. 

During  the  Great 
War,  Havre  was  a 
base  of  the  Brit- 
ish Expeditionary 
Force  and  engin- 
eering stores  depot,  crowded  with 
military  works,  the  port  thronged 
with  shipping.  In  1916  the  total 
tonnage  disembarked  and  loaded 
was  6,422,219,  as  compared  with 
3,668,414  in  1913.  Havre  was  the 
seat  of  the  Belgian  government 
from  Oct.,  1914,  to  Nov.  1918. 

Hawaii  OR  OWYHEE.  Southern- 
most and  largest  of  the  Hawaiian 
Islands.  Largely  volcanic,  it  is 
barren  to  the  W.  and  clad  with 
vegetation  on  the  E.,  the  interior 
alternating  between  productive 
valleys  and  lava-covered  districts. 
Mauna  Kea  and  Mauna  Loa  are  two 
of  the  greatest  active  volcanoes  in 
the  world.  The  island,  well  wooded 
produces  large  quantities  of  sugar 
and  also  coffee,  fruit,  rice,  etc.  Hik 
-  the  capital  Pop  70.000. 


HAWAIIAN      ISLANDS 


HAWAIIAN       ISLANDS 


£°  HAWAII  : 


Hawaiian  Islands.     Map  of  the  chain  of  islands  which 
•  form  a  territory  of  the  U.S.A. 


Hawaiian  Islands  OR  HAWAII. 
Chain  of  islands  in  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  Formerly  called  Sandwich 
Islands,  they  constitute  a  territory 
of  the  U.S.A.  They  consist  of  eight 
larger  inhabited  and  several  smaller 
uninhabited  islands  of  volcanic 
origin,  contain  a  number  of  active 
and  quiescent  volcanoes,  and  cover 
an  area  of  6,449  sq.  m.  The  inhab- 
ited islands  are  Hawaii,  4,015  sq. 
m. ;  Maui,  728  sq.  m. ;  Oahu,  600  sq. 
m.;  Molokai,  261  sq.  m. ;  Kauai,  544 
sq.  m.;  Lauai,  135  sq.  m.  ;  Niihau, 
97  sq.  m. ;  and  Kahoolawe,  69  sq.  m. 

Most  of  the  islands  are  girdled  by 
coral  reefs  and  the  larger  of  them 
are  mountainous,  the  loftiest  sum- 
mits, on  Hawaii,  being  the  vol- 
canoes of  Mauna  Kea  and  Mauna 
Loa,  13,805  ft.  and  13,760  ft.  high 
respectively.  Kilauea,  on  the  E.  of 
Mauna  Loa,  is  a  constantly  agitated 
lava  lake  about  8  m.  in  circumfer- 
ence, and  the  greatest  active  crater. 
Hawaii  is  the  largest  mass  of  vol- 
canic material  in  the  world ;  it  rises 
30,000  ft.  from  the  ocean  bed  and 
consists  almost  entirely  of  lava. 
On  Maui  is  Haleakala,  whose  crater, 
19  m.  in  circumference,  is  the 
largest  extant. 

The  climate  is  agreeable,  being 
tempered  by  the  N.E.  trade  winds 
which  prevail  for  three -fourths  of 
the  year.  The  extremes  of  tempera- 
ture range  between  54°  F.  and  89° 
F.  and  the  rainfall  averages  about 
55  ins.,  most  of  which  falls  in  the 
islands  to  the  W.  At  Honolulu  the 
mean  temperature  is  76°  F.  and 
the  annual  rainfall  32  ins.  The  mts. 
inland  from  Hilo  Bay  form,  how- 
ever, one  of  the  rainiest  places  in 
the  world ;  the  annual  precipitation 
frequently  exceeds  200  ins. ;  here 
the  persistent  warm  moisture-laden 
trades  deposit  part  of  their  load  of 
water.  The  general  humidity  of 
the  atmosphere  is  harmful  to  Euro 
peans  with  a  tendency  to  tuber- 
culosis. The  flora  is  rich  and 
diversified.  The  mountains  are 
largely  forest-clad,  characteristic 
trees  being  the  koa,  koaia,  candle- 
nut,  and  sandalwood.  Screw-pines, 
ferns,  and  a  variety  of  flowering 


plants  abound, 
and  among  im- 
ported trees  and 
shrubs  are  the 
banana,  mango, 
pineapple,  coco- 
nut, gooseberry, 
and  tamarind. 

Mammals  are 
tew  and  reptiles 
are  represented 
solely  by  the 
lizard,  but  bird 
species  number 
upwards  of 
seventy,  and  in- 
clude  man 


cotton,  and  rubber  are  exported. 
Sulphur,  pyrites,  sal  ammoniac, 
copperas,  common  salt,  and  other 
minerals  occur.  Most  of  the  foreign 
trade  is  with  the  U.S.A.,  which 
takes  about  97  p.c.  of  the  exports. 
There  are  342  m.  of  rlys.  on  the 
four  larger  islands,  the  principal  line 


peculiar  to  the  islands.  Thousands 
of  sheep  are  pastured  on  the  lower 
slopes  of  the  mountains  and  agri- 
culture receives  considerable  atten- 
tion. The  production  of  sugar  is 
by  far  the  most  important  industry, 
the  crop  representing  about  three- 
fourths  of  the  entire  products  of 
the  territory.  Rice,  fruits,  especially 
pineapples,  coffee,  sisal  hemp,  wool, 


Hawaiian  Islands.    1.  Cutting  cane 

on  a  sugar  plantation.     2.  Natives 

cutting    pineapples.      3.  Waterfall 

on  Kauai  Island 


being  that  which  extends  from 
Honolulu  northward  round  the 
greater  part  of  the  coast  of  Oahu. 
In  addition,  about  635  m.  of  private 
lines  serve  the  plantations.  Hono- 
lulu (q.v.),  the  capital  and  chief 
port,  is  visited  by  several  steamship 
lines,  and  Pearl  Harbour  is  a  naval 
station.  Other  harbours  are  Hilo 
on  Hawaii  and  Kahului  on  Maui. 

The  indigenous  population,  be- 
longing to  the  brown  Polynesian 
race,  are  of  good  physique  and 
handsome,  but  little  inclined  to  in- 
dustry. In  language  and  religion 
they  are  related  to  the  Tahitians. 
Their  number  has  steadily  de- 
creased, and  is  now  greatly  ex- 
ceeded by  the  Japanese,  who  re- 
present two-fifths  of  the  entire 
population,  which  is  about  250,600. 
Other  large  sections  of  the  inhabit- 
ants are  the  Americans,  the  Portu- 
guese, the  Filipinos,  and  the  Chin- 
ese. The  latter  are  now  excluded 
from  immigration.  Europeans 
number  about  1,000,  and  by  these 


HAWARA 


and  Americans  most  of  the  influen- 
tial positions  are  held.  Leprosy 
and  tuberculosis  have  largely  re- 
duced the  native  race,  and  both 
diseases  are  the  subject  of  constant 
medical  attention.  In  1865  a  leper 
settlement  was  established  on 
Molokai  island. 

Reliable  history  of  the  Hawaiian 
Islands  dates  from  their  discovery 
or  rediscovery  in  1778  by  Captain 
Cook,  who  was  killed  by  natives  in 
Kealakekua  Bay  the  following 
year.  It  is,  however,  generally  ac- 
cepted that  they  were  visited  by 
Gaetano  in  1542  or  1555,  while  he 
is  thought  to  have  been  preceded 
by  survivors  of  a  wrecked  Spanish 
vessel  in  1527.  The  islands  were 
ruled  by  native  kings  down  to  1891, 
then  by  Liliuokalani  (1838-1917), 
the  sister  of  the  last  monarch.  She 
was  deposed  in  1893,  and  a  pro- 
visional government  was  formed, 
the  islands  being  constituted  a  re- 
public the  following  year.  In  1898 
they  were  formally  annexed  by  the 
U.S.A.,  and  in  1900  were  organized 
as  a  territory. 

Ha  war  a.  Village  of  Upper 
Egypt,  6  m.  S.E.  of  Medina,  in  the 
Fayum.  A  mud-brick  pyramid, 
once  limestone -cased,  was  identi- 
fied by  Petrie  in  1888  as  that  of 
Amenemhat  III  of  the  Xllth  dy- 
nasty. The  adjacent  funerary  tem- 
ple was  the  Labyrinth  described  by 
Herodotus.  Some  tombs  dated 
A.D.  100-250,  of  the  Roman  period, 
yielded  mummy-portraits  on  can- 
vas or  wood,  the  finest  being  now 
in  the  National  Gallery,  London. 

Ha  war  den.  Parish  and  market 
town  of  Flintshire,  Wales.  It 
stands  on  a  tributary  of  the  Dee, 
6  m.  W.S.  W.  of  Chester,  with  a  sta- 
tion on  the  G.C.  Rly.  There  are 
remains  of  a  13th  century  castle, 
close  to  which  is  the  modern 
Hawarden  Castle,  long  the  resi- 
dence of  W.  E.  Gladstone.  The 
church,  dedicated  to  S.  Deiniol,  has 
memorials  to  the  Gladstones,  and 
here  are  a  17th  century  grammar 
school  and  S.  Deiniol's  Hostel  for 
theological  students  founded  by 
Gladstone.  The  old  castle  was  long 
the  seat  of  the  Stanleys.  In  the 
17th  century  it  came  to  John 
Glynne,  the  lord  chief  justice.  In 
1752  one  of  his  descendants  built 
the  new  castle  and  in  1874  this 
passed,  on  the  death  of  her  brother, 
Sir  Stephen  Glynne,  Bart.,  to  Mrs. 
Gladstone.  The  estate  is  still  the 
property  of  the  Gladstone  family. 
Coal  mines  have  been  opened  on 
it.  The  Welsh  name  is  Penarlag. 
Pop.  5,400.  Pron.  Harden.  See 
Gladstone. 

Haweis,  HUGH  REGINALD  (1838- 
1901).  British  author  and  preacher. 
He  was  born  at  Egham,  Surrey, 
April  3,  1838,  and  educated  at 


Trinity  College, 
Cambridge.  Hav- 
ing taken  orders, 
he  became  incum- 
bent of  S.  James's, 
M  a  r  y  1  e  bone,  in 
1866,  where  he  be- 
came known  as  a 
vigorous  and  elo- 
quent if  somewhat 
sensational  preach- 
er. He  was  pas- 
sionately devoted 
to  music,  and  will 
be  chiefly  remem- 
bered by  his  stim- 
ulating works  on 
musical  subjects, 
of  which  the  best  known  are 
Music  and  Morals,  1871,  My  Musi- 


Haweswater,  Westmorland.  Ttte  lake  looking  south  from 
Measand  Beck.     In  the  distance  is  Barter  Fell 


English  lakes.      It  is  about  2£  m. 
long.       In  1918  Ha wes water  was 


cal  Life,    1884,    and   Old   Violins,     purchased   by    the    city    of    Man- 


He  also  wrote  on  theo- 
logical sub- 
jects, and  was 
enormously 
popular  as  lec- 
turer. His  hymn 


achieved 
popularity. 
He  died  in  Lon- 
don,   Jan.    29, 
1901. 

Hawera.  Town  of  North  Island, 
New  Zealand.     It  is  45  m.  by  rly. 


H.  R.  Haweis, 
British  author 

Downey 


Chester,  the  intention  being  to 
use  it,  in  connexion  with  Thirl- 
mere,  to  supply  that  city  with 
water. 

Hawfinch    (Coccothraustes    vul- 
gar is).     Bird  of  the  finch  family. 

The  Homeland,     closely   related    to    the    grosbeak. 

the  Homeland  Common  in  S.  Europe,  it  is  fre- 
wide  quently  seen  in  England,  though 
rare  in  Scotland.  It  is  about  7  ins. 
long,  and  is  a  handsome  bird,  with 
light-pinkish-brown  breast,  dark- 
brown  back,  wings  banded  with 
black,  brown  and  white,  large 
yellowish-brown  head,  and  large 


S.S.E.  of  New  Plymouth,  and  is  a     blue  beak. 


Ha  wick.  Mun.  burgh  and  in- 
dustrial town  of  Roxburghshire, 
Scotland.  It  stands  at  the  junc- 


53  m.S.E.of  Edin- 
burgh  on   the 


centre  of  dairying.     Pop.  3,375. 

Ha  wes.    Market  town  of  York- 
shire (N.R. ).    On  the  N.E.  and  Mid. 
Rlys.,  it  is  16  m.  from  Ley  burn.   It    tion  of  the  Slitrig 
has  a  trade  in  dairy  produce  and     with  the  Teviot, 
there  is  a  butter  market.     Market 
day,  Tues.      Pop.  1,500.       Ha  wes 
Junction  is  6  m.  away.       An  im-     N .  B .  R .       The 
portant  point  on  the  Midland  sys-    church  of  S.  Mary 
tern,  it  was  the  scene  of  a  terrible 
railway  accident,  Dec.  24,  1910. 

Haweswater.  Lake  of  West- 
morland, England.  It  is  25  m.  N. 
of  Kendal,  and  lies  700  ft.  above 
sea  level,  being  the  highest  of  the 


Hawick  arms 
Among  the  an- 


Hawick,  Roxburghshire.  High  Street,  witn  tae  statue 
commemorating  the  capture  of  an  English  standard  by 
the  Hawick  callants  after  Flodden  Field.  Unveiled,  1914 

Valentine 


(1763)    occupies 

the  site  of  a  former 

church  of   that 

name    erected    in 

the  13th  century. 

tiquities  of  Hawick  are  the  Moat, 
an  earthen  mound 
30  ft.  high  and 
310  ft.  in  circum- 
ference, and  a  por- 
tion of  the  Tower 
Hotel,  formerly 
the  peel-tower  of 
the  Drumlanrig 
Douglases,  the  only 
building  which 
escaped  the  devas- 
t  a  t  i  o  n  wrought 
by  the  earl  of  Sus- 
sex in  1570. 

In  the  neighbour- 
hood are  Branx- 
holme  and  Harden, 
old  residences  of 
the  Scotts,  the 
first  named  the 
scene  of  Scott's 
Lay  of  the  Last 


HAWK 


3881 


HAWK    EAGLE 


Minstrel.  The  annual  festival, 
known  as 'the  "common  riding," 
has  been  continuously  celebrated 
for  upwards  of  300  years.  The 
hosiery  and  woollen  manufactures 
are  important,  and  a  noted  live- 
stock market  is  held.  Market  day, 
Thurs.  The  Hawick  Burghs  form- 
erly returned  an  M.P.,  but  they  are 
now  merged  into  the  county  of 
Roxburgh.  Pop.  18,000.  Pron. 
Haw-ick.  ; 

Hawk.'  Popular  name  for  all 
birds  of  prey  that  are  not  eagles, 
vultures,  or  owls.  The  term  is 
vague  and  unscientific  and  should 
be  restricted  to  some  nine  genera, 
which  include  the  sparrow-hawks, 
goshawks,  and  harriers.  The  com- 
mon kestrel  is  not  a  hawk,  but  a 
falcon.  See  Caracara. 

Hawkbit  (Leontodon).  Genus  ot 
perennial  herbs  of  the  natural  order 
Compositae.  natives  of  Europe 


Hawkbit.     Foliage  and  Sowers  of 
Leontodon  autumnalis 

and  W.  Asia.  In  general  appear- 
ance they  are  much  like  small 
dandelions,  for  which  they  are 
often  mistaken.  They  have  milky 
juice,  narrow  and  boldly  toothed 
leaves  all  springing  from  the  root- 
stock.  The  flower-heads  are  yel- 
low, and  all  the  florets  are  strap- 
shaped,  as  in  the  dandelion.  The 
hairs  of  the  fruit-parachute  are 
feathered.  The  common  hawkbit 


(L.  hispidus)  is 
bristly  all  over , 
the  autumnal 
hawkbit  (L.  au- 
tumnalis) is 
smooth  or  nearly 
so. 

Ha  wke.  British 
cruiser.  She  was 
torpedoed  and 
sunk  by  the  Ger- 
m  a  n  submarine 
U  9  on  Oct.  15 
1914,  off  the  E 
coast  of  Scotland, 
Capt.  H.  P.  E. 
Williams,  25  othei 
officers,  and  499 
men  being  lost. 
The  attacking 
submarine  drove 


more     or     less 


off  several  vessels  that  endeavoured 
to  pick  up  men  clinging  to  wreckage, 
who  thus  died  of  exhaustion.  The 
Hawke  was  launched  at  Chatham  in 
1891  and  completed  in  1893,  her 
tonnage  being  7,350,  and  armament 
two  9-2-in.  and  ten  6-in.  guns. 
Soon  after  her  loss  all  similar  ships 
were  withdrawn  from  the  patrol 
and  replaced  by  armed  liners. 

Hawke,  EDWARD  HAWKE,  IST 
BARON  (1705-81).  British  sailor. 
Born  in  London,  he  entered  the 
navy  in  1720. 
He  served  in 
N.  America 
and  the  West 
Indies  until 
1727,  becom- 
ing command- 
er in  1733. 
Six  years  later 
he  command- 
ed the  Port- 
land off  Bar- 
bados  and  N. 
America,  and 
in  1743  was 
promoted  t  o 

After  S.COUS.S.A.        ^       Berwick> 

in  which  he  sailed  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  took  part  in  the  battle 
off  Toulon,  1744. 

In  command  of  a  squadron  off 
LJshant  and  Finisterre,  Hawke 
defeated  a  French  squadron  and 
was  knighted  for  his  services. 
Elected  M.P.  for  Portsmouth  in 
1747,  he  was  promoted  vice- 
admiral  in  1748  and  commanded 
the  home  fleet  until  1755,  when  he 
became  commander-in-chief  -at 
Portsmouth.  In  1756  he  super- 
seded Admiral  Byng  in  the  Medi- 
terranean, but  was  too  late  to  avert 
the  loss  of  Minorca. 

His  great  exploit  was  in  1759, 
when,  blockading  Brest  for  some 
months,  he  utterly  defeated  the 
French  admiral  de  Conflans  in 
Quiberon  Bay  in  a  battle  acknow 
ledged  to  have  been  the  greatest 
naval  victory  since  the  Armada. 
It  crushed  French  naval  power  and 
prevented  anv  possibility  of  an 


if    1 


jfcj*-- 


invasion.  He  was  first  lord  of  the 
admiralty  1766-71,  admiral  of  the 
fleet,  1768,  and  was  made  a  baron 
in  1776.  He  died  at  Sunbury, 
Oct.  17,  1781.  His  son,  Martin 
Bladen,  succeeded  to  the  baronj7, 
which  passed  down  to  the  present 
holder.  See  Life,  M.  Burrows,  1883. 

Hawke,  MARTIN  BLADEN  HAWKE, 
7TH  BARON  (b.  1860).  English 
cricketer  The  eld^«t  son  of  tho 
6th  baron,  who 
was  a  clergy- 
man, he  was 
born  Aug.  16. 
1860.  Edu- 
cated at  Eton 
and  Magdalene 
College,  Cam- 
bridge, he 
played  cricket 
for  both  school 
and  university. 
In  1881  he 
played  first  for  Yorkshire,  and  in 
1883  was  made  captain  of  the 
county  team,  his  captaincy  lasting 
until  1910.  During  that  time 
Yorkshire  won  the  county  cham- 
pionship eight  times,  Hawke  scor- 
ing in  all  over  13,000  runs.  He 
took  out  cricket  teams  to  America 
in  1891  and  1894  ;  India,  1892-93  ; 
and  South  Africa,  1895-96. 

Hawk  Eagle.  Term  variously 
used  to  include  certain  genera  of 
birds  of  prey  which  are  placed 


Lord  Hawke, 
English  cricketer 

Russell 


m 


H.M.S.  Hawke.    British  cruiser  torpecK 

the  Scottish  coast,  Oct.  15, 1914 

Cribb,  Southsea 


Hawk  Eagle.      Nisaetus  Jasciatus, 
found  on  the  Mediterranean  coast 

between  the  sea  eagles  and  the  true 
eagles.  It  is  better,  however,  to 
restrict  it  to  the  genus  Nisaetus, 
which  comes  nearest  to  the  true 
eagles.  The  hawk  eagles,  of  which 
there  are  several  species,  are  found 
in  S.  Europe,  Africa,  India,  and 
Australasia.  Bonelli's  hawk  eagle 
(N.  fasciatus)  is  often  found  about 
the  Mediterranean,  and  is  known  in 
India  as  the  peacock-killer.  It  is 
extremely  destructive  in  the 
poultry  yard.  The  booted  hawk 
eagle  (N.  pennatus)  is  no  larger 


HAWKER 


3882 


HAWKING 


than  a  kite,  and  has  a  similar  range 
It  commonly  breeds  in  Spain 
where  it  is  very  troublesome  to 
the  owners  of  pigeons. 

Hawker.  Itinerant  dealer  01 
vendor.  In  law,  a  hawker  is  dis 
tinguished  from  a  pedlar  as  one 
who  conveys  his  goods  by  horse 
or  other  beast,  whereas  the  pedlai 
conveys  his  goods  on  foot.  Hawkers 
and  pedlars  must  take  out  licences 
for  their  respective  trades,  the 
former  costing  £2,  the  latter  5s. 

Hawker,  HARRY  GEORGE  (1891- 
1921).  British  airman.  Born  in 
Australia,  he  was  taught  to  fly 
at  Brook- 
iands,  gained 
his  pilot's  cer- 
t  i  f  i  c  a  t  e  in 
1911,  and  soon 
became  a 
noted  figure  in 
aviation.  He 
made  a  Brit- 
ish record  for 
height  (12,900 
ft. )  in  June, 
1913,  following  this  up  by  estab- 
lishing a  British  duration  flight 
record  (8  hrs.  23  mins. ),  and  world's 
record  tor  altitude  with  three 
passengers.  In  Aug.,  1913,  he  flew 
1,040  ra.  in  The  Daily  Mail  £5,000 
All -British  and  waterplane  race 
round  British  Isles,  receiving  £1,000 
from  that  newspaper.  He  gained 
the  British  height  record  for  a 
pilot  alone  in  1915,  and  in  April, 
1916,  made  a  world's  record  for 
height  (24,408  ft.)  at  Brooklands. 

In  May,  1919,  he  competed  for 
The  Daily  Mail  £10,000  prize  for  a 
trans-Atlantic  flight,  and  was  the 
first  British  competitor  to  start 
Along  with  Commander  K.  Mac 
kenzie  Grieve,  on  a  Sopwith 
machine,  he  left  St.  John's,  New- 
foundland, in  bad  weather.  When 
halfway  across,  the  aeroplane  was 
forced  to  descend  through  a  defect 
in  a  pipe.  The  two  airmen  were 
rescued  by  a  Danish  steamer  and 
landed  in  Scotland.  They  were 
awarded  a  consolation  prize  of 
£'5,000  by  The  Daily  Mail.  In  June. 
1919,  Hawker  and  Grieve  published 
a  record  of  their  experiences 
entitled  Our  Atlantic  Attempt.  He 
was  killed  while  flying,  July  12, 
1921.  See  Atlantic  Flight 

Hawker,  ROBERT  STEPHEN  (1803- 
75)  British  poet  and  antiquary 
He  was  born  at  Stoke  Damerel. 
Devonshire,  Dec.  3,  1803,  and 
educated  at  Pembroke  College 
Oxford,  where  he  won  the  Newdi 
gate  prize  for  a  poem  on  Pompeii 
in  1827.  He  was  vicar  of  Morwen 
stow,  Cornwall,  1834-75.  His  best 
known  poems  are  The  Quest  of  the 
ISangraa!  and  Cornish  Ballads 
Much  controversy  arose  sound  the 
question  whether  the  well-known 


refrain  And 
shall  Trelaw- 
n  e  y  die?' 
etc.,  of  the 
ballad  Trelaw 
ne}'  was  really 
as  he  averred 
sung  by  the 
miners  in  the 
days  of  the 
trial  of  the 
seven  bishops. 
Hawkei  also  wrote  on  local  anti- 
quarian topics.  He  died  at  Ply- 
mouth, Aug.  15,1875.  See  The  Life 
and  Letters  of  R.  S.  Hawker,  C.  E 
Byles,  1905. 

Hawke's  Bay.  Provincial  dist. 
in  North  Island,  New  Zealand  It 
has  a  seaboard  of  300  m.  and  area 
of  4,241  sq.  m.  Ruahine  and  other 
mountains  form  a  continuous 
range  along  its  length,  and  their 
peaks,  3,000  to  6,000  ft.  in  height, 
are  snow-clad  in  winter.  Mostly 
broken  forest  country,  its  chief 
industry  is  timber,  but  sheep- 
grazing  is  also  extensively  followed. 
Its  chief  ports  are  Napier  and 
Gisborne  ;  Hastings,  Dannevirke, 
and  Woodville  are  important 
towns  on  the  main  line  to  Welling 
ton.  Pop.54, 267. exclusiveof  Maoris. 
Hawkesbury.  River  of  New 
South  Wales.  It  is  formed  by  the 
junction  of  the  Nepean  and  the 
Grose,  is  330  m.  long,  drains  a 
basin  of  9,000  sq.  m.  in  area,  and 
falls  into  Broken  Bay,  25  m.  N.N.E. 
of  Sydney.  It  is  the  chief  of 
the  E.  flowing  rivers.  A  seven- 
span  girder  bridge  crosses  the  river 
on  the  main  line  from  Adelaide  to 
Brisbane.  It  is  proposed  to  dam  its 
headstream,  the  Warraganda,  to 
provide  irrigation  and  electric 
power  for  the  Sydney  district. 

Hawking  OR  FALCONRY.  The 
art  of  hunting  with  trained  hawks 
or  falcons  One  of  the  oldest  and 


most  universal  ot  sports,  it  was 
known  in  China  about  2000  B.C., 
and  is  mentioned  as  prevalent  in 
Europe  by  Aristotle,  Pliny,  and 
Martial.  In  Great  Britain,  hawking 
was  practised  in  Saxon  times,  as  is 
shown  by  various  illustrated  MSS 
of  the  period  in  the  British  Mu 
seum  ;  in  the  Bayeux  tapestry  (q.v. ) 
Harold  has  a  hawk  upon  his  wrist 
Always  a  royal  and  aristocratic 
sport,  hawking  was  probably  at 
the  height  of  its  popularity  during 
the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  Her  chief 
falconer  was  Sir  Robert  Sadler, 
who  trained  hawks  for  his  royal 
mistress  at  Everley,  Wiltshire 

The  sport  was  a  favourite  theme 
with  early  British  writers.  Dame 
Juliana  Berners's  celebrated  Book 
of  St.  Albans  contains  a  treatise  on 
Haukyng  and  Hunting,  I486 . 
George  Turberville  wrote  The 
Booke  ot  Faulconrie  or  Hauking 
1575 ;  and  these  were  followed  by 
Simon  Latham' s  The  Faulcon' s  Lure 
and  Cure,  1615-18  ,  Edmund  Bert's 
An  Approved  Treatise  on  Hawks 
and  Hawking,  1619;  and  Richard 
Blome's  The  Gentleman's  Recrea 
tion,  1686. 

The  hawks  employed  are  ot  two 
groups,  the  long-winged  and  the 
short-winged,  the  former  being 
termed  "  hawks  of  the  lure,"  and 
the  latter  "  hawks  of  the  fist.' 
The  long-winged  comprise  the 
peregrine,  the  northern  falcon, 
and  the  Iceland  and  Greenland 
varieties  ,  the  short-winged  con- 
sist of  the  goshawk  and  sparrow- 
hawk.  The  birds  should  be  taken 
for  training  when  they  are  just 
fledged  but  have  not  left  the  nest. 
The  female  bird,  being  the  larger, 
is  invariably  chosen. 

The  several  implements  used  in 
the  confining  and  training  of 
hawks  are  the  hood,  jesses,  bells, 
^e  lure,  blocks,  and  the  cadsre.  The 


tiawKiug. 
bood.     5. 


i.  (iosiiawk      <i.  Sparrow-uawa.     «i.  iceiana  Jei-»mcon.     -.  a   Jan 
Rufter  hood.     6.  Claw  with  jess  and  bell.    7.  Peregrine  falcon  with 
Dutch  hood,  bells,  and  jesses  as  carried  on  glove 


HAWKINS 


3883 


HAWK    MOTH 


hood  is  the  principal  means  by 
which  a  hawk  is  controlled,  and 
a  bird  once  thoroughly  accustomed 
to  wear  it  can  be  taken  anywhere 
and  handled  quite  easily,  always 
remaining  at  rest  when  hooded. 
Jesses  are  two  short  strips  ot 
leather  placed  round  the  hawk's 
legs,  to  which  the  leash,  by  which 
the  bird  is  held,  is  attached.  Bells 
are  affixed,  one  to  each  leg,  just 
above  the  jess  ;  and  are  of  great 
assistance  in  locating  the  hawk 
when  the  quarry  has  been  killed 
out  of  sight. 

The  lure  also  plays  an  important 
part.  A  good  lure  can  be  made  of  a 
horseshoe  well  padded  and  covered 
with  leather.  This  is  in  turn  cover 
ed  with  the  wings  of  a  wild  duck, 
and  strings  are  attached,  to  which 
the  meat,  constituting  the  bird's 
food,  is  tied.  The  lure  serves  the 
double  purpose  of  familiarising  the 
bird  to  its  prey  and  accustoming 
it  to  come  to  hand  readily  The 
falconer  wears  a  leather  glove,  for 
protection  from  the  hawk's  claws, 
upon  his  left  hand  when  the  bird 
is  resting  upon  it.  European  fal- 
coners always  carry  the  hawk  on 
their  left  hand  ;  in  the  East  it  is 
carried  on  the  right. 

Blocks  are  portions  ot  tree 
trunks  firmly  fixed  in  the  ground, 
upon  which  the  hawks  oit  when  at 
rest  and  to  which  they  are  secured 
by  the  leash.  The  cadge  consists  of 
four  pieces  of  wood,  padded  and 
fixed  together  in  the  form  of  an 
oblong  frame,  on  which  the  birds 
perch  when  being  carried  from  one 
place  to  another.  Hawks  are 
trained  to  kill  various  kinds  of 
game,  such  as  grouse,  partridges, 
and  woodcocks,  and  occasionally 
hares  and  rabbits.  A  good  dog  is 
also  essential  to  assist  in  starting 
and  retrieving  the  game. 

Bibliography.  A  Treatise  upon 
Falconry,  J.  C.  Belany,  1841  ;  Fal- 
conry ;  its  claims,  history  and  prac- 
tice, G.  E.  Freeman  and  V.  H.  Salvin, 
1 859  ;  Practical  Falconry,  G.  E.  Free- 
man, 1869  ;  Falconry  in  the  British 
Isles,  F.  H.  Salvin  and  W.  Brodrick, 
1873  :  Hints  on  the  Management  of 
Hawks,  J.  E.  Harting,  1884;  The 
Art  and  Practice  of  Hawking,  E.  B. 
Michell,  1900  ;  the  article  on  Fal- 
conry by  Gerald  Lascelles  in  the 
Badminton  series  :  Bibliotheca  Ac- 
cipitraria,  J.  E.  Harting,  1891,  with 
a  polyglot  bibliography. 

Hawkins.  British  light  cruiser, 
designed  during  the  Great  War  and 
completed  in  1919.  Built  at  Chat- 
ham, her  length  is  563  ft.,  tonnage 
9,750,  and  engine  power  60,000  h.p. 
giving  an  estimated  speed  of  30 
knots,  which  was  exceeded  on 
trials.  She  carries  seven  7 '5-inch 
and  eight  3-inch  guns.  The  Haw- 
kins is  oil- burning,  and  cost  about 
£750,000.  She  is  the  first  British 
warship  to  be  fitted  with  a  recrea- 


tion room  lor  the  -crew,  barber's 
shops,  etc.  She  served  .her  maiden 
commission  as  flagship  of  the  China 
squadron.  Sister  ships  to  the 
Hawkins  are  the  Effingham,  Fro 
bisher,  Raleigh,  and  Vindictive. 

Hawkins    OR    HAWKYNS,     SIR 
JOHN    (1532-95).      English   sailor. 
Second  son  of  William  Hawkins,  a 
sea  captain,  he 
was     born    at 
Plymouth  and 
was    admitted 
I    a   freeman    of 
i    that     city     in 
!    1556.      Until 
J    1561     he    was 
" '*i,#- -:'  '!   engaged    in 

^aJflaHfeu ,    voyages  to  the 

Sir  John  Hawkins       Canary      Is 
English  sailor          landg.  In  1562, 

From  an  old  print  m  ,cOmman(l  of 

three  vessels,  he  sailed  to  Sierra 
Leone,  seized  300  negroes,  and 
shipped  them  to  Hispaniola,  where 
he  exchanged  them  for  mer- 
chandise, which  he  brought  to  Eng- 
land and  sold  to  great  advantage. 
Backed  by  persons  of  influence,  he 
sailed  again  from  Plymouth,  on  the 
Jesus  of  Liibeck,  with  three  other 
vessels,  in  1564,  obtained  another 
cargo  of  negroes  and  transported 
them  to  Venezuela,  where,  after 
some  difficulty,  he  disposed  of 
them  to  the  Spaniards. 

The  success  of  these  voyages 
induced  Hawkins  to  fit  out  another 
expedition  in  1567,  and  he  sailed 
on  the  Jesus  with  five  other  vessels, 
one  of  which,  the  Judith,  was  com- 
manded by  Francis  Drake  (q.v.). 
At  Sierra  Leone  he  plundered  Por- 
tuguese vessels  of  a  vast  sum  of 
money  and  goods,  and  with  a  cargo 
of  500  negroes  crossed  to  S.  America, 
trafficked  with  the  Spaniards,  and 
was  finally  driven  by  bad  weather 
into  the  Mexican  port  of  Vera  Cruz. 

The  arrival  of  a  Spanish  fleet 
caused  friction  with  the  English, 
which  soon  developed  into  a  fight,  in 
which  Hawkins  lost  the  greater 
part  of  his  treasure,  and  saved  but 
two  boats,  in  which,  after  great 
hardships,  he  reached  England.  He 


H.M.S.   HawKins, 


bntisn    oil-Durning 
completed  in  1919 

Cribb,  Sowthsea 


had  left  many  ot  hib  shipmates  in 
the  hands  of  the  Spaniards,  but  by 
a  curious  piece  of  cunning,  in  which 
he  was  seconded  by  Burghley  (q,v.). 
he  secured  their  release,  and  at  the 
same  time  was  offered  a  bribe  o; 
£40,000  from  the  king  of  Spam  t< 
enter  his  service.  He  accepted  tin 
bribe  but  remained  loyal  to  Eliza 
beth.  In  1572  he  was  M.P.  for  Ply 
mouth  and  became  treasurer  and 
comptroller  of  the  navy,  using  hi.~ 
knowledge  of  seamanship  to  intro 
duce  many  improvements.  At  tlu.- 
time  he  entered  into  partnership  in 
a  shipbuilding  business  with  Rich 
ard  Chapman  of  Deptford,  makine 
thereby  a  fortune. 

On  the  coming  of  the  Arrnada, 
1588,  Hawkins  as  rear-admiral 
was  in  command  of  one  of  his  own 
vessels,  the  Victory,  and  did  ex 
cellent  service,  especially  off  the 
Isle  of  Wight,  for  which  he  was 
knighted  on  the  deck  of  the  Ark. 
In  1590,  together  with  Frobisher, 
he  undertook  a  cruise  to  Portugal ; 
in  1592  he  founded  the  Sir  John 
Hawkins  Hospital  at  Chatham,  and 
in  1595,  under  the  command  ol 
Drake,  he  sailed  once  again  to  the 
Spanish  Main,  where  he  died  ot 
fever,  off  Puerto  Rico,  Nov  12 
1595,  and  was  buried  at  sea. 

Hawkins  OR  HAWKYNS,  SIR 
RICHARD  (c.  15G2-1622).  English 
sailor.  The  only  son  of  Sir  John 
Hawkins,  he  sailed  to  the  W 
Indies  in  1582.  Three  years  later 
he  was  captain  of  the  Duck  in 
Drake's  expedition  to  the  Spanish 
Main  and  the  coast  of  Florida.  He 
commanded  the  Swallow  in  thi/ 
fight  against  the  Armada,  1588. 
and  in  1593  set  sail  in  the  Dainty 
for  a  voyage  round  the  world. 

Passing  the  Straits  of  Magellan. 
he  plundered  Valparaiso,  1594,  and 
later  was  caught  in  the  bay  of  San 
Mateo   by  two  large  Spanish  gal 
leons.     After  a  fierce  fight  he  was 
overpowered  and  taken  prisoner  to 
Lima,  whence  in  1597  he  was  sent 
to   Spain   and   kept   captive   until 
1602.     He  was  knighted  in  1603 
M.P     tor   Plymouth   and   vice-ad- 
miral of  Devon  in 
]    1604.     In  1620  he 
:    sailed     under    Sit 
]    Robert  Mansell  as 
I    vice-admiral  in  the 
i    fleet   sent   against 
I    the   corsairs  ol 
Algiers.     He   died 
in    London,    April 
17,  1622. 

Hawk  Moth 
Popular  name  for 
the  moths  belong- 
ing to  the  family 
Sphingidae.  They 
have  long,  nar 
row  fore-wings, 
and  sm  all  hind 


light    cruiser. 


HAWK'S-BEARD 


3884 


HAWTHORN 


ones,  and  the  antennae  end  in  a 
hook.  They  mainly  fly  in  the 
evening,  and  some  species  have  a 
habit  of  hover- 
ing in  the  air. 
Their  caterpil- 
lars are  always 
smooth,  and 
usually  have  a 
horn  -  like  pro- 
cess  on  the 
hindmost  seg- 
ment of  the 
body.  About 
ten  species  are 
natives  of 
Great  Britain, 
among  the  best 
known  being  the  death's  head 
(Acherontia  atropos),  the  privet  and 
the  humming-bird  hawk  (Macro- 
(jlossa  stellatarum)  moths.  The  last 
is  often  mistaken  for  a  humming- 
bird, as  it  hovers  before  the  flowers 
and  sips  the  nectar  with  its  long 
proboscis.  See  Death's  Head  Moth. 
Hawk's-beard  (Crepis  capil- 
laris).  Small  annual  herb  of  the 
natural  order  Compositae.  It  is  a 


Hawk  Moth.  Sphinx 

ligustri,  the   privet 

hawk  moth 


HawK's-  beard.     Lett,  flower-Heads 

and  florets  ;    right,  toothed  leaves 

growing  from  root 

native  of  Europe  and  the  Canaries. 
The  leaves  chiefly  grow  from  the 
root,  with  few  bold  teeth  ;  the  stem 
leaves  are  broader  at  the  base,  with 
ears.  The  stem  is  branched,  bear- 
ing small  yellow  flower-heads  with 
the  florets  all  strap-shaped.  The 
fruits  have  a  parachute  (pappus) 
of  un  branched  silky  hairs. 

Hawkshaw,   SIR  JOHN   (1811- 

91  ).    British  engineer.    Of  a  York- 

shire yeoman  family,  he  was  edu- 

^^^^__^^^^    cated  at  Leeds 

I    Grammar 

I    School.      After 

•ifa  i    three    years' 

i    residence       i  n 

i    Venezuela 

"    -«j'jL  ;    I    (1831-34),    he 

^^^•h^HBfefcJ    undertook 

I    work   in    the 

•^^      <"HMHi    German      rail- 

sir  Jonn  Hawkshaw.     w 

British  ensineer 


many  important  undertakings,  con- 
structed the'  Charing  Cross  and 
Cannon  Street  stations  and  bridges, 
and  built  the  E.  London  Railway 
and  the  tunnel  under  the  Severn. 
Made  F.R.S.  1855,  and  knighted  in 
1873,  in  1875  he  was  president  of 
the  British  Association.  He  died 
June  2,  1891. 

Hawkshead.  Town  and  parish 
of  Lancashire,  England.  It  is  pic- 
turesquely situated  in  a  valley  be- 
tween Windermere  and  Coniston, 
and  2  m.  N.  of  Esthwaite  Water. 
Its  church,  S.  Michael's,  mainly 
Elizabethan,  with  some  Norman 
work,  restored  1876,  has  an  altar 
tomb  with  effigies.  In  the  gram- 
mar school,  founded  by  Archbishop 
Sandys  in  1585,  the  poet  Words- 
worth and  his  brother  Christopher 
were  pupils.  Pop.  975. 

Hawkstone.  Parish  of  Shrop- 
shire, England,  4£  m.  N.E.  of  Wem. 
Hawkstone  Park,  once  a  seat  of 
Viscount  Hill  (q.v.),  is  situated 
under  the  N.  slope  of  the  Hawk- 
stone  hills,  in  extensive  and  beauti- 
ful grounds.  The  brick  and  stone 
mansion,  partly  of  the  time  of 
Queen  Anne,  attracted  the  admira- 
tion of  Dr.  Johnson,  who  visited 
Hie  place  with  the  Thrales  in  1774. 
Hawkweed  (Hieracium).  Large 
i^enus  of  perennial  herbs  of  the 
natural  order  Compositae.  Natives 


London  as   a  consulting   engineer 
in     1850,     he    was    consulted     on 


Hawkweed  of  the  Mouse-ear  variety. 
Hieracium  pilosella 

of  the  N.  temperate  and  Arctic 
regions,  they  have  milky  juice  and 
alternate  leaves.  The  flower-heads 
are  yellow  or  orange  with  the  florets 
all  strap-shaped.  One  of  the  best 
known  species  is  the  mouse-ear 
hawkweed  (H.  pilosella),  common 
on  banks,  with  downy,  lance-shaped 
or  spoon-shaped  leaves  and  solitary 
pale-yellow  flower-heads. 

Hawkwood,  SIB  JOHN  (d.  1394 ). 
English  soldier.  His  birth  and 
parentage  are  uncertain,  but  he 
was  probably  a  London  apprentice. 
He  won  fame  in  the  wars  of  Edward 
III,  being  made  a  knight.  After 
the  peace  of  Bretigny,  in  1360,  he 
became  the  captain  of  a  band  of 
mercenaries,  called  the  White  Corn- 


Sir  John  Hawkwood, 
English  soldier 


pany,     at     the 

head   of  which 

he  won  his  great 

reputation.  He 

fought      for 

whoever  would 

pay    for    his 

services  —  the 

Visconti,    Pisa, 

and    for    and 

against     the 

Pope.    In  1375 

Florence  bought  his  services,  and, 

save    for    one    or    two    intervals, 

he   remained  in   that    city's    pay 

until  his  death.  He  died  in  Florence; 

later   his  remains  were  carried  to 

England,  and  were  probably  buried 

at  Castle  Hedingham,  in  Essex. 

Ha  worth.  Village  of  Yorkshire, 
England.  It  is  situated  in  the  West 
Riding,  3J  m.  S.  W.  of  Keighley,  on  a 
branch  line  of  the  M.R.  Its  chief 
associations  are  with  the  Brontes 
(q.v.),  and  the  Haworth  Round 
established  by  the  Rev.  William 
Grimshaw,  rector  of  Haworth, 
1742-63,  and  incorporated  with 
Methodism,  under  John  Wesley. 
Ponden  Hall,  on  the  hill-top  above 
the  village,  is  regarded  as  the  ori- 
ginal of  Emily  Bronte's  Wuthering 
Heights.  The  14th  century  parish 
church,  of  which  Patrick  Bronte  was 
curate,  1820-61,  was,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  tower,  rebuilt  in  1879- 
81.  Here  is  the  Bronte  museum, 
opened  May,  1895.  Pop.  6,505. 

Hawser  (Fr.  hausser,  to  raise). 
Stout  rope  of  hemp  or  wire  used 
aboard  ship,  and  by  tugs  for  tow- 
ing purposes.  The  hawse  (Ice- 
landic hals,  neck)  holes  are  the 
two  large  apertures  at  the  bows  of  a 
vessel  through  which  hawsers  and 
anchor  chains  run.  See  Rope. 

Hawthorn,  WHITETHORN  OR 
MAY  (Crataegus  oxyacanlha).  Small 
spiny  tree  of  the  natural  order 
Rosaceae.  It  is  a  native  of  Europe, 
N.  Africa,  N.  and  W.  Asia.  The 
leaves  are  wedge-shaped,  variously 
nit  into  lobes:  flowers  are  white, 


Hawthorn.    Spray  of  blossom 

in  numerous  clusters,  fragrant,  al- 
most hiding  the  foliage  by  their 
abundance.  See  Bud. 


HAWTHORN 


3885 


HAY 


Hawthorn.  Suburb  of  E.  Mel-  of  the  ravages  made  by  a  secret 

bourne,  Australia.  Pop.  27,795.  sin  of  adultery  in  the  hearts  and 

See  Melbourne.  consciences  of  husband,  wife,  and 

Hawthornden.  Village  of  Mid-  lover.  This  fine  work  of  imagina- 

lothian.  It  is  8  m.  S.E.  of  Edin-  tion,  wrought  with  the  felicity  of 

burgh,  and  is  a  station  on  the  N.B.  phrasing  and  exquisite  rhythm  that 

Rly.  It  is  famous  for  its  beautiful  set  its  author  high  among  writers 

glen,  through  which  the  Esk  flows,  of  prose,  was  followed  in  1851  by 

and  for  the  fact  that  the  house  The  House  of  the  Seven  Gables, 


here  was  long  the  seat  of  the  Drum- 
monds.    See  Drummond,  W. 
Hawthorne,  CHARLES  WEBSTER 


a  story  of  the  decay  of  a  family 

doomed  to  bear  an  hereditary  curse. 

In  1852  Hawthorne  brought  out 


(b.  1872).    American  artist.    Born  The  Blithedale  Romance,  a  satire 

in  Maine,  Hawthorne  studied  art  on  those   reformers  who,  lacking 

at  the  National  Academy  of  De-  human   nature  themselves,   think 

sign,   and   worked  for  a   time  in  they  can  ameliorate  it  in  others. 

Europe.     He  taught  drawing  and  In  1860  appeared  his  fourth  and 

painting  in  New  York  and  at  a  last   romance,  Transformation,   or 


summer  school  near  Princeton, 
Mass.,  and  is  well  known  in  America 
for  his  clever  portrait  work  and 
skilful  renderings  of  domestic  and 
out-of-doors  life.  Examples  of  his 
work  are  to  be  seen  at  the  Metro- 
politan Museum,  New  York. 

Hawthorne,  NATHANIEL  (1804- 
64).  American  novelist.  Born  at 
Salem,  Massachusetts,  July  4, 1804, 
„ .,_,-„„......„....  •  —  his  ancestors 


The  Marble  Faun.  He  died  at  Ply- 
mouth, New  Hampshire,  May  19, 
1864.  He  had  held  appointments 
under  the  American  Government 
at  Boston,  Salem,  and  at  Liver- 
pool, England.  See  Concord ; 
Emerson ;  consult  also  Works,  ed. 
G.  P.  Lathrop,  13  vols.,  1893-94; 
Life,  J.  Hawthorne,  1885 ;  Memories 
of  Hawthorne,  R.  H.  Lathrop,  1897. 
Hawtrey,  SIR  CHARLES  (1858- 
being  among  1923).  British  actor.  B.  Sept.  21, 
the  first  set-  1858,  he  was  educated  at  Eton  and 
Rugby,  his  first  appearance  being 
in  1881  at  the  Prince  of  Wales's 
Theatre,  under  the  name  of  Bankes. 
In  1884  he  produced  The  Private 
Secretary,  a  comparative  failure 
until  he  transferred  it  to  the  Globe 
Theatre  and  himself  played  the 
Part  °*  Douglas  Cattermole,  when 
it  achieved  an 
extraordinary 


tiers,  he  was 
educated  at 
Bowdoin  Col- 
lege, in  Bruns- 
wick, Maine, 
where  he  made 
the  acquaint- 

^M   •  /feuK&r^  ^  £ 

fellow.      From    1825-39    he    lived 

almost    as    a    recluse,     publishing     success  and 

his    first    book    of    short    stories,      ran  until  1886. 

Twice  Told  Tales,  in  1837.    In  1842     In     1885     he 

he    brought   out   a   second   series,      became  mana- 

later     volumes    of    stories    being     g  e  r   of  Her 

Mosses  from  an  Old  Manse,  1846,     Majesty's   and 

and  The  Snow  Image  and  Other     in     1887     he 

Tales,  1851.     Many  of  these  stories     took  over  the 

are  tinged  with  that  preoccupation      manage  m  e  n  t    Sir  Charles  Hawtrey, 

with  sin,  conscience,  and  evil  which     ol'The  Comedy.          British  actor 

was  the  emotional  residuum  of  the         In    1901    he      fouiiham  *  sanfieid 

author's  Puritan  ancestry.  went  to  New  York  and  appeared  in 

In    1850   appeared    his   master-      A  Message  from  Mars,  which   he 

piece,  The  Scarlet  Letter,  a  study  brought  to  London  in  1905.  He  pro- 
duced many  suc- 
cessful plays,  and 
acquired  great 
popularity. 
Knighted  in  1922, 
he  died  July  30, 
1923. 

Hawtrey,  ED- 
WARD CRAVEN 
(1789-1862). 
Headmaster  o  f 
Eton.  Born  at 
Burnham,  Bucks, 
May  7,  1789,  his 
father  was  a 
clergyman.  H  e 
was  educated  at 

Hawtborne.       The  Old  Manse,  Concord,  Mass.,  where       Eton  and  K^g'8 
Nathaniel  Hawthorne  wrote  Mosses  from  an  Old  Manse       College,     Cam- 


Edward  C.  Hawtrey, 
Headmaster  of  Eton 


bridge,  and  after  taking  his  degree 
became  an  assistant  master  at 
Eton,  Keate  then  being  the  head. 
In  1834  Haw- 
t  r  e  y  was 
elected  head- 
master, and  he 
showed  himself 
one  of  the 
greatest  the 
school  had 
ever  had.  The 
buildings  were 
enlarged,  the 
chapel  was 
restored,  and  several  reforms  were 
carried  out.  In  1852  he  resigned 
and  was  chosen  provost  of  Eton. 
He  became  vicar  of  Mapledurham, 
and  died  Jan.  27,  1862. 

Hay  AND  HAYMAKING.  Hay  is 
the  dry  fodder  made  from  grass, 
clover,  or  other  herbage.  It  may 
be  grown  on  either  permanent  or 
temporary  grass  lands  (see  Grass). 
The  average  percentage  compo- 
sition is  as  follows,  that  of  grass 
being  added  for  purposes  of  com- 
parison. ( 1 )  Meadow  Hay  :  water 
17'90  ;  albuminoids  7 '25  ;  digesti- 
ble carbohydrates  46'13  ;  fibre 
22-62  ;  ash  6'10.  (2)  Clover  Hay  : 
water  18'60  ;  albuminoids  12'50  ; 
digestible  carbohydrates  36 '33 ; 
fibre  25 -65;  ash  6 '92.  (3)  Grass  : 
water  73'67  ;  albuminoids  2'15  ; 
digestible  carbohydrates  15 '02 ; 
fibre  7-36;  ash  1'80. 

Hay  is  one  of  the  most  important 
feeding-stuffs  produced  on  the 
farm,  making  up  part  of  the  rations 
given  to  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep, 
especially  during  the  winter.  Hay- 
making is  one  of  the  most  critical 
farming  operations,  being  depend- 
ent on  the  weather,  and  consider- 
able importance  is  attached  to 
weather  forecasts,  which  the  Board 
of  Agriculture  supplies  by  wire. 
As  it  is  the  object  to  secure  the 
nutriment  in  the  stems  and  leaves, 
cutting  must  be  done  before  the 
seeds  have  been  formed. 

Although  the  scythe  is  not  obso- 
lete, most  of  the  hay  crop  is  cut  by 
the  mowing  machine,  in  swathes  of 
from  4  ft.  to  8  ft.  long  (see  Scythe  ; 
Mowing  Machine).  These  have  to 
be  spread  out  or  turned  over 
("tedded").  The  hay  kicker  or 
tedder  lifts  the  hay  and  spreads  it 
out  to  dry,  much  after  the  style 
of  the  hand-fork.  The  haymaking 
machine  consists  of  a  number  of 
curved  tines  attached  to  an  axle 
and  caused  to  revolve  rapidly. 
When  they  do  so  one  way,  the  herb- 
age is  thrown  over  the  machine 
on  to  the  ground  ;  if  the  action  is 
reversed,  the  hay  is  turned  over. 
The  latter  process  can  be  effected 
by  a  swathe  turner,  which  deposits 
the  turned  herbage  on  the  dry 
spaces  between  the  swathes. 


HAY 


3886 


HAY-BOX 


Before  special  machines  were  in- 
vented the  made  hay  was  dragged 
by  wooden  rakes  into  a  series  of 
wind-rows,  subsequently  forked 
into  haycocks  as  a  protection 
against  rain,  and  also  for  conve- 
nience in  carrying.  The  former 
part  of  this  process  is  now  gener- 
ally carried  out  by  a  horse -rake, 
consisting  of  a  series  of  long  curved 
tines  that  can  be  lifted  up  to  drop 
the  hay  in  a  wind-row  from  time  to 
time.  These  rows  are  at  right 
angles  to  the  line  of  progress,  but 
some  machines  have  a  side-delivery 
arrangement  for  depositing  the  hay 
in  a  continuous  wind-row  parallel 
to  the  direction  of  movement. 

The  carrying  of  the  hay  when 
ready  is  facilitated  by  a  number 
of  mechanical  devices.  If  the  rick 
is  to  be  made  in  the  same  field, 
much  labour  is  saved  by  using  a 
sweep  rake.  This  consists  of  a  two- 
wheeled  wooden  frame  14  ft.  wide, 
provided  with  long  tines  that  are 
thrust  forwards  under  the  hay. 
The  driver  is  seated  at  the  back, 
and  there  is  a  horse  on  each  side. 
When  the  rick  is  to  be  made  at 
some  distance,  the  hay  is  carried  in 
carts,  which  may  be  rilled  by  a  hay 
loader.  A  stacker  or  elevator  is  often 
used  for  conveying  the  hay  from 
the  carts  to  the  top  of  the  rick. 

In  building  up  a  rick  or  stack 
special  attention  is  paid  to  the 
"  walls,"  which  must  be  plumb. 
The  fermentation  necessary  to 
secure  a  good  product  involves  the 
exclusion  of  air,  so  the  hay,  as 
added  to  the  rick,  must  be  evenly 
spread  and  well  trampled  down. 
The  centre  must  be  somewhat 
raised,  or  water  may  drain  in  from 
the  outside.  Hay  should  be  dry 
when  stacked,  otherwise  there  will 
be  over-fermentation,  which  will 
result  in  inferior  quality,  and  may 
even  generate  enough  heat  to  set 
the  rick  on  fire.  To  avoid  risk  the 
temperature  should  be  tested 
occasionally  by  a  thermometer ; 
all  goes  well  up  to  about  140°  F., 
but  the  rick  must  be  opened  out  to 
check  fermentation  by  admission 
of  air  if  150°  F.  is  reached.  See 
Barn  ;  Farm  ;  Harvest. 

Hay.  River  of  Canada,  in  the 
prov.  of  Alberta  and  the  N.W. 
Territories.  Rising  on  the  frontier 
of  British  Columbia  and  Alberta, 
it  flows  N.E.  and  N.  through  Lake 
Hay,  and  discharges  into  the  S. 
extremity  of  the  Great  Slave  Lake. 
On  it  there  are  two  magnificent 
cataracts,  one  of  them,  the  Alex- 
ander, falling  over  250  ft.  Its  course 
is  about  352  m. 

Hay.  Township  of  New  South 
Wales.  It  stands  on  the  Murrum- 
bidgee  river,  460  m.  W.S.W.  of 
Sydney.  It  is  the  centre  of  the  rich 
Hiverina  district.  Pop.  2,461. 


Ian  Hay, 
Scottish  novelist 


Hay,  IAN  (b.  1876).  Pen-name  of 
John  Hay  Beith,  Scottish  novelist. 
Born  April  17.  1876,  he  was  edu- 
cated at  Fettes 
College  and  S. 
John's  College, 
Cambridge. 
Having  gradu- 
ated, he  be- 
came language 
master  at  his 
old  school,  but 
soon  began  to 
write  In 
1 907  appeared 
R^»eii  Pip>  which  was 

followed  by  The  Right  Stuff, 
1908;  A  Man's  Man,  1909;  A 
Safety  Match,  1911  ;  Happy  Go 
Lucky,  1913  ;  A  Knight  on  Wheels, 
1914';  and  The  Lighter  Side  of 
School  Life,  1914.  His  books  have 
a  masculine  vigour,  are  impreg- 
nated with  the  public  school  atmo- 
sphere, and  abound  in  humour. 

In  1914  he  joined  the  Argyll  and 
Sutherland  Highlanders,  with  a 
battalion  of  which  he  went  to 
France,  when  he  became  captain 
and  won  the  M.C.  This  early  experi- 
ence gave  him  the  material  for  his 
book,  The  First  Hundred  Thous- 
and, a  vivid  description  of  the 
training  of  a  Highland  battalion, 
predominantly  humorous  in  tone, 
but  containing  passages  of  real 
pathos.  After  this  appeared  Carry 
On.  a  Sequel  to  The  First  Hundred 
Thousand,  1917,  and  The  Last 
Million,  1919.  His  play,  Tilly  of 
Bloomsbury,  an  adaptation  of 
Happy  Go  Lucky,  was  produced  at 
the  Apollo  Theatre  in  1919.  In 
1921  The  Safety  Match,  a  drama- 
.  tisation  of  his  novel  of  the  same 
name,  was  produced  at  The  Strand. 

Hay,  JOHN  (1838-1905).  Ameri- 
can diplomatist,  journalist,  and 
author.  Born  a.t  Salem,  Indiana. 
Oct.  8,  1838,  he 
was  called  to 
the  bar  in  1861 
He  was  assist- 
ant pri  vate 
s  e  c  r  e  tary  to 
President 
Lincoln,  1861- 
65,  and  was  for 
some  time 
editor  of  The 
New  York 
Tribune.  After 
filling  several 
diplomatic 
posts  in  Eu- 
rope, he  was 
ambassador  to  Great  Britain,  March 
19,  1897-Sept.  20, 1898,  and  after- 
wards secretary  of  state  under 
McKinlay  and  Roosevelt  until  his 
death.  His  tenure  of  office  was 
highly  successful,  especially  in  the 
department  of  foreign  affairs.  He 
was  instrumental  in  securing  the 


Japanese  statesman 

Elliott  &  Fry 


"'open  door"  in  China,  1899;  ne- 
gotiated the  Hay- Pauncefote treaty. 
1901,  dealing  with  the  construction 
of  the  Panama  Canal ;  settled  the 
Alaska  boundary  dispute  between 
Canada  and  the  U.S.A.,  1903,  and 
carried  through  more  than  50 
treaties,  the  result  of  which  was  to 
increase  the  prestige  of  America 
throughout  the  world.  He  died  at 
Newburg,  New  York,  July  1,  1905. 
Hay's  chief  works  are  :  Abraham 
Lincoln  (with  J.  G.  Nicolay),  1890. 
the  standard  life  of  the  President, 
and  Pike  County  Ballads,  1871 
See  Life,  L.  Sears,  1914. 

Hayashi,  COUNT  TADASU  (1850- 
1913).    Japanese  statesman.    Born 
at  Sakura.  Jan.  22,  1850,  he  was 
educated       i  n 
England    and 
entered    the 
Japanese 
diplomatic  ser- 
vice.    Occupy- 
ing a   post   in 
the    foreign 
office,  1891-95, 
1    lie    was    ap- 
pointed minis- 
Count  Hayashi,         ter  to  China  in 

the  latter  year, 
and  from  1897- 
99  represented  Japan  in  Russia.  In 
1900  he  was  made  ambassador  to 
London,  where  his  diplomacy  and 
statesmanship  were  evinced  by  the 
treaties  between  Great  Britain  and 
Japan,  which  he  carried  through  in 
1 902  and  1905.  Returning  to  Japan 
as  foreign  minister,  1906-8,  he  held 
the  portfolio  of  commerce  from  1 91 1 
until  his  death,  July  10,  1913.  A 
namesake,  Baron  Gonsuke  Hayashi 
(b.  1860),  became  ambassador  in 
London,  Sept.,  1920,  after  having 
held  various  high  positions  at  home. 

Haybes.  Town  of  France,  in  the 
dept.  of  Ardennes,  S.  of  Civet. 
Burnt  and  reduced  to  ruins  by  the 
Germans  on  Aug.  24,  1914,  it  was 
"adopted"  by  Stockport  in  1920, 
under  the  arrangement  by  which  a 
number  of  British  towns  undertook 
to  help  in  the  re-establishment  of 
French  and  Belgian  towns  and  vil- 
lages devastated  in  the  Great  War. 

Hay-Box  Cookery.  Fireless 
cooking  in  which  tightly  packed 
hay  conserves  the  heat  and  con- 
tinues the  process  of  cooking  food 
which  has  already  been  brought  to 
the  boil  on  a  fire.  An  old  practice,  it 
is  largely  employed  in  Norway  and 
Sweden  and  the"  U.S.A.,  while  it  is 
also  gaining  favour  in  Great 
Britain.  The  apparatus  consists  ot 
a  large  wooden  box  or  trunk  lined 
stoutly  with  paper  and  filled  with 
hay.  A  cushion  of  blanket  or  flannel 
stuffed  tightly  with  hay  exactly  fit- 
the  top  of  the  box,  and  the  lined 
lid  of  the  latter  presses  down  on  to 
it.  The  food  is  brought  to  the  boil 


HAYDN 


and  cooked  for  a  few  minutes  on 
the  fire  in  a  covered  fireproof  vessel, 
which  is  then  wrapped  in  a  news- 
paper or  piece  of  flannel  and  put  at 
once  into  the  box.  The  hay  is 


Hay-box  Cookery.      The    box    with 
utensils  and  close-fitting  lid 

packed  around  and  over  it,  the 
cushion  placed  on  the  top,  and  the 
lid,  pressed  down  with  weights, 
keeps  all  secure  and  excludes  the 
air.  After  removal  from  the  hay 
box,  the  food  is  again  brought  to 
the  boil  on  the  fire. 

An  improved  apparatus  has  a  lid 
to  the  box  made  of  two  skins  of 
sheet  iron  or  aluminium,  with 
asbestos  packing  between.  This 
forms  a  better  non-conductor  of 
heat  than  hay.  Flat,  round  irons 
about  |  in.  in  thickness,  heated 
and  placed  one  beneath  and  one 
on  the  top  of  the  vessel  in  the 
box,  help  to  retain  the  heat  to  a 
greater  degree  and  impart  a  uni- 
formly thorough  action.  By  this 
method  of  cookery  fuel  is  saved  and 
the  volume  of  the  food  is  less 
reduced  than  when  fire  is  wholly 
employed.  The  process  is  much 
slower,  the  time  varying  from  one 
to  six  hours  and  more,  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  article  cooked. 
The  hay  box  may  be  used  as  a 
refrigerator,  for,  as  it  conserves 
heat,  so  in  the  same  way  will  it 
keep  food  cool.  See  Cookery. 

Haydn,  FRANZ  JOSEPH  (1732- 
1809).  Austrian  composer.  The 
son  of  a  wheelwright,  he  was  born 
at  Rohrau,  near  Vienna,  March  31, 
1732.  He  became  a  chorister  in  S. 
Stephen's  Cathedral,  V7ienna,  where 
he  obtained  his  early  musical  train- 
ing, and  after  leaving  there  gained 
a  precarious  living  by  teaching. 
I 


He  managed,  however,  to  devote 
much  time  to  study  and  composi- 
tion, and  in  order  to  persuade 
Porpora  (q.v.),  the  great  teacher  of 
singing,  to  give  him  the  benefit  of 
his  instruction,  he  entered  his  ser- 
vice as  accompanist  and  valet. 

Haydn's  compositions  and  his 
connexion  with  Porpora  having 
brought  him  into  notice,  he  was 
appointed  in  1759  director  of  the 
private  band  of  Count  Morzin,  and 
shortly  afterwards  composed  his 
first  orchestral  symphony.  In  1761 
he  entered  the  service  of  Prince 
Anton  Esterhazy,  and  on  his  death 
continued  with  his  brother  Nicholas. 
Eventually  he 
became  direc- 
tor  of  the 
music  of  the 
prince's  pri- 
vate chapel, 
and  had  under 
his  control  an 
orchestra  and 
a  choir.  This 
gave  him  un-  _0 
rivalled  oppor-  -^_/ 
t  u  n  i  t  i  e  s  for 
studying  the  rrom*p»Mi*t 
possibilities  of  the  orchestra. 

On  the  death  of  Prince  Ester- 
liazy  in  1790,  Haydn  was  per- 
suaded to  visit  England,  and  the 
success  of  this  visit  induced  him 
to  pay  a  second  in  1794.  During 
these  visits  he  composed  some  of 
his  finest  symphonies.  His  ora- 
torio, The  Creation,  was  produced 
at  Vienna  in  1798,  and  The  Seasons 
in  1801.  Haydn's  importance  in 
the  history  of  music  is  due  to  the 
character  of  his  numerous  instru- 
mental works.  The  best  of  these 
are  much  more  mature  in  style  and 
definite  in  form  and  show  more 
skill  in  the  treatment  of  the  or- 
chestra than  the  works  of  earlier 
composers. 

The  total  volume  of  Haydn's 
work  is  very  great ;  there  are  about 
150  symphonies,  77  quartets,  and 
some  40  trios,  with  a  large  body  of 
religious  music  and  songs.  But  he 
was  not,  according  to  his  own  ac- 
count, a  quick  worker,  and  yet 
scarcely  ever  is  the  freshness  and 
clarity  of  his  inspiration  affected  by 
his  deliberate  methods  of  work.  The 
famous  national  anthem  of  Austria, 
also  familiar  as  a  hymn-tune,  was 
composed  in  Vienna  in  1797.  He 
died  in  Vienna,  May  31,  1809. 

Haydock.  Urban  district  ot 
Lancashire.  It  is  3  in.  S.E.  of  St. 
Helens,  having  a  station  on  the 
G.C.R.  The  chief  industries  are 
coalmining  and  ironfounding.  Race 
meetings  are  held  in  Haydock 
Park.  Pop.  9,700. 

Haydon,  BENJAMIN  ROBERT 
(1786-1840).  British  painter  and 
author.  Born  at  Plymouth,  Jan. 


26,  1786,  he  studied  at  the  R.A. 
schools.  His  Death  of  Dentatus, 
1809,  and  Judgment  of  Solomon, 
1814,  won  prizes  from  the  British 
Institution, 
but  Haydon, 
at  this  time, 
jeopardised  «p-  ^ 
his  prospects  • 
by  quarrelling 
with  the  Acad- 
emy. After  a 
stormy  career, 
during  which 
he  was  twice 
imprisoned  for 

debt,     he      Was         AJlerO.  M.  Zor,,lin 

ignored  in  the  Westminster  Hall 
competition  of  1843 — his  own  idea 
— and  failed  with  an  exhibition  of 
his  own  works  at  the  Egyptian 
Hall  in  1846,  the  result  being  that 
he  committed  suicide  in  his  studio, 
June  22,  1846. 

Haydon' s  work  as  an  historical 
painter  was  far  above  the  level  of 
his  time,  although  somewhat  hard 
and  repellent.  One  may  cite  his 
Christ's  Entry  into  Jerusalem, 
1820;  Wellington  at  Waterloo, 
1839 ;  Banishment  of  Aristides, 
1846 ;  Nero  playing  during  the 
burning  of  Rome,  1846.  He  was 
the  author  of  an  autobiography, 
published  by  his  widow  in  1847 ; 
Lectures  on  Painting  and  Design, 
1844,  and  other  books  on  art. 

Hayes.  Urban  dist.  of  Middle- 
sex, England.  It  is  11  m.  W.  of 
Paddington  and  1  m.  N.  of  Hayes 
and  Harlington  station  on  the 
G.  W.R.,  with  the  Paddington  Canal 
on  the  E.  and  the  Grand  Junction 
Canal  on  the  S.  Gramophones, 
printing  presses,  aeroplanes,  sea- 
planes, and  pianos  are  made. 

The  manor,  before  the  time  of 
Henry  VIII,  belonged  to  the  see 
of  Canterbury.  The  parish  church 
of  S.  Mary,  restored  in  1873-74, 
has  a  13th  century  tower,  a  16th 
century  wooden  roof  to  the  nave, 
a  lych  gate,  and  some  interesting 
monuments.  The  rectory  is  on  the 
site  of  the  old  manor  house.  N.E. 
is  Yeading,  a  brickmaking  centre ; 
N.W.  is  Dawley  Court,  once  the 
home  of  Bolingbroke,  and  later  that 
of  the  De  Salis  family.  At  Botwell, 
to  the  S.,  are  marble,  granite,  and 
slate  works. 

Hayes.  Parish  and  village  of 
Kent,  England.  It  is  situated  on  the 
slope  of  a  hill  and  the  edge  of  a 
common,  15  m.  from  Charing  Cross, 
between  West  Wickham  and  Wood- 
side,  on  a  branch  of  the  S.E.  &  C. 
Rly.  Hayes  Place,  near  the  church, 
was  the  favourite  residence  of  the 
1st  earl  of  Chatham,  who  died  here, 
and  the  birthplace  of  his  son.  i 
William  Pitt.  General  Wolfe  dined 
here  on  the  eve  of  his  departure  for 
Quebec.  The  Early  English  church 


HAYES 


3888 


HAYMARKET 


of  S.  Mary,  built  on  the  site  of  a 
Roman  structure,  and  containing 
brasses  and  other  monuments  of 
interest,  was  restored  in  1861-62. 
Hayes  Common,  a  breezy  stretch 
of  uplands,  220  acres  in  extent, 
covered  with  heather,  bracken, 
bramble,  and  hawthorn,  com- 
manding picturesque  views,  and  a 
favourite  resort  of  cyclists,  was 
secured  to  the  public  in  1869.  Sir 
Vicary  Gibbs  had  a  villa  on  Hayes 
Common  ;  and  Henry  Hallam  died 
in  Hayea  parish.  See  Keston. 

Hayes,  CATHARINE  (1690-1726). 
English  murderess.  Born  near 
Birmingham,  she  married  John 
Hayes,  a  carpenter,  and  lived  with 
him  in  Tyburn  Road,  now  Oxford 
Street,  London.  On  March  1,  1726, 
with  the  aid  of  two  lodgers,  Wood 
and  Billings,  she  murdered  her 
husband,  whose  head  was  thrown 
into  the  Thames  at  Westminster, 
and  whose  body,  cut  into  pieces, 
was  secreted  in  Marylebone  Fields. 
The  head  being  found  and  identi- 
fied, Hayes  was  sentenced  to  be 
burnt  alive,  and  her  two  accom- 
plices to  be  hanged.  Wood  died  in 
Newgate ;  Billings  was  hanged  in 
chains.  Hayes,  who  tried  to  poison 
herself,  was  executed  at  Tyburn, 
May  9,  1726.  Thackeray  based  his 
story,  Catherine,  1839-40,  upon 
her  career. 

Hayes,  RUTHERFORD  BIRCH ARD 
(1822-93).  American  statesman. 
Born  in  Delaware,  Ohio,  Oct.  4, 
1822,  he  was 
educated  a  t 
Kenyon  Col- 
1  ege  and 
studied  law  at 
Harvard,  be- 
ing admitted 
to  the  bar  in 
1845.  Having 
built  up  a  suc- 
cessful prac- 
tice in  Cincin- 
nati, he  joined 
the  Union 
army  and  served  with  distinction 
throughout  the  Civil  War.  Member 
of  Congress,  1865-67,  and  governor 
of  Ohio,  1868-72  and  1876-77,  he 
stood  for  the  presidency  in  1876 
on  the  Republican  ticket,  was  ad- 
judged to  have  a  majority,  and 
was  finally  declared  elected  by  one 
electoral  vote.  He  did  much  to 
improve  the  financial  position  of 
the  country  and  pursued  a  concilia- 
tory policy  towards  the  southern 
states.  After  his  term  he  retired 
from  public  life  and  died  at  Fre- 
mont, Ohio,  Jan.  17,  1893.  See 
Life,  W.  D.  Howells,  1876. 

Hay-fever.  Catarrhal  affection 
of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
eyes,  nose,  mouth,  and  air-passages 
due  to  irritation  by  *he  pollen  of 
various  grasses  and  plants.  The 


disease  is  common  all  over  Europe 
and  N.  America,  and  chiefly  occurs 
during  the  hay  season.  The  symp- 
toms are  those  of  a  heavy  cold  with 
much  sneezing  and  headache. 
Asthmatical  attacks  are  not  un- 
common. Sufferers  from  hay-fever 
should  avoid  agricultural  districts 
during  the  summer  months.  Moun- 
tainous regions  or  the  seaside  are 
the  best  places  to  live  in.  The  bed- 
room windows  should  generally  be 
closed  at  night.  Tonic  treatment 
and  local  applications  and  sprays 
sometimes  give  relief.  "  Pollan- 
tin,"  an  anti-toxic  serum,  has 
proved  efficacious  in  many  cases. 

Hay  ling.  Island  of  Hampshire. 
It  lies  between  the  harbours  of 
Langstone  and  Chichester,  a  short 
distance  from  the  mainland.  About 
4  m.  from  N.  to  S.,  its  area  is  10  sq. 
m ;  it  is  popular  as  a  seaside  resort. 
There  are  golf  links  and  other  at- 
tractions. The  village  of  S.  Hay- 
ling,  which  has  a  station  on  the 
L.B.  &  S.C.  Rly.,  has  a  fine  old 
church  dedicated  to  S.  Mary. 
There  is  also  a  station  at  N.  Hay- 
ling,  which  is  2£  m.  from  Havant 
and  69  from  London.  The  island 
was  long  the  property  of  the 
Benedictines. 

Hay  Loader.  Small  elevator  for 
loading  hay  and  other  crops  into 
wagons.  It  consists  essentially  of 
a  trough,  along  the  upper  side  of 
which  endless  chains  studded  with 
small  forks  move  from  below  up- 
wards, returning  along  the  under. 

Hay  market.  London  street  ex- 
tending from  the  E.  end  of  Picca- 
dilly to  Pall  Mall,  S.W.  It  was  so 
named  from  the  market  for  hay  and 
straw  held  here  before  its  removal 
to  Cumberland  Market,  Regent's 
Park,  in  1830.  The  Carlton  Hotel 
and  His  Majesty's  Theatre,  on  the 
W.  side,  cover  the  site  of  the  King's 
Theatre  or  Italian  Opera  House, 
later  Her  Majesty's  Theatre,  de- 
molished in  1893.  The  Haymarket 


Theatre  is  on  the  E.  side.  Near 
are  the  Civil  Service  Stores  and 
Panton  Street,  in  which  is  the 
Comedy  Theatre. 

Thynne  of  Longleat  was  mur- 
dered in  this  street  by  assassins 
hired  by  Count  Konigsmarck,  1682. 
Dr.  Johnson's  friend,  Baretti, 
mortally  wounded  a  man  who 
attacked  him  here  in  1769,  and 
after  being  tried  for  murder  was 
acquitted.  Addison  lodged  for  a 
time  in  this  street,  with  which  are 
also  associated  the  names  of 
George  Morland,  Sir  Samuel  Garth, 
and  Mrs.  Oldfield. 

Haymarket  Theatre.  London 
theatre.  The  original  Haymarket 
Theatre,  in  which  Fielding  pro- 
duced Tom  Thumb  the  Great,  and 
of  which  he  became  manager  in 
1734,  was  opened  Dec.  29,  1720, 
with  a  French  comedy,  La  Fille  a 
la  Mode.  Later  famous  managers 
were  Charles  Macklin,  Samuel 
Foote,  1747-67,  and  the  two 
Colmans.  Bannister,  Elliston,  and 
Listen  all  made  their  first  appear- 
ance in  the  Little  Theatre,  as  it 
was  called,  and  here  John  Poole's 
Paul  Pry  was  first  performed.  The 
second  Haymarket  Theatre,  which 
stands  on  a  site  immediately  ad- 
joining that  of  the  first,  was  opened 
July  4,  1821. 

At  the  .  close  of  Buckstone's 
management  in  1879,  it  passed  into 
the  hands  of  the  Bancrofts,  who 
reconstructed  it,  abolishing  the  pit 
and  adding  the  pit  area  to  the 
stalls.  Under  the  Bancrofts,  1880- 
85,  it  enjoyed  great  popularity, 
which  continued  undiminished 
under  Beerbohm  Tree,  1887-95. 
From  1896  to  1905,  under  the 
joint  management  of  Cyril  Maude 
and  Frederick  Harrison,  it  won  a 
new  lease  of  success,  which  has 
lasted  almost  uninterruptedly 
since  1906,  when  the  latter  became 
sole  lessee.  See  The  Haymarket 
Theatre,  Cyril  Maude.  1903. 


Haymarket  Theatre.      Reproduction  of  an  old  print  showing  the  Haymarket 
Theatre,  which  was  opened  in  1821,  replacing  the  old  theatre,  seen  on  the  leu 


HAYNAU 


3889 


HAYWARD'S   HEATH 


Baron  Haynau, 
Austrian  soldier 


Haynau,  JULIUS  JAKOB,  BARON 

VON  (1786-1853).  Austrian  soldier. 
A  natural  son  of  the  elector,  of 
Hesse,  William 
IX,  he  was 
born  at  Casse!, 
Oct.  14,  1786. 
Having  entered 
the  Austrian 
army,  he  saw 
service  in  the 
Napoleonic 
Wars.  In  the 
Italian  c  a  m- 
paigns  of  1848- 
49,  in  w  hich  he  held  a  high  command, 
he  became  prominent  for  his  flog- 
ging of  women  at  the  taking  of 
Brescia,  and  for  other  atrocities. 
In  the  Hungarian  insurrection  of 
the  same  period  he  was  in  command 
of  the  Austrian  forces,  and  his  con- 
duct of  the  campaign,  in  which  he 
admittedly  showed  great  military 
talents,  was  again  marred  by  ruth- 
less ferocity.  He  decisively  de- 
feated the  Hungarians  near  Temes- 
var.  In  1850  he  came  to  London, 
but  his  reputation  had  preceded 
him,  and  he  was  badly  mauled  by 
the  draymen  of  Barclay  and  Per- 
kins's brewery.  He  died  at  Vienna, 
March  14,  1853. 

Hayne,  ROBERT  YOUNG  (1791- 
1839).  American  politician.  Born 
in  Colleton  county,  S,  Carolina, 
Nov.  10,  1791, 
he  took  part  in 
the  war  of  1812 
against  Great 
Britain,  and 
was  a  member 
of  the  U.S. 
Senate,  1823- 
32.  He  was  a 
pronounced 
free  trader 
and  u  p- 

g  h  O  1  d  6  r    of 

the  doctrine  of  State  Rights — 
that  the  Federal  Government  had 
no  right  to  interfere  with  the  in- 
ternal affairs  of  the  individual 
states.  The  debate  on  S.  A.  Foote's 
resolution,  Dec.  29,  1829,  for  re- 
stricting the  sale  of  public  lands, 
which  in  reality  raised  the  question 
of  the  relation  between  the  govern- 
ment and  the  states,  led  to  the 
famous  passage  of  arms  between 
Hayne  and  Daniel  Webster. 

Hayne  maintained  that  the 
government  was  a  party  to  a  com- 
pact, and  that  any  state  had  the 
right  to  nullify  the  carrying  out  of 
any  government  measure  in  its 
territory  if  it  considered  such 
measure  to  be  an  infringement  of 
the  contract.  The  convention  of 
S.  Carolina,  Nov.  19,  1832,  passed 
the  Ordinance  of  Nullification  as  a 
protest  against  the  tariff  measures 
passed  by  Congress,  and  threatened 
secession  if  they  were  enforced. 


Civil  war  seemed  likely,  but  the 
matter  was  settled  by  a  compromise. 
Having  resigned  his  seat  in  the 
Senate,  Hayne  became  governor  of 
S.  Carolina.  He  died  at  Ashville, 
N.  Carolina,  Sept.  24,  1839.  See 
Life,  by  his  nephew,  P.  H.  Hayne, 
1878  ;  R.  Y.  Hayne  and  his  Times, 
T.  D.  Jervey,  1909. 

Hay-Pauncefote  Treaty.  Agree- 
ment concluded  in  1901  between 
John  Hay,  U.S.  secretary  of  state, 
and  Lord  Pauncefote,  British  am- 
bassador at  Washington.  The 
treaty  was  negotiated  to  replace  the 
Clayton-Bulwer  Treaty  of  1850 
(q.v.).  Its  substance  was  that 
Britain  conceded  to  the  U.S.A. 
the  sole  right  to  construct,  main- 
tain, and  police  the  canal  across 
the  central  American  isthmus, 
while  the  U.S.A.  agreed  that  the 
canal  should  be  open  to  the  ships 
of  all  nations  on  equal  terms. 

In  view  of  this  undertaking, 
Great  Britain  was  surprised  when, 
in  1911,  Congress  passed  the 
Panama  Canal  Act,  exempting 
American  ships  engaged  in  coast- 
wise trade  from  canal  dues.  This 
apparent  departure  from  the 
terms  of  the  Hay-Pauncefote 
Treaty  was  defended  on  the  ground 
that  the  clause  providing  for 
equality  of  treatment  of  the  ships 
of  all  nations  referred  only  to 
foreign  nations.  Through  the 
influence  of  President  Wilson,  how- 
ever, a  more  liberal  view  of  the 
clause  was  adopted,  and  in  1914  an 
act  repealed  the  exemption  granted 
to  American  coastwise  traffic. 

Hayter,  SIR  GEORGE  (1792-1871). 
British   artist.      Born  in   London, 
Dec.   17,  1792,  he  studied   at  the 
R.A.     schools, 
After   a    brief 
period   at   sea 
and     three 
years'  study  in 
Rome,  he  set- 
tled   down   in 
London    to 
portrait    and 
miniature 
painting.     His      Sir  George  Hayter, 
reputation  was  British  artist 

already    es-  Self -portrait 

tablished  when  he  was  appointed 
portrait  and  historical  painter  to 
Victoria  on  her  accession,  1837, 
and  in  1838  he  exhibited  at  the 
R.A.,  The  Queen  seated  on  the 
Throne  in  the  House  of  Lords,  now 
in  the  Guildhall,  London.  His 
picture  of  the  Coronation  and  the 
Marriage  are  now  in  the  royal 
collection  at  Windsor.  His  appoint- 
ment in  1841  as  principal  painter 
to  the  queen  was  followed  next 
year  by  a  knighthood.  His  court 
and  historical  pictures  were  ex- 
hibited at  the  British  Institute.  He 
died  Jan.  18,  1871.  See  Clifden. 


Abraham  Hayward, 
,  British  essayist 


Hayward,  ABRAHAM  (1801-84). 
British  essayist.  Born  at  Wilton, 
Wiltshire,  Nov.  22,  1801,  and  edu- 
cated at  Blun- 
dell's  School, 
Tiverton,  h  e 
was  called  to 
the  bar,  but 
never  had 
more  than  a 
moderate  prac- 
tice, although 
he  founded, 
and  for  many 
years  edited, 
The  Law  Magazine.  He  was  an 
assiduous  contributor  to  the  peri- 
odical press,  on  politics,  social  and 
other  topics,  and  an  authority  on 
gastronomy.  His  Art  of  Dining 
enjoyed  great  vogue  ;  also  his  own 
dinners  at  the  Temple,  where  he 
was  in  the  habit  of  entertaining 
notable  people.  Hayward  was  a 
brilliant  conversationalist,  and  a 
great  whist  player.  He  edited 
Mrs.  Piozzi's  Autobiography,  1861, 
and  Diaries  of  a  Lady  of  Quality, 
1864.  He  died  in  London,  Feb. 
2,  1884. 

Hayward,  TOM  (b.  1871).  Eng- 
lish cricketer.  Born  at  Cambridge, 
March  29.  1871,  he  joined  the 
ground  staff  at 
the  Oval  in 
1891.  He  first 
played  cricket 
for  Surrey  in 
1893,  and  for 
twenty  years 
was  one  of  the 
mainstays  o  f 
the  c  o  u  n  t  y 
team.  His 
best  season 
was  1906, 
when  he  scored 
3,518  runs, 
and  his  highest 
innings  was 
315  not  out 
against  L  a  n- 
cashire  at  the 
Oval  in  1898. 
Three  times 
he  made  two 
scores  of  over 
100  each  in  a 
single  match,  four  of  these  cen- 
turies being  obtained  in  one  week, 
a  record  in  first-class  cricket.  Alto- 
gether he  scored  over  100  runs  on 
104  occasions.  Hayward  played 
several  times  in  test  matches 
against  Australia.  See  Cricket. 

Hay  ward's  Heath.  Urban 
dist.  and  market  town  of  Sussex, 
England.  It  is  38  m.  S.  of  London 
on  the  L.B.  &  S.C.  Rly.  An  im- 
portant cattle  market  is  held  here. 
The  council  maintains  a  public 
hall  and  library,  has  erected  council 
offices  and  provided  two  parks. 
Market  day,  Tues.  Pop.  4,800. 


Tom  Hayward, 
English  cricketer 


U    5 


3890 


HAZLETON 


Hazara.  Semi-nomad  moun- 
taineers between  the  upper  Hel- 
mund  valley  and  the  Hindu  Kush, 
in  N.  Afghanistan.  Lowlier  than 
the  more  Persianised  Aimak,  on 
the  W.,  they  are  simple-minded, 
priest-ridden,Mongolian  ShiahMos- 
lems,  short,  squat,  robust,  and  scant 
bearded.  They  furnish  pioneer 
companies  to  the  Afghan  and 
Indian  armies.  Pron.  Hazahra. 

Hazara.  District  of  India,  in  the 
N.W.  Frontier  Province.  The  dis- 
trict contains  extensive  forests,  and 
the  cultivated  area  is  small.  Maize, 
wheat,  and  barley  are  the  chief 
crops.  Mineral  resources  include 
coal,  limestone,  building  stone, 
gypsum,  and  iron.  It  exports 
grain  and  imports  piece-goods, 
indigo,  salt,  etc.  Considerable 
unrest  occurred  in  1920  among  the 
tribesmen,  fostered  by  Afghan 
agitators,  leading  to  demonstra- 
tions of  disloyalty  hi  Hazara,  and 
to  attacks  by  Black  Mountain 
tribesmen  on  the  British  military 
camp  at  Oghi.  Area,  3,062  sq.  m. 

Hazard.  Game  played  with  a 
pair  of  dice  by  any  number  of 
persons.  The  first  throw  of  the 
person  taking  the  box  is  a  chance 
for  the  other  players,  called  a  main, 
which  must  be  above  4,  and  not 
exceeding  nine.  Consequently  he 
must  continue  throwing  until  he 
produces  5,  G,  7,  8,  or  9.  The 
holder  of  the  box  then  throws  for 
his  own  chance,  which  must  be 
above  3,  and  not  exceeding  10. 
Should  he  at  the  first  throw  produce 
two  aces,  termed  crabs,  he  loses  his 
stake,  whatever  the  main  may  be. 
After  throwing  the  main  and  his 
own  chance,  the  caster  continues 
until  one  or  the  other  is  repeated. 

Should  the  main  be  7,  and  the 
caster  throw  7  or  11  immediately 
after,  it  is  called  a  nick,  and  he 
wins.  If  8  be  the  main,  and  the 
caster  produces  in  the  next  throw 
8  or  12,  he  scores  a  nick,  and  wins. 
Similarly,  6  being  the  main,  he 
would  also  win  on  the  nick  by 
throwing  6  or  12.  11  is  crabs  to 
every  other  main  but  7  ;  and  12  is 
crabs  to  all  mains  but  6  or  8.  The 
players  place  their  money  upon  the 
table,  and  the  caster  indicates 
which  particular  person's  stake  he 
is  throwing  against  by  knocking 
the  box  on  the  table  immediately 
in  front  of  it ;  or,  he  may  offer  to 
throw  against  all  stakes  laid  within 
a  certain  circle. 

Hazaribagh.  Dist.,  subdiv.,  and 
town  of  Bihar  and  Orissa,  India, 
in  Chota  Nagpur  Division.  It 
has  an  area  of  7,021  sq.  m.,  of 
which  about  one-third  is  under 
cultivation,  rice  being  the  chief 
crop.  Hazaribagh  is  the*  centre  of  a 
considerable  coal  industry,  Giridih 
being  one  of  the  most  important 


coalfields  in  the  country,  while  the 
Bokaro-Ramgarh  field  promises  to 
be  of  great  importance.  Exports 
include  coal  and  coke,  while  food 
grains  and  cotton  piece-goods  are 
imported.  Hazaribagh  town  is 
of  little  commercial  importance. 
Pop.,  dist.,  1,288,600;  town,  17,000. 

Haze.  Low  visibility  of  the 
atmosphere,  usually  due  to  dust  or 
smoke.  Haze  is  commonly  ex- 
perienced over  most  of  the  land 
surfaces  of  low  elevation,  but  is 
rarely  observed  over  the  oceans 
and  on  high  mountains,  as  in  these 
regions  the  air  is  free  from  dust  of 
any  kind.  Fine  particles  of  dust 
carried  from  desert  areas  by  the 
wind,  and  the  smoke  from  forest 
fires  or  burning  peat  bogs,  as  well 
as  that  due  to  factories,  etc.,  often 
cause  a  hazs  which  extends  over 
hundreds  of  square  miles.  Haze  is 
most  commonly  experienced  during 
spells  of  dry  weather,  because  rain 
washes  dust  from  the  air,  which 
is  almost  invariably  clearer  after 
a  shower.  Haze  due  to  these  causes 
must  not  be  confused  with  the  haze 
due  to  a  damp  atmosphere  which 
is,  in  reality,  an  incipient  fog.  See 
Atmosphere. 

Hazebrouck.  Town  of  France, 
capital  of  an  arrondissement,  in 
the  dept.  of  Nord.  An  important 
rly.  junction,  it  lies  on  the 
canalised  river  Bourre,  32  m. 
W.N.W.  of  Lille.  Among  its  in- 
dustries are  tanning  and  flax 
spinning,  and  the  manufacture  of 
oil  and  soap.  It  was  an  important 
strategic  centre  and  railhead  in  the 
Great  War.  The  Germans  shelled  it 
at  the  end  of  1917  by  a  long-range 
gun,  and  in  April,  1918,  it  was 
seriously  threatened  by  the  German 
advance,  and  its  civilian  popula- 
tion was  evacuated.  The  town 
was  freed  from  danger  of  further 
destruction  by  the  German  with- 
drawal on  to  Armentieres  in  Sept., 
1918.  Pop.  12,500. 

Hazel  (Corylus  avellana).  Large 
shrub  of  the  natural  order  Amen- 
taceae.  It  is  a  native  of  Europe,  N. 
Africa,  and  temperate  Asia.  The 
leaves  are  alternate  in  two  rows, 
roundish,  with  an  unequal  heart- 
shaped  base,  doubly  toothed.  The 
male  flowers  are  in  long,  pendulous 
catkins,  formed  in  Sept.,  and 
mature  in  Feb.  ;  the  females  re- 
semble leaf-buds,  with  the  crimson 
thread-like  styles  protruding.  The 
fruit  is  a  sweet,  oily  nut,  enclosed 
in  ft  woody  shell,  and  this  in  a  large, 
leathery  bract.  Filberts,  cob-nuts, 
Barcelona,  and  Spanish  nuts  are 
all  varieties  of  this  species.  See  Bud. 
Hazel  Grove.  Urban  dist.,  in 
lull  Hazel  Grove  and  Bramhall, 
of  Cheshire,  England.  It  is  2  m. 
S.E.  of  Stockport,  on  the  L.  &  N.W. 
&  Mid.  Rlys.  There  are  silk  throw- 


Sir  John  D.  Hazen, 
Canadian  politician 


Hazel.     Leaves,  nuts,  catkins,  and 
female  Sower 

ing  and  cotton  industries.  Stock- 
port  provides  the  district  with 
water  and  gas.  Pop.  9,630. 

Hazen,  SIR  JOHN  DOUGLAS  (b. 
1860).  Canadian  politician.  Born 
June  5,  1860,  at  Oromocto,  New 
Brunswick,  he  was  educated  at  the 
collegiate  school,  Fredericton,  and 
the  provincial  university.  In  1883 
lie  became  a  banister,  and  began 
to  practise  in 
Fredericton,  of 
which  city  he 
was  mayor  in 
J889.  In  1891 
he  was  elected 
to  the  Domi- 
nion Parlia- 
ment as  Con- 
servative 
member  for  St. 
John,  but  lost 
*«•""  his  seat  in 

1896.  He  entered  the  legislature 
of  New  Brunswick,  and  in  1899  was 
chosen  leader  of  the  opposition. 

In  1908  his  party  was  returned 
to  power,  and  he  became  prime 
minister  and  attorney-general.  In 
1911  he  was  again  elected  to  the 
Dominion  House  of  Commons,  and 
entered  Borden's  cabinet  as  min- 
ister of  marine  and  fisheries.  In 
1917  he  resigned  to  become  Canada's 
permanent  commissioner  at  Wash- 
ington. In  1918  he  was  knighted, 
and  in  1919  was  appointed  chief 
justice  of  Newfoundland. 

Hazleton.  City  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, U.S.A.,  in  Luzerne  co.  Situ- 
ated 1,630  ft.  high,  it  is  a  popular 
summer  resort,  28  m.  S.S.W.  of 
Wilkesbarre,  on  the  Lehigh  Valley 
and  other  rlys.  It  contains  a  public 
library,  a  high  school,  and  a  .state 
hospital  for  miners.  The  centre  of 
one  of  the  most  valuable  anthracite 
regions  in  the  U.S.A.,  it  trades  ex- 
tensively in  that  mineral,  and  has 


HAZLITT 


3891 


HAZOR 


also  ironworks,  knitting,  lumber 
and  planing  mills,  and  silk,  shirt, 
and  macaroni  factories.  It  was 
settled  in  1820,  incorporated  in 
1856,  and  chartered  as  a  city  in 
1892.  Pop.  27,510. 

Hazlitt,  WILLIAM  (1778-1830). 
British  essayist  and  critic.  Son  of 
William  Hazlitt  (1737-1820),  a 
Unitarian  minister,  of  Irish  de- 
scent, he  was  born  in  Mitre  Lane, 
Maidstone,  Kent,  April  10,  1778. 
He  was  in  Boston,  U.S.A.,  with  his 
parents,  1783-86.  In  1787-93  he 
was  living  with  them  at  Wem, 
Shropshire.  A  student  in  Hackney 
Theological  College,  1793-94,  he 
abandoned  the  idea  of  a  ministerial 
career  in  179Y,  met  Coleridge  at 
Wem,  Jan.,  1798,  and  on  visiting 
him  at  Stowey  in  the  following 
spring  was  introduced  to  Words- 
worth. He  studied  art  1798-1805 
(in  Paris  in  1802),  painted  portraits 
of  Hartley  Coleridge,  Wordsworth, 
and  Charles  Lamb ;  and  displayed 
a  bent  towards  the  study  of  meta- 
physics. 

His  earlier  work  included  an 
Essay  on  the  Principles  of  Human 
Action,  being  an  argument  in 
favour  of  the  natural  disinterested- 
ness of  the  Human  Mind,  1805,  the 
outcome  of  an  inquiry  in  which  he 
was  encouraged  by  Coleridge  ;  Free 
Thoughts  on  Public  Affairs,  1806  ; 
an  abridgment  of  Abraham  Tucker's 
Light  of  Nature,  1807  ;  and  Elo- 
quence of  the  British  Senate,  a 
selection  of  parliamentary  speeches 
with  notes,  1807.  On  May  1,  1808, 
at  S.  Andrew's,  Holborn,  he  married 
Sarah  Stoddart,  and  settled  at 
Winterslow,  near  Salisbury,  Wilts, 
which  gave  its  name  to  a  volume 
of  his  essays  issued  in  1839. 

Coming  to  London,  1812,  he  lec- 
tured at  the  Russell  Institution  on 
The  Rise  and  Progress  of  Modern 
Philosophy.  He  was  parliamentary 
reporter  and  dramatic  critic  of  The 
Morning  Chronicle,  1812-14,  and  be- 
gan to  contribute  to  The  Champion, 
The  Examiner,  and  The  Edinburgh 
Review  in  1814.  He  published  The 
Round  Table  essays  and  Charac- 
ters of  Shakespeare's  Plays,  1817  ; 
A  View  of  the  English  Stage,  1818  ; 
Lectures  on  the  English  Poets, 
1818;  on  the  English  Comic 
Writers,  1819  ;  and  on  the  Drama- 
tic Literature  of  the  Age  of  Eliza- 
beth (delivered  at  the  Surrey  Insti- 
tution), 1820.  He  joined  the  staff 
of  The  London  Magazine,  his  essays 
in  which  appeared  in  Table  Talk, 
2  vols.,  1821-22. 

The  years  1822-23  were  notable 
for  his  visit  to  Scotland  to  secure  a 
divorce ;  his  temporary  if  passion- 
ate attachment  to  Sarah  Walker, 
one  of  the  two  daughters  of  a  Mr. 
Walker,  in  whose  house  at  9,  South- 
ampton Buildings,  Chancery  Lane, 


he  took  lodgings  in  1820,  which  in- 
spired his  morbidly  egotistical  Liber 
Amoris,  or  the  New  Pygmalion, 
1823,  new  ed.  by  R.  Le  Gallienne, 
1894  ;  and  the  issue  of  Characteris- 
tics in  the  manner  of  Rochefou- 
cauld's Maxims.  In  1824  he  married 
the  widow  of  Col.  Bridgewater,  and 
travelled  with  her  in  France  and 
Italy,  but  was  left  by  her  on  the 
return  journey. 

A  series  of  personal  sketches  of 
contemporaries,  The  Spirit  of  the 
Age,  appeared  in  1825  ;  Notes 
of  a  Journey  through  France  and 
Italy,  and  The  Plain  Speaker, 
Opinions  on  Books,  Men  andThing.s, 
2  vols.,  in  1826;  Life  of  Napo- 
leon Buonaparte,  4  vols.,  1828-30  ; 
and  Conversations  of  James  North- 
cote,  1830.  His  other  works  include 
A  Character  of  Mr.  Burke,  1807  ;  A 
New  and  Improved  Grammar  of 


From  a  miniature  by  his  brother  John 

the  English  Tongue,  1810;  Me- 
moirs of  the  Late  Thomas  Holcroft, 
1816  ;  and  Sketches  of  the  Principal 
Picture  Galleries  of  England,  1824. 
Ill -health  and  monetary  troubles 
darkened  his  later  years,  but  his 
last  words,  uttered  just  before  he 
died  at  his  lodgings  in  Frith 
Street,  London,  Sept.  18, 1830,  were, 
"  Well,  I've  had  a  happy  life."  He 
was  buried  in  the  churchyard  of  S. 
Anne's,  Soho.  He  left  a  son,  William. 
Hazlitt's  life  was  rather  sordid 
and  stormy.  His  domestic  relations 
were  unhappy  ;  at  one  period,  when 
he  was  on  The  Morning  Chronicle, 
he  gave  way  to  intemperance,  facts 
of  which  those  of  his  critics  who 
were  politically  opposed  to  him 
took  provocative  advantage.  He 
participated  in  the  hopes  which 
formed  the  legacy  of  the  last  decade 
of  the  18th  century ;  when  those 
hopes  were  shattered,  the  reaction 
made  him  a  bitter  critic  of  hu- 
manity. Politically  he  was  a  demo- 
crat ;  he  adhered  to  certain  dog- 


mas imbibed  in  his  youth,  but  kept 
his  often  violent  political  preju- 
dices apart  from  his  literary  esti- 
mates. He  is  in  the  first  rank  of 
English  literary  critics ;  his  literary 
judgements,  generally,  are  the 
judgements  of  posterity.  His  style, 
which  varies  in  harmony  with  his 
subject,  is  wholly  admirable. 

W.  P.  Aitken 

Bibliography.  Works,  ed.  A.  R. 
Waller  and  A.  Glover,  with  Intro,  by 
W.  E.  Henley,  13  vols.,  1902-6'; 
My  Friends  and  Acquaintances,  P. 
G.  Patmore,  1854  ;  Memoirs,  W. 
C.  Hazlitt,  2  vols.,  1867  ;  Four 
Generations  of  a  Literary  Family, 
W.  C.  Hazlitt,  1897;  Hazlitt,  A. 
Birrell,  1902  ;  Hazlitt  on  English 
Literature,  J.  Zeitlin,  1913. 

Hazlitt,  WILLIAM  CABEW  (1834- 
1913).  British  author.  Bora  in 
London,  Aug.  23, 1834,  he  was  a  son 
of  William  Hazlitt  (1811-93)  and  a 
grandson  of  the  essayist.  His 
father,  who  was  a  registrar  of  the 
court  of  bankruptcy,  1854-91,  did 
a  good  deal  of  literary  work.  Edu- 
cated at  Merchant  Taylors'  School, 
William  Carew  Hazlitt  was  called 
to  the  bar  at  the  Inner  Temple,  1 86 1 . 
For  a  short  time  he  studied  civil 
engineering  under  George  and  John 
Rennie,  but  devoted  most  of  his  life 
to  literary  and  antiquarian  pursuits. 
He  died  Sept.  8,  1913.  A  volu- 
minous writer,  he  edited  Shake- 
speare Jest  Books,  1864  ;  Brand's 
Popular  Antiquities,  1870 ;  War- 
ton's  History  of  English  Poetry, 
1871  ;  Dodsley's  Old  Plays,  1874- 
76  ;  Shakespeare  Library,  1875  ; 
Letters  of  Charles  Lamb,  1886 ;  and 
Cotton's  translation  of  Montaigne's 
Essays,  1902. 

He  compiled  English  Proverbs 
and  Proverbial  Phrases,  3rd  ed. 
1906  ;  and  was  the  author  of  Me- 
moirs of  William  Hazlitt,  1867  ; 
Handbook  of  Early  English  Litera- 
ture, 1867  ;  Bibliographical  Col- 
lections and  Notes,  1876-1904 ; 
Schools,  School  Books,  and  School- 
masters, 1888.;  Studies  in  Jocular 
Literature,  1890;  The  Lambs, 
1897  ;  Four  Generations  of  a  Liter- 
ary Family,  1897  ;  Lamb  and  Haz- 
litt, 1900  ;  The  Venetian  Republic, 
3rd  ed.  1900  ;  The  Book  Collector, 
1904 ;  Faiths  and  Folklore,  1905  ; 
and  Shakespeare  :  Himself  and  His 
Work,  3rd  ed.  1908. 

Hazor  OB  HAZUR.  Name  of 
several  places  in  Palestine.  The 
most  important  was  a  citv  in 
Naphtali  (Josh,  xi,  1),  a  little  S. 
of  Kedesh,  which  had  a  king 
named  Jabin.  It  was  taken  and 
destroyed  by  Joshua,  but  having 
been  rebuilt  was  fortified  by  Solo- 
mon (1  Kings  ix,  15).  It  was  after- 
wards taken  by  Tiglath  Pileser, 
king  of  Assyria  (2  Kings  xv,  29). 
Another  Hazor,  known  as  Hazor 
of  Benjamin,  is  now  represented 


3892 


HE  AD- DEFORM  ATI  ON 


by  a  ruin  to  the  N.  of  Jerusalem 
(Neh.  xi,  33).  The  kingdom  of 
Hazor  was  a  district  in  Arabia.  It 
is  mentioned  in  Jeremiah  (xlix,  28), 
but  little  else  is  known  about  it. 

H.E.  Abbrev.  for  His  Excellency; 
His  Eminence ;  High  Explosive. 

Head.  Part  of  the  body  of  an 
animal  which  contains  the  brain 
and  organs  of  special  sense.  The 
head  is  divided  by  anatomists  into 
the  face  and  the  cranium,  which 
contains  the  brain  and  is  covered 
by  the  scalp.  (See  Brain  ;  Ear  ; 
Eye  ;  Face  ;  Scalp  ;  Skull.) 

The  word  has  many  other  uses, 
mostly  derived  from  its  main  one. 
Thus,  the  chief  person  in  a  society 
is  frequently  known  as  the  head, 
this  title  being  given  to  the  chief 
boy  in  a  school  or  form  ;  the  head- 
master is  frequently  called  simply 
the  head.  It  is  used  for  the  top  or 
end  of  anything,  examples  being 
the  head  of  a  nail,  the  head  on  a 
pot  of  beer,  a  head  of  water,  the 
head  of  a  river.  The  head  is  that 
side  of  a  coin  which  bears  the  figure 
of  a  head,  while  it  is  used  as  a 
synonym  for  beasts,  as  in  the 
phrase  5,000  head  of  cattle. 

Head,    SIR   EDMUND    WALKER 
(1805-68).     British  administrator. 
The  son  of  Sir  John  Head,  Bart., 
he     was     edu- 
1    cated  at  Win- 
M  j   Chester      and 

%    \    Oriel    College, 
fW    !    Oxford.     For 
__       ;    some  years  he 
;    was  a  tutor  at 
Oxford;    he 
was  also  called 
to  the  bar.    In 
1838    he    suc- 
ceeded to  the 
baronetcy  and 
in   1841    en- 

Aflcr  G.  Richmond  tered    ^    ^j 

service  as  a  poor  law  commissioner. 
In  1847  he  was  made  lieutenant- 
governor  of  New  Brunswick,  and 
from  1854-61  was  governor-general 
of  Canada.  On  his  return  to 
England  he  became  a  civil  service 
commissioner.  Head,  who  died 
Jan.  28,  1868,  was  also  known  as  a 
writer  on  art. 

Head,  SIR  FRANCIS  BOND  (1793- 
1875).  British  administrator.  Born 
at  Hermitage,  near  Rochester,  Jan. 
1,     1793,     and 
educated  there 
and  at    Wool- 
wich, he   was 
gazetted  into 
the  Royal  En- 
gineers in  1811. 
Serving  in  the 
Mediterranean 
and     through 

t  h  e    Waterloo      sir  Frsfocis  Head, 
campaign,    h  e    British  administrator 
retired    from          AfterN.cook 


the  service  in  1825,  and  on  his  re- 
turn from  a  brief  visit  to  S.  America 
wrote  his  Rough  Notes  of  a  Journey 
in  the  Pampas  and  Andes.  In 
1835  he  was  appointed  lieutenant- 
governor  of  Upper  Canada,  where 
his  administration  proved  a  con- 
spicuous success.  He  resigned  in 
1837  and  settled  in  England,  where 
he  became  a  regular  contributor  to 
The  Quarterly  Review.  Made  a 
baronet  in  1836,  in  1867  he  became 
a  privy  councillor.  He  died  at 
Croydon,  July  20,  1875. 

Head's  elder  brother,  Sir  George 
Head  (1782-1855),  served  for 
many  years  in  the  commissariat 
department  of  the  army.  He  wrote 
several  books  and,  like  his  brother, 
contributed  much  to  The  Quarterly 
Review.  He  died  May  2,  1855. 

Headache.  Pain  in  the  head. 
It  is  a  symptom  of  a  large  number 
of  pathological  conditions. 

Arterio-sclerosis,  thickening  of 
the  coais  of  the  arteries,  is  most 
frequently  found  in  men  of  middle 
age  and  later,  and  is  associated  with 
gouty  tendencies,  Blight's  disease, 
affections  of  the  heart,  and  other 
disorders.  Treatment  of  headache 
due  to  this  disorder  is  to  relieve  the 
underlying  condition. 

In  chronic  dyspepsia  the  head- 
ache is  associated  with  furred 
tongue,  offensiveness  of  the  breath, 
constipation,  and  discomfort  after 
meald.  In  young  girls  the  condition 
is  often  associated  also  with  chlor- 
osis or  simple  anaemia.  Treat- 
ment of  the  underlying  condition 
will  relieve  the  headache. 

Headache  is  also  common  in  many 
forms  of  nervous  breakdown  such  as 
neurasthenia,  anxiety  neurosis,  and 
shell  shock.  The  headaches  abate 


Migraine  is  a  form  ol  severe 
headache,  the  exact  cause  of  which 
is  unknown.  It  may  begin  with 
sensations  of  chilliness,  and  there 
is  often  tingling  in  the  fingers  of 
one  hand.  The  vision  may  be 
blurred,  and  there  may  be  partial 
blindness.  Flashes  of  light  are  seen, 
and  there  may  be  coloured  zig-zag 
lines  of  "fortification"  figures  as 
they  are  termed.  Dizziness  some- 
times occurs,  while  nausea  and 
vomiting  are  common.  The  dura- 
tion of  the  attack  varies,  but 
usually  lasts  from  ,- 
one  to  three  p 
days.  Treatment  [ 
of  any  underlying  j 
bodily  disorder  is 
important.  Canna- 
bis  indica,  anti- 
febrin,  and  phen- 
acetin  may  be  ad- 
ministered. 


another  common  cause  of  headache. 
Treatment  should  be  directed  to- 
wards providing  suitable  glasses. 
Headaches  also  occur  from  tox- 
aemia in  fevers,  such  as  typhoid, 
malaria,  influenza,  tumours  and  dis- 
eases of  the  brain,  injuries  to  the 
head,  and  affections  of  the  ears  and 
nose. 

A  simple  headache,  the  result  of 
fatigue  or  overwork,  may  usually 
be  relieved  by  a  moderate  dose  of 
aspirin,  after  taking  which  the 
patient  should  lie  down  for  a  couple 
of  hours.  Frequently  recurring 
headaches  indicate  that  there  is 
some  constitutional  cause  which 
should  be  remedied. 

Head-Deformation.  Artificial 
modification  of  the  form  of  the 
human  skull.  Widespread  in 
primitive  society,  the  custom, 
usually  practised  within  the  first 
year  of  infancy,  may  have  origin- 
ated in  the  accidental  flattening 
of  the  back  of  the  head  by  cradle- 
boards  with  hard  supports  instead 
of  resilient  pillows.  Afterwards 
perpetuated  intentionally  as  a 
tribal  distinction,  it  developed  two 
types :  forehead  flattening  by 
head-boards,  to  emphasise  the 
broad-headed  skull,  and  sugar- 
loaf  elongation  by  tight  bandages, 
to  emphasise  the  long-headed  skull. 
Of  these  types,  traceable  among 
the  early  ancestors  of  the  Armeni- 
ans and  Kurds  respectively,  the 
latter  was  characteristic  of  the 
ancient  Crimean  peoples  whom 
Hippocrates  called  long-headed. 

These  deformities,  still  practised 
by  Borneo  Klemantans  or  land 
Dyak  and  some  Melanesians,  were 


Errors  of  refrac- 
tion leading  t  o 
eye-strain  are 


Head-Deformation.     Board  and  bandage  for  moulding 

the  shape  of  an  infant's  head,  Borneo.  Above,  deformed 

head  of  a  negro  baby  of  the  Algerian  interior 

Ethnographical  Collection,  Sritith  Museum 


Ten  examples  of  Greek  styles  employing  crowns,  diadems  and  combs 


Egyptian,   worn  in   religious   processions 


Greek,  left  to  right :   two  examples  of  leather  cap  (pilos) ;  two  Phrygian  caps  ;  veil  (kalyptra) 


Four  examples  of  elaborate  Greek  head-dresses  ;  in  the  centre  that  of  a  Phrygian  man 

HEAD-DRESS:    CLASSIC   TYPES   ON   WHICH    FASHIONS    HAVE   BEEN    FOUNDED    FOR    THREE 

THOUSAND   YEARS 

From  Costumes  of  the  Ancients,  Thomas  Hope 


HEAD-DRESS 


3894 


HEADQUARTERS 


carried  across  the  Pacific  to 
America.  There  they  occurred 
among  the  ancient  Maya,  Aymara 
and  other  peoples,  their  alien 
origin  being  confirmed  by  their 
absence  from  the  Eskimo,  Atha- 
pascan and  Algonquin  regions. 
Forehead-flattening  was  observed 
by  the  Natchez  and  some  N.W. 
Pacific  tribes  such  as  the  Chinook  ; 
S.  American  Indians  still  practise 
conical  deformation  here  and  there. 
Cranial  disfigurements  are  not 
transmitted,  and  do  not  appear  to 
affect  mental  vigour. 

Head-dress.  Anything  worn 
upon  the  hair  or  pate.  Head- 
ornament,  amuletic  or  decorative, 
was  probably  devised  by  pre- 
historic man  prior  to  protective 
coverings.  In  an  upper  palaeo- 
lithic cave  at  Mentone  a  male  skull 
was  found,  adorned  with  stag's 
teeth,  fish-bones  and  pierced  shells. 
On  Spanish  cave-portraits  horns 
and  feathers  are  shown.  Fur  caps 
may  also  have  been  used  in  that 
age ;  a  neolithic  site  in  Denmark 
has  yielded  a  woollen  cap. 

Primitive  forms  of  head-dress, 
governed  by  the  formation  of  the 
hair  and  climatic  conditions, 
include  dressed  hair,  decorated 
hair,  headbands,  chaplets,  brim- 
less  caps,  brimmed  hats,  hoods  and 
veils.  The  hair  may  be  dyed; 
stiffened  with  protective  materials, 
such  as  S.  African  ochre  and  grease, 
Upper  Congo  soot  and  palm-oil, 
Latuka  interwoven  bark  or  twine ; 
or  shorn  and  replaced  by  a  wig. 
Decoration  is  widespread ;  with 
teeth  or  bushy  animal  tails,  as  in 
Australia;  flowers,  as  in  Polynesia 
and  Burma ;  and  leaves  or  gems. 

Head-bands  of  skin,  bone  or 
fibre,  used  by  Andamanese,  Aus- 
tralians, Bushmen  and  Fuegians, 
suggest  an  ultimate  palaeolithic 
origin,  and  passed  in  the  higher 
civilizations  into  turbans  and  dia- 
dems. Sometimes  employed  for  the 
suspension  of  burdens,  they  permit 
of  the  attachment  of  beads,  cowries, 
rams'  horns,  wood  shavings — as 
with  the  Ainu — and  especially  of 
feathers.  These  form  the  tribal  or 
social  badges  of  many  peoples, 
such  as  the  ancient  Egyptian  and 
modern  Bari  ostrich  tips,  Aztec 
trogon  or  quezal  tails,  Naga  horn- 
bill  tail-feathers,  Papuan  paradise 
plumes,  Maori  huia  feathers,  and 
N.  American  Indian  eagle  bonnets. 
Chaplets  of  grass  are  -worn  by 
Malacca  Sakai,  flowers  by  Poly- 
nesians, leaves  in  ancient  Greece, 
jewels  in  E.  Tibet. 

For  skull-caps  Hottentot  women 
use  fur,  Nilotic  peoples  beads  with 
cowry  rims,  Samoan  chiefs'  heirs 
fibre  caps  covered  with*  women's 
hair.  Tall  hats,  among  the  Kavi- 
rondo,  sometimes  reach  6  ft. 


Broad-brimmed  hats  especially 
characterise  S.  E.  Asia.  The  Pana- 
ma hat  reached  Central  America 
through  medieval  Spain  and  Mo- 
rocco from  pre-Christian  Egypt. 
Hoods  are  found  among  Eskimo 
and  some  Malay  women ;  veils 
among  most  Moslem  women  and 
Tuareg  men.  From  remote  times 
head-dresses  have  been  symbols  of 
social  or  professional  distinction, 
whether  it  be  the  helmets  of 
warrior  chiefs,  the  coronals  of 
married  women,  or  those  affected 
by  medicine-men,  priests,  head- 
men or  kings. 

The  head-dress  of  women  has 
ranged  through  every  degree  of 
design  from  simple  to  absurdly 
elaborate.  Among  the  wealthier 
Anglo-Saxons  it  consisted  of  a 
headrail  or  coverchief,  often  con- 
fined by  a  fillet  of  gold  and  envelop- 
ing head  and  shoulders  and 
descending  to  the  knees.  In  the 
14th  and  15th  centuries  the  so- 
called  steeple  or  horned  head-dress 
appeared  ;  this  assumed  immense 
proportions,  varying  from  18  ins. 
to  3  ft.  in  height.  It  was  intro- 
duced from  France,  where  a 
similar  style  is  still  worn  by  some 
of  the  peasantry.  In  England  this 
was  succeeded  by  the  hood,  and 
by  the  bonnet  of  Elizabethan  times. 

The  reign  of  William  III  was 
marked  by  the  towering  head- 
dresses, or  fontange,  worn  by 
women.  Towards  1800  enormously 
high  hair-dressing  became  fashion- 
able, and  a  curious  hood,  termed  a 
calash,  was  introduced.  This  was 
made  on  the  lines  of  the  hood  of  a 
carriage,  being  supported  by  a 
framework  of  whalebone  and  pulled 
over  the  face  by  means  of  a  string. 
See  Cap ;  Costume ;  Hat. 

Headfort,  MARQUESS  OF.  Irish 
title  borne  since  1800  by  the  family 
of  Taylour.  Thomas  Taylour,  an 
Irish  M.P.  and  a  landowner  in 
Meath,  was  made  a  baronet  in 
1704.  His  grandson,  Sir  Thomas, 
was  made  Baron  Headfort  in  1760 
and  earl  of  Bective  in  1766.  The 
2nd  earl  was  made  a  marquess  in 
1800,  this  being  one  of  the  peerages 
bestowed  to  facilitate  the  passing 
of  the  Act  of  Union.  In  1831  the 
2nd  marquess  was  made  a  baron 
of  the  United  Kingdom.  Headfort 
is  in  Meath,  where  the  marquess 
has  his  residence.  His  eldest  son  is 
known  as  earl  of  Bective. 

Head-hunting.  Custom  among 
some  primitive  peoples  of  slaying 
strangers  or  enemies  in  order  to 
utilise  their  heads  as  cult-objects 
or  trophies.  As  developed  out  of 
human  sacrifice  by  the  Austric- 
speaking  peoples  of  S.E.  Asia  and 
its  archipelagos,  its  animistic  pur- 
pose was  partly  spirit-worship, 
partly  a  productive  rite.  Until 


recent  years  it  was  practised 
mostly  by  ceremonial  expeditions, 
in  Austroasia  (Naga,  Wa) ;  Indo- 
nesia (Dyak,  Igorot,  primitive 
Formosans);  Melanesia  (Solomon 
islands)  ;  Polynesia  (Maori).  Sea 
Dyak  and  Formosans  engrafted 
upon  it  the  derivative  purpose  of 
qualifying  for  manhood  and  mar- 
riage. In  negro  Africa — Nigeria, 
Togoland,  upper  Congo — the  cus- 
tom presents  local  variations.  See 
Head  Hunters:  Black,  White  and 
Brown,  A.  C.  Haddon,  1901 ;  Home  , 
Life  of  Borneo  Head-hunters,  W. 
H.  Furness,  1902;  The  Tailed 
Head-hunters  of  Nigeria,  A.  J.  N. 
Tremearne,  1912. 

Headingley.  Suburb  of  Leeds, 
England.  In  the  N.  of  the  city,  it 
is  a  residential  district,  and  has  a 
station  on  the  N.E.  Rly.,  and  tram- 
ways. The  corporation  has  a  pump- 
ing station  here.  See  Leeds. 

Headmaster.  Name  given  in 
Great  Britain  and  elsewhere  to  the 
principal  of  a  public  or  other 
school  for  boys,  although  a  special 
name,  e.g.  rector,  is  used  hi  certain 
cases.  In  addition  to  the  Head- 
masters' Conference,  there  is  in 
Great  Britain  the  incorporated 
association  of  headmasters.  Estab- 
lished in  1890,  and  incorporated  in 
1895,  this  consists  of  many  of  the 
headmasters  of  public  secondary 
schools  in  Great  Britain.  The 
offices  are  37,  Norfolk  Street, 
Strand,  London,  W.C. 

Headmasters'  Conference.  As- 
sociation of  headmasters  of 
public  schools  in  Great  Britain. 
Edward  Thring,  headmaster  of 
Uppingham,  inaugurated  it  in 
1869  by  calling  a  meeting  of  head- 
masters at  his  house  to  form  "a 
school  society  and  annual  confer- 
ence." Since  then  meetings  have 
been  held,  generally  every  year,  in 
Jan.,  and  matters  of  interest  to 
educationists  discussed.  In  1919 
the  conference  numbered  122  mem- 
bers. It  was  incorporated  in  1909, 
and  the  offices  are  at  12,  King's 
Bench  Walk,  Temple,  London,  E.G. 

Headquarters.  Centre  of  an  or- 
ganization whence  instructions  are 
supplied  to  subordinates,  and  the 
entire  enterprise  controlled.  In 
military  organization,  most  units 
have  their  headquarters  abbrevi- 
ated to  H.Q.,  which  receive  instruc- 
tions from  a  higher  H.Q.  During 
the  Great  War  the  chain  of  commu- 
nication descending  from  general 
headquarters  (G.H.Q. )  was  to  army, 
corps,  division,  brigade,  battalion, 
and  company  headquarters.  Each 
H.Q.  must  be  in  a  sufficiently 
central  position  behind  its  line  to 
control  effectively  the  whole  front 
for  which  it  is  responsible. 

In  a  commercial  undertaking, 
headquarters  is  sometimes  applied 


HEAD      RESISTANCE 


3895 


HEANOR 


to  the  central  offices  of  the  board 
of  management,  whence  the  busi- 
ness can  be  run  in  all  its  ramifi- 
cations. See  Staff. 

Head  Resistance.  Air  resist- 
ance encountered  by  aircraft, 
whether  heavier-than-air  or  lighter- 
than-air,  in  flight  (q.v.).  The  pres- 
sure in  front  and  the  suction  behind 
both  enter  into  head  resistance. 
To  counteract  it  every  flying  ma- 
chine and  airship,  and  as  many 
exposed  parts,  fittings,  etc.,  are 
stream-lined  as  far  as  possible. 

Headrigg,  CUDDIE  (CUTHBERT). 
Character  in  Scott's  novel  Old 
Mortality,  the  ploughman  at  Tillie- 
tudlem  (Craignethan  Castle),  who 
enters  the  service  of  the  hero 
Henry  Morton.  He  shoots  the 
turncoat,  Basil  Olifant,  and  so 
restores  Lady  Margaret  Bellenden 
to  her  fortune  and  castle,  and  him- 
self to  his  original  cottage. 

Head  Voice.  Highest  part  of  a 
human  voice,  so  called  because  the 
sensation  is  as  of  sounds  origin- 
ating in  the  upper  part  of  the  head. 
The  term  is  sometimes  used  syn- 
onymously with  Falsetto  (q.v.). 
See  Chest  Voice  ;  Singing  ;  Voice. 

Health.  Sound  condition  of  the 
entire  animal  organism  in  which 
all  the  organs  function  perfectly. 
The  word  preserves  the  A.S. 
hnelth,  as  to  heal  preserves  Melan, 
both  from  hdl,  hale,  safe  or 
sound.  (See  Public  Health  ;  Insur- 
ance, National  Health.) 

The  widespread  custom  of 
drinking  healths  derives  from  the 
ancient  religious  ceremony  of  pour- 
ing libations  to  the  gods,  originally 
at  the  time  of  offering  sacrifice,  and 
afterwards  on  solemn  occasion^,  as 
at  ceremonial  feasts.  This  custom 
was  practised  by  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  and  with  other  heathen 
customs  was  adapted  to  their  own 
use  by  many  Christianised  peoples. 
The  heathen  tribute  of  honour  to 
the  gods,  followed  by  one  to  the 
memory  of  the  dead,  became  among 
Christians  invocations  to  God  and 
to  the  saints.  From  thought  of  the 
blessed  dead  it  was  a  natural  tran- 
sition to  tender  thought  of  absent 
but  living  friends,  and  from  them 
again  to  the  friends  present  in  the 
flesh. 

The  same  sacramental  aspect  of 
the  wine -cup  is  seen  in  the  ancient 
custom  of  princes  and  knights 
pledging  mutual  amity  by  drinking 
to  the  health  of  one  another.  In 
course  of  time  the  formality  lost 
much  of  its  significance,  and  in  the 
1 7th,  18th,  and  19th  centuries  the 
merely  social  custom  became  so 
tyrannical  in  the  strictness  of  its 
etiquette,  to  say  nothing  of  the 
extravagant  absurdities  attendant 
upon  the  proposal  of  a  toast  (q.v. ), 
that  by  common  consent  the  toast- 


list,  or  number  of  healths  formally 
drunk  at  banquets,  has  now  been 
reduced  to  the  narrowest  limits. 

Still,  however,  traces  survive  of 
long-ago  days  when  the  pledge  of 
friendship  symbolised  by  drinking 
to  mutual  health  was  not  exchanged 
without  mutual  suspicion.  Thus 
the  glass  bottom  to  a  pewter  mug 
provides  the  drinker  with  oppor- 
tunity of  watching  for  a  stealthy 
blow  ;  and  when  the  loving-cup  is 
passed  round,  one  guest  holds  the 
cover  in  his  dagger-hand  while  his 
neighbour  drinks  to  him,  or  if  the 
cup  be  lidless,  the  guest  who 
drinks  is  guarded  on  either  hand 
by  his  next  neighbour,  all  three 
standing  simultaneously. 

Health,  BOARD  OF.  Board  estab- 
lished by  the  Public  Health  Act  of 
1848,  its  duties  being  to  supervise 
the  various  measures  for  protecting 
the  health  of  the  people.  In  1854 
it  was  reorganized,  but  came  to  an 
end  in  1858,  when  much  of  its  work 
was  transferred  to  the  home  office. 
In  1871  this  passed  to  the  new 
local  government  board,  which 
remained  the  central  authority  for 
matters  affecting  the  health  of  the 
people  until  it  was  abolished  in 
1919,  being  superseded  by  the 
ministry  of  health. 

Health,  BOARD  or.  Public  de- 
partment in  Scotland.  It  is  the  suc- 
cessor of  the  Scottish  local  govern- 
ment board,  and  was  established  in 
1919  at  the  same  time  as  the  minis- 
try of  health  in  England  and  Wales. 
It  also  took  over  on  July  1,1919,  the 
staff  and  the  duties  of  the  national 
health  insurance  commission  for 
Scotland.  The  secretary  for  Scot- 
land is  the  president  of  the  board, 
and  the  offices  are  at  125,  George 
Street,  Edinburgh.  The  depart- 
ment of  the  ministry  of  health 
that  looks  after  the  affairs  of 
Wales  is  also  known  as  a  board  of 
health. 

Health,  MINISTRY  OF.  Depart- 
ment of  the  British  civil  service. 
The  Act  establishing  it  was  passed 
early  in  1919,  and  on  July  1  of 
that  year  the  ministry  took  over 
the  duties  formerly  performed  by 
the  local  government  board,  and 
the  work  of  the  national  health  in- 
surance commission,  with  their 
staffs  ;  also  certain  duties  with 
regard  to  the  health  of  the  children 
from  the  board  of  education,  and 
others  formerly  discharged  by  the 
privy  council.  Its  authority  is  con- 
fined to  England  and  Wales.  Its 
head  is  a  minister,  with  a  salary  of 
£5,000  a  year.  Other  officials  are  a 
parliamentary  secretary,  a  politi- 
cian, and  a  permanent  staff  under 
a  secretary.  It  employs  a  large 
staff  of  medical  men.  The  offices 
are  in  Whitehall,  London,  S.W. 
See  Local  Government  Board. 


Timothy  M.  Healy, 
Irish  politician 

Russell 


Health  Visitor.  Name  given  to 
persons  whose  duty  it  is  to  see  that 
the  laws  about  the  public  health 
and  sanitary  conditions  are  en- 
forced. Some  are  voluntary,  work- 
ing under  societies  for  the  promo- 
tion of  public  health,  of  which 
there  are  a  large  number  in  Eng- 
land and  Wales.  For  instance,  in 
1910  no  less  than  13  societies  were 
represented  at  a  conference.  Paid 
health  visitors  are  now  employed 
by  most  of  the  large  municipalities 
and  work  under  the  medical  officer 
of  health.  Their  duties,  like  those 
of  the  voluntary  workers,  are  con- 
cerned with  housing  conditions, 
the  care  of  infants  and  mothers, 
and  other  matters  affecting  public 
health.  See  Public  Health. 

Healy,  TIMOTHY  MICHAEL  (b. 
1855).  Irish  politician.  The  son  of 
Maurice  Healy  of  Bantry,  he  was 
called  to  the 
Irish  bar  in 
1884.  He  had 
already  en- 
tered the 
House  of  Com- 
mons in  1880 
as  Nationalist 
M.P.  for  Wex- 
ford,  and  he 
remained 
therein  until 
his  retirement 
from  politics  in  1918,  sitting  for  co. 
Monaghan,  1883-85;  S.  London- 
derry, 1885-86;  N.  Longford, 
1887-92;  N.  Louth,  1892-1910; 
and  N.E.  Cork,  1910-18. 

Healy 's  gifts  as  an  orator,  his 
wit  and  independence  soon  made 
him  a  prominent  figure  in  Parlia 
ment  and  in  the  Irish  party.  He 
became  an  anti-Parnellite  after  the 
split  of  1890,  but  in  1900  he  sup- 
ported reunion  under  John  Red- 
mond. He  was  expelled  from  the 
party  in  1900,  as  he  was  opposed 
to  the  United  Irish  League,  but  he 
was  readmitted  in  1908,  only,  how- 
ever, to  be  again  turned  out  in 
1910.  In  1883  he  served  a  term  oi 
imprisonment.  He  was  made  a 
Q.C.  in  1899  and  called  to  th< 
English  bar  in  1903.  He  became 
first  gor ^ftor-genera!  of  the  Irish 
Free  State  in  Dec.,  1922.  His 
brother  Maurice  was  a  Nationalist 
M.P.  from  1895  to  1900,  aud 
again  from  1909-18,  and  a 
nephew,  Thomas  Joseph,  fron 
1892-1900. 

Heanor.  Urban  dist.  and  market 
town  of  Derbyshire.  England.  It 
is  3£  m.  N.W.  of  Ilkeston  and 
is  served  by  the  Mid.  and  G.N. 
Rlys.  It  stands  on  the  Derby- 
shire coalfield,  and  the  industries 
are  coal-mining,  iron-founding, 
and  the  making  of  hosiery.  Heanor 
Hall  is  now  a  technical  school. 
Market  day,  Sat.  Pop.  15,300. 


HEARING 


3896 


HEARNE 


Hearing.  Term  used  for  the 
physiological  sensation  which  is 
caused  by  vibrations  which  excite 
the  auditory  nerve.  According  to 
Helmholtz's  theory  there  are  in  the 
ear  certain  vibrators  which  are 
tuned  to  varying  frequencies  of 
from  30  to  50,000  vibrations  a 
second  and  which  respond  to 
these  vibrations.  Each  vibrator 
can  excite  its  attached  nerve  fila- 
ments, and  when  it  does  so  an  im- 
pulse, which  the  brain  centres  are 
capable  of  distinguishing  or  speci- 
fying, is  transmitted  to  them. 

There  are  other  implied  at- 
tributes of  the  vibrators.  They 
must,  e.g.,  be  easily  set  in  motion, 
but  quickly  brought  to  rest.  They 
may,  by  the  amplitude  of  their  own 
vibrations,  signify  to  the  brain  the 
intensity  of  the  vibrations  im- 
pinging on  them,  and  evoke  the 
sensations  corresponding  to  loud- 
ness.  If  a  compound  wave  of 
sound  falls  on  the  vibrators,  they 
can  resolve  it  into  its  constituents, 
each  vibrator  picking  out  its  sym- 
pathetic vibration,  so  that  the  brain 
may  recognize  that  the  vibrations 
are  fused,  yet  may  be  sensible  of 
the  constituents  of  fusion.  The 
theory  compares  the  basilar  mem- 
brane of  the  ear  to  the  strings  of  a 
piano,  and  it  has  been  found  that 
there  are  between  16,000  and 
20,000  cross  fibres  in  the  mem- 
brane, sufficient  to  provide  the 
necessary  combinations  to  give 
Ihe  sounds  we  hear. 

There  are  many  difficulties  in  the 
acceptance  oi  tuis  theory  and  a 
number  of  others,  more  or  less 
plausible,  have  been  put  forward. 
The  Rutherford-Waller  or  "  tele- 
phone "  theory  treats  the  basilar 
membrane  of  the  ear  as  a  telephone 
membrane ;  while  Ebbinghaus 
considered  that  one  tone  set  in 
motion  not  only  certain  vibrators, 
but  others  harmonically  tuned  to 
them. 

In  order  to  produce  movement 
in  these  physiological  vibrators, 
the  vibrations  reaching  them  must 
be  of  sufficient  strength.  That 
the  necessary  strength  is  extremely 
small  may  be  realized  from  the 
fact  that  it  has  been  estimated 
that  the  ear  is  affected  by  atmo- 
spheric vibrations  of  a  wave  length 
comparable  to  that  of  the  wave 
length  of  light,  i.e.  the  energy  re- 
quired to  influence  the  ear  is  of  the 
same  order  of  magnitude  as  that 
which  produces  impressions  on 
the  retina  of  the  eye. 

The  human  ear  varies  in  its 
ability  to  detect  sounds  which  are 
produced  by  a  very  high  number 
of  vibrations,  a  falling  off  taking 
place  after  middle  age  ^  but  few 
ears  can  detect  more  than  30,000 
vibrations  a  second.  The  lower 


limit  is  about  30  a  second  ;  the 
higher  usually  38,000  a  second. 
Animals  are  capable  of  detecting 
vibrations  that  are  unheard  by 
human  beings,  and  Francis  Galton 
devised  a  dog  whistle  of  so  high  a 
note  of  vibration  that  only  his  dog 
could  hear  it.  The  Harlequin  fly 
responds  to  its  mate  by  a  vibratory 
apparatus  equivalent  to  a  sound 
receiver,  but  the  sound  is  quite 
beyond  human  ears.  It  has  been 
shown  by  Campbell  and  Dye  that 
there  are  "  sound  waves "  of 
800,000  vibrations  a  second. 

The  sensations  of  hearing  fall 
into  two  groups  classified  as 
noises  and  musical  sounds.  Noises 
are  caused  by  impulses  irregular  in 
intensity  or  duration;  musical 
notes  by  periodic  and  regular  vibra- 
tions. In  musical  tones  are  three 
characteristics :  intensity,  pitch, 
and  timbre  or  quality.  Intensity 
depends  on  the  amplitude  of  the 
vibration;  pitch,  on  the  number 
of  vibrations  in  a  given  time.  A 
high  note  has  many  vibrations  ;  a 
low  note  few.  Quality,  which  is 
the  characteristic  by  which  a  tone 
is  identified  as  proceeding  from  a 
particular  instrument,  or  a  par- 
ticular human  voice,  depends  on 
the  fact  that  many  waves  of  sound 
are  compound  waves,  built  up  of 
other  waves.  The  ear  has  the 
power  of  resolving  and  classifying 
these  waves.  Hearing  is  apparently 
very  little  affected  by  the  use  of 
one  or  both  ears,  though  un- 
doubtedly one  ear  corrects  the 
faults  of  the  other.  G.  T.  Fechner 
has  suggested  that  the  ears  per- 
ceive sounds  at  different  pitches, 
so  enabling  a  judgement  to  be 
formed  as  to  the  direction  and, 
in  many  cases,  distance  from  which 
sounds  are  coming. 

Hearing  is  not  universal  among 
animals,  there  being  no  reason  to 
suppose  such  a  sense  among  the 
lowest  vertebrates,  for  example. 
Spiders,  earthworms,  Crustacea, 
etc.,  have  been  supposed  to  show 
responses  to  auditory  stimuli.  In- 
sects have  not  been  proved  to 
show  any  sense  of  hearing,  though 
fishes,  which  possess  a  structure 
analogous  to  the  ear,  respond  to 
the  vibrations  of  a  tuning  fork. 

Though  such  animals  as  horses, 
dogs,  and  the  higher  vertebrates 
generally  have  a  sense  of  hearing, 
its  degree  and  range  has  not  yet 
been  fully  ascertained.  See  Ear  : 
Sound. 

Hearing.  In  law,  term  used  for 
the  judicial  procedure  in  any  law 
case.  Strictly  speaking,  the  term 
is  usually  confined  to  equity  cases, 
but  in  common  usage  it  applies  to 
the  hearing  of  any  lawsuit.  The 
word  is  also  used  for  a  sitting  of 
any  body  or  commission  appointed 


Lafcadio  Hearn, 

Writer  on 

Japan 


to  hear  the  evidence  for  and 
against  any  proposition.  See  Pro- 
cedure; Trial. 

Hearn,  LAFCADIO '(1856-1904). 
Author.  Born  in  Leucadia  (Santa 
Maura),  one  of  the  Ionian  Islands, 
he  was  the  son 
of  an  Irish 
Army  doctor 
by  a  Greek 
mother.  He  be- 
came a  journal - 
1st  in  the 
U.S.A.,  but  in 
1891  went  to 
Japan,  where 
he  was  profes- 
sor of  English  in 
the  university 
of  Tokyo,  1896-1903.  He  married  a 
Japanese  wife  and  became  natural- 
ised as  a  Japanese  subject.  Hearn 
wrote  with  singular  acuteness  and 
charm  on  the  people,  manners,  cus- 
toms, and  spirit  of  his  adopted  coun- 
try. His  works  include  Stray  Leaves 
from  Strange  Literature,  1884 ; 
Glimpses  of  Unfamiliar  Japan,  1894; 
Out  of  the  East,  1895;  Kokoro,  1890; 
Gleanings  in  Buddha  Fields,  1897; 
Exotics  and  Retrospections,  1898; 
Ghostly  Japan,  1899  ;  Shadowings, 
1900  ;  A  Japanese  Miscellany,  1901 ; 
Kotto,  or  Japanese  Curios,  1902  ; 
Japan :  an  Attempt  at  Interpreta- 
tion, 1904.  He  died  Sept,  23, 1904. 
See  Life  and  Letters  of  Lafcadio 
Hearn,  E.  Bisland,  1906. 

Hearne,  THOMAS  (1678-1735). 
English  antiquary.  Born  at  Little- 
field  Green,  Berkshire,  he  was  the 
son  of  the 
parish  clerk  of 
White  Walt- 
ham.  Com- 
pelled to  go 
out  to  work  as 
a  boy,  he  found 
a  patron  who 
sent  him  to 
school  at  Bray 

and  later  to  S.  Thomas  Hearne, 
Edmund  Hall,  English  antiquary 
Oxford,  where  after  graduating  he 
was  appointed  an  assistant  in  the 
Bodleian  Library.  In  1712  he  be- 
came second  keeper,  but  four  years 
later  was  compelled  to  relinquish 
his  position  owing  to  his  refusal  to 
take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the 
Hanoverians.  He  died  at  Oxford, 
June  10,  1735,  and  was  buried  there. 
His  principal  works  are  Reli- 
quiae Bodleianae,  1703,  and  a 
Collection  of  Curious  Discourses 
on  English  Antiquities,  1720.  He 
edited  Leland's  Itinerary,  1710-12, 
and  many  other  works.  Extracts 
from  his  voluminous  diaries  were 
published  as  The  Remains  of 
Thomas  Hearne,  3  vols.,  1869,  and 
the  publication  of  the  whole  was 
begun  by  the  Oxford  Historical 
Society  in  1885. 


HEARSE 

Hearse  (Fr.  herse,  harrow). 
Wheeled  vehicle  for  carrying  the 
bodies  of  the  dead  to  the  place  of 
burial.  Hearses  range  from  a  sim- 
ple box-shaped  cart  to  elaborate 
glass-panelled,  brass-railed,  orna- 
mented conveyances,  topped  with 
black  plumes.  Originally  a  hearse 
was  a  harrow-shaped  framework  for 
holdingcandles  in  church, especially 


prominently  in  campaigns  against 
the  trusts,  achieved  notoriety  as 
the  exponent  of  an  anti-British 
policy,  and  was  censured  in  1906 
by  Roosevelt  and  Root  for  his  part 
in  the  campaign  against  McKinley. 
He  sat  in  Congress,  1903-7,  for 
the  llth  New  York  district,  and 
unsuccessfully  fought  for  the 
mayoralty  of  New  York  City  in 


HEART 

annelid  is  little  more  than  a 
specialised  blood-vessel.  In  fishes 
the  heart  has  one  receiving  cham- 
ber, or  auricle,  and  one  expelling 
chamber,  or  ventricle.  The  tad- 
pole has  a  two -chambered  heart, 
whilst  the  frog's  heart  has  two 
auricles  and  one  ventricle. 

The   human   heart  is  a  hollow, 
muscular  orcran  of  roughly  conical 


Hearse.     Left,  "  open  "  vehicle  with  glass  panels  ;  right,  type  of  motor  hearse 


at  funeral  services.  It  developed 
into  a  gorgeous,  decorated  canopy, 
holding  candles,  escutcheons,  ban- 
ners, epitaphs,  verses,  etc.,  especi- 
ally for  royalty  and  the  nobility. 
The  term  is  still  used  for  a  bier, 
coffin,  or  tomb,  and  in  heraldry, 
for  a  charge  resembling  a  harrow 
or  portcullis.  See  Burial  Customs. 
Hearst,  SIR  WILLIAM  HOWARD 
(b.  1864).  Canadian  politician. 
Born  in  Ontario,  Feb.  15,  1864,  he 
studied  for  the  law  and  practised  in 
the  Sault  Ste.  Marie  bar  in  1888, 
taking  silk  in  1908.  In  the  latter 
year  he  entered  the  legislature  of 
Ontario,  and  in  1911  was  made 
minister  of  lands,  forests,  and  mines. 
On  the  death  of  Sir  J.  P.  Whitney 
in  1914  he  became  premier  of 
Ontario,  resigning  in  Nov.,  1919. 
He  was  knighted  in  1917. 

Hearst,  WILLIAM  RANDOLPH  (b. 
1863).      American  newspaper  pro- 
prietor.     Born   at  San   Francisco, 
son  of  Senator 
George  Hearst, 
a      Californian 
mining  mag- 
nate,   he,    in 
1886,  secured 
from  his  father 
control  of  The 
San    Francisco 
Examiner,  and 
W.  R.  Hearst,         made    it  a  re- 
American  newspaper    munerative 
proprietor  property.        In 

1 895  he  bought  The  New  YorkMorn- 
ing  Journal,  ran  it  in  opposition  to 
The  New  York  World,  renamed  it 
The  New  York  American,  and  be- 
came owner  of  similar  "  yellow  " 
journals  in  the  leading  cities  of  the 
U.S.A.  in  addition  to  weekly  and 
monthly  periodicals.  He  figured 


1905,  and  the  governorship  of  New 
York  State  in  1906.  In  1916  the 
British  Government  refused  to 
allow  the  International  News  Ser- 
vice controlled  by  him  to  use  the 
cables  from  Great  Britain.  In  the 
same  year  the  Canadian  postmaster- 
general  prohibited  the  entrance  of 
the  Hearst  newspapers  into  Canada. 
The  embargo  was  withdrawn  in  the 
spring  of  1918. 

Heart.  In  anatomy,  the  chief 
organ  of  the  circulatory  system  of 
the  blood.  It  consists  of  a  more  or 


1 Arteries  rising 
from  summit 
of  Aortic  Arch 


Pulmonary 


Valve 

•jrface 
ofwallof 

Ventricle 

Kiahtf 
^Muscles 

Heart.  Diagram  showing  left  auri- 
cle and  left  ventricle,  and  other 
principal  parts  of  the  human  heart 

less  highly  developed  blood-vessel 
or  blood-vessels,  and  in  the  higher 
forms  of  life  is  divided  into  cham- 
bers with  receiving  and  expelling 
functions.  Among  invertebrates 
and  some  of  the  lower  vertebrates 
the  heart  is  either  absent  or  ex- 
tremely simple.  The  lancelet  has  no 
heart,  and  the  so-called  heart  of  the 


shape,  enclosed  in  a  membranous 
bag  called  the  pericardium.  It  is 
placed  obliquely  in  the  chest,  with 
the  apex  pointing  towards  the  left, 
about  two-thirds  of  the  organ  being 
to  the  left  of  the  middle  line.  It  lies 
behind  the  middle  part  of  the  ster- 
num or  breast-bone,  between  the 
lungs,  and  having  behind  it  the 
roots  of  the  lungs,  the  oesophagus 
or  gullet,  and  the  large  blood-vessel 
known  as  the  descending  aorta. 

The  heart  consists  of  two  upper 
chambers  or  auricles,  and  two 
lower  chambers  or  ventricles.  The 
walls  of  the  auricles  are  compara- 
tively thin  ;  those  of  the  ventricles 
are  thick  and  muscular.  The  right 
side  of  the  heart  is  completely  par- 
titioned off  from  the  left,  but  each 
auricle  communicates  with  the 
ventricle  of  the  same  side.  Into 
the  right  auricle  open  the  two 
great  veins,  called  the  superior 
vena  cava  and  the  inferior  vena  cava, 
which  return  the  blood  from  the 
body  to  the  heart. 

The  right  ventricle  has  two  open- 
ings in  it ;  the  auriculo-ventri- 
cular  opening,  through  which  the 
blood  from  the  right  auricle  passes 
into  the  ventricle,  and  which  is 
guarded  by  the  tricuspid  valve 
consisting  of  three  cusps  ;  and  the 
opening  of  the  pulmonary  artery, 
guarded  by  the  semilunar  valves. 
The  left  auricle  receives  the  four  pul- 
monary veins  conveying  the  blood 
from  the  lungs,  and  opens  into  the 
left  ventricle.  The  left  ventricle  has  a 
particularly  strong  muscular  wall, 
and  receives  blood  from  the  left  auri- 
cle through  the  auriculo-ventricular 
opening,  which  is  guarded  by  the 
mitral  valve,  consisting  of  two 
flaps  or  cusps.  From  it  springs  the 


HEART 


3898 


HEART 


aorta  or  main  blood-vessel,  through 
which  blood  is  distributed  all  over 
the  body,  the  orifice  being  guarded 
by  three  semilunar  valves. 

"The  muscular  substance  of  the 
heart  is  nourished  by  the  two  coron- 
ary arteries,  which  spring  from  the 
root  of  the  aorta  and  pursue  a 
course  mainly  between  the  cham- 
bers of  the  heart.  The  heart  goes 
through  a  series  of  contractions  and 
relaxations,  producing  the  familiar 
heart  beat,  the  contraction  being 
known  as  systole,  the  relaxation 
as  diastole.  The  contraction  does 
not,  however,  affect  the  whole  heart 
at  once  ;  it  occurs  first  in  the  two 
auricles  together  and  immediately 
afterwards  in  the  two  ventricles. 
Rate  of  Heart  Beat 

After  a  short  pause,  the  auricles 
again  contract,  and  then  the  ven- 
tricles, the  whole  process  thus 
forming  a  cycle  of  changes.  In  a 
healthy  adult,  the  heart  beats  on 
the  average  72  times  in  a  minute. 
Apart  from  disease,  the  rate  of  the 
heart  beat  is  increased  by  exercise 
and  emotion  and  slowed  by  mental 
or  bodily  rest.  Before  birth,  the 
average  rate  of  the  heart  beat  is 
150  per  minute,  and  during  the 
first  year  of  life  from  115  to  130. 
The  rate  gradually  decreases  as  age 
progresses,  and  in  old  age  the  pul- 
sations are  between  60  and  70. 

When  the  heart  is  examined  by 
means  of  the  stethoscope,  or  the 
ear  is  placed  to  the  front  of  the 
chest,  two  sounds  are  heard,  fol- 
lowed by  a  short  pause.  The  first 
sound,  which  is  prolonged,  is  mainly 
due  to  the  closing  of  the  mitral 
and  tricuspid  valves.  The  second 
sound  is  shorter  and  sharper,  and  is 
mainly  produced  by  the  closing  of 
the  aorta  and  pulmonary  valves. 
Variations  in  the  sounds  of  the  heart 
constitute  a  valuable  means  for 
diagnosing  disorders  and  diseases  of 
the  heart.  In  a  healthy  person,  the 
beat  of  the  apex  of  the  heart  can 
be  felt  on  the  surface  in  the  space 
between  the  5th  and  6th  ribs  and 
about  one  inch  inside  a  vertical 
line  drawn  through  the  nipple. 

DISEASES  OF  THE  HEART.  De- 
fects in  the  heart  may  be  present 
at  birth,  congenital,  as  they  are 
called.  The  symptoms  usually 
appear  within  the  first  weeks  of 
life.  Cyanosis  or  lividity  of  the 
skin,  which  may  be  most  marked 
in  the  lips,  nose,  ears,  fingers,  and 
toes,  is  nearly  always  present. 
Difficulty  in  breathing  and  cough 
are  frequent  symptoms.  If  the 
defect  is  serious,  the  child  gener- 
ally dies  within  a  lew  months.  The 
following  are  the  main  forms  of 
acquired  disease  of  the  heart : 

Endocarditis,  or  inflammation 
of  the  lining  membrane  of  the 
heart,  usually  affects  the  valves. 


Acute  simple  endocarditis  occurs  as 
a  complication  of  another  disease, 
most  frequently  rheumatic  fever, 
and  sometimes  tonsillitis  and  scar- 
let fever.  In  rare  instances  it  is 
associated  with  measles  or  diph- 
theria, and  it  may  also  complicate 
pneumonia  and  phthisis.  Malignant 
endocarditis  is  a  severe  form  in 
which  ulceration  of  the  heart 
valves  occurs.  The  disease  is  due 
to  infection  by  a  micro-organism. 
In  mild  cases  the  symptoms  may 
not  be  very  marked,  but  in  what 
are  known  as  the  septic  and  ty- 
phoid types  there  may  be  severe 
prostration,  delirium,  and  coma, 
with  fatal  termination.  Sometimes 
the  acute  symptoms  subside  and 
the  disease  becomes  chronic.  The 
most  important  factor  in  the  treat- 
ment is  prolonged  rest  in  bed. 

Any  valve  of  the  heart  may  be 
affected  by  disease,  but  the  mitral 
and  aortic  valves  are  those  most 
frequently  involved.  The  valve 
may  not  close  properly  (incom- 
petency), with  the  result  that  the 
blood  flows  back  into  the  chamber 
from  which  it  has  just  passed  ;  or 
the  valve  may  be  permanently 
narrowed  (stenosis),  so  that  the 
passage  of  blood  trom  one  cham- 
ber to  another  is  impeded. 
Forms  of  Incompetency 

In  aortic  incompetency  the  aor- 
tic valves  do  not  close  properly, 
and  some  of  the  blood  from  the 
left  ventricle,  instead  of  passing 
on  into  the  aorta,  flows  back  into 
the  ventricle.  The  most  frequent 
cause  is  slow  thickening  of  the  edges 
of  the  valve,  associated  with  a  more 
or  less  general  thickening  of  the 
walls  of  the  arteries  throughout  the 
body.  This  condition  is  frequently 
due  to  alcoholism  or  syphilis,  espe- 
cially in  those  whose  occupation 
involves  prolonged  muscular  effort. 
Other  causes  are  endocarditis  and 
congenital  defects.  The  early  symp- 
toms are  headache,  dizziness,  and 
feelings  of  faintness  on  rising 
abruptly,  palpitation,  and  pain  in 
the  chest.  As  the  condition  pro- 
gresses, the  patient  suffers  from 
shortness  of  breath,  and  there  may 
be  some  dropsy  of  the  feet.  Sudden 
death  may  occur.  In  severe  cases 
the  heart  becomes  enlarged,  and 
may  weigh  as  much  as  40  ounces. 

Aortic  stenosis  is  a  narrowing  of 
the  aortic  opening,  resulting  from 
thickening  of  the  aortic  valves  and 
adhesion  one  to  another.  It  is  less 
frequent  than  aortic  incompetency. 
Pain,  dizziness,  and  fainting  are  the 
early  symptoms.  As  the  disease 
progresses,  the  mitral  valve  also 
becomes  affected,  and  general 
dropsy  may  be  present. 

Mitral  incompetency  is  most 
often  due  to  endocarditis.  It  may, 
however,  be  associated  with  cal- 


careous changes  in  the  valve.  The 
blood  from  the  left  ventricle  tends 
to  flow  back  into  the  auricle.  This 
leads  to  dilatation  of  the  auricle, 
which  is  followed  by  dilatation  of 
the  ventricle,  and  later  the  in- 
creased pressure  produces  dilata- 
tion of  the  pulmonary  vessels, 
with  changes  in  the  lungs.  Early 
symptoms  are  a  bluish  tint  of  the 
lips  and  face,  and  shortness  of 
breath  on  exertion.  In  a  later  stage 
there  is  palpitation,  difficulty  in 
breathing,  and  the  action  of  the 
heart  becomes  irregular.  A  cough 
occurs  owing  to  the  disturbance  of 
the  pulmonary  circulation.  Dropsy, 
beginning  in  the  feet,  later  ex- 
tends to  the  legs,  and  there  may  be 
accumulation  of  fluid  within  the 
abdomen.  Death  occurs  from 
general  dropsy  or  from  heart  fail- 
ure following  repeated  attacks. 
Sudden  death  is  infrequent. 

Mitral  stenosis  is  usually  the  re- 
sult of  endocarditis.  The"  passage 
of  blood  from  the  auricle  to  the 
ventricle  is  impeded,  and  this 
leads  to  thickening  of  the  wall  of 
the  auricle.  The  condition  is  always 
associated  with  some  degree  of  in- 
competency of  the  valves  as  well. 
A  person  may  be  unaware  of 
the  existence  of  the  disease  for 
years,  but  when  the  compensatory 
changes  in  the  heart  break  down 
the  patient  suffers  from  shortness 
of  breath,  cough,  and  irregular  ac- 
tion of  the  heart.  Affections  of  the 
tricuspid  valve  are  generally  secon- 
dary to  changes  in  the  other  valves 
of  the  heart.  Affections  of  the  pul- 
monary valves  are  rare.  Not  in- 
frequently two  or  more  valves  are 
affected  simultaneously,  and  in- 
competency and  stenosis  may 
occur  together. 

Adjustment  and  Compensation 

The  heart  possesses  very  con- 
siderable power  of  adjusting  itself 
to  affections  of  the  valves.  In  both 
stenosis  and  incompetency,  the 
muscular  wall  of  the  heart  thickens, 
and  the  force  of  contraction  is  in- 
creased so  as  to  ensure  that  the 
same  amount  of  blood  is  driven 
into  circulation.  This  condition  is 
known  as  compensation,  and  so 
long  as  compensation  is  effective 
no  treatment  is  required. 

When  compensation  fails,  and 
symptoms  such  as  shortness  of 
breath  or  fainting  occur,  treat- 
ment must  be  given.  Rest  in  bed 
is  of  great  importance,  as  it  re- 
lieves the  heart  of  an  appreciable 
amount  of  its  work,  and  enables 
the  muscle  slowly  to  develop  suffi- 
cient power  to  overcome  the  defect. 
The  heart  may  also  be  relieved 
when  the  circulation  becomes 
embarrassed  by  diminishing  the 
amount  of  fluid  in  the  body,  which 
may  be  done  by  the  administration 


HEART-BURIAL 


HEART      OF      MIDLOTHIAN 


of  saline  purges,  a  useful  method 
when  dropsy  is  present. 

In  severe  cases,  when  the  veins 
are  engorged,  bleeding  may  be  re- 
sorted to.  For  stimulating  the 
action  of  the  heart,  digitalis  is  a 
particularly  valuable  drug.  Iron 
and  strychnine  are  often  of  great 
service.  When  dropsy  is  excessive, 
the  fluid  may  be  drawn  off  by 
puncturing  the  legs,  or  tapping  the 
abdomen.  Pain,  gastric  symptoms, 
cough,  and  sleeplessness  may  re- 
quire special  treatment,  but  will 
all  be  relieved  by  measures  directed 
towards  the  condition  of  the  heart. 
Besides  changes  in  the  valves, 
the  muscular  wall  of  the  heart  may 
suffer  from  disease.  Acute  dilata- 
tion of  the  heart  may  be  the  result 
of  severe  muscular  effort,  or  may 
occur  in  the  course  of  other  dis- 
eases. Dilatation  or  thickening  of 
the  walls  of  the  heart  (hyper- 
trophy) also  occurs  with  valvular 
disease  of  the  heart.  Fatty  degen- 
eration of  the  heart  is  a  condition 
frequently  met  with  following 
wasting  diseases  and  prolonged 
fever,  and  in  old  age. 

Other  forms  of  degeneration  may 
follow  disease  or  blocking  of  the 
coronary  arteries,  i.e.  the  arteries 
which  supply  the  heart  muscle 
with  blood.  The  symptoms  of  dis- 
ease of  the  heart  muscle  are  short- 
ness of  breath  on  exertion,  weak, 
irregular  pulse,  faintness,  and  pain 
in  the  chest.  Sometimes  there 
may  be  no  serious  symptoms  for 
years,  and  then  sudden  death  may 
result  from  syncope.  A  person 
suffering  from  myocardial  disease 
should  lead  a  careful,  healthy  life. 

Functional  Affections 
Angina  pectoris  is  a  term  ap- 
plied to  sudden  attacks  of  agonis- 
ing pain  in  the  heart.  The  attack 
may  be  brought  on  by  exertion, 
emotion,  flatulent  distension  of  the 
stomach,  exposure  to  cold,  and 
other  causes.  Thickening  of  the 
coronary  arteries  is  almost  always 
present.  Persons  suffering  from 
this  affection  should  live  a  quiet 
life,  avoiding  muscular  effort  and 
mental  distress.  Attacks  are  relieved 
by  inhaling  nitrite  of  amyl. 

Functional  affections  of  the 
heart  form  an  important  class  of 
disorder.  These  are  conditions  in 
which  no  organic  changes  can  be 
detected  in  the  heart  or,  at  all 
events,  no  changes  sufficient  to 
account  for  the  symptoms.  Never- 
theless, the  patient  suffers  from 
pain  over  the  heart,  shortness  of 
breath,  dizziness  and  feelings  of 
taintness.  Palpitation  is  frequent, 
and  the  pulse  rate  may  be  raised 
to  140  or  more.  Slowing  of  the 
pulse  is  very  much  less  frequent. 
This  condition  is  due  to  disturb- 
ance of  the  nervous  system,  i.e.  is 


a  neurosis,  and  is  usually  the  result 
of  severe  mental  or  physical  shock. 
A  large  number  of  cases  have 
been  seen  in  soldiers,  sometimes 
following  the  effects  of  being  in  or 
near  an  explosion,  and  sometimes 
being  simply  the  result  of  break- 
down under  prolonged  strain. 
Many  persons  suffering  from  this 
condition  are  convinced  that  they 
have  serious  disorder  of  the  heart, 
and  live  in  a  state  of  constant  ap- 
prehension, which  itself  tends  to 
keep  up  the  disturbed  action.  The 
essential  factor  in  the  treatment  is 
to  cure  the  general  nervous  dis- 
turbance, and  to  satisfy  the  patient 
that  he  has  no  serious  disease  of 
his  heart.  See  Anatomy;  Elec- 
tricity ;  Man. 

Heart-burial.  Burial  of  the 
heart  apart  from  the  body.  This 
practice  dates  from  remote  times, 
and  in  Europe  was  apparently 
most  common  in  the  12th  and  13th 
centuries.  It  was  possibly  due  to 
the  notion  that  the  heart  was  the 
seat  of  the  noble  qualities,  a  mo- 
tive perhaps  reinforced  later  by  a 
pious  desire  to  secure  the  prayers  of 
more  than  one  community  for  the 
soul.  Many  of  the  Crusaders  had 
their  hearts  buried  in  Jerusalem. 

Among  kings  of  England  whose 
hearts  have  been  buried  apart  from 
their  bodies  are  Richard  I,  whose 
heart  was  buried  at  Rouen ;  Henry 
I  and  Henry  III,  both  in  France ; 
Edward  I,  at  Jerusalem  ;  and 
James  II,  at  Chaillot,  near  Paris. 
The  heart  of  Eleanor,  queen  of 
Edward  I,  was  buried  at  Lincoln. 
The  heart  of  Robert  Bruce,  after 
many  adventures,  was  eventually 
buried  at  Melrose  Abbey  instead  of 
at  Jerusalem,  as  he  had  wished  : 
the  heart  of  Paul  Whitehead,  sec- 
retary of  the  Medmenham  "  Hell- 
Fire  "  Club,  was  buried  with  much 
pomp  in  the  Le  Despenser  mauso- 
leum at  West  Wycombe,  Bucks,  in 
1775  ;  and  that  of  Daniel  O'Con- 
nell  at  Rome.  The  practice  was 
prohibited  by  Pope  Boniface  VIII, 
but  again  permitted  by  Benedict 

XL      See  Burial    r , 

Customs. 

Hearth.  Word 
generally  used  to 
signify  the  part  of 
the  floor  of  a 
room  on  which 
the  fire  is  laid. 
Usually  in  the 
chimney,  it  is 
built  of  brick, 
stone,  or  metal. 
It  has  come  to 
mean  the  house 
itself,  in  such  ex- 
pressions  as 
"hearth  and 
home." 


In  metallurgy  the  term  is  ap 
plied  to  the  most  elementary  forms 
of  furnace  used  for  the  extraction 
of  metals,  and  to  the  beds  of  more 
elaborate  structures,  i.e.  those  parts 
on  which  rests  the  ore  or  metal 
under  treatment.  The  floor  of  a 
smith's  forge  is  also  called  a  hearth, 
while  the  term  is  occasionally  used 
for  a  ship's  galley.  See  Furnace. 

Hearth  Tax.  Tax  of  2s.  on 
every  hearth  introduced  in  Eng- 
land in  1662.  There  were  certain 
exemptions,  the  very  poor  cottages, 
for  instance,  but  the  impost  was 
very  oppressive  and  was  abolished 
in  1689,  although  then  producing 
£170,000  a  year.  Its  unpopularity 
was  due  partly  to  the  fact  that  it 
was  farmed  out,  and  the  people  re- 
sented the  visits  of  the  chimney- 
men,  as  they  were  called.  A  some- 
what similar  f  umage,  or  smoke  tax, 
appears  to  have  been  levied  in 
England  in  Anglo-Saxon  times. 

Heart  of  Midlothian,  THE. 
Scott's  seventh  novel,  the  second  of 
the  Tales  of  My  Landlord  series, 
and  adjudged  by  good  critics  the 
best  of  the  Waverleys.  It  is  a  story 
of  infinite  pathos,  with  a  heroine  in 
humble  life  (Jeanie  Deans),  whose 
sweet  naturalness  and  devotion  to 
her  erring  half-sister  Effie  have 
moved  the  hearts  of  novel-readers 
all  over  the  world  since  the  book 
was  first  published,  in  June,  1818 

Its  principal  features  are  Effie 
Deans's  romance,  her  trial  for 
child-murder,  the  true-blue  Pres- 
byterianism  of  her  father,  "  Douce 
Davie,"  the  self-sacrifice  of  the 
deputy-schoolmaster,  Reuben  But- 
ler, and  his  courtship  of  Jeanie  ; 
the  quaint  characters  of  the  two 
lairds  of  Dumbiedikes  ;  the  fateful 
figure  of  the  ne'er-do-well,  Staun 
ton  ;  the  tragedy  of  Meg  Murdock 
son  and  her  daughter,  Madge  Wild- 
fire; and  the  picture  of  the  Por- 
teous  Riot  (1736),  with  which  the 
story  opens.  The  title  is  taken 
from  the  old  Edinburgh  Tolbooth 
(prison).  Daniel  Terry  dramatised 
the  novel  in  1819.  See  Deans.  Effie 


Heart  ol  Midlotman.   The  old  ioibooth,  Edinburgh;  tne 
site  is  now  marked  by  a  stone  heart  in  the  causeway 


HEARTS 


39OO 


HEAT 


Card  game  somewhat 
resembling  whist  (q.v.),  except 
that  there  are  no  partners.  In 
effect,  it  is  a  combination  of  ordin- 
ary whist  and  the  mi-sere  call  at 
solo.  The  object  of  the  game  is  to 
get  rid  of  every  card  of  the  heart 
suit  that  a  player  may  hold.  Thus, 
tricks  may  be  taken  if  the  round 
contains  no  hearts,  but  should 
hearts  be  contained  in  it,  the 
player  endeavours  to  force  the 
trick  upon  one  of  his  adversaries. 
When  a  heart  can  be  discarded  this 
should  be  done.  The  player  hav- 
ing the  fewest  or  no  hearts 
receives  from  the  others  according 
to  the  number  of  hearts  they 
may  hold. 

Heart's  Content.  Port  of  New- 
foundland.     It  stands  on  the  E. 
side  of  Trinity  Bay,  and  has  a  good 
~*^mam  harbour,      used     by 
fishermen  and  others. 
W    *'  Here   is    the   termi- 
I  nus    of     the    cables 
y  from   Valentia,   Ire- 
1  land.     Pop.  1,000. 

Heartsease(  Viola 
tricolor).  Herb  of  the 
natural  order  Viola- 
ceae,  native  of  Bri- 
tain, N.  Europe,  N. 
Africa,  and  Asia.  It 
differs  conspicuously 
from  the  violets  in 
the  lyrate  form  of 
leaf  with  leafy  sti- 
pules, and  in  the 
sepals  having  ear- 
like  processes.  The 
small  flowers  are  whitish,  yellow  and 


purple,  the  tints  sometimes  com- 
bined in  one  flower,  sometimes  dis- 
tinct. Among  other  popular  names 
for  the  flower  were  Love-in-idle- 
ness, Three-faces-under-one-hood, 
Pawnee  or  Pansy  (Fr.  pensee). 
The  latter  name  has  been  adopted 
generally  for  the  wonderful  garden 
forms  that  have  been  evolved  by 
selection  from  the  little  wild- 
flower.  See  Pansy. 

Heartsee^Cardiospermum  Mli- 
cacabum).  Climbing  herb  of  the 
natural  order  Rapindaceae.  A 


Heartsease, 

flower    and 

foliage 


Heartseed.     Spray  of  ioliage  with 
flowers  and  seed  pods 

native  of  the  tropics,  its  leaves  are 
divided  into  coarsely  toothed, 
lance-shaped  leaflets.  The  small 
greenish-white  flowers  form  short 
sprays.  The  seed  vessel  is  a  blad- 
der-like capsule,  and  the  round 
seeds  bear  a  heart-shaped  scar, 
whence  the  name.  An  alternative 
name  is  balloon  vine. 


HEAT:     THEORY  AND  MEASUREMENT 

J.  Bice,  M.A.,  Senior  Lecturer  in  thysics,  Liverpool 

Here  are  described  the  various  theories  of  heat  and  its  measurement, 
serving  as  a  general  introduction  to  the  many  articles  in  this  Ency- 
clopedia dealing  with  heat  in  its  various  manifestations,  and  the 
investigators  in  the  subject.  Such  articles  are  Conduction  ;  Freezing 
point ;  Fusion ;  Melting  point ;  Thermo- dynamics ;  Thermometer  ; 
Dewar ;  Joule;  RegnauU 


The  common  sensations  ex- 
perienced by  everyone  who  touches 
the  surface  of  a  body  leads  to  a 
rough  classification  of  bodies  as 
"  hot "  or  "  cold."  Also  the  sensa- 
tions experienced  when  in  full  view 
of  the  sun  or  a  fire,  or  even  when 
sufficiently  close  to  a  hot  but  non- 
luminous  body,  and  the  observa- 
tions of  the  tendency  of  bodies 
which  originally  were  unequally 
hot  to  come  to  the  same  state  of 
hotness  or  coldness,  impress  on 
our  minds  the  idea  of  the  trans- 
ference of  something  which  we 
call  "  heat "  from  body  to  body. 
A  little  trouble  is  required  to  avoid  " 
confusing  our  sensations  of  hotness 
and  the  concept  of  "  temperature  " 
based  on  them,  with  the  concept  of 
heat.  After  all,  temperature  is  the 
name  which  we  give  to  any  conveni- 


ent measure  which  we  make  of  a 
body's  condition  as  regards  hotness, 
while  it  is  clear  that  the  amounts  of 
heat  involved  in  changing  a  body's 
condition  from  one  temperature  to 
another  will  not  be  determined 
solely  by  those  temperatures,  but 
will  depend  also  on  the  mass  of  the 
body  and  the  nature  of  its  material. 
Historically  the  study  of  the 
science  of  heat  began  with  inves- 
tigations concerning  the  measure- 
ment of  temperature.  The  sense 
of  touch  is  neither  sufficiently  sen- 
sitive nor  precise  to  serve  as  a 
reliable  guide  in  such  matters.  The 
invention  of  the  first  thermometers 
has  been  ascribed  to  various  peo- 
ple, but  certainly  Galileo's  claim 
is  one  of  the  best  established,  and 
in  the  hands  of  his  pupils  who 
formed  the  famous  "  Accademia 


del  Cimento  "  at  Florence,  mea- 
surement of  temperature  attained 
a  very  fair  standard  of  accuracy. 
These  Florentine  academicians 
adopted  the  glass  bulb  and  stem, 
containing  either  mercury  or  spirits 
of  wine,  choosing  as  "  fixed 
points  "  the  temperature  of  snow 
in  the  severest  frost  and  the  tem- 
perature of  the  bodies  of  cows 
and  deer,  and  divided  the  stem 
between  into  40  or  80  equal  parts. 

G.  H.  Fahrenheit  (1686-1736) 
perfected  the  mercury  in  the  glass 
thermometer  by  discovering  a 
simple  process  for  cleaning  mer- 
cury, and  by  observing  that  the 
temperature  of  a  boiling  liquid 
depends  on  the  pressure  impressed 
on  its  surface  by  the  atmosphere 
or  artificial  means.  Having  taken 
his  zero  to  be  marked  when  the 
bulb  was  in  a  mixture  of  ice,  sal- 
ammoniac  and  water,  and  another 
fixed  point  to  be  indicated  when 
the  bulb  was  under  the  armpit  of  a 
healthy  person,  he  divided  this 
interval  into  24  equal  divisions  ; 
finding  these  to  be  too  large,  he  sub- 
di  vided  them  into  four  equal  parts. 
F.  and  C.  Thermometers 

On  this  scale  he  found  that 
pure  melting  ice  gave  constantly 
32,  and  he  no  doubt  used  this 
as  a  check  on  his  graduation, 
and  he  found  that  boiling  water 
was  generally  between  211  and  213, 
varying  with  the  height  of  the 
barometer.  Ultimately  melting  ice 
was  taken  as  one  fixed  point  and 
marked  32,  and  steam  rising  from 
water  boiling  under  a  pressure  of 
one  "  standard  atmosphere  "  (760 
mms.  or  29 '92  ins.  barometric 
height)  was  taken  as  another  and 
marked  212.  In  1742  Celsius  of 
Upsala  suggested  the  centesimal 
division,  and  marked  the  "  boiling- 
point"  0  and  the  "  freezing-point" 
100.  Eight  years  later  Stromer, 
also  of  Upsafa,  suggested  the  in- 
version of  the  numbers,  and  gave 
us  the  present  form  of  the  "  centi- 
grade "  thermometer. 

As  different  liquids  did  not  ex- 
pand proportionately  one  with  the 
other  on  receiving  similar  altera- 
tions in  hotness,  some  difficulty 
was  experienced  in  deciding  on  the 
points  which  were  to  be  marked 
1,  2,  3,  etc.,  since  mercury  indi- 
cated a  slightly  different  series  to 
other  suitable  liquids  such  as 
alcohol,  pentane,  etc.  Through  the 
researches  of  Boyle  and  Amontons 
in  the  17th  century,  of  Gay-Lussac. 
Dalton,  and  Charles  in  the  18th 
and  19th,  and  of  Regnault  in  the 
19th  century,  the  expansibility  of 
gases  had  been  very  carefully 
observed,  and  the  notable  fact  of 
the  very  approximate  equality  of 
their  expansibilities  had  been 
clearly  enunciated,  especially  for 


those  gases  like  hydrogen,  oxygen, 
nitrogen  which  are  more  "  perma- 
nent," i.e.  more  difficult  to 
liquefy. 

By  degrees  the  use  of  the 
hydrogen  or  nitrogen  thermometer 
as  a  standard  of  comparison  for 
all  liquid-in-glass  thermometers 
became  the  accepted  practice  in 
careful  research,  and  the  final 
touch  was  added  by  Lord  Kelvin 
(then  William  Thomson)  in  1848, 
when  he  established  on  purely 
theoretical  grounds  an  "absolute 
thermodynamic "  scale  of  tem- 
perature which  is  independent  of 
the  particular  properties  of  any 
particular  substance,  and  in  col- 
laboration with  Joule  of  Man- 
chester carried  out  a  famous  series 
of  experiments  to  determine  the 
slight  deviations  between  the  indi- 
cations of  a  "  gas  "  thermometer 
and  the  "  absolute  scale." 

The  Platinum  Thermometer 

This  settling  of  the  scale  of 
measurement  is  quite  apart  from 
the  great  practical  development 
which  has  taken  place  in  recent 
years  in  the  construction  of  ther- 
mometers for  special  purposes, 
such  as  measurement  of  very  low 
or  veiy  high  temperatures.  Mainly 
owing  to  the  labours  of  H.  L.  Cal- 
lendar  the  "platinum"  thermo- 
meter has  become  an  instrument 
of  great  precision  for  such  ex- 
tremes as  liquid  gases  and  furnaces. 
In  this  type  alteration  of  tempera- 
ture is  measured  by  the  variation 
experienced  in  the  electric  resist- 
ance of  a  wire  of  pure  platinum 
mounted  and  insulated  on  a  mica 
frame,  protected  in  a  tube  of  por- 
celain, and  connected  by  suitable 
leads  to  apparatus  for  accurate 
determination  of  resistance.  By  in- 
serting large  porcelain  test-tubes  in 
furnaces  with  their  open  ends  just 
protruding  through  the  wall  of  the 
furnace,  and  measuring  the  amount 
of  radiation  proceeding  from  this 
opening,  great  precision  has  been 
introduced  into  furnace  ther- 
mometry.  In  these  "  radiation 
pyrometers "  use  is  made  of 
Stefan's  law  that  the  amount  of 
radiation  emitted  from  such  a 
"  full  radiator "  as  this  tube 
varies  according  to  the  fourth 
power  of  the  temperature  as  shown 
on  the  absolute  scale. 

We  must  be  careful  to  free  our 
minds  from  any  confusion  between 
the  famous  discussions  as  to  the 
nature  of  heat,  and  the  experi- 
mental work  carried  out  for  the 
purpose  of  measuring  heat.  Even 
at  a  time  when  views  were  enter- 
tained concerning  the  nature  of 
heat,  which  we  now  regard  as 
quite  inadequate,  the  question  of 
its  measurement  had  advanced  a 
considerable  distance  along  right 


3901 

lines.  The  early  attempts  to  utilise 
the  mechanical  power  of  steam  in 
Britain  were  made  in  the  eighteenth 
century,  and  James  Watt  received 
great  assistance  from  Joseph 
Black,  of  Edinburgh,  who  was  the 
first  to  elucidate  the  ideas  of 
"specific  heat"  and  "latent  heat." 
Specific  Heats 

In  modern  units  we  say  that  1 
"  gram-calorie "  of  heat"  is  re- 
quired to  raise  the  temperature  of 
1  gram  of  water  through  1  centi- 
grade degree,  and  for  other  masses 
and  ranges  of  temperature  the 
amount  of  heat  is  in  proportion 
to  the  product  of  the  two  numbers 
involved.  What  Black  discovered 
was  that  other  materials  had  their 
specific  amount  of  heat  for  similar 
changes,  different  for  each  sub- 
stance. Thus,  copper  requires 
about  1/11  of  a  calorie  per  gram 
per  degree,  iron  about  1/9,  mer- 
cury 1/30,  ice  1/2,  turpentine  1/2, 
etc.  Such  numbers  are  referred  to 
as  "  specific  heats  "  of  copper,  iron, 
etc.,  and  a  notable  fact  is  the  very 
large  "capacity  for  heat"  enjoyed 
by  water  in  comparison  with  nearly 
all  other  substances,  especially  the 
materials  of  the  earth's  crust. 

Black  also  discovered  what  is, 
in  deference  to  historic  tradi- 
tion, still  called  "latent  heat  "  ; 
i.e.  the  fact  that  when  a  body 
changes  state  from  solid  to 
liquid  or  from  liquid  to  vapour, 
a  considerable  quantity  of  heat 
is  required  to  effect  this  change  of 
state  even  without  any  change  of 
temperature.  Thus,  the  latent 
heat  of  fusion  (melting)  of  ice  at 
0°  C.  is  80  calories  per  gram 
melted ;  of  tin  at  231°  C.,  14  calories ; 
of  silver  at  1,000°  C.,  21  ;  of  mer- 
cury at — 39'5°  C.,  3,  etc.  ;  the  latent 
heat  of  vaporisation  of  water  at 
100°  C.  is  537  calories  per  gram 
vaporised  ;  of  ethyl  alcohol  at  78° 
C.,  210  calories  ;  of  turpentine  at 
156°  C.,  69  calories,  etc. 

Joseph  Black's  Latent  Heats 

Similarly  definite  quantities  of 
heat  are  involved  in  chemical 
changes  as  distinct  from  physical, 
and  we  speak  of  "  heat  of  combus- 
tion," "  heat  of  reaction,"  "  heat 
of  solution."  In  fact,  in  Black's 
mind  there  was  little  difference  in 
nature  between  such  heats  and  his 
"  latent  heats."  He  shared  the 
view,  common  in  his  time,  that 
heat  was  actually  a  subtle  and 
highly  elastic  fluid  material  with 
different  degrees  of  affinity  for 
ordinary  matter  and  also  endowed 
with  the  property  of  self -repulsion 
(an  idea  common  then  and  now  as 
regards  "  positive  electricity  "  or 
"  negative  electricity  ").  Black 
assumed  that  the  apparent  dis- 
appearance of  the  heat  (since  it 
produced  no  "  sensible  "  change 


HEAT 

in  the  temperature)  was  due  to  a 
quasi-chemical  combination  be- 
tween the  "  caloric  "  (as  the  hypo- 
thetical heat  fluid  was  called)  and 
the  particles  of  the  melting  or 
vaporising  substance,  so  that 
water  was  "  ice  cum  caloric  "  and 
steam  was  "  water  cum  caloric  "- 
i.e.  the  caloric  was  latent  in  the 
water  and  in  the  steam. 

It  is  generally  believed  that  the 
modern  view  as  to  the  nature  of 
heat  arose  first  in  the  early  19th 
century.  The  truth  is  the  belief 
that  heat  is  a  mode  of  motion  is  to 
be  found  in  the  works  of  Descartes, 
Amontons,  Boyle,  Francis  Bacon, 
Hooke,  and  Newton.  The  theory  at 
that  time  rested  on  very  slender 
evidence,  so  perhaps  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that  the  18th  century  phil- 
osophers abandoned  it  in  favour 
of  the  material  hypothesis  ;  and, 
indeed,  so  long  as  we  exclude  from 
consideration  the  production  of 
heat  by  friction  and  percussion,  the 
caloric  theory  serves  as  a  very 
adequate  theory  for  thermal  phe- 
nomena. But  the  literature  of  the 
18th  century  teems  with  contro- 
versy on  the  subject,  and  the  often 
ingenious  attempts  of  the  "  cal- 
orists  "  to  evade  the  difficulties  of 
frictional  heat.  The  decisive  blows 
at  the  caloric  theory  were  struck 
by  Benjamin  Thompson  and  Hum- 
phry Davy. 

Davy's  Ice  Experiment 

In  1798  Rumford  pointed  out 
that  in  boring  cannon  out  of  solid 
metal  the  action  of  the  borer 
poured  out  heat  unlimitedly.  "  It 
is  hardly  necessary  to  add,"  he 
wrote,  "  that  anything  which  any 
insulated  body  can  continue  to 
furnish  without  limitation,  cannot 
possibly  be  a  material  substance." 
Sir  Humphry  Davy  melted  ice  by 
rubbing  two  pieces  together  by  a 
mechanism  in  a  vacuum.  This  con- 
troverted directly  the  view  that 
caloric  was  squeezed  out  of  the 
pores  of  a  body  or  torn  from  com- 
bination with  its  particles  by 
rubbing  (this  was  the  calorist's  ex- 
planation of  frictional  heat)  ;  for, 
as  everyone  admitted,  heat  had  to 
be  communicated  to  ice  and  not 
"  torn  from  "  it,  to  melt  it. 

The  famous  experiments  of  J.  P. 
Joule  settled  the  matter  finally. 
Evolving  heat  by  friction  of 
paddles  in  water,  he  measured  the 
heat  yielded  and  compared  it  in 
every  case  with  the  work  required 
to  maintain  the  paddles  in  motion, 
discovering  that  1  pound-calorie 
(heat  required  to  raise  1  pound  of 
water  through  1  centigrade  degree) 
was  produced  by  the  expenditure  of 
approximately  1,400  foot-pounds 
of  work.  These  experiments  re- 
peated by  several  other  workers 
under  varying  conditions  form  the 


HEATH 

experimental  basis  of  the  modern 
branch  of  physics  known  as 
thermo-dynamics.  Its  main  de- 
velopment on  the  theoretical 
side  is  contained  in  the  researches 
of  four  great  physicists :  Carnot  of 
France,  Clausius  and  Helmholtz 
of  Germany,  and  Lord  Kelvin. 
Its  great  feature  is  the  width  of 
view  and  the  fundamental  nature 
of  its  conclusions,  which  can  be 
arrived  at  without  any  appeal  to 
a  theory  of  heat  at  all. 

Nevertheless,  as  the  human 
mind  must  speculate  on  ultimate 
nature,  there  is  no  doubt  that  its 
conclusions  are  much  easier  to 
relate  to  the  dynamical  theory  of 
heat  than  to  the  material.  In 
thermal  phenomena  we  believe 
we  are  witnessing  the  variations 
which  go  on  in  the  degree  and  in- 
tensity of  the  motions  of  the  mole- 
cules of  a  body.  Increased  agita- 
tion .  produces  the  sensations  of 
heat,  involves  a  sundering  apart 
which  we  see  in  expansion,  may 
even  result  in  a  complete  rupture 
between  molecules  against  co- 
hesion, as  when  fusion  or  vaporisa- 
tion takes  place.  What  is  trans- 
ferred from  body  to  body  is  not  a 
material,  but  an  amount  of  energy 
of  motion,  and  so  the  science  of 
heat  in  its  widest  development  be- 
comes merged  in  the  study  of 
transformations  of  Energy. 

Bibliography.  Theory  of  Heat,  J. 
Clerk-Maxwell,  2nd  ed.  1872; 
Sketch  of  Thermodynamics,  P.  G. 
Tait,  2nd  ed.  1877  ;  Heat  as  a  Mode 
of  Motion,  J.  Tyndale,  7th  ed.  1887  ; 
Theory  of  Heat,  T.  Preston,  1 894  ; 
Outline  of  the  Theory  of  Thermo- 
dynamics, E.  Buckingham,  1900  ; 
Treatise  on  Thermodynamics,  M. 
Planck,  Eng.  trans.  A.  Ogg,  1903  ; 
Text  Book  "of  Physics,  Heat,  J.  H. 
Poyntings  and  J.  J.  Thomson,  4th 
ed.  1911;  Methods  of  Measuring 
Temperature,  E.  Griffiths,  1918. 

Heath  (Erica).  Popular  name 
for  a  genus  of  wiry  evergreen 
shrubs  of  the  natural  order  Erica- 
ceae (q.v.).  They  are  natives  of 
Europe,  Africa,  and  N.  Asia.  The 
slender,  rigid  leaves  are  much  like 
small  pine-needles,  and  are  dis- 
posed mostly  in  whorls.  The  four 
petals  are  always  united  to  form  an 
egg-shaped,  bell-shaped,  or  tubular 
corolla. 

Four  species  are  natives  of  Brit- 
ain, including  purple  heath  (E. 
cinerea),  that  colours  the  heaths 
and  moorlands  in  summer ;  the 
cross-leaved  heath  (E.  tetralix), 
with  delicately  rosy-tinted  flowers, 
in  moist  hollows ;  the  crimson- 
flowered  fringed  heath  (E.  ciliaris) 
of  S. W.  England ;  and  the  Cornish 
heath  (E.  vagans)  of  the  Lizard  and 
Land's  End.  A  fiftn  species,  the 
Irish  heath  (E.  mediterranea), 
eecurs  in  W.  Ireland.  Many  of  the 


3902 

exotic  forms,  particularly  those 
of  S.  Africa,  are  grown  in  English 
greenhouses  ;  but  the  first  species 
to  be  introduced  was  the  S.  Euro- 
pean briar-root  (E.  arborea)  in  1856. 

Some  of  the  most  popular  forms 
are  hybrids  of  garden  origin.  In 
the  open  air  they  flourish  in  sand 
or  peat  in  any  position  where  rhodo- 
dendronswould  thrive.  They  should 
be  planted  in  autumn  or  early  spring. 
Greenhouse  species  are  usually 
grown  as  specimens  in  pots,  in  soil 
composed  of  two-thirds  peat  and 
one  third  silver  sand.  They  are 
chiefly  used  for  decorative  purposes 
in  early  spring,  and,  after  flowering, 
are  stood  out  in  the  open  air  in  a 
warm  and  sunny  position  before 
being  taken  into  the  greenhouse 
again  in  autumn.  They  are  propa- 
gated by  cuttings  in  spring  and 
division  of  the  plants  in  autumn,  or 
may  be  increased  by  layering  (q.v. ). 

Heath.  Literally,  a  place  grown 
over  with  shrubs,  and  derived  from 
the  plant  of  this  name.  Heaths  are 
found  in  various  parts  of  Great 
Britain,  notably  in  Surrey,  e.y. 
Walton  Heath  and  Burgh  Heath. 

Heath,  NICHOLAS  (c.  1501-78). 
English  prelate.  Born  in  London, 
he  was  educated  at  both  Oxford 
and  Cambridge.  He  was  ordained 
and,  adhering  to  the  older  faith, 
was  made  bishop  of  Rochester  in 
1539  ;  in  1543  he  was  translated  to 
Worcester.  Heath's  opposition  to 
the  reformed  teaching  led  to  the 
loss  of  his  bishopric  in  1551,  but 
soon  after  Mary  came  to  the  throne 
he  was  made  archbishop  of  York 
and  lord  chancellor.  Finding 
Elizabeth  determined  on  a  mod- 
erate course,  he  refused  to  crown 
her.  He  was,  therefore,  deprived 
of  his  archbishopric  and  lived  in 
retirement  for  the  rest  of  his  days. 

Heathcoat,  JOHN  (1783-1861). 
British  inventor.  Born  at  Duffield, 
Derbyshire,  Aug.  7,  1783,  he  was 
apprenticed  to  a  smith,  afterwards 
taking  over  a  machinery  business 
in  Nottingham.  He  started  in 
business  as  a  lace  and  net  manu- 
facturer in  Loughborough,  and  in 
1808  produced  his  great  invention, 
a  machine  for  making  imitation 
pillow  lace.  Other  inventions  in- 
cluded a  steam  plough  and  a  pro- 
cess for  purifying  salt.  In  1816 
Heathcoat's  factory  at  Lough- 
borough  was  destroyed  by  the  Lud- 
dites (q.v.) ;  consequently  he  moved 
to  Tiverton,  where  he  set  up  as  a 
lace  manufacturer.  From  1832-59 
he  was  M.P.  for  Tiverton,  and  there 
he  died,  Jan.  18,  1861.  The  busi- 
ness at  Tiverton  still  flourishes. 

Heather  (Calluna  vulgaris). 
Gregarious  shrub  of  the  natural 
order  Ericaceae.  It  is  a  native  of 
Europe,  W.  Siberia,  Azores,  and  N. 
America.  The  leaves  are  three- 


HEATING 

sided  and  minute,  overlapping  in 
four  rows  ;  the  flowers  honeyed  and 
rosy-purple,  the  four  stiff  sepals 
being  much  larger  than  the  bell- 
shaped  corolla.  The  plant  covers 
vast  extents  of  heath  and  moor- 
land. The  wiry  stems  and  branches 
are  useful  for  thatching,  making 
brooms,  and  for  fuel.  See  Ericaceae. 
Heathfield.  Village  of  Sussex, 
England.  It  is  15  m.  from  Tun- 
bridge  Wells  with  a  station  on  the 
L.B.  &  S.C.  Rly.  It  stands  on 
the  Cuckmere,  and  had  once  a 
foundry  where  cannon  were  made 
The  church  of  All  Saints  is  mainly 
a  15th  century  building  which  has 
been  restored.  Lord  Heathfield,  the 
defender  of  Gibraltar,  took  his 
title  from  here  ;  he  lived  at  Heath- 
field  House,  the  old  seat  of  the 
Dacres,  and  is  buried  in  the  church. 
From  Gibraltar  Tower,  erected  to 
his  memory,  there  is  a  fine  view. 

Heathfield,  GEORGE  AUGUSTUS 
ELIOTT,  IST  BARON  (1717-90).  Bri- 
tish soldier.  Born  at  Stobs,  Rox- 
burg  h  shire, 
Dec.  25,  1717, 
he  was  edu- 
cated at  Lei- 
den university 
and  served 
with  the 
Prussian  army, 
1735-36.  On 
his  return  to 
England  he 
trained  at 
Woolwich  and 


1st  Baron  Heathfield, 
British  soldier 


After  Reynold! 

was  commissioned  as  field  engineer. 
In  1739  he  joined  the  2nd  Life 
Guards,  served  with  his  regiment  in 
the  war  of  the  Austrian  succession 
and  was  wounded  at  Dettingen 
and  Fontenoy. 

Colonel  of  the  1st  Light  Horse  in 
1759,  he  distinguished  himself  in 
the  Seven  Years'  War  under  Prince 
Ferdinand  in  the  campaign  of 
1759-61.  Promoted  major-general 
in  1759,  he  was  second  in  command 
in  the  Cuba  expedition  of  1763, 
and  became  lieutenant-general  in 
1765.  In  1774  he  was  appointed 
commander-in-chief  in  Ireland,  but 
the  following  year  was  sent  to 
command  Gibraltar.  In  1779  the 
Spanish  opened  the  siege  of  the 
fortress,  which  Heathfield  held 
stubbornly  for  four  years,  when  he 
was  relieved  by  Lord  Howe.  On 
his  return  to  England  he  was 
knighted  and  in  1787  raised  to  the 
peerage  as  Lord  Heathfield,  baron 
of  Gibraltar.  He  died  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle,  July  6,  1790. 

Heating.  In  climates  subject  to 
low  temperatures,  it  is  necessary 
for  health  and  comfort  to  produce 
artificial  warmth.  Remains  of 
Roman  villas  in  Britain  reveal  the 
method  of  warming  by  hypocausts 
— flues  running  under  the  floor  and 


HEATING 


39O3 


HEATING 


Healing.     Plan  showing  system  of  steam  beating 


up  the  walls  of  an  apartment,  and 
heated  from  a  fireplace  outside  or 
underneath  the  building. 

The  open  coal-fire  is  an  ineffi- 
cient means  of  heating,  since  much 
of  the  heat  escapes  up  the  chim- 
ney ;  while  the  closed  coal  stove, 
standing  in  the  room  and  connected 
with  the  chimney  by  a  pipe,  is  pro- 
bably the  cheapest  and  most 
economical.  Oil,  gas,  and  electric 
stoves  are  very  efficient,  but  com- 
paratively costly  to  run.  On  the 
score  of  efficiency,  convenience,  and 
cleanliness  combined,  the  many 
systems  of  central  heating  are 
superior  to  any  form  of  isolated 
heating  ,  and  one  or  other  of  them 
is  almost  invariably  adopted  for 
factories  and  other  large  buildings, 
even  in  countries  where  open  fires 
and  stoves  are  commonly  used  in 
dwelling-houses  In  central  heat- 
ing the  source  of  heat  is  a  furnace 
or  boiler  in  the  basement. 

DIRECT  HEATING  BY  WATER. 
Under  the  low-pressure  system 
water  heated  in  a  boiler  circulates 
through  pipes  and  radiators  in 
various  parts  of  the  building.  The 
circuit  usually  consists  of  a  flow 
main  from  the  top  of  the  boiler,  and 
a  return  main  entering  the  boiler 
near  the  bottom.  Each  radiator  is 
connected  with  the  two  mams  by 
branch  pipes  provided  with  regu- 
lating valves.  Circulation  is 


natural — the  hotter  water  rising 
and  the  cooler  sinking — unless  the 
distances  are  great,  when  forced 
circulation  by  pump  may  be  neces 
sary.  The  pressure  on  the  pipes  at 
any  elevation  is  merely  that  of  the 
head  of  water.  The  radiators  are 
fitted  with  air-escape  cocks  at  their 
highest  points  ;  and  the  system  of 
pipes  is  kept  full  by  an  open  tank 
which  also  permits  tree  expansion 
of  the  water  while  being  heated. 

In  the  high-pressure  system  steel 
pipes  of  small  diameter  are  used 
for  the  boiler  and  the  circulating 
mains,  and  the  radiators  are  of  very 
strong  construction.  The  arrange- 
ment is  the  same  as  that  described 
above,  except  that  a  closed  expan- 
sion chamber  takes  the  place  of  the 
open  tank  at  the  highest  point. 
Pressures  up  to  300-500  Ib.  per 
sq.  inch  are  used  ;  the  pipe  and 
radiator  surfaces  have  a  heat  corre- 
sponding to  the  pressure. 

DIRECT  STEAM  HEATING.  Here 
again  there  is  a  low-pressure  and 
a  high-pressure  system.  The  first 
takes  steam  from  a  boiler  or  the 
exhaust  of  an  engine  at  or  below 
atmospheric  pressure,  and  main- 
tains a  partial  vacuum  in  the 
pipes  and  radiators  by  means  of  an 
air  pump.  The  condensed  water  is 
returned  to  the  boiler.  This 
system  is  very  economical,  especi- 
ally for  buildings  wherein  steam 


power  is  used  for  other  purposes 
The  high-pressure  method  em 
ploys  steam  at  pressures  up  to  15 
Ib.  above  atmosphere,  and  the  con- 
densed water  drains  back  through 
the  supply  main,  or  through  a 
separate  return  to  the  boiler. 

Direct  heating  by  hot  air  is  com- 
bined with  ventilation.  Fresh  air, 
passing  through  a  heater  surround- 
ing the  furnace,  is  warmed  and 
rises  by  convection  through  pipes 
to  registers  in  different  parts  of  the 
building,  where  its  heat  can  be 
tempered  at  will  by  mixing  in  cold 
air  admitted  direct  to  the  flue  from 
outside.  For  buildings  requiring 
great  volumes  of  air,  a  large  steam- 
heated  radiator  is  sometimes  sub- 
stituted for  a  furnace,  and  the  air 
is  driven  through  it  and  the  flue,* 
by  a  centrifugal  or  disk  fan. 

Indirect  heating  by  air  is  a  varia 
tion  of  the  foregoing.  Several 
radiators,  all  steam-  or  water- 
heated  by  a  central  boiler,  are  dis- 
tributed over  the  basement  in 
chambers  at  the  coot  of  flues  run- 
ning to  the  rooms  above.  Each 
radiator  heats  the  air  for  one  flue. 
ELECTRIC  HEATING.  Electric 
heating  may  be  considered  from 
two  points  of  view,  domestic  and 
industrial ;  from  either  electricity 
has  many  advantages  over  any 
other  form  of  artificial  heating  -.  it 
is  easy  to  transmit  and  can  be  deve- 
loped precisely  where  it  is  re- 
quired :  it  is  under  perfect  control  , 
the  amount  of  heat  given  off  into 
the  atmosphere  admits  of  simple 
regulation  ;  while  any  temperature 
may  be  attained,  from  a  gentle 
warmth  to  a  temperature  sufficient 
to  melt  the  hardest  steel. 

Principles  of  Electric  Heating 
Its  cost  still  makes  it  prohibitive 
for  such  major  operations  of  indus- 
try,   but    it    is    used    for    special 
smelting  processes,  and  new  appli- 
cations   in    these    directions    are 
being  constantly  made      For  the 
heating  of  household  rooms,  offices, 
and  some  other  buildings,  and  for  a 
number  of  the  minor  processes  ot 
industry,  electricity  is  steadily  dis 
placing  coal  and  gas,  its  great  con 
venience    and    cleanliness    largely 
compensating  for  its  greater  cost. 

The  principle  on  which  all  forms- 
of  electric  heaters  depend  is  that  o. 
electric  resistance.  In  all  cases  the 
heat  is  developed  by  trying  to  force 
a  current  of  electricity  through 
some  medium  which  resists  the 
passage  of  the  current,  and  has  its 
temperature  raised  in  consequence 
The  heat  is  almost  universally 
applied  by  radiation  from  the  hot 
element  supplemented  by  convec 
tion  set  up  by  contact  of  the  aii 
with  the  electrically  heated  surface. 
The  resisting  medium  may  be  a  fila- 
ment, pencil  or  slab  of  carbon,  a 


HEAVEN 


wire  ot  some  metal  having  a  high 
melting  point  and  not  liable  to  cor- 
rode, a  piece  of  earthenware,  or  a 
slab  of  some  specially  prepared 
material  such  as  compressed  mica. 

The  simplest  form  of  electric 
neater  is  the  common  incandescent 
or  glow  lamp,  which  not  only  gives 
light  but  throws  out  also  a  very 
appreciable  amount  of  heat.  From 
the  lamp  maker's  point  of  view  this 
is  a  disadvantage,  and  his  aim  is  to 
reduce  the  heat,  which  he  regards 
as  a  loss  given  out  by  the  lamp. 
Nevertheless  very  convenient  elec- 
tric heaters  are  now  used  which 
are  simply  enlarged  glow  lamps. 

This  type  of  heater  is,  however, 
being  displaced  by  more  substan- 
tial apparatus.  A  diagrammatic 
section  is  here  shown  which  illus- 
trates the  manner  in  which  the 
principle  of  electric  resistance  is 
applied.  In  this  view,  A  is  the 
frame  of  the  heater,  and  is  made 
of  stout  metal  bars  with  a  perfor- 
ated cross  member  at  B  which  per- 
mits currents  of  air  to  pass  up- 
wards when  the  heater  is  in  use. 
C  is  one  of  two  switches  by  which 
the  current  is  put  on  or  cut  off  ; 
two  switches  are  provided  so  that 
the  heater  can  be  either  half  or 
wholly  in  operation.  D  is  one  of  a 
series  of  coils  of  fine  metal  wire 
laid  upon  an  earthenware  base  E. 
F  is  a  guard  of  open  wire  mesh  to 
shield  a  passing  garment  from  con- 
tact with  the  heater  when  "  alive." 

Current  enters  the  apparatus  at 
G  and  passes  away  at  H.  The  pas- 
sage of  the  current  almost  instantly 
raises  the  temperature  of  the  long 
coil  to  incandescence.  Heat  is  radi- 
ated from  the  coil  in  the  first  in- 
stance, but  the  coil  lying  on  the 
earthenware  base  heats  the  latter, 
which  becomes  a  glowing  mass  and 
in  turn  radiates  heat  into  the  room, 
at  the  same  time  building  up  a  store 
of  heat  which  continues  to  give  out 
warmth  for  some  while  after  the 
current  has  been  cut  off. 

Application  to  Domestic  Uses 

In  another  similar  form  of  heater 
the  wire  coils  are  dispensed  with, 
the  heating  elements  being  strips  of 
high  resistance  metal  embedded  in 
special  earthenware.  Every  form  of 
domestic  heating  and  cooking 
utensil  is  now  constructed  for  the 
use  of  electricity  as  the  heating 
agent.  In  grills,  toasters,  hot-plates, 
ovens,  etc.,  the  heating  element  is 
usually  an  open  wire  coil  which 
attains  a  bright  red  heat,  at  which 
temperature  it  is  not  affected  by 
the  atmosphere.  In  small  kettles, 
saucepans,  frying-pans,  and  flat 
irons,  an  element  in  the  form  of  a 
small  slab  made  of  compressed  mica 
with  a  high -resistance  wire  or  strip 
embedded  in  it  is  largely  used. 

A    useful    heating    element    is 


known  as  an  immersion  heater,  and 
is  in  the  form  of  a  rod  of  compressed 
mica  or  earthenware  with  a  high 


Heating.     Electric  beater  shown  in 
section.     For  explanation  see  text 

resistance  wire  or  strip  inside.  The 
heater  can  be  inserted  in  any  pan 
or  other  vessel  containing  water, 
which  it  will  rapidly  heat,  or  boil  if 
the  quantity  be  not  too  great. 

An  interesting  application  of 
electric  heating  is  represented  by 
the  electrically  heated  garments 
worn  by  air  pilots  on  long  or  high 
flights  or  in  cold  weather.  Small 
heating  elements  are  sewn  into  the 
garment  at  various  points,  and  even 
into  the  backs  of  gloves.  The  cur- 
rent is  provided  by  a  small  dynamo 
driven  by  the  engine  of  the  aero- 
plane. See  Cookery. 

Heaton.  Parish  of  Northumber- 
land, England.  It  is  within  the  co. 
bor.  of  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  with 
a  station  on  the  N.E.R.  Many  of 
the  inhabitants  are  engaged  in  the 
neighbouring  coal  mines.  Pop. 
21,912.  See  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 


Heating.     Electric  lamp  type  of  beater 
in  common  use 


Heaton.  Common  topographic 
term  in  the  Manchester  dist.,  S.E 
Lanes,  England.  Heaton  Norris, 
Heaton  Mersey,  Heaton  Chapel, 
Heaton  Moor  all  lie  S.E.  of  Man- 
chester near  the  Mersey,  and 
are  interested  in  the  cotton  indus- 
try. Heaton  Norris  (pop.  11,240), 
the  largest  of  these  places,  is  a 
town  and  parish  separated  from 
Stockport  only  by  the  Mersey,  here 
crossed  by  the  L.  &  N.W.  Rly, 
viaduct  and  other  bridges.  Heaton 
Park,  area  1  sq.  m.,  due  N.  of  Man 
Chester,  in  Prestwich  parish,  lor 
merly  the  seat  of  the  earls  of  Wil 
ton,  was  bought  by  the  Manchester 
Corporation  in  1902,  and  the  fine 
stone  mansion  now  houses  collec- 
tions of  pictures  and  Oriental  arms 
and  armour. 

Heaton,  SIR  JOHN  HENNIKKR 
(1848-1914).  British  postal  re- 
former. Born  at  Rochester,  and 
educated  at  King's  College,  Lon- 
don, he  was  Conservative  M.P.  for 
Canterbury, 
1885-1910,  and 
was  created  a 
baronet  in 
1912.  He  had 
large  interests 
in  Australia 
and,  though 
never  holding 
an  official  posi- 
tion in  the  Gov- 
ernment, he  ac- 
complished, as 
a  private  mem- 
ber, universal  penny  postage  for 
letters  within  the  British  Empire, 
1898,  penny  postage  between  the 
U.S.A.  and  the  United  Kingdom, 
1908,  money  orders  by  telegraph 
in  Great  Britain,  and  a  parcel  post 
to  France.  He  died  Sept.  8,  1914. 

Heaven.  Belief  in  a  future  life 
is  found  in  most  primitive  religions. 
It  assumes  various  forms,  some  of 
which  are  inconsistent  with  the  idea 
of  a  happy  state  after  death,  or  of 
one  which  is  appreciably  better 
than  the  present.  Many  primitive 
conceptions  of  the  future  fife  repre- 
sent it  as  essentially  inferior  to  the 
present.  Among  such  beliefs  may 
be  noted  specially  the  conviction 
that  the  spirits  of  the  dead  linger 
round  the  scenes  of  their  earthly 
existence,  and  the  conception  of 
transmigration  according  to  which 
the  soul  of  the  departed  enters  into 
another  human  or  animal  body. 

At  this  early  stage  of  religious 
development  the  prevailing  notion 
is  that  the  life  beyond  the  grave 
bears  a  close  resemblance  to  the 
present  life,  and  that  the  departed 
continue  their  avocations  in  simi- 
lar though  perhaps  improved  con- 
ditions. The  entrance  to  the  world 
of  the  blessed  depends  upon  the 
favour  of  the  gods,  which  is  earned 


611  it. 
Heaton,  postal 
reformer 

Elliott  &  Fry 


HEAVITREE 

by  a  due  fulfilment  of  the  religious 
rites  and  customs  of  the  tribe.  A 
striking  illustration  of  the  belief 
that  the  future  life  is  a  continuation 
of  the  present  is  the  common 
custom  of  burying  implements  and 
weapons  with  the  corpse. 

Among  the  national  religions  the 
Egyptian  laid  great  stress  upon 
the  life  beyond  the  grave.  An 
ethical  development  may  be  ob- 
served in  the  conditions  required 
for  admission  to  the  abode  of  the 
blessed.  Moral  purity  is  regarded 
as  essential  in  the  higher  forms  of 
Egyptian  religion.  The  Greek  and 
Roman  religion  did  not  develop 
the  idea  of  a  happy  life  beyond  the 
grave  to  anything  like  the  same 
extent.  The' thought  is  not,  how- 
ever, entirely  absent,  and  it  played 
a  considerable  part  in  the  so-called 
•'  mystery  religions."  The  prevail- 
ing view  is  nevertheless  that  the  life 
beyond  the  grave  is  merely  a  feeble 
and  shadowy  copy  of  the  present 
world.  Only  certain  heroes  speci- 
ally favoured  by  the  gods  are 
supposed  to  enjoy  happiness  in  an 
earthly  Elysium.  Philosophica 
ideas  of  immortality  were  developed 
by  Pythagoras,  Plato,  Aristotle, 
and  other  thinkers. 

Eastern  Conceptions 

The  religions  of  the  East  have 
made  the  idea  more  prominent, 
and  both  Hinduism  and  Buddhism 
have  evolved  complex  doctrines  of 
the  hereafter.  According  to  the 
Buddhist  theology  the  state  of 
final  blessedness  consists  in  Nir- 
vana, which  involves  the  loss  of  in- 
dividual existence.  Thus  the  com- 
plete attainment  of  salvation 
would  raise  the  soul  above  heaven. 
Pious  people  who  have  not  yet 
attained  this  final  blessedness  are 
rewarded  by  re-birth  in  one  of  the 
numerous  heavens.  The  highest 
heaven  is  a  condition  in  which 
desire  and  pleasure  have  no  place. 

Mahomedanism  offers  a  very 
different  conception  of  heaven. 
The  Koran  teaches  the  resurrection 
of  the  body  and  represents  the 
beatitude  of  the  faithful  as  con- 
sisting of  enjoyments  of  a  sensual 
character.  The  crudity  of  this 
view  has,  however,  been  modified 
by  the  more  mystical  schools  of 
Mahomedan  thought. 

In  the  O.T.  the  word  heaven  is 
used  to  signify  the  sky,  which  is 
regarded  as  the  roof  of  the  world 
and  also  as  the  dwelling-place  of 
God.  The  idea  of  a  reward  for  the 
righteous  after  death  is  not  promi- 
nent in  Hebrew  religion,  and  is 
only  found  in  the  later  books.  The 
prevailing  belief  was  that  the 
divine  Providence  metes  out  re- 
wards and  punishments  in  this  life. 
Some  of  the  most  interesting  pas- 
sages in  Hebrew  literature  are  pro- 


39O5 

tests  against  this  view,  cf.  the  book 
of  Job.  In  later  Jewish  literature, 
and  particularly  in  the  so-called 
Apocalyptic  writings,  the  idea  of 
a  resurrection  and  a  future  life 
becomes  very  prominent,  though  it 
assumes  somewhat  fantastic  forms. 
The  New  Testament  and  Heaven 

In  the  N.T.  heaven  is,  as  in  the 
O.T.,  the  dwelling-place  of  God, 
as  we  are  reminded  by  the  opening 
words  of  the  Lord's  Prayer.  It  is 
also  represented  by  the  writers  of 
the  Epistles  and  the  Revelation  as 
the  abode  of  the  ascended  Christ. 
Heaven  is  also  the  final  home  of  the 
righteous.  This  is  a  part  of  the 
teaching  of  Jesus  and  of  the  apos- 
tolic writers.  Several  passages  sug- 
gest that  there  is  more  than  one 
heaven.  It  is  possible  that  this  is 
implied  in  Christ's  saying  about 
"  many  mansions."  S.  Paul  speaks 
of  being  caught  up  into  the  third 
heaven  (2  Cor.  xii,  2).  In  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  Christ  is 
said  to  have  "  passed  through  the 
heavens  "  (Heb.  iv,  14). 

No  definite  statements  are  to  be 
found  in  the  N.T.  on  the  nature  of 
heaven  and  the  life  of  the  righteous 
in  the  world  to  come  beyond  the 
assertion  of  general  principles.  The 
language  of  the  Revelation  of  S. 
John  must  not  be  interpreted  as  a 
literal  description  of  heaven.  The 
Christian  conception  of  heaven  is 
social.  It  is  described  as  a  kingdom 
and  involves  intercourse.  It  is, 
however,  not  a  decrease  of  life,  but 
an  increase,  since  the  state  of  the 
blessed  is  called  "  eternal  life." 

The  joy  of  heaven,  in  the  Chris- 
tian view,  is  spiritual  and  not 
material.  Jesus  was  careful  to 
point  out  that  the  relations  which 
are  based  on  bodily  functions  are 
not  carried  over  as  such  into  the 
heavenly  kingdom.  It  consists  in 
the  unimpeded  exercise  of  moral 
and  spiritual  activities.  Thus  the 
desire  for  truth  and  understanding 
cannot,  in  the  nature  of  things,  be 
fully  satisfied  in  the  present  order, 
and  the  life  of  heaven  is  conceived 
as  one  of  fuller  knowledge  as  con- 
trasted with  knowledge  "  in  part." 
Another  element  in  the  joy  of 
heaven  is  the  fuller  development  of 
fellowship  with  others  and  of  the 
possibilities  of  love.  For  Christian- 
ity, however,  the  supreme  good 
and  the  final  reward  is  perfect 
communion  with  God,  or  the  Beati- 
fic Vision.  Thus  the  life  of  heaven 
is  to  be  thought  of  as  the  complete 
attainment  of  an  eternal  life  which 
can  be  possessed  partially  in  the 
present  life. 

Several  philosophical  problems 
have  been  raised  in  connexion  with 
the  idea  of  heaven.  Such  is  the 
question  whether  heaven  can  be 
described  as  a  "  place."  There  are 


HEBDEN      BRIDGE 

obvious  difficulties  in  supposing 
that  heaven  occupies  a  portion  of 
space,  and  a  common  answer  is 
that  "  Heaven  is  not  a  place  but 
a  state."  This  solution  is  not  en- 
tirely satisfactory,  because  it  is  not 
easy  to  see  how  individual  exist- 
ence can  be  preserved  if  the  future 
life  is  not  accompanied  by  con- 
ditions analogous  to  those  of  space. 
The  scientific  and  philosophical 
conceptions  of  space  are  now  the 
subject  of  much  discussion,  and  it 
is  possible  that  new  light  may  be 
thrown  upon  the  future  life. 

W.  R.  Matthews 

Bibliography.  Christian  Doctrine 
of  Immortality,  S.  D.  F.  Salmond, 
1901  ;  Human  Personality  and  its 
Survival  of  Bodily  Death,  F.  W.  H. 
Myers,  1903  ;  Immortality,  ed.  B. 
H.  Streeter,  1917  ;  King's  College 
Lectures  on  Immortality,  ed.  W.  R. 
Matthews,  1920. 

Heavitree.  Parish  and  village 
of  Devonshire;  Ensland.  It  is  1  m. 
E.  of  Exeter,  and  "the  Exeter  City 
asylum  is  here.  Pop.  10.950. 

Hebbel,  CHRISTIAN  FRIEDRICH 
(1813-63).  German  dramatist  and 
poet.  He  was  born  at  Wesselburen, 
Sles  vig-Hol- 
stein,  March  18; 
1813,  the  son 
of  a  mason.  He 
was  enabled  to 
study  at  Ham- 
burg, Heidel- 
berg,  and 
Munich,  and  in 
1842  his  first 
tragedy,  Ju- 
dith, brought 
him  immediate 
fame.  It  was  followed  by  Maria 
Magdalena,  1844,  the  best  of  his 
earlier  plays,  and  a  forerunner  of 
the  naturalistic  drama. 

His  later  plays  included  Herodes 
und  Mariamne,  1851  ;  Gyges  und 
sein  Ring,  1855  ;  and  the  trilogy, 
Die  Nibelungen,  1862,  the  two 
last  named  being  his  masterpieces. 
He  also  published  two  volumes  of 
Gedichte  (poems),  in  1842  and 
1848.  He  died  in  Vienna,  Dec.  13, 
1863.  His  Tagebucher  (Diaries) 
were  published  in  1887.  See  Life 
and  Works,  T.  M.  Campbell,  1919. 

Hebburn.  Urban  dist.  and  town 
of  Durham,  England.  It  stands  on 
the  Tyne,  and  is  virtually  a  suburb 
of  Jarrow.  Shipbuilding,  engineer- 
ing, and  chemical,  rope,  and  sail 
manufactures  are  the  chief  indus- 
tries. The  council  maintains  a 
public  park.  Pop.  21,770. 

Hebden  Bridge.  Urban  dist. 
and  town  of  W.R.,  Yorkshire, 
England.  It  stands  on  the  Hebden 
and  Calder  rivers,  8  m.  W.N.W.  of 
Halifax,  on  the  L.  &  Y.R.  The 
Hardcastle  Crags,  a  favourite  resort, 
are  3  m.  to  the  N.W.  The  manu- 
factures consist  of  cotton,  silk,  and 

X     5 


C.  F.  Hebbel, 
German  dramatist 


HEBDOMADAL 

fustians,  and  there  are  also  dye- 
works  and  foundries.  The  council 
owns  the  water  and  electricity 
undertakings  Pop.  7,170. 

Hebdomadal  Council  (Gr.  hcb- 
domos,  seventh).  In  the  university 
of  Oxford,  a  board  appointed  in 
1631  to  hold  weekly  meetings  to 
discuss  matters  affecting  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  university,  and  sub- 
mit legislative  measures  to  convo- 
cation. It  is  composed  of  the  chan- 
cellor, vice-chancellor,  and  proc- 
tors, ex-ojficio,  and  of  18  other 
members  of  the  university,  elected 
by  congregation,  and  sitting  for  six 
years.  Of  these  18,  six  are  heads 
of  houses,  six  professors,  and  six 
members  of  convocation.  See  Ox- 
ford University. 

Hebe  (Gr.,  youth).  In  Greek 
mythology,  the  goddess  of  youth. 
She  was  the  daughter  of  Zeus  and 
Hera,  and  was  given  in  marriage  to 
Heracles  when  he  became  a  god. 


3906 


Hebe,  the  goddess  of  youth,  from  a 
statue  by  Thorwaldsen 

Thorwaldsen  Museum,   Copenhagen 

She  was  the  cup-bearer  of  the  gods 
before  Ganymede  (q.v. ).  Her 
Roman  counterpart  was  Juventas, 
who  typified  also  the  eternal  youth 
of  the  Roman  state.  See  Canova. 
Heber,  REGINALD  (1783-1826). 
British  prelate  and  hymn-writer. 
He  was  born,  April  21,  1783,  at 
Malpas,  C  h  e- 
shire,  where  his 
father  was 
rector,  and 
educated  a  t 
Brasenose  Col- 
lege, Oxford. 
He  won  prizes 
for  the  English 
essay,  and 
Latin  and 
English  verse, 
the  last  named 
poem,  Palestine,  1803. 


Hebden  Bridge,  Yorkshire.     View  of  the  town  from 
Wood  Top,  a  neighbouring  hill 


From  1804  until  1807  he  was  a 
fellow  of  All  Souls.  Having  mar- 
ried a  daughter  of  Dr.  Shipley, 
dean  of  St.  Asaph,  he  became  in- 
cumbent of  Hodnet,  Shropshire. 
He  was  Bampton  lecturer,  1815  ; 
preacher  at  Lincoln's  Inn,  1822  ; 
and  second  bishop  of  Calcutta, 
1822-26.  He  died  Aprils,  1826, 
at  Trichinopoly.  He  was  a  man  of 
winning  personality,  distinguished 
by  devotion  to  duty.  He  wrote  a 
memoir,  and  edited  the  works,  of 
Jeremy  Taylor,  1 822,  and  was  the 
author  of  a  number  of  hymns, 
including  Holy,  Holy,  Holy,  Lord 
God  Almighty,  and  From  Green- 
land's Icy  Mountains.  See  Lives, 
A.  Heber,  1830,  and  G.  Smith,  1895. 
His  half-brother,  Richard  Heber, 
born  at  Westminster,  Jan.  5,  1773, 
was  educated  at  Brasenose,  was 
M.P.  for  Oxford  University, 
1821-26,  and  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Athenaeum  Club. 
He  died  at  Pimlico  on  Oct.  4, 


HEBREW 

1833.  Scholar  and 
book  collector,  he 
amassed  more 
than  146,000  vol- 
umes, many  of 
which  he  anno- 
tated. 

He  bert ,  JACQUES 
RENE  (1757-94). 
French  revolution- 
ary. Born  at  Alen- 
con  on  Nov.  15, 
1757,  as  a  young 
man  he  worked  in 
Paris  as  theatrical 
manager,  and  a 
doctor's  assistant. 
He  mixed  in  revo- 
lutionary circles, 
being  a  member  of  the  Cordeliers 
Club  (q.v.),  and  issued  several  pam- 
phlets in  1790,  but  became  more 
widely  known  by  his  conduct  of 
the  journal  Le  Pere  Duchesne. 
His  arrest  was  ordered  in  May, 
1793,  but  popular  demonstrations 
in  Paris  forced  his  release.  Hebert 
was  notorious  for  his  accusations 
against  Marie  Antoinette,  and  in- 
stituted the  so-called  cult  of  the 
goddess  of  Reason.  He  was 
guillotined  March  24,  1794. 

Hebert,  Louis  PHILIPPE  (1850- 
1917).  French-Canadian  sculptor. 
Born  in  Quebec  Province,  he  studied 
art  in  Paris.  His  statues  won  him 
considerable  reputation  in  Paris 
and  elsewhere,  his  full-length  of 
George  Cartier  (q.v.)  being  awarded 
the  prize  offered  by  the  Dominion 
Government,  and  others  were  set 
up  in  Montreal.  In  1901  he  was 
made  a  chevalier  of  the  legion  of 
honour.  He  died  June  13,  1917. 
See  Frontenac. 


HEBREW     LANGUAGE,    LITERATURE    AND 

RF"!    !f5ION  M.  A.  Canney,  M.A.,  Prof,  of  Semitic 

C  C.  1_  I V3  1  VJ  FN  Languages,  Manchester  University 

The  article  supplements  the  historical  sketch  of  the  Jews.  See  articles 
on  Canaan,  Jerusalem,  Palestine,  and  other  places  and  countries 
associated  with  this  people.  See  also  A  Iphabet ;  Bible ;  Old  Testa- 
ment ;  the  articles  on  the  books  of  the  O.T.  ;  and  those  on  the  great 
Hebrews,  e.g.  Abraham,  Moses,  etc.  See  also  Jehovah 


Hebrew  belongs  to  the  Middle 
Semitic  or  Canaanitish  branch  of 
the  Semitic  languages,  and  is  re- 
lated closely  to  Arabic  (S.  Semitic), 
Aramaic  (N.  Semitic),  and  Baby- 
lonian (E.  Semitic).  The  term 
Hebrew,  originally  a  gentilic,  de- 
rived from  a  word  meaning 
"  country  on  the  other  side,"  was 
applied  by  neighbouring  peoples  to 
the  people  "  on  the  other  side," 
i.e.  on  the  other  side  of  the  Jordan, 
or  more  probably  of  the  Euphrates. 
Whatever  the  precise  origin  of  the 
language,  it  developed  in  Canaan, 
and  in  Isaiah  xix,  18,  is  described 
as  "  the  language  of  Canaan." 
Elsewhere  in  the  O.T.  it  is  referred 
to,  not  as  the  Hebrew  language, 


but  as  "  the  Jews'  language."  He- 
brew is  written  from  right  to 
left.  The  old  character  resembles 
the  Phoenician.  This  was  ex- 
changed about  the  4th  century  for 
the  "  square  character  "  employed 
in  Hebrew  bibles.  Originally 
Hebrew  writing  consisted  only  of 
consonants,  as  it  still  does  in  the 
Synagogue  scrolls  of  the  Law.  The 
system  of  vowel-signs  now  in 
common  use  was  introduced  by 
the  Masoretes  in  the  7th  century 
in  order  to  preserve  the  traditional 
pronunciation  (masora,  "  tradi- 
tion "). 

The  grammatical  structure  of 
the  language  presents  some  curious 
characteristics  in  common  with  the 


HEBREW 

other  Semitic  languages.  Word- 
stems  are  mostly  triliteral,  and 
compounds  are  very  rare.  The 
verb  has  only  two  tense-forms, 
which  express  the  state  rather  than 
the  time  of  an  action.  The  noun 
has  only  two  genders,  masculine 
and  feminine,  neuter  ideas  being 
expressed  by  the  latter.  Nor  has  it 
any  cares  in  the  Greek  and  Latin 
sense.  These  are  expressed  partly 
by  prepositions.  There  is  a  com- 
parative scarcity  of  adjectives, 
which  is  compensated  for  by  an 
idiomatic  use  of  nouns  (e.g.  "  son 
of  death  " — worthy  of  death).  Syn- 
tactical relations  are  expressed 
very  simply.  In  fact,  it  is  charac- 
teristic of  the  purest  Hebrew  that 
the  clauses  are  short  and  simple. 
The  poetry  is  distinguished  from 
the  prose,  not  by  rhyme  (which  is 
avoided),  but  by  rhythm. 

Outside  the  O.T.  only  a  few 
examples  of  the  old  Hebrew  or  old 
Canaanitish  literature  have  sur- 
vived. In  particular,  we  have  a 
number  of  Canaanite  glosses  in 
the  Tell  el-Amarna  Tablets  (c. 
1400  B.C.),  an  inscription  of  Mesha, 
king  of  Moab  (c.  850  B.C.),  com- 
monly known  as  the  Inscription  of 
Mesha,  or  as  the  Moabite  Stone, 
and  the  8th  century  Hebrew  in- 
scription, usually  described  as  the 
Siloam  Inscription  because  it  was 
discovered  on  the  wall  of  the  Pool 
of  Siloam  at  Jerusalem.  The  lan- 
guage of  all  these  is  related  closely 
to  the  language  of  the  O.T.  In  the 
O.T.  itself  reference  is  made  to 
several  ancient  writings,  more  of 
the  nature  of  books,  which  were 
used  as  sources. 

Early  Poetical  Fragments 

The  most  ancient  of  these,  frag- 
ments of  which  are  preserved  in 
the  O.T.,  were  poetical.  They 
seem  to  have  been  collections  of 
ballads  and  songs  celebrating  great 
events  and  exploits.  Special  men- 
tion is  made  of  the  Book  of  Jasher 
(Josh,  x,  13;  2  Sam.  i,  18)  and 
the  Book  of  the  Wars  of  Jehovah 
(Num.  xxi,  14,  15).  From  such 
collections  no  doubt  were  drawn 
fragments  like  the  Song  of  the 
Well  (Num.  xxi,  17,  18)  and  the 
Song  of  Deborah  (Judges  v).  Men- 
tion is  made  also  of  early  prose 
records,  such  as  the  Book  of  the 
Acts  of  Solomon  (1  Kings  xi,  41), 
the  Book  of  the  Chronicles  of  the 
Kings  of  Israel  (1  Kings),  and  the 
BOOK  of  the  Chronicles  of  the 
Kings  of  Judah  (1  Kings).  There 
were  also  collections  of  wise  say- 
ings (Proverbs  xxiv,  23). 

Between  the  earliest  (c.  1200- 
1000  B.C.)  and  latest  portions  (c. 
150  B.C.)  of  the  O.T.,  or  between 
the  Exilic  and  Post-Exilic  writings 
which  together  comprise  Biblical 
Hebrew,  there  is  a  marked  dif- 


3907 

ference  in  style.  After  the  Fall  of 
Samaria  in  721  B.C.,  and  still  more 
after  the  Fall  of  Jerusalem  in  586 
B.C.,  Aramaic,  the  spoken  language 
of  the  population  that  surrounded 
the  Jews,  made  gradual  but  per- 
sistent encroachments  upon  He- 
brew. If  the  language  was  spoken 
still  and  understood  by  the  people 
in  the  time  of  Nehemiah  (5th  cen- 
tury B.C.  ;  Neh.  xiii,  24)  and  of 
the  rise  and  development  of  the 
Synagogue  (430-330  B.C.),  it  had 
lost  much  of  its  purity. 

Aramaic  Influence 

The  literature  from  the  time  of 
the  Exile  to  the  Maccabean  period 
(c.  160  B.C.)  shows  more  and  more 
in  style  and  vocabulary  the  over- 
powering influence  of  the  official 
language  of  the  western  half  of  the 
Persian  Empire  (Aramaic).  But 


Form 

Equi- 
valent 

Name 

Signification 

K 

' 

Aleph 

Ox 

3 

b,  bh 

Beth 

House 

J 

g,  gh 

Gimel 

Camel 

1 

d,  dh 

Daleth 

Door 

n 

h 

He 

Window 

i 

V 

Vau 

Hook 

t 

z 

Zain 

Weapon 

n 

ch 

Cheth 

Fence 

D 

t 

Teth 

Snake 

» 

y 

Jod 

Hand 

^ 

k,kh 

Caph 

Bended 
hand 

b 

1 

Lamed 

Ox  goad 

O 

m 

Mem 

Water 

: 

n 

Nun 

Fish 

D 

s 

Samech 

Prop 

y 

c 

cAin 

Eye 

c 

p,ph 

Pe 

Mouth 

2 

ts 

Tsaddi 

Fish  hook 

P 

q 

Koph 

Back  of  the 
Head 

i 

r 

Resh 

Head 

c> 

sh  or  s 

Schin 

Tooth 

n 

t,  th 

Tau 

Cross 

Hebrew  Language.      The  Alphabet 

popular  works  seem  to  have  been 
written  as  late  as  50  B.C.  (e.g.  the 
Book  of  Judith). 

Hebrew,  therefore,  can  hardly 
be  said  to  have  been  dead  long 
before  the  time  of  Christ,  though 
by  that  time  Aramaic  had  become 
the  spoken  language.  We  witness 
the  last  phases  of  the  struggle  be- 
tween Hebrew  and  Aramaic  on  the 
one  hand  and  Hebrew  and  Greek 
on  the  other  in  some  of  the  latest 
books  of  the  O.T.  and  in  some  of 
the  books  of  the  Apocrypha.  The 
book  of  Ezra  (between  300  and 
250  B.C.)  and  the  book  of  Daniel 
(c.  164  B.C.)  are  partly  in  Aramaic. 


HEBREW 

The  book  of  Ecclesiasticus  (O.T. 
Apocrypha),  composed  about  200 
B.C.,  was  written  in  Hebrew,  though 
much  of  it  has  survived  only  in 
Greek  and  other  versions.  It  is 
significant  that  in  order  to  make 
this  work  better  known  to  Jews,  it 
was  translated  into  Greek  in  132 
B.C.  by  the  author's  grandson,  who 
tells  us  in  a  prologue  that  the  task 
of  translating  Hebrew  into  Greek 
already  presented  difficulties. 
Again,  whereas  the  first  book  of 
Maccabees  (O.T.  Apocrypha),  com- 
posed about  125  B.C.,  though  pre- 
served only  in  Greek  and  other 
versions,  was  written  originally  in 
Hebrew,  the  second  book  of  Macca- 
bees (O.T.  Apocrypha),  composed 
between  the  years  60  B.C.  and  A.D. 
1,  was  written  from  the  first,  like 
most  of  the  other  books  of  the  0  T. 
Apocrypha,  in  Greek. 

If  a  number  of  the  works  known 
as  Pseudepigrapha,  a  body  of  lite- 
rature written  under  assumed 
names  between  180  B.C.  and  A.D. 
100,  were  composed  in  Hebrew,  the 
reason  was  to  give  them,  in  ad- 
dition to  the  prestige  of  a  famous 
name,  the  further  authority  and 
sanctity  of  the  sacred  tongue,  re- 
gardless of  the  fact  that  this  was 
understood  no  longer  by  the  bulk 
of  the  people. 

Origin  of  Targums 

Long  before  the  time  of  Christ  it 
had  become  necessary,  even  in  the 
synagogues,  to  explain  the  lan- 
guage of  the  sacred  writings.  This 
was  done  by  an  official  interpreter 
known  as  Taryoman  or  Methurge- 
man.  At  a  later  date  these  trans- 
lations were  committed  to  writing 
and  received  the  name  Targum. 

In  the  countries  of  the  Disper- 
sion, of  course,  Hebrew  would  be 
forgotten  sooner  than  in  Palestine. 
As  early  as  the  5th  century  B.C. 
Jews  went  to  Egypt ;  others  fol- 
lowed under  Alexander  the  Great 
and  the  Ptolemies,  forming  im- 
portant colonies.  Consequently, 
long  before  books  had  ceased  to  be 
written  in  Hebrew  in  Palestine, 
part  of  the  O.T.  had  to  be  trans- 
lated into  Greek  for  the  sake  of  the 
Greek-speaking  Jews  of  Alexan- 
dria. The  beginning  seems  to  have 
been  made  in  the  reign  of  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus  (284-247  B.C.). 

Before  the  end  of  the  2nd  cen- 
tury B.C.  the  larger  portion  of  the 
O.T.  existed  in  Greek.  The  spread 
of  the  Greek  language  involved 
also  the  spread  of  Greek  civiliza- 
tion. There  arose  and  developed, 
not  only  in  Alexandria  and  else- 
where, but  even  in  Palestine,  an 
important  Jewish-Hellenistic  lite- 
rature. The  authors  of  some  of  the 
O.T.  Apocrypha  (e.g.  the  Book  oi 
Wisdom)  and  of  the  Pseudepi- 
grapha (e.g.  the  Book  of  the  Secrets 


HEBREW 

of  Enoch)  were  Alexandrians  ;  but 
the  chief  Jewish -Hellenistic  writers 
were  Philo  of  Alexandria  and 
Josephus  of  Jerusalem. 

Philo  seems  to  have  been  born 
between  30  and  20  B.C.,  and  to  have 
died  between  A.D.  45  and  50.  Among 
other  works  he  wrote  a  Life  of 
Moses  and  a  history  of  the  persecu- 
tions endured  by  the  Jews  in  his 
own  time,  of  which  only  part  has 
been  preserved.  The  treatise  On 
the  Contemplative  Life,  ascribed 
to  him,  perhaps  belongs  rather  to 
the  3rd  or  4th  century  A.D.  Jose- 
phus, the  Jewish  historian,  who 
was  born  A.D.  37-38  and  died  about 
100,  completed  his  book  on  the 
Wars  of  the  Jews  before  79,  and 
wrote  his  Antiquities  and  his  Reply 
to  Apion  about  or  soon  after  93-94. 

After  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem in  A.D.  70  a  reaction  against 
the  use  of  Greek  set  in.  When  all 
else  was  lost,  the  sacred  writings 
and  the  sacred  language  assumed 
a  new  sanctity.  Hebrew  was  re- 
suscitated and  developed,  not 
indeed  as  a  popular  speech,  but  as 
the  language  of  books  and  scholars. 
Hence  arose  Post-Biblical  or  Tal- 
mudic  Hebrew. 

Books  of  the  Law 

The  Hebrew  law  (the  Torah)  be- 
came the  text  for  numerous  com- 
ments and  legal  discussions  by  the 
Jewish  rabbis.  These  pronounce- 
ments at  first  constituted  an  oral 
tradition  ;  afterwards  (c.  A.D.  200) 
they  were  written  down  and  in- 
corporated, probably  by  pupils  of 
Shammai  and  Hillel,  in  the  Mish- 
nah,  a  work  that  forms  the  basis  of 
the  larger  work  known  as  the 
Talmud  (g.v.). 

Closely  related  to  these  discus- 
sions is  a  branch  of  literature  which 
consists  of  commentaries  on  the 
sacred  text,  called  Midrashim 
(singular,  Midrash).  The  earliest 
of  these  belong  to  the  2nd  century 
A.D.  The  Talmudists  (2nd-5th 
centuries)  were  succeeded  by  the 
Masoretes  (5th-8th  centuries),  the 
Jewish  scholars  who  fixed  the  text 
of  the  O.T. 

Another  revival  of  Hebrew  took 
place  about  the  10th  century. 
There  arose,  in  emulation  of  the 
Arab  grammarians,  a  notable 
school  of  Hebrew  grammarians  and 
exegetes.  Representatives  of  this 
school  include  Saadia  of  the  Favum 
(892-942),  Rashi  ( 1040-11 05  ),"Ab- 
en-Ezra  (1088-1167),  Moses  Mai- 
monides  (1135-1204),  and  David 
Kimchi(  1160-1240).  Thelanguage 
used  is  a  new  development,  and  is 
even  less  pure  than  Talmudic  He- 
brew. It  is  known  as  New  Hebrew 
or  Rabbinic  Hebrew  (not  to  be 
confused  with  Yiddish).  Aben- 
Ezra  was  also  a  poet  whose  name 
recalls  the  fact  that  the  10th  cen- 


3908 

tury  saw  the  rise,  especially  in 
Spain,  of  a  rather  remarkable 
school  of  New  Hebrew  poets. 

The  beginning  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury brought  another  renaissance 
in  Hebrew  letters,  which  started  in 
Italy  with  the  activities  of  M.  H. 
Luzzatto,  philosopher,  poet,  and 
dramatist.  The  movement  spread 
to  Germany,  which  in  course  of 
time  became  its  centre  (the  so- 
called  Haskalah  period,  c.  1750- 
1850).  Then,  in  the  early  part  of 
the  19th  century,  the  centre  of 
activity  was  transferred  to  Galicia 
(the  Galician  period). 

By  the  middle  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury the  lead  was  taken  by  Russia, 
which  produced  such  famous 
writers  as  Abraham  Mapu  (1808- 
67),  a  creator  of  the  Hebrew  novel, 
Judah  Loeb  Gordon  (1831-92),  the 
poet,  Peretz  Ben  Moshe  Smolenskin 
(1839-84),the  essayist  and  novelist, 
and  Constantino  A.  Shapiro  (1840- 
1900),  the  poet.  In  our  own  time 
poets  like  H.  N.  Bialik,  Saul 
Tschernihovsky,  Jacob  Cohen,  and 
Z.  Schneer  have  greatly  enriched 
the  storehouse  of  Hebrew  litera- 
ture. The  language  of  the  modern 
writers,  popularly  known  as  Modern 
Hebrew,  aims  at  keeping  as  close 
to  the  classical  model  as  possible. 

Bibliography.  Introduction  to  He- 
brew Literature,  J.  W.  Etheridge, 
1856;  Lehrbuch  der  Neuhebraischen 
Sprache  und  Litteratur,  H.  L.  S track 
and  C.  Siegfried,  1884  ;  the  Jewish 
Encyclopaedia,  1904;  The  New  He- 
brew School  of  Poets,  H.  Brody 
and  K.  Albrecht,  1906;  Introduc- 
tion to  the  Hebrew  Bible,  A.  S. 
Gederi,  1909  ;  Hebrew  Grammar, 
F.  H.  W.  Gesenius  and  E.  Kautzsch, 
ed.  A.  E.  Cowley,  1910  ;  The  Re- 
ligion and  Worship  of  the  Syna- 
gogue, W.  O.  E.  Oesterley  and  G.  H. 
Box,  2nd  ed.  1911  ;  The  Evolution 
of  Modern  Hebrew  Literature,  A.  S. 
Waldstein,  1916  ;  A  Short  Survey 
of  the  Literature  of  Rabbinical  and 
Mediaeval  Judaism,  W.  O.  E.  Oester- 
ley and  G.  H.  Box,  1920. 

HEBREW  RELIGION.  This  claims 
exceptional  consideration  as  the 
parent  of  two  other  great  and 
world-wide  monotheistic  faiths, 
Mahomedanism  and  Christianity. 
Its  wonderful  development  was  not 
quite  an  ordinary  evolution,  be- 
cause in  a  special  degree  it  was 
carried  from  one  stage  to  another  by 
a  series  of  great  men  who  appeared 
suddenly  as  leaders  and  prophets. 
Among  the  patriarchs  an  outstand- 
ing figure  is  that  of  Abraham,  who 
is  said  to  have  led  a  migration  of 
certain  nomadic  tribes  from  Meso- 
potamia (Ur  of  the  Chaldees)  to 
Palestine  ;  and  there  is  a  persistent 
tradition  that  Abraham  was  spiri- 
tually the  father  of  Israel.  It  has 
even  been  suggested  that  the  migra- 
tion of  Abraham  was  due  essen- 
tially to  a  religious  impulse  ;  it 


HEBREW 

was  a  protest  against  degeneration 
in  the  Babylonian  moon-worship, 
or  against  the  polytheism  culti- 
vated in  Babylonia  by  the  Ham- 
murapi  dynasty  (so  Jeremias). 

Moses,  however,  was  the  first 
prophet,  and  the  founder  of  the 
Hebrew  religion.  At  first  the  mi- 
grating tribes  seem  to  have  shared 
the  beliefs  of  other  Semitic  nomads. 
They  believed  in  powerful  demons 
or  spirits  which  inhabited  stones 
(the  sacred  stone  of  Bethel,  Gen. 
xxviii,  22),  trees  (the  sacred  oracu- 
lar tree  at  Shechem,  Gen.  xii,  6; 
Deut.  xii,  3),  springs  (the  sacred 
wells  at  Kadesh,  Gen.  xiv,  7,  and  at 
Beertheba,  Gen.  xxi,  28-30,  31), 
and  even  animals  (the  brazen  ser- 
pent, Nehushtan,  Num.  xxi,  4-9; 
2  Kings  xviii,  4).  Natural  boulders 
were  used  for  altars,  and  sacrifices 
were  not  prominent.  Where  blood 
was  shed,  it  was  for  the  most  part 
used  for  blood-covenants. 

In  Egypt  the  Hebrew  tribes  do  not 
seem  to  have  been  much  impressed 
or  affected  by  the  more  developed 
religion  which  they  found  there. 
But  here  a  leader  arose,  who  had 
clearly  been  uplifted  and  inspired 
by  stirring  religious  experiences 
(Exod.  iii,  2-4).  It  is  possible,  as 
Jeremias  has  suggested,  that,  when 
Moses  fled  from  the  court  of  Egypt 
into  Midian,  where  he  became  a 
shepherd  in  the  service  of  Reuel  or 
Jethro,  the  priest  of  the  Midianites, 
he  did  so  because  on  religious 
grounds  he  had  become  unpopular 
at  the  Egyptian  court.  In  any  case, 
if  he  was  seeking  a  fresh  religious 
stimulus,  he  would  seem  to  have 
found  it  among  the  Midianites. 

Recent  research  indicates  that 
before  Yahweh  (Jehovah)  was  pro- 
claimed by  Moses  the  covenant  God 
of  Israel,  he  had  long  been  a  tribal 
deity  of  the  Kenite-Midianites. 
Moses  founded  the  priesthood,  being 
himself  both  prophet  and  priest. 
Inspired  by  Yahweh,  he  gave  the 
people  ten  simple  commandments 
(Exod.  xxxiv).  The  sanctuary  of 
Yahweh  was  a  sacred  ark,  probably 
an  ancient  object  which  had  ac- 
quired a  new  significance. 

At  this  stage  the  religion  may  be 
described  as  monolatry.  Yahweh  is 
the  one  officially  recognized  God  of 
Israel,  but  he  is  not  the  only  God. 
In  Canaan  the  Hebrews  met  with  a 
rather  elaborate  Canaanite  cultus. 
This  in  course  of  time  they  appro- 
priated in  large  measure.  Sacred 
shrines  and  fixed  altars  were  taken 
over  for  the  use  of  Yahweh.  The 
sacrificial  system  and  the  agricul- 
tural festivals  of  the  Canaanites 
were  adopted.  Sacrifices  are  now 
regarded  for  the  most  part  as  gifts, 
and  special  importance  is  attached 
to  first  fruits.  Three  times  in  the 
year  all  the  males  in  Israel  are 


HEBREWS 

commanded  by  Moses  to  appear 
before  Yahweh — at  the  Matstsoth 
Festival  or  Feast  of  Unleavened 
Bread,  at  the  Feast  of  Weeks  or 
Harvest  Festival,  and  at  the  Vin- 
tage or  Feast  of  Tabernacles ;  all 
were  originally  agricultural  fes- 
tivals (Exod.  xxxiv,  14-26). 

The  rise  of  a  priesthood  was  in- 
evitable. This  was  hereditary.  An 
early  example  of  the  teaching  of  the 
priests  is  provided  by  the  Book  of 
the  Covenant  (Exod.  xxi,  1-xxiii, 
13).  The  cultus,  of  course,  was  not 
yet  centralized.  Yahweh  was  iden- 
tified with  the  local  Baals  of  the 
Canaanites,  and  Bethel,  Gilgal, 
Dan,  and  Beersheba  appear  as 
favourite  places  of  pilgrimage.  At 
about  the  time  of  the  institution  of 
the  monarchy  we  hear  of  a  body 
called  the  "  sons  of  the  prophets." 
These  seem  to  have  constituted  a 
prophetic  guild  or  fraternity,  the 
members  of  which  were  able  to 
arouse  in  themselves  and  others 
great  religious  enthusiasm  (1  Sam. 
xix,  20). 

They  were  organized  by  Samuel, 
called  the  seer  of  Ramah ;  and 
with  them  the  prophets  have 
emerged  as  a  power  to  be  reckoned 
with.  In  the  reigns  of  Ahab  of 
Israel  (876-854  B.C.)  and  Jehosh- 
aphat  of  Israel  (873-849  B.C.),  in 
the  persons  of  Elijah  and  Elisha 
the  prophets  begin  to  assume  an 
active  and  commanding  role  as  reli- 
gious and  social  reformers.  Hebrew 
religion  now  begins  to  lay  stress  on 
ethics  rather  than  on  ritual.  With 
the  emergence  of  the  great  pro- 
phets, we  arrive  at  a  development 
of  Hebrew  religion  which  may  be 
described  as  monotheism. 

Monotheism  of  Early  Faith 

The  earlier  religion  tolerated 
other  deities  ;  the  prophetic  reli- 
gion does  not.  In  spite  of  the 
curious  and  doubtful  phenomenon 
presented  by  the  Egyptian  king 
Amenophis  IV  or  Akhenaton,  this 
ethical  monotheism  is  the  distin- 
guishing feature  of  early  Hebrew 
religion.  The  prophets  wished  to 
purge  the  religion  of  all  heathen 
contamination.  They  opposed 
strenuously  the  sacrificial  cultus, 
and  proclaimed  that  Yahweh  takes 
no  pleasure  in  sacrificial  feasts 
(Amos  v,  21-24,  iv,  4;  Hos.  vi, 
4-6;  Isa.  i,  10-17;  Jer.  vi,  20). 
They  rejected  the  use  of  an  image 
as  a  representation  of  God  (Hos. 
viii,  4-6,  x,  5,  xiii,  2).  They  even 
denied  the  superiority  of  the  Israel- 
ites The  dark-skinned  Ethiopians 
are  just  as  dear  to  Yahweh  as  the 
children  of  Israel.  Amos  found  cher- 
ished amongthe people  a  well-estab- 
lished doctrine  of  the  Day  of  Yah- 
weh as  a  day  when  Yahweh  would 
make  them  triumphant  over  all 
their  enemies.  He  transformed  it  so 


3909 

radically  and  ethically  that  "  in- 
stead of  Israel  triumphing  over  her 
enemies  on  that  day,  she  is  herself 
to  be  humiliated,  and  that  by 
Yahweh  himself."  (See  Amos  and 
Hosea,  p.  131,  W.  R.  Harper,  1905, 
in  Int.  Crit.  Comment.) 

The  eighth  century  prophets 
exercised  a  very  great  influence  on 
the  Hebrew  religion ;  but  they 
were  idealists,  and  the  immediate 
circles  of  their  influence  were  not 
large.  In  the  reign  of  Manasseh 
(686-641  B.C.)  there  was  a  religious 
reaction  during  which  old  super- 
stitions were  revived  and  new  cults 
were  imported.  The  prophetic 
party  had  to  wait  patiently  for  a 
new  opportunity.  In  the  meantime 
they  drew  up  a  new  ethical  code, 
the  Deuteronomic  law  (roughly 
equivalent  to  Deut.  v-xxvi,  and 
xxviii).  When  the  inevitable 
counter-reaction  came  in  the  reign 
of  Josiah,  this  code  was  produced 
and  made  the  basis  of  a  great 
religious  reform  (621  B.C.).  Various 
heathen  superstitions  were  dis- 
carded, local  sanctuaries  were 
abolished,  and  the  cult  was  cen- 
tralized in  Jerusalem. 

Jeremiah  and  Isaiah 

Peake  points  out  that  in  the  au- 
thor or  authors  of  the  new  code  the 
priest  and  the  prophet  have  met. 
An  interest  is  shown  in  the  externals 
of  religion  which  was  foreign  to  the 
great  prophets  of  the  8th  century. 
At  the  same  time,  in  the  spirit  of 
the  prophets,  a  striking  humani- 
tarianism  is  displayed,  and  "  love 
of  others  is  made  secondary  only  to 
the  love  of  God."  The  prophet 
Jeremiah,  whose  call  had  come  in 
the  thirteenth  year  of  the  reign  of 
Josiah  (627  B.C.),  substituted  in- 
dividualism for  nationalism  in  re- 
ligion, and  emphasised  the  inward- 
ness of  religion  (Jer.  xxxi,  31-34), 
The  prophet  known  as  Deutero- 
Isaiah  developed  universalism. 
Yahweh  wills  the  salvation  of  the 
whole  world  (Isa.  xlii,  1-6,  xlix,  6, 
Hi,  10).  And  Israel  is  the  "  Servant 
of  Yahweh,"  the  vicarious  sufferer 
for  the  sins  of  all  the  nations,  who 
by  her  sufferings  makes  Yahweh 
known  to  the  world. 

Here  we  reach  what  is  perhaps 
the  high-water  mark  of  Hebrew 
religion,  but  it  was  too  high  an 
ideal.  Ezekiel,  who  was  a  priest 
as  well  as  a  prophet,  understood 
the  limitations  of  human  nature 
better,  and  was  able  to  effect  a 
compromise.  He  was  one  of  the 
exiles  taken  to  Babylonia  in  597 
B.C.  A  disciple  of  Jeremiah,  he  re- 
inforced his  teaching  there  (from 
592  B.C.)  ;  and  then,  after  the  cap- 
ture of  Jerusalem  and  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  temple  in  586  B.C.,  com- 
forted himself  with  visions  of  a 
restoration  of  a  Hebrew  state  in 


HEBREWS 

Palestine.  To  Ezekiel  ceremonial 
and  ritual  seemed  essential,  and 
the  direction  of  the  new  develop- 
ment represented  by  the  Law  of 
Holiness  (about  500  B.C.),  and  the 
reform  of  Nehemiah  (about  444 
B.C.),  had  been  determined  by  the 
activity  of  Ezekiel. 

Day  o!  Atonement 

When  the  cultus  was  centralized 
at  the  rebuilt  temple  of  Jerusalem, 
the  old  connexion  of  the  festivals 
with  agriculture  was  severed,  and 
they  were  transformed  into  memor- 
ials of  historical  events.  More- 
over, a  new  yearly  festival  was 
added,  the  Day  of  Atonement  (Lev. 
xvi).  A  special  official  class  now 
becomes  necessary,  a  higher  order 
of  priests  (in  contrast  to  a  lower 
order,  the  Levites),  with  a  high 
priest  at  the  head  of  them  (Lev. 
xxi,  10;  Zech.  hi,  8). 

Bibliography.  Hebrew  Religion 
to  the  Establishment  of  Judaism 
under  Ezra,  W.  E.  Addis,  1906; 
The  Religion  of  the  Old  Testament, 
K.  Marti,  1907  ;  The  Religion  of 
Israel,  A.  S.  Peake,  1908;  The  Re- 
ligion of  the  Hebrews,  J.  P.  Peters, 
1914  ;  The  Religions  of  the  World, 
G.  A.  Barton,  1917  ;  The  Religion  of 
Israel,  G.  A.  Barton,  1918. 

Hebrews,  EPISTLE  TO  THE.  One 
of  the  canonical  books  of  the  N.T. 
In  the  English  versions  it  bears  the 
title  The  JEpistle  of  Paul  the 
Apostle  to  the  Hebrews.  In  the 
epistle  itself,  however,  there  is  no 
claim  to  any  particular  authorship, 
and  in  the  oldest  MSS.  the  super- 
scription is  simply  "  to  Hebrews." 
The  epistle  is  less  like  a  letter  and 
more  like  a  treatise  than  any  other 
of  the  N.T.  epistles.  It  can  hardly 
have  been  written  by  S.  Paul,  since 
it  differs  radically  in  language, 
style,  and  thought  from  the  other 
Pauline  writings. 

The  epistle  is  not  included  in  the 
Canon  of  Marcion  or  in  the  Mura- 
torian  Canon,  but  it  is  quoted  by 
Clement  of  Rome.  Clement  of 
Alexandria  states  that  it  was 
written  by  S.  Paul  in  Hebrew  and 
translated  by  S.  Luke  into  Greek. 
Hippolytus  and  Irenaeus  were 
acquainted  with  it,  but  they  do  not 
accept  the  Pauline  authorship. 
The  "  Hebrews "  seem  to  have 
been  a  Jewish  Christian  commu- 
nity, and  most  probably  they 
were  a  section  of  the  Church 
in  Rome. 

The  use  made  of  the  O.T.  by  the 
writer  suggests  that  his  purpose 
was  to  save  his  Dreaders  from  a  re- 
lapse into  Judaism.  The  epistle  is, 
in  fact,  as  Prof.  Peake  says  (Crit. 
Intro,  to  the  N.T.,  1909),  "an 
elaborate  many-sided  demonstra- 
tion that  Judaism  is  inferior  to 
Christianity."  It  would  seem  to 
have  been  written  towards  the  end 
of  the  1st  century  A.D. 


HEBREWS 

Hebrews,  GOSPEL  ACCORDING  TO 
THE.  One  of  the  more  important  of 
the  N.T.  Apocrypha  (q.v.),  which 
has  survived  only  in  fragments 
found  in  the  writings  of  the  ancient 
fathers  of  the  Church.  It  seems  to 
have  been  written  originally  in 
Aramaic,  and  to  have  been  intended 
for  the  Jewish  Christian  congrega- 
tions of  Palestine.  According  to 
Harnack,  it  was  composed  between 
A.D.  65  and  100.  As  one  of  the 
sources  for  a  life  of  Jesus,  it  is 
ranked  by  Oscar  Holtzmann  (Life 
of  Jesus,  1904)  with  the  gospel  of 
S.  John. 

Hebrides.  Large  group  of 
islands  lying  off  the  W.  coast  of 
Scotland.  They  are  usually  divided 
into  the  Inner  and  Outer  Hebrides, 
which  is  descriptive  of  their  posi- 
tion in  regard  to  the  mainland. 
The  two  groups  are  separated  from 
each  other  by  the  Little  Minch, 
which  is  about  12  m.  across  in  the 
narrowest  part.  The  Inner  Heb- 
rides include  Skye,  Mull,  Islay, 
Jura,  Colonsay,  Tiree,  Coll,  and 
some  smaller  ones,  Eigg,  Rum, 
Conna,  Staffa,  and  lona ;  also 
Rona,  Raasay,  and  Oronsay.  These 
are  known  to  geologists  as  the 
trap  islands,  as  they  are  composed 
of  basaltic  or  trap  rocks.  On  Mull 
is  Ben  More,  the  highest  point  in 
the  group.  The  Outer  Hebrides 
form  a  continuous  series  of  islands 
extending  for  about  120  m.  The 
largest  is  Lewis,  with  Harris; 
others  are  N.  and  S.  Uist,  Benbe- 
cula,  Barra,  Scarpa,  and  Taransay. 
These  are  gneiss  islands.  The  outer- 
most member  of  the  group  is  St. 
Kilda,  40  m.  west  of  N.  Uist ;  the 
Flannan  Islands  are  an  isolated 
group  to  the  west  of  Harris. 

The  islands  number  in  all  over 
500,  but  only  about  100  are  in- 
habited, and  many  are  simply  islets 
of  bare  rock.  They  fall  within  the 
counties  of  Ross  and  Cromarty, 
Inverness  and  Argyll.  Rainfall 
averages  high  throughout  the  He- 
brides, but  on  the  whole  the  climate 
is  mild  and  pleasant.  In  most 
parts  the  soil  is  sparse  and  agri- 
culture is  difficult,  but  fair  quanti- 
ties of  oats,  barley,  and  potatoes 
are  grown  on  the  crofts.  Sheep- 
rearing  and  fisheries  are  the  staple 
industry  of  most  of  the  islands. 

Stornoway,  on  Lewis,  is  an  im- 
portant herring  centre ;  whisky  is 
distilled  in  Skye,  Mull,  and  Islay  ; 
tweeds  are  made  in  Harris  ;  and 
slate  is  quarried  in  Luing,  Easdale, 
and  Seil.  There  are  no  rly.  lines, 
but  communication  with  the  main- 
land at  various  points  is  generally 
frequent  enough  for  practical  pur- 
poses. The  total  ar«a  is  about 
2,800  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  100,000. 

The  Hebrides,  known  to  Pto- 
lemy as  the  Eboudai,  were  invaded 


3910 

by  successive    | 
Scandinavian    E 
bands    between    I 
the  6th  and  9th    | 
centuries,  and, 
together  with  the 
Orkneys,    S  h  e  t- 
land,  and  the  Isle 
of  Man,  fell  under 
the  dominion   of 
Harold  I  of  Nor- 
way c.  890.    Nor- 
wegian rule  main- 
tained    itself 
against    several 
attacks     by    the 
Scottish    kings, 
but  in  1266,  after 
his  victory  at 
Largs     in    1263, 
Alexander  III  se- 
cured their  cession  to  the  Scottish 
crown  for  a  payment  of  4,000  merks. 

In  the  14th  century  the  island 
dynasty  known  as  the  Lords  of  the 
Isles  (q.v.)  first  appeared  in  John 
Macdonald  of  Islay,  and  the  next 
two  centuries  were  filled  with  the 
feuds  of  rival  chieftains  and  clans, 
on  the  islands  and  mainland — 
Campbells,  McNeills,  Macleans, 
Macleods,  and  others. 

The  Jacobite  risings  of  1715  and 
1745  found  strong  support  in  the 
Hebrides,  but  the  chiefs  paid  for 
their  participation  by  the  abolition 
of  their  old  hereditary  j  urisdictions 
in  1748.  This  was  the  first  step 
towards  pacification,  and  by  the 
time  of  Johnson's  visit  to  the 
Hebrides,  1773,  considerable  pro- 
gress had  been  made. 

As  in  many  parts  of  the  High- 
lands, the  introduction  of  large- 
scale  sheep-grazing  brought  many 
evictions  and  much  distress  among 
the  crofting  class  towards  the 
middle  of  the  19th  century, 
although  Canada  and  Australia  re- 
ceived large  numbers  of  Hebridean 
emigrants.  The  result  was  fre- 
quent "  land -grabbing."  In  1918 
Lord  Leverhulme  (q.v.)  purchased 
the  island  of  Lewis  and  part  of 
Harris  to  develop  the  fishing  and 
weaving  industries. 

The  Hebrideans  retain  many  dis- 
tinctive characteristics.  Gaelic  is 
spoken  in  most  parts,  and  there 
are  a  large  number  of  Roman 
Catholics.  A  great  body  of  Celtic 
tradition  in  story  and  song  has 
been  preserved,  and  recent  collec- 
tions of  Hebridean  songs,  many  of 
unknown  antiquity,  have  made 
their  subtle  beauty  widely  known. 
See  Scotland,  Map  of ;  consult  also 
In  the  Hebrides,  C.  F.  Gordon 
Cumming,  1883,  new  ed.  1901  ; 
History  of  the  Outer  Hebrides, 
W.  C.  Mackenzie,  1903. 

Hebron  (anc.  Kirjath-Arba ; 
Arab.  El  Khalil).  Town  of  Pales- 
tine. It  stands  in  the  valley  of 


HE'BUTERNE 


Hebron.     View  o!  the  town  of  Palestine  containing  the 

mosque  of  Machpelah,  where  the  patriarchs,  Abraham, 

Isaac,  and  Jacob,  are  believed  to  have  been  buried 

Mamre,  and  partly  on  the  slopes 
of  two  low  hills,  16  m.  S.S.W.  of 
Jerusalem.  A  sacred  city,  it  is  one 
of  the  oldest  in  Palestine,  and  is 
many  times  mentioned  in  the 
Bible.  It  was  the  abode  of  Abra- 
ham, Isaac,  and  Jacob,  besides 
other  patriarchs,  and  its  old  walled 
mosque  of  Machpelah  is  supposed 
to  cover  the  tomb  of  Abraham. 
When  Moses  sent  spies  to  view  the 
Promised  Land,  they  went  to  Heb- 
ron. Joshua  gave  it  to  Caleb,  and 
it  was  afterwards  made  a  city  of 
refuge  (Joshua  xx,  7).  Here  David 
was  anointed  king  (2  Sam.  v,  1-3), 
and  he  chose  it  for  his  first  capital. 
The  seat  of  a  bishop  in  A.D.  1167, 
twenty  years  later  it  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Saracens,  and  it  re- 
mained in  Mahomedan  hands  until 
the  termination  of  the  Great  War. 
Always  regarded  with  reverence, 
it  was  one  of  the  four  sacred  cities, 
Mecca,  Medina,  and  Jerusalem 
being  the  other  three.  The  modern 
town  is  surrounded  by  vineyards, 
and  there  are  manufactures  of 
glassware  and  goatskin  water-bags. 
It  is  the  terminus  of  the  road  S. 
from  Jerusalem  through  Bethle- 
hem. In  the  vicinity,  at  Mamre, 
is  Abraham's  oak.  It  was  occu- 
pied by  the  British  under  Allenby, 
Dec.  7,  1917.  Pop.  22,000. 

Hebuterne.  Village  of  France, 
in  the  dept.  of  Pas-de-Calais.  It 
lies  slightly  S.  of  Gommecourt 
on  the  Albert-Arras  road,  about 
half-way  between  those  towns. 
It  was  prominent  in  the  Great 
War,  being  until  July  1,  1916,  in 
the  British  front  line.  It  was 
an  assembly  point  for  the  battle 
of  the  Somme,  and  from  here  a 
strong  British  force  made  a  turning 
movement  around  the  high  plateau 
of  Serre,  in  conjunction  with  an- 
other attacking  force  that  set  out 
from  Auchonvillers  towards  Beau- 
mont-Hamel.  After  the  Great  War 
the  village  was  "  adopted "  by 
Evesham.  /SeeSomme,Battlesof  the. 


HECATAEUS 

Hecataeus  OF  MILETUS  (c.  550- 
476  B.C.).  One  of  the  Greek  logo- 
graphers  or  writers  of  history  in 
prose  before  Herodotus.  He  took 
an  active  part  in  the  revolt  of  the 
Ionic  cities  of  Asia  Minor  against 
Persia  (502-494).  A  great  travel- 
ler, his  Journey  round  the  World 
contains  a  geographical  and  his- 
torical account  of  Europe,  Asia, 
and  Libya,  with  a  map. 

Hecate.  In  Greek  mythology, 
the  goddess  of  night,  the  moon, 
child-birth,  and  of  magic.  In  art 
she  is  represented  in  triple  form, 
probably  symbolic  of  her  different 
spheres.  She  is  often  confounded 
with  Aphrodite  and  Selene.  Pron. 
Hek-a-tee. 

Hecatomb  (Gr.  hekaton,  hun- 
dred; bous,  ox).  Originally,  in  an- 
cient Greece,  the  sacrifice  of  100 
bulls  and  then  that  of  any  large 
number  of  victims.  In  modern 
speech  the  word  is  used  of  any  great 
sacrifice  or  slaughter.  See  Sacrifice. 
Hecker,  FRIEDRICH  KAKL  FRANZ 
(1811-81).  German  politician. 
Born  in  Baden,  Sept.  28,  1811,  he 
^^^^^^^^^^^m  practised  law 
in  Mannheim. 
In  1845  his  un- 
compromis  ing 
democratic 
sentiments, 
which  had  al- 
ready made 
him  conspicu- 
o  u  s  in  the 
Baden  parlia- 
ment, brought 
about  his 
banishment  from  Prussia.  The 
revolution  of  '48  saw  him  again 
to  the  front,  and  he  strove  his 
utmost  to  establish  a  republican 
government  on  a  stable  basis. 

His  attempts  having  failed,  he 
transferred  his  operations  to  S. 
Germany,  where  he  organized 
bands  of  malcontents  with  the  idea 
of  terrifying  the  smaller  states. 
Driven  into  Switzerland,  he  emi- 
grated to  America  and  occupied 
himself  on  his  Illinois  farm  until 
the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  when 
he  entered  the  Federal  army  and 
rose  to  be  brigadier-general.  His 
latter  years  were  spent  at  St.  Louis, 
where  he  died  March  24,  1881. 

Hecker,  ISAAC  THOMAS  (1819- 
88).  American  divine.  Born  at 
New  York,  Dec.  18,  1819,  he  be- 
came a  mem- 
b  e  r  of  the 
Brook  Farm 
(q.v.)  c  o  m- 
munity,  and 
for  a  time 
lived  with 
Thoreau  at  his 
Hermitage  in 


F.  K.  F.  Hecker, 
German  politician 

After  Schertle 


the    woods. 
Becoming 


Isaac  x.  uectcer, 
American  divine 


39  1  1 

Roman  Catholic,  he  joined  the  Re- 
demptorist  Order  in  1845,  and 
worked  for  some  years  in  England, 
where  he  was  ordained  in  1849. 
In  1857  he  returned  to  America, 
severed  his  connexion  with  the  Re- 
demptorists,  and  founded  the  Or- 
der of  Paulists  for  missionary  work, 
becoming  its  first  Superior.  For 
over  twenty  years  he  edited  The 
Catholic  World,  and  founded  The 
Catholic  Publication  Society.  He 
died  at  New  York,  Dec.  22,  1888. 

Heckmondwike.  Urban  dis- 
trict and  market  town  of  York- 
shire, W.R.  It  is  8  m.  S.  by  E.  of 
Bradford  on  the  L.  &  N.W.  and 
L.  &  Y.  Rlys.  Blankets,  rugs,  and 
carpets  are  manufactured,  and 
there  are  iron-foundries  and  ma- 
chine and  dye  works.  In  the  neigh- 
bourhood are  extensive  collieries. 
The  council  owns  the  water  supply, 
and  manages  the  market  and 
annual  fairs.  The  gas  supply  and 
tramways  are  provided  by  com- 
panies. Market  days,  Tues.  and 
Sat.  Near  are  places  connected 
with  the  Brontes.  Pop.  9,000. 

Hectare  (Gr.  hekaton,  hundred; 
Lat.  area,  area).  Superficial  or  land 
measure  of  the  French  metric  sys- 
tem. It  is  equal  to  100  ares  (q.v. ), 
or  10,000  sq.  metres,  being  thus 
equal  to  2 '471  English  acres. 

Hectograph  (Gr.  hekaton,  hun- 
dred ;  graphein,  to  write).  Device 
for  making  a  number  of  copies  of  a 
document,  etc.  It  consists  of  a  slab 
of  gelatin  material  on  the  surface 
of  which  a  copy  of  the  document  to 
be  duplicated  is  impressed.  The 
original  document  is  prepared  with 
a  special  aniline  ink,  and  firmly 
pressed  for  a  time  on  the  gelatin, 
which  absorbs  the  ink.  From  this 
a  large  num- 
ber of  dupli- 
cates  may 
b  e  obtained 
very  cheaply. 

Hector. 
In  Greek 
legend,  son 
of  Priam, 
king  of  Troy, 
and  Hecuba, 
and  husband 
of  Andro- 
mache. H  e 
was  the  chief 
champion  of 
the  Trojans 
during  t  h  e 
war  with  the 
G  reeks,  and 
his  character 
as  conceived 
by  Homer 
makes  more 
appeal  to  our 
sympathy  and  imagination  than 
that  of  any  other  leader,  Greek  or 
Trojan.  He  met  his  death  at  the 


Hector,  the   Trojan 
champion,  as  sculp- 
tured by  Canova 


.HEDGE 

hands  of  Achilles,  who  had  been 
roused  from  his  retirement  when 
his  friend  Patroclus  had  been  killed 
by  Hector.  His  body  was  tied  to 
the  chariot  of  Achilleo,  and  dragged 
off  to  the  Greek  camp.  At  the 
personal  entreaty  of  the  aged 
Priam,  Achilles  gave  back  the  body 
for  burial.  See  Iliad ;  Troy. 

Hecuba  (Gr.  Hekabe).  Wife  of 
Priam,  king  of  Troy,  by  whom  she 
was  the  mother  of  Hector,  Paris, 
Cassandra,  and  many  other  chil- 
dren, according  to  some  legends,  50 
in  all.  At  the  taking  of  Troy  she  was 
carried  away  captive  by  the  Greeks 
to  the  Thracian  Chersonese,  where 
her  daughter  Polyxena  was  sacri- 
ficed in  obedience  to  the  behest  of 
the  wraith  of  Achilles.  Polymestor, 
the  king  of  the  country,  having 
murdered  her  son  Polydorus,  she 
avenged  his  death  by  killing  Poly- 
mestor's'  children,  and  putting  out 
the  king's  eyes.  Eventually  she  was 
metamorphosed  into  a  dog,  and 
threw  herself  into  the  sea.  The 
events  of  her  later  life  are  the  subject 
of  Euripides'  tragedy  Hecuba. 

Hedberg,  TOR  (b.  1862).  Swed- 
ish author.  Born  March  23,  1862, 
in  Stockholm,  he  became  known  as 
a  writer  of  stories,  sketches,  novels, 
and  plays.  Among  his  novels  may 
be  mentioned  Johannes  Karr,1885  ; 
Judas,  1886,  which  he  dramatised 
in  1895;  Ordeal  by  Fire,  1890; 
and  among  his  plays,  A  Life  Prob- 
lem, 1886;  Gerhard  Grim,  1897; 
and  The  Drama  of  a  Home,  1906. 

Hedemarken.  Fylka  or  county 
of  E.Norway.bordering  on  Sweden. 
Mountainous  in  the  N.,  some  of  its 
peaks  attain  an  elevation  of  6,000  ft. 
Among  its  numerous  lakes  is  Lake 
Famund  and  a  portion  of  Lake 
Myosen  on  the  W.  boundary.  Hede- 
marken comprises  the  valley  of  the 
upper  Glommen,  one  of  the  most 
fertile  regions  in  Norway.  Area, 
10,625  sq.  m.  Pop.  146,831.  . 

Hedge.  Live  fence  in  a  garden 
or  between  fields.  In  gardens  it 
is  formed  by  the  employment  of 
various  trees  and  shrubs,  either 
kept  in  alignment  by  cutting  and 
pruning,  or  allowed  to  grow  freely. 
Hedges  are  useful  as  screens  to 
keep  out  unsightly  objects,  such  as 
rubbish  heaps  and  coke  mounds. 
The  best  quick-growing  plants  for 
hedges  are  privet,  whitethorn, 
laurel,  myrobella  plum,  and  euany- 
mus.  All  these  subjects  should  be 
planted  in  the  autumn  in  country 
gardens ;  in  the  spring,  in  towns  or 
suburban  areas. 

Young  plants,  about  1  ft.  in 
height,  give  the  best  results,  and 
beyond  an  annual  dose  of  sulphate 
of  ammonia  watered  in  during  a 
summer  shower,  no  other  stimu- 
lant is  necessary,  but  the  use  of 
the  pVuning  knife  or  secateur  is 


HEDGEHOG 


3912 


HEDGING 


desirable.  The  most  handsome  per- 
manent hedges  are  formed  by  box, 
yew.  or  holly,  but  all  these  are  of 
slow  growth.  The  best  plants  to 
employ  are  those  which  can  be 
procured  from  nurseries,  and  which 
have  been  transplanted  two  or 
three  times.  They  should  be 
planted  about  a  foot  apart,  and 
left  undisturbed  for  at  least  a 
couple  of  years,  in  order  that  they 
may  establish  themselves  firmly. 

Afterwards  they  may  be  cut 
back  at  discretion,  freely,  in  order 
to  establish  a  thick  and  close  blend- 
ing of  the  branches  at  a  low  level. 
If  cutting  back  is  neglected  after 
the  second  or  third  year  of  estab- 
lishment the  resulting  hedge  will 
be  thin  and  "  leggy."  Yew  should 
never  be  employed  as  an  outer 
hedge,  i.e.  where  gardens  and  pas- 
ture meet,  as  cattle  will  eat  it,  with 
injurious  and  perhaps  with  fatal 
consequences.  See  Fence. 

Hedgehog  (Erinaceus  europaeus). 
Common  British  mammal,  belong- 
ing to  a  genus  with  many  species  in 
various  parts  of  the  world.  It  is  the 
largest  of  the  British  insect-eating 
animals,  and  the  only  one  provided 
with  a  defensive  armour  of  spines. 
It  is  about  10  ins.  long,  and  has  a 
short  tail  of  about  1£  in.,  a  snout 
somewhat  like  that  of  a  pig,  and 
very  short  limbs.  Hedgehogs  have 
the  power  of  rolling  themselves 
into  a  ball,  with  the  head  and 
lirnbs  tucked  in  so  that  nothing 


characterised  by  the  spore-bearing 
surface  taking  the  form  of  fleshy, 
awl -shaped  spines  instead  of  the 


Hedgehog.   Specimen  of  the  common 
British  variety 

but  an  array  of  sharp  spines  is  pre- 
sented to  an  enemy.  They  are  noc- 
turnal in  habit,  and  are  seldom 
seen  in  the  daytime,  which  they 
spend  asleep  in  hedges  and  thickets. 

The  food  consists  of  insects, 
sna  kes,  worms,snails,and  birds' eggs, 
varied  occasionally  by  small  birds 
and  mammals,  together  with  fruit 
and  roots.  The  hedgehog  breeds  in 
summer  and  early  autumn,  and  pro- 
duces three  or  four  young  ones  at  a 
birth.  It  hibernates  during  the 
winter  months,  sleeping  rolled  up 
in  a  ball  beneath  a  mass  of  dead 
leaves  or  moss.  Except  where 
game  is  preserved,  the  hedgehog  is 
a  harmless  animal  and  is  useful  in 
destroying  garden  pests. 

Hedgehog  Mushroom  (Hyd- 
num).  Genus  of  fungi  of  the  natural 
order  Hymenomycetae.  They  are 


Hedgehog  Mushroom.    Specimen  of 
the  edible  Hydnum  repandum 

plate-like  gills  of  the  common 
mushroom.  Several  species  are 
among  the  best  of  the  edible  fungi, 
notably  H.  repandum,  which  grows 
in  woods,  sometimes  forming  rings 
or  a  segment  of  a  circle.  It  has  a 
short,  thick  stem,  and  the  spines 
which  cover  the  underside  of  the 
cup  extend  some  way  down  the 
stem.  Its  colour  is  a  pale  flesh  tint. 
Another  good  esculent  is  H.  imbri- 
catum,  with  rough  scaly  top  of  a 
warm  brown  colour. 

Hedgehog  Plants  (Echino- 
cactus  ;  Echinopsis).  Two  genera 
of  succulent,  leafless  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Cactaceae.  Natives 
of  the  hot,  dry  parts  of  America, 
they  are  more  or  less  globular  or 


Hedgehog    Plant.        Specimen    of 

Echinocactus  melocactus  showing, 

left,  spines  and,  right,  flower 

cylindrical,  with  tubercles  or 
ridges  that  bear  bundles  of  long- 
spreading  spines.  The  flowers  are 
large  and  handsome,  white,  yellow, 
rose,  or  purple.  Echinocactus  vis- 
naga  attains  a  very  large  size,  and  its 
long  spines  are  used  as  toothpicks. 

Hedge  Hyssop  (Gratiola  offi- 
cinalis).  Perennial  herb  of  the 
natural  order  Scrophulariaceae.  A 
native  of  Central  Europe,  it  has 
opposite,  lance-shaped  leaves  with 
toothed  edges,  and  whitish  flowers 
streaked  with  purple.  Formerly 
used  as  a  purgative  and  emetic,  it 
was  abandoned  in  medical  practice 
owing  to  its  dangerous  properties. 

Hedgeley  Moor.  Spot  in 
Northumberland  8  m.  N.W.  of  Aln- 
wick,  famous  for  the  battle  fought 


here  during  the  Wars  of  the  Roses, 
April  25,  1464.  The  Lancastrians 
were  making  a  new  effort  and  a 
party  of  them  met  here  some  York- 
ists led  by  Lord  Montagu,  War- 
wick's brother.  The  Lancastrians 
were  worsted,  and  Sir  Ralph  Percy, 
one  of  their  leaders,  was  killed. 

Hedge  Mustard  (Sisymbrium 
officinale).  Annual  herb  of  the 
natural  order  Cruciferae.  It  is  a 
native  of  Europe,  W.  Asia,  and  N. 
Africa.  The  leaves  are  deeply  cut 
into  lance-shaped  lobes ;  the  flowers 
are  pale  yellow,  and  minute,  in  a 


Hedge  Mustard.    Flowers  and  lobed 
leaves  of  the  wild  plant 

spray.  Another  species  is  the  Garlic 
mustard  (8.  alliaria)  with  kidney- 
shaped  lower  leaves,  and  larger, 
white  flowers,  with  a  strong  odour 
of  garlic  when  bruised. 

Hedge  School.  Name  given  to 
primitive  schools  in  remote  dis- 
tricts of  the  United  Kingdom  be- 
fore the  spread  of  popular  educa- 
tion. They  were  common  in  Ireland, 
especially  in  Kerry.  The  school- 
masters were  paid  in  produce  of  the 
soil.  The  use  of  the  word  hedge  to 
imply  inferior  is  exemplified  also  in 
such  words  as  hedge  priest,  hedge 
marriage,  and  Shakespeare's  hedge- 
burn  (1  Henry  VI,  iv,  1). 

Hedge  Sparrow .  Popular  name 
for  the  British  accentor  (q.v.). 

Hedging.  Art  of  keeping  hedges 
in  order.  A  newly  established  hedge 
must  be  protected  for  four  years 


L_ 


Hedge  Hyssop.      Spray   of   foliage 
and  flowers  of  the  poisonous  plant 


after  which  it  is  trimmed  from 
time  to  time  and  occasionally  laid. 
Laying  is  done  from  the  ditch  side, 
a  plank  being  placed  lengthwise 
and  supported  on  pieces  of  iron 
rail,  put  across  the  ditch.  Dead  or 
unnecessary  growths  are  first  cut 
out.  The  vertical  stems  selected  as 
layers  are  partly  cut  through, 
thinned  about  a  foot  from  the 
bottom,  and  bent  down  into  an 
inclined  position,  usually  to  the 
left.  The  cut  part  should  be  finished 
off  by  clean  upward  slopes,  or  water 
will  lodge  and  cause  rotting. 

The  cutting  implement  used  is 
a  hedge  slasher  or  switch  bill,  con- 
sisting of  a  stout  blade,  usually 
slightly  curved  near  the  end,  and 
fixed  in  a  long  wooden  handle. 
The  layers  are  kept  in  place  by 
driving  in  stakes  at  regular  inter- 
vals, or  actual  growing  stems  may 
be  utilised  as  "  live  stakes."  The 
latter  should  be  half  cut  through 
near  the  bottom,  as  this  encourages 
the  growth  of  shoots  below  the 
cuts,  and  helps  to  prevent  the 
lower  part  of  the  hedge  from  be- 
coming thin.  The  hedge  is  trimmed 
to  a  height  of  4  ft.  or  5  ft.,  and  its 
top  made  firm  by  twining  willow 
branches  or  other  flexible  material 
in  and  out  between  the  stakes. 

Hedin,  SVEN  ANDERS  (b.  1865). 
Swedish  explorer.  Born  at  Stock- 
holm,Feb.  19, 1865,  he  was  educated 
in  Sweden  and  Germany.  In  1885- 
86  he  travelled  in  S.W.  Asia  and  in 
Persia.  Member  of  a  royal  com- 
mission to  the  shah  in  1890,  he 
travelled  in  Khorasan  and  Tur- 
kistan,  reaching  Kashgar  in  1891. 
Starting  again  in  1894,  he  spent 
the  next  three  years  in  making  his 
way  through  E.  Turkistan  and 
Tibet  to  Peking,  whence  he  re- 
turned to  Europe  through  Mon- 
golia and  Siberia.  He  published 
the  account  of  this  journey, 
Through  Asia,  in  1899. 

From  1899- 
1902  he  tra- 
velled in  Tibet 
and  the  Gobi 
d  e  s  er  t,  and 
made  two  at- 
tempts to  enter 
Lhasa.  In 
1906  he  went 
once  more  to 
Tibet,  and 
made  valuable 
scientific  o  b- 
servations  in  his  two  years'  stay 
which  enabled  him  to  construct 
the  first  detailed  map  of  that  dis- 
trict. In  1909  he  was  made  a 
knight  (K.C.I.E.),  but  during  the 
Great  War  he  abandoned  the 
honour.  In  1912  he  was  raised 
to  the  Swedish  peerage.  During 
the  early  days  of  the  Great  War 
he  was  invited  by  the  German 


Sven  Hedin, 
Swedish  explorer 


government  to  make  a  report  on  the 
war  devastations  in  Belgium,  and 
in  his  subsequent  writings  he 
betrayed  a  venomous  animosity  to 
the  British.  His  principal  works 
are  Journey  through  Khorasan  and 
Turkistan,  1892;  Adventures  in 
Tibet,  1904;  Trans  -  Himalaya, 
1909;  Overland  to  India,  1910; 
The  War  Against  Russia,  1915; 
Bagdad,  Babylon,  Ninivi,  1917. 

Hedjaz.  Variant  spelling  of  the 
dist.  of  Arabia  known  as  Hejaz(g.v.). 

Hednesford.  Village  and  eccles. 
dist.  of  Staffordshire,  England.  It 
is  10  m.  N.  of  Walsall,  on  the  L. 
&  N.W.  Rly.  Standing  on  a  coal- 
field, mining  is  the  chief  industry ; 
tiles  are  made  here.  Pop.  10,750. 

Hedon.  Borough  of  Yorkshire 
(E.R.).  It  stands  near  the  Hum- 
ber,  5  m.  from  Hull,  and  has  a 
station  on  the  N.E.  Rly.  It  was 
once  a  flourishing  port.  It  has  a 
notable  cruciform  church,  S.  Au- 
gustine's, with  a  beautiful  west 
front  and  a  tower.  There  is  a  trade 
in  agricultural  produce.  The  town 
still  retains  its  mayor  and  corpora- 
tion. Hedon  received  a  charter 
from  Henry  II,  and  in  the  Middle 
Ages  had  a  trade  guild,  while  much 
shipping  entered  the  port,  which 
was  connected  with  the  Humber. 
It  was  made  a  municipality  in  1661 
and  returned  two  members  to 
Parliament  until  1832.  Pop.  1,100. 

Hedonism  (Gr.  hedone,  plea- 
sure). View  of  life  which  regards 
pleasure  (bodily  or  mental)  as  the 
greatest  good.  It  was  the  chief 
doctrine  of  the  Cyrenaics,  and  to  a 
certain  extent  of  the  Epicureans, 
and,  in  the  18th  century,  in  its 
grossest  form  it  found  staunch  sup- 
porters in  Helvetius,  Holbach,  and 
La  Mettrie,  of  the  French  material- 
istic school.  In  more  modern  times 
a  refined  form  of  hedonism,  repre- 
sented by  Bentham,  James  and 
John  Stuart  Mill,  Herbert  Spencer, 
and  others,  has  been  associated 
with  the  doctrine  of  Utilitarianism, 
which,  while  upholding  the  hedon- 
istic theory,  sought  the  greatest 
happiness  of  the  greatest  number. 
See  Philosophy ;  Utilitarianism. 

Heeley.  Suburb  of  Sheffield.  It 
is  served  by  a  station  on  the  Mid- 
land Rly.  and  by  tramways. 
Mainly  an  industrial  area,  here  are 
factories  or  works  for  the  manu- 
factures for  which  Sheffield  is 
noted.  See  Sheffield. 

Heem,  DAVIDDE  (c.  1570-1632) 
Dutch  painter.  Born  at  Utrecht, 
he  was  a  still-life  painter  of  con- 
siderable distinction,  although 
some  works  of  his  son  and  grand- 
son have  been  wrongly  attributed 
to  him.  The  National  Gallery,  Lon- 
don, contains  a  study  of  fruit  and 
flowers  by  him,  and  the  Uffizi  Gallery 
at  Florence  has  a  good  example. 


Heem,  JAN  DAVIDSZ  DE  (c.  1600- 
84).  Dutch  painter.  Born  at 
Utrecht,  he  was  the  son  of  David 
de  Heem.  He  learned  much  from 
his  father,  but  surpassed  him  both 
in  variety  of  his  still-lite  subjects 
and  in  technical  equipment.  His 
colour  is  rich,  and,  within  the  com- 
pass of  still  lite,  he  may  be  counted 
among  the  most  notable  of  the 
minor  Dutch  artists  of  the  17th 
century.  Examples  of  his  work  are 
to  be  found  in  many  German  gal- 
leries and  at  the  Louvre,  Amster 
dam,  and  The  Hague,  and  the 
Wallace  Collection  has  two. 

His  son  was  Cornelis  de  Heem 
(1631-95),  who  also  ably  carried 
on  the  style  of  his  family  in  paint- 
ing, working  at  Antwerp  and  The 
Hague. 

Heenan,  JOHN  CARMEL  (1835- 
73).  American  pugilist.  Born  at 
Troy,  New  York,  May  4,  1835,  he 
was  apprenticed  when  15  years  of 
age  to  a  blacksmith  at  Benicia, 
California  (whence  his  sobriquet, 
the  Benicia  Boy),  and  soon  became 
known  on  the  Pacific  coast  as  a 
strong  and  bold  fighter.  In  1860 
he  came  to  England  and  fought  his 
battle  with  Tom  Sayers  (q.v.),  at 
Farnborough,  on  April  21.  The 
fight  ended  in  a  draw  after  44 
rounds  had  been  fought. 

Heenan  afterwards  toured  in 
England  with  circus  troupes.  On 
being  beaten  by  Tom  King  in  Dec., 
1864,  he  returned  to  America, 
where  he  made  and  lost  several 
fortunes.  He  died  at  Green  River 
City,  Wyoming  Territory,  on  Oct. 
25,  1873. 

Keep,  URIAH.  Character  in 
Dickens's  novel  David  Copperfield. 
He  is  the  sneaking  clerk  to  Mr. 
Wickfield,  and  unwelcome  suitor 
for  the  hand  of  Agnes,  who  makes 


Uriah  Heep,  the  servile,  scheming 

clerk  described  in  David  Copperfield, 

as  depicted  by  Fred.  Barnard 


HEERE 


HEGEL 


use  of  his  profession  of  humility  to 
cloak  his  envy,  hatred,  and  malice, 
and  to  advance  his  own  interests 
In  the  end  he  oversteps  the  limits 
of  the  law  and  is  sentenced  to 
transportation  for  life. 

Heere,  LUCAS  DE  (1534-84). 
Flemish  painter.  Born  at  Ghent, 
he  studied  under  Frans  Floris,  and 
while  still  young,  executed  for  the 
Regent  of  the  Netherlands  a  pic- 
ture of  Solomon  and  the  Queen  of 
Sheba,  in  which  Solomon  is  a  por- 
trait of  Philip  II  of  Spain.  He 
visited  England  (1568-77),  where 
he  painted  a  curious  allegorical 
picture,  now  at  Hampton  Court, 
containing  the  portrait  of  Queen 
Elizabeth,  and  Paris,  where  he  de- 
signed some  tapestries  for  Catherine 
de'  Medici,  and  where  he  died.  His 
portraits  included  those  of  Queen 
Elizabeth,  the  earl  of  Essex,  and 
the  duchess  of  Suffolk. 

Heeren,  ARNOLD  HERMANN  LTJD- 
WIG  (1760-1842).  German  his- 
torian. He  was  born  near  Bremen, 
Oct.  25,  1760,  and  educated  at 
Gottingen.  In  1787  he  became 
professor  at  Gottingen,  and  died 
there  March  6,  1842,  after  a  dis- 
tinguished career  as  a  learned  and 
judicial  historian.  A  pioneer  in 
the  economic  interpretation  of  his- 
tory, he  wrote  many  valuable 
works,  some  of  which  have  been 
translated. 

Heeringen,  JOSIAS  VON  (b. 
1850).  German  soldier.  The  son  of 
Josias  von  Heeringen,  court  presi- 
dent of  Hesse, 
he  was  born 
March  9,  1850, 
and  entered 
the  Prussian 
army  in  1867. 
In  1906  he  was 
a  general  of 
infantry  and 
in  command  of 
the  2nd  army 
corps.  Two 
years  afterwards  he  was  minister 
of  war.  In  1913  he  was  inspector- 
general  of  the  Prussian  Guard,  the 
12th  and  the  19th  army  corps  at 
Berlin.  When  the  Great  War  broke 
out  he  was  commander-in-chief  of 
the  7th  army,  which  advanced 
through  the  N.  Vosges  in  Aug., 1914. 
Hefele,  KARL  JOSEPH  VON  (1809- 
93).  German  theologian  and 
historian.  Born  at  Unterkochen, 
Wiirttemberg,  March  15,  1809,  he 
was  educated  at  Tubingen,  where 
he  became  professor  of  patristics 
and  church  history  in  1840.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  national 
as-sernbly  of  Wiirttemberg,  and  in 
1869  was  appointed  bishop  of 
Rottenburg.  A  Roman  Catholic, 
he  opposed  the  dogma  of  papal 
infallibility,  but  submitted  to  the 
decree  when  it  was  promulgated. 


J.  von  Jdeermgen, 
German  soldier 


He  was  the  author  of  an  edition  of 
the  Apostolic  Fathers,  a  standard 
History  of  the  Councils  of  the 
Church  (Eng.  trans.  5  vols.  down  to 
the  year  738),  and  other  works. 
Hefe'le  died  at  Rottenburg,  June  5. 
1893.  Pron.  Hay-feler. 

Hegel,  GF.ORO  WILHELM  FRIED- 
RTCH  (1770-1831).  German  philo- 
sopher Born  at  Stuttgart,  Aug. 
27,  1 770,  he 
studied  at 
Tubingen  and 
was  for  some 
years  a  private 
tutor.  In  1801 
he  was  ap- 
pointed to  a 
.professorship 
at  Jena,  which 
he  was  obliged 
to  relinquish 
owing  to  the 

from  a  prim  politfcal         „  p. 

heaval.  After  the  battle  of  Jena, 
1806,  he  removed  to  Bamberg, 
where  he  edited  a  newspaper.  In 
1808  he  became  rector  of  the 
academy  at  Nuremberg,  where  he 
remained  eight  years.  In  1816 
he  became  professor  of  philosophy 
at  Heidelberg,  and  in  1818  suc- 
ceeded Fichte  at  Berlin,  where  he 
died,  Nov.  14,  1831. 

The  style  of  Hegel's  writings  is 
extremely  involved  and  obscure. 
His  system  is  divided  into  three 
parts  :  Logic,  the  science  of  the  pure 
ideas,  of  universal  notions ;  the 
philosophy  of  Nature,  the  develop- 
ment of  the  real  world  ;  the  philo- 
sophy of  Spirit  (mind),  the  develop- 
ment of  the  ideal  world,  the  con- 
crete spirit  that  attains  actuality  in 
ethics,  politics,  art,  religion,  and 
science.  These  three  divisions 
correspond  to  three  phases  of  the 
Absolute — position,  negation,  and 
a  combination  of  both.  The  Abso- 
lute is  at  first  pure,  immaterial 
thought ;  it  is  then  broken  up  into 
the  infinite  atomism  of  space  and 
time  ;  lastly,  it  returns  to  itself  and 
thus  becomes  actual  thought  or 
spirit.  The  universal  principle  of 
the  system  is  the  idea  ;  Being  and 
the  idea  are  identical.  The  idea 
contains  in  itself  the  capacity  for 
developing  into  all  the  determining 
attributes  of  being,  into  all  that 
makes  Being  Being. 

At  first  indeterminate,  without 
properties  or  qualities,  Being  passes 
out  of  this  condition  and  passes 
into  otherness,  its  negation,  its 
opposite.  This  negation  becomes 
the  principle  of  a  continuous 
series  of  higher  and  successive 
affirmations  Thus,  pure  light  is 
the  same  as  darkness  and  is  at  first 
invisible,  but  after  it  has  passed 
into  darkness,  it  returns  to  itself, 
takes  on  colour,  and  thus  becomes 
visible.  Everything  must  have  an 


opposite  or  contradictory  ;  were  it 
not  so,  nothing  could  come  into 
existence.  The  essence  of  this 
system  is  activity  and  movement 
This  is  a  return  to  the  theory  of 
Heraclitus,  that  nothing  remains 
the  same,  that  all  things  are  in  a 
constant  state  of  flux  and  their 
permanence  only  illusory.  Nothing 
is,  but  only  becomes. 

The  idea  is  at  once  nature,  God, 
and  humanity.  At  first  confined 
within  itself,  it  separates  from  it 
and  posits  itself  in  what  is  another 
self,  the  external  world.  It  then 
returns  to  itself,  improved  and 
developed,  to  go  through  a 
further  series  of  developments,  be- 
coming ever  freer  and  more  con- 
scious of  itself.  God  Himself  is 
nothing  but  the  self-development 
of  the  absolute  ;  He  does  not  exist 
in  Himself  as  a  perfect  being.  Like 
everything  else,  He  never  is,  but 
is  always  becoming.  Similarly, 
man  has  no  separate  personality, 
being  merged  in  God.  Nor  is  God 
distinct  from  the  external  world  ; 
God,  nature,  and  humanity  are  one. 
This  is  pantheism,  but  a  pantheism 
essentially  different  from  Spinoza's, 
whose  god  (substance)  is  an  abso- 
lute unity. 

By  his  support  of  existing 
Prussian  institutions  Hegel  ob- 
tained great  political  and  social 
influence.  His  theories  are  set  forth 
in  The  Philosophy  of  Right.  All 
changes  and  revolutions  are  only 
milestones  on  the  road  of  progress. 
The  individual  is  of  no  value  by 
himself ;  he  is  absorbed  in  the 
family,  .the  family  in  the  state,  the 
real  substance  of  which,  indi  viduals, 
are  accidents.  The  state  in  return 
must  protect  the  individual  and 
allow  him  a  certain  amount  of 
freedom  (liberty  of  the  press,  trial 
by  jury,  popular  representation), 
but  not  so  as  to  interfere  with  pro- 
gress. Constitutional  monarchy  is 
the  best  form  of  government,  a  king 
being  necessary  "  to  dot  the  i's." 
War  is  indispensable  to  progress, 
might  is  right,  the  weaker  state  is 
inferior  to  and  absorbed  in  the 
stronger.  All  states  will  finally 
be  absorbed  in  the  genera!  move- 
ment of  the  universe.  Pron.  Haygel. 
See  Pantheism  ;  Philosophy  ;  State. 

J.  H.  Treese 

Bibliography.  Hegel,  E.  Caird, 
1883,  in  Knight's  Philosophical 
Classics  for  English  Readers  ;  The 
Secret  of  Hegel,  J.  H.  Stirling,  1898  ; 
Prolegomena  to  the  Study  of  Hegel, 
and  translations  of  The  Logic  and 
The  Philosophy  of  Mind,  W.  Wal- 
lace, 1894;  The  Phenomenology  of 
Mind,  J.  B.  Baillie,  1910  ;  The  Philo- 
sophy  of  Right,  S.  W.  Dyde,  1 890  ; 
Lectures  on  the  History  of  Philo- 
sophy, E.  S.  Haldane,  1892-96  ;  The 
Philosophy  of  Religion,  E.  B.  Spcirs, 
1895  ;  The  Philosophy  of  Fine  Art, 
F.  W  B.  Osmaston,  1920. 


HEGESIAS 

Hegesias.  Greek  philosopher. 
Belonging  to  the  Cyrenaic  school, 
he  flourished  in  Alexandria  about 
320-280  B.C.  Surnamed  Peisithan- 
atos,  or  recommending  death,  from 
his  gloomy  outlook  upon  life,  he 
regarded  the  attainment  of  posi- 
tive enjoyment  as  impossible,  and 
declared  that  death  was  preferable. 
According  to  him,  the  prevention 
of  pain  and  indifference  to  exter- 
nalities were  the  objects  the  wise 
man  should  set  before  him.  His 
treatise  entitled  Apokarteron,  starv- 
ing oneself  to  death,  had  so  great 
an  influence  on  his  followers  that 
some  of  them  put  an  end  to  their 
lives. 

Another  Hegesias  was  a  sophist 
and  rhetorician,  a  native  of  Mag- 
nesia at  the  foot  of  Mt.  Sipylus  in 
Asia  Minor.  He  is  considered  the 
originator  of  the  Asianic  or  florid 
school  of  oratory.  He  is  also  said 
to  have  written  a  life  of  Alexander 
the  Great. 

Hegesippus  (c.  120-180).  Chris- 
tian writer.  He  was  born  in  Pales- 
tine, was  probably  a  Jewish 
Christian,  visited  Corinth,  and 
appears  to  have  written  his  books 
in  Rome.  He  prepared  a  list  of  the 
Roman  bishops,  and  wrote  a  work 
called  Hypomnemata  (Notes  or 
Memorials),  the  earliest  attempt  at 
a  history  of  the  Christian  Church, 
of  which  fragments  are  preserved  in 
Eusebius. 

Hegesippus  is  also  the  name 
formerly  given  to  the  author  of  a 
Latin  translation,  in  five  books,  of 
Josephus's  History  of  the  Jewish 
War,  somewhat  condensed  and 
containing  additional  matter  from 
other  sources.  The  work  probably 
belongs  to  the  4th  century  A.D. 
Unless  there  is  a  confusion  between 
this  supposed  Hegesippus  and  the 
Christian  writer,  it  is  probable 
that  the  name  is  simply  a  corrup- 
tion of  the  name  Josephus,  adopted 
by  the  author  of  the  translation 


3915 

Heiberg,  JOHANN  LUDWIO  (1791- 
1860).  Danish  poet  and  author. 
Born  at  Copenhagen,  Dec.  14,  1791, 
the  son  of  Peter  Andreas  Heiberg,  a 
well-known  author  and  dramatist, 
he  early  turned  to  literature.  In 
1813  he  produced  an  adaptation  of 
Don  Juan,  and  a  romantic  drama, 
Pottemager  Walter.  He  wrote  a 
great  number  of  poetical  dramas, 
vaudevilles,  etc.,  his  masterpiece 
being  Elverho  (The  Elfin  Mount). 
He  died  Aug.  25,  1860. 

H.E.I.C.S.  Abbrev.  for  Honour- 
able East  India  Company's  Service. 
Heidelberg.     Town  of  Baden, 
Germany.  It  stands  on  the  Neckar, 
12  m.  from  its  junction  with  the 
Rhine,  and  54  m.  from  Frankfort. 
It  is  an  important 
railway  centre  and    I 
has  manufactures,    '•• 
but   its   main    in-    | 
terests    are   his- 
torical,  while    its 
beautiful  situation 
attracts    many 
visitors    and  resi- 
dents.        Of     the 
buildings  the  chief 
is    the    ruined 
castle.  This  stands 
on  a  hill  above  the 
town,  and  was,  in 


HEIDELBERG 

portions  are  the  Otto  Heinrichsbau 
of  the  16th  century,  a  beautiful 
piece  of  work,  richly  decorated 
with  sculptures,  and  the  Friod- 
richsbau  of  the  17th.  The  Fri<  d- 
richsbau  was  restored  between 
1897-1903,  and  houses  a  museum 
of  antiquities.  The  great  tun  of 
Heidelberg,  a  vat  holding  47,000 
gallons,  is  in  the  cellar.-}.  The  castle 
has  a  number  of  remarkable 
features,  including  the  chapel. 
There  are  beautiful  views  from  the 
terrace. 

Heidelberg  itself  stands  on  the 
S.  bank  of  the  Neckar,  with  the 
suburbs  of  Neuenheim  and  Hand- 
schuchsheim  on  the  N.  Two 
bridges,  one  having  a  fine  gateway, 


1.   me  Necuar  Bridge,  with  the 


Heidelberg,  uermany.     1.   me  NecKat  Bridge,  WHO  i 
town  and  castle.     2.  The  Friedriehsbau,  portion  ol  the 
castle  built  1601-7.     3.  The  castle  from  the  north 


its  prime,  per- 
haps the  largest 
in  .Germany.  It 
dates  from  the 
13th  century,  and 
was  enlarged  by 
several  electors 
palatine  who 
lived  here.  The 
elector  Charles 
Louis  restored 
it  after  the  Thirty 
Years'  War,  but 
i  t  was  much 
damaged  by  the 
French  in  1693. 
In  1764  it  was 
struck  by  light- 
ning. The  chief 


unite  the  two.  The  old  buildings 
are  in  or  around  the  long  High 
Street.  These  include  the  churches 
of  S.  Peter  and  the  Holy  Ghost. 
The  squares  include  the  market 
place,  the  Ludwigsplatz,  and  Bis- 
marckplatz.  There  is  a  town  hall,  a 
public  promenade,  the  Anlage,a  hall 
for  concerts,  etc.,  and  on  the  mar- 
ket place  a  remarkable  old  house. 
Heidelberg  University  was  founded 
in  1386  by  the  elector  Rupert.  The 
present  buildings  were  begun  in 
1712.  The  new  library  is  a  fine 
erection  and  houses  a  most  valu- 
able collection  of  books  and  MSS. 
The  university  has  hospitals, 
laboratories,  and  an  observatory. 
In  the  17th  century  it  was  a  strong- 
hold of  Protestantism. 

Heidelberg  has  manufactures  of 
cigars,  leather,  etc.  It  has  a  service 
of  electric  tramways  and  there  is 
a  cable  ra  Iway  from  the  corn 
market  to  the  castle.  Near  the 
town  are  some  noted  beauty  spots, 
especially  the  Molkenkur  and  the 
Heiligenberg  with  the  ruins  of  an 
abbey.  Heidelberg  became  im- 
portant when  in  the  12th  century 
the  count  palatine  of  the  Rhine 
made  it  his  capital.  During  the 
Thirty  Years'  War  it  was  taken, 
but  was  restored  to  the  elector  in 
1648.  In  1721  the  capital  was 
transferred  to  Mannheim,  and  in 
1802  Heidelberg  became  part  oi 
Baden.  Pop.  56,000. 


HEIDELBERG 


3916 


HEILSBRONN 


Heidelberg  Catechism,  THE. 
Symbol  and  summary  of  the  re- 
formed evangelical  faith,  published 
at  Heidelberg,  1563.  It  was  written 
at  the  instigation  of  the  elector 
palatine,  Frederick  III,  by  Zach- 
arias  Ursinus  (1534-83)  and  Cas- 
par Olevianus  (1536-87),  with  the 
object  of  ending  the  conflict  then 
raging  in  the  Palatinate  between 
Lutherans  and  Calvinists  by  setting 
out  the  evangelical  faith  in  terms 
incapable  of  being  misunderstood. 
It  contains  129  questions  divided 
into  three  parts,  treating  respec- 
tively of  man's  sin  and  misery,  of 
his  redemption  by  Christ,  and  of 
the  Christian  life.  Into  these  three 
divisions  the  decalogue,  the  creed, 
the  Lord's  prayer,  and  the  doctrine 
of  the  Church  and  the  sacraments 
are  fitted  as  parts  of  an  organic 
system,  making  an  easy  and  simple, 
yet  profound  and  comprehensive, 
whole,  unmatched  by  any  other  of 
the  Reformation  catechisms. 

First  issued  Jan.  19,  1563,  an 
official  Latin  translation  being 
published  the  same  year  for  use  in 
the  higher  seminaries  and  schools, 
the  Heidelberg  Catechism,  despite 
opposition  from  the  ultra-Luther- 
ans, won  its  way  into  the  hearts  of 
the  Christian  world.  It  was  ap- 
proved by  the  Synod  of  Dort  in 
1619,  and  has  been  translated  into 
all  the  languages  of  Europe,  and 
into  Hebrew,  Arabic,  and  Malay. 
Moderate  in  its  statement  of 
doctrine,  free  from  metaphysical 
subtlety,  charged  with  a  gracious 
spirit,  and  expressed  in  language 
of  rhythmic  beauty,  it  breathes  an 
undecaying  life  and  remains  one  of 
Germany's  noblest  national  monu- 
ments. 

Heidelberg  Jaw.  Fossil  man- 
dible of  primitive  man  found  by 
Otto  Schoetensack,  in  a  sand-pit  at 
Mauer,  near  Heidelberg,  in  1907. 
From  contiguous  animal  remains 
it  is  inferred  that  the  Heidelberg 
race  was  later  than  the  Piltdown, 
and  may  have  been  a  rude  precur- 
sor of  the  Neanderthal.  See  An- 
thropology ;  Ethnology ;  Man. 

Heidenheim.  Town  of  Ger- 
many, in  Wiirttemberg.  It  stands 
on  the  Brenz,  22  m.  N.N.E.  of 
Ulm.  In  ancient  times  a  Roman 
settlement,  it  lies  at  an  alt.  of 
1,617  ft.  to  the  E.  of  the  Swabian 
Alps,  and  is  overlooked  by  the  ruins 
of  the  Schloss  Hellenstein.  Be- 
coming a  place  of  some  importance 
in  the  Middle  Ages,  it  is  now  an  in- 
dustrial town,  with  manufactures  of 
textile  goods,  machinery,  earthen- 
ware, etc.  Pop.  17,780.  There  is 
a  smaller  town  of  the  same  name  in 
Bavaria,  21  m.  S.S.E.  of  Anspach. 

Heidenstam,  GAEL  GUSTAF 
VERNHER  VON  (b.  18,19).  Swedish 
poet  and  prose  writer.  At  the  age 


Vernher  von  Heiden- 
stam, Swedish  poet 


of  17  he  went  to  Paris  to  study 
art,  but  abandoning  this  as  a  pro- 
fession, spent  some  years  in  travel. 
On  his  return 
to  Sweden  he 
published  his 
first  book,  a 
poem  entitled 
Wanderings 
and  Pilgrim- 
ages, 1888, 
which  immedi- 
ately secured 
him  recogni- 
tion. The 
poems  were  followed  by  prose — 
tales,  sketches,  brochures,  and  a 
novel  of  life  under  Turkish  rule  in 
Damascus,  Endymion,  1889,  glow- 
ing with  colour  and  romance.  Hans 
Alienus,  1892,  is  a  remarkable  book, 
rich  in  original  thought,  expressed 
in  a  new  and  beautiful  form. 

Heidenstam  then  returned  to 
poetry  in  Poems,  1895,  and  after 
some  months  in  Russia  published 
his  most  popular  work,  The 
Carolins,  1897,  which  consists  of  a 
series  of  stories  centred  round 
Charles  XII,  and  counts  among  the 
finest  Swedish  prose  ever  written 
(Eng.  trans.  A  King  and  his  Cam- 
paigners, 1902).  This  and  other 
historical  books,  notably  The  Pil- 

frimage  of  S.  Bridget,  and  The 
wedes  and  their  Chieftains  (Eng. 
trans.  1909),  are  masterpieces  of 
their  kind,  and  burn  with  the 
author's  love  of  his  country.  In 
1916  Heidenstam  was  awarded  the 
Nobel  Prize  for  literature. 

Heifer.  Word  of  Anglo-Saxon 
origin  meaning  a  young  cow.  See 
Cattle. 

Heikoutai.  Town  of  Man- 
churia. The  battle  fought  here 
during  the  Russo-Japanese  War, 
Jan.  16-27,  1905,  is  sometimes 
called  after  it,  but  is  more  usually 
known  as  San-de-Pu  (q.v.). 

Heilbronn.  Town  of  Germany, 
in  Wurttemberg.  It  stands  on  the 
Neckar,  28  m.  N.  of  Stuttgart,  at 
a  height  of  518  ft.,  and  is  half  ringed 
by  hills  commanding  fine  views,  the 
Schweinsberg  (1,223ft.)  giving  an 
extensive  panorama  of  the  Black 
Forest,  the  Vosges,  and  other 
ranges.  It  is  a  place  of  considerable 
importance  in  trade  and  manu- 
facture, but  has  also  some  historic 
buildings  and  memories.  Formerly 
it  was  a  free  Imperial  city.  The 
principal  church  is  that  of  S. 
Kilian,  13th  to  15th  century  Gothic, 
with  a  Renaissance  tower,  200  ft. 
high,  built  in  1527.  S.  Nicholas  is 
noted  as  the  first  church  in  which 
a  Protestant  service  was  held  in 
Germany,  1525.  Schiller  lived  for  a 
time  in  a  house  close  by  the  church. 

Heilbronn  is  associated,  partly 
through  Goethe's  early  tragedy, 
with  Gotz  von  Berlichingen,  who 


Heilbronn,  Germany.  The  church  of 
S.  Kilian  from  the  south-west 

ruled  tyrannically  from  the  old 
Rathau-s,  a  Gothic  building  adapted 
to  the  Renaissance  style,  and 
restored  in  1895.  Down  by  the 
river  side  is  the  Co'tzen-turm,  where 
Gotz  was  imprisoned. 

Manufactures  include  paper, 
sugar,  silver-ware,  chemicals,  etc., 
while  the  surrounding  district  pro- 
duces large  quantities  of  wine. 
Goods  traffic  with  Mannheim  is 
carried  on  the  Neckar  by  a  system 
of  chain-towing.  Pop.  42,688. 

Heil  Dir  Im  Siege  rkranz. 
German  national  song:  Hail  to 
thee  with  victory  crowned.  The 
words  were  written,  to  the  tune  of 
the  English  God  Save  the  King,  bv 
Heinrich  Harries,  a  Holstein  pas- 
tor, in  honour  of  the  king  of  Den- 
mark, and  were  first  published  in 
1790.  A  few  years  later  it  was 
appropriated,  after  some  adapta- 
tion, by  Prussia,  and  remained 
Prussia's  chief  national  anthem 
until  the  Great  War,  when  it  was 
discarded  owing  to  the  indisput- 
ably British  origin  of  the  music. 

Heilsbronn.  Town  of  Germany, 
in  Bavaria.  It  lies  16  m.  by  rly. 
S.W.  of  Nuremberg.  Its  main 
interest  lies  in  its  old  connexion 
with  the  Hohenzollerns,  many  of 
the  Franconian  (Nuremberg)  line 
of  the  family  having  been  buried 
in  the  church  of  the  once  famous 
Cistercian  abbey.  The  three  first 
Brandenburg  Hohenzollerns  were 
also  buried  here.  In  addition  the 
church  contains  many  memorials  of 
the  early  Hohenzollerns,  and  some 
fine  altar-pieces  of  the  Nuremberg 
school.  The  building  was  com- 
menced as  a  basilica  in  the  12th 
century,  Gothic  additions  being 
made  in  the  13th  and  15th  cen- 
turies. Pop.  1,366. 


HEILUNGKIANG 


HEINI 


Heilungkiang.  Province  of 
China,  the  northernmost  of  the 
three  provs.  forming  Manchuria. 
The  capital  is  Tsitsihar,  and  other 
important  towns  are  Aigun  and 
Khailar.  Heilungkiang  is  bounded 
on  the  W.  mainly  by  the  Argun 
river,  on  the  N.  by  the  Amur,  on 
the  E.  by  the  Sungari,  and  com- 
prises the  valley  of  the  Nonni,  tri- 
butary to  the  Sungari,  with  the 
surrounding  Great  and  Little 
Khingan  Mts.  The  Chinese  Eastern 
Rly.,  a  section  of  the  Russian 
Trans-Siberian  line,  traverses  the 
S.  portion.  The  chief  products  are 
skins  and  furs.  Area,  167,000  sq. 
m.  Estimated  pop.  1,500,000.  The 
name  Heilungkiang  is  a  variant 
for  the  Amur  river  (q.v.}. 

Heimin  (Japanese,  commoners). 
Third  and  lowest  social  class  under 
the  feudal  system  in  Japan.  The 
heimin  were  divided  into  farmers, 
artisans,  and  tradesmen,  and 
ranked  in  that  order  below  the 
samurai,  their  masters. 

The  farmers,  as  the  most  indis- 
pensable contributors  to  the  main- 
tenance of  their  superiors,  and  the 
artisans,  who  included  artists  and 
craftsmen  of  every  kind,  were 
treated  with  respect,  but  the 
trading  class  was  regarded  with 
scornful  contempt.  None  of  the 
heimin  had  any  status  in  social 
intercourse  or  any  income  beyond 
what  they  actually  earned.  See 
Daimio. 

Heine,  HEINRICH  (1797-1856). 
German  poet.  Born  at  Diisseldorf, 
Dec.  13,  1797,  of  a  poor  Jewish 
family,  he  was  sent,  after  leaving 
school,  to  Hamburg,  where  a 
wealthy  uncle,  Salomon  Heine,  in- 
itiated him  into  a  business  career. 
He  proved  himself,  however,  in- 
capable, went  bankrupt,  and  then, 
still  with  the  support  of  his  uncle, 
studied  law  at  the  universities  of 
Bonn,  Gottingen,  and  Berlin.  In 
these  years,  1819  to  1824,  he  dis- 
covered his  lyrical  genius  under 
the  stimulus  of  unhappy  love 
affairs  with  his  cousin,  Amalie 
Heine,  and,  after  her  marriage, 
with  her  sister  Therese.  In  1822 
he  published  a  collection  of 
Poems,  followed  in  1823  by  Trage- 
dies, which,  although  they  con- 
tained some  of  the  most  familiar 
poems  later  incorporated  in  his 
Book  of  Songs,  were  appreciated 
by  only  a  few. 

In  1825  Heine  became  a  convert 
to  Christianity,  and  in  the  same 
year  obtained  his  degree  from 
Gottingen.  Owing  to  the  very 
great  success  of  his  two  volumes  of 
Pictures  of  Travel ;  The  Journey  in 
the  Harz  Mountains,  1826  ;  The 
North  Sea;  Buch  Le  Grand,  1827,  he 
decided  to  devote  himself  to  litera- 
ture ;  and  with  the  appearance  of 


(H.  Heine) 


From  a  drawing  by  E.  B.  Vrietz,  1851 

The  Book  of  Songs,  in  1827,  he 
became  the  most  popular  poet  of 
his  day.  A  visit  to  London,  a  stay 
of  some  months  in  Munich,  where 
he  was  editor  of  a  newspaper,  and 
a  journey  to  Italy  provided  him 
with  the  materials  for  fresh 
Pictures  of  Travel :  Journey  from 
Munich  to  Genoa;  The  Baths  of 
Lucca,  1830;  The  City  of  Lucca; 
English  Fragments,  1831. 

Like  all  young  men  of  letters  of 
the  time,  Heine  was  stirred  by  the 
July  Revolution  of  1830,  and  in 
1831,  disappointed  and  embittered 
by  the  treatment  meted  out  to  him 
at  home,  he  settled  in  Paris,  which 
remained  his  home  for  the  rest  of 
his  life.  Only  twice,  in  1843  and 
1844,  did  he  revisit  his  native  land. 
Heine  was  intimately  associated 
with  the  literary  school  of  "  Young 
Germany,"  and  when  in  1835  the 
government  suppressed  the  activi- 
ties of  the  school,  he  was  included 
in  the  ban.  This  interfered  with 
his  literary  plans  ;  but  his  uncle  did 
not  withdraw  his  support,  and  from 
1837  to  1848  he  was  also  in  receipt 
of  a  pension  of  4,800  francs  (about 
£200)  from  the  secret  fund  of  the 
French  Government.  In  1834  he 
became  intimate  with  a  French- 
woman of  the  people,  Eugenie 
Mirat,  who  inspired  him  with  a 
lasting  affection  ;  and  in  1841  she 
became  his  wife. 

Heine  in  Paris 

During  the  earlier  part  of  his 
stay  in  Paris,  Heine's  activity  was 
mainly  journalistic  ;  he  contributed 
to  German  newspapers  articles  on 
French  life,  art,  and  letters.  These 
were  followed  by  four  volumes,  en- 
titled The  Salon,  1834-40,  which, 
however,  include  much  more  than 
criticisms  of  pictures ;  the  prin- 
cipal content  is  indeed  a  study  of 
religion  and  philosophy  in  Ger- 
many, while  the  later  volumes  are 
mainly  made  up  of  short  stories, 
such  as  The  Rabbi  of  Bacherach. 


A  later  collection  bore  the  title 
Lutetia,  1854.  In  The  Romantic 
School,  1836,  Heine  criticised  with 
uncalled-for  virulence  the  literary 
school  from  which  he  had  himself 
sprung,  ami  in  Ludwig  Borne,  1840, 
he  attacked  his  friend  and  fellow- 
fighter  in  the  ranks  of  "  Young 
Germany." 

In  1844  he  came  forward  again, 
with  two  volumes  of  New  Poems, 
and  a  satiric  epic,  Germany,  a 
Winter  Tale.  These  were  followed, 
in  1847,  by  Atta  Troll,  generally 
recognized  as  his  finest  sustained 
poem,  and  in  1851  by  the  collection 
of  poems  entitled  Roman  zero. 
But  in  1845  Heine  fell  a  victim  to 
creeping  paralysis,  which  from  the 
spring  of  1848  till  his  death  in 
Paris,  Feb.  17,  1856,  kept  him 
practically  bedridden.  In  spite  of 
his  sufferings,  he  maintained  his 
mental  vigour  and  freshness,  as 
is  to  be  seen  in  the  wonderful 
Last  Poems  and  Thoughts,  which 
were  published  posthumously  in 
1869  ;  indeed,  it  might  be  said  that 
in  these  years  Heine  underwent  a 
kind  of  spiritual  regeneration,  which 
to  himself  was  bound  up  in  some 
mystic  way  with  the  romantic 
devotion  of  the  young  poetess, 
Camille  Selden  (La  Mouche). 

Heine's  position  among  the  Ger- 
man lyric  poets  of  the  19th  century 
has  been  influenced  by  other  than 
literary  factors,  and  is  difficult  to 
define.  His  Jewish  characteristics 
have  been  a  stumbling  block  to 
appreciation  by  many  of  his  own 
countrymen,  his  personal  life  affords 
few  aspects  that  awaken  sympathe- 
tic admiration.  And  yet  The  Book  of 
Songs  is  incontestably  the  greatest, 
as  it  has  been  the  most  popular, 
collection  of  German  lyrics  of  the 


Heine.       House  in   Bolkerstrasse, 
Diisseldorf,  where  the  poet  was  born 


HEINEMANN 

19th  century.  At  times  Heine's 
poetry  seems  lacking  in  the  sug- 
gestiveness  of  the  lyricism  of 
Goethe,  Eichendorff,  or  Morike ; 
and  only  too  often  he  destroys  by 
an  ill-placed  gibe  or  satiric  quirk 
the  effect  of  the  purest  lyric.  But, 
on  the  other  hand,  he  is  free  from 
the  vague  and  nebulous  sentiment- 
ality into  which  German  poetry  too 
easily  falls;  his  imagery  is  plastic 
and  his  metaphors  daring  almost 
to  the  verge  of  paradox. 

As  a  prose  writer  Heine's  claims 
are  also  high ;  his  style,  doubtless 
modelled  in  part  on  that  of  his 
French  contemporaries,  forms  the 
greatest  possible  contrast  to  the 
clumsiness  of  the  German  prose 
style  of  his  time.  He  began  his 
career  as  a  Romanticist,  but 
became  a  leader  of  that  school  of 
writers  which  formed  the  anti- 
thesis and  negation  of  Romanticism, 
"  Young  Germany."  The  tragedy 
of  Heine's  intellectual  life  lay  in 
this  discord ;  he  belonged  to  an  age 
of  transition.  An  exile  from  his 
native  land,  he  remained  also  as  a 
poet  a  spiritual  exile  from  that 
romantic  world  from  which  he 
drew  his  purest  inspiration. 

J.  G.  Robertson 

Bibliography.  Works,  ed.  E. 
Elster.  7  vols.,  1887-90,  Eng.  trans. 
C.  G.  Leland  and  others,  10  vols., 
1892-1905;  Lives,  A.  Strodtmann, 
3rd  ed.  1884;  G.  Karpeles,  1888; 
Lives  in  English,  W.  Stigand,  1875; 
W.  Sharp,  1888;  French,  H.  Heine, 
poete,  J.  Legros,  1897  ;  H.  Heine, 
penseur,  H.  Lichtenberger,  1905. 

Heinemann,  WILLIAM  (1863- 
1920).  British  publisher  and 
author.  Bom  at  Surbiton,  May  18, 
1863,  he  was  associated  with 
Nicholas  Triibner,  the  publisher  of 
Oriental  works,  of  whose  business, 
in  1884,  he  became  manager.  He 
founded  the  publishing  house  of 
William  Heinemann  in  Jan.,  1890, 
and  issued  his  first  book,  Hall 
Caine's  The  Bondman,  the  following 
month.  He  was  author  of  three 
plays,  The  First  Step,  1895;  Sum- 
mer Moths,  1898;  and  War,  1901. 
He  died  in  London,  Oct.  5,  1920. 

Heinrich  von  Meissen.  Early 
German  poet,  generally  known  as 
Frauenlob  (q.v.). 

Heinsius,  ANTONIUS  (1641- 
1720).  Dutch  statesman.  Born  at 
Delft,  Nov.  22,  1641,  he  studied 
law  at  Leiden,  and  in  1679  was 
appointed  to  a  government  office 
in  his  native  city.  Intimate  with 
William  of  Orange,  he  became 
foreign  minister  and  pensionary  of 
Holland  on  the  accession  of  the 
former  to  the  crown  of  England, 
and  acted  as  William's  agent  in 
the  Netherlands.  His  unwavering 
opposition  to  France'made  him  the 
successor  of  William  as  a  fierce 
opponent  of  Louis  XIV,  and  in 


Daniel  Heinsius, 
Dutch  scholar 


1702  Heinsius  was  largely  re- 
sponsible for  the  alliance  of  the 
European  powers  against  the 
French  king.  He  refused  to  listen 
to  any  suggestion  of  peace  until, 
deserted  by  England,  he  realized 
the  impossibility  of  continuing  the 
struggle  against  France  alone,  and 
signed  the  treaty  of  Utrecht.  He 
died  Aug.  3,  1720. 

Heinsius,  DANIEL  (1580-1655). 
Dutch  scholar.  Born  in  Ghent, 
June  9,  1580,  he  became  a  pupil  of 
Scaliger  and  ^g^^^Ms^^^ma 
was  made  pro- 
fessor of  Greek  | 
and  Latin  at 
Leiden.  He 
wrote  Latin 
poems  and 
edited  many 
Latin  classics 
and  learned 
works.  He  pub- 
lished his  Latin 
Orationes,  1609-21,  his  tragedy, 
The  Massacre  of  the  Innocents,  in 
1613,  and  his  Poems  in  1616.  He 
died  at  The  Hague,  Feb.  25,  1655. 

His  son  Nikolaas  (1620-81 ),  born 
at  Leiden,  July  20,  1620,  was  a 
great  traveller  and  collector  of  MSS. 
He  edited  a  number  of  Latin  classi- 
cal authors,  in  which  he  proposed 
a  vast  number  of  not  always  felicit- 
ous emendations,  which  gained  him 
the  sobriquet  of  Restorer  of  the 
Latin  Poets.  He  died  at  The 
Hague,  Oct.  7,  1681. 

Heir  (Lat.  heres).  In  English 
law,  the  person  who  succeeds  by 
descent  to  an  estate  of  inherit- 
ance. The  person  to  whose  estate 
he  succeeds  is  called  the  ancestor. 
An  heir  apparent  is  a  person  who,  if 
he  survives  the  ancestor,  must  be 
his  heir :  thus,  an  eldest  son  is 
always  his  father's  heir  to  an 
estate  in  fee  simple.  An  heir  pre- 
sumptive is  a  person  who,  if  the 
ancestor  dies  now,  would  be  his 
heir,  but  if  the  ancestor  lives,  may 
possibly  be  defeated  by  another 
heir  coming  into  existence.  Thus,  a 
childless  man's  brother  may  be  his 
heir  presumptive,  but  should  the 
man  have  a  son,  the  son  will  dis- 
place the  brother.  In  a  few  cases 
the  eldest  son  is  not  the  heir,  as  in 
the  tenure  called  borough  English, 
where  the  youngest  son  inherits. 

It  is  not  correct,  in  English  law, 
to  speak  of  inheriting  a  sum  of 
money,  or  any  form  of  property 
except  realty.  The  chief  rules  for 
finding  the  heir  are  (1 )  that  descen- 
dants take  first;  (2)  if  there  is  no 
descendant,  collaterals  succeed ; 
(3)  children  represent  their  de- 
ceased parents ;  (4)  if  males,  the 
eldest  male  is  the  heir,  but  if 
females,  they  are  all  co-heirs.  For 
example.  A  dies,  leaving  three  sons 
and  three  daughters.  The  eldest  son 


HEJAZ 

is  heir.  If  the  eldest  son  has  died 
before  A,  then  that  son's  children 
take  his  place,  i.e.  his  eldest  son,  or 
failing  a  son,  his  daughter.  If  all 
A's  sons  predeceased  him,  his  three 
daughters  inherit  together.  See 
Primogeniture. 

Heirloom.  In  English  law, 
chattels  which  descend  by  custom 
or  settlement  to  the  heir  of  an 
estate.  Heirlooms  do  not  pass  to 
the  executor  or  administrator  with 
the  rest  of  the  property,  and  they 
cannot  be  devised  by  will  away 
from  the  heir,  who,  in  his  turn,  is 
regarded  merely  as  the  owner  in 
trust  for  his  successor.  Yet  under 
the  Settled  Land  Act  the  court 
may  sanction  their  sale  or  pur- 
chase for  the  benefit  of  all  parties 
interested  in  the  estate,  though  the 
personal  difficulties  of  an  extrava- 
gant owner  would  not  be  regarded 
as  sufficient  reason  for  such  a  sale. 
A  testator  may  create  new  heir- 
looms for  his  successors.  The  chief 
heirlooms  are  charters,  deeds 
giving  evidence  of  title,  and  muni- 
ment chests  in  which  such  deeds 
are  kept ;  anything  which  cannot 
be  moved  without  inflicting 
damage  to  house  or  estate,  e.g. 
mantelpieces  and  stairs,  deer,  fish 
in  the  lake,  and  doves ;  crown 
jewels,  monuments,  tombs,  banners 
or  escutcheons  or  arms  set  up  in  a 
church.  The  word  is  apparently  a 
compound  of  heir  and  loom  (A.S. 
geloma),  originally  meaning  any 
instrument,  frame,  then  property 
generally. 

Hejaz  OR  HEDJAZ.  Kingdom  of 
Arabia.  Long  before  the  close  of 
the  Great  War  the  Hejaz, 
formerly  a  vilayet  of  the  Turk- 
ish empire,  had  won  its  independ- 
ence. This  was  recognized  by  the 
Allies  at  the  end  of  1916.  The 
grand  sherif  of  Mecca,  the  heredi- 
tary keeper  of  the  Holy  Places  of 
Islam,  had  proclaimed  himself  its 
king  in  June,  1916,  taking  the  title, 
Hussein  Ibn  Ali,  with  the  approval 
of  the  Arabs.  With  a  pop.  of 
300,000,  and  an  area  a  little  larger 
than  that  of  Great  Britain,  the 
Hejaz  lies  to  a  depth  of  some  200 
m.  along  the  E.  coast  of  the  Red 
Sea  for  nearly  700  m.,  and  stretches 
from  Akabah  on  the  N.  to  Asir  on 
the  S.,  its  boundaries  on  the  E.  being 
from  N.  to  S.  Great  Nefud,  Nejd, 
and  the  Great  Arabian  Desert. 

It  owes  its  importance  to  the 
Holy  Cities  of  Mecca  and  Medina, 
from  the  latter  of  which  the  Hejaz 
Rly.,  begun  in  1901  and  completed 
in  1908,  runs  N.  to  Damascus,  a 
distance  of  1,105  m.  Originally 
constructed  by  Turkey  on  the  plea 
that  it  facilitated  the  haj  or  pil- 
grimage to  the  Holy  Cities,  this 
line  was  also  politically  and  strate- 
gically valuable,  as  it  enabled  her 


Hejaz.     luap    ol    the    kingdom    in 
which  are  situated  the  holy  cities 
of  the  Mahomedan  faith 

to  tighten  her  hold  on  the  Hejaz,  as 
well  as  on  Asir  and  Yemen,  the 
provs.  S.  of  it.  In  Arabia,  however, 
the  Arabs,  even  under  Turkish  rule, 
had  a  large  measure  of  indepen- 
dence, and  Turkey  retained  such 
authority  as  she  possessed  more  by 
subsidising  the  local  chiefs  than  by 
armed  force,  except  in  the  towns, 
along  the  rly.,  and  at  the  ports. 

Besides  Mecca  and  Medina,  the 
towns  of  the  Hejaz  are  Jedda  and 
Yembo,  the  ports  respectively  of 
these  two  cities,  and  Taif,  in  the  S., 
the  centre  of  the  Arabia  Felix  of 
old.  In  these  cities  and  towns  live 
the  greater  number  of  the  pop.  of 
the  country,  which  for  the  most 
part  is  a  raised  plateau,  whose  W. 
side  is  formed  by  rugged  moun- 
tains that  descend  sharply  to  the 
Red  Sea.  Lacking  perennial  rivers, 
the  land  is  fertile  only  in  its  few 
valleys.  The  annual  haj,  with  its 
many  thousands  of  pilgrims  in 
normal  times,  is  the  chief  source  of 
what  wealth  the  Hejaz  possesses. 

When  Turkey  entered  the  war  in 
the  beginning  of  Nov.,1914,the  situ- 
ation in  Arabia  was  quiet,  except 
in  Nejd  and  in  Asir,  which  were  in 
open  revolt ;  in  the  Yemen  the 
Turks  took  the  offensive  against 
the  British  in  Aden.  But  the  Turks 
and  the  Arabs  had  never  amalga- 
mated ;  the  Turk  distrusted  the 
Arab,  while  the  Arab  looked  on 
himself  as  the  intellectual  superior 
of  the  Turk.  As  part  of  their  policy 
of  turkifying  their  empire,  the 
Young  Turks,  led  by  Djemal  Pasha, 
governor  of  Syria,  arrested  and 
executed  in  1916  many  of  the  prin- 
cipal Arabs  in  Damascus  and 
Horns.  In  the  same  year  Enver 


3919     

Pasha  visited  Mecca  and  shocked 
the  faithful  there  by  his  atheism. 

On  June  5,  1916,  the  grand 
sherif  proclaimed  his  independence 
at  Mecca,  and,  supported  by  the 
Arabs,  summoned  the  Turkish  gar- 
rison of  the  Holy  City  to  surrender, 
but  it  refused,  and  held  out  until 
June  9.  Hussein  divided  his  forces 
into  four ;  one  part  remained  in 
Mecca ;  the  second  went  north- 
wards to  Medina  under  the  Emir 
Feisal,  one  of  his  sons  ;  the  third, 
under  another  son,  the  Emir  Ab- 
dulla,  marched  southwards  to  Taif  ; 
and  the  fourth,  under  yet  another 
son,  the  Emir  Zeid,  advanced  west- 
wards on  Jedda.  The  grand  sherif 
appealed  to  Great  Britain  for  assis- 
tance, and  thereafter  the  "  Red 
Sea  Patrol  "  of  the  British  navy 
cooperated  with  his  forces.  Before 
June  was  out  Jedda  had  fallen,  and 
Yembo  was  taken  in  July. 

In  Aug.  Hussein  issued  a  pro- 
clamation "  To  the  Moslem  World," 
in  which  he  justified  his  revolt  on 
the  grounds  of  the  infidelity  of  the 
Young  Turks  to  their  common  reli- 
gion, and  their  persecution  of  the 
Arab  race.  In  Sept.  Taif  was  cap- 
tured, and  with  other  successes, 
mainly  on  the  coast,  in  which  the 
British  navy  had  a  share,  the 
whole  of  the  Hejaz,  except  Medina, 
which  Feisal  failed  to  take,  and  the 
rly.  zone,  was  cleared  of  the  Turks. 

The  Arab  chiefs  realized  that 
they  must  have  an  organized  army, 
instead  of  an  undisciplined  force  of 
camelry  and  horsemen.  In  this 
effort  they  were  assisted  by  the 
Egyptian  Government,  who  sent 
officers  and  men  to  the  Hejaz  to 
train  the  Arabs  and  others  who  had 
joined  them  from  the  N.  Feisal  cap- 
tured Wejh  (El-Wijh)  in  Jan.,  1917, 
and  his  force  steadily  grew  into  a 
regular  army.  He  also  succeeded  in 
getting  all  the  Arabs  in  the  N.,  who 
had  been  divided  by  tribal  feuds,  to 
support  him,  among  others  the 
sheikh  of  Howeitat. 

During    1917    Feisal    made    re- 
peated raids  on  the  Hejaz  Rly.,  but 
the  chief  Arab  success  of  that  year 
was  the  capture  of  Akabah  early  in 
Aug.    Little  occurred  in  the  win- 
ter   of     1917-18, 
but  by  April,     I 
1918,  Feisal  cap- 
tured     Tafileh,     | 
near   the  S.    end     j 
of  the  Dead  Sea,     j 
and    held    the    j 
latter    against    a    MB 
powerful      attai-k     IflUymy^teMifea* 
by  the  Turks  who    I 
had    been    rein- 
forced by  the  rly. ; 
he   also   took    El 
Kerak.      Both 
Maan  and  Medina 
held  out. 


HEKLA 

In  the  summer  of  1918  the  ai  nii<-< 
of  the  king  of  the  Hejaz  numbered 
40,000  men,  who  became  the  ex- 
treme right  wing  of  Allenby  when 
in  Sept.  he  rolled  up  the  Turkish 
army  on  his  left,  in  the  coastal  re- 
gion of  Palestine,  enveloped  and 
annihilated  two  Turkish  armies. 
and  conquered  Palestine  and  Syria, 

Jn  coordination  with  these  opera- 
tions Feisal,  from  his  base  at  Um- 
taiye,  E.  of  the  Jordan,  cut  the 
Turkish  communications  on  the 
Hejaz  Rly.  at  Deraa  on  Sept.  15, 
and,  after  occupying  that  place  on 
Sept.  27,  took  part  in  the  advance 
on  Damascus,  which  was  entered 
first  by  some  of  his  troops  on  the 
night  of  Sept.  30-Oct.  1,  he  himself 
entering  the  city  on  Oct.  3.  During 
the  war  the  Hejaz  forces  killed  r  r 
immobilised  50,000  of  the  enemy, 
and  their  military  services  were  of 
great  value  to  the  Allies.  Medina, 
besieged  since  June,  1916,  capitu- 
lated to  Hussein,  under  the  terms  of 
the  armistice  with  Turkey,  Jan.  1919. 
See  Arabia ;  Feisal,  Emir ;  Law- 
rence, T.  E. ;  Palestine,  Conquest  of. 

Hejira  OR  HEGERA  (Arab,  hijra). 
Word  meaning  "  flight,"  applied 
specially  to  the  flight  of  Mahomet 
from  Mecca  to  Medina  in  A.D.  622, 
from  which  event  the  Mahomedan 
era  is  reckoned.  The  Mahomedan 
era  was  inaugurated  by  the  caliph 
Omar  in  639  and  is  reckoned  from 
July  16— the  first  day  of  the  first 
month  of  the  year  in  which  the 
flight  took  place.  Dates  of  the  Ma- 
homedan era  are  indicated  by  the 
letters  A.H.  (anno  hegirae,  in  the 
year  of  the  flight).  The  Mahomedan 
year  is  a  lunar  one,  and  so  about  11 
days  shorter  than  the  solar  year. 
To  find  the  year  in  the  Christian  era 
approximately  corresponding  to  a 
year  in  the  Hejira,  subtract  3  p.c. 
from  the  Hejira  year  and  add  622. 
Hekla  OR  HECLA.  Active  vol- 
cano of  Iceland.  In  the  S.  of  the 
island,  it  is  about  20  m.  from  the 
coast  and  70  m.  E.  of  Reykjavik. 
It  attains  an  alt.  of  5,109  ft., having 
one  large  crater,  1J  m.  in  circum- 
ference and  200  ft.  to  300  ft.  deep, 
and  several  subsidiary  ones.  It  has 
been  active  frequently  since  the 


Hekla.  The  great  volcano  01  Iceland,  over  5,000  ft.  high 


HEL. 

llth  century,  the  eruption  of  1845- 
46  lasting  continuously  from  Sept. 
to  April.  In  March.  1878,  there  was 
another  violent  outburst.  The  prin- 
cipal rocks  are  basalt  and  lava ;  the 
mountain  is  devoid  of  vegetation. 

Hel.  In  Norse  mythology,  daugh- 
ter of  Loki.  She  is  described  in  the 
Prose  Edda  as  purely  evil,  care 
being  her  bed,  hunger  her  dish,  and 
starvation  her  knife.  In  other 
myths  she  was  the  guardian  of  the 
plains  under  the  earth,  peopled  by 
the  happy  dead,  as  well  as  of  the 
caves  of  punishment.£eeMythology. 

Hela.  German  cruiser.  She 
was  torpedoed,  Sept.  13,  1914,  by 
the  British  submarine  E  9,  6  m. 
S.  of  Heligoland,  being  the  first 
ship  sunk  by  a  British  submarine. 
The  Hela  displaced  2,000  tons, 
was  328  ft.  long,  36  ft.  in  beam, 
and  had  engines  of  6,000  horse- 
power, giving  a  speed  of  20£  knots. 
She  carried  only  a  few  light  guns. 

Helcosal.  Name  applied  to 
bismuth  pyrogallate  employed  in 
the  treatment  of  disorders  of  the 
digestive  tract. 

Helder.  Small  seaport  of  the 
Netherlands,  in  the  prov.  of  N. 
Holland.  It  stands  at  the  N.  ex- 
tremity of  the  prov.,  and  is  sepa- 
rated from  the  island  of  Texel  by 
the  Mars  Diep,  a  channel  2  m.  in 
width.  It  is  about  40  m.  due  N. 
of  Amsterdam,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  the  North  Holland 
canal.  The  place  is  protected  from 
the  sea  by  a  dyke  5  m.  long  and 
30  ft.  wide,  sloping  200  ft.  into  the 
sea.  About  a  mile  E.  of  the  town, 
at  the  entrance  to  the  North  Hol- 
land canal,  is  the  harbour  of 
Nieuwe  Diep,  where  are  docks 
and  shipyards,  a  naval  cadet  school, 
and  a  meteorological  station. 

Formerly  a  small  fishing  hamlet, 
Helder  has  developed  considerable 
importance,  owing  to  its  position 
at  the  entrance  to  the  Zuyder  Zee. 
Off  here,  in  1673,  the  Dutch  under 
Van  Tromp  and  De  Ruyter  de- 
feated the  combined  English  and 
French  fleets.  It  was  fortified  by 
Napoleon  in  1811.  Pop.  29,891. 


3920 


Helen  of  Troy  stolen  from  her  husband's  house  by  Paris.      A  15th  century 
rendering  of  the  classical  story,  by  Benozzo  Gozzoli,  1420-98 

National  Gallery,  London 


Helderberg  Formation.  Rocks 
of  the  Upper  Silurian  system.  It  is 
found  chiefly  in  the  eastern  part 
of  N.  America,  e.g.  New  York, 
the  Catskills,  New  Brunswick, 
Nova  Scotia,  and  Montreal.  Vary- 
ing in  thickness  up  to  600  ft.,  these 
rocks  are  noted  for  their  fossils. 

Helen  (Gr.  Helene).  In  Greek 
legend,  the  woman  of  surpassing 
beauty  whose  seizure  by  Paris 
was  the  cause  of  the  Trojan  War. 
According  to  the  earlier  stories 
she  was  the  daughter  of  Tyndareus 
and  Leda,  Castor  and  Pollux  being 
her  brothers.  In  a  later  version, 
Leda  was  visited  by  Zeus  in  the  form 
of  a  swan,  and  gave  birth  to  an  egg, 
from  which  Helen,  Castor  and  Pollux 
came  forth. 

Helen  became  the  wife  of  Mene- 
laus,  king  of  Sparta,  and  when  Paris, 
son  of  Priam,  king  of  Troy,  came 
there  on  a  visit,  Aphrodite,  in  ful- 
filment of  a  promise  to  give  Paris 
the  most  beautiful  woman  in  the 
world,  caused  her  to 
fall  in  love  with  the 
handsome    visitor. 
After   the  capture 
of  Troy  Helen  re- 
turned   to   Sparta 
with  her  husband, 
though,   according 
to    some    legends, 
they  sojourned  for 
eightyears  in  Egypt 
before   reaching 
home.     The  word 
is    a    favourite 
feminine  Christian 
name,  as    also  its 

Helder,  Holland.     Typical  street  of  the  seaport  at  the       variants     Ellen 
entrance  to  the  Zuyder  Zee  and  Helena.      The 


form  Helenus  is  occasionally  used 
as  a  masculine  name.  See  Troy  ; 
consult  also  Helen  of  Troy,  A.Lang, 
1882  ;  The  Legend  of  Fair  Helen, 
E.  Oswald,  1905. 

Helena.  City  of  Montana, 
U.S.A.,  the  capital  of  the  state 
and  the  co.  seat  of  Lewis  and 
Clark  co.  Situated  3,955  ft.  high 
at  the  foot  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, on  the  edge  of  the  valley  of 
the  upper  Missouri  river,  it  is 
73  m.  N.E.  of  Butte,  and  is  served 
by  the  Northern  Pacific  and  the 
Great  Northern  Rlys.  Here  are  the 
Montana  Wesleyan  University,  S. 
Vincent's  Academy,  and  Mount  St. 
Charles  College.  Other  buildings 
are  the  capitol,  the  Federal  build- 
ing, a  state  and  other  libraries,  and 
the  Y.M.C.A.  building.  Helena 
lies  in  a  rich  mining  region,  con- 
taining gold,  silver,  copper,  and 
other  minerals,  and  the  city  is 
situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  cele- 
brated Last  Chance  Gulch,  where 
gold  was  found  in  1864,  and  from 
which  more  than  £6,000,000  of 
gold  has  been  recovered. 

The  neighbouring  mountains  are 
clothed  with  forests  of  fir  and  pine, 
whose  timber  feeds  several  large 
sawmills.  Sheep  and  cattle  are 
reared,  and  there  are  foundries  and 
machine  shops,  a  large  smelter  and 
quartz  mills,  rly.  workshops,  and 
candle  and  soap  factories.  In  the 
vicinity  are  medicinal  hot  springs. 
Laid  out  as  a  mining  town  in  1864, 
Helena  became  the  capital  of  Mon- 
tana in  1874  on  its  organization  as  a 
territory,  and  received  a  city  charter 
in  1881.  It  was  damaged  by  fire  in 
1869  and  in  1874.  Pop.  20,000. 


HELENA 


3921 


HELICOPTER 


Helena,  FLA  VIA  JULIA  (d.  328). 
Wife  of  the  Roman  emperor  Con- 
stantius  Chlorus  and  mother  of 
Constantino  the  Great.  She  was 
born  of  humble  origin  in  Nico- 
media,  and  became  famous  for  her 
devotion  to  Christianity.  In  her 
old  agre  she  made  a  pilgrimage  to 
Jerusalem,  and,  according  to  a 
legend  which  first  appears  at  the 
end  of  the  4th  century,  she  dis- 
covered there  the  sepulchre  of  Our 
Lord  and  the  wood  of  the  Cross. 

Helensburgh.  Borough  and 
watering-place  of  Dumbarton- 
shire, Scotland.  It  stands  on  the 
N.  bank  of  the 
Firth  of  Clyde,  4 
m.  N.  of  Greenock 
and  24  m.  N.W. 
o  f  Glasgow  o  n 
the  N.B.  Rly. 
The  public  build- 
ings include  the 
municipal  build- 
Helensburgharms  i  n  g  s/  Victoria 
Halls,  Hermitage  School,  and  hospi- 
tals. Founded  in  1777  by  Sir  James 
Colquhoun,  after  whose  wife  it  was 
named,  Helensburgh  has  a  pier 
and  esplanade.  On  the  latter  is  a 
monument  to  Henry  Bell,  the  pio- 
neer of  steam  navigation,  who  died 
here  in  1830.  The  council  owns 
the  gas  and  water  undertakings, 
four  parks  and  a  recreation  ground, 
an  abattoir  and  the  harbour.  The 
beautiful  grounds  of  the  Hermitage 
have  been  laid  out  for  public  use. 
From  Craigendoran,  about  1  m.  to 
the  E.,  steamers  go  to  Dunoon  and 
other  pleasure  resorts  on  the  west 
coast ;  and  the  W.  Highland  Rly. 
branches  off  for  Fort  William,  Mal- 
laig,  etc.  Pop.  8,500. 

Helen's  Tower.  Three-storeyed 
building,  3  m.  S.  of  Clandeboye, 
Belfast,  Ireland.  Situated  on  hi<*h 


Helensburgh,  Dumbartonshire, 
south 


The  esplanade  looking 


Helen's  Tower,  near  Belfast,  built 

in  memory  of  Helen  Selina,   Lady 

Dufferin 

Valentine 


ground,  and  approached  from  the 
village  of  Conlig,  between  Craw- 
fords  burn  and  Newtownards,  it 
was  built  by  the  1st  marquess  of 
Dufferin  in  memory  of  his  mother, 
Helen  Selina,  Lady  Dufferin  (q.v. ). 
It  contains  poetical  tributes  by 
Tennyson,  Browning,  and  Kipling, 
and  commands  views  of  the  Mourne 
Mts.,  the  Mull  of  Galloway,  and 
Isle  of  Man.  See  Belfast  Lough. 

Helemis.  In  Greek  legend,  son 
of  Priam,  king  of  Troy,  noted  for 
his  powers  of  prophecy.  Taken 
prisoner  by  the  Greeks,  to  whom 
he  declared  that  Troy  could  never 
be  taken  without  the  help  of 
Pyrrhus  (Neoptolemus)  andPhiloc- 
tetes,  after  the  capture  of  the  city 
he  was  allotted  to  Pyrrhus  as  part 
of  the  spoils.  He  afterwards  ac- 
companied Pyrrhus  to  Epirus  and 
married  An- 
dromache, the 
widow  of  Hec- 
tor,  becoming 
king  of  the 
country  after 
the  death  of 
Pyrrhus. 

Helfferich, 
KARL  THEODOK 
(1872-1924). 
German  poli- 
tician. Born 
Aug.  22,  1872,  he 
was  educated  at 
Munich,  Berlin, 
and  Strasbourg 
universities.  From 
1901-4  he  was 
professor  of  politi- 
cal science  in  the 
university  of  Ber- 
lin ;  in  1904  he 
became  a  pro- 
fessor at  Bonn. 
An  expert  in 
economics,  he 
entered  the  Ger- 
man foreign  office, 
and  was  appointed 
a  director  of  the 
Deutsche  Bank  in 
1908.  On  the  out- 
break of  the  Great 


Karl  T.  Helfferich, 
German  politician 


War  he  was  made 
minister  of  fin- 
ance. In  191 6  he 
became  secretary 
for  the  interior 
and  imperial  vice- 
chancellor,  and  he 
held  these  posi- 
tions till  Nov., 
1917.  He  was 
German  ambassa- 
dor to  Russia, 
July-Sept.,  1918. 
He  was  killed  in 
a  rly.  accident, 
April  24,  1924. 

Helicon  (Gr. 
kelikon).  Name 
sometimes  given  to  the  circular 
bombardon  (q.v. ).  The  first  mean- 
ing of  the  Greek  original  is  the 
thread  spun  from  the  distaff  to 
the  spindle,  then  a  nine-stringed 
instrument. 

Helicon  (mod.  Zagara).  Mt. 
in  the  S.W.  of  Boeotia,  ancient 
Greece.  Its  beautiful  scenery  caused 
it  to  be  popularly  .regarded  as  the 
home  of  the  Muses,  to  whom  there 
was  a  temple  and  in  whose  honour 
games  were  celebrated.  The  well 
of  Aganippe  at  its  foot,  and  the 
fountain  of  Hippocrene  were  also 
sacred  to  them.  Remains  of  the 
temple,  of  a  theatre,  and  of  a 
colonnade  have  been  discovered. 
See  Mythology. 

Helicopter  (Gr.  helix,  spiral ; 
pteron,  wing).  Name  given  for  the 
type  of  flying  machine  which  can 
raise  itself  vertically  by  means  of 
horizontally  revolving  propellers 
or  air-screws.  The  advantages  of 
such  a  machine,  especially  for  war 
purposes,  enabling  it  to  rise  and 
land  on  the  deck  of  a  warship  with 
ease,  hover  in  the  air  for  scouting 
purposes,  and  land  in  compara- 
tively small  areas,  are  so  great 
that  many  attempts  have  been 
made  to  build  a  successful  full- 
sized  helicopter,  though  as  yet 


Helicopter.  Model  of  flying  machine  desig  ieu  to  rise 
vertically  from  the  ground.  Two  sets  of  biplane  wings, 
revolving  in  opposite  directions,  provide  the  lift.  In 
event  of  engine  failure,  wings  act  as  ordinary  biplane 
wings  for  gliding  to  earth 


Y    5 


HELIGOLAND 


3922 


HELIGOLAND 


without  success.  In  January,  1921, 
Etienne  Oehmichen  tested  a  heli- 
copter in  France  which  offered  a 
part  solution  of  the  problem.  The 
helicopter  screws  lifted  584  Ib. 
with  a  25-h.p.  engine,  over  23  Ib. 
per  h.p.  No  attempt  was  made, 
however,  to  provide  a  method  for 
balancing  or  moving  forwards. 
Both  the  British  and  French 
Governments  experimented  with 
helicopters  in  1920  and  1921,  and 
great  advances  have  been  made 
towards  the  solution  of  the  problem. 

The  greatest  difficulty  to  be 
faced  with  the  helicopter  is  that  of 
stability  when  once  in  the  air.  Ex- 
periments have  proved  that  it  is 
perfectly  possible  to  construct  a 
machine  that  will  lift  itself,  but  it 
must  also  support  itself  partially 
if  the  engine  stops,  so  that  it  can 
make  a  safe  gliding  descent  as  in 
the  case  of  an  aeroplane.  The 
first  attempt  to  construct  a  heli- 
copter on  scientific  lines  was  by 
Leonardo  da  Vinci  about  1500, 
since  which  time  there  have  been 
many  machines  built,  none  of 
which  have  raised  themselves  more 
than  a  few  inches  off  the  ground. 
See  Aeronautics. 

Heligoland  OR  HELGOLAND. 
Island  in  the  North  Sea,  included 
in  the  Prussian  prov.  of  Slesvig- 
Holstein.  It  is  rocky,  with  an 
elevation  of  about  190  ft.,  and  is 
situated  about  44  m.  from  the 
mouths  of  the  Weser  and  "Elbe 
rivers.  Its  circumference  is  about 
3  m.,  having  been  steadily  reduced 
by  erosion  from  120  m.  in  A.D.  800 
and  45  m.  in  A.D.  1300.  Heligo- 
land, which  means  "  Holy  Land," 
was  taken  from  Holstein  by  Britain 
in  1807.  Its  limestone'  and  sand- 


bours  were  made 
for  war  craft,  and 
airship  sheds  were 
built.  A  light- 
house was  con- 
structed and  fur- 
nished with  the 
most  powerful 
light  in  the 
world,  having  a 
lighting  power  of 
40,000,000  can- 
dles, a  magnitude 
of  light  difficult  to 
realize.  There  is 
a  cluster  of  three 
lights,  on  the 
searchlight  prin- 
ciple, and  the 
cluster  is  sur- 
mounted by  a 
single  light  of  the 
same  kind  and 
size,  that  can  be 
revolved  independently  and  three 
times  as  fast  as  the  three  lights. 
The  single  light  is  to  take  the  place 
of  the  cluster  in  the  event  of  any 
accident  happening  to  it. 

The  peace  treaty  of  Versailles 
(1919)  compelled  Germany  to  dis- 
mantle the  whole  of  the  fortress  of 
Heligoland,  including  the  removal 
of  all  guns  and  gun  emplacements, 
harbour  works  and  aircraft  stations. 
This  was  carried  out  by  German 
labour  under  the  supervision  of  an 
inter-allied  naval  and  military 
mission. 

Heligoland,  BATTLE  OF.  Naval 
engagement  between  the  British 
and  the  Germans,  Aug.  28,  1914. 
On  the  outbreak  of  war,  British  sub- 

and  depositing  on  Heligoland  the  marines  were  sent  to  watch  Ger- 
material  obtained.  Enormous  gun  man  naval  movements  in  the 
emplacements  were  erected,  bar-  bight  of  Heligoland,  and  acting  on 


Heligoland.      Map  illustrating  the  effects  of  erosion,  by 

comparing  the  island  coast-line  of  120  m.  in  A.D.  800 

with  the  coast-line  of  3  m.  in  1900 

From  Hobb's  "Earth  Feature*  and  Their  Meanings,"  by  courtesy 
of  Macmilllan  &  Co. 

stone  cliffs  rise  sheer  from  the 
ocean  on  all  sides  but  the  S.E., 
where  there  is  a  fiat  bank  of  sand 
called  the  Unterland.  It  is  |  sq.  m 
in  area,  was  much  visited  for  its 
sea-bathing  facilities,  and  at  one 
time  had  a  pop.  of  3,400,  mainly 
Frisian  fisher-folk  and  pilots. 

Ceded  by  Britain  to  Germany  in 
1890  in  exchange  for  certain  rights 
on  the  E.  coast  of  Africa,  it  there- 
after became  a  strategic  point  in 
connexion  with  the  German  naval 
defence.  The  inhabitants  were 
transferred  to  the  mainland,  and 
the  island  was  strongly  fortified. 
Artificial  cliffs  were  constructed 
and  the  area  of  the  island  was 
increased  by  dredging  the  Elbe 


Heligoland,  as  it  appeared  when  the  Great  War  was  at  its  height;  the  war  harbour,  which  was  practically  impregnable, 

full  of  war  vessels 


HEL.IODORUS 


3923 


HELIOGRAPH 


Stettin,  Frauen- 
lob,  and  Ariadne 
supporting  them. 
The  British 
broke  into  the 
destroyer  cordon 
and  engaged 
Frauenlob  and 
Stettin,  which 
came  up  to  the 
destroyers'  a  i  d. 
The  German  de- 
stroyer V  187  was 
disabled  by  the 
British  fire,  and 
had  to  be  sunk 
by  her  crew  to 
avoid  capture. 
Two  British  de- 
stroyers were 
damaged,  and 
Arethusa  was  hit 
35  times  by  Frau- 
e  n  1  o  b,  with  a 
loss  of  12  killed 
and  20  wounded, 
before  she  drove 
the  German 
cruisers  back. 


Heligoland.     Chart  illustrating  the  British  and  German 
tactics  in  the  battle  of  Aug.  28,  1914 


the  information  they  supplied,  the 
British  Admiralty  determined  to 
carry  out  a  sweep.  The  original 
intention  was  to  operate  mainly 
with  light  cruisers,  destroyers,  and 


About  8.30 
a.m.  Commodore 
Goodenough's  light  cruisers  ar- 
rived and  attacked  further  to  the 
west,  but  had  to  fall  back  owing 
to  danger  from  the  British  sub- 
marines. Observing  that  the 


submarines,  supporting  them  only     British  light  craft  were  apparently 


with     the 
Invincible 


two 
and 


battle 
New 


cruisers, 
Zealand, 


unsupported,   the  Germans   made 
an  effort  to  cut  them  off.      The 


against  attack  by  the  heavy  Ger-     German    light    cruisers    Ariadne, 

Frauenlob,  Strassburg,  Stralsund, 
Mainz,   and   Coin    closed    on    the 


man  ships. 

Fortunately  Sir  John  Jellicoe,  on 


learning  of  this  plan,  made  "  ur-  vessels  under  the  command  of 
gent  representations  as  to  the  Tyrwhitt  and  Keyes,  and  the 
necessity  of  supporting  the  force  position  became  so  serious  that 


with  battle  cruisers "  of  Sir 
Beatty's  battle -cruiser  squadron  ; 
and  on  Aug.  27,  1914,  on  his  own 
responsibility  he  ordered  Sir  D. 
Beatty  with  the  three  other 
available  battle  cruisers  and  Com- 
modore Goodenough's  1st  light 
cruiser  squadron  to  take  part  in 
the  operation.  Of  this  aid  most  of 
the  other  British  vessels  engaged 


Tyrwhitt  signalled  by  wireless  to 
Beatty  that  he  was  hard  pressed. 
At  this  moment  ships  of  the  1st 
British  light  cruiser  squadron  re- 
entered  the  fight  and  checked  the 
Germans.  Birmingham  and  Not- 
tingham concentrated  a  superior 
fire  on  Mainz,  which  stopped  her 
attack.  At  11  a.m.  the  battle 
cruisers  Lion,  Queen  Mary,  Prin 


were  not  aware,  and  thus  at  first     cess  Royal,  Invincible,   and 
they    took    Beatty's    and    Good- 
enough's  ships  for  enemies. 

Early  in  the  morning  of  Aug.  28, 
Commodore  Tyrwhitt  with  the 
light  cruisers  Arethusa  and  Fear- 
less, and  33  destroyers,  and  Com- 
modore R.  Keyes  with  eight 
submarines,  searched  the  bight,  x  . 
manoeuvring  to  cut  off  the  Ger-  opened  fire 
man  light  craft  from  their  bases. 
The  Germans  were  completely  sur- 
prised, and  it  was  low  water,  so 
'hat  their  heavy  ships  in  port 
could  not  put  to  sea.  Nine  de- 


Nei 

Zealand  "avoided  a  submarine  at 
tack  (probably  British  submariner 
were  mistaken  for  German  ones, 
as  all  the  U-boats  in  the  area  ol 
operations  are  stated  by  the  Ger 
man  official  history  to  have  been 
in  port),  and,  steaming  at  full 
peed,  sighted  Mainz  at  12.30  and 
on  her  with  crushing 
her  helpless  and 


effect,    leaving 

sinking. 

A  little  later  Coin  was  sighted. 

and    shelled    till    she    burst    into 

flame.     At  this  point  Ariadne  in 

stroyers  ot  the  1st  German  flotilla  tervened,  and  was  left  in  shattered 
were  on  guard,  disposed  in  a  semi-  and  sinking  condition  after  two 
circle  about  20  m.  from  the  Elbe  salvoes  from  Lion.  Coin  was  sighted 
mouth,  with  the  light  cruisers  Hela,  a  second  time  and  sunk  at  1.35  by 


two  more  salvoes  from  the  same 
ship,  the  whole  of  her  crew  perish- 
ing except  one  stoker.  From 
Mainz  the  British  rescued  350  men, 
60  of  them  badly  wounded.  The 
Germans  saved  most  of  Ariadne's 
crew.  The  German  loss  was  thus 
3  light  cruisers  and  1  destroyer, 
with  712  killed,  149  wounded,  and 
379  captured.  The  British  casual- 
ties were  31  killed  and  52  wounded, 
while  Arethusa  was  much  damaged 
but  was  quickly  repaired. 

The  German  official  history 
blames  the  defensive  tactics  of  the 
German  main  fleet  for  this  severe 
reverse,  which,  it  states,  produced 
a  bad  moral  effect  in  the  German 
navy ;  it  also  criticises  the  British 
dispositions.  See  Naval  Operations 
(Official),  Sir  J.  Corbett,  Vol.  1, 

1920.  H.  W.  Wilson 

Heliodorus.  Greek  writer  of 
romance.  Born  at  Emesa  in  Syria, 
he  was  the  author  of  Aethiopica,  a 
long  love-story  in  ten  books,  the 
beginning  and  the  end  of  which  are 
laid  in  Ethiopia.  Dealing  with  the 
adventures  of  Theagenes  and  Chari- 
clea,  in  plot  and  characterisation  it 
is  the  best  of  its  kind  and  com- 
mendably  free  from  indecencies. 
Erroneously  attributed  to  Helio- 
dorus, bishop  of  Tricca  in  Thessaly 
(c.  490),  it  is  probably  the  work 
of  a  sophist  who  lived  at  the  end  of 
the  3rd  century  A.D. 

Heliogabalus.  Alternative  name 
of  Elagabalus  (q.v.),  Roman  em- 
peror. 

Heliograph  (Gr.  helios,  sun; 
grapho,  I  write).  Instrument  con- 
sisting of  a  mirror  capable  of  re- 
volution, and  so  of  reflecting  the 
rays  of  the  sun  or  of  some  artificial 
source  of  light  over  considerable 
distances  It  i?  used  principally  for 


Hehograpn.     Cava;ry  type  with  3-mcta 
mirrors 

Count ty  of  J,  H.  Steieara 


HELIOMETER 


HELIUM 


military  signalling,  especially  in 
mountainous  districts,  and  its 
messages  are  conveyed  by  long  and 
short  flashes  in  the  Morse  code. 

Heliograph  signalling  has  been 
carried  out  at  a  distance  of  70  m., 
and  it  has  the  great  advantage  of 
being  practically  secret  and  ex- 
tremely rapid  in  operation.  A 
heliograph  cannot  be  read  by  any- 
one more  than  a  few  yards  off  the 
exact  alignment.  See  Signalling. 

Heliometer  (Gr.  helios,  the  sun, 
and  meter).  Telescopic  instrument 
indispensable  for  making  accurate, 


Heliometer  at  the  Radclitfe  Observa- 
tory, Oxford,  for  making  accurate 
astronomical  measurements 

By  courtesy  of  the  Clarendon  Press 

measurements  of  small  distances, 
e.g.  the  diameter  of  a  planet,  or  the 
distance  between  the  components 
of  a  double  star.  The  essential  prin- 
ciple of  the  first  heliometers,  de- 
signed to  measure  the  variation  of 
the  sun's  diameter  at  different  sea- 
sons of  the  year — hence  the  name — 
was  that  of  so  employing  two 
symmetric  sections  of  a  lens  as  to 
produce  a  double  image  at  the  focus. 

The  first  instrument  for  measure- 
ment by  double-image  was  probably 
due  to  Savary  ;  Dollond  improved 
on  it ;  and  Fraunhofer  gave  it  the 
modern  form.  Fraunhofer' s  helio- 
meters, especially  the  great  Konigs- 
berg  heliometer  (1824-29),  are 
still  employed.  One  of  the  finest 
instruments  at  present  in  use  is  at 
the  Cape  Observatory.  See  Astron- 
omy ;  Telescope. 

Heliopolis  (City  of  the  Sun). 
Town  of  ancient  Egypt,  the  chief 
seat  of  religious  learning,  formerly 
containing  a  famous  university  for 
the  education  of  the  priests. 
Called  On  in  the  Bible  (Gen. 
xli,  45),  it  was  known  to  the 
Egyptians  as  Annu.  Portions  of 
the  great  temple  of  the  sun  still 
remain,  as  well  as  «one  of  the 
obelisks  of  red  granite,  66  ft.  in 
height.  Cleopatra's  needle  for- 


merly stood  here.  Near  is  New 
Cairo,  a  residential  suburb  con- 
nected with  Cairo  by  electric  rly. 

Helios.  In  Greek  mythology, 
god  of  the  sun,  identified  in  later 
times  with  Apollo,  and  sometimes 
called  Hyperion.  He  crossed  the 
sky  day  by  day  from  east  to  west 
in  a  chariot  drawn  by  four  horses. 
See  Apollo. 

Helioscope.  Apparatus  com- 
monly affixed  to  telescopes  to  en- 
able direct  observation  of  the  sun 
to  be  made  without  injury  to  the 
eyes.  In  its  simpler  forms  it  con- 
sists of  smoked  lenses  or  glasses. 
See  Telescope. 

Heliostat  (Gr.  helios,  sun; 
statos,  fixed).  Mirror  mounted  on 
an  axis  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the 
earth  and  moved  by  clockwork  so 
that  it  rotates  with  the  same  angu- 
lar velocity  as  the  sun,  the  image  of 
which  it  reflects.  In  short,  it  fol- 
lows the  sun,  and  in  consequence 
the  rays  of  the  sun  when  reflected 
from  it  pass  always  in  a  fixed  direc- 
tion. Foucault's  heliostat  reflects 
the  sun's  rays  horizontally.  Helio- 
stats  are  used  in  spectroscopic  work. 
See  Spectroscopy. 

Heliotrope  (Heliotropium  peru- 
vianum).       Perennial    plant    with 
shrubby  stem,  of  the  natural  order 
Boraginaceae.      It   is   a   native   of 
Peru.     It  has  broad  lance-shaped, 
wrinkled   and 
hairy      leaves,    • 
and  clusters  of  M 

lilac  or  dark- 
blue,  salver- 
shaped  flowers, 
which  are 
strongly  but 
pleasantly 
scented, 
whence  its 
name  of  cherry-  \ 
pie. 

Heliotropin. 
White  crystal- 
line substance, 
with  the  odour 
of  heliotrope, 
used  as  a  per- 
fume for  soaps 
and  toilet  pre- 
parations. 


Chemically  it  is  the  methylene 
ether  of  pyrocatechinic  aldehyde, 
and  it  is  also  known  as  piperonal. 
The  crystals  dissolve  in  spirit,  and 
it  is  this  solution  which  is  em- 
ployed as  a  perfume.  Heliotropin 
is  also  used  in  medicine. 

Heliotropism  (Gr.  helios,  sun  ; 
trepein,  to  turn).  Turning  of 
plants  towards  the  source  of  light. 
All  plants  with  green  leaves  require 
sunlight  for  their  physiological 
processes,  some  more  than  others, 
and  the  whole  form  of  a  herb  or 
tree  may  be  altered  by  its  efforts 
to  satisfy  its  wants.  This  may  be 
easily  seen  in  the  plants  on  the 
edge  of  a  thick  wood,  under  a 
hedgerow,  or  the  pot-plants  grown 
in  a  window.  There  is  always  a 
bending  away  from  the  shade  and 
towards  the  light. 

Helium.  Colourless  gas  with  a 
characteristic  spectrum.  It  was  first 
detected  in  1868  by  Lockyer  in  the 
spectrum  of  the  sun's  chromo- 
sphere during  an  eclipse.  The  spec- 
trum of  helium  is  characterised  by 
five  lines,  one  each  in  the  red, 
yellow,  blue-green,  blue,  and  violet. 
The  particularly  brilliant  yellow 
line  was  the  one  by  which  its  pre- 


iieliopoiis,  fcgypt.      iviosque  in  inc 

New    Town.       Top    right,  granite 

obelisk  erected  c.  2433  B.C. 


Heliotrope.   Leaves  and  flower  clusters 
of  the  sweet-scented  herb 

sence  in  the  sun's  chromosphere 
and  also  in  many  of  the  fixed  stars 
was  detected. 

Helium. was  not  known  to  occur 
in  terrestrial  matter  until  in  1895 
Sir  William  Ramsay,  while  search- 
ing for  argon  in  certain  minerals, 
e.g.  cleveite,  obtained  the  helium 
spectrum.  It  was  also  found  in 
many  other  minerals,  chiefly  those 
which  contain  uranium  such  as 
broggerite,  fergusonite,  and  mona- 
zite.  Helium  was  afterwards  de- 
tected in  the  atmosphere  in  which 
it  exists  to  the  extent  of  four  parts 
in  a  million.  It  is  contained  in 
several  natural  gas  supplies,  also 
in  many  mineral  springs. 

The  density  of  helium  is  1'98, 
and  next  to  hydrogen  it  is  the 
lightest  gas  known.  Attempts  to 
produce  chemical  combinations  of 
helium  have  failed,  and  it  is  there- 


3925 


HELL.EN 


fore  classed  as  inert.  The  remark- 
able fact  has,  however,  been  estab- 
lished that  the  gas  evolved  from  a 
solution  of  radium  bromide  in  water 
contains  helium.  Helium  for  a 
long  time  resisted  all  attempts  at 
liquefaction.  Sir  James  Dewar 
failed,  but  in  1908  Onnes  of  Amster- 
dam working  on  methods  devised 
by  Dewar  succeeded.  The  boiling- 
point  of  this  liquid  is  about  40 
above  absolute  zero,  that  is  about 
—  269°  C.,  the  lowest  temperature 
which  has  so  far  been  reached. 
Onnes's  investigations  show  that 
electrical  resistance  nearly  disap- 
pears at  that  temperature. 

Helium  is  used  for  filling  low- 
temperature  gas  thermometers  and 
electric  light  bulbs,  and  but  for  the 
termination  of  the  Great  War  it 
would  have  been  employed  by  the 
Allies  as  a  gas  filling  for  airships. 
The  fact  that  hydrogen,  employed 
as  the  gas  filling  for  airships,  is 
inflammable,  turned  attention  to 
helium  as  a  substitute. 

It  was  found  that  helium  mixed 
with  15  p.c.  of  hydrogen  produced 
non  -  inflammable  mixture.  An 
investigation  was  made  of  the 
amount  of  helium  contained  in 
natural  gases,  those  of  Ontario  and 
Alberta,  Canada,  being  found  to  be 
the  richest  in  helium,  and  it  was 
estimated  that  from  ten  to  twelve 
million  cubic  feet  of  helium  could 
be  obtained  annually  from  them. 

An  experimental  station  was  set 
up  at  Calgary,  and  a  refrigeration 
process  developed  of  separating 
helium  from  natural  gas,  Claudet's 
liquid  oxygen-producing  apparatus 
being  modified  for  the  purpose.  By 
passing  the  natural  gas  through  the 
apparatus  several  times,  the  quan- 
tity of  helium  was  gradually  in- 
creased in  the  gaseous  portion  until 
a  product  containing  upwards  of 
97  p.c.  of  helium  was  obtained. 
See  Radium. 

Helix  (Gr.,  spiral).  Genus  of 
land  gastropodous  molluscs,  of 
which  the  common  snail  is  a  fami- 
liar example.  All  snails  of  this 
genus  have  conical,  globular,  or  de- 
pressed shells.  The  genus  includes 
over  4,000  species,  distributed  all 
over  the  world.  See  Snail. 

Hell.  In  modern  English,  place 
or  condition  of  punishment  for  im- 
penitent sinners  after  death  or 
after  the  final  judgement.  In  the 
Authorised  Version  of  the  Bible  it 
had  the  wider  meaning  of  the  place 
of  the  departed.  The  R.V.  has  dis- 
tinguished between  Hell  and 
Hades.  It  should  be  noticed  that 
the  clause  in  the  Apostles'  Creed, 
"  He  descended  into  Hell,"  should 
be  "  He  descended  into  Hades  "  or 
the  realm  of  departed  spirits. 

The  idea  of  a  place  of  punish- 
ment for  the  wicked  after  death  is 
| 


an  obvious  corollary  of  the  belief 
in  a  future  reward  for  the  righteous, 
and  is  found  in  most  religions 
which  have  developed  beyond  the 
primitive  stage.  In  some,  how- 
ever, the  belief  in  retribution  takes 
the  form  of  the  idea  that  the 
wicked  are  reborn  in  a  lower  grade 
of  life.  The  word  Hell  in  the  Bible 
is  equivalent  to  Gehenna,  which  is 
itself  derived  from  Hinnom,  the 
name  of  a  valley  near  Jerusalem 
associated  with  heathen  rites.  It 
became  a  place  where  refuse  was 
deposited  and  constant  fires  were 
kept  burning.  Hence  the  name  was 
adopted  for  the  place  of  torment 
for  the  wicked.  The  idea  of  retri- 
bution for  the  individual  after 
death  is  not  prominent  in  the  O.T. 
The  Apocalyptic  writings,  of  which 
Daniel  is  an  example,  were  the  first 
to  lay  great  stress  on  a  final  judge- 
ment and  retribution. 

At  the  time  when  Jesus  began  to 
teach,  the  belief  was  widespread. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  Jesus 
and  the  N.T.  in  general  teach  that 
impenitent  sinners  are  punished  in 
the  future  life.  Considerable  con- 
troversy, however,  has  taken  place 
on  the  question  whether  this  pun- 
ishment is  eternal.  Many  theo- 
logians, feeling  that  such  a  doctrine 
would  contradict  the  thought  of 
God  as  a  loving  Father,  maintain 
that  Jesus  meant  not  an  eternal 
punishment  but  an  "  age  long " 
punishment.  Others  interpret  liter- 
ally S.  Paul's  words,  like  Drum- 
mond  in  Natural  Law  in  The 
Spiritual  World,  "  the  wages  of 
sin  is  death,"  and  have  argued  that 
the  fate  of  sinners  who  are  finally 
impenitent  is  annihilation. 

The  Roman  Catholic  Church 
still  holds  to  the  doctrine  of  Hell 
developed  by  the  medieval  church 
which  was  greatly  influenced  by 
Augustine.  According  to  this  even 
unbaptized  infants  and  virtuous 
pagans  are  in  Hell.  The  severity  of 
this  view  is,  however,  greatly  miti- 
gated by  the  belief  that  there  are 
different  regions  in  Hell,  that  of 
"  Limbo,"  which  is  assigned  to  un- 
baptized infants,  not  being  a  place 
of  torment.  Among  other  Chris- 
tians the  doctrine  of  Hell  has  fallen 
into  the  background. 

This  is  largely  due  to  a  change  in 
our  conception  of  the  purpose  of 
punishment.  The  older  view,  that 
retribution  is  an  end  in  itself,  is  giv- 
ing way  to  the  view  that  the  object 
of  punishment  should  be  reform 
and  prevention.  For  this  reason  it 
would  be  true  to  say  that  among 
many  modern  Christians  the  idea 
of  Hell  is  being  transformed  into 
that  of  a  state  of  further  probation 
and  purification,  i.e.  Purgatory. 
Whatever  modifications  the  idea  of 
Hell  may  undergo  in  the  light  of 


modern  thought,  the  belief  in  a 
future  punishment  of  the  wicked 
corresponds  to  a  demand  of  the 
conscience  and  emphasises  the  vital 
importance  of  the  struggle  against 
evil.  It  cannot  therefore  be  safely 
eliminated  from  the  Christian  faith. 
See  Gehenna;  Sin;  Theology. 

W.  B.  Matthews 

Hellanicus  (c.  480-405  B.C.). 
Greek  logographer.  Like  his  prede- 
cessor Hecataeus  (q.v.)  a  great 
traveller,  he  was  the  author  of 
works  on  genealogy  and  chron- 
ology, and  on  the  history  of  various 
countries,  including  a  brief  sketch 
of  political  events.  The  most  im- 
portant were  Atthis,  a  history  of 
Attica  down  to  the  Peloponnesian 
war,  and  lists  of  the  priestesses  of 
Hera  at  Argos  and  of  the  victors 
in  the  games  at  the  Spartan  festival 
Carnea,  both  valuable  for  chron- 
ology. 

Hellas.  Originally  a  small  dis- 
trict of  Thessaly  inhabited  by  Hel- 
lenes, the  supposed  descendants  of 
the  legendary  king  Hellen,  son  of 
Deucalion.  The  name  afterwards 
came  to  be  applied  by  the  Greeks 
to  all  places  inhabited  by  those  of 
their  race.  Hellas  thus  included  not 
only  Greece  proper,  but  the  Greek 
cities  of  Asia  Minor  and  Sicily,  and 
even  distant  colonies  such  as  Mas- 
silia  (Marseilles),  and  those  on  the 
Pontus  Euxinus.  See  Greece. 

Hellebore  (Helleborus).  Genus 
of  perennial  herbs  of  the  natural 
order  Ranunculaceae.  They  are 
natives  of  Europe  and  N.  and  VV. 
Asia.  They  have  large  leaves 
deeply  cut  into  lobes  which  are  ar- 
ranged finger-fashion.  The  showy 


Hellebore.     Foliage  and  flowers  or 
Helleborus  foetidus 

parts  of  the  flowers  are  the  sepals, 
which  are  coloured,  whilst  the 
petals  are  converted  into  small 
nectar-tubes.  Owing  to  their 
cathartic  and  narcotic  properties 
they  were  formerly  used  in  medi 
cine.  H.  niger  is  the  so-called 
Christmas-rose ;  H.  foetidus,  stink- 
ing hellebore  or  setterwort;  and 
H.  viridis,  the  bear's-foot.  See  Fruit. 
Hellen  (Gr.  Hellen).  In  Greek 
legend,  the  founder  of  the  Greek 
race  (Hellenes).  He  was  king  of 
Phthia  in  Thessaly,  and  was  the 
son  of  Deucalion  and  Pyrrha. 


HELLENIC 


Helmet.     Types  of  ancient  Greek  helmets.     A,  is  a  Syrian  helmet,  a  probable  adaptation  from  the  Greek 


Hellenic  Studies,  SOCIETY  FOR 
THE  PROMOTION  OF.  Society  found- 
ed in  1879  by  a  number  of  scholars 
interested  in  the  subject.  Its  object 
is  to  promote  the  study  of  every- 
thing connected  with  the  language, 
literature,  and  art  of  ancient  and 
modern  Greece,  particularly  the  re- 
sults of  modern  research  and  ex- 
cavations. The  Journal  of  Hellenic 
Studies,  issued  by  the  society,  con- 
tains an  account  of  the  researches 
and  matters  of  interest  concerning 
Greek  life.  Its  offices  are  at  19, 
Bloomsbury  Square,  London,  W.C. 

Hellenism.  Term  applied  to 
the  school  of  culture  which  sought 
models  of  artistic  expression  in  the 
art  of  ancient  Greece.  Its  chief 
characteristics  in  the  best  period, 
both  in  art  proper  and  in  literature, 
were  restraint,  and  a  sense  of  pro- 
portion and  harmony.  See  Classical 
Education ;  Greek  Art ;  Greek 
Language  and  Literature. 

Hellenist  (Gr.  hellenistes).  Term 
meaning  literally  one  who  speaks  or 
writes  pure  Greek,  then  one  who 
affects  the  use  of  Greek  manners, 
modes  of  thought,  or  language.  It- 
was  specially  applied  to  those  Jews 
who  adopted  Greek  as  their  lan- 
guage, and  afterwards  Jbo  any  non- 
Greek  who  did  the  same.  See  Greek 
Language  and  Literature. 


Heller.  Austrian  coin.  Its 
value  is  1-1 00th  part  of  a  krone, 
and  it  is  thus  the  equivalent  repre- 
sentative of  the  centime.  Normally 
it  is  coined  in  bronze  as  one  and 
two  heller  pieces,  and  in  nickel  as 
10  and  20  heller  pieces.  The  con- 
ditions after  the  Great  War  forced 
an  almost  entirely  paper  currency 
on  Austria,  and  notes  of  20  heller 
value  were  issued. 

Heller,      STEPHEN     (1815-88). 
Hungarian  pianist  and  composer. 
Born   at  Pest,  May  15.   1815,   he 
studied    music 
in  Vienna,  and 
early    devel- 
oped   great 
powers  as  a 
pianist.    He 
composed 
many    short 
pieces  for   the 
piano,  as  well 
Stephen  Heller,        as  some  excel- 
Hungarian  pianist      i  e  n  t     studies, 
and  was  a  most  successful  teacher. 
He  died  in  Paris,  Jan.  14,  1888. 

Helles,  CAPE,  OR  HELLES  BURNU. 
Promontory  at  the  S.  extremity 
of  the  peninsula  of  Gallipoli,  near 
the  entrance  to  the  Dardanelles. 
The  beaches  adjacent  were  utilised 
as  landing  places  for  troops  at  the 
beginning  of  the  Gallipoli  cam- 


paign in  1915.  There  is  a  light- 
house on  the  point.  See  Gallipoli, 
Campaign  in. 

Hellespont  (mod.  Dardanelles). 
In  ancient  geography,  strait  sep- 
arating the  Thracian  Chersonese 
from  Asia.  It  was  supposed  to  have 
derived  its  Greek  name  Helle- 
spontos  (sea  of  Helle)  from  Helle. 
daughter  of  Athamas,  who  in  her 
flight  from  her  stepmother,  Ino, 
on  the  ram  with  the  golden  fleece, 
fell  into  the  sea  and  was  drowned. 
Its  width  varies  from  6  m.  to  less 
than  1  m.,  its  narrowest  part  being 
between  Sestos  and  Abydos  (g.v. ). 
Hellespontos  was  also  the  name  of 
a  province,  consisting  of  N.  Mysia, 
in  the  reign  of  Diocletian.  See 
Dardanelles;  Leander. 

Helleu,  PAUL  CESAR  (b.  1859). 
French  painter  and  etcher.  Born 
at  Vannes,  he  began  by  painting 
old  churches  and  landscapes.  A 
Study  of  Versailles  is  in  the 
Luxembourg.  Later  he  turned  to 
portraits  in  dry-point  of  fashion- 
able women  :  one  may  cite  those  of 
the  duchess  of  Marlborough,  the 
countess  of  Wai-wick,  and  the 
duchesse  de  Noailles.  Delicate  and 
graceful,  these  tinted  etchings 
aroused  much  attention  at  the 
International  Society's  exhibitions 
and  elsewhere. 


HELLEVOETSLUIS 

Hellevoetsluis.  Seaport  and 
fortress  of  Holland.  It  lies  in  the 
prov.  of  S.  Holland,  on  the  S. 
coast  of  the  island  of  Voorne,  on  the 
Haringvliet,  an  arm  of  the  Ems 
estuary,  about  18  m.  S.W.  of  Rot- 
terdam, with  which  it  is  connected 
by  steam  tramway,  and  also  by 
the  Voorne  canal.  It  is  an  im- 
portant base  of  the  Dutch  navy, 
with  extensive  docks,  arsenals, 
engineering  shops,  etc.,  but  the 
town  has  little  interest.  Pop.  4,500. 

Hell  Fire  Corner.  Landmark 
on  the  Ypres-Menin  road,  1  m. 
from  Ypres,  prominent  in  the  Great 
War.  It  was  so  called  because 
the  British  troops  going  up  to  the 
advanced  trenches  from  Ypres 
were  continually  shelled  by  the 
Germans  at  this  spot. 

Hell  Gate.  Difficult  channel  in 
the  East  River,  New  York.  It  is 
the  waterway  separating  New 
York  proper  from  Long  Island. 
Strong  tides  running  between 
Blackwell's  and  Ward's  Islands, 
and  reefs  and  shoals,  caused  many 
wrecks  ;  the  obstructions  were 
blown  away  with  nitroglycerine 
after  a  series  of  engineering  opera- 
tions carried  on  1 876-85.  The 


3927 

East  River  is  now  crossed  from 
Long  Island  to  the  mainland  by 
way  of  Ward's  and  Randall 
Islands  by  the  bridge  of  the  New 
York  Connecting  Railroad.  This 
is  an  important  link  in  the  de- 
velopment of  New  York  Harbour, 
enabling  goods  to  be  moved  by 
rail  between  the  S.  Brooklyn  docks 
and  the  mainland  without  tran- 
shipment. 

The  main  bridge  and  its  ap- 
proaches is  3£  m.  long,  and  its 
centre  span  is  1,017ft.,  135  ft. above 
high  water.  Granite,  masonry,  and 
concrete  towers,  200  ft.  high,  hold 
up  the  arch,  and  the  foundation 
of  one  of  them  is  supported  under 
water  on  a  concrete  arch  and  a 
concrete  cantilever.  See  New  York. 

Hellin.  Town  of  Spain,  in  the 
prov.  of  Albacete.  It  stands  near 
the  river  Mundo,  on  the  Murcia- 
Albacete  rly.,  34  m.  S.S.E.  of 
Albacete.  It  has  ruins  of  a 
Roman  fort,  and  a  church  noted  for 
its  fine  vaulting  and  marble  pave- 
ment. It  manufactures  woollen 
and  leather  goods,  pottery,  etc., 
and  trades  in  wine,  oil,  and  saffron. 
At  Minas  del  Mundo,  12  m.  S.,  are 
famous  sulphur  mines  (now  state 


HELMET 

property),  once  worked  by  the 
Romans,  and  in  the  vicinity,  at 
Azaraque,  are  mineral  springs. 
Pop.  17,SOO. 

Helluland.  Name  given  by  the 
Norse  voyagers  of  the  llth  century 
to  a  district  in  N.  America  visited 
by  them.  It  means  the  land  of  flat 
stones.  Various  opinions  have  been 
expressed  by  scholars  as  to  its 
exact  whereabouts,  but  it  was 
probably  Newfoundland. 

Helm.  Apparatus  by  which  a 
vessel  is  steered,  comprising  the 
rudder,  tiller,  wheel,  etc.  The  term 
is  often  used  for  the  wheel  or 
tiller  alone.  See  Navigation. 

Helmand.  River  of  Afghan- 
istan. It  rises  in  the  Hindu  Kush, 
some  140  m.  W.  of  Kabul.  After 
a  course  of  about  700  m.,  it  falls, 
by  several  mouths,  into  Lake 
Helmet,  in  S.W.  Afghanistan. 

Helmet.  Defence  for  the  head 
in  fighting.  The  helmet  of  the 
Greeks  was  usually  open  in  front, 
though  some  examples  show  a 
fixed  plate  pierced  for  eyes  and  nose 
which  by  tilting  the  whole  helmet 
forward  could  be  brought  into  posi- 
tion, but  this  was  at  best  a  cum- 
bersome contrivance.  The  Greeks 


;:,.: 

Heimet.  1.  Closed,  German,  c.  1540.  2.  Visored  Bascmet,  trencn,  o.  1400.  8.  Closed,  uerman,  io40-oO.  4.  Venetian 
e  c  1450  5  Salade,  Milanese,  c.  1430.  6.  Closed,  German,  c.  1540.  7.  Tilting  Salade,  German,  1450-90 

Side  view  ottiitiDK  helm  English  c  1515  ;  and  11,  front  view  of  same.  9.  Closed,  German,  c.  1570.  10.  Types  of 
helmets  usTd  in  the  GreltWar  adapted  xrom  antique  armour  ;  back  row,  left  to  rigut :  Portuguese,  American,  British, 

Belgian,  French?  with  Polack  visor,  French,  1916  pattern  ;   front  row  :  German,  German  sniper's  mask,  Austnan 

Photographs  from  Wallace  Collection  and  Imperial  War  Muteum 


HELMET      SHELL 

favoured  a  high  crest  of  horsehair, 
but  the  Romans,  while  adopting  the 
general  lines  of  the  Greek  head- 
piece, were  content  with  a  much 
smaller  crest,  frequently  a  mere  but- 
ton or  knob.  Assyrian,  Egyptian, 
and  Etruscan  helmets  were  planned 
on  the  same  general  principles 
though  differing  in  design,  and,  like 
the  Greek,  were  frequently  orna- 
mented with  rich  decoration. 

After  the  fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire,  the  helmets  of  Central 
Europe  were  cruder  in  manufacture, 
frequently  mere  caps  of  toughened 
leather,  or  of  plates  of  bronze  or 
iron 'riveted  to  a  ring.  The  pointed 
helmet  of  the  Normans  was  of 
this  nature,  but  it  was  generally 
provided  with  a  strong  nasal  or 
nose  guard,  of  large  proportions, 
attached  to  the  base  of  the  ring. 
From  this  time  onwards  the  design 
of  the  helmet  progressed  ;  some- 
times it  was  a  small,  close  cap  of 
steel,  and  sometimes  a  broad- 
brimmed  defence.  In  the  14th 
century  the  popular  type  was 
known  as  the  bascinet,  a  light, 
pointed  helmet,  sometimes  with 
a  visor  pivoted  to  the  sides,  and 
generally  attached  to  the  camil  or 
coif  of  mail  by  staples  and  laces. 
In  the  15th  century  we  find  the 
salade  commonly  in  use.  This  was 
a  helmet  very  similar  in  design  to 
the  modern  sou' -wester,  with  fixed 
or  pivoted  visor,  and  with  an 
adjustable  beaver,  or  chin  piece. 
From  this  latter  was  evolved 
the  armet  or  close  helmet,  which 
completely  encased  the  head,  and 
had  two  movable  pieces  to  cover 
the  eyes  and  mouth  respectively. 
From  this  again  was  evolved  a 
simpler  form,  called  the  burgonet. 

At  the  end  of  the  century,  when 
full  armour  was  being  discarded, 
the  morion  and  cabasset,  light, 
open  helmets,  came  into  favour. 
In  the  18th  century,  a  helmet 
based  somewhat  on  the  Greek 
form  was  adopted  for  heavy 
cavalry  by  most  European  armies, 
and  this  in  turn  gave  place  to  the 
graceless  helmets  of  the  dragoons 
and  household  cavalry  worn  only 
for  ceremonial  parade.  The  modern 
shrapnel  helmet  is  based  upon  the 
chapel  de  fer  of  the  15th  century, 
the  French  casque  on  a  compromise 
between  the  morion  and  cabasset, 
while  the  German  helmet  is  almost 
a  copy  of  a  variety  of  the  salade. 
The  great  helm  of  the  13th  century 
was  of  barrel  form,  heavy  and  cum- 
bersome, with  a  flat  top  which 
was  entirely  unpractical  as  pro- 
viding no  glancing  surface  to  the 
opposing  weapon.  At  the  end  of 
the  century  we  find  the  more  prac- 
tical sugar  loaf  helm. 

In  the  14th  century  She  helm  has 
a  rounded  top  with  a  projecting 


3928 

face-plate  and  a  narrow  ocularium 
or  vision  slit.  In  jousting  helms  this 
slit  was  so  placed  that  the  wearer 
could  only  see  out  of  it  when  he  was 
bent  forward  with  lance  in  rest 
ready  for  his  course.  The  helms  of 
the  15th  and  16th  centuries  were 
bolted  to  the  cuirass  back  and 
front,  and  presented  a  smooth  sur- 
face to  the  attacking  weapon. 

In  heraldry  the  first  type  of  helm 
employed    was    cylindrical,     with 
sqxiare  or  flat  top ;  then  came  the 
round.  In  early 
art  the  helmet 
was    always 
represented  as 
disproportion  - 
ately  large   as 
compared 
with     the 
shield,  and  was 
Helmet  as  an  heraldic  placed    i  n- 
charge  differently  full 

face  or  in  profile.  Gradually  rules 
were  introduced,  the  open  visored 
helmet  being  reserved  for  princes 
and  nobles  and  the  closed  for 
lesser  folk.  Modern  practice  enj  oins 
that  the  sovereign  and  princes  of 
the  blood  should  have  a  helm 
of  gold,  with  seven-barred  visor 
(grilles)  placed  full  face,  or 
affrontee. 

A  peer  has  a  silver  helmet,  with 
five  golden  bars,  in  profile  to  dex- 
ter ;  baronets  and  knights  a  steel 
helmet,  represented  in  painting  by 
light  blue  or  grey,  full  faced,  with 
open  visor ;  esquires  and  gentlemen 
of  coat  armour,  a  steel  helmet  in 
profile,  with  closed  visor.  No 
woman,  except  a  sovereign,  is  en- 
titled to  the  helmet.  See  Armour ; 
Casque;  Celt;  Crest. 

Helmet  Shell.  Popular  name 
for  the  shells  of  the  genus  Cassis, 
which  includes  numerous  marine 
gasteropodous  molluscs  found  in 
~i  the  tropical 
seas.  The 
shell"  are  mas- 
sive and  ven- 
tricose,  with 
a  narrow  aper- 
ture. There 
are  about  50 
species,  many 
of  which  at- 
tain a  large 
size  and  are 
handsomely  coloured.  From  these 
shells  the  best  shell  cameos  are  cut. 
Helmholtz,  HERMAN  LTJDWIG 
FERDINAND  VON  (1821-94).  Ger- 
man physicist.  Born  at  Potsdam, 
A-Jg.  31,  1821,  Helrnholtz  was  a  de- 
scendant of  the  Quaker  William 
Penn.  He  made  a  study  of  medi- 
cine, and  from  1843-47  served  as  a 
surgeon  in  the  Prussian  army. 
He  held  the  chair  of  physiology 
at  Konigsberg,  Bonn,  and  Heidel- 
berg universities,  1849-71,  and  in 


Helmet  Shell.  Speci- 
men of  Cassis  Mada- 
gascariensis 


H.  von  Helmholtz, 
German  physicist 


HELMSTEDT 

the  latter  year  became  professor  of 
physics  at  the  university  of  Ber- 
lin. His  most  important  post 
was  that  o! 
director  of  the 
Physico-techni 
cal  Institution 
of  Chariot-ten- 
berg,  to  which 
he  was  appoin- 
ted in  1887. 

Hel  mholtz 
was  responsible 
for  many  ad- 
vances in  the 
study  of  the  eye  and  the  nervous 
system.  The  invention  of  the 
ophthalmoscope  is  due  to  him,  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  of  all  instru- 
ments used  by  the  oculist.  In 
1856-66  was  published  his  work 
Physiological  Optics,  one  of  the 
greatest  advances  in  the  theory 
of  vision,  etc.,  of  the  19th  century. 
His  work  on  hearing,  entitled 
Sensations  of  Tone,  published  in 
1863,  holds  a  corresponding  position 
in  acoustics. 

The  great  physicist  was  one  of 
the  founders  with  Lord  Kelvin  of 
the  theory  of  the  conservation  of 
energy  ;  to  him  is  due  the  theory 
of  colour  depending  on  the  three 
fundamental  sensations  .of  red, 
green,  and  blue  or  violet ;  the  study 
of  the  electromagnetic  theory  of 
light ;  of  vortex  motion  ;  and  the 
problems  of  electro-dynamics.  He 
died  at  Charlottenberg,  Sept.  8, 
1894.  Consult  Life,  L.  Kdnigs- 
berger,  Eng.  trans.  F.  A.  Welbv, 
1906;  H.  L.  F.  von  Helmholtz, 
J.  McKendrick,  1899. 

Helmond.  Town  of  Holland.  It 
stands  on  the  Aa,  in  the  province  of 
N.  Brabant,  28  m.  from  Hertcgen- 
bosch.  The  chief  building  is  the 
castle,  finished  about  1400.  There 
is  also  a  fine  church  dedicated  to 
S.  Lambert,  and  a  town  hall.  The 
town  is  served  by  railway,  canal, 
and  tramway,  and  its  industries  are 
chiefly  connected  with  the  making 
of  cotton  and  silk  goods.  There  are 
also  engineering  works,  and  those 
for  making  soap,  tobacco,  and  beer. 
Pop.  14,800. 

Helmont,  JEAN  BAPTISTE  VAN 
(1577-1644).  Belgian  alchemist. 
Born  at  Brussels  and  educated  at 
Louvain,  his  outstanding  discovery 
was  carbonic  acid  gas,  which  lie 
named  yas  sylvestre.  This  was  re- 
discovered by  Black  in  the  18th 
century,  and  called  fixed  air.  He 
died  at  Vilvorde,  Dec.  30,  1<>44 
See  Alchemy. 

Helmstedt.  Town  of  Germany. 
in  Brunswick.  It  lies  29  m.  E.N.E. 
of  Magdeburg.  It  was  once  famous 
for  its  university,  which  was 
founded  in  1576  and  suppressed  in 
1809.  The  old  building  of  the  uni- 
versity is  in  the  Renaissance  style. 


HELM     WIND 


3929 


HELSINGFORS 


dating  from  1592,  and  has  a  tower 
164  ft.  high.  The  abbey  of  S. 
Ludgerus,  founded  in  the  9th  cen- 
tury, and  now  put  to  secular  use, 
recalls  the  fact  that  the  first  Saxons 
were  baptized  here  by  the  saint. 
The  abbey  church,  originally  built 
in  the  12th  century,  shows  a  few 
traces  of  the  old  construction.  S. 
Stephen's  Church,  dating  from  the 
13th  century,  contains  some  fine 
tombs  and  carved  work.  There 
are  also  several  good  examples  of 
1 6th  century  domestic  architecture. 
Helmstedt,  which  was  once  a 
member  of  the  Hanseatic  League, 
has  manufactures  of  agricultural 
machinery,  earthenware,  soap, 
tobacco,  etc.  Pop.  16,420. 

Helm  Wind.  Steady  wind 
which  causes  a  stationary  helm- 
shaped  cloud  to  overhang  a  moun- 
tain peak.  When  a  damp  wind  is 
forced  to  ascend  an  obstacle,  such 
as  a  mountain  ridge,  the  resultant 
cooling  causes  a  constant  conden- 
sation of  water-vapour  on  the 
windward  side  and  leads  to  the  for- 
mation of  clouds.  On  the  leeward 
side  the  water  particles  forming  the 
clouds  are  constantly  evaporated, 
the  total  effect  being  that  cloud  is 
continuously  visible  shrouding  the 
summit.  This  phenomenon  is  well 
known  in  the  English  Lake  District, 
and  occurs  in  mountainous  districts 
subjected  to  steady  damp  winds. 

Heloderm  (Gr.  helos,  nail;  der- 
ma, skin).  Venomous  lizards,  the 
only  ones  known  to  science.  There 
are  two  species,  found  in  Central 
America,  Mexico  and  Arizona. 
See  Gila  Monster. 

Helo'ise  (c.  1101-64).  French 
abbess,  famous  for  her  early  rela- 
tions with  her  tutor  Abelard  (q.v.). 

Helots  (Gr.  heilotes).  Lowest 
section  of  the  community  in  Sparta. 
The  descendants  of  a  pre-Dorian 
population,  their  position  was 
analogous  to  that  of  the  medieval 
villein  in  England  and  of  the  Rus- 
sian serf  before  his  emancipation, 
though  they  belonged  to  the  state, 
and  not  to  any  individuals,  and 
could  not  be  removed  from  the 
land.  The  ruling  class  of  Spartans 
employed  them  to  cultivate  their 
farms,  and  they  had  to  hand  over  a 
fixed  quantity  of  the  produce  of  the 
farm  each  year,  being  allowed  to 
keep  any  surplus.  Their  lot  was 
very  hard,  and  they  were  often 
treated  with  great  cruelty,  though 
by  good  service  and  conduct  it  was 
possible  for  them  to  obtain  freedom. 

In  time  of  war  they  served  as 
light-armed  infantry,  and  some- 
times as  oarsmen.  The  helots,  as  a 
class,  cherished  a  most  bitter 
hatred  of  their  Spartan  rulers,  and 
in  464  B.C.  there  was  an  actual  re- 
volt, which  was  only  suppressed 
with  great  difficulty.  A  special 


Helsingfors,  Finland.     Panorama  of  the  city  ana  harbour 


Sir  Arthur  Helps, 
British  essayist 

After  Williams 


band  of  young  Spartans,  the  Cryp- 
teia  or  secret  police,  was  charged 
with  the  duty  of  watching  the 
Helot  population,  and  any  indi- 
vidual who  seemed  likely  to  cause 
trouble  was  put  out  of  the  way. 

Helpmakaar.  Village  of  Natal, 
S.  Africa.  It  is  25  m.  S.  of  Dundee, 
and  about  10  m.  to  the  N.E.  is 
Rorke's  Drift  on  the  Buffalo  river, 
noted  for  the  heroic  defence  put  up 
by  a  small  party  of  British  against 
Zulu  hordes  in  1879,  after  the  de- 
feat at  Isandhlwana.  There  is  a 
regular  motor  service  to  Dundee. 

Helps,  SIR  ARTHUR  (1813-75). 
British  essayist  and  historian. 
Born  at  Streatham,  July  10,  1813, 
and  educated 
at'  Eton  and 
Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  in 
1860  he  became 
;rk  to  the 
>rivy  council, 
a  post  which  he 
held  until  his 
death.  In  this 
capacity  he 
came  much  into 
contact  with 
Queen  Victoria,  and  at  her  request 
edited  Prince  Albert's  Speeches  and 
Addresses,  and  Leaves  from  a  Jour- 
nal of  Our  Life  in  the  Highlands. 
Among  his  original  works  are 
Thoughts  in  the  Cloister  and  the 
Crowd,  1835; 
The  Claims  of 
Labour,  1844; 
Friends  in  Coun- 
cil, 1847-59; 
Conquerors  of  the 
New  World  and 
their  Bondsmen, 
1848-52;  The 
Spanish  Conquest 
in  America,  1855- 
61 ;  biographies  of 
Columbus,Cortes, 
and  Pizarro: 
Thoughts  upon 
Government, 
1872  ;  the  trage- 
dies Catherine 
Douglas  and 
Henry  II,  both 
1843;  and  a 
novel,  Realmah, 
1868.  Helps  was 
an  earnest  and 
thoughtful  writer, 
and  his  literarv 


style  won  the  praise  of  Ruskin.  He 
was  made  K.C.B.  in  1872,  and  died 
in  London,  March  7,  1875. 

Helsingborg  OB  HALSINOBORO. 
City  and  seaport  of  Sweden,  in  the 
Ian  or  govt.  of  Kristianstad.  It 
stands  at  the  narrowest  part  of  the 
Sound,  opposite  Elsinore  (2£  m. ) 
in  Denmark,  33  m.  N.  of  Malmo.  It 
has  remains  of  a  castle  and  a  fort, 
mentioned  in  the  12th  century, 
mineral  springs  and  sea  baths.  The 
artificial  harbour  is  being  extended. 
The  exports  are  timber,  iron  ore, 
and  cattle  ;  the  imports  coal,  fer- 
tilisers, wheat,  tobacco,  and  sugar. 
A  thriving  manufacturing  town, 
Helsingborg  has  copper  and  rubber 
works,  breweries,  etc.  Long  occu- 
pied by  Denmark,  it  was  often  be- 
sieged, becoming  Swedish  in  1710, 
when  Stenbock  here  defeated  the 
Danes.  In  the  vicinity  is  the  only 
coalfield  in  Sweden.  Pop.  45,330. 
Helsingfors  (Finnish  Helsinki). 
Capital  of  Finland.  It  stands  on 
the  Gulf  of  Finland,  250  m.  by  rly. 
W.  of  Petrograd, 
is  the  seat  of  the 
national  diet,  and 
has  an  observa- 
tory, botanical 
garden,  and  other 
institutions.  The 
university, 
founded  at  Abo  in 
1640,  was  moved 


Helsingfors. 


Plan  of  the  Finnish  capital,  showing  its 
principal  public  buildings 


HELSINGOR 


3930 


HELVETIUS 


to  the  capital  in  1827  when  Abo 
was  burned  down.  The  port  con- 
sists of  three  harbours  and  a  road- 
stead with  a  good  anchorage.  Con- 
siderable export  trade  is  carried  on 
with  Petrograd,  Sweden,  and  Eng- 
land, in  timber,  paper,  cellulose, 
and  butter ;  •  the  chief  industries 
are  sugar-refining,  brewing,  machi- 
nery and  carpet  making,  distilling 
and  tobacco-dressing. 

Helsingfors  is  protected  by  the 
island  defences.  The  coast  rly. 
goes  W.  to  Hango  and  Abo,  and  a 
second  line  runs  N.  to  connect  with 
the  line  from  Vasa  round  the  region 
of  the  lakes  to  Viborg  and  Petro- 
grad. Founded  by  Gustavus  I 
about  5  m.  to  the  N.E.  in  1550,  it 
was  removed  by  Queen  Christina 
in  1642;  taken  by  the  Russians  in 
1808,  it  later  became  the  capital 
of  the  grand  duchy,  and  of  the 
republic.  Pop.,  with  Sveaborg, 
187,544.  See  Finland. 

Helsingdr.  Alternative  name 
for  the  Danish  port  better  known 
as  Elsinore  (q.v.). 

Heist,  BAKTHOLOMAEUS  VAN  DER 
(c.  1613-70).  Dutch  painter.  Born 
at  Haarlem,  he  studied  probably 
under  Frans  Hals,  whose  style  he 
followed.  He  lived  chiefly  at  Am- 
sterdam, where  he  helped  to  found 
the  painters'  guild.  There  are 
many  portraits  and  groups  by  him 
in  the  Rijks  Museum,  and  others 
at  The  Hague,  Rotterdam,  etc. 
His  pictures  are  solidly  painted, 
but  a  little  lifeless  in  colour.  He 
died  at  Amsterdam. 

Helston.  Mun.  bor.  and  market 
town  of  Cornwall,  England.  It 


is  a  good  centre  for  visiting  the 
Lizard.  An  important  place  before 
the  Norman  Conquest,  King  John 
made  Helston  a  borough.  The 
citizens  were  allowed  to  hold  mar- 
kets and  fairs,  and  in  the  Middle 
Acres  obtained  other  valuable  privi- 
leges. It  retains  its  mayor  and  cor- 
poration. Market  days,  Wed.  and 
Sat.  Pop.  3,000.  See  Flora  Day. 
Helve.  Powerful  form  of  ham- 
mer at  one  time  extensively  used 
for  the  "  shingling  "  of  iron  blooms. 


Helve. 


Hammer  formerly  used  in 
iron-working 


Helston,     Cornwall.      View     looking    down    Coinage 
Hall  Street 

stands  on  the  Caber,  10  m.  W.S.VV. 
of  Falmouth  on  the  G.W.  Rly. 
There  is  an  old  church  dedicated 
to  S.  Michael,  and  a  town  hall. 
Helston  is  noted  for  the  annual 
celebration  on  May  8  of  a  festival 
known  as  the  Furry  or  Flora 
Dance.  It  was  one  of  the  stannary 
towns,  and  tin  and  copper  were 
extensively  worked.  To-day  the 
industries  include  milling  and  tan- 
ning. Near  the  town  is  Looe  Pool, 
into  which  legend  says  the  sword 
Excalibur  was  thrown.  Helston 


This  is  an  operation  by  which  the 
spongy  mass  of  iron  is  consolidated 
and   any   liquid   slag   it   contains 
squeezed  out.   In  its  usual  form  the 
helve    consisted    of    a    horizontal 
beam  having  at  one  end  a  double 
"  knife  edge  "  forming  a  fulcrum 
on  which  it  could  oscillate,  and  at 
the  other  a  massive  head  removable 
for   repair   or   renewal,  a  fulcrum 
stand,  an  anvil,  and  a  cam  wheel. 
The  latter  was,  in  the  old  days, 
usually  driven  by  a  water  wheel, 
a\ id  in  revolving  lifted  the  hammer 
end  of  the  beam  a  certain  distance 
and  then  released  it  so  that  the 
hammer  fell  on  the  mass  of  iron  on 
the  anvil.  The  hammer  blow  would 
represent  sometimes  a  weight  of  10 
tons  falling  18  ins., 
'    the  rate  of  striking 
being   60   blows    a 
minute.    See  Steam 
Hammer. 

Helvella.  Genus 
of   fungi  of  the 
natural    order   As- 
comycetes.       They 
are  all  edible,  the 
best    known   being 
the   white  helvella 
(H.    crispa)   with 
ribbed,  hollow  and 
inflated  stem,  and 
a  thin  cap  broken 
into  lobes  which 
are  folded  and  wrinkled.      In  the 
black   helvella    (H.    lacunosa)    the 
head  is  more  inflated,  less  wrinkled, 
and  entirely  of  a  sooty  colouring. 

Helvellyn.  Mountain  of  the  Lake 
District  of  England.  It  is  on  the 
borders  of  Cumberland  and  West- 
morland overlooking  Ulleswater. 
Its  height  is  3,118  ft.,  being  ex- 
ceeded only  by  Scafell  Pikes.  It 
is  best  ascended  from  Patterdale, 
the  way  passing  along  Striding 
Edge,  but  there  are  other  ascents. 
See  Lake  District. 


Helvetic  Republic.  Govern- 
ment set  up  by  the  French  directory 
in  Switzerland.  The  republic  was 
proclaimed  on  Mar.  29,  1798,  as  the 
"  Helvetic  republic,  one  and  in- 
divisible," a  central  government, 
consisting  of  a  senate  and  great 
council,  for  the  Swiss  cantons  being 
set  up  at  Lucerne.  The  constitu- 
tion of  the  republic  was  a  great  step 
forward  in  combining  the  various 
districts  of  Switzerland,  but  quar- 
rels arose  and  the  constitution  was 
abolished  by  Napoleon,  Feb.,  1803. 

Helvetii.  Ancient  people  in- 
habiting the  western  portion  of 
what  is  now  Switzerland.  Their 
chief  town  was  Aventicum  (mod. 
Avenches).  They  first  come  into 
history  as  allies  of  the  Cimbri 
and  Teutones  when  those  nations 
attempted  to  invade  Italy  at  the 
end  of  the  2nd  century  B.C.  In 
58  B.C.,  under  pressure  from  the 
German  tribes,  they  invaded  Gaul, 
but  were  driven  back  by  Caesar. 

Helvetius,  CLAUDE  ADRIEN 
(1715-71).  French  philosopher. 
Born  in  Paris  and  for  12  years 
farmer -general 
of  taxes 
(1738-51),  he 
amassed  a 
large  fortune. 
He  spent  the 
rest  of  his  life 
on  his  estate 
near  Paris, 
devoting  him- 
self to  charit- 
able  works 
and  philosophical  study.  He  died 
Dec.  26,  1771.  One  of  the  chief 
representatives  of  the  French  Illu- 
minati  (q.v. ),  and  intimate  with  the 
Encyclopedistes  (q.v.),  Helvetius 
was  a  hedonist  and  utilitarian.  His 
book  De  1'Esprit  (On  the  Mind) 
was  banned  and  publicly  burnt.  Al! 


Claude  A.  Helvetius, 
French  philosopher 


Helvellyn,  showing  Striding  Edge, 
one  of  the  paths  of  ascent 


HELY-HUTCHINSON 


3931 


HEMIPTERA 


intelligences  are  born  equal,  differ- 
ences being  the  result  of  educa- 
tion. Man  is  a  hedonistic  creature, 
whose  only  object  is  to  secure  plea- 
sure and  avoid  pain ;  personal 
interest  is  the  motive  of  all  his 
actions.  Virtue  and  vice  are  rela- 
tive terms  ;  really  virtuous  actions 
are  such  as  promote  the  general 
welfare.  Pron.  El-vay-si-uce. 

Hely-Hutchinson,  JOHN  (1724- 
94).  Irish  politician.  The  son  of 
Francis  Hely,  a  landowner  in  Cork, 
he  was  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  and  became  a  barrister. 
In  1751  he  married  an  heiress,  and 
took  the  additional  name  of  Hut- 
chinson.  In  1759  he  entered  the 
Irish  House  of  Commons  as  M.P. 
for  Lanes  borough,  and  retained  a 
seat  there  as  representative  of  three 
successive  constituencies  until  his 
death.  The  gift  that  had  brought 
him  success  as  an  advocate  dis- 
tinguished him  in  the  political 
arena,  and  in  1777  he  was  made  a 
secretary  of  state.  He  was  also 
provost  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin. 
He  died  Sept.  4,  1794. 

Although  rapacious  for  office  and 
emoluments,  Hely-Hutchinson  was 
liberal  enough  to  advocate  relief  to 
Roman  Catholics,  including  their 
admission  to  Trinity  College,  par- 
liamentary reform,  and  free  trade  ; 
a  policy  he  preached  in  his  Com- 
mercial Restraints  of  Ireland.  In 
1795  his  widow  was  created  Baroness 
Donoughmore,  and  the  present  earl 
of  Donoughmore  is  his  descendant. 

Hemans,  FELICIA  DOROTHEA 
(1793-1835).  English  poet.  Born 
at  Liverpool,  Sept.  25,  1793,  she 
was  the  daugh- 
ter of  George 
Browne,  a 
merchant  i  n 
that  city.  In 
1812  she  mar- 
r  i  e  d  Captain 
Alfred  Hem- 
ans, but  they 
separated  four 
years  later. 
As  a  child 
Mrs.  He- 
mans  had  W*r  *.*.*•« 
shown  much  precocity,  and  a  vol- 
ume of  her  poems  was  published 
when  she  was  14.  Her  chief  works 
are  The  Siege  of  Valencia,  1823,  an 
unacted  play ;  Lays  of  Many  Lands, 
1825;  The  Forest  Sanctuary, 
1825  ;  her  own  favourite  Songs  of 
the  Affections,  1830;  Hymns  for 
Childhood,  1834. 

Though  without  depth,  her 
poems  are  full  of  grace,  and  per- 
meated with  a  love  for  the  noble 
and  chivalrous.  In  her  own  life- 
time they  enjoyed  great  vogue, 
both  in  Britain  and  in  America, 
but  only  one  or  two  of  her  lyrics, 
such  as  The  Better  Land  and  The 


Homes  of  England,  have  stood  the 
test  of  time.     Mrs.  Hemans  died  in 
Dublin,  May  16,  1835.   A  complete 
edition  of  her  works  with  a  mem- 
oir by  her  sister  was  issued  in  1839. 
Kernel  Hempstead.  Mun.  bor., 
parish,  and  mkt.  town  of  Hertford- 
shire,   England.      The   old   town, 
which  derives  its  name  from  adja- 
cent hemp  land,  is  on    the    river 
Gade,  24  m.  N.W.  of  London,  and 
near   the   Grand   Junction  Canal, 
with  a  station  on  the  M.R.  branch 
line  from  Harpenden.    In  the  High 
Street    are    fine    ^^ 
houses    and    some 
old  inns,  with  Gade-    : 
bridge  Park  on  the 
W.     The    name    is 
a'l  s  o   given  to  a   • 
rural  district,  which    ff 
includes    Marlowes 
and    Heath    Park, 
and  stretches  H  m. 
to    Boxmoor,   Two 
Waters,  and  Apsley 
End. 

A  service  of  motor 
'buses  connects  the 
district   with   Box- 
mo  o  r    station    on 
the   L.    &  N.W.R. 
Above      Boxmoor, 
which    is   in    the 
parish,  and  where  a  Roman  villa 
has  been  brought   to   light,   is   a 
growing   residential  area,    on   the 
Feldon  estate,  with  golf  links.  The 
ancient  church  of  S.  Mary,  partly 
rebuilt   in    1846   and   restored    in 
1863,  has  14th  and  15th  century 
roofing  and  interesting  monuments. 
The  town  hall,  corn  exchange,  and 
literary  institute  are  in  one  building, 
1851-68.     The  Market  House  was 
built  in  1888. 

The  old  building  known  as  the 
Bury  once  belonged  to  a  mon- 
astery at  Ashridge.  The  indus- 
tries include  paper-making,  apron, 
blouse,  and  brush-making,  iron- 
founding,  brewing,  tanning,  and 
strawplaiting  ;  there  is  a  trade  in 
timber.  Mentioned  in  Domesday,  it 
gives  its  name  to  a  co.  div.  return- 
ing one  member  to  Parliament. 
Market  day,  Thurs.  Pop.  13,832. 

Hemi chorda.  Term  used  in 
zoology  for  a  group  of  worm-like 
animals,  the  principal  genus  of 
which  is  Balanoglossus.  The  term 
was  used  by  W.  Bates  to  indicate 
those  particular  invertebrates  from 
which  vertebrates  are  supposed  to 
have  been  derived.  They  possess 
certain  characters  of  vertebrates, 
e.g.  breathing  organs  resembling 
the  gill  slits  and  a  modified  form  of 
notochord,  but  the  connexion  sug- 
gested between  the  two  groups  has 
yet  to  be  definitely  proved. 

Hemimorphite.  Important  ore 
of  zinc,  containing  over  50  p.c.  of 
the  metal.  A  hydrous  zinc  silicate,  it 


is  remarkable  for  its  form  of  crystal- 
lisation and  for  the  electric  char- 
acter of  the  crystals  with  variation 
of  temperature,  which  causes  posi- 
tive electrification  at  one  end  of  the 
crystals  and  negative  at  the  other. 
The  crystals  are  colourless  or 
slightly  yellow,  blue,  red,  brown,  or 
green,  and  on  account  of  their  elec- 
tric property  the  ore  has  been  called 
electric  calamine,  an  ore  of  zinc 
with  which  it  is  sometimes  con- 
fused. It  is  found  with  other  zinc 
ores  in  Carinthia,  Westphalia,  near 


Hemei  Hempstead,  Heruorusmre.      1'tie  market  place 
and  parish  church  of  S.  Mary 

ralenline 

Aix-la-Chapelle,  and  in  parts  of 
England  and  the  U.S.A.  See  Zinc. 

Heming  OR  HEMMINGE,  JOHN 
(c.  1556-1630).  English  actor. 
Born  at  Shottery,  he  became  a 
member  of  the  lord  chamberlain's 
or  king's  company,  and  held  shares 
in  the  Globe  and  Blackfriars 
theatres.  His  work  as  player  cannot 
be  definitely  ascertained ;  but  he 
seems  to  have  appeared  hi  King 
Henry  IV,  part  I,  possibly  as  Fal- 
staff,  and  in  several  plays  of  Ben 
Jonson,  including  Every  Man  in 
His  Humour,  Every  Man  Out  of 
His  Humour,  Sejanus,  Volpone, 
and  The  Alchemist. 

He  was  associated  with  Shake- 
speare, who  left  him  26s.  8d.  for  the 
purchase  of  a  ring.  With  his  fellow- 
actor  Condell,  he  published  hi  1623 
in  a  single  folio  volume  the  first 
collected  edition  of  Shakespeare's 
works.  He  died  at  Aldermanbury, 
Oct.  10,  1630. 

Hemiplegia  (Gr.  hemi,  half; 
plege,  blow,  stroke ) .  Paralysis  of  one 
side  of  the  body,  most  often  due  to 
apoplexy  or  haemorrhage  in  the 
brain.  See  Paralysis. 

Hemiptera  (Gr.  hemi,  half ; 
ptera,  wings).  Name  applied  to  an 
order  of  insects  otherwise  known 
as  Rhynchota  or  beaked  insects. 
These  include  the  bugs,  plant  lice, 
water  scorpions,  lice,  and  others. 
They  vary  greatly  in  size  and  form, 
some  being  -very  beautiful  and 
others  the  reverse.  In  all  of  them 
the  mouth  parts  are  modified  to 


HEMISPHERE 


HEMP     NETTLE 


form  a  rostrum  or  beak  which  is 
used  for  piercing  and  sucking  ;  none 
of  them  passes  through  a  quiescent 
pupal  stage.  As  a  general  rule  they 
have  four  wings,  the  fore  ones  more 
or  less  horny.  See  Insect. 

Hemisphere  (Gr.  hemi,  half  : 
sphaira,  a  globo).  Half  of  the  globe- 
All  great  circles  divide  the  world 
into  hemispheres,  but  maps  in 
common  use  only  depict  hemi- 
spheres in  two  ways.  The  equator 
divides  the  world  into  the  N.  and 
S.  hemispheres.  The  world  is  also 
divided  into  the  E.  and  W.  hemi- 
spheres, the  latter  containing  N. 
and  S.  America,the  former  the  other 
continents.  The  great  circle  made 
of  the  meridians  20°  W.  and  160°  E. 
is  usually  taken  as  the  boundary 
line  between  these  hemispheres. 
See  Earth  ;  Equator. 

Hemlock  (Conium  maculatum). 
Biennial  herb  of  the  natural  order 
Umbelliferae.  A  native  of  Europe, 
N.  Africa,  N.  and  W.  Asia,  it  has 
a  stout,  furrowed  stem,  spotted 
with  purple  and  is  2ft.  to  4  ft.  high. 


Hemlock.     Blowers  of  the  poisonous 
umbelliferous  plant 

The  leaves  are  wedge-shaped,  finely 
divided,  fern-like ;  flowers  small, 
white,  in  compound  umbels.  All 
parts  of  the  plant,  but  especially 
the  fruits,  contain  an  oily,  poisonous 
fluid,  the  active  principle  of  which 
is  alkaloid  coniine. 

Cases  of  poisoning  by  conium 
have  occurred  from  mistaking  the 
leaves  for  parsley.  The  symptoms 
are  weakness  and  paralysis  of  the 
muscles,  the  lower  limbs  being 
first  affected,  and  the  action  of  the 
poison  gradually  extending  up- 
wards. Eventually  paralysis  of 
respiration  occurs,  and  death  en- 
sues from  asphyxia.  This  sequence 
of  events  is  described  in  the  well- 
known  account  of  the  death  of 
Socrates,  who  was  condemned  to 
drink  hemlock.  The  treatment  is  to 
wash  out  the  stomach,  administer 
stimulants,  and  perform  artificial 
respiration  if  necessary. 

Hemlock  Spruce  {Tsuga  cana- 
densis).  Evergreen  tree  of  the 
natural  order  Coniferae  A  native 


Hemlock  Spruce.    Leaves  and  cones 
of  this  N.  American  evergreen  tree 

of  N.E.  America,  it  attains  a  height 
of  (50  ft.  to  80  ft.  The  short  narrow 
leaves  are  green  above  and  white 
beneath,  solitary,  in  two  irregular 
ranks;  the  cones  small  and  oval, 
hanging  down  from  the  tips  of  the 
branches,  with  semicircular  scales. 
It  is  a  timber  tree,  and  the  bark  is 
used  for  tanning. 

Hemp.  Commercially,  a  general 
name  for  textile  fibres  produced  by 
a  number  of  unrelated  plants,  but 
originally  restricted  to  those  ob- 
tained from  the  annual  herb  hemp. 
(See  Cannabis. )  African  bow- 
string hemp  is  yielded  by  Sanse- 
vieria  guineensis  ;  Indian  bow 
string  hemp  by  Calotropis  gigantea  , 
Bengal,  Bombay,  Madras,  Brown, 
and  Sunn  hemps  by  Crotalaria 
juncea  ;  Jubbulpore  hemp  by  Crota- 
laria tenui folia ;  Indian  hemp  by 
Apocynum  cannabinum  ;  brown  In- 
dian hemp  by  Hibiscus  cannabinus  ; 
Manila  hemp  by  Musa  textilis ;  and 
Sisal  hemp  by  Agave  sisalana. 

True  hemp  (Cannabis  saliva)  is 
little  grown  in  the  U.K.  ;  before 
the  Great  War  the  British  imports 
of  its  fibres  were  valued  at  3  or 
4  million  £  per  year.  It  was  widely 
cultivated  in  Russia  and  Poland, 
but  the  best  quality  came  from 
Italy.  Most  of  this  is  used  in  the 
production  of  strong  ropes  and 
twines,  and  woven  into  wear- 
resisting  wrappers,  conveyer  belts, 
sail-cloth,  and  fire-hose.  Before  the 
introduction  of  the  cheaper  jute 
(Corchorus)  early  in  the  19th  cent., 
hemp  was  used  largely  for  making 
sacks,  canvas,  etc.  Hemp  is  used 
as  a  drug  or  intoxicant  under  the 
names  of  bhang,  ganja,  and  charas. 
Hashish  is  the  Arabic  name  given 
to  a  preparation  of  the  leaves.  The 
plant  has  valuable  medicinal  pro- 
perties, and  has  been  widely  used 
in  the  East. 

To  discourage  branching  and  pro- 
duce the  maximum  length  of  fibre, 
the  plants  are  grown,  like 
timber  and  corn,  in  close  rows. 
When  the  ripe  stems  are  pulled 
they  are  made  into  bundles  and 
subjected  to  processes  of  retting, 


bleaching,  and  scutching,  such  as 
are  applied  to  flax  (q.v.).  Hemp 
grows  best  in  cool  climates,  and 
prefers  a  moist,  rich,  well-drained 
loam.  Where  both  seed  and  fibre 
are  required,  from  2  to  2£  bushels 
of  seed  are  drilled  to  the  acre, 
which  yields  from  20  to  25  bushels 
of  seed  and  2  to  3  tons  of  stems 
equal  to  6  to  8  cwts.  of  fibre.  Male 
plants  are  pulled  as  soon  as  the 
flowers  wither,  but  the  females  are 
left,  of  course,  until  the  seeds  are 
ripe.  The  name,  in  A.S.  henep, 
is  connected  with  Gr.  and  Lat. 
cannabis.  See  Cannabis  ;  Rope. 

Hemp  Agrimony  OR  BLACK 
ELDER  (Eupatorium  cannabinum). 
Perennial  herb  of  the  natural  order 
Compositae.  It  is  a  native  of  Eu- 
rope, N.  Africa,  and  N.  and  W.  Asia. 


Hemp  Agrimony.     Leaves  and  flowers 
of  the  perennial  herb 

It  has  a  branching  stem  about  4  ft. 
high,  and  the  leaves  are  divided 
into  three  or  five  lance-shaped 
toothed  leaflets.  It  is  one  of  the 
simplest  of  the  Composite  flowers, 
each  head  consisting  of  five  or  six 
pale  purple  florets,  but  the  heads 
are  gathered  into  large  clusters. 
The  florets  are  all  tubular.  A  re- 
putedly tonic  decoction  is  made  of 
the  leaves. 

Hemp  Nettle  (Galeopsis  tetra- 
hil).  Annual  herb  of  the  natural 
order  Labiatae.  It  is  a  native  of 
Europe  and  N.  and  W.  Asia.  It 
has  a  bristly  stem,  with  swollen 


Hemp  Nettle.      Foliage  and  flowers 
of  the  annual  herb 


HEMSWORTH 


3933 


HENDERSON 


joints,  and  oval-lance-shaped  leaves 
with  coarsely  toothed  edges.  The 
rosy  or  white  flowers  are  in  whorls 
just  above  the  pairs  of  leaves.  0. 
speciosa,  by  some  regarded  as  a 
form  of  0.  tetrahit,  has  larger  yellow 
flowers  blotched  with  purple. 

Hems  worth.  Parish  and  village 
of  Yorkshire  (WR.),  England.  It 
is  8  m.  S.E.  of  Waken"  eld  on  the 
G.N.  and  G.C.  joint  railway.  Stone 
quarrying  and  mining  are  the  chief 
industries.  There  is  an  old  church 
dedicated  to  S.  Helen,  while  the 
hospital  and  the  free  grammar 
school  were  both  founded  by 
Robert  Holgate,  archbishop  of 
York,  in  the  16th  century.  Hems- 
worth  Hall  was  the  seat  of  Sir 
Charles  Wood,  afterwards  Viscount 
Halifax.  It  gives  its  name  to  a  co. 
division  returning  one  member  to 
Parliament.  Pop.  10,000. 

Henbane  (Hyoscyamus  niyer). 
Biennial  herb  of  the  natural  order 
Solanaceae.  It  is  a  native  of 
^^^^^^^^^  Europe  N. 
Africa,  and  N. 
and  W.  Asia. 
The  leaves  are 
I .  oval,  lobed  or 
toothed,  the 
upper  ones 
clasping  the 
stem ;  the  flow- 
ers are  large, 
funnel -shaped, 
and  dull  yellow, 
veined  with 
purple.  The 
fruit  is  a  many- 
sided  capsule 
with  a  distinct 
lid. 

The  dried 
leaves  are  used 
in  medicine.  The  active  principles 
are  poisonous  alkaloids  called  hyos- 
cyamineand  hyoscine.  Preparations 
of  hyoscyamus  are  used  chiefly  with 
purgatives todiminish  griping.  They 
are  also  given  to  relieve  spasms  of 
the  bladder  associated  with  cystitis 
or  inflammation  of  the  prostate 
gland.  Hyoscine  is  sometimes 
known  as  scopolamine,  and  is  occa- 
sionally employed  as  a  sedative  in 
acute  mania.  In  conjunction  with 
morphine  it  has  been  used  in  recent 
years  to  diminish  the  pains  of 
labour,  producing  the  condition 
popularly  known  as  twilight  sleep. 
For  this  purpose  the  drug  should 
only  be  used  by  skilled  hands,  and 
the  patient  should  be  continuously 
under  observation.  See  Corolla. 

Henderson.  City  of  Kentucky, 
U.S.A.,  the  co.  seat  of  Henderson 
co.  It  stands  on  the  Ohio  river, 
74  m.  N.  of  Hopkinsville,  on  the 
Louisville  and  Nashville  and  other 
rlys.  A  massive  steel  bridge  spans 
the  Ohio,  and  the  city's  buildings  in- 
clude a  public  library,  a  high  school. 


Henbane,  a  medi- 
cinal herb 


Alex.  Henderson, 
Scottish  divine 


and  a  sanatorium.  Atkinson  Park 
is  a  fine  open  space  of  nearly  100 
acres.  Henderson  is  a  busy  river 
port,  shipping  corn,  wheat,  tobacco, 
and  fruit,  and  has  cotton  and  wool- 
len mills,  tobacco,  furniture,  and 
box  factories,  saw-mills,  grain  ele- 
vators and  wagon  works,  and  coal 
mines.  First  incorporated  in  1797, 
it  now  has  a  mayor  and  council. 
Pop.  12,312. 

Henderson,  ALEXANDER  (1583- 
1646).  Scottish  divine.  Born  at 
Criech,  Fifeshire,  he  was  educated 
at  St.  Andrews, 
where  he  be- 
came professor 
of  rhetoric  and 
p  h  i  1  osophy. 
He  was  ap- 
pointed to  the 
incumbency  of 
Leuchars,  but 
soon  after- 
wards became 
aPresbyterian, 

from  an  engraving  &  n  ft      strongly 

opposed  the  attempt  to  introduce 
a  liturgy.  In  1638  he  was  moder- 
ator to  the  general  assembly,  and 
in  1639  minister  of  High  Kirk, 
Edinburgh.  In  1641  he  was  made 
chaplain  to  Charles  I  in  Scotland. 
He  drafted  the  Solemn  League  and 
Covenant,  and  is  regarded,  after 
Knox,  as  the  founder  of  the  Re- 
formed Church  of  Scotland.  He 
died  at  Edinburgh,  Aug.  16,  1646. 

Henderson,  ARTHUR  (b.  J863) 
British  politician.  Born  in  Glas- 
gow, he  was  apprenticed  as  a 
moulder  in  the 
works  of  Ro- 
bert Stephen- 
son  &  Co.,  at 
N  e  wcastle. 
Here  he  came 
in  touch  with 
the  trade  union 
movement, 
and  was  soon 
made  an  official 
of  his  society. 
As  a  labour 
member  he  was  elected  to  the  city 
council  of  Newcastle,  and  later  to 
that  of  Darlington,  of  which  town 
he  was  mayor  in  1903.  Having 
left  his  engineering  work,  he  de- 
voted all  his  time  to  his  duties  as 
a  trade  union  official.  In  1895 
his  name  had  been  put  forward  as 
a  candidate  for  Newcastle,  but  it 
was  not  until  1903  that  he  se- 
cured a  seat  at  Barnard  Castle 
by-election.  In  1908  he  was 
chosen  chairman  of  the  parlia- 
mentary labour  party,  a  post  he 
filled  between  1914-17. 

In  May,  1915,  Henderson  joined 
the  Coalition  ministry,  taking  the 
post  of  president  of  the  board  of 
education,  and  in  Dec.,  1916,  he 
entered  Lloyd  George's  minis- 


Arthur  Henderson, 
British  politician 

Russell 


try  as  Labour's  representative, 
being  minister  without  portfolio. 
In  1917  he  visited  Russia,  and  on 
his  return  differences  of  opinion 
arose  between  him  and  Lloyd 
George,  mainly  over  the  question 
of  attendance  at  the  international 
Socialist  conference  at  Stockholm, 
the  result  being  Henderson's  re- 
signation in  August.  Throughout 
this  period  he  had  retained  his 
post  as  secretary  of  the  Labour 
Party,  and  the  clash  between  the 
two  positions  was  really  the  cause 
of  the  trouble.  In  1915  he  was 
made  a  privy  councillor.  In  1918, 
at  the  general  election,  Henderson 
lost  his  seat,  but  in  Sept.,  1919, 
he  was  elected  Labour  M.P.  tor 
Widnes,  and  in  Jan.,  1923,  for  New- 
castle East.  In  1925  he  was  chosen 
chief  labour  whip.  In  Jan-Nov., 
1924,  he  was  home  secretary. 

Henderson,  SIR  DAVID  (1862- 
1921).  British  soldier.  Born  in 
Glasgow,  Aug.  11,  1862,  he  joined 
the  Argyll  and 
S  utherland 
Highlanders  in 
1883.  He  saw 
service  in  the 
Sudan,  1898, 
and  in  South 
Africa,  becom- 
ing director  of 
the  intelligence 
dept.,  1900. 
He  graduated 
as  an  air  pilot 
in  Aug.,  1911.  In  July,  1912,  he 
was  appointed  director  of  military 
training,  and  in  1913  became 
director-general  of  military  aero- 
nautics. The  efficiency  of  the 
three  or  four  squadrons  which  went 
to  France  on  the  outbreak  of  the 
Great  War,  and  the  subsequent 
development  of  the  air  arm,  were 
largely  due  to  Henderson.  In 
Oct.,  1917,  he  vacated  his  seat  on 
the  Army  Council  to  undertake 
special  work,  and  resigned  the 
vice-presidency  of  the  air  council 
in  the  spring  of  1918.  He  became 
director-general  of  the  League  of 
Red  Cross  Societies,  Geneva,  in 
1919.  He  received  his  knighthood 
in  1914.  He  died  at  Geneva, 
Aug.  17,  1921. 

Henderson,  GEORGE  FRAJSCIS 
ROBERT  (1854-1903).  British  sol- 
dier and  historian.  Born  at  St. 
Helier,  Jersey,  June  2,  1854,  the 
son  of  a  schoolmaster,  he  was  edu- 
cated at  Leeds  Grammar  School 
and  S.  John's  College,  Oxford.  He 
went  thence  to  Sandhurst,  and  in 
1878  entered  the  army,  York  and 
Lancaster  Regiment.  In  1882  he 
served  in  Egypt,  distinguishing 
himself  at  Tel  -  el  -  Kebir.  The 
succeeding  years  were  mainly  de- 
voted to  the  study  of  military 
history,  and  in  1889  appeared  The 


Sir  David  Henderson. 
British  soldier 

Russell      • 


HENDON 


3934 


HENLEY 


Campaign  of  Fredericks  burg.  In  the 
same  year  he  joined  the  teaching 
staff  at  Sandhurst,  and  in  1892  be- 
came professor  of  military  history 
at  the  staff  college,  where  he  re- 
mained until  1899. 

He  was  director  of  military  in- 
telligence during  the  earlier  part 
of  the  S.  African  War,  and  he  was 
just  beginning  the  official  history 
of  that  struggle  when  he  died  in 
Egypt,  March  5,  1903.  Regarded 
as  the  first  military  historian  of 
his  day,  Henderson's  great  work 
was  Stonewall  Jackson  and  the 
American  Civil  War,  1898.  He 
also  wrote  a  monograph  on  Spich- 
eren,  1898.  His  lectures  and  papers 
were  published  as  The  Science  of 
War  in  1905 ;  this  volume  was 
edited  by  Colonel  Neil  Malcolm 
and  contained  a  memoir  by  Earl 
Roberts. 

Hendon.  Urban  district  and 
village  of  Middlesex,  England.  It 
stands  on  high  ground,  near  the 
river  Brent,  8  m.  N.W.  of  London, 
with  a  station  on  the  M.R.,  and  has 
motor-'bus  connexion  with  Golder's 
Green  and  the  City,  while  electric 
trams  run  from  Cricklewood  to 
beyond  Edgware.  The  main 
street,  called  The  Burroughs,  runs 
S.W.  to  Station  Road,  which  leads 
to  the  Edgware  Road,  by  the 
Brent  Reservoir,  where  are  the 
Upper  Welsh  Harp  and  the  Old 
Welsh  Harp,  popular  holiday  re- 
sorts, with  boating  and  fishing  ac- 
commodation. W.  of  the  rly.  line 
are  the  Hendon  Asylum  (Central 
London  Sick  Asylum)  and  the 
London  Aerodrome,  the  principal 
aviation  centre  in  Great  Britain. 
Near  by  are  the  works  of  the 
Grahame- White  Aviation  Co.,  Ltd. 
The  district  is  rapidly  growing. 

On  a  summit  N.  of  the  village 
is  the  old  Perpendicular  parish 
church  of  S.  Mary,  partly  rebuilt 
in  1827,  and  notable  for  its  battle- 
mented  tower,  ancient  roof,  glass, 
and  monuments,  which  include  an 
effigy  of  Sir  William  Rawlinson  (d. 
1703).  In  the  churchyard,  which 
commands  fine  views  towards 


Hendon.      Pariso   cnurcn    01    at.    luary's.    troin    the 
south-east 


Harrow,  Stanmore,  Mill  Hill,  and 
Totteridge,  are  the  graves  of  Wool- 
ner,  the  sculptor,  and  Emily,  first 
wife  of  Coventry  Patmore,  the 
poet.  The  manor  house  was  the 
occasional  residence  of  the  abbots 
of  Westminster  ;  on  its  site  is  Ten- 
terden  House,  sometime  the  home 
of  Lord  Chief  Justice  Tenterden  (d. 
1832).  Hendon  Hall  was  the  home 
of  Garrick.  who  owned  the  manor 
Hendon  derived  its  name  from 
Heandune  or  Highdown,  and  is 
mentioned  as  Handone  in  Domes- 
day. It  gives  its  name  to  a  co. 
division  returning  one  member  to 
Parliament.  There  are  a  number 
of  almshouses.  Pop  (1921)  56,014. 
See  Aerodrome. 

Hengelo.  Town  of  the  Nether- 
lands, in  the  prov.  of  Overijssel.  It 
stands  on  a  small  stream,  27  m.  E. 
of  Deventer,  and  is  an  important 
rly.  junction  of  several  lines.  The 
principal  industry  is  the  manu- 
facture of  textiles.  Pop.  25,231. 

Hengist.  Anglo-Saxon  chief, 
reputed  the  leader  of  the  first 
Anglo-Saxon  invaders  of  England. 
The  story  is  that  the  British  king 
Vortigern  invited  the  Anglo- 
Saxons,  or  some  people  of  kindred 
race,  to  come  over  and  help  him 
against  his  enemies.  Under  Hen- 
gist  and  his  brother  Horsa,  they 
came  in  or  about  450,  landing  at 
Ebbsfleet  in  Kent.  They  settled 
in  Thanet,  becoming  little  kings  ; 
but  they  soon  quarrelled  with  the 
British,  and  in  a  fight  near  Ayles- 
ford  in  455,  Horsa  was  killed.  Hen- 
gist  reigned  until  488,  leaving  a 
son  Oisc. 

Hengler's  Circus.  Amphi- 
theatre, formerly  in  Argyll  Street, 
Regent  Street,  London,  W.  It  was 
built  by  Frederick  Charles  Hengler 
in  1871,  and  rebuilt,  1884,  on  the 
site  of  Argyll  House,  a  residence 
of  the  ducal  family  of  Argyll  and 
later  of  the  4th  earl  of  Aberdeen. 
The  site  of  Hengler's  Circus,  which 
combined  equestrian  displays  with 
spectacular  performances  by  chil- 
dren, is  now  occupied  by  the  Pal- 
ladium music-hall. 

||M u B|B Henin.     Village 

and  hill  in 
France.  The  vil- 
lage, known  as 
Henin  -  sur  -  Cojeul, 
is  in  the  dept.  of 
Pas-de-Calais.  It 
lies  to  the  E.  of  the 
Arras-Bap au  me 
road,  5  m.  S.E.  of 
Arras.  It  was  cap- 
tured by  the  British 
on  April  3,  1917. 
Here  in  March, 
1918,  the  British 
3rd  division  made 
a  great  s t  an  d 
against  the  German 


offensive  towards  Arras,  which  the 
Germans  aimed  at  capturing  by  a 
flank  assault  between  Henin  and 
Lagnicourt. 

Henin  was  yielded  after  a  stiff 
resistance  and  was  recaptured  by 
the  52nd  division,  August  24,  1918. 
Henin  Hill,  near  by,  taken  by  the 
Germans,  March  22,  1918,  was  the 
scene  of  a  fine  stand  by  the  llth 
Suffolk  regt.  and  the  40th  Machine- 
gun  battalion.  Henin- Li  etard,  a 
town  in  the  dept.  of  Pas-de- 
Calais,  is  16  m.  E.S.E.  of  Bethune, 
and  has  coal  mines.  Pop.  15,000. 
See  Arras,  Battles  of;  Somme 
Battles  of  the. 

Heninel.  Village  of  France,  in 
the  dept.  of  Pas-de-Calais.  Situated 
2  m.  N.E.  of  Henin-sur-Cojeul,  it 
was  captured  by  the  British  on 
April  12,  1917,  together  with  Wan- 
court  and  a  section  of  the  Hinden- 
burg  line  to  the  S.  of  the  Cojeul. 
Recaptured  by  the  Germans  in 
their  spring  offensive  of  1918,  it 
was  retaken  by  the  British,  Aug.  26, 
1918.  See  Arras,  Battles  of. 

Henley,  WALTER  DE.  Medieval 
writer  of 'the  13th  century.  His 
reputation  rests  entirely  on  his 
book  on  husbandry.  Written  in 
French,  this  was  long  regarded  as 
the  standard  book  of  the  kind,  a 
fact  attested  by  the  many  existing 
manuscripts  and  by  its  translation 
into  English,  Welsh,  and  Latin. 
There  is  a  modern  translation  pub- 
lished by  the  Royal  Historical 
Society.  Henley  was  probably  a 
Dominican  monk.  See  Agriculture. 
Henley,  WILLIAM  ERNEST  (1849- 
1903).  British  poet,  playwright, 
critic,  and  journalist.  Born  at 
Gloucester, 
Aug.  23,  1849, 
he  was  edu- 
cated at  the 
Crypt  Gram- 
mar School  of 
that  town, 
where  Thomas 
Edward  Brown, 
the  Manx  poet, 
W.  fc.  Henley,  was  one  of  his 
British  poet  masters.  Tuber- 

Zlliott&Fry  culoug      ^^ 

of  the  leg  threatening  him  with  the 
loss  of  a  limb,  in  1873  he  went  to 
Edinburgh  to  be  treated  by  Prof. 
( afterwards  Lord )  Lister.  The  lim  b 
was  saved  after  twenty  months  in 
hospital,  during  which  time  he  was 
visited  by  Stevenson,  who  became 
his  intimate  friend. 

After  leaving  hospital,  Henley 
devoted  himself  to  literary  work, 
settling  in  London  in  1877.  He 
edited  successively  the  weekly 
paper  London,  The  Magazine  of 
Art,  The  Scots  (afterwards  the 
National)  Observer,  and  The  New 
Review  ;  and  was  a  frequent  con- 
tributor, chiefly  of  critical  articles, 


HENLEY-ON-THAMES 


3935 


HENRIETTA      MARIA 


to  other  papers  and  magazines. 
(See  Views  and  Reviews,  1890,  and 
Essays,  1921.) 

Meantime  he  obtained  recogni- 
tion as  poet  with  A  Book  of  Verses, 
1888,  which  included  those  he  had 
written  on  his  Edinburgh  sick-bed 
under  the  title  of  Hospital  Verses  ; 
The  Song  of  the  Sword,  1892 ;  For 
England's  Sake,  1900,  a  product  of 
the  wave  of  patriotic  feeling  which 
swept  over  the  country  during  the 
S.  African  War.  He  edited,  with 
T.  F.  Henderson,  the  Centenary 
Burns,  1896-97,  to  which  he  con- 
tributed a  noteworthy  critical 
appreciation  of  the  poet,  after- 
wards published  separately ;  also 
Lyra  Heroica,  1891,  a  book  of  verse 
for  boys.  With  R.  L.  Stevenson 
he  collaborated  in  four  plays.  His 
activities  also  included  editions  of 
the  Works  of  Standard  Authors. 


tion  beneath  the  Chil terns.  Brew- 
ing and  malting  are  carried  on,  but 
it  is  chiefly  known  as  a  boating 
centre.  A  fine  bridge  crosses  the 
river  here  ;  built  in  1786,  this  re- 
placed one  of  great  age.  The  church 
of  S.  Mary,  with  a  lofty  tower,  is 
an  old  building ;  there  is  a  school 
dating  from  the  early  17th  century, 
and  a  town  hall.  Henley  was  made 
a  corporate  town  in  1570.  Market 
day,  Thurs.  Pop.  6,500. 

Henley  Regatta.  Sporting  fix- 
ture, embracing  rowing  and  sculling 
races  among  amateurs.  Connected 
with  the  rowing  clubs  of  Oxford 
and  Cambridge,  Eton,  etc.,  and 
admitting  competitors  belonging  to 
similar  institutions  in  foreign  coun- 
tries, it  was  inaugurated  in  1839.  It 
takes  place  annually  in  July  on  the 
Thames  at  Henley,  Oxfordshire. 
The  following  are  the  different 


Henley  Regatta.     General  view  of  the  Thames  course,  looking  down  river. 
Races  are  rowed  upstream  from  Temple  Island,  in  the  distance 


He  died  at  Woking,  July  11,  1903. 
See  Life,  L.  C.  Cornford,  1913. 

Henley-  on-Thames.  Munici- 
pal bor.  and  market  town  of  Ox- 
fordshire. It  stands  on  the  N.  side 
of  the  Thames,  36  m.  from  London, 
and  is  served  by  the  G.W.  Rly. 
Its  beautv  is  enhanced  bv  its  situa- 


Henley-on-Thames.     The  Berkshire  bank  of  the  river 
and  Temple  Island 

Frith 


races  and  the  year  of  their  founda- 
tion. Grand  Challenge  Cup,  for 
eight  oars,  1839;  Stewards' Chal- 
lenge Cup,  for  four  oars,  1840 ; 
Diamond  Sculls,  for  single  scullers, 
1844  ;  Silver  Goblets,  for  pair  oars, 
1845 ;  Ladies'  Challenge  Plate,  for 
eight  oars,  1845;  Visitors'  Chal- 
lenge Cup,  for  four 
oars,  1847 ;  Wyfokl 
Challenge  Cup,  for 
four  oars,  1855 . 
and  the  Thames 
Challenge  Cup, 
for  eight  oars. 
1868.  The  regatta 
is  held  under  the 
rules  of  the  Ama- 
teur Rowing  As- 
sociation. In  1915- 
19  there  was  no 
regatta,  owing  to 
the  Great  War, 
though  in  1919  a 
substitute  regatta 
took  place.  See 
Rowing  at  Henley, 
T.  A.  Cook,  1919. 


Henna.  Powdered  leaves  of 
Lawsonia  alba  or  inermis,  a  shrub 
that  grows  in  tropical  Asia.  It  is 
used  for  dyeing  the  hair  a  reddish  - 
brown  colour,  for  which  purpose  the 
powder  is  made  into  a  paste  with 
water,  applied  to  the  hair  and 
allowed  to  remain  on  all  night. 

Henner,  JEAN  JACQUES  (1829- 
1905).  French  painter.  Born  at 
Bernwiller,  Alsace,  March  5,  1829, 
he  studied  under  Drolling  and 
Picot.  He  won  the  Prix  de  Rome  in 
1858,  and,  after  visiting  Italy, 
developed  as  a  painter  of  religious 
and  classical  figure  subjects,  four 
of  which  are  in  the  Luxembourg. 
His  reputation  rests  chiefly  on  his 
pictures  of  the  nude. 

Henri,  ROBERT  (b.  1865). 
American  painter.  Born  at  Cin- 
cinnati, he  studied  at  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Academy,  at  the  Beaux  Arts 
and  Julian's  in  Paris,  and  travelled 
in  France,  Spain,  and  Italy.  Many 
American  permanent  collections 
possess  examples  of  his  art,  and  in 
1899  his  picture,  La  Neige,  was 
purchased  from  the  Salon  by  the 
French  Government  for  the 
Luxembourg. 

Henrietta  Maria  (1609-69). 
Queen  of  Charles  I.  The  youngest 
daughter  of  Henry  IV  of  France, 
she  was  born  in  Paris,  Nov.  25, 
1609.  Betrothed  to  Charles  in  1624, 
after  he  had  failed  to  secure  a 
Spanish  bride,  she  was  married  to 
him  by  proxy  in  May,  1625,  just 
after  Charles's  accession.  The 
queen  was  fond  of  gaiety  and  ex- 
travagant, but  her  partiality  for 
the  Roman  Catholics  governed  al- 
most all  she  did  in  English  politics. 
To  the  indignation  of  the  people, 
she  gave  countenance  and  more  to 
her  co-religionists,  and  just  before 
the  Civil  War  her  activities  did 


After  Van  DycK 


HENRY 


3936 


HENRY 


much  to  fan  the  flames  of  discon- 
tent. Early  in  the  war  she  re- 
turned from  a  visit  to  France  with 
money  and  stores,  and  collected  a 
party  of  royalists,  who  marched  to 
her  husband's  aid.  In  1644,  how- 
ever, she  left  England  and  never 
saw  Charles  again,  although  she 
urged  him  continually  to  resist, 
and  was  always  scheming  in  his  in- 
terests and  those  of  their  children. 
During  the  Commonwealth  the 
queen  remained  in  France,  but  she 
returned  to  England  in  1660,  living 
for  some  time  at  Somerset  House. 
She  died  at  Colombes,  near  Paris, 
Aug.  31,  1669. 

Henry.  Unit  measurement  of 
an  induced  electric  current.  When 
the  inducing  current  is  changing 
at  the  rate  of  one  ampere  per 
second  and  produces  in  an  adjacent 
circuit  a  pressure  difference  of  one 
volt,  the  degree  of  inductance  is 
equal  to  one  henry.  See  Unit, 
Electrical. 

Henry.  Masculine  Christian 
name.  Its  meaning,  prince  of  the 
house,  is  seen  best  in  its  German 
form,  Heinrich.  Extensively  used 
in  Germany  and  France,  it  has 
always  been  very  popular  in  Eng- 
land, but  less  so  in  Scotland.  The 
French  form  is  Henri,  and  the 
Spanish  Enrique.  Henrietta,  Hen- 
riette,  and  Harriet  are  feminine 
forms.  Harry  is  a  popular  English 
form  of  Henry. 

Henry  I  (1068-1135).    King  of 
England.      Born  at   Selby,    York- 
shire, he  was  the  third  surviving 
son  of  William 
the  Conqueror, 
the    only    one 
born   in   Eng- 
land after  the 
Conquest.    On 
the    death    of 
William  II  he 
promptly     se- 
cured     the 
Henry  I,  throne  in  the 

King  of  England  absence  of  his 
elder  brother  Robert  of  Normandy. 
He  was  shrewd  enough  to  realize 
the  advantage  of  establishing  a  firm 
and  just  government,  conciliating 
his  English  subjects,  and  acquiring 
a  thorough  mastery  over  the  turbu- 
lent Norman  baronage.  The  claims 
of  his  brother  Robert,  a  convenient 
figurehead  for  the  barons,  com- 
pelled him  to  fight  for  his  crown, 
and  to  make  himself  master  of 
Robert's  duchy  of  Normandy  as 
well  as  of  England. 

In  the  course  of  his  reign  of 
thirty-five  years  (1100-1135)  he 
won  for  himself  the  name  of  the 
lion  of  justice,  laying  the  founda- 
tions of  the  work  which  was  carried 
out  by  his  grandson*  Henry  II ; 
especially  by  his  organization  of 
the  Curia  Regis  as  the  royal  court 


of  law  administered  by  trained  law- 
yers, and  of  the  itinerant  justices 
whose  courts  periodically  super- 
vised the  administration- of  justice 
in  the  provinces.  In  1103  he  be- 
came involved  in  a  dispute  with  An- 
selm  on  the  investiture  question. 
Henry's  only  son,  William,  was 
drowned  in  the  White  Ship.  He 
left  his  throne  to  his  daughter, 
Matilda  or  Maud,  widow  of  the 
emperor  Henry  V,  and  wife  of 
Geoffrey  of  Anjou  ;  but  on  his 
death,  Dec.  1,  1136,  the  crown  was 
successfully  claimed  by  his  nephew 
Stephen.  See  Investiture. 

Henry  II  (1133-89).  King  of 
England,  the  first  of  the  Planta- 
genets.  He  was  born  at  Le  Mans, 

„-„,,„, .„„,,„..„,  ,    March  5,   1133, 

the  son  of  Geof- 
frey, count  of 
Anjou,  who  was 
the  second  hus- 
band of  the  Em- 
press Matilda  or 
Maud,daughter 
of  Henry  I  of 
England.  Maud 
was  dispos- 
sessed of  the 
by  her  cousin 


Henry  II, 
King  of  England 

throne 


English 

Stephen  of  Boulogne,  whose  nine- 
teen years'  reign  was  a  nightmare 
of  civil  war  and  feudal  anarchy. 
Young  Henry  succeeded  his  father 
as  count  of  Anjou,  received  his 
mother's  duchy  of  Normandy  which 
Stephen  had  not  seized,  and  mar- 
ried Eleanor,  duchess  of  Aquitaine, 
in  1152,  thereby  becoming,  in  effect, 
lord  of  the  western  half  of  France. 
In  1154  he  succeeded  Stephen  on 
the  English  throne  in  place  of  his 
mother,  who  still  survived. 

Though  now  only  twenty-one 
he  had  proved  himself  to  be  ex- 
traordinarily prompt,  energetic, 
self-willed,  and  capable.  In  France, 
though  a  feudatory,  his  power  at 
least  rivalled  that  of  the  king,  and 
his  ambitions  were  European 
rather  than  English.  But  he 
realized  that  his  kingdom  should 
provide  the  real  basis  of  power  ; 
and  though  he  spent  more  than 
half  his  reign  in  France,  he  devoted 
himself  to  the  establishment  in 
England  of  a  powerful  monarchy. 

Without  delay,  he  cleared  the 
country  of  the  mercenaries  and 
adventurers  who  had  swarmed  into 
it  under  Stephen,  pulled  down 
some  thousands  of  the  castles 
which  the  barons  had  built,  and 
stamped  out  all  resistance  by  the 
rapidity  of  his  movements.  The 
country  was  weary  of  anarchy,  and 
the  great  majority  of  the  barons 
were  now  in  favour  of  restoring  law 
and  order.  In  the  struggle  with  his 
archbishop,  Thomas  Becket  (q.v.), 
he  strove  with  only  partial  success 
to  subject  the  clergy  to  the  ordin- 


ary Jaw,  and  to  assert  the  royal 
supremacy  over  the  clerical  organi- 
zation. By  scutage,  the  partial 
substitution  of  money  payments 
for  military  services,  and  by  a 
revival  of  the  old  English  fyrd  or 
militia,  he  strengthened  the  mili- 
tary ascendancy  of  the  crown  over 
the  baronage.  He  reorganized  the 
administration  of  justice  and  finance 
on  lines  suggested  by  Henry  I. 

He  sanctioned  the  intervention 
in  Ireland  of  his  barons,  and  then 
compelled  both  them  and  the  native 
chiefs  to  recognize  him  as  over- 
lord, Ireland  being  thus  annexed 
to  the  English  crown.  His  later 
years  were  vexed  by  the  turbulent 
disobedience  of  his  sons,  and  he 
died  at  Chinon,  July  6,  1189,  in 
the  course  of  a  struggle  with  his 
son  and  successor,  Richard  Coeur 
de  Lion,  who  had  joined  in  arms 
against  him  with  the  French  king, 
Philip.  See  Avranches ;  consult  also 
Lives,  Mrs.  J.  R.  Green,  1888; 
L.  F.  Salzmann,  1914. 

Henry  III  (1207-72).  King  01 
England.  Born  at  Winchester,  Oct. 
1,  1207,  he  succeeded  his  father. 
King  John,  in 
1216,  while  the 
struggle  with 
the  barons  was 
still  in  progress. 
The  general  re- 
cognition of  the 
young  king 
was,  however, 
soon  procured 
by  the  veteran, 
William  Mar- 
shal, earl  of 
Pembroke.  During  the  years  of 
his  minority  the  country  was  well 
governed,  first  by  Pembroke  and 
then  by  Hubert  de  Burgh. 

In  1227  Henry's  personal  reign 
began.  Unfortunately  he  was  one 
of  the  most  incompetent  of  English 
kings.  With  more  cultivated 
tastes  than  most  of  his  contem- 
poraries, personally  br'ave  and 
virtuous,  and  a  devoted  son  of  the 
Church,  he  lacked  any  conception 
of  his  duties  as  a  king.  First  he 
fell  wholly  under  the  influence  of 
his  mother's  Poitevin  connexions, 
who  filled  all  the  offices  of  state.  The 
pressure  of  the  irritated  barons  re- 
moved the  Poitevins,  but  on 
Henry's  marriage  with  Eleanor  of 
Provence,  in  1236,  a  new  flood  of 
foreigners  usurped  all  positions  of 
importance,  and  under  their  in- 
fluence the  provisions  of  Magna 
Carta  extorted  by  the  barons  from 
his  father  were  persistently  ignored. 
Matters  came  to  a  head  when 
Henry,  in  obedience  to  the  pope, 
accepted  the  crown  of  Sicily  for 
his  son  Edmund,  and  endeavoured 
to  procure  from  the  country  the 
money  necessary  to  secure  it. 


Henry  III, 
King  of  England 


HENRY 


3937 


The  Great  Council  of  barons, 
now  headed  by  Simon  de  Montfort, 
assembled  in  arms  at  Oxford  in 
1258,  and  compelled  the  king  to 
accept  the  Provisions  of  Oxford, 
which  instituted  an  elaborate  ma- 
chinery of  baronial  committees  to 
organize  the  government  of  the 
realm.  The  barons  themselves 
were  so  little  of  one  mind  that 
Henry,  supported  by  the  arbitra- 
tion of  Louis  IX  of  France,  was 
enabled  to  repudiate  the  Pro- 
visions, and  Montfort's  party  pre- 
pared to  resist.  The  section  of  the 
barons  whose  chief  aim  was  to 
secure  their  own  independence 
supported  the  king.  Montfort  de- 
feated the  royalists  at  the  battle  of 
Lewes,  May  14,  1264,  and  virtually 
assumed  the  functions  of  a  dictator. 
But  Montfort's  dictatorship  was 
resented;  the  royalists  rose  in 
arms  and  Montfort  was  killed  at 
the  battle  of  Evesham,  Aug.  4, 
1265.  The  king  was  now  dominated 
by  the  personality  of  his  extremely 
able  son,  who  was  presently  to 
succeed  him  as  Edward  I,  and  to 
him  Henry  now  resigned  the  real 
control  of  the  state.  Order  was 
restored  and  Edward  himself  began 
to  enforce  the  very  principles  for 
which  Montfort  had  died.  Henry 
died  Nov.  1,  1272. 

Henry  IV  (1367-1413).  King  of 
England.  Henry  of  Bolingbroke, 
known  successively  as  earl  of  Here- 
ford,  earl  of 
Derby,  duke  of 
Lancaster,  and 
Henry  IV  of 
England,  was 
born  near 
Spilsby,  L  i  n- 
colnshire,  April 
3,  1367.  He 
was  the  son  of 
John  of  Gaunt, 
duke  of  Lan- 
caster, grand- 
son of  Edward 
III,  and  cousin 
of  Richard  II. 
During  Richard's  reign  he  was  one 
of  the  lords  appellant  who  opposed 
the  king's  early  policy.  In  1398  he 
was  sent  into  exile.  On  his  father's 
death  he  returned  to  England  in 
1399,  nominally  to  claim  his  es- 
tates, actually  to  depose  Richard 
and  set  himself  on  the  throne , 
his  title  being  derived  from  par- 
liament, which  acknowledged  him 
as  the  lawful  heir,  disregarding  the 
superior  claims  of  his  infant  cousin, 
Edmund  Mortimer. 

With  him  began  the  rule  of  the 
house  of  Lancaster,  in  circum- 
stances which  compelled  the  Lan- 
castrian kings  to  yield  unprece- 
dented submission  to  the  will  of 
parliament.  Henry's  need  for  the 
alliance  of  the  Church  produced 


the  first  enactment  for  the  burning 
of  heretics  and  the  suppression 
of  Lollardy.  A  revolt  in  Wales, 
headed  by  Owen  Glendower,  was 
followed  by  a  still  more  serious 
revolt  of  the  Percys,  which  was 
ended  by  the  battle  of  Shrewsbury, 
July  21,  1403.  In  1405  there  was 
another  insurrection  prompted  by 
the  exiled  Percy  of  Northumber- 
land and  headed  by  Mowbray  and 
Archbishop  Scrope,  and  another 
in  1408.  After  this,  Henry  was  much 
troubled  by  the  antagonism  of  his 
council,  headed  by  the  prince  of 
Wales,  afterwards  Henry  V.  He 
died  March  20,  1413.  See  History 
of  England  under  Henry  IV,  J.  H. 
Wylie,  1884-98. 

Henry  V  (1387-1422).  King  of 
England.  Henry  of  Monmouth, 
9,  1387,  succeeded  his 
father,  Henry 
i  IV,  in  1413. 
I  The  legends 
1  concerning 
I  'Madcap 
1  Hal"  are 
i  hardly  to  be 
I  trusted.  It  is 
I  quite  certain 
that,  as  prince 
of  Wales, 
Henry  ac- 
quired very 
serious  trail- 
ing as  a  sol- 
dier in  the  campaign  against  the 
Percys  and  in  Wales,  and  that 
he  played  an  active  part  at  the 
council  table  during  his  father's 
last  years.  Certainly  he  exhibited 
on  his  accession  a  character  and  a 
high  sense  of  responsibility  not 
generally  anticipated.  Something 
of  a  religious  zealot,  as  king  he 
persecuted  heresy  sternly,  per- 
suading himself  that  his  secular 
ambitions  were  justified  because 
he  was  an  instrument  in  the  hands 
of  the  Almighty  for  the  regenera- 
tion of  a  corrupt  and  demoralised 
France. 

At  the  beginning  of  his  reign  his 
power  of  swift  decision  and  rapid 
action  were  displayed  in  the 
prompt  and  crushing  suppression 
of  a  Lollard  insurrection  at  its 
outset.  He  then  at  once  turned  his 
mind  to  the  popular  project  of  re- 
viving the  quite  untenable  claim 
of  the  English  kings  to  the  French 
crown,  France  at  the  time  being 
distracted  by  the  rival  factions  of 
Burgundians  and  Armagnacs.  In 
1415  an  expedition  set  sail  for 
Normandy,  laid  siege  to  Harfleur, 
and  captured  it.  Leaving  a  garri- 
son there,  Henry,  with  a  small 
available  force  of  efficients,  not 
more  than  8,000  men,  made  an 
ostentatious  march  through  Nor- 
mandy to  Calais.  This  at  last 
brought  down  upon  him  the  hosts 


of  the  French,  who  had  temporarily 
adjusted  their  differences,  and  over 
them  his  little  army  won  the 
victory  of  Agincourt,  Oct.  25,  1415. 
The  next  two  years  he  devoted 
to  serious  preparations  for  an 
organized  conquest.  In  1417  he 
again  landed  in  Normandy  and  set 
about  its  systematic  reduction, 
taking  city  after  city  and  estab- 
lishing a  regular  government  as  he 
advanced.  In  Jan.,  1419,  Rouen  fell. 
The  assassination  of  John  of  Bur- 
gundy drove  his  son  Philip  into  the 
arms  of  the  English.  The  Bur- 
gundian  faction  held  possession  of 
the  person  of  the  crazy  king 
Charles  VI,  and  on  May  21,  1420, 
the  treaty  of  Troyes  was  signed 
which  recognized  Henry  as  heir 
to  Charles  and  regent  during  his 
life,  while  it  gave  him  the  hand  of 
the  princess  Catherine  in  marriage. 
The  greater  part  of  France,  how- 
ever, repudiated  the  treaty.  It 
was  still  necessary  to  continue  the 
process  of  systematic  conquest, 
and  before  even  the  whole  of  the  N. 
had  been  brought  into  subjection, 
Henry  died  of  dysentery  at  Vin- 
cennes,  Aug.  31,  1422.  See  Agin- 
court; consult  Henry  V,  A.  J. 
Church,  1889;  Henry  V,  C.  L. 
Kingsford,  1901  ;  The  Reign  of 
Henry  V,  J.  H.  Wylie,  1914-19. 

Henry  VI  (1421-71).  King  of 
England.  Henry  of  Windsor,  born 
Dec.  6,  1421,  son  of  Henry  V,  suc- 
ceeded to  the 
English  throne 
Aug.  31,  1422. 
During  his 
childhood  the 
government 
was  in  the 
hands  of  a 
council,  while 
his  uncle,  the 
duke  of  Bed- 
ford,  acted  as 
regent  in 
France.  Before 
Bedford's 
death,  in  1435,  it  had  become 
virtually  certain  that  the  French 
conquests  of  Henry  V  would  not 
be  retained.  Joan  of  Arc  (q.v.)  had 
revived  the  French  national  spirit, 
and  the  tide  of  English  victories 
was  turned. 

The  second  definitely  marked 
section  of  the  reign  extends  from 
1435  to  1453.  It  witnessed  the 
gradual  expulsion  of  the  English 
not  only  from  northern  France, 
conquered  by  Henry  V,  but  ev;en 
from  Guienne,  which  had  never 
been  entirely  separated  from  the 
English  crown  for  300  years.  Only 
the  Calais  Pale  was  left.  After 
Bedford's  death  the  party  of  the 
Beauforts  and  Poles  was  dominant, 
the  Beauforts  being  legitimated 
descendants  of  John  of  Gaunt,  who 

Z      6~ 


HENRY 


3938 


hoped  to  secure  the  succession  for 
themselves,  as  they  ultimately  did 
in  the  person  of  Henry  VII.  The 
opposition  to  them  was  headed  by 
the  king's  uncle,  Humphrey,  duke 
of  Gloucester,  and,  after  his  death 
in  1447,  by  Richard  of  York,  the 
grandson  of  Edmund  Mortimer. 
In  1445  Henry  married  Margaret  of 
Anjou,  who  allied  herself  with  the 
Beauforts. 

After  Gloucester's  death, Richard 
was  the  nearest  prince  of  the  blood 
and  the  heir  presumptive  to  the 
throne  until  the  birth  of  a  prince  of 
Wales  in  1453.  The  basis  of  the 
strife  between  the  Yorkist  and 
Beaufort  factions  was  the  fact  that 
the  king  was  very  nearly  an  im- 
becile and  occasionally  quite  insane, 
so  that  York  claimed  the  right  to 
exercise  the  authority  of  the  heir. 

From  1453  onwards  (the  third 
phase  of  the  reign)  the  rivalry  be- 
came increasingly  acute — York 
acting  as  Protector  of  the  Realm 
when  the  king  was  quite  mad,  the 
queen's  party  regaining  the  ascend- 
ancy when  he  recovered.  The  com- 
ing War  of  the  Roses  was  fore- 
shadowed in  the  battle  of  St. 
Albans,  May  22,  1455,  which  was 
followed  by  a  temporary  reconcilia- 
tion ;  but  in  1459  open  war  broke 
out.  York,  after  a  victory  at  North- 
ampton where  Henry  "was  taken 
prisoner,  July  10, 1460,  claimed  the 
crown  for  himself  in  virtue  of  his 
descent  from  the  elder  brother  of 
John  of  Gaunt ;  but  he  accepted  a 
compromise,  by  which  the  crown 
was  left  to  Henry  during  his  life, 
but  York,  instead  of  the  prince  of 
Wales,  was  recognized  as  his  heir. 

York  was  killed  atWakefield,Dec. 
31,  1460.  H.is  son  Edward  seized 
the  crown  with  the  aid  of  the  earl  of 
Warwick,  and  crushed  the  Lancas- 
trians at  Towton,  March  29,  1461, 
from  which  year  dates  the  reign  of 
Edward  IV.  Meanwhile  Henry  had 
escaped  from  his  captors  and  found 
refuge  in  Scotland.  In  1465  he  was 
caught  again  and  imprisoned  in  the 
Tower.  In  1470  Warwick  revolted 
against  Edward,  drove  him  out  of 
the  country,  and  again  set  Henry 
on  the  throne.  But  in  1471  Ed- 
ward returned,  finally  crushed  the 
Lancastrians  at  Bar-net,  April  14, 
and  Tewkesbury,  May  4,  where  the 
prince  of  Wales  was  killed,  and 
secured  his  throne  by  secretly  put- 
ting Henry  to  death,  May  21,  1471. 

Henry  was  the  gentlest  and  most 
pious  of  men,  and  most  earnest  in 
the  spread  of  education.  To  him 
England  owes  many  educational 
foundations,  notably  those  of  Eton 
and  King's  College,  Cambridge. 
See  The  Houses  of  Lancaster  and 
York,  James  Gairdner,  9«th  ed.  1896; 
Henry  the  Sixth,  repr.  of  J.  Blac- 
man's  Memoir,  M.  R.  James,  1919. 


Henry  VII  (1457-1 509).  King  of 
England.  Henry  Tudor,  earl  of 
Richmond,  born  at  Pembroke 
Castle,  Jan.  28, 
1457,  claimed 
the  throne  as 
representing 
the  House  of 
Lancaster 
through  t  h  e 
Beauforts,  le- 
gitimated de- 
scendants of 
John  of  Gaunt, 
father  of  Henry 


BB 


Henry  VII, 
King  of  England 


IV.  He  overthrew  and  slew  Richard 
III  at  the  battle  of  Bosworth,  Aug. 
22, 1485,  was  formally  recognized  by 
parliament  as  the  legitimate  king, 
and  secured  the  position  of  his  pos- 
terity by  marrying  Elizabeth  of 
York,  the  eldest  daughter  of  Ed- 
ward IV,  whose  brothers  had  been 
murdered  by  the  last  king. 

The  young  earl  of  Warwick,  the 
male  representative  of  the  Yorkist 
line,  was  shut  up  in  the  Tower. 
Lambert  Simnel,  a  pretender  who 
personated  Warwick,  was  made  the 
figurehead  of  a  Yorkist  revolt 
which  was  easily  crushed.  A  more 
dangerous  pretender  was  Perldn 
Warbeck,  who  claimed  to  be  the 
younger  of  the  two  princes  mur- 
dered in  the  Tower  by  Richard 
III.  He  was  finally  captured  in 
1497,  and  both  he  and  Warwick 
were  executed  in  1499. 

Henry's  great  task  was  the  re- 
establishment  in  England  of  a 
strong  government  in  the  control 
of  the  crown.  To  this  end  the  first 
necessity  was  to  destroy  the  power 
of  the  remnant  of  the  nobles  left  by 
the  War  of  the  Roses.  This  Henry 
effected  by  heavy  fines  and  con- 
fiscations which  filled  the  royal 
treasury  and  helped  him,  after 
1499,  to  dispense  with  pail  laments 
which  until  then  he  had  summoned 
frequently.  The  laws  forbidding 
the  nobles  to  maintain  retainers 
were  strictly  enforced. 

Henry  avoided  foreign  wars,  re- 
lying upon  diplomatic  action  and 
alliance  with  the  rising  power  of 
Spain  as  a  check  upon  France. 
Partly  in  order  to  raise  the  middle 
class  as  a  counterpoise  to  the  nobles 
Henry  directed  his  policy  to  the 
expansion  of  commerce,  though  he 
used  its  restriction  as  a  weapon 
against  political  adversaries  on  the 
Continent.  He  died  at  Richmond, 
April  22,  1509,  leaving  his  successor 
an  unprecedented  accumulation  of 
wealth.  See  Lives,  J.  Gairdner, 
1889 ;  G.  Temperley,  1919. 
,  Henry  VIII  (1491-1547).  King 
of  England.  Henry,  second  son  of 
Henry  VII,  born  at  Greenwich, 
June  28,  1491,  succeeded  his  father 
in  1509,  his  elder  brother  Arthur 
having  died  in  1502.  Having  ob- 


tained a  papal  dispensation,  he 
married  his  brother's  widow,  Cath- 
erine of  Aragon.  His  reign  falls 
into  two  definite  periods,  the 
first,  that  of  Wolsey's  ascendancy, 
ending  in  1529.  The  second  is 
marked  by  the  complete  establish- 
ment of  the  royal  supremacy,  in 
which  Henry's  principal  agent  was 
Thomas  Cromwell. 

The  young  king  was  inveigled 
into  a  war  with  France  by  Ferdi- 
nand of  Spain  and  the  emperor 
Maximilian,  but  the  war  came  to 
nothing.  In  the  course  of  it  a  Scot- 
tish invasion  was  crushed  at  the 
great  battle  of  Flodden,  Sept.  9, 
1513.  Henry  found  in  Wolsey  a 
minister  to  whom  he  could  safely 
entrust  the  control  of  state  affairs  ; 
though  the  king's  own  will  was 
always  supreme.  The  cardinal 
sought  to  make  England  the 
arbiter  between  the  two  powerful 
young  European  monarchs,  Francis 
I  and  Charles  V ;  but  it  was  pro- 
bably against  Wolsey's  will  that 
England  in  1522  sided  with  Charles 


in  his  war  with  Francis,  playing 
therein  no  very  effective  part. 

Wolsey's  fall  was  brought  about 
by  Henry's  determination  to  marry 
Anne  Boleyn,  and  for  that  purpose 
to  procure  the  nullification  of  his 
marriage  with  Catherine  of  Aragon. 
In  1529  Wolsey  failed  to  procure 
the  papal  sanction  for  the  di- 
vorce, and  was  in  consequence 
dismissed,  with  rank  ingratitude 
for  his  faithful  service.  His  policy 
of  holding  the  balance  between 
Charles  and  Francis  fell  into  abey- 
ance ;  Henry  subordinated  all  else 
to  coercing  the  pope. 

Supported  by  the  parliament, 
which  he  summoned  with  that  end 
in  view,  and  probably  guided  by 
Cromwell  in  the  methods  he  adopt- 
ed, Henry  compelled  the  clergy  to 
acknowledge  him  as  supreme  head 


HENRY 


3939 


of  the  Church  in  England  ;  ended 
once  for  all  the  payments  made 
to  the  papal  treasury ;  and  finally 
repudiated  the  ecclesiastical  au- 
thority of  the  pope  in  England. 
In  defiance  of  the  pope,  the  English 
ecclesiastical  courts  pronounced 
the  marriage  with  Catherine  void, 
and  Henry  married  Anne  Boleyn. 

The  next  step  was  the  suppres- 
sion of  the  monasteries ;  the  smaller 
houses  were  dissolved  on  the  score 
of  immorality  in  1536,  and  the 
larger  in  1539,  partly  on  the  same 
charge  and  partly  on  that  of  treason. 
Henry,  however,  permitted  no  de- 
parture from  the  recognized  doc- 
trines of  the  Church  beyond  dis- 
tinguishing between  practices 
which  were  essential  and  those 
which  were  enforced  as  "con- 
venient." 

A  Catholic  insurrection  in  the 
north  called  the  Pilgrimage  of  Grace, 
in  1536,  was  mercilessly  and  some- 
what treacherously  suppressed. 
The  royal  authority  was  secured  by 
the  Treasons  Act,  1534,  and  the 
Royal  Proclamations  Act  in  1539. 
Henry  was  always  careful  to  obtain 
every  increase  of  royal  power,  and 
sanction  for  all  legislation,  from 
parliament  itself.  Now,  with  the 
same  cynical  ingratitude  which  had 
flung  Wolsey  aside,  he  sent  Crom- 
well to  his  doom  in  1540. 

The  last  six  years  of  the  reign 
were  marked  by  a  desultory  war 
with  France,  and  by  the  crushing 
overthrow  of  an  invading  Scots 
army  at  Solway  Moss  in  1542. 
Henry  married  six  times.  The  mar- 
riage with  Catherine  of  Aragon  was 
annulled  ;  Anne  Boleyn  was  exe- 
cuted on  charges  of  treasonable  in- 
fidelity ;  Jane  Seymour  died  on 
giving  birth  to  the  future  Edward 
VI ;  the  marriage  to  Anne  of 
Cleves  was  pronounced  void  within 
a  few  weeks  of  its  celebration ; 
Catherine  Howard  suffered  the 
same  fate  as  Anne  Boleyn ;  but  the 
sixth  wife,  Catherine  Parr,  survived 
her  husband!  Henry  died  Jan. 
28,  1547.  See  Acting. 

Bibliography.  History  of  England, 
1856-70,  J.  A.  Froude;  Reign  of 
Henry  VIII,  J.  S.  Brewer,  1884; 
Henry  VIII  and  the  English  Monas- 
teries, F.  A.  Gasquet,  1899;  His- 
tories of  the  English  Church,  R.  W. 
Dixon  and  J.  Gairdner,  1902  ;  Henry 
VIII,  A.  F.  Pollard,  1905. 

Henry  I,  CALLED  THE  FOWLER 
(c.  876-936).  German  king.  Son  of  a 
duke  of  Saxony,  Henry  succeeded 
him  in912,and  both  before  andafter 
his  accession  did  much  to  protect 
his  land  from  various  invaders.  His 
fame  as  a  warrior  spread  far,  and 
in  919,  after  Conrad's  death,  he  was 
chosen  German  king.  His  reign  was 
full  of  wars,  for  many  princes  re- 
fused to  submit  to  him,  and  he  quar- 
relled with  the  king  of  France  over 


Lorraine ;  but  to  Saxony  he  was  a 
great  benefactor,  not  unlike  Alfred 
in  England.  He  trained  and 
organized  an  army  to  defend  the 
country,  had  walls  built  around  the 
towns,  and  in  other  ways  made  the 
duchy  more  secure  and  prosperous, 
also  enlarging  his  territory  by  wars 
with  his  neighbours.  Henry  died 
July  2,  936,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  son,  Otto  the  Great. 

Henry  H  (973-1024).  German 
king  and  Roman  emperor.  Born 
May  6,  973,  a  descendant  of  Henry 
the  Fowler,  his  father  was  duke  of 
Bavaria.  In  995  he  succeeded  to  the 
dukedom,  and  in  1002,  when  Otto 
III  died  without  sons,  induced  the 
German  notables  to  choose  him  as 
their  ruler.  He  had  some  trouble 
with  other  claimants,  but  he  man- 
aged to  hold  his  own,  and  spent  the 
next  few  years  in  Italy,  in  warfare 
with  the  Poles,  and  in  crushing  a 
series  of  rebellions.  In  1014,  there 
being  then  a  lull  in  this  strife, 
Henry  was  crowned  emperor  at 
Rome,  and  the  concluding  years  of 
his  reign  were  passed  in  an  attempt 
to  add  Burgundy,  then  a  separate 
kingdom,  to  his  lands,  and  in  fight- 
ing the  Greeks  in  Italy,  where  he 
was  the  pope's  ally.  He  died  July 
13,  1024.  Henry,  who -was  known 
as  the  saint,  was  keenly  interested 
in  ecclesiastical  matters,  being  one 
of  those  who  wished  to  see  the 
Church  reformed.  He  was  canon- 
ised in  1146. 

Henry  III  (101 7-1056).  German 
king  and  Roman  emperor.  Son  of 
the  emperor  Conrad  II,  he  was  born 
Oct.  28,  1017.  To  secure  his  future 
position  Conrad  had  him  crowned 
king  when  he  was  only  ten  years 
old,  and  in  a  few  years  he  began  to 
take  an  active  part  in  imperial 
affairs.  He  succeeded  to  the  throne 
in  1039,  no  rivals  appearing  to  dis- 
pute his  inheritance,  and  his  reign 
of  seventeen  years  was  almost  free 
from  that  internal  strife  which  dis- 
turbed the  time  of  his  father,  and 
his  son.  On  the  frontiers,  however, 
Henry  had  full  occupation.  The 
Bohemians  and  the  Hungarians 
were  most  troublesome  ;  so  on  the 
other  side  were  Burgundy  and 
Lorraine.  These  risings,  however, 
were  all  crushed,  and  having  settled 
a  dispute  between  three  rivals  for 
the  papacy  by  appointing  Clement 
II,  Henry  was  crowned  emperor  at 
Rome  in  1046.  The  Normans  next 
felt  the  weight  of  his  hand.  The 
emperor,  whose  first  wife  was  a 
daughter  of  Canute  the  Great,  died 
Oct.  5,  1056. 

Henry  IV  (1050-1 106).  German 
king  and  Roman  emperor.  Born 
Nov.  11,  1050,  he  was  the  son  of 
the  emperor  Henry  III,  who  had 
him  chosen  and  crowned  king 
before  he  was  four  years  old.  This 


proceeding  secured  for  him  the 
throne  when  his  father  died  in  1056, 
but  for  the  next  twelve  years  he 
was  controlled 
by  ambitious 
ecclesiastics, 
and  did  not 
really  begin  to 
reign  until 
1069.  Like  his 
predecessors, 
he  found  it  far 
from  easy  to 
make  the  van- 
ous  peoples 
obey  him,  and 
his  early  years  were  passed  in  deal- 
ing with  revolts. 

Henry  is  chiefly  known  as  the 
rival  of  Gregory  VII.  He  refused 
to  give  up,  at  the  papal  command, 
the  right  to  invest  the  German 
bishops  with  their  lands,  and  was 
excommunicated.  Alone  he  would 
probably  have  been  able  to  resist 
the  pope,  but  the  alliance  of  the 
latter  with  the  powerful  forces  of 
discontent  in  Germany,  especially 
strong  in  Saxony,  was  too  much 
for  him,  and  in  1074  he  submitted 
to  Gregory  at  Canossa,  a  deed  that 
burnt  itself  into  the  memory  of 
Europe,  but  was  not  really  of 
major  importance.  The  reconcilia- 
tion did  not  endure  ;  excommuni- 
cation by  the  pope  was  answered 
by  declarations  of  deposition  by 
Henry,  and  rivals  were  put  forward 
to  both  parties.  He  was  for  a 
time  hard  pressed,  but  gradually 
he  wore  down  his  foes. 

In  1081  Henry  went  to  Italy, 
gained  successes  in  the  north,  and, 
after  several  rebuffs  before  its  walls, 
entered  Rome  in  1 084.  G  regory  was 
dethroned  and  besieged,  and  his 
successor  Clement  III  crowned 
Henry  emperor.  The  last  period  of 
Henry's  life  was  troubled  by  risings 
on  the  part  of  his  sons.  The  elder, 
Conrad,  found  support  in  Italy, 
but  not  in  Germany,  where  Henry, 
the  younger,  had  many  friend's. 
The  malcontents  made  the  old 
emperor  prisoner,  and  forced  him 
to  abdicate,  but  he  managed  to 
escape  from  their  hands  and  was 
preparing  for  a  new  campaign  when 
he  died  at  Liege,  Aug.  7,  1 106.  See 
Empire ;  Gregory  VII ;  Investiture. 
Henry  V  (1081-1125).  German 
king  and  Roman  emperor.  The  son 
of  the  emperor  Henry  IV,  he  was 
born  Jan.  8,  1081.  When  his  elder 
brother  Conrad  revolted,  the  elder 
Henry  named  him  as  his  successor, 
and,  the  princes  consenting,  he  was 
crowned  as  such  in  1099.  How- 
ever, he  too  revolted  against  his 
father,  who  died  Jan.,  1 1 06.  Henry 
then  became  sole  king,  and  in  1111 
he  was  crowned  emperor  in  Rome. 
A  previous  ceremony  for  this  pur- 
pose  broke  up  in  disorder,  and  this 


3940 


HENRY 


Henry  V, 
German  king 


one  was  preceded  by  disorder  in 
Rome  between  the  forces  of  the 
emperor  and  those  of  the  pope. 
This  reign  is  marked  by  a  settle- 
m e n t  of  the 
investiture  con- 
tr  overs  y, 
though  only 
after  the  bitter 
struggle  had 
been  continued 
from  the  time 
of  Henry  IV. 
T  h  e  emperor 
a  1 1  a  c  k  ed  the 
lands  of  the 
pope  and  his  friends,  and  set  up 
anti-popes  of  his  own  ;  in  return 
he  was  excommunicated  and  his 
enemies  encouraged.  The  concordat 
of  Worms  signed  in  1122  was  a 
compromise.  When  not  in  Italy, 
Henry  was  fighting  against  rebel- 
lious vassals.  He  died  at  Utrecht, 
May  23, 1125.  He  married  Matilda, 
daughter  of  Henry  I  of  England, 
but  left  no  children.  See  In- 
vestiture. 

Henry  VI  (1165-97).  German 
king  and  Roman  emperor.  Son  of 
the  emperor  Frederick  T,  he  was 
educated  by  clerics  for  the  high 
position  marked  out  for  him  by 
his  father.  When  only  four  years 
old  the  emperor  had  him  chosen 
and  crowned  as  his  successor,  and 
when  nineteen  he  acted  as  ruler 
of  Germany.  The  main  interest  of 
his  life  arose  from  his  marriage  in 
1186  to  Constance,  the  heiress  of 
the  kingdom  of  Sicily,  an  event 
which  led  to  serious  trouble  be- 
tween pope  and  emperor. 

In  1190,  on  Frederick's  death, 
Henry  began  his  short  reign.  At 
once  he  went  to  Italy,  where  the 
death  of  the  king  of  Sicily  had 
just  given  him  another  crown.  He 
was  crowned  emperor  in  Rome, 
but  he  found  the  rebels  in  his 
southern  kingdom,  which  included 
Naples,  too  strong  for  him.  In  Ger- 
many, too,  his  foes  were  strong 
and  numerous,  but  after  a  year  or 
two  of  fighting  he  brought  about 
something  like  peace.  In  1194 
he  went  to  Sicily  ;  this  time  his 
armies  were  stronger  than  those  of 
his  rival  Tancred,  whose  death 
took  place  at  this  time,  and  he  was 
crowned  king  at  Palermo. 

This  achieved,  and  Germany 
more  peaceful,  Henry  sought  to  ex- 
tend his  power  in  other  directions, 
his  one  aim  being  to  make  himself 
overlord  of  the  kings  of  Europe. 
He  had  just  put  down  a  fresh 
rising  in  Italy  when  he  died  at 
Messina,  Sept.  28,  1197.  Henry 
was  a  man  of  some  culture. 

Henry  VII  (c.  1270-1313).  Ger- 
man king  and  Roman  emperor.  A 
son  of  Henry  III,  count  of  Luxem- 
burg, this  prince  was  a  Frenchman 


in  speech  and  sympathy,  but, 
doubtless  because  he  was  none  too 
powerful,  was  chosen  German 
king  in  1308.  He  did  what  he  could 
to  restore  order  in  Germany,  and 
in  1311  went  to  Italy,  where  Dante 
and  the  Ghibellines  hoped  he  would 
restore  the  authority  of  the  empire. 
But  although  crowned  emperor  in 
1312,  Henry  was  quite  unequal  to 
this  achievement  in  the  face  of  his 
strong  and  numerous  enemies.  He 
died  at  Buonconvento,  near  Siena, 
Aug.  24,  1313.  His  son  was  John, 
the  blind  king  of  Bohemia,  who  fell 
atCrecy.  On  Oct.  30,  1920,  his 
remains  were  removed  from  the 
Campo  Santo  at  Pisa  to  the  cathe- 
dral, where  a  monument  had  been 
erected. 

Henry  I  (1008-60).  King  of 
France.  A  son  of  King  Robert  and 
a  grandson  of  Hugh  Capet,  he  was 
crowned  king 
in  his  fathers 
i  f  e  t  i  m  e.  In 
1031  his  father 
died,  and  he 
reigned  alone 
until  1059, 
when  he  made 
his  own  son 
Philip  his  col- 
Henry  I,  league,  dying 
King  of  France  Aug.  4  in  the 
following  year.  His  reign  was  spent 
in  warfare,  first  with  his  brother 
Robert,  and  then  with  his  vassals, 
prominent  among  whom  was  Wil- 
liam of  Normandy,  the  Conqueror 
of  England.  He  also  had  relations, 
not  always  friendly,  with  the  pope 
and  the  emperor  Henry  III. 

Henry  II  (1519-59).  King  of 
France.  Son  of  Francis  I,  he  passed 
part  of  his  early  life  in  Spain,  where 
from  1526-30 
he  was  a  host- 
age. In  1533 
he  m  arried 
Catherine  de' 
Medici,  and  in 
1536  became 
heir  to  the 
throne  on  the 
death  of  his 
elder  brother 
Francis.  For 
the  next  ten  years  he  occupied 
himself  mainly  in  dissipations,  was 
dominated  by  his  mistress,  Diana 
of  Poitiers,  and  quarrelled  with  his 
father,  one  difference  being  due  to 
the  dauphin's  Spanish  sympathies. 
In  1547  he  became  king,  and  his 
rule  of  eleven  years  was  a  period 
of  oppression  at  home  and  war 
abroad.  His  favourites  managed 
everything  in  their  own  interests, 
for  the  manly  frame  of  the  king 
was  not  matched  by  a  manly  spirit. 
During  a  tournament  held  to 
celebrate  a  double  wedding  in  the 
royal  family,  Henry  was  wounded 


Henry  III, 
King  of  France 


in  the  head  by  the  lance  of  the  count 
of  Montgomery  on  June  30,  and  he 
died  July  10,' 1559.  Three  of  his 
eons,  Francis  II,  Charles  IX,  and 
Henry  III,  came  to  the  throne  ; 
the  other  was  Francis,  duke  of 
Anjou.  One  of  his  daughters  was 
the  wife  of  Philip  II  of  Spain,  and 
another  of  Henry  of  Navarre. 

Henry  III  (1551-89).  King  of 
France.  Third  son  of  Henry  II  and 
Catherine  de'  Medici,  Henry  was 
born  at  Fon- 
t  a  i  n  e  b  1  e  a  u, 
Sept.  19,  1551. 
In  1573  he  was 
elected,  against 
his  own  will, 
king  of  Poland. 
Soon  the  death 
of  his  elder 
brother, 
Charles  IX,  in 
1574,  brought 
him  back  to  France  as  king.  Al- 
though a  man  of  considerable 
ability,  the  real  ruler  of  his  kingdom 
was  his  mother.  He  found  a  dan- 
gerous enemy  in  Henry,  duke  of 
Guise,  and  all  but  lost  his  crown  on 
the  Day  of  Barricades,  May  12, 
1588,  when  the  Guise  party  engin- 
eered a  rising  in  Paris,  and  then 
sought  in  vain  to  placate  popular 
discontent  by  summoning  the 
states-general  at  Blois.  There,  Dec. 
23,  1588,  he  treacherously  caused 
Guise  to  be  assassinated.  Excom- 
municated, he  tried  to  retrieve  his 
power  by  an  alliance  with  the 
Huguenots  and  Henry  of  Navarre, 
whom  he  recognized  as  his  heir, 
but  he  was  mortally  stabbed  in 
Henry's  camp  at  St.  Cloud  by 
Jacques  Clement,  Aug.  1,  1589. 

Henry  IV  (1553-1610).  King  of 
France.  Born  at  Pau,  Dec.  14, 
1553,  he  was  a  son  of  Antony  of 
Bourbon  and  his  wife,  Jeanne 
d'Albret,  queen  of  Navarre.  He 
was  brought  up  as  a  Protestant, 
and  spent  part  of  his  youth  at  the 
French  court,  where  he  was  edu- 
cated, for  the  Bourbons  were  a 
younger  branch  of  the  royal 
family.  The  union  was  made  closer 
by  Henry's  marriage  in  1572  with 
Margaret,  sister  of  Charles  IX  ;  six 
days  later  the  massacre  of  St. 
Bartholomew  occurred.  In  the 
same  year  he  became  king  of 
Navarre.  His  life  had  been  spared 
by  his  promise  of  conformity  to 
Roman  Catholicism,  but  in  1576  he 
joined  the  Huguenot  leaders. 

The  absence  of  children  to  the 
French  king  and  his  brothers  made 
Henry  an  important  person  in 
France,  and  for  the  next  13  years 
he  was  concerned  in  its  various 
intrigues.  He  began  his  career  as 
a  soldier  by  leading  the  Huguenots 
in  the  short  war  that  ended  in 
1580,  and  in  1586-87  he  carried 


HENRY 


Henry  IV, 
King  of  France 

After  Porbus 


on  another.  The  Guises  and  their 
party  were  determined  to  prevent 
his  accession,  but  events  compelled 
Henry  III  to 
adopt  a  differ- 
ent policy.  He 
recognized  the 
king  of  Na- 
varre, who  be- 
came titular 
king  of  France 
on  Aug.  1, 
1589. 

Henry  had 
now  to  conquer 
his  kingdom,) 
which  he  did  by  a  wise  mixture  of 
diplomacy  and  force.  He  won  the 
battles  of  Ivry  and  Arques  and  cap- 
tured Paris,  but  equally  potent  was 
his  politic  conversion  in  1593  to 
Roman  Catholicism.  In  1598  Philip 
II  of  Spain,  who  had  helped  his 
enemies,  made  peace,  and  France,  j 
granted  the  edict  of  Nantes,was  more  > 
than  ready  to  accept  Henry  as  king.  < 
Henry's  reign  was  a  period  of 
comparative  prosperity  for  his 
country.  Under  Sujly's  direction 
much  was  done  for  industry  ;  the 
burdens  on  the  people  were  reduced 
and  the  evils  of  the  civil  war,  to 
some  extent,  remedied.  Abroad, 
the  house  of  Habsburg  was  watched  ! 
jealously,  its  ambitions  being 
checked  by  steady  encouragement 
to  its  enemies.  War  had  just  been 
declared  upon  Germany,  when,  on 
May  14,  1610,  the  king  was  assas- 
sinated by  Ravaillac.  Henry  owed 
his  populaiity  to  the  circumstances 
of  his  reign,  the  relief  it  brought 
from  civil  strife,  and  to  his  own 
qualities,  his  courage  and  gaiety, 
frankness  and  amiability.  His 
passion  for  women  was  notorious  ; 
he  had  many  mistresses  and  several 
illegitimate  children.  His  lawful 
issue  included  Louis  XIII,  Gaston, 
duke  of  Orleans,  and  Henrietta 
Maria,  the  queen  of  Charles  I. 

Bibliography.  Life  of  Henry  IV, 
King  of  France  and  Navarre,  3 
vols.,  G.  P.  R.  James,  1847  ;  The 
First  of  the  Bourbons,  2  vols.,  C.  C. 
Jackson,  1890  ;  Henry  IV  of 
France,  S.  M.  Leathes,  1904. 

Henry,  PRINCE  (b.  1900).  Brit- 
ish prince.  The  third  son  of  King 
George  V  and  Queen  Mary,  he  was 
born  at  York 
Cottage, 
March  31, 
1900,  and  was 
ch  ristened 
Henry  Wil- 
lianiFrederick 
Albert.  The 
prince  wan 
delicate  in 
early  life,  but 
benefited  from 
residence  at 
Broadstairs, 
where  he  was 


a  pupil  at  a  private  school.  Thence 
he  proceeded  to  Eton,  where  he 
joined  the  Officers'  Training  Corps. 
He  became  a  2nd  lieut.  in  the 
King's  Royal  RifleCorps,July,1919. 
Henry  (b.  1862).  Prussian  prince. 
The  younger  son  of  the  German 
emperor  Frederick,  he  was-  born 
at  Potsdam,  Aug.  14, 1862,  and  was 
baptized  Heinrich  Albrecht  Wil- 
helm.  Educated  partly  at  Cassel, 
he  was  trained  for  the  navy,  which 
he  entered,  after  a  voyage  round 
the  world,  in  1880.  In  1901  he 
was  made  admiral,  and  later  be- 
came inspector-general  of  marine, 
appearing  from  time  to  time  as  the 
representative  of  his  brother  Wil- 
liam II.  When  the  Great  War 
broke  out  he  was  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  German  navy,  but 
he  was  only  heard  of  in  1915  as 
joint  author  with  Hindenburg  of  a 
plan  to  capture  Petrograd. 

Another  Prussian  prince  of  this 
name  was  a  younger  brother  of 
Frederick  the  Great,  and  a  son  of 
Frederick 
William  I  of 
Prussia.  Born 
Jan.  18,  1726, 
in  Berlin,  he 
became  a  sol- 
dier. He  held 
a  command  in 
the  Seven 
Years'  War, 

Henry,  an(^  remained 

Prince  of  Prussia       active  in  Prus- 

Fro m  a  print  S  i  a  n     poli  tics 

until  his  death,  Aug.  3,  1802. 

Henry,  GEORGE.  Scottish  painter. 
Born  at  Ayrshire,  he  studied  at  the 
Glasgow  School  of  Art.  In  1890,  a 
picture  of  The 
Druids,  exe- 
cuted in  collab- 
oration with 
E.  A.  Hornel, 
called  a  1 1  e  n- 
tion  to  both 
painters,  and 
in  the  same 
year  Henry's 
Galloway 
Landscape,  at 
the  Glasgow 
Institute,  marked  a  new  departure. 
In  1893  he  accompanied  Hornel 
to  Japan ;  but  the  visit,  so  far  from 
enhancing  his  liking  for  brilliant 
colour  patterns,  was  followed  by  a 
leaning  towards  more  restrained 
tones.  Rich  colouring  and  tone 
distinguish  The  Blue  Gown,  now  in 
the  Cape  Town  Gallery  ;  The  Mir- 
ror, Gold-fish,  and  The  Blue  Veil 
are  representative  of  his  nameless 
portraits.  He  was  elected  A.R.S.A. 
1892,  U.S.A.  1902,  and  R.A.  1920. 
Henry,  JOSEPH  (1799-1878). 
American  physicist.  Born  at  Al- 
bany, New  York,  Dec.  17,  1799,  he 
became  professor  of  mathematics 


George  Henry, 
Scottish  painter 

Russell 


Joseph  Henry, 
American  physicist 


and  natural 
philosophy  at 
Albany  Acade- 
my in  1826. 
There  he  at 
once  showed  a 
remarkable 
ability  in  elec- 
trical research 
and  experi- 
ment, improv- 
ing the  electro- 
magnet to  such  an  extent  that 
his  experiments  marked  a  definite 
epoch  in  the  practical  applica- 
tions of  the  electric  current.  In 
1831-32  Henry  carried  out  a  series 
of  important  experiments  in  the 
transmission  of  electric  current 
which  was  the  forerunner  of  the 
telegraph.  His  discovery  in  1842 
that  the  discharge  of  a  Leyden  jar 
induced  discharges  in  other  circuits 
some  distance  away  was  a  funda- 
mental discovery  of  wireless  tele- 
graphy. 

In  1846  Henry  was  appointed 
secretary  to  the  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution. After  him  was  named 
the  electric  unit  of  self-induction. 
He  died  May  13,  1878. 

Henry,  MATTHEW  (1662-1714). 
Nonconformist  minister  and  com- 
mentator. The  .son  of  Philip 
Henry,  he  was 
born  at  Broad 
Oak,Flintshire, 
Oct.  18,  1662, 
and  studied  for 
the  law.  In 
1687,  having 
been  ordained, 
he  became  a 
Presbyterian 
minister  at 
Chester,  where 
he  was  extraor- 
dinarily  suc- 
cessful and  influential.  He  remained 
there  until  1712,  when  he  became 
minister  of  a  church  in  Mare  St., 
Hackney.  He  died  at  Nantwich, 
June  22,  1714,  and  there  is  a  monu- 
ment to  him  at  Chester. 

Henry  wrote  much,  but  is  speci- 
ally noted  for  his  Exposition  of 
the  Old  and  New  Testament,  fre- 
quently republished,  which  was 
completed  by  several  nonconform- 
ist divines.  'Henry's  father,  Philip 
Henry  (1631-96),  was  a  clergy- 
man. He  became  a  Nonconformist 
in  1662,  when  he  was  ejected  from 
his  living.  He  died  at  Broad  Oak, 
where  he  had  preached  for  several 
years,  June  24,  1696. 

Henry,  O.  (1862-1910).  Pen- 
name  of  William  Sydney  Porter, 
American  short-story  writer  and 
journalist.  Born  at  Greensboro. 
Guilford  county,  N.  Carolina,  Sept. 
11,  1862,  he  became  editor  of  a 
humorous  weekly  called  The  Roll- 
ing Stone,  in  Austin,  Texas,  where 


Matthew  Henry, 

Nonconformist 

minister 

From  a  print 


HENRY 


3942 


HENRY    Vll'S    CHAPEL 


he  was  paying  and  receiving  teller 
in  the  First  National  Bank,  and 
afterwards  joined  the  staff  of  The 
Post  in  Hous- 
ton. In  1898  he 
began  to  write 
short  stories  for 
the  magazines, 
of  which  twelve 
volumes  have 
been  collected. 

Among      the 
best    of     his 
0.  Henry,  stories  are  The 

American  author  TrimmedLamp, 
The  Last  of  the  Troubadours,  The 
Passing  of  Black  Eagle,  The  Fur- 
nished Room,  The  Defeat  of  the 
City,  The  Cop  and  the  Anthem, 
The  Last  Leaf,  The  Lost  Blend, 
Vanity  and  Some  Sables,  Lost  on 
Dress  Parade,  Roses,  Ruses  and 
Romance,  and  Little  Speck  in 
Garnered  Fruit.  Henry  died  in 
New  York,  June  5,  1910.  See  O. 
Henry,  a  biography,  C.  A.  Smith, 
1916. 

Henry,  PATRICK  (1736-99). 
American  orator  and  statesman. 
Born  at  Studley.  Hanover  county, 
Virginia,  May 
29,  1736,  he 
was  of  Scot- 
tish-Welsh de- 
scent. Unsuc- 
cessful as  a 
farmer  and 
tradesman,  he 
took  up  law, 
and  rapidly 
built  up  an 
extensive 
practice.  As 
a  member 
of  the  Virginia  House  of  Burgesses, 
he  violently  attacked  the  Stamp 
Act  of  1765  and  favoured  an  im- 
mediate rupture.  A  delegate  to 
the  Continental  Congress  of  1774, 
at  the  Virginia  Convention  of  1775 
by  an  eloquent  speech  he  induced 
the  members  to  pass  resolutions  for 
armin.a  the  state.  While  governor 
of  Virginia,  in  1788,  at  the  Con- 
vention assembled  to  ratify  the 
federal  constitution,  he  opposed  its 
introduction  as  calculated  to  in- 
fringe therights  of  individual  states. 
He  died  June  6,  1799.  See  Life, 
Correspondence,  and  Speeches  of 
Patrick  Henry,  W.  W.  Henry,  1891 ; 
The  True  Patrick  Henry,  G.  Mor- 
gan, 1907. 

Henry  OF  HUNTINGDON.  English 
chronicler.  A  cleric  in  the  diocese 
of  Lincoln,  Henry  lived  in  the  early 
part  of  the  12th  century  and  wrote 
a  History  of  the  English  from  the 
coming  of  Julius  Caesar  to  the 
reign  of  Henry  II.  The  value  of  the 
work  is  depreciated  by  the  author's 
reliance  upon  ill-authenticated 
tradition  and  his  occasional  indul- 
gence of  his  imagination.  The  His- 


toria  Anglorum  was  published  in 
the  Rolls  Series  in  1879  and  has 
been  translated  into  English. 

Henry  THE  LION  (1129-1195). 
German  prince.  The  son  of  Henry 
the  Proud,  duke  of  Bavaria  and 
Saxony,  he  belonged  to  the  Welf 
family.  In  1 139,  when  only  a  boy, 
he  became  duke  of  Saxony  and 
Bavaria,  but  his  friends  had  to 
fight  for  his  rights,  which  were 
threatened  by  Conrad  II.  In  1 142, 
however,  peace  was  made  ;  Henry 
gave  up  Bavaria,  and  kept  Saxony. 

As  duke  of  Saxony  he  made  his 
name.  He  greatly  extended  its 
boundaries  by  driving  back  or  con- 
quering the  heathen  tribes  beyond 
the  Elbe.  He  recovered  Bavaria, 
being  granted  the  duchy  by  the 
emperor  Frederick  I,  who  was 
anxious  for  his  assistance  in  his 
Italian  wars.  This  Henry  gave, 
until,  in  1175,  he  refused  to  go  to 
Italy  to  Frederick's  help. 

In  1181  the  emperor  invaded 
Saxony,  and  the  duke  soon  sub- 
mitted. Of  his  great  possessions  he 
was  allowed  to  keep  Brunswick 
and  Liineburg  only,  while  he  was 
banished  until  1185.  He  died 
Aug.  6,  1195.  Henry,  who  married 
Matilda,  daughter  of  Henry  II  of 
England,  was  ancestor  of  the  elec- 
tors of  Hanover  and  kings  of  Great 
Britain.  See  Frederick  I ;  Saxony. 

Henry  THE  MINSTREL  OB  BLIND 
HARRY  (d.  c.  1492).  Scottish  poet 
and  reciter.  Said  to  have  been  a 
native  of  Lothian,  and  blind  from 
his  birth,  he  made  a  living  by 
reciting  a  poem  of  his  own  compo- 
sition, into  which  he  wove  all  the 
traditional  stories  about  William 
Wallace.  There  are  several  entries 
in  the  royal  treasurer's  accounts  of 
payments  to  him,  1490-92.  His 
poem,  written  in  the  Lothian 
dialect,  and  consisting  of  more  than 
5,000  couplets,  exists  in  a  MS., 
dated  1488,  preserved  in  the 
Advocates'  Library,  Edinburgh. 
A  modernised  version,  by  William 
Hamilton,  of  Gilbertfield,  1722, 
was  long  popular  in  Scotland.  See 
A  Critical  Study  of  Blind  Harry, 
J.  Moir,  1888. 

Henry  (1394-1 460).  Portuguese 
prince,  called  the  Navigator.  Son 
of  King  John  I,  he  was  born  at 
Oporto,  March 
4,  1394.  His 
mother  was  a 
daughter  of 
John  of  Gaunt. 
He  took  part 
in  the  conquest 
of  Ceuta,  1415. 
He  began  to 
send  out  sailors 
on  vovaees  of  Henry  tne  Ma vigator. 
discovery,  Portueuese  P"n<>e 
and  with  intervals  continued  his 
work  for  nearly  50  years.  He 


himself  went  on  one  or  two  voy- 
ages, but  he  was  mainly  occupied 
with  organizing  and  financing  the 
expeditions.  He  made  his  home  at 
Sagres,  where  he  erected  an  ob- 
servatory, set  on  foot  something 
like  a  college  of  navigation,  and 
had  an  arsenal.  He  died  at  Sagres, 
Nov.  13,  1460.  See  Africa. 

Henry  VH's  Chapel.  Eastern 
extension  of  Westminster  Abbey 
(q.v.).  Founded  by  the  king  after 
whom  it  is  named,  it  replaced  the 
13th  century  Lady  Chapel  in  1503- 
19.  Henry  VII  intended  it  to  be 
the  shrine  of  Henry  VI,  who  is 
buried  at  Windsor ;  it  became  his 
own  burial  place.  At  the  E.  end, 
in  the  apse,  are  five  small  chapels  ; 
the  nave  or  central  chapel  is  divided 
from  the  S.  aisle  or  Margaret 
Chapel,  and  the  N.  aisle  or  Eliza- 
beth Chapel,  by  the  stalls  of  the 
knights  and  esquires  of  the  order 
of  the  Bath  (q.v.).  In  length  104 
ft.,  breadth  70  ft.,  unrivalled  in  its 
sculpture,  the  fan  tracery  of  its 
roof,  its  stone  statues  of  saints, 
beautiful  specimens  of  later  me- 
dieval art,  stone  panelling  and 
traceried  windows,  it  is  the  finest 
example  of  late  Perpendicular  ar- 
chitecture in  the  kingdom.  The 
name  of  its  architect  is  unknown. 

On  the  large  oaken  and  bronze- 
covered  doors,  the  grille  surround- 
ing Henry  VTI's  tomb,  and  in  the 
E.  window  are  badges  or  emblems 
symbolical  of  Henry's  claim  to  the 
throne.  In  the  vault  beneath  the 
tomb,  the  work  of  Pietro  Torri- 
giano,  rest  Henry  VII,  his  wife 
Elizabeth  of  York,  and  James  I. 
Below  the  altar  Edward  VI  was 
buried.  Near  is  the  pulpit  said  to 
be  Cranmer  s  ;  W.  of  the  altar  were 
interred  George  II  and  Caroline  of 
Anspach.  In  the  N.E.  chapel  of 
the  apse  is  the  grave  of  Anne  of 
Denmark ;  in  the  S.E.  chapel  the 
graves  of  Dean  Stanley  and  his 
wife,  Lady  Augusta  Stanley.  In 
the  S.  or  Margaret  Chapel  are  the 
tombs  of  Margaret,  countess  of 
Lennox,  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  and 
Margaret  Beaufort,  and  the  graves 
of  Charles  II,  many  other  members 
of  the  Stuart  line,  Mary  II,  William 
III,  Queen  Anne  and  her  husband, 
Prince  George  of  Denmark.  Im- 
pressive features  of  the  N.  aisle  or 
Elizabeth  Chapel  are  the  tomb  of 
Queen  Elizabeth,  whose  coffin 
rests  on  that  of  her  half-sister, 
Queen  Mary ;  a  small  urn  contain- 
ing bones  supposed  to  be  those  of 
the  two  princes  who  were  murdered 
in  the  Tower,  Edward  V  and 
Richard  of  York ;  monuments  of 
the  princesses  Sophia  and  Mary, 
infant  children  of  James  I ;  and  the 
grave  of  Addison.  Henry  VII's 
Chapel  was  "  restored  "  by  Wyatt 
in  1807-22.  See  Fan-tracery ;  Font. 


HENRY 


3943 


HENTY 


E 


Henry  VII's  Chapel.     Tomb  of  Henry  VII  and  his  queen  in  the  famous  Tudor 

Gothic  chapel  in  Westminster  Abbey.     Round  the  walls  hang  the  banners  of 

the  Knights  of  the  Bath,  with  which  it  has  been  associated  since  1725 

Henry  Frederick  (1594-1612).  18,  1850,  he  studied  music  at 
Prince  of  Wales.  The  eldest  son  of  Leipzig.  In  1877  he  came  to  Eng- 
James  I,  he  was  born  at  Stirling,  land,  where  he  appeared  as  a  bari- 
Feb.  19, 1594.  In  1604  negotiations  tone,  and  from  1881-84  conducted 
were  begun  for  his  betrothal  to  the  symphony  concerts  at  Boston, 
infanta  Anne  of  Spain,  but  they  U.S.A.  "Returning  to  England, 

fell    through,    he    devoted    himself    to    singing, 

conducting ;  in 
addition  he 
founded  the 
London  Sym- 
phony Con- 
certs, which  he 
conducted 
from  1884-95. 
In  1881  he 
married  Miss 
Lillian  June 


Sent  to  Oxford  teaching, 
in  1612,  the 
prince  seemed 
to  have  loved 
sport  better 
than  study,  but 
took  much  in- 
terest in  naval 
and  military 
affairs.  C  r  e  - 
ated  prince  of 

Wales  in  1610,  hedied  Nov.  6, 1612. 
Henryson,    ROBERT    (c.    1430- 

1506).     Scottish  poet.     He  was  a 


and 


Henry  Frederick, 
Prince  of  Wales 


Sir  George  Henschel,     Bailey    (1860- 
Singer  and  composer     1901),      an 
Downey  American     so- 

schoolmaster  at  Dunfermline,  and  prano.  He  became  a  British  subject, 
perhaps  also  a  notary.  Among  his  and  was  knighted  in  1914.  His 
poems  are  Robene  and  Makyne,  compositions  include  the  opera 
the  first  pastoral  in  the  Scottish  Nubia  and  many  songs.  See  his 
language,  the  Testament  of  Cres-  Musings  and  Memories  of  a  Musi- 
seid,  a  sequel  to  Chaucer's  Troilus  cian,  1919. 

and  Criseyde,  a  metrical  version  of  Henslow,  JOHN  STEVENS  (1796- 
Aesop's  Fables,  and  The  Bludy  1861).  British  botanist.  The  son 
Oak,  an  allegory.  As  a  poet,  of  a  solicitor,  he  was  born  at 
Henryson  shows  considerable  fancy  Rochester,  Feb.  6,  1796.  Educated 
and  some  humour.  at  Rochester,  Camberwell,  and  S. 

Henschel,  SIR  GEORGE  ISIDORE  John's  College,  Cambridge,  he  was 
(b.  1850).  Singer,  composer,  and  ordained.  In  1822  he  became  pro- 
conductor.  Born  in  Breslau,  Feb.  fessor  of  mineralogy  at  Cambridge, 


Herbert  H.  Benson, 
British  prelate 


and  in  1827  professor  of  botany. 
He  did  a  great  deal  to  popularise 
the  study  of  botany  and  died  May  16, 
I  H(j] .  His  works  include  A  Diction- 
ary of  Botanical  Terms,  1857. 

One  of  his  sons,  George  (b.  1835), 
was,  from  1866-80,  lecturer  on 
botany  at  S.  Bartholomew's  Hos- 
pital medical  school. 

Henslowe,  PHILIP  (d.  1616). 
English  theatrical  manager.  He 
was  a  burgess  of  Southwark,  held 
offices  at  Court,  and  was  in  partner- 
ship with  Edward  Alleyn(?.v.), who 
married  his  stepdaughter.  His 
Diary  (edited,  with  supplemen- 
tary papers,  by  W.  W.  Greg, 
1904-8)  is  a  storehouse  of  facts 
relating  to  the  inner  history  of  the 
Elizabethan  stage. 

Hens  on,  HERBERT  HENSLEY 
(b.  1863).  British  prelate.  Born  in 
London,  Nov.  8, 1863,  he  was  a  non- 
collegiate  stu- 
dent atOxford. 
Having  taken 
a  first-class  de- 
gree, he  -  was 
elected  to  a 
fellowship  at 
All  Souls'  Col- 
lege. He  was 
ordained  and 
became  head  of 
Oxford  House, 
Bethnal  Green,  Ku"el1 

where  he  worked  until  made  vicar 
of  Barking,  and  incumbent  of  S. 
Mary's  Hospital,  Ilford.  In  1900 
he  was  chosen  canon  residentiary 
of  Westminster,  and  rector  of  S. 
Margaret's.  There  heremained  until 
1912.  Appointed  dean  of  Durham, 
he  took  an  active  interest  in  the  uni- 
versity there.  In  1917  he  was  con- 
secrated bishop  of  Hereford,  and  in 
1920  was  translated  to  Durham. 

Henson  was  the  leading  exponent 
of  broad  church  ideas,  including  a 
liberal  theology  and  a  close  co- 
operation with  Nonconformists. 
His  incisive  style  and  his  wide 
reading  made  him  a  formidable 
controversialist. 

Henty,  GEORGE  ALFRED  (1832- 
1902).  British  war  correspondent 
.  BornatTrump- 
ington,  near 
Cambridge, 
Dec.  8.,  1832,  he 
was  educated  at 
West  rains  ter 
and  Caius  Col- 
lege,Cam  bridge. 
He  served  in  the 
purveyor's  de- 
partment of  the 
British  army  in 
the  Crimean 
War.  In  ]866 
he  became  correspondent  for  The 
Standard,  and  saw  much  fighting. 
These  experiences  he  turned  to 
good  account  in  his  long  series  of 


George  A.  Henty, 
British  writer 

Elliott  A  Fry 


HENZADA 


HERACLEA 


books  for  boys,  which  he  began  to 
write  in  1868.  His  characters  are 
conventional,  but  he  had  the  art 
of  telling  an  interesting  and  rapidly 
moving  story  of  adventure,  and 
his  books  enjoyed  enormous  popu- 
larity. Among  the  best  are  The 
Young  Franc-Tireurs,  The  Cat  of 
Bubastes,  The  Young  Cartha- 
ginian, The  Lion  of  S.  Mark,  With 
Clive  in  India,  By  Pike  and  Dyke. 
Hentv  was  a  keen  yachtsman,  and 
died  at  Weymouth,  Nov.  16, 1902. 

Henzada.  Dist.,  subdiv.,  and 
town  of  Burma,  in  the  Irawadi  divi- 
sion. Of  the  total  about  one  quar- 
ter is  under  cultivation,  and  nearly 
the  whole  of  the  cultivated  area  is 
devoted  to  rice.  The  exports  consist 
largely  of  rice,  while  the  imports 
include  cotton  and  silk  piece  goods 
and  chinaware.  Henzada  town,  on 
the  Irawadi,  65  m.  W.N.  W.  of  Pegu, 
is  an  important  trade  centre.  Area 
of  dist.,  2,870  sq.  m.  Pop.,  dist., 
532,360;  subdiv.,  140,200,  nearly 
all  Buddhists;  town,  25,050. 

Hepatica  (Anemone  hepatica.) 
Perennial  herb  of  the  natural  order 
Ranunculaceae,  native  of  Europe. 
The  thick,  dark-green  leaves  are 
deeply  divided  into  three  oval 
lobes ;  the  flowers  are  blue,  each 
on  a  long  stalk  direct  from  the 
rootstock,  the  showy  portions  con- 
sisting of  the  sepals. 

Hepatisation  (Gr.  hepar,  liver). 
Term  applied  to  changes  in  the 
lung  which  occur  in  the  course  of 
pneumonia.  The  name  is  derived 
from  the  fact  that  the  lung  looks 
somewhat  like  liver.  In  the  first 
stage,  known  as  red  hepatisation, 
the  lung  tissue  is  red,  solid,  firm, 
and  airless.  In  a  later  stage, 
namely  grey  hepatisation,  the 
colour  becomes  greyish -white,  the 
surface  is  moister,  and  the  lung 
tissue  more  friable.  See  Pneumonia. 

Hephaestus  (Gr  Hephaistos). 
In  Greek  mythology,  god  of  fire 
and  the  working  of  metals.  He 
was  the  son  of  Zeus  and  Hera,  but 
was  so  disliked  by  his  mother  that 
she  threw  him  out  of  Olympus. 
On  another  occasion  Hephaestus, 
having  offended  Zeus,  was  again 
thrown  out,  falling  for  a  whole  day 
and  landing  in  the  island  of  Lem- 
nos.  He  is  represented  as  having 
been  lame  from  birth  or  lamed  by 
his  fall.  This  probably  indicates 
the  halting  beginnings  of  a  freshly 
lighted  fire,  or  the  fact  that  smiths 
were  often  described  as  lame  To 
remedy  the  defect,  Hephaestus  is 
said  to  have  made  two  female 
figures  of  gold,  endowed  with 
speech  and  powers  of  movement, 
who  assisted  him  in  walking. 

Some  accounts  make  him  the 
husband  of  Charis,  qne  of  the 
Graces ;  others  the  husband  of 
Aphrodite.  The  famous  armour  of 


Achilles  and  Aeneas,  and  the  fire- 
breathing  bulls  of  Aeetes  which 
guarded  the  golden  fleece,  were  the 
work  of  Hephaestus.  His  chief 
workshop  was  in  Lemnos,  but  vari- 
ous volcanic  islands,  such  as  Sicily, 
were  also  supposed  to  be  the  scene 
of  his  activities.  At  Athens  he  was 
associated  with  Athena  and  Prome- 
theus, with  whom  he  has  many 
points  of  resemblance,  and  festivafs 
with  torch-races  were  held  in  their 
honour.  In  art  Hephaestus  is  always 
represented  as  a  stoutly  built  man 
with  a  beard,  holding  a  smith's  ham- 
mer and  tongs,  but  showing  little 
trace  of  lameness.  Hephaestus  was 
identified  by  the  Romans  with  Vul- 
can. See  Aeschylus ;  Vulcan. 

Hepplewhite,  GEORGE  (d.  1786). 
English  furniture  maker.  After 
serving  his  apprenticeship  with 
Gillow,  a  cabinet-maker  at  Lan- 
caster, he  started  a  business  in 
London  which  his  widow  carried 
on  after  his  death  as  A.  Hepple- 
white &  Co.  Drawings  supplied  by 
this  firm  were  published  in  The 
Cabinet-maker  and  Upholsterer's 
Guide  in  1788. 

Hepplewhite's  name  is  identified 
with  the  style  in  furniture  which 
followed  the  Chippendale  period, 
and  was  a  cautious  revolt  against 
the  solidity  of  the  latter.  Its 
characteristic  was  the  curvilinear, 
all  the  pieces  having  sweeping 
lines,  with  a  leaning  to  the  classic 
style  of  the  D  irectoire  modified  by 
English  sturdiness.  1  n  the  tracery 
of  cabinets  and  bookcases  straight 
rather  than  curving  lines  were  used. 
The  cabinets  -were  placed  on  tall 
legs,  usually  square,  though  also 
round,  and  tapered.  The  chairs  had 
shield,  oval,  circular,  hoop,  and  in- 
terlaced heart,  fretwork  backs. 
See  Chair ;  Furniture. 

Heptameron,  THE  (Gr.  hepta, 
seven  ;  hemera,  day).  Stories 
written  in  the  16th  century,  in 
imitation  of  Boccaccio's  Decame- 
ron, by  Marguerite,  queen  of  Na- 
varre (q.v.).  The  book  tells  of 
a  company  of  lords  and  ladies 
who.  when  returning  from  the 
baths  at  Cauterets,  were  detained 
in  a  beautiful  spot  for  seven  days 
by  the  flooding  of  a  stream  in  the 
Pyrenees,  and  devoted  the  time  to 
telling  extremely  sprightly  stories. 
See  Boccaccio ;  Italy ;  Literature. 

Heptarchy.  Word  derived  from 
the  Greek  hepta.  seven,  and  denot- 
ing the  seven  kingdoms  (archai) 
into  which  Anglo-Saxon  England 
was  supposed  to  have  been  divided 
before  900.  The  seven  presumably 
were  Kent,  Essex,  Sussex,  Wessex, 
Mercia,  East  Anglia,  and  North- 
urn  bria.  See  England :  History. 

Hera .  In  Greek  mythology,  sister 
and  wife  of  Zeus  and  daughter  of 
Cronos  and  Rhea.  One  of  the  major 


Hera,  Greek  goddess 


From  a  bust  in  Ike 
British  Museum 


deities  of  ancient  Greece,  by  Zeus 
she  became  the  mother  of  Ares, 
Hephaestus,  and  Hebe.  She  is 
generally  r  e  - 
presented  a  s 
being  of  a  jeal- 
o  u  s  disposi- 
tion, and  she 
displayed  the 
utmost  vin- 
dictiveness  to- 
wards those 
with  whom 
her  husband 
had  am  ours. 
Among  those 
persecuted 
by  her  were 
Semele  and  her  child  Bacchus  or 
Dionysus,  and  Hercules. 

Hera  had  frequent  quarrels  with 
her  husband,  and  on  one  occasion 
plotted  with  Athena  and  Poseidon 
to  put  him  in  chains.  For  this  she 
was  beaten  by  Zeus  and  herself  put 
in  chains.  Her  annoyance  with 
Paris  (q.v.)  for  his  judgement 
against  her  for  the  ownership  of 
the  golden  apple  led  her  to  side 
with  the  Greeks  in  the  Trojan  War. 
As  a  married  goddess,  her  special 
province  was  to  preside  over  child- 
birth. As  such  the  pomegranate, 
the  symbol  of  fertility,  the  cuckoo, 
in  which  form  Zeus  gained  her 
favours,  and  the  peacock  were 
sacred  to  her. 

In  art  Hera  is  represented  as  a 
woman  of  stately  beauty.  Her 
Homeric  epithet  boopis  (cow-eyed) 
seems  to  refer  to  her  having  been 
originally  worshipped  in  the  form  of 
a  cow.  The  Romans  identified  her 
with  Juno  (q.v.). 

Heraclea.  Ancient  city  of 
Magna  Graecia,  Italy.  It  stood  on 
the  N.W.  coast  of  the  Gulf  of 
Taranto,  near  the  modern  Policoro. 
A  Greek  colony,  it  was  founded 
about  432  B.C.  by  Tarentum  and 
Thurii,  on  the  site  of  Siris.  It 
became  the  locale  of  the  general 
assembly  of  the  Italiot  Greeks. 
Near  here,  in  280  B.C.,  Pyrrhus 
defeated  the  Romans.  Afterwards 
it  became  a  Roman  municipium, 
receiving  a  bronze  copy  of  the  Lex 
Julia  Municipalis,  discovered  in  the 
vicinity  in  1753.  These  Tabulae 
Heracleenses  are  one  of  the  chief 
sources  of  our  knowledge  of  the 
ancient  municipal  laws.  Very 
little  remains  of  the  ancient  city. 

Heraclea  Minoa.  Ancient 
Greek  city  of  Sicily.  It  stood  on 
the  S.  coast,  W.  of  Agrigentum. 
Originally  a  Phoenician  settlement, 
it  was  called  Minoa  from  a  tradi- 
tion that  it  was  built  by  Minos.  It 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Spartans 
about  510  B.C.  and  changed  owner- 
ship many  times.  In  383  B.C.  it 
owned  the  sway  of  Carthage,  but 
it  was  later  on  destroyed  by  the 


HERACLEA 


3945 


HERALD 


Carthaginians.  It  rose  again  from 
its  ashes,  and  became  a  Cartha- 
ginian naval  station  in  314  B.C. 
It  finally  decayed,  and  few  traces 
of  its  buildings  remain. 

Heraclea  Pontica.  Ancient 
Greek  city  of  Bithynia,  on  the  S. 
coast  of  the  Black  Sea.  It  was 
founded  about  550  B.C.  by  colonists 
from  Megara  and  Tanagra.  It  grew 
prosperous,  but  its  power  declined 
after  Alexander's  conquests,  and  it 
was  sacked  by  the  Romans  after 
the  Mithradatic  wars.  On  its  site 
is  the  modern  Bender  Eregli,  noted 
for  its  lignite  coal  mines. 

Heracleidae.  In  Greek  legend, 
the  sons  and  descendants  of 
Heracles  or  Hercules.  Zeus  had 
willed  that  the  sons  of  Hercules 
should  rule  in  Peloponnesus,  but 
Hyllus,  the  eldest  son,  and  his 
brothers  were  expelled  by  Eurys- 
theus,  king  of  Argos,  and  forced 
to  seek  refuge  at  Athens.  After 
several  attempts  the  Heracleidae 
regained  possession  of  their  inherit- 
ance, and  founded  the  kingdoms  of 
Argos,  Lacedaemon,  and  Messenia. 
The  legend  has  a  basis  of  historical 
fact,  the  conquest  of  Peloponnesus 
by  invading  Dorians,  probably  led 
by  Achaean  chiefs.  This  invasion 
is  known  as  the  return  of  the 
Heracleidae. 

Heracleopolis.  Greek  name  of 
the  ancient  city  Henen-suten  at 
Ahnas,  Upper  Egypt.  Situated  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Bahr  Yusuf, 
10  m.  W.  of  the  Nile  at  Beni  Suef, 
71i  m.  above  Cairo,  it  was  the  capi- 
tafof  Middle  Egypt  during  the  IXth 
and  Xth  dynasties.  It  was  sacred 
to  the  ram-headed  god  Hershef, 
whose  correlation  with  Heracles 
occasioned  its  Greek  name.  Exca- 
vations were  conducted  by  Naville 
in  1891  and  Petrie  in  1904. 

Heraclian  (d.  A.D.  413).  Roman 
general  and  usurper.  For  the 
murder  of  Stilicho  (408),  he  was 
made  count  of  Africa  by  the 
emperor  Honorius,  to  whom  he 
rendered  valuable  assistance  in 
putting  down  the  usurper  Attalus 
set  up  in  Rome  by  Alaric.  Having 
been  raised  to  the  consulship  he 
proclaimed  himself  emperor  and 
landed  in  Italy,  but  after  a  severe 
defeat  returned  to  Carthage,  where 
he  was  put  to  death  by  the 
emperor's  orders. 

Heraclitus  (c.  540-480  B.C.). 
Greek  philosopher.  A  citizen  of 
Ephesus,  he  was  known  as  the 
weeping  philosopher  from  his 
pessimistic  view  of  human  life, 
and  as  the  Dark  from  the  obscurity 
of  his  style.  Like  his  predecessors 
of  the  Milesian  school,  he  referred 
all  substances  composing  the 
material  world  to  one  element,  but 
whereas  Thales  held  that  one 
element  to  be  water  and  Anaxi- 


menes  held  it  to  be  air,  Heraclitus 
believed  that  all  things  were 
variants  of  fire,  typical  of  absolute 
unrest,  the  perpetual  dissolution 
of  continuance.  He  also  held  that 
everything  was  in  a  state  of  flux 
or  movement,  like  the  stream  of 
a  river,  and  that  any  idea  of 
permanency  about  anything  was 
an  illusion  of  the  senses.  Nothing 
exists,  but  only  becomes,  and  all 
becoming  is  the  result  of  the  con- 
junction of  opposites ;  "  strife  is  the 
father  of  all  things."  The  only  per- 
manency is  to  be  found  in  the  reason 
underlying  all  movement ;  this 
reason  he  identifies  with  Zeus.  Be- 
coming, the  principle  of  Heraclitus, 
is  the  exact  opposite  of  Being,  the 
principle  of  the  Eleatics.  See 
Philosophy.  Pron.  He-ra-cly-tus. 

Heraclius  (575-641).  East 
Roman  emperor  610-641.  Born  in 
Cappadocia,  son  of  the  governor  of 
Africa,  he  seized  the  throne  at 
a  critical  period,  the  empire  being 
threatened  by  the  Persians  in  the 
E.  and  by  the  Avars  and  Slavs  in 
the  W.  At  length,  having  re- 
organized the  army  and  borrowed 
money  from  the  Church,  Heraclius, 
after  defeating  the  Avars,  under- 
took a  series  of  campaigns  against 
Persia,  and  gained  a  decisive  victory 
near  Nineveh  ( 627 )  over  Chosroes  II. 

This  success,  however,  was 
counterbalanced  by  serious  losses  of 
territory  in  the  W.  For  the  rest  of 
his  reign,  Heraclius  was  chiefly  oc- 
cupied with  religious  disputes  as  to 
the  nature  of  Christ,  and  issued  an 
Ecthesis  (edict)  asserting  that  in 
spite  of  two  natures  there  was  only 
one  will  in  Christ  (Monothelitism). 
While  thus  engaged,  a  new  foe  had 
arisen — the  Arabs,  who  made  them- 
selves masters  of  Syria  and  Egypt. 
Overwhelmed  by  anxieties,  Hera- 
clius left  the  empire  at  his  death  in 
a  deplorable  condition. 

Heraeum  (Gr.  H&raion).  Tem- 
ple of  Hera,  about  6  m.  from 
Argos,  in  Peloponnesus,  ancient 
Greece.  This  temple  was  the  centre 
of  the  worship  of  Hera  for  the 
whole  Greek  world.  Burned  down 
in  .423  B.C.,  it  was  rebuilt  with 
great  splendour.  Especially  famous 
was  the  great  statue  of  the  goddess 
in  ivory  and  gold  by  the  sculptor 
Polycleitus.  Considerable  excava- 
tions have  been  made  on  the  site, 
as  a  result  of  which  terra-cotta 
figurines,  vases,  and  other  objects 
of  art  have  been  found.  See  Argive 
Heraeum,  C.  Waldstein,  1902-5. 

Herald  (old  Fr.  herault).  Name, 
of  doubtful  etymology,  given  to 
certain  officials  in  ancient  and 
modern  times.  In  the  Homeric  age 
of  ancient  Greece,  the  herald  or 
keryx  (one  who  proclaims)  acted 
as  confidential  servant  to  the  kings 
and  princes,  waited  upon  them  at 


Herald  in  his  tabard    reading  the 

proclamation  of  the   accession  of 

George  V 

table,  and  acted  as  their  repre- 
sentative. In  historical  times  his 
functions  were  religious,  political, 
and  judicial.  He  examined  the  vic- 
tims for  sacrifice,  recited  prayers 
before  any  public  business  was 
undertaken,  convened  the  public 
assemblies,  summoned  litigants  to 
the  court,  instructed  the  proper 
officials  to  carry  out  its  sentence, 
proclaimed  the  lists  of  those  public- 
ly honoured  and  of  the  victors  of 
the  Olympic  games.  The  herald's 
person  was  sacred;  he  had  free 
meals  in  the  Prytaneum,  a  seat  of 
honour  in  the  theatre,  and  received 
a  salary.  His  special  badge  of  office 
was  the  staff,  kerykeion,  latinised 
as  caduceus  (q.v.). 

In  Rome,  the  herald  (praeco,  ca- 
duceator)  was  a  less  important  per- 
son, no  religious  character  being  at- 
tached to  his  office.  He  was  a  public 
or  private  crier,  who  gave  notice 
when  anything  was  lost  in  the 
streets,and  played  a  part  at  auctions 
like  that  of  the  modern  auctioneer. 
There  were  also  heralds  in  the  ser- 
vice of  the  state  and  attached  to 
the  higher  magistrates  whose  duties 
more  or  less  corresponded  to  those 
of  the  Greek  kerykes.  The  praeco 
and  caduceator  were  distinguished 
as  the  messengers  of  peace  from  the 
fetiales,  upon  whom  lay  the  re- 
sponsibility of  declaring  war  with 
certain  solemn  formalities. 

In  early  medieval  times  the 
heralds  acted  as  messengers  of 
sovereign  princes,  and  had,  among 
other  duties,  to  convey  challenges, 
open  negotiations  for  armistices 
and  peace,  and  take  part  in  matri- 
momial  and  other  ceremonies. 
Thus  they  gradually  assumed 
largely  the  functions  of  masters  of 
the  ceremonies  and  recorders  of 
pedigrees  and  alliances.  Hence, 


HERALDRY 

when  armory  arose  and  the  knights 
began  to  decorate  their  shields  and 
banners  with  distinctive  symbols, 
to  avoid  confusion  and  ensure 
proper  order  being  observed,  the 
heralds  were  appointed  to  look 
after  armory,  register  pedigrees, 
and  see  that  knights  observed  con- 
duct becoming  their  dignity.  In 
England  they  were  made  into  a 
college  of  arms. 

Apart  from  the  heralds  who  are 
members  of  the  college  many  others 
were  instituted  from  time  to  time, 
both  by  the  kings  of  England 
and  the  princes.  Thus  a  herald 
styled  Bath  king  of  arms,  who 
does  not  belong  to  that  corporation, 
was  attached  to  the  order  of  the 


3946 

Bath  when  revived  by  George  I, 
and  another  king  of  arms,  with  no 
distinctive  appellation,  is  an  official 
of  the  order  of  S.  Michael  and  S. 
George.  Heralds  extraordinary, 
who  may  have  special  functions 
assigned  to  them,  but  who  also  are 
not  members  of  the  college,  are 
occasionally  appointed.  Until  Tudor 
times  many  great  nobles,  such  as 
the  Percys,  Nevills,  earls  of  Salis- 
bury, and  Sir  John  Chandos.  one 
of  the  original  knights  of  the  garter, 
had  their  own  pursuivants,  named 
after  the  family  badge  or  crest,  who 
acted  as  the  family  heralds  and 
genealogists,  as  well  as  confidential 
messengers  to  their  masters.  See 
College  of  Arms. 


HERALDRY  AND  COATS  OF  ARMS 

G.  C.  Rothery,  Author,  The  A.B.G.  of  Heraldry 

In  this  work  there  are  articles  on  all  the  chief  terms  used  in  heraldry, 

e.g.  Cadency;    Charge;    Cross;    Quartering;    Saltire ;    Supporter. 

See  Coat  of  Arms;  College  of  Arms;  Knighthood;  Peerage;  and 

articles,  on  Howard  and  other  noble  families 


In  the  strict  sense  of  the  word, 
heraldry  embraces  all  those  duties 
which  fall  within  the  domain  of  the 
herald,  and  so  comprises  genealogy, 
the  rules  of  precedence  and  official 
ceremonial,  and  the  art  of  armory. 
Generally,  however,  the  term  is 
restricted  to  the  last-named  branch, 
which  is  concerned  with  the  de- 
vices placed  on  shields  or  banners 
as  distinguishing  marks  of  indivi- 
duals, families,  or  territorial  divi- 
sions, as  well  as  the  ornaments 
surrounding  the  shield. 

Heraldry  as  a  science,  resting  on 
hereditary  descent  of  such  de- 
vices as  a  fundamental  fact,  can- 
not be  traced  further  back  than 
the  third  crusade  (1139-92), 
though  there  were  signs  of  it  nearly 
a  hundred  years  earlier,  and  no 
doubt  it  owed  a  great  debt  to  that 
art  of  symbolism  adopted  in  re- 
mote ages  and  by  many  peoples  to 
distinguish  tribes  and  individuals. 
Some  of  the  symbols  or  charges 
used  in  heraldry  are  unquestion- 
ably of  extreme  antiquity.  Such 
are  the  snake-like  dragon,  the 
lion,  the  single  and  double-headed 
eagle,  the  leaping  dolphin,  the 
cramponed  cross,  the  saltire,  the 
crescent  and  circular  ring,  the  wavy 
or  chevronee  line,  as  well  as  such 
conventionalised  floral  and  plant 
forms  as  the  cinquefoil. 

Primitive  Charges  and  Symbols 

All  these  and  many  more  may  be 
found  on  the  coins,  pottery,  and 
monuments  of  ancient  Greece  and 
Rome,  often  shown  as  decorating 
the  shields  or  standards  of  warriors. 
Many  of  these  charges  may  be 
traced  on  Assyrian  monuments 
and  in  the  hieroglyphics  of  Egypt 
(where  we  see  them  representing 
dynasties,  gods,  and  territorial 
divisions),  and  even  among  savage 


races  chiefs  and  whole  tribes  are 
found  using  distinctive  head- 
dresses or  tattoo  marks.  Many  of 
these  symbols  were  totemistic,  and 
to  that  degree  were  really  here- 
ditary to  a  family.  But  in  the 
main,  outside  of  totemism  and  those 
symbols  attributed  to  tribal  or 
local  divinities,  the  devices  found 
in  antiquity  and  among  barbarian 
people  were  personal,  and  do  not 
often  show  stability  even  in  that 
restricted  sense. 

This  want  of  stability  character- 
ises the  early  heraldry  of  Europe. 
While  it  is  extremely  likely  that 
over  most  of  Europe  certain  of  the 
totemistic,  tribal,  and  territorial 
devices  subsisted  well  into  the 
feudal  days,  there  is  no  direct 
evidence  that  such  were  used  on 
shields,  helmets,  or  standards. 
What  appears  to  have  happened 
is  that  knights  fighting  in  the  East 
as  Crusaders  encountered  foes  who 
fought  under  leaders  bearing  pecu- 
liar devices  on  the  armour  and 
shields,  and  taking  decorated 
standards  into  warfare. 

Symbolism  was  always  highly 
cultivated  in  the  East,  and  it  was 
distinctly  well  regulated  among 
the  Saracenic  warriors,  who  may 
have  inherited  the  system  from 
Egypt,  and  by  way  of  Syria.  As 
the  armour  of  the  Christian  knights 
became  heavier  and  thus  more 
effective  as  an  agency  for  con- 
cealing individuality,  the  advan- 
tages of  these  identity  symbols, 
serving  as  signs  for  rallying  scat- 
tered henchmen,  became  self-evi- 
dent, and  were  gradually  adopted. 
It  is  certain  that  some  of  the  best 
known  feudal  coats  of  arms  only 
appeared  towards  the  13th  century. 
.  No  heraldic  symbol  of  any  kind 
appeared  on  the  great  seals  of 


HERALDRY 

England  until  the  reign  of  Rich- 
ard I.  His  first  great  seal  has  no 
such  device  as  three  lions,  but  \ve 
see  on  the  shield  borne  by  his 
equestrian  figure  apparently  a  lion 
combatant,  i.e.  rampant,  in  a 
fighting  attitude.  As  the  shield  is 
curved,  only  half  is  shown,  so 
the  vis-a-vis,  if  there  was  one,  is  not 
seen.  The  three  lions  passant 
guardant  do  not  appear  until  his 
second  seal.  It  is  true  that  in  the 
great  seals  of  the  earlier  kings 
only  the  backs,  or  insides,  of  the 
shields  are  shown  ;  but  if  the  out- 
sides  had  borne  important  devices, 
.  the  engravers  would  certainly  have 
been  careful  to  display  them. 

On  the  Continent  the  emperor 
Frederick  Barbarossa  is  credited 
with  fostering  heraldry.  In  Eng- 
land Edward  I  was  the  first  to 
appoint  heralds,  a  lead  followed 
by  Henry  IV,  but  it  was  not 
until  the  reign  of  Henry  V  that  a 
proclamation  was  issued  obliging 
knights  to  appeal  to  the  king  of 
heralds  before  assuming  armorial 
devices.  Edward  III  instituted 
the  court  of  chivalry  under  the 
earl  marshal,  and  out  of  its  ac- 
tivities sprang  the  practice  of 
visitations,  or  perambulating 
courts  held  by  heralds  and  pursui- 
vants, to  inquire  into  armorial 
matters,  issue  confirmation  of 
grants,  and  register  genealogies. 

The  Court  of  Chivalry 
The  last  of  these  visitations  was 
held  in  1686.  Such  of  the  records 
as  still  exist  are  very  valuable.  The 
court  of  chivalry,  or  earl  mar- 
shal's court,  ceased  to  exist  in 
1907.  Its  most  famous  achieve- 
ment was  the  trial  of  the  issue 
between  Sir  Richard  le  Scrope  and 
Sir  Robert  Grosvenor,  both  of 
whom  claimed  a  golden  bend  on  a 
blue  field.  From  1385  to  1390  a 
splendid  array  of  English,  Scot- 
tish, and  Continental  chivalry  ap- 
peared to  give  evidence,  and 
finally  Richard  II  delivered  judge- 
ment in  favour  of  le  Scrope. 

Although  at  first  many  of  the 
armorial  devices  assumed  were 
personal,  as  was  natural  from  its 
source  of  origin,  very  soon  it  be- 
came in  the  main  feudal  and  ter- 
ritorial. That  is  to  say,  many  of 
the  most  prized  coats  of  arms  were 
attached  to  fiefs.  Consequently  we 
find  that  men  of  noble  birth  and 
ancient  lineage  who  became  pos- 
sessed of  important  fiefs  by  in- 
heritance, marriage,  or  gift,  com- 
monly gave  up  their  paternal  arms 
for  those  of  the  territorial  dignity. 
In  many  more  instances  they 
were  quartered  or  otherwise  incor- 
porated. Another  peculiarity  of 
these  feudal  territorial  arms  was 
that,  with  certain  modifications, 
they  were  assumed  or  granted  to 


argent  (silver/       azure  (blue) 


vert  (green,     purpure  (purple 


dented   AAA/VW 


vairy 

or  &  guleo 
THE   SHIELD    METALS-  COLOURS,  AND    FURS,  WITH    THEIR    CORRESPONDING    TINCTURES 

B.   Dexter  side 
D.  The  base 


POINTS    OF 
A.  The  chief 
C.  Sinister  side 
E.  Dexter  chief      F.  Sinister  chief 
C.  Middle  chief      H.  Dexter  base 
I.    Sinister  baso     K.  Middle  base 
L.   Honour  point     M.  Fesse  point 
ABC 


DIVISIONS   OF  THE   SHIELD 

A.  Party  per  fesse  or  &  azure 

C.  Party  per  pale  arg.  4  gules 

C.  Party  per  bend  azure  &  or 

D.  Party  per  saltire  arg.  &  guleu 

E.  Quarterly,  ermine  &  sable 

F.  Party  per  chevron,  gules  &  or 


Tressure 


cheon 




MULTIPLICATIOTTAND    COMBINA- 
TION   OF    ORDINARIES 
A.   Barry  of  six  pieces  az.  &  cr 
3.  Paly  of  sii  pieces  arg.  &  gules 

C.  Bendy  of  eight  pieces  or  &  az. 

D.  Barry- bendy,  gules  &  arg. 

E.  Chevronnee,  vert.  &  or 

F.  Paly-bendy,  arg.  &  gules 
C.  Cheeky,  or  &  sable 

Lozengy,  arg.  &  az. 


CNCLISH    MARKS   OF    CADENCY 

1.  Label  borne  by  eldest  son  during 

his  father's  lifetime 

2.  Crescent  by  the  second  son 

3.  Mullet  by  the  third  son 

4.  Martlet  by  the  fourth  son 
j.  Annulet  by  the  fifth  son 

G.  Fleur-de-lis  by  the  sixth  son 

7.  Rose  by  the  seventh  son 

8.  Cross  Moline  hy  the  eighth  son 
0.  Double  Quatrefoil  by  the  ninth 


UUH     UHAKbtS 

A.  Rampant        B.  Salient  Cuardan 
C.  Sejant  D.  Statant 

E.  Passant          F.  Passant  Cuardant 
C.  Passant  regardant         H.  Couchan 


MODERN    HZ3ALDIC    HELMETS 


Roundels.    1.  Bezant.    2.  Plate.    3.  Hurt*. 

4.  Torteau.    5.  Pomme.    6.  Colp.    7.  Pellet. 

8.  Orange.    9.  Cuze.    10.  Fountain 


THE 

Specially  d 


OF  CRESTS  AND  ARMORIAL  BEARINGS  ILLUSTRATED 

for  Harrnxvortli'it  Unirertal  Encyiloftdlo  by  J.  F.  Campbell 


To  face  page  3946 


[See  over 


BARNARDISTOH 

Azure,     a    fesse     dancett*\ 

;  ermine,    between    six    cross 

crosslets,  argent 


FENWYKE  ELOUNT 

Per  fesse,  gules  &  arg.,  six     Barry  rebulg  of  six  pieces,  or 
martlets  counterchanged  £nd  sable 


WITTEWRONG  POl  _ 

Bendy  of  six,  arg.  and  gules.  Per  pale,  or  &  az..  on  chevron 

on  a  chief,  azure,  a  bar  in-  between  3  grinins'  heads  erased, 

dented,  or  4  fleurs-de-lys  all  counterchanged 


OLD  FIELD 

Or,   ca   a   pile,   vert,    three 
garbs  of  the  Held 


LAWSON  (of  Isell)  CELL 

Per    pale,    arg.   and   sa.,    a     per  bende,  az.  and  or,  three 
chevron  counterchanged          mullets  of  six  points  in  bende, 
pierced  and  counterchanged 


WILLIAMS  (of  Llangibby)  FLETCHER 

Gyronny  of  eight,  ermine  and    Arg.,  a  saltire,  engr.,  gu.,  between 
sable,  a  lion  rampant,  or        4  roundels  of  2nd,  each  charged 
with  a  pheon  of  the  Held 


GUISE 

Gules,  seven  lozenges,  vaire, 
three,  three,  and  one 


W1I.LOUCHBY 

Or,    two    bars,    gules,    each  Quart 

charged    with    three    water-  3rd  q 

bougets,  arg.  a    be 


SPENCER 

y,  ar.  &  gu. ;  in  2nd  4 
rter  a  fret,  or  ;  over  all, 
e  sa.  charged  with  3 
lops,  arg. 


ACTON  DORMER 

Quarterly,  por  fesse  indented,  Az.,  ten  billets,  or,  4,  3,  2  &  1 

argent&gules;  in  first  quarter  on.  a  chief  of  second,  a  demi- 
a  Cornish  chough,  sable  lion  Issuant,  sa. 


•  *• 


:j'j 

HOLLE,  Quartos, !  TfS '^li..  HAWKIW 

Crm.,   two   piles,   issuing    from  ramp.,  or;  on  a  chief,  arg.,  a  mullet.  Per  saltire,  or  &  arg.,  on  a 

upper  part  of   dexter  &  sinister  gules,   between    2    tnrteaux  ;     2nd  saltire  sable,  5   fleurs-de-lys 

sides  of  shield,  &  joining  in  centre  and  3rd,  gules,  two  chevroneUwith-  nf  first,  all  within  a  bordure 
in  a  bordure,  arg.  pobony,  or  and  sa.. 


Arg.,  three  cbevronels  inter-     A 
laced,  vaire,  a  chief,  or 


ROBERTS 

Arg.,  six  pheons,  sa.,  on  a 
chief  of  second,  a  greyhound 
current  of  first  gorged,  or 


JOHN    DE    BEAUMONT  \"3COUNT    DOWNS 
Az.    seme-de-lis    &    lion  Or.,  on  a  bend  cot- 
rampant   or,    over   all    a  tised  sa.,  three  ann 
bend  gobony  arg.  &  gules 


lets  of  the  field 


iE  VERC 
and    4th    z.i.,    3 
crowns    or,    within    a    bordure 
arg.  ;     2nd    &    3rd,    quarter!;/ 
Eulcs  cr.d  or,  in  first  quarter  a 
r.ulict  argent 


t 

crosslets  fitche~e 
sable,  all  within 
a    double   tres- 
sure   dory 
counter-flory 
the  second 


ARMORIAL   BEARINGS   OF    SIK    ARCHIBALD    KENNEDY, 
MARQUESS   OF  A1LSA. 


as  ra:.ny  mllres  ar,_ 

1.  Motto 

2.  Crest  upon  a 
wreath  of  his 
liveries,  a  dol- 

naiam 
proper 

3.  Mantling 
gules,  doubled 
ermine 

4.  Helmet 

5.  Coronet 

6.  Supporters: 
»  two     swans 

proper,  beaked 

andmsmbered  JOHN    DE    »A3T;;.'C3, 
(Earl  of  Pembroke) 
Quartering   De   Hastings   &   D« 
Valence     &    impaling     France 
ancient  and  England  quarterly 


HERALDRY:     ITS   PRINCIPLES   EXEMPLIFIED   IN    FAMILY    COATS   OF   ARMS 

Specially  Arastn  for  BarmtifortVi  I'Mirtrral  rwftlorcdia  >>y  J.  T.  Campbell 


HERALDRY 


3947 


HERALDRY 


sub-feudatory  families  or  families 
related  to  the  great  chief.  A  good 
illustration  of  this  is  seen  in  the 
golden  wheatsheaves  of  Chester, 
borne  by  the  house  of  Meschines, 
and  found  on  the  shields  of  a  large 
number  of  old  Cheshire  families, 
including  the  Grosvenors. 

Until  well  into  the  13th  century, 
many  leading  feudal  families  ad- 
hered very  imperfectly  to  the  idea 
of  heredity  in  the  matter  of  coat- 
armour.  These  matters  were  in  a 
state  of  flux.  Not  only  was  there 
often  a  considerable  diversity 
among  different  branches  of  a 
family,  even  among  brothers,  but 
also  between  father  and  elder  son, 
while  the  head  of  the  family  often 
changed  his  bearings.  Occasionally 
this  was  due  to  the  adoption  of 
other  arms,  or  additional  charges, 
as  the  result  of  matrimonial  or 
feudatory  alliance. 

Tinctures  differed,  and  so  did 
charges.  This  was  partly  with  the 
deliberate  design  of  differen- 
tiating between  the  chiefs  and 
minor  leaders,  and  gave  rise  to  most 
interesting  systems  of  changing 
within  a  narrow  circle,  so  as  to 
produce  compositions  somewhat 
distinct  yet  preserving  a  family 
likeness.  Good  instances  are  the 
early  arms  of  the  Nevills  in  the 
reigns  of  Edward  II  and  III,  of  the 
Zouches  in  the  14th  century,  and 
of  the  Cobhams.  But  the  system 
gave  rise  to  some  abuses  and  much 
confusion,  thus  calling  urgently 
for  regulation  by  the  heralds. 
Armorial  Complication 

As  time  advanced  the  work  of 
the  professional  armorists,  though 
preventing  chaos,  introduced  many 
complications,  doing  away  with 
the  charming  simplicity  of  the 
early  feudal  days.  These  restric- 
tions and  complications  went  on 
steadily  increasing,  until  in  the 
16th  and  17th  centuries  the 
original  beauty  and  direct  appeal 
had  vanished,  too  often  under  a 
mass  of  meaningless  absurdities. 
Moreover,  as  blazoning  and  mar- 
shalling of  arms  became  more  com- 
plicated, so  did  the  dexterity  and 
bold  '  spiritedness  of  the  heraldic 
artist  diminish. 

This  deterioration  of  the  science 
and  the  art  of  heraldry  persisted 
side  by  side  through  the  Common- 
wealth, the  reigns  of  the  Stuarts, 
and  the  era  of  the  House  of  Han- 
over, into  and  past  the  mid- 
Victorian  period.  Then  came  a 
revival  of  heraldry,  a  harking 
back  to  the  feudal  examples,  which 
gave  birth  to  a  painstaking,  com- 
petent school  of  heraldic  artists. 

In  blazoning,  heralds  distinguish 
four  main  divisions — the  field  (the 
surface  of  the  shield  or  banner) ; 
tinctures  (colours,  metals,  and 


furs) ;  charges  (animated  crea- 
tures, celestial  bodies,  flowers  and 
plants,  inanimate  objects  and  con- 
ventional figures  placed  as  dis- 
tinguishing ornaments  on  the 
field) ;  and  the  externals,  which 
include  the  crest  and  badge,  helmet, 
coronet  or  cap,  supporters,  mant- 
ling and  distinguishing  devices. 

Degrees  of  Coat-armour 
In  coat-armour  ten  degrees  were 
recognized.  1.  Arms  of  dominion, 
belonging  to  a  sovereign  state.  2. 
Arms  of  pretension,  borne  in  their 
entirety,  in  a  shield  of  pretence 
over  the  paternal  arms,  or  quar- 
tered, by  a  prince  claiming  domi- 
nion over  another  state.  3.  Arms 
of  community,  belonging  to  reli- 
gious, charitable,  and  scholastic 
establishments,  corporate  bodies, 
including  cities  and  boroughs, 
chartered  guilds  and  companies. 
4.  Arms  of  patronage,  or  arms  of 
community  and  office  borne  by 
certain  holders  of  office,  such  as 
bishops,  abbots,  heralds.  5.  Arms 
of  succession,  borne  by  inheritors 
and  grantees  of  fiefs  and  manors. 

6.  Arms  of  assumption,  or  arms  of 
a  vanquished  foe  assumed  by  the 
victor  (more  often  part  of  the  arms 
or   crest   were    assumed).       Some 
heralds  made  another  division  for 
arms    of    territorial    assumptions, 
or   those   borne   by   a   non-ruling 
claimant  to  a  territory,  which  are 
practically  identical  with  No.   2. 

7.  Paternal  arms,  descending  from 
father  to  children,  and  in  certain 
cases  hereditable  from  the  maternal 
side.  8.  Arms  of  alliance,  or  the  arms 
of  a  wife,  borne  in  an  escutcheon 
of  pretence  (a  small  central  over- 
all or  surtout  shield)  if  she  is  an 
heiress,  or  impaled  otherwise  ;   the 
arms  of  the  heiress  being  quartered 
by  the  children  with  their  paternal 
arms.    9.  Arms  of  adoption,  borne 
by  strangers  in   blood  by  virtue 
of  a  gift  by  will  or  other  deed,  for 
which  sanction   by  the    sovereign 
is  required.     10.  Arms  of   conces- 
sion, or  arms  of   honourable  aug- 
mentation, being  complete  coats  of 
arms,   parts  of  coats  of  arms  or 
special  charges  or  devices  (crests 
or    supporters)    granted     by    the 
sovereign  as  a  special  favour. 

The  field  or  shield  was  plotted 
out  into  various  sections  to  facili- 
tate blazoning.  The  left  side,  as 
viewed  by  the  spectator,  is  called 
the  dexter,  the  right  the  sinister,  it 
being  assumed  that  the  shield  is 
borne  by  the  owner.  The  top  is 
the  chief,  or  in  chief ;  the  middle 
the  fess  point ;  the  space  between 
this  and  the  chief  is  the  honour 
point;  and  the  bottom  part  the  base. 

As  regards  tinctures,  gold  and 
silver,  together  with  the  five 
colours,  red,  blue,  green,  black, 
and  purple,  to  which  a  dark  blood- 


red  and  orange  were  later  added, 
were  universally  recognized  ;  also 
ermine  and  those  quaintly  con- 
ventionalised other  furs,  vair  and 
potent.  It  was  generally  laid 
down  that  metal  should  not  rest  on 
metal,  nor  colour  on  colour,  but 
there  are  numerous  exceptions;  es- 
pecially on  the  Continent.  The 
doctrine  that  a  field  must  be 
charged  has  also  been  frequently 
ignored.  Apart  from  the  celebrated 
plain,  uncharged,  ermine  shield  of 
the  ancient  duchy  of  Brittany, 
there  are  many  other  plain  tinc- 
tured shields.  It  must  be  said  that 
these,  without  the  accompaniment 
of  a  distinctive  crest,  were  rather 
a  negation  of  the  true  aims  of 
heraldry. 

First  among  the  great  body  of 
charges  come  certain  conventional 
or  geometric  figures,  broad  bands, 
crosses,  whirls,  called  ordinaries. 
These  are  spacious  and  very  pro- 
perly may  bear  other  charges.  In 
early  heraldry  overloading  was 
avoided,  yet  the  heraldic  artists 
always  endeavoured  to  fill  the 
shield  or  banner.  Thus  if  a  king  of 
England  bore  a  shield  broad  at  the 
top  and  narrowing  to  a  point  at 
the  base,  the  topmost  lion  was  a 
big,  bold  beast,  the  one  beneath 
a  little  smaller,  and  the  third  a  tiny 
animal. 

These  fundamental  ideas  of  the 
design  of  a  shield  and  the  need  to 
fill  space  appropriately  had  their 
influence  on  blazoning.  Thus, 
three  charges  on  a  shield,  unless 
special  directions  are  given,  are 
borne  two  above  and  one  below. 
To  do  otherwise  is  to  give  a  blazon 
mal  ordone,  as  the  French  say. 
Bearing  of  Crests 

A  coat  of  arms  may  be  complete 
without  a  crest.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  crests  were  either  borne  by  the 
prescriptive  right  of  long  usage,  or 
were  the  subject  of  specific  men- 
tion in  grants,  the  original  assump- 
tion being  that  they  should  be 
borne  only  by  warriors,  or  at  least 
by  those  entitled  to  levy  or  lead 
men-at-arms.  Consequently,  no 
woman  except  a  sovereign  princess 
was  entitled  to  use  a  crest. 

Apparently  in  the  course  of  visi- 
tations, applicants  who  considered 
a  crestless  armorial  shield  incom- 
plete, or  those  anxious  to  advance 
pretensions,  put  forward  old  family 
badges  or  personal  devices  and  got 
them  recognized  by  the  com- 
plaisant presiding  herald  as  gen- 
uine crests.  This  abuse,  and  the 
bad  taste  of  the  heralds,  accounts 
for  so  many  absurd  figures  being 
employed  as  crests,  many  of  which 
would  be  quite  impossible  orna- 
ments to  helmets  intended  for  per- 
sonal wear,  which,  of  course,  is  the 
test  of  the  genuinely  old. 


HERALDS'   COLLEGE 


HERBACEOUS   PLANTS 


The  use  of  supporters  came  in 
fairly  late  ;  they  were  a  matter  of 
accidental  growth,  mere  external 
ornamentations,  but  speedily  re- 
cognized as  of  value  in  denoting 
alliance  and  territorial  dominion. 
For  very  long  they  were  only  par- 
tially admitted  as  hereditary. 
Regal  heraldry,  both  British  and 
Continental,  shows  an  extraordin- 
ary gallery  of  supporters  used  by 
succeeding  sovereigns,  one  king 
often  employing  three  or  four, 
differing  from  those  of  his  prede- 
cessor, though  usually  referring  to 
some  matrimonial  or  other  alliance. 

In  later  practice  supporters  are 
supposed  to  be  borne  only  by 
sovereigns,  princes,  peers  and  their 
eldest  sons,  and  those  enjoying 
the  right  by  special  grant — a  form 
of  augmentation.  But  some  old 
families  lay  claim  to  them  by  pre- 
scriptive right,  and  the  baronets  of 
Nova  Scotia  long  asserted  as  a 
special  privilege  attaching  to  their 
rank  the  right  to  use  supporters. 
From  the  16th  century  onwards 
English  heralds  made  it  common 
form  to  grant  supporters  in  con- 
nexion with  arms  of  community, 
particularly  those  given  to  craft 
guilds  and  chartered  companies. 
Differing  Practices 

Heraldic  practice  differs  in  many 
details  in  most  countries.  Thus  the 
methods  of  differencing  arms  for 
cadency  in  England  and  Scotland 
are  very  dissimilar,  and  each  varies 
from  Continental  rules.  Ideas  as 
to  tinctures  and  the  charging  of 
charges  also  vary.  The  style  of 
art  is  also  largely  influenced  by 
locality. 

Many  of  the  rules  mentioned 
above,  and  others  too  technical  to 
be  given  here,  were  undoubtedly 
useful  in  preventing  confusion  and 
making  intelligent  record  possible. 
Unfortunately  the  multiplication  of 
rules  begat  a  race  of  uninspired 
heralds  who  blazoned  by  rule  of 
thumb  and  thought  that  piling  on 
of  detail  and  over-elaboration  in 
marshalling  tended  to  increase 
dignity,  though  it  really  detracted 
from  noble  simplicity  and  led  to  a 
succession  of  worthless  follies. 

Heraldry  meant  much  in  the 
days  when  armorial  bearings  and 
other  heraldic  insignia  appeared 
on  signets  and  more  formal  seals, 
glittered  in  jewelled  glass  windows, 
glowed  on  tapestried  or  painted 
walls,  even  on  personal  garments, 
marked  the  possession  of  treasured 
books,  and  told  graphically  on  the 
illuminated  genealogical  scroll  or 
spreading  family  tree  the  story  of 
cherished  alliances.  It  played  a 
useful  part,  appreciated  by  his- 
torian and  antiquary  and  no  less 
by  the  artist.  Employed  with  dis- 
cretion, it  still  fills  a  place,  as 


helpful  to  the  family  annalist  as 
it  is  to  the  decorative  artist  of 
sound  taste. 

Bibliography.  A  Complete  Body 
of  Heraldry,  J.  Edmondson,  1780; 
Dictionary  of  Coats  of  Arms,  J.  W. 
Papworth,  1874;  General  Armory, 
Sir  J.  B.  Burke,  1883;  A  Treatise  on 
Heraldry,  J.  Woodward,  1896;  Eng- 
lish Heraldry,  C.  Bontell,  6th  ed. 
1899;  Peeps  at  Heraldry,  P.  Allen, 
1912;  The  Book  of  Public  Arms, 
A.  C.  Fox  Davies,  1915;  A  B  C  of 
Heraldry,  G.  C.  Rothery,  1915. 

Heralds'  College.  British  cor- 
poration for  the  regulation  of  all 
matters  connected  with  heraldry. 
See  College  of  Arms. 

Herat.      City   of   Afghanistan, 
sometimes  called  the  key  of  India 
from  its  strategic  position.     It  is 
the  capital  of  the    wHHKmBI^^B 
prov.  of  the  same    | 
name,    and   is    § 
situated    on     the    1 
Hari   Rud,  at  an    I 
alt.   of  3,000   ft.,    ! 
about    400    m. 
almost  due  W.  of 
Kabul,  and  60  m. 
E.  of  the  Russian 
and  Persian  fron- 
tiers.     Founded 
by  Alexander  the 
Great,    it    ii 
great   centre   of 
roads.     It   stands 
in  a  beautiful  and 
very    fertile    dis- 
trict,  and  manu- 
factures   fine    carpets    and    silks. 
Pop.  40,000. 

Herault.  River  of  France. 
Rising  on  the  slopes  of  Mont 
Aigonal,  in  the  Cevennes,  it  flows 
first  S.  and  then  S.W.  along  the 
foot  of  the  S.  buttress  of  these 
mts.,  and  issues  into  the  Gulf  of 
Lyons  near  Agde.  The  chief  towns 
on  its  banks  are  Valleraugue  (Gard 
dept.),  Aniane,  Gignac  (Herault 
dept.).  Length,  78  m. 

Herault.  Maritime  dept.  of 
France.  It  adjoins  the  depts.  of 
Aude,  Tarn,  Aveyron,  and  Gard, 
and  its  coast,  consisting  chiefly  of  a 
string  of  sandy  lagoons  (etangs), 
is  on  the  N.  W.  of  the  Gulf  of  Lyons. 
It  thus  formed  part  of  the  old 
prov.  of  Languedoc.  Towards  the 
sea  the  ground  slopes  gently,  but 
in  the  N.W.  rise  the  Monts  de 
1'Espinouse  and  Monts  Garrigues, 
the  southern  flanks  of  the  Cevennes. 
The  principal  rivers  are  the  Herault 
and  Orb;  part  of  the  Canal  des 
Etangs  runs  through  the  dept.  from 
Aigues  Mortes  (Gard)  to  Cette, 
the  Canal  du  Midi  continuing  to 
Agde,  Beziers,  and  into  the  dept. 
of  Aude. 

The  vineyards  are  the  most  im- 
portant commercial  feature  of 
Herault,  and  there  are  several  im- 
portant mineral  workings,  e.y. 


copper,  lead,  and  building  stone. 
Salt  is  produced  from  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  lagoons,  and 
Cette  has  a  large  fishing  fleet. 
The  most  important  towns  are 
the  capital,  Montpellier,  Lodere, 
Bedarieux,  Pezenas,  Ganges,  and 
Frontignan.  Its  area  is  2,402 
sq.  m. 

Herb.  Plant  whose  stem,  from 
the  absence  of  woody  tissue,  dies  to 
the  ground  annually.  Herbs,  how- 
ever, may  be  annual,  biennial,  or 
perennial  in  duration.  Annuals 
spring  from  the  seed,  flower,  fruit, 
and  die  all  within  one  season. 
Biennials  during  their  first  season 
accumulate  a  store  of  food  in  an 
underground  rootstock  which  is 
expended  the  second  season  in  the 


Herat,  Afg 


The  old  citadel 
city  walls 


from  the 


production  of  an  aerial  stem,  flowers 
and  fruit ;  then  they  die.  Peren- 
nials produce  annual  stems  hi 
succession  during  an  indefinite 
number  of  years,  such  stems  dying 
in  autumn  after  their  valuable 
contents  have  been  withdrawn  into 
an  underground  rootstock,  tuber, 
bulb,  or  corm.  The  word  is  also 
used,  in  the  plural,  by  gardeners 
to  indicate  those  plants,  whether 
herbs  or  shrubs  botanically,  which 
are  employed  for  flavouring  in 
cookery,  such  as  horehound,  mint, 
parsley ,  rue,  sage,  tansy,  and  thyme. 
A  herbalist  is  one  who  deals  in 
herbs,  especially  those  useful  for 
medicinal  purposes.  Before  the 
medical  profession  reached  its 
present  ubiquity,  many  persons 
resorted  to  herbalists  in  cases  of 
illness.  A  herbal  is  a  book  in  which 
plants  and  names  are  described. 
See  Botany. 

Herbaceous  Plants.  Plants 
wholly  of  soft  material,  without 
woody  stems.  They  are  either 
annual,  produced  from  seed  and 
dying  within  the  same  year  ;  bien- 
nial, produced  from  seed  one  year 
and  dying  the  next ;  or  perennial, 
when  the  rootstock  survives  in  the 
ground,  while  the  season's  growth 
dies  down  before  the  winter.  See 
Gardening. 


HERBARIUM 


3949 


HERBERT 


Herbarium  (Lat.).  Collection 
of  dried  plants  attached  to  loose 
sheets  of  paper,  arranged  in  genera, 
and  these  again  grouped  in  the 
natural  orders.  In  making  such  a 
collection,  care  should  be  taken  to 
select  typical  and  perfect  speci- 
mens, showing  all  the  parts  of  the 
plant,  root,  stem,  leaves,  flowers, 
and  fruit.  They  are  dried,  under 
increasing  pressure  between  many 
changes  of  fairly  absorbent  paper, 
before  they  are  mounted,  and  then 
attached  by  narrow  strips  of 
gummed  paper  or  by  cotton 
stitches.  The  cabinet  in  which 
they  are  stored  should  not  be 
placed  against  an  outer  wall,  or 
the  specimens  will  be  attacked  by 
mould.  Camphor  or  naphthalene 
should  be  freely  used  in  the  cabinets, 
which  should  be  frequently  in- 
spected, to  keep  away  destructive 
insects.  See  Botany. 

Her  bar  t,  JOHANN  FRIEDRICH 
(1776-1841).  German  philosopher 
and  educationist.  He  was  born  at 
Oldenburg, 
May  4,  1776, 
and  while  a 
tutor  in  Switz- 
erland, in  1797, 
made  the  ac- 
quaintance of 
Pestalozzi, 
whose  system 
aroused  in  him 


especially  in  America,  where  there 
is  a  Herbart  Society  which  pub- 
lishes a  year-book.  See  The  Secret 
of  Herbart,  F.  H.  Hayward,  1907. 

Herbert.  Masculine  Christian 
name.  Of  Teutonic  origin,  it  means 
bright  warrior.  It  was  used  by  the 
Franks,  variants  being  Charibert 
and  Haribert,  and  was  brought 
into  England  by  the  Normans. 

Herbert.  Name  of  a  noted  Eng- 
lish family,  now  represented  by 
the  earls  of  Pembroke,  Powis  and 
Carnarvon,  and  various  other 
nobles.  The  family  sprang  from  a 
certain  small  landholder  in  Mon- 
mouthshire who  lived  in  the  time 
of  Edward  III.  One  of  his  descen- 
dants became,  about  1430,  the 
owner  of  Raglan  Castle,  and  his 
sons  definitely  took  the  name  of 
Herbert  in  place  of  their  Welsh 
name.  One  of  them,  Sir  William 
Herbert,  became  lord  of  Pembroke, 
and  one  of  the  chief  defenders  of 
the  marches  against  the  inroads  of 
the  Welsh.  In  1468  he  was  made 
earl  of  Pembroke.  He  lost  his  life  in 
1469,  during  the  Wars  of  the  Roses, 
and  his  earldom  died  out  in  1491. 

The  first  earl  had  an  illegiti- 
mate son  Richard,  who  was  made 
marquess  of  Powis.  From  him 
sprang  various  branches  of  the 
family,  including  those  represented 
bv  the  earl  of  Carnarvon  and  the  earl 


1805  he  became  professor  of  philo- 
sophy at  Gottingen,  and  in  1808  suc- 
ceeded Kant  at  Konigsberg.  The 
result  of  his  educational  theories 
was  seen  in  the  foundation  of  a 
pedagogical  seminary.  In  1833, 
having  incurred  the  displeasure  of 
the  Prussian  authorities  by  his  ad- 
vanced ideas,  he  returned  to  Gottin- 
gen, where  he  died  Aug.  14,  1841. 

At  first  a  follower  of  Fichte, 
Herbart  later  found  himself  at 
variance  with  him  on  the  question 
of  human  freedom.  He  denied 
that  man  was  free  and  independent 
of  circumstances,  and  reverted  to 
Kant's  theory  that  behind  the 
world  of  sense  there  were  a  number 
of  real  things,  unaffected  by  the 
operations  of  the  mind.  These 
"  reals,"  resembling  the  atoms  of 
Democritus  and  the  monads  of 
Leibniz,  are  simple  elements, 
differing  in  quality,  which  act  and 
react  upon  one  another  in  a  strug- 
gle for  self-preservation,  and  thus 
originate  the  physical  world.  The 
soul  is  one  of  these  reals,  whose  re- 
actions give  rise  to  presentations 
which  become  ideas.  These  ideas 
act  as  forces  striving  for  possession 
of  the  threshold  of  consciousness. 

Herbart  was  the  first  to  raise  edu- 
cation to  the  dignity  of  a  science. 
His  views  have  had  much  influence, 


bury,  Wilts,  1630-33,  where  he  re- 
paired the  church  (S.  John's)  and 
rebuilt  the  parsonage.  He  married 
Jane  Danvers,  of  Baynton,  Wilts, 
1629,  and,  dying  of  consumption, 
was  buried  in  Bemerton  church, 
March  3,  1633.  The  church  at 
Bemerton  was  restored  in  1866. 

Herbert's  saintly  life  at  Bemer- 
ton is  reflected  in  the  manual,  A 
Priest  to  the  Temple,  or  the 
Country  Par- 
son, His  Char- 
acter and  Rule 
of  Holy  Life, 
first  printed 
in  1652.  His 
chief  work, 
The  Temple, 
Sacred  Poems 
and  Private 
Ejaculations, 
planned  in 
reference  t  o 
church  architecture,  and  packed 
with  thought  and  precept,  was 
first  printed  1633,  and  ran  through 
two  editions  in  that  year  ;  by  1670, 
20,000  copies  had  been  issued.  The 
MS.,  now  in  the  Bodleian,  was 
given  by  Herbert,  on  his  death-bed, 
to  his  friend,  Nicholas  Ferrar,  of 
Little  Gidding. 

Read  by  Charles  I  in  prison 
and  praised  by  Crashaw,  Henry 
Vaughan,  Baxter,  and  Coleridge, 


George  Herbert, 
English  poet 

From  a  print 


of  Powis.  His  son  William  was  made  The  Temple  ranks  with  the  best 
earl  of  Pembroke  in  1551,  a  title  reiigioua  verse  in  the  language, 
since  held  by  his  descendants.  To  The  Pilgrimage  has  been  described 


it  the  earldom  of  Montgomery  was 
added  in  1605.  The  earl. also  holds 
three  baronies  of  Herbert.  Herberts 
held  other  titles  now  extinct,  in- 
cluding the  earldom  of  Torrington 
and  the  viscounty  of  Ludlow.  See 
Pembroke,  earl  of ;  Powis,  earl  of. 

Herbert,  GEORGE  (1593-1633). 
English  poet  and  divine.  Born  in 
Montgomery,  Wales,  April  3,  1593, 


as  Bunyan's  Pilgrim's  Progress  in 
miniature.  The  conceits  in  the 
verse  are  attributed  to  the  influence 
of  Herbert's  friend,  John  Donne. 
Herbert  found  his  chief  relaxation 
in  his  devotion  to  music. 


Bibliography.     Life,     I.    Walton, 
1670,  often  reprinted  ;     Works,  ed. 
A.  B.  Grosarfc,    1874;    R.  A.   Will- 
_  _  ,  mott,  1885 ;  G.  H.  Palmer,  1905 ;  The 

younger  brother  of  Lord  Herbert  Temple,  ed.  E.  C.  S.  Gibson,  1899  ; 
of  Cherbury,  he  was  educated  at  G.  Herbert  and  His  Times,  A.  G. 
Westminster  School  and  Trinity  Hyde,  1907. 
College,  Cam- 
bridge. He  became 
fellow,  1616,  and 
was  public  orator, 
1619-27.  Disap- 
pointed of  court 
preferment  under 
James  I,  he 
turned  to  the 
study  of  divinity. 
He  was  prebend  of 
Leighton  Broms 
wold,  Hunts,  with 
the  stall  of  Leigh- 
ton  Ecclesia  in 
Lincoln  Cathedral, 
1626 ,  restored  the 
church  of  S.  Mary, 
Leighton ;  was 

rector  ot  r  uggles-     Qeorge  Herbert.   Tue  old  cmiren  at  fcemerton,  uear  aausoury. 
ton   with   Bemer-        Of  which  he  was  rector,  and  where  he  was  buried  in  1633 
ton,    near    Salis-  Frith 


HERBERT 


395O 


HERCULANEUM 


Herbert,  SEB  ROBERT  GEORGE 
WYNDHAM  (1831-1905).  British 
civil  servant.  Born  at  Brighton, 
June  12,  1831,  grandson  of  the  1st 
earl  of  Carnarvon,  he  was  educated 
at  Eton  and  Balliol  College,  Ox- 
ford, and  began  his  career  as  a 
private  secretary  to  Gladstone.  In 
1859  he  went  'to  Queensland  as 
private  secretary  to  the  governor, 
was  made  premier  of  the  new 
colony  a  year  later,  and  remained 
there'  until  1867.  He  then  entered 
the  board  of  trade,  but  in  1  870  was 
transferred  to  the  colonial  office, 
where  he  was  permanent  under- 
secretary, 1871-92.  He  was 
knighted  in  1882,  and  after  his 
retirement  served  as  agent-general 
for  Tasmania.  He  died  at  Ickleton, 
Cambs,  May  6,  1905. 

Herbert  of  Cherbury,  EDWARD 
HERBERT,  IST  BARON  (1583-1648). 
English  philosopher,  historian,  and 
diplomatist.  Born  at  Eyton-on- 
Severn,  near  Wroxeter,  March  3, 
1583,  he  went  to  Oxford  when  a 
boy  of  fourteen.  He  afterwards 
travelled  much  on  the  Continent, 
where  he  made  the  acquaintance 
of  Isaac  Casaubon  and  Constable 
Montmorency,  and  gained  the  re- 
putation of  a  skilful  and  fearless 
duellist  and  man  of  pleasure.  In 
1614  he  fought  with  distinction 
under  the  prince  of  Orange  in  the 
Netherlands  and  was  twice  am- 
bassador to  Paris.  He  was  recalled 
owing  to  a  dispute  with  Constable 
de  Luvnes  as  to  the  treatment  of 
the  French  Protestants,  and  a 
second  time  in  connexion  with  the 
proposed  mar- 
riage of  Henri- 
etta Maria  of 
France  and 
Prince  Charles. 
His  services 
were  rewarded 
with  an  Irish 
and  then  an 
English  peer- 
age as  Baron 
T-i  p  r  V>  p  r  f  of 
rt'°J 
Cherbury.  At 

Htit      a     SUp- 

porter  of  the 
royalist  party,  he  subsequently 
went  over  to  the  parliamentarians. 
He  died  in  London,  Aug.  20,  1648. 
Herbert  of  Cherbury  is  usually 
called  the  founder  of  English  deism, 
a  system  of  natural  religion.  He 
assumes  that  all  men  are  alike  in 
the  possession  of  certain  common 
notions,  in  which  the  fundamental 
truths  are  represented.  The  five 
common  notions  of  natural  religion 
are  :  the  existence  of  a  supreme 
being  ;  the  duty  of  worshipping 
him  ;  virtue  and  piety  are  the 
most  important  elements  of 
worship  ;  the  necessity  for  repent- 
ance of  sins  ;  a  future  life  with 


Lord  Herbert  of 

Cherbury,  English 

philosopher 

From  a  contem.  portrait 


Lord  Herbert  of  Lea, 
British  politician 
Alter  G.   Richmond 


rewards  and  punishments.  Revela- 
tion is  possible  to  individuals,  but 
must  not  be  opposed  to  these  five 
notions.  Natural  instinct  is  the 
faculty  whereby  the  common 
notions  as  to  the  relations  of  things 
are  apprehended  and  applied  with- 
out the  process  of  reasoning.  His 
chief  work  is  De  Veritate  (On 
Truth),  1624. 

Herbert  of  Lea,  SIDNEY  HER- 
BERT, LORD  (1810-61 ).  British  poli- 
tician. Born  at  Richmond,  Sept.  16, 
1810,  a  younger  son  of  the  llth 
earl  of  Pembroke,  he  was  educated 
at  Harrow  and  Oriel  College, 
Oxford.  He  entered  Parliament 
as  Conservative  M.P.  for  S.  Wilts 
in  1833,  and  retained  the  seat 
till  1861.  In  1834  he  was  made 
secretary  to  the 
board  of  con- 
trol, and  in 
1841  secretary 
to  the  admir- 
alty ;  there  he 
remained  until 
in  1845  he 
entered  Sir 
Robert  Peel's 
Cabinet  as  sec- 
retary at  war. 
Still  a  Peelite, 
he  returned  to  the  same  officS  in 
1852,  resigning  in  1855  on  the  in- 
quiry into  the  failure  of  the  army 
oiganization  in  the  Crimea.  He 
returned  to  the  war  office  in  1859, 
but  was  in  failing  health,  and  in 
1861  he  resigned,  having  just  been 
made  a  peer.  He  died  Aug.  2, 1861. 
Two  of  his  sons  became  in  turn 
earls  of  Pembroke. 

Herberton.  Town  of  Queens- 
land. Australia.  It  stands  3,000 
ft.  above  sea  level,  80  m.  by  rly. 
S.W.  of  Cairns,  its  port.  The  chief 
tin-mining  centre  of  N.  Queensland, 
it  produces  also  copper,  wolfram, 
and  other  minerals.  Pop.  1,500. 

Herbertshohe.  Former  name  of 
the  port  in  Neu  Pommern  (now  New 
Britain),  Bismarck  Archipelago, 
now  known  as  Kokopo  (?.?.'.). 
Formerly  the  capital  of  Germany's 
Pacific  colonies,  it  was  superseded 
in  1910  by  Rabaul,  14  m.  N.W. 
It  was  captured  by  an  Australian 
force  in  Sept.,  1914.  See  Bismarck 
Archipelago ;  Papua. 

Herb  Paris  (Paris  quadrifolia). 
Perennial  herb  of  the  natural  order 
Liliaceae.  It  is  a  native  of  Europe 
and  N.  and  W.  Asia.  It  has  a  stout 
white,  creeping  rootstock,  a  round 
stem,  bearing  near  its  summit  a 
single  whorl  of  four  large  oval 
leaves,  and  above  them  the  solitary 
flower,  consisting  of  four  large 
green  sepals  and  four  very  narrow 
yellow  petals.  The  eight  or  more 
stamens  are  continued  as  long 
points  beyond  the  anthers.  The 
ovary  is  purple,  very  large,  and 


shining,  and  develops  into  a  black 
four-celled  berry.  The  flower  has  an 
offensive  odour  which  attracts  flies. 
The  plant  resembles  Trillium. 


Herb  Paris,  foliage  and  dowers 


Herb  Robert  (Geranium  rober- 
iianum).  Soft,  hairy  annual  herb 
of  the  natural  order  Geraniaceae. 
It  is  a  native  of  Europe,  N.  Africa, 
and  W.  Asia.  Its  leaves  are  divided 
into  five  leaflets,  which  are  again 
finely  lobed  and  divided,  smelling 
disagreeably  when  bruised  (hence 
its  local  name  of  Stinking  Bob). 
The  flowers  are  pale  purple, 


Herb  Kobert,  leaves  and  flowers 


streaked  with  red,  produced  all 
through  the  season.  The  whole 
plant  often  turns  red. 

Herculaneum  (Gr.  HeraMeion). 
Ancient  Italian  coast  town,  be- 
tween Naples  and  Pompeii,  at  the 
foot  of  Mt.  Vesuvius.  Originally 
Oscan,  it  was  occupied  in  turn  by 
Samnites  and  Etruscans,  and  was 
finally  conquered  by  the  Romans. 
In  Nero's  time  it  was  greatly 
damaged  by  an  earthquake,  and 
in  the  autumn  of  79  was  totally 
destroyed,  together  with  Pompeii, 
by  an  eruption  of  Vesuvius.  The 
villages  of  Portici  and  Resina  were 
built  over  the  site.  In  1719,  during 
the  sinking  of  a  well,  parts  of  the 
ancient  city  were  discovered. 
Since  then  excavations  have  been 
carried  on  at  intervals,  but  with 
difficulty,  by  means  of  tunnels, 
propped  up  "to  prevent  the  earth 
collapsing. 

The  architectural  remains  are 
inferior,  but  the  works  of  art 


HERCULES 


3951 


HERCULES 

]  poison  caused  him  such  pain  that 
he  tore  strips  of  flesh  from  his  body 
in  his  attempt  to  pull  off  the  shirt. 
In  this  condition  he  was  brought  to 
Trachis,  and  made  arrangements 
for  his  own  funeral  pyre.  When  the 
pyre  began  to  burn,  a  cloud  de- 
scended upon  it  in  which  Hercules 
was  borne  away  to  Olympus. 
The  worship  of  Hercules  was  first 
introduced  to  Greece  by  the 
Phoenicians,  the  original  object  of 
adoration  being  the  Babylonian 
sun  god  Baal,  who  goes  through 
twelve  labours  as  he  goes  through 


Herculaneum.    General  view  oi  the  excavations  looking  along  oae  o!  the  streets 
o!  the  buried  Roman  city 


superior,  to  those  of  Pompeii. 
Among  the  former,  a  theatre,  a 
temple,  a  luxuriously  appointed 
private  house,  and  a  barber's  shop, 
the  latter  containing  numerous 
trade  requisites,  are  the  most  in- 
teresting. Of  the  works  of  art,  the 
pictures  of  Theseus  and  the  Mino- 
taur, the  statues  of  Nero  and  Ger- 
manicus  (nine  feet  high),  of  two 
members  of  the  Balbus  family,  and 
a  sleeping  Faun,  deserve  mention. 
Great  hopes  were  once  aroused 
by  the  discovery,  in  a  country 
house  outside  the  walls,  of  a  large 
collection  of  papyrus  rolls,  but  they 
proved  of  little  value.  See  Vesu- 
vius; consult  also  Herculaneum 

a  Waldstein  and  L.  K.  H. 

Shoobridge,  1908. 

Hercules.  Northern  constella- 
tion situated  betAveen  Lyra  and 
Bootes.  One  of  the  Ptolemaic  con- 
stellations, it  contains  several 
double  and  variable  stars,  and  the 
globular  cluster  Messier  13. 

Hercules  (Gr.  HeraUea).  Hero 
in  Greek  classical  mythology.  He 
was  the  son  of  Zeus  by  Alcmene, 
wife  of  Amphitryon,  king  of  Thebes. 
The  jealous  Hera,  wife  of  Zeus,  sent 
two  serpents  to  destroy  the  baby 
Hercules  in  his  cradle,  but  the 
infant  strangled  them  both  with  his 
hands.  Receiving  the  hand  of 
Megara,  daughter  of  the  king  of 
Thebes,  as  reward  for  having  slain 
Ergmus,  king  of  Orchomenus,  the 
oppressor  of  the  Thebans,  he  had 
by  her  several  children,  whom, 
driven  mad  by  his  old  enemy  Hera, 
he  slew.  After  being  purified  of 
this  deed,  Hercules  was  instructed 
by  the  Delphic  oracle  to  go  to 
Tiryns  and  serve  Eurystheus,  the 
king,  for  twelve  years. 

It  was  for  Eurystheus  that  he 
performed  the  celebrated  Twelve 
Labours:  (1)  The  slaying  of  the 
Nemean  lion,  which  he  strangled 


with  his  own  hands  ;  (2)  The  de- 
struction of  the  many-headed  Hy- 
dra of  Lernae,  a  swamp  near  Argos ; 
(3)  The  capture  alive  of  the  Arca- 
dian stag,  with  golden  antlers  and 
brazen  feet ;  (4)  The  capture  alive 
in  a  net  of  the  Erymanthian  boar  ; 
(5)  The  cleansing  of  the  stables  of 
Augeas,  which  he  carried  out  in  a 
night  by  turning  the  rivers  Alpheus 
and  Peneus  through  them  ;  (6)  The 
destruction  of  the  Stymphalian 
birds,  monsters  with  brazen  beaks 
and  claws,  and  feeders  on  human 
flesh  ;  (7)  The  capture  of  the  mad 
bull  which  Poseidon  had  sent  to 
Minos,  king  of  Crete  ;  (8)  The  cap- 
ture of  the  man-eating  horses  of 
Diomedes,  king  of  the  Bistones  in 
Thrace ;  (9)  The  taking  of  the  gir- 
dle of  Hippolyte,  queen  of  the 
Amazons ;  (10)  The  seizure  of  the 
oxen  of  Geryon,  the  three- headed 
monster  of  the  island  of  Erytheia ; 
(11 )  The  taking  of  the  three  golden 
apples  from  the  garden  of  the  Hes- 
perides ;  (12)  The  bringing  of 
Cerberus,  the  three-headed  dog  of 
Hades,  from  the  lower  world. 

Besides  these  labours  Hercules 
performed  many  other  deeds,  In 
the  war  between  the  gods  and  the 
giants  he  assisted  Zeus  to  victory  ; 
he  accompanied  the  Argonauts  in 
the  expedition  in  quest  of  the 
Golden  Fleece ;  and  he  rescued 
Hesione,  daughter  of  Laomedon, 
from  a  sea-monster.  Going  mad  a 
second  time,  he  murdered  his  friend 
Iphitus.  Ordered  by  the  Delphic 
oracle  to  work  three  years  for  wages 
as  an  atonement  and  to  give  the 
wages  to  Eurytus,  father  of  Iphitus, 
he  entered  the  service  of  Omphale, 
queeji  of  Lydia.  On  a  visit  to 
Calydon  he  won  the  hand  of 
Deianira,  who,  becoming  jealous, 
sent  him  a  poisonous  shirt,  steeped 
in  the  blood  of  the  centaur  Nessus. 
Hercules  put  the  shirt  on  and  the 


Hercules.     Antique  colossal  statue 
known  as  the  Farnese  Hercules 

Naples  Museum 

the  twelve  signs  of  the  Zodiac. 
In  Italy  the  worship  of  the  Greek 
Heracles  was  combined  with  that 
of  an  old  Italian  hero.  Pron.  Her- 
cu-leez.  See  Greek  Art. 

Hercules,  PILLARS  OF.  Ancient 
name  for  the  rocks  forming  the 
entrance  to  the  Mediterranean  Sea, 
i.e.  Calpe  (Gibraltar)  in  Europe, 
and  Abyla  (Ceuta)  in  Africa.  Vari- 
ous legends  describe  them  either  as 
torn  asunder  by  Hercules  to  admit 
the  Atlantic  or  as  joined  together 
to  keep  out  the  ocean  monsters. 

Hercules  Beetle.  Large  species 
of  beetle.  Belonging  to  the  genus 
Dynastes,  it  is  found  in  the  tropical 


Hercules  Beetle.     The  male  carrying 
his  mate  between  his  horns 

districts  of  America.  It  is  often 
between  five  and  six  inches  long  ; 
and  the  male  has  a  vertical  pair 
of  large  horns  which  somewhat 
suggest  the  pincers  of  a  crab. 


HERCYNIAN 


3952 


HEREDITY 


J.  G.  von  Herder, 
German  critic 


Hercynian  Forest.  In  ancient 
geography,  a  vast  forested  moun- 
tain region  N.  of  the  Danube. 
Caesar  in  his  commentaries  on  the 
Gallic  war  says  it  took  nine  days  to 
cross,  while  in  some  parts  60  days' 
march  did  not  avail  to  reach  its 
limits.  It  seems  to  have  included 
the  modern  Switzerland,  the  entire 
Alpine  mass,  Transylvania,  and 
part  of  Russia. 

Herd  Book.  Publication  issued 
annually  by  the  special  societies 
interested  in  the  different  breeds  of 
cattle  and  pigs  It  registers  the 
pedigree  stock  of  members,  defines 
the  points  and  settles  the  method  of 
judging.  (See  Cattle. 

Herder,  JOHANN  GOTTFRIED  VON 
(1744-1803).      German   critic   and 
poet.    He  was  born  at  Mohrungen, 
East     Prussia,     - 
Aug.  25,  1744,    I 
o  f    h  H  in  h  1  c 
parentage. 
After     early 
struggles      he 
managed  to 
enter  Konigs- 
berg     Univer- 
sity, where  he 
was  much  in- 
fluenced by 
Kant.     He  became  a  school  teacher 
and   pastor  at  Riga  in   1764,  and 
thanks  to  Goethe's  interest  became 
first   preacher   at   Weimar,    1776. 
He  had   already  published  strong 
criticisms  of  Lessing's  Laocoon,  in 
Kritische  Walder  (Critical  Forests), 
1769,  and  other  writings. 

Herder  occupied  a  dominating 
position  among  the  literary  critics 
of  his  period.  His  love  for  the 
songs  of  the  people  as  supporting 
his  theory  that  poetry  was  the 
natural  language  of  man  bore  fruit 
in  his  Stimmen  der  Volker  in  Lie- 
dern  (Voices  of  the  Nations  in 
Song),  1778-79,  and  other  works. 
One  of  his  chief  works  is  the  Ideen 
zur  Philosophic  der  Geschichte  des 
Menschheit  (Ideas  on  the  Philoso- 
phy of  the  History  of  Mankind), 
1784-91,  Eng.  trans.  1800.  It  is 
notable  for  its  anticipation  of  the 
evolutionary  theory.  In  1789 
Herder  was  made  vice-president  of 
the  consistory  at  Weimar.  He 
died  at  Weimar,  Dec.  18,  1803. 
See  Herder  and  his  Times,  H. 
Nevinson,  1884. 

Herdman,  ROBERT  (1829-87). 
Scottish  painter.  Born  at  Rattray, 
Perthshire,  he  studied  at  the  Trus- 
tees' Academy,  Edinburgh.  His 
best  work  was  in  portraiture. 
Among  his  sitters  were  the  count- 
ess of  Strathmore,  1876 ;  Sir  George 
Harvey,  1874 ;  Thomas  Carlyle, 
1875;  Principal  Tulloch,  1879; 
and  Sir  Noel  Paton,  1879.  He  also 
produced  some  delicately  rendered 
historical  subjects.  He  became 


A.R.S.A.,  1858,  and  R.S.A.,  1863. 
Herdman  died  in  Edinburgh  on 
Dec.  31,  1887.  See  Antiquary; 
Deans,  Effie. 

Herdman, SIR  WILLIAM  ABBOTT 
(1858-1924).  British  scientist.  Bom 
in   Edinburgh,  Sept.   8,   1858,   he 
studied  at  the 
academy  and 
uni  versity 
there.     His 
chief  subject  of 
study   was 
zoology,  and 
having  been  on 
the  Challenger 
expedition,    he 
was  for  a  short      Sir  W.  A.  Herdman, 
time  a  demon-         Britoh  scientist 
strator    of    zo-  Ruise" 

ology  hi  Edinburgh.  In  1881  he  was 
made  professor  of  natural  history  at 
Liverpool  University  and  began  his 
work  of  investigating  the  ocean.  He 
helped  to  found  a  marine  biological 
station  at  Port  Erin,  Isle  of  Man, 
while  for  the  British  government  he 
investigated  the  pearl  fisheries  of 
Ceylon.  Herdman  served  the  British 
Association  as  general  secretary, 
while  in  1920  he  was  its  president. 
His  many  honours  include  a  F.R.S. 
and  his  writings  The  Fauna  of 
Liverpool  Bay,  1896-1900.  In 
1919  he  became  the  first  professor 
of  oceanography  at  Liverpool. 
He  died,July  21,  1924. 

Heredia.  Prov.  and  town  of  Cen- 
tral Costa  Rica,  Central  America. 
The  surface  is  mountainous,  the 
highest  point  being  the  peak  of 
Desengano,  in  the  centre  of  the 
prov.,  which  attains  an  elevation  of 
6,310  ft.  The  uplands  afford  splen- 
did pastures  for  the  rearing  of 
cattle,  and  the  fertile  valleys  pro- 
duce much  coffee,  which  is  ex- 
ported. Pop.  72,736. 

Heredia,  the  capital  of  the  prov., 
stands  on  a  plateau  at  an  alt.  of 


J.  M.  de  Heredia, 
French  poet 


3,785  ft.,  about  5  m.  by  rly.  N.  of 
San  Jose.  It  is  a  well-planned 
town,  with  wide  streets,  substantial 
buildings,  and  up-to-date  con- 
veniences, including  electric  light, 
etc.  Pop.  9,328. 

Heredia,  Jos 6  MARIA  DE  (1842- 
1905).  French  poet.  Born  at  For- 
tuna  Capeyere,  Santiago  de  Cuba 
Nov.  22, 1842, 
of  mixed 
French  and 
Spanish 
origin,  he  was 
educated  i  n 
Paris,  and 
early  became 
a  disciple  o  f 
Lee  on  te  de 
Lisle,  and  a 
mem  ber  of 
the  Parnassian  school  of  poets. 
His  sonnets,  collected  under  the 
title  of  Les  Trophees,  1893,  place 
him  among  the  greatest  sonnet- 
writers.  He  died  Oct.  3, 1905. 

Heredia,  PEDRO  AND  ALONSO  DE. 
Two  brothers  who  conquered  Co- 
lombia for  Spain  between  1530  and 
1545.  Pedro  was  the  founder  of 
the  city  of  Cartagena. 

Hereditament  (late  Lat.  here- 
ditarc,  to  inherit).  Term  of  English 
law.  It  refers  to  property  that  can 
be  inherited,  i.e.  which  goes  to  the 
heir  and  not  to  the  personal  repre- 
sentative. The  term  is  wider  than 
the  term  real  property.  It  includes 
titles,  ad  vowsons,  rights  of  common, 
rights  of  way,  certain  offices,  e.g. 
the  office  of  earl  marshal  of  Eng- 
land is  hereditary  in  the  family  of 
the  dukes  of  Norfolk,  dignities,  e.g. 
peerages  and  baronetcies,  fran- 
chises, e.g.  markets  and  ferries, 
pensions,  annuities,  and  rents. 
Some  of  these,  such  as  rights  of 
common  and  rents,  issue  out  of 
land ;  others  are  purely  personal,  as 
peerages  and  pensions. 


HEREDITY:  INHERITED  CHARACTERISTICS 

J.  Arthur  Thomson,  Regius  Prof,  of     Natural  History,  Aberdeen 

The  group   of  articles  to  which   this   belongs   includes   Biology; 

Eugenics;  Evolution;  Life;  Mendelism ;  Sex.     See  the  biographies 

of  the  great   biologists    and    naturalists,    e.g.   Darwin ;    Gallon ; 

Lamarck  ;    Wallace.      See  also  Cell ;   Family  ;   Instinct 


Heredity  is  the  vital  or  organic 
relation  between  successive  genera- 
tions which  secures  the  general  per- 
sistence of  characteristic  resem- 
blances between  offspring  and  their 
parents,  and  yet  allows  new  ones 
to  emerge.  Some  use  the  word  to 
include  all  the  causes  or  factors 
which  determine  the  resemblance 
between  individuals  who  are  related 
to  one  another ;  others  say  that  he- 
redity is  the  fact  that  like  tends  to 
beget  like;  and  others  that  heredity 
is  the  past  living  on  in  the  present. 
But  it  must  be  understood  that 
heredity  is  no  mysterious  force 


or  principle ;  it  is  the  flesh  and  blood 
linkage,  the  germinal  continuity, 
binding  one  generation  to  another. 
In  mankind,  one  generation  may 
influence  the  next  by  tradition  and 
institutions,  by  literature  and  art, 
and  in  similar  ways  which  form  the 
social  heritage.  This  usage  would 
leave  the  term  "  natural  inherit- 
ance "  for  all  that  is  handed  on  by 
means  of  the  germ-cells,  namely 
the  egg-cell  and  the  sperm-cell. 

In  mammals,  where,  with  few 
exceptions,  the  unborn  offspring  is 
carried  by  the  mother,  the  natural 
inheritance  of  the  offspring  may  be 


HEREDITY 


3953 


HEREDITY 


influenced  by  peculiarities  in  the 
nurture  which  is  available  for  it. 
The  same  is  true  in  all  cases  where 
the  parents,  plants  as  well  as 
animals,  nurture  the  offspring. 

An  important  peculiarity  in  the 
nurture,  whether  favourable  or 
prejudicial,  may  produce  a  change 
or  modification  in  the  offspring. 
This  change  is  not  part  of  the 
hereditary  nature  ;  it  is  conveni- 
ently referred  to  as  a  result  of  some 
peculiarity  of  nurture.  The  natural 
inheritance  includes  all  that  the 
creature  is  or  has  to  start  with, 
when  it  is  in  the  germ-cell  stage  of 
its  being,  in  virtue  of  its  relation  of 
organic  continuity  with  the  ger- 
minal material  of  its  parents  and 
ancestry. 

Development  is  the  realization  of 
the  natural  inheritance,  the  making 
actual  that  which  lies  invisible  and 
latent  in  the  fertilised  egg-cell.  In 
figurative  language  development 
may  be  called  cashing  the  inherited 
legacy  and  trading  with  it.  Normal 
development  implies  appropriate 
nurture,  a  succession  of  chemical 
and  physical  stimuli  due  to  food, 
oxygen,  humidity,  warmth,  etc., 
which  serve  to  evoke  the  potential- 
ities of  the  germ  and  the  embryo. 

Peculiarities  in  this  nurture  may 
divert  the  development  from  its 
normal  course,  and  in  a  lineage 
whose  natural  inheritance  is  good 
there  may  be  an  outcrop  of  ab- 
normalities, because  of  quite  ex- 
trinsic defects  of  nurture,  such  as 
lack  of  food  or  very  low  tempera- 
ture. What  an  organism  becomes 
is  primarily  dependent  on  the  in- 
teraction of  the  hereditary  nature 
and  the  nurture  that  is  available. 

The  natural  inheritance  has  its 
material  basis  in  the  germ-cells — 
the  ovum  or  egg-cell  and  the  sper- 
matozoon or  sperm-cell.  Whatever 
be  the  precise  nature  of  the  germ- 
cells,  they  are  the  exclusive  ve- 
hicles of  the  inheritance.  Although 
we  cannot  in  any  way  picture  it, 
the  heritable  qualities  or  the  or- 
ganization which  makes  these 
qualities  possible  must  be  entirely 
contained  within  the  germ-cells, 
which  are  usually  microscopic. 
The  Human  Germ-cell 

The  human  ovum  is  only  about 
0*2  of  a  millimetre  in  diameter,  and 
many  ova  measure  not  more  than  a 
few  thousandths  of  a  millimetre. 
But  the  germ-cells  are  not  to  be 
thought  of  as  ordinary  cells ;  they 
are  individualities  in  a  unicellular 
state,  rich  in  initiatives.  The  fer- 
tilised ovum  contains  in  some 
mysterious  implicit  state  all  the 
potentialities  of  the  organism  into 
which  in  favourable  circumstances 
it  will  develop.  But  it  is  possible 
to  go  further.  Inside  each  germ- 
cell  there  is  a  kernel  or  nucleus,  as 


is  usual  in  cells,  and  inside  the 
nucleus  there  is  a  definite  number 
of  readily  stainable  rodlets  or 
granules,  called  chromosomes. 
Many  facts  point  to  the  conclusion 
that  although  the  general  substance 
(or  cytoplasm)  of  the  germ-cells 
counts  in  inheritance,  the  chromo- 
somes are  the  special  bearers  of  the 
factors  or  determiners  of  the 
hereditary  qualities,  or,  at  least, 
of  many  of  them. 

Except  in  cases  of  virgin  birth 
or  parthenogenesis,  where  ova  de- 
velop without  fertilisation,  as  in 
summer  green-flies,  and  many 
wheel-animalcules,  the  inheritance 
must  be  dual.  It  is  borne  by  a 
spermatozoon  contributed  by  the 
male  parent  and  by  an  ovum  con- 
tributed by  the  female  parent,  and 
these  two  cells  unite  in  an  in- 
timate and  orderly  way  to  form  the 
fertilised  ovum.  There  are,  indeed, 
many  cases  where  the  parents  have 
both  egg-producing  and  sperm- 
producing  organs — ovaries  and 
testes — thus  common  animals  like 
snails,  earthworms,  and  leeches 
are  hermaphrodite — but  even  then 
cross-fertilisation  is  the  rule  and 
the  inheritance  is  dual. 

Duality  of  Inheritance 

Very  rarely  does  an  animal  fer- 
tilise its  own  eggs  ;  this  autogamy, 
as  it  is  called,  is  illustrated  by 
some  tapeworms  and  flukes.  In 
the  vast  majority  of  cases  the 
inheritance  is  dual,  and  the  num- 
ber of  chromosomes  contained  in 
the  two  kinds  of  germ-cells  is 
typically  the  same.  As  the  egg-cell 
is  usually  much  larger  than  the 
spermatozoon,  the  maternal  parent 
contributes  more  of  the  initial 
building-material  or  formative  pro- 
toplasm ;  the  egg  is  often  provided 
with  a  nutritive  yolk. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  sperma- 
tozoon introduces  into  the  egg-cell 
a  minute  body  known  as  the  cen- 
trosome,  which  plays  an  important 
part  in  the  subsequent  cleavage  or 
segmentation  of  the  fertilised  egg. 
In  recognizing  the  fact  that  the  in- 
heritance is  typically  dual,  it  must 
be  noted  that  the  paternal  and 
maternal  characteristics  are  not 
likely  to  find  equal  expression  in 
the  development  of  the  offspring. 

A  distinction  must  be  drawn  be- 
tween the  germinal  constitution — 
the  natural  inheritance  contained 
in  the  fertilised  egg-cell — and  the 
expression  of  the  inheritance  in 
the  development  of  the  offspring. 
Characters  often  lie  latent  for  one 
generation  and  find  expression  in 
the  next.  Again,  while  the  in- 
heritance is  dual,  it  is  in  another 
aspect  multiple,  since  the  offspring 
may  exhibit  ancestral  characters 
not  expressed  in  the  parents. 

Statistical  inquiries  as  to  the  in- 


heritance of  stature  and  other 
qualities  in  man,  and  as  to  coat- 
colour  in  Basset  hounds,  led  Sir 
Francis  Galton  to  his  Law  of 
Ancestral  Inheritance,  according 
to  which  the  two  parents  between 
them  contribute,  on  the  average, 
one-half  of  each  inherited  faculty, 
each  of  them  contributing  one- 
quarter  of  it ;  the  four  grand- 
parents contribute  between  them 
one-quarter,  or  each  of  them  one- 
sixteenth,  and  so  on  backwards. 
Prof.  Karl  Pearson  has  altered 
Galton's  series  from  0*5,  0'25, 
0-125,  etc.,  to  0-6244,  0'1988, 
0-0630,  etc.,  but  the  general  idea 
remains  that  the  average  con- 
tributions made  by  grandparents, 
great-grandparents,  etc.,  diminish 
in  a  precise  ratio  according  to  the 
remoteness  of  the  ancestors. 
Law  of  Filial  Regression 

A  correlated  generalisation  is 
known  as  the  law  of  filial  regression, 
which  means  that  the  offspring  of 
exceptional  parents  tend  on  the 
average  to  approximate  (up  or 
down)  to  the  mean  of  the  general 
population.  To  take  Prof.  Karl 
Pearson's  instance,  with  a  collec- 
tion of  fathers  of  stature  72  ins., 
the  mean  height  of  their  sons  will 
be  70-8 ;  with  a  collection  of 
fathers  of  66  ins.,  the  mean  height 
of  their  sons  will  be  68'3— in  both 
cases  an  approximation  towards 
the  mean  of  the  general  population. 

These  two  generalisations  are 
statistical  average  conclusions,  not 
individual  physiological  conclu- 
sions, but  they  do  not  appear  to 
apply  to  sharply  defined  non-blend- 
ing characters,  which  exhibit  what  is 
called  Mendelian  inheritance.  Nor 
is  it  clear  that  the  data  utilised 
were  sufficiently  homogeneous,  for 
peculiarities  or  modifications  di- 
rectly due  to  peculiarities  of  in- 
dividual nurture  must  not  be 
mixed  up  with  peculiarities  due 
to  intrinsic  germinal  variations. 
Caution  is  necessary  in  dealing  with 
these  statistical  conclusions. 

The  largest  fact  in  regard  to 
heredity,  and  at  the  same  time  its 
central  problem,  is  the  persistence  of 
a  particular  kind  of  organization  and 
activity  from  generation  to  genera- 
tion. Grapes  are  not  gathered  from 
thorns  or  figs  from  thistles  :  like  be- 
gets like  is  confirmed  by  modern 
research  which  has  demonstrated 
what  is  called  the  "  specificity"  or 
"individuality"  of  each  kind  of 
creature.  Each  has  its  own  parti- 
cular kind  of  living  matter,  with  a 
definite  microscopic  and  ultra-mi- 
croscopic architecture,  and  with  a 
system  of  chemical  reactions  differ- 
ent from  those  of  other  creatures. 

The  largest  fact  of  inheritance  is 
the  more  or  less  perfect  maintenance 
of  this  sum  of  characteristics  from 

1A    5 


HEREDITY 

generation  to  generation,  and  it  is 
useful  to  distinguish  between  the 
persistence  of  the  general  funda- 
mental characters,  from  which 
there  is  never  much  divergence, 
and  the  persistence  of  more  super- 
ficial and  recent  features,  which  is 
less  secure.  It  is  rare  for  a  child  to 
be  born  whose  characters  are  in 
any  respect  at  a  level  below  that  of 
the  type  of  modern  man ;  but  it 
often  happens  that  an  individual 
peculiarity  inborn  in  the  parent 
fails  to  reappear  in  the  offspring. 
Inborn  Peculiarities 

On  the  other  hand,  relatively 
unimportant  peculiarities,  such  as 
having  only  two  joints  in  the 
fingers  (brachydactylia),  have  been 
known  to  persist  for  six  genera- 
tions, and  may  in  domesticated 
animals  or  cultivated  plants  be- 
come permanently  characteristic 
of  a  breed  or  variety,  as  in  lop- 
eared  rabbits,  or  in  greater  cel- 
andine (Chelidonium),  with  cut-up 
leaves.  All  sorts  of  inborn  peculiar- 
ities, except  of  course  complete 
sterility,  may  be  transmitted, 
whether  structural  or  functional, 
trivial  or  important,  beneficial  or 
injurious,  bodily  or  mental.  Even 
subtle  characters  like  longevity, 
fertility,  immunity,  and  suscepti- 
bility to  certain  diseases  may  be 
transmitted.  The  word  "  may  " 
cannot,  however,  be  changed  into 
"  must,"  for  against  the  fact  of 
hereditary  persistence  or  inertia 
has  to  be  placed  the  fact  of  varia- 
bility or  divergence.  Like  only  tends 
to  beget  like  ;  the  entail  is  very 
frequently  broken  ;  novelties  are 
continually  emerging. 

In  this  connexion  it  is  important 
to  understand  that  an  inborn  de- 
fect in  some  vital  process,  such  as 
excretion  or  digestion,  or  in  some 
important  part  of  the  body  such  as 
the  brain  or  the  blood,  is  quite 
likely  to  appear  in  the  next  gen- 
eration ;  and  there  is  a  grievous 
list  showing  the  heritability  of  this 
sort  of  disease  and  defect.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  is  misleading  to 
speak  of  the  trans missJbility  of  any 
disease  that  is  due  to  a  microbe. 
There  may  be  infection  before 
birth,  as  in  the  case  of  syphilis  ;  or 
there  may  be  an  inheritance  of  a 
predisposition  to  the  disease,  e.g.  a 
susceptibility  to  tubercular  infec- 
tion ;  or  in  mammals  there  may  be  a 
handicapping  of  the  offspring  be- 
cause of  disease  in  the  mother  ;  but 
there  is  no  warrant  for  speaking  of 
the  inheritance  of  microbic  dis- 
eases as  such. 

Some  light  is  thrown  on  the  per- 
sistence of  hereditary  characters 
by  the  fact  of  germinal  continuity. 
It  was  pointed  out  "by  Galton, 
Weismann,  and  others  that  when 
a  fertilised  egg-cell  is  dividing  and 


3954 

redividing  to  form  a  mass  of  em- 
bryonic cells,  out  of  which  tissues 
and  organs  are  soon  formed,  some 
of  the  original  germinal  material 
is  kept  apart,  not  sharing  in  body- 
making,  to  form  the  germ-cells  of 
the  offspring.  In  a  large  number 
of  types  this  early  segregation  of 
definite  germ -cells  has  been  de- 
monstrated ;  in  other  cases  all  that 
can  be  said  is  that  there  is  a  line- 
age of  unspecialised  elements  which 
at  last  leads  to  the  establishment 
of  the  essential  reproductive  organs. 

The  general  idea  is  that  the 
characteristic  protoplasmic  or- 
ganization (including  the  associ- 
ated possibilities  or  actualities  of 
chemical  and  other  activities)  is 
continued  intact  along  a  lineage  of 
non-specialised  cells,  which  eventu- 
ally lead  to  the  germ-cells  of  the 
offspring.  The  egg  liberated  by  the 
offspring  develops  into  a  similar 
creature,  because  it  is  organically 
continuous  with  the  fertilised  ovum 
from  which  the  offspring  de- 
veloped. Thus  it  is  not  accurate  to 
think  of  a  parent  handing  on 
characters  to  the  offspring.  It  is 
rather  that  the  offspring  inherits 
from  the  endless  chain  of  un- 
specialised germ-cells.  For  this 
reason,  like  tends  to  beget  like. 
Acquired  Characters 

Cases  where  a  new  generation, 
e.g.  of  potatoes  or  sponges,  is  ob- 
tained by  cutting  off  pieces  of  the 
parent's  body  and  planting  them 
out,  do  not  offer  any  objection. 
It  is  probable  that  all  the  funda- 
mental qualities  of  the  fertilised 
ovum  are  distributed  among  the 
cells  of  the  offspring,  where  most 
of  them  lie  latent,  except  under 
exceptional  stimulation.  Body- 
cells  may  in  rare  cases  give  rise  to 
germ -cells,  as  in  cuttings  and 
liberated  buds,  but  in  the  animal 
world  the  usual  method  is  to  have 
a  lineage  of  unspecialised  cells. 

There  has  been  much  discussion 
about  the  question  of  the  transmissi- 
bility  of  individually  acquired 
bodily  modifications  directly  due  to 
peculiarities  in  function  or  environ- 
ment. These  "acquired  characters," 
as  they  are  wrongly  called,  are  in- 
dents from  without,  and  not  to 
be  confused  with  variations  or 
mutations  which  are  outcrops 
from  within.  (See  Evolution.) 
Modifications  may  be  illustrated  by 
the  permanent  browning  of  a  white 
man's  skin  by  many  years  of  ex- 
posure to  the  tropical  sun,  by  the 
great  strengthening  of  a  muscle  by 
persistent  exercise,  or  by  a  callos- 
ity developed  on  the  skin  as  the 
result  of  prolonged  pressure,  and  so 
on.  The  question  is  whether  these 
modifications  can  be  handed  on 
as  such  or  even  in  any  degree,  so 
that  they  reappear  by  inheritance 


HEREDITY 

in  offspring  who  were  not  sub- 
jected to  the  unusual  influence. 

There  have  been  only  a  few  im- 
portant experiments  bearing  on 
the  problem,  but  the  answer  of  the 
majority  of  naturalists  is  that  there 
is  not  at  present  any  convincing 
evidence  of  such  transmission.  The 
offspring  may  re-acquire  the  par- 
ental modification  if  subjected  to 
similar  influences  ;  secondary  effects 
of  the  parental  modification  may 
influence  the  developing  offspring, 
especially  in  mammals  ;  a  deeply 
saturating  influence  may  affect  not 
only  the  parent's  body,  but  the 
germ-cells  at  the  same  time,  so 
that  the  offspring  come  to  be 
altered,  though  not  in  the  same 
way  as  the  parents. 

Moreover,  in  a  few  cases  it  has 
been  made  probable  that  a  modifi- 
cation of  the  parent  may  produce 
a  chemical  substance  which  gets 
access  to  the  general  cell-substance 
of  the  germ-cells,  or  to  the  de- 
veloping embryo  or  seed,  so  that 
there  results,  as  long  as  the  sub- 
stance lasts,  a  transient  modifi- 
cation of  the  offspring  similar  to 
that  of  the  parent.  But  at  present 
the  evidence  in  favour  of  the  trans - 
missibility  of  individually  acquired 
modifications  even  in  a  faint  degree 
is  very  far  from  convincing.  The 
practical  corollary  as  regards  man- 
kind is  that  increased  care  should 
be  taken  to  shield  the  members  of 
the  next  generation  from  influences 
which  are  known  to  produce  in- 
jurious modifications,  and  to 
secure  for  them  a  persistence  of 
those  peculiarities  of  nurture 
which  wrought  out  beneficial  modi- 
fications in  the  parents. 

In  1865  Mendel  stated  an  im- 
portant law  of  heredity,  which  re- 
mained almost  unnoticed  till  1900, 
when  De  Vries,  Correns,  and  Tscher- 
mak  independently  reached  ex- 
perimental results  closely  resem- 
bling Mendel's. 

In  illustration  of  characters 
which  exhibit  Mendelian  inherit- 
ance, the  following  may  be  cited, 
the  dominant  character  being 
named  first  in  each  case  :  Horn- 
lessness  and  the  presence  of  horns 
in  cattle;  normal  hair  and  long 
"  Angora "  hair  in  rabbits  and 
guinea-pigs;  crest  in  poultry  and 
absence  of  crest;  extra  toes  in 
poultry  and  normal  four  toes ;  un- 
handed shell  in  wood-snail  and 
banded  shell ;  yellow  cotyledons 
in  peas  and  green  ones  ; "  round 
seeds  in  peas  and  wrinkled  ones; 
absence  of  awn  in  wheat  and  its 
presence ;  susceptibility  to  rust  in 
wheat  and  immunity  from  this  dis- 
ease ;  two-rowed  ears  of  barley  and 
six-rowed  ears. 

The  Mendelian  law  of  alternative 
inheritance  implies  three  main 


HEREDITY 


3955 


HEREDITY 


ideas:  (l)The  inheritance  consists, 
in  part  at  least,  of  "  unit  charac- 
ters "  which  are  inherited  as  a 
whole  or  not  at  all.  which  behave 
as  if  they  were  discrete  units  which 
can  be  shuffled  about  and  distri- 
buted to  the  offspring  in  some  mea- 
sure independently  of  each  other. 
These  "  unit  characters  "  are  be- 
lieved to  be  represented  by  specific 
constituents  or  determinants,  fac- 
tors or  genes,  or  architectural  ar- 
rangements of  some  sort,  resident 
in  the  germinal  material  and  pro- 
bably in  the  chromosomes.  It 
seems  probable,  however,  that 
several  factors  may  be  sometimes 
involved  in  one  character,  or  that 
one  factor  may  sometimes  influ- 
ence more  than  one  character,  or 
that  a  factor  may  undergo  a  kind  of 
disintegration.  New  facts  have  led 
to  the  invention  of  numerous  acces- 
sory hypotheses. 

Dominant  and  Recessive 

(2)  When  two  parents  differ  in 
respect    of    two    contrasted    unit 
characters,  these  do  not  blend,  but 
one  of  them  appears,  more  or  less 
in  its  entirety,  in  the  offspring,  and 
is  called  dominant,  while  its  ana- 
logue that  drops  more  or  less  out  of 
sight  for  the  time  being  is  called 
recessive.     Or   the   presence   of  a 
character  may  be  dominant  to  the 
absence  of  that  character,  or  con- 
versely.    It  must  be  carefully  no- 
ticed, however,  that  there  are  nu- 
merous instances  of  what  is  called 
incomplete    dominance,    as    when 
the  crossing  of  a  black  and  a  white 
Andalusian  fowl  yields  blue  Anda- 
lusians.    Different  pairs  of  factors 
may  interact,  and  there  are  many 
complications  which  explain  how 
certain    distributions    of    qualities 
which  seem  non-Mendelian  at  first 
sight   may  yet   come   under  that 
interpretation. 

(3)  The  third  idea  is  that  of  segre- 
gation, that  in  the  history  of  the 
germ-cells  of  the  hybrids  there  is  a 
separation  of  the  determiners  or 
factors    of    the    contrasted  "unit 
characters,"  so  that  each  germ-cell 
is  "pure"  as  regards  the  character, 
either  having  it  or  not  having  it. 

Mendelian  inheritance  in  man  is 
illustrated  by  such  abnormal  char- 
acters as  brachydactyly,  that  is 
having  the  fingers  all  thumbs,  with 
two  joints  instead  of  three,  or  by 
night-blindness  or  inability  to  see 
by  faint  light.  It  is  illustrated  by 
such  normal  characters  as  brown 
eyes  (dominant  to  blue),  and  curly 
hair  (dominant  to  straight),  and  in 
other  instances. 

The  question  arises  whether 
there  are  characters  which  do  not 
behave  in  the  Mendelian  (alterna- 
tive) manner,  but  blend  in  the  off- 
spring. Thus  it  is  often  said  that 
the  skin  colour  of  the  mulatto  is 


intermediate  between  the  white 
and  the  black  skin-colours  of  the 
parents.  Castle  has  shown  that 
when  long- eared  rabbits  are  crossed 
with  short-eared  ones  the  offspring 
have  ears  of  intermediate  length 
and  remain  so  in  subsequent 
generations.  He  found  the  same  to 
be  true  as  regards  the  dimensions 
of  parts  of  the  skeleton,  such  as  the 
length  and  breadth  of  the  skull. 

In  many  hybrid  plants,  the  pro- 
portions of  the  leaves,  the  number 
of  stomata,  the  thickness  of  the 
hairs,  and  so  on,  may  be  approxi- 
mately intermediate  between  the 
conditions  seen  in  the  parents. 
Warren  has  described  a  remarkable 
hybrid  between  two  different 
genera  of  cockatoo  which  does  not 
at  first  sight  suggest  Mendelian  in- 
heritance, and  cases  of  blending 
have  been  reported  in  regard  to 
trout  and  sheep. 

There  is  some  evidence  that  a 
feature  characteristic  of  an  ances- 
tral type  may  lie  latent  for  many 
generations,  and  then  suddenly 
find  expression  in  development. 
This  might  be  the  explanation  of 
the  appearance  of  horns  in  a  horn- 
less race,  of  some  striping  on  a 
pony,  of  a  fourth  toe  on  a  guinea- 
pig's  foot,  of  a  nectarine  producing 
a  peach,  and  so  on.  But  many  of 
the  so-called  "  reversions "  or 
throw-backs  are  due  to  arrested 
development,  or  to  fresh  variation, 
or  to  unpropitious  modification,  or, 
especially  in  domesticated  animals 
and  cultivated  plants,  to  crossing. 
Mendelian  Experiments 

Mendelian  experiments  have  ex- 
plained many  of  the  so-called  re- 
versions in  the  following  way. 
Many  domesticated  or  cultivated 
stocks  have  arisen,  it  appears,  by 
the  dropping  out  of  certain  factors 
in  the  original  wild  inheritance. 
Under  human  guidance  there  has 
been  a  utilisation  of  the  results  of  a 
spontaneous  "  unpacking  "  of  the 
inheritance  of  the  original  type. 
Thus  from  the  wild  rabbit  with  its 
subtly  coloured  pellage  numerous 
colour-varieties  of  tame  rabbit 
have  been  established.  When  these 
interbreed  there  are  reversions, 
that  is  to  say  there  is  repacking  of 
the  hereditary  items  which  had 
been  analysed  apart. 

Modern*  studies  in  heredity  ne- 
cessarily attach  much  importance 
to  outstanding  features  which  ad- 
mit of  ready  recognition  and  mea- 
surement. Many  of  these  features 
are  relatively  superficial,  and  in 
some  cases  of  recent  origin.  In 
every  species,  however,  there  is  a 
great  mass  of  hereditary  character 
which  is  no  longer  in  its  essentials 
subject  to  variation,  which  is  pro- 
bably passed  on  en  bloc  in  the 
lineage  of  the  -germ -cells. 


Thus  in  every  mammal  there  is  a 
stable  inheritance  of  the  essentially 
mammalian  features  which  are  not 
known  to  be  departed  from  in  any 
essential  way,  nor  to  be  departed 
from  in  any  very  remarkable  way 
except  on  occasions  which  seem  to 
man's  brief  span  of  observation  to 
be  very  rare.  The  persistence  of 
this  main -mass  of  inheritance  is 
accounted  for  by  the  continuity  of 
the  germ-plasm. 

The  study  of  heredity  leaves  in 
the  mind  a  convincing  impression 
of  the  value  of  good  stock.  To 
acquiesce,  with  open  eyes  and  the 
possibility  of  escape,  in  the  taint- 
ing of  a  good  stock  is  to  do  a  bad 
turn  to  both  race  and  family.  The 
patching-up  of  what  is  inherently 
rotten  may  be  useful  to  the  in- 
dividual and  indirectly  to  the  race, 
but  veneer  is  not  a  substitute  for 
sound  wood,  and  some  taints  persist 
inexorably  for  generations. 

Inherited  Nature  and  Nurture 

The  study  of  heredity  leaves 
a  fatalistic  impression  in  the  mind, 
for  a  man  cannot  choose  his  par- 
ents. He  can  choose  his  partner, 
however,  and  in  this  there  may  be 
progress,  if  good  be  mated  with 
good.  And  as  an  offset  to  the 
inertia  of  hereditary  persistence, 
must  be  recognized  the  reality  of 
those  variations  which  are  ever 
occurring  and  which  are  the  raw 
materials  of  progress. 

Since  development  is  always 
the  result  of  an  interaction  of  in- 
herited nature  and  appropriate 
nurture,  it  is  of  great  practical  im- 
portance to  secure  that  this  nur- 
ture is  the  best  procurable.  Other- 
wise the  promising  variations  may 
fail  to  unfold.  Hereditary  char- 
acters are  like  seeds  requiring  sun- 
shine and  rain.  Moreover,  for  the 
individual  it  is  always  possible  that 
alterations  of  nurture  may  prevent 
the  actualisation  of  inherited  pre- 
dispositions to  evil. 

While  there  is  no  secure  war- 
rant for  believing  in  the  trans - 
missibility  of  individually  acquired 
modifications  as  such  or  in  any 
representative  degree,  there  is  not 
on  that  account  any  reason  to 
deprecate  the  valu»  of  ameliorative 
nurtural  conditions  which  impress 
beneficial  modifications  on  succes- 
sive generations,  or  the  value  of  the 
social  heritage  which  has  its  reposi- 
tory not  in  any  germ-plasm,  but  in 
literature  and  art,  traditions  and 
institutions,  and  in  the  framework 
of  society  itself. 

Bibliography.  Life  and  Habit,  S. 
Butler,  1878  ;  Natural  Inheritance, 
Sir  F.  Galton,  1889  ;  The  Germ- 
Plasm,  A.  Weismann,  1893  ;  The 
Grammar  of  Science,  K.  Pearson, 
1900  ;  The  Cell  in  Development  and 


HEREFORD 

Inheritance,  E.  B.  Wilson,  1900  ; 
The  Evolution  Theory,  A.  Weis- 
mann,  1905  ;  Mendel's  Principles  of 
Heredity,  W.  Bateman,  1909;  Hered- 
ity in  the  Light  of  Recent  Re- 
search, L.  Doncaster,  1910  ;  Evolu- 
tion, P.  Geddes  and  J.  A.  Thomson, 
1911  :  Heredity  in  Relation  to  Evo- 
lution and  Animal  Breeding,  W.  E. 
Castle,  1911  ;  Breeding  and  the 
Mendelian  Discovery,  A.  D.  Darbi- 
shire,  1911  ;  Mendelism,  R.  C.  Pun- 
nett,  1911  ;  Heredity,  J.  A.  S.  Wat- 


3956 

site  of  a  building  occupied  by  the 
Knights  Hospitallers.    The  schools 
include  a  blue  coat  school  and  the 
cathedral  school.   All  Saints  and  S. 
Peter's    are    interesting    churches. 
Hereford  has  a  guildhall,  a  town 
hall,  and  a  shire  hall,  also  an  art 
gallery,   and  a  public  library  and 
museum.      There   are   only  a  few 
remains  of  the  castle  and  of  the 
town  walls.     The  former  is  now 
represented  by  the  castle  grounds, 
•  a  public  promenade 
with  a  memorial  to 
Nelson.  Every  third 
|  year  a  musical  festi- 
val of  the  choirs  of 
Gloucester,       Wor- 
cester,   and     Here- 
ford  Cathedrals    is 
held  here.  The  chief 
industries    are    the 
making     of      cider, 


son,  1912;  Problems  of  Genetics, 
Bateson,  1913  ;  The  Mechanism  of 
Mendelian  Inheritance,  T.  H.  Mor- 
gan and  others,  1915  ;  A  Manual  of 
Mendelism,  J.  Wilson,  1916  ;  Dar- 
winism and  Human  Life,  J.  A. 
Thomson,  1916  ;  Heredity,  J.  A. 
Thomson,  3rd  ed.  1919. 

Hereford.         City    and    mun. 
borough  of  Herefordshire,  of  which 
it  is  the  county  town.     It  stands 
on  the  Wye,  main- 
ly on  the  left  bank, 
144  m.  from  Lon- 
don, and  is  served 
by  the  G.W.  Rly. 
and  by  two  joint 
lines,  being  a  rail- 
way    centre      of 
some  importance. 
Hereford  arms      The      notabie 

building  is  the  cathedral.  Exhibit- 
ing several  styles  of  architecture, 
this  was  begun  about  1079,  on  the 
site  of  an  earlier  one,  and  was 
completed  about  1150.  Consider- 
able additions  and  alterations  were 
made  in  the  13th  and  14th  centuries. 
Restorations  were  made  after  1786, 
when  the  western  tower  fell,  and 
in  the  19th  century;  in  1900-5 
the  west  front  was  reconstructed. 
Among  its  features  are  the  fine 
nave,  the  Norman  font,  the  shrine 
of  Cantelupe,  the  tower  lantern, 
and  the  modern  screen.  The  lady 
chapel  and  the  crypt  are  notable, 
as  is  the  library  with  its  chained 
books.  The  cathedral  possesses  a 
unique  map  of  the  world  made 
about  1313. 

Other  buildings  are  the  bishop's 
palace  and  the  beautiful  college  of 
the  vicars'  choral ;  S.  Ethelbert's 
and  Coningsby  hospitals,  both  old 
foundations ;  the  latter  was 
founded  in  1614,  being  built  on  the 


HEREFORD 

tanning,  brewing,  and  a  trade  in  agri- 
cultural produce.  The  gas,  water, 
and  electricity  supplies  are  in  the 
hands  of  the  corporation,  which 
owns  the  race-course  and  markets. 
Hereford  owes  its  historical  im- 
portance to  its  position  on  the 
Welsh  border,  while  as  a  bishopric 
it  dates  from  about  672.  A  castle 
was  built  for  its  protection  and 
this  was  frequently  assailed,  the 
last  occasion  being  during  the  civil 
war.  In  the  Middle  Ages  the 
citizens  obtained  the  right  to  hold 
markets  and  fairs.  They  had  a 
merchant  guild  and  the  city  was 
soon  a  corporate  town,  also  a 
centre  of  the  trade  in  wool  and 
leather.  Weaving  was  carried  on, 
gloves  were  made,  and  there  was  a 
mint.  From  1295  to  1885  Hereford 
sent  two  members  to  Parliament; 
until  1918  it  sent  one.  Pop.  23,324. 
Hereford,  EARL 
OF.  English  title 
long  borne  by  the 
family  of  Bohun. 
William  Fitzosbern, 
one  of  the  Norman 
leaders  at  Hastings, 
was  made  earl  of 
Hereford  in  1067. 
Between  then  and 
his  death,  in  1071, 
he  was  chiefly  em- 
ployed in  defending 
the  borders  of 


iiil  sy  &R 


Hereford.     1.  The  bridge  over  the  Wye.      2.  Cathedral  from  the  south-west. 
3.  Cathedral  west  front 


HEREFORD 

England  against  the  Welsh,  and 
putting  down  rebels  elsewhere.  His 
younger  son,  Roger  Fitzwilliam, 
succeeded  to  the  earldom,  but  in 
1075,  for  conspiring  against  the 
Conqueror,  he  lost  his  lands  and 
his  freedom.  Miles  of  Gloucester, 
a  powerful  baron  in  the  reign  of 
Stephen,  and  a  stout  partisan  of  the 
Empress  Matilda,  was  made  earl  of 
Hereford  in  1141. 

When  his  last  son  died  childless, 
his  lands  passed  to  his  daughters, 
one  of  whom,  Margaret,  was  the 
wife  of  Humphrey  Bohun.  Their 
grandson,  Henry,  was  made  earl  of 
Hereford  in  1199,  and  his  descen- 
dants held  the  title  until  the  last 
male  Bohun  died  in  1373.  In  1397 
Henry,  afterwards  Henry  IV,  who 
had  married  an  heiress  of  the  Bo- 
huns,  was  made  duke  of  Hereford, 
and  when  he  became  king  this  title 
was  merged  in  the  crown. 

Hereford,  VISCOUNT.  English 
title,  the  oldest  of  its  kind,  borne 
since  1550  by  the  family  of 
Devereux.  Walter  Devereux,  10th 
Baron  Ferrers  of  Chartley,  a  title 
dating  from  1299,  was  made  Vis- 
count Hereford  in  1550.  He  had 
fought  in  France  for  Henry  VIII. 
His  grandson  and  successor  was 
made  earl  of  Essex  and  the  vis- 
county  was  held  by  the  earls  until 
Robert,  3rd  earl  of  Essex,  died  in 
1646.  The  titles  were  then  distri- 
buted and  Sir  Walter  Devereux, 
a  baronet,  a  descendant  of  the  1st 
viscount,  became  Viscount  Here- 
ford. His  descendants  still  hold 
the  title,  Robert  Devereux  becom- 
ing the  16th  viscount  in  1855. 

Hereford.  Hardy  breed  of  cattle 
raised  in  Herefordshire  and  neigh- 
bouring counties.  The  body  is  red, 
while  the  face  and  mane,  chest  and 
abdomen  are  white  ;  the  legs  are 
often  white  up  to  the  hocks.  Pure 
Herefords  are  of  small  esteem  for 
dairying  purposes,  but  they  are  fine 
beef-producers  and  are  in  favour 
on  the  cattle-ranches  in  Canada,  in 
Australia  (especially  Queensland), 
and  in  the  U.S.A.  See  Cattle. 

Herefordshire.  County  of  Eng- 
land. With  an  area  of  842  sq.  m., 
it  is  almost  circular  in  shape.  It  is 
fairly  level  in  the  centre,  but  on  its 
borders  are  hills,  the  Malverns  on 
the  E.  and  the  Black  Mountains 
in  the  S.  The  chief  river  is  the 
Wye,  which  flows  across  the  county. 
Other  rivers,  tributaries  of  the  Wye, 
are  the  Lugg,  Arrow,  Dore,  and 
Frome.  The  Teme  is  a  tributary  of 
the  Severn.  The  county  town  is 
Hereford  ;  other  towns  are  Leo- 
minster,  Ledbury,  and  Ross. 

Hereford  is  an  agricultural 
county,  chiefly  famous  for  its  cider 
and  its  cattle,  while  the  usual  Eng- 
lish cereals  are  grown.  Orchards 
abound  and  hops  are  grown,  and 


3957 


HEREFORDSHIRE 


Herefordshire.     Map   of  the  border  county,  famous  for  its  agriculture  and 
orchards,  showing  the  course  of  the  river  Wye 


the  sheep  have  a  high  reputation. 
The  chief  railway  in  the  county  is 
the  G.W.,  but  it  is  also  served  by 
the  Midland.  It  is  in  the  diocese  of 
Hereford  and  the  Oxford  circuit; 
it  is  divided  into  12  hundreds,  and 
sends  two  members  to  Parliament. 

Having  been  a  border  county, 
Hereford  is  full  of  castles,  the  chief 
being  Richard's  Castle,  Clifford, 
Weobley,  Hereford,  Wilton,  Good- 
rich, and  Wigmore.  There  was  a 
good  deal  of  fighting  here  in  the 
centuries  after  the  Norman  Con- 
quest, and  Hereford  was  an.  im- 
portant place,  much  of  the  land 
being  held  by  the  lords  marchers, 
families  such  as  the  Cliffords  and 
Mortimers.  Later,  as  the  district 
became  more  peaceable,  fine 
churches  and  houses  were  built. 
Holme  Lacy  is  perhaps  the  finest 
seat  in  the  county.  There  was  a 
monastery  at  Abbey  Dore. 

Herefordshire  is  noted  for  its 
fishing.  The  population  is  113,118, 
making  the  county  one  of  the  least 
densely  peopled  parts  of  England. 

LITERARY  ASSOCIATIONS.  Richard 
Whittington,  Lord  Mayor  of  Lon- 
don, is  supposed  to  have  been  born 
at  Sellers  Hope  in  the  mid- 14th 


century.  Richard  Hakluyt,  the  geo- 
grapher, belonged  to  a  family  long 
established  at  Yatton,  near  Ross. 
The  Elizabethan  poet  John  Davies 
of  Hereford  took  his  name  from 
his  birthplace.  John  Philips,  author 
of  The  Splendid  Shilling,  is  buried 
in  the  N.  transept  of  Hereford 
Cathedral.  Nell  Gwynne  is  said  to 
have  been  born  in  Pipe  Well  Lane 
(later  Gwynn  Street),  Hereford. 
John  Kyrle,  the  Man  of  Ross,  made 
famous  by  Pope,  belonged  to  the 
county. 

David  Garrick  was  born  at 
the  Angel  Inn,  Hereford ;  Sarah 
Siddons  passed  her  early  life  in  the 
county,  and  her  brother,  Stephen 
Kemble,  was  born  at  Ross.  Sir 
Uvedale  Price,  celebrated  writer 
on  the  picturesque,  lived  and  died 
at  Foxley  in  the  parish  of  Yazor. 
Brinsop,  which  was  the  home  of 
his  wife's  people,  has  a  memorial 
window  to  Wordsworth.  Elizabeth 
Barrett  Browning  passed  much  of 
her  early  life  at  Hope  End,  near 
Ledbury  ;  in  1894  a  clock  tower 
was  erected  at  Ledbury  to  her 
memory. 

Bibliography.  Collection  towards 
the  History  and  Antiquities  of 


HEREFORDSHIRE 


3958 


HERFORD 


the  County  of  Hereford,  J.  Dun- 
cumb,  etc.,  1804-92;  Herefordshire 
Biographies,  J.  Hutchinson,  1890; 
Victoria  History  of  the  Counties  of 
England,  Hereford,  ed.  W.  Page, 
1908  ;  The  Place-Names  of  Here- 
fordshire, A.  T.  Bannister,  1916  ; 
Herefordshire,  G.  W.  Wade  and  J. 
Henry,  1917. 

Herefordshire  Regiment.  Re- 
giment of  the  British  army,  estab- 
lished when  the  Territorial  Force 
was  organized  in  1907.  It  con- 
sists solely  of  territorial  or  volun- 
teer battalions.  The  1st  battalion 
was  in  Galiipoli,  1915,  Palestine, 
1916-18,  and  France,  1918.  The 
depot  is  at  Hereford. 

Herero  OK  OVAHERERO.  Negroid 
people  in  the  S.W.  Africa  Protect- 
orate. Situate  S.  of  the  allied  agri- 


Herero.      Warriors   oi   the  South- 
west African  people 

cultural  Ovambo,  they  were  form- 
erly called  Cattle  Damaras,  to  dis- 
tinguish them  from  the  more  pri- 
mitive Hottentot-speaking  Hill 
Damaras.  Muscular,  aggressive, 
skin-clad,  they  were  the  only 
purely  pastoral  Bantu -speaking 
people  extant  until  they  adopted 
some  agriculture  under  missionary 
direction.  They  petitioned  Sir 
Henry  Barkly  in  1872  for  a  Brit- 
ish protectorate,  but  in  1884  their 
country  was  annexed  by  Germany. 

In  1881,  after  a  period  of  mutual 
tolerance,  they  waged  ruthless 
warfare  against  the  Hottentots 
and,  in  1903-6,  they  rebelled  against 
the  German  colonial  forces,  at 
whose  hands  large  numbers  per- 
ished. The  remainder,  estimated 
(1913)  at  21,600,  as  compared 
with  -some  85,000  before  the 
German  occupation,  were  deprived 
of  their  cattle  and  gathered  into 
reservations.  See  Africa. 

Hereroland.  Country  forming 
a  portion  of  the  S.W.  Africa 
Protectorate,  also  called  Damara- 
land  or  Damaland.  *It  lies  be- 
tween Namaqualand  on  the  S.,  and 
Ovamboland  on  the  N.  The  coastal 


region  is  waterless  desert ;  behind 
this  area  is  a  mountainous  district, 
with  peaks  8,500  ft.  high,  and 
beyond  this  there  is  good  pastoral 
and  agricultural  country,  extending* 
towards  the  Kalahari  Desert.  The 
chief  towns  in  Hereroland  are 
Windhoek,  Karibib,  Rehoboth, 
Gobabis,  Omaruru,  and  the  port  of 
Swakopmund.  The  only  harbour 
is  Walvis  Bay,  lying  S.  of  Swakop- 
mund. See  The  Germans  and 
Africa,  P.  E.  Lewin,  1915. 

Heresy  ^Gr.  kairesis,  choice). 
An  opinion  based  on  the  choice  of 
its  holder  and  not  on  recognized 
authority.  The  word  appears  to 
have  been  first  used  in  this  sense 
at  Alexandria,  to  denote  the  theo- 
logical views  of  certain  Jews, 
Pharisees,  Sadducees,  and  Essenes. 
In  the  early  Christian  Church  it 
came  to  mean  an  erroneous  doc- 
trine held  by  a  body  of  people,  but 
differing  from  that  of  the  Church 
generally.  Heresy  differs  entirely 
from  unbelief  or  even  scepticism. 
It  believes  and  upholds  Christian 
doctrine,  but  it  misunderstands 
and  misinterprets  it.  Similarly, 
,  it  is  not  identical  with  schism,  for 
a  schismatic  may  be  quite  orthodox 
in  his  belief,  while  separating  him- 
self from  the  household  of  faith  on 
some  question  of  discipline. 

Heresy  is  difficult  to  define, 
since  it  presupposes  orthodoxy, 
which  is  a  declaration  of  a  point  of 
view.  A  teacher  who  is  orthodox 
from  the  Anglican  standpoint  may 
be  an  utter  heretic  from  the 
Roman  Catholic,  and  vice  versa. 
A  person  who  is  merely  mistaken 
in  his  views  is  not  necessarily  a 
heretic  ;  the  latter  term  implies  a 
certain  deliberate  rejection  of  the 
orthodox  belief.  Only  one  who  per- 
sists in  his  error  after  warning  and 
instruction  is  to  be  regarded  a 
heretic,  according  to  the  N.T.  rule, 
"  A  man  that  is  an  heretic  after  a 
first  and  second  admonition  re- 
ject "  (Tit.  iii,  10).  The  old  canon 
law  provides  that  only  an  error 
persistently  maintained  is  to  be 
counted  heresy.  The  law  of  Eng- 
land declares  to  be  heresy  that 
which  has  been  so  determined 
heretofore  by  the  authority  of  the 
Canonical  Scriptures,  or  the  four 
first  general  councils,  or  any  of 
them,  or  by  any  other  general 
council,  wherein  the  same  was 
declared  heresy  by  the  express  and 
plain  words  of  the  said  Canonical 
Scriptures  ;  or  such  as  shall  here- 
after be  determined  to  be  heresy 
by  the  High  Court  of  Parliament  of 
this  realm,  with  the  assent  of  the 
clergy  in  their  Convocation. 

Formerly  in  England  bishops 
were  required  to  punish  heretics, 
and  to  notify  to  the  Lord  High 
Chancellor  the  preachers  of  here- 


tical doctrine.  In  1400  the  statute 
De  Haeretico  comburendo  was 
passed,  and  remained  in  force  until 
it  was  partly  repealed  by  Henry 
VIII,  and  finally  abolished  by 
Charles  II.  The  'last  writs  under 
this  Act  were  issued  in  the  ninth 
year  of  James  I,  when  two  preach- 
ers were  burnt  for  heretical  teach- 
ing. The  ecclesiastical  penalties 
for  heresy  now  in  force  in  Great 
Britain  are  deposition  from  "office 
and  excommunication  in  case  of 
persistent  obstinacy.  The  bishop 
of  each  diocese  has  the  power  to 
try  charges  of  heresy  brought 
against  his  clergy,  and  to  punish 
them  if  found  guilty. 

It  is  remarkable  that  almost  all 
the  heretical  movements  in  the 
Church  can  be  traced  back  to  a 
common  origin  in  the  Gnosticism 
which  made  its  appearance  in  the 
days  of  the  Apostles,  and  was  de- 
nounced by  them  in  their  Epistles. 
Manichaeism,  Arianism,  Pelagian- 
ism,  Montanism,  Sabellianism,  and 
the  rest,  are  all  either  reflections  of 
some  aspect  of  Gnosticism  or 
revulsions  from  it.  See  Auto-da-fe ; 
Christianity;  Dogma;  Lollards. 

Hereward.  English  hero, 
called  the  Wake.  He  held  land  in 
Lincolnshire,  just  before  the  time 
of  William  the  Conqueror,  and  soon 
after  the  conquest  became  asso- 
ciated with  those  who  disliked  the 
Norman  rule.  He  took  part  in  an 
attack  on  Peterborough,  and  was 
the  leader  of  those  who  resisted  the 
king  in  the  Isle  of  Ely.  The  story 
says  he  escaped  when  William 
made  his  way  into  the  isle,  in  1071, 
but  nothing  more  is  known  of  him. 

Hereward  the  Wake,  Last  of 
the  English.  Novel  by  Charles 
Kingsley,  first  published  in  1866. 
A  stirring  romance  of  the  second 
half  of  the  llth  century,  and  the 
eve  of  the  Norman  conquest,  it  sets 
forth  the  outlawry,  travels,  ad- 
ventures, and  return  to  his  native 
fen  country  of  the  heroic  Hereward. 

Herford.  Town  of  Germany,  in 
Westphalia.  It  stands  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Werre  and  the  Aa,  16m. 
S.W.  of  Minden.  It  is  a  rly.  junction, 
and  has  some  interesting  churches, 
one  dating  from  the  12th  century 
and  one  from  the  13th,  a  modern 
fountain,  an  old  school,  an  agri- 
cultural college,  and  a  theatre. 
Manufactures  include  cotton  and 
textiles,  carpets,  furniture,'  ma- 
chinery, etc.  The  most  important 
fact  in  its  history  is  the  Benedic- 
tine nunnery  founded  in  the  9th 
century,  around  which  the  town 
grew.  The  house  before  its  end  in 
1803  was  one  of  the  richest  in  Ger- 
many. Herford  was  once  a  free 
city,  but  became  part  of  Branden- 
burg in  1648.  It  passed  to  Prussia 
in  1815.  Pop.  32,546. 


HERFORD 

Herford,  CHARLES  HAROLD  (b. 
1858).  British  scholar.  The  son  of 
a  Manchester  merchant,  he  was 
born  in  that  city  and  was  educated 
at  Lancaster,  Owens  College, 
Manchester,  and  Cambridge  (Trin- 
ity). At  Cambridge  he  took  a  high 
place  in  the  classical  tripos,  and  at 
Berlin  began  the  study  of  German 
literature.  In  1887  he  was  made 
professor  of  English  language  and 
literature  at  University  College, 
Aberystwyth,  but  in  1901  he 
moved  to  Manchester  as  professor 
of  English  literature.  He  helped 
to  found  the  English  Goethe 
Society.  Herford's  literary  works 
include  editions  of  Shakespeare 
and  Jonson.  He  is  author  of  The 
Relations  between  England  and 
Germany  in  the  16th  century, 
and  The  Age  of  Wordsworth  ;  re- 
views in  the  press,  especially  The 
Manchester  Guardian,  articles  in 
The  Dictionary  of  National  Bio- 
graphy, and  translations  of  Ibsen. 

Hergenrdther,  JOSEPH  VON 
(1824-90).  German  theologian  and 
historian.  He  was  born  at  Wiirz- 
burg,  Sept.  15,  1824,  and  educated 
at  Rome  and  at  Munich,  where  he 
became  professor  of  church  history 
in  1855.  In  his  anti- Janus  (Eng. 
trans.  1870),  a  reply  to  Dollinger's 
Janus,  he  upheld  the  infallibility  of 
the  pope.  In  1868  he  undertook 
the  arrangements  of  the  Vatican 
Council,  and  in  1879  was  raised  to 
the  cardinalate,  and  was  appointed 
curator  of  the  Vatican  archives, 
He  was  the  author  of  a  Life  of 
Photius,  Patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople ;  a  Universal  Church  History ; 
a  History  of  the  Papal  States  since 
the  Revolution  ;  and  a  treatise  on 
Church  and  State. 

Hergest,  THE  RED  BOOK  OF.  A 
14th  century  MS.  in  the  library  of 
Jesus  College,  Oxford,  containing 
many  old  Welsh  tales  and  poems. 
Its  contents  include  a  brief  chron- 
ology from  Adam  to  1318,  and  a 
chronological  history  of  the  Saxons 
to  1376,  also  many  of  the  poems 
ascribed  to  Taliesin  (see  Mabin- 
ogion  and  Taliesin).  An  exact 
copy  of  the  Red  Book  of  Hergest 
was  published  by  Rhys  and  Evans 
in  1887. 

Heriot  (A.S.  here,  army  :  geatu, 
apparel,  equipment).  The  arms  of 
a  vassal  which  on  his  death  were 
returned  to  his  lord.  Later  it  be- 
came customary  to  pay  something 
in  kind  or  in  money  in  lieu  of 
handing  over  the  weapons,  and 
this  relief  was  sometimes  called  a 
heriot.  Similarly  it  became  the 
custom,  where  the  manorial  system 
prevailed,  for  the  lord  to  take  on 
death  a  beast  or  some  other  portion 
of  the  property  of  a  tenant,  which 
was  also  called  a  heriot.  See 
Feudalism  ;  Relief. 


3959 

Heriot,  GEORGE  (1563-1624). 
Founder  of  Heriot's  Hospital, Edin- 
burgh, Scotland.  A  goldsmith  by 
trade,  he  was 
appointed 
goldsmith  for 
life  to  Queen 
Anne,  wife  of 
James  VI,  in 
1597,  and 
jeweller  to  the 
king  in  1601. 
After  James's 
accession  t  o 


George  Heriot, 
Scottish  philan- 
thropist 

From  an  old  print 


the  throne  of 
England  he 
settled  in  Lon- 


don in  1603,  and  in  1609  took  as 
his  second  wife  a  daughter  of 
James  Primrose,  grandfather  of  the 
first  earl  of  Rosebery.  He  left  the 
residue  of  his  property  to  found 
the  hospital  which  bears  his  name. 
Heript's  Hospital.  Charitable 
institution  founded  in  Edinburgh 
by  George  Heriot.  A  combination 
of  Roman  and  Gothic  architecture, 
erected  1628-59, 162ft.  square  with 
an  inner  quadrangle  92  ft.  square, 
it  is  said  to  have  been  designed  by 
Inigo  Jones.  Of  its  213  windows, 
only  two  are  of  one  pattern.  Crom- 
well used  it  as  a  barrack,  but  it 
reverted  to  its  , 
original  use  when  ? 
Charles  II  ascend-  I 
ed  the  throne.  : 
Extensively  reno- 
vated in  1828,  it 
is  now  a  technical 
college  and  day 
school,  managed 
by  the  Heriot 
Trust,  which,  from 
the  funds  derived 
from  the  invest- 
ment of  Heriot's 
bequest  of  £23,625, 
contributes  to  the 
endowment  of  the 
College,  and  has  founded  a 
number  of  bursaries  for  govern- 
ment -  aided  schools  in  the 
city.  Near  the  hospital  is  a  frag- 
ment of  the  old  citv  wall. 


HERITABLE 

Heriot  Watt  College.  Tech- 
nical college  and  school  of  art, 
Edinburgh.  Originally  named  after 
James  Watt,  inventor  of  the  steam 
engine,  of  whom  there  is  a  statue  in 
the  front,  it  is  supported  partly 
by  funds  of  the  Heriot  Trust. 
Close  by  are  the  Royal  Scottish 
Museum  and  the  Minto  House 
School  of  Medicine.  With  Minto 
House  are  associated  the  names  of 
James  Syme,  the  surgeon,  and  Dr. 
John  Brown,  author  of  Rab  and 
His  Friends. 

Heri  Rud.  Alternative  spelling 
of  the  name  of  the  river  in 
Afghanistan  also  called  Hari 
($.».). 

Herisau.  Town  of  Switzerland, 
the  largest  in  the  canton  of  Ap- 
penzell,  Outer  Rhodes.  It  is  6  m.  by 
rly.  S.W.  of  St.  Gall,  and  is  a  sta- 
tion on  the  Bodensee-Toggenburg 
Rly.  It  stands  on  the  Glatt  tor- 
rent, at  an  alt.  of  2,549  ft.  There 
are  thriving  manufactures  of 
machinery,  cotton,  and  muslin,  and 
an  old  (partly  1 1th  century)  church. 
In  the  vicinity  are  the  goats' 
whey  cure  and  chalybeate  spring  of 
Heinrichsbad.  Herisau  was  go- 
verned by  the  abbots  of  St.  Gall 
from  the  9th  to  the  15th  century, 


Heriot's  Hospital,  Edinburgh,  from  the  south-west 
Heriot    Watt     when  the  canton  joined  the  Swiss 
Confederation.     Pop.  15,500. 

Heritable       and      Movable. 
Term  used  in  Scots  law  to  distin- 
guish the  part  of  a  property  which 
descends  to  the  heir,  the  heritable 
property,  and  the 
part    which    goes 
to  the  next-of-kin, 
:    the  movable  pro- 
1    perty.     As  exam- 
ples   of    the    first 
may    be    cited 
',    land,    leases,    cer- 
tain fixtures,  etc., 
and  of  the  second, 
household      furni- 
ture,  money,  etc. 
Such     a     distinc- 
tion    applies    not 
only   in   problems 
of    succession    but 
between  land- 
lord and  tenant, 
husband      and 


Henot  Watt  College,  Edinburgh.  Tecumcal  college  and 
school  of  art  erected  in  1887 

Caird  Inglls 


HERITABLE 


3960 


HERMADA 


wife,  etc.  Machinery  that  has 
been  installed  and  fixed  to  the 
floor,  for  example,  may  be  herit- 
able. The  ease  with  which  such 
objects  may  be  moved  without 
damage  to  a  building,  and  the 
reason  for  their  addition  to  the 
building,  determines  into  which 
class  they  fall.  See  Fixtures. 

Heritable  Jurisdiction.  Ob- 
solete class  of  Scottish  jurisdiction 
which  granted  certain  families 
power  to  administer  laws  irre- 
spective of  the  common  law.  These 
jurisdictions,  of  which  nearly  a 
hundred  were  in  existence  at  one 
time,  empowered  their  holders  to 
punish  by  fines,  imprisonment,  or 
even  death  those  who  came  within 
their  province.  Such  arbitrary 
powers,  exercised  mainly  by  the 
great  Scottish  chiefs,  were  a  de- 
finite source  of  danger  to  the 
state,  and  they  were  abolished 
in  1748,  properly  constituted 
sheriffs  being  appointed  in  their 
place,  and  pecuniary  compensation 
for  the  loss  of  these  rights  being 
paid  to  the  amount  of  over 
£150,000.  See  Clan. 

Heritable  Security.  In  Scots 
law,  name  given  to  those  securities 
corresponding  to  mortgages  and 
charges  on  land  in  England. 
Under  these  securities  a  creditor 
is  enabled,  for  example,  to  receive 
rents  until  the  debt  is  discharged, 
no  matter  into  whose  possession 
the  lands  may  pass.  The  principal 
heritable  security  is  called  the 
bond  and  disposition  in  security, 
and  must  be  recorded  in  the  Re- 
gister of  Sasines.  When  two  securi- 
ties compete,  the  one  first  regis- 
tered takes  precedence. 

Heritor.  Term  used  in  Scots 
law  for  the  owner  in  fee  of  heritable 
property  in  a  parish,  i.e.  for 
owners  of  immovable  property.  It 
includes  corporations,  but  ex- 
cludes titulars  of  teinds  or  tithes, 
superiors,  mine  owners  and  lessees. 
Replacing  the  old  word  parishion- 
ers, heritors  are  responsible  for  the 
upkeep  of  parish  churches,  etc. 

Herkless,  SIR  JOHN  (1855- 
1920).  Scottish  eccles.  historian. 
Born  at  Glasgow,  Aug.  9,  1855, 
he  was  educated  at  Glasgow  high 
school  and  university  and  at  Jena.  . 
Tutor  in  English  literature,  Queen 
Margaret  College,  Glasgow,  he 
was  assistant  minister  at  S.  Mat- 
thew's Church,  Glasgow,  1881-83 ; 
and  minister  of  Tannaclice,  Forfar- 
shire,  1883-94.  From  1894-1915  he 
was  regius  professor  of  eccles.  his- 
tory at  St.  Andrews,  serving  as 
provost  1911-15,  when  he  was  ap- 
pointed vice-chancellor  and  prin- 
cipal of  the  university  and  prin- 
cipal of  the  united  college  of  S. 
Salvator  and  S.  Leonard.  Knighted 
in  1917,  he  died  June  11,  1920. 


His  books  include  Cardinal  Bea- 
ton, Priest  and  Politician,  1891  ;  The 
Church  of  Scotland,  1897  ;  Francis 
and  Dominic,  1901  ;  Introduction 
and  Notes  to  Hebrews  (Temple 
Bible),  1902;  and  (with  R.  K. 
Hannay)  The  College  of  St.  Leonard, 
1905;  and  The  Archbishops  of  St. 
Andrews,  5  vols.,  1907-16. 

Herkomer,  SIB  HUBERT  VON 
(1849-1914).  British  painter.  He 
was  born  at  Waal,  Bavaria,  May  26, 
1849,  the  son  of 
a  wood  carver. 
In  1857  the 
family  settled 
at  Southamp- 
ton, where 
young  Herko- 
mer attended 
the  local  art 
^silyUB  school.  In 


1866  he  joined  the  school  at  S. 
Kensington,  but  only  remained  a 
few  months.  In  1  869  he  again  came 
to  London,  became  an  exhibitor 
at  the  Dudley  Gallery,  and  a  con- 
tributor of  sketches  to  The  Gra- 
phic, and  in  1871  was  elected  to 
the  Institute  of  Painters  in  Water 
Colour.  In  1874  his  great  success, 
The  Last  Muster,  appeared  at  the 
Academy.  He  was  elected  A.R.A. 
in  1879,  and  R.A.  in  1890. 

In  1883  he  founded  his  famous 
school  of  art  at  Bushey,  and  from 
1885-94  was  Slade  professor  at 
Oxford.  Among  his  memorable 
works  are  Found,  1885,  in  the 
Tate  Gallery  ;  Lady  in  White  (por- 
trait of  Miss  Grant),  1885;  por- 
trait in  enamel  of  the  German  Em- 
peror, 1899;  A  Zither  Evening 
with  my  Students,  1901  ;  and  a 
gigantic  group  of  the  town  council 
of  Waal.  Herkomer  was  knighted 


in  1907.  He  died  at  Bushey,  Herts, 
March  31,  1914.  See  his  auto- 
biography in  The  Herkomers,  1910. 

Her  lies.  Village  of  France,  in 
the  dept.  of  Nord.  On  the  Bethune- 
Lille  road,  5  m.  N.E.  of  Neuve 
Chapelle,  it  was  prominent  in  the 
early  months  of  the  Great  War. 
In  Oct.,  1914,  the  ridge  to  the 
north  of  the  village  was  the  scene 
of  an  advance  by  the  British  2nd 
corps,  and  the  village  was  cap- 
tured by  Royal  Fusiliers  and 
Lincolns,  Oct.  17,  at  the  point  of 
the  bayonet.  Lost  in  the  spring  of 
1918,  it  was  regained  by  the  British 
in  Oct.  See  Ypres,  Battles  of. 

Herm.  One  of  the  Channel 
Islands.  It  is  3  m.  E.  of  Guernsey, 
and  is  1J  m.  long  by  £  m.  broad. 
It  is  noted  for  the  extraordinary 
variety  of  shells  on  its  beach.  Be- 
fore the  Great  War  the  island  was 
leased  to  a  German  company,  but 
after  being  regained  by  the  British 
it  was  sold  to  an  English  one,  with 
the  intention  of  making  it  into  a 
summer  resort.  There  are  frequent 
excursions  from  St.  Peter  Port, 
Guernsey,  in  the  summer  months. 
Pop.  33.  See  Channel  Islands. 

Hermada.  Mt.  of  Italy.  It  is 
S.  of  the  main  Carso  plateau,  which 
lies  N.  and  E.  of  the  N.  portion  of 
the  Adriatic.  It  was  very  pro- 
minent in  the  Great  War  in  the 
battles  between  the  Italians  and 
Austrians.  Heavily  fortified  by 
the  latter,  it  barred  the  Italian 
advance  to  Trieste.  In  the  first 
and  second  battles  of  the  Carso, 
Sept.-Oet.,  1916,  the  Italians 
shelled  it,  but  were  unable  to  open 
the  road  to  Trieste.  In  May,  1917, 
they  gained  its  western  slopes,  but 
were  driven  off  on  June  5,  as  they 
were  again,  Sept.  6,  after  having 
reached  it  once  more.  See  Carso, 
Battles  of  the? 


Sir  Hubert  Herkomer.      The  Charterhouse  Chapel,  one  of  the  artist's  best 
known  and  most  sympathetic  paintings,  now  in  the  Tate  Gallery,  London 


HERMAE 

Herxnae.  Small  pillars,  sur- 
mounted by  a  head,  generally 
of  Hermes.  They  were  set  up 
in  large  numbers  in  public  places 
in  the  towns  of  ancient  Greece.  It 
was  the  alleged  mutilation  of  the 
Hermae  of  Athens  in  a  drunken 
frolic  on  the  eve  of  the  expedition 
to  Sicily  in  415  B.C.  that  led  to  the 
disgrace  of  Alcibiades  (q.v.). 

Hermanaric  OR  EKMANARIC. 
King  of  the  Ostrogoths.  He 
founded  a  vast  empire,  consisting 
of  a  number  of  vassal  states,  the 
boundaries  of  which  are  said  to 
have  extended  from  the  Don  to 
the  Theiss,  and  from  the  Danube 
to  the  Baltic.  Attacked  by  the 
Huns  under  Valamir  (A.D.  375), 
Hermanaric,  uncertain  of  the  atti- 
tude of  his  vassals  and  fearing  de- 
feat, threw  himself  upon  his  sword. 
According  to  another  story,  he  had 
ordered  the  beautiful  Swanhilda, 
his  son's  wife,  to  be  torn  to  pieces 
by  wild  horses.  Her  death  was 
avenged  by  her  brothers,  who  cut 
off  Hermanaric's  hands  and  feet 
and  left  him  to  die. 

Hermaiidad  (Span.,  brother- 
hood). Name  given  to  various 
confederations  of  Spanish  cities. 
They  were  originally  formed  in  the 
13th  century,  partly  for  maintain- 
ing law  and  order,  and  partly  as  a 
check  upon  the  growing  and  auto- 
cratic power  of  the  great  nobles. 
The  confederation  provided  pro- 
tection to  travellers  by  suitable 
police,  brought  criminals  to  justice, 
and  in  every  way  acted  as  the  em- 
bodiment of  the  law.  The  herman- 
dads  became  for  a  few  years  in  the 
15th  century  all  powerful  in  Spain, 
under  Isabella,  every  city  becom- 
ing a  member  of  one  confederation 
covering  all  Spain.  In  the  follow- 
ing century,  however,  its  power  de- 
clined rapidly,  and  soon  it  became 
extinct.  The  most  powerful  of 
the  hermandads  was  the  Santa 
Hermandad,  or  Holy  Brotherhood 
of  the  14th  and  15th  centuries. 

Hermann.  Christian  name 
meaning  originally  a  man  of  the 
host  or  army.  It  is  the  name  of 
the  German  national  hero,  better 
known  under  the  Latin  form 
Arminius  (q.v.). 

Hermanns tadt.  German  name 
of  the  Transylvanian  town,  now 
in  Rumania,  known  as  Sibiu  (q.v. ). 

Hermannstadt,  BATTLE  OF. 
Fought  between  the  Austro-Ger- 
mans  and  the  Rumanians,  Sept. 
19-26,  1916.  Under  pressure  of 
the  Rumanian  invasion  of  Transyl- 
vania in  Aug.-Sept,  1916,  the 
Austrians,  on  Sept.  12,  evacuated 
Hermannstadt,  strategically  im- 
portant because  from  it  ran  a  rly. 
and  road,  by  the  valley  of  the 
Aluta,  across  the  Roter  Turm  Pass 
into  Wallachia.  Retiring  to  the 


3961 

neighbour  i  n  g 
hills,  the  Aus- 
trians  com- 
manded the 
town  with 
their  artillery, 
and  prevented 
the  Ruman- 
ians from 
ad  vane  ing. 
On  Sept.  19, 
Falkenhayn 
struck  at  the 
Rumanians  in 
.this  sector. 

Holding 
them  with  his 
centre,     he 
Hermae.  The  Hermes    threw  out  his 
of  Alcamenes          wings   E    and 

W.  to  envelop  them.  Bavarian 
mountain  troops  on  the  W.  moved 
S.  to  the  Rumanian  frontier,  reach- 
ing it  on  Sept.  25,  and  next  day 
attacked  and  held  the  pass,  and  cut 
the  railway.  On  the  E.  a  German 
column  forced  the  Aluta  and 
effectually  separated  the  Ruman- 
ians there  from  their  2nd  Army 
farther  E.  In  the  centre,  on  Sept. 
26-27,  Falkenhayn's  infantry  ad- 
vanced, but  met  with  a  determined 
resistance  from  the  Rumanians,  who 
succeeded  in  getting  away  part  of 
their  forces.  But  their  losses  in  men 
and  material  were  heavy,  and  the 
Roter  Turm  was  left  in  the  enemy's 
hands.  See  Rumania,  Conquest  of. 

Hermaphrodite.  Biological 
term  for  an  organism  in  which  the 
two  sexes  are  combined.  Some 
low  species  of  animals,  such  as 
snails  and  earth-worms,  and  many 
plants,  are  normally  hermaphro- 
dite, possessing  both  male  and 
female  generative  organs,  which 
produce  sperms  and  ova.  These  do 
not,  however,  necessarily,  or  even 
usually,  fertilise  each  other,  cross- 
fertilisation  (see  Fertilisation)  being 
secured  by  the  fact  that  the 
sperms  and  the  ova  in  the  same 
individual  ripen  at  different  periods. 

No  cases  are  known  in  human 
beings  of  true  hermaphroditism,  i.e. 
of  a  human  being  having  both 
male  and  female  organs  present, 
and  both  functionally  active.  The 
term,  however,  is  applied  in  medi- 
cal science  to  those  cases  in  which 
glands  corresponding  to  the  male 
testicles  and  female  ovaries  are 
found  in  one  individual ;  also  to 
the  more  common  cases  in  which 
the  sex  of  the  individual  is  doubt- 
ful. The  explanation  of  this  more 
common  form  is  to  be  found  in  the 
development  of  the  external  geni- 
tal organs,  hermaphrodites  usually 
being  individuals  in  whom  a  part 
has  persisted  which  ought  to  have 
disappeared  in  the  process  of  de- 
velopment. Sometimes,  though 
rarely,  an  individual  with  ovaries. 


HERMES 

and  therefore  a  female,  occurs  in 
whom  the  external  appearances  are 
those  of  a  male.  See  Sex. 

Hermaphroditus.  In  Greek 
mythology,  spn  of  Hermes  and 
Aphrodite.  The  nymph  of  a  foun- 
tain by  Halicarnassus  fell  in  love 
with  the  youth,  and  the  two  com- 
bined to  form  a  being  with  the 
characteristics  of  both  sexes. 

Herxnas. Early  Christian  writer. 
Supposed  to  have  been  a  brother  of 
Pope  Pius  I,  he  appears  to  have 
flourished  in  the  first  half  of  the 
2nd  century,  when  he  wrote  an 
allegorical  work,  called  The  Shep- 
herd, giving  a  valuable  picture  of 
the  state  of  Christianity  at  Rome 
during  the  period.  The  object  of 
the  book  was  to  check  worldliness, 
and  it  was  at  one  time  read  in  the 
churches  ;  but  it  was  finally  set 
apart  from  the  canonical  Scriptures 
before  the  4th  century. 

Hermeneutics  (Gr.  hermeneu- 
tike,  interpretation).  The  art  or 
science  of  interpretation.  It  deals 
with  the  principles  and  general 
laws  whereby  the  meaning  of  the 
written  work  of  an  author  or  the 
speech  of  an  orator  is  established. 
The  term  is  specially  applied  to  the 
interpretation  of  the  books  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testament,  as  con- 
trasted with  exegesis,  commentary 
or  practical  exposition  of  the 
subject  matter. 

Hermes.  In  Greek  mythology, 
son  of  Zeus.  He  was  born  on  Mt. 
Cyllene  in  Arcadia,  and  on  the  very 
day  he  was  born  stole  some  oxen 
belonging  to  Apollo.  He  became  an 
adept  in  robbery,  stealing  the  tri- 
dent of  Poseidon,  the  girdle  of 
Aphrodite,  and  the  sword  of  Ares. 
These  exploits  apparently  recom- 
mended him  to  Zeus,  who  took  him 
to  be  his  messenger  and  ambas- 
sador. In  this  capacity  he  exe- 
cuted manv  notable  commissions; 


Hermes,  with  the  infant  Bacchus, 
from  the  statue  by  Praxiteles 

Museum,  Olympia,  Greece 


HERMES 

such  as  slaying  the  hundred-eyed 
Argus  and  carrying  the  infant 
Bacchus  to  the  nymphs  at  Nysa. 

He  became  the  god  of  eloquence 
and  the  god  of  good  fortune,  and 
the  patron  of  merchants,  travellers, 
and  also  of  thieves.  One  of  his  chief 
duties  was  to  conduct  the  souls  of 
the  dead  to  the  nether  world.  The 
invention  of  the  lyre  was  attri- 
buted to  Hermes.  In  art  Hermes 
is  represented  as  a  handsome  and 
finely  proportioned  youth,  as  in 
the  famous  statue  by  Praxiteles  at 
Olympia.  He  wears  the  petasus  or 
broad- brimmed  hat,  bears  the 
caduceus  or  staff,  which  he  got 
from  Apollo  in  exchange  for  the 
lyre  he  invented,  and  has  the 
winged  sandals  which  enabled  him 
to  speed  swiftly  through  the  air. 
The  Romans  identified  Hermes 
with  Mercury  (q.v.).  Pron.  Her- 
meez. 

Hermes.  British  cruiser  em- 
ployed as  a  seaplane  carrier.  On 
Oct.  31,  1914,  she  was  sunk  by  a 
German  submarine  in  the  Strait 
of  Dover  as  she  was  returning  from 
Dunkirk  to  England. 

The  Hermes,  a  British  aircraft 
carrier  built  1918-20,  has  a  dis- 
placement of  10,400  tons,  with  a 
speed  of  25  knots.  The  whole  of 
her  flying  deck  is  available  for  air- 
craft to  rise  and  land,  and  by  a 
special  arrangement  for  the  emis- 
sion of  smoke  there  are  no  funnels 
or  other  obstructions. 

Hermesianax.  Greek  elegiac 
poet.  A  native  of  Colophon  in 
Asia  Minor,  he  flourished  during 
the  reign  of  Alexander  the  Great. 
One  of  the  chief  representatives  of 
the  Alexandrian  school,  he  was  the 
author  of  three  books  of  elegiacs, 
named  Leontion  after  his  mistress, 
containing  some  pretty  love-stories, 
mythological  and  historical.  They 
show  considerable  facility  of  inven- 
tion, but  the  language  is  frequently 
artificial  and  affected. 

Hermetic  Books.  Certain 
writings  attributed  to  Hermes 
Trismegistus  (Hermes  thrice-great- 
est), the  name  by  which  the  Egyp- 
tian god  Thoth  was  known  to  the 
Greeks.  He  was  considered  the  in- 
ventor of  all  the  arts  and  sciences, 
especially  the  occult.  The  her- 
metic books,  according  to  Clement 
of  Alexandria  42  in  number,  were 
of  a  philosophical  or  scientific 
character,  most  of  them  probably 
the  work  of  certain  Alexandrian 
Platonists  belonging  to  the  2nd 
century  A.D. 

There  is  a  complete  translation 
of  the  extant  works  and  fragments 
by  L.  Menard,  1866,  and  of  the 
Poimander  by  J.  D,  Chambers, 
1882.  Trismegistus  was  supposed 
to  possess  great  skill  in  shutting  up 


3962 

vessels  with  a  magic  seal,  hence  the 
modern  expression  "  hermetically 
sealed  "  applied  to  closing  a  vessel 
or  tube  in  such  a  manner  that  it  is 
absolutely  airtight. 

Hermies.  Village  of  France,  in 
the  dept.  of  Pas-de-Calais.  It  is  17 
m.  S.E.  of  Arras,  and  10  m.  S.W. 
of  Cambrai.  Stormed  by  the 
British,  April,  191 7,  it  was  gallantly 
defended  by  the  17th  division  on 
March  22,  1918,  the  second  day  of 
the  great  German  offensive  towards 
Amiens.  Later,  it  was  yielded  up 
in  the  British  retreat,  but  recovered 
in  the  autumn  of  1918.  After 
the  Great  War  the  village  was 
"  adopted  "  by  Huddersfield.  See 
Arras,  Third  battle  of;  Cambrai, 
Battles  of. 

Hermione.  Leading  female 
character  in  Shakespeare's  tragi- 
comedy, The  Winter's  Tale.  Ac- 
cused by  her  husband,  the  madly 
jealous  Leontes,  king  of  Sicilia,  of 
having  committed  adultery  with 
Polixenes,  king  of  Bohemia,  and 
pronounced  innocent  of  the  offence 
by  Apollo's  oracle,  she  falls  into  a 
faint,  which  is  reported  to  the  king 
as  fatal,  and  is  only  reunited  to 
him  and  to  her  daughter,  Perdita, 
after  a  lapse  of  16  years.  See 
Anderson,  Mary. 

Hermione.  Ancient  city  of 
Greece,  in  the  prov.  of  Argolis  and 
Corinthia.  Standing  on  the  main- 
land N.W.  of  Hydhra,  it  was  a  pro- 
minent port  with  a  double  harbour, 
but  the  only  remains  extant  are  the 
scanty  ruins  of  its  once  famous  tem- 

g'e  of  Poseidon.     Founded  by  the 
ryopes,  it  figured  for  a  time  as  an 
independent  state,  but  became  sub- 
ject   to    Argos. 
Pron.    Her-mi-    f 
onee. 

Hermit  OR 
EREMITE  (Gr. 
eremos,  solitary). 
Term  applied  to 
those  who  live  in 
monastic  com- 
munities, but  es- 
pecially to  one 
living  a  solitary 
life  in  a  cave  or 
hut  of  his  own 
construction,  who 
has  a  b  a  n  doned 
the  world  and  its 
ways,  and  prac- 
tises the  severest 
austerities.  Paul 
of  Thebes,  according  to  tradition  three  picture  galleries.  As  recon 
the  first  hermit,  is  said  to  have  fled  structed  in  1840-52,  the  Hermitage 


HERMITAGE 

of  the  West,  C.  F.  R.  de  Montalem- 
bert,  new  ed.  1896  ;  Wisdom  of  the 
Desert,  J.  0.  Hanney,  1904. 

Hermit.  Small  group  of  islands 
in  the  western  portion  of  the  former 
German  territory  known  as  the 
Bismarck  Archipelago,  in  the 
Pacific.  They  lie  off  the  E.  coast  of 
New  Guinea.  A  British  naval  force 
annexed  the  islands  in  Nov.,  1914. 
See  Bismarck  Archipelago. 

Hermitage.  Retreat,  cell,  or 
habitation  of  a  hermit  or  recluse. 
In  modern  usage  the  name  is  often 
applied  to  buildings  that  have 
nothing  in  common  with  the 
original  meaning,  e.g.  to  a  palace  of 
Catherine  II  in  Petrograd  ;  to 
a  fashionable  garden  resort  in 
Moscow ;  and  to  a  palace  near 
Baireuth,  Bavaria,  once  occupied 
by  Frederick  the  Great.  There  was 
a  Hermitage,  in  the  old  sense  of  the 
term,  at  Warkworth,  Northumber- 
land, one  on  S.  Herbert's  Island, 
Derwentwater,  and  a  retreat  of  S. 
Francis,  near  the  convent  of  S. 
Francisco,  Assisi,  Italy.  A  13th 
century  stronghold  of  the  Douglas 
family,  near  Castleton,  on  the 
Scottish  border,  was  known  as  the 
Hermitage. 

Hermitage,  THE.  Museum  and 
picture  gallery  attached  to  the 
Winter  Palace,  Petrograd,  Russia. 
The  original  building  was  erected 
for  Catherine  II  in  1765,  enlarged 
in  1775  and  1778-87,  and  recon- 
structed in  1840-52  for  Nicholas  I. 
The  first  building,  known  also  as 
the  Small  Winter  Palace  and  the 
Pavilion  Hermitage,  was  connected 
by  a  flying  bridge  with  the  em- 
press's apartments,  and  contained 


Hermitage,   Petrograd.       The   south   entrance  of  the 
museum  and  picture  gallery 


to  the  desert  during  the  persecution 
of  Decius  and  to  have  lived  in  a 
grotto  for  90  years.  Anthony, 
Hilarion,  Arsenius,  and  Simeon 
Stylites  are  among  other  famous 
hermits  of  history  or  legend.  See 
Anchorite ;  Asceticism  ;  Laura ; 
Monasticism  ;  consult  also  Monks 


formed  a  rectangle  170  yds.  long  and 
124  yds.  wide,  with  three  courts 
planned  to  contain  the  imperial  art 
collections. 

The  older  part,  devoted  to  silver 
and  porcelain  collections,  the  Ro- 
manoff Gallery,  Marble  Hall,  and 
Winter  Garden  were  entered  from 


HERMITAGE 


3963 


HERNE     BAY 


the  Winter  Palace.  The  entrance  to 
the  main  building,  of  two  storeys, 
was  in  the  Millionnaya  (see  Petro- 
grad,  plan).  On  the  ground  floor,  be- 
fore the  Revolution,  were  Egyptian, 
Assyrian,  Russian,  Scythian,  and 
Siberian  antiquities,  Greek  and 
Roman  sculpture,  vases,  bronzes, 
and  medieval  and  Renaissance 
armour  and  weapons.  The  first 
floor  contained  an  almost  unique 
collection  of  paintings  representa- 
tive of  the  great  masters,  coins, 
medals,  gems,  and  ornaments. 
There  was  also  a  valuable  collection 
of  rare  books  and  MSS.,  etc. 

Hermitage.  French  wine  grown 
near  Valence,  in  the  Drome.  Red 
Hermitage  resembles  Beaune  in 
colour  and  strength,  and  claret 
in  elegance  ;  the  white,  of  which 
little  is  made,  is  similar  but 
superior  to  Chablis.  Beaujolais, 
often  classed  with  Hermitage,  is 
grown  on  the  northern  hills  of  the 
Rhone  dept. 

Hermit  Crab  (Pagurus  and 
Eupagurus).  Popular  name  for  a 
group  of  small  crabs  which  take  up 


Hermit  Crab.    Specimen  ot  Pagurus  Bernhardus 

their  abode  in  the  empty  shells  of 
whelks  and  other  gastropods  or 
in  living  sponges.  This  habit  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  hinder  half 
of  the  body  is  not  protected  by  a 
hard  carapace  and  needs  shelter 
against  its  enemies.  The  abdomen 
is  provided  with  a  pair  of  grasping 
appendages  by  which  the  crab  clings 
tightly  to  the  shell,  from  which  it 
is  not  easily  extracted.  Eleven 
species  are  found  around  the  Brit- 
ish coasts.  See  Crab. 

Herxnogenes  OF  TARSUS  (2nd 
century  A.D.).  Greek  rhetorician. 
He  taught  in  the  reign  of  Mareus 
Aurelius  at  Rome,  where  he  was 
considered  a  youthful  prodigy.  He 
was  the  author  of  four  extant 
rhetorical  treatises,  on  disputed 
points  of  law,  invention  of  argu- 
ments, different  styles,  best  uses  of 
material,  and  of  some  rhetorical 
exercises.  Pron.  Her-moj -eneez. 

Hermon.  Mt.  of  Syria.  It  forms 
the  S.  extremity  of  the  Anti- 
Lebanon  range  and  is  now  known 
as  the  Jebel  esh  Sheikh.  Often 
mentioned  in  the  Bible,  it  is  9,380 
ft.  high,  and  on  its  slopes  are  the 
ruins  of  a  great  temple  of  Baal.  The 
range  called  Little  Mt.  Hermon  lies 
about  24  m.  S.E.  of  Acre. 


Hermon  this.  City  of  ancient 
Egypt.  It  is  close  to  the  present 
Armant  or  Erment,  459  m.  S.  of 
Cairo  and  9  m.  from  Luxor.  Here 
are  the  remains  of  a  temple  of  Isis 
and  numerous  other  ruins.  The 
city  was  called  On,  or,  to  distin- 
guish it  from  other  places  of  the 
same  name,  the  Southern  On,  or 
Per-Mont  (House  of  Mont),  whence 
came  the  Greek  name  Hermonthis. 
Hermopolis.  Greek  name  of 
the  ancient  Egyptian  city  of 
Khmunu.  About  4  m.  inland  from 
Roda,  and  176  m.  by  rly.  S.  of 
Cairo,  Hermopolis  was  the  chief 
centre  of  the  worship  of  Thoth,  the 
god  of  writing  and  science. 

Hermopolis     (Hermou     polls, 
City    of    Hermes).        Seaport    of 
Greece,  capital  of  the  barren  island 
of  Syros  (Syra)  and  the  dept.  of  the 
Cyclades.   Situated  on  the  E.  shore 
of  the  island,  in  a  sheltered  bay,  it 
consists  of  an  old  and  a  modern 
well-built  town,  and  is  an  adminis- 
trative centre.    It  has  a  good  har- 
bour,   an    arsenal,    high    school, 
seminary,  theatre,  etc.  The  seat  of  a 
Greek  and  a  R.C. 
•^    bishop,    it    has    a 
|    shipbuilding       in- 
|    dustry,  and  manu- 
\    factures  "  Turkish 
i    Delight,"    cottons, 
leather,  flour,  and 
glass.    The  exports 
include      em  e  r  y, 
valonia,      sponges, 
and   tobacco ;     its 
imports   are   c  o  n- 
siderable.     Pop.  18,132. 

Hermosa  (Sp.,  beautiful).  Pass 
or  mule  track  over  the  Andes  be- 
tween San  Juan  in  Argentina  and 
the  Chilean  town  of  Ovalle  in  Co- 
quimbo. 

Hermosillo.  City  of  Mexico, 
capital  of  the  state  of  Sonora. 
Known  also  as  Pitio,  it  stands  on 
the  river  Sonora,  89  m.  by  rly.  N. 
of  Guaymas,  and  is  a  busy  trade 
centre,  particularly  with  the  U.S.A. 
Silver  and  copper  are  mined; 
bullion,  hides,  ores,  and  fruits  are 


Hermon,  the  mountain  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the 
Lebanon  range,  Syria 


exported.  It  contains  a  cathedral, 
a  mint,  and  a  library.  Sugar  is 
grown,  and  flour-milling  and  dis- 
tilling are  carried  on.  Pop.  14,575. 
Hernani,  ou  L'HONNEUK  CAS- 
TELLAN (Hernani,  or  Castilian 
Honour).  Five-act  tragedy  in 
verse  by  Victor  Hugo.  It  was  pro- 
duced at  the  Comldie  Fra^aise, 
Paris,  Feb.  25,  1830,  and  ran  until 
June  18,  1830.  It  was  a  depar- 
ture from  traditional  literary  form, 
liberated  the  French  stage  from  the 
thraldom  of  the  classical  unities 
associated  with  the  school  of 
Racine,  marked  the  beginning  of 
the  romantic  movement  of  1830- 
50,  and  provoked  at  the  outset 
extraordinary  opposition  which  re- 
sulted in  at  least  one  fatal  duel. 

It  is  notable  for  the  vigour  of  its 
verse,  the  effectiveness  of  its  stage 
situations,  and  the  long  soliloquy 
of  Charles  V  before  the  tomb  of 
Charlemagne.  The  titular  hero  is  a 
mysterious  bandit  who  at  the 
moment  of  his  marriage  dies  by  his 
own  hand  in  order  to  keep  his  word 
to  his  enemy.  Upon  Hugo's  work 
Verdi  founded  his  opera  Ernani, 
produced  at  Venice,  March,  1844  ; 
when  produced  in  Paris  in  1846, 
it  was  named  II  Proscritto.  Fechter 
and  Edwin  Booth  acted  in  an  Eng- 
lish adaptation,  and  this,  like 
Verdi's  opera,  was  in  four  acts. 
Sarah  Bernhardt  made  one  of  her 
many  successes  in  the  role  of  the 
heroine  Dona  Sol.  See  Hugo, 
Victor. 

Hernani.  Town  of  Spain,  in  the 
Basque  prov.  of  Guipuzcoa.  It 
stands  on  the  river  Urumea,  8  m. 
S.E.  of  San  Sebastian.  The  chief 
features  of  the  town  are  several 
palaces  and  a  church  celebrated 
for  its  wood  carvings.  In  the 
vicinity,  in  1836,  the  Carlists 
defeated  an  English  Legion.  Iron 
mines  afford  employment  for  many 
of  its  inhabitants. 

Herne  Bay.  Urban  district  and 
watering-place  of  Kent.  It  is  12  m. 
from  Margate  and  7  m.  from  Can- 
terbury, with  a  station  on  the  S.E. 
.     &  C.  Rly.     Visited 
;    in  summer  for  its 
sands  and  bracing 
air,  its  attractions 
include  a  long  es- 
planade,  a    pier 
with  a  large  pavil- 
ion, a  concert  hall, 
and    a    winter 
garden    laid     out 
as   a  memorial  to 
Edward      VII. 
Away  to  the  E.  is 
Reculver  (q.v.), 
and  1£  m.  inland 
is    the    village   of 
Herne,  with  an  old 
church.       Pop. 
7,800. 


HERNE     HILL 


3964 


Herne  Bay,  Kent. 


The  sea  front  looking  east  towards 
the  Clock  Tower 

Frilh 


Herne  Hill.  Residential  dist.  of 
London,  S.E.  It  lies  between 
Brixton  on  the  W.  and  Dulwich  on 
the  E.  and  has  a  station  on  the 
S.E.  &  C.R.  It  is  in  the  boroughs 
of  Camberwell  and  Lambeth.  At 
No.  28,  Herne  Hill,  the  road  lead- 
ing N.  from  the  rly.  station  to  join 
Denmark  Hill,  Ruskin  lived  in 
1823-43,  and  at  No.  30  in  1848. 
Between  Burbage  Road  and  Dul- 
wich are  the  Herne  Hill  athletic 
grounds.  Brockwell  Park  adjoins 
the  district.  The  name  of  Herne 
Hill  is  believed  to  be  derived  from 
Heron  Hill. 

Herne  the  Hunter.  Horned 
apparition  which  was  supposed  to 
haunt  a  certain  oak  in  Windsor 
Forest  in  the  time  of  Elizabeth. 
The  legend  is  used  to  Falstaff's  un- 
doing in  The  Merry  Wives  of  Wind- 
sor, and  forms  a  notable  feature 
in  Harrison  Ainsworth's  romance 
Windsor  Castle.  Herne's  Oak,  said 
to  have  been  six  hundred  years  old, 
was  blown  down,  Aug.  31,  1863. 
A  young  oak  was  planted  on  the 
spot  by  Queen  Victoria,  Sept.  12, 
1863.  See  Windsor,  the  Castle  of 
our  Kings,  A.  Goddard,  1911. 

Hernia  OR  RUPTURE.  Latin  name 
given  to  the  protrusion  of  an  organ 
or  part  of  an  organ  through  an 
opening  in  the  cavity  which  nor- 
mally contains  it.  After  an  injury 
to  the  head,  for  example,  the  brain 
may  protrude  through  the  scalp, 
forming  a  hernia  of  the  brain.  The 
term,  however,  is  commonly  applied 
to  the  protrusion  of  organs  in  the 
abdominal  cavity  through  weak- 
ened spots  in  the  abdominal  wall. 

Congenital  defects  or  weakness  of 
the  abdominal  wall  are  frequent 
predisposing  causes.  The  actual 
rupture,  which  occurs  later,  may  be 
due  to  frequent  strain  upon  the 
wall,  resulting  from  occupations 
entailing  lifting  heavy  weights ; 
weakening  of  the  abdominal  wall, 
such  as  may  follow  childbirth ; 
direct  injury  to  the  wall ;  or  weak- 
ness in  the  neighbourhood  of  a  scar 
following  an  abdominal  operation. 


A  hernia  consists 
of  a  sac  formed  by 
the  peritoneum  or 
lining  membrane 
which  covers  the 
abdominal  organs, 
and  of  the  contents 
of  the  sac,  most 
frequently  a  part 
of  the  intestine. 
The  abdominal 
wall  is  pushed  in 
front  of  the  pro- 
truding mass,  and 
the  sac  becomes 
adherent  to  the 
surrounding  parts. 
In  inguinal  her- 
nia part  of  the 
abdominal  contents,  usually  a 
portion  of  the  intestine  or  mem- 
braneous covering  of  the  intestine, 
has  passed  through  the  inguinal 
canal,  a  narrow  channel  towards 
the  inner  end  of  the  groin,  beneath 
the  skin,  through  which  the  sper- 
matic cord  and  blood-vessels  pass 
down  to  the  testicle.  In  the  early 
stages,  a  slight  swelling  only  can  be 
felt  in  the  region  of  the  inguinal 
canal,  which  enlarges  when  the 
patient  coughs.  In  the  later  stages, 
the  swelling  is  larger,  and  may 
eventually  extend  into  the  scrotum. 
A  reducible  hernia  is  one  in 
which  the  protruded  mass  may  be 
replaced  in  the  abdominal  cavity 
by  gentle  manipulation.  A  femoral 
hernia  is  less  common,  in  which  the 
protrusion  passes  through  the 
crural  canal,  and  appears  as  a 
rounded  swelling  on  the  inner  side 
of  the  thigh  near  its  junction  with 
the  abdomen.  An  umbilical  hernia 
consists  of  the  protrusion  of  the 
abdominal  contents  through  a 
weakened  scar  of  the  umbilicus  or 
navel.  Ventral  hernia  is  a  pro- 
trusion through  some  other  spot 
in  the  abdominal  wall. 

The  treatment  is  either  pallia- 
tive or  radical,  i.e.  by  operation. 
Palliative  treatment  consists  in 
wearing  a  truss,  i.e.  an  appliance 
consisting  of  a  pad  which  presses 
upon  and  closes  the  aperture  in  the 
abdominal  wall,  and  is  kept  in 
position  by  a  spring  belt  passing 
round  the  body.  A  truss  should 
be  well  fitted,  and  the  contents  of 
the  hernia  should  never  be  allowed 
to  come  down.  In  some  cases,  this 
treatment  may  effect  a  permanent 
cure  after  the  truss  has  been  worn 
for  a  year  or  two. 

The  operative  treatment  con- 
sists essentially  in  sewing  together 
the  tissues  which  form  the  abdo- 
minal wall,  so  as  to  reduce  or  close 
the  aperture  through  which  the 
hernia  is  protruded. 

A  hernia  may  become  inflamed, 
obstructed,  or  strangulated.  The 
symptoms  of  an  inflamed  hernia 


are  pain,  tenderness,  and  swelling, 
while  the  skin  over  the  hernia  may 
be  hot  and  congested.  Fever  may 
be  present,  but  the  constitutional 
symptoms  are  not  so  severe  as  in 
strangulation. 

In  an  obstructed  hernia,  the  on- 
ward passage  of  material  through 
the  intestine  is  prevented.  The 
.  symptoms  are  usually  constipation, 
nausea,  and  vomiting.  The  hernia 
becomes  irreducible  and  may  pass 
on  to  strangulation.  In  a  strangu- 
lated hernia,  the  blood-vessels  bo- 
come  pressed  upon,  so  that  the  flow 
of  blood  through  them  is  obstructed. 
This  may  lead  to  gangrene  of  the 
mass.  The  symptoms  are  severe 
pain,  with  signs  of  shock.  The  pa- 
tient feels  faint,  the  pulse  is  slow 
and  weak,  the  temperature  may  be 
subnormal,  and  the  skin  covered 
with  cold  sweat.  Strangulation  ur- 
gently demands  surgical  treatment 
See  Truss. 

Hernici.  People  of  ancient  Italy 
akin  to  the  Sabines,  living  in  the 
Apennine  country.  Continual  war- 
fare was  waged  between  them  and 
the  Romans,  by  whom  they  were 
finally  subjugated  in  306  B.C.  Their 
chief  stronghold  was  Anagnia. 
See  Anagni. 

Hernosand.  Seaport  of  Sweden, 
capital  of  the  Ian  or  govt.  of  Ves- 
ternorrland.  It  stands  on  Herno 
island,  in  the  estuary  of  the  Anger- 
man  river,  and  is  connected  by 
bridges  with  the  mainland,  423  m. 
by  rly.  N.  of  Stockholm.  It  has  a 
good  harbour,  a  cathedral,  a  school 
of  navigation,  and  a  technical 
school.  It  was  the  first  European 
town  to  adopt  electric  lighting. 
Formerly  a  staple  town,  it  has  trade 
in  linen,  sulphite,  fish,  iron  ore,  and 
lumber.  An  old  city,  it  has  suffered 
severely  at  the  hands  of  the  Rus- 
sians, notably  in  1710,  1714,  and 
1721.  Pop.  9,875. 

Hero.  General  term  applied  to 
one  who  performed  great  deeds  in 
the  mythical  ages  of  Greece.  One 
or  other  of  the  parents  of  heroes 
was  frequently  a  god  or  goddess, 
and  sometimes  after  their  death 
heroes  became  gods  themselves. 
Among  the  best  known  heroes  of 
Greek  mythology  are  Hercules, 
who  accomplished  the  famous 
Twelve  Labours;  Theseus,  who 
slew  the  Minotaur ;  Perseus,  who 
cut  off  the  Gorgon's  head  and 
rescued  Andromeda  from  the  sea- 
monster  ;  and  Achilles  and  Hector, 
the  champions  of  the  Greeks  and 
Trojans  respectively  at  the  siege  of 
Troy.  The  name  was  also  given  to 
the  oekists,  founders  of  colonies  or 
cities,  who  received  semi -divine 
honours  after  death,  and  to  famous 
personages  such  as  Leonidas.  See 
The  Psychology  of  the  Uncon- 
scious, Carl  Jung,  1916. 


HERO 


HERODAS 


Hero.  In  Greek  legend,  priestess 
of  Aphrodite  at  Sestos,  on  the  shore 
of  the  Hellespont  opposite  Abydos. 
See  Leander. 

Hero  OF  ALEXANDRIA.  Alex- 
andrian mathematician.  His  exact 
date  is  unknown,  but  his  reputation 
has  survived  for  several  memorable 
discoveries  in  mathematics  and 
science.  His  most  remarkable  dis- 
covery was  that  of  the  well-known 
formula  for  the  area  of  a  triangle 
in  terms  of  its  sides  and  the  semi- 
perimeter.  It  is  also  certain  that 
he  knew  elementary  trigonometry 
and  the  solution  of  quadratic 
equations  in  algebra. 

Hero  was  responsible  for  a 
number  of  mechanical  inventions, 
the  chief  of  which  is  the  fountain 
that  bears  his  name.  This  was  an 
automatic  fountain  working  by 
means  of  air  pressure.  He  is  also 
credited  with  the  description  of  a 
small  stationary  steam-engine.  The 
fragments  that  remain  of  his  works 
place  him  as  being  the  leading 
scientist  of  his  age. 

Herod  (74-4  B.C.).  King  of 
Judaea,  called  the  Great.  The  son 
of  Antipater  and  grandson  of 
Antipas,  governor  of  Idumaea,  he 
was  appointed  ruler  of  Galilee  at  the 
age  of  25,  and  afterwards  of  Coele- 
syria.  When  Palestine  was  invaded 
by  the  Parthians  to  restore  Anti- 
gonus  to  the  throne  of  his  father 
Aristobulus,  Herod  escaped  to 
Rome,  where  Antony  and  Octavian, 
with  the  sanction  of  the  senate, 
made  him  king  of  Judaea.  He 
returned  to  Palestine  in  39  B.C.  and 
captured  Jerusalem  in  37,  in  which 
year  he  married  Mariamne,  the 
Asmonean  princess,  as  his  second 
wife.  His  first  difficulties  were  with 
the  hostile  Sadducean  and  Phari- 
saic parties,  and  throughout  his 
reign  (37-4)  he  was  opposed  by  the 
enmity  of  his  wife's  family.  After 
the  battle  of  Actium  (31 )  Herod  was 
confirmed  in  his  position  and  terri- 
tory by  Octavian,  whom  he 
visited  at  Rhodes,,  expecting  to 
be  executed  owing  to  the  help  he 
gave  Antony.  From  that  time 
on  he  governed  Palestine  on  behalf 
of  Rome. 

Herod  built  fortresses,  estab- 
lished new  towns,  rebuilt  the  temple 
at  Jerusalem,  organized  games, 
and  encouraged  Greek  writers  and 
teachers  to  settle  in  his  kingdom. 
His  brother  Pheroras  and  his 
sister  Salome  plotted  against  his 
sons  by  Mariamne,  which  led 
Herod  to  have  them  assassinated. 
Mariamne  he  had  put  to  death 
owing  to  jealousy.  His  last  years 
were  embittered  by  family  feuds 
and  plots  arising  out  of  the  enthu- 
siasm of  the  people  Tor  the  Asmo- 
nean house.  His  eldest  son,  Anti- 
pater,  he  had  put  to' death  ten  days 


before  his  own  death.  The  story  of 
his  massacre  of  the  innocents  is 
generally  discredited  nowadays. 
The  picture  of  Herod  as  an  in- 
human monster  as  given  by  the 
biassed  Jewish  historian,  Josephus, 
ia  also  open  to  serious  criticism. 
See  Life  and  Times  of  Herod  the 
Great,  W.  Willett,  1860;  Antiquities 
of  the  Jews,  F.  Josephus,  rev. 
trans.  A.  R.  Shilleto,  1898;  The 
Jewish  People  in  the  Time  of  Jesus 
Christ,  E.  Schurer,  Eng.  trans. 
1890 ;  The  History  of  Herod,  J. 
Vickers,  rev.  ed.  1901. 

Herod.  Tragedy  written  by 
Stephen  Phillips  and  produced 
Oct.  31,  1900,  at  Her  Majesty's. 
The  play  deals  with  the  murder  of 
Mariamne's  brother  Aristobulus  by 
order  of  Herod,  with  the  successful 
plot  formed  by  Herod's  mother  and 
sister  to  bring  about  the  exe- 
cution of  Mariamne,  and  with 
Herod's  unavailing  grief  and  re- 
morse for  her  death.  Beerbohm 
Tree  played  Herod,  and  Maud 
Jeffries  Mariamne. 

Herod  Agrippa  I  (d.  A.D.  44). 
Son  of  Aristobulus  and  Berenice 
and  grandson  of  Herod  the  Great. 
He  was  made  king  by  Caligula  and 
governor  of  Judaea  and  Samaria  by 
Claudius.  See  Agrippa. 

Herod  Agrippa  II  (d.  100  A.D.). 
Son  of  Herod  Agrippa  I.  He  was 
the  last  of  the  Herodians  (q.v.). 
Paul  appeared  before  him  in  A.D. 
60.  See  Agrippa. 

Herod  Antipas.  Son  of  Herod 
the  Great  by  Malthace,  a  Samari- 
tan. By  his  father's  will  he  was 
made  tetrarch  or  governor  of 
Galilee  and  Peraea.  He  built  for 
his  capital  a  city  on  the  Sea  of 
Galilee  which,  to  ingratiate  him- 


self with  the  Roman  emperor,  he 
called  Tiberias.  His  first  wife  was  a 
daughter  of  Aretas,  an  Arabian 
prince  called  in  2  Cor.  11  king  of 
Damascus ;  but,  becoming  en- 
amoured of  Herodias  (q.v.),  wife  of 
his  half-brother  Herod  Philip,  a  pri- 
vate citizen  in  Rome,  he  divorced 
his  own  wife  and  married  her.  By 
Herodias  he  had  a  daughter,  Salome. 
Antipas  was  denounced  by  John  the 
Baptist  (q.v.),  who  was  first  im- 
prisoned and  then,  at  the  instigation 
of  Herodias  and  Salome,  executed. 
Jesus  was  examined  before  Herod, 
whose  conduct  on  this  occasion  led 
to  his  reconciliation  with  Pilate. 
Defeated  in  battle  by  Aretas,  A.D. 
36,  Antipas  went  to  Rome  c.  38-40, 
at  the  instance  of  Herodias,  to 
secure  the  title  of  king,  but  was 
accused  of  treason  and  condemned 
by  Caligula  to  perpetual  banish- 
ment to  Lugdunum  (Lyons), 
whither  Herodias  accompanied 
him.  He  died  in  exile.  See  Matt. 
14  ;  Mark  6  and  8  ;  Luke  3,  13,  and 
23  ;  Antiquities  of  the  Jews,  xviii, 
6  and  7,  F.  Josephus,  rev.  trans. 
A.  R.  Shilleto,  1898. 

Herodas  OR  HERONDAS  (3rd 
cent.  B.C.).  Greek  writer  of  mim- 
iambi,  i.e.  mimes  or  humorous 
sketches  written  in  iambic  metre. 
He  was  a  native  of  Cos  and  a 
younger  contemporary  of  Theo- 
critus. In  1890  an  Egyptian  papy- 
rus was  found  at  Fayum,  contain- 
ing six  of  his  mimes  in  a  more  or 
less  perfect  state.  These  short, 
dramatic  pieces  are  written  in  the 
Ionic  dialect  and  in  the  scazon,  or 
"  halting  "  iambic  metre,  in  which 
a  spondee  (two  long  syllables) 
takes  the  place  of  an  iambus 
(short  and  long  syllable)  in  the 


Herod  Antipas.     S.  John  the  Baptist  bound  by  order  of  the  Governor  of  Galilee 

Fresco  by  Andrea  del  Sarto,  in  the  cloister  of  the  Scalzo,  Florence 


HERODIANS 


3966 


HEROIN 


last  foot.  A  unique  specimen  of 
their  kind,  they  consist  of  scenes 
from  everyday  life  in  dialogue 
form,  in  some  parts  reminiscent  of 
Theocritus.  The  characters  intro- 
duced are  sometimes  unpleasant, 
sometimes  of  a  more  homely  type. 
See  A  Realist  of  the  ^Egean,  H. 
Sharply,  1906. 

Herodians.  Term  applied  to 
the  family  of  Herods.  Idumaean 
by  descent  and  Jewish  by  faith, 
they  sought  the  favour  of  Rome. 
They  included  Herod  the  Great, 
Herod  Antipas,  Herod  Philip  I, 
Herod  Philip  II,  Herod  Agrippa  I 
and  Herod  Agrippa  II.  The  term 
is  applied  also  to  those  who,  for 
various  reasons,  supported  the 
political  aspirations  of  the  Herods 
and  sided  with  the  Pharisees  and 
Sadducees  against  Jesus.  See  Matt. 
22  ;  Mark  3  and  12. 

Herodian  OR  HERODIANOS  (c 
A.D.  170-240).  Roman  historian. 
A  Greek  by  birth,  he  appears  to 
have  resided  chiefly  in  Rome.  His 
history,  written  in  his  native 
tongue  and  still  extant,  embraces 
the  period  from  the  death  of 
Marcus  Aurelius  to  the  reign  of 
Gordian  III  (187-238).  In  spite 
of  geographical  and  chronological 
inaccuracies  and  lack  "of  political 
insight,  it  is  a  lively  and  generally 
trustworthy  account  of  contempor- 
ary events  and  forms  a  valuable 
supplement  to  the  work  of  Dion 
Cassius  (q.v.). 

Herodias.  Sister  of  Agrippa  I. 
She  left  her  first  husband  Herod 
Philip  I  and  married  his  half- 
brother  Herod  Antipas  (q.v. ).  This 
act  brought  down  upon  the  two 
the  condemnation  of  John  Baptist, 
whose  head,  at  Herodias'  request, 
was  demanded  and  granted  to  her 
daughter  Salome,  and  involved 
Antipas  in  a  disastrous  war  with  his 
first  wife's  father.  Her  ambition 
finally  brought  about  the  ruin  of 
Antipas,  with  whom,  however,  she 
decided  to  go  into  exile.  See 
Matt.  14;  Mark  6. 

Herodotus  (c.  484-424  B.C.). 
Greek  historian,  commonly  called 
the  Father  of  History.  Born  at 
Halicarnassus  in  Caria,  in  Asia 
Minor,  a  city  which,  though  peopled 
by  Dorian  Greeks,  was  under  Per- 
sian rule,  Herodotus  was  technic- 
ally a  Persian  subject  by  birth. 
The  first  half  of  his  life  was  spent 
in  travel.  He  lived  some  time  at 
Samos,  where  he  learned  the  Ionic 
dialect  in  which  he  wrote  his 
history.  About  446  B.C.  he  came  to 
Athens,  where  he  became  intimate 
with  the  poet  Sophocles.  By  the 
time  he  reached  middle  life  he  had 
travelled  in  Persia,  Egypt,  Italy, 
and  Sicily,  and  had  visited  even 
the  N.  shores  of  the  Black  Sea. 
During  his  travels  Herodotus  was 


diligently  collecting  materials  for 
his  history,  but  where  the  work 
was  actually  written  is  not  known. 
Its  theme  is  the  great  struggle 
between  the  Persians  and  the 
Greeks,  which  was  still  fresh  in  the 
memory  of  the  Hellenic  world.  The 
first  five  of  the  nine  books  are 
taken  up  with  a  sketch  of  the  rise 
of  the  Persian  empire,  in  which  the 
author  gives  a  history  of  Lydia  as 
a  preliminary,  with  historical  and 
descriptive  digressions  on  Egypt 
and  other  countries  with  which  the 
Persians  came  into  contact.  The 
last  four  books  deal  with  the  actual 
clash  of  arms  between  Persians  and 
Greeks,  giving  the  immortal  stories 
of  Marathon,  Thermopylae,  and 
Salamis,  and  ending  with  the  tak- 
ing of  Sestos  by  the  Greeks  in  478. 
The  work  is  thus  virtually  a  sketch 


Herodotus,  Greek  historian 

From  a  buit  in  the  Museum  at  Naplet 

of  the  history  of  the  world,  as  then 
known,  with  geographical,  archaeo- 
logical, and  other  digressions. 

Like  the  Greek  tragedians,  Hero- 
dotus held  the  belief  that  over- 
weening arrogance  among  mortals 
slowly  but  surely  brings  in  its 
train  the  punishment  of  heaven, 
and  this  idea  runs  all  through  the 
history.  The  work,  as  a  whole,  is 
one  of  the  most  fascinating  ever 
written,  perhaps  the  most  en- 
thralling section  being  the  second 
book,  which  deals  with  the  history 
and  civilization  of  Egypt.  With 
his  clear  and  simple  style,  Hero- 
dotus is  a  master  of  narrative 
prose.  He  is  rightly  adjudged  to 
be  also  the  Father  of  History,  inas- 
much as  he  was  the  first  to  write 
history  according  to  a  plan  or 
scheme,  whereas  those  that  went 
before  him  were  mere  chroniclers. 

His  veracity  has  been  impeached, 
but  although  his  history  contains 
much  that  is  palpably  untrue, 
Herodotus  wrote  in  good  faith. 


There  are  excellent  translations  of 
the  history  by  Rawlinson  and  by 
G.  C.  Macaulay.  See  Ancient  Greek 
Historians,  J.  B.  Bury,  1909. 

Heroes  and  Hero  Worship. 
Volume  of  lectures  on  Heroes,  Hero- 
Worship,  and  the  Heroic  in  History 
by  Thomas  Carlyle,  1841.  The  six 
lectures,  delivered  at  Willis's 
Rooms,  London,  in  May,  1840, 
comprise  some  of  the  best  and 
most  characteristic  of  Carlyle's 
vigorous  and  stimulating  work. 
They  deal  successively  with  the 
hero  as  divinity,  prophet,  poet, 
man  of  letters,  and  king,  taking  as 
typical  examples  Odin,  Mahomet, 
Dante,  Shakespeare,  Luther,  Knox, 
Johnson,  Rousseau,  Burns,  Crom- 
well and  Napoleon. 

Heroic  Play.  Form  of  dramatic 
tragedy  set  up  in  the  second  half 
of  the  17th  century,  of  which  Dry- 
den  was  the  chief,  but  not  the  first, 
exponent.  The  tragic  drama  had 
degenerated  from  the  greatness  of 
Elizabethan  time,  and  an  attempt 
was  made  to  reestablish  it  more  or 
less  closely  on  French  models,  both 
in  choice  of  themes  and  in  the  use 
of  rhymed  couplets.  In  his  essay 
Of  Heroic  Plays,  Dryden  credited 
his  predecessor  and  collaborator, 
Sir  William  D'Avenant,  with  hav- 
ing originated  them.  He  declared 
that  the  heroic  play  should  be  an 
imitation  in  little  of  an  heroic  poem 
(i.e.  epic),  and  that  love  and  valour 
ought  to  be  the  subject  of  it. 

The  chief  attempts  of  Dryden 
himself  in  this  direction  were 
Tyrannic  Love  or  the  Royal  Mar- 
tyr, 1669  ;  Almanzor  and  Almahide 
or  the  Conquest  of  Granada,  1670, 
in  which  he  came  nearest  to  justi- 
fying his  theory  as  to  the  suita- 
bility of  his  form  ;  and  Aurenge- 
Zebe  or  the  Great  Mogul,  1.675.  The 
Heroic  Play  was  made  the  satiric 
theme  of  The  Rehearsal,  1671,  by 
the  duke  of  Buckingham  and  others. 
See  Drama ;  Poetry ;  Tragedy. 

Heroic  Verse.  Name  given  to 
the  form  of  verse  employed  in  epic 
poetry  which  deals  with  the  life 
and  deeds  of  heroes.  In  Greek  and 
Latin,  as  in  The  Iliad  and  The 
Aeneid,  the  verse  is  hexameter.  In 
English  it  is  rhymed  iambic  penta- 
meter, used  by  Dryden  and  by 
Pope  in  The  Rape  of  the  Lock. 
The  French  adopted  as  the  sole 
recognized  form  for  dramatic  and 
epic  poetry  the  twelve-syllabled 
rhymed  measure,  with  alternate 
masculine  and  feminine,  single  and 
double,  rhymes,  as  in  Corneille  and 
Racine.  In  Italy  the  recognized 
form  is  the  Ottava  Rima  (q.v.). 

Heroin  OR  DIAMORPHINE  HY- 
DROCHLORIDE.  Alkaloid  obtained 
by  acting  on  ftorphine  with  acetic 
acid.  It  is  used  in  medicine  to 
allay  cough  in  phthisis  and  asthma. 


HERON 


3967 


HERRESHOFF 


Heron  (Ardea).  Name  given  to 
the  birds  of  the  various  genera  of 
the  familv  Ardeidae,  which  in- 


Heron.    Specimen  01  tne  European 
Ardea  cinerea 

eludes  the  herons  proper  and  the 
bitterns.  They  are  closely  related 
to  the  storks  and  ibises,  and  in- 
clude some  70  species  distributed 
in  all  parts  of  the  world,  but 
specially  numerous  in  tropical 
marshes  and  swamps.  They  are 
all  carnivorous,  feeding  mainly  on 
fish,  frogs,  and  insects.  All  have 
long  legs  for  wading  purposes,  long 
necks,  and  a  long,  straight,  pointed 
beak.  Most  are  bluish-grey  and 
white  in  colour. 

The  European  or  common  heron 
(A.  cinerea)  is  a  well-known  inhabi- 
tant of  Great  Britain,  and  was 
formerly  an  object  of  the  chase, 
being  preserved  for  hawking.  It 
still  breeds  in  many  parts  of  the 
country,  usually  in  parks,  where  it 
is  more  or  less  protected.  It  is 
easily  recognized  by  its  crane-like 
form  and  the  crest  of  long,  blackish 
feathers  at  the  back  of  its  head. 
The  plumage  is  grey  on  the  upper 
parts,  with  greyish  white  below  ; 
the  forehead,  sides  of  the  face,  and 
front  feathers  of  the  breast  being 
white.  It  is  about  3  ft.  in  length, 
and  the  pointed  beak  is  yellow. 

The  common  heron  feeds  upon 
fish,  frogs,  snakes,  and  young 
mammals  and  birds,  visiting  the 
margins  of  streams  and  lakes  at 
nightfall  and  early  in  the  morning. 
It  nests  in  colonies  or  heronries  in 
the  tops  of  tall  trees,  the  nest  being 
very  large  and  flat,  and  constructed 
of  sticks  with  a  lining  of  grass. 
During  the  breeding  season  the 
male  bird  may  usually  be  seen  in 
the  daytime  standing  on  a  branch 
beside  the  nest,  where  his  mate  is 
incubating  the  blue  eggs.  There 
are  several  noted  heronries  in  Eng- 
land, one  being  at  Parham,  Sussex. 

Four  otherspecies  occur  occasion- 
ally in  the  British  Islands.  The 


night  heron  (Nycticorax)  is  found 
occasionally  in  spring  and  autumn. 
It  is  about  22  ins.  in  length,  greenish 
brown  on  the  back,  with  slate  wings 
and  tail  and  white  underparts.  The 
buff -backed  heron  (A.  equinoctialis) 
is  an  extremely  rare  visitor  from 
S.  Europe.  Its  colour  is  white, 
with  the  exception  of  the  rusty 
buff  head,  neck,  and  breast.  The 
squacco  heron  (A.  ralloides)  is 
another  rarity,  only  18  ins.  long, 
with  reddish-buff  neck  and  back, 
the  rest  of  the  plumage  being 
mainly  white.  The  purple  heron 
(A.  purpurea),  common  in  Holland, 
is  sometimes  seen  in  spring  and 
autumn.  Ranging  in  length  from 
30  ins.  to  36  ins.,  the  crown  of  the 
head  and  the  crest  are  purple,  and 
the  rest  of  the  plumage  is  mainly 
grey  and  brown. 

Herpes  Simplex  (Gr.  herpein, 
to  creep).    Acute  eruption  of  vesi- 
cles  or  blebs   on  the  skin.      The 
angles    of    the    mouth,    buttocks, 
nipples,    and    genital    organs    are 
most    frequently    affected.       The 
cause  is  unknown.     Attacks  may 
occur  apparently  spontaneously  or 
in  the  course  of  pneumonia,  influ- 
enza, and  other  diseases.  Exposure 
to  cold  is  sometimes  a  precipitating 
cause.   The  appearance  of  the  vesi- 
cles may  be  preceded  by  a  sensation 
of  heat  or  tingling.     The  vesicles 
develop  in  a  few  hours  and  are 
about  the«size  of  a  pin's  head.  They 
dry  up  and  disappear  without  leav- 
ing   a    scar    in    about    ten    days. 
Treatment  consists 
in   bathing    the    F          ^ 
affected  area  with 
boric    acid    lotion    .'    J^^Bi 
and    covering     it    '     |Pjl|?* 
with  a  little  starch    ' 
and    zinc     oxi<;  |f    -~*'~- 

powder. 

Herpes  zoster 
(Gr.,  girdle  ),  or 
shingles,  is  an 
acute  eruption  of 
vesicles  occupying 
the  area  supplied 
by  a  nerve.  The 
cause  is  unknown. 
Cases  have  followed 
the  prolonged  administration  of 
arsenic,  and  occur  in  the  course 
of  locomotor  ataxia  and  other  dis- 
eases. Sometimes  the  attack  is 
preceded  by  slight  fever  and  pain 
which  may  be  severe.  The  blebs 
appear  in  a  few  hours  along  the 
course  of  a  nerve  and  persist  for 
about  ten  days,  usually  disappear- 
ing without  leaving  a  scar.  Protec- 
tion of  the  affected  part  by  cotton 
wool,  and  dusting  with  starch  and 
zinc  oxide  powder,  is  usually  the 
only  treatment  necessary. 

Herrenhaus.  German  word 
meaning  House  of  Lords  or  House 
of  Magnates.  It  is  applied  to 


assemblies  composed  of  persons  of 
rank  who  do  not  owe  their  seats  to 
popular  election.  An  example  is  the 
upper  house  of  Austria  before  1918. 

Herrenhaus  en.  Palace  just 
outside  the  town  of  Hanover,  for- 
merly the  residence  of  the  electors 
and  kings  of  Hanover.  An  avenue 
of  limes,  1£  m.  long  and  120  yds. 
wide,  leads  from  the  town  to  the 
palace.  Built  just  before  1700  by 
the  first  elector,  Ernest  Augustus, 
the  father  of  George  I  and  the  hus- 
band of  the  electress  Sophia,  who 
died  here,  it  was  a  favourite  resi- 
dence of  George  I,  and  remained  a 
royal  palace  until  the  fall  of  the  dy- 
nasty in  1866.  Around  it  are  gar- 
dens laid  out  in  the  French  style, 
and  in  the  grounds  are  an  orangery, 
a  theatre,  and  some  fine  fountains. 
See  Hanover. 

Herrera,  ANTONIO  DE  (1559- 
1625).  Spanish  historian.  After 
studying  in  Spain  and  Italy,  he 
entered  the  service  of  Philip  II, 
who  made  him  one  of  his  historio- 
graphers. His  chief  work  is  his 
History  of  the  Deeds  of  the  Gas- 
tilians  in  the  Islands  of  the  Pacific 
( 1 60 1-1 5 ).  He  also  wrote  a  work  on 
the  succession  question  in  England 
and  Scotland  in  the  time  of  Mary 
Stuart,  and  a  general  history  of  the 
world  in  the  time  of  Philip  II. 

Herrera,  FRANCISCO  DE  (1576- 
1656).  Spanish  painter.  Born  at 
Seville,  he  studied  under  Luis 
Fernandez.  He  was  a  pioneer  of 
the  realistic  movement  in  Spain, 


Herrenhausen,   Germany.      The  palace,  formerly  the 
residence  of  the  kings  of  Hanover 


and  had  Velasquez  among  his 
pupils.  Of  intractable  disposition, 
he  once  suffered  imprisonment  for 
illegal  coining,  and  neither  his 
children  nor  his  pupils  were  able 
to  live  with  him.  At  74  he  went  to 
Madrid,  where  he  worked  for  the 
court,  under  Velasquez's  protec- 
tion, until  his  death  in  that  city. 
One  may  cite  his  four  paintings  of 
the  Life  of  S.  Martin  in  the  church 
of  that  saint,  and  his  Last  Judge- 
ment in  S.  Bernard's,  Seville. 

Herreshoff ,  NATHANIEL  GREENE 
(b.  1848).  American  naval  archi- 
tect. Younger  brother  of  John 
B.  Herreshoff,  the  blind  yacht 


HERR1CK 


3968 


HERRING      BONE 


designer,  in  1881  he  was  appointed 
superintendent  of  his  brother's 
works  at  Rhode  Island.  In  addition 
to  government  work  on  torpedo 
boats  and  other  naval  craft,  he  de- 
signed the  Gloriana  racing  yacht, 
which  first  brought  him  fame  in 
1891,  while  his  Vigilant,  1893, 
Defender,  1895,  Columbia,  1899, 
Reliance,  1903,  and  Resolute, 
1920,  were  successful  defenders  of 
the  America  Cup. 

Herrick,  ROBERT   (1591-1674). 
English  poet.    Son  of  a  goldsmith 
and  born  in  London,  he  was  bap- 
^^^^^^^^^^   tized   at   the 
I    church  of  S. 
I   Vedast,  Foster 
I    Lane,  Aug.  24, 
PJjll    1591.      It   is 
§    thought    that 
I    he  was    educa- 
I    ted     at    West- 
4! '•••  If    minster  School, 
8    on     leaving 
a      which    he 
/      was         for 
^=  several 
Fromaprint  years   ap- 

prentice to  his  uncle,  a  goldsmith. 
After  graduating  at  Cambridge, 
where  he  was  a  student  first  at  S. 
John's  College  and  then  at  Trinity 
Hall,  he  returned  to  London, 
joined  the  Jonson  circle,  and  in 
1629  became  vicar  of  Dean  Prior, 
near  Ashburton,  Devonshire,  where 
his  wants  were  attended  to  by  an 
old  servant,  Prudence  Baldwin 
(the  "  Prue  "  of  his  poems).  Ejected 
by  the  Puritans  hi  1647,  he  re- 
turned to  his  living  in  1662,  being 
buried  at  Dean  Prior  Oct.  15,  1674. 
Described  by  Swinburne  as  "  the 
greatest  song-writer — as  surely  as 
Shakespeare  is  the  greatest  drama- 
tist— ever  born  of  English  race," 
Herrick  lapsed  at  times  into  coarse- 
ness and  is  not  immune  from 
monotony,  but  at  their  best  his 
Hesperides  and  Noble  Numbers 
are  exceedingly  beautiful,  as  is 
shown  by  Ye  have  been  fresh  and 
green,  Bid  me  to  live,  Gather  ye 
rosebuds,  and  Cherry-Ripe.  An 
excellent  modern  edition  of  his 


ranking  as 


llth  Lord  Berries 

Elliott  &  Fry 

his  death,  Jan. 


poems  is  that  by  A.  W.  Pollard, 
1891  and  1898.  See  Life,  F.  W. 
Moorman,  1910. 

Henries,  LORD.  Scottish  title 
borne  since  1567  by  the  family  of 
Maxwell.  Herbert  Herries,  of  Ter- 
regles,  Kirkcudbrightshire,  was 
made  a  lord  of  parliament  about 
1490,  and  was  succeeded  in  the  title 
by  his  son  and  grandson.  The  latter 
left  only  a  daughter,  Agnes.  She 
married  John  Maxwell,  a  younger 
son  of  Robert  Maxwell,  Lord  Max- 
well, and  he  was  given  the  title  of 
Lord  Herries  in 
the  4th  lord,  t 
Herries  ap-  \ 
peared  in  pub-  I 
lie  life  as  a  re-  | 
former  and  a  I 
friend  of  Knox,  | 
but  later  he  was  | 
one  of  the  sup- 
porters  of 
Queen  Mary. 
He  continued 
active  in  Scot- 
tish affairs  until 
20,  1583. 

The  title  passed  to  his  descend- 
ants, one  of  whom,  John,  the  7th 
lord,  inherited  in  1667  the  earldom 
of  Nithsdale,  becoming  the  3rd  earl. 
His  grandson,  the  5th  earl,  lost  his 
titles  for  sharing  in  the  Jacobite 
rising  of  1715,  and  for  long  there  was 
no  Lord  Herries.  In  1858,  however, 
it  was  decided  that  William  Consta- 
ble Maxwell  was  the  rightful  Lord 
Herries,  and  he  became  the  10th 
lord.  In  1884  the  llth  lord  was 
made  a  baron  of  the  United  King- 
dom, and  on  his  death  in  1908  the 
title  passed  to  the  lady  who  became 
later  duchess  of  Norfolk.  The  estates 
of  the  Maxwells  were  in  Kirkcud- 
brightshire. 

Herring  (Clupea  harengus).  Fish 
belonging  to  the  same  genus  as  the 
sprat    and    pilchard.      It  is  found 
near  the  land  in  the  northern  parts 
of  the  Atlantic,  but  not  in  the  Medi- 
terranean. The  genus  contains  about 
60  species,  most  of  them  being  avail- 
able as  food  for  man.    The  common 
herring  is  always  found  in  schools 
which    swim   near 
:   the  surface  of  the 
,   sea,   and  are  con- 
stantly   moving 
from  place  to  place 
following      their 
food.    The  result  is 
that     the    herring 
fishery  is  somewhat 
uncertain,   a  good 
fishing      ground 
being  oftentempor- 
arily  deserted    for 
no  apparent  reason. 
The    herring 
feeds    mainly     on 

Robert  Herrick.  Dean  Fnor  Cnurch,  Devonsnire,  of  which        minute      crustace- 
the  poet  was  incumbent,  and  where  he  is  buried  ans,  filtering  them 


out  of  the  water  by  means  of  the 
gill -rakers  at  the  side  of  the  throat, 
which  act  as  a  kind  of  sieve  like  the 
baleen  of  the  whale.  It  also  eats 
small  worms  and  the  eggs  and  fry 
of  its  own  and  other  species  of 
fish.  When  alarmed,  the  herring 
will  sometimes  leap  out  of  the 
water  and  be  carried  several  feet 
through  the  air.  There  are  two 
spawning  seasons,  summer  and 
winter  ;  but  it  has  been  discovered 
that  the  winter  spawners  belong  to 
a  different  race  from  the  others. 
Its  eggs  do  not  float  on  the  surface, 
but  adhere  to  the  stones  and 
weeds  at  the  bottom  of  compara- 
tively shallow  water. 

The  summer  eggs  are  deposited 
at  some  distance  from  the  shore, 
but  the  winter  ones  are  usually 
shed  in  brackish  water  about  the 
mouths  of  rivers,  and  may  even  be 
found  attached  to  the  leaves  of 
fresh-water  plants.  The  average 
number  of  eggs  deposited  by  the 
female  is  30,000.  These  hatch  in 
from  ten  days  to  a  month,  accord- 
ing to  the  temperature,  and  the 
young  fish  take  from  two  to  three 
years  to  become  adult.  Around  the 
British  coasts  12  ins.  is  a  usual  length 
for  a  full-grown  fish,  but  in  Iceland 
examples  17  ins.  in  length  are  often 
taken. 

Economically  the  herring  is  an 
important  food  fish,  owing  to  its 
nutritious  qualities  and  its  great 

BB 


Herring.    Specimen  of  the  common 

herring  found  in  the  Atlantic  and 

northern  seas 

abundance.  It  is  specially  numer- 
ous in  the  North  Sea  and  along 
the  E.  coast  of  Scotland,  and 
the  fishery  is  carried  on  by  boats 
from  most  of  the  countries  of 
Northern  Europe,  especially  Gt. 
Britain,  Germany,  and  Holland.  It 
is  chiefly  captured  in  the  drift  net, 
the  seine  being  used  in  narrower 
waters,  such  as  the  sea  lochs  of 
Scotland.  About  20  p.c.  of  the  fish 
on  the  market  are  consumed  fresh, 
the  rest  being  salted  and  partly 
dried  as  bloaters  or  smoked  as 
kippers  and  red  herrings.  See 
Fisheries  ;  Trawling. 

Herring  Bone.  Term  used  in 
architecture.  It  refers  to  courses 
of  stone  laid  on  the  model  of 
herring  bones,  i.e.  those  in  one 
course  are  all  placed  obliquely  to  the 
right  and  those  in  the  next  course 
obliquely  to  the  left,  and  so  on. 
The  term  is  also  used  for  a  kind  of 
stitch  used  in  dressmaking  (q.v.). 


HERRINGHAM 


3969 


HERSCHELL 


tal,    of    which 
institution    he 


Herringham,      SIR      WILMOT 
PARKER  (b.  1855).     British  physi- 
cian.   He  was  born  April  17,  1855. 
Educated      at 
Wine  hester 
and  Keble  Col- 
lege,     Oxford, 
he  received 
his  medical 
training    at 
Oxford    and 
S.       Bartholo- 
mew's   Hospi- 
SirW.  P.  Herringham, 
British  physician 

was  appointed 

consulting  physician.  During  the 
Great  War  he  served  as  a  con- 
sulting physician  to  the  forces,  and 
was  made  a  major-general  ;  he  had 
been  knighted  in  1914.  From 
1912-15  he  was  vice-chancellor  of 
the  university  of  London.  He  pub- 
lished A  Physician  in  France,  1919. 

Herrings,  BATTLE  OF  THE. 
Fought  Feb.  12,  1429,  between  the 
English  and  the  French,  the  latter 
aided  by  their  Scottish  allies.  The 
English  were  besieging  Orleans  and 
a  small  force  under  Sir  John 
Fastolf  was  carrying  provisions 
from  Paris  to  the  army  there.  This 
was  attacked  by  the  French  and 
Scots  at  Rouvray.  The  English 
formed  a  hollow  square,  the  provi- 
sion wagons  being  placed  in  the 
centre,  and  the  enemy  were  beaten 
off.  The  battle  was  so  called  be- 
cause the  wagons  contained  quan- 
tities of  salted  fish  for  use  during 
Lent.  See  Hundred  Years'  War. 

Herschel,  SIR  JOHN  FREDERICK 
WILLIAM     (1792-1871).        British 
astronomer.     Born  March  7,  1  792, 
he  was  the  only 
son  of  Sir  Wil 
Ham   Herschel.    | 
Taking  his  de-         &' 
gree   as    senior    p 
wrangler  at 
Cambridge,    he 
began     a    sys- 
tematic   study 
of  the  heavens 
in   1822,  the 
results    of 
which  he  pre- 
sented to  the  Royal  Society  eleven 
years    later.      The    whole   of   the 
northern  hemisphere   came    under 
his  survey,  and  he  added  over  500 
nebulae   and   clusters  of   stars  to 
those  already  known,    as    well    as 
nearly  4,000  double  stars.    Early  in 
1834  he  established  an  observatory 
at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  in  order 
to  survey  the  southern  hemisphere. 
Here  his  work  continued  for  four 
years,    the   results   of   his   labours 
being  published  in  1847. 

Returning  to  England  in  1838, 
he  was  created  a  baronet,  became 
president  of  the  Royal  Society  and 
the  RoyalAstronomicalSociety,  and 


Caroline  Herschel, 
Astronomer 

After  M.  G.  Tieleman 


received  numerous  honours  from 
universities  and  scientific  societies. 
Herschel  wrote  an  Outline  of 
Astronomy,  1849,  and  contributed 
articles  on  the  theory  of  light  and 
sound,  and  on  the  study  of  Natural 
Philosophy,  to  the  current  encyclo- 
pedias. In  1850  he  was  appointed 
master  of  the  mint,  resigning  in 
1855.  He  died  May  11,  1871,  at 
Collingwood,  Kent.  See  Astronomy; 
consult  also  The  Herschels  and 
Modern  Astronomy,  A.  Clerke,  1895. 

Herschel,  LUCRETIA  CAROLINE 
(1750-1848).  Astronomer.  Sister 
of  Sir  William  Herschel,  she  was 
born  March  16, 
1750,  at  Han- 
over, and  came 
to  England  in 
1772,  becoming 
assistant  to  her 
brother.  On  his 
appointment  as 
private  astron- 
omer to  George 
III,  she  was 
given  a  small 
salary,  and 
carried  out'  a  series  of  independent 
observations  under  his  instructions. 
An  indefatigable  worker,  she  dis- 
covered five  new  comets  and  a 
number  of  nebulae  and  star  clus- 
ters. She  added  561  stars  to  the 
catalogue  published  by  Flamsteed, 
and  on  the  death  of  her  brother  she 
returned  to  Hanover,  where  she 
died  Jan.  9,  1848.  See  The  Her- 
schels and  Modern  Astronomy,  A. 
Clerke,  1895. 

Herschel,  SIR  WILLIAM  (1738- 
1822).  Astronomer.  Born  at  Hano- 
ver, Germany,  Nov.  15,  1738,  he 
came  to  England  in  1757,  earning 
a  poor  livelihood  by  teaching 
music.  In  his  spare  time  he  studied 
astronomy,  and  in  1774  he  made 
his  first  telescope.  His  success 
with  this  instrument  encouraged 
him  in  the  making"  of  others,  and 
throughout  his  life  he  was  con- 
stantly concerned  with  their  manu- 
facture and  improvement.  Al- 
though he  did  a  great  deal  of  work 
on  various  types  of  telescopes,  his 
reputation  will  remain  connected 
with  his  discoveiy  of  the  planet 
Uranus  in  1781.  This  discovery 
brought  him  many  rewards,  in- 
cluding the  Copley  medal  and  the 
fellowship  of 
the  Royal 
Society. 

In  1782 
Herschel  re- 
ceived the  ap- 
pointment of 
private  as- 
tronomer  to 
George  III, 

and     in      the  /  _  * 

years    follow-  ftr*  <%w*(U4-* 

ing          honours        After  J.  Kusttll,  R.A. 


were  showered  on  him  by  British 
and  foreign  universities  and  scien- 
tific societies  for  his  brilliant  astro- 
nomical researches.  He  contri- 
buted nearly  70  papers  to  The 
Philosophical  Transactions,  all  of 
them  showing  a  remarkable  power 
of  reasoning.  His  systematic 
search  of  the  heavens  not  only 
resulted  in  the  discovery  of  a  large 
number  of  double  stars,  and  of  the 
new  planet  Uranus,  but  also  of  two 
new  satellites  of  Saturn. 

To  Herschel  is  due  the  first  com- 
putation of  the  period  of  rotation 
of  the  planet  Saturn,  that  of  the 
motions  of  binary  stars,  and  the 
path  of  the  solar  system  through 
the  heavens.  He  increased  the 
number  of  known  nebulae  from  180 
up  to  2,500  by  his  researches.  A 
physicist  and  astronomer  of  the 
very  first  rank,  Herschel  was  ably 
assisted  in  his  researches  by  his 
sister  Caroline.  .  He  died  Aug.  25, 
1822,  at  Slough.  See  Astronomy; 
consult  also  Life  and  Works,  J.  L.  E. 
Dreyer,  1912. 

Herschel,  SIR  WILLIAM  JAMES 
(1833-1917).  British  civil  servant. 
The  son  of  Sir  J.  F.  W.  Herschel, 
the  astronomer,  after  graduating 
at  Oxford  he  entered  the  Indian 
civil  service  in  1853,  and  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  Hooghli  district, 
where  he  was  stationed  during  the 
Mutiny.  The  proceedings  following 
this  (1859)  led  him  to  establish  his 
system  of  finger  print  identifica- 
tion, which  was  introduced  for  civil 
purposes  in  Bengal  in  1878.  Coirf 
missioner  of  Dacca,  1872,  and  Cooch 
Behar,  1874,  he  retired  in  1878. 
He  succeeded  his  father  as  baronet, 
1871,  and  died  Oct.  24,  1917. 

Herschell,  FARRER  HERSCHELL, 
IST  BARON  (1837-99).  British  law- 
yer and  politician.  Born  Nov.  2, 
1837,  he  was  ^^^^^^^^ 
educated  at  a  I 
private  school 

and     at     Uni-       Jtu      ffi  A 
versity  College.    | 
London,     was 
called    to     the 
bar  from   Lin- 
coln's   Inn    in 
1860,  and   in 
1872  was  made    1st  Baron  Herschell, 
aQ.C.    In  1874         British  lawyer 
he  entered  the  Doumev 

House  of  Commons  as  M.P.  for 
Durham,  and  in  1880  became 
solicitor-general. 

In  1886  he  was  made  lord  chan- 
cellor and  was  created  a  baron. 
He  retained  the  woolsack  for  only 
a  few  months,  after  which  he  was 
one  of  Gladstone's  band  of  fol- 
lowers. He  again  became  lord  chan- 
cellor from  1892  until  1895.  .  In 
1898  he  represented  Great  Britain 
on  the  arbitration  over  the  bound- 
ary of  Venezuela,  and  he  was 

IB    5 


HERSTAL 

in  the  U.S.A.  on  this  business  when 
he  died  March  1,  1899,  at  Washing- 
ton. His  many  honours  included 
the  chancellorship  of  London  Uni- 
versity. Richard,  the  2nd  baron 
(b.  1878),  was  a  lord-in-waiting. 

Herstal  OB  HERISTAL.  Town  of 
Belgium.  It  is  2  m.  from  Liege,  of 
which  it  is  practically  a  suburb. 
Before  the  Great  War  it  was  an 
industrial  centre,  having  manufac- 
tures of  iron  and  steel  goods,  not- 
ably bicycles,  while  the  Belgian 
government  had  establishments 
here  for  making  firearms  and  other 
munitions.  During  the  war  the 
town  was  in  the  possession  of  the 
Germans  ;  they  vacated  it  after  the 
armistice,  Nov.,  1918,  and  its  indus- 
tries were  soon  re-started.  Herstal 
is  historically  interesting  because 
here  was  born  Pepin,  the  ancestor 
of  Charlemagne,  who  is  usually 
known  as  Pepin  of  Heristal. 

Hertford.  Mun.  bor.,  market 
and  co.  town  of  Hertfordshire, 
England.  It  stands  on  the  Lea, 
,  _  ,  24  m.  N.  of  Lon- 
don, on  the  G.N. 
and  G.E.  Rlys. 
Pic  turesquely 
situated,  it  con- 
tains a  large  shire 
hall,  corn  ex- 
change, public 


churches,  that  of  All  Saints,  1895, 
replaced  an  earlier  structure  de- 
stroyed by  fire  in  1891  ;  that  of 
S.  Andrew  is  on  the  site  of  a  build- 
ing founded  in  pre-Norman  times  ; 
and  the  Roman  Catholic  church 
occupies  the  site  of  a  Benedictine 
priory  founded  in  the  time  of 
William  I.  Here  are  Christ's 
Hospital  girls'  school,  and  a  gram- 
mar school  founded  by  Richard 
Hale  in  1617. 

The  castle,  built  by  Edward  the 
Elder  in  905,  and  several  times 
reconstructed,  has  been  of  late 
years  a  private  residence,  and 


3970 

widow  of  Edward  II,  died  in  1358  ; 
Henry  IV,  Elizabeth,  and  other 
sovereigns  also  resided  in  the 
castle,  which  was  taken  by  the 
Parliamentary  forces  during  the 
Civil  War.  Haileybury  College 
is  2  m.  to  the  S.E.,  and  Panshanger, 
the  former  seat  of  Earl  Cowper,  is 
2  m.  to  the  N.W.  The  town 
suffered  a  good  deal  of  damage 
during  a  Zeppelin  raid  in  1916. 

Hertford's  history  goes  back  to 
the  time  of  King  Alfred.  It  has 
a  large  agricultural  trade,  and 
brewing,  malting,  and  iron-found- 
ing industries,  and  gives  its  name 
to  a  co.  div.  returning  one  member 
to  Parliament.  Market  day,  Sat. 
Pop.  (1921)  10,712. 

Hertford,  MARQUESS  OF.  British 
title  borne  since  1793,  and  also 
earlier,  by  the  family  of  Seymour. 
Francis  Seymour,  a  son  of  Sir 
Edward  Seymour  and  a  descendant 
of  the  protector  Somerset,  in- 
herited the  estates  of  a  cousin, 
the  earl  of  Conway.  In  1703  he  was 
made  Baron  Conway.  In  1750  his 
son  Francis,  1718-94,  was  made 
earl  of  Hertford,  and  in  1793  earl 
of  Yarmouth  and  marquess  of  Hert- 
ford. He  was  viceroy  of  Ireland, 
and  held  other  offices  during  a  long 
public  life.  He  was  succeeded  by 
his  son,  Francis,  as  2nd  marquess. 
The  latter's  son  and  grandson,  the 
3rd  and  4th  marquesses,  were  men 
of  some  note.  The  5th  marquess, 
a  general  in  the  army,  was  a  cousin 
of  the  4th,  and  from  him  the  title 
passed  to  its  present  holder.  The 
family  seat  is  Ragley  Hall,  War- 
wickshire, around  which  the  estates 
lie.  The  eldest  son  is  known  as  the 
earl  of  Yarmouth. 

Before  1793  there  had  been^arls 
and  marquesses  of  Hertford.  The 
early  earls  were  members  of  the 
great  family  of  Clare,  who  held  the 
earldom  until  the  death  of  Earl 
Gilbert  at  Bannockburn,  in  1314. 
In  1537  the  Seymours  began  their 
connexion  with  this  title.  Edward 


incorporates  parts  of  the  ancient     Seymour,  afterwards  the  protector 
stronghold,     in     which     Isabella,     Somerset,  was  then  made  earl,  and 

the  title  passed  to 
his    son   Edward, 
who,  having   lost 
it,  regained   it  in 
1559.     His  grand- 
son, William  Sey- 
mour, was    made 
marquess  of  Hert- 
ford and  duke  of 
Somerset,  and  the 
two    titles  re- 
mained    united 
until  the  4th  duke 
1    of  Somerset   died 
*    in  1675.  Themar- 
|    quessate  then  be- 
HHK   came  extinct.  See 
;  in  St.  Andrew's  Street  Seymour;  Somer- 

Valenline  Set,  Duke  of. 


Af.c 


HERTFORD 

Hertford,  FRANCIS  INGRAM  SEY- 
MOUR, 2ND  MARQUESS  OF  (1743- 
1822).  British  peer.  The  eldest  son 
of  the  1st 
marquess,  he 
was  born  Feb. 
12,  1743.  Edu 
cated  at  Eton 
and  Christ 
Church,  Ox- 
ford, he  was  an 
Irish  M.P. 
1761-68,  and 
chief  secretary 
to  the  lord- 

1765-66.  In 
1766  he  was  elected  to  the  British 
House  of  Commons,  where  he  Avas 
fairly  prominent  in  debate,advocat- 
ing  liberal  ideas  such  as  toleration 
of  Roman  Catholics.  From  1774- 
80  he  was  a  lord  of  the  treasury, 
and  in  1794  he  became  marquess  of 
Hertford.  From  1804-6  he  was 
master  of  the  household,  and  from 
1812-21  lord  chamberlain.  He 
died  June  17,  1822. 

Hertford,  FRANCIS  CHARLES  SEY- 
MOUR CONWAY,  SRD  MARQUESS  OF 
(1777-1842).  British  peer.  Born 
March  11,  1777, 
he  was  the 
only  son  of  the 
2nd  marquess 
and  his  wife, 
the  daughter  of 
the  last  Vis- 
count Irvine, 
from  whom 
came  much  of 
his  great 


After  Lawret 


Hertford. 


Oxford,  he 
was  an  M.P. 
before  succeeding  to  the  title  in 
1822.  He  lived  the  life  of  a  man  of 
pleasure,  and  is  the  original  of  the 
marquess  of  Steyne  of  Vanity  Fair 
and  of  Lord  Monmouth  of  Conings- 
by.  He  died  in  London,  March  1, 
1842.  The  marquess  married  an 
heiress,  Maria  Fagniani,  daughter 
of  G.  A.  Selwyn,  and  had  two  sons. 
Richard  Seymour  Conway  (1800- 
70),  the  elder,  who  became  the  4th 
marquess,  was  a  collector  of  pic- 
tures and  works  of  art,  which 
now  form  part  of  the  Wallace 
Collection  (q.v.). 

Hertford  College.  College  of 
the  university  of  Oxford.  It  dates 
from  about  1283,  when  Elias  de 
Hartford  founded 
a  hall  for  stu- 
dents known  as 
Hart  or  Hertford 
Hall.  It  became 
a  college  in  1740, 
but  was  dissolved 
in  1805,  and  later 
its  buildings  and  Hertford  Coll 
property  were  arms 


HERTFORD      HOUSE 

acquired  by  Magdalen  Hall.  In  its 
turn  Magdalen  Hall  was  dissolved 
in  1874,  when  a  new  charter  was 


Hertford  College,  Oxford 

the  chapel,  with  the  h 

Frith 


The  quadrangle  seen  fro 
all  on  the  left 


obtained  establishing  Hertford  as 
its  successor  and  giving  it  all  the 
privileges  enjoyed  by  the  other 
colleges.  T.  C.  Baring,  M.P.,  pro- 
vided funds  for  its  endowment. 
The  society  consists  of  a  principal, 
fellows,  and  scholars,  and  its  build- 
ings, all  modern,  are  at  the  corner 
of  Broad  Street  and  New  College 
Lane. 

Hertford  House.  Name  of  two 
London  mansions,  both  associated 
with  the  Seymour  family.  The 
house  at  105,  Piccadilly,  was  sold 
to  Sir  Julian  Goldsmid,  after  whose 
death  it  became  the  home  of  the 
Isthmian  Club,  which  vacated  it  in 
1920,  the  mansion  being  afterwards 
put  up  for  sale.  That  in  Manches- 
ter Square,  W.,  was  begun  in  1776 
by  the  4th  duke  of  Manchester, 
after  whom  it  was  first  named.  In 
1788  it  became  the  Spanish  em- 
bassy ;  later  it  passed  to  the  2nd 
marquess  of  Hertford,  whose 
second  wife  was  the  attraction  that 
drew  George  IV  to  become  an  al- 
most daily  visitor.  It  was  under 
the  patronage  of  Lady  Hertford 
that  Theodore  Hook  here  made  his 
entry  into  fashionable  life. 

The  4th  marquess  bequeathed  the 
house  and  his  famous  art  treasures 
to  Sir  Richard  Wallace,  who  recon- 
structed the  building  for  their  ac- 
commodation in  1875,  and  whose 
widow  in  1897  bequeathed  them, 
with  additions,  to  the  nation.  Hert- 
ford House  was  bought  by  Par- 
liament and  opened  as  a  public 
art  gallery  in  1900.  During  the 
Great  "War  much  of  the  collection 
was  removed  to  a  place  of  safety 
and  the  emptied  rooms  used  by 
the  admiralty  and,  later,  the 
ministry  of  munitions.  See  Wal- 
lace Collection. 

Hertfordshire  OR  HERTS.  S. 
Midland  county  of  England.  One 
of  the  six  home  counties,  it  has  an 
area  of  632  sq.  m.  and  is  bounded 
N.  by  Cambridgeshire,  S.  by 


3971 

Middlesex,  E.  by  Essex,  N.W.  by 
Bedfordshire,  and  S.W.  by  Buck- 
inghamshire. Picturesque,  espe- 
,  cially  on  the  W., 
its  winding  lanes 
and  woods,  manor 
houses  and  old 
churches  make  it 
a  favourite  with 
lovers  of  rural 
scenery.  The  chief 
geological  forma- 
tions are  the  Cre- 
taceous and  the 
Tertiary.  Much  of 
the  S.  is  London 
clay,  characteristic 
of  the  Thames 
Valley.  Along  the 
N.  border  high 
ground  runs  in 
from  Cambridge- 
shire, part  of  the  chalk  range  of  E. 
England  ;  the  county  is  generally 
undulating,  and  has  a  dry  soil. 

Of  its  17  small  streams  the  more 
important  are  the  Colne  and  Lea. 
The  former  rises  between  Hatfield 
and  St.  Albans,  is  joined  by  the  Ver 
near  Watford,  and  the  Gadeand 
Chess  at  Rickmansworth,  and  then 
enters  Middlesex.  The  Lea,  the 
largest  river  of  the  county,  rises 

,. ,    in    Bedfordshire 

and  enters  Essex 
at  W  a  1 1  h  a  m 
Abbey.  Nearly 
parallel  with  the 
Lea  is  the  artifi- 
cial New  River 
which,  fed  by 
springs  near 
Hertfordshire  arms  j&tfo^  brings 

water  to  London.  The  Grand 
Junction  Canal  passes  through 
Rickmansworth,  Boxmoor,  and 
Berkhampstead. 

Agriculture,  market  gardening, 
and  the  cultivation  of  fruit  for  the 
London  market  are  leading  pur- 
suits ;  permanent  pasture  abounds, 
and  hay  is  largely  produced.  There 
are  no  minerals  of  commercial  im- 
portance and  no  manufactures  on 


Hertford  House,  Manchester  Square,  London,  in  which 
the  Wallace  Collection  is  exhibited 


HERTFORDSHIRE 

an  extensive  scale.  The  industries 
include  straw-plaiting,  paper-mak- 
ing, malting,  brewing,  lace  and 
silk,  and  there  are  agricultural 
machinery  and  some  minor  manu- 
factories. 

The  G.N.R.,  M.R.,  L.  &  N.W.R., 
G.E.R.,  Met.  Rly.,  and  an  electric 
service  from  London  to  Watford 
afford  excellent  means  of  commu- 
nication, which  are  supplemented 
by  several  motor-' bus  services.  Of 
the  roads  the  chief  are  the  Old 
North  Road,  the  Great  North 
Road,  and  the  Dunstable  Road; 
and  there  are  remains  of  three 
Roman  roads,  Watling  Street, 
Ermine  Street,  and  the  Icknield 
Way.  The  chief  towns  are  Hert- 
ford (co.  town),  St.  Albans  (a 
cathedral  city),  .Watford,  Hitchin, 
Barnet,  Berkhampstead,  Hemel 
Hempstead,  Hatfield,  Bishop's 
Stortford,  and  Ware. 

The  county  was  once  part  of 
Mercia  and  of  Essex.  St.  Albans, 
as  Verulamium,  was  a  Roman  city. 
William  I  held  a  council  at  Berk- 
hampstead, where,  as  at  Hertford, 
are  remains  of  an  old  castle.  Henry 
III  had  a  palace  at  King's  Langley. 
Elizabeth  lived  at  Ashridge  Park, 
was  a  prisoner  at  Hatfield,  the  his- 
toric home  of  the  Cecils,  and  had  a 
hunting  lodge  at  Hunsdon.  Rye 
House  is  associated  with  a  plot  to 
murder  Charles  II  and  James, 
duke  of  York.  St.  Albans  and 
Barnet  were  the  scenes  of  historic 
battles.  Four  members  are  returned 
to  Parliament.  Pop.  (1921)333,236. 
LITERARY  ASSOCIATIONS.  Bacon 
lived  at  Gorhambury,  took  his  title 
of  viscount  from  St.  Albans,  and  was 
buried  in  the  church  of  S.  Michael. 
Chaucer  was  a  clerk  at  Berkhamp- 
stead Castle.  With  St.  Albans  are 
associated  the  names  of  Matthew 
Paris,  Sir  John  Mandeville,  Dr. 
Cotton,  and  the  background  of 
Dickens' s  novel,  Bleak  House. 
Chapman  lived  at  Hitchin ;  Young, 
author  of  Night  Thoughts,  was 
rector  of  Welwyn,  and  is  buried 

there.    Cowper  was 

born  at  Berk- 
hampstead, and 
introduced  Ware  in 
his  John"  Gilpin. 
Isaac  Watts  lived 
at  Theobalds. 
Yarrell,  the  na- 
turalist, was  born 
at  Bayford.  Bul- 
wer  Lytton  lived 
at  Knebworth. 
With  Charles 
Lamb  are  asso- 
ciated Mackery 
End  and  Wid- 
ford.  Sir  John 
Evans,  the  anti- 
quary, lived  at 
Hemel  Hempstead. 


HERTFORDSHIRE 


Hertfordshire.    Map  ol  the  county  to  the  nortn  or  Middlesex,  famous  tor  its 
agriculture  and  market  gardening 


Mrs.  Humphry  Ward  passed  many 
of  her  later  years  at  Tring.  Hoddes- 
don  has  memories  of  Prior  and 
Izaak  Walton.  See  Highways  and 
Byways  in  Hertfordshire,  1902, 
and  Hertfordshire,  1903,  H.  W. 
Tompkins  ;  Memorials  of  Old  Hert- 
fordshire, ed.  P.  C.  Standing,  1905 ; 
The  Victoria  History  of  the  Coun- 
ties of  England:  Hertfordshire,  4 
vols.,  ed.  W.  Page,  1902-14. 

Hertfordshire  Regiment.  Reg- 
iment of  the  British  Army, 
established  under  the  Territorial 
Forces  Act  of  1907.  It  consists  of 
territorial  or  volunteer  battalions 
only.  The  first  battalion  was  mo- 
bilised in  August,  1914,  and  went 
to  France  before  the  end  of  the 


Aug.  31,  1843,  he  was  educated  at 
the  universities  of  Munster,  Munich, 
and  Berlin,  afterwards  studying 
for  two  years  in  Italy.  He  was  an 
unofficial  professor  at  Bonn,  1867- 
80,  when  he  be- 
came a  profes- 
sor at  Munich. 
He  had  pre- 
viously entered 
the  Reichstag, 
and  soon  be- 
came the  leader 
of  the  Centre  or 

Count  von  Hertiing,  Catholic  party. 
German  statesman  In  1891  he 
was  Bavarian  minister  of  state, 


and  in  1912  became  minister  pre- 
sident of  Bavaria.     On  the  fall  of 

year.     It  was  with  the  2nd  corps     Bethmann-Hollweg  in  July,  1917, 

in   the   fighting   around   Ypres  in     he  was  offered  the  imperial  chan 

Nov.,  and  with  the  Guards  in  the 

attack   on   Festubert,  May,  1915. 

In  the  third  battle  of  Ypres,  1917, 

the  Hertfordshires  formed  part  of  a 

force  of  Territorials  that  operated 

below  Pilkem  and  towards  the  vil- 
lage of  St.  Julien.    The  regimental 

headquarters  are  at  Hertford. 
Hertha.        Teutonic     goddess. 

Called  also  Nerthus,  she  was  the 

goddess  of  fertility.     Our  scanty 

information  about  her  worship  is 

derived  from  Tacitus,  who,  in  his 

Germania,   gives   a   brief    account 

of   certain    mysterious  ceremonies 

which  took  place  on  an  unknown 


island,  usually  at  night.  Her  statue 
was  veiled. 

Hertiing,  COUNT  GEORQ  FRIED  - 
RICH  VON  (1843-1919).  German 
statesman.^-  Born  at  Darmstadt, 


cellorship  by 
William  II  and 
declined  it ;  but 
when  it  was  again 
offered  to  him  he 
accepted  it,  and 
on  Nov.  1  suc- 
ceeded  Dr. 
Michaelis.  He  re- 
signed, however, 
Sept.  30,  1918, 
and  died  Jan.  4, 
1919. 

's  Hertogen- 
bosch,  OR  Bois- 
LE-Dcc  (Dutch 
and  Fr.,  Duke's 
Wood).  Town  of 
the  Netherlands, 
capital  of  N. 
Brabant.  It 


HERTSLET 

stands  at  the  confluence  of  the  Aa 
with  the  Dommel,  30  m.  S.S.E. 
of  Utrecht,  and  is  a  rly.  junc- 
tion. Its  splendid  Gothic  cathedral 
of  S.  John,  dating  from  the  middle 
of  the  15th  century,  was  built  on 
the  site  of  an  llth  century  Roman- 
esque structure,  and  is  noted  for 
its  rich  ornamentation,  lofty  nave 
with  double  aisles,  and  beautiful 
choir  and  pulpit.  The  Raadhuis, 
in  the  Great  Market,  contains 
numerous  fine  paintings,  and  the 
provincial  museum  houses  many 
antiquities.  Other  buildings  of 
note  are  the  government  build- 
ings, court  house,  episcopal  palace, 
arsenal,  barracks,  and  grammar 
school. 

Formerly  strongly  fortified,  its 
defences  were  razed  in  1876.  Brew- 
ing and  distilling  are  carried  on, 
and  the  manufactures  include 
cigars,  linen,  cutlery,  and  glass.  A 
steam  tramway  connects  with 
Helmond,  20  m.  distant,  while  the 
Zuid  Willems  canal  joins  it  to 
Maastricht  and  other  places.  The 
duke  commemorated  by  the  name 
is  Godfrey  of  Brabant,  who  founded 
it  in  a  wood  in  1184,  and  afterwards 
granted  it  municipal  privileges. 
Pop.  37,667. 

Hertslet,  SIR  EDWARD  CECIL 
(b.  1850).  British  civil  servant. 
The  son  of  Sir  Edward  Hertslet 
of  the  foreign  office,  and  educated 
at  King's  College,  London,  he 
served  in  the  foreign  office,  1868- 
96,  was  consul-general  at  Havre, 
1896-1903,  and  from  1903-19 
was  consul-general  for  Belgium. 
He  was  employed  at  Zurich, 
1915-17,  and  at  the  foreign  office 
during  the  remainder  of  the  Great 
War.  His  activities  in  British  and 
foreign  photographic  conventions 
and  conferences  gave  him  a  dis- 
tinguished position  on  the  juries  of 
various  exhibitions,  and  he  was 
royal  commissioner  of  the  exhibi- 
tions of  Brussels,  1910,  Turin,  and 
Rome,  1911. 


Hertogenbosch. 
century 


The  cathedral  of  S.  John,  an  lltu 
foundation,  rebuilt  1419-50 


Heinrich  Hertz, 
German  physicist 


HERTZ 

Hertz,  HEINRICH  RUDOLF  (1857- 
94).  German  physicist.  Born  at 
Hamburg,  Feb.  22,  1857,  his  name 
will  always  be 
associated  with 
the  discovery  of 
Hertzian  waves 
of  wireless  tele- 
graphy. In  1880 
lie  became  as- 
sistant to  Helm- 
holtz  at  the 
Berlin  Insti- 
tute, where  he 
carried  out  a 
series  of  researches  on  electric 
discharge  in  gases.  On  his  appoint- 
ment to  the  professorship  of  physics 
in  1885  at  Karlsruhe  Polytechnic, 
inspired  by  the  electro-magnetic 
theories  of  Maxwell,  he  began  the 
study  of  electro-magnetic  waves. 

Hertz  showed  the  refraction, 
diffraction,  and  polarisation  of  the 
electric  waves  and  their  corre- 
spondence with  those  of  light  and 
heat.  The  practical  results  he 
obtained,  particulars  of  which  he 
published  in  1887,  were  no  less 
brilliant  than  the  profound  mathe- 
matical researches  of  Maxwell. 
Their  importance  cannot  be  over- 
estimated, for  upon  them  has  been 
based  the  whole  of  modern  wire- 
less communication.  Till  his  death, 
Jan.  1,  1894,  Hertz  continued  to 
publish  regularly  papers  on  his 
remarkable  discoveries,  and  many 
were  translated  into  English  in 
1896  by  D.  E.  Jones  and  G.  A. 
Schott.  See  Wireless  Telegraphy. 
Hertz,  HENRIK  (1798-1870). 
Danish  poet  and  dramatist.  Edu- 
cated in  Copenhagen,  where  he 
was  born  Aug.  25,  1798,  he  began 
to  study  law,  but  his  early  writ- 
ings—-among  them  The  Letters  of 
a  Ghost,  1830,  brought  him  into 
such  prominence  that,  after  a 
journey  on  the  Continent  at  the 
public  expense,  he  settled  down 
to  literature  with  a  subsidy  from 
the  state  and  the  title  of  pro- 
fessor. Among  his  best  known 
poetical  dramas  are  Svend  Dyring's 
House,  1837,  and  King  Rene's 
Daughter,  1845,  Eng.  trans.  Theo- 
dore Martin,  1850,  new  ed.  1894. 
His  Poems  appeared  1851-62,  and 
Collected  Dramatic  Works,  18  vols., 
1854-73.  He  died  Feb.  25,  1870. 

Hertz,  JOSEPH  HERMAN  (b. 
1872).  Jewish  rabbi.  Born  in 
Hungary,  Sept.  m 
25, 1872,  he  was  I 
educated  at  i 
Columbia  Uni- 
versity. He 
became  a  rabbi 
at  Syracuse, 
New  York,  in 
1894,  and  at 

Johannesburg       josepQ  H.  Hertz, 
in  1898.      From  Jewish  rabbi 


1907-9  he  was  professor  of  philo- 
sophy at  the  Transvaal  University 
College,  became  a  rabbi  at  New  York 
city  in  1912,  and  was  appointed 
chief  rabbi  of  the  British  United 
Congregations  in  1913.  He  wrote 
The  Ethical  System  of  James 
Martineau,  1894,  and  works  on 
Jewish  and  educational  subjects. 

Hertzog,  JAMES  BARRY  MUNNIK 
(b.  1866).  South  African  states- 
man. Born  in  S.  Africa  of  Dutch- 
German  stock, 
he  was  one  of 
the  Boer  gen- 
erals in  the 
war,  1899- 
1902,  after- 
wards becom- 
ing an  ardent 
champion  o  f 
the  cause  of 
the  Boer  na-  J.  B.  M.  Hertzog, 
tionalists.  He  S.  African  statesman 
was  a  member  of  the  Union  Cabinet, 
1910-12,  and  as  minister  for  educa- 
tion urged  the  claims  of  the  Dutch 
language  in  the  Orange  River 
Colony.  His  animosity  against 
Botha  and  Smuts,  and  his  anti- 
British  views,  caused  his  retire- 
ment. In  the  Great  War  he  and 
ex-president  Steyn  refused  to  de- 
nounce the  rebellion  of  Beyers  and 
De  Wet  in  the  autumn  of  1914. 
He  was  elected  leader  of  the 
Nationalist  party  in  1915,  and  ad- 
vocated Dutch  supremacy.  At  the 
general  election  of  Feb.,  1921,  his 
party  was  beaten  by  the  S.  African 
party  led  by  Smuts.  In  June  1924, 
as  the  result  of  the  general  election, 
he  became  prime  minister. 

Heruli  OR  ERULI.  Ancient  Ger- 
manic people.  Their  original  home 
was  said  to  have  been  in  the  Cim- 
bric  Chersonese  (Jutland).  They 
are  first  mentioned  in  the  3rd  cen- 
tury A.D.  as  inhabiting  the  steppes 
near  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Danube 
in  alliance  with  the  Goths.  A  war- 
like people,  they  were  ready  to  serve 
any  leader  as  mercenaries.  In  476 
they  assisted  Odoacer  (Odavacar), 
called  King  of  the  Heruli,  to  over- 
throw the  West  Roman  empire  and 
to  establish  himself  as  ruler  of  its 
territories.  After  his  downfall,  the 
Heruli  dispersed  and,  after  many 
vicissitudes  of  fortune,  disappeared 
from  history  in  the  early  part  of 
the  6th  century.  They  are  said  to 
have  adhered  to  paganism  longer 
than  any  other  Germanic  people. 

Hervas  y  Panduro,  LORENZO 
(1735-1809).  Spanish  philologist. 
Born  May  10,  1735,  he  became  a 
Jesuit,  and  held  professorships  at 
Madrid  and  Murcia.  On  the  expul- 
sion of  the  order  from  Spain  in 
1767,  he  settled  in  Italy,  where  he 
produced  his  great  work,  Idea  of 
the  Universe,  1778-92,  a  treatise 
on  cosmography  in  21  volumes. 


Gustavo  Herve, 
French  socialist 

enforced    bis    re- 


He  also  wrote  Catalogue  of  the 
known  languages,  and  other  works 
on  philology,  to  which  study  he 
gave  a  great  impetus,  especially  in 
Italy.  He  was  librarian  of  the 
Quirinal  Palace,  Rome,  from  1803 
until  his  death,  Aug.  24,  1809. 

Herve,  GUSTAVE  (b.  1871). 
French  socialist.  Born  near  Brest, 
Herv6  entered  the  teaching  pro 
fession,  but  lost 
a  post  held  at 
Sens  by  reason 
of  his  out- 
spoken anti- 
militarism.  In 
1905  he  was 
imprisoned  for 
similar  attacks 
on  French 
policy,  but 
pressure  of 
radical  opinion 
lease.  Other  prosecutions  followed, 
and  in  1910  he  was  sentenced  to 
four  years'  imprisonment,  which 
was  not,  however,  enforced.  His 
name  had  meanwhile  become  well 
known  by  his  conduct  of  La  Guerre 
Sociale,  a  strongly  socialist  and 
anti-militaristic  journal  founded 
in  1905. 

But  on  the  outbreak  of  the 
Great  War  Herve  upheld  his 
country's  cause  with  no  less  en- 
thusiasm than  he  had  previously 
shown  in  denouncing  it,  and  volun- 
teered for  service.  His  paper  wds 
renamed  La  Victoire.  Among  his 
writings  are  Mes  Crimes,  1912,  a 
trenchant  plea  for  the  liberty  of 
the  press,  and  Apres  La  Marne, 
1915,  one  of  several  volumes  of 
reprinted  war  articles. 

Hervey,  ARTHUR  (b.  1855). 
British  composer  and  critic.  Born 
in  Paris,  Jan.  26,  1855,  of  Irish 
descent,  he 
was  educated 
at  the  Oratory 
School,  Bir- 
^^^  mingham.  He 
flu  ,  ,3L  I  I  then  studied 
iHkfc-^H  I  music,  and 
soon  began  to 
compose,  h  i  s 
works  includ- 
ing orchestral 
compositi  o  n  s, 
tone  poems,  an  opera,  Ilona,  and 
many  songs.  His  Life  Moods,  or- 
chestral variations,  were  played  at 
the  Brighton  Festival  in  1910.  He 
also  wrote  books  on  French  music, 
and  from  1892-1908  was  musical 
critic  of  The  Morning  Post,  having 
served  Vanity  Fair  in  a  like  capacity. 
Among  his  books  are  French  Music 
in  the  Nineteenth  Century,  1903, 
and  studies  of  Alfred  Bruneau, 
Franz  Liszt,  and  Rubinstein. 

Hervey,  JAMES  (1714-58).  Eng- 
lish clergyman  and  devotional 
writer.  Born  at  Hardingstone, 


Arthur  Hervey, 
British  composer 


HERVEY 


near  North  - 
a  m  p  t  o  n  , 
February  26, 
1714,  he  was 
educated  at 
the  local  gram- 
mar school 
and  at  Lin- 
coln College, 
Oxford,  where 


Later  he  attached  himself  to  the 
Calvinists.  He  succeeded  to  his 
father's  livings  at  Weston  Favell 
and  Collingtree,  was  remarkable 
for  his  benevolence,  and  died  on 
Dec.  25,  1758. 

His  works  include  Meditations 
and  Contemplations,  1746-47, 
which  contain  Meditations  among 
the  Tombs,  turgid  and  unnatural 
in  style,  but  once  extraordinarily 
popular ;  and  Dialogues  between 
Theron  and  Aspasio,  1755,  which 
led  to  a  controversy  on  the  nature 
of  faith  with  Robert  Sandeman 
(q.v.),  Hervey  contending  that 
justification  by  faith  meant  ap- 
propriation ;  Sandeman,  that  the 
vital  thing  was  not  the  manner  of 
believing,  but  the  matter  of  belief. 
See  Life  and  Letters,  T.  Birch, 
1782;  Works,  6  vols.,  1769. 

Hervey,  JOHN  HERVEY,  BARON 
(,1696-1743).       English    politician 
and  author.    Son  of  John  Hervey, 
earl  of  Bristol, 
he    was    born 
Oct.  15,  1696, 
belonging     t  o 
the  family   of 
whom   it   was 
said  that  God 
made    men, 
women,   and 
Herveys,      s  o 
notable  was 
1st  Baron  Hervey        their     pride. 

After  Vanloo  jje     W{J£     e(ju 

cated  at  Westminster  and  Clare 
Hall,  Cambridge,  after  which  he 
married  Mary,  or  Molly,  Lepell, 
like  himself  a  member  of  the  court 
of  the  prince  of  Wales,  afterwards 
George  II.  In  1725  he  entered 
Parliament,  attaching  himself  to 
Sir  Robert  Walpole.  The  confidence 
of  Queen  Caroline  gave  him  political 
importance,  both  before  and  after 
he  became  lord  privy  seal  in  1740. 

In  1733  he  was  made  a  baron, 
but  he  did  not  live  long  enough  to 
inherit  his  father's  earldom,  dying 
Aug.  5,  1743.  Three  of  his  sons 
became  in  turn  earl  of  Bristol.  As 
a  writer,  Hervey  is  chiefly  known 
for  his  Memoirs  of  the  Court  of 
George  II,  which  show  the  king 
and  his  son  Frederick,  prince  of 
Wales,  in  a  very  tunfavourable 
light.  They  were  edited  by  J.  W. 
Croker,  1848.  Hervey  was  satirised 


3974 

by  Pope,  to  whom  he  replied  with 
almost  equal  bitterness.  See  Bris- 
tol, Marquess  of. 

Hervey  Archipelago.  Group 
of  islands  in  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
also  known  as  Cook  Islands  (g.v.). 
Hervey  Bay.  Bay  on  the  coast 
of  S.  Queensland,  Australia.  The 
east  side  is  formed  by  Great  Sandy 
Island,  one  of  the  sandy  islands 
which  interfere  with  coastal  navi- 
gation. On  the  west  side  is  the 
sugar  and  cattle -rearing  area,  of 
which  the  commercial  centre  is  the 
small  port  of  Bundaberg,  which  is 
situated  at  the  beginning  of  the 
bay,  here  some  50  m.  across.  At 
the  head  of  the  bay  in  the  south  a 
narrow  sea  channel  separates  Gt. 
Sandy  Island  from  the  district  of 
Maryborough. 

Hervier,  Louis  ADOLPHE  (1821- 
79).  French  painter  and  etcher. 
Born  at  Paris,  he  studied  under 
Leon  Cogniet  and  Eugene  Isabey. 
The  rare  quality  of  his  designs, 
etchings,  and  lithographs  was  not 
appreciated  during  his  life  by  the 
Salon  juries,  who  refused  his  work 
twenty-three  times.  One  or  two 
series  of  lithographs  published 
after  his  death,  notably  those  of 
Les  Mis6rables  and  La  Mendiante, 
proved  his  exceptional  gift. 

Hervieu,  PAUL  ERNEST  (1857- 
1915).  A  French  dramatist  and 
novelist.  Born  at  Neuilly-sur- 
Seine,  Nov.  2, 
1857,  he  was 
educated  for 
the  law,  and 
called  to  the 
bar  in  1877. 
Later  he  en- 
tered  the 
dipl  om  atic 
service,  but  in 
1881,  on  being 
appointed  to 
the  secretary- 
ship  of  the 
French  legation  in  Mexico,  he  re- 
signed and  thenceforward  devoted 
himself  to  journalism  and  literature. 
His  first  novel,  Diogene-le-Chien, 
1882,  was  followed  by  a  collection 
of  journalistic  narratives,  La  Betise 
Parisienne,  1884;  L'Inconnu,  1887 ; 
Flirt,  1890;  Peints  par  Eux-Memes, 
1893;  and  L' Armature,  1895. 

In  his  stories  he  showed  close 
knowledge  of  life,  and  charming 
literary  fancy.  Having  established 
himself  as  a  novelist,  he  won 
fresh  and  greater  fame  as  a 
dramatist,  his  principal  plays 
being  Les  Paroles  Restent,  1892  ; 
Les  Tenailles,  1895  ;  La  Course  du 
Flambeau,  and  L'Enigme,  1901, 
produced  in  English  as  Caesar's 
Wife,  in  the  following  year;  The- 
roigne  de  Mericourt,  1902 ;  Le 
Dedale,  perhaps  his  best,  1903; 
Le  Reveil,  1905 ;  Connais-Toi,  1909. 


HERZEGOVINA 

He  was  elected  to  the  French  Aca- 
demy in  1900.  His  collected  plays 
were  published  in  3  vols.,  1900^. 
He  died  Oct.  25,  1915. 

Herwarth      von      Bittenfeld, 
KARL  EBERHARD  (1796-1884).  Ger- 
man soldier.      Of  good  family,  he 
entered    the 
/'^*««j^.  army  of  Prus- 

»k  sia  in  1811  and 
;^,  V  saw  his  first 
*  "'  8L  fighting  in  the 
war  of  libera- 
tion of  1813- 
1 4.  He  rose 
high  in  the  ser- 
vice during  the 
years  of  peace, 
attaining  the 
command  of 


Herwarth  von 

Bittenfeld, 
German  soldier 


an  army  corps  in  1860.  This 
was  partly  due  to  his  position  as 
an  officer  of  the  guards,  which 
brought  him  into  contact  with  the 
king,  especially  when  he  was  com- 
manding his  regiment  in  Berlin 
during  the  troubles  of  1848.  In 
1864  Herwarth  was  in  command  of 
the  Prussian  army  that,  fighting 
Denmark,  made  its  way  across  to 
Alsen.  He  commanded  an  army  in 
the  war  of  1866  against  Austria, 
led  it  through  Saxony  into  Bo- 
hemia, fighting  two  battles  and 
taking  part  in  the  final  victory  of 
Sadowa.  In  the  war  against  France 
he  was  employed  at  home,  his  work 
being  that  of  a  quartermaster- 
general.  In  1871  he  was  made  a 
field-marshal.  He  died  at  Bonn, 
Sept.  2,  1884. 

Herzegovina.  District  of  S.E. 
Europe.  It  lies  on  the  N.W.  of  the 
Balkan  Peninsula,  and  is  sur- 
rounded by  Bosnia,  Serbia,  Mon- 
tenegro, and  Dalmatia.  It  consists 
of  mountains  rising  to  a  height  of 
8.000  ft.,  and  forming  part  of  the 
Dinaric  Alps,  with  high  forested 
valleys  and  cultivable  plateaux  in 
between.  It  is  watered  by  the 
Narenta,  on  which  is  its  chief  town, 
Mostar.  It  produces  barley,  to- 
bacco, timber,  excellent  wine,  and 
much  fruit.  Cattle,  goats,  and  pigs 
are  raised  in  considerable  quanti- 
ties. Minerals  are  abundant,  but 
little  worked.  Its  area  is  3,562 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  200,000. 

During  the  Roman  period  it  was 
at  various  times  included  in  Illyria, 
Pannonia,  and  Dalmatia.  After  its 
conquest  by  the  Turks  it  was  a 
Turkish  province.  As  a  result  of 
the  Berlin  Congress,' July,  1878,  it 
was  handed  over,  with  Bosnia,  to 
Austria,  who  annexed  both  and 
formed  them  into  the  provincial 
government  of  Bosnia-Herzegovina 
in  1908.  In  1918-19,  after  the  fall 
of  the  Austrian  Empire,  Herzego- 
vina became  a  portion  of  the  new 
kingdom  of  the  Serbs,  Croats,  and 
Slovenes.  See  Austria ;  Yugo-Slavia. 


HERZEN 

Herzen,  ALEXANDER  IVANOVITCH 
(1812-70).  Russian  publicist. 
Born  at  Moscow,  the  natural  son 
of  a  rich  nobleman.  Yakolev,  he 
was  exiled  at  the  age  of  23  to 
Siberia  on  account  of  his  advanced 
views.  In  1838  he  married,  and  in 

1841  was  exiled  to  Novgorod.     In 

1842  he  returned  to  Moscow,  and 
published  Annals  of  the  Fatherland, 
Letters   on   the   Study  of   Nature 
(under  the  pseudonym  Iskander), 
and    two    novels,   Whose   Fault  ? 
and  Doctor  Kroupov,  1845-46. 

Herzen' s  father  leaving  him  a 
fortune,  he  removed  to  Paris, 
whence  he  was  banished,  and  went 
to  Nice.  In  1850  he  published,  in 
German,  Vom  andern  Ufer  (From 
the  other  shore),  in  which  he  pro- 
claimed the  end  of  the  old  Euro- 
pean system  and  its  regeneration 
by  the  Russian  community.  Then 
came,  in  French,  Du  Developpe- 
ment  des  Idees  Revolutionnaires 
en  Russie,  1851,  Eng.  trans.  1853. 

Herzen  removed  to  London, 
where  he  set  up  a  Russian  print- 
ing press  and  started  a  revolu- 
tionary periodical,  The  Polar  Star. 
He  published  his  memoirs,  My 
Exile,  1855,  and  on  July  1,  1857, 
began  the  issue  of  a  weekly  revo- 
lutionary journal,  Kolokol  (The 
Bell),  which  was  smuggled  into 
Russia  in  hundreds  of  thousands. 
In  1859  he  published,  in  English, 
Memoirs  of  Catherine  II  and  the 
Princess  Dachkov.  Coming  under 
the  influence  of  Bakunin,  Herzen 
adopted  extreme  views  which 
greatly  diminished  his  influence. 
He  died  in  Paris,  Jan.  21, 1870. 

Heshbon.  Ancient  city  of  Pales- 
tine. It  stood  at  the  N.E.  corner  of 
the  Dead  Sea,  and  was  the  capital  of 
Sihon.  king  of  the  Amorites,  and  was 
captured  by  the  Israelites  on  their 
way  to  Canaan.  (Numb,  xxi,  25). 

Hesiod  (fl.  c.  700  B.C.).  Greek 
didactic  poet.  He  lived  at  Ascra, 
at  the  foot  of  Mt.  Helicon,  in 
Boeotia,  his  father  having  been  an 
immigrant  from  Kyme,  in  Asia 
Minor.  Details  of  his  life  are  ob- 
scure, but  there  is  reason  to  believe 
that  he  lost  his  patrimony  in  a  law- 
suit against  his  brother,  Perses, 
who  bribed  the  judge.  As  a  result 
of  this,  Hesiod  removed  to  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  Gulf  of 
Corinth^  where  he  spent  the  rest  of 
Ms  life, "until,  according  to  legend, 
he  was  murdered. 

A  farmer  by  profession,  one  01 
his  poems,  Works  and  Days,  is  a 
didactic  poem,  part  of  which  is 
largely  a  manual  of  agriculture,  to 
which  Virgil  is  much  indebted. 
Works  and  Days,  however,  is  a 
composite  poem,  another  part  of  it 
consisting  of  a  sort  of  moral  essay 
on  the  dignity  of  labour,  and  the 
injustice  of  rulers  and  judges. 


3975 

Hesiod's  other  surviving  poem, 
Theogony,  is  an  account  of  the 
creation  of  the  world,  and  a  history 
of  the  gods  and 
demi-gods.  The 
two  poems 
The  Shield  of 
Heracles  and 
the  Contest  of 
Homer  and 
Hesiod  are  not 
genuine.  I  n 
later  ages 
Hesiod  was  Hesiod' Greek  P°et 
much  used  as  a 

school  book.  The  best  edition  of 
the  text  with  English  notes  is  that 
of  Paley,  1883,  and  there  arc  prose 
translations  in  Bonn's  Classical 
Library,  by  J.  Banks,  and  by  A. 
W.  Mair,  1908. 

Hesione.  In  Greek  mythology, 
daughter  of  Laomedon,  king  of 
Troy.  Poseidon  and  Apollo, 
offended  by  Laomedon,  sent  a 
monster  to  whom  yearly  a  maiden 
had  to  be  sacrificed.  Hesione  was 
about  to  suffer  this  fate  when  she 
was  rescued  by  Hercules,  who 
slew  the  monster  with  his  club. 
Hercules  had  been  promised  a 
team  of  beautiful  horses  as  a  re- 
ward, but  Laomedon  refused  to 
keep  his  promise.  Hercules,  there- 
fore, killed  the  deceitful  king,  set 
Priam  on  the  throne  in  his  stead, 
and  married  Hesione  to  his  friend 
Telamon.  Pron.  He-si- onee. 

Hesperia  (Gr.  Hesperos,  evening 
star).  Term  applied  by  the  Greek 
poets  to  Italy  as  being  the  western 
land.  Roman  poets  sometimes 
applied  the  name  to  Spain. 

Hesperian.  British  steamship. 
Belonging  to  the  Allan  line,  she 
was  torpedoed  and  sunk  without 
warning  by  a  German  submarine, 
Sept.  4,  1915,  while  bound  from 
Liverpool  to  Montreal. 

Hesperides.  In  Greek  mytho- 
logy, nymphs  who  guarded  the 
golden  apples  of  Hera  (q.v.).  Their 
gardens  were  variously  fixed  in 
the  Far  West  by  different  legends. 
The  quest  of  three  of  these  golden 
apples  was  one  of  the  twelve 
labours  of  Hercules.  The  name 
was  chosen  by  Herrick  (q.v.)  as 
title  for  a  series  of  his  poems. 

Hesperornis  (Gr.  hespera,  even- 
ing, west;  ornis,  bird).  One  of  the 
fossil  birds  of  the  Cretaceous  system. 
It  is  remarkable  for  possessing 
teeth,  and  so  showing  the  descent 
of  birds  from  reptiles.  Only  ex- 
tremely rudimentary  remains  have 
been  found  in  Kansas,  but  from 
these  have  been  deduced  the  facts 
that  the  bird  was  3  ft.  high,  and 
probably  a  strong  swimmer,  though 
unable  to  fly.  See  Odontornith.es. 

Hesperus.  In  Greek  mytho- 
logy, the  name  of  the  evening  star. 
See  Venus. 


HESSE 

Hess.  Name  of  a  family  of 
German  artists.  Peter  von  Hess 
was  born  at  Diisseldorf,  son  of  a 
painter  and  engraver,  July  29, 
1792,  and,  having  served  with  the 
Bavarian  army  during  1813-15, 
became  well  known  as  a  painter  of 
battle  scenes.  Examples  of  his 
spirited  work  are  to  be  found  at 
Berlin  and  Munich.  He  died  at 
Munich,  April  4,  1871.  Heinrich 
Maria  von  Hess  was  born  on  April 
19,  1798,  studied  in  Munich  and 
Rome,  and  became  director  of  the 
Munich  galleries.  His  work  was 
chiefly  of  a  religious  character, 
notable  examples  being  decora- 
tions in  the  chapel  of  All  Saints 
and  the  basilica  at  Munich.  He 
died  there  on  March  29,  1863. 
Another  brother,  Karl  (1801-74), 
was  an  attractive  painter  of  Alpine 
landscapes  and  genre  pictures, 
some  of  which  are  in  the  National 
Gallery,  Berlin. 

Hesse.  State  of  the  German 
republic,  until  1918  a  grand  duchy. 
In  the  west  of  the  country,  its  area 
is  2,970  sq.  m.,  and  it  has  a  popu- 
lation of  1,280,000.  It  is  divided 
into  three  provinces,  Upper  Hesse, 
Rhenish  Hesse,  and  Starkenburg. 
and  19  Kreise  or  circles.  Part  of 
Prussia  separates  Upper  Hesse 
from  the  others,  and  the  republic 
has  small,  isolated  pieces  of  terri- 
tory elsewhere,  one  being  Wimpfen. 
The  Rhine  and  the  Wettau  flow 
through  the  state.  There  are  a 
number  of  hills,  but  much  of  the 
land  is  flat.  Darmstadt  is  the 
capital,  and  before  1866,  when 
there  were  several  states  of  Hesse, 
the  grand  duchy  was  known  as 
Hesse-Darmstadt.  Mainz  is  the 
largest  town ;  others  are  Offenbach, 
Worms,  and  Giessen.  Agriculture 
is  the  main  occupation,  rye,  barley, 
potatoes,  and  vines  being  largely 
grown.  Coal  and  iron  are  mined. 
The  republic  is  governed  by  a 
ministry  responsible  to  a  Landtag 
of  70  members,  the  largest  party 
therein  being  the  Socialists. 

The  name  of  Hesse  is  that  of  a 
Frankish  tribe,  the  Hessi,  who 
gave  their  name  to  a  district  much 
larger  than  the  present  republic. 
Hessegau,  as  it  was  called  about 
the  8th  century,  was  in  the  king- 
dom of  the  Franks,  in  the  empire 
of  Charlemagne,  and  in  that  of 
Otto  the  Great.  Its  early  bound- 
aries were  never  exactly  defined, 
but  it  was  the  region  watered  by 
the  Fulda,  Werra,  Lahn,  and  Eder, 
while  it  included  the  important 
places,  Fulda,  Hersfeld,  and  Mar- 
burg. It  had  its  own  counts,  but 
from  about  1140  until  1247  was 
under  the  rule  of  the  landgraves  of 
Thuringia.  About  1265,  Henry, 
a  son  of  the  duke  of  Brabant,  be- 
came ruler  of  Hesse,  and  from  that 


HESSE-DARMSTADT 


3976 


HESSIAN      BOOT 


time  it  has  a  history  of  its  own. 
He  called  himself  landgrave,  and 
was  made  a  prince  of  the  empire. 

The  rulers  of  Hesse  lived  and 
fought  very  much  as  did  the  other 
German  princelings  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  They  divided  their  lands  to 
form  principalities  for  their  sons, 
but  such  divisions  were  not  always 
permanent.  The  first  Landtag  ap- 
peared about  1387,  and  gradually 
the  landgraves  won  their  way  to 
the  front  rank  of  German  princes. 
The  most  notable  of  them  was 
Philip,  who  figured  largely  in  the 
events  of  the  Reformation  ;  one  of 
his  predecessors  had  been  a  candi- 
date for  the  office  of  king. 

When  Philip  died  in  1567,  an 
important  division  of  Hesse  took 
place.  To  provide  for  his  four  sons 
it  was  divided  into  Hesse-Kassel, 
Hesse-Darmstadt,  Hesse-Marburg, 
and  Hesse-Rheinfets.  Hesse-Hom- 
burg  was  founded  in  1622,  Hesse - 
Philippsthal  in  1685,  and  Hesse- 
Barchfeld  in  1721.  Hesse-Marburg, 
Hesse-Rheinfels,  and  Hesse-Hom- 
burg,  their  ruling  families  having 
died  out,  were  soon  united  with 
Hesse-Darmstadt  or  Hesse-Kassel. 
Hesse-Kassel  was  seized  by  Prussia 
after  the  war  of  1866  ;  the  two  other 
principalities  had  lost  their  status 
in  the  Napoleonic  upheaval. 

Hesse-Darmstadt  thus  became 
the  only  Hesse.  Its  connexion 
with  Prussia  became  closer,  and  in 
the  war  of  1870-71  its  troops  fought 
under  Prussian  generals.  The 
grand-duchy  joined  the  new  German 
Empire  in  1871,  and  as  such  took 
part  in  the  war  of  1914-18.  In 
1918  the  grand  duke,  Ernest  Louis, 
abdicated,  and  a  republic  was  pro- 
claimed. The  old  constitution  of 
two  houses,  one  consisting  of  here- 
ditary, ecclesiastical  and  nominated 
members,  and  the  other  of  50  mem- 
bers chosen  by  indirect  election, 
was  abolished  in  1919.  See  Germany. 

Hesse  -  Darmstadt.  Name 
borne  until  1866  by  the  German 
state  which  is  now  Hesse.  It  dated 
from  1567,  when  on  the  death  of 
the  landgrave,  Philip  of  Hesse,  his 
lands  were  divided  ;  his  son,  George, 
made  Darmstadt  the  capital  of  the 
share  he  received,  his  little  state 
being  therefore  known  as  Hesse- 
Darmstadt.  He  and  his  successors 
added  to  its  area,  especially  when 
other  branches  of  the  family  died 
out.  In  the  17th  and  18th  centuries 
the  landgraviate  shared  in  the 
general  history  of  Germany,  largely 
a  record  of  civil  strife  or  of  wars 
against  France. 

Louis,  who  became  landgrave 
in  1790,  fought  against  France 
until  1799,  but  was  afterwards  on 
the  side  of  Napoleon^  For  this 
Mainz,  Worms,  and  other  districts 
were  given  to  him  in  1803,  and  the 


title  of  grand -duke  in  1806.  He  de- 
serted Napoleon  in  1813,  and  at  the 
congress  of  Vienna  Hesse  became 
the  size  it  retained  until  1866.  This 
state  joined  the  Germanic  Confed- 
eration (1815-66),  the  Prussian 
Zollverein,  and  received  a  consti- 
tution in  1820.  There  were  troubles 
between  ruler  and  ruled,  especially 
in  1848.  In  1866  the  grand-duke 
took  the  side  of  Austria.  Conse- 
quently, after  Prussia's  victory,  a 
large  indemnity  was  demanded 
and  paid,  while  Hesse-Homburg, 
just  added  to  the  grand  duchy, 
was  taken  away. 

Hesse-Homburg.  Formerly  a 
state  of  Germany,  now  part  of 
Prussia.  It  consisted  of  a  district 
round  Homburg  that  was  separated 
from  the  present  state  of  Hesse- 
Darmstadt  in  1622.  It  had  its  own 
rulers  or  landgraves,  but  these  did 
not  become  independent  of  the 
landgrave  of  Hesse -Darmstadt 
until  1768.  Hesse-Homburg  was 
included  in  Hesse-Darmstadt, 
1806-15,  when  its  independence 
was  restored,  and  Meisenheim,  a 
small  district  on  the  other  side  of 
the  Rhine,  was  added  to  it.  In 
March,  1866,  the"  landgrave  Fer- 
dinand died  without  sons  and  his 
territory  was  divided.  The  ruler  of 
Hesse -Darmstadt  secured  Hesse- 
Homburg  proper,  while  Meisen- 
heim became  Prussian.  A  few 
months  later  Prussia  took  Hesse- 
Homburg  also,  this  being  part  of 
her  acquisitions  after  the  war  of 
1866.  The  landgraviate  had  an 
area  of  about  100  sq.  m.  . 

Hesse-Kassel.  State  of  Ger- 
many that  existed  from  1567  to 
1866.  In  1567  the  landgrave  of 
Hesse,  Philip,  died,  and  his  land 
was  divided  between  his  four  sons. 
The  largest  share,  which  was  taken 
by  the  eldest  William,  had  Kassel 
.  for  its  capital,  and  was,  therefore, 
known  as  Hesse-Kassel.  In  1848, 
at  the  end  of  the  Thirty  Years' 
War,  the  territory  was  enlarged, 
and  there  were  various  later 
alterations  of  its  boundary. 

In  the  18th  century  the  rulers 
obtained  money  by  hiring  their 
soldiers  to  fight  the  battles  of 
others,  and  Hessians  fought  for 
Britain  in  the  war  of  American 
Independence  and  elsewhere.  In 
1785  William  became  landgrave, 
and  in  1803  he  was  made  an  elector 
by  Napoleon.  In  1807  Hesse- 
Kassel  was  included  in  the  king- 
dom of  Westphalia,  but  it  was 
restored  to  William  in  1814 ;  the 
title  of  king  was,  however,  refused 
to  him.  Then,  as  elsewhere,  fol- 
lowed grave  internal  troubles  due 
to  the  desire  of  the  people  for  a 
share  in  the  government  and  to  the 
refusal  of  the  ruler  to  grant  it.  A 
constitution  was  given  in  1831, 


but  everything  possible  was  done 
to  nullify  it,  and  there  was  again 
serious  trouble  in  1848.  After  try- 
ing to  rule  by  force,  the  elector 
Frederick  William  fled  from  the 
country  which  was  entered  by 
Austrian  and  Bavarian  troops. 
Prussian  troops  also  invaded 
Hesse,  but  the  upshot  was  not  war 
between  the  two  parties,  but  the 
convention  of  Olmutz  ;  Hesse  was 
entrusted  to  the  diet  of  the  German 
Confederation  which  gave  to  it  a 
new  constitution.  The  elector,  who 
had  returned,  refused  to  adapt 
his  policy  to  the  new  conditions, 
and  there  was  friction  for  a  further 
decade.  In  1 866  he  took  sides  with 
Austria  against  Prussia,  and  as  a 
result  Hesse-Kassel  was  occupied 
by  troops  of  the  latter  power.  By 
the  treaty  of  peace  it  was  annexed 
to  Prussia. 

The  electorate  was  not  a  single 
district,  but  several  detached 
areas,  this  being  due  to  the  way 
they  were  acquired.  It  had  in  1866 
an  area  of  3,700  sq.  m.  and  a  pop. 
of  about  750,000. 

Hesse-Nassau.  Province  of. 
Prussia.  It  lies  between  the  Rhine 
and  Thuringia,  its  other  boun- 
daries including  Bavaria  and  West- 
phalia, and  is  of  very  irregular 
shape,  while  detached  portions  of 
territory  belong  to  it.  Its  area 
is  6,060  sq.  m.,  and  its  pop. 
2,220,000.  It  is  divided  into  the 
governments  of  Kassel  and  Wies- 
baden. In  addition  to  these  towns 
it  includes  Frankfort,  Fulda,  Hom- 
burg, and  Marburg.  The  Lahn  and 
the  Fulda  flow  through  it,  while 
the  Rhine  and  the  Main  are  on  its 
borders.  It  is  a  hilly  district,  with 
many  forests  and  some  mining,  in 
addition  to  agriculture.  The  pro- 
vince consists  of  territories  gained 
by  Prussia  after  the  war  of  1866. 
These  were  Hesse-Kassel,  much  of 
Frankfort,  Hesse-Homburg,  the 
duchy  of  Nassau,  and  other  spoils. 

Hesse-Rotenburg.  German 
state  that  existed  from  about  1700 
to  1834.  Ernest,  a  younger  son  of 
the  landgrave  of  Hesse-Kassel,  re- 
ceived a  younger  son's  portion. 
This  he  increased,  and  on  his  death 
it  was  divided  into  two,  one  being 
Hesse-Rotenburg,  a  small  district 
around  Rotenburg,  his  capital.  In 
1801  part  of  the  state  was  taken  by 
France,  the  landgrave  being  com- 
pensated by  other  territory.  In 
1834  the  ruling  family  became  ex- 
tinct, and  Hesse-Rotenburg  was 
united  with  Hesse-Kassel. 

Hessian  Boot.  High  boot  worn 
over  tight  pantaloons  and  bearing 
a  tassel  in  front.  Named  probably 
from  Hesse,  in  Germany,  it  was  in- 
troduced early  in  the  19th  cen- 
tury as  a  modification  of  the  18th 
century  top-boot,  and  worn  with 


HESSIAN     FLY 


3977 


HEULANDITE 


outdoor  dress  it  formed  for  a 
time  part  of  the  dress  of  English 
general  officers  until  superseded 
by  the  Wellington  boot.  See  Boots 
and  Shoes,  colour  plate. 

Hessian  Fly  (Cecidomyia  de- 
structor). Dipterous  insect  of  the 
gall  midge  group.  One  of  the  most 


Hessian  Fly.      A  destructive  midge, 
greatly  enlarged 

destructive  farm  pests  in  the  world, 
it  resembles  a  minute  gnat,  not 
quite  vV  in.  in  length,  and  deposits 
its  eggs  on  the  leaves  of  wheat  and 
other  cereals.  These  hatch  in  a  few 
days,  and  the  larvae  travel  down 
inside  the  leaf  sheath  and  make 
their  abode  just  above  one  of  the 
nodes  of  the  stem.  They  feed  on  the 
plant  for  about  three  weeks,  and 
then  pupate  and  turn  into  the 
imago. 

The  adult  stage  lasts  only  a  few 
hours,  during  which  time  mating 
takes  place  and  the  eggs  are  de- 

nited.  There  are  from  one  to  six 
ods  in  the  year,  and  the  mis- 
chief done  to  the  crops  is  some- 
times enormous.  In  1900  the  total 
damage  done  in  America  by  this  in- 
sect was  estimated  at  £20,000,000. 
It  first  appeared  in  Great  Britain  in 
1886,  but  has  not  become  common. 

Hessle.  Town  and  urban  dis- 
trict of  Yorkshire  (E.R. ).  It  stands 
on  the  Humber,  4£  m.  S.W.  of 
Hull,  of  which  it  is  practically  a 
suburb,  and  is  a  station  on  the 
N.E.  Ely.  The  council  owns  a 
public  hall,  and  has  laid  out 
lOij  acres  as  a  recreation  ground. 
Market  day,  Tuesday.  Pop.  5,300. 

Hest  Bank.  Watering-place  of 
Lancashire.  It  stands  on  More- 
cambe  Bay,  3^  m.  from  Lancaster, 
and  has  a  station  on  the  L.  &  N.W. 
Rly.  The  name  of  the  parish  in 
which  it  stands  is  Slyne  with  Hest. 
From  here  coaches  formerly  crossed 
the  sands  of  Morecambe  Bay  to 
Kent's  Bank,  9  m.  away.  Pop.  540. 

Hestia  (Gr.,  hearth).  In  Greek 
mythology,  the  goddess  of  the 
hearth.  She  was  not  only  a  do- 
mestic goddess,  but  in  every  town 
and  state  there  was  a  hearth  sacred 
to  Hestia,  the  fire  of  which  was 
never  allowed  to  go  out.  Her 
Roman  counterpart  was  Vesta. 

Heston.  Parish  and  village  of 
Middlesex,  England.  It  is  12  m. 
W.S.W.  of  London  on  the  Metro- 
politan Dist.  Rly.  Osterley  Park, 


in  the  vicinity,  is  the  seat  of  the 
earl  of  Jersey.  With  Isleworth  it 
forms  the  urban  dist.  of  Heston  and 
Isleworth,  the  council  of  which 
has  established  an  electricity 
undertaking,  public  baths,  and 
libraries.  Pop.  parish,  3,800 ; 
urban  dist.,  43,300.  See  Isleworth. 

Heswall.  Village  of  Cheshire, 
England.  It  is  within  the  parish  of 
Heswall-cum-Oldfield,  and  stands 
on  the  Dee  estuary,  with  a  station 
on  the  Birkenhead  Rly.  (L.  &  N.  W. ) 
and  G.W.  Rly.  Pop.  3,600. 

Hesychasts  (Gr.  hesychos,  quiet). 
Term  applied  to  a  school  of  Quiet- 
ists  among  the  Greek  monks  of  Mt. 
Athos  in  the  14th  century.  They 
practised  a  kind  of  self -hypnotism 
by  gazing  fixedly  at  their  own 
navels,  searching  the  seat  of  the 
soul,  and  in  this  condition  were 
supposed  to  receive  spiritual  illu- 
mination. They  held  that  God 
dwells  in  eternal  light ;  that  this 
light  is  the  vehicle  of  His  activity  ; 
and  that  the  light  illuminates  the 
souls  of  those  who  practise  in- 
tense abstraction  and  self-denial. 
Their  teaching  gave  rise  to  con- 
troversy in  the  Eastern  Church. 

Hesychius  (5th  century  A.D.). 
Alexandrian  grammarian.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  Greek  lexicon, 
which  is  of  great  value  for  its  col- 
lection of  unusual  words,  and  quo- 
tations from  authors  whose  works 
have  been  lost.  Hesychius  was  a 
heathen,  and  the  work  in  its  present 
form  contains  obvious  traces  of 
revision  by  a  Christian  scribe  or 
grammarian.  The  source  of  the 
work  is  the  lexicon  of  Diogenianus 
(2nd  century),  itself  based  upon  an 
earlier  one  by  Pamphilus  (1st 
century).  He  is  not  to  be  con- 
founded with  Hesychius  of  Miletus, 
probably  of  the  6th  century,  author 
of  a  universal  history  from  the 
earliest  times  down  to  the  death  of 
Anastasius,  518,  part  of  which, 
dealing  with  the  history  of  Con- 
stantinople, is  still  extant ;  and  of 
an  Onomatologos  (list),  or  bio- 
graphical dictionary  of  literary 
persons  and  others,  much  used  by 
Sui'das  in  his  lexicon. 

Hetairai  OR  HETAERAE.  Superior 
class  of  courtesans  in  ancient 
Greece  who  flourished  especially  at 
Athens  and  Corinth.  Accomplished 
dancers  and  musicians,  many  of 
them  were  also  highly  educated. 
The  most  famous  of  them  were 
Aspasia,  mistress  of  Pericles,  a 
woman  of  high  intellectual  gifts 
and  great  powers  of  fascination, 
and  Phryne,  who  sat  as  a  model  to 
Apelles  for  his  great  picture  of 
Aphrodite  Anadyomene  (q.v.). 

Heteropoda  (Gr.  heteros,  other ; 
pous,  foot).  Section  of  the  Gas- 
tropoda in  which  the  molluscs  are 
adapted  for  free  swimming  at  sea. 


The  foot  is  modified  and  flattened 
laterally  to  serve  the  purpose  of  a 
fin,  and  the  animal  swims  with  its 
lower  side  uppermost.  They  are 
met  with  at  the  surface  of  the 
warmer  seas,  usually  in  dense  com- 
panies. The  shell  and  tissues  are 
transparent,  so  that  the  internal  or- 
gans can  be  seen;  and  all  the  species 
are  carnivorous.  They  are  divided 
into  three  families,  having  respec- 
tively a  coiled  shell,  a  rudimentary 
one,  and  no  shell.  See  Gastropoda. 

Heteroptera  (Gr.  heteros,  other ; 
pteron,  wing).  Division  of  the 
Hemiptera,  an  order  of  insects,  in 
which  the  wings  are  unlike.  The 
fore-wings  are  chitinous  at  the  base 
and  membranous  at  the  apex,  being 
thus  partly  elytra,  while  the  hind- 
wings  are  wholly  membranous. 
They  lie  flat  on  the  back,  not  slop- 
ing at  an  angle  to  form  a  kind  of 
roof.  Like  all  the  hemiptera,  they 
are  provided  with  a  rostrum  or 
beak,  and  obtain  their  food  by 
suction.  Known  as  land  bugs  and 
water  bugs,  they  include  many 
families.  The  common  bed  bug  be- 
longs, to  this  sub-order.  See  Insect. 

Hetman  (Ger.  Hauptmann,  head 
man  or  captain).  Polish  military 
title.  In  the  old  kingdom  of  Po- 
land the  head  of  the  army  bore 
the  title  of  great  hetman,  but  after 
the  defeat  and  disbanding  of  the 
army  in  1792  the  rank  ceased  to 
exist.  In  its  Russian  form  of 
ataman  it  has  been  employed  from 
early  times  to  designate  the  chief 
of  the  Cossacks.  See  Cossack. 

Hetton.  Urban  dist.  and  parish 
(Hetton-le-Hole)  of  Durham,  Eng- 
land. It  is  7  m.  S.S.W.  of  Sunder- 
land,  on  the  N.E.R.  The  neigh- 
bouring coal  mines  employ  most 
of  the  inhabitants.  Market  day, 
Friday.  Pop.  15,700. 

Heudicourt.  Village  of  France,, 
in  the  dept.  of  Somme.  It  is  10  m. 
N.E.  of  Peronne  and  1  m.  W.  of 
Epehy.  Captured  by  the  British 
April  1,  1917,  with  Epehy,  it  was 
a  stage  in  the  great  March  retreat, 
1918,  traversed  by  the  British  9th 
and  21st  divisions.  It  was  taken 
by  the  British  Aug.  30,  1918,  lost 
again  the  same  day,  and  finally 
recovered  Sept.  1.  See  Arras, 
Battles  of;  Bapaume,  Battle  of; 
Somme,  Battles  of  the. 

Heulandite.  Name  of  a  hy- 
drous calcium  and  aluminium 
silicate.  It  is  a  white,  pearly  white, 
and  occasionally  red  mineral  of 
the  zeolite  group,  first  separated 
from  stilbite  by  A.  Breithaupt  in 
1818.  Heulandite  is  found  in  cavi- 
ties of  igneous  rocks,  in  particular 
in  Iceland,  Faroe  Islands,  Kil- 
patrick  and  Campsie  Hills,  and 
Skye  in  Scotland.  It  occasionally 
occurs  in  granite  and  gneiss.  See 
Stilbite;  Zeolite. 


HEVER  CASTLE 


3978 


HEXATEUCH 


Baron  Hewart, 
British  lawyer 


Hever  Castle.  Residence  of 
Viscount  Astor  (q.v,  ),  near  Eden- 
bridge,  Kent.  '  In  Edward  Ill's 
time  a  castle  was  built  here  by  Sir 
William  de  Hevre,  and  in  the  15th 
century  a  new  one  was  erected  by 
Sir  Geoffrey  Boleyn,  a  former  lord 
mayor  of  London,  who  had  bought 
the  estate.  Here  his  descendant 
Anne  Boleyn  lived,  and  her  ghost 
is  said  still  to  haunt  the  place.  I1  he 
castle  fell  into  decay  and  was  later 
restored.  It  was  purchased  about 
1890  by  W.  W.  Astor,  afterwards 
1st  Viscount  Astor.  He  modelled 
it  in  accord  with  its  original 
design,  and  it  is  now  a  perfect 
model  of  the  late  medieval  castle. 
See  Anne  Boleyn. 

Hewart,  GORDON  HEWART,  BARON 
(b.  1870).  British  lawyer.  Bom 
at  Bury,  Jan.  7,  1870,  he  was  edu- 
cated ~at  Manchester  Grammar 
School  and  University  College, 
Oxford.  After 
a  journalistic 
career  he  turn- 

9  —  x  m  et^  ^°   ^e  ^w 

H  and  was  called 
m  to  the  bar  in 
I  1902.  He  be- 

t^\V  3  came     a     K.C. 

m^  in    1912'    m 

•KV  '"iSBBJ  which   year   he 

first  appeared 
as  a  parlia- 
mentary candidate  for  a  Man- 
chester division.  In  1913  he  was 
returned  as  Liberal  M.P.  for 
Leicester  at  a  by-election.  In  1916 
he  joined  the  Coalition  government 
as  solicitor-general,  and  in  Jan., 
1919,  was  promoted  attorney-gen- 
eral. In  1922  he  became  lord  chief 
justice  and  Baron  Hewart  of  Bury. 
Hewlett  ,  MAURICE  HENRY  (  1  86  1- 
1923)  British  novelist  and  poet. 
Born  in  London,  Jan.  22,  1861,  he 
was  called  to 
•the  bar  in  1  891, 
and  held  a  post 
in  the  Civil  Ser- 
vice, 1896- 
1900.  He  es- 
tablished his 
reputation  i  n 
1898  with  The 
Forest  Lovers, 
a  romance  ot 
the  kind  of 
vague  medie- 

Valism       Which 

William  Morris  had  already  initi- 
ated. His  other  stories  include  the 
beautif  ulLittle  Novels  of  Italy  (  wit  h 
the  dainty  Madonna  of  the"  Peach 
Trees),  1899  ;  Richard  Yea  and  Nay 
(Cceur  de  Lion),  1900  ;  New  Can- 
terbury Tales,  1901  :  The  Queen's 
Quair,  1904;  The  Fool  Errant,  1905  ; 
The  Stooping  Lady,  1907;  Brazen- 
head  the  Great,  1911;  A  Lover's 
Tale,  1915;  and  MaiAwaring,  1921. 
He  has  also  written  some  beautiful 


eresjord 


Hever  Castle,  Kent,  once  the  residence  of  Anne  Boleyn. 
It  was  restored  by  Viscount  Astor 

verse,  including  Pan  and  the  Young 
Shepherd,  1898  ;  The  Song  of  the 
Plow,  1916  ;  and  essays,  In  a  Green 
Shade,  1920.  He  died  June  16,1923. 

Hexachord  (Gr.  hex,  six ;  chord?, 
chord).  Scale  of  six  notes.  It  was 
established  by  Guido  d'Arezzo  for 
the  purposes  of  his  teaching  of 
solmisation,  thus  superseding  the 
Greek  system  of  tetrachords.  The 
term  is  sometimes  used  to  denote 
a  six-stringed  lyre  ;  occasion  a  11 3% 
to  express  the  interval  of  a  sixth. 

Hexagon.  Plane  figure  having 
six  sides  and  six  angles.  A  regular 
hexagon  has  six  angles,  each  120°, 
and  six  sides  each  equal  to  the  radius 
of  the  circumscribing  circle. 

Hexahedron.  Solid,  having  six 
plane  faces  or  surfaces.  The  regu- 
lar hexahedron  is  the  cube,  all  six 
faces  being  squares  of  equal  size. 

Hexameter  (Gr.  hex,  six; 
metron,  measure).  Metrical  line  or 
verse  containing  six  feet,  of  which 
the  penultimate  one  must  be  a  dac- 
tyl and  the  final  one  either  a  spondee 
or  a  trochee.  It  is  the  metre  of  the 
classical  epics,  but  is  not  well 
adapted  to  the  genius  of  the  Eng- 
lish language.  Longfellow's  Evan- 
geline  is  the  best  known  and  most 
successful  hexameter  poem  in  Eng- 
lish. Instances  of  accented  hexa- 
meters occurring  in  English  prose 
without  intention  are  not  uncom- 
mon, e.g.  How  art  thou  fallen  from 
heaven,  0  Lucifer,  son  of  the  Morn- 
ing (Isaiah  xiv,  12).  See  Poetry. 

Hexamine  OR  UROTROPINE. 
Compound  formed  by  ammonia 
and  formaldehyde.  Chemically  it 
is  hexamethylenetetramine.  Hexa- 
mine is  employed  as  an  internal 
disinfectant,  its  properties  depend- 
ing upon  the  slow  liberation,  in  the 
urinary  tract,  of  formaldehyde. 

HexapJa,  THE.  Work  compiled 
by  Origen  (q.v.).  The  term  means 
"  sixfold  "  (neut.  pi.  of  Gr.  hexa- 
plous),  and  was  suggested  by  the 
plan  adopted  by  Origen  to  show  the 
divergencies  between  the  Septua- 
gint,  the  later  Greek  versions,  and 
the  current  Hebrew  text  of  the  O.T. 
The  compilation  is  arranged  in  six 


parallel     columns. 
The    first    contains 
the  Hebrew  words : 
the  second  a  trans- 
literation     of     the 
Hebrew    words     in 
Greek     characters ; 
the  third  the  Greek 
equivalents    in   the 
version     of    Aquila 
(fl.     128-129),    a 
version  intended  to 
be    much    more 
literal  than  that  of 
the  Septuasint ;  the 
fourth     the    Greek 
equivalents    in  the 
version  of  Symma- 
chus  (fl.  c.  A.D.  1SO-192),  a  much 
freer  version  than  that  of  Aquila ; 
the  fifth  the  Greek  equivalents  in 
the  Septuagint  (q.v. )  ;  the  sixth  the 
Greek  equivalents    in   the  version 
of  Theodotion  ( fl.   perhaps  under 
Marcus  Aurelius),  a  free  revision  of 
the  Septuagint. 

Hexateuch,  THE  (Gr.  hex,  six; 
teuchos,  volume).  The  term  Penta- 
teuch is  an  old  designation  of  the 
first  five  books  of  the  Bible  (Gr. 
pente,  five),  which  were  ascribed  to 
Moses  by  Jewish,  Mahomedan, 
and  Christian  tradition.  These 
books  are  known  collectively  to  the 
Jews  as  the  Torah  or  the  Law  and 
are  described  by  them  sectional ly 
as  "  the  five-fifths  of  the  law." 
The  term  Hexateuch  has  been  in- 
vented by  modern  scholars  in  order 
to  include  in  the  same  group  a 
sixth  book,  the  Book  of  Joshua, 
which  is  linked  closely  by  its  con- 
tents and  style  to  the  preceding 
five  books  and  is  based  upon  the 
same  documentary  sources. 

It  is  contended  that  the  Penta- 
teuch, except  in  certain  sections, 
does  not  claim  to  be  the  work  of 
Moses.  It  is  a  book  about  Moses, 
just  as  the  Book  of  Joshua  is  a 
book  about  Joshua.  It  is,  in  factj 
together  with  the  Book  of  Joshua, 
according  to  many  modern  scholars, 
a  composite  work  framed  and 
edited  out  of  materials  of  varying 
date  (c.  850-400  B.C.). 

Doubts  as  to  the  Mosaic  author- 
ship of  the  Pentateuch  had  been 
expressed  already  by  such  writers 
as  Hobbes  (1651),  Peyrerius  (1654), 
Spinoza  (1671),  Le  Clerc  (1685), 
and  by  the  French  Oratorian,  R. 
Simon  (1678),  who  has  been 
called  "  the  father  of  Old  Testa- 
ment criticism."  But  criticism 
proper  began  with  Jean  Astruc,  a 
French  physician  (d.  1766).  Astruc 
held  that  there  are  two  distinct 
accounts  of  creation  in  Genesis, 
(a)  Gen.  1,  1-2,  4a,  (b)  Gen.  2,  46 
to  the  end  of  chapter  3,  and  that  in 
(a)  the  author  ppeaks  of  God  as 
Elohim,  while  in  (b)  he  speaks  of 
him  as  Jehovah. 


HEXHAM 


HEYDEN 


This  suggested  the  use  in  the 
composition  of  Genesis  of  at  least 
two  independent  documents,  the 
Elohistic  (E)  and  the  Jehovistic 
(j).  But  Astruc  had  to  assume  the 
further  use  of  ten  other  documents. 
His  theory  of  composition,  which 
was  developed  by  Eichhorn  (1779) 
and  by  Ilgen  (1798),  who  thought 
he  could  discover  two  Elohists,  has 
been  called  the  Earlier  Documen- 
tary Hypothesis. 

Another  stage  was  marked  by 
the  work  of  A.  Geddes,  who  in  1800 
suggested  that  the  Pentateuch  was 
composed  of  a  number  of  smaller 
and  larger  fragments  derived  from 
an  Elohistic  and  a  Jehovistic 
school.  This  theory,  which  was  de- 
veloped by  Vater  (1805),  has  been 
called  the  Fragmentary  Hy- 
pothesis. Its  defects,  the  Penta- 
teuch in  its  present  form  being  a 
unit,  were  pointed  out  by  De 
Wette,  and  a  new  theory  arose 
which  is  closely  associated  with  the 
name  of  F.  Bleek  (1822).  Accord- 
ing to  this,  an  historical  work  con- 
taining the  main  part  of  Genesis- 
Numbers  and  the  Book  of  Joshua, 
and  including  Deut.  xxxiv,  1-8, 
all  being  the  work  of  the  Elohist, 
was  edited  and  supplemented  by  a 
Jehovist  writer.  The  whole  work 
was  then  revised  again  in  a 
Deuteronomic  spirit  by  the  author 
of  Deuteronomy.  This  theory  has 
been  called  the  Supplementary 
Hypothesis. 

The  next  stage  of  development  is 
marked  by  a  return  to  the  docu- 
mentary theory  It  was  the  merit 
of  Hupfeld  (1853)  to  succeed  in  de- 
monstrating that  in  Genesis  there 
are  three  independent  documents 
which  were  combined  by  a  re- 
dactor. Following  the  hint  of 
Ilgen,  he  distinguished  two  writers 
who  employ  the  word  Elohim  in- 
stead of  Jehovah,  one  of  them  a 
priestly  writer.  This  theory,  which 
was  developed  by  Graf  (1866), 
Kuenen  (1861  ;  influenced  by 
Bishop  Colenso),  and  Wellhausen 
(1878),  has  been  called  the  Later 
Documentary  Hypothesis. 

In  its  latest  form,  the  docu- 
mentary hypothesis  assumes  the 
use  of  four  independent  documents. 
A  Jehovist  work  (c.  800  B.C.),  de- 
rived from  Judah  and  designated 
J  by  scholars,  and  an  Elohist  work 
(c.  750  B.C.),  derived  from  Ephraim 
and  designated  E  by  scholars,  circu- 
lated independently  for  a  time. 
Later  (some  time  before  650  B.C.) 
these  two  works  were  combined. 
The  united  work,  which  has  been 
described  as  the  "  Oldest  Book  of 
Hebrew  History,"  incorporated 
(from  E)  the  earliest  of  the  three 
chief  codes  of  Hebrew  law,  now 
known  as  the  Book  of  the  Covenant. 
It  knows  nothing  of  the  reform  as 


to  "  high-places,"  or  as  to  the 
limitation  of  sacrifice  to  the  temple 
at  Jerusalem.  In  620  B.C.  a  work 
largely,  but  not  entirely,  identical 
with  our  book  of  Deuteronomy, 
the  Deuteronomic  code,  was  dis- 
covered. Soon  afterwards  this 
work,  with  additions  at  the  be- 
ginning and  the  end,  was  combined 
with  the  other  two  works.  This  third 
document,  which  seems  to  know 
nothing  of  the  "  priestly "  law, 
is  designated  D  by  scholars.  In 
each  case,  of  course,  the  com- 
bination was  the  work  of  a 
redactor.  Thus  we  get  the 
formula  :  (J  -f-  E)  -f-  D 

"Rje         Rd~=  JE 

There  next  arose  a  document 
containing  an  ancient  body  of  laws 
(Lev  17-26),  which  stands  mid 
way  between  Deuteronomy  and 
the  priestly  legislation.  This  has 
been  called  the  Law  of  Holiness. 
It  was  incorporated  in  a  later 
priestly  work  which  has  been  de- 
signated by  scholars  the  Priestly 
code  or  P.  This  was  promulgated 
by  Ezra  in  444  B.C.,  and  some 
time  afterwards  was  combined  by 
a  redactor  with  JED.  Thus  we 
get  the  formula .  Hexateuch  = 
(J  +  E)  +  D  +  P 

Rje    Rd    Rp 

The  various  documents  are  distin- 
guished, according  to  the  critics,  by 
differences  in  style  and  tone. 

It  is  a  mistake,  however,  to  sup- 
pose that  the  considerations  are 
simply  linguistic  and  stylistic.  It  is 
held  that  the  separation  of  the 
sources  is  dictated  as  much,  if  not 
more,  by  historical  considerations. 
Apart  from  the  fact  that  there  are 
many  duplicate  narratives,  the  his- 
torical course  of  events  as  a  whole 
postulates  a  gradual  but  inevitable 
development  and  evolution,  first 
the  prophet,  then  the  priest,  next 
the  ritual.  See  Bible ;  Pentateuch. 

Bibliography.  Documents  of  the 
Hexateuch,  W.  E.  Addis,  1892-98  ; 
Genesis  of  Genesis,  B.  W.  Bacon, 
1893  ;  The  Higher  Criticism  of  the 
Hexateuch,  C.  A.  Briggs,  1897  ; 
The  Hexateuch,  J.  E.  Carpenter  and 
G.  Harford-Battersby,  1900  ;  In- 
trod.  to  Old  Testament,  C.  H.  Cor- 
nill,  1907  ;  History  of  Old  Testa- 
ment Criticism,  A.  Duff,  1910  ;  Diet, 
of  the  Bible,  J.  Hastings,  1909. 

Hexham.  Market  town  and 
urban  district  of  Northumberland. 
It  stands  on  the  S.  bank  of  the 
Tyne,  20  m.  from  Newcastle,  and 
has  a  station  on  the  N.E.  Rly.  The 
town  has  tanning  and  other  indus- 
tries and  a  trade  in  agricultural 
produce,  while  in  the  neighbour- 
hood are  coal  mines.  The  chief 
building  is  the  priory  church,  a 
magnificent  Early  English  build- 
ing, restored  in  the  19th  century. 
It  was  not  entirely  completed  by 
its  builders,  the  Augustinian 


canons,  the  nave  being  only  finished 
in  the  20th  century. 

There  are  some  remains  of  the 
priory  of  the  Augustinian  canons: 
which  was  dissolved  at  the  Re- 
formation. Other  buildings  are  the 
grammar  school  and  two  old  build- 
ings, the  Moot  Hall  and  the  Manor 
Office.  The  urban  council  owns 
the  water  supply  and  markets. 
Race  meetings  are  held. 


Hexham.     The  Moot  Hall,  the  15th 

century  tower  of  the  bailiffs  of  the 

archbishops  o!  York 

Hexham  grew  up  around  the 
church  founded  in  the  7th  century, 
and  at  one  time  it  had  its  own 
bishop.  After  the  Norman  Con- 
quest the  town  and  district,  called 
Hexhamshire,  was  a  liberty  ruled 
by  the  bishop  and  later  by  the  arch- 
bishop of  York.  It  was  not  united 
with  the  county  of  Northumber- 
land until  1572.  Market  day,  Tues. 
Pop.  8,400. 

The  battle  of  Hexham  was 
fought  May  15,  1464,  between  the 
Lancastrians  and  the  Yorkists.  It 
took  place  on  the  Linnels,  3  m. 
from  the  town.  Beaten  at  Hedgeley 
Moor  (q.v.),  the  Lancastrians  col- 
lected a  force  and,  led  by  Henry 
Beaufort,  duke  of  Somerset,  came 
up  with  the  Yorkists  under  Lord 
Montagu.  The  latter  were  superior 
in  numbers,  whereupon  the  Lan- 
castrians melted  away,  except 
about  500,  who  were  soon  killed  or 
captured,  Somerset  and  other 
leaders  being  executed. 

Heyden,  JAN  VAN  DER  (1637- 
1712).  Dutch  painter  and  etcher. 
He  was  a  native  of  Gorkum.  Most 
of  his  pictures  are  of  buildings  or 
ruins  in  Dutch  towns,  but  he  tra- 
velled widely  on  the  Continent  and 
in  England,  painting  wherever  he 
went.  Adriaan  van  de  Velde  occa- 
sionally introduced  the  figures  into 
his  works.  Van  der  Heyden  died 
at  Amsterdam,  Sept.  12,  1712. 


Heyse,  PAUL  JOHANN  LUDWIQ 
(1830-1914).  Germannovelist,poet, 
and  dramatist.  He  was  born  at 
Berlin,  March 
15,  1830,  and 
educated  at 
Bonn  Univer- 
sity. After 
travelling  in 
Italy,  which 
lie  frequently 
re-visited,  he 
was  summon- 

German  writer  milia?  o^V*- 
varia,  whose 

attention  he  had  attracted  by  his 
epic  poems,  to  Munich,  where  he 
spent  the  rest  of  his  life.  His  best 
work  is  seen  in  his  short  stories  and 
longer  novels  on  social  and  religious 
questions,  the  best  of  these  being 
L'Arrabbiata  (Eng.  trans.  1867), 
Children  of  the  World  (Eng.  trans. 
1882),  In  Paradise,  and  Merlin. 

His  dramas,  though  they  reach 
a  high  standard  of  literary  excel- 
lence, were  unsuited  for  the  stage ; 
Hans  Lange,  Kolberg,  and  Mary  of 
Magdala,  however,  enj  oy ed  a  certain 
amount  of  success.  His  work 
shows  the  influence  of  his  intimate 
acquaintance  with  Italy  and  its 
people.  Heyse  obtained  the  Nobel 
prize  for  Literature.  See  his  auto- 
biography, Youthful  Reminiscences 
and  Confessions,  1901-12. 

Heysham.  Seaport,  watering- 
place,  and  urban  district  of  Lanca- 
shire. It  stands  on  the  S.  side  of 


Heysham,  Lancashire.  The  principal  dock  from  the  west 

Pholochrom 

Morecambe  Bay.  5  m.  from  Lan- 
caster, and  has  a  station  on  the 
Mid.  Rly.  The  company  built  here 
a  harbour,  finished  in  1904  and 
covering  300  acres,  and  has  made 
Heysham  a  terminus  for  a  regular 
passenger  and  goods  service  with 
Belfast  and  other  Irish  ports,  also 
to  Douglas,  Isle  of  Man.  The  small 
church,  dedicated  to  S.  Peter,  is 
mainly  Norman.  Pop.  3,300. 

Heythrop.  Village  of  Oxford- 
shire, England.  It  is  3  m.  N.E.  of 
Chipping  Norton,  and  gives  its 
name  to  a  pack  of  foxhounds  that 
hunt  this  part  of  the  county.  Hey- 


398O 

throp  House  was  long  the  residence 
of  Albert  Brassey  (1844-1918), 
master  of  the  pack  for  over  forty 
years  from  1873.  In  the  vicinity 
are  the  Rollright  Stones,  forming 
an  ancient  stone  circle.  Pop.  247. 
Hey  wood.  Mun.  bor.  and 
parish  of  Lancashire.  It  is  9  m.  N. 
by  E.  of  Manchester  on  the  L.  & 
Y.R.  It  has  extensive  cotton  and 
woollen  factories,  other  industries 
including  the  manufacture  of  ma- 
chinery and  chemicals  ;  there  are 
coal  mines  in  the  neighbourhood. 
The  borough  possesses  electric  light 
and  gas  undertakings,  tramways, 
markets,  and  baths.  There  are 
three  recreation  grounds,  a  free 
library,  art  gallery,  and  museum, 
the  gift  of  Thomas  Kay  of  Stock- 
port.  Queen's  Park  was  presented 
by  Queen  Victoria.  With  Radcliffe 
it  gives  its  name  to  a  division  re- 
turning one  member  to  Parliament. 
Market  day,  Fri.  Pop.  26,700. 

Heywood,  JOHN  (c.  1497-1580). 
English  epigrammatist  and  writer 
of  interludes.  A  Roman  Catholic 
and  friend  of  Sir  T.  More,  he  is  be- 
lieved to  have  been  at  Oxford,  and 
was  a  favourite  of  Henry  VIII  and 
Queen  Mary.  His  Proverbs  on 
Marriage  proved  a  rich  quarry  for 
the  Elizabethan  dramatists.  The 
Four  PP  is  his  best  interlude.  His 
complete  works  were  edited  by 
J.  S.  Farmer,  1905-6. 

Heywood,  THOMAS  (d.  c.  1650). 
English  actor  and  dramatist.     He 
is    supposed    to    have    been    born 
,    in  Lincolnshire  and 
.;    educated  at  Peter- 
house,  Cambridge. 
In  1598  he  became 
an  actor  in  Hen- 
slowe's      company 
and,  after  the  ac- 
cession of  James  I, 
a   member   of  the 
queen's     company 
of  players.     About 
1596   he  wrote  his 
first  play,  The  Four 
Prentices   of    Lon- 
don (printed  1615), 
and  in  1633,  in  a 
prefatory    address 
to  The    Traveller, 
he  claimed  to  have  had  "either  an 
entire  hand,  or  at  the  least  a  main 
finger "   in    220   plays.      Of    these 
pieces  only  35  are  known  to  exist. 
He    attempted    every    kind    of 
drama,  and  also  wrote  pageants,  four 
of  which  are  still  extant,  poems, 
translations,     and     various     prose 
works,    including  An   Apology  for 
the  Lord  Mayor,  1631-39;  Several 
Actors,     1612;     Nine     Books     of 
Women,    1624;     and    a    Life    of 
Queen    Elizabeth,    1631.       Of    his 
plays,   Edward  IV,    1600,   and  A 
Woman    Killed    With    Kindness, 
1603,    are    perhaps    the    best    ex- 


HIBBERT      TRUST 

amples  ;  the  first  of  his  work  in 
what  was  known  as  the  "  chronicle 
history,"  and  the  second  of  the 
domestic  drama  of  sentiment.  A 
collection  of  his  extant  plays  was 
published,  6  vols.,  1874,  and  a  se- 
lection from  them,  ed.  J.  A.  Sy- 
monds,  in  the  Mermaid  Series, 
1903.  See  Select  Plays,  ed.  J.  A. 
Symonds  and  A.  W.  Verity,  1888. 

Hezekiah.  King  of  Judah  (2 
Kings  16,  18-20  ;  2  Chron.  29-30). 
He  succeeded  his  father,  Ahaz,  at 
the  age  of  25,  and  was  a  notable  re- 
former, who  abolished  the  centres  of 
idolatrous  worship  and  destroyed 
the  brazen  serpent  of  Moses, 
which  at  this  time  seems  to  have 
been  regarded  as  a  kind  of  idol.  He 
also  cleansed  the  Temple  and  re- 
stored the  worship  of  Jehovah.  For 
a  time  he  continued  the  tributary 
alliance  with  Assyria,  but  later  re- 
pudiated it  and  had  to  face  two  in- 
vasions under  Sennacherib.  The 
first  of  these  was  partly  successful, 
but  in  the  second  Hezekiah  com- 
pletely routed  his  foes.  He  was  a 
man  of  considerable  literary  and 
poetic  gifts,  and  is  regarded  by  the 
Jews  as  one  of  their  most  famous 
monarchs. 

H.H.  Abbrev.  for  His  (or  Her) 
Highness  :  His  Holiness  (the  Pope). 

Hiawatha.  One  of  the  many 
names  of  a  traditional  personage  of 
miraculous  birth.  He  is  believed  by 
various  tribes  of  the  N.  American 
Indians  to  have  been  sent  to  teach 
them  the  arts  of  peace. 

Hiawatha,  THE  SONG  OF.  Epic 
poem  by  H.  W.  Longfellow,  1855, 
embodying  the  legends  and  tradi- 
tions of  the  N.  American  In- 
dians. Taking  as  model  for  his 
verse  form  the  unrhymed  Finnish 
epic  of  The  Kalevala,  the  poet  gave 
the  story  of  Hiawatha  from  his 
wondrous  birth  to  his  final  passing 
"To  the  land  of  the  Hereafter," 
and  embodied  in  it  much  of  Indian 
lore.  Written  in  unrhymed  tro- 
chaic tetrameters,  the  novelty  of 
its  form  provoked  much  criticism 
at  first,  but  it  is  now  not  unjustly 
regarded  as  Longfellow's  greatest 
achievement. 

Hibbert  Trust,  THJS.  Trust 
founded  under  the  will  of  Robert 
Hibbert  (1770-1849).  The  income 
arising  from  the  funds  is  applied  in 
such  manner  as  the  trustees  deem 
conducive  to  the  spread  of  Chris- 
tianity in  its  simplest  form,  and  to 
the  exercise  of  private  judgement  in 
religion.  The  Hibbert  lectures  are 
delivered  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Trust.  The  Hibbert  Journal  was 
founded  in  1902  with  its  support. 
Scholarships  for  post-graduate 
study  are  awarded  to  suitable  stu- 
dents for  the  ministry.  The  office 
is  in  Gordon  Square,  London,  W.C. 
See  Memoir  of  R.  Hibbert,  1874. 


HIBBING 


3981 


HICKS 


Ribbing.  Mining  town  of  Min- 
nesota, U.S.A.,  in  St.  Louis  co.  It 
stands  on  Duluth  river,  82  m. 
N.W.  of  Duluth,  and  is  served  by 
the  Great  Northern  and  other  rlys. 
Lumbering  is  engaged  in,  but  the 
town  is  chiefly  noted  for  the  ex- 
tensive iron  mines,  including  the 
Mesabi  iron  ore  range  in  the 
neighbourhood,  which  yield  an 
enormous  output,  mostly  of  red 
hematite— nearly  60  p.c.  of  the 
country's  production.  Pop.  17,5,50. 
Hibernation  (Lat.  hibernare,  to 
pass  the  winter).  Dormant  or 
torpid  condition  in  which  many 
animals  and  plants  pass  through 
the  winter.  In  the  case  of  animals 
it  may  be  complete  or  intermittent. 
It  is  not  so  much  caused  by  cold  as 
generally  supposed,  but  by  the  lack 
of  food  which  cold  produces.  Thus, 
the  absence  of  foliage  causes  large 
numbers  of  insects  and  molluscs  to 
pass  the  winter  in  a  torpid  state. 
This  causes  the  insectivorous  birds 
to  migrate  in  autumn  to  warmer 
countries  where  food  is  plentiful. 

This  expedient  is  not  available  for 
the  mammals  and  reptiles,  so  after 
laying  up  a  store  of  fat  in  their  tis- 
sues, they  retire  into  winter  quarters 
and  fall  asleep.  The  British  bats, 
which  are  entirely  insectivorous,  re- 
tire to  caves,  hollow  trees,  and  the 
roofs  of  dwellings;  but  some  of  them 
are  very  sensitive  to  a  rising  of  out- 
door temperature,  and  come  out 
for  an  occasional  winter  flight  and 
feast  upon  the  insects  that  have 
also  been  awakened.  Some  species, 
like  the  squirrel  and  dormouse, 
provide  for  such  intervals  by  lay- 
ing up  secret  caches  of  nuts  and 
grain  to  which  they  can  resort, 
afterwards  resuming  their  sleep. 
During  this  period  the  body  tem- 
perature falls,  the  pulse  is  reduced, 
respiration  is  feeble,  and  other 
functions  are  suspended  entirely. 
Frogs  bury  themselves  in  the  mud 
at  the  bottom  of  ponds ;  toads, 
newts,  and  snakes  retire  to  holes 
in  the  ground. 

Among  insects  hibernation  is 
almost  general  where  the  food  is 
vegetation,  and  it  may  be  passed 
in  any  stage  of  the  life  cycle- 
either  as  egg,  larva,  pupa,  or  perfect 
insect.  Familiar  butterflies  like  the 
brimstone  and  the  small  tortoise- 
shell  frequently  occasion  news- 
paper paragraphs  by  appearing  on 
the  wing  during  some  genial  sunny 
interval  in  midwinter,  but  these  are 
only  hibernating  females  awakened 
by  ~a  rise  in  temperature. 
"Although  the  botanical  text- 
books are  silent  upon  the  subject  of 
hibernation,  the  phenomenon  is 
quite  common  among  plants,  many 
of  the  bulbs  and  underground 
rhizomes  representing  the  hiber- 
nating condition,  while  others 


illustrate  the  opposite  condition  — 
aestivation  —  when  the  plant  is 
seeking  to  avoid  the  dangers  of 
drought.  The  behaviour  of  frog  bit 
(q,v.  )  and  other  floating  plants 
which  withdraw  all  their  substance 
into  winter-buds  and  sink  to  the 
bottom  mud  is  distinctly  a  case  of 
hibernation. 

Hibernia  OR  IVERNIA.  Name 
given  to  Ireland  by  Latin  writers. 
Aristotle  spoke  of  it  as  lerne, 
and  Latin  authors  evolved  the 
form  Hibernia.  See  Ireland. 

Hibernians,  ANCIENT  ORDER  OF. 
Society  composed  of  Catholic  Irish- 
men, and  organized  on  nationalist 
and  benefit  lines.  It  is  said  to  have 
been  founded  by  Rory  O'More  in 
the  17th  century  under  the  name 
of  the  Defenders.  After  the  Catho- 
lic Emancipation  Act  became  law 
in  1829,  the  society  was  remodelled 
and  its  operations  were  extended 
to  Great  Britain,  as  well  as  to  N. 
America,  where,  particularly  in  the 
U.S.A.,  the  A.O.H.  became  a  body 
of  political  importance,  Australia 
and  elsewhere.  "  Members  must  be 
of  Irish  birth  and  profess  the 
Roman  Catholic  religion.  The 
Hibernians  have  given  active 
support  to  the  Gaelic  and  other 
nationalist  movements  in  and  on 
behalf  of  Ireland. 

Hiccough.  Convulsive  act  pro- 
duced by  spasmodic  contraction 
and  descent  of  the  diaphragm,  the 
large  horizontal  muscle  which  separ- 
ates the  cavity  of  the  chest  from 
the  abdomen.  It  is  most  frequently 
due  to  over-  distension  of  the 
stomach  with  food  or  wind,  and  is 
sometimes  a  symptom  in  more 
serious  diseases  such  as  peritonitis, 
cancer  of  the  stomach,  and  typhoid 
fever.  Hiccough  may  generally  be 
stopped  by  holding  the  breath  for 
a  minute.  Properly  the  word 
should  be  spelt,  as  it  is  always 
pronounced,  hiccup,  the  form 
hiccough  being  due  to  a  supposed 
connexion  with  cough. 

Hi  chens,  ROBERT  SMYTHE  (b. 
1864).  British  novelist.  Born  at 
Speldhurst,  Kent,  Nov.  14,  1864, 
and  educated 
at  Clifton,  he 
first  studied 
music  but 
abandoned  i  t 
for  literature. 
H  i  s  satirical 
story  T  he 
Green  Carna- 
tion, 1894, 
publi  shed 
an  o  n  y  - 
mously, 
piqued 

public 

curiosity.  He  developed  this  vein 
of  social  satire  with  great  success 
in  The  Londoners,  1898,  and  The 


Prophet  of  Berkeley  Square,  1901, 
but  the  finest  and  most  popular  of 
all  his  books  is  the  eastern  story, 
The  Garden  of  Allah,  1905,  a  subtly 
presented  study  of  the  struggle 
between  religion  and  passion. 
Other  of  his  novels  are  Flames, 
1897  ;  The  Call  of  the  Blood,  lour,  : 
Bella  Donna,  1909  ;  and  The  Way 
of  Ambition,  1913.  His  work  for 
the  stage  includes  The  Real  Woman, 
and  plays  based  on  his  novels  Bella 
Donna  and  The  Garden  of  Allah. 

Hickory  (Carya).  Genus  of 
trees  of  the  natural  order  Juglan- 
daceae,  natives  of  N.  America. 


Bussell 


Hickory.     Leaves  and  nuts  of  the 
North  American  tree 

The  leaves  are  large,  divided  into 
oblong  leaflets  arranged  feather- 
fashion,  like  those  of  the  nearly 
related  walnut  trees.  The  flowers, 
which  are  without  petals,  are  male 
or  female ;  the  males  in  hanging 
catkins,  the  females  in  a  short 
spike  at  the  end  of  the  new  shoots. 
The  husk  of  the  large  fruit  splits 
into  four  segments,  revealing  the 
thin-shelled  nut.  The  timber  is 
hard  and  tough.  C.  illinoensis  is  t  he 
pecan,  whose  delicious,  olive- 
shaped  nuts  are  a  favourite  fruit. 
C.ovata,  the  shell-bark  or  shag-bark, 
produces  the  principal  hickory-nut 
of  the  markets.  C.  laciniosa  is  the 
big  shell-bark  or  king-nut ;  C.  alba 
the  mocker-nut ;  C.  aquatica  the 
bitter  pecan,  and  C.  glabra  the 
pignut  or  broom  hickory. 

The  shell- bark  was  introduced 
into  Great  Britain  in  1 629.  Hickory 
trees  thrive  best  if  grown  as  speci- 
men trees  in  any  ordinary  soil  on 
lawns  or  the  borders  of  woodlands, 
and  may  be  planted  in  either  au- 
tumn or  spring.  When  pruning 
takes  place  in  Nov.  the  thinnings  of 
the  hickory  are  particularly  valu- 
able, if  preserved  and  dried,  for  use 
as  walking-sticks.  The  hickory  is 
propagated  by  means  of  nuts  sown 
in  late  autumn. 

Hicks,  EDWARD  SEYMOUR  (b. 
1871).  British  actor.  Born  at  St. 
Helier,  Jersey,  Jan.  30,  1871,  and 
originally  intended  for  the  army, 
he  first  appeared  on  the  stage  at 
the  Grand  Theatre,  Islington.  He 


3982 


HIERARCHY 


E.  Seymour  Hicks. 
British  actor 


was  engaged  by 
the  K  e  n  d  a  1  s 
and  toured  with 
them  in  England 
and  America,  re- 
appearing  in 
London  in  f891 
at  The  Court. 
At  Toole's 
Theatre  in  Feb., 
1892,  he  ap- 
peared as  An- 

-,    —-..       ..   .  jsututi  «•  *  i  y 

drew  McPhaii  m 

Barrie's  comedy  Walker,  London. 
From  1893-98  he  was  principal 
light  comedian  at  The  Gaiety.  He 
built  the  Aldwych  Theatre,  which 
he  opened  Dec.,  1905,  with  Blue 
Bell  in  Fairyland,  and  in  Dec.,  1906, 
opened  The  Hicks  (later  The  Globe) 
Theatre,  appearing  in  the  musical 
play,  The  Beauty  of  Bath.  In  1902 
he  married  EllalineTerriss  (b.  1872). 
He  published  his  reminiscences  in 
1910,  If  I  were  Your  Father,  in 
1919,  and  Difficulties,  in  1922. 

Hicks,  WILLIAM  (1830-83). 
British  soldier,  commonly  known 
as  Hicks  Pasha.  He  first  saw 
service  in  In- 
dia, and  acted 
as  brigade- 
major  in  the 
A  byssinian 
campaign  of 
1867-68.  Leav- 
ing the  British 
army  in  1880, 
Hicks  was 
appointed  in 
1883  to  the 
command  of  the  Egyptian  expedi- 
tion against  the  Mahdi.  The  forces 
of  the  latter  were  signally  defeated 
near  Jebel  'Ayn  on  April  29,  and 
Hicks  pushed  forward  up  the 
White  Nile  to  Duem,  whence  he 
branched  off  across  the  desert  to 
El  'Obeyd.  Betrayed  by  their 
guide,  the  Egyptian  force  fell  into 
an  ambuscade  at  Kashgil  and,  after 
defending  themselves  bravely  for 
three  days  till  their  ammunition 
gave  out,  were  virtually  anni- 
hilated. Hicks  himself  fell,  Nov.  5, 
1883. 

Hidalgo  (Span,  hijo  de  algo,  son 
of  something).  Spanish  title.  It 
was  formerly  used  of  a  member  of 
the  lower  nobility,  but  now  seldom 
denotes  more  than  gentle  birth. 
The  Portuguese  form  is  fidalgo. 

Hidalgo.  Central  inland  state 
of  Mexico.  It  covers  an  area  of 
8,637  sq.  m.  and  forms  part  of  the 
great  central  plateau.  It  rises  in 
places  to  10,500  ft.,  but  the  S.  and 
S.W.  portions  contain  many  fertile 
valleys.  The  chief  agricultural  pro- 
ducts are  cereals,  coffee,  sugar- 
cane, tobacco,  and  cotton,  and  the 
agave  is  also  cultivatf  d  for  the  pro- 
duction of  pulque,  the  national 
drink.  Mining  ia  an  important 


William  Hicks. 
British  soldier 


industry,  silver  and  iron  being  the 
chief  ores.  Communication  is  pro- 
vided by  the  Mexico  Central,  and 
Vera  Cruz  and  Mexico  rlys.  Pachuca 
is  the  capital.  Pop.  655,190. 

Hiddenite.  Green  transparent 
variety  of  the  mineral  spodumene. 
It  was  first  discovered  by  W.  E. 
Hidden  in  America.  Its  colour  is 
due  to  the  presence  of  chromium, 
and  the  crystals  cut  and  polished 
have  been  used  as  substitutes  for 
emeralds,  which  it  resembles. 

Hide.  Anglo-Saxon  measure  of 
land.  There  has  been  much  discus- 
sion about  its  size,  the  estimates 
ranging  from  30  to  120  acres.  It 
began  as  the  amount  of  land  neces- 
sary to  support  a  single  household, 
which  was  probably  the  labour  of 
eight  oxen  for  120  days  in  the  year. 
After  a  time  it  was  regarded  as 
consisting  of  120  acres,  not  neces- 
sarily acres  of  4,840  yards,  but 
smaller  ones.  In  each  hide  were 
four  virgates. 

At  the  time  of  the  Conquest  the 
hide  was  primarily  a  unit  of  assess- 
ment, not  a  measure,  and  this  ia 
why  it  figures  so  regularly  in 


Hide.  Term  used  for  the  skin  of 
an  animal.  Any  skin  is  a  hide,  but, 
commercially,  hide  is  used  for  the 
undressed  skins  of  oxen,  horses, 
and  other  large  animals,  those  of 
goats,  calves,  and  sheep  being 
known  usually  as  skins.  These  are 
prepared,  and  in  the  form  of 
leather  are  used  for  many  purposes. 
See  Leather ;  Tanning. 

Hieraconpolis.  Greek  name  of 
the  ancient  city  Nekhen  at  Kom 
el-Ahmar,  Upper  Egypt.  Situate 
near  the  left  bank  of  the  Nile,  44  m. 
above  Luxor,  it  was  the  residence  of 
the  predynastic  kings  of  the  S.,  and 
sacred  to  the  hawk- headed  god 
Horus.  Quibell's excavations,  1897- 
98,  yielded  superb  examples  of  early 
art,  including  a  mace-head  and  pa- 
lette of  Narmer,  a  red-gold  hawk's 
head,  and  a  copper  statue  of  Pepy  I. 

Hierapolis.  Ancient  city  of 
Phrygia,  Asia  Minor.  Situated 
near  the  river  Maeander,  above  the 
Lycus  valley,  its  ruins  exist  at  the 
present  day.  It  was  famed  for  the 
worship  of  Leto  or  Latona.  It  is  not 
to  be  confounded  with  Hierapolis 
(mod.  Mambej)  in  Syria,  about  50 


Hierapolis.     Part  o!  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  Phrygian  city,  near  the  river 
Maeander 


Domesday,  where  the  holdings  are 
given  in  hides.  Taxes  were  paid 
on  the  number  of  hides,  which  had 
little  relation  to  the  size  of  the 
holding.  The  tax,  generally  one  of 
2s.  per  hide,  was  known  as  hidage, 
but  afterwards  as  carucage. 

The  hide  was  also  used  in  Anglo-' 
Saxon  times  to  express  a  man'a 
social  standing  or  the  value  of  his 
oath,  while  the  unit  of  five  hides 
occupied  an  important  place  in  the 
military  system  of  early  England. 
In  the  Danish  parts  of  England  the 
carucate  took  the  place  of  the 
hide.  It  should  be  said  that  the 
evidence  ia  very  conflicting,  and 
that  there  [were  doubtless  small 
hides  of  30  acres.  See  Domesday 
Book  ;  consult  also  Domesday 
Book  and  Beyond,  F.  W.  Maitland, 
1897;  Feudal  England,  J.  H. 
Round,  1909. 


m.  N.E.  of  Aleppo,  called  Bambyce 
by  the  Greeks  and  noted  for  its 
temple  to  Astarte. 

Hierarchy  (Gr.  hieros,  sacred ; 
archein,  to  govern).  Literally,  ad- 
ministration of  sacred  things.  The 
term  was  first  used  by  the  sixth 
century  writer  known  as  Dionysius 
the  Areopagite,  in  his  treatise  On 
the  Heavenly  and  Ecclesiastical 
Hierarchies.  By  the  celestial  hier- 
archy is  meant  the  angels,  arch- 
angels, and  all  the  company  of 
heaven  (see  Hymn  of  Praise  in  the 
Communion  Service).  The  Jewish 
hierarchy  included  the  high  priest, 
priest,  and  Levite.  In  the  Christian 
Church  the  term  means  the  pre- 
siding officers.  It  is  used  also  of 
any  body  of  officials  organized  in 
ranks  and  orders,  to  define  priestly 
government,  and  to  classification 
in  biology  and  logic. 


HIERATIC 


3983 


HIEROGLYPHS 


Hieratic  (Gr.  hieratikos,  sacred, 
sacerdotal).  Cursive  script  em- 
ployed by  the  priestly  scribes  in 
ancient  Egypt.  It  was  a  simplified 
and  conventionalised  form  of  hiero- 
glyphic, normally  written  from 
right  to  left  in  black,  often  with 
rubrical  characters  in  red.  Trace- 
able from  the  1st  dynasty  to  the 
4th  century  A.D.,  notable  examples 
are  the  Xllth  dynasty  Prisse  and 
the  XlXth  dynasty  Harris  papyri. 
Theban  tombs  of  the  New  Empire 
have  yielded  wood  coffins,  lime- 
stone slabs,  and  stuccoed  boards 
bearing  this  script.  Long  regarded 
as  the  parent  of  the  Phoenician 
alphabet,  it  is  now  considered  to 
have  played  a  minor  part,  if  any, 
in  that  invention. 

Hiero  I  (Gr.  Hieron).  Tyrant  of 
Syracuse,  478-467  B.C.  His  great 
exploit  was  a  decisive  naval  victory 
over  the  Etruscans  near  Cumae  in 
474.  An  Etruscan  helmet,  with  its 
dedicatory  inscription,  consecrated 
to  Apollo,  is  preserved  in  the  British 
Museum.  Hiero  was  a  generous 
patron  of  art  and  literature,  among 
the  notable  men  who  resided  at 


his  court  under  his  patronage  be- 
ing Aeschylus,  Pindar,  Bacchylides, 
and  Simonides. 

Hiero  II.      King  of  Syracuse, 
270-216  B.C.  He  first  distinguished 
himself  in  the  wars  against  Pyrrhus 
.-— ^^^  (q.v.),  and  be- 

^Ss.  ing  m  a  de  a 
general  by  the 
Sy  r  acusans 
eventually  re- 
ceived the 
kingship.  I  n 
the  war  be- 
tween Rome 
and  Carthage, 
Hiero  at  first 
sided  with  Carthage,  the  Romans 
having  entered  into  an  alliance 
with  the  Mamertines,  who  had 
seized  Messina.  After  the  defeat  of 
the  Carthaginians  and  Syracusans 
in  263,  Hiero  made  peace,  and  re- 
mained the  friend  and  ally  of  the 
Romans.  He  did  much  to  im- 
prove the  finances  of  the 
country,  and  certain  laws  relating 
to  agriculture  and  the  corn  supplies 
called  leges  Hieronicae  are  men- 
tioned by  Cicero  as  still  existing. 


HIEROGLYPHS:    ORIGIN  AND  MEANING 

Sir  E.  A.  Wallis  Budge,  of  the  British  Museum 

From  this  article  the  reader  may  usefully  turn  to  the  one  on  Egypt. 

See  also  A  ssyria  ;  Babylonia ;   Cuneiform  ;  Rosetta   Stone  ;  while 

Alphabet  and  Writing  may  also  be  consulted 


Name  commonly  applied  to  the  pic- 
ture characters  which  the  Egyptians 
used  in  writing.  Tradition  in 
Egypt  asserted  that  their  invention 
was  due  to  Thoth,  the  god  of  all 
learning,  and  they  were  employed 
in  all  ceremonial  and  religious  in- 
scriptions and  texts  from  the  early 
part  of  the  Archaic  Period  (about 
B.C.  4000)  to  the  second  or  third 
century  A.D.  In  Egyptian  texts 

S    A    i 
they  are  called    j   A    I      "  the  words 


of  the  god,"  and  so  the  Egyptian 
picture  writing  was  described  by 
classical  writers  as  "Hieroglyphic," 
i.e.,  "  sacred  writing." 

Three  forms  of  Egyptian  writing 
are  distinguished  :  1.  hieroglyphic  j 
2.  hieratic ;  3.  demotic.  In  the 
first  form  the  characters  are  all 
pictures,  generally  easily  recogniz- 
able ;  in  the  second  only  the  most 
salient  features  of  the  pictures  are 
preserved  ;  in  the  third  the  charac- 
ters are  modified  and  abbreviated 
and  finally  become,  in  many  in- 
stances, mere  conventional  repre- 
sentations of  the  hieroglyphs.  The 
knowledge  of  hieroglyphic  writing 
was  lost,  except  among  a  few 
learned  priests  and  scribes,  early 
in  the  Roman  Period,  and  all 
attempts  to  decipher  it  were  un- 
successful until  the  beginning  of 
the  nineteenth  century,  when 


Thomas  Young  (1773-1829)  de- 
duced the  correct  values  of  several 
of  the  characters  of  the  Egyptian 
alphabet. 

Thanks  to  Zoega  (1755-1809),  it 
was  known  that  a  king's  name  was 
always  written  within  an  oval 

f  I ,  but  it  was  uncertain  at 

which  end  of  the  oval  the  name 
began.  "There  were  -two  monu- 
ments that  cleared  up  this  diffi- 
culty, viz.,  the  Rosetta  Stone  in 
the  British  Museum,  and  a  stone 
obelisk  from  Philae,  which  now 
stands  in  the  park  at  Kingston 
Lacy,  Dorset.  Each  of  these 
monuments  contains  a  Greek  as 
well  as  an  Egyptian  version  of 
the  inscription,  and  as  it  was 
customary  for  kings  to  publish 
their  edicts  and  documents  of 
public  importance  in  two  or  more 
languages,  it  was  held  to  be  certain 
that  the  subject  matter  of  the 
Egyptian  and  Greek  texts  on  the 
Rosetta  Stone  was  the  same. 

Now,    on    the   Rosetta    Stone 
the  royal  name  Ptolemy  occurs  in 


these  forms:  I. 


The  Greek  text  shows  that  the 
inscription  is  an  edict  of  the  priests 
of  Egypt,  assembled  in  the  temple 
of  Ptah  in  Memphis  in  March 
B.C.  196,  who  decreed  that  special 
honours  should  be  paid  to  Ptolemy 
V.  Epiphanes,  as  a  mark  of  their 
appreciation  of  the  great  benefits 
which  he  had  conferred  upon 
Egypt.  There  was  therefore  no 
doubt  that  the  two  cartouches 
contained  the  name  of  Ptolemy, 
and  the  Greek  text  made  it  clear 
that  the  last  eight  characters  in 
the  second  cartouche  represented 
titles  of  the  king.  The  obelisk 
from  Philae  mentions  two  royal 
names  thus  :  — 


i.e.,  Ptolemy  and  Cleopatra. 

A  glance  shows  that  with  the 
exception  of  one  character,  the 
last,  the  second  cartouche  contain- 
ing Ptolemy's  name  on  the  Rosetta 
Stone  is  identical  with  that  con- 
taining Ptolemy's  name  on  the 
obelisk.  Young  then  assumed  that 
the  names  began  at  the  rounded 
end  of  the  cartouche,  and  he  called 
the  first  sign  D  P  ;  as  this  letter 
occurs  in  the  name  of  Cleopatra 
on  the  obelisk,  and  it  comes  in  the 
middle  of  the  name,  he  was  certain 
of  the  value  of  Q  .  The  second 
sign  a  he  guessed  was  T,  and 
also  that  -iTj  ,  which  occurs  in  the 
cartouche  of  Cleopatra  as  well  as 
in  Ptolemy,  had  the  value  of  U  or 
O.  The  letter  L,  which  ulso 
occurs  in  both  cartouches,  was 
represented  by  J2i&,  and  the 
following  letter  f  must  be  M  . 

The  last  letter  ||  must  be  S, 
because  the  Greek  form  of  the 
name  ends  in  S  .  The  two  remain- 
ing characters  ()!]",  he  believed 
represented  some  yowel,  or  com- 
binations of  vowels..  By  examining 
the  variant  forms  of  the  names  of 
Ptolemy  and  Cleopatra  in  hiero- 
glyphs he  deduced  the  values  of 

many  other  signs,  e.g.,  _p=U, 
o  =  R,  c=3a=T,  and  so  on,  and 
the  names  of  Alexander,  Philip, 
Arsinoe,  Berenice,  etc.,  supplied 
many  others.  The  decipherment 
of  the  Egyptian  hieroglyphs  was 
carried  to  a  triumphant  conclusion 
by  J.  F.  Champollion  (1790-1832), 
who  published  a  Hieroglyphic 
Grammar  and  Dictionary  and  a 
very  largo  number  of  hieroglyphic 
inscriptions.  On  his  work  the 
whole  of  the  modern  work  on 
Egyptian  is  based. 


HIERONYMITES 


HIGGINSON 


KH, 

(?). 
SH, 
K, 

and  p. 


The  following  are  the  alpha- 
betic characters  with  approximate 
values : 

jj^  A,  and  often  used  like  the 
Heb.  fr$.  0  A,  a  short  a,  e  or  i 
sound.  — — fl  'A,  like  Heb.  ^. 
(](|  or  \\  I,  Heb.  1 .  ^  U  or  W, 
like  Heb.}  or  V  J  B,  Ffeb.  ^. 
D  P,  Heb.  Q.  *i^_  F,  like 

Arab.  cJ.    |^or  / M,  Heb.  ft. 

'vwwv  N,  Heb.  ^.  <=>  R  or  L, 
Heb.  -)  and  ^.  |T1  H,  Heb.  H. 
|  H,  Arab.  C.  0  or 
Heb.  PT  •  — H —  S,  Heb. 
p  S,  Heb.  &(?). 
Heb.  ty.  ^Q.Heb.  p. 

Heb.  3.      S  G.  Heb. 
d  T,  Heb.  J-|.     J   T(?).      Z==> 
TH  (?).     *=>  T  or  DH,  Heb.E. 
1     |    TCH.         Hieroglyphs      are 

written  both  in  columns  and  hori- 
zontal lines  ;  in  the  former  case 
they  are  read  from  right  to  left  or 
left  to  right,  according  as  they  face. 
Every  hieroglyph  can  be  used  to 
express  an  idea,  in  which  case  it  is 
i-alled  an  "  ideograph,"  or  a  sound, 
in  which  case  it  is  called  a 
'"  phonetic  "  ;  phonetics  may  be 
either  alphabetic  or  syllabic.  Thus 

H   as     an   ideograph    is    a   finger, 

<fy  a  heart,  and  mm  a  block  of 
stone,  «rr>  a  mouth,  and  ««~w  the 
wavy  surface  of  water ;  but  <=» 
and  **««*  are  used  as  simple  phonetic 

characters  in  the  word  <  ">  Qj)  ? 
"naire."  Ideographic  signs  may 
be  interpreted  either  literally,  e.g., 

\ \  \     field,  y    wall,    IvX    cat,  or 

en        J-S) 

symbolically,  e.g.,  j  axe,  which 
is  symbolic  of  God,  J  a  musical 
instrument,  which  is  symbolic  of 

,  .  ,,     £xx— ~?  ,  . 

]oy,         gladness,       y— -\i    a   bier 

with  a  mummy  on  it,  which  is 
symbolic  of  "  death." 

When   a  word   is  written   with 
phonetic  characters,  a  character  is ' 
usually  added  to  indicate  the  mean- 
ing, and  this  is  called  a  "determi- 

M 

native."     Thus  B|- o  when  it 

means  "  to  stand "  has  the  de- 
terminative of  a  pair  of  legs  added 

thus    w Dv  "A"" ,    and    when    the 

word  means  *'  boat  "  the  determina- 

t          11          n 
tive  of  a  boat  is  added . 


.  IM(.     n 

similarlv  E3  fl  to  be  stable,  and 
£— ^"^>->  pain,  are  determined  bv  ]  , 

IAA      _£C—      J  "          U      ' 

which  represents  an  abstract  idea, 
and  by  ^-n?"  ,  a  bird  symbolic  of 
evil  or  anything  unpleasant.  Some 
words  have  several  determinatives, 

f'ff-,  A  \  |  qebh,  "  c°°l  water,"  is 
written  4  J  f  (5  ^^  J=L ,  i.e.,  the 

j£      A      I  1     AA^AAAA 

signs  for  a  libation  vase,  and  water^ 
and  pool  are  added.  The  plural 
of  a  word  is  indicated  by  three 
strokes  placed  after  it  thus,  ^^  ^ 
man,  ^^  ^  J  men,  or  by 
^^,or^^j.  The 
numbers  1-9  are  represented  by 
strokes,  <?.#.,  Hill  or  j'j'j  =5;  the 
sign  n  =  10>  £=100,  J  1000, 


10,000, 


=  100,000,          = 


1,000,000,  and  Q  =  10,000,000. 

See  The  Rosetta  Stone,  with 
large  plate,  published  by  the  Brit- 
ish Museum,  and  Guide  to  the 
Egyptian  Collections  in  the  British 
Museum. 

Hieronymites.  Order  of  her- 
mits, an  offshoot  of  the  Francis- 
cans, who  took  their  name  from  S. 
Jerome  (Gr.  Hieronymos).  They 
were  founded  in  the  14th  century 
by  Thomas  of  Siena,  and  were 
known  as  Gregorians,  Brethren  of 
the  Common  Lot.  and  Brethren  of 
Goodwill.  They  had  houses  in 
Spain,  Portugal,  Italy,  and  Ba- 
varia. See  Asceticism  ;  Hermit. 

Hieronymus  of  Card!  a.  Greek 
soldier  and  historian.  He  served 
under  Alexander  the  Great  and 
after  Alexander's  death  under 
Eumenes  of  Cardia,  in  Asia  Minor. 
He  transferred  his  allegiance  to 
Antigonus  when  the  latter  de- 
feated and  killed  Eumenes  in  316 
B.C.,  and  to  his  successors,  Deme- 
trius and  Antigonus  Gonatas,  in 
whose  reign  he  died  at  the  age  of 
104.  Hieronymus  wrote  a  history 
of  the  period  between  the  death 
of  Alexander  and  that  of  Pyrrhus. 
It  has  not  been  preserved,  but  was 
utilised  by  Plutarch  in  his  life  of 
Pyrrhus. 

Hierophant  (Gr.  hieros,  divine, 
phaincin,  to  expound).  Official 
name  of  the  initiating  priest  at  the 
Eleusinia  (q.v.).  His  duty  was  to 
exhibit  and  interpret  the  sacred 
symbols  employed  in  the  mysteries. 
In  Rome  the  title  was  sometimes 
applied  to  the  Pontifex  Maximus. 

Hierro  OR  FERRO  (Iron  Island). 
South-westernmost  and  smallest 
of  the  Canary  Islands  in  the  Atlan- 
tic, belonging  to  Spain.  Of  vol- 
canic origin,  it  is  well  wooded  and 
mountainous,  the  highest  point 


being  4,640  ft.  Little  of  the  land  is 
cultivated,  as  springs  and  streams 
are  lacking,  but  on  the  pasture 
land  a  small  breed  of  sheep  is 
reared  for  export.  Wine,  fruit, 
honey,  and  brandy  are  produced. 
Anciently  supposed  to  be  the  most 
westerly  land,  its  meridian  is  said 
to  have  been  known  to  Ptolemy, 
and  it  has  been  used  by  Continental 

fographers  from  the  time  of  Louis 
III  for  measuring  longitudes. 
The  conventional  meridian  used  by 
cartographers  is  17°  39'  45"  W.  of 
Greenwich,  or  20°  W.  of  Paris  ;  the 
true  meridian  is,  however,  18°  7' 
5"  W.  of  Greenwich.  The  capital  is 
Valverde.  Pop.  about  7,000. 

Higdon,  RANULF  (d.  c.  1363). 
English  chronicler.  A  Benedictine 
monk  of  S.  Werburg's,  Chester, 
where  he  spent  64  years  of  his 
life,  his  famous  work  is  his  Poly- 
chronicon,  a  history  of  the  world 
from  its  beginning  down  to  the 
death  of  Edward  III.  An  English 
version  by  John  Trevisa  was 
printed  by  Caxton  in  1482. 

Higgins,  HENRY  BOURNES  (b. 
1851).  Australian  lawyer.  The 
son  of  Rev.  John  Higgins,  he  was 
born  at  Newtownards,  in  Ireland. 
His  education  was  begun  in  Dublin, 
but  was  completed  at  the  uni- 
versity of  Melbourne,  whither  he 
went  in  1870.  After  a  distinguished 
career  there,  he  became  a  barrister 
in  1876.  In  1894  he  was  chosen 
a  member  of  the  legislative  assem- 
bly of  Victoria,  which  state  he 
represented  on  the  federal  conven- 
tion. He  entered  the  federal  parlia- 
ment in  1901  as  M.P.  for  Melbourne, 
N.,  and  in  1904  was  made  attorney- 
general  of  the  commonwealth.  In 
1906  Higgins  was  appointed  a 
judge  and  president  of  the  common- 
wealth court  of  conciliation  and 
arbitration.  Hispublicationsinclude 
a  work  on  the  Commonwealth  Act. 
Higginson,  SIR  GEORGE  WENT- 
WORTH ALEX ANDER(b.  1826).  Brit- 
ish soldier.  The  son  of  George  P. 
Higginson,  a 
general  in  the 
army,  he  wrs 
born  June  21, 
1826.  Educa- 
ted at  Eton,  he 
entered  the 
Grenadier 
Guards  in  1845» 
and  served 
Sir  G.  Higginson,  with  the 
British  soldier  Guards  during 
Russeii  t  h  e  Crimean 

War.  From  1879-S4  he  com- 
manded the  brigade  of  Guards 
and  the  home  district,  and  he  re- 
tired with  the  rank  of  general  in 
1893.  In  1889  he  Avas  knighted. 
He  wrote  Seventy-one  Years  of  a 
Guardsman's  Life,  1916.  See 
Butler,  Lady. 


H1GGINSON 


3985 


HIGHFLYER 


T.  Wentworth 

Higginson, 
American  author 


Higginson  ,THOMASWENTWOETH 
( 1 823- 1911).  American  soldier  and 
author.  Born  at  Cam  bridge,  Mass., 
Dec.  22,  1823, 
and  educated 
at  Harvard,  he 
was  ordained 
in  1847,  and 
became  Uni- 
tarian pastor  at 
Newburyport 
and  Worcester, 
1850-58.  Dur- 
ing the  civil 
war  he  was 
colonel  of 
the  1st  S.C.  Volunteers,  the  first 
regiment  of  freed  slaves,  and  was 
wounded  at  Wiltown  Bluff,  1863. 
He  took  an  active  interest  in  anti- 
slavery,  educational,  and  women's 
suffrage  movements.  A  man  of 
striking  personality,  he  wrote  with 
charm  and  distinction,  being  the 
author  of  Lives  of  Margaret  Fuller, 
Marchioness  Ossoli,  1884 ;  Long- 
fellow, 1903  ;  and  Whittier,  1903  ; 
two  histories  of  the  U.S.A.,  one  for 
the  young,  1875,  and  1885  ;  Army 
Life  in  a  Black  Regiment,  1870  ; 
Tales  of  the  Enchanted  Islands  of 
the  Atlantic,  1898 ;  Old  Cambridge, 
1899;  Contemporaries,  1899;  Part 
of  a  Man's  Life,  1905.  See  Life, 
M.  P.  Higginson,  1914  ;  Works,  7 
vols.,  1900. 

Higgs,  WILLIAM  GUY  (b.  1862). 
Australian  politician.  Born  in  New 
South  Wales,  Jan.  18,  1862,  after 
learning  printing  he  became  a 
journalist.  Entering  politics,  he 
obtained  a  seat  in  the  Brisbane 
municipal  council,  1899-1900.  Hav- 
ing sat  for  the  same  period  in  the 
Queensland  parliament,  in  1901  he 
was  elected  to  the  first  Common- 
wealth parliament ;  later  he  repre- 
sentedQueensland  in  the  senate  and 
was  chairman  of  committee  to  that 
body  1904-6.  He  was  treasurer  of 
the  Commonwealth,  1915-16. 

Higham  Ferrers.  Mun.  bor- 
ough and  market  town  of  North- 
amptonshire. It  stands  on  the 
Nene,  5  m.  from  Wellingborough, 
and  63  from  London,  and  has  a 
station  on  the  Mid.  Ely.  The  mak- 
ing of  boots  and  shoes  is  the  chief 
industry.  The  church  of  S.  Mary 
is  a  fine  old  building,  mainly  of  the 
Decorated  period.  The  buildings 
erected  by  Archbishop  Chichele 
about  1420  include  the  school  house 
in  the  Perpendicular  style,  and  the 
Bede  House.  The  archbishop 
founded  a  college  here.  Higham  was 
on  the  lands  of  the  Ferrers  family 
in  the  Middle  Ages.  It  had  a  castle, 
and  became  a  corporate  town  in  the 
13th  century.  It  still  retains  its 
mayor  and  corporation.  Pop.  2,700. 
Highbury.  District  of  N.  Lon- 
don. It  is  in  the  bor.  of  Islington, 
with  a  station  on  the  N.L.R.  Near 


the  station  are  Highbury  Fields,  Viscount  Milner  was  High  Com- 
27|  acres,  acquired  for  the  public  missioner  in  S.  Africa,  1897-1905 ; 
in  1886  and  1891.  Here  stood  the  the  king's  representative  in  Egypt 
manor  house,  once  the  property  has  the  same  title. 

Eng- 


of  the  priors  of  S.  John  ;  it  was 
destroyed  in  the  Wat  Tyler  rising  of 
1381.  On  the  site  of  the  barn  or 
dairy  of  the  manor  house  was  built 
a  cake  and  ale-house,  which,  after 
becoming  a  tavern  with  tea  gar- 
dens, and  a  hotel  with  music-hall 
and  dancing  saloon,  disappeared  in 
1871.  In  Aubert  Park  is  the  Lon- 
don College  of  Divinity. 

Near  the  college  is  the  ground  of 
Woolwich  Arsenal  F.C.,  to  the  E. 
of  which  is  Highbury  Vale.  The 
Nonconformist  club  known  as  the 


High  Court  of  Justice, 
lish  court  of  law,  a  branch  of  the 
supreme  court  of  judicature,  as 
established  in  1873.  It  is  divided 
into  three  divisions  :  chancery, 
king's  \  ench,  and  probate,  divorce 
and  admiralty  ;  in  addition  one  of 
its  judges  is  detailed  to  preside  over 
a  court  of  bankruptcy  and  another 
to  deal  with  the  winding-up  of 
companies,  both  as  part  of  the 
king's  bench  division. 

By  the  Judicature  Act  of  1873 
every  division  of  the    high    court 


Highbury  Society  held  its  meetings    has  power  to  try  anything  that  any 
at     Highbury    Barn,     1740-1833.    other  division  may  :   thus,  a  chari- 
Abraham   Newland,   chief    cashier 
of  the  Bank  of  England,  lived  at 
No.   38,  and  Joseph  Chamberlain, 
when  a  boy,  at  No.  25,  Highbury 


Place.     The  manor,  mentioned  in 


Highbury  Barn  as  it  appeared  in  1792 

By  courtesy  of  Outsell  &  Co. 

Domesday,  belonged  in  turn  to 
Thomas,  Lord  Cromwell,  Queen 
Mary,  Henry,  son  of  James  I,  and 
Charles  I,  who  in  1629  sold  it  to  Sir 
Allan  Apsley. 

High  Commission,  COURT  OF. 
English  ecclesiastical  court.  It  was 
set  up  in  1559  to  enforce  greater 
uniformity  in  the  services  of  the 
Church  of  England.  Whitgift,  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  persuaded 
Elizabeth  to  delegate  her  powers 
of  jurisdiction  over  the  church  to 
a  commission  of  44  persons  of 
whom  12  were  bishops.  This  was 
done  on  the  strength  of  an  act  of 
1558  by  which  the  ancient  juris- 
diction of  the  state,  ecclesiastical 
and  spiritual,  was  restored  to  the 
crown.  The  method  of  action  was  to 
request  a  suspected  person  to  take 
an  oath  denying  some  particular 
proposition.  The  court  was  abol- 
ished by  an  act  of  July  5, 1641. 

High  Commissioner.  Title 
given  to  certain  representatives  of 
their  countries  in  positions  of 
importance.  Canada,  Australia, 
South  Africa,  Newfoundland,  New 
Zealand,  and  India  are  represented 
in  London  by  High  Commissioners 


eery  judge  may  try  a  divorce  or 
probate  suit  or  an  action  for  libel. 
In  fact,  actions  of  a  mixed  common 
law  and  equity  character  are  tried 
daily.     But  in  order  to  secure  the 
service    of    expert 
|    judges       certain 
"  .  matters  are  ordered 
^  *    to    be    started    in 

^^"  specific  divisions. 

,/j|  Thus    common 

JLs@«L  law   actions  for 

damages,    for    the 
recovery  of  debts, 
etc.,  should    be. 
commenced  in  the 
king's    bench,    ac- 
tions for  adminis- 
tration  of    trusts, 
specific      perform- 
ance of  contracts, 
and  for  injunctions 
to  restrain  injuries 
to  rights  of  property,  e.g.  copyright, 
rights    of    light,    etc.,    should    be 
brought  in  the  chancery  division ; 
while  in  the  probate,  divorce  and 
admiralty  division  should  be  com- 
menced the  suits  which  the  title  of 
the  division  indicates.    Each  divi- 
sion of  the  court  has  its  quota  of 
judges,  all  appointed  by  the  crown 
on  the  advice  of  the  lord  chancellor, 
all  knighted  on  appointment,  and 
entitled  to  a  salary  of  £5,000  a  year 
and  a  pension  on  retirement. 

The  lord  chancellor  is  the  pre- 
sident of  the  chancery  division ;  the 
lord  chief  justice  of  the  king's  bench 
division,  while  the  probate,  divorce 
and  admiralty  division  has  a 
president.  The  sittings  of  the  high 
court,  except  those  of  the  judges  of 
the  king's  bench  division  when  on 
circuit,  are  held  at  the  royal  courts 
of  justice,  Strand,  W.C.  See  Chan- 
cery ;  Judge;  King's  Bench. 

Higher  Criticism.  Term  ap- 
plied to  the  scientific  criticism  of 
the  books  of  the  Bible.  See  Criti- 
cism ;  Biblical. 

Highflyer.  British  second-class 
cruiser,  nameship  of  a  class  of  three. 
Her  length  is  350  ft.,  beam  54  ft.  ; 


1C    5 


H1GHGATE 


3986 


HIGHLAND 


H.M.S.  Highflyer,  British  second  class  cruiser 

Cribb,  Southsea 

displacement  5,600  tons;  the 
engines  have  10,000  h.p.,  giving 
a  speed  of  20  knots,  the  armament 
being  eleven  6-inch,  and  seven- 
teen smaller,  with  two  submerged 
torpedo  tubes.  When  Belleville 
boilers  were  first  introduced  into 
the  navy,  the  Highflyer,  fitted  with 
these,  ran  competitive  trials 
against  ships  that  had  the  ordinary 
locomotive  boilers.  The  data  thus 
obtained  led  to  the  general  intro- 
duction of  water-tube  boilers.  The 
Hermes,  a  sister  ship,  and  one  of 
the  vessels  against  which  the  High- 
flyer was  pitted,  was  torpedoed 
Oct.  31,  1914.  The  Hyacinth  is  the 
other  cruiser  of  the  type.  The 
Highflyer  sank  the  German  cruiser 
Kaiser  Wilhelm  der  Grosse  off  the 
Ouro  river  on  the  W.  African  coast, 
Aug.  27,  1914. 

High  gate.  Residential  suburb 
of  N.  London.  The  S.  part  of  the 
district  is  in  the  met.  bor.  of  St. 
Pancras,  and  part  in  that  of 
Islington  ;  the  N.  part,  situated 
on  a  summit,  426  ft.,  E.  of  its 
sister  height  of  Hampstead  (?.?'.), 
is  just  outside  the  London  co. 
boundary  and  in  the  co.  of  Middle- 
sex. There  are  stations  on  the  G.N. 
and  Hampstead  (Tube)  Rlys.,  and 
frequent  tram  and  'bus  services. 

At  the  foot  of  Highgate  Hill  is 
Whittington's  Stone,  on  the  tra- 
ditional site  of  the  stone  on  which 
Dick  Whittington  is  said  to  have 
sat  as  he  heard  Bow  Bells  chiming 
the  refrain,  Turn  again,  Whitting- 
ton, thrice  lord  mayor  of  London. 
At  the  foot  of  the  Archway  Road 
are  the  almshouses,  known  as  Whit- 
tington College,  removed  from  the 
city  in  1822  Between  the  two 
thoroughfares  named  is  the  Hoi- 
born  Union  Infirmary.  On  the  W. 
side  of  Highgate  Hill  are  the  Isling- 
ton Infirmary,  S.  Joseph's  Retreat, 
1875-76,  enlarged  1862  and  1889, 
mother  house  of  the  Passionist 
Fathers  in  England,  and  Waterlow 
Park,  29  acres,  containing  Lauder- 
dale  House,  presented  to  the 
public  by  Sir  Sydney  Waterlow  in 


1  1889,  with  High- 
gate  Cemetery  to 
the  W. 

Open    spaces,  to 
the   N.,  are   High- 
gate    Wood     and 
;    Queen's  Wood,    70 
•    acres,    public  since 
1886.    The   Village 
1    and  its  High  Street 
retain  something  of 
their  rural   charm. 
Here  are  the  Gothic 
parish     church     of 
I    S.     Michael,    1832, 
I    the  spire  of  which 
is    a     conspicuous 
landmark ;     Crom- 
well   House,     said 
to  have  been  built  by  the  Protector 
for  General  Ireton  and  now  a  con- 
valescent home  for  children  ;   and 
the     Grammar    School,     1865-68, 
founded   by  Sir  Roger   Cholmley, 
1576-78,    the    chapel    of     which, 
covering  the  old  burial  ground  of 
Highgate  Chapel,  has  a  crypt  con- 
taining the  grave  of  S.  T.  Coleridge. 
On  West  Hill  is  Holly  Lodge, 
once  a  residence  of  the  duchess  of 
St.  Albans  and  later  the  home  of 
the  Baroness  Burdett-Coutts.  Cole- 


Dickens,  J.  S.  Copley,  George  Eliot, 
F.  D.  Maurice,  C.  G.  Rossetti, 
and  Tom  Sayers. 

Highgate' s  history  goes  back 
to  the  14th  century.  It  was  once 
in  the  old  forest  of  Middlesex,  a 
hunting  ground  of  Henry  VIII. 
The  bishops  of  London  had  a 
hunting  park  here,  and  the  name  is 
usually  derived  from  a  toll-gate 
erected  at  the  top  of  the  hill  when 
the  bishop  in  the  14th  century 
allowed  a  road  to  be  made  through 
his  park.  Another  and  voluntary 
toll  used  to  be  levied  on  passing 
travellers,  who  were  invited  at  the 
Toll  Gate  Inn  and  other  hostelries 
to  take  the  Highgate  Oath,  in 
return  for  which,  and  expenditure 
on  drink,  they  were  declared  free 
of  the  local  liberties.  In  the  Arch- 
way Road,  opened  in  1813,  is  the 
archway,  built  originally  of  stone 
to  connect  Highgate  with  Crouch 
End,  and  replaced  by  the  existing 
steel  structure  in  1900.  Pop. 
13,400.  See  History  of  Highgate, 
F.  Prickett,  1842.  " 

Highland.  Term  used  for  a 
tract  of  country  standing  at  a  con- 
siderable height  above  sea  level. 
It  has  no  reference  to  the  struc- 
tural character  of 
the  land,  whether 
produced  by  fold- 
ing or  erosion, 
whether  mountain 
chainsorplateaux. 
In  N.  and  S. 
America  there  are 
great  highland 
systems  to  the  W. 
and  lower  high- 
lands to  the  E. 
Almost  the  whole 
Africa  is  high- 


ridge  lived  in  The 
Grove.  Other 
notable  residents 
include  Francis 
Bacon,  who  died 
in  the  now  de- 
molished Arundel 
House  ;  several 
earls  of  Arundel. 
Lauderdale,  Nell 
Gwynn,  Ireton, 
Andrew  Marvel  1, 
Leigh  Hunt,  the 
Howitts,  Arabejla 
Stuart,  Henry 
Sacheverell,  S  i  r 
Richard  Baker,  author  of  The 
Chronicles  of  England;  Charles 
Mathews,  Selina,  countess  of  Hunt- 
ingdon, and  Bishop  Atterbury.  S. 
Michael's  Church  was  consecrated 


Highgate.  The  Archway,  Gate,  and  Tavern  as  they  were 

in  1825.    Top  left,  the  modern  archway  which  replaced 

the  old  structure  in  1900 


land.     In  Europe  the  highlands  are 
found  in  the  N.W.,  the  centre,  and 
the  S. ,  while  in  Asia  they  cover  the 
greater  part  of  the  S.  and  S.E. 
In  general,  highland  areas  sup- 


in  1839.  In  Highgate  Cemetery  port  fewer  people  than  lowlands, 
are  buried  Michael  Faraday,  Lord  but  there  are  important  excep- 
Lyndhurst,  the  parents  of  Charles  tions,  e.g.  the  open,  grassy  plateaux 


HIGHLAND 


3987 


HIGHLAND 


of  S.  Africa  and  of  the  Sudan, 
which  are  located  in  low  latitudes, 
so  that  elevation  in  their  case,  by 
reducing  the  temperature,  actually 
promotes  settlement.  Highlands 
frequently  act  as  barriers  to  com- 
munication and  thus  hinder  inter- 
course between  peoples  living  on 
different  sides  of  the  barrier,  e.g. 
the  Pyrenees,  Caucasus.  Alps,  and 
Himalayas. 

Highland  areas  are  frequently 
inhabited  by  races  driven  there 
by  stronger  invaders  who  have 
taken  possession  of  adjacent  plains. 
In  their  highland  homes  they  pre- 
serve their  own  language,  manners, 
etc.  Further,  highland  regions, 
owing  to  their  relative  poverty,  are 


Highland  Cattle. 


Carrick  Sir  Fergus,  a  champion  bull. 

Charles  Reid 


Top  right,  cow 


frequently  unable  to  support  all 
their  inhabitants.  Thus,  their 
greatest  contribution  to  the  world 
is  often  their  export  of  people. 

Highland  Cattle.  Breed  of 
cattle  found  mainly  in  Argyllshire 
and  the  Western  islands  of  Scot- 
land. Whether  it  be  the  indigenous 
wild  breed  of  the  district  or  not,  it 
is  undoubtedly  of  great  antiquity, 
and  not  greatly  altered  from  the 
old  Celtic  shorthorn.  It  is  the 
hardiest  of  all  British  breeds,  and 
is  left  largely  to  roam  the  moun- 
tains in  a  half-wild  state  and  to 
pick  up  its  own  living.  It  is  prac- 
tically free  from  disease,  and  its 
beef  is  of  high  value.  Its  long, 
shaggy  coat  varies  in  colour  from  a 
creamy  yellow  to  reddish  brown 
and  black,  and  it  is  often  kept  in 
parks  for  ornamental  purposes. 
See  Cattle,  colour  plate. 

Highland  Light  Infantry. 
Regiment  of  the  British  army, 
Formerly  the  71st  and  74th  Foot, 
it  was  first  raised  in  1777  by  Lord 
Macleod,  and  in  1780  proceeded  to 
India.  For  bravery  at  Assaye  in 
1803  it  was  presented  with  a  third 
colour.  Further  honours  were  won 
in  the  Peninsular  War,  while  at 


Highland  Light 
Infantry  badge 


Waterloo  the  regiment  .took  part  in 
the  charge  against  Napoleon's  im- 
perial guard.  Later  campaigns 
were  in  South 
Africa,  1851-53, 
the  Crimean 
War,  the  Indian 
Mutiny,  the 
Egyptian  WT  a  r, 
1882,  including 
the  storming  of 
Tel-el-Kebir,  and 
the  South  African 
War,  1899-1902, 
where  it  was  engaged  at  the  Modder 
River  and  at  Magerslontein. 

In  the  Great  War  the  two  regu- 
lar battalions  were  early  in  France. 
The  2nd  crossed  in  Aug.,  1914,  as 
part  of  the  second  division.  The 
1st  went  from  India  somewhat 
later,  and  with  the  9th  battalion 
(Territorial)  saw  fighting  at  La 
Bassee,  Dec  ,.1914. 

Battalions  fought  in  the  first 
battle  of  Ypres,  1914 ;  at  Loos, 

1915,  in    which    the    2nd,    10th, 
llth,    and    12th    battalions    also 
took   part;  and   on   the    Somme, 

1916.  In  September,  1918,  a  party 
of  the    l/5th    battalion    made   a 
notable  stand  at  Moeuvres.  In  1915 


other  battalions  were  in  Gallipoli. 
The  depot  is  at  Hamilton,  Lanark- 
shire. See  Army,  colour  plate. 

Highland  Mary.  Heroine  of 
some  of  the  noblest  of  the  songs  of 
Robert  Burns  ('/.v.).  According  to 
the  generally  accepted  theory,  her 
name  was  Mary  Campbell,  and  she 
and  the  poet  plighted  troth  and 
exchanged  bibles,  but  marriage 
was  made  impossible  by  her  sud- 
den death  at  Greenock  in  1786. 
She  was  buried  in  the  graveyard 
of  Old  West  Kirk,  Greenock, 
where  a  monument  was  erected  to 
her  memory.  In  1920  her  remains 
were  reinterred  in  Greenock  ceme- 
tery, the  old  burial  ground  having 
been  absorbed  by  the  extension  of 
a  shipbuilding  yard.  See  Dunoon  ; 
consult  Burns,  W.  E.  Henley,  1898. 

Highland  Railway.  Scottish  rly. 
co.  A  line  between  Inverness  and 
Nairn  was  opened  in  1855.  In  1865 


Highland  Mary.      The   monument 

as  it  stood  in  the  graveyard  of  Old 

West  Kirk,  Greenock 


HIGHLAND 


3988 


HIGHLANDS 


this  and  other  small  companies 
were  amalgamated,  and  the  name 
Highland  Rly.  was  adopted.  In 
1884  the  Sutherland  and  Caithness 
and  other  lines  were  taken  over, 
while  various  extensions  were  added 
to  the  mileage.  The  line  serves 
Inverness  and  the  extreme  N.  of 
Scotland,  i.e.  the  counties  of  Inver- 
ness, Boss,  Cromarty,  Sutherland, 
and  Caithness,  while  southward  it 
connects  with  the  Caledonian  near 
Perth.  With  its  headquarters  at 
Inverness,  it  owns  484  m.  of  line, 
and  its  capital  is  nearly  £7,000,000. 

Highland  Regiments.  General 
name  for  those  regiments  of  the 
British  army,  five  in  number,  that 
are  recruited  in  the  Highlands  of 
Scotland,  and  wear  the  kilt.  They 
are  the  Black  Watch,  or  Royal 
Highlanders,  42nd  and  73rd; 
Seaforth  Highlanders,  72nd  and 
78th;  Cordon  Highlanders, :  75th 
and  92nd  ;  Cameron  Highlanders, 
79th  ;  and  the  Argyll  and  Suther- 
land Highlanders,  91st  and  93rd. 
The  Highland  Light  Infantry,  in 
spite  of  its  name,  is  not  a  Highland 
regiment;  the  men  are  recruited 
mainly  in  Lanarkshire,  while  they 
do  not  wear  the  kilt.  See  Gaiters. 

Highlands,  THE.  Name  given 
to  that  part  of  Scotland  lying  N. 
and  W.  of  a  line  drawn  from  Dum- 
barton on  the  W.  to  Stonehaven  on 
the  E.  The  limitations  are  vague, 
but  it  is  customary  to  exclude  the 
coastal  parts  of-  Aberdeenshire, 
Nairn,  Elgin,  and  Banff,  and  the 
Orkneys  and  Shetlands.  It  thus 
denotes  generally  the  mountainous 
parts  of  the  country  and  those, 
apart  from  Caithness  and  the  Ork- 
neys and  Shetlands,  where  the 
Celtic  race  and  the  Gaelic  speech 
predominate.  The  physical  con- 
figuration of  these  parts,  their 
relative  inaccessibility  and  barren- 
ness, and  the  racial  characteristics 
of  the  inhabitants  have  combined 
to  give  the  Highlands  a  distinctive 
place  throughout  Scottish  history, 
and  the  "  Highland  line"  still  marks 
real  differences  in  the  life  and 
manners  of  the  two  portions  of 
Scotland. 

Inverness  is  usually  counted  the 
capital  of  the  Highlands.  In  the 
glens  and  other  fertile  tracts  agri- 
culture is  carried  on,  mostly  in 
small-scale  farming ;  the  croft- 
system  prevails  in  many  of  the  re- 
moter districts.  Sheep-rearing  is 
of  great  importance,  sturdy  hill- 
sheep,  especially  of  the  black-faced 
varieties,  being  bred  in  large 
numbers.  The  grouse-moors,  deer- 
forests,  and  salmon  fisheries  are  of 
economic  importance,  and,  apart 
from  the  wealthy  classes  who  enjoy 
these  sports,  the  summer  months 
bring  numerous  tourists,  e.g.  to 
Oban,  Kingussie,  or  Strathpeffer. 


The  earliest  history  of  the  High- 
lands is  obscure  ;  neither  ethnolo- 
gists nor  antiquarians  have  deter- 
mined the  precise  development  of 
the  possibly  Iberian  dwellers  of 
prehistoric  times,  of  the  Goidels, 
Caledonians,  and  Picts  or  Cruitnigh. 
The  coming  of  S.  Columba  to  lona. 
A-.D.  563,  marks  the  beginnings  of 
Christianity  in  the  Highlands,  but 
their  history  throughout  the  Middle 
Ages  and  the  following  centuries  is 
a  long  record  of  confused  wars, 
now  with  Norsemen,  now  with  Low- 
landers,  now  among  the  rival  clans. 

The  first  great  step  towards 
settling  the  Highlands  was  the 
Statutes  of  lona,  1 609,  when  Bishop 
Knox  of  the  Isles  arranged  a  com- 
pact with  the  great  chiefs  to  regu- 
late such  matters  as  the  mainten- 
ance of  churches  and  clergy,  the 
reduction  of  the  chiefs'  retinues, 
education,  carrying  of  firearms, 
maintenance  of  inns,  etc.  Later 
came  the  road-building  of  General 
Wade,  1725,  and  the  wholesale 
abolition  of  hereditable  jurisdic- 
tions of  the  great  chiefs,  1748.  But 
conditions  remained  primitive  until 
well  on  in  the  19th  century.  Agri- 
culture was  improved  by  the  High- 
land and  Agricultural  Society, 
founded  1 784  ;  but  prolonged  emi- 
gration, and  the  great  "  clear- 
ances "  of  crofting  areas  to  make 
room  for  sheep-runs  in  the  early 
19th  century,  left  results  which 
are  still  felt  in  some  districts. 
Thus  it  is  not  uncommon  to 
find  glens  which  now  hold  a  mere 
handful  of  inhabitants,  where 
formerly,  as  local  records  and  the 
remains  of  cottages  and  sheilings 
attes't,  scores  of  families  were  able 
to  subsist.  But  it  is  certain  that, 
under  modern  conditions,  many 
such  tracts  are  economically  more 
fitted  for  sheep  than  smallholders. 

The  spread  of  education  and 
improved  transport  facilities  have 
greatly  modified  the  distinctive 
life  of  the  old  Highlanders,  but  the 
Gaelic  tongue  survives  in  many 
parts,  particularly  in  the  W.,  either 
alone  or  side  by  side  with  English. 
The  Celtic  customs  and  folklore  are 
not  forgotten,  and  the  Highland 
gatherings,  e.g.  of  Braemar  or 
Blair  Atholl,  foster  the  old  pipe- 
music,  dances,  and  sports.  Indeed, 
recent  j^ears  have  seen  a  marked 
revival  of  the  old  language,  music, 
and  traditions  which  were  in  grave 
danger  of  obliteration.  See  Celt ; 
Clan;  Gaelic;  Scotland;  consult 
also  History  of  the  Highlands  and 
Gaelic  Scotland,  D.  Mitchell,  1900; 
Language  and  Literature  of  the 
Highlands,  J.  S.  Blackie.  1872. 

J.  E.  Miles 

HIGHLAND  DRESS.  A  form  of  kil  t 
not  uncommon  in  Europe  in  early 
times.  It  was  used  notably  by  the 


Romans,  was  common  to  the  Irish, 
the  Manx,  the  Welsh,  and  ancient 
Britons,  and  is  still  the  national 
garb  of  the  Albanians.  In  Scotland 
it  appears  on  the  earliest  known 
records  of  that  land,  the  sculptured 
stones.  Among  these  the  Dupplin 
Cross  is  cited  by  Skene;  the  St. 
Andrews  altar  slab,  found  6  ft. 
below  the  ground, .  is  .referred  to- 
by Romilly  Allen  as  bearing  a 
figure  who  *  wears  a  plaid  and  kilt. 
These  monuments  prove  that  the 
ancient  Scots,  when  hunting  or  on 
horse -back,  wore  a  kilt -like  dress, 
falling  below  mid-thighs,  and  a 
plaid  across  the  shoulders.  Be- 
neath the  dress  the  Highlanders 
wore  what  was  called  the  lenicroich 
or  Highland  shirt,  in  Ireland  called 
the  lenn,  which  it  was  the  custom 
to  dye  with  saffron. 

Early  Form  of  Dress 

The  Scottish  dress  differed  from 
the  Roman,  Welsh,  and,  at  anv  rate 
from  the  later  forms  of,  the  Irish  and 
Manx  kilts,  in  the  important  fact 
that  it — an  breacan  feilidh — formed 
a  covering  for  the  whole  upper  part 
of  the  body.  It  consisted  of  a  great 
piece  of  tartan  cloth.  This  was 
spread  out  upon  the  floor  while  the 
owner  carefully  kilted,  that  is 
pleated,  one  end  of  it.  He  then  lay 
down  and  fastened  the  kilted  por- 
tion round  his  waist  with  a  belt. 
The  unkilted  part  lent  itself  to 
great  diversity  of  arrangement ; 
one  of  the  commonest  methods  was 
to  draw  it  up  the  back  and  on  to 
the  front  of  the  shoulder,  where  it 
was  fastened  by  a  brooch  of  large 
size,  ornamented  generally  with 
interlaced  patterns  and  cairngorm 
stones.  This  arrangement  left  a 
picturesque  loop  at  each  hip. 
The  sword  arm  was  unobstructed. 
The  back  portion  could  "also  be 
formed  into  a  cloak  which  covered 
the  head.  The  kilted  portion  was 
shorter  than  is  now  customary 
in  the  modern  stitched  and  de- 
tached kilt  or  feilidh' beag. 

The  length  of  the  breacan  feilidh 
was  probably  12  yards.  The  short 
jacket  opened  down  the  front  as 
in  the  time  of  the  ancient  Britons ; 
the  hose  and  the  broad  bonnet 
came  later.  The  latter,  with  its  red 
tourie,  looks  as  though  it  had  been 
evolved  from  the  round,  oval- 
topped  morion  which  is  shown  on 
the  sculptured  stones,  notably  on 
the  Aberlemno  stone. 

The  Glengarry  bonnet  was  said 
by  Logan  to  be  only  some  forty 
years  old,  but  it  is  improbable  that 
a  race  so  loyal  to  ancient  custom 
should  invent  a  new  bonnet  to 
replace  the  older  famous  one.  An 
examination  of  the  drawings  of 
the  Forteviot  stone,  which  is 
probably  as  ancient  as  its  model- 


HIGHNESS 


3989 


HIGH     SHERIFF 


Highland  Dress,  as  worn  by:    1.   The  Campbells  of  Breadalbane  ;  tartan,  green  with  double  stripes  of  yellow.     2.  The 

MacDonalds  of  Clan  Ranald  ;  tartan,  dark  and  light  green  with  red  stripes  ;  the  figure  is  armed  with  sword  and  leather 

target.    3.  The  Camerons  in  the  18th  century;  tartan,  red  with  green  and  white  stripes 


ling  is  primitive  and  crude,  brought 
the  writer  to  the  conclusion  that 
the  figure  portrayed  is  wearing  a 
"  Glengarry  "  with  a  decoration 
along  the  front,  where  we  now 
place  the  dam  brod  or  chequers. 
At  the  back  a  tuft  of  hair  is  show-  . 
ing,  and  round  this  flow  what  look 
like  the  tails  of  a  bonnet.  The 
Glengarry  shape  may  have  de- 
scended from  the  cap  of  main- 
tenance. The  truis  or  trews  (skin- 
tight breeches)  are  as  ancient  as  the 
plaid.  Similar  truis  were  worn  by 
the  most  servile  class  in  ancient 
Ireland,  and  amongst  the  Britons. 
They  were  probably  inherited 
from  the  slaves  who,  amongst  the 
Gaels,  were  either  of  the  conquered 
earlier  race,  or  Gaels  who  had  lost 
their  rank  as  freemen. 

The  modern  form  of  kilt,  or 
feilidh  beag  (i.e.  little  covering), 
can  be  traced  to  1626,  when  it  ap- 
pears on  the  arms  of  the  Burnets 
of  Leys.  The  feathers  worn  in 
the  Highland  bonnet  were,  says 
General  Stewart  (1822),  a  privilege 
accorded  as  a  token  of  gentility. 
The  jacket  and  the  hose  were  also 
of  tartan,  as  were  the  trews.  The 
hose  were  often  made  without 
feet,  and  were  in  that  case  known 
as  mogansi  The  bhrogan  (vrogan), 
i.e.  shoes,  were  cut  to  the  actual 
shape  of  the  foot,  and  had  holes 
in  them  for  the  escape  of  water. 
The  breacan  feilidh  was  common 
to  the  greater  part  of  Scotland,  and 
after  the  conquest  of  the  Lothians, 
if  it  had  ever  died  out  there, 
which  is  doubtful,  became  common 
to  all  Lowland  Scotland.  Part  of 


it,  the  plaid  and  braid,  or  Kilmar- 
nock  Tarn  o'  Shanter,  actually  lin- 
gered there  till  the  20th  century, 
though  now  seldom  seen  in  the 
market  places  of  Hawick  and  other 
Border  towns.  The  Highland  dress 
was  proscribed  by  Act  of  Parlia- 
ment in  1747,  but  the  Act  was  re- 
pealed amid  great  rejoicing  in  1786. 
See  Bagpipes;  Celt;  consult  also 
Celtic  Scotland,  W.  F.  Skene, 
1876-80  ;  Highland  Dress,  Arms 
and  Ornament,  Lord  Archibald 

Campbell,  1899.    McKenzie  McBride 

Highness.  Title  of  honour. 
Highness,  Grace,  and  Majesty  were 
applied  to  English  sovereigns  until 
the  reign  of  James  I,  when  Majesty 
became  the  official  style.  In  the 
British  royal  family,  Royal  High- 
ness is  used  for  children  of  the 
sovereign,  and  for  his  or  her  brothers, 
sisters,  uncles,  aunts,  grandchil- 
dren, if  children  of  sons,  and  great- 
grandchildren, if  children  of  the 
eldest  son  of  a  prince  of  Wales ;  ne- 
phews, nieces,  cousins,  and  children 
of  daughters  are  called  Highness. 

High  Priest.  Head  or  chief 
priest  of  the  Jewish  Church.  From 
Aaron,  to  whom  priestly  authority 
was  delegated  by  Moses,  the  office 
descended  by  primogeniture.  There 
appear  to  have  been  about  80  high 
priests  beginning  with  Aaron  and 
ending  with  Phannius,  but  the 
direct  Aaronic  line  ended  with 
Eleazar.  Their  history  covers  a 
period  of  about  1,370  years.  Their 
consecration  was  attended  by 
elaborate  ritual,  their  dress  was 
distinctive,  and  their  duties  in- 
cluded the  privilege  of  entering  the 


Sanctuary  on  the  Great  Day  of 
Atonement  to  make  propitiation. 
Details  of  their  consecration,  etc., 
arc  given  in  Exodus,  Leviticus, 
and  Numbers.  See  Aaron ;  Breast- 

Slate  ;  Ephod  ;  Priest ;  consult  also 
osephus's  Antiquities  of  the  Jews. 
High  Seas.  Name  given  to  the 
open  sea,  i.  e.  those  parts  of  t  he  ocean 
that  are  not  under  any  territorial 
sovereignty,  being  more  than  three 
miles  from  any  shore.  Germany 
called  her  fighting  fleet  the  high 
seas  fleet.  See  Freedom  of  the  Seas. 
High  Sheriff  (A.S.  scire  gerefa, 
reeve,  or  officer  of  the  shire).  One 
of  the  principal  subordinate  magis- 
trates in  England  to  whom  the 
custody  of  the  county  is  com- 
mitted by  the  crown  by  warrant 
under  the  hand  of  the  clerk  of  the 
privy  council.  In  some  counties 
the  office  was  anciently  hereditary, 
in  others  elective,  subject  to  the 
royal  approval.  To  obviate  the 
inconveniences  of  popular  election, 
a  statute  of  Edward  II  enacted 
that  the  sheriffs  should  be  as- 
signed by  the  chancellor,  trea- 
surer, and  judges  ;  and  since  the 
reign  of  Henry  VI  the  custom  has 
been  for  all  the  judges,  with  the 
other  great  officers  and  privy 
councillors,  to  meet  in  the  ex- 
chequer on  the  morrow  of  S. 
Martin,  and  to  propose  three  per- 
sons to  be  reported,  if  approved, 
to  the  sovereign,  who  afterwards 
pricks  one  of  them,  i.e.  appoints 
him  sheriff. 

Formerly  the  powers  and  duties 
'of  the  high  sheriff  were  very  great 
in  his  fourfold  capacity  of  judge, 


HIGH      TOR 


3990 


HIGH      WYCOMBE 


keeper  of  the  peace,  ministerial 
officer  of  the  superior  courts  of 
justice,  and  bailiff  of  the  sovereign. 
In  modern  times  his  duties  are 
mainly  performed  by  an  under- 
sheriff,  who  is  usually  a  solicitor, 
and  the  high  sheriff  "is  the  chief 
personage  of  the  county  who 
receives  the  judges  on  circuit,  acts 
as  returning  officer  at  elections, 
executes  civil  judgements,  and  sees 
to  the  due  carrying  out  of  the 
death  sentence.  Sheriffs  hold 
office  for  a  year,  and  no  man  who 
has  served  "can  be  compelled  to 
serve  again  within  three  years.  See 
County;  Sheriff. 

High  Tor.  Hill  near  Matlock, 
Derbyshire.  It  is  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Derwent,  between  Matlock 
and  Matlock  Bath,  and  is  380  ft. 
high.  On  the  other  side  of  the 
pass,  which  it  helps  to  form,  are 
the  Heights  of  Abraham.  Beneath 
the  hiJl  is  the  High  Tor  grotto, 
famous  for  its  crystallisations. 
See  Matlock. 

High  Water.  Term  used  for 
the  normally  highest  limit  of  the 
rise  of  the  tide  in  the  sea  or  river, 
and  for  the  time  of  such  rise.  High 
water  at  any  particular  place  by  the 
sea  happens  on  the  average  every 
12  hrs.  25  mins.,  so  that  it  becomes 
50  mins.  later  each  day.  Successive 
high  waters  are  often  not  of  the 
same  height,  and  vary  consider- 
ably at  different  times  of  the  year 
according  to  the  lie  of  the  land. 
High  water  level  in  rivers  is  usually 
the  highest  flood  level.  See  River ; 
Tides. 

Highwayman.  Name  given  to 
the  mounted  robbers  who  infested 
the  public  roads  in  England  from 
the  first  half  of  the  17th  century 
until  the  early  19th.  In  literature 
the  highwayman  was  a  familiar 
figure,  for  which  Falstaff  suggested 
such  poetical  designations  as 
"Diana's  foresters,  gentlemen  of 
the  shade,  minions  of  the  moon." 

Among  well-known  knights  of  the 
road  are  Claude  Duval  (1643-1670), 
who  is  remembered  by  the  episode 
depicted  in  W.  F.  Frith's  painting, 
where  he  is  dancing  a  coranto  with 
a  lady,  whose  husband,  after  pay- 
ing £100  for  the  entertainment, 
was  allowed  by  the  gallant  high- 
wayman to  keep  the  remaining 
£300  in  his  bag ;  and  Dick  Turpin 
(1706-1739). 

To  these  may  be  added  John 
or  William  Nevison  (1639-1684), 
nicknamed  "  Swift  Nicks "  by 
Charles  II ;  John  Cottington 
(1611-1656),  called  "  Mulled  Sack  " 
from  his  favourite  beverage,  who 
held  up  the  army-pay  wagon  on 
Shotover  Hill  and  decamped  with 
£4,000  ,  Jack  Rann  fd.  1774),  the 
dandy  highwayman,  nicknamed 
"  Sixteen-String  Jack  "  from  the 


bunches  of  ribbons  at  his  knees ; 
and  Louis  Jeremiah  Abershaw  or 
Avershawe  (c.  1773-1795),  com- 
monly known  as  Jerry  Abershaw. 

Highways.  Main  roads  from 
one  town  to  another  open  of  right 
to  all  passengers.  In  the  United 
Kingdom  every  parish  is  bound  of 
common  right  to  keep  in  repair  the 
roads  that  go  through  it.  A 
statute  of  Philip  and  Mary  enacted 
that  surveyors  of  the  highways 


High  Wycombe 
arms 


High  Tor,  Derbyshire,  seen  from  the  banks  of  the  river 
Derwent 

should  be  appointed  by  the  con- 
stable and  churchwardens  of  the 
parish,  and  another  statute  of 
William  IV  provided  for  their 
appointment  by  the  justices  if  not 
elected  by  the  inhabitants. 

These  surveyors  were  superseded 
by  highway  boards  for  highway 
districts  to  which  the  parishes  in 
the  district  returned  way  wardens ; 
and  the  highway  boards  in  turn 
were  replaced  by  the  urban  au- 
thorities constituted  in  1875. 
Finally  in  1888  the  Local  Govern- 
ment Act  committed  the  main- 
tenance of  the  highways  to  the 
county  councils,  the  powers  of 
rural  sanitary  and  highway  au- 
thorities being  afterwards  (1894) 
transferred  to  the  district  councils 
of  the  rural  districts.  See  Roads. 

High  Willhays.  Mt.  of  Devon, 
England.  It  is  4  m.  S.W.  of  Oke- 
hampton,  and  is  the  highest  point 
on  Dartmoor,  2,039  ft. 

High  Wood.  English  name  for 
a  wood  of  France, 
Bois  des  Four-  ': 
eaux,  in  the  dept. 
of  Somme.  ]  t 
stood  on  a  hill  1  m. 
N.E.  of  Bazentin- 
le  -  Grand  (q.v. ), 
and  became 
prominent  in 
the  Great  War. 
British  cavalry 
penetrated  it  on 
July  14,  1916, 
and  it  was  after- 
wards the  scene 
of  a  number  of 
attacks,  notably 


one  by  the  33rd  div.  on  July  20. 
On  Sept.  3  the  1st  div.  gained 
the  German  switch  line  running 
through  it,  but  lost  it  soon  after- 
wards. The  wood  was  carried  by 
the  47th  div.  on  Sept.  15.  During 
the  fierce  fighting  the  wood  was 
completely  destroyed.  See  Somme, 
Battles  of  the. 

High  Wycombe  OB  CHIPPING 
WYCOMBE.  Mun.  bor.  and  market 
town  of  Buckinghamshire.  England. 
....  Situated  in  a 
valley,  at  the  foot 
of  the  Chiltern 
Hills,  27  m.  from 
Paddington  on  the 
G.  W.  and  G.  C. 
joint  rly.,  its 
parish  church, 
the  largest  in  the 
co.,  was  founded 
in  the  llth  cen- 
tury, has  13-1 6th 
century  remains, 
and  was  restored 
in  1893.  It  has 
a  monument  to 
the  1st  earl  of 
Shelburne,  some 
time  owner  of  the 
Wycombe  Abbey  estate,  which 
passed  by  purchase  to  the  1st  Baron 
Carrington  in  1749.  Wycombe 
Abbey  school  for  girls  is  in  the 
grounds  of  the  earl  of  Shelburne's 
house.  Daws  Hill  Lodge  is  a  resi- 
dence of  the  mar- 
quess of  Lincoln- 
shire. Each  in- 
habitant possesses 
grazing  rights  on 
a  common  called 
The  Rye. 

The  Little 
Market  House 
dates  from  1604, 
the  town  hall  from  1757.  Near 
by  are  Hughenden,  in  1839-81 
the  home  of  the  earl  of  Beaconsfield, 
and  Penn,  the  supposed  birthplace 
of  William  Penn.  High  Wycombe 
is  a  centre  of  furniture-making. 
Paper  is  also  made.  It  returns  one 
member  to  the  House  of  Commons. 
Pop.  (1921)  21,952.  See  Beacons- 
field,  Earl  of. 


High  Wycombe.    Guildhall  and  market  place  ol   the 
Buckinghamshire  town 


H.I.H. 


HILL 


H.I.H.   Abbrev.  for  His  (or  Her) 

Imperial  Highness. 

Hilary  OR  HILARIUS  (c.  300-368). 
Saint  and  bishop.  Born  at  Poitiers, 
France,  the  son  of  pagan  parents 
of  high  social  standing,  he  was  con- 
verted to  Christianity  about  350. 
Chosen  bishop  of  his  native  city 
about  353,  probably  from  the  rank 
of  a  laic,  he  became  famous  as 
an  opponent  of  Arianism.  He  was 
banished  to  Phrygia  by  the  Emperor 
Constantius,  356-360.  He  died  at 
Poitiers,  Jan.  13,  368,  and  was 
declared  a  doctor  of  the  Church 
by  Pius  IX,  1851. 

Hilary  wrote  a  History  of  Synods, 
a  survey  of  the  councils  of  the 
East  on  Arianism  ;  a  defence  of 
the  Nicene  faith,  addressed  among 
others  to  the  British  bishops ; 
a  work  of  permanent  value  on  The 
Trinity,  denning  the  philosophic 
doctrine  of  the  divinity  of  Christ, 
and  a  smaller  tractate  against  the 
Arians.  His  other  writings  included 
a  commentary  on  Matthew  and 
an  exposition  of  the  Psalms.  His 
hymns  are  lost.  Churches  at 
Wallasey,  Cheshire  ;  Spridlington, 
Lincolnshire  ;  and  the  village  and 
church  of  S.  Hilary,  Cornwall,  are 
named  in  his  memory.  See  S.  Hilary 
of  Poitiers,  J.  G.  Cazenove,  1883. 

The  narno  Hilary  Sittings,  pe- 
culiar to  the  English  law  courts,  is 
a  survival  of  Hilary  Term  (Jan.  11 
-Jan.  31 ),  named  after  the  festival 
of  the  saint,  and  one  of  the  four 
terms  of  the  legal  year,  for  which 
Hilary  Sittings  was  substituted  in 
1873.  These  sittings  begin  on  Jan. 
1 1  and  end  on  the  Wednesday  before 
Easter.  In  the  Inns  of  Court  (q. v.), 
Hilary  is  one  of  the  four  dining 
terms,  Jan.  11-Feb.  1.  Hilary  term 
is  the  name  given  at  Oxford  Uni- 
versity to  the  term  which  begins  on 
Jan.  14  and  lasts  until  the  Saturday 
preceding  Palm  Sunday.  See  Term. 

Hilda  OR  HILD  (614-680).  Eng- 
lish saint  and  abbess.  Daughter  of 
a  nephew  of  King  Edwin  of  North- 
umbria,and  baptized  byPaulinus  in 
627,  she  adopted  the  monastic  habit 
when  33  and  went  to  East  Anglia 
with  a  view  to  emulating  the  ex- 
ample of  her  sister  Hereswid,  a  nun 
of  Chelles,  near  Paris.  She  became 
abbess  of  Hartlepool,  and  in  657 
founded  the  Benedictine  abbey  at 
Whitby  where,  as  at  Hartlepool,  she 
presided  over  a  community  of  men 
and  women.  Here  she  received  the 
poet  Caedmon  (q.  v. ),  who,  under  her 
advice,  became  a  monk  ;  her  coun- 
sel was  sought  by  some  of  the  most 
influential  people  in  the  country. 
Shortly  after  founding  a  monastery 
at  Hackness,  she  died  at  Whitby, 
Nov.  17,  680.  See  Vita  Sanctae 
Hildae,  A.  D.  H.  Leadman,  1902  ; 
Dictionary  of  Saintly  Women, 
A.  B.  C.  Dunbar,  1904. 


Hildburghausen.  Town  of 
Germany,  in  Saxe-Meiningen.  It 
stands  on  the  Werra,  10  m.  by 
rly.  S.E.  of  Meiningen,  and  S.  of 
the  Thuringian  Forest.  It  pos- 
sesses an  old  Rathaus,  a  technical 
institute,  and  school  of  agriculture, 
as  well  as  several  churches.  It  has 
also  a  park  and  a  theatre.  The 
castle,  in  which  its  dukes  formerly 
lived,  is  now  a  barracks.  There  are 
a  number  of  manufactures,  chiefly 
textiles,  but  also  toys  and  mach- 
inery. Hildburghausen  was  in  the 
Middle  Ages  part  of  Thuringia,  and 
then  of  Saxony.  From  1683  to 
1 826  it  was  the  capital  of  the  small 
duchy  of  Saxe  -  Hildburghausen. 
The  palace  was  built  before  1700, 
by  the  first  duke.  Pop.  7,700. 

Hildebrand.  Name  of  Gregory 
VII  before  he  was  chosen  pope.  Of 
Teutonic  origin,  it  means  battle- 
sword,  and  appears  in  the  Nibe- 
lungen  Lied.  It  is  occasionally  used 
as  a  Christian  name  to-day.  See 
Gregory  VII. 

Hilden.  Town  of  Germany,  in 
the  Rhine  prov.  of  Prussia.  It  lies 
6  m.  S.E.  of  Diisseldorf,  and  is  an 
industrial  town.  Among  its  manu- 
factures are  machinery,  carpets, 
and  other  textiles.  Pop.  16,900. 

Hildesheim.  City  of  Germany, 
in  the  Prussian  prov  of  Hanover. 
It  lies  18  m.  S.S.E.  of  Hanover,- in 
the  valley  of  the  Innerste.  The 
chief  ecclesiastical  buildings  are 
the  cathedral,  S.  Michael's  Church, 
and  the  churches  of  S.  Andreas, 
S.  Godehard,  and  the  Magdalen. 
The  cathedral,  erected  in  the  llth 
century,  suffered  from  unwise 
restoration  in  the  18th;  it  con- 
tains some  good  early  work  and 
many  relics  and  antiquities.  S. 
Michael's,  founded  in  the  llth  cen- 
tury, was  restored  in  the  19th 
century,  and  is  one  of  the  most 


^^Mfe,       ' 

IP  V 


Hildesheim.    The  Roland  Hospital, 

with   carved    beams    and    panels. 

built  in  1611 


beautiful  Renaissance  churches  in 
Germany.  On  the  flat  ceiling  of  the 
nave  are  some  paintings  illustrat- 
ing the  genealogy  of  Christ.  The 
city  has  many  interesting  secular 
buildings,  among  them  the  Rathaus 
(14th  century),  the  Kaiscrhaus,  and 
the  Tempelhaus.  A  wooden  build- 
ing, the  restored  guildhouse  of  the 
butchers,  is  noteworthy,  as  are  the 
market  square  of  the  old  town  and 
a  fountain.  Of  the  museums  the 
Romer  is  the  chief.  The  suburb  of 
Moritzberg  has  an  abbey  church 
dating  from  the  llth  century  and 
restored  in  the  18th.  The  city's  in- 
dustries include  ironfounding  and 
sugar-refining.  It  has  a  service  of 
electric  tramways. 

Hildesheim  was  made  the  seat 
of  a  bishop  in  814.  In  1241  it 
joined  the  Hanseatic  League  and 
was  a  free  city  until  1803.  It  was 
in  the  Middle  Ages  a  centre  of  Ger- 
man art.  Pop.  54,800. 

Hill,  ROWLAND  HILL,  IST  VIS- 
COUNT ( 1 772-1 842 ).  British  soldier. 
Born  at  Prees  Hall,  near  Hawk- 
stone,     Shrop- 
shire, Aug.  11, 
1772,  he  was  a 
son  of  Sir  John 
Hill,  Bart.    He 
1    entered    the 
4p**jf          army  in  1790, 
SJj|teM«)         and     served 
|    under   Aber- 
1st  Viscount  HilC      cromby      in 
British  soldier          Egypt  in  1 80 1 , 

After  W.  Halnei  being    ill     COm- 

mand  of  the  90th  regiment.  During 
the  Peninsular  War  he  was  present 
at  most  of  the  chief  battles,  and  at 
the  end  of  the  war  was  one  of  the 
five  of  Wellington's  chief  officers 
honoured  with  a  peerage  in  1814. 
He  also  did  notable  service  at 
Waterloo.  He  was  commander-in- 
•chief  from  1828-42,  a  position 
which  he  filled  with  conspicuous 
success.  In  1842  he  was  created  Vis- 
count Hill,  and  died  near  Shrews- 
bury, Dec.  10,  of  the  same  year. 

Hill,  CARMEN  (b.  1883).  British 
singer.  Born  in  Aberdeen,  she 
studied  at  the  Royal  Academy  of 
Music,  and  made  her  first  public 
appearance  in  London  in  1903. 
Her  success  made  her  well  known 
as  one  of  the  leading  mezzo- 
soprano  singers  in  Britain. 

Hill,  DAVID  JAYNE  (b.  1850). 
American  his- 
torian and  dip- 
lomatist. Born 
at  Plainfield, 
New  Jersey, 
June  10,  1850, 
he  was  edu- 
cated at  Buck- 
nell  Univer- 
sity, and  in 

Paris  and  Ber-       David  Jayne  H^ 
lin.      He     was      American  historian 


HILL 

president  of  Bucknell,  1879-88, 
and  of  the  University  of  Rochester 
until  1896.  As  an  authority  on 
diplomacy  and  international  law, 
in  1899  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  European  diplomacy  in 
the  school  of  comparative  juris- 
prudence at  Washington,  and  con- 
currently was  an  assistant  sec- 
retary of  state.  From  1903-11  he 
represented  his  country  as  am- 
bassador in  Europe :  first  to 
Switzerland,  then  to  the  Nether- 
lands, and  from  1908-11  in  Berlin. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Hague 
Tribunal,  and  a  delegate  to  the 
second  peace  conference.  In  1914 
he  was  an  unsuccessful  candidate 
for  the  Senate.  Hill's  most  im- 
portant books  are  on  diplomacy, 
especially  his  valuable  A  History 
of  Diplomacy  in  the  International 
Development  of  Europe,  in  six  vols. 
He  also  wrote  lives  of  Washington 
Irving,  1879,  and  W.  C.  Bryant, 
1879  ;  The  Life  and  Work  of  Hugo 
Grotius,  1902  ;  and  Impressions  of 
the  Kaiser,  1918. 

Hill,FLORENCE  DAVENPORT  (1829 
-1919).  British  philanthropist. 
Her  early  childhood  was  spent  in 
the  Vale  of 
Health,Hamp- 
stead,  where 
her  parents  en- 
joyed the  so- 
ciety of  Leigh 
Hunt,  Joanna 
Baillie,  and 
others.  When 
still  in  her 
girlhood  she 
assisted  her 
father,  then 
recorder  of 
Birmingham,  in  his  many  writings 
to  promote  the  creation  of  reform- 
atories for  juvenile  offenders.  In 
1868  she  wrote  Children  of  the 
State,  in  which  she  urged  the 
abolition  of  the  old  system  of 
herding  them  together  in  work- 
houses, and  advocated  boarding 
out  in  cottage  homes. 

In  the  early  'seventies  she  became 
one  of  the  first  female  poor  law 
guardians.  In  1908  Miss  Hill  drafted 
the  bill  for  the  installation  of  chil- 
dren's courts,  which  secured  that  re- 
form. She  also  took  a  great  inter- 
est in  female  suffrage.  Her  home  at 
Headington,  near  Oxford,  was  a 
philanthropic  centre.  In  her  work 
she  was  actively  assisted  by  her 
sisters  Rosamond  and  Joanna. 
She  died  Nov.  2,  1919. 

Hill,  GEORGE  BIRKBECK  NORMAN 
(1835-1903).  British  author.  Born 
at  Tottenham,  Middlesex,  England, 
June  7,  1835,  he  was  a  nephew  of 
Sir  Rowland  Hill,  the  postal  re- 
former. Educated  at  Bruce  Castle 
School  and  Pembroke1  College,  Ox- 
ford, he  was,  1859-76,  headmaster 


Florence  D.  Hill, 
British  philanthropist 

Elliott  &  Fry 


G.  Birkbeck  Hill, 
British  author 


3992 

of  Bruce  Castle  School,  founded  by 
his  father,  and  then  adopted  au- 
thorship,de  voting  himself  especially 
to  the  life  and  times  of  Samue 
Johnson.  He  died  at  Holly  Hill, 
Hampstead,  Feb.  27,  1903. 

He  brought  out  Dr.  Johnson, 
His  Friends  and  His  Critics,  1878  ; 
Wit  and  Wisdom  of  Dr.  Johnson, 
1888;  Foot- 
steps of  Dr. 
Johnson  in 
Scotland, 
1890;  John- 
sonian Miscel- 
lanies, 2  vols., 
1897;  edited 
Boswell's  Cor- 
respon  d  e  n  c  e, 
1879;Bosweirs 
Life  of  ])r- 
Eiiiott&Fry  Johnson,  6 

vols.,  1887;  Rasselas,  1888;  Select 
Essays  of  Dr.  Johnson,  1889;  Letters 
of  Johnson,  2  vols.,  1892;  Johnson's 
Lives  of  the  English  Poets,  3  vols., 
1905  ;  and  was  the  author  of  a 
Life  of  Sir  Rowland  Hill,  2  vols., 
1880  ;  Colonel  Gordon  in  Central 
Africa,  1881  ;  Goldsmith's  Travel- 
ler, 1888  ;  Worldly  Wisdom  of  Lord 
Chesterfield,  1891  ;  Writers  and 
Readers,  1892  ;  Harvard  College, 
by  an  Oxonian,  1894  ;  Letters  of 
D.  G.  Rossetti  to  William  Ailing- 
ham,  1897  ;  Unpublished  Letters  of 
Dean  Swift,  1899  ;  and  Memoirs  of 
tbe  Life  of  Edward  Gibbon,  1900. 
His  letters  appeared  1903-6. 

ffill,  JAMES  JEROME  (1838-1916). 
American  rly.  magnate.  Born  in 
Ontario,  Sept.  16,  1838,  he  gradu- 
ated at  Yale  and  from  1856-65  was 
employed  in  clerical  work  in  St. 
Paul,  Minnesota.  In  the  latter  year 
he  became  agent  of  the  N.W. 
Packet  Co.  and  in  1870  organized 
the  Red  River  Transport  Co.,  by 
which  communication  was  estab- 
lished between  St.  Paul  and  Winni- 
peg. From  1879-90  he  controlled 
the  St.  Paul,  Minneapolis,  and 
Manitoba  railroad,  which  he  had 
founded,  and  on  its  incorporation 
with  the  Great  Northern  became 
president  of  the  latter,  which,  with 
its  transcontinental  line  to  Puget 
Sound,  ran  a  steamship  line  to 
China  and  Japan.  Hill  controlled 
many  large  railway  and  banking 
enterprises.  He  died  May  29,  1916. 
Hill,  JOHN  (c.  1716-75).  British 
quack  doctor.  An  unsuccessful 
apothecary  with  a  leaning  towards 
literature,  in  1746  he  produced 
The  British  Magazine,  and  on  the 
ueath  of  this  journal  contributed  a 
series  of  gossiping  letters  signed 
The  Inspector  to  The  London  Ad- 
vertiser, which  gained  him  a  cer- 
tain reputation.  Running  foul  of 
Fielding,  he  drew  on  himself  a 
severe  castigation  in  the  latter's 
Covent  Garden  Journal,  1752  ;  he 


HILL 

also  abused  Garrick,  Woodward 
the  actor,  and  Christopher  Smart. 
In  1759  he  returned  to  his  herbal 
studies  and  began  The  Vegetable 
System,  an  undertaking  which  re- 
duced him  to  poverty,  and  he  was 
obliged  to  earn  a  livelihood  by 
quack  doctoring.  He  died  Nov.  21, 
1775.  His  life's  work  may  be 
summed  up  in  Garrick's  epigram  : 

For    physic    and    farces    his    equal    there 

scarce  is, 
His  farces  are   physic,   his  physic  a  farce 

Hill,  LEONARD  ERSKINE  (b.1866). 
British  physiologist.  The  son  of 
G.  Birkbeck  Hill,  he  was  born  June 
2,  1866,  and  educated  at  Hailey- 
bury.  Graduating  at  University  Col- 
lege, London,  he  became  professor 
of  physiology  in  the  London  Hos- 
pital. Amongst  other  works  he 
published  Physiology  and  Patho- 
logy of  the  Cerebral  Circulation, 
1896;  Manual  of  Human  Phy- 
siology, 1899  ;  Physiology  for  Be- 
ginners, 1902;  Text-book  of  Phy- 
siology, 1919. 

Hill,  OCTA VIA  (1838-1912).  Brit- 
ish philanthropist.     She  received 
her  education  at  home,  and  early 
undertook  the 
management 
of    homes   for 
the   people 
•    in    London. 
I    Among   her 
numerous 
charitable  and 
social      aotivi- 
t  i  e  s    were 
efforts   on   be- 
Octavia  Hill,  half    nf    wn 

British  philanthropist    [l 

men  s    umver- 

After  Sargent,  by  cotir.  . 

leiy  o}  Charity  Organ.       Slty    Settle- 
ment s,      t  h  e 

preservation  of  the  public  commons 
and  of  places  of  historic  interest. 
She  was  connected  almost  from 
the  first  with  the  Charity  Organisa- 
tion and  Kyrle  societies.  She  was 
a  member  of  the  royal  commission 
on  the  Poor  Laws,  1905.  Among 
her  published  works  were  Homes  of 
the  London  Poor,  and  Our  Common 
Land.  She  died  Aug.  13,  1912. 

Hill,  SIR  ROWLAND  (1795-1879). 
British  reformer.  Born  at  Kidder- 
minster, Dec.  3,  1795,  he  was  for 
some  time  en- 


ing,after  which 
he  devoted  his 
attention  t  o 
matters  of 
social  and 

fublicinterest. 
n    1837    he 
pu  blished  a 
pamphlet    en- 
titled Post 
Office     Re- 
form, in  which  he  advocated  a  uni- 
form rate  of  postage  at  a  penny  a 
half  ounce  prepaid  by  an  adhesive 


stamp.  Despite  official  opposition 
a  bill  to  this  effect  was  carried 
through  Parliament  in  1839,  and  on 
Jan.  10,  1840,  penny  postage  came 
into  force.  In  1846  he  was  pre- 
sented with  £13,000  raised  by  pub- 
lic subscription;  in  1847  he  was 
made  an  under-secretary  at  the 
post  office.  He  was  chief  secretary 
1854-04,  and  was  made  a  K.C.B. 
in  1860.  He  died  at  Hampstead, 
Aug.  27,  1879. 

Hill,     ROWLAND     (1744-1833). 
English  preacher.    Born  at  Hawk- 
stone  Park,  Aug.  12,  1744,  the  son 
^^^^^^^^^_  of  Sir  Rowland 
I   Hill,    Bart.   (d. 
I    1783),    he    was 
M  educated   at 
I   Eton    and    S. 
1   John's  College, 
j^lj   Cambridge.    In 

'""IBS  1 773  he  became 

I   curate  at  King- 
-  JHHI  ston,  Somerset- 
Rowland  Hill,  chiro     Hninrr 

English  preacher 

then  in  dea- 
con's orders.  Rejected  for  the 
priesthood  owing  to  his  eccen- 
tricity, .  he  continued  to  preach 
about  the  country  as  one  of  the 
numerous  and  nominal  chaplains 
to  Selina,  Lady  Huntingdon  (q.v.). 
In  1783  he  commenced  a  ministry  at 
Surrey  Chapel,  Blackfriars  Road, 
London,  built  by  himself,  where  he 
attracted  huge  congregations.  He 
died  April  11,  1833.  His  book, 
Village  Dialogues,  went  through 
numerous  editions. 

Hill  60.  A  low,  almost  invisible 
eminence,  2£  m.  S.E.  of  Ypres, 
near  Zillebeke,  Belgium.  It  was 
of  tactical  importance  in  the 
Great  War,  as  the  fire  from  it  en- 
filaded the  British  position  in  the 
Ypres  salient,  and  the  summit  gave 
the  Germans  good  observation  of 
the  British  movements.  In  April, 
1915,  six  mines  were  run  under  it, 
each  containing  a  ton  of  explosives, 
though  owing  to  the  wetness  of 
the  giound  mining  operations 
here  \\  ere  of  peculiar  difficulty. 
The  dace  fixed  for  their  explosion 
was  7  a.m.  on  April  17,  when  the 
hill  was  to  be  assaulted  by  two 
battalions  of  the  13th  brigade. 
The  effect  of  the  mines  was  great, 
and  beiore  the  smoke  had  scattered 
the  British  had  seized  the  top. 

Theii  task  was  then  to  consoli- 
date their  position  under  the  heavy 
fire  of  the  German  artillery,  which 
was  at  once  turned  upon  them, 
and  k;  construct  the  necessary 
communication  trenches.  All  the 
night  of  April  17-18,-  German 
bombing  parties  attacked,  work- 
ing forward  amidst  the  numerous 
shell  craters  which  covered  the 
slopes  of  the  hill.  At  dawn  there 
was  a  more  resolute  advance  by 
the  Germans,  and  they  actually 


3993 . 

reached  the  crest,  on  part  of  which 
they  established  themselves.  In 
the  evening  of  the  18th  the  British 
infantry  once  more  assaulted  this 
German  lodgment  and  cleared  it 
out  after  a  desperate  struggle  in 
which  the  British  losses  were  over 
1,500.  Next  day  the  Germans  re- 
doubled their  bombardment,  with 
serious  effect. 

The  summit  was  small  and  only  a 
few  men  could  be  stationed  on  it 
without  dangerous  overcrowding. 
All  April  19, 20,  and  21,  the  crest  was 
held,  though  the  casualties  multi- 
plied fearfully.  By  the  night  of 
April  21,  when  the  Germans  tem- 
porarily ceased  their  attacks  and 
relaxed  the  vehemence  of  their  fire, 
the  British  losses  on  the  hill  ex- 
ceeded 3,000.  It  remained  in  Brit- 
ish hands  without  challenge  until 
May  1,  when  the  Germans  attemp- 
ted to  overwhelm  its  small  garrison 
with  chlorine  gas,  discharged  from 
cylinders,  and  did  actually  kill  or 
put  temporarily  out  of  action  most 
of  the  garrison,  but  they  were  not 
able  to  establish  themselves  in  the 
British  works  owing  to  the  fumes. 

On  May  5  they  repeated  this 
gas  attack  and  rendered  the  sole 
British  trench  on  the  summit  un- 
tenable, seizing  it  when  the  fumes 
were  dissipated.  Thus,  the  crest 
once  more  passed  into  their  pos- 
session, though  the  British  could 
not  be  dislodged  from  the  western 
slope,  to  which  they  clung  reso- 
lutely. Until  June,  1917,  the  crest 
remained  in  German  hands.  It 
was  recovered  by  the  British  in 
the  operations  for  the  capture  of 
the  Messines  Ridge,  but  it  once 
more  passed  to  the  Germans  when, 
after  the  German  offensive  on  the 
Lys,  Kemmel  Hill  fell  into  their 
hands,  and  the  British  had  to  draw 
in  their  lines  before  Ypres  and 
prepare  for  a  possible  evacuation 
of  the  salient,  in  April,  1918.  It 
was  recovered  with  ease  in  the 
offensive  of  Sept.,  1918.  The  site 
of  the  hill  was  purchased  in  1920 
for  a  war  memorial.  See  Hooge. 

Hill  60.  Hill  in  Gallipoli  penin- 
sula, in  the  northern  part  of  the 
Sari  Bair  range  (q.v.).  In  the 
course  of  the  British  campaign 
there  in  the  Great  War,  Australian 
infantry,  on  Aug.  21,  1915,  drove 
the  Turks  from  their  trenches  on 
the  hill,  enabling  the  British  line 
to  be  linked  up  with  a  trench  line 
instead  of  isolated  posts.  See  Gal- 
lipoli, Campaign  in;  Suvla  Bay, 
Battle  of. 

Hill  63.  Hill  of  Belgium,  in 
the  prov.  of  W.  Flanders.  About 
1£  m.  N  W.  of  Ploegsteert  Wood 
and  206  ft.  high,  its  commanding 
position  made  it  a  famous  obser- 
vation post  for  the  British  in  the 
Great  War.  In  the  German -offen- 


HILLA 

sive  towards  the  Channel  Ports  in 
April,  1918,  it  came  into  great, 
prominence,  being  defended  by 
the  25th  div.,  on  April  11.  Subse- 
quently taken  by  the  Germans, 
it  was  recaptured  by  the  29th 
and  36th  divisions  early  in  Sept. 
See  Flanders,  Battle  of;  Ypres, 
Battles  of. 

Hill  70.  Hill  of  France,  in  the 
dept.  of  Pas-de-Calais.  It  is  230 
ft.  high  and  overlooks  Loos  on 
the  S.E.  and  dominates  Lens. 
In  the  battle  of  Loos,  Sept.,  1915, 
being  then  behind  the  German  re- 
serve line,  it  was  a  main  objective 
of  the  British ;  it  was  captured 
on  Sept.  25  by  the  15th  Scottish 
div.,  but  the  position  N.  of  it  was 
lost  the  following  day.  The  Guards 
made  a  brilliant  attack  on  the  hill, 
Sept.  27,  and  the  ground  to  the 
N.  was  recaptured  next  day.  The 
hill,  the  greater  part  of  which  was 
left  in  the  German  possession,  was 
finally  taken  by  Canadian  troops 
in  Aug.,  1917.  See  Loos,  Battle  of. 

Hill  70.  Hill  in  Gallipoli  penin- 
sula, 3  m.  E.  of  Suvla  Bay.  It  is 
also  known  as  Scimitar  Hill,  and 
forms  one  of  a  group  of  hills  behind 
the  Suvla  Plain.  It  was  the  objec- 
tive in  the  second  phase  of  the 
Suvla  operations,  Aug.,  1915. 
After  a  strong  bombardment  by 
the  British,  the  87th  Brigade,  at 
3.30  p.m.,  Aug.  21,  advanced 
against  the  hill,  which  was  strongly 
entrenched  by  the  Turks.  The  1st 
Inniskilling  Fusiliers  and  the  1st 
Border  Regiment  almost  gained  the 
crest,  but  the  Turks'  guns  from 
behind  Hill  100  kept  them  from 
completely  winning  the  hill. 

An  attack  on  the  S.  side  by  the 
2nd  S.W.  Borderers  failed.  At  5 
p.m.  the  mounted  div.,  consisting 
of  Yeomanry,  formed  up  below  the 
87th  brigade  between  the  two  hills, 
and  as  darkness  fell  charged  up 
Hill  70.  They  reached  the  southern 
top  and  occupied  part  of  the 
enemy's  trenches,  but  retreated 
owing  to  the  Turks'  gun-fire. 
Another  attack  later  in  the  even- 
ing carried  the  Yeomanry  to  the 
crest,  where  they  bayoneted  the 
Turks  in  their  trenches,  and  went 
down  the  reverse  slopes  in  pursuit 
of  the  enemy.  The  position  was 
abandoned  during  the  night.  See 
Gallipoli,  Campaign  in ;  Suvla  Bay, 
Battle  of. 

Hilla  OR  HILLEH.  Town  of  Meso 
potamia.  Situated  on  the  Lower 
Euphrates,  and  built  amid  the 
ruins  of  Babylon,  it  is  about  60  m. 
S.  of  Bagdad  on  the  rly.  from  Bag- 
dad to  Basra.  Kerbela  lies  a  few 
miles  N.W.  and  Nejef  about  the 
same  distance  S.W.  of  it,  and  it  is 
much  frequented  by  Shiah  pilgrims 
on  their  way  to  those  Holy  Cities. 
Pop.  about  30,000. 


HILLER 


3994 


HILVERSUM 


Killer,  FERDINAND  (1811-85). 
German  composer  and  pianist- 
Born  at  Frankfort-on-Main,  of 
Jewish  parents,  Oct.  24,  1811,  he 
showed  great  gifts  as  a  pianist  when 
still  a  youth.  After  living  in  Paris 
for  some  years,  where  he  played 
frequently,  he  went  in  1850  to 
Cologne,  where  he  organized  the 
Conservatoire  and  became  its  first 
director,  retaining  that  post  until 
his  death,  May  10,  1885.  Killer's 
compositions  include  operas,  son- 
atas, quartets,  etc. 

Hill-fort.  Stronghold  erected 
upon  the  summit  of  a  natural 
eminence.  Developed  in  the  late 
neolithic  and  early  metal  ages, 
sometimes  for  occasional  refuge 
rather  than  continuous  occupa- 
tion, many  thousands  are  scattered 
throughout  the  United  Kingdom. 
They  usually  comprise  artificial 
ramparts  following  the  contour  of 
hilltops,  and  utilising  natural  de- 
fences where  they  exist.  In  Eng- 
land and  Ireland  they  are  usually 
of  earthwork,  in  Wales  and  Scot- 
land more  commonly  of  stone. 

Notable  examples  are  those  on 
the  Herefordshire  Beacon  near  Mal- 
vern  ;  Chanctonbury  Hill,  Sussex  ; 
Hembury  Fort,  Devon  ;  Pillesdon 
Pen  and  Maiden  Castle,  Dorset ; 
Castle-an-Dinas  and  the  drystone 
Carn  Brea,  Cornwall ;  and  Tre'r 
Ceiri,  Carnarvonshire.  Some  of 
them  became  adapted  to  Roman, 
Saxon,  and  even  Norman  use.  Simi- 
lar earthworks  in  Ireland  are  called 
raths,  as  on  Tara  Hill,  co.  Meath. 
The  Aran  Isles,  off  Galway,  contain 
some  superb  stone  forts  which — as 
in  N.  Scotland — are  called  duns. 

Hill-forts  arose  in  ancient  Pales- 
tine, as  at  Gezer,  and  were  greatly 
developed  by  the  ancient  and 
medieval  military  communities  of 
Europe  and  Asia,  being  found 
from  the  Pyrenees  to  the  Indo- 
Afghan  frontier,  with  neolithic 
examples  in  the  Deccan.  There 
are  hundreds  of  them  in  New  Zea- 
land, with  palisaded  ramparts  and 
ditches,  ultimately  derived  from 
prehistoric  contact  with  these  Cau- 
casian models.  Primitive  strong- 
holds were  sometimes  established  in 
such  commanding  situations  that 
they  gave  birth  to  some  of  the 
world's  greatest  cities,  such  as 
Jerusalem,  Athens,  Rome,  and 
Edinburgh.  See  Dun ;  Rath  : 
Vitrified  Fort. 

Hillhead.  Parish  and  burgh  oi 
Lanarkshire,  Scotland.  It  is  con- 
nected with  Glasgow,  of  which  it 
forms  a  residential  suburb,  by  a 
bridge  over  the  Kelvin,  rebuilt  in 
1894.  Glasgow  University  is  in 
Hillhead.  See  Glasgow. 

Hills  borough.  Market  town  of 
co.  Down,  Ireland.  It  is  12  m. 
from  Belfast,  and  is  served  by  the 


Hilt.  1.  Italian  sword,  16th  century.  2.  Turkish  yataghan.  3.  Japanese, 
17th  cent.  4.  Persian  sabre.  5.  French,  17th  cent.  6.  Backsword,  17th 
cent.  7.  Sword,  12th  cent.  8.  Italian,  16th  cent.  9.  Sikh  tulwar. 
10.  Italian  rapier,  17th  cent.  11.  Bilbao  cut  and  thrust  sword.  12.  Cut 
and  thrust,  15th  cent. 


Great  Northern  of  Ireland  Rly., 
and  the  Lagan  Canal.  The  chief 
industry  is  the  linen  manufacture. 
The  town  arose  around  the  resi- 
dence of  the  Hills,  hence  its  name, 
and  the  marquess  of  Downshire, 
the  head  of  that  family,  still  lives 
at  Hillsborough  Castle.  Pop.  540. 

Hill  Tippera.  State  of  India, 
under  the  government  of  Bengal. 
Its  area  is  4,086  sq.  m.  The  area 
under  cultivation  is  uncertain,  but 
rice  and  cotton  are  the  chief  crops. 
The  capital  is  Agartala.  Pop. 
229,600,  two-thirds  Hindus,  one- 
quarter  Mahomedans. 

Hilmi  Pasha,  HUSSEIN  (1856- 
1923).  Turkish  statesman.  Hav- 
ing occupied  posts  in  the 


Hilt.  Handle  of  a  sword.  It  is 
an  Anglo-Saxon  word,  and  from 
it  comes  the  phrase  "up  to  the 
•hilt,"  meaning  thoroughly,  the 
sword  having  been  driven  in  as  far 
as  it  will  go.  See  Celt ;  Sword. 

Hilton,      HAROLD       HOESFALL 
(b.  1869).    British  golfer.    Born  at 
West    Kirby,    Cheshire,    Jan.    12, 
1869,    he    won    nra^^^n^^M 
the    open   golf    | 
champions  hip    1 
in     1892     and 
1897,   and   the 
Irish    open 
championship 


_^^  Turkish    pro- 

jflBflH^  vinces,  he  was 

appointed 
IB          minister  of  the 
jp          interior     in 
W  *&>  1908,      was 

grand    vizier 
ror    seven 
months 
1909,    and 
1912    became 
ambassador  to 

Vienna  after  a  brief  term  as  minis- 
ter of  justice.  His  grand  vizier- 
ship  in  1914  was  marked  by 
his  sympathetic  attitude  towards 
British  interests  and  aims  in  the 
Great  War,  and  by  hostility  to 
Germany  He  died  April  3,  1923 


Hilmi  Pasha, 
Turkish  statesman 


in   1897,   1900, 
1901,  and  1902. 
He    was    ama- 
teur champion          "H.  H.  Hilton, 
in    1900,   1901,          British  golfer 
1911,  and  1913  ;  and  runner-up  in 
1891,  1892,  and  1896.     In  1911  he 
won  the  American  amateur  cham- 
pionship.     He   wrote   My   GolHng 
Reminiscences,  1907. 

Hilton  of  Cad  boll.     Village  on 
i  n    the  Moray  Firth,  Scotland.      Until 
in    1921  it  possessed  a  sculptured  stone 
containing    carvings    of    high    an- 
tiquity.  In  1921  it  was  presented  to 
the  nation.    See  Sculptured  Stones. 

Hilversum.  Market  town  of 
the  Netherlands,  in  the  prov.  of 
N.  Holland.  It  is  situated  in  a 
hilly  and  sandy  district,  18  m.  by 
rly.  E.S.E.  of  Amsterdam,  and 
is  a  favourite  summer  resort.  It 


H.I.M. 

is  the  junction  for  Amersfoort, 
and  is  connected  by  steam  tram- 
way with  Huizen  and  Laren.  The 
town  possesses  a  town  hall,  several 
churches  and  schools  ;  the  Kur- 
haus  Trompenberg  lies  to  the  N.W. 
The  industries  comprise  the  manu- 
facture of  blankets,  carpets,  and 
cotton  goods.  Pop.  36.750. 

H.I.M.  Abbrev.  for  His  (or  Her) 
Imperial  Majesty. 

Himalaya  OR  HIMMALEH  MOUN- 
TAINS (Sanskrit,  abode  of  snow). 
Vast  mountain  system  of  Central 
Asia,  containing  the  loftiest  peaks 
in  the  world.  From  the  Hindu 
Kush  and  the  Pamirs  N.  of  the 
Indus,  the  mountains  trend  S.E. 
through  the  state  of  Kashmir,  and 
along  the  frontiers  of  the  United 
Provinces,  Nepal,  Sikkim,  and 
Bhutan,  forming  a  stupendous 
barrier  between  N.  India  and  the 
high  plateau  land  of  Tibet.  Thus 
they  may  be  said  to  stretch  from 
the  confines  of  Afghanistan  to 
Upper  Burma,  as  the  Brahmaputra 
is  regarded  as  the  eastern  limit. 
They  occupy  the  surface  of  the 
globe  between  lat.  27°  and  35°  N., 
and  long.  72°  and  96°  E.,  and  are 
the  south-easternmost  of  the  ranges 
radiating  from  the  Pamir  plateau. 

The  extreme  length  from  W.  to  E. 
is  about  1,550  m.,  and  the  breadth 
averages  200  m.  They  must  be 
regarded  not  as  a  single  range, 
but  rather  as  a  series  of  parallel 
chains  running  diagonally  to  the 
general  trend  of  the  system.  There 
are  also  transverse  sections,  form- 
ing knots  or  jumbles  of  snow-wrapt 
summits,  separated  by  gorges,  ele- 
vated plateaux  and  valleys,  the 
cradle  of  many  streams  and  rivers, 
which  are  fed  by  the  melting  snows 
of  the  mountains  and  flow  turbu- 
lently  through  deep  chasms. 

There  are  fertile  and  highly  cul- 
tivated tracts  at  the  base  of  the 
mountains  on  the  Bhutan  and 


3995 


HIMALAYA 


Himalaya  Mountains.     View  from  Mount  Pbalut,  DarjeeJing,  of  a  portion  of 
the  range  of  everlastingly  snow-clad  peaks 


Nepalese  borders,  and  also  a 
marshy  and  wooded  region  known 
as  the  Terai,  which  extends  for 
about  500  m.  along  the  N.  frontier 
of  India  and  Nepal,  terminating  to 
the  E.  of  the  spot  whence  the 
Ganges  issues  from  the  heights. 

This  swampy  and  unhealthy 
tract,  the  home  of  virulent  fevers, 
is  separated  from  the  foothills  by  a 
boulder-strewn  and  scrubby  belt, 
called  the  Bhabar.  Much  of  it  is^ 
wildly  overgrown,  and  the  streams" 
emanating  from  the  higher  ground 
percolate  through  the  sandy  soil  to 
feed  the  streams  that  wind  about 
the  swampy  Terai.  Above  the 
Bhabar  are  the  Siwalik  Hills  (q.v.), 
which  reach  an  alt.  of  4,000  ft.,  and 
beyond  them  again  rear  the  giants 
of  the  system. 

Altitudes  of  the  Range 

The  average  alt.  of  the  Himalayas 
has  been  estimated  at  between 
16,500  ft.  and  18,000  ft.,  but  there 
are  many  summits  rearing  to  a 
height  of  over  24,000  ft.  The 
highest  known  point  on  the  globe, 
Mt.  Everest,  which  lies  on  the  bor- 
ders of  Tibet  and  Nepal,  reaches 
the  immense  alt.  of  29,140  ft. 
Much  of  the  system  is  still  un- 
explored, and  it  is  conjectured  that 
there  may  be  other  summits  of  even 


higher  alt.  Plans  for  the  ascent  of 
Mt.  Everest  were  under  considera- 
tion in  1921,  and  the  surveyors 
attached  to  the  expedition  were 
fully  to  explore  the  neighbourhood. 
Other  gigantic  summits  are  Dhau- 
lagiri,  26,795  ft.,  and  Kinchinjunga, 
with  an  alt.  of  28,146  ft.,  both  in 
the  central  part  of  the  system. 
Chumalhari,  in  the  E.,  is  23,930  ft. 
high.  If  the  Karakoram  or  Muztagh 
range  be  included,  as  it  often  is,  in 
the  Himalayan  system,  Mt.  Godwin 
Austen,  formerly  known  as  Dap- 
sang  or  Peak  K2,  may  be  men- 
tioned, which  has  an  alt.  of  28,250 
ft.,  and  is  second  only  to  Mt. 
Everest  itself. 

Among  the  numerous  passes,  the 
loftiest  is  Ibi-Gamin,  which  reaches 
20,460  ft.,  N.W.  of  the  giant  peak 
of  Nanda-Devi ;  others  are  the 
Muztagh  Pass,  with  an  alt.  of 
19,050  ft.,  Mana  Pass,  Bara  Lacha, 
the  Parang  Pass,  and  the  Chang, 
all  exceeding  16,000  ft.  They  are 
all  difficult  to  cross,  and  the  con- 
ditions prevailing  are  semi-arctic. 
They  are  mainly  used  by  Indian 
and  Tibetan  traders,  who  load  their 
goods  on  yaks  and  goats,  and 
are  often  attacked  by  mountain 
sickness  in  the  higher'  altitudes. 
No  heavy  loads  can  be  carried  over 


HIMALAYA 
MOUNTAINS 


Map  of  the  great  mountain  system  which  divides  .India  from  the  main  part  of 
contains  the  world's  highest  points 


HIMEJ1 


3996 


HINCHINGBROOKE 


these  passes,  so  that  the  goods  ex- 
changed between  India  and  Tibet 
are  necessarily  light. 

There  are  few  lakes  of  any  im- 
portance throughout  the  system, 
the  chief  being  the  Palti  or  Yam- 
rok  with  a  circuit  of  46  m.,  which 
lies  N.  of  Sikkim.  The  snow -line  on 
the  southern  face  is  found  at 
16,300  ft.,  while  on  the  northern 
or  Tibetan  side  it  is  17,400  ft. 
Some  of  the  extensive  glaciers, 
however,  descend  to  as  low  a  level 
as  11,000  ft.  The  principal  rivers 
taking  their  rise  from  the  melting 
snows  of  this  gigantic  rampart  are 
the  Ganges,  Indus,  Jumna,  Sutlej, 
and  Brahmaputra,  besides  hun- 
dreds of  minor  streams.  Nearly  all 
these  streams  carry  down  tremen- 
dous loads  of  alluvium  which  have 
served  gradually  to  build  up  the 
stoneless  Indo-Gangetic  plain,  and 
which  now  add  greatly  to  the  pro- 
ductivity of  the  areas  irrigated 
from  the  numerous  canals  of  the 
Punjab  and  the  United  Provinces. 

Tropical  vegetation  may  be 
found  up  to  an  elevation  of  3,000 
ft.,  including  giant  rhododendrons, 
acacias,  orchids,  palms,  and  ferns, 
while  tea  and  cinchona  are  culti- 
vated. Oaks  and  chestnuts  flourish 
for  another  4,000  ft.,  after  which 
pine,  poplar,  spruce,  fir,  birch,  and 
willow  follow  to  the  limit  of  the 
tree-line,  which  on  the  Tibetan 
slopes  is  about  14,000  ft.,  while  on 
the  Indian  side  it  is  a  little  higher. 

Animal  life  is  varied  and  abun- 
dant. The  tiger,  leopard,  monkey, 
many  kinds  of  deer,  goat,  bear, 
wolf,  rhinoceros,  horned  sheep, 
boar,  ounce,  marmot,  flying  squir- 
rels, wild  cats,  and  yak  are  all 
found.  The  birds,  which  include 
many  varieties  of  pheasants,  are 
numerous,  with  many  of  gorgeous 
plumage.  Insects  are  numerous 
and  troublesome. 

A  healthy  climate  prevails  in  the 
outer  Himalayas,  and  sanatoria  and 
hill  stations  have  been  established 
at  various  places.  At  Darjeeling, 
at  an  alt.  of  8,000  ft.,  is  the  Eden 
Sanatorium  for  wounded  soldiers. 
At  Simla,  at  an  alt.  of  7,000  ft.,  is 
the  summer  residence  of  the  viceroy 
and  an  immense  sanatorium  for 
Europeans,  to  which  they  repair 
in  the  hot  season.  There  is  a  mili- 
tary cantonment  at  Dalhousie 
(alt.  7,680  ft.),  and  a  sanatorium 
at  Nairn  Tal  (alt.  6,500  ft.). 

The  prevailing  rocks  are  granite, 
crystalline  gneiss  with  mica  schist, 
with  intrusions  of  trap.  Sedimentary 
deposits  and  fossil  marine  remains 
have  been  found  at  an  alt.  of  over 
20,000  ft.  The  Siwalik  Hills  may 
be  a  later  uplift,  while  parts  of  the 
system  W.  of  Ass*am  are  deemed 
to  have  been  repeatedly  sub- 
merged and  thrown  up  again. 


The  Himalayas  are  the  eastern 
end  of  a  great  series  of  folded 
mountains,  uplifted  in  Tertiary 
times,  which  terminates  in  Spain  on 
the  W.,  and  forms  the  backbone  of 
Eurasia.  When  the  ancient  con- 
tinent of  Gondwanaland  broke  up 
towards  the  end  of  the  Cretaceous 
period,  great  volcanic  activity  oc- 
curred in  the  Deccan,  the  sole 
Asiatic  relic  of  Gondwanaland,  and 
a  great  crumpling  of  the  earth's 
crust  slowly  produced  the  Hima- 
layas, and  upraised  the  great 
plateau  of  Central  Asia. 

Among  recent  explorers  who 
have  essayed  the  task  of  scaling 
these  peaks  may  be  mentioned  the 
brothers  Schlagintweit,  Godwin  - 
Austen,  Graham,  Waugh,  Sir  Wil- 
liam Conway,  Douglas  Freshfield, 
and  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Bullock  Work- 
man. Graham,  in  1883,  reached  an 
alt.  of  23,700  ft.  on  Mt,  Kabru, 
while  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Workman  at- 
tained 23,394  ft.  on  one  of  the 
Karakorams  in  1903.  See  Dar- 
jeeling ;  Everest. 

»  Bibliography.  Climbing  and  Ex- 
ploration in  the  Karakoram,  Sir 
William  Conway,  1894;  In  the  Ice- 
World  of  Himalaya,  F.  B.  Work- 
man, 1900;  Round  Kangchenjunga, 
D.  Freshfield,  1903;  Twenty  Years 
in  the  Himalaya,  C.  G.  Bruce,  1910. 

Hixneji.  Harbour  of  Honshu, 
Japan,  capital  of  the  prov.  of 
Harima.  It  stands  at  the  junction 
of  three  important  highways,  34 
m.  by  rly.  N.W.  of  Kobe.  The  14th 
century  "  Heron  Castle,"  still  in  a 
good  state  of  preservation,  is  used 
by  the  garrison  troops.  The  town 
contains  the  headquarters  of  a  line 
of  steamers  engaged  in  the  coasting 
and  Inland  Sea  trade.  Himeji  is 
noted  for  its  stamped  leather  work 
and  manufactures  cotton  goods. 
Pop.  38,800. 

Himera.  Greek  city  of  ancient 
Sicily.  It  is  situated  on  the  N. 
coast  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  of 
the  same  name.  Here  a  great 
Carthaginian  army  was  completely 
defeated  by  the  Sicilian  Greeks 
under  Gelon  and  Theron  in  480 
B.C.  on  the  day  of  the  great  Greek 
naval  victory  over  the  Persians  at 
Salamis.  In  409  the  city  was 
destroyed  by  the  Carthaginian 
general,  Hannibal,  son  of  Gisgo. 

Himyar  (Semitic,  red  people). 
Ancient  people  in  S.W.  Arabia. 
Wresting  the  S.  Arabian  hegemony 
from  the  Sabaeans  about  100  B.C., 
they  established  a  dynasty  under 
which  they  influenced  for  several 
centuries  the  Abyssinian  kingdom 
of  Aksum,  until  the  Mahomedan 
conquest.  The  culture  and  speech 
of  the  sedentary  Semites  of  Yemen, 
formerly  called"  Himyaritic,  is  now 
called  generically  S.  Arabian,  and 
specifically  Himyarite,  Minaean, 
and  Sabaean. 


Hinayana  (Skt.,  little  vehicle). 
Term  employed  by  some  modern 
Oriental  scholars  to  denote  primi- 
tive Buddhism.  It  serves  to  dis- 
tinguish the  early  doctrinal  system, 
with  its  arid  ethics,  agnosticism, 
and  hard  asceticism,  from  the  more 
tolerant  Mahay  ana  (great  vehicle) 
of  later  Indian  Buddhism,  with  its 
humaner  elements,  speculative 
theism,  and  ritual  attractions. 
Used  by  some  early  Sanskrit  writers 
as  a  term  of  abuse,  it  is  rarely 
found  in  modern  India.  Its  equiva- 
lent is  sometimes  applied,  in 
China  and  Japan,  to  elements  de- 
rived from  the  earliest  missionary 
teaching,  which  was  based  upon 
the  Pali  rather  than  on  the  San- 
skrit texts. 

The  word  is  traced  back  to  the 
Chinese  pilgrim  Fa-hien,  who 
travelled  in  the  Buddha  cradleland 
early  in  the  5th  century.  In  that 
age  a  Hinayanist  was  regarded  as  a 
member  of  one  of  the  primitive 
schools  of  Buddhist  thought.  Of 
these  there  were  commonly  said  to 
be  18,  but  there  were  actually  more, 
although  three  or  four  only  were  at 
any  time  of  wide  influence.  These 
schools  were  not  sects  but  modes  of 
thought,  comparable  with  the 
broad  and  high  forms  of  modern 
Anglicanism.  "They  arose  between 
the  councils  of  Vaisali  and  Patali- 
putra,  400-250  B.C.,  and  as  late  as 
the  7th  century  A.D.  the  Chinese 
pilgrim  Yuan  Chwang  estimated 
that,  of  the  200,000  monks  then  in 
India,  at  least  two-thirds  adhered 
to  the  primitive  schools.  It  is  on 
their  foundation  that  the  Bud- 
dhism of  Ceylon,  Burma,  and  Si  am 
arose,  although  these  areas  did  not 
remain  untouched  by  Mahayana 
influences.  These,  with  their  wor- 
ship of  Bodhisattvas,  or  potential 
Buddhas,  and  their  incorporation 
of  local  animistic  beliefs,  found  a 
sympathetic  home  in  China,  Tibet, 
and  Japan.  See  Buddhism. 

Hinchinbrook.  Island  off  the 
coast  of  N.E.  Queensland,  Aus- 
tralia. S.  of  Rockingham  Bay,  it 
is  separated  from  the  shore  of 
Cardwell  co.  by  a  narrow  channel, 
and  its  S.  point  faces  the  headland 
of  Dungeness.  The  island  contains 
Mt.  Hinchinbrook. 

Hinching'brooke.  Village  of 
Huntingdonshire,  just  outside  the 
town  of  Huntingdon.  It  is  famous 
because  here  is  Hinchingbrooke 
House,  once  the  residence  of  the 
Cromwell  family.  It  was  given  to 
them  after  the  dissolution  of  the 
monasteries,  and  here  one  of  them 
built  a  fine  mansion  in  which  Eliza- 
beth and  later  James  I  were  enter- 
tained. The  Cromwells  kept  the 
estate  until  1627,  and  the  house  is 
now  the  property  of  the  earl  of 
Sandwich. 


HINCKLEY 


3997 


HINDENBURG     LINE 


Hinckley.  Market  town  and 
urban  district  of  Leicestershire.  It 
is  on  the  L.  &  N.W.  Rly.,  14  m. 
S.W.  of  Leicester.  The  chief 
building  is  the  restored  Gothic 
church  of  S.  Mary.  There  is  a  free 
library  and  a  grammar  school.  The 
industries  are  mainly  the  manu- 
facture of  hosiery,  boots  and  shoes, 
and  bricks.  Watling  Street  runs 
near  here,  and  the  place  was. 
once  a  Roman  station,  many  Ro- 
man remains  having  been  found 
near.  In  medieval  times  there  was 
a  castle  here.  Pop.  12,800. 

Hincks,  EDWARD  (1792-1866). 
British  Orientalist.  Born  at  Cork, 
Ireland,  Aug.  19,  1792,  he  gradu- 
ated at  Trinity  College,  Dublin, 
and  became  Protestant  rector  of 
Killyleagh,  co.  Down,  1825.  He 
made  solid  contributions  to  the 
decipherment  of  cuneiform  script 
and  Egyptian  hieroglyphics.  His 
First  and  Second  Kinds  of  Per- 
sepolitan  Writing,  which  deter- 
mined the  ancient  Persian  vowel 
system,  appeared  in  1846  simul- 
taneously with  Rawlinson's  solu- 
tion, achieved  independently  at 
Bagdad.  He  died  at  Killyleagh, 
Dec.  3,  1866. 

Hindenburg.  German  battle 
cruiser.  Built  at  Wilhelmshaven  in 
1915,  she  was  engaged  in  the  Great 
War.  She  was  610  ft.  long,  96  ft.  in 
beam,  displaced  28,000  tons,  and 
had  engines  of  100,000  horse-power, 
giving  a  speed  of  28  knots.  Her 
armoured  belt  was  7  ins.  thick,  and 
she  had  a  2  J-in.  protective  deck. 
She  carried  eight  12-in.  and  twelve 
5'9-in.  gurls.  Other  ships  of  her 
type  were  the  Bismarck  and  the 
Lutzdw;  the  latter  being  sunk  at 
Jutland.  The  Seydlitz — heavily 
damaged  at  Jutland — and  the 
Derfflinger  resembled  her  closely. 
The  Hindenburg  was  one  of  the 
ships  handed  over  to  the  British, 
Nov.  21,  1918.  See  Der  Krieg  zur 
See,  1914-18,  by  Commander  0. 
Groos,  the  first  vol.  of  the  official 
German  history  of  the  war  at 
sea,  1920. 

Hindenburg,  PAUL  VON  (b. 
1847).  German  soldier.  A  member 
of  a  Prussian  Junker  family,  he  was 
born  Oct.  1,  1847,  at  Posen.  Edu- 
cated at  the  Military  College,  he 
joined  the  Prussian  armv  in  1865, 


Paul  von  Hinden- 
burg, 
German  soldier 


and  served  throughout  the  Austro- 
Prussian  War  of  1866  and  the 
Franco  Prussian  War  of  1870-71, 
being  present 
at  the  battles 
of  St.  Privat 
and  Sedan  and 
the  si  eige'  of 
Paris.  Later  he 
was  on  the  staff 
of  the  1st  Army 
Corps  at 
Kon  igsberg, 
and  devoted 
himself  to  ^the 
study  of  the 
military  problems  .presented  by 
the  district  of.  the  Mazurian  Lakes 
(Mazurenland). 

When  a  syndicate  proposed  to 
reclaim  its  marshy  regions,  Hinden- 
burg, supported  by  William  II, 
successfully  opposed  the  scheme. 
Rising  in  rank  till  he  became 
general  of  infantry  and  commander 
of  an  army  corps,  he  retired  from 
the  army  in  1911,  and  was  living 
at  Hanover  when  the  Great  War 
broke  out.  On  the  Russian  in- 
vasion of  East  Prussia  in  Aug., 
1914,  he  was  appointed  to  the 
command  of  the  German  forces  in 
that  province,  and  on  August  23 
established  his  headquarters  at 
Marienburg.  Before  the  month 
closed  he  defeated  the  Russians 
disastrously  in  the  battle  of  Tan- 
nenberg,  largely  owing  to  his 
special  knowledge  of  the  terrain. 
He  pursued  the  Russians  to  the 
Niemen,  but  was  compelled  to  re- 
tire into  East  Prussia. 
'  On  Sept.  25  Hindenburg  was 
put  in  chief  command  of  the  Austro- 
German  forces  which  invaded 
Poland  and  made  the  first  attack 
on  Warsaw  in  the  following  Oct., 
but  without  success.  In  his  second 
attack  on  Warsaw  he  defeated  the 
Russians  at  Kutno  on  Nov.  15-16, 
and  for  this  victory  was  made  a 
field- marshal.  During  the  rest  of 
1914,  throughout  1915,  and  during 
the  greater  part  of  1916  he  was 
German  generalissimo  on  the 
Eastern  front.  On  Aug.  30,  1916, 
it  was  announced  that  Falkenhayn 
had  been  removed  from  the  posi- 
tion of  chief  of  the  central  general 
staff,  and  that  Hinden-burg  had 
been  appointed  chief  of  the  general 


•Mta 


Hindenburg. 


German  battle  cruiser,  sister  snip  of  the  Lutzow.     She  was 
handed  over  to  the  British  in  1918 


Hindenburg.    The  colossal  wooden 

statue  in  Berlin.      In  aid  of  war 

charities  nails  were  purchased  and 

driven  into  it 

staff  of  the  field  army.  From  that 
time  to  the  signing  of  the  armistice 
by  Germany  on  Nov.  11,  1918, 
Hindenburg  was  the  German 
generalissimo,  Ludendorff  being 
his  chief  of  staff.  After  the  German 
Revolution  he  remained  in  com- 
mand of  the  German  army,  but 
retired  into  private  life  in  June, 
1919.  See  Out  of  My  Life,  Marshal 
von  Hindenburg,  1920. 

Hindenburg  Line.  German 
fortified  system  in  France  in"  the 
Great  War.  After  the  battle  of  the 
Somme,  1916,  the  German  High 
Command  decided  to  abandon  their 
advanced  positions  and  retreat  to 
a  line  which  they  could  defen- 
sively hold  while  giving  Russia  the 
knock-out  blow.  Accordingly  in 
the  winter  of  1916-17  the  con- 
struction of  the  Hindenburg  line 
was  undertaken.  Known  to  the 
Germans  as  the  Siegfried  line,  it 
consisted  of  trenches  strengthened 
by  concrete  shelters  and  gun  em- 
placements, and  protected  by 
broad  belts  of  barbed  wire. 

Roughly  it  ran  from  Arras  to 
Laon,  but  more  particularly  from 
Tilloy-les-Mofliaines,  S.E.  of  Arras, 
through  Bullecourt,  through 
Queant,  and  thence  west  of  Cam- 
brai,  St.  Quentin,  and  La  Fere  to 
the  rising  ground  of  the  Chemin 
des  Dames.  The  outpost  trenched 
were  on  the  forward  slopes,  andt 
the  main  positions  on  the  reverse 
slopes,  covered  by  defensive  artil- 
lery fire  from  higher  ground  in  the 
rear.  Behind  the  first  line  of 
trenches  were  belts  of  wire  ar- 
ranged in  criss-cross  geometrical 
pattern,  and  after  an  interval 
varying  from  a  few  hundred  y aids 
to  half  a  mile  was  a  second  trench' 
of  considerable  width,  intended 
to  prevent  tanks  from  crossing  it. 


HINDERLAND 


HINDUISM 


The  line  included  the  dry  bed  of 
the  Canal  du  Nord  and  the  tunnels 
of  the  Schelde  canal.  Behind  it 
was  a  fortified  area  called  the 
Siegfried  zone,  while  farther  to 
the  rear,  covering  Cambrai,  were 
the  Hunding  and  the  Brunhilde 
lines,  completed  in  1918.  To  the 
N.  from  E.  of  Lens  to  Queant  was 
the  Wotan  line  (q.v. )  or  "  switch  " 
covering  Douai,  and  the  Hermann 
line  (Le  Cateau  to  Ghent)  guard- 
ing the  German  right  flank.  The 
names  Siegfried,  Wotan,  and  so  on 
were  taken  from  the  Norse  my- 
thology, as  interpreted  to  the  Ger- 
man people  by  Wagner.  The  be- 
lief in  the  impregnable  character 
of  this  fortified  line  was  zealously 
fostered  in  Germany  in  1917-18, 
to  counteract  the  growing  de- 
moralisation of  the  people.  It  was 
Ludendorff  s  own  opinion  that  the 
line  could  be  held  until  the  U-boat 
campaign  had  forced  the  Allies  to 
sue  for  peace. 

The  result  of  the  battle  of  the 
Somme,  July-Nov.,  1916,  caused 
the  Germans  to  retreat  to  the 
Hindenburg  line,  followed  by  the 
Allies.  In  the  third  battle  of 
Arras,  particularly  in  the  fight- 
ing around  Bullecourt,  a  con- 
siderable section  of  the  line  fell 
into  British  hands.  In  the  first 
battle  of  Cambrai,  Nov.,  1917,  the 
British  approached  the  line  but 
failed  to  shake  the  German  hold 
on  it.  It  was  not  until  the  great 
counter  offensive  of  1918  that 
it  was  really  approached  and 
smashed  The  battle  of  Epe'hy 
(q.v.)  was  fought  to  clear  the  ap- 
proaches to  the  Hindenburg  line, 
and  give  the  British  control  of  im- 
portant ground  W.  of  the  Canal 
du  Nord  before  the  main  assault. 
In  this  battle  the  British  penetrated 
the  fortified  zone  to  a  depth  of 
3  m.,  reaching  everywhere  the 
outworks  of  the  line  itself.  The 
second  battle  of  Cambrai  gained 
for  the  British  a  large  system  of  the 
Hindenburg  line,  and  its  loss  so 
greatly  demoralised  the  German 
troops  that  Ludendorff  in  that 
month  warned  his  govt.  that  an 
Allied  break-through  was  possible. 
The  Wotan  line  was  stormed  by 
Canadian  troops  on  Sept.  2,  1918. 
See  Arras,  Third  battle  of  ;  Epehy, 
Battle  of ;  Cambrai,  Battles  of. 

Hinderland  OR  HINTERLAND. 
Term  generally  used  to  denote  the 
land  behind  coastal  belts.  It  is 
the  anglicised  form  of  the  German 
word  hinterland,  which  probably 
came  into  general  use  in  England 
in  connexion  with  the  European 
occupation  of  various  parts  of  the 
W.  African  coast.  The  term  is 
technically  used  in  economic  geo- 
graphy for  the  region  or  regions 
which  lie  behind  a  port  or  group 


of  ports  through  which  they 
export  the  bulk  of  their  goods 
and  receive  the  greater  part  of 
their  imports.  Thus  the  Central 
Plain  of  Ireland  is  the  hinderland 
of  Dublin,  for  that  port  collects  by 
rail,  road,  and  canal  the  greater 
part  of  the  produce  exported 
from  Central  Ireland  to  Great 
Britain,  while  it  receives  and 
distributes  the  imports  of  the  same 
region. 

Hindhead.  Eccles.  and  residen- 
tial district,  hill,  and  common  of 
Surrey,  England.  It  is  on  the 
Portsmouth  Road,  2  m.  N.W.  of 
Haslemere,  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected by  a  motor-' bus  service. 
John  Tyndall  called  Hindhead  the 
next  best  place  to  the  Bel  Alp,  and 


Hindhead.      Stone  commemorating  the  murder  of 
sailor  on  the  Portsmouth  Road  in  1786 

since  then  it  has  been  a  favourite 

Slace  of  residence  for  literary  men. 
n  Gibbet  Hill,  895  ft.,  was  the 
gallows  on  which  the  murderers  of 
an  unknown  sailor,  Sept.  24,  1786, 
were  hanged  in  chains.  Near  by  is 
the  glen  known  colloquially  as  the 
Devil's  Punchbowl  (q.v.). 

Excepting  Leith  Hill,  Hindhead 
and  its  neighbour,  Blackdown, 
918  ft.,  are  the  highest  points  of 
the  Greensand  ridge,  which  here 
abuts  upon  the  Wealden  plain. 
The  Wey  rises  to  the  S.  on  Black- 
down,  circles  around  Hindhead  on 
the  W.  and  N.,  and  receives  8  small 
streams  which  radiate  from  the 
plateau ;  the  most  notable  flows 
from  the  Devil's  Punchbowl.  The 


Portsmouth  Road  runs  just  below 
the  plateau  edge,  from  which  mag- 
nificent views  are  seen. 

Hindley.  Urban  dist.  and 
parish  of  Lancashire,  England.  It 
is  2£  m.  S.E.  of  Wigan  on  the  L.  & 
Y.  and  G.C.  Rlys.  The  chief 
industries  are  cotton  manufactures 
and  coal-mining.  The  council  owns 
the  water  supply,  gas,  and  markets. 
Pop.  (1921)  23,574. 

Hindlip.  Village  of  Worcester- 
shire. It  is  3£  m.  from  Droitwich, 
and  here  is  Hindlip  Hall,  the  seat 
of  Lord  Hindlip.  In  an  older  hall 
some  of  the  conspirators  of  the 
Gunpowder  Plot  hid  themselves. 
In  1886  Sir  Henry  Allsopp,  Bart, 
(1811-87),  the  head  of  the  firm  of 
brewers  at  Burton-on-Trent,  was 
made  a  baron  and 
|  took  his  title  from 
here.  This  is  still 
held  by  his 
descendants. 

Hind  marsh. 
Suburb  of  Ade- 
laide,    capital     of 
South  Australia. 
It  is  on  the  Torrens 
2£   m.     from     the 
city-    Pop.  11,335. 
Hindd.     Island 
off  the  N.W.  coast 
of  Norway.      The 
largest    of    the 
Lofod'en    and 
Vesteraalen 
Islands,  its  area  is 
1.  m.     Its  coast-line  is  deeply 
indented  by  fiords  and  is  partly 
wooded.     Harstad  is  the  chief  of 
several  harbours.     Here  are  hotels, 
an    ancient  church,   and  a  Lapp 
encampment.  Lodingen  is  a  fishery 
station  and  port  of  call  on  Vest 
fiord.     Pop.  10,050. 

Hindu.  General  name  for  the 
native,  non-European  inhabitants 
of  India.  In  a  narrower  sense,  the 
Hindus  are  that  part  of  the  popu- 
lation of  Aryan  origin  which  in 
prehistoric  times  migrated  from 
the  north-west  into  the  Ganges 
district,  and  thence  spread  over 
the  south.  Their  chief  represen- 
tatives to-day  are  the  Brahmans 
and  Rajputs. 


HINDUISM  :    ITS  ORIGIN  AND  INFLUENCE 

T.  Witton  Davies,  Prof.,  University  College,  Bangor 

Further  information  about  the  Hindus  is  given  in  the  article   on 

India.      See  Brahmanism  ;  Vedas  ;  also   Devi;   Sati,   and   other 

deities ;  Saktas  ;  Sivaites  ;  Thugs 

(Dravidians,  etc.).  But  two  things 
remain  as  prominent  in  Hinduism 
as  in  Brahmanism. — the  supreme 
position  of  the  Brahman,  and  the 
rigid  observation  of  caste. 

The  Vedas  and  the  Brahmanas 
are  still  regarded  as  the  ultimate 
authority  in  religion,  though  the 
former  are  little  read  and  exercise 


Hinduism  is  a  term  used  for  the 
new  Brahmanism  which  came  into 
being  in  India  after  the  decline  and 
banishment  of  Buddhism  from  that 
country.  Modern  Brahmanism,  or 
Hinduism,  is  a  conglomeration  of 
original  Brahmanism,  of  Buddhism, 
and  of  elements  from  other  cults, 
especially  those  of  the  aborigines 


HINDUISM 


3999 


Hinduism.  Ait  applied  to  the  representation  o  gods  and  goddesses. 
1.  Lakshmi,  goddess  of  prosperity.  2.  Vishnu,  ODJ  of  the  principal  Hindu 
deities.  3.  Saraswati,  goddess  of  learning.  4.  Sf?a  the  Destroyer,  second 
of  the  Hindu  deities.  5.  Ganesha,  god  of  success.  6.  Agni,  a  guardian 
deity.  7.  Surya  the  Sun  god.  8.  Indra,  king  of  heaven 


but  slight  influence  upon  the 
religious  beliefs  and  practices  of  the 
people.  Even  the  Brahmanas  are 
much  less  studied  and  followed 
than  in  pre-Buddhistic  days. 
Though  the  two  great  Indian  epics 
belong  in  their  original  form  to  the 
Brahmanic  age,  they  have  been  so 
modified  and  adapted  to  later  times 
as  to  become  text-books  of  Hindu- 
ism as  well  as  of  Brahmanism. 
The  Vedanta  Sutras,  or  aphor- 


isms,  belong  in  their  present  form 
to  about  A.D.  700.  The  doctrine 
which  they  teach  is  the  impersonal 
pantheism  of  the  Upanishads.  This 
may  be  regarded  as  the  standard 
work  of  Hindu  philosophy.  The 
Eighteen  Puranas  (archaeological 
treatises)  are  very  much  read  by 
the  common  people,  and  in  par- 
ticular by  women.  They  repeat  the. 
cosmogonies  of  the  two  epic 
romances  and  give  in  greater 


detail  the  mythological  legends 
about  Siva  and  especially  Vishnu. 
They  have  much  to  say  about  the 
worship  of  these  two  gods  and 
constitute  the  principal  source  and 
authority  for  modern  Hinduism. 

The  Tantras  (literally  threads, 
then  fundamental  doctrines)  are 
dependent  on  the  Puranas,  as  the 
latter  are  upon  the  two  great  epics. 
The  Tantras  are  manuals  of 
religion,  of  magic,  of  counter- 
charms,  etc.,  with  the  addition  of 
hymns  in  praise  of  Sakti,  the 
female  counterpart  of  Siva.  They 
are  of  late  date,  some  no  older  than 
the  18th  century.  They  are  the 
product  of  Sivaism  in  its  most 
revolting  form.  There  exist  an 
immense  number  of  religious 
hymns  called  Stotras  which  are 
sung  privately,  in  families,  and  by 
large  gatherings  of  Hindus.  These 
have  a  considerable  influence  upon 
the  popular  mind.  The  Ramayana 
of  Tulasi  Dasa  in  N.  India  in  praise 
of  Rama,  belonging  to  the  IGth 
century  A.D.,  and  the  productions  of 
the  Tamil  poet  Tiruvalluva  Kurral, 
are  widely  read. 

Theoretically  the  gods  of  the 
Vedas  are  those  of  Hinduism,  but 
in  practice  Vishnu  and  Siva  and 
those  they  represent  are  the  only 
deities  actually  worshipped  and 
acknowledged.  Indra,  the  supreme 
god  of  the  Vedas,  receives  hardly 
any  notice,  and  the  same  is  true  of 
Agni,  Varuna,  Soma,  and  others. 
The  Hindu  Puranas  recognize  what 
is  called  the  Trimurti,  the  three 
forms,  which  includes  the  trinity 
of  gods,  Brahma,  Vishnu,  and  Siva. 
But  the  first,  the  shadowy  continu- 
ation of  the  Vedic  god  of  that 
name,  is  almost  ignored  in  modern 
Hinduism.  For  an  understanding 
of  the  Hinduism  of  to-day  one  has 
to  take  into  account  only  the  other 
two  gods  and  the  gods  and  god- 
desses who  follow  in  their  train. 
It  is  one  outstanding  feature  of 
Hinduism,  especially  in  its  Sivaic 
section,  that  it  invented  a  large 
number  of  goddesses.  Vedism  had 
hardly  a  place  for  female  deities. 

The  predominant  philosophy  in 
Hinduism  is  Vedantism  as  repre- 
sented in  the  Vedanta  Sutras. 
Cultured  Hindus  regard  all  the 
deities  of  modern  India,  and  many 
of  them  include  the  Gods  of  the 
Jew,  the  Christian,  and  the  Moslem. 
as  mere  forms  and  manifestations 
of  the  Great  All,  the  One  and  No 
Other.  Among  the  Sivaik-s,  how- 
ever, the  dualism  of  the  Sankhya 
philosophy  has  considerable  vogue. 
At  least  three-fourths  of  the 
population  of  modern  India  belong 
ostensibly  to  one  or  other  of  the 
two  great  sects,  the  Vishnuites  or 
the  Sivaites.  Though  a  very  sub- 
ordinate god  in  the  Vedas,  Vishnu 


HINDU     KUSH 


HINGHAM 


reaches  the  highest  place  among 
gods  in  the  Puranas.  All  Vishnu- 
I  ites  worship  Vishnu  or  one  of  his 
!  ten  or  more  incarnations.  They 
are  strongest  in  middle  India. 
There  are  two  Vi^hnuite  sects,  the 
Krishnaites,  the  most  numerous 
though  the  least  intellectual,  who 
regard  Krishna,  and  the  Ramaites 
who  regard  Rama,  as  the  principal 
Avatar  or  Incarnation  of  Vishnu. 
The  Ramaites  are  themselves  split 
up  into  two  leading  parties  :  (  1  )  those 
who  hold  the  "  cat-doctrine,"  as  it 
is  called  in  the  sacred  books,  viz. 
that  God  saves  a  man  as  a  cat  takes 
up  its  helpless  kitten  and  carries  it 
out  of  danger;  (2)  those  who  support 
the  monkey-theory,  that  in  order 
to  be  saved  a  man  must  lay  hold  of 
God  as  a  young  monkey  does  of 
its  mother. 

Cults  of  the  Sivaites 
The  Sivaites  worship  as  their  su- 
preme deity  Siva  (  =  the  propitious 
one),  the  modern  representative  of 
the  Vedic  Rudra,  the  destroyer, 
only  that  Siva  is  regarded  as  "the 
preserver  as  well  as  the  destroyer 
of  life.  The  headquarters  of  Siva- 
ism  are  the  extreme  north  and  the 
southern  part  of  India.  Siva's 
symbol  is  thelinga  (phallus),  gener- 
lly accompanied  by  the  yoni  and 


ligions  of  India,  E.  W.  Hopkins, 
1895;  Hinduism  Past  and  Present, 
J.  M.  Mitchell,  1897  ;  History  of  Re- 
ligions, Vol.  I,  G.  F.  Moore,  1914. 
Hindu  Kush  (anc.  Paropami- 
•sus).  Extensive  mountain  range 
of  Central  Asia.  It  extends  from 
the  Pamir  mountain  knot  in  a  S.W. 
direction,  as  far  as  lat.  34°  30'  N. 
and  long.  67°  40'  E.  The  range 
lies  partly  in  Afghanistan,  and 
separates  Badakshan  on  the  N. 
from  Kafiristan  on  the  S.,  and  has 


Hinge.     1.  Ordinary  butt  pattern. 

2.   Pin,  hook-and-eye    hinge.      3. 

Strap  hinge 


often  by  the  figure  of  an  elephant. 
These  were  perhaps  intended 
originally  to  represent  the  god  as 
the  producer  of  the  world,  and  in 
the  minds  of  many  devout  Hindus 
no  other  conception  is  present. 
Siva's  consorts  play  an  important 
and  sinister  part  in  this  cult.  They 
are  all  supposed  to  be  the  one 
consort  of  Siva,  under  various 
names  and  with  correspondingly 
different  attributes.  Thus  Devi, 
or  the  Goddess;  Durga,  the  un- 
approachable ;  Kali  (cf.  Calcutta), 
the  black  one  ;  Gawri,  the  bright 
one;  Sati,  the  faithful  one  ; 
Parvati,  the  daughter  of  the  moun- 
tain ;  Bhavair,  the  terrible  one  ; 
and  Karali,  the  horrible  one. 

The  principal  subdivisions  of  the 
Sivaites  are  the  Saktas  and  the 
Thugites.  The  first  get  their  name 
from  Sakti,  the  female  principle. 
In  reality  the  Saktas  worship  Siva 
on  his  female  side  and  practise 
indescribable  obscenities  as  a  part 
of  their  religion.  Their  bible  is  the 
Tantras.  The  Thugites  profess  to 
worship  the  female  principle  under 
the  name  Kali.  Besides  being 
guilty  of  the  sexual  obscenities  of 
the  Saktas,  they  make  murder  a 
part  of  their  religion.  They  have, 
indeed,  a  doctrine  that  no  blood 
should  be  shed,  but  parry  this  by 
throttling  their  victims. 

Bibliography.  The  Religions  of 
India,  A.  Earth,  1882  ;  Modern 
Hinduism,  W.  J.  Wilkins,  1887  ; 
Brahmanism  and  Hinduism,  M. 
Monier-Williams,  1891  ;  The  Re- 


many peaks  exceeding  20,000  ft., 
the  loftiest  being  the  Tirach  Mir, 
25,000  ft.,  dominating  Chitral. 
The  W.  part  of  the  range  is  not  so 
stupendous  as  the  N.E.  and  E.,  and 
the  snow-line  lies  at  13,500  ft. 
It  has  a  length  of  some  500  m.  From 
Tibet  to  the  Dorah  Pass,  about  200 
m.,  it  provides  a  practically  im- 
pregnable frontier  for  India.  The 
Amu  Daria  has  its  source  in  these 
mountains,  from  which  many  tri- 
butaries of  the  Kabul  river,  the 
Chitral,  Pan j shir,  etc.,  originate. 
The  valleys  of  these  streams  give 
Kabul  its  strategic  importance. 
The  rocks  are  mainly  granite, 
gneisses,  and  schists  of  various 
kinds,  while  sedimentary  deposits 
indicate  that  the  mass  was  up- 
heaved in  late  Tertiary  times. 

Hindustan  OR  HINDOSTAN 
(Pers.,  land  of  the  Hindus).  Name 
applied  to  the  Indian  peninsula,  but 
more  correctly  to  the  Gangetic 
basin,  and  the  country  N.  of  the 
Vindhya  Mts.  See  India. 

Hindustani.  Name  given  by 
Europeans  to  one  of  the  Aryan 
languages  of  India.  Its  native  de- 
signation is  either  Hindi  or  Urdu, 
the  latter  meaning  language  of  the 
camp,  so  called  from  its  having 
originated  in  the  headquarters  of 
the  great  Mogul  near  Delhi.  Hin- 
dustani, which  forms  the  general 
official  and  commercial  medium  of 
communication  throughout  India, 
contains  a  large  admixture  of 
Arabic  and  Persian  words,  and  is 
rather  a  corrupt  form  of  Hindi 
than  a  separate  language.  The 
literature,  which  in  "the  earliest 
times  consisted  chiefly  of  transla- 
tions from  Sanskrit, " Arabic,  and 


Persian,  greatly  developed  during 
the  19th  century.  See  The  Modern 
Vernacular  Literature  of  Hin- 
dustan, G.  A.  Grierson,  1889. 

Hinganghat.  Town  of  India, 
in  the  dist.  of  Wardha.  It  lies  21 
m.  S.E.  of  Wardha,  on  the  Wardba- 
Chanda  rly.  line,  and  is  an  im- 
portant centre  of  a  cotton-growing 
area.  Pop.  12,700. 

Hinge.  Device  consisting  of 
plates,  bars,  or  flaps  pivoted  upon 
pins,  on  which  they  turn  relatively 
to  each  other.  In  ordinary  types 
there  are  two  flaps.  Hinges  are 
usually  made  of  cast  iron,  wrought 
iron,  steel,  or  brass. 

The  following  are  some  of  the 
principal  patterns :  butt  hinges,  as 
used   for   doors ;    rising   butts,   in 
which  the  two  flaps  bear  upon  each 
other    at    an    angle    where    they 
hinge  on  the  pin,  so  that  a  door  to 
which  one  flap  is  secured  rises  as  it 
opens,   and   its   weight   upon   the 
tapered  seating  causes  it  to  close 
automatically  ;  tee  hinge,  with  one 
long  tapered  flap   and   one  short 
flap ;   box  hinge,   with    two    long 
tapered  flaps  of  which  one  is  some- 
times bent  at  right  angles  ;  and 
flap  bracket  hinge,  with  three  flaps 
and  two  pins  at  right  angles  to 
each  other.    One   flap  is   screwed 
to  a  support,  another  to  a  board, 
and    the    third    forms    a    bracket 
which  can  be  hinged  out  sideways 
to  support  the  board  when  hinged 
outwards  from  awall.  There  are  also 
the  folding  screenhinge,  by  means  of 
which  a  screen  may  be  folded  either 
way ;  spherical  gate  hinge,  with  one 
long  bar-flap  hinging  about  a  pin, 
but  bearing  upon  a  cup  filled  with 
grease  or  oil ;  and  self-closing  gate- 
hinge,    with    a    pair    of    vertical 
pivots  which  serve   as  a   bottom 
hinge  for  heavy  gates.    When  the 
gate  is  closed,  both  pivots  bear  in 
sockets   on   the   gate-post ;    when 
opened,    all   the   pressure   is   sus- 
tained on  one  pivot  only,  and  the 
bias  thus  set  up  causes  the  gate  to 
close  automatically. 

King  ham.  Parish  and  village 
of  Norfolk,  England.  It  is  6  m.  W. 
of  Wymondham.  The  beautiful 
14th  century  church  of  S.  Andrew 
has  a  noble  tower,  fine  stained 
glass,  and  notable  monuments.  An 
ancestor  of  Abraham  Lincoln  was 
a  native  of  this  place.  Pop.  1 ,380. 
Hingham.  Town  of  Massachu- 
setts, U.S.A.,  in  Plymouth  co.  A 
residential  district  and  .summer 
resort  on  Massachusetts  Bay,  it  is 
17  m.  S.E.  of  Boston,  and  is  served 
by  the  New  York,  New  Haven,  and 
Hartford  Rly.  The  chief  buildings 
are  the  Old  Meeting  House,  founded 
1681,  Derby  Academy,  and  a 
public  library.  Hingham  was 
settled  in  1633,  and  incorporated 
in  1635.  Pop.  4,965. 


H1NKSON 


4001 


HIPPIAS 


Hinkson,  KATHERINE  TYNAN. 
Irish  novelist  and  poet,  better 
known  by  her  pen-name  of  Kathe- 
rine  Tynan  (q.v.). 

Hinnom.  Valley  of  Palestine, 
S.W-  of  Jerusalem.  It  was  largely 
used  for  burning  refuse,  and  was 
known  as  Gehenna.  Much  of  the 
symbolic  language  of  the  Bible 
about  hell  has  reference  to  this 
place.  See  Hell. 

Hinojosa  del  Duque.  Town  of 
Spain,  in  Cordova  province.  It  is 
40  m.  N.W.  of  Cordova,  and  is  on 
the  N.  slopes  of  the  Sierra  Morena, 
in  the  valley  of  the  river  Zujar. 
Pop.  11,000. 

Hintze,  ADMIRAL  VON  (b.  1860). 
German  sailor  and  diplomatist. 
Entering  the  navy,  he  rose  to  be 
f  u  1 1-admiral, 
and  was  a 
prominent 
supporter  o  f 
Tirpitz.  He 
was  attached 
toTsarNicho- 

as  I][  of  Rus" 
sia  as  personal 
liaison  diplo- 
Admiral  von  Hintze,  matist  b  e  - 
German  sailor  tween  the 
latter  and  the  Kaiser,  and  pre- 
vented any  reaction  on  Russia's 
part  against  the  Kaiser's  Moroccan 
policy.  He  was  appointed  to  a 
diplomatic  mission  to  Mexico,  and 
worked  against  British  and  Ameri- 
can interests.  Just  before  the 
Great  War  he  was  appointed  Ger- 
man minister  at  Peking,  where  he 
stirred  up  agitation  against  the 
Allies.  He  was  minister  at  Chris  - 
tiania  in  1917-18,  and  succeeded 
von  Kiihlmann  as  foreign  minister 
in  July,  1918,  resigning  in  Sept. 

Hip-joint.  Enarthrodial  or  ball 
and  socket  joint  in  the  body,  the 
ball  being  the  rounded  head  of  the 
femur,  or  thigh-bone,  and  the 
socket  the  cup-shaped  hollow,  or 
acetabulum,  on  the  outer  side  of  the 
pelvis.  It  is  a  very  strong  joint, 
being  surrounded  by  tough  liga- 
ments, and  it  permits  of  a  con- 
siderable range  of  movement  of  the 
thigh  in  every  direction. 

Dislocation  of  the  hip-joint  is 
sometimes  congenital,  i.e.  present 
at  birth,  and  may  affect  both  limbs. 
The  condition  is  frequently  un- 
noticed until  the  child  begins  to 
walk,  when  it  causes  considerable 
deformity.  The  defect  may  some- 
times be  cured  without  an  opera- 
tion, the  head  of  the  femur  being 
replaced  in  its  socket,  and  the 
limb  immobilised  in  plaster  of 
Paris  for  two  or  three  months.  In 
other  cases  an  operation  is  neces- 
sary. Dislocation  of  the  hip  from 
violence  is  rare,  owing  to  the 
strength  and  security  of  the  joint. 
The  head  of  the  femur  may  be  dis- 


placed from  its  socket  either  for- 
wards or  backwards ;  reduction  is 
often  difficult,  and  the  movements 
to  effect  it  are  complex.  After  re- 
duction, the  legs  should  be  kept 
tied  together  for  a  fortnight,  and 
the  patient  should  not  attempt  to 
walk  for  a  month. 

The  hip- joint  is  not  infrequently 
the  seat  of  chronic  tuberculosis  in 
young  children.  The  child  com- 
plains of  pain  in  the  hip- joint  or  in 
the  inner  side  of  the  knee,  and  may 
be  observed  to  limp.  There  is 
slight  wasting  of  the  muscles  of 
the  thigh,  and  the  affected  leg 
appears  a  little  longer  than  the 
sound  limb.  As  the  disease  pro- 
gresses, the  wasting  becomes 
greater,  the  pain  increases,  and  the 
leg  appears  shortened,  owing  to  the 
tilting  up  of  the  pelvis,  producing 
a  marked  deformity  and  limp. 
Abscess  formation  is  likely  to 
occur,  and  the  pus  may  burrow 
through  the  muscles,  and  discharge 
through  the  skin.  In  the  advanced 
stage  there  is  erosion  of  the  head 
of  the  femur,  and  real,  permanent 
shortening  of  the  limb.  The  patient 
may  develop  tuberculosis  in  other 
parts  of  the  body  and  die. 

If  the  case  is  treated  early  the 
outlook  is  hopeful,  though  there 
will  probably  always  be  some  crip- 
ling  of  the  limb.  In  the  early  stages 
the  joint  should  be  given  complete 
rest  by  keeping  the  child  in  bed, 
any  deformity  being  corrected  by 
appropriate  splints  or  by  extending 
the  leg  by  weights  attached  to  a 
cord  carried  over  a  pulley  at  the 
end  of  the  bed.  When  the  acute 
symptoms  and  pain  have  abated, 
the  child  is  allowed  to  get  about  on 
crutches  and  a  Thomas's  splint, 
which  should  be  worn  for  six 
months.  Nourishing  food  and 
plenty  of  fresh  air  are  of  the 
greatest  importance,  and  residence 
in  the  country  or  at  the  seaside  is 
highly  beneficial.  In  severe  cases 


!  I 


Hip-joint.  Anatomical  diagram  of 
the  ball  and  socket  joint.  A.  Liga- 
mentum  teres.  B.  Acetabulum 
ligament.  C.  Capsular  ligament, 
turned  back.  D.  Femur  or  thigh- 
bone. E.  Cotyloid  ligament.  F. 
Acetabulum  removed 


which  are  not  progressing  favour- 
ably surgical  treatment  may  be 
indicated.  Other  affections  of  the 
hip- joint  are  acute  and  chronic 
arthritis  (rheumatism),  and  Char- 
cot's  disease,  a  serious  disorganiza- 
tion of  the  joint  which  may  occur 
in  the  course  of  syphilis.  See 
Dislocation ;  Tuberculosis. 

Hipparchus  (fl.  c.  146-126  B.C.). 
Greek  astronomer.  Born  at  Nicaea 
in  Bithynia,  he  chiefly  carried  out 
his  observations  in  the  island  of 
Rhodes  and  in  Alexandria.  His 
only  extant  work  is  a  Commentary 
on  the  Phaenomena  of  Eudoxus 
and  Aratus.  All  that  is  otherwise 
known  of  his  numerous  writings  on 
astronomy  is  preserved  by  Pto- 
lemy in  his  Almagest  (q.v.).  His 
chief  title  to  fame  rested  upon  his 
catalogue  of  1,080  stars.  He  deter- 
mined the  length  of  the  solar  yeaf 
with  tolerable  exactitude,  and  at- 
tempted to  calculate  the  eccentri- 
city of  the  sun's  orbit.  He  invented 
trigonometry  and  originated  the 
method  of  fixing  terrestrial  posi- 
tions by  means  of  circles  of  latitude 
and  longitude. 

Hipparion  (Gr.,  pony).  One  of 
the  fossil  ancestors  of  the  horse. 
Remains  have  been  found  in  Upper 
Miocene  rocks  of  N.  America  and 
the  Pliocene  deposits  of  Europe, 
Asia,  and  N.  Africa.  Smaller  than 
the  present-day  horse,  its  average 
height  was  4  ft.  See  Fossils. 

Hipper,  VICE-ADMIRAL  VON. 
German  sailor.  Holding  the  rank 
of  rear-admiral  at  the  outbreak  of 
the  Great  War,  he  was  in  charge  of 
the  German  naval  raid  on  Scar- 
borough and  the  Hartlepools,  Dec. 
16,  1914,  and  commanded  the 
cruiser  squadron  at  the  battles  of 
the  Dogger  Bank,  Jan.  24,  1915, 
and  Jutland,  May  31,  1916.  After 
the  latter  he  was  awarded  the  order 
Pour  le  merite  by  the  Kaiser. 
Hipper  was  one  of  several  German 
admirals  whose  surrender  was  de- 
manded by  Great  Britain.  See  Jut- 
land, Battle  of. 

Hipperholme.  Urban  district 
and  village  of  Yorksliire  (W.R.). 
It  is  2  m.  from  Halifax,  of  which  it 
is  practically  a  suburb,  and  has  a 
station  on  the  L.  &  Y.  Rly.  The 
industries  include  tanning  and 
quarrying,  while  in  the  neighbour- 
hood are  coal  mines.  Pop.  4,400. 

Hippias.  Greek  sophist.  A 
native  of  Elis  and  contemporary  of 
Socrates,  he  was  famous  for  his  ex- 
tensive knowledge  and  remarkable 
memory.  He  regarded  law  as  op- 
posed to  nature  and  driving  man 
to  act  contrary  to  his  natural  in- 
stincts. He  gives  his  name  to  two 
dialogues  of  Plato. 
Hippias  AND  HIPPARCHUS.  Sons  of 
Peisistratus,  and  tyrants  of  Athens. 
See  Harmodius  and  Aristogiton. 

ID    5 


HIPPIUS 


4002 


HIPPOPHAGY 


Hippius,  ZINAIDA  (b.  1867). 
Russian  writer  of  fiction.  She 
married  the  novelist  D.  S._Merej- 
kovsky  (q.v.). 

Hippo  OB  HIPPO  REGITJ&.  An- 
cient city  of  N.  Africa,  which 
occupied  the  site  of  the  present 
Bona,  Algeria.  Founded  by  the 
Phoenicians,  it  was  the  favourite 
residence  of  the  Numidian  kings. 
Under  Rome,  Hippo  Regius  nour- 
ished as  a  trading  centre,  and  be- 
came the  see  of  Augustine,  who 
died  here  in  430.  On  the  advent  of 
Christianity  the  Roman  temples, 
theatres,  and  palaces  were  turned 
into  churches  and  monasteries. 
Hippo  was  sacked  by  the  Vandals 
and  utterly  destroyed  by  the 
Moslems  in  the  7th  century. 

Hippocrates  (c.  460-377  B.C.  J.- 
Greek physician,  commonly  called 
the  Father  of  Medicine.  One  of  the 
first  scientific  medical  men,  he  was 
born  in  the  island  of  Cos,  a  member 
of  the  famous  family  of  priest- 
physicians,  the  Asclepiadae  (see 
Aesculapius).  An  acute  and  in- 
defatigable observer,  he  took  full 
advantage  of  the  opportunity 
afforded  him  by  the  collocation  of 
large  numbers  of  patients  in  the 


Hippocrates,  Greek  physician 

From  a  bust  In  the  British  Museum 

Asclepieia  at  Cos  and  Cnidos,  and 
he  ranks  high  in  the  clinical  history 
of  medicine  and  surgery.  He  had 
the  courage  of  genius  and,  subordi- 
nating the  priest  to  the  medical 
man,  treated  disease  with  scientific 
regard  of  natural  laws,  prescribing 
simple  remedies  and  recognizing 
the  value  of  diet  as  an  aid  to  medi- 
cine. He  practised  both  as  physi- 
cian and  surgeon,  though  his  know- 
ledge of  anatomy  was  limited  by 
the  Greeks'  objection  to  dissection. 
More  than  70  of  his  essays  are 
extant  (Eng.  traAs.  F.  Adams, 
1849).  Pron.  Hippoc-rateez. 


Hippodrome  (Gr.  hippos,  horse ; 
dromos,  running,  course).  Course 
for  chariot  or  horse  racing  in  an- 
cient Greece.  It  was  oblong  in 
shape  with  rounded  ends.  In 
modern  terminology  the  word,  re- 
gardless of  etymological  associa- 
tions, has  come  to  be  frequently 
applied  to  a  theatre  giving  a 
variety  entertainment.  See  Amphi- 
theatre ;  Circus. 

Hippodrome,  THE  LONDON. 
Variety  house  in  Cranbourne 
Street,  W.C.  Designed  by  Frank 
Matcham,  it  was  built  in  1899  with 
special  arrangements  for  convert- 
ing the  stage  into  a  circus  arena, 
or  a  large  water  tank.  It  was 
opened  by  H.  E.  Moss  in  1900. 
It  was  reconstructed  in  1909, 
its  former  arrangements  being 
modified. 

Hippogriff.  Fabulous  animal, 
half  horse  and  half  griffon.  The 
name  is  sometimes  applied  to  a 
winged  horse. 

Hippolyte.  In  Greek  legend, 
queen  of  the  Amazons.  She  wore  a 
famous  girdle,  the  gift  of  her  father 
Ares,  to  obtain  which  was  one  of 
the  twelve  labours  of  Hercules. 
Refusing  to  give  it  up,  she  was 
slain  by  him.  According  to  another 
legend,  Hippolyte  invaded  Attica 
at  the  head  of  her  Amazons,  but 
was  defeated  by  Theseus  and  be- 
came his  wife.  Pron.  Hip-poli-tee. 

Hippolytus.  In  Greek  legend, 
son  of  Theseus.  He  rejected  the 
advances  of  his  stepmother,  Phae- 
dra, who  thereupon  took  her  own 
life,  leaving  behind  a  letter  to 
Theseus  in  which  she  accused 
Hippolytus  as  the  offender.  The- 
seus, in  his  anger,  called  upon 
Poseidon  to  destroj'-  his  son,  where- 
upon the  god  sent  a  sea-monster 
which  frightened  the  horses  of 
Hippolytus,  who  was  thrown  out 
and  killed.  He  was  restored  to 
life  by  Aesculapius  and  afterwards 
ruled,  under  the  name  of  Virbius, 
in,  the  grove  of  Egeria  near  Aricia. 
The  tragedy  is  the  subject  of  Euri- 
pides' drama  Hippolytus  and  of 
Racine's  Phedre.  See  Phaedra. 

Hippolytus,  ROMANUS  (d.  c.  A.D. 
240).  Eccles.  writer  who  is  said  to 
have  been  bishop  of  the  Port  of 
Rome.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Irenaeus 
and  was  active  in  the  times  of  the 
popes  Zephyrinus  (202-218)  and 
Callistus  (218-223).  He  wrote  in 
Greek,  and  is  regarded  as  the  author 
of  a  work  entitled  Philosophou- 
mena;  or,  Refutation  of  all  Heresies, 
once  attributed  to  Origen,  and 
aimed  especially  at  the  Gnostics.  On 
a  marble  statue,  unearthed  at  Pon- 
tus  in  1551,  and  supposed  to  repre- 
sent Hippolytus,  was  found  en- 
graved a  list  of  his  works,  including 
the  Philosophoumena,  part  of  the 
MS.  of  which  was  found  at  Mount 


Hippogriff,  a  fabulous  animal 


Athos  in  1842,  and  published  in 
England  in  1851.  See  Hippolytus 
and  Callistus,  J.  J.  I.  Dolliiiger, 
1853,  Eng.  trans.  1876. 

Hippolytus,  CANONS  OF.  Thirty- 
eight  rules  or  orders  attributed  to 
Hippolytus,  bishop  of  Rome.  Ex- 
isting only  in  an  Arabic  translation 
from  a  Coptic  version  of  the  original 
Greek,  they  are  valuable  for  the 
sidelights  they  throw  on  the  early 
life  of  the  Christian  Church. 

Hipponax  (6th  century  B.C.). 
Greek  iambic  poet.  A  native  of 
Ephesus,  he  was  expelled  thence 
and  settled  at  Clazomenae.  Cari- 
catured for  his  ugliness  and  de- 
formity, he  avenged  himself  by 
bitter  lampoons.  He  invented  the 
choliambus,  in  which  a  spondee 
takes  the  place  of  an  iambus  in  the 
last  foot. 

Hippophagy  (Gr.  hippos,  horse ; 
phagein,  to  eat).  Practice  of  eating 
horseflesh.  An  enormous  mass  of 
fossil  bones  found  at  Solutre  in  the 
Rhone  valley  supports  the  view 
that  in  palaeolithic  Europe  the 
wild  horse  was  habitually  hunted 
for  food  before  its  domestication 
for  riding  and  traction.  The  hip- 
pophagy  of  ancient  Scythian  no- 
mads still  survives  in  central  Asia. 
The  practice  is  also  recorded  of 
early  Norsemen,  and  in  recent 
times  horseflesh  appeared  in  the 
dietary  of  Danish  prisons.  In  the 
8th  century  Pope  Gregory  III  de- 
clared it  to  be  unclean  and  exe- 
crable for  human  food.  The 
general  repugnance  of  Christendom 
to  this  food,  like  that  of  Jews  to 
pork,  is  due  in  part  to  considera- 
tions rooted  in  primitive  phil- 
osophy. During  the  reign  of 
terror,  in  1793,  horseflesh  was 
eaten  in  Paris,  and  in  Napoleon's 
retreat  from  Moscow,  in  1812,  was 
made  into  invalid  soup.  Some 
French  regiments,  in  the  Crimean 
campaign  of  1855,  preserved  their 
health  by  its  use. 

In  1845  the  sale  of  norseflesh 
was  authorised  in  Munich,  and  by 
1855  had  reached  all  German 


HIPPOPOTAMUS 


4003 


HIRANYAGARBHA 


states.  In  1847  Isidore  Geoffrey 
Saint-Hilaire  gave  a  series  of  hip- 
pophagous  banquets  in  Paris  to 
popularise  horseflesh,  and  in  1866 
its  sale  was  regularised  in  that 
city.  During  the  siege  of  Paris  in 
1870-71,  and  throughout  the  Great 
War,  horseflesh  was  of  great  dietetic 
importance.  It  is  regularly  sold 
in  Belgium,  and  is  a  primary  in- 
gredient in  some  forms  of  French 
sausage. 

In  1868  horseflesh  was  served  at 
a  dinner  given  at  the  Langham 
Hotel,  London,  the  150  guests  in- 
cluding Sir  Henry  Thompson  and 
Sir  John  Lubbock.  The  Sale  of 
Horseflesh,  etc.,  Regulation  Act, 
1889,  provides  a  penalty  of  £20  for 
supplying  it  for  human  food  with- 
out disclosure,  and  also  for  selling, 
offering,  or  exposing  it  except  in  a 
place  bearing  a  conspicuous  indi- 
cation that  horseflesh  is  sold  there. 
See  Horse. 

Hippopotamus  (Gr.  hippopo- 
tamos,  river-horse).  Large  herbivor- 
ous mammal  of  the  family  Hippo- 
polamidae,  related  to  the  Suidae, 
which  comprises  pigs  and  peccaries. 
There  are  two  species,  both  confined 
to  the  tropical  region  of  Africa.  The 
body  is  bulky  and  piglike  in  form, 
with  an  exceptionally  large  head 
and  gaping  mouth  armed  with  large 
tusks  and  incisor  teeth.  The  lower 
pair  of  incisors  projects  almost 
straight  forward.  The  nostrils  are 
on  the  top  of  the  muzzle,  and  the 
animal  can  raise  them  and  its  eyes 
above  the  surface  of  the  water 
while  nearly  all  the  rest  of  the 
head  is  immersed.  Both  nostrils 
and  ears  can  be  closed  when  under 
water.  The  thick  skin  is  naked 
with  the  exception  of  bristles  on 
the  muzzle,  head,  and  neck,  and  at 
the  end  of  the  short  tail. 

The  common  hippopotamus  (H. 
amphibius)  is  the  largest  of  land 
mammals  except  the  elephant.  It 
attains  a  length  of  14  ft.,  and  the 
height  at  the  shoulder  is  about  4  ft. 
A  fine  male  will  weigh  from  four  to 
five  tons.  The  skin  is  blackish 
brown  or  slate  colour,  but  white 
and  mottled  examples  have  been 
seen.  Its  range  is  now  confined  to 
Central  Africa,  though  it  formerly 
occurred  from  Lower  Egypt  to 
Cape  Colony.  The  Biblical  Behe- 
moth is  generally  identified  with 
it.  In  the  Pleistocene  period  it 
occurred  in  England,  being  found 
as  far  N.  as  Yorkshire,  and  it  is 
curious  that  its  remains  have  been 
found  w/th  those  of  the  reindeer, 
which  is  now  an  Arctic  animal. 

In  habits  the  hippopotamus  is 
the  most  aquatic  of  all  the  larger 
land  mammals.  It  sleeps  beneath 
the  surface  of  the  water,  rising  to 
breathe  every  four  or  five  mir  utes, 
but  can  remain  entirely  submerged 


for  ten  minutes  if  pressed  by 
hunters.  Slow  and  clumsy  on  land, 
it  is  a  fairly  rapid  swimmer.  It 
leaves  the  rivers  at  night  to  graze, 
and  in  cultivated  districts  does  a 
vast  amount  of  damage  to  the 
crops.  It  is  timid  and  inoffensive 
unless  cornered,  when  it  becomes  a 
dangerous  opponent.  It  has  been 
known  to  live  in  captivity  for 
about  30  years,  and  in  a  natural 
state  it  probably  lives  for  a  much 
longer  period. 

Economically  the  hippopota- 
mus is  of  some  value.  Its  hide  is 
used  for  making  whips  and  occa- 
sionally for  walking  sticks  and  um- 
brella handles,  and  also  for  facing 
polishing  wheels.  The  tusks  fur- 
nish ivory,  and  were  formerly  the 
substance  of  which  artificial  teeth 
were  made.  The  flesh  is  excellent 
eating,  and  a  fine  animal  will  fur- 
nish about  200  Ib.  of  useful  fat. 

The  smaller  species  (H.  liber ien- 
sis)  is  known  as  the  pigmy  hippo- 


Hippurites  (Gr.  hippos,  horse  ; 
oura,  tail).  Group  of  extinct  mol- 
luscs found  in  Cretaceous  strata  in 
the  Mediterranean  area.  They  are 
remarkable  for  one  large,  usually 
conical  or  cup-shaped  shell,  and  a 
smaller  one  which  served  as  a 
cover.  Fossil  shells  often  reach 
three  feet  in  length.  They  are 
found  in  W.  and  E.  Alps,  Dalmatia, 
Greece,  and  W.  Asia. 

Hirado  OR  FIRANDO.  Island  of 
Japan,  off  the  N.W.  coast  of 
Kyushiu.  It  is  55  m.  N.N.W.  of 
Nagasaki  and  is  19  m.  in  length. 
Hilly  in  character,  its  chief  town, 
Hirado,  a  celebrated  whaling 
station,  lies  on  its  E.  shore.  The 
island  has  long  been  celebrated  for 
its  blue  and  white  porcelain.  It  was 
first  visited  by  the  Portuguese  in 
the  16th  century,  followed  by 
Dutch  and  English  navigators 
early  in  the  17th.  The  Dutch  estab- 
lished the  first  trading  station  in 
Japan  for  the  use  of  foreigners  at 


Hippopotamus,  the  great  nv 

Gambier  Hollo 

potamus,  and  is  found  in  Liberia, 
the  Guinea  Coast,  and  Sierra 
Leone.  It  is  black  in  colour,  about 
6  ft.  long,  and  weighs  about  400  Ib. 
Its  head  is  smaller  in  proportion 
than  in  the  common  hippopo- 
tamus, and  there  are  only  two  inci- 
sors in  the  lower  jaw.  Little  is 
known  of  its  habits,  but  it  appears 
to  feed  by  day,  is  never  found  in 
companies  like  the  larger  species, 
and  is  much  less  amphibious  ii> 
habit.  See  Animal. 

Hippuric  Acid  (C9H9N03).  Cry- 
stalline substance,  contained  in 
the  urine  of  horses  and  cows.  The 
chemical  name  is  benzamido-acetic 
acid.  Onheatingwith  strong  acids  or 
alkalis  it  decomposes  into  benzoic 
acid  and  glycocoll.  The  crystals 
are  colourless,  and  easily  soluble  in 
hot  water. 


r  hog  of  Central  Africa 


Hirado  in  1610  ;  in  1710  this  was 
transferred  to  Dejima,  a  small  is- 
land near  Nagasaki.  Pop.  35,000. 

Hiraxno  Mam.  Japanese  liner. 
She  was  torpedoed  and  sunk  by 
the  Germans  off  the  Irish  coast, 
Oct.  4, 1918,  with  a  loss  of  292  lives. 
Of  these  it  is  estimated  that  100 
were  lost  as  a  result  of  the  U-boat 
which  sank  the  Hiramo  Maru  try- 
ing to  torpedo  the  U.S.  destroyer 
Sterret  while  the  latter  was  en- 
gaged picking  up  survivors,  com- 
pelling her  to  cease  her  rescue  work 
while  driving  the  submarine  away. 

Hiranyagarbha.  Deity  of  the 
ancient  Hindu  pantheon.  In  the 
oldest  of  the  Hindu  sacred  writ- 
ings, the  Rig- Veda,  he  is  repre- 
sented as  the  upholder  of  heaven 
and  earth,  and  the  giver  of  lif e  and 
breath.  See  Hinduism  ;  Rig- Veda. 


HIRE      PURCHASE 


Hire  Purchase  System.  Me- 
thod of  purchasing  goods  by  instal- 
ments. It  is  largely  used  by  persons 
of  moderate  means  wishing  to 
obtain  immediate  possession  of 
expensive  articles  such  as  pianos, 
suites  of  furniture,  bicycles,  or 
sewing  machines.  There  is  almost 
always  an  agreement  in  writing 
between  the  parties  ;  a  special  con- 
dition being  that  if  any  instalment 
becomes  in  arrear,  the  vendor  may 
recover  his  property  and  all  pre- 
vious instalments  are  forfeited.  For 
this  purpose  the  document,  though 
really  an  agreement  to  purchase,  is 
drawn  as  one  to  let  and  hire.  The 
instalments  are  treated  as  payments 
for  the  hire  of  the  goods,  which 
remain  the  lender's  property  ;  but 
with  a  proviso  that  if  all  instal- 
ments are  punctually  paid,  the 
ownership  passes  to  the  hirer. 
Meantime  the  latter  has  no  right  to 
dispose  of  the  property,  or  to  put 
it  under  pledge. 

Hirosaki.  City  of  Honshu, 
Japan,  in  the  province  of  Mutsu. 
It  stands  in  the  Tsugaru  plain  near 
a  range  of  hills,  20  m.  by  rly. 
S.S.W.  of  Aomori.  It  has  castle 
ruins  and  a  museum.  On  the  W. 
of  the  town  is  the  solitary  cone  of 
Iwakisan,  4,650  ft.,  which  forms 
a  prominent  landmark.  Hirosaki 
is  noted  for  its  apples  and  silk,  and 
the  inhabitants  are  expert  in  the 
manufacture  of  fine  lacquer  ware. 
An  important  and  picturesque 
town,  it  is  the  headquarters  of  a 
high  court.  Pop.  34,900. 

Hiroshige,  MOTONAGA  (1797- 
1858).  Japanese  genre  and  land- 
scape painter.  He  studied  under 
Riansa'i  Okajima  and  Toyoturo 
Ontagawa.  His  somewhat  rare 
paintings  and  colour  prints  of 
Japanese  landscape  are  of  high 
artistic  value.  He  died  at  Yeddo. 
The  Melbourne  Gallery,  Australia, 
possesses  a  snow  scene  by  him. 

Hiroshima.  City  of  Honshu, 
Japan,  in  the  prefecture  of  Hiro- 
shima. It  is  picturesquely  situated 
at  the  head  of  a  bay,  on  the  S. 
coast  of  the  island,  190  m.  W.S.W. 
of  Kobe,  on  the  rly.  between  that 
city  and  Shimonoseki.  Facing  the 
city  is  the  sacred  islet  of  Itsukushi- 
ma,  famous  for  its  beautiful  Shinto 
temple,  a  resort  of  thousands  of 
pilgrims  to  whom  the  island  is 
known  as  the  Island  of  Light. 

In  the  city  itself  there  are  many 
temples  and  shrines,  a  recreation 
ground,  and  numerous  tea-houses. 
Commercially  important,  Hiro- 
shima carries  on  a  brisk  trade  in 
lacquered  ware,  bronze  goods,  and 
objects  of  art,  being  the  largest 
depot  for  the  surrounding  district 
on  the  Inland  Se£.  Ujina,  4  m. 
away,  is  a  busy  port  for  steamers 
in  the  Inland  Sea  and  Formosa 


Hiroshima,  Japan.     Wharves  and  river  craft  at  the  head  of  the  bay 


trade,  and,  since  1894,  an  impor- 
tant transport  base  in  time  of  war. 
Pop.  167,400. 

Hirsch,  MAUPJCE,  BARON  DE 
(1831-96).  Jewish  financier  and 
philanthropist.  He  was  born  at 
Munich,  Dec. 
9,  1831,  his 
father  and 
I  grandfather 
I  having  been 
I  bankers  to  the 
I  Bavarian 
I  court.  Having 

'fftm    ma(^e  an  enor- 
IfeiMK  1      I    mous   fortune 
by    obtaining 
concessi  ons 
from  the  Otto- 

( Maurice        ^       man     govern- 
Hirsch)         <^    meat    for   the 

construction 
of  the  Balkan  railways,  he  be- 
came an  Austrian  subject,  and 
bought  a  magnificent  estate  at 
Ogyalla  in  Hungary.  He  took  an 
active  interest  in  the  Turf,  his  filly 
La  Fleche  winning  the  Oaks,  the 
St.  Leger,  and  the  Thousand 
Guineas  in  1892.  He  contributed 
more  than  £2,000,000  to  a  society 
for  settling  Russian  Jews  in  the 
Argentine  and  in  Canada,  and  did 
much  in  other  directions  to  help 
distressed  members  of  his  race. 
He  died  April  21,  1896. 

Hirschberg.  Town  of  Ger- 
many, in  Silesia.  It  lies  30  m.  S,W. 
of  Liegnitz,  at  the  junction  of  the 
Zacken  and  the  Bober,  between 
the  Katzbach  Mts.  and  the  Riesen 
Gebirge.  It  contains  two  Gothic 
churches  (Protestant  and  Roman 
Catholic)  and  an  arcaded  market 
place.  The  town  is  a  starting-point 
for  excursions  to  the  Riesen 
Gebirge,  and  is  a  trade  centre,  with 
manufactures  of  linen,  machine 
shops,  etc.  Pop.  20,561.  Another 
Hirschberg  is  on  the  Saale,  about 
14  m.  W.S.W.  of  Plauen. 

Hirschfeld,  GEORG  (b.  1873). 
German  novelist.  Born  in  Berlin, 
Nov.  11,  1873.  he  came  under  the 
influence  of  Gerhart  Hauptmann, 
and  at  the  age  of  twenty  took  up 


literature.  In  1895  he  produced 
Damon  Kleist,  followed  by  several 
plays,  one  of  which,  Die  Mutter,  had 
a  successful  run  in  1896.  His  best 
known  works  were  Freundschaft, 
1902  ;  Das  griine  Band,  1905  ; 
Das  Madchen  von  Lille,  1907; 
Onkel  und  Tante  Van  tee,  1913. 

Hirson.  Town  of  France,  in  the 
dept.  of  Aisne.  It  is  on  the  R.  Oise, 
llm.  N.E.  of  Vervins  and  34  m. 
E.  of  St.  Quentin.  A  f  actorv  town, 
it  is  an  important  railway  junction, 
where  five  double-track  lines  meet. 
It  had  a  fort  equipped  with  a  dis- 
appearing turret,  but  everything 
there  was  in  lamentable  disrepair  in 
Aug.,  1914.  The  garrison  con- 
sisted of  500  hastily  mobilised 
territorials.  In  face  of  the  German 
advance  after  Charleroi  it  was 
evacuated  by  the  French  on  Sept. 
1  and  was  occupied  by  Germans. 
On  Nov.  10,  1918,  it  was  captured 
by  the  French.  Pop.  9,000.  See 
Valenciennes. 

Hirst,  GEORGE  HERBERT  (b. 
1871).  English  cricketer.  Born 
Sept.  7,  1871,  at  Kirkheaton,  he 
became  amem- 
ber  of  the 
Yorkshire 
county  eleven 
in  1892.  He 
was  a  fine 
batsman,  and  a 
fast  left-hand 
bowler,  with  a  _ 
most  deceptive  I^Hl— ^ — JBBB 
swerve.  His  „  George  Hirst, 
best  batting  English  cncketer 
season  was  1904,  when  he  scored 
2,501  runs  for  an  average  of  54  36 
per  innings,  and  his  best  bowling 
season  was  1906,  when  he  took  208 
wickets  for  an  average  of  16'5. 
He  has  scored  1,000  runs  and  taken 
100  wickets  on  14  occasions,  and 
in  1906  he  scored  2,000  runs  and 
captured  200  wickets.  Altogether 
he  played  60  innings  of  100  and 
upwards.  In  1920  he  became 
cricket  coach  at  Eton. 

Hirtius,  AULUS  (d.  43  B.C.). 
One  of  the  lieutenants  of  Julius 
Caesar  in  Gaul.  The  authorship  of 


HIS     HOUSE      IN      ORDER 


HISTORIOGRAPHER 


an  eighth  book  on  the  Gallic  War 
and  of  a  history  of  Caesar's  Alex- 
andrian war  is  generally  attributed 
to  him.  In  43,  he  and  Pansa,  his 
colleague  in  the  consulship,  were 
sent  to  relieve  Mutina  (Modena), 
then  besieged  by  Antony.  The 
latter  was  defeated,  but  both 
consuls  lost  their  lives. 

His  House  in  Order.  Comedy 
written  by  A.  W.  Fmero  and  pro- 
duced Feb.  1,  1906,  at  The  St. 
James's,  where  it  ran  for  430  per- 
formances. Irene  Vanbrugh  and 
George  Alexander  played  the  lead 
ing  parts. 

His  Majesty's  Theatre.  Lon- 
don theatre,in  the  Hay  market  (£.*>.). 
In  the  first  building  erected  on  the 
site,  opened  as  the  Queen's  Opera 
House  in  1705,  the  first  perform- 
ance of  Handel's  Rinaldo  took 
place  in  1711.  The  building  having 
been  burnt  down,  a  new  one  was 
erected  in  1791,  and  named  the 
King's  Theatre.  Here  Don  Gio- 
vanni was  produced  for  the  first 
time  in  England  in  1817.  On  the 
accession  of  Queen  Victoria  the 
name  of  Her  Majesty's  Theatre 
was  given  to  the  building,  which 
regained  popularity  in  1847  with 
the  debut  of  Jenny  Lind. 

The  days  of  Titiens,  Trebelli, 
and  Nilsson  followed  from  18G2  to 
1867,  when  the  theatre  was  burnt 
to  the  ground.  Rebuilt,  it  stood 
empty  till  Moody  and  Sankey 
filled  it  with  their  Revivalist  ser- 
vices. The  present  theatre,  built 
of  Portland  stone  and  red  granite, 
was  designed  by  C.  J.  Phipps  for 
Beerbohm  Tree  in  1897.  On  the  ac- 
cession of  Edward  VII  its  title  was 
changed  to  His  Majesty's  Theatre. 
Hispar.  Pass  and  glacier  in  the 
Karakoram  Mts.,  Central  Asia,  N. 
of  Baltistan,  Little  Tibet,  It 
reaches  an  alt.  of  17,650  ft.,  and 
was  first  explored  in  1892  by  Sir 
W.  Martin  Conway. 

Hissar.  District,  subdivision, 
and  town  of  India.  In  the  Delhi 
Division,  Punjab,  its  area  is  5,217 
sq.  m.,  about  four-fifths  of  which 
is  under  cultivation,  the  chief  crops 
being  millet,  barley,  and  wheat. 
The  rainfall  is  about  15  ins.  Irriga- 
tion from  the  Sirhind  and  Western 
Jumna  canals  enables  some  crops 
to  be  grown,  but  the  harvest  is 
uncertain.  The  district  contains 
a  number  of  cotton  ginning  and 
pressing  factories.  Hissar  town  is 
of  little  commercial  importance. 
Pop.  district,  804,900  ;  subdivision, 
126,800;  town,  17,160. 

Hissar.  Province  and  town  of 
Turkistan,  in  E.  Bokhara.  The 
country  is  well  watered  and  fertile, 
but  very  unhealthy  in  the  low- 
lying  districts.  The  chief  products 
are  grain,  cotton,  flax,  and  rice. 
The  town  is  famous  for  its  knives, 


sword -blades,  and  silken  wares. 
Hissar  was  formerly  an  indepen- 
dent principality.  Pop.  of  town 
about  10,000. 

Histology  (Gr.  hiato*,  web; 
logos,  account).  Branch  of  science 
dealing  with  the  microscopical 
structure  of  living  organisms. 
Although  histology  is  contempor- 
aneous with  the  invention  and  im- 
provement of  the  microscope,  the 
study  of  the  minute  structure  of 


1869  to  examine  and  report  upon 
the  historical  records,  manuscripts, 
etc.,  in  existence  in  the  country. 
It  is  a  permanent  body,  the  chair- 
man being  the  master  of  the  rolls, 
and  has  published  a  number  of 
reports  on  various  valuable  col- 
lections of  historical  material,  e.g. 
those  at  Hatfield  and  Dropmore 
See  State  Papers. 

Historical  Method.  Term  used 
mainly  in  economics  for  a  method 
of    inquiry     that 
its    results 


His  Majesty's  Theatre,  London,  built  in  1897 


animals  and  vegetables  began  with 
the  discovery  of  blood  corpuscles 
by  Malpighi  (1628-94),  that  of 
plant  cells  by  Robert  Hooke  in 
1667,  etc.  Francois  Bichat  (q.v.), 
the  French  physiologist,  first  laid 
the  foundations  of  histology  in  his 
great  work,  Anatomie  Generate 
Appliquee  a  la  Physiologie  et  a 
la  Medecine,  1801-12,  where  he 
showed  the  intimate  connexion 
between  heart,  brain,  and  lungs, 
and  classified  tissues  according  to 
their  structures. 

Hugo  von  Mohl,  Schleiden,  and 
Schwann  marked  another  great 
step  in  the  science  of  histology  by 
the  discovery  of  the  cellular 
structure  of  plants,  the  latter 
showing  that  animal  and  vegetable 
all  develop  from  cells. 


upon  the  facts  of 
historical  research 
rather  than  upon 
theories.  It  is  the 
inductive  as  op- 
posed to  the  de- 
ductive method. 
More  narrowly  it 
is  applied  to  those 
German  scholars 
who  follow  the 
system  founded 
by  W.  Roscher. 
See  Logic ;  Ros- 
cher. 

Historical  So- 
ciety, ROYAL. 
British  learned 
society  founded  in  1868.  Its  objects 
are  the  promotion  of  historical 
study  and  research.  Papers  are  read 
at  its  monthly  meetings,  and  its 
Transactions  are  published  from 
time  to  time.  Its  members  are 
styled  F.R.Hist.S.  The  offices  are 
at  South  Square,  Gray's  Inn,  Lon- 
don, W.C.  . 

Historic  Houses.  Houses  in 
which  historic  events  have  taken 
place  or  historic  personages  have 
lived.  Examples  are  Burghley 
House,  Devonshire  House,  Gros- 
venor  House,  Hatfield  House,  Hol- 
land House,  Marlborough  House, 
and  Lansdowne  House.  These,  and 
others,  are  described  in  this  work 
under  their  respective  headings. 

Historiographer  (Gr.  historia, 
history  ;  graphein,  to  write) 


tissues  ,.  lilol 

The  study  of  cellular  structure  by       ^ 

Johannes     Muller,    Virchow,    and     yiv{_ 

others  since  has  given  an  immense     princes  began  to  appoint 

impetus  to  the  investigation  of  dis-     £Q  ^^  the  histories  of  th 

eased  growths.    See  Biology ;  Cell ; 

Physiology;  Tissue. 

Bibliography.  A  Text-book  of 
the  Principles  of  Animal  Histology, 
U.  Dahlgren  and  W.  A.  Kepner, 
1908;  The  Essentials  of  Histology, 


Offi- 

Soon  after  the  re- 
vival of  learning  certain  rulers  and 
'at  scholars 
themselves 

and  their  lands.  The  emperor 
Charles  V,  Louis  XIV,  and  other 
kings  of  France,  for  instance,  had 
their  historiographers  royal,  who  in- 
cluded Racine  and  Voltaire,  while 


Descriptive    and    Practical,    E.    A.     Charles ,  II  ^of   England  appointed 
Schafer,  1910;   Practical  Histology, 
J.  N.  Langley,   1920. 


Histon.    Parish   and  village   of 


one  on  his  Restoration.  Obviously 
the  work  of  these  men,  who  had  to 
write  something  laudatory,  had 


Cambridgeshire,    England.       It   is     little  value.     The  most  interesting 
4  m.  N.N.W.  of  Cambridge  on  the    of  these  survivals  is  the  k 
fruit 


G.E.R.      The  cultivation  of 

and  jam  manufacture  are  the  chief 

industries.     Pop.  1,385. 

Historical  Manuscripts  Com- 
mission. In  the  United  Kingdom, 
a  royal  commission  appointed  in 


toriographer  in  Scotland.  The  office 
existed  there  before  1603,  but  fell 
into  abeyance.  In  1763  it  was  re- 
vived and  William  Robertson  was 
appointed.  His  successors  included 
J.  H.  Burton  and  W.  F.  Skene. 


HISTORY 


4006 


HISTORY 


HISTORY  :  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  PAST 

A.  D.  limes,  M.A.,  Author  of  A  History  of  the  British  Nation 

This  article  describes  the  main  principles  which  underlie  the  study 
of  history,  on  which  subject  there  are  hundreds  of  articles  in  this 
Encyclopedia.  These  articles  include  histories  of  all  the  nations  of 
the  world,  both  past  and  present,  sketches  of  Feudalism,  the  Re- 
formation, and  other  intellectual  and  economic  movements,  and 
biographies  of  kings,  soldiers,  and  statesmen ;  also  historians 


History  is  concerned  with  the  in- 
ception, progress  or  decay  of  organ- 
ized communities,  the  movements, 
the  events,  and  the  personalities 
connected,  therewith.  In  the  liter- 
ary sense  of  the  term,  it  is  the 
written  or  pictured  record  of  that 
process  of  development.  In  the 
scientific  sense  it  is  the  accumula- 
tion and  investigation  of  the  data 
provided  by  the  past  for  the  science 
of  politics,  with  which  every  citizen 
is  vitally  concerned  in  a  country 
where  every  citizen  has  a  share, 
however  small,  in  controlling  the 
government  of  the  State,  a  periodi- 
cal duty  of  pronouncing  his  own 
judgement  upon  political  ques- 
tions, and  a  definite  responsibility 
towards  the  State  of  which  he  is  a 
member.  History  is  the  gathered 
experience  of  the  past  in  relation  to 
social  and  political  organization, 
and  so  for  all  responsible  citizens  it 
is  a  study  of  the  most  serious  practi- 
cal importance. 

Education  in  Citizenship 

The  functions  of  the  historian  are 
threefold — to  ascertain  and  accu- 
mulate facts ;  to  coordinate  and  re- 
late them  in  true  perspective;  and  to 
indicate  and  test  the  generalisations 
which  may  be  inferred  ;  to  which 
may  be  added  the  fourth  function, 
that  of  artistic  presentation.  For 
the  ordinary  citizen  cannot  himself 
be  a  historian  ;  it  is  from  the  his- 
torians, not  from  his  own  re- 
searches, that  he  must  derive  his 
knowledge  of  history  ;  and  it  is 
absolutely  certain  that  the  his- 
torians from  whom  he  will  derive  it 
will  be  those  who  present  it  in  a 
manner  which  appeals  effectively 
to  the  imagination  of  the  student. 
It  is  improbable  that  any  histor- 
ians, however  learned,  will  ever 
succeed  in  displacing  the  concep- 
tions of  historic  figures  created  by 
the  plays  of  Shakespeare,  or  the 
novels  of  Walter  Scott  and  others, 
in  spite  of  the  knowledge  that 
such  works  made  no  profession  of 
historical  accuracy ;  and  while 
nine  educated  persons  out  of  ten 
are  aware  that  Macaulay,  Carlyle, 
and  Froude  are  denounced  as  mis- 
leading, the  majority  will  prove  in 
effect  to  be  their  more  or  less  un- 
conscious disciples. 

The  study  of  history  provides  us 
with  actual  precedents,  and  the 
data  for  principles  to  be  applied  to 
present-day  problems,  though  it  is 
necessary  to  bear  in  mind  the  para- 


dox that,  although  "  history  re- 
peats itself  "  perpetually,  it  may  be 
said  with  equal  truth  that  it  never 
repeats  itself.  The  events  of  the 
past  manifestly  have  a  bearing 
upon  the  present,  but  there  is  al- 
ways a  danger  of  forgetting  that 
the  nature  of  a  problem  may  be  en- 
tirely changed  by  quite  unobtru- 
sive variations  in  circumstances. 
Throughout  the  Great  War  the 
best  possible  antidote  alike  to  a 
shallow  optimism  and  an  egregious 
pessimism  was  a  tolerably  intimate 
acquaintance  with  the  history  of 
the  wars  of  1792-1815,  and  in  a 
less  degree  those  from  1739-63. 
But  pessimism  was  absurdly  fos- 
tered by  the  drawing  of  entirely 
misleading  comparisons  between 
conditions  from  time  to  time  pre- 
vailing in  the  Great  War,  and  in  one 
or  other  of  those  wars  ;  optimism 
was  fostered  rather  by  the  failure 
to  note  real  analogies  than  by 
dwelling  upon  analogies  that  were 
misleading. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  a  matter 
of  common  knowledge  that  the 
minds  of  the  German  people  were 
prepared  for  the  war,  educated  up 
to  it — the  intellectual  soil  was  ferti- 
lised— by  professorial  misrepresen- 
tations of  history,  accepted  as 
gospel,  which  taught  them  to  be- 
lieve that  the  craft  which  keeps  no 
faith  and  the  force  which  knows  no 
mercy  are  the  sure  instruments  of 
victory,  and  the  only  instruments 
by  which  victory  has  been  or  can  be 
achieved.  To  their  total  misread- 
ing of  history — Roman  as  well  as 
British,  it  may  be  remarked  inci- 
dentally— the  Germans  owed  the 
conviction,  doomed  to  so  painful  a 
disappointment,  that  the  British 
Empire  was  a  feeble  tyranny,  cre- 
ated and  maintained  only  by  vio- 
lence and  fraud — especially  fraud 
— which  would  be  shattered  as  soon 
as  the  populations  were  given  an 
opportunity  for  bursting  their 
fetters.  To  this  poison  the  true 
antidote  would  have  been  found  in 
an  intelligent  study  and  a  true 
representation  of  history. 

History  and  Practical  Politics 

There  can  be  equally  little  doubt 
that  Europe  in  general,  and  Great 
Britain  in  particular,  would  have 
been  much  better  prepared  for  the 
war,  or  at  least  for  the  character 
which  it  assumed,  but  for  the  mis- 
reading of  history,  which  over- 
looked the  phenomenon  known  as 


reversion  to  type,  and  if  it  had  also 
been  realized  that  the  history  of 
other  countries  than  our  own  de- 
mands careful  and  unprejudiced 
attention.  That  error  the  Ger- 
mans avoided  in  part ;  they  gave 
the  attention,  but  in  a  spirit  so 
prejudiced  that  the  result  was  al- 
most more  misleading  than  in- 
attention would  have  been. 

It  may  be  confidently  assumed 
that  the  Great  War  will  generate  a 
vast  amount  of  historical  reading 
and  historical  writing  ;  that  what 
has  been  written  in  the  past  will  be 
reviewed  in  the  light  of  these  por- 
tentous events  ;  that  it  will  be- 
come at  least  the  primary  function 
of  education  in  history  to  apply  it 
to  a  right  understanding  of  other 
nations.  And  there  will  be  a 
development  of  the  tendency,  which 
has  made  its  way  so  slowly,  to 
dwell  upon  history  less  in  what  may 
be  called  its  antiquarian  aspects, 
and  more  as  a  subject  practically 
and  intimately  associated  with  the 
functions  of  citizenship.  Perhaps 
the  danger  is  that  educationists 
may  be  tempted  to  a  too  violent 
reversal,  and  will  neglect  the  past 
which  makes  the  recent  intelligible. 
History  and  Education 

To  the  youthful  mind  the  prac- 
tical problems  of  citizenship,  most 
of  the  political  side  of  history,  are 
not  easily  made  intelligible  and  in- 
teresting, but  youth  is  susceptible 
to  the  inspiration  of  high  enthu- 
siasms, noble  ideals,  chivalrous 
sympathies,  heroic  deeds.  For  the 
formation  of  character,  nothing  is 
more  essential  than  to  foster  such 
susceptibilities,  to  train  the  mind 
of  the  child  to  admire  rightly  noble 
men,  noble  women,  and  noble 
deeds,  to  hate  foul  deeds  and  their 
doers.  And  therewith  it  is  essential 
to  instil  the  sense  of  justice.  To 
this  end  history  rightly  handled  is 
an  incomparable  medium.  Every 
boy  or  girl  is  the  better  for  learning 
to  conceive  an  enthusiastic  admira- 
tion for  Leonidas,  Regulus,  Robert 
Bruce,  Joan  of  Arc,  or  Sir  Philip 
Sidney  ;  the  better  for  learning  to 
be  just  to  Cromwell  or  Edward  I. 
When  the  study  of  history  becomes 
a  search  for  unprejudiced  historic 
truth,  there  is  no  finer  moral 
training. 

History  in  the  literary  sense 
came  actually  into  being  when  men 
began  to  concern  themselves  not 
merely  with  recording  contem- 
porary events,  but  also  with  com- 
paring and  coordinating,  however 
uncritically,  such  records  as  had 
survived  from  the  past,  whether 
graven,  or  written,  or  through  oral 
tradition.  The  earliest  historical 
literature  we  possess  is  that  of  the 
Hebrew  Scriptures,  and  it  is  at 
least  tolerably  certain  that,  in  the 


HISTORY 


4007 


HISTORY 


form  in  which  we  have  them,  they 
are  derived  in  part  from  docu- 
ments which  must  have  been  in 
existence  some  fifteen  hundred 
years  before  the  Christian  era.  In 
this  sense  they  are  the  earliest  corf- 
secutive  narrative  consciously  con- 
structed as  a  story  of  the  develop- 
ment of  an  organized  community. 
The  things  elsewhere  written  or 
depicted  at  an  earlier  date  were 
either  symbolical  or  were  presenta- 
tions of  contemporary  episodes,  or 
were  not  made  with  the  intention 
of  recording  events,  though  of  great 
value  to  students  endeavouring  to 
reconstruct  the  past.  Such  were 
the  legal  code  of  Hammurabi,  king 
of  Babylon,  the  Amraphel  of  whom 
we  read  in  the  book  of  Genesis  as 
the  contemporary  of  Abraham, 
diplomatic  correspondence  like  the 
Tell  el-Amarna  Letters,  discovered 
in  Egypt  in  1888,  and  various 
other  documents  and  monuments. 

In  the  7th  and  6th  centuries, 
Babylonia  and  Assyria  began  to 
produce  official  annalists.  In 
Egypt,  too,  the  priestly  caste  had 
preserved  historical  records  from 
which  a  scanty  information  was 
presently  to  be  derived  by  lay 
inquirers.  In  the  remote  East,  the 
Chinese,  a  very  advanced  people, 
compiled  their  own  records,  as  also 
did  the  Aryan  invaders  of  India. 
But  it  was  in  the  5th  century  B.C., 
when  Greek  literature  burst  into 
full  blossom,  that  history  perma- 
nently established  itself  as  a 
branch  of  literary  art  and  of 
political  science.  Apart  from  the 
Hebrew  chronicles,  the  world 
before  the  5th  century  provided 
materials  for  historical  investi- 
gation, but  it  did  not  provide 
historians. 

The  historian  first  reveals  him- 
self in  literature  as  the  child  of  the 
epic  poet.  He  is  a  man  with  a  great 
story  to  tell,  a  drama  vivid  with 
human  life,  only  his  medium  is  not 
verse  but  prose  ;  and,  whereas  to 
the  poet  it  is  a  matter  of  indiffer- 
ence whether  things  actually  hap- 
pened as  he  relates  them,  whether 
his  story  is  fact  or  fiction,  or  blend 
of  fact  with  fiction,  the  historian 
intends  his  story  to  be  one  of  actual 
fact  duly  verified.  As  with  the 
epic  poet,  his  work  must  be  on  the 
heroic  side,  but  his  characters  are 
real,  not  imaginary  kings,  captains 
and  statesmen,  leaders  of  men. 
The  Father  of  History 

So  it  was  with  the  Hebrew 
chroniclers ;  so  it  was  with  the 
Greek  Herodotus,  who  is  called 
"  the  Father  of  history,"  who  told 
the  immortal  story  of  the  mighty 
contest  wherein  Greece  in  the  days 
of  her  glory  did  battle  for  the  cause 
of  freedom  and  rolled  back  the 
flood  of  Orientalism.  Incidentally 


he  collected  and  set  forth  much 
information,  not  without  a  legend- 
ary element,  concerning  the  rise  of 
the  Persian  empire  and  the  antiqui- 
ties of  Egypt.  A  generation  later 
the  scientific  element  was  intro- 
duced by  Thucydides,  who  chose 
for  his  theme  contemporary  history 
— the  struggle  for  supremacy  be- 
tween the  two  leading  States  of  the 
Hellenic  world,  wherein  he  himself 
played  a  minor  part.  It  might  be 
said  that  Herodotus  and  Thucy- 
dides, two  of  the  greatest  among 
all  literary  artists,  set  between 
them  the  models  which  have  been 
followed  by  all  the  great  literary 
historians,  from  Livy  and  Tacitus 
through  Froissart  to  Hume  and 
Gibbon,  Macaulay,  Carlyle,  and 
Mommsen.  The  extraordinary 
merits  of  Thucydides  have  given 
to  his  subject,  the  contest  between 
Athens  and  Sparta,  a  historical 
prominence  out  of  proportion  to  its 
intrinsic  importance,  by  reason  of 
the  masterly  treatment  it  received, 
which  enhances  its  interest  to  the 
student  of  political  science. 

From  the  time  of  Thucydides 
onwards  there  was  among  the 
Greeks  no  lack  of  historians,  though 
none  can  be  named  as  of  the  first 
rank;  their  work  is  for  the  most 
part  valuable  only  so  far  as  it 
relates  to  contemporary  events. 
They  provide  the  modern  inquirer 
with  little  more  than  outlines  to  be 
filled  in  from  other  sources,  such  as 
the  recorded  speeches  of  political 
orators  or  the  discussions  of 
political  theory  by  philosophers. 
The  Roman  Era 

Historical  writing  again  comes 
to  the  forefront  in  the  great  literary 
era  of  Rome,  which  begins  in  the 
days  of  Julius  Caesar  and  ends 
some  century  and  a  half  after  his 
death.  Caesar  himself  appears  as 
a  historian  in  the  record  of  his 
campaigns  in  Gaul.  Livy,  in  a 
brilliant  narrative,  relates  all  that 
either  traditions  or  authoritative 
records  have  to  tell  of  Rome's 
past.  Tacitus  gives  a  masterly 
though  extremely  biased  picture 
of  political  conditions,  persons,  and 
events  at  the  moment  when 
Republican  Rome  had  transformed 
itself  into  Imperial  Rome.  And 
still  the  modern  investigator  finds 
even  more  guidance  in  the  works  of 
men  of  letters  who  were  not  pro- 
fessed historians,  in  the  satires  of 
the  poets,  and  in  the  semi-philoso- 
phical discourses,  the  public  ora- 
tions, and  the  private  epistles  of 
Cicero,  while  the  art  of  historical 
portraiture  was  perfected  by  the 
pen  of  Plutarch. 

The  age  of  the  Antonines,  great  in 
many  ways,  was  unproductive.  An 
intellectual  stupor  took  possession 
of  the  Roman  Empire ;  in  the  west 


it  was  overwhelmed  by  the  bar- 
barian flood,  against  which  in  the 
east  it  maintained  only  a  pre- 
carious existence.  The  records  of 
the  early  Middle  Ages  were  com- 
piled mainly  in  the  extremely  un- 
critical and  secluded  atmosphere 
of  the  cloister.  Though  literature 
was  smothered  in  the  outer  turmoil, 
in  the  cloister  records  were  pre- 
served, such  as  the  Anglo-Saxon 
Chronicle.  Apart  from  the  official 
chroniclers  of  contemporary  evente, 
although  so-called  histories  were 
written,  little  serious  attempt 
was  made  to  distinguish  between 
fact  and  fiction ;  picturesque  legend 
absolutely  incredible  was  allowed 
to  pass  for  history  at  least  as  con- 
cerned the  past.  But  in  the  13th 
century  a  new  literary  era  was 
dawning ;  in  the  14th  it  had 
dawned.  The  art  of  writing  con- 
temporary history  revived  with 
Froissart,  though  to  him  it  was 
still  only  the  painting  of  its 
gorgeous  pageantry. 

Froissart  and  Raleigh 

With  the  sixteenth  century,  the 
revival  of  letters,  already  active  in 
Italy  for  two  centuries,  but  only 
sporadic  elsewhere,  expanded  all 
over  western  Europe  at  the 
moment  when  letters  had  been 
finally  extirpated  in  the  east. 
Thenceforth  the  recording  of  con- 
temporary history  became  general ; 
later  medieval  history  was  treated 
in  the  spirit  of  Froissart,  and  what 
may  be  called  the  authorised 
histories  of  Greece  and  Rome  were 
studied  as  a  necessary  part  of 
polite  culture,  the  outcome  of  the 
discovery  of  the  classical  literature 
of  Rome  and  Greece.  At  the  same 
time  history  again  began  to  be 
treated  as  a  branch  of  political 
science,  the  Florentine  Machiavelli 
leading  the  way. 

From  the  beginning  of  the  six- 
teenth century,  then,  there  is  an 
abundance  of  literary  records  ready 
to  the  hand  of  the  modern  inquirer. 
Through  the  Tudor  period  vigor- 
ous and  picturesque  narrative  is 
characteristic  of  the  English  and 
Scottish  writers,  whether  they  are 
dealing  trenchantly  with  the  story 
of  the  Reformation,  like  Jolm 
Knox,  or  Foxe  in  the  Book  of  Mar- 
tyrs, or  telling  the  sagas  of  the  Eliza- 
bethan seamen,  as  in  Hakluyt's 
Voyages  and  the  soul-stirring 
narratives  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh. 
Raleigh  travelled  into  a  still  more 
remote  past ;  for  when  he  lay  a 
prisoner  in  the  Tower  he  set  about 
writing  a  History  of  the  World, 
which  Oliver  Cromwell  ranked  next 
to  his  Bible.  We  do  not  now  read 
Raleigh's  History  of  the  World,  any 
more  than  we  use  Elizabethan  maps 
for  the  study  of  geography.  Its 
value  as  conveying  a  knowledge  of  j 


HISTORY 


HISTORY 


the  past  is  nil.  But  in  this  par- 
ticular case  the  value  lies  not  so 
much  in  the  narrative  as  in  the 
commentary  —  the  commentary  of 
one  of  the  most  brilliant  intellects 
of  the  most  brilliant  epoch  of  Eng- 
lish literature.  Of  another  type  al- 
together in  the  historical  field  were 
the  researches  of  John  Stowe,  who 
unearthed  the  works  of  those  me- 
dieval chroniclers  who  provide  us 
with  the  real  groundwork  of  our 
knowledge  of  the  Plantagenet  era 
—  Matthew  Paris,  Thomas  of  Wal- 
singham,  the  so-called  Matthew  of 
Westminster,  and  others. 

The  17th  century  begins  to  pro- 
vide us  with  what  grew  into  an  in- 
creasing stream  of  literary  works 
which  are  not  in  form  histories  but 
memoirs  invaluable  to  the  his- 
torian, of  which  an  admirable  ex- 
ample is  Lucy  Hutchinson's  Life  of 
her  husband,  the  Puritan  colonel, 
together  with  the  immortal  diaries 
of  Samuel  Pepys  and  John  Evelyn, 
none  of  them  works  written  for 
publication.  But  it  gives  us  also 
two  great  works  of  contemporary 
historians,  The  History  of  the 
Great  Rebellion,  by  Lord  Claren- 
don, and  The  History  of  My  Own 
Time,  by  Gilbert  Burnet,  who  was 
also  the  author  of  a  History  of  the 
Reformation  in  England.  Claren- 
don's work  at  least  remains  a  liter- 
ary classic.  Everywhere,  however, 
the  historians  continued  to  devote 
themselves  entirely  to  the  modern 
era  until  the  18th  century  was  far 
advanced,  whilst  in  France  Saint- 
Simon  was  writing  the  incompar- 
able Memoirs,  which  were  not  pub- 
lished till  the  19th  century,  and 
Voltaire  was  producing  his  brilliant 
pictures  of  Charles  XII  and  Peter 
the  Great,  and  of  the  Ages  of  Louis 
XIV  and  Louis  XV,  more  with  an 
eye  to  literary  effect  than  to  the 
exact  historic  truth. 


Widening  Scope  of  Historians 
But  with  the  second  half  of  the 
18th  century  a  reaction  was  setting 
in  against  the  convention  set  in 
France  which  may  be  said  to  have 
recognized  only  two  eras  as  of  real 
importance  in  the  history  of  the 
world  —  the  Augustan  Age  of  Rome 
and  the  Bourbon  Age  of  Europe. 
From  Scotland,  Hume  produced 
the  first  great  History  of  England, 
and  Robertson  the  first  great  His- 
tory of  Scotland  ;  and  in  his 
Charles  V  Robertson  gave  some- 
thing like  an  appreciation  of  the 
Middle  Ages. 

Already  in  France  Montesquieu, 
not  writing  history  in  the  technical 
sense,  had  developed  the  principle 
of  examining  political  institutions 
in  the  light  of  the  history  of  their 
growth  and  development,  and  their 
relation  to  institutions  in  other 
countries  and  other  ages  ;  and 


Burke,  as  a  statesman,  was  insist- 
ing upon  a  corresponding  theme. 
Then  came  again  from  Britain 
two  monumental  works  —  Adam 
Smith's  The  Wealth  of  Nations, 
which  developed  the  relation  be- 
tween the  scientific  studies  of 
history  and  of  economics,  and  the 
work  which  is  perhaps  the  greatest 
of  all  histories,  Gibbon's  Decline 
and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire. 

The  Greatness  of  Gibbon 
This,  at  least,  is  to  be  said  of 
Gibbon,  that,  like  Thucydides,  he 
can  never  be  superseded  ;  all  other 
work  covering  the  ground  will  be  in 
the  nature  of  a  commentary  on 
Gibbon,  however  much  those  par- 
ticular commentaries  may  compel 
us  to  revise  particular  judgements 
of  the  great  man,  or  newly  coor- 
dinated data  may  correct  misap- 
prehensions of  fact  which  it  was 
impossible  for  him  to  avoid.  And 
his  achievement  was  the  more  tre- 
mendous because,  unlike  Thucy- 
dides, he  wrote  not  of  what  he  had 
seen  and  heard  with  his  own  eyes 
and  ears  in  one  small  corner  of  the 
world  during  a  single  lifetime,  but 
of  the  long-past  history  of  half  the 
civilized  world  during. a  period  of  a 
thousand  years. 

Gibbon,  in  fact,  gave  a  new 
meaning  to  the  name  of  historian  ; 
and  his  work  was  hardly  finished 
when  the  cataclysm  of  the  French 
Revolution  and  the  wars  which  fol- 
lowed upon  it  gave  a  new  import  to 
history,  as  again  a  new  import  has 
been  given  to  it  by  the  cataclysm 
which  the  German  Kaiser  invoked 
in  1914.  It  forced  upon  the  world 
the  consciousness,  hitherto  only 
academically  suggested,  of  the 
unity  of  the  present  with  the  past, 
of  the  impossibility  of  isolating  a 
single  stage  of  development  from 
all  that  has  gone  before,  and  treat- 
ing the  present  as  the  final  con- 
summation of  a  past  which  might 
be  ignored. 

The  19th  century  witnessed  first 
the  further  revival  of  that  interest 
in  the  past  the  beginnings  of  which 
we  have  noted  as  preceding  the 
revolution,  the  interest  especially 
in  medievalism  which  is  associated 
with  the  whole  movement  known  as 
Romanticism.  Next,  the  labours  of 
Niebuhr  gave  a  new  vitality  to  the 
story  of  Ancient  Rome — one  which 
is  of  the  most  profound  interest  to 
the  British  race,  the  creators  of  an 
empire  to  which  none  save  that  of 
Rome  offers  an  approximate  anal- 
ogy. On  the  renewed  study  of 
Roman  history  as  a  subject  of  vivid 
living  interest  followed  a  like  re- 
vival of  the  study  of  the  States  of 
ancient  Greece ;  and  from  the 
study  of  Greece  the  new  spirit  of 
inquiry  extended  itself  to  the  yet 
more  ancient  empires  of  the  East, 


the  excavation  and  interpretation 
of  ancient  monuments  which  at 
last  began  to  reveal  the  secrets 
that  had  been  hidden  for  more 
than  3,000  years.  Nor  did  the 
movement  end  here,  but  carried  it- 
self into  investigations  of  primitive 
social  conditions — so  primitive 
that  when  they  existed  no  con- 
scious records  of  them  were  made. 
History,  in  short,  in  one  of  its 
aspects  became  a  reconstruction  of 
the  only  half-realized  structures  of 
the  remote  past,  and  also  a  de- 
tailed examination  of  origins.  It 
was  no  longer  a  picturing  of  the 
full-grown  plant  in  full  leaf,  but  an 
inquiry  into  its  organic  life. 

Growth  of  Specialism 
The  value  of  such  work  is  not  to 
be  underrated.  In  the  latter  half 
especially  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury it  had  absorbed  the  attention 
of  the  enormous  majority  of  his- 
torical students,  who  became 
specialists  in  some  very  narrowly 
circumscribed  patch  of  historical 
inquiry,  sometimes  with  very  valu- 
able results,  though,  also,  not  with- 
out the  disastrous  consequences 
which  sometimes  attend  specialism, 
from  the  exaggerated  importance 
attached  by  the  individual  in- 
quirer to  his  own  particular  field 
of  inquiry.  It  is  perhaps  the  side 
on  which  the  Germans  can  most 
definitely  claim  to  have  excelled 
others,  if  not  in  the  sifting  and  co- 
ordination, yet  at  least  in  the  ac- 
cumulation of  data.  Yet  even  on 
their  own  ground  they  have  not 
surpassed  such  scholars  as  Bishop 
Stubbs,  or  F.  W.  Maitland,  or  Sir 
Paul  Vinogradoff,  names  perhaps 
more  honoured  by  students  than 
by  the  general  public. 

Nevertheless,  though  the  disci- 
ples of  this  school  are  perhaps 
somewhat  apt  to  arrogate  to  them- 
selves an  exclusive  right  to  the 
title  of  historian,  it  is  not  with 
such  work  that  history  is  exclu- 
sively concerned.  History  is  matter 
not  only  for  the  laboratory  student 
but,  as  we  have  insisted,  for  all 
citizens  ;  and  the  public  is  very 
much  less  concerned  with  the  data 
than  with  the  conclusions  to  be 
drawn  from  them.  The  task  of 
exposition  belongs  no  less  to  the 
historian,  though  the  only  safe 
exponent  is  he  who  is  sure  of  his 
data.  The  literature  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  is  crowded  with  the 
names  of  brilliant  exponents,  from 
those  who  have  taken  all  historical 
knowledge  to  be  their  province, 
such  as  Buckle,  whose  work  on 
The  History  of  Civilization  was 
merely  conceived  as  an  introduc- 
tion to  the  subject,  to  men  whose 
real  work  was  concentrated  upon 
a  particular  period,  such  as  Ma- 
caulay  or  Froude. 


HIT 

Macaulay  made  it  definitely  his 
business  to  write  history  in  such  a 
manner  that  its  interest  might  ap- 
peal with  no  less  attraction  than 
pure,  unqualified  fiction  to  ordin- 
ary men  and  women.  He  did  so  by 
making  it  a  picture  of  a  live  world 
full  of  live  people,  generally  either 
very  good  or  very  wicked.  Inci- 
dentally, he  made  his  presentation 
of  history  a  medium  for  teaching 
his  own  political  doctrines,  not 
without  much  collecting  and  sift- 
ing of  evidence,  but  with  a  firm 
conviction  that  such  evidence  as 
told  against  his  preconceptions 
came  from  tainted  sources,  while 
anything  that  told  in  favour  of 
them  required  no  further  guaran- 
tee for  its  veracity.  Very  much  the 
same  might  be  said  of  Froude.  Of 
a  different  school  were  Hallam  and 
James  Mill,  who  rejected  the  atti- 
tude of  palpable  advocacy  which 
Froude  and  Macaulay  made  no 
attempt  to  conceal,  and  assumed 
an  air  of  rigid  philosophic  impar- 
tiality which  veiled  an  equally 
firm  determination  to  impose  their 
own  predilections  upon  their  read- 
ers. An  artist  of  a  different  type 
was  J.  R.  Green,  who  was  con- 
cerned with  the  atmosphere  rather 
than  the  drama  of  history,  with 
the  landscape,  the  setting,  more 
than  with  the  portraits. 

Carlyle's  Hero  Theory 

On  the  other  hand,  the  theory  of 
history  which  treats  it  as  pivoting 
upon  great  personalities,  the  old 
principle  of  portraiture,  found  the 
mightiest  of  all  its  exponents  in 
Thomas  Carlyle.  The  doctrine 
which  he  practised  with  tremen- 
dous effect,  not  only  in  his  History 
of  Frederick  the  Great  and  The 
Letters  and  Speeches  of  Oliver 
Cromwell,  but  also  in  The  French 
Revolution,  is  most  explicitly  set 
forth  in  Hero-worship.  In  effect, 
its  essential  premise  is  that  what 
is  of  significance  in  the  history  of 
the  world  is  the  history  of  its  great 
men,  its  heroes  ;  coupled  with  the 
second  premise  that  no  man  ever 
did  or  could  achieve  the  heroic 
distinction  and  become  one  of  the 
moulders  of  the  destinies  of  man- 
kind without  the  endowment  of  an 
essential  sincerity — which  placed 
him  in  the  somewhat  awkward 
predicament  of  being  compelled  to 
prove  to  himself  the  essential  sin- 
cerity of  Frederick  the  Great.  But 
the  hero-theory,  intensely  inspiring 
so  long  as  it  insists  upon  righteous- 
ness, sincerity,  justice,  as  essential 
qualities  of  the  hero,  who,  lacking 
them,  is  at  best  a  Titan,  becomes 
a  mere  impulse  to  Titanism  if  the 
need  of  those  qualities  be  not  re- 
cognized, and  when  the  one  de- 
manded is  intellectual  forcefulness, 
the  blunder  into  which  German 


4009 

exponents  of  the  theory,  Momm- 
sen,  Treitschke,  and  others,  were 
betrayed  with  disastrous  results. 

Bibliography.  The  Meaning  of 
History,  F.  Harrison,  1894  ;  Lec- 
ture on  the  Study  of  History, 
Lord  Acton,  1895  ;  Introduction  aux 
Etudes  Historiques,  C.  V.  Langlois 
and  C.  Seignobos,  1898,  Eng.  trans. 
1898  ;  Lectures  on  the  Study  of 
Medieval  and  Modern  History,  W. 
Stubbs,  3rd  ed.  1900. 

Hit.  Town  of  Mesopotamia.  It 
stands  on  the  Euphrates,  140  m. 
N.W.  of  Hilla  and  33  m.  N.  of 
Ramadie.  Anciently  known  as  Is, 
and  identified  by  some  authorities 
with  Ahava  (Ezra  viii,  15),  it  is 
about  85  m.  N.W.  of  Bagdad  and 
70  m.  W.  of  Tekrit,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  a  desert  road.  It  is 
famous  for  its  gardens  of  mul- 
berries and  peaches,  and  is  also 
noted  for  its  wells  of  bitumen, 
which  the  Arabs  call  the  mouths 
of  hell.  During  the  Great  War  Hit 
was  occupied  in  March,  1918,  by 
the  British  in  the  course  of  the 
operations  in  Mesopotamia  against 
the  Turks.  Pop.  10,000.  See 
Mesopotamia,  Conquest  of. 

Hit  chin.  Urban  district  and 
market  town  of  Hertfordshire, 
England.  It  is  32  m.  N.  of  London 
on  the  G.N.R.,  just  off  the  Icknield 
Way  (q.v.).  The  fine  old  parish 
church  of  S.  Mary  (formerly  S. 
Andrew's)  contains  a  groined  roof, 
an  ancient  font,  mosaics,  effigies, 
brasses,  and  other  features  of  an 
antiquarian  interest.  Near  by  are 
Golden  Square,  'where  Eugene 
Aram  lived,  and  the  wide  thorough- 
fare called  Bancroft.  On  the  site 
of  the  Baptist  chapel  in  Tilehouse 
Street  once  stood  a  building  in 
which  Bunyan  preached.  Chap- 
man was  a  resident.  Girton  College 
(q.v.),  established  here  in  1869, 
was  removed  to  Cambridge  in 
1872.  There  are  a  corn  exchange 
and  a  town  hall,  and  the  council 
owns  the  waterworks  and  main- 
tains a  cattle  market  and  baths. 

Hitchin  was  known  to  the  Saxons 
as  Hiche,  probably  from  the  little 
river  Hiz,  which  rises  in  the  vicin- 
ity. Edward  the  ^^^^ 
Confessor  con-  I 
ferred  the  manor  \ 
upon  Harold  ;  the  j 
present  lord  of  the  [. 
manor  is  the  King.  j 
The  Priory,  a  seat 
of  the  Radcliffe 
family,  is  on  the 
site  of  a  Carmelite 
monastery,  and 
almshouses  include 
remains  of  a  Gil- 
bertine  nunnery. 
Shandy  Hall, 
residence  of  the 
original  of  Sterne's 
Uncle  Toby,  has 


HITT1TES 

disappeared.  Hitchin  is  a  busv 
agricultural  centre,  grows  lavcinl.  r 
and  peppermint  for  distillation,  and 
engages  in  malting  and  straw-plait- 
ing. The  town  gives  its  name  to  a 
co.  div.  returning  one  member  to 
Parliament.  Market  day,  Tues. 
There  are  fairs  at  Easter  and  Whit- 
suntide. Pop.  (1921)  13,535. 

Hither  Green.  Residential  dis- 
trict and  suburb  of  S.E.  London. 
It  is  in  the  met.  bor.  of  Lewisham 
(q.v.),  1  m.  S.E.  of  Charing  Cross  on 
the  S.E.  &  C.R.  Here  is  Park  1 1 .  * 
pital,  one  of  the  large  fever  hospitals 
of  the  Metropolitan  Asylums  Board. 
It  overlooks  Mountsfield  Park,  a 
pleasure  ground  of  12f  acres,  opened 
to  the  public  in  Aug.,  1905.  Pop. 
25,000. 

Hitopadesa.  Sanskrit  collec- 
tion of  animal  stories  told  with 
moral  purpose,  the  title  signifying 
"  salutary  counsel."  A  popular 
summary  of  the  Panchatantra,  it 
includes  many  of  the  fables  asso- 
ciated with  the  legendary  Bidpai, 
and  is  supposed  to  have  been  com- 
piled by  the  Brahman  Vishnusar- 
man,  Eng.  trans.  F.  Johnson,  1847. 
See  Panchatantra ;  Sanskrit. 

Hitteren.  Large  island  on  the 
W.  coast  of  Norway.  Situated  S.W. 
of  the  entrance  to  the  Trondhjem 
Fiord,  it  is  30  m.  long  and  10  m. 
wide,  its  area,  including  adjacent 
small  islands,  being  203  sq.  m. 
On  the  S.E.  coast  is  the  port  and 
station  of  Havn.  The  island,  which 
contains  numerous  streams  and 
lakes,  is  hilly,  rising  in  parts  to 
over  1,000  ft.  Fishing  is  ex- 
tensively carried  on  and  deer 
abound.  Pop.  2,000. 

Hittites.  Ancient  people  in  W. 
Asia.  The  Biblical  names,  Heth 
and  Hittite,  denoted  at  first 
diverse  racial  elements  in  pre- 
Israelite  Canaan  and  afterwards 
various  N.  Syrian  tribal  con- 
federacies. They  are  identifiable 
with  the  Kheta  of  Egyptian  annals 
and  bas-reliefs,  and  the  (K)hatti 
of  Assyrio-Babylonian  records. 
Denoting  primarily  a  dominant 
tribe  in  the  Halys  plain,  the  name 


Hitchin,  Hertfordshire.      Market  square   and   parish 
church  of  S.  Mary 


Hittites.  Beliefs  from  Carchemish,  the  Hittite  city.  1.  A  warrior.  2.  Winged  sphynx  or  chimaera.  3.  Warriors  in 
procession.  4.  Two  winged  demons.  5.  The  citadel  mound  of  Carcbemish  from  the  north.  6.  Hieroglyphic  inscrip- 
tions. 7.  Reliefs  depicting  family  life.  8.  Woman  carrying  a  child  and  leading  a  lamb.  9.  Two  personages  of  distinction 

By  courtesy  of  the  Trusteet  of  the  British  Museum 


sometimes  embraces  the  confeder- 
acies of  city  states  whereof  this 
tribe  usually  formed  the  head. 

Eastern  Asia  Minor  was  occu- 
pied in  prehistoric  times  by  agri- 
cultural slender-limbed  long-heads 
related  to  the  neolithic  brown  race 
of  the  Mediterranean  region,  Elam, 
and  W.  Turkistan.  They  were  sub- 
jugated by  scattered  immigrant 
bands  of  sturdy,  alpine  round- 
heads from  Armenia  and  the  Cau- 
casus, who  were  aidftd  by  a  know- 
ledge of  implements  and  weapons 
of  the  early  copper-age  culture. 


They  also  bred  and  harnessed  the 
horse,  which  long  afterwards  was 
imported  from  them  by  Solomon 
(1  Kings  10). 

Well  established  by  the  end  of 
the  3rd  millennium  B.C.,  this  early 
Cappadocian  activity,  through  one 
of  its  offshoots,  overturned  the  first 
dynasty  of  Babylon  about  1925  B.C. 
But  its  efforts  to  secure  political 
cohesion  were  impeded  by  the 
mountain  barriers,  while  the  na- 
tions around  possessed  the  advan- 
tage of  sea  and  river  communica- 
tions. The  upland  tribes  accord- 


ingly tended  to  segregate  into  in- 
dependent city  states.  At  length, 
about  1400,  a  dynasty  was  founded 
by  Subbiluliuma,  who  welded  his 
neighbours  into  a  close-knit  king- 
dom, organized  into  princedoms 
and  prefectures,  wherein  women 
were  accorded  official  rank.  This 
kingdom  reduced  the  Mitannian 
kingdom  in  N.  Mesopotamia  to  a 
protectorate,  held  Kadesh  as  a 
frontier-outpost,  made  treaties  on 
equal  terms  with  Egypt,  main- 
tained relations  with  Babylon,  and 
lasted  until  overthrown  in  1200 


H1UNGNU 

by  the  Mushki.  For  a  time  Hittite 
lands  played  an  unimportant  role, 
but  by  1000  their  activities  re- 
vived under  the  spur  of  an  early 
iron-age  culture  until  Carchemish, 
in  717,  and  Marash  in  709,  were 
overthrown.  This  later  period  is 
preferably  called  post-Hittite. 

The  recognition  of  a  distinctive 
sculptural  art  at  Hamath,  Marash, 
and  elsewhere  led  Sayce,  in  1880, 
to  outline  this  forgotten  empire. 
Besides  the  remains  noticed  under 
Boghazkeui,  Carchemish,  Hamath, 
Marash,  Sakjegeuzi,  and  Sinjerli, 
the  rock-sculptures  of  Ivriz  and 
Karabel,  the  double-headed  eagle 
and  bull-sphinxes  of  Euyuk  may 
be  mentioned. 

The  prominent  nose  and  squat 
build,  the  high  cheek-bones  and 
black  pigtailed  hair,  the  conical 
cap  and  upturned  shoes,  the  dirk 
and  double-axe,  the  horsed  chariot 
and  four-wheeled  cart  of  Hittite 
monuments  seem  to  betoken  east- 
ern contact.  But  the  features  for- 
merly held  to  prove  a  mongoloid 
descent  characterise  upland  dwell- 
ers elsewhere,  and  the  qualities  of 
leadership  point  to  Caucasian 
rather  than  Tartar  overlordshlp. 
The  art  manifests  the  transmission 
of  ideas  both  from  and  to  S.  Meso- 
potamia and  the  pre-Hellenic 
Aegean.  The  Assyrian  script  was 
adapted  to  the  local  dialect.  The 
religion  was  based  upon  the  primi- 
tive Anatolian  cults,  which  gave 
prominence  to  the  earth-mother 
and  the  worship  of  a  sky-god 
Teshub,  allied  to  Thor.  See  As- 
syria ;  Babylonia ;  Palestine  ;  con- 
sult also  The  Hittites,  A.  H.  Sayce, 
1903;  Explorations  in  Bible  Lands, 
H.  V.  Hilprecht,  1903  ;  The  Land 
of  the  Hittites,  J.  Garstang,  1910. 

Hiungnu  OR  HSIUNGNU.  Anci- 
ent mounted  pastoral  nomads  of 
Altaian  stock  in  central  Asia.  They 
were  skin-clad  archers,  without 
villages  or  agriculture,  and  the 
construction  of  the  Great  Wall 
about  214  B.C.,  followed  shortly 
after  by  another  in  Chinese  Tur- 
kistan,  frustrated  their  southward 
raids,  and  led  to  their  migration 
westward.  See  Uigtir. 

Hivites.  One  of  the  ancient 
tribes  driven  out  of  their  territory 
by  the  Hebrews  on  their  invasion 
of  Palestine.  Gibeon  and  Shechem 
were  two  of  their  chief  centres. 
See  Palestine. 

Hjelmar.  Lake  of  S.  Sweden. 
It  is  40  m.  W.  of  Stockholm,  and 
S.W.  of  Lake  Malar,  with  which  it 
is  connected  by  a  canal  and  the 
Arboda  river.  It  is  some  39  m.  long 
by  13  m.wide ;  area  about  195  sq.m. 

H.M.  Abbrev.  for  His  (or  Her) 
Majesty. 

H.M.S.  Abbrev.  for  His  (or 
Her)  Majesty's  ship  or  service. 


401  1 

Ho.      Primitive 

forest-tribe  in  the 

Singhbhum     d  i  s- 

trictof  ChotaNag- 

pur,  Bihar  and 

Orissa  province, 

N.  India.     Skilful 

archers,     number- 
ing (1911)  420,571, 

they    speak     a 

Munda  dialect  and 

show    less    Hindu 

influence  than  their 

Santal  congeners. 
Hoadley,  BEN 

JAMIN(  1676-1761). 

English  prelate. 

Born    at    Wester- 
ham,    Kent,   Nov. 

14,   1676,   he   was 

educated     at     S. 

Catherine's  Hall,  Cambridge. 

strong  politician,  he  supported  the 

accession  of  the  House  of  Hanover 
to  the  British 
throne,  being 
rewarded  with 
the  bishoprics 
of  Bangor, 
Hereford,  Salis- 
bury, and  Win- 
chester. He  was 


a  thorough- 
going Erastian, 
and  his  t  h  e  o- 
logical  views 


Benjamin  Hoadley, 
English  prelate 

After  Hogarth 

were  nearly  akin  to  those  of  the 
Unitarians.  One  of  his  sermons  led 
to  the  Bangorian  Controversy  (q. v. ). 
He  died  at  Chelsea,  April  17,  1761. 

Hoang-Ho.  Alternative  spell- 
ing of  the  river  of  China  better 
known  as  the  Hwang-ho  (q.v.). 

Hoar  Cross.  Village  of  Staf- 
fordshire, England.  It  is  on  the 
edge  of  Needwood  Forest,  4  m. 
E.S.E.  of  Abbots-Bromley.  It  is 
noted  for  its  magnificent  church, 
a  Gothic  building,  built  by  Mrs. 
Meynell-Ingram  in  1892,  from  the 
design  of  G.  F.  Bodley.  Hoar  Cross 
Hall  is  the  seat  of  the  Meynells. 

Hoarding  (old  Fr.  hurdis,  a  palis- 
ade ).  Originally  a  fence  or  hurdleen- 
closing  a  house.  It  is  specially  used 
for  temporary  woodwork  erected 
to  protect  buildings  in  course  of 
erection.  The  word  is  now  used 
for  any  wall  or  wooden  fencing 
whereon  advertisements  can  be  dis- 
played. See  Advertising ;  Poster. 

Hoare,  SIR  RICHARD  COLT 
(1758-1838).  English  antiquary. 
Born  at  Stourhead,  Wilts,  Dec.  9, 
1758,  grandson  of  Sir  Richard 
Hoare,  Kt.,  banker  and  lord  mayor 
of  London  in  1745,  he  devoted  his 
time  and  ample  means  to  archaeo- 
logical pursuits.  He  published 
journals  of  tours  in  Ireland,  Elba, 
Malta,  Sicily,  and  Italy,  translated 
and  annotated  Giraldus  Cam 
brensis,  1806,  and  wrote  Ancient 
History  of  N.  and  S.  Wiltshire, 


Hoai  Frost  particles  deposited  in  characteristic  pattern 
on  a  window-pane 

A  1812-]  9,  and  Modern  History  of  S. 
Wiltshire,  1822-44.  He  died  at 
Stourhead,  May  19,  1838. 

Hoar  Frost  (A.S.  har,  white). 
Deposition  of  ice  particles  on  sur- 
faces when  the  dew  point  is  below 
32°  F.  The  ice  particles  or  crystals 
readily  form  on  the  branches  of 
trees,  leaves  of  grass,  etc.,  and  the 
heaviest  hoar  frosts  are  formed 
when  the  heaviest  dews  occur,  on 
clear,  calm  nights,  when  radiation 
is  little  impeded.  See  Dew ;  Frost. 

Hoarseness.  Roughness  of  the 
voice,  usually  due  to  laryngitis. 
It  may  often  be  relieved  by  inhaling 
steam  from  a  jug  of  boiling  water  to 
which  a  teaspoonful  of  tincture  of 
benzoin  (friars'  balsam)  has  been 
added.  See  Laryngitis ;  Voice. 

Hoar-Stone.  Unhewn  pillar- 
stone,  standing  alone,  often  hoary 
with  lichen.  It  is  usually  a  neo- 
lithic menhir,  sometimes  with  the 
derivative  purpose  of  a  memorial 
or  landmark,  such  as  the  Haran- 
stan  of  the  Ethelwulf  charter  of 
A.D.  847.  The  word  designates  two 
Worcestershire  hamlets,  a  Glou- 
cestershire menhir,  and  a  long 
barrow  at  Duntisborne  Abbotts. 

Hoatzin  (Opisthocomus  crw- 
talus).  South  American  bird.  More 
nearly  related  to  the  game  birds 
than  to  any  other  group,  it  is 
about  the  size  of  a  pigeon,  and 
resembles  a  small  broad-tailed 
pheasant  with  an  erectile  crest  on 


Hoatzin.  S.  American  bird 


HOBBEM A 


its  head.  The  plumage  is  olive 
with  white  markings  above  and 
reddish  below,  and  there  is  a 
naked  patch  on  the  breast. 

Hoax.  Deceptive  story,  trick, 
or  practical  joke.  Among  famous 
hoaxes  are  the  Great  Berners 
Street  Hoax  of  1809,  perpetrated 
by  Theodore  Hook  (?.v.);  the 
Moon  Hoax ;  and  the  Dread- 
nought Hoax  of  1910.  The  Moon 
Hoax  was  perpetrated  in  The  New 
York  Sun,  which  published  an 
announcement  that  the  moon  was 
inhabited.  In  1910,  officers  wore 
hoaxed  into  showing  a  party  of 
sham  Abyssinian  princes  over  the 
battleship  Dreadnought.  The  word 
is  derived  from  hocus-pocus,  the 
talk  of  conjurors,  mountebanks, 
etc.  See  Imposture. 

Hobart.  Capital  and  second 
oldest  city  in  Tasmania.  It  is 
situated  on  the  S.  side  of  the  island 
at  the  foot  of 
Mt.  Wellington, 
on  the  Derwent, 
12  m.  from  its 
mouth.  It  is  a 
port  of  call  for 
European  mail 
steamers  and  for 
Australian  inter- 
state steamship 
liners,  and  is  the 
rly.  centre  for 
Tasmania.  Its 
beautif  u  1  h  a  r  - 
bour,  deep  and 
well  sheltered, 
gives  a  fine  set- 
ting to  the  city 
and  its  govern- 
ment house,  par- 
liament, univer- 
sity, and  other 
fine  public  build- 
ings. Industries 
include  tanneries,  Hobart.  Plan  of 


Hobart.     The  town  and  harbour  of  the  Tasmanian  capital 


foundries,  saw-mills,  breweries, 
flour-mills,  and  fruit-preserving 
factories,  and  the  principal  exports 

are  apples,  gold,    ^ 

tin,  and  copper. 
Its  climate,  com- 
parable to  that  of 
the  south  of  Eng- 
land,  and  fine 
scenery,  attract 
visitors  from  the 
northern  states. 
Pop.  37,000. 


Hobart  arms 


the  city  with  the  harbour  on  the  Derwent 


Hobbema.     The  Avenue,  Middelharnis,  Holland,  an  example  of   the   Dutch 
painter's  landscapes,  painted  in  1689 

National  Gallery,  London 


Hobart-Hampden,  AUGUSTUS 
CHARLES  (1822-86).  British  sailor, 
commonly  known  as  Hobart  Pasha. 
The  third  son  of  the  6th  earl  of 
Buckinghamshire,  he  was  born 
April  1,  1822.  and  entered  the 

navy  in   1835.    

In  the  Russian  1 
war  he  served  I 
in  the  Baltic  I 
and  at  the  siege  1 
of  Bomarsund,  I 
1854. 

Captain  in  1 
18(53,  he  retired  \  ±.  % 
on  half-  pay 
and,  being  a 
keen  partisan 
of  the  Seces- 
sionists in  the  American  Civil  War, 
obtained  the  command  of  a  block- 
ade runner.  In  1867  he  became 
naval  adviser  to  the  sultan  of 
Turkey,  was  promoted  admiral 
and  pasha  in  1869,  and  reorganized 
the  Turkish  navy.  He  died  at 
Milan,  June  19,  1886. 

Hobbema,  MEINDERT  (1638- 
1709).  Dutchpainter.  Thefriendand 
possibly  the  pupil  of  Salomon  and 
Jacob  Ruisdael,  he  died  in  poverty 
at  his  birthplace  in  Amsterdam. 
Little  appreciated  by  the  patrons 
of  his  day,  he  had  no  lack  of 
artistic  friends,  Philip  Wouver- 
man,  Lingelbach,  and  the  van  de 


Ttiomas  iiooues, 
English  philosopher 

After  Dobson 


HOBBES 

Veldes  being  glad  to  collaborate  in 
his  productions.  Among  his  works 
may  be  cited,  as  typical  of  his 
quietly  intimate  style,  The  Avenue, 
Middelharnis,  with  six  other  paint- 
ings, in  the  National  Gallery. 

Hobbes,  JOHN  OLIVER  (d.  1906). 
Pen-name  of  the  British  novelist, 
Pearl  Mary  Teresa  Craigie  (q.v. ). 

Hobbes,  THOMAS  (1588-1679). 
English  philosopher.  Born  at  Mal- 
mesbury,  April  5,  1588,  and  edu- 
cated at  Mag- 
dalen Hall, 
Oxford,  he 
became  in  16 10 
tutor  to  the 
grandson  o  f 
the  duke  of 
Devonshire. 
The  connexion 
thus  formed 
with  the  Cav- 
endish family 
was  main- 
tained intermittently  during  the  rest 
of  his  life.  His  next  pupilwas  the  son 
of  Sir  Gervase  Clifton,  and  in  1631 
he  became  tutor  to  the  son  of  his 
first  pupil.  On  each  occasion  a 
continental  tour  was  part  of  the 
scheme  of  education.  Botk  at 
home  and  abroad  Hobbes  met  some 
of  the  most  eminent  men  of  the 
time — notably  Ben  Jonson,  Bacon, 
Galileo,  Descartes,  and  Selden. 

His  first  objects  of  study  were 
classics  and  mathematics,  but  it  is 
as  a  political  philosopher  that 
Hobbes  is  chiefly  remembered.  In 
1640  he  wrote  a  defence  of  mon- 
archy, published  later  as  two 
separate  treatises  entitled  Human 
Nature  and  De  Corpore  Politico 
(On  The  Body  Politic).  In  view  of 
the  political  situation  Hobbes 
thought  it  wise  to  leave  England 
after  this  revelation  of  his  opinions, 
and  spent  the  next  eleven  years 
abroad.  He  returned  to  England 
in  1651,  made  his  peace  with  the 
Commonwealth,  and  after  the 
Restoration  received  a  pension 
from  Charles  II.  In  1651  his 
greatest  work,  The  Leviathan,  had 
appeared,  and  though  the  political 
theories  were  acceptable  to  the 
restored  monarchy,  the  Church 
accused  its  author  of  atheism.  He 
died  at  Hardwicke,  Dec.  4,  1679. 

In  his  system  of  ethics,  Hobbes 
reduces  everything  to  terms  of  self- 
interest  ,  e.g.  friendship  is  merely 
the  sense  of  mutual  dependence, 
and  religion  is  essentially  fear  of 
inscrutable  powers.  He  conceived 
mankind  as  living  originally  in  a 
state  of  anarchy  in  which  "the 
whole  life  of  man  is  solitary,  poor, 
nasty,  brutish,  and  short."  To 
abolish  this  anarchy  and  its  re- 
sultant evils  individuals  agreed  to 
resign  the  rights  to  a  sovereign 
power,  not  necessarily  one  man, 


4013 

and  the  sovereignty  thus  created 
for  the  common  weal  must  be 
despotic  and  irrevocable. 

This  political  theory,  though 
partly  vitiated  by  the  fact  that  it 
is  quite  unhistorical,  exercised  an 
extraordinary  though  largely  nega- 
tive influence  upon  subsequent 
thinkers  such  as  Rousseau,  while 
disagreement  with  Hobbes's  purely 
ethical  conclusions  proved  to  be  a 
most  stimulative  influence  in  the 
realm  of  ethical  speculation. 
Hobbes's  style  is  unadorned  but 
amazingly  clear  and  forceful.  See 
Leviathan ;  consult  also  Hobbes,  G. 
Groom  Robertson,  1886,  and  Life, 
Leslie  Stephen,  1904. 

John  McEain 

Hobbs,  JOHN  BERRY  (b.  1882). 
English      professional      cricketer. 
Born  at  Cambridge,  Dec.  16,  1882, 
he  first  played 
county  cricket 
forCambridge- 
shire  in   1903, 
but    qualified 
by  residence  to 
lay  for  Surrey, 
or     which 
county  he  first 
appeared      i  n 
John  B.  Hobbs,         1905.     In  1920 
English  cricketer       he    aggregated 
2,827  runs  for  the  season.     He  has 
several  times  represented  his  coun- 
try   versus    the    Australians,   and 
played    for    the    M.C.C.     team   in 
Australia,  1920-21. 

Hobby  (Falco  subbuteo).  Migra- 
tory falcon  found  in  the  southern 
districts  of  England  during  the 
summer.  Of  graceful  shape,  about 
a  foot  in  length,  and  of  reddish 
colour  with  white  throat  and 
breast,  it  feeds  upon  small  birds 
and  insects  and  is  useful  to  the 
agriculturist.  It  was  formerly  used 
in  hawking  (q.v.). 

Hobby-Horse.  Old-time  fea- 
ture at  fairs,  pageants,  and  other 
popular  festivities.  It  consisted  of 


Hobby-Horse.   Popular  figure  at  old 
English  fairs 

From  a  print  published  by  T.  Tegg  in  1839 


^ HOBHOUSE 

a  gaudily  coloured  pasteboard  or 
wooden  figure  of  the  head  and  hind 
quarters  of  a  caparisoned  horse 
girt  round  the  ,  waist  of  a  per- 
former, who  imitated  the  cur- 
vetings  of  the  animal. 

The  character  appears  with  the 
other  persons  of  the  morris  dance 
on  a  painted  window  of  a  house  at 
Betley,  Staffordshire.  "  Hobby- 
horse "  was  one  of  the  names  given 
to  the  "  draisive,"  an  early  form  of 
bicycle  propelled  by  the  feet,  in- 
vented  by  Baron  von  Drais,  and  also 
denotes  a  toy  horse,  and  the  horse 
of  the  merry-go-round.  Like  the 
modern  "hobby,"  the  term  has  been 
applied  to  a  favourite  occupation 
or  topic.  Hobby  comes  from  mid. 
Eng.  hobin,  perhaps  a  corruption  of 
Robin,  a  name  given  to  a  horse. 
See  Bicycle. 

Hobgoblin.  Traditional  elf  or 
goblin,  generally  of  terrifying  ap- 
pearance. The  prefix,  Hob,  is 
probably  a  corruption  of  Robin, 
and  the  name  may  have  originally 
represented  only  the  Robin  Good- 
fellow  of  English  folklore. 

Hobhouse,  ARTHUR  HOBHOUSE, 
BARON  (1819-1904).     British  law- 
yer.   The  son  of  Henry  Hobhouse, 
a  civil  servant, 
he  was  born  at 
H  a  d  s  p  e  n  , 
•    S  omerset, 
I    Nov.  10,  1819. 
N    ««J .    I    Educated     at 
I    Eton  and  Bal- 
I    Hoi     College, 
-^.-"ffcl       Oxford,    he 
•HHHfeP^NBi    became  a  bar- 
1st  Baron  Hobhouse,     rister,    and 
British  lawyer         soon     enjoyed 
a  large  practice  in   the  chancery 
courts.     In  1872,  having  then  re- 
tired from  work,  he  was  appointed 
legal   member   of   the   council    of 
India,  but  his  best  work  was  done 
between  1881  and  1901  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  judicial  committee  of 
the  privy  council.     In  1877  he  was 
knighted,  and  in  1885  he  was  made 
a  baron.     The  title,  however,  ex- 
pired when  he  died,  Dec.  6,  1904. 
Hobhouse, SIR  CHARLES  EDWARD 
HENRY  (b.  1862).  British  politician. 
Born  June  30,   1862,  he  was  the 
eldest  son  of  Sir  C.  P.  Hobhouse, 
to  whose  baronetcy  he  succeeded 
in  1916.  In  1892  he  became  Liberal 
M.P.    for     E.    Wilts,    and     from 
1900-18   sat  for  E.   Bristol.       In 
1907  he  was  made  under-secretary 
for  India ;  1908-11  he  was  financial 
secretary  to  the  treasury ;  1911-14 
chancellor  of  the  duchy,  and  post- 
master-general in  1914-15. 

Hobhouse ,  HENRY  ( b.  1 854 ).  Brit- 
ish politician.  Born  March  1,  1854, 
and  educated  at  Eton  and  Balliol 
College,  Oxford,  he  was  for  some 
time  a  practising  barrister,  and  in 
1885  was  returned  to  Parliament 


IHHJ 

*&im 


HOBOKEN 


HOCHKIRCH 


as  Liberal  M.P.  for  E.  Somerset. 
Almost  at  once  he  left  the  part}7  on 
Home  Rule,  but  as  a  Unionist  he 
remained  in  the  House  of  Commons 
until  1906.  Hobhouse,  who  was 
made  a  privy  councillor  in  1902, 
was  long  chairman  of  the  Somerset 
County  Council,  and  in  1890  was 
made  an  ecclesiastical  commis- 
sioner. He  took  special  interest  in 
education,  being  a  member  of  the 
royal  commission  on  secondary 
education,  and  in  local  govern- 
ment, on  which  he  wrote.  His  son 
Stephen  was  imprisoned  as  a  con- 
scientious objector  during  the 
Great  War,  and  published  an 
account  of  his  experiences. 

Hoboken.  City  of  New  Jersey, 
U.S.A.,  in  Hudson  co.  It  stands  on 
the  W.  side  of  the  Hudson  river, 
adjoining  Jersey  City,  and  is  served 
by  the  Lehigh  Valley  and  other 
rlys.  On  the  opposite  shore  of  the 
river  is  New  York,  with  which 
Hoboken  is  connected  by  ferries 
and  two  subterranean  tunnels.  The 
principal  buildings  are  the  Stevens 
Institute  of  Technology,  S.  Mary's 
Hospital,  and  the  public  library. 

Hoboken  is  an  important  port 
for  the  shipment  of  coal,  and  is  the 
terminus  of  several  European 
steamship  lines.  Its  industrial 
establishments  include  foundries, 
machine,  marine  engine,  motor  fire- 
engine,  and  elevator  works,  and 
leather,  lead  pencil,  silk,  casket, 
wall-paper,  chemical,  and  cork 
manufactories.  Hoboken  occupies 
the  site  of  a  Dutch  farm  which  was 
razed  by  the  Indians  in  1643.  It 
was  laid  out  as  a  town  in  1804, 
incorporated  in  1849,  and  chartered 
as  a  city  in  1855.  Pop.  78,320, 
mostly  Germans. 

Hoboken,  WEST.  Town  of  New 
Jersey,  U.S.A.,  in  Hudson  co.  It 
adjoins  Hoboken,  and  is  served  by 
the  Lehigh  Valley  and  other  rlys. 
It  occupies  an  elevated  position  a 
short  distance  W.  of  the  Hudson 
river,  and  contains  a  public  library, 
S.  Michael's  Monastery,  and  several 
churches.  Silks  and  embroideries  are 
the  leading  manufactures;  others 
are  braid,  clothing,  chemicals,  and 
feathers.  West  Hoboken,  originally 
a  part  of  Bergen,  was  incorporated 
in  1884.  Pop.  38,775. 

Hobson,  JOHN  ATKINSON  (b. 
1858).  British  economist.  Born  at 
Derby,  July  6,  1858,  he  was 
educated  at  Derby  School  and 
Lincoln  College,  Oxford.  He  was  a 
schoolmaster  until  1887,  when  he 
became  a  university  extension 
lecturer  for  Oxford  and  London 
universities.  During  this  time 
Hobson  made  a  special  study  of 
economics,  and  began  his  associa- 
tion with  the  group  opprobriously 
called  Little  Englanders,  and  with 
the  intellectual  Socialists.  His 


R.  P.  Hobson, 
American  sailor 


writings  were  undoubtedly  able  and 
scholarly,  if  extreme,  presentations 
of  his  case,  as  was  his  advocacy  of 
free  trade.  His 
books    include 
Problems     o  f 
Poverty,  1891; 
The     Problem 
of  the  Unem- 
ployed,  1896  ; 
The     War    in 
S.     Africa, 
1900;     The 
J.  A.  Hobson,          Psychology  of 
British  economist       Jingoism, 
Elliott  &  Fry  1901;    The 

Science  of  Wealth,  1911  ;  The  New 
Protectionism,  1916  ;  and  Taxation 
in  the  New  State,  1919. 

Hobson,  RICHMOND  PEARSON  (b. 
1870).  American  sailor.  Born  in 
Alabama,  Aug.  17,  1870,  he  was 
educated  at  the 
U.  S.  naval 
academy,  after- 
wards studying 
for  his  pro- 
fession in  Paris. 
He  became  a 
constructor,  but 
saw  active  ser- 
vice in  the  war 
against  Spain, 
being  at  the 
bombardment  of  Matanzas  and 
the  expedition  against  San  Juan 
de  Puerto.  His  great  exploit, 
however,  was  the  sinking  of  the 
Merrimac  on  June  3,  1898,  at  the 
entrance  to  Santiago  Harbour,  this 
being  an  attempt  to  shut  in  the 
Spanish  fleet.  This  feat  made  him 
for  a  time  the  idol  of  America.  In 
1903  he  retired  from  the  service, 
and  from  1906-15  was  a  member 
of  Congress  for  Alabama. 

Hobson,  THOMAS  (c.  1544-1631 ). 
Cambridge  carrier  and  livery-stable 
keeper.  His  invariable  refusal  to 
allow  any  horse  to  be  taken  from 
his  stables  except  in  its  proper  turn 
is  said  to  have  given  rise  to  the 
proverb  Hobson's  choice,  i.e.  take 
it  or  leave  it.  He  regularly  con- 
tinued his  journeys  to  London  until 
1630,  when  they  were  suspended 
on  account  of  the  plague.  Milton 
wrote  two  humorous  epitaphs  on 
him,  and  a  street  and  conduit  in 
Cambridge  are  named  after  him.  " ' 

Hobson- Jobson.  Anglo-Indian 
term  denoting  a  native  festal 
excitement,  especially  during  the 
Moharram  celebration  of  the  death 
of  two  of  Mahomet's  grandsons.  It 
is  the  British  soldiers'  version, 
traceable  back  to  1829,  of  the 
wailing  cry  Ya  Hasan,  Ya  Hosain. 
Earlier  variants  were  Hossy  Gossy, 
1673  ;  Hossein  Jossein,  1720;  and 
the  Dutch  Jaksom  Baksom,  1726. 
The  term  was  chosen  by  Sir  H. 
Yule  and  A.  C.  Burnell  as  the  title 


of  their  glossary  of  colloquial 
Anglo-Indian  words  and  phrases, 
rev.  ed.  1903.  The  most  familiar 
word  of  Hobson-Jobson  type  is 
Blighty  (q.v.). 

Hoche,  LAZARE  (1768-97). 
French  soldier.  Born  June  25, 
1768,  he  became  a  soldier  in  the 
Guard  before 
the  Revolution. 
He  remained  in 
the  army  after 
the  fall  of  the 
monarchy, 
and  in  1792 
became  an 
officer.  In  1793 
he  was  made 
a  general,  and 
in  the  same 
year  was  placed  at  the  head  of  an 
army.  In  the  winter  of  1793-94  he 
won  several  brilliant  victories  over 
the  Austrians  and  Russians,  but 
was  soon  imprisoned  as  a  traitor. 
He  was  speedily  released  and  in 
the  field  again,  and  his  next  ex- 
ploits were  against  the  royalists  who 
were  in  arms  in  La  Vendee.  He  was 
successful  there,  but  he  met  with 
failure  when  he  organized  and  led 
an  expedition  to  invade  Ireland  in 
1796.  He  was  afterwards  in  a 
command  on  the  Rhine.  Hoche  had 
just  resigned  the  post  of  minister 
for  war,  which  he  had  held  but  a 
few  weeks,  when  he  died  at  Wetzlar, 
Sept.  18,  1797.  Pron.  Ohsh. 

Hochelaga.  Name  of  a  suburb 
of  Montreal  and  of  a  county  in  the 
island  of  Montreal.  It  preserves  the 
name  of  a  native  village  inhabited 
by  the  Hochelaga  or  Beaver 
Indians,  which  stood  where  is  now 
the  city  of  Montreal.  Jacques 
Cartier  found  it  here  in  1535,  hut 
eighty  years  later  it  had  dis- 
appeared, and  in  1642  Montreal 
was  founded.  See  Montreal. 

Hochkirch  OR  HOCHKIRCHEN 
BATTLE  OF.  Fought  during  the 
Seven  Years'  War,  Oct.  14,  1758, 
between  the  Prussians  on  the  one 
side  and  the  Austrians  and  their 
allies  on  the  other.  Hochkirch  is 
a  village  near  Dresden.  After  his 
victory  over  the  Russians  at 
Dorndorf,  Frederick  the  Great 
hastened  to  the  help  of  his  brother 
Henry,  whose  army  covering 
Dresden  was  faced  by  a  much 
stronger  one.  Moving  to  Hoch- 
kirch, where  he  found  the  foe, 
Frederick  decided  to  a.ttack,  but 
by  a  coincidence  Daun,  the 
Austrian  leader,  made  the  same 
resolve.  The  result  was  a  desperate 
encounter  on  the  morning  of  the 
14th,  the  Austrians  having  used 
the  night  to  surround  their  foes. 
>The  Prussians  fought  well,  but 
at  length  were  driven  from  the 
field,  leaving  many  guns  as  spoil. 
They  lost  about  10,000  men  out  of 


HOCHST 

40,000  engaged ;  the  Austrians 
7,500  out  of  80,000-90,000.  See 
Seven  Years'  War. 

Hochst.  Town  of  Germany.  It 
stands  on  the  Main,  where  it  is 
joined  by  the  Nidda,  in  the  Prus- 
sian province  of  Hesse-Nassau,  6  m. 
from  Frankfort.  The  chief  building 
is  the  church  of  S.  Justinus,  with  a 


{  25  Yards  Line 


4015 

anglicised  name  hock  is  now  ap- 
plied generally  to  all  Rhine  white 
wines.  Most  of  these  can  be  had 
either  still  or  sparkling,  among  the 
best  of  the  former  being  Liebfrau- 
milch  and  Marcobrunn ;  of  the 
latter,  Johannisberg,  Liebfrau- 
milch,  and  Ehrenbreitstein.  Hock 
has  a  characteristic  flavour  and 
bouquet ;  it  is  a  full-bodied,  stable 
wine,  containing  from  9  p.c.  to  12 
p.c.  of  alcohol.  Similar  wines, 
made  in  Australia,  California,  and 
elsewhere  from  the  hock  or  Ries- 
ling vine,  are  usually  sweeter  than 
the  Rhine  wines. 

Hockey  (Eng.  hook ;  Fr.  hoquet, 
crook).  Outdoor  game  that  has 
been  played  for  centuries  in  various 
countries  under  various  names.  In 
Ireland  a  similar  game  is  known  as 
hurley,  in  Scotland  as  shinty,  in 
Wales  as  bandy.  The  earliest  form 
of  the  game  is  traceable  to  Ireland, 
and  appears  to  have  been  originally 
played  by  one  individual  against 
another.  The  Irish  game  is  re- 


HOCKEY 

ferred  to  in  the  will  of  the  first 
Irish  king,  Cathair  Moir  (d.  148). 
Cathair  gave  Crimthaun  fifty  hurl- 
ing balls  made  of  brass,  with  an 
equal  number  of  brazen  hurlete. 

As  now  played,  hockey  became 
a  recognized  game  about  1883, 
when  a  standard  set  of  rules  was 
framed  by  the  Wimbledon  Club. 
In  the  same  year  the  game  was 
adopted  by  Cambridge  University, 
and  later  by  Oxford;  the  first 
inter-' varsity  match  being  con- 
tested in  1890.  On  Jan.  18,  1886, 
the  Hockey  Association  was 
founded.  Its  organization  gave  a 

freat  impetus  to  the  game,  and 
rish,  Welsh,  Scottish,  and  English 
county  associations  sprang  into 
existence.  Although  originally  a 
game  for  men  only,  hockey  was 
recognized  as  a  suitable  pastime 
for  women,  and  in  1895  the  All- 
England  Women's  Hockey  Asso- 
ciation was  instituted.  Irish,  Welsh, 
and  Scottish  associations  for  ladies 
have  existed  for  many  years. 


Hockey.     Plan  of  the  field  as  laid 
out  by  the  Hockey  Association 

Gothic  choir,  and  there  are  remains 
of  a  castle  of  the  elector  of  Mainz. 
Machinery,  tobacco,  and  beer  are 
among  the  articles  manufactured, 
and  there  are  large  dye  works  and  a 
trade  along  the  river.  It  is  also  a 
rly.  junction.  The  town  was  part  of 
the  electorate  of  Mainz  until  the  up- 
heaval caused  by  Napoleon,  its 
first  charter  being  given  in  1400  by 
the  elector  John.  Later  it  was  in- 
cluded in  Hesse-Nassau,  but  was 
taken  in  1866  by  Prussia.  Here  on 
June  20,  1622,  the  Protestants 
under  Christian,  duke  of  Bruns- 
wick, were  defeated  by  the  troops 
of  the  Catholic  League  under  Tilly, 
and  here  on  Oct.  11,  1795,  the 
Austrians  defeated  the  French. 
Pop.  17,240. 

Hochstadt.  Town  of  Germany, 
in  Bavaria.  It  stands  on  the 
Danube,  34  m.  by  rly.  N.E.  of  Ulm. 
Here  Marlborough  and  Prince  Eu- 
gene defeated  the  French,  Aug.  13, 
1704,  in  the  battle  of  Blenheim 
(q.v. ).  In  the  previous  year  (1703) 
the  French  and  the  Bavarians  had 
defeated  the  imperial  troops  here. 
Malting  and  brewing  are  carried  on. 
Pop.  2,300. 

Hock.  German  white  wine. 
Grown  in  the  Rhine  district  and 
locally  known  as  Hochheimer,  from 
Hochheim,  on  the  Main,  the 


HOCKING 


HOCKTIDE 


Representative  games  were 
started  in  1890,  teams  representing 
the  N.  and  S.  of  England  being 
opposed.  In  1895  the  first  inter- 
national game  was  decided,  Eng- 
land defeating  Ireland  at  Rich- 
mond by  five  goals  to  nil ;  and  in 
the  same  year  international  ladies' 
teams  representing  these  countries 
met  at  Brighton. 

Dimensions  of  Ground 
Hockey  is  played  between  two 
teams  of  eleven  players,  each 
player  having  a  stick  with  a  curved 
blade  with  which  a  ball  is  driven, 
the  object  being  to  force  the  ball 
into  the  opponents'  goal.  The 
correct  formation  of  a  team  is  five 
forwards,  three  half-backs,  two 
backs,  and  a  goalkeeper.  The  game 
is  of  70  mins.  duration,  the  teams 
changing  ends  after  35  mins.  play. 
The  dimensions  of  the  ground  are  : 
length,  100  yds.  ;  breadth,  from 
55  yds.  to  60  yds.  It  is  rectangular, 
as  in  football,  the  longer  boundary 
lines  being  called  side-lines  and  the 
shorter  goal-lines.  At  a  distance  of 
5  yds.  a  line  is  drawn  parallel  with 
each  side-line,  and  25  yds.  from 
each  goal  a  line  7  yds.  long  is  drawn 
from  the  side-lines,  parallel  with 
each  goal-line.  A  line  is  also  drawn 
across  the  middle  of  the  pitch 
between  the  side-lines,  and  a  centre 
circle  is  marked.  The  goals  are  4 
yds.  wide  and  7  ft.  high. 

In  front  of  each  goal  is  drawn  a 
line  4  yds.  long  parallel  to  and  15 
yds.  from  the  goal-line,  and  con- 
tinued each  way  to  the  goal-line  by 
drawing  quarter  circles  with  the 
goal-posts  as  centres.  This  is  the 
striking  circle.  The  ball  is  a 
leather  cricket  ball,  the  case  painted 
white  or  made  of  white  leather. 
The  sticks  are  made  of  ash,  have  a 
flat  front  surface  and  curved  blade, 
and  may  not  weigh  more  than  28  oz. 
The  game  is  started  by  the  bully  off, 
one  player  of  each  side  bullying  the 
ball  from  the  centre  of  the  ground. 

To  bully  the  ball  each  player 
strikes  first  the  ground  on  his  own 
side  of  the  ball  and  then  his  op- 
ponent's stick  three  times  altern- 
ately, after  which  the  players  may 
strike  at  the  ball.  A  goal  is  scored 
when  the  ball  passes  between  the 
uprights,  below  the  cross-bar  and 
entirely  over  the  goal-line,  the  ball 
having  been  hit  or  touched  by  the 
stick  of  an  attacker  while  within 
the  striking  circle. 

Offences  and  Penalties 

The  following  offences,  if  com- 
mitted outside  the  striking  circle, 
are  penalised  by  a  free  hit  to  the 
opposing  side :  (a)  Sticks,  i.e. 
raising  the  stick  above  the  shoulder 
when  striking  ;  (b)  charging,  kick- 
ing, shoving,  tripping  ;  (c)  playing 
with  the  rounded  back  of  stick,  or 
hooking  sticks  when  not  within 


striking  distance  of  the  ball ;  (d) 
picking  up,  knocking  on,  or  carry- 
ing the  ball  otherwise  than  with 
the  stick ;  (e)  obstructing  an  op- 
ponent by  running  in  between  him 
and  the  ball;  (/)  interfering  with 
the  game  unless  with  stick  in  hand ; 
(g)  taking  any  part  in  the  game 
when  in  an  offside  position. 
Offences  (6)  to  (/)  are  punishable, 
when  committed  by  the  defending 
team  inside  the  striking  circle,  by 
a  penalty  bully  to  the  attacking 
team  ;  offence  (g),  committed  by  a 
defender  inside  the  striking  circle, 
is  penalised  by  an  ordinary  bully  at 
the  spot  where  the  offence  occurred, 
a  similar  penalty  being  awarded 
for  any  breach  of  the  free  hit  rule ; 
offences  (a)  to  (g),  if  committed  by 
the  attacking  side  within  their  op- 
ponents' striking  circle,  are  punish- 
able by  a  free  hit  to  the  op- 
posing side. 

Corners  and  Offsides 
A  penalty  bully  is  played  by  the 
offender  and  a  selected  player  of 
the  other  team  on  the  spot  where 
the  offence  occurred,  all  other 
players  standing  beyond  the  nearer 
25  yds.  line.  A  corner,  awarded 
when  the  ball  crosses  the  goal-line 
after  being  played  by  a  defender 
behind  the  25  yds.  line,  is  taken 
from  a  point  on  the  goal  or  side- 
line within  3  yds.  of  the  corner  flag. 
All  defenders  must  stand  behind 
their  goal -line  and  attackers  out- 
side the  circle.  From  a  corner  the 
attacking  side  can  only  score  a  goal 
after  the  ball  has  been  stopped 
dead  or  hit  after  it  has  struck  or 
been  played  by  a  defender.  When 
the  ball  is  sent  behind  by  an 
attacker  or  unintentionally  by  a 
defender  farther  from  goal  than 
the  25  yds.  line,  a  bully  is  held  on 
the  25  yds.  line  opposite  the  point 
at  which  the  ball  crossed  the  goal- 
line.  When  the  ball  is  played  over 
either  side-line  it  is  rolled  in,  not 
bounced,  by  a  player  of  the  oppos- 
ing team  from  the  point  on  the  line 
at  which  it  left  the  field  of  play, 
no  other  player  standing  within 
5  yds.  A  player  is  offside  when  the 
ball  is  hit  or  rolled  in  unless  there 
are  at  least  three  players  between 
him  and  his  opponents'  goal,  and  a 
free  hit  at  the  spot  where  the 
offence  occurred  is  awarded  the 
opposing  team.  No  player  can  be 
offside  in  his  own  half  of  the  field. 
See  The  Complete  Hockey  Player, 
E.  E.  White,  1909  ;  Hockey,  E.  H. 
Green  and  E.  E.  White,  1912; 
Hockey,  Eric  Green,  1920. 

E.  G.  Ogan 

Hocking,  JOSEPH  (b.  1855). 
British  Nonconformist  minister 
and  novelist.  Born  in  Cornwall,  a 
brother  of  Silas  Hocking,  he  was 
educated  at  Victoria  University, 
Manchester,  and  for  a  time  was  a 


Joseph  Hocking, 
British  novelist 


Silas  K.  Hocking, 
British  novelist 


land  surveyor.  In  1884  he  became 
minister  of  a  Methodist  church, 
and  was  a  successful  pastor  and 
a  popular 
preacher.  It  is 
chiefly  by  his 
novels  that  he 
is  generally 
k n own,  his 
first  story,  Ja- 
bez  Easter- 
brook,  1891, 
having  been 
followed  every 
year  by  at 
least  one  work 
of  fiction.  Many  of  these  have 
attained  wide  popularity  both  as 
serials  and  in  volume  form. 

Hocking,  SILAS  KITTO  (b.  1850). 
British  novelist.  Bom  in  Cornwall, 
March  24,  1850,  and  educated 
privately,  he 
was  ordained 
minister  of  the 
United  Metho- 
dist Church  in 
1870,  and  held 
various  p  a  s- 
torates  until 
1896,  when  he 
retired.  H  i  s 
first  story, 
Alec  Green,  ap- 
peared in  1878, 
and  was  followed  by  Her  Benny, 
1879,  this  being  the  first  of  a 
long  sequence  of  novels,  chiefly 
of  a  religious  tendency,  many  of 
which  have  enjoyed  wide  popu- 
larity. Hocking  twice  contested 
seats  in  Parliament  without  suc- 
cess ;  he  also  travelled  widely. 

Hockley-in-the-Hole.  Former 
name  of  Ray  Street,  Clerkenwell, 
London,  E.C.  Notorious  in  the  1 7th 
and  18th  centuries  as  a  resort  of 
thieves,  highwaymen,  bull-baiters, 
bulldog  breeders,  and  infamous 
women,  it  had  a  bear  garden  which 
all  classes  patronised,  where  prize- 
fighting, cock-fighting,  wrestling, 
and  duels  with  swords  took  place. 
Hocldey-in-the-Hole  is  mentioned 
by  Steele  in  The  Tatler,  Addison  in 
The  Spectator,  Pope  in  The  Dim- 
ciad,  Butler  in  Hudibras,  and  Gay 
in  Trivia  and  The  Beggar's  Opera. 
See  History  of  Clerkenwell,  W.  J. 
Pinks  and  E.  J.  Wood,  2nd.  ed.  1881. 
Hocktide.  Old  English  holiday 
observed  on  the  second  Monday  and 
Tuesday  after  Easter.  Formerly, 
in  rural  districts,  Hock  Tuesday 
was  one  of  the  days  on  which  rent 
and  other  regular  charges  were 
paid.  On  Hock  Monday  it  was  the 
custom  for  the  men  to  bind  with 
ropes  every  woman  or  girl  they  met, 
releasing  her  on  payment  of  a  small 
sum  of  money,  which  was  given  to 
the  Church.  On  Hock  Tuesday  the 
women  bound  the  men,  freeing 
them  on  the  same  conditions. 


HODDER   &   STOUGHTON 


4O  1  7 


HODGSON 


The  custom  apparently  originated 
about  the  12th  century,  and  died 
out  early  in  the  18th.  In  London 
in  the  15th  and  16th  centuries 
Hocktide  was  called  Hobtide.  The 
old  Coventry  play  of  Hock  Tuesday, 
performed  before  Queen  Elizabeth 
at  Kenilworth  in  1 575,  represented 
Saxons  fighting  with  Danes  and 
Saxon  women  binding  and  leading 
the  Danes  captive. 

Hodder  &  Stoughton.  Lon- 
don publishing  house.  It  was 
founded  by  M.  H.  Hodder  and  T. 
W.Stoughtoninl868.  In  1902  John 
Ernest  Hodder  Williams,  who  was 
knighted  in  1919,  joined  the  firm. 
Initial  success  was  achieved  with 
From  Log  Cabin  to  White  House, 
a  memoir,  of  President  Garfield,  of 
which  250,000  copies  were  sold.  In 
1885  the  Rev.  (later  Sir)  William 
Robertson Nicoll  (q.v. )  took  over  the 
editorship  of  The  Expositor,  and 
became  editor  in  chief  and  literary 
adviser.  In  1886  he  started  The 
British  Weekly,  through  the  me- 
dium of  which  he  speedily  made 
himself  the  chief  journalistic  force 
in  the  Nonconformist  world,  and 
a  few  years  afterwards  The  Book- 
man. Later  the  firm  became  a 
limited  company. 

Hoddesdon.  Urban  dist.  and 
village  of  Hertfordshire,  England. 
It  is  on  the  river  Lea,  4  m.  S.E.  of 
Hertford,  on  the  G.E.R.,  and  was 
a  fishing  resort  of  Izaak  Walton,  in 
whose  book  it  is  mentioned.  Market 
day,  Wednesday.  Pop.  5,200. 

Hodeida.  Seaport  of  Arabia- 
It  lies  about  150  m.  N.W.  of  the 
strait  of  Bab  el  Mandeb,  in  the 
Yemen,  on  the  E.  coast  of  the  Red 
Sea.  The  Turks  had  a  fort  there. 
It  has  some  trade,  exporting  cotton, 
millet,  and  senna.  It  was  occupied 
during  the  Great  War,  by  a  British 
garrison,  which  was  attacked  by 
the  Imam  Yehia,  head  of  the  Zaidi 
sect  of  Moslems,  in  Aug.,  1919. 
The  British  evacuated  it  in  Jan., 
1921.  See  Yemen.  Pop.  40,000. 

Hodge.  Character  in  William 
Stevenson's  comedy,  Gammer  Gur- 
ton's  Needle,  1575.  He  is  Gammer 
Gurton's  servant  and  his  name,  a 
nickname  for  Roger,  has  since 
served  as  a  conventional  designa- 
tion for  an  English  farm  labourer 
or  countryman.  Regarded  as  more 
or  less  of  a  simpleton,  it  was  the 
custom  to  make  things  of  inferior 
quality  for  him  under  the  belief 
that  he  would  not  know  the 
difference,  hence  the  hodge-razors 
referred  to  in  Carlyle's  Miscellanies, 
which  were  never  meant  to  shave, 
but  only  to  be  sold. 

Hodge,  JOHN  (b.  1855).  British 
labour  leader.  Born  at  Muirkirk, 
Ayrshire,  Oct.  29,  1855,  he  was 
educated  at  Motherwell  Ironworks 
School  and  Hutchestown  Grammar 


School,  Glasgow.  He  formed 
and  became  secretary  of  the 
British  Steel  Smelters',  Mill,  Iron 
and  Tinplate 
Workers'  A  s- 
sociation,  and 
was  president 
of  the  Trades 
Union  Congress 
in  1892,  and 
president  of  the 
British  section 
of  the  Inter- 
national C  o  n- 
gress  at  Zurich, 
1893.  He  was 
elected  M.P.  for  Gorton  division  of 
Lancashire  in  1906,  and  was 
minister  of  labour  1916  —  Aug., 
1917,  when  he  became  minister  of 
pensions.  When  the  Labour  party 
decided  not  to  join  the  Lloyd 
George  ministry  in  1919,  Hodge 
resigned.  He  was  acting  chair- 
man of  the  Labour  party  in  the 


John  Hodge,  British 
labour  leader 


Hoddesdon.     High  Street  of  the  Hertford 
House  of  Commons,  1915,  and  took 
an  active  part  in  the  formation  of 
the  Conciliation  Boards,  and  the 
King's  fund  for  disabled  soldiers. 

Hodgkin,  THOMAS  (1831-1913). 
British  historian.  Born  in  London, 
July  29, 1831,  of  Quaker  parentage, 
Hodgkin  was  educated  at  London 
University  and  became  partner  in 
a  bank  at  Newcastle-on-Tyne.  He 
devoted  much  time  to  historical 
study,  and  made  himself  an 
authority  on  the  so-called  dark 
ages,  the  period  after  the  fall  of  the 
Roman  Empire.  His  greatest  wo^k 
is  Italy  and  her  Invaders,  1880-99  ; 
he  also  wrote  Theodoric  the  Goth, 
1891  ;  Life  of  Charles  the  Great, 
1897  ;  and  Vol.  1  of  Longman's 
Political  History  of  England,  1906. 
He  died  March  2,  1913. 


spleen  is  also  enlarged  in  most 
cases.  The  patient  gradually  be- 
comes anaemic,  and  the  pressim-  <.f 
the  enlarged  glands  upon  the  wind- 
pipe may  cause  difficulty  in 
breathing,  or  pressure  upon  the 
oesophagus  difficulty  in  swallow- 
ing. v  Pressure  upon  nerves  may 
cause  severe  pain  in  various  parts 
of  the  body.  The  heart  may  be  dis- 
placed, and  its  action  interfered 
with.  Death  generally  occurs  in 
from  one  to  three  years.  Some- 
times the  disease  remains  station- 
ary for  prolonged  periods,  but 
complete  recovery  is  very  rare. 
The  administration  of  arsenic  has 
often  a  marked  effect  in  retarding 
the  progress  of  the  disease. 

Hodgkinson,  EATON  (1789- 
1861).  British  mathematician.  Born 
at  Anderton,  Cheshire,  Feb.  29, 
1789,  he  worked  on  a  Cheshire 
farm.  In  1811  he  moved  to  Sal- 
ford,  where  his  aptitude  for  mathe- 
matics gained  him 
admission  to  a 
brilliant  scientific 
circle.  In  1822 
his  paper,  On 
the  Transverse 
Strains  and 
Strength  of  Mate- 
rials, in  which  he 
fixed  the  position 
of  the  neutral  line 
in  sections  of  rup- 
ture and  fracture, 
was  read  to  the 
Literary  and 
Philosophical  So- 
ciety of  Manchester.  To  the  same 
body  he  communicated  the  result  of 
his  studies  in  the  strength  of  iron 
beams,  which  were  eventually  em- 
bodied in  the  Hodgkinson  beam. 
He  was  consulted  by  Stephenson 
with  regard  to  the  construction  of 
the  Britannia  Bridge,  and  his 
opinion  was  sought  on  many  en- 
gineering problems  of  his  day.  He 
died  at  Higher  Broughton,  Man- 
chester, June  18,  1861. 

Hodgson,  SHADWOKTH  HOLLWAY 
(1832-1912).  British  metaphy- 
sician. Born  at  Boston,  Lincoln- 
shire, Dec.  25,  1832,  he  was  edu- 
cated at  Rugby  and  Oxford.  Ac- 
cording to  him,  objectivity  is 
nothing  in  itself  beyond  conscious- 
ness, but  something  belonging  to 
consciousness.  Existence  is  pres- 
ence in  consciousness.  Physical 
but 


Hodekin's  Disease  OB  LYMPH- 
ADENOMA      Disease    characterised     happenings    are   not  causes     bi 
"    the     "real    conditions       of    psychical 


by  gradual  enlargement  of 
lymphatic  glands  throughout  the 
body.  The  cause  is  unknown. 
Young  male  persons  are  most  fre- 
quently affected.  The  glands  in 
the  neck  are  usually  the  first  to 
become  enlarged,  and  thereafter 
the  condition  slowly  spreads  to 
the  glands  in  the  armpit,  the  groin, 
the  chest,  and  the  abdomen.  The 


happenings.  This  view  he  declared 
to  be  identical  with  those  put 
forward  in  the  Platonic  dialogue 
Pannenides — that  the  phenomenal 
world  only  exists  in  PO  far  as  it 
is  the  manifestation  of  the  idea, 
hi  other  words,  that  being  and 
thought  are  the  same.  The  most 
important  of  his  works  are  Time 


H6DMEZO-vXsXRHELY 


4018 


HOP 


and  Space,  1865  ;  The  Philosophy 
of  Reflection,  1878;  The  Meta- 
physic  of  Experience,  1898.  Hodg- 
son was  president  of  the  Aristotelian 
Society,  and  died  on  June  16, 1912. 

Hodmezo-Vasarhely.  Town 
of  Hungary,  in  the  co.  of  Csongrad. 
It  stands  on  Lake  Hodos,  near  the 
right  bank  of  the  river  Tisza 
(Theiss),  from  whose  floods  it  is 
protected  by  dykes.  Modern  in  ap- 
pearance, the  town  has  several  im- 
posing buildings,  including  a  town 
hall,  hospitals,  and  a  gymnasium. 
It  lies  in  a  fertile,  agricultural 
district,  and  the  township  includes 
nearly  300  sq.  m.  of  the  surround- 
ing territory.  It  is  noted  for  a  fine 
breed  of  horned  cattle,  and  rears 
horses,  sheep,  and  pigs.  There  are 
extensive  vineyards  in  the  locality, 
and  choice  white  and  red  wines  are 
produced.  Cereals,  chiefly  wheat, 
oats,  barley,  maize,  and  millet,  are 
grown,  and  brewing,  oil-refining,  and 
the  manufacture  of  tobacco  are  car- 
ried on.  Pop.  62,394,  mostly  Mag- 
yars, and  two-thirds  Protestants. 

Hodograph  (Gr.  hodos,  way, 
course ;  graphein,  to  describe). 
Curve  of  which  the  radius  vector 
represents  the  magnitude  and  direc- 
tion of  a  moving  particle.  If,  from 
any  fixed  point,  lines  be  drawn  at 
every  instant  representing  in  mag- 
nitude and  direction  the  velocity  of 
a  point  describing  any  path  in  any 
manner,  the  extremities  of  these 
lines  form  a  curve  which  is  called 
the  hodograph.  It  enables  many 
problems  of  motion  to  be  solved  in 
a  simple  way. 

Hodonin,  FORMERLY  CODING. 
Town  of  Czecho-Slovakia,  in  Mor- 
avia. It  stands  on  thj  March,  34 
m.  S.E.  of  Brno  (Brunn).  It  has  an 
important  tobacco  factory,  brewer- 
ies, sawmills,  etc.  Pop.  12,200. 

Hodson,  WILLIAM  STEPHEN 
RAIKES  (1821-58).  British  soldier. 
Born  at  Maisemore  Court,  near 
Gloucester,  March  19,  1821,  and 
educated  at  Rugby  and  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  he  entered  the 
army  and  proceeded  to  India. 
Here  he  gained  a  unique  reputa- 
tion as  adjutant,  and  eventually  as 
commander  of  a  corps  of  guides. 
In  1855,  owing  to  confusion  in  the 
regimental  accounts,  he  was  re- 
moved from  his  command,  but  a 
second  court  of  inquiry  cleared  his 
character. 

During  the  Indian  Mutiny,  Hod- 
son  did  signal  service  as  commander 
of  a  body  of  irregular  cavalry, 
known  as  Hodson's  Horse,  and  as 
chief  of  the  intelligence  department. 
After  the  taking  of  Delhi,  with  only 
50  men,  he  pursued  and  brought 
back  the  Mogul.  On  the  following 
day,  with  100  men*,  he  tracked  the 
princes  of  Delhi  to  the  tomb  where 
they  had  taken  refuge.  The  princes 


surrendered,  but  as  the  mob  seemed 
likely  to  attempt  a  rescue,  Hodson 
shot  the  princes  one  by  one  with 
his  own  hand,  an  act  which  was 
most  adversely  criticised.  He  died 
March  12,  1858.  See  Hodson  of 
Hodson's  Horse,  G.  H.  Hodson, 
1858;  Four  Famous  Soldiers,  T. 
R.  E.  Holmes,  1889;  A  Leader  of 
Light  Horse,  L.  J.  Trotter,  1901. 

Hoe.  Instrument  for  breaking 
up  the  ground.  The  hand  hoe  is 
best  made  with  a  neck  curved  like 


1 


Hoe.   Common  forms  of  the  garden 

implement.    1.  Half  moon.    2.  8-in. 

steel.     3.  Onion  hoe  with  handle. 

4.  Dutch  hoe 

that  of  a  swan  ;  the  horse-hoe,  or 
grubber,  for  cultivation  between 
the  rows  of  roots  or  cereals,  may 
either  be  a  small  three-shared  ma- 
chine that  can  be  drawn  by  one 
horse,  or  a  larger  contrivance  with 
as  many  as  ten  tines.  The  uses 
of  the  hoe  are  to  remove  weeds, 
to  break  up  winter  cap,  and  to  pro- 
duce a  surface  mulch  by  which  the 
undue  evaporation  of  moisture  is 
prevented.  See  Agriculture ;  Egypt. 
Hoe,  RICHARD  MARCH (181 2-86). 
American  inventor.  Born  at  New 
York,  Sept.  12,  1812,  son  of  Robert 
r  ,m  Hoe,  an  Eng- 

Jjjtoji^  \  lish  emigrant, 
|  and  inventor 
of  the  Hoe 
printing  press, 
he  became  a 
partner  in  his 
father's  busi- 
ness. He  and 
his  two  bro- 

Ricbard  Hoe,  thpr«s      h^ramo 

American  inventor      tners 

managers  of 

the  firm  in  1 841 ,  and  five  years  later 
produced  a  rotary  press,  the  first  of 
its  kind,  named  Hoe's  Lightning 
Press.  An  improvement  appeared 
in  1871,  which  printed  on  both 
sides  of  the  paper,  which  it  cut  and 
folded.  Hoe  died  at  Florence, 
June  7,  1886.  See  Printing. 


General  von 

Hoeppner, 

German  soldier 


Hoenir.  One  of  the  three  gods 
in  Norse  mythology,  the  long- 
legged  one,  the  lord  of  the  ooze, 
synonymous  with  stork.  After 
Midgard,  the  abode  of  mankind, 
was  formed,  Odin,  Hoenir,  and 
Lodur  made  man  and  woman 
from  an  ash  and  an  elm,  Hoenir's 
gift  being  speech.  He  is  said  to 
have  first  used  the  divining  rod 
for  revealing  hidden  waters. 

Hoeppner,  GENERAL  VON  (1859- 
1922).  German  soldier.  He 
came  into  prominence  in  the  Great 
War,  serving  in 
the  battle  of 
the  S  o  m  m  e, 
1916,  as  chief 
of  staff  to  Otto 
von  Below.  In 
Nov.  he  was 
appointed 
general  in  com- 
mand of  the 
aerial  forces, 
including  the 
anti-aircraft 
corps.  Realizing  the  inferiority  of 
the  German  air  service  in  the  battle 
of  the  Somme,  he  hastened  pro- 
duction and  showed  great  enter- 
prise, the  construction  and  employ- 
ment of  the  German  air  squadrons 
being  under  his  absolute  control. 
He  organized  the  bombing  raids 
over  England  and  behind  the  Allied 
front  in  France,  encouraged  new 
types  of  machines  and  new  methods 
of  attack,  and  instituted  rewards. 
He  died  Sept.  28,  1922. 

Hoetzendorff,  CONRAD  FRANZ; 
BARON  VON  (b.  1852).  Austrian 
soldier.  Born  at  Penzing,  near 
Vienna,  Nov. 
11,  1852,  he 
entered  the 
Austrian  army 
as  a  lieutenant 
of  infantry  in 
1871,  and  in 
1908  became 
general  of 
infantry  and 
inspector- 
general.  H  e 
was  chief  of 
the  general  staff  from  1912-16, 
when,  on  account  of  the  defeat  of 
the  Austrians  by  Brusiloff  in  Ga- 
licia,  he  resigned.  In  1918  Hoet- 
zendorff commanded  the  Austrian 
forces  whose  attack  on  the  British 
and  Italians  on  the  Asiago  plateau 
was  completely  repulsed. 

Hof.  Town  of  Germany,  in 
Oberfranken,  Bavaria.  It  lies  N.E. 
of  Baireuth,  on  the  Saale,  near 
the  Bohemian  frontier.  It  pos- 
sesses a  Gothic  Rathaus  dating 
from  1563,  and  a  church  dedicated 
to  S.  Michael,  consecrated  in  1299, 
both  restored  in  the  19th  century. 
Hof  is  an  important  centre  of  the 
textile  industry.  Pop.  41,130. 


Baron  Conrad 
von  Hoetzendorff, 
Austrian  soldier 


HOFER 


4019 


HOFMEYR 


Hofer,  ANDREAS  (1767-1810). 
Tirolese  patriot.  Born  at  St.  Leo- 
nard, in  the  Passeier  valley,  Tirol, 
Nov.  22,  1767,  he  inherited  his 
father's  business  as  an  innkeeper 
In  1797  he  enlisted  a  body  of  sharp- 
shooters to  drive  the  French  from 
the  neighbourhood  of  Lake  Garda, 
and  in  1805  he  led  his  troops 
against  Ney.  By  the  treaty  of 
Pressburg,  1805,  Tirol  passed  into 
the  power  of  France  and  was  joined 
to  Bavaria,  but  Hofer  led  a  secret 
agitation  in  favour  of  annexation 
to  Austria.  On  the  outbreak  of 
war  between  that  country  and 


Anareas       no.ei.     monument      by 

Natter,  erected    at  Berg  Isel,  near 

Innsbruck,  in  1893 

France  in  1809,  he  defeated  the 
Bavarians  at  Sterzing  and  Inns- 
bruck, and  drove  them  from 
Tirol.  Lefebvre's  army,  sent  by 
Napoleon  to  stamp  out  this  in- 
surrection, was  beaten  at  Berg 
Isel,  but  by  the  treaty  of  Schon- 
brunn  Austria  abandoned  the 
country  to  the  French,  who  cap- 
tured Hofer,  took  him  to  Mantua, 
and  there  shot  him,  Feb.  20,  1810. 
Hoffding,  HARALD  (b.  1843) 
Danish  author  and  philosopher 
Born  in  Copenhagen,  March  11, 
1843  he  published  German  Philos- 
ophy after  Hegel  in  1872,  followed 
by  Contemporary  English  Philo- 
sophy, 1874;  The  Foundation  of 
Ethics,  1876;  Charles  Darwin, 
1889  ;  The  Ethics  of  John  Stuart 
Mill,  1909  ;  and  Henri  Bergson's 
Philosophy,  1914.  There  are  Eng. 
trans,  of  his  History  of  Modern 
Philosophy,  1900,  Briet  History 
of  Modern  Philosophy,  1912;  and 
Modem  Philosophy  and  Lectures 
on  Bergson,  1915 


A.  H.  Hoffmann, 
German  poet 


Hoffmann,  AUGUST  HEINBICH 
(1798-1874).  German  poet  and 
scholar.  He  was  born,  April  2, 
1798,  at  Fal- 
lersleben,  i  n 
Luneberg,  and 
is  hence  some- 
times known 
as  Hoffmann 
von  Fallers- 
leben.  He  was 
librarian  at 
Breslau  Uni- 
versity, 1823- 
38,  and  pro- 
fessor there,  1835-42.  The  publi- 
cation of  his  Unpolitische  Lieder 
(Unpolitical  Songs),  1841-42, 
caused  his  dismissal.  He  produced 
Deutschland,  Deutschland  uber 
Alles,  1841,  which  took  the  position 
of  the  national  song  of  the  German 
Empire.  Versatile  and  prolific  in 
lyrics  inspired  by  love,  wine, 
patriotism,  and  good  fellowship, 
his  songs  enjoyed  a  great  vogue. 
He  wrote  much  on  early  German 
literature,  hymnology,  and  philo- 
logy. He  died  at  Corvei,  Jan.  19, 
1874.  See  his  Mein  Leben  (Auto- 
biography), 1868-70. 

Hoffmann,  ERNST  THEODOR 
AMADEUS  (1776-1822).  German 
author.  Born  at  Konigsberg, 
Jan.  24,  1776,  he  studied  law  but 
spent  much  time  wandering  about 
Germany,  supporting  himself  by 
writing  and  portrait  painting, 
composing,  and  managing  provin- 
c  i  a  1  theatres 
In  1816  he  be- 
came chancel- 
lor of  the  court 
of  appeal  at 
Berlin,  and 
about  this  time 
adopted  the 
name  of  Ama 
deus  in  place 
of  his  baptis- 
mal Wilhelm, 
in  honour  of  Mozart,  to  whom  he 
was  devoted.  The  short  stories  and 
essays  he  had  published  in  1814- 
15  in  Phantasiestucke  had  been 
well  received,  and  the  following 
year  the  novel  Die  Elixiere  des 
Teufels  made  him  famous.  Nacht- 
stiicke,  1817,  and  Die  Serapions- 
briider,  1819-21,  contain  short 
stories  which  occupy  a  prominent 
place  in  the  romantic  literature  of 
the  period 

Extraordinarily  prolific,  Hoff- 
mann composed,  painted,  and  wrote 
with  equal  grace,  and  became  the 
centre  of  a  large  circle  of  musical 
and  literary  talent  His  influence 
on  the  work  of  Schumann  was 
especially  marked,  the  composer 
owing  much  of  his  inspiration  to 
Hoffmann's  stories.  He  died  June 
25  1822.  Much  of  his  work  has 
been  translated  into  English. 


E.  T.  A.  Hoffmann, 
German  author 


A.  W.  HoJmann, 
German  chemist 


Hofhuf  OR  HOFUF,  EL.  Town  of 
Arabia,  the  capital  of  El  Hasa 
It  is  situated  about  40  m.  inland 
from  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  is  on  the 
Pilgrims1  Road  through  Nejd  to 
Mecca.  With  Mubarriz  it  forms 
the  two  great  urban  centres  in  the 
great  oasis  in  the  S.  of  El  Hasa. 
Pop.  est  40,000. 

Hofmann,  AUGUST  WIMBLM 
(1818-92).  A  German  chemist. 
Born  at  Giessen,  April  8,  1818,  he 
studied  chem- 
istry n  n  d  er 
Lie  Dig  in  his 
native  town. 
In  1848  be  was 
appointed 
superinten- 
dent of  the 
Royal  College 
of  Chemistry, 
London,  after- 
wards incorpo 
rated  in  the  Imperial  College  ot 
Science  at  S.  Kensington.  He  re 
mained  in  London  until  1863.  when 
he  was  appointed  professor  ot 
chemistry  in  Berlin,  a  position 
which  he  held  until  his  death. 

To  him  is  due  the  discovery  ol 
the  composition  of  rosaniline,  which 
was  of  great  technical  importance 
in  the  early  days  of  the  coal-tar 
colour  industry  He  discovered  a 
beautiful  aniline  dye  known  as  Hot 
mann  violet  After  he  returned  to 
Germany  he  founded  (1868)  a 
chemical  society  on  the  model  ot 
the  London  society.  He  died  in 
Berlin.  May  5,  1892. 

Hofmann,  JOSEI  CASIMFR  (b 
1876)  Polish  pianist  Born  at 
Cracow  Jan.  20,  1876,  the  son  ot  a 
professor  at  the  Warsaw  conserva 
toire,  he  studied  under  his.  lather 
and  under  Rubenstcin,  and  as  a 
youthful  prodigy  went  on  tour 
in  Europe  and  America.  In  1888 
he  retired  tor  six  years  from  public 
life,  but  after  a  further  period  ol 
study  reappeared  and  took  a  high 
place  among  contemporary  music 
ians,  appearing  in  London  in  Oct.. 
1920,  for  the  first  time  since  1903. 

Hofmeyr,  JAN  HENDRIK  (1845- 
1909).  S.  African  politician.  Born 
in  Cape  Town.  July  4  1845.  he 
took  up  jour 
nalism  and  in 
1879  was 
elected  M.P 
for  Stellen- 
bosch  in  the 

Cape   parlia-    I       ,   "  -*&       « 
m  e  n  t,  where 
his     strong 
Dutch  sympa- 


notice.  In  1878  he  organized 
the  Dutch  farmers  and  by  means 
of  the  Afrikander  Bond  welded 
the  Dutch  element  into  a 


HOGARTH 


HOGG 


strong  political  entity.  He  dis- 
sociated himself  from  Kruger's 
anti-British  policy,  but  he  was 
equally  distrustful  of  Cecil  Rhodes 
and  his  imperialistic  ideas.  Asso- 
ciating himself  with  no  party  in  the 
S.  African  War,  he  went  to  Europe 
until  it  was  over,  and  returned  to 
Africa  to  meet  a  political  defeat. 
He  retained  much  influence,  how- 
ever, and  was  on  a  mission  to  Lon- 
don when  he  died,  Oct.  16,  1909. 

Hogarth,  DAVID  GEORGE  (b. 
1862).  British  archaeologist.  Born 
at  Barton-on-Humber,  he  was 
educated  at  Winchester  and  Mag- 
dalen College,  Oxford.  He  carried 
out  explorations  in  Asia  Minor, 
1887-94,  and  excavations  in  Crete, 
Egypt,  Ephesus,  Assiut,  and  Car- 
chemish.  He  was  director  of  the 
British  school  at  Athens,  1897- 
1900,  and  succeeded  Sir  Arthur 
Evans  as  keeper  of  the  Ashmolean 
Museum,  Oxford,  in  1909.  His 
works  include  Modern  and  Ancient 
Roads  in  E.  Asia  Minor,  1892  ;  The 
Nearer  East,  1902 ;  The  Pene- 
tration of  Arabia,  1904 ;  The 
Archaic  Artemisia  of  Ephesus, 
1908  :  Ionia  and  the  East,  1909  ; 
The  Ancient  East,  1914  ;  and  The 
Balkans,  1915.  During  the  Great 
War  he  was  engaged  on  special  ser- 
vice as  an  officer  of  the  R.N.V.R. 

Hogarth,  WILLIAM  (1697-1764). 
English  painter,  engraver,  chron- 
icler, and  moralist.  Hogarth,  be- 
longing to  a  Westmorland  family, 
was  born  in  Bartholomew  Close, 
City  of  London,  Nov.  10,  1697.  He 
began  his  career  as  apprentice  to  a 
silversmith  in  Leicester  Fields,  but, 
as  a  boy,  had  amused  himself  with 
painting,  and  paid  some  attention 
to  engraving.  His  master  set  him 
to  engrave  visiting  cards,  shop  bills, 
and  coats  of  arms,  but  he  himself 
worked  on  illustrations  for  books, 
and  in  quite  early  days  produced 
sixf  or  King's  History  of  the  Heathen 
Gods.  In  1726  he  became  known  by 
some  copper  -  plates  for  Butler's 
Hudibras.  Three  years  later,  run- 
ning away  with  the  only  daughter 
of  the  artist  Sir  James  Thornhill, 
he  settled  down  in  South  Lambeth. 
His  well-known  trip  to  the  Isle 
of  Sheppey  took  place  in  1732.  He 
was  one  of  a  party  of  four,  and  to 
the  account  of  the  journey  and  its 
adventures  Hogarth  supplied  the 
illustrations.  The  MS.  can  still 
be  seen  in  the  British  Museum.  In 
the  following  year  he  removed  to 
Leicester  Fields,  and  commenced 
his  long  series  of  didactic  chronicles 
in  pictorial  art,  commencing  with 
The  Harlot's  Progress.  This  group 
of  works^  which  includes  The 
Rake's  Progress,  The  Enraged 
Musician,  the  wonderful  series  of 
Marriage  a  la  Mode,  Beer  Street 
and  Gin  Lane,  The  Lady's  Last 


Self-portrait  in  National  Portrait  Gallery 

Stake,  Industry  and  Idleness,  and 
others,  takes  high  position  as  an 
exposition  of  the  life  of  the  day. 


B  Double  Hogback 


Hogback.     Diagram  to  illustrate  the  geological  form  so 
described 


His  popular  portraits  and  inte- 
riors belong  to  quite  another  order. 


Portrait  Gallery,  Windsor  Castle, 
and  Lambeth  Palace.  His  house  at 
Chiswick  was  saved  from  destruc- 
tion by  the  generosity  of  Lt.-Col. 
Shipway,  and  presented  to  the 
Middlesex  County  Council  in  trust 
for  the  public.  By  the  donor's 
courtesy,  representations  of  many 
of  the  artist's  works  have  been 
placed  in  the  rooms,  and  the  house 
in  some  measure  has  been  restored 
to  its  original  condition.  Hogarth 
was  in  the  habit  of  spending  all  the 
summer  at  Chiswick,  and  the  win- 
ter at  his  house  in  Leicester  Fields, 
where  he  died  Oct.  26,  1764.  He 
was  buried  in  Chiswick  churchyard. 
See  Art ;  Caricature  ;  Cockfigh'ting ; 

Fenton,  L.  G.  C,  Williamson 

Bibliography.  The  Genuine  Works 
of  William  Hogarth,  J.  Nichols  and 
G.  Steevens,  1808-17  ;  Works  of 
William  Hogarth,  T.  Clerk,  1810; 
Works  of  William  Hogarth,  W.  C. 
Monkhouse,  1872;  Hogarth,  Austin 
Dobson,  1907  ;  Hogarth's  London, 
H.  B.  Wheatley,  1909. 

Hogback  OB   MONOCLINE    (Gr. 

monos,       alone; 

klinein,  to  incline). 

Land  form  which 
A  S,mple  Hogback   arises     from     ero. 

sion  of  inclined 
strata.  From  the 
ridge  one  slope  is 
the  steep  eroded 
edge  of  the  stra- 
tum which  dips 
beyond  the  ridge 
to  form  the  other 


slope.  The  scarp  face  usually  over- 
looks a  valley,  and  as  erosion 


urns  utuuii^  wi  quite  Muutuer  uruer.      JOOKS  a  vaney,  and  as  erosion  pro- 
They  possess  a  charm  of  composi-     ceeds  the  monoclinal  ridge  shifts 


tion,  colouring,  and  atmosphere 
entirely  their  own,  which  can  never 
be  too  highly  praised.  They  are 
works  of  the  highest  artistic  merit, 
as  portraits  unflinching,  as  works 
of  decoration  charming,  and  in  this 
respect,  as  a  portrait  painter, 
especially  when  those  of  Lord 
Lovat,  Thomas  Coram,  the  artist 
himself,  and  David  Garrick  are 
considered,  Hogarth  has  had  few 
rivals.  Equally  does  he  stand  alone 
in  his  extraordinary  moral  chroni- 
cles, vivid  pictures  of  the  evil  side 
of  English  life  of  the  day,  social  and 
domestic  vices,  attached  at  their 
most  vulnerable  points  by  ridicule. 
He  waged  a  strong  crusade  against 
criminality,  corruption,  hypocrisy, 
and  extravagance,  and  even, 
perhaps,  still  more  strongly  against 
drunkenness  and  cruelty  to  animals. 
Hogarth  became  serjeant  painter 
to  the  king  in  1757.  Several  of  his 
best  pictures  are  at  the  Soane 
Museum  in  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields ; 
others,  including  his  great  portrait 
of  Thomas  Coram,  its  founder,  are 
at  the  Foundling  Hospital;  while 
yet  others  can  be  seen  at  S.  Bartho- 
lomew's Hospital,  Grosvenor  House, 
the  National  Gallery,  the  National 


steadily  away  from  the  valley 
floor.  This  type  of  land  form  arises 
where  resistant  rocks  outcrop  be- 
tween softer  strata  which  are 
carved  into  valleys.  See  Hog's  Back. 
Hogg,  JAMES  (1770-1835).  Scot- 
tish poet,  known  as  the  Ettrick 
Shepherd.  Born  at  Ettrick,  Sel- 
kirkshire, the 
son  of  a  shep- 
herd, he  re- 
ceived a  scanty 
education,  but 
at  the  age  of 
sixteen  a  read- 
ing  of  The 
Gentle  Shep- 
herd by  Allan 
Ramsay  in- 
spired him 
with  the  de- 
sire to  write  poetry.  His  poetical 
leanings  were  further  developed 
by  his  connexion  with  Sir  Walter 
Scott,  to  whom  he  supplied  some  old 
ballads  for  his  Border  Minstrelsy. 
He  did  not  obtain  any  success  until 
1807,  when  a  volume  of  poems  en- 
titled The  Mountain  Bard,  and  a 
practical  treatise  on  the  care  of 
sheep,  brought  him  in  £300,  which 
he  lost  in  unprofitable  farming. 


HOGG 


4O2  1 


HOGMANAY 


The  Queen's  Wake,  1813,  a 
series  of  ballads  supposed  to  have 
been  recited  before  Mary  Queen  of 
Scots  at  a  competition  of  Scottish 
bards,  was  the  first  work  to  bring 
Hogg  something  more  than  a  local 
reputation.  The  Queen's  Wake  is  a 
work  of  real  merit,  with  a  strong 
vein  of  impressive  if  somewhat 
fantastic  imagination.  The  latter 
half  of  Hogg's  life  r. 
was  spent  partly  in  j 
Edinburgh  and 
partly  at  Altrive  in 
Yarrow  .on  a  farm 
of  which  the  duke 
of  Buccleuch  gave 
him  a  life  lease, 
and  where  he  died 
Nov.  21,  1835. 
Hogg  was  a  prolific 
writer  both  in  verse 
and  in  prose. 
Among  his  best 
known  poems  are 
The  Poetic  Mirror, 
Bonny  Kilmeny, 
and  some  fine  lyrics 
such  as  To  the  Skylark,  When  the 
Kye  comes  Hame,  and  Cam'  ye 
by  Atholl  ?  See  Memorials  of  James 
Hogg,  M.  G.  Garden,  1903. 

Hogg,  QUINTIN  (1845-1903). 
British  philanthropist.  The  four- 
teenth child  of  Sir  James  Weir 
Hogg,  and 
brother  of  Sir 
James  Me  - 
Naghten  Mc- 
Garel  Hogg, 
who  became 
1st  Baron  Mag- 
heramorne,  he 
was  born  in 
London,  Feb. 
14,  1845,  and 
educated  at 


of    a    direct    Trans-Sahara    Rly.,     merely  a  yard  where  parts  of  ships, 
which  will  have  to  turn  them  to  the     fabricated!    at    about    100    inland 


E.  or  W.  To  the  N.W.  is  In-Salah, 
occupied  by  the  French  on  Dec.  28, 
1899,  through  or  near  which  the 
Trans-Sahara  Rly.  will  pass. 

Hoghton.  Village  of  Lanca- 
shire, England.  It  lies  between 
Preston  and  Blackburn,  on  the 
L.  &  Y.  Rly.,  and  is  notable  for 


m 

vBHrli 

Quinti  n  Hogg, 

British  philanthropist 

Elliott  &  Fry 

Eton.  In  1882  he  purchased  the 
lease  of  the  Royal  Polytechnic  In- 
stitution, Regent  Street.  He 
opened  it  on  Sept.  25  as  a  suc- 
cessor to  an  earlier  Youths'  Chris- 
tian Institute,  his  object  being  to 
provide  young  men  with  in- 
struction, recreation,  and  social 
intercourse.  Hogg  died  at  the  Poly- 
technic, Jan.  17,  1903.  See  Poly- 
technic :  consult  also  Life,  E.  M. 
Hogg,  1904.  His  eldest  son,  Sir 
Douglas  McGarel  Hogg  was  born 
Feb.  28..  1872.  He  was  called  to 
the  Bar  in  1902,  after  which  he 
became  leading  counsel  in  many 
law  cases.  He  was  elected  con- 
servative M.P.  for  St.  Mary le  bone 
in  1922  and  at  subsequent  elections, 
and  from  Oct.  1922  to  Jan.  1924 
was  attorney-general,  taking  this 
offioe  again  in  Nov.  1924.  .  He  was 
knighted,  1922. 

Hoggar  OR  AHAGGAR.  Moun- 
tainous district  in  the  Sahara,  S.  of 
Algeria.  The  mountains  form  an 
impassable  barrier  across  the  route 


Hoghton,  Lancashire.     Courtyard  of  Hoghton  Tower 


the  seat  of  the  De  Hoghton  family, 
Hoghton  Tower,  originally  built  in 
1565.  On  his  visit  here  in  1617 
James  I  is  said  by  popular  tradi- 
tion to  have  "knighted"  the  loin 
of  beef  (sirloin). 

Hog  Island.  Island  in  the 
Delaware  river  off  the  city  of 
Philadelphia,  U.S.A.,  of  which  it 
forms  a  part.  The  conversion  of  its 
946  acres,  mainly  swamp,  into  a 
shipyard  during  the  Great  War 
broke  all  engineering  records  for 
speed,  and  was  an  important  con- 
tribution of  the  U.S.A.  to  the  fight 
against  U-boat  piracy. 

The  U.S.  Shipping  Board  on 
Sept.  13,  1917,  authorised  the  In- 
ternational Shipbuilding  Corpora- 


plants,  might  be  assembled.  Fifty 
slipways,  stretching  for  1 J  m.  along 
the  river  front,  and  7  fitting-out 
piers,  each  1,000  ft.  long  with  enough 
water  alongside  to  float  vessels  of 
28  ft.  draught,  were  constructed. 

To  serve  the  slipways  82  miles  of 
railway  track  were  laid  and  470 
cranes  were  erected  on  towers, 
into  which  6,000  tons  of  steel  had 
been  built.  140,000  piles  had  to 
be  driven  in  the  course  of  the 
work,  and  3  m.  of  dykes  were 
thrown  up  to  serve  as  an  im- 
pounding basin  for  the  deposit  of 
the  dredgings.  Twenty -seven  ware- 
houses with  a  floor  area  of 
1,700,000  sq.  ft.  were  built,  and 
accommodation  had  to  be  provided 
for  the  33,000  men  employed. 
The  cost  of  the  yard,  which  had 
been  estimated  at  21,000,000  dols., 
worked  out  at  over  60,000,000  dols. 
Hogland  OR  HOCHLAND.  Island 
of  Finland.  It  is  in  the  govt.  of 
Viborg,  in  the  Gulf  of  Finland, 
and  was  at  one  time  joined  to  the 
mainland.  It  is  known  for  a 
vibrating  rock,  which  produces  the 
sounds  of  an  organ. 

Hogmanay  OR  CAKE  DAY. 
Name  used  in  Scotland  and  the 
N.  of  England  for  New  Year's  Eve, 
and  the  gifts  then  bestowed. 
Among  hogmanay  customs  are  the 
exchanging  of  presents  between 
friends,  the  giving  of  oatcakes  to 
children  to  the  cry  of  "  hogmanay," 
and  the  singing  and  acting  of  the 
guisers  or  masquers.  In  London, 
Scotsmen  celebrate  hogmanay 
night  in  S.  Paul's  Churchyard. 
Though  first  recorded  in  Scotland 
in  the  17th  century  the  word,  vari- 
ously spelt  hogmena,  hogmenay, 
hagman  heigh,  is 
.  probably  of  early 
'••  French  origin,  and 
a  corruption  of  the 
old  Fr.  aguitlan- 
neuf,  explained  as 
"  to  the  mistletoe 
the  new  year " 
(nu  gui  /'an  neuf), 
a  term  of  rejoicing 
derived  from  the 
Druids 


tion  to  construct 
at  Hog  Island  a 
shipyard  and  50 
vessels  of  7,500 
tons.  Work  began 
on  Oct.  1,  1917, 
and  the  first  ship, 
the  Questconck, 
was  launched 
Aug.  5, 1918.  Hog 
Island  was  de- 
signed to  be 


Hog  Island,  U.S.A.     Shipbuilding  wharves  at  the  launch 

of  the  Questconck,  Aug.,  1918.     Above,  virgin  land  of 

the  island  as  it  had  appeared  ten  months  earlier 


HOG     PLUM 


HOHENLOHE 


Hog  Plum  (Spondias).  Genus 
of  trees  of  the  natural  order  Ana- 
cardiaceae,  natives  of  the  tropics  of 
both  hemispheres.  The  leaves  are 
divided  into  long,  opposite  leaflets, 
and  the  flowers  are  small  with  four 
or  five  each  of  sepals  and  petals. 
The  fleshy  fruit  is  plum-like  and 


Hog  Plum.   Leaf,,  flowers,  and  fruit 
of  Spondias  dulcis 

contains  four  or  five  seeds.  These 
fruits  vary  in  flavour,  according  to 
species,  and  some  of  them,  though 
palatable  to  natives,  are  not  appre- 
ciated by  strangers.  S.  lutea,  native 
of  the  West  Indies,  is  known  as 
golden  apple  and  Jamaica  plum.  S. 
dulcis,  of  the  Society  Islands,  is  the 
sweet  Otaheite  apple,  with  a  pine- 
apple-like flavour.  The  unripe  fruits 
otS.  mangifera  are  used  as  a  pickle 
in  India. 

Hog's  Back.  Western  termina- 
tion of  the  North  Downs  in  Surrey. 
It  is  so  called  on  account  of  its  out- 
line. It  runs  from  Guildford  to 
Farnham,  about  10  m.  ;  the  height 
of  the  chalk  elevation  is  from  350 
to  500  ft.,  and  its  breadth  at  the 
top  is  about  500  yds.  See  Downs. 

Hog's  Bank.  Name  given  to  a 
long  ridge  W.  of  Longatte,  near 
Bullecourt,  France.  Here  the  sup- 
port brigade  of  the  British  59th 
div.  stemmed  the  German  advance 
towards  Amiens,  March  25,  1918. 
See  Somme,  Battles  of  the. 

Hogshead.  Old  English  mea- 
sure of  liquid  capacity.  In  1483  it 
was  fixed  at  63  wine  galls.,  equal  to 
52£  impl.  galls.,  but  now  it  equals 
54  galls,  for  beer,  cider,  etc.  As  a 
large  cask,  its  capacity  varies  ac- 
cording to  commodity  and  locality, 
as  for  molasses,  sugar,  or  tobacco. 
See  Weights  and  Measures.  » 

Hogue.  British  cruiser,  one  of 
the  three  torpedoed  by  the  German 
submarine  U  9  off  the  Dutch  coast, 
Sept.  22,  1914.  Her  loss  of  life  was 
372  officers  and  men.  Twenty -four 
of  her  crew  were  saved  on  a  raft 
and  taken  to  Holland.  See  Cressy. 

Hohenberg,  SOPHIE,  DUCHESS 
OF  (1868-1914).  Austrian  princess. 
Born  at  Stuttgart  of  noble  parent- 
age, she  married  Archduke  Francis 


Ferdinand  of  Austria  in  1900.  The 
alliance  was  morganatic  and  their 
children,  therefore,  forfeited  the 
right  of  succession  to  the  Austro- 
Hungarian  imperial  throne  to 
which  their  father  was  heir  ap- 
parent. The  duchess  was  driving 
with  her  husband  when  he  was 
assassinated  at  Serajevo,  June  28, 
1914,  and  shared  his  fate.  See 
Francis  Ferdinand ;  Hapsburg. 

Hohenfriedberg,  BATTLE  OF. 
Prussian  victory  over  the  allied 
Austrians  and  Saxons  in  the  war 
of  the  Austrian  Succession,  June 
3,  1745.  Frederick  the  Great, 
whose  army  of  65,000  was  opposed 
to  the  allied  forces  of  Prince  Charles 
of  Lorraine,  70,000  strong,  had 
been  watching  the  advance  of  his 
enemy  upon  Silesia,  and  had  kept 
his  army  concealed.  Seizing  an 
opportunity  of  striking,  during  the 
night  of  June  3.  he  manoeuvred 
his  men  and  guns,  and  at  daybreak 
opened  a  furious  attack  on  the 
enemy  left  wing.  After  two  hours 
of  fighting  the  battle  became 
general,  and  despite  a  stiff  resist- 
ance on  the  part  of  the  Austrians, 
an  irresistible  charge  of  the  Bai- 
reuth  dragoons  finished  the  battle 
with  the  capture  of  2,000  prisoners 
and  66  Austrian  colours. 

Hohenheim.  District  and 
castle  of  Germany.  It  is  6  m.  S.  of 
Stuttgart.  The  castle,  built  1785, 
is  used  as  a  school  of  agriculture, 
with  a  botanical  garden. 

Hohenlinden,  BATTLE  OF. 
French  victory  over  the  Austrians, 
Dec.  3,  1800.  The  Austrian  arch- 
duke John,  in  order  to  cut  off  the 
French  army  under  Moreau,  who 
had  established  himself  N.  of  the 
Inn,  resolved  to  cross  the  Lower 
Inn  and  seize  Munich.  Hampered 
by  bad  weather,  the  Austrians  were 
advancing  through  the  driving 
snow  when,  on  Dec.  3,  Moreau 
launched  an  attack  against  them. 
Ney  and  Grouchy  engaged  the 
van,  while  Richepanse  skilfully 
attacked  the  rear,  and,  thus 
caught  between  two  shears,  the 
Austrian  defence  gave  way.  They 
lost  heavily,  10,000  casualties,  and 
as  many  prisoners,  together  with  a 
hundred  guns.  The  French  losses 
were  little  more  than  5,000. 

Hohenlohe.  Former  princi- 
pality of  Germany,  consisting 
mainly  of  the  Jagst  kreis  of 
Wiirttemberg.  It  lies  to  the  E.  of 
Heilbronn  on  the  Bavarian  frontier, 
and  was  mediatised  in  1807.  The 
family  of  Hohenlohe,  which  traces 
its  descent  from  the  12th  century, 
was  divided  into  two  lines,  Hohen- 
lohe-Neuenstein,  and  Hohenlohe- 
Waldenburg,  in  1551,  and  has 
produced  several  soldiers  and 
statesmen,  two  of  whom,  Prince 
Friedrich  Ludwig  of  Hohenlohe- 


Ingelfingen,  and  Prince  Chlodwig 
of  Hohenlohe-Schillingsfiirst,  are 
mentioned  in  separate  articles. 

Another  prominent  member  of 
the  family  was  Prince  Kraft'  of  Ho- 
henlohe-Ingelfingen  (1827-92),  an 
artillery  officer,  some  of  whose 
works  on  military  subjects  were  of 
importance.  Prince  Alexander  of 
Hohenlohe- Waldenburg-Schillings- 
fiirst  (1794-1849)  entered  the 
Church  and  became  known  as  a 
worker  of  miraculous  cures,  in 
connexion  with  which  he  en- 
countered the  opposition  of  the 
civil  authorities.  Prince  Gustav  of 
Hohenlohe-Schillingsfiirst  ( 1 823- 
96),  a  brother  of  Prince  Chlodwig, 
was  another  eminent  Churchman 
who  became  a  cardinal  in  1866  and 
took  an  active  part  in  opposing  the 
Kulturkampf  (q.v.). 

Hohenlohe  -  Ingelfingen, 
FRIEDRICH  LUDWIG,  PRINCE  OF 
(1746-1818).  Prussian  general. 
Born  at  Ingelfingen,  Wiirttemberg, 
Jan.  31,  1746,  he  saw  service 
against  the  Prussians  during  the 
Seven  Years'  War.  After  this  he 
entered  the  Prussian  army,  rising 
to  high  command  by  1794,  when 
he  beat  the  French  at  Kaisers- 
lautern  as  a  corps  commander.  In 
1806,  however,  he  was  defeated  by 
Napoleon  at  Jena  (Oct.  14),  and, 
despite  personal  gallantry,  was 
forced  to  surrender  at  Prenzlau  with 
17,000  men  on  Oct.  28.  He  died 
near  Kosel,  Silesia,  Feb.  15,  1818. 
Hohenlohe  -  Schillingsfiirst, 
CHLODWIG  KARL  VICTOR,  PRINCE 
OF  (1819-1901).  German  states- 
man. Bom  at 
Rotenburg,  on 
the  Fulda,  in 
Hesse,  March 
31,  1819,  of  the 
junior  branch 
of  the  family, 
he  entered  the 
diplomatic  ser- 
vice after  some 
years  of  pre- 
liminary train- 
ing as  a  civil 
servant.  From 
1866-70  he  was  Bavarian  minister 
for  foreign  affairs  and  head  of  the 
government,  in  which  latter  capa- 
city he  played  an  important  part 
in  assisting  Bismarck  to  bring 
about  the  union  of  N.  and  S.  Ger- 
many. In  1874  he  went  as  German 
ambassador  to  Paris,  and  was  one 
of  Germany's  representatives  at 
the  Berlin  Congress  of  1878.  From 
1885-94  he  was  governor  of  Alsace- 
Lorraine,  leaving  Strasbourg  only 
to  take  the  important  post  of  im- 
perial chancellor  in  place  of  Von 
Caprivi.  Most  of  his  work  as  chan- 
cellor was  done  behind  the  scenes, 
but  he  was  a  steady  supporter  of 
Bismarck's  policy,  and  remained 


Prince  Hohenlohe- 
Schillingsfiirst, 
German  statesman 


HOHENMAUTH 


4023 


HOME     TAUERN 


the  emperor's  chief  adviser  until 
Oct.,  1900.  He  died  at  Ragatz, 
Switzerland,  July  6,  1901.  The 
publication  of  his  Memoirs  in  1906 
caused  a  sensation  by  their  candour 
in  certain  directions.  See  Berlin, 
Congress  of ;  consult  Memoirs,  Eng. 
trans.  G.  W.  Chrystal,  1906. 

Hohenmauth.  Town  and  dist., 
formerly  in  the  Bohemian  prov.  of 
the  Austrian  empire,  now  known 
as  My  to  Vysoke  (q.v.). 

Hohenschwangau.  Village 
and  castle  of  Germany,  in  Bavaria. 
It  lies  3  m.  S.E.  of  Fiissen,  at  the 
W.  end  of  the  Ammer  Gebirge. 
The  castle  belonged  to  the  Guelph 
family  until  1567,  when  it  passed 
to  the  dukes  of  Bavaria,  after- 
wards becoming  a  royal  residence. 

Hohenstaufen.  Name  of  a 
famous  German  family,  members 
of  which  were  rulers  of  the  medieval 
empire  from  1138-1254.  The  name 
is  taken  from  a  hill  near  Lorsch, 
in  Wiirttemberg,  on  which  the  early 
Hohenstaufens  had  their  castle, 
some  remains  of  which  still  exist. 

The  family  first  became  promin- 
ent in  the  llth  century,  towards 
the  end  of  which  one  of  them  was 
made  duke  of  Swabia.  This  gave 
them  an  added  importance  in  Ger- 
many, especially  in  the  time  when 
Henry  V  was  emperor.  Frederick 
and  Conrad  of  Hohenstaufen  were 
his  nephews,  and  when  he  died,  in 
1125,  Frederick,  his  heir,  just 
failed  to  secure  his  throne.  In 
1138,  however,  Conrad  was  chosen 
German  king.  Frederick  I  Bar- 
barossa  succeeded  him  in  1152, 
and  then  came  Henry  VI  in  1190. 
After  a  period  of  decline  the 
position  of  the  Hohenstaufens  was 
restored  by  Frederick  II,  but  when 
his  grandson  Conradin  was  put  to 
death  in  1268  the  male  line  became 
extinct.  See  Empire;  Frederick  I; 
Frederick  II. 

Hohenstein-Ernstthal.  Town 
of  Germany,  in  Saxony.  It  stands 
10  m.  W.  of  Chemnitz.  It  is 
chiefly  occupied  with  textiles, 
knitting,  etc.  Pop.  15,776. 

Hohenzollern.  Name  of  the 
family  that  supplied  kings  to 
Prussia  from  1701  to  1918  and 
German  emperors 
from  1871  to 
1918.  The  family 
was  first  heard  of 
in  S.  Germany, 
its  earliest  mem- 
bers being  nobles 
who  called  them- 
selves counts  of 
Zollern,  the  hill  on 
which  their  castle  stood.  This  is 
about  2  m.  from  Hechingen,  which 
is  30  m.  from  Stuttgart,  and  was 
known  as  Hohen  or  High  Zollern. 
The  castle,  of  which  some  ruins 
remain,  is  said  to  have  been  built 


in  the  9th  century,  but  the  first 
authoritative  mention  of  its  counts 
is  in  the  llth.  The  existing  castle 
on  the  hill  was  built  by  Frederick 
William  IV  (1795-1862). 

Frederick  was  always  a  favourite 
name  in  this  family,  and  in  the 
12th  century  two  Fredericks, 
father  and  son,  were  very  useful 
to  the  German  kings  of  their  time. 
A  third  Frederick  further  in- 
creased the  importance  of  the 
family  by  a  marriage  which  made 
him  burgrave  of  Nuremberg. 

In  1227  the  family  lands  were 
divided,  and  two  main  branches  of 
the  Hohenzollerns  came  into  exist- 
ence. The  elder  kept  Zollern  and 
the  lands  there,  and  was  known  as 
the  Swabian  :  the  younger  supplied 


Hohenzollern 
piovince  arms 


Honenstamen.       View  o*  iue  Wuruemoeig  lull  on  which 
formerly  stood  the  castle  of  the  famous  family 


burgraves  to  Nuremberg,  and,  as 
that  city  was  in  Franconia,  was 
known  as  the  Franconian.  The 
Franconian  Hohenzollerns  were  the 
more  ambitious.  One  Frederick, 
burgrave  of  Nuremberg,  obtained 
the  principality  of  Baireuth,  and 
both  he  and  his  father,  another 
Frederick,  had  much  to  do  with 
the  affairs  of  Germany  in  the  trou- 
bled 13th  century  The  younger 
Frederick,  for  instance,  in  1273, 
helped  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg  to 
secure  the  throne  so  long  held  by 
his  descendants.  His  son,  another 
Frederick,  obtained  Ansbach,  and 
rendered  invaluable  service  to 
Louis  IV.  A  later  Frederick  was 
^made  a  prince  of  the  empire  in  1363. 
In  1415  the  European  import- 
ance of  the  Hohenzollerns  began. 
Brandenburg  was  without  a  ruler, 
and  the  emperor  Sigismund  gave 
it  to  his  friend,  Frederick  of  Hohen- 
zollern, who  became  its  margrave 
and  one  of  the  seven  electors.  This 
shifted  the  power  of  the  Hohen- 
zollerns from  S.*to  N.  Germany, 
and  henceforward  they  were  iden- 
tified closely  with  Brandenburg. 
Under  their  rule  its  area  and 
wealth  were  increased,  the  most 


liam,  under  whom  it  became  a 
European  power.  In  1700  his  son 
Frederick  became  king  of  Prussia; 
and  this  title  superseded  the  earlier 
one.  The  family  reached  the  sum- 
mit of  its  greatness  when  William  I 
was  crowned  German  emperor  in 
1871.  Ansbach  and  Baireuth  served 
meanwhile  as  inheritances  for 
younger  sons  until,  in  1791,  they 
were  sold  to  the  king  of  Prussia. 

All  this  time  the  Swabian 
Hohenzollerns  continued  to  rule 
their  lands  in  comparative  ob- 
scurity. The  emperor  Charles  V 
befriended  them,  and  they  soon 
formed  the  lines  Hohenzollern- 
Hechingen  and  Hohenzollern-Sig- 
maringen.  Both  rulers  were  princes 
of  the  empire,  and  the}7  maintained 
their  little  courts 
— 1  until  1848.  Then 
j  they  resigned  their 
I  thrones  and  their 
j  territories  became 
the  property  of  the 
king  of  Prussia,  ac- 
cording to  an  ar- 
rangement made 
in  1695.  The  land 
was  formed  into 
the  prov.  of 
Hohenzollern,  and 
was  part  of  Prussia 
until  the  revolu- 
tion of  1918.  These 
Swabian  Hohen- 
zollerns took  their 
places  as  younger 
members  of  the 
house.  One  of  them,  Leopold,  was 
suggested  as  king  of  Spain  in  1870, 
and  another,  Charles,  became  king 
of  Rumania  in  1881.  The  revolution 
of  1918  reduced  all  the  Hohenzol- 
lerns, except  the  king  of  Rumania, 
to  the  position  of  private  individu- 
als. See  Germany;  Prussia;  William 
II ;  consult  also  The  House  of 
Hohenzollern,  E.  A.  B.  Hodgetts, 
1911.  A.  W.  Holland 

Hohenzollern  Redoubt.  Name 
given  to  an  intricate  trench  for- 
tress in  the  German  first  line  at 
the  battle  of  Loos,  1915.  It  lay 
about  4J  m.  N.  of  the  village  of 
Loos,  in  the  dept.  of  Pas-de-Calais. 
It  was  pear-shaped,  with  its  broad 
end  pointing  N.,  and  had  a  frontage 
of  500  yds.  See  Loos,  Battle  of. 

Hohe  Tauern.  Range  of  mts. 
in  the  Austrian  Tirol.  It  trends 
from  W.  to  E.,  to  the  S.  of  Salz- 
burg, between  the  Pinzgau  and  the 
Puster  Thai.  The  highest  peaks 
are  the  Gross  Glockner  (12,460 
ft.)  and  the  Gross  Venediger 
(12,000  ft.).  The  range,  which  is 
continued  W.  by  the  ZillerthaJ 
Alps  and  E.  by  the  Niedere 
Tauern,  is  crossed  by  no  road,  but 
the  rly.  from  Salzburg  to  Carinthia 


vigorous    of    them    being    perhaps     and  the  S.  passes  it  by  means  of  a 
the   great   elector   Frederick    Wil-     series  of  tunnels. 


HOIHAU 


4024 


HOLBEIN 


Hoihau.  Port  of  Kiungchow, 
the  capital  of  the  Chinese  adminis- 
trative district  of  Kiungchow,  which 
comprises  Hainan  Island,  off  the  S. 
coast  of  China.  Hoihau  is  a  walled 
town  which  owes  its  importance  to 
the  opening  of  Kiungchow  as  a 
treaty  port.  Here  are  the  foreign 
consulates  and  the  customs  station. 
The  name  means  seaport.  Pop. 
25,000. 

Hokitika.  Capital  of  Westland, 
South  Island  of  New  Zealand.  It 
is  a  centre  of  gold -mining,  and  has 
rly.  communication  with  Grey- 
mouth,  and  thence  via  Otira 
across  the  island.  Gold  was  dis- 
covered in  the  sands  on  the  shore 
there  in  1865.  Nearly  £1,500,000 
was  produced  within  a  year,  but 
gold-mining  is  now  only  a  small 
industry,  since  it  has  not  been 
possible  to  discover  the  auri- 
ferous rocks  in  the  Southern  Alps 
whence  the  alluvial  gold  origin- 
ated. Pop.  2,090. 

Hokkaido.  Term  applied  to  a 
northern  section  of  Japan,  that 
includes  Yezo  and  the  Kurile 
Islands  (q.v.).  Yezo,  to  which  the 
name  Hokkaido  is  frequently 
loosely  applied,  has  an  area  of 
30,500  sq.  m.,  and  is  separated  from 
Sakhalin  (Karafuto)  by  Soya  Strait, 
and  from  Honshu,  the  Japanese 
mainland,  by  Tsugaru  Strait. 

In  general  the  shape  of  Yezo  is 
due  to  the  lie  of  the  mountain 
ranges  of  the  interior,  for  the  land 
usually  rises  somewhat  rapidly 
from  the  coast.  The  central  block 
of  mountains,  with  many  peaks 
above  a  mile  high,  culminates 
in  Wutakkamushpa  (7,300  ft.); 
from  it  ridges  radiate  to  the  N., 
W,  and  S. ;  W.  of  the  W.  and  S. 
ridges  lie  the  valleys  of  the  two 
largest  rivers,  Teshio  and  Ishikari, 
with  a  coastal  ridge  W.  of  the 
valleys.  W.  and  S.  of  Sapporo, 
ridges  form  a  backbone  as  far  as 
Hakodate,  the  highest  point  being 
Makkarinupuri  (6,500  ft.),  a  grace- 
ful tree-clad  cone,  with  a  crater 
2  m.  in  circumference.  Tarumae, 
to  the  E.  of  Makkarinupuri,  is  an 
active  volcano,  and  the  majority 
of  the  peaks  are  extinct  craters  ; 
between  Tarumae  and  Mororan  is 
the  hot  spring  and  geyser  district 
of  Noboribetsu. 

The  main  rly.  line  is  from  Hako- 
date to  Kushiro  through  Otaru, 
Sapporo,  and  Asahigawa ;  there 
are  branches  to  the  coast  at 
Iwanai,  Mororan,  Rumoi,  and 
Abashiri,  and  a  N.  branch  towards 
Soya  Strait  which  has  reached 
Otoineppu.  From  Kushiro  the  line 
will  go  to  Nemuro,  the  port  for  the 
Kuriles.  Ferry  services  are  main- 
tained from  Hakodate  and  Mo- 
roran to  Aomori  in* Honshu;  the 
main  steamship  service  is  from 


Otaru  and  Hakodate  to  Kobe. 
Sapporo,  a  new  town  laid  out  in 
1869,  is  the  capital,  and  Hakodate  is 
the  chief  port :  Otaru  and  Mororan 
export  coal  from  the  Yubari  and 
smaller  coalfields.  Mororan  has  a 
steel  foundry,  but  fishing,  lumber- 
ing, and  mining  are  the  principal 
industries. 

Tsugaru  Strait  is  a  deep  channel 
which  separates  the  flora  and  fauna 
of  Yezo  from  those  of  Honshu  ;  the 
grizzly  bear  of  Yezo  is  not  found 
in  Honshu ;  the  red  pine  of 
Honshu  does  not  occur  in  Yezo. 
The  climate  is  severe  ;  the  winter 
is  long,  and  much  snow  falls,  and 
lies  on  the  ground  for  six  months, 
and  the  shores  are  icebound  for  a 
long  period.  There  is  very  little 
agriculture  as  the  soil  is  unsuit- 
able, but  farming  in  a  small  way 
is  carried  on.  Salmon  is  canned  at 
Ishikari,  and  brewing  is  engaged  in 
at  Sapporo,  where  there  are  paper 
mills  and  glass  works.  The  chief 
exports  are  canned  salmon,  dried 
fish  roe,  salt,  sulphur,  and  fish  oil. 
Pop.  1,459,424,  including  about 
20,000  Ainus.  See  Japan. 

Hokusai(  1760-1 849).  Japanese 
painter.  Bom  at  Yeddo,  he  studied 
under  the  elder  Shonsho,  whose 
popular  style  he  closely  followed 
at  first.  He  is  known  as  the 
creator  of  popular  Japanese  genre, 
landscapes,  flower  paintings,  etc.  ; 
his  kakemonos  have  been  eagerly 
sought  by  Western  connoisseurs, 
though  his  own  countrymen  have 
never  regarded  him  as  an  artist  of 
the  first  rank.  He 
died  at  Yeddo. 

Holbach,  PAUL 
HENRI  THYRY 
(PAUL  HEINRICH 
DIETRICH),  BARON 
D'  (1723-89). 
French  material- 
istic philosopher. 
Born  at  Hilde- 
sheim  in  the 
Palatinate,  he  was 
brought  up  in 
Paris.  Here  he 
gathered  round 
him  distinguished 
men  and  philoso- 
phers —  d'Alem- 
bert,  Helvetius, 
Diderot,  Grimm. 
His  ideal  was 
entire  political 
and  religious 
liberty.  His  Sys- 
tem of  Nature,  the 
bible  of  material-- 
ism, published 
under  the  pseu- 
donym of  Mira- 
b  a  u  d,  disturbed 
by  its  outspoken 
ness  even  Fred- 
erick the  Great 


and  Voltaire,  and  terrified  Goethe. 
According  to  Holbach,  mind  and 
matter,  morality  and  natural 
philosophy,  are  identical ;  matter 
and  movement,  its  inseparable 
companion,  alone  exist.  All  re- 
ligions are  equally  harmful  and 
unnecessary.  Holbach  died  in 
Paris,  Jan.  21,  1789.  Pron.  Olbak. 

Holbeach.  Urban  dist.  and 
market  town  of  Lincolnshire,  Eng- 
land. It  is  8  m.  E.  of  Spalding,  on 
the  M.  and  G.N.  Jt.  Rly.  All 
Saints'  Church  is  a  fine  example  of 
the  Late  Decorated  style,  and  the 
grammar  school  dates  from  ](>(>!). 
Roman  remains  have  been  ex- 
cavated. Holbeach  Marsh,  be- 
tween the  town  and  the  Wash,  has 
been  reclaimed  from  the  sea. 
Market  day,  Thurs.  A  state  colony 
for  ex-service  men  was  established 
here  in  1917.  Pop.  5,260. 

Holbeck.  Parish  of  W.R.  York- 
shire. England,  within  the  borough 
of  Leeds.  It  stands  on  the  S.  bank 
of  the  Aire,  with  stations  on  the 
Mid.  and  G.N.  Rlys.  See  Leeds. 

Holbein,  HANS  (c.  1460-1524). 
German  painter.  Born  probably  at 
Augsburg,  Bavaria,  he  was  in- 
fluenced by,  and  possibly  studied 
under,  Martin  Schongauer  at 
Colmar.  Until  1514  his  home  was 
Augsburg,  but  he  was  at  Ulm  in 
1499  and  Frankfort  in  1501,  and 
died  at  Isenheim.  Several  of  his 
religious  compositions  are  at  Augs- 
burg. He  was  called  the  elder  to 
distinguish  him  from  his  son,  Hans 
Holbein  the  younger. 


Hokusai. 


An  illustration  by  the  Japanese  artist  to  a 
romance,  drawn  about  1795 


HOLBEIN 


4O25 


HOLBERG 


Holbein,  HANS  (c.  1497-1543). 
German  painter  and  engraver. 
Born  at.  Augsburg,  he  was  the  son 
of  Hans  Holbein  the  elder,  and 
brother  of  Ambrose  and  Sigmund 
Holbein,  also  painters,  the  former 
specially  known  as  a  designer  for 
work  in  wood  engraving.  When  the 
home  at  Augsburg  was  broken  up 
in  1514,  Holbein  went  to  Basel, 
where  he  employed  himself  in  pre- 
paring designs  for  title-pages  and 
illustrations  for  the  great  printing 
firms.  His  earliest  surviving  paint- 
ing, representing  the  Virgin  and 
Child,  was  executed  in  the  same 
year.  In  1517  he  carried  out  some 
wall  decoration  at  Lucerne,  but 
was  back  again  in  Basel  in  1521,  to 
which  year  belongs  his  decoration 
of  the  Rathaus.  His  two  greatest 
religious  pictures,  each  of  them  re- 
presenting the  Madonna  and  Child, 
belong  to  1522  and  1526.  The 
former  is  at  Solo th urn  ;  the  latter, 
now  at  Darmstadt,  is  one  of  his 
grandest  compositions. 

Holbein  first  came  to  England  in 
1526,  bearing  letters  of  introduc- 
tion to  Sir  Thomas  More,  who  re- 
ceived him  with  great  considera- 
tion, and  entertained  him  at  his 
house.  Then  it  was  that  he  made 
the  various  sketches  and  studies 
for  the  important  group  represent- 
ing Sir  Thomas  More  and  his 
family,  which  appears  to  be  no 
longer  in  existence.  Two  years 
later  he  was  back  again  in  Basel, 
and  there  carried  out  some  impor- 
tant commissions.  He  remained 
there  for  three  years,  returning 
then  to  England,  where  he  settled 
down.  One  of  the  greatest  portraits 
of  this  period  was  that  of  Thomas 
Cromwell,  and  it  was  probably  the 
then  Master  of  the  Jewel  House 
who  presented  Holbein  to  Henry 
VIII,  for  whom  at  once  he  became 
principal  painter.  To  this  same 
period  belongs  the  portion  of  the 
cartoon  for  the  decoration  of  the 
Palace  of  Whitehall,  now  pre- 
served as  one  of  the  principal  trea- 
sures of  the  duke  of  Devonshire. 
Holbein's  pre-eminently  important 
portrait  of  Christina  duchess  of 
Milan,  now  in  the  National  Gallery, 
was  painted  in  1538,  and  soon  after 
its  completion  he  was  back  again, 
and  for  the  last  time,  in  Basel.  He 
then  returned  to  England,  but  was 
quickly  sent  abroad  to  paint  the 
portrait  of  Anne  of  Cleves.  Re- 
turning again  to  England  shortly 
afterwards,  he  resided  in  the  par- 
ish of  St.  Andrew's  Undershaf  t,  Lon- 
don, where,  according  to  his  will 
discovered  in  1861,  he  died,  pro- 
bably of  the  plague,  Oct.-Nov.,  1543, 
not,  as  formerly  supposed,  in  1554. 

Holbein  was  a  marvellous 
draughtsman,  and  his  designs  for 
woodcuts,  and  for  decoration,  and 


Hans  Holbein, 
German  painter 

After  a  self-  portrait 


for  objects  to  be  executed  by  the 
goldsmith,  are  of  the  greatest  pos- 
sible beauty, 
excels  in  sim- 
plicity and  in 
accuracy.  The 
famous  studies 
preserved  a  t 
Windsor  Cas- 
tle, and  repre- 
s  e  n  t  i  n  g  the 
chief  persons 
connected  with 
the  court  of 
Henry  VIII, 
are  unequalled 
for  the  extraordinary  simplicity 
with  which  they  present  the  true 
portraiture.  They  are  perhaps  the 
simplest  and  most  truthful  por- 
traits ever  executed,  and  done 
with  a  rigid  economy  of  line. 

Holbein  was  perhaps  the  first 
man  in  England  to  paint  what  are 
now  known  as  portrait  miniatures, 
and  the  few  which  can  be  definitely 
attributed  to  him  are  marked  by 
subtle  delineation  of  character  and 
exquisite  draughtsmanship.  His 
greatest  paintings  in  England  are 
those  in  the  National  Gallery,  at 
Windsor  Castle,  Longford  Castle, 
and  Lambeth  Palace,  but  some  of 
his  finest  portraits  can  be  seen  at 
The  Hague,  in  Berlin,  Vienna,  Paris, 
Munich,  and  Basel.  His  most  not- 
able miniatures  are  in  the  posses 
sion  of  the  queen  of  Holland,  the 
duke  of  Buccleuch,  and  J.  P.  Mor- 
gan of  New  York.  Examples  of 
his  earlier  work  can  be  studied  at 
Basel.  See  Anne  Boleyn;  Anne 
of  Cleves ;  Art ;  Berners,  Baron ; 
Dance  of  Death;  Elyot,  Sir  T. ; 
Painting.  a.  c.  Williamson 

Bibliography.  Life  and  Works  of 
H.  Holbein.  R.  N.  Wornum,  1867; 
Holbein,  H.  Knackfuss,  1899  :  Hans 
Holbein  the  Younger,  G.  S.  Davies, 
1903;  Hans  Holbein  the  Younger, 
A.  B.  Chamberlain,  1913.  Consult 
also  the  works  of  E.  La.w  on  the 
Paintings  at  Hampton  Court  Palace; 
Hanfstangels  reproductions  of  the 
Windsor  Castle  Studies  ;  and  the 
reproductions  of  Holbein's  designs 
tor  woodcuts  in  various  works. 

Holbein,  MONTAGUE  A.  British 
cyclist  and  swimmer.  In  1882  he 
rode  100  m.  on  a  safety  bicycle  in 
5  hrs.  54  mins. 
2  sees.;  in  1889 
he  covered 
175J  m.,  and  in 
1890,  177J  m. 
in  12  hrs.  In  24 
hours  in  1892  he 
accomplished 
359  m.  ;  while 
he  did  100  m. 
on  a  tricycle 
the  same  year 
in  5  hrs.  54  mins.  44  sees.,  and  337 
m.  in  24  hrs.  Holbein  became 
equally  famous  as  a  long  distance 


Montague  Holbein, 
British  athlete 


swimmer,  principally  in  connexion 
with  his  nine  unsuccessful  attempts 
to  swim  the  Channel. 

On  Aug.  27,  1903,  starting  from 
Cape  Gris  Nez,  he  got  within  a  mile 
of  the  English  shore,  when  he  had 
to  be  taken  out  of  the  water  after 
swimming  for  22  hrs.  21  mins  On 
June  30, 1908,  he  swam  50  m.  in  the 
Thames  in  13  hrs.  47  mins.  ;  start- 
ing from  Blackwall  Point  to 
Gravesend  Reach,  returning  up 
stream  to  Deptford  and  landing  at 
Woolwich  Arsenal  pier.  Holbein 
continued  his  Channel  attempts 
until  1911,  the  year  T.  W.  Burgess 
accomplished  the  feat.  He  was  the 
author  of  Swimming,  1903,  and 
Everybody's  Book  on  Training  and 
Health  Development,  1904. 

Holberg,  LTTDVIG,  BARON  AF 
(1684-1754).  Danish  writer.  Bora 
at  Bergen,  Norway,  on  Dec.  3, 1684, 
he  was  educated  there  and  at 
Copenhagen  University.  He  tra- 
velled widely  in  Germany,  Holland, 
and  Scandinavia,  and,  coming  to 
England,  spent  over  a  year  in 
Oxford.  1706-7,  where  he  sup- 
ported himself 
by  teaching 
music.  Re- 
turning to 
Copenhagen,  he 
became  an 
honorary  pro- 
fessor at  the 
university,  but 
set  out  travel- 
ling again,  visit- 
ing Paris  and 
Rome.  He  came 

back  in  1716,  and  two  years  later 
became  professor  of  metaphysics, 
and,  in  1720,  of  public  eloquence. 

In  1719  a  new  chapter  of  his 
varied  life  opened  with  the  publica- 
tion of  the  famous  mock-heroic 
poem,  Peder  Paars,  a  brilliant  satire 
on  the  pedantries  and  conventions 
of  his  day,  and  he  went  on  to 
devote  his  energies  to  the  drama. 
He  directed  the  newly  founded 
Danish  theatre  at  Copenhagen 
from  1722-27,  producing  in  rapid 
succession  a  large  number  of  come- 
dies, which  have  earned  for  him  the 
title  of  the  "  Moliere  of  Denmark." 
The  third  phase  of  Hoi  berg's  life 
was  spent  in  producing  a  large 
variety  of  liistorical,  biographical, 
and  philosophical  works,  marked 
by  their  good  style  no  less  than  by 
the  extraordinary  versatility  of 
their  author.  In  recognition  of  his 
invaluable  services  to  Danish  ver- 
nacular literature  of  which  he  is 
generally  counted  as  the  founder, 
he  was  created  baron  in  1747.  His 
activity  continued  almost  to  lii.>- 
death,  which  occurred  at  Copen 
hagen,  Jan.  28.  1754.  See  Den- 
mark :  Literature ;  consult  also 
Life,  Georg  Brandes,  1884 


Ludvig  Holberg, 
Danish  writer 


HOLBORN 


4026 


HOLDEN 


Holborn  borough 
arms 


Holborn.  Parl.  and  mun.  bor. 
and  district  of  London.  The  bor. 
covers  405  acres  and  extends  from 
Tottenham  Court 
Road  on  the  W. 
to  Far  ringdon 
Road,  E.,  mainly 
N.  of  New  Ox- 
ford Street  and 
High  Holborn. 
Near  Staple  Inn 
two  obelisks 
mark  the  site  of 
Holborn  Bars,  destroyed  in  1867, 
indicating  the  W.  boundary  of  the 
city.  The  main  road  formed  part 
of  the  old  way  from  the  Tower  and 
Newgate  to  Tyburn. 

The  district  includes  the  British 
and  Soane  Museums,  Lincoln's 
Inn,  Gray's  Inn,  Staple  Inn,  the 
sites  of  Barnard's  Inn  (since  1894 
occupied  by  the  Mercers'  schools), 
Furnival's  Inn,  and  Thavie's  Inn ; 
the  churches  of  S.  Alban  (1858), 
S.  Andrew  (1686),  S.  George, 
Bloomsbury  (1731),  S.  Giles-in- 
the-Fields  (1731-33),  and  the  14th 
century  chapel  of  S.  Etheldreda ; 
the  famous  Hospital  for  Sick  Chil- 
dren ;  Bedford,  Russell,  Queen, 
and  Red  Lion  Squares ;  Hatton 
Garden  and  Saffron  Hill :  and 


Holbrook,  NORMAN  DOUGLAS 
(b.  1884).  British  sailor.  In  the 
submarine  branch  he  served  in  the 
Mediterranean 
in  the  early 
days  of  the 
Great  War, 
and  on  Dec. 
13,  1914,  com- 
manding sub- 
marine B  11, 
he  dived  be- 
neath five  rows 


Holborn,  London.     Old  houses  at  Staple  Inn,  dating  from 
Elizabethan  days,  restored  in  1886 


stations  on  the  S.E.  &  C.R.  and  two 
tube  rlys.  The  council  has  hand- 
some buildings  in  High  Holborn, 
which  in  1908  took  the  place  of  the 
town  hall  in  Gray's  Inn  Road,  now 
a  Primitive  Methodist  centre. 

Holborn  Viaduct,  1,400  ft.  long 
and  80  ft.  wide,  including  an  iron 
bridge  of  107  ft.,  was  constructed 
in  1867-69,  at  a  cost  of  £1,571,000, 
to  carry  the  roadway  over  the 
valley  of  the  Holebourne,  part  of 
the  Fleet  (q.v. ),  whence  Holborn 
derives  its  name.  On  the  viaduct 
is  the  City  Temple  (q.v. ).  Holborn, 
which  had  as  its  first  mayor,  in 
1900,  the  llth  duke  of  Bedford, 
contains  many  large  business 
premises ;  it  returns  one  member  to 
Parliament.  Pop.  pf  bor.  42,796. 
See  Farringdon  Street,  London. 


and  torpedoed 
the  Turkish  battleship  Messudiyeh. 
Pursued  by  heavy  gunfire  and 
chased  by  torpedo  boats,  he  re- 
turned safely,  having  on  one  occa- 
sion been  submerged  nine  hours. 
For  this  action  he  was  awarded  the 
Victoria  Cross,  the  first  awarded  to 
the  Navy  in  the  Great  War. 

Holbrooke,  JOSEF  CHARLES 
(b.  1878).  British  composer.  Bora 
at  Croydon,  July  6,  1878,  he 
studied  at  the  Royal  Academy  of 
Music,  and  became  a  pianist  and 
then  a  conductor.  In  1901  he  pro- 
duced his  tone  poem  The  Raven, 
and  during  the  next  fifteen  years 
wrote  a  vast  number  of  popular 
musical  works. 
|  These  included 
five  operas,  more 
than  a  hundred 
songs,  and  much 
chamber  and  or- 
chestral music.  He 
is  a  composer  of 
distinctly  modern 
tendencies,  which 
have  been  re- 
vealed chiefly 
through  the  me- 
dium of  the 
orchestra. 

H  olcr  of  t, 
THOMAS  (1745- 
1809).  English 
dramatist  and 
novelist.  He  was 
born  in  Orange  Court,  Leicester 
Fields,  London,  Dec.  10,  1745, 
the  son  of  a  shoemaker  and  job- 
master. After  a  chequered  early 


life,  at  one  period  of  which  he 
had  a  situation  in  the  household 
of  Granville  Sharp,  he  became 
connected  with 
the  stage,  and 
his  first  novel, 
Alwyn,  or  the 
G  e  ntlem  an 
Comedian, 
1780,  embod- 
ies many  of 
his  own  ex- 
periences. In 


Thomas  Holcroit, 
English  dramatist 


the  following 
year  appeared 
his  first  play,  Duplicity.  He  wrote 
four  novels  in  all,  and  wrote,  trans- 
lated, or  adapted  some  thirty  plays. 
The  most  notable  of  the  latter  is 
The  Road  to  Ruin,  1792.  He  died 
in  London,  March  23,  1809.  , 

Hoi  da.  Goddess  of  Teutonic 
mythology.  Represented  as  benig- 
nant and  merciful,  she  is  a  familiar 
figure  in  German  popular  legends 
and  nursery  tales.  She  is  regarded 
as  a  being  of  the  sky,  and  when  it 
snows  is  said  to  be  making  her  bed 
so  that  the  feathers  fly.  She  drives 
about  in  a  wagon,  and  is  the  god- 
dess of  spinning,  of  agriculture, 
and  household  order. 

Holden,  SIR  EDWARD  HOPKIN- 
SON  (1848-1919).  British  banker. 
Born  in  Manchester,  May  11,  1848, 

he  entered  the    

Manchester 
County  Bank 
as  a  junior 
clerk  in  1866. 
Havingstudied 
economics 
at  Owens  Col- 
lege, in  1881  he 
became  ac- 
countant to  the 
Birmingham 
and  Midland 


Sir  Edward  Holden, 
British  banker 


Holborn  Viaduct,  London,  constructed 
in  1867-69 


Elliott  &  Fry 

Bank,  and,  rising  rapidly,  became 
general  manager.  In  1891  his  Bir- 
mingham banktookover  theCentral 
Bank  of  London.  In  1898  the  City 
Bank  was  absorbed,  and  it  became 
known  as  the  London,  City  and 
Midland  Bank  (q.v.) ;  of  this  or- 
ganization Holden  was  made  man- 
aging director,  and  later  chairman 
of  the  board  in  addition,  and  to 
the  end  he  was  the  guiding  spirit 
of  the  huge  concern. 

One  after  another  other  banks 
were  taken  over,  until  in  1918  the 
London  Joint  Stock  Bank  was  in- 
corporated, and  the  organization 
became  the  largest  in  the  country. 
From  1906  to  1910  Holden  was 
M.P.  for  the  Heywood  division  of 
Lancashire,  but  made  little  mark 
in  the  House.  In  his  later  years, 
however,  he  was  the  leading  figure 
in  the  banking  world  of  London, 
and  his  annual  addresses  to  the 
shareholders,  wide  and  careful 
surveys  of  the  general  financial  and 


HOLDEN 


4O27 


HOLINSHED 


economic  conditions,  were  read 
with  universal  interest.  In  1909 
he  was  made  a  baronet.  He  died 
July  23,  1919,  leaving  two  sons. 

Hplden,   SIB  ISAAC   (1807-97). 
British    manufacturer.       Born    at 
Hurlet,  near  Paisley,  May  7,  1807, 
his  father  was  a 
miner  who  had 
migrated   from 
C  umberland. 
Having  man- 
aged to  educate 
himself   in    his 
spare  time,  he 
became   a   tea- 
cher in  Paisley 
Sir  Isaac  Holden,      in     1823,     and 
British  manufacturer    later  in  Leeds< 

His  connexion  with  the  woollen 
trade  began  in  1830,  when  he  se- 
cured an  appointment  as  book- 
keeper to  a  firm  at  Cullingworth, 
Yorkshire.  He  invented  a  wool- 
combing  machine,  which  proved 
the  foundation  of  his  fortune.  He 
was  joined  by  Samuel  C.  Lister, 
afterwards  Lord  Masham,  but  after 
a  few  years  each  developed  his 
own  business.  Holden  founded 
the  firm  of  Isaac  Holden  &  Sons, 
a  wool-combing  c6ncern  at  Brad- 
ford with  a  factory  in  France.  In 
1865  he  was  elected  Liberal  M.P. 
for  Knaresborough,  for  which 
place  he  sat  until  1868.  From 
1882-85  he  was  M.P.  for  the  W.R., 
Yorkshire,  and  from  1885-95  for 
Keighley.  He  was  made  a  baronet  in 
1893,  and  died  Aug.  13,  1897.  His 
son,  Sir  Angus  Holden,  was  made 
Baron  Holden  of  Alston  in  1908. 

Holder.  In  banking,  any  person 
in  possession  of  a  bill  who  holds 
it  either  as  payee,  indorsee,  or 
bearer.  (See  Bill  of  Exchange.) 

Generally  the  word  is  used  for 
any  contrivance  in  which  some- 
thing is  held  or  secured.  In  en- 
gineering, the  adjustable  clamp 
for  holding  the  armature  brushes 
of  dynamos  and  motors  is  called  a 
holder,  and  many  other  clamps  in 
electrical  work  are  known  by  the 
term.  Either  of  the  two  loops  at- 
tached to  the  reins  for  holding  a 
pulling  horse  is  a  holder. 

Holderness.  Parl.  division  and 
wapentake  of  the  E.  Riding  of 
Yorkshire,  England.  It  is  the  most 
S.E.  portion  of  the  county,  lying 
N.  of  the  Humber,  and  terminating 
in  Spurn  Head,  and  contains  the 
towns  of  Beverley,  Hedon,  Horn- 
sea,  and  Patrington.  The  division 
returns  one  member  to  Parliament. 
Here  in  1916  the  Government 
established  the  first  farm  colony 
for  ex-soldiers.  Pop.  45,410. 

Holderness,  EARL  OF.  English 
title  now  extinct.  Its  first  holder 
was  John  Ramsay  (c.  1580-1626), 
a  Scotsman,  who  in  1621  was 
made  an  English  peer  by  James  I. 


Sir  Thomas  Holdich, 
British  geographer 

Russell 


The  peerage  became  extinct  on  his 
death  in  1626.  Revived  in  1644, 
it  was  given  to  Prince  Rupert,  and 
on  his  death  in  1682  to  Conyers 
Darcy  (1599-1689),  who  belonged 
to  an  old  Yorkshire  family,  holders 
of  the  baronies  of  Conyers  and 
Darcy.  There  were  four  earls  of 
this  line.  Robert,  the  4th  earl 
(1718-78),  was  ambassador  at 
Venice  and  The  Hague ;  afterwards 
he  was  secretary  of  state,  1751-61. 
He  died  without  sons,  his  estates 
passing  to  his  daughter,  wife  of 
Francis  Os  borne,  5th  duke  of 
Leeds.  The  earl's  chief  seat  was 
Hornby  Castle,  Bedale,  now  the 
property  of  the  duke  of  Leeds. 

Holdich,  SIB  THOMAS  HUNGER- 
FOBD  (b.  1843).  British  geographer. 
Born  at  Dingley,  Northants,  Feb. 
13,  1843,  he 
was  commis- 
sioned in  the 
Royal  Engi- 
neers in  1862. 
He  served  with 
the  Bhutan 
expedition  in 
1865,  and  in 
Abyssinia  in 
1867,  took  part 
in  the  Afghan 
War  of  1878- 
80,  and,  after  service  in  various 
frontier  campaigns,  was  appointed 
superintendent  of  frontier  surveys 
in  India,  1892-98.  Knighted  in 
1897,  he  was  H.M.  commissioner 
for  the  Argentina-Chile  boundary, 
1902-3,  and  was  president  of  the 
Royal  Geographical  Society  in  1917. 
He  wrote  papers  on  military  survey 
and  geographical  subjects,  and 
various  books  of  travel,  including 
The  Gates  of  India,  1910. 

Holding.  Term  used  in  Great 
Britain  in  the  Agricultural  Hold- 
ings Acts.  It  signifies  a  farm,  or  land 
with  or  without  buildings,  princi- 
pally or  mainly  used  for  purposes  of 
agriculture  or  market  gardening! 
See  Agricultural  Holdings  Act. 

Holding  over.  Term  of  English 
law.  It  means  keeping  possession 
of  land  by  a  tenant  after  his  ten- 
ancy has  legally  expired.  If  a 
tenant  holds  over  after  he  himself 
has  given  notice  to  quit,  he  is 
liable  to  pay  double  the  rent.  If 
he  holds  over  after  the  landlord 
has  given  him  notice  to  quit,  he 
is  liable  to  pay  double  the  value  of 
the  premises,  but  there  must  be  a 
notice  in  writing  by  the  landlord  or 
his  agent  demanding  the  giving  up 
of  the  premises.  See  Landlord. 

Hole,  SAMUEL  REYNOLDS  (1819- 
1904).  British  divine.  Born  at 
Ardwick,  Lancashire,  Dec.  5,  1819, 
he  was  the  son  of  a  brewer,  who 
was  also  the  squire  of  Caunton, 
near  Newark.  From  Newark 
Grammar  School  Hole  went  to 


Samuel  R.  Hole, 
British  divine 

Elliott  &  Fry 


Brasenose  College,  Oxford.  II- 
was  ordained  in  1844,  and  was 
first  curate,  and  then  vicar,  of 
Caunton,  and  squire  of  the  place. 
In  1887  he  accepted  the  post  of 
dean  of  Roches- 
ter, where  he 
died  Aug.  27, 
1904.  Hole  was 
a  fine  example 
of  the  muscular 
Christian  and 
sporting  p  a  r- 
son.  He  played 
cricket,  rode  to 
hounds,  and 
took  part  in  al- 
most  every 
form  of  physical  activity ;  he  was 
intimate  with  John  Leech,  and 
others  of  the  Punch  circle.  He  had 
also  a  high  reputation  as  a  rose 
grower,  and  his  most  popular  book 
is  A  Book  about  Roses,  1869.  His 
Memories,  1892,  and  More  Memories, 
1894,  are  full  of  good  stories.  He 
also  wrote  A  Little  Tour  in  Ireland, 
1859,  illustrated  by  Leech,  and  A 
Little  Tour  in  America,  1895. 

Hole,  WILLIAM  (1846-1917). 
British  painter  and  etcher.  Born 
at  Salisbury,  Nov.  7,  1846,  he 
started  life  as  a  civil  engineer,  but 
adopted  art  as  a  profession  in  1870, 
and,  having  removed  to  Edinburgh, 
studied  at  the  schools  of  the  R.S.A. 
Jacobite  subjects  and  modern 
Scottish  genre  first  occupied  him 
in  painting ;  at  the  same  time  he 
developed  original  and  repro- 
ductive etching.  He  executed  im- 
portant mural  paintings  in  the 
National  Gallery  and  Municipal 
Buildings,  Edinburgh.  He  became 
A.R.S.A.,  1878,  and  full  member, 
1889.  He  died  Oct.  24,  1917.  A 
memoir  by  his  wife  was  published 
in  1920.  See  Columba,  S. 

Holguin.  City  of  Cuba.  It  is 
situated  65  m.  N.W.  of  Santiago  de 
Cuba,  and  15  m.  S.  of  Gibara,  its 
port,  with  which  there  is  rly.  com- 
munication. Corn,  timber,  tobacco, 
and  cattle  are  exported,  and  sugar 
is  grown  in  the  district.  It  was 
founded  in  1720,  and  became  a  city 
in  1751.  Pop.  7,600. 

Holiday.  Day  of  freedom  from 
work.  The  word,  derived  from 
holy  day  or  festival  of  the  Church, 
implies  usually  a  time  given  up  to 
individual  or  collective  enjoyment, 
gaiety,  and  pleasure.  The  period 
of  freedom  from  work,  more  par- 
ticularly in  the  summer  time,  known 
as  holidays,  is  sometimes  called  a 
vacation,  especially  where  the  law 
courts,  schools,  and  colleges  are 
concerned.  See  Bank  Holiday. 

Holinshed,  RAPHAEL  (c.  1520- 
80).  English  chronicler.  He  was 
employed  as  translator  by  Regi- 
nald Wolfe,  printer  to  Queen  Eliza- 
beth. Wolfe  planned  a  universal 


HOLKHAM       HALL 


HOLLAND 


cosmography,  and  when  he  died 
Holinshed  became  responsible  for 
the  modified  form  in  which  it 
appeared  (in  two  folio  volumes),  in 
1577,  as  The  Chronicles  of  England, 
Scotland,  and  Ireland.  Holinshed 
had  as  assistants  William  Harrison, 
Richard  Stanyhurst,  and  others. 
A  second  edition,  in  three  folio 
volumes,  appeared  in  1587,  and 
there  was  a  reprint  in  six  volumes 
in  1807-8.  The  work,  familiarly 
known  as  Holinshed's  Chronicles, 
was  used  by  Shakespeare  for  his 
historical  plays.  See  Elizabethan 
England,  Lothrop  Withington, 
1889;  Shakespeare's  Holinshed, 
W.  G.  Boswell  Stone,  1907. 

Holkham  Hall.  Seat  of  the  earl 
of  Leicester  in  Norfolk.  It  is  a  great 
18th  century  Palladian  house  built 
of  white  brick.  Kent  was  the 
architect,  and  it  was  erected  by 
Thomas  Coke,  1st  earl  of  Leicester. 
It  contains  some  fine  rooms,  es- 
pecially the  picture  gallery.  The 
estate  was  bought  in  1659  by  John 
Coke,  a  son  of  the  lawyer,  Sir  Ed- 
ward Coke.  It  is  famous  in  the  his- 


Joseph  Chamberlain,  1888.  He 
died  July  31,  1888. 

Holl,  WILLTAM  (1771-1838). 
British  engraver.  Taught  his  trade 
by  Benjamin  Smith,  he  made  a 
speciality  of  portrait  work,  and  was 
largely  employed  by  Lodge  in  his 
Portraits,  1821.  His  son  William 
(1807-71)  was  a  steel  engraver  of 
considerable  merit.  He  worked  for 
Lodge  and  engraved  pictures  by 
Frith,  Baxter,  Faed,  Richmond, 
Goodall,  and  others.  He  died  in 
London,  Jan.  30,  1871. 

Holland.  Linen  fabric  used  as 
material  for  dresses,  aprons,  blinds, 
etc.  The  name  "  Holland  cloth"  was 
originally  given  to  linen  made  or 
bleached  in  Holland.  Formerly 
holland  was  of  very  fine  texture  ; 
in  1745  Daniel  Defoe,  inveigh- 
ing against  the  extravagance  of 
the  times,  includes  holland  among 
articles  "  requiring  the  regula- 
tion of  a  sumptuary  law."  See 
Linen. 

Holland.  Country  of  Europe, 
the  nucleus  of  the  kingdom  of  the 
Netherlands.  The  name  means 


Holkham  Hall,  Norfolk.     The  seat  of  the  earl  of  Leicester  seen  from  the  park 


tory  of  agriculture  because  here 
Coke's  nephew  and  successor,  the 
earl  known  as  Coke  of  Norfolk, 
carried  out  his  experiments,  which 
immensely  increased  the  rental  of 
his  estate.  The  village,  which  has 
an  old  church  with  a  lofty  tower,  is 
on  the  coast,  2  m.  from  Wells.  It 
was  once  a  port  and  market  town. 
Pron.  Ho-kum. 

Holl,  FRANCIS  MONTAGUE  (1845- 
88).  British  painter.  Son  of  Fran- 
cis Holl,  the  engraver,  he  was  born 
in  London, 
July  4,  1845, 
and  studied 
at  the  R.A. 
schools.  Sub- 
ject pictures  of 
modern  life, 
rather  sombre 
i  n  sentiment, 
at  first  occu- 
pied him,  but 
in  1878  he  ex- 
hibited a  portrait  of  Cousins,  the 
engraver,  and  its  success  was  the 
beginning  of  ten  years'  great  popu- 
larity as  a  portrait-painter.  His 
sitters  included  the  duke  of  Cam- 
bridge, 1883;  Lord  Wolseley,  1883 ; 
John  Bright,  1887  :  Gladstone  and 


Francis  M.  Holl, 
British  painter 


lowland  and  was  first  used  in  1064. 
It  was  given  to  a  county  that  arose 
on  the  ruins  of  the  Carolingian 
empire  and  was  included  in  the 
Holy  Roman  Empire. 

This  county  had  its  own  rulers 
from  about  920,  though  it  was  not 
until  nearly  two  centuries  later 
that  they  were  called  counts  of 
Holland.  Many  of  them  were 
named  Dirk,  while  Floris  was 
another  name  among  them,  and 
like  their  contemporaries  their  time 
was  mainly  passed  in  fighting.  In 
general  they  were  successful,  the 
result  being  that  Holland  grew 
from  a  small  district  round  Dor- 
drecht to  one  including  all  the  land 
between  the  Texel  and  the  Maas. 

In  1299  the  line  of  the  counts 
became  extinct,  and  the  county 
passed  to  John,  a  descendant  in 
the  female  line.  He  was  also  count 
of  Hainault  and  from  his  time  that 
county  was  united  with  Holland. 
He  had  some  trouble  in  establish- 
ing himself,  but  he  succeeded,  and 
his  son  William  was  recognized  as 
ruler  also  of  the  district  around 
Amsterdam  and  part  of  Zeeland, 
the  earlier  counts  having  disputed 
the  lordship  of  these  possessions 


with  the  counts  of  Flanders  or  the 
bishops  of  Utrecht.  In  1345  the 
countly  line  again  became  extinct ; 
eventually  the  county  was  secured 
by  William,  a  Bavarian  prince. 

In  the  14th  century  the  land 
was  troubled  by  civil  war  between 
the  so-called  Hooks  and  Cods, 
into  which  Edward  III  of  England, 
whose  wife  had  claims  on  Holland, 
was  drawn.  William's  brother, 
Albert,  ruled  well  for  many  years 
and  then  came  the  latter's  son, 
who,  dying  in  1417,  left  an  only 
child,  Jacqueline,  already  a  widow. 
Ringed  with  foes,  she  struggled 
hard  to  preserve  her  inheritance, 
but  in  the  end  she  was  obliged  to 
cede  Holland  and  Zeeland  to  Philip 
the  Good  of  Burgundy. 

Holland  and  Zeeland  passed 
with  the  rest  of  the  Burgundian 
lands  to  Mary,  the  daughter  of 
Charles  the  Bold,  and  then  to  her 
son  Philip,  a  member  of  the 
Hapsburg  family.  Philip's  suc- 
cessor was  his  son,  Charles  V,  and 
then  came  Philip  II  of  Spain. 
Against  Philip,  Holland  and  the 
northern  provinces  of  the  Nether- 
lands revolted.  Holland  and 
Zeeland  were  united  more  closely 
and  round  them  was  formed  the 
union  of  Utrecht,  the  seven 
provinces  that  threw  off  the 
sovereignty  of  Spain  and  were 
Jater  recognized  by  Europe  as  the 
Dutch  republic.  The  title  of  count 
of  Holland  was  borne  by  William 
the  Silent.  See  Netherlands. 

Holland,  NORTH.  Prov.  of  Hol- 
land. It  embraces  the  flat,  low- 
lying  country  between  the  N.  Sea 
and  the  Zuider  Zee,  and  marches  S. 
with  Utrecht  and  S.  Holland.  Large 
tracts  lie  over  10  ft.  below  sea 
level,  protected  by  the  dunes  on 
the  W.  coast  and  by  dykes,  e.g. 
the  Helder  dyke.  The  capital  is 
Haarlem  (q.v. ),  but  Amsterdam  is 
the  largest  town,  others  of  note 
being  Helder- Nieuwdorp,  Alkmaar, 
Zaandam,  Hoorn,  Enkhuizen,  and 
Purmerend.  The  prov.  is  traversed 
by  the  Noord  Hollandsch  and 
Noord  Zee  canals  and  by  other 
lesser  waterways.  The  Purmer  and 
Beemster  are  polders,  or  reclaimed 
marshes.  Agriculture  is  the  main 
economic  feature,  cattle-raising 
being  specially  important.  The 
prov.  was  formerly  part  of  W.  Fries- 
land,  and  sends  nine  members  to  the 
first  chamber.  Area,  1,066  sq.  m. 
Pop.  1,278,330.  See  Netherlands. 

Holland,  SOUTH.  Province  of 
Holland.  Adjoining  N.  Holland. 
Utrecht,  and  N.  Brabant,  it  in- 
cludes the  islands  of  the  Rhine- 
Maas  delta,  Voorne  -  Putten, 
Beijerland,  Goeree,  Over  Flakkee, 
Ysselmonde,  etc.  The  prov.  has 
The  Hague  as  capital,  other  im- 
portant towns  being  Rotterdam, 


HOLLAND 


4O29 


HOLLAND 


Dordrecht,  Leiden,  Delft,  Gouda, 
and  Schiedam.  The  various 
branches  of  the  lower  Rhine,  the 
Waal,  Yssel,  Lek,  and  Oude  Rijn, 
flow  through  the  prov.,  forming 
with  the  numerous  canals  a  maze 
of  waterways.  The  country  is 
well  cultivated.  Area,  1,131  sq.  m. 
Pop.  1,648,570.  See  Netherlands. 
Holland.  City  of  Michigan, 
U.S.A.,  in  Ottawa  co.  It  stands  on 
Black  Lake  or  Macatawa  Bay,  26  m. 
S.  of  Grand  Rapids,  and  is  served 
by  the  Pere  Marquette  rly.  In- 
dustries include  flour-milling,  tan- 
ning, planing,  and  the  manufacture 
of  machinery,  furniture,  pickles, 
beet-sugar,  and  biscuits.  Holland 
was  settled  by  the  Dutch  in  1847. 
In  1871  it  was  almost  entirely 
destroyed  by  fire.  Pop.  11,640. 

Holland,  BARON.  English  title 
borne,  1763-1859,  by  the  family  of 
Fox.  Its  founder  was  Sir  Stephen 
Fox  (q.v.).  In  1763  his  younger  son, 
Henry,  was  made  Baron  Holland ; 
he  was  able  to  amass  great  wealth, 
especially  when  paymaster-general. 
In  1767  Lord  Holland  bought  the 
residence  he  named  Holland  House. 
His  eldest  son,  Stephen,  succeeded 
to  the  title,  but  it  was  a  younger 
son,  Charles  James,  who  made  the 
name  of  Fox  illustrious  and  became 
the  idol  of  the  Holland  House  circle. 
In  1774  Stephen's  son,  Henry 
Richard  Vassall  Fox,  became  the 
3rd  baron,  and  the  title  became  ex- 
tinct when  his  son,  Henry  Edward, 
died  in  1859. 

Holland,     HENRY      Fox,     IST 
BARON  (1705-74).     British  politi- 
cian.      The    younger   son    of    Sir 
Stephen     Fox, 
he  was  born  at 
Chiswick,  Sept. 
28,  1705.   Edu- 
cated at  Eton, 
he  entered  Par- 
liament in  1735 
for  Hindon,  in 
Wiltshire,    be- 
coming   a   fol- 
lower of   Wal- 
1st  Baron  Holland,     pole.  In  1 746  he 
British  politician       ^asmadesecre- 

Afler  Reynold*  tary  at  war 

He  joined  Pitt  in  attacking 
certain  members  of  Newcastle's 
ministry,  of  which,  however,  he 
remained  a  member,  and  he  was 
one  of  the  group  who  controlled, 
by  cynical  arrangements  among 
themselves,  the  affairs  of  state 
about  this  time.  In  1755  Fox  be- 
came secretary  of  state  and  the 
principal  colleague  of  Newcastle, 
but  in  1757  he  retired  and  was 
made  paymaster-general.  In  1762 
he  was  again  leader  of  the  House  of 
Commons  as  he  had  been  under 
Newcastle,  but  in  1763  Bute  got 
rid  of  him.  He  was  then  made  a 
baron,  and  he  died  July  1,  1774. 


Holland,  HENRY  RICHARD  VAS- 
SALL Fox,  3RD  BARON  (1773-1840). 
British  politician.    Son  of  the  2nd 
baron,  he  was 
born    at  Win- 
terslowe,  Wilt- 
shire,     Nov. 
2,    1773,    and 
was    educated 
at    Eton    and 
Christ  Church, 
Oxford.Inl774 
he  succeeded  to 
3rd  Baron  Holland,     the   title    and, 
British  politician       influenced     by 

After  C.R.  Leslie,  R.A.       hig      uncle> 

Charles  James  Fox,  began  his  career 
as  a  Whig  politician.  In  1806  he 
entered  the  Cabinet  as  lord  privy 
seal,  but  retired  on  the  fall  of  the 
government  in  1807.  He  served 
the  Whig  cause  steadily  during  the 
long  years  of  Tory  rule,  and  in  1830, 
when  the  Whigs  triumphed,  was 
made  chancellor  of  the  duchy  of 
Lancaster.  He  held  that  post,  with 
two  short  intervals,  until  his  death, 
at  Holland  House,  Oct.  22, 1840. 

Holland  married  Elizabeth 
Vassall,  and  took  the  name  of 
Vassall.  This  lady  was  first  the 
wife  of  Sir  Godfrey  Webster,  Bart,, 
from  whom  she  was  divorced  in 
order  to  enable  her  to  marry  her 
lover.  The  pair  made  Holland 
House  a  great  social  centre.  Lord 
Holland  wrote  Memoirs  of  the 
Whig  Party,  1852,  and  other  books. 
Lady  Holland  died  in  1845,  and  in 
1908  her  Journal,  edited  by  the 
earl  of  Ilchester,  appeared.  See 
The  Holland  House  Circle,  Lloyd 
C.  Sanders,  1908. 

Holland,  SIR  ARTHUR  EDWARD 
AVELING  (b.  1862).  British  soldier. 
Born  April  13,  1862,  he  joined  the 
army  in  1880 
as  lieutenant 
in  the  artillery. 
He  served  in 
Burma,  1885- 
89,  and  in  the 
S.  African  War, 
1900.  He  was 
appointed  to 
the  staff  in 
Malta,  1903-5, 
and  was  A. M.S. 
at  the  War 
Office,  1910-12.  From  Sept.,  1912, 
to  Sept.,  1914,  he  was  commandant 
of  the  Royal  Military  Academy, 
Woolwich.  He  served  during  the 
Great  War,  rising  to  the  rank  of 
lieutenant-general,  and  in  1918  was 
in  command  of  the  1st  corps.  He 
was  knighted  in  1918. 

Holland,  SIR  HENRY  (1788- 
1873).  British  physician.  Born  at 
Knutsford,  Oct.  27,  1788,  he  was 
related  to  Mrs.  Gaskell  and  Charles 
Darwin.  He  was  educated  at 
private  schools  and,  after  a  time 
passed  in  business  in  Liverpool, 


Sir  A.  E.  A.  Holland, 
British  soldier 

Russell 


Sir  Henry  Holland, 
British  physician 


went     to     Edinburgh     to     study 

medicine.   Then  he  graduated,  and 

in  1816  began  to  practise  in  Lon- 

don.     He    be- 

came physician 

to  Queen  Vic- 

t  o  r  i  a,    was 

made    F.R.S., 

and  in  1853  a 

baronet.     A 

great  traveller, 

he       wrote 

Travels  in  the 

Ionian  Islands, 

Albania,  Thes- 

saly,  and  Greece,  1815.    He  died 

Oct.  27,  1873.    Sir  Henry  married  a 

daughter  of  Sydney  Smith,  and  his 

eldest  son  became  Viscount  Knuts- 

ford (q.v.).     See  his  Medical  Notes 

and  Reflections,  1840  ;  and  Recol- 

lections of  Past  Life,  1872. 

Holland,  HENRY  SCOTT  (1847- 
1918).  British  divine.  Born  near 
Ledbury,  Jan.  27,  1847,  he  was 
educated  a  t 
Eton  and  Bal- 
liol  College, 
Oxford,  after- 
wards becom- 


H. Scott  Holland, 
British  divine 


ng  a  senor 
student  of 
Christ  Church 
and  tutor  there 
for  twelve 
years.  Greatly 
influenced  by 
Liddon,  Hol- 
land was  ordained  in  1872  and 
soon  became  known  as  a  powerful 
preacher,  especially  after  1884, 
when  he  was  appointed  canon 
of  S.  Paul's.  He  remained  there, 
after  the  deaths  of  Church  and 
Liddon,  until  made  regius  professor 
of  divinity  at  Oxford  in  1910. 
Holland  was  an  advanced  Liberal 
in  politics.  He  wrote  a  Life  of 
Jenny  Lind,  1909,  and  A  Bundle 
of  Memories,  1915.  He  died  at 
Oxford,  March  17,  1918.  See  A 
Forty  Years'  Friendship,  Letters 
from  Henry  Scott  Holland  to 
Mrs.  Drew,  ed.  S.  L.  Ollard,  1919; 
Henry  Scott  Holland:  Some  Ap- 
preciations, C.  Cheshire,  1919: 
Henry  Scott  Holland,  Memoir  and 
Letters,  S.  Paget,  1921. 

Holland,  SIR  THOMAS  ERSKINE 
(b.  1835).  British  jurist.  Born 
July  17,  1835,  the  son  of  a  Sussex 
clergyman,  he 
was  educated 
a  t  Brighton 
College  and 
Balliol  College, 
Oxford.  H  e 
became  a  bar- 
rister and  a 
fellow  of  Exe- 
ter College, 
and  soon 
made  a  repu- 


tation    as  a 


Sir  T.  E.  Holland. 
British  jurist 

RtUitll 


HOLLAND      HOUSE 


4030 


HOLL1NGSHEAD 


student  of  jurisprudence.  In  1874 
he  was  appointed  Vinerian  reader 
in  English  law  at  Oxford  ;  in  the 
same  year  he  became  professor  of 
international  law  and  diplomacy. 
He  held  the  post  until  1910. 
Knighted  in  1917,  he  was  a  fellow 
of  the  British  Academy.  Holland's 
great  work  is  The  Elements  of  Juris- 
prudence, which  appeared  in  1880. 
He  also  wrote  Studies  in  Inter- 
national Law,  1898,  and  The  Laws 
of  War  on  Land,  1908. 

Holland  House.  Historic  Lon- 
don mansion.  It  stands  in  its  own 
grounds,  Holland  Park,  between 
Kensington  Road  and  Uxbridge 
Road,  in  the  parish  of  Kensington 
(q.v.).  It  is  a  notable  example  of 
Jacobean  architecture,  and,  when 
Macaulay  wrote  his  essay  on 
Addison,  1843,  could  "  boast  of  a 
greater  number  of  inmates  dis- 
tinguished in  political  and  literary 
history  than  any  other  private 
dwelling  in  England."  The  centre 
building  and  turrets,  1607,  were 
built  by  John  Thorpe  for  Sir 
Walter  Cope.  The  house,  formerly 
known  as  Cope  Castle,  was  ex- 
tended for  the  1st  earl  of  Holland, 
husband  of  Cope's  daughter. 

Here,  in  1719,  died  Joseph 
Addison,  three  years  after  his 
marriage  to  the  widow  of  the  3rd 
earl  of  Warwick  and  Holland.  The 
house  was  bought  by  Henry  Fox, 
who  was  created  Baron  Holland 
in  1763,  and  on  the  death  of  Lady 
Holland,  widow  of  the  4th  baron, 
in  1889,  the  property  passed  by 
purchase  to  the  earl  of  Ilchester, 
a  descendant  of  Henry  Fox's 
brother.  In  the  time  of  the  3rd 
Baron  Holland  and  his  brilliant 
if  imperious  wife,  Holland  House 
became  a  social  and  political  salon 
and  the  headquarters  of  the  Whigs. 

A  statue  of  the  3rd  Baron  Hol- 
land, by  G.  F.  Watts,  is  in  the 
grounds  facing  Kensington  Road. 
The  house  contains  many  valuable 
pictures  and  historical  relics.  In 
Holland  Park  in  1804  Lord  Camel- 
ford  was  mortally  wounded  in  a 
duel  with  Col.  Best.  See  Holland 
House,  Princess  Lichtenstein,  1874 ; 
Macaulay 's  Essay  on  Lord  Holland, 
1841 ;  The  Holland  House  Circle, 
Lloyd  C.  Sanders,  1908. 


Holland  House,  London.     The  Jacobean  mansion  seen 
from  the  garden 


Holland  Park.  District  between 
Netting  Hill  and  Kensington,  Lon- 
don, W.  With  a  number  of  the 
adjacent  thoroughfares  and  the 
station  of  the  C.L.R.,  it  takes 
its  name  from  the  park  contain- 
ing Holland  House.  At  No.  12 
(N.  side),  Holland  Park  Road,  just 
N.  of  Kensington  Road,  is  Leighton 
House,  long  the  residence  of  Lord 
Leighton  ;  it  was  presented  to  the 
nation  by  his  sisters. 

Hollands.  Variety  of  gin  some- 
times called  Schiedam  or  Schnapps. 
It  is  manufactured  near  Schiedam 
in  Holland,  from  barley,  malt,  and 
rye.  See  Gin. 

Hollands ch  Diep.  Arm  of  the 
Meuse  estuary,  Holland.  It  runs 
between  the  coast  of  the  Land  van 
Strijen  and  the  N.  Brabant  coast 
to  the  E.  of  Willemstad.  It  is  in 
effect  a  continuation  of  the  Haring- 
vliet  and  Kramer- Volkerak  arms, 
and  runs  up  towards  the  delta  of 
the  Biesbosch  (q.v.).  Its  entrance 
is  defended  by  two  shore  forts. 

Hollar,  WENCESLAUS  (1607-77). 
Bohemian  engraver.  Born  at 
Prague,  July  13,  1607,  he  studied 
under  Matthew 
Merian.  After 
spending  some 
time  at  Frank  - 
fort,  Cologne, 
and  Antwerp, 
he  came  under 
the  notice  of 
the  earl  of 
Arundel,  Eng- 
lish ambassa-  Wenceslaus  Hollar, 
dor  to  Ger-  Bohemian  engraver 
many.  Brought  From  a  Print 
to  England  by  his  patron,  he  was 
appointed  drawing-master  to  the 
prince  of  Wales  (afterwards  Charles 
II ) ;  and  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
Rebellion  fought  for  the  royalists. 
He  afterwards  escaped  to  Antwerp, 
but  returned  in  1652,  and  in  1660 
was  made  draughtsman  to  the  king. 
After  the  Great  Fire  of  1666  he 
engraved  a  map  of  London,  leaving 
the  burnt  portions  blank.  Loss  of 
employment,  and  his  own  extrava- 
gance, made  him  poor,  and  he 
died  a  bankrupt,  March  28,  1677. 
His  views  of  towns,  by  which  he 
is  chiefly  known,  include  those  of 
Oxford,  Cambridge,  Hull,  Rich- 
mond, Greenwich, 
j  old  and  new  Lon- 
^  j  don,  and  a  number 
,ALjilta0Rl  °f  German  towns. 
See  Becket,  T. ; 
Geddes,  J. 

HoUebeke.  Vil- 
lage of  Belgium, 
in  the  prov.  of 
W.  Flanders.  It 
stands  4  m.  S.E. 
of  Ypres.  It  was 
prominent  in  the 
fighting  in  the 


1st  Baron  Holies, 
English  politician 


Ypres  salient  during  the  Great  War. 
Fighting  took  place  here  in  Oct.- 
Nov.,  1914,  where  the  2nd  and  3rd 
cavalry  divisions  were  holding  the 
line.  It  passed  into  the  possession 
of  the  Germans,  and  was  taken  by 
the  British  41st  division,  July  31, 
1917.  See  Ypres,  Battles  of. 

Holies,  DENZIL  HOLLES,  IST 
BARON  (1599-1680).  English  poli- 
tician. A  younger  son  of  John 
Holies,  1st  earl 
of  Clare,  he  was 
born  Oct.  31, 
1599,  and  edu- 
cated at  court 
with  Prince 
Charles,  after- 
wardsCharlesI. 
In  1624  he 
entered  the 
House  of  Com- 
mons as  M.  P. 
for  St.  Michael,  and  in  March,  1629, 
being  then  M.P.  for  Dorchester,  he 
was  one  of  those  who  held  the 
Speaker  down  in  the  chair  while  he 
asked  members  to  approve  of  the 
resolutions  of  protest  to  the  king. 
For  this  he  was  imprisoned  and 
fined,  but  shortly  afterwards  he 
made  his  escape  abroad.  After  an 
absence  of  some  years,  he  took  part 
in  opposing  the  collection  of  ship 
money,  and  was  a  member  of  Par- 
liament when  it  was  called  together 
again  in  1640.  Holies  had  a  hand 
in  most  of  the  great  events  that 
preceded  the  outbreak  of  war.  He 
was  one  of  the  Five  Members  (q.v.) 
and  also  a  member  of  the  com- 
mittee of  safety. 

When  war  began  Holies  raised  a 
regiment  and  fought  at  Edgehill 
and  Brentford,  but  he  was  not  very 
desirous  of  pressing  the  appeal  to 
arms.  He  is  next  found  as  the 
chief  opponent  of  Cromwell  and 
the  army,  for  which  he  was  im- 
peached. He  sat  in  Parliament 
in  1659,  and  went  to  The  Hague 
to  invite  the  king  to  return.  In 
1661  he  was  made  a  peer.  From 
1663  to  1666  he  was  ambassador 
in  Paris;  in  1667  he  arranged 
with  Holland  the  treaty  of  Breda. 
Later  he  took  up  an  attitude  of 
opposition  to  Charles,  acting  with 
Shaftesbury.  He  died  Feb.  17, 
1680.  The  title  became  extinct 
when  his  grandson,  the  3rd  baron, 
died  in  1694,  and  the  family  is 
now  represented  by  the  duke  of 
Newcastle  (q.v.). 

Hollingshead,  JOHN  (1827- 
1904).  British  journalist  and 
theatrical  manager.  Born  in  Hox- 
ton,  London,  Sept.  9,  1827,  he  had 
a  brief  experience  of  business  and 
then  began  to  contribute  to  the 
magazines,  notably  Household 
Words.  He  was  a  voluminous 
writer  for  many  years,  and  assisted 
many  public  movements  with  his 


HOLLOWAY 


HOLLYHOCK 


John  Hollingshead, 

British  theatrical 

manager 

Elliott  &  Fry 


pen,  such  as  that  for  the  better 
government  of  London,  and  the  agi- 
tation for  copyright  reform.  After 
three  years  as 
stage  director 
of  The  Alham- 
bra,  where  he 
introduced 
some  much- 
needed  re- 
forms, in  1868 
he  became 
manager  of 
the  Gaiety 
Theatre  in  the 
Strand,  where 
he  had  many  successes  in  various 
forms  of  the  drama.  He  died  Oct. 
10,  1904.  See  My  Lifetime,  1895, 
and  Gaiety  Chronicles,  1898. 

Hollo  way.  Name  of  two  wards, 
Upper  and  Lower  Holloway,  in  the 
met.  bor.  of  Islington,  London, 
N.  The  district  includes  the 
Great  Northern  Central  Hospital, 
1856,  rebuilt  1892,  and  enlarged 
1909 ;  the  Caledonian  (Metropolitan 
Cattle)  Market,  1855,  enlarged 
1907 ;  Pentonville  prison,  1840-42 ; 
the  Athenaeum,  1871  ;  Nor- 
thern Polytechnic,  opened  1897  ; 
and  two  hostelries  of  note,  the 
Brecknock  Arms,  at  the  junction 
of  Camden  and  Brecknock  Roads, 
and  the  Nag's  Head,  at  Holloway 
Road  corner  of  Seven  Sisters  Road. 
Holloway  prison,  a  castellated 
structure  built  in  1853-54,  has  ac- 
commodation for  1,000  prisoners, 
mostly  women  serving  short  sen- 
tences. Women  sentenced  in  con- 
nexion with  the  suffrage  agitation 
before  the  Great  War  were  sent  to 
Holloway  prison,  where  they  went 
on  hunger  strike  (q.v.)  and  had  to 
be  forcibly  fed  by  the  medical 
officers.  Their  supporters  demon- 
strated outside  the  prison. 

Upper  Holloway  Baptist  Chapel, 
long  associated  with  the  ministry 
of  the  Rev.  J.  R.  Wood,  was  built 
in  1866.  Islington's  first  public 
library  was  opened  in  1906  in 
Manor  Gardens.  There  are  stations 
on  the  Midland,  G.N.,  and  Picca- 
dilly (Tube)  Rlys.,  and  continuous 
'bus  and  tram  services.  Holloway 
suffered  damage  from  air  raids  dur- 
ing the  Great  War.  See  Air  Raids. 
Holloway,  THOMAS  (1800-83). 
Patent  medicine  maker.  Born  at 
Devonport,  Sept.  22,  1800,  the  son 
of  a  Plymouth 
baker,  he  came 
to  London  in 
1828,  and  nine 
, years  later  con- 
cocted an  oint- 
ment and  a  pill 
which  he  ad- 
vertised exten- 
sively. Hissuc- 
cesswas  largely 
due  to  the  fear- 


lessness with  which  he  spent  large 
sums  of  money  in  advertising,  a 
business  medium  then  but  little 
appreciated.  He  acquired  a  hand- 
some fortune,  and,  on  Lord  Shaf  tes- 
bury's  advice,  set  aside  a  large  sum 
of  money  to  found  a  sanatorium, 
which  was  opened  at  Virginia  Water 
in  1885.  He  also  founded  the  Hoi- 
loway  College,  and  formed  a  picture 
gallery  on  which  he  spent  more 


Holloway. 


The  prison  in  Camden  Road,  sometimes 
called  Holloway  Castle 


than  £83,000.      He  died  at  Titten- 
hurst,  Berkshire,  Dec.  26, 1883. 

Holloway  College.  British 
college  for  the  higher  education  of 
middle-class  girls.  It  was  founded 
in  1883  by  Thomas  Holloway,  at 
a  cost  of  £600,000.  Built  in  the 
French  Renaissance  style  at  Mount 
Lee,  Egham,  Surrey,  near  Virginia 
Water,  it  was  opened  by  Queen 
Victoria  in  1886.  It  accommo- 
dates about  350  students,  who 


V 


r 


Holly.  Leaves 
and  berries  of 
Ilex  Hendersoni. 
Top,  leaves  and 
berries  of  the  British 
species 


are  prepared 
for  London 
University  de- 
grees,  and 
must  read  for 
honours.  The 
college  con- 
tains a  fine 
collection  of 
pictures  by 
modern  artists, 
e.g.  Constable, 
Millais;  and 
has  a  richly 
ornamented 
chapel. 
holen,  holeyn). 


green,  though  there  are  smooth 
and  variegated  sorts,  and  tho  n-<l 
or  yellow  berries  are  borne  in 
winter.  Hollies  should  bo  plant < ->\ 
in  late  spring  and  early  autumn, 
while  the  soil  is  still  warm.  Any 
ordinary  soil  is  suitable,  provide  I 
the  young  plants  are  put  in  deeply, 
so  that  the  roots  are  adequately 
protected  against  frost.  Holly 
makes  one  of  the  best  hedges,  but 
it  is  of  slow 
growth,  and  needs 
constant  clipping, 
and  occasional 
drastic  pruning,  to 
keep  it  within 
bounds.  Hollies 
are  increased  by 
taking  the  berries 
of  any  desired 
varieties  when 
ripe,  just  before 
Christmas,  bury- 
ing them  in  sand 
for  twelve  months, 
and  then  planting  them  in  the  open, 
transplanting  the  young  trees  three 
years  afterwards.  /.  paraguayensii, 
which  yields  mate,  or  Paraguay 
tea,  needs  greenhouse  treatment, 
in  loam  and  sand. 

Hollyhock  (med.  Eng.  holihok, 
holy  hock  or  mallow)  (Althaea 
rosea).  Hardy  perennial  herb  of 
the  natural  order  Malvaceae.  A 
native  of  China,  it  was  introduced 
in  1573.  The  leaves  are  large,  rough 
and  rounded,  and  it  bears  a  single 
spike  (8  ft.  to  10  ft.)  of  white,  pink, 
yellow,  or  purple  flowers,  either 
single  or  double.  Its  height  makes 
it  very  suitable  for  hiding  an  ugly 
wall  or  fence  in  the  hardy  herba- 
ceous border,  and  it  will  thrive  in 
any  soil  that  is  not  too  light 
By  planting  deeply  and  fertilising 
liberally  with  nitrate  of  soda  in 
the  height  of  summer,  a  pro- 
fusion of  bloom  and  a  variety  of 
"  sports  "  or  varying  colours  are 
readily  obtainable.  These  new 
varieties  are  best  propagated  from 
seed  gathered  after  the  flower 
stems  have  died  down,  and  planted 
in  a  temperature  averaging  55°  in 


Thomas  Holloway, 

Patent  medicine 

maker 


Holly     (A.S. 

Hardy  evergreen  tree  of  the  natural 
order  Aquifoliaceae,  and  genus  Ilex. 
Ilex  aquifolium  is  a  native  of 
Britain,  but  foreign  species  were 
introduced  from  N.  America  as 
far  back  as  the  year  1726.  The 
leaves  are  usually  spiny  and  dark 


Hollyhock,    leaves     and    flowers, 
bottom,  right,  the  "cheese"  con- 
taining seeds,  and  a  single  seed 


HOLMAN 


4O32 


HOLMES 


Jan.  or  Feb.,  planting  out  in  May 
for  summer  flowering.  If  left  un- 
disturbed for  three  or  four  seasons 
they  may  produce  an  interesting 
variety  of  self-sown  plants  of  both 
single  and  double  sorts. 

Holman,  JAMES  (1786-1857). 
British  traveller.  The  son  of  a 
chemist,  he  was  born  at  Exeter, 
Oct.  15,  1786,  served  in  the  navy, 
1798-1810,  and  had  reached  the 
rank  of  lieutenant  when  he  became 
totally  blind.  A  man  of  remarkable 
strength  of  will,  he  studied  for  a 
time  at  Edinburgh  University,  and 
in  1812  was  made  a  naval  knight 
of  Windsor.  Obtaining  leave  to 
travel,  he  visited  France,  Italy, 
Savoy,  Switzerland,  Germany,  and 
Holland,  1819-21  ;  Russia,  Siberia, 
where  he  was  arrested  as  a  spy, 
Poland,  Austria,  Saxony,  Prussia, 
and  Hanover,  1822-24;  made  a 
voyage  round  the  world,  1827-32  ; 
and  then  travelled  in  Spain,  Portu- 
gal, S.E.  Europe,  Syria,  and  Turkey. 
He  published  three  accounts  of  his 
wanderings,  and  was  preparing  a 
book  on  his  later  journeys  when  he 
died  in  London,  July  29,  1857, 
leaving  his  MSS.,  which  remain 
unprinted,  to  a  friend.  He  was 
a  F.R.S. 

Holman,  JOSEPH  GEORGE  (1764- 
1817).  British  actor  and  dramatist. 
The  son  of  an  army  officer,  he  was 
born  in  Aug.,  1764,  and  educated 
at  Queen's  College,  Oxford.  He 
made  a  highly  successful  debut  at 
Covent  Garden,  Oct.  25,  1784,  as 
Romeo.  After  three  seasons  he 
severed  his  connexion  with  Covent 
Garden  and  went  to  Dublin  and 
Edinburgh.  In  1812  he  left  Eng- 
land for  the  U.S.A.,  where  he  met 
with  great  success.  He  died  at 
Long  Island,  Aug.  24,  1817.  He 
was  twice  married,  his  first  wife 
(d.  1810)  being  a  granddaughter 
of  the  duke  of  Hamilton.  As  an 
actor  he  was  for  a  time  a  rival  of 
John  Kemble,  and  won  apprecia- 
tion from  Lamb  and  Macready,  his 
successes  including  Hamlet  and 
Colonel  Townley.  His  plays  belong 
to  the  school  of  Holcroft,  and  are 
now  negligible. 

Holman,  WILLIAM  ARTHUR  (b. 
1871).  Australian  politician.  Born 
in  London,  he  went  to  Australia  in 


W.  A.  Holman, 
Australian  politician 

Russell 


1888,  and  as 
a  journalist 
edited  Vedette, 
1895-98.  In 
1898  he  entered 
the  N.S.W. 
legislative  as- 
sembly. He 
studied  law, 
and  was  called 
to  the  bar  in 
1903,  and  be- 
came attorney- 
general  in  the  McGowen  state 
ministry,  1910-13.  In  1916  Hol- 
man became  premier  of  N.S.W. 
and  leader  of  the  labour  party 
in  that  state.  The  extremists  of 
the  party  hindered  the  success- 
ful prosecution  of  the  state's 
activities  in  connexion  with  the 
Great  War,  and  a  crisis  arose  on 
conscription.  After  the  adverse 
decision  on  the  latter  Holman  and 
W.  M.  Hughes  were  expelled  from 
the  labour  party. 


Holme  Lacy, 


Herefordshire.     The 
17th  century  house 


Holmby   House,     Northamptonshire.         The    modern 


manor  house,  built  in  the  19th  century 


In  Dec.,  1916,  Holman  led  a  new 
national  party,  and  was  returned 
with  a  large  majority  at  the  N.S.W. 
state  elections  held  March,  1917, 
and  again  became  premier.  He 
visited  England  and  France  in 
1917,  and  narrowly  escaped  death 
while  visiting  the  trenches  with 
General  William  Holmes  (q.v.).  As 
the  result  of  his  defeat  at  the  state 
elections  in  March,  1920,  he  an- 
nounced his  intention  of  giving 
up  politics  for  the  law. 

Holmby  House.  Name  of  a 
Northamptonshire  mansion.  The 
existing  Holmby  (or  Holdenby) 
House  was  built  in  the  19th  cent., 
its  predecessor  being  one  of  the 

-i    great     16th    cent. 

•i    domestic 
j    Here   James    I 
j    said     to     have 
IMjk  '    stayed,  and  Charles 

!gg£  ;    I  was  forcibly  'de- 

tained for  some 
months  after  his 
surrender  to  the 
Scots  at  Newark- 
on-Trent.  Holmby 
House  boasted  a 
larger  frontage 
even  than  Blen- 


heim Palace  and  Castle  Howard, 
its  main  facade  measuring  no  less 
than  360  ft.  The  only  remains  of 
the  original  building  are  two  arch- 
ways and  part  of  the  north  side  of 
the  second  quadrangle. 

Holme  Cultram.  Urban  dist. 
and  parish  (Holme  Abbey)  of 
Cumberland,  England.  It  stands 
on  the  Waver,  5  m.  N.W.  of 
Wigton.  The  church  of  S.  Mary 
occupies  the  site  of  a  12th  cent. 
Cistercian  abbey,  and  was  restored 
in  1885.  Among  the  monuments  is 
the  tomb  of  Robert  Bruce,  father 
of  the  Scottish  king  of  that  name. 
Farming  implements  are  manufac- 
tured. The  council  has  erected  a 
sea-wall  for  the  protection  of  the 
road  between  Silloth  and  Skin 
burness.  Pop.  4,494. 

Holme  Lacy.  Parish  and  village 
of  Herefordshire,  England.  It 
stands  on  the  Wye,  5  m.  S.E  of 
Hereford,  on  the  G.W.R.  Holme 
Lacy  House,  formerly  the  seat  of 

the     Scudamorea 

and  more  recently 
i    of  the  earl  of  Ches- 
\    terfield,   is   a   fine 
I  \    17th    cent,    build- 

ing containing  a 
splendid  collection 
of  pictures  and 
some  excellent 
wood-carvings  by 
Grinling  Gibbons. 
In  the  Norman 
church,  dedicated 
to  S.  Cuthbert, 
are  noteworthy 
monuments  of 
the  Scudamore  family.  Pop.  263. 
Holmes,  SIR  CHARLES  JOHN  (b. 
1868).  British  art  critic  and  painter. 
Born  at  Stratton,  Cornwall,  Nov. 
11,  1868,  he  was  educated  at  Eton 
and  Oxford  and  studied  at  the 
Slade  school.  He  edited  The 
Burlington  Magazine,  1903-9  ;  was 
Slade  professor  at  Oxford,  1904- 
10  ;  director  and  secretary  of  the 
National  Portrait  Gallery,  1909-16  ; 
director  of  the  National  Gallery, 
1916;  and  knighted!  921.  Member 
of  the  New  English  Art  Club, 
he  exhibited  landscapes  which,  with 
his  Notes  on  the  Science  of  Pic- 
ture-Making, 1909,  and  on  the  Art 
of  Rembrandt, 
1911,  virtually 
summarise  his 
philosophy  o  f 
art.  He  has 
also  published 
an  appreciation 
of  H  o  k  u  s  a  i, 
1898.  There 
are  examples 
of  his  art  at  the 
Tate  Gallery, 
the  Ashmolean  EIUOII  &  Fry 
Museum,  Oxford,  and  at  Man- 
chester and  Johannesburg. 


front  of  the 


Sir  C.  J.  Holmes, 
British  art  critic 


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